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JOHNSON'S 

UNIVERSAL  CYCLOREDl A: 


_^  V.2, 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    MAPS,    PLANS,    AND    E  N  G  R  AV  I  NGS.  P  ' 

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF  ^   f, 

KKEDKKICK     A.   P.    BAKNARI),    S.T.D.,  LL.D.,   L.II.D.,  M.N.A.S., 

IMtl-LSinKNT  OK  CtH.UMBlA   COLI.KOK,    NKW   YOKK  ; 

ARNOLD    aUYOT,    Pii.  D.,  LL.D.,  M.  N.  A.S., 

PR0PI':88OR  OF  (iK0LO(*Y    AND    PHYSICAL    (iKOURAPHY,  COLLKiiK  OF   NKW  JKR?iF.Y. 


scip:xtific  axd. popular 

T  R  E  A  S  U  R  Y 

OP 

USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Martin  B.  Andek-son,  .V.  M.,  LL.D., 

l*re:^iil(;nt  of  the  Uiiivi-rsity  of  Kocln'ster,  N.  Y. ; 

John  (J.  Baknard,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  M.  N.  A.S., 

Col.  r.  S.  KiiiiitiL-irs,  Hvt.  Major-lien.  U.  S.  A.; 

liiAs.  F.CiiAXDi.KU,  I'll. D.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  M.N.A.S., 

l*rof.  .\iial.  Cln-m.,  School  of  Miiii-.s,  (.'olutuljia  College; 

.'Varon   L.  CiiAi'iN,  A.  AL,  .S.  T.  D., 

l*ri'si(lfii(  of  Iti'luit  College,  WIscun»in ; 

llENRV  Drislkr,  a.  M.,  LL.D., 

.Fiiy  Vroff.s.sor  of  (freek,  rolunibia  Collcgt*; 

Thkodore  W.  Dwkiht,  A.M.,  LL.D., 

Profosor  of  Miiiiicijml  l,a\v,  Columbia  College; 

(ALKB   (i.    FOK.SIIKY,   .\..\L,  ('.  K., 

Kormerly  Prof,  of  Miith.an<l  Civ.  Lnj;.  in  .letrerson  Coll.,  Mi»s. ; 

OcTAVius  B.  Kkothinoham,  .V.M., 

l*tt.stor  Third  niiitariiin  Siteiety.  X.  Y.  City  ; 

Theodore  Gii.r,,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Pu.  D.,  .M.  X.  A.S., 

l^te  Senior  As-sistaiit  Librarian  of  the  Library  of  Congress; 

Asa  (iRAY,  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  M.N.A.S., 

l-'inher  Professor  of  Natural  History,  Uarvard  I'niversity  ; 

Horace  Greeley,  LL.D., 

Founder  of  the  New  York  Tribune; 

Sa.muel  S.  Halheman,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  M.N.A.S., 

Prof,  of  Cotii|»arative  Philology  in  the  Ciiiv.  of  Peuii. ; 

William  T.  Hauhi.s,  A.M.,  LL.D., 

I'kl.  of  The  .louriial  of  Speculative  Phil.,  SI,  Louis,  Mo.; 

.Joseph  Henry,  LL.D.,  M.  N..\.S., 

.Seerelary  of  Sniithsoniau  Institution; 


ASSOCIATE    EDITORS. 

RttswELL  D.  Hitchcock,  A.  M.,  S.T.  D.,  LL.D., 

Washburn  Prof,  of  Ch.  Hist,,  I'nion  Theo.  Sem„  N,  Y.; 

Charles  P.  Kraitii,  A.M.,  S.T. D.,  LL.D., 

Viee-Provo>t  of  the  University  of  Penii.; 

John  Le  Conte,  A.  AL,  MAX, 

President  of  the  Cnivcrsity  of  California; 

OEOHtiE  P.  Maush,  LL.D.,  M.X.A.S., 

Knvoy  Kxtr,  and  Minis,  Plriiipo,  of  I',.S,  at    Itonie,  Italy  ; 

Jims  .s.  Xewrerry,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  M.  N.  A.S., 

Prof,  of  (ieology  and  Pala;ont4)logy,  Coluuibia  College ; 

Foxhall  a.  Parker,  IT.  S.  N., 

Su|)t,  of  l:,  S,  Naval  Academv,  .\unapolis,  Md. : 

WiLLARi)  Parker,  A.M.,  M.  D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  .Surgery,  Ciduuiliia  College,  Med.  Ih-pt.; 

Philip  Schapf,  Ph.D.,  S.TD.,  LL.D., 

Baldwin  Prof,  of  Saerrd  Lit.,  Liriiou  Tlieo.  .Sein,,  N.  Y.; 

Julius  H.  Seelye,  A.M.,  .S.T.  D.,  LL.D., 

President  of  Amherst  College.  Mass,; 

William  .Staunton,  .S.  T.  D., 

Founder  and  First  Kect,  of  St.  Peter's  Ch.,  Brooklyn,  NY  ; 

Ale.xander  H.  Stephens,  A.M.,  LL.D., 

Of  (ieorgia,  Meniber  4:!d  Congress,  U.  S,  A. ; 

Abel  Stevens,  A.M.,  LL.D., 

Formerly  Mitor  of  The  Methodist,  New  York  ; 

Thomas  O.  Summers,  .S.T.  D.,  LJ/.D., 

Professor  of  Syst.  Tbeoi,,  Vaiirlerbilt  Univ.,  Term. ; 

William  P.  Trowhriimie,  '.\.  AL,  ALN.  .\..s., 

Prol.  nf  lOugineeriiig,  Columbia  College  ; 


Theodore  D.  Woolsey,  .S.T.  D.,  LL.D., 

K.\-President  of  Yale  College,  Conn. 
ASSISTANT    EDITORS. 

Porter  C.  Iti.iss,  A..V(.,  Lincs  P.  I!uim  kkit,  .\.M.,  M.D.,  Clarence  Cook, 
Clemens  Petersen,  .\.  >L,  John  N.  P(i\ii ;i:iiv,  LL.D.,  Henry  Wurt/,  .V.  M.,  Pii.  I). 

WITH    NI'MIIKorfS   CONTRIHUTIt)NS    FROM    WRITICKS  OF  DISTINlil'lSHFI)    FMINFNCF  IS   KVFUY   llFPART.MKNT 
OF   I.KirKH-S   AMI  SCIKNCF    IN   THE  UNITFl)  STATI'iS   AND    IN   EUKOPK, 


Comiiletc  ill  ]four  l}oliimco  (itiglit  jinits).  iiicluiliiig  ^|i|)i;nilix. 

VOL.  II.— I'AKT    II. 
HKRMANDAI) T^ICMKNS. 

(TK-STIMllMAI.S    AT  THE    KNI>   UK    LA.SI     VOLUME.) 


A.         ,1. 


N  E  \V    V  ()  1 1  K : 
J  (>  liN  SOISJ 


&    CO 


11  GREAI  JONES  STREET,  NEAR  BROADWAY. 
M  IH(c  l,.\XX  I, 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  One  Thousand  Eight  Hundred  and  Seventy-seven, 
BY  A.  J.  JOHNSON,  IN  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


ELECTROTYrED  BY  PRINTED   BY 

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Pliiladelphia.  New  York. 


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paper  manl'factubed  by  bound  by 

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New  York.  New  York. 


HERMANDAD— HERMENEUTICS. 


897 


Iler'mandad  (Sp., '*  brotherhooj"),  a  general  name 
fnr  tlic  kagiK'S  entered  into  by  the  Spanish  cities  in  the 
Middle  Ageti  for  the  preservation  of  public  order  and  the 
dffence  of  private  property.  The  niosf  celebrated  (called 
Santa  Ilcrmandud.  or  lloly  Broiherhuod)  was  jirobably  or- 
ganized in  Ariigun  in  the  thirteenth  century;  was  ostab- 
Ii?hed  in  Castile  in  12S2.  Another,  of  thirty-tivo  towns  in 
Castile  and  Leon,  was  organized  in  I29i>.  Kindred  socie- 
ties throughout  Spain  soon  followed.  Their  laws  were  co- 
dified in  liSj,  and  published  in  i:«27.  In  1188  the  Holy 
IJrothcrhood  was  reorganized,  and  in  M9fi  it  was  extended 
over  a  great  part  of  Spain.  In  1  I'JS.  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella roduied  it  from  its  high  office  of  conservator  of  the 
peace  and  defender  of  popular  rights  against  the  feudal 
nobility,  and  it  became  an  organized  police  force.  In 
K'»2ii-2I  the  Heriuandad  of  Valencia  rose  in  insurrection 
ag»in8t  the  government.  The  name  has  come  down  to  the 
present  century  simply  as  that  of  a  police  force. 

Her'inaiin  [Lat.  Arminhts],  a  (rerman  chieftain  of  the 
Cherusci,  a  con  of  Sigimer,  was  b.  IS  ».  r.;  entered  the 
Roman  service,  and  became  an  equestrian.  In  9  A.  v., 
when  Gennany  was  groaning  under  the  oppression  of 
Varus.  Hermann  iimhuscatled  the  Unmans  in  the  Teutu- 
burger  Forest,  and  almost  all  the  Romans,  Varus  included, 
lost  their  lives.  He  fought  Germauicus  ( 14-IC  a.  d.),  with 
disadvantage;  defeated  Marhodacus,  king  of  tho  Suevi, 
17  ;  was  put  to  death  by  bis  own  relations  19  A.  D.,  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  aiming  at  absi>lute  power. 

Hermann,  pust-v.,  cap.  of  Gasconade  co.,  Mo.,  81 
miles  from  St.  Louis,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.  and  the 
Missouri  River,  It  has  a  savings  bunk,  a  high  school,  1! 
newspapers  (English  and  German),  4  hotels,  a  plauiug- 
mill,  and  a  large  number  of  stores  and  public  places.  It 
is  noted  for  wine-growing,  its  annual  production  being 
11)0,000  gallons.     Pop.  1336,  exclusively  German. 

ClIAS.   EBEKIIAIinT,   PLB.  "  ZeIUNG  t"ND  ADVERTISER." 

Hermann  (.Toiiann  Gottprikd  JAKon),  b.  at  Leipsic 
\'iv.  '2!i,  1772;  studied  law,  languages,  and  philosophy  at 
!.fip'*ic  and  .lena.  and  was  appointed  pro/rHnnr  ffoquentiir 
MI  ISfliJ  at  the  I'niversity  of  Leipsic,  which  position  ho 
filled  to  his  death.  Dec.  31.  1S48.  He  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  metrical  science  by  his  /)c  metrin  (jrtrcorum  et 
liomnnornm  purtnrum  (1790)  and  Hnndhnch  der  Mctrxk 
(179.S),  etc.  :  and  on  granminr  by  his  !>»•  cmnnltiudaratione 
frrirctr-  tframmntirfr  {  ISitl  ),  and  a  number  of  minor  essays. 
Also  as  a  text  critic  ho  ac(|uired  a  groat  name:  he  edited 
^schylus,  Euripides,  Aristojthancs.  Ition  ami  Moschus,  and 
others.  His  lectures  were  very  attractive  by  thoir  liveli- 
ness and  clearness,  and  very  instructive  by  their  fulness 
of  knowledge;  but  his  standpoint  as  a  philologist,  consid- 
ering the  classical  languages  as  the  only  key  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  classical  spirit,  involved  him  in  disagree- 
able contests  with  lliickh,  0.  Miillcr,  and  Crt^'uzcr. 

Ilcrmann  (Karl  Friedkicii),  b.  at  Frankfort  Aug.  4, 
IS04:  studied  at  Heidelberg  an'!  Leipsic;  travelled  in 
ls25  in  Italy,  and  vam  appointed  professor  in  philology 
at  Marburg  in  18.'*2,  whence  he  removed  in  1S40  to  Gtittin- 
gen.  V.  Jan.  8,  ISjC.  He  combined  in  a  happy  manner 
the  linguiatical  clement  of  classical  scholarship  with  the 
antiquarian,  historical,  and  philosophical,  and  his  Lehr- 
hurh  drr  ffr\rchii*chr)i  Altfrthnmer  (1841)  and  (ietirhichtf 
uiid  Si/«tem  drr  phitituiHchru  Philonophie  (18;>9),  as  well  as 
his  Cidtttff/rMrhirhtc  dvr  fJricchcn  und  Homer  (1857),  arc 
much  appreciated. 

Iler'mnnstadt,  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  province  of 
Transylvania,  on  the  Zibin.  It  Is  a  beautifully  situated 
iind  well-built  town,  the  scat  of  the  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince and  of  a  (Jreek  archbishop,  metropolitan  of  Transyl- 
vania.    Pop.  18,588. 

Ilcrmnph>odi8m,orllermaph'roditism  [named 
from  the  fabled  HKRMAiMlRoniTrs  (which  scei],  the  union 
of  the  eharactcrislic  organs  of  each  sex  in  one  individual. 
This  union  of  the  male  organs  (])roducingsperm-celN)  and 
female  (producing  germ-cells)  in  one  and  the  same  organ- 
ism i.H  the  normal  condition  in  the  great  majority  of  jdants 
und  in  many  of  the  lower  animals.  Though  the  higher 
f"rm«  of  rudintey.  niolhisk",  and  Arlhropoda  all  have 
the  sexes  quite  distinct,  except  in  abnormal  instiinccs, 
many  of  the  inferior  types  of  each  are  always  hermaphro- 
dites. Such,  for  instance,  arc  the  common  snail  and  the 
earth-worm.  No  insect  hermaphrodites  (unless  the  Turdi- 
gradesare  insects)  arc  known,  except  in  abnormal  instances. 
Sicbold  found  hennaphrodites  among  honey-bees,  but  ho 
records  that  the  workers  threw  them  out  of  the  cells,  and 
that  they  speedily  p'rished.  It  has  been  euggcHted  that 
this  hermaphrodistn  in  bees  may  exist  normally  in  some 
slight  ilcgroe,  and  tliat  it  may  give  rise  to  the  partheno- 
genesis of  male  bees,  for  it  is  well  known  that  queen  bees 
will  produce  male  offspring  without  coitus  with  the  male. 
Vol..  TL— :.7 


Hermaphrodism  has  not  been  observed  with  certainly  in 
vertebrates,  except  perhaps  in  eels  and  fishes  of  the  family 
Serranidw.  It  has  been  stated  with  considerable  force  that 
the  homologies  existing  between  the  male  and  female  organs 
prevent  any  possibility  of  hermaphrodism  in  the  higher 
vertebrates:  but  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  of  hihit- 
eral  or  double  organs  one  side  should  not  assume  the  male 
and  the  other  the  female  development.  Thus,  there  might, 
it  would  appear,  be  one  ovary  an*!  one  testis — n  condition 
analogous  to  what  is  often  seen  in  the  lower  animals.  In 
what  are  known  as  monstrosities  by  fusion,  or  the  blendinf^ 
of  two  germs,  by  which  have  been  produced  such  abnor- 
malities as  the  presence  of  three  legs  upon  one  foetus,  wo 
seem  to  see  that  true  hermaphrodism  is  not  a  priori  im- 
possible, even  in  human  beings. 

Many  of  the  lowest  forms  of  hermaphrodite  ]>1ants  and 
animals  are  self-fertilizing ;  that  is.  reproduction  takes 
place  without  the  sexual  union  of  two  individuals.  Rut 
in  very  many  plants  which  have  both  kinds  of  reproduc- 
tive organs  in  one  flower,  fertilizatif»n  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  insects,  which  carry  the  pollen  of  one  flower  to 
the  pistil  of  another,  nature  having  ])revented  self-fertiliza- 
tion by  wonderfully  ingenious  yet  often  very  simple  means. 
Many  bisexual  animals,  like  the  snail,  conjugate  for  mu- 
tual fertilization.  Spurious  hermajihrodisrn,  in  which 
;  the  characteristic  organs  of  one  sex  assume,  from  incom- 
plete or  abnormal  development,  something  of  the  appear- 
ance of  those  of  the  opposite  sex.  has  been  often  observed. 
Under  this  head  must  be  jdaced  most  or  all  of  the  recorded 
instances  of  hermaphrodism  in  the  human  sjieoies.  The 
true  hermaphrodism  is  double  sex  ;  s[>urious  hermaphro- 
dism is  donht/uf  sex.  Chaulks  \V.  Grkene. 
Hermaphrodite  Brig*  Sec  Brigawtine. 
Hermaphrodi'tus  was  a  son  of  Hermes  and  Aphro- 
dite, and  inherited  the  beauty  of  both  of  his  parents. 
Once,  when  ho  was  bathing  in  the  well  of  Salmacis,  near 
Haliearnassus,  in  Caria,  Asia  Minor,  the  nymph  of  the 
well  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  prayed  to  the  gods  tliat  slie 
might  remain  united  with  him  for  ever;  and  when  he  as 
cended  from  the  bath  he  w.is  changed  so  that  he  was 
neither  man  nor  woman,  but  both.  The  idea  of  this  myth 
is  of  Asiatic,  the  mylh  itself  of  Roman,  origin.  In  il.s 
later  period  Greek  sculpture  often  represented  llcrmajdiro- 
ditus,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  female,  the  nether  male, 
Iler'mas,  the  author  of  a  oncc-cclcbrated  hook,  7*/"- 
Shcphtrd,-mas  by  Irena?u3.  Clemens  Alexaudrinus,  and  Kn- 
sobius  considered  identical  with  the  Hermas  mentioned  by 
Pt.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (xvi.  14).  while  others 
have  j)l;iced  him  a  little  later,  and  made  him  a  lirother  of 
Pius  I.,  bishop  of  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. The  Shcpkrrd  is  divided  into  three  parts — the 
IVsioJi*,  Prvvepts,  and  Sinti(itudr».  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  and  consists  of  a  blending  of  fantastic  poetry 
and  naive  morals,  a  character  which  explains  how  th«,'  book 
at  once  could  be  the  Pi/ijrim'e  Proi/rcnn  of  the  old  t"hur«'h 
and  yet  be  called  childish  by  8t.  Jerome  an<i  TertuIIian. 
It  was  originally  written  in  Greek  (6  ttoim'?*').  but  exists  now 
only  in  translations.  The  Greek  text  found  in  a  monas 
tery  on  Mount  Athos,  and  ])ublisheil  in  1867,  is  generally 
considered  a  translation  of  the  Latin  translation.  An 
English  translation  of  Pantor  Ifermiv  was  published  in 
I'Minburgh  in  isr>7  in  the  Antr.-Xiceuc  Chrintinn  Library. 
IIcrmeneu'ticB  [from  the  Greek  verb  ipyLrivevtt.v,  to 
'•  interpret,"  and  that  from  the  name  of  /imncH,  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Maia,  the  messenger  and  interpreter  of  the  gods] 
is  the  science  and  art  of  interpretation,  or  of  ascertaining 
the  meaning  of  an  author  from  his  language.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric,  and  presupposes 
thorn.  Its  aim  is  to  reduce  interpretation  to  fixed  laws  and 
principles,  and  to  the  precision  of  an  exact  science,  so  far 
as  the  elastic  nature  of  thought  und  language  will  permit. 
The  business  of  fj-position  has  often  been  confounded  with 
imposition,  whereby  all  sorts  of  arbitrary  subjective  fancies 
are  introduced  into  (ho  text  of  which  the  writer  never 
dreamed.  The  work  of  interpretation  requires  intellectual 
and  moral  qualifications,  natural  and  acquired — viz.  a  full 
knowledge  of  tlic  author's  original  language,  historical 
situation,  mental  status,  and  range  of  iileas,  and  an  appre- 
ciating sympulhy  with  his  spirit  und  aim. 

liihlicnl  //'  im(iirntic9  IB  general  hcrmcnonties  applied  to 
the  iSacreil  Scriptures.  It  has  been  most  cultivated  on  ac- 
count of  the  vast  importance  and  general  interest  of  these 
hooks.  Its  first  germs  may  bo  traced  to  Iho  .lews  and  to 
Philo  of  Alexandria,  who  reduced  the  allegorical  method 
of  interpretation  to  a  system,  which  through  Origen  (d.  2,')4 ) 
passed  into  the  Christian  Church.  Origen  of  Alexandria 
distinguished  a  threefold  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  corre- 
sponding to  the  tripartite  nature  of  man  (a  somatic  or 
literal,  a  psychic  or  moral,  and  a  pneumatic  or  mystical 
sense).     The  grammatical  school,  on  the  other  hand,  which 


898 


HERMES— HERMIPPUS. 


was  best  roprcscnfcd  among  the  Fathers  by  Chrysostom 
anil  Jerome  (tlioiigh  by  no  meiins  consistently),  adhered  to 
the  natural  and  literal  sense  as  the  only  one  which  the 
writer  hud  in  view.  Assuming  the  last  jirinciple  to  be 
correct,  there  are  still  three  legitimate  kinds  of  interpre- 
tation, which,  however,  must  harmonize  with  each  other, 
and  together  give  the  one  full  meaning  of  the  text :  (1)  The 
philolofjical  (also  called  litvrnl  or  tjrammutifn-hiiittirical) 
exegesis  is  concerned  with  the  body  or  letter  of  the  text, 
with  verbal,  critical,  and  antiquarian  questions.  It  brings 
out  the  meaning  of  words  and  ])hra.-ies  according  to  the 
general  rule?  of  grammar,  the  particular  idiom  and  vocabu- 
lary of  the  author,  his  age,  nation,  and  country,  and  clears 
up  all  references  to  contemporaneous  history  and  antiqui- 
ties. It  deals  with  the  literary  and  human  aspects  of  the 
Scripture,  with  the  earthly  form  into  which  its  divino  con- 
tents are  cast.  It  is  the  basis  of  all  sound  exegesis.  It  has 
been  successfully  cultivated  during  the  present  century  in 
Germany  and  England  by  Wiuer,  Do  Wctte,  Lucke,  Bleek, 
Meyer.  Ewald.  Dillmann,'  Alford.  Ellicott,  Lightfoot.  (2) 
The  Iheolor/irdl  (or  tlorlriiHil  and  fthiinl  interpretation) 
deals  with  the  divine  thoughts  and  spiritual  truths  of  the 
Bible,  and  explains  them  in  connection  with  its  general 
tcat'hing  and  according  to  the  analogy  of  faith  ;  but  it  ought 
ni>t  to  be  fettered  by  dogmatic  prejudice  or  made  subservient 
to  sectarian  interest,  as  was  ilono  in  the  scholastic  periods 
of  theology  (hiring  the  Middle  .Ages  and  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  the  Bible  was  used  simply  as  a  repository 
of  proof-texts  for  certain  tenets  of  orthodoxy  and  against 
heretical  opinions.  Among  the  most  distinguished  the- 
ological expounders  are  Augustine,  Luther,  Calvin,  01s- 
hauscn,  Tholuck.  Ilodge.  {?>]  Prarticul  and  homilellral 
exegesis  applies  the  text  to  the  wants  of  tho  human  heart, 
and  draws  from  it  lessons  of  wisdom  and  comfort  for  tho 
battle  of  life.  It  belongs  properly  to  tho  pulpit  and  to 
popular  works.  Of  this  character  arc  tho  exegetical  homi- 
lies of  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and  other  Fathers, 
and  the  commentaries  of  Matthew  Henry,  Burkitt,  Dod- 
dridge, Starke. 

Literature. — ErNESTI.  Principlrs  of  Biblical  Interpreta- 
tion (1861,  Latin;  Engl,  transl.  by  Terrot,  ISl.",);  Wilki., 
Jfcrmcneutik  ilea  ]V.  T.  (1844,  2  vols.);  LrTZ,  Billitche 
JTermeneutik  (1861);  Cellerier,  Manuel  d'Hermeneulique 
(1352);  F.1IUB.V1KN,  Tlermencutical  Manual  (l.'iiO);  MrN- 
SCazv.,  Manual  of  Billiral  Interpretation  (ISC'));  ImmeR, 
Hcrmcncutik  des  -V.  T.  (1870).  PniLip  .^cHAFr. 

HeTRies.     See  MERcunr. 

Her'mes  (Georg),  a  German  theologian  who  under  the 
inUucnce  of  the  *'  new  philusojdiy  "  endeavored  to  carry  out 
tho  doctrines  of  unity  and  identity  into  forming  a  common 
basis  for  Protestantism  and  Roman  Catholicism.     B.  in 
Dreicrwald,  Westphalia,  Apr.  22,  1775,  he  d.  at  Bonn  May 
26,  is:'il.  Ilaving  studied  theology  at  Miinster,  where  he  be- 
came in  lS07protcssor,  he  was  subsequently  teaeherof  Cath- 
olic theology  at  Bonn.    ''  Ho  had  found,"  says  Binder,  "  tho 
futility  of  the  attacks  of  Kant  and  Fichte  on  Christianity, 
and  tlie  truth  of  Uoman  Catholicism."  He,  however,  busied 
himself  for  many  years  in  trying  to  base  the  principles  of 
the  latter  on  those  of  the  former,  setting  forth  his  views  in 
tho  Einleiluntj  in  die  ('hrint-l.-alhoUaelie  Thevtotjie  ("  Intro- 
duction to  tlie  Catholic  Christian  Theology").     His  work 
was  not  in  any  respect  heretical,   but  confined  itself  to 
negativing  the  arguments  of  those  who  declared  the  in- 
stability of  the  Catholic  dogma.     He  founded  a  school  or 
doctrine  termed  Ilcrmcsiairisra,  and  his  followers,  tho  Her- 
mesianer,  occupied  many  important  positions  as  preachers 
and  te.ichers  in  (tcrmany.     He  maintained  that  tho  prin- 
ciple of  pure  reaton,  which,  as  Kant  teaches,  is  innate  in 
every  soul,  enabling  it  to  decide  on  all   principal  truths, 
should  he  applied  to  religion;  or  rather  that  the  Church 
should  teach  its  doctrines  on  this  basis.    But  this  principle 
was  disapproved  of  at  Rome,  .and  a  papal  letter  was  directed 
against   it   (Sept.   16.  1835)  by    I'opo   Gregory,   beginning 
with    the   words  Dnm  aeerhi»»imun.     During  the    life   of 
Hermes  his  school  had  great  influence  anci  made  many  con- 
verts.    Binder  attributes  the  delay  in  proeeecling  against 
it  to  tho  usual  system  of  formalities  followed  at  Rome  in 
such  cases.     The  fundamental  principle  of  the  Ilermesian 
doctrine  is,  that  human  reason  can  grasp  the  truth,  and 
that  religion,  being  true,  is  or  may  be  based  on  this  "nat- 
ural  sense."     Hut   the   Church  holds  a  directly   different 
doctrine,  and  tloes  not  look  up  tc)  philosophy  or  science  to 
authorize  her  doctrines,  as  the  Roman  Catechism  declares 
"the  mysteries  which  are  contained  in  God's  holy  Church 
arc  to  be  understood  only  by  faith,  and  not  by  reason." 
Hermes  did  in  fact  quite  unconsciously  seek   to  put  the 
Catholic  Church  on  that  Protestant  foundation  of  independ- 
ent reason  which  from    l.utlier  to   DiiUinger  has  been  so 
strongly  characteristic  of  the  Teutonic  mind.     .Among  the 
principal  works  referring  to  Hermcsianism  are  the  follow- 


ing: IJinweifiunrfen  auf  den  Grundehurakter  den  Herme- 
ftisehen  Si/stems,  by  J.  B.  Bai.tzer  (1802,  8vo)  ;  Uliitter 
sur  Orientirung  in  Sftihen  den  Heriuetiianisnius  (18M8),  by 
F.  X.  Bii'NDE  and  J.  .1.  Uosenbaum  ;  Aeta  Jiontana,  by  J. 
W.  J.  BiiArN  and  P.  J.  Ki.vENicH  (documents  relating  to 
tho  condemnation,  by  the  pope,  of  ti.  Hermea  (1808,  8vo); 
Aeta  Jlennetiana,  hy  A,  J.  El.VENICH  :  ynr/e  Aintotatioiieiff 
by  LAN(i  (1809);  Apidtti/ic  de»  llennenianinmuit,  by  J.  B. 
LlITTERBECK    (1805):     Veber   (i/anlien,    by  J.  J.   RoSE.NDAUM 

(1808,  8vo);  Vhrisl-kalhulitehe  VoijmaliJc,  by  G.  Hermes; 
Der  Hermeaianiamua  und  Joh.  Pcrrone  ( Breslau,  1844). 

Chari.es  G.  Leland. 
Hermesi'annx,  b.  at  Colophon,  lived  in  the  times  of 
Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great,  and  d.  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  native  city  by  Lysimachus  in  002  n.  c.  Ho 
wrote  an  elegiac  poem  in  three  books  to  his  mistress  Leon- 
tium,  of  which  a  largo  part  of  the  third  book  has  been 
quoted  by  Athena'us.  and  thus  como  down  to  us.  It  has 
been  separately  published  by  J.  Bailey  (London,  1809),  to- 
gether with  a  critical  epistle  by  0.  Burges. 

Ilerinesianism,  the  religious  philosophy  taught  by 
Gi-.ouG  Heumes  (which  see). 

Her'mes  Trisincgis'tus  (" thrioe-grcat  Ilcrmes,"  or 
Mercury),  or  Thoth,  an  Egyptian  god,  regarded  as  in- 
ventor of  all  science  and  learning;  e.  3.  speech,  writing, 
religion,  geometry,  architecture,  and  the  arts.  Every  Egyp- 
tian boftk  relating  to  religion  or  science  was  inscribed  with 
his  name,  as  if  inspired  by  him;  and  according  to  Jambli- 
chus  there  were  of  these  36,000.  The  name  "  thrice-great " 
is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  god's  triple  manifestation  as 
philosopher,  priest,  and  king.  Certain  dialogues  on  mys- 
tical theology,  etill  extant,  and  which  were  very  popular 
during  tho  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  were  subse- 
quently regarded  as  forgeries.  They  had  been  transmitted 
from  an  early  ago  in  a  rude  Greek  form.  More  recent  re- 
search has  indi^eated  that  the  Greek,  by  its  very  defects, 
possesses  the  ch.araeter  of  a  translation.  The  writer  pro- 
fessed a  belief  in  their  authenticity,  as  Champollion  the 
Younger  had  done.  More  recently  a  French  Egyptologist, 
M.  Pierrat  of  the  Louvre,  in  the  Metnnijea  d' AreKoloijie 
(!to,  Paris,  1S70,  p.  112), has  jiointcd  out  tliat  many  of  the 
very  peculiar  phrases  and  ideas  contained  in  tho  Hermetic 
books  arc  to  be  found  in  tho  papyri  and  inscriptions.  Tho 
works  or  fragments  bearing  tho  name  of  Hermes  Trisnic- 
gistus  are  as  follows:  (1)  Pawander^o/  the  Xalureof  T/tin<fit 
andofthe  Vreationufthc  World;  (2)  Of  Dirinc  Wisdnmand 
Poicer;  (0)  Asclepius;  (1)  The  Aphoriama  of  Hermes;  (5)  On 
the  Kertdutions  of  Xativities.  Fragments  of  five  other  works 
are  preserved  by  John  Stoba;us.  The  most  recent  text,  Greek 
with  tho  Latin  versions,  is  tb.e  Ilermetia  Trismeyiati  Pcem- 
andcr,hy  Gustavus  Parthey  (Berlin,  Kicoli,  1854).  Among 
all  the  mysticism  of  tho  Pamander,  etc.,  there  is  much  that 
is  grand  and  beautiful.  Tho  first  editors  of  Hermes  Tris- 
megistus  erred  in  attributing  tho  works  to  Jloses  himself, 
or  in  giving  to  thcin  a  fabulous  anticjuity,  while  the  later 
critics  were  as  much  in  tho  wrong  ia  boldly  declaring  tb.at 
they  were  Nco-Platonio  or  Christian  forgeries  of  tlio  third 
century  A.  D.  Chari.es  G.  Lelasd. 

Hermet'ic  Writings  [from  Hermea  (Mercury),  with 
whom  the  Greeks  identified  tho  Egyptian  7'/io(/i,  tho  god 
of  literature  and  learning],  a  name  in  its  widest  sense  desig- 
nating the  whole  body  of  Egyptian  literature ;  but  tho  name 
is  especially  given  to  a  mass  of  works  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
fragments  of  which  have  como  down  to  our  time,  and  which 
profess  to  have  been  inspired  by  Hermes  Tkismegistits 
(which  see).  They  treat  of  astrology,  ontology,  and  other 
subjects,  and  are  of  no  value.  There  were  also  a  number 
of  works  written  in  the  Middle  Ages  by  alcheuiisls,  and  in 
later  times  perhaps  by  the  Ilosicrucians,  which  profess  to 
have  been  written  by  Hermes  Trismcgistus.  The  Zabi.ans 
of  tho  East  have  writings  in  Greek  which  they  ascribe  to 

j  Hermes. 

I  Hermi'as  was  a  eunuch  and  slave  in  tho  household  of 
Euhulus,  tvrant  of  Atarneus  and  .Assus,  in  Mysia,  Asia 
Minor:  but  he  gained  his  master's  confidence,  was  made 
free,  travelled  to  Athens,  where  he  heard  Plato's  lectures 
in  eompanv  with  Aristotle,  and  succeeded  Eubulus  on  the 

i  throne  of  Atarneus  in  :!47.  Aristotle  spent  several  years 
at  his  court,  but  had  lo  flee  when  Artaxcrxes,  king  of  Per- 
sia, sent  an  army  to  reduce  all  the  petty  tyrants  in  Asia 
Minor.  Ilermias  was  captured  and  sent  to  the  Persian 
court,  where  he  was  put  to  death,  but  Aristotle  raised  a 
statue  at  Delphi  in  honor  of  him,  and  married  his  relative 
Pythias. 

Ilermip'pns  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century 
n.  I'.,  and  wrote  a  work  containing  the  biographies  of  the 
Greek  philosophers,  historians,  and  poets.  The  work  itself 
is  lost,  but  it  is  frequently  quoted  by  subsequent  writers, 

j  and  s.'cms  to  have  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  antiquity. 


HERMIT— HERNIA. 


899 


The  fragments  which  arc  found  in  other  authors  have  been 
collfctcd  and  edited  by  Lozyuski  (Uoiin,  lsy2). 

ller'mit  [Ur.  iprjtiinji  ;  Lilt.  errmt(ti,a  "dweller  in  soli- 
tude "].  a  jiurjson  who  retires  from  human  .«ociety  and  dwells 
alone  ;  a  title  given  ei<pecially  to  reltgioup  reclusoii,  and  par- 
ticularly to  those  who  do  not  live  in  eomniou  with  others. 
•So  aUo  the  Augustinian  monks,  though  living  in  monas- 
teries, are  called  hermits,  being  aecustomcd  to  ^pcnd  a  part 
of  their  time  in  solitude.  There  are  many  other  monastic 
congregations  cfilled  hermits,  notably  certain  lay  members 
of  the  third  order  of  ?^t.  Francis,  who,  being  married  before 
taking  their  vows,  cannot  be  received  in  full  into  the  order. 

Her'mitage,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Hickory  co.,  Mo., 
80  miles  S.  W.  of  Jeflerson  City. 

Hermit  Crab.     Sec  Ciiab. 

llormuduc'tyl  ("Mercury's  finger"),  th©  name  of  a 
bulbous  rout  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  It  appears  that 
some  hermodactyls  arc  produced  from  /n'«  titberoga,  and 
others  from  Cnlchicnm  variet/ntum,  Euroneau  and  Asiatic 
plants.  The  ancients  used  hermodaetyla  for  gout,  but  in 
modern  times  they  are  considered  nearly  or  quito  inert. 

Uermog'enes  [*Epmoy«Vii?]  lived  in  the  time  of  the  em- 
peror M.  Ant<minu?,  son  of  ('alippus,  and  b.  at  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia.  He  was  noted  for  the  early  development  of  his 
oratorical  powers,  so  that  at  the  age  of  fifteen  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  emperor,  who  listened  to  his  extempore 
discourses  with  great  pleasure.  When  seventeen  he  became 
a  public  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  at  eighteen  or  twenty  he  com- 
posed his  rhotorical  works,  which  Suidas  speaks  of  as  mo«t 
worthy  of  admiration,  and  which  were  for  several  centuries 
the  established  books  of  instruction.  At  the  ago  of  twenty- 
five  he  lost  his  intellectual  power  and  sank  into  imbecility. 
Five  of  his  works,  forming  a  Textrq  pjjTopnei)  ('*  System  of 
Rhetoric"),  have  come  down  to  our  time:  ( 1 )  On  general 
issues;  (2|  On  invention;  (3)  On  the  forms  of  oratory;  (J) 
On  the  method  of  acquiring  skill  in  S|)eaking;  (j)  Prepara- 
tory exercises  lTrp13yvtJ.vdtrfi.aLTa).  This  last  work  was  abridged 
by  Aphthoniu^  (a.  d.  ;il j|.  and  was  thus  in  time  superseded. 
They  are  found  in  the  lihctorfa  Orteci  of  Walz  (Stuttgart. 
18.'J2-:i«)  and  of  Spengel  (Loipsic,  lS6."J-5fi,  .3  vols.).  The 
Prof/ifiHiiaMmata  were  first  published  in  Orcek  by  Hecren 
(rtHttingen,  1791),  with  Hceren's  and  his  own  notes  by 
Veesenmeyer  (Nuremberg,  1S12).  (Seo  .MUlleu's  and 
DoXAXMOs'a  Greek  Literature,  vol.  ill.  p.  150.) 

H.  DmsLEn. 

Her'niODf  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Me.,  on  the  Maine 
Central  K.  K.,  II  miles  W.  of  Bangor.  It  has  manufactures 
of  cooperage.     Pop,  14S9. 

Ilermon,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.  It 
has  iron  ore  and  other  minerals,  and  contains  3  churches. 
Pop.  of  V.  67."i;  of  tp.  1792. 

Hermonf  Mount,  is  the  highest  elevation  of  the  whole 
Syrian  system  of  mountains.  It  is  formed  by  a  spur  from 
Anti-Lebanon,  which,  separating  tho  valley  of  Ctcle-Syria 
from  that  of  the  Jordan,  unites  to  the  W.  with  tho  range  of 
Lehanon.  Orcat  Hermon,  or  Mount  Hermon  proper,  is 
abuul  10,000  feet  high.  Its  top  is  generally  covered  with 
snow,  and  is  visible  from  Tyre  and  Damascus.  Its  sides  are 
clad  with  white  poplars.  The  Psalms  speak  of  the  *' dew 
of  Hermon,"  and  modern  travellers  say  that  during  tho 
night  their  tents  become  as  wet  with  dew  as  by  a  rainstorm. 

Hermop'olis  .Mag'na,  an  aneicnt  city  of  Egypt,  was  ! 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  Nile,  near  tho  boundary  i 
between  Tpper  and  Middle  Egyjit.  on  tho  site  nowoocupiell 
by  the  village  of  Oshmoonegu  or  Kshmoon.  At  tho  time 
of  the  Ptolemies  it  was  a  rich  and  magnificent  rity,  promi- 
nent among  whose  buildings  was  tho  temple  of  Thr)th  or 
Tauth,  the  ibis-headcd  god,  the  inventor  of  (In-  pen  and 
letters,  identified  with  the  (Jreck  Jlermes.  But  it  was  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  tho  Mohammedans,  who  carried  away 
ita  monuments  for  building  purposes,  and  left  nothing  be- 
hind but  largo  mounds  of  ruins  and  rubbish. 

Ilcrmosi'llo,  town  of  Mexico,  in  tho  state  of  Sonora, 
stands  on  the  river  Sonora,  at  tho  entrance  of  an  exceed- 
ingly fertile  valley  which  produces  wheat,  wine,  and  all 
kinds  of  fruit  in  abundance,  and  carries  on  a  very  lively 
tra.Ie.     I»op.  It.OOO. 

Ilcrnan'do,  county  of  Florida,  bounded  on  tho  W.  by 
the  Uulf  fpf  Me.xico.  Area,  1? 00  squaro  miles.  Tho  soil 
is  undulating  and  generally  very  fertile.  Jt  has  extensive 
hard-wood  forests.  Rico  is  tho  largest  crop,  but  tho  soil  is 
adapted  lo  all  tho  products  of  tho  Southern  States.  Cap 
Brookvillc.     Pop.  2ft38.  ^ 

Hernando,  post-r.,  cap.  of  Do  Soto  co..  Miss.,  on  the 
Mis3i«?ippi  and  Tennessee  11.  R.,  22  miles  8.  of  Memphis, 
has  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  female  ooIIckp,  a  male  seminary, 
•1  churches,  a  very  fine  court-house,  and  22  commercial 
houses.     Pop.  7?>0.  W,  S.  Si,Ai>t;.  Kn.  *'  I'la-^s." 


Hern'don  (  William  Lewis),  b.  at  Freilcricksburg.  Va.. 
Oct.  2a,  lMl;i;  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  when  fifteen  years 
old;  was  engaged  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  employed  in 
tho  National  Observatory,  Washington,  I).  C,  for  three 
years.  He  crossed  the  Andes  from  Lima  eastward,  and 
with  Lieut.  Lardncr  Gibbon  conducted  the  exploration 
{ lSaI-J2)  of  the  Amazon  Valley.  The  publii^hed  report  of 
this  expedition  was  in  2  vols.  {I8j,3-54),  the  first  by  Hern- 
don,  tho  second  by  Gibbon.  Herndon  was  in  command  ol 
tho  steamer  Central  America  when  she  was  lost  (Sept.  12. 
1SJ7)  in  a  storm  on  the  voyage  from  tho  Isthmus  of 
Panama  to  New  York.  There  were  on  board  *omc  580  per- 
sons, of  whom  427  were  lost,  but  the  women  and  children 
were  all  saved.  Herndon  went  down  with  the  ship,  stand- 
ing on  the  bridge  in  full  uniform. 

Hor'nia.  [Lat.],  the  protrusion  of  a  viscus  from  the  cavity 
to  which  it  normally  belongs  ;  but  the  term  is  generally  used 
to  exjiress  the  protrusion  of  an  abdominal  viscus,  as  when 
wo  speak  of  other  forms  of  hernia  we  express  it  thus :  her 
nia  cerebri,  hernia  corucjc,  etc.  The  predisposing  eaus<- 
of  hernia  is  a  weakness  of  some  portion  of  the  abdominal 
w.alls,  and  there  are  certain  parts  which  are  naturally 
weaker  than  others,  as  the  inguinal,  umbilical,  and  femoral 
regions.  This  weakness  very  often  exists  congenitally,  and 
may  be  increased  or  produced  by  injury,  disease,  or  }»reg- 
naney.  Among  the  exciting  causes  may  be  mentioneil  vio- 
lent muscular  exertion,  jumping,  straining  from  lifting 
heavy  weights  or  at  stool,  playing  on  wind  instruments, 
etc.  The  usual  contents  of  a  hernial  sac  is  a  portion  of  the 
small  intestine,  or  the  omentum,  but  we  may  find  ])ortion>' 
of  any  of  the  viscera  in  it,  especially  when  tho  abdominal 
walls  are  congenitally  weak.  The  sac  is  formed  of  perito 
neum,  which  is  covered  by  the  integument  and  subjacent 
fascia?. 

Hernia  is  generally  divided  in  two  ways:  1st,  according 
to  its  situation,  as  inguinal,  femoral,  umbilical,  phrenic. 
etc.;  2d,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  protruded  vis- 
cus, as  reducible,  irreducible,  anci  strangulated.  Reducible 
hernia  is  that  variety  in  which  the  contents  of  the  sac  may 
be  returned  into  its  normal  cavity  without  recourse  to  a 
surgical  operation.  It  sometimes  disappears  spontaneously 
when  the  patient  t^ceks  the  recumbent  j)osition,  but  more 
often  needs  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  pre.^surt?  to  bo  made 
in  the  pri>per  direction.  The  symptoms  of  it  are — the  ap 
pearanco  of  a  soft  and  compressible  swelling  at  some  por- 
tion of  the  abdominal  wall,  which  increases  when  the  pa- 
tient stands  up  and  diminishes  when  lie  lies  down ;  by 
jilaeing  the  hand  upon  the  tumor  and  directing  the  patient 
to  cough  a  distinct  impulse  is  imparteil.  The  treatment 
usually  adopted  consists  of  the  reduction  of  tho  contents, 
and  the  application  of  a  suitable  truss  to  prevent  the  re~ 
protrusion.  If  the  patient  is  young,  this  method  will  efi"eet 
a  radical  cure  in  time,  but  in  the  adult  recourse  must  be 
liaci  to  an  operation  to  effect  this. 

Irreducible  hernia  differs  from  reducible  in  that  the  pro- 
truded viscus  cannot  be  returned  into  its  normal  cavity. 
Tho  general  causes  of  it  are  adhesions  between  the  sac  and 
its  contents,  the  growth  of  membranous  bands  across  the 
sac,  or  enlargement  of  the  contents.  It  is  much  more  trou- 
blesome than  the  preceding  variety  :  in  the  first  place,  it  is 
much  more  inconvenient,  and  is  always  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  strangulation;  the  patient  suffers  from  indiges- 
tion, constipation,  colic,  flatulence,  ami  dragging  pains  in 
the  loins.  The  treatment  of  this  variety  must  be  generally 
palliative,  and  consists  of  the  patient's  avoiilanee  of  all 
violent  exercise;  regulation  of  the  bowels,  which  shoulti 
never  be  allowed  to  become  confined  ;  and  the  wearing  of 
a  truss  to  support  an<i  protect  the  tumor. 

*'  Hernia  is  said  to  be  stranguhiteil  when  it  is  constricted 
in  such  a  way  that  the  contents  of  the  protruded  bowel 
cannot  bo  propelled  onward,  an«l  the  return  of  its  venous 
blooil  is  impeded."  There  is  always  more  or  less  inflam- 
mation, caused  by  tho  constriction.  Tho  causes  of  this 
condition  are  sudden  enlargement  of  tho  contenis  of  the 
sac  by  fiuees  or  gas.  or  congestion  ur  s\velling  of  the  neck 
of  the  sac.  The  symptoms  arc — pain,  fialulenee,  a  desire 
to  go  to  stool,  constipation,  nausea,  and  vomiting,  the 
vomited  matter  after  a  time  becoming  storcoraceous.  The 
tumor  is  hard,  and  cannot  be  replaced  in  the  abduniinal 
cavity,  and  there  is  very  little  impulse  transmitted  to  the 
hand  when  the  patient  coughs.  I'he  pain  in  the  tumor 
continues  to  increase,  and  extends  over  the  whole  of  tho 
abdomen  :  tho  countenance  assumes  an  anxious  expression; 
the  pulse  becomes  small  and  wiry,  and  the  f-kin  cold  and 
clammy.  Should  the  pain  c'-ase,  ami  I  he  tumor  feel  doughy 
anil  crepitate  when  handled,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  intes- 
tine has  mortified;  when  this  happens,  there  is  very  little 
hope  for  the  patient;  in  fact,  the  only  chance  for  recovery 
now  is  by  an  artificial  anus.  The  object  of  treatment  is  to 
r*'turn  the  intestine  into  its  cavity.  When  this  cannot  bo 
aecomplished   by  manipulation,  or  manipulat  imi  coinhincd 


900 


HERO— HERODOTUS. 


with  warm  baths  and  the  administration  of  ether — the  pa- 
tient having  first  been  niaccd  in  such  a  position  that  all 
the  parts  in  the  neighborhood  "f  the  trouble  shall  be  com- 
pletely relaxed  —  recourse  must  immediately  be  had  to 
an  operation.  This  consists  of  enlarging  the  constricted 
portion,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  return  of  the  gut,  and  consists 
of  cutting  down  to  the  sac,  and  then  either  opening  it  and 
divi'iin"  the  stricture,  dividing  the  stricture  without  open- 
ing the  sac,  or  by  merely  incising  the  neck  of  the  sao. 
Edward  J.  Berminouam. 

Hero.     See  Heroic  Age, 

Ile'ro,  or  He'ron,  an  ingenious  mechanical  philoso- 
]'her.  pupil  of  Ctesibius.  who 
li\cd  about  286-222  b.  c.  famous 
I'lr  an  acquaintance  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  pneumatics  and  hydrau- 
lics quite  in  advance  of  his  age. 
lie  wrote  a  nuniVter  of  books  and 
invented  a  variety  of  machines, 
twoof  which, the  moli pile  (sec  ^0- 
i.ii'ILk)  and  the  fountain  which 
bears  his  name,  are  still  among 
the  familiar  forms  of  illustrative 
apparatus  in  the  physical  lecture- 
roum.  Hero's  fountain  is  shown 
in  tho  annexed  figure,  in  which 
it  is  seen  that  tho  elastic  force  of 
a  ennfined  body  of  air,  increased 
by  hydraulic  pressure  and  react- 
ing upon  the  surface  of  water  in 
a  closed  reservoir,  produces  a  jet 
which  may  rise  ( theoretically) 
above  that  surface  to  a  height 
equal  to  the  effective  height  of 
the  pressing  column. 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard. 

Hero,  a  priestess  of  tho  tem- 
ple of  Aphrodite  at  Sestos,  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace,  was  loved  by  Le- 
andcr,  n  native  of  Abydos,  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  Hellespont. 
Guided  by  the  light  of  tho  torch 
which  Hero  planted  on  the  cliffs 
of  Sestos,  Leander  used  to  swim 
across  the  sea  to  meet  her,  but 
one  night  the  storm  ])ut  out  the 
tnroh,  and  when  next  morning 
Hero  discovered  the  corpse  of  her 
lover  floating  on   tho  waves,  she  Hero's  fountain, 

threw  herself  into  the  sea.  There  is  a  Greek  epic  poem  by 
MusLieus,  a  ballad  by  Schiller,  and  a  drama  by  Grillparzer 
on  this  subject,  and  it  has  been  painted  over  and  over 
again  by  the  disciples  of  the  school  of  David. 

Her'od  the  Geieat,  king  of  the  Jews,  was  b.  in  62  d.  c. 
at  Ascalon  in  Judaja,  and  was  of  Idumean  descent.  When 
in  47  B.  c.  his  father,  Antipatcr,  was  made  procurator  of 
Judyea  by  Julius  Caesar,  he  himself  received  the  govern- 
ment of  Galilee,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  that  of 
Samaria  and  ('tele-Syria.  Ho  was  expcllc<l  for  a  short 
time  by  Antigonus,  the  nephew  of  Hyrcanus  II.  and  tho 
representative  of  tho  Asmoncan  dynasty,  but  in  Rome, 
whither  he  fled,  he  succeeded  in  gaining  the  favor  of  An- 
tony ;  not  only  were  his  claims  recognized  by  the  senate, 
but  the  title  of  king  of  Judiea  was  conferred  on  him  (40 
It.  i\).  He  established  himself  by  force  in  Jerusalem,  and 
by  unlioard-of  cruelty  he  maintained  his  jiowor.  Ail  mem- 
bers of  the  old  dynat'ty,  even  his  own  wife.  Marianine,  the 
daughter  of  Hyrcanus  II.,  and  the  three  children  ho  had 
by  her,  were  executed.  And  the  older  he  grew  the  more 
suspicious  and  atrocious  he  became.  The  slaughter  of  tho 
infants  at  Bethlehem,  of  which  we  are  told  in  .Matthew  ii. 
1*1,  was  80  common  and  insignificant  an  afTair  that  Jose- 
plius  does  not  mention  it.  A  few  days  before  ho  died  ho 
had  his  son.  Antipatcr,  strangled.  But,  altliough  cruel,  hi^ 
government  was  vigorous  and  brilliant.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Augustus.  There  was  peace  in  Judaea;  eoni- 
merco  and  irulustry  prospered;  literature  and  art  flour- 
ished. His  buildings  were  especially  magniftcent  ;  he 
-founded  Ca;?arca,  rebuilt  Samaria  under  the  namo  of  Se- 
baste,  and  adorned  Jerusalem  with  numerous  splendid 
structures.  The  Jews,  however,  found  iu  his  government 
a  leaning  towards  Home,  which  humiliated  them,  and  a 
general  tendency  towards  Roman  civilization,  which  they 
hated;  ami  tho  latter  part  of  his  life  was  much  troubled  by 
conspiracies  and  riots.  He  was  ton  times  married,  and  died 
between  Mar.  13  and  Apr.  f),  a  few  weeks  after  the  birth 
of  Christ,  of  a  horrible  disease,  the  same  as  killed  Sulla 
and  Philip  II.  of  Spain. — His  son,  Hkrod  Antipas,  by 
hi'  wife  Malthaoe,  a  Samaritan,  was  by  his  will  appointed 
f' 'rarch  of  Galilee  and  Pera*a.  He  divorced  his  first 
wife,  and  marrieil  Hcrodias,  the  wife  of  his  half-brother 


Philip,  and  when  John  the  Baptist  remonstrated  against 
this  incestuous  connection,  he  had  him  put  to  death. 
During  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose  of  celebrating 
tho  passover,  t'hrist  appeared  beiore  liini,  sent  by  Piiato 
as  a  former  resident  of  his  tctrarchate.  In  42  A.  d.  he 
made  a  journey  to  Rome  in  order  to  obtain  the  royal  dig- 
nity, but,  through  the  intrigues  of  Herod  Agrippa,  ho  was 
exiled  by  Caligula,  and  d.  in  Lyons. — Hi:uon  AcjniiM'A  I., 
son  of  Aristobulus,  brother  to  Hcrodias,  and  grandson  of 
Herod  tho  Great,  was  educated  in  Rome,  and  received 
from  Caligula  the  tetrarehate  of  Judiea  with  the  title  of 
king,  and  after  the  banishment  of  Herod  Antipas,  Clau- 
dius gave  him  all  the  old  provinces  of  Judu>a.  He  was 
mucli  liked  by  the  Jews,  especially  for  his  vigorous  meas- 
ures against  Christians;  he  liad  the  apostle  St.  James  the 
(Jroater  beheaded  and  St.  Peter  thrown  into  prison.  He 
d.  early  (44  A.  n.). — Hkrod  AiiuriTA  II.,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was.  like  his  father,  educated  in  Rome,  and  resided 
there,  at  tho  court  of  Claudius,  at  the  death  of  Agripj»a  I. 
He  did  not  inherit  his  father's  dominions,  however  ;  they 
were  made  a  Roman  province,  and  Herod  Agrippa  II.  ob- 
tained at  first  (.")(J  A.  n.)  only  the  small  kingdom  of  Chal- 
ois.  Abilene  and  Trachonitis  wcro  subsequently  added. 
In  60  A.  I).,  when  he  went  down  to  Cajsarea  to  compliment 
Festus,  the  Roman  governor,  the  apostle  St.  Paul  a]>peared 
before  him.  In  the  Jewish  war  he  sided  against  his  coun- 
trymen, anil  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70  A.  d.) 
he  resided  in  Rome,  where  he  d.  in  lOU  a.  n. 

Rkviscd  by  R.  D.  HiTriicocK. 

Hero'des  At'ticus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Greek 
orators,  w.as  b.  at  Maratlion  in  104  A.  d.,  and  d.  at  Athens 
in  180.  M.  Antoninus  was  one  of  his  pupils,  and  during 
his  reign  he  held  public  oflices.  He  was  immensely  wealthy. 
His  father  left  an  annuity  to  each  Athenian  citizen.  Still 
more  remarkable  was  his  eloquence.  He  was  called  tho 
"  tongue  of  Greece,"  and  his  speeches  were  compared  to 
silver  streams  running  in  golden  beds.  Unfortunately,  tho 
only  one  of  his  works  which  has  come  down  to  us  (Ilepc 
IIoAiTeia?,  edited  by  Bekker  in  his  Onitorea  Attici,  1824)  is 
niiseral)le,  amaze  of  affected  sophistry. 

Hcro'dians,  a  Jewish  party  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
first  mentioned  in  Mark  iii.  6.  They  were  partisans  of  tho 
Herod  family,  whose  tyranny  they  preferred  to  that  of  the 
Romans.     They  appear  to  have  been  mostly  Sadducees. 

Herodia'nus  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  but  lived  for  a 
long  time  in  Rome,  and  wrote  in  the  Greek  language  a  work 
in  eight  books  on  the  history  of  Rome  from  the  death  of 
M.  Aurelius  (180  a.  n.)  to  tlic  accession  of  Gordianus  III, 
(238  A.  !>.),  narrating  events,  as  ho  informs  us,  which  had 
occurred  in  his  own  lifetime.  Tho  work,  which  is  still  ex- 
tant, is  interesting,  and  is  considered  truthful  and  impar- 
tial in  the  main;  the  best  editions  of  it  arc  by  Irmisch 
(5  vols.,  Leipsic,  1789-1805),  bv  Weber  (1816),  and  by 
Bekker  (1826  and  ISoo), 

Herod'otus,  a  Greek  historian,  often  called  tho 
"father  of  history,"  was  b.  at  Halicarnassus,  a  Doric  col- 
ony in  Caria,  Asia  Minor,  in  484  B.  c.  Thus  his  life  falls 
within  the  happiest  and  most  glorious  period  of  the  history 
of  tho  Greek  nation.  Like  a  spring  flood  the  Persian 
power  came  rolling  on,  swelling  through  centuries  by  the 
absorption  of  Media,  Bal)yIon,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Thracia, 
and  Macedonia;  and  now  it  burst  upon  Greece.  But  its 
force  was  broken  in  the  battles  of  Marathon  {Sept.  12,  490), 
Thermopyhe  (July  6,  4S0).  Salamis  (Oct.  5,  4S0),  Platwa 
and  Mycalo  (Sept.  23,  470).  Harmless  it  retired,  and  tho 
Greek  nationality  arose.  Within  a  few  generations  somo 
of  the  noblest  and  loftiest  instruments  of  civilization  were 
either  invented — such  as  philosophy,  history,  tragedy,  and 
comedy — or  brought  to  greater  perfection,  such  as  public  ed- 
ucation, republican  government,  architecture,  and  sculpture. 
Herodotus  became  tlio  inventor  of  the  art  of  history.  Ho 
belonged  to  a  wealthy  and  influential  family  ;  among  his  rel- 
atives was  tho  celebrated  epic  poet  Panyasis.  Under  the 
reign  of  Lygdamis,  Panyasis  was  killed,  and  Herodotus  and 
his  family  expelled  from  Halicarnassus.  Ho  went  to  Sa- 
mos,  where  ho  lived  several  years,  and  where  he  learnt  tbo 
Ionian  dialect,  in  which  ho  wrote  his  book.  Ho  returned 
once  more  to  Halicarnassus,  and  took  part  in  the  expulsion 
of  tho  tyrant, •  but  ho  soon  again  left  his  native  city,  and 
entered  on  tho  long  and  extensive  travels  which  formed  tho 
necessary  preparation  for  his  great  work.  Ho  wandered 
through  the  whole  of  Greece,  studying  the  history  of  each 
jjlace  on  the  spot  by  making  liimself  acquainted  with  its 
monuments  and  its  traditions.  Thus  ho  acquired  a  most 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  whole  route  which  tho  Per- 
sian armies  had  taken;  with  Marathon,  Therniopylao, 
Salamis,  Platoea  and  Mycale,  where  tho  great  battles  wero 
fought;  with  Athens  and  other  cities  which  formed  tho 
political,  commercial,  and  intellectual  centres  of  tho  Greek 
nation;   with  Delphi  and  Dodona,  the  sacred  and  awe-in- 


HEROIC  AGE— HERPES. 


901 


ppiring  scats  of  the  oracles  :  aod  in  all  the  principal  parts 
o(  his  narrative  he  simply  relates  what  he  has  seen  himself 
or  heard  from  eyewitnesses.  No  less  intimate  and  compre- 
hensive was  his  acquaintance  with  Egypt.  He  had  visited 
Memphis  and  lleliopolis,  and  crossed  the  whole  country 
from  the  Iklta  to  Kle|»hantinu,  and  from  the  Libyan  desert 
to  the  Ued  Sea,  Modern  travellers  are  still  surprised  at 
the  accuracy  of  his  observations  and  the  correctness  of  his 
descriptions.  In  Asia  xMinor  ho  knew  from  personal  uc- 
quaiDtancc  every  place  he  mentions,  and  in  Asia  proper  ho 
travelled  as  far  as  Colchis  to  the  N.  and  lJaU\  Ion  to  the  S, 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  in  Thurii.  a  Greek  col- 
ony in  .Southern  Italy,  established  in  441  B.  v.,  near  the 
ruins  of  Sybaris.  From  his  residence  in  this  city  ho  is  often 
called  the  rAuriuH  by  the  ancients,  and  here  ho  probably 
wrote,  or  at  least  liiiished.  his  book.  It  is  also  probable 
that  be  died  here,  about  WS  B.  0.  At  what  time  and  place 
he  actually  wrote  his  history  is  a  much-disputed  point. 
Luciansaysat  Haiiiarnassus,  Suidas  in  Samus,  and  Pliny 
at  Thurii,  which  indicates  three  ditfcrent  ipojhs  of  hishf^-. 
Lucian  furthermore  says  that  he  read  it  or  recited  it  to  tho 
people  assembled  at  the  Olympian  games,  and  adds  that 
Thucydides  was  present  and  burst  into  tears  from  enthusi- 
asm. According  to  l*Iut:irch,  he  also  read  it  at  the  Pau- 
atbeneea  at  Athens  (415  b.  c),  and  was  rewarded  by  a 
grant  of  ten  talents  from  tho  public  treasury;  and  Dion 
Chrysostonius  mentions  that  he  read  it  to  the  Corinthians. 
However  dubious  and  even  contradictory  these  statements 
arc, (he  general  impression  of  all  is,  that  llerodotus  wrought 
for  many  years  on  his  book,  beginning  it  at  Ilalicarnaasus 
and  finishing  it  at  Thurii :  and  tho  character  of  tho  book 
iteelf,  its  style  and  method  of  eomnosilion.  seem  to  con- 
firm this  impres-iion.  It  narrates  the  history  of  tho  war 
between  the  (Sreeks  and  the  Persians,  but  every  new  clc- 
meot  which  is  introduced  into  the  composition  is  explained 
to  tho  reader  in  its  whole  signification  by  long  digressions, 
tracing  it  back  to  its  origin,  and  following  up  its  develop- 
ment to  the  moment  it  enters  tho  narrative;  and  thus  the 
book  actually  gives  the  history  of  tho  world.  It  must  not  bo 
understood,  however,  that  the  narration  of  tho  (ireek-Per- 
sian  war  was  a  mere  framework  to  wliich  the  history  of  tho 
world  is  hung  by  the  somewhat  clumsy  artifice  of  digres- 
sions. Ily  no  means;  although  iu  tho  details  Herodotus  is 
a  minute  and  circumstantial  chronicler,  in  tho  composition 
of  tho  whole  he  is  a  great  artist.  His  digressions  aro  nu- 
merous, and,  on  account  of  their  great  elaboration,  they 
may  appear  distracting  at  a  first  perusal,  and  burdensome 
ovon  at  a  second;  but  in  the  final  impression  of  (Iu  total 
work  they  simply  act  as  a  substructure  on  which  stands 
the  tempie  itself,  the  narrative  of  the  Greek-Persian  war. 
They  give  this  narrative  its  pathos;  they  explain  what  this 
war  was — namely,  a  war  between  two  worlds,  Europe  and 
Asia;  a  war  bet^teen  two  principles,  barbarism  and  civili- 
zation ;  a  war  on  whose  fortune  the  dcstinv  of  mankind  de- 
pended. This  total  view,  which  made  Tli;nydides  burst 
into  tears  when  it  dawned  upon  him,  and  which  the  world 
has  accepted  as  an  undoubted  truth,  is  the  great  merit  of 
the  book  of  Herodotus.  But  it  is  not  (he  o'lly  one.  .Mod- 
ern scholars,  especially  certain  modern  Iviglish  historians, 
blame  Herodotus  for  his  credulity  and  prt>pi-nr<ity  for  tho 
won  lerful ;  an  I  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  eotnparis^m 
with  (he  tone  and  character  of  modern  history  the  wonder- 
ful plays  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  his  book.  The  blanio 
is  unjust,  however — as  unjust  as  if  any  one  would  compare 
Walt's  first  steam-engine  with  the  latest  produced  and  most 
improved,  and  then  blame  Watt  for  weakness  in  mechanical 
eonecption  and  awkwardness  in  mechanical  construction. 
Herodotus  wrote  in  an  age  whose  eonsciousnes.H,  ^till  half 
mythological,  perceived  the  wonderful  as  the  natural,  and 
would  have  cinaidercd  many  of  the  ideas  of  modern  history 
a<  impiety,  or  even  insanity.  Instead,  therefore,  of  blam- 
ing him  for  credulity  and  propensity  for  the  wonderful,  it 
would  be  more  just  to  praise  him  for  tho  soberness  of  his  | 
observation  and  tho  soiin<lness  of  his  criticism ;  for  in  these  i 
(wo  points  he  truly  denotes  an  advaufo  in  (he  human  intel- 
lect. Ho  is  called  "'  the  father  of  history  "  because  he  was 
the  first  who  really  succeeded  in  reaching  tho  fact  in  its 
con'*ntenation  of  cause  and  effect.  The  best  editions  are 
that  of  Wc'seling  {Amsterdam.  17lV'.,  folio);  that  of 
.Schweighiiuser  (.'^trasburir,  lHOr>,  (\  vols.:  rcprinteii  Lon- 
don. |M|S-'J(.  withnn  Herodotean  lexicon;  tlreek  and  Kng- 
li^h  separately,  by  Cary,  Oxford.  184;i);  that  of  (iaisford 
(Oxford.  IS'JI,  4  vols.;  :Jd  ed.  US-Ill),  of  W'.  Dindorf  (  Paris, 
lH44,in  I>ii«>t's  Hihl,  r/rffcn).  of  .1.  ('.  K.  liahr  (Leipsie.  |h:;0 
-'Mt,  4  vols. :  !id  ed.  180ft-6l ),  of  Stein  (in  WKumiANN's  ^•f^^ 
Urtinn,  Berlin.  I'd  ed.,  .^  vols.,  lHtjM-7 » 1.  <'f  Abicht  (in  Tit  B- 
nku'h  I'ullrrtian,  '.i  vols.,  Lcipsic,  ISfi;i).  and  of  Blakeslcy 
(in  /tihiiuthrra  ('ittmn'citf  2  vols.,  Cambridge,  IH.'i-l).  His 
liimtin\f  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Itev.  (I.  Uaw- 
Iin«on  (London,  1M.'»S).  Ci.i:iikns  Pktkhskn. 

Uero'ic  Age,  the  more  than  half-mythical  age  of  Gre- 


cian history  preceding  the  true  historic  period.  In  it  the 
heroes,  who  were  often  of  half-divine  descent — great  war- 
riors, kings,  navigators — are  tho  central  figures.  *'  In  these 
myths,"  says  Ernst  Curtius,  "tho  people  recalls  to  its  mind, 
in  their  full  life,  those  times  when  the  monotonous  existence 
of  the  old  Pelasgians  was  interrupted,  and  new  forms  of 
worship,  new  openings  for  popular  activity,  new  ways  of 
life,  continuing  ever  after  with  abundance  of  great  fruits, 
were  called  into  existence.  These  founders  are  figures  like 
those  of  living  men,  but  greater,  nobler,  nearer  the  immor- 
tals. They  are  no  empty  creations  of  the  fancy,  but  in  them 
tlic  real  deeds  of  the  early  times  arc  illustrated  and  endowed 
with  life.  The  talcs  of  the  heroes  contain  a  certain  docu- 
mentary truth."  Iu  later  times  the  heroic  age  furnished 
abundant  material  for  dramatic  and  epic  poetry,  and  the 
heroic  character  afforded  many  uuble  examples  of  fortitude, 
piety,  purity,  and  justice  which  the  Greek  people  tot)  gene- 
rally failed  to  imitate. 

Hcro'ic  Metre,  in  English  verse,  is  the  unrhynicd 
iambic  pentameter,  known  as  blank  verse.  In  tireck  iind 
Latin  poetry  it  is  the  common  hexameter  verse,  in  which 
the  iliud  and  the  ^Encid  arc  written,  ticrraan  and  Italian 
heroic  verse  is  of  the  same  metre  as  the  English.  The  French 
heroic  is  an  iambic  hexameter.  The  name  is  given  because 
these  metres  are  deemed  appropriate  to  lofty  themes. 

Uerold  (Lons  Joseph  FERUixANn),  b.  in  Paris  .Ian. 
2S.  ITl'l  :  d.  near  Paris  Jan.  18.  1S."3;  studied  with  Cheru- 
bini.  and  wifli  distinction  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  finally 
in  Italy.  His  first  pieces,  which  were  comic  and  very  suc- 
cessful in  their  day.  arc  now  obsolete.  Zumpu  and  the  /V^ 
aux  C/rrcft.  his  greatest  operas,  still  hold  the  stage  in  Europe, 
but  aro  unknown  here,  except  by  fragments. 

Hereon,  a  general  name  for  a  part  of  tho  birds  of  the 
family  Ardeida^,  wading  birds  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
globe.  In  the  same  family  are  the  egrets  and  the  bitterns. 
Among  the  herons  of  the  V.  S.  are  the  Dcmicgrctta  ludorf- 
ciaua,  or  Louisiana  heron  of  the  South  ;  the  (larzcfta  rnii- 
didiesima,  or  snowy  heron  ;  the  Hcrodi(in  cfjrrttay  or  white 
heron  ;  the  Ardett  hcrodioft,  or  great  blue  heron,  a  splendid 
bird,  but  dangerous  when  wounded,  as  it  aims  severe  blows 
of  its  long  bill  at  the  eyes  of  its  captor;  the  great  white 
heron,  Andubonia  Occident alis  ;  the  night  herons  (A^rfj'- 
ordra  and  Nyctkerodtas) :  the  green  heron,  Buton'drH 
virtHcrtiK,  and  many  others.  The  common  European  heron 
(Ardcti  ciurreii)  was  uneiently  esteemed  for  the  table,  and 
hunted  by  falconry  or  shot  with  the  long-bow.  It  was  at 
times  forbidden  to  any  but  kings  and  great  uobles  to  kill 
it,  and  when  taken  by  falconry  it  was  customary  to  let  the 
heron's  wounds  be  dressed,  and  then  set  it  free.  Heron- 
plumes,  once  highly  prized,  are  still  worn  upon  the  helmets 
of  some  corps  of  lintish  cavalry. 

Heropli'ilus  ['Hpo<f.iAo?],  b.  at  Chalccdon,  in  Bithynia. 
about  ,300  B.  c;  studied  medicine  under  Praxagoras  :  re- 
moved to  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  and  was  there  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  famous  medical  school  of  that  city;  was  a 
distinguished  surgeon,  and  the  most  celebrated  anutcmiisf 
and  zoJitomist  of  antiq^uity.  It  is  also  stated  (with  proba- 
ble truth)  that  he  practised  vivisection  upon  human  beings, 
probably  condemned  criminals.  Tertullian  says  he  dis- 
sected no  less  than  GOO  living  persons.  It  is  to  lie  remem- 
bered that  the  ancients  regarded  the  dissection  of  the  flead 
body  as  something  almost  impious,  while  they  bud  ciun- 
paratively  few  scruples  with  regard  to  inflicting  pain  upon 
tho  living.  His  fame  is  coumiemorated  by  the  tnrcular 
JleriiphUi  (the  name  of  the  place  where  the  superior  longi- 
tudinal sinuses  of  the  dura  vuttfir  yni\  the  lateral  sinuses). 
He  was  one  of  the  fathers  of  what  is  called  heroic  practice, 
in  which  excessive  doses  of  powerful  drugs  were  used  ;  an<l 
ho  did  much  to  introduce  the  useless  compounding  of  many 
drugs  in  one  prescription — a  custom  which  lasted  till  tlie 
present  century.     Of  his  writings  only  fragments  remain. 

Hcros'tratuSf  an  Epbesian,  who  in  li^jC  n.  r.  set  fire  to 
the  temple  of  Hiana  at  Ephesus,  ouo  of  the  most  uiagnifi- 
eent  buildings  of  antiquity,  and  destroyed  it, simply  in  order 
to  make  his  name  immortal ;  ho  succeeded,  though  the  Ephe- 
sians  passed  a  decree  that  ho  should  never  bo  named. 

Hrr'pes  [from  the  Gr.  epiru,  to  "creep  *'],  a  name  np- 
plied  to  several  skin  diseases,  charactcri/.ed  by  (ho  develop- 
ment of  a  series  of  vesicles  or  clusters  of  vesirles,  which 
generally  run  a  definite,  self-limited  course.  By  far  the 
most  important  of  these  diseases  is  Ucrpcn  zoaffr,  zoun,  or 
"  shingles,"  as  it  is  called.  This  may  surround  ono  thigh 
or  one  arm  with  a  band  of  vesicles,  or  more  frequently  it 
starts  from  the  backbone  and  follows  an  intercostal  space 
half  round  the  body.  More  rarely  it  goes  half  round  tho 
nerk  or  half  oeross  the  face.  There  is  usually  sfinie  neu- 
ralgic pain,  and  sometimes  considerable  fever.  The  lUseaso 
must  d<'|>end  upon  some  abnormality  In  the  nervous  actictn, 
as  it  frequently  maps  out  upon  the  .surface  the  part  of  tho 
integument  supplied  by  some  one  branch  of  a  nerve.     Tho 


;i02 


HERPETOLOGY. 


vulgar  have  a  great  dread  of  "  the  shingles,"  and  believe 
that  when  it  so  extends  as  to  completely  girdle  the  patient 
he  will  die.  But,  in  the  tirst  place,  it  almost  never  does 
go  more  than  halfway  around  the  body,  and.  what  is  more, 
there  would  bo  uo  danger  if  it  .should,  for  the  disease  is  a 
seiriimitcd  or  cvelical  one,  and  the  patient  is  sure  to  get 
well  if  let  alone."  Other  forms  of  so-called  herpes,  such  as 
H.  cininatiin,  aro  caused  by  parasitic  vegetation,  and  should 
be  treated  with  applications  of  sulphurous  acid  and  water 
or  other  parasiticide  agents. 

Reviseh  bv  Wii.i.ARU  P.inKEii. 
Herpctol'ogy  [from  the  Greek  tpirerd^,  a  "creeping 
thin","  and  k6yoi,  a  "  treatise"]  is  that  branch  of  zoology 
which  is  dedicated  to  the  natural  history  of  Reptiles  and 
Ami'Hidia.ns.  Referring  to  those  articles  for  information 
respecting  the  characters  of  the  several  groups,  our  rcm.arks 
here  will  be  contincd  to  the  indication  of  the  growth  of  our 
knowledge  and  the  best  sources  of  information  respecting 
them. 

Little   positive  information   existed  among   ancient  or 
medi.'cval  naturalists  respecting  the  forms  in  question.    In 
Aristotle  arc  found  isolated  anatomical  details  respecting 
some  species,  but  he  did  not  recognize  the  group  as  a  whole, 
combining  the  footed  forms  with  mammals  as  oviparous 
quadrupeds,  and   isolating   from  them  the  serpents,  with 
which  he  oven,  at  least  provisionally,  combined  some  eels 
(Book  ii.  eh.  10,  and  Hook  ix.  eh.  2J,  jJ  4) ;  he  nevertheless 
appreciated   the  resemblance    between    the   serpents   and 
saurians  (£.."/.■  ii.  eh.  12,  ?  10),  and  once  defines  the  former 
as  land  animals  (  Honk  i.  eh.  G  jj  2).     Pliny,  with  less  exaet 
information,  mixes   much  fable.     No  mediaeval  writer  is 
worthy   of  mention.      Gesner    (1554),   Aldrovandi   (1640), 
and  Jonsfon  (lfi5:i)need  only  to  he  referred  teas  compilers. 
Ray  (169:i)  published  the  first  attempt  at  a  systematic  ar- 
rangement, in  which,  although  nominally  confounding  the 
repUlian  quadrupeds  with  the  mammalian  quadrupeds,  he 
recognized  the  serpents  as  related,  and  combined  them  in 
an  unnamed  group,  distinguished  by  having  a  heart  with 
a  single  ventricle.     Linnajus  (1735-OS)  first  introduced  an 
essential  reformation,  definitely  combining  the  oviparous 
quadrupeds  (tortoises,  lizards,  etc.)  and  serpents  in  a  single 
class,  which  he  called  Amphibia,  and  placed  between  the 
birds  and  reptiles.     Ho  distinguished  this  class  by  the  (1 ) 
naked  or  soaly  body,  (2)  acuminate  teeth,  and  (3)  absence 
of  rayed  fins ;  and,  subsequently  and  erroneously,  by  the 
unilocular   ancl   uniauricular  heart.      lie   distributed    its 
members  into  two  orders:  (1)  Serpentes,  without  feet,  and 
(2)   Reptilia,  with  feet.     Later,   he  made  the  class  more 
heterogeneous  by  tho  addition  to  it  of  the  branehiostegous 
fishcs,1)eing  misled  by  the  erroneous  observations  of  Dr. 
Garden  of  South  Carolina.     He  failed  to  notice  any  dis-  , 
tinction  between  the  true  amphibians  and  reptiles,  and 
even  confounded  tho  salamandroids  and  crocodilians  with 
the  typical  saurians  in  one  genus  under  tho  name  Lacerta. 
His  several  combinations  and  divisions  into  forms  without 
feet  and  with  feet  showed  also  an  utter  want  of  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  morphological  characters  in  this  group, 
limelin  (17SS),  in  his  edition  of  the  Si/stemn   .V(i(iir.T,  re- 
moved from  the  class  tho  branehiostegous  fishes,  and  re- 
stricted it  to  the  limits  originally  recognized  by  Linnaeus. 
In   the  last  edition  of  the  f!i/i>lema   J^'aturx  published  by 
Linnirus,  SI."!  species  were  recognized,  distributed  among 
the  following  groups:  (1)  Tcttmlo,  15;  liana,  17;  l)rai-n, 
2  ;  Lacrla,  47  (not  49)  ;  (2)  Crolaliu,  5  ;  Bud,  10  ;  Coliibfr, 
97;  Aiit/uii,  16;   Amphinhrciia,  2;  and   Cs!c!lia,  2.     In  tho 
edition  of  the  Si/Mlema  A'afiirip  published  by  Gmclin,  ,165 
species  were  reeognizeif,  apportioned  to  the  groups  as  fol- 
lows:  (1)    Tnlitdo,  :i3 :  ICniia.'M;  J)r,i<-u.2;   larcrla,  77  ; 
(2)  Croialiis,  b :  llaa,  10;   Caiuber.  170;  .liiyiii'»,  26  :  Am- 
phiilinna,  5;   Carilia,  2:  many  of  the  additional  species 
arc  spurious.     Klein  meanwhile  (1755)  published  a  Trn- 
lamen  H'-rpctolmiiir,  distinguished  by  a  singular  ignorance 
of  zoological  science,  as  will  bo  readily  understood  when  it 
is  known  that  he  ranked  with  the  serpents  the  ordinary 
earth-worms,  the  tape-worms,  and  tho  leeches.     Laurenti 
in  ITI'iS  made  a  decided  advance  in   herpetology.     He  rec- 
ognized a  class  "  Reptilia:"  in  it  he  ineludeil  all  the  rep- 
tiles  but  the  tortoises  (which  he  did  not  mention)  and  am- 
phibians.   These  he  divided  into  three  orders:  ( I )  Halienlia, 
including  the  frogs,  toads,  etc.;  (2)  (iradientia,  including 
the  salamandroids  and  saurians  :  and  (.3)  .Scrpentia,  in- 
cluding the  serpents,  as  well  as  serpentiform  saurians  and 
pscudophidian   amphibians.       He   recognized   four  genera 
of  .Salientia,  13  of  eiradientia,  and  15  of  Scrpentia.     Lac<''- 
pJde  in  1788  and  1790  divided  tho  same  animals  into  four 
'•classes:"    (I)  oviparous  qundrupe.ls   which  have  tails; 
(2)  thoso  which  have  none;  {?,)  reptiles  with  two  feet  only, 
which  may  bo  either  in  front  or  behind;  and  (4)  serpents, 
or  footless  forms. 

lirongniart  in  1799  made  another  decided  advance:  he 
characterized  the  class  better  than  any  of  his  predecessors, 


and  apportioned  its  representatives  among  four  orders: 
(1)  rhelonians,  including  the  tortoises;  (2)  Saurians,  com- 
prising the  lizards  and  crocodiles  ;  (:'.)  Ophidians,  compris- 
ing the  serpents;  and  (4)  Datrachians— /.  e.  the  present 
class  of  amphibians,  less  tho  Ca;cilians.  He  was  doubtful 
respecting  the  svstematic  relations  of  tho  Ctccilians,  but 
placed  them  provisionally  with  the  Ophidians.  The  great 
advance  in  his  work  is  evinced  in  his  recognition  of  the 
orders,  and  more  especially  in  the  segregation  of  tho  forms 
combined  under  the  name  of  Batraehians.  This  classifica- 
tion came  into  quite  general  vogue,  and  particularly  among 
French  writers,  Daudin  (1802-03),  Cuvier  (1  SI 7-29),  and 
Dumeril  and  Bibron,  among  others,  having  made  it  the 
basis  of  their  respective  works. 

Merrem  in  1800  and  1820  published  editions  of  a  system 
of  amphibians  in  which  he  recognized  two  classes:  (1) 
PnoLiDOTA.  equivalent  to  reptiles  proper,  and  (2)  Batra- 
cniA,  or  amphibians.  Among  the  Pholidota,  three  orders 
wore  recognized — Testudinata,  Loricata  p'.  e.  crocodiles), 
and  Squamata  (i.e.  saurians  and  serpents).  Among  the 
Batrachia,  also,  three  orders  were  established:  (1)  Apoda 
(i'.  e.  Pscudophidians),  (2)  Salientia,  and  (3)  Gradientia. 
Do  Blaiuville  in  1816  recognized  two  classes  among  the 
amphibians  of  Linnasus:  (1)  the  "Reptiles"  or  "  Squa- 
miferes  ornithoidcs,"  scaly;  and  (2)  "Amphibicns"  or 
"  Nudipelliferes,"  naked.  The  reptiles  were  divided  into 
three  orders:  (1)  Cheloniens,  (2)  Einydo-Sauriens  or  Cro- 
codiliens,  and  (3)  Saurophiens  or  Bipeniens.  including  two 
suborders:  (A)  "Sauricns"  and  (B)  "  Ophidiens."  The 
amphibians  were  distributed  among  four  orders:  (I)  the 
"Batraeiens"  (Salientia),  (2)  "  Pseudo-Saunens "  ((;ra- 
dientia),  (3)  "  Sub-Ichthyens  "  (Proteus  and  Sirens),  and 
(4)  '•  Pseudophvdiens"  ( Ca-eilidao). 

Merrem  and  De  Blainville.  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
mutual  relations  of  the  several  forms  and  of  the  subordina- 
tion in  the  values  of  characters,  thus  advanced  far  ahead 
of  their  predecessors  ;  they  were  also  the  first  to  definitely 
include  tho  Apoda  or  pscudophidians  among  the  amphi- 
bians or  batraehians.  The  first  edition  of  Merrem's  work 
not  beino'  available,  and  no  satisfactory  account  being  pub- 
lished, it'is  uncertain  how  far  Merrem  or  Dc  Blainville  an- 
ticipatcil  or  borrowed  from  each  other. 

Thus  had  the  yciicral  si/slan  of  herpetology  assumed 
nearly  all  the  characteristics  which  now  mark  it.  Tho 
successive  stages  of  its  improvement  were  manifested  in 
the  isolation  of  the  four-footed  forms  from  mammals,  and 
the  recognition  of  their  aflinity  with  the  serpents;  the 
recognition  of  the  batraehians  as  a  natural  group,  and  the 
consequent  depreciation  of  the  importance  of  the  members 
as  exponents  of  afiiuity  ;  the  eventual  separation  as  a  class 
of  the  batraehians  or  amphibians  from  the  reptiles  ;  and  at 
length  the  perception  of  the  value  of  anatomical  characters 
and  tho  comparative  unimportance  of  external  resemblances 
in  the  estimation  of  the  nflinities  of  the  various  types.  With 
this  recognition  came  the  separation  of  the  crocodilians  as 
an  order  distinct  from  the  saurians.  The  tendency  thus 
marked  became  more  and  more  decided  as  time  advanced. 
The  details  of  the  system  were  gradually  improved  by 
scientific  zoologists,  with  the  aid  of  anatomic.il  investiga- 
tions,  and  among  the  most  notable  in  this  work  may  be 
mentioned  Johannes  Miiller.  Stannius.  Owen,  Cope,  and 
Huxley.  A  remarkable  discovery  was  made  also  by  GUn- 
ther  (1S67)  in  the  dissection  of  a  curious  New  Zealand 
lizard-like  rejitile  (.S/j/ieiiodoii  j.uiie(n<iim),  which  strongly 
illustrated  the  insufliciency  of  external  characters  as  evi- 
dence of  the  relations  of  these  forms.  That  animal  very 
closelv  resembles  in  its  external  appearance  the  agamoid 
lizard's,  and  indeed  had  been  referred  without  suspicion 
to  that  fainilv  till  examined  by  tiunther.  A  detailed  study 
of  its  anatomy,  however,  indicated  that  it  was  in  nowise 
related  to  theAgamidie  or  other  tyi)ical  lizards,  but  that 
it  was  reallv  the  representative  of  a  peculiar  order  of  rep- 
tiles, for  which  the  name  Rhynchoeephalia  was  proposed. 
It  has  also  been  demonstrated  by  Prof.  Cope  and  others 
that  to  this  same  order  belonged  species  which  had  lived  in 
the  older  ages  of  our  globe,  and  as  far  back  as  the  De- 
vonian period.  . 

While  these  improvements  in  the  system  of  the  living 
reptiles  were  being  effected,  nala.'ontological  investigations 
were  rapidly  bringing  to  light  many  remarkable  types  of 
the  past  world,  which,  on  being  subjected  to  the  careful  in- 
vestigations of  osteologists,  were  found  to  have  remarkable 
relations  with  tho  living  members  of  the  class.  The  gigan- 
tic Bwinimiug  reptiles  of  the  Triassic  seas  were  first  eon- 
founded  together  in  a  peculiar  order  by  geologists  under 
the  name  Enaliosaurians,  but  subsequent  observations  indi- 
cated that  thev  should  be  separated  into  two  widely  distinct 
orders,  and  several  others  were  from  time  to  lime  consti- 
tuted for  the  reception  of  various  species.  The  compara- 
tive examinations  of  the  living  uud  extinct  forms  naturally 
reflected  mutual  light  upon  each  other.     The  hcrpetologi- 


IIEEPETOX  TEXTACULATUS— HERRING. 


903 


cal  system  is  thus  now  tolerably  undorstood.  Much,  how- 
ever, yet  remains  to  bo  done,  especially  by  the  palicontolo- 
gists  and  embryulogigts,  before  we  shall  be  ronversaut  with 
the  exact  mutual  relations  of  the  several  orders.  Nothing 
certainly  can  bo  as  yet  predicated  as  to  the  di-greo  of  gen- 
eralization of  the  known  forms;  and  the  sequence  in  the 
list  of  orders  (as  well  as  the  combination  of  orders  in  Pcro- 
spondvlia)  which  is  here  appended  must  be  considered  en- 
tirely as  a  provisional  arrangement,  subject  to  great  modi- 
fication"* hereafter. 

While  the  general  system  was  thus  being  perfected,  nu- 
merous sjtecial  investigators  wore  engaged  in  the  discovery 
and  cluridiitiouof  new  species.  Tho  old  genera  were  gradu- 
ally ninru  and  more  definitely  restricted  and  subdivided. 
Many  of  the  newly-discovered  species  were  also  recognized 
as  representatives  of  new  genera,  ancl  the  list  begun  to  in- 
creiisein  numbers  and  importance.  Families  were  introduced 
as  intermediate  terms  between  the  genera  and  higher  groups, 
and,  at  first  very  comprehensive,  were  subsequently  re- 
stricted in  their  limits;  and  in  order  to  indicate  their  value 
at  once,  naturalists  generally  began  to  adopt  for  each  the 
uniform  patronymic  termination  -m/.t  following  the  name 
of  the  typical  genus  of  the  including  group.  The  natural- 
ists that  have  described  the  most  species  within  the  last 
half  century  have  been  Dum^ril  and  liibron  of  Paris,  Gray 
and  (Jiintlier  of  Loudon,  Peters  of  lierlin,  and  L'ope  of 
Philadelphia. 

The  orders  now  generally  adopted  for  the  inclusion  of  all 
these  various  members  of  the  classes  iu  question,  recent  and 
fossil,  are  as  follows : 

Class  Amphibia  or  Batrathia. 
Order  Labyrinthodontia  (extinct  forms). 
"       Pseudophidia  (worm-like  forms). 
"       (.iradientia  (salamanders,  etc.). 
"       tSalieutia  (frogs,  toads,  etc.). 
Class  Rei-tilia. 
Sub-claag  Euchirota, 
Suprr-ordcr  Perospotidf/Ita, 
Order  Crocodilia  or  Loricata  (crocodiles). 
'*      Anomodontia  (extinct). 
"        Dinosauria  (extinct). 
"       Ornithosauria  (extinct  flying  reptiles). 
"       Rhynchocephalia. 

"       Saviropterygia  (extinct  swimming  reptiles). 
"       Pythonomorpha  (extinct  sn:ikc-Uko  lizards). 
'*       .Sauria  (lizards,  etc.). 
"       Ophidia  (snakes,  etc. 

Super-order  Pieurospoudi/lia. 
Order  Cholonia  or  Testudinata  (tortoises). 

Sub-cla8»  Ptcrochirota. 
Order  Ichthyoptcrygia  (extinct  whale-liko  reptiles). 
The  anatomical  investigations  which  have  been  prose- 
cuted rendered  it  more  and  more  evident  that  the  ani])bib- 
ians  and  reptiles,  notwithstanding  their  external  resem- 
blances, have  very  little  true  nflinity  with  each  other,  and 
th:»t,  indeed,  their  closest  relations  in  some  respects  are 
with  other  types:  thus,  (1)  the  amphibians  arc  so  closely 
connected  with  the  fishes  by  means  of  tho  Labyrinthodonts 
in  one  class  nnd  the  Dipnoans  (  Lriiidnsircn,  etc.)  in  tho 
other  that  by  many  {<•.  tf.  Huxley)  they  are  combined  in  one 
peculiar  group  under  the  name  lehthyopslcla :  while,  on 
the  other  hiind,  the  reptiles  and  liirds  agree  so  thoroughly, 
and  when  the  extinet  forms  nro  recallerl  dilfer  in  so  few 
eharaeters,  that  they  are  also  united  in  a  special  group  des- 
ignated the  Sauropsida. 

It  only  remains  to  add  references  to  the  principal  au- 
thorities which  the  student  can  most  advantageously  use. 
The  voIunieM  and  articles  published  have  been  very 
numerous,  but  only  the  following  need  be  specially 
named  :  ErpHtthtyic  ijfnfratc,  on  histoiri'  nutut'ellc 
comp/fte  dm  lleptifra,  by  DrMKRii,  nnd  BlliRox 
(Paris,  1S:j|-55,  9  vols.);  Thr  Cntaffufiu-  of'  Shirld 
lirptiUn,  by  r)r.  J.  E.  (Jrav:  (Part  I.,' Testudinata, 
London.  1h:»5  :  Supplement,  IS70;  Appendix,  IS72; 
Part  11.,  Kmydosaurians.  Rhynehocephalin,  and 
Aniphisba-nians,  London,!  872,  -Ito) ;  Cittnloifue  o/'tfic 
Sft'rt'mr„»  f.f  Stinhn  in  tfir  i'nlhHinu  i,f'  thr  Itritinh 
.\fn,f'„m,hy  Dr.  J.  K.  (iuAV  (  London,  isi'.l.  I'Jnio) ;  Cntaloijne 
of  Co/iiftrinfi  Simkca  in  the  I'uf/ectioit  nf'  thr  firitiih  Mimruw, 
by  Dr.  Aliiktit  GrNTiiKn  (London."  18JS,  12mo);  Aroi- 
oijrtiphtf  <if»^r fit f  drs  Ophidieui,  by  Messrs.  Jan  and  Son- 
PKi.i,!  (Paris,  ISnO-72,  8vo  and  4to):  (\itafn;/ur'^  of  tfir 
Sprrimrmuf  Lizards  iuthe  Cnffrrtifm  4>f  fhr  Hyiiinh  Mmtrnm. 
by  Dr.  J.  K.  Cnw  (London,  LSI.'.,  iL'mo) ;  Cat,do(jue  n/ 
Mr  liutrarhin  SitHrntinin  thr  Colhrtinu  of  thf  liritinh  Mn- 
tenm,  by  Dr.  Ai.nKRT  GUsthkr  (London.  ISaS,  8vo) ;   /^- 


viaion  dcr  Salamandridcn-Gattungen  uehat  Ucuchrcibung 
einitjerueuen  oder  icenif/er  hekannten  Arter  dieser  Eamilicn, 
by  A.  Stuauch  (Mem.  Acad.  Sc.  St.  P6tersbourg,  v.  xvi., 
No.  4,  LS70,  4to),  and  Anatomische  Abhandbtufjcn  tiber  die 
I*crrnnihranchi(itcn  und  JJerutremen,  by  Dr.  ,].  G.  FisoniiR 
(Hamburg.  1SG4,  4toj.  The  principal  recent  anthorilie,-  un 
the  American  reptiles  and  batrachiansare  Hui.urook  (A'oW/i 
Atnerican  Herpetolofjy,  or  a  Jjescriptiun  of  the  Jicptiffn  In- 
habiting the  U.  S.,  Philadelphia,  lS;Jti-4;i,  5  vols.  4to): 
BairI)  and  GiRARn  {Catalogue  of  N'trth  American  Rtptiles 
in  the  Mnnviim  of  the  Sinithsonian  Inntitutitni,  Part  I.,  Ser- 
pents, Washington,  1853,  Svo,  etc.) ;  Agassiz  {CuntributionH 
to  the  \atttral  History  of  the  Vniftd  States  of  America, 
first  monograph,  North  American  Testudinata,  Boston, 
1857):  and  Coi'K  (in  numerous  memoirs  in  \ho  Prorced- 
iiiffs  and  Trauittrtiona  of  the  Aeadciiii/  of  .Wttnral  Scieucea 
of  Philadelphia,  etc.).  The  most  recent  guide  to  the  rep- 
tiles of  Europe  is  Br.  E.  Schkkukr's  lierpetologia  Eu- 
ropaa,  Etne  syatcinatiache  Jiearbettung  der  Amphibi'  n  n)id 
liepti/ien,  tcelchc  binher  in  Europa  auft/vfuiidtit  sind  (Braun- 
schweig, 1874).  Theodore  Gill. 

Hcr'peton  tentacula'tus,  a  serpent  brought  from 
tropical  countries,  and  chiefly  noteworthy  for  the  siugular 
a])pendages  which  arc  attached  to  its  muzzle.  These  are 
covered  with  scales,  and  are  of  no  known  use  to  the  serpent. 

Hei-'rick,  post-tp.  of  Bradford  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1009. 

Ilerrick,  tp.  of  Susquehanna  co..  Pa,     Pop.  950. 

Herrick  (.Tohx  Kusskll),  S.  T.  D.,  b.  at  Milton,  Vt., 
May  12,  1822;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
1847 ;  studied  at  Andover  two  years,  and  graduated  at  Au- 
burn Theological  Seminary  1SJ2  ;  from  1851  to  18G7  was 
over  a  Congregational  Presbyterian  church,  Malone,  X.  Y. ; 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  Bangor,  Me.,  18G7  to 
1S7;{;  became  pastor  at  South  Iladlcy,  Mass.,  in  1874; 
received  the  degree  of  D.  I),  from  Union  College  in  18G7; 
same  year  S.  T.  D.  from  his  alma  mater.  Author  of  Posi- 
tirifim  in  Boston  Lectures  (1870),  also  of  various  articles, 
philosophical  and  theological,  in  reviews. 

Herrick  (Joshua),  b.  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  in  1792;  re- 
moved to  Maine,  where  ho  became  a  sheritV;  was  deputy 
collector  of  the  port  ofKennebunk,  Me..  1S29-41,  1847-49, 
and  ]:>jO-J4;  member  of  Congress  ISl-^— IJ;  amlinlSJG 
register  of  probate  for  York  co.  D.  at  Alfred,  Me.,  Aug. 
30,  1874. 

Herrick  (Robert),  b.  in  London  Aug.  ^0,  1591;  was 
educated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  took  hi.}  master's 
degree  1517  ;  took  orders  and  became  vicar  of  Dean  Prior's, 
Devon,  1G29;  and  d,  there  in  Oct.,  1G74.  Ho  is  one  of  tho 
best  of  English  lyric  poets  and  song-writers,  bis  chief  fault 
being  tho  indelicacy  which  too  oitcn  disfigures  tho  erotic 
poems  in  which  liis  genius  is  best  displayed.  His  pastoral 
relations  were  suspended  for  a  time  during  tho  civil  war, 
but  were  resumed  at  tho  restoration  of  Charles  11,  His 
chief  j>ul>lication  was  tho  Hcapcridca  (1047-48). 

Herrick  (Stephtn  Solon),  M.  D.,  b.  at  West  Randolph, 
\l..  Dee.  H,  iSoljj  graduated  at  Dartmouth  1S54  ;  was  an 
instructor  in  Kentucky  and  Jlississippi  1854-59  j  took  his 
medical  degree  at  tho  University  of  Louisiana  1801 ;  assist- 
ant surgeon  in  Confederato  army  and  navy  1802-05;  visit- 
ing surgeon  Charity  Hospital.  New  Orleans,  1S05-0'J;  man- 
aging editor  AVki  Orlcana  Medical  ami  Snrrfirtil  Jonninl 
18GG-G7  ;  i)rofessorof  chemistry  in  tho  New  Orleans  School 
of  Medicine  18G9-70.  His  cs;;ay  on  (^iiZ/i/Hf  (1S09)  won  the 
prize  of  tho  American  Medical  Association.  Author  of 
various  professional  papers. 

Her'ring  (Clupea),  a  genus  of  fishes  vrhich  furnish  a 

large  supply  of  food  to  mankind.     There  are  several  spe- 


•Tho  "  eRtnloffUi'*"  enumerated  arn  really  de«ioriptlvo  mono- 
grnphn  of  all  the  known  s|M'eieH,  wheiher  In  tho  Mui^cuni  or  not. 


1  lie  lien  in  v. 

oies,  tho  chief  of  which  are  the  C  hartntjn$  of  Northern 
Europe  and  America,  and  the  C.  mirabHii*  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  the  U.  S.  The  celebrated  white-bait  is  the  young 
of  tho  common  herring.  The  herring  fisheries  of  Aujer- 
ioa  arc  prosecuted  chiefly  along  the  New  Kngland  coasts^ 
and  especially  in  British  American  waters.  In  Kuropo 
the  great  herring  fisheries  are  those  of  Great  Itrilain, 
Ireland,  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and  the  north  of 
France.  Herrings  at  tolerably  regular  periods  visit  ex- 
tensive lines  of  coast,  and  were  formerly  believed  to  mi- 
grate periodically  from  the  Arctic  seas,  but  this  belief  is 
not  now  generally  held  by  scientific  observers.     They  are 


904 


HERRNHUT— UERSCHEL. 


generally  caught  in  gill-nets  or  scoop-nets.  The  annual 
catch  of  herrings  must  amount  to  many  hundreds  of  rail- 
lions.  So  important  was  the  Dutch  fishery  in  former  days 
that  it  was  said  that  Amsterdam  was  built  on  herring- 
bones. A  large  part  of  the  su-callcd  herring  caught  in  the 
U.  S.  arc  alewives.  which  are  in  no  wise  inferior  to  the 
real  herring,  which  they  much  resemble.  Herrings  are 
smoked  and  dried,  pickled,  or  eaten  fresh. 

The  most  important  herring  of  our  Pacific  coast  apiiears 
to  be  the  ('.  miriihili',  which  in  size,  appearance,  and  hub- 
its  resembles  the  common  herring,  but  has  fewer  vertebra; 
and  a  ray  less  in  the  anal  fin.  It  is  not  as  large  as  the  C. 
harcnijus,  but  is  said  to  bo  equal  in  flavor.  It  can  be 
t.ikeo  in  very  largo  quantities,  and  its  fishery  will  soon 
heciiue  an  object  of  national  importance.  The  "herring" 
of  the  great  lakes  is  Coregomu  clupei/ormia,  a.  sort  of 
white-fish. 

Heirn'hut,  town  of  Germany,  in  tho  kingdom  of  Sax- 
ony, was  founded  in  1722  liy  a  colony  of  .Moravian  IJreih- 
ren,  who  were  driven  from  their  homes  by  the  Jesuits,  but 
were  received  and  establi.^hed  here  by  Count  Zinzendorf. 
The  town  has  only  1000  inhabitants,  but  it  enjoys  a  com- 
paratively great  reputation,  partly  because  it  has  become 
the  assembling-place  or  metropolis  of  the  United  Brethbkx 
(which  see),  partly  because  the  life  led  in  this  town  com- 
mands respect  for  its  simplicity,  honesty,  purity,  and  vigor. 
The  colored  paper  and  the  linen  fabrics  manuf^iotnrcd  here 
are  very  celebrated,  and  known  under  the  name  of  Hcrrn- 
huler  Papier  and  JJcrniliiiltr  Lcinwand. 

Her'ron  (Fn.txcis  J.vv),  b.  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Feb.  17, 
1S:'.7;  graduated  at  the  Western  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania 1Sj3:  entered  the  U.  S.  army  -Apr.,  ISOl.  .as  captain 
1st  Iowa  Vols.,  and  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Dug  .-springs, 
Ozark,  and  Wilson's  freck ;  promoted  to  be  lieutenant- 
colonel  9th  Iowa  Vols.,  .and  in  command  of  the  regiment 
through  campaigns  in  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Indian 
Territory  ;  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  where  ho  was 
severely  wounded.  Appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers Julv,  18C2,  and  in  command  of  Army  of  the  Frontier 
at  battles  of  Prairie  Grove  and  Van  Buren  :  for  conduct 
at  former  promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers  Nov. 
19,  1S62.  In  command  of  the  left  wing  of  investing  forces 
at  Vicksburg,  and  of  the  army  and  navy  expedition  that 
ciptured  Yazoo  City:  subsequently  of  13th  army  corps  on 
Te.'jas  coast  till  assigned  to  comm.and  the  northern  division 
of  Louisiana.  In  May,  1SC5,  negotiated,  and  in  June  re- 
ceived, the  formal  surrender  of  the  Tr.ans-Mississippi  army 
and  all  Confederate  forces  W.  of  the  Mississippi.  Ap- 
pointed one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  treaties  with 
Indian  tribes  July,  ISGo.  Resigned  commission  as  majior- 
general  and  Indian  commissioner  Aug.,  1865.  W.as  U.  S. 
marshal  district  of  Louisiana  1867-09,  and  secretary  of 
state  of  Louisiana  1870-72.  G.  C.  Sulmoxs. 

Her'scliel  (C.uuiline  Licretia),  b.  at  Hanover  Mar. 
16,  17.iU.  f^he  was  appointed  assistant  astronomer  to 
George  III.  of  England  in  1781,  with  a  moderate  salary. 
She  attended  her  brother.  Sir  William,  in  all  his  night- 
watches,  which  generally  lasted  till  morning;  wrote  from 
his  dictation,  as  ho  swept  the  heavens  with  his  telescope, 
his  observations;  noted  the  clocks:  reduced  and  arrauged 
his  journals;  prepared  the  zone  cataliigues  for  his  sweeps, 
and  performed  fur  hiin  all  the  laborious  mathematical  cal- 
culations necessary  for  the  reduction  of  his  observations. 
She  discovered  independently  eight  comets,  besides  numer- 
ous nebula-  and  clusters  of  stars.  At  the  death  of  her 
brother  in  1S22  she  returned  to  her  native  city,  where  sho 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life  with  her  only  remaining 
brother,  honored  and  beloved  by  all.  She  was  elected 
member  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1S32,  and  d. 
at  Hanover  Jan.  %  IS-tS.  Mils.  S.  1!.  Heurick. 

Ilerschel  (Sir  Joun  Frederick  Wii.lum),  B.vrt.,  b. 
at  Shuigh,  near  Windsor,  England,  Mar.  7,  17112.  He  was 
educated  at  home  under  the  guidance  of  his  parents  and 
his  aunt.  Associated  always  with  mature  minds,  breathing 
the  very  atmosphere  of  science,  the  boy  spent  his  singular 
childhood  in  the  silent  house  where  the  star-watchers  slept. 
Ho  went  direct  from  his  homo  to  Eton,  and  from  there  to 
Si.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  ho  graduated  in 
l.SIS  ns  senior  wrangler  and  Smith  prizeman.  In  the 
same  year  he  read  before  the  Royal  Society  a  mathemat- 
ical paper,  and  was  elected,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  a 
r-llow.  In  ls:n,  WiUiam  IV.  bestowed  u]ion  him  the 
Hanoverian  Guelphic  order,  and  five  years  later,  at  the 
coronation  of  Victoria,  ho  was  created  baronet.  Several 
gold  medals  were  awarded  to  him  by  the  Royal  Society  and 
the  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  and  he  was  made 
D.  C.  L.  by  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  succi  ssively 
elected  reotor  of  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  president  of 
the  .\stronomieal  Society,  ;ind  finally  permanent  master  of 
the  mint,  which  last  position  his  enfeebled  health  forced 


him  to  resign  in  1855.  He  was  honorary  or  corresponding 
member  to  the  academies  of  Brussels,  St.  Pctersburg,Vieuna, 
Giittiugen,  Turin,  Bologna,  Naples,  Copenhagen,  Stock- 
holm, and  others,  besides  being  chevalier  of  the  Prussian 
order  of  Merit.  In  1829  he  married  Margaret  Brodie, 
daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Alex.  Stewart,  by  whom  he  had  nine 
daughters  and  three  sons.  He  d.  at  ColUngwood  Apr.  13, 
1871.  From  1813  to  1822  he  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matics, chemistry,  and  optics,  as  his  memoirs  testify.  He 
then  began  his  astronomical  work  in  earnest.  In  1825  he 
began,  in  connection  with  Sir  James  South,  a  scries  of 
very  important  observations.  Though  his  especial  tastes 
lay  in  the  direction  of  physics,  his  filial  devotion  deter- 
mined his  lifework.  He  passed  in  review  the  nebula;  dis- 
covered and  catalogued  by  his  father  :  while  engaged  in 
this  work  ho  catalogued  between  3000  and  1000  double 
stars.  In  order  to  perfect  the  work  begun  by  his  father, 
ho  went,  at  his  own  expense,  in  1833,  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  That  the  results  might  be  accurately  comparable, 
bo  used  the  same  instrument  used  by  his  father.  He  spent 
four  years  at  the  Cape  observing,  and  five  years  more  re- 
ducing and  arranging  his  observations,  which  appeared  in 
1847  under  the  title  ilfMli/ts  of  Aalrunomical  Obterinlioiu 
.lade  duriiij  llic  ycura  IS^SS  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
bciiKj  the  cvmpUlioH  of  a  Telescopic  Siineii  of  the  ichole 
vitlblc  heaicns,  commenced  in  1825.  This  included  seven 
treatises  upon— 1,  nebulto  i  2,  double  stars;  3,  apparent 
6i:c  of  stars;  4.  distribution  of  stars  and  constitution  of 
Milky  Way  ;  5,  llallcy's  comet,  etc. ;  6,  satellites  of  Saturn  ; 
7,  solar  spots.  While  in  South  Africa  he  inaugurated  a 
valuable  system  of  simultaneous  meteorological  observa- 
tions, and  instituted  a  fine  public-school  system.  He  pre- 
pared two  elaborate  and  exhaustive  treatises  upon  '•  Light  " 
and  '■  Sound,"  for  the  Enei/clopn^dia  MetropoUtana  ( 1 S30-31 ), 
and  wrote  for  Lardner  a  treatise  upon  the  study  of  natural 
])hilosophy,  which  gave  a  strong  and  immediate  impulse 
to  the  study  of  natural  science  in  England;  also  a  treatise 
upon  astronomy,  which  was  afterwards  expanded  into  his 
Uuttinca  of  Aa'tronomy.  In  all,  Sir  John  added  to  the  2500 
nebula;  discovered  by  his  father,  2208  of  his  own  discovery, 
the  whole  number  known  being  5200.  He  performed  a 
great  service  to  photography  by  the  discovery  of  a  process 
for  making  the  impressions  permanent.  Not  the  smallest 
part  of  his  work  was  that  of  popularizing  without  falsifying 
science.  These  discoveries,  together  with  those  recorded 
in  131  papers  contributed  to  various  scientific  societies, 
compose  the  results  of  fifty-eight  years  of  labor,  included 
between  the  day  of  his  graduation  and  the  day  of  hisdeath. 
The  entire  labor  of  this  enormous  work  was  performed  by 
himself,  except  that  which  was  purely  mechanical  in  the 
use  of  his  instruments.  Mrs.  S.  B.  Hebrick. 

Herschel  (Sir  Willi.\m)  was  b.  in  Hanover  Nov.  15, 
1738.  Besides  music,  to  which  he  was  educated  profcs- 
sionallv,  he  received  instruclion  in  French  and  metaphys- 
ics in  his  early  years.  At  the  age  of  fourteen,  being  forced 
to  earn  his  own'brcad.  he  became  a  member  of  a  Hanover- 
ian band;  in  this  eap;ieity  he  came  to  England  in  1759, 
where  the  story  of  his  life  for  some  years  is  a  record  of 
bitter  privation  silently  and  heroically  endured.  lie  be- 
came successively  master  of  a  military  band,  organist  at 
Halifax,  and  organist  at  the  Octagon  chapel  at  Bath.  In 
spite  of  innumerable  professional  duties,  he  pursued  his 
abstract  studies  with  ardor,  sometimes  going  to  them  after 
fourteen  hours  of  professional  labor.  Ho  learned  Latin, 
Italian,  and  sometbing  of  Greek,  with  no  aid  but  that  of 
a  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  mastered  alone  an  obscure 
mathematical  treatise  upon  music.  The  harmony  of  sound 
soon  led,  bv  the  way  of  optics,  to  a  study  of  the  '•  harmony 
of  the  spheres."  A"  small  Gregorian  telescope  fell  into  his 
hands,  and  waked  into  passionate  life  the  longing  which 
determined  his  future  career.  Finding  the  most  ordinary 
telescope  bevond  his  means,  he  determined  to  construct 
one.  The  fa"ct  that  he  made  and  polished  200  metal  spec- 
ula before  ho  succeeded  to  his  own  satisfaction  reveals  the 
secret  of  his  successful  life.  In  1781  he  discovered,  by  the 
aid  of  one  of  his  own  telescopes,  anew  planet,  called  by  him 
Georgium  Sidus.  by  his  contemporaries  Herschel.  but  now 
known  under  the  name  of  Uranus.  This  brought  him 
under  the  notice  of  George  III.,  who  bestowed  upon  him 
the  position  of  special  astronomer  to  the  king,  a  pension 
of  300  guineas  a  Tear,  and  a  residence  at  Slough,  near 
Windsor  Castle.  Ho  married,  in  178S.  Mary,  daughter  of 
.\lr.  Adee  Baldwin,  a  widow,  by  whom  he  had  one  eon, 
.lohn  F.  W.  Herschel.  He  was  made  member  of  the  Lon- 
don Roval  Society,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris, 
and  president  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  Lon- 
don. The  Hanoverian  Guelphic  order  was  bestowed  upon 
him  by  the  regent,  and  the  title  of  LL.D.  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  besides  other  distinctions.  In  his 
eighty-fourth  year,  on  Aug.  23.  1S22.  Sir  William  Herschel 
died   without  "a  pang.     His  disposition  was  marked    by 


IIERSEY-HERWARTH  VON  BITTEN  FELD. 


905 


sweetness  and  benevolence;  his  character  by  directness  and 
siinplicilv,  bv  untiring  paliincc  and  induniilable  energy  : 
and  hisiuind  by  breadth  of  view  and  extreme  caution.  II  is 
work  i?  eompreliended.  in  great  part,  in  memoirs  prci-enle.l 
before  the  Koyal  Society  of  Lonilou.  which  "  constitute.' 
savs  Arago.  "one  of  the  principal  riches  of  the  celebrated 
coilectioirknown  under  the  title  of  mi'Mi/jliicut  Trunmi- 
liunt."  The  front-view  telescope  suggested  by  Jacques  La- 
maire  was  perfected  by  llersehcl ;  the  mcclianieal  contri- 
vances by  means  of  which  ho  mounted  and  adjusted  his 
fortv-foot  telescope,  with  its  speculum  neighing  a  ton, 
showed  him  to  bo  possessed  of  high  mechanical  genius. 
lie  so  improved  the  construction  of  telescopes  as  to  bo  able 
to  use  magnifying  powers  of  (iOOO  times  in  a  reflecting  tel- 
escope seven  feet  long.  Though  wo  cannot  give  even  the 
titles  of  the  papers  contributed  by  him  to  the  I'hilviophtcal 
Trnntdciioiit,  wo  shall  take  a  hasty  survey  of  those  discov- 
eries—recorded in  them  from  17!<0to  1S22— which  arc  per- 
manent acquisitions  to  science.  In  optics  he  discovered  the 
dark  heat-rays  of  the  .solar  spectrum,  anil  made  many  ex- 
perirnenls  upon  radiant  heat,  upon  Newton's  rings,  and 
upon  the  illuminating  power  of  the  various  prismatic  rays. 
In  his  researches  upon  the  solar  system  he  made  many  re- 
markable observations  upon  the  physical  constitution  of 
the  sun;  he  discovered  the  planet  (ranus  and  his  si.\  sat- 
ellites, as  well  as  two  satellites  of  Saturn,  lie  :idded  much 
to  the  subject  of  the  form,  time  of  rotation,  and  eompara- 
tivc  ningniludcs  of  the  asteroids  and  planets.  lie  discov- 
ered that  the  moon  possessed  no  atmosphere,  and  made 
many  valuable  observations  upon  comets.  But  the  real 
work  of  the  ller.schels,  father  and  son,  lay  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  our  system  in  the  sidereal  depths.  Sir  William  made 
many  and  accurate  observations  upon  variable  and  binary 
stars;  in  his  investigations  upon  sidereal  parallax,  though 
he  failed  to  find  it,  he  made  the  astounding  iliseovery  tliat 
the  sun,  with  all  its  attendant  planets,  is  rushing  on 
through  space  toward  a  point  situated  in  the  constellation 
Hercules.  By  means  of  a  twenty-foot  telescope  he  made 
a  survev  of  the  whole  of  the  northern  heavens,  cataloguing 
and  placing  the  stars  as  they  came  within  the  telescopic 
field.  To  the  known  nibula-.  500  in  number,  he  added 
2500  of  his  own  iliseovery.  and  under  his  trained  eye  and 
poivcrful  telescopes  numbers  of  what  had  been  considered 
nebula)  resolved  themselves  into  clusters  and  systems  of 
self-luminous  suns.  He  is  well  denominated  by  his  biog- 
rapher "one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  that  ever  lived  in 
any  age  or  country."  -Miis.  S.  B.  IIkuhick. 

Iler'sey,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Osceola  co.,  Mich., 
near  the  junction  of  the  Flint  ami  Pero  Marquette  and  tho 
Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  K.  Us.,  and  at  tho  confluence 
of  the  Ilersey  and  Muskegon  rivers.  It  has  a  court-house. 
a  jail,  2  churches,  a  graded  scliool,  a  prinlingofllce  and 
weekly  newspaper,  4  hotels,  several  stores  and  shops,  a 
wagon-factory,  ii  largo  saw  and  shingle  mills,  a  planing- 
mill,  a  grist-mill,  and  an  express  oflicc.  It  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  fine  agrieullural  and  lumber  district.  Pop.  of  tp.  286. 
,1.  K.  IlAmr.ifiL-,  Eb.  "Osci:ola  Oltli.vh." 
Ilcrs'feld,  town  of  Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia,  on  tho 
I'ulda,  has  iinjiortant  raaiiufacturcs.     Pop.  fi-lljl. 

HertTord,  town  of  Kngland,  the  capital  of  Hertford- 
shire, on  the  river  I,ea.  It  has  several  educational  insti- 
tutb.ns.     l'.,p.  710.1. 

Hertford,  lounly  of  North  Carolina,  bounded  on  the  K. 
by  the  navigable  Chowan  River  and  on  tlm  N.  by  Virginia. 
The  surface  is  generally  level.  Corn  is  the  principal  agri- 
cultural product.     Cap.  Winton.     Pop.  9273. 

Ilerlford,  post -v.,  county-scat  of  Perquimans  co.,  N.  C, 
on  the  navigable  Perquimans  Kivcr,  12  miles  from  its 
mouth.     Pop.  IHB;  of  tp.  1188, 

Hcrt'fordHhire,or  Herts,  county  of  England,  bound- 
ed by  the  counties  of  Ksse,\.  Middlesex,  Buckingham,  and 
Bedford.  It  contains  .'i'.tl. I  11  acres  of  fertile  and  well-cul- 
livaled  hind,  consisting  of  chalk  overlaid  with  gravel  and 
loaiiK  and  presenting  a  pleasantly  unclulating  surface. 
The  products  of  its  meadows  and  orchards  are  brought  to 
the  London  market.  Malt  is  a  very  important  product. 
Cap.  llerHurd.     Pop.  7:i,'J«l. 

ilrri/,  (IlKxniK),  h.  at  Copenhagen  Aug.  2.'i,  17fl8, 
and  d.  there  Fob.  2fl,  1870.  With  the  excepti»m  of  a  tour 
(hroiigli  (lermany,  France,  and  Italy  in  18:{.'i-:i  1,  ho  spent 
his  whole  life  in  his  native  city  in  a  quiet  way.  anrl  devot- 
ing liimself  exclusively  to  literary  work  :  in  IH.M)  the  Uigs- 
dag  gave  liim  a  jiension.  But  several  cif  his  works  caused  a 
great  commotion,  especially  his  rtn-liraf  Epixttt  h  fiftm  J''trti- 
dine  ( I  H.lfl),  whose  satire  and  criticism  made  people  furious. 
though  at  the  same  time  they  could  not  help  neing  charmed 
by  the  wit,  elegance,  and  freshness  of  the  style.  lie  bus 
written  other  satirical,  lyric,  and  epical  poems,  and  also 
some  novels;  but  his  talent  was  eminently  drauiatio.     He 


used  to  write  a  new  drama  every  winter,  and  many  of  them 
have  become  verv  dear  to  his  countrymen,  such  as  his 
tragedy  Sicnd  Ijiirimja  Hum  (1837 ),  his  character  comedies 
Sp^nLmen  (IS.'itl)  and  El  0/cr  (1863),  his  romantic  come- 
dies-Viiioii  (1848)  and  Ucii  Vtii/tli  (1854);  some  of  them 
have  been  performed  in  all  the  principal  theatres  of  (icr- 
many,  France,  and  England,  such  as  A'..ii;/  Ilrnen  Duller 
(lS4i")l,  twice  translated  into  English,  and  not  seldom  per- 
f.iriaed  in  America,  and  Sc/ici^U  Jliiseaii  (1851).  His  gen- 
eral character  us  an  author  shows  a  perfect  training — he 
never  failed  in  what  he  undertook  to  do;  and  a  perfect  ve- 
racity— not  one  adjective  in  all  his  volumes  was  ever  al- 
lowed to  tell  a  lie.  Ci.emkss  Pktersen. 

Iler'uli,  a  (iermanic  race  who  first  appear  in  history 
in  the  third  century  A.  I),  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxinc. 
They  were  conquered  by  the  Ostrogoths  under  Ilermanric, 
and  bands  of  lleruli  appear  after  this  in  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rojie.  They  swelled  the  train  of  Attila,  and  arc  later  found 
among  the  enemies  of  the  lluiis.  In  the  valley  of  tho 
Theiss,  on  the  lower  Danube,  and  in  lllyria  they  founded 
governments,  and  were  everywhere  among  the  bravest  and 
most  barbarous  and  unruly  of  the  liermanic  jieoples.  Odoa- 
cer  was  called  king  of  the  lleruli,  but  was  not  of  this  race. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  (470  A.  D.)  the  lleruli  be- 
came one  of  the  dominant  races,  but  the  subject  Lombards 
rose  and  almost  annihilated  them  about  512  A.  i).  From 
that  time  they  were  important  only  as  soldiers  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  more  powerful  tribes. 

Horvfc  (Eooiaud),  b.  in  1835  ot  St.  Denis  (Rf-union 
Island) ;  entered,  after  brilliant  studies  in  colleges,  tho 
famous  Paris  Normal  School,  where  he  had  as  fellow-mates 
Prf'vost-Paradol,  About,  Sarcey,  Weiss,  Tainc,  all  tho 
pleiad  of  modern  French  polemists  and  writers.  Hcrv6 
contributed  to  many  Paris  journals,  and  with  Weiss  founded 
in  186U  the  Junnial  (b:  Paris,  of  which  he  is  the  present 
editor,  and  which  supports  the  cause  of  a  liberiil  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  modelled  after  the  British  constitution, 
llerv*;  is  the  author  of  One  I'mje  of  Ciitilcm/uiraneoua  Hia- 
U.ry  and  of  a  llletonj  of  the  Liberal  Ideas  in  England. 

Felix  Aitaicxe. 

IIrrv6  (assumed  name  of  Fi.orimosd  Rongcr),  b.  at 

lloudain.  near  Arras.  .lunc  30,  1825,  was  at  first  dramatic 

artist  and  manager  of  small  theatres.     He  took  afterwards 

to  composing  opf-ras  boufl'cs,  like  L'CEil  Cnrf,  Let  Tnrce, 

rllilprrir.  Le   Petit  Fumt.  FEI.IX    AtlCAIGNE. 

Her'vey  (.Tames),  b.  at  Ilardingslone,  Northampton- 
shire, Eng.,  Feb.  20,  1713;  studied  (1731-38)  at  Lincoln 
College,  Oxf<ird.  where,  from  his  acquaintance  with  John 
Wesley  and  from  Zimmerman's  writings,  he  received  strong 
religious  impressions.  He  took  orders  in  the  English 
Church  and  held  various  rectorships,  notably  that  of  Wes- 
lon-Favel,  where  he  d.  Dec.  25,  1758.  Author  of  Midila- 
liont  and  Contcmplutit.nH  (1740  and  1747).  which  became 
exceedingly  popular,  notwithstanding  its  turgid  and  ex- 
travagant "style,  which  founil  many  admirers,  attracted 
iiarlly  by  the  devout  spirit  of  the  author;  of  Thrmn  and 
Acjiasia  (3  vols.,  1755),  consisting  of  dialogues  upon  rclig 


kiHS  topics— a  work  which  called  forth  replies  from  Robert 
Sandcman  and  John  Wesley;  and  other  works,  among 
them  posthumous  Letters  to  John  ll'e/i?<.y,  which,  it  is  be- 
lieved, sufi'ered  much  from  tho  reckless  interpolations  of 
llervey's  editors.  Ho  was  a  man  of  learning,  but  not  of 
intellectual  )^owcr. 

Ilor'wnrth  von  Bit'tcnfold  (KAni,EnERnAnD),b.at 
(irosswerther,  Prussian  Saxony.  Sept.  4.  17th'i;  entered  tho 
military  service  in  1811.  He  took  part  in  tho  campaign 
against  France  in  1814,  and  look  two  hostile  pieces  at  tho 
Bt"ormingof  Montmartre.  In  I.-;  17  ho  reccivcil  tliecoiumand 
of  the  Islrcgiment  of  the  guard,  in  1850  of  the  lOlh  brigade 
of  infantry,  in  1854  of  the  confederate  fortress  of  Mentz,  in 
1800  of  tho  7lh  armv  corps.  In  1863  he  became  a  general 
of  infantry,  and  commanded  in  1804  the  Prussian  troops 
against  DiMimark  niuler  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  who  was 
eoinmander-in-chiif  of  the  allied  Austrian-Prussian  force. 
Juno  2'J  ho  took  tho  island  of  Alsen.  After  the  peace  of 
Vienna  ho  was  appointed  chief  commander  in  the  duchies 
(jf  the  Elbe,  ami  in  1805  he  received  the  command  of  the 
8tb  army  c.irpy.  In  1800  he  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  armv  of  the  Elbe,  gained  victories  in  the  encounter  at 
Iliincrwnsser  and  Miinchengr'dti!  (Juno  26  and  28),  and 
played  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Kiinigs- 
griil/.  by  crossing  tho  Biestrit/.  anil  attacking  tho  villages 
of  Prolilus  and  Prune.  The  Austrian  left  wing  rested  00 
these  two  points,  and  by  storming  and  taking  them  ho 
completely  destroyed  this  wing  of  the  enemy.  In  1870,  in 
the  war  against  France,  bo  was  appointed  governor-general 
.01  tho  Ubine  and  of  all  the  western  provinces,  which  diOi- 
.■ull  and  responsilde)iosilion  lost  agreat  deal  of  itsimport- 
aiH'c,  as  the  war  was  carried  on  in  tho  enemy's  country. 
On  Apr.  8,  1871.  llerwarlh  retired  from  netivi'  servioo  as 
field-mBrsbal-gcnoral.  Ai;oi:sT  Niemann. 


906 


HERZBERG— HESIOD. 


Hcrz'bcrg  (Ewald  Fiiiedricii),  b.  at  Lottin,  in  Pomc- 
rauia,  Sept.  2,  172j;  studied  law  at  the  University  of 
llalle,  and  entered  in  17-17  tho  service  of  the  Prussian 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  llo  wrntc  in  17^6  tho  famous 
Mt'muire  raUottnSf  founded  on  papers  stolen  from  tho  ar- 
chives of  Dresden,  and  intended  to  defend  tho  invasion 
of  Saxony  by  Frederick  II.;  he  also  wrote  a  memoir  in 
defence  of  tho  first  partition  of  Pohind  in  1772  j  and  the 
peace  of  llubcrtsburg  in  170."?,  as  well  as  the  formation  of 
the  su-called  "Fiirstenbund  "  in  1785  against  Austria,  wa? 
his  work.  Frederick  II.  appreciated  him  very  much,  and 
made  him  first  minister  of  state,  but  after  his  death  llorz- 
bcrg's  influence  soon  decreased,  thou<;h  Frederick  William 
11.  made  him  a  count  and  president  of  tho  Academy  of 
Si--ieneo  of  Berlin.  Tho  convention  of  Keichenbaeii  in  1700 
proved  a  failure,  and  Hcrzberg  retired.  In  17'.KI,  when 
the  second  division  of  Poland  and  tho  unfortunate  war 
against  Franco  had  brought  Prussia  into  a  critical  jiosition, 
he  offered  his  services  once  more,  but  tho  offer  was  not  ac- 
cepted, and  the  old  ni:»n  felt  this  disappointment  so  keenly 
that  ho  fell  sick  and  d.  shortly  after,  May  25,  1795. 

Herzcgovi'na,  province  of  Bosnia,  in  European  Tur- 
key, bounded  ^V.  by  Dalmatia  and  S.  by  the  Gulf  of  Cat- 
taro  and  by  Montenegro.  Area,  G420  square  miles.  It  is 
peopled  largely  by  Slavic  races  :  is  occupied  by  tho  ridges 
and  valleys  of  tho  Binaric  Alps;  produces  much  grain,  to- 
bacco, and  honey.  Two-thirds  of  its  people  aro  of  tho 
(ircek  faith,  and  of  tho  remainder  one-third  aro  Roman 
Catholics,  the  rest  Mohammedans.  Tho  name  is  corrupted 
from  llerzog  (**  duko'"),  because  at  the  time  of  the  Moslem 
conquest  it  had  for  sonio  years  been  governccl  by  a  line  of 
independent  dukes.      Cap.  Mostar.     Pop.  2U0,000. 

B[er'zea(ALEXANDKK),  b.  at  Moscow  Mar.  25.1812.  In 
lS3ir  ho  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time,  and  banished  to 
Viatka.  near  Siberia,  on  account  of  tho  radical  ideas  ho 
entertained  without  concealing  them.  Having  been  par- 
doned in  ISui*,  he  was  appointed  clerk  in  one  of  the  gov- 
ernment offices  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  his  ideas  had  not 
changed,  nor  his  desire  for  making  them  known,  and  con- 
sequently in  lSt2  ho  was  ordered  to  reside  in  Novgorod. 
At  the  death  of  his  father  in  1S47  ho  inherited  a  large  for- 
tune, and  he  now  sought  permission  to  go  abroad.  It  was 
granted,  and,  steadily  watched  by  the  llussiau  police,  he 
travelled  for  several  years  in  Italy  and  Franco.  In  1S52 
he  settled  in  London;  in  1865  he  removed  to  tieneva;  ho 
d.  in  Paris  Jan.  21,  1S70.  His  most  important  literary  un- 
dertaking was  no  doubt  tho  Kolokol  ("Tho  Bell"),  a  Rus- 
sian periodical,  issued  through  many  years,  first  in  London 
and  then  in  Geneva,  and  very  extensively  read  in  Russia. 
But  besides  some  novels  and  sketches  of  a  lighter  descrip- 
tion, though  generally  very  interesting — as.  for  instance, 
Who»e  is  the  Fnult  f  Doctor  Krupow  {hoi\\  in  1847),  7?e('j/- 
lecttont  of  mtj  Traveh  (1854),  etc. — ho  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  political  and  polemical  works,  as,  for  instance,  Ruh- 
gia  and  the  lirro/ufion  (;i  vols.,  1800),  liitssia  and  the  Old 
World  (18(JI),  Memoh-rs  de  V Impiratrtce  Catheviney  Merits 
par  elle-meme,  with  an  introduction  (1859),  liiloe  i  Doiinii 
(3  vols.,  1864),  etc.,  which  exercised  great  influence  on  Rus- 
sian civilization.  He  was  the  channel  through  which  the 
ideas  of  Western  Europe  flowed  into  Russia,  but  this  chan- 
nel was  provided  with  a  filter;  gome  im|iracticable  ideas  ^ 
may  have  slipped  through,  but  much  unclean  matter  was  , 
stopped.  Of  the  revolutionists  of  Europe,  Herzea  is  con- 
sidered one  of  tho  noblest  and  one  of  the  most  powerful. 

Her'zog  (  Hans),  b.  at  Aarau  in  I8U0  ;  devoted  himself 
to  technical  studies,  anrl  took  charge  of  the  factory  of  his 
father.  Ho  was  very  fond  of  studying  military  science, 
especially  artillery;  served  as  a  volunteer  in  tho  M'iir- 
tcmberg  artillery;  visited  the  Sardinian  camps,  and  was 
often  present  as  a  spectator  at  the  German  manoeuvres,  i 
After  serving  for  many  years  in  the  militia,  ho  was  ap-  , 
pointed  inspector  of  tho  confederate  artillery.  As  tho  ! 
Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  made  it  necessary  for 
Switzerland  to  take  some  military  measures  in  order  to 
protect  her  frontiers,  Herzog  was  ap])ointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  July,  1870.  With  tho  corps  of  ;{7,000 
men  which  Switzerland  raised  he  formed  a  line  of  observa- 
tion, beginning  in  the  valleys  of  tlie  Jura,  at  iJelsborg  and 
Pruntat,  increasing  in  strength  along  tho  lianks  of  the  Birr, 
Ergolz,  and  Rhine,  continued  over  Sehaffhausen  into  the 
canton  of  Zurich,  and  ending  on  tho  Aar  at  Brugg.  As 
the  war  drew  away  from  the  Rhine  in  August,  the  greater 
part  of  this  army  was  disbanded.  Herz<tg  resigned,  but 
gave  a  report  of  the  army  organization  which  showed  that 
the  fighting  capacity  of  the  Swiss  army  was  a  mere  illu- 
pion.  He  was  persuaded,  however,  to  assume  the  command 
once  more  when  Bouvhaki's  army  approached,  and  noeupied 
the  frontier  with  HO.OOO  men.  In  this  position  ho  mediated 
the  passing  of  tho  French  army,  dofoated  at  Belfort,  across 
the  Swiss  frontier.  ArorsT  Nikma.vs. 


He'siod  ['Ha^oSo?],  next  to  Homer  tho  oldest  of  the  Gre- 
cian poets  whoso  works  aro  known  to  us,  and  founder  of 
the  epic-didactic  school  of  poetry  at  tho  foot  of  Mt.  Helicon 
in  Bceotia,  as  Homer  was  tho  representative  of  the  epic 
Ionian  school  of  Asia  Minor.  The  two  schools  had  little 
in  common  except  the  epic  form  and  dialect,  for  while  Ho- 
mer sang  tho  exploits  of  heroes  and  sought  to  inspire 
admiration  for  adventurous  enterprises,  Hesiod  inculcates 
tho  duty  of  labor  and  frugality,  and  treats  of  tho  daily 
round  of  domestic  life.  Frotn  these  characteristics  Cleom- 
cues  claimed  the  former  as  the  bard  of  tho  Spartan  war- 
riors, while  Hosiod  was  termed  by  him  tho  poet  of  tho 
Helots.  Of  the  period  when  he  flourished  and  tho  circum- 
stances of  his  life  wo  know  little.  What  little  is  known  is 
derived  from  his  own  writings;  for  while  Homer,  in  whom 
there  is  greater  objectivity  than  in  any  other  poet,  has  left 
in  his  productions  no  personal  allusions,  Hesiod  has  intro- 
duced in  many  passages  incidental  accounts  of  his  life  and. 
family  relations.  But  in  neither  poet  is  any  indication 
given  of  tho  jicriod  in  which  ho  lived.  Nor  is  there  any 
external  testimony  worthy  of  coufidoncc.  Herodotus  (ii.  53) 
says  that  Hesiod  and  Homer  lived  400  years  before  his 
time,  and  not  more,  which  wouhl  givo  their  date  about  840 
B.  c.  Most  writers  make  tho  two  contemporary,  while  some 
place  Hesiod  before,  others  100  years  later  than.  Homer. 
(The  various  statements  aro  collected  in  Clinton's /'««/*' 
Ildlenicif  vol.  i.  pp.  359-.'i61.)  Gottling  coincides  in  the 
opinion  of  Herodotus,  while  Grote,  from  tho  internal  evi- 
dence of  style  and  sentiment,  places  him  shortly  after  700 
B.  c.  Hesiod  was  of  ^^olian  parentage,  b.  at  Ascra  in 
Bceotia.  His  father  had  been  a  resident  of  Cyme,  a  toxvn 
of  ^olis  in  Asia  Minor,  but  had  removed  to  Ascra,  where 
he  possessed  and  cultivated  a  farm,  which  he  left  at  his 
death  to  his  t\vo  sons,  Hesiod  and  Perscs.  After  the  divis- 
ion, Perses,  tho  younger  brother,  who  seems  to  have  been 
fond  of  lawsuits  and  the  harassing  business  of  the  agora, 
managed  by  bribing  the  judges  t<>  defraud  his  brother  of  a 
portion  of  his  inheritance.  Hesiod  thereupon  in  disgust 
left  his  native  Ascra  and  removed  to  Orchomenus,  where 
he  spent  tho  rest  of  his  life.  Ho  further  intimates  that  he 
was  cugage<l  iu  farming  pursuitis.  and  the  precepts  which 
arc  embodied  iu  his  Worku  mid  Dai/s  appear  to  be  the  re- 
sult of  a  practical  acquaintance  with  agriculture.  The  way 
iu  which  ho  was  led  to  attempt  poetic  composition  is  related 
in  tho  opening  of  tho  Thcof/uu^,  The  Muses,  who  frequented 
Mt.  Helicon,  on  one  occasion  met  Hosiod  as  ho  was  pastur- 
ing his  flocks  at  tho  foot  of  tho  mouutaiu.  They  thereupon 
bestowed  on  him  the  gift  of  poetry,  and  consecrated  him  to 
their  service  by  presenting  hira  a  laurel  branch.  Tho  only 
other  incident  in  his  life  is  his  visit  to  Chalcis  in  Euboca,  to 
take  part  in  a  j)oetical  contest  at  the  funeral  celebration  iu 
honor  of  King  Araphidamas,  in  which  he  gained  a  tripod 
as  the  prize,  which  he  dedicated  to  tho  Muses.  From  this 
arose  tno  story  of  a  poetical  contest  between  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  which  gave  rise  to  a  production  ('Ayu>»'  'Ofj.j)pov  koX 
'Ho-idfiou),  still  extant,  and  often  printed  with  the  wi-rks  of 
Hesiod.  His  death  was  said  to  have  been  brought  about 
through  the  false  suspicions  of  two  youths  of  Locris.  His 
bones  were  subsequently  removed,  by  command  of  tho  ora- 
cle, to  Orchomenus,  where  a  tomb  was  erected  to  his  mem- 
ory, and  he  was  honored  as  a  hero.  The  works  ascribed  to 
Hesiod  aro  numerous,  but  some  of  these  are  not  his  own 
productions,  but  belong  to  the  school  of  which  he  was  the 
founder:  (1)  'Epyo  Koi  'H^epat  ("Works  and  Hays"),  a 
poem  treating  of  the  duties  of  the  farmer  and  the  best 
method  of  conducting  the  ojieratious  of  agriculture,  also 
inculcating  justice,  maintaining  the  dignity  of  honest  labor, 
laying  down  rules  for  the  regulation  of  life  and  the  rearing 
of  children  (the  •'  Works  '*) ;  followed  by  a  calendar  of  tho 
days  of  tho  month  on  which  it  is  advantageous  or  otherwise 
to  undertake  any  labor  (the  "Hays").  This  jioem  is  the 
only  one  accepted  by  the  Boaotians  about  Mt.  Helicon  as 
genuine,  though  regarded  as  somewhat  interpolated.  (2) 
The  Theoi/ont/  (ecoyoi'ta),  which  treats  of  the  genealogy  of 
the  gods,  being  in  great  measure  a  mere  enumeration  of 
names,  but  containing  some  episodes  of  considerable  beauty. 
From  the  battle  of  the  Titans  and  the  gods  in  this  Milton 
borrowed  in  his  battle  of  the  angels.  Herodotus  recog- 
nizes the  genuineness  of  this  jioem  when  he  says  that 
Hesiod  and  Homer  formed  a  thcogony  for  the  Greeks  and 
gave  names  to  tho  gods.  In  its  present  form  it  has  under- 
gone many  variations  and  been  largely  interpolated.  The 
ancients  regarded  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Theogony 
tho  poem  called  'Hotat,  sometimes  oulleil  'Hoiai  fi.tydk<x.%  or 
KaraXoyoi.  ywaiKuiv,  an  aceuunt  of  the  women  who  had  been 
loved  by  the  gods,  and  who  had  become  mothers  of  tho 
great  heroes  and  demigods  from  whom  tho  princely  houses 
of  (ireeco  were  derived.  Tho  name  is  said  to  be  formed 
from  the  expression  used  in  introducing  each  character,  ^ 
o'ii\.  The  work  is  now  lost,  (^i)  The  Shield  of  Ifercnlea 
{'AffirU  'HpojtKiovt)  is  tho  title  of  a  poem  made  up  apparently 


HKSPELER— IIESYCHirS. 


907 


from  other  works  of  Ilesiod  ;  a  part  of  it  at  least  is  believed 
to  have  belougcd  to  the  'Hoiat,  and  only  a  portion  is  devoted 
to  (be  description  of  the  .shield,  and  this  is  an  imitation  of 
Homcr'a  shield  of  Achilk-.".  The  titles  of  other  poems  as- 
cribed to  He>;iod  arc — AiytMio«.  Mf\aniToSia,  'EfirK^<ri?  cVl 
Ttpaaty,  and  Xctpofi'oc  virod^Kai.  The  best  editions  of  Ilesiod 
are  by  Th.  Gaisford  in  i\>ntfe  Miutirrs  (irnvi,  vol.  i. ;  by 
Gbttlins  (Gotba,  1S43,  2d  ed.)j  by  Van  Lennep  (Amster- 
dam, 18i:i-47,  3  vols.):  by  F.  A.  Paley  (London,  ISfil). 
Chapman  ha^  translated  the  ir<**-i*«  nnri  D'li/it  into  English 
under  the  title  ll><iii>'VH  ftroiyim  and  B>n>h  of  Vat/M,  and 
Elton  has  given  the  entire  poems.  (Sec  Mi'ller's  Nint. 
Greek  Lit.,  vol.  i.  p.  77 :  Murk's  //*«/.  Gntk  Lit. ;  Grote's 
Hi»t,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.;  Creuzeu  u.  Hermann,  Brt'e/e  iiber 
Homer  und  Heniod  (Heidelberg:,  1S17):  (Irir.Nl.\rT,  I)c  la 
T/i/n,/oui>-  d'lhiiode  (Paris,  1835)  ;  Bahr,  in  p€ndyn  Jical- 

Enryklnp.)  H.  DkISLER. 

Iles'peler,  a  v.  of  Waterloo  tp.  and  cc.  Out.,  Canada, 
on  the  (ircat  ^^*estern  Railway,  59  miles  from  Toronto,  has 
manufactures  of  worsted,  woollen,  cotton,  and  other  goods. 
Pop.  of  sub-district,  797. 

lles'pcr,  post-tp.  of  Winneshiek  co.,  Ta.     Pop.  10-11. 

llcspor'idesy  three  or  four,  or  even  seven  in  number, 
were  the  daughters  of  Atlas  an<l  He.'^peris.  To  their  guar- 
dianship were  entrusted  the  golden  a])plo,-<  which  (iea  gave 
Hera  as  a  bridal  present,  and  which  Henicles  stole  and 
brought  to  Eurystheus.  Not  only  their  number,  but  also 
their  descent  and  the  place  of  their  garden,  is  variously 
given  in  the  Grecian  mythology. 

Hesper'omys,a  genus  of  Murida?,  including  the  white- 
footed  or  deer-mouse  of  the  Xorthern  States,  and  some 
thirteen  other  species  of  North  American  mice. 

Hes'se  [Gcr.  ffrttnen;  Lat.  Ilt-MtiHt],  a  mountainous  ter- 
ritttry  in  the  western  part  of  Central  Germany,  situated 
between  the  Ncckar,  Hliine.  Main,  Labn,  and  Fulila.  It 
was  inhabited  by  the  tribe  of  the  t^atti  at  tlie  time  of  Ger- 
manicus,  but  the  Catti  became  lost  as  an  individual  tribe 
among  the  Franks,  and  when  these  emigrated  to  Belgium 
and  France,  the  Hessian  territory  became  nearly  depopu- 
lated. Meanwhile,  the  Saxons  pushed  into  the  country 
from  Thuringia,  and  for  a  period  Ilessia  was  united  with 
the  Thiiringian  principality;  but  at  the  death  of  Henry 
Ka.spo  in  1217  a  succession- war  broke  i»ut  bctwecu  his 
nephew,  Henry  of  Misuia,  and  his  niece.  iSophia,  married 
to  Henry,  duke  of  Urabant,  which  ended  in  V2G'.i  in  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  two  countries.  Sophia  obtained  Hessia.  and 
her  son,  Ludwig  the  Child,  was  acknowledged  as  landgrave, 
took  up  his  residence  at  CasscI,  and  founded  the  Hessian 
dynasty.  One  of  his  descendants,  Philip  the  Magnani- 
mous, divideil  his  land  at  his  death  in  l,'it)7  between  his 
four  sons.  William  IV.,  Ludwig  IV.,  Philip  II..  and  George 
I.  But  Lmhvig  IV.  .lied  in  KlOt  and  Philip  II.  in  lOS.*?, 
without  children,  and  thus  only  two  branches  uf  the  family 
were  continued — that  of  Hesse-Cassel,  descending  from 
William  IV.,  and  that  of  Hcssc-Darmstadt,  descending 
from  (Jleorge  I.  The  elder  branch,  that  of  Hes-iie-CasscI, 
ceased  to  reign  Aug.  17,  I  SCO,  when  its  dominions  were  in- 
corporated with  Prussia;  but  it  rcigncil  long  enough  to 
acquire  quite  a  conspicuous  place  in  history,  for  no  family 
was  ever  meaner,  more  treacherous,  or  more  infamous  ;  and 
as  if  to  intensify  the  character  of  their  history,  most  of 
it?  members  possessed  a  peculiar  art  of  mixing  tlicir  stu- 

fddity  and  their  crimes  with  the  ridiculous.  Frederick  It., 
nndgravc  from  17C0  to  17S5,  hired  to  England  22,000  of 
his  subjects  to  light  against  the  Americans  (1776-81),  and 
was  paid  therefor  21,276,778  thalers.  He  iiad  sixteen  pal- 
aces, some  of  them  large  enough  to  contain  sixteen  land- 
graves, yet  he  left  a  mysterious  treasure,  which  his  son  in 
the  days  of  troublo  deposited  with  the  Frankfort  Jew, 
Roth»<ehild.  This  son,  William  I.,  made  first  a  bargain 
with  Napoleon,  and  rose-  acc<(rdingly  in  dignity  from  land- 
grave to  eleclor  in  KSU:{  ;  but  unable  to  predict  whether 
France  or  Prussia  would  carry  the  day,  and  having  pre- 
pared himself  for  siding  with  Prussia  if  that  shoubl  prove 
the  way  to  pr<»fit,  lie  was  disoovcreil  by  Napoleon  and  ex- 
pelled sb<»rtly  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (Nov.  1,  ISO(!)  ;  his 
dominions  were  iner>r])orated  with  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia. After  Napoleon's  fall  bo  returned  to  his  electorate 
(Nov.  21,  1813),  with  many  golden  ])romises  to  his  subjects 
of  constitution,  representative  government,  etc.,  all  of 
which  he  broke  as  soon  as  be  discovered  that  constitution 
and  representative  government  had  something  to  do  with 
the  linaoces.  His  intrigues,  however,  in  Vienna  to  be  cre- 
ated king  by  the  congress.  like  the  electors  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria,  and  the  indignation  of  the  other  kings  on  account 
of  this  impertinent  demand,  form  a  very  entertaining  epi- 
Bodc.  lie  d.  Feb.  27.  1821.  Under  his  son  and  suceessor, 
William  II..  the  discord  between  monarch  and  subjects  be- 
came dangerous,  and  when  in  ls;;0  a  revolution  actually 
broke  out,  bo  followed  his  father's  example:   ho  promised 


everything  on  one  day,  and  broke  his  promises  the  next. 
Still  worse  was  Frederick  William  I.,  who  succeeded  his 
father  Nov.  20,  1847.  When  the  revolution  of  1S48  came, 
nothing  was  too  dear  to  him:  censorship  of  the  press,  re- 
ligious restrictions,  arbitrary  judicatory  authority,  irre- 
sponsible financial  measures,  etc., — he  gave  up  all.  and 
granted  an  excellent  constitution,  but  in  l.Sy2  foreign  soldiers 
sat  in  courts-martial  and  condemned  Hessian  civil  officers 
because  they  had  declined  to  act  against  the  constitution 
on  which  they  had  made  oatli.  From  18."U  to  ISlJl  the 
pojiulation  of  the  Hessian  electorate  decreased  more  than 
6  ]>er  cent.,  and  it  was  a  great  benefit,  not  only  to  Hesse, 
but  to  Germany  and  to  civilization  in  general,  when  in 
18Gf),  the  elector  happening  to  side  with  Austria,  Count 
Bismarck  had  him  carried  as  prisoner  to  Stettin  and  bis 
domini«)ns  incorporatetl  with  Prussia. 

The  younger  branch,  that  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is  still 
reigning.  One  of  its  members.  Ludwig  I.,  joined  the  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  and  obtained  from  Napoleon  large 
accessions  of  territory  and  the  title  of  grand  duke.  Ho 
followed  Napoleon  faithfully  until  after  the  battle  of  I,(i|)- 
sic.  when  be  was  fortunate  enough  to  join  the  allies  ju^. 
in  time  to  be  accepted.  After  1814  he  promised,  like  all 
the  German  princes,  to  give  a  constitution,  but  he  re- 
deemed his  word  conscientiously,  and  the  country  was  in 
a  prosperous  condition  when  he  d.,  Apr.  G,  18.30.  His 
grandson,  Ludwig  III.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  June 
l(i,  184S,  concluded  a  special  military  convention  with 
Prussia  in  1SG7.  according  to  which  the  army  of  Hesse  be- 
came a  part  of  the  army  of  the  North  German  confedera- 
tion, and  as  such  it  took  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
in  1870.  Clemens  Petersen. 

Hes'se-I>arin'sladt,  German  grand  duchy,  consists 

of  two  large  and  eighteen  small  scjiarate  districts,  situated 

j  partly  between  Prussia,  Bavaria,  ami  Baden,  partly  within 

the    Prussian    frontier.     Area,  29G4    square    miles.     Pop. 

802.894;     namely,    i)S.'-),.'i99    Protestants,    2;J8.080    Roman 

Catholies,  and  2^>,'^7•^  Jews.     The  country  is  mountainous 

or  hilly,  covered  by  Vogelsberg,  Odcnwald,  and   spurs  of 

Taunus  and  AVesterwalil,  but  the  soil  is  very  productive 

and  well  cultivated.     Wheat,  wine,  fruit,  and  tobacco  are 

!   raised;  some   iron,  salt,  and   brown  coal  is  mined;  linen 

'   and  woollen  fabrics,  leather  and  .straw  goods,  arc  mauu- 

I  factured;  the  carriages  from  Oft'enbaeh  are  celebrated.     The 

j  annual  revenue  amounts  to  $4,500,000:  the  expenditures 

to  $4,250,000  ;  the  public  debt  to  $5,J00,000.     Cup.  Darm- 

*  stadt. 

'        Iles'se-Nas'san,  province  of  Prussia,  formed  in  ISGG 
I   of  the  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  the 
I   landgraviate  of  Hcssc-Homburg,  and  the  free  city  of  Frank- 
fort, is  situated  between   Hesse-Darmstadt,  Bavaria,  und 
the  provinces  of  Saxony,  Hanover,  Rhenish  Prussia,  and 
Wcsti)halia.     Area,   G02"l    square   miles.     Pop.    1.400,370. 
The    surface    is    mountainous,  occupied  by  the    Spessart, 
I    Rhiin,  Westerwald.  and  Taunus,  but  the  soil  is  very  fertile 
I    and  well  cultivated.    Agriculture,  cattle-raising,  and  manu- 
I   facturo  of  cloth,  iron,  jewelry,  and  jiottery  are  the  chief 
I    occupations.     Much  and  excellent  wine  is  produced.    Min- 
I   eral  springs  are  numerous,  ancl  the  watering-places  of  Ems, 
I    Wieabadcn,  Schlangenbad,  and  others  are  celebrated. 
I       lles'.sian-Fly  [so  called  because  it  was  believed  to  have 
been  brought  from  Germany  by  the  Hessian  troops  during 
!   the  Revolution],  the  Cvridonnfia  destructm-,  a  dipterous  in- 
I   sect  which  is  very  destructive  to  wheat  in  parts  of  the  U.  S. 
In  spring  and  autumn  the  larvip  crawl  in  between  tlie  stalk 
I   and  the  sheath  of  a  leaf,  and  remain  near  the  ground,  head 
[   downward,  sucking  the  juice.     In   five  or  six  weeks  they 
I   enter  a  semi-pupa  or  '*  flaxseeil  slate,"  from  which  they  go 
into  the  pupa,  and  then  become  ]>crfect  insects.     They  are 
destroyed  in  great  numlurs  by  insect  parasites,  and  burn- 
'   iug  the  stubble  in  the  autumn  will  destroy  a  great  projior- 
I   tion  of  their  larvio. 

I  Ilcs'ychasts  [Gr.  ^trvxairrot',  "quictists"],  n  body  of 
mystics  in  the  Greek  Church,  chiefly  monks  of  Mt.  Alhos, 
who  professed  that  by  retirement  and  conteinphition  they 
I  could  come  to  behold  the  divine  glory  (called  the  *'  Taboritio 
,  light,"  because  it  was  regarded  as  the  same  as  that  which 
shone  at  Christ's  transfiguration  on  iMt.  Tabor).  They  be- 
lieved that  the  best  position  they  could  assume  for  behold- 
ing this  light  was  to  sit  an<I  gaze  unon  the  navel.  They 
flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  the  leaven  of  their 
doctrine  is  not  yet  extinct  in  the  East.  Barlaam  was  their 
great  opponent. 

Upsych'ius  [*H(ri;x*o«]-  ^  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
under  whose  name  a  valuable  Greek  lexicon  has  come  down 
to  us.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  and  bis  date  is  so  un- 
certain that  oritics  vary  in  regard  to  it  from  .'iOO  a.  i>.  to  the 
tenth  century.  Tlie  former  is  more  generally  accepted,  and 
the  forms  and  references  whieh  imply  a  later  date  are  be- 
lieved to  be  interpolations.     The  work  is  bused  on  the  ear- 


908 


HESYCHIUS-HEUSSER. 


lier  lexicon  of  Diof^cnianus,  and  is  valiiat>)o  as  containing 
explanations  of  words  and  forms  and  literary  and  archtuo- 
logical  information  derived  in  part  from  writers  now  lost. 
The  explanations  of  words  from  the  Scriptures  and  from 
Christian  writers  arc  tho  additions  of  later  hands.  The 
best  editions  are  by  Alberfi  and  Ruhnken  (  Leydeu,  I74G-76, 
2  vols.,  fol.).  and  by  M.  Schmidt  (5  vols.  4(o.  Jena.  1SJ8-61); 
the  (ifu»»a'-  Sucra  separately  by  Ernesti  (Leipsic,  1785). 
(Sec  Kanke,  De  Lex.  Ileajfck.  vera  orit/ine,  ete..  Quedlin- 
burf;.  18;!I.)  II.  Dkislf.k. 

Ilesychius^  of  Miletus,  a  philosopher  and  historian, 
surnanu-d  'IWovtrrpto^  (tlie  Latin  i((uKtrit<),  lived  in  the  sixth 
century  a.  r>.  under  the  emperor  Justinian.  He  wrote  a 
synoptical  history  {'laropiKhv  uif  ci*  avvu>ii(.i  Ko<Jti.iKTi^  (OTopta;) 
of  the  world,  in  six  parts,  from  Belus.  king  of  Assyriii.  to 
the  deatli  of  Anastnsius  I.  Of  the  sixth  part  a  portion, 
relating  to  the  origin  of  Constantinople,  still  remains.  Ho 
was  also  the  author  of  a  work  treating  of  persons  distin- 
guished for  their  learning  ( I  If  pi  rutv  ev  naiStiif  St.aXafj.\J/dvToiv 
ao>i)oiv).  arranged  under  the  letters  of  the  alpliabct,  proba- 
bly' extracted  from  the  work  of  Diogenes  Laertius.  Best 
edition  of  both  treatises  by  OrelU  (Leipsic,  1S20). 

H.  DnisLKn. 

Heteroccr'cal  [Gr.  tVfpo?,  "  another,"  and  KipKo^, 
*'  tail  "],  a  nnnic  applied  to  the  tails  of  those  species  of 
fish  whicli  have  the  vertebral  column  extended  into  the 
upper  lobe,  which  is  the  larger  of  the  two.  A  symmetrical 
fish-tail  is  called  homocarcal.  The  terms  were  introduced 
by  Agassiz.  The  cartilaginous  fishes  and  many  extinct 
species  have  hetorocercal  tails,  and  fishes  with  homocercal 
tails  have,  while  imperfectly  developed,  tails  of  heteroeereal 
character.  This  fact  was  formerly  held  to  indicate  a  rela- 
tively low  rank  for  fishes  with  heteroeereal  tails  ;  but  this 
opinion  is  not  generally  accepted. 

Hctcropy'gia  [from  erepo?,  "abnormal."  and  irvyri, 
''  anal  region  "J,  a  group  of  fishes  represented  by  a  single 
family  ( AniblyopsiduM.  belonging  to  tho  order  Tcleocephali 
and  tho  sub-order  llaplomi,  and  especially  distinguished 
by  the  abnormal  position  of  the  vent  under  the  opercular 
region,  and  consequently  far  in  advance  of  the  pectoral 
fins  (and  hence  the  name).  The  fishes  are  subfusiform  in 
outline,  with  minute  scales  on  tho  body,  but  none  on  tho 
head,  with  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  opposite  to  each  other, 
and  with  the  ventral  fins  very  small  and  abdominal  or  en- 
tirely wanting.  The  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed 
wholly  by  the  intermaxillaries.  The  intestinal  canal  has 
two  turns ;  the  stomach  is  well  defined  and  ciecal ;  and  py- 
loric appendages  are  present.  The  species  are  viviparous. 
To  this  family  belong  four  species,  which  have  been  re- 
ferred to  three  distinct  genera:  (1)  AmblyoI'SIS  (which 
s"p).  including  the  celebrated  large  blind  fish  of  the  Mam- 
moth and  sonif  other  caves  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana  {Ani- 
bhlfpHiH  i^pdrciin).  in  which  there  are  no  functional  eyes  and 
ventral  fins  are  present;  (U)  7]v/i/i/iVAr/i_y«,  represented  by 
a  small  species  (  Ti/ph({rh(fit/n  subterrauens),  which  is  also 
found  in  the  Mammoth  Cave,  as  well  as  in  some  other  sub- 
terranean streams  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama, 
which  is  also  destitute  of  eyes,  but  has  no  central  fins;  and 
(M)  i'liiibxjaMtvr,  containing  two  species  (  T.  ronnttim,  A g..  dis- 
covered in  rice-ditches  in  Carolina,  and  C.  A^jassizii,  l*utnam, 
found  in  subterranean  streams  in  Tennessee),  both  having 
eyes  and  being  destitute  of  ventral  fins.  Amb/f/opnis  and 
Ti/plilirhilif/s  have  each  a  single  pyloric  apjiendage  on  each 
side,  and  the  ovary  is  at  each  side  of  the  stomach,  and  the 
head  has  tactile  ridges;  while  ('holm/antcr  has  two  pyloric 
appendages  on  each  side,  and  the  ovary  is  ])laced  behind 
the  stomach,  and  the  head  is  without  ridges.  The  species 
of  AmhlifofiHi's  sometimes  reaches  nearly  five  inches  in 
length;  those  of  TifphUchthifH  and  Choli>f/nstrr,  less  than 
two.  The  afiiiiities  of  these  fishes  have  been  generally  su])- 
posed  to  be  with  the  killy-fishcs  or  minnows  {Cyprinodon- 
tidae),  but  their  relation  to  those  forms  is  not  chtso,  although 
there  is  some  resemblance  in  general  appearance. 

Much  speculation  has  been  spent  upon  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  the  blind  fishes,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
that  they  arc  very  closely  related  to  perfectly  seeing  fishes 
(Choloiffifitcr)  found  in  the  streams  of  the  same  region,  and 
that  at  the  same  time  there  are  other  differences  between 
the  two  forms  than  those  of  sight ;  therefore  we  cannot  at- 
tribute the  parentage  of  the  blind  fi?hcs  directly  to  the 
eyed  ones.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  we  know  by  experiment 
and  the  occurrence  in  entire  groups  of  animals  of  tho  tond- 
eney  towards  atrophy  of  parts  tliat  are  disused,  it  is  toler- 
ablv  curtain  that  the  want  of  sight  could  be  readily  eflfcctcd 
by  confinement  to  dark  caves,  and  we  sliould  doubtless 
search  for  the  original  progenitors  of  the  blinil  fishes  in 
formerly  existing  oycd  ones.  (Sec  Pi;tnam  (J.  W.)  in  Au- 
nitiif  Report  of  the  Pcnhotly  Academy  of  Science  for  1871, 
and  in  American  Naturalist  for  Jan.,  1S72.) 

TlIKODOIlE    CtlLI,. 


Heteroso'mata  [from  crepoc,  "  unequal,"  and  <Twp.o, 
**boily "].  a  sub-order  of  teleocephalous  fishes,  peculiar 
among  the  vertebrates  in  the  asymmetry  of  the  body,  to 
which  the  name  alludes.  The  animal  is  very  much  com- 
pressed, with  dorsal  and  abdominal  edges  trenchant,  and 
generally  it  rests  on  the  sandy  or  muddy  bottoms  of  the 
water  flat  on  one  side,  and  hence  the  inferior  is  white, 
while  the  side  which  is  kept  uppermost  is  dark  ;  the  ventral 
fins  are  jugular  or  thoracic;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  very 
elougated  ;  the  scapular  arch  is  destitute  of  a  mesocoracoid 
bone.  They  are  most  nearly  related  to  the  cod-fishes  and 
allied  tribes.  In  the  early  embryonic  stage  these  fishes  are 
symmetrical,  but  they  very  soon  assume  that  dissimilarity 
of  the  sides  which  is  characteristic  of  the  mature  condition. 
Their  development  has  been  studied  by  Malm,  Steenstrup, 
Thompson,  Traquair,  Sehrodte,  etc.  Steeustrup  ( 1804)  con- 
tended that  the  combination  (tf  the  eyes  on  one  side  was 
effected  by  a  transfer  of  the  upper  one  from  the  blind  side 
through  the  tissues  below  tho  .arch  formed  by  the  frontal 
bono  of  its  own  side  to  the  opposite  one.  But  a  more  con- 
secutive study  of  the  development  and  anatomy  of  the  va- 
rious forms  seems  to  establish  the  fact  that  this  transfer  is 
rather  effected  by  a  rotation  of  tho  eye  and  contiguous 
parts  from  the  one  side  to  the  other.  The  rotation  of  the 
eye  has  been  explained  on  the  principle  of  its  tendency, 
while  the  fish  is  yet  young  and  symmetrical,  but  prone  to 
lie  on  one  side,  to  turn  towards  the  light ;  this  tendency,  con- 
firmed and  established  by  slow  degrees,  finally  culminated 
in  the  habit  now  universal.  The  least  generalized  of  this 
type  is  the  Rrinhnrdtus  hippofjlossoidrH,  a  kind  of  halibut 
found  in  the  Arctic  seas  and  as  far  S.  as  the  Banks  of 
Newfoundland.  The  sub-order  embraces  two  families 
(Plei'RONEOTID^  and  SoLEiDiE)  and  numerous  species. 

Tni:oDOKE  Gill. 

Heth,  tp.  of  Harrison  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1615. 

Iletman.     See  Atamax. 

Hct'zel  (PiERnE  .Iiles),  b.  at  Cbartres  in  1814,  began 
as  the  partner  of  Paulin,  the  celebrated  publisher  of  the 
works  of  the  greatest  modern  French  writers.  In  1848, 
Hetzel  exercised  a  great  influence  in  favor  of  the  republican 
movement,  and  occupied  several  offices  in  the  capacity  of 
an  under-secretary  in  two  ministries,  and  finally  as  general 
secretary  of  the  executive  power.  During  the  empire  Hetzol 
busied  himself  exclusively  with  publishing  the  books  of 
Victor  Hugo,  Georges  Sand.  etc..  and  he  wrote  also,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  "Stahl,"  some  highly  moral  hooks,  like 
The  Familiar  Morale  A  Student's  Travels.  Xcw  antl  Safe  Ad- 
veuturea  of  Tom  Thumb,  The  Esprit  of  Women  and  Women 
of  Exprit,  etc.  Felix  Aicaigne. 

Hcug'Hn,  von  fTHEonOR).  Baron,  b.  at  Hirschlanden, 
Wiirtemberg.  Mar.  26, 1824:  travelled  in  the  East  1850-52  j 
became  Austrian  consul  at  Khartoom.  and  explored  Abys- 
sinia and  the  White  Nile  Valley  18.">2-54;  travelled  along 
the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  185G-58; 
from  1860  to  1865  was  again  engaged  in  African  explor- 
ations; made  a  journey  in  the  region  of  Spitsbergen  and 
Nova  Zembl.a  1870-71.  Author  of  Rrisen  in  Nordoatafrikn 
( 1 857),  Ornithologic  Nordo8tnfri1ca>i  { 1 860 ).  Sifntemat. 
Uebersicht  der  Siiuffethiere  Sordafri kaft  {\SG7),  Heine  narh 
Abeaginien,  etc.  (1868),  Reiee  in  das  Gchiet  dee  wcissen  Sil 
(1869),  etc.     D.  Nov.  5,  1876. 

Heus'ser  (Mrs.  Meta),  tho  best  female  song-writer  in 
the  (icrman  language,  and  a  woman  of  rare  genius  sanc- 
tified by  deep  piety,  b.  Apr.  6,  17U7,  the  fourth  daughter 
of  Pastor  Diet  helm  Schwcizer,  in  the  mountain- village 
of  Hirzel,  canton  Zurich,  Switzerland,  within  S  miles  of 
Mount  Kigi,  where  she  resided  till  her  death  Jan.  2,  1S7G. 
She  married  Dr.  Heusscr,  an  eminent  physician,  and  be- 
came the  mother  of  a  large  family,  bur  her  household  duties 
did  not  prevent  her  from  singing  "like  the  bird  on  the 
tree,"  giving  utterance  to  her  love  of  nature  and  nature's 
God,  and  the  jcys  and  sorrows  of  her  heart.  She  never 
dreamed  that  her  lays  would  ever  be  given  to  the  world, 
but  her  friends  thought  differently,  and  after  many  vain 
efforts  they  obtained  her  consent  to  publish  anonymously 
some  of  them  in  Knapp's  Chrivtoterpr  (1S^4).  They  were 
most  favorably  received,  and  passed  into  many  collections 
and  German  hymn-books  of  Kurope  and  America.  In 
18.S7,  Albert  Knapp  edited  a  volume  of  her  poems  (under 
the  title  Licdtr  einer  Verborfjenen),  which  was  followed  by 
another  volume  (Tjcipsic.  1867)  under  her  real  name,  which 
at  last  became  generally  known.  A  selection  from  both 
volumes  has  recently  been  translated  into  English  by  Miss 
Jane  Borthwick  {translator  of  ffymn»  from  the  Laud  if 
Luther),  under  the  title  Alpinr  LyricH  (  Edinburgh  and  Lon- 
don, 1875).  Koch,  in  his  lliatttry  of  German  Church  /*i>elry 
(3d  ed.),  well  characterizes  her  jioems  in  these  words: 
"From  contemplation  of  the  glorious  .Alpine  world,  and 
tho  atmosphere  of  spiritual  freedom  which  she  daily  and 
hourly  breathes  out  of  tho  Sacred  Scriptures,  have  sprung 


HEUSTIS— HEXACIIOKD. 


909 


the  tender  yet  deeply  reflective  poems  whioh  have  made  i 
Mcta  lleusser  the  most  eminent  and  nolile  among  all  the 
female  poets  of  our  whole  Evausclieal  Chunh.     Her  lavs 
flow  freely  from  the  fresh  fountain  of  a  heart  in  conslaut, 
holy  communion  with  (iod."  Phii.ii- Siiiaff. 

Heus'lis  (.Iabez  Wiggixs).  M.  D.,  b.  in  17S6  in  St. 
John,  .V.  B.  It  is  believed  he  graduated  in  the  College  of 
I'hysieians  and  Surgeons  of  New  York  City  ;  made  a  cruise 
in  a  man-of-war  as  surgeon's  mate,  and  on  his  return  was 
appoinlc.l  surgeon  in  tJcn.  Jackson's  army,  and  served 
tbrouohout  the  Southern  campaigns.  Dr.  lleustis  was  a 
ready  writer,  and  from  181C  to  the  time  of  his  decease, 
which  occurred  from  blood-poison  contracted  by  a  puncture 
made  while  operating,  ho  wrote  on  the  topography  and  dis- 
eases of  Louisiana,  etc.,  and  contributed  largely  to  the 
Amrricun  Juiiriiiil  of  Mediral  Scienrit.  In  ISlii  ho  re- 
moved from  Cahawha  (where  in  18L'.i  ho  was  selected  to 
welcoino  La  Fayette)  to  Mobile,  but  was  at  the  Talladega 
Springs  when  he  d.,  1.S41.  Few  in  the  South  were  more 
active  in  the  profession  than  he,  or  more  deserving. 

■^  Paul  F.  Eve. 

Hcvcs,  town  of  Hungary,  carries  on  a  considerable 
trailu  in  wine,  wheat,  tobacco,  flax,  and  hemp,  raised  in  its 
vicinity.     Pop.  5700. 

Ilcwes  (.losEPn),  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, b.  of  Quaker  stock  at  Kingston,  X.  J.,  in  ITIiO  ; 
was  educated  at  Princeton,  and  went  into  business,  first  in 
Philadelphia,  and  then  at  Edenton,  N.  V.  ;  wasa  member 
of  tbetieneral  Congress  from  North  Carolina  1774-7",  and 
again  in  1779.  In  Congress  ho  took  a  prominent  jiart  in 
the  pcrformauco  of  public  business.  U.  at  Philadelphia 
Nov.  10,  177'J. 

IIcw'it(AtGnsTixnFnASCis),  ft  Roman  Catholic  (Paul- 
ist)  priest,  a  son  of  N.  Ilcwit,  b.  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  in 
1820;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1S:!'J;  studied  theology  at 
East  Windsor,  Conn.,  and  became  a:i  Episcopalian  minis- 
ter. In  1840,  while  residing  in  North  Carolina,  he  be- 
came a  Roman  Catholic;  was  ordained  in  1847;  joined 
the  Paulists  in  1848,  and  afterwards  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy,  tlicology,  and  Holy  Scripture  in  the 
Paulist  seminary,  New  York.  Author  of /Vo///cra»  o/ (/le 
jtjr,  Light  and  Darkness,  and  of  several  translations,  and 
of  many  articles  in  periodicals. 

Hewit  (HKXnv  Sti-aiit),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Fairfield,  Conn., 
Dec.  2i,  1825;  studied  at  Yale  College;  was  a  ]>upil  of 
Drs.  Van  Duren  and  Mott ;  graduated  1847  at  New  York 
University  ;  wasan  nssisiant  surgeon  (1847-52)  in  the  U.  S. 
army,  serving  in  .Mexico  and  on  the  Pacific  coast;  prac- 
tised three  years  in  California;  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
1855;  returned  to  New  York  ;  served  18G1-C5  as  a  surgeon 
of  volunteers  on  the  8lafl"s  of  Gens.  Grant,  Scolield.  etc.: 
was  eminent  for  charitable  labors.  Son  of  Rev.  Nathaniel 
Ex.  L       IstTctrachord.  2d.  3d. 

a 


D.  in  New  York 


Hewit  and  grandson  of  James  Hillhouse. 
Aug.  Ill,  187;!. 

Hewit  (NATnASiEL).  D.  D.,  b.  at  New  London,  Conn., 
Aug.  28,  1788:  graduated  at  Yale  in  1808;  taught  for 
some  years,  and  in  1811  was  licensed  to  preach;  studieil 
theology  at  .\udover ;  held  Presbyterian  and  Congre- 
gational pastorates  at  Plattsburg.  N.  Y'.,  1815-17,  and  at 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  1818-27;  engaged  in  the  temperance  re- 
form lS27-.'!0  ;  held  pastorates  at  liridgport.  Conn.,  18:iO- 
62,  receiving  an  assistant  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  East  \Vind."or  (now  Ilartfonl)  Theol- 
ogical .Seminary,  and  an  able  and  eloquent  defender  of  the 
Old  School  theology.     D.  Feb.  3,  18G7. 

Hew'itt  (Abram  Steve.vs),  A.  M.,  b.  at  Haverstraw, 
N.  Y.,  July  ai,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  1842  ; 
studied  law,  but  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  ;  was 
commissioner  to  the  French  Exposition  of  1807;  was  elected 
in  1874  to  the  44th  Congress  (1875-77)  from  the  Tenth  dis- 
trict of  Now  Y'ork  ;  has  been  secretary  of  the  Cooper  Union 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  and  Art.  New  York  Cily, 
from  its  organization  to  the  present  time  (1875);  and  is 
widely  known  as  an  expert  in  questions  relating  to  the  iron 
manufacture.  Author  of  the  official  Report  on  the  Iron  and 
Sttcl  iif  the  I'nivcreal  Expusitl'JU  of  1867. 

Ilew'ston  (Geouge),  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  b.  at  Philadelphia 
Sept.  11,  1820;  graduated  A.  M.at  the  Central  High  School, 
Philadelphia.  1815;  M.  D.  at  the  Philadelphia  College  of 
Medicine  1850;  received  the  same  degree  in  ISliO  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania;  was  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  first-named  medical  college,  and  afterwards  became 
professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  in  the  University  of 
California,  a  position  which  he  still  holds  (1875);  was 
supervisor  of  San  Francisco  1873-75  ;  president  of  the  Odd 
Fellows'  Library  of  San  Francisco,  etc.,  and  member  of 
various  scientific  societies. 

Hex'achord,  in  music,  a  series  of  six  notes  in  direct 
succession,  forming  a  portion  of  a  scale.  The  extension 
of  the  musical  scale  and  its  division  into  hexachords  are 
attributed  to  tiuido,  a  monk  of  the  eleventh  century.  Under 
the  system  of  tho  ancient  Greeks,  which  continued  for  ages 
to  influence  all  music,  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  the 
scale  was  divided  into  telmchurdg,  or  portions  of  four  notes 
each.  As  the  (ircek  scale  comprised  only  about  fifteen 
notes,  or  two  octaves,  these  tctraehords  could  not  appar- 
ently exceed  four  and  a  fraction  in  number;  but  the 
Greeks,  by  an  ingenious  use  of  some  extraneous  elements, 
obtained  no  less  than  five.  According  to  our  modern 
reckoning — taking  B  in  the  bass,  as  the  Greeks  did.  and 
following  their  mode  of  division — the  four  tctraehords 
would  uot  fill  the  double  octave,  and  a  fifth  tetrachord 
added  would  reach  beyond  it,  as  at  a,  b  in  Ex.  1 : 


But  under  the  Greek  system  the  five  tctraehords  were  ob- 
tained—1st,  by  adding  an  initial  note  A,  which  note  was 
called  the  Protlambunomeiioii;  2d,  by  using  lJ|j  in  the  third 
Ex.  2.        IstTct.  2d.  3d^_ 


tetrachord,  and   then   commencing  the   fourth  tetrachord 
by  a  descent  to  liO,  thus : 


4th. 


5th. 


It  is  evident  that  tho  fourth  and  fifth  of  the.se  tctraehords 
are  merely  repetitions  in  tho  octave  of  the  first  and  second, 
but,  as  Dr.  Burney  rcinarUs,  "the  several  sounds  of  which 
they  are  composed  have  in  the  Greek  music  different  d( - 
nominations."  anil  also  were  no  doubt  <lifl'erent  in  their 
treatment  and  effect.  Guido's  system,  imjierrect  and  un- 
satisfactory as  it  is,  was  nevertheless  an  advance  towards 
tho  modern  and  only  rational  system  of  the  division  of  the 
gcale — viz.  into  successive  *>"('ii*r«.      It  is  coinTiiunly   sup 


f 


loscd  also  that  Guido  invented  Ihe  mode  of  writing  his 


liexachorda  and  other  music  on  lines  and  spaces.     This 

however,  is  an  opinion  for  which  the  evidence  is  weak 

Ex.  3.       iBt.    Natural.  2d.    Mollf. 


For  manv  ages  after  him  tho  stave  consisted  of  only  four 
lines,  with  their  spaces,  and  in  Ihe  Chureh  of  Home  and 
elsewhere  the  same  system  of  notation  is  extensively  used 
for  Gregorian  music  at  the  present  day.  The  hexachords 
of  Guido  were  three  in  number,  and  were  based  on  C,  F, 
and  G,  tho  first  being  called  the  nalnral:  the  second,  the 
molle,  or  soft ;  and  the  third,  the  durum,  or  hard.  T<i  each 
of  these  were  assigned  Ihe  syllables  «(,  re.  mi.  fa,  »../,  la  ; 
and  in  the  F  hexachord  liy/'i(  was  substituted  for  B  natural. 
These  hexachords  may  be' thus  expressed,  and  their  range 
extends  to  an  octavo  and  a  Ibinl  -viz.  C C — E,  etc. 

3d.    Durum. 


T~r-r 


It  is  known,  however,  that  in  Guide's  time  more  notes  than 
these  were  in  use,  he  himself  having  invented  the  gamut, 
which  began  on  tho  lower  line  of  our  modern  bass  stave. 
Taking,  therefore,  gamut  G  as  tho  first  of  an  ascending 
Ex.4.        1st.  'id.  3d.  4it 


series  of  notes,  and  E  of  tho  last  example  as  its  Icrmina- 
tiiin,  we  have  a  succession  of  twenty-two  notes  (including 
B  flat),  which  admits  of  easy  arrangement  in  the  form  of 
seven  hexachords,  thus  : 

6th.  Clh.  7th. 


^^^PP^ 


910 


HEXAMETER— HIBERNATION. 


The  system  of  hexachords  is  of  no  practical  use  in  mod- 
ern nuisie,  being  superseded  by  the  simple  and  natural 
division  of  the  scale  on  the  normal  type  of  the  series  of 
notes  furuiing  the  octave.  William  Stauxtox. 

Hcxam'eter  fGr. cfa^irrpo?,  "of  six  metres,"  «'f,  "six," 
^e>po^,  "  measure  "j,  in  Greek  and  Latin  prosody,  is  the 
name  of  the  heroic  verse  of  Homer,  A'irg:il,  Ovid,  and  others. 
Ancient  rhythm  is  based  chiefly  on  the  distribution  of  long 
and  short  syllables,  while  the  less  delicate  ear  of  the  mod- 
erns is  satisfied  with  the  alternate  presence  or  absence  of 
accent.  Taking  a  succession  of  Virgil's  lines  (bk.  1,  I. 
8-10)— 

MuVa  ml'  I  111  cays'  |  in  mSm'ft  I  r3,  qvo  ]  nu'mTnS  |  lie'so,  | 
qvTd'vC-  il6'  |  I5ns,  r5g  ]  T'liS  dc'  ]  u™,  tot  J  vOrvgrC  |  cfi'sus  j 
InsTg'  I  (le*  i>U  \  tS'tS  vir  |  u",  tftt  5d  |  ra^  ISb  j  G'r.'S, 

and  representing  them  in  English,  syllable  for  syllable  and 
accent  for  accent, 

M  i\sa  relate  [  those  trea  I  suns  c6nsura  ||  matSd,  |  ckiiscs  of  |  torture,  | 
whoiicc  the  6b  j  diiratc  1  queen  of  hon  |!  or'd  (.'ods  |]  drivioK  u  hi-ro  I 
Biipd  I  ryor  in  his  |  virtue,  un  [j  d€r  such  iiii  |  pdsiiig  mis  ||  I'drtune,  { 

we  find  that  the  feet  are  composed  of  dactyls  (~  "  ")  and 
spondees  (~  ~),  with  the  accents  entirely  absent  or  present 
at  any  point — in    some    cases  (as   mii'sa   m!''-)  two   being 
present  in  a  single  dactyl.     Looking  farther,  wo  find  that 
any  foot  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  may  bo  dactylic  or 
spondaic  at  pleasure;  the  fifth  in  nearly  every  ease    is  a 
dactyl,  and  the  sixth  a  spondee.     This  recurrence  of  final 
daciflus-spondee  would  not  be  sufficient  to  enable  the  lis- 
tener to  seize  the  metre ;  he  is  therefore  aided  by  an  initial 
accent  on  each  of  these  feet  (see  Adonic  Verse)  ;  and,  as  if 
this  were  not  enough,  Virgil  in  many  cases  separates  them 
from  the  four  feet  with  mixed  accents,  by  making  the  fifth 
foot  accentless,  or   what  we  may  terra  nmiraf,  because  it 
has  nrithrr  the  irregular  accent  of  the  earlier  feet  nor  the 
regular  accent  of  t  he  close.    The  following  is  a  longer  speci- 
men (bk.  1,  I.  23-33): 
Remembering  thi^i,  Saturnia,  thinking  o'er  various  conflicts 
waged  at  Troy's  stronghold  for  Argos,  dear  to  remembrance : 
nor  no-w  Itad  grievous  causes  resentful  escaped  from 
Ikt  angry  soul.     Paris,  whose  verdict  rankles  sorely  ber  bosom, 
a  8tij;nia  on  slighted  form,  and  also  storn  Ganyme-de, 
a  nation  despising  cordially  for  evils  uneqiiall'd, 
Blie  (these  urging)  scatters  far  far  from  Latyttm  the  Trojans 
over  wide  6cean — those  relics  16ft  by  ruthless  Achilles 
and  Grecian  heroes.     Many  years  they  wander'd  in  sailing 
around  tliro'  nuurroue  waters,  F5te  aUurini;  them  onward. 
F<jundiiig  such  a  nation,  required  these  arduous  labors. 

To  an  ear  trained  to  the  strong  accent  of  German  and  Eng- 
lish verse  the  rhythm  of  such  lines  is  not  readily  appreci- 
ated, and  accordingly  efforts  have  been  made  to  prove  that 
the  .Encid  must  be  commenced  with  "  Arma  virumqvc 
canu',"  instead  of  cau'o ;  for,  according  to  Prisoian.  no 
Latin  words  have  a  final  accent.  Richard  Koe{Prinriplpii 
of  Jiht/thm,  1823)  goes  so  far  as  to  say  of  the  ancients  that 
"  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  their  perceptions  of  quan- 
tity were  confused  and  imperfect  " — where  the  imperfection 
is  his  own. 

The  misnamed  hexameters  of  Southey,  Coleridge,  and 
other  moderns  are  mere  h?xametroids,  or  accentual  hexa]i- 
odies  in  mixed  rhythm,  and  without  dactyls  and  spondees, 
as  shown  in  two  of  Prof.  Longfellow's  linos,  in  which 
"ruddy"  is  supposed  to  be  a  spondee,  and  "then  through 
those"  an  equivalent  dactyl: 

FIllTug  ft  I  nn  of  ]  16ve  and  the  I  riSdd.V  I  faces  of )  children.  .  .  . 

Thentlirouyh  Ihost.-  realms  (if  shade,  in  muUiplied  reverberatious, 

the  second  line  of  which  has  quantitive  matter  enough  for 
seven  feet,  and  other  lines  would  pass  for  distichs  of  Iliu- 

toalh't,  as — 

I>onii  I  burg  is  |  not  for  \  gotten.  1 
nor  Ileaii  I  S^jour,  |  nor  Port  |  lloyal.  | 

These  spurious  hexameters  belong  to  what  Guest  {Englhh 
Rhijthmn,  i.  p.  177)  mentions  as  "these  slovenly  verses  the 
*  tumbling*  metre.  ...  the  impudent  license  of  the  tumbling 
metre."  Such  forms  tend  to  the  perversion  of  Latin  scan- 
sion, and  to  the  destru'-tion  of  just  ideas  of  tho  nature  of 
feet.  They  have  neither  tho  rhythm  of  Latin  nor  of  Eng- 
lish verse,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  constitute  an  offensive 
system  which  is  tolerated  only  because  it  is  supposed  to  be 
classic.  S.  S,  Haldkmax, 

Hcx'apla  [Gr.  "the  sixfold"],  a  celebrated  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  original  He-  \ 
brew,  the  llebrew  in  Greek  letters,  the  (ireek  versions  of  i 
Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Thcodotion.  Besides  these,  there  I 
were  columns  containing  parts  of  three  other  Greek  vcr-  \ 
sions,  whose  authors  are  not  known.  Origen  was  the  author  , 
of  this  great  work,  which  he  originally  prepared  as  ate-  i 
trapla,  giving  four  columns  only.  The  liexapla  had  also  | 
marginal  notes,  and  marks  indicating  variations,  retrench-  i 
ments,  and  additions  in  the  texts.  The  Uexapla  is  not  , 
extant  except  in  fragments,  of  which  the  most  complete  I 
edition  is  that  of  the  Benedictine  Montfaucon  (2  vols,  folio,  | 
Paris,  1714),  I 


Ucyst-op-den-berg,  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Antwerp,  has  some  cloth-factories  and  corn-mills. 
Pop.  6670. 

Uey^uard  (Thomas,  Jr.)  was  b.  in  St.  Luke's  parish, 
S.  C,  in  174(j,  and  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  planter,  Col. 
Daniel  Ileyward.  The  son  studied  law  in  Loudon,  and  was 
early  and  prominently  connected  with  the  Uevtdutionarv 
movement  in  North  Carolina.  He  was  (I77.")-7S)  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  was 
afterwards  a  judge  in  his  native  State,  holding  also  a  mili- 
tary command.  He  was  (1780-81)  a  prisoner  in  the  bauds 
of  the  British.     D.  in  Mar.,  1809. 

Hey'wood,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lan- 
caster, on  the  Roach,  has  large  iron-foundries  and  extensive 
mauufactures  of  cotton  fabrics.  Pop.,  with  surroundings, 
l»,-i54. 

Heywood  (Charles),  U.  S.  M.  C,  entered  the  marine 
corps  as  second  lieutenant  Apr.  T),  1858;  became  first  lieu- 
tenant early  in  1861,  and  captain  in  November  of  that 
year;  served  on  board  the  Cumberland  in  her  encounter 
with  the  Merrimack,  Mar.  8,  18G2,  and  in  the  flagship 
Hartford  at  the  great  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  Aug.  5,  1864  ; 
and  is  very  highly  spoken  of  in  the  despatches  of  bis  com- 
manding officers.  Received  the  brevets  of  major  and  lieu- 
tenant-colonel for  ''gallant  and  meritorious  conduct." 

FoxHALL  A.  Parker. 

Hey'worth,  post-v.  of  Randolph  tp.,  McLean  co.,  111., 
on  the  Illinois  Central  K.  R.,  12  miles  S.  of  Bloomington. 
Pop.  300. 

Hczeki'ah  ("The  Lord  hath  strengthened"),  thir- 
teenth monarch  of  Judah.  son  and  successor  of  Ahaz.  He 
reigned  twenty-nine  years  (726-697  b.  c).  He  was  a  ile- 
vout  man,  a  severe  enemy  of  idolatry,  and  the  restorer  of  the 
ancient  worship.  He  warred  successfully  against  the  Phil- 
istines, and  refused  to  pay  the  established  tribute  to  Tig- 
lath- Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  in  consequence  of  which 
Jerusalem  was  besieged,  and  Hczekiah  was  forced  to  pur- 
chase peace  by  a  heavy  mulct  in  silver  and  gold  and  by  the 
loss  of  parts  of  his  dominions.  It  is  probable  that  Senna- 
cherib, the  Assyrian  general,  next  marched  into  Egypt  to 
punish  the  Ethiopians  and  Egyptians.  Hezekiah's  allies, 
that  he  was  repelled  by  Tirhakah,  and  that  the  miraculous 
destruction  of  185.000  Assyrians  took  place  in  a  second 
invasion,  after  the  failure  of  the  Egyptian  campaign. 
Hczekiah  was  soon  after  visited  with  a  severe  sickness, 
from  which  he  was  miraculously  healed.  The  remaining 
years  of  his  reign  were  peaceful  and  prosperous.  D,  697  B.C. 

UiacoomeS)  an  Indian  minister  of  Martha's  Vineyard, 
1).  about  1610:  converted  under  the  preaching  of  Thomas 
Mayhcw;  learned  to  read,  and  began  himself  to  preach  in 
1653  to  his  people,  among  whom  he  labored  with  much 
success  and  with  great  faithfulness.  In  1670  he  was  or- 
dained by  Eliot  and  Cotton  as  pastor  of  the  Indian  church 
of  Martha's  Vineyard,  organized  in  that  year.  He  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  first  Indian  convert  in  New  Eng- 
land.    D.  about  1690. 

Hiawas'sce^  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Towns  co.,  Ga., 
85  miles  N.  of  Athens. 

Hiawa'tha,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Brown  co.,  Kan.,  42  miles 
"W.  of  St.  Joseph,  on  the  St.  Joseph  and  Denver  City  R.  R. 
It  has  4  churches,  1  bank,  1  newspaper,  a  steam  flouring- 
mill,  2  grain  elevators.  2  hotels,  several  schools,  and  tho 
usual  number  of  stores.  It  is  situated  in  a  fine  agricultural 
rcgtOD,  with  excellent  water-power.     Pop.  about  800. 

A.  N.  RuLEV,  Ed.  "  Dispatch." 

Ilib'bard  (Billy),  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Feb.  24, 
1771  :  jniued  the  New  York  Methodist  conference  1798,  and 
laburtd  with  great  success  in  New  York  and  New  England. 
D.  Aug.  17,  1844.     His  memoirs  have  been  published. 

Hibbard  (Freebors  Garretson),  D.  D.,  b.  at  New 
Rochelle.  N.  Y..  Feb.  18,  1811;  entered  tho  Methodist 
Episcopal  ministry;  labored  1830-60  chiefly  in  the  State 
of  New  York;  was  editor  of  the  Northern  Chrietinn  Advo- 
cate, Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1860-64;  resumed  active  labor,  and 
became  presiding  elder  of  the  Geneva  district.  Author  of 
Jinptinm  (1S41),  Geaqraphy  and  Hiftory  of  Palestine  (1845), 
a  work  on  The  Pva'tms  (1852),  The  Reliyion  nf  Childhood 
(1864):  edited  the  SermonJi  (1869)  and  the  Works  (2  vols., 
1S72)  of  Bishop  Hamline. 

Iliberna'tion  [from  tho  Lat.  hibcmug,  "pertaining  to 
winter"],  a  condition  into  which  certain  mammals  (bats, 
rodents,  Insectivores,  bears,  etc.)  and  many  inferior  ani- 
mals, both  vertebrate  and  invertebrate,  pass  in  cold 
weather,  the  temperature  of  the  blood  being  lowered  nearly 
to  that  of  the  air,  and  many  of  the  vital  functions  entering 
a  state  of  abeyance.  The  power  of  the  will  over  the  mus- 
cles is  quite  suspended,  and  respiration  is  nearly  abolished, 
while  the  muscular  irritability  in  the  case  of  the  higher 


HIBERNIA-HICKORY  TAVERN. 


911 


hibcTDiiting  ftoimols  is  rcmarkaljly  increased.  Meanwhile  ; 
a  vt-rv  grt-at  loss  of  weight  occurs  from  the  sluw  .Ustruction  | 
of  the  slorc  of  fat  which  the  animal  lias  laid  up  in  Ihc  au- 
tuinu  It  is  evident  that  animals  feeding  on  insecis  and 
succulent  vcgetal.lcs  couM  never  survive  a  northern  winter 
but  f.r  the  state  of  hihernali.m  which  Misp.n.ls  the  need 
of  foo<l.  .Accordingly,  while  northern  bats  ami  some  bears 
hibernate,  those  of  tropical  regions  do  not  do  so. 

Somewhat  analogous  to  hibernation  is  the  long  slumber 
which  many  reptiles,  mollusks,  and  other  inferior  organ- 
isms undergo  in  the  dry  season  in  very  ho.  countries.  1  He 
animal  becomes  more  or  less  completely  desiccated,  and 
from  the  loss  of  moisture  the  functions  of  life  are  sus- 
iiended  This  suspension  also  serves  to  preserve  animal 
life  in  very  untoward  conditions.  Cuvier  slates  that  the 
leurecs  ( liscctivorcs )  of  .Madagascar  remain  torpid  through 
the  hot  season,  but  this  slateinent  has  been  denied. 

llibcr'niu,  Ib.-r'nia,  Iver'iiia,  and  ler'iie  are  the 
names  under  which  Ireland  is  mentioned  by  the  ancient 
writers— by  Aristotle,  Diodorus  Sioulus,  btrabo,  1  ompo- 
nius  Mela,' Pliny,  and  Ptolemy. 

Ilibrrnia.  post-v.  of  Jlorris  co.,  N.  J. 
Ilibis'ciis  [(ir.  ;3c<r«o!].  a  large  genus  of  malvaccous 
trees,  shrubs,  aud  herbs,  often  with  largo  and  showy  flowers. 
The  herbaceous  species  are  numerous  in  the  L.  .s.,  and  arc 
known  as  rose-mallows.     .Among  the  eultivate.l  species  are 
the  OiMUo  (which  see),  the  //.  c«»M«im«.,  or  Deccanec 
hemp  of  India,  a  useful  fibre-plant,  and  //.  Surnicu.,  the 
ornamental,  slirubbv  altha-a  of  gardeners.     Other  species, 
mostly  tropical,  arc  cnllivated  for  their  fruit  or  seeds  or 
the  beauty  of  their  (lowers.     One  of  the  most  interesting 
species  is'//,/..V...  tili..cr„«.  a  very  large  but  not  tall  tree, 
Browing  in   Florida,  the  East  and  West  Indies.  an<l  the 
South  Sea  lalan.ls.    Its  wood  is  light,  tough,  and  very  use- 
ful ;  its  bark  yields  material  for  malting  and  cordage,  and 
thc'sarac  bark  is  used  as  food  in  the  Pacific  Islands. 
Hib'Icr,  ip.  of  Edgefield  co.,  .S.  C.     Pop.  1C07. 
Uic'coiIKh,   or   Ilic'cup    [Lat.    ,;,iyull,i-].   a   clonic 
spasm  of  Ihc  diaphragm  and  of  the  glottis   accompanied 
bv  a  sharp  sound,  produced  by  the  rush  of  air  into  the 
larynx  from  without.     It  may  attend  an   over-distension 
of 'the  stomach  with  food,  and  sometimes  accompanies  in- 
toxication.     In   young  children  it  often   is  the  lorcrunncr 
of  intestinal  .list'urbanccs.     When  persistent,  it  is,  in  some 
diseases,  such  as  low  fevers,  peritonitis,  and  gangrene,  a 
rather  grave  symptom.     Lumps  of  ice  frequently  swallowed 
or  small  doses  .d  anlispasmodic  medicines  will  usually  re- 
lieve obstinate  hiccough. 

Hick'man,  counlv  of  Kentucky,  hounded  on  the  W. 
by  the  Mississippi  KiVcr.  Area,  21U  sciuare  miles.  It  is 
level  and  fertile,  produciiu;  tobacco  and  corn  as  the  ehiel 
staples.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  R.  K.  Lap. 
Clinton.      Pop.  H4o:i. 

Hickman,  county  of  W.  Central  Tennessee.  Area,  3j0 
•nuare  miles.  It  is  a  hilly  and  fertile  region,  having  good 
w'ater-power  and  .leposi.s "of  iron  ore.  Catlle  corn  t..bacco, 
and  wool  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Ceutrcville.  1  op.  a^JO. 
Iliokinan,  Ip.  of  Seott  co.,  Ark.  Pop.  1310. 
Hickman,  city,  cap.  of  Fulton  co.,  Ky.,  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  at  tiic  terminus  of  the  Nashville  Chattanooga 
and  SI.  I.ouis  U.  K.  It  has  2  academies,  (1  churches,  a  city 
library,  a  steam  rurnituro  and  wagon  fai-tory,  and  scvera 
steam' llouring-mills.  The  Masons,  Odd  lellows,  and  Good 
Templars  have  nourishing  lodges  here.  It  has  1  weekly 
newspaper.  Pop.  1120,  composed  largely  of  Germans. 
'    '  Gi;o.  Wauiies,  El).  "CoiuiKU. 

II  ick'mnn's,po8t-lp.  of  Tuscaloosa  CO.,  Ala.  Pop.  S02. 
II  icU'ok  1 1,  u  UKNS  Pkkskis),  D.  I>.,  M..I).,  b.  at  Bethel, 
Conn     Dec. '.".1,  17UH;  grailualed  at  I'nion  College  1K20;  or- 
dained and  scllled  as  pastor  ..f  the  Congregational  church 
at  Kent    Conn..  1M2I;  removed,  and  again  installeil  pastor 
at  Litcli'fiild,  Conn.,  1S2'.);  became  professor  of  theology  in 
Western   Keservc  College  l.s:;n,  and  in  the  Auburn  Iheo- 
logical  Seminary    IHM;    was  again   transferred   t..       nion 
College    as    vice-president   and    jirofessor   of   menial    and 
moral  philosophy  1S62,  where  for  eight  years  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  l>r.  Nott  in  the  government  and  discipline  ol 
the  college,  and  where  for  the  eight  years  succeeding  lie 
had  sole  charge  thereof,  being  ollicially  inilucleil  into  (lie 
presidency  only  at  Dr.  NotCs  death,  l^tCl'..     A(  (he  age  of 
s,-ven(  V,  in  fulfilment  of  a  purpose  long  cherisherl,  he  retired 
from  ail  public  and  official  s(a(i.>n,  and  removed  (o  Amherst, 
Mass..  whire  he  has  since  resided,  dcvodng  his  time  (o 
philosophical  studios.    Ilcsides  occasional  sertnons  and  ad- 
Ilrcsscs.  ho  has  been  a  frctiiicnl  contributor  to  such  i.eriod- 
ical  publications  as  the   Chri.ium   Siir-jalar,    IhhUinhrca 
Sarr'i,  /lihllr.il  I!-p„i,!ti,ni.  /'r^ihi/leriim  Quurlcrl;/.  e(c.  on 
various  theological  aud  philosophical  themes.     His  more 


extended  published  works  are— ft'Kionn?  Pti/rhnto;,;/  (1848), 
S,,'ltm  o/-  Murni  Scifuce  (lS6:i).  Empinci.t  I'Yl-'Hy 
{\a:,\).  lWal;r  nil./  Crralion  (1872),  Humauily  Immortal 
(1^721,  and  Lnriii-  „/  Ilcamn  (1875). 

l)r    llickok  has  from  the  first  held  firmly  the  necessary 
distinctions  in  the  intellectual  functions  of  the  sense,  the 
understanding,  and  the  reason,  and  the  peculiarity  ot  his 
philosophy  is  seen  in  his  clear  idea  and  diseriminadve  use 
of  the  reason.     The  sense  perceives  single  phenomena:  the 
understanding  puts  these  together  in  judgments  according 
to  the  relations  given  in  experience,  while  the  reason  at- 
tains an  insight  of  these  faculties  of  perception  and  judg- 
ment, which  beholds  in  the  phenomenal  relations  of  expe- 
rience the  necessary  prerequisites,  without  which  such  an 
ordered  experience  "could  not  have  occurred.     This  know- 
ledge of  the  necessary  conditions  for  experience  reaches  (o 
the  distinguishable  forces  underlying  all  physics,  and  (he 
life-power— a  combination  of  force  ami  feeling- underlying 
(he  organic  world:  and  nalure  thus  becomes  known  in  Ks 
inirinsio  connecdons,  and  not  alone  in  its  apparent  collo- 
cations and  sequences.     The  reason  also  has  an  insight  ot 
its  own  being  and  activity,  involving  a  conscious  scKhood 
and  personal  agency,  and  putting  the  human  in  a  sphere 
of  freedom  and  responsibility  to  which  the  mere  animal 
never  attains.     In  this  same  insight  also   is  allained  the 
ultimate  standard  of  the  beautiful,  the  (rue,  and  the  good 
and    the   whole   rational   region    of  art,  philosophy,  and 
morals  lies  open  to  man.  but  into  which  (he  brute  con- 
sciousness never  comes.     The  finite  reason  also  knows  tho 
Absolute  Reason  as  its  own  necessary  s.nircc  and  original, 
and  (herein  finds  open  the  transcendent  (hemes  of  doc(nnal 
theology  and  practical  pie(y.     In  Dr.  Hiekok  s  separate 
works  t"hesc  first  principles  are  applied  particularly  to  psy- 
chology, physics,  asthctics,  ethics,  and  divinity— (be  same 
philosophy  fuling  unchanged  in  them  all— but  are  madirely 
knd  completely  developed  only  with  the  teachings  of  his 
latest  publication.  •'•  »•  S'-'"'^'^- 

Hick'ory,  (ho  common  name  of  trees  of  the  genus 
Cania  (order  Juglaudaceic).  erroneously  called  walnut  trees 
in  New  England.  The  hickory  (rees  arc  North  Ameri- 
can Besides  the  PiccAS  TiiEi;  (which  see),  there  arc  four 
species  ( (.'.  nlba,  microcurpn.  tnmrnlom,  and  suhnlii)  known 
as  shcllbark  or  shagbark  hickories,  having  excellent  tim- 
ber and  nuts  generally  edible,  the  bark  of  the  trees  be- 
coming very  r.mgh.  The  pignut  or  bitter  hickories  {C. 
porchn,,  amnru,  myri^llcrformi-.  and  „7,m(of.)  I'ave  more 
generally  a  smooth  bark,  inedible  nuts,  and  ralher  interior 
wood  "Hickory  timber  is  excellent  for  handsjiikcs,  nxc- 
hclves,  spokes. "barrel-hoops,  and  the  like.  It  is  prized  as 
fuel  but  will  not  stand  tho  weather.  The  oil  of  the  nuts 
is  recommended  for  oiling  clocks  and  delicate  niachmery. 
The  nuts  are  marketed  in  considerable  quanddcs.  there 
are  numerous  variedes  of  the  hickories,  so  that  the  botany 
of  the  genus  is  rather  obscure. 

Hickory,  county  in    S.  W.   Central  Missouri.     Area, 
414  sq.  m.     It  is  UDcvcn,  but  fertile,  iiroducing  tobacco, 
corn,  wool,  and  live-stock.     Cap.  Ilerinitagc.     Pop.  ll4o;.. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  Carroll  co..  Ark.     Pop.  COO. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  Cass  co..  111.     Pop.  513. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  Coles  co.,  111.     Pop.  1402. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  Schuyler  co.,  111.     Pop.  557. 
Hickory,  post-v.,  county-scat  of  Ncw(on  co..  Miss., on 
(he  Vicksburg  and  Meridian  R.  R.,  HO  miles  E.  of  Vicks- 
burg.-    Pop.  155. 

Hickory,  a  v.  of  Catawba  co.,  N.  C,  on   tho  Western 
(N    C  )  It    II    It  has  3  schools,  3  churches,  1  coaoh-factory, 
1  saddle  and'  harness  faclorv,  3  hotels,  I   tobacco-factory, 
flour  and  saw  mills,  lanyard,  and  I  weekly  newsi>iiper.   ^_ 
W.  E.  AvEitv  AND.1.  T.  Ml  unii,...  Ens."  Pii:nM(iXT  Pkess. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  forest  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  513. 
Hickory,  tp.  of  Lawrcnoo  co..  Pa.     Pop.  915. 
Hickory,  (p.  of  Mercer  co..  Pa.     I(  embraces  Sharon. 
Sharpsville,  and  o(her  villages.     Pop.  7700. 

Hick'ory  Flat,  posl-tp.  of  Chambers  co.,  Ala.  P.  1400. 
Hick'ory  (irovc,  (p.  of  Jasper  co.,  la.     Pop.  402. 
Hickory  «;rove,  tp.  of  Scott  co.,  la.     Pop.  1298. 
Hickory  (irove,  (p.  of  Warren  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1703. 
Hickory  Crovc,  (p.  of  tirant  co..  Wis.     Pop.  907. 
Hick'ory  Hill,  (p-  of  Wayne  co.,  111.     Pop.  878. 
Hick'ory  iWoun'tain,  (p.  of  Chatham  co.,   N.  C. 

IVqi.  1100. 

lIick'oryPlains,post-tp.of  Prairie  CO..  Ark.  P.  1030. 
I       Hick'ory  Toiiil,  (p.  of  Macon  CO.,  III.     Pop.  1130. 

Hick'ory  llidgc,  post-tp.  of  Monroe  co..  Ark.  P.  778. 
1       Hick'ory  Tav'crn,  p. -tp. of  Catnwbaco.,N.C.  P.150I. 


'J12 


HICKS— HIERARCHY. 


Hicks  (Elias).  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Soeietv  of 
Friends,   b.  at  UemiistcaJ,   L.    I.,  Alar.  19,  17-18;  at"  the 
age  of  seventeen  .years  was  placed  as  an  apprentice  to  a 
carpenter,  and  became  master  of  tliat  trade;  subscnuenlly 
followed  Ihe  business  of  building  houses.     In  the  morn  ad- 
vanced period  of  his  life  he  engaged  in  agriculture.     When 
about  twenty-seven  years  of  age,  he  began,  to  use  his  own 
words.  "  to  have  openings  leading  to  the   ministry,"  and 
H-as  "deeply  engaged  for  the  right  administration  of  dis- 
cipline and  order  in  the  Church,  and  that  all  might  be  kept 
sweet  and  ele;in,  consistent  with  the  nature  and  purity  of 
the  holy  profession  which  Friends  made  before  the  world." 
In  17S1  and  subsequently  he  vi.sited  the  meetings  and  fam- 
ilies of  Friends  e.-itcnsively  through  the  country,  working 
at  his  trade  iu  the  intervals  passed  at  home,  whereby  he 
obtained  means  to  pay  his  own  exjjen.ses,  declining  to  have 
them  borne  by  the  society,  which   made  ]irovision  for  its 
travelling  ministers  iu  necessity,     lie  held  it  to  bo  no  less 
a  religious  duty  to  work  than  to  preach  when  called,  of 
which  his  journal  bears  frequent  record,  as  follows  :  '•  Spent 
two  days  in  my  salt-meadows  assisting  my  men  in  securing 
the  hay.     On  my  return  visited  a  poor  widow  with  the  sur- 
plus of  our  provisions.  .  .  .  Closely  engaged  in  temporal  busi- 
ness, but  did  not  forget  uiy  .accountability  to  my  great  Lord 
and  Master.     I  see  no  time  when  it  would  bo  right  to  in- 
dulge in  idleness.  .  .  .   Occupied  in  collecting  relief  for  the 
poor  in  the  city  of  New  York  (1814).     Labored  bard  in  my 
harvest-field;  and  although  sixty-six  years  of  age,  found 
I  could  wield  the  scythe  nearly  as  in  the  days  of  my  youth." 
Sueh   was  the  high  esteem  in  which   ho  was  held  by  all 
classes  of  people  in  his  neighborhood  that  he  was  frequently 
chosen  as  an  umpire  to  settle  differences.     Very  early  iii 
life  he  denounced  slavery  as  a  crime,  and  preached  per- 
sistently against  it.     As  early  as  1811   he  published  a  val- 
uable essay  on  the  subject,  and  exerted  constant  personal 
inlluencc  to  induce  persons  who  held  slaves  to  set  them 
free.      But  this  fell  short  of  the  measure  of  justice  in  his 
view,  and  he  obtain^  for  many  of  the  emancipated  wages 
for  their  time  in  addition.     He   was  a  bold  and   fearless 
preacher,  both  in  deed  and  word.     His  religious  visitations 
were  not  confined  to  members  of  his  own  society,  but  ex- 
tended to  distant  sections  of  country  where  few  such  re- 
sided.   His  meetings  were  crowded  by  people  of  every  sect 
and  opinion.     Ho  was  an  impressive  speaker,  with  "direct 
and  clear  enunciation,  of  commanding  presence,  and  pro- 
foundly serious  deportment  in  his  public  appearance.     The 
following  sentence  from  his  journal  is  charaeteristio  of  his 
career  as  a  minister  and  servant  of  God.     '•  Spent  Second 
and  Third  days  in  preparing  my  business  for  setting  out 
on  my  journey.     As  I  trust  and  believe  a  dispensation  of 
the  gospel  is  committed  to  me,  woe  is  unto  me  if  I  preach 
not  the  gospel !"     Ho  was  the  subject  of  much  misrepresen- 
tation in  his  religious  opinions  by  bigots  and  by  many  dis- 
senters from  the  original  doctrines  of  Friends.     The  name 
Hicksito  was  given  as  a  reproach  to  that  part  of  the  old 
Society  of  Friends  with  which  ho  continued  in  fellowship, 
but  was  never  recognized  by  iter  him,  his  true  relation 
being   well  described   in    the  memorial    of  the   immediate 
meeting  to  which  he  was  attached  :  "  He  felt  himself  called 
upon,  under  the  inlluence  of  the  love  of  the  gospel,  to  ad- 
monish his  brethren  to  rally  to  tho  ancient  standard,  the 
light  of  truth   manifested  in  the  heart,  and  to  follow  no 
man  any  farther  than    he  should  be  found  a  follower  of 
Christ."     A  journal  of  his  religious  travels  was  published 
(l,S.'i2),     Obgerrutinm    on    Sl<iri:n/     (ISIl),    and    Itnrtiinal 
Ephth  (IS2-4).    There  have  been  published  since  his  death 
a  volume  of    his    sermons  and  one   of   his    letters.     (See 
Qi  AKEBS.)  J.  s.  Gibbons. 

Uicks  (TnoMAs),  a  descendant  of  Elias  Hicks,  b.  in 
Newtown,  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  18, 1823  ;  came  to  New  York 
tostudyart  in  1838;  exhibited  a  picture,  The  Death  of  Abel, 
in  1811  ;  wentto  Italy  in  18(5,  to  Paris  in  18-18,  wlierc  ho 
studied  under  Couture;  returned  and  made  New  York  his 
residence.  iMr.  llieUs  has  painted  composition  pictures, 
out-door  and  in-door  scenes,  and  landscapes,  but  his  rejiu- 
tation  rests  on  his  portraits,  of  which  ho  has  painted  a 
great  number,  many  of  distinguished  men  ;  among  them,  Dr. 
Kane  in  tho  cabin  of  his  vessel,  Dr.  Cogswell  in  his  library, 
Edwin  Booth  as  lago.  He  is  cultivated  in  his  jirofessio'n, 
laborious,  genial,  and  greatly  beloved  bv  his  friends.  Elect- 
ed to  Nat.  Acad,  of  Design  in  1851.     O.B.  FnoTnixcnAM. 

IlieliS  (TnoMA.s  Hollvdav),  b.  in  Dorchester  co.,  lid., 
Sept.  2,  I7U8  ;  was  elected  to  several  important  offices,  and 
in  ISllI  became  a  member  of  the  Alarvland  constitutional 
convention  ;  was  governor  of  Maryland  1S5S-62,  standing 
firmly  for  the  Union  in  tliose  trying  days;  U.  S.  Senator 
lS(i3-(;5.     D.  at  Washington  Feb.  13,  18"6d. 

HicksTord,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Greenville  co.,  Va., 
fi2  miles  S.  of  liiehmond,  on  the  I'ctersburg  and  Weldon 
I!.  H.,  at  the  junction  of  tho  Gaston  branch,  and  on  the 
Meherrin  River.     Pop.  116 ;  of  tp.  2.'!67. 


Hicks'ville,  post-v.  of  Queens  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  Oyster 
Bay  tp..  on  the  Long  Island  H.  K..  25  miles  from  New- 
York,  at  the  junction  of  the  Port  Jefferson  branch,  has  1 
weekly  newspaper. 

Hicks'ville,  post-tp.  of  Defiance  co.,  0.     Pop.  1287. 

Ili'oo,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  286. 

Uiro,  tj).  of  Halifa.x  eo.,  Va.     Pop.  3570. 

Hidal'go,  county  in  S.  W.  of  Texas.  Area,  32no  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  tho  S.  by  the  navigable  Kio 
Grande.  Most  of  the  soil  is  light,  and  the  climnlc  is  very 
dry.  The  county  is  adajited  to  pasturage.  Cattle  anil 
wool  are  the  staple  products.  Salt  is  produced  from  the 
salt-lake  Sal  del  Rey.     Cap.  Eilinburgh.     Pop.  2387. 

Hid'dcn,  in  musie,  a  term  applied  to  certain  errors  in 
counterpoint  which  are  not  obvious,  direct,  and  open  vio- 
lations of  rule,  but  more  or  less  concealed,  implied,  or  cov- 
ered up.  These  errors  are  chiefly  indirect  or  implied  con- 
secutive fiftlis  and  octaves.  The  rule,  e.  ,/.,  that  two  iier- 
fect  fifths  must  not  immediately  fullow  in  the  same  parts 
in  equal  motion,  is  direvtly  violated  when  we  write  as  at  n 
or  b  in  Ex.  1  : 

Ex.  1.  a 


But  in  Ex.  2,  though  tho  notes  at  o,  «,  do  not  actually  ex- 
presa  fifths,  yet  the  effect  on  the  ear  is  nearly  as  offensive 
as  if  the  fifths  were  direct,  because  it  is  impossible  to  move 
from  the  first  note  of  tho  upper  part  to  the  second,  or  from 
tho  third  note  of  the  lower  part  to  the  fourth,  without  past- 
ing thronijh  or  orcr  the  interval  of  a  fifth,  and  thus  creating 
an  impression  like  that  at  J,  4  ; 
Ex.  2.  o  o  b 


U       I.    .    . 

Such  fifths  are  therefore  said  to  be  "  hidden  "  or  implied, 
and  should  be  avoided,  either  by  placing  the  partp  in  con- 
trary motion,  or  by  a  change  of  tho  harmony.  That  sim- 
ilar remarks  will  apply  to  hidden  orlares  will  be  evident 
without  an  example.  William  Staintox. 

Hides,  in  commerce,  the  skins  of  large  animals,  sueh 
as  domestic  cattle,  horses,  and  the  bufialoes  of  the  Old 
World.  They  np]ioar  in  commerce  either  dried,  salted,  or 
in  tho  undried  and  natural  state.  Hides  are  used  chietiv 
in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  and  the  fragments  and  waste 
go  to  the  glue-maker.  The  hair  is  also  saved  for  plasterers' 
use.  and  is  used  to  some  extent  in  ujiholstcry.  (See  also 
Leather.)  JJomeatic  hides  are  those  sold  in  the  green 
state,  and  manufactured  into  leather  in  the  country  where 
produced.  The  hides  of  general  commerce  are  the  product 
of  South  America.  South  Africa,  Australia.  India,  Califor- 
nia, Russia,  etc.  The  iddes  of  sheep,  goats,  deer,  etc.  are 
known  iu  commerce  as  "skins." 

Hicrap'olis,  the  birthplace  of  Epietelus,  was  situated 
in  Phrygia,  Asia  Minor,  between  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Me- 
ander, and  was  celebrated  for  its  warm  mineral  springs. 
Among  its  ruins,  which  are  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circum- 
ference, is  one  of  the  most  complete  and  best  preserved 
Greek  theatres.  The  place  is  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in 
his  Epistle  to  the  C(dossians  (iv.  13).  Its  present  name  is 
I'nmbonk  KnlcKiil  (the  "cotton  castle"),  which  is  probably 
derived  from  the  singular  appearance  which  the  deposit  of 
the  springs  has  given  to  the  jdace.     It  is  totally  deserted. 

Ilierap'oiis  (/.  ..  "sacred  city"),  or  Bainby'ce,  a 
once  splendid  but  now  utterly  ruined  city  of  Cyrrliesliea, 
in  Syria,  five  days'  journey  from  Antioch,  on  the  road  to 
Seleucia  and  Babylon.  It  stood  on  a  rocky  barren  plain, 
and  derived  its  prosperity  from  the  caravan  trade.  Its 
palmy  days  were  under  tho  Seleucida?.  Extensive  ruins 
mark  its  site. 

Ili'orurchy  [Gr.  itpot,  '•sacred,"  and  opxi,  "rule"]  or 
Ilieroc'racy,  the  power,  post,  dignity,  or  ofiico  of  a 
hieiarchet,  a  steward  or  president  of  saered  rites,  one  su- 
premo in  holy  things,  a  high  priest,  a  hierarch  ;  especially 
in  ecclesiastical  Greek,  the  episeop.ateor  patriarchate.  The 
word  is  unknown  to  thoelassictireek  and  to  the  Septuagint 
and  New  Testament.  In  the  work  of  the  sixth  century, 
of  a  Neo-Plalonic  cast,  attributed  to  Dioxysirs  tho  Are- 
OPAGITE  (  which  see),  the  angelic  orders  are  the  prototypes  of 
tho  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  He  enumerates  three  orders 
of  angels,  with  three  hierarchies  in  each— seraphim,  cher 
umbim,  thrones;  dominations,  powers,  principalities;  vir- 
tues, archangels,  angels.  (Sec  Mnnrni,  Diet.  Hlntoriquc.) 
Milton  adopts  in  Paraiiise  Lnut  every  one  of  these  titles, 
though  he  does  not  use  them  all  in  any  one  place  or  in  the 
order  given.     The  word  hirrareinj  came  to  be  applied  to 


HIERARCHY. 


913 


the  orders  uf  clergy  ID  the  Christian  Church — the  ecclesi- 
aslicul  hiemrchv.  It  is  sometimes  transferred  to  other 
jiihcrcs  of  government,  as  the  pulitieal,  military,  social 
hierarchy — the  hierarchy  of  the  court  of  t'onstautinoplo. 
It  is,  however,  most  cotnmoDly  applied  to  the  orders  of 
clcr^v  in  the  Christian  Church,  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy, 
or  to  the  Ijoily  of  priests  in  the  various  systems,  in  which 
they  arc  rei^arded  as  divinely  instituted  administrators 
of  holy  things.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  rule  which  they 
exercised  as  at  onco  priests  and  civil  magistrates — the 
Egyptian,  the  Hindoo,  the  Hebrew  hierarchy. 

Amou;!  the  Hebrews  the  administration  was  hereditary. 
It  was  a  lineal  hierarchy,  and  its  headship  was  in  the  high 
priest.     In  the  Christian  Church  the  hierarchy  is  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church  by  the  clergy.     It  took  its  historical 
shape  as  the  congregations  increased  in  number  and  came 
into  closer  conjunction.     The  government  of  the  Church  is 
conceded  to  have  originally  been,  at  least  relatively.  ]iopu- 
lar  in  part  (democratic   hierarchy),  and  to  have  changed 
more  and  more  into  a  spiritual  aristocracy  (aristocratic 
hierarchy).     The  lino  of  historical  advance  is   generally 
supposed  by  I'rotestant  writers  to  have  been  from  a  gov- 
ernment  of  perfect  co-ordination   among    the  presbyter- 
bishops  of  a  congregation  to  tlie  congregational  and  paro- 
chial episcopate,  then  to  the  diocesan  episcopate.     From 
this  arose  tho  metropolitan  system,  in  which  a  governmental 
superiority  was  exercised  by  the  bishops  of  the  chief  cities 
of  tho  provinces.     Then  came  the  system  of  patriarchates, 
under  which  the  bishops  of  tho  great  sees  of  Home,  Con- 
stantinople, .\ntiocli,  Alexandria,  and  Jerusalem  were  rec- 
ognized as   patriarchs  of   the  metropolitan.     Civil  events 
destroyed  the  prominence  claimed  for  the  last  three.     The 
tcndelicy  to  unilicatiun  remained  fixed  at  tho  patriarchate 
in  tho  Eastern  Church,  but  advanced  in  the  Western  Church 
till  it  culminated  in  the  papacy.     ,\mong  the  earlier  rep- 
resentatives of  this  tendency  was  Leo  I.  (440-461).     In 
the  ninth  century  this  papal  hierarchy  was  greatly  strength- 
ened by  tho    P'sKfOo-IsinoiiiAX    Di:(itt;TALS   (wliicli    sec). 
They  systcmatiied  and  professcil  to  give  historical  vouchers 
for  the  tendency  of  the  era,  which  made  the  pope  a  spiritual 
monarch,  regent  and  lord  of  Western  Christendom,  to  whoso 
rule  neither  princes  nor  councils  were  able  to  put  any  well- 
determined  limits.     This  great  hierarchy,  preserving  tho 
unity  o(  its  purpose  and  plan  amid  tlic  confusions  of  the 
time,  supplementing  by  moral  power  the  feeblenesses  of 
civil  rule,  preserved  order  when  social  life  without  such  a 
bond  might  have  been  reduced  to  chaos.     Something  gov- 
ernmcnlally  equivalent  to  the  papacy  was  a  necessity  of  tho 
MidJlc  AgL-8.     From  theelevcnth  century  to  the  thirteenth 
it  had  a  political  supremacy   which  was  not  successfully 
challenged.     This  it  owed  especially  to  several  popes  of 
distinguished  ability  and  force  of  character.     Gregory  VII. 
(1073-8j)   is  more  readily  recalled   by  his  earlier  name, 
llildcbrand,  which  made  Hildebramlism  tho  synonym  of 
that   hierarchical    .system   of    which    ho  was    so    great    a 
master.     Clear  in  vision,  iron  in  will,  cautious  and  bold, 
he  did  much  to  snbordinate  tho  civil  authority  to  tho  ec- 
clesiastical.    Ho  made  the  papacy  a  universal  theocracy 
of  all  Christian  slates,  with  tho  |iopo  as  Christ's  vicar,  by 
whom  kings  reigneil :  people  and  princes  were  simply,  in 
different  degrees,  the  virtual  subjects  of  tho  pope.     Inno- 
cent III.  (1  l9S-l21li),  in  many  respects  the  greatest  of  tlic 
popes,  whoso  history  is  tho  history  of  his  era,  finished  tho 
work  of  llildcbrand  and  brought  the  hierarchy  to  tho  sum- 
mit of  its  glory   and  (lower.      IVililical  independence  and 
unlimited  spiritual  authority  were  the  objcols  of  his  strug- 
gle.    He  brought  to  it  the  greatest  qualities  of  llildcbrand, 
with  others  of  the  highest  order,  and  the  mightiest  powers 
of  Christendom  bowe  I  before  him.     Boniface  VIII.  (12'J4- 
I.to;!),  nut  inferior  in  intellectual   force  to  liis  predecessors, 
but  destitute  of  their  nobler  qualities,  urgcil  to  tho  ox- 
tremest  point  their  principles  of  domination  over  the  tem- 
poral power.    As  in  him  the  loftiest  assertion  of  the  hierar- 
chical claims  to  power  over  tlie  state  came  to  a  crisis,  so 
with  his  reigu   began  that  great  reuelionary   movement  of 
the  fourteeiUh  century  by  which  that  power  was  narrowed 
in  various  ways.     His  great  opponent  was  I'hilip  (IV.)  tho 
Fair  of  Franco  (120S-l:tl4).     The  pone  interfered  as  um- 
pire in  tho  war  between  France  and  England,  and  in  favor 
of  tho  latter.     The  pope  sent  a  legale;  the  king  threw  hitu 
into  prison  ;  the  pope  jironounced  the  king  a  heretic  ;   the 
king  called  tho  pope  a  fool ;  the  jmpe  issued  a  bull ;  tho 
king  burned  it:  a  council  excoinmiinicated  the  king,  ami 
tho  agi-nts  <if  the  king  seized   the  pope  on  his  throne  and 
held   him  captive.     The  Itciman  people  said  of  him,  "  He 
crept  in  like  a  fox.  ho  lorded  it  like  a  lion,  and  died  like  a 
dog."     Ilul  harsh  judgment  diil  not  cease  with  his  death. 
He  has  been  **  dmnned  to  everlasting  fame  "  by  Dante,  who 
assigns  him  a  place  in  hell,  as  a  Siinoiiist.  between  Nicholas 
III.  and  Clement  V.     The  French  king  eame  forth  victori- 
oua  in  this  oonllict.     ClemcDt  V.  (I^UJ-77)  was  tho  more 
Vol.  II.— 58 


tool  of  the  French  policy,  and  formally  transferred  tho 
curia  to  Avignon,  where  it  remained  during  the"  Babylonian 
exile"  (131)6-77).  Tho  French  party  elected  John  XXII. 
(1316-44).  In  the  contest  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and 
Frederick  of  Austria  for  the  imperial  crown,  John  took 
sides  against  Louis.  Louis  was  chosen  by  the  electors: 
appealed  to  a  general  council  against  the  pope  ;  was  excom- 
municated (1324) ;  was  crowned  at  Home  (1327) ;  procured 
the  temporary  deposition  of  John,  and  the  nomination, 
though  not  the  permanent  estaldishmcnt,  of  Xicludas  \". 
as  a  eoiinter-popc.  The  residence  of  the  popes  in  France, 
the  great  schism  (1378-142'J),  with  one  pope  at  Rome,  an- 
other at  Avignon,  for  a  time  three  popt  s  (1409),  tho  great 
reformatory  councils  of  Pisa  (14(i'.>),  of  Constance  (1414- 
IS),  of  Bale  (14.31-43),  and  the  character  and  conduct  of 
John  XXIlI.and  other  popes, greatly  weakened  the  papacy. 
Though  it  seemed  to  come  forth  triumphant  from  the  strug- 
gle, it  had  received  deep  wounds.  The  Church  was  yearn- 
ing for  reformation.  Many  symptoms  of  reaction  from  tho 
llildcbrand  type  were  manifest,  and  at  length  the  great 
struggle  of  the  sixteenth  century  began. 

The  influence  of  the  Reformation  on  the  hierarchical 
claims  was  very  marked.  The  part  of  European  Christen- 
dom which  sympathized  with  that  movement  entirely  re- 
jected all  these  claims.  All  the  Uefonntrs,  and  none  more 
radically  than  Luther,  declared  in  tho  most  uncomproinis- 
ing  manner  against  the  whole  hierarchical  system.  But 
even  tho  states  which  adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  found  their  power  increased  by  the  new  tendencies 
of  the  minds  of  men.  Vast  changes  took  place  in  )iolitical 
relations,  and  the  powers  claimed  for  the  pope  were  more 
and  more  restricted.  Various  concordats  marked  the  defi- 
nition and  limitation  of  the  hierarchical  power.  The  pro- 
gress of  events  has  made  the  civil  and  hierarchical  powers 
more  completely  independent  of  each  other.  Civil  consti- 
tutions, the  regulation  of  police  and  finance,  show  the  in- 
fluence of  tho  modifications  of  tho  polity  of  the  Church. 
(See  Polity,  Ecci.ksiastic.vl.  For  the  latest  history  of  tho 
hierarchy  sec  Pirs  IX.) 

The  divinloiia  of  hierarchical  power  made  in  the  theology 
of  the  Roman  Calholic  Church  may  bo  stated  thus:  I. 
The  authority  which  belongs  to  the  Church  is  connected 
eilher  with  her  agency  as  the  distributer  of  divine  grace 
and  blessings,  especially  of  the  sacraments,  or  with  iho 
preservation  and  control  of  the  Church's  life.  In  accord- 
ance with  this,  the  power  correspondent  with  the  authority 
is  divided  either  into  three  parts,  pntcstng  ordiiiiH,  rii(i;/i»- 
lerii,  andjiiri'»(/i'r(ioiii»  (so  Walter,  llinschius),  or  into  two, 
tho  paliHtiia  oriliniH  (tho  power  derived  from  ordination, 
and  embracing  the  ^io/cs/dswicif/rstertj',  or  teaching  function) 
and  the  putcotut  jurisdiclloiitii,  or  ruling  authority.  The 
second  classification  is  that  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  ( llmin'ri; 
iv.  97).  and  of  the  majority  of  theologians,  and  accords 
with  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (ii.  7.  7).  (Seo 
RlclITKU,  Lchrhiich  li.  K.  II  L.  Kirchenrecht  bcaib.  v.  Voir, 
Sieb.  Auflage,  1.S74,  J  91.) 

II.  Tho  potcaiiiit  nrdinh  respects  the  spiritual  good.s,  es- 
pecially tho  sacraments,  which  those  in  holy  orders  are  to 
distribute  to  believers.  It  rests  in  its  fulness  on  the  bishop.s, 
from  whom,  by  ordination,  it  passes  over  to  the  priests  in 
qiuiniiuitire  rrstrirtiojt.  The  sacrifice  of  tho  mass,  which 
is  tho  su|iremc  point  of  this  power,  appertains  to  both 
bishops  and  priests,  and  in  virtue  specially  of  this  fact  the 
bishops  anil  priests  constitute  one  prieslly  order — oiilo. 
In  apostolic  times  the  deacons  were  aids  to  the  bishops  and 
]iriests,  and  at  a  later  period,  for  the  same  end,  there  were 
appointed  snbdeacons,  acolyths,  exorcists,  lectors,  and  ves- 
tiarii,  all  of  whom  receive  the  necessary  gifts  for  their  of- 
fices by  ordination.  Hence  the  organs  of  the  Church  in  the 
sphere'  of  ordo.  the  sphere  of  the  power  conferred  by  holy 
orders  on  bishops,  priests,  and  ministers.  Under  this  last 
name  arc  grouped  all  the  clergy  but  those  of  the  first  order, 
which  embraces  tho  bishops  and  priests.  This  is  called  tho 
hierarchy  of  (holy)  orders— /nVidrr/n'a  ordiiiia. 

III.  Tho  ;)</«•«("»  Jill  iWiV/ioiii'«,  or  governmental  power, 
is  divinely  committed  to  tho  bishops  and  the  pope.  Be- 
tween tho  diocesan  bishop  and  the  pope  exist  by  human 
right  tho  gradations  of  archbishops,  primates,  exarchs,  or 
patriarchs.  The  priest,  with  no  pnitKl'in jurindUtiiiitin,  ex- 
ercises Iho  piiimlnn  ordiiiia  in  his  parish:  the  bishop  with 
tho/K.ti«M»  jiiriadiclioiiit  rules  the  clergy  of  his  diocese; 
the  metrojiolitan  has  as  his  suffragans  the  bishops  of  his 
province;  the  (irimato  ordinarily  has  under  him  several 
metropolitans  or  archbishops;  llio  palriarchis  the  superior 
of  the  metro]iolilnns  ;  and  tlio  pope,  patriarch  of  patriarchs, 
primate  of  primates,  metropolitan  of  metropolitans,  bishop 
of  bishops,  priest  of  priests,  and  servant  of  the  servants  of 
(iod.  is  earthly  head  of  the  whole  Church  on  earth.  This 
is  the  hierarriiitt  JiiriHilicliiiitia.  (Sec  l)KrounK,  JJiction.  rf. 
(•„/(,     r.i(/..i/i./ii.-,  IS.VJ.) 

Tho  hierarchy  of  orders  is  of  divine  institution;  the  hie- 


914 


HIERO— HIEROGLYPHICS. 


rarchy  of  jurifdiction  is  of  rcolesiastical  institution.  The 
former  may  exist  without  the  latter,  but  the  latter  exists  by 
virtue  of  the  former.  In  the  hierarchy  of  order  respect  is 
had  to  the  sacramental  "character"  impressed  in  ordina- 
tion; in  the  hierarchy  of  jurisdiction  respect  is  had  to  de- 
gree. As  rejjards  the  hierarchy  of  orders,  the  diocesan 
bishop  and  the  primate  are  on  the  same  level  ;  the  parish 
priest  is  iho  same  as  the  vicar-general,  and  is  the  superior 
of  tlio  cardinals  when  they  arc  deacons.  It  is  in  the  hie- 
rarchy of  jurisdiction  the  gradations  exist  which  have  been 
enumerated.  There  is  also  in  some  cast-s  a  simple  luniorary 
hierarchy.  (See  Paspal,  Orif/,  ct  Raison  tic  In  Jjitm-f/ie 
Catholiqr.Cf  art.  "  Ilicrarchic.") 

The  theory  on  which  the  papal  hierarchy  rests  is  that 
the  one  catholic  Church  of  Christ  on  earth  is  a  divine  mon- 
archy, under  one  catholic  iiead.  the  pope,  who  is  the 
oecumenical  pastor  of  all  the  churches.  The  prehite?  under 
him  govern  particular  churches,  participating  in  the 
solicitude,  but  not  possessing  the  plenary  power,  which  be- 
longs to  the  ])opc  alone.  To  the  spiritual  rule,  supremo  in 
the  pope  and  subordinate  in  the  prelates,  the  wlndo  laity, 
fiom  the  humblest  to  the  most  exalted,  owe  obedience.  In 
the  great  body  of  the  older  Koman  Catholic  divines  who 
have  been  distinguished  as  defenders  of  the  Iiiernrchy 
the  names  of  those  now  most  frequently  quoted  are  Bellar- 
min  and  Pcta^ius.  (For  the  literature  of  recent  date  on  the 
questions  of  the  hierarchy,  see  Papal  iNFALi.imi.iTY.)  In 
the  Koman  Catholic  si/Htcm  the  hierarchy  is  usually  treated 
of  under  ()r<l<i,  the  sacrament  of  holy  orders.  Ordo  is 
defined  as  ( 1 )  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  or  estate  of  the 
ministers  of  the  Church;  and  (2)  the  act  by  which  they 
arc  constituted  a  part  of  that  estate — ordination.  (See 
Baim.v,  Tfifnf.  dnrjm.  ct  mornf.  (Lugduno,  1S22),  v.  340; 
Peuronc,  Pra-lcct.  Thcnlng.  (Paris,  lsii2),  ii.439.)  "It  is 
an  article  of  faith  that  there  exists  in  the  Church  a  plu- 
rality of  orders,  constituting  the  sacred  hierarchy — to  wit, 
the  ejdscopate,  the  presbyterate,  and  the  diaconate." 
(Boivii:u,  fitHtit,  Theolog.)  "If  any  man  shall  say  that 
there  is  not  in  the  Catholic  Church  a  hierarchy  insti- 
tuted by  divine  ordination,  which  consists  of  bishops,  pres- 
byters, and  ministers,  let  hiin  be  anathema."  (Can.  C,  ,Scss. 
2.'i,  Council  of  Trent.)  Under  the  *"  ministry  "  is  embraced 
certainly  the  deacons.  How  many  more,  or  whether  any 
more,  are  included,  is  left  an  open  question,  {/iourirr.  iv. 
9(>.)  The  theology  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  in  which 
the  j>riestly  office  was  greatly  exalted,  is  sometimes  styled 
the  hierarchical  theology.  (See  Gelasius,  Lf.oI.)  Offences 
against  the  hierarchical  go\ernment  are  called  sacrilege  of 
the  hierarchy.  The  ccfcsti'nl  hierarchy  of  Cellot  is  the  rule 
of  the  Trinity,  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  angels  in 
heaven.   (Tncvorx,  Dictionn.  Unirersef,  1740.) 

In  Protestant  thcologj'  the  term  hierarchy  is  sometimes 
used  in  a  generic  sense  to  designate  the  sacred  and  divine 
rule  of  the  Church  established  by  Christ.  The  body  of  Prot- 
estant divines  hold  that  Christ  instituted  no  hierarchy  in 
the  ecclesiastical  sense,  but  condemned  it ;  that  he  endowed 
his  Church  with  no  civil  power;  and  that  the  functirms  of 
its  teachers  and  ofBcers  are  purely  moral  and  spiritual. 
From  these  views  many  of  the  writers  of  the  Church  of 
England  dissent,  rejecting  the  papal  supremacy  and  what 
is  involved  in  it,  but  holding  in  .substantials  the  rest  of 
the  hierarchical  views  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  (See  Bltnt, 
Diet,  iif  Doctrin.  and  /fhtor.  Thrufarfi/,  arts.  "  Hierarchy," 
**  Jurisdiction.")  The  Lutheran  Reformers  (at  Augsburg, 
Ib'M))  rejected  the  whole  theory  of  the  hierarchy.  Itetain- 
ing  the  twofold  division  of  the  pntentuH  ordiuis  and  poteHtm 
jiin'udictiout's,  they  defined  the  former  as  covering  only  the 
ministry  of  the  word  and  sacraments — the  latter  as  involv- 
ing no  more  th.an  the  cognizance  of  doctrine,  the  office  of 
the  keys,  absrdution  and  excommunication  ;  and  that  both 
powers  are  by  divine  right  conferred  on  one  and  the  same 
body  of  ministers,  all  of  whom  are  equal.  (  Antjub.  Con/esn., 
Abus.  vii.)  In  the  otTieial  reply  of  the  Roman  Catholic  ' 
divines  (the  ('o»jHf<ifif,  Puntijira)  they  assert  over  against 
this  that  "  the  bishops  not  only  have  "the  power  of  (he  min-  ; 
istry  of  the  word  of  (rod,  but  also  the  power  of  regimen  j 
and  coercitive  correction."  (Given  in  full  in  FnANKi:.  Lih.  \ 
Si/iiibn/.,  App.  OS;  Hase,  do.  Pmlrfjnm.,  84.)  On  this  the  ' 
Apalofji/  (xiv.  irj)  says:  "We  are  satisfied  with  the  old  di- 
vision of  power  into  the  pnfritat  itrdim'it  and  the  poUktnii 
Jun'sdi'riionin."  It  defines  both  in  substance  as  defined  in 
the  Confession.  The  Reformers  at  the  same  time  expressed 
their  desire  to  retain  the  canonical  polity  and  the  grades  ex- 
isting in  the  Church,  even  though  they  rested  on  human 
authority,  prnviiled  the  bishops  would  cease  their  cruelty 
to  the  evangelical  churches. 

In  Protestant  theology  the  name  hiemrrht/  is  nlso  ap- 
plied to  the  divinely  instituted  government  in  the  three 
great  institutions,  the  Family,  the  Church,  and  the  State. 

The  literature  of  the  sultjeet.  direct  and  indirect,  is  very 
large.     The  dogmatic  and  polemic  work.s  of  a  general  kind 


I  largely  take  it  up.     Those  on  the  Church  and  the  associ- 

I  ated  topics  more  particularly  discuss  it.     The  great  names 

connected  with  special  discussions  of  the  monarchy.  ])riest- 

hood,  power  of  order  and  jurisdiction,  the  papal  jKiwcr  and 

infalliljility,  are — Sander  (IJTl),  Palalin  ( 17U4 ),  Kocaberti 

(11  vols,  folio,  IO'Jd-U'J).  Pineda  (IJNS),  Maimburg  (168o), 

I  Ballerini(I77t)).  Veith  (1781),  Fischer  (ISliJ),  Pincl  (1829), 

Rothenseo  (ISilO-.'JS).  Elleudorf  (1841),  Himioben  (1840), 

!  Vestermaycr  {lSf»7-70}.  on  the  Roman  Catholic  side.     On 

I  the  Protestant  side  may  bo  mentioned  the  names  of  Chamicr 

'  (lOlll),    Brochraand    (Ui2.S),    Salmasius     (1008),    Calixtua 

I  (1G.J0).  Hase  (1871).     To  these  are  to  be  added  the  special 

I  historical  works  on  the   constitution  of  the   Church,  the 

i  hierarchy,  and  the  papacy,  and  works  on  church  polity. 

fSoo  Polity,  Ecclesiastical,  the  articles  on  the  different 

forms  of  church  government.  Concukgationalism.  Kpis(X)- 

I'AL    Sy.STI;M,    ISDKE'ENnKNTY,    PaI'ACY,    PkESUVTKHIANISM  J 

articles  on  the  ecclesiastical  orders.  Bishop,  Klper,  Phes- 
BYTEK,  Priest,  Deacon.  Acolyte:  ecclesiastical  dignities, 
Pope,  Exakcii,  Aitcnuisnnp,  Cardisal,  Archdeacon,  Pri- 
mate, Metropolitan,  I*ATRiARrii  ;  divisions  of  ecclesias- 
tical territory,  Diocese,  Parish,  Phovixcb;  rites  connected 
with  the  clerical  office,  Installation,  Investitcre.  Oian- 

NATION.)  C.  P.  KrAUTH. 

Hi'ero  ['Ifpwt-].  tyrannus  of  Syracuse,  in  Sicily;  was 
victor  at  Olynipia  488  b.  c.  {Miilfer);  suececded  (ielon,  his 
brother,  in  478;  conquered  Naxos  and  Catana  in  Sicily; 
defeated  the  great  fleet  of  the  Etruscans  474,  and  in  the 
same  year  won  a  victory  at  the  I*ythian  games.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  art  and  letters.  In  472  and  408  he  won 
his  second  and  third  victories  in  the  Olympic  games.  Pin- 
dar celebrated  these  victories  in  his  odes.      D.  in  411"  B.  c. 

Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  was  a  natural  son  of  one 
Hierocles,  b.  before  ?A)C)  b.  c.  ;  served  with  distinction  under 
Pyrrhus;  became  general  of  the  Syraeusans;  sent  a  supply 
of  corn  to  Rome  272;  routed  the  Mamcrtines  at  the  river 
Longanus,  and  was  declared  king  in  270  b.  c.  ;  waged  a 
disadvantageous  war  with  Rome  264-20.3  B.  c,  after  which 
ho  was  a  most  faithful  ally  of  that  power.  He  was  a  popu- 
lar ruler,  and  his  reign  as  a  whole  was  one  of  splendor  and 
prosperity.  There  are  many  coins,  inscriptions,  and  other 
existing  remains  of  Iliero's  time.     D.  21G  B.  C. 

Hicr'ocles,  a  grammarian,  so  called  by  way  of  distinc- 
ti<fn  from  the  pliilosojihcr  and  others  of  the  name,  wrote  a 
guidebook  (^ui'ckSjjmos),  containing  an  account  of  the  64 
provinces  of  the  Eastern  Roman  empire,  and  of  the  9:i5 
towns  situated  in  them.  Its  date  is  probably  about  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  It  was  inserted  by 
"Wesseling  in  his  Vet.  Jiotn.  Itiiierartn  (.Amsterdam,  1735); 
also  edited  by  Bckkcr  at  the  end  of  his  Coitstaiitiniis  Por- 
j^lt'jr.,  in  the  Buzuntlne  IHstorinus  (Bonn,  1840). 

Hierocles  [*l(po»eA^«].  a  New  Platonist,  lived  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  and  taught  philosophy  at  Alex- 
andria. Very  little  is  known  of  his  life.  He  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  golden  verses  of  Pythagoras,  which  is  useful 
for  iho  understanding  of  the  Pythagorean  doctrines  ;  also 
a  work  in  seven  books  on  Providence,  Fate,  and  Freewill, 
of  which  Photius  has  preserved  a  few  fragments;  and  a 
third  treating  of  morals,  no  longer  extant.  To  this  Hiero- 
cles is  sometimes  ascribed  a  collection  of  Fdcctiic,  entitled 
'AoT-eta,  but  it  belongs  to  a  later  writer.  The  best  edition 
of  the  Cinnmentury  is  by  Alullach  (Berlin,  180.*});  of  the 
FdcrfiiF,  by  Sehier  (Leipsic,  1768J  and  bv  Eberhard  (Ber- 
lin. 18G9).  *     U.  Drisler. 

Hieroglyph'ics  [Gr.  UpoyAi-tjocd?,  from  'up6^,  *'  sacred," 
and -yAu^^ij,  '"carving"].  All  writing  began  with  pictorial 
representation.  As  only  a  small  ])art  of  the  words  in  any 
language  can  be  directly  represented  by  pictures,  the  first 
step  to  a  system  that  allowed  of  theexpression  of  all  words 
whatever  was  taken  when  the  picture  which  represented 
any  given  word  was  allowed  to  rrprcscnt  any  other  word 
having  a  difTercut  meaning  and  proximately  the  same 
sound.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  supposing  the  picture 
of  a  gate  to  be  made  to  stand  also  for  yit,  or  for  the  first 
two  letters  tjti,  or  for  the  consonant  y.  If.  while  (he  trans- 
fer is  made  of  the  signilicalion  of  the  character  from  the 
entire  word  to  the  single  letter,  the  character  itself  is  worn 
down  into  a  conventional  form,  and  a  single  character  is 
adopted  out  of  all  those  that  might  represent  a  letter,  then 
the  passage  has  become  complete  from  the  system  of  the 

Eictorial  hieroglyphic  to  that  of  the  alphabet.     All  alnha- 
ets  have  arisen  in  this  way,  but  not  all  hieroglyphics  have 
reached  the  luirely  alphabetic  stage. 

The  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  are  the  only  ones  that  con- 
tain a  literature  of  any  value,  and  the  term  is  generally 
applied  to  the  Egyptian  system  from  which  it  first  had  its 
name.  There  are  scanty  traces  of  the  original  picture- 
writing  in  the  Assyrian  and  Chinese:  the  inscriptiony  from 
Hamath.  as  yet  unread,  are  hieroglyphieal.  and  the  more 
civilized  natives  of  aboriginal  America  bad  their  systems 


HIEROGLYPHICS. 


915 


of  hieroglyphics,  though  exceedingly  rude  and  undeveloped. 
It  w«s  a  false  notion  of  the  (irceks  that  of  the  three  kinds 
of  writing  used  liy  the  Ej;ypli:itis,  two — for  that  reason 
called  hicroglyphio  and  hieratic — were  cniplovcd  only  for 
sacred,  while  the  third,  the  demotic,  was  employed  for  sec- 
ular purposes.  No  such  distinction  is  discoverable  on  the 
more  ancient  Egyptian  monuments,  but  we  retain  the  old 
names  founded  on  misapprehension.  The  hieroglyphics 
consist  of  full  pictures  carved  on  stone  and  brilliantly 
colored  according  to  conventional  rules  or  the  fashion  of 
tho  dynasty  in  which  they  were  prepared.  The  characters 
themselves  suggested  to  both  the  ancients  and  the  moderns 
that  they  were  the  symbols  of  ideas  rather  than  the  signs 
of  sounds.  The  number  of  these  signs  being  a  thousand 
or  more,  gave  color  to  the  idea  that  they  were  exclusively 
diagraphical.  (J  reek  authors  even  gave  the  meaning  of  a 
few  signs.  This  misapprehension  of  the  force  of  the  cha- 
racters continued  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
In  179'J  the  famous  Kosetta  Stone  was  dug  up  by  one  of 
Napoleon's  officers  belonging  to  his  e.\pcdition  into  Egypt. 
It  contained  inscriptions,  partly  mutilated,  in  hieroglyph- 
ics, in  demotics,  and  in  Greek.  The  name  of  Ptolemy  oc- 
curred in  the  Greek,  and  in  the  corresponding  portion  of 
the  hieroglyphic  there  were  a  number  of  characters  encloiicd 
in  a  ring,  which  it  was  conjectured  might  be  the  sign  of  a 
proper  name.  Do  Pacy  first  announced  the  phonetic 
character  of  these  proper  names,  and  ChampoUion  and 
Thomas  Young  simultaneously  caught  tho  secret  of  the 
characters,  and  announced  the  combination  of  phonetic  with 
ideographic  elements.  Fortunjitcly,  there  was  found  at  the 
Isle  of  I'hilic  a  little  obelisk  with  an  inscription  both  in 
Greek  and  in  hieroglyphics,  containing  the  names  of  a  Ptol- 
emy and  of  his  sister  Cleopatra.  A  ring  containing  the 
same  characters  as  those  on  the  Uosetta  Stono  was  conolu- 
sivelv  proved  thus  to  be  the  uame  of  Ptolemy,  while  an- 
other ring  could  contain  nothing  other  than  the  name  of 
Cleopatra.  Very  fortunately,  these  two  names  contain  tho 
letters  /',  T,  and  /-  in  common,  and.thcsc  were  soon  fi.xed, 
and  the  others  followed.  The  monuments  of  the  Roman 
epoch  contained  a  largo  number  of  names  in  rings,  and 
these  were  speedily  unlocked  with  this  key,  and  fouud  to 
embrace  a  full  scries  of  the  Roman  emperors,  with  the  title 
emperor  {auro«(><iToip )  added.  The  names  of  the  old  Egyp- 
tian kings  followed,  some  of  them  familiar,  as  Psamnieti- 
chus  and  Ramses.  Tho  process  thus  outlined  was  sufficient 
to  give  tho  value  of  all  tho  more  common  hieroglyphic 
signs.  The  next  step  was  to  read  and  translate  the  por- 
tions not  marked  as  proper  names.  For  this  recourse  was 
had  to  the  Coptic,  which  was  known  to  be  the  imin<;diato 
descendant  of  the  old  Egyptian.  Cliampollion  first  applied 
himself  to  short  sepulchral  ninnurncnts  on  which  the 
proper  names  were  connected  by  words  that  evidently  ex- 
pres.^ed  relationships.  These  terms  be  found  to  agree  with 
the  Coptic,  and  by  various  stages  the  discovery  was  per- 
fected by  liim  and  by  his  associates  in  the  study.  The 
history  need  not  be  pursued  farther.  At  present  a  hiero- 
glyphic inscription  may  be  read  nearly  as  fluently  as  one 
in  tho  classical  languages,  and  apparatus  for  study  is 
abundant  in  texts,  and  especially  in  the  magnificent  dic- 
tionary of  .M.  Brugsch,  publisheil  in  ISfiT-OS. 

Tho  Egyptian  hieroglyphical  characters  are  either  ideo- 
graphic, syllabic,  alphabetic,  or  determinative.  All  writing 
originated  in  ideographs — pictures  of  objects  to  be  sug- 
gested by  them  to  the  reader.  The  Egyptians  very  early 
f Hissed  through  the  pure  ideographic  stage  into  the  .syl- 
abic,  and  eveii  the  alphabetic,  but  the  idea  of  the  alpha- 
bet, depending  wholly  on  ultimate  vocal  analysis,  never 
dominated  in  their  (Writing,  as  it  did  in  the  IMwenicinn. 
Even  in  our  own  writing  wo  employ  some  purely  ideographic 
signs.  like  f.  plus,  and  §,  section,  although  they  are  not. 
like  the  original  ideograjdis,  pictorial.  A  vast  number  of 
objects  could  be  directly  drawn,  as,  for  example,  portions 
of  the  body,  the  hea<l,  car,  eyes,  eyebrows,  lips,  nose,  mouth, 
arm,  hand,  either  open  or  shut,  leg,  foot;  also  numerous 
actious,  as  writing,  building,  and  walking:  also  such  ob- 
jects external  from  man  as  sun,  moon,  star,  the  lotus-flow- 
er, the  linn,  water  (represented  by  a  line  of  waves),  etc.  A 
combination  of  single  figures  might  express  an  appropri- 
ate idea.  Thus,  if  a  waved  line  t:!^"  exprcsseil  water,  an 
ellipse  enclosing  tho  waved  line  ^^3  would  represent  a 
cistern.  If  a  circle  reprcsenletl  the  sun,  a  half  circle  with 
rays  streaming  upward  jjM^  would  represent  sunrise,  and 
a  circle  half  sunk  below  a  imc  rOn  sunset.  \  ean<ijiy  ^ — ^ 
represented  the  heavens,  and  a  star  utidcrneath  the  canopy 
P^  suggested  night;  while  a  circle  in  the  same  position 
•■^T*  represented  midday;  and  the  same  ennopy  with  some- 
thing like  tunnels  rtinning  through  it  vw  v  represented 
rain.  Of  these  pictorial  objects  there  1  I  1  I  are  about 
400.  Their  range  is  considerable,  but  abstract  i<leaa  and 
connecting  words,  most  verbs,  and  all  inflected  forms  can- 
not bo  expressed  by  more  pictures.     A  comiilotc  sentence 


is   impossible   by  this  system, 
reached. 


Its  limitationa  are  soon 


Moon. 


\  sail. 


4 
^ 

^ 


Man. 


Woman. 


Child. 


1^^^  Goose, 
fj-t      Road. 


n 


1 1  oil  so. 


j 

Throne. 

1 

Obelisk. 

*f 

A  prisoner 

\ 

To  strike. 

The  next  step  was  that  of  allowing  the  figure  not  merely 
to  represent  the  idea  and  its  name,  but  the  souiwis  by  which 
that  word  is  expressed.  Thus,  the  tiguro  bcooaits  entirely 
tho  representation  of  a  sound,  and  no  longer  of  an  object. 
Thi?  may  be  illustrated  by  the  jdcturc  of  an  altar,  which 
might  al^o  stand  for  the  word  ultcr.  But  the  Egyptians 
regarded  the  consonants  as  the  substantial  parts  of  a  word, 
and,  disregarding  tho  vowels,  the  same  figure  might  stand 
for  latrv,  letter,  Itttfr,  or  ultra.  Thus,  the  owl,  rnulak,  might 
also  stand  for  vufich,  king;  the  hyaena,  httitr,  for  Iiotv,  an 
hour;  the  serpent,  hoji,  for  fiepi,  a  cave,  and  the  obelisk, 
nmei'tif  for  the  god  Aunni.  Pincc  the  Egyptian  car  did  not 
distinguish  the  surd  (sharp)  from  the  sonant  (flat)  conso- 
nants, the  range  was  somewhat  further  extended.  Tims, 
tho  finger,  pronounced  tcp,  would  represent  any  other  word 
whose  consonants  were  tp,  th,  dp,  or  db;  as,  for  example, 
tatpe,  a  magazine,  and  tha,  ten  thousand. 

The  next  stage  was  to  allow  any  character  to  stand  for 
only  the  iirst  one  or  two  sounds  in  the  word  which  it  pri- 
marily represented,  generally  for  tho  first  consonant  and 
vowel,  but  in  the  case  of  a  few  characters,  called  by  lirugsch 
fundamental,  for  the  first  sound  only.  A  single  letter  or 
gyllablo  may  often  be  represented  by  a  number  of  different 
signs.  Thus,  A  might  be  represented  by  an  arm,  an  eagle, 
or  a  reed;  T,  by  a  serpent  or  a  hemisphere.  The  sense 
often  guided  the  selection  of  the  character.  Thus,  in  writing 
the  Greek  word  for  emperor  {avToicpdrtup)  the  eagle,  symbol 
of  the  Roman  power,  would  be  selected  to  represent  a.  Of 
the  syllabic  characters  there  were  400  or  iOO.  The  accom- 
panying table  includes  the  common  alphabetic  characters : 
FiQ.  2. 


1°' 

S  J-,  C 

IP 

Cbanictcrs 
In 

Characters 
rarely  used. 

IN 
11^ 

Cb&ractcrs 

In 

commoD  use. 

1 

Chftractcrs 

rnrcly 
used. 

A 

W 

"  ^ 

D 

-=*• 

A 

TS 

-li 

>1 

I 

II  ^^ 

-i^lv 

M 

%.- 

)T 

Cor  on 

\  ' 

S 

N 

■ 5 

KW 

F 

* — ■ 

9 

I 
UorL 

b 

B 

w 

^    w 

S 

n 

U 

P 

m 

^r^- 

.'ill 

™  j[i[ 

8. 

K 
Q 

^  — 

Kll 

e 

1.0- 

0 

o 

III! 

\ 

f 

T 

•  r    ^ 

L-::. 

H 

la 

1 

The  Egyptians  paid  regard  to  vowels  only  as  they  were 
needed  to  avoid  ambiguity  in  writing.  Where  there  might 
be  iloubt  which  of  two  words  was  li>  bo  read,  or  in  the  case 
of  words  having  nn  initial  vowel,  or  of  monosyllables  with 
a  final  vowel,  and  especially  of  foreign  proper  names,  it 
biiamc  necessary  to  express  the  vowels.  These  were  not 
put  in  theirphice  between  their  consonants,  but  either  after 
CM-  under  the  consonants  which  formed  the  word.  Thus  the 
three  fundamental  characters  given  in  the  order  ii.  /'.  ".  are 
to  be  pronounced  mi;),  not  iipn.  The  scribes  often  found  it 
necessary  to  employ  certain  signs,  not  as  characters  to  be 


916 


IIIEROMAX— HIGilGATi:. 


pronounced,  but  as  suggc-^tions  to  the  reader  bow  to  read 
other  ambiguous  signs.  Thu?,  a  figure  like  a  hill — pro- 
nounceil  tovc,  and  meaning  much — indicated  that  the  cha- 
racters i)rccediug  it  were  to  be  read  not  as  single  letters,  but 
in  their  larger  content,  a^^  full  syllables  with  two  or  more 
consonant?.  Sometimes  the  character  was  repeated  for  the 
same  purpose.  AVheu  the  characters  hacl  settled  into  their 
almost  completely  phonetic  use,  a  word  spelled  out  was  often 
followed  by  its  pictorial  representation.  Thus,  \verc  it  de- 
sired to  write  mtkhi,  ft  crocodile,  instead  of  simply  giving 
a  picture  of  the  crocodile,  which  might  signify  either  aukhi 
01-  skf  the  word  might  bo  spelled  out  by  its  consonants: 
first  an  »,  expressed  by  a  sii>hon  and  pronounced  arppe; 
tlien  /:,  expressed  by  the  breast,  klhp.  To  show  that  these 
two  characters  are  not  to  be  ]ironounccd  syllabically.  »>jpn 
hip,  as  they  may  be,  but  consouiintally,  su/.-/ii,  the  figure  of 
the  crocodile,  tti/chi,  is  appended.  This  system  of  deter- 
minatives had  considerable  extension,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing arc  examples: 

Fig.  3. 


Names    of    foreigu 
countries. 

Karnes  of  places  in 
Egypt. 


^ 


Names  of  animals. 


^fc^  Evil  or  hurtful  actions. 
C        )\  Encloses  royal  names.     ^^^^   Articles  of  clothing. 


Names  of  enemies. 


Objects  in  wood. 


o 

YYY 


Articles  of  metal. 

Disaster,  storm,  confu- 
sion. 


The  direction  of  the  hieroglyphic  writing  was  unfixed. 
On  the  same  monument  it  was  in  one  place  read  vertically 
and  in  another  horizontally.  The  common  way  was  from 
right  to  left,  as  in  Hebrew.  In  the  older  temples  the 
characters  were  raised ;  but  after  the  fifth  dynasty  they  were 
generally  cut  in  intaglio,  often  very  deep,  as  in  the  temple 
at  Zepe,  where  Bruce  found  them  six  inches  deep.  The 
portions  cut  out  were  sometimes  filled  with  white  lime,  or 
often  with  mastic  or  richly  colored  enamel. 

The  hieratic  writing  was  an  abbreviation  of  the  hiero- 
glyphic. Mo«;r.  of  the  jiapyrus  is  inscribed  in  this  cha- 
racter. In  the  seventh  century  D.  c.  a  still  more  abridged 
style,  called  demotic,  came  into  use,  in  which  no  trace  can 
be  recognized  of  the  original  pictures,  although  there  is  in 
it  the  same  mixture  of  both  the  phouetij  and  the  ideographic 
characters.  AVillia-M  II.  AVauo. 

Blioromax.     Sec  YAnMUK. 

Uierun'ymites  [from  St.  Jerome,  or  ^(V)-o»v»i»s], 
properly  the  hermits  of  St.  Jerome,  were  originally  Fran- 
ciscan Tertiaries  of  the  Strict  Observance.  In  1373  the  new 
order  was  accredited  by  Pope  Gregory  XI.,  and  received 
an  Augustinian  rule.  P.  F.  Pecha  and  one  Vasco  were  its 
founilers.  Charles  V.  entered  the  order  upon  his  abdica- 
tion. This  order,  once  very  rich  and  extensive,  is  now 
small  and  feeble. — Another  small  congregation  called  Hie- 
ronyinitcs  was  founded  at  Pisa  by  one  of  the  Gambacorti 
about  Ki'JO.      It  still  exists. 

Hier'ophant  [Gr.  Ifpof^aj-n??].  the  mystagoguc,  prophet 
or  priest  of  Demeter  who  had  charge  of  the  Eleusinian 
Mysteries,  and  initiated  new  members  into  those  mysteries. 
Ho  must  be  a  descendant  of  the  hero  Eumolpus.  unmarried, 
and  unblemished  in  character  and  in  body.  He  preserved 
and  expounded  the  unwritten  lavv. 

Hies'ter  {.Tosmi),  b.  of  parentage  of  remote  Silcsian 
origin  in  Hern  tp.,  Berks  co..  Pa.,  Nov.  IS,  17o2;  became 
ft  merchant  of  Heading  in  1771;  raised,  equipped,  and 
eomniiindcil  a  company  in  the  Revolutionary  army  :  was 
woun-Ied  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  and  imprisoned  a 
year  in  the  Jersey  hulk;  wounded  again  at  Germantown  ; 
a  member  of  the  constitutional  conventions  of  I7S7  and 
17SII ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1797-1805  and  KSI  j-21  ; 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  1821-23.  D.  at  Heading,  Pa., 
June  10,  \y.V>, 

llii;'£;ins,  Ip.  of  Perry  co..  Ark.     Pop.  292. 

HiU'J;ins,  tp.  of  McDowell  co..  N.  C.     Pop.  401. 

Ilig'j^inson  (Francis),  b.  in  England  in  15S8;  grad- 
uated at  St.  .lohn's  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  ft  par- 
ish clergyman  of  Leicester,  but  was  deprived  for  noncon- 
formity, and  in  1029  became  teacher  of  the  congregation  at 
Salem.  Mass.,  where  he  d.  Aug.  6,  Ki.'JO.  Ho  wrote  jVeio 
Eii'iIiuuVh  IHnntatiom  (1030). 

Hi^ginson  (Francis  J.).  U.  S.  N.,  b.  July  10. 1840,  in 
^Iiissachusetls :  graduated  at  (he  Naval  Aeiidemy  in  ISCl; 
beenmc  a  lieutenant  in  1S02,  a  lieutenant-commander  in 
ISfifi;  served  on  board  the  Cayuga,  as  aide  to  Capt.  liailey, 
in  the  great  victory  of  New  Orleans,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  very  gallant  boat-expedition  from  the  Colorado  Sept. 


14,  1S61,  which  succeeded  in  destroying  the  Confederate 
privateer  Judah,  moored  to, a  wharf  at  the  Pensacola  navy- 
yard.  FOXHALL  A.  PaRKKR. 

lIig:ginson   (Sir  Jamks  Macaulav),  K.  C.  B.,  b.  in 

ISO.'j;  in  1824  he  joined  tlie  Bengal  army,  and  served  dur- 
ing the  Bhurtpore  camjiaign  and  ass:iult  of  that  fortress  in 
1  S20 ;  was  appointed  to  the  stafl' of  the  army  in  1S2S.  and 
filled  the  positions  of  aide-de-canij)  to  Lord  William  Ben- 
tinck.  governor-general  of  India;  military  secretary  to  the 
governor  of  Agra:  private  secretary  to  the  governor-gen- 
eral of  Canada,  and  in  18.19  accompanied  Lord  Metealle  to 
Jamaica  as  secretary  to  the  governor ;  following  that  states- 
man to  Canada,  he  was  made  civil  secretary  and  superin- 
tendent of  Indian  aff'airs.  From  1846  to  1S5()  he  was  gov- 
ernor ftnd  commander-in-chief  of  the  Leeward  Islunds, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  governorship  of  Mauritius 
(lS.")t)-r>7) ;  created  companion  of  the  Bath  in  1861,  a 
knight-coraraauder  1856  j  retired  from  active  service  in 
1857. 

Higginson  (John),  a  son  of  Francis  Higginson,  b.  at 
Claybrookc,  Leicestershire.  England,  Aug.  0,  1010;  came 
to  Salem  with  his  father;  became  a  teacher  of  Hartford; 
was  a  short-hand  writer  to  the  Massachusetts  synod  of 
1037  ;  chaplain  of  Saybrook  ;  assistant  minister  of  Guilford, 
Conn.,  1G41-59:  minister  of  Salem,  Mass..  1000-1708.  He 
was  a  popular  preacher,  and  left  some  valued  writings.  D. 
Dec.  9,  1708. 

Higginson  (Thomas  WrNxwoRTii),  b.  Dec.  22, 1823,  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1S41  ; 
received  the  degree  of  A.M.  1809;  studied  divinity  at 
Cambridge;  was  ordained  at  Xewburyport,  Mass.  (First 
Religious  Society),  in  1847,  the  year  he  left  the  Divinity 
School :  was  Free-soil  candidate  for  Congress  in  1S50  ;  went 
to  Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1852  as  minister  of  the  Free  church  ; 
resigned  in  1S5S,  and  left  the  ministry.  !Mr.  Higginson 
had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  anti-slavery  conflict  that 
preceded  the  civil  war;  had  visited  Kansas  in  1850;  was 
acquainted  with  John  Brown,  and  was  active  in  sustaining 
the  Free-State  men  in  the  West.  On  Sept.  25,  1802,  he  was 
made  captain  in  the  5lst  Massachusetts  Vols.  ;  on  Nov.  10 
accepted  the  colonelcy  of  1st  South  Carolina  Vols.,  colored  ; 
was  wounded  Aug.,  1S03,  and  mustered  out  Oct.,  1804. 
He  has  since  lived  in  Newport.  R.  I.,  devoting  himself  to 
literature  and  the  work  of  social  reform  ;  is  :i  vice-president 
of  the  Free  Religious  Association,  a  leader  in  the  cause  of 
woman  sufi"rage,  and  an  earnest  friend  of  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  the  youth  of  both  sexes  in  public  schools  and 
colleges.  His  efforts  to  introduce  modern  ideas  and  men 
into  the  management  of  Harvard  College,  and  to  have  its 
facilities  extended  to  women,  have  been  assiduous.  Mr. 
Higginson  is  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  collected 
essays  :  Out-door  Papers  ( 1S03),  Anui/  Life  in  a  Black  Rciji- 
ment  (1870),  and  ^l//(i»r("c  EniifVfs  (1871):  wrote  a  novel, 
Malbon^,  nn  Oldpnrt  Ji.,mfnice  (XSG'^).  Oldport  Dm/e  (1874); 
a  history,  Yunnij  Folks'  Ilintorij  nf  the  V.  S.  (1S75);  besides 
various  pamphlets  and  magazine  articles,  memoirs  of  Lydia 
Maria  Child  and  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli  in  Eminent  Women 
of  the  A(je  (1808),  and  a  memoir  of  T.  W.  Harris,  prefixed 
to  his  Entomological  Coryexpuudenec  (1809).  He  also  edited 
(in  connection  with  S.  Longfellow)  a  book  of  poems,  Tha- 
Ifittn  ( 1853),  a  translation  of  Epietctus  ( IS05),  Harvard  }fe- 
morial  Iiin;/raphir»  (2  Vols.,  ISOO),  Child- /'ictnrrs  from 
Dickens  (1808),  firjV/'  liioijraphia  of  European  Statesmen 
(1875).  Is  also  well  known  as  a  lyceum  lecturer.  He 
visited  Europe  in  1872.  0.  B.  Frotiiinuiiam. 

Hig'ginsport,  post-v.  in  Lewis  tp..  Brown  co.,  0.  It 
is  on  the  Ohio,  40  miles  above  Cincinnati.     Pop.  530. 

Hig'ginsvillej  post-v.  of  Verona  tp.,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y. 
Pop.  219. 

High,  in  music,  a  term  indicating  acutcness  of  sound, 
generally  by  way  of  comparison  or  contrast  with  other  and 
graver  sounds.  Thus,  of  two  sounds,  notes,  or  parts,  one 
is  said  to  be  higher  than  the  other  because  it  is  more  acute, 
though  both  notes  may  chance  to  be  in  the  graver  portion 
of  the  scale.  In  a  general  and  indefinite  way  alt  musical 
sounds  are  said  to  bo  either  high,  low,  or  of  a  middle 
gra<le.  Hence,  the  use  of  the  terms  ascendintj  and  descend- 
ing whon  wc  change  from  the  graver  part  of  the  scale  to 
the  more  acute,  and  rice  versH.  William  Staitnton. 

High  Bridge,  i»ost-v.  of  Hunterdon  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the 
New  Jersey  Central  R.  R.,  54  miles  W.  of  New  Vork.  Here 
are  extensive  iron-works  and  a  remarkable  railroad  bri'lgc. 

High  For'est,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Olmsted  co.,  Minn., 
15  miles  S.  of  Rochester.     Pop.  of  v.  249  ;  of  tp.  1243. 

High'gntc,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Vt.,  on  Missisquoi 
Bay  (  Lake  Champlain).  and  on  the  Canada  lino.  It  is  also 
on  the  Central  Vermont  R.  R.  (northern  division),  13  miles 
N.  of  St.  .Albans.  It  is  a  jilace  of  summer  resort,  has  4 
churches,  4  hotels,  and  manufactures  of  castings,  scythes. 


HIGH   LAKE— HIGHWAY. 


917 


and  leather.  It  has  sulphurou:^  mineral  springs,  which  are 
very  useful  in  eertaiu  flkiu  diseases.     Pop.  2JG0. 

IIi;;h  LaKe,  tp.  of  EniDictt  co.,  la.     Pop.  1S2. 

Iliuh'hiiid,  county  iu  the  S.  S.  W.  of  Ohio.  Area,  460 
equnre  mile?.  It  lies  between  the  Scioto  and  Little  Miami 
valley?,  and  is  well  cultivated  and  fertile.  Cuttle,  grain, 
and  wool  are  stajdcs.  The  manufactures  include  carriages, 
flour,  harnesses,  etc.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Marietta  and 
Cincinnati  R.  K.     Cap.  Hillsborough.     Top.  29,133. 

Highland,  county  of  Virginia,  bounded  on  the  W.  and 
N.  by  West  Virginia.  Area,  400  gquaro  miles.  It  is  very 
mountainous.  Live-stock,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  pro- 
ducts.    Cap.  Monterey.     Pop.  -ilJl. 

llishland,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  657. 

Ilii^hlaiid,  tp.  of  Grundy  co.,  III.     Pop.  980. 

Highland,  post-v.  of  Madison  co..  111.,  30  miles  E.  of 
St.  Louis,  on  the  St.  Louis  Vandivlia  and  Terro  Haute  R.Rs. 
It  contains  2  public  schools,  4  churches,  1  Catholic  uni- 
versity, 2  large  flouring-mills,  1  foundry,  1  bank,  I  woollen- 
mill,  and  1  newspaper.  Pop.,  composed  of  Swiss  and  Gcr- 
m-inn,  17.'>7.  Ad.  F.  Bandkliek. 

Hi:;hland,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  179G. 

Ilighlund,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1321. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Vermilion  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2294. 

Highland,  pust-tp.  of  Clayton  co.,  la.     Pop.  S34. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Guthrie  co.,  la.     Pop.  229. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Tama  co.,  la.     Pop.  o03. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  la.     Pop.  247. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Wapello  co.,  la.     Pop.  959. 

Highland,  t]>.  of  Washington  co.,  la.     Pop.  753. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Winneshiek  co.,  la.     Pop.  922. 

Highland,  post-v.  of  Iowa  tp.,  Doniphan  co..  Kan.,  is 
the  ^eat  uf  Highland  University  (Presbyterian)  for  both 
8exe.4,  and  has  a  coal-mine.  It  is  nenr  the  Atchison  and 
Nebraska  U.  R.,  and  25  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Atchison.    P.  2K2. 

Highland,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Oakland  co.,  Mich.,  on 
the  Flint  and  Pcre  Mar<|uctte  K.  R.,  2S  miles  S.  of  Flint. 

Pnp.   I -J  II. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Osceola  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  5S. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Wabashaw  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  716. 

Highland,  a  v.  of  Salioe  co.,  Ncb-i  17  miles  S.  W.  of 
Line-tin. 

Highland,  a  v.  of  Lincoln  co.,  Ner.     Pop.  21. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  N.  V.,  on  the  Delaware 
River.  It  confains  many  small  lakes.  Hero  was  fought 
the  battle  of  the  Minisink.  July  22,  1779,  between  the 
Indiana  in  the  British  service,  under  Brant,  and  the 
Amerii'nn  militia.     Pop.  958. 

Highland,  post-v.  of  Ulstcrco.,  >r.  Y.,  opposite  Pough- 
keepsic,  with  which  it  is  connected  half  hourly  by  ferry. 
It  contains  a  seminary  for  both  sexes,  3  churches.  7  flour- 
ing-milU,  1  foundry,  a  felloe-factory,  1  weekly  newspaper. 
It  h:is  3  daily  linos  of  steamers  to  New  York.  The  in- 
lubilants  are  largely  engaged  in  the  grape-culture.  Pop. 
about  "00.  W.  F.  Hkndrick,  En.  *' Joirnal." 

Highland,  tp.  of  Defiance  co.,  0.     Pop.  946. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Muskingum  co.,  0.     Pop.  784. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  121. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Chester  co..  Pa.     Pop.  958. 

Highland,  tji.  of  Clarion  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  024. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Elk  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  98. 

Highland,  tp.  of  Greenville  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1261. 

Highland  (called  also  Ft-ankUn),  post-v.  of  Iowa  co., 
AVis..  12  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Avoca.   P.ofv.482;  oftp.30Ifi. 

HighManderf*,  properly  the  Oaclsor  Celtic  inhabitants 
of  the  Highlantis  of  Scotland.  In  the  British  army  the 
term  ile^ignate^  the  eight  regiments  of  foot-soldiers  who 
wear  the  old  Highland  costume,  cacli  with  its  own  distinc- 
tive tartan.  These  are  the  42d,  71st,  72d,  74th,  "Sth.  79th, 
fl2d,  and  93d  regiments.  The  91st  (Argylcshire  regiment) 
is  also  sometimes  reckoned  with  the  Highlanders.  There 
are  several  Highland  volunteer  regiments. 

Highland  FuIIn,  pust-v.  of  Curnwall  tp.,  Grange  co., 
N.  v.,  on  ibo  llud.-on,  2  miles  below  West  Point;  has 
hotels  antl  I  churches,  and  is  a  pliiec  of  summer  re.iorl. 

Highland  Park,  post-v.  of  Dcerfield  tp..  Lake  co., 
III.,  on  L  iko  Michigan  ami  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
west erit  U.  K.  (Milwaukee  division),  22  miles  N.  of  Chicago. 

Iligli'lands,  of  the  Huilson.  are  the  broken  hilts  which 
stretch  tnmi  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  through  Kocklaud,  Oninge, 
Putnam,  and  llutehcss  cos.,  N.  V..  being  the  N.  E.  con- 
tinuation of  the  Blue  lUdge,  and  extending  farther  N.  E. 
in  the  Taconic  and  Green  Mountains  of  Western  Now  Eng- 


land. The  passage  of  the  Hudson  through  the  Highlands 
is  marked  by  very  fine  scenery,  and  it  is  remarkable  as 
almost  the  only  instance  in  the  U.  S.  of  a  navignble  river- 
passage  through  a  great  mountain-range.  The  Highlands 
are  mainly  composed  of  azoic  rocks,  with  rugged  and 
steep  sides  and  a  somewhat  scanty  soil.  The  highest  peaks 
do  not  reach  higher  than  17U0  feel  above  tide. 

High  Market,  tp.  of  Lewis  co.,  N.  V.  It  has  3  cheese- 
factories.     Pop. lOJl. 

High  Places.  In  the  Old  Testament  frequent  men- 
tion is  made  of  high  places,  where  the  people  unlawfully 
went  to  worship  strange  gods.  The  custom  of  erecting 
shrines  upon  hilltops  is  a  very  ancient  and  widespread  one, 
and  seems  to  have  ari^^cn  from  the  belief  that  the  tops  of 
hills  were  nearer  the  abode  of  Deity.  In  spite  of  the  strong 
denunciations  of  the  practice  in  the  Jewish  law,  the  custom 
became  a  prevalent  one,  and  such  men  as  Samuel,  David, 
and  Elijah  conformed  to  it,  but  in  later  times  a  reform  oc- 
curred, and  the  more  devout  kings  of  Judah  actively  de- 
stroyed the  high  jdaces. 

High  Point,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Decatur  co.,  la.,  13 
miles  S.  of  Woodburn.     Pop.  79G. 

High  Point,  post-tp.  of  Guilford  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  1027. 

High  Prairie,  tp.  of  Leavenworth  co.,  Kan.  P.  1300. 

High  Priest,  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  Hebrews,  the 
princii)al  religions  dignitary  of  the  nation.  By  the  Mosaic 
law  the  office  was  held  for  life,  and  was  hereditary  in  the 
line  of  Elcazar,  son  of  Aaron,  the  first  high  priest.  But 
in  the  New  Testament  times  the  office  had  ceased  to  be 
hereditary,  and  was  held  at  the  will  of  the  civil  ruler. 
Some  of  these  officers  in  those  times  were  men  of  low  Mrth. 
One  of  the  most  brilliant  periods  of  this  pontificate  wns  that 
of  the  Asmona^an  princes  (Maccabees),  some  of  whom 
joined  regal  to  priestly  authority. 

High  Shoals,  tp.  of  lluthcrford  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  904, 

Higll'spire,  post-v.  of  Lower  Swatara  tp.,  Dauphin 
CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  and  on  the  N.  E.  bank 
of  the  Susquehanna,  6  miles  below  Ilarrisburg.     Pop.  012. 

High'towers,  tp.  of  Caswell  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1502. 

Hights'town,  post-b.  of  Mercer  co..  N.  J..  11  miles  N. 
E.  of  Trenton,  on  tlie  .\mboy  division  of  the  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  It  is  an  incorporated  borough,  containing  3  educa- 
tional institutes,  6  churches,  2  foundries,  2  hotels,  chain, 
plough,  and  door  factories.  1  newspaper,  and  2  national 
banks.     Pop.  of  borough,  1347. 

Tiios.  B.  Api'i.kget,  Ed.  "Gazette." 

High  Was'sie,  tp.  of  Pulaski  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1S07. 

Iligh'way,  a  road  or  way  over  which  the  public  at 
large  have  a  free  right  of  passage.  The  term,  in  popular 
usage,  is  commonly  restricted  to  ways  upon  land,  as  car- 
riage- or  foot-roads  or  turnpikes,  but  it  is  employed  in  law 
as  a  generic  designation,  including  not  only  ways  of  this 
kind,  but  also  watercourses  which  arc,  in  a  similar  manner, 
open  to  public  convenience,  as,  for  instance,  natural  streams. 
Ferries  are  also  sometimes  coinpreheuded  within  the  same 
category.  Highways  upon  land  are  created  cither  by  ex- 
press dedication  of  the  owner,  by  prescription,  or  iu  jmr- 
suancc  of  legislative  authority.  Dedication  occurs  when 
the  owner  of  the  property  appropriates  it  to  the  public  use 
as  a  common  passage-way,  and  there  is  a  sufficient  acccj>t- 
ance  of  the  privilege  on  the  part  of  the  |)ublie,  evidenced 
cither  by  jjositive  acknowledgment  und  assent  or  by 
constantly  enjoying  the  advantage  oiTcred.  A  right  is 
obtaine«i  by  prescription  by  a  continuous,  undisturbed 
use  of  the  land  as  a  common  way  for  a  particular  period 
of  time  established  by  law,  usually  twenty  years.  The 
validity  of  a  claim  originating  iu  this  manner  is  sus- 
tained by  the  fiction  of  a  presumed  grant  or  dedication  by 
the  owner  on  account  of  his  long  acquiescence  in  the  vio- 
lation of  liis  proprietary  rights.  (See  PiiKsntii'Tiox.)  But 
much  the  most  common  mode  of  establishing  public  ways 
is  by  the  exercise  of  the  governmental  prerogative  (jf  tak- 
ing private  properly  for  public  uses.  Laws  have  been  en- 
acted, both  in  Englainl  and  iu  the  several  States  of  the 
Union,  regulating  tin-  nuthods  Ipy  which  new  nmds  may  be 
laid  out  as  occasion  may  require.  The  authority  in  this 
country  is  usually  delegated  to  towns  or  bodies  of  commis- 
sioners, who,  in  conjunction  with  a  jury,  determine  unou 
the  necessity  of  a  road,  its  direction,  and  extent.  Iho 
commissioners  may  also  have  power  to  direct  its  construc- 
tion and  make  all  necessary  repairs.  As  this  is  an  inter- 
ference with  the  rights  of  private  owners  untlcr  the  luw  of 
Eminkst  Domain  (which  see),  adequate  compensation  must 
be  made  for  the  loss  which  they  sustain  in  conseijuencc. 
Tlii-*  power  must  never  bo  capriciously  or  arbitrarily  exer- 
cised, but  only  to  satisfy  a  public  necessity.  Hiirhways  by 
water,  in  the  case  of  natural  streams,  exist  independently 
of  the  granting  of  any  privilege  by  dedication  or  of  any 


918 


HIKA— HILDEBEKT  OF  TOURS. 


legiiilative  interposition  —  by  force  of  the  natural  right 
whioh  every  citizen  possesses  of  free  passage  along  all 
watercourses  not  of  artificiiil  construction. 

The  estahlishmont  of  a  highway  docs  not  necessarily 
give  Iho  public  a  right  of  owiicrshij)  in  the  soil  over  which 
the  privilege  of  passage  is  exercised.  It  is  a  general  rule, 
applying  both  tu  highways  upon  land  and  to  watercourses 
above  the  point  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  that  the 
property  in  the  soil  is  VL-sted  in  the  adjoining  owners.  If  a 
single  individual  own  the  land  upon  b«tth  .sides  of  a  road 
or  stream,  he  has  in  general  also  the  exclusive  title  to  the 
entire  highway  as  far  as  the  limits  of  his  estate  extend; 
but  if  the  proprietors  upon  the  opposite  sides  be  different 
persons,  the  right  of  each  extends  to  the  middle  of  the 
highway.  The  right  of  the  public  in  such  a  case  consti- 
tutes merely  an  easement,  and  though  this  is  so  far  restric- 
tive upon  the  owner's  management  and  control  of  his  prop- 
erty that  he  can  do  nothing  to  deprive  the  public  of  their 
privilege  of  free  passage  or  to  incommode  them,  yet  it 
must  be  enjoyed  simply  as  a  right  to  travel  over  the  land, 
and  an  obligation  rests  also  upon  the  public  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  owner's  interests  further  than  the  appropriate 
use  of  the  way  demands.  If  there  arc  trees  or  grass  grow- 
ing along  the  line  of  a  road,  the  ailjoiniug  owner  has  an  ex- 
clusive right  to  them,  as  against  all  but  the  public,  and  can 
maintain  an  action  against  any  one  who  attempts  to  carry 
them  away.  In  like  manner,  he  may  obtain  redress  for 
injuries  occasioned  by  encroachments  upon  the  soil,  or  un- 
lawful excavations,  or  any  violation  of  his  rights  as  owner 
which  is  not  strictly  incidental  to  the  public  privilege.  If 
there  arc  mines  beneath  the  surface  of  the  highway,  ho 
may  continue  to  work  them,  ])rovided  he  does  not  deprive 
the  public  of  the  right  of  way  or  impair  their  exercise  of 
it.  Under  similar  limitations  ho  may  construct  water- 
pipes  or  drains,  excavate  cellars,  etc.  below  the  surface. 
But  the  public  right  of  easement,  especially  in  villages  and 
cities,  somctimrs  includes  ])articular  privileges  not  directly 
incidental  to  the  right  of  transit,  but  so  important  and 
essential  for  the  common  welfare  of  communities  that  they 
are  deemed  to  be  included  within  the  interest  which  the 
public  acquires  by  establishing  the  highway.  For  instance, 
the  soil  nuiy  bo  opened  for  the  construction  of  sewers  or 
gas-  or  water-pipes  for  the  convenience  of  neighboring 
residents.  But  acts  of  this  nature  can  only  be  done  by 
virtue  of  public  authority,  and  if  any  individual  or  com- 
''bination  ui'  individuals  attempt  to  lay  gas-  or  watcr-]>ipcs 
without  obtaining  special  powers  for  that  purpose,  they 
commit  an  actionable  offence  fur  which  the  owner  may  seek 
redress.  But  nothing  additional  to  such  privileges  as  these 
is  embraced  within  the  easement  which  the  public  ac- 
quires: and  if  the  legislature  authorizes  the  use  of  the  soil 
for  other  purposes,  this  is  a  new  exercise  of  the  right  of 
eminent  domain,  for  which  further  compensation  must  be 
made.  Thus,  it  has  been  held  that  the  construction  of  a 
stcam-raiIro;id  is  not  a  legitimate  exercise  of  the  easement, 
and  that  for  such  a  use  of  the  highway  additional  compen- 
sation must  be  made  to  the  adjoining  proprietors.  Grants 
of  property  bounded  upon  a  highway  carry  with  them  the 
same  interest  in  the  soil  of  the  road  as  the  grantor  pre- 
viously possessed,  even  though  there  be  no  distinct  state- 
ment to  that  cficct.  Such  a  presumed  conve3-anco  can  only 
be  prevented  by  the  use  of  precise  expressions  in  the  deed 
of  transfer,  limiting  the  l)oundary  to  the  edge  of  the  way. 
The  statute  law  may,  as  it  sometimes  docs,  jirovidc  that  the 
entire  interest  in  the  land  over  which  the  highway  passes 
shall  vest  in  the  public.  This  is  the  case  with  the  modern 
streets  in  the  city  of  Now  York. 

The  public  right  of  transit  must  bo  entirely  unrestricted. 
If  obstructifms  he  placed  in  the  way  impeding  free  travel, 
they  will  constitute  public  nuisances,  and  will  affonl  ground 
for  an  indictment  or  for  a  private  action  by  any  person 
especially  discommoded.  They  may  also  bo  abated  or  re- 
moved by  any  one,  so  far  as  may  bo  necessary  to  ])ermit 
him  to  continue  on  his  way.  Moreover,  in  order  that  the 
privilege  of  passage  may  be  enjoyed  with  as  little  incon- 
venience as  possible,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  traveller  to 
observe  proper  care  to  avoid  collisions  and  accident.  To 
promote  this  desirable  end,  it  has  been  made  the  rule  in 
Englancl  that  vehicles  in  passing  each  other  must  keep  to 
the  left.  In  the  U.  S.  the  regulation  is  exactly  the  reverse 
— that  they  must  keep  to  the  right.  The  obligation  of  this 
requirement  ceases  when  one  tif  the  vehicles  is  confined  to 
a  specific  line  of  travel,  as  a  horse-car,  and  in  such  a  case 
the  other  carriage  may  turn  to  either  side.  In  England 
the  repair  of  highways  is  n  duty  obligatory  upon  the  in- 
habitants of  the  parishes,  and  they  may  be  indicted  if  they 
suffer  defects  to  continue  after  knowledge  of  their  exist- 
ence. In  the  t^  S.  the  liability  is  created  by  statute.  In 
New  England  the  duty  is  imposed  upon  the  towns,  and  a 
statutory  right  of  action  is  given  against  thcui  if  any  in- 
jury bo  sustained  by  u  traveller  in  consequence  of  their 


neglect.  In  other  States  the  obligation  devolves,  as  a 
general  rule,  upon  municipal  corporations,  such  as  cities 
and  villages,  while  towns,  which  are  usually  considered 
quasi  cor])<»ratious,  are  sometimes  made  liable,  as  in  New 
Eugland,  or  the  roads  within  their  limits  are  placed  under 
the  charge  of  specially-appointed  commissioners,  who  may 
be  subjected  to  an  action  if  they  fail  to  make  repairs  after 
they  arc  provided  with  the  means  to  obtain  the  requisite 
funds.  If  a  person  brings  an  action  for  an  injury  sustained 
through  a  defect  in  the  highway  against  the  body  bound 
to  make  repairs,  he  must  show  that  they  had  knowledge 
of  the  existence  of  the  alleged  <U'fect,  or  a  reasonable  op- 
portunity and  means  of  obtaining  such  knowledge.  If  the 
defect  or  obstruction  be  caused  by  a  resident  adjacent  to 
the  highway,  and  the  city  or  town  be  compelled  to  respond 
in  damages  to  a  person  injured  in  consequence,  a  suit  for 
indemnification  may  be  instituted  by  the  city,  etc.  in  its 
turn  against  the  party  primarily  responsible  by  reason  of 
his  uuauthorizeil  act  or  culpable  negligence. 

George  Chask.     Kevised  uv  T.  W.  Dwiciit. 
Mi'ka^  post-v.  of  Manitowoc  co.,  Wis.,  on  Lake  Mich- 
igan, 12  miles  N.  of  Sheboygan. 

lii'^kOf  post-tp.  of  Lincoln  co.,  Nev.,  215  miles  S.   of 

Elko.     Pop.  64;  of  tp.  110. 

Hillary.  Four  persons  of  this  name  are  prominent  in 
church  history  :  I.  HiLAnv  of  Arles,  Saist,  was  b.  at 
Aries,  in  S.  Gaul,  about  401  A.n. ;  was  persuaded  by  Hono- 
ratus,  afterwards  (42fi-420)  bisliop  of  his  native  place,  to 
enter  the  monastery  of  Lerins ;  in  429,  on  the  death  of 
Ilonoratus,  was  chosen  his  successor  in  the  see  of  Aries, 
and  d.  there  May  5,  449.  Zealous  in  discipline  and  strong 
of  will,  he  had  a  bitter  controversy  with  Pope  Leo  the 
Great,  which,  however,  was  amicably  settled  at  last.  He 
was  learned,  eloquent,  and  charitable  to  the  poor.  Ilis 
sermons,  it  Is  said,  were  sometimes  very  long  (four  hours), 
so  that  his  hearers  were  driven  into  the  novelty  of  sitting. 
His  Li/e  v/  llonoratim  is  in  the  Acta  Sauctorum,  Jan.  16. 
— II.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Saint,  "the  Atbanasius  of  the 
West,"  of  distinguished  but  heathen  parentage,  was  b.  at 
Poitiers  in  Central  Gaul. near  the  end  of  thclhird  cinlury; 
became  a  Christian  in  mature  life  after  prolonged  and 
careful  investigation  ;  was  chosen  bishop  of  Poitiers  about 
350 ;  in  .Ojj  was  banished  to  Phrygia,  because  he  would  not 
sanction  the  condemnation  of  Atbanasius ;  returned  to 
Poitiers  in  3G0,  and  d.  there  Jan.  13,  308.  He  was  one  of 
tho  ablest  meu  of  his  century — clear-headed,  incisive,  reso- 
lute, learned,  and  eloquent.  The  leading  characteristic  of 
his  career  was  tho  sharp  and  steady  war  he  waged  agiiinst 
Arianism.  The  earliest  edition  of  his  works  was  by  Eras- 
mus (Bale,  1j23)  ;  the  best  is  Ihe  Benedictine,  by  Constant 
(Paris,  1G03;  republishcil,  with  additions,  by  Maffei,  Ve- 
rona, 17.00).  (Sec  Reiskens's  lliiarius  von  J'oitierHf  18fi4.) 
— III.  HiLARV  the  Pope,  was  h.  (date  unknown)  in  Sar- 
dinia; while  deacon  at  Uomc,  under  Pope  Leo  the  Great, 
was  sent  as  legate  to  the  *' Kobber  Council"  at  Ephcsus 
(449  A.  D.);  succeeded  Leo  in  the  papal  chair  in  461,  being 
consecrated  Nov.  12,  two  day.s  after  the  death  of  Loo;  and 
d.  at  Romo  Feb.  21,  40S,  He  was  zealous  for  the  faith  and 
strict  in  discipline.  A  synod  which  met  in  Rome  Nov.  12, 
4Go,  passed  five  canons,  inspired  by  him,  endorsing  the 
canons  of  Nice,  and  forbidding,  amongst  other  things,  the 
ordination  of  men  twice  married  or  marrying  widows,  and 
forbidding  bishops  to  nominate  their  successors.  (See  Acta 
Sanctorum,  Vch.  21.) — IV.  lIii.AUV  THE  Beacon.  A  Roman 
deacon  of  this  name  was  sent  by  Pope  Liberius  (362-306 
a.  D.)  to  a  council  (attended  by  300  bishops)  which  met  at 
Milan  in  366.  He  appears  afterwards  to  have  joined  tho 
schism  of  Lucifer  (who  d.  371),  bishop  of  Cagliari  (Lat. 
Cnfan't)  in  Sardinia.  He  has  generally  been  ideutilicd 
with  tho  unknown  author  (.-VMituosiASTEit)  of  the  com- 
mentary on  the  Paulino  Epistles,  wrongly  ascribed  to 
Ambrose  of  Milan  ;  who  also  wrote  the  Qimntiouot  Veferh 
ft  Xovi  7\Hta„icutt,  wrongly  ascribed  to  Augustine.  But 
this  identification  is  now  questioned.  Tho  commentary 
on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  contains  passages  which  have  im- 
portant bearings  on  questions  of  church  polity. 

R.   I).    HiTCIKOCK. 

Hil'burn,  tp.  of  Madison  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  424. 
Ilildlnirirliairscn,  town  of  Germany,  in  Suxc-Mein- 

ingen,  was  once  the  capital  of  Saxe-Ilildliurghauscn.  It  is 
on  the  river  Wcrra  and  the  Eisenach-Coburg  Railway  ;  has 
a  gymnasium,  a  teachers'  school,  and  institutions  for  deaf- 
mutes  and  fur  the  insane,  besides  manufactures  of  consid- 
erable importance.     Po]k  6148, 

Hil'deliert  of  Tours,  the  most  celebrated  Latin  poet 
of  his  time.  b.  at  Lavardin.  in  the  Vermandois,  in  1067.  and 
educated  in  tho  monastery  of  Chigny.  In  10'.17  ho  was  ap- 
poinlefl  bishop  of  Mans,  and  in  1126  arehbisliop  of  Tours, 
where  he  d.  Dec.  18,  1134.    His  dogmatical  essays  have  in- 


H'.LDEBRAND— HILL. 


919 


Icrost  on  account  of  thoir  eyatemntio  form.  A  collected 
edition  uf  liis  works  was  published  in  1708  by  Beaogcndro. 
Ilildcbrand.  Sec  Gukoory  (VII.). 
IlirUcshuim,  town  of  (icrmauy,  in  Hanover,  on  the 
Inucrste.  It  contains  several  line  oiJ  uionumeuts,  as,  for 
iualiiucc,  the  cathedral,  built  in  lUlO,  nilh  ics  famous 
l.roiizB  galea  and  j;la9s-|iaintings;  tho  church  of  St.  Oodo- 
hard,  built  in  113J;  and  the  church  of  St.  Michael,  built 
in  1022.  It  has  a  lively  trade  in  corn,  lineu,  and  yarn. 
It  is  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop's  see.     Pop.  20,.s01. 

Uil'Ureth  (UioiiaroU  tho  son  of  Ucv.  Uosca  Hildrcth 
(17K2-1  <:;.■>),  b.  at  Dcerlicld.  Mass.,  Juno  2L'.  ISO",  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  U'20;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at 
Boston:  in  1S32  became  editor  of  tho  Boston  A:lua  ;  re- 
sided lS3-t-3J  in  Florida,  where  ho  wrote  Arch:/  iloore 
(l.Su7),  an  anti-slavery  tale,  republished  in  1SJ2  as  Tlic 
While  Slarc.  Ho  tr.inslated  Dnuiout's  version  of  Bcntham's 
Tlirorf  of  Lc'ilslaiiiiit  (IS  10, 2  vols.),  and  published  Hi-iloii/ 
n/Itantt  (U«r),  a  L!/e  o/  ir.  //.  Uirrlmn  (1S30),  whom 
ho  vigorously  supported  for  tho  Presidency,  and  Dcapotimn 
inAMtrka  ('l8jl),nn  auti-slavcry  work.  lie  resided  (1S40- 
43)  in  Dcmerara,  where  ho  edited  two  free-labor  journals. 
Ho  published  a  Thrunj  of  MoraU  (ISU)  and  a  Thmrii  nf 
Pullllvt  (1S03),  but  his  great  work  is  a  ]Ihti>nj  of  the  U.  S. 
(0  vols.,  1849-Jl)),  written  in  a  style  pure  but  without 
adornment.  Tho  author's  standpoint  is  an'.i-Jcifcrsonian. 
Ho  also  produced  Jap'in  «»  it  U'tin  imil  h  (IT-jJ)  and  .ifro- 
cxmit  Jml'/cA  (IfiJO),  prepared  from  Lord  Cr.mpbeirs  Hres. 
Ho  was  for  several  years  on  the  editorir.l  stnl'  of  tho  Xcv/ 
York  Tribmic.  and  bcenmo  V.  S.  consul  at  Trieste  in  ISGl. 
D.  nt  Florence,  Italy,  July  11,  ISCJ. 

Hildrcth  (^^.uiiki.  Prhscott),  .M.  P.,  b.  at  MctUucn, 
M,  ,  .  1,1.  .'•.;i,  17S:i;  studied  nicdicino  with  Dr.  Kittrid;;o 
1  ',  .  ',  r;  removed  from  New  liampshiro  to  I!elpr6,  0., 
iu  1  .'.,  .uid  to  Marietta,  0.,  in  l''«S.  Ho  was  a  valued 
contributor  to  periodicals,  and  prepared  various  scicutiiio 
and  genealo„'ieal  papers,  etc.  llo  wrote  a  J/i-ilori/  nf  the 
Diti-imrt  ,Hid  Clim>ile  of  Smilh-casltrn  O/no  (1"37), //.sfory 
of  /IrllerHle  in  West  Virginia  (1S.".7),  Pioiicfrll'-istur:!  ( 1 S4S), 
/,irf»  of  Eiirli/  Seillrre  of  Ohio  (lSi2),  .".nd  other  works. 
Ilia  valuable  library  and  scientific  coUcetions  ho  gave  to 
Marietta  College.     D.  July  24,  1SC3. 

Ilil'gard  (Euobne  \Va!.di:>hr),  Ph.  D.,  b.  in  Zwei- 
bruckcn,  Khenish  Bavaria,  Jan.  a,  ISol :  emigrated  with 
his  father  to  Bellville,  111..  ls:;i-30;  in  1S4',I  returned  to 
Europe,  and  studied  at  tho  .\eadcmy  of  Mines,  Freiberg, 
Germany  ;  also  at  tho  universities  of  ZUrieh  and  Heidel- 
berg, graduating  at  Heidelberg  in  1863;  in  lS3j  returned 
to  the  V.  S.,  and  became  assistant  State  geologist  of  Mis- 
sissippi; in  1SJ7  was  in  charge  of  the  laboratory  at  the 
.Smiihsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  in  ISjS  was 
appointed  State  geologist  of  .Mississippi.  Since  1S71  ho 
has  held  that  ofliec  in  connection  with  the  ehiiir  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry  in  the  State  University  at  Oxford,  Miss. 
In  1''73  bo  look  a  similar  position  in  tho  University  of 
Miilii-an.  and  in  l'<74  wa  '  elected  professor  of  agriculture 
in  the  University  of  California,  wliiih  jiosition  ho  still  oceu- 
pics  ( I.S7  J).  Author  of  a  report  on  the  geology  and  agricul- 
ture of  iMiasissippi,  and  various  papers  on  chemical  and 
geological  subjects,  chiefly  on  the  geology  of  Limisiana  and 
of  the  .Mississippi  delta,  in  the  Am.  Jour,  of  Science;  is  a 
member  of  the  National  .\caderay  of  Sciences. 

Ililgard  (Jrurs  Erasmus),  h.  ,Tan.  7,  1S25,  in  Zwci- 
briieken,  (Jerinany;  emigrated  in  18;i.i  to  Illinois  with  his 
father,  from  whom  he  reecived  a  classical  education  :  studied 
civil  engineering  in  Philailel|diia;  in  184.5cutcrcd  the  Coast 
Sirvcy  service,  which  has  been  the  principal  sphere  of  his 
la'iors,  and  to  the  success  of  which  he  has  largely  contrib- 
uted. His  writings  on  geodetic  methods,  tides,  and  terres- 
trial magnetism  arc  published  in  tho  Coast  Survey  reports 
and  in  various  scientilie  journals.  In  1S02  he  took  charge 
of  the  Coast  .Purvey  olhee,  and  of  the  const  ruction  of  stand- 
ard weiglits  and  measures,  a  position  whieb  be  still  retains  ; 
in  lH(i3  ho  was  named  a  mc-mber  of  tho  National  .\cademy 
of  Sciences;  in  1S72  look  an  active  part  in  the  interna- 
tional metric  commission  which  met  at  Paris,  and  was 
chosen  a  member  of  its  perinaiient  eoniinittee.  He  at  the 
same  time  conducted  a  iletennimition  by  telegriiph  of  tho 
longitude  between  .\meriea  and  Europe,  including  that  be- 
tween the  observatories  of  Greenwii-h  and  Paris.  Was 
eleirti'd  president  of  tho  Am.  Assoc,  fur  tho  Adv.  of  Sci.  in 

isri. 

lIilanrd(TiiKonoBECnAni.i".s),.M.P.,b.  inZwcibriicken, 
Oermaiiv.  Feb.  2S,  182S:  came  to  the  li.  S.  in  lis:ij,  and 
aflerwiirds  iMimpletcd  his  edueation  al  the  (terinan  universi 
lies;  settleil  as  u  physician  in  Si.  Li>uis,  and  devoted  inneh 
time  to  the  mieniscopic  atudy  of  zymotic  fungi  and  the 
circuita  of  generation  of  the  lower  forms  of  life.  His  pii]MTs 
on  then  and  kindred  subjects — aueh  us  frcah-water  ulgo), 


tho  spawn  of  mosses,  natural  orders  of  Ihe  vegetable  king- 
dom, phyllolaxy,  and  tho  genetic  explanation  of  its  uu- 
racricftl  law,  the  numerical  low  of  the  vertebrate  system, 
contributions  to  the  physiology  of  sight,  and  other  essays 
— are  published  in  the  Tntntoctioni*  of  the  St.  Louis  .\eade- 
my  of  Science  and  in  those  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  1).  Mar.  6, 1875,  of  pneu- 
monia, aged  forty-seven. 

Ililgard  (Tiieodor  ERAS«t:s),  b.  in  Nassau,  Germany, 
July  7,  17'JO  ;  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Paris;  counsel- 
lor at  law  at  Treves  during  the  empire,  ami  after  the  resto- 
ration of  Ihe  Khenish  provinces  to  Germany  judge  of  the 
court  of  appeals  at  Zweibriickcn.  While  hobling  this  po- 
sition he  published  a  series  of  reports  on  the  working  of 
the  French  system  of  jurisprudence  and  tho  Code  Na- 
poleon, which  remained  operative  in  those  German  prov- 
inces, contributing  largely  to  the  preservation  and  exten- 
sion of  that  system.  He  was  during  live  years  member  of 
the  provincial  .assembly,  maintainiug  the  right  of  local  self- 
government,  but,  dispirited  by  the  reaction  toivards  abso- 
lutism under  the  influence  of  Austria,  he  emigrated  in  1835 
to  Iho  U.  S.  with  a  family  of  nine  children,  whose  educa- 
tion he  personally  directed  at  his  newhome  in  Illinois.  He 
afterwards  returned  to  Germany,  and  settled  in  Heidelberg, 
where  he  d.  Feb.  14,  1873.  Author  of  publications  on  im- 
portant social  questions,  such  as  pauperism,  the  dcalh- 
pcnally,  woman's  rights,  and  the  war-power.  He  also 
published  metrical  translations  into  the  German  language 
of  Ovid,  Homer,  and  Moore,  an  original  poem  entitled  The 
Iluitdrcd  Dniji,  and  many  minor  poems. 

Hill,  county  of  N.  Central  Texas.  Area,  950  square 
miles.  It  is  half  prairio  and  half  timber  land.  The  soil 
is  fertile.  Tho  chief  products  are  cattle,  maize,  aud  eot- 
toa.  Tho  Braios  forms  part  of  tho  western  boundary.  Cap. 
Hillsborough.     Pop.  7453. 

Hill,  post-tp.  of  Merrimack  CO.,  N.  U.,  on  tho  Northern 
R.  U.,  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Coiioaid.  It  has  manufacturca 
of  furniture,  carriages,  etc.     Pop.  G20. 

Hill,  tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  N.  0.     Pop.  477. 
Hill  (.Vmbrosf.  Powell),  b.  in  Culpcper  co.,  Va.,  152^  ; 
graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  July  1,  1S17,  aud 
appointed  in  tho  army  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artillery, 
receiving  his  full  commission  tho  following  month,  aud  pro- 
moted to  be  first  lieutenant  Sept.,  1851.     Repairing  at  onco 
to  the  seat  of  war  in  Mexico,  ho  was  in  time  lo  participate 
at  Huamantla  aud  .Vtlixco;  subsequently  serving  in  gar- 
rison and  on  frontier  duty,  aud   in  the  field   in  Florida 
against  tho  hostile  Semin'olcs,  until   1855,  when   ho  was 
placed  on  duty  in  tho  Coast  Survey  ofiice  at  Washington, 
where  he  remained  until  Oct.,  18110,  from  which  Latter  data 
he  was  on  leave  of  absence  to  .Mar.,  18l'il,  when  ho  resigned 
his  commission  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  his  native  State. 
On  the  secession  of  Virginia  he  was  appointed  colonel  13th 
Virginia  Vols.,  and  despatched  to  Harper's  Ferry,  rejoining 
tho  army  at  aud  engaged  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
Promoted  to  be  brigadier-general,  he  was  dislinguished  at 
the   battle  of  Williamsburg,  and  advanced   to  be  major- 
general.     In  the  succeeding  operations  on  the  Peninsula  he 
bore  a  prominent  part,  and  gained  a  lirillianl  reputation  as 
a  division  couuuandcr.     In  .\ug.,  1S«2,  his  divisiou  was 
added  to  Jackson's  force  in  Nortlierii  Virginia,  arriving  in 
time  lo  reniler  important  aid  in  tho  defeat  of  Gen.  Banks 
at  Cedar  .Mountain   (Aug.,  1SG2),  and   in   Iho  succeeding 
battles  of  Bull  Run  and  Chantilly.    In  the  following  month 
ho  received  the  surrender  of  Harper's  Ferry,  and  luirryiiig 
forward  arrived  with  his  coMiinaiul  at  .Vnlielain  at  the  crit- 
ical moment  when  he  was  most  needed.    .Vt  Fredericksburg 
his  division  formed  the  right  "t  Jackson's  command,  which 
cneounlered  Iho  vigorous  assault  of  Union  troops  under 
.Meade,  and  which  was  finally  repulsed  ;  al  Chaneellorsville, 
still   with  Jackson,  he  participated   in  the  lamous  Hank 
movement  which  broke  tho  F'edcral  lines,  and  on  the  dcalh 
of  Jackson  assumed  command  of  the  corps,  himself  being 
wounded  soon  tbereuflcr.     F'or  gallantry  on  this  occasion 
he  was  ])iomoied  to  bo  liontenanl-gcneral  and  placed  in 
command  of  one  of  the  three  corps  composing  the  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia.      In  the  campaign  of  18114-1)5  he  was 
I  indefatigable    in    his   exertions,    eominainling  with    great 
ability  at  all  Ihe  bloody  conflicts  from  the  WiMcriuss  lo 
tho  final  assault  of  the  Confederate  lines  beforo  Petersburg, 
Apr.   2,    18115,    where   he   displayed   the  grcatcsl   bravery, 
meeting  his  death  by  a  rifle-shoi  while  engaged  in  recon- 
noitering  at  the  nioinent  it   was  decided  that  Richmond 
could  no  longer  be  held.  G.  C.  Sim.moxs. 

Hill  (IlENJAMis  Harvev),  b.  in  Jasper  co.,  Ga.,  Sept. 
I  I.  IS23,  of  Irish  descent  on  the  lather's  side,  and  of  Eng- 
lish on  the  mother's  side;  graduated  at  the  Stale  Univer- 
sity with  higli  honor  in  IMI:  sliiiliel  law,  an.l  entered 
the  profession  at  La  Grange,  Ga.,  in  Aug.,  1845,  in  which 


920 


HILL. 


he  has  since  attained  great  eminence;  in  ISol  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  legislature  from  Troup  county  a;^  a  Union 
man;  in  ISjj  was  defeated  forC"ougre!>s  by  the  Hon.  Uiraui 
Warner  (in  this  race  ho  was  supjiurted  by  the  American  or 
"Know-Nothing"  party,  as  it  was  then  called,  though  he 
did  not  advocate  the  ritual  or  secrcsy  of  the  organization, 
and  disavowed  membership  with  it);  in  1800  was  elector 
at  large  on  the  Fillmore  or  American  party  ticket,  and  by 
his  canvass  of  the  State  this  year  made  much  reputation 
as  an  orator  and  a  popular  speaker;  in  1S57  was  run  with- 
out success  by  the  same  party  as  their  candidate  for  the 
office  of  governor;  in  ISJ'J  was  returned  to  the  State  sen- 
ate as  a  linion  man  ;  was  elected  a  trustee  of  tbo  State 
University  in  1855;  in  ISfiO  was  run  as  an  elector  for  the 
State  at  large  on  the  Bell-Kverctt  ticket ;  was  a  member 
of  the  seccs.^ion  convoution  of  Jan.,  ISOl;  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  Union  until  the  convention  passed  a  reso- 
lution delaring  that  the  State  ought  to  secede;  ho  then 
voted  for  the  ordinance,  and  cast  his  fortunes  with  those 
of  all  other  citizens  of  the  State,  earnestly  resisting  coer- 
cion as  the  only  means  of  avoiding  the  calamity  of  subju- 
gation. He  was  elected  to  the  provisional  Confederate 
Congress  that  met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  on  Feb.  4,  18G1 ; 
at  the  fall  session  of  the  State  legislature  the  same  year 
he  was  elected  to  the  Confederate  Senate,  in  which  body  Iio 
served  until  the  end  of  the  war.  lie  was  arrested  at  his 
home,  La  Grange,  (la.,  in  May,  18Gj,  and  confined  in  Fort 
La  Fayette,  Xew  York,  until  July  following,  when  ho  was 
released  on  parole.  In  1SG7  he  presided  over  the  conven- 
tion heUl  at  Maeon,  Ga.,  for  the  purpose  of  reorganizing 
the  Denioeratie  party  ;  in  this  and  the  next  year  ( 1868)  ap- 
peared his  celebrated  jVoCcj?  on  the  Situation,  embodying 
arguments  of  great  power  against  the  reconstruction  policy 
of  Congress  ;  on  July  4,  186H,  was  delivered  in  Atlanta  his 
famous  "Bush-Arbor"  speech;  in  the  fall  of  1870  ho 
issued  an  Addrrns  to  t'le  People  of  Georgia,  which  brought 
upon  him  severe  censure  from  many  quarters  previously 
friendly  to  him;  he,  however,  is  understood  to  maintain 
that  it  was  but  a  step  in  advance  toward  that  position 
afterwards  taken  by  other  distinguished  leaders  of  the 
Democratic  party  throughout  the  Union,  known  as  the 
"  New  Departure,"  and  the  jtoliey  of  which  culminated  in 
the  nominations  made  and  the  platform  adopted  by  the 
national  convention  of  the  Democratic  party  in  1872  at 
Baltimore.  Mr.  Ilill  therefore  supported  the  "Greeley 
movement"  with  all  the  zeal  and  eloquence  he  could  com- 
mand. On  this  line  of  policy  he  c:>mpeted  in  Jan.,  lS7"i, 
for  a  scat  iu  the  U.  S.  Senate  which  was  to  become  vacant 
in  thi^  March  following  by  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
lion.  Joshua  llill.  There  were  two  other  candidates  for 
the  same  office.  One  of  these  was  Gen.  John  B.  Gordon, 
who,  though  he  had  supported  Mr.  Greeley  as  the  nominee 
of  his  party,  disapproved  of  the  principles  set  forth  in  the 
"New  Departure"  platform.  The  other  was  Alexander 
H.  Stephens,  who  had  bcr-n  utterly  opposed  to  the  election 
of  Mr.  Greeley,  as  well  as  to  any  departure  from  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  Jofforsonian  Democracy.  In  this 
tri:in;;nlar  contest  Gen.  Gordon  bore  off  the  palm.  Mr. 
Hill's  .-poech  pending  the  canvass  on  this  occasion,  in  vin- 
dication of  his  course,  and  in  urging  the  Democracy  of 
Georgia  to  stand  by  the  policy  adopted  at  Baltimore  in 
1872,  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  his  life.  He  is  still  (Mar., 
1875)  in  the  full  vigor  of  body  and  intellect,  and  hisfriends 
look  forward  with  confident  expectation  to  his  acquiring 
much  higher  honors  and  distinction  in  the  future  than  any 
yet  attained  in  his  past  career.  A.  II.  Stcpiii:ns. 

Hill  (Daniel  Harvey),  b.  in  South  Carolina  in  1S2T  ; 
graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and  was  ap- 
pointed brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July  1,  1812; 
tran.^ferrrd  to  the  infantry  in  ls.17,  with  rank  of  first  lieu- 
tenant. Callril  to  active  duty  in  the  field  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  he  served  with  distinction  from  Monterey  to 
the  final  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  winning  the  brevet 
of  captain  for  gallantry  at  Contreras  and  Churubnsco,  and 
that  of  major  for  Chapultcpec  ;  in  addition  to  which  he  was 
presented  by  his  native  State  with  a  sword  of  honor.  In 
Feb.,  18111,  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  acccptecl  the 
chair  of  mathematics  in  AVashington  College,  Va.,  which  he 
filled  until  1S54;  that  of  mathematics  and  engineering  in 
Davidson  College,  N.  C,  1851-50,  whrn  he  assumed  super- 
intendoncy  of  the  North  Carolina  Military  Institute  at 
Charlotte.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  ho  at  once 
offered  his  services  in  support  of  the  cause  of  the  Confed- 
eracy,and  as  colonel  1st  North  Carolina  Yoh.  was  engaged 
at  the  liffair  of  Big  Bethel,  Va.,  June,  iSCd.  Speedily  pro- 
m'jted  to  bo  mnjor-general,  he  comman<led  a  division  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Days'  fight  on  tho  Virginia  Peninsula,  re- 
maining in  command  of  tho  James  on  the  dnparturo  of  tho 
main  army  of  Gen.  L**e  for  Northern  Virginia,  but  rojoin- 
ing  it  in  soason  to  partieipate  in  the  hattlos  of  South  Hloun- 
tain  and  Antietam,  where  he  led  his  division,  as  subsequently 


at  Fredericksburg.  Detached  for  a  period  during  1SG3  on 
duty  iu  North  Carolina,  he  was  in  September  at  the  battle 
of  Chickamauga,  Ga.,  an<l  in  18G4  at  Bermuda  Hundred, 
Va.  At  the  timoof  the  capitulation  of  the  armies  his  divis- 
ion was  among  the  command  of  Gen.  Johnston,  who  sur- 
.  rendered  at  Durham  Station.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
returned  to  Charlotte,  N.  C.  and  published  The  fiefdand 
the  Farm.  Among  his  works  published  prior  to  18G1  are  Ele- 
mcntH  of  Air/(hra.  Considcrfittuno/  the  Strniou  ox  the  Mount, 
The  CruriJixioH  of  Christ.  G.  C.  SlMStoss. 

Hill  (IsAAr),  b.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Apr.  G,  1788; 
was  ajjprenticed  in  youth  to  a  printer  at  Amherst,  N,  H. 
In  18UU  he  became  editor  of  the  New  Hampshire  I'atrioty 
which  was  long  one  of  the  ablest  Jeffer?onian  or  Demo- 
cratic journals  in  the  country.  In  1824  he  was  second 
comptroller  of  tho  V .  S.  treasury  ;  U.  S.  Senator  18:10-30  ; 
governor  of  New  Hampshire  18.30-31),  and  afterwards  was 
ij.  S.  sub-treasurer  at  Boston.  He  again  edited,  with  his 
sons,  the  Patriot  (1840-47),  and  for  fifteen  years  he  pub- 
lished The  Parmer's  Monthly   Vinitor.      D.  Mar.  22,  1851. 

Hill  {John  Henhy),  D.D.,  LL.D., b.  Sept.  1 1 ,  179 1,  in  New 

York  City  ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  ;  became  a  min- 
ister of  the  Protestant  Episcoj)al  Church;  has  now  (1875) 
been  a  missionary  at  Athens,  Greece,  for  forty-five  years, 
and  for  thirty  years  chaplain  to  the  British  legation  in 
Greece. 

Hill  (Joshua),  h.  in  Abhevillc  district,  S.  C,  in  1812; 
removed  to  Georgia  early  in  life;  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Georgia 
from  1857  to  18G1,  when  he  resigned  his  seat  after  the  con- 
vention of  his  State  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession  in 
Jan.  of  that  year,  though  he  was  strongly  opposed  to  that 
measure.  During  the  war  he  took  no  part  on  either  side, 
except  that  he  allowed  his  friends  to  run  him  for  govrrnor 
of  the  State  in  18G3.  After  the  war  he  was  a  member  of 
tho  constitutional  convention  called  in  pur.>;uancc  of  the 
proclamation  of  Pres.  Johnson,  and  which  met  in  Nov., 
ISGj.  He  took  a  prominent  and  leading  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  that  body,  and  was  n  candidate  for  the  office 
of  U.  S.  Senator  before  the  legislature  of  ISGfi.  Upon  his 
failure  of  election  on  that  occasion,  he  left  the  State  and 
took  np  his  residence  in  Washington  City.  In  18C8,  after 
another  constitution  was  formed  and  another  legislature 
was  elected  under  the  reconstruction  acts  of  Congress,  he 
was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator  for  the  terra  which  expired  upon 
Mar.  4.  1873.  A.  II.  Stkphi:ns. 

Hill  (Rowland),  an  eccentric  divine,  b.  at  Hawkstone, 
England,  Aug.  13,  1744;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  St, 
John's,  Cambridge;  became  a  Calvinistic  Methodist ;  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  though  six  bishojis  refused 
his  ordination  on  account  of  his  Mclhodistic  opinions;  be- 
came an  itinerant,  and  in  1773  became  rector  of  King,-*ton, 
Somerset;  minister  of  the  Surrey  chapel,  London,  1782- 
1833  ;  and  was  remarkable  for  wit,  eloquence,  and  success 
as  a  preacher.  D.  in  London  Apr.  11,  1833.  He  was  a 
son  of  Sir  Richard  Hill.  Bart. — Ilis  brother,  Sin  Rhfiaud 
(1733-1808),  was  also  an  active  and  successful  Calvinistic 
Methodist  preacher. 

Hill  (Rowi.ANn),ViscorsT,nephewofthe great  preacher, 
b.  at  Frees,  Shropshire,  Aug.  11.  1772;  entered  the  army 
in  1700  ;  served  with  the  greatest  distinction  in  most  of  tho 
battles  against  Napoleon  in  which  the  British  participated 
from  Toulon  to  Waterloo  :  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1814  ;  took  the  chief  command  in  1828,  and  became  a  vis- 
count in  1842.  D.  near  Shrewsbury  Dec.  10,  1842.  Hill 
was  called  the  "right  arm  of  W.ellington,"  and  was  tho 
mostpifpular  general  in  the  British  army. 

Hill  (Sir  Rowland).  K.  C.  R.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at 
Kidderminster  in  Oct.,  1796  ;  entered  the  British  civil  ser- 
vice in  I'^.'l.'t,  and  in  1837  brought  forward  in  a  pam|dilet  a 
plan  for  uniform  penny  postage,  which  was  a«loptfd  in 
1840;  was  ehictly  employed  in  postal  and  railway  nflfairs, 
and  was  the  recipient  of  abumlant  honors  and  pensions, 
the  result  of  his  labors  for  postal  reform.     D.  Aug.  27, 1879. 

Hill  (TnoHAs),  D.  D.,  ]*L.D.,  Unitarian  minister  and 
:  mathematician,  b.  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan.  7,  1818. 
His  parents  were  poor,  but  the  I)oy's  thirst  for  knowledge 
overcame  all  difficulties;  he  entered  Harvard  Cullt-ge  in  the 
clas.-^  of  1S43:  gave  two  years  to  the  study  of  theology; 
was  settled  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  184.');  was  nnide  president 
of  Antioch  College  is:)l»;  of  Harvard  College  18G2;  resigned 
in  ISGS  on  account  of  ill-health;  retired  to  Waltham;  ac- 
companied Agassi?,  on  the  expedition  to  South  America  ; 
acceptetl  on  his  return  a  call  to  Portland,  Jle.,  where  ho  still 
preaches  (I S7ri).  His  mathematical  genius  showed  itselt 
early,  and  distinguished  him  in  college.  As  a  mathe- 
matician he  miKht  have  reached  eminence  bail  he  not  pre- 
ferred tho  otli<'e  of  a  Christian  minister  to  any  sfirntific 
position.     Mr.    Hill   is  a  man   of  remarkable   intellectual 


HILLA— HILLSBORO". 


921 


power,  aad  of  sin^^ular  simplicity  and  devoutness  of  heart, 
and  hi:j  iimbiliun  is  to  make  science  tributary  to  faith,  lie 
bna  published  a  vuluuic  of  pueiim  (Cambridge,  184.3),  an 
elcmentiiry  treatise  on  arithmetic  (1840),  (Jeometry  and 
Faith  i  I  MO  and  1874).  a  treatise  on  curves  (1860), /'I'rW 
LesKoiit  in  Geonictn/  (iSio),  Librrnl  Education  (1856),  The 
True  Ordrr  itf  Studies,  JemiH  the  Interpreter  <>/  iVntnre  ( 18511), 
Thf:  ytttuntl  SoHrre9  uf  Theoloijtf  (1876),  being  tivo  articles 
reprinted  from  the  fiiblintheca  Sacra.  Mr.  Hill's  distinction 
is  as  a  mathematician;  his  special  distinction  is  as  a  dis- 
coverer in  the  laws  of  curves.  0.  li.  I'ltoTinsGHAM. 

IIiria,or  Ilil'lah,  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  pro  v- 
incc  of  liui^diifl.  un  the  Kuphrates,  which  liero  is  4J0  foct 
broad  and  erossi-d  by  a  floating  bridge.  It  has  nianufuc- 
toriesof  silk.",  tanneries,  dyeing  establishments,  and  largo 
bazaars.     It  is  built  on  the  ruins  of  liabylon.      Pop.  fiUUU. 

Hil'lard  (Gkorgb  Stillman),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Machias, 
Me.,  riepr.  22,  1808,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1S28. 
He  tauijht  for  a  time  in  the  Uound  Hill  .^^chool,  Northamp- 
ton, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  ISIl.'l  at  Bustoa  In 
1833  he  became  one  of  the  e  liturs  of  the  Cltriatmn  Ile^iit'  r 
(Unitarian),  and  was  afterwards  eonnected  editorially  with 
the  Jiirint  and  the  Boston  Courier.  He  took  a  high  position 
at  the  bar.  and  ]>nblislied  Six  Muuthn  in  Itnhf  (1863),  Life 
of  G.  a.  Mrf'h/l.tn  /  lJ*U  t),  /'>-f{tirnf  DutifH  of  the  Edurated 
Vlnnnt-n,  nnd  educational  works,  etc.     I).  Jan.  21,  1879. 

Ilil'lcar,  tp.  of  Knox  co.,  0.     Pop.  931. 

lliric'ly  TilK  GiiEATorTHU  Kldeee  {IfaznlenoT  ffaam- 
i-c;i),  b,  at  Babylon  about  75  B.  c,  or,  as  others  say,  110 
B.  c;  became  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Jewish  rabbis. 
eminent  alike  for  wisdom,  holiness,  and  learning;  went 
about  .'iti  B.  c.  to  Jerusalem,  and  worked  witli  his  hand^ 
for  his  living,  at  the  same  period  attending  the  lectures  of 
the  principal  officL-rs  of  the  Sanhedrim,  of  which,  about  30 
B.  c,  ho  became  president,  retaining  that  exalted  position 
till  his  death,  in  A.  n.  He  became  the  founder  of  the 
*'  school  of  Hillel,"  which  numberecl  thousands  of  ailhercnts, 
while  Shamniai,  vice-presid'-'nt  of  the  S.vnhedrim,  was  at 
the  heal  of  the  rival  ''school  of  Sharamai."  The  two 
schools  disputed  mainly  about  questions  of  the  law  and 
discipline  in  sacred  things  ;  Hillel's,  which  was  the  more 
liberal  party,  tiujilly  becoming  the  dominant  one. — Hili.el 
THE  YouN«i:n,  a  descendant  of  the  foregoing,  became  pres- 
ident of  the  Sanhedrim  and  head  of  tho  school  of  Tiberias, 
as  some  say  in  268  a.  d.,  dying  in  320;  or,  as  others  say, 
was  chosen  president  330  a.  p.,  and  d.  before  400.  Dis- 
tinguished as  the  great  reformer  of  tho  Jewish  calendar. 

Iliirffrove,  post-v.  of  AVashington  tp.,  Darko  co.,  0. 
l'..|,.  117. 

Uitriionse  (Jamks),  LI-.D.,  b.  at  Montvillo,  Conn., 
Oct.  '21,  17jl:  gnvluatcj  at  Yale  in  1773.  His  fathor, 
Willi;im.  who  (1.  in  1316,  was  a  member  of  tho  Continental 
Con^ri.'ss  17S:i-Sfi,  ancl  forty  years  a  jud^e  in  Connecticut. 
Dr.  Ilillhouso  was  a  lawyer,  Sirrvcil  against  Tryon  in  tho 
Kevuhition,  was  a  mcrai»cr  of  Congr<'SS  17'Jl-i)l,  l^.  S.  .Sen- 
ator from  Connecticut  1791-ISlO,  and  held  many  offices 
of  trust  and  honor.     D.  at  New  Haven  Dec.  29,  lS.i2. 

Ilillhonse  (.Iamks  .\bii\ihm),  a  poet,  son  of  .lames 
Hillli  M1SI-.  b.  at  N'ew  Haven,  Conn.,  Sept.  26,  I'.S'.I,  nnd 
pradiiatcd  at  Vale  in  IHOS  ;  l)ccamo  a  merchant  in  New 
York,  and  in  1822  marrietl  and  retired  from  bu.siness.  Hi.s 
principal  poemn  were  T/ir  Jtiitymritt  (1812),  Pt-rcf/'s  Mum^iie 
(I.S20),  nnd  Ilii'l  id  (l.S2i).  His  collected  works  in  2  vols, 
appeared  in  1.s:i'J.     D.  at  New  Haven  Jan.  4,  1811. 

Iliriinrd,  post-v.  of  Norwich  tp.,  Franklin  co.,  0.,  on 
the  Columbus  ('hicago  and  Indianapolis  Central  U.K.,  9 
m\U■^  N.  \\ .  of  Columbus.     Pop.  2S2. 

Ililliard  (11i'>!hy  WAsniNiiToy),  b.  in  Cumberland  oo., 
N.  C.,  .\ug.  8,  ISIIS;  graduated  at  the  South  (Jarolina  Col- 
lego  in  C«)Iumbia  in  1826  ;  soon  after  ho  moved  to  Athens, 
Ga.,  where  in  1829  ho  was  admiltod  lo  the  bar;  in  ISIil 
was  elected  to  a  profiissorship  in  tho  AliLliannl  University 
at  Tuscaloosa,  which  position  he  lilleil  with  distinction  for 
three  years;  then  resigning,  ho  resumeil  the  jtractiee  of  law 
at  .Montgomery  in  that  .State,  which  ho  pursued  with  nr'b>r 
nnd  distinguished  sucess.  lie  was  a  member  of  tho  Har- 
ris!.urg  Whig  Convention  in  Islu,  and  zeiilnusly  suppoiteil 
the  ninnination  of  Harrison,  though  Mr.  Clay  was  the  man 
of  his  choice  f()r  tht^  Presidency  at  that  lime.  He  was  a 
member  of  tho  .State  legislature  in  ls;i8,  and  was  a  Presi- 
dential elector  on  tho  Whig  ticket  in  1810.  In  1812  he 
was  appointed  by  Pros.  Tyler  minister  lo  Ilolgium.  and 
afterwards  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Alabama  from 
I8I.'»  t<i  I8.'(I,  when  he  declined  being  again  a  candidate. 
He  was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  Compromise  measures  of 
18.ift.  In  IS.'ifi  he  was  a  eanditlnle  on  tho  Fillmore  electoral 
ticket  of  .Mabama.  and  also  on  the  IJell-Kverett  ticket  in 
1800.  Ho  opposed  secession  in  1861  with  all  his  might, 
bnt   after   tho  convention  of  Alabama  pussed   their  ordi- 


nance of  secession  ho  espoused  the  cause  of  hia  State  with 
firmness  and  flecision.  He  acceptetl  from  Pros,  Davis  tho 
appointment  of  commissioner  to  Tennessee,  and  met  with 
signal  success  in  the  objects  of  his  mission.  Ho  also  accept- 
ed the  commission  of  brigadier-general  in  the  provisional 
army  of  tho  Confederate  States.  After  the  war  he  returned 
to  (ieorgia.  when  he  resumed  tho  practice  of  law,  first  at 
Augusta,  and  then  at  .Mlanta.  where  ho  now  (Mar.,  1875) 
resides.  Mr.  Hilliard  has  through  life  evinced  quite  as 
much  fondness  for  letters  as  for  legal  or  political  distinc- 
tion ;  has  been  a  preacher  of  tho  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  .South.  A  volume  of  his  speeches  was  published 
in  18o5,  and  since  the  war  he  has  contributed  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  country  a  work  entitled  lie  rone,  a  Siorif  of 
Plebeians  and  Patriciaufi.     U.  S.  Minister  to  Brazil  1877. 

A.  H.  Steciik.vs. 

Iliriiardsvillc,  post-tp.,  Henry  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1867. 

Hills  (Ai.rKF.ii  KiMB.ii.i.),  M.  D.,  b.  Oct.  2.'),  IS  10,  at 
Hudson,  N.  II. :  studied  in  the  Massachusetts  Jledieal  Col- 
lege and  tho  llabnetuann  College.  Philadelphia;  took  his 
medical  degree  1870;  professor  of  materia  mcdica  in  New 
York  Medical  College  and  Hospital  for  Women  since  1871 ; 
surgeon  to  New  Y'ork  Ophthalmic  Hospital.  Author  of 
professional  jiapers. 

HiHs  (Uight  Kcv.  GEonGE),  D.  D.,  Protestant  Episco- 
pal bishop  of  lirilish  Columbia,  b.  in  England  in  1817,  a 
son  of  Kear-admiral  Hilts,  was  educated  at  Durham  Uni- 
versity;  received  several  Church  preferments,  and  in  1859 
was  consecrated  lord  bishop  of  British  Columbia,  having 
his  see-housc  at  New  Westminster. 

UiHs  (Gi:onGn  Mono.VN).  D.  D.,  b.  in  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  10,  1S2J;  at  the  age  of  fourteen  removed  with  his  pa- 
rents to  New  York;  graduated  with  honors  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Hartford,  Conn.,  1847  ;  was  ordained  deacon  by  Bishop 
r>c  Lancey,  and  took  charge  of  Grace  church,  Lyons,  N.  Y. 
'i'lio  next  year  he  was  advanced  to  the  priesthood  by  tho 
Fimo  prelate,  nnd  in  IS.'i.l  was  calleil  to  Trinity  church, 
Watcrtown,  N.  Y.  This  he  resigned  in  1857  to  accept  the 
rectorship  of  St.  Paul's  church,  Syracuse.  In  1862  he 
was  elected  a  trustee  of  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
in  New  Y'ork,  and  wns  placed  by  that  corporation  on  the 
committee  for  tho  examination  of  students.  In  1865  ho 
ivas  selected  as  one  of  fotir  clergymen  to  represent  tho 
division  of  Western  New  York  in  the  General  ('onvention. 
In  1867,  in  addition  to  the  care  of  his  parish,  he  inaugu- 
rated a  very  successful  mission  among  the  tbiondaga  In- 
dians. At  the  organization  of  the  diocese  of  Central  New 
Y'ork  in  Nov.,  18(t8,  he  was  chosen  ]>resident  of  its  stand- 
ing committee.  On  Aug.  .'1,  1870,  he  was  called  to  the  rec- 
torship of  St.  Jlary's  church,  Burlington,  N. .!.,  and  entered 
upon  its  duties  Sept.  4.  On  the  2.8th  of  the  same  month  ho 
was  appointed  an  examining  chaplain  of  the  diocese  of  New 
Jersey,  and  on  the  21th  of  Nov.  following  lecturer  on  honi- 
ileties  and  )iastoral  theology  in  the  divinity  department  of 
Burlington  College.  On  July  IH,  1871,  be  received  the  hon- 
orary degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  from  his  ahna  mater. 
In  1873  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  and  in 
1874  was  elected  sub-dean  of  the  house  of  convocation  of 
that  body.  In  Sept..  1874,  he  was  a))poin(cd  dean  of  tho 
convocation  of  Burlington,  having  previously  served  as 
treasurer  and  secretary  of  the  same.  Among  his  publica- 
tions those  most  known  are  Tlic  U7»c  Mnalcr-Jhtlldei;  a 
sermon  e<unmeniorativc  of  Bishop  Dc  Lancey;  A  Step 
bvlwccn  Vk  and  Ihiilh  ;  A  Mt,lh,-r  in  Iar<i<l :  The  Urcnrd  of 
the  Pant  an  Jncmlirc  for  the  Fnlnrc  ;  an  llittitrirat  Sketch 
af  St.  Paul'a  Chnri-h.  Syranise  ;  nnd  llistorieul  Heeorda 
of  the  Church  in  Hurlimjlon,  N.  J. 

IliHs'boro',  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Aln.     Pop.  1863. 

llillshoro',  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Aln.     Pop.  522. 

IIillsb<>ro',  postv.  and  Ip.,  cap.  of  Montgomery  co., 
III.,  60  miles  N.  K.  of  St.  Louis,  on  tho  Indianapolis  nnd 
St.  Louis  U.  R.  It  is  tho  centre  of  a  good  agricultural 
district;  has  8  churches,  2  banks,  and  2  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.  ol  tp.  .'Un. 

K.  J.  C.  ,\t  r.x.\Nni:n,  Ei>.  "  Hii.i.snoiio'  Pk-Mociht." 

HiHsboro',  a  v.  of  Henry  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  95. 

IlilKltoro',  post-v.  of  Louisa  co.,  la.     Pop.  46. 

IIill>lior<i',  post-v.  of  Fleming  oo.,  Ky.,  9  miles  S.  S. 
E.  ..1   Kl.iningsburg.     Pop.  1464. 

llillshoro',  post-v.  and  cap.  of  Orange  co.,  N.  C.  40 
miles  W.  of  Baleigh,  on  the  North  Carolina  K.  B.  The 
country  in  the  vicinity  is  hilly  and  broken,  climate  -alubri- 
iMis.  It  contains  6  ohurehcs.  2  acuilemies.  1  newspaper,  and 
4  tobocoo-fnctories.    Pop.  of  v.  809;  of  tp.  ;!62l. 

J.  D.  Camehox,  E[).  "  Hii.i.sBono'  BKionnnB." 

IlilUhoro',  post-v.,  cap.  of  Highland  ,o.,  O..  60  miles 
E.  of  Cin.'innali,  on  tho  .Marietta  anil  Cincinnati  It.  U.  It 
ban  2  fumalu  institutes,  4  ohuroUus,  1  banks,  2  uewapapora. 


922 


HILLSBORO'— HIMAl-AYA. 


scale  and  agricultural  works.  planing-miUs,  flouring-mills, 
3  hotels.  Pop.  281S.  J.  C.  .'~pbi.m;eh,  Eu.  "  (iAZETiE." 
Ilillsboro',  tp.  of  Marion  co..  S.  C.  Pop.  131S. 
liillsboro',  post-v.,  cap.  of  Hill  CO.,  Tex.,  pleasantly 
situated  in  a  picturesque  and  well-watered  valley.  It  has 
a  good  academy,  1  flour  and  grist  mill,  and  1  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  313. 

L.  J.  Stirgis,  En.  "nii.i.  Co.  Expositor. 
Ilillsboro',  post-v.  of  Loudoun  co.,  Va.     Pop.  2-16. 
Hillsboro',  post-tp.  of  Vernon  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  DSa. 
llills'borough,  port  of  entry  of  Albert  co.,  N.  B.,  on 
Pelitcodiau  River,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  gvpsum  and  gas-coal  (alberlite)  to  the  U.  S. 
It  has  several  handsome  public  buildings.    Pop.  about  aUO; 
of  eub-district,  2995. 

Hillsborough,  county  of  Florida,  bounded  on  the  ^V. 
by  the  liulf  of  Mo.xieo.  Land  area,  1S30  square  miles. 
It  includes  Tampa  ]!av.  a  broad  inlet,  which  furnishes  a 
splendid  harbor  for  vessels  of  nineteen  feet  draught.  The 
county  is  generally  level,  partly  sandy,  partly  rich  marl 
hammoek-land.  and  partly  marsh.  Cotton  is  the  staple 
crop.     Cap.  Tampa.     Pop.  3216. 

Hillsborough,  county  of  New  Hampshire,  bordering 
on  .Massachusetts.  Area," 9G0  square  mile.^.  The  surfaeo 
is  hilly.  It  principally  lies  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Merri- 
mack Kivcr.  The  soil'is  mainly  fertile.  Cattle,  wool,  and 
grain  arc  staple  products.  The  cities  of  Manchester  and 
Nashua,  with  many  smaller  towns,  are  extensively  cngage<l 
in  manufacturing.  Lumber,  cotton,  woollen,  wooden  and 
metallic  goods,  furniture,  cooperage,  harness,  and  many 
other  wares  are  manufactured.  The  county  is  traversed 
by  several  railroads.  Caps.  Amherst,  Manchester,  and 
Nashua.     Pop.  64,238. 

Hillsborough,  post-v.  of  Scott  co.,  Miss.,  6  miles  N. 
of  Forest. 

Hillsborough,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Mo.,  40 
miles  S.  of  .St.  Louis.  It  has  a  good  school,  2  chnrchoo,  3 
hotels,  1  newspaper,  and  the  usual  meahanieal  shops. 
Principal  occupations,  farming,  mining,  and  fruit-growing. 
Pop.  about  lUO.         R.  W.  McMlllin,  Ed.  "  DESiocit.tT." 

Hillsborough,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Hillsborough  co., 
N.  H..  situated  in  the  Contoocook  Valley.  It  has  a  bank,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  a  hotel.  10  stores,  2  large  woollen-mills, 
and  bedstead  and  shovel-handle  shops.  Pop.  of  tp.  loOJ. 
Wm.  M.  SAnr.i-.ST,  Piiof.  "  Hillsboro'  Messengi!R." 
Hillsborough,  tp.  of  .Somerset  co.,  N.  J.,  embracing 
several  villages.     Pop.  3443. 

Hillsborough,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Washington  co..  Or.,  17 
miles  W.  of  Portland,  and  on  the  Oregun  Central  II.  R. 

Hillsborough  River,  in  Volusia  co.,  Fla.,  is  a  salt- 
water higoon  continuous  with  Halifax  River,  and  extend- 
ing 30  miles  S.  of  Mosquito  Inlet.  It  abounds  in  fish  and 
oysters,  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  stri])  of  land  from 
half  a  mile  to  o  miles  wide.  It  is  shallow,  though  navi- 
gable for  small  boats,  but  its  navigation  is  obstructed  by 
mangroves,  coral,  sand,  etc.  Its  W.  bank  is  a  range  of 
oyster-shells.  From  its  head  to  Indian  River  a  short  and 
shallow  canal  has  been  dug.  This  eliauucl  was  once  called 
Mosquito  Soutli  Lagoon,  and  (with  Halifax  River)  it  is  still 
known  as  Jlosquito  River.  It  averages  a  mile  in  width. — 
.\nother  Ilillsboro'  River  flows  into  Tampa  Bay,  and  a  third 
into  the  Atlantic,  directly  at  Ilillsb.u-ough  Inlet. 

Hills'dale,  county  in  the  S.  W.  of  Colorado,  formed 
in  1S74.  Area,  1400  square  miles.  It  contains  important 
gold  ujines.     Cap.  San  .Juan. 

Hillsdale,  county  of  Michigan,  bordering  on  Ohio  and 
Indiana.  Area,  o70  square  miles.  It  is  undulating,  fer- 
tile, and  well  timbered.  It  has  quarries  of  good  sandstone. 
Grain,  cattle,  and  wool  arc  staple  products.  Lumber,  car- 
riages, etc.  are  manufactured.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Michigan  Southern  and  the  Detroit  Hillsdale  and  Indiana 
U.  Itsf    f'a)i.  Hillsdale.     Pop.  31,084. 

Hillsdale,  eity  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Hillsdale  CO.,  Mich., 
on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  and  the  Detroit 
Hillsdale  and  Indiana  U.  Rs.,  06  miles  W.  of  Toledo  and 
177  K.  of  Chicago.  It  is  the  seat  of  Hillsdale  College,  and 
has  0  churches,  several  schools.  3  weekly  newspapers,  2  na- 
tional banks,  3  hotels,  a  chair  factory,  2  steam  flour-mills, 
and  2  foundries  and  raaehineshops.  Pop.  of  city,  3518; 
of  tp.  562.  H.  B.  RowLsov,  Ed.  "STAsnAiiD." 

Hillsdale,  tp.  of  Winona  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  417. 
Hillsdale,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  New  York  and   Harlem  R.  R.,  UU  miles  N.  of  Now 
York.     Pop.  2083. 

Hillsdale  College  was  founded  as  Michigan  Central 
College  at  Spring  Arlior,  .Mich.,  iu  consequence  of  a  vote 
(1844)  of   the  Michigan  yearly  meeting  of   the  Freewill 


Baptist  denomination.  The  college  was  chartered  in  1S45 
bv  the  legislature,  rechartcred  and  removed  to  HiUsdalo, 
Mich.,  in  ISJo.  It  now  has  departments  for  the  classical 
course,  for  theology,  science,  music,  and  art,  besides  two 
preparatory  departments.  A  portion  of  the  principal  col- 
lege building  was  burned  in  1874,  and  a  new  building  has 
been  since  erected.  Both  sexes  arc  educated  in  this  insti- 
tution, in  which  there  are  7  professors  and  14  other  instruc- 
tors, the  greater  number  of  students  thus  far  being  in  the 
preparatory  depart  meuls.  The  college  has  a  capital  of 
more  than  $200,000. 

Hill's  Grove,  post-tp.  of  Sullivan  co..  Pa.     Pop.  249. 
Hills'ville,  post-v.  of  Carroll  co.,  Va.,  situated  on  the 
Blue   Kidge,   13  miles  E.  of  New  River.     It  has  1  news- 
paper, 1  church,  2  hotels,  and  4  stores.     Pop.  208. 

CiiAs.  C.  Harrvmas,  Ed.  "News." 
Hill  Top,  tp.  of  Charles  co.,  Md.  It  constitutes  a 
peninsula  iu  the  river  Potomac.  Pop.  4040. 
Uiirtown,  tp.  of  Rucks  co..  Pa.  Pop.  28C9. 
Hill'vcr  (.Ji  Niisl.b.  in  Wilkes  co.,  Ca.,  Apr.  23,180"; 
graduated  at  the  .State  University  in  1828;  studied  law 
while  in  the  university,  and  w.as  admitted  to  the  bar  imme- 
diately after  his  graduation.  In  1S34  was  elected  by  the 
legislature  solicitor-general  of  the  western  judicial  circuit 
of°his  State;  was  elevated  to  the  bench  in  1S41,  where  he 
served  several  years ;  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
Georgia  from  1851  to  1855  ;  in  18,'i7  was  appointed  solicitor 
of  the  II.  S.  treasury,  which  position  he  held  until  Georgia 
passed  her  ordinance  of  secession  in  1861.  He  then  re- 
signed and  returned  home,  and  resumed  the  practice  of 
law,  to  which  (Mar.,  1875)  he  is  still  devoted. 

A.  H.  STEPnE:ts. 
Hill'yer  (William  Silliman),  b.  at  Henderson,  Ky., 
Apr.  2, 1831 ;  graduated  in  1S47  at  Anderson  College,  Ind., 
with  honors,  and  became  a  brilliant  and  successful  lawyer 
and  politician  of  New  Alljany,  Ind.  In  1855  he  removed 
to  St.  Louis,  where  he  was  a  warm  friend  of  U.  S.  Grant, 
afterwards  President  of  the  U.  S.  In  1 801  he  served  for  a 
time  as  a  private  iu  a  volunteer  organization  under  F.  P. 
Blair,  Jr..  and  then  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  com- 
menced the  practice  of  law.  In  1803  he  served  on  Gen. 
Grunt's  staff  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  but  after 
the  Vicksburg  campaign  resigned  on  account  of  ill-health, 
and  returned  to  New  York.  D.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  July 
12,  1874. 

Hi'lo,  an  important  seaport  of  Hawaii,  and  the  second 
town  in  size  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  It  has  a  spacious 
and  commodious  harbor.     Pop.  4220. 

Hil'son's,  tp.  of  Henry  co.,  Ala.  Pop.  774. 
Hirton,  tp.  of  Iowa  co.,  la.  Pop.  503. 
Hilton  Head,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Beaufort  co.,  S.  C. 
It  is  on  Hilton  Head  Island,  and  has  on  the  N.  the  Port 
Royal  entrance,  which  constitutes  a  noble  harbor.  It  was 
fortified  by  the  Confederates,  and  taken  by  the  U.  S.  naval 
forces  Nov.  7,  1861.     Pop.  3073. 

Hil'versnm,  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  North  Hol- 
land, is  beautifully  situated,  and  has  manufactures  of  oar- 
pets  and  horse-cloths.     I'op.  0294. 

Himala'ya  ("the  abode  of  snow"),  the  highest  and 
most  majestic  system  of  mountains  on  our  globe,  forms  the 
boundary  between  the  high  table-land  of  Thibet  on  the  N. 
and  the  low,  alluvial  plain  of  Hindostan,  around  the  Gan- 
ges and  Brahmapootra,  on  the  S.,  and  stretches  in  a  curved 
line,  1500  miles  long,  and  at  somepoints  350  miles  broad,  from 
Ilindoo-Koosh  to  Assam,  from  Ion.  73<=  to  Ion.  98°  E.  To 
the  S.,  towards  the  plain  of  the  (Janges.  Himalaya  stands 
almost  perpendicular,  from  4000  to  5000  feet  high,  like  a 
wall,  from  which  the  mighty  rivers  formed  by  the  melting 
of  the  snow  burst  forth  with  tremendous  violence,  splitting 
the  granite  masses  and  forming  long,  winding,  but  narrow 
ehas'ins.  To  the  N.  the  uKuintains  slope  more  gently  towards 
the  plateau  of  Thibet.  The  Himalaya  consists  of  several 
ranges,  with  a  direction  parallel  to  each  other,  and  enclosing 
fertTic  and  well-cultivated  valleys,  some  of  which  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  places  on  earth  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  val- 
leys of  Cashmere,  Nepaul,  and  Bootan.  The  central  range  is 
the  highest,  averaging  from  10,000  to  20,000  feet,  and  forty- 
five  p'eaks  are  known  t )  rise  above  23.000  feet.  Mount 
Everest,  the  highest  mountain  on  our  globe,  is,  according  to 
Col.  Waugh.  29.002  feet  high  :  Kanebinjiuga,  28.150 ;  Dha- 
walagiri,  25.820;  Nanda  IJcvi,  25,749:  and  Shumalari, 
23,929.  The  lino  of  perpetual  snow  descends  to  10,200  feet 
on' the  southern  side  of  the  range,  but  only  to  17,400  feet 
on  the  northern — a  singularity  which  probably  can  be  ex- 
plained from  the  peculiarly  dry  atmosphere  of  the  plateau 
of  Thibet.  Glaciers  abound,  and  at  some  places  they  are 
known  to  descend  from  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow  to 
I  about  12,000  feet.     At  an  elevation  of  2000  feet  the  heat 


HIMERA— HINDS. 


923 


varies  from  lUO''  to  37°;  at  7000  feet,  from  80°  to  26°  ;  at 
12,000  leot.  the  thermometer  falls  during  the  nights  of  Sep- 
tember l>elow  zero.  But  wheat  can  be  gniwn  at  un  elevation 
of  l.'t.OOU  feet,  and  up  to  the  height  of  JOdiJ  feel  the  vegeta- 
tion still  rcluins  a  tropical  character  ;  the  tca-phmt  ha--'  been 
introduced,  ami  can  ho  cultivateil  on  the  soulht-rn  side  up  to 
a  height  of  .)OU0  feet,  but  it  succeeds  best  at  an  elevation 
of  201IU  to  3000  feet.  The  pusses  of  the  Himahxya  aro  few 
and  extremely  difficult.  Ibi-Gamin,  leading  into  (tuhrwal. 
is  the  highest  known  pu3S,  20,4o7  feet  :  the  highest  pass 
used  for  traffic  is  Parany,  IS. 600  feet  above  the  sea.  With 
respect  to  their  geological  structure,  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains consist  of  granite  and  gneiss,  whicli  form  the  loftiest 
peaks,  and  against  which  strata  of  the  Silurian  poriod 
rest.  Mines  of  gold,  copper,  iron,  and  load  exist,  but  aro 
not  worked  with  energy,  and  seem  not  to  be  of  importance. 
The  Qoraof  the  Himalaya  is  peculiarly  rich  and  interesting. 

Hi'mern,  an  ancient  city  of  Sicily,  situated  on  the 
northern  coast,  was  founded  in  the  seventh  century  before 
Christ  by  a  colony  from  Zancle,  and  was  destroyed  in  408 
B.  c  by  the  Carthaginians  under  Hannibal.  The  first  time 
the  Carthaginians  invaded  Sicily  (in  4S0)thcy  were  utterly 
defeated,  and  their  commander.  Hamilcar,  fell  in  the  battle 
at  Himera.  The  second  time  they  wore  victorious,  and 
Hannibal,  the  grandson  of  Hamilcar,  after  taking  Himera, 
put  a  part  of  the  inhabitants  to  death  and  razed  the  city 
to  the  ground. 

Hime'rius,  a  celebrated  Greek  sophist  of  the  fourth 
century  after  Christ  (probably  from  315  to  3S6),  b.  at  Prusa 
in  Bithynia;  studied  at  Athene;  travelled,  and  settled 
finally  at  Athens  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  For  some  iimo 
ho  lived  in  Antioch  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Julian, 
who  fully  appreciated  him.  Of  his  orations,  twenty-four 
have  come  d'»wn  to  us  complete,  and  have  been  edited  by 
Wernsdorf  ((Jiittingcn,  1700).  We  have  fragments  of  eleven 
others,  and  extracts  by  Photius  of  thirty-six.  His  stylo  is, 
as  that  of  his  time,  oliscnre,  overladen  with  figurative  ex- 
pressions, and  affected,  but  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation 
in  his  lime,  .-\mong  his  disciples  was  (iregory  Nazianzen. 
Ho  was,  liko  Lib^nius,  a  pagan,  but  he  speaks  with  modera- 
tion, and  soraclimcs  even  with  kindness,  of  the  Christians. 

UimircOf  or  Hamilcnr,  is  a  name  of  common  oc- 
curronco  in  the  history  of  Carthage.  Pliny  mentions  one 
ilimilco,  a  Carthaginian,  who  mado  a  voyage  of  discov- 
ery along  the  western  coast  of  Kuro]ie  at  tho  same  time 
that  Hanno  explored  the  western  coast  of  Africa;  but 
Himilco's  voyage  is  stated  to  have  been  stopped  by  tho 
absence  of  wind  and  by  the  sea  being  loaded  with  seaweed. 
— Both  in  the  first  aud  third  Punic  wars  there  were  noted 
Carthaginian  generals  of  this  name,  but  tho  most  famous 
was  that  Himilco,  tho  son  of  Hanno,  who  in  406  b.  o. 
commanded  the  Carthaginian  expedition  against  Sicily, 
together  with  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Gisco.  Tho  expedi- 
tion was  very  successful,  and  the  whole  western  part  of  the 
island  was  oonquered.  In  397,  however,  Dionysius,  tyrant 
of  Syracuse,  renewed  the  war.  Himilco  again  commanded 
the  Carthaginian  force,  and  was  very  successful  in  tho 
beginning,  but  while  he  besieged  tho  city  of  Syracuse  a 
pestilence  broke  out  iu  his  camp.  In  tliis  emergency 
Dionysius  attacked  and  defeated  him,  and  Himilco  now 
made  an  infamous  capitulation,  paying  300  talents  in 
orcler  to  be  permitted  to  depiiit  unmolested  with  all  his 
native  Carthaginians,  while  he  left  his  allies  and  the  mer- 
cenary troops  to  the  nicrey  of  I)ionysius,  Having  returned 
to  Carthage,  the  popular  odium  which  ho  incurred  pressed 
so  heavily  un  him  that  he  eoiiimitted  suicide. 

Ilimynrit'ic  Lan'guii;;p,  a  Soniitie  language  for- 
merly spiiken  in  Soulh-western  Arabia  by  the  Himyaritca 
(or  llnmcriles),  a  people  of  whose  history  coniparutively 
little  is  known.  A  modern  llimyaritic  kingdom  was  de- 
stroyed 62.i  A.  n.  by  tho  Ethiopians,  who  coni]ielled  tho 
pooplc  to  abandon  Christianity.  Uimyaritic  inscriptions 
of  great  but  uneertaln  age  have  long  been  known  to  exist, 
but  have  not  been  dceipliered  until  a  quite  recent  date. 
Tho  modern  Kkhili  Arabic  is  regarded  as  a  rcprescutativo 
of  the  old  Himyaritic. 

llinck'ley,  town  of  England,  in  tho  county  of  lieicestcr. 
It  ha«  a  fine  (iothic  church  and  some  manufactures  of 
hosiery.     Pop.  C902  ;  with  surroundings,  8082. 

Hinckley,  post-tp,  of  Pino  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  205. 

lliiu'klcy,  post-tp.  of  Medina  co.,  0.     Pop.  972. 

lliiicks  (KnwAUD).  D.  I>.,  b.  at  Cork,  Ireland,  Aug., 
1792:  studied  under  his  father,  Hebrew  professor  at  Bel- 
fast;  graduated  with  hrtnorn  lsV2  ut  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, ancl  receivc'l  a  fellowship  :  took  Anglican  orders,  and 
became  rcetor  of  Ardtrca,  and  in  iS'Jt)  rector  of  Kilty Icagh, 
Ireland,  where  he  d.  l>ee.  3,  I.SfWJ.  Though  living  in  a  re- 
mote country  parish,  and  pussessed  of  but  small  memis,  bo 
became  one  of   the   fir-t   iind    ubleril   restorurs  of  tho  lost 


I  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  tho  Assyrian   inscriptions. 

!  Ho  discovered  the  key  to  the  Asifyrian  numeral  sy.'^tem, 
and  his  papers  On   AiJitfrian   Verbv  (1 855-50)  contain  the 

I  first  successful  attempts  at  ao  Assyrian  grammar.  Among 
his  writings  are  valued  papers  on  Egyptian  MSS.j  and 
some  polemical  and  other  works. 

Ililicks  fSir  Fkascis).  K.  C.  M.  0..  C.  B.,  b.  at  Cork, 
Ireland,  iu  1S05.  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Hr.  Hincks,  a  learned 
Presbyterian  divine  uf  Belfast,  and  brother  of  Kev.  Edward 
Hincks  (17y2-lS(t(>).  the  Assyrian  archaeologist.  Sir  Francis 

\  became  a  merchant,  and  in  ls;J2  settled  at  Toronto,  Canada, 
where  ho  became  a  prominent  editor  and  politician  :  finance 

I  nnui:;;ter  of  Upper  Canada  1S12-13  and  lSlS-j4:  prime 
minister  in  1S51;  governor  of  the  Windward  Islands  1S53- 
62,  of  British  Guiana  1862-69  ;  finance  minister  of  Canada 
180l>-73.     Ho  was  knighted  in  1869. 

Hind,  the  female  of  the  red  deer  or  Stat,  (which  see) 
of  Europe. 

Iliud  (.Tons  Ilrssi:LL).  b.  at  Nottingham.  England,  May 
12,  1823,  the  son  of  a  manufacturer  of  laces  ;  became  inter- 
ested in  astronomy  in  childhood;  became  an  assistant  to  a 
civil  engineer,  and  went  in  1840  to  Limdon  ;  found  employ- 
ment in  Greenwich  Observatory,  and  in  1843  was  for  three 
months  employed  in  Ireland  upon  the  task  of  exactly  de- 
termining the  longitude  of  Valentia;  entered  Mr.  Bishop's 
observatory,  Regent's  Park,  1814.  Here  he  discovered 
(1847-54)  ten  new  asteroids,  and  made  many  other  even 
more  important  observations:  became  foreign  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  1847  :  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Institute  1850;  is  superintendent  of  the 
Xautk'(d  Almanac,  which  under  his  direction  has  attained 
unsurpassed  excellence  both  for  astronomical  and  nautical 
purposes.  Among  his  works  are  7'fic  Solur  Stfstcm  (1840), 
Jlfuslratcii  London  Antronomy  (1S53),  Etementa  of  Alyebra 
(1855),  and  treatises  on  comets. 

Ilin'dersin,  von  (Gistav  EDUAnD),b.  July  18,1804, 
at  ^Veinigerode.  Prussian  Saxony;  entered  the  artillery 
nsa  volunteer  in  1820;  distinguished  himself  by  his  quick 
apprehension,  indefatigable  ajiplication,  and  eminent  busi- 
ness capacity,  and  was  attached  to  the  staff  as  first  lieu- 
tenant iu  1841.  In  1846  he  became  major,  and  wa?  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  topogra])hical  department.  In  the 
campaign  of  1849  against  the  insurgents  of  Baden  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  be  taken  prisoner  while  reconnoitring 
from  a  belfry,  but  was  liberated  after  the  capitulation  of 
Rastadt.  In  1854  he  received  the  comumud  of  the  2d 
brigade  of  artillery,  in  1S58  that  of  the  3d,  and  in  1864  the 
position  of  inspector-general.  Shortly  before  the  assault 
on  tho  lUippcl  intrenchments  in  Sleswick,  during  the  war 
against  I>enmark.  he  was  called  to  the  head-quarters  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  and  ajipointed  leader  of  the  artil- 
lery* attack;  after  tho  victory  he  was  ennobled  and  received 
the  title  of  a  general  of  infantry.  In  the  war  against  France 
(1870-71)  ho  followed  the  royal  head-(juarters  as  com- 
mander of  tho  artillery,  and  took  a  very  active  part  in  tho 
siege  of  Paris.  D.  at  Berlin  June  25,  1872.  of  heart  dis- 
ease, lie  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  the  Prussian 
artillery,  and  introduced  the  breech-loading  gun.  But  ho 
was  nevertheless  not  popular;  ho  was  vehement  and 
haughty.  A,  Nn:MANN. 

Ilind'lcy,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lancaster, 
lias  extensive  cotton  manufactures  and  large  coal-mines  in 
its  vicinity.     Pop.  with  surroundings,  23,706. 

Ilin'doo-Koosh',lliiidu-Kiish,or  Indian  Can- 
casus,  a  mounlain-rangc  in  Central  Asia,  extending  from 
Ion.  6S°  to  Ion.  75°  E.,  anil  forming  tho  boundary  between 
Afghanistan  and  Toorkestan.  At  its  eastern  extremity  it 
is  connected  with  the  Himalaya,  w  hi(di  it  resembles  in  many 
of  its  features,  I  bough  it  is  lower  and  destitute  of  forests.  Its 
highest  point  is  Hiiuloo-Koh,  20,(100  feet  high. 
Ilindostan.  See  India,  by  R.  C.  Caldwkll. 
Hinds,  county  of  W.  Central  Mississippi.  Area,  930 
.'^fjuarc  miles.  Il;i  surface  is  jileasantly  diversified  and  well 
timbered,  and  its  soil  very  fertile.  Corn  and  cotton  are  sta- 
ple crops.  The  county  is  crossed  by  the  Vieksburg  aud 
Meridian  and  the  New  Orleans  Jackson  and  Great  Northern 
R.  Rs.     Cap.  Jackson.      Pop.  30,488. 

Jlsnds  (Sami  i:i,).  H-D.,  born  in  Barbadoes  1793;  grad- 
ualcd  iu  1815  iit  (Queen's  College,  Oxford;  became  vice- 
president  of  Albion  Hall,  Oxford,  and  i)rinoii)al  of  Cod- 
rington  College,  Barbadoes;  was  vicar  of  Yardley.  Hants, 
1834—13;  prebendary  and  rector  of  Castlenock,  l>ublin, 
1843;  chaplain  to  Archbishop  Whately;  chaplain  to  the 
Ir.rd  lieutenant  of  Ireland  1816-48;  dean  of  Carlisle  1848; 
bishop  of  Norwich  1849-57,  when  ho  resigned.     I^-  Feb.  7, 

j   1872.     Author  of  a   Hi»t'»rtf  ../  Chriatinnihj  (1S29  ««».),  a 

I  treatise  on  logic.  Sunm-ta  ami  Sfirretl  /*n&ni.t.  The  Three 
Ttrnplen   (//  r/if  One   Triir  O'oti    C'ttntnmttHl   (lS3ttJ,  Innpira- 

I  tioti  and  Authority  of  Scripture  (1831),  Scripture  and  the 


5124 


HINDU  PHILOSOPHY— HINDU  RELIGION. 


Authorized  Vemion  (185."?),  etc.  His  Iflatort/  of  Ckristian- 
ity,  ori.i^iually  |)ublishe(l  \u  (he  Encychpadiu  Metropolitana, 
has  ijono  throu;;h  maiiy  editions. 

Hindu  Philosophy,     The  primitive  religion   of  the 

HiiiiJu  hraiich  of  the  Aryan  race  seems  to  have  been  mon- 
otheistic, but  as  it  is  exhibited  iu  the  hymns  of  the  Vcdas 
it  is  a  puro  naturc-wor-^hip,  its  praises  and  its  offerings 
being  devoted  to  the  various  phenomena  of  nature  and 
their  deified  jiersonifications.  Such  a  religion  was  suited 
only  to  a  people  in  a  primitive  state.  As  the  Hindu  race 
advanced  in  kiiowlecige,  men  began  to  *' look  through  na- 
ture u|i  to  nature's  (Jod,"'  and  to  seek  ''  if  haply  they  might 
feel  after  Him  and  find  JUm."  This  was  an  inquiry  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  the  8ul)tle  and  analytical  llinilu  intellect, 
and  it  resulted  in  the  formation  of  six  distinct  schools  of 
philosophy.  AH  the  six  systems  are  supposed  to  start 
from  the  Vcdae,  and  arc  all  recognized  as  orthodox.  But 
the  simple  Vedic  hymns  afforded  but  scant  material  for 
metaphysical  investigation,  and  were  soon  left  far  behind. 
The  philosophical  dogmas  liavo  only  a  very  slight  basis  in 
the  Veda?,  and  rest  almost  exclusively  upon  the  deductions 
of  pure  reasoning.  The  nature  of  the  Supremo  Being,  the 
origin  of  the  nniverso,  the  mysteries  of  life,  intelligence, 
and  future  existence,  are  the  great  subjects  to  which  philos- 
ophy addresses  its  speculations.  Though  widely  differing 
in  their  developments,  all  tlie  schools  recognize  one  funda- 
mental maxim,  <x  uiliHo  nihil  fit — "from  nothing  comes 
nithing."  All  also  have  one  final  object,  the  attainment 
of  niitkti,  or  deliverance,  the  emancipation  of  the  soul  from 
future  birth  and  existence,  and  its  absorption  into  the  Su- 
premo Soul  of  the  nuiverse. 

The  names  of  tho  six  schools,  or  darsanas,  are  Ni/4ya, 
Vuiicuhika,  Snnkhya,  Yofja,  Pt'irra  M't.ituu'iu,  and  Vttarn 
Mlnidi}fid  or  Vcddnfa.  But  certain  points  of  resemblance 
bring  the  six  into  association  in  three  pairs,  called  Nydyaj 
Siii>h/a,  and  Vcdiiuta. 

I.  (I)  Xijnjn,  founded  by  tho  sa^o  Gautama.  Thoword 
^U'^ll"'  means  *' propriety  or  fitness,"  and  vras  adopted  be- 
cause the  author's  primary  object  was  to  find  the  proper 
victhod  of  arriving  at  truth  and  of  arranging  tho  arguments. 
It  is  hence  called  tho  *•  logical  school."  Tho  founder  held 
the  Bcniatiouti  to  be  the  source  of  all  knowledge,  and  set 
him=olf  to  inquire  into  their  nature  and  functions.  So  his 
s-^bool  is  also  known  as  tho '*  sensational."  (2)  VaiscshU'ft. 
— This  was  founded  by  Kanilda,  and  is  called  tho  "atomic 
schottl."  Its  method  is  gcneially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Nij^ti/fty  though  it  is  not  so  precise  and  comprehensive.  It 
pushes  tho  sensation  theory  farther  into  an  investigation 
of  the  objects  of  sense,  but  its  distinctive  doctrine  is  tho 
existence  of  a  transient  world  composed  of  aggregations  of 
eternal  atoms.  Both  divisions  recognizo  a  Supreme  Being. 
To  tlie  M'ostorn  AVorld  tho  Nydya  is  especially  interesting, 
as  the  only  logical  system  which  is  not  distinctly  traceable 
to  the  teachings  of  Aristotle. 

II.  (1)  Siinkhffa,  with  which  is  classed  the  Torfay  the 
former  being  atheistical,  the  latter  thcistical.  ThoSankhya 
was  founded  by  tho  sago  Kapila,  and  received  its  name 
S'lnkhya  ('*  numeral  ")  from  its  discriminative  tendencies. 
The  first  principle  it  asserts  is  the  necessity  of  true  and 
perfect  knowledge.  It  defines  tho  nature  of  evidence,  and 
the  principles  of  which  a  knowledge  is  attainable.  First 
among  the  latter  is  nature,  *' the  universal  material  cause." 
Matter  it  declares  to  be  eternal,  and  so  far  it  may  be  con- 
sid  -red  materialistic,  bnt  it  recognizes  also  an  intellectual 
power  with  affections,  sentiments,  nnd  faculties.  It  admits 
the  existence  of  separate  souls,  and  admits  that  "intellect 
is  exercised  in  tho  evolution  of  matter,  or,  in  other  words, 
in  the  work  of  creation,  but  it  denies  tho  existence  of  any 
Supreme  Being,  either  material  or  spiritual,  by  whoso  voli- 
tion the  universe  was  ]froduced."  Tho  dortrines  of  this 
school  are  set  forth  in  Wm  Sunhhya  Kurihu,  translated  with 
a  gloss  and  commentary  by  f'olcbrooko  and  }I.  H.  Wilson. 
(2)  Yof/a,  found(Ml  by  Patanjali,  and  sometimes  callodaftcr 
him  /Yitioijaln.  This  pursues  tho  samo  method  and  holds 
most  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Suiil-h}/a,  but  it  a^t^erts  not 
only  the  existence  of  separate  individual  souls,  but  of  one 
all-pervading  Spirit,  unaffected  by  the  influences  to  which 
other  souls  are  subicct,  the  Supreme  Ruler,  God.  Tho 
followers  of  tho  Sankhya  devote  tlicmsclves  to  contempla- 
tion nnd  to  abstruse  reasonings  ujion  tho  nature  of  mind 
and  matter.  Tho  Yoga  insists  upon  the  necessity  of  devo- 
tion, and  prescribes  the  exercises  and  disciplinoto  ho  prac- 
tised. The  disciple?  of  both  these  schools  are  called  Yoffin 
(or  Joffis),  but  the  Sankhya  yoffi  sits  in  calm  meditation, 
while  the  yoi/i  of  the  Yoga  school  practices  all  kinds  of 
austerities  and  bodily  torments  ns  acts  of  devotion. 

III.  Vcddnta. — Th is  i neludes  the /'(in-rt-.l/f  Hi*? )M/5,  found- 
ed by  .Taimini,  and  the  f^f/ar«-.Uf  m^/ijsrt,  attributed  to  VviSsa. 
Tho  I*Cirvn,  or  prior  MimAnH/i,  started  with  the  express  ob- 
ject of  aiding  the  interpretation  of  the  Vedas.  and  its  most 
distinctive  dogma  is  the  eternity  of  the  M'ord,  meaning  tho 


Vedas.  The  Uttnray  or  later  MimdnsA,  is  the  more  import- 
ant, and  it  is  to  this  that  tho  term  Veduittn  especially  ap- 
plies. This  professes  to  be  founded  on  tho  Vedas,  and 
cites  texts  as  authorities,  but  its  conclusions  are  worked 
out  by  jture  reason.  It  leaches  that  "God  is  the  omnis- 
cient and  omnipotent  cause  of  the  existence,  continuance, 
and  dissolution  of  the  universe.  Creation  is  an  act  of  His 
icill  ;  JIc  is  both  the  cftieieut  and  the  material  cause  of  tho 
world,"  and  in  the  end  all  things  are  resolved  into  Him. 

The  time  when  these  systems  of  philosnphy  sprang  up 
is,  as  is  usual  in  all  matters  of  Hindu  ehronulngv,  very  un- 
certain. The  Vtluva- MlmuuHu,  or  Ve<lanta,  is  generally 
admitted  to  be  the  latest,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  es- 
pecially directed  against  the  teachings  of  tho  Buddhist?. 
This  would  bring  it  within  three  or  four  centuries  B.  c.  Tho 
other  schools  are  to  all  appearance  older,  but  reasons  have 
been  urged  for  jdacing  them  all  after  the  rise  of  Buddhism. 
If  this  be  the  correct  view,  the  date  of  the  Ved^nta  must 
be  brought  down  later.  This  is  a  question  of  some  interest, 
for  the  later  tho  rise  of  these  schools  the  greater  \^  the  pos- 
sibility of  their  having  been  evoked  by  the  teachings  of 
tho  Greek  philosophers.  Mr.  Colebrooke,  the  highest  au- 
thority on  the  subject,  expresses  his  decided  opinion  that 
"  the  Hindus  were  the  teachers,  not  the  learners." 

The  principal  authorities  arc  Coleukooke's  essays  in  the 
Trftnstntiuns  of  the  lioi/al  Asifiiic  Societ}/,  subsequently  pub- 
lished separately  iu  2  vols. ;  JJinloffucs  on  f/iiidn  PhiloHophi/, 
by  the  Rev.  K.  M.  Baser.iea  {Calcutta,  ISfiO);  Refutation 
of  Hindu  Philonophi/,  by  PuxniT  Nehemiaii  Kilkatth 
Sastri,  translated  by  Dr.  Hall  (Calcutta,  1802);  Ballan- 
tvne's  Esuai/a  (various).  John  Dowses*. 

Hindu  Religion.  The  origin  of  the  Hindu  religion 
is  veileil  in  the  mists  of  a  remote  antiquity.  AVhen  the 
old  Aryans  crossed  the  Indus  in  their  emigration  from  Irdn 
or  Central  Asia,  they  carried  with  them  certain  hymns  which 
were  probably  even  then  committed  to  writing.  These 
hymns  were  afterwards  increased  iu  number,  for  there  are 
allusions  in  some  hymns  to  the  new  land  in  which  their 
authors  had  settled.  The  language  in  which  the  hymns 
are  composed  is  the  oldest  known  form  of  Sanscrit,  and 
centuries  probably  passed  before  these  scattered  comjmsi- 
tions  were  collected  and  arranged  in  the  books  called  J  tdav. 
The  date  of  these  compositions  is  a  matter  of  very  great 
uncertainty,  and  the  best  opinions  are  based  upon  deduc- 
tive reasoning  from  uncertain  premises.  The  date  which 
has  received  perhaps  the  greatest  approval  is  1400  b.  c. 
The  hymns  have  a  strong  mythic  character  about  them. 
They  are  addressed  to  the  elements  and  powers  of  nature 
personified — to  fire,  to  the  wind,  to  the  firmament,  the 
moon,  and  other  objects.  Those  addressed  to  the  dawn  are 
jteculiarly  interesting  from  their  mythical  significance.  No 
one  of  tho  divinities  has  any  recognized  superiority  over 
the  others,  but  tho  differences  in  the  numbers  of  the  hymns 
addressed  to  the  individual  deities  show  that  they  were 
held  in  various  degrees  of  dread  and  reverence.  There  are 
glimpses  in  some  of  the  hymns  of  a  high  and  syiiritual  con- 
ception of  tho  Deity,  or  direct  mystical  allusions  to  one 
superior  Being,  from  whom  all  the  rest  emanate:  and  texts 
are  found  which  speak  more  or  less  explicitly  of  "  One  Su- 
preme Spirit,  the  Lord  of  the  universe,  whose  work  is  the 
universe."  But  the  general  character  of  the  hymns  does 
not  rise  above  earthly  objects.  Protection  from  the  ele- 
ments, from  sickness,  nnd  from  enemies,  aspirations  for 
the  favors  of  nature,  for  increase  of  children  and  of  cattle, 
are  their  main  topics.  Various  rites  and  ceremonies  are 
provided  for  and  enforced,  and  very  frequent  reference  is 
made  to  tho  fermented  juice  of  the  snmd  plant  [Aurlepiaa 
acida),  a  beverage  in  high  favor  amcmg  mortals,  and  there- 
fore presented  as  an  acceptable  offering  to  the  superior 
powers.  In  course  of  time  the  scattered  hymns  were  col- 
lected and  arranged  in  books  by  a  snge  who  is  known  as 
Vydsa  "  tho  compiler."  The  Vedas  as  they  are  now  known, 
and  have  been  known  for  ages,  are  four  in  number,  named 
Ilifj,  Yojur,  SYniia,  and  Arhart-fi.  The  Hi*/  is  the  most  im- 
portant and  original.  Tho  second  and  ihirri  Vedas  consist 
principally  of  hymns  from  the  7^i"«7  adapted  to  special  pur- 
poses. Those  of  the  Yajur  are  intended  for  sacrificial, 
those  of  tho-V(/Hi«  for  choral  uses.  The  Atharva,  or  fourth 
Veda,  is  of  later  date,  and  its  contents  are  more  original 
nnrl  diverse  than  those  of  the  second  and  third.  Tlie 
hvmns  of  tho  Vcdas  recognize  a  priestly  claims  and  a  regal 
c!ass,  which  are  evidently  the  beginnings  of  the  lir&hmnn 
nnd  Kehiitriffa  castes  of  later  days.  The  great  body  of  the 
people  was  called  rii,  a  word  which  was  afterwards  ex- 
panded into  ]'fiixi/a,  and  used  as  the  name  of  the  third  or 
mercantile  and  agricultural  easte.  The  fourth  or  servile 
caste,  called  Sudra,  seems  to  have  had  no  recognized  exist- 
ence in  thoi^e  <lays.  Tn  tho  later  portion  of  the  ffi>/.  and  in 
tho  more  nmdern  Athanui  vda.  there  are  references  to  a 
future  state,  and  an  abode  of  bliss  is  promised  after  death 
to  tho  victorious. 


HINDU  RELIGION. 


925 


The  difference  between  the  religion  of  the  Vcdns  and 
moilcrn  Hiudiiisin  is  very  wide — so  wide  indeed  that  the 
two  religions  have  little  or  nothing  in  oununon  beyond  (ho 
Vedio  texts  itud  formulas  which  still  remain  in  use.  "The 
great  feature  of  difference,"  says  11.  11.  Wilson,  "is  the 
total  absence  of  the  divinities,  both  nomi'mi  and  miinina, 
who  have  for  ages  engaged,  and.  to  a  great  degree,  en- 
grossed, the  adoration  of  the  Hindus.  We  have  no  indica- 
tions of  a  Triad,  the  creative,  preserving,  and  destroying 
power;  Brahind  does  not  appear  as  a  deity,  and  Vishnu, 
although  named,  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Vishnu 
of  the  Huranas  ;  no  allusion  occurs  to  his  untu'ira  or  incar- 
nations. As  a  divinity  Siva  is  not  named  :  nor  is  his  type, 
the  ;'y,ii«;.im,  evcrarlvertcd  to.  Durgaand  her  triumphs,  and 
Kill,  •  whom  the  blood  of  man  delights  a  thousand  years,' 
have  no  place  whatever  in  the  hymns  of  tho  Vcdas."  The 
doctrine  of  transmi;;ration  seems  to  bo  entirely  unnoticed 
in  the  Vedic  hymns ;  and  the  rite  of  tn(i,  tho  burning  of 
widows  with  the  corpses  of  their  husbands,  although  known 
to  lircck  writers  ;)0U  years  before  Christ,  and  said  to  bo  a 
Vedic  institution,  proves  upon  examination  to  have  no 
belter  authority  than  a  ini.*  |uoted  verse.  Some  portion 
of  tho  ceremonial  of  the  Vcdas  still  survives  in  tho  domes- 
tic observances  of  the  Brihmans  and  in  their  obsequial 
offerings.  It  is  incumbent  on  ever}'  householder  to  mako 
offerings  of  cakr-s  and  other  viands  to  liis  own  ancestors, 
and  to  the  collective  Piiri,i  or  Patres  of  tho  human  race. 
Kvery  br/ikmaii  also,  on  approaching  maturity  and  being 
invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  is  taught  the  celebrated 
verse  called  the  (ii'iyairi ;  *•  Let  us  meditate  on  the  adorable 
light  of  the  .•>un  (or  Divine  Ruler):  may  it  guide  our  in- 
tellects !"  This  may  be  the  only  verse  of  tho  Veda  he  may 
ever  learn,  but  this  be  must  repeat  in  all  his  devotions. 

The  hymns  collo-tively.  tho  whole  metrical  part  of  tho 
Veda,  is  called  M^inlra,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  an- 
other part  written  in  prose  and  called  Brdhmana.  There 
are  several  works  bearing  this  title.  They  arc  of  later 
date,  but  they  are  held  to  be  part  and  parcel  of  the  Vcdn, 
and  of  equal  authority  with  the  Mnntra.  Tho  Br/ihrnnnm 
have  been  compared  to  the  Talmud,  and  though  "gleams 
of  beautiful  thought  occasionally  break  out"  in  them,  their 
contcnt.<t  are  in  gener.al  wearisome.  They  enter  into  long 
details  about  ceremonies,  and  of  the  origin  an<I  meaning  of 
various  rites,  and  they  illustrate  them  with  curious  legends, 
both  human  and  divine.  Tho  four  castes  arc  distinctly 
named  in  the  ///viAnian'M,  and  one  of  them  indicates,  rather 
than  lays  down,  the  doctrine  of  transmigration. 

Next  in  order  come  the  writings  called  Aranyahaa  and 
l/jiniii'thad:  These  arc  works  of  a  far  higher  character, 
and  give  clear  evidence  of  a  vigorous  intellectual  life  in- 
teresting itself  in  questions  about  lifo  and  eternity.  They 
are  the  beginnings  of  Hindu  philosophy,  and  cast  aside 
matters  of  riles  and  ceremony  to  deal  with  abstract  ques- 
tions and  make  "  guesses  at  truth." 

Second  only  to  the  Veda  in  importance  is  the  Code  of 
Menu,  which  is  also  a  pro-Christian  procluetion.  This 
shows  a  considerable  advanje  in  tho  development  of  tho 
Hindu  system.  A  future  state  of  reward  and  punishment 
is  clearly  recognized,  and  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  is 
distinctly  enunciated.  No  one  of  the  three  great  gods  of 
niiMlern  times  was  known  to  the  Tet/a,  but  Menu  recognizes 
Brahmi,  the  Creator.  But  BrahmS  is  not  the  One  Supremo 
Being,  the  Soul  of  tho  universe,  hut  merely  tho  creative 
energy  ;  and  after  the  world  which  he  has  produced  has 
endured  for  long  ages,  the  iJivine  energy  is  withdrawn  and 
llrahmd  himself  returns  to  the  Supremo  essence  from  which 
he  emanated.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  mention  is  made  by 
Menu  of  the  burning  of  widows;  and  as  he  prescribes  tho 
kind  of  life  that  widows  were  to  lead,  tho  inference  to  bo 
drawn  is,  that  tho  practice  was  unknown  to  him.  Yet,  as 
wo  have  seen  above,  tho  custom  was  well  known  to  Greek 
authors  ^lOU  years  b.  c.  But  the  most  remarkable  feature 
in  .Menu  is  tho  full  development  of  tho  caste  system.  Not 
only  are  the  four  great  castes  recognized,  but  the  "mixed 
castes"  also  have  come  into  being  through  the  intercourse 
of  couples  belonging  to  different  ca-^tes.  .Most  stringent 
rules  are  laid  down  for  the  separation  and  guidanco  of  all 
the  castes,  tho  chief  and  leading  object  throughout  being 
the  elevation  of  the  /Ir/thitmn  and  the  degradation  of  tho 
others.  The  br^ihnmn,  according  to  ^lenu,  is  the  chief  of 
all  created  beings;  kings  are  inferior  to  him,  and  must 
show  him  respect  ;  his  pers((n  and  property  are  guarded  by 
the  severest  laws  in  this  wrjrM.  and  by  denunciations  of 
tremendous  punishments  iit  the  next.  But  the  hi-Ahinnn'i 
life  was  not  to  be  one  of  luxury  and  ease:  all  his  days  were 
to  be  spent  in  study,  devotion,  and  austerity,  in  acquiring 
and  imparting  a  knowledge  of  the  holy  books,  in  perform- 
ing the  duties  and  ceremonies  they  enjoin,  and  in  so  mor- 
tifying tho  flesh  that  it  might  eeasc  to  care  for  the  things 
of  this  world,  and  rise  nearer  and  nearer  to  assimilation 
and  unity  with  tho  Great  Soul  uf  tho  universe.     Tho  brdli- 


man*a  life  was  divided  into  four  portions  or  stages.  The 
first  portion  ho  was  to  spend  as  a  /tnitmntrh^ri,  or  stutlent, 
in  strict  service  and  obedience  to  his  religious  superior  un- 
til his  investiture  with  the  sacred  cord  about  the  age  of  sLx- 
teen.  Next  he  was  to  marry  and  become  {2}  a  (ii-ihnntha, 
or  householder  and  head  of  a  family.  During  this  stage 
ho  was  to  be  diligent  in  studying  and  teaching  tho  Veda, 
to  officiate  at  sacrifiecs,  to  receive  alms  and  bestow  alms. 
But  the  grand  object  of  marriage  was  to  obtain  male  off- 
spring, and  so  ]>rovido  for  tho  obsequial  offerings  to  him- 
self after  ileath,  an<l  to  his  ancestors  and  the  general  pro- 
genitors of  mankind.  These  duties  accomplished,  he  \vas 
to  proceed  to  the  next  stage,  {?,)  tho  V&iHiprantha,  or  dweller 
in  tho  woods,  whoso  duty  it  was  to  divest  himself  of  all 
fleshly  luxuries  and  comforts,  to  despise  all  trials  of  heat 
and  cold,  wet  and  dry,  to  live  upon  the  coarsest  fare,  and 
to  mortify  tho  body  in  every  way  as  a  clog  and  burden  to 
the  soul.  Lastly,  ho  was  to  become  (-1)  the  Satmi/fiHi,  or 
mendicant,  when,  freed  from  all  earthly  attachments  and 
religious  observances,  his  only  duty  was  to  abstract  his 
mind  from  material  objects,  and  to  strive  after  that  perfect 
equanimity,  that  complete  indiffcrcnco  to  everything  mun- 
dane, which  is  tho  nearest  approach  in  this  world  to  the 
all-pervading  Spirit  which  rules  it.  Such  was  tho  high 
ideal  of  the  lifo  of  a  brahman — an  ideal  which  few  sought 
to  realize,  even  in  the  days  when  tho  ordinance  was  young, 
and  of  wliich  tho  mero  name  and  shadow  only  now  remain. 
In  tho  days  of  the  i'/ifniiahadi  tho  duty  of  studying  and 
teaching  tho  Veda  had  been  shared  by  tho  second  oaste, 
but  now  it  was  restricted  exclusively  to  the  brahmaus;  tho 
law  was  either  derived  directly  or  deduced  from  tho  same 
writings,  so  tho  braliman  was  tho  judge  and  the  exponent 
of  the  jaw.  Government  and  ailroinistration  were  to  be  in 
accordance  wiih  tho  law,  so  tho  brdhmau  was  tho  king's 
counsellor  nntl  guide,  the  chief  director  and  administrator 
in  all  political  transactions.  Fighting  was  tho  more  ospc- 
ci.al  duty  of  tho  knhnlriyn,  but,  as  will  bo  presently  soon, 
the  brahman  took  a  prominent  part  even  in  this.  Tho 
Co.lo  declares  that  "tho  world  and  all  that  arc  in  it  arc 
his;"  tho  world  was  made  for  tho  brahman  ;  it  was  for  him 
to  rule  and  guide  it.  Others  might  act  as  instruments,  but 
ho  was  tho  director  and  controller. 

Tho  Kihatrif/d,  or  military  class,  were  charged  with  tho 
duties  of  government  and  war.  They  were  entitled  to 
honor  and  obedience,  but  were  far  inferior  to  the  brdhman. 
Tho  sacerdotal  class  required  tlio  protection  of  tho  ruler 
and  warrior ;  tho  soldier  ncedcil  the  advice  and  guidanco 
of  the  sage  ami  lawyer.  The  two  classes  wire  mutually 
dependent  on  each  olhcr,  but  tho  ono  contributed  nuntal 
and  spiritual  influence,  tho  other  physical  power,  and  tho 
former  asserted  and  maintained  its  ascendency. 

Tho  business  of  tho  \'<n\i/<i,  or  third  class,  was  to  carry 
on  trade  and  agriculture,  to  ]ierform  sacrifices  through  tho 
brdhiuans,  and  to  bestow  alms. 

The  Sudnt  was  the  fourth  or  servile  caste,  and  its  whole 
duty  was  service  of  the  others,  especially  the  brdhman. 
Ingenuity  almost  exhausted  itself  in  the  cfl"ort  to  describe 
the  utter  vileness  of  the  stSdra,  a  being  so  base  that  a 
brdhman  could  not  receive  a  gift  from  him,  and  even  in 
the  extremity  of  hunger  could  ai'ecpt  nothing  more  than  a 
little  dry  grain,  lint  the  degradation  of  the  sfldra  was 
only  religious.  Though  ho  was  to  serve,  he  was  not  a  slave; 
he  could  choose  his  own  master,  and  was  entitled  lo  pay- 
ment. He  could  accumulate  wealth  and  acquire  properly, 
and  he  often  Ijccamc  rich  and  soniclimcs  rose  lo  power. 

Tho  "mixed  castes"  are  fully  recognized  by  Menu: 
their  social  status  is  declared,  as  well  as  the  course  of  lifo 
to  which  their  degraded  birth  had  called  them. 

In  the  present  day  it  is  asserted  by  the  hrdhmans — and 
with  much  apparent  reason — that  they  alone  of  the  four 
castes  remain  unchanged  and  unmixed.  The  iHJ/iuli  claim  to 
bo  the  representatives  of  the  kshatriyas,  and  there  arc  olhcr 
castes  who  assert  themselves  lo  bo  the  desccntlonts  of  tho 
vaisyas  and  slidras,  but  il  is  difficult  for  them  to  prove  tho 
purity  i>f  their  descent.  The  brlihmans  themselves  have 
broken  up  into  divisions  nntl  subdivisions  without  eml,  and 
tho  higher  classes  hold  the  lower  divisions  in  the  utmost 
scorn.  The  mixed  castes  have  naturally  greatly  increased, 
and  the  general  temlency  is  to  still  lurlheeiunltiply  thciu 
by  all  kinds  of  arlilieial  and  arbitrary  distinctions. 

"The  two  great  poems  lii'muhftitid  and  Mttfii'ihliArtitu  are 
supposed  lo  have  been  written  a  little  before  the  Christian 
era.  They  depict  the  heroic  age,  and  those  deified  heroes 
come  upon  the  stieno  who  oeenjiy  so  prominent  a  jiosition 
in  modern  Hinduism.  The  linm/ii/rttia  celebrates  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  hero  Kdma  in  effiicling  the  conquest  of  the  S. 
of  India  and  Ceylon.  He  was  a  brdhman,  ami  in  the  poem 
ap]>cars  as  a  more  mortal  lu-ro,  but  he  has  since  been  raised 
to  (ho  dignity  of  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  ,l/u/i<S- 
hhnrata  records  the  wars  between  two  rivjil  families  for  the 
I  suvoroignty  uf  a  stato  whoso  capital  stood  near  tho  site  of 


926 


HINDU  KELIGION. 


modern  Delhi.  In  this  war,  Krishna,  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  incarnatiuns  of  Visiimi,  took  a  leading  part.  Like 
Kama,  ho  was  br^ihinnn,  Kut  even  in  the  poem  he  has  many 
of  the  attributes  of  divinity,  and  is  more  of  a  j^od  than  a 
mortal.  He  it  is  who  is  represented  as  recitiiij^  the  /ifta- 
ffavad-tj'ita,  the"l)ivino  Sung,"  a  pliilosophieal  poem  of 
great  elevation  of  (hoii;;iit  anil  beauty  of  language. 

From  the  epii;  poems  to  the  Purtinns  is  a  wide  interval, 
full  of  important  ohangcs.  There  arc  many  works?  bearing 
this  name,  but  the  recognized  pitrdnim  are  eighteen  in  num- 
ber, and  nro  supposed  to  have  been  written  between  the 
eighth  and  fourteenth  centuries  of  ourera.  In  these  works 
the  Hindu  religion  receives  its  full  development.  Brahmd 
the  Creator,  Vishnu  the  Preserver,  and  Siva  the  Destroyer 
(or  rather  Regenerator)  are  acknowledgnl  as  the  three 
great  divinities  constituting  the  Triad.  The  lirst  of  the 
i'uranas  is  tho  Jirahniti-puriina ;  the  others  arc  devoted, 
some  to  the  exaltation  of  Vishnu  in  one  or  other  of  his 
many  forms,  and  some  to  the  honor  of  Siva  and  his  em- 
blem, tho  Uiufom.  It  is  doubtful  if  DrahniA  was  ever  an 
olijcct  of  worship,  for  even  the  Br!»hmii-purdna  does  no 
more  than  indicate  a  local  worship  of  him  at  one  place  near 
Ajmfr.  Vislnm  the  Preserver  was  then,  as  now,  the  most 
popular  deity,  under  cue  or  other  of  his  nvatnrs  or  incar- 
nation?. The  avatiirs  were  ten :  (1)  -Va/sya,  the  Fish,  tho 
object  of  which  was  to  recover  the  Vedas,  which  had  been 
lost  in  a  general  deluge.  (2)  A'llrania,  the  Tortoise.  This 
is  connected  with  one  of  the  wildest  legends  of  Hindu 
mythology.  The  deluge  had  destroyed  thirteen  precious 
things,  among  which  was  the  timn'ta  or  water  of  immor- 
tality ;  Vishnu  converted  himself  into  a  tortoise,  and  sus- 
tained the  mountain  Mandara  on  his  back  while  the  gods 
churned  the  ocean  with  it  till  they  recovered  tho  lost  treas- 
ures. {'^)  Vfinth'i,  the  IJoar.  (4)  yarttsinhtt,  the  Man- 
Hon.  (o)  Vdmuiiif,  tho  dwarf  named  Bali.  (6,  7,  8)  The 
three  llamas — Parasu-riima,  Kama  or  Rdma-chandra.  and 
Bala-rima.  (H)  Buddha.  (10)  Kalki,  tho  White  Horse, 
which  will  appear  hereafter  to  destroy  the  world  and  re- 
store purity.  For  Bala-raraa  some  substitute  Krishna,  but 
Krishna  has  attained  to  such  honor  that  ho  is  held  to  be 
Vishnu  himself,  not  simply  an  incarnation.  A  foreshad- 
owing of  one  <if  these  incarnations  appears  in  the  Veda. 
The  sun  is  represented  mythically  as  taking  three  steps — 
his  rising,  culmination,  and  setting.  Bali  tho  dwarf  is 
represented  as  having  begged  three  steps  of  land  from  a 
tyrant,  and  then  to  have  strode  over  the  whole  world. 
Vishnu  in  his  abstract  form  receives  littlo  or  no  adoration. 
R5,ma  an'l  Krishna,  the  deified  hemes,  are  tho  great  ob- 
jects of  worship.  Both  were  mortals,  and  are  represented 
as  dying,  one  by  suicide,  the  other  by  accident.  Rlma, 
the  hero  of^  the  JUtnt/i^^iii<i,  is  the  especial  deity  of  tho  men- 
dicant sects.  His  name  is  used  as  a  salutation  and  bene- 
diction by  all  classes,  and  the  constant  repetition  of  it  is  a 
religious  exercise  of  great  merit.  Krishna,  tho  hero  of  the 
Mnhdijhftnita,  enjoys  unbounded  popularity,  particularly 
as  Gopdbi,  the  youthful  cowherd.  He  wns  of  royal  race, 
but  wa?  hidden  among  tho  cowherds  from  a  tyrant  who 
sought  his  life.  His  gambols  with  the  niilkinaids  and  the 
frolics  of  his  childhood  and  youth  are  related  in  the  Bful- 
gnvntn  puriiiia  and  in  the  modern  Pi'cm-s6;/ai:  They  are 
the  delight  of  all  classes,  especially  of  females  and  the 
young.  In  biter  life  he  performed  many  wonderful  ex- 
ploits, and  after  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  war  of  tho 
Mahiibhurata  he  retired  to  Dwdraka,  his  capital,  in  Guze- 
rat,  where  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow  shot  at  him  by  mis- 
take. The  name  Krishna  signifies  *'  black,"  and  tho  god 
is  represented  as  a  youth  of  very  dark  enmplexion.  Thn 
ceremonies  and  rejoicings  at  the  great  spring  festival,  tho 
liolij  are  principally  in  honor  of  Krislina. 

Vishnu  is  "the  thousand-named,"  and  tho  repeating  of 
these  names  is  a  very  meritorious  work.  Prominent  among 
these  forms — for  each  name  carries  with  it  some  special 
significance — is  that  of  Ja'jnn-uAth.  '*  tho  lord  of  the 
world,"  in  whicli  form  he  is  worshipped  at  the  great  car- 
festival  in  Cuftack. 

Siva,  the  Destroyer  and  Regenerator,  has  also  a  vast 
number  of  votaries,  but  fewer  than  Vishnu.  His  appear- 
ance and  attributes  are  of  a  very  gloomy  character.  He 
is  represented*  aa  sitting  absorbed  in  thought — naked, 
smeared  with  funereal  ashes,  with  mntted  hair,  and  a  neck- 
lace of  human  skulls  and  bones.  He  bns  three  eyes,  and 
the  fire  from  them  conpuraes  those  who  interrupt  his  devo- 
tions. But  the  especial  form  under  which  he  is  worshipped 
is  the  Ihi'fum,  or  phallus,  the  male  organ  of  reproduction, 
which  symbolizes  his  office  nf  regenerator.  There  is  noth- 
ing oflenflive  in  the  way  this  is  represented,  nor  anything 
obscene  in  the  ideas  attached  to  it.  A  ]dain  column  of 
stone,  a  cone  of  elay,  or  even  a  natural  oblong  stone,  is  its 
representative.  This,  in  the  eyes  of  the  w<>rshi)iper,  is 
yiuiply  Siva,  its  symbolical  ]>urport  being  altogc-iher  un- 
known or  unheeded.     At  tho  time  of  the  Mohammedan 


conquest  of  India  in  the  eleventh  century  there  were  twelve 
celebrated  lingnms  at  ditfercnt  places,  and  it  was  one  of 
these  that  Mahmfid  destroyed  at  SomnAth.  One  of  the 
names  of  Siva  is  t^onitt-ifUh,  "lord  of  the  moon,"  and  ho 
is  represented  as  bearing  the  crescent  on  his  forehead.  It 
is  in  honor  of  Siva,  but  especially  of  his  consort,  Devi, 
that  bloody  sacrifices  are  ottered  and  tortures  inflicted. 

Saraswatf,  the  wife  of  Brahma,  is  the  goddess  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  the  inventress  of  the  Sanscrit  language. 
She  receives  more  honor  than  her  lord.  Lakshml,  the  wife 
of  Vishnu,  is  the  goddess  of  prosperity  and  fortune.  Both 
of  these  deities  receive  adoration  on  particular  occasions, 
and  the  latter  is  very  frequently  invoked,  but  they  are  not 
the  objects  of  any  regular  worship.  It  is  far  different  with 
the  consort  of  Siva,  who  is  known  under  a  great  variety 
of  names — Devi,  Diirga,  KAIf,  Parvatf,  Bhavauf,  etc. — and 
is  the  recipient  of  a  fierce  fanatical  adoration.  This  god- 
dess is  represented  in  a  variety  of  ways,  all  more  or  less 
terrible  and  disgusting.  In  the  mildest  form  she  is  a  hand- 
some woman  riding  on  a  tiger  in  a  fierce  and  menacing  atti- 
tude. In  another  and  more  common  one  she  is  K&li,  "the 
black,"  with  a  black  skin,  a  hideous  and  terrible  counte- 
nance, dripping  with  blood,  wreathed  with  snakes,  and 
adorned  with  human  skulls.  The  worship  of  this  deity  is 
very  widely  spread,  especially  in  Bengal,  and  it  is  from  her 
that  Calcutta  obtained  its  name.  The  worship  of  Devi  owes 
itg  diffusion,  perhaps  its  rise,  to  a  class  of  writings  called 
Tantrna.  These  are  works  of  a  comparatively  late  date, 
but  their  origin  is  very  obscure  and  their  authors  are  un- 
known. They  arc  ascribed  to  Siva,  and  are  generally  in 
tho  form  of  dialogues  between  him  and  his  consort.  "  They 
are  very  numerous,  and  some  are  of  considerable  volume. 
They  have  been  but  little  examined  by  European  scholars, 
but  sufficient  has  been  ascertained  to  warrant  tho  accusa- 
tion that  they  are  authorities  for  all  that  is  most  abom- 
inable in  the  present  state  of  the  Hindu  religion.  Tho 
great  feature  of  tho  religion  taught  by  the  Tantras  is  tho 
worship  of  Salctf — divine  power  personified  as  a  female,  and 
individualized,  not  only  in  tho  goddesses  of  mythology,  but 
in  every  woman;  to  whom,  therefore,  in  her  own  person, 
religious  worship  may  be,  and  is  occasionally,  addressed. 
Tho  chief  objects  of  adoration  arc,  however,  the  manifoM 
forms  of  tho  bride  of  Siva.  Even  in  its  least  exceptional 
division  tho  Sakt£  worship  comprehends  tho  performance 
of  magical  ceremonies,  and  rites  intended  to  obtain  super- 
human powers  and  a  command  over  tho  spirits  of  heaven, 
earth,  and  hell.  Tho  popular  division  is,  however,  called 
by  the  Hindus  tho  Ujt-haud  faith.  It  is  to  this  that  tho 
bloody  sacrifices  offered  to  KAU  must  bo  imputed,  and  that 
nil  the  barbarities  and  indecencies  perpetrated  at  the  an- 
nual worship  of  Dtirga  and  the  swinging  festival  arc  to  bo 
ascribed.  There  arc  other  atrocities  which  do  not  meet  tho 
public  eye.'*  (//.  H.  M'iUoii.) 

The  religion  of  tho  Hindus  is  thus  principally  directed 
to  tho  worsUijj  of  three  leading  divinities,  Vishnu,  Siva,  and 
Devf — each  of  whom  has  many  names  and  forms.  Each 
form  or  nianifcstTition  has  .'^ome  peculiar  attribute,  somo 
special  kind  of  worship,  but  the  general  features  are  main- 
tained throughout.  The  worship  of  Vishnu  is  cheerful  and 
sensuous;  of  Siva,  sombre  and  severe;  of  Devf,  terrible 
and  disgusting.  But  besides  these  great  divinities  there 
aro  many  others  of  less  dignity  and  power,  who  have  their 
special  attributes  and  sjdieres  of  action.  They  are  not  the 
objects  of  any  regular  worship,  but  they  are  invoked  and 
ndorati<m  is  offered  to  them  when  it  is  desired  to  propitiate 
them  and  secure  a  favorable  exercise  of  their  powers.  There 
is  Indra.  the  god  of  the  firmament  and  heaven  :  Siirya,  the 
sun;  Soma,  the  moon;  Varunii,  the  waters;  Piivana,  the 
wind:  Agni,  fire;  Kuvera,  wealth  :  Kdrtikeya.  war;  Kfmia, 
love  ;  Yama,  the  god  of  tlie  infernal  regions  and  judge  of 
the  dead  :  (Janesa  or  (Janapati,  the  god  of  wisdom  and  the 
remover  of  obstacles.  He  is  represented  as  a  short  fat  man 
with  an  elephant's  head.  His  image  is  frequently  found  at 
tho  entrance  of  temples,  and  ho  is  invoked  at  the  begin- 
ning of  important  works  and  ceremonies.  The  total  num- 
ber of  gods  i-  said  to  be  3:50,000,000. 

Two  very  remarkable  features  in  the  Hindu  religion  are 
the  great  powers  and  virtues  ascribed  to  sacrifice  and  faith. 
Sacrifice  and  austere  penanee,  pcrseveringly  and  rigidly 
performed,  make  even  the  gods  subservient  to  the  wishes 
of  the  devotee,  and  that  quite  irrespective  of  the  object  in 
vie\v.  The  merit  is  in  tho  performance,  not  in  the  spirit 
of  the  observance,  and  tho  most  impious  and  worthless  are 
represented  as  gaining  (heir  ends  by  sacrifice  and  severe 
bo<niy  torture.  Tho  virtue  of  faith  was  a  leading  prin- 
ciple in  the  /ihofjiivKl-^/UA  ascribed  to  Krishna.  Trust  in 
the  chosen  deity,  constant  repetition  of  his  name,  the  bear- 
ing of  his  seetarial  marks — in  short,  the  outward  show  of 
religion  upheld  by  a  fanatical  faith— is  of  more  avail  than 
sacrifice  and  piety.  Morality  and  innocence  maybe  incul- 
cated, but  the  saving  principle  is  belief. 


HINDUS— HIPPOCAMPID^. 


927 


The  worshippers  of  Vishnu  and  Piva  are  broken  up  into 
tn  infinite  varielT  of  sects  anil  divisions,  and  thev  have 
also  a  great  miuibor  of  niuniistic  and  mendicant  orders  in- 
tent uiion  the  maintenance  of  their  respective  phases  ot 
belief  Manv  iusiances  are  recorded  of  rival  devotees  com- 
iuK  in  coullict  at  some  of  the  great  places  of  pilgrimage, 
and  of  hundreds  and  thousands  being  kille.l.  There  arc 
among  the  Hindus  men  of  superior  intelligence  who  phil- 
osophlcallv  see  through  all  these  varieties  ,.f  divinity  the 
One  Supreme  licing.  to  whom  alone  worship  is  due.  There 
have  bicn  others  who,  innucnccd  by  that  feeling  of  mys- 
ticism so  prevalent  in  the  East,  have  treated  all  the  forms 
of  religion  as  mere  symbols.  Such  were  the  founders  of 
some  of  what  may  be  called  Iho  dissenting  sects,  who  deny 
the  merit  of  religious  ceremonies,  and  strive  to  seek  above 
an<l  beyond  them  the  One  Oreat  licing.  .Mich  was  the  sect 
established  by  the  weaver  Kabir  at  the  beginning  of  ho 
fifteenth  centurv  ;  such  also  was  that  of  the  Mkhs,  lounded 
bv  \Yiiiak  at  the  end  of  that  same  century.  Many  a  pure 
thought  aud  luftv  idea  is  to  be  found  in  the  verses  of  t  icse 
andolhcrsuch  independent  thinkers— for  it  is  to  be  noledthat 

all  of  them  u\pross  their  thoughts  in  verse— but  there  is  a 
strong  disposition  in  all  such  sects,  as  time  wears  on,  to 
undulv  exalt  their  ouru  or  founder,  and  to  adore  him  as  a 
saint.  ■'""=•■  I>0«S0!'- 

Hindus.    Sec  IxniA,  by  R.  C.  Caldwei-l. 
Uiucsburg,  post-tp.  of  Chittenden  co.,  Vt,  12  miles 
S.  li.of  liurlington,  has  an  academy,  I  churches,  and  manu- 
factures of  castings,  woollen  goods,  cooperage,  carriages, 
leather,  boxes,  yarn,  etc.     Pop.  1573. 

Hinesvillc,  posl-v.,  cap.  of  Liberty  co.,  Ga.,  35  miles 
W  of  Savannah.  It  contains  the  usual  county-scat  build- 
ings a  high  school,  a  flouring-mill,  1  weekly  newspaper, 
and  a  sulphur  spring  of  marked  medicinal  properties. 
Priuciiial  occupation,  farming  and  stock-raising. 

S.  D.  BllADWKLl,.  Ei>.  "Uazbtte. 
Hinge,  the  pivot  on  which  a  door  or  shutter,  or  some- 
times a  wind.w,  turns  in  opening  or  shutting.  Hinges  nro 
also  u-ed  in  fastening  on  one  side  of  the  covers  of  trunlts, 
boxes,  and  the  like.  In  ancient  Egypt,  Syria,  etc.  hinges 
were  usually  pivots,  one  below  resting  in  a  socket  in  the 
doorsill,  and  another  above  in  the  lintel.  Such  are  still 
seen  in  the  East.  .\  simple  strip  of  leather  is  another  early 
and  rude  form.  From  Ibis  the  transition  to  metallic  hinges 
was  an  easy  one.  In  me.lia^val  times,  and  again  at  the 
present  davi  the  custom  has  prevailed  of  employing  elabo- 
rately designed  and  highly  ornamented  hinges.  A  strap- 
hin'C  is  one  which  is  screwed  to  one  side  of  a  d wr.  1  he 
mor'o  common  sort,  called  b,M  by  the  builders,  screws  into 
the  edge  of  the  door. 

Hinc'ham,  post-v.  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.,  14  miles 
6.  E.  of  Boston,  on  the  Old  Colony  U.  R.  It  has  both  rail 
and  stcmuboat  communication  with  Boston.  It  contains 
an  academy,!)  churches,  2  banks,  afire  insurance  comjiany, 
2  hotels,  1  newspaper,  a  public  library,  an  agricultur.al 
society,  and  manufactures  of  wooden  ware,  cordage,  bag- 
gin'  'furniture,  iron  castings,  worsted  upholstery,  fancy 
knit  goods,  etc.     Pop.  1122.  G.-okgk  Lin-cols. 

Uink'ley,  Ip.  of  Washington  co..  Me.,  on  Grand  Lake. 
Pop.  r.i. 

Ilin'man  (Clabk  Tins),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Kortwright, 
N  Y  ,  .\ug.  .1,  ISiy,  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  University  in 
18:!9*  was  connected  wilh  the  Metbo.list  Seminary,  New- 
bury, Vt.,  18.TJ-I0;  j.rincipal  of  .Mbion  Seminary,  Mich., 
181B-5.1-  founder  of  Norlh-wostorn  University,  Kvanston, 
■  III., and  its  first  president  is:,:!-,>l.  1).  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,Oct. 
21,  ISJi.  Ho  was  an  able  orator  and  scholar,  and  a  labor- 
ious and  successful  instructor. 

Ilinmiin  (.loiix),  LL.D.,  b.  in  Fairfield  co..  Conn.,  in 
IKO;!;  was  admitted  to  tho  bar  at  Now  Haven,  and  after- 
wards practised  law  at  Waterbury,  Conn. ;  was  appointed 
a  justice  of  Iho  superior  court  1842;  of  tho  State  supremo 
court  ISifl;  its  chief-justice  ISGl.  1).  at  Cheshire,  Conn., 
Feb.  21,  1870. 

Ilin'mansvillc,  post-v.  of  Schrocppel  tp.,  Oswego  cc, 
N.  v.,  on  Oswego  River.      Pop.  151. 

Ilin'ny,  or  Jcn'nct  [(ir.  lypot,  yiwot,  a  "mule"],  a 
hybrid  between  the  horse  and  the  she-nss.  a  very  different 
animal  from  tho  mule,  which  is  bred  between  the  ass  and 
the  marc.  Tho  hinny  neighs  like  a  horse,  the  mule  brays 
like  the  ass.  Tho  mules  ears,  tail,  and  general  aspect  are 
asinine.  Tho  hinny  more  nearly  resembles  tho  horse;  is 
of  slighter  build,  and  of  strength  inferior  to  that  of  tho 
mule.  It  is  bred  to  some  eileiil  in  Spain  anrl  Bnrbary. 
It  was  once  called  jumml.  and  w:i«  nl.nirdly  believed  to  be 
the  fruit  of  a  ero!<«  between  llie  bull  and  the  mare. 

Ilinojo'Hn  del  Dii'que,  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Cordova.  It  has  somo  mauufacturea  of  linens  tnd  wool- 
lens.    Pop.  8637. 


Hins'dale,  post-tp.  of  Berkshire  co..  Mans.,  8  miles  E.  S. 
E.  of  Pittslield.  It  is  a  mountainous  town,  aud  has  somo 
manufactures.     Pop.  IfiSto. 

Hinsdale,  post-v.  of  Cheshire  co.,  X.  II..  on  tho  Ash- 
uelot  R  R.  It  has  a  fine  water-power,  aud  contains  large 
woollen-mills.  :'.  churches.  2  newspapers,  manufactories  of 
mowing-machines,  lumber,  etc.     Pop.  1342. 

IIenbv  E.  Huxter,  Ed.  "  Staii-Spasoleb  Baxxeii. 
Hinsdale,  tp.  and  p.ist-y.  of  Cattaraugus  co..  X.  Y., 
on   the  Erie  and  the  Buffalo  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
R    Rs.,  fill  miles  S.  E.  of  Buffalo.     It  has  some  manufac- 
tures. "  Pop.  of  v.  321;  of  tp.  1401. 

Hinsdale  (BrnKE  Aarox),  A.  M.,  b.  at  Wadsworth, 
Medina  eo.,  O.,  Mar.  31,  1837  ;  was  educated  at  the  Elect- 
ive  Institute,  now   Hiram   College;   received  in  1871  the 
dcreo  of  A.  M.  from  Bethany  College,  W.  Va.,  and  from 
Wriliams  College,  Mass. ;  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  (called  also  Disciples,  Campbellitcs,  etc.)  in 
1801 ;  was  pastor  in  Solon.  0.,  1SC4-06 ;  in  Cleveland  IsfiO- 
G8;   assistant  editor  of  the  rhr!,t!.ui   SlaiiJanl  iXM-M; 
iirofessor  of  history  and  English  literature  in  Hiiam  Col- 
lege 1SG9-70:  became  its  president  1870,  and  performs  the 
duties  of  professor  of  philosophy,  history,  and  biblical  lit- 
erature; is  also  assistint  editor  of  the  Chrhtian  Q,mrle<l>j, 
Cincinnati.     Author  of  Ucnmneue»n  awl  Aiith^niicign/lht 
Go^mla  (IS'3),  The  Evolntivu  o/  (A<:  Tlieolnfjical  and  Vnc- 
trhml  Sn'tcm,  „f  the  Ancient  Chnrch  (in  preparation),  and 
has  contributed  much  to  periodical  literature. 
Hin'ton,  tp.  of  Mecosta  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  390. 
Ilinton,  post-v..  cap.  of  Summers  co.,  W.  Va.,  on  tho 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  R.  R..  at  the  confluence  of  the  (.reen- 
brier  and  New  rivers.     It  has  a  large  sash  and  door  fac- 
tory   1  new.spaper,  the  rouud-housc  and  machine-shops  ol 
the  C   and  0.  R.  R.,  4  hotels,  and  the  usual  stores.     Pop. 
about  500.    C.  L.  Tiiosirsux,  Ed.  "  Moixtaix  Herald. 

Hinton  (Joux  HowabdI,  M.  A.,  b.  at  Oxford,  England, 
Mar  24,  1791;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  I  nivcrsily  ; 
became  a  Baptist  minister,  and  held  various  pastorates, 
nrineipallv  in  London:  attained  distinction  as  a  preacher. 
'Author  of  a  Ilhton/  of  the  U.  S.,  Mc,n„i,:  o/  11 .  AnM 
Tlie»lo<,!/.  Element,  of  Natural  Hintoyy,  etc.  U.  at  Bristol 
Dee.  17,  1873. 

Hio'go,  or  Fiogo,  seaport  of  Japan,  on  the  island  of 
Niiion  20  miles  \S.  of  Osaka,  to  which  a  railway  extends. 
It  has  a  very  large  trade  in  tea,  and  its  harbor  is  the  best 
in  Iho  empire.     Pop.  20,000. 

Hip,  the  fruit  of  the  rosebush.  Hips  arc  used  in  phar- 
macy as  a  material  for  making  "confection  of  hips"  (eon- 
fcetio  rosic  canln.r),  the  /fo«n  c«iii.i<i,  or  dog  rose,  and  R. 
ponu/era  of  Europe,  furnishing  the  most  ot  the  fruit.  The 
seeds  are  taken  out,  and  the  hips  beaten  in  a  niorlar  with 
white  sugar— 2  pounds  of  sugar  to  1  of  hips.  This  makes 
a  pleasant  sourish  confection.  The  more  fleshy  and  juicy 
sorts  of  hips  are  in  some  places  preserved  or  dried,  and  in 
winter  arc  boiled  in  pottage,  after  taking  out  tho  seeds 
and  bristly  subslancc  wilhiu  them. 

Hip-joint,  Diseases  of.  See  Cdxalcia. 
Ilipparcliu-i,  generally  considered  the  founder  of  the 
eeiencc  of  asirunomy,  lived  in  ihe  middle  of  the  second 
centurv  n  r. ;  b.  at  Niciea,  in  Bithynia.  Of  his  life  noth- 
ing is  known,  and  of  his  writings  only  the  least  important, 
A  Commentar;/  on  Aratn,,  has  been  left  to  us.  But  from 
the  Snntarh  of  Ptolemy  we  know  that  by  his  great  dis- 
coveries, and  more  especially  by  his  method,  he  actualy 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  .science  of  astronomy.  (More  de- 
tailed information  will  be  found  iu  Ihe  article  on  Ptolemy.) 
See    Horse,  Fossil,   by   Prof.   0.   C. 


Hippa'rion. 

n'ipnean  (Celestix),  b.  at  Niort.  Deux-Sftvres,  May 
n  Iso' ■  made  his  first  studies  in  his  native  city,  and 
filled  different  positions  as  a  teacher  and  professor  at  1  oi- 
tiers,  NapolC.on-Vendee,  Strasburg,  Paris,  and  Caen.  The 
most  prominent  of  his  writings  arc- W..to.'c  delAMa;/. 
de  Salnl-£i;enne  de  Caen,  V>GG-lTnO  (185:.),  Le,  ^cr>-«.,,. 
„„rmand,andU,epiremc>iMe(\m)Mi'ta>rednOourrrnc- 
met  de  la  Xannandic  (9  vols.,  I8C3-7.3)  D,el,„una,rede  la 
langue  /■V,.i,cai,e  o.l  IJouzlrine  el  Tr,i2,hnc ,iMe  (187u). 

Hin'pias,  a  contemporary  of  Protagoras  and  Socrates, 
b  at  Klis,  and  lived  mostly  at  Athens.  Of  his  life  nothing 
h'  known,  and  of  his  writings  n<me  have  come  ij"'^''  •"  ".'- 
but  his  cbaracler  has  been  very  vividly  drawn  by  1  la  o  in 
Ihe  I  wo  dialogues  which  bear  his  name.  He  seems  to  have 
been  a  man  of  great  gifts  and  comprehensive  knowledge, 
but  arrogant,  vain,  and  superficial. 

Hippocam'pidir  [from  •lirni.aMiroc.  a  proper  nainc], 
a  family  of  fishes  of  the  onler  Lopliobranebii.  disliiiguished 
by  the  iircheiisilily  of  the  tail  and  Ihe  wanl  .1  a  caudal  fin, 
eimbined  with  a  tubular  snout,  narrow  gill-opcnings,  a 


928 


HIPPOCAMPUS-HIPPOLYTUS. 


single  soft  dorsal,  belonginj;  partly  to  the  abdominal  and 
partly  to  the  caudal  portioo.  and  the  absence  ot  ventral 
tins  To  this  group  belong  five  genera  —  Gastroloctun, 
SoUm,m,athM,  Phyn,,pl<rnix.  Acentronnra.  and  i/i/jp"- 
cnmu.'s.  The  most  characteristic  and  familiar  form  is  the 
little  sea-horse,  Jfijipur-nrnpim.  remarkiible  for  the  resem- 
blance of  its  head  aud  neck  to  those  of  a  horse,  and  the 
windin"  downward  and  inward  of  its  caudal  portion,  or 


tail. 


TlIEODOItE   tllLL. 


half 


Hippocnm'pus  [in  Greek  mythology,  a  sea-monster 
,lf  horse  and  half  fish],  a  singular  genus  of  Lophobrau- 


chiate  marine  fishes  of  the  family  llippocampidai.     ihcy 


The  Sea-Horse. 
have  ganoid  scales,  and  swim  generally  in  a  vertical  pos- 
ture.    The  males  carry  the  spawn  in  pouches  upon  the  tail 
until  the  fry  are  hatched.    The  tail  is  prehensile,  the  caudal 
and   ventral  fin  absent.     All  the  species  are  small.     H. 
Hitdsoiiiut  is  found  along  our  Atlantic  coast.     From  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  head  it  is  called  the  sea-horse.     The 
cut  shows  the  H.  brcciroslrin,  a  common  European  species. 
Hippoc'rates    ['lir^oKpaTrn].    the   father   of  medicine 
and  the  most  distinguished  of  Greek  physicians,  was  b.  in 
Cos  in  -IfiO  n.  c.  (according  to  Soranus),  and  was  the  son  ol 
lleraclidcs,  oncofthe  Asclepiada>,  and  Phajnarete.awoman 
who    belonged  to  the   Heraeleidie.      }Iipi)Ocrates   studied 
medicine  with  his  father  and  with  Herodicus  of  Selym- 
bria;    learned    rhetoric    of  Gorgias    the    Leontine ;  prac- 
tised his  profession  chiefly  at  Cos,  and  rendered  its  medical 
school,  already  very  famous,  by  far  more  illustrious  than 
it   had    ever  'before    been.      He    travcllel    much    among 
the  Grecian  towns,  and  d.  at  Larissa  B.  c.  SoT.  (Clinton.) 
Little  more  than  the  above  facts  is  known  regarding  his 
life,  but  ancient  writers  relate  of  him  many  fabulous  tales. 
His  sons,  Thessalus  and  Dr.^co,  and   Polybus,  his  son-in- 
law,  perpetuated  his  fame,  and  probably  wrote  some  of  the 
works  which  bear  his  name.     Those  now  e.xtant  are  more 
than  si.\ty  in  number  (some  of  them  very  short),  but  by 
far  the  larger  part  are  either  spurious  or  incorrectly  as- 
cribed to  Hippocrates.     Part  or  all  of  (he  Aphnriams,  parts 
of  the  Epidemics,  parts  of  the  PnxjmislicH,  the  Re-jimen  in 
Aciiic  Viaeriacs,  the  treatise  on   U'oiiiif/i  "/  the  Hmrl,  and 
that   Oil   Air.  tt'uter.  ri/i,/  PlnccB,  are  considered  genuine 
works  of  Hippocrates:  and  (according  to  Littre)  the  trea- 
tises On  Ancient  Metlicinc,  on  Jointt,  On  fi-aclurca,  on  The 
I'Kciif  the  Lever  (in  reducing  luxations),  on  imr,  on  Ulcers, 
on  Jlirmi.rrhuids,  on  the  Sacred  Disease,  on  Fistula,  and  the 
De  Medici  Offieina,  are  possil.ly  genuine.    As  a  practitioner, 
it  would  be  unfair  to  judge  of  Hippocrates'  merits  by  any 
modern  standard.     His  pathological  notions  were  founded 
mainly  on  natural  analogies  and  n  priori  reasoning;  they 
consequently  have  no  scientific  value,  but  are  memor,able 
as  the  direct  source  of  the  humoral  pathology  so  long  dom- 
inant  in   the  schools.     He  also   taught  the   doctrines  of 
d  crises,  treated  disease  chiefly  by  attcn 


every  other  mode  of  instruction  I  will  impart  a  knowledge 
of  this  art  to  my  own  sons,  to  those  of  my  teachers,  aud  to 
disciples  bound  by  a  stipulation  and  oalh  according  to  the 
law  of  medicine,  but  to  no  others.  I  will  follow  that  sys- 
tem of  regimen  which,  according  to  my  best  judgment,  I 
consider  best  for  my  patients,  and  abstain  from  whatever 
is  injurious.  I  will  give  no  deadly  medicine  to  any  one  if 
asked,  nor  suggest  any  such  counsel.  Furlhcrniorc,  1  will 
not  give  to  a  woman  an  instrument  to  procure  abortion. 
With  purity  and  holiness  will  I  pass  my  life  and  practice 
my  art.  I  will  not  cut  a  person  who  is  suD'ering  with 
stone,  but  will  leave  this  to  be  done  by  those  who  arc  prac- 
titioners of  such  work.  Into  whatever  houses  I  enter  I 
will  go  for  the  advantage  of  the  sick,  and  will  abst.ain  from 
every  voluntary  act  of  mischief  and  eorrujition,  and,  fur- 
ther, from  the  seduction  of  females  or  males,  bond  or  free. 
Whatever  in  connection  with  my  professional  practice,  or 
not  in  connection  with  it.  I  may  see  or  hear,  I  will  not  di- 
vulge, holding  that  all  such  things  should  be  kept  secret. 
While  I  continue  to  keep  this  oalh  inviolate,  may  it  bo 
granted  me  to  enjoy  life  and  the  practice  of  my  art,  re- 
spected always  by  all  men ;  but  should  I  break  through  and 
violate  this  oath,  may  the  reverse  be  my  lot."  This  oath 
is  not  now  administered  to  practitioners,  though  something 
equivalent  to  it  was  used  in  the  iMiddle  Ages,  and  especi- 
ally in  the  school  of  Salerno;  but  every  honorable  and 
right-minded  physician  governs  his  private  and  profes- 
sional life  bv  its  noble  principles.  It  is  the  oldest  and  one 
of  the  best  of  the  codes  of  medical  ethics,  there  being  but 
one  simpler  and  better  code,  the  Golden  Kulc  of  doing  as 
one  would  be  done  by. 

Hippocrc'ne  [Gr.  Ir^n^o?,  «pii>i,  "  horse-spring  "]•  "  fa- 
mous fountain  upon  the  side  of  Mt.  Helicon,  in  Bceotia,  was 
believed  by  the  ancients  to  be  a  favorite  haunt  of  the 
Muses  and  a  source  of  poetic  inspiration.  It  was  fabled 
to  have  been  produced  by  a  stroke  of  the  foot  of  Pegasus. 
It  is  still  a  fine  spring. 

Hip'podrome  [Gr.  i^iroSpono?,  a  "horse-race"],  the 
name  anciently  given  in  Greece  and  Constantinople  to  the 
ground  where  chariot  and  other  horse-races  took  place.  Of 
these  races,  those  in  chariots  were  the  most  popular.  In 
these  races  many  competitors  for  the  prize  entered  the  race, 
which  was  consequently  attended  with  much  danger  to  the 
drivers— a  danger  much  increased  by  the  limited  siie  of 
the  hijipodromc  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  frequent 
turning  of  goals.  The  hippodrome  at  Olympia  was  long 
the  most  famous,  but  in  later  times  that  at  Constantinople 
acquired  great  renown,  and  the  whole  Byzantine  popu- 
lace was  divided  in  their  social  and  political  relations  by 
factions  which  took  their  origin  in  the  hippodrome. 

Hippol'ytus,  according  to  the  Grecian  mythology,  was 
a  son  of  Theseus.  His  stcpmolhcr,  Pliiedra,  fell  in  love 
with  him.  and  accused  him  to  his  father  in  order  (o  revenge 
herself  for  his  coldness.  Theseus  theu  cursed  his  son,  aud 
asked  ^Egcus  to  destroy  him,  but  after  the  death  of  llippo- 
lytus  the  kiug  learned  the  innocence  of  his  son  and  fell 
into  great  grief;  Pha-dra  killed  herself.  According  to  the 
Roman  mythology,  Hippolytus  was  restored  to  life  by 
yEsculapius.  and  placed  in  a  grove  at  Aricia  by  Diana,  where 
he  received  divine  worship  under  the  name  of  Virbius. 

Hippolytus,  S.tiST,  bishop  and  martyr.  There  is  still 
some  uncertainty  about  the  dates  and  Ihe  events  of  his  life, 
but  he  was  probably  b.  after  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  in  Italy,  though  he  travelled  in  the  East,  and 
was  also  a  disciple  of  Irena'us  of  Gaul.  Le  Jloync  ( IGS'5) 
makes  him  bishop  of  Portus  Romani,  the  modern  .trfrn  in 
Arabia.  But  his  diocese  was  certainly  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Itomc,  and  probably  at  Portus  Uomanus,  l.i  miles  from 

*  ..        ■  ..1.     ..Til.^.    T:i,n»       T„    O'i^     iinilor 


erases,  coctions,  an 

tion  to  regimen,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  expectant        _  ^ ^ 

treatment  in  many  acute  diseases.     He  was  a  careful  ob-  j  the  city,  at  the  northern  mouth  of  the  Tiber.   In  2:io,  under 

server  aud  excellent  deseriber  of  symptoms,  and  (as  his  i  „^^  emperor  Maximinus,  he  was  banished,  along  with  the 

genuine  writings  show)  was  a  man  of  the  noblest  mental  ,  {{„„,„„  lijshop  Pontianu 
and  moral  qualities.     Among  the  most  valued  works  upon 


the  Hippocratic  writings  are  the  commentaries  of  Galen. 
The  best  editions  of  the  entire  works  are  by  0.  G.  KUhn  | 
(:i  vols.,  Leipsio,  1825-27).  aud  by  Littr6,  with  French  | 
translation  (Paris,  1839-61,  10  vols.).  i 

Hippocrat'ic  Oath,  a  solemn  engagement  entered 
into  in  ancieut  limes  by  young  men  about  commencing  the 
practice  of  medicine,  and  especially  by  the  Asclcpiada-. 
The  formula  itself  has  been  ascribed  to  Hippocrates,  and 
is  certainly  very  ancient.  It  was  as  follows:  "  I  swear  by 
Apollo  the' physician,  by  /F<seulapius,  by  Hygicia,  Panacea, 
and  all  the  gods  and  goddesses,  that,  according  to  my 
ability  and  judgment,  I  will  keep  this  oalh  and  stipula- 
tion ;  to  reckon  him  who  tenches  me  this  art  equally  dear 
to  me  with  my  parents :  to  share  my  substance  with  him, 
and  relieve  his  necessities  if  required  ;  to  look  upon  his 
offspring  upon  the  same  footing  as  my  own  bnjthers,  and 
to  leach  them  this  art,  if  liny  shall  wish  to  learn  it.  with- 
out fee  or  stipulation  ;  aud  that  by  precept,  lecture,  and 


^^,^^_ ^ _ ,  to  Sardinia,  and  is  supposed  to 

have  siilTered'niartyrdom  the  year  following,  but  whether 
in  Sardinia  or  after  returning  to  Italy  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. His  statue  in  a  silling  posture,  with  a  list  of  his 
writings  inscribed  upon  the  baik  of  the  chair,  was  dug  up 
in  I5»l  near  the  basilica  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Rome.  By 
much  the  most  important  of  his  writings  is  the  J'hiloso- 
plimnena,  a  Refntution  a/ Alt  Heresies,  in  10  books.  Unlll 
recently  only  I'ho  first  book  was  known  to  be  extant,  and 
this  was  ascribed  toOrigen.  The  second,  the  third,  and  the 
eommencement  of  the  fourth  book  arc  still  wanting.  The 
rest  were  discovered  at  .Mount  Alhos  in  1S42  by  Minoides 
Mynas,  a  learned  Greek  sent  by  .M.  \illeinain,  minister  of. 
public  instruction  under  Louis  Philippe,  to  make  re.-^earches 
in  the  Greek  monasteries.  l>liilos„pl,nmena  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Oxford  by  Miller  in  l.'^.>2,  as  a  work  of  Origcn. 
But  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Duneker  and  Schneidewin 
(ISj'J).  This  treatise  is  one  of  great  value  historically, 
philosophically,  theologically,  and  critically.  The  works 
of  Hippolytus  have  been  edited  by  Fahricius  (1710-18), 


HIPPOXAX— HIRAM. 


929 


Oalland  (1766).  and  Lagardo  (1S58).  (See  also  mono- 
grapba  by  Buuscn  (1852;  2a  cd.  1854);  Cruico  (lS5.i), 
who  also  edited  the  Fhitosophnmcmi  in  ISiiU;  DolUnger 
(ISj;!),  Wordsworth  (1S53J,  and  V'olkmnr  (ISJJ).) 

K.  D.  Hitchcock. 
llippo'naXf  a  Greek  satirical  poet  of  the  si-xth  century 
u.  c,  ol  whom  ahout  100  lines  are  still  extiiut.  Uo  was 
bani'slied  irom  his  native  city,  Ephesus,  ou  account  of  his 
satires,  and  lived  afierwards  at  Clatomcmc.  always  fight- 
ing against  everybody,  lie  is  the  inventor  of  the  choli- 
ainbic  verse,  in  which  a  spoudeoor  trochee  is  placed  in  the 
last  foot,  instead  of  an  iambus,  thus  giving  to  the  rhythm  a 
peculiar  jarring  movement  which  is  well  adapted  for 
satire.  The  fra;:mcnts  collected  and  edited  by  F.  G.  Wclcker 
(Giittin^^cn,  1S17,  4to). 

Hippopli'agy  [Gr.  Iv-no^,  "horse."  and  ^aydv,  "to 
eat"],  the  eating  of  horseflesh.  From  the  earliest  times 
the  Northern  races  of  Europe  ate  the  flesh  of  the  horse, 
and,  in  consequence  of  religious  associations,  sacrificed 
it  to  their  god.->.  Owing  to  tliis,  early  ('hristian  mission- 
aries made  the  abstinence  from  horsellesh  a  test  of  re- 
ligion. In  the  eighth  century  the  popes  anathematized 
it,  and  Gregory  lit.  declared  iinnutndnm  cut  ct  exccrahilt — 
"it  is  foul  and  vile."  In  the  Xjall  saga  a  converted  Ice- 
lander, taunting  an  enemy,  tells  him  that  he  has  but  lately 
eaten  liorseflesh.  In  time  it  was  popularly  believed  that 
horseflesh  was  unhealthy.  The  French  were  the  first  to 
doubt  this,  and  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  Larrcy  killed  his 
horses  to  make  broth  for  the  sick.  According  to  experi- 
ments and  reports  made  by  IJaron  Guerrier  do  Duraost, 
horseflesh  contains  one-seventh  more  nutriment  than  its 
equivalent  weight  of  beef,  and,  taking  the  average  horso 
with  the  average  ox,  the  former  yields  110  to  tho  104  of  the 
hitter.  In  IS42,  Dr.  Pcrner  of  Munich  began  to  combat 
the  preju<Iice  against  horseflesh,  and  in  ISlo  tho  sale  of  it 
was  legalized  in  Uavaria.  At  the  same  time  hippophagic 
eoeiotlefi  were  formed  in  Paris  .and  Berlin.  Messrs.  Le- 
blanc  of  tho  Academy  of  Medicine  and  M.  dc  Quatrefages 
were  zealous  in  dissipating  the  prejudice  against  this  food. 
Since  |Sj5  horse-butcheries  have  been  established  through- 
out Germany.  In  Paris  the  first  were  opened  in  1805  in 
the  quarters  of  St.  Marceaux  and  Popincourt.  But  it  was 
not  until  the  privations  of  tho  siege  of  1S70-71  bad  taught 
nil  Pitris  by  experience  the  real  excellence  of  horseflesh 
tbat  it  became  popular.  In  IS07  the  total  consumption  of 
boraea,  asses,  and  mules  during  tho  first  quarter  of  tho 
year  was  535  head:  in  the  corresponding  period  in  1872  it 
"rose  to  1144.  During  the  present  year  (1874)  the  quarterly 
returns  from  the  nhnttolrii-rhcvnlines  show  that  1555  horses, 
mules,  anri  donkeys  were  slaughtered  in  August,  Septem- 
ber, and  October,  yielding  GUO.OOO  pounds  of  meat.  A  like 
increase  was  reported  from  the  provinces.  A  fat  horse,  in- 
jured but  not  diseased,  sells  for  $50  or  $60  at  tho  abattoir, 
whereas  he  would  not  have  brought  a  tenth  part  of  that 
sum  in  the  old  days.  The  average  price  is  from  $25  to  $1-0, 
Horseflesh  has  a  pleasant  taste,  and  expert  cooks  in  Paris 
excel  in  dressing  it  so  as  to  make  it  resemblo  venison.  Tho 
meat  is  dark  in  color,  but,  taking  it  of  relative  ages  and  feed- 
ing, it  is  better  than  beef  under  tho  samo  conditions.  It  is 
statecl  that  during  tho  Stone  Ago  tho  hare  was  not  eaten, 
as  its  bones  arc  not  found  among  tho  remains  of  food  of 
those  day?,  and  even  in  tho  timoof  Charlemagne  tho  Franks 
rejected  it,  as  do  the  Russians  at  present.  Tho  Jews  and 
other  Orientals  avoid  pork,  tho  Hindoos  consider  it  impi- 
ous to  touch  beef,  and  in  England  tho  gypsies  are  tho  only 
people  who  will  eat  tho  hedgehog,  an  animal  which  the 
writer  has  found  by  expericnco  equals  any  m^-nt  in  quality 
and  any  game  in  flavor.  It  is  to  l)0  regretted  that  tho 
prejudice  against  horseflesh  has  existed  with  those  kindred 
superstitious  to  the  loss  of  humanity.         C.  G.  Lelanu. 

Ilippopotam'idnc  [from  Imro?,  a  "  horse,"  and  woTa^M, 
"river"*],  a  family  i»f  artiodactyl  ungulates  belonging  to 
the  group  Omnivora,  and  distinguished  by  tho  massive 
body,  phalangigraile  feet,  and  well-develoj^ed  external  toes, 
round  snout  and  nostrils  open  upward  ami  sidcwise,  over- 
hanging upper  lips,  and  inguinal  mamniic.  Tlio  molars 
have  nearly  straight  or  irregular  sinuous  longiluflinal  and 
transverse  valleys  dividing  four  tubercles,  of  which  tho  ex- 
ternal two  are  convex  oxtrorsely,  and  tho  inner  two  convex 
introrsely  ;  tho  canines  are  very  largo  an<l  furrowed  along 
their  posterior  surfaces.  This  family  includes  two  recent 
genera,  which  are  so  different  as  to  have  been  difi'crentiated 
as  distinct  sub-families — Uippupuidmnn,  including  a  largo 
Bpceirs,  and  (Vnrropnin,  established  for  a  smaller  species 
found  in  fjiberi.a.  IlippopntnmuH  has  the  skull  depressed 
between  tho  orbits,  tho  frontal  sinus  obsolete,  and  tho  orbits 
prominent  above  the  level  of  tho  forehead  and  closed  behind ; 
('h<rn>pn{i  has  the  skull  convex  be!  wei-n  the  orbits,  the 
frontal  sinus  well  developed,  and  the  orliil-<  dt'pressed  below 
the  level  <tf  tho  forihea<I  and  iiieoinpli-h-  behind.  Only  two 
Vol.  H.— 5'J 


living  species  aro  known,  both  of  which  are  confined  to 
Africa;  one  {//ippopotamus  ampkibiua)  is  the  animal  well 
known  to  menagerie  visitors,  and  is  found  in  most  of  the 
African  rivers;  the  other  (67(«to/)*m  Libertcnaiii)  is  a  very 
small  species  confined  to  Liberia.  In  previous  geological 
epochs  the  family  was,  however,  widely  extended,  and  re- 
mains have  been  found  in  England  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  India.  The  nearest  relations  of  these 
animals  arc  the  hogs  (Suidic) ;  they  have  no  aflinity  to  the 
rhinocerotids  or  to  the  tapirs.  Tiikobork  Gill, 

Ilippopot'amtiS  [Gr.  tTTnoiroTa^of.  "river-horse"],  a 
genus  of  artiodactyl  and  omnivorous  ungulate  nmmmals 
(pachyderms),  of  which  only  one  living  sjiecics  is  known. 
Tho  Ilippopijtnmus  tuiiphibhis  inhabits  most  of  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  Africa  from  the  Nile  tothc  Capcof  Good  Hope, 
and  occasionally  is  known  to  visit  the  salt  water.  The  largest 
males  sometimes  arc  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  long.  It  is  usu- 
ally inofl"ensivo  and  quiet,  but  has  been  reported  as  occasion- 
ally attacking  beasts,  and  even  men.  with  unaccountable 
fury.  It  is  an  unwieldy  beast,  living  chiefly  upon  soft  water- 
plants,  but  quite  often  visiting  cultivated  lields,  which  it 
devastates.  It  is  hunted  for  its  flesh,  which  somewhat  re- 
sembles pork,  and  for  its  skin,  which  is  tanned  and  makes 
leather  somelinies  an  inch  thick,  now  used  as  a  material 
for  bufling-whecls  and  heavy  bells,  and  for  other  mechanical 
purposes.  Its  teeth  also  furnish  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  the  best  ivory,  used  in  making  philosophical  instru- 
ments, etc. 

Hip'po  Rc'gius,  the  royal  city  of  tho  Numidian 
kings,  was  a  Tyrian  colony  on  the  W,  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bona.  It  became  under  the  Romans  a  splendid  city,  and 
was  famed  as  the  eco  of  St.  Augustine,  who  d.  there  Aug. 
28,  4.'J0.  It  was  captured  by  the  Vandals,  after  a  siege  of 
fourteen  months,  in  Aug.,  431.  About  the  middle  of  tho 
seventh  century  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  and  its 
materials  woro  used  in  building  Bona,  tho  present  Algc- 
rino  city,  2  miles  N.  of  the  ancient  site. — lIiiTO  Zau'itus, 
or  DiAR'niiVTrs,  now  iiizcrta,  was  a  Tyrian,  and  afterwards 
a  Roman  colony,  near  the  extreme  N.  point  of  Afriea.  on 
the  sea,  at  the  entrance  to  a  lagoon  called  Hippnuids  Pahif. 
flippothcrium  [Gr.  tjrjro?,  a  "horse,"  and  t^piW,  a 
"beast"].     See  IIousi:,  Fossil,  by  Prop.  0.  C.  Marsh. 

Hippll'ric  Acid(IIC9ll8X03).  This  acid  exists  in  tho 
urine  of  herbivorous  animals,  and  in  small. quantity  in  that 
of  man.  Ilippuric  acid  is  readily  converted  into  benzoic 
acid,  the  change  often  taking  place  in  the  animal  organism. 
"When  horses  are  kept  in  the  stable  or  lightly  worked  (he 
urine  contains  hippuric  acid;  when  they  are  put  to  hard 
work  it  contains  benzoic  acid.  Cows'  urino  contains  about 
1.3  per  cent,  of  hippuric  acid;  that  of  oxen  sometimes  as 
much  as  2.1  to  2.7  per  cent. ;  of  horses,  0.38  ;  the  quantity 
varies  with  the  food  and  other  conditions.  Benzoic  acid 
taken  into  the  alimentary  canal  appears  as  hi])puric  acid 
in  tho  urine ;  the  same  is  true  of  quinic  acid.  Hippuric  acid 
is  readily  separated  from  cows'  urine  in  an  impure  form  by 
the  additi()n  of  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid.  When 
purified  and  rccrystallizcd,  it  forms  colorless,  transparent 
crystals.  Its  taste  is  bitter;  it  reddens  blue  litmus,  dis- 
solves in  fiOO  parts  of  water  at  .12°  F.,  is  readily  soluble  in 
boiling  water  and  in  alcohol.  Like  uric  acid,  it  dissolves 
readily  in  water  containing  ordinary  jdiosphate  (»f  sodium, 
in  such  quantity  as  to  change  tho  reaction  from  alkaline  to 
acid.  Liebig  attributes  to  this  fact  the  acid  reaction  of 
fresh  urine.  Ilippuric  acid  is  converted  by  a  ferment  in 
tho  i)reseneo  of  an  alkali,  and  by  boiling  with  strong  acids, 
into  benzoic  acid  and  glycocinc : 

Hippuric  add.  GIvcoelne.         Dcaiolc  acid. 

lICgllgNOj  -f  IIjO  -  CallsNO-.  ^-  HCiIUOi. 
(Sco  WattHH  Dirt,  and  StipplciurMf.)        C.  F.  CiiANPLEn. 

Ilippuri'tcs  [onco  considered  a  fossil  I/ippitn'ny  the 
plant  called  mare's  tail],  an  interesting  genus  of  extinct 
conehiferous  niollusks,  of  which  tho  shells  of  some  sixteen 
species  aro  foun*!  fossil  in  ihc  lti/}piiritr  Ihumtonr  and  other 
European  Lower  Cretaceous  strata.  There  have  been  many 
theories  and  nineh  dispute  as  U>  the  origin  of  these  shells, 
but  they  aro  now  generally  referred  to  an  extinct  order 
(Uudista)  of  conchifera. 

Ili'rnm^  post-tp.  of  Oxford  co..  Me.,  on  the  Portland 
and  Ogdencburf'^  11.  R.,  35  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Portland.  It 
has    maiuifaiturcs    of   furniture,    lumber,    eouperago,   etc. 

Pop.  ir;o:'.. 

Iliram,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Portage  co.,  0.,  4  miles  N. 
W.  of  Ciarrettsville,  a  station  on  the  Atlantic  and  lireat 
Western  U.  11.    It  is  the  scat  of  Hiram  College.    Pop.  12.j4. 

Hiram  [called  also  HinoH  and  Hiram;  JXvh.  Cfdmm, 
*'  high-born,"  tho  HiaoMrs  of  Mi-reunder],  a  king  of  Tyro. 
contemporaneous  with  David  and  S(donu)n.and  th<'  ally  of 
both.  He  sent  n.  supply  of  cedar-timber,  with  ^liillrd  erafts- 
men,  to  assist    David   in   consiructing   his    pataee,  and   in 


930 


HIRE— HIRPINI. 


Solomon's  reign  supplied  timber,  treasure,  and  men  for  the 
buiWing  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (Ufi'J  B.  c.)-  He  was 
likewise  a  great  builder  at  Tyre,  and  is  said  to  have  reigned 
thirlj-four  years;  was  son  and  successor  of  Abibal. 

Hire,  Iji.  of  McDonough  co.,  III.  Pop.  1186. 
Uir'ing.  This  term  has  a  variety  of  applications  in 
law  as  well  as  in  common  usage,  and  may  refer  to  the  cn- 
gajenient  of  servants  or  to  the  leasing  of  real  property,  as 
well  as  to  the  hire  of  things  or  professional  services.  But 
in  its  more  specific  legal  signification  it  denotes  a  species 
of  bailment  by  which  the  use  of  a  chattel  is  contr.actcd  for, 
or  labor  or  services  affecting  it  are  stipulaled  to  be  given 
for  a  compensation,  express  or  implied.  In  this  sense 
alone  will  the  subject  of  hiring  be  hero  considered.  Ref- 
erence ni.-iy  be  made  for  its  other  applications  to  the  titles 
Mastkr  axd  Servant,  Lkasr,  Acknt,  while  the  hire  of 
vessels  will  be  considered  under  .Siiippixg  and  Ciiarter- 
Partv.  Hiring  as  a  form  of  bailment  is  of  three  varie- 
ties, whose  names  are  expressed  in  Latin  phrases:  (1)  Lo- 
cntio  rei,  the  hiring  of  a  thing  for  temporary  use;  (2) 
Locntio  operia  faciendi,  the  hiring  of  work  and  services  or 
care  and  attention  to  be  bestowed  upon  articles  delivered 
by  tho  hirer  to  the  person  whose  labor  is  engaged;  (:!) 
Locntio  opcritt  mercinm  vehendarnmy  the  hire  of  tho  trans- 
portation of  goods  from  one  place  to  another.  (The  third 
species  is  examined  under  the  title  Carrier,  Com.«on,  and 
need  not  therefore  be  reconsidered.  The  other  two  will 
be  discussed  separately.) 

(1)  Lucatio  rei. — The  hire  of  things  constitutes  a  con- 
tract for  the  mutual  benefit  of  both  parties,  since  tho  owner 
receives  a  compensation,  while  the  hirer  becomes  entitled 
to  the  use  of  the  property :  and  the  latter  is  accordingly 
bound  to  ordinary  care  and  diligence,  and  is  liable  only 
for  ordinary  neglect.     He  must  conduct  himself  with  such 
prudence,  forethought,  and  dis-jretion  as  a  man  of  ordinary 
sagacity  and  reasonable  soundness  of  judgment  would  ex- 
hibit in  similar  circumstances.     The  degree  of  care  requi- 
site will  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  property  with  which 
he  is  entrusted.     If  it  be  delicate  and  fragile,  or  of  great 
value,  or  subject  to  deterioration  unless  attended  to  and 
preserved  with  unusual  watchfulness,  greater  care  will  bo 
necessary  than  if  it  be  of  such  a  character  that  injury  or 
loss  is  not  to  be  presumed  probable  unless  there  be  exces- 
sive imprudence.      If  a  watch  or  a  valuable  horse  wero 
hired,  greater  precaution  would  need  to  be  taken  for  its 
security  than  would  be  required  if  the  article  were  of  in- 
significant value.     But  if  injury  is  occasioned  by  some  ac- 
cident which  a  reasonable  foresight  could  not  have  anti- 
cipated,  or    by   theft   or    violence    against   which   proper 
measures  of  protection  had  been  taken,  the  hirer  is  not 
responsible,  but  the  owner  must  bear  the  loss.     The  hirer 
becomes  invested  with  a  special  property  in  the  goods  for 
tho  prriod  during  which  his  right  of  temporary  use  is  to 
continue,  and  for  any  interference  with  his  possession  or 
injury  to  the  property  by  third  persons  he  has  a  right  of 
actiun  to  recover  damages  for  tho  loss  sustained.     If  tho 
hiring  be  for  a  definite  time,  as  is  usually  tho  case,  any  at- 
tempt even  by  the  owner  to  retake  the  property  or  to  pre- 
vent its  intended  use  will  give  tho  hirer  a  claim  for  redress. 
This  rule  is,  however,  subject  to  the  qualification  that  if 
the  hirer  makes  any  unwarrantable  misuse  of  the  property 
tlie  owner  has  a  right  to  retake  it,  if  he  can  do  so  peaceably, 
or  to   bring  an  action  for  its   immediate  recovery.     The 
articles  hired  must  only  be  used  for  the  purposes  contem- 
plated by  the  contract,  and  the  hirer's  exclusive  interest 
IS  defined  and  limited  precisely  by  the  stipulations  agreed 
upon.     They  must  be  used  also  in  the  manner  ordinarily 
apprujiriate,  and  must  be  surrendered  when  tho  time  of 
the  hiring  has  expired.     Tho  obligations  of  tho  owner  of 
the  property,  other  than  those  already  stated,  have  not  yet 
been  definitely  settled  at  common  law.     There  have  been 
some   decisions    holding  that  ho    impliedly   warrants  the 
property  to  b«  fit  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  hired, 
without  reference  to  his  knowledge  of  its  unfitness.     It  is 
quite  clear  that  he  would  be  liable  if  he  knew  of  its  unfit- 
ness, and  did  not  disclose  tho  defect,  and  injury  was  sus- 
tained by  the  hirer  in  consequence  ;  so  that,  for  instance,  if 
he  let  a  horse  which  he  knew  to  be  dangerous,  without  in- 
forming the  hirer,  and  injury  occurred  through  the  ani- 
mal's viciousness,  ho  would  be  responsible.     The  contract 
of   hiring   may  bo  terminated    by  the   expiration  of   tho 
lime  for  which  the  c<mtract  was  made,  or  the  completion 
of  the  intended  purpose,  when  the  property  reverts  to  tho 
owner,  who  has  a  claim  for   whatever  compensation  was 
agreed  upon,  or.  if  no  definite  arrangement  ha<l  been  made, 
to  whatever  sum  might  be  deemed  reasonable  ander  the 
circumstances. 

(2)  Locntio  opfriit  /nrifndi, — The  same  principles  in 
reference  to  the  degree  of  care  to  be  required  of  the  bailee 
apply  to  contracts  for  labor  and  services  to  be  bestowed 


upou  the  thing  bailed  as  in  the  hiring  of  chattels.     Ordi- 
nary care  is  required,  and  the  measure  of  obligation  is  es- 
timated by  the  value  and  nature  of  the  articles  delivered. 
But  the  obligations  of  the  workman  depend  also,  in  large 
measure,  upou  the  nature  of  his  occupation.     lie  is  held 
responsible  for  tlie  exercise  of  such  a  degree  of  skill  and 
careful  workmanship  in  fulfilling  the  task  imposed  upon 
him  as  is  requisite  in  the  ordinary  labors  of  his  trade  or 
profession.    In  accepting  an  engagement  to  perform  a  par- 
ticular  kind  of  work   he   impliedly  represents  himself  as 
coniiieteut  fur  such  an  undertaking,  and  may  be  made  to 
rcsiJond  in  damages  for  injuries  sustained  through  any  ex- 
hibition of  uuskilfulness  or  incapacity.     If,  however,  his 
incomijctence  were  known  to  the  person  engaging  his  ser- 
vices, tho  hirer  must  suffer  the  consequence  without  remedy. 
If  any  instructions  be  given  to  the  workman  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  his  labor  is  to  bo  performed,  they  must  be  ad- 
hered to  strictly.     If  there  be  a  material  deviation  from 
them,  he  can  reco\tr  nothing  for  his  services,  unless  the 
deviation  be  attributable  to  some  unavoidable  cause  or  be 
acquiesced  in  by  his  employer.    The  employer's  assent  need 
not  be  indicated  by  any  express  agreement,  but  may  be 
presumed  from  his  conduct,  il  he  has  knowledge  of  the  de- 
viation from  the  terms  of  the  contract  before  its  execution 
is  completed,  and  makes  no  objection.     If  the  bailee  only 
completes  a  portion  of  the  desired  work,  ho  can  claim  a 
proportionate  compensation  if  the  benefit  of  what  was  ac- 
tually performed  was  received  in  its  incomplete  state  by 
tho  assent  of  the  employer:  but  if  the  employer  insist  on 
full  performance  or  decline  to  make  compensation  on  ac- 
count of  some  substantial  imperfection  in  the  workmanship 
or  some  injury  which  the  goods  have  sustained,  the  work- 
man is  not  only  entitled  to  no  reward,  but  may  even  be  held 
liable  for  the  original  value  of  the  goods.     The  acceptance 
of  tho  goods  by  the  employer  is  not  of  itself  sufiicient  to 
constitute  an  assent  to  a  deviation  from  the  contract,  since 
an  owner  has  a  right  to  the  possession  of  his  goods.    If  the 
property  is  destroyed  by  some  unexpected  casualty,  with- 
out any  fault  on   the  part  of  the  workman,  or  is  carried 
away  by  robbers  notwithstanding  the  use  of  reasonable 
precautionary   measures   for   security,  since   the   absolute 
ownership  remains  continually  in  the  employer,  he  must 
sustain  the  loss.     If  any  labor  has  been  expended  upon  it 
before  the  disaster  occurs,  the  workman  is,  according  to  the 
general  rule  of  tho  common  law,  entitled  to  a  proper  recom- 
pense for  services  actually  rendered,  unless  the  entire  ful- 
filment of  his  engagement  had  been  made  a  condition  pre- 
cedent to  payment.     Under  the  French  law  and  the  Code 
of  Louisiana  the  employer  in  such  a  case  loses  the  value 
of  his  materials  and  the  employe  the  value  of  bis  labor. 
But  that  the  loss  of  the  property  in  such  instances  may  fall 
upon  the  employer,  it  is  necessary  that  the  contract  be 
strictly  in  the  nature  of  bailment;  and  interesting  ques- 
tions "sometinus  arise  as  lo  whether  a  delivery  of  articles 
to  a  workman  and  an  engagement  of  bis  services  constitutes 
this  relation.    If  cloth  be  given  to  a  tailor  or  gold  lo  a  jewel- 
ler, and  the  identical  piece  of  cloth  is  lo  be  returned  in  the 
form  of  a  suit,  or  the  same  gold  to  be  made  into  an  article 
of  ornauunt.  it  is  a  ease  of  bailment,  even  though  addi- 
tions be  made  to  the  original  article  delivered  in  the  course 
of  its  alteration.     But  if  the  workman  has  liberty  to  ex- 
pend his  labor  upon  other  materials  of  the  same  kind  as 
those  delivered,  being  under  no  further  obligation  than  to 
return  articles  similar  to  those  which  would  be  made  if  tho 
employers  goods  were  used,  this  is  not  generally  considered 
as  constituting  a  bailment,  but  only  a  species  of  barter  or 
sale.     The  em[)loyer  makes  use  of  his  goods  to  purchase 
others  of  the  same  nature  in  an  altered  form.     The  work- 
man, therefore,  owns  the  goods  until  his  labor  is  complete 
and  the  finished  product  acee]ited;    and  if  they  are  de- 
stroyed before  that  time  the  loss  is  his  alone,  and  the  em- 
ployer has  still  a  claim  for  the  delivery  of  the  article  or- 
dered.    A  similar  question  arises  when  grain  is  deposited 
in  a  warehouse  or  elevator  with  the  understanding  that  a 
similar  amount  of  the  same  quality  may  bo  returned  in- 
stead of  the  very  same  grain  delivered.     The  courts  have 
generally  adjudged  an  agreement  of  this  kind  to  be  a  sale, 
and  not  "a  bailment,  so  as  to  make  the  bailee  responsible  in 
ease  of  accidental  loss.     In  all  cases  where  a  person  is  to 
furnish  materials  himself,  and  expend  labor  upon  them,  the 
contract  is  evidently  not  one  of  bailment,  but  rather  one 
of  s.ale,  so  that  the"  employ^  is  subject  to  all  the  obliga- 
tions of  a  vendor. 
I       The  law  concerning  warehousemen,  wh:irfingcrs,  and  inn- 
keepers is  also  included  under  the  head  of  Locntio  nperit 
faciencli,  since  such  persons  ilevotc  care  and  attention  lo 
I  the  objects  entrusted  lo  them,  but  fbeir  liabilities  will  bo 

considered  under  these  several  names  respectively. 
I  (iFoRfiE  CntsE.     KKVispn  BV  T.  W.  IiwicnT. 

1       Hirpini,  an  ancient  jieople  of  Italy  of  Samnito  race, 
1  inhabiliUL'  the  central  group  of  the  .\pennincs  between  Lu- 


lIlliSClIBKRG— HISTOLOGY. 


931 


cania,  Apulia,  and  Campania,  and  deriving  their  name  | 
from  liirput,  the  Sumnite  nnnio  of  a  wolf.     Tliov  were  siib- 
juRiitcd  by  tho  Kouiaus  (iirobably  togi'tlier  with  llie  oilier 
.Sainnili;  trilics)  bc-furc  L'fiS  u.  c,  at  which  time  the  Roman 
e.iloiiy  of  Bcntvenluiu,  whiih  formed   the  strategical  key  I 
lo  their  couiilry,  was  established.     Iniuicdialely  after  the 
battle  of  Oannie  (2Hi  B.  o.)  they  declared  in  favor  of  Han-  | 
nibiil,  but  when  he  (in  209  B.  c.)  was  driven  towards  the 
southern  )iart  of  Italy,  they  bou;;ht  peaco  on  good  terms 
from  the  Romans  bv  betraying  the  Carthaginian  garrisons 
in  their  citie?.     In   the  Soiial   war  (ilU   B.  r.)  Iliey  were 
among  the  first  who  took  up  arms  against  Rome,  but  they 
were  soon  reduced  by  Sulla.  an<l  after  the  end  of  the  war 
their  name  as  an  independent  nation  is  not  mentioned. 

Ilirsoh'bcrg,  handsome  town  of  Prussia,  iu  the  prov- 
inie  of  Silesia,  on  the  Uober.  It  has  considerable  linen  manu- 
factures, and  one  Lutheran  and  three  Catholic  churches. 
Pop.  11.773. 

Hirst  (Hkskv  B.),  b.  in  Philadelphia  .\ug.  S.'!,  ISl.'!, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  184.'.,  having  previously  to  some 
extent  been  occupied  in  mercantile  pursuits.  lie  published 
several  volumes  of  poems  which  had  a  wide  ]iopularity — 

The  (\,mxn<i  i,f  ihc  Mtimmolli.  cic.  (1846),  Eiulijmion  (1S48), 

and  Th€  Pcnnucc  „/  Ituluud  (ISI'J).     D.  Mar.  30,  1S74. 

Hir'tius  (.Ati.is)  belonged  to  a  plebeian  family,  but 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  Roman  politics  on  account 
of  his  personal  friendship  and  intimate  political  connection 
with  CiEsar.  He  served  him  in  (Jaul  as  legate,  and  was 
often  employed  as  negotiator.  He  lived  mostly  in  Koine, 
on  his  Tusciilan  estates,  in  the  neighborhood  of  tlie  villa 
of  Cicero,  with  whom  he  was  on  friendly  terms  and  held 
frcriuent  social  intercourse.  He  was  clioscn  consul  for  the 
year  4'!  B.  r,,  and  entered  on  his  official  duties  .Jan.  I.  Of 
the  horrible  convulsions  into  which  the  assassination  of 
Ca'sar  threw  the  Roman  republic.  Ilirtius  was  by  no  means 
the  master,  hut  his  moderation  and  freedom  from  personal 
ambition  e.tercised  a  beneficial  influence;  and  when  he  fell 
at  the  head  of  the  army  which  was  sent  against  Antony, 
then  besieging  .Mutina,  the  people  mourned  him.  He  was 
a  man  of  refined  tastes  and  literary  aceomplishments,  and 
the  eighth  book  of  Cxsars  Cumnirniariei  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  cither  by  him  or  by  Oppius. 
Ilivpnnia,  the  Latin  name  of  Spain  (which  see). 
IIi^•pa■liola.  See  Havti,  by  Mki.vil  Bi.oxcotiiiT. 
llistiic'a,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  towns 
of  Enbica,  became  subject  to  Athens  during  the  Persian 
wars,  but  revolted  in  44.)  n.  c.  As  a  ])unishuient  the  Athe- 
nians removed  all  the  inhabitants,  ri|)laced  them  with  Attic 
colonists,  and  changed  Iho  name  of  the  placo  to  0;v'i(». 

Ilistin-'usi,  tyrant  of  .Miletus,  won  the  attachment  and 
gratitude  of  Darius  by  guarding  faithfully  the  bridge  of 
boats  over  which  the  Persian  army  crossed  the  Danube  on 
its  expedition  into  Scythia  in  .oil!  B.  c. — a  service  by  which 
ho  saved  the  army  and  the  life  of  the  Persian  king.  His 
adventurous  and  ambitious  character,  however,  could  not 
help  exciting  suspicion,  and  ho  was  detained  at  the  Persian 
court  for  thirteen  years.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  raising 
his  Oreek  countrymen  in  Ionia  in  rebellion  .against  Persia, 
but  Darius  had  still  so  much  confidence  in  him  as  to  send 
him  down  to  quench  it.  The  rebellion  itself  failed  utterly, 
and  the  treachery  of  Histia'us  was  discovered  by  .\rta- 
phernes,  the  Persian  satrap  of  Sardis.  Ho  now  fled  from 
place  to  place,  stirring  the  different  (ireck  colonies  iu  Asia 
rlinor  into  premature  insurrections  ;  but  at  last  he  was  cap- 
tured ami  put  to  ileath  by  .Artaphernes,  who  scut  his  head 
to  the  Persian  king.  Darius,  however,  mourned  deeply, 
buried  Iho  head  with  honors,  and  blamed  Artaphcrnes  for 
having  acted  hastily. 

Ilistol'ogy  [Cir.  icTTos,  "web,"  and  Aoyot,  "discourse"] 
is  the  branch  of  anatomy  which  treats  of  thu  minute  etrue- 
tnre  of  the  tissues  of  which  living  beings  arc  composed.  It 
is  subdivided  into  Hiimiiu  luHlnhiijy,  which  treats  of  the  tis- 
sues of  man  :  (%tmparatirr  hiHtfiliit/t/,  which  treats  of  the 
tissues  i>r  the  lower  animals  ;  and  Vei/elrthfr  hixtoioifff,  which 
treats  of  the  tissues  of  plants.  Fjach  of  these  subdivisions 
may  be  again  divided  into  Xumnil  and  I'lillinlmjirol  his- 
tology— the  first  referring  to  thc>  healthy  tissues,  the  sec- 
ond investigating  the  changes  they  undergo  in  disease. 

Histology  may  bo  said  lo  date  ba-k  only  lo  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Annlomic  Gfnhiih  of  Bichat  in  ISOI,  lor  al- 
though many  interesting  observations  had  previously  been 
made  by  Malpighi  (lfi2K-',ll),  I,eeuwenhoek  ( In;i2-I72:i ). 
Swamm'erdam  (ll!;!7-80),  Rnysoh  ( ir.:!8-l  7:!1 ),  Meberkilhn 
(1711-0^1,  Hewsnn  (17.10-74),  and  others,  yet  Hichat  was 
the  first  who  treated  Ihc  Buhjeet  in  a  comprehensive  way. 
clasxil'ving  according  to  Iheir  structure,  so  far  as  it  was 
then  understood,  all  the  tissues  of  the  human  bn.ly.  and 
giving  a  gi-neral  view  of  Iheir  relations,  both  in  health  and 
disease.     His  work  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  study  of 


t^ 


the  tissues,  but  the  imperfect  condition  of  the  compound 
microscope  at  that  time  was  a  serious  obstacle  to  progress, 
and  it  was  not  until  tho  opticians  succeeded  in  devising 
eflicient  methods  of  correcting  the  spherical  and  chromatic 
aberrations  of  that  instrument  that  histidogy  made  any 
important  advance  beyond  tho  position  in  which  Bichat 
left  it. 

Tho  next  epoch  in  the  developmeift  of  histology  is  marked 
bv  the  appearance  of  the  works  of  Schwann  ( l.s;iS-39),  who 
endeavored  to  show  that  the  observations  of  Schleiden  in 
vegetable  histology  were  substantially  true  for  animals  also  ; 
that  all  tissues  are  formed  by  the  transformation  of  nucle- 
ated cells  :  and  that  these  arise  dc  novo  under  favorable  eir- 
cumstauces  in  a  formless  nutritive  fluid  or  blastema.  This 
theory  was  extended  tf)  pathological  anatomy  by  .Johannes 
Miiller,  and  continued  to  be  almost  universally  accepted 
until  the  appearance  of  the  cellular  pathology  of  Virchow 
(1858),  which  was  sjicedily  followed  by  tjio  very  gene- 
ral acceptance  of  his  doctrine,  that  cells  can  only  arise  out 
of  pre-existing  cells,  and  that  in  both  normal  and  path- 
ological growth  tho  cells  of  the  growing  part  multiply  by 
division,  and  thus  give  birth  to  all  the  elements  ultimately 
produced.  This  doctrine  sccincil  to  be  permanently  estab- 
lished on  a  sure  foundation,  when  the  discovery  of  the 
wanilering  cells  in  living  connective  tissue  by  Von  Reck- 
linghausen (ISCi),  and  the  demonstration  by  Cohnluini 
(1SC7)  that  these  movable  elements  are  in  fact  white  blood- 
corpuscles  which  have  migrated  from  the  blood-vessels, 
compelled  a  modification  of  opinion,  and  showed  that  the 
actual  details  of  the  growth  and  nutrition  of  the  tissues  are 
much  more  complex  than  had  been  previously  supposed. 
Since  the  time  of  Schwann  the  nundjer  of  histological  in- 
vestigators  of  reputation  has  multiplied  so  greatly  that  it 
would  occupy  more  space  than  can  here  be  given  even  to 
enumerate  them.  The  names  of  a  few  of  the  more  promi- 
nent will  appear  in  the  list  of  .works  appended.  In  the 
present  article  a  sketch  of  some  of  the  more  important  and 
best-established  elementary  facts  with  regard  to  human 
histology  is  all  that  can  be  attempted,  and  greater  )iromi- 
nenee  will  he  given  to  the  normal  than  to  the  pathological 
branch  of  tho  subject.  The  reader  who  desires  more  de- 
tailed information  is  referred  to  the  special  treatises  and 
essays. 

Elrmnilan/  Crils. — The  tissues  are  composed  of  element- 
ary cells  and  their  derivatives.  According  to  the  long- 
receivcil  views  of  Schwann,  elementary  cells  aro  hollow 
vesicles  composed  of  an  external  membrane  or  cell-wall, 
which  encloses,  besides  fluid  or  solid  contents  of  various 
characters,  a  smaller  vesicle,  the  nucleus,  in  which  again 
is  contained  a  still  smaller  body,  the  nucleolus.  It  has, 
however,  been  shown  that  many  kinds  of  cells  have  no  dis- 
tinct walls,  and  in  ninny  others  Ihc  existence  of  a  wall  is 
in  the  highest  degree  problematical;  Max  Sehultze  accord- 
ingly defines  the  cell  simply  as  a  little  mass  of  protoplasm 
containing  a  nucleus,  and  Briicke  and  Strieker,  going  a 
step  farther,  are  disposed  to  regard  the  nucleus  itself  as 
unessential. 

Protoplasm,  thus  brought  into  prominence  in  our  con- 
ceptions of  the  ultimate  structure  of  living  organisms,  is 
an  albuminoid  body,  which  under  the  microscope  either 
appears  to  lie  rpiite  honiogeneous  or  presents  a  more  or  less 
granular  aspect.  It  may  be  fluid,  semi-solid,  or  soliil.  and 
probably  varies  considerably  in  its  composition  in  diflVrent 
situations  and  under  different  circumstances.  .\ll  its  forms, 
however,  possess  certain  special  jiropcrlies  in  common,  of 
which  the  most  inii>ortant  are  the  capability  of  manifesting 
spontaneous  inovements :  of  taking  uji  nulritive  materials 
from  tlic  surrounding  media  and  transforming  them  into  its 
own  substance,  orof  growing:  and  of  reproducing  its  kind  by 
detaching  portions  which  are  capable  of  iudependent  exist- 
ence and  growth.  The  elementary  cells  of  the  human  tis- 
sues usually  contain  a  nucleus.  This  is  an  oval  or  rounded 
body  generally  between  .Omi2"  and  .OOOli"*  in  long  iliam- 
eler,  composed  of  a  material  that  certainly  difl'ers  from  tho 
protoplasm  of  the  body  of  the  cell  in  ofl'ering  greater  resist- 
ance to  the  artiiin  of  iicirls  and  alkalies,  and  in  behaving 
somewhat  differently  with  various  reagents,  but  the  precise 
composition  of  which  has  not  been  determined.  The  nu- 
cleoli arc  even  less  constant  and  more  imperfectly  known 
than  the  nuclei.  The  spontaneous  movements  in  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  elementary  cells  are  most  constant  and  ncile- 
wortbv  while  the  cells  are  young.  These  inovements,  during 
which  the  nucleus  remnins  quite  passive,  occur  in  |>art  as 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  cells,  in  part  in  consequence  of 
these  changes  iu  Iheir  form  ;  the  cells  change  place,  or  wan- 
der, among  the  surrounding  elements  in  ft  manner  which. 

•  In  this  nrllele  dimensions  will  he  given  In  deeunals  of  an 
ineb.  IndleatluK  the  inch  by  the  sli;n  ".  It  must  be  onderstomi 
that  llie  ficures  given  arc  onlv  olTered  as  nppr.iximiilions  to  the 
nrrrnijr  size  of  the  several  elements,  and  that  the  individual  ele- 
ments vary  greatly  In  dimensions. 


932 


HISTOLOGY. 


OD  account  of  its  similarity  to  the  movements  of  the  amoeba, 
has  been  called  amoeboid.  When,  at  a  later  period  in  the 
history  of  certain  cell!?,  they  acquire  a  eell-wall  or  outer 
membrane,  they  become  lixcd,  and  are  no  longer  capable 
of  amicboid  movements. 

The  various  transformations  which  cells  undergo  in  build- 
ing up  the  several  tissues  will  be  indicated  in  connection 
with  e;u'h.  Here,  howA'er,  a  word  must  bo  i-a'ui  as  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  reproduction  of  cells  takes  ]>Iaec.  Cells 
usually  multiply  by  division.  In  so  doiuj;,  the  nucleus 
first  elongates,  then  becomes  constricted  in  the  middle,  and 
finally  separates  into  two  parts,  which  recede  from  each 
other  ;  fission  of  the  protoplasm  of  the  body  of  the  cell  sub- 
sequently occurs.  Besides  this  mode,  endogenous  cell- 
multiplication,  and  multiplication  by  gemmation  or  bud- 
ding, lire  admitted  by  many  liistologii-'ts.  The  first  is,  in 
most  instances,  if  not  always,  merely  tlie  result  of  the  con- 
tinued multi])lieatinn  by  division  of  a  protojilasniic  mass 
contained  witliin  a  membrane  or  capsule;  the  second  has 
been  observeil  chiefly  in  the  case  of  certain  low  vegetable 
forms;  ns,  for  example,  the  ycast-fnngus.  As  already 
mentioned,  it  was  taught  by  Schwann  th:it  cells  might  also 
arise  spontaneously  in  a  formless  fluid  of  suitable  eompo- 
eition.  This  supposition  was  brought  into  disrepute  by 
Virrhnw,  who  held  that  cells  could  only  arise  from  pre- 
existing cells — omin't  ccllnln  r  ccffnfd.  Of  late,  however, 
numerous  investigations  have  been  publishetl  which  appear 
to  favor  the  doctrine  of  the  spontaneous  generation  of  the 
lower  organisms  under  suitable  conditions  ;  ami  if  this  view 
should  be  established,  it  may  turn  out  that  the  theory  of 
Schwann  has  been  too  hastily  condemned. 

Coimecthe  TlnHtie. — The  designation  connective  tissue 
{Biiirt-ijewcbe  of  the  (Jerman  histologists)  is  bestowed  upon 
the  widely  diffused  tissue  which  unites  together  the  organs 
and  their  several  parts,  and  includes  not  merely  the  cap- 
sules, sheaths,  fascia,  tendons,  and  ligaments,  but  also  the 
more  delicate  tissue  which  forms  the  supporting  framework 
of  the  special  elements  of  the  complex  organs.  Connective 
tissue  consists  of  special  fixed  cells,  the  connective-tissue 
corpuscles,  united  together  by  an  intercellular  substance  or 
Fig.  1. 


(k>nnectivc  tissue, 
matrix.  In  the  latter  a  series  of  minute  passages  are  chan- 
nelled, and  through  these  granular  cells,  identical  in  struc- 
ture and  appearance  with  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood, 
wander  freely.  The  fixed  cells  are  usually  either  spindle- 
formed  or  stellate,  and  are  provided  with  nu  elliptical 
tran.-iparont  nueleus,  immediately  around  which  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  cell  is  usually  more  granular  than  elsewhere. 
They  vary  greatly  in  dimensions  in  diiTeront  situations, 
the  nucleus  averaging  about  .000  l"  in  long  diameter,  anrl 
the  ceils  being  from  twice  to  five  or  six  times  as  large. 
From  the  extremities  of  the  spindle-formed  cells  and  all 
parts  of  the  stellate  ones  proceed  branching  processes, 
which  vary  considerably  in  number  and  length.  In  the 
living  tis?uc  slow  changes  in  the  form  of  these  processes 
may  be  eliserved,  hut  so  far  as  can  be  ascGrtaine<l  these  do 
not  leail  to  any  change  in  the  position  of  the  cells.  The 
wandering  cells  are  much  less  nucnorous  under  normal  con- 
ililions  than  the  fixed,  but  in  inflammation  increase  in  num- 
ber often  to  an  enormous  extent.  They  are  derived  from 
the  blond,  and  cscupe  into  the  channels  of  the  connective 
tissue  through  stiunata  in  the  walls  of  the  small  blood-ves- 
selo.  A  part  of  ihem,  both  in  health  and  in  inflammation, 
find  thoir  way  from  the  channels  of  the  matrix  into  the 
lymphatic  capillaries.  That  others  remain  in  the  tissue  and 
become  fixed  corpuscles  is  a  plausible  suggestion  not  yet 
positively  established. 

The  matrix  varies  greatly  in  characters  and  arrangement 
in  different  situations,  and  by  these  variations  determines 
the  external  characteristics  of  the  several  varieties  of  con- 


nective tissue.  The  diversity  consists  not  merely  in  the 
conformation,  but  also  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
matrix,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  th;it  certain  forms  of  con- 
nective tissue  yield  gelatiue  on  boiling,  while  others  do  not. 
To  the  former  belongs  the  so-called  fibrillar  connective 
tissue,  which  is  the  dominant  form  in  ?nau  and  the  verte- 
brates, at  least  in  the  adult  state.  The  latter  includes  the 
delicate  connective  tissue  in  the  interior  of  the  kidneys,  the 
liver,  and  the  lymphatic  glands,  that  in  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  {the  neuroglia  of  VirehowJ,  and  the  succulent  trans- 
lucent tissue  of  the  umbilical  cord,  which  has  been  called 
mucous  tissue  because  acetic  acid  produces  in  it,  a  precipi- 
tate of  mucin  in  threads  and  flocculi,  which  dissolve  in  an 
excess  of  the  acid. 

In  the  form  of  fibrillar  connective  tissue,  which  occurs  in 
the  ligaments  and  tendons,  the  matrix  appears,  when  ex- 
aniint'd  in  indifferent  fluids  (aqueous  humor,  amniotic  fluid, 
or  bbxid-seruni),  to  be  composed  of  indistinctly  tibrillated 
bundles  .(UtOj"  to  J)(II"  or  more  in  diameter,  lying  parallel 
to  each  other,  and  anastomosing  at  comparatively  long  in- 
tervals. Long  narrow  anastomosing  channels  are  thus  left 
between  them,  in  which,  on  the  margins  of  the  bundles,  lie 
the  spindlrformcd  fixed  cells.  Wlien  examined  in  water 
or  neutral  saline  solution  the  fibrillar  nppeanincc  is  much 
more  distinct,  and  after  maceration  in  lime-water  or  baryta- 
water  the  bundles  are  easily  split  into  their  component 
fibrils,  .t)(l004"  or  less  in  tliameter.  which  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily done  in  the  fresh  state,  so  (bat  indeed  some  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  pronounce  the  fibiilla  an  altogether  arti- 
ficial product.  On  treatment  with  dilute  acids  the  bundles 
swell  up  and  hour-glass  contractions  appear  at  intervals. 
These  have  beon  ascribed  by  some  to  spiral  clastic  fibres 
wound  around  the  bundles.  Others  have  supposed  each 
bundle  to  be  enveloped  in  a  delicate  sheath,  which  is  par- 
tially ruptured  by  the  swelling  produced  by  acids,  the  re- 
maining portions  producing  the  constrictions.  The  latter 
view  has  received  considerable  support  from  the  recent  in- 
vestigations of  Boll,  who  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
the  cells  of  connective  tissue  are  in  fact  thin  scale-like 
plates  which  form  an  endothelial  lining  to  the  channels  be- 
tween the  bundles,  and  ascribes  the  appearance  of  the  cells, 
as  usually  seen,  to  imperfect  methods  of  investigation.  In 
the  fascia,  the  skin,  the  subcutaneous,  submucous,  and 
subserous  membranes,  the  periosteum,  and  the  perichon- 
drium, the  fibrillar  bundles  do  not  run  parallel,  but  cross 
each  other  in  diverse  directions  and  iiio-culate  at  various 
angles,  so  as  to  leave  irregular  spaces  of  \arioi;s  sizes,  which 
freely  communicate  with  each  other.  Kxccpt  in  this  more 
areolar  arrangement  the  matrix  in  tliese  situations  differs 
little  from  that  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments. 

When  fibrillar  connective  tissue  is  boiled  or  treated  with 
dilute  acids,  the  fibrillin  disappear,  and  certain  sharply  de- 
fined, more  or  less  spiral,  fibres  come  into  view,  which  are 
known  as  clastic  fihrcs.  These  vary  from  .00006"  or  less 
to  .0004".  or  even  more,  in  thickness;  they  branch  fre- 
quently, and  in  some  situations  form  intricate  networks. 
Characteristic  coarse  networks  of  this  sort  exist  in  the  skin, 
more  delicate  ones  in  the  serous  and  mucous  membranes. 
In  the  elastic  coats  of  the  arteries,  the  yellow  ligaments  of 
the  vertebral  column,  and  the  liganientum  nuch:v,  tliey  are 
very  coarse,  and  form  the  most  conspicuous  tissue-element. 
The  varieties  of  connective  tissue  which  occur  in  the  kid- 
neys, the  lymphatic  glands,  etc.  will  Vie  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  organs  in  whicli  fhey  exist  ;  a  word  must, 
however,  be  said  here  with  regard  to  the  mucous  tissue  of 
the  umbilical  cord.  This,  in  early  I'letal  life,  consists  of  a 
transparent,  apparently  structureless  matrix,  in  which  arc 
embedded  delicate  stellate  cells  with  branching,  freely  in- 
osculating processes.  Interspersed  throughout  the  matrix 
a  certain  number  of  wandering  corpuscles  are  found.  At  a 
biter  period  fibrillar  bundles  begin  to  appear  on  the  matrix. 
The  interest  which  attaches  to  this  tissue  is  due  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  it  resembles  the  embrycmic  condition  of  tht 
fibrillar  connective  tissue,  in  part  to  its  resemblance  to  cer- 
tain pathological  new  formations.  Connectivr  tissue  serves 
as  the  substratum  for  the  ramification  of  the  blood-vessels, 
Ivmphaties,  and  nerves  of  all  parts  of  the  body.  It  stands 
indeed  in  special  relations  to  the  lymphatics,  the  channels 
and  spaces  of  its  matrix  being  the  ultimate  lymphatic  pas- 
sages. 

Development  of  Connective  Tintine. — At  an  early  period 
of  the  history  of  the  embryo  conneetive  tissue  consists  of 
round  formative  cells  in  close  juxtaposition.  Between  these 
the  matrix  gradually  makes  its  ap)»e:irance,  pushing  the 
cells  farther  and  farther  apart.  .'Simultaneously  the  cells 
change  their  shape,  becoming  gradually  spindle-formed  or 
stellate.  In  the  tendons  and  ligaments  the  matrix  is  more 
or  less  distinctly  fibrillar  from  its  first  appearapce.  in 
most  other  sitimtions  it  is  at  first  homogeneous,  resembling 
that  of  the  mucous  tissue  described  above,  and  only  subse- 
quently HL-quircs  a  fibrillar  eluira'-tt-r.     Considerable  diver- 


HISTOLOGY. 


933 


sit.v  of  opinion  still  exists  as  to  the  interpretation  of  theae 
ph'tnoinena.  Some  hold  still  to  the  view  of  Schwann,  that 
the  formative  cells  themselves  elongate  and  split  up  into 
the  bundles  of  fibrils;  eomc.  like  lieule,  suppose  the  peri- 
pheral portions  of  the  protoplasms  of  the  cells  (germinal 
matter)  to  be  gradually  transformed  into  matrix  (formed 
material),  so  that  this  is  created  by  the  continual  growth 
of  the  cells,  the  peripheral  portions  of  which  undergo  con- 
tinual transformation.  This  view  is  substantially  that 
adopted  by  Kollet  as  the  most  probable.  Finally,  it  is 
held  by  others  that  the  matrix  is  independently  formed 
between  the  cells  by  the  transformation  of  the  nutritive 
blood-plasma.  That  the  elastic  fibres  originate  by  the 
transformation  of  a  portion  of  the  formative  cells  was  long 
held  us  certain.  Doubts  as  to  the  accuracy  of  this  view 
have,  however,  been  expressed,  and  Uollet  advocates  the 
opinion  that  they  originate  by  a  direct  deposit  from  the 
plasma  in  the  form  of  fibres.  The  evidence  on  which  this 
opinion  rests  is,  however,  far  from  conclusive. 

Adipose  Tianuf, — In  many  parts  of  the  body  the  areolar 
connective  tissue  encloses  in  its  meshes  groups  of  cells  con- 
taining fat.  These  cells  arc  round  or  oval,  Bometinies 
polygonal,  as  from  mutual  pressure,  and  .001"  to  .005"  in 
diameter.  The  presence  of  the  fat  conceals  their  nuclei, 
but  after  its  extraction  by  aljsolute  alcohol,  and  the  stain- 
ing of  the  tissue  by  carmine,  a  nucleus  can  generally  bo 
observed  in  each,  attached  to  the  interior  of  the  cell-wall, 
which  here  appears  as  an  undoubted  membrane.  The 
groups  of  fat-cells  contained  in  individual  areolie  of  the 
connective  tissue  are  designated  fat-lobules.  Kich  is  sup- 
plied with  blood  by  one  or  more  arterial  twigs,  whence 
proceed  numerous  capillaries  so  arranged  that  each  of  the 
larger  cells  at  least  is  surrounded  by  its  own  capillary  loops. 
In  their  embryological  condition  the  fat-cells  are  at  fust  i 
nucleated  masses  of  protoplasm,  like  other  formative  cells. 
The  fa!  makes  its  appearance  in  the  substance  of  the  pro- 
toplasm in  small  dro])S,  and  there  finally  coalesces  into  a 
single  largo  one,  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the  cell. 
As  the  fat-drops  grow  still  larger,  the  protoplasm  becomes 
more  scanty,  until  only  a  thin  membrane  remains,  with  the 
nucleus  embedded  in  it.  In  certain  forms  of  dropsy  and 
some  other  diseases  the  adipose  cells  lose  their  fat,  which 
is  replaced  by  serum.  A  similar  disappearance  of  the  fat 
has  been  observed  in  animals  deprived  of  food,  the  fat 
promptly  reappearing  when  food  is  again  supplied. 

Ctiruffi'je. — Cartilage,  like  connective  tissue,  consists  of 
cells  imbcilded  in  an  intercellular  substance  or  matrix  ;  the 
latter  may  be  homogeneous  or  fibrous,  and  accordingly  two 
varieties  of  cartilage  are  recognized — hyaline  cartilage  and 
fibro-eartilage.  Hyaline  cartilage  forms  the  cartilages  of 
the  ribs,  the  ensiform  cartilage,  the  articular  cartilages  of 
the  bones,  the  cartilages  covering  the  opposed  surfaces  of 
the  symphyses,  the  nasal  cartilages,  all  tlie  cartilages  of  the 
larynx  except  the  epiglottis  and  the  cartilages  of  Wrisburg, 
and  the  cartilaginous  rings  of  the  trachen  and  bronchial 
tubes.  In  this  variety  of  cartilage  the  cells  (cartilage  cor- 
puscles), when  single,  are  usually  oval,  on  an  average  from 
.OOOD"  to  .001"  in  long  diameter,  and  consist  of  a  delicate 
granular  protoplasm  containing  one  or  two  large  oval 
nuclei.     They  lio  iu  cavities  (cartilage  cavities)  hollowed 


Cartilage. 

out  in  tho  eoli<!  matrix.  Sometimes  the  cavities  are  of 
larger  size,  an<l  contain  two  or  more  cells,  and  then  the  ad- 
jacent sides  of  thf'se  are  flatteneil.  Sf»metimes  groups  f)f 
two,  four,  or  more  cells,  with  their  adjacent  sides  flattened, 
lie  quite  near  together,  hut  are  separated  by  a  narrow 
layer  of  matrix.  In  living  or  perfectly  fresh  cartilage  tho 
cells  exactly  fill  tho  cavities  in  which  thoy  lie,  but  on  tho 


addition  of  water,  or  even  of  indifferent  fluids,  as  aqueous  . 
humor  or  blood-serum,  the  cells  shrivel  and  separate  from 
the  parietes  of  the  cartilage  cavities,  so  that  they  appear 
to  be  surrounded  by  a  clear  transparent  space ;  or  they  may 
shrivel  irregularly,  remaining  attached  ut  points  to  [ho 
parietes  of  the  cavity,  so  as  to  present  a  stellate  appearance. 
At  the  same  time  the  matrix  becomes  more  or  less  ilistinctly 
granular.  These  changes  occur  also  shortly  after  dciith 
without  the  addition  of  reagents.  The  matrix  when  fresh 
is  homogeneous  and  quite  transparent,  no  traces  of  tho  ex- 
istence of  layers  or  cell-territories  being  observable  even 
with  the  highest  powers.  After  the  action  of  certain  re- 
agents, however,  such  us  dilute  chromic  acid,  or  after  digest- 
ing for  some  time  iu  acidulated  water  at  a  temperature  of 
about  100°  F.,  the  matrix  may  be  split  up  into  concentric 
layers  surrounding  the  cell-groups  and  individual  cells. 
If  cartilage  bo  boiled  in  water  for  some  time,  the  matrix  is 
entirely  dissolved,  the  solution  containing  the  substance 
known  as  chondrin. 

Where  cartilage  is  continuous  with  connective  tissue 
there  is  no  abrupt  boundary  between  the  two,  but  tho  one 
passes  by  a  gradual  transition  into  the  other.  As  we  pro- 
ceed from  the  cartilage  to  the  connective  tissue,  the  matrix 
ijceomes  first  indistinctly,  then  distinctly  fibrillated,  and  is 
continuous  with  the  connective-tissue  matrix,  while  tho 
cells  arc  more  and  more  elongated  until  they  present  tlie 
character  of  connective-tissue  corpuscles.  In  the  inter- 
articular  cartilages  little  masses  of  hyaline  cartilage  arc 
imbedded  in  fibrillatecl  connective  tissue.  This  has  some- 
times been  considered  a  variety  of  fibro-cartilage,  but  is 
simply  a  mixture  of  cartilage  with  connective  tissue. 

!•  ibro-cartilnffr  {Hcticulur  Carlilcyc,  Yf:lloic  Cartifftffc), 
— The  cells  of  fibro-cartilage  arc  quite  like  those  of  hy- 
aline cartilage,  but  the  matrix  consists  chiefly  of  a  plexus 
of  anastomosing  fibres  resembling  elastic  fibres.  lielween 
these,  however,  a  homogeneous  substance  similar  to  the 
matrix  of  reticular  cartilage  no  doubt  exists,  since  tlicso 
cartilages  yield  a  small  proportion  of  chondrin  on  boilii.g. 
This  homogeneous  substance,  in  certain  situations,  is  most 
abundant  immediately  around  the  cells,  where  it  is  visible 
under  the  microscope  as  a  clear  or  slightly  gianular  area 
in  which  no  fibres  are  discerned.  When  fibro-eartilagc  is 
anatomically  continuous  with  connective  tissue,  the  fibres 
of  the  matrix  are  continuous  with  tho  yellow  elastic  fibres. 
Fibro-cartilage,  us  above  described,  forms  the  cartilages 
of  the  ear  and  of  the  Eustachian  tube,  the  epiglottis,  tho 
cartilages  of  Wrisburg,  and  a  part  of  the  intervertebral 
cartilages.  Neither  hyaline  nor  fibro-cartilage  contains 
cither  blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  or  nerves. 

Uevflopment  of  Cni-tiUnje. —  In  early  embryonic  life  car- 
tilage is  composed  of  simple  formative  cells  in  immediate 
juxtaposition.  These  enlarge,  and  arc  transformed  into 
cartilage-cells,  and  meanwhile  the  matrix  gradually  makes 
its  appearance  between  them,  at  first  as  a  thin  layer  sur- 
rounding each  cell.  In  this  condition  the  cells  can  rcailily 
be  isolated  with  the  capsule  of  matrix  about  them;  after  a 
time,  however,  the  capsules  surrounding  atljacent  cells  be- 
come fused  together,  and  can  no  longer  be  isolated  except 
by  the  aid  of  reagents.  As  in  the  case  of  connective  tissue, 
several  interpretations  of  these  facts  have  been  ofl"ered.  The 
view  of  lieule,  that  the  matrix  is  formed  by  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  peripheral  portions  of  tho  protoplasm  of  the 
growing  cells,  is  substantially  accepted  by  many  excellent 
histologists — among  others,  by  Max  Schull/.e  ;  while  on  tho 
other  hand,  the  view  that  it  is  produced  independently  by 
the  direct  transformation  of  the  nutritive  plasma  is  not 
without  supporters.  During  the  jn-oeess  of  growth  the  car- 
tilage cells  multiply  by  division.  Cells  containing  two  nu- 
clei are  frequently  observed,  as  well  as  groups  of  two  or 
more  cells  lying  together  in  a  single  capsule,  as  if  just 
divided.  Direct  observation  of  the  process  of  division 
is,  however,  no  easy  mutter.  Tho  division  of  tho  cells  is 
immediately  followed  by  the  formation  of  a  thin  layer  of 
matrix  between  the  two  resulting  cells,  and  this  will  gener- 
ally be  found  to  exist  when  two  or  more  cells  appear  to 
lie  together  in  tin?  same  capsule,  if  the  cells  be  eausrd  to 
shrink  as  deseril'cd  above.  This  thin  partition-wall  of 
matrix  groiiuuHy  increases  in  thickness,  pushing  the  new- 
formed  cells  farther  and  farther  apart.  Tho  fibres  of  tho 
matrix  of  reticular  cartilage  are  developed  in  tho  sumo 
way  as  the  eloslic  fibres.  With  advancing  age  a  deposit 
of  iime-salls  takes  place  in  the  matrix  of  certain  cartiliii;fs, 
as  in  those  of  the  larynx  and  of  the  ribs.  A  similar  chaitgo 
takes  place  in  ossifying  curtilages  and  in  certain  morbid 
conditions.     It  is  known  as  the  ealoification  of  earliliige. 

Ifnnr,  like  eurtiluge,  consists  of  cells  imbedded  in  a 
matrix.  In  thin  seetifins  of  <lried  bono  tho  position  of  tho 
cells  is  marked  by  the  presence  of  small  stellate  cavities 
about  .OOOS"  iu  average  length,  and  rather  lens  than  half 
as  broad — the  bone-laounie,  from  which  rudinlo  delicate 
canals,  .00006"  in  diameter,  the  canaliouli.     The  cannliouli 


984 


HISTOLOGY. 


of  adjacent  lacunae  anastomose  freely.  Examined  by  trans- 
mitted lij^ht,  the  lacuna'  and  canuliculi  appear  dark,  the 
matrix  traiit-parent ;  \>y  redectcd  liglit  the  finmcr  appear 
\?hito  and  opaque,  the  latter  transUiceut.  These  appear- 
ances depend  upon  the  tact  that  in  dried  bono  the  lacunar 
and  ennallculi  are  hollow  and  contain  air,  as  may  be  de- 
monstrated by  first  tlowing  turpentine  upun  a  thin  section 
while  under  microscopical  observation,  antl  tlien  permitting 
it  to  dry.  In  recent  bone,  and  especially  in  growing  bune, 
the  laeun.r  are  tilled  with  a  mass  of  jinitoplasm  containing 
a  nucleus,  which  sends  processes  into  the  canaliculi.    'XUe&e 


Bone  (loni^itiiiliuul ». 


masses  of  protoplasm  are  the  proper  bone-cells.  Osseous 
tissue  is  very  vascular,  and  the  capillaries  lie  in  the  com- 
pact substance  of  the  long  bones  in  a  series  of  longitudinal 
anastomosing  channels — the  canals  of  Havers — which  are 
continuous  with  the  larger  canals  containing  the  nutritive 
arteries,  with  the  areolar  spaces  of  the  spongy  extremities 
of  the  bones,  and  with  the  marrow  cavities.  In  transverse 
sections  of  the  compact  shafts  of  tlie  long  bones,  thcreibre, 
the  canals  of  Havers  appear  as  rounded  or  oval  openings, 
disposed  at  tolerably  regular  intervals,  with  the  lacuna;  ar- 
ranged regularly  around  them  in  coaccntrio  rows.  In  lon- 
FiG.  4. 


Bone  (,ir;ut-v'  r-i-  .  treated  with  acid. 

gitudinal  sections  the  canals  appear  as  a  network  with 
elongated  interspaces,  in  which  the  laeunie  lie  in  rows  par- 
allel to  the  canals.  In  the  extremities  of  the  long  bones 
and  in  the  spongy  boncK  thin  sections  display  an  areolar 
structure,  and  the  bone-lacuna.*  are  always  arranged  more 
or  less  evidently  in  rows  parallel  to  the  margins  of  the  are- 
olar spaces. 


If  bone  be  treated  with  dilute  acids  the  earthy  matter 
of  the  matrix  is  dissolved,  and  a  material  resembling  car- 
tilage is  left  behind,  which,  however,  does  not  yield  chon- 
drin  on  boiling,  but  gelatine.  When  transverse  sections 
arc  made  through  the  shalt  of  a  long  bone,  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  eartliy  matter  by  aciils  the  matrix  no  longer 
appears  homogeneous,  but  is  disposed  in  a  number  of  thin 
concentric  layers  {Ilavcrsiau  lunufta)  around  eaeh  Haver- 
sian canal.  Tlie  spaces  between  the  systems  of  lamella) 
thus  formed  are  occupied  by  inttrmcdiatr  lamcUfc,  which 
run  parallel  to  each  other  without  any  definite  relation  to 
the  course  of  the  adjoining  Haversian  lamella; :  and,  lastly, 
just  beneath  the  jicriosteum  is  a  series  of  pcriphcntl  la- 
mc//.T,  the  course  of  which  is  2>arallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
bone. 

The  medullary  cavities  of  the  long  bones  arc  filled  with 
a  delicate,  very  vascular  connective  tissue,  rich  in  fat-cells 
— the  marrow.  The  areola;  of  the  spongy  extremities  of 
the  lung  bones  and  of  the  spongy  bones  also  contain  a  del- 
icate vascular  connective  tissue,  in  which,  however,  there 
are  few  fat-cells;  instead,  it  abounds  in  round  granular 
cells  and  masses  of  protoplasm  containing  many  nuclei,  the 
myeloplaxis  of  Kobin.  Wandering  cells  arc  abundant  in 
this  tissue,  less  numerous  in  the  marrow,  in  which,  how- 
ever, they  accumulate  in  certain  pathological  conditions. 

Derelopvifut  of  Bone, — In  early  fwtal  life  the  skeleton  is 
entirely  cartilaginous,  and  bone  first  makes  its  ajipearance 
by  a  transformation  of  the  cartilaginous  skeleton,  com- 
mencing at  certain  definite  centres  or  points  of  ossification. 
There  are  usually  several  such  centres  to  each  bone,  which 
are  separated  by  earlilage  until  the  growth  of  the  bone  is 
complete.  The  cartilaginous  septa  thus  left,  of  which  those 
between  the  epiphyses  and  shafts  of  the  long  bones  may  be 
taken  as  types,  maintain  their  dimensions  by  a  continual 
growth,  while  their  margins  are  constantly  being  trans- 
formed into  bone.  Lesidcs  this  development  of  bone  in 
cartilage,  it  is  also  developed  in  connective  tissue.  This 
is  the  ease  with  the  thin  cranial  bones,  in  which  a  primor- 
dial cartilaginous  stage  docs  not  exist.  A  similar  forma- 
tion of  bone  out  of  connective  tissue  takes  place  beneath 
the  j)eriosteuni  of  all  growing  bones.  It  is  by  this  jiroccss, 
for  example,  that  the  long  hones  increase  in  thickness, 
while  their  increase  in  length  takes  place  by  the  growth 
and  ossification  of  the  cartilages  between  the  shaft  and 
epiphyses.  The  earlier  hist()!ogists  supposed  that  the  for- 
mation of  bone  out  of  cartilage  occurred  by  a  ilcjiosit  of 
earthy  salts  in  the  matrix  of  the  cartilage,  transforming  it 
into  bone-matrix,  while  the  cartilage-cells  were  metamor- 
phosed into  bone-cclls.  Subserjuent  observations  have 
shown,  however,  that  the  process  is  by  no  means  so  simple. 
The  first  formation  of  bone  in  the  facial  cartilaginous  skel- 
eton is  preceded  by  an  ingrowth  of  blood-vessels,  sur- 
rounded by  a  delicate  layer  of  cells  (foetal  marrow),  into 
the  substance  of  the  cartilage,  which  is  absorbed  to  permit 
the  entrance  of  the  new  tissue.  Shortly  after  a  deposit  of 
earthy  salts  takes  place  in  the  matrix  of  the  cartilage  at 
the  point  of  ossification.  Detailed  observations  as  to  the 
earliest  development  of  true  bony  tissue  are  yet  wanting, 
but  it  seems  probable  that  from  (he  first,  as  certainly  al- 
ways occurs  afterwards,  the  bone  is  farmed  by  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  peripheral  portions  of  the  fo;>tal  marrow. 
When,  after  the  process  is  fairly  under  way,  thin  sections 
are  cut,  including  the  developing  bone  on  one  side  and  the 
foetal  cartilage  on  the  other,  the  following  conditions  are 
observed:  In  the  portion  of  the  cartilage  immediately  ad- 
joining (he  already  formed  bone  the  cells  are  disposed  in 
closely  packed  rows  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  ad- 
vancing ossification.  In  these  rows  the  cells  which  are 
more  distant  from  the  bone  are  flattened  and  have  flattened 
nuclei;  those  nearer  to  it  progressively  more  oval  or 
I  rounded,  with  rounded  nuclei.  A  deposit  of  lime-salts  in 
the  matrix  between  these  rows  extends  in  the  fttrm  of  fino 
trabecular  some  little  distance  beyond  the  already  formed 
bone.  The  cartilage-cells  nearest  lo  the  ossifying  territory 
are  always  unusually  large  and  clear,  and  immediately  next 
to  them  groups  of  small  granular  eelis.  surrounding  one  or 
more  capillary  loops,  lie  in  the  most  external  areola*  of  the 
already  formed  bone.  These  groups  of  granular  cells  arc 
the  terminal  buds  of  the  fa'tal  marrow.  No  transition 
forms  between  them  and  the  adjacent  row  of  large  clear 
cartilage-cells  have  been  observed,  and  it  therefore  seems 
improbable  that  these  become  converted  into  the  granular 
cells  by  any  process  of  tlivision.  It  has  been  suggested 
by  Ilcnke  that  the  granular  cells  are  formed  from  migrated 
white  corpuscles,  hut  it  is  more  generally  believed  that  from 
the  first  the  ftetal  marrow  intrudes  into  the  cartilage  along 
with  the  blood-vessels  by  continued  eell-multipUcation. 
Both  views  lack  the  support  f)f  actual  observation.  It  is 
more  positively  established  that  the  ])eripheral  granular 
cells  become  hone-eclls.  These  peripheral  cells  are  known 
as  osteoblasts,  and  form  a  distinct  layer  (the  osteoblastic 


HISTOLOGY. 


935 


layer )  un  the  surface  of  the  terminal  buds  of  foetal  marrow. 
The  dclaiU  of  the  transformation  have  not  been  fully  made 
out;  8ome  holding  that  all  the  osteoblasts  become  stellate 


yiUi;  cartilatro. 
lionc-.-.-.i^.  ■i.».-,ii  xiiioh  the  bone-malrix  accumulates  as 
the  transformation  proceeds,  while  others  suppose  that  a 
large  proportion  of  them  are  transformed  into  bone-malrix, 
and  that  this  transformation,  being  limited  in  a  certain 
number  to  their  peripheral  portions  only,  leaves  the  stellate 
bone-cells.  It  will  be  understood  from  the  above  that  the 
cartilage  of  the  fa-tal  skeleton  is  to  be  regarded  as  merely 
a  temporary  formation,  and  that  the  multiplication  of  its 
cells  in  rows,  and  the  deposit  of  liuic-salts  in  the  matrix 
between  them,  are  preliminary  steps  to  its  complete  disap- 
pearance before  the  growing?  bone-tissue.  The  formation 
of  bono  beneath  the  periosteum  takes  place  in  a  manner 
essentially  similar  to  what  has  just  been  sketched.  A  layer 
of  ostcobiasis  is  developed  between  the  connective  tissue 
of  the  periosteum  and  the  part  of  the  bono  which  has  al- 
ready been  formed,  and  these  are  transformed  into  bone  in 
the  same  way  as  the  osteoblasts  of  the  foetal  marrow. 

Miitculiir  Titt'ic. — There  are  two  varieties  of  muscular 
tissue,  the  non-striated  and  the  striated.  The  uuu-slrinlcd 
muscles  are  composed  of  spindlc-fornied  contractile  fibre- 
cells  with  elongated  or  rod-like  nuclei.  These  occur  in  the 
muscular  coats  of  the  intestinal  canal,  the  middle  coat  of 
the  arteries  and  veins,  the  posterior  part  of  the  walls  ol  the 
trachea  aud  bronchial  tubes,  the  ciliary  muscle  and  the 
iris,  the  skin  (where  Ihey  constitute  especially  the  crectorcs 
pili  muscles),  the  lymphatic  glands  and  spleen,  the  walls 
of  the  gall-bladder  and  biliary  ducts,  the  ureters  and  uri- 
nary bladder,  the  uterus  and  Fallopian  tubes,  etc.  etc.  The 
fibre-cells  are  composed  of  a  contractile  substance,  which 
is  either  homogeneous  or  faintly  striated  longitudinally; 
in  this,  besides  the  nucleus,  a  number  of  strongly  refrac- 
tive granules  are  imbedded,  a  pyramidal  group  of  them 
generally  appearing  at  each  extremity  of  the  nucleus. 
I'^omelimes  the  extremities  of  the  fibre-cells  are  divided 
into  t\vo  or  more  branches.  In  length  these  cells  for  the 
most  part  range  between  .0010"  and  .OOS";  their  average 
breailtb  is  about  .0001",  and  their  nuclei  range  from  .0006" 
to  .001"  in  long  diameter.  They  are  united  into  larger  or 
smaller  fasciculi  by  a  delicate  eonneotivc  tissue  consist- 
ing of  a  homogeneous  matrix,  with  scattered  stellate, 
anastomo.xing  cells.  On  a  transverse  section  through  these 
fasciculi  the  divided  fibre-cells  present  irregular  polygonal 
outlines.  Tho  fasciculi  are  united  by  septa  of  ordinary 
fibrillar  conueelivo  tissue.  The  arteries  and  veins  supply- 
ing tho  miiseiiiar  tissue  lie  in  these  septa;  tho  capillaries 
enter  the  muscular  fasciculi  and  are  distributed  between  the 
fibro-cells.  The  relation  of  the  inuseular  fibre-eells  to  tho 
nerves  will  bo  described  in  connection  with  the  nerves.  The 
tlrinlid  miitctf  consist  of  cylindrical  or  somowhal  fusiform 
fibres,  .0004"  to  .002.')"  in  diameter,  which  in  short  muscles 


extend  from  one  insertion  of  the  muscle  to  the  other;  in 
long  ones,  seldom  exceed  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 
These  are  marked  transversely  by  close  parallel  lines,  lliu 
well-known  transverse  striie.  Each  fibre  is  invested  by 
a  delicate  structureless  sheath,  the  sarcolemmn,  beneath 
which,  aud  on  tho  exterior  of  the  muscular  substanco 
proper,  oval  nuclei,  the  so-called  muscle-corpuscles,  are 
scattered  at  irregular  intervals. 

With  proper  management  the  muscular  fibres  may  bo 
split  longitudinally  into  a  bundle  of  minute  fibrils,  or  trans- 
versely into  a  series  of  narrow  disks,  lience,  as  was  first 
taught  by  Bowman,  each  fibre  is  composed  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  quadrangular  particles,  the  sarcous  elements.  Colin- 
heim,  by  the  investigation  of  thin  sections  of  frozen  mus- 
cles especially,  has  shown  that  these  sarcous  elements  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  transparent  intervening 
substance.  Briicke  has  pointed  out  that  the  sarcous  ele- 
ments polarize  light,  while  the  intervening  substance  does 
not.  lie  found  their  doubly  refractive  power  to  be  uniaxial 
and  positive,  and  by  a  study  of  their  behavior  when  exam- 
ined with  polarized  light  during  contraction,  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  each  consists  of  a  group  of  smaller  doubly 
refractive  bodies  (disdiaclasts)  capable  of  changing  ]iosi- 
tion  with  reference  to  each  other  during  contraction,  and 
thus  modifying  tho  form  of  the  sarcous  elements.  To  this 
view  Strieker  appears  to  incline,  though  he  expresses  him- 
self with  a  certain  reserve.  Various  other  views  of  tho 
structure  of  muscular  fibres  have  been  offered,  with  regard 
to  which  the  render  must  consult  the  special  treatises.  The 
muscular  fibres  are  bound  together  into  fasciculi  by  a  del- 
icate connective  tissue  resembling  that  which  unites  the 
fibre-cells  of  organic  muscles.  The  fasciculi  arc  united  by 
septa  of  ordinary  fibrillar  connective  tissue,  in  which  tho 
nutritive  blood-vessels  lie.  The  latter  give  off  a  system  of 
capillaries  which  form  a  network  between  the  individual 
muscular  fibres.  The  termination  of  the  nerves  in  striated 
muscular  fibres  will  be  described  hereafter.  All  the  volun- 
tary  muscles  of  tho  body,  aud  certain  of  the  involuntary 
ones  also,  among  which  the  most  notable  is  the  heart,  con- 
sist of  striated  muscular  fibres.  In  the  heart  the  muscular 
fibres  offer  several  marked  peculiarities.  They  branch  and 
anastomose  with  each  other,  forming  thus  a  ccmtinuous  net- 
work, and  they  are  divided  by  highly  refractive  transverse 
lines  into  segments  .002"  to  .003"  in  length,  each  of  which 
has  a  single  nucleus  in  its  centre,  so  that  they  have  been 
described  as  chains  of  luusclc-cells.  Besides  this,  they  fre- 
quently contain  numerous  fat-molecules,  even  when  apjia- 
rently  quito  healthy.  In  their  transverse  striation,  and 
most  of  tho  details  of  their  minute  structure,  however,  they 
resemble  tho  other  striated  muscles. 

Kervea  and  lYerve-cenlrcs. — The  nervous  system  consists 
of  a  scries  of  branching  cords,  the  nerves,  which  originate 
in  the  brain,  spinal  marrow,  and  ganglia,  ami  are  distrib- 
uted to  tho  tissues,  where,  for  the  most  part,  they  end  in 
certain    special    terminal 
I'iG.  0.  organs.     The  ncrvcH  con- 

sist cither  of  single  nerve- 
fibres  or  of  fasciculi  of 
fibres  united  together  by 
vascular  ciuinectivc  tissue. 
In  most  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal nerves,  with  tho 
exception  of  their  central 
and  peripheral  termina- 
tions, the  nerve-fibres  con- 
sist of  a  central  ])ortion, 
tho  axis -cylinder,  sur- 
rounded by  a  medullary 
.slieiilh,  the  white  matter 
of  Schwann,  and  this 
again  covered  by  a  deli- 
cate investing  membrane, 
the  slltnlh  of  Schwann. 
.Such  fibres  arc  ilesignated 
niedullaled  nerve-  fibres. 
The  sheath  of  Schwann  is 
U  1(11         lllllIIIII   "'    tfi^tisparent    strm;turo- 

1  I  IJl         illl/lliil   less    membrane,   like    the 

Barcolemma  of  the  nuis- 
eular  fibres.  Tho  medul- 
lary sheath  is  a  peculiar, 
highly  refractive,  oily 
substance  eontaining  pro- 
togon,  which,  when  tho 
fibres  are  torn  across, 
exudes  from  their  cx- 
treniiiics  as  tho  so- 
called  myelin  drops.  Tho 
axis-cylinder  consists  of  a  bundle  of  extremely  minute 
ftbrils'unitcd  by  a  delicate  granular  material.  Medul- 
latod    norve-fibrcs  range  for  tho   most  part   from  .0002" 


i7 


Medullatcd  ncrve-fibrcs. 


93(5 


HISTOLOGY. 


to  .OflOS"  in  diameter:  when  perfectly  fresh  they  appear 
smooth  and  round,  with  hero  and  there  an  oval  nucleus, 
but  in  a  short  time  the  medullary  sheath  undergoes  a  kind 
of  coagulation,  changing  it  into  a  granular  semi-transparent 
mas?,  which  ."brinks  away  from  the  peripheral  sheath  in 
some  places,  and  encroaches  upon  the  axis-cylinder  in 
others,  so  as  to  present  very  irregular  contours.  Mcdul- 
lated  ncrvc-fibrcs  i>ranch  frequently,  especially  towards 
their  peripheral  terminations,  the  axis-cylinder  dividing 
into  two  or  more  portions,  each  of  which  is  invested  with 
a  mcdull:iry  Inyer,  and  a  sheath  of  Schwann  continuous 
with  those  of  the  primitive  fibre.  The  secomlary  nerve- 
fibres  thus  produced  arc  individually  smaller  than  the  one 
from  which  they  spring,  but  in  the  aggregate  the  thickness 
of  the  branches  is  usually  greater  than  that  of  the  original 
fibre.  Still  farther  towards  the  periphery  both  the  sheath 
of  Schwann  and  the  medullary  sheath  disappear,  the  latter 
sometimes  before  the  former,  and  the  axis-cylinder  which 
alone  remains  then  divides  and  subdivide-s  until  it  is  broken 
up  into  its  primitive  fibrils,  which  are  extremely  minute, 
.00002"  or  less  in  diameter,  and  often  present  a  delicate 
beaded  appearance.  Another  variety  of  nen-e-fibres  is 
found  in  tlr.'  branches  of  the  great  sympathetic  nerve, 
which,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  the  medullary  sheath, 
have  been  called  non-meduUated  fibres  (also  Remak's  fibres). 
These  correspond  in  size  for  the  most  part  to  the  medium 
and  smaller  mcdulhited  fibres,  and  when  fresh  are  smooth 
or  somewhat  granular,  often  marked  by  faint  longitudinal 

Fig.  7. 


Remak's  nerve-fibres. 


striations.  They  consist  of  a  peripheral  sheath,  identical 
with  that  of  the  medullated  nerve-fibres,  enveloping  a 
bundle  of  primitive  nerve-fibres  united  by  a  finely  granular 
interfibrillar  substance.  Such  non-medullated  fibres  exist 
also  in  the  olfactory  nerves,  and  in  the  white  matter  of  the 
brain  and  spina!  cord  fibres  are  encountered  which  arc  quite 
similar,  except  that  they  do  not  possess  the  peripheral  sheath 
of  Schwann.  The  medullated  nerve-fibres  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  are  also  destitute  of  the  sheath  of  Schwann,  to 

Fig.  8. 


Myelin  coagulated  nerve-fibres. 

the  absence  of  which  from  both  kinds  of  fibres,  together 
with  the  delicacy  of  the  conncctivo  tissue  in  which  they 
arc  imbedded,  the  softness  of  tho  white  matter  of  the 
nerve-centres  is  duo. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  understood  that  the  primi- 
tive nerve-fibrils  are  the  characteristic  elements  of  all  nerve- 
fibres,  and  that  the  various  appearances  of  nerve-fibres  in 
diverse  situations  depend  upun  whether  the  fibrils  occur 
singly  or  in  fasciculi,  and  are  or  are  not  invested  with  me- 
dullary and  pcriplieral  sheaths.  Max  Schultzc  has  pro- 
posed, on  the  basis  of  these  circumstances,  the  following 
classification  of  ncrve-fibres  :  I.  Non-medullatcd  fibres  :  1, 


primitive  fibrils;  2,  fasciculi  of  primitive  fibrils;  3,  these 
last,  with  a  sheath  of  Schwann.  II.  Medullated  fibres  :  I, 
primitivo^fibrils  with  medullary  sheath ;  2,  fasciculi  of 
primitive  fibrils  with  medullary  sheath  j  3,  these  last,  with 
a  sheath  of  Schwann. 

The  ycrve-ccntres. — The  brain  and  spinal  marrow  con- 
sist, as  is  well  known,  of  two  varieties  of  nerve-tissue,  the 
white  and  the  gray.  The  characteristic  elements  of  the 
former  are  medullated  and  non-medullated  nerve-fibres, 
neither  of  which  jjossess  the  sheath  of  Schwann  ;  in  the 
latter,  besides  similar  fibres,  nerve-cells  are  encountered, 
whicli  arc  also  the  characteristic  element  of  the  several 
ganglia.  The  nerve-cells  are  rounded,  oval,  or  stellate 
bodies  .0002"  to  .COS"  in  diameter,  consisting  of  a  granular 
protoplasm,  with  a  round  or  oval  nucleus  which  usually 
contains  a  nucleolus.  Fach  cell  gives  off"  one  or  more  pro- 
toplasmic processes  twice  to  six  times  as  long  as  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cell  or  layer.  According  to  the  number  of  these 
the  cells  are  called  unipolar,  bipolar,  or  multipolar.  The 
l.'irge  multipolar  nerve-cells  in  the  anterior  horns  of  tho 
gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord  are  particularly  available 

Fig.  9. 


Nerve-cell. 

for  study.  In  each  of  these  cells  all  the  processes  but  one 
branch  "frequently,  until  finally  the  ramifications  escape 
observation.  The  exceptional  process,  as  first  demonstrated 
by  Deitcrs,  pursues  its  course  without  branching,  and  be- 
comes ultimately  the  axis-cylinder  of  the  medullated  nerve- 
fibre.  Like  the  axis-cylinder,  this  process  consists  of  deli- 
cate fibrils  united  by  a  granular  interfibrillar  material.  The 
fibrils  can  be  traced  into  the  substance  of  the  nerve-cell.  In- 
deed, recent  investigations  have  shown  that  all  the  proto- 
plasmic processes  of  the  ncrve-cclls  contain  similar  fibrils 
which  interlace  in  the  substance  of  the  cell,  and  many  of 
which  can  be  traced  through  it  from  one  process  to  another. 
Cells  essentially  similar  to  these,  though  smaller,  arc  found 
in  the  gray  substance  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum.  IJe- 
sides  these,  there  are,  in  the  gray  subst.ince  of  the  brain 
especially,  an  immense  number  of  small  cells  in  which  no 
peripheral  process  has  been  demonstrated,  all  their  ]>ro- 
cesses  branching  until  they  become  fine  fibrils,  or  having 
a  fine  fibrillar  character  from  the  very  first.  The  desti- 
nation of  these  fibrils  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

The  nerve-cells  and  nerve-fibres  of  tho  brain  and  si)inal 
cord  arc  imbedded  in  a  delicate  connective  tissue,  the  ncu- 


HISTOLOGY. 


937 


roglia  of  Virchow.  This  consists  of  branching  and  anas- 
tomosing connective-tissue  cells  and  delicate  elastic  fibres 
imbedded  in  a  finely  granular  matrix.  The  sympathetic 
ganglia  are  traversed  by  medulluted  and  nou-mcdullated 
fibres,  and  contain  numerous  nerve-cells,  which,  like  those 
of  the  spinal  cord,  give  origin  to  fibres,  all  being  united  to- 
gether by  ordinary  fibrillated  couneclivc  tissue.  Some  of 
the  nerve-cells  arc  multipolar,  like  those  of  the  spinal  cord, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  follow  their  processes  for  any  dis- 
tance on  account  of  the  density  of  the  connective  tissue  in 
which  they  lie.  Others  arc  unipolar,  and  in  this  case  the 
single  )iroccss,  like  the  peripheral  process  of  the  cells  of  the 
spinal  cord,  is  continuous  with  the  axis-cylinder  of  a  nerve- 
fibre.  Bcale  has  described  a  form  of  cell  in  the  sympathetic 
ganglia  of  the  frog  which  gives  off  two  processes,  one  of 
which  winds  spirally  around  the  other. 

The  I'eriphcrul  Termiitaliiin:<  nf  ihc  .Vines. — The  periph- 
Fio.  10. 


v,v— - 


Ttriiini.tii'iu  v>i  mrve  in  voluntary  i.i...-^!v. 
eral  terminations  of  the  nerves  in  the  organs  of  special  sense, 
in  the  cornea,  skin,  and   other    situa-  Yiq,  \\. 

tioni",  will  bo  described  in  connection 
with  these  several  parts.  Here,  there- 
fore, we  shall  sketch  only  the  termina- 
tion of  the  nerves  in  muscle  and  in  the 
Pacinian  bodies.  In  the  ca5e  of  the 
voluntary  muscles,  medulla  ted  nerve- 
fibres  terminate  in  peculiar  organs  sit- 
uated iinmc'iiiitely  beneath  the  sar- 
colcnima.  At  the  point  where  the  nerve- 
fibre  joins  the  muscular  fibre  the  sheath 
of  Schwann  becomes  continuous  with 
the  sarcolerama,  while  the  medullary 
sheath  ends  abruptly,  and  the  axis-cyl- 
inder, penetrating  beneath  the  sarco- 
Icmnia,  expands  into  a  delicate,  trans- 
parent, more  or  less  branched  terminal 
plate,  which  is  separated  from  the  stri- 
ated substance  of  the  muscular  fibre 
by  a  little  elliptical  granular  mass  in 
which  several  nuclei  arc  imbedded. 
Every  striated  muscular  fibre  has  at 
least  one  of  these  nerve-tcrminatious  ; 
the  longer  fibres  receive  several  of 
them.  In  the  ease  of  the  non-striated 
muscles  the  nerve-fibres  first  lose  their 
medullary  sheaths,  then  branch,  and 
finally  split  up  into  their  ultimate 
fibrils,  which  form  a  plexus  between 
the  fibre-cells  of  the  muscle.  From  Organic  muscle, 
this  plexus  a  series  of  short  delicate  branches  is  given 
ofTf  one  or  more  of  which  enter  the  substanco  of  the 
Fig.  12. 


however,  these  knobs  give  off  filaments  which  pasa 
through  the  substance  of  the  nucleus  and  fibre-cells  to 
join  the  iutermuseuiiir  plexus  again.  The  Pacinian  bodies 
are  peculiar  terminations  of  the  sensor^'  nerves,  whirh  in 
man  arc  found  in  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  of  the 
sides  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  in  the  intermuscular  space?, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  joints.  They  are  elliptical  bodies 
.Ul"  to  .1"  iu  long  diameter,  which  consist  of  numerous 

Fio.  13. 


N'  Mc-iirmlnatlon  in  orfjanlc  muscle, 
nucleus  of  each  fibre-cell,  and  apj)arcntly  terminate  there 
in  a  minute  knob  or  granule.     According    to  J.  Arnold, 


Pacinian  body. 

concentric  layers  of  delicate  connective  tissue,  forming  a 
laminated  capsule  with  a  narrow  elongated  central  cavity. 
A  single  medullatcd  nerve-fibre  enters  one  extremity  of  the 
capsule.  Its  external  and  medullary  sheaths  disappear 
shortly  after  its  entrance,  while  the  axis-cylinder  penetrates 
the  central  cavity,  and  having  extended  nearly  its  whole 
length,  forms  a  terminal  knob,  or  breaks  up  into  a  knob- 
like  brush  of  terminal  fibrils. 

The  lilood  consists  of  a  colorless  liquid,  the  liquor  san- 
guinis or  blood-plasma,  in  which  float  two  kinds  of  cellular 
elements,  the  red  and  white  cor]>usclcs.  When  the  blood 
coagulates,  fibrin  in  a  more  or  less  distinctly  fibrillated  con- 
dition separates  from  the  jilasma,  entangling  the  corpuscles 
in  its  meshes.  The  remaining  fiuid  portion,  or  serum,  con- 
sists of  albumen  and  certain  salts  dissolved  in  water,  Tho 
red  blood-corjmncUs  in  man  arc  flattened  biconcave  disks 
the  average  diameter  of  which  is  usually  stated  at  v,^^  of 
an  inch,  Wclcker  makes  them  rather  larger,  .00774  of  a 
milliniL'tre,  or  .OOO^J"  very  nearly,  the  usual  variations  be- 
ing between  .0004  and  .OOSG  of  a  millimr-trc.  Their  number 
has  been  estimated  by  Vierordt  at  5.000,000  to  a  cubic  mil- 
limetre. They  consist  of  a  homogeneous  elastic  substance, 
are  destitute  of  a  nucleus,  and,  according  to  most  modern 
histologists,  are  not  invested  with  a  special  membrane  or 
cell-wall.  In  the  majority  of  mammals  the  l>lood-corpuscles 
are  similar  in  form  to  those  of  man,  but  differ  somewhat  in 
size.  On  this  diversity  in  size  alone  the  attempts  to  iden- 
tify human  blood  by  the  microscope  for  legal  purposes  arc 
based.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  cor- 
puscles of  certain  animals,  particularly  tho  monkey  and  the 
Fio.  14. 


TTumnn  rod  blood -corpuscles, 
dog,  BO  closely  approximate  tho    dimensions   of  those  of 
human  blood    that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  discriminate 


938 


HISTOLOGY. 


Fig.  15. 


them  by  the  microscope  even  in  fresh  blood  ;  and  as  after 
soalting  out  a  blood-stain  the  original  size  of  the  blood-cor- 
puscle is  not  always  exactly  re|)roduccd,  it  becomes  dif5- 
cult  todi-stinguish  human  blood  under  such  conditions  from 
the  blood  of  a  considerable  number  of  animals  the  corpuscles 
of  which  appro.\imatc  those  of  r...  .:; 

man  in  size.  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  the  dimensions  as- 
siguLMl  to  the  corpuscles  of  man 
and  mammals  by  various  au- 
thors dilTer  considerably.  In 
the  camel  and  llama  the  corpus- 
cles are  elliptical,  but  possess 
no  nuclei.  In  bird,",  reptiles, 
and  lishcs  the  corpuscles  are  el- 
liptical flat  disks  possessed  of  an 
oval  nucleus,  which,  when  the 
edge  of  the  corpuscle  is  turned 
towards  the  eye,  is  seen  to  pro- 
ject on  each  side  above  the  sur- 
taee  of  the  disk.  The  following  are  the  mean  dimensions 
of  the  corpuscles  of  a  few  animals,  as  given  by  Welcker,  in 
decimals  of  a  millimetre  : 


Fio.  17. 


Red  blood-corpuscles : 
Reptile. 


Elliptical  Corpn8clc8f  long 
diameters. 

Llama 0080 

Pigeon 0147 

Frog 0223 

Triton 0293 

Proteus 05S2 

Sturgeon 0134 

The  ichiie  hlood-corpmchs,  as  seen  circulating  in  the 
living  blood-vessels,  are  spherical  granular  bodies,  most  of 
which  in  man  have  rather  greater  diameter  than  the  red  (on 
the  average  nearly  .0004").  Each  is  a  little  mass  of  proto- 
plasm whieh  contains  one  or  more  nuclei,  \yhen  a  drop  of 
human  blood  is  watched 


Circular  Corpuscles, 

Man OOi'7 

Bog oor;i 

Cat 0005 

Rabbit 0069 

Sheep OOoO 

Moschus  Javanicus 0025 


with  the  microscopo 
while  the  temperature  is 
kept  at  about  100°  F. 
and  evaporation  is  pre- 
vented (by  means  of  the 
hot  stage  and  moist 
chamber),  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  majority 
of  the  white  corpuscles 
assume  the  most  diverse 
forms,  and  creep  across 
the  field  of  view  with  a 
motion  resembling  that 
of  the  amteba.  Similar 
amoeboid  motions  are 
observed  in  transparent 
corpuscles  which    have  ra 


Fig.  16. 


Amoeboid  movement  of  white 
blood-corpuscles. 

living   tissues    in    white   blood- 
rated  from  the  vessels.     Two 


boundaries  of  which  are  best  displayed  by  the  imbibition 
or  injection  of  dilute  solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  sub- 
sequent exposure  to  light.  The 
nuclei  may  afterwards  bo  demon- 
strated by  carmine  staining.  These 
cells  range  usually  from  .001"  to 
.004"  in  length;  the  nuclei  on  an 
average  arc  about  .0006"  long.  The 
walls  of  the  true  capillaries  appear 
to  consist  merely  of  this  single 
layer  of  cells,  which  are  irregular 
in  outline,  and  vary  considerably 
in  form  in  the  capillaries  of  differ- 
ent organs.  As  the  capillaries  pass 
into  tiie  small  arteries  the  endo- 
thelial cells  become  fusifttrm  ;  in  the 
small  veins  they  are  irregularly 
polygonal.  In  the  line  of  junction 
between  these  cells  small  irregular 
openings,  the  so-called  stomata, 
are  mapped  out  by  the  action  of 
silver,  especially  in  the  smaller 
veins.  As  they  ],roceed  from  the 
capillaries  towards  the  heart  both 
veins  and  arteries  acquire  an  in- 
vestment of  connective  ti.'^sue,  in 
which  a  layer  of  circular  muscular 
fibre-cells  soon  makes  its  ajipear- 
ance.  After  this  three  distinct 
coats  can  be  distinguished  in  both 
arteries  and  veins,  consisting  of 
the  epithelial  lining,  reposing  upon 
a  thin  layer  of  connective  tissue, 
ricli  in  elastic  fitjrcs,  many  of  which 
run  longitudinally;  a  middle  or 
muscular  coat,  consisting  of  mus- 
cular fibre-cells  disposed  circularly 
and  united  together  by  connective 
tissue  abounding  in  elastic  fibre; 
adventitia';  a',  nucleus  "■"'  "■'  external  coat,  or  ndvcn- 
of  tunica  adveniiiia;  6,  titia,  composed  of  fibrillatcd  con- 
musde  nucleus;  c. elas-  nectivc  tissue.     The  coats  of  the 

cell ',u:,;^"b?i„xt,^u^:  jr'  T  --■''--•^'v'''""" ";- 

form  cells.  those  of  arteries  of  the  same  size, 

and  contain  less  elastic  tissue.     On 

the  other  hand,  the  thick  middle  coat  of  the  larger  arteries 


Small  artery;    a,  tunica 


Fio.  18. 


varieties  of  these  amoeboid  corpuscles  may  bo  distin- 
guished— one  coarsely,  the  other  finely  granular  ;  tliere  is 
besides  a  third  variety  of  white  corpuscles,  which  are 
very  delicately  granular,  smaller  than  the  red  corpuscles, 
and  e.viiibit  no  amoeboid  motions.  LastI}',  the  blood  con- 
tains considerable  numbers  of  still  more  minute  protoplas- 
mic particles  destitute  of  nuclei.  The  wliite  corpuscles  in 
all  vcrtebrated  animals  are  essentially  similar  to  those  of 
man,  but  the  amoeboid  motions  in  those  of  the  cold-blooded 
animals  take  place  at  a  lower  temperature.  Their  differ- 
ences in  dimensions  in  the  various  classes  of  animals  arc 
much  lessthau  in  the  case  of  the  red  corpuscles.  The  white 
corpuscles  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  red.  Welcker 
estimates  the  proportion  at  1  to  335,  but  it  varies  with  a^-o 
and  sex,  and  indeed  in  different  individuals  and  in  the  same 
individuals  at  different  limes.  The  blood  of  the  splenic 
and  hepatic  veins  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
white  corpuscles  than  that  of  the  splenic  ai^ory  and  portal 
vein. 

Verelopmcnt  </  the  Blood. — The  earliest  red  corpuscles 
are  derived  immediately  from  the  primitive  cells  of  the  em- 
bryo, and  even  in  man  and  the  mammals  are  nucleated. 
The  non-nucleated  red  corpuscles  make  their  appearance 
later,  and  entirely  replace  the  nucleated  ones  before  birth. 
They  appear  to  originate  by  the  transformation  of  wliite 
corpuscles,  and  the  subsequent  supply  is  kept  up  in  the 
same  manner  as  has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  the  frog  by 
Von  Recklinghausen  and  Gulubew.  The  white  corpuscles 
themselves  originate  in  the  lymphatic  glands  and  the  spleen 
in  a  mode  which  as  yet  is  undetermined,  probably  by  the 
mulliplication  by  division  of  the  cells  of  the  parenchyma. 
Lastly,  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  marrow  of  the 
bones  as  a  situation  in  which  the  transformation  of  white 
corpuscles  into  reel  is  particularly  active. 

The  lilood-renfirh. — The  heart  and  blood-vessels,  includ- 
ing the  capillaries,  are  lined  throughout  by  an  endothelium 
consisting  of  a  single  layer  of  flattened  nucleated  cells,  the 


-■%!,:> 


a 

Lymphatics:  central  tendon  diapbracm 
of  rabbit :  n.  lymph  capillaries ;  r.  con- 
nective tissue  Willi  serous  canals;  il, 
flask-shaped  dilatations. 


is  distinguished  by 
the  great  quantity 
of    elastic      tissue 
which  it  contains. 
Longitudinal  mus- 
cular fibre-cells  oc- 
cur in  the  adven- 
I  titia  of  some  of  the 
larger  arteries  and 
veins.     The   coats 
of  the  veins  within 
the  cranium,  in  the 
bones,   and   in  the 
maternal      portion 
of the  placenta  eon- 
tain    no    muscular 
fibres.     The  larger 
arteries  and  veins 
are  nourished  by  a 
system    of  vessels, 
the  vasft  vasorum, 
which     ramify    in 
the    external    coat 
and  sentl  capillary 
branches     to     the 
muscular       layers 
beneath.       Nerves 
enter    the    middle 
coat  of  both  larger 
and  smaller  vessels 
(with    the    excep- 
ti(tn  of  the  true  ca- 
pillaries), and  ter- 
minate in  the  mus- 
cular fibre-cells  in 
the     manner      ol- 
rcady  described. 

The  lijviphaticn, 
like  the  blood-ves- 
sels, are  lined  by  a 
single  layer  of  flat- 
tened endothelial 
cells,  the  bounda- 
ries of    which  are 


best  displayed  by  the  action  of  silver,  while  their  nuclei 


HISTOLOGY. 


939 


can  I<c  (lein*nistrated  by  tho  nsc  of  carmine.  In  tho 
smaller  Ivinj^liaticH  and  in  tho  lymphatic  capillaries  those 
cells  are  distinguished  by  the  sinuous  character  of  their 
margtus  and  by  tho  large  size  and  great  number  of  the 
stouiata  betwcfu  them.  The  larger  lympliatics  possess 
a  middle  muscular  and  an  external  cunneciive-tissuo  coat, 
resembling  the  corresponding  tunics  of  tlie  veins.  The 
stomata  of  the  lymphatic  network  communicate  with  the 
By«tem  of  spaces  already  described  a.s  everywhere  existing 
in  the  connective  tissue.  These  torm  a  system  of  canals 
(plasmatic  canals,  serous  canals),  which  vary  in  size  and 
form  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  which,  as  Von 
Hocklinghausen  has  shown,  arc  best  demonstrated  by  tho 
action  of  silver,  which  blackens  the  intervening  matrix, 
leaving  the  plasmatic  canals  uncolored.  The  plasmatic 
canals  comnumicate  also  with  the  blond-vessels  by  the  sto- 
mata of  the  latter,  and  thus  form  the  passages  through 
which  the  white  corpuscles  move  when  they  migralo  from 
the  vessels. 

The  hfmphatic  tjfandn  arc  interposed  in  the  course  of  the 
lymphatics.  When  these,  on  their  way  from  the  peripheral 
portions  of  the  body,  arrive  at  a  ghmd  (vasa  aH'crentia). 
thoy  ramify  on  its  surface  and  enter  its  substance  frnni  the 
periphery.  The  i)ranchcs  leatling  friKn  the  gland  towards 
the  larger  lymphatics  trunks  (vasa  etfcrentia)  escape  from 
the  hilus.  The  lymphatic  glands  arc  invested  by  a  capsule 
of  connective  tissue,  and  consist  essentially  of  a  delicate 
reticulum  of  branching  connective-tissue  cells,  the  meshes 
(»f  whicli  are  tilled  with  small  granular  cells  resembling  the 
white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  When  thin  sections  of 
glands,  hardened  in  alcohol,  are  pencilled  with  a  brush,  a 
portion  of  these  elements  are  detaclied,  and  the  more  tiriuly 
attached  cells  which  remain  in  situ  appear  as  cord-like 
masses  (follicular  ct)rds).  which  furm  a  plexus  in  tlic  cen- 
tral medullary  portion  of  the  gland,  while  in  the  cortical 
portion  thoy  expand  into  rounded  orclub-shaped  dilatations. 

Fig.  19. 


St..  V 


Lymphatic  gland:  a,  follirmar  >-\\A^ .  /-,  rr;iiM-(ii)a-;.',  lymph-path. 
If  the  pencilling  be  continued,  the  lymphoid  cells  are  de- 
tache<l  irom  these  follicular  cords  also,  and  it  is  then  seen 
tliat  tho  meshes  of  the  reticulum  are  smaller  in  them  Ihan 
in  the  intervening  portions  of  the  glaiirl.  The  coiinectivc- 
tiifsue  capsule  gives  off  to  tho  interior  of  the  gland  a  series 
of  trabecuUo  which  form  an  areolar  network,  interlacing 
with  tho  plexus  formed  by  the  follicular  cords  in  such  a 
way  that  in  sections  the  trabeculaa  appear  to  oecupy  tho 
centres  of  the  spaees  between  the  cords,  with  whi<-h  they 
are  connected  by  the  coarse  reticulum  above  described. 
This  coarse  reticulum  between  the  trabeeuhe  anrl  the 
fiillieiilar  cords  constitutes  the  lynipb-path.  the  easily  de- 
tached lymphoid  elements  of  wbieh  are  eoiislaiitly  carried 
away  by  tho  current  of  tho  lymphatic  circulation,  and  as 
constanily  renewed:  it  communicates  directly  with  the 
vasa  afferenlia  at  the  periphery  of  tho  organ,  nnd  with 
the  vasa  efl'erentia  at  the  hilti".  ('onnecled  with  the  lym- 
phatic plexuses  of  the  mucms  membrane  of  the  nlimentnry 
canal  espeeially  are  eertiiin  glandular  borlies,  the  /i/tnphnti'r 
/itlticfct,  the  parenchyma  of  which  is  very  similar  in  its 
structure  to  that  r)f  the  follicular  cords  just  described,  and 
which,  for  this  reason,  and  on  account  of  (heir  relations  lo 
the  l\mphatic  vessels,  are  to  be  regarded  as  minute  lym- 
phatic glands.     Tho  solitary  glanila  and  glands  of  Peyer 


in  the  intestines,  tho  closed  follicles  of  the  tonsils,  pharynx 
and  back  of  the  tongue,  are  of  this  nature. 

The  Ijfinph  is  the  colorless,  slightly  opalescent  fluid  con- 
tained in  the  lymphatics.  Its  morphological  elements,  the 
lymph-corpuseles,  arc  in  all  respects  identical  with  the 
white  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  which  in  fact  are  continuallv 
recruited  by  the  lymph-corpuscles  entering  the  subclavian 
veins  through  the  thoracic  duct  nnd  the  lymphatic  duel  of 
the  right  side,  while  on  the  other  hand,  white  blood-cor- 
pnsclcs  which  have  migrated  from  the  blood-vessels  into 
the  serous  canals  of  the  connective  tissue  continually  enter 
the  lymphatic  capillaries  and  became  lymph-corpuscles. 
The  lymph  which  leaves  the  lymphatic  glands  by  the  vasa 
efFerentia  is  so  much  richer  in  corpuscles  than  that  which 
enters  them  as  to  leave  no  doubt  tliat  these  glands  are  ono 
important  seat  of  the  formation  of  the  lymph-corpuscles. 
They  probably  originate  by  tho  multiplicatiftu  by  division 
of  the  cells  of  the  parenchyma,  but  the  details  of  the  |iro- 
cess  have  hitherto  escaped  observation.  A  sintilar  forma- 
tion of  white  corpuscles  takes  place  in  the  spleen,  and 
probably  also  in  the  lymph- follicles  and  the  marrow  of  tho 
bones. 

The  sfrnufi  niemhrnnes  consist  of  a  thin  layer  of  connect- 
ive tissue  coated  on  the  side  next  the  serous  cavity  by  a 
single  hxycr  of  endothelial  colls.  These  are  flattened 
polyhedral,  nucleated  elements,  generally  with  sinuous 
margins,  which  are  best  displayed  by  the  action  of  silver. 
It  is  then  seen,  also,  that  numerous  ^;harply  defined,  round- 
ed, or  irregular  spaces,  the  so-called  stomata,  exist  between 
the  margins  of  tho  cells.  Tho  membrane  on  which  this 
endothelium  reposes  consists  of  a  network  of  interlacing 
bundles  of  fibrillar  connective  tissue  with  stellate  fixed  cor- 
puscles and  elastic  elements.  It  contains,  besides  blood- 
vessels and  nerves,  a  rich  plexus  of  lym}dnitic  capillaries, 
which  appear  to  communicate  freely  with  the  serous  cavi- 
ties by  means  of  tho  stomata.  In  consequence  of  this  ar- 
rangement, milk  or  colored  fluids,  such  as  carmine  solution, 
introduced  during  Hie  into  serous  cavities — as,  for  example, 
the  peritoneum  or  the  pleural  sacs — are  speedily  taken  up 
by  the  lymphatics,  a  natural  injection  of  whicli  may  thus 
be  effected.  Tho  lymphatic  cajiillarits  may  also  bo  demon- 
strated by  soaking  the  membrane  in  nitrate  of  silver  and 
exposing  it  to  the  light.  The  connective-tii^sue  matrix  is 
thus  blackened,  while  tho  blood-vcs;;eIh  and  lymphatics  ap- 
pear as  light-colored  channels  lined  by  their  characteristic 
endothelium.  From  the  abundance  of  these  lymphatics,  and 
the  readiness  with  which  they  take  up  fluids  introduced 
into  the  serous  cavities,  the  latter  luu  e  been  of  late  re- 
garded by  some  as  belonging  to  the  lym])hatic  system. 

T/ie  Splci.u. — The  spleen  is  investerl  externally  by  the 
peritoneum,  immediately  beneath  which  is  a  firm  connec- 
tive-tissue capsule.  From  the  inner  surface  of  the  capsule 
numerous  processes  (traltecnbe )  proceed  into  ihe  substiuico 
of  the  organ,  uniting  with  each  other  to  form  a  network, 
the  areolar  intersiiaces,  which  arc  filled  with  the  splenic 
pulp,  liolh  the  capsule  and  the  trabeeuhu  contain  a  con- 
sidcralde  number  of  muscular  fibre-cells  and  elastic  ele- 
ments. Where  they  adjoin  the  veins  the  trabeculio  become 
continuous  with  the  adventitia  of  these  vessels,  which  thus 
acquire  unusual  firmness  and  are  preventiil  Uu\\\  colla]>s- 
ing.  The  splenic  pulp  consists  of  lymphoid  elements  re- 
sembling those  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  like  which,  when 
examined  fresh,  they  exhibit  ama'-boid  movements.  These 
elements  are  united  by  a  faintly  granular,  tenacious  iiiler- 
cellular  substance.  In  the  mass  thus  formed,  according  to 
Frey,  an  anastomosing  .system  of  passages,  lined  by  an 
endothelium  consisting  of  a  single  layer  of  spin<iIe-formed 
cells,  is  hollowed  out.  These  passages  communicate  with 
both  the  arteries  and  veins,  an-l  serve  for  the  transmission 
of  blood.  In  consequence  of  their  existence  tho  splenic 
pulp  may  be  considered  as  itself  disposed  in  a  network,  in 
the  meshes  of  which  lie  tho  trabeeuljp,  the  blood-vessels, 
and  tho  passages  just  described.  The  splenic  artery  after 
entering  the  organ,  breaks  up  into  smaller  and  smaller 
branches,  which  sotui  become  characterized  by  the  large 
numbers  of  lymphoid  elemenls  in  their  adventitia,  and  also 
by  the  presence  of  peculiar  oval  structures,  the  Malpighinn 
bodies.  These  are  from  .01"  to  .01"  In  diameter,  and  are 
readily  rccctgni/.ed  by  the  naked  eye  <)n  aecount  of  their 
whilisii  eidor.  Tliey  consist  <d"  cells  resembKiig  those  uf 
tho  splenic  pulp,  behl  together,  like  them,  by  an  iutereel- 
lular  material,  which,  towards  their  peripheries,  acquires  a 
resemblance  to  ordinary  connective  tissue,  without,  how- 
ever, forming  a  complete  capsule;  the  jiareneliyma  of  the 
iMalpighian  bodies  being  thus  continuous  with  the  >pIenio 
pulp.  Tho  arteries  nnd  veins  of  the  spleen  are  united  by 
a  rieli  }dexus  of  capillaries,  which  ramify  in  the  substance 
(»f  Ihe  splenic  pulp,  and  form  a  wcll-develo|»ed  network  on 
the  periplieries  of  the  iMalpighian  bodies,  into  the  interior 
c»f  which  they  also  jienetrate,  though  with  wi<ler  meohcs. 
Besides,  according   to   Frey,   as  already   mentioned,   both 


940 


histol(x;y. 


arteries  and  veins  open  into  tbe  parenchymatous  passages 
described  above.  Tiiis  view  is,  however,  not  universally 
accepted,  some  histolugists  lujUling  tliiit  the  s^plenic  arterits 
communicate  with  the  veins  by  capillaries  iu  the  ordinary 
way  only.  Further  investigations  are  needed  to  reconcile 
these  conflicting  views.  The  nerves  of  the  spleen  are  de- 
rived from  the  sympathetic  system,  and  primarily  accom- 
pany the  arleric;*.  They  terminate  in  the  muscular  fibre- 
cells  of  the  middle  coats  of  the  bluod-vcssols.  and  iu  pecu- 
liar ellipsoid  organs  described  hy  W.  MUlicr,  which  are 
well  developed  in  carnivorous  animals,  but  only  rudiment- 
ary iu  man.  The  lymphatics  of  the  splteu  form  a  close 
plexus  in  the  capsule  of  the  organ,  whence  numerous 
branches  are  given  olf  into  its  interior;  tliere  a  second 
plexus  is  formed,  the  larger  branches  of  which  for  the 
most  part  accompany  the  arteries. 

The  Skin  und  irn  Apptiiflu'/cs. — The  skin  consists  of  a 
superficial  epithelial  layer,  the  epidermis,  and  a  deeper 
layer,  the  coiium  ur  true  skin.  The  corium  is  from  .02"  to 
.1"  thick,  and  is  composed  of  dense  connective  tissue,  many 
of  the  fixed  corpuseics  of  which  arc  stellate,  especially  in 
its  more  superficial  portions,  where  also  tiiey  are  smaller 
and  more  numerous.  The  fibrillatcd  matrix  of  this  con- 
nective tissue  is  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  dense  network 
with  small  intercommunicating  meshes,  which  are  largest 
in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  corium,  and  there  contain  groups 
of  fat-cells,  btill  deeper,  the  network  becomes  continuous 
with  the  loose  connective  tissue  of  tbe  subcutaneous  fat. 
Interlacing  with  this  connective-tissue  network  is  a  second 
network  of  eoarse  and  fine  elastic  elements.  On  its  ex- 
terior surface  the  corium  presents  great  numbers  of  little 
elevations,  tbe  papilla}.  These  are  merely  rounded  projec- 
tions over  tbe  greater  portion  of  the  body,  but  in  some 
situations,  especially  in  the  palmar  surface  of  tbe  bands 
and  fingers,  become  conical  elongated  processes  .004"  in 
length  or  longer.  They  are  divided  into  vascular  and  ner- 
vous, the  first  containing  capillary  loops,  the  second  the 
terminations  of  nerves.  The  blood-vessels  of  the  corium 
form  in  its  deeper  portion  a  close  plexus,  whence  numerous 
branches  are  given  off  towards  the  surface.  These  form,  in 
tbe  most  superficial  portion  of  the  corium,  a  second  still 
closer  plexus,  from  which  the  capillary  loojis  of  the  ])apilla) 
arc  derived.  There  arc  also  two  plexuses  of  lymphatics,  a 
superficial  and  a  deep — the  first  situated  just  beneath  the 
superficial  plexus  of  blood-vessels,  the  second  just  beneath 
the  deep  vascular  plexus.  The  lymphatic  capillaries  of 
these  plexuses  communicate  with  the  communicating  areo- 
lar interspaces  of  the  connective  tissue  of  the  skin,  which 
here,  as  elsewhere,  are  to  be  regarded  as  lymphatic  pas- 
sages. 

The  nerves  of  tbe  skin  are  composed  of  mcdullatcd 
nerve-fibres,  part  of  which  terminate  In  the  peculiar  cor- 
jmscles  of  Meissner  and  Pacini,  while  others  lose  their 
medullatcd  sheath,  and,  after  breaking  up  into  bundles  of 
fibrils,  form  a  plexus  in  the  superficial  portion  of  tbe  corium. 
Innumerable  single  fibrils,  given  off  from  this  plexus,  pene- 
trate the  epidermis,  and  terminate  with  bulbous  extremi- 
ties in  its  deeper  layers.  The  corpuscles  of  Meissner  (tac- 
Fjg.  20. 


i 


Tactile corpusoh's:  a,  vascular  papilla  ;  fc,  nerve-papilla;  c,  blood- 
vessel ;  rf,  medullatcd  nerve-fibre ;  e.  tactile  corpuscle ;  /,  trans- 
verse section  of  mcdullatcd  nerve-fibre. 

tile  corpuscles)  aro  contained  in  the  nervous  papillie,  and 

are  most  numerous  in  the  pnlmar  surface  of  the  hand  and  ! 

fingers.    They  are  oval  bodies  about  as  long  as  the  pa}>illa} 


Fig.  21. 


ir.'.'l: 


in  which  they  are  contained,  but  rather  narrower,  composed 
of  a  modified  connective  tissue  with  transversely  disposed 
nuclei,  and  marked  superficially  with  transverse  lines. 
Each  is  penetrated  at  its  inferior  extremity  by  one  or  more 
medullated  nerve-fibres  which  run  towards  tiio  opposite  ex- 
tremity, cither  straight  or  in  a  spiral  manner,  and  termi- 
nate there  in  a  mode  which  is  not  yet  fully  madu  out. 

The  epidermis  varies  in  thickness  from  .002"  to  .15",  and 
is  composed  of  numerous  strata  of  ejitthelial  cells,  the 
deeper  ones  being  soft  and  rounded,  while  the  more  super- 
ficial are  flattened  and  horny  ;  it  is  hence  divided  into  a 
mucous  and  a  horny  layer.  Tlie  cells  of  the  mucous  layer 
arc  nucleated  masses  of  granular  protoplasms.  Those  of 
them  which  are  immediately  in  contact  with  the  corium 
are  elongated  or  culun^nar,  and  about  .0004"  in  average 
length.  Next  above  these  the  cells  have  about  the  same 
diameter,  but  are  rounded  or  polygonal  from  mutual  pres- 
sure, and  succeeding  strata  increase  in  size  towards  the 
surface  of  the  mucous  layer,  becoming  more  and  more  flat- 
tened, (ill  the  uppermost  cells  have  a  transverse  diameter 
of  .001"  or  more,  with  less  than  half  the  thickness.  Tbe 
nuclei  of  the  cells  of  tbe  mucous  layer  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  cells  from  .OlUll"  to  .0004".  Tbe  horny  layer  con- 
sists of  strata  of  cells  flattened  into  mere  polygonal  scales 
.001"  to  .0015"  or  more  in  diameter,  and  extremely  thin. 
In  most  of  them  no  nucleus  can  be  made  out.  The  most 
superficial  cells  of  this  layer  are  constantly  being  thrown 
<irt,  while  the  superficial  cells  of  the  mucous  layer  con- 
tinually undergo  the  horny  transformation,  and  thus  re- 
place the  loss.  T<»  maintain  this  process  a  constant  de- 
velopment of  new  elements  goes  on  in  the  deeper  parts  of 

tbe  mucous  layer.  This 
is  generally  believed  to 
take  place  by  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  epi- 
thelial elements  of  the 
deepest  strata.  Rceent- 
ly,  however,  it  has  been 
shown  that  wandering 
corpuscles  migrate  from 
the  corium  into  the  mu- 
cous layer,  where  they 
can  ahvays  be  found  in 
thin  sections  between 
the  epithelial  cells.  It 
has  hence  been  suggest- 
ed that  the  new  ele- 
ments arise,  in  part  at 
least,  by  the  fixation 
and  transformation  of 
these  migrated  cells. 

The  dark  color  of  the 
skin  in  certain  races  is 
due  to  the  deposit  of 
pigment  -  granules  in 
the  cells  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  mucous 
layer. 

The  hnirs  vary  con- 

.••iderHliiy   in    thickness 

in    difierent   situations. 

'J'he  long  soft  hairs  of 

the    head,    bcord,  etc. 

usually  range   between 

.UOIJ''    aud^  .004"    in 

ihiekncss;     the     short 

stiff  hairs  of  the   eyc- 

lashis,  eyebrows,    no9- 

irils.  :ind  auditory  mea- 

ri:s,     from     .0025"     to 

iMUi"  ;    and  the  downy 

liuirs    of    the     general 

-urface    of    the     body 

from    .0005"  to  .001''. 

The    proper    substance 

of  nil  these  varieties  of 

hairs  can  be  broken  up, 

by  thenetiou  of  sulphu- 

m-  ric  acid,  into  flat  elon- 

Ilair  from  beard:  o.  orifice  of  hair-  gated    fibre-cells  .002" 

foltiole;  b,  neck  of  follicle;  r,  dila-  -         ..verntre        Icnt^th 

taliou  of  follicle;./,  outer  follicular  '"    . 'V  ^'P^®  „  ,  !^"  "* 

sheath;  ^  inner  follicular  sheath;  tach  hair  is  coated  ex- 

/,  outer  root-sheath;  g,  inner  root-  ternally    by    a    cuticle 

^heath;  A,  cortical  s\ibstance  of  hair  ;  composed    of    a    single 

k,  medullary  substance  of  hair;  /,  javerof  flattened  scales, 

root   of  hair;   «i.  adipose  eels;  v    „hich  overlap  each  oth- 

erector  pih ;  t,  sebaceous  frlanu;  o,  i        , 

papilla;  of  skin;  s,  mucous  layer;  er  like  the  shingles  on  a 

//^horny  layer  projecting  into  hair-  roof;  internally,  in  the 

siic.  coarser  hairs  at  least, isa 

central  medulla  composed  of  granular  polygonal  cells  .0000" 

to  .0008"  in  diameter.    The  color  of  the  hair  is  due  to  pig- 


HISTOLOGY. 


941 


mcDt-graouIcs  deposited  both  in  the  medulla  and  the  proper 
hair-subsr:inc*e.  Kaeh  hair  grows  from  u  vasculur  papilla, 
\7hieh  projects  into  the  bultom  ot'  the  Iiair-folliclu.  Iiiirac- 
diately  upou  the  surface  of  this  papilla  is  a  siuRlc  layer 
of  columnar  cells  similar  to  those  of  the  deepest  layer  of 
the  opiilerrais.  To  thcso  succeed  several  strata  of  poly- 
gonal o.ies.  and  Ihcsc.  according;  to  their  position,  pass  by 
transition  into  the  elements  of  the  huir-cutit!e,  hair-sub- 
stance, and  medulla.  The  growth  of  the  hair  is  effected  by 
the  multiplication  of  the  cells  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  pnpilln.  The  hair-foUiclcs  are  from  .08"  to  .25"  long, 
and  extend  deep  into  the  corium — in  the  ease  of  the  larger 
hairs,  f|uite  through  it.  The  connective  tissue  of  the  corium 
inline  liately  ailj<iining  them  is  so  condensed  as  to  form  an 
external  sheath,  the  fibres  of  which  run  parallel  to  the  hair. 
The  portion  of  this  sheath  nearest  to  the  follicle  is  more 
homogeneous,  and  contains  nuiseular  ril>re-cells  disposed 
longitudinally;  it  is  known  as  (he  internal  sheath  of  the 
follicles:  its  very  innermost  part,  being  quite  transparent. 
is  called  the  vitreous  membrane.  Both  the  mucous  and 
horny  layers  of  the  cpidorniis  are  continued  into  the  sheath, 
which  they  line  as  far  as  the  papilla:  the  lirst  lies  next  to 
the  vitreous  nieuibrane.  and  is  called  the  external  root- 
sheath  ;  the  second  is  thinner,  and  is  designated  the  internal 
root-sheath.  From  near  the  orifice  of  the  follicle  to  the 
papilla  the  internal  root-shcath  is  adherent  to  the  outer- 
mo.-Jt  layer  of  celU  on  the  surface  of  the  root  of  the  hair, 
which  is  termed  the  sheath  of  Huxley.  The  hair-papilhe 
are  vascular  processes  of  connective  tissue  which  project 
into  the  bottoms  of  the  follicles  ;  they  arc  conical  in  shape, 
with  constricted  necks.  Two  small  arteries  enter  each 
papilla;  these  usually  unite  to  form  a  single  trunk,  which 
breaks  up  into  a  capillary  network  from  which  two  emerg- 
ent veins  proceed.  A  small  artery  an<l  vein  also  ramify  in 
the  substance  of  the  external  sheath  of  the  follicle.  Nerves 
have  been  traced  as  far  as  the  neck  of  the  papilla,  but 
their  mode  of  termination  remains  unknown. 

The  erector  mn^rtes  o/  the  hair  are  narrow  bands  of  mus- 
cular fibre-cells  .0018"  to  .0011"  in  thickness,  which  arise  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  eoriurn  ancl  run  obliquely  inward  to  be 
inserted  into  the  internal  sheath  of  the  hair-follicles  just 
beloir  the  sebaceous  glands.  Each  hair-follicle  enters  the 
skin  oliliquely,  forming  an  acute  angle  with  the  surface, 
and  as  the  muscle  lies  in  the  corresponding  obtuse  angle, 
its  contraction  erects  the  hairs. 

One  or  more  ncbaceuuH  tjUnuh  open  into  each  hair-follicle 
just  below  the  level  of  the  general  surface  of  the  corium. 
Kach  of  these  glands  consists  of  from  two  to  twenty  some- 
what oval  sacculi  .OOJ"  to  .01  1"  in  long  diameter,  com- 
posed of  a  transparent  nucleated  membrane,  filled  with 
nucleated  gland-cells,  resembling  the  cells  of  the  mucous 
layer  of  the  epidermis.  The  cells  nearest  the  walls  of  the 
sacculi  often  contain  no  oil ;  in  the  more  central  cells  oil  is 
usually  present  in  drops  of  various  sizes  imbedded  in  the 
e«^ll-8ubstance.  The  size  of  the  sebaceous  glands  is  (luitc 
independent  of  the  sixc  of  the  hairs  with  which  they  arc 
connected,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  they  open  direct- 
ly upon  the  surface  of  the  skin  without  being  connected 
with  any  hair. 

The  Hirrttt-ylunda  arc  simple  tubular  glands,  each  con- 
sisting of  a  delicate  nucleated  shcalh,  lined  by  a  single 
layer  of  columnar  nucleated  cells,  which  leave  in  the  cen- 
tre a  narrow  cylindrical  passage.  The  diameter  of  the 
(iiuc  averages  about  .0t»26" ;  its  tlcepcst  extremity  forms  a 
coil  or  glomerulus  .008"  to  .010"  in  diameter,  which  Is 
surrounded  by  a  plexus  of  blood-vessels,  and  lies  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  corium  or  in  the  subjacent  adipose  tis- 
sue. From  this  coil  the  tube  pursues  a  nearly  straight 
path  to  the  surface  of  the  corium,  where  both  the  sheath 
and  the  columnar  cells  terminate,  and  the  central  passage 
becomes  continuous  with  a  spiral  canal  hollowed  out  be- 
tween the  cells  of  the  epidermis,  whi'-h  oiiens  on  the  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  horny  layer.  The  hairs,  sebaceous 
glands,  and  sweat-glands  are  developed  from  the  mucous 
layer  of  the  epidermis,  papillary  outgrowths  of  which  in- 
vade the  corium  and  undergo  the  requisite  trnnsforniations. 
.'>imiiltanenusly,  the  adjacent  layers  of  (he  corium  are  inet- 
aniorphosed  into  the  external  sheaths  of  the  hair-follicles 
and  glands. 

The  tmiU  arc  to  be  regarded  as  special  modificationa  of 
the  epidermis,  and  consist,  like  it,  of  a  mneous  and  a  horny 
layer,  llie  latter  being  the  true  nail.  In  the  fold  of  skiii 
from  which  the  root  of  the  nail  grows  the  corium  is  ele- 
vated into  papilla?  projecting  forward,  which  in  the  true 
bed  of  the  nail  are  replaced  by  a  scries  of  panilhl  longitu- 
dinal ridges  or  laminio  .002"  to  .OOK"  high.  These  papilhe 
and  ridges  are  abnndanlly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  and 
nuineroiis  medullated  nerve-fibres  exist  in  the  subjacent 
connective  tissue,  which  lose  iheir  medullary  sheath  on 
entering  the  corium,  ancl  break  up  into  fine  branches,  the 
ultimate  termination  of  which  is  not  fully  known.     An  ac- 


I  tive  development  of  cells  takes  place  in  the  mucous  layer 
!  at  the  root  of  the  nails:  and  as  a  similar  development  oe- 
I  curs,  though  less  actively,  in  the  mucous  layer  of  the  iiail- 
,  bed,  the  nails  are  at  once  pushed  forward  and  increased  in 
thickness  towards  their  free  margins.  The  horny  layer,  or 
Dail-substancc,  is  composed  of  irregular  polygonal  cells  in- 
timately united  together,  but  which  can  be  isolated  bv  re- 
agents, as,  for  example,  by  maecration  in  solution  of  potash. 
The  Vitfcutiie  Ortfaiis. — The  month  is  lined  by  a  mucous 
mcmbrauo  which  is  directly  continuous  with  the  skin,  and 
like  it  consists  of  a  vascular  layer  of  connective  tissue  be- 
set with  papilla?  and  a  many-layered  epithelium,  the  super- 
ficial cells  of  which  are  llattencd  scales,  the  deeper  ones 
polygonal,  and  those  next  the  connective-tissue  layer  co- 
lumnar. The  connective-tissue  layer,  howe\er.  is  much  thin- 
ner than  the  corium  ;  in  the  epithelium  u  horny  layer  can- 
not lie  diseri^ninated  as  in  the  epidermis,  and  the  large 
superficial  epithelial  scales,  .0016"  to  .OO.'l"  in  long  diam- 
eter, contain  oval  nuclei  .00u;j"  to  .000-1"  long.  The  papillie 
of  the  mucous  membrane  vary  in  size  and  shape  in  diU'erent 
parts  of  the  oral  cavity  ;  they  arc  particularly  conspicuous 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue,  where  three  varieties 
are  discriminated — viz.  the  filiform,  fungiform,  and  circum- 
vallatc.  The  filiform  papilla*  are  pretty  uniformly  distrib- 
uted over  all  portions  of  this  surface.  They  arc  conical 
elevations  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the  apices  of  which 
terminate  in  a  number  of  secondary  papilhe.  the  whole  be- 
ing covered  with  a  tlitck  layer  of  epithelium,  which,  at  the 
apices,  breaks  up  into  a  number  of  slender  (irocesscs.  each 
composed  of  epilheliul  cells  adhering  together.  The  fungi- 
form papilla:  arc  situated  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  tongue, 
chiefly  on  its  tip  and  edges.  They  are  club  shaped  projec- 
tions of  the  mucous  membrane  with  narrow  necks,  beset 
upon  the  surface  witli  small  secondary  papilhe.  and  smoothly 
covered  over  with  epithelium.  The  cireumvallate  pnpilUc 
arc  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  V  at  the  root  of  the  tongue. 
They  are  flattened  elevations,  somewhat  constricted  at  their 
bases,  beset,  like  the  fungiform,  with  smalt  secondary  pa- 
pillae, and  surrounded  by  a  circular  elevation  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  narrow  de- 
pression. All  these  varieties  of  papilla^  are  jn-ovided  with 
both  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  Connected  with  the  nerves 
are  special  organs  of  taste,  the  so-called  gustatory  bulbs, 
which  are  situated  chiefly  ou  tlie  sides  of  the  eircunivullate 
papilla:,  but  also  exist,  though  less  plentifully,  on  the  fungi- 
form papilla?.     They  have  the  form  of  round-bellied  flasks 


about  .OOIJ"  long,  and  rather  more  than  half  as  broad,  which 
occupy  cavities  in  the  epithelium,  resting  below  on  the  con- 
nective-tissue layer  of  the  niueitus  nirmbrane.  They  are 
composed  of  flattened,  spiudU-- shaped  nucleated  cells,  which 
enclose  a  number  of  m<tre  <Ielieate  Ihrcatl-like  ones,  and  are 
connected  inferiorly  with  a  plexus  of  non- medullated  nerve - 
fibrils.  This  plexus  originates  by  the  splitting  up  of  (he 
axis-ovlinders  of  the  terminal  mednUated  fibres  of  the  gus 
tatory  nerve  in  the  substance  of  the  papilla'.  The  central 
cells  of  these  bulbs  arc  belic\  cd  to  bo  the  true  gustatory 
cells,  while  the  others  are  regarded  as  epilheliul  in  their 
nature,  and  arc  ^■o  arranged  as  to  leave  at  tin"  apex  of  the 
biilb  a  <rircular  opening  about  .0001  t"  in  iliaiiieler.  the  gus- 
tatory pore,  through  which  sapid  sr)liitions  gain  acci-ss  to 
the  gustatory  cells.  The  oral  cavity  Is  provided  with  a 
considerable  number  of  small  mucous  glands  .03"  to  .10" 
in  diameter,  similar  in  structure  (o  Ihe  salivary  glands,  and 
<lesigua(ed,  aeenrding  to  tliclr  situation,  labial,  buccal.  ]>al- 
atine,  and  lingual  glands. 

The  gn/iriirif  iffmith  are  racemose  glands,  the  ducts  of 
which  are  lined  with  a  cylindrical  epiihilium  and  branch 
in  a  Irec-IIke  manner,  terminating  finally  in  sacculi  or  al- 
veoli .flOiri"  lo.liu:'."  in  diameter,  anrl  linedwith  polygonal 
seereting  cells  .0001"  to  .0007"  in  diameter.  The  whole  is 
united  into  a  mass  by  a  delicate  conncctivo  tlssre  in  which 
numerous  blood-vessels  and  nerves  ramify.  On  the  surface 
of  the  alveoli  and  smaller  ducts  this  conncctivo  tissue  is 


942 


HISTOLOGY. 


condensed  into  n  delicate  membrana  propria,  while  in  tfao 
larger  ducts  it  forms  a  cumparatively  thick  wall.  The  se- 
cretins: cells  are  granuhir  nucleated  masses  of  protoplasm, 
which  line  tiie  alveoli,  and  so  nearly  fill  them  as  to  leave  a 
comparatively  small  central  cavity.  Tlie  uerves  of  the  sal- 
ivary glands  consist  of  both  medutlated  nud  pale  fibres. 
According  to  Pfliiger,  a  portion  of  the  former  penetrate  tlie 
alveoli,  and  are  continuous  with  the  protoplasm  of  the  se- 
creting cells,  while  others  terminate  in  small  multipolar 
cells,  some  of  the  processes  of  wliich  are  also  continuous 
with  the  secreting  cells.  A  number  of  small  ganglia,  each 
consisting  of  a  group  of  round  or  oval  nerve-cells,  occur 
in  the  course  of  the  nerves.  The  oral  fluid  consists  of  the 
secretion  of  the  salivary  glands  mixed  with  that  of  the 
small  racemose  glands  above  described.  It  always  contains 
large  numbers  of  flattened  epithelial  cells,  derived  from  the 
surface  of  the  oral  mucous  membrane,  together  with  small 
round  granular  cells  resembling  the  white  corpuscles  of  the 
blood  after  they  have  been  somewhat  swollen  by  immersion 
in  :i  fluid  of  the  density  of  the  saliva.  The  latter  are 
known  as  the  salivary  corpus:;Ies,  and  have  been  regarded 
as  undeveloped  secreting  cella  cast  olT  by  the  salivary 
glands:  they  are,  ho^vever,  more  probably  migrated  white 
corpuscles  which  escape  into  the  cavity  of  tho  mouth  either 
directly  through  the  oral  mucous  membrane,  or  indirectly 
by  way  of  the  salivary  glands. 

Tho  tonsils  .ire  two  glandular  masses,  each  consisting  of 
from  ten  to  twenty  sacculated  depressions  of  the  mucocs 
membrane,  in  the  walls  of  which  are  numerous  oval  lym- 
phatic follicles  .008"  to  .02"  in  diameter.  The  parenchyma 
of  these  follicles  consist  of  a  fine  reticulum  of  connective 
tissue,  the  meshes  of  which  are  stuffed  with  lymphoid  ele- 
ments. The  sacculi  with  their  follicles  arc  united  together 
by  a  connective  tissue  rich  in  blood-vessels  and  lympliatics. 
At  the  root  of  the  tongue  there  are  a  number  of  small  fol- 
licular glands  similar  in  structure  to  the  tonsils,  but  sim- 
pler, each  consisting  of  a  single  saccular  depression  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  in  the  walls  of  which  are  a  number  of 
closed  follicles  resembling  those  of  the  tonsils.  Bottchcr 
has  recently  denied  that  these  glands  are  of  constant  oc- 
cnrrcnce,  and  regards  them  as  ]>athological  formations. 
The  oral  mucous  membrane  is  well  supplied  with  lymphat- 
ics, which  are  especially  abundant  on  the  surface  of  the 
tongue  and  about  the  tonsils. 

I'/ie  7'ccth. — Tho  dentine  which  constitutes  the  principal 
portion  of  the  substance  of  the  teeth  consists  of  a  calcareous 
matrix  containing  great  numbers  of  delicate  dentinal  ca- 
nals .00005"  to . 00015" 
in  diameter,  which 
branch  and  auasto- 
mose  as  they  radiate 
from  the  pulp-cavity 
towards  the  periphery 
of  the  dentine.  The 
crown  of  the  teeth  is 
covered  with  a  harder 
matt-rial,  the  enamel, 
made  up  of  hexagonal 
prismatic  enamel  -  fi- 
bres .00012"  to.  000  IS" 
in  diameter,  arrangecl 
perpendicularly  to  tho 
surface,  or  nearly  so. 
The  roots  of  the  teeth 
are  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  true  bone,  the 
crusta  petrosum  or  ce- 
mentum.  The  tooth- 
pulp  occupies  the  cen- 
tral cavity  of  each 
tooth,  and  is  a  delicato 
mass  of  connective  tis- 
sue containing  both 
blood  -  vessels  and 
nerves.  Its  external 
layer  consists  of  large 
nucleated  cells,  the 
o'lontoblasts,  provided 
with  long  branching 
processes  which  line 
tho  dentinal  canals. 
The  investigations  of 
Uoll  rendt-r  it  probable 
that  the  delicnte  ter- 
minal fibrils  of  the 
nerves  of  the  pulp  ac-  Canine  tooth:  Transverse  section  of 
company  these  pro-  ro*'t:  1.  cenient;  t>,  interglobular 
cesses  into  the  dm-  substance;  .%  dentimU  lubules.' 
tinal  cannls.  In  the  development  of  tho  teeth  a  longitu- 
dinal furrow  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  gum  is  first 
formed,  into  which  papillary  outgrowths  from  the  mucous 


Fig.  23. 


membrane  sprout,  and  ultimately  become  the  pulps  of  the 
several  teeth.  The  enamel  originates  by  the  trau>forma- 
tion  of  ]>ortion8  of  the  epithelium  of  the  primary  dental 
groove,  while  the  peripheral  cells  of  the  pulp  send  out 
branches  and  are  transtormed  into  odontoblasts,  between 
the  processes  of  which  the  calcareous  matrix  of  tho  dentine 
is  deposited. 

Tho  pharynx  is  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane  resembling 
that  of  the  mouth,  except  in  the  portions  adjoining  the 
posterior  nares  and  the  orifices  of  the  Eustachian  tubes, 
where  the  pavement  epithelium  is  replaced  by  one  com- 
posed of  ciliated  columnar  cells  like  those  of  vhc  nasal  mu- 
cous membrane.  The  mucous  membrane  is  well  supplied 
with  vessels,  nerves,  and  lymphatics,  and  contains  a  con- 
siderable number  of  racemose  glands  resembling  those  of 
the  oral  cavity,  as  also  numerous  closed  follicles,  arranged 
around  sacculi  like  those  at  the  root  of  the  tongue  or  in  the 
tonsils. 

A  laminated  pavement  epithelium,  like  that  of  the  pha- 
rynx, also  lines  tho  irnnphaijue  as  far  as  the  cardiac  orifice 
of  the  stouiach,  where  it  terminates  with  a  dentatcd  border, 
and  is  replaced  by  the  columnar  epithelium  of  the  stomach. 
This  epithelium  reposes  upon  a  vascular  layer  of  delicate 
connective  tissue,  tho  proper  mucous  membrane,  which  is 
separated  from  the  more  loosely  meshed  submucous  con- 
nective tissue  by  a  thin  stratum  of  muscular  fibre-cells,  the 
muscle  of  tho  mucous  membrane,  which  commences  with  a 
few  scattered  fibre-cells  in  the  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus, 
and  becomes  a  continuous  layer  farther  down.  A  few  small 
racemose  glands  He  in  the  submucosa  and  open  by  minute 
ducts  on  the  mucous  surface.  The  external  muscular  coat 
of  the  oesophagus  consists  of  an  internal  circular  and  ex- 
ternal longitudinal  layer;  in  its  upper  fourth  these  are 
composed  chiefly  of  striated  muscular  fibres,  liut  contain 
also  numerous  bundles  of  muscular  fibre-cells  :  in  the  ne.xt 
fourth  the  latter  elements  preilomiuate ;  and  in  the  lower 
half  the  muscular  coat  is  wholly  composed  of  them.  Ex- 
ternally tho  muscular  coat  is  invested  by  a  sheath  of  fibril- 
lated  connective  tissue. 

The  walls  of  the  stomach  consist  of  a  mucous  membrane, 
a  layer  of  submucous  connective  tissue,  a  muscular  coat, 
and  the  peritoneum.  The  epithelium  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane consists  of  a  single  layer  of  nuclcateil  columnar  cells 
.OOOS"  in  average  length,  among  which  occur  certain  pecu- 
liar cup-shaped  elements,  the  so-called  goblet-cells.  Be- 
neath the  epithelium  the  mucous  membrane  is  composed 
of  a  tissue  designated  adenoid  by  His,  consisting  of  a  deli- 
cate reticulum  of  branching  cells,  the  meshes  of  which  are 
filled  with  lymphoid  elements,  as  in  the  lymphatic  glands 
and  follicles.  In  this  adenoid  tissue  innumerable  tubular 
glands,  .015"  to  .00"  long  and  .002"  to  .003"  broad,  are  ar- 
ranged perpendicularly  to  the  mucous  surface,  and  ]daced 
so  closely  side  by  side  as  to  occupy  more  space  than  the  in- 
tervening adenoid  tissue.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  cardiac 
and  pyloric  orifices  of  the  stomach  these  glands  are  lined 
throughout  by  a  columnar  epithelium  similar  to  that  of  the 
surface  of  the  mucous  membrane.  In  the  rest  of  the  stom- 
ach this  epithelium  only  lines  the  upper  portion  of  the 
glands,  the  rest  being  filled  with  spheroidal  granular  ele- 
ments, the  so-called  pepsin-cells.  At  the  two  extremities 
of  the  stomach  some  of  the  glands  are  divided  at  their  fun- 
dus into  two  or  more  branches.  The  mucous  membrane  is 
separated  from  the  submucosa  by  a  stratum  of  muscular 
fibre-cells,  on  an  average  about  .002"  thick,  the  muscle  of 
the  mucous  membrane,  or  muscle  of  Briicke.  consisting  of 
an  internal  circular  and  external  muscular  layer.  The  sub- 
mucosa is  a  layer  of  rather  loose  connective  tissue,  which 
unites  the  muscle  of  the  mucous  membrane  to  the  external 
muscular  coat.  The  latter  is  .02"  to  .08"  thick,  and  consists 
most  internally  of  a  series  ofoblique  fasciculi,  next  of  a  circu- 
lar layer,  and  still  more  externally  of  a  longitudinal  layer,  all 
composed  of  muscular  fibre-cells.  Lastly,  the  peritoneum, 
which  has  tho  structure  of  serous  membranes  generally,  is 
united  to  the  external  muscular  coat  by  a  thin  layer  of  sub- 
peritoneal connective  tissue.  Tho  blood-vessels  of  the 
stomach  ramify  in  the  submucosa.  and  there  form  a  net- 
work whence  numerous  small  branches  proceed  to  the  mu- 
cous membrane,  where  they  form  a  close  capillary  plexus 
around  the  tubular  glands.  The  external  muscular  coat 
and  the  peritoneum  are  partly  sup()lied  by  branches  given 
off  by  the  vessels  as  they  pass  through  them,  partly  by 
branches  derived  from  the  submucous  plexus.  The  nerves 
of  the  stomach  form  in  the  submucosa  a  plexus  in  which 
numerous  small  ganglia  are  found.  A  second  plexus,  also 
with  numerous  ganglia,  exists  between  the  circular  and 
longitudinal  layers  of  the  external  muscular  coat.  The 
ultimate  relations  of  the  nerves  to  the  mucous  membrane 
are  yet  uncertain.  The  lymphatics  form  three  networks — 
one  in  the  mui-ous  membrane  between  tho  tubular  glands, 
the  second  in  (he  submucosa.  the  third  to  the  peritoneum. 

The  description  of  the  coats  of  the  stomach  just  given 


HISTOLOGY. 


943 


Fig.  24. 


S\         Pi'T' 


d 


applies,  with  certain  modificBtions,  to  both  small  and  largo 
inttniiitct.     The  lining  epithelium  is  similar  throughout,  as 
is  the  structure  of  the  mucous  membrane,  e.\eept  that  the 
tubular  glands,  which  in  the  intestines  arc  called  the  glands 
or  crypts  of  Lieberkiihn,  are  shorter,  .Ul"  to  .02"  long,  do 
not  branch,  and  arc  lined  throughout  by  coluninar  epithe- 
lium.    What  has  been  said  of  the  muscle  of  the  mucous 
membrani-,  the  submucosa,  the  external  muscular  coat,  the 
peritoneum,  and  the  general  distribution  of  blood-vessels, 
lymphatics,  and  nerves  of  the  stomach,  will  apply  witli  but 
litllo  alteration  to  the  intestinal  canal.    The  more  important 
points  of  dilTcrencc  arc  as  follows:   In  the  mmdl  iMnUnc 
the  mueuus  membrane,  besides  being  thrown,  on  its  upper 
portion  especially,  into  numerous  transverse  folds,  the  val- 
vnhc  connivcntcs,  presents  a  great  number  of  conical  ele- 
vations .niis"  to  .04"  long,  the  so-called  villi.     These  con- 
sist of  the  adeniiid  tissue  of  the  mucous  membr.ane,  and  are 
coated  e.\turnally  by  its  cylindri- 
cal epithelium.     Haeli  contains  a 
central  lymph-sinus,  which  ter- 
minates either  by  a  blind  e.strem- 
ity  or  in  a  loop,  and  which  is  tho 
eouimcnecment   of   tho    lacteals. 
Between  this  and  the  periphery 
of  the  villus  lie  the  blood-vessels, 
consisting  of  one  or  more  minute 
arteries  which  break  up  into  a 
capillary  network,  the  blood  from 
which  is  collected  by  a  small  vein. 
Each  villus  also  contains  a  num- 
ber  of  longitudinally    arranged 
muscular    librccclls,    which    arc 
continuous  below  with  the  mus- 
cle of  the  mucous  membrane.  Tho 
crypts  of    I/icberkiihn  open    on 
tho  surface  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane between  the  villi,  and  are 
80  arranged  that  the  deeper  por- 
tions of  those  adjoining  opposite 
sides  of  the  bases  of  the  villi  ap- 
pear  as    close   together    as    the 
others.    Lying  partly  in  the  mu- 
cous   membrane,    partly    in    the 
upper  portion  of  the  submucosa 

of  the  small   intestine,  there  arc  Intestinal   villus:  a,  cylin- 
anumberoflyn,ph-n>mcles,..)l/,;'     ;;['S!y^'^K^™'i;^'^ 
to  .08"  in  long  diameter,  which      involuntary  musclo-cclls; 
cither  occur  singly  (tho  solitary     d,  central  chyle  radicle, 
follicles),  or  arc  aggregated  to- 
gether in  groups  consisting  of  twenty  or  more  follicles  placed 
side  by  side  (the  patches  of  I'cyer).     These  follicles  arc 
somewhat  flask-shaped,  their  .apices  penetrating  into  the 
mucous  membrane  almost  or  quite  to  the  epithelium,  while 
their  rounded  b:ises  lie  in  the  sulmnicos.a.  Their  parenchyma 
resembles  the  adenoid  tissue  of  the  mucous  membrane,  with 
which  it  is  continuous,  except  that  the  meshes  of  (he  retic- 
ulum in  which  the  lymphoid  elements  lie  arc  rather  finer. 
Thev  are   surrounded   by  a  vascular  plexus  which  sends 
capillary  brauehes  into  their  parenchyma,  and  arc  partially 
cnvelop'e.l  inferiorly  by  rallier  wide  lymph  sinuses.     Im- 
mediately  above  each    follicle    thn    villi    are   absent.     On 
tho   snrfiiic  of  the   patches  of   I'cyer,  however,  villi    are 
found  on  the  mucous  membrane  between  tho  individual 
follicles.     The  solitary  follicles  are  found  in  all  parts  of  tho 
small  intestine;  the  patches  of  Peyer,  on  the  other  hand, 
occur  chiefly  in   its   lower  portion,  and  especially  in  the 
ileum.     In  ihe  upper  part  of  tho  small  intestine  the  sub- 
mucosa contains  a  number  of  small  racemose  glands  about 
.04"  in  average  diameter,  the  glands  of  lirunner,  llie  ducts 
of  which  perforate  the  mucous  membrane  anil  open  into  the 
intestiuiil  ciinal.     The  muscular  coal  of  tho  small  iuleslinc 
is  fniMi  .lli:i"  to  .02"  thick,  and  consists  of  an  internal  cir- 
cular and  external  longitudinal  layer;  some  oblique  fasci- 
culi exist  also,  chiefly  in  the  duodenum.     The  lymphatics 
form  a  network  on  the  mucous  membrane  which  surrounds 
the  crypts  of  l.ieberklihn.  and  are  continuous  with  the  cen- 
tral lymph-sinnses  of  the  villi  and  the  coarser  ]ilexus  in  tho 
subiiiueosa.     The  peritoneum  has  its  own  plexus  of  lym- 
phatics, as  in  the  stomach.     On  account  of  the  milky  ap- 
pearance of  their  contents  during  the  digestion  of  fatly 
matters,  the  lymphatics  of  tho  intestinal  mucous  membrane 
and  the  mesenteric  lymphatic  trunks  with  which  they  coni- 
municnte  arc  known  as  lacteals.     As  in  the  stomach,  there 
are  in  both  small  and  large  intestines  two  nenous  plexuses 
proviiled  with  numerous  ganglia:  tho  first,  situated  in  tho 
submucosa,  is  known  as  Ihe  plexus  of  Meissner  ;  the  second, 
between  the  circular  and  limgitudinal  layers  of  tho  mus- 
cular coal,  is  the  plexus  of  Auerbach.      In  the  \,irijc  intflini- 
there  are  no  villi ;  in  other  respects  its  mucous  membrane 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  small  intestine,  except  that  it 
is  rather  thiekrr.  the  crypts  of  LiebciUiihn  somewhat  loii'^-cr. 


and  tho  muscle  of  the  mucous  membrane  a  little  better  de- 
veloped. Solitary  follicles  rather  larger  than  those  of  the 
small  intestine,  but  otherwise  resembling  them,  and  having 
similar  relations  to  the  lymphatics,  occur  at  intervals.  Tho 
external  longitudinal  layer  of  the  muscular  coat  is  much 
thinner  than  the  circular,  except  in  three  longitudinal 
bands,  in  which  the  two  layers  are  of  equal  thickness,  to- 
gether measuring  about  .025". 

The  Liccr. Two  sets  of  blood-vessels  enter  tho  liver  and 

ramify  in  it  side  by  side— branches  of  the  hepatic  artery 
and  o'r  the  jiortal  vein.     The  blood  from  these  is  carried 
bv  a  common  system  of  capillaries  into  the  radicles  of  the 
hepatic  vein.     The  hepatic  artery  and  portal  vein  are  ac- 
companied in  their  ramifications  by  the  branches  of  the 
biliary  duct,  and  the  three  are  united  together  by  a  deli- 
cate connective  tissue,  the  sheath  or  capsule  of  (Jlisson,  in 
which  lie  also  the  nerves  and  the  deep  lymphatics  of  the 
organ.    By  the  final  ramifications  of  the  hepatic  artery  and 
portal  vein  the  parenchyma  of  the  liver  is  mapped  out  into 
irregular  polygonal  lobiilcs  or  acini,  .02.')"  to  .OS"  in  diam- 
ctertwhicli,  however,  in  the  human  liver  arc  not  invested 
with  a  connective-tissue  capsule,  as  they  are  in  the  liver 
of  the  pig  and  some  other  animals.     The  ramifications  of 
the  hepatic  vein  lie  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the 
cour.se  of  the  oilier  vessels,  so  that  their  ultimate  radicles 
occupy  the  centres  of  Ihe  acini,  and  hence  are  called  intra- 
lobular veins:  while  the  radicles  of  the  portal  veins  lying 
between  the  lobules  arc  called  interlobular  veins.    A  capil- 
lary network  with  comparatively  small  meshes  lies  in  the 
substance  of  the  acini,  and  conveys  the  blood  from  Ihe  in- 
terlobular to  the  intralobular  vessels.     The  parenchyma  of 
the  liver  consists  of  granular  polygon:il  cells  .11005"  to 
.001"  in  diameter,  containing  one  or  two  rounded  or  oval 
miclei  .0002"  to  .0(iO:i"  in  diameter,  and  frequently  one  or 
more  oil-drops.     Between   these  cells,   which  occupy   the 
meshes  of  the  capillary  plexus  of  the  acini,  there  riimilics 
a  plexus  of  extremely  fine  capillary  bile-ducts  .011001"  to 
.00008"  in  diameter,"which  do  not,  however,  possess  any 
er  walls,  but  arc  bounded  by  the  hepatic  cells  them- 
selves.    These  lie  between  Ihe  ailjoining  faces  of  the  he- 
patic cells  even  more  frequently  than  at  their  angles,  and 
are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  every  hepatic  cell  is 
related,  by  at  least  one  of  its  sides,  to  a  eiipillary  bile-duct, 
and  that  the  latter  are  always  separated  from  the  capillary 
blood-vessels  by  the  thickness  of  an  hepatic  cell.     The  ca- 
Fio.  2.5. 


Liver 


Iver  of  rabbit :  1,  part  of  a  lobule— a,  vena  hcpiUicn  ;  /.,  portal 
iwiir;  c,  bile-duels;  d,  capilluries  of  portal  vein  •  r,  blk-capil- 
laries.  2.  n,  portal  blood-eapitlaries  ;  h.  bile-capillaries.  . ,  <r, 
b!U -capillaries;  i-,  hepatic  cells;  c,  bile-ducts;  d,  capillary 
blood-vessel, 
pillary  bile-ducls  open  into  the  finest  interlobular  bile- 
ducts,  which  are  passages  cluinnellcd  in  the  ennneclive 
tissue  accompanying  the  interlobular  vessels,  and  lined  by 
a  single  layer  of  polygcmni  cells.  The  larger  duels  are 
lined  bv  a  columnar  epithelium,  and  have  a  wall  ol  con  ■ 
nectiyo'tissuo  which  becomes  thicker  as  the  tubes  increase 
in  diiimetcr.  In  this  wall  numerous  racemose  mucous 
glands  are  imbe.lded,  the  excretory  canals  of  which  open 
into  the  bile-ducts.  Tho  liver  is  coated  externally  by  a 
very  thin  capsule  of  connective  tissue,  and  this  again  is 
covered,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  Ihe  organ, 
by  the  peritoneum.  In  the  peritoneum  and  Ihe  subjacent 
connective  tissue  lies  an  abun.laiil  plexus  of  superficuil 
lymphatics.  The  deep  lymphatics,  which  penetiato  the 
substance  of  tho  organ,  lie  in  the  capsule  of  (ilisson,  as  has 
already  been  menlioned.  The  nerves  of  the  liver  are  coni- 
posed  "chiefly  of  non-medullated,  with  a  few  medullatcd, 
fibres.  They  enter  the  liver  with  the  portal  vein,  and  for 
tho  most  part  accompany  its  branches.  They  have  not 
been  traced  into  the  sub'staneo  of  the  acini,  and  their  re- 
lations to  the  hepatic  cells  remain  undetennincil. 

The  <,nll.l,liid,l,r  is  lined  throughout  by  a  single  layer 
of  colu'iNiiar  epitbclial  cells,  sujiportcd  upon  a  membrane 


944 


HISTOLOGY. 


of  conDCctivc  tissue,  in  which  there  are  numerous  dccus- 
satory  fasciculi  of  muscular  fibre-cells.  Externally,  it  is 
in  part  coated  by  the  peritoneum,  in  part  comes  into  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  hepatic  tissue. 

The  paticrean  agrees  in  its  structure  with  tho  salivary 
glands  so  closely  that  no  separate  description  of  it  need  be 
given. 

The  lifftpirntorif  Orf/ans. — The  cartilages  of  the  larynx 
arc  all  of  the  hyaline  variety,  except  the  e]iigIottis  and 
the  cartilages  of  Wrisberg  and  Sanctoriui,  wiiich  arc  com- 
posed of  fibro-eartilage.  The  musoles  are  of  the  striated 
variety.  The  interior  of  the  larynx  is  lined  by  a  mucous 
membrane  connected  with  the  cartilages,  ligaments,  and 
muscles  by  a  layer  of  submucous  connective  tissue.  The 
epithelium  of  the  mucous  membrane  on  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  epiglottis  resembles  that  of  the  oral  cavity,  but 
at  its  borders  the  superficial  layers  of  cells  become  fewer 
and  fewer,  the  cells  of  the  deep  columnar  layer  longer  and 
longer,  and  a  transition  is  tluis  effected  on  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  epiglottis  into  the  ciliated  epithelium  which 
lines  the  larynx,  and  is  continued  through  the  trachea  into 
the  bronchial  tubes.  The  cili-ited  epithelium  consists  of  a 
layer  of  columnar  cells  .001"  to  .OUIG"  long,  attached  to 
the  mucous  membrane  by  narrow  elongated  prolongations, 
while  on  their  free  margins  they  are  provided  with  a  num- 
ber of  thread-like  processes  about  .00015"  long  (the  cilia), 
which  during  life  keep  up  a  constant  waving  motion.  Be- 
tween the  attached  extremities  of  tho  ciliated  cells  are  nu- 
merous smaller  round 


and  oval  cells.  The 
true  vocal  cords  are 
ligaments  composed 
chiefly  of  yellow  cla-ti 
tissue,  which  lie  in  fui'i- 
of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, on  the  surface 
of  which  the  ciliated 
epithelium  is  replaced 
witli  a  layer  of  pave- 
ment cells.  A  number 
of      small       racemose 


Fig.  2r. 


Kpillji'lium  of  bronchial  tubes. 


glands  are  found  in  the  submucous  connective  tissue  of 
the  larynx,  and  open  by  their  ducts  upon  the  free  surface 
of  its  mucous  membrane.  Similar  glands  occur  abun- 
dantly in  the  trachea,  which  is  lined  by  a  mucous  mem- 
brane in  all  respects  resembling  that  of  the  larynx.  The 
rings  of  the  traeliea  are  composed  of  hyaline  cartilage,  and 
arc  united  together  by  a  mixture  of  conneeiive  tissue  and 
elastic  fibres.  Posteriorly,  the  rings  are  incomplete,  the 
spaces  thus  left  being  occupied  by  a  layer  of  transverse 
muscular  fibre-cells. 

The  Lnufja. — On  entering  the  lungs  the  bronchial  tubes 
branch  in  an  arborescent  manner,  and  finally  terminate, 
when  about  .01"  in  diameter,  in  groups  of  infundibula,  or 
funnel-shaped  terminal  expansions,  each  consisting  of  a 
number  of  polygonal  cavities,  the  air-vessels  or  alveoli, 
which  open  into  the  central  passage  of  the  infundibulum. 
The  infundibula  of  each  group  arc  connected  with  the  small 
bronchial  tube  to  which  they  belong  by  tliin  walled  pas- 
sages, the  alveolar  canals,  which  differ  from  the  finest  bron- 
chial tubes  chiefly  in  the  character  of  their  epithelium,  and 
in  having  their  walls  beset  by  air-vesicles  which  open  into 
them.  Down  to  about  .04"  in  diameter  the  bronchial  tubes 
consist  of  four  layers — an  external  fibrous  coat  in  which  are 
imbedded  a  scries  of  incomplete  rings  and  plates  of  hya- 
line cartilage:  a  thin  layer  of  muscular  fibre-cells;  an  in- 
ternal fibrous  coat  rich  in  elastic  fibres;  and  lastly,  an  epi- 
thelium similar  to  that  of  the  trachea.  Scattered  groups 
of  fat-cells  lie  in  the  outer  portion  of  the  external  fibrous 
coat;  in  its  inner  portion  there  are  a  number  of  racemose 
mucous  glands,  the  ducts  of  which  open  into  the  lumen  of 
the  tube.  In  bronchial  tubes  of  less  than  .04"  in  diameter 
the  external  fibrous  coat  becomes  thinner  and  thinner;  the 
plates  of  cartilage  and  the  mucous  glands  become  more 
and  more  scanty,  and  finally  disappear,  and  the  muscular 
layer  is  gradually  reduced  to  a  few  scattered  fasciculi:  tho 
elastic  inner  fibrous  coat  is,  ho^yever,  prolonged  upon  the 
finest  bronchial  tubes,  and  is  continuous  with  the  clastic 
walls  of  the  alveoli.  The  ciliated  epithelium  also  contin- 
ues in  the  smallest  bronchial  tubes,  but  its  cells  become 
shorter  and  shorter,  and  finally,  at  tho  transition  from  the 
bronchial  tubes  to  the  alveolar  canals,  lose  their  cilia  and 
acquire  the  characters  of  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  alve- 
oli. The  bronchial  tubes  are  nourished  by  branches  of  the 
bronchial  artery  which  supply  the  mucous  membrane  with  a 
close  capillary  plexus.  Their  walls  also  contain  numerous 
nerves  and  lymphatics.  The  air-vesicles,  when  undistendcd, 
measure  from  .000"  to  .01"  in  diameter,  but  can  be  blown  up 
to  twice  these  dimensions,  or  even  more.  Their  walls  are 
composed  of  a  transparent  connective  tis.-ue  in  which  cha- 
racteristically arching  elastic  fibres  arc  plentifully  imbedded, 


and  in  which  the  capillaries  derived  from  the  pulmonary 
arteries  form  a  close  j)lexus  with  rounded  or  oval  meshes. 
They  are  lined  at  birth  by  a  layer  of  flat  granular,  nucle- 
ated hexagonal  epithelial  cells,  which  form  a  continuous 
lining  for  both  the  air-vesicles  and  the  alveolar  passages. 
In  the  adult  only  a  part  of  the  cells  retain  these  characters, 
the  rest  being  transformed  into  thin  structureless  plates. 
This  epithelium,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  a  matter 
of  dispute  until  quite  recently,  is  best  demonstrated  by  tho 

silver  method.      The 


Fig  27 


Epithelium  ot"  air- 


1  lung. 


ailjacent  elastic  walls 
of  air-vesicles  belong- 
ing to  the  same   in- 
tuo'libulum    coalesce 
to  form  a  single  sep- 
V-^Z-v    tum.     Tlie    walls   of 
_W  J    idjacent  vesicles  be- 
'"^    '  I  uiging    to    different 
infundibula    are    for 
[-  the  most   part    scpa- 
lated     by      a    small 
quantity   of   intersti- 
tial connective  tissue, 
riie    whole    lung    is 
made  up  of  the  bron- 
chia and  infundibula 
described,  with  blood- 
vessels,   nerves,    and 


lymphatics,  united  together  by  connective  tissue.  The 
nerves  for  the  most  part  accompany  the  bronchial  tubes 
ami  blood-vessels,  and  are  largely  distributed  to  their  mus- 
fular  fibre-cells.  The  lymphatics  commence  as  anastomos- 
ing lacunte  in  the  walls  of  the  air-vesicles,  whence  proceed 
lymphatic  capillaries,  which  unite  to  form  trunks  accom- 
jianying  the  bronchial  tubes  and  the  larger  blood-vessels. 
I'hcrc  is,  besides,  an  abundant  superficial  lymphatic  net- 
work which  lies  just  beneath  the  pleura. 

Vriuanj  Organs. — The  kidnry  consists  essentially  of  a 
threat  number  of  secreting  tubes  lined  by  epithelium,  tbo 
tubuii  uriniferi.     These,  with  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and 

Fig.  2S. 


Diagram  of  course  of  uriniferous  lubes  in  human  kidney:  p, 
papillary  portion  ;  g,  boundary  portion  of  medulla;  r,  cortex; 
I.,  capsule  of  glomerulus;  II.,  convoluted  tubes;  in.,  descend- 
ing limb  of  Hi'nie's  looped  tube  ;  A.  loop;  IV..  ascending  limb; 
v.,  intercalated  portion;  k,  summit  of  collecting  tube;  vi., 
VH.,  VIII.,  collecting  tubes;  ix..  papillary  duct. 

lymphatics  of  the  organ,  are  united  together  by  a  charac- 
teristio  connective  tissue  composed  of  a  nearly  homogene- 
ous matri.x  with  stellate  cells.     The  tubuii  uriniferi  com- 


HISTOLOGY. 


945 


mcoco  ID  tho  cortical  portion  of  the  organ  as  globular  ex- 
]iansioiis,  the  eujisules  ot*  Kownmn,  wliicb  ciiibra,ec  peculiar 
lufrs  of  capillaries,  the  glomeruli  of  iMiilpigbi.  These, 
which  aro  usuiilly  from  .006"  to  .OOS"  in  diumetcr,  consist 
of  a  number  of  capillary  looj'S  united  together  by  conneo- 
live  tissue.  Tho  capsules  of  Bowman^  which  embrace 
them,  aro  lined  by  a  layer  of  large  pavement  epithelial 
colls,  best  demonstrated  by  tho  action  of  silver,  and  arc 
eontinuous  by  constricted  necks  with  the  urinifcrous  tubes. 
Kaeh  urinifcrous  tube,  whicli  at  first  is  about  .0011"  in  aver- 
ago  diameter,  pursues  for  a  short  distance  a  very  tortuous 
fourso :  it  then  rather  suddenly  diminishes  in  size  to  half 
its  original  diameter,  or  less,  and  runs  in  nearly  a  straight 
lino  into  the  base  of  the  nearest  pyramid,  in  which,  at  a 
variable  depth,  it  turns  back  upon  itself,  forming  a  narrow 
loop  (the  loop  of  Ilcnic),  and  returns  to  the  cortical  portion, 
where,  after  a  time,  it  again  becomes  wide  and  tortuous, 
then  ag.ain  cons'ricled,  and  finally  unites  with  one  or  uioro 
tubuli  which  have  pursued  a  similar  course  to  form  a 
straight  collecting  tube.  This  collecting  tube  runs  towards 
the  pyramid,  receiving  at  first  a  few  additional  tubuli.  after 
which  it  pursues  a  separate  c(turso  into  the  base  of  tho 
pyramid,  where  adjacent  collecting  tubes  coalesce  in  pairs; 
BO  that  the  number  of  passages  which  finally  open  at  tho 
apex  of  each  pyramid  is  very  much  smaller  than  tho  orig- 
inal number  of  tubuli.  When  sections  of  the  kidney  arc 
examined  by  the  naked  eye,  a  number  of  striaj  {medullary 
rays)  aro  seen  proceeding  from  tho  bases  of  the  pyramids 
almost  to  the  surface  of  the  cortical  portion.  These  consist 
in  part  of  bundles  of  the  straight  collecting  tubes,  in  part 
of  tho  straight  narrow  portions  of  tubuli,  returning 
after  having  formed  tho  loops  of  Henlc.  Tho  glomeruli 
and  tho  convoluted  part  of  the  tubuli  lie  in  the  parenchyma 
between  these  medullary  rays.  The  walls  of  tho  tnl>uU 
uriniferi  consist  of  a  transparent  nucleated  membrane  lined 
by  a  single  layer  of  epithelial  cells.  Theso  consist,  in  tho 
first  tortuous  portion  of  the  tubuli,  of  a  granular  proto- 
plasm, without  distinct  cell-walis,  and  contain  single,  sjdier- 
ical,  sharply-dotined  nuclei.  In  tho  narrow  part  of  tho 
tubuli,  forming  the  loop  of  llenle,  the  epithelium  appears 
as  an  attenuated  layer  of  protoplasm,  with  swellings  con- 
taining nuclei  at  intervals.  On  tho  other  side  of  tho  loop 
tho  cells  assume  more  of  a  columnar  character,  and  being 
inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  tubuH,  present  an  imbricated  ar- 
rangement. When  the  tube  again  becomes  tortuous  thocpi- 
thelium  again  assumes  the  character  it  possessed  in  the  first 
tortuous  portion,  and  finally,  tho  collecting  tubes  aro  lined 
by  a  single  layer  of  well-defined  columnar  epithelial  cells. 
Tho  renal  arteries  divide  in  the  pelvis  of  tho  fcidnei/  into 
a  number  of  branches,  which,  on  reaching  tho  bases  of  tho 
pyramids,  ramify  between  theso  and  the  cortical  portion 
of  tho  organ,  and  send  into  the  latter  a  series  of  Btroight 
twigs,  tho  arteria)  intcrlobulares.  These  give  off  a  number 
of  short  side-branches,  each  of  which  supports  a  glomerulus 
on  its  extremity.  The  efferent  vein  of  each  glomerulus, 
after  leaving  it,  speedily  breaks  up  into  a  capillary  plexus 
continuous      with       that 


formed  by  adjacent  effer- 
ent veins,  and  which  sur- 
rounds tho  convoluted 
portions  of  tho  tubuli  uri- 
niferi. The  venous  rndi- 
cles  which  collect  tho 
blood  from  this  plexus 
open  into  tho  veins  which 
accompany  tho  inter- 
lobular arteries.  In  tho 
medullary  portion  of  tho 
kidneys  tho  capillary 
network  which  surrounds 
the  urinifcrous  tubules  is 
derived  from  a  series  of 
etraight  vessels,  tho  so- 
called      artcria;      rectie, 


Fig.  29. 


Transverse  section  through  a  renal 
]>yramid:  a,  collecting  tube;  0, 
tlfsetMidinp  »rrn  <if  looped  tubt;;  c, 
rccurrc-nt  ami ;  d,  blood-vessel;  e, 
connective  tissue. 


which  in  part  arise  from  the  arterial  branches  ramifying 
between  tho  cortical  substance  and  the  bases  of  the  pyra- 
mids ;  in  part  aro  not  arteries  at  all,  but  tlic  unusually 
prolonged  efferent  veins  of  tho  glomeruli  adjacent  to  the 
bases  of  the  pyramids.  A  superlicial  plexus  of  lymphatics 
is  situated  in  the  fibrous  capsules  fd'  the  kirlncys.  Tlie  deep 
lymphatics  accompany  the  larger  blood-vcs-sels ;  their  ulti- 
mate relations  to  the  parenchyma  of  the  organ  arc  not  yet 
known.  Tho  same  remark  applies  to  the  nerves  of  tho  kid- 
neys, which  altK)  accompany  the  vessels.  A  number  of  small 
ganglia  occur  in  connection  with  these  nerves. 

The  urftt^m  and  nrinnrtf  hlnddrr  are  lined  by  an  epithe- 
lium consisting  of  several  layers  of  cells.  Tho  most  super- 
ficial are  polygonal  and  somewhat  flattened;  to  theso  suc- 
ceed a  layer  of  elongated  cells,  the  upper  pxtremities  of 
whieh  are  rather  broad,  while  tho  hiwer  portionH  are  pro- 
longed into  narrow  processes,  between  which  is  a  tnird 
V..T,.  11.- r.n 


layer  of  oval  cells.  This  epithelium  rests  on  a  layer  of 
rather  dense  connective  tissue,  beneath  which  is  the  mus- 
cular coat  composed  of  muscular  tibre-cells.  Kxtcruatly  to 
this  is  a  second  layer  of  couneclivo  tissue.  The  fundus  of 
the  bladder  is,  besides,  coated  by  the  peritoneum. 

O'viicrtttivc  OryiiHu. — The  space  assigned  to  this  article 
jiermils  only  a  brief  sketch  of  tho  most  characteristic  organ 
of  each  sex.  The  tcntivte  consists  essentially  of  a  number 
of  secreting  tubes  lined  by  epithelium,  the  tubuli  scminifcri. 
Tho  organ  is  enclosed  in  a  dense  capsule  of  connective 
tissue,  the  tunica  albugiuca.  from  the  inner  surface  of  which 
a  number  of  jiepta;  proceed,  dividing  the  gland  into  pear- 
shaped  lobules  lUO  to  260  in  number,  each  containing  ono 
to  three  convoluted  tubuli  semitifcri.  These  unite  in  the 
corpus  Ilighmori,  and  form  a  network  whence  proceed 
twelve  to  tourtcen  canals,  the  convolutions  of  which  consti- 
tute the  epididymis.  In  the  epididymis  these  canals  unite 
and  form  finally  a  single  excretory  duct,  the  vas  deferens. 
Tho  tubuli  scminifcri  in  the  lobules  arc  .008"  in  average 
diameter,  aiwl  consist  of  a  mcmbrana  propria,  lined  by 
secretory  cells.  The  mcmbrana  propria  iscomi)Osedof  homo- 
geneous connective  tissue  with  numerous  nuclei  imbedded. 
On  its  inner  surface  is  a  layer  of  nucleated  cells  with  branch- 
ing, anastomosing  protoplasmic  processes.  To  these  suc- 
ceed several  layers  of  rounded  cells  with  one  or  several 
nuclei,  which,  in  fresh  preparations,  exhibit  amoi-boid  move- 
ments, Theso  arc  tho  so-called  seminal  cells,  and  it  is  in 
their  interior  that  the  spermatozoa  are  developed.  The 
testicles  arc  abundantly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  l^'m- 
phatics,  and  nerves.  The  lymphatics  originate  in  wide  pas- 
sages between  tho  tubuli  scminifcri,  lined  by  a  character- 
istic epithelium,  which  forms  a  })artial  coating  for  the  tubuli, 
and  which  is  best  demonstrated  by  the  action  of  silver.  The 
terminal  branches  of  the  nerves,  according  to  Letzerich, 
can  be  traced  through  the  mcmbrana  propria  of  the  tubuli, 
and  terminate  between  it  and  the  firs^t  row  of  cells.  The 
spermatozoa,  which  aro  tho  cliaracteristic  elements  of  tho 
seminal  fluid,  arc.  in  tho  human  sulijcct,  about  .0010"  in 
average  length,  and  have  the  form  of  thread-like  filaments, 
enlarged  at  ono  extremity  into  an  oval  head  .0U0I6"  to 
.0002"  long. 

Tho  ovary  consists  of  a  stroma  of  vascular  connective 
tissue  in  which  are  imbedded  numerous  cyst-like  forma- 
tions of  various  sizes,  tho  Graafian  follicles,  containing  the 
ova  in  various  stages  of  development.  The  portion  of  the 
ovary  which  projects  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  is  not 
covered  by  tho  peritoneum,  but  by  a  layer  of  columnar 
cells,  tho  so-called  germ-epithelium.  All  the  (Jraafian  fol- 
licles, and  tho  ova  which  they  contain,  are  develojied  from 
ingrowing  buds  of  this  epithelium,  which  invade  the  eon- 
ncctivc-tissuo  stroma  as  gland-like  tubules.  A  portion  of 
tho  epithelial  cells  of  these  tubules  arc  transformed  into 
ova,  while  tho  remainder  retain  their  epithelial  cliaracter. 
Tho  ova  aro  subsequently  is<dated  by  the  ingrowing  of  tho 
connective-tissue  stroma  between  the  epithelial  cells.  Thin 
sections  of  the  adult  ovary  show  great  numbers  of  the  most 
unripo  ova  immediately  beneath  the  surface  of  tho  organ. 

Flo.  30. 


.-:n#^^^^.?P^'^^^. 


They  appear  as  oval,  nucleated  cells,  surrounded  by  an 
epithelium-liUo  layer.  Deeper  in  tho  organ  ova  aro  en- 
countered in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  development,  sur- 
rounded by  an  ej^theJial  layer  of  several  rows  of  cells. 
l-'inally,  fluid  aciMiniuIatea  between  thcFo  cells,  and  the  fol- 
licles then  rapidly  increase  in  size.     The  total  number  of 


946 


HISTOLOGY. 


Graafian  follicles,  in  till  stages  of  development,  contained 
in  a  young  ovary  has  been  variously  cstimateil  from  36,000 
to  400,000.  The  fully-formed  Graafian  follicles  are  from 
.02"  to  .2j"  in  diameter.  They  consist  of  a  tunica  propria 
of  connective  tissue,  which  is  merely  a  condensation  of  the 
ovarian  stroma,  lined  hy  several  strata  of  nucleateil  opithe- 
lium-likc  cells — the  epithelium  of  the  follicle  or  the  niotn- 
brana  granulosa — and  filled  with  a  transparent  albumiii'  u- 
fluid.  The  elements  of  the  epithelium  of  the  follicles  ;nr 
accumulated  at  some  one  point  into  a  little  mass — the  dis- 
cus proligerus — in  which  the  ovum  is  imbedded.  \Vhere  a 
ping-lo  follicle  contains  two  or  more  ova,  as  occasionally 
happens  in  man,  and  very  generally  in  Mammalia,  there  is 
a  proligerous  disk  for  each. 

The  human  ovum,  when  fully  developed,  is  a  round  or 
slightly  oval  vesicle.  OOS"  to  .01"  in  diameter.  Its  invest- 
ing membrane  exhibits  distinct  double  contours,  and  is 
known  as  the  zona  pcllucida  :  this  encloses  a  granular  pro- 
toplasm, the  vitcllus  or  yelk,  in  which  is  imbedded  a  dis- 
tinct round  nucleus  .0016"  in  average  diameter  (the  germ- 
inal vesicle),  and  this  again  presents  a  round  prominent 
nucleolus — the  germinal  spot.  The  ovum  of  man  and 
mammals  differs  from  the  eggs  of  birds  and  reptiles  in  that 
in  these  an  ovum  similar  to  that  of  the  Mammalia  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  quantity  of  secondary  yelk,  as  well  as  by  .id- 
ditional  layers  acquired  during  its  passage  througli  the  ovi- 
ducts. As  fluid  continues  to  accumulate  in  the  cavity  of  the 
ripe  Graafian  follicle,  it  approaches  more  and  more  to  the 
surface  of  the  ovary,  until  finally  it  ruptures  and  permits 
the  ovum  to  escape.  This  is  followed  by  hiemorrhagefrom 
the  vascular  walls  of  the  follicle,  which  is  speedily  filled 
with  coagulated  blood;  numbers  of  white  corpuscles  soon 
migrate  into  the  clot,  and  a  retrograde  metamorphosis  of 
its  constituents  takes  place,  by  which  it  acquires  a  yellow 
color,  and  is  then  known  as  the  corpns  lutoum.  Subse- 
quently, connective  tissue  is  developed  in  the  substance  of 
the  corpus  lutoum,  which  becomes  smaller  and  smaller  until 
finally  a  mere  cicatrix  remains. 

Organti  uj  Special  Sense. — A  brief  account  of  the  special 
nerve-terminations  in  the  organs  of  touch  and  taste  has  al- 
ready been  given.  We  recognize  as  the  essential  organs 
of  smell  certain  nerve-terminations  in  the  nasal  mucous 
membrane.  This  mucous  membrane  is  coated  for  the  most 
part  by  a  ciliated  epithelium,  closely  resembling  that  of 
the  respiratory  organs  ;  but  in  the  proper  olfactory  region, 
which  is  limited  to  tiie  uppermost  part  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
extending  downward  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch 
from  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone,  the  cilia  disap- 
pear, and  a  columnar  epithelium  remains,  between  the  cells 
of  which  the  proper  olfactory  cells  appear  in  considerable 
numbers.  These  are  oval,  nucleated  cells,  the  two  ex- 
tremities of  which  are  prolonged  as  delieate  filaments.  One 
of  these  runs  between  the  columnar  cells  of  the  epithelium 
to  the  surface,  where  it  terminates  in  a  free  extremity,  which 
gives  off  in  most  animals  several  fine,  cilia-like  projections  ; 
the  other  runs  towards  the  connective-tissue  layer  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  where  it  is  believed^  though  not  demon- 
strated, to  be  continuous  with  the  terminal  fibrils  of  the 
non-medullated  fibres  of  the  olfactory  nerve.  According 
to  Max  Schultze,  the  ciliar  projections  of  the  superficial 
extremities  of  the  olfactory  cells  do  not  occur  in  man. 

In  the  case  of  the  eye  our  space  permits  only  brief  de- 
scriptions of  the  cornea,  the  crystalline  lens,  and  the  retina. 
The  conien  substance  proper  is  composed  of  connective 
tissue  with  stellate  cells  and  a  homogeneous  matrix.  It  is 
coated  anteriorly  with  a  laminated  pavement  epithelium, 
which  consists  of  a  stratum  of  columnar  cells,  several  lay- 
ers of  rounded  or  polygonal  cells,  and  several  layers  of 
flattened  colls;  posteriorly  it  is  coated  by  the  membrane 
of  Dcsccmet,  which  is  a  single  layer  of  flattened  cells.  The 
stellate  cells  of  the  proper  substance  of  the  cornea  arc  des- 
ignated corneal  corpuscles.  They  are  granular,  flattened 
cells  about  .001"  in  long  diameter,  containing  rounded, 
oval,  or  irregular  nuclei  .0004"  to  .0006"  or  more  long. 
Each  gives  otf  a  variable  number  of  protoplasmic  processes 
which  anastomose  with  those  of  the  adjacent  cells.  Besides 
these  fixed  cells,  a  certain  number  of  wandering  corpuscles 
arc  always  present,  and  from  the  motions  of  these,  as  ob- 
served in  recent  cornea\  the  existence  of  a  series  of  pas- 
sages or  channels  in  the  matrix  may  be  inferred.  The  cor- 
neal corpuscles  are  not  visible  in  ])erfcctly  fresh  cornea^ 
but  become  so  after  the  lapse  of  a  short  time.  They  may 
be  displayed  in  an  admirable  manner  by  immersing  the 
cornea  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  and  subsequently 
exposing  it  to  light.  The  protoplasm  of  the  cells  and  the 
nuclei  aro  thus  stained  different  shades  of  purple  by  the 
reduction  of  the  g<dd,  while  the  matrix  remains  uncolored 
or  only  slightly  tinged.  When  the  cornea  is  soaked  in  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  exposed  to  sunlight,  the 
matrix  is  stained  br*»wn.  and  a  series  of  light-colored,  stel- 
late, anastomosing  figures  luako  their  appearance,  which 


agree  in  distribution  with  the  corneal  corpuscles,  but  are 

rather  larger,  and  have  thicker,  more  varicose  processes. 

These  represent  the  serous  canals  of  the  matrix,  in  which 

Fig,  31. 


the  corneal  corpuscles  lie,  as  may  be  shown  by  the  subse- 
quent action  of  chloride  of  gold  or  of  carmine.  The  cor- 
nea is  richly  sujipHed  with  nerves,  best  demonstrated  by 
the  action  of  gold,  which  gives  them  a  dark  purple  color. 
Twenty  or  thirty  medullated  nerve-fibres  enter  at  its  mar- 
gin, and  soon  lose  their  medullary  sheaths,  while  the  axis- 
cylinders  break  up  into  fasciculi  composed  of  a  number  of 
ultimate  fibrils,  with  oval  nuclei  scattered  along  their 
course.  These  fasciculi  branch  and  anastomose,  forming 
a  rich  plexus  in  the  corneal  substance,  and  finally  break 
up  into  ultimate  ner\'c-fibrils.  the  extremities  of  which 
penetrate  between  the  epithelial  cells  on  the  anterior  face 
of  the  cornea,  and  terminate  by  giving  off  laterally,  among 
the  most  superficial  flattened  cells  of  the  epithelium,  a 
number  of  fine  terminal  branches,  which,  having  divided 
once  or  several  times,  terminate  in  somewhat  swollen  ex- 
tremities. The  vn/stfilliue  Icus  consists  of  an  extremely  thin 
anterior  and  a  thick  posterior  layer.  The  first  is  composed 
of  a  single  stratum  of  flattened,  polygonal,  nucleated  cells, 
which  towards  the  margins  of  the  lens  become  more  and 
more  elongated,  and  finally,  at  its  equator,  pass  by  gradual 
Fir,.  32. 


Retina. 

transitions  into  the  fibres  of  which  the  thick  posterior  layer 
is  composed.  The  fibres  of  the  lens  arc  flattened,  six-sided 
dements  .0002"  to  .0004"  iu  breath,  and  rather  less  than 


HISTOLOGY. 


947 


half  as  thick,  and  unite  to  form  curved  lamclhc  which  cover 
each  other  coneeatrically,  somewhat  like  the  coats  of  an 
onioD.  In  these  lamella;  a  stellate  raphe,  radiating  from 
the  axis  of  the  lens,  is  observed  both  anteriorly  and  postO: 
riorty,  which  marks  the  eommencciiient  and  termination 
of  the  individual  fibres.  In  the  deeper  strata  of  the  human 
lens  this  raphC*  presents  but  three  rays;  more  superficially 
their  number  increases  to  ns  many  as  ninu  anteriorly  and 
ten  or  more  posteriorly.  In  these  rays  the  opposite  ex- 
tremities of  the  indiviilual  fibres  come  into  immediate  jux- 
taposition, and  are  not  separated  by  a  homogeneous  trans- 
parent substance,  as  was  formerly  believed.  The  lens  is 
developed  from  an  ingrowjng  bud  of  the  epidermis  of  the 
embryo,  and  its  fibres  are  to  be  regarded  as  greatly  elon- 
gated epithelial  cells.  It  is  enclo-ed  in  a  transparent,  ap- 
parently structureless  capsule.  The  retina  is  composed  of 
the  special  terminal  elements  of  the  optic  nerve,  united  to- 
gether by  delicate  connective  tissue,  the  whole  forming  a 
layer  .008"  thick  in  its  posterior  portion,  and  less  than 
half  as  thick  anteriorly.  Its  intricate  structure  has  been 
the  object  of  many  investigations,  of  which  those  of  Max 
Schultze  arc  mu?t  noteworthy.  According  to  this  investi- 
gator, the  following  layers  of  elements  may  be  discrimin- 
ated:  (1)  Most  internally  the  membrana  limitans  interna, 
a  delicate  layer  of  connective  tissue  which  immediately  1 
adjoins  the  vitreous  humor.  (2)  The  optic  fibre-layer,  I 
composed  of  non-mcdullated  nerve-fibres  of  various  sizes, 
continuous  with  the  medullated  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve. 
{•i)  The  ganglion  cell-layer,  in  which  are  imbedded  numer- 
ous nucleated,  fur  the  most  part  multipolar,  nerve-cells 
,0006"  to  .0012"  in  diameter.  (4)  The  internal  molecular 
layer,  consisting  of  an  admixture  of  extremely  fine  nerve- 
fibrils  and  delicate  connective  tissue.  (6)  Tiio  internal 
granular  layer,  composed  of  two  kinds  of  elements,  the  first 
and  most  numerous  resembling  small  bipolar  nerve-cells 
with  relatively  large  nuclei  and  scanty  granular  proto- 
plasm; the  second  are  oval,  nuclear  bodies,  belonging  to 
the  supporting  connective  tissue,  (fi)  The  external  mole- 
cular layer  or  intergranule  layer,  which  is  similar  in  its 
structure  to  the  internal  molecular  layer,  but  much  thinner. 
(7)  The  external  granular  layer,  in  which  are  numerous 
oval  nucleated  bodies,  situated  in  the  lower  portion  of  the 
rod  and  cone  fibres,  and  scattered  oval  nuclei  belonging  to 
the  supporting  connective  tissue.  (8)  The  mcmbrana  lim- 
itans  externa,  an  extremely  thin  layer  formed  byacondcn- 
sation  of  thfe  supporting  connective  tissue.  (0)  The  layer 
of  rods  and  cones.  This  consists  of  two  kinds  of  fibres. 
Each  cone-fibre  appears  to  commenco  on  the  surface  of  the 


external  molecular  layer  as  a  conical  enlargement,  speedily 
tapering  to  a  fine  smooth  or  varicose  fibre,  which  runs  in  a 
radial  direction  through  the  external  granular  layer,  and 
just  before  it  reaches  the  membrana  limituns  externa  pre- 
sents a  fusiform  enlarirement  in  which  an  oval  nucleus  is 
imbedded;  it  then  penotratis  the  limiting  membrane  and 
forms  the  cone,  a  ftask-likc  body  which  terminates  in  a 
coni<:al  point.  The  rod-fibres  also  can  he  traced  only  as 
far  as  the  external  molecular  layer.  In  the  external  gran- 
ule-layer they  earh  present  one  or  several  oval  nucleated 
enlargements,  after  which,  penetrating  the  limiting  mem- 
brane, they  form  the  rods,  which  arc  cylindrical  bodies 
.002"  in  average  length  and  .0001"  or  less  in  thickness,  and 
consist  of  an  inner  and  outer  portion,  of  which  the  latter  is 
more  highly  refractive  than  the  former.  The  cones  are 
rather  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  rods,  and  their  bases 
three  to  four  times  as  thick.  As  a  rule,  three  or  four  rods 
intervene  between  each  pair  of  cones.  (10)  The  last  layer 
enumerated  b^'  Max  Schultze  is  the  pigment-layer.  It  ia 
usually  known  as  the  pigment  epithelium  of  the  choroid, 
and  consists  of  hexagonal  elements  containing  the  brown- 
ish-black pigment  in  the  form  of  granules.  The  deUcacy 
of  the  retina  and  the  intricacy  of  its  structure  are  such  that 
the  connections  of  the  nervous  elements  in  its  several  layers 
with  each  other  have  not  fully  been  made  out;  but  it  is 
known  that  the  non-mcdullated  fibres  of  the  optic  fibre- 
layer  arc  continuous  with  the  cells  of  the  ganglion  cell- 
layer,  and  it  may  be  conjectured  with  probability  that  the 
fine  fibrils  in  which  the  processes  of  these  terminate  are 
continuous  through  the  remaining  layer  with  the  bases  of 
the  rod  and  cone  fibres. 

In  connection  with  the  rar,  space  permits  only  a  brief 
mention  of  the  on/ftit  of  Cnrti.  which  appears  to  be  t<»  the 
sense  of  hearing  what  the  retina  is  to  the  sense  of  .sight. 
The  spiral  canal  of  the  cochlea  is  nearly  divided  in  two  by 
a  thin  plate  of  bone,  the  lamina  spiralis.  From  the  edge 
of  this  lamina  two  membranes  proeeeil  to  the  walls  of  the 
cochlear  canal,  which  is  thus  divided  into  three  passages — 
the  scala  vestibuli,  the  central  canal  of  the  cochlea,  and 
the  scala  tympani.  The  membrane  which  divides  the  scala 
vestibuli  from  the  central  canal  of  the  cochlea  is  extremely 
delicate,  and  is  known  as  the  membrane  of  Keissner.  That 
which  divides  the  central  canal  from  the  scala  tympani  is 
known  as  the  membrana  lamina  spiralis,  and  is  much 
thicker,  consisting  on  the  side  of  the  scala  tympani  of  the 
membrana  basilaris,  on  the  side  of  the  central  canal  of  the 
membrana  tectoria,  and  between  the  two  of  the  organ  of 
Corti.     The   most   remarkable   elements    id  this   complex 


Vertical  section  ibr  i.   i f  f*i»rii :  A  B,  homogeneous  layer  of  membrana  basilaris;  n.  pedestal  of  inner  pillar;  r,  pedestal 

of  pillar;  d,  bnirs  ot  inmr  liair-cell;  r,e,e,  outer  bair-cells; /,  bundle  of  nervcfl;  g,  epithelium  of  sulcus  spiralis  interniis;  h, 
nerve-fibril  to  hair-cell;  i,  lamina  reticularis. 


structure  are  the  rods  or  pillars  of  Corti,  which  arc  elastic 
elements  of  a  somewhat  sigraoiil  form  .002"  lo  .00:>"  in 
length,  arranged  in  a  double  row  in  such  a  way  that  while 
one  extremity  of  the  roda  in  each  row  rests  upon  the  mem- 
brana basilaris,  the  opposite  extremities  articulate  so  as  to 
form  a  scries  of  arches — the  arches  of  Corti — enclosing  a 
triangular  space  between  the  rods  and  the  membrana  basi- 
laris, which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  lamina  spiralis. 
The  rods  on  the  side  of  the  arch  next  the  bony  lamina 
Bpirfilis  are  spoken  of  as  the  inner  rods,  the  opposite  ones 
as  the  outer  rods;  they  arc  so  arranged  that  three  inner 
rods  correspond  to  every  pair  of  outer  ones.  Their  total 
number  has  been  estimatc<l  nt  about  .')2n0  inner  and  ^600 
outer  rods.  According  to  I'ritehard,  they  progressively  in- 
crease in  length  from  the  base  of  the  cochlea  to  its  apex, 
the  differences  being  more  marked  in  the  outer  than  in  the 
inner  rods.  The  arches  of  Corti  support  on  each  side  a 
complex  arrangement  of  cells,  of  which  the  most  conspicuous 


are  the  hair-cells.  One  row  of  these  is  supported  by  the 
inner  rotls,  and  three  rows  by  the  outer  ones.  They  are 
elongated,  somewhat  conical,  nucleated  cells,  provided  at 
their  upper  extremities  with  a  brush  of  strong  cilia-like 
hairs.  The  cochlear  nerve,  a.i  it  passes  up  the  modiolus  or 
central  pillar  of  the  cochlea,  gives  off  branches  which  run 
in  canals  in  the  bony  lamina  spiralis  to  the  inimediatn 
vicinity  of  the  organ  of  Corti,  where  the  fibres  break  up 
into  their  ultimate  fibrillar,  and  terminate  in  these  hair- 
cells.  Besides  the  termination  of  the  cochlear  nerve  in  the 
organ  of  Corti,  special  tc-rminntions  of  the  fibres  of  the 
auditory  nerve  in  peculiar  fusiform  cells,  with  thrcad-liko 
extremities,  exist  in  the  membranous  labyrinth. 

The  foregoing  outline,  which  is  necessarily  extremely 
meagre,  will,  however,  it  is  honed,  servo  to  give  the  reader 
accurate  elementary  ideas  witli  regard  to  normal  human 
histology.  It  now  remains  to  offer  a  few  remarks  on  patho- 
logical histology. 


948 


HISTOLOGY. 


Pathological  Histology. — Tn  this  domain  we  have  to 
study,  ou  the  one  hand,  the  chan^^cs  which  take  place  in 
the  normal  histological  elements  ol  the  tissues;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  development  of  new  pathological  elements  which 
cither  occur  diffused  among  the  normal  ones  in  the  form  of 
infiltrations,  or  aro  localized  as  morbid  growths.  Among 
the  morbid  changes  in  the  normal  elements  we  may  enu- 
merate— cfotuh/  swelliitif,  which  takes  place  especially  in  the 
early  stages  of  inflammation,  and  in  which  the  elements 
increase  in  size  and  become  more  granular  than  normal; 
/<ttti/  ilrifeticrntion,  which  may  arise  independently  or  occur 
as  a  sequel  to  cloudy  swelling,  and  in  which  a  portion  of 
the  substance  of  the  affected  elements  is  transformed  into 
molecular  fat  or  into  minute  fat-drops ;  mucoid  dcf/cncra- 
tioii,  in  which  a  portion  of  their  substance  is  transformed 
into  a  material  possessing  the  reactions  of  mucin  ;  and  col- 
loid df;/cticrtttioH,  in  which  a  portion  of  their  substance  is 
transformed  into  globules  of  a  peculiar  gelatinous  charac- 
ter. To  the  foregoing  changes  may  be  added  those  which 
result  from  the  infiltration  uf  the  tissue-elements  with  va- 
rious substances  derived  from  the  blood  especially:  cal- 
careous infUtrattuti,  in  which  lime-salts  are  deposited  in 
minute  molecules:  pitjment  infiltration^  in  which  pigment- 
granules  are  deposited  ;  fnttif  iii/i/fnttion.  which  closely  re- 
sembles fatty  degeneration  in  its  appearances;  and  the  so- 
called  nmi/loid  infiltration,  in  which  the  affected  elements 
are  infiltrated  with  a  peculiar  transparent  albuminoid  sub- 
stance, characterized  by  acquiring  a  mahogany-red  color 
on  treatment  with  iodine.  Tliis  latter  change  has  also  been 
designated  as  lardaceous  or  waxy  degeneration.  Any  of 
these  degenerations  and  infiltrations  may  occur  also  in 
pathological  new  formations,  as  well  as  in  tho  normal 
tissues. 

The  production  of  the  pathological  new  formations  is  fre- 
quently initiated  by  those  nutritive  and  circulatory  dis- 
turbances which  are  embraced  under  the  designation  ?»- 
fiammntiou.  When  this  process  takes  place  in  a  vascular 
tissue  a  notable  dilatation  of  the  small  arteries  and  veins 
occurs,  which  is  usually  jireceded  by  their  temi)orary  con- 
traction, and  is  followed  by  a  diminution  in  the  speed  of 
the  blood-stream,  and  an  accumulation  of  white  blood-cor- 
puscles in  the  peripheral  portion  of  the  stream  in  tho  small 
veins.  Soon  after,  as  demonstrated  by  Cohnheim,  the  white 
corpuscles  begin  to  migrate  in  considerable  numbers,  es- 
caping not  only  from  the  small  veins,  but  also  from  the 
true  capillaries.  In  the  inflammation  of  non-vascular  parts 
a  similar  migration  takes  place  from  the  nearest  blood-ves- 
sels— in  the  case  of  the  inflamed  cornea,  for  example,  from 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  sclerotic  and  conjunctiva.  A  por- 
tion, at  least,  of  tho  cellular  elements  of  the  characteristic 
products  of  inflammation,  pus  and  lymi)h,  arc  simply  these 
migrated  corpuscles.  Wht-ther  all  of  them  have  the  same 
origin  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion.  It  was  formerly  be- 
lieved that  in  inflammation  the  elements  of  the  tissues,  es- 
pecially as  indicated  by  Virchow,  the  connective-tissue  cor- 
puscles, multiplied  by  division,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the 
pus  and  lymith  cells  as  their  progeny.  The  analogies  of 
vegetable  growth,  and  much  that  had  been  observed  of  the 
growth  of  animal  tissue,  favored  this  view.  Unfortunately, 
however,  tho  swarm  of  white  corpuscles  migrate  so  early 
in  inflammation  that  the  proper  tissue-elements  are  speedily 
concealed  by  them,  and  it  is  difficult  to  trace  with  precision 
the  changes  they  undergo.  Strieker  and  Xorris,  however, 
have  clescribed  appearances  in  tho  inflametl  cornea  which 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  wan<b'ring  corpuscles  may 
originate  by  the  division  Of  the  fixed  cells,  as  well  as  by 
migration  from  tho  blood-vessels.  Whether  by  thus  divid- 
ing and  producing  new  elements,  or  V>y  falling  into  a  con- 
dition of  fatty  degeneration  and  perishing,  the  proper  tis- 
sue-elements of  the  inflamed  part  i»"y  disappear,  and  be 
replaced  by  an  accumulation  of  pus,  forming  an  nhacesH  ; 
or  when  the  affected  tissue  is  superficially  situated,  the  loss 
of  substance  may  manifest  itself  as  an  idccr.  In  other 
cases  the  inflammation  terminates  in  remolution, ihc  migrated 
corpuscles  finding  their  way  back  into  the  torrent  of  the  cir- 
culation through  the  lymphatics;  or  the  inflammatory 
products  may  anjnmze  into  new  tissue.  This  at  flrst  re- 
sembles embryonic  connective  tissue,  and  is  subsequently 
transformed  into  fully-developed  connective  tissue  by  a 
process  in  all  respects  similar  to  that  which  occurs  in  nor- 
mal development,  and  which  is  accompanied  by  an  out- 
growth of  blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  and  sometimes  of 
nerves,  from  the  adjacent  parts  into  the  new  tissue.  Other 
new  formations  may  occur  under  favorable  circumstances; 
as,  for  example,  epithelium  may  be  developed  out  of  the 
lymph-cells  on  the  surface  of  healing  wounds  and  ulcers; 
bone  may  be  produced,  as  in  the  repair  of  fractures ;  in  in- 
flammatory processes  involving  the  periosteum,  etc.  etc. 
By  these  various  transformations  of  tho  inflammatory 
products,  on  the  one  hand,  the  repair  of  wounds  and  other 
losses  of  substance  is  effected,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 


adhesions,  indurations,  and  thickenings  which  result  from  in- 
flammation are  produced.  Moreover,  degenerative  changes 
may  involve  the  new-formed  tissue  at  any  stage  of  its  de- 
velopment. Fatty  degeneration  is  especially  lrc<|uent.  It 
is  prone  to  set  in  before  the  new  elements  have  lost  their 
original  lymphoid  character,  and  often  goes  so  far  as  to 
convert  the  new  formation  into  a  cheesy  mass  of  granular 
detritus,  in  which  shrunken  and  deformed  nuclei  aro  all 
that  remain  of  the  original  cell-forms. 

Besides  the  pathological  new  formations  which  result  from 
the  inflammatory  process,  manifold  new  formations  occur 
without  previous  inflammation,  appearing  sometimes  as 
more  or  less  extensive  infiltrations,  at  other  limes  as  isolated 
masses  or  tumors.  With  regard  to  these  also  it  is  unde- 
cided how  far  the  new  elements  originate  by  the  trans- 
formation of  migrated  white  c<»rpuscles,  or  how  far  they 
may  arise  by  the  multiplication  by  divi3i(m  of  the  normal 
elements  of  tho  affected  parts.  The  more  important  of  thcso 
new  formations  are  the  following. 

New  Furmationa  resembling  Comiccttve  Tissue  in  some 
Stages  of  its  Pevelopment. — These  may  occur  as  a  more  or 
less  widely  disseminated  increase  or  hyperplasia  of  the 
connective  tissue  of  the  part  affected — as,  for  example,  in 
certain  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  in  tho 
peculiar  thickening  of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissue 
I  known  as  elephantiasis,  etc. — or  they  may  manifest  thcm- 
j  selves  as  tumors.  The  group  of  tumors  which  resemble  in 
I  their  structure  the  embryonic  stages  of  connective  tissue  is 
I  designated  sarcoma,  and  several  varieties  are  discriminated, 
according  to  tho  stage  of  development  the  cells  have  at- 
tained, their  arrangement,  ami  the  characteristics  of  tho 
matrix  in  which  they  are  imbedded.  According  as  llic 
cells  arc  round  or  elongated,  a  round-celled  sarcoma  and  a 
spindle-celled  sarcoma  may  be  discriminated,  and  each  of 
these  again  may  be  divided  into  a  small-celled  and  a  large- 
celled  variety.  The  matrix  may  be  homogeneous  or  more 
or  less  distinctly  fibrillateil,  giving  rise  to  considerable 
variations  in  tho  consistency  and  appearances  of  tho 
growth,  AVhen  the  matrix  consists  of  a  mucin-yielding 
material,  tho  tumor  is  discriminated  from  sarcoma  under 
the  designation  mtfxoma.  Certain  tumors  of  the  brain  and 
nervous  system,  which  resemble  in  their  structure  the  neu- 
roglia or  connective  tissue  of  the  nerve-centres,  are  also 
separated  from  sarcoma  under  the  designation  glioma. 
Sometimes  spindle-celis,  like  those  of  spiudle-ccUcd  sar- 
coma, are  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  areolar  sfrueture,  tho 
meshes  or  alveoli  of  which  are  filled  with  cells  resembling 
those  of  round-celled  sarcoma.  The  structure  thus  pro- 
duced is  so  analogous  to  certain  forms  of  cancer  that  it  has 
been  called  carcinomatous  sarcoma.  The  cells  of  such 
growths  arc  sometimes  the  seat  of  an  abundant  deposit  of 
black  pigment,  constituting  one  of  the  varieties  of  mela- 
notic cancer.  A  similar  pigment  deposit  also  takes  place 
sometimes  in  spindle-celled  sarcoma.  Tumors  which  re- 
semble fully-developed  connective  tissue  are  known  as 
fibroid  tumors  or  fibroma.  They  are  characterized  by  tho 
abundant  and  distinctly  fibrillated  matrix  in  which  Ihtir 
oval  or  spindle-formed  cells  are  imbedded.  All  the  tumors 
of  the  connective-tissue  group  are  more  or  less  abundantly 
supplied  with  blood-vessels.  In  certain  eases  these  aro 
so  numerous  and  so  large  as  to  constitute  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  new  formation.  Such  growths  are  em- 
braced under  the  term  angioma. 

Xar  formations  of  adipose  tissue  may  occur  cither  as  a 
general  hyperplasia  of  the  fat  of  certain  organs  or  of  the 
whole  body,  as  in  obesity,  or  as  the  form  of  tumor  known 
as  lipoma,  which  is  quite  similar  in  its  structure  to  normal 
adipose  tissue.  Sometimes  a  development  of  groups  of  fat- 
cells  takes  place  in  the  substance  of  a  sarcoma,  constituting 
the  variety  known  as  lipomatous  sarcoma. 

New  formations  of  cartilat/e.  occurring  in  tho  form  of 
tumors,  are  designated  enchoudroma.  They  most  gener- 
ally resemble  hyaline  cartilage  in  their  minute  structure, 
but  present  considerable  diversities  in  the  size  and  form  of 
the  cells  and  in  the  characters  of  the  matrix.  Portions  of 
the  matrix  are  frequently  calcified  :  other  portions  aro 
often  found  to  have  undergone  mucoid  softening.  Com- 
binations in  the  same  tumor  of  enchondroma  with  sarcoma 
or  with  new-formed  bone  as  osteoid-chondroma  also  occur. 
Ncic  fnrmnlioiis  tf  bone  are  observed  in  the  formation  of 
outgrowths  from  existing  bones,  as  osteophytes  or  e.roitoses, 
which,  when  they  acquire  considerable  size,  are  spoken  of 
as  bony  tumors — osteoma  ;  besides  which,  a  partial  ossifi- 
cation of  sarcomatous  and  enchondromatous  tumors,  or 
even  of  cancerous  gro^vths,  may  take  place,  and  must  bo 
distinguished  from  calcification  due  to  a  mere  deposit  of 
lime-salts. 

New  formationg  of  muscular  fibres  Eometimes  occur,  con- 
stituting the  form  of  tumor  known  as  nn/oma.  Tumors 
composed  chiefly  of  striated  mtiscular  fibres  are  rare,  but 
have  been  observed  in  the  walls  of  the  ventricles  of  tho 


HISTOLOGY. 


949 


heart.  Those  composed  of  muscular  fibre-cells  are  more 
coinmoD  ;  they  are  sometimes  found  in  connection  with  tho 
muscular  coat  of  the  alimeatary  canal,  and  still  more  fre- 
quently in  the  uterus. 

XfW  /iiniKitioiig  of  uevve-Jihres  and  nrrrc-rclh  also  OCCUr 
in  a  rare  lorni  of  tumor  situated  in  the  course  <»f  the  nerves, 
and  designated  nenroma.  The  same  term  has  been  applied 
to  sarcomatous  tumors  and  various  other  growths  situated 
on  the  nerves,  but  should  bo  reserved  for  tho  group  just 
indicated. 

At'ir  formntinnn  of  gfandtitititie  have  been  presumed  to 
exist,  constituting  a  variety  of  tumor  known  as  affeuomn, 
which  is  observed  in  the  female  breast,  the  salivary  glands, 
etc.  These  tumors  consist  of  gland-duets  an<l  hibulcs,  re- 
sembling those  of  tho  gland  affected,  but  pushed  apart  by 
an  intervening  tissue  which  presents  the  characters  of  sar- 
coma. It  has  not  been  demonstrated,  however,  that  the 
glandular  tissue  in  these  growths  is  actually  of  new  forma- 
tion, and  it  appears  on  tho  whole  more  probable  that  these 
growths  are  simply  sarcomata  entangling  a  portion  of  tho 
structure  of  the  gland  in  which  they  arc  seated. 

Besides  the  foregoing  new  formations,  tho  histological 
elements  of  which  closely  resemble  those  of  the  normal 
tissue,  there  are  certain  growths  in  which  tho  resemblance 
is  much  less  striking.  These  aro  vtirci'nomn  or  cancer  and 
tuftcrcfe.  In  fully-developed  cancers  the  older  portions  of 
tho  growth  consist  of  a  stroma  or  framework  which  resem- 
bles more  or  less  developed  connective  tissue  in  its  structure, 
and  which,  being  arranged  in  an  areolar  manner,  has  its 
interspaces  or  alveoli  filled  with  cells  of  a  more  or  less  de- 
cidedly epithelial  character.  In  the  marginal  or  more  re- 
eently  formed  portions  of  the  growth  a  network  of  elon- 
gated cylindri(!al  cell-masses  are  observed,  which  arc  con- 
tinuous with  the  cell-masses  of  the  older  portions  of  the 
growth,  and  which  evidently  lie  in  the  lymphatic  passages 
of  tho  part.  The  connective  tissue  between  the  terminal 
extremities  of  tho  cancer  ciffiu<if:r/t  is  infiltrated  with  a 
swarm  of  small  elements  resembling  migrated  white  cor- 
puscles, and  a  similar  swarm  infiltrates  tho  connective- 
tissue  stroma  of  all  parts  of  the  growth.  In  cancers  of 
the  skin,  and  those  mucous  membranes  which  arc  clad  with 
a  pavement  epithelium,  tho  elements  of  tho  cell-masses 
and  cancer  cylinders  present  a  striking  likeness  to  the  cells 
of  the  ilceper  layers  of  the  normal  ej)itheliuni,  a  row  of  co- 
lumnar cells  I)eing  situated  next  to  the  connectivc-tissuo 
stroma,  and  tho  remaining  cells,  which  are  oval  or  polyg- 
onal in  outline,  becoming  more  and  more  flattened  in  pro- 
portion as  they  are  more  removed  from  the  columnar  layer. 
Tho  most  distant  cells  even  undergo  a  horny  transformation, 
like  that  which  occurs  in  the  superfieial  layers  of  the  epi- 
dermis, and  accumulate  in  the  midst  of  the  older  cell-masses 
as  peculiar  concentric  bodies,  the  so-called  pearly  globules, 


or  tflulicH  epi 


Growths  presenting  these  charac- 


ters are  designated  epithfJiomn  or  epithelial  cancer.  Ii 
certain  cancers  commencing  in  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach  and  other  situations,  in  which  the  surface  is 
clad  with  a  columnar  or  cylindrical  epithelium,  the  cells 
of  tho  alveoli  and  of  tho  cancer  cylinders  present  similar 
characters,  constituting  a  variety  of  epithelial  cancer  known 
as  cfffinthomHy  or  cylindrical  epithelial  cancer.  In  most 
other  cancers — as,  for  example,  in  those  commencing  in  tho 
mammary  gland — the  resemblance  of  tho  cells  of  the  can- 
cer cylin'lers  to  epithelium  is  not  so  striking.  They  have 
comparaf ively  small  oval  nuclei,  an<l  are  surrounded  by  a 
scanty  protoplasm  without  any  distinguishable  cell-wall. 
In  tho  older  portions  of  the  growth,  however,  the  cells  aro 
larger,  with  larger  nueici  and  irregular  polygonal  outlines. 
so  that  they  approxinmlo  to  the  epithelial  type.  Such  cells 
wcro  formerly  called  r(tnrpr-rrJh,  and  supjuiscd  to  be  spe- 
cific. When  in  cancers  of  this  character  the  connective- 
tissue  stroma  is  firm  and  abuiulant,  making  tho  tumors 
dense  and  hard,  they  are  ricsigtiatcd  ttrin-fniH:  when  the 
cell-masses  of  thn  alveoli  are  relatively  the  most  abundant, 
tho  connective-tissue  stroma  being  scanty  and  often  imper- 
fectly developed,  they  arc  known  as  mcdudary  cnnrrr.  All 
the  forms  of  cancer  are  characterized  by  tho  tendency  of 
the  prinmry  growth  to  bo  suceeerlcd  by  multiple  growths 
of  the  neighboring  lymphatic  glands  and  in  the  internal 
organs,  and  by  their  ]tronencss  to  undergo  various  degen- 
erative changes.  Fatty  degeneration,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  freijuent  of  these  latter,  speedily  goes  on  to  c(miplelc 
cheesy  metamorphosis  and  destructioTi  of  tissue,  resulting 
in  the  cancerous  ulcer.  Colloid  degeneration  also  occurs, 
though  less  frequently,  sometimes  filling  tho  alveoli  with 
glue-like  masses,  and  constituting  what  is  known  as  colloid 
rnnrrr. 

Tuhrrcfc  occurs  primarily  as  minute  nodules,  tho  so- 
called  gray  granulations,  situated  most  frequently  in  tho 
adventitia  of  the  minute  arteries,  'fhey  consist  of  lym- 
phoid elements,  smaller  or  larger  cells,  with  sti-'uigty  re- 
iVactive   nuclei,  and    Mimctinn-s   still   lar^'cr   cell-like  plates 


with  several  nuclei,  all  united  together  by  a  finely  fibrillated 
matrix.  These  growths  are  especially  prone  to  undergo 
the  cheesy  metamorphosis,  and  arc  also  prone  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  inflammatory  processes  in  which  the  products 
of  the  inflammatiou  also  undergo  the  same  change.  This 
cheesy  metamorphosis  was  formerly  regarded  us  so  cha- 
racteristic of  tubercle  that  intlammatury  products  which 
had  undergone  it  were  generally  spoken  of  as  tubercular, 
without  reference  to  their  association  with  the  gray  gran- 
ulations. Especially  was  this  the  case  in  the  chronic  in- 
flammations of  the  lym])hatic  glands  and  of  the  smaller 
bronchial  tubes  and  lung  alveoli.  In  the  latter  instance, 
when  the  cheesy  metamorphosis  of  the  inflamnmtory  pro- 
duct involves  also  the  entangled  lung-tissue,  giving  rise  to 
the  production  of  cavities,  the  disease  has  been  very  gen- 
erally confounded  with  tubercular  phthisis;  from  which, 
however,  most  modern  histologists  would  separate  it.  (Tho 
reader,  desir<ms  of  further  iDformation,  must  bo  referred 
to  the  special  treatises.) 

liibfingrnpfn/. — P.  Stri(d(cr,  TTaiidhnch  drr  LrJirc  von  den 
Grwrhtn  dtt  Afcnsrhoi  iiitd  dvr  Thicre.  (Leipzig,  1870-72), 
translated  (London,  1870-7'J),  New  York,  1872,  is  espe- 
cially commendable  for  the  thorough  study  of  Iiistology. 
The  following  works    may    bo    used    in    connection    with 

it:  IL  Frey,  IJondhnrh  drr  fflstt,fi>f/i€  tnid  Uifiturhrviic  den 
AffUMrfirn  (2te  Aufl.,  Leipzig,  1807);  J.  Ilenle,  Hnndhnch 
der  HyHtematiHchcn  Auritomit:  den  Mriisehm  (Braunschweig, 
1856-71);  A.  Kollikcr,  Ilandlufh  dcr  Ciewrbflcfire  (Leip- 
zig, 1867);  also,  by  the  same,  MouKtil  of  Human  Micro- 
j  sropt'c  Anatoitnf  (London,  ISfiO).  The  following  works  are 
especially  devoted  to  the  methods  of  research  :  Vi.  Klein, 
section  on  histology  in  JIandhouk  f>>r  the  Physio{<i<jiciU 
Laboratory,  edited  by  J.  Burdon-Sanderson  (London, 
187.'i);  H.  Frey,  Dun  Mihroskop  iind  die  MikrosKopittcIie 
Tcclniik  (4te  Aufl.,  Leipzig,  1871);  also  the  same,  trans- 
lated by  George  R.  Cutter  (New  York,  1872);  Lionel  S. 
Beale,  Hmv  to  Wor/c  with  the  Microscope  (-Jth  ed.,  London, 
1868;  also  American  ed.,  Philadelphia.  1870);  AVilliam  B. 
Carpenter,  The  Microscope  and  itH  Itcrclntious  (Ith  ed., 
London,  1868);  Charles  Robin.  Traits  du  Microscope  [Vavis, 
1871).  Those  who  desire  to  trace  the  progress  of  histology 
from  the  commencement  of  the  century  may  consult  with 
advantage  the  following  works:  X.  Bitdiat,  Auafomie  04- 
ncrale  (Paris,  1801);  F.  Ilildelirandt,  Unndbnch  der  Anat- 
omic  dcs  Menschen  (-Itc  Aufl.  bcsorgt  von  E.  IL  Weber,  ' 
Braunschweig,  1880-32);  Th.  Schwann,  Microscopical  Jtc- 
scarchcn  into  the  Accordance  in  the  Structure  and  Growth 
of  Auiwah  and  Pfantf^,  and  M.  J.  Sclileiden,  Cojitributions 
to  Phi/to-ffcncnin  (j)rintcrl  for  the  Sydenham  Society,  Lon- 
don, 1847)  ;  J.  Berres,  Ana  tonne  der  Mi/cronhopinchcn 
Gchi/dc  dcs  mennchfichen  Korpern  (Vienna,  1830-42) ;  A. 
Donn<^'.  Court!  dc  Microicopie,  with  atlas  (Paris,  1844); 
C.  J.  M.  Tjangenbeck,  Mtkron/iOpisch-anatomischc  Abbil- 
duntjen  (Gilttingen,  1846-50);  L.  Mandl.  Afuitf)mic  Micro- 
Kcopique  (Paris,  1838-57);  F.  Leydig.  Lihrhuch  der  IHs- 
tolofjie  den  Menschen  und  der  Thicre  (Frankfurt-am-^Iain, 
1857)  ;  J.  <icrlach,  ffandburh  dcr  nl/iftnieinen  und  sjncicl- 
len  Gftrebcfchrc  dtn  mem^chltchen  h'Hrpcru  (2te  Aufl.  Vien- 
na, I860);  J.  Quain  and  William  Sharpey,  Ihnuan  Anatnmi/ 
(London,  184.^^7;  6th  ed.  London,  18.')V));  A.  H.  Unssall, 
Microscopic  Anatomy  of  the  Human  liody  (London,  1846- 
40);  J.  Quekett,  Lectures  on  /fisinfnf/y^hmnhm,  1852); 
also  by  the  same,  Cata/nrfue  of  the  /lintohr/ieaf.  Serid  in 
the  Royal  Colleije  of  Surfjrf,uH  of  England  (London,  1850); 
R.  15.  Todil  and  W.  Bowman,  The  Physioloffical  Anatomy 
and  Physiolofjy  of  Man  (2d  ed.  liOndon.  1856);  also  new 
edition  of  the  same  by  L.  S.  Beafe  (  London.  ]8riC.).  Among 
tho  works  on  pathological  histology  the  following  may  bo 
mentioned:  J.  IMiiller,  Vbcr  dm  fcinern  Itan  und  die  J'or- 
nicn  der  Kranhhaftcn  GeHchienhte  (  Berlin,  1838) ;  F.  Gucns- 
burg,  Die  pathofof/fHche  Geirebc/chrc  (Leipzig,  1845-48); 
J.  Vogel.  IconcR  Histolotfin-  Pfttholotjiie  I  Lcipsic,  1845-48); 
Carl  Wedl,  Pudimoits  of  Patho/o;,iral  lliHtohufy,  translated 
for  the  Sydenham  Society  (Lumlon,  1855);  II.  Lebert, 
Traits  d'anatomic  patholmjique,  gfn^rnle  et  sp/'cinlcs  {Va- 
ris,  1857-61);  II.  Virchow,  J)i*f  Ce/fufar  Patholne/ie  (Ber- 
lin, 1858),  translated  by  Frank  Chance  (Philadelphia, 
1863);  also  by  the  same,  hie  KrauKliaftm  firtehu  U/xft 
(Berlin,  1863-67)  —  a  work  which  still  reuuiins  unfm 
ished,  but  which  is  especially  rich  in  tho  bibliography  of 
tho  subject ;  Lionel  S.  Beale,  The  Microsropc  in  its  Ap- 
plication to  Prnrticnl  Mcdiciur  (3d  od.  London,  lS(i7); 
also  Amer.  reprint  (Philadelphia,  1867);  T.  Billroth,  Die 
a/lfpmeinr  chirurfjischc  Pathofotjic  und  Therapie  (2lc  Aufl. 
Berlin,  ls66);  nUo  translation  of  the  4th  cd,  by  0.  E, 
Ilaekley  (New  York.  1871);  E.  Rindflcisch,  Lrhrbnvh  der 
patholofjiHchtn  Grtcrhrlchrr  (4te  Aufl.  Leipzig,  I87;[);  also 
translation  of  the  2d  ed.  for  tho  New  .*^ydenham  Society 
London,  1872-73);  also  American  translation  t  Phila<lelphia, 

A.  Thicrfeldcr.  Atlan  drr  Pathol o-jixrh^n    I/ititofofjie 


1S7 

(Leipzig,  1872-73),  unfinished. 


J.  J.  WudOWAun. 


950 


HISTORY. 


Ilis'tory  [Or.  i<rTopia,  from  io-Topew,  to  "learn  by  in- 
quiry," to  '■  examine  ''),  etyniologically,  denotes  ascertain- 
ment  by  inqitin/,  hence  tlu'  process  of  investigation  ;  hence, 
further,  an  acuouut  of  the  circumstances  thus  asccrtaineil. 
In  its  most  ordinary  sense  it  is  restricted  to  a  narrative  of 
transactions  in  the  order  of  time,  with  or  without  critical 
and  pi'.ilosophical  commentary.  As  such  alone  we  propose 
to  consider  it.  Wc  shail  commence  with  a  hriuf  account  of 
the  progress  of  historical  narrative  from  its  primitive  ori- 
gin to  our  own  times  j  we  shall  next  enumerate  the  recent 
modifications  which  are  more  and  more  transforming  it 
from  a  simple  record  to  a  complex  department  of  study; 
and  shall  conclude  with  a  few  words  of  advice  on  the 
method  of  obtaining  a  competent  acquaintance  with  it. 

In  its  origin,  history,  considered  us  a  method  of  record- 
ing events,  is  indistinguishable  from  oral  tradition,  which 
seldom  preserves  the  memory  of  any  but  the  most  remark- 
able occurrences  beyond  three  or  four  generations.  A  con- 
siderable advance  was  made  when  traditions  assumed  the 
form  of  ballads,  easily  remembered  and  repeated,  but  no 
really  authentic  record  could  exist  ])rcvious  to  the  inven- 
tion of  writing.  The  first  application  of  this  art  was  to 
monumental  purposes,  and  along  with  the  invocation  of 
deities,  chronicles  of  the  actions  of  kings  began  to  figure 
npon  Egyptian  temples.  The  invention  of  papyrus  as  a 
writing-material  was  a  further  step  in  advance,  and  from 
this  period  (possibly  about  .'iUOO  n.  c.)  the  Egyptians  may 
be  said  to  have  possessed  an  historical  literature.  The 
practice  of  recording  events  in  writing  spread  in  due  time 
to  the  Hebrews,  the  Pha^niciaus,  the  Chaldieans,  and  the 
Assyrians,  but  the  pursuit  of"  history  as  a  branch  of  literary 
art,  and  tho  study  of  it  as  a  department  of  intellectual  cul- 
ture, were  reserved  for  the  Greeks.  About  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  b.  c,  Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  composed 
the  first  work  fully  answering  to  our  present  idea  of  his- 
tory, presenting  the  results  of  his  own  inquiries  into  a 
scries  of  previous  transactions  in  a  thoroughly  artistic  form. 
As  more  narrative  the  work  of  Herodotus  has  never  been 
surpassed  to  this  day,  and,  notwithstanding  his  occasional 
credulity,  he  is  fully  impressed  with  the  principle  that  the 
historian's  first  duty  is  to  ascertain  and  record  tiie  truth. 
A  considerable  step  in  advance  was  taken  by  the  next 
great  historian,  Thucydidcs,  who,  not  content  with  relating 
the  actions  of  men,  endeavors  to  penetrate  into  their  mo- 
tives, and  to  investigate  not  merely  the  accompanying  in- 
cidents, but  the  determining  causes  of  changes  in  human 
affairs.  As  Herodotus  is  the  first  great  narrator,  so  is 
Thucydides  tho  first  great  philosophical  hisEorian  ;  and 
almost  all  good  history  since  their  time  has  been  written 
on  the  model  afforded  by  one  or  the  other.  Some  new  ele- 
ments were  added  to  tho  conception  of  Thucydides  by  tho 
next  distinguished  philosophical  historian,  Polybius,  who, 
living  in  the  age  when  all  other  states  were  succumbing  to 
the  power  of  Rome,  was  enabled  to  investigate  the  causes 
of  national  greatness  and  decay  on  a  much  larger  scale  than 
his  predecessor.  Xcnophon's  Anabusis  and  Cicsar's  Com- 
meittitn'rs  arc  perfect  examples  of  pure  narrative  unaccom- 

1>anicd  by  reflection.  Of  the  two  great  Koman  historians, 
jivy,  like  Herodotus,  aims  principally  at  narrative,  but 
aims  at  another  purpose  alien  to  the  simplicity  of  his 
model — the  glorification  of  his  own  people,  whose  prose 
epic,  in  fact,  he  has  written.  He  also  follows  the  example 
of  Thucydides  in  interspersing  his  own  reflections,  fre- 
quently in  the  form  of  speeches  placed  in  the  mouths  of  his- 
torical personages;  his  work  may  be  considered  as  the 
finest  ancient  example  of  the  eclectic  or  composite  style. 
Tacitus  imitates  Thucydides,  but  with  tho  addition  of  an 
element  distinctively  his  own — an  intense  uKtral  purpose. 
Escaped  from  an  era  of  tyranny,  the  subject  of  his  history, 
he  aims  at  painting  it  in  the  blackest  colors  to  prevent  any 
subsequent  relapse  into  it.  He  has  thus  become  the  typi- 
cal representative  of  an  important  department  of  history. 
Afany  valuable  historians  flourished  during  the  decline  of 
tho  Koman  empire,  but  wc  meet  with  none  of  special  mark 
before  Eusebius  (a.  d.  330),  tho  first  great  ecclesiastical 
historian,  and  Procopius  (a.  d.  5.00),  neither  philosophical 
nor  eloquent,  but  the  model  of  tho  dry,  impartial,  business- 
like historian. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  history  was  entirely  eclipsed, 
except  among  the  Saracens.  Ignorance,  superstition,  the 
slow  circulation  of  intelligence,  the  barbarism  of  language, 
and  tho  total  loss  of  the  critical  spirit  conspired  to  reduce 
iiistorians  for  several  centuries  to  mere  annalists.  Tho 
intellectual  revival  of  the  twelfth  century  produced  a 
marked  improvement,  but  History  was  not  rejtlaced  upon 
her  old  footing  until  the  resurrection  of  classical  literature 
iiad  brought  good  models  to  light,  and  the  invention  of 
printing  rendered  them  generally  accessible.  Two  great 
Italian  historians,  JIacchiavelli  and  (iuicciardini,  kindred 
spirits  to  Thucytlides  and  Tacitus,  traced,  the  former  the 
mediicval,  the  latter  the  contemporary*  history  of  his  coun- 


try, with  a  mastery  that  fixed  the  standard  of  historical 
composition  for  the  language.  Their  example,  though 
not  their  style,  was  emulated  by  I>e  Thou,  the  French,  and 
Davila,  the  Italian,  historian  of  the  wars  of  religion  in 
France;  by  J^luriana.  the  historian  of  Spain,  and  Strada, 
the  elegant  but  inaccurate  narrator  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Low  Countries  ;  Raleigh,  the  first  Englishman  to  attempt  a 
history  of  tho  world,  and  Clarendon,  whose  account  of  the 
Uebellion  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  a  partisan  history. 
These  remain  the  only  eminent  English  historians  until 
Hume,  the  magic  of  whose  style  and  the  symmetry  of  whose 
narrative  atones  in  some  degree  for  his  negligence  and 
prejudice.  Robertson  gave  the  first  example  of  a  high-class 
English  historian  devoting  himself  to  the  transactions  of 
foreign  nations.  His  knowledge  of  the  world  ensured  him 
a  full  measure  of  success  as  a  political  historian,  thoutjh 
his  Hiaturif  of  America  has  been  superseded  by  Prescott, 
and  his  IJistori/  of  Charles  I',  is  marreil  by  his  ignorance 
of  German.  A  far  greater  name  is  that  of  his  contempo- 
rary. Gibbon,  whose  Decline  and  Fall  f>f  the  Jioman  Empire 
is  perhaps  tho  greatest  historical  work  ever  ]truduced — tho 
most  signal  example  of  diligence  in  the  accumulation  and 
of  mastery  in  the  control  of  enormous  materials.  Gibbon's 
judgment  is  almost  infallible,  and  his  historical  portraits 
arc  as  accurate  as  they  are  brilliant.  His  principal  defect 
is  his  insensibility  to  the  sj)iritual  side  of  man's  nature. 

Since  the  eighteenth  century  history  has  claimed  more  and 
more  the  attention  of  superior  minds,  and  we  must  be  content 
with  a  bare  enumeration  of  some  of  the  principal  works. 
Early  English  history  has  been  treated  by  Freeman,  that 
of  the  Tudor  dynasty  by  Fronde,  the  Commonwealth  by 
Guizot,  the  Revolution  by  the  dazzling  but  too  rhetorical 
Macaulay,  Scottish  history  by  Tytler  and  Burton.  France 
boasts  a  constellation  of  the  brightest  historical  names, 
including  Michelet,  her  general  historian  ;  Thierry,  the  in- 
vestigator of  her  early  history;  Thiers,  the  least  scrupu- 
lous, but  the  most  genuinely  national  of  all  her  writers; 
Guizot,  Barante,  Lamartine,  Louis  Blanc,  Henri  Martin, 
etc.  The  subordinate  historical  branch  of  memoir-writing 
has  also  flourished  more  among  the  French  than  among 
any  other  nation.  In  virtue  of  its  subject,  Mr.  Carlyle's 
French  JUvolutifn  may  be  included  among  French  histories. 
This  extraordinary  work,  a  poem  rather  than  a  narrative, 
is  the  only  modern  book  that  has  added  an  entirely  new 
type  to  history. 

Some  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  Italian  his- 
tory have  been  made  by  foreigners,  Sismondi,  Roscoc,  Grc- 
gorovius,  but  Italy  also  boasts  her  Botta,  Cantil,  and  Col- 
letta.  Germany  has  ])roduced  a  national  historian  in  Jor 
hannes  Miiller,  and  the  greatest  of  merely  political  histo- 
rians in  Ranke ;  her  mediaeval  history  is  recounted  by  Von 
Raumer.  Schlosser's  general  history  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Schiller's  Thirty  Yem-g  \Var,  and  Heeren's  Hia- 
tortf  of  Commerce  are  additional  instances  of  first-class 
(jerman  histories;  the  number  of  the  simply  meritorious  is 
legion.  The  American  Motley  ha^  immortalized  himself 
as  the  historian  of  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
history  of  Bohemia  has  been  classically  written  by  Pa- 
lacky,  of  Russia  by  Karamsin,  of  S^veden  by  (»eijer,  and 
of  Portugal  by  Hercolano.  The  story  of  the  (ireek  war  of 
independence  has  been  told  by  Tricoupi.  Bancroft  is  as 
yet  the  standard  historian  of  the  T.  S.,  though  it  is  un- 
likely that  he  will  remain  so.  The  best  histories  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  South  America  are  by  Prescott  and 
Arthur  Helps.  \'ery  great  ability  has  been  displayed  in 
technical  military  histories,  of  which  we  can  only  mention 
that  of  the  Peninsular  war  by  Gen.  W.  F.  P.  Napier. 

The  reconstruction  of  philology  and  archaeology  has  di- 
rected attention  to  classical  history,  which,  with  thcexcep- 
tion  of  the  era  comprehended  in  Gibbon's  work,  ma^'  be 
said  to  have  been  completely  rewritten  during  the  present 
century.  Niebuhr,  though  sometimes  unduly  skeptical, 
effectually  disentangled  the  legendary  from  the  authentic 
portions  of  early  Roman  history.  The  history  of  the  Re- 
public has  been  written  on  a  grand  scale  by  .Alummsen,  and 
the  interval  between  him  and  Gibbon  has  been  ably  bridged 
by  Dean  Merivale.  Grote  has  ])roduccd  what  will  long  re- 
main the  standard  history  of  the  Greek  republics,  although 
its  animation  is  by  no  means  equal  to  its  erudition  and  sa- 
gacity. The  history  of  tho  Christian  Church  has  been  ad- 
mirably told  by  Milraan.  Dunckcr's  History  of  the  Aryan 
Have  gives  a  brilliant  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  early 
historical  period  of  this  section  of  mankind.  The  history 
{as  yet  so  obscure)  of  Egypt  is  told  by  IJrugsoh,  and  that 
of  Assyria  by  Rawlinson.  India  has  found  eminent  his- 
torians in  Mill  and  Orme,  and  its  ancient  annals  have  been 
critically  investigated  by  Lassen  and  his  coadjutors.  Tlie 
rise  of  Mohammedanism  has  employed  the  pens  of  Muir, 
Sprenger.  and  others.  Nor  ought  we  to  omit  the  native 
Oriental  historians,  among  whom  may  particularly  be 
named  Mirkhoud,  the  historian  of  Persi.a. 


HISTORY. 


951 


Finally,  an  important  class  of  history,  much  cultivatej 
in  moJcrn  times,  may  be  described  as  cullHteral  or  auxil- 
iary to  history  ]>roper.  Its  ofrico  is  to  treat  of  tlie  origin 
ami  progrc53  oi"  human  purcuits  or  iuMitiitinns,  such  as 
comiufTce  or  law.  whith  involves  a  chrouuluf^ical  arrange- 
ment, though  the  mention  of  persons  orevents  is  only^ub- 
sitliary  to  the  main  design,  llallam's  Constitutional  Ilia- 
tortf  is  an  example. 

The  spirit  of  modern  times  has  modified  the  study  of 
history  in  four  principal  ways  :  (1)  By  the  resort,  as  amain 
source  of  information,  to  archives,  including  statutes,  char- 
ters, public  documents  of  all  kinds,  diplomatic  and  even 
private  correspondence.  (2)  By  the  endeavor  to  recon- 
struct the  private  as  well  as  the  public  life  of  nations,  in- 
volving an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  minutiae  of  their 
daily  existence.  f;i)  l!y  the  application  of  tho  mythical 
theory  to  fabulous,  sometimes  even  to  extraordinary,  nar- 
ratives, (4)  Ity  the  attempt  to  frame  a  philosophy  of  his- 
tory— I.  <•.  to  discover  tho  general  laws  on  which  particular 
events  depend. 

Ai'chivew,  StHtutcHf  etc. — It  was  long  before  it  was  recog- 
nized that  tho  history  of  every  civilized  people  was  in 
some  sort  written  in  its  pubUc  institutions,  and  that  the 
essential  principles  underlying  groat  struggles  were  di--^- 
playcd  in  such  manifestoes  as  tho  Solemn  League  and  Cov- 
enant or  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Such  were 
comparatively  rare  in  antiquity,  during  which  period  tho 
value  of  documentary  evidence  as  an  aid  to  history  was 
very  imperfectly  recognized.  Nor  was  it  sufficiently  at- 
tended to  among  tho  raodcrns  until  tho  obscurity  and  im- 
perfection of  the  annalists  of  the  Mi'ldle  Ages  led  histor- 
ians to  resort  to  the  contemporary  archives  as  a  supple- 
mentary source  of  information.  It  was  soon  discovered 
(hat  laws  and  charters  not  only  filled  up  tlio  outlines  of 
historians,  but  corrected  their  errors:  and  it  is  now  uni- 
versally admitteil  that  an  authentic  history  of  any  period 
must  be  based  upon  doeumentary  testimony  where  such  is 
pracnrable.  Tho  principle  is  of  course  liable  to  exceptions 
fr»m  the  occasional  deliberate  falsification  of  such  testi- 
mony, the  preambles  of  laws  frequently  stating  considera- 
tions notoriously  at  variance  with  truth,  and  letters  ex- 
pressing the  wishes  and  designs,  rather  tlian  tho  convic- 
tions, of  tho  writer.  It  is  uevertlieless  certain  that  this 
gclf-delincation  presents,  on  tho  whole,  both  a  truer  ami 
livelier  picture  of  an  age  than  any  formal  narrative  ;  and 
no  history  would  now  bo  considered  adequate  where  every 
possible  U90  liad  not  been  made  of  documentary  materials. 
The  researches  of  palajographical  scholars,  and  the  disclo- 
sure of  state  archives  long  jealously  secluded,  havo  im- 
mensely increased  tho  resources  of  this  nature  at  tho  dis- 
p(»«al  of  historical  SL*holars.  Tho  valuable  histories  of 
Hanke  arc  based  almost  entirely  upon  the  examination  of 
coutidential  state  papers.  Much  has  been  dono  and  is 
iloing  in  England  by  tho  official  publication  of  abstracts 
of  tlie  eorresp<indencc  preserved  in  the  Record  Office. 

Jlittnrif  in  itn  Hvffttloii  to  Private  Life. — It  was  natural 
that  in  its  infancy  the  attention  of  history  should  be  prin- 
cipally fixed  upon  great  public  events  and  picturesque  oc- 
currences. "  To  rescue  from  oblivion  tho  memory  of  former 
incidents,  and  to  render  a  just  tributeof  renown  to  the  many 
great  and  wonderful  actions  both  of  (Irceks  and  barbarians, 
Herodotus  of  Haliearnassns  produces  this  historical  essay." 
The  same  prineiple  actuated  all  ancient  historians,  and  their 
references  to  the  "tatc  of  nmnners  or  the  social  condition  of 
(he  people  are  in  general  merely  incidental.  Tho  conviction 
I  hat  the  intrigues  of  cabinets  and  tho  shocks  of  armies  arc 
only  important  in  so  far  as  they  affect  tho  general  well- 
being  originated  with  the  humane  philosophy  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  It  has  now  thorouglily  leavened  every 
branch  of  historical  research,  and  has  ]>owerfully  contrib- 
uted to  give  birth  to  a  philosophy  *d"  history.  Kxternal  in- 
cidents, so  far  from  being  considered  as  the  sole  objects  of 
historical  inquiry,  are  now  chiefly  valued  for  the  light  they 
afford  to  tho  primal  causes  on  which  tho  march  of  history 
depends,  and,  unless  in  the  case  of  profensedly  military  or 
political  histories,  no  historian  is  satisfied  unless  he  can 
evhibit  tho  moral  and  sorial  condition  of  a  nation  at  a 
given  period  with  the  same  vividness  as  that  with  which 
ho  would  detail  a  jMiblic  occurrence  or  depiet  a  political 
character.  Macaulay's  view  nf  the  social  state  of  Kngland 
at  tho  Revolution,  and  Mill's  picture  of  the  condition  of 
India  at  (ho  British  conquest,  are  famous  examples.  This 
expansion  of  (he  pcopo  of  history  hns  necessarily  introduced 
the  most  imjiortant  modifications  into  historical  composition, 
and  greatly  extended  tho  ran geof  accomplishments  requisite 
for  Iho  liistorian. 

Thr  .\ft/tfiirnf  Thrnrt(. — Tn  tho  earliest  ages  of  historieni 
authorship  stories  uf  the  supernatural,  even  if  referrinj;  tn 
contemporaries,  were  accepted  as  intrinsieatly  eroflible,  and 
all  tho  early  history  of  nations  was  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of 
legend.     The  existence  of  a  critical  spirit,  however,  soon 


makes  itself  manifest,  but  the  legendary  element  was  scru- 
tinized on  no  satisfactory  prineiple.  According  to  the  theory 
of  Euhemcrus,  improbable  stories  were  regarded  as  distor- 
tions of  actual  pros;iic  occurrences;  thus,  when  Hercules  is 
said  to  have  slain  the  Lerna'an  hydra,  it  is  to  be  understood 
that  he  drained  the  Lerntean  marsh.  Another  theory,  preva- 
lent in  the  Middle  .Vges.  and  of  which  Bryant  is  the  most 
characteristic  modern  representative,  regards  all  legendary 
fables  as  perversions  of  a  really  veracious  archetype;  thus, 
Hercules  is  to  be  identified  with  Samson.  Both  these  views 
are  now  exploded,  and  legends  regarded  either  as  "the 
natural  effusions  of  the  unlettered,  imaginative,  and  believ- 
ing man"  {(irotf),  or  as  anthropomorphic  representations 
of  natural  phenomena,  whose  original  signification  had  been 
forgotten.  {Cox,  Ma.r  Miillcr.  etc.)  Whether  their  origin 
be  referred  to  nature  or  imagination,  they  aro  cquolly  re- 
garded as  poetry,  only  available  in  small  measure  and  with 
the  utmost  caution  for  the  ascertainment  of  authentic  his- 
tory. Tho  first  ap])lication  of  this  prineiide  on  a  largo 
scale  was  made  by  Xiebuhr  in  his  Koman  history,  and  the 
result  has  been  to  clear  our  histories  of  iuuumcrable  popular 
legends,  and  to  free  ancient  history  in  particular  from  for- 
midable chronological  ditlicultics.  besides  destroying  one 
great  source  of  error  in  the  construction  of  theories  to  ac- 
count for  what  never  took  place.  The  study  of  folk-lore 
has  also  discredited  many  occurrences  not  intrinsically  in- 
credible ;  tho  story  of  Tell  and  the  nppic,  for  instance,  loses 
its  claims  to  credence  as  soon  as  it  is  shown  to  be  an  ordi- 
nary incident  in  popular  mythology.  It  can  scarcely  be 
disputed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  interpretation  of  tra- 
dition has  frequently  afforded  pretexts  for  the  most  extrav- 
agant theories,  such  as  the  resolution  of  the  heroes  of  the 
Ilinfl,  liamai/aiia,  and  other  epics  into  mere  celestial  and 
atmospheric  phenomena.  It  might  be  safe  to  admit,  as  a 
general  principle,  that  where  go<ls  alone  arc  introduced  in 
a  legend  the  deification  of  Nature  may  be  suspected,  but 
that  there  is  room  for  the  supposition  of  actual  event  where 
mortals  are  also  concerned. 

PhiloKophy  of  Ilintonj. — The  idea  of  a  philosophy  of 
history  could  not  arise  until  after  the  conception  of  a 
universal  history  had  been  formed;  and  this  was  scarcely 
possible  until  after  the  rculization  of  a  universal  empire. 
Tho  Roman  empire,  however,  was  hardly  established  ere  it 
began  to  decline,  and  tho  accompanying  decadence  of  in- 
tclieetual  power  prevented  any  attempt  at  a  general  phi- 
losophy of  history  until  the  days  of  iSt.  Augustine,  who 
was  led  to  undertake  it  by  the  necessity  of  exonerating  his 
religion,  to  whose  prevalence  tho  downfall  of  the  empire 
■was  naturally  attributed  by  its  adversaries,  from  respon- 
sibility for  tiio  political  disasters  of  the  time.  From  this 
jiointof  view  his  V'-  Ciritatc  JJci  is  a  masterly  performance, 
but  its  inadequacy  to  afford  a  theory  of  the  course  of  his- 
torical development  may  be  inferred  from  its  regarding 
tho  whole  course  of  occurrences  merely  in  their  relation  to 
tho  (.'hrislian  Chureh.  and  its  consequent  restriction  to  the 
records  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  of  the  heathen 
nations  affected  by  the  promulgation  of  Christianity.  Its 
limitations,  however,  were  unnoticed  by  the  incurious  spirit 
of  the  Middle  Ages;  and  no  progress  towards  historical 
philosophy  was  discernible  until  (in  1607)  Jean  Bodin 
enunciated  the  proposition  that  the  course  of  events  is  con- 
trolled by  definite  laws  admitting  of  investigation  by  the 
human  intellect.  The  next  great  writer  who  took  up  the 
subject  was  Bossuet,  but  his  Dincouracon  Univcrmil  llixtory, 
often  cited  as  the  foundation  of  the  science,  is  little  more 
than  an  improved  repul)lication  of  Augustine.  The  true 
founder  of  historical  philosophy  was  tho  Italian  Vico, 
I  whose  NciQ  Science  (172;'»)  first  ottemptcd  that  scientific 
I  explanation  (d*  the  course  of  events  whoso  possibility  bad 
t  been  asserted  by   Bodin.     The  author,  who  had  reflected 

[)rofoundly   on    tho    phenomcua   attending    revolutions    in 
luman  history,  deduces  from  Uiein  thejirinciples  which  regu- 
i  late  tho  origin  and  development  of  society.    The  germ  of  his 
■  political   speculations   exists   in   a  memorable   passage   in 
Plato's  Ilejuth/ir,  but  what  with  Plato  is  mere  assertion  is 
I  with  Vieo  oorroborated   by  a  command  over  the  vast  mass 
i  of  experience  which  had  accumulated   since   Plato's  nge. 
I  His  great  problem  is  to  reconcile  the  existence  of  a  divine 
I  plan    of  history   with    tho    frecilom   of  human   agency,   in 
which  be  has  perhaps  been  as  successful  as  any  of  his  suc- 
cessors.    The  idea  of  a  deduction  of  all  human  events  from 
I  first  principles  being  oneo  admitted,  various  attempts  tn 
I  ascertain    these   principles  began   to    be  made,  leading  to 
1  the  establishment  of  rival   hist'uical   cehools.     The  great 
'  maxim,  that  the  grand  determining  causes  of  history  are 
general  laws  which  even  the  most  distinguished  individuals 
obey  while  they  seem  to  control,  was  placed  in  the  clearest 
lislii  by  Montesquieu  (l7-t'0-     The  chief  merit  of  his  con- 
temporary, Voltaire,  is  not  the  application  of  liny  prineiide, 
hut  the  fearless  an"i   indepenrlent  spirit  whicli  elenred   his- 
tory  of  everything  intrinsieally  insignificant  or  dependent 


952 


HIT— HITCHCOCK. 


upon  mere  traditional  sanction.  With  all  his  brilliancy  of 
detail,  his  general  view  of  history  is  discouraging  and  ig- 
noble. Condorcet  ( 17U3)  arrived  at  the  opposite  couclusiou, 
and  first  laid  it  down  distinctly  that  the  operation  of  the 
laws  recognized  by  Vico  leads  detinitely  and  inevitably  to 
the  elevation  of  humanity  as  a  whole.  This  generalization 
woulil  now  hardly  be  disputed  by  any  philosophical  writer, 
but  great  differences  still  e.xistas  to  what  tendencies  should 
be  allowed  to  rank  as  laws,  and  as  to  the  best  method  of 
expressing  and  classifying  them.  The  grandest  attempt 
ever  made  to  sum  up  all  historical  principles  under  a  single 
formula  is,  so  far,  that  of  Hegel  (18;{7).  Hegel  conceives 
the  development  of  history  to  represent  the  progress  of  the 
principle  of  the  universe  itself  from  a  condition  of  chaos 
to  one  of  self-consciousness.  Every  important  stage  in 
history  is  identified  with  some  ruling  idea  which  it  has 
been  its  mission  to  express  and  exhaust,  that  humanity 
may  proceed  to  develop  the  next.  Fricdrich  von  Schlcgel, 
on  the  contrary,  explains  hi.story  as  the  striving  back  of 
mankind  to  a  lost  condition  of  original  blessedness.  It  is 
the  great  merit  of  Herder  (1791)  to  have  pointed  out  the 
vast  influence  of  external  nature  on  mankind,  and  of  St. 
Simon  (18i:j)  to  have  shown  the  connection  of  history  with 
the  physical  sciences.  St.  Simon,  borrowing  jierhaps  a  hint 
from  Turgot,  also  enunciated  the  principle  of  two  neces- 
sary stages  of  human  thought — the  theological  and  the 
physical — subsequently  expanded  by  Couite  into  hi?  famous 
doctrine  of  the  three  stages — the  theological,  the  metaphys- 
ical, and  the  positive.  The  significance  of  this  pregnant 
suggestion  is  evinced  by  the  debate  which  it  has  excited; 
but  itcertainly  cannot  be  allowed  to  rank  as  a  demonstrated 
Jaw  so  long  as  all  three  of  these  hypothctically  successive 
stages  continue  to  coexist  in  all  civilized  nations.  Michelet 
and  Pierre  Leroux  have  contributed  valuable  principles  to 
historical  science  by  inristing  on  the  fundamental  unity  of 
all  peoples  in  spite  of  national  distinctions,  and  De  Toc- 
queville  by  his  recognition  of  the  fact  that  real  progress 
inevitably  tends  to  democracy.  Bonald,  on  the  contrary, 
has  revived  the  theocratic  conception  of  Augustine.  To 
Bunsen  we  are  indebted  for  the  proof  of  the  degree  to 
which  history  ha:^  inscribed  itself  upon  language;  to 
Buckle,  for  a  demonstration  of  the  paramount  importance 
of  intellectual  progress  as  an  instrument  of  national  de- 
velopment. Mr.  Lecky  has  exhibited  in  a  most  striking 
manner  the  sudden  and,  as  it  almost  appears,  spontaneous 
disappearance  of  accredited  beliefs,  whose  hold  upon  men's 
minds  has  long  been  imperceptibly  loosening.  The  prin- 
cipal danger  of  such  speculations  is  their  tendency  to 
subordinate  individual  action  altogether  to  general  laws, 
and  to  overlook  the  diversities  of  human  character  as  agen- 
cies in  shaping  the  destinies  of  nations.  The  American 
and  French  Revolutions  were  no  doubt  equally  inevitable, 
but  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  no  satisfactory 
reason  can  be  given  why  one  might  not  as  well  as  the  other 
have  brought  forth  a  Washington.  Russia  owes  her  pres- 
ent position  to  Peter,  Prussia  to  Frederick,  but  no  rule  can 
be  deduced  from  historical  science  to  show  that  either  of 
these  sovereigns  must  necessarily  have  been  a  man  of 
genius.  Mr.  Carlyle,  on  the  other  hand,  greatly  exagger- 
ates the  hero's  independence  of  circumstances.  An  ex- 
cellent account  of  the  chief  writers  on  the  philosophy  of 
histor}',  by  Prof.  Flint  of  St.  Andrew's,  is  now  iu  course 
of  publication. 

The  Study  of  Hisf'in/. — As  there  is  no  study  more  de- 
lightful than  that  of  history,  so  is  there  none  more  vitally 
necessary  to  the  citizen  of  a  free  state.  The  constitution 
of  a  democratic  republic  especially,  assuming  as  an  indis- 
pensable condition  of  its  working  that  every  citizen  shall 
take  an  intelligent  interest  in  public  atfairs,  imposes  the 
study  of  history  us  a  duty  incumbent  upon  all.  It  is  im- 
possible to  form  a  correct  judgment  of  present  circum- 
stances without  the  means  of  comparison  with  the  past 
supplied  by  a  knowledge  of  history.  The  stuilent  must 
bear  in  mind,  however,  that  all  such  knowledge  is  not 
equally  useful.  The  annals  of  great  military  monarchies 
supply  comparatively  little  that  the  citizen  of  a  free  state 
can  turn  to  account,  and  some  of  the  most  attractive  chap- 
ters of  human  history — that  of  Egypt,  for  instance — are 
chiefly  im|>ortant  to  the  cultivators  of  special  studies.  The 
American  citizen  should  especially  familiarize  himself  with 
the  history  of  free  states,  his  own  country  before  all  others; 
then  the  great  and  free  country  from  which  it  sprang,  and 
from  whose  institutions  its  own  are  derived  ;  then  the  pro- 
totypes of  freedom  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  If  possi- 
ble, ho  should  also  familiarize  himself  with  the  slow  devel- 
opment of  Roman  institutions  into  the  feudalism  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  the  continuous  transformation  undergone 
by  the  latter.  To  state  the  conclusions  which  he  might 
probably  deduce  from  such  an  inquiry  would  involve  tres- 
pass on  the  grouni  of  contemporary  politics;  nor  need  we 
do  more  than  allude  to  the  splendid  examples  of  excellence 


with  which  history  abounds,  and  their  obvious  tendency  to 
encourage  a  high  standard  of  public  and  private  virtue. 
The  host  method  of  study  is  that  which  commences  with  an 
outline  or  skeleton  of  the  subject,  serviceable  even  if  the 
student  proceeds  no  further,  but  capable  of  being  filled  up 
indefinitely.  Commencing  with  simple  and  condensed  nar- 
ratives, such  as  the  excellent  series  now  appearing  under 
the  editorship  of  Mr.  Freeman,  let  the  student  proceed  to 
comprehensive  histories  likeGrotc's  or  <iibbon*s,  tilling  up, 
as  it  were,  the  interstices  of  his  knowledge  by  a  resort  to 
memoirs  and  detached  narratives  of  particular  transac- 
tions, and  crowning  his  labors  by  the  endeavor  to  compre- 
hend and  apply  some  system  of  the  philosophy  of  history. 
Such  general  conspectuses  of  a  subject  as  Voltaire's  £,*«««» 
sur  lea  Mtenrs  will  save  him  much  toilsome  research;  but 
with  these,  even  more  than  with  regular  historical  narra- 
tives, he  will  need  to  boon  his  guard  against  the  idiosyn- 
crasies of  his  author,  no  matter  of  what  school.  In  con- 
clusion, we  may  confidently  affirm  that  the  more  progress 
he  is  able  to  make  towards  recognizing  all  history  as  one 
great  whole  pervaded  by  an  absolute  unity  of  plan,  the 
more  reason  will  he  have  to  congratulate  himself  on  genuine 
progress  in  his  historical  studies.  R.  G.\itSETT. 

Hit  [anc.  /»],  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  about  90  miles  AV.  N.  W.  of  Bagdad,  still 
noted  for  the  fountains  of  naphtha  and  bitumen  existing 
in  its  neighborhood.  This  bitumen  was  used  in  the  build- 
ing of  Babylon,  and  was  carried  to  Egypt  by  Thothmes 
III.  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  some  151)0  or  IHOO  b.  c. 
The  modern  town  is  mean  and  dirty,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  IMIOO. 

Hitch'cockf  county  in  the  S.  W.  of  Nebraska,  bounded 
S.  by  Kansas.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Republican  River, 
and  affords  good  pasturage.  Area,  720  square  miles.  Cap. 
Culbertson. 

Hitchcock  (Charles  Henry).  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  b.  at  Am- 
herst, Mass.,  Aug.  23,  lS;i6  ;  graduated  at  Amherst  College, 
Mass.;  has  been  instructor  in  geology  in  that  institution 
and  at  Lafayette  College,  as  also  professor  of  geology  at 
Dartmouth  College,  N.  H.,  1S69;  assistant  geologist  of 
Vermont  1S57-6I;  State  geologist  of  Maine  1SC1-C2,  and 
of  New  Hampshire  1S68.  He  has  written  largely  upon 
geology,  and  in  1870-71  established  the  meteorological 
observatory  upon  Mount  AVashington,  N.  H.,  which  has 
since  been  adopted  by  the  signal  service  of  the  U.  S.  army. 

Hitchcock  (Edward),  D.  D..  LL.D.,  b.  in  Dcerficid, 
Franklin  co.,  JIass.,  May  24,  1793.  His  father,  Deacon 
Justin  Hitchcock,  was  a  hatter  in  moderate  circumstances. 
His  mother,  Mrs.  Mercy  (Hoyt)  Hiichcock,  was  a  woman 
of  active  mind  and  marked  character.  Interrujited  in  his 
preparation  for  Harvard  College  by  sickness  and  weakness 
of  the  eyes,  he  educated  himself  while  following  the  plough. 
From  1S15  to  18IS  he  was  principal  of  Dcerfield  .\cademy, 
assisted  by  Miss  Orra  White,  the  lady  who  afterwards  be- 
came his  wife,  who  rendered  him  invaluable  aid  in  illus- 
trating his  scientific  works,  and  to  whom  he  dedicated 
his  Itttiffion  of  Geolot/t/.  His  first  piiblication  was  The 
Douiifill  of  liomtpartc,  a  dramatic  poem  of  500  lines  ;  this 
appeared  in  ISl  j.  From'  that  date  till  1S18.  while  prin- 
cipal of  the  academy,  he  furnished  the  calculations  for  the 
Pitrmer'ti  Almanac  and  frequent  corrections  to  the  Xautical 
Afiiiaurtc.  From  1821  to  1825  he  was  pastor  of  the  Con- 
gregational church  in  Conway,  and  meanwhile  found  ex- 
ercise, health,  and  recreation  in  makingageological  survey 
of  Western  Massachusetts.  From  1825  to  1844  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in  Amherst  College. 
In  lS;tU  he  was  appointed  State  geologist  of  Massnehiisetts, 
having  suggested  the  survey  which  he  was  appointed  to 
make.  In  IS.'iO  he  was  commissioned  to  do  the  same  work 
in  the  first  district  of  New  York,  hut  resigned  the  oilice  on 
accountof  his  health.  From  1844  to  1854  ho  was  president 
of  Amherst  College  and  professor  of  natural  theology  and 
geology,  and  the  college  never  had  a  more  inspiring  lec- 
turer nor  a  more  popular  and  progressive  president.  lie 
accepted  the  presidency  when  it  was  sinking  under  the 
weight  of  poverty  and  debt  :  and  having  secured  for  it  lib- 
eral endowments,  doubled  the  number  of  students  in  ten 
years,  and  greatly  increased  itsliterary  and  scientific  advan- 
tages, ho  resigned  that  office,  and,  retaining  the  ])rofe8Sor- 
shiji,  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  his  favorite  science 
of  geology,  but  always  in  its  connection  with  religion. 
He  was  an  eloquent  preacher  and  the  faithful  pastor  of  the 
college  church.  Religion  was  the  inspiration  of  his  writ- 
ings and  his  life.  Ho  was  a  prolific  writer.  He  left  a  record 
of  tbo  titles  and  dates  of  24  volumes,  35  pamphlets  (in- 
cluding sermons).  94  papers  in  the  journals,  and  HO  news- 
jjaper  articles — some  80U0  pages  in  all — on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  but  chiefly  on  his  favorite  themes  of  science 
and  religion.  His  earliest  publications  in  geology  and 
natural    history  were    Geologtj    of  the    Conuecticut    Valley 


HITCHCOCK. 


953 


(1823)  and  Cnlaloyiie  of  J'lantt  luilliitt  Tire'ili/  Milts  of 
Amherst  (1S21);  new  cd.,  revised  by  Prof.  Tuckorman 
1874).  In  IS.iU  he  nublislicd  JJi/nprp'in  Forenlulli-d  ntid  He- 
titled,  and  about  inc  same  time  sevcriil  other  productions 
on  temporaneo.  In  ls:;2  appeared  Firai  Hi /mil  on  the 
Economic  fjcu/oifi/  of  Matsncliusctts.  and  in  ls;{.»  the  full 
report  on  the  Keoio;jy,  zoolot;y,  and  botany  of  the  State, 
which  have  given  Massachusetts  the  honor  of  bcini;  the 
first  in  Europe  or  America  to  provide  at  public  expense  for 
the  survey  of  an  entire  Stale.  The  final  report  on  the  ge- 
ology of  jiassachusetis  was  made  in  1K41  in  2  vols,  quarto 
of  S.'il  pages,  with  jj  plates.  Further  worlis  on  geology 
arc  /■'o««i7  Fooltlepi  in  the  U.  S.  (1848),  Outlines  of  the 
Geoloi/i/  of  the  O'tobe,  and  of  the  U.  S.  in  J'lirticnliir  (1833), 
lllutlratious  of  Surface  Gcolof/i/,  published  by  the  Smith- 
sonian In.«litulion  (1856),  and  He/mrt  to  the  O'oiernment 
of  Massachusetts  on  the  Jchuolo;/;/  of  Ac  to  Euffland  (1858); 
also  reports  on  {\ifi  Geoloffy  of  Vermont  (1857-59),  and 
Final  Heport  (in  part  by  his  son.  Prof.  C.  II.  Ilitohcoclt)  iu 
ISCl  (pp.  'JS8.  38  plates,  and  3fi5  wood-cutsl.  The  Ele- 
vu-ntnrif  (jeolni/t/,  which  first  appeared  in  ISll),  has  gone 
through  many  editions  in  America  and  England,  and  has 
been  widely  used  as  a  textbook  in  schools  and  colleges. 
The  Jielitfion  of  (ieulot/t/  and  its  Connected  Sciences  (1851) 
and  lieiitjious  Truths  lUnstroled  from  Science  (1S57),  to- 
gether with  uunuTous  kindred  articles  in  the  lilhllcal  He- 
positori/,  the  Ililjliniheca  Sacra,  and  other  journals,  were 
the  works  to  which  he  gave  the  most  thought  and  study. 
Among  the  nui.-I  popular  of  his  books  have  been  Jlislon/ 
of  a  jiouloi/icat  1  emperance  Convention  in  Central  Africa 
(1850),  A  'Wreiith  for  the  Tomb  (1 839),  and  IhUijioiis  Lec- 
tures on  the  Peculiar  Phenomena  of  the  Four  Seasnns  (1850), 
which  illustrate  his  playful  fancy,  creative  imagination, 
and  strong  moral,  philanthropic,  and  religious  nature. 
Several  of  Dr.  ililchcoek's  works  have  been  reprinted  in 
England,  and  Ihey  have  been  favorably  noliceil  by  the 
leading  journals  and  scientific  men  of  bolli  countries. 
(SeeA'.^mei-.  «<■.'.,  .tlii.  422-448 ;  lii.  10.3-107  ;  Ivi.  435-451 ; 
-liiic)-.  yoicr.  o/  Sci.,  i.  100;  .\.\ii.  1;  xli.  232;  Land.  Con<j. 
Mar/.,  1842,  etc. ;  and  testimonies  by  l>r.  .1.  Pyc  Smith,  Dr. 
Mantell,  Dr.  liueklaiid.  and  the  elder  Prof.  .Silliman.)  In 
turn  he  furnished  introductions  to  American  editions  of 
Dennis  Croflon's  Genesis  and  Geolof/i/,  mid  to  the  l*luralilif 
of  Worlds,  a  new  edition  of  the  latter  being  published  iu 
1875. 

Prcs.  Hitchcock  was  one  of  the  originators  and  founders 
of  Mount  Ilolyokc  Seminary  and  of  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College.  And  in  connection  with  tlicsc  wo 
may  incnlion  his  Memoir  of  Mart/  Ljjon  and  his  Heport  to 
the  Massachusetts  Lcijislature  on  the  Affrieulturnl  Schools  of 
Europe,  which  he  visited  and  examined  by  appointment  of 
the  government  in  1850.  He  was  for  many  yeiirs  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  agriculture,  and  was 
invited  to  become  its  secretary.  He  was  a  favorite  of  tlie 
farmers  and  the  common  people,  who  had  very  generally 
made  his  acquaintance  in  his  geological  explorations.  The 
last  book  which  he  puldished  was  the  Hemiuisccnces  of  Am- 
herst Cotle</c  (lS(',:i),  in  which  he  interweaves  with  history 
and  autobiography  many  valuable  suggestions  touching 
college  education.  His  most  uiii(juc  and  enduring  monu- 
ment is  tho  Hitchcock  Ichnological  Museum  of  Amherst 
College,  crcafcd  by  his  genius,  science,  and  industry,  and 
containing  a  (roinplete  collection,  comprising  every  known 
variety  of  those  fossil  footmarks  from  tho  Connecticut  \'al- 
ley  which  he  was  the  first  scientifically  to  examine,  classify, 
and  interpret.  Dr.  Hitchcock  was  among  tho  first  and 
foremost  of  the  pioneers  of  American  geology.  Tho  .Ameri- 
can (ieological  Society  owes  its  existence  to  his  suggestion, 
and  he  was  its  first  president.  He  left  his  mark  especially 
in  the  inauguration  of  new  enterprises  and  institutions, 
and  in  the  origination  of  new  doctrines  anc!  arguments  in 
geology  and  inilural  theology.  He  d.  Fi^b.  27,  isfil,and 
tho  jiiiun  and  tiiassivo  granite  obelisk  which  murks  tho 
place  of  his  burial  is  fitly  inscribed  with  those  favorite  words 
of  his;  "The  cross  in  nature,  ami  nature  in  the  cross,"  which 
were  the  principal  theme  of  his  writings  and  the  keynote 
of  his  character  and  life.  W.  H.  Tvlku. 

Ilitrlicock    (Ei)HARn),  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  b.  at  Amherst, 

Mass..  May  23,  I82S;  graduated  at  Amherst  College  1S49, 
and  at  Harvard  Medical  School  lS.'i2:  has  since  been  an 
instructor  in  the  Williston  Seminar}',  Easthampton,  Mass., 
and  in  1801  was  ap|)ointed  professor  of  hygiene  and  physi- 
cal education  in  Amherst  College. 

Hitchcock  (Ethan  Ai.i.kn),  b.  at  Vergennes,  Vt.,  May 

IS,  179S:  graduated  from  the  I'.S.  Military  Academy,  and 
entered  tin-  army  as  third  lieutenant  of  artillery  .July,  IS  1  7. 
Till  1S29,  exeeitt  for  three  years  as  assistant  instructor  of 
infantry  tactics  at  West  Point,  ho  served  on  garrison  luul 
recruiting  duty,  at'tcr  which  he  became  commandant  of 
ca'lets    at  the   .Military  Academy.      At    tho   outbreak    of 


tho  Florida  war,  ho  volunteered  his  services,  and  became 
acting  inspector-general  in  Gaines's  campaign  of  1836. 
From  Florida  he  returned  with  Gen.  Gaines  to  the  West- 
ern department,  from  which  ho  was  transferred  to  recruit- 
ing service,  and  subsequently  to  Indian  duty,  where  his 
honest  administration  of  affairs  as  disbursing  agent  was 
of  great  value  in  protecting  tho  Indians  against  swindlers. 
Promoted  to  be  major  Sth  Infantry  in  ISo.'i,  ho  was  placed 
on  garrison  duty  from  1839  until  called  to  Washington  in 
1S41,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Indian  bureau.  Leaving 
Washington  in  1842,  he  joined  his  regiment  in  Florida, 
from  which  (in  1842-43)  ho  removed  Paseofii's  band  of 
hostile  Indians.  In  the  Mexican  war  he  was  inspector- 
general  of  Gen.  Scott's  army,  and  for  his  services  in 
battle  received  the  brevets  of  colonel  and  brigadier-gen- 
eral. After  the  Mexican  war  he  made  an  extended  tour  in 
Europe  and  the  East,  and  on  his  return  was  placed  on  duty 
in  Washington.  In  1851,  then  colonel  of  the  2d  Infantry, 
ho  was  ordered  to  San  Francisco,  (,'al.,and  eominuuded  tho 
military  division  of  the  Pacific  till  1854.  where  his  services 
were  most  valuable.  In  consequence  of  (lersonal  differ- 
ences with  the  secretary  of  war  he  resigneil  Oct.  IS,  1855, 
and  made  his  home  at  St.  Louis,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  literature  ami  the  peculiar  pbilosophical  investigations 
which  had  for  many  years  occupied  bis  thoughts.  On  tho 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  offered  his  services  to  the  U.  S. 
government.  Though  not  acce|ited  at  the  time,  in  Feb., 
1862,  his  merits  were  recognized  by  his  ajipointment  as 
major-general  of  volunteers,  which,  though  once  declined 
on  "account  of  tailing  health,  he  was  induced  to  retain,  and 
was  placed  on  duty  in  the  war  depiirlnicnt,  and  to  which 
duties  were  added  in  November  those  of  comniissioncr  for 
exchange  of  prisoners  of  war  and  commissary-general  of 
prisoners.  These  duties  he  discharged  ably  and  acceptably, 
and  was  retained  in  service  till  Oct.,  1807.  Among  tho  pub- 
lished works  of  this  accomplished  officer  and  student  of  tho 
"problem  of  life"  are — The  Doctrines  of  Sircdcuhor,/  and 
Spinoza  Identified  (l&iO),  Hemarks  upon  Alchemy  and  the 
Alchemists  (1857),  Swedenlwrij  a  Hermetic  I'hilosopher 
(185S).  C/ii-i'»(  the  Spirit,  hcinij  an  attempt  to  State  the  I'rim- 
ilirc  View  of  Christianity  (1ii6\),  Ueniarks  on  the  Sonnets 
of  Shakspcare,  and  Colin  Clout  Explained  (,lii(ia).  Xulcs 
on  the  Vita  Nuova  of  Dante  (1S6B).  D.  at  Sparta,  Ga., 
Aug.  5,  1870.  «•  C.  SiMMOSS. 

Hitchcock  (Hesry  Lawrence),  D.  D.,  b.  at  liurton, 
0.,  Oct.  31,  1813;  son  of  Chicf-.Iusticc  Peter  Hitchcock 
(17S0-IS53)  of  Ohio;  graduated  at  Yale  1832;  studied  di- 
vinity in  Lane  Seminary  :  held  Presbyterian  pastorates  in 
Morgan,  0.,  1837-40,  in  Columbus  1840-55;  president  of 
Western  Reserve  College  1855-71,  a  position  which  he  filled 
with  great  ability  and  usefulness.  D.  at  Hudson,  0.,  July 
0,  1873. 

Hitchcock  ( Peter),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Cheshire,  Conn.,  Oct. 
19,  1780  ;  graduated  at  Yalo  1801  ;  was  admitted  to  tho  bar 
1804  :  removed  to  Ohio  1800;  was  chosen  to  the  Ohio  gen- 
eral assembly  ISIO;  State  senator  1812-10;  iu  Congress 
1817-19;  was  afterwards  for  twenty-seven  years  a  justice 
of  tho  supreme  court  of  the  State,  and  a  part  of  that  time 
chief-justice.     D.  at  Painesvillc,  0.,  May  11,  1853. 

Hitchcock  (KoswELL  Dwiciir),  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  was  b. 
in  East  Machias,  Me.,  Aug.  15,  1817  ;  joined  the  sophomore 
class  in  Amherst  College  in  1833;  graduated  in  1830;  was 
principal  of  an  academy  in  .laifrey,  N.  II.,  1836-37;  pur- 
sued biblical  an<l  other  studies  under  private  tuition  1837- 
38;  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1838;  was 
assistant  teacher  in  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  for  one 
term;  was  tutor  at  Amherst  1839-42;  and  in  1809  was 
elected  one  of  tho  trustees  of  the  college.  From  1812  to 
1844  he  wasaresident  licentiate  at  Andover;  then  preached 
for  a  year  in  Waterville,  Me.;  and  was  ordaineil  and  in- 
stalled over  the  First  Congregational  church  iu  Exeter, 
N.  II.,  Nov.  19,  1845.  One  year  (1847-18)  was  spent  in 
(icrinany  nt  the  universities  of  Halle  and  lierlin.  In  1852 
he  resigned  his  pastorate  to  accept  the  Collins  professorship 
of  natural  and  revealed  religion  in  Uowdoin  College  ;  and 
in  1855  ho  was  chosen  Washburn  professor  of  church  his- 
tory in  lininn  Theological  Seminary,  N.  V.,  which  position 
ho  still  (1875)  holds.  In  1806  he  visited  Italy  and  Greece, 
and  in  1869-70  Egypt.  Sinai,  and  Palestine.  In  1871  he 
was  made  president  of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration 
Society.  Iluring  the  civil  war  he  took  a  decided  stand  on 
tho  side  of  the  general  government.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  I>.  D.  from  Howiioin  College  in  18,'i5,  and  of  LL.D. 
from  Williams  College  in  1873.  From  1863  to  1870  he  was 
one  of  tho  assistant  editors  of  tho  yl/iioi'rnii  Throlfij/icat 
/Irriew,  for  which,  as  jircviously  for  the  I'rrilii/lcrian 
(Quarterly,  he  has  written  many  articles,  mostly  relating  to 
church  history,  llesides  publishing  numerous  orati<m»,  ad- 
dresses, and  sermons,  ho  has  also  edited  tho  /.(/>,  Charac- 
ter, and  Writimjs  of  Edward  Hobiuson  (1864)  ;  A  Complete 


954 


HITCHCOCK— HOARE. 


\nahjsiH  of  thi:  Ifilile  (1869),  and  has  edited  (with  Drs. 
5ddy  nndSchiitT)  Ih/mns  rind  .S'oii(/«  u/  J'rniac  (1S74)  and 


A 

Eddv -  ,      „  -      - 

Hifmiia  (mil  .V..ii;/» /«)■  /Social  and  Nitbhalk  Ifoi's/iip  (1S75), 
Hitchcock  (Samim:i.  A.),  a  prominent  citizen  of  Brim- 
field,  M:i?s..  li.  about  17S4;  acquired  great  wealth,  and  was  I 
distinguished  as  the  founder  of  the  llitcheock  Free  Ilijih 
School,  Brimlicld.  and  as  a  liberal  benefactor  of  Amherst 
College,  Mass.,  Tabor  College,  la.,  Illinois  College,  Ando- 
vcr  Theological  Seminary,  and  of  various  churches  and 
charities.  These  gifts  e".\cecded  ?fi,in,U0O  in  aggregate 
value.     D.  at  Brimliclil  Nov.  24,  1S73. 

Hit'cliin,  town  of  England,  in  Hertfordshire,  on  the 
Ivel,  has  breweries,  manufactures  of  straw-plaiting,  and  a 
trade  in  corn,  malt,  and  Hour.  Pop.,  with  surroundings, 
27,6,)7. 

Hitopade'sa  [Sans., "  good  instruction  "],  a  celebrated 
eolkclion  of  fables  of  a  didactic  character  and  quite  an- 
cient origin,  existing  in  the  Sanscrit  language.  It  is  an 
abbreviation  of  the  old  J'anchiitnntni.  The  text  of  the 
Hilupadcsa  was  published  by  Von  Schlegel  and  Lassen 
(Bonn,  1829),  a  German  translation  by  M.  MUIlcr  (Lcipsic, 
1S44),  and  an  English  translation  by  Wilkins  and  .Jones 
(17S7).  In  substance,  the  Hilopadcm  is  nearly  identical 
with  the  reputed  fables  of  Pilpay,  and  obviously  came  from 
the  same  source. 

Ilit'teren.  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of  Norway,  be- 
longing to  the  stift  of  Trondhjem,  and  important  for  its 
fisheries.  It  is  30  miles  long  by  10  miles  broad,  and  has 
about  3700  inhabitants. 

Hit'tites  [Heb.  Chitii,  "descendants  of  Heth  "],  a  Ca- 
naanitish  nation  whose  original  seat  was  Hebron.  They 
were  a  commercial  race,  are  frequently  mentioned  on  the 
Egvptian  monuments,  as  well  as  in  the  Bible,  and  seem  to 
bo  noticed  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  After  the  eon- 
quest  of  Palestine  it  is  almost  certain  that  they  established 
a  Uingdom  in  the  Orontes  valley.  Numbers  of  them  re- 
mained with  the  Jews  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah.  The  Egyptian  records  contain  the  names  of 
several  of  the  llittite  kings. 

Hit'tic,  tp.  of  Tazewell  co.,  111.  Pop.  940. 
Hit'torff  (J.vcorES  Ig.vace),  b.  at  Cologne  Aug.  20, 
179:i;  studied  in  Paris;  travelled  through  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  archieologi- 
cal  studies  in  .Sicily;  and  d.  in  Paris  JIar.  25,  1867.  The 
most  prominent  of  his  works  as  a  practical  architect  are — 
the  Cirque  de  rimpcratriee.  Hotel  dc  Louvre,  and  different 
embellishments  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  Bois  de 
Boulogne.  The  most  remarkable  of  his  writings  are — 
Archilcrliirr  nnliqitc  dc  In  Sicih  and  Aii-hiti^fturc  iimdcrne, 
de  la  Sicilc,  but  especially  his  ArcliiUctiu-e  Piih/clirame 
chez  lea  (irecs.  showing  the  connection,  with  the  Greeks, 
between  painting,  architecture,  and  sculpture. 

Hit'zig  (FEUniNAND),  b.  June  2.'!,  1807,  at  Ilaningen, 
Baden  ;  studied  after  1824  at  the  universities  of  Heidel- 
berg, Halle,  and  Gilltingen,  and  was  in  ls:i:i  appointed  pro- 
fessor at  (ho  University  of  Zurich,  whence  in  ISfil  he  re- 
moved to  that  of  Heidelberg.  In  Halle  he  heard  Gcsonius, 
and  from  that  time  he  concentrated  his  studies  principally 
on  the  e.xegesis  of  the  Old  Testament:  and  by  his  freedom 
from  dogmatic  prejudices,  by  his  comprehensive  learning 
and  acuteness,  he  contributed  much  to  the  true  understand- 
ing especially  of  the  Prophets  and  Psalms,  on  which  he 
published  large  cxegetioal  works.  He  also  wrote  Die 
Erfindnnii  dm  Alpluibrlii  (1840),  Urijesrliiclilc  tind  Mi/lhiilo- 
i/ic  dcr  I'liilhliicr  (1S45),  etc.,  and  Oachichlc  dea  Volkea 
'hrncl.     D.  in  1875. 

Ilivnna,  an  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  to 
the  .Maniiicsas.  It  is  the  most  fertile  and  most  densely 
peopled  of  the  whole  group,  but  its  inhabitants,  numbering 
about  (i.'iOO,  are  described  as  the  wildest  and  most  inacces- 
sible to  European  civilization  of  all  the  Polynesian  tribes. 
All  efforts  of  missionaries.  Catholic  and  Protestant,  have 
go  far  been  in  vain. 

Ili'vites  [Heb.  Chilli,  "midlanders"  or  "villagers"]. 

a  Canaanitish  race  conquered  by  the  Hebrews.     A  part  of 

them,  the  Oibeonites  and  their  neighbors,  became  Jewish 

proselytes,  but  the  great  mass  of  them,  living  in  the  region 

of   Tyre,  seem  to  have    been  unconqm-red ;    but  Solomon 

m:idc  them  tributaries,  and  even  menial  subjects.     They 

were  a  peaceful  commercial  race,  of  whom  little  is  known. 

HiAvas'scc,  tp.  of  Clay  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  418. 

llix'toiif  post-tp.  of  Jackson  co..  Wis.     Pop.  899. 

Iload'ley  (Bksjamin),  b.  at  Westerham,  Kent,  Nov. 

14,  l()7(i;  was  edui^ated  at  (^lare  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which 

he  became  a  fellow  in  U197  ;  took  holy  orders  1700;  became 

rector  of  St.  I*cler-le-poor  1702  ;  rector  of  .'^treatham  1710; 

was  distinguished  by  his  advocacy  of  liow  Church  views 

in  a  famous  controversy  ("the  convocation  controversy") 


with  Atterbury  and  others,  Burnet  and  Wake  being  on 
Hoadley's  side.  In  1715  he  was  made  bishop  of  Bangor, 
and  in  1717  a  sermon  preached  before  the  king  on  the  words, 
••  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  led  to  the  famous  Ban- 
goriau  controversy,  in  which  he  was  assailed  by  the  non- 
jurors and  the  High  Church  party,  headed  by  William  Law, 
Archde;icon  Warren,  and  Canon  Suapc.  This  controversy 
led  to  the  prorogation  of  the  convocations  and  the  almost 
complete  extinction  of  their  powers.  In  1721  he  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Hereford,  to  Salisbury  172:'.,  and  to  Win- 
chester 17;U.  1).  at  Chelsea  Apr.  17,  17GI.  Among  his 
works  are—Lcllera  on  Miracles  (1702).  Jieaionahlenem  of 
Ciinformilii  (1703),  Itrief  Ue/enrc  of  £ptt(i>pal  Ordinnlion 
(1707),  .-1  J'rescnntitm  uijainsl  the  Pi-incipht  of  Auu-jiiiors 
(171(5),  Nnliire  and  End  of  the  Lord's  Siipp'-.r  (1735).— His 
two  sons.  Bexjamin  and  Johx,  also  distinguished  them- 
selves. The  former  was  b.  in  London  Feb.  10,  1706;  stud- 
ied at  Cambridge;  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  medicine 
in  1729  ;  settled  in  London  ;  was  appointed  physician  to 
the  royal  household  in  174G;  and  d.  at  Chelsea  Aug.  10, 
1757.  Ho  wrote  in  1747  the  comedy  The  SiiHpiriunt  Hun- 
hand,  assisted  Hogarth  in  his  Aniilijiit  of  llcanii/,  and  pub- 
lished in  1750  Uhnervittions  on  a  Seriei  of  Kleclric.al  Exper- 
iments.— The  younger  brother,  John,  was  b.  in  London  Oct. 
8,  1711;  studied  first  law,  and  then  theology:  took  orders, 
and  became  chaplain  to  the  prince  of  Wales;  d.  Mar^l7, 
1770.  He  wrote  several  comedies — The  Contrant  (1731) 
and  Lores  Reremje  ( 1737)— several  oratorios  and  pastor- 
ales, and  edited  his  father's  works. 

Hoaglin,  tp.  of  Van  Wert  co.,  0.     Pop.  622. 
Iloang-IIai.     See  Yellow  Sea. 

Hoailg-IIo  ("yellow  river"),  one  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  China,  rises  In  Thibet,  flows  first  in  a  north-east- 
ern direction  into  Mongolia,  then  in  a  scjuthern  and  south- 
eastern direction  through  China  proper,  and  enters  into 
the  Yellow  Sea  in  hit.  34"  N.  Its  course  is  winding  and 
tortuous;  its  current  rapid  and  turbulent,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  lowland  it  becomes  almost  unm;inageable,  and 
is  scarcely  navigable.  The  immense  amount  of  yellow  clay 
which  it  "carries  along  with  it,  and  from  which  it  has  re- 
ceived its  name,  is  deposited  partly  at  its  mouth,  partly 
along  its  bed.  Thus,  not  only  the  level  of  its  waters,  but 
even  the  level  of  its  bed,  is  higher  than  the  surrounding 
hand,  which  must  be  protected  against  its  inundations  by 
immense  levees.  It  costs  the  Chinese  government  yearly 
87,000,000  to  keep  these  levees  in  good  repair,  and  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  canals  has  been  devised  and  constructed 
in  order  to  lead  p.arts  of  its  waters  into  other  river-beds, 
and  prevent  the  devastations  with  which  it  threatens  one 
of  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  the  empire.  Its  principal 
affluent  is  Hoei-Ho ;  among  the  large  cities  along  its  shores 
are  Lan-Choo  and  Kai-Fung.  In  1853  the  Hoang-Ho  broke 
from  its  old  course,  and  began  pouring  its  waters  into  the 
Yellow  Sea  by  a  mouth  some  hundreds  of  miles  N.  of  its 
former  one. 

Hoar  (EnnxEZEU  RorKWoon),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Concord, 
Mass..  Feb.  21,  ISIG,  a  son  of  Samuel  Hoar  (1778-1S56). 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1835,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  "in  1S40;  was  1849-55  a  judge  in  the  court  of  common 
pleas  :  a  judge  of  the  supreme  judicial  court  1859-69  ;  U.  S. 
attornev-general  18(;U-7»;  joint  high  commissioner  on  the 
Washington  treaty  of  1S71 ;  member  of  Congress  from  Mas- 
sachusetts 1873-75. 

Hoar  (CiEonuE  Frisbie),  a  son  of  Hon.  Samuel  Hoar,  b. 
at  Concord.  Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1826:  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1846;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819.  and  settled  at 
Worcester,  Mass.  He  was  elected  to  the  41st  Congress,  and 
re-elected  to  the  42<1,  43d,  and  41th.  In  1877  was  elected 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  Massachusetts. 

Hoar  (Samuel),  LL.D.,  b.  in  Lincoln,  Mass.,  May  18, 
177S  ;  graduated  at  Harvard,  1802  ;  was  a  teacher  in  Vir- 
ginia two  years  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1805,  and  at- 
tained great  eminence  as  a  lawyer;  was  in  1820  a  member 
of  the  State  constitutional  convention:  a  State  senator 
1825  and  1833:  a  State  councillor  1815-40;  and  a  member 
of  Congress  1835-:;".  In  1844  he  was  sent  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  Massachusetts  to  South  Carolina  to  test  the  con- 
stitutionality of  certain  acts  authorizing  the  imprisonment 
of  free  negroes  from  outside  the  Stale,  and  on  Dee.  5  of 
that  year  he  was  forcibly  expelled  from  Charleston,  the 
State'legislaturo  on  the  same  day  authorizing  the  governor 
to  expel  him.  D.  at  Concord.  .Mass..  Nov.  2,  1856.  Ho 
was  an  active  member  of  many  charitable  and  religious 
organizations. 

Hoare  (Sir  Ruhard  Colt),  b.  at  Stourhead.  England, 
Dec.  tl.  1758;  d.  May  19.  183S.  He  inherited  a  large  for- 
tune from  his  talher,  and  made  extensive  scientific  travels 
on  the  Continent  and  in  his  native  country,  of  which  he 
published  richly  illustrated  accounts:    A   Classical   Tour 


HOABB— HOBBES. 


955 


tlirouijh  /laly  and  .Sicili/  (181S)  and  Anciml  Hitlurg  of 
South  Witlihire  (8  vols.'folio,  ISlO-l'J  aud  1S22-52,  edited 
by  the  aid  uf  other  antiquanaDs). 

Hoare  (Wh.i.iam),  b.  near  Ipswich  in  1707:  d.  at  Bath 
in  17U2.  lie  was  the  first  Englisli  painter  »hu  \»ent  to 
Rome  to  finish  his  education,  and  lie  was  onf  of  the  orig- 
inal members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  The  best  known  of 
his  paintings  arc  his  portraits  of  Pitt,  Ureuville,  Lord 
Chesterfield,  etc. — His  son,  I'uinck,  was  b.  at  Rath  in  17J4, 
and  d.  at  Rrightun  in  lSo4.  After  studying  at  the  Uoyal 
Academy  and  in  Rome,  he  succeeded  Boswcll  in  17'J'J  as 
foreign  secretary  to  the  Academy,  and  was  a  very  prolific 
dramatic  writer,  especially  in  the  department  of  comic  opera. 

Ho'atziDf  the  Opinthnnimus  crislDtus,  a  South  Ameri- 
can bird  resembling  somewhat  the  peacock  in  appearance. 
It  exhibits  a  number  of  peculiarities  in  structure,  and  is 
the  type  of  a  group  of  (Jallinaceous  birds  of  equal  value 
with  the  Alccteromorphu'  (PhasianiJie),  Ptcrocloniorpliaj, 
and  Tumicimorpha.'.  It  has  a  largo  crop  and  a  small  giz- 
rard,  is  gregarious,  and  frequents  marshes,  where  it  feeds 
upon  the  leaves  of -Irum  arborctcciit.  Its  flesh  has  an  in- 
tolerably rank  taste. 

Ho'bart,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Lake  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Pitts- 
burg Kort  Wavne  and  Chicago  R.  R.,  33  miles  S.  E.  of 
Chicago.     Pop'.  1037. 

Hobart,  post-v.  of  Stamford  tp.,  Delaware  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  Delaware  River,  4  miles  below  Stamford ;  has  a  na- 
tional bank. 

Hobart  (IlAnnisov  C),  b.  at  Ashburnham,  Mass.; 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  1S42;  removed  to  Wis- 
consin in  1S46.  and  settled  at  Sheboygan ;  was  a  member 
of  the  Territorial  legislature  and  of  the  first  State  senate  ; 
Speaker  of  the  assembly  ISjO;  aceompanie<l  the  4th  Wis- 
consin Vols,  to  tho  seat  of  war  as  captain ;  subsequently 
appointed  lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  of  his  regiment; 
was  captured  and  confined  in  I.ibby  Prison,  Richmond, 
and  one  of  tho  party  who  escaped  by  means  of  tho  famous 
tunnel  in  18C4.  In  1SC5  ho  was  Democratic  nominee  for 
governor  of  Wisconsin.  0.  C.  Siumons. 

Hobart  (Jonx  IIf.xrv),  S.  T.  D.,  an  American  bishop, 
b.  in  Philadelphia  Sept.  14.  177J  ;  graduated  with  honors 
at  Princeton  in  1793;  was  tutor  there  KUii-yS:  ordained 
deacon  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  17"j;-,  a  priest 
in  ISOl;  became  assistant  bishop  of  Xew  York  in  ISU, 
and  bishop  in  ISIB.  In  1799  he  was  made  rector  of  Christ 
church,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.;  in  ISOO,  for  a  short  time 
rector  of  St.  Oeorge's,  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  and  in  tho  same 
year  assistant  minister  of  Trinity  church.  New  York,  of 
which  in  1S12  ho  became  assistant  rector,  and  in  ISIO  rec- 
tor. In  1S21  ho  became  professor  of  pastoral  theology  and 
pulpit  eloquence  in  tho  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  of  which  ho  was  one  of  the  founders.  Among 
bis  \vrilings  arc  (Companion  for  the  Altar  (1S04),  Apolotft/ 
for  Aponlolir  Oril.r  (1807),  2  vols,  of  sermons  (1824).  (Sco 
Memoir  by  Wii.i.iAM  Bkhiiias,  IJ.  D.,  published  with  his 
posthumous  works  (3  vols.,  1H.13) ;  Tlic  Eorln  Ycart  of 
Iti-h,p  Hobart  f  1 834)  and  T/ie  ProfonioHul  Yearn  of  Ilithnp 
Hobart.  by  J.  McViCKAB  (1836).  D.  at  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  10,  1830. 

Hobart  (.lonx  Si.oss),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  in 
173S;  graduated  at  Yale  in  17J7:  was  in  tho  Xew  York 
Congress,  and  in  Kfiii  was  appointed  a  member  of  a  com- 
mittee to  prepare  a  State  constitution:  became  in  1777  a 
justice  of  the  district  court  of  Xew  York,  and  afterwards 
was  on  the  bench  of  tho  Slate  supreme  court;  U.  S.  Sena- 
tor in  179S;  resigned  in  the  same  year,  and  became  jus- 
tice of  tho  U.  S.  district  court  for  New  York.  D.  Feb.  4, 
ISUJ. 

Hobart  Town,  or  Ilobarton,  capital  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land,  on  the  navigable  Derwent,  which  at  its  en- 
trance into  .Storm  Bay  forms  an  excellent  harbor,  safe  and 
accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.  Hobart  Town  was  ft>unded 
in  1801.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  tho  foot  of  Welling- 
ton Mountain,  and  well  built  with  straight  and  broad 
rtrccts  and  many  handsome  buildings,  among  which  thero 
a"e  several  Hpisco|)alian,  llonian  Catholic,  ancl  Presby- 
fjrian  churches  and  a  Jewish  synagogue,  and  fine  gov- 
ernment house,  4  banks,  3  public  libraries.  Has  good 
public  schools,  gas  anil  water  works,  etc.  It  is  connected 
with  Mellunirno  by  steamers,  and  carries  on  quite  a  lively 
trade.  It  has  an  Anglican  and  a  Roman  Catholio  bishop. 
Pop.  19,1192. 

Hob'bcma,  nrHobbima  (MixnF.nnorT),  a  celebrated 
Dutch  landscape-painter.  Of  his  personal  life  nothing  is 
known,  but  the  circumstance  that  the  figures  in  his  land- 
scapes are  painted  by  Bi-rghem,  Van  der  Velile.  Lingelbaeh. 
and  I.  van  T^oo  shows  that  he  lived  in  the  latter  part  of 
tho  seventeenth  century,  and  by  some  be  is  believed  to 
have  been  a  disciple  of  Ruysdaol.     Hi-  painted  mo^tly  for- 


ests and  ruins,  and  his  pictures  are  found  in  all  tho  largo 
galleries. 

Uobbes  (Thomas),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  think- 
ers of  the  period  of  English  emancipation  from  scholasti- 
cism, b.  Apr.  5,  IciSS.  at  Malmesbury,  in  Wiltshire.  His 
father  was  a  country  clergyman.  After  a  thorough  jircpa- 
ration,  he  was  sent  to  tJxtord  before  his  sixteenth  year,  and 
there  studied  .\ristotle  and  scholastic  philosophy  for  five 
years,  acquiring  certain  nominalistic  principles  which 
marked  all  his  subsequent  thinking,  although  be  early 
assumed  a  hostile  attitude  towards  scholasticism.  Ho 
became  tutor  to  the  future  earl  of  Devonshire,  and  in  1010 
travelled  with  his  charge  through  France,  Italy,  and  Savoy. 
On  his  return,  and  on  subsequent  visits  to  the  Continent, 
he  met  the  foremost  thinkers  of  the  time,  and  became  moro 
or  less  intimate  with  Lord  Bacon,  Ben  Jonson,  Lord  Ed- 
ward Herbert  of  Chcrbury,  Descartes,  tiassendi,  Ualileo; 
later  in  life  with  Selden,  Cowley,  and  Dr.  Harvey.  In 
102S  he  translated  and  published  Thucydides,  with  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  showing  his  countrymen  a  warning  ex- 
ample of  tho  "fatal  consequences  of  intestine  troubles." 
Just  at  this  time  the  foundations  of  civil  order  were  shaken 
by  tho  struggle  between  the  House  of  Stuart  aud  the  sup- 
porters of  individual  liberty  and  the  rights  of  conscience. 
Of  an  unusually  timid  disposition  (congenital,  arisiug 
from  premature  birth  at  the  fright  occasioned  by  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Spanish  Armada),  Holibes  felt  very  keenly 
the  lack  of  security  which  the  state  should  atford,  and  this 
subject  (the  state) "occupied  his  chief  thoughts  for  tho  rest 
of  his  life.  Retiring  to  Paris  with  tho  royalists  in  1010, 
ho  published  a  small  edition  of  his  Elcmciila  J'liilotophiia 
tie  Che  in  1042,  tho  work  being  reprinted,  much  enlarged, 
in  1G17  at  Amsterdam  by  the  famous  Elzevirs.  In  1CJ7 
ho  became  mathematical  instructor  to  Charles,  prince  of 
Wales,  a  relation  which  was  broken  in  alarm  upon  tho 
publication  of  his  views  on  political,  moral,  and  theological 
subjects  in  tho  treatises  (I)  Treatise  on  Human  Xaliirc 
in  IGJO,  (2)  Dc  Corpore  Politico  (London,  IGjO),  and  (3) 
his  collected  views  in  tho  Leviathan,  or  the  Matter,  Power, 
and  Form  of  a  Commonwealth,  KcclcniaHtleal  and  Ciril,  in 
IGJl.  lie  escaped  persecution  by  fleeing  secretly  from 
Paris  and  taking  refugo  in  England,  where  Cromwell's  ab- 
solute power  in  1GJ3  furnished  a  government  much  in  nc- 
cordanco  with  Ilobbcs'  doctrines.  He  published  a  remark- 
able Lctlerupon  Liberty  and  Kcccseiti/in  lGo4,and  tho  first 
and  second  divisions  of  his  great  work,  Philosophieal  itudi- 
ments,  in  IGjJ-oS;  tho  first  division  treating  of  Body,  tho 
second  division  of  Unman  Katnrc,  the  third  of  the  State. 
His  Lcriathnn  and  I>e  Cue  were  censured  in  Parliament  in 
IGGG,  and  very  many  works  were  written  to  refute  them, 
tho  most  able  of  these  being  Cudworth's  Jntclteetual  ,'?yslem. 
After  tho  Restoration,  Hobbes  received  a  pension  of  £100 
from  Charles  II..  his  former  pupil.  In  lfi7J  he  published 
a  translation  of  Homer's  Jliail  and  Odyssey,  lie  wrote  his 
autobiography  in  Latin  vcr.sc.  and  his  liehemolh,  a  dialogue 
on  tho  civil  wars  between  1G40  and  IfiCO,  was  finished  in 
tho  year  of  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Dec,  1G7U,  at  the 
scat  of  tho  earl  of  Devonshire,  his  constant  friend  and 
supporter. 

The  literary  stylo  of  Hobbes  is  pronounced  admirable, 
being  always  clear  and  never  tedious.  His  system  of  phi- 
losophy was  a  materialistic  scaffolding  built  for  the  purpose 
of  suiijiorting  and  complementing  his  philosophy  of  tho 
state,  which  is  his  only  valuable  contribution  to  human 
thought,  besides  certain  negative  or  skeptical  principles 
afterwards  elaborated  by  Locke  and  Hume.  He  held  sen- 
sation to  bo  the  basis  of  all  knowledge;  matter  to  be  tho 
only  reality  ;  philosophy  to  be  the  knowledge  of  efl'eets  in 
their  causes  and  of  causes  in  their  efl'eets  ;  scientific  method, 
consequently,  to  bo  twofold  (ii)  inductive  or  analytical,  and 
(/.)  deductive  or  synthetical.  In  his  Prima  I'hilutophia 
he  defines  the  ideas  of  space,  time,  thing,  cause,  etc.  some- 
what after  the  manner  of  the  Schoolmen.  But  the  subject 
of  philosophy  is  the  two  kinds  of  bodies,  natural  and  arti- 
ficial, the  latter  including  human  organizations,  of  which 
tho  slate  is  tho  highest  example.  He  held  mind  to  bo 
material ;  thought  to  bo  a  process  of  adding  and  subtract- 
ing representations  produced  by  |ihysical  iiii|ires8ions ; 
language  to  be  the  most  essential  inslrumenlality  to  human 
life,  rendering  possible  tho  existence  of  civil  society  and 
tho  state  and  the  development  of  science  and  reason  itself; 
ideas  of  good  and  evil  to  have  their  origin  in  the  sensations 
of  pleasure  and  pain;  tho  human  will  to  be  under  thecon- 
trol  of  circumstances  and  necessity.  The  state  of  nature 
is  not  tho  ideal  slate  of  man,  but  a  state  of  war  on  tho 
part  of  each  against  all — brlfnm  omnium  in  omnm — and  its 
result  a  condition  of  complete  misery.  .Self-interest  im- 
pels man  to  combine  wilh  bis  fellows  and  insliliite  govern- 
ment, a  "  leviathan  power"  wbieh  adjusts  and  subordinates 
individual  selfishness  and  produees  the  maximum  of  hap- 
piness.    Outside  the  state   are  found  constant   war,   fear, 


9r)(} 


HOBBS— HODGE. 


poverty,  filth,  ignorance,  and  wretchedness;  within  the 
state  dwell  peace,  security,  riches,  science,  and  happiness. 
Coercion  is  essential,  and  absolute  monarchy  is  the  must 
perfect  form  of  f;overnuicnt.  Individual  conviction  should 
not  be  considered.  The  state  is  the  (irand  iMan  which 
makes  possible  the  rational  development  of  the  indi\'idual 
man,  like  a  mortal  god  subduing  his  caprice  and  passion, 
and  compelling  obedience  to  law,  developing  the  ideas  of 
justice,  virtue,  and  religion,  creating  |)roperty  and  own- 
ership, nurture  and  education,  llobbcs  was  so  uiucli  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  the  authority  of  the  state 
that  he  could  not  appreciate  the  necessity  of  mediation  by 
which  the  individual  will  shall  be  adjusted  an<l  reconciled 
to  the  universal  will  (of  the  state)  through  the  principle 
of  popular  representation.  Complete  U'«)7.«.  cd.  by  Moles- 
worth,  IG  vols,  (a  vols.  Lat.,  11  vols.  Eng.),  Loudon,  IS'iil- 
4i.  Wm.  T.  Hariiis. 

Ilobbs,  tp.  of  Jefi'erson  CO.,  Neb.     Pop.  378. 

Ilob'by,  name  given  in  Great  Britain  to  certain  small 
falcons,  especially  to  the  Hi/pntriorrhis  suhliiitco,  a  bird 
about  one  foot  in  length  and  of  very  elegant  shape.  It  was 
once  much  employed  in  hawking. 

Ilob'house  ( Joiix  Cam),  Lorb  Broi'chton',  h.  June  27, 
ITSO;  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  180S ;  entered  the  cab- 
inet of  Earl  tlrey  as  secretary  of  war  in  \S?>\  ;  was  made 
secretary  of  state  for  Ireland  in  lS.'i:i,  and  president  of  the 
board  of  control  from  IS.^o  to  1841  and  from  ISM  to  1802  ; 
was  created  a  baron  in  1851,  and  d.  Juno  3,  ISIiO.  His 
Jintninf  tlirom/h  Alhniiia  and  other  Pi-nvinCfH  of  Tnrhtij 
villi  Lnrci  llf/roii  (1812).  lUmtratiDnn  of  the  Fourth  Canto 
of  Cliililc  llarold  (1818),  and  Itulii  (1859),  attracted  much 
attention. 

Ilo'bokcil,  city  of  Iludson  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  Hudson  River,  directly  opposite  New  York  City,  and 
N.  of  and  adjoining  Jersey  City  ;  incorporated  in  1855. 
Four  lines  of  European  steamers  start  from  this  point,  and 
the  jNIorris  and  Esse.x  and  the  Delaware  Lackawanna  and 
Western  R.  Ks.  have  their  eastern  termini  here,  and  con- 
nect the  city  with  all  the  great  railroad  systems  S.  and  W. 
of  New  York  City.  Various  lines  of  street-cars  also  con- 
nect it  with  .Tersey  City  and  the  villages  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  county.  Its  trade  in  coal  is  extensive,  it  being 
one  of  the  principal  d^pOts  from  which  New  York  City  and 
its  shipping  are  supplied.  It  has  3  good  public  schools, 
several  academies,  12  churches,  3  weekly  newspapers,  the 
St.  Mary's  Hospital,  2  savings  and  1  national  bank,  several 
foundries,  and  a  large  lead-pencil  factory.  Prominent 
among  its  academics  is  tlie  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, 
which  has  very  extensive,  expensive,  and  complete  appa- 
ratus and  arrangements  for  teaching  the  natural  sciences 
and  their  applications  to  the  arts  and  industries.  The 
Franklin  Lyceum  Association  has  a  library  of  over  2(100 
volumes.  Its  jirincijial  industries  are  connected  with  the 
European  steamers  and  the  coal-docks.  Pop.  20,297. 
DoNALo  Maxs,  Ed.  "Hidson  County  Democrat." 

llob'son's  Choice.  It  is  related  in  the  Spectator 
(oO'.l )  that  Tobias  Hotjson,  university  carrier  at  Cambridge 
and  the  subject  of  two  jioems  by  Milton,  was  the  first  per- 
son in  England  who  kejit  a  hackney-stable.  He  always 
politely  asked  his  customers  to  take  their  choice  of  his 
forty  horses,  but  no  matter  which  horse  was  chosen,  Hob- 
son  always  managed  to  put  off  tlie  traveller  with  the  horse 
which  stood  nearest  the  door.  Hence  "  Hobson's  choice" 
signifies  a  nominal  choice  with  no  real  alternative. 

Hoche  (Lazark),  b.  June  25,  176S,  at  Montrcuil,  the 
son  of  a  poor  workman,  who  could  give  him  no  education. 
In  1784  he  enlisted  in  the  army  ;  in  1791  he  fought  as  ser- 
gcjint  in  the  regiment  of  Gardes  Franyaises  with  the  rab- 
ble before  the  door  of  JLirie.\ntoinolte;  in  1792  he  became 
lieutenant  In  the  regiment  of  Rouerguo;  and  ii.  179.'!  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  siege  of  ThionviUc  and  in  tlie 
battle  of  Neerwindcn.  Having  been  imprisoned  on  sonic 
suspicion,  he  sent  a  jilan  of  a  campaign  to  the  Committee 
of  l*ublic  Safety,  and  he  was  immediately  liberated,  made 
a  brigadier-general,  ami  sent  to  serve  in  the  army  of  Hou- 
ehard.  He  soon  received  an  independent  command,  and  in 
1793  he  defeated  the  .\ustrians  at  Weissenburg.  and  com- 
pelled them  to  withdraw  from  Alsace.  In  1795  he  foiled 
the  invasion  of  the  royalists  and  the  English,  attempted 
from  the  peninsula  of  Quiberon.  In  179tj  he  pacified  the 
Vend6e,  while  his  expedition  to  Ireland  failed,  as  stormy 
weather  scattered  his  ships.  In  Apr.,  1797,  he  again  eom- 
nnindcd  against  the  .-Vustrians,  and  defeated  them  in  three 
battles;  ho  was  at  Wetzlar  when  the  armistice  of  Lisbon 
ended  the  war.  In  the  fall  of  that  year  he  was  suddenly 
taken  ill.  and  d.  Sept.  IS.  twenty-nine  years  old;  a  post- 
mortem examination  showed  that  he  had  been  poisoned. 

Hochela'^&9  county  of  Quebec,  Canada,  includes  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island  of  Montreal  in  the   river  St. 


Lawrence.  It  territorially  includes  the  city  of  Montreal, 
which,  however,  does  not  belong  to  it.  Cap.  Hochclaga. 
Pop.  25,1140. 

tlocbelaga,  the  eounty-seat  of  Ilochelaga  CO.,  Que- 
bec, Cunada,  is  a  beautiful  suburb  of  Montreal,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  street  railway.  Its  convent  of  the 
Holy  Name  is  the  largest  nunnery  in  the  province.  Pop. 
of  sub-district,  IDtil. 

Hoch'heim,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  IIcsso- 
Nassau,  is  situated  on  the  Main,  and  is  celebrated  for  its 
excellent  wine.     Pop.  2536. 

noch'kirch,  v.  of  Saxony.  7  miles  S.  E.  of  Bautzen. 
Heri!  Frederick  the  (Jreat  was  completely  defeated  by  the 
Austrians  under  Daun,  Oct.  14,  1758, 

llochst)  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Hesso- 
Nassau,at  the  influx  of  the  Nidda  into  the  .Main,  is  noted 
for  the  battles  fought  here — June  20,  1(122,  in  which  Tilly 
defeated  Duke  Christian  of  Brunswick,  and  Oct.  11.  I79.>, 
in  which  the  Austrians  defeated  the  French  under  Jourdan. 
Pop.  3013. 

Iloch'stildt,  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube,  is  fa- 
mous for  the  battle  fought  here  Aug.  13. 1704,  in  which  the 
Austrians  and  English  under  Prince  Eugjne  and  Marl- 
borough utterly  defeated  the  French  and  Bavarians.  The 
battle  is  by  the  English  named  after  Blenheim  (or  Blind- 
hcim).  a  small  village  near  HochslUdt,  at  which  one  of  the 
most  decisive  episodes  of  the  battle  took  place. 

Hock,  a  popular  name  in  Great  Britain  for  all  Rhenish 
wines.  It  originally  designated  the  wines  of  Hochheim, 
in  the  Main  Valley.  Of  the  Hochheim  vineyards,  the  small 
Dcchancrei  and  Stein  plantations,  the  property  of  the  (jer- 
mnn  emperor,  have  the  best  reputation.  Still  and  spark- 
ling hocks  are  produced.  (See  RiiBNtsH  Wines.) 

Hock'ing,  or  Hockhocking,  a  river  of  Ohio,  rises  in 
Fairfield  co..  Hows  S.  E.  through  Hocking  CO.,  and  joins 
the  Ohio  in  .Vthens  co.,  after  a  course  of  80  miles.  For 
nearly  70  miles  it  is  navigable  for  boats;  the  Hocking  Ca- 
nal connects  with  the  Ohio  Canal. 

Hocking,  county  of  S.  E.  Central  Ohio.  Area,  about 
390  square  liiiles.  It  is  hilly  and  fertile,  and  has  mines  of 
coal  and  iron.  Cattle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are  sta|)lo 
products.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Hocking  Valley  R.  R. 
and  the  Hocking  River  and  Canal.  Cap.  Logan.    P.  17,925. 

Hocking,  tp.  of  Fairfield  co.,  0.     Pop.  2005. 

Hock  Tide,  or  Hoke  Days,  the  Monday  and  Tues- 
day occurring  two  weeks  after  Easter,  a  former  English 
festival  in  memory  of  Ethelred's  great  victory  over  the 
Danes  in  1002.  Tolls  were  taken  at  the  town-gates  and 
money  was  collected  throughout  the  parish  for  the  priest. 
Traces  of  the  old  customs  existed  in  some  places  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Hodcida',  or  El  Hndaidah,  seaport  of  Arabia,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  in  lat.  11^  40'  N.,  about  2  miles  N.  W.  of 
Jloeha.  is  of  some  importance  for  the  transfer  of  jiilgrims 
from  India  and  for  the  exportation  of  coffee.         , 

Hodg'don,  |iost-tp.  of  Aroostook  co..  Me.,  on  the  New 
Brunswick  line,  0  miles  S.  of  Iloulton.  It  has  3  churches, 
and  manufactures  of  furniture  and  lumber.     Pop.  989. 

Hodge  (ARciiinAi.n  Alexaxoer),  D.  D.,  son  of  Dr. 
Charles  Hodge,  noticed  below,  was  b.  in  Princeton,  N.  .1., 
July  18,  1823;  graduated  at  the  ('(dlege  of  New  Jersey  in 
1841;  was  tutor  1844—10;  graduated  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1847;  went  the  same -year  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  .Vllahabail,  India;  returned  in  1850  on  account 
of  the  impaired  health  of  his  wife  ;  was  settled  as  a  pastor 
in  Lower  West  Nottingham,  .Md.,  1851-55;  at  Fredericks- 
burg, Va.,  l855-(il ;  and  at  Wilkesliarre,  Pa.,  18l)l-fi2.  In 
181)4  he  was  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Pres- 
byteri.au  Church  to  the  chair  of  diilactic,  historical,  and 
polemic  theology  in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Pa.  In  connection  with  the  professorship,  ho 
became  in  18fiG  pastor  of  tho  North  Presbyterian  church 
of  the  same  city.  In  1862  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  has  published  Out- 
linen  of  Theoloi/!/  (1860),  The  Atonrmcnl  {]>ia7),  Comnieut- 
ari/  oil  the  Coiifcniiion  of  Faith  (1869).  Ho  wrote  for  this 
work  the  admirable  article  on  Calvinism. 

.     R.  D.  Hitchcock. 

Hodge  (Ciiari.es),  D.  D.,  LL.D..  of  Scotch-Irish  do- 
scent,  was  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec.  2.S  1797.  His 
father.  Dr.  Hugh  Hodge,  a  physician  of  large  practice  and 
great  promise,  d.  early.  In  1812  ho  entered  the  sophomore 
class  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  graduated  with  tho 
highest  honors  in  1815.  From  1816  to  1819  he  was  a  stu- 
dent in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton,  in  the  same 
class  with  Bisho|)S  McUvaine  and  Johns.  In  1820  ho  ac- 
cepted tho  ap|iointment  of  assistant  teacher  of  the  original 
languages  of  Scripture  in  the  seminary,  and  in  1822  was 


HODGE— HOEFER. 


957 


elected  l>y  tho  Ocncrnl  Assomblv  professor  of  Oriental  nnd 
biblical  literature.  In  182S  he  returned  to  liis  chnir,  alter 
an  absence  of  some  Ibree  years  spent  in  study  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Paris,  Halle,  and  lierlin.  In  1810  he  was 
transferred  to  Ibe  chair  of  exegetical  and  didactic  theology, 
to  which,  in  1S02,  polemic  theology  was  added.  Dr.  Archi- 
bald Alexander,  the  incumbent  of  that  prof.s.-orship,  bav- 
in- d  in  ISJl.  He  was  moderator  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly (Old  School)  at  Philadelphia  in  ISKi,  and  in  1858  one 
of  a  committee  to  revise  the  Unnk  o/  Olsiiplnic  The  cel- 
ebration at  Princeton,  Apr.  21,  lS72,of  the  seini-centennml 
anniversary  "f  his  professorship  was  a  memorable  occasion, 
the  first  of"  its  kind  in  American  history.  The  patriarch 
of  our  theological  professors,  he  is  still  (1S7..)  in  active 
service.  His  contributions  to  sacred  literature  have  been 
of  the  most  scholarly  and  solid  character.  In  1S2j  ho 
founded  the  Jl,b!,\<,l  Repertory,  the  scope  of  which  was 
enlar-ed  and  Princeton  Jieview  added  to  us  title  in  ISi'J. 
In  \ST>  it  was  united  with  the  PrcHhjtiruin  Qutirlerhj  and 
American  Theot,„iic,d  Rerie,e,x\ve  organ  of  the  New  School 
branch.  Till  then,  for  nearly  forty  years,  ho  had  been  not 
only  editor-in-chief  of  the  Prineeinn  Perlnr,  but  also  chief 
contributor,  more  than  one-fifth  of  all  that  was  written  for 
it  coming  from  his  pen.  He  has  also  published  A  t-.m- 
menlnrn  on  the  F.pixlh  to  the  Aomn.n  ( IMo ;  .abridged 
18:ill;  rewritten  and  enlarged  1860),  Connlilntiontil  History 
t,f  the  Pretbi/leridn  Church  in  the  V.  S.  (2  vols.,  1810-41), 
The  W'nii  of  Life  (1842),  commentary  on  Ephc.^innii(K^f>), 
Fir.l  Corinthian,  (1857),  Second  (V„n.Mm»«  ( ISGO),  Hhat 
i,  Daneini^mr  (1874).  But  the  great  work  of  h.s  life  is 
S«,lemalic  Theoloq,,  (3  vols.,  1871-721.  which  is  regarded  as 
one  of  the  ablest  expositions  of  Calvinism  ever  made.  (See 
Index  Volume  of  the  llib.  Rep.  and  Princ.  Her.  from  1SS5  to 
y.W.f  ( 1 87 1 )  and  Semi-Cenlennia!  Commemoration  of  the  Pro- 
/e,.or,hip  of  CharlcH  Hodge,  D.  U.,  LL.n..  Serf.  U.  1873 
(1S72).)     D.  .June  19,  1878.  K-  B.  Hitchcock. 

IIocl:;e  (Hcfiii  Lkxox),  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  in   Philadel- 
phia June  27,   1790,  brother  of  Prof.  Charles  Ilodgo  and 
son  of  Dr.  Hugh  Ilodgc,  an  eminent  practitioner  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  with  honors  1814;  took  tlie  medical  de- 
gree in  1S17  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  professor 
of  obstetrics  in  that  institution  1S35-0:1,  when  he  became 
emeritus  professor.     Author  of  a  !<;ittem  of  Ohsietrto  and 
a  work  on    DiteancD   Peculiar  to    iroMcii,  both   standard 
treatises  of  the  first  authority  ;  wrote  much  and  ably  for 
the  professional  journals,  and  had  a  wide  fame  as  a  prao- 
tition.r  and  instructor.     D.  at  Philadelphia  Feb.  23,  1873. 
HodRC  (H.  Lksox),  M.  A.,  M.  D.,  b.  .luly  30,  1836,  in 
Philii.lclphia,  Pa.;  studied  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  received  the  degrees  of  li.  A.  lH5o,  M.  A.  1S,->S, 
and  AI.  D.  1S58:  was  resident  physician  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Hospital   1858-fiU.     In  ISUl  was  appointed  demon- 
strator of  surgery  and  chief  of  the  surgical  dispensary  of 
the  U'nivcrsity  of  Penn.sylvania,  and   in   1870  was  made 
demonstrator  of  analoiuv.     During  llio  war  was  one  of  the 
surgeons  attached  to  the  U.  S.  Satterlee  Hospital,  belonged 
to  the  Pennsylvania  reserve  corps  of  surgeons,  and  was 
pension  examining  surgeon  to  the  U.  S.  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion ;  was  present  with  the  army  in  McClellan's  campaign 
before  Uiehmond.  in  the  tietlysburg  campaign,  and  at  Fred- 
oricksburg  in  (irant's  advance  on  Uiehmond  ;  has  been  at- 
tending surgeon  to  the  Children's  Hospital  since  I8(il,  and 
attending  surgeon  to  the  Presbyterian  Hospital  since  its 
opening  in  1872.     He  has  written  and  pnldishcd  a  number 
of  articles  in  medical  journals  in  connection  with  original 
investigations  on  the  sulijectsof  metallic  sutures,  treatment 
of  fractures  of  the  thigh  by  an  improved  apjiaratus,  drain- 
age of  wounds  by  a  solid  metal  probe  insti-ad  of   Chas- 
saignac's  soft-rubber  tube,  deformities   after  liip   disease, 
tracheotomy  in  eases  of  pseudo-membranous  croup,  ovari- 
otomy, and'  a  new  form  of  trochar  for  the  evacuation  of 
ovarian  and  oilier  fluids,  excision  of  the  hip-joint,  etc. 

IloUgc'mnn,  county  of  the  W.  of  Kansas,  in  tho  valley 
of  the  Arkansas.  Area,  UOO  square  miles.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  gra/.ing. 

Iloirgenvillc,  post-v.,  county-scat  of  La  Rue  oo.,  Ivy. 
pop.  4114. 

Iloil'ces  (.IamesI,  h.  at  Qneenborough,  Kent.  England. 
IKIil;  was  assistant  engineer  of  the  railway  tunnels  and 
clifi'-works  near  Dover  183!I-I4  ;  was  employed  upon  tho 
eonslruclion  of  Lowestoft  harb.ir  1S41-48;  eonslructing 
on"ineer  of  the  (Irand  Trunk  Railway.  Canada.  IS59  »■,,.; 
and  published  in  1800  o  folio  account  of  tho  Victoria  Bridge 
at  .Monlrial. 

Ilotlgcs  (Wii.i.iAM).b.  in  London  about  174-1;  painted 
landscapes  and  theatrical  decorations;  accompanied,  in 
1772,  Cook  on  his  South  Sea  voyage,  and  furnished  the 
illiistrntions  to  his  account;  went  in  1784  to  India  on  tho 
invitation  of  Warren  Hastings.  Published  in  1792  Traveh 
til  India,  with  plates,  and  d.  liar.  0.  1797. 


Ilodg'kinson  (Eatos),  b.  at  Andcrton,  Cheshire,  Feb. 
26,  1789;  evinced  early  a  decided  talent  for  tho  study  of 
mechanics :  made  a  series  of  experiments  concerning  tho 
strength  of  iron  when  applied  as  eoUiuins,  for  an  account 
of  which  he  received  ihe  gold  medal  of  the  lioyal  Society; 
made  the  calculations  entering  into  the  construction  of  tho 
Britannia  bridge,  which  were  rewarded  with  a  medal  at 
Paris  in  1855;  was  appointed  a  memlier  in  1S47  of  the 
royal  commission  on  the  application  of  iron  in  railway 
buildings  ;  and  communicated  a  number  of  valuable  en- 
gineering papers  to  the  Trau«iicii„ni>  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation. D.  at  Broughton,  near  Manchester,  June  18,  1861. 
Ilodp'son  (Jons  E.),b.  in  London  in  1811  ;  made  many 
studies  ill  Venice  and  the  East;  and  was  in  1873  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Of  his  pictures,  The 
Rcorrjanizaliun  of  the  Army  of  .Morocco  and  The  ,Snake- 
Charmcr  arc  the  most  widely  known. 

Hodsson  (William  Ballaxtyxk),  a  political  econo- 
mist, b.  at  Edinburgh  in  IS15;  studied  at  the  university 
of  his  native  city  ;  was  princinal  of  the  Liverpool  Institute 
from  1839  to  1847,  and  of  the  Chorlton  High  School  in 
Mani'hester  from  1847  to  1851;  traveled  through  France, 
Italy,  lleriiiaiiv,  and  Switzerland;  resided  from  1803  to 
1870  in  London,  where  ho  acted  as  examiner  in  )iolitical 
economy  at  the  University  of  London  ;  and  was  in  1S71 
appointed  professor  in  political  and  cominereial  economy 
and  mercantile  law  at  the  University  of  Edinlnirgh.^  His 
principal  writings  are — Lecture  on  KdncoH'iu  (  1837  ),  Cl(ti«i- 
cal  /ii«()-ii<7i'oii(i853).  The  Conditions  of  Health  and  Wealth 
educaliouallii  considered  (1860),  E-eam/eraled  EHtinmtcsof 
Reading  anil  Writinfi  aa  Means  of  Education  (1807),  II  hat 
is  Capital  ?  (1868),  True  Scope  of  Economic  Science  (1870), 
Competition  (1870),  and  Turyot,  his  Life,  Times,  and  Opin- 
ions (1870). 

Ho'dograph  [iSit,  "  path,"  and  y^dif^v,  to  "write"  or 
"describe"].  If  from  any  fixed  point  lines  be  drawn  at 
every  instant  representing  in  magnitude  and  direction  the 
velocity  of  a  point  describing  any  path  in  any  manner, 
the  cxiremiliej  of  these  lines  form  a  curve  which  is  called 
the  hodoiiraph.  The  invention  of  this  construction  is  due 
to  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  and  the  most  beautiful  of  tlie  many 
remnrkable  theorems  to  which  it  leads  is  this:  The  hodo- 
yraph  for  the  motion  of  a  planet  or  comet  is  always  a  circle, 
lehatcrer  he  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  orbit.  Since  the 
radius-vector  ol'  the  hodogiaph  represents  the  velocity  at 
each  instant,  it  is  evident  that  an  elementary  are  represents 
the  acceleration,  and  thus  a  finite  arc  represents  the  whole 
acceleration  of  the  moving  point  during  the  corresponding 
time;  and  it  is  evident  also  that  the  tangent  to  the  hodo- 
gra|)h  is  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  acceleration  of  the 
moving  point  in  the  corresponding  position  of  its  orbit. 
(J'/iom«oit  and  Tail.)  The  intensity  of  heat  and  light 
emanating  from  a  point,  or  from  a  uniformly  radiating 
spherical  surface,  diminishes  with  increasing  distance  ac- 
cording to  the  same  law  as  gravitation,  llcncc  the  amount 
of  heat  and  light  which  a  planet  receives  from  the  sun  dur- 
ing any  interval  is  proportional  to  the  whole  acceleration 
din-ing  that  interval— i'.  e.  to  the  corresponding  arc  of  the 
holograph.  From  this  it  is  easy  to  see,  for  example,  that 
if  a  comet  move  in  a  parabola,  the  amount  of  heat  it  re- 
ceives from  the  sun  in  any  interval  is  proportional  to  tho 
angle  through  which  its  direction  of  motion  turns  during 
that  interval.  There  is  a  corresponding  theorem  for  a 
planet  moving  in  an  ellipse,  but  somewhat  more  compli- 
cated, {[bid.) 

Ilodom'ctor  [Gr.  JSdt,  a  "road,"  and  ^^rpov,  "mea- 
sure'], a  more  correct  form  of  tho  word  OBoMKrEii  (which 
see). 

Hoe,  an  instrument  of  farm-husbandry  of  various  forms. 
The  best  known  is  a  plate  of  steel  attached  to  a  handle 
at  Bomewhat  less  than  a  right  angle,  and  used  for  cutting 
and  drawing  the  earth.  The  shulllehoe  is  drawn  and 
thrust  backward  and  forward  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  oil 
weeds.  Various  forms  of  horse-hoe  are  used  for  cultiva- 
ting those  crops  which  arc  jdanted  in  rows  and  drills. 

Hoc  (RiciiAnn  March),  an  inventor,  b.  in  New  York 
Sept.  12.  1812,  Ihe  son  of  Robert  Hoc  (1784-1833),  an  in- 
genious English  mechanician  who  became  a  maniifaclurer 
of  printing-presses  in  New  Voik.  li.  .M.  Hoc  liecamenfter 
his  father's  death  a  partner  in  the  business,  to  which  was 
addeil  the  umnufacturc  of  saws,  in  which  Mr.  Hoc  intro- 
duced important  improvements.  In  lSII,Mr.  Hoe,  with 
his  brothers,  Uohert  Hoe  and  Peter  Smith  Hoe,  assumecl 
the  whole  business,  the  former  partners  retiring.  In  1816 
he  brought  out  "  Hoe's  lightning  press,"  extensively  cm- 
ployed  for  ncwspa]icr-work.  It  has  been  since  much  im- 
proved. He  has  also  made  many  less  celebrated  inventions. 
HooTcT  (JoiiANN  CiiiiisTUN  Fkimuna Nil),  b.  Apr.  21, 
181 1,  at  Dii.scbnitj,  iu  the  princijiality  of  Scliwary.burg-Ru- 


958 


HOEI^HIN— HOFFMAN. 


dolstadt,  aod  educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  Kudolstadt. 
la  18;iU  lie  started,  lor  the  sake  of  his  health,  on  a  rather 
adventurous  journey  :  went  from  Urcmen  to  Lille,  where  he 
enlisted  in  the  foreign  legion  as  a  soldier,  and  from  LiHe  to 
Marseille?,  wlience  lie  was  sent  to  Xavarino,  the  station  of 
his  regiment :  returned  in  1831  to  France  anci,  taught  for- 
eign languages  at  the  Colleges  of  Lyons,  St.  Ktienne.  and 
Jlnanne;  co-operated  with  Cousin  in  translating  Kant's 
KritiK-  der  reinen  Vcrnuuft  in  1834,  and  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  began  to  study  natural  science  and  medicine, 
while  he  made  his  living  hy  writing  and  translating  for 
ilitTerent  periodicals.  In  IS40  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor,  and  in  1848  he  was  naturalized  as  a  French  citizen. 
The  most  prominent  of  his  writings  arc — l/iittnire  de  la 
Vhiinie  (IS42),  the  first  complete  history  of  the  science  of 
chemistry;  Dtctionmtire  d*-  Pfiysit/ite  ct  de  (^himic  (1S46), 
J)c  ^ft'dt^>:ill€  pratitfuc  (1847),  De  /iotaiiique  {ISitO}^  D'Aijri- 
culture  et  d' Hortivtdtnrc  (1855),  IHstoircs  du  Caf6,  dtt  Cho- 
cofat,  dc  la  Pomtne  de  Terre,  dn  Lotim,  du  Poivriery  etc. 
(1850-51),  TftHfoire  du  Mnroc  (1848);  besides  a  great  num- 
ber of  articles  in  the  ISiograpkie  GC-iiCratc,  of  which  he  is 
editor-in  "chief. 

Hoci-Shiii,  or  Hui-Shen,  a  Booddhist  monk  from 
China,  who.  according  to  his  own  narrative,  regularly  en- 
tered on  the  Chinese  Year-Books,  returned  a.  n.  4U9  from 
a  long  journey  to  the  East,  where,  as  he  declared,  ho  had 
visited  a  country  which,  according  to  the  distances  as 
he  gave  them,  would  be  California  or  Mexico.  He  de- 
scribes a  plant  as  being  very  common  there  which  he  calls 
fu8an<i,  and  from  which  he  named  the  country.  From  its 
fruit,  "like  a  red  pear,"  and  the  description  of  the  cloth 
and  paper  made  from  its  fibres,  this  appears  to  have  been 
the  maguay  or  Agave  Americana^  so  cliaracteristic  of  the 
country.  **  No  iron."  he  says,  "is  found  in  this  land,  but 
copper,  gold,  and  silver  are  not  prized,  and  do  not  serve  as 
a  medium  of  exchange  in  the  market."  In  this  and  all 
other  particulars  the  narrative  of  Iloei-Shin  applies  ac- 
curately to  what  is  known  in  part  of  Mexico  and  in  part 
of  Peru.  The  monk  declares  that  he  found  Booddhistic 
institutions  which  had  been  introduced  fifty  years  before 
him  by  five  beggar-priests  from  Kipin  (Beloochistan). 
The  writer  in  a  work  on  this  subject  {Fn-sanfj,  or  the  Dis- 
covery of  America  bij  Chinese  Jiooddhist  Priests  in  the  ' 
Fifth  Ccntunj,  London)  explains  the  coincidence  of  certain 
details  in  the  narrative  with  what  is  known  of  Peru  by  the 
probability  that  Peruvian  customs  derived  from  Mexico 
descended  to  the  South  subsequent  to  the  fifth  century. 
The  account  of  Fusang  w.as  first  introduced  to  Europe  by 
a  learned  Sinologist,  De  (iuignes,  who  in  17G1  published  an 
admirable  memoir  on  the  subject  in  the  Memoiren  dc  VAca- 
dimie  des  /nmcri/jtioiis  et  Pctlea-Lettrcs  (vol.  xxviii.).  In 
1S41,  Prof.  Karl  Neumann  translated  Iloei-Shin's  narrative 
again  more  accurately  from  the  original,  adding  to  it 
copious  comments  of  his  own.  This  work,  translated  by 
the  writer  into  English,  with  the  aid  and  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Prof.  Neumann,  appeared  in  the  New  York 
Knickerbocker  Magazine  in  1S50.  Be  Guigncs'  memoir  was 
attacked  by  Klaprolh  in  his  Annalca  des  Empereura  du 
Japan  in  a  spirit  very  little  to  his  credit:  but  Klaproth 
was  in  turn  refuted  in  a  series  of  articles  distinguished  for 
their  moderate  tone,  but  replete  with  sagacious  criticism 
and  sound  scholarship,  by  M.  Gustavo  d'Eichthal  {Revue 
Archiologique,  Paris,  18r>2-f>.3).  (See  also  L'Amvrique  sous 
Ic  nam  de  pays  du  Pu-Sang,  ait  ctlc  (tv  cannue  en  Af^ic  dts 
Ic  ciHquieme  sierlc  dc  notre  era,  dans  lrn  f/randcs  annalcs  de 
la  Chine,  Paris,  by  M.  Tauavky  ;  also,  by  the  same  writer, 
L' Amt'ritfue  souH  Ic  nam  dc  Pu-Saug — \ourfillc8  eprcures  que 
la  pat/s  dc  Fu-Sang  est  V AmSriquc  (quoted  by  Andrae  and 
Geiger,  1804.  Biblinthrca  Sinilogicu).)  Julius  lleinrich 
von  Klaproth  renewed  his  attack  from  the  .1«jtrt/(«  d'F.  du 
Japan  in  1831  in  a  work  entitled  Rcchcrchcs  snr  It  pays  dc 
Fou-sang  mentionnS  dans  Ics  Hvres  chinnis  et  pria  mat  apr^s 
pour  une  partie  de  VAmiriqnCy  in  Xouvelles  Annales  des 
I'oi/agrs,  t.  21,  deuxii-mc  .SV/'jc,  1851  ;  also  K.  F.  Neumann, 
Ontanien  nnd  West-Antcrika,  Zcllichrift  fur  allgemcinc  Erd- 
knndcf  Apr.,  1864,  and  an  artielo  by  Jos6  Perez  in  the 
Revue  oricntalc  ct  Am^riruinc,  No.  46,  p.  189,  195.  A  few 
minor  articles  on  the  subject  were  also  published  in  the 
NatcH  and  Qutrics  for  China  and  Japan,  1667-70,  and  the 
VhincHc  Recorder  for  1870.  A  summary  of  all  that  has  ap- 
peared on  the  subject,  with  the  most  perfectly  revised  ver- 
sion of  the  original  Chinese  narrative  of  Iloei-Shiu  yet 
made,  including  an  article  by  Col.  Barclay  Kennon,  late  of 
the  North  Pacific  U.  S.  surveying  expedition,  on  the  feasi- 
bility of  a  passage  from  China  to  California,  may  be  found 
in  the  work  Fu-nang  already  cited.  C.  G.  Leland. 

Hoc'ven,  van  der  (Jan),  h.  Feb.  9,  1801,  at  Rotter- 
dam ;  stuilie<I  medicine  at  Leyden  ;  practised  1826  at  Rot- 
terdam;  became  professor  of  zoology  at  Leyden  in  1S35; 
and  d.  there   Mar.  10,  1868.     Ho  wrote  a  Handbook  of 


Zoology  (1833).  which  was   translated  into  German   and 
English,  and  liijdragen  tot  de  natuur  lijke  Geachiedenia  van 

den  Xegerstam  (1842). 

Hof,  town  of  Bavaria,  in  Upper  Franconia.  on  theSaalo. 
It  iias  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton,  woollen,  linen, 
leather,  and  colors.     Pop.  16,010. 

Ho'i'er  (Andreas),  b.  at  St.  Leonard,  in  the  Tyrol,  Nor. 
22,  1767 :  became  a  vintner  and  horse-merchant;  took  com- 
mand of  a  party  of  riflemen  serving  against  the  French 
1706 ;  took  a  prominent  part  (1803-09)  in  the  public  affairs 
of  the  Tyrol;  led  in  the  uprising  of  the  people  against  the 
French  and  Bavarians  1SU9;  gained  the  important  battles 
of  Sterzing  and  Innspruck  :  defeated  Lefebvre  and  drove 
him  out  of  the  province,  and  was  declared  ruler  of  the 
Tyrol.  Soon  after,  Austria  having  been  reduced  to  submis- 
sion by  Napoleon,  Hofer  became  unable  to  sustain  himself. 
Betrayed  for  money  by  one  of  his  most  trusted  followers, 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  shot  by  order  of  Napoleon  at 
Mantua  Feb.  20,  1810. 

liofl^man  (Charles  Fexxo),  A.  M.,b.  in  New  York  in 
ISOG,  and  educated  at  Columbia  College.  In  1817  he  met 
with  an  accident  which  required  the  amputation  of  a  log. 
When  twenty-one  years  of  ago  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  was  afterwards  editorially  connected  with  the  New 
Y'ork  American,  the  Knirkerbucker  Magaziuc,  the  New  York 
J/iVror,  etc.  He  published  -4  M'intcr  in  the  irc«(  (1835), 
Wild  Scenes  in  the  Forest  and  Prairie  (1837),  Greyslaer,  a 
novel  (1840),  The  Vigil  vf  Faith  and  Other  Poema  (1842), 
The  Echo,  poems  (1844),  Love's  Calendar  (1S4S),  and  an 
edition  of  his  poetical  works,  edited  by  E.  F.  Hoffman,  ap- 
peared in  1874.  He  was  in  184G-47  editor  of  the  literary 
World,  and  soon  after  was  attacked  by  a  mental  disease,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  has  since  lived  in  retirement.  Ho 
is  a  brother  of  Ogden  Hoffman. 

Hoffman  (David),  LL.D.  Oxon..  J.  U.  D.  Gottincen, 
b.  in  Baltimore  Dec.  25,  1784;  was  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Maryland  1817-36  ;  after  which  he  practised 
law  in  Philadelphia,  though  passing  some  years  in  Europe, 
from  which  he  returned  in  1853.  He  jiublished  ^1  Course  of 
Legal  Study  (1836),  Legal  Outlines,  Miscellaneous  Thoughts, 
etc.,  by  Anthony  Grumbler  (1837),  Viator  (1841),  Legal 
Hints  (1846),  Chronicles  from  the  Originals  of  Cnrtaphiluaf 
the  Wandering  Jew.     D.  in  New  Y'ork  Nov.  11,  1854. 

Hoffman  (John  Thompsox).  LL.D.,  b.  at  Sing-Sing, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  10,  1828;  graduated  in  1846  at  Union  College; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1849  ;  became  in  1860,  and  again 
in  1863,  recorder  of  New  York  City  ;  was  Democratic  mayor 
of  New  York  1866-09;  governor  of  the  SUte  1869-73. 

Hofiman  (MrRRAvl.  b.  in  New  Y'ork  Sept.  29,  1791; 
graduated  in  1809  at  Columbia  College;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  and  was  (1839—13)  assistant  vice-chancellor,  and 
(1853-61)  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  New  York.  Ho 
has  published  Office  and  Duties  of'  Masters  in  Chancery 
[WU),  Practice  in  the  Court  o/ CAniiccn/ (1840-43,  3  vols.), 
Treatise  on  the  Corporation  of  Xcw  York,  Vice-Chancery 
Reports  (1839-40),  On  the  Law  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  (1850),  Ecclesiastical  Law  in  Xew  York  (1868), 
The  Ritual  Law  of  the  Church  (1872).     D.  May  7,  1873. 

Hoffman  (Ocden).  a  son  of  Judge  Josiah  Ogden  Hoff- 
man, b.  in  New  York  in  1799,  and  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1812;  served  three  years  as  a  midshipman  in 
the  war  with  (treat  Britain;  was  admitted  to  tbe  bar  of 
Orange  co.,  N.  Y.;  removed  to  New  York  City  in  1826; 
became  a  partner  of  Hugh  JIaxwell,  and  held  various  im- 
portant ottices ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1837-41,  and 
was  again  elected  in  184S.  In  1854  he  was  chosen  attorney- 
general  of  New  Y'ork.  D.  May  1,  1S56.  He  was  a  most 
able  and  eloquent  jury-lawyer,  and  a  prominent  Whig 
leader. 

Hoffman  (William),  b.  in  the  city  of  New  York  Dec. 
2,  1SU7  ;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and 
entered  the  army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infantry, 
rising  through  successive  grades  to  be  colonel,  1S62;  he 
early  saw  much  active  service  in  the  Black  Hawk  and 
Florida  wars  against  the  Sac  and  Seminole  Indians,  being 
thus  engaged  and  on  frontier  duty  till  1S46;  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  ho  participated  in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
the  various  battles  up  to  and  including  the  final  assault 
and  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  receiving  the  brevets  of 
major  and  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  conduct.  Subse- 
quently he  commanded  various  expeditions,  being  on  duty 
in  Texas  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1861,  where  he 
was  made  a  prisoner  of  war;  exchanged  Aug.,  1862.  Ap- 
pointed commissary-general  of  prisoners  in  1862,  ho  super- 
vised and  controlled  all  captured  and  paroled  prisoners  until 
thocIo«eof  the  war  (brevetted  brigadier-general  and  major- 
general),  when  ho  assumed  command  of  his  regiment.  At 
his  own  request  he  was  in  1870  retired  from  active  service. 

G.  C.  SlUMO.NS. 


HOFFMANN— HOGAN. 


959 


HolTinann  (Kiinst  Tiieodob  Wiliiklm),  a  German 
novelist  o(  great  lalciit,  but  of  somewhat  unsound  cliarnc- 
rer,  b.  at  Konigsbcrg  in  1770.  lie  stuilieil  law,  and  held 
for  some  years  various  judieial  offices  in  I'osen  and  War- 
saw. In  isilJ  he  was  upiioinlcd  councillor  of  the  court  of 
judicature  in  lierlin,  in  which  city  he  d.  iu  1S:.'2.  Ilia  life 
was  full  of  troubles  and  very  unhappy.  lUs  father,  who 
deserted  him,  was  a  man  of  bad  temper,  and  his  uncle,  who 
educated  him.  >vasa  man  of  pedantic  character.  Hchim.'^eir, 
who  had  his  father's  temper,  was  Iriiincd  to  take  his  uncle's 
habits,  and  the  result  was  an  unnaturaliiess  and  unsound- 
ness of  mind  which  he  never  outgrew.  In  his  early  man- 
hood ho  was  thrown  out  of  his  position  by  Napoleon's  in- 
vasion, and  for  several  years  he  was  compelled  to  earn 
an  uncertain  livelihood  by  giving  lessons  in  music  and 
drawing,  two  arts  of  which  he  was  a  perfect  master ;  he 
composed  several  operas.  When  ho  was  once  more  re- 
instated in  his  judicial  office  ho  evinced  an  irritability  of 
mind  and  had  contracted  habits  which  made  him  unfit  for 
society.  He  retired  from  the  drawing-room  to  the  tavern, 
where  his  sparkling  wit  and  brilliant  imagination  soon 
gathered  a  circle  of  revellers  around  him.  and  where  the 
last  of  his  fine  gifts  were  as  rapidly  destroyed.  His  first 
book,  Plmntasie-tluchc  in  CiIIuI'k  Mtiiiier  (1S14),  is  a  col- 
lection of  essays  or  papers  chiefly  on  music,  and  iu  spite 
of  a  somewhat  wilful  singularity,  both  in  slylo  and  ideiis, 
they  belong  to  the  finest  and  most  charining  efforts  of  tier- 
man  genius.  His  next  great  work,  Elexicrc  ilea  'I'cii/eh 
(1816),  is  still  more  brilliant  and  powerful,  though  it  is 
wild,  weird,  and  eccentric.  His  last  effort  was  Lcbcim 
amichlen  (/<■«  A'<.(er-.Wurr  (1S2I-22);  but  although  this 
book  by  many  is  considered  his  chief  work,  it  is  really  only 
the  ruin  of  his  mind.  Its  humor  is  forced,  its  pathos  is 
bombast,  its  irony  is  despair,  and  its  passion  is  hardly 
anything  more  th;m  gesticulation.  Among  his  minor  nov- 
els there  arc  many  which  may  be  considered  as  master- 
pieces, such  as  Mchler  .If.iifi'n,  Fraiilfin  .fciirftry,  Dii'jc 
wid  Oii<ji:rrm,-,  etc. :  and  for  the  student  of  (Jerman  genius 
and  character  his  writings  in  general  are  of  the  greatest 


importance. 


t'l.KME.NS  PeTEUSES. 


IIotTmann  (Friedricii),  JI.  !>..  F.  K.  S.,  b.  at  Halle, 
Germany,  Feb.  I'J.  lOliO;  graduate.l  .M.  I),  at  Jena  lOSl; 
practised  medicine  with  great  renown  at  Minden  and  Ilal- 
borstadt;  became  physician  to  the  king  of  Prussia  170S; 
was  professor  of  medicine  at  Halle  lGy.i-17-12.  D.  at  Hallo 
Nov.  12, 1742.  Hoffmann  is  memorable  as  one  of  the  first  to 
introduce  the  modern  or  scientific  spirit  into  the  Galenic  or 
regular  meilical  system  of  his  time.  His  special  medical 
theories,  however,  were  of  only  temporary  value,  and  have 
been  long  forgotten.  His  greatest  work  was  Si/alcma  Mcdi- 
ciii/c  Katinnalia  (U  vols..  1718-40).  Others  were  Mcdichm 
Cunaullatoria  (12  vols.,  1721-:;9)  and  other  works,  includ- 
ing 5  vols,  of  posthumous  OpuacuUi.  His  name  is  perpetu- 
ated by  "  HolTmann's  anodyne"  (SptriUit  Ktherin  cumpus- 
ilw),  a  preparation  devised  by  him. 

HofTmann  (.Iean  Jacques),  b.  at  Bile  in  1835.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  where  he  later  on  became  profes- 
sor in  Greek  and  history,  and  where  he  d.  May  10,  170fi. 
His   principal    works   arc— i«iVoii    UuircriMle    Hialnn'co- 

(lr;;liai>lnr,i.Ch,ulloloriirr,-f'ortico-Phi!ijlo;liilim   (1007)  and 

JIUlurM  I'ltpiirHiii  (I0S7),  besides  a  great  number  of  I'ocm- 
alix  and  iJiitKrrlitliiiiiea. 

IlalTmann  (Wiliielm),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Kornthal  ISOR; 
sluilicd  at  Tubingen  :  president  of  the  mission-house  at 
Bille  for  twelve  years;  chaplain  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  nnd 
general  superintendent  of  IJrandeuburg ;  d.  at  Berlin  Aug. 
2S,  1S73.  An  able  s.diolar  anrl  eloquent  preacher.  Wrote 
against  Strauss  in  defence  of  the  gospel  history,  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  on  the  mission  of  Prussia  and 
Germany. 

Iloifmann  von  Fallorslpbcn  (Air.rsT  HEisnini). 
b.  Apr.  2,  IT'.IH.  at  Fallersleben.  in  Hanover:  studied  at 
Giittingen  ami  Bonn  ;  became  libriirian  in  l.s2:i,  and  pro- 
fessor of  German  language  and  literature  in  l»:iU  at  the 
University  of  Brcsinu,  but  was  dismissed  in  1812  on  ac- 
count of  his  Vnpiililitchi-  Lirilrr,  and  banished  from  Prus- 
sia. For  several  years  he  led  a  wandering  life,  but  settled 
in  lS4i  in  Mecklenburg;  was  rehabilitate.!  in  Pru.ssia  in 
1S4S  and  received  a  pension;  edited  1854-07  the  ll'iciimr 
Jiilirhiich,  and  became  in  1800  librarian  at  tho  castle  of 
Corney.  The  most  prominent  of  his  linguistic  and  histor- 
ical writings  are— //...«  /;.7./,-.ic  (18:10-02),  Fiimhjruhen  fur 
Oftihiclilr  JJri,lH,-hrr  Spniihr  mid  ii/cradir  (ISIiO-.l"),  J?c- 
arhir-hlc  dm  IhiiUchi-n  Kirrhetdkdit  hit  a«f  Luther  (18:!2), 
Die  Ijeul-rhrn  (leielUchtiftilieder  drt  16  nnd  17  Jahrhundcrl 
(1800).  Of  his  poems,  besides  tho  above  mentioned,  f'li- 
poliliiche  Lieder  (1811).  AUrmiimiinehe.  hicdcr  (1843),  Sul- 
dnteuli.d.r  (1851),  h'Inderliedrr  (1845),  etc. 

IIoirinailllN  .VnOllyllC  iSpirilua  irlheria  rnmpnailuii), 
a  valuable  anndyin-  mixture  of  eomniou  ether,  cthylic  alco- 


hol, and  the  heavy  oil  of  wino.  It  overcomes  spasm,  pain, 
ami  nausea.  It  is  very  expensive,  and  consequently  much 
that  is  sold  under  this  name  is  a  oouiparativcly  worthless 
mixture.  It  was  named  from  its  inventor,  FriedricL  HofT- 
mann (1000-1742). 

Iloiriiiannscgs:  (Joiian  CEXTnnitis),  Coi-nt,  b.  in 
Dresden  .May  2:i,  1706.  and  d.  there  Dec.  1.3,  1849.  Ho 
studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingcn,  and  spent  four  years  in 
Portugal  exploring  the  flora  of  that  country.  From  1809 
to  1833  he  pui)lished  in  Berlin  liis  magnificent  Flore  l\>r~ 
tuijniae  in  Latin  and  French,  containing  descriptions  of  sev- 
eral hundred  new  plants.  He  also  wrote  Yofjuije  en  Furtu- 
<jal  (1805). 

Ilofhof,  or  El  Ilofhof,  town  of  .\rabia,  in  thcLahsa 
oasis,  near  lal.  25°  20'  oG"  N.,  Ion.  49°  40'  50"  E., about  4 
miles  S.  of  Mebarraz.  It  is  somewhatdecayed.  Pop.  24,000. 
Ilofland  (Bahdaka),  b.  in  1770  at  Sliefiield.  Eng..  tho 
daughter  of  Robert  Wreaks,  a  inanutneturer ;  married  in 
1790  Jlr.  Hoole,  who  d.  in  1798,  and  in  1808  Mr.  Holland, 
an  artist;  produced  about  70  novels  and  moral  tales;  and 
d.  Nov.  9,  1844.  The  besl^known  of  her  compositions  are 
The  C/erffymau'a   Widow  and  Tlic  Son  of  tt  Gcniua. 

Ilo'llcr  (Karl  AnoLpn  Konstaxtin),  b.  at  Meminin- 
gen,  Bavaria  ;  studied  at  Munich  and  Giittingen  ;  visited 
Italy;  became  professor  of  history  at  Munich  iu  IS  10.  but 
was  removed  in  1847  on  account  of  his  Ctmcordnt  nnd  Con- 
stiluliiiiiaeid  der  Kiitliidiken  in  lliii/crn,  and  accepted  in  1851 
a  chair  of  history  at  Prague.  The  most  prominent  of  his 
writings  are — Die  Deutaehcn  PUpatc  (1839),  Frlinkiach  Sin- 
dim  (1853),  Die  Geachichlaachreiber  der  huaaitiaehen  Be- 
Ke'jnnij  (I85C-05). 

Ilurmann  (Arr.csT  Wit.iiei.m),  Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  h.  at 
Giesseu.  (iermany,  Apr.  8, 1818  :  studied  philology  and  law, 
and  was  trained  as  a  chemist  by  Liebig ;  was  afterwards  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  Bonn,  and  then  director  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Chemistry ,'London.  In  1864  he  became  a  chemical 
pr'ofessor  at  Berlin.  He  has  made  important  discoveries  in 
chemistry,  and  is  author  of  Einlcitnmj  in  die  Modcnie 
Cliemie  (1865)  and  other  works. 

Ilorwyl,  a  V.  of  the  canton  of  Berne,  Switzerland.  6 
miles  N.  of  Berne,  and  near  Schiinbuhl  station  on  the  Cen- 
tral Railway  to  Bale.  It  is  noted  as  the  site  of  the  educa- 
tional estabiishmeuts  founded  and  for  many  years  conducted 
by  Fellenberg,  and  for  some  years  after  his  death  by  his 
sons. 

Hog  [a  word  of  Cymric  origin],  the  domestic  swine,* 
the  remote  offspring  of  tho  wild  swine  (Sns  sem/a;  see 
Boar).  Its  flesh,  rejected  as  unclean  liy  Jews,  Moham- 
medans, and  ancient  Egyptians,  and  untouched  by  Hin- 
doos and  strict  Booddhists,  is  a  very  important  article  of 
food  among  most  civilized  and  many  barbarous  nations. 
This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  swine  is  easily  kept  and 
fattened,  and  aflords  an  easy  nnd  profitable  means  of  eon- 
verting  bulky  and  lr)W-priced  farm-products  into  a  portalile 
and  s;ilable  cominodity.  Tho  flesh  is  not  tho  only  valuable 
product.  The  skin  makes  a  leatlier  valued  by  the  saddler; 
tho  bristles  make  the  best  brushes ;  tho  fat  supplies  lani, 
lard  oil,  glycerine,  soap,  and  star  candles.  There  are  many 
breeds  of  domestic  swine,  which  difter  greatly  among  them- 
selves in  size,  fattening  qualities,  and  profitableness  in  rais- 
ing. Among  these  we  may  specify  the  Neapolitan  stock  ; 
the  large  and  coarse  Berkshire  swine;  the  deliealo  and 
easily  fattened  Chinese  varieties,  crosses  of  which  with  tho 
old  European  stocks  have  led  to  great  improvements  in 
swine,  new  breeds  having  been  developed  having  more  hard- 
iness and  greater  size  than  Chinese  pigs  and  far  more  valu- 
able fattening  qualities  than  the  old  breeds  of  Europe.  Tho 
Sussex  and  Bedford  breeds  are  among  the  stocks  thus  im- 
proved. The  Chester  whites,  a  breed  which  originated  in 
Penn.sylvania,  and  the  Magie  slock  from  Ohio,  are  among 
the  Ai'nerican  breeds  ;  but  some  breeders  deny  that  either 
stock  has  characters  suflicicntly  marked  and  permanent 
to  warrant  f.u-  it  a  distinct  name  as  a  breed.  When  neg- 
lected and  bred  in  tho  woods.  a;ul  fattened  upon  nuts  and 
acorns,  the  swine  lends  strongly  to  revert  to  the  wild  type. 
Pigs  for  market  should  be  fed  when  young  upon  a  rela- 
tively small  auiount  of  grain,  mixed  with  fruits,  boiled 
vegeiables.  clover,  grass,  and  weeds;  ami  when  older  they 
should  bo  fed  almost  exclusively  with  grain,  (i round  (and 
especially  cooked)  Indian  corn,  buckwheat,  and  barley  are 
oxeellent  fattening  materials.  (For  other  sjieeics  of  the  hog 
family,  Suidas  seo  Bauvroi-.ssa,  Boscii-vakk,  Peccarv, 
Waut-hoc;,  etc.) 

Ilo'gan,  tp.  of  Dearborn  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  949. 


•  In  many  parts  of  Ensland.  and  in  most  recent  EnElish  farm- 
ing and  niarltet  literature,  the  word  hot)  denotes  a  yoiini;  sheep, 
a  laoili  in  bis  second  year.  Domestic  swine  arc  there  almost  uni- 
versally called  pigs. 


960 


HOGAN— HOHENSTAUFEN. 


Hogan  (John),  b.  at  Tallow,  Watorford,  in  1800;  stud- 
\Q<\  nt  Rome;  aud  d.  at  Dublin  Mar.  U7,  1858.  Most  of 
his  works  are  religions  aud  monumental;  his  Drunken 
Fann  became  widely  known. 

Ho;;nrth  (GEoriGK).b.  about  1797  in  Scotland:  became 
n  wrirtT  to  the  t^i<:jnot  at  Eilinlmrgh  :  was  many  years 
dramatic  and  musical  critic  for  the  London  Moru'nKj  C/iroii- 
icle;  in  1S46  became  associated  with  Charles  Dickens,  his 
son-in-law,  in  conducting  the  Daily  Ncwh.  Author  of 
Mutficftl  Ilistort/,  fiiinjraphif  and  Cn'ticinm  (2  vols.,  1836), 
Menioifs  of  the  Mnaical  Drama  (IS.'IS),  rcvise<l  un<l  repub- 
lished its  MrmoiKH  of  the  Opera  (2  vols.,  I851J,  both  works 
of  pcrinant-nt  value.     D.  Feb.  12,  1870. 

Hogarth  (William),  a  celebrated  English  artist,  forc- 
mo6t  in  his  line  of  subjects;  b.  in  Loudon  1G97  or  1G9S, 
date  uncertain:  d.  Oct.  2fi,  17ti4.  llis  father,  a  school- 
master, apprenticed  him  in  1712  to  a  silversmith  as  an  en- 
graver of  armorial  bc:irings  on  plate.  A  few  years  later 
ho  was  engaged  in  engraving  tor  booksellers.  Ilis  first 
profession  was  that  of  portrait-painter,  where  ho  exhibited 
great  facility  in  catching  likenesses  and  originality  in 
grouping  figures:  but  his  talent  leading  hiui  in  other 
directions,  he  soon  struck  the  vein  that  made  hini  famous. 
The  genius  for  delineating  scenes  in  real  life,  which  early 
showed  itself  in  grotesque  forms,  as  in  the  Sniffle  at  Hujh- 
ynfeiina  otlier  ludicrous  sketches,  burst  forth  in  full  splendor 
in  the  remarkable  series  of  plates  entitled  the  I/<irlot's  Prog- 
ress, soon  fuUowed  by  the  Hake's  Pror/rcss  and  Mttrn'ofjc  d 
la  Mode,  all  done  between  1734  and  1714.  The  rude  prints 
that  he  engraved  and  published  from  these  paintings  had 
an  immense  sale.  The  paintings  were  the  wonder  of  the 
town.  Sir  James  Thoruhiil  forgave  the  genius  who  had 
stolen  his  daughter.  Hogarth's  industry  was  indefatigable, 
aud  iiis  achievements  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  here 
even  by  name.  His  works  are  legion.  No  phase  or  aspect 
of  life  escaped  him.  Seven  prints  in  illustration  of  Apu- 
leius's  (/o/</e;t  ,A«s,  twelve  prints  for  Hndlbras :  The  Sltepij 
Congregation,  The  Distrcsxed  Poet,  The  Enraged  Musieian, 
Strotlinff  Actresses  in  a  Darn,  Garrirk  as  itichard  III., 
The  Stageeoach,  The  March  to  Pinchfei/  ;  four  prints  of 
The  Election,  Paul  before  Felix,  Moses  and  Pharaoh's 
Daughter,  The  Good  Samaritan — display  the  breadth  and 
variety  of  his  work.  The  Analgsis  of  lieauti/,  a  volume 
published  in  1753,  contained  much  keen  observation  and 
abountled  in  clever  hints,  but  has  not  materially  added  to 
his  fame.  The  public  galleries  of  London  hold  many  of 
Hogarth's  great  pictures,  the  best  of  which  arc  accessible 
to  everybody  in  prints  from  the  artist's  own  plates.  A  list 
of  the  most  important  of  these  may  be  found  in  Spooner's 
Dictionari/  and  Alrs.  Clements'  Handbook.  Tiic  estimate 
of  Hogarth's  geuius  and  artistic  ability  has  been  steadily 
on  the  rise  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
owing  in  large  measure,  probably,  to  tlie  persuasive  Essay 
of  Charles  Lamb.  The  judgment  of  him  as  a  coarse  and 
vulgar  caricaturist  has  been  superseded  by  the  enthusiastic 
and  almost  unqualilied  praise  of  later  generations,  which 
see  in  him  one  of  the  most  eminent  masters  and  powerful 
moral  teachers  in  the  wiiole  realm  of  art.  (For  the  life  of 
Hogarth  see  the  Eni-yelopo:dia  Ilritanmea ;  Irel.Wd's 
HognrtJt  Illitflrnted  :  Nichols's  AVs/n/,  including  anecdotes; 
Dlaekicood's  Magazine,  Aug.,  18GU;  Foreign  Qnarterli/, 
Jan.,  183().  The  best  editions  of  his  Works  are  I5ovdell's 
folio,  London,  1700;  Nichols  and  Steevens's  4to,  ISOS- 
17;  12mo,  London,  1S74.)  0.  13.  Fkothingiiam. 

Hog'buck,  tp.  of  Transylvania  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  243. 

Hog^  (James),  "the  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  b.  in  Ettriek 
pnrish,  Selkirkshire,  Scotland.  Jan.  25,  1772;  followed  his 
ancestral  occupation  of  shepherd,  and  several  times  at- 
tempted, with  poor  success,  to  gain  a  living  as  a  farmer  on 
his  own  account.  His  school  education  was  very  slight, 
but  he  was  a  great  reader,  and  when  twenty-four  years  old 
began  to  compose  songs,  some  of  which  attracted  much 
attention  and  gave  him  a  local  fame.  In  1801  he  published 
Scottish  Pastorals,  Poems  aud  Songs,  followed  by  7'hc  Monn- 
tain  Hard  (1803);  became  in  1810  editor  of  The  Spy,  a 
journal  in  Edinburgh.  Here  ho  was  the  associate  of  Scott, 
Wilson,  and  the  other  Tory  men  of  letters,  and  a  frequent 
contributor  to  lilarku-oml.  His  figure  in  the  Xoctcs  Ant- 
brosiaurr  did  not  please  him.  but  it  added  to  his  fame.  In 
1817  the  duke  of  Ituccleugh  settled  him  upon  the  farm  of 
Altrive.  where  his  tinlucky  business  ventures  brought  him 
many  troubles;  but  here  he  lived  for  the  greater  part  of 
his  remaining  years,  engaged  mainly  in  literary  work, 
varied  by  field-sports,  of  which  he  was  very  fond ;  and 
here  he  d.  Nov.  21,  1835,  Hia  best  work.  The  Qncens 
Wake  (1813),  was  followed  by  a  largo  number  of  volumes 
of  prose  and  verse  of  very  unequal  merit,  his  best  poems 
and  simplest  tales  evincing  a  rare  gcntus. 

Ho^g  Island,  tp.  of  Kusscll  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  885. 

IIog-Gum,  or  I'Um  Uog^  a  variety  of  Bassora  gum. 


used  in  preparing  paper  for  the  marbling  process.  The 
hog-gum  of  the  West  Indies,  used  in  medicine  and  for  pav- 
ing boats,  is  furnished  by  various  trees  of  the  genera  Clniia 
and  Moronobea,  and  perhaps  by  Rhus  Mttopium  aud  liti- 
tcigia  halsamif'era. 

Hog  Island,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Northampton 
CO.,  Va.,  extending  from  Great  to  Little  Matchepungo 
Inlet.  It  has  a  lighthouse  in  lat.  37**  23'  IG"  N.,  Ion.  75° 
41'  35"  W. 

Hog  Isle,  off  the  coast  of  Hancock  co.,  Me.    Pop.  C. 

Hog  Plum,  the  fruit  of  Spoudins  Ivten,  tubcrosa,  pur- 
purea, and  Mombin  of  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies,  so 
called  because  hogs  are  fed  upon  the  abundant  and  rather 
agreeable  fruits.  The  fruit  of  .S'.  Pirrea  of  Senegal  and 
Abyssiniayields  an  intoxicating  drink.  That  of  *S'.  dulcia 
or  Ponpartia,  in  the  Society  Islands,  is  very  delicious. 
Several  of  the  above  and  other  species  have  medicinal 
qualities.     They  belong  to  the  order  Anacardiacese. 

Hog-Rat,  a  name  given  to  certain  large  rodents  of  the 
rat  tiiniily.  and  genus  Capromys,  mostly  arboreal  and  na- 
tives of  Cuba.  They  are  sometimes  employed  as  food. 
Some  of  the  species  are  reported  as  having  somewhat  pre- 
hensile tails.     The  hair  is  coarse,  but  not  spiny. 

Hogs'head  [derivation  uncertain],  in  wine-measure 
one  half  a  pipe,  or  fi3  wine-gallons.  In  beer-measure  a 
hogshead  contains  54  beer-gallons.  The  first  kind  con- 
tains b2h  imperial  gallons,  nearly  ;  the  second  about  55 
imperial  gallons.  Any  large  cask  is  in  popular  language 
called  a  hogshead.  A  hogshead  of  tobacco  weighs  from 
750  to  12tJ0  pounds,  varying  in  the  different  States. 

Hohenlin'dcn,  a  v.  of  Bavaria,  in  Upper  Bavaria. 
Hero  the  French  under  Moreau  completely  defeated  the 
Austrians  Dec.  3,  ISOO. 

Hoh'cniohe,  a  princely  family  of  Germany,  sprung 
from  Francouia.  where  the  castle  of  HoUoch  was  the  family 
seat;  since  the  twelfih  century  the  possessors  of  this  castle 
have  called  themselves  lords  of  Holloch.  They  acquired 
much  landed  property,  became  counts,  and  branched  off 
into  various  lines.  In  177(j  the  counts  of  Ilohenlohe  were 
created  princes  of  the  empire.  At  present  the  family 
comprises  two  principal  lines — Hohenlohe-Neuenstein  and 
Hohenlohe-Waldenburg,  of  which  the  former  is  subdivided 
into  the  lines  of  Hohenlohc-Langcnburg  and  Hobenlohe- 
Oehringcn.  the  tatter  into  those  of  Hohenlohc-Bartenstein 
and  Huhenlohc-Schillingsfiirst ;  these  lines  consist  further- 
more of  many  branches.  The  following  members  of  the 
family  are  known  to  history:  (1)  Fkiedricii  Lrnwic, 
prince  of  Hohenlohc-Ingelfingen,  Prussian  general,  b.  174r>; 
d.  1818.  He  is  famous  for  the  infamous  capitulation  at 
Preuzlau,  Oct.  28,  180G,  where,  having  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  Prussian  army  after  the  duke  of  Brunswick, 
who  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Jena,  he  made  17,000 
men  lay  down  their  arms.  (2)  Lrnwir.  Ai.ovsii's,  prince 
of  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg  Bartenstcin.  b.  1705:  d.  1829. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  French,  Dutch,  and  Aus- 
trian services  as  an  able  officer,  and  became  marshal  and 
peer  of  France;  he  always  fou^lit  against  Napoleon.  (3) 
ALEXANDEn  Leopold  Franz  EMMERirn,  prince  of  Ilohen- 
lohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst,  b.  1794:  d.  1849.  He 
was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  became  a  priest,  wrote  mysti- 
cal books,  attracted  great  swarms  of  believing  patients, 
and  had  a  great  fame  as  a  healer  of  the  sick  by  mirac- 
ulous power,  and  d.  bishop  of  Sardiea  in  partibus.  (4) 
Chi.odwig,  prince  of  Hohenlohc-Waldenburg-Schillings- 
fiirst,  ambassador  of  the  (ierman  emperor  to  France,  was 
b.  j\Iar.  31,  1819,  He  entered  the  Bavarian  service,  pur- 
sued a  national  policy,  worked  with  success  for  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  and  became 
president  of  the  Bavarian  ministry  in  ISGG.  He  has  done 
much  for  the  unity  of  Germany,  especially  as  vice-president 
of  the  German  Zoll-Parliamen't  of  18G8  and  1809.  But  the 
anti-union  party  in  Bavaria  became  so  hostile  that  ho  re- 
signed his  office  a  short  time  before  the  Franco-Gorman 
war  broke  out.  In  1874  the  German  emperor  appointed 
him  ambassador  to  the  French  government.  A.  Nieman.n'. 

Hoh'enstaufpn  was  the  name  of  a  princely  family  in 
(.ermany  which  arose  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, bore  the  imperial  crown  from  1138  to  1254,  and  died 
out  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  foun- 
der of  the  family  was  Friederich  von  Biiren,  who  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  moved  his  residence  from 
Biiren,  a  place  in  the  valley,  on  the  bank  of  the  Danube, 
in  the  present  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg.  to  the  ca<itle  of 
Hohenstaufen,  situated  on  the  brow  of  the  hill.  With  the 
change  of  residence  changed  also  the  name  of  the  family. 
Fricdrich  von  Biiren's  son,  Frieprich  von  Staifes  or 
HonEMSTAt'FEN,  followed  Henry  IV.  as  his  true  knight, 
and  distinguished  himself  so  much  by  valor  and  military 
talents^  especially  in  the  battle  of  Merseburg  (1080),  that 


HOHENSTEIN— HOLBACH,  \(iX. 


961 


the  king  mixlo  him  duko  ofSuabin,  gave  him  his  daughter 
Agnes  in  luarringc,  and  appointed  hira  regent  in  Germany 
during  his  abscnee  in  Italy.  By  this  rnpiil  rise  the  family 
of  Uohen^taufen  (also  called  by  tho  Italians  Ghihvllinea, 
from  another  of  their  possessions,  the  castle  of  Weiblin- 
gen)  could  not  help  coming  into  collision  with  the  power- 
ful family  of  the  Welfs  or  Ouelphs,  which  in  Germany 
held  the  duke'Iom  of  Bavaria,  besides  large  possessions  in 
Italy.  Friedrich  had  to  defend  his  dukedom  by  armed 
force,  but  was  compelled  by  his  enemies  to  renounce  parts 
of  it.  On  bis  dcatn  in  IIUJ  ho  left  two  sons,  of  whom  the 
eldest.  Friedrich  H.,  was  confirmed  as  duke  of  Suabia  by 
Henry  V.,  and  tho  younger  created  duke  of  Franconia  in 
1112.  Both  the  brothers  adhered  with  great  fidelity  to  the 
emperor,  and  when,  in  11116,  the  Franconian  dynasty  died 
out  with  Henry  V..  the  family  of  llohenstaufen  inherited 
a  large  part  of  the  emperor's  private  fortune,  whiuh  greatly 
increased  its  wealth  and  power.  Friedrich  II.  even  at- 
tempted to  obtain  (he  imperial  dignity,  but  failed.  Lothair 
the  iSttxon,  an  enemy  of  him  and  his  family,  was  chosen 
emperor,  and  at  one  time  the  Hohenstaufens  were  pressed 
so  hard  that  they  had  to  sue  for  peace  at  the  diet  of  MUhl- 
hausen  in  WVj.  Nevertheless,  on  the  di'ath  of  Lothair  in 
1133,  Friedrich  II. 's  brother,  Conrad,  duko  of  Franconia, 
succeeded  in  beingelected  emperor,  um!  the  family  now  held 
the  dignity  for  more  than  a  century  in  the  persons  of  Conrad 
III.,  li;j^62;  Frederick  I.  Barbnrossa,  1152-90;  Henry 
VI.,  1190-97;  Philip,  1197-1203;  Frederick  11..  ]2I2-:)0"; 
Conrad  IV.,  1250~J2.  The  general  charactor  of  these  men, 
whose  biographies  will  be  found  in  other  places  in  this 
book,  was  vigor  and  energy,  tending  towards  despotism, 
but  generally  allied  with  mugnanimity  aud  many  brilliimt 
qualities.  The  most  pr<>minent  feature  of  their  reign  wa^ 
their  perpetual  contest  with  the  Guelphs  and  the  popes, 
during  which,  however,  the  poetry  and  art  of  German  chiv- 
alry reached  their  highest  perfection.  In  1252,  Conrad  IV. 
left  Germany  for  Italy,  in  onler  to  consolidate  his  power  in 
his  inherited  countries  in  .Southern  Italy,  but  in  I2o4  he  was 
poisoned.  His  half-brother,  Manfred,  endeavored  to  sus- 
tain the  authority  of  the  family,  but  was  killed  in  the  battle 
at  Bencvento  in  1266,  and  when  (126S)  Conradin,  tho  son 
of  Conrad  IV.,  tried  once  more  to  come  into  possession  of 
Naples,  he  was  defeated  at  Tagliacazzo  and  beheaded.  Tho 
male  line  of  the  family  of  llohenstaufen  died  out  with  him, 
and  its  possessions  in  (Jermany  wore  divided  between  Ba- 
varia, Baden,  an<l  Wiirlemberg.  A  branch  of  tho  family, 
descending  from  Manfred's  daughter,  Constance,  who  mar- 
ried Peter  III.,  king  of  Aragon,  ascended  fourteen  years 
later  tho  throne  of  .Sicily. 

Hoh'enstoin,  town  of  8axony,  12  miles  N,  E.  of 
Zwickau.  It  luis  extensive  manufactures  of  woollens  and 
linen.      Pop.  5400. 

Uohenzol'lern,  a  small  territory  of  Germany,  en- 
tirely enclosed  by  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden,  but  belunging 
to  Prussia.  Its  area  is  45;i  square  miles;  it  is  mountain- 
ous, but  fertile,  watered  by  the  Neckar  and  the  Danube. 
Pop.  65,56S,  mostly  Roman  Catholics.  Until  1H49  it  formed 
two  independent  principalities,  Ilechingcn  and  Sigmarin- 
gcn,  which  represent  the  elder  lino  of  tho  house  of  Hohen- 
zollcrn,  while  the  younger  lino  is  represented  by  the  reign- 
ing dynasty  of  Pru^^sia.  In  1849  the  king  of  Prussia 
bought  the  sovereignty  of  tho  country  by  paying  tho  two 
princes  an  annual  pension. 

Ilohcnzollern^  a  princely  family  of  Germany,  which 
now  occupies  the  imperial  throne  in  the  person  of  the  etn- 
peror  Wilholm.  Tlio  history  of  tho  family  begins  in  tho 
eighth  century,  at  which  time  its  ancestors  possessed  tho 
castle  of  Hohenzollern.  Thassilo,  count  of  Ztdlern,  was 
tho  oldest  member  of  the  family  known  to  history;  ho  d. 
about  tho  year  SOO,  and  left  four  sons,  of  whom  tho  eldest, 
Tharcho.  propagated  the  family  and  d.  in  806.  His  son 
Rudolf  rendered  good  .service  in  the  war  between  the  Ger- 
man king.  Henry  I,,  and  tho  Huns  and  Wends.  A  descend- 
ant of  hi-,  Rvirlolf  II.,  acquired  much  Ian<led  property  by 
tho  important  services  he  rendered  in  the  baltlu  of  Tubin- 
gen between  tho  count  palatine,  Hugo  of  Tubingen,  and 
the  Guelphs.  On  his  death  (1210)  the  family  branclicd  off 
into  two  lines,  of  which  the  cMer  kept  tho  paternal  p«».-4- 
scssions  in  Suabia,  and  conlintierl  up  to  our  days  under 
tho  name  of  llohonzrdlerii,  while  tho  younger  line,  called 
the  Ciinradino,  settled  in  Franconia,  founded  tho  house  of 
tho  burgraves  of  Nuromborg.  and  formed  the  dynasty  of 
Brandenburg  and  Prussia.  Count  Kunrad  I.  of  Zoliern, 
tho  younger  son  'if  Rudolph  1 1.,  married  Maria,  tho  daiigli-  I 
tor  and  heiress  of  Count  biebold  of  Vuhburg,  and  canio  I 
thereby  into  tho  jjossession  of  tho  burgravate  of  Nurom-  I 
berg,  which  belonged  to  Vohburg.  The  Suabian  lino  sepa-  ! 
rated  in  1576  into  two  branches — Hohenzollern-Hechingen 
and  Hoh»  nzoilern-Sigmaringen.  The  former  was  raised  to  ! 
tho  prinrolv  rank  Mar.  2X,  lll2;i.  bv  the  enijieror  Ferdinand 
Vur.  II.— 61 


II.,  but  tho  title  of  prince  was  bestowed  only  on  tho  chief 
and  the  first-born;  the  other  members  of  the  family  were 
counts.  The  emperor  Leopold  I.  gave  the  title  of  prince 
to  all  members  in  1692,  In  the  same  year  a  covenant  of 
inheritance  was  concluded  between  the  two  branches  of  tho 
family,  of  which  tho  younger  one  had  now  assumed  tho 
name  of  Brandenburg.  Hermann  Friedrich  Otto,  sover- 
eign prince  of  Hohonzollern-Hcchingen,  joined  in  1806  the 
Rhenish  confederation,  but  as  the  prince  could  not  master 
the  revolution  of  1849,  ho  concluded  a  treaty  with  Prussia. 
by  which  he  transferred  his  sovereignty  to  tho  Prussian 
crown,  Apr.  8,  1850.  The  branch  of  Hohenzollern-Sigma- 
ringeu  obtained  tho  princely  dignity  in  16.18,  joined  tho 
Rhenish  confederation  in  1806.  became  allied  to  tho  impe- 
rial house  of  Napoleon  by  the  umrriage  of  Prince  Carl  with 
the  daughter  of  Murat,  king  of  Naples,  and  ceded  its  sov- 
ereignty to  Prussia  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of 
1849.  The  male  line  of  the  branch  of  Hohenzollern-Hech- 
ingen is  now  extinct;  the  princes  of  llohenzoUcrn-.Sigma- 
ringen  take  rank  as  younger  sons  of  the  house  of  Prussia; 
one  of  them  is  sovereign  prince  of  Roumania.  The  younger 
line,  the  Franconian.  generally  named  after  its  cliief  po:  - 
session,  the  burgravate  of  Nuremberg,  obtained  tlie  princely 
dignity  in  127."i  from  the  emperor  Rudolf.  Friedrich  VI., 
burgravo  of  Nuremberg,  bought  the  margravate  of  Bran- 
denburg from  the  emperor  8igismund  for  250,000  gulden, 
aud  was  created  elector  of  Brandenburg  in  the  sann-  year. 
In  1605,  the  elector  Joachim  Friedrich  obtaine<l  the  re- 
gency in  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  and  his  successor,  Joliann 
Sigismund.  secured  for  his  family  tho  possession  of  that 
country.  Georg  Wilhelm  added  the  title  of  duke  of  Prus- 
sia to  his  other  titles,  and  his  successor,  Frederick  ^Villian), 
the"tJreat  Elector,"  gave  the  country  political  intluence. 
acquire<l  new  provinces,  and  left  at  his  death  (Apr.  29, 
1688)  a  state  with  1,500.000  inhabitants.  His  son,  Fred- 
erick III.,  attained  the  royal  dignity,  and  was  crowned 
Jan.  18.  1701.  in  Konigsberg  as  Frederick  I.,  king  of  Prus- 
sia. He  was  followed  by  the  thrifty  Frederick  William  I.; 
then  Frederick  II.,  "the  Great,"  who  left  his  state  with 
6,000,000  inhabitants:  then  Frederick  William  II.;  then 
Frederick  William  III.,  who  was  defeated  by  Napoleon, 
but  regained  his  country  ;  then  his  son,  Frederick  William 
IV.;  and  then  his  younger  son,  William,  who  assumed  tho 
dignity  of  emperor  of  Germany  Jan.  IS,  1871. 

ArOUST  NlEMAN.V. 

Hoho'kns,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Bergen  co.,  N.  J.,  on  tho 
Erie  R.  K.,  2:i  miles  N,  by  W.  of  Jersey  City.     Pop.  26;{2. 

Ho'kah,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Houston  co.,  Minn.,  on  the 
Southern  Minnesota  R.  R.,  6  miles  W.  of  La  Crosse,  Wis. 
Pop.  of  V.  525:  of  tp.  1038. 

Hokcndau'qtia,  post-v.  of  Lehigh  co.,  Pa.,  on  the 
Lehigh  River  and  the  Lehigh  Valley  R.  R.,  4  miles  N.  of 
Allentown. 

Hoke's  Bluff,  tp.  of  Etowah  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1049. 

Uol'bach,  von  (Pai  i.  Henri  Tuvrv),  Baiion,  b. 
at  Heidelsheim,  in  the  Palatinate,  in  172.'l.  He  went  at  an 
early  ago  to  Paris,  where  ho  married  and  spent  his  whole 
life.  D.  Jan.  21,  17S9.  His  father  had  left  him  a  lar;;o 
fortune,  and  in  his  rich  and  elegant  hou>e  he  gathered,  with 
the  greatest  hospitality,  a  large  circle  of  literary  men.  At 
his  dinner-parties,  which  took  plocc  twice  a  week,  Helvfi- 
tius,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  Rayual,  Grimm,  ButTon.  Rous- 
seau, Marmontcl,  and  others  met,  learned  to  know  each 
otlior,  and  discussed  their  ideas  witli  the  utmost  freedom. 
The  baron  himself  was  a  man  both  of  knowledge  and 
talent,  and  a  very  prolific  author.  His  first  works,  Le 
Vhrisiinniame  (Uvoile  (Amsterdam,  1767),  Esprit  tin  (Jleryf 
(Loudon,  1767),  and  iVc  I'xntptntnrc  aarrrtiotalc  (.Amster- 
dam, 1767).  made  an  attack  on  Christianity  more  open, 
direct,  and  vciicmcnt,  than  any  to  which  it  hitherto  had 
been  exposed.  Tho  Christian  doctrines  arc  declared  to  bo 
an  incoherent  mass  of  fiction,  the  Christian  morals  to  bo 
inferior  to  most  other  moral  .''ystems,  and  the  influence  of 
Christianity  to  have  been  very  detrimental  to  the  develoj)- 
nient  of  the  human  race  in  every  social,  polilical,  and 
moral  respect.  In  a  second  series  of  writings,  Le  itifn- 
ttine  dv  ill  nature  (Loudon,  1770],  Lc  ban  sea*,  on  idfen 
71  fit urclirt  oppuafcn  unx  iit/cK  guruatitrrllca  ( Amsterdam, 
1772),  and  L*7  KjfHt^mc  Morittl  (Amsterdam,  177;!),  he  gives 
the  positive,  systematic  development  of  those  materialistic 
and  atheislic  viewswhich  in  tho  first  scries  are  given  under 
form  of  criticism  only.  All  these  writings  contain  hardly 
anything  new  or  original.  IVHolbach  repeated  the  ideas  of 
Voltaire  and  |)'.Mrnibert.  of  Diderot  an<l  Uelv(''tius:  ho 
only  pushed  thrni  farther.  Indeed,  he  pushed  ttic  ideas  of 
tho  Kncyclopa>di8t8  so  far  that  tho  Encyclopirdisls  them- 
selves would  not  acknowledge  them.  His  stylo  is  dry  or 
sentimental,  affected  or  trivial.  But  his  intluence  is  said 
to  have  been  very  great.  He  reached  layers  of  society 
to  which  philoHopby  never  before  had  ponetratetl,  and  his 


962 


HOLBEIN-HOLDEN. 


cjnicnl  ideas  are  often  recognizable  during  the  first  years 
of  the  Revolution.  Personally,  he  was  a  good  and  kind- 
hearted  man,  without  pretensions.  He  wrote  his  books 
under  diRerent  pseudonyms,  and  for  a  long  time  even 
his   most  intimate  friends  knew  nothing  of   bis  author- 

..hip. 

Holbein  (Hans),  called  the  YoiT.NOEn,  b.  at  Augsburg, 
Bavaria,  in  14Ut,  or  perhaps  even  a  few  years  earlier,  re- 
ceived his  first  instruction  from  his  father,  a  painter  of 
some  note.  The  days  of  his  youth  were  spent  in  Bale, 
and  ns  early  as  1512  his  brilliant  talent  had  attracted  great 
attention,  and  he  received  large  or<lcrs  both  for  private 
houses  and  public  buildings.  Erasmus  admired  his  work, 
and  witli  a  letter  of  introduction  from  him  to  Sir  Thomas 
More  he  went  to  England  in  1626.  After  living  three  years 
in  ^lore's  house,  ho  was  introduced  to  the  king,  and  Henry 
VIII.  was  so  charmed  by  his  pictures  that  he  made  him 
court-painter  and  heaped  both  honors  and  money  on  him. 
L>.  in  London  in  15 i;i,  of  the  plague.  In  accuracy  of  draw- 
ing, in  truth  and  riehness  of  coloring.  Holbein  surpassed 
all  contemporary  painters  in  Germany,  and  stivnds,  indeed, 
among  the  greatest  painters  of  the  world.  His  portraits 
especially  arc  execllenf.  and  he  produced  a  great  number, 
which  are  scattered  among  all  the  larger  European  galle- 
ries. He  painted  a  portrait  of  Erasmus  which  the  latter 
preterrcd  to  the  one  engraved  by  Diirer.  One  of  his  finest 
pictures  is  the  portrait  of  his  friend  and  patron.  Boniface 
Amerbach,  to  whom  we  owe  the  collection  of  Holbein's 
drawings  and  paintings  now  at  Bale.  While  in  England, 
Holbein  painted  or  drew  not  only  the  king,  but  his  queens, 
Jane  Seymour  and  Anne  of  Cleves,  Prince  Edward,  and 
nearly  every  distinguished  nobleman  and  noble  woman  of 
his  court,  besides  distinguished  commoners.  These  pic- 
tures and  drawings  are  a  splendid  possession  alike  for  art 
and  for  history'.  Holbein  worked  for  the  engravers,  but  to 
what  extent  is  not  precisely  known.  Two  important  series. 
The  Jjfiuce  *>/'  Death  (see  Dancc  of  Dkath)  and  Pictures 
from  the  Old  Te&tameul,  are  ascribed  to  Holbein.  One  of 
the  most  famous  pictures  by  Holbein  is  the  Madonna  of  the 
Meyer  Fnmilijy  in  the  gallery  of  Dresden.  This  is  now, 
however,  believed  to  be  a  copy,  probably  by  Holbein's  own 
band,  of  the  original  in  the  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Darm- 
stadt. Many  of  Holljcin's  best  pictures  have  been  en- 
graved, and  nearly  all  his  finest  drawings  photographed, 
the  last  chiefly  by  Braun.  (See  /fans  Ifo/bein  der  jilngere, 
von  lllrieh  Hegner  (Berlin,  1S27).  a  well-executed,  useful 
work,  which  only  needs  revision  to  take  its  place  among 
the  standarfi  books  on  the  suijject ;  Holbein  und  seine  Zeit, 
by  Alfred  Woltmann  (Leipsic,  1867,2  vols,  and  appendix; 
2d  ed.  1  vol.,  1874),  a  book  absolutely  necessary  to  the  stu- 
dent for  its  facts,  but  ill-arranged,  and,  critically,  little  to 
be  depended  on;  the  second  ed.  is  full  of  contradictions  of 
the  first;  Life  and  Works  of  Holbein,  by  H.  N.  Wornam 
(1  vol.,  London,  1867),  almost  useless  from  its  want  of  ar- 
rangement, its  slipshod  style,  and  its  want  of  the  critical 
spirit.)  Ci>ABENcE  Cook. 

Hol'berg  (Ludvio).  b.  Nov.  fi,  1684.  in  Bergen,  Nor- 
way :  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen;  travelled 
in  Holland,  France,  and  Northern  Italy,  and  stayer!  for  one 
and  a  half  years  at  the  University  of  Oxford  :  w;»s  in  1718 
appointed  professor  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen ; 
accumulated  great  wealth,  which  he  bequeathed  to  an  edu- 
cational institution,  the  Academy  of  Soro ;  was  created  a 
baron  in  1747,  and  d.,  unmarried.  Jan.  27, 1754.  His  sound 
practical  ideas,  and  clear,  solid  reasoning,  sustained  by 
lenrning  and  seasoned  by  humor,  made  his  works  on  his- 
tory, Kcrlrsiasticnl  Histnnf,  Hintorif  nf  Dcrnnnrfr,  Jcicish 
//iftortf,  Liies  of  Great  M^n  and  Wnmcn^  and  on  philoso- 
phy. Kftintles  and  Moral  Meditations,  a,  most  influential  ele- 
ment in  the  Danish  civilization.  (For  his  comical  writings 
see  Danish  LANouAfiE  and  LixEUATruE.) 

Uol'brook,  a  beautiful  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Norfolk  co., 
Mass.,  on  tlie  Old  Colony  K.  R.,  14  miles  S.  of  Boston.  It 
has  a  large  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  a  free  library, 
a  town-hall,  a  fire  department,  and  good  public  schools.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1872,  before  which  time  it  was  called 
East  llANnoLpn. 

Ilolbrook  (ALFHEn),  b.  at  Derby,  Conn.,  in  1816,  son 
of  Josiah  Holbrook,  a  prominent  and  philanthropic  edu- 
cator and  inventor.  The  son  was  for  a  time  pupil  of  Elixur 
Wright  in  the  academy  at  Groton,  JIass.  Though  pos- 
sessed of  remarkable  inventive  talents  and  of  a  decided 
taste  for  civil  engineering,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work 
of  instruction;  founded  a  large  and  successful  institution, 
chiefly  fur  the  training  of  teachers,  at  Lebanon,  0.  Author 
of  a  vulume  of  Lf:etnrtH  on  the  subject  of  education. 

Ilolbrook  (John  E.),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Beaufort.  S.  C,  Deo. 
31,  171)6;  d.  in  Norfolk,  Mass.,  Sept.  8,  1S71.  He  was 
carried  North  when  an  infant ;  graduated  in  1815  at  Brown 
University,  and  tnuk  tlie  degree  in  medicine  at  the  Uni- 


I  versity  of  Pennsylvania,  After  visiting  the  hospitals  of 
Europe,  be  commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  upon  the  organization  of  the  Medi- 
cal College  of  South  Carolina  was  assigned  to  the  chair  of 
anatomy,  which  he  occupied  for  more  than  thirty  years. 
Dr.  Ilolbrook  would  never  attend  an  obstetrical  case  nor 
perform  a  surgical  operation,  yet  as  a  lectufcr  on  anatomy 
he  was  seldom  equalled.  Ho  possessed  a  peculiar  talent 
for  description,  and  a  minute  comprehension  of  compara- 
tive anatomy.  His  reputation  rests  especially  upon  his 
investigations  as  a  naturalist.  In  1842  be  published  his 
great  work  on  herpetology,  and  this,  with  the  unfinished 
one  on  the  fishes  of  South  Carolina,  gave  him  high  dis- 
tinctiou.  His  friend,  the  late  Prof.  Agassiz.  said  before 
the  Natural  History  Societj'  of  Boston,  "  I  well  remember 
the  impression  made  in  Europe,  more  than  five  and  thirty 
years  ago,  by  his  work  on  the  North  American  reptiles. 
Before  then,  the  supercilious  English  question,  so  effect- 
ually answered  since,  'Who  reads  an  American  book?' 
might  have  been  repeated  in  another  form,  *  Who  ever  taw 
an  American  scientific  work  ? '  In  that  branch  of  investi- 
gation Europe  bad  at  that  time  nothing  to  compare  with 
it."  Author  of  Amerieau  Herpetoloffif  (5  vols.,  1842),  and 
of  unfinished  works  on  Southern  Ichth>/oloffy  and  the  hh- 
tht/olotfi/  tif  South  Carolina.  PAUL  F.  EvE. 

Ilol'comb,  tp.  of  Dunklin  CO.,  Mo.    Pop.  608. 

HoTconibe  (A>fASA),  A.  M.,  b.  at  Southwick,  Mass., 
June  18,  1787,  a  farmer's  son;  when  nineteen  years  old 
made  surveyors'  compasses,  and  at  twenty  began  to  com- 
pile almanacs,  several  of  which  he  published.  AVhen  twenty- 
seven  he  began  to  teach  engineering,  astronomy,  and  sur- 
veying; adopted  the  profession  of  civil  engineer  1826;  be- 
gan to  make  telescopes  in  1828,  and  had,  it  is  believed,  no 
competition  from  any  other  maker  in  the  U.  S.  until  1842. 
He  was  a  member  of  both  branches  of  the  State  legislature, 
and  was  the  recipient  of  several  medals  and  other  distinc- 
tions. The  honorary  degree  of  A.  M.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  AVilliaras  College. 

Holcombe  (  Jamks  P.),  b.  in  Lynchburg.  Va.,  in  1820 ; 
was  educated  at  Yale  College  and  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  was  for  some  years  a  law -professor.  Au- 
thor of  Lending  Cases  upon  Commercial  Law  (1S47),  Dtijcsi 
of  Decisions  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  (1848),  Merchants 
Book  of  Reference  (1848),  Literature  in  Letters  (1868). 

Holcombe  (William  Frederic),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Sterling, 
Mass.,  Apr.  2,  1827:  graduated  at  the  Albany  Medical 
College  in  1850,  and  studied  several  years  in  Europe;  be- 
came professor  of  ophtlialmic  an<l  aural  surgery  in  the  New 
York  Medical  College,  surgeon  to  the  New  York  0|ihthalmic 
Hospital,  and  secretary  and  librarian  of  the  New  York 
Genealogical  and  Biographical  Society. 

Holcombe  (William  IL),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Lynchburg, 
Va.,  in  1S25:  was  educated  at  Washington  College,  Va., 
and  studied  medicine  in  tlie  University  of  Pennsylvania; 
has  practised  his  profession  in  Lynchburg,  Cincinnati,  and 
New  Orleans.  In  1852  he  became  a  homo-opathist.  He 
has  published  //otf  /  became  a  Ifomceopath  (1867),  Scientijic 
Basis  of  IJumwopathy  (1855),  Yellow  Fever  (1856),  Poems 
(1860),' Oh/-  Children  in  fftaren  (1868),  The  Sexes  (1860), 
besides  numerous  brochures  and  contributions  to  homoe- 
opathic and  Swedenborgian  periodical  literature, 

Ilorcroft  (Thomas),  b.  in  London  Dec.  10,  1745,  a 
shoemaker's  son  ;  served  for  a  time  as  a  stable-groom  at 
Newmarket;  became  an  actor,  and  then  an  author:  was 
arrested  for  high  treason  in  1794,  being  a  member  of  the 
Society  for  Constitutional  Information,  but  was  released 
without  trial.  D.  Mar.  2.1,  1800.  Author  of  .30  plays,  be- 
sides novels,  poems,  translations,  etc..  some  of  which  are 
of  an  irreligious  tendency.  His  noteworthy  works  arc  The 
Road  to  Ruin,  a  comedy  (1792),  still  popular;  The  life  of 
Trenek  (1788).  from  tlie  (Jerman  ;  JJrmiann  and  Dorothea 
(1801),  translated  from  the  (Jerman  of  (Joethe  ;  Menioirt  bj 
himself,  finished  by  Hazlitt  (.3  vols.,  1816). 

Hold,  a  compartment  or  scries  of  compartments  in  a 
ship,  below  the  lowermost  deck.  The  hold  extends  fore 
and  aft  the  whole  length  of  the  ship.  In  it  are  stored  por- 
tions of  the  cargo,  the  ship's  stores,  ballast,  etc. 

Hold,  a  musical  character /tv.  placed  over  a  note,  sig- 
nifying a  pause,  or  the  holding  of  the  note  longer  than  its 
proper  time.  The  hold  may  also  be  placed  over  a  rest  or 
a  double-bar,  or  as  an  indication  of  the  end  of  a  canon  or 
other  piece. 

Hold'brook's,  tp.  of  Cabarrus  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1115, 

Ilorden,  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Me.,  6  miles  S.  G. 
of  Bangor.     Pop.  758. 

Holden,  post-tp.  of  Worcester  co.,  Mass.,  52  miles  from 
Boston,  on  the  Boston  Barre  and  Gardner  R.  R.  It  is  a 
good  farming  town,  with  abundant  water-power,  manufac- 


UOLDEN-HOLLAND. 


963 


turcs  of  woollen,  cotton,  and  other  goods,  3  churches,  and 
numerous  small  villages.     I'op.  2062. 

Ilolden,  po.stti).  of  tioodhuc  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  1199. 

Ilulden,  pust-v.  of  Johnson  co..  Mo..  50  miles  S.  E.  of 
Kansas  City,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  the  Missouri 
Kansas  and  Texas  R.  Rs.  It  has  I  churches,  2  b.inks,  1 
newspaper,  4  dry -good  slores,  2  hardware  and  ujjricultural 
implement  store's,  2  boot  and  shoe  stores,  :!  jewelry  stores, 
2  hotels,  1  mill,  etc.  Uolden  is  situated  in  a  line  farming 
section  ;  limber,  coal,  and  liuilding-slonc  are  plenty.  Pop. 
lire.  ti.  N.  RkiiAitus,  Ei).  "  Entkiumiise." 

IldUleii,  tp.  of  New  Hanover  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  2056. 

IIoUU-ii,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  751. 

Ilolden  (Oi.ivfr),  the  composer  of  tho  psalm-tune 
CniHiitUiii  and  other  excellent  pieces  ;  was  a  carpenter,  and 
afterwards  a  nuisic-teneher  and  tho  keeper  of  a  musical 
bookstore;  d.  at  Charlestown,  Mass..  in  IMil.  Published 
.■liii<TiV<in  /^<(r»ioii_v(17y3),  the  WoriciUr  Cotlcclion(\l'i'), 
and  other  tune-books,  and  was  ono  of  the  pioneers  of 
American  psalmody. 

lloi'derness,  post  tp.  of  Grafton  co.,  N.  H.,  .36  mile's 
N.  of  Concord.     It  has  manufactures  of  lumber,  bo.ves,  etc. 

Pop.  va.t. 

Hol'dich  (Joseph),  D.  D.,  b.  Apr.  20, 180J,  at  Thorncy, 
Cambridi;eshire,  Eng. :  came  in  181S  to  tho  U.  S. ;  en- 
tered the  Methodist  miui.«try  in  1822;  was  stationed  in 
Philadelphia.  New  York,  and  other  cities;  received  tho 
degree  of  A.  M.  from  Princeton  in  1828  ;  that  of  D.  U.  from 
La  (irangc  College  I81:S ;  was  1835-31)  assistant  prulVssor, 
and  1830-49  professor,  of  mor.al  science  and  belles  lettres 
in  the  Wcsleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.;  becanio 
in  1849  corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  Biblo 
,<oeietv.  Author  of  Life  of  WHImr  J-'hk  (1S42),  of  A. 
II.  Hiiril  (1839),  Iliblc  Hiatory  (1833),  and  other  works. 

Hold'ing-note,  in  nmsieal  compositions  of  two  or 
more  parts,  a  note  sustained  or  prolonged  in  one  of  the 
parts  while  the  others  arc  in  motion.  In  fugues,  and  in 
adagio,  andante,  and  legato  movements,  holding-notes  are 
of  constant  occurrence,  and  give  unity,  compactness,  and 
a  binding  effect  to  the  general  texture  of  the  harmony. 
Ilolcd,  tp.  of  .Somerset  co.,  Me.  Pop.  1. 
Ilolins'hed  (Rwn  vei.  or  Rm.imi),  M.  A.,  an  English 
chronicler  who  d.  between  l.)7S  and  1JS2.  He  took  tho 
master's  degree,  probably  at  Cambridge,  and  was  perba|.3 
a  clergyman.  Almost  nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  but  his 
fame  is  perpetuated  by  the  Vhrimidcn  of  Erii/laiul,  &ulln}i<l, 
and  Ireland  (2  vols,  folio,  1577),  but  ho  was  not  the  solo 
author,  for  Harrison,  Stow,  Fleming,  Stanihur.st,  Thin, 
Hooker,  and  others  prepared  largo  portions.  There  is  no 
doubt  th.xt  .'hakspcare  found  abumlant  material  for  his 
historical  plays  in  the  pages  of  Holiushcd. 

Ilol'kar,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Mahratta  chieftains 
who  have  pl.iycd  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  India 
during  the  two  last  centuries,  and  often  proved  tlienisehes 
furniidable  enemies  of  the  Hritish  empire  in  Hindustan. 
.Mulhar  Rao  Holkar  was  the  founder  of  the  family.  Ho 
was  born  in  1693,  received  in  1730  the  wes'ern  part  of 
MaUvah,  with  Indorc  for  its  caiiital,  and  d.  1705.  liut  the 
most  rcuiarkable  member  of  llie  family  was  Jcswunt  Rao 
Holkar,  a  natural  son  of  Tokbagi  Holkar.  who  reigned  from 
IsOl  to  lull.  Although  he  was  defeated  at  Indorc  (Oct. 
II,  18(11)  by  Dowlat  Rao  Sindia,  his  reputation  for  valor 
and  energy  was  so  great  that  a  part  of  tho  victorious  army 
went  over  to  his  side,  and  next  year  (Oct.  25,  1802)  ho  en- 
tirely routed  Sindia  at  Poena  Sindia  took  refuge  with  the 
Rrilish,  and  now  a,  war  began  between  Holkar  and  the 
Brilisli,  which  was  carried  on  with  various  success  to  Dec. 
21,  Isu.i,  when  peace  was  concluded  and  Holkar  compelled 
to  give  up  some  maritime  distri<*ts,  and  bind  himself  to 
lake  no  Europeans  into  his  service.  He  d.  insane,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Mulhar  Rao  Holkar,  who  reigned 
from  1811  to  1833.  Ho  began  war  against  the  liritish  in 
IS  1 7,  but  was  defeated,  ami  under  the  peace  of  Jan.  6,  1818, 
an  English  residency  was  estalilished  at  Indorc.  The  pre- 
sent ruler  of  Indorc,  Mulkerji  Rao  Holkar.  who  came  into 
power  in  1852  and  remained  true  to  the  English  in  1857,  is 
nol  otihe  Hdlkar  family,  though  ho  bears  the  name;  with 
Kumili  Rao  Holkar  the  family  die<l  out  in  1852. 
Iloriiind.     See  N^.TH^lll,A^r^s. 

iloHiind,  \orlli  and  South,  two  prnvineea  of  the 
Netherlands,  adjacent  and  very  similar  in  all  natural  and 
social  relations.  The  grounil  is  very  low,  anil  must  be 
protected  against  inundations  of  the  North  Sea  and  the 
ZuyderZee  by  artificial  dams  and  dykes.  It  is  everywhere 
intersecled  by  rivers,  the  Rhine,  YsscI,  Lek,  Maas,  and 
Mervede,  and  canals.  Hut  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  mar- 
vellously well  euUivaled.  The  rearing  of  eatlle  and  the 
production  of  butter   and    cheese  are   tile  main  pursuit'  "f 


tho  inhabitants,  but  many  other  kinds  of  industry  are  car- 
ried on  with  success.  North  Holland  has  an  area  of  95.i 
square  miles,  with  002,539  inhabitants;  the  area  of  South 
Holland  is  1162  square  miles,  with  710,753  inhaoitanls. 
The  jirincipal  towns  of  North  Holland  arc  .\mstcrdam. 
Haarlem,  aiol  .VlUniaar  ;  of  South  Holland,  The  Hag'?e,  Ley- 
den.  R<ilterdam,  and  (Jouda.  (Sec  NouTH  Holland  Ca.val 
and  North  Sea  Canal  of  Holland.) 

IIoMand,  post-tp.  of  Shelby  co..  III.     Pop.  1352. 
Holland,   post-tp.  of  Hampden  co.,   Mass.,  70   miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Boston,  on  the  Connecticut  line.     Pop.  344. 

Holland,  post-v.  of  Ottawa  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Chicago 
and  .Michigan  Lake  Shore  R.  R.  It  cont:tins  I  college,  1 
public  school,  several  churches,  5  papers,  2  tanneries,  1 
savings  bank,  .'<  hotels,  3  drug-stores,  and  I  iron-ore  smelt- 
ing furnace,  with  the  usual  number  of  shops,  etc.  The 
town  was  settled  by  Hollanders,  who  form  throe-fourths 
of  the  present  population.  Pop.  of  v.  23111;  of  tp.  2353. 
Wm.  Benjasiinse,  Prn.  "  He  Hoi.i.ANDEit." 
Holland,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
Buflalo  New  York  and  Philadelphia  R.  R.,  20  miles  S.  E. 
of  Hnlfalo.  The  township  has  4  churches.  3  cheese-factories, 
and  manufactories  of  lumber,  leather,  etc.     Pop.  1451. 

Holland,  post-tp.  of  Orleans  co.,  Vt.,  on  the  Canada 
line,  5'.l  miles  N.  E.  of  Montpclicr.  It  has  manufactures  of 
lunilier  and  sliiiigles.     Pop.  881. 

Holland,  post-tp.  of  Brown  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1279. 
Holland,  tp.  of  La  Crosse  co..  Wis.     Pop.  819. 
Holland,  Ip.  of  Sheboygan  co..  Wis.     Pop.  2704. 
Holland  ^llENUv^  Bakt.,  M.  D.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S., 
b.  at  Knulsl'ord,  Cheshire,  England,  Oct.  27,  1788 ;  grad- 
uated M.  D.  at  Edinburgh  1811  ;   was  for  many  years  a 
physician  in  ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  one  of  the 
most  popular  men,  professionally  and  socially,  in  London. 
He  several  times  visited  the  U.  S.,  and  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe  and  Asia.     His  second  wife,  a  daughter  of  Syd- 
ney Smith,  and  a  writer  of  ability,  d.  Nov.  2,  1800.     Sir 
Henry  was  the  author  of  several  books  on  various  subjects  ; 
tho  most  impnrtant  are  Mcdicid  Nitirn  mid  JicJIeriimia  and 
Uecol/ccliMia  .;/'  I'usl  life  (1871).      D.  Oct.  28,  1873. 

Holland  (Henrv  Rich  Aim  Vassal  I- Holland ).  Lonn, 
b.  in  Wiltshire  Nov.  21,1773;  succeeded  in  1774  to  tho 
peerage  as  the  third  Lord  Holland  of  the  Fox  family,  but 
his  patronymic  was  ch;inged  from  Fox  to  \'assall  in  1797, 
the  latter  being  the  family  name  of  his  wife,  the  divorced 
Lady  Websler,  by  whom  he  had  had  a  son,  the  late  (ien. 
Charles  R.  Fox,  b.  before  the  divorce.  Holland  was  a  man 
of  line  manners  and  most  amiable  character.  His  uncle, 
Charles  James  Fox,  trained  him  up  to  liberal  iiolitieal  prin- 
ciples, and  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford;  ho  was  (1800)  made  a  commissioner  and  pleni- 
potentiary fur  settling  disputes  with  tho  U.  S.  ;  was  lord 
privy  seal  1800-07;  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster 
1830-iO.  I),  at  Kensington  Oct.  22,  1840.  Lord  Holland 
v.as  a  most  brilliant  debater  and  parliamentary  tactician, 
the  steady  friend  of  every  jtolitical  reform,  and  h:id  a  largo 
personal  following  of  strongly  attached  social  ancl  {uilitical 
friends.  He  did  much  to  develop  a  taste  for  Spanish  liter- 
ature. Author  of  life  and  WritinijK  af  Ln/tc  dc  Vrija  Carpio 
(1800),  Three  f'amediea  from  the  Hjiamih  (1807),  Foreign 
Ileminiareneea  (1850),  Memoir)  of  the  Whtij  Parly  (1852), 
and  other  works. 

Holland  (Josiah  GrLBEnr),  M.  I).,  b.  at  Belchertown, 
Mass.,  July  24,  1819;  graduated  at  Berkshire  Medical  Col- 
lege, Pittsficid,  and  practised  medicine  Ihreo  years;  was 
for  a  short  time  an  editor  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  (or  one 
I  year  superinlendent  of  schools  Vieksburg,  Miss.  He  was 
(1849-00)  editorially  connected  with  the  Springfield  llepiib- 
j  ^Viin,  and  in  1870  became  editor  of  Serihner't  ilonthli/. 
New  York.  His  works,  some  of  them  published  under  the 
name  of  "  Timothy  Tilcomb,"  are  a  llinlori/  of  W'eKiern 
Jlf.i»«(icAi(»r«»  (1855),  The  Hay  Path,  a,  novel  (1S57),  f.ef- 
tera  to  the  Yomni  (1858),  Hitler  Sweet,  a  poem  (1858),  (jold 
Foil  (  1859),  ;l/i'««  nUbcrl'a  Career,  a  novel  (1800),  I.eaaoiia 
in  life  (1801),  Letlera  lo  the  Joneaea  (1803),  /'lain  Talk  on 
Familiar  Siihjrcia  (|.'<65),  Life  of  Lincoln  (1800),  Kallirina. 
a  poem  (1807).  The  Marble  I'rophcey  (1872),  Arlhnr  llonui- 
caalle  (1873),  (larnercd  Sheacea,  pocins  (1873),  The  Mialreaa 

of  the  Manar  (1874). 

Holland  (Sir  Nathaniel  r)ANSE),h.  in  Lond<m  in  1734; 
studied  in  Rome,  and  painted  porlrails  and  landscapes; 
but  ha\ing  married  a  wealthy  hidy  and  become  a  bar<uiet 
and  member  of  Parliamenl,  ho  gave  up  art.  1>.  at  Win- 
chester in  1811. 

Holland  (  Philemon),  b.  at  Chelmsford  in  1551 ;  studied 
at  Cambri'lge;  became  master  of  the  free  school  of  Coven- 
try I  and  d.  Feb.  9,  1030.  He  gave  the  first  English  Irans- 
latiun   of  Livy,  Suetonius,  Ainmiaous  Marcellinus,   Pliny, 

:iim1   I'llltareh's  Moralia, 


96-t 


HOLLAND  LSLAND— HOLLYHOCK. 


Hol'land  Isrand,  tp.  of  Dorchester  co.,  Md.,  consist- 
ing of  Bloodworth  Island,  Holland  Island,  etc.     Pop.  141. 

Hol'land  Pa'tent,  post-v.  of  Trenton  tp.,  Oneida  co., 
N.  v..  on  the  Utica  and  Black  River  U.  R.,  12  miles  N. 
from  I'tica.     It  has  6  churches.     Pop.  320. 

IIoTlansburg,  a  v.  of  Harrison  tp.,  Darke  co.,  0. 
Pop.  T.VX 

Horiar  (WENZEL),b.  at  Prague  in  1G07;  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  earl  of  Arundel,  ambassador  to  the  German 
emperor,  and  followed  him  in  IG.'ifi  to  England:  became 
implicated  during  the' time  of  the  Commonwealth  in  polit- 
ical affairs,  and  was  imprisone<!  for  a  short  time  ;  joined 
then  the  earl  of  Arundel  at  Anfrwerjt  in  1645.  and  returned 
with  him  in  1H52  to  England,  where  he  d.  Mar.  28,  1677. 
His  most  celebrated  engraving  is  that  of  Holbein's  Dance 
<>/  Deuth. 

HoTlcnback,  tp.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.  It  has  beds  of 
nnthraeitc  coal.     Pop.  1303. 

Ilol'lengsworth,  tp.  of  Montgomery  CO.,  N.  C.  P.  695. 

Ilol'ley,  post-v.  of  Orleans  co.,  N.  Y.  It  has  4  churches, 
1  weekly  newspaper,  1  bank.  1  hotel,  1  furnace,  foundry 
and  machine-shop,  2  lumber  and  coal  van!?.  Pop.  about 
1000.  C.  Marsh,  Pub.  *' Sta.vdard." 

Holley  (Alexander  Lyman),  C,  E.,  b.  July  20,  1S32, 
at  Lakeville,  a  part  of  Salisbury  tp.,  Conn.;  graduated  at 
Rrown  University  1S53,  and  was  technically  educated  at 
the  Corliss  Steam-Engine  Works.  From  lS5fi  to  1861  he 
edited  and  contributed  to  various  engineering  newspapers, 
and  ])ublished  his  liriihra}/  Economy,  and,  in  connection 
with  the  late  Zerah  Colburn,  a  Report  on  Emopean  Jiail- 
waya.  In  1864  he  published  his  Treatise  on  Ordnance  and 
Armor.  In  1865  he  introduced  the  Bessemer  process  into 
America,  and  built  the  first  steelworks  at  Troy.  N.  Y.  He 
afterwards  built  Bessemer  steelworks  and  rolling-mills  at 
Harrisburg.  Troy,  Chicago,  Joliet,  and  Pittsburg,  and  is 
now  consulting  engineer  to  a  number  of  iron  and  steel 
works. 

Holley  (Horape),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Salisbury,  Conn.,  Feb, 
13,  1781;  graduated  at  Vale  1803;  studied  law.  and  then 
divinity  ;  was  pastor  of  the  Hollis  street  church,  Boston, 
1809-18;  became  a  Unitarian;  president  of  Transylvania 
University,  Ky.,  1818-27  ;  went  to  Xew  Orleans  to  take 
charge  of  a  seminary,  but  fell  sick  and  d.  on  the  passage 
thence  to  New  York  July  31,  1827. 

HolMidaysbur^,  post-b.,  cap.  of  Blair  co..  Pa.,  7  miles 
frnm  Altoona.  on  a  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  It 
has  2  rolling-mills.  2  nail-factories,  2  furnaces,  and  3  foun- 
dries, a  large  an<l  flourishing  female  seminary.  2  news- 
papers, 7  churches,  a  fine  court-house  and  jail,  and  a  na- 
tional bank.  Its  industries  are  principally  manufacturing. 
Pop.  2'.I52.  David  Over,  Ed.  "  Rkgister." 

Hol'lins  CGeorge  N.),  b.  at  Baltimore.  Md.,  Sept.  20, 
1799  ;  appointed  midshipman  U.  S.  navy  in  1*^14.  and  was 
with  Com.  Decatur  on  the  frigate  President  when  she  was 
captured  by  the  British,  and  held  as  prisoner  at  Bermuda 
during  the  remainder  of  the  war;  subsequently  served  with 
Decatur  in  the  war  with  Algiers,  and  at  its  close  com- 
manded an  East  India  merchant  ship.  In  1825  was  com- 
missioned lieutenant  U.  S.  navy,  rising  to  be  captain  1855. 
In  1854  he  commanded  the  Cyane,  and  gained  considerable 
notoriety  by  the  bombardment  and  destruction  of  the  town 
of  (Jreytown  (San  Juan  de  Nicaragua).  In  1861  he  re- 
signed from  the  U.  S.  navy,  but  his  resignation  was  not 
accepted,  though  he  effected  his  escape,  and,  joining  the 
Southern  cause,  was  appointed  commodore  in  the  Con- 
federate navy.  On  the  morning  of  Oct.  12,  1861,  before 
dawn,  with  the  ram  Manassas,  three  lire-rafts,  and  five 
armed  steamers,  he  surprised  the  U.S.  squadron  blockading 
the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  causing  mueh  confusion,  but 
in  reality  effecting  scarcely  any  damage,  although  he  sent 
exaggerated  despatches  announcing  a  great  victory,  and 
was  made  naval  commandant  at  New  Orleans.  He  was, 
however,  superseded  before  the  decisive  attack  of  Admiral 
I'arragut  in  1862.     D.  Jan.  18,  1878.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Ilol'lis,  tp.  and  v.  of  Peoria  co..  Til.,  on  the  Illinois 
River.  8  miles  below  Peoria,  at  the  junction  of  the  Peoria 
Pckin  and  Jacksonville  and  the  Toledo  Peoria  aud  Warsaw 
R.  Rs.     Pop.  of  tp.  980. 

Hollis,  post-tp.  of  York  co..  Me.,  on  the  Portland  and 
Rochester  R.  R.,  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Portland,  has  3  churches, 
and  manufactures  of  woollens  and  lumber.    Pop.  1541. 

IlolliS)  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Hillsborough  eo.,  N,  H.,  7 
miles  from  Nashua  and  3  miles  from  the  Worcester  and 
Nashua  R.  R.  It  has  a  liigh  school,  1  church,  a  town-hall, 
and  a  library  containing  1800  volumes.  Large  quantities 
of  lumber  and  some  70,000  casks  arc  annually  manufac- 
tured.    Principal  occupation,  farming.     Pop.  of  tp..  1079. 

S.  II.  Kkkler. 


Hollis  (Thomas),  a  successful  merchant  of  London,  b. 
in  England  in  1659.  In  1721  he  founded  the  Hollis  pro- 
fessorship of  divinity  in  Harvard  College,  and  in  1727 
founded  a  professorship  of  mathematics  and  natural  phil- 
osophy :  he  also  presented  books  for  the  library,  and  con- 
sidcralile  sums  of  money.  Several  others  of  the  Hollis 
family  were  benefactors  of  the  college.  A  Life  of  Tfiomns 
HoIUh  was  publislicd  by  T.  B.  Hollis  (17S0i.  Thomas  Hol- 
lis, Sr.,  was  a  Baptist,  though  a  member  of  an  Independent 
church,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  charities  both  to  Bap- 
tist and  ludependent  churches.     D.  Feb.,  1731. 

HoTlistcr,  post-v.,  cap.  of  San  Benito  eo.,  Cab,  94  miles 
S.  of  San  Francisco.  It  contains  1  seminary,  a  graded 
public  school,  5  church  organizations,  3  public  halls,  and 
2  telegraph  and  1  express  office.  It  derives  its  trade  from 
agriculture,  stock-raising,  and  quicksilver-mining.  There 
are  2  weekly  newspapers,  about  30  business-houses,  1 
steam  flouring-mill,  1  brewery,  2  lumber-yards,  and  4  hotels 
and  stables.  The  principal  tobacco  plantations  of  Califor- 
nia are  near  the  town,  and  the  quicksilver  and  coal  devel- 
opments are  rich  and  promising  in  the  mountain-ranges. 
Pop.  about  2000.  F.  W.  Blake,  Ed.  "  Advanxe." 

Horiiston,  post-tp.  of  Middlesex  co.,  Mass.,  26  miles 
S.  W.  of  Boston,  on  the  Milfurd  branch  cf  t)ie  Boston  and 
Albany  R.  R.  It  has  important  agricultural  interests, 
manufactures  of  boots,  shoes,  nails,  pumps,  wrenches,  etc., 
1  national  and  1  savings  bank,  4  churches,  a  high  school, 
and  a  free  library.     Pop.  3073. 

Hol'loman,  tp.  of  Darlington  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1590, 

Hol'low,  tp.  of  Bladen  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1243. 

Horioway  (Thomas),  b.  in  London  in  1748,  and  d.  at 
Coltishall,  near  Norwich,  in  1827.  He  engraved  the  illus- 
trations to  the  English  translation  of  Lavater's  Fhysiinj- 
nomy,  but  his  most  celebrated  work  is  his  engravings  of  the 
cartoons  of  Raphael. 

Hol'loway's,  tp.  of  Person  co.,  N.  C.     Pop,  1279. 

Hol'low  Creek,  post-tp.,  Lexington co,,S.  C.  P.  1315. 

Horiow  Pop'lar,  tp.  of  Yancey  co.,  N.  C.    Pop.  382. 

Hol'low  Square,  tp.  of  Hale  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  3360. 

Horiowville,  or  Smoky  Hollow,  post-v.  of  Cla- 
verack  tp.,  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y.  It  has  manufactures  of 
woollens,  candles,  lumber,  etc. 

HoI'low-AVare  includes  cast  and  wrought  iron  domes- 
tic utensils.  The  casting  of  the  best  kinds  of  hollow- ware  is 
followed  by  turning  and  annealing,  and  sometimes  by  enam- 
elling, tinning,  or  japanning.  Excellent  wrought-iron  ware 
is  now  produced  by  jtressing,  there  being  no  joints  left  in  the 
work.     {See  Hardwark,  by  L.  P.  Brockett,  A.  M.,  M.  D.) 

Hol'ly,  the  name  of  various  shrubs  and  small  trees, 
chiefly  of  the  genus  J/ex  and  order  Aquiioliaceac.  They 
arc  mostly  evergreens,  with  rich  green  leaves  and  red  ber- 
ries. The  typical  species  is  /.  Aqui/oh'um,  the  European 
holly,  whose  leaves  are  so  highly  prized  for  Christmas  dec- 
oration. Its  bark  yields  bird-lime,  and  has  medicinal  pow- 
ers. The  finest  American  species  is  the  /.  opaca,  a  small 
tree,  used  also  in  Christmas  decoration,  but  its  appearance 
is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  former  species.  The  wood  of 
both  the  above  species  is  very  hard  and  white,  and  is  used 
by  turners,  inlayers,  and  carvers.  /.  Coattue  and  other 
species  yield  the'*yaupon  tea"  of  the  CaroUnas  and  the 
"black  drink"  of  the  Creek  Indians.  Paraguay  tea  (see 
Mate)  is  produced  hy  certain  South  American  hollies. 
The  U.  S.  nave  some  twelve  or  fourteen  species  of  Jfex, 
mostly  unimportant  shrubs,  some  with  deciduous  leaves,  be- 
sides one,  the  mountain  holly,  Xemopanthes  Canadensis,  of 
another  genus  closely  allied.  The  sca-hoIIy  or  sea-hulm  of 
Europe  is  the  Erywjium  maritiutum. 

Holly,  tp.  of  Van  Buren  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  153. 

Holly,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Oakland  co.,  Mich.,  at  the 
crossing  of  the  Flint  and  Pere  Marquette  and  the  Detroit 
and  Milwaukee  R.  Rs.,  52  miles  from  Detroit.  It  has  fine 
schools  and  churches,  a  high-school  building  which  cost 
SfjO.OOO,  7  hotels,  manufactures  of  flour,  castings,  furniture, 
and  other  goods,  and  a  large  trade.  Ice  is  extensively 
shipped  from  this  vicinity,  which  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 
and  attractive  in  the  State.  A  State  insane  asylum  is  to  bo 
opened  in  the  vicinity.  The  village  has  2  national  hanks, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  railroad  machine-shops,  etc.  Pop. 
1421);  of  tp.  2437.        Henuy  Je.nkins,  Kd.  "Register." 

Holly,  tp.  of  Xew  Hanover  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1016. 

Holly,  tp.  of  Webster  co.,  W.  Va.     Pop.  612. 

Holly  Grove,  tp.  of  Gates  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1213. 

Hol'lyhock,  tlio  name  of  cert.iin  biennial  plants  of  the 
genus  Ail/lira  {A.  rosea,  Jxcifolin,  Chinrnsis),  tall  Old-World 
herbs,  much  cultivated  in  gardens  for  their  flowers,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  single  and  double.     The 


nOLLY   NECK-HOLM ESBURO. 


9(i5 


culture  of  these  plants  for  forage  purposes  has  been  pro- 
posed. Tho  stalks  abouud  in  a  libro  which  may  be  utilized 
as  papcr-?tock. 

Holly  \rck,  tp.  of  Nan?cmond  co.,  Va.     Pap.  3275. 

Holly  Springs,  pof't-tp.  of  Dallas eo..  Ark.    Pop.  63C. 

Holly  Springs,  po8t-v.,  cap.  of  Marshall  co..  Miss., 
on  the  Ml.s»i!<!tippi  Central  H.  U.,  -13  miles  S.  K.  from  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.  It  has  1  foundry,  I  hub  and  spoke  factory,  3 
wagon-factories,  3  potteries,  1  marble  manufactory,  1  sav- 
ings bank,  2  newspapers,  2  holds,  6  schools.  7  churches, 
and  42  stores.  It  ships  annually  23,000  bales  of  cotton. 
Pop.  240*'..         ('ai.iioox  <t  Holland,  Eds.  *' Ueporter." 

lloriywood,  tp.  of  Carver  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  534, 

Ilol'inau  City,  a  v.  of  Paris  tp.,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y. 
I'o|,.  70. 

Holman  (James),  "  the  blind  traveller,"  b.  in  England 
Kill:  entered  the  royal  navy  I71>S;  commissioDcd  a  lieu- 
tenant 1807;  invalidefl  ISll);  became  blind  1812;  was  ap- 
pointed a  naval  kui;;ht  of  Windsor,  ami  in  1819  began  to 
make  his  journeys,  which  extendecl  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
He  published  some  seven  volumes  of  travels,  and  his  books 
had  at  one  lime  considerable  currency.  D.  in  London  July 
21*.  1857. 

Holman  (Josepii  Grorge),  b.  at  London  1764;  was 
educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford  ;  appeared  as  Uomeo 
at  Covent  Garden  1784,  and  soon  became  a  rival  of  Kemble 
on  the  British  stage :  eanic  to  the  U.  S. ;  was  for  some  time 
manager  of  a  theatre  in  Charleston.  S.  ('. ;  was  very  suc- 
ces.-fuj  for  some  years  in  the  V.  S.  D.  at  Kockaway,  L.  I., 
of  yellow  fever,  Aug.  24,  1817.  Author  of  several  comic 
operas  and  comedies. 

Holm'boe  (CiiuisTOpnBn  Andreas),  b.  at  Vang,  Nor- 
way, in  17'Jfl;  studied  Oriental  languages  in  Christiania 
and  Paris,  and  became  in  1822  professor  at  the  University 
of  Christiania.     The  most  prominent  of  liis  writings  are — 

J)f  ftrinrti  ve  moiietiin'tt  .Ynrretfiit  (1841  ).  Siiiinhn't  unt/  Old- 
unrnk  (1H4('»).  Dct  Oldnomke  Verbnm  (I'^"*^).  '''''  norttke 
Sproffn  roHtfiitfiiftte  Ofdf'orrnnd,  $ammcnfiffitrt  mcd  Sauthrit 
( 18.^2),  Nornk  Off  Kettitik  (1854).  As  a  member  of  various 
commissions  he  has  exercised  a  great  and  beneficial  infiu- 
ence  on  edueational  affairs  in  Norway. 

Holm'delf  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.,  6 
miles  8.  of  Karitan  Bay.     Pop.  1415. 

Holmes,  county  of  Florida,  bounded  on  tho  N.  by 
Alabama.  Area,  about  ■V.)0  square  miles.  Much  of  its  sur- 
face is  covered  with  heavy  pine  timber.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  navigable  Choctawbatchio  River.  Rico  and  cotton  are 
the  chief  crops.     Cup.  Cerro  (iordo.     Pop.  1572. 

Holmes,  county  in  N.  W.  ('entral  Mississippi.  Area, 
940  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  navigable  Yazoo 
Uiver  and  tlie  Mississippi  Central  R.  R.  Its  surface  is 
diversified,  its  soil  productive.  Cotton  and  corn  arc  staple 
crops.     Cap.  Le.\iugton.     Pop.  19,370. 

Holmes,  county  of  N.  E.  Central  Ohio.  Area,  420 
pqunre  miles.  Its  surface  is  rolling,  the  soil  ]iroiliictive. 
Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  il<iur  arc  staples.  Coal  has  been 
found.  It  is  traversed  by  tho  Cleveland  Mt.  Vernon  and 
Delaware  R.  U.     Cap.  Millcrsburg.     Pop.  18,177. 

Holmes,  Ip.  of  Mackinac  co.,  Mich.,  bounded  on  the 
S.  by  Lake  Huron.     Pop.  938, 

Holmes,  tp.  of  Crawford  eo.,  0.     Pop.  1572. 

HolmeH  (Ariel),  I).  I).,  LL.D.,  h.  at  Woodstock,  Conn., 
I>e(r.  24,  I7*J3;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1783.  and  was  a  tutor 
there  178fi-87;  held  Congregational  pastorates  at  Midwiiy, 
Ua.,  1785-91,  and  at  Cumbridge,  Mass..  1792-1832.  lie 
married  a  daughter  of  President  Stiles,  and  after  her  death 
a  daughter  of  IL.n.  Oliver  Wendell.  Hi^  published  Aumih 
of  Aiuf-rim,  a  work  of  permanent  value  (2  vols.,  1805,  en- 
larged ed.  IH29);  Life  *>/  I'r'iiflrut  Stilri  (17'Jli);  papers 
on  Stephen  I^lnnenius;  on  the  Mohegan  Indians ;  biograiihy 
of  John  Lothrop,  antl  many  others  in  tho  MunttnclinnffiH  i/Ih- 
tnrirnl  CfdUrtionn.  lie  received  the  degree  of  I>.  I),  from 
IMinburgh  Universitv.  I>.  June  4,  1837.  IIu  was  tho 
father  of  Dr.  Oliver  Wcn<K'll  Holmes. 

Holmes  (David),  hod  of  t'ol.  Joseph  Holmes  of  Fred- 
erick CO.,  Vo. ;  was  in  Congress  1797-1809;  governor  of 
Mississippi  Territory  1809-17;  governor  of  the  Slate  of 
Mississippi  lsi7-I9*and  1825-27;  U.  S.  Senator  1820-25. 
D.  near  Winchester  Aug.  20,  1832. 

Holmes  (CAnniKL).  b.  in  Sampson  co.,  N.  C.  in  1769; 
was  edueaterl  iit  Hiirvard  Collei;e ;  became  a  lawyer;  State 
flcnator  1827;  governor  of  North  Carolina  1821-24;  in 
Congress  1825-29;  also  general  of  militia,  besides  holding 
other  public  positions  of  huuor.  D.  in  Sampson  oo.,  N.  C, 
Sept.  2fi,  1829. 

Holmes  (flEoncr  FnEDKRirK),  b.  in  British  Quiana  in 
1820;  edueated  in  England  at  Durham  University.     AVhen 


eighteen  years  old  ho  came  io  tho  U.  S.,  and  was  a  teacher 
in  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  South  Carolina,  and  in  1842  was 
admittcil  to  the  b:ir  of  South  Carolina  by  the  legislature, 
although  not  naturalized.  He  was  for  a  time  assistant 
editor  of  the  Southern  QtiurUrhf  Jicvt'cw,  and  in  1845  ac- 
cepted a  professorship  in  Richmond  College,  Va.  In  I84f> 
he  \vas  chosen  president  of  the  University  of  Mississippi; 
in  1847  professor  of  history,  political  economy,  and  inter- 
national law  in  William  and  Mary  College,  and  in  1857 
professor  of  history  and  literature  in  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  is  the  author  of  a  series  of  school-books  for  tho 
Southern  States. 

Holmes  (Isaac  EnwAnn),  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Apr. 
0,  I79();  graduated  with  honors  at  Yale  1815;  became  a 
lawyer  of  his  native  town  1818;  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  South  Cartdina  Association  and  a  leader  of  the  ex- 
treme Stales'  Rights  party;  was  an  able  and  distinguished 
member  of  Congress  1839-50;  resided  in  California  1850- 
til  ;  strove  to  avert  the  civil  war  in  l8iJl.  D.  at  Charleston 
Feb.  24,  lSt)7.  Author  of  the  Jiecreattonti  of  Oeon/e  Tell- 
tale,  and,  with  R.  J.  Turnbull,  of  Carolincngia  (1826),  a 
political  work. 

Holmes  (Joii.v^,  b.  at  Windsor,  Vt.,  in  1799.  While 
preparing  for  the  Methodist  ministry  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic;  afterwards  studied  in  the  Montreal  Seminary; 
was  a  professor  in  Nicolet  College;  became  a  priest  imd 
home  missionary.  In  1828  ho  was  appointed  a  professor, 
and  afterwards  principal,  of  the  Quebec  Seminary,  and  in 
1830-37  was  government  commissioner  to  Europe  and  tho 
U,  S.  to  examine  the  normal  schools.  After  18;')8  ho  retired 
from  public  life.  D.  at  Lorette,  Quebec,  in  1852.  He  pub- 
lished Minntrl  ahr/iji'  de  t/^'of/rupkie  and  Cou/^rtiices  de 
Notre  Duinc  de  QnfMcc  (1850). 

Holmes  (John),  b.  at  Kingston,  Mass.,  Mar..  1773; 
graduated  at  Brown  University  1790;  removed  in  1799  to 
what  is  now  Maine,  and  became  .t  j)rosperous  lawyer  of  the 
town  of  Alfred ;  was  very  prominent  in  the  convention 
which  drew  up  the  constitution  of  Alaine  1820;  was  in 
Congress  1817-20  ;  U.  R.  Senator  1820-27  and  1829-33  ;  in 
the  legislature  1829  and  lS;;a-38;  U.  S.  district  attorney 
1841-43  ;  was  distinguished  for  wit  and  elotjuence.  Author 
of  The  Stntcsmniiy  or  Principles  of  Lrt/i'slntion  and  L<iw 
(1840),  etc.     D.  at  Portland,  Me.,  July  7,  1843. 

Holmes  (Mary  J.),  b.  in  Brookficld,  Mass.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Hawes,  and  she  is  a  niece  of  the  late  Joel  Hawes, 
D.  D.  She  was  married  to  J\Ir.  Daniel  Holmes,  a  Lawyer, 
then  of  Richmond,  Ontario  eo.,  N.  Y.,  and  has  since  tiien 
resided  in  \'ersaillcs,  Ky.,  and  at  IJroekport,  N.  Y.  Sho 
has  written  a  large  number  of  very  popular  novels,  mostly 
of  an  unambitious  or  domestic  character,  and  of  excellent 
moral  tendency. 

Holmes  (Oliveu  Wendell),  M.  D.,  a  son  of  Dr.  Abiel 
Holmes,  b.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1SU9  ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1829:  studied  law  for  a  time,  and  afterwards 
medicine,  receiving  his  doctor's  degree  in  1830,  after  sev- 
eral years'  attendance  in  tlie  Eurojtcan  hospitals.  In  1838 
he  beeame  proffssor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  Dart- 
mouth, and  in  1847  was  called  to  tho  same  cliair  in  tho 
Massachusetts  Medical  School,  Boston.  He  is  distinguished 
as  an  accurate  anatomist,  a  skilful  mieroscopist  and  auscul- 
tator,  and  a  successful  amateur  photographer,  but  bis  widest 
fame  is  as  a  poet,  wit,  and  man  of  letters.  The  first  col- 
lected edition  of  his  poems  appeared  in  IS.'iG.  His  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  poems,  Poetry  (1836),  Terpsichore  (1843),  Vrttuia 
(184(1),  and  Antrtrn  (1850),  gave  bim  fresh  laurels;  and  his 

Autocrat  of  the  Iirr<tf,'fant  Tnhlc,  I*rof.HKor  at  the  Itrcok/(int 
Tithlc,arni  /*i>cf(itfhr  lircnkfuHt  '/'.f/^/*-,  all  originally  publish- 
ed in  the  Atlantic  Mnuthlt/,  were  a  series  of  brilliant  prose 
papers,  with  oceasioiuil  poems,  nearly  all  in  bis  ha(tpiest 
vein  of  mingled  humor,  pathos,  healthy  sentiment,  and 
jiractical  wisdom.  His  after-rjinner  poems  and  other  shurt 
lyrics  are  among  tho  best  of  their  kind  in  the  language. 
He  has  written  also  various  medical  addresses,  papers,  and 
pamphlets:  CitrmitHtnul  dniutcr-rurrentt  in  iyfediral  Srieuce 
( 1801 ),  IJlKif  Vrnnrr,  a  ronmnco  ( 1801 ),  .S'oin/s  in  Muni/  h'cifn 
(1864),  SoHndiutjn  from  the  Atlantic  (1804),  The  O'liardiau 
yl»7e;(  1808),  and  Mechanimn  in  Thotujhtund  Mornhi  1870  |. 

Holmes  (Thkocimi  is  HtNTEu),  h.  in  North  Carolina 
in  18115;  gr:iduiit.-il  ut  the  V.  S.  Military  Academy  1829; 
first  lieutenant  7th  Inlantry  1835;  captain  1838;  brevet 
major  for  conduct  at  Monterey  1840;  major  8th  Infantry 
1855  ;  resigned  in  1801  ;  commanded  a  Confederate  brigadr 
in  reserve  at  Manassns,  :ind  afterwards  bebl  command  al 
Acquia  ;  with  tho  rank  of  lieutermnt-general  be  held  i  IS02- 
01)  a  eommand  in  Arkansas;  attacked  Helena  July  '.*<, 
IH03,  and  was  repelled  with  heavy  loss.  D.  Mar.  31,  1804. 
He  poHsossed  a  largo  amount  of  property  in  his  native 
State. 

Holmes'biir^,  a  v.  of  Philadelphia  co..  Pa.,  now  with- 
in tho  limits  of  Philadelphia,  on  the   Pennsylvania   R.  R. 


966 


HOLMES  CITY— HOLTON. 


it  contaios  good  public  aud  private  schools,  6  churches^ 
public  halls,  a  library,  1  newspaper,  shovel  and  print 
works,  1  steam  saw  and  planing  mill,  n  grist-mill,  2  hotels. 
Principal  oceup;ition,  ugriciilturo  and  mechanical  pursuits. 
Pop.  about  1 JUO.  W.  F.  KsoTT,  Eu.  "  IjAZETTk." 

Holmes  City,  post-tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Minu.     P.  452. 

Holmes'ville,  ])ost-v.  of  Prairie  tp.,  Holmes  co..  0.,  on 
tlie  CIfVLl:\nd  Mt.  Vernon  and  Delaware  K.  H.,  0  miles  N. 
of  Millersburg.     Pop.  299. 

Holm  Oak,  or  Holly  Oak  (Qttcrcua  IleXf  the  ilex  ot 
Roman  authors),  a  beautiful  evergreen  oak  tree  of  Southern 
Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  prized  for  its  beauty,  as  well 
as  for  the  great  excelleaco  and  durability  of  its  timber. 

Holoceph'ali  [from  oAos,  "entire,"  and«ef*)aA^.  "  head"], 
an  order  of  selachians  distinguished  by  the  confluence  of 
the  hyomandibular  bone  with  the  cranium  ;  the  coalescence 
of  the  maxillary  and  palatine  elements  with  the  skull ;  the 
development  of  a  rudimentary  operculum  ;  aud  the  exist- 
ence of  a  single  external  gill-openiugon  each  side  behind  the 
head.  To  this  order  belongs  a  single  existing  family  (Chi- 
meriida}),  represented  by  three  living  genera  and  numerous 
extinct  forms.  In  all  the  living  forms  the  body  is  elongated, 
and  terminates  in  a  slender  fin.  Theodore  Gill. 

Holofer'nes,     See  Judith. 

Holopho'tal.  Sec  Lighthouse  Illubiination,  by  Prof. 
J.  Hrnry,  LL.D. 

Holoptych'ius  [Ttr.  5Ao?.  "all,"  and  n-Tvx>}.  "  wrinkle," 
alluding  to  the  appearance  of  the  scale],  an  extinct  genus 
of  lepidoganoid  fishes  with  imbricated  bony  scales.  There 
arc  numerous  species  found  in  Devonian  aud  Carboniferous 
strata  in  both  hemispheres.  There  are,  however,  marked 
differences  between  the  Carboniferous  and  the  Devonian 
species.     Some  of  these  fishes  were  of  great  size. 

Holos'tomi  [from  oAos,"complete,''  and  arofia,  "mouth"], 
a  group,  and  probably  sub-order,  of  eels,  but  distinguished 
as  an  order  by  Prof.  Cope,  who  has  attributed  to  it  the  fol- 
lowing characters:  "Epiclavicle  suspended  to  fourth  ver- 
tebra, post-temporal  wanting.  Parietals  in  contact.  Mouth 
bouuded  by  the  premaxillaries,  which  are  in  contact  medi- 
ally, and  bounded  behind  by  maxillary.  Symplectic  pres- 
ent;  vertebra}  unaltered  ;  no  pectoral  fin.  Third  superior 
pharyngeal  not  smaller  than  fourth."  In  addition  to  these 
characters,  the  pectoral  fins  are  absent,  and  the  vertical 
fins  quite  rudimentary  and  reduced  to  mere  folds  of  the 
integument:  the  anus  is  situated  very  far  backward;  the 
gill-openings  are  confluent  in  a  single  outlet  under  or  near 
the  throat;  and  the  ovaries  have  oviducts.  This  group  has 
been  formed  for  the  reception  of  two  families  of  eel-like 
fishes  confined  to  the  tropical  regions — viz.  {!)  Symbran- 
chidie,  represented  in  both  the  East  Indies  and  America, 
and  (2)  Amphipuoidie,  confined  to  Bengal.     Theo.  Gill. 

Holothu'rians  [from  Holothnrm,  one  of  the  genera; 
Gr.  o.Vos.  '•  whole,"  aud  0vpiov,  a  ''  mouth,"  an  "opening"], 
or  Holothiiroi'tlea,  an  order  of  echinodermatous  radi- 
ates, including  the  highest  in  rank  of  radiate  animals,  hav- 
ing a  long,  eyliudroid.  somewhat  worm-like  body,  with  no 
calcareous  shell,  and  with  a  row  of  appendages  around  the 
inouth.  Instead  of  a  shell,  there  is  a  leathery  rind,  capa- 
ble of  much  expansion  and  contraction,  in  which  there  are 
calcareous  particles.  There  arc  several  families,  some  of 
which  have  locomotive  suckers.  The  trepang  or  becke  de 
vter  {ffolothnria  cdnlis)  and  sea-cucumber  (Pentacta  /ron- 
dosa)  of  the  North  Atlantic  are  typical  species.  The  indi- 
viiluals  are  bisexual.  Some  of  the  tropical  kinds  aro  very 
beautifully  colored. 

HoTstcin,  a  former  duchy  which  belonged  to  Den- 
mark, whoso  king,  us  duke  of  Ilolstcin,  was  a  member  of 
the  (jcrnmn  eonfoderation.  but  which  in  ISCO  was  annexed 
to  Prussia,  and  now,  together  with  Sleswick,  forms  a  part 
of  the  North  German  confederation.  It  is  situated  between 
the  Ualtio  and  the  German  Ocean,  and  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Eider,  which  separate  it  respectively  from  Hanover 
and  Slcswick.  Its  western  part  is  marshy,  and  so  luw  that 
it  must  bo  protected  from  inundation  by  dykes,  but  it  is 
very  fertile  and  presents  excellent  grazing-grounds ;  the 
central  part  is  heathy  and  sandy  ;  the  eastern  part  fine  soil 
fitted  for  agriculture.  The  rearing  of  cattle  and  the  produc 
tion  of  butter  and  cheese,  together  with  agriculture,  arc  the 
main  branches  of  industry.  Area,  .32.'J0  square  miles.  Pop. 
592,182.  Principal  cities,  Kiel  and  Altona.  It  now  consti- 
tutes a  portion  of  Sleswick-Holstcln,  a  province  of  Prussia. 

Holste'nius  (Litas),  b.  at  Hamburg  in  1.006:  studied 
at  Leyden;  travelled  in  Italy  aud  Erance ;  was  converted 
to  Catholicism  ;  became  librarian  to  the  cardinal  Barberini, 
and  afterwards  at  the  Vatican:  and  d.  at  Home  in  1661. 
He  wrote  a  great  number  of  diH^rrtntinnes  aud  cpiatleSf 
whieli  have  been  published  since  his  death. 

Ilol'ston  River  rises  in  Smyth  co.,  Va.,  by  two  heads. 


the  N.  and  S.  forks,  which  unite  at  Holston  boatyard,  near 
Kiugsport,  Tenn.,  and  flows  S.  W.  200  miles  to  Kingston, 
Tenn.,  where  it  joins  the  Clinch  and  forms  the  Tennessee 
Kiver.  It  is  navigable  for  light-draft  boats  throughout, 
aud  for  large  steamers  to  Knoxville  for  nine  months  in  the 
year.  It  is  a  beautiful  stream,  with  no  dangerous  rapids. 
It  is  proposed  to  extend  navigation  by  artificial  means  for 
some  distance  up  its  forks.  Its  affluents,  the  French  Broad, 
the  Little  Tennessee,  and  the  Watauga,  are  navigable  to 
some  extent. 

Holt,  county  in  the  N.  W.  of  Missouri,  separated  by 
the  Missouri  River,  its  S.  W.  boundary,  from  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  Area,  -170  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  varied. 
Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  lumber  are  the  staple  products. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Council  BluSs  and  St.  Jo- 
seph 11.  R.     Cap.  Oregon.     Pop.  11,652. 

Holty  county  of  Nebraska,  bounded  N.  by  Dakota. 
Area,  2515  square  miles.  Its  N.  border  is  washed  by  Keya 
P.aya  and  Niobrara  rivers.  It  is  also  traversed  by  the 
Elkhorn  and  other  streams,  and  contains  choice  farming  aud 
grazing  lands. 

Holt,  post-tp.  of  Taylor  co.,  la.     Pop.  356. 

Holt,  tp.  of  Fillmore  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  784. 

Holt  (Col.  John  Saunders),  b.  in  Mobile.  Ala.,  in  1S26, 
and  comes  of  an  old  family  of  Bedford  co.,  Va. ;  was  edu- 
cated in  New  Orleans  and  at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky. ; 
is  a  lawyer  of  Woodville,  Miss. ;  served  both  in  the  Mexi- 
can and  the  civil  wars;  and  has  written  three  successful 
tales  of  Southern  life — Tht-  Life  of  Abmhrtm  Page,  Eaq,, 
What  I  Know  about  Ben  Evclcs,  and  The  Qnitie8. 

Holt  (Sir  John),  b.  at  Thame.  Oxfordshire,  England, 
1042:  studied  law  and  became  a  prominent  advocate:  in 
16S5  he  was  appointed  recorder  of  London,  administering 
the  responsible  duties  of  his  office  with  much  ability  until 
the  following  year,  when,  by  opposing  a  court  measure,  he 
became  unpopular  and  was  removed.  Subsequently  he  held 
the  office  of  sergeant-at-law.  In  the  Convention  Parliament 
which  proclaimed  William  and  Mary  as  king  and  queen  he 
disj)layed  such  ability  as  to  attract  the  notice  of  William 
(prince  of  Orange),  who  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne 
(I68'J)  apjiointed  Holt  lord  chief-justice  of  the  king's 
bench.  Subsequently  the  king  offered  him  the  office  of  the 
great  seal,  but  this  he  declined,  and  remained  chief-justice 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  London  in  1709.  He  was 
celebrated  for  his  unbending  firmness,  strict  integrity,  and 
justice.     As  a  jurist  he  was  also  very  highly  regarded. 

Holt  (Joseph),  b.  in  Brcckcnridgeco.,  Ky.,  Jan.  6.1807; 
educated  at  St.  Joseph's  College,  Bardstown,and  at  Centre 
College,  Danville;  in  IS2S  he  entered  upon  the  practice  of 
law  at  Elizabethtown,  Ky.,  removing  to  Louisville  in  18.'i2, 
and  the  following  year  was  attorney  for  Jefferson  circuit. 
In  18;i5  he  removed  to  Port  (jlibson,  Miss.,  where  he  prac- 
tised his  profession  with  great  success  until  IS42,  when  he 
returned  to  Louisville.  In  1S57,  Pres.  Buchanan  appointed 
him  commissioner  of  patents,  and  in  1859  to  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  postmaster-general.  Upon  the  resignation  of 
John  B.  Floyd  (Dec,  1S60),  which  Buchanan  q.uietly  ac- 
cepted. Gen.  Holt  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  secretary 
of  war,  and  during  the  eventful  months  which  preceded  as 
well  as  on  the  occasion  of  the  inauguration  of  Pres.  Lincoln, 
he  actively  co-operated  with  the  general-in-ehief  in  main- 
taining order  and  suppressing  threatened  traitorous  out- 
bursts at  tho  capital.  He  subsequently  made  a  report  de- 
tailing the  facts  of  the  intended  seizure  of  the  capital.  His 
next  service  was  as  a  member  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  investigate  the  military  claims  against  the  department 
of  the  West.  In  Sept.,  1862,  Pres.  Lincoln  selected  him  as 
judgc-advocate-general  of  tho  army,  with  the  rank  of  colo- 
nel, which  he  accepted,  and  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
bureau  of  military  justice  in  June.  1861,  was  retained  at 
its  head  with  the  same  title,  but  with  the  increased  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  In  this  capacity  he  has  borne  a  con- 
sjiicuous  part  in  the  various  imjiortant  courts-martial,  courls 
of  inquiry,  and  military  commissions — notably  that  before' 
which  were  arraigned  tho  assassins  of  Pres.  Lincoln,  lle- 
tired  Nov..  1S75.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Tlol'ton,  city,  cap.  of  Jackson  co.,  Kan.,  on  the  Kansas 
Central  (narrow  gauge)  R.  R.,  50  miles  AV.  of  Lravenworth. 
It  has  2  banks,  5  churches,  a  high  school,  2  hotels,  a  steam 
flouring-mill,  and  1  weekly  newspaper.  It  is  in  an  excel- 
lent fruit  and  stock  region,  has  good  timber,  building- 
stone,  and  fine  streams.     Poji.  426. 

F.  A.  Root,  Ed.  "  Express  and  News." 

Holton  (Sami-fl),  h.  at  Danvers,  Mass..  June  9,  1738; 
was  a  physician  of  hi?  native  town  :  a  prominent  colonial 
legislator  and  an  ardent  patriot,  holding  important  public 
offices  in  his  province:  assisted  in  forming  the  Ci>nft'deration 
1777  :  was  in  Congress  177S-S:i,  17S4-S7.and  179."i-95  :  judge 
of  probate  1796-1815;  twenty-sci'en  years  a  State  councillor. 


HOLTY— HOLY  GHOST. 


967 


and  was  for  a  time  a  justice  oftho  common  picas;  was  also 
eminent  as  a  practitioner.     D.  Jan.  2,  1S16. 

lIuTty  (Lri>wiG  llKiSRif  h  CiiuisTOPii),b.  at  Maricnsec, 
near  llauuver,  Dee.  21,  174S;  ijtudicU  tlieolugy  at  (iottiu- 
gcn,  hut  was  of  a  very  delicate  constitution,  and  d.  at  Han- 
over iSept.  1, 1776.  After  his  death  his  lyrical  pocnis  were 
published  by  Voss  and  Stulberg  in  I7S.!,  and  attrnctcd 
much  attention  on  account  of  the  sweet,  elegiac  feeling 
which  pervades  them  and  the  dclicato  harmony  of  their 
form. 

Holtz'endorfT,  von  (Franz),  b.  at  Victmannsdorf, 
PruB!?iu.  Oct.  14,  1S29;  studied  at  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and 
Bonn,  and  became  in  I^Cl  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
tiic  University  of  Berlin.  He  wrote  FntuzuHinvhe  licclits- 
ZHntiinde  (ISJU),  Die  Dtporfation  «/s  Slru/mittrl  (1859), 
J/rm  irifichc  (ic/iini/nisM-Ht/itttm  ( I8i>9),  Pn'iicipieu  drr  Podiik 
(l-SfiK),  Eiirifktopatlic  dtr  lievhtmrisnenacha/t  (1870),  Hnnd- 
buch  des  DtHtechen  Stra/rechts  (1874). 

Iloltzcndorff  i  Karl  FiiiEDKRicn>.  b.  at  Berlin  Aug. 
17.  1764;  entered  the  milititry  service  in  I77S  under  his 
father,  who  was  an  eminent  general  of  artillery  ;  became 
lieutenant  in  1781;  distinguished  himself  in  Poland  in 
1794  ;  was  wounded  at  Halle  in  ISOfl;  took  part  in  the  de- 
fence of  liiintzic  in  1S07;  and  commanded  the  artillery  of 
the  army  uf  Biilow  in  1814,  and  of  that  of  Bliiober  in 
1815.     1>.  at  Berlin  Sept.  29,  1828. 

Iloltz'mann  (At>oi,f),  b.  at  Carlsrubc  May  2,  1810; 
studied  theology  at  Berlin,  Old  German  at  MUnich,  San- 
scrit at  Paris,  and  was  in  1852  appointed  professor  of  Ger- 
man language  and  literature  at  (he  University  of  Heidel- 
berg. His  most  prominent  writings  are — U'her  dcu  Um- 
!utit  (1S4;1).  Ceher  dm  Ablaut  (1S44).  Indf^rhc  Snffen 
( IS4;t-45),  Cfltf-n  tind  Gtnnanen  (1855),  Nicbcluiif/ciilied 
(1855),  Kfi'ifr  (IS59). 

Huly  Aniance^  a  compact  entered  into  at  Paris  Sept. 
26,  1S15.  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prus- 
sia, joineil  by  most  of  the  other  European  powers,  and 
published  Feb.  2,  ISlfi.  It  forever  excluded  all  members 
of  the  Bonaparte  family  from  any  throne  in  Europe,  ex- 
pressed the  intention  of  the  contracting  powers  to  live  to- 
gether in  Christian  harmony,  and  exhorted  the  people  to 
faithful  daily  fulfilment  of  Uhristian  duties.  Thus  they 
concealed  the  chain  they  had  welded  with  which  to  re- 
slriiin  the  progress  <»f  liberal  ideas  in  Europe. 

Holy  Coat  of  Treves,  a  garment  preserved  in  the 
cathedral  of  Treves,  in  Germany,  which  was  declared  by 
Pope  Leo  X.  in  1514  to  be  the  veritable  seamless  garment 
worn  by  Jesus  Christ  at  his  crucifixion,  and  for  which  the 
soldiers  cast  lots.  This  coat,  it  is  alleged,  was  left  at 
Treves  by  the  empress  Helena  in  the  fourth  century.  No 
less  than  nine  other  holy  coats  have  been  exhibited,  and  in 
18il'.,  Pope  (Jregory  XVI.  pronounced  that  of  Argenteuil 
in  France  to  be  the  true  one.  The  one  at  Treves  was  lost 
for  a  season,  and  rediscovered  in  119t>.  It  has  been  from 
time  to  time  exhibited,  when  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
pilgrims  flock  to  sue  it,  as  in  1844.  Among  the  eonsie- 
quences  of  this  last  exhibition  was  the  secession  of  .)ohann 
K'lugc  and  his  nunterous  followers  from  the  Church. 

Holy  Communiou.  Soo  Eucharist,  by  F.  A.  P. 
Baun  Aun. 

Holy  Communion,  Sisters  of  the,  a  society  of 
Indie-  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  founded  in  Xew 
York  in  jsi;,  hy  Iho  Kcv.  |)r.  \V.  A.  iMnblenlierg.  They 
are  not  bound  by  vows,  and  do  not  wear  a  strictly  uniform 
habit.  They  are  devoted  to  the  caro  of  the  sick  in  hos- 
jfitals  and  to  other  charitable  labors. 

Holy  Cross,  Congregation  of  the,  an  associa- 
tion of  regular  clerks,  founded  by  the  ;\bl)6  Morcau  in 
1XIJ4.  Their  present  rule  was  apjiroved  in  ls.")(i,  in  which 
ye;ir  the  lirntherhood  of  St.  .losrph  was  merged  into  this 
eonpregalion.  They  were  introduced  into  the  I'.  S.  in 
1S42,  and  have  now  numerous  estalilishments  here.  There 
is  a  eongregation  of  Canons  Regular  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(anciently  called  Crutebed  Friars  in  England ),  fouiiiliMl  by 
Theodore  de  Celles  1211.  They  have  a  cdlege  jil  Water- 
town.  Wis.,  iind  are  numerous  in  continental  Europe  ;  called 
also  Croisiers  and  Cross-bearers. 

Holy  Cross,  Sisterhood  of  the,  founded  1S34  by 
th-  Abb^  Morcau,  at  Alans,  Belgium.  Their  rule  was  ap- 
proved in  1857.  There  are  two  orders  of  "  Daughters  of 
the  Cross  "  and  one  of  "  Sisters  of  the  Cross,"  independent 
of  the  above. 

Holy  <;host,  or  Holy  Spirit  [Heb.  fiuah  Elohim 
and  linnh  Jthovnh  ;  (Jr.  nvtvua  ayioi).  the  Spirit  of  (Jod, 
of  Christ,  of  the  Lord,  etc.,  is  the  third  Person  of  the  Trin- 
ity, whose  cxistcnee,  character,  and  offices  arc  revenlcd  in 
the  Bible.  Sax.  i/fmMt,  Ger.  yn'W,  Dan.  tind,  Heb.  rufih, 
Greek  nvrvfAa.  ].»t .  Mftiiitim,  Eng.  >ry»iViV,  all  origiuaMv  mean 


"wind,"  then  "breath,"  then  "life,"  then  the  self-con- 
scious, intelligent,  self-determined,  thinking  substance  of 
God,  angels,  and  man.  The  term  vytiina  iyioi'.  "Holy 
Ghost,"  in  Scripture  and  Christian  theology,  docs  not  des- 
ignate the  8j)iritual  substance  common  to  the  three  Persons 
of  the  Godhead,  but  the  third  Person  or  Hypostasis  existing 
in  the  unity  of  that  substance.  We  propose  here  a  con- 
densed statement  (I.)  of  the  scriptural  and  Church  doctrine 
as  to  his  personality,  divinity,  procession,  andofticcs;  (II.) 
of  the  history  of  opinion  on  the  subject^  (HI-)  its  litera- 
ture. 

1.  SCRIPTrRAL    AND     CuuilCn     DOCTRINE     OF     THK    Hoi.Y 

GnosT.  1.  Ifis  Pcmonalilr/. — The  attributes  of  personality 
are  intelligence,  will,  individual  subsistence;  and  in  Scrip- 
ture all  of  tlieso  arc  predicated  of  the  Spirit,  (1)  He  uses 
the  pronoun  **  I,"  and  the  Father  and  Son  use  the  pro- 
nouns "ho"  anil  "him,"  when  speaking  of  him  (Acts  xiii. 
2  ;  John  xv.  20  and  xvi.  1.1.  14) ;  '•  AVhen  be  (e^rci-o?)  shall 
come  ...  ho  shall  glorify  me."  {2}  His  functions  all  im- 
ply distinct  personal  subsistence:  he  "speaks,"  "searches," 
"  selects,"  "  reveals,"  "  reproves,"  "  testifies,"  "  leads," 
"comforts,"  "distributes  to  every  man  as  ho  wills," 
"knows  the  deep  tliinj^s  of  God,"  "is  grieved."  etc.  (Acts 
xiii.  2  ;  I  Cor.  ii.  10,  II  and  xii.  11  ;  1  Tim.  iv.  1).  {?,)  All 
Christians  profess  personal  allegiance  to  the  H0I3'  Spirit 
precisely  as  to  Father  and  Son.  They  arc  baptized  fi<;  to 
ovofjia^'iutn  the  utniitj  of  the  Fatlier,  and  of  the  Son,  and  f'f 
the  Holy  (I'hfiHt  (Matt,  xxviii.  liJ).  If  the  two  former  are 
Persons,  the  latter  must  be.  Hence  he  is  our  Sanctifier 
and  Comforter.  (4)  Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  the  possibility  of  "  resisting,"  "  grieving,"  and  "  doing 
despite  to  "  him,  imply  his  personalitv  f^Iatt.  xii.  ;jl,  .■i2; 
Mark  iii.  28,  29  ;  Luke  Xii.  10;  AcfsVii.  ol;  Heb.  x.  2U ; 
Eph.  iv.  30).  (5)  This  has  been  from  the  beginning  the 
common  faith  of  all  historical  churches.  (Sec  Niccne  and 
Athiumsian  Creeds  ;  Thivtif-ninc  Articlrs  of  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  Artirlcn  of  Methodist  EjjihcojhiI  Church  ;  WcMtmin- 
8ter  Conf.  of  faith,  cli.  2,  §  3 ;  Aut/aOnrf/  Coufctssiou,  art.  1.) 

2.  HtH  Diriniii/. — ( I )  Ho  is  called  by  the  exclusive  names 
of  God.  AVhat  Jehovah  says  in  the  Old  Testament  tho 
New  Testament  writers  ascribe  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  (Cf. 
Isa.  vi.  9  with  Acts  xxviii.  25,  and  Jer.  xxxi.  .'U-IU  with 
Heb.  X.  15;  see  Acts  v.  3,  4.)  (2)  Divine  attributes  are 
predicated  of  bim  :  (o)  omnipresence  (  Pa.  cxxxix.  7;  I  Cor. 
xii.  13);  (6)  omniscience  (1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11);  (c)  omnipo- 
tence (Luke  i.  35  ;  Rom.  viii.  11).  (3)  Divine  works  are 
ascribed  to  him:  (o)  creation  (tien.  i.  2;  Job  xxvi.  13; 
Ps.  civ.  30);  (6)  inspiration  (Heb.  iii.  7;  2  Pet.  i.  21); 
(c)  miracles  (1  Cor.  xii.  9-11 ) ;  (rf)  spiritual  regeneration 
(John  iii.  fi ;  Tit.  iii.  5).  (4)  Divine  worsliip  is  to  be  paid 
to  him  (Mutt,  xxviii.  19;  2  Cor.  xiii.  1  I  ;  Matt.  xii.  31,  32). 

3.  The  Pi-occHfiifin  of  the  Ilnlif  iVAokMs  a  technical  phrase, 
originating  in  John  xv.  20  ("the  Spirit  of  truth  which 
procecdeth  from  the  Father"),  and  used  by  theologians  to 
express  the  essential  relations  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  tho 
other  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  The  teachings  of  Scripture 
and  of  the  whole  Church,  Roman  and  Protestant,  involve 
the  follo^ving  points:  (1)  There  is  but  one  God,  and  ho  is 
indivisilde.  Therefore  there  is  but  one  indivisible  sub- 
stance which  is  (jod.  (2)  This  one  whole  substance  sub- 
sists eternally  as  three  cq^ual  Persons,  the  entire  substance 
subsisting  as  each  Person  concurrently.  (3)  The  Scriptures 
reveal  (so  far  forth)  the  nature  and  relations  of  each  Per- 
son by  their  names  and  relative  actions.  The  Father  is  al- 
ways first,  the  Son  second,  and  the  Spirit  third.  The  terms 
Father  and  S(ui  express  an  eternal  reciprocal  relation.  Tho 
Father  eternally  begets  the  Son.  The  Spirit  is  the  infinite 
personal  "  Breath  "  of  God,  as  the  Son  is  his  infinite  per- 
sonal "Word."  He  is  the  "."Spirit  of  God"  and  "from 
God  "  (((f  Toi)  ©coD,  1  Cor.  ii.  12),  and  the  "Spirit  of  tho 
Father,"  "  who  procecdeth  from  the  Father"  (6  irapi  tow 
TToTpo?  fKffopcyeTot,  John  XV.  20).  Ho  is  abso  tho  Spirit  "of 
the  Son  "  and  "of  Christ"  (Uom.  viii.  9;  Gal.  iv.  (J).  Ho 
is  sent  by  and  acts  for  the  Father;  so  lie  is  sent  by  and 
acts  for  the  Son  (John  xvi.  7-11).  {4 )  Hence,  the  Athaiiasian 
Creed  concludes  (^§  20-22),  the  "Father  was  made  from 
none,  nor  created,  nor  begotten.  Tho  Son  is  from  tho 
Father  alone,  neither  made  nor  created,  but  begotten.  The 
Holy  Ghost  is  from  the  Father  and  tin-  Son,  neither  niaiie 
nor  ercated  nor  begotten,  but  proceeding."  This  the 
Church  proposes  not  as  an  cxplanatiim.  but  simply  as  a 
statement  of  scriptural  data.    (See  Pkockssion.) 

The  Gknkhation  of  (he  Son  is  an  eternal  constitutional 
(non-voli(irtnal)  act  of  the  Father,  whereby  ho  communi- 
cates his  whole  divine  essence  Ut  (he  Hypostasis  of  the  Son. 
whereby  the  Son  is  tho  "express  inuigo  of  the  Father's 
Person  "  and  "  tho  brightness  of  his  glory,"  The  Piukks- 
sioN  or  Spiuation  of  the  Holy  (ihost  is  a  like  eternal  act 
'if  the  Father  and  of  the  Son.  wh(>rel>y  they  nnnniunieato 
llirir  whole  common  substiiijc^'  to  the  llypostiisis  of  tho 
Holy  Ghost,  whereby  ho  becomes  their  consubstautial  por- 


908 


HOLY  GHOST,  ORDERS  OF  THE-HOLY  LEAGUE. 


sonal  Breath.     As  these  acts  are  eternal,  they  are  neither 
past  nor  future,  but  present,  without  beginning  or  enJing. 

4.  //,■«  Offices  in  A'..(iue.— The  "  Siiirit  "  or  personal 
"  Urealh  "  is  the  Executive  of  the  Uodhcad,  as  the  "  Son 
or  "Word"  is  the  Kevcaler.  The  .Spirit  of  God  moved 
upon  the  face  of  Chaos  and  developed  Cosmos  (Gen.  i.  2). 
Henceforth  he  is  ahvavs  represented  as  the  author  of  order 
and  beauty  in  the  natural  as  of  holiness  in  the  moral  world. 
He  carnished  the  astronomical  heavens  (.Job  .\xvi.  13).  He 
is  the  organizer  and  source  of  life  to  all  provinces  of  vege- 
table and  animal  nature  (.lob  xxxiii.  4;  I's.  civ.  29,  aO  ; 
Isa  xxxii.  14,  15),  and  of  enlightenment  to  human  intelli- 
gence in  all  arts  and  sciences  (Job  xxxii.  8  and  xxxv.  11; 
Ex.  xxxi.  2-4).  .     ,  , .     ,. 

5.  ///»  0/fices  in  /fcrfcm;)(i'mi.— Christ  promised  his  dis- 
ciples on  the  eve  of  his  crucifixion  that  he  would  send  them 
the  Spirit  of  truth  as  another  Comforter,  7rop(i«*»)T0!,  Piuk- 
vUte.  Adruiatiit  (I'atron,  Counsel,  Champion,  Helper,  etc. ; 
also  applied  to  Christ  himself,  1  John  ii.  1).  -Mthough  he 
had  been  the  divine  agent  effecting  the  salvation  ot  men 
ever  since  Adam,  it  is  said  this  Paraclete  was  not  given 
until  after  the  ascension  and  glorification  of  Christ  (John 
vii.  .-ill  and  Acts  ii.  32,  33) ;  that  is,  he  is  now  given  with  a 
universality,  fulness,  power,  and  clearness  of  manifestation 
infinitelv  surpassing  that  of  the  past.  The  present  is  the 
dispensiition  of  the  Spirit  in  contrast  with  the  preceding 
preparatory  dispensation  of  the  Law.  (1)  The  Spirit 
fa'^hioned  the  bo.ly  of  Christ  in  the  womb  of  the  \  irgin, 
enriched  and  supported  his  human  suul,  and  co-operated 
with  him  in  all  the  offices  he  performed  in  his  estate  of 
humiliation  (Luke  i.  3.-. :  Isa.  xi.  1,  2  :  John  i.  32  and  iii. 
34.  (2)  He  inspired  the  writers  of  both  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testaments  as  to  thoughts  and  words  (Mic.  iii.  S;  1 
Cor  ii.  10-13).  (3)  He  teaches  those  who  are  spiritually 
minded  the  meaning  of  Scripture  (1  Cor.  ii.  14,  15)  and 
applies  to  all  the  redemption  purchased  by  Christ  (John 
xvi.  13,  14).  Hence  he  is  called  the  "Spirit  of  grace" 
(Ileb  X.  29\  "  of  wisdom  and  understanding"  (Isa.  xi.  2), 
"of  truth  "(John  xvi.  13),  "of  adoption"  (Rom.  viii.  15), 
"of  propheev"  (Rev.  xix.  10),  "of  promise"  (Eph.  i.  l.i), 
and  -of  glorv"  (Pet.  iv.  14).  He  regenerates,  sanctifies, 
and  preserves'  the  souls  and  raises  the  dead  bodies  of  the 
saints  (John  iii.  6:  Rom.  xv.  16  and  viii.  11).  Ho  is  to 
the  Church  and  to  the  individual  Christian  the  immanent 
source  of  life— TO  i^jtonowy,  the  Ll/e-Olver.  (4)  He  is  the 
bond  of  life  and  the  organizing  principle  of  the  historic 
Church  on  earth  (1  Cor.  xii.  13),  and  Church  teachers  and 
rulers  are  properly  only  the  organs  of  the  Holy  Ghost 

'fi  ISUimhtmy  aqaiml  the  Hohj  Gho>t  (Matt.  xii.  31,  32; 
Mark  iii.  2y,  30  :  Ileb.  vi.  4-fi  and  x.  20,  27  ;  1  John  v.  16). 
—This  appears  to  be  an  intelligent,  deliberate,  and  malig- 
nant "  speaking  against,"  and  rejection  of,  the  Spirit  of 
grace  bv  one  who  has  been  under  his  special  induenee.  It 
is  never  pardoned,  because  of  its  peculiar  guilt,  aud  because 
it  is  a  definite  and  final  rejection  of  Christ's  salvation.  (See 
SciIVFF,  .SVu  aijniiiHt  the  Iloty  Ghoul  (1S41).) 

II.  HisTOHY  OF  OiM.Nio.-J.- 1.  The  State  of  Opinion  iii  the 
Enrhi  Churrh,  iiud  the  Definition  of  the  Unii-ermil  Chnreh 
Doctrine  hi/  the  Conncil  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381.— Tho 
Christian  Church  from  the  beginning  expressed  its  faith  in 
the  terms  of  the  (so-called)  Apostles'  Creed,  which  acknow- 
ledges a  Trinity  of  divine  Persons.  Nevertheless,  the  pre- 
valent conceptions  were  very  vague  and  variable  (see 
testimony  of  GiiKGOnv  Xazia.vzf.s,  Oral.  SI,  De  Spiritu 
snncio,  c'ap.  5),  the  majority  regarding  the  Spirit  as  more 
decidedly  subordinate  to  the  Son  than  the  Son  to  the 
Father.  The  complete  statement  of  the  final  lailh  of  the 
Church  was  introduced  into  the  Nicene  Creed  by  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (A.  n.  381)  in  these  words: 
"  And  1  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord,  tho  Giver  of 
Life  who  proceedcth  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  [this 
Phrase,  •' fiHoqne,"  was  added  by  (he  Council  of  Toledo 
(A  n  589),  and  was  accepted  bv  the  Latins  and  all  Prot- 
estants, and  rejected  bv  the  Greeksl,  who  with  the  Father 
and  Son  is  to  be  worshipped  and  glorified,  who  spake  by 
the  prophets."  For  tho  most  detailed  of  the  universally 
received  definitions  seethe  Athanasian  Creed (cir.  A.  i).  4j0). 
These  Creeds,  either  in  form  or  substance,  have  been 
adopted  bv  all  historical  churches. 

2.  I/rre'iirol  VIcirt. — Some  of  the  Gnostics  considered 
the  Holv  Ghost  and  Christ  two  celestial  yfo.u,  generated 
to  restore  tho  disturbed  harmony  of  the  Pleroma.  The 
^lo.'iansand  other  ancient  deniers  of  the  divinity  of  Christ 
re.'arded  the  phrase  Holv  Ghost  as  another  name  for  the 
siiv'lc  person  of  God.  The  Sabellians  held  that  it  desig- 
nates one  mode  of  divine  operation  aud  the  phase  of  divine 
revelation  peculiar  to  the  present  dispensation.  The  Arians 
and  Semi-Arians  regarded  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the  first  and 


gre 


called  MncedonianH,  Pneumatomachi,  and  Tropici.  All 
modern  Arians  and  Socinians  interpret  the  phrase  Holy 
Ghost  as  a  designation  of  the  energy  of  God  manifested  in 
action.  De  Wetle  says  the  Spirit  is  fiod  operative  in  na- 
ture ;  Schleiermacher  says  he  is  God  operative  in  tho 
Church. 

III.  Literature.  —  Nicene  and  Athanasian  Creeds; 
Hase's  Collection  of  Lnthcrun  and  NiemeVER's  Collection 
of  Calrinistie  Confessions;  HAGENDACn's  Hist,  if  Doctrines; 
Shedd's  Hist  of  Christ.  Doctrines;  JiEAXPEn'sand  Schaff's 
Histories  of  the  Christian  Church;  Watson's  7'/ico.  insti- 
tutes; Hefele's  Bistort/  of  Councils;  Owen's  Discourse 
eoncernin;/  the  Holi/  S/iirit;  JrLllS  ClI.  HaBe's  Mission  of 
the  Comforter;  H.AnvEv's  Hist,  of  the  Three  Creeds;  The 
Paraclete,  anon.:  PeaksoS  On  the  Creed;  American  Quar- 
terli/  Church  Recieic.  Apr.,  181).'!,  Art.  5.       A.  A.  HoDGE. 

Holy  (ihost,  Orders  of  the  (Roman  Catholic).  (1) 
An  order,  at  first  consisting  of  hospital  knights  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, was  founded  in  1178  by  Guido  of  .Montpellier,  and 
in  part  removed  to  Rome  in  1204,  receiving  the  hospital 
of  Sassia.  Here  they  became  in  part  canons  regular,  aud 
after  many  vicissitudes  the  knightly  branch  of  the  order 
ceased  in  1700  to  exist,  but  the  canons  regular  are  not  yet 
extinct.  In  1254  the  Hospitallers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  a 
secular  branch  of  the  above,  were  organized,  containing 
both  brethren  and  sisters.  The  latter,  called  White  Sisters, 
arc  still  numerous  and  active  in  benevolent  works.  With 
them  became  connected  another  sisterhood  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  established  in  1212.  (2)  Another  congregation  of 
canons  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  confirmed  in  1588.  (3)  A 
society  of  missionary  priests  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  found- 
ed in  1700,  and  is  still  active. 

Hol'yhead,  seaport  town  of  North  Wales,  on  an  island 
of  the  same  name  as  the  town,  forming  the  western  part 
of  An<'lesea  co.,  and  connected  with  the  main  portion  of 
Anglesea  by  a  huge  causeway  and  a  bridge.     The  island 
is  mainlv  a  barren  rock,  but  the  town  contains  numerous 
fine  buildings.     It  is  a  parlianieutaiy  borough.     Pop.  IS. 
Holyhead  is  most  notable  for  the  breakwater  by  which 
harbor  accommodation  is  provided  for  the  packet  service 
between  England  and  Ireland,  and  at  the  same  lime  an 
important  harbor  of  refuge  is  constituted.     The  successful 
bridging  for  military  purposes  of   the  Menai   Straits  by 
Stephenson's  tubular"  bridge  decided  a  mooted  question  as 
to  the  terminus  of  the  great  railway  route  between  London 
and  Dublin  and  choice  of  site  for  harbor  in  favor  of  Holy- 
head.    The  breakwater,  commenced  in  1S47,  was  planned 
by  the  late  J.  M.  Rendei.     On  his  death.  Mr.  John  Hawk- 
shaw  became  the  superintending  engineer,  under  whom  the 
work  was  finally  completed  in  1873.  As  originally  planned, 
it  was  one  mile  in  length,  forming,  in  conjunction  with 
islands,  an  almost  close  harbor  of  2B7  acres.     A  subsequent 
extension  of  2500  feel  has  added  an  area  of  400  acres  of 
"sheltered   roadstead."     It  consists  of  7,000,000  tons  of 
stones  thrown  in  "  a  picrre  perdue,"  surmounted  by  a  ver- 
tical wall  starting  from  low-water  line  near  the  inner  edge 
and  rising  3Si  feet  above  low  water,  three- fourths  of  its 
height  being  masked  aud  protected  by  a  long  fore-shore  of 
"rip-rap."     Behind  this  wall,  and  12  feet  lower  than  its 
top,  is  a  terrace  or  quay  40  feet  wide.     The  average  depth 
of  water  being  40  feet   and  tidal  rise  18  feet,  tho  stone 
mound   has  necessarily   great  dimensions,  averaging  225 
feet  width  at  low  water  and  (in  50  feet  depth)  400  feet  at 
base.     Theenormous  quantities  of  stone  (quartz  rook  from 
the  neighboring  Holyhead  Mountain)  required  gave  rise  to 
some  of  the  largest  and  most  interesting  quarrying  opera- 
tions ever  undertaken.     Shafts  or  "  headings  "  of  large  di- 
mensions were  run  into  the  rock,  in  which  charges  amount- 
ing sometimes  to  the  enormous  amount  of  ten  tons  of  pow- 
der were  exploded.     The  breakwater  cost  £1,500,000.  (See 
article  Breakwateii.  and  Enijinccrlmj,  Sept.  26,  1873.) 
Holy  Innocents.     See  Ciiii.iiermas. 
Holy  Islimd,  or  Lindisfarne,  an  island  (a  penin- 
sula at  low  tide)  off  the  E.  coast  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Durham  ;  lat.  55°  40'  N.,  Ion.   1°  47'   W. :  3  nautical 
miles  N.  of  the  Fame  Islands  proper.     Lindislarnc  in  fl.ia 
became  a  bishop's  see,  and  was  tlie  cjiiscopal  seat  of  St. 
Culhbert.      In   900  tho  sec  was  transferred   to   Durham. 
Holy  Island  is  a  favorite  bathing-place,  and  its  old  castle 
and  ruined  abbey  arc  interesting  objects. 

Holy  League,  a  name  applied  to  several  alliances  of 
'  European  princes  for  war  or  defence,  j  1 )  That  of  151 1,  be- 
tween the  pope.  Julius  II..  Spain,  and  Venice,  to  expel  tho 
French  from  Italy.  It  lasted  till  the  Truce  of  Orthes 
(1513).  (2)  That  of  Nuremberg  (1538),  between  Charles  V. 
and  the  Catholic  princes  of  Germany  against  the  League  of 
Schmalkald.  (3)  That  of  1571.  of  the  pope,  Venice,  and 
Spain  against  the  Turks.  (4)  The  great  league  ot  the 
Guises,  the  French  Parliament,  tho  monks.  Spain,  and  tho 


.lest  creature  of  Christ,  of  superangclic  but  not  divine  i  uui:.e^,  i..»  '■■;;•—■  V  7i'  "-k^  ~'7s.«  I  iAr-i\-    Tut-  ) 

perfection      After  the  Council  of  Nice  these  parties  were  |  pope  against  the  Huguenots  (1..6).     (See  Leag.  t,  T.lt.) 


HOLY    MAID  OF   KKNT-IIOME. 


909 


(5)  That  of  1(509  b<>twecn  tho  popo  and  the  Catholic  states 
of  Suahia  and  Bavaria.  {6}  That  of  lOSi,  Polaud,  Ger- 
many, and  Venice,  ));j;uintit  the  Turks. 

lluly  Maid  of  Kent,  an  epileptic  maid-servant  of 
an  inu  at  Aldington,  Kent,  who  in  1625  acquired  a  great 
rojiutation  for  sanctity  and  prophetic  gifts.  lU-r  name  was 
Klizaheth  Burton.  She  became  a  nun  of  St.  Sepulchre's, 
Canterbury,  and  her  pretensions  were  favored  by  Arch- 
bishop Warham  and  Bishop  Fisher.  Presuming  to  do- 
iiouuco  the  judgments  of  Heaven  against  King  Henry 
VIII.  in  ease  of  his  persistence  in  his  suit  for  divorce  from 
Catharine  of  Spain,  she  with  five  priests,  her  alleged  ac- 
compIi<^'e.4,  was  attainted  of  high  treason  and  beheaded^ 
Apr.  21.  15:M. 

Holy  Names  of  Jesiis  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  tlie, 
a  lluruan  Catholic  sistcrho<»d.  first  establi-shcd  at  Longucuil, 
near  Montreal,  in  1SI3,  by  Mmes.  Durochcr,  Dufresne,  and 
Ceri".  Their  special  work  is  the  instruction  of  young  ladies. 

Ilol'yoake  (Gkokgk  J.mob),  b.  at  IJirmin;;hani.  Eng- 
land, Apr.  I'.i,  1817;  became  a  teacher  of  malln-uiatics  at 
the  mechanics'  institute  of  that  city,  and  edited  fur  many 
years  The  JiennoHcrf  an  organ  of  political  and  religious 
radicalism.  Intellectually  a  positivist,  nnd  morally  a 
utilitarian,  he  believes  that  there  i;?  a  material  state  of  the 
wurld  in  which  it  is  impo^jsiblo  for  man  to  be  depraved  and 
pour  ;  and  to  produce  this  state  is  the  aim  of  his  reforms. 
He  published  in  1874,  in  LoodoD,  a  Hintory  of  Co-operation 
(2  vuls.). 

Hol'yoke,  city  of  Hampden  co.,  Ma?s.,  on  the  Con- 
necticut River  U.  H.,  and  the  terminus  of  the  Holyoko 
and  Westfield  K.  K.  It  has  9  churches.  2  national  banks, 
2  savings  banks,  'A  hotels,  a  public  library,  1  semi-weekly 
and  1  weekly  newspaper,  28  schools  and  18U0  pupils,  and 
a  granite  city-hall  costing  above  $370,000.  It  has  an  im- 
mense water-piiwer,  and  contains  17  paper-mills,  8  cotton- 
mi  I U,  -i  woollen -mills,  1  wire- mil  I,  1  grist -in  ill,  1  recd- 
faetory,  i  lumber  manufactory,  atul  W  planing-mills.  New 
waterworks  have  just  been  completed  at  a  cost  of  $250,000. 
It  has  a  free  bridge  across  the  Connecticut  River,  couuect- 
ing  it  with  South  Hadley.     Pop.  10,7.'i3. 

\V.  S.  LoOMis,  Ki).  "Transchipt." 

Ilolyoke  (Eowaud  Ait«i:stis).  M.  1).,  LL.l).,  a  cen- 
tenarian and  eminent  physician  an<l  purgeon  of  Salem, 
Mass.,  was  a  son  of  the  Kev.  Edward  Ilolyoke  (IfiHil-UfiO), 
who  was  president  of  Harvard  Cullege.  Dr.  Ilolyoke  was 
b.  at  Miirbleheiid,  Mass..  Aug.  1,  172S,  and  gra(iuated  at 
Harvard  in  1740.  In  1740  he  began  his  practice  at  Salem, 
where  he  remained  nctively  engaged  in  his  profession 
seventy-nine  years.  He  was  temperate  in  his  habits,  ate 
much  fruit,  walked  habitually  in  his  professional  business, 
and  took  groat  care  to  have  abundant  sleep.  D.  at  Salem, 
Mar.  '.\\,  1829.  aged  one  hundred  years  and  eight  mouths, 
retaining  his  faculties  in  a  good  degree  to  the  last.  (See 
his  .l/'MioiV,  1S20.) 

Ilolyoke,  .Mounts  a  steep,  narrow  ridge  of  greenstone 
trap  in  Hampshire  co.,  Mass.,  separating  the  towns  of 
Hiidley  and  Amherst  on  the  N.  from  South  Hadley  and 
(Jranby  on  the  S.  It  is  7  miles  long,  and  terminates  in 
Belcherlown  on  the  E.  Its  W.  extremity  is  separated 
from  Mount  Tom  by  a  cleft  through  which  the  Connecticut 
Iliver  tlows.  The  name  is  uppropriatidy  limited  to  the  W. 
extremity,  where  there  is  a  hotel  upon  the  summit,  which 
is  reached  by  a  railway  whose  cars  are  drawn  up  by  a 
stationary  engine.  The  highest  point  is  1120  feet  above 
the  sea.  Mount  Ilolyoke  is  well  timbered,  and  some  parts 
formerly  abounded  in  rattlesnakes,  which  are,  however,  be- 
coming very  rare. 

Holy  Hood.     See  TniK  Cross. 

Holy  S<'|iiil(*lire«  the  tomb  in  whii-h  our  Lord  lay.  It 
was  hewn  out  of  a  rock  in  a  garden  in  the  place  of  the 
crucilLxion.  just  outside  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  In  the 
opinion  of  many,  the  flpot  has  not  yet  been  identilietl,  and 
never  will  be.  The  traditional  site,  fixed  upon  early  in  the 
fourth  century,  is  a  cave  unrii-rncalb  the  pile  ol  buildings 
known  as  the  Chureb  of  tite  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  edifice, 
begun  by  Coiistaiitine  in  1120  aiul  rlt>dicatod  in  ■!•!.'>,  was  de- 
stroyed by  tin?  PerstiuiH  under  Cbosroi-n  in  014;  rel»uilt 
after  about  sixteen  years;  destroyed  again  by  Khalif 
Hakim,  the  Kalimile,  in  tOIO;  again  rebuilt  in  i04S;  en- 
larged and  improved  by  the  crusaders  (after  lO'JU) ;  suffered 
severely  from  lire  in  IHOH;  imd  in  ISltl,  after  extensive  re- 
pairs, was  eonsecrnte<l  anew.  In  I'ergusson's  opinion,  the 
arehit(!cture  <jt"  tin-  edifi(H«  is  "  wholly  of  an  age  subsequent 
to  that  of  the  Crusatli-s,  an<l  without  a  Iraeo  ul  the  8tylu  of 
('onstanline."  It  eonhiitis  chapels  for  (jtreeks.  Latins,  and 
Armenians,  with  smalbr  apartments  for  CoptR,  JneobileH, 
an<l  Maronites.  Tlo*  pretendeil  miracle  of  the  Holy  Kire  'Ui 
Easter  Eve  each  year  \-*  one  ol  the  gieatrst  siMiiidals  in  his- 
tory. The  identity  of  this  traditional  site,  first  disputed  by 


Korto,  the  German  bookseller,  in  173S,  has  been  ably  ar- 
gued for  by  Williams  (  HtAy  Citif,  1845),  and  ably  argued 
against  by  Robinson  {Biblical  HeHearchen,  1841  ;  Liter  ll.- 
aearchcH,  IS5ti;  /Ublint/ieca  Surra,  1S40).  Fergusson  (An- 
cient Topojraphi/  uf  JfrnHaff'iit,  1847")  identifies  the  cave 
underneath  the  mosque  of  Omar  with  the  holy  sepulchre. 
Fisher  How  (1S7I)  looks  for  it  on  the  N.  side  of  the  city, 
just  outside  of  the  Damascus  gate.  Barclay  {Citi/  nf  the 
(jrcat  K'iiif/,  1858)  and  others  lor.k  for  it  on  the  E.  siilo  of  the 
city,  just  outside  of  St.  Stephen's  gate,  either  N.  of  it  or  S. 

of  it.  R.  I).  IIlTCIiOOCK. 

Holy    Sepulchre,   Orders    of  the.    (1)   Canons 

Hixi'i.Ait  AM)  Caxonkssks  OF  ( Augustiniau),  founded  at 
Jerusalem  in  lOUU  or  1114,  spread  throughout  Europe. 
The  canons  ceased  to  exist  in  tne  seventeenth  century,  but 
there  are  still  some  nuns  who  live  in  seclusion  and  instruct 
children.  (2)  KsiriHTs  of  tiii;  Holy  St:i'ri.riiRF,  perhaps 
founded  by  Alexander  III.,  and  still  foun<l  in  small  num- 
bers. They  are  now  appointc<l  liy  tlie  pope  as  guardian 
father,  and  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  An  order  of 
this  name  existed  in  England  from  1174  to  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  Franciscans  once  had  the  sole  right  to  c()n- 
fer  this  rank.  At  present  the  Latin  patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
is  grand  master. 

Holy  Spirit  Plant,  or  Dove  Plant,  the  Pcrinteria 
alata,  an  orchidaceous  plant  of  Central  America,  having 
white  symmetrical  fictral  envelopes,  and  the  stamens  and 
pistil  united  into  a  column  which  curiously  resembles  a 
bird  with  expanded  wings.  It  is  venerated  in  its  native 
regions  as  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Dove,  the  form  in  which 
the  Divine  Spirit  descended  at  the  baptism  of  our  Lord. 
The  plant  is  not  uncommon  in  cultivation. 

Holy  Water,  in  the  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and  the 
various  Oriental  churches,  water  which  has  been  consecrated 
by  a  priest  and  is  used  in  religious  ceremonies.  Its  use  in 
churches  is  very  ancient,  and  it  is  by  many  believed  to  bo 
derived  from  a  custom  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  In  the 
Church  of  Rome  it  is  composed  of  pure  spring-water  in 
which  a  little  consecrated  salt  has  been  cast.  The  (ireeks 
use  pure  water,  and  the  faithful  drink  a  portion  of  it  at 
Epijihany  and  Christmas. 

Holy  Week,  the  last  seven  days  of  Lent,  the  week 
before  Easter,  popularly  known  in  continental  Eurojie  as 
Still  Wec/c — often  called  FnnHinn  Week,  but  that  name  is 
also  given  to  the  week  preceding  it.  It  contains  I*alm 
Sunday,  Spy  Wednesday,  Maundy  or  Holy  Thursday,  Goorl 
Friday,  and  Holy  Saturday.  It  is  a  penitential  season,  in 
commemoration  of  our  Lord's  jiassion  and  death. 

Ho'lywell,  town  of  Flintshire,  North  Wales.  It  re- 
ceived its  name  from  tiio  well  of  St.  Winifred,  which  is  said 
to  be  the  most  copious  spring  in  England.  In  its  vicinity 
are  found  the  richest  coal,  lead,  and  copper  mines  in  the 
country,  and  besides  its  manufactures  of  cotton  and  flannel 
Holywell  has  many  establishments  for  lead  an*!  copper 
smelting.  It  is  a  rapidly  growing  town.  Pop.  bWib  ;  with 
surroundings,  1 1.0'J2. 

Homalop^sidie  [fromo^iaAo?.  "flat,"  and  oi/fi^.^faco"], 
a  family  of  colubroid  serpents  with  regular  large  plates  on 
the  head;  plates  on  the  al)domen  uniserial,  and  behind  bi- 
serial ;  and  distinguished  by  the  extension  forward  of  the 
postorbital  bones  over  the  superciliary  region,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  hypapophyses  to  the  vertebrie  as  far  back- 
ward as  the  anal  region.  This  family,  diflorentiated  espe- 
cially by  the  last-nicntioned  character,  comprises  a  numoor 
of  genera,  among  which  are  the  North  American  ones  Tntpi- 
doiiottia,  ThamuophiH,  Niniu,  Storcria,  etc.,  HaltUa,  etc. 

TnKoi>oui-:  Gill. 

Homalopter'idte  [from  'onaK6<:,  'Mlat,'*  and  irrtpdi-, 
"fin"],  a  laiuily  (d"  eventognathous  teleooephalous  fishes, 
characlerized  by  the  horizontal  trend  of  the  pectoral  and 
ventral  fins,  the  abserue  of  an  air-liludder,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pharyngeal  teeth  to  the  number  of  from  ten  to 
sixteen  in  a  single  series  on  each  branch.  The  family  in- 
cludes two  genera  peculiar  to  the  fresh  waters  of  the  East, 
Indies,  one  of  which  { /fonmtufit'  ra)  has  six  barbels,  and 
the  other  {/'nilorhj/nchuM)  has  o'liie.  The  relations  of  the 
latter  genus,  however,  are  still  uneertaiu.  and  require  con- 
firmafion  liy  anatomical  investigations.    Tmfuoori;  (in.L. 

Hom'hiirg,  or  lIoinliiirR-vor-der-Holie,  town 
of  (/cnlral  (ieruuiny,  capital  of  (be  former  landgraviate  of 
Hesse-Homburg.  It  is  famous  fur  its  mineral  springs  and 
elegant  bathing  establishments,  wiiioh.  before  the  closing 
of  the  gambling-saloons,  attracted  more  than  10,000  visitors 
annually,     i'op.  H020. 

Homo,  tp.  of  Nemaha  eo.,  Knn.     Pop.  710. 

Home,  tp.  of  M(uitoalm  co..  Mich.     Pop.  17.'I. 

Home,  post-tp.  of  Rrown  oo.,  Minn.     Pop.  770. 

Home  (David  Dunolah),  b.  near  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 


970 


IIOMl':-nOMER. 


Mar.  20, 1833  ;  came  in  childhood  to  the  U.  S.,  and  became 
distinguished  as  a  :ipirituulistic  medium,  marvellous  phe- 
nomena having,  it  is  nsserted,  attended  him  from  infancy. 
Ho  has  resided  mainly  in  Europe  since  \Sbt>;  became  a 
Honian  Catholic  in  1S6(');  has  been  twice  married,  both  his 
wives  being  Uussiiin  ladies  of  high  birth  ;  became  secretary 
of  the  Spiritual  Athenaeum,  London,  in  1S60;  is  author  of 
three  volumes  of  an  autobiographical  character. 

Home  (Sir  EvKitAnn),  b.  at  (irecnlaw  Castle,  Berwick- 
sliire,  ;?eotland.  May  fi,  ]7j6  ;  studied  medicine  under  John 
Hunter;  jtractised  in  London  17'Jl);  was  appointed  surgeon 
to  the  court  and  professor  of  anatomy;  created  a  baronet 
in  1813;  and  d.  at  Chelsea  Aug. .'!!,  is;i2.  His  most  promi- 
nent work  is  his  Lecturen  on  Comparative  Anatomy  (6  vols., 
I814-2S). 

Home  (Henry).    See  Kames,  Henry  Home. 

Home,  or  Uume  (John),  b.  at  Ancrum,  Ro.\burghshirc, 
Scotland,  in  1722;  studied  theology  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh;  fought  on  the  Hanoverian  side  in  the  rebel- 
lion of  1746;  was  appointed  minister  at  Athclstaneford  in 
1740.  In  KTiG  his  tragedy  of  Dumjlas  was  produced  at 
Edinburgh  with  great  success,  but  the  circumstance  that  it 
was  written  hy  a  clergyman  caused  such  a  scandal  that 
Home  resigned  his  office  in  1757.  George  III.  gave  him  a 
pension  and  a  sinecure  office,  and  he  continued  to  write 
tragedies — Alouzo,  Alfred,  Af/itt'leia.  etc.  He  also  wrote  a 
Hintory  of  the  Jitbellion  vf  2745,  but  his  Dnutjlns  and  the 
story  connected  with  it  have  alone  survived.  D.  in  Edin- 
burgh Sept.  5,  ISOS. 

Ho'melyn,  Spotted  Ray,  or  Sand  Ray,  the  Raia 
miraletus,  a  fish  common  in  European  seas.  It  is  an 
abundant  food-fish. 

Ho'mer,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Banks  co.,  Ga,,  30 
miles  X.  of  Athens.      Pop.  120. 

Homer,  citv  of  Champaign  co..  111.,  on  the  Toledo 
Wabash  and  AVestern  R.  K..  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Danville, 
273  miles  S.  W.  of  Toledo,  0.,  and  S9  miles  E.  of  Springfield. 
It  has  1  savings  bank.  1  newspaper,  3  churches,  1  hotel, 
and  1  large  flouring-mill.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district,  ada]tted  to  raising  grain  and  fruit,  %vhich  are 
annually  shipped  from  this  point  in  large  quantities.  1*.  707. 
J.  H.\itPER  &  Sons,  Pubs.  "  Press." 

Homer,  tp.  of  Will  co.,  111.     Pop.  1279. 

Homer,  tp.  of  Benton  co.,  la.     Pop.  567. 

Homer,  tp.  of  Buchanan  co.,  la.     Pop.  5S1. 

Homer,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Claiborne  parish.  La.,  50  miles 
from  Shreveport.  It  has  2  institutions  of  learning,  3 
churches,  a  large  court-house,  2  newspapers,  stores,  shops, 
etc.  Principal  business,  cotton-buying  and  merchandising. 
Pop.  SO.  D.  B.  Hayes,  Ed.  "Advocate." 

Homer,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  Mich,  on  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  and  the  Michigan 
Central  R.  Rs.  It  has  an  academy,  3  churches,  large  flour- 
ing-mills,  a  savings  bank,  1  newspaper,  2  hotels,  and  a 
furnace.     Pop.  of  v.  685;  of  tp.  1575. 

W.  A.  Lane,  Ed.  "  Index." 

Homer,  tp.  of  Midland  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  247. 

Homer,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Winona  co.,  Mina.  Pop. 
of  v.  91  :  of  tp.  837. 

Homer,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Cortland  co.,  N.  Y.,  27  miles 
S.  of  Syracuse,  on  the  Syracuse  Binghamton  and  New 
York  R.  R.  Area,  about  49  square  miles.  It  contains  an 
academy  and  graded  school,  5  churches,  a  banking-house, 
2  foundries,  4  tlry-goods  stores,  3  llouriug-mills,  3  carriage 
and  1  firkin  factory,  an  axe-factory.  1  newspaper,  and  4 
hotels,  with  a  variety  of  smaller  stores.  Poj).  of  v.  2008; 
of  tp.  3813.  Jos.  R.  Dixo.N,  Ed.  ''  Rkitblican." 

Homer,  post-v.  of  Burlington  tp.,  Licking  co.,  0.,  3 
miles  W.  from  Utica.     Pop.  226. 

Homer,  tp.  of  Medina  co.,  0.     Pop.  886. 

Homer,  tp.  of  Morgan  co.,  0.     Pop.  1690. 

Homer,  tp.  of  Potter  co..  Pa.     Pop.  160. 

Homer,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Angelina  co.,  Tex.,  90 
miles  from  Marshall.     Pop.  216. 

Homer,  the  greatest  of  epic  poets,  and  the  earliest  and 
most  eminent  author  in  the  literature  of  Greece.  He  lived 
at  so  early  a  period  that  no  certain  record  of  its  date  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  lii;^  birthplace  is  equally  a  matter  of 
doubt.  Herodotus  places  his  birth  about  S50  years  before 
Christ,  and  Aristotle  makes  him  contemporary  with  the 
Ionian  migration,  about  140  years  after  the  Trojan  war. 
That  it  was  many  years  after  that  war  may  be  inferred 
from  the  frequent  reference  made  by  the  poet  to  the 
superior  size  and  strength  of  the  warriors  engaged  in  the 
siege  of  Troy,  as  a  generation  whieh  had  long  before  passed 
awny.     It  is  proverbially  said  that  seven  cities  contended 


for  the  honor  of  being  Homer's  birthplace,  but.  according 
to  Suidas,  the  list  might  be  nearly  doubled.  Two  difl'erent 
traditions  mentioned  by  tireek  authors  make  him  lo  have 
been  born  on  the  banks  of  the  Meles,  a  little  river,  the 
windings  of  which  are  seen  from  the  highlands  overlooking 
Smyrna.  It  is  inferred  from  the  style  and  language  of  his 
pctcms  that,  at  all  events,  he  was  born  in  some  part  of  Asia 
Minor.  One  of  the  traditions  concerning  him  is  that  he 
was  blind,  which  is  not  iniproimlile  when  we  consider  that 
blindness  is  generally  accompanied  with  great  tenacity  of 
verbal  memory — a  quality  essential  to  the  minstrel  who 
like  Homer  sang  his  poems  to  the  sound  of  the  harp.  The 
tradition  that  in  his  later  years  he  opened  a  school  in  the 
island  of  Chios  might  have  had  no  other  foundation  than 
this,  that  after  his  time  there  existed  in  that  island  a 
fraternity  called  Homcrir/B;  or  Sons  of  Homer,  who  pre- 
served among  them  his  poems,  and  were,  like  him,  min- 
strels by  profession. 

The  fame  of  Homer  rests  upon  his  two  great  poems,  the 
Iliad  and  Odi/s»ey.  Others  have  been  ascribed  to  him — 
several  hymns  to  the  gods,  for  example — but  though  some 
of  these  were  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  genuine,  they 
are  now  rejected  as  the  productions  of  a  later  age.  Tho 
common  consent  of  the  civilized  world  has  placed  his  Iliad 
and  Odyeseif  at  an  unapproachable  height  of  poetic  excel- 
lence. All  the  qualities  which  make  the  great  poet  aro 
there — sublimity,  tire,  pathos,  grace,  knowledge  of  tho 
human  heart,  the  power  of  vividly  representing  action  to 
the  eye  of  the  mind,  and  sweetness  and  majesty  of  num- 
bers. The  modern  reader  is  sometimes  oppressed  or  fatigued 
with  the  passages  describing  minutely  and  at  length  the 
bloody  havoc  which  marked  the  path  of  Homer's  warriors 
on  tho  battlefield  ;  but  in  that  age,  when  all  greatness 
consisted  in  military  prowess,  (he  Greek  audiences  may  bo 
supposed  to  have  listened  to  them  with  enlhusiasm.  For 
the  long  speeches,  also,  made  by  the  heroes  of  the  Iliad 
when  about  to  engage  in  combat,  there  must  have  been  a 
reason  which  satisfied  the  listening  crowd ;  for  in  that  age, 
as  there  was  no  room  for  affectation,  we  may  be  sure  there 
was  no  occasion  for  tediousness.  The  verses  of  Homer 
were  addressed  to  the  genera!  mind  ;  they  were  such  as 
deeply  to  move  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  class  a  rude 
yet  by  nature  a  reflecting  and  highly  endowed  race  of  men. 

Thus  far  in  this  article  Homer  has  been  sj)oken  of  as  a 
single  author,  to  whom  the  composition  of  both  these  jiocms 
has  been  truly  ascribed.  But  about  the  time  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  there  were  in  iJreece  certain  critics  called  Separa- 
tists, who  maintained  that  the  Iliad  and  the  Odtf^aey  were 
the  work  of  different  poets.  The  difference,  however,  be- 
tween the  style  and  treatment  of  the  subject  in  the  two 
poems  is  not  greater  than  is  observed  between  the  Parudiae 
Lost  and  Paradise  lieijaiued  of  Millon,  and  Longinus  ac- 
counts for  it  with  sufiicient  probability  by  supposing  the 
Iliad  to  be  the  work  of  Homer's  youth,  and  the  Odi/iney 
that  of  his  declining  years.  But  the  personality  of  Homer 
as  the  author  of  these  j)oems  has  been  made  in  modern  times 
the  subject  of  a  formidable  attack.  In  1795,  F.  A.  Wolf, 
a  German  scholar  of  great  learning  and  ingenuity,  brought 
forward  the  theory  that  the  Homeric  poems  were  composed 
in  portions,  while  the  art  of  writing  was  little  practised,  by 
the  ditTerent  minstrels  who  sang  them  in  the  public  as>:cm- 
blies,  and  afterward,  when  the  art  of  writing  became  more 
general,  collected  and  put  together  in  the  form  and  order 
which  they  now  present.  It  was  impossible,  he  urged,  for 
one  poet  to  compose  and  retain  in  memory  works  of  such 
great  length;  but  this  is  simply  begging  the  question,  for 
examples  of  recollection  as  remarkable  as  this  are  even  now 
to  be  met  with.  A  more  plausible  argument  was  founded 
on  the  discrepancies  and  inconsistencies  in  the  narrative, 
whieh  a  careful  analysis  showed  to  be  not  infrequent.  If 
these  cannot  be  explained  in  any  other  way,  the  theory  of 
Wolf  must  be  accepted. 

But  there  is  this  explanation.  About  the  year  560  before 
Christ,  Pisistratus.  the  tyrant  of  Athens,  eauseil  the  difler- 
ent  hooks  of  the  Homeric  poems  to  be  collected  and  ar- 
ranged in  their  proper  order.  In  arranging  the  dispersed 
manuscripts  chasms  might  occur,  or  ]»ortions  might  seem 
to  want  a  proper  connection.  Here  was  both  the  oppor- 
tunity and  the  temptation  to  interpolate,  and  the  interpo- 
lation might  be  made  without  sufficient  regard  to  the  con- 
text. All  manuscripts,  especially  of  works  so  often  trans- 
cribed as  the  Homeric  poems  in  ancient  times,  are  in  dan- 
ger of  interpolation  :  ami  if  we  admit  this,  it  is  quite  un- 
necessary to  refer  the  different  jiortions  of  the  Iliad  and 
OdffHHf}/  to  different  authors.  Besides,  the  universal  con- 
sent of  antiquity  in  favor  of  the  personality  of  Homer  ought 
to  count  for  something;  and  still  more  forcible  is  the  eon- 
sideration  that  the  theory  of  Wolf  would  oblige  us  to  sup- 
pose, what  is  hard  to  believe,  that  tJreeoc  could  in  any  ago 
produce  a  fraternity  of  men  all  of  whom  could  write  like 
Ilomcr. 


IIOMKK— II<)Mi:STEAD  LEGISLATIOK  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


971 


Notwithi^tanding  the  praiso  which  has  Jiccn  bt-stowed 
upon  the  ItUtd  for  the  perfection  of  its  plot,  there  are  those 
who  sec  in  it  only  part  of  the  nurrativo  of  the  siege  of 
Troy,  without  any  proper  conclusion  or  catn.strophe.  In 
his  invocation  the  poet  only  promises  to  speak  of  the  wrath 
of  Achilles,  and  the  calamities  which  it  brou;;ht  upon  the 
(ireeks  as  a  consequence  of  the  quarrel  between  him  and 
Af^amemnon.  But  he  gives  us  much  more  than  this.  Ho 
relates  the  quarrel,  the  withdrawal  of  Achilles  from  the 
army,  and  the  bloody  successes  of  the  Trojans  while  ho  in- 
dul;;t'S  his  anger.  liut  in  the  nineteenth  hook  Achilles  and 
Agamemnon  arc  reconciled,  and  then  begin  the  disasters 
of  the  Trojans.  Their  soldiery  is  slaughtered,  their  cham- 
pions arc  slain — Glaucus.  Sarpedon,  and  finally  Hector — 
and  all  Troy  is  in  despair.  The  narrative  breaks  oiT  at  the 
most  interesting  moment  of  the  siege.  To  those  who  take 
this  view  of  the  poem  it  seems  not  improbable  that  Pisis- 
tratus,  or  those  whom  he  employed  to  collect  and  edit  the 
books  forming  the  lU'td,  might  have  failed  to  recover  the 
concluding  part  of  the  original  poem. 

The  editions  of  Homer  are  almost  innumerable.  His 
commentaturs  have  found  an  ample  storehouse  from  which 
to  obtain  their  notes  in  the  work  of  Eustathius,  bishop  of 
Thessalonica.  The  translations  of  the  Homeric  poems  into 
all  the  languages  of  civilized  Europe  have  been  numerous, 
and  are  still  multiplying.  William  Cullen  Bhvant. 
Homer  (Winslow).  See  AppEsnix. 
IIo'mcrvine,post-v.,  county-seat  of  Clinch  eo.,  Ga.,  on 
the  Athintic  and  (Julf  U.  R.,  122  miles  S.  W.  of  Savannah. 
Homes  (iU:.M{Y  Art;isTis).l,Ii.D.,  b.  at  Boston, Mass., 
Mar.  I(t,  l>12  :  graduated  at  Amherst  in  \>^\\\ ;  was  ordained 
in  1833  at  Paris  as  a  missionary  of  the  K'jH»r.  /if'/orwt'e  tc 
Turkey;  served  as  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board  at 
Constantinople  IS.'lG-.'jO;  was  assistant  dragoman  in  the 
American  legation  to  Ihf  Porte  1850-5.1;  became  in  1854 
librarian  of  the  .Slate  Library,  Albany-,  N.  Y. 

Home'stcad,  post-v.  of  Iowa  cc,  la.,  on  the  Chicago 
Rock  Inland  and  Pacific  R.  R.,  20  miles  \V.  of  Iowa  City. 
Homestead,  post-tp.  of  Benzie  eo..  Mu-.h.  IV.p.  IG.'J. 
Homestead  Lef^islation  in  the  Ignited  States. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  in  a  large 
proportion  of  the  States  the  Knglish  common  law  forms  the 
oasis  of  the  body  of  the  laws  by  which  they  arc  respect- 
ively governed.  Among  the  dogmas  of  the  common  law 
which  were  adopted  hero  with  few  or  no  limitations  were 
those  by  which  the  relations  of  husband  and  wife  were 
regulated  in  respect  to  the  effect  of  marriage  upon  the 
property  of  the  wife.  It  was  a  practical  disfranchisement 
on  her  part,  clothing  the  husband  with  the  rit^ht  of  posses- 
sion and  enjoyment  of  her  real  estate,  and  of  property  in 
her  personality,  and  merging  her  individuality  of  action  or 
control  over  whatever  she  possessed  at  marriage  in  that  of 
her  husband. 

Another  principle  borrowed.  In  part  at  least,  from  the 
laws  of  Englan*!.  was  from  the  first  arlopted  in  the  colonial 
and  provincial  governments  in  this  country  ;  anrl  that  was 
the  right  of  creditors  to  seize  upon  ami  appropriate  the 
goods  and  estates  of  their  debtors  in  satisfaction  of  their 
debts.  ,\or  was  there,  in  this  respect,  any  distinction  made 
between  what  a  debtor  had  inherited  or  acquired  by  his 
own  industry,  and  what  had  come  to  him  from  his  wife  by 
virtue  of  his  marital  rights.  As  a  natural  consequence,  it 
not  unfrequently  occurred  that  wives  found  themselves 
stripped  of  all  their  possessions  by  the  folly  or  misconduct 
of  their  husbands,  and  reduced  to  penury  without  any  fault 
of  their  own,  and  rendereil  powerless  to  do  anything  to  re- 
trieve their  fortunes  by  the  incapacity  which  the  law  itself 
had  ini])Osed  upon  them. 

That  such  a  state  of  things  should  have  been  tolerated  by 
intelligent  men  and  wcunen  for  one  or  two  hundred  years 
serves  to  illustrate  how  strong  an  influence  the  laws  of  a 
people  exert  over  their  ideas  of  legal  and  moral  duty  ;  and 
the  change  in  the  character  of  these  laws  which  has  been 
made  chi«'fly  within  the  last  fifty  years  is  to  be  nscribcd  to 
(be  progressive  spirit  of  liberal  legislation  which  has  dis- 
tinguished the  century  in  which  we  live.  In  no  way  has  it 
been  nifire  marked  than  in  its  tendency  to  restore  to  women 
a  just  and  equal  share  in  the  management  ()f  property  ;  and 
where,  if  married,  they  could  not  with  propriety  be  en- 
trusted with  the  control  of  a  husliand's  business,  they 
shouhl  not  be  subjected  to  become  passive  sufferers,  to- 
gether with  their  children,  with  no  chance  of  relief,  if  by 
misfortune  or  otherwise  his  means  <d'  affordinj  thom  a  com- 
fortable support  were  cut  off,  by  placing  beyond  his  control, 
nn<l  that  of  his  creditors,  a  nu)dieuin  of  property  to  servo 
the  immeiliate  and  pressing  wants  of  his  family.  This  has 
been  extensively  carried  out  by  provisions  for  securing,  to 
some  extent,  the  enjoymiuit  of  a  home  and  shelter  for  the 
family  under  the  name  of  a  hniiinitrati,  wliieh  was  to  be  held 
exempt  from  the  ordinary  incidents  of  ownerships  the  right 


of  frco  alienation  by  its  owner,  and  a  liability  to  bo  seized 
upon  and  sold  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 

It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article  to  examine  the  laws 
of  the  different  States  upon  this  subject  of  homestead  ex- 
emption, which  in  some  form  have  been  incorporated  into 
the  Iegislati<in  of  at  least  thirty-two  of  them,  and  in  at 
least  fifteen  of  them  the  principio  aimed  at  by  these  laws 
has  been  more  or  less  fully  declared  in  their  conetitutions 
of  government.* 

In  pursuing  this  inquiry  it  is  oflen  not  a  little  difficult  to 
oscerlain  the  jirecisc  limits  within  which  the  several  States 
have  confined  the  application  of  the  principle  which  per- 
vades these  laws,  since  no  aid  is  to  be  foun<i  in  construing 
their  statutes  upon  the  subject  by  a  reference  to  the  rules 
of  the  common  law.  Nor  can  the  legislation  of  one  State 
throw  light  upon  that  of  another,  since  the  pcdicy  indicated 
by  the  one  diflcrs  essentially  irom  that  of  another.  Thus, 
in  some  of  these  all  that  seems  to  be  aimed  at  is  to  exempt 
the  smallest  pittance  which  can  serve  to  relieve  iminediato 
distress  for  a  brief  period,  while  in  others  the  purpose  is  to 
secure  to  every  one  who  can  command  the  means  a  com- 
fortable competence,  although  it  be  at  the  expense  of  his 
less  fortunate  creditors.  In  Arkansas,  fur  example.  $5000 
in  real  and  $20011  in  personal  estate  arc  exempted  from  levy  : 
and  in  Georgia  $2000  in  real  estate  and  $1000  in  personal 
chattels.  And  this,  as  calculated  by  a  writer  in  the  IK  Am. 
/^«?r  /icff.  149,  if  shared  by  every  family  in  the  latter  State 
to  the  amount  of  $2000,  would  exceed  the  total  value  of  the 
lands  within  its  limits  by  some  $100,000,000. 

So  radical  a  change  in  what  had  been  deemed  the  com- 
mon-law rights  of  creditors  of  the  States  naturally  led  Ihem 
to  question  the  validity  of  these  laws  in  the  light  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  which  forbids  State  legislatures 
to  enact  laws  which  shall  impair  the  obligation  of  contracts, 
the  ground  being  that  so  far  as  existing  contracts  at  the 
time  of  the  passage  of  the  law  were  concerned,  it  look  from 
the  creditor  what  ho  had  previously  had,  his  claim  upon 
the  debtor's  pr(»perty  as  a  means  of  satisfying  his  debt.  In 
Wisconsin  if  was  contended  that  it  was  an  unconstitutional 
act  to  declare  a  deed  of  a  husband  invalid  unless  executed 
also  by  his  wife,  but  this  objection  was  not  sustained  by 
the  court.  The  homestead  laws  of  South  Carolina  were 
declared  constitutional.  So  were  those  of  North  Carolina, 
althougli  in  the  latter  they  expressly  extended  the  exemp- 
tion to  debts  contracted  before  the  adoption  of  her  consti- 
tution, which  contains  the  provision.  A  like  doctrine  was 
held  in  Alabama,  Louisiana,  (ieorgia,  and  Mississippi.  But 
in  Nevada  a  statute  declaring  any  mortgage  or  abandon- 
ment of  a  homestead  for  securing  a  debt  of  the  owner  in- 
valid was  declared  unconstitutional.  In  Virginia  a  law 
exempting  homesteads  fr<»m  debts  contracted  before  the 
passage  of  the  act  was  held  to  be  in  violation  of  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  U.  S. ;  and  a  like  decision  in  respect  to  tlio 
laxvs  of  Georgia,  so  far  as  they  extended  the  exemption  to 
cases  of  judgments  recovered  before  the  statute  was  parsed, 
was  recently  adoptc<l  by  the  Supremo  Court  of  the  U.  S. 
In  several  of  the  States  questions  of  this  kind  arc  obviated 
by  limiting  the  exemption  to  debts  which  are  contracted 
after  the  right  of  h(unestead  in  the  debtor  has  attached  to  the 
estate,  while  in  others  it  does  not  extend  to  debts  contracted 
before  the  passage  of  the  act.  And  it  may  be  mentioned, 
in  passing,  that  in  applying  these  statutes  of  faomestearj 
exemption,  diflercnt  courts  ailopt  dilTerent  rules  as  to  the 
degree  of  strictness  with  which  they  should  be  construed. 
Being  in  derogation  of  conimon-law  rights,  some  of  these 
courts  restrict  them  to  the  precise  language  of  the  act ; 
while  others,  regarding  them  as  remedial  in  their  character, 
have  had  reference  to  what  they  regarded  as  the  spirit  and 
intent  of  the  law  in  ascertaining  the  meaning  to  bcuttnched 
to  such  language. 

One  purpose  seems,  obviously,  to  bo  aimed  at  by  these 
laxvs,  however  construed;  and  that  is,  to  secure  to  every 
man  who  has  a  family,  and  has  provided  a  home  for  thcin, 
the  enjoyment  of  this  home  free  from  any  right  or  power 
in  his  creditors  to  deprive  him  thereof  by  seizing  upon  tho 
same  for  the  purpose  of  sati.vfying  their  debts.  And  tho 
propriety  of  these  local  hiws  is  so  far  recognizetl  in  legis- 
lating by  t.'ongrcpsfor  the  whole  Union  that  the  U.  S.  bank- 
rupt law  exempts  from  its  effect  such  property  as,  in  tho 
place  of  domicil  of  the  bankrupt,  is  by  law  exemjited  from 
levy  and  sale  under  execution  ;  and  this  provision  has  hem 
held  to  bo  constitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  tho  U.  S. 
In  carrying  out  this  principle  of  securing  for  the  family 
what  the  head  of  it  hos  provided  as  a  home,  the  statutes 
of  the  various  States  differ  essentially  in  tho  limits  which 


•The  State*  in  which  there  are  no  laws  upon  llie<*ubjcct  are 
ronncetieul,  Deliinure.  Orriron.  Khode  Island,  ami  West  Vir- 
cinla.  Those  In  who<*c  const i tut lon>*  pnivlsj-uKi  forsucli  laws  arc 
rnndc  nre  Alabama.  Arkansas,  Calirornia.  Florl'la,  (Icortflii,  In- 
fliiinn,  KansiiK.  MIcldKan,  Mlnnes(»(a.  Nevada,  North  Curolina. 
South  Carolina,  Toxas,  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin. 


972 


HOMESTEAD  LEGISLATION   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


they  presoribo  to  the  power  of  the  owner  to  convey  it  away 
or  abandon  it,  or  at  his  pleasure  deprive  his  family  of  what 
the  law  intendcil  to  (.'uard  for  them.  In  some  of  the  States 
it  is  left  to  the  owner  to  decide  to  what  extent  this  protec- 
tion shall  l«e  enjoyed.  In  a  large  proportion  of  these,  how- 
ever, the  wife  is  so  farelothed  with  power  over  the  home- 
stead estate  that  it  is  not  competent  lor  the  husl)and  to 
convey,  mortgage,  or  abandon  the  same  for  any  purpose 
or  effect  aifceting  her,  unless  she  voluntarily  joins  in  the 
act. 

Another  singular  diversity  in  the  laws  of  the  different 
States  upon  tliis  subject  is  observable  in  the  different  kinds 
of  interests  or  estates  which  they  create  or  assume  to  exist 
in  the  house  and  land  which  are  held  by  virtue  of  this 
right  of  homestead.  In  some,  this  interest  is  regarded  as 
a  Tife  estate;  in  others  it  descends  to  children  ;  in  some  it 
is  of  the  nature  of  jin  estate  in  the  husband,  and  afterward 
in  his  willow  and  children,  with  a  reversion  in  himself 
which  may  be  reached  by  creditors;  in  others  the  entire 
homestead  is  put  out  of  the  reach  of  creditors  in  any  form 
80  long  as  the  exemption  continues.  But  they  seem  to 
agree  in  this,  that  the  exemption  of  a  homestead,  as  such, 
continues  no  longer  than  there  is  a  wife  or  widow,  and 
children  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  to  enjoy  it,  or 
if  no  wile  or  widow,  there  arc  children  under  ago  residing 
upon  the  premises.  liut  what  becomes  of  the  estate  when 
there  is  neither  wife,  widow,  nor  minor  children  alive  to 
share  it,  seems  to  he  left  to  be  settled  by  its  analogy  to  the 
common  law  applicable  to  reversionary  interests  in  land. 

If,  now,  we  pass  from  these  general  considerations  of 
homestead  laws  as  a  system  to  their  respective  provisions 
in  more  spei'ific  detail,' it  may  be  remarked  that  with  very 
few  exeeptiiins  the  exemption  does  not  extend  to  taxes  or 
indebtedness  for  the  purchase-money  of  the  estate;  and  in 
a  majority  of  cases,  it  is  believed,  this  is  also  true  of  me- 
chanics' liens  upon  the  same.  And  it  may  be  further 
stated  that  in  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  States  the  exemp- 
tion continues  no  longer  than  the  homestead  is  occupied  as 
a  residence  by  the  family  of  the  owner,  and  when  aban- 
doned by  thein  it  at  once  becomes  subject  to  be  levied  upon 
by  his  creditors. 

In  treating  of  the  subject  more  at  length,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  consider — (1)  what  amounts  of  real  estate,  in  value 
or  otherwise,  are  exempted  as  homesteads  by  the  statutes 
of  the   several  States.      (2)  How  far  a  homestead  right, 
when  ascertained,  avails  in  favor  of  a  debtor  or  his  wife 
and  children,  and  how  far  the  agency  of  such  wife  is  re- 
quisite in  releasing,  abandoning,  or  aliening  the  same.     In 
Alabama  the  exemption   is  of  80  acres  of  land,   with   a 
dwelling-house,  if  without  a  city,  town,  or  village  ;  if  within 
it,  a  lot  and  dwelling-house,  not  exceeding  $2000.     In  Ar- 
kansas, Florida,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Nebraska,  and  Mis- 
souri, IGO  acres  of  land,  with  buildings,  are  exempt  if  sit- 
uate outside  of  a  city,   town,  or  village,  except  that   in 
Louisiana,  when  taken  with  certain  enumerated  articles  of 
personal  properly,  the  total  shall  not  exceed  $2000  in  value, 
and  in  Missouri  the  land  must  not  exceed  $1500  in  value. 
But  if  the  homestead  be  taken  in  a  city,  town,  or  village, 
the  limit  in    .Arkansas  is  that  the  house  and  lot  must  not 
exceed  $oOOO;  in   Florida  it  is  half  an  acre  ;  in   Kansas  it 
is  one  acre  ;   in  Missouri,  if  it  he  in  a  city  of  40,(100  in- 
habitants, it  is  limited  to  18  square  rods,  not  exceeding 
$:!000  in  value,  and  in  one  of  a  less  number  of  inhiibitants 
it  may  extend  to  :tO  square  rods,  not  exceeding  $1500  in 
value  ;  and  in  Nebraska  a  homestead   in  a  city,  town,  etc. 
is  limited  to  two  lots,  or  a  single  lot  not  exceeding  20  acres. 
The  exemption  in  California  extends  to  a  lot  of  land  and 
dwelling-house,  not  exceeding  $5000  in  value;  the  law  is 
the  same  in  Nevada.     The  amount  in  value  of  homestead 
exemption  io  (ieorgia  is  $2000  ;  in  Virginia  it  is  to  the  same 
amount.  :ind  may  be  taken  by  a  debtor  in  either  real  or 
personal  estate.  "  In  Illinois,  Kentucky.  New  .Jersey,  New 
York,  North  (Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee  the  ex- 
emption to  each  debtor  is  of  lands  and  buildings  not  ex- 
ceeding $1000   in  value.     In  Indiana  it  may  be  in  value 
$:iOO,  real  or  personal  as  the  debtor  may  elect.     In  Mary- 
land it  is  but  $100,  with  the  same  right  of  election  in  the 
debtor.     In  Iowa  the  debtor  may  claim  one  or  more  lots, 
not  exceeding  half  an  acre  in  a  city  or  town,  with  a  house 
thereon,  or  10  acres  of  land  outside  of  a  town  or  city,  not 
exceeding  in  value  $500,  together  with  a  shop  or  building 
owned  by  him  and  used  by  him  in  his  business,  not  exceed- 
ing in  value  $:iOO.    The  exemption  in  Maine  is  of  land  and 
a  dwelling  thereon,  not  exceeding  in  value  $500;   and  the 
same  is  the  law  of  New   ilauipshire,  Ohio,  and  Vermont, 
while  in  Pennsylvania  it  is  limited  to  $:iO0  in  value,  and  in 
Massachusetts  to  $800.     In  Michigan  40  acres  of  agricul- 
tural land  and  a  dwelling-house  are  exempted,  or,  what  is 
equal,  to  a  lot  in  a  eity  or  town  with  a  dwelling-house,  not 
exceeding  in  value  $1500,     It  may  not,  however,  include 
two  tenements,  although  together  they  do  not  exceed  that 


sum  in  v.alue.  In  Minnesota  the  exemption  is  of  a  city  lot 
and  dwelling-house,  or  80  acres  of  land  with  a  dwelling- 
house  outside  of  a  city,  irrespective  of  the  value  of  the 
same.  In  Mississippi  it  covers  2+0  acres  of  land  and  a 
dwelling-house  if  outside  of  a  city  or  town,  irrespective  of 
their  value,  or  if  in  »  city  a  pnqier  homestead,  together 
with  personal  property  enough  to  uutke  a  total  of  $-4000  in 
value.  In  Texas  200  acres  of  agricultural  land  are  exempt 
without  regard  to  value,  or  instead  of  it  a  city  homestead 
of  the  value  of  $2000:  while  in  Wisconsin  the  exemption 
is  of  40  acres  of  agricultural  land,  or  a  quarter  of  an  acre 
within  a  city  or  village,  with  the  houses  thereon,  without 
respect  to  the  value  of  the  same. 

In  treating  of  the  topics  embraced  in  the  second  part  of 
this  inquirv,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  there  are  va- 
rious modes  of  setting  apart  a  debtor's  ho;nostead  from  bis 
other  estate,  the  laws  of  some  of  the  States  requiring  it  to 
be  done  by  a  formal  declaration  of  the  debtor  and  a  record- 
ing of  the  same;  those  of  other  States  providing  for  set- 
ting it  out  bv  the  officer  holding  an  execution  against  the 
doirtor  which  he  is  about  to  levy  upon  his  estate,  upon  his 
claiming  the  same.     So  provision  is  made  in  most  of  the 
States  tbr  determining  by  appraisement  any  questions  as 
to  the  value  of  the  part  claimed  as  homestead  if  creditors 
arc  dissatisfied  upon  the  point,  and  for  moreover  disposing 
of  the  entire  homestead  if  it  is  so  connected  with  other 
parts  of  the  debtor's  estate  that  it  cannot  be  severed  there- 
from, and  paying  to  the  debtor  the  value  of  what  had  been 
exempted  in  money,  to  he  invested   in  a  new  homestead. 
But  the  forms  bvwhich  these  purposes  are  to  be  accom- 
plished are  so  varied  that  it  would  occupy  too  much  space 
to  attempt  to  give  them  in  detail.     In  most  cases,  it  may 
be  added,  where  the  debtor  has  not  set  apart  a  homestead 
durin>'  his  life,  it  is  done  bv  the  ordinary  or  judge  of  pro- 
bate in  favor  of  his  widow  and  childreu  upon  her  applica- 
tion ;  and  in  several  of  the  St.ates,  if  the  debtor  neglects  or 
declines  to  claim  or  have  set  apart  a  homestead,  his  wife 
may  interpose  and  cause  it  to  be  done  in  his  lifetime.     In 
sotne  of  the  Stales,  as  will  appear,  the  widow  takes  both 
dower  and  homestead  out  of  her  husband's  estate ;  in  others 
she  can  claim  but  one.     In  some  of  the  States  ownership 
on  the  part  of  the  debtor  of  the  homestead  claimed  is  re- 
quired ;  in  others  a  lease  or  a  right  of  pos.-^cssion  by  con- 
tract is  sufficient.    In  some  the  exemption  applies  to  estates 
held  in  severalty  alone ;  in  others  it  includes  estates  held 
in  common.     The  exemption  in  most  of  the  States  is  from 
"forced    sale,"  which   in  some   of   them   means    any  sale 
under  and  by  virtue  of  a  legal  process,  including  the  fore- 
closure of  a  "mortgage  by  a  sale  of  the  premises. 

Taking  up  the  several  States  in  their  order,  the  exemp- 
tion in  Alabama  is  to  one  who  owns  the  estate  and  is  the 
head  of  a  family,  and  at  his  death  it  is  continued  to  his 
children  during'their  minority,  and  if  he  have  no  ehildrcn 
it  comes  to  his  widow.  Nor  can  a  husband  mortgage  or 
convey  the  homestead  unless  the  wife  join  in  such  convey- 
ance. But  it  is  not  required  that  it  should  be  occupied  by 
the  one  in  whose  favor  the  exemption  is  claimed  in  order 
to  hold  it.  ,11 

In  Arkansas  it  is  to  every  householder,  whether  male  or 
female,  who  is  the  head  of  a  family,  and  extends  to  lands 
held  in  common.  After  the  debtor's  death  the  exemption 
continues  in  favor  of  the  widow  and  children  of  the  owner 
so  long  as  they  continue  to  occupy  the  homestead. 

In  California  the  exemption  is  in  favor  of  "  heads  of  fam- 
ilies," but  not  to  unmarried  persons,  unless  they  have  the 
charge  of  minor  children  of  brothers  and  the  like.  And 
if  the  debtor's  wife  dies  without  children,  he  may  no  longer 
ohiim  it.  If  he  dies  leaving  a  wi.low,  she  becomes  entitled 
to  it  for  the  benefit  of  herself  and  children  ;  and  this  is  set 
out  to  her  bv  the  judge  of  probate  if  it  had  not  been  done 
during  the  life  of  the  husband.  This  selection  may  be 
made  bv  the  owner  or  his  wife,  by  a  de.laratum  in  writing 
which  is  to  be  recorded;  and  when  so  selected  the  husband 
and  wife  become  joint  tenants  of  it.  A  homestead  may 
be  claimed  of  lands  held  by  pos.session  only  or  held  m 
common.  The  husband  has  charge  and  exercises  protection 
of  the  homestead,  but  he  cannot  convey  it  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  wife  if  he  have  one.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
husband  or  wife  the  estate  vests  absolutely  in  the  survivor, 
exempt  from  anv  debt  contracted  before  that  event.  If  the 
debtor  dies  leaving  a  widow  and  children,  one-half  ot  the 
estate  goes  to  her.  and  one-halt  to  the  children.  So  essen- 
tial is  the  joining  of  the  wile  with  her  luislmiid  in  a  deed 
in  giving  it  validity,  that  it  would  not  otherwise  operate 
even  as  an  estoppel  against  him. 

Ill  Florida  the  exemption  is  in  favor  of  the  head  ot  a 
family,  and  when  he  or  she  dies  it  descends  to  the  issue  of 
the  oivner.  if  anv.  and  if  there  be  no  child,  but  the  owner 
leaves  a  widow,  it  goes  to  her,  unless  he  .lisposes  of  it  by 
will,  which  ho  may  do.  If  there  is  neither  widow  nor 
children,  the  estate  may  be  sold  for  the  payment  of  debts. 


HOMESTEAD  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


973 


The  homesteail  law  of  Georgia  is  in  some  respects  pecu- 
liar. The  exemption  is  in  favor  of  heads  of  families  and 
of  trustees  and  {guardians  of  minor  children,  excluding 
bachelors  living  alone.  If  the  estate  of  the  debtor  exceeds 
in  value  the  amount  of  the  exemption,  he  must,  in  order  to 
secure  it,  set  it  »>ut,  or  if  he  fails  to  do  so  his  wife  or  her 
next  friend  may  have  it  done  for  him.  Nor  can  a  husband 
defeat  his  wife's  homestead  right  by  conveying  it  or  re- 
moving from  it  unless  he  acquire  a  new  one.  Such  exemp- 
tion does  not  extend  t»  judgnienis  recovered  in  actions  of 
tort.  If  a  wirlow  have  no  children,  she  cannot  claim  a 
homestca<i.  The  homestead  does  not  affect  her  claim  to 
dower,  whirh  must  be  iirst  set  out,  and  then  the  homestead, 
if  any,  after  deilucting  the  dower;  and  this  the  minor  chil- 
dren take,  subject  to  the  claim  of  dower,  but  free  from  the 
claims  of  Ihc  father's  creditors,  and  hold  it  in  connection 
with  the  widow  till  she  is  married  or  dies.  If,  however, 
the  estate  of  the  father  is  solvent,  the  children  take  the 
estate  independent  of  any  homestead  right,  subject  only  to 
tho  dower  of  Ihc  widow.  A  homestead  can  only  be  con- 
veyed by  the  joint  deed  of  the  husband  and  wife,  done 
with  the  approbation  of  the  onlinary.  But  if  tho  debtor 
is  declared  a  bankrupt  before  his  homestead  is  set  out,  it 
so  far  divests  him  of  his  estate  that  be  cannot  afterwards 
avail  himself  of  the  exemption. 

The  provision  in  Illinois  is  made  for  householders  with 
families,  and  does  not  extend,  as  in  some  of  the  .States,  to 
houses  standing  upon  another's  land.  Tho  benefit  of  it 
enures  to  the  widow  of  a  debtor  during  her  life,  and  to  her 
children  until  they  are  of  the  ageof  twenty-one  years  if  they 
occupy  the  premises.  The  husband,  however," is  tho  only 
one  who  can  assert  this  right,  but  in  so  doing  ho  acts,  in 
some  sense,  as  a  trustee  for  his  wife  and  children.  No  con- 
veyance or  mortgage  of  it  can  bo  valid  unless  it  be  by  deed 
signed  by  the  wife,  in  which  the  right  of  homestead  is  ex- 
pressly released,  and  the  same  is  acknowledged  by  her.  If 
the  husband  abamlon  tho  premises,  his  deed  will  have  tho 
effect  to  create  a  lien  upon  the  estate  for  whatever  may  be 
its  value  beyond  that  of  the  homestead  right.  And  if  both 
husband  and  wife  abandon  the  estate,  their  deed  will  effec- 
tually convey  it,  although  not  executed  so  as  to  expressly 
release  it.  If,  however,  he  ceases  to  occupy  the  estate,  but 
leaves  it  in  possession  of  his  wife  and  children,  it  has  not 
this  effect,  and  otherwise  his  homestead  is  thereby  lost,  as 
it  is  if  ho  ceases  to  have  a  family.  And  a  widow  cannot 
defeat  the  rights  of  her  minor  children  after  the  husband's 
death  by  abandoning  possession  of  the  homestead.  Tho 
statute  of  exemption  extends  to  judgments  in  actions  r.r 
deliciit,  as  well  as  ex  cniiiriiclii.  It  matters  not  whether  tho 
debtor  owns  his  land  in  fee,  for  life,  or  for  years,  or  simply 
holds  it  under  a  contract  for  a  dceil.  But  tho  exemption 
does  not  attach  until  the  same  is  in  his  actual  occujiation. 
This  homestead  right  is  not  an  estate;  it  is  distinct  from 
dower,  and  does  not  merge  in  it,  and  the  widow  may  have 
both.  If  a  wife  is  divorced  for  his  fault,  she  may  claim  a 
homestead  right  in  the  premises  if  she  continues  to  occupy 
them.  Treating  an  exemption  of  a  homestead  docs  not 
affect  any  debts  contracted  before  that  lakes  effect.  If  a 
husband  convey  the  estate,  but  the  wife  do  not  join  in 
the  deed,  (ho  grantee  cannot  disturb  the  occupant  in  the  i 
enjoyment  of  ihc  estate  so  long  as  tho  homestead  right  \ 
continues;  but  such  purchaser,  or  a  creditor  who  shall  levy  [ 
upon  the  same,  may  claim  tho  premi.ses  when  the  houic- 
stcad  right  ceases.  And  in  such  case,  if  the  widr^w  of  Iho 
debtor  abandon  the  premises  after  his  dcalh.  the  husliand's 
deed  lakes  full  effect  and  cuts  off  the  rights  of  the  children, 
but  her  surrender  would  not  give  present  effect  to  a  salo 
under  a  levy  of  an  execution. 

In  Indiana  the  bumeslead  exemption  is  in  favor  of  "  a 
resident  househobler,"  which  may  include  a  wife  if  she 
owns  the  land  and  is  her.«elf  a  debtor.  If  the  debtor  ne- 
glects to  make  claim  of  this  right  when  his  land  is  levied 
on,  ho  thereby  waives  it.  Tho  owner  cannot  convey  or 
mortgage  the  homestead  without  his  wife  joining  in  the 
dec  I  and  acknowledging  it;  but  though  she  do  not  join  in 
a  mortgage,  if  it  be  nuido  by  him  it  would  not  be  com- 
petent for  him  to  set  up  a  homestead  right  to  avoid  it.  At 
her  husband's  death  Iho  widow  becomes  entitled  to  tho  en- 
joyment of  Iho  homeslead  estate  independent  of  any  pro- 
visi<pn  made  for  her  by  her  husban.l  by  way  of  devise. 

The  subject  of  homestead  has  led  to  considerable  legisla- 
tion in  Iowa,  and  to  somewhat  numerous  decisions  of  her 
courts.  It  exists  there  in  favor  of  "a  familv,"  which  in- 
cludes a  widow  or  widower,  though  without  children.  It  is 
inciilent  to  oceupaticm,  and  Ihc  right  does  not  allaeh  until 
an  occupation  begins,  nor  even  then  so  as  to  affect  a  ilebt 
conlracled  prior  to  that  lime  if  that  were  the  only  property 
the  debtor  then  had.  It  is  broad  enough  to  cover  a  shop 
or  other  building  connected  with  the  homeslead  in  whieli 
Iho  deblor  carries  on  his  business.  The  ileblor  may  select 
the  homesteail,  and  have  tho  same  recorded,  and  if"  he  fail 


to  do  this,  it  may  be  done  by  his  wife.  A  debtor  may  make 
his  homestead  liable  for  a  debt  if  when  ho  conlracis  it  he 
agrees  that  it  shall  not  bo  exempt  ns  to  such  debt.  And  a 
judgment  may  attach  as  a  lien  upon  tho  homeslead  when 
it  shall  cease  to  be  hcM  as  such,  but  a  conveyance  in  the 
mean  time  would  defeat  il.  liut  a  mortgage  or  conveyance 
made  by  the  husband  alone  would  bo  void.  On  the  death 
of  either  husband  or  wife  the  property  goes  to  Ihc  survivor, 
and  descends  to  tho  issue  of  whichovcr  of  these  was  Ihc 
owner,  unless  he  or  she  may  have  devised  the  same.  Tho 
right  of  a  widow,  as  such,  vests  in  her  at  marriage  if  her 
husband  tiien  owns  the  estate,  and  by  virtue  of  it  she  may 
occupy  tho  estate  during  her  life,  whether  she  marries 
again  or  not,  and  at  her  death  the  estate  goes  to  the  heirs 
of  tho  owner.  If  the  estate  belongs  to  tho  wife,  and  ho 
survives  her,  ho  takes  it  as  her  successor,  although  they 
have  no  children,  and  the  owner  may  devise  the  estate  sub- 
ject to  the  homeslead  right.  The  husband  has  such  a  con- 
trol over  the  subject  of  the  homestead  right  that  he  mav, 
at  his  election,  change  his  residence,  and  if  he  abandon 
the  estate  or  gains  a  new  homestead,  the  original  home- 
stead right  is  lost.  Such  would  be  the  effect  if  the  widow 
abandons  the  estate;  and  if  she  sells  Iho  homestead,  Iho 
husband's  heirs  may  come  in  and  divide  it  among  them- 
selves; she  cannot  claim  both  homestead  and  dower,  and 
if  she  claims  dower,  she  waives  the  homestead. 

In  Kansas  the  exemption  is  in  favor  of  the  familv  of 
the  owner  as  a  residence,  ami  it  will  be  held  exempt  from 
tho  time  he  acquires  his  title  if  he  begins  to  occupy  it 
within  a  reasonable  time  thereafter.  If  it  is  levied  on, 
the  debtor  or  his  wife  may  make  claim  for  the  homestead 
of  the  officer.  A  juiigmcnt  forms  no  lien  upon  the  debt- 
or's homestead,  either  in  respect  to  his  present  or  ]>ros- 
peetivo  interest  therein.  The  husband  and  wife  have  to 
join  to  convey  the  estate,  and  their  joint  deed  would  take 
effect  as  against  any  deed  or  mortgage  mado  either  by  tho 
husband  or  wife  alone. 

In  Kentucky  the  law  exempts  a  homestead  in  favor  of 
a  hniia  j'ulc  housekeeper,  whetlicr  it  be  of  one  sex  or  tho 
other.  It  is  set  out  by  the  officer  having  an  execution 
against  tho  debtor  if  he  claims  the  same.  After  his  or  her 
death  it  goes  to  the  survivor  with  bis  or  her  children,  to  oc- 
cupy until  Iho  youngest  child  is  of  age.  Nor  will  any  alian- 
donment  of  it  by  a  parent  affect  the  rights  of  the  children. 
Accepting  n,  homestead  by  a  widow  does  not  affect  her  riijht 
to  dower,  except  that  tho  value  of  the  homestead  is  taken 
into  account  in  setting  off  the  dower.  The  estate  may  bo 
sold  subject  to  the  homestead  right,  but  no  mortgage, 
waiver,  or  release  of  tho  homestead,  as  such,  lias  any  va- 
lidity, unless  it  be  executed  by  the  husband  and  wife  and 
rccordetl. 

The  l:iw  of  homestead  in  Louisiana  is  very  brief.  It  se- 
cures it  to  such  as  own  hniia  firlc  residences,  and  have  fam- 
ilies or  jiersons  dependent  upon  lliem.  And  if  a  wife  die, 
leaving  an  estate  ami  a  busiiand  and  children,  he  cannot 
claim  homestead  out  of  the  estate  as  against  her  creditors. 
In  Maine  tho  exemption  is  in  favor  of  a  householder  in 
actual  possession,  who  shall  file  ill  tho  registry  of  deeds  a 
(lescription  of  what  he  claims  as  a  homestead.  Jiut  it  does 
not  extend  to  debts  contracted  before  such  claim  and  de- 
scription is  filed  in  the  register's  office.  ,\fter  the  owner's 
death  his  widow  may  occupy  the  premises  during  her  widow- 
hood, and  her  children  during  their  minority  ;  and  during 
this  time  it  is  exempt  from  the  debts  of  the  deceased;  but 
no  longer. 

In  iMassachusetts  householders  having  families  and  actu- 
ally occupying  promises  may  claim  homesteads  out  of  tho 
same,  but  it  only  takes  effect  when  Ihoy  shall  have  begun 
to  occupy  the  same,  and  does  not  afl'ect  any  liens  or  mort- 
gages thereon  llien  existing.  To  iiiako  an  effectual  claim 
of  such  exemption  there  must  be  a  declaration  to  that  effect 
in  the  deed  conveying  the  premises,  or  it  must  be  made  by 
the  owner,  and  a  recor*!  of  the  same  tluly  entered.  Tho 
reversionary  right  of  the  debtor  after  the  expiratiiui  of  tho 
homestcinl  right  is  subject  to  his  ilebis,  but  a  levy  uptui  the 
homestead  interest  is  void,  even  if  done  by  the  cons*nit  of 
the  wife.  Tho  exemption  is  ns  much  in  his  favor  as  hers. 
And  if  he  c<uivey  tho  land,  even  with  covenants  of  war- 
ranty, it  would  not  estop  him  from  claiming  a  homestead 
right  out  of  it  ihen  existing  in  favor  of  his  wife  and  ehil- 
tlren.  A  mortgage  or  conveynnee  by  a  husband,  however, 
will  carry  the  reversion  after  the  right  of  homestead  has 
been  satisfied,  although  his  wife  docs  not  join  in  the  ileed  ; 
and  in  order  to  ci>nvey  Iho  homestead  right  there  must  be 
words  in  Iho  deed  expressly  cunyiiig  that  right  by  name, 
and  the  husband  and  wife  must  join  in  the  same.  The 
right  iloes  not  attach  to  lands  held  in  common,  nor  does  n 
declaration  of  homestead  become  of  any  avail  lill  tho  owner 
has  a  house  thereon  which  ho  oeeiipies.  .At  the  owner's 
death  his  witiow,  if  he  have  one.  bus  a  right  to  eoiitiiiite  to 
oei'tqiy  the  homestead,  nor  can  he  do  auylhing  by  his  will 


974 


HOMESTEAD  LEGISLATION   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


which  can  curtail  this  right.  The  homestead,  like  her 
dower,  is  set  out  to  her  in  the  same  manner,  and  she  is 
entitlcfi  to  both.  This  right  of  hers  continues  durinj:;  her 
widowhood,  and  to  any  minor  child  who  occupies  the  same 
until  twenty-one  years  of  age:  and  it  is  the  subject  of  sale 
liy  her  and  tlie  guardians  of  the  minor  cliildren.  Tliis 
home:^tcad  right  is  regarded  as  an  estate  of  freehold,  first 
in  the  husband,  afterwards  in  the  widow  and  children  until 
the  youngest  is  of  ago.  And  the  interest  of  the  minor 
children  after  her  death  may  be  sold  by  their  guardian  by 
license  of  court :  but  neither  the  widow  nor  children  can 
convey  their  respective  interests,  exce])t  with  the  consent 
of  the  other.  If  a  husband  dies  leaving  only  adult  heirs, 
she  may  claim  the  homestead  as  well  as  her  dower,  althougii 
there  arc  no  debt?  to  be  satisfied.  No  abandonment  of  a 
homestead  after  the  right  has  once  attached  can  effect  a 
claim  to  the  same  until  a  new  one  shall  have  been  gained. 

In  Michigan,  while  tiic  exemption  is  in  favor  of  the 
owner  and  occupant  of  an  estate,  no  formal  declaration  of 
homestead  is  required  until  some  creditor  is  about  to  levy 
upon  bis  land,  and  then  it  may  be  done  orally.  It  may  bo 
claimed  in  a  merely  equitable  as  well  as  a  legal  estate.  And 
if  it  be  the  estate  of  the  wife,  and  is  occupied  by  both,  it 
may  have  the  properties  of  a  homestead.  If  the  owner  be 
married,  he  cannot  waive  or  defeat  the  homestead  right,  and 
a  mortgage  or  conveyance  of  the  premises  in  order  to  bo 
good  must  be  signed  by  the  wife;  a  deed  by  the  husband 
alone  would  not  be  suflieirnt,  though  made  by  her  consent 
orally  expressed.  After  his  death  his  widow  is  entitled  to 
the  rents  and  profits  of  the  estate,  which  she  takes  in  con- 
nection with  his  minor  children,  but  to  that  end  they  must 
be  in  occupation  of  the  premises. 

In  Minnesota  the  exemption  is  in  favor  of  a  debtor,  his 
widow,  and  minor  children,  but  continues  only  so  long  as 
the  premises  are  owned  and  occupied  as  such.  It  does  not 
require  any  formal  declaration  of  claim  of  homestead  be- 
yond the  notice  which  the  debtor  may  give  to  the  officer 
when  levying  upon  the  same.  The  owner  cannot  convey 
it  if  he  ha^e  a  wife  unless  she  joins  with  him  in  the  con- 
veyance, unless  it  be  in  mortgage  to  secure  the  purchase- 
money  or  a  lien  for  work  on  the  premises.  It  may  be  lost 
liv  abandoning  the  premises,  and  the  husband  may  forfeit 
it  by  conveying  the  premises  to  his  wife  to  defraud  his 
creditors.  A  judgment  against  the  debtor  becomes  a  Hen 
on  the  land,  and  may  be  enforced  by  levy  as  soon  as  it 
ceases  to  be  occupied  as  a  homestead,  though  the  owner 
may  convey  it  or  temporarily  abandon  it  without  subject- 
ing it  to  a  creditor's  process.  After  the  owner's  death  his 
widow  is  entitled  to  it  so  long  as  she  remains  unmarried 
and  continues  to  occupy  it  ;  and  the  children  are  also  en- 
titled to  the  premises  until  twenty-one  years  of  age,  if  they 
occupy  them. 

The  laws  of  Mississippi  secure  homesteads  to  heads  of 
families  without  any  formal  act  on  (he  part  of  the  debtor, 
who  to  avail  himself  of  it  must  be  in  occupation  of  the 
premises.  The  husband  selects  the  homestead,  and  may 
change  it  at  his  pleasure.  But  merely  leaving  it,  while  his 
wife  and  children  continue  to  occupy  it,  is  not  held  to  be 
an  abandonment.  He  may  sell  one  homestead  for  the  pur- 
pose <»f  reinvesting  the  proceeds  in  a  new  one,  and  have  a 
year  in  which  to  do  it  ;  so  he  may  sell  it  or  any  part  of  it 
free  from  any  judgment  lien.  After  the  debtor's  death  his 
widow  and  children  take  it  hy  descent,  ancl  after  her  death 
the  children  hold  it  by  descent  until  they  arc  twenty-one 
years  of  age.  liut  this  docs  not  interfere  with  her  right 
of  dower  in  the  jtrcmises.  During  his  life  the  wife  has  no 
vested  right  in  the  jtremises;  so  with  the  children.  The 
estate  is  impressed  with  the  character  of  homestead  only 
while  and  po  long  as  the  debtor  is  in  occupation  of  it,  ex- 
cept that  if  the  widow  is  not  in  a  condition  to  carry  on  the 
estate,  she  may  let  it  to  a  tenant  to  occupy  in  her  stead. 

Every  householder  and  head  of  a  family  in  Missouri  may 
claim  a  homestead,  and  this  right  extends  to  household 
estates.  If  a  creditor  levies  upon  his  debtor's  estate,  the 
latter  may  claim  his  homestead,  and  hold  it  exempt  from 
all  debts  and  liabilities.  At  the  debtor's  death  the  estate 
goes  to  his  widow,  and  to  his  children  until  they  are  of  age, 
and  if  not  set  out  in  his  lifetime,  the  same  is  set  out  to  her 
by  the  judge  of  probate.  She  may  then  have  her  dower 
set  out  in  the  same  estate,  unless  the  homestead  covers  one- 
third  of  its  value;  if  it  does,  she  cannot  claim  that  and  dower 
also. 

There  is  little  detail  in  the  law  of  homestead  in  Ne- 
braska. It  is  limited  to  owners,  occupants,  and  residents 
as  heads  of  families,  and  descends  to  heirs  at  law  or  goes 
to  devisees.  It  is  exetnpt  from  sale  so  long  as  it  is  owned 
by  the  debtor.  If  a  creditor  levies  upon  the  land,  the  debtor 
gives  notice  to  the  officer  of  what  he  claims  as  his  home- 
stead. The  debtor  by  joining  with  his  wife  may  mortgage 
the  homestead.  The  exemption  does  not  extend  to  the 
liabilities  of  an  attornev  for  mou'-vs  collected  bv  him. 


The  common  provision  in  favor  of  heads  of  families  who 
occupy  the  premises  in  which  a  homestead  is  claimed  is 
adopted  in  New  Hampshire,  and  the  part  so  claimed  may 
be  selected  when  an  officer  levies  an  cxccuticui  u(>on  the 
debtor's  estate.  It  still  would  be  liable  for  debts  contracted 
before  the  homestead  is  set  out.  It  can  only  be  waived  or 
released  hy  a  deed  of  husband  and  wife,  if  she  be  alive,  or 
if  dead  and  there  are  minor  children,  by  assent  of  the 
judge  of  probate.  If  a  levy  is  made  upon  the  estate,  the 
husband  or  his  wife  or  her  next  friend  may  claim  the  home- 
stead, and  the  officer  is  tliereupon  required  to  st-t  it  off  by 
metes  and  bounds.  If  no  sueh  claim  is  made,  the  creditor 
who  causes  the  levy  to  be  inacle,  takes  tlir  estate  in  common 
with  the  homestead  right,  and  the  same  may  then  be  set 
out  by  process  of  partition.  If  such  partition  cannot  bo 
made,  and  the  homestead  is  sold  with  the  rest  of  the  estate, 
the  amount  of  the  exemption  is  to  be  paid  into  a  savings 
bank,  to  be  drawn  out  u])on  the  joint  order  of  the  husband 
and  wife,  if  she  is  living;  otherwi;-e.  of  the  husband  and 
the  guardian  of  the  children.  A  husViand  can  convey  the 
estate  subject  to  the  homestead  right  in  the  wife  and  chil- 
dren, and  bis  covenants  would  est^p  him.  But  the  husband 
and  wife  might,  nevertheless,  recover  the  land  thus  con- 
veyed during  her  lifetime,  and  alter  his  death  she  and  her 
children  might  recover  it.  But  tbe  wife  and  children  could 
not  recover  the  land  during  the  life  of  the  husband.  If  the 
husband  convoys  his  estate  without  his  wife's  joining  in 
the  deed  before  a  homestead  has  been  set  out,  she  may  have 
the  homestead  set  out  in  the  same  even  during  his  lifetime. 
The  estate  of  homestead  is  a  conditional  life  estate.  When 
it  is  set  out  it  is  wholly  exempt  from  levy,  and  this  extends 
to  the  reversionary  interest  there  is  after  the  homestead 
right  is  determined.  If  the  wife  survive,  and  the  husband 
dies  seised  of  the  estate,  the  judge  of  probate  sets  out  her 
homestead  in  the  same,  in  the  same  manner  as  dower  is 
set  out.  Otherwise,  she  may  have  partition  against  the 
grantee  of  the  estate,  and  have  her  homestead  set  out  to 
her.  Her  right,  however,  is  inchoate  until  the  homestead 
has  been  set  out  to  her  in  one  of  the  forms  above  men- 
tioned. This  right  is  that  of  possession  of  the  estate  dur- 
ing life,  and  a  right  in  the  children  during  their  minority. 
Ncir  can  the  husband  change  or  affect  this  by  any  dispo- 
sition of  it  in  his  last  will  and  testament,  so  long  as  the 
widow  or  minor  children  continue  to  occupy  the  premises. 
Leasing  homestead  land  is  not  an  abandonment  of  tbe  right, 
but  upon  acquiring  a  new  homestead  the  prior  one  is  lost. 

In  Nevada  a  homestead  is  selected  by  a  husband  and  wife, 
or  either  of  them,  or  any  one  who  is  the  bead  of  a  family, 
and  is  d(»ne  by  a  declaration  in  writing,  which  is  recorded. 
Upon  the  death  of  cither  husband  or  wife  the  homestead  is 
set  apart  for  the  survivor  and  their  children  ;  and  if  the 
tenant  of  the  homestead  liiive  a  wife,  they  together  hold  the 
same  as  joint  tenants.  He  cannot  convey,  mortgage,  or 
lease  the  premises  without  the  concurrence  of  his  wife,  if 
he  have  one,  unless  she  is  insane.  In  that  case  it  may  be 
done  by  order  of  court,  and  the  proceeds  invested  for  her 
benefit.  If,  because  the  homestead  is  not  separable  from 
the  rest  of  the  debtor's  estate,  it  is  levied  upon  and  sold, 
the  money  is  deposited  with  the  court,  and  can  only  be 
drawn  by  the  order  of  the  husband  and  wife.  Nor  can 
there  be  an  abandonment  of  a  homestead  otherwise  than  by 
a  written  declaration  signed,  acknowledged,  and  recorded 
by  both  husband  ami  wife,  if  there  be  one. 

The  exemption  in  New  .Jersey  is  in  favor  of  a  householder 
of  what  is  occupied  by  him  as  a  residence.  It  may  be 
claimed  either  by  the  deed  conveying  the  estate,  or  by  a 
written  declaration  of  the  owner  of  such  estate,  duly  re- 
corded. When  thus  ascertained,  it  cannot  be  conveyed  or 
leased  for  a  longer  term  than  one  year,  unless  the  wife,  if 
there  be  one,  joins  in  such  deed  or  lease,  and  tlie  i^ame  is 
conveyed  for  its  full  value,  and  the  proceeds  thereof  are 
invested  in  a  new  homestead. 

New  York,  by  its  law,  exempts  a  homestead  in  favor  of 
a  householder  for  the  purposes  of  a  residence,  and  the 
dedication  of  premises  to  that  purpose  must  be  contained 
in  the  deed  conveying  the  same  to  the  claimant,  or  by  a 
written  notice  and  deelaration  on  his  part  that  it  is  to  be 
held  as  such  ;  and  this  must  bo  recorded.  The  exemption 
docs  not  extend  to  claims  for  torts.  It  is  for  the  benefit  of 
the  debtor's  widow  ami  children  till  the  youngest  is  of  age, 
if  they  continue  to  occupy  the  same.  But  the  debtor  may 
release  the  homestead  by  any  of  the  ordinary  modes  of 
conveyance:  but  though  he  is  the  owner  of  the  estate  to 
most  purposes,  it  remains  exempt  from  his  debts  until  his 
death,  and  then  for  the  benefit  of  his  widow  and  family  of 
minor  children  if  they  shall  continue  to  occupy  the  same. 
A  judgment  is,  nevertheless,  so  far  a  lien  upon  the  debtor's 
estate  that  as  soon  as  the  homestead  interest  is  determined 
it  may  be  levied  upon  the  land.  A  temporary  cessation  to 
occupy  the  premises  docs  not  defeat  the  right  of  homestead 
therein. 


HOMESTEAD  LEGISLATION  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


ho 


A  homestead  exemption  in  North  Carolina  is  in  favor  of 
an  owner  ami  occupant  of  an  estate  and  his  widow,  if  he 
leaves  one,  :in<l  continues  during  coverture,  and  afterwards 
during  her  wi(lowh<»od  and  the  minority  of  her  children, 
if  she  have  any.  If  she  have  no  children,  the  widow  takes 
it  in  her  own  rif^ht.  But  actual  residence  nnd  occupancy 
arc  indispensahlo  conditions  to  the  cluim  of  a  homestead 
ezenipFion.  It  is  a  determinable  fee,  hut  there  is  an  in- 
terest in  the  owner  answering  to  a  reversion,  though  it  is 
not  the  subject  of  levy  for  his  debts.  If  when  the  husband 
dies  he  leaves  no  debt?,  no  homestead  can  be  set  out,  be- 
cau?c  the  object  of  such  exemption  is  to  protect  it  from 
creditors.  Homestead  does  not  interfere  with  the  widow's 
right  of  dower.  The  exemption  docs  not  extend  to  claims 
for  torts  done.  Xo  conveyance  of  a  homestead  can  be  of 
any  validity  if  the  owner  has  a  wife  unless  she  join  with 
her  hu;<band  in  the  deed  and  its  acknowledgment.  If  the 
homestead  is  not  set  out  to  the  husband  during  his  life,  the 
widow,  or  his  children  under  twenty-one  year?,  may  have  it 
set  out  to  her  or  them.  .\ud  among  the  kind«  of  interests 
in  which  it  may  be  claimed  are  included  equities  of  re- 
demption of  mortgaged  estates. 

The  right  of  homestead  in  Ohio  extends  to  leasehold 
estates  ancl  buildings  standing  upon  another's  land.  If  a 
creditor  levies  upon  the  laud  of  his  debtor,  he  may  apply 
to  the  officer  holding  the  execution  and  have  his  homestead 
set  off  by  appraisers.  If  this  is  not  done  during  the  life  of 
the  debtor,  his  widow  may  have  it  done  in  her  favor  after 
bis  fleecase.  It  thus  enures  to  her  benefit,  or,  if  she  bo 
deail.  to  her  minor  children  residing  on  the  premises.  A 
temporary  leaeing  or  removing  from  the  estate  does  not 
work  a  forfeiture  of  the  right  ;  nor  can  a  mortgage  of  a 
bomostead  be  valid  or  effectual  unless  the  wife  join  in  it, 
80  as  to  affect  her  right  or  that  of  the  family. 

Before  a  homestead  exemption  can  attach  to  any  pre- 
mises in  Pennsylvania  the  owner  must  have  elected  to  hold 
the  some  as  his  homestead.  And  if  when  a  levy  is  made 
upon  a  debtor's  estate  bo  neglects  to  make  claim  for  such 
exemption,  it  is  tieemed  an  entire  waiver  of  it  on  his  part. 
He  may  also  render  the  same  liable  to  levy  if,  when  he  con- 
tracts a  debt,  he  expressly  agrees  as  to  that  debt  to  waive 
the  right  of  homestcrnl.  After  the  death  of  the  deI>tor  his 
widow  takes  it  for  herself  and  cbilclrcn  :  and  if  she  have 
none,  she  takes  it  absulutely  to  herself,  and  can  convey  it 
as  her  o\vn  by  her  own  deed.  But  if  she  do  not  claim  her 
homestead  within  a  reasonable  time  after  her  husband's 
death,  she  will  be  held  to  have  waived  it.  The  bankrupt 
law  doe?  not  reach  a  debtor's  homestead  estate. 

The  exemption  in  South  Carolina  is  in  favor  of  the  head 
of  a  family;  and  if  a  creditor  is  about  to  levy  upon  the 
estate  of  such  a  person  who  claims  his  homestead  of  the 
officer,  the  latter  sets  it  off  to  him.  But  if  he  neglects  then 
to  claim  his  homestead,  he  is  taken  to  have  waived  it.  If 
it  is  not  done  in  the  life  of  the  debtor,  it  will  bo  set  off  to 
his  widow  by  commissioners.  When  thus  setoff  it  reverts 
to  the  widow  and  the  debtor's  minor  children  until  her  death 
or  marriage  and  until  the  youngest  child  is  of  age.  If  the 
husband  and  wife  both  die  leaving  ehihlren,  whether  minors 
or  not,  they  will  hold  the  premises  exempt  from  debts,  just 
as  their  parents  held.  But  there  still  is  a  reversion  after 
the  homestead  estate  is  determined,  which  is  the  subject 
of  sale  or  devise  by  the  owner.  But  sale  of  an  intestate's 
estate  by  order  of  the  judge  of  probate  does  not  cut  off  the 
widow's  right  of  homestead.  No  waiver  of  the  right  of 
homestead  by  the  head  of  a  family  will  have  the  effect  of 
defeating  the  same. 

As  in  most  of  the  States  already  mentioned,  the  exemp- 
tion in  Tennessee  is  in  favor  of  the  head  of  a  family.  The 
mode  of  claiming  it  is  by  a  writing  signed,  scalc<l,  and  re- 
cordf(I,  and  the  same  is  set  out  by  appraisers.  It  cannot 
then  be  conveyed  or  mortgaged  except  by  a  joint  deed  of 
husband  and  wife,  if  he  have  one.  But  if  he  cease  to  occupy 
it,  it  becomes  liable  to  he  levied  on  by  his  creditors.  At 
bis  death  it  goes  to  bis  widow  during  life  or  till  she  in  mar- 
ried, when  it  goes  to  bis  minor  children.  She  cannot  claim 
flower  a?  well  as  homestead  if  the  value  of  the  latter  is  as 
much  as  $1000.  If  her  homestead  is  not  of  that  value,  she 
may  have  enough  out  of  the  estate  in  the  form  of  dower  to 
make  it  equal  to  that  sum. 

The  exemption  in  Texas  is  to  "a  family,"  and  by  the 
'•forced  sale  '  to  which  this  applies,  is  meant  any  process 
of  court  or  manner  prescribed  by  law.  If  the  owner  have 
a  wife,  he  cannot  convey  the  estate  except  by  her  consent 
expressed  by  joining  in  and  aeknowlerlging  a  deed  of  the 
premises.  But  if  he  sell  the  land,  and  then  he  ami  his  wife 
abandon  the  estate,  (bo  pale  becomes  valid.  So  if  he  sell 
his  homestead  and  then  acquire  a  new  one,  the  salo  becomes 
valid  ;  and  if  he  gain  a  new  one,  his  former  one  becomes 
liable  for  his  debts.  If  ho  contracts  to  sell  hi.i  homestead, 
the  cotirt  will  not  enforce  the  conveyance  so  long  as  his 
wife  continues  to  ocnpy  the  |>.-(-niise^ ;   but  if  she  a!)andon 


them  the  contract  may  be  enforced.  And  if  the  debtor 
abandons  the  homestead,  it  becomes  liable  for  his  debts. 
By  abandonment  is  meant  the  leaving  the  estate  with  an 
intent  not  to  return  to  claim  the  exemption.  If  the  debtor 
have  no  wife,  though  he  may  have  children,  the  homestead 
may  be  conveyed  by  him  or  be  levied  upon  for  his  debts. 
And  whether  children  can  lake  a  homestead  after  their 
father's  death  depends  upon  bis  leaving  a  widow  to  take  it 
in  his  stead.  Even  then,  if  she  hail  left  her  husband  in  his 
lifetime  without  good  cause,  and  had  remained  separate  till 
his  death,  her  right  would  be  lost.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
husband  remove  from  the  homestead,  and  thus  abandons  her 
and  his  children,  she  would  be  remitted  to  her  right  of 
homestead,  and  may  resume  possession  thereof.  And  a 
married  woman  i?  competent  to  appear  and  litigate  her 
rights  in  court.  Homestead  may  be  claimed  in  lands  held 
in  common.  A  sale  of  the  homestead  by  the  husband  alone, 
if  the  wife  do  not  join  with  him  in  making  the  conveyance, 
is  a  nullity;  but  if  he  convey  it  fraudulently  to  keep  it 
from  his  creditor.*:,  and  he  then  abandons  possession,  it  be- 
comes liable  to  levy  by  his  creditors.  If  the  owner  die 
leaving  a  widow  and  children,  the  children  cannot  have 
partition  thereof  so  lung  as  she  lives;  and  if  the  court 
grant  her  a  divorce  with  the  custody  of  the  children,  she 
may  claim  the  homestead  to  her  own  use. 

In  Vermont  the  exemption  is  in  favor  of  a  housekeeper 
who  is  the  actual  occupant  of  the  same  himself.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  any  of  the  owner's  debts  which  he  owed  at  the  time 
of  acquiring  the  homestead.  If  he  acquire  a  new  home- 
stead, it  defeats  the  prior  one.  The  husband  cannot  im- 
pair his  wife's  right  to  the  homestead  by  conveying  it  unless 
she  joins  in  the  conveyance.  But  the  purchaser  under  such 
a  deed  may  hold  the  premises  during  the  coverture.  The 
right  of  the  wife  is  to  enjoy  the  premises  after  the  hus- 
band's death,  but  this  right  docs  not  vest  any  title  in  her  ; 
it  is  only  a  kind  of  lien  in  her  favor  upon  her  liusbaud's 
estate.  She  may  enforce  this  after  bis  death  if  he  shall 
have  conveyed  it  in  his  lifetime  without  her  joining  in  the 
deed.  It  is  to  be  set  out  to  him  by  the  judge  of  jirobate, 
and  passes  at  once  to  the  widow  and  cliiblren  in  the  way 
of  descent.  It  is,  however,  to  be  held  by  them  as  one  en- 
tire thing,  so  that  those  who  arc  not  in  possession  can  claim 
no  rents  out  of  the  property.  It  is  independent  of  her  right 
of  dower,  and  belongs  to  her  in  fee,  and  at  her  death  goes 
to  her  heirs.  It  may,  moreover,  bo  set  out  to  lirr  in  the 
same  lands  wliieh  have  already  been  assigned  to  her  as  her 
dower  ;  and  where  both  are  claimed,  the  value  of  the  home- 
stead is  to  be  deducted  from  that  of  the  dower;  and  if  tho 
homestead  is  equal  to  one-third  of  tlie  estate,  she  can  claim 
no  dower.  If  she  gives  a  deed  of  her  homestead  estate,  she 
does  not  thereby  affect  her  right  of  dower.  A  homestead 
may  be  set  out  in  an  equitable  as  well  as  a  legal  estate,  and 
in  incumbered  as  well  as  unincumbered  premises.  If  tho 
husband  conveys  the  homestead  in  the  lifetime  of  his  wife, 
it  would  not  have  the  effect  tu  disturb  the  occujiancy  of  the 
household  and  family  so  long  as  they  continue  to  retain 
such  actual  occupancy. 

It  is  a  housekeeper  and  head  of  a  family  who  may  claim 
a  homestead  in  Virginia,  and  the  exemption  may  cover 
real  or  personal  estate,  at  the  election  of  tho  debtor.  It  is 
claimed  either  by  inserting  a  clause  to  that  effect  in  tbo 
deerl  conveying  the  estate  to  the  debtor,  or  by  a  declaration 
of  tho  owner  describing  what  he  claims,  which  is  done  by  a 
dee<l  duly  recorded.  It  may  be  claimed  in  a  legal  or  nn 
equitable  estate,  and  it  may  be  claimed  and  selected  at  the 
time  of  a  levy  made  upon  it.  The  debtor  when  contract- 
ing a  debt  may  waive  the  exemption  as  to  that  specific 
debt,  and  thereby  render  the  estate  liable  for  the  same. 
After  the  death  of  the  owner,  if  the  homestead  has  not  been 
set  out,  it  may  be  done  so  at  the  request  of  the  widow  or  tho 
children  of  the  deeea.'^cd,  and  she  will  be  entitled  to  liis 
homestead  during  her  widowhood,  in  connection  with  tho 
children,  until  the  youngest  shall  have  arrived  at  majority. 
And  tho  same  would  be  tho  effect  if  she  were  divorced  from 
her  husband;  she  would  take  it  as  if  he  were  dead. 

A  married  or  unmarried  nmn  may  claim  a  homestead  ex- 
emption in  Wisconsin  if  ho  has  a  family  dependent  upon 
him  ;  but  it  doe^  not  include  estates  held  in  common,  though 
it  would  cover  a  house  standing  upon  anotlier's  land.  The 
debtor  selects  his  homestead,  and  notifies  the  offieer  when 
making  a  levy  upon  his  estate,  who  sets  it  out  by  metis 
and  bounds.  In  order  to  convey  it  the  wife  must  join  with 
the  debtor  in  a  deed  which  she  must  acknowledge.  Nor 
woubi  a  voluntary  conveyance  of  a  homestead  by  husband 
and  wife  render  the  same  liable  to  be  levied  on  for  his  debi^. 
although  ma<le  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors. 
A  temporary  leasing  or  absence  from  the  estate  does  not 
affect  the  owner's  right  of  homestead  in  the  siime.  Upon 
tho  death  of  tbo  owner  the  luimestead  descends  to  tho 
widow  during  her  widowhctod,  and  to  her  children  until 
they  are  of  age.      A   wite  does  not    lose    h'-r  right    in    the 


976 


HOMICIDE. 


homestead  by  abandoning  it  if  she  is  driven  from  it  by  her 
husband;  nor  would  a  husband  and  wife  be  taken  to  have 
abandoned  a  homestead  by  taking  in  a  son  to  occupy  it 
with  Ihem  and  carry  un  the  estate.  If  the  wife  is  insane 
the  court  may  order  the  estate  to  be  sold,  and  direct  how 
the  proceeds  shall  be  invested.  And  if  when  the  debtor 
dies  the  estate  be  under  a  mortgage  or  other  lien,  and  the 
same  is  sold  for  more  than  enough  to  pay  this  charge,  the 
judge  may  order  enough  of  such  surplus  to  be  invested  in 
a  homestead  for  the  fiunily,  and  may.  to  that  end,  order 
?jOll  to  bo  thus  invested  in  a  new  homestead.  (For  a  ref- 
erence to  the  provisions  of  the  laws  of  the  U.  S.  concern- 
ing the  right*  of  individual  settlers  to  acquire  public  lands 
in  the  character  of  "  heads  of  families."  sen  Land  Laws  op 
Tin;  U.  J>. ;  also  Trrhitoiuks.)  Emoky  Washuurs. 

Hoin'icide   [Lat.    homicitHnm,  from   homn,  "a  man/* 
and  cft'i/w,  to  "kill  "].  the  killing  of  one  human  being  by 
another.     The  word  homicide  is  the  most  comprehensive 
designation  employed  in  law  to  denote  the  causing  of  a 
person's  death    by   human   agency,  and    has  reference   to 
every    mode    by   which   such   an   act   may    be  committed, 
whether  it  be  innocent  or  criminal.     There  is  no  resulting 
implication,  therefore,  from  the  mere  use  of  this  generic 
appellation,  that  the  act  to  which  it  is  applied  constitutes 
a  leg.al  otfence  or  is  attended  \vith  any  legal  responsibility. 
Homicide,  at  common  law,  is  divided  into  three  classes — 
justifiable,  excusable,  and  felonious.     In  the  ancient  his- 
tory of  English  jurisprudence  there  was  an  essential  dis- 
tinction between  justifiable  homicide  and  that  termed  ex- 
cusable, since   the  former  was  regarded  as  involving  no 
imputation  of  guilt  whatever,  while  the  latter  did  partake, 
in  some  slight  degree,  of  criminality.     As  a  consequence 
of  this  distinction,  acts  of  justitiable  homicide  received  no 
punishment,   while  those   which    were  deemed    excusable 
merely    were    attended    by   a   forfeiture   of  the    offender's 
goods.     But  at  a  very  early  period  the  imposition  of  this 
or  any  penalty  for  acts  which  were  either  attributable  to 
pure  accident  or  were  done  in  necessary  self-defence  was 
felt  to   be  a  sentence   of  unjust   severity,  and   the  person 
charged    with    the    offence  escapee!    the    consequences    by 
being  held  entitled  to  a  writ  of  pardon  and  restitution  as  | 
a  matter  of  course  and  right,  or  the  judges,  in  order  to  re-   i 
licve  him  of  the  expense  of  suing  out  the  writ,  would  per-   ' 
niit  or  direct  a  verdict  of  acquittal.     Any  practical  diver-   ' 
sity  between  the  two  kinds  of  homicide  therefore  became  \ 
virtually  obsolete,  since  both  were  adjudged  equally  unde-  j 
serving  of  punishment.      The  old  names,   however,  were  I 
retained,  and  a  difference  was  still  asserted  to  exist  between   | 
them,  because  excusable  homicide  did  involve  some  trivial   \ 
element  of  hcinousness,  though   too  slight  to  merit  any   i 
legal  penalty.     But  the  distinction,  if  maintained  at  all.  ' 
is  too  vague  and  shadowy  to  bo  of  any  importance,  and  i 
all  kinds  of  homicide  not  felonious  are  better  termed  de-  j 
fensible  or  innocent.     As,  however,  the  old  designations 
arc  still   employed   in    English    law  and   in   some  of  the 
American  States,  they  will  be  retained  for  the  sake  of  con-  I 
venicnco  in  this  article.     Felonious  homicide  is  the  killing  j 
of  a  human  creature  without  justification  or  excuse,  and  is 
divided  into  manslaughter  and  murder.     These  two  sub- 
jects will  be  examined  under  their  respective  titles,  so  that 
acts  of  a  defensible  nature  will  alone  bo  considered  here. 
(See  Mi'RDKR,  Manslaightkr.) 

I.  Jiititiftdb/e  Hfjmiride. — This  is  of  rorious  kinds.  (1) 
AVhcre  the  proper  officer  executes  a  criminal  in  strict  con- 
formity with  his  sentence.  Such  an  act  is  not  only  not 
wrongful,  but  is  obligatory  upon  the  officer  as  a  legal  duty. 
It  is,  however,  necessary  that  the  officer  should  follow  tho 
sentence  precisely,  otherwise  the  act  may  amount  to  murder. 
(2)  Where  an  officer  of  justice  (or  other  person  acting  in 
his  aid),  in  the  proper  performance  of  a  legal  act  which  ho 
is  required  to  perform,  kills  a  person  who  resists  or  pre- 
vents him  from  executing  it.  An  officer  who  has  authority 
to  arrest  and  ini]>rison  may  repel  foroc  by  force  in  the  at- 
tempted discharge  of  his  duty,  even  to  the  extent  of  killing 
his  assailant  if  he  cannot  otherwise  take  tho  person  whom 
he  intends  to  arrest  into  custody,  or  it  is  necessary  for  self- 
protection.  So.  if  a  person  charged  with  a  fehmy  escapes 
after  arrest  or  flees  to  avoid  an  arrest,  the  officer  is  justi- 
fied in  killing  him  if  it  be  impossible  to  effect  his  capture. 
It  is  a  further  rule  that  a  private  individual  may  justify  a 
homicide  necessarily  committed  in  preventing  the  escape 
of  one  who  has  actually  committed  a  felony.  There  will 
be  no  such  justification,  however,  if  tho  alleged  crime  bo 
merely  a  misdemeanor.  (See  Crimk.  Fki.ony.)  Jailers  may 
prevent  the  escape  of  prisoners  by  killing  them  if  it  be 
necessary.  But  in  all  such  cases  killing  must  only  be  re- 
sorted to  as  tho  last  alternative,  without  which  the  per- 
formance of  the  officer's  duty  cannot  be  accomplished.  (3) 
AVhere  tho  prevention  of  a  forcible  and  atrocious  crime 
renrlers  the  homicide  necessary.  Whenever  any  offence 
of  a  felonious  nature  is  attempted,  such  as  murder,  robbery, 


burglary,  arson,  rape,  etc.,  either  the  person  whoso  life  or 
property  is  endangered,  or  any  one  who  has  knowledge  of 
the  intended  crime,  may  use  every  effort  to  prevent  its 
commission,  and  causing  the  death  of  the  offender  is  justi- 
fiable if  the  imminent  danger  cannot  otherwise  be  averted. 
Nor  is  it  essential  to  his  justification  to  show  that  the  crime 
would  actually  have  been  perpetrated  if  the  act  of  homi- 
cide had  not  been  performed.  For  a  person  under  such 
circumstances  is  warranted  in  acting  upon  a  natural  and 
reasonable  presumption,  and  if  there  be  sufficient  indica- 
tions of  a  felonious  design  and  of  an  immediate  purpose  to 
carry  it  into  execution,  he  may  conclude  tliat  there  is  actual 
premeditation,  and  use  the  same  means  for  his  protection 
as  would,  if  such  were  really  the  case,  be  allowable.  There- 
fore, if  an  empty  pistol  be  {>ointed  at  any  one  who  believes, 
and  has  reason  to  believe,  it  to  be  loaded,  and  a  threat  is 
made  to  fire  it  immediately,  the  person  who  supposes  his 
life  to  be  in  danger  may  kill  his  assailant  with  impunity. 
But  if  he  knew  the  weapon  to  be  unloaded,  he  would  not 
bo  justified  jn  such  an  action.  Under  no  circumstances 
can  the  homicide  be  committed  if  the  crime  can  be  averted 
by  less  severe  precautions,  or  unless  the  necessity  continue 
to  the  time  when  the  felon  is  killed.  Hence,  if  the  killing 
occur  after  a  seizure  of  tho  wrongdoer  has  been  effected 
and  he  has  been  properly  secured,  it  will  be  murder.  (4) 
Killing  of  the  enemy  during  time  of  war  in  the  actual 
prosecution  of  hostilities  is,  of  course,  justifiable  on  the 
ground  of  military  necessity. 

II.  Ejccnsable  Houncidc. — This  is  of  two  kinds:  (1)  By 
misadventure,  or  accident.    This  is,  however,  innocent  only 
when  the  person  committing  the  homicide  is  engaged  in  a 
lawful  act,  without  any  intention  of  inflicting  injury  upon 
another,  and  without  any  failure  to  use  proper  precautions 
to   prevent   danger.     If  the  act  is  unlawful,  the  homicide 
will  bo  felonious.     If  the  head  of  a  hatchet  which  a  per- 
son is  using,  and  which  ho  has  reason  to  believe  is  firmly 
fastened,  flies  off  and  kills  a  Vjystander,  or  if  a  wagoner 
drives  over  and  kills  a  person   lying  on  the   road  upon  a 
dark  night,  the  homicide  is  accidental  and  excusable.     The 
degree  of  care  and  prudence  to  be  exorcised  is  variable 
under  different  conditions.     The  use  of  poisons  or  danger- 
ous weapons  would  require  much  greater  precaution  than 
the  employment  of  articles  not  in  themselves  liable  to  oc- 
casion   injury,  as,  for    instance,  the    common    utensils  in 
every-day  use.     Tho  lawful  act  which  results  in  a  person's 
death  may  be  the  administering  of  reasonable  and  moderate 
correction  by  a  parent  or  school-teacher  or  other  person 
occupying  a  position  of  similar  authority.     But  the  homi- 
cide is  only  innocent  in  such  a  case  when  the  bounds  of  a 
proper  restraint  upon  tho  severity  of  the  punishment  are 
not  exceeded.     In  like  manner,  if  several  persons  should 
engage    amicably    in   athletic  sports,  and  by  some  unfor- 
tunate   mischance  one  of  them  should  be  killed,  be  who 
occasioned  the  death  would  be  innocent.     (2)  Homicide  in 
self-defence,  or  in  protection  of  one's  property  or  his  wife, 
child,  parent,  or  servant.     But  under  this  head  arc  not  in- 
cluded cases  of    defence  against  felonious    crimes,  which 
have  been  already  considered,  but  only  against  any  other 
modes  of  attack  or  injury  which  may  bo  attempted,  as  in 
cases  of  common  assault  or  trespass,  where  there  is  no  in- 
tention  to  commit   a  felony.       The   distinction  is  of  con- 
siderable importance,  on  account  of  the   difference  in  the 
nature  of  the  legal  obligation   which  is  imposed  upon  tho 
person  against  whom  an  offence  is  perpetrated  to  seek  to 
avoid   the   commission   of  homicide.     AVhen  an    attack  is 
made  with  intent  to  kill,  or  any  other  felony  is  attempted, 
tho  person  whose  life  or  property  is  emlangered  is  under  no 
duty  to  seek  to  avoid  the  threatened  injury  by  availing 
himself  of  every  practicable  means  of  escape,  but  he  may 
stand  his  ground,  use  every  possible  means  of  defence,  and 
kill  the  wrongdoer  if  a  reasonable  and  necessary  precaution 
requires  such  an  act.     But  when  the  attempted  injury  is 
not  felonious,  homicide   cannot  be  committed  in  defence 
unless  all  available  measures  arc  first  adopted  to  escape 
from  or  avert  the  danger.     Therefore,  if  a  simple  assault 
be  committed,    though    the    persim    assailed  may  protect 
himself  by  blows,  he  must,  as  the  old  phrase  expresses  it, 
*'  retreat  to  tho  wall,"  or  forbear  as  long  as  is  consistent 
with  safety  before  he  ventures  to  kill  his  assailant.     In  tho 
defrnce  of  property  retreat  is  not  necessary  in  order  that 
the  homicide  may  be  justified,  since  that  would  be  a  yield- 
ing of   the  property   without  attempting  protection  ;  but 
tho  wrongdoer  must  first  be  requested  to  leave  a  house  or 
to  refrain  from  interfering  with  goods  before  preventive 
measures    can  be  adopted,  and  even    then  the  trespasser 
cannot  be  killed  unless  he  persists  so  strenuously  in  effect- 
ing his  purpose  that  such  a  course  is  rendered  necessary. 
Only  a  reasonable  degree  of  force  can  be  used  against  an 
intruder  if  that  will  prove  sufficient.     A  felony  is  so  hein- 
ous an  ofiVnce  that  the  laws  regard  the  destruction  of  life 
no    disproportionate  penalty   if  the  wrongful  act  be  per- 


HOMILETICS— HOMINID^. 


977 


listed  in ;  but  offences  of  any  less  degree  ought  not  to  en- 
tail so  fcurful  a  punishmenc  unless  they  cun,  by  no  practi- 
cable lucuus,  be  uthenTise  averted.  In  the  I*,  t*.  crimes  are 
generally  defined  by  :«tatute,  and  the  |)rinci|iles  relating  to 
homicide  have  therefore  received  various  mudificatious. 
Very  essential  alterations,  however,  have  rarely  been 
made.  The  di.«tinctiou  between  justifiable  and  excusable 
homicide  has  ia  some  States  been  discarded,  but  the  same 
classes  of  offences  which  were  formerly  included  under 
these  respective  designations  have  usually*  to  tho  same 
extent,  been  declared  innocent. 

Gkohgk  Chase.  Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 
Homilet'icSy  following  the  etymology  of  the  term 
(oMtAia:  t'ce  IliniiLY).  denotes  the  science  and  tho  art  of 
preaching.  It  is  that  part  of  practical  theology  which  re- 
lates to  the  composition  and  delivery  of  sermons.  It  is  the 
technical  synonym  of  ■' sacred  rhetoric."  The  latter  term 
denotes  the  application  of  rhetorical  canons  to  reliijioua 
discourse.  There  are  not  two  kinds  of  rhetoric,  as  there 
are  not  two  kinds  of  logic.  Ilomiletics  relate  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  universal  laws  of  conviction  and  persuasion 
to  the  utterances  of  the  pulpit.  These  laws  have  their 
origin  in  the  constitution  of  our  intellectual  and  moral 
nature.  Hoiniletics,  therefore,  are  not  supposed  to  treat 
ol  the  philosophy  of  rhetoric  in  general;  but,  presuppos- 
ing some  knowledge  of  this,  it  undertakes  to  show  the 
method  in  which  rhetoric  may  successfully  be  employed  in 
tho  restricted  province  of  the  Christian  jtrcacher.  As 
preaching  is  admitted  to  be  a  divine  apj)ointment,  as  it  is 
acknowledged  to  be  the  chief  human  instrumentality  by 
which  revealed  truth  is  to  bo  lodged  in  the  convictions  of 
men.  no  subject  deserves  more  careful  study  than  sacred 
rhetoric.  Ilomiletics  naturally  recognize  two  general 
divisions — (1)  The  Matter.  (2)  The  Manser  of  preach- 
ing. Ancient  writers  on  rhetoric,  particularly  Qulntilian 
and  Cicero,  make  much  of  I'nvcith'on.  Tho  material  of  the 
preacher  is  to  be  found  in  tho  word  of  God.  This  is  what 
defines  his  office  in  distinction  not  only  from  the  secular 
orator,  the  advocate  at  the  bar,  but  from  even  the  ethical 
lecturer.  His  official  occupation  is  to  interpret,  proclaim. 
and  enforce  the  contents  of  revelation.  It  belongs  there- 
fore to  the  department  of  saere<l  rhetoric  to  teach  tho  best 
method  of  evolving  tho  truths  contained  in  the  sacred  vol- 
ume for  popular  impression.  It  aims  to  elucidate  tho  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  preaching,  such  as  expository,  textual,  and 
topical,  giving  the  history  and  examples  of  each,  and  the 
rules  by  which  each  should  be  conducted.  The  chief  ob- 
ject of  hoiniletics  relates  to  the  manner  of  ])reiiching,  in- 
cluding in  this  general  term  the  structure  of  the  discourse 
and  its  enunciation.  Truth  depends  for  its  power  very 
much  on  the  mode  of  its  presentation.  Tho  order  of 
thoughts  may  bo  so  confused  tliat  the  thoughts  themselves 
l(tse  half  their  force.  Arguments  and  motives  depend  as 
much  upon  their  disposition  as  their  intrinsic  weight.  Sa- 
cred rhetoric  looks  to  the  urnni'fvmetit  of  material  in  ser- 
mon!), the  statement  of  propositions,  tho  different  kinds  of 
proof  by  which  they  arc  sustained,  such  as  those  drawn 
from  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  the  reason,  conscious- 
ncH,  experience,  the  conscience,  and  processes  of  reasoning, 
especially  those  exemplified  by  Christ  and  his  apostles. 
The  methods  of  producing  persuasion,  as  well  as  convic- 
tion, of  exciting  emotion,  moving  the  affections,  all  found- 
C'\  in  the  laws  of  our  nature,  belong  also  to  tho  province 
of  homiiotics.  Style,  language,  elocution,  management  of 
the  voice,  tho  carriage  of  tho  person,  manner,  gesticula- 
tion, different  modes  of  preparing  for  tho  pulpit,  different 
modes  of  delivery,  with  or  without  the  manuscript,  memo- 
riter  or  extemporaneitus,  all  these  and  many  other  [)articu- 
lars,  arc  included  in  this  general  designation  of  homilctical 
instruction.  Treatises  on  hoiniletics  are  numerous  in  all 
languages,  ancient  and  modern.  Augustine  in  bis  /Joc- 
triiia  ('hriHlianti  treated  the  sultjcct  systematically.  Tho 
German,  French,  and  English  tongues  aro  rich  in  this 
species  of  literature.  That  would  be  a  largo  catalogue 
which  should  include  only  the  names  of  authors  on  tho  art 
of  preaching  who  are  distinguished  and  renowned,  such  as 
Hossuet.  Kt'nehm.  Maury,  Claude,  Schott.  Keinhard,  There- 
min, Campbell,  and  Vinct,  The  V.  S.  have  given  many 
very  valuable  contributions  to  this  department  of  author- 
ship. All  religious  denominations  appear  to  vie  with  each 
other  in  the  attention  given  to  the  art  i»f  preaehing.  Ail 
tho  theological  seminaries  of  this  country  give  great  promi- 
nence to  homiletics  in  tho  curriculum  of  ministerial  educa- 
tion. All  treatises  on  sacred  rhetoric,  ancient  and  modern, 
regard  self-eonviction  as  tho  secret  of  all  persuasive  and 
earnest  speech.  Personal  experience,  deepened  and  vivi- 
fied by  the  Spirit  of  (Jod,  is  universally  regarded  as  tho 
prime  force  in  sacred  oratory,  without  which  everything 
else  is  of  little  avail.  "  I  believe,  therefore  do  I  speak  ;" 
"Out  of  the  abundance  of  tho  heart  thi'  mouth  ^poaketh." 

William  Adams. 
Vor,.  n.    r>2 


Uom'ily  [Gr.  oMiAi'a:  Fr.  Aow^/tc],  a  simple  religious 
discourse.  The  distinction  between  the  Ao/HtV^and  the  ner- 
inon,  as  made  by  writers  on  sacred  rhetoric,  is,  that  the 
former  is  less  elaborate,  with  less  of  method  and  disposi- 
tion after  rhetorical  rules  than  the  latter.  A  technical 
sense  attaches  to  the  word  in  history  which  is  not  strictly 
observed  in  ordinary  usage.  The  Fnnch  observe  nice  dis- 
tinctions between  homilies,  conferences,  discourses,  and  ser- 
mons. IJy  •' homilies,"  in  modern  English  use,  we  should 
understand  that  description  of  sermons  which  has  more  of 
exposition  than  rhetorical  system.  So  many  are  the  forms 
of  pastoral  instruction  in  tho  present  day,  so  frequent  tho 
occasions  when  ministers  address  the  people,  on  the  Sab- 
bath, during  the  week,  in  churches,  in  leeture-rooms,  in 
Bible  classes,  and  Sabbath  schools,  that  the  old  distinction 
between  the  homily  and  the  sermon  is  nearly  obliterated. 
Historically,  homilies  were  designed  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciencies of  an  ignorant  clergy  and  an  ignorant  people. 
When  philosopliical  and  rhetorical  method  had  greatly 
vitiated  ])ulpil  discourse,  making  it  scholastic,  subtle,  and 
cold,  the  homily  was  intended  to  provide  a  simpler  mode 
of  conveying  religious  instruction.  In  the  Roman  Chundi 
at  that  period,  when  few  of  the  clergy  were  capable  of  mak- 
ing discourses  for  themselves,  collections  cjf  homilies,  con- 
sisting of  compilations  from  the  Fathers,  were  authorized 
for  their  use.  {See  NeandkHjCA.  JIht.  iii.  174.  concerning  the 
llomiliarittm  of  Charlemagne.)  Similar  collections  were 
prepared,  at  the  Reformation,  in  the  English  Church  by 
Cranmcr  and  Jewell.  Their  use  in  the  Church  was  au- 
thorized (see  MJth  Article)  as  a  means  of  religious  instruc- 
tion at  a  time  of  imperfect  education.  The  language  of 
the  Article  enjoining  their  use  requires  them  to  be  "read 
in  churches  by  the  ministers,  diligently  and  distinctly, 
that  they  may  be  nndtrHUmdvd  by  the  people."  The  first 
volume  of  the  HninUitH  was  published  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.;  tho  second  volume  was  published  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth.  The  substance  of  these  English  Ilomilitu 
is  generally  accepted  as  good  and  wholesome  doctrine,  but 
very  considerable  differences  of  opinion  (sco  Jh'shop  Ihir- 
tft)  have  long  existed  as  to  the  aiit/i<irit^  attached  to  their 
contents  as  parts  of  the  constitution  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  William  Adams. 

Homin'iilfv  [from  homo,  -iuia,  "  man,"  and  the  patrony- 
mic termination  -idti],  a  family  established  for  the  recep- 
tion of  man,  in  contradistinct' ^n  to  the  other  families  of 
Primates.  In  contrast  with  those  other  families,  man  is 
distinguished  (1)  by  his  haltitually  erect  form  (excejit  in 
infancy),  tho  foro  limbs  being  withdrawn  completely  from 
the  locoint)tivc  series  and  transferred  to  tho 'ij/hafic  ,-  (2)  the 
foot  has  tho  inner  toe  produced  and  develop "d  as  a  "great 
toe,"  and  this  is  in  the  same  jdancwith  the  others;  (.'J)  the 
hair  is  scant,  except  upon  the  top  ot  the  head,  but  it  varies 
in  extent  of  development  on  other  parts  of  tlie  body  accord- 
ing to  the  race  as  well  as  to  the  indiviihial ;  (4)  the  teeth 
form  an  uninterrupted  series  in  each  jaw  (there  being  no 
diastcmata,  or  intcrruj)tions,  for  the  reception  of  enlarged 
canines  in  tho  opposite  jaws);  and  (6)  they  are  in  number 
'A'2,  of  which  each  side  of  each  jaw  has  two  incisors  (I.  2), 
one  canine  (C.  1 ),  two  prcnudars  ( P.  AI.  2),  which  succeed 
two  deciduous  molars,  and  tlirec  permanent  and  later  de- 
veloped inohirs  (M.  :i);  furthermore,  {*>)  a  bony  external 
auditory  meatus  is  developed,  and  at  the  bottom  of  this  is 
a  membranum  tympani;  (7)  the  uo&c  has  its  median  sep- 
tum thin  and  narrow,  and  the  nostrils  are  correspondingly 
approximated.  In  the  first  four  mentioned  characters  man 
contrasts  with  all  the  other  members  of  his  sub-order,  but 
in  tho  last  three  mentioned  (5-7)  he  agrees  with  the  ajies 
nn<l  monkeys  of  the  Old  Wurld.  in  contratlistinction  witli 
the  monkeys  of  the  New  World.  In  his  organization  gen- 
erally man  agrees  closely  witli  the  higher  apes  (Simiidnc), 
and  this  similarity  extends  to  the  brain  as  well  as  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  organization.  The  brain  differs  chiefiy 
in  size  and  the  development  of  the  gyri  and  sulci  of  the 
cerebrum.  Tho  extent  of  agreement  is  expressed  by  the 
association  of  man  with  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  AVorld  in 
one  group,  opposed  to  the  monkeys  of  the  New  World,  and 
the  coniliination  of  all  those  in  a  nnijor  group  (sub-order 
Anthropoidea),  contrasted  with  tho  lemurs  (Lemuridie). 
Tarsiidio  and  aye-aye  ( Daubcntoniidie  or  Chiromyidiu), 
which  are  combined  in  a  corresponding  sub-order  (sub- 
order Prosimiii' ).  Such  are  the  characters  which  distinguish 
man  as  a  member  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  which  have 
induced  naturalists  to  iidnpt  the  classification  thus  sketched  ; 
but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  this  case  no  attention  is 
given  to  psychological  characters,  fir  to  those  other  endow- 
ments which  distinguish  man  so  trenchantly  from  all  ih<> 
other  members  of  the  animal  kingdom,  to  which  in  his 
purely  pliysiologieul  nature  he  belongs.  These  important 
eharaeters  moro  fitly  belong  to  another  (jrovince,  and  will 
be  treated  under  the  tillo  Man,  by  PitoF.  M.  B.  Anokkso.n, 
LL.D.  TnLODoKi;  Gill. 


978 


HOMCEOPATHY. 


IIora<Eop'athy  [Gr.  o^oto<,  "like,"  and  tta9tiv,  "to  be 
affected"],  a  methoil  or  pjstem  of  medical  treatment  based 
upon  the  ]iecnliar  iprineiplothat  the  therapeutic  or  curative 
propcrlics  of  drugs  and  other  medicinal  agents  are  repre- 
sented by  their  morbific  effects  upon  the  healthy.  Hence 
the  name,  in  contradistinction  to  allopathy  {dissimilar  suf- 
fcriuij),  by  which  term  the  homwopathists  designate  the 
ordinary  methods  of  practice.  This  system  was  first  pro- 
pounded by  Dr.  Samuel  Hahnem.vnn  (which  see)  about 
the  end  of  "the  last  century,  and  although  greeted  at  first 
with  little  favor  from  the  medical  profession  generally,  has 
gradually  gained  in  popular  estimation,  and  obtained  ae- 
eeptancc'with  considerable  numbers  of  reputable  physicians, 
not  only  in  (jermany,  where  it  originated,  but  in  most 
other  countries  of  the  Old  and  New  World.  It  is  not 
claimed  that  Hahnemann  was  the  first  to  observe  or  pro- 
mulgate the  therapeutic  principles  upon  which  his  system 
is  founded.  Indications  of  its  recognition  as  a  rule  of  occa- 
sional though  rare  applicability  in  the  treatment  of  the  sick 
are  found  in  the  medical  literature  of  the  past ;  and  even 
the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  fundamental  maxim,  si'mi'/m 
similibiis  ciiraiiliir.  has  heen  discovered  in  writings  attrib- 
uted to  Hippocrates,  liut  it  is  admitted  that  Hahnemann 
was  the  first  to  adopt  it  as  a  general  law  in  the  practice  of 
medicine. 

The  alleged  discovery  of  the  real  importance  of  this  sup- 
posed relation  between  the  disease-exciting  and  the  disease- 
curing  powers  of  drugs,  and  the  gradual  development  of 
the  homceopathic  system,  are  briefly,  but  perhaps  suffi- 
ciently, described  in  the  article  on  Hahnemann,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred.  The  following  propositions,  it  is  be- 
lieved, comprise  the  essential  points  of  tho  homoeopathic 
doctrine,  as  held  and  taught  by  the  best  and  most  recent 
authorities  of  the  school :  ( I )  That  the  cure  of  disease  is  most 
easily  and  completely  effected  by  medicines  that  are  them- 
selves capable  of  producing  in  a  healthy  person  morbid 
conditions  analogous  to  those  of  tho  disease  ;  and  the  more 
exact  the  similarity,  the  greater  probability  of  a  favorable 
result.  (2)  Consequently,  the  most  certain  way  of  ascer- 
taining the  therapeutic  value  of  medicinal  agents  is  by  re- 
peated and  carefully  conducted  trials  of  them,  singly,  upon 
persons  in  ordinary  health.  (:'.)  That  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  results  medicines  should  not  be  administered  to  the 
sick  in  combination,  but  singly  and  in  tho  simplest  prep- 
arations. (4)  That  remedies  prescribed  according  to  the 
homa>opathic  method  may  be,  and  in  fact  generally  require 
to  be,  administered  in  smaller  and  more  attenuated  doses 
than  are  necessary  to  produce  their  characteristic  effects 
upon  the  healthy.  The  practical  application  of  these  rules 
to  the  treatment  of  diseases  necessitates  the  individualiza- 
tion of  each  jiarticular  case.  To  bo  strictly  homoeopathic 
a  medicine  should  correspond  not  only  to  the  general  patho- 
logical state,  but  also  to  the  peculiar  symptoms  of  the  pa- 
tient. 

In  order  to  furnish  remedies  for  the  great  variety  of  pos- 
sible morhid  conditions,  the  work  of  "  proving  "  drugs — as 
the  administration  of  them  to  persons  in  health  for  the  pur- 
pose of  observing  their  effects  is  technically  called — which 
was  begun  by  Hahnemann,  has  been  diligently  followed  up 
by  his  disciples  ever  since.  The  homceopathic  materia  mediea 
consists  of  the  collected  and  collated  results  of  the  "  prov- 
incs  "  of  a  large  number  of  drugs,  many  of  which,  however, 
require  further  verification.  These  experiments  are  con- 
ducted partly  by  individuals  and  partly  by  numerous  asso- 
ciations formed  for  the  purpose.  Honueopathists  condemn 
the  commixture  of  several  medicines  in  one  prescription. 
When  two  or  more  remedies  are  required,  they  are  usually 
given  in  alternation,  and  at  considerable  intervals.  They 
have  always  avoided,  as  unnecessary  and  injurious,  tho  use 
of  bloodletiing,  drastic  purgatives,  mercurial  salivation,  blis- 
ters, and  indeed  all  the  so-called  "heroic"  expedients  so 
generally  relied  on  a  generation  since.  Particular  atten- 
tion is  paid,  however,  to  diet,  exercise,  bodily  habits,  and 
all  other  sanitary  and  hygienic  helps. 

Upon  the  question  of  the  proper  ilosr,  homoeopathic  prac- 
titioners arc,  as  yet,  by  no  means  agreed  among  themselves. 
While  all  assent  to  the  general  statement  contained  in  the 
fourth  of  the  above  propositions,  the  extent  to  which  the 
dilution  or  attenuation  of  medicines  may  be  advantageously 
carried  is  still  a  moot  ])oint,  in  regard  to  which  the  sehnul 
is  somewhat  divided  in  opinion  and  ]iractioe.  liut  although 
there  are  representatives  of  cither  extreme  who  profess  to 
use  exclusively  in  their  practice  "high"  or  "low"  dilu- 
tions respectively,  it  is  probable  that  the  greater  number 
of  |)hyBician3  consider  the  question  of  the  dose  quite  sub- 
ordinate in  importance  to  the  choice  of  the  remedy,  and 
that  further  experience  is  necessary  to  eettlo  the  range  of 
greatest  efficiency  for  each  drug. 

Before  the  publication  of  Hahnemann's  Mnlrria  Mediea 
Pura  (1811  scq.)  the  practical  application  of  the  new  law 
of  euro  Wis  necessarily  limited  to  prescribing  the  very  few 


drugs  of  whose  effects  upon  the  healthy  organism  some 
scanty  particulars  were  known.  Such  facts  were  too  few 
and  uncertain  to  answer  the  requirements  of  the  art:  con- 
sequently, the  systematic  proving  of  even  the  best  known 
remedies  was  a  necessity.  The  above-named  work  (in  (1 
vols.),  containing  the  ascertained  pathogenetic  effects  of 
some  fiO  drugs,  was  the  first  fruit  of  this  necessity.  As 
now  the  means  of  testing  the  truth  of  the  homoeopathic 
principle  became  accessible,  the  doctrine,  and  the  ])ractice 
based  upon  it,  began  to  sjiread  more  rajiidly,  and  soon  ob- 
tained the  support  of  a  number  of  well-known  medical  men 
of  Germany.  Its  progress,  however,  was  much  impeded  by 
the  state  laws,  which  restricted  the  right  of  ])reparing  and 
dispensing  medicines  to  the  apothecaries,  who,  being  natu- 
rally opposed  to  a  practice  ealcubitcd  to  interfere  materially 
with  their  ancient  franchise,  did  not  hesitate  to  in\oke  tho 
aid  of  the  law  to  harass  its  adherents.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, these  and  other  restrictive  laws  affecting  the  medical 
profession  were  relaxed  in  favor  of  the  new  scdiool.  Tho 
court-physicians  in  several  German  states  were  among  the 
early  disciples  of  Hahnemann,  and  were  doubtless  instru- 
mental in  promoting  a  more  liberal  policy.  Hahnemann 
himself  was  appointed  physician  and  state  councillor  to  tho 
duke  of  Anhalt-Cocthen.  Dr.  Kau,  physician  to  tho  duke 
of  Hessc-Di'.rmstadt,  Dr.  Muhlenbein,  physician  to  the  duke 
of  Brunswick,  Dr.  Grieslich,  surgeon  to  the  grand  duke  of 
Baden,  and  several  others  who  held  similar  official  and  in- 
timate relations  to  the  ruling  powers,  were  retained  in  their 
positions,  notwithst.andiug  their  adoption  of  homoeopathy. 
From  Germany  the  new  medical  doctrine  extended  itself  to 
other  parts  of  the  Continent,  so  that  belbre  IS40  hointcopa- 
thy  had  its  professional  reiirescntalivcs  and  its  lay  i)atron3 
in  nearly  every  considerable  town  in  Europe.  Homoeopa- 
thy was  introduced  into  England  about  182S  by  Dr.  Quin, 
physician  to  the  king  of  Belgium.  Not  hmg  after  Scotland 
and  Ireland  were  also  invaded  by  pioneers  of  the  same 
school.  In  all  these  countries  the  system  has  made  con- 
siderable progress. 

The  earliest  practitioner  of  homoeopathy  in  the  tJ.  S.  was 
Dr.  Hans  B.  Gram,  an  American  by  birth,  though  by  pa- 
rentage and  education  a  Dane,  who  after  many  years'  ab- 
sence returned  in  1S25  and  estahlished  himself  in  New 
York.  His  tirst  attempts  to  attract  the  attenticm  of  the 
profession  to  the  scientitic  claims  of  the  system  of  which 
he  was  the  pioneer  were  unsuccessful,  but  before  his  death, 
in  1840,  it  had  made  decided  progress  in  the  metropolis, 
and  gained  a  foothold  in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  other 
cities.  In  1844  was  formed  a  national  association  of  jihy- 
sicians  under  the  name  of  the  .\nicrican  Institute  of  lIomcE- 
opathy,  with  about  on  members.  This  society  now  has  a 
membership  of  over  1000.  The  whole  number  of  avowed 
hointeopathic  physicians  in  the  U.  S.  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  HOOO  to  5000.  State  and  county  societies  have  been 
established  by  law  in  most  of  tho  States.  In  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
and  Boston  are  fully-equipped  medical  colleges,  in  which 
the  therapeutics  of  the  new  school  are  taught  in  connection 
with  the  usual  branches  of  merlical  instruction.  Hospitals, 
infirmaries,  and  dispensaries  have  been  founded  in  many 
cities  and  large  towns  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick  poor  who 
desire  homoeopathic  treatment.  At  Xliddletown,  N.  Y.,  a 
homoeopathic  insane  asylum  has  been  erected  by  the  State, 
and  is  in  successful  operation. 

The  literature  of  the  new  school  is  already  remarkable 
for  its  extent,  comprising  expository,  controversial,  jour- 
nalistic, and  practical  publications  in  almost  every  depart- 
ment of  medical  .science.  The  works  of  Hahnemann  ulono 
form  a  considerable  collection,  while  some  of  his  disciples 
have  also  been  prolific  writers.  The  Oi<jamm  has  ajipeared 
in  numerous  editions  and  in  various  languages.  A  collec- 
tion of  Hahnemann's  Ltsur  Wriiiiigs,  edited  by  Dr. 
Dudgeon  of  London,  has  also  attained  a  large  circulation. 
As  early  as  IS22  was  founded  at  J-eipsic  the  first  period- 
ical of  this  school,  the  Anliir  fur  die  H<imrvi,]Hilliische 
Heilkiinsi.  which  eimtinued  lor  many  years  the  leading  ex- 
ponent of  the  system  in  Germany.  In  18;!D  i\\a  liihlio- 
lliiqiic  /lomiTupulhiqiie  \sas  commenced  at  Geneva.  Switzer- 
land. In  1834  the  publication  of  the  Arcliifm  de  In  Mfde- 
cine  HnmtTnpnthiii>ic  was  begun  in  Paris.  About  the  same 
time  The  A,nericcn  Jnnrnnl  i,f  Ilomicupnthia,  by  Drs.  J. 
F.  Gray  and  A.  Gerald  Hull,  appeared  in  New  York— tho 
pioneer  of  the  homoeopathic  periodical  literature  of  this 
country.  The  British  Journal  of  H,„na-opail,i/  (London) 
was  fo'unded  in  184.1.  The  following  are  the  principal 
publications  of  this  class  in  the  V.  S.  in  l.STo:  Aorih  Amer- 
ii-nu  Journal  nf  llnmcropnili;/,  quarterly.  New  York  :  I'.  S. 
Medical  /iMT«'(r.7«(iir,  bi-monthly,  Chicago;  Aiiierlenn  Ob- 
terver,  monthly!  Detroit :  Hahnemannian.  m<.nthly.  Phila- 
delphia; Am.  Journal  of  Mai.  .l/ci/..  monthly,  Philadelphia; 
Seir  Km/land  Medical  Ij'azelle,  monthly,  Boston;  Medical 
<rai/.S'i(.-7iVii^/frjuorfii-,  monthly,  Cleveland.     H.D.  Paine. 


IIOMOGENK(USM<S— HOMOLOGY. 


979 


Uomoge'neoasness,  or  Homogene'ity  [Gr.  omov, 
"  suiue,"  auil  ytvov,  "  kind  '*].  An  algebraical  expression  is 
called  homofjeiieitiis  vihcix  all  its  terms  are  of  like  "  degree  " 
- — i.  e.  products  of  the  same  number  of  literal  factors. 
Were  tlicso  the  symbols  of  abstract  numbers  onfy^  the 
term  would  bo  nearly  destitute  of  important  signification. 
IJut  the  i»ri"i(ri'«/(;  of  humotjeutinttncsii  applies  to  ecjuations 
expressive  of  relations  between  pynibols  for  physical 
magnitudes  (as  well  as  abstract  numbers),  and  these 
physical  magnitudes  of  various  kinds,  incommensurable 
with  each  other,  are  only  made  commensurable  and  suscep- 
tible of  mathematical  relations  by  simulation  to  abstract 
number-:  through  the  agency  of,  for  eaeh,  some  arbitrary 
unit.  Thus,  we  measure  timt  by  d(itfn  or  hours;  linear  ex- 
tension by  mi7«*  or  ftrt,  etc.,  or  mttret,  etc. — units,  so-called, 
of  wholly  arbitrary  selection — while  those  of  one  kind  {c  g. 
the  hour)  are  wholly  incommcDsuniblc  with  those  of  another 
kind  (c.  *j.  the  mttrc),  except  that  each  is  a  unit  and  repre- 
sented by  the  abstract  number  one.  An  equation  express- 
ing a  relation  between  physical  magnitudes  should  be  true 
whatever  be  the  arbitrary  unit  taken  for  each  ;  and,  indeed, 
failure  to  bear  this  te-t  is  a  conclusive  evidence  of  error. 
But  a  change  of  arbitrary  unit  will  evidently  cause  a 
change  in  the  numerical  value  by  which  each  particular 
magnitude  is  expressed.  Thus,  if /.y,  /,  I',  t,  t',  etc.  sym- 
bolize, respectively, _/orcf», /cH'yrAj?,  and  times,  and  n,  n',u"f 
etc.  abstntct  numbers,  and  we  diminish  the  unit  for  each  in 

the  ratio  of    -,      ,  etc.,  these  physical  magnitudes  will  theu 
«   n' 

be  expressed  by  »/,  n/*,  n'  I,  n'  V,  etc.,  and  the  relation  ex- 
pressed by  /'  {j\f  .  .  .  I,  I' .  .  .  t,t%  etc.)  =  0,  should  become, 
truthfully,  F(nf,  n'f  .  .  .  n'  I,  a'  V  ,  .  .  «"  t,  n"  t'  .  .  .)  =  0, 
in  which  F  denotes  any  function  of  the  magnitudes. 

Literal  homnycncvunucsv  in  general  secures  the  existence 
of  this  condition;  unless,  indeed,  there  be  unit  symbols 
which  involve  in  themselves  the  repetition  of  an  inferior 
unit  in  different  senses  (e.  «/.  a  unit  of  «ur/<tcc  and  oi  vol- 
ume involve  in  themselves  the  repetition  of  the  linear  unit 
iicti  and  three  titnes,  repeatedly,  in  different  <lircrtiorin),  in 
which  case  their  symbols  will  by  the  change  suj)poscd  above 
involve  the  numbers  n,  h',  etc.  in  higher  powers.  Thus,  a 
unit  of  surface  «  would  become  u'  '^a,  etc.,  and  its  symbol  is 
to  bo  ranked  as  iV«c//  of  that  degree  to  which  it  involves 
the  inferior  unit. 

The  principle  nf  ketmotjeneouaneas  demands  that,  what- 
ever bo  the  character  of  the  unit  symbols,  the  relation  ex- 
pressed by  the  above  equations,  if  true  for  one  form,  shall 
be  true  for  the  other,  whatever  be  the  value  of  the  arbi- 
trary numbers  ii,  ;i',  etc.  Important  «  prii^ri  conclusions 
may  sometimes  be  de<luced.  Thus,  if  a  force  f  is  to  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  hut  one  other  force/  and  symbols  of 
other  kinds  of  physical  magnitudes,  it  is  required  by  the 
above  principle  that  the  expression  shall  bo  of  tlie  form 
_/*  =  A/,  in  which  A*"  contains  onbj  symbols  of  the  other 
kinds  of  magnitudes  which  do  not  vary  with  the  unit  of 
foruc,  and/  enters  as  a  factor  of  the  first  degree. 

J.  G.  liAIlNARD. 

Homol'ogy  [Gr.  oMoXoyia, "agreement"],  in  philosoph- 
ical anatomy,  the  csaeutial  structural  correspondence  of 
different  parts  of  the  same  organism,  or  of  different  or- 
ganisms. Thuf.  the  arm  of  a  man.  the  fore  leg  of  an  ox, 
the  wing  of  a  bird,  ainl  the  pectoral  (in  of  a  fish  are  homol- 
ogous parts.  Su,  in  the  same  animal,  the  foot  is  the  liomo- 
logue  of  the  hand,  because  it  is  formed  on  the  same  typo. 

Homology^  a  term  expressing  a  principle  in  the  chem- 
istry of  organic  compounds  of  high  importance  and  sig- 
nificance, first  introduced  by  the  illustrious  (Jerhardt.*  A 
series  of  homologues,  or  /lonto/'H/oic*  sericn,  mnstilutes  what, 
in  a  ehis-iification  of  carbon  compounds,  niighl  lie  culled  a 
family  or  genus,  of  which  the  individual  compounds  aro 
the  species.     Such  a  classification  is  a  nntnral  one. 

A  homologous  scries  is  formed  by  additions  to  an  clo- 
menlary  molecule  or  group  of  such — which  constitutes  a 
nucleus  or /iow»«/'>_»/cHiV  radical — of  successive  equivalents 
of  a  certain  molecular  group  of  hydrogen  anil  carbon 
atoms  represented  by  IPC.  This  group,  \VK\  we  may,  for 
convenience,  call  the  homolotjnt.  Whether  such  a  com- 
pouiul  is  capable  of  existing  in  an  isolated  form  is  un- 
known- Methylene,  or  melhene,  whicli  has  nut  been  yet 
obtained,  would  have  this  empirical  formula,  but  it  is  not 
probable  that  the  homologcn  II^C  is  itself  methylene. 

*The  dl-'eovery  of  the  principle  af  hnmnhm/  Is  generally  given 
to  (ierbanlt.  who  developed  nmi  estahlish«'<f  it ;  but  I>r.  .1.  Scliiel 
of  St.  I^Hiis  t\rst  aiiiiiMinced  in  the  Annnien  (.luly,  \Hi2i  the  ar- 
raMiiemeril  oforKanie  compounds  in  what  he  called  "  iironressive 
series,"  correspoiidiriK  to  series  of  homologues,  (See  l)r.  Schiel's 
nx^Iauiatiun  in  the  Atn.  Jour,  of  Srime*;  July,  ISf.l.l  The  prin- 
ciple of  honiriloKV  was  also  extended  to  n»IncrnIoj;y  by  T. 
Sterry  Hunt  in  the  Am.  Jour,  nf  Science,  Sept.,  lRr>4,  ten  years 
before  Tschcrniak.  to  whom  it  has  been  attributed.  (See  Sii.i- 
t-Ait-s.  t  iii:mi>ikv  and  Classifuation  ov.) 


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HOMOTAXIS— HONDURAS. 


In  the  extended  tabic  of  examples  of  homologous  series 
herewith  presented  the  formuUc  wo  have  designated  '*  ho- 

raologcnic"  convey  simply  the  theory  which  must  be  di- 
rectly deduced  from  the  facts  of  homology.  It  will  ha  ob- 
served that  the  first  four  scries  given  are  strictly  ;j"''t/^V 
in  every  way,  the  series  found  in  each  horizoutal  line  being 
what  HofuKinn  has  called  '*  isologous "  series,  or  those 
based  upon  the  same  number  of  carbcm  equivalent:?.  These 
series  may  bo  believe<l  to  have  the  same  molecular  deriva- 
tion, in  the  sense  of  being  compounds  of  the  same  elcnieut- 
ary  molecule,  with  different  other  elements  and  molecular 
groups.  Like  the  latter,  the  members  of  the:^o  series  of 
is')U)gue3  arc  altogether  without  chemical  or  physical  rc- 
spinblanccs  and  relations  among  each  other.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  homologues  in  each  of  the  vertical  columns  have 
strong  chemical  similarities  and  analogies  one  with  an- 
other, and  frequently  occur  in  ndinixture  in  products  of 
both  natural  and  artifiirial  chemical  processes,  being  then 
often  difficult  to  isolate  individually.  They  present  a  reg- 
ular aud  perfect  gradation,  or  progression  in  degree,  of 
]ihysical  relations  and  iiroperties,  from  top  to  bottom  of 
the  column,  in  correspondence  with  the  increasing  number 
of  ll'^C  groups  combined  in  the  molecule.  Thus,  the  vol- 
atility constantly  decreases,  and  the  degree  of  fusion  con- 
stantl}'  increases,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  each  series. 

The  most  remarkable  fact  of  this  kind  about  homologues 
was  discovered  by  Kopp — namely,  that  generally  each  suc- 
cessive addition  of  H'^C  corresponds  to  a  definite  increase 
of  atomic  ruhime  of  22  units;  which  argues  that  if  the 
homologen  is  susceptible  of  isolation,  it  will  be  found  to 
possess  this  specific  atomic  volume. 

In  the  last  two  series  of  homologues  given  in  the  table 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  nut  the  complete  parallelism 
and  iaoloijij  with  the  first  four  that  is  presented  by  the 
latter  between  each  other.  Homologous  series  are  not 
therefore  all  parallel  for  the  same  number  of  homologen 
groups.  The  admission  of  the  theory  of  homology  seems 
to  compel  the  admission  of  the  existence  in  each  series  of 
homologues  of  a  fundamental  or  basal  moleeule, -or  group 
of  such ;  which  we  have  called  here  the  radicul  of  the 
series.  The  "organic  radicals"  of  the  earlier  organic 
chemists  were  but  a  series  of  homologues  based  upon  one 
atom  of  hvdrogen  as  their  homologenic  radical.  Thus, 
H  +  IVC=\VC  (mothyle),  H  +  2H2C  =  H^C^  (ethyle),  and 
so  on.  Ammonia,  NIP,  constitutes  also  the  radical  of  the 
beautiful  series  of  homologues  discovered  by  Adolphc 
Wurtz,  the  compound  ammoniaSf  or — 


Monamine*. 
NH»-f  n(H2C). 


Methylaraine C  H2    NHS 

Ethylamine CSfi*,  NH3 

rrupylaniine CHl\  NH3 

Butylamine C*li».  NH3 

Amylamine ("SH'o.NHs 

Hexylamine C6H»2,  Nlla 

Heptvlamine CH"*.  NIP 

Oclylamine „ C»Hi6,  NH» 

Nonylamine „ COH",  NH3 


Very  many  other  such  nuclear  radicals  appear  to  exist, 
containing  multij)Ie  atoms  or  molecular  groups  of  carbon, 
and  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  such  as  it  is  difficult,  on  our 
ordinarily  accepted  views,  to  believe  to  be  capable  of  ex- 
isting. The  following  table  illustrates  two  series  of  highly 
iuijiurtant  substances,  with  their  constitution  and  structure 
on  the  houiologic  theory;  and  this  table  will  serve  also  to 
show  how  this  theory  enables  us  to  predict  the  existence 
anil  composition  of  compounds  yet  unknown.  Thus,  it 
may  be  deduced  from  the  first  column  that  coal-gas  may 
be  expected  to  bo  found  to  contain  two  gaseous  compounds 
as  yet  unknown,  C*H'^  and  C'^ll*.  The  aromatic  aldehydes 
also,  of  which  the  benzoic,  toluic,  and  cumic  aldehydes  are 
known,  are  based  upon  a  homologenic  radical  C*0  (possibly 

(:\  CO). 


Geoerlc  Names. 

Coal -Tar.  or 
"Aromatic  "  HydrocarboQa. 

"Aromatio"  Aeldj. 

Homologenic 
Radicals. 

c». 

C«0«;or  C»,  C0«). 

Iloiiuilogenic 
Kt;riiiul;c. 

C»+n(H«C). 

C«0»  +  n(H«C). 

Series 

(Unknown!.. ..(■<  W 
lUnlcnownl....r'  114 

Benzone <«  I[« 

Toluene C  H« 

Xylene ('»  H"i 

(Unknown) C*  W  Oa 

(Unknown) (?>  n<  0« 

Benzoic  acid C  H«  oa 

Toluic       "    .....C»H«0! 

C'umene C*  Hi= 

Cymene C"'»IIi< 

lumic      ■'    CioHiJtH 

Cymic      "    C"H»oa 

Laurene C"Hi« 

The  monatomic  phenols,  inchnling  common />/ieno/,  cvcuol^ 
xylenol,  thymol,  etc.,  constitute  a  scries  of  the  radical  CO. 
The  ajjparent  existence,  in  combination  at  least,  of  such 
curious  molecular  grou])S  will  serve  to  suggest  the  import- 
ance of  the  further  pursuit  of  the  somewhat  neglected 
study  of  homology.  Hknhv  '\Vi:rtz. 

Ilomotax'is  [(Jr.  6mos.  "same,"  and  Toft?,  "arrange- 
ment"], a  word  iiitrotluced  into  use  by  Prof.  Huxley  to  ex- 
press an  idea  in  geology  remotely  analogous  to  that  ex- 
pressed by  homology  in  zoology.  H  had  been  tacitly  as- 
sumed in  geological  reasoning  that  a  stratum  or  a  forma- 
tion was  throughout  its  horizontal  extent  of  couteuipor- 
aneous  origin.  The  imposfsibiUty  of  this  had  long  been 
apprehended  by  the  more  philosophic  geologists,  as  Ed- 
ward Forbes,  De  la  Beche,  aud  others,  and  Prof.  Huxley 
finally  gave  clear  expression  to  the  contradiction  by  ap- 
plying the  term  homotaxis  to  signify  similnrity  nf  position 
in  a  scries  of  rocks,  apart  from  auy  question  as  to  contem- 
poraneity or  sequence  of  origin  of  the  parts  of  the  series. 
(See  HuxLEV,  Anniv.  Addr.  to  the  Geol.  Soc.  for  1862; 
Quart.  Journ.  of  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  xviii.,  and  EnsayB  and  lie- 
views,  Eng.  ed.,  ISTI,  p.  202.) 

Homs,  or  Hums,  the  Einena  of  Strabo  and  Pliny, 
town  of  Syria,  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  1  mile  E.  of 
the  river  and  about  GO  miles  N.  E.  of  Baalbek.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  Roman  emperors  Elagabalus  (218-222  land 
his  cousin,  Alexander  Severus  (222-2;;a),  and  was  noted  for 
its  splendid  temple  of  the  Sun,  in  which  these  youths  were 
sharing  between  them  the  office  of  high  priest  when  (in 
218)  the  former  was  chosen  Augustus  and  the  latter  was 
made  Ca?sar.  The  modern  town  is  well  built,  of  black  ba- 
.salt,  with  which  also  most  of  the  streets  are  paved.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  of  no  great  strength,  but  which  suf- 
fices to  keep  off  the  prowling  Bedouin.  Nothing  ancient 
is  now  found  there  except  some  ruins  and  (ireek  inscrip- 
tions. It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  21».O00,  including  7000  Greek  Christians 
and  some  200  Jacobites.  R.  D.  Hitchcock. 

Ho'lian  ('*  southof  the  river"),  province  of  China  proper, 
comprising  the  lowland  S.  of  Hoang-Ho,  between  lat.  ?>'2° 
and  3"^  X.,  and  between  Ion.  110°  and  110°  E.  Area, 
05.114  square  miles.     Pop.  23,037,171.     Cap.  Kai-Fung. 

Hon'da,  town  of  Colombia,  in  the  department  of  Cun- 
dinamarca,  on  the  Magdalena.  Its  climate,  though  hot,  is 
not  unhealthy.  It  is  the  natural  depot  of  the  commercial 
produce  of  the  very  fertile  province.  But  its  streets  are 
unfit  for  carriages  and  trucks;  goods  must  be  transported 
to  the  warehouses  by  carriers,  and  consequently  its  com- 
merce is  steadily  decreasing.  It  had  formerly  10,000  in- 
habitants. 

Uondt,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  of  Flemish  en- 
gravers. The  founder  of  the  family,  Jossk  Hoxdt.  b.  at 
Wackene,  in  Flanders,  in  1J4I>.  and  d.  in  London  Feb.  It), 
1611  ;  spent  a  large  part  of  his  life  in  England,  where  ho 
sought  refuge  from  the  religious  persecutions  of  the  Span- 
iards. He  was  celebrated  as  an  engraver  of  maps. — Of  his 
sons,  He.vrv  he  Hondt,  the  Ei-Dek.  b.  at  tihent  in  1573, 
and  d.  at  the  Hague  in  IGIO;  Henry  i>e  Hondt,  the 
YotNCEn,  b.  in  London  about  1581,  and  d.  at  .\msterdam 
about  1050;  and  William  HoNnr,  b.  at  the  Hague  in  1601, 
and  d.  at  Dantzic.  A  series  of  portraits  by  Henry  do 
Hondt  the  Elder  of  144  artists,  mostly  Flemish,  and  of 
Melanchthon.  Bugenhagen,  Wycliffe,  Savonarola.  Calvin, 
and  Knox,  are  widely  known  ;  so  are  those  by  Henry  de 
Hondt  the  Younger  of  Queen  Eliziibeth  and  William  of 
Orange,  and  a  view  of  the  Hague.— Abraham  Ho.m>t,  b. 
at  Rotterdam  in  1C3S,  and  d.  in  London  in  lt'91,  also  be- 
longed to  the  family.  He  acquired  a  great  name  as  a 
painter  of  animals. 

Ilondu'ras,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  is  situated 
between  lat.  13<*  10'  and  16°  5'  N..  and  bounded  by  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  Nicaragua,  the  Bay  of  Fonseca,  San  Sal- 
vador, and  Guatenmla.  .\rea,  about  50,000  square  miles. 
The  Caribbean  coast  is  low  and  marshy  E.  of  Ion.  85°, 
lined  with  extensive  salt-water  lagoons,  such  as  Laguna  do 
Cartago  and  Laguna  de  Cartine;  W.  of  Ion.  85°  it  is  higher, 
often  rocky,  and  lined  with  islands,  among  which  are  the 
Bay  Islands,  belonging  to  the  juri.-'diction  ofJamnicn.  The 
following  rivers  are  found  here  :  Segovia,  also  called  Coco, 
Oro,  or  Wanks,  about  350  miles  long,  but  navigable  only 
for  canoes  on  account  of  rapids,  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Honduras  and  Nicaragua  ;  the  Patuca,  navigable  for 
small  steamers,  receives  the  Guayape,  famous  for  its  rich 
gold-washings;  the  Ulua,  with  U  feet  of  water  on  the  bar 
traversing  its  mouth,  and  navigable  for  steamers  and  small 
craft  up  to  its  junction  with  the  Santiago,  70  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  principal  ports  along  this  coast  are  Omoa, 
Trujillo,  and  Puerto  Cortes,  formerly  Puerto  Cabullos — all 
commodious  and  safe.  The  P.acific  coast,  along  the  Bay 
of  Fonseca,  is  also  low,  even  inundated  at  spring  tides,  but 


HONDURAS,   BRITISH— HONEY-EATERS. 


981 


it  presents  several  fine  harbors,  among  which  is  Amnpala. 
The  Cholutoca,  which  flows  into  the  liay  of  Fonscca,  is 
navigable  for  light  craft  for  a  considerable  distiiDce  from 
its  mouth.  The  interior  is  high,  but  niueh  diverjilied  by 
niountain-riiugcs,  plateaus,  terraces,  and  valliys.  The 
Sierra  .Madre  enters  the  country  from  the  W.,  and  separates 
at  .Merendon  into  two  branches,  of  which  one  runs  eastward 
under  the  name  of  Espiritu  Santo  and  Urita,  and  ends  in 
the  Oniua  Mnunlains  ;  and  the  other  runs  S.  and  S.  E., 
forming  the  Selaque  Mountains,  whose  highest  peak  rises 
IO,UUO  feet;  the  I'uca,  .Santa  Barbara,  Sulaco.  and  Chili 
mountains.  The  climate  is  hot,  along  the  coasts  very 
unhealthy,  and  everywhere  very  capricious,  .\pril,  May, 
and  June  are  the  liottesi,  November,  December,  and  Janu- 
ary the  coolest,  months.  The  rainy  season  is  generally 
ushered  in  with  violent  hurricanes  and  thunderstorms.  The 
soil  is  exceedingly  fertile.  The  valleys  and  lowlands  are 
covereil  with  an  exuberant  tropical  vegetation,  and  on  tlie 
plateaus  all  the  finest  fruits  and  plants  of  the  temperate 
lone  succeed.  The  sugar-cane  is  indigenous  ;  excellent  to- 
bacco is  produced  ;  coll'ee,  cotton,  and  cochineal  succeed 
well,  but  arc  very  little  cultivated.  Immense  forests  cover 
the  mountains,  "and  yield  excellent  timber,  fine  cabinet 
woods,  especially  nuiliogany,  gums,  drugs,  and  dycstulfs. 
The  wealtli  of  the  country,  however,  cousists  in  its  mines. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  coal,  and  excellent  nnirble  are  found 
in  numy  localities  and  in  great  quantities,  but  very  few 
mines  are  worked.  Xonc  of  the  rich  resources  are  duly 
utilized,  and  the  reasons  arc  the  total  lack  of  roads,  the 
unsettled  stale  of  society,  the  want  of  sufficient  ca])ital,  and 
the  comparatively  small  amount  of  energy  which  the  in- 
habitants dis]ilay.  The  principal  occupation  is  caltle- 
raising,  and  even  this  is  done  in  a  sluggish  and  careless 
wav.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  about  lull, 0011,  of  whom 
about  lK0,O0Oare  Indians,  200,1100  mesti/.oes,  6000  negroes, 
and  the  rest  whites  of  Spanish  descent.  The  religion  is 
Uomnn  Catlmlie,  but  there  is  very  little  public  education. 
The  government  is  republican:  the  executive  power  is 
veslcd  in  a  president  elected  for  four  years;  the  legislative, 
Id  a  senate  and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  The  finances  arc 
in  great  disorder.  The  foreign  debt  amounted  in  1S72  to 
about  $.',0.1100.000— loans  which  were  raised  for  tlic  con- 
struction of  an  interoceanic  railway.  The  value  of  the 
annual  exportation  of  bullion,  indigo,  cattle,  timber,  hides, 
tobacco,  etc.  is  estimated  at  $l,2:iU,000.  Cotton  and  silk 
fabrics  are  imported  from  England  ;  cutlery  and  machinery 
from  the  U.  S.  Cap.  Comayaguo,  with  18,000  inhabitants. 
Honduras,  Dritish.  Sec  Bai.izk. 
Ilundiirns,  Hay  of,  a  large  inlet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
belwecn  Vucalan,  (iualeniala,  and  Honduras.  It  receives 
many  slreains,  among  which  lieli/.e  and  Muntagua  are  the 
largest,  and  contains  many  islands. 

Hone,  a  name  given  to  a  stone  of  fine  grain  used  for 
giving  a  fine  edge  to  steel  blades.  Hones  arc  usually  of 
much  finer  grain  than  ordinary  whetstones  and  grindstones. 
They  are  made  of  several  kinds  of  stone,  often  of  Palio- 
ozoic  age.  Various  greenstones,  siliceoargillaeeims  slates, 
etc.  arc  used.  One  of  the  very  best  hone-stones  now  used 
is  the  novaculitc  of  Arkansas,  of  Carboniferous  age.  There 
are  also  excellent  oil-stones  from  Turkey,  Austria,  Siberia, 
England,  Wales,  and  Scotland.  For  many  purposes  the 
Turkey  stone  is  considered  the  best. 

Hone  (Wii.i.iAiil,  b.  at  liarth  in  I77I).  His  first  at- 
tempts in  the  literary  field  were  unsuccessful,  but  in  1SI7 
hi'  made  a  great  hit  by  bis  painjihlets,  illustrated  by  llcorgc 
Cruiksbank.  One  of  them,  a  parody  on  the  lluuk  <>/"  Crnn- 
nioii  I'mt/rr,  brought  him  before  the  courts.  Ho  was  ac- 
tiniltfd.  however,  and  a  public  subscripticm  was  made  for 
bini,  lie  became  a  preacher  to  a  congregation  of  dissenters, 
and  d.  at  T<iltenliain  Nov.  li,  1,S)2,  in  slraitencil  eireum- 
slanccs.  The  most  prominent  of  his  writings  arc — The 
Jiitri/.lJi,,,  lluak.  The  'l\Mc  litmk.  The  )'t..c  lliml.;  The 
I'oHiiviU  llon»r  Ihitt  Jiick  Hiiill,  and  A  Slitp  at  Sli'/i  (  l.SIO). 
llo'nea  Path,  post-tp.  of  Anderson  eo.,  S.  ('.,  on  the 
tlreenvillc  and  Columbia  H.  K.,  3.i  miles  from  Greenville. 
Pop.  I'.l2ii. 

Iloneoye',  pos(-v.  of  Richmond  tp.,  Ontario  eo.,  N.  Y., 
at  the  outlet  of  Honcoyo  Lake,  8)  miles  from  Livonia,  on 
the  Erie  K.  K. 

Honcoye  Falls,  post-v.  of  Monroe  eo.,  N".  Y.,  1(1  miles 
S.  of  Kdihister,  on  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
U.  U.  It  contains  a  anion  school,  G  ehurches,  a  bank,  a 
printing-ofiice.  1  newspaper  and  news-rouin,  a  eireuliiliiig 
library,  2  flouring-mills,  1  plaster-mill,  1  sash  and  blind,  a 
stave  and  heading  shop,  a  woollen,  pump,  and  nxe-hantlle 
factory,  2  wagon-shops,  fimndry  and  machine-shops,  2 
cooper  shops,  1  Masonic  lodge,  stores,  etc.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  well  adapted  for  agriculture.  I'op.U2l. 
S.  F.  JoKV,  El).  "  Hosi'.oVK  Fai.i.s  Fiikk  I'liicss." 


Honeoyc  Lake,  in  the  tps.  of  Richmond  and  Cana- 
dice,  Ontario  eo.,  N.  V.,  discharges  its  waters  by  the  Hone- 
oyc outlet  into  Genesee  River.  The  lake  is  5  miles  long,  I 
mile  in  breadth,  and  surrounded  by  high  hills. 

Hones'dale,  |iost-b..  cap.  of  Wayne  co..  Pa.,  ICO  miles 
N.  v..  of  llarrisburg,  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudsnn  Canal. 
Delaware  and  Hudson  and  the  Honcsdale  branch  of  the 
Erie  R.  Us.,  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  I8.*J1 ;  made  the 
county  seat  18-12.  It  contains  a  lino  graded  school,  9 
churches,  finely  shaded  streets,  gas  and  water  works,  2 
banks,  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  public  library,  handsome 
public  grounds,  manufactories  of  glass,  axes,  and  edge 
tools,  woollen  goods,  pottery,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  lum- 
ber, eanal-boats,  and  steam-engines.  The  "Stourbridge 
Lion,"  the  first  locomotive  made  in  America,  made  its  trial- 
trip  from  this  place  in  1828.  Large  quantities  of  coal  are 
shipped  during  the  summer  by  the  canal,  and  more  than 
500,000  tons  are  stored  on  the  docks  through  the  winter, 
awaiting  shiimicnt  in  the  spring.     Pop.  2fio4. 

Thomas  J.  Ham,  Ed.  "  Wav.ve  Co.  Hehai.!)." 
Ilon'ey,  the  saccharine  material  collected  from  fiowers 
by  several  kinds  of  insects  for  the  food  of  themselves  and 
progeny,  especially  by  the  honey-bee  (A/jis  mcllijiia).  In 
bee-honey  there  have  been  reported  as  present  four  kinds 
of  sugar — common  cane-sugar,  or  sucrose;  glucose  (dex- 
trose), or  fruit-sugar;  locvulosc,  or  iincrtcd  sugar  (which 
turns  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  left,  or  inverts  the 
action  of  glucose) ;  the  fourth  being  a  sugar  stated  by 
Soubeiran  to  be  hevo-rotatory  to  a  degree  three  times  as 
great  as  Uevuloso,  but  which  is  little  known.  There  are 
other  substances  present,  among  them  an  acid  ferment, 
which  gradually  changes  the  cnne-sngar  into  a  mixture  of 
dextrose  and  lievulosc,  so  that  the  clear,  liniiiid  fresh 
honey  from  the  comb  often  becomes  granular  and  opaque, 
from  the  crystallizing  out  of  the  less  soluble  glucose.  Wasp- 
honey  (of  J'oli/hiu  o/)Hi/). mil's)  gives  large  crystals  of 
ordinary  sucrose,  and  jlexiean  ant-honey  yielded  to 
C.  M.  VVetherill  an  uncrystallizablc  sugar  of  composition 
C'-H™0'*.  Honey  varies  in  aroma  and  flavor  with  the  flow- 
ers from  which  it  has  been  collected;  clover  honey,  buck- 
wheat honey,  and  wild  honey  being  readily  distinguishable 
in  this  respect ;  and  some  eases  are  on  record  of  poisonous 
qualities  derived  from  the  like  source.  Honey  is  said  to  bo 
now  much  adulterated  witll  glycerine,  and  even  imitated, 
as  a  whole,  by  combining  the  latter  product  with  other  ma- 
terials, and  Uavoring  with  appropriate  essential  oils. 

H.  WruTZ. 
Honey-Ant,    See  Ant. 

Houeybrook,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Chester  co..  Pa.     It 
has  a  iiatiuiKil  lumlv.     Pop.  1UJ7. 

Honey"Buzznrd,anaine  given  in  Fiugland  to  /'tniia 
apifonm,  a  chiclly  insectivorous  bird  of  the  falcon  family, 
dift'ering  from  other  birds  of  the  family  in  its  food,  and  in 
having  the  space  between  its  eyes  and  bill  completely  leath- 
ered. I\-niln  criatnttiH,  the  crested  honey-buzzard,  is  an 
Asiatic  bird.  Bees,  wasps,  and  honey  arc  sought  by  them. 
Honeycomb,  t]i.  of  Marshall  co.,  Ala.  Pop.  247. 
Honey-coinb  Moth,  or  Uee  Moth  (On/ln-in  rrre- 
ciim  and  ir.  tilrr<irin),  are  small  lei^idopterous  insects  of  the 
Pyralidu',  or  snout-moth  family.  The  larva>  spin  silken 
galleries  in  beehives,  running  lietween  the  layers  of  honey- 
comb, upon  which  the  young  insects  feed.  The  moth 
lays  her  eggs  at  evening,  while  tlie  bees  are  at  rest.  It 
appears  thai  neither  molh  nor  larva'  are  ever  stung  by  the 
bees.  The  moth  is  a  most  fi>rnii<lable  enemy  to  tlie  bees. 
Quite  a  number  of  kinds  of  moth-traps  are  employed,  and 
some  arc  very  useful  in  destroying  these  pests. 

Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Adams  co..  III.     Pop.  1495. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Crawford  co..  III.     Pop.  1808, 
Honey  Creek,  post-v.  of  Fall  Creek  tp.,  Henry  co., 
Ind.      I'.ip.  100. 

Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  732. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Vigo  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1519. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  While  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  fill. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Delaware  eo.,  la.     Pop.  1088. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Iowa  co.,  la.     Pop.  1081. 
Honey  Creek,  tp.  of  Sauk  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1180. 
Honey  <'nt,  tp.  of  Macon  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1708. 
Iloneyeiltt's,  tp.  of  Sampson  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  I2S:!. 
Iloni-y-dew,  a  sweet  substance  of  uncertain  origin 
found  on  Niaiiy  kinds  of  plants  and  frees. 

Honey-Kilters,  a  largo  Australasian  family  of  pas- 
serine birds,  akin  in  habits,  food,  and  other  eharaeterislics 
to  the  humming-birds  of  the  New  World,  though  of  larger 
size.  They  are  also  closely  connected  witli  the  sun  birds 
( Proineropidie),  the  hiiiuiuing-birds  of  the  Old- World 
tropical  lauds.     Tlic  honey-eaters  are  mostly  very  beuuti- 


982 


HONEY  GROVE— HONORS  OF  WAR. 


ful.  A  few  are  good  soni;s(prs.  The  name  honey-eaters  is 
given  to  some  of  the  sun-birds,  and  even  to  other  birds 
which  arc,  or  are  believed  to  be,  fond  of  honey. 

Honey  Grove,  post-v.  of  Fannin  co.,  Tex.,  18  miles 
from  Bon  ham.     Poj).  .'{S2. 

Honey-Guide,  :i  name  given  to  certain  birds  of  the 
genus  Jtidicator  and  of  the  cuckoo  family,  found  in  Africft, 
Borneo,  and  India,  and  named  fn.m  their  curious  instinct 
which  prompts  them  to  guide  the  hunter  to  a  hive  of  wild 
bees — a  feat  which  it  often,  but  by  no  means  infallibly,  ac- 
complishes. 

Honey  Locust,  the  GUdiuchia  triacanthos.  a  large 
and  well-known  leguminous  tree  of  the  U.  S.  It  takes  its 
name  from  its  long  pods  filled  when  ripe  with  a  sweet  sub- 
stance. The  tree  has  stout,  often  triple  thorns,  and  is  used 
as  a  hedge-plant.  The  wood  is  coarser  tbau  that  of  the 
common  locust  {Ilobinia  Peeudacacia),  but  is  not  much 
inferior  to  it.  {See  Gleditsciiia.) 

Hon'eysuckle,  the  popular  name  of  many  shrubs,  erect 
or  twining,  of  the  genera  Ltmirera,  DierviUa,  etc.,  and  of 
the  order  Caprifoliacere.  Many  of  them  are  common  in 
cultivation,  being  prized  for  the  fragrance  and  beauty  of 
their  flowers.  The  U.  S.  have  several  species,  a  few  of 
which  are  seen  in  cultivation.  Most  of  the  finest  ones  are 
from  Northern  Asia  or  Europe.  They  have  been  much  im- 
proved by  cultivation.  Many  other  plants,  azaleas,  aqui- 
legias,  etc.,  arc  locally  known  as  honeysuckles. 

Honflenr,  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Cal- 
vados, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  7  miles  S.  E.  of  Havre. 
It  is  busily  engaged  in  fisheries,  and  carries  on  a  lively 
trade  in  eggs  and  fruits  with  England.     Pop.  0o63. 

Hong,  a  Chinese  word  meaning  a  "row"  or  "series," 
was  first  applied  to  the  European  warehouses  in  the  Chinese 
ports,  then  to  whole  blocks  of  such  houses,  and  at  last  to 
the  entire  factory. 

Hong*Kiang  ("red  river"),  or  Si-Kiang  ("  west 
river  "'),  a  large  navigable  stream  of  Southern  China,  enters 
the  China  Sea  through  several  mouths,  of  which  that  at 
which  Canton  is  situated  is  generally  called  Choo-Kiang 
(*'  pearl  river"). 

Hong-Kong  ("red  harbor"),  an  island  off  the  south- 
eastern coast  of  China,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River. 
75  miles  S.  E.  of  Canton.  This  ij^land,  whose  area  is  29 
square  miles,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1842,  and  to- 
gether with  a  small  strip  of  the  opposite  mainland,  the 
peninsula  of  Kooloon.  which  was  ceded  in  ISGl,  and  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  it  forms  a  most 
flourishing  colony.  The  island  itself  is  rocky  and  bare, 
not  able  to  grow  so  much  as  would  feed  its  inhabitants  one 
day,  but  on  its  northern  side  it  presents  a  fine  harbor,  deep 
and  safe,  and  here  is  built  the  city  of  Victoria,  in  lat.  22° 
16'  N.,  Ion.  114°  8'  E.,  which  in  a  few  years  has  become  a 
place  of  the  greatest  commercial  importance.  Steamers 
froln  Bombay,  Calcutta,  San  Francisco,  Canton,  JIacao, 
and  Singapore  go  and  come  daily,  and  thousands  of  sail- 
ing-vessels, especially  Chinese  junks,  throng  the  harbor. 
In  1  St>9  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  was  2,52  J, 498  ; 
in  1S72  it  amounted  to  .'5.777,670.  The  jjrincipal  articles 
of  importation  are  cotton  goods,  opium,  and  ships*  sup- 
plies, whose  value  is  estimated  at  £4, 0(H). 000.  The  prin- 
cipal article  of  exportation  is  tea,  estimated  at  £2,000,000. 
The  transfer  of  passengers  also  forms  an  important  item  in 
the  business  of  the  place.  The  city  stretches  for  about  3 
miles  along  the  bay,  from  the  foot  of  the  hills  to  the  edge  of 
the  water,  and  contains  several  fine  thoroughfares,  with 
large  and  elegant  houses  of  brick  ami  stone,  and  surrounded 
with  beautiful  gardens  belonging  to  the  merchants,  and 
with  a  number  of  stately  public  buildings — the  cathedral, 
the  governor's  house,  the  bishop's  palace,  tlic  exchange,  the 
jail,  the  hospital,  etc.  Beautiful  public  gardens  have  been 
laid  out,  and  good  free  schools  for  the  lower  Chinese  pop- 
ulation established.  A  strong  police  force,  consisting  of 
Indian  Sepoj's,  is  kept,  but  in  spite  of  the  generous  expen- 
diture of  the  colony,  its  revenues  bring  annually  a  surplus. 
Pop.  in  1S72.  121.985,  of  whom  4931  were  Europeans,  1490 
Indians,  and  il5,.'>()4  Chinese,  of  whom  about  13,000  live 
on  boats  in  the  harbor. 

Hon'itou,  town  of  England,  Devonshire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Utter.  The  celebrated  lioniton  lace  received 
its  name  from  this  place,  though  at  present  it  is  manufac- 
tured in  many  other  places.     Pup.  .1470, 

Honolu'lu,  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  the 
residence  of  tlu'  king,  is  situated  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  island  of  Oahu,  in  lat.  21°  IS'  N..  Ion.  157°  55'  W. 
Its  harbor  is  formed  by  a  deep  and  spacious  basin  in  the 
coral  reef  which  surrouncls  the  island.  It  is  safe  at  all  sea- 
sons, and  lined  with  substantial  and  commodious  wharves. 
In  1872  it  was  visited  by  47  whalers  and  138  merchant 
vessels,  of  which  22  were  Hawaiian  and  SO  .\merican.    The 


steamers  from  San  Francisco  to  Melbourne  touch  rcgulariy 
at  Honolulu.  The  city  itself  is  situ.ated  among  beautiful 
tropical  surroundings,  and  enjoys  an  equable  and  healthy 
climate,  the  heat  ranging  between  60°  and  87°  F.  Among 
its  public  buildings  the  most  remarkable  are  the  king's 
palace,  the  parliament-house,  the  Konmn  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, the  treasury,  the  post-office,  etc.  It  has  1  Anglican  and 
2  American  churches,  2  hospitals,  and  a  number  of  good 
schools.  It  has  a  theatre,  5  printing  establishments,  a  bank, 
billiard-rooms,  fine  stores,  etc.,  and  its  trade  is  quite  con- 
siderable. The  value  of  its  importations  amounted  in  1872 
to  SI, 583, 683,  and  of  its  exportations  to  $1,345,585.  Pop. 
14,852. 

Hono'ria  (.Trsr.v  Grata),  a  daughter  of  Constantius 
III.  and  Galla  Placidia,  and  a  sister  to  Valentinian  III., 
b.  at  C<)nstantinopIe  in  418  a.  d.,  lived  after  the  death  of 
Honorius  in  424  and  the  usurpation  of  Joannes  in  Rome, 
at  the  court  of  Valentinian  III.  By  a  secret  mission  she 
invited  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  to  come  to  Italy  and 
marry  her,  and  sent  him  her  ring;  but  Attila  ti)ok  no  no- 
tice of  the  invitation.  Having  beci>mc  pregnant  by  her 
steward,  Eugenius.  she  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  but  re- 
turned to  Rome  after  the  death  of  Theodosius  II.  in  450. 
She  now  again  invited  Attila.  and  this  time  he  saw  fit  to 
accept  the  invitation.  He  claimed  her  as  his  betrothed 
bride,  together  with  her  part  of  the  empire;  antl  as  his 
claims  were  disregarded  by  Valentinian  III.,  he  invaded 
Gaul.  AVhat  became  of  Honoria  is  nut  known.  Gibbon 
says  that  she  was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
but  he  does  not  state  his  authority. 

Honorius,  Roman  emperor  from  395  to  423,  b.  at  Con- 
stantinople Sept.  9,  384.  and  d.  at  Ravenna  Aug.  27,  423. 
At  the  death  of  Theodosius  the  Great  (395)  the  Roman 
empire  was  divided  between  his  two  sons.  Arcadius  and 
Honorius.  Honorius  received  the  western  part — Italy.  Af- 
rica, Spain,  Gaul,  Brittany,  and  Illyrta — with  Ravenna  for 
his  residence ;  and  as  he  was  only  eleven  years  old,  ho  was 
placed  under  the  guardianshiji  of  Stilicho.  Stilicho  was  a 
vigorous  and  successful  ruler,  but  when  he  was  treacherous- 
ly killed  at  Ravenna  (408)  the  barbarian  tribes  poured  in 
over  the  frontiers  and  rebellion  arose  in  all  the  provinces. 
Brittany  was  entirely  given  up;  Gaul  was  overrun  by 
Gothic  and  German  invaders;  Africa  made  itself  inde- 
pendent under  Heraclian ;  and  Italy  was  thrice  plundered, 
and  Rome  besieged  and  taken  by  Alaric.  The  weak  and 
indolent  emperor  could  do  nothing,  and  when  one  of  his 
generals  succeeded  in  defending  the  empire,  he  became 
suspicious  and  had  him  killed.  After  Stilicho  followed  Con- 
stantius. During  the  reign  of  Honorius  a  general  perae- 
cution  was  raised  against  paganism. 

Hono'rius  I.,  Pope,  a  Campanian,  became  pope  in 
625,  and  d.  in  638.  Special  interest  has  arisen  in  this  pope 
since  the  promulgation  of  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility 
from  the  fact  that  the  letters  of  Honorius  are  conceived  to 
teach,  ex  catfiedrdy  the  Monothelite  heresy,  so  called,  for 
which  heresy  he  was  anathematized  by  the  third  Council 
General -ftf  Constantinople,  and  afterwards  was  officially 
pronounced  a  heretic  by  Leo  II. —  IIoNOitlfs  II..  .AxTlPoPE, 
bishop  of  Parma,  was  elected  in  1061,  and  depo.-^ed  in  1064. 
D.  in  1072. — HoNoiiirs  II..  Pope,  was  chosen  in  1124,  and 
d.  Feb.  14,  1130.— Hosonirs  III.  (rencio  .Vrtir//)).  a  Ro- 
man, succeeded  Innocent  III.  in  1216.  andafter  adisturbcd 
pontificate  d.  Mar.  18,  1227. — HuNoitii  s  IV.  {Gincomo  iSa- 
velli)  became  cardinal-deacon  in  1261,  became  pope  in  1285, 
andd.  Apr.  .3,  1287. 

Hon'ors  of  War,  stipulated  terms  granted  to  a  van- 
quished enemy,  by  which  he  is  permitteil  to  march  out  of 
a  town,  from  a  camp  or  line  of  jntrenchments.  with  all  the 
insignia  of  military  etiquette.      In  another  sense  they  sig- 
nify   the   comjdiment    paid   to    distinguished    personages, 
military,  etc.,  when   they  appear  before  any  armed  body 
of  men,  or  such  as  arc  given  to  the  remains  of  a  deceased 
officer.     The  circumstances  attending    the   latter  vary   in 
different    countries,    while    respecting   the    former    almost 
everything  depends  upon  the  general  granting  the  capitu- 
lation.    In  some  cases  the  troops  of  a  besieged  garrison 
are  permitted  to  march  out  with  drums  beating,  colors  fly- 
j  ing,  etc.;  in  others,  they  are  required  to  lay  down  their 
I  arms  at  a  named  spot,  and  then  depart;  wliile  in  still  other 
!  cases  they  arc  required  to  march  baek  to  their  works,  after 
having  been  permitted  to  march  out  either  silently  or  with 
I  drums  beating,  and  pile  their  arms  in  front  of  their  works. 
I   In  our  own  late  civil  war  at  the  first  surrender  (Apr.  14, 
1861).  that  of  Fort   Sumter.  Gen.  Anderson,  cummamling, 
was  allowed  to  march  out  of  the  fort  with  colors  flying  and 
drums  beating,  bringing  away  company  and  private  prop- 
erty, and  paying  a  salute  of  fifty  guns  to  his  flag.     At  tho 
surrender  of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia  (Apr.  9,  1865) 
the  terms  required  the  officers  to  give  their  individual  pa- 
roles not  to  take  up  arms  against  the  U.  S.  until  properly 


nONTHElM,   VON— HOOD. 


983 


exchanged,  and  each  company  or  regimental  commander  I 
to  sign  11  like  p:irolo  for  the  uu-u  of  his  eoiunmnd ;  the 
arms,  arlilk-rv,  ami  ]iuhlie  [iro]itTty  to  bo  |)ackcd  and 
st;u.-kcd,  and  "turned  over  to  officers  appointed  to  receive 
them  ;  oflieer.",  however,  were  permitted  to  retain  their  side- 
arms,  private  horses,  and  baggage.  Upon  eoinpliance  with 
these  terms  each  officer  and  man  was  allowed  to  return  to 
his  home,  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  U.  S.  authorities  "so 
long  as  he  observed  his  parole  and  the  laws  in  force  where 
he  "may  resiilc."  The  surrender  of  the  army  of  Gen. 
Johnston  was  received  .\pr.  20,  ISGo,  on  the  same  basis. 

Hon'theiin,  von  (Joiian  Nicolais),  b.  at  Treves 
Jan.  27,  170!  ;  studied  jurisprudence  at  Louvain  and  Ley- 
den  ;  became  ecclesiastical  eounscllor  to  the  consistory  of 
Treves  in  172S,  professor  of  civil  law  in  17:!2,  and  sulfragan 
of  the  see  of  Treves  in  1748.  In  17S8  he  resigned  his  of- 
fices and  retired  to  llontquentin,  where  he  d.  .Sept.  2, 1790. 
.\uthor  of  Hiiloiin  TrrrirniHiH  [A  vols.,  1750)  anil  De  Sliitu 
AVe/i/r/iT  (17(>:i),  the  latter  attacking  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church,  for  which  he  was  persecuted,  ami  lie  retracted  in 
177."';  but  his  ideas  had  taken  root.  (Sec  Fkuhonianisii.) 
Ilonved,  the  Hungarian  militia.  The  name  was  first 
used  in  1S4.S,  when  in  order  to  combat  the  .Austrian  su- 
premacy the  Ilungarian  Diet  called  out  about  200,000  men, 
who  were  interspersed  among  the  regular  soldiers.  This 
militia  was  called  //o)ie.''/«.';/.  .Afterwards,  when  after  the 
defeat  of  18G6  the  .Austrio-llungarian  government  in- 
creased the  army  according  to  the  principle  of  universal 
military  duly,  and  likewise  established  an  Hungarian  mili- 
tia, the  name  was  retained  from  regard  to  the  national  feel- 
ing of  Hungary.  It  was  determined  by  the  law  of  Dec.  5, 
Isti.H,  that  the  hoiiv/''il  should  aid  the  regular  army  in  times 
of  war.  It  should  mit  be  employed,  however,  oulside  the 
country,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  Ilungarian  Diet. 
It  should  be  composed  of  men  who  had  served  their  time 
in  the  reserve  of  volunteers,  and  of  men  who  had  made  no 
military  service  on  aeeounf  of  (he  fulness  of  the  cadres. 
Al  present  (1S75)  the  honved,  thus  organized,  consists  of 
20(1.707  men — namely  00  men  of  the  Hungarian  crown- 
guard;  124  battalions  of  infantry,  comprising  187,812 
men;  40  squadrons  of  cavalry,  comprising  14,:i;-{8  men: 
and  44U7  arliUerisls.  The  officers  who  drill  and  command 
this  army  arc  taken  from  the  regular  army.  A.  Niemann. 
Hoo'bly,  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  is  iioorly  built,  but  carries  on  an  important  trade 
in  cotton.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

Hood,  county  of  N.  Central  Tc.\as.  Area,  014  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Brazos  River.  It  is  finely 
diversified,  fertile,  well  watered  and  timbered,  has  a  good 
climate,  abuuilimt  water-power,  and  excellent  building- 
stone.  Live-stock,  corn,  ctitton,  and  wool  arc  staple  pro- 
ducts.    Cap.  Granbury.     Pop.  2585. 

Ilood,  the  name  of  two  noted  English  admirals,  sons 
of  a  rector  of  Bath.  The  elder  brother,  ,Sami:k[„  b.  Bee. 
12,  1724,  became  admiral  in  1780,  Irish  baron  in  1782, 
Knglish  viscount  in  1700,  ancl  d.  Jan.  27,  1810.  Ho  fought 
with  great  valor  against  the  French  during  the  North 
American  war  of  independence,  and  again  in  the  war  of 
17'j:i.  when  he  commanded  in  the  iMediterianean,  took  Tou- 
lon, which,  however,  he  had  to  give  up  again,  and  e.\pelled 
the  French  from  Corsica. — The  younger  brother,  Ai.KX- 
AShKR,  b.  in  1727,  became  admiral  in  1782,  Irish  baron  in 
1704,  British  peer  in  1700,  viscount  in  18(10,  and  il.  .May  I!, 
1814.  Ill'  commanded  under  Lord  Howe  at  Gibraltar  and 
in  the  Channel  in  1701,  and  gained  in  1705  a  victory  over 
a  French  fleet  off  L'Orieiit,  which  he  attacked,  though  ho 
was  inferior  in  numlier  to  the  enemy. 

Hood  (John-  Bkii),  b.  at  Owingsville,  Bath  CO.,  Ky., 
June20,  18:tl  :  graduaterl  from  (he  I'.S.  Military  Academy, 
and  appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  inl'ttutry  July, 
lS5:i  :  transferred  to  the  cavalry  as  second  lieutenant  1S5,% 
and  promotetl  to  he  first  lieutenant  1858.  Lieut.  Iloorl  was 
actively  engagerl  on  frontier  duty  until  |8(jl,  when  he  en- 
tered (he  Confcderiife  army,  serving  in  every  position  from 
first  lieutenant  to  that  <if  eonmiander-in-chief  ol"  an  army 
with  (he  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  serving  ihroughout 
the  \*irginiii  Peninsular  campaign,  at  the  second  biitlle  of 
Bull  Run,  at  Antietam.at  Gettysburg,  iiinl  at  Chiekiunaiiga, 
where  he  suft'ered  the  loss  of  a  leg:  iu  \^i\\  he  succeed<-d  Gen. 
.lohnst'm  in  eommanil  tif  the  army  resisling  (ien.Shermiin's 
invasion  of  Georgia  ;  met  the  I'nion  forces  in  battle  at  Frank- 
lin Nov.  :'.0,  1804,  and  at  Nashville  Dec.  15-10.  shortly  after 
which  ho  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Richard  Taylor.  After  the 
war  ho  aettlcd  in  New  Orleans.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Hood  ( Roiiiv).  the  hero  of  a  great  number  of  the  most 
popular  among  the  old  l''nglish  ballads,  was  an  outlaw  and 
a  robber  who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury in  the  (leplhs  of  .Sherwood  Forest,  Noltinghamshirc, 
and  Barnsdalo  Forest,  Yorkshire,  with  a  company  of  sim- 


ilar fellows — some  say  100 — and  among  them  Little  John 
and  Friar  Tuck,  not  to  forget  the  Maid  Marian.  Although 
a  robber  by  profession,  he  had  some  gallant  and  magnani- 
mous qualities,  which  won  for  him  not  only  the  admiration, 
but  even  the  aflfection,  of  the  lower  classes.  He  was  the 
best  archer  in  the  world,  bis  arrow  never  missing  the  aim. 
He  was  brave;  a  fight  with  four  knights  and  a  victory  over 
two  was  a  small  matter  with  him.  He  was  not  cruel ;  ho 
never  killed  people  when  it  was  not  necessary.  He  w:i3 
rather  jovial  and  good-hearte.l,  and  what  he  took  from  tho 
rich  he  often  gave  to  the  poor.  Nevertheless,  if  he  had 
been  nothing  but  a  simple  robber,  he  would  never  have 
attained  that  romantic  glory  which  attached  very  early  to 
his  name.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  he  was  driven 
into  this  kind  of  life  by  some  political  circumstances  which 
naturally  made  him  the  knight  of  the  lower  classes;  and 
Mr.  Hunter  finds  it  likely  that  he  was  one  of  those  yeomen 
who  under  Edward  II.  joined  the  rebellion  of  the  earl  of 
Lancaster,  but  failed  and  were  ruined.  According  to  tra- 
dition, he  was  bled  to  death  by  a  nun  and  buried  in  Kirk- 
lees  Park,  Yorkshire.  lie  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Vininn 
iif  Picra  Vhiiiijhmnn,  written  between  l.'i55  ami  1.105,  and 
next  in  the  Si'ili'-hrfiitirim,  written  between  i:i77  and  i:i84. 
In  1495,  Wynkyn  de  Worde  jmblished  a  long  poem  under 
tho  title  Li'/tic  (IcKlc  (if  llobyn  Hood,  which  seems  to  be  a 
combiuaticin  of  several  ballads.  In  tho  sixteenth  century 
rustic  sports  and  masqucra.lings  were  colobraled  in  many 
places  under  the  name  of"  Robin  Hood  games."  In  1705, 
Ritson  published  a  collection  of  all  the  ballads  and  his- 
torical anecdotes  referring  to  Robin  Hood;  which  collec- 
tion was  considerably  enlarged  in  1S47  by  J.  M.  Gutch. 
At  one  time  most  modern  critics  agreed  in  considering 
Robin  Hood  ns  a  mythical  creation,  representative  of  tho 
general  relation  between  the  Anglo-Saxon  jiopulation  and 
the  Norman-French  b.aions  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  but  without  any  in<livirlual  and  concrete  histor- 
ical foundation.  A  German  mythologist,  Adalbert  Kulin, 
even  went  so  far  as  to  identify  the  poor  robber  with  the  old 
pagan  god  Wo.lcn  { Ho„rJ—  \Vm„i—  \V.„hn).  But  in  1852, 
Rev.  Joseph  Hunter  publisheil  in  London  a  learned  and 
ingenious  )>amphlet  on  the  suliject,  and  although  many  of 
the  details  of  his  researches  are  nothing  more  than  hints 
and  suggestions,  yet  the  whole  goes  far  to  establish  an 
historical  basis  for  the  tradition. 

Hood  (Thomas),  b.  in  London  May  2.1,  1790.  His 
father,  who  was  a  bookseller,  d.  in  1811,  up  to  which  time 
the  son  had  received  but  a  very  unprofitable  preparatory 
education;  in  1812,  however,  his  mother  placed  him  at  a 
day  school,  where,  under  the  care  of  a  good  teacher,  ho 
made  rapid  progress,  and  gained  his  first  lee  for  literary 
labor  in  revising  a  new  edition  of  P<nd  ft  Virtfhtie,  From 
school  he  entered  a  counting-house,  but  his  heuKh  failing, 
he  was  sent  to  Dundee,  where  he  continued  his  reading 
and  contributed  various  pieces  to  the  local  publications. 
Returning  to  Lon. Ion  in  I  wo  years  with  im|.ro\ed  health, 
he  entered  the  service  of  his  uncle  to  learn  the  art  of  en- 
graving, in  which  he  acquired  sumo  skill,  which  was  of 
value  to  him  in  his  subsequent  career.  In  1821  the  Aon. 
rf.oi  Marjiuinc  fell  into  the  hands  of  some  friends,  and 
Hood  became  subeditor.  In  this  position  he  formed  tho 
acquaintance  of  all  the  leading  literary  men  of  the  time, 
and  with  Charles  Lamb  an  intimacy  sjirang  up  which 
lasted  during  the  hitter's  Hie.  In  this  society  his  own 
powers  developed,  and  his  first  separate  publication,  Oi/,» 
und  Addirmieii.  soon  appeared,  being,  however,  the  joint 
work  of  himself  and  J.  H.  Reynolds.  Wliimn  und  Oddilkn 
appeared  in  1820,  followed  by  .Witimial  Talta  (1827),  I'kn 
uf  the  Midtiimmn-  /■'« I'ciC",  /A  c"  and  Lciindcr,  Li/iiih  the 
(Jeiil<iui;iiud  Olhir  Piiema.  In  1829  the  ComiV -liiiiioJ  was 
issued,  and  continued  nino  years.  For  a  year  he  edited 
The  (Urn.  in  which  appeared  his  poem  entitled  /i'i/y,,ic 
Arnm'a  Drciim.  In  18.11  he  occupied  Lake  House,  near 
Wanstcad,  where  he  wrote  his  novel  TiiIikh  /IidL  In  18:!S 
//oo./'«  Ouii  was  started,  a  monthly  publication  consisting 
chiefly  of  extracts  from  the  t'omk-  Annual  series,  with  new 
contributions.  His  health  still  being  delicate,  ho  went  to 
the  Condnenl.  where  ho  remained  for  several  years,  and 
from  Belgium  published  his  f'/i  the  Hhim:,  constructed,  as 
he  says  in  the  preface,  on  the  groundwork  of  llninjthmj 
Clinker.  On  his  return  to  Ungland  he  became  editor  of 
tho  New  ihinthli)  Mmjuzine,  from  which  he  retired  in  184:). 
In  1844  IltKid'a  Maijuzinc  Was  started,  for  which  he  fur- 
nisheil  most  of  the  best  work  until  near  his  death.  A  short 
time  before  his  death,  while  on  a  bed  of  sickness  which  ho 
never  left  alive,  ho  contributed  to  Pmich  those  t.iuehing 
verses  which  have  rcuilered  his  name  immorliil  -"  The 
Song  of  a  Shirt,"  "  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  and  "  The  Lay  ot  a 
'  Laborer."  A  short  time  before  his  death  a  government 
pension  of  £100  waa  secured  to  him  by  .Sir  Robert  Peel, 
and  euntinueil  to  his  widow  after  his  death,  which  occurred 
.  in  London  May  3,  1845. 


984 


HOOD-HOOKER. 


Hood  (Thomas),  son  of  the  above,  b.  at  Wan  stead,  Essex, 
Jan.  \[>,  18;i5  :  educated  at  Oxford  :  his  first  literary  work, 
Pen  and  Pencil  Pictitrcit,  appeared  in  lS5-t-66,  followed  by 
numerous  books  for  juveniles ;  ho  was  also  the  author  of 
several  bright  novels  and  a  number  of  successful  farces  and 
humorous  ])ocms.  In  ISOo  he  was  appointed  editor  of  Fun, 
a  comic  periodical  and  the  most  successful  rival  to  Punch; 
was  a  good  designer,  and  illustrated  bis  father's  comic 
verses,  "  Precocious  Peggy,"  etc.     1>.  in  Loudon  Nov.  20, 

is:  I. 

Ilootred  Seal,  the  Cystophora  crietata,  a  seal  of  the 
^t'lirtli  Atlantic  coasts,  is  about  eight  feet  long,  and  is  cha- 
rai-terizi'(l  by  a  cartilaginous  inflated  hood  or  erest,  which 
in  the  adult  male  is  of  considerable  size.  It  may  be  a  res- 
ervoir of  air  for  the  service  of  the  animal  when  diving.  It 
is  a  formidable  biter,  hut  is  hunted  for  its  fur  and  oil.  When 
surpri.-ed  by  the  hunter  it  sheds  copious  tears. 

Hoof,  the  horny  shell  which  covers  the  foot,  or  the  sep- 
arate digits  of  the  foot,  of  certain  herbivorous  (or  mostly 
herbivorous)  mammals.  It  is  the  homologue  of  finger  and 
toe  nails  of  the  claws  of  other  vertebrates.  It  is,  histo- 
logically, composed  of  the  agglutinated  and  dried  cell-walls 
of  epithelium,  with  a  small  proportion  of  intercellular  sub- 
stance and  of  cell-contents.  Chemically,  it  consists  chiefly 
of  an  albuminoid  substance,  of  uncertain  composition,  pro- 
visionally called  keratin.  The  hoofs  of  beef-cattle  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  making  buttons,  combs,  and  ornamental 
articles.  Horse-hoofs  are  used  in  making  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash and  in  case-hardening  iron. 

Hoogh'ly,  town  of  British  India,  tho  capital  of  tho 
district  of  llooglily,  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  on  tho 
left  hank  of  the  Ilooghly.  It  has  a  college  in  which  both 
English  and  Asiatic  literature  is  taught,  and  which  was 
founded  by  a  native.     Pop.  12,000. 

Hooghly  River  is  the  westernmost  outlet  of  the  Gan- 
ges, formed  in  lat.  23°  2  J'  N.  and  Ion.  8S°  22'  E.  by  the  con- 
tinence of  tho  Bhagrutti  and  the  Jelliughy,  two  branches 
of  the  Ganges,  and  considered  as  the  proper  mouth  of  this 
river.  It  is  about  200  miles  long,  10  miles  broad  at  its  en- 
trance into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  although  its  mouth  and 
shores  are  encumbered  by  mud-shoals,  it  is  navigable  for 
the  largest  vessels,  its  draught  being  1"  feet  up  to  Calcutta. 
During  tho  S.  W.  monsoon  the  Bore  (which  see)  appears 
here,  and  generally  the  tide  is  felt  17  miles  above  Calcutta. 
Its  waters  are  considered  holy  by  the  natives. 

Hoogstraten,  von  (Samuel),  b.  at  Dort  in  1627  ;  be- 
longed to  a  family  of  painters:  received  instruction  from 
Rembrandt:  travelled  in  Germany,  Italy,  au'l  England; 
and  d.  in  his  native  city  in  lt>78.  He  painted  history, 
))ortraits,  flowers,  and  animals,  but  became  most  celebrated 
as  a  painter  of  still  life. 

Hook  (TiiKonoRE  Edward),  b.  in  London  Sept.  22, 
17*JS  ;  at  Harrow  he  appears  to  have  been  careless  and  in- 
attentive to  his  jiroper  studies;  he  was,  however,  extremely 
precocious,  and  displayed  at  a  very  early  age  remarkable 
aptitude  in  making  verses  and  arranging  them  to  music. 
In  1S05  his  first  farce  was  produced.  The  So/ifirr'a  Pctnrn, 
a  comic  opera  in  two  acts,  which  met  with  great  success, 
and  was  speedily  followed  by  numerous  farces  and  melo- 
dramas. But  it  was  his  own  life  at  this  time  which  at- 
tracted pulilic  attention  toward  him.  His  pnictical  jokes 
were  of  the  boldest  kind,  while  his  l>rilliant  conversational 
powers,  his  remarkable  talent  f<»r  jiunning  an<l  improvisa- 
tion, his  convivial  disposition,  soon  made  him  a  favorite 
in  aristocratic  society  and  gained  him  the  friendship  of  the 
prince  regent,  who  in  1812  secured  for  him  the  apjtoint- 
ment  of  accountant-general  and  treasurer  of  .Mauritius.  In 
IHIS  irregularities  were  discovered  in  his  accounts,  and  ho 
was  returned  to  England  in  arrest,  but  no  gnmnds  for  a 
criminal  charge  existing,  he  was  soon  liberated.  In  IS20 
he  assumed  the  editorship  of  the  new  journal,  Jn/m  Hufl, 
which  at  once  reached,  and  for  some  time  maintained,  a 
large  circulation.  Tho  board  of  audit  declared  him  in  lH2;t 
a  debtor  to  the  Crown  in  the  sum  of  £12,000,  and  he  was 
again  arrested,  and  eunlincii  for  nearly  two  years.  Although 
no  portion  of  the  missing  funds  was  ever  traced  to  Hook, 
ami  it  was  believed  the  guilty  jiarties  were  among  his  sub- 
ordinates, the  government  never  abated  its  claim,  and  at 
tho  death  of  Hook  the  small  sum  realized  from  tho  sale 
of  his  ertciMs  was  claimed  by  the  Crown.  In  IS24  the  first 
scries  of  Sni/int/n  niuf  /ioiuffn  appeared,  followed  by  tho 
second  in  1S25.  and  third  in  1S2S:  Mtiswrfl  was  puldished 
in  18:10;  The  Ptireon's  Ihtufjhtrr  in  183.3,  etc. ;  in  lS:ifi  he 
became  editor  of  tho  Xm-'  Mouthfif  Mntpizine;  in  sixteen 
years  he  published  some  ,1S  vohimes.  Hook  retained  his 
position  in  society  to  the  last,  liut  his  high  living,  habit  of 
gambling,  and  forced  mental  labor  overtaxed  his  powers, 
and  he  d.  deeply  in  debt  at  Fulhara  Aug.  24,  I.S41. 

Hook  (Waltf.r  FAityriiAK),  D.  D.,  F.  U.  S.,  dean  of 


Chichester,  b.  in  1798,  and  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Oxford;  was  appointed  in  1S27  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
king;  was  long  incumbent  of  Leeds,  where  he  accomplisheil 
much  in  the  erection  of  churches,  school-houses,  chapels, 
parsonages,  etc.  His  Chnrrfi  Dlrt'umarif,  Ecctesintttirfil 
liiinji-ftphy,  Livrn  of  the  Arrhbishopn  of  Canterbitri/,  and  his 
numerous  published  sermons,  jiamjiblets  on  education,  etc., 
are  all  valuable.     D.  at  London.  Eng..  Oct,  21,  1875. 

Hookc  (NATiiANiKi,),b.  in  Ireland  about  IfiUO;  lost  his 
fortune  in  the  .South  Sea  Bubble ;  was  engaged  by  tho 
duchess  of  Marlborough  in  arranging  her  memoirs;  and 
d.  July  19,  17li:i.  He  was  a  friend  of  Pope,  and  wrote  The 
Ronmn  Hhtnri/  from  thf-  Puiftfinrf  of  R<niie  to  the  Jiui'n  of 
the  Commonwealth  (4  vols.,  17j7-71),  which  was  much  read 
in  its  time. 

Hooke  (RoBEnT),  b.  at  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
July  18,  IGoj.  He  was  intended  for  tho  Church,  but  his 
instincts  drew  him  to  tho  study  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  mechanics.  In  1(>(U  ho  became  professor  of  geometry 
at  Grcsham  College,  London  ;  in  1GG6  was  appointed  city 
surveyor,  on  account  of  a  |ilan  ho  presented  for  tho  rebuild- 
ing of  London  after  the  Great  Fire,  though  the  plan  wa3 
not  followeil ;  in  1077  was  made  secretary  of  tlic  Royal  So- 
ciety. B.  in  London  Mar,  .3,  1703.  While  a  young  man 
tho  art  of  flying  was  the  subject  of  his  invent ivo  sprcuh'-- 
tions;  he  afterwards  aeeuscd  Huygcns  of  having  stolen  hi3 
invention  of  regulating  the  balance  of  a  watch  by  a  spiral 
spring,  and  laid  claim  to  the  first  discovery  of  the  princi- 
ple of  gravitation  against  A'ewton.  The  most  prominent 
of  his  writings  are  Mtcrographia  (1666)  and  Zccfi ones  Cui- 
lerianw  (1078-79). 

Hook'er,  tp.  of  Laclede  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1114. 

Hooker  (Edward),  U.  S,  N.,b.  Dec.  25, 1822,  at  Farm- 
ington.  Conn.,  entered  the  navy  as  an  acting  master  July 
19,  1801 ;  was  promoted  to  acting  volunteer  lieutenant  "  fur 
gallantry  in  action  "  in  18(12,  and  became  an  acting  volun- 
teer lieutenant-commander  in  1S05:  was  commissioned  as 
a  lieutenant-commander  in  the  navy  in  ISOS:  served  in 
the  North  Atlantic  squadron  during  1801  and  1SG2,  aud 
commanded  a  division  of  vessels  in  tho  Potomac  flotilla 
fur  the  remainder  of  the  civil  war:  was  severely  wounded 
in  a  boat  expedition  (Oct.  5,  1801),  and  behaved  with  dis- 
tinguished bravery;  is  mentioned  in  the  olficial  rejiorts  of 
Rear-admiral  Lee  and  Commanders  Murray,  Parker,  and 
Renshaw  as  a  '*  brave,  cool,  and  able  officer."  Lieut. -com- 
mander Hooker  is  descended  from  Rev.  Thomjis  Hooker, 
who  landed  at  Plymouth,  I^Iass.,  in  1635,  and  afterward  led 
the  colony  which  settled  at  Hartford.  Conn,  Many  of  the 
name  took  an  active  part  in  the  early  Indian  wars,  and  Col. 
Noadiah  Hooker,  the  grandfather  of  Lieut. -commander 
Hooker,  was  an  ofiicer  of  some  distinction  in  the  army  of 
the  Revolution.  FoxHALL  A.  Parkkr. 

Hooker  {Josn rn).  b.  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  Nov.  13,  1814  ; 
graduated  at  West  Point,  and  entered  the  army  as  second 
lieutenant  of  artillery  .luly  1,  1837;  after  a  campaign  in 
Florida  against  the  Seminoles.  he  ser\ed  on  frontier  uml 
garrison  duty  till*  18)0.  and  1840-48  in  the  war  with  Mexico 
on  the  staff  of  Gens.  Persifer  Smith,  Hamer.  and  Butler: 
in  1847  appointed  .assistant  adjutant-general,  serving  as 
such  in  Pillow's  division  :  brevetted  captain,  major,  and 
lieutenant-colonel  for  gallantry  at  Monterey,  the  National 
Bridge,  and  Chapultejiec.  In  Feb.,  1853.  he  resigned  from 
the  army,  and  engaged  in  farming  in  t^alifornia.  where  for 
two  years  previous  he  had  served;  also  engaged  as  super- 
intendent of  military  roads  in  Oregon.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  (1801)  he  tendered  his  services  to  tho  gov- 
ernment, and  was  appointed  (May  17.  18('>1 )  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  vohmteers,  serving  in  tho  defences  of  Washington 
and  on  the  lower  Potomac  until  Mar.,  18G2.  when  he  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of  a  division  of  the  3d  corps,  Army 
of  the  Potomac;  in  tho  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign, 
1802,  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Vorktown.  April-May; 
battle  of  M''illjamsburg.  May  ."),  where  his  division  bore  tho 
brunt  of  the  battle  nearly  all  day  :  at  Fair  Oaks  (second 
day).  Frazier's  Farm,  an<l  Malvern  Hill.  Hooker  was  now 
promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers,  to  date  from 
the  battle  of  Williamsluirg.  continuing  in  command  uf  a 
division  and  engagetl  at  the  battle  of  Manassas.  Aug.  20-30, 
and  Chant  illy.  Sept.  1  ;  appointed  to  command  the  1st  cor])? 
.Sept,  G,  1S02,  he  disjdayed  great  bravery  at  South  Moun- 
tain and  Aniietara.  being  severely  wounded  at  the  latter 
battle,  nnd  disaided  until  November,  when  he  returned  to 
the  field,  having  in  the  mean  time  (Sept.  20)  been  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  tho  regular  army,  and  on 
Burnside's  succession  to  the  commnnd  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  was  assigned  to  commaml  the  centre  grand 
division  (3d  and  hX\\  corps)  in  the  new  organization  of 
that  army,  and  held  this  command  at  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg. I)e?.  13,  18G2.  In  Jan.,  1803.  Hooker  suc- 
ceeded  Burnsido  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 


HOOKER— HOOPER'S  ISLAND. 


985 


mac,  and  in  May  following  fought  the  battle  of  ChanccIIors- 
villc.  where,  though  outnumbering  the  enemy,  he  decidcrl 
after  two  days'  lighting  to  return  to  the  X.  bank  of  the 
Kappahannock.  At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Pennsyl- 
vania by  tlie  Confederate  army  the  Armv  of  the  Potomac, 
following,  had  reached  the  vicinity  of  Frederi(-k.  Mil.,  when, 
owing  to  the  refusal  of  *ien.  llalleck  to  jilare  the  troops  at 
Harper's  Ferry  at  the  dispui>al  of  Hooker,  tlie  latter  re- 
quested to  he  (June  27),  and  was,  relieved  from  command 
of  the  army  the  next  morning.  For  the  t^kill  and  energy 
by  which  he  tirj-t  covered  \V'ashington  and  liitltimore  from 
the  meditated  blow  of  the  advancing  enemy  (ien.  Hooker 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress.  In  Sept.,  186:i,  he  was 
assigned  to  the  comuoand  of  the  2nth  army  corps  (Array 
of  the  Cumberlnnd"!,  and  was  distingnishe*!  at  the  capture 
of  Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of  Missionary  Ridge  (Nov. 
24-25 1,  pur^iuit  of  the  (  onfedcrate  army,  and  the  action 
of  Ringgold,  (Ja..  Nov.  27.  186.1.  In  the  invasion  of  Geor- 
gia by  the  army  of  Gen.  Sherman,  Hooker  led  his  corps  in 
the  alraoiit  constant  fighting  up  to  and  ineluding  the  siege 
of  Atlanta,  until  July  ZO,  lSfi4,  when  on  a  question  of  com- 
mand he  was  relieve*!  at  his  own  request.  He  subsequently 
commanded  the  northern  department,  the  department  of 
the  P^nst,  and  that  of  the  T*akes ;  brovetted  major-general 
U.  S.  A.  for  gallantry  at  Chattanooga,  and  Oet.,  18GS,  re- 
tired upon  full  rank  of  major-general.  G.  0.  Simmons. 
Hooker  (JosEi-n  Dai.ton).  M.   D..  P.   C.  L.,  LL.D., 

C.  II..  F.  R.  S.,  a  son  of  Sir  W.  J.  Hnokor.  b.  in  1S17,: 
went  in  IS'VJ  as  botanist  to  the  Erebus  Antarctic  expedition  ; 
was  1817-51  engaged  in  an  expedition  to  the  Himalayas; 
became  in  185o  assistant  director,  and  in  ISfiS  director,  of 
the  Kew  Gardens ;  explored  in  1S7I  Morocco  and  the  Great 
Atlas  Mountains;  is  a  member  of  many  learned  societies. 
Author  of  Flora  Auturrticn  (184^4—17),  Crjiptmjnmin  Ant- 
(irrttra  (IS (7),  Rhododentfronti  of  the  Sthkiin-flnnnlnya 
(18(9-51),  f/orrt  o/"  JV.ir  Zealand  (1852-54),  Himalnyan 
Jonrnnli  (1854),  S'd-kim-THmalajjan  Plants  (1855),  pLrn 
Taitmaiilra  (1S55).  The  Stiulcnt'ti  Flora  (1870),  with  G. 
Bentham,  (ifucra  /'AiM/ficKHf  (publishing  in  1875),  and  other 
valuable  works  and  many  scientific  papers. 

Hooker  (RicfiAitn),  b.  near  Exeter  about  1554;  studied 
at  Oxfonl,  and  took  orders  in  1581.  Shortly  after  ho  mar- 
ried rather  unhappily,  and  held  ecclesiastical  offices  in 
Drayton- Hcauchaiup,  Temple,  Boscombe  and  Bishops- 
bourne,  where  he  d.  Nov.  2.  ICOO.  His  colleague  in  Temple 
was  Travcrs,  one  of  the  most  zealous  Puritans  in  the  times 
of  Elizabeth,  and  between  him  and  Hooker  a  sharp  con- 
troversy arose,  which  occasioned  the  famous  work  of  the 
latter,  the  Lair»  of  ErrlcHiantiral  Pulit//.  The  four  first 
books  were  published  in  1594;  the  fifth  followed  in  151<7; 
the  remaining  three  were  posthumous.  The  work  Is  a  de- 
fence of  the  Church  of  England  and  Church  establishments 
in  general,  and  its  learning  and  style  arc  generally  praised, 
even  by  sucli  as  hold  opposite  views. 

Hooker  (Thomas),  b.  at  Markfield.  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land, in  l.'>Sl'i;  studied  theology  at  Cambridge;  preached 
in  London,  but  left  England  in  Ifi.'tO,  persecuted  f(»r  non- 
conformity. After  preaching  in  Delft  and  Rotterdam,  ho 
came  to  America  in  IC^J.'J,  and  settled  at  Newtown  (now  Cam- 
bridge), Mass.,  whence  in  IG^G  he  removed  witli  lUO  others 
to  the  present  Hartford.  Conn.  He  and  Stone  were  the 
first  ministers  at  the  church  here,  and  his  influence  was 
very  large.  D.  here  July  7,  1047.  His  principal  work  is 
A  Siirvfi/  of  thr  SniUfiip.  if  Church  DinripHnr,  written  in 
connection  with  John  Cotton.  Some  of  his  sermons  were 
published  in  England.  A  selection  of  his  works  and  a 
memoir  of  his  life  were  published  by  the  Rev,  E.  W.  Hooker 
(Boston.  ISIO). 

Hooker  (Sir  Wii.mam  Jackson),  D.  C.  L..  F.  R.  S.,  b. 
at  Norwich.  Eng.,  in  1785;  became  in  youth  a  zeahms 
botanist;  travelled  abroad  in  his  favorite  pursuit  180()-I4; 
became  regius  jtrofessor  of  botany  at  Glasgow  1S2U  ;  cflited 
i\\v  liotaniral  Minrellantf  (I82S-:{:j);  t\\c  Luudon  Journal 
of  //o/fiMr/(  IS.'U-ril ) ;  was  knighted  18UG:  became  director 
of  Kcw  tiardcns  1841  ;  d.  at  Keiv  Aug.  12,  IH05.  Author 
of  7'nur  in  /rrlaml  (1SI1|,  /{n'tinh  ./iiitf/rrmainit/r  (18I(J), 
^fnfr^,ln^fia  /tn'taiiiiira  (with  Taylor.  18IS),  Flora  Scotira 
(182U,  Exotic  Flora  {:i  V(ds.,  lSl.':!-27),  /roucM  /'iViVk/ji  (with 
Grevillc,  l820-:i7),  Ivouri,  Flniitarunt  (10  vols.,  18:jf»-54), 
Flora  Jiorcali. Americana  (1829-10).  /tritinh  Flora  (18.10), 
Of^nrra  of  Fernn  (lS:t8-12),  .V/*fcic»  Filicum  (1846-53), 
and  many  other  botanical  works. 

Hooker  ( WoHTiiiNr.TON),  A.  M.,  M.  D..  b.  at  Pprlng- 
fiobl,  Ma*s.,  Mar.  :t.  iSOr, ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  ls25;  re- 
ceived his  medical  doirree  at  Harvard  in  1S2U:  practised 
at  Norwich  and  Now  Haven,  Conn.,  ami  was  professor  of 
the  theory  and  pra-'tice  of  medicine  in  Yule  College  1S52- 
07.  He  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  scientific  books  for 
the  young,  and  of  a  number  of  professjoniil  works  which 
gave  him  a  wide  reputation  as   a   physician   an*!   scholar. 

D.  at  New  Haven.  Conn.,  Nov.  fi,  iSrt". 


Hook'crtoii,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Greene  cc,  N.  C, 
82  miles  S.  E.  of  Raleigh,  on  Moccasin  River.  Pop.  of  v. 
ICu:  of  tp.  12S0. 

Hooks  and  Kyes,  for  fastening  garments  upon  the 
person,  have  been  worn  for  ages.  Some  forms  of  tlie  Mo- 
man  fh II In-  or  clasps  arc  essentially  the  same  as  our  modern 
hooks  and  eyes,  which  are  at  present  made  with  great 
rapidity  entirely  by  machinery. 

Hook'sett)  post-tp.  of  Merrimack  co.,  N.  H.,  on  Mer- 
rimack River  an<l  on  the  Boston  Nashua  and  Concord  R.  U., 
at  the  junction  of  the  Suncook  Valley  R.  R.,  8  miles  below 
Concord.  It  has  manufactures  of  brick,  lumber,  and  cam- 
brics.   Pop.  iu:;o, 

Hook^Squidf  a  name  given  to  certain  ccphalopods 
of  the  genera  Om/rhoituthis  and  Enoplotntthis,  mostly,  as 
far  as  known,  of  small  size,  but  much  dreaded  for  their 
long  hooked  tentacles  and  suckers  and  their  voracious  habits. 
There  are  nearly  twenty  known  species,  mostly  found  in 
warm  seas  only.  0.  Uanksii  ranges  through  must  seas, 
warm  and  cold. 

Hooks'town,  post-b.  of  Grceno  tp.,  Beaver  co.,  Pa. 
Pop.  259. 

Hoop'er  (Jonx),  b.  in  Somersetshire  about  1495  ; 
studied  theology  at  Oxford,  but  having  a<loptcd  the  views 
of  the  German  Reformers,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Ox- 
ford, and  went  to  Switzerland.  On  the  accession  of  Edward 
VI.  in  1547,  he  returned  to  England,  preached  with  great 
success  in  London,  and  was  in  1550  appointed  bishop  of 
Gloucester.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Mary,  in  155o, 
he  was  imprisoned,  and  as  bo  refused  to  retract,  he  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic  and  burned  at  the  stake  at  Gloucester, 
Feb.  9,  1555.  He  wrote  several  works,  among  which  was 
Twch-e  Lcctnrrg  on  the  forced  (1581)  ;  also  several  interest 
ing  letters  from  him  have  been  discovered,  and  published 
by  Rev.  C.  Nevinson  (Cambridge,  1852). 

Hooper  (.Johnson  J.)  was  b.  and  br*^d  in  North  Caro- 
lina, but  early  became  alawycrandan  able  Wliig  journalist 
of  Alabama.  He  was  (lS49-fi.'J)  solicitor  of  the  ninth  Ala- 
bama circuit,  and  in  18Ct  secretary  of  the  Provisional  Con- 
gress of  the  Confecleratc  States.  Ilis  principal  works  :ire 
M'idoio  JiuijltyH  Iliiibaud  (18jl)  and  the  Advfjitfttrcn  of 
Simon  Siitjtfs,  the  last  an  exceedingly  popular  book.  Mr. 
Hooper  was  a  man  of  convivial  habit.*,  and  late  in  life  be- 
came a  Roman  Catholic.     D.  in  18(5.3. 

Hooper  (Lccv),  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass..  Feb.  4, 
181(5;  removed  at  fifteen,  with  her  father,  to  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  where  she  wrote  poems  for  the  Long  Island  Star. 
I).  Aug.  1,  1841.  Among  her  works  were  Scenes  from  Heal 
Lift:  (1840),  Domentie  Ilnppiuesit,  a  prize  essay  (1840), 
Ladfa  Book  of  Flo  went  ( 1845).  Her  }VitrkM,  with  a  memoir 
bv  J')hu  Keese,  appeared  in  1S42,  and  Complete  Poetical 
Works  in  IS48. 

Hooper  (Sami'Kl),  M.  A.,  b.  at  Marblehead,  IMass., 
Feb.  '^.  18(1S.  His  father  was  engaged  in  the  Eurnpean  and 
West  Inilia  tracle.  and  the  son  as  his  agent  visited  Kussia, 
Spain,  and  the  W'est  Imlics.  In  18^1;^  he  beeame  a  partner 
in  the  mercantile  house  of  Bryant,  Sturgis  &  Co.,  of  Bos- 
ton, who  traded  largely  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  China, 
sending  their  vessels  to  California  for  hides,  to  the  N.  W. 
coast  for  furs,  and  to  China  for  teas  and  silks.  About  1842 
he  became  a  mcnilier  (»f  the  firm  of  William  Appleton  & 
Co..  who  were  also  engaged  in  the  China  trade.  Mr. 
Hooper  also  was  largely  interested  in  the  iron  business, 
and  devoted  much  attention  to  questions  of  finance  and 
currency.  In  1851  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts house  of  representatives,  where  he  served  three 
years,  when  he  declined  a  re-election  ;  in  1857  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  State  senotc.  In  ISCl  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  was  re-elected  at 
each  successive  biennial  eleeti4ni,  ancl  was  a  member  of 
t  Congress  at  the  time  of  his  death,  at  Washington.  Feb.  l;;, 
1875.  He  served  on  the  committees  of  ways  and  means.  '•( 
banking  an<l  currency,  and  of  the  war  debts  of  the  loyal 
States,  and  to  bis  elftirts  was  in  no  small  degree  iluc  (he 
success  of  the  national  loan  of  Ajir.,  18(51.  and  of  the  na- 
tional banking  system.  He  wrote  two  pamphlets  on  the 
■  currency  question,  which  are  notable  for  broad  and  com- 
prcbensh'c  views.  Ho  was  the  founder  of  the  School  nf 
Mines  in  Howard  Cniversity.  from  which  in  1800  he  re- 
j  ceivcd  the  degree  of  master  of  arts. 

I  Hooper  (Wilmam),  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
'  depi'ii'lenee,  b.  at  Bost(ut,  Mass..  .Tune  17,  I74L*;  graduated 
at  Harvurd  in  1700;  studied  law  umler  James  Otis;  re- 
moved in  17(57  to  North  Carolina,  where  he  held  many  im- 
'  portant  public  positions,  serving  in  the  old  Congress  1774— 
I  77.      D.  at  Hillsborough.  X.  C.,  Oct.,  1790. 

lloopfr's  Crt'ck,  tp.  of  Henderson  co.,  N.  C.   P.  755. 

Hooper's  Islaiitl,  tp.  of  Dorchester  co.,  Md.,  consist- 


986 


HOOPESTON— HOP-CULTURE. 


ing  chiefly    of  a   long    narrow  peninsula  between   Hong 
Kiver  and  Chesapeake  Bay.      Pop.  700. 

Uoope'ston,  post-v.  of  Vermilion  co..  III.,  104  miles 
S.  of  Chi(^a;;o.  on  the  Cliicago  UanviDe  and  Vincennes  and 
the  Lafayette  IJioomington  and  ^lississippi  U.  Ry,  It  ha^j  a 
seminary,  several  churclies,  abanlv,  1  newspaper,  elevators, 
public  halls,  4  hotels,  stores,  etc.  Principal  occupation, 
merchandising  and  trafficking  in  grain.  Pop.  about  1200. 
SEAvtY  &,  AVai.i.aoi:,  Ens.  **  Ciiuonicle." 

Hooping  Cough.     Sec  Whoopinc  Cough. 

Iloop'oe  (so  named  from  its  note),  the  Upupa  epopa,  a 
slender-billed  bird  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  of  the 
family  Upupidie.  It  feeds  on  insects,  and  is  the  subject  of 
many  popular  superstitions,  being  regarded  as  ominous  of 
evil.  It  is  in  reality  a  very  harmless  and  even  useful  bird. 
It  is  (juite  small,  but  very  elegant  in  appearance.  Other 
sjx'cics  are  described,  none  of  them  American. 

lloorn,  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
North  Holland,  on  the  Zuyder-Zce.  Its  fortifications  have 
been  transformed  into  promenades,  and  now  it  has  import- 
ance only  as  a  trading  and  manufacturing  place.  It  has 
considerable  shipbuilding  and  a  naval  college.  Pop. 
95  on. 

Hoo'sac  River  rises  in  Lanesboro',  Berkshire  co., 
Mass.,  flows  N.  and  N.  W.,  traverses  the  S.  W.  angle  of 
Vermont  and  Rensselaer  and  AVashington  cos.,  N.  Y., 
affording  abundant  water-jtowcr,  which  is  extensively 
utilized.     It  is  called  IlooHirf:  in  New  York. 

Hoosac  Tunnel.  The  Iloosac  Tunnel  is  in  the  north- 
western nart  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  and  is  contained 
within  the  limits  of  the  towns  of  Florida  and  Adams  in  Berk- 
shire CO.  It  is  on  the  railroad  route  from  Boston,  Mass., 
via.  Greenfield,  to  Troy,  N.  Y.  The  distance  from  Boston 
to  the  E.  portal  is  i;J7  miles,  and  thence  to  Troy  54  miles. 
That  part  of  the  route  in  Massachusetts,  W.  of  (irecnfield, 
which  embraces  the  Hoosac  Tunnel,  is  called  the  Troy  and 
Greenfield  R.  R.  Experimental  work  was  first  commenced 
in  1851,  but  no  actual  tunnelling  until  ISjC.  In  1862  the 
State  took  possession,  and  has  since  prosecuted  the  work. 
The  tunnel  is  a  little  more  than  4j^  miles  long,  and  is  made 
large  enough  for  the  passage  of  two  lines  of  railway  trains. 
It  reaches  through  the  Hoosac  Mountain,  which  is  the  sum- 
mit-range that  extends  southward  into  Massachusetts  from 
the  (Trecn  Mountains  of  Vermont.  The  greater  part  of  the 
rock  penetrated  is  a  micaceous  seliist,  exhibiting,  however, 
widely  variant  conditions  and  characteristics  in  ditTerent 
portions  of  the  length.  A  working-shaft  1028  feet  deep, 
which  has  been  sunk  near  the  centre  of  its  length,  will  bo 
the  only  one  kept  open  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  in  the 
ventilation  of  the  tunnel.  The  work  of  excavating  sinco 
18G6  has  been  greatly  expedited  by  the  application  of  ma- 
chine-drills. These  have  been  driven  by  pneumatic  power, 
and  in  this,  and  also  in  availing  of  the  force  of  percussion 
in  drilling,  they  resemble  those  which  were  employed  in 
the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  and  are  believed  to  be  of  superior 
advantage  and  efficiency.  Near  the  E.  end  constructions 
were  made  to  utilize  the  flow  of  the  Deerfield  River  for 
driving  the  compressors.  At  the  other  points  of  supply 
compression  of  air  hiis  been  obtained  entirely  by  steam- 
power.  The  cost  of  the  tunnel  and  'Ad  miles  of  adjoining 
railroad,  including  the  accumulatinn  of  interest,  has  been 
about  $i;i.OOO,000.  Tlic  tniinvl  has  b.-cn  opened  for  limited 
use,  and  trains  pass  through  it  d;iily,  but  the  work  of  arch- 
ing the  portions  in  which  the  roof  requires  support  is  still 
in  progress  (May,  1875).  Bknmamin  D.  Frost. 

Hoo'sick,  post-tp.  of  Rcnsselaercn.,  N.Y.  It  is  traversed 
by  thr  Hoosick  River,  and  is  on  the  Troy  and  Boston  and 
Troy  and  Bennington  11.  Rs.,  30  miles  from  Troy.  The 
township  has  extensive  water-power  and  several  manufac- 
turing villages.  Lime  and  8latc  are  procured  here.  The 
so-called  battle  of  Bennington  (Aug.  10,  1777)  was  fought 
in  this  town.     Pop.  5728. 

Hoosick  Falls,  post-v.  of  Rensselaer  co.,  N.  Y.,  26 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Troy,  on  the  Troy  and  Boston  R.  U.  It 
contains  a  graded  school,  d  churches,  a  large  mowing- 
machine  factory  employing  800  hands,  malleable  iron-works, 
1  newspaper,  a  steam  saw-mill,  and  other  manufactories, 
and  2  hoti-ls,  stores,  etc.     Pop.  about  4000. 

J.  II.  LivisGSTox,  Ed.  '•  Ri:nssei.akk  Co.  Standard." 

Hoo'sier  Prai'rie,  tp.  of  Clay  co.,  III.     Pop.  1179. 

Hop  Bottom,  poHt-v.  of  Sustiuchanna  co..  Pa.,  on  the 
Dclawiiro  Lackawanna  and  Western  R.  R.,  27  miles  N.  by 
\V.  of  Serantnn. 

Hop-culture.  Hops  (which  see)  grow  wild  in  most  parts 
of  the  Northern  U.  S.  and  Europe.  There  is  but  one  botani- 
cal species — namely,  /fniiiuhix  Luputut — but  this  is  broken 
into  varieties  by  cultivation.  The  plant  belongs  to  the  net- 
tle family  (Urticaceae).  and  like  the  hemp  is  dia'cious.  It 
is  a  climbing  vine  with   harsh  foliage  and  rough  stems, 


twining  with  the  sun — that  is,  from  left  to  right.  In  its 
wild  state  it  clambers  up  the  stems  of  shrubs  and  copse- 
wood,  and  reaches  high  up  among  the  limbs  of  lofty  trees. 
The  root  is  perennial,  but  the  siems  die  in  winter.  Planta- 
tions of  hops  are  not  profitable  S.  of  lat.  40. 

The  soil  of  a  hop-yard  should  be  made  deep  and  rich  ; 
good  corn  or  wheat  ground  will  serve.  It  should  be  dry  at 
all  seasons,  deeply  and  thoroughly  worke<l,  and  subsoiling 
is  a  great  advantage.  It  should  be  on  sunny  and  elevated 
ground,  where  it  may  have  the  influenec  of  the  sun  and 
air,  and  be  exposed  neither  to  high  winds  nor  to  early 
frosts.  The  confined  atmosphere  of  valleys  or  close  prox- 
imity to  woods  induces  disease  and  favors  parasitic  insects. 
Though  there  are  several  varieties  of  hops,  possessing  di- 
versities of  flavor  and  appearance,  the  market  seems  to 
favor  no  particular  kind  as  such.  Hence,  growers  select 
varieties  which  in  their  own  localities  enjoy  a  reputation 
as  yielding  most  or  suffering  least  from  rust  and  insects. 
The  best  known  varieties  are  the  "'grape  hop,"  which  has 
largo  clusters,  easily  picked,  the  *'  English  cluster,"  a  free- 
fruiting,  golden-yellow  variety,  with  reddish  stems,  and 
tho"Pompey  hop,"  a  rank  grower,  having  medium-sized 
clusters  of  long  green,  quadrangular  fruit,  of  very  marked 
appearance,  but  said  to  be  liable  to  rust  and  mildew. 

Hops  are  cultivated  in  hills  set  7^  to  8  feet  apart.  The 
roots  do  not  fill  the  ground  until  the  end  of  the  seoond  or 
third  year.  The  fir^t  year,  therefore,  any  crop  may  be 
raised  to  fill  tl»e  soil  which  will  not  interfere  with  the  culti- 
vation. The  land  being  manured  and  ploughed  in  autumn, 
and  left  rough,  is  ploughed  again  in  the  spring,  and  marked 
off — best  by  furrows  8  feet  apart  each  way.  Stakes  arc  set 
at  the  intersection  of  the  lines  to  mark  the  hills.  Cuttings 
(•'sets")  are  obtained  from  some  established  and  healthy 
yard.  They  are  the  shoots  which  come  from  the  crown  of 
the  plant,  and  are  removed  at  the  annual  pruning,  cut  in 
lengths  containing  two  joints  or  four  eyes,  and  sold  by  the 
bushel.  They  should  be  fresh,  and  maybe  kept  in  the  cel- 
lar or  in  the  ground  until  wanted.  Two  to  four  bushels  are 
required  to  plant  an  acre.  Three  or  four  sets  are  jdaced 
equally  distant  near  the  centre  of  the  hill,  just  below  the 
surface,  thv^ir  tops  inclining  together.  As  soon  as  con- 
venient poles  G  or  8  feet  high,  like  common  bean-poles,  are 
set.  If  the  soil  is  rich,  the  sets  vigorous,  and  planted 
early,  a  fair  crop  may  be  gathered  the  first  year.  In  all 
hop-yards  there  must  be  some  male  hops,  in  order  that  the 
blossoms  may  become  fruitful.  The  number  required  is 
about  one  hill  in  GQ  or  80.  The  male  sets  are  therefore 
kept  separate,  and  every  seventh  or  eighth  hill  each  way 
is  set  with  male  hops  and  distinctly  marked.  The  ground 
is  cultivated  the  first  year  in  connection  with  the  accom- 
panying crop,  and  kept  free  from  weeds,  e-pecially  from 
grass.  At  the  close  of  the  season  one  or  two  forkfuls  of 
coarse  manure  are  thrown  upon  each  hill,  not  only  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, but  to  protect  the  i)lants  through  the  winter.  Au- 
tumn is  the  best  time  to  cut  jioles  for  setting  the  next 
spring.  These  may  be  10  to  25  feet  in  length,  and  of  some 
ilurable  timber.  In  hop-growing  regions  young  trees  fit 
for  poles  have  long  since  been  exhausted,  and  poles  are 
brought  great  distances  at  heavy  cost.  This  has  given  rise 
to  certain  jiatented  systems  of  training  whicli  .arc  more  or 
less  in  vogue.  One  of  the  simplest  is  to  set  light  sawed 
poles  to  stand  about  8  feet  high,  one  to  each  hill,  and  con- 
nect them  at  their  tops  by  tarred  hempen  twine.  The  vines 
are  trained  upon  these  cords,  except  those  of  the  male  hills, 
which  run  upon  lofty  poles,  that  their  pollen  may  bo  scat- 
tered. The  picking  is  much  simpler  and  easier  than  pick- 
ing from  poles,  and  numerous  advantages  arc  claimed,  such 
as  freedom  from  disease  and  insects.  The  system  has  ob- 
vious and  important  merits. 

In  the  spring  of  the  second  and  subsequent  years  the 
earth  is  drawn  away  from  the  hills,  the  plants  exposed,  the 
crowns  cut  back  to  the  new  sprouts,  taking  usually  an  inch 
or  two  from  the  crowns.  Tlu-  poles,  which  arc  prefenibly 
18  feet  long,  are  pointed,  and  holes  being  made  with  an 
appropriately  shaped  eri>wbar.  two  and  sometimes  more 
are  set  to  each  hill.  15  to  IS  inches  apart  and  bending  or 
inclining  slightly  away  from  each  otlicr.  yet  not  so  as  to 
come  near  to  the  poles  of  other  hills.  The  largest  and  strong- 
est poles  are  set  in  the  direction  of  the  highest  winds  and 
around  the  outside.  Ordinary  corn-cultivators  are  gener- 
ally used  for  hoeing  hops,  the  ground  being  thoroughly 
ploughed  at  least  once  early  in  each  year.  .As  soon  as  the 
vines  arc  two  feet  long  they  must  be  trained  to  the  poles, 
selecting  two  strong  ones  for  each  pole,  ancl  cutting  the 
rest  away.  The  vines  are  tied  to  the  poles  with  bast-mat- 
ting, old  yarn,  or  cheap  strings,  and  should  be  looked  to 
fre(iuently  until  all  cling  well  to  the  jiolcs,  it  being  neces- 
sary for  some  vines  to  use  a  light  ladder  or  steps.  Hop- 
vines  are  very  brittle  in  the  morniug  or  evening,  but  may  bo 
handled  when  the  sun  is  hot.  They  must  always  be  wound 
about  the  poles  with  thecoursu  of  the  sun.  Tillage  in  the  hop- 


HOP-DEVOURING  INSECTS— HOPEWELL. 


987 


yard  continues  until  they  bloom,  and  then,  on  account  of 
6omc  prejudice,  it  is  discontinued  usually  uutil  tins  is  past 
and  the  hops  are  set.  It  is  best  to  cultivate  or  stir  tho 
ground  as  often  as  the  weeds  start,  and  enough  to  keep  it 
open  and  porous. 

Hops  arc  usually  ripe  enough  to  pick  by  tho  last  week 
in  August,  and  ihc  harvest  continues  several  weeks.  Tho 
hop  is  known  to  be  ripo  when  the  seeds  are  hard  and  pur- 
ple or  beginning  to  get  purple.  Men  take  tho  poles  down, 
first  cutting  the  vines  for  smuo  fcot  above  the  ground  and 
loosening  them  from  the  pnles.  which  arc  then  laid  upon 
supports  over  the  boxes  or  "  bins."  into  which  women  and 
girls  pick  the  hops,  taking  care  not  to  let  leaves  and  stems 
full  in.  If  the  picking  comnicnees  too  early,  tho  vines 
bleed,  and  not  unlVequentU'  are  thus  destroyed  or  receive 
great  injury.  Tho  *'  horizontal  "  hop-yards,  or  those  upon 
cords,  offer  thus  a  great  advantage,  for  tho  strings  aro 
loosened  at  tho  poles,  and  tho  vines,  thus  lowered  within 
easy  reach,  allow  «<f  the  hops  being  picked  into  large  bas- 
kets. Tho  '*  bins  "  before  uientioncj  usually  hold  7  to  10 
bushels.  When  full  they  aro  emptied  into  immense  bags, 
and  taken  upon  wagons  to  tho  kiln,  where  they  are  dried 
immediately  after  picking,  for  they  spoil  easily  if  they  lie 
in  heaps. 

The  kiln  is  a  building  ordinarily  of  wood,  containing 
usually  four  rooms — a  lofty  stove-room,  a  low  dryiug-loft 
immediately  above  tho  stove-room,  a  store-room  on  a 
lower  level  than  the  drying-loft,  and  a  press-room  beneath 
it.  The  kilns  arc  built  to  corrcsp<md  with  the  size  of  the 
yard,  or  two  or  more  arc  used,  and  they  aro  of  various 
plans.  There  arc  several  patent  kilns  or  patented  methods 
of  drying.  The  floor  of  the  dryiug-loft  is  of  slats  covered 
with  a  hempen  carpet,  tightly  spun,  but  loosely  woven  to 
allow  the  air  to  pass  freely.  The  hops  arc  sprciid  upon  this 
carpet  to  the  depih  of  12  to  14  inches,  and  stirred  when 
they  become  nearly  dry.  After  from  12  to  22  hours' drying 
they  arc  generally  cured,  and  are  shoved  and  swept  off  into 
the  store-room.  In  one  of  these  patent  kilns  the  carpet 
rolls  back  and  forth,  thus  carrying  the  dried  hops  and 
depositing  them  on  the  floor  of  the  store-room.  In  another 
the  carpet  is  on  a  frame  which  tilts  when  over  the  store- 
room floor.  Hops  are  dry  enough  when  they  crumble  two- 
thirds  to  pieces  in  the  hand,  and  when  the  steins  do  not 
fee!  moist  or  cool  when  pressed  by  the  lips.  After  the  first 
heat,  and  subsequently,  flowers  of  sulphur  are  burned  in  the 
stove-room.  The  fumes  passing  through  the  h<»ps  serve  to 
liberate  the  moisture  rapi'lly,  and  in  case  the  hops  aro  rusty 
the  effect  is  very  niarke'l.  but  much  more  suljdiur  is  need- 
ed. For  fair  hops  one  pound  to  one  and  a  half  is  sulphur 
enough,  but  for  rusty  hops  several  pounds  arc  required. 
It  is  important  to  get  h»)ps<lry  enough,  and  they  should  bo 
stirred  once  during  the  drying,  but  not  until  all  percepti- 
ble steam  has  passed  off.  Should  a  charge  get  too  dry,  a 
pan  of  coals  is  set  in  the  store-room,  the  ventilators 
are  closed,  and  salt  thrown  upon  them.  Tins  gives  out 
moisture,  which  toughens  the  overdried  hops.  The  firo 
must  go  down  and  the  hops  cool  off  considcral)ly  before 
tliey  are  removed  to  iho  store-room,  and  the  newly-dried 
hops  cannot  be  mingled  with  the  others  until  the  next  day  ; 
and  the  best  way  is  to  leave  them  on  the  cooling  floor, 
shoving  them  back  as  space  is  neede.l,  keeping  two  or 
three  charges  spread  over  the  floor  all  the  time,  and 
putting  the  oldest  daily  into  the  bins.  After  ten  days  or 
»o,  and  within  six  weeks,  the  hops  should  he  baled,  tho 
press  being  in  the  room  below  the  cooling  floor.  The  usual 
size  of  the  hop  bale  is  20  or  24  inches,  by  4  feet  or  there- 
abouts ;  screw-presses  are  generally  employed.  The  press 
is  lined  with  cloth  made  for  tho  purpose  called  '*  Dundee 
sacking,"  and  this  is  sewed  tight  after  the  pressing  and 
before  the  pressure  is  relieved.  Hops  arc  mnrketetl  through 
commission  merchants,  and  are  consumed  by  the  brewers 
almost  exclusively. 

Hops  arc  raised  in  tho  U.  S.  not  only  in  sufficient  quan- 
lilios  for  home  consumption,  but  for  export.  The  produc- 
tion has  vastly  increased  within  a  few  veiirs.  it  having 
been  in  IH'jft  about  .'i. 500.000  pounds:  in  ISCII,  11.000.000; 
and  in  iHTtl.  according  to  the  last  census,  25,45ri,t>tl9.  Over 
22,01(0.(100  were  produced  within  the  Slates  of  New  York 
f  17,JJS,000)  and  Wisconsin  (4.0:50.000).  The  principal  hop- 
produc'ng  States  named  in  rirder  of  prrKluction  arc  as  fol- 
lows; New  York,  Wisconsin.  .Michigan,  California,  Ver- 
mont. Maine.  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Illinois.  (Sec  IIoPS, 
by  PitoK.  Hknuv  Wt  ktz,  A.  M.)  M.  C.  Wki.d. 

]lop"dcvourinf;  Insects  are  quite  numerous  in  spe- 
cies, and  in  simie  sensons  and  plaees  are  extremely  destruc- 
tive. Among  the  more  important  kinds  ari'  firnptn  intrr- 
roifntiouin,  (r\  C'arifrntrum,  d.  rammot  and  Thechi  /tiimu/i',  all 
hop-butterflies  ;  /frpia/un  hitnnifi,  a  Kuropean  moth  :  //i/- 
pnift  hiiiinih',  a  very  destructive  hop-uKith.  common  in  the 
V.  S.  ;  Aiiit/ii/rrpfitiliiK  iiitrrrn/itiiii,  a  froth-fly;  /Ittftim  mn- 
rinua,  a  flea-beetle  ;  Aphit  hnmuli,  a  plant-louse,  and  other?. 


Tho  hest  methods  for  treating  them  are  hand-picking,  tho 
use  of  whale-oil  soap,  frequent  shaking  of  the  vines,  etc. 
Generous  culture  may  enable  vines  to  thrive  in  spite  of  in- 
sect ravages. 

IIopc,  tp.  of  La  Pallo  co..  IH.     Pop.  14;J7. 

Hope,  post-v.  of  Haw  Creek  tp.,  Bartholomew  co.,  Ind. 
Pop.  Tfij. 

Uope^  post-tp.  of  Knox  CO.,  Me.,  14  miles  N.  N.  AV.  of 
Rockland.  It  has  manufactures  of  sash,  doors,  furniture, 
etc.     Pop.  907. 

Hope,  Ip.  of  Barry  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1143. 

Hope,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Warren  co.,  N.J.     Pop.  1j42. 

Hope,  tp.  of  Hamilton  co.,  N.  Y.  It  has  manufactures 
of  lumber  and  leather.     Pop.  OiiS. 

Hope,  tp.  of  Williamsburg  CO.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1591. 

Hope  (Alexander  James  Bere.sforo),  LL.I).,  son  of 
the  author  of  Anastaaiuty  b.  1S20  ;  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Cambridge,  graduating  at  Trinity  1S41  ;  memberof  Parlia- 
ment for  Miiidstone  lS41-i2,  and  again  in  I8J7;  elected 
for  Stoke-upon-Trent  IStjJ,  and  in  18GS  for  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  which  he  now  (lS7o)  represents  ;  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Koyal  Institute  of  British  Architects  18f.5-67. 
Ho  has  taken  an  active  part  in  the  Church  movement  and 
in  artistic  architectural  questions,  being  strongly  on  tho 
Gothic  side.  In  1S44  he  purchased  tho  ancient  buildings 
of  St.  Augustine's  Abbey,  Canterbury,  which  he  restored 
and  endowed  as  a  college  for  missionary  clergy.  Author 
of  LtAtcrs  on  Church  MatttrSf  by  I).  C.  L. ;  The  Em/lish 
Cathedral  of  the  Nineteenth  Centiin/,  and  numerous  pamph- 
lets, etc,  lu  1SJ4,  by  royal  license,  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Beresford,  the  name  of  his  mother,  who  married  a  second 
husband,  the  viscount  Beresford. 

Hope  (Admiral  Sir  James),  G.  C.  B.,  b.  at  Edinburgh 
in  I80S  :  educated  at  the  Royal  Naval  College;  entered 
the  British  navy  as  midshipman  1S22;  became  captain 
1838;  served  near  Buenos  Ayres  IS44— 1.>;  in  the  Baltic 
18o4-i>G  ;  in  tho  East  Indian  and  Chinese  waters  1859-GO; 
was  distinguished  in  the  ojierations  that  led  to  the  taking 
of  Peking;  transferred  to  duty  in  the  West  Indies  186:i ; 
became  a  G.  C.  B.  1805,  a  full  admiral  1870;  is  deputy 
lieutenant  for  Linlithgowshire,  and  also  first  and  principal 
naval  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen. 

Hope  (Thomas),  b.  in  London  in  1774:  made  extensive 
travels  througli  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  attracted 
considerable  attention  in  ISOJ  by  his  book  on  Homrhidd 
Furniture  and  Inter  mil  Decoration.  Less  influence  had 
The  CoHtumen  of  the  AncicntH  (1809),  Designs  of  Modern 
CoHtttmen  (1812),  and  Architecture  of  Theatres;  while  his 
romance,  AuastnHins,  or  the  Memoirs  of  a  Modern  Greek 
(1819).  made  quite  a  sensation.  D.  in  London  Feb.  :i,  18.11. 
After  his  death  an  essay  by  him  On  the  Origin  and  Pros- 
pects if  Man  was  published. 

Hope  (Thomas  Chari.es),  b.  in  Edinburgh  July  21, 
17*10  ;  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1787,  and  in  1799  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh.    D.Juno  13,  1S44. 

Hope  &  I'o.,  a  firm  of  bankers  at  Amsterdam,  luunded 
before  170U  by  a  Scotchman  named  Henry  Hope.  By 
marriages  and  business  alliances  the  house  has  had  in- 
timate connection  with  the  Barings,  and  by  blood  and 
marriage  the  house  is  uiso  connected  with  several  noble  and 
aristoeratie  fumilies  of  Great  Britain. 

Hopo'dale,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Tazewell  eo  ,  UK,  on  tho 
j  Chicago  and  Alton  R.  11.,  25  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Bloomington. 
I  Pop.  lUOfi. 

Ilopedale,  a  beautiful  post-v.  of  Milford  tp., Worcester 
'  CO..  Mass..  the  seat  of  the  Hopedale  Community. 

Ilopedalo,  post-v.  of  Cadiz  tp.,  Harrison  co.,  0.,  8 
miles  \.  E.  of  Cadiz.     Pop.  369. 

Hope'field,  tp.  of  Crittenden  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  I:t7. 

Hope  Val'ley,  p"»sl  v.  of  Richmond  tp.,  Washington 
CO..  R.  I.,  bus  important  manufactures. 

nop<?'\V<'H,  tp.  of  .Marshall  co.,  111.     Pop.  75:i. 

Ilopewrll,  tp.  <jf  Cumberland  co.,  N.  .1.     Pop.  1857. 

HopeweH,  ip.und  post-v.  of  Mercer  co.,  N.  J.,  on  tho 
Mercer  and  Somerset  brauch  R.  R.      Pop.  4276, 

Ilopi'wrll*  post-tp.  of  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y.,on  tho  North- 
ern Ci  ninil  11.  K.,  ()  miles  S.  E.  of  Cunandaigua.    P.  1863. 

Hopr\vi>H,  tp.  of  Licking  co.,  0.     Pop.  1009. 

H4>l>i*u'<'H^  tp.  of  .Mercer  co.,  0.     Pop.  894. 

HopewrlU  tp-  and  post-v.  of  Muskingum  co.,  (^.  Pnp. 
of  V.  7.'>;  of  tp.  1703. 

IlopewrH,  tp.  of  Perry  co.,  0.     Pop.  1260. 

Ht>pr\vi'H,  tp-  of  Seneca  CO.,  0.     Pop.  1370. 

lioprwc'M,  tp.  of  Beaver  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  lOlJ. 


988 


HOPEWELL— HOPKINS. 


Hopewell,  tp.  of  Bedford  cc,  Pa.,  on  the  Huntingdon 
and  liroad  Top  R.  K.  Tbe  post-borough  of  lI«|icwoll  on 
the  same  railroad,  is  in  the  adjoining  tp.  of  Broad  lop. 
Hopewell  tp.  contains  ironworks.      Pop.  HITS. 

Hopewell,  a  l>.  of  I'hester  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  2CS.     _ 
Hopewell,  tp.  of  C'umlicrland  Co.,  Pa.     Pop.  S"". 
Hopewell,  tp.  of  Huntingdon   en..  Pa.,  on  the   Hun- 
tin;;doii  and  Uroad  Top  R.  U.     It  has  iron-works.    P.  412. 
Hopewell,  tp.  of  \Va,-hington  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  804. 
Hopewell,  tp.  of  York  co.,  Pa.     It  contains  the  vil- 
lage of  .^tewartstown.     Pop.  3830. 

Ilopewell,  tp.  of  Anderson  co.,  S.  C.    Pop.  1206. 
Hopewell,  tp.  of  Orangeburg  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  29.1. 
Hopewell  Cape,  post-v.,  the  cap.  of  .\Ibert  co.,  N.  13., 
on  Shepodv  liav  and  the  junction  of  tlie  Meniramcook  and 
Pctitcodiac   rivers,  21    miles  S.  W.  of  Dorchester.    It  has 
some  shipbuilding.     Pop.  about  500. 

Hop'kins,  counlv  of  W.  Kentucky.  Area,  about  400 
square  miles.  It  is  fertile,  having  a  hilly  surface,  with 
plenty  of  coal  and  iron  ore.  Live-stock,  tobacco,  and  corn 
are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Evansville 
Henderson  and  Nashville  and  other  railroads.  Cap.  Madi- 
aonvillc.     Pop.  13,S2r. 

Hopkins,  county  in  the  N.  K.  of  Texas.  Area,  4S0 
square  miles.  It  is  fertile  and  well  timbered.  Live-stock, 
grain,  cotton,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Cap.Sulphur 
Springs.     Pop.  10,0jl. 

Hopkins,  tp.  of  Whitcsides  co.,  111.  Pop.  1436. 
Hopkins,  post-tp.  of  Allegan  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  .Mich- 
igan .Southern  R.  R.,  8  miles  N.  E.  of  Allegan.  Pop.  1271. 
Hopkins,  post-v.  of  Nodaway  co..  Mo.,  is  the  S.  ter- 
minus of  the  Crestou  branch  of  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River  R.  R.,  and  the  N.  terminus  of  the  Maryville  branch 
of  the  Kansas  City  St.  Joseph  and  Council  Blufl's  R.  R.  It 
is  near  the  Iowa  line. 

Hopkins  (Anrnrn  F.),  b.  in  Virginia  about  1790,  was 
well  educated;  removed  in  early  life  to  Al.abama,  and  be- 
came a  prominent  Whig  politician  ;  a  lawyer  of  Huntsville, 
Tuscaloosa,  and  Mobile  successively;  was  long  in  public 
life,  and  for  many  years  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  State,  and  afterwards  president  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio 
R.  R.     D.  in  1S66. 

Hopkins  (EDWAnn),  b.  at  Shrewsbury,  England,  in 
IGOO;  was  a  successful  merchant  of  London:  removed  to 
Boston.  .Mass.,  in  1037  :  was  seven  times  governor  of  Con- 
necticut between  1040  and  Ifijl,  and  assisted  in  forming 
the  union  of  the  colonies  of  New  England  1043.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  England,  became  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  held  important  offices  under  the  Commonwealth. 
D.  ill  London  Mar.,  1GJ7,  bequeathing  a  portion  of  his 
estate  to  the  support  of  schools  in  Hartford,  New  Haven, 
Hadlev,  and  Cambridge  in  New  Englan.l.  The  town  of 
Hopkinton,  Mass.,  was  named  for  bim,  having  been  pur- 
chased in  1700  of  the  "praying  Indians"  with  moneys  of 
bis  which  fell  to  Harvard  College. 

Hopkins  (Eskk),  b.  at  Scituate,  R.  I.,  in  171S;  was 
commissioned  by  (lov.  Cooke  as  brigadier-general  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  of  independence.  In  177.i  be  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-ebief  of  the  navy  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  addressed  oQicially  by  Washington  as  ad- 
miral. In  the  beginning  he  was  very  successful  in  his 
undertakings,  but  afterwards  he  failed  to  fulfil  the  expeot- 
atioiis  of  the  government,  ami.  having  neglected  to  appear 
at  Philadelphia  when  summoned,  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  service  in  1777.  He  retired  to  North  Providence,  where 
he  resided  till  his  death,  Feb.  20, 1S02,  taking  part  very  ac- 
tively in  the  politics  of  the  State. 

Hopkins  (.Ions  HEsav),  D.  C.  L.,  LL.D.,  b.  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland.  .Ian.  30.  1792;  came  in  ISOO  with  his  parents 
to  .America;  received  a  gooil  education,  and  assisted  Alex- 
ander Wilson  in  preparing  the  illustrations  of  four  volumes 
of  his  ()niitlial<><iij  ;  and  afterwards  was  an  iron  manufac- 
turer in  Western  Pennsylvania.  He  failed  in  business  in 
1817;  was  admitted  tolhc  bar  at  Pittsburg  in  IslS:  in 
1^2l  became  rector  of  Trinity  church,  Pittsburg  (Protest- 
ant Episcopal),  of  whose  church  edifice  he  was  the  arehi- 
tcct.  In  1S31  ho  became  assistant  minister  of  Trinity 
church,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  professor  of  systematic  divinity 
in  a  theological  seminary  in  Massachusetts.  In  1832  he 
was  consecrated  the  first  bishop  of  Vermont,  became  rector 
of  St.  Paul's,  Burlington,  and  afterwards  devoted  much 
time  to  the  establishment  of  the  Vermont  Episcopal  Insti- 
tute. He  took  a  strung  stand  for  the  High-Cliureh  move- 
ment, and  was  an  active  member  of  the  Pan-.\nglican 
Synod.  D.  at  Rock  Point.  Vt.,  .Tan.  9.  ISOS.  Among  his 
works  are  many  brochures,  sermons,  etc..  besides  Chrit- 
liniiily  Vindiratcd  (1833),  Primitive  Creed  Examined 
(1834),  The  Primitive  Church  (1835),  Eamy  on  Uvthic  Ar- 


chitecture (1S36),  The  Church  of  Home  in  her  Primitive  Pu- 
rily  (1837),    Vindication  of  Slavery  (1803),  etc.  etc. 

Hopkins  (.Iohn  Hknkv),  A.  B.,  A.  M.,  S.  T.  D.,  b.  Oct. 
28.  1820,  at  Pittsburg.  Pa. ;  graduated  in  1839  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Burlington,  Vt.:  appointed  rector  of  St.  .John's 
chuicii,  Essex,  N.  Y.,  in  1869,  and  uf  Trinity  church.  Platts- 
bur".  N.  Y..  in  1872;  ordained  priest  in  1872;  elected  trustee 
of  the  (.iencral  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y..  in  1871,  and 
member  of  the  board  of  missions  in  1874.  Besides  minor 
works,  he  wrote  Decline  and  fall  of  the  Loir  Church  Party 
(1874),  founded  and  edited  7'Ai-  Church  Journal  ( I85.')-GS), 
The  Canticle,  Noted  (ISGO),  Life  of  ]li"hoi,  llopkiut  of 
Vermont  (1872),  and  Works  of  the  Iler.  Milo  Muhan,  V.  D. 
(1872-75). 

Hopkins  (.Tonxs),  b.  in  Anne  Arundel  co.,  Md.,  May 
19.  1795,  was  carefully  educated,  became  a  wholesale  gro- 
cer, retired  with  an  "ample  fortune  in  1S47,  and  became 
president  of  the  Merchants'  Bank  and  a  director  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  11.  He  was  never  married,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  In  1873  he  founded 
the  Hopkins  free  hospital,  Baltimore,  at  a  cost  of  some 
$4,000.0110  ;  an  orphanage  for  colored  youth,  a  convales- 
cent hospital,  and  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  at  Clif- 
ton, near  Baltimore,  with  400  acres  of  land  and  an  endow- 
ment of  $3,000,000.  poor  and  deserving  youth  from  Mary- 
land and  Virginia  to  receive  free  scholarships.  These  ben- 
efactions exceeded  $8,000,000  in  aggregate  value.  D.  at 
Baltimore  Dec.  24,  1873. 

Hopkins  (Lemi-el),  b.  at  Waterbury,  Conn.,  June  19, 
1750;  graduated  at  Y.ale  College;  practised  medicine  at 
Litchfield,  and  removed  to  Hartford  in  1784,  where  he  d. 
Apr.  14,  1801.  With  Trumbull,  Barlow,  and  othcr.s,  styled 
tbe  "  Hartford  wits."  he  put  forth  the  Anarchiad,  advoca- 
ting an  efficient  federal  constitution.  He  wrote  several 
satfres  and  other  poems,  among  which  arc  The  Political 
GrcenhouK.  The  Guillotine,  The  Hypocrites  Hope,  and  an 
elegy  on  a  Victim  of  a  Cancer  Quach.  Author  of  a  favorite 
version  of  Ps;ilin  cxxxii.  » 

Hopkins  (M.irk),  M.  D.,  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Stock- 
brid"-c,  Mass.,  Feb.  4,  1802,  and  graduated  at  \\  illiams 
College  in  1824:  and  M.  D.  in  1828;  was  professor  of 
moiar  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in  Williams  College  1830- 
36;  president  of  the  college  1836-72;  then  resumed  the 
former  position:  in  1857  ho  was  also  president  of  the 
A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  an  office  whose  duties  he  still  discharges. 
Has  published  Eridcuces  of  Christianity  (1840;  new  ed. 
1861).  Law  of  Love,  and  Lore  as  a  i<iir(lS09l,  An  Outline 
Study  of  Man  (1873),  and  many  occasional  addresses,  etc. 

Hopkins  (Samiei.),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Waterbury,  Conn., 
Sept.  17.  1721;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1711  ;  studied  Iheol- 
ocy  with  Jonathan  Edwards.  In  1743  he  was  ordained 
over  a  church  at  Housatonio,  now  (ireat  Barriugton.  Mass. ; 
in  1770-76  minister  of  a  church  at  Newport.  R.  I.,  and  again 
in  1779.  In  consequence  of  his  labors  against  slavery  tho 
State  of  Rhode  Island  freed  all  her  slaves  born  after  Mar., 
17^4.  He  published  several  works,  the  most  noted  ot 
which  is  Si/stcm  of  Doctrines  (1793),  and  his  views  have 
had  a  wide  inHueiiee.  His  complete  works  were  published 
in  1805,  with  a  Life  by  Dr.  Stephen  West,  and  in  1852, 
with  a  Memoir  by  E.  A.  Park.  He  is  the  hero  of  Mrs. 
Stowc's  novel,  Thi  Ministers  Wooing.  D.  at  Newport  Dec. 
20.  1803. 

Hopkins  (Stephen),  LL.D..  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  b.  at  Scituate,  R.  I.,  Mar.  7,  1707; 
was  bred  a  farmer:  removed  in  1731  to  Providence,  where 
he  was  a  land-surveyor  and  merchant;  Speaker  of  tho 
Rhode  Island  Assemblv  1732-41  ;  became  ehierjuslice  of 
the  common  pleas  1739;  chief-justice  of  the  superior  court 
1751-51 ;  ten  times  governor  of  Rhode  Island  between  17.i4 
and  170S  ;  a  niomher  of  the  Continental  Congress  1774-78. 
Author  of  Itiyhts  of  the  Colonics  Examined  (1705)  and  other 
writings,  and  l.mg  the  chancellor  of  Brown  University,  then 
Rhode  Island  College.     D.  at  Providence  July  19,  1785. 

Hopkins  (Wh.i.iam),  .M.  A.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  in 
1793.  With  little  early  education,  and  after  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  in  business,  he  entered  at  the  mature  age  of 
thirty  at  St.  Peter's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
as  seventh  wrangler,  and,  taking  private  pupils,  became  tho 
most  celebrated  mathematical  teacher  of  his  day.  Many 
of  tbe  most  eminent  mathematicians  now  living  were 
trained  by  him.  From  Prof.  Sedgwick  he  imbibed  a 
strong  interest  in  geology,  and  his  published  works  consist 
chiefly  of  the  application  of  the  methods  of  mathematical 
analysis  to  the  elucidation  of  problems  of  physical  geology, 
such,  chiefly,  as  the  effects  of  clevatory  forces  from  below 
in  producing  faults  and  fissures  in  the  rocks,  on  the  forma- 
tion of  crevasses  in  glaciers,  on  the  geological  theories  of 
clevaliim  and  earthquakes,  on  the  causes  which  may  have 
produced  changes  in  the  earth's  superficial  temperature, 


IIOPKIXS-HOPS. 


989 


and  on  the  conductivity  of  rocks  and  some  other  substances 
for  heat.  But  his  iinni'e  is  most  widely  known  through  his 
uuijtcrly  mathematical  investigation  {I'liil.  7V.in».,  ls:('J- 
40-^2)  of  the  effects  which  internal  fluidity  sliould  have 
upon  the  "  precession  of  the  ei[uinoxes.  "  and  the  much- 
quoted  result  which  ho  arrived  at,  that  the  solid  ciii«(  of 
the  earth  must  have  a  thickness  of  til  linil  SUO  or  1000 
miles.  The  erroneousness  of  this  conclusion,  and  the  ana- 
lytical source  of  it,  is  pointed  out  in  the  Smilliuoiiliiii  Con- 
I'ributionn  !<•  KuoirUdijr.  vol.  .\ix.  Mr.  Hopkins  was  pres- 
ident of  the  British  .Association  18J3,  and  of  the  (ieological 
Society  18jl  and  lSa2.     \).  Oct.  Hi,  18(56.         U.  Fisher. 

Hopkins  (Wh.i.iam  Fkn.s),  A.  M..  LL.D.,  b.  in  Con- 
necticut 18IIJ:  graduated  from  the  I'.  S.  Military  .Academy, 
but  retained  as  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
geology  till  I8:!i;  resigned  I8:!I3,  and  engaged  in  business,  i 
He  subsequently  held  various  professorships,  and  in  ISoO 
was  appointed  professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philos- 
ophy at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  which  he  retained  until 
aiipoiuted  U.S.  consul  at  Jamaica,  W.  I.,  where  he  d.  .Inly 
l';    1859.  tj-  ' '■  SiMMoxs. 

ilop'kinson  (Fnixcis),  a  signer  of  the  Declaralion  of 
Independence,  b.  in  Philadelphia  in  1737,  and  was  a  grand- 
sou  of  the  bishop  of  Worcester,  Eng.  He  gra.lualed  at 
Princeton  in  171!:!;  in  17fi5  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Ho 
held  a  profitable  publiu  office  in  New  Jersey,  whieb  be  was 
deprived  of  for  his  republican  jirinciples.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  from  New  Jersey  1770-77,  and  a  resident  of 
Bordentowli.  His  witty  and  satirical  writings  during  and 
after  the  Revolution  had  much  influence  in  political  aBairs. 
He  wasanadmiraltvjudgein  Pennsylvania  1 779-8'.!;  U.  f^. 
district  jud-c  for  Pennsylvania  1790-91.  D.  in  Philadel- 
phia May  9,  1791.  His  humorous  and  patriotic  pocticiil 
and  other  pieces— T"/..-  Tr,„l,j,  The  llmlr.  ,./  ih,-  Kr<j«,  Ode 
to  Science,  Eamij  on  Whll'^rK^himj,  and  many  olliers---cn- 
joyed  an  immense  popularity,  and  were  really  meritorious. 
Tliree  volumes  of  his  ll'.,/7.«'  were  published  in  1792.  Ho 
had  consideralile  artistic  and  musical  talent. 

Ilonkiuson  (Joskpii),  M,.I).,  a  son  of  Francis  Hop- 
kinson,  b.  in  Philadelphia  Nov.  12,  1770;  gra.lualed  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  178(5.  He  became  one  of 
the  ablest  lawvers  of  his  time,  residing  mostly  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  "  Hail 
'■.dumbia."  Ho  was  (181(5-20)  a  prominent  member  of 
Congress,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  U.  .S.  district  judge 
for  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania.  D.  Jan.  15,  1842, 
at  Philadelphia. 

Hop'kinsvillc,citv,cap.of  Christian  CO.,  Ky.,  71  miles 
N.  W.  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  on  the  St.  Louis  and  Soulli- 
easlern  11.  K..  situated  in  the  most  fertile  section  of  Western 
Kentucky.  It  contains  an  academy  and  2  seminaries,  8 
churches',  2  banks,  2  carriage-factories,  2  weekly  newspa- 
pers, a  planing-mill,  a  plough-factory,  2  largo  nulls,  a  pub- 
lic library,  a  city-ball,  and  a  Stale  insane  asylum.  To- 
bacco is  the  principal  staple.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
the  vicinilT.     Pop.  »13(5. 

Sam.  M.  (iAiN-Ks,  En.  "  KESTrcKV  Ni-;w  Eiia. 
Hop'kinton,  post-v.  of  Delaware  co.,  la.,  I  miles  from 


Sand  Spring,  a  station  « 


on  the  Dubuque  South-western  U.  K. 


Mas 


on  the 


Co 


Ilopkilitnn,  post-lii.  of  Middlesex  eo. 
II.ipkint..n  an.l  Milford  K.  U.,  30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Boston. 
It  has  4  churches,  1  national  and  1  savings  bank,  a  good 
public-school  system,  and  extensive  manufactures  of  boots 
and  shoes.     Pop.  4)19. 

Ilopkinton,  |)osl-lp.  of  Merrimack  co.,  N.  H.,  on  the 
^„nluoeo.,k  Uiver  K.  U.,  7  miles  S.  W.  of  Concord.  It 
contains  the  village  of  CoSToonioK  (which  see),  and  has  7 
churches  and  important  manufactures.     Pop.  1814. 

Ilopkinton,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y. 
It  has  3  churches,  and  manufactures  of  starch,  lumber, 
cooperage,  etc.  The  township  is  very  extensive,  compris- 
ing large  forests  and  numerous  lakes.  Pop.  of  v.  2U0  ;  of 
tp.  1907. 

Ilopkinton,  tp.  and  po»t-v.  of  Washington  co.,  K.  I., 
3i  miles  S.  W.  of  Providence.  The  township  has  good 
water-power  and  several  inanufacturing  villages,  where  cot- 
ton goods,  machinery,  etc.  are  made.  Ilopkinton  has  a 
national  bank.     Po|i.  2082. 

Hoplegnatli'idic  [from  oitA^,  "nail,"  and  yviim, 
"jaw"],  a  family  of  acnnlhoptcrous  fislies,  with  the  body 
compressed  and  covered  by  ctenoid  scales:  the  lateral  lino 
continuous;  the  spinous  division  of  the  dorsal  tin  longer 
than  the  soft ;  the  ventrals  thoracic,  with  one  spine  ami  live 
soft  rays;  and  the  intermaxillary  and  maxillary  bones  pro- 
vided with  a  trenehaiit  edge,  with  whieb  the  teeth,  when 
developed,  arc  continuous,  and  form  then  a  serrated  mar- 
gin, somewhat  as  in  the  Searidie.  The  pharyngeal  bones 
arc  separate.  This  family  is  limited,  so  tar  as  n.iw  known, 
to  1  single  genus  (//■■/.'■•i/ii"'"'".  Uiehardsoi,  1,  which  has, 


however,  received  several  generic  names,  and  is  represented 
by  species  in  the  Eastern  .-Vsiatic  and  Australasian  seas. 

TiiEonuni:  tJii.i,. 
Hoplophor'idic  [oirAo^opos,  "armor-bearer"],  an  extinct 
family  of  lorieatc  eilentate  mammals,  most  nearly  related 
to  the  existing  pichiegos  (Clilamydophoridic)  and  arma- 
dillos (Dasyjiodida;),  but  also  related  to  the  extinct  me- 
gatheriids.  They  were  of  largo  siie,  and  some  of  them 
attained  gigantic  dimensions.  (1)  The  carapace,  instead  of 
being  articulated,  as  in  the  armadillos,  formed  an  inarticu- 
lateif  shell  resembling  in  shape  the  carapace  of  the  turtle; 
(2)  a  breast-shield  or  plastron  was  also  developed  ;  {'^^  the 
teeth  were  uniform  in  number,  there  having  been  in  all  the 
species  five  molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw;  and  (4)  llieso 
characters  were  co-ordinated  with  numerous  more  or  less 
decided  modifications  of  the  skeleton.  This  family  (which 
has  also  been  nameil  (ilyploilontida;)  was  coiujiosed  of  a 
number  of  species  which  existed  in  South  America,  and, 
especially  in  the  later  Tertiary  epoch,  in  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  Brazil.  In  external  appearance  they  bore 
eonsidei-iible  resemblance  to  gigantic  tortoises,  and  some 
of  them  attained  a  length  of  fifteen  feet  or  even  more. 
The  various  forms  exhibited  two  decided  modifications  in 
the  structure  of  the  members  :  ( I )  Some  had  four  digits  be- 
fore as  well  .as  behind,  those  corresponding  to  the  thumb 
and  great  toe  of  man  being  wanting,  as  in  the  group  com- 
prisiu"  the  genera  fUpl:,i,h'<rm  (Lund)  and  Piui'.rthna 
(Burnreister):  while  (2)  others  had  fmr  digits  before  and 
five  behind,  those  corresponding  to  the  thumb  and  great 
toe  being  present,  and  the  missing  digit  of  the  fore  foot 
being  the  outer  of  the  other  species,  or,  in  other  words,  cor- 
responding to  the  little  finger  of  man.  This  group  includes 
one  genus  with  two  well-marked  sub-genera  ((J/i/ptnilon, 
Owen,  and  Scl:!Hl„j,h'urnm,  Nodot).  The  Ho|ilopbonda 
have  been  the  objects  of  special  study  on  the  part  of  emi- 
nent naturalists.  (See  the  1st  an<l  2d  v. .Is.  of  the  Awilcs 
del  Mniro  PiMUii  ill-  riiii'iiiiH  Airen.)        Tni:oiioui;  (iii.i,. 

Hop'per  (IsiM-  Tatesi),  a  benevolent  Hicksite  Quaker, 
b.  at  Deptford,  N.  J.,  Deo.  3,  1771;  became  a  tailor  in 
Philadelphia,  and  afterwards  a  successful  merchant  and 
bookseller  of  New  York;  was  a  (iroininent  abolitionist, 
and  devoted  a  large  i)art  of  his  lifetime  to  works  of  benevo- 
lence. D.  in  New  York  May  7,  1SJ2.  (See  his  Life,  by  L. 
M.  Cnii.n,  1S.'.3.) 

Hop'pin  (,\irfirsTi-s),  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  July  13, 
1828;  graduated  at  Brown  University  1848;  became  a 
lawyer;  studied  art  in  F.urope,  and  became  distinguished 
as  one  of  the  first  of  American  artists  in  his  special  depart- 
ment, that  of  the  illustration  of  bocdis.  His  female  figures 
and  scenes  from  society  are  often  full  of  spirit.— llis  brother, 
Thomas  F.  Hoi'ims  (b.  1810).  a  pupil  of  Paul  Delarouhe, 
is  also  distinguished  as  an  artist. 

Iloppin  (Rev.  James  .Mason),  D.  D.,  b.  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  Jan.  17,  1820:  graduated  at  Yule  in  ISIO;  studied 
law  at  Harvard,  and  afterward  theology  at  Andover  and 
in  (Jcrmany  umler  Neander;  became  (lastor  of  a  church  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  Mar.  27,  1850,  and  was  ai.pointed  professor 
of  homilcties  in  the  theological  department  of  Yale  College 
in  18(11.  He  received  the  degree  .d'  D.  D.  from  Knox  Col- 
lege, III.,  in  1S70.  He  has  published  A'ofe«  o/ o  ThmliiiiuiU 
St'iiiUnt  (IS54).  Old  Emiliiiid,  111  Art,  Scnini/,  idiil  /'.'"/</c 
( 1 8B7),  riir.  Ulliii'  iind  Wurk  n/llir  Clirislkin  Miniflri/  ( 1 809), 
li/'c  of'  Andriw  Hull  FiioU-.  Ilinr-Admirnl  l'.  S.  A'.  ( 1874) : 
has  contributed  many  articles  to  Iho  Ulhlinllnin  .SVio.i  and 
the  Xew  Enijlandcr.  K.  D-  HlTlHCOCK. 

Hops  rOer.  //../>/V"  ,■  Fr.  himlinn  :  hot.  IlnmnlnK  Injm- 
I,,,],  a  di.eei.ms  plant.  The  pistillate  flowers  are  clustered 
in  short  axillary  catkins;  the  two-Howered  leafy  bracts  are 
imbricated,  and"  in  fruit  form  a  kind  of  membranaceous 
strobile.  The  fruiting  calvx  is  sprinkled  with  yellow  res- 
inous grains(lupuline).  The  nervine,  aromatic,  bitter  tonic, 
and  other  supposed  virlurs  of  the  hops,  as  imparted  to  beer 
etc.,  reside  chiefly  in  this  yellow  powder,  though  t be  scalcsof 
the  strobiles  also  possess  most  of  them,  to  a  tar  less  extent. 
The  constituents  of  commercial  hops,  which  consist  ol  tho 
dried  strobiles,  are  a  highly  aromatic  essential  oil.  residing 
almost  entirely  in  the  yellow  powder;  a  resinous  substance, 
a  bitter  crystalline  principle,  tannic  acid  (monntannie, 
Wagner),  gum,  cellulose,  extractive  matter  soluble  in  water, 
nuercilrin,  and,  according  to  some,  a  waxy  matter. 

*      ..  1  _    .II...1      I i:....       l'..r>t,iu     111     n     11111 


Tho 


yellow  powder,  called  lupuline,  forms  in  a  pure  state  about 
,  10  per  cent,  of  the  wh.de— a  pr.ip.irtion  overstated  (up  to  IS 
percent.)  by  some  authorities.  This,  according  to  Pcr.soiiiio, 
is  of  th.'  nature  of  a  glan.l,  which  secretes  a  resin.  Iho 
name  was  given  to  it  by  Dr.  A.  W.  Ives  of  New  York,  who 
first  anulvzed  it.  an.l  wlios  name  and  analytical  results 
are  strangely  luis.iuote.l  in  the  textbooks.  Thus.  »../(•« 
nii-tiimurii.  ■apparently  f.dl.iwing  E.  Kopp,  makes  him 
.U.bi.KHr ')>-■.,  a  Frenchman,  and  gives  \\i  figures  very 
incorrectly. 


990 


HOP  TREE— HOREHOUND. 


Anali/ses  of 

he  Yellow  Granule!,  Lupuline. 

Wlm- 
mcr. 

Cheviilller 
and  Payen. 

Waitiicr. 

Dr. 
Ives. 

AUatlao 

hops, 
C.  Nijnc. 

0.12 
3.01 
2.91 

0.63 
8.99 
4.92 
1.2B 
78.16 

"8.3tol2.5 
•52.5 

30.00 
1.00 
4.17 

38.:« 
8.33 

0.50 

Hiiier  subsiance 

Ki-siu 

15.90 

Wax 

3"ito5.7 

AstriiiK-  constitueut.. 
Ollulose 

302 
48..33 

6.40 
11.10 
I4..50 

0  2.1 

Exiractive  matter 

Water 

Soluble  salts 

100.00 



100.00 

100.00 

Dr.  Itcs's  figures  are  misquoted  in  European  works  of 
liigh  autliority  (under  tlie  name  of  Yve.s)  as  11  percent,  of 
bitter.  .'16  of  resin,  12  of  wax,  5  of  tannic  acid,  10  of  extrac- 
tive, and  26  of  "residue  insoluble  in  water"  [ciIIhIok ?), 
footing  up  just  lUO,  loilhuHi  ani/  mitcr.  The  discrepancies 
among  tlie  ditferent  figures  given,  however,  detract  almost 
wholly  from  their  value.  Another  authority  slates  that 
the  whole  hop  contains  two  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil.  (  Wiillf's 
Di\Hm,aiy,  art.  "  Lupulin.")  Wimmer  gives  an  analysis  of 
the  scales  of  the  strobiles,  apart  from  the  yellow  granules, 
in  which  he  found  no  volatile  oil,  5.83  of  gum,  64  of  cellu- 
lose, and  12.22  of  extractive  matter. 

The  hop-crop  is  one  which  exhausts  the  soil  rapidly.  The 
ashes  of  the  strobiles  contain  from  20  to  2a  ]icr  cent,  of  pot- 
ash (anhydrous),  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
10  to  2.3  per  cent,  of  silica.  The  potash  is  estimated  to  be 
equivalent  to  an  exhaustion  from  an  acre  of  from  20  to  2:> 
pounds  of  hydrate  of  potash  annually. 

Enwntial  Oil  nf  Hupf,  obtained  usually  bv  distilling  the 
cones  with  water;  but  Prof.  C.  A.  Seeley,  of  New  York, 
claims,  with  much  reason,  that  this  method  alters  its  con- 
stitution and  greatly  injures  its  natural  arouia.  Indeed, 
Personne  found  the  malodorous  substance,  valerianic  acid,  in 
the  products  of  distillation  of  lupuline  with  water.  Soeley 
has  within  a  few  years  introduced  and  patented  a  new  and 
ingenious  mode  of  procuring  this  oil.  sufficiently  economi- 
cal to  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  a  commercial  oil  of 
hops  to  be  used  for  flavoring  beer,  for  which  purpose  it  is 
said  to  be  now  coming  largely  into  use.  This  consists  in 
dissolving  out  the  essential  oil  by  means  of  verv  light  pe- 
troleum naphtha,  or  "gasoline,"  and  then  distilling  off 
the  latter,  which  is  as  volatile  as  ether,  and  requires  a  tem- 
perature so  low  as  not  to  alter  the  essential  oil.  The  oil 
of  hops  obtained  by  the  first  method  has  an  odor  like 
thyme,  and  contains,  according  to  W.agner,  a  terpcne,  T'OII'S, 
and  a  conipounil,  C«1I'»0,  near  to  valeric  acid,  l'SHi"0=,  and 
coiivertiblc  into  the  latter  by  oxidation.  Hence,  hops  ac- 
quire by  age  a  valerianic  odor.  Personne  considered  this 
essential  oil  as  analogous  to  oil  of  valerian,  the  terpcne  in 
which  is  bonieene.  No  dextro-rotatory  camphor,  however, 
like  borneol  (Borneo  camphor)  has  been  obtained  from  oil 
of  hops-  II.  Wlhtz. 

Hop  Troc  (Piclm  trifollntn),  also  called  Shrubby 
Trefoil,  an  American  shrubof  the  rue  family,  found  from 
Pennsylvania  southward  and  westward.  When  kept  trim- 
med to  a  single  stem  it  attains  a  height  of  30  or  40  feet. 
The  leaves  are  trifoliate,  with  leaflets  ovate,  pointed,  and 
downy  when  young.  The  flowers,  borne  in  cvmes  at  the 
ends  of  the  new  shoots,  are  greenish,  small,  aiid  not  con- 
spicuous ;  they  arc  polygamous — staminate,  pistillate,  and 
perfect  ones  being  found  on  the  same  plant.  The  fruit  is 
two-celled  and  two-sccdcd.  having  a  broad  wing,  and  re- 
sembles that  of  the  elm,  whence  its  generic  name  (  Ur.  irreAca, 
"elm").  The  flowers  and  bruised  leaves  have  an  unpleas- 
ant odor.  The  fruit  is  intensely  bitter,  and  is  destitute  of 
the  aromatic  ])rinciple  of  the  true  hop,  for  which,  however, 
it  is  often  substituted  in  tlic  nianufaeture  of  beer.  An  in- 
fusion of  the  leaves  anil  young  shoots  is  used  as  a  remedy 
for  worms.  It  is  a  neat  ornamental  shrub,  not  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  insects,  and  from  the  compound  character  of  its 
leaves  coutrastj  well  with  other  trees  and  shrubs.  It  is  a 
late  plant,  the  branches  remaining  bare  in  spring  long  after 
other  shrubs  arc  clothed  with  foliage,  but  later  in  the  season 
its  large  clusters  of  winged  fruit  give  it  an  attractive  ap- 
pearance. 

Hor,  a  mountain  of  Arabia  Petrwa,  forming  a  part  of 
the  range  of  .Seir  or  Edom,  upon  which  Aaron  died.  The 
summit  which  is  generally  conceded  to  bo  the  Mt.  Hor  of 
this  incident  still  bears  the  name  of  Mt.  Aaron  (Arab.  Jebcl 
HarCiii),  and,  rising  to  the  height  of  4SIIII  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  the  most  conspicuous  summit  of  the  range.  The 
mountain  has  a  double  top,  and  is  surmounted  by  an  edi- 
fice, of  later  date  than  the  Crus.ades,  which  is  called  Aaron's 
tomb.  There  is  another  Mt.  Hor.  mentioned  in  Num. 
xxxiv.  7,  S  as  one  of  the  marks  of  the  N.  boundary  of  the 
land  which  the  Israelites  were  to  conquer.     The  word  llor 


means  simply  "mountain,"  and  in  this  instance  probably 
designates  the  entire  Lebanon  range. 

Hor'ace  (Qtintis  Houaths  Flaccus),  b.  Dee.  8,65 
B.  c.  at  Venusia,  in  Apulia.     His  father,  a  freedman,  was 
a  collector  of  money  for  tax-gatherers  and  bankers,  and 
owned  a  little  farm,  which  he  sold  in  order  to  give  his  son 
a  liberal  education.      Alter  finishing  his  studies  in  Rome, 
Horace  went  in  47  n.  f.  to  Athens  to  study  philosophy  and 
rhetoric,  but  the  murder  of  Ca'sarand  the  civil  war  which 
ensued  made  him  a  soldier,  and  he  fought  as  a  tribuncun- 
dcr  lirutus  in  the  battle  of  Philijipi  (42  ii.  c).     After  the 
defeat  ho  fled  to  Rome,  and  his  ollencc  was  forgiven  or  for- 
gotten.    AVilh  the  rest  of  his  patrimony  he  bought  a  posi- 
tion as  a  registrator  in  the  office  of  the  pr;elor,  but  he  soon 
gave  it  up  in  order  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  literary 
pursuits.     His  first  productions  were  satires,  or,  as  he  calls 
them  himself,  «<rj»(oif»,  on  account  of  the  colloquial  tone 
in  which  they  are  written.  These  he  read  to  his  friends,  and 
thus  by  degrees  he  was  admitted  to  the  literary  circles  of 
Rome.     He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Varius  and  Virgil, 
who  introduced  him  to  M;ccenas,  who  again   introduced 
him  to  Augustus  ;  and  Maecenas  appreciated  his  talent  and 
his  friendship  so  much  that  ho  gave  him  a  fine  country- 
seat  near  Tivoli,  in  the  Sabine  Mountains,  and  also  a  com- 
petency.    After  the  satires  (35  b.  c.)  followed  the  epodes 
or  iambi  (30  b.  c),  then  the  odes  or  ciirmina  (23  b.  {_-.), 
and  at  last  the  epistles  (10  B.  c),  the  second  book  of  which 
contains    the    long    epistle   Ad   I'luoHca,   generally  known 
under  the  title  of  Ars  i'ociiia.     I).  Nov.  27,  8  b.  c,  and 
was  buried  at  the  Esquiline  Gate,  beside  Mieeenas.     With 
the  great  social  and  political  movements  of  their  time  the 
poems  of  Horace  have  no  connection,  but  they  possess  an- 
other (and  to  us  a  sliU  greater)  charm:    they  tell  in   a 
thousand  different  ways,  and  always  in  an   intimate  and 
pleasant  manner,  of  private  life.     But  for  Horace  we  should 
have  a  very  imperfect  and  meagre  iilea  of  refined  and  edu- 
cated life  in  pagan  Rome,  its  tastes  and  vanities,  its  con- 
vivialities and  extravagances,  its  forms  and  implements. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  secret  of  his  wonderful  success. 
That  which  through  eighteen  centuries  has  made  him  the 
most-read  poet    of    antiquity   was  his  representativeness. 
Ho  had  exactly  genius  enough,  and  not  too  much,  to  ex- 
press the  instincts,  moods,  and  methods  of   average  hu- 
manity.    His  imagination  is  not  very  great;    he  visits  no 
man's  mind  with  strange  visions  ;  but  that  which  he  has 
is  precise  and  gr.aceful.    Nor  is  his  feeling  very  warm  either; 
ho  stirs  no  man's  heart  with  excitement,  bulthat  which  he 
has  is  sound  and  pleasant.     His  principal  faculty  is  his 
power  of  reflection.     His  intellect,  always  clear,  never  deep, 
always  striking,  never  strong,  makes  him  complete  master 
of  himself — a  decent  and  humorous  cynic,  a  prudent  and 
elegant  epicurean,  always  polite,  seldom  noble,  always  cor- 
dial, seldom  kind.     And  this  genius,  so  well  adapted  to  be 
the  representative  of  average  humanity,  was  equally  well 
trained  to  fill  its  task.     His  verses  have  no  music,  perhaps 
with  the  exception  of   a  few  drinking-songs.     But  they 
have  all  a  piquant,  catching  movement.      His  form  has  no 
simplicity   or   naturalness,    and    it    lacks  almost   entirely 
plasticity.    But  the  artificiality  is  so  elaborate,  so  easy  and 
elegant,  that  the  mind  of  average  humanity  is  impressed 
by  this  manner  of  expressing  ideas  and  sentiments  as  would 
be  their  body  by  a  garment  of  velvet,  satin,  and  lace.    Since 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  however — that  is,  since  the 
predominance  of  the  romantic  school — the  verses  of  Horace 
have  lost  some  of  their  poetical  charm;  their  historical  in- 
terest they  will,  of  course,  never  lose.     Of  recent  editions 
we  mention    those  of   Anthon  (New  York,   1830).  Orclli 
(Zurich.   1850),  Lincoln   (Boston,   1851),   Rittcr    (Leipsic, 
1850),  Didot  (Paris,  1855),  and  Wickham  (London,  1873). 

Cl.KJIE.NS  PETEIlSli.N. 

Horae.    See  Horns. 

Horanyi  (Frasci.s  Jcseph  Alexis),  b.  at  Buda,  Hun- 
gary, Feb.  15.  1736;  d.  at  Pcsth,  Sept.  11,  180'J.  Author 
of  Mnnoria  //nngarorum  et  Proi-incialinttl  ecriptit  et/itie 
tiotoniin  (1775-77)  and  Auva  .\fcinoria  (1792)  ;  edited  Johnn- 
nin  liflliUmii  flintiirirti  trtniHlhutiirn  (1782)  and  the  Chron- 
icon  Humjarivttm  of  Simon  of  Keza  (1782). 

Iloraporion,  or  Ilorus  Apollo,  the  name  of  the 
author  of  a  small  (ireek  essay  entitled  rtinoi/ti/pliira.  which 
is  the  only  work  on  the  interpretation  of  the  Egyjitian 
hieroglyphics  which  has  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity. 
The  book  is  believed  to  belong  to  the  fourth  century  A.  n. ; 
of  the  author  nothing  is  known. 

Ho'rcb,  according  to  some,  a  lower  part  or  elevation  of 
Mt.  Sinai :  others  consider  it  to  be  a  general  name  for  the 
whole  range  of  which  Mt.  Sinai  was  one  of  the  principal 
summits.     The  name  itself  in  Hebrew  means  "desert." 

Horf'hoiiiid,  the  name  of  several  labiate  herbs  of  tem- 
perate climates.  Marrnbiuiti  vnftjiirf,  the  common  or  white 
horchound,  is  naturalized  in  the  Eastern  l'.  .S.,  but  is  a 


HORGEN— HORN. 


991 


native  of  Europe  and  Western  America.  It  is  on  excel- 
lent tonic  remcdv,  very  useful  in  coughs  aiul  colds,  and  is 
penonilly  t.ik.n  in  syrup  or  candy.  The  fitid  horchound 
(llallnta  iii<ji-u)is  also  a  naturalized  plant  from  Kurope.  It 
resembles  the  lornier  in  appearance,  taste,  and  properties. 
The  water  horchound  ( /-^<<//^><»  fi.reyw.K.)  grows  in  burope 
and  America.  It  is  considered  a  good  tonic.  I.>)cuj,m  )  <r- 
,ji„un,  (hugle-wort)  nearly  resembles  it,  and  is  sometimes 
used  on  aoount  of  its  expectorant  properties. 

Hor'een,  or  Hor'chen,  town  of  Swil/crland,  in  the 
cant..ii  of  Ziirich,  on  the  Lake  of  Ziirich.  has  some  maiiii- 
factures  of  silk,  cotton  good-s  and  chen.icals.  Pop.  o.,ll. 
Ilor'icon,  post-tp.  of  Warren  co..  N.  Y.  It  abounds 
in  lakes  and  mountains,  has  4  churches,  and  manulaetures 
of  leather  and  other  goods.     Pop.  IJOO. 

Horicon,  post-v.  of  Dodge  co.  (Hubbard  tp.).  Wis, 
on  the  Chicago  Milwaukee  and  8t.  Paul  R.  11.,  Similes  iV. 
W.  of  Milwaukee,  at  the  junction  of  the  Hipon  branch, 
and  on  Koek  Kivcr  at  the  outlet  of  Horicon  Lake.     It  has 
manulaetures  and  c.\tcnsive  water-power. 
Horicon  I-ake.    See  George,  Lake. 
Horicon  Lalif,  in  Do.lgo  and  Fond  du  Lao  cos..  Wis., 
is  15  miles  long,  and  5  miles  across.     Its  waters  flow  into 
Koek  River,  an.l  liualiv  fall  into  the  Mississippi.    It  '9  a'hal- 
loK,  grassy  basin,  sometimes  called  the  V,  innebago  Marsh. 
Ho'rites,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Mt.  Peir  before 
the  (^inaanites  comiueied  Palestine.     Their  name  is  de- 
rived from  llori,  the  grandsonof  Seir  (lien,  xxxvi.  J2),  and 
refers  to  their  habit  of  dwelling  in  caves,  of  which  there 
still  are  many  e.^tant  in  the  clifl's  of  Edom. 

Ilori'zon  [h^H^,;  the  "bounding"  (circle)],  the  line 
formed  bv  the  apparent  contact  of  the  sky  and  earth,  lb  is, 
or  more  exactly,  the  circle  upon  the  heavens  bounding  he 
plane  which  is  tangent  to  tho  earth  at  the  point  where  the 
observer  stan.ls.  is  the  sr,„il,le  horizon.  The  ni(i.oK<( 
horizon  is  a  circle  on  the  celestial  sphere  bounding  a  plane 
narallel  to  the  sensilde  horizon,  which  plane  divides  into 
two  equal  parts  both  the  terrestrial  and  the  celestial  spheres. 
Except  the  moon,  all  the  heavenly  bodies  may  bo  practi- 
cally considered  as  always  situated  either  above  or  below 
each  of  the  horizons  alike. 

Ilormis'clas,  Pope,  a  native  of  Frosinone,  became  pope 
in  ill,  and  d.  Aug.  0,  023.  Eighty  of  his  letters  are  extant. 

Horn,  a  hard  projection,  diminishing  from  its  hi'se  to  ! 
a  point,  on    the   heads   of  many  animals,  especially  the 
cloven-footed  ([uadrupeds.  It  is  generally  curved  or  spiral, 
but  that  of  the  cow,  bull,  or  ox,  being  most  familiar,  ha,s 
become  a  familiar  descriptive  term  for  all  similarly  formi-d 
projections—;,  g.  the  horns  of  the  moon.    1  he  word  in  its 
ori.-in  is  of  very  great  antiquity,  since  it  is  found  in  both 
Aryan  and  SemiVic  tongues.     In  Sanscrit  iv,r,...,  it  is  true 
pi.'"nifles   an   car,   but  the   Latin  corn,,,  (.rc.'k   Avro,  and 
k"r/:nef,  (iothie  h<nin,,   Persian  /.vinir.  (•Mrui.ii)et     I,  ana 
the  Irish  and  Cymric  r„ni,  all  in.lieato  an  Indian  origin, 
while  the  Hebrew    h<rn,   the  ChalduMin  giiruu.  and    the 
Arabic  7-.n,,  w"-"'"'  »''""  "'"'■  ''  '•""  "^""^'^  been  known 
to  the  soulbern  branch  of  civilized  liumanity.      The  word 
is  conjecture!  by  speculative  philologists  to  be  allied  to  a 
large  family  of  terms,  such  as  the  originals  of  rro,r„,  corn, 
et.       \s  a  very  prominent  symbol  in  ancient  literature  the 
horn  signified  strength,  power,  or  dignity  ( Jer.  xlyiii. ;  1 
Sam    ii.),  and  with  the  (ireeks  abniidaucc  or  lertility.  as 
was  set  forth  in  the  cornucopia,  or  horn  of  plenty.      1  he 
conn.'ction  "f  horns  with  sexual  attributes  appears  to  have 
b.eu  partly  .lue  to  their  association  with  the  liull  and  the 
ir.,it    and  their  extraordinary  increase  in  size  in  the  ox, 
who'in  all  countries  was  regarded  as  llie  type  of  one  whoso 
privileges  are  usurped  bv  the  bull.    In  all  animals  bearing 
them  ■'  the  formation  of  the  horns  has  been  long  known  to 
be    nioch   inlluenced   by   the  en,idili..n   of   ll>«  «[!!';"»    «' 
generalion  :  in  the  deer  they  acpiire  their  full  bulk  and 
c.implete  form  just  before  the  season    of  rutting.        1  be 
most   dignified  of  the  deities,  whether  Semitic  or  Aryan, 
were  repre-cnied  as  horned,  and  f<.r  a  diflcrent  reason  all 
those  which  were  most  closely  connected  with  rcproduotivo 
nalure — as,  for  instance,  the  rural  gods. 

Horn,  per  »<■,  is  of  f.uir  kinds.  That  of  the  rhinoceros 
"consists  of  a  uniform,  compact,  or  glutinate  mass  of  ej.i- 
dermal  fibres,  the  slighlly  concave  base  of  which  is  attached 
to  the  dermo-perioste  of  a  slightly  elevated  or  rug.ms  tract 
of  bone."  The  second  type  is  that  of  most  ruminants,  in 
which  the  growth  extends  from  the  frontal  bones,  am  the 
dermo  periosteum  develops  a  sheath  of  horny  fibres,  the  horn 
bein"  hollow  The  bone  is  termed  the  r„rr  :  it  has  usually  j 
a  ru"ou<  or  grooved  exterior.  In  llovida-  and  Ovida!  the 
frontal  sinuses  exiend  therein;  in  Anielopida-  the  core  is 
solid  The  growth  each  year  is  marked  by  a  circular  groove 
near  the  root,  from  which  the  age  may  be  determined,  be 
giralTe  ithird  tvpe.  Owen)  has  a  pair  of  small,  short,  eyhn- 


droid.  unbrancho.l  horns,  which  consist  of  bone  covered  by 
hairy  skin,  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  coarser  hair.  The  bones 
ore  liot  processes  of  the  skull,  but  ore  joined,  like  epiphyses, 
by  svncliondrosis  to  both  frontal  and  parietal  bones,  tho 
base  crossing  the  coronal  suture.  The  young  are  born  wilh 
such  horns,  and  are  the  sole  horned  mammals  that  enter 
tho  world  wilh  such  weapons.  In  deer  (fourth  type)  the 
horns  consist  wholly  of  bo,,.;  which  grows  from  Ibe  Ironlal ; 
the  ))eriosteum  and"  finely  haired  integuments  called  ■■  vel- 
vet" coextendiug  therewith  during  the  period  of  growlh  ; 
at  the  end  of  which  the  rormalive  envelope  loses  its  vascu- 
larity, dries,  and  is  stripped  olT.  leaving  the  bone  as  a  hard, 
insensible  weapon.  Alter  some  months  these  horns  lose 
all  vascular  connection  with  the  skull,  and  ore  shed  ;  alter 
which  the  growth  of  a  new  pair  commences.  The  reindeer 
is  one  of  the  very  few  Cervidic  in  which  antlers  arc  devel- 
oped by  the  female.  Thus,  deer  are  tho  only  ungulates 
that  annually  shedlheir  horns;  the  prong-buck  is  the  only 
known  hollo'w-horned  ruminant  that  annually  sheds  tho 
extra-vascular  part  of  the  horn,  called  the  sheath.  The  horns 
of  un<'ulates  may  bo  summarized  as  consisting  cither  of 
horn  only,  as  in' the  rhinoceros;  of  bone  only,  as  in  tho 
C'ervnn  of  deer  genus ;  of  horn  and  bone,  as  illustrated  by 
tho  bovine  or  ox  genus;  and  of  skin  and  bone,  as  in  the 
giraffe.  From  these  facts  it  has  been  observed  that  in  the 
j  English  language  we  have  in  horn  only  one  w..rd  to  ex- 
I  pre°s  two  quite  different  substances-the  branched  bony 
1  horns  of  the  stag  genus,  and  the  laminated  horns  of  he 
genus  Ho,  (ox).  In  French  the  antlcred  kind  are  called 
boh,  or  forest,  from  their  branches,  while  the  other  kind, 
as  of  tho  ox,  antelope,  and  goat,  is  called  roruc 

In  olden  times  horns  were  extensively  used,  especially 
amon^the  Xortbern  races,  for  drinking-cups,  and  in  Saxon 
an.l  Norman  sculptures  it  is  the  common  goblet. 

Mnuuroclnre  o/ //orH.— The  peculiar  texture  of  horn,  its 
toughness  and  agreeable  natural  colors,  have  always  caused 
it  to  be  a  favorite  material  for  many  works,  though  ut  late 
years  the  increasing  cheapness  of  glass,  gutta  percho,  and 
metal  wares  has  caused  a  great  disuse  of  it.     At  one  time 
there  was  held  annually  in  England  a  fair  at  which  every 
object  for  sale  was  made  of  horn,  and  until  withm  a  lew 
years  a  large  class  of  Scottish  gypsies  maintained  them- 
selves entirely  by  making  and  selling  horn  spoons.     As 
true  horn  consists,  chemically,  of  albumen  (keratin)  and 
a  little  iihosphate  of  lime,  it  is  readily  softened  in  boiling 
water  or  by  heat;  sometimes  the  process  is  aided  by  the 
addition  of"  quicklime.     It  is  usual  to  prepare  the  horns  ol 
oxen  and  sheep  by  steeping  them  for  several  weeks  in  cold 
water,  which  has  the  effect  of  separating  the  cored  bony 
part  from  the  cover  of  true  horn.    The  latter  is  then  heated, 
first  for  half  an  hour  in  boiling  water,  and  then  over  hre. 
In  this  condition  it  may  be  cut  or  moulded  with  great  ease. 
To  make  sheets  for  lanterns  or  combs,  the  horn  is  slit  length- 
ways at  (Tie  side,  heated  and  pressed  out,  cilher  betwecu 
plates  or  by  machines,  of  which  several  have  been  invented 
for  the  puniosc.     Care  must,  h.iwcvcr,  be  exercised  as    o 
the  application  of  both  heat  and  pressure,  since,  owing  to 
its  peculiarly  laminated  structure  and  the  strue  abounding 
thrlu..h  it--as  may  be  specially  observed  in  that  of  the 
rhinoceros-horn  has  a  tendency  to  split.     It  receives  dyes 
of  different  kinds,  and  is  made  to  closely  resemble  tortoi  e- 
shcll,  but  this  process  also  is  apt  to  render  it  fragile.     Its 
softness  may.  however,  be  restored  by  8tce|,ing  it  in  glj- 
cerinc  and  ^atcr;  and  if  it  be  then  treated  with  nitnc  and 
pyroligneous  acids,  tannin,  potash,  sulphate  of  '■•■o.  »  >d 
water,  it  assumes  a  peculiar  slrcnglh  and  great  ola  tici  y. 
As  sheets  or  other  pieces  of  horn  may  bo  incorporated  to- 
gether, there  is  little  waste  in  the  manufacture.     Of  la  o 
years  there  has  been  an  extensive  manufacture  in  I..md.  n 
of  so-called  Abyssinian  drinking-cups,  made  of  segments 
of    i"rii  slraightened  and  with  a  bottom,  colored  in  imita- 
tion of  the  beauliful  gray  an.l  black  cups  brought    rom  tho 
plunder  of  Magdala.     The  born  of  the  rhinoceros  has  been 
treaty  esteemed  in  all  ages  in  'he  East,  partly  from  a  l.c- 

L(  timt  it  neutralized  poison  in  '''l"•;'^'"'^V'"■■'■:,  ■;';;::,:: 

rich  natural  colornnd  great  beauty.  It  is  oUim  clabo.atcly 
carved  by  the  Kgvptians  and  Chinese,  and  the  writer  has 
ee"  one"rrom  Cant'on  which,  owing  to  its  --l-'-'^J"  ;_• 
cost  soil".  He  has  in  his  possession  one  presented  to  lii.n 
by  a"weallliv  Copt  which  was  highly  esteemed,  owing  to  its 
delicate  „nii-transparency,  and  has  seen  another  whoh 
was  supposed  to  be  almost  unique  in  Ibis  respect.  Some 
Tears  ago  parasol-hondles  of  rhin...'eios  horn  became  la>li- 
fonablc  in'  Paris,  and  to  this  day  they  '."^;, '•••\"^';'""'>";,'^ 
Stated  in  horn.  The  Romans  made  oll-fiasks  both  ot  ox 
an.l  rhin.i.-eios  horn,  an.l  tnoii  an  epigram  lii  '^l;"t;"  " 
mavbc  inferrc.l  that  they  too  sometimes  imltatc.l  the  latter 
material  with  the  former.  The  epigram  is  in  rclercnce  to  a 
lantern,  anil  might  serve  as  its  inscription  : 

■■Thounb  by  a  boll  1  b.-n'  ..f  late  was  borne 
You'd  say  I  "m  "''  "oe  rhinoceros  horn. 


992 


HORX— HOKNELLSVILLE. 


Those  cups  require  occasional  oiling,  or  they  will  *' chip  " 
or  crack.  In  the  East  this  is  a  favorite  material  for  the 
hilts  of  weapon?),  preference  l)eing  given  to  that  which  conies 
fmni  Sumatra.  It  is  worked,  like  ivory,  entirely  with  the 
chisel  and  without  heat.  Deer  or  buck  horn  is  used  Jii  ;l11 
countries  for  kuife-handlcs.  As  it  is  simply  hone,  and  of 
coarse  cellular  structure  within,  it  is  seldom  or  never  made 
up  except  in  such  a  manner  as  to  j>rescrve  iti  part,  at  least, 
its  agreeahly  colored  and  peculiar  rugged  structure.  In 
Germany  thousands  of  artisans  are  devoted  to  making  from 
deer-horn  ornaments  which  vary  from  carvings  of  almost 
microscopic  delicacy  to  large  articles  of  furniture.  Im- 
mense numbers  of  deer-horns  (of  the  Ajrh  marulata)  are 
annually  brought  to  Germany  for  such  work,  even  England 
recjuiring  about  250,000.  The  h()rnsof  the  Eastern  buffalo 
and  of  the  American  bison  arc  in  great  demand;  the  latter, 
frnm  its  color  and  fine  hard  grain,  being  especially  prized 
for  the  handles  of  dental  instruments.  The  interior  of  ox- 
horns  is  used  to  make  *'  bone-earth  :"  the  refuse  of  .all  kinds 
is  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  jirussiate  of  j)otash  and 
aninioniacal  salts  ;  while  fragments  of  ox  and  hutTalo  horn, 
powdered,  are  of  value  as  manure.  C.  ii.  Leland. 

Horiiy  a  wind  instrument  of  music,  usually  of  brasp, 
much  used  in  the  orchestra.  The  French  horn  is  usually 
coiietl  in  such  a  way  as  to  become  portable,  and  its  key 
may  be  modified  by  the  insertion  or  withdrawal  of  suitable 
pieces.  The  sax-horn  is  a  modification  of  the  older  in- 
atruracnt.  Various  other  wind  instruments  are  called  from 
their  shape  "  horns,"  and  in  ancient  times  the  horns  of  ani- 
mals were  employed  as  trumpets,  but  they  probably  served 
only  as  the  means  of  calling. 

Horn  (Gi'STAF  Caulsson).  b.  at  Orbyhue,  Sweden.  Oct. 
23,  \S'J2  ;  studied  at  Rostock,  Jena,  and  Tubingen  ;  received 
his  military  training  in  Holland  under  Prince  Maurice  of 
Orange  ;  and  entered  the  Swedish  army  in  1024.  Gustavus 
Ad'ilphus  called  him  his  right  arm.  and  after  the  battle  of 
Liitzen  he  made  a  brilliant  campaign  in  the  Khenish  Pal- 
atinate, but  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Niirdlingen 
in  1034.  and  kept  for  seven  years  in  the  fortresses  of  In- 
goKlstadt  and  Burghausen.  Having  been  exchanged  in 
1641,  he  returned  to  Sweden  ;  commanded  in  1644  in  Scania 
against  the  Danes;  was  made  a  count  and  field-marshal  in 
16ol  ;  and  d.  at  Skara  May  16,  1057. 

Horn,  or  Hoorne  (Phii.ippk),  Count  of,  b.  in  1522, 
a  son  of  De  Montmorency-Xivelle,  a  Flemish  nobleman. 
AVIien  his  mother,  having  become  a  widow,  married  Count 
Horn,  Philippe  was  adopted  by  his  stepfather  and  assumed 
his  name.  He  distinguished  himself  both  in  the  battles  of 
Sr.-Quentin  and  Gravelines  and  in  the  councils  of  Philip  II. 
and  Margaret,  viceregent  of  the  Netherlands.  Ho  was  a 
g<iod  Catholic,  but  he  was  tolerant.  He  was  loyal  to  the 
Spanis^h  crown,  but  he  would  not  deliver  up  the  rights  of  his 
native  country  without  resistance.  Thus,  when  Alva  ar- 
rived in  the  Netherlands,  he  was  seized,  together  with  Eg- 
mont,  at  Hrussels  in  1507,  a  case  was  made  out  against 
him.  and  he  was  beheaded  June  5,  1568. 

Horn'beam,  a  name  given  to  various  trees.  The  horn- 
beam of  Europe  is  the  Curphiua  Utfuliiiifa.  handsome  forest 
tree  which  has  very  tough,  white  wood, 
highly  prized  by  turners  and  joiners.  It 
is  also  excellent  fire-wood,  and  makes 
good  charcoal.  In  the  I'.  S.  the  T'ar- 
pinus  Aincri'yiHO  IS  called  hornbeam, 
Icvcr-wood,  iron-wood,  and  blue  beach. 
It  is  very  hard,  tough,  and  close-grained. 
The  hop-hornbeam,  called  also  lever- 
wood  or  iron-wood,  is  a  slender  tree,  tho 
Ostriftt  Viiffiuicn,  with  wood  of  the  same 
qualities  as  those  possessetl  by  that  of 
the  former  tree.  Both  grow  extensively 
throughout  the  U,  S.  All  the  above  be- 
long to  the  order  Cupuliferie. 

Horn-bilU     See  Blcekos. 

Horn'blentlCy  a  term  used  in  min- 
eralogy, sometimes  as  synonymous  with 
amphibolc,  sometimes  to  designate  only 
the  dark-colored  varieties  of  that  very  va- 
riable mineral.  In  the  former  sense  horn- 
blende is  a  mineral  crystallizing  in  tho 
monoclinic  sysU'm,  but  occurringalso  im- 
perfectly crystalli/ed.ormassive.  fibrous,  and  granular.  Its 
hardness  varies  from  5  to  6,  and  its  specific  gravity  from  2.9  to 
.S.4.  In  composition  it  varies  much,  being,  however,  essen- 
tially a  silicate  of  magnesia  and  oxide  of  iron,  with  gen- 
erally lime,  and  with  or  without  alumina,  manganese-oxide, 
or  soda.  It  is  one  of  the  more  iinpcjrtant  rock-forming 
minerals,  occurring  especially  in  granitic  ami  metamorphic 
rocks,  and  volcanic  rocks  o(  deep-seated  origin.  It  pre::«ent3 
a  great  variety  of  forms  and  great  differences  in  color; 


black  and  dark-green  varieties  arc  especially  known  as 
hornblt'iuic;  lighter  green  as  artin'diu-;  white  varieties  as 
trcmolitt-,  and  fibrous  forms  as  Anthui'Hyllite,  Asbkstos, 
and  Amianthis  (which  see).  Edward  C.  II.  Day. 

Ilorn'blower  (Joseph  Coirten),  LL.D..asonof  Judge 
Josiah  HnrnMower  of  New  Jersey  (  172H-lS0*l).  b.  at  Belle- 
viiic,  N.  J.,  May  0,  1777;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  ISOIt; 
was  chief-justice  of  the  New  Jersey  supreme  court  ls;i2- 
46  ;  a  prominent  member  of  the  constitutional  convention 
of  ISJ4:  and  a  man  of  practical  benevolence.  D.  at  Newark 
Juno  II,  1S04. 

Horn'book,  a  written  or  printed  tablet  of  parchment 
or  paper,  covered  with  a  thin  transparent  layer  of  horn, 
j  and  framed  in  wood,  containing  the  aljphabet  in  Homan  or 
black  letter,  with  some  other  simple  lessons,  often  fol- 
lowed by  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Hornbooks  appear  to  have 
been  chiefly  English.  Their  use  originated  before  the  in- 
vention of  printing,  and  continued  till  about  the  middle  of 
the  last  century.  There  are  but  few  existing  specimens 
known. 

Horn^by,  post-tp.  of  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.  It  has  several 
manufactories.     Pop.  1202. 

Home  (George),  b.  at  Otham,  Kent,  England,  Nov.  1, 
17;^0:  took  orders  in  175H:  became  chaplain  to  the  king  in 
1771,  dean  of  Canterbury  in  17^1,  bishop  of  Norwich  Id 
1790  ;  and  d.  at  Bath  Jan.  17,  17U2.  His  principal  work  ia 
his  Connnentfirt/  oi)  the  PhuIihh  (1776J;  he  also  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons,  Litter  tit  Dr.  Prtentiei/.  Let- 
tere  on  Iiijiiich'ti/,  and  a  letter  to  Adam  Smith  on  David 
Hume. 

Horne  (Ricninn  Henry),  b.  in  ISO.'l  in  London  ;  studied 
in  the  college  at  Sandhurst,  and  became  a  midshipman  in 
the  Mexican  navy  ;  was  in  Australia  lSo2-70,  where  he 
held  several  local  magistracies.  Author  of  several  trag- 
edies, and  a  number  of  poems  and  miscelUincous  works, 
among  which  are  a  Life  of  SapoJcitn  (2  vols.,  \S\\),Orinu, 
an  Epic  (1843;  of  which  three  editions  were  sold  at  one 
farthing  a  copy),  Ausiralinn  Facta  and  Fitjurca  (1859). 

Horne  (Thomas  Hartwell),  D.  D.,  b.  in  London  Oct. 
20,  1780;  studied  at  Christ's  Hospital  1789-95,  and  read 
law;  was  suli-librarian  of  the  Surrey  Institution  1809-23; 
took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  1819;  was  senior 
assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum  1824— 60 ;  became 
rector  of  St.  Edmund's  and  St.  Nicholas's  1833:  was  made 
a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  1841;  d.  in  London  June  27, 
ls62.  In  early  life  he  was  a  Methodist.  His  princijial 
work  is  the  Introilttclion  to  the  Critical  Studi/  of  the 
^'cri/>/jo-^«(lSI8,  latest  edition,  London.  1856,4  vols.);  also 
author  of  a  Brief  View  of  thr  AeccHsitt/  of  Revefation 
(1800).  Lakes  of  Lancashire,  Wcatmorcland,  and  Cnniber- 
iand  (1810),  Deiam  lief'nttd  (1819),  Romanittm  Contrary  to 
the  /iihie  {1^27),  Manual  far  the  Aj^irted  (1832),  Protestant 
McmoriaHlSZb),  Manual  of  JUblical  IHblioyraphif  (1839), 
and  Mariolatry  ( 184U).  (See  Reminiscences  of  T.  H.  Ilorntf 
by  his  daughter,  S.  A.  Cheyne,  London,  1802.) 

Horned  Toad  (  Phrynosoma),  a  genus  of  true  lizards, 
of  which  ten  or  eleven  species  are  found  in  Texas,  Mexico, 


Douglass's  Phrynosoma. 

California.  Utah,  etc.  They  are  not  toads  at  all.  They 
are  rather  sluggish,  especially  in  captivity.  They  do  not 
leap,  but  crawl  like  other  lizards.  P.  Douglasiii,  lilain- 
villii,  and  coruntum  arc  the  best-known  species. 

Hor'nellsvilley  post-v.  of  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.,  68  miles 
S.  of  Uoehester,  on  the  Eric  R.  K.  It  has  good  schools,  5 
churches,  extensive  railway-shops,  a  mowing-machine  fac- 
tory, large  boot  and  shoe,  furniture,  machine,  and  other 
factories,  planing-mills,  3  weekly  and  1  tri-weekly  news- 


IIOKNEK— IIORXEK'S  METHOD  OF  SOLVING  HIGHER  EQUATIONS. 


993 


bank,  eto. 


paper,  and  a  hnndsomo  opera-house,  I  national 
Pop.  of  V.  4bb'2;  of  tp.  5837. 

11.  H.  GuKENUow,  Ed.  '*  Evkmsg  Tridune." 

Hor'ner  (FitANiis),  b.  at  Edinburgh  Auf;.  12,  177S; 
studied  hiw  at  Ihc  university  of  his  native  city  ;  removed 
to  London  in  ISOii,  and  entered  Parliament  in  ISOtJ.  llo 
soon  acquired  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons by  his  business  capacity,  his  insight  into  political 
economy,  and  the  nobleness  of  his  character;  but,  having 
injured  his  health  by  excessive  labor,  ho  was  obliged  to 
tra***!,  and  d.  nt  Pisa  Feb.  8,  1817.  A  monument  was 
creotod  to  him  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  his  Mcmoii-a  and 
Correspondence  were  edited  by  his  brother  (Loudon,  ISlo). 

Horner  (William  Edmonds),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Warrcnton, 
Va.,  June  3,  17113;  graduate<l  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 1S14  ;  served  in  the  navy  as  a  medical  officer 
l'<13-15;  became  a  distinguished  practitioner  of  Philudcl- 
phia;  was  prosector  and  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
Ihiiversity  of  Pennsylvania ;  became  adjunct  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  same  1819;  full  professor  1831  ;  announced 
the  discovery  of  the  so-called  Horner's  muscle  1824;  found- 
ed St.  Jo*ei>irs  Hospital  1S17.  D.  in  Philadelphia  Mar. 
12,  1853.  Published  a  treatise  on  I\i(h'il<><jicnl  Auatomif 
(1820),  Prnrtintf  Aiintnnn/,  Spmiaf  Aiuftomi/  <i}i(f  ffistnhxji/ 
(2  vols.,  1851),  f.  S.  VltiMrrtor,  and  an  Aimt'imtral  Atlas. 

Horner's  Method  ofDetached  Coefficients.  The 

method  of  detached  coefficients  simplifies  the  processes  of 
algebraic  multiplication  and  division  when  the  coefficients 
in  the  expressions  to  be  operated  upon  are  chiefly  numerical. 
It  consists  in  omitting  the  letters  (or  at  least  the  letter  ac- 
cording to  the  powers  of  which  the  ex  press  ions  arc  arranged), 
and  using  the  coefficients  only  of  the  successive  powers. 
Before  employing  the  method  the  expressions  must  bo  pre- 
pared so  that  the  exponent  of  the  letter  according  to  which 
each  expression  is  arranged  must  increase  l>y  one  in  each 
term  toward  the  right  from  0  to  the  highest  given,  or  de- 
crease in  like  manner,  from  the  highest  given  to  0. 

To  illustrate  the  method  in  multiplication:  Let  it  bo 
required  to  multiply  5j*  +  2x'^  —  x  +  I  by  bjr^-~2x  -f  1. 
In  the  multiplicand  the  term  containing  .r*  is  wanting,  and 
in  the  multiplier  the  term  containing  j:^;  these  must  be  sup- 
plied, so  that  the  expressions,  when  properly  prepared, 
will  read  5x*  +  O.x^  +  2x2  _  x  +  1  ^nd  5x3  ^  q^j.2  _  2x  +  1. 
The  operation  is  performed  as  follows  : 

5  +  0+  2  —  1  +  1 

5  +  0—  2  +  1 

25+0  +  10  —  0+5 

—  10—0—4  +  2  —  2 
±  5  +  0+2—1 + 1 


25  +  0+  0+0  +  1+4  —  3  +  1 

Since  the  expressions  to  be  multiplied  are  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  descending  powers  of  x,  the  ])roduct  will  bo 
so  arranged,  the  highest  power  being  that  obtained  by 
multiplying  x*  by  x^,  or  x'.  The  complete  product  will 
then  bo  25x7  +  (l.a-«  +  0.x5  +  0.x*  +  x^  +  Ix^- 3x  +  1,  q^, 
omitting  the  insignificant  terms,  25x*^  +  x^  +  4x2  —  Zx  ^  ]. 

To  illustrate  the  method  in  division:  Let  it  be  required 
to  divide  x'  -  2x*  —  3x3  _x  —  \  by  x^— 2x  —  1.  Supplying 
the  wanting  terms  in  both  the  dividend  and  divisor,  the 
expressions  will  read  x"' +  O.x**  f  O.x^— 2x*  — 3x3  +  0.x"''  — 
X  —  1  and  x3  +  0.x'  —  2x  —  1,  and  the  operation  will  read 
as  follows : 

1  +0  +  0—2  —  3  +  0—1  —  1  |1  +0-2  —  1 

1^.0-2-1 |l +0+2-1  +  1 

2  —  1—3+0 
2+0—4—2 

—  1  +1+2  —  1 

—  1—0+2  +  1 

1+0  —  2—1 
1+0—2—1 

As  there  ore  four  terms  in  the  divisor,  four  terms  of  the 
dividend  are  first  dealt  with.  To  the  first  remainder 
(2—1)  (he  next  term  of  the  dividend  (  +  3)  is  annexed; 
and  pince  the  divisor  of  four  terms  is  not  contained  in 
2—1—3,  0  is  written  in  the  quotient,  and  the  next  term 
of  the  dividend  (+UJ  is  brought  down:  the  rest  of  the 
operation  needs  no  explanation.  The  power  of  x  in  the 
first  term  of  the  quotient  will  be  that  obtained  by  dividing 
x'  by  x3  or  x* ;  and  the  complete  quotient  will  bo  x*  +  O.x** 
+  2x'  -  X  +  1 ,  or  X*  I-  2x2 ..  j.  —  ] . 

The  process  of  division  by  detached  coefficients  is  the 
inverse  of  that  of  multiplication  by  detache<l  coefficients. 
To  exhibit  this,  let  it  be  required  to  multiply  3x^—  x  +  2  by 
x^  —  2x  +  3,  and  then  divide  the  product  by  x'  —  2a:  -J-  3  : 

3  —  1+2 

1—2  +  3 

8—1+2 
— fi  +  2  —4 

+  9_  —3  +  6 

3  —  7  +  13  —  7+6 
Vol.  U.—r,:, 


The  first  term  of  the  product  is  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  first  term  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  first  term  of  the 
multiplier;  hence,  the  first  term  of  the  quotient  in  division 
must  bo  obtained  by  dividing  the  first  term  of  the  dividend 
by  the  first  term  of  the  divisor:  the  second  term  of  the 
product  is  obtained  by  adding  together  the  product  of  the 
second  term  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  first  term  of  Ihc 
multiplier,  and  the  product  of  the  first  term  of  the  multi- 
plicand by  the  second  term  of  the  multiplier;  hence,  the 
second  term  of  the  quotient  must  l)c  the  result  obtained  by 
subtracting  from  the  second  term  of  the  dividend  the  pro- 
duct of  the  first  term  of  the  quotient  by  the  second  term 
of  the  divisor:  the  third  term  of  the  product  is  the  sum 
of  the  three  products  obtained  by  multiplying  the  third 
term  of  the  multiplicand  liy  the  first  term  of  the  multiplier, 
the  scconcl  term  of  the  multiplicand  liy  the  second  term  of 
the  multiplier,  and  the  first  term  of  the  multiplicand  by 
the  third  term  of  the  multiplier;  hence,  the  third  term  of 
the  quotient  must  be  the  result  obtained  by  subtracting,  in 
succession,  from  the  third  term  of  the  dividend  the  product 
of  the  second  term  of  the  divisor  by  the  second  term  of  the 
quotient,  and  the  product  (pf  the  third  term  of  the  divisor 
by  the  first  term  of  the  quotient;  and  so  on.  If,  now,  tho 
terms  of  tho  divisor,  with  the  exccjition  of  the  first,  have 
their  signs  changed,  the  successive  subtractions  may  be 
changed  into  additions,  and  the  operation  may  be  performed 
thus  (the  example  being  to  divide  3x*  —  7x3  _)_  l3^^_7j;-^  (j 
by  x2-2x  +  3): 

3—7  +  13  —  7+6 
+  6—   2  +  4 
—  9+3  —  6 


■|{iil 


'3—1+  2,+  0  +  0 
the  quotient  being  Zx^  —  x  +  2.  The  method  of  proceed- 
ing will  bo  apparent  from  what  has  gone  before.  Tho 
method  of  division  here  exhibited  was  discovered,  a  little 
more  than  fifty  years  ago,  by  W.  G.  Horner  of  Bath.  Eng., 
and  is  known  as  Horner's  synthetic  division  or  method  of 
division  by  detached  coefiicients.  It  is  of  importance  in 
the  solution  of  higher  equations. 

It  has  heretofore  been  stated  that  Horner's  method  of 
division  by  detached  coefficients  is  applicable  only  wlien 
the  coefficient  of  tho  first  term  of  the  divisor  is  one.  Mi'. 
E.  D.  Hearn  of  England  has  recently  shown  that  this  is 
not  really  the  case,  though  when  that  coefficient  is  not  one, 
tho  process  has  to  be  modified.  The  reason  for  the  modi- 
fication and  the  character  of  it  will  be  apparent  from  an 
example.  Let  it  bo  required  to  divide  12x*"l'J2  by 
4x3  _|_  <ij.i  _j,  Kjj.  _j.  32.  Using  the  coefiicients  alone,  and 
supplying  the  terms  wanting  in  the  dividend,  the  ordinary 
process  would  be  as  follows  : 

12+    0+    0+  0  —  192  14  +8  +  16  +  32 

12  +■  24  +  48  +9K I3H6 

—  24--4S  — 9G—  192 

—  24  — 4S— 9i>—  192 

Since  tho  quotient  of  x*  by  x3  is  x,  the  quotient  will  bo 
3x  —  fi.  It  will  be  oViservcd  that  in  this  quotient  the  first 
term  is  obtained,  as  before,  V)y  dividing  the  first  term  of  tho 
dividend  by  the  first  term  of  the  divisor;  the  sc(!ond  term 
is  not,  however,  the  remainder  left  after  subtracting  from 
the  secoml  term  of  tho  dividend  the  jjroduct  of  the  first 
term  of  the  quotient  by  the  second  term  of  the  divisor,  but, 
instead,  that  remainder  divided  hy  the  first  term  of  the  di- 
visor; and  a  similar  remark  will  ap|)ly  to  tho  remaining 
terms  of  the  quotient,  if  such  there  be.  The  operation,  con- 
ducted after  Horner's  method,  would  bo  as  follows: 
4 '12  i-    0  +    0  +    0—192 


—  16 

—  32 


—  21  +  48 

—  48  +  96 
96  +  192 


—  24 


3  — 


f  "  Pnltie  quotient  tine,"  cnch  tfrm  In  which 
\  i»  to  be-  divided  bj  tho  Umt  term  gf 
t       tlic  divisur. 

True  quoliciit  line 


Enw.  David  Hearn.    Reviskdby  J.  H.  Van  Amrinoi;. 
Horner's   Method   of   Solving  IIi{;hcr  Fqnii- 

tions.  rntil  lI<inMT.in  ISI'J.  eommunieated  to  the  Kuviil 
Society  his  method  of  solving  algebraic  ecpiations  of  all 
degrees,  no  direct  and  reliable  method  of  finding  the  roots 
of  equations  beyond  tlio  fourth  degree  was  known;  by  his 
method  the  process  is  comparatively  simple.  It  consists, 
in  principle,  in  transforming  the  equations  by  one  or  more 
figures  of  the  root  at  a  time,  nntl  in  a  direct  and  relia)>ln 
method  of  discovering  those  figures  :  whilst  the  operation 
itself  is  performed  by  means  ol  detaelted  eoefficients.  Tho 
explanation  will  be  most  facilitated  by  first  enunciating 
tho  rule,  and  then  elucidating  the  several  steps  or  sections 
of  tho  rule  whilst  working  an  example, 

liuU  1.  To  Find  It  Punidvc  Hoot. — Having  found  tho 
number  and  situation  of  tho  roots,  transform  the  given 
equation  into  another  whose  roots  shall  be  less  than  thifse 
of  the  given  equation  hy  the  initial  figure  of  tho  root ;  thou 


994 


HORNET— HORR. 


divide  the  absolute  term  of  the  reduced  equation  by  the 
penultimate  cociticient  to  find  the  next  figure  of  the  root, 
with  which  trausfonn  the  recluced  equation  as  before,  :inj 
repL-at  the  proems  until  the  desired  accuracy  is  attained. 

linlr  J.  fo  Finil  ti  .\<'/<itive  Root. — Change  the  signs  of 
the  alternate  terms  of  the  given  equation,  and  proceed  as 
for  a  positive  root. 

Extiiupb\ — Find  the  roots  in  the  equation  2a^  4- .'i«''^  — 
■1((  —  10  —  0,  where,  as  there  are  two  permanences  and  one 
variation  of  sign,  there  will,  if  all  the  roots  arc  real,  be, 
according  to  Harriot's  rule  of  signs,  two  negative  roots  and 
one  positive  root.  The  true  number  and  situation  of  the 
roots  may  be  found  by  Stuhm's  Method  (which  see).  By 
this  method  the  following  expressions  arc  obtained: 

F  =  2«3  +  ;Ja-  —  4a  — 10 

Fy  =  tiu-  -I-  (i«  —  4 

/S  =  11a  +  23 

If,  now,  there  be  substituted  in  F,  Fj,  etc.,  for  a,  the  values 
0,  1,  2  in  succession,  the  following  changes  of  sign  will 
occur : 

/•'  F^,  F.,  Ft 

If  (I  =  0  the  sifjns +    — ...2  var. 

(I  ^  1    "      •' h    +    —....2  var.  1  Hence  there  is  a  root 

a^2    "       "       +  4-    -i-    — ...Ivar.J      between  1  and  2. 
Wo  will  now  make  a~X  and  a  ~  2  respectively,  and  trans- 
form the  functions  by  the  synthetic  division,  thus: 
/■=  4-2  +  3-4—10(0  =  1        F=+2+   3—  4  — 10  (a  =  2 
+  2  +  5  +    1  +  4 +  14 +20 

+  7+10+10 
+    4  +  22 
+  11+32 

+    4 

+  2+15+32  +  10 


+  5  +  1-  9 
+  2+7 

+  7+8 
+  2 

+2+9+8—9 

-Fi=  +  0+   6—  4  (o  = 
+   6+12 

+  12+8 
+    6 

+  6+18  +    8 

F.=  +ll+28  (a=l 
+  11 

+  11  +  39 

^3  =  - 

-Fl- 

=  +6+   6—  <  (o  = 
+  12+36 
+  18  +  32 
+  12 

=  2 

+  6  +  30+32 

F2 

=  + 11+28(0=2 

+  22 

+  11+50 

/•»  =  - 

.  a= 

=2=F=  2n3+i3a2 
F,=  na2+3Ua 
/<=lla  +50 

+32a  +  10 

.  a=l=F  =  2a3+  9a2+8a— 9 
Fi=  6o2  f  iSa  +8  .• 
Fo==na  +39 


One  variation  is  lost  between  1  and  2,  indicating  that  one 
root  has  been  passed  over.  Taking  the  transformed  func- 
tions just  found  (by  making  a  =  l  and  a  =  2),  and  treat- 
ing them  in  the  same  manner,  we  could  ascertain  whether 
the  root  is  between  1.1  and  1.2,  or  between  1.2  and  1.3,  and 
so  on.  In  the  given  equation  it  is  between  1.6  and  1.7. 
Again,  we  might  take  this  third  series  of  functions  and 
treat  them  again,  which  would  show  us  that  it  is  between 
1.02  and  l.li.i,  and  so  on  to  any  degree  of  accuracy  ;  but  it 
is  usually  sufficient,  when  tlirec  or  four  decimal  ]>laces  in 
the  root  have  been  found,  to  continue  the  operation  in  the 
same  manner  as  contracted  division,  as  much  time  and 
labor  is  thereby  saved.  For  the  given  equation  the  work- 
ing will  stand  thus : 
+  1 


+  3 

—  4 

—  10  (1.6248190836 

2 

6 

1 

8 

1 

—  9a 

2 

7 

8.472 

7 

8a 

—  .528  b 

2 

6.12 

.424256 

9A 

14.12 

—  .103744  c 

1.2 

6.84 

86069248 

10.2 

20.36  b 

— 17074752  D 

1.2 

2V28 

17262700 

11.4 

21.2128 

—  411992  E 

1.2 

2536 

zi.wss 

12.6  U 

21.4661c 

—  liHilO  1  F 

04 

50912 

1911.'HU 

12.64 

ii.anm' 

—  ISO.-) 

4 

.10944 

1726 

1268 

21.5GS20  6  D 
1019  5 

—  79 

4 

65 

12.7;;  c 

21.5784.1  1 

—14 

008 

1019  5 

13 

12.728 

21.588614  B 

—  1 

8 

12.736 

21.0887  6 

a 

1  2 

1|2.7|44D,E,F 

21..188I8  P 
2I..58I8 

21.5|8 

21 15 

2|1 

|2 

Now,  if  we  analyze  this  working,  we  shall  observe  that 
the  given  equation  was  lirst  depressed  in  order  to  eliminate 
the  first  figure  of  the  root;  that  this  depressed  equation 
was  further  depressed  to  ciimitiate  the  second  figure  of  the 
root — that  is,  the  first  figure  of  the  decimal  portion — and 
so  on,  until  the  desired  approach  to  accuracy  was  attained. 
In  this  case  the  root  is  correct  to  five  places  of  decimals, 
and  approximately  so  to  ten  places  of  decimals.  The 
SMALL  c'Ai'iT.VLS  show  the  succcssivc  depressions  from  the 
given  equation  so  far  as  the  coefficients  are  concerned,  thus : 

Given  equation F  ==  2a^       +3a2  — ia  — 10 

A rt  =:     1 Ji  =  2aS       +9a2  +8a  —9 

B a  =  O.G F=2a3  +12.fi«2         +20.9Grt  — 0.528 

c 0  =  0.02 F^  2rt»  +12.72«2       *^2I.^GG4rt      — 0.1liS74|4 

D a  =  0.004 F  =  2(1^  +12.744a2     +  2 1  ..'".GS2.")Ga  —0.0176714 

E a  =  0.0008 F=  2a3  +12.74|-la2  +21.5G8G|4a —0.00041 1 1 

and  so  on. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  with  regard  to  the  application  of 
Sturm's  theorem,  that  it  (akes  no  notice  of  the  duplication 
of  a  root;  theretoro,  wlien  the  etjuation  has  equal  roots,  we 
shall  have  a  divisor  which  exactly  measures  a  dividend,  so 
that  the  process  will  terminate  without  a  remainder  which 
is  independent  of  the  unknown  quantity.  In  this  ease  wo 
can  divide  the  several  functions  by  the  common  measure, 
and  use  the  depressed  functions  to  determine  the  distinct 
roots,  or  we  can  employ  the  original  functions,  merely  re- 
membering that  two  of  the  roots  are  equal.  (For  an  ex- 
planation of  Horner's  "new  method  of  solving  numerical 
equations  of  ail  orders  by  continuous  approximation,"  see 
Philoiophiriil  Traiisaclinns  of  the  Rotjid  Sort'rfi/  oj'  Ijoudonf 

for  the  year  1819,  part  ii.)  Enw.  Davhj  TIeaien. 

Revised  by  J.  II.  Van  A.mhince. 

Hor'net,  a  name  applied  to  several  large  stinging  in- 
sects of  the  wasp  family.  The  most  common  in  the  U.  S. 
is  the  Vcupa  mdculdtaf  which  builds  a  great  nest  of  brown 
paper,  and  hangs  it  from  the  branches  of  a  tree.  Its  paper 
is  made  from  the  fibre  of  wood.  Its  sting  is  very  severe. 
The  hornet  is  omnivorous,  devouring  fruits,  honey,  and  in- 
sects of  many  kinds.  Some  of  the  foreign  species  build 
nests  of  paper,  and  some  of  clay.  Some  make  only  tho 
cells  of  paper,  housing  the  cells  in  a  hollow  tree.  This  is 
the  case  with  Vcspa  <:rabro,  the  commonest  European  hor- 
net, now  naturalized  to  some  extent  in  the  U.  S, 

Horn^pipe,  a  musical  instrument  formerly  common  in 
Wales,  consisting  of  a  wooden  pipe,  with  holes  at  graduated 
intervals,  and  a  horn  at  each  end.  A  lively  tune  and  sev- 
eral popular  dances  have  been  composed  for  this  instru- 
ment, and  known  l>y  its  name.  The  tune  is  in  compound 
triple  time,  with  nine  crotchets  in  a  bar — six  down  and 
three  up. 

Horn's  Creek,  tp.  of  Edgefield  co.,  S.  C.    Pop.  1915. 

Horoden'ka,  town  of  Austro-IIungary,  in  llic  prov- 
ince of  Galicia,  near  the  Dniester,  carries  on  an  active  gen- 
eral trade.      Tup.  S4jl. 

Hororogfy  [Or.  wpa,  "hour,"  and  Aoyo?,  "treatise"],  tho 
science  of  the  divisions  and  measurements  of  time,  or,  in  a 
narrower  sense,  the  description  of  the  construction  of  clocks, 
watches,  snn-dials,  and  other  devices  for  measuring  time. 
Calendars,  zodiacs,  cycles,  and  the  larger  measurements  of 
time  are  not  usually  treated  of  as  forming  the  subject  of 
any  part  of  the  science  of  horology.  (Sec  Clocks,  by  Linus 
r.  BuocKETT,  A.  M.,  M.  D, ;  and  Watches.) 

Hor'oscope  [Or.  dpa,  "hour,"  and  o-KOTrcif,  to  "ob- 
serve"], a  diagram  of  the  position  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
especially  of  the  planets  and  the  twelve  imaginary  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  at  the  time  of  a  person's  birth,  from  which 
was  derived  an  augury  of  his  career  and  fortunes.  The 
most  important  Ihingwas  the  sign  of  the  zodiac  which  rose 
at  the  moment  of  (he  child's  birth.  Arbitrary  significations 
were  given  to  the  difi"ercnt  heavenly  bodies  according  as 
they  appeared  singly  or  in  conjunction,  or  as  they  were  in 
opposition.  As  a  rule,  one  born  under  Jupiter  would  bo 
powerful ;  one  under  Mars,  warlike  ;  one  under  Venus,  suc- 
cessful in  love;  one  under  the  Pleiades,  exposed  to  storms 
at  sea,  etc.  Horoscopes  were  also  calculated  upon  tho 
same  general  principles  to  foretell  the  issue  of  any  import- 
ant undertaking. 

Ilorr  (Asa).  M.  D.,  b.  at  Worthington.  Franklin  co.,  0., 
Sept.  2,  1S17;  took  his  medical  degree  at  Cleveland  in  lS-16 
in  the  medical  department  of  AVestern  Kcserve  College;  has 
practised  medicine  since  1S47  at  Dubuque,  la.;  erected  a 
private  astronomical  observatory  1S04.  and  was  the  first  to 
determine  accurately  the  longitude  of  Dubuque;  has  given 
much  attention  to  botany  and  the  other  natural  sciences,  and 
to  the  perfecting  of  a  system  of  phonographic  shorthand. 
Author  of  many  professional  and  scientific  papers;  with 
J.  M.  Bigelow  published  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  of  Frank- 
lin CO.,  0. ;  is  a  member  of  many  learned  societies ;  and  has 
been  president  of  the  Iowa  Institute  of  Science  and  Arts 


HOKROCKS— HOKSE. 


995 


since  ISGS,  of  which  society  he  was  (ISCS)  ono  of  the 
founders. 

Hor'rocks,  or   Ilorrox  (Jereuiah),  b.  at  Toxteth, 

LaDL-aiihirc,  Englan<l,  about  1015;  studied  as  a  sizar  In  Em- 
manuel College.  Cambridge:  took  holy  orders  and  became 
curate  of  Hoolc,  where  in  ICIJU  he  made  an  observation  of 
the  transit  of  Venus  (Nov.  24).  William  Crabtrce  was  ap- 
prised by  Horrocks  of  the  calculations  which  led  him  to 
expect  this  transit  (which  not  even  Kepler  had  predicted), 
and  accordingly  Crabtree  and  Ilorrocks  both  made  obser- 
vations (the  first  on  record)  of  the  transit  of  Vouus.  The 
tran.^it  occurred  on  a  Sunday,  and  Ilorrocks  fell  compelled 
to  attend  divine  service,  and  thus  lost  a  part  of  the  obser- 
vation. D.  at  Hoolo  Jan.  .'i,  1041.  Author  of  Vcmm  in 
Snfiri'ifn  Observationutn  i^celeitium  Catnlnffttn  (1G72),  Nttvx 
Thcurix  Ltinari*  txplicatnr,  of  published  Letters  to  Crab- 
tree  in  Latin,  and  of  a  few  other  posthumous  papers.  It  is 
possible  that  he  was  the  iDvcDtor  of  tho  micromotor,  but 
the  point  is  uncertain. 

Hor'ry,  the  easternmost  county  of  iSouth  Carolina,  hav- 
ing North  Carolina  on  the  N.  E.  and  tho  Atlantic  OcL-an  on 
the  S.  E.  A  part  of  its  surface  is  marshy,  and  a  part  is 
sandy,  with  pine  forests.  Rico  and  pork  are  tho  staple 
products.  Area,  about  1000  square  miles.  Cap.  Conway- 
borough.     Pop.  10,721. 

Horry  (Pcteh),  a  distinguished  South  Carolinian  in  tho 
Revolutionary  war  cf  1770,  was  a  brigadier-general  under 
the  partisan  command  of  tho  celebrated  Gen.  Francis  JMn- 
rion.  Gen.  Horry  was  distinguished  not  only  for  his  prow- 
ess in  arms,  but  for  his  achievements  with  the  pen.  Tho 
life  of  Marion  prepared  by  him  and  Weems,  puljlishcd  in 
1S24  by  Carey  &,  Lea  of  IMiiladelphia,  has  gone  through 
many  editions,  and  will  hold  a  permanent  place  in  Amer- 
ican Iit<  rature.  A.  II.  STEt'iinNs. 

Horsn.     Sec  IlnxGisr. 

Horse  {Eqttun  cnballtta  of  Linnfous),  a  well-known 
domestic  animal,  non-ruminating  and  simple-hoofed,  be- 
longing to  the  soliped  family  of  Cuvicr's  order  Pachyder- 
mata  (thick-skinned) ;  but,  according  to  the  modern  classi- 
ticatiiin.  the  genus  £t/nim  belongs  to  tho  family  Equiilie, 
sub-order  Perissodactyla  (odd-toed),  order  Ungulata  (hoof- 
ed), class  Mammalia.  The  horse,  with  the  ass,  zebra, 
quagga,  and  a  few  other  similar  animals,  constitutes  a 
natural  fatnily  of  hoofed  quadrupeds,  the  forms  now  living 
being  closely  related  to  each  other,  and  widely  separated 
from  all  other  existing  mammals.  Tho  horse  ditfers  from 
the  other  species  of  this  family  in  having  the  tail  covered 
with  long  hairs  from  the  base,  instead  of  tufted  at  the  end, 
and  in  the  presence  of  horny  callosities  on  tho  inner  side 
of  tho  hind  legs  below  the  "  hock,"  as  well  as  on  tho  foro 
legs  above  tho  "  knee,"  where  they  are  also  found  in  the 
other  species.  Tho  pattern  of  coloration  in  tho  horso  is, 
moreover,  not  striped,  but  in  most  respects  he  closely  re- 
sembles the  other  living  representatives  of  the  family. 
Nearly  all  these  animals  may  breed  together,  producing 
hybrids,  which  are.  however,  usually  sterile,  as  in  tho  case 
of  the  well-known  muic,  the  ofispring  of  an  ass  by  a  marc, 
or  tho  hinny,  the  product  of  a  stallion  by  a  female  ass. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  the  Equidic.  as  exempli- 
fied by  the  horse,  are  the  follo\ving  :  There  are  in  the  adult 
3  incisors  or  cutting  teeth,  I  canine,  and  6  molars  or  grind- 
ing teeth  on  each  siile,  above  and  below— 40  teeth  in  all. 
The  canines,  however,  arc  usually  wanting  in  mares.  An 
additional  small  tooth  is  occasionally  found  in  advance  of 
the  upper  molar  series.  This  tooth,  when  present,  is  the 
smallest  of  all  (ho  teeth,  and,  as  it  has  neither  ])redeccssor 
nor  successor,  its  naturo  is  in  doubt.  The  grinding  teeth 
are  long,  and  have  thick,  square  crowns.  They  aro  deeply 
implanted  in  the  jaw,  and  without  true  fangs  or  roots,  ex- 
cept in  old  age.  These  teeth  arc  composed  of  interblendcd 
enamel,  dentine,  and  cement,  and  when  their  summits  arc 
worn  down  by  mastication  a  peculiar  and  compli<'atod  pat- 
tern is  presented,  especially  by  the  upper  tetth.  Tho 
enamel,  being  much  harder  than  the  dentine  or  cement, 
takes  in  the  section  the  form  of  an  irregular,  elevated 
ridge  surrounding  tho  tooth  ;  outside  this  ridge  is  cement, 
and  within  dentine.  There  are  also  in  (he  upper  teeth  two 
cresccntic  "lakes"  of  cement  surrounded  by  a  ridge  of 
eimmel,  which  often  presents,  especially  in  fomo  fossil 
species,  very  complicated  foldings.  The  canines  arc  snmll 
when  present.  The  incisors  are  arranged  close  together  in 
a  curve  at  tho  end  of  the  jaw.  They  differ  from  those  of 
ruminants  by  their  greater  length  and  curvature,  and  from 
those  of  all  other  mammals  by  the  fold  of  enamel,  which 
penetrates  tho  crown  like  the  inverted  finger  of  a  glove. 
When  tho  tooth  begins  to  ho  worn  this  fold  becomes  a  ring 
of  enamel,  enclosing  a  cavity  filled  by  cement  and  particles 
of  food,  and  is  calU-tl  (he  "  mark."  In  "  aged  "  horses  tho 
incisors  aro  worn  down  below  (ho  extent  of  (he  fold,  and 
the  "mark"  disappears.     This  occurs  in   the  lower  mid- 


incisors  at  the  sixth  year,  and  in  tho  next  and  outer  pairs 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  respectively.  The  "mark" 
remains  somewhat  longer  in  the  upper  teeth.  The  skull  is 
much  elongated,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  tho  great  size  of 
the  face  as  compared  with  tho  hinder  or  true  cranial  por- 
tion. It  is  wide  between  the  orbits,  which  arc  small,  and 
closed  behind  by  a  bridge  of  bone,  as  in  ruminants.  The 
prcmaxillaries  project  beyond  the  nasals.  The  condyle  of 
tho  lower  jaw  is  much  elevated  above  its  alveolar  border. 
Tho  cervical  vertebra*  have  their  contra  elongated,  strongly 
convex  in  front  and  concave  behind.  The  iif/amcntum 
uHcfur  is  a  strong  band  of  elastic  tissue  for  the  support  of 
tho  head,  extending  from  the  spines  of  the  anterior  dorsal 
verlobrsB  to  tho  occiput.  In  the  dorsal  region  the  vertebrae 
become  gradually  less  convex  anteriorly.  The  neural  spines 
increase  in  length  to  tho  fourth  or  fifth.  The  dorso-luinbar 
vertcbrie  number  24,  and  there  arc  IS  or  11)  pairs  of  ribs. 
There  aro  5  sacral  and  about  17  caudal  vertebric.  The 
clavicle  is  absent,  as  in  all  ungulates.  The  scapula,  or 
shoulder-blade,  is  long  and  narrow,  the  low  spine  has  no 
acromion,  and  tho  coracoid  process  is  small.  The  humerus 
is  short  and  strong,  and  the  articulation  with  the  radius 
and  ulna  is  a  very  perfect  hinge-joint.  The  two  bones  of 
tho  fore  arm  are  co-ossificd.  Tho  shaft  of  tho  ulna  is  obso- 
lete, and  the  distal  end  small,  so  that  the  articulation  for  tho 
carpus  or  wrist,  commonly  called  the  "knee,"  is  furnished 
almost  entirely  by  tlio  radius.  The  carpus  is  composed  of 
seven  bones  in  two  rows--the  first  row  of  the  usual  four  bones, 
tho  second  of  three  bones — the  trapezium  being  obsolete,  or 
sometimes  represented  by  a  small  ossicle.  The  trapezoid  and 
unciform  are  small,  and  tlic  magnum  large.  Three  meta- 
carpals only  arc  present,  corresponding  with  those  of  the 
index,  midille,  and  fourth  or  "ring  finger  "of  tho  human 
hand.  Of  those,  the  middle,  articulating  with  the  magnum, 
is  much  t!io  largest,  supports  the  foot,  and  is  called  tho 
cannon-bone.  The  other  two  metacarpals  arc  small,  and 
placed  somewhat  behind  the  middle  one.  They  taj)er 
rai)idly  to  a  point,  and,  except  in  rare  abnormal  cases, 
support  no  digits.  They  aro  called  splint-bones,  and  by 
their  displacement  givo  rise  to  the  disease  known  os 
"  splint."  The  cannon-bone  is  nearly  symmetrical  on  tho 
opposite  sides,  and  at  its  lower  end,  at  the  lotlock-joint, 
articulates  with  the  first  phalanx,  called  the"  great  pastern- 
bone."  Tho  second  phalanx  is  the  "  little  pastcrn-bone," 
and  the  crescent-shaited  ungual  phalanx,  supporting  the 
hoof,  is  tho  "coffin-bone."  The  transversely  elongated 
sesamoid  bone  in  the  tendon  of  thcjlcxot-  pcr/urann,  at  the 
articulation  of  the  two  latter  bones,  is  tho  "  navicular  "  of 
veterinarians. 

The  pelvic  bones  arc  elongated,  and  their  long  axis,  on 
tho  length  of  which  depends  the  proportional  size  of  (ho 
"([uarter,"  forms  an  acute  angle  with  the  back-bone.  The 
femur  is  short,  stout,  and  included  in  the  common  integu- 
ment of  the  body.  Tlie  third  trochanter,  as  usual  in  odd- 
toed  ungulates,  is  well  developed  for  tho  insertion  of  the 
j/lutciia  tuiixinuts  muscle,  and  there  is  a  characteristic  fossa 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  bono  above  tho  external  con- 
dyle. The  fibula  is  rudimentary.  In  the  ankle,  or  "hock," 
joint,  the  astragalus  is  deeply  and  obliquely  grooved.  It 
has  a  flat  distal  face,  not  borne  upon  any  distinct  neck,  and 
articulates  almost  entirely  with  the  navicular,  jiresenting 
only  a  small  face  to  tho  cuboid.  The  internal  and  middle 
cuneiform  bones  are  small  and  united,  and  support  the 
inner  splint-bone.  The  ectocunciform  is  largo,  and  with 
tho  cuboid  supports  tho  cannon-bono,  or  metatarsal  of  the 
middle  toe.  Tho  outer  splint-bono  is  also  supported  by 
tho  cuboid.  Below  this  point  tho  structuro  is  tjiinilar  to 
that  described  in  tho  fore  foot.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that 


throughout  the  whole  extent  of  bolh  tho  hind  and   foro 
limbs,  except  in  the  proximal  portions  of  the  carpus  and 


996 


HORSE,   FOSSIL. 


other,  and  are  usually  confounded  under  the  name  of  Ara- 
bians. They  are  beautifully  fnrraed.  have  fine  legs  and  feet 
and  small  bony  heads,  and  are  usually  small,  not  over  15 
hands  high.  The  Flanders  horse  is  a  large,  heavy,  ooarse- 
Ic'ed,  slow  horse,  and  the  Tartar  horse,  which  has  been 
ca"rned  into  Russia  and  Hungary,  is  a  small,  bony,  rough 
horse,  with  a  large  head  and  great  endurance.  From  vari- 
ous mixtures  of  these  three  types  the  modern  horses  arc 
descended.  The  Barb  blood  spread  into  .Spain  and  It.aly, 
and  there  met  that  of  the  other  two  races.  The  favorite 
horses  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  seem  to  have 
been  various  crosses  of  the  liarh  and  the  Pl.anders  horses. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  what  the  original  English  horse  was, 
but  he  is  spoken  of  in  the  highest  terms  by  Markham  iu 
lOOit,  who  puts  the  brced.s  iu  the  following  order  of  merit: 
English,  Neapolitan,  Corsican,  Turk,  Barb,  Spanish,  Po- 
li.sh,  German,  Hungarian,  Flanders,  etc.  The  English 
horse  of  that  time  was  probably  a  cross  between  the  Fl.^n- 
ders  and  the  Hungarian,  and  being  early  used  for  racing 
and  hunting  purposes,  he  was  swift  and  enduring.  At 
least  as  early  as  1000  it  was  discovered  that  the  cross  of  the 
Barbary  horse  upon  English  mares  was  the  best  for  pro- 
ducing speed  and  bottom,  and  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 
Markham's  Arabian  and  Place's  White  Turk  were  imported. 
Charles  II.  imported  what  were  known  as  the  Royal  mares 
from  Tangiers.  The  Darley  Arabian  was  brought  in  during 
the  reign'of  Queen  Anne,  and  from  this  date  (about  1705) 
there  were  numerous  importations,  and  by  crossing  them 
with  the  native  horses  the  foundation  of  the  great  family  of 
thoroughbreds  was  laid.  These  horses  now  undoubtedly  sur- 
pass all  others  for  size,  strength,  bottom,  beauty,  and  swift- 
ness combined.  The  proper  definition  of  a  thoroughbred 
at  the  present  time  is  a  horse  whose  progenitors  for  five 
generations  back  are  to  be  found  iu  the  Slud  Bnnk,  which 
is  a  record  of  horses  bred  for  racing  purposes  since  about 
1700,  the  complete  pedigrees  commencing  about  1750.  The 
first  importations  of  thoroughbred  horses  into  America 
were  about  1725-30,  and  the  Sind  Book  of  the  American 
alon/the  inner  border  of  the  sole,  are  called     branch  is  kept  up  on  this  side  ot  the  water.     This  ebass  ot 


tarsus,  development  is  principally  confined  to  a  single  me- 
dian series  of  bones,  and  thus,  with  the  single  solid  hoof, 
is  formed  the  highest  type  of  a  purely  locomotive  organ 
for  progression  over  solid,  even  ground,  and  no  mean 
wea])on  of  defence. 

The  skin  of  the  horse  is  thick,  firmly  adherent,  especially 
along  the  back,  and  well  provided  with  sweat-glands.  The 
lips  are  very  delicate  tactile  organs,  and  capalile  of  much 
motion.  They  are  set  with  long  whiskers  or  bristles,  the 
bases  of  which  arc  lodged  in  the  subculaneous  muscular 
tissue,  and  are  furnished  with  sensory  nerves.  Respiration 
is  performed  through  the  nostrils.  The  stomach  is  simple ; 
the  ca-cum  very  large,  fully  twice  the  size  of  the  stomach. 
The  alimentary  canal  is  about  eight  times  as  long  as  the 
body.  There  is  no  gall-bladder.  The  principal  peculiari- 
ties of  the  muscular  system  are,  as  might  be  expected,  in 
the  muscles  of  the  limbs.  The  serralim  mnrjniiK  and  the 
lei'alor  nui/idi  scnpulm  with  the  slenio-ncnpulnris  form  a 
great  sling,  by  which  the  weight  of  the  body  is  transmitted 
to  the  anterior  extremities.  Tho  power  of  abduction  and 
adduction  not  being  needed  in  a  purely  cursorial  animal, 
tho  deltoid  is  much  reduced.  On  tho  other  hand,  the 
pro-  and  re-traetors  and  the  flexors  and  extensors  are  well 
developed.  Tho  pronators  and  supinators  are  wanting, 
the  limb  being  fixed  in  a  constant  state  of  pronation.  In 
the  hind  leg  the  femoral  muscles  are  the  same  as  in  man, 
but  enormously  developed.  The  tlhinUa  aniii/ua  and  poxli- 
01(8  and  the  pcroneus  loiirpis  and  brecis  are  wanting.  The 
flexor  hallncis  and  tho  flexor  Iniir/m  dlijitornm  are  united 
into  a  single  perfor.ating  tendon  fur  the  distal  phalanx.  In 
this  tendon  is  developed  the  sesamoid  bone,  known  as  the 
"navicular,"  The  epidermis  covering  the  terminal  pha- 
lanx is  developed  into  the  hoof,  a  horny  cylindrical  or 
somewhat  conical  case,  separable  by  maceration  into  the 
wall,  tho  sole,  and  the  frog.  The  wall  is  that  part  of  the 
hoof  that  is  seen  when  it  rests  upon  the  ground,  and  its 
anterior  portion  is  called  the  toe.  The  heels  are  formed  by 
the  inflexion  of  its  posterior  extremities,  and  these  extremi 
ties,  passing  along  the  inn 

the  bars.  The  sole  is  a  thick  horny  plate  occupying  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  hoof,  and  the  frog  is  a  pyramidal 
mass  of  horn  lodged  between  the  two  posterior  re-entering 
angles  of  the  wall.  The  hoof  of  the  ass  and  mule  is  nar- 
rower than  that  of  the  horse,  the  wall  higher  and  thicker, 
the  sole  more  concave,  and  the  horn  harder. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  horse  is  eleven  months. 
It  often  lives  thirty  years  or  more,  but  is  usually  service- 
able fur  less  than  half  that  time.  lis  perception  is  quick, 
its  memory  retentive,  and  it  is  capable  of  much  afl'ection. 
It  is  surpassed  in  docility  by  no  animal  except  the  dog, 
and  perhaps  the  elephant.  Its  flesh  is  often  used  for  food. 
The  original  habitat  of  the  horse  is  unknown.  It  is 
found  wild  in  Centr.al  and  Western  Asia,  and  upon  the 
plains  of  both  North  and  South  America.  In  the  liltter 
country,  especially  upon  tho  pampas  of  Brazil  and  Buenos 
Ayrcs,'it  is  abundant  and  lives  in  large  herds.  All  these 
animals  arc,  however,  known  to  bo  desccndeil  from  domestic 
horses  brought  from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards,  The  horse 
has  been  domesticated  from  a  very  early  period,  probably 
first  in  Central  Asia  or  Northern  Africa.  Its  remains  are 
very  rare  in  the  Stone  Age,  but  a  few  bones  have  been 
found  in  tho  Swiss  lake-villages,  enough  to  indicate  its 
presence.  In  the  Bronze  Period,  however,  its  bones  be- 
come more  numerous.  Upon  Egyptian  monuments  it  is 
not  represented  earlier  than  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  but 
the  horse  appears  to  have  been  abundant  in  Egypt  after 
that  time.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  after  the 
children  of  Israel  went  into  Egypt,  no  reference  being 
made  to  the  horse  in  the  full  account  of  the  pastoral  lives 
of  tho  early  patriarchs. 

The  most  celebrated  races  of  the  honso  are  those  of 
Ariibia,  Turkey,  and  Barbary,  and  from  these,  by  a  thorough 
and  judicious  system  of  breeding,  has  sprung  tho  English 
race-horse,  an  anim.al  that  now  so  far  surpasses  the  origi- 
nals from  which  it  has  sprung  that  almost  no  benefit  has 
been  derived  from  imported  blood  for  the  last  three-quarters 
of  a  century.  A  single  mile  ia  IJ  minutes  is  considered 
fast  running  time  for  a  racehorse.  The  height  of  a  raee- 
liorse  is  about  15.1  hands,  or  5  feet  2  inches.  A  horse  under 
l:i  hands  high  is  called  a  pony,  and  some  Welsh  and  Scotch 
breeds  of  ponies  are  very  celebrated  for  their  endurance. 
A  Shetland  pony  IU  hands  high  has  carried  a  rider  41 
miles  in  .3  hours  and  45  minutes.  In  America  more  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  rearing  and  training  of  trotting- 
borses,  and  the  constant  improvement  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  nearly  every  year  the  fastest  time  previously  recorded 
is  surpassed.  At  present  the  best  time  for  a  single  mile  is 
2  minutes  14  seconds,  and  was  made  by  Goldsmith  Maid 
in  1874  at  Mystic  Park,  Boston. 

The  horses  of  the  N.  part  of  Africa,  from  Barbary  (hence 
called  Barbs),  from  Arabia,  and  from  Turkey  rescmhlccaoh 


horses  is  bred  and  used  primarily  for  racing  purposes,  but 
the  cross  improves  horses  for  all  purposes,  as  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  superior  quality  of  the  average  horse  of  Vir- 
ginia and  New  Jersey,  into  which  States  the  taste  for  racing 
introduced  the  thoroughbred  horse  at  an  early  period. 
Owing  to  three  and  four  mile  races  and  heat-races  having 
been  kept  up  in  America  while  short  races  and  single  dashes 
have  been  in  vogue  in  England  for  some  years,  the  average 
Americvn  thoroughbred  is  probably  a  stouter  and  stronger 
horse  than  his  English  cousin.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that 
there  are  any  distinct  families  of  horses  in  America,  al- 
though those  of  different  localities  present  some  peculiari- 
ties." The  average  horse  of  the  New  England  States  and 
of  Canada  is  small,  hardy,  good-tempered,  a  good  traveller, 
and  very  enduring.  The  Morgan  horse  of  Vermont  is  one 
of  the  best  types.  Lancaster  eo..  Pa.,  possesses  a  breed  ot 
horses,  now"  somewhat  scarce,  called  Conestogas— large, 
well-made,  slow  draught-horses.  In  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
and  the  South  generallv  the  thoroughbred  and  his  connec- 
tions predominate,  anil  in  Texas,  California,  and  Mexico 
we  find  the  mustang— a  small  horse,  evidently  descended 
from  the  Spanish  horses  introduced  by  the  early  conquerors 
of  that  region. 

Horse,  Fossil.  Tho  existing  species  of  the  horse  fam- 
ily are  so  closely  related  to  each  other  as  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished gcnerically  by  any  characters  derived  from  the 
skeleton,  but  a  large  number  of  extinct  genera  have  lett 
their  remains  in  Quaternary  and  Tertiary  strata  of  various 
parts  of  the  world,  and  especially  of  North  America.  At 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  this  continent  by  Europcans.no 
species  of  horse  or  ass  existed  in  either  North  or  South 
America,  but  since  the  introduction  of  these  animals  the 
climate  and  conditions  of  life  have  proved  so  favorable  that 
laro-c  herds  of  wild  horses  arc  now  common  on  tho  pamjias 
and  prairies  of  both  continents,  the  descendants  of  those 
that  have  escaped  from  domestication.  This  comiilcio 
absence  of  indigenous  species  is  the  more  remarkable  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  not  less  than  twelve  species  of  i'lyiiru 
have  been  described  from  Quaternary  deposits,  and  more 
than  thirty  other  related  forms  from  the  Tertiary  of  Amer- 
ica. Kome'of  these  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  living 
species  by  the  greater  complexity  in  the  foldings  of  tho 
enamel  as  they  appear  upon  the  worn  surface  of  the  molars. 
In  the  Pliocene  Tertiary,  tho  horse  was  represented  by 
several  extinct  genera,  the  best  known  being  Ilippnnoii 
(or  Htppoiherimn),  in  which  the  body  was  supported,  as  m 
EquuH.  on  the  cxtremitv  of  the  mid.lle  toe  of  each  foot, 
which  was  also  provided  at  the  fetlock-joint  wilh  an  ad- 
ditional pair  of  small  toes,  not  reaching  the  ground,  and 
resembling  the  dew-claws  of  cattle.  In  the  upper  niolar 
teeth  there  is  in  Hippnrion.  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
inner  side,  an  isolated  ellipse  of  enamel  enclosing  dentine, 


IIURSK-CIIESTNUT— HORSE-FLY. 


9!)7 


ttod  DOt  joiDcd  with  the  main  body  of  the  tooth  by  an  isth- 
mus of  dentine,  as  iu  E(/uh»,  at  least  until  the  teeth  arc 
nearly  wurn  uut.  The  species  arc  small,  a^  llie  nuinc  implies, 
liippnrSnn  bein;;  a  diminutive  from  the  (jruik  hippoa,  a 
"horse."  Protuhippus  and  Pliohippun  of  the  Pliocene  arc 
genera  nearly  related  to  llipparion  and  IC'piuH.  Auchippuv, 
also  from  the  Pliocene,  resembled  in  its  teeth  Auchitlurt'tim 
of  the  Miocene,  a  genus  now  considered  as  typical  of  a 
family  distinct  from  that  of  the  horse.  In  Aitehitkcritim 
the  shaft  of  the  ulna  is  complete,  modt-ratcly  developed, 
and  more  or  less  jieparatc  from  the  radius.  The  fibula  is 
ankyloscd  with  the  tibia.  Tlie  orbit  is  not  closed  behind, 
aftd  there  is  a  deep  ant-orbital  fossa.  The  molars  have 
short  crowns  devoid  of  eement.  and  arc  inserted  by  distinct 
fangs.  There  are  three  digits  in  each  foot,  the  middle  being 
much  the  largest,  but  all  appear  to  have  reached  the  ground. 
Mt'ithippng,  a\so  from  the  Miocene,  was  closely  related  to 
Anrhithei-inm.  In  this  g<'nus  the  radius  and  ulna  are  free 
or  only  loosely  united.  The  tibia  and  fibula  are  co-ossi- 
fied at  the  distal  end.  There  were  three  digits  in  each 
foot,  all  of  which  reached  the  ground,  and  they  are  more 
nearly  equal  in  size  than  in  Auchithcrium.  Another  closely 
related  Miocene  genus,  Mtnohtppnn,  had,  besides  the  three 
toes  of  the  fore  foot,  ii  splinl-bonc  representing  the  outer 
toe,  or  little  finger  of  the  human  hand.  The  Miocene  species 
were  not  larger  than  a  sheep.  The  Eocene  representatives 
of  the  group  were  still  smaller,  the  largest  hardly  exceeding 
a  fox  in  size.  Tlicy  belong  to  the  genus  Orohxppua,  which 
has  tour  functional  digits  in  the  fore  foot,  and  no  ant- 
orbital  fossa.  The  orbit  is  open  behind.  The  dentition  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  Ancfiifherinniy  but  the  first  u])per 
premolar  is  larger,  and  the  succeeding  ones  smaller  than  in 
that  genus.  The  diastema,  or"])lace  for  the  bit,"  is  distinct. 
The  canines  arc  large,  and  near  the  incisors.  The  crowns 
of  the  molars  are  short  and  destitute  of  cement.  The 
skeleton  is  decidedly  equine  in  its  general  features.  The 
raclius  and  ulna  are  distinct,  the  latter  larger  than  in  An- 
cfiitfirrium.  The  carpal  bones  are  eight  in  number,  and 
resemble  those  of  the  tapir,  hut  the  trapezium  is  propor- 
tionally much  smaller.  All  the  digits  of  the  fore  loot,  ex- 
cept the  first  are  well  developed.  The  third  is  the  largest, 
and  its  resemblance  to  that  of  the  horse  is  clearly  marked. 
The  terminal  phalanx,  or  coflin-bonc,  has  a  shallow  median 
groove  in  front,  as  iu  many  species  of  this  group  from  the 
Later  Tertiary.  The  fourth  digit  exceeds  the  second  in 
size,  and  the  fifth  or  outer  toe  is  much  the  smallest  of  all, 
ancl  has  its  metacarpal  bone  consideriihly  curved  outward. 
There  are  but  three  digits  in  the  hind  foot.  The  tibia  and 
lihula  arc  distinct. 

All  the  above  genera  except  Anchitfipnum  are  found  in 
the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  of  this  continent,  and  Auchi- 
therium  is  represented  by  the  closely-allied  genus  McHnhip- 
pH9.  This  large  number  of  equine  mammals  and  their 
regular  dislrilmtion  in  geological  time  afford  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  ascertain  the  probal)lc  lineal  descent  of  (he  modern 
hor.sc.  The  American  representative  of  the  latter  is  Equm 
frateniut,  a  species  almost,  if  not  entirely,  identical  with 
Kfjtnia  cahniiiiM,  to  which  the  recent  horse  belongs,  Iluxicy 
has  traced  the  later  genealogy  of  the  horse  through  Kuro- 
poan  extinct  forms,  but  the  Mine  in  America  was  a  more 
direct  one  and  the  record  is  more  comphte.  Taking,  then, 
as  extremes  of  the  series,  Orohippnn  atji/iN,  from  the  Eocene, 
and  EipiHK  /rntcmuH,  from  the  Quaternary,  the  natural 
line  of  descent,  as  indicated  by  over  thirty  intermediate 
forms,  would  seem  to  bo  through  the  following  genera: 
OiohippHH  o{  the  Eocene.  MitJiipjiUM  and  Mcti<>fn'p{»m  of  the 
Miocene,  Anrhippnt,  IUpparitniy  and  PliohippuH  of  the 
Pliocene,  and  Kf/uuti,  Quaternary  and  Recent,  The  most 
marked  changes  undergone  by  these  successive  genera  arc 
the  following  :  \nt,  increase  in  size,  from  OrohippiiM,  as  large 
as  a  fox,  to  the  morlern  horse  ;  2t\,  increase  in  speed  through 
concentration  of  the  limb-bones  ;  .'!tl.  elongation  of  the  head 
and  neck  and  modification  of  the  skull.     The  increase  of 


A,  Orohijmux  (Eocene);  H,  Mr^nhippuK  (Miorene);  C,  Jfipparion 
(I'llocene);  D,  />/»»«  (Quaternary  and  lleccnt). 

speed  was  a  direct  result  of  a  gradual  and  striking  modifi- 
cation of  the  limbs.     Thcso  were  slowly  concentrated  by 


the  reduction  of  their  lateral  elements  and  enlargement  of 
the  axial  one,  until  the  force  exerted  by  each  limb  came  to 
act  directly  through  its  axis  in  the  line  of  motion.  Tliis 
conccntrutiun  is  well  shown  in  the  fore  limb.  There  \vas, 
1st,  a  change  in  the  scapula  and  humerus,  especially  in  the 
latter,  which  facilitated  motion  in  one  plane  only;  2d,  nn 
expansion  of  the  radius  and  reduction  of  the  ulna,  until 
the  former  alone  remained  entire  and  effective;  .'Jd,  a  shttrt- 
cuing  of  all  the  carpal  bones  and  enlargement  of  the  me- 
dian ones,  ensuring  a  firm  wrist;  4th,  an  increase  in  size  of 
the  third  digit  at  the  expense  of  those  on  each  side,  until 
the  former  alone  supported  the  limb.  The  latter  change  is 
clearly  seen  in  the  above  diagram,  which  represents  the  fore 
feet  of  four  typical  genera  in  the  equine  series,  taken  in 
succession  from  each  of  the  geological  periods  in  which  this 
group  of  mammals  is  known  to  have  lived.  The  ancient 
brohippiifi  had  all  four  digits  of  the  fore  feet  well  developed. 
In  Mrm>hipj)HH,  of  the  next  period,  the  filth  t(»e  is  only  rep- 
resented by  a  rudiment,  and  the  limb  is  supported  by  the 
second,  third,  and  fourth,  the  middle  one  being  the  largest. 
Ilippnrion  of  the  Later  Tertiary  still  has  three  digits,  but 
the  third  is  much  stouter,  and  the  outer  toes  have  ceased 
to  be  of  use,  as  they  do  not  touch  the  ground.  In  E*/vufi, 
the  last  of  the  series,  the  lateral  hoofs  are  gone,  and  the 
digits  themselves  are  represented  only  Ijy  the  rudimentary 
splint-bones.  The  middle  or  third  digit  supports  the  limb, 
and  its  size  has  increased  cjcordingly.  The  correspond- 
ing changes  in  the  posterior  limb  of  these  genera  arc  very 
similar,  but  not  so  striking,  as  the  oldest  type  {  Orohi/tpns) 
had  but  three  toes  behind.  An  earlier  ancestor  of  the 
group,  perhaps  in  the  lowest  Eocene,  probably  had  four 
toes  on  this  i'oot  and  five  in  front.  .Such  a  predecessor  is 
as  clearly  indicated  by  the  feet  of  Orohippua,  as  the  latter 
is  by  its  Miocene  relative.  A  still  older  ancestor,  possilily 
in  the  Cretaceous,  doubtless  had  five  toes  on  cacli  toot,  the 
typical  number  in  mammals.  This  reduction  in  the  num- 
ber of  toes  may  perhaps  have  been  duo  to  elevation  of  the 
region  inhabited,  which  gradually  led  the  animals  to  live 
on  higher  ground,  instead  of  the  soft  lowlands  where  a 
many-toed  loot  would  he  most  useful. 

The  gradual  elongation  of  the  head  and  neck  may  be  said 
to  have  already  begun  in  OrohippuH,  if  we  compare  that 
form  with  other  most  nearly  allied  mammals.  The  dias- 
tema, or  **  place  for  the  bit,"  was  well  dcAcloptd  in  holh 
jaws  even  then,  but  increased  materially  in  succeeding 
genera.  The  number  of  the  teeth  remained  the  same  until 
the  Pliocene,  when  the  front  lower  premolar  was  lost,  and 
subsequently  the  corresponding  up])er  tooth  ceased  to  be 
functionally  developed.  The  next  upper  premolar,  which 
iu  OrohlppiiH  was  the  smallest  of  the  six  jiosterior  teeth, 
rapidly  increased  in  size,  and  finally  became  in  the  horse 
the  largest  of  the  scrier.  The  grinding  teeth  had  at  first 
very  short  crowns,  without  cement,  and  were  inserted  by 
distinct  roots.  In  Pliocene  species  the  molars  became 
longer,  and  were  more  or  less  coaled  with  cement.  The 
modern  horse  has  extremely  long  grinders,  without  true 
roots,  and  covered  with  a  thick  external  layer  of  cement. 
The  large  canines  of  OrufiippuH  become  gradually  reduced 
in  the  later  genera,  and  Ihc  characteristic  "mark"  ujton 
tlic  incisors  is  found  only  in  (ho  later  forms.  The  bridge 
of  bone  bounding  the  orbit  behind  first  appears  in  the  Plio- 
cene genera.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  lliat  Ihc  peculiarly 
equine  features  acquirctl  by  OmhijipuH  are  rctaineil  per- 
sistently throughout  the  entire  series  of  succeeding  forms. 
Such,  c.  f/.,  is  tin;  form  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  also  the  characteristic  astragalus,  with  its  nar- 
row, oblique  superior  ridges^  and  its  small  articular  facet 
for  the  cuboid. 

Such  is,  in  brief,  a  general  outline  oV  the  more  marked 
changes  that  sccin  to  have  produced  in  America  the  highly 
specialized  modern  Ei/nnx  from  its  diminutive,  four- toed 
predecessor,  the  Eocene  OrnhijipnH,  The  line  of  dc^eent 
appears  to  have  been  direct,  and  the  remains  now  known 
supply  every  important  intermediate  form.  Consitlering 
the  remarkable  development  of  the  group  throughout  the 
entire  Tertiary  [leriod.and  its  cxisten(re  even  later,  it  seems 
very  strange  that  none  of  the  species  should  have  survi\ed. 
and  that  we  are  indebted  for  our  present  horse  to  the  did 
World.  0.  G.  Maksm. 

Ilorso'-Chcstnut.     See  .Saimndace*. 

Horse  ("reek,  tp.  of  Marengo  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  Ki;i7. 

Il<»rse  (reek,  (p.  of  Kudc  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  51)7. 

Horse  Creek,  post-tp.  of  Ashe  co,,  N.  C,     Pop.  8i;t. 

Horse  Distemper,  a  species  of  catarrh.  As  tlie  dis- 
ease is  contagious,  an  animal  having  it  should  he  kepi  apart 
from  the  others,  and  after  a  tliorough  purge  should  be  fed 
on  light  bran  mashes  and  kept  warm  until  recovery. 

Horsc-Fly,     The  females  of  many  dipterous  insects 

of   the   family   Tabanidie   are  called    horse-flics,  from   the 

I  great  annoyance  their  bito  causes  the  horse.     Among  the 


998 


HORSE  GUARDS— HOKSE-RACING. 


most  common  are  Tabanua  lineola,  the  green-headed  fly, 
which  in  hot  weather  has  been  known  to  worry  horses  and 
cattle  to  death.  The  bite  is  severe,  and  even  venomous, 
always  drawing  blood,  Tnhanug  ntrnliia  and  ciMcdn,  the 
orange-belted  fly,  are  also  common.  Their  larva;  are  very 
destructive  of  snails  and  of  other  larvse.  The  horso-fly  of 
Great  Britain  is  Hlppnboscii  equinn.    (See  FoREST-ri.v.) 

Horse  Guards.  (See  Gu.irds.)  The  term  was  used 
to  denote  the  head-quarters  of  the  British  army,  White- 
hall, London,  in  consequence  of  the  building  being  guarded 
by  a  squadron  of  horse  guards,  and  of  the  striking  appear- 
ance of  the  mounted  sentinels  on  duty  at  the  entrance. 
The  head-quarters  were  changed  in  1871  to  the  War  Office, 
I'all  Mall ;  ]iapors  emanating  therefrom  are  still  headed 
'•Horse  (iuards,"  "  W.ar  Office,  I'all  Mall,"  being  added. 
Ilorse'hcad,  t.p.  of  Johnson  eo..  Ark.  Pop.  995. 
Ilorschcads,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Chemung  co.,  N.  Y., 
ou  the  Northern  Central  and  the  Utica  Ithaca  and  Elmira 
E.  Rs.,  has  6  churches,  2  weekly  newspapers,  2  grist-mills, 
a  tannery,  a  sash  .and  blind  factory,  a  steam  saw-mill,  a 
woollen-mill,  and  the  second  largest  brickyard  in  the  U.S. 
Pop.  of  v.  1410;  of  tp.  2901. 

T.  J.  Taylou,  Eu.  '•  HonsEHEADS  JounxAL." 
Hor.'^e  Isl'and,  an  island  in  Lake  Ontario,  in  Hounds- 
field  tp.,  .Icft'orson  CO.,  N.  Y.,  li  miles  from  Sackett's  Har- 
bor.    It  has  a  lighthouse.     Area,  27  acres. 

Horse-Mackerel,  a  name  given  in  Great  Britain  to 
the  ScAU  (which  see),  but  applied  in  the  U.  S.  to  Thymms 
Hcvundo-dnianlin,  called  also  albicore  and  American  tunny. 
It  is  often  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  is  very  destructive  to  fish 
and  fishermen's  nets,  and  is  caught  chiefly  for  its  abundant 
oil,  although  its  flesh  is  pronounced  excellent  by  good  judges. 
It  is  best  killed  by  the  harpoon. 

Horse'manship.     It  seems  quite  proper  to  suppose, 
taking  into  consideration  the  ancient  myths  relating  to  the 
Centaurs  and  to  Pegasus,  that  the  horse  was  used  by  man 
from  the  earliest  periods  for  the  purposes  of  war  and  the 
chase.  This  was  unquestionably  true  in  India  and  in  Persia. 
The  earliest  regular  treatise  on  horsemanship  with  which 
we  are  acquainted  is  by  Xenophon,  and  from  that  it  ap- 
pears that  the  horsemen  of  his  time  were  accustomed  to 
feed,  clean,  and  ride  their  horses  much  as  we  do.    The  sad- 
dle was  not,  however,  known  to  them,  and  their  bit  seems 
to  have  been  of  the  simplest  possible  form.    The  animal  was 
ridden  either  barebacked  or  with  a  cloth  or  skin  secured  by 
a  band.    There  were  no  stirrups,  and  the  rider  mounted  by 
vaulting  on,  or  by  stepping  from  a  projection  upon  the  shaft 
of  the  lance.     The  saddle  came  into  use  iu  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  the  stirrup  was   no  doubt  invented  soon  after. 
Erom  that  time,  and  through  the  , Middle  Ages,  the  more 
civilized  nations  used  most  elaborate  horse-trappings,  and 
the  art  of  riding  was  no  doubt  considerably  advanced  as 
the  equipments  were  improved.     As  a  recognized  art,  re- 
quiring long  and  difficult  training,  it  seems  to  have  had  its 
origin  at  Naples,  whence  its  professors  spread  over  Europe. 
Spain  took  it  up  next  to  Italy,  then  France,  and   lastly 
England.     The  tournaments  which  were  in  fashion  from 
tho^cloventh  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  Crusades, 
brought  the  art  into  special  prominence  ;    the  carousals, 
which  succeeded  the   tournaments,  kept  up  the   interest, 
and  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  equi- 
tation held  the  first  place  in  the  education  of  a  gentleman. 
The   riding-school  was  Iho  fashionable  lounge  or  club  of 
young  men  of  rank,  and  some  superb  buildings  were  erected 
in  various  places  dedicated  to  this  use  alone.    The  interior 
court  of  the  Louvre  was  used  as  the  place  of  instruction 
of  King  Louis  XIII.  by  his  riding-master.  Pluvinel.    The 
saddle  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades  was  made  principally 
of  wood,  very  deep,  and  so  formed  that  the  rider  sat  upon 
his  fork  perfectly  straiglit  up  and  down,  as  if  standing. 
Tho  armor  of  man  and  horse  was  heavy,  and  a  stout  horse 
was   required  to  carry  its  weight.     About  1509  the  equip- 
ments were    somewhat    modified  to   suit  the  purposes  of 
civil  life,  but  the  position  of  the  rider  remained  nearly  the 
same   until  the  time  of  I)e  la  Guerinierc,  whose  folio  vol- 
ume,  with    beautiful   plates   drawn   by    Ch.    Parrocel,   ap- 
peared in  173:1,  when  the  saddle  assumed  more  nearly  the 
modern  form,  and  tho  seat  of  the  rider  was  changed  by 
bending  the  knee  and    sitting  down  more  in  the  saddle, 
mueh  in  the  manner  of  the  ]iresent  European  military  seat. 
Tho   Eastern  nations   Imvo   from  tho   earliest  times  used  a 
deep  saddle,  but  with  a  very  short  stirrup,  rising  in  their 
stirrups  to  use  the  javelin  or  lance.     In  the  early  part  of 
the   eighteenth  century  the   saddle  by  successive  changes 
approached  nearly  to  tho  present  English  saddle,  and  the 
Engli.sh   riders  adopted   the    short  stirrup   which   is   now 
cha°racteristic  of  their  school  of  riding,  most  other  nations 
retaining  tho  military   seat.     The  heavy  curb  bit  of  the 
Middle  Ages  was  retained  until  quite  a  late  period,  and  the 
equipments  and  mode  of  riding  of  the  Mexican  and  South 


American  of  the  present  day  are  almost  exactly  those  of 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Among  the  con- 
tinental European  nations  riding  as  a  civil  accomplishment 
has  declined,  but  in  England  it  still  holds  its  place  in  the 
foremost  rank  among  the  amusements  and  accomplish- 
ments of  a  gentleman.  Faieimas  Rogeks. 
Horse  Pasture,  post-tp.  of  Henry  co.,  Va.  P.  2302. 
Horse-Power.  See  Dynamic  Units,  by  Proi?.  W.  P. 
TnowBitiDCK,  A.  M. 

Horse-Uacing.  Though  horse-racing  has  probably 
been  coeval  with  the  possession  of  the  hor.so  by  man,  it 
seems  likely  that  tho  Pcrsi.ans  were  the  first  to  elevate  the 
sport  to  a  great  institution.  Horses  with  them  were  iden- 
tified with  the  sun  or  with  the  fiery  chariot  driven  once  a  day 
over  the  heavens.  From  the  Persians  the  Greeks  perhaps 
derived  the  sacred  races  which  were  held  at  the  Olympian, 
Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean  games.  These  races  were 
all  conducted  with  clumsily-built  chariots,  without  springs, 
excecdinglv  difficult  to  drive,  the  course  involving  as  much 
danger  as  skill.  Great  as  was  the  difficulty  of  driving,  it 
was'much  increased  by  the  horses  being  all  the  time  near 
the  spectators,  who  crowded  close  to  the  twenty  short  turns 
of  the  ground,  and  maddened  thr  animals  by  their  cries, 
"  while  artifice  was  employed  for  the  express  purpose  of 
frightening  the  horses  when  they  approached  the  statue  of 
tho'genius''Taraxippus."  The  charm  of  Greek  races,  apart 
from  the  interest  in  the  victor,  consisted  in  the  excitement 
of  seeing  the  chariots  strike  and  shatter  each  other,  tho 
horses  trampling  on  and  killing  the  fallen  drivers,  and  the 
overturns,  in  which  the  whole  population  of  refined  Athens 
delighted.  The  Roman  races  were  much  like  the  Greek,  but 
with  this  difference,  that  tho  Romans  cm|iloyed  their  slaves 
as  charioteers,  instead  of  driving  themselves.  In  tiine, 
the  Romans,  however,  introduced  mounted  races,  and  with 
tho  exception  that  the  riders  were  often  expected  to  perform 
circus  tricks  and  acrobatic  feats,  they  were  in  many  respects 
strikingly  like  the  modern.  The  horses  were  entered  thirty 
days  in  advance,  and  were  trained,  the  jockeys  wearing 
four  colors— green,  red,  white,  and  sea-color  (rtiic(n),  to 
which  Domitian  added  yellow  and  purple.  There  were 
prizes  given,  but  as  betting  was  not  practised,  it  would 
appear  that  races  among  the  Romans  were  a  far  more 
creditable  institution  than  those  known  at  the  present  day. 
The  Romans  did  not  use  saddles  (which,  according  to  Beck- 
mann,  were  invented  in  the  fourth  century),  but  they  and 
the  Persians  had  thick  saddlecloths.  The  jockeys  were 
called  8f)i«o/-e«,  the  trainers  n;iilntnres.  Caligula  once  gave 
2000  sesterces  to  the  jockey  Eutychus. 

An  old  French  song  describes  a  horse-race  run  m  the 
sixth  century,  the  winner  receiving  for  a  prize  the  hand  of  a 
Breton  princess.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  century 
there  appears  in  feudal  grants  mention  of  sums  awarded  at 
annual  and  regularly  established  races,  "  but  it  is  not  until 
the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  that  the  history  of  horse-racing  in 
France" seriously  considered,  begins."  There  is  good  ground 
for  believing  that  in  England  the  ancient  Britons,  decidedly 
addicted  to  horsemanship,  had  races,  and  that  the  Mithraic 
courses  established  by  the  Romans  were  continued  by  the 
Saxons.  It  is  certain  that  the  latter  had  mounted  races, 
since  "running  horses"  were  among  the  presents  sent  by 
Hugh  Capet  to  Athelstan  when  suing  for  his  sister  Ethels- 
nitha.  This  king  took  great  pains  to  imnrove  the  breed  of 
the  British  horse  bv  importations  from  the  Continent,  par- 
ticularly from  Siiaiii,  by  which  means  a  breed  was  produced, 
says  Bl'ainc.  that  flourished  from  the  time  of  the  Crusades 
un'til  tho  days  of  the  Tudors— a  period  which  has  been 
called  "the  era  of  the  great  horse."  In  the  romance  of 
/?^,/»  of  Soulhamplon  we  arc  told  that  at  AV  lutsuntide  tho 

knights  .  . 

"A  conrs  let  them  make  on  a  daye, 
Steeds  and  palfraye  10  assaye 
Whicli  horse  that  best  may  run." 
Fitzstephen  informs  us  that  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  there 
was  a  great  deal  of  racing  on  the  ground  where  Smithfield 
Market  now  stands.     In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  turfed 
courses  were  laid  out  and  prizes  allotted.     The  chict  ol 
these  was  a  silver  bell,  whence  perhaps  comes  the  phrase 
"  to  bear  away  tho  bell." 

Modern  English  horse-racing  began  strictly  with  James 
I.,  who  was  very  fond  of  it.  In  his  reign  public  and 
regular  runnings  were  held  in  Yorkshire  and  Surrey.  At- 
tention was  now  paid  to  feeding  and  training  horses  and 
instructing  jockeys.  Eastern  horses  were  imported  during 
this  rci<'n,  but  none  of  them  proved  to  be  of  any  value. 
Duringlbe  civil  war  and  the  Protectorate  racing  declined, 
but  with  the  Restoration  there  was  a  grand  revival  of  all 
fiehl-sports,  and  especially  of  this.  Charles  II.  was  an 
entliusiastic  admirer  of  the  turf,  even  entering  his  horses  in 
his  own  name.  He  established  races  at  Datchct  Mead,  that 
he  might  more  conveniently  enjoy  his  favorite  sport.  Ho 
was  also  regular  in  his  attendance    at  Newmarket,  now 


HORSE-RACING. 


999 


boasting  every  accommodation  for  the  training  of  horses, 
with  an  excellent  race-course,  which,  as  the  system  pro- 
gressed, was  apiiortioned  into  distances  corresponding  with 
the  several  a;es  and  sujipiiscd  powers  of  the  horses.     By 
tliis  arraiigonunt.  as  well  as  bv  a  judicious  appropriation 
of  the  weights  to  be  carried,  according  to  similar  circum- 
stances, a  scale  of  equality  was  kept  up  highly  to  the  credit 
of  the  turf  regulations.     Indeed,  much  of  the  arrangement 
and  most  of  the  rules  and  regulations  since  in  force  were 
formed  about   this  time  and   under  the  auspices  of  this 
prince.     William  III.  encouraged  the  turf,  and    George, 
consort  of  Queen   Anne,   greatly  aided   it  in   every  way. 
During  his  reign  Curwcn  liaybad  and  the  Darley  Arabian 
were   imported.     Charles  II.   introduced   the  silver  prize 
cup,  value  1«0  guineas.  "  George  I.."  says  '•  Nimrod,"  '■  was 
no  racer,  hut  he  discontinued  silver  plates  as  prizes,  and 
instituted  the  king's  plates,  being  100  guineas  in  cash." 
Durin"-  the  reign  of  (ieorgo  II.  the  Godolphin  Arabian  ap- 
peared", the  foun.ler  of  the  best  English  •'  blooded"  horses. 
George  III.  gave  the  lurf  some  encouragement.   His  brother, 
the  duke  of  ('urabcrlanil,was  passionately  addicted  to  racing. 
From  his  stud  came  the  famous  horses  Herod  and  Marak, 
who  sired  the  famous  Eclipse,  born  in  the  fourth  year  of 
George  IV.     O'lCelley,  the  great  turfman  of  these  tunes, 
owned  Eclipse,  and  w'as  the  breeder  of  Vohinleer  and  Dun- 
gaiinon  by  Eclipse,  who  became  the  sire  of  HiO  winning 
horses.   The  earl  of  Grosvenor  is  also  held  in  honor  as  one  of 
the  great  racing  magnates  of  this  reigu.     He  raised  the  two 
famous  mares  Meteor   and  Violante.  and    lost  his  entire 
f..rtune  in  the  end.  though  he  won  £200,0110  by  betting. 
••  Honesty,"  savs  lilaine,  •'  which  ensures  riches  in  most 
other  pursuits,  is  almost  certain  to  occasion  loss  in  racing.' 
The  king,  George  IV.,  bred  Iho  famous  horses  Whiskey, 
Manfrcdrand  Maria.     This  monarch,  according  to  lilaine, 
was  very  shrewd  in  lurf-niatters,  and  "  surrounded  himself 
with  men  deeply  versed  in  the  '  mysteries'  of  racing.    Tho 
turf  abounded  iii  rascals,  and  the  prince  found  it  necessary 
to  m<et  the  luanicuvns  of  such  men  by  proper  caution, 
liy  the  exercise  of  this  jiroper  caution,  he  at  last,  in  tho 
alTair  of  the  notorious  Escape  against  Grey  Dionied,  "  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  the  accusation  of  foul  play  affixed  to  his 
name."     His  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  was,  however,  a 
heavy  loser,  being  less  suspicious.     Cowper  had  long  be- 
fore said  of  England, 

"  We  Justly  boast 
At  le.Lst  superior  jockcysliip.  and  claim 
The  honors  of  llie  turf  as  all  our  own." 

rnforlunately,  the  dishonors  of  the  turf  must  also  bo 
claimed,  and  it  was  during  the  reign  of  George  IV.  that 
the  turf  became  as  noted  for  villainy  as  for  sport.  In  tho 
language  of  "  Xiinrod,"  ■' A  set  of  masked,  unprincipled  mis- 
creanls''are  now  usurping  the  place  of  genllenien  of  integ- 
rity. No  honorable  man  can  be  successful  for  any  length 
of  time  against  such  a  horde  of  determined  depredators  as 
have  lately  been  seen  on  our  race-courses."  Among  tho 
celebrated' jockeys  employed  by  George  IV.  were  Samuel 
Chipiiey,  who  became  rich  ;  .'^oulli,  Goodson,  Robinson,  and 
Nelson.'  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  "a  princely  conductor  of  his 
stud,"  bred  the  eminent  racers  Orville  and  Mulatto.  Tho 
earl  of  Derby  raised  Sir  Peter  Teazle,  a  descendant  of  the 
Godolphin  Arabian,  as  of  Blank,  Snap,  and  Reguliis.  Ho 
prorluced  more  winners  than  any  English  horse  known  ; 
10,000  guineas  were  refused  for  him.  Tho  lale  duke  of 
Dorset  was  a  first-class  jockey,  an.l,  like  the  duke  of  Graf- 
ton, was  a  great  winner.  It  is  remarkable  that  severnl 
racing  authorities  lay  great  stress  on  the  fact  that  this  no- 
bleman was  not  a  cheat,  and  always  "ran  to  win."  (  For  a 
fuller  account  of  the  great  patrons  of  the  turf  from  this 
timiMo  the  year  lf<:'.'i  the  reader  may  consult  tho  article 
"The  Turf"  in  the  Quurtir/,/  JUricm,  No.  US.) 

There  are  about  120  provincial  r.ace-mcetings  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales,  and  some  of  these  are  held  twice  in 
the  year.  Those  of  Newmarket,  Epsom.  Ascot,  Vork, 
Doncaaler,  and  Goodwood  stand  first  in  all  respects.  The 
nnn.ual  Derby  (Epsom)  ia  the  greal  London  holiday,  where 
:i.')0,'000  people  often  assemble.  Tho  Gooilwood  is  called 
the  "  ladies'  race,"  because  it  is  specially  visited  by  ladies, 
many  of  the  highest  rank,  in  splendid  toilette.  The  better 
class  of  visitors  sit  and  lunch  in  Ibeir  carriages,  while  a 
stream  of  female  gypsies,  clamorous  to  lell  fortunes  or  beg, 
itinerant  musieiaiis  and  peddlers,  go  from  one  to  the  other, 
anil  the  background  is  filled  in  with  booths  for  eating,  ex- 
hibitions, eocoanut  "  sliys."  "Aunt  ,«allies,"  and  similar 
ruilc  games,  usuallv  managed  by  gypsy  men.  It  is  said 
that  the  telcgrnpliic  deiiartment  of  the  English  post-offico 
takes  severnl  hundred  thousniul  pounds  annually  from  turf- 
men, and  that  this  "chief  national  pastime,"  which  re- 
ceives, in  fact,  nothing  from  the  statr,  or  which  against 
£1000  received  pays  out  £HOO0  excise-duty,  "demands  for 
its  support  an  expenditure  equal  to  the  revenue  of  such 
email  kingdoms  as  Portugal  or  Denmark."    This  is  perhaps 


the  true  reason  why  race-betting  is  not  reformed  out  of  ex- 
istence, or  rather  why  it  exists  as  an  anomaly  and  a  national 
reproach.     It   is  not  long  since  a  poor  man  was  sent  to 
prison  for  simply  looking  on  at  a  game  of  pitch-penny  in 
London,  while  the  belting  on  tho  races  fills  columns  not 
only  in  "sporting  papers,"  but  is  recorded  more  or  less  in 
every  daily  journal.     The  usual  pretext,  that  racing  keeps 
up  the  quality,  strain,  and  value  of  horses,  is  a  weak  apol- 
ogy; for,  though  it  is  true  that  that  refined  and  highly  ar- 
tificial  animal,  the   thoroughbred,  executes    the    greatest 
feats  of  running,  it  is  as  useless  to  the  world  at  large,  save 
for  bclliii'j  oil,  as  the  giraffes  or  lions  in  the  zoological  gar- 
dens.    Horses  partly   of  this  stock   arc   found,  however, 
to  excel  for  almost  "every  purpose.     There  is  a  great  de- 
sire on  tho  part  of    the  "English   government  to   abolish 
betting,   but  as  the  entire  system  of  racing  depends  on 
gambling,   and  as  it  involves   such    an  immense  amount 
of  capital,  and  is,  moreover,  so  near  and  dear  to  at  least 
one-half  the  aristocracy,  no  violent  reforms  in  it  can  at 
present  take  place.     M'uch  has,  however,  been  done,  and 
the   Betting  Act  of   the   present    year   and    other  action 
show  that    there  is   a  settled    determination    to   do  away 
with  the  greatest  scandal  which  at  present  disgraces  any 
Christian    country,    excepting,    perhaps,    bull-fighting    in 
Spain.     The  most  experienced  writers  on  the  turt  admit 
that  if  the  best  horse  the  world  ever  saw  were  to  be  run  at 
present    "  he  would  have  no  more  chance  to  win  than  if  ho 
had   but  the  use  of  three  of  his  legs,"  if  he  were  heavily 
backed  to  lose.     It  is  impossible  to  make  the  poor  under- 
stand that  thev  arc  justly  punished  for  trivial  gambling, 
when  the  journals  with  which  they  are  most  familiar  repre- 
sent the  "  plunging,"  or  desperate  betting-feats,  of  this  and 
that  lord  as  his  crowning  glory. 

Slm>!c-chris:iit;—?o  called  either  from  the  slccp-lnU  rid- 
ing which  it  involves,  or  from  a  steeple  in  the  distance 
having  been  originallv  the  goal— consists  of  headlong  rid- 
ing over  a  ground  abounding  in  ditches,  hedges,  gullies, 
and  all  kinds  of  impediments.  It  is  of  Irish  origin,  and 
no  longer  enjoys  its  former  popularity  in  England.  Ifiirdh- 
racing  was  ori'ginally  invented  by  George  IV.  on  Brighton 
Downs.  Hurdles  arc  like  segments  of  light  fences  or  icK- 
llcH  of  coarse  basketwork.  In  a  course  of  one  or  two  miles 
three  or  more  hurdles  may  be  placed  to  be  leaped  over. 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  in  France  to  render  racing 
national,  but  it  has  always  existed  as  a  distinct  imitation 
of  an  English  institution.  During  all  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  it  was,  as  Larousse  admits,  the  Fraii<:uiii  AnylomaiirH 
(or  French  who  affected  the  English)  who  were  fond  of 
horses.  Extr.avagant  belting  became  fashionable,  and 
races  were  abolished  bv  the  Kcvolution.  Napoleon  re- 
established them,  and  in  1833  a  jockey-club  was  lounded  by 
Count  Max  Caecia,  Do  Cambis,  Count  Demidofi,  JI.  Lahtte, 
and  others.  There  are  now  in  France  sixty  race-grounds, 
the  principal  of  whi.-.h  are  at  the  Bois  do  Boulogne  and 
Chantilly.  As  the  French  only  admit  native-bred  horses 
to  their  races,  it  seems  hardly  fair  that  they  should  send 
runners  of  English  extraction  to  compete  at  English  races, 
and  then  rejoice,  as  they  do,  over  an  occasional  victory. 
When  it  is  considered  that  these  horses  arc  generally 
trained  and  perfected  in  France  by  English  grooms  and 
jockeys,  the  ground  for  exulting  over  such  triumphs  as 
"French"  is  seriously  diminislied.  Admiral  Rous,  tho 
head  of  the  turf  in  England,  has  recently  endeavored,  but 
in  vain,  to  induce  the  French  to  abolish  this  restriction. 

Much  deiiends  in  racing  on  the  skill  of  the  jockey— so 
much,  in  fact,  that  a  very  good  rider  is  sometimes  almost 
able  to  win  with  any  horse  entered. 

Great  eflorts  have  been  made  in  America  to  perfect  tho 
race-horse  or  thoroughbred  of  Anglo-Arab  origin,  but  tho 
number  is  as  yet  far  iiiferinr  to  that  of  English  horses, 
though,  as  the  annals  of  our  turf  indicate,  there  are  many 
such  among  us  perfectly  qualified  to  compete  at  any  Eng- 
lish course.  When  it  is  considered,  however,  llrtil  llie  best 
English  writers  on  the  subject  are  of  the  upiiiion  that  the 
race-horse  is  among  animals  what  a  dandy  is  uiioing  men, 
it  may  be  something  more  than  pn.blematieal  whether  Amer- 
icans" should  not  remain  contented  with  trotting,  in  wliieli 
they  are  unrivalled,  save  perhiii.s  by  the  Russians,  and  which 
has  tho  advantage  of  developing  practically  useful  animals. 
The  trotting-horses  of  America  have  long  been  remark- 
able. At  first  the  breed  appeared  to  be  merely  tht  result 
of  n'ccidenl.  but  breeders  now  reeogiiizc  the  fact  that  Iho 
best  have  a  strong  dash  of  thoroughbred  blood.  A  large 
number  of  the  most  successful  among  llicin  are  traced  back 
to  Messenger  (imported  about  17Sa-!IO).  Trotling-timo 
has  grailually  been  reduced  from  a  mile  in  X  minutes,  which 
used  to  be  eonsidircd  very  good,  to  a  mile  in  2ni.  148., 
which  time  was  made  in  1S71  by  Goldsmith  .Maid.  I'p  to 
the  end  of  that  year,  ilfi  horses  arc  recorded  as  having 
trotted  in  public  in  2m.  .'iOs.  or  less,  tho  ten  fastest  having 
done  it  in  less  than  2m.  I9s.     Some  of  the  lighter  Norman 


1000 


HORSE-RADISH— HORSLEY. 


or  Porcheron  horses  of  Franco  have  shown  trotting  action, 
and  there  is  a  family  of  horses  in  Russia,  called  '*Orlofl' 
trotters."  that  has  produced  some  onlj  second  to  those  of 
the  U.  S.  Owinj?  to  the  great  difference  hetween  the  speed 
of  trolting-horses.  it  is  necessary  to  divide  them  into  classes, 
sueh  as  those  which  have  not  "  beaten  '2.'MK  2.25,  or  2.20," 
as  the  ease  may  be;  and  very  strict  rules  are  made  by 
the  Xutidiial  Association  regarding  clianges  of  name  or 
any  action  which  may  cloud  the  idt;utity  of  horses  which 
trot  for  public  money.  Racing  proper,  as  distinguished 
from  trotting,  has  always  been  a  favorite  sport  in  the 
Southern  States,  and  has  lately  been  revived  at  the  North 
with  grrat  success,  as  the  summer  meetings  at  Jerome  Park, 
N.  Y.,  Long  Branch,  and  Saratoga  show.  Only  thorough- 
breds are  fit  for  racing,  and  a  part-bred  horse  would  have 
no  chance  whatever  to  win.  There  is  no  classification,  as 
in  trotting,  as  all  good  race-horses  can  run  within  a  few 
seconds  of  the  best  speed.  There  is  a  classification,  how- 
ever, as  to  age,  the  youngi-st  horses  carrying  (he  least 
weight  in  cases  where  horses  of  different  ages  are  engaged 
in  the  same  races.  Regular  tables  of  weights  are  estab- 
lished ;  as,  for  instance,  .'i-year  olds,  90  pounds;  4-year  olds, 
108  pounds;  5-year.  11-4  pounds;  fi-year,  IIS  pounds; 
mnres  being  weighted  about  3  pounds  less  than  horses. 
The  best  racing  time  made  in  the  U.  S.  is  that  made  by 
Grey  Planet  in  1874 — oue  mile  in  Im.  42ls.  Until  within 
a  few  years  Im.  -Us.  was  the  best,  but  that  has  now  been 
beaten  by  several  horses.  The  best  four-mile  time  for  many 
years  was  that  of  Lexington  in  1855  in  7m.  ID^s. :  it  wa*s 
beaten  in  1S74  by  Fellowcraft  in  7m.  I'J^s.  There  is  no 
official  time  taken  at  English  races,  nnd  therefore  no  means 
of  comparing  their  time  with  ours.  No  cimfidcuce  is  placed 
by  horsemen  in  the  story  that  Flying  Childers  ran  a  mile 
in  a  minute.  English  courses  are  usually  straight  or  nearly 
so,  and  over  the  turf.  The  regular  American  course  is  one 
mile,  made  np  of  two  semicircles,  each  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
long,  joined  by  two  straight  quarters,  and  is  kept  in  order 
by  harrowing  and  scraping,  as  turf  becomes  too  hard  in  the 
dry  summer  for  horses  to  run  over.  C.  O.  Lela.nd. 

Horsc'-Radish  (Xftsturtium  Armoracin)^  a  perennial 
herb  of  the  order  Crucifcras,  whose  large  white  roots  fur- 
nish a  well-known  pungent  condiment  lor  the  table.  The 
roots  yield  a  volatile  oil  which  contains  sulphur.  The 
plant  is  European,  and  half  naturalized  in  the  U.  S.  Horse- 
radish leaves  and  roots  are  iised  in  medicine  as  local  stim- 
ulants. They  have  also  antiscorbutic  jiroperties.  The  young 
leaves  are  boiled  as  potherbs,  and  are  very  delicate  and 
pleasant. 

Horse-radish  Tree,  the  Moriufjn  ptert/f/nnperma, 
a  tree  of  the  order  Leguminosa>,  so-called  from  the  acrid 
quality  of  its  leaves.  Its  trunk  yields  a  gum  like  that  of 
the  acacias,  and  the  leaf  has  medicinal  qualities  :  but  its 
seeds,  with  those  of  M.  aptera.  are  important  as  furnishing 
the  commercial  oil  of  ben.  These  trees  grow  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  Arabia,  Africa,  and  Southern  Europe. 
The  expressed  oil  is  of  admirable  keeping  qualities,  and  is 
used  for  oiling  walelu-s  and  as  a  basis  for  perfumes.  The 
oil  is  mostly  prepared  in  Europe. 

Hor'sens,  town  of  Denmark,  in  the  province  of  Jutland, 
on  the  Ilorsens  Fjord.  It  is  an  old  town,  but  neatly  built, 
thriving,  and  carrying  on  a  lively  trade.     Pop.  10,501. 

Horseshoe  Crab.     Sec  King  Crab. 

Horseshoeing.  Sec  FAnniEav,  by  M.  C.  Wi:rr,  Pn.  B. 

Ilorse'tail,  Shave-grass,  or  Scouring;  Rush 
('^eiius  iC'inimlnm).  There  are  eleven  species  of  tliis  plant, 
the  twu  principal  of  which  are  denominated  the  great  and 
littL;  horsetail,  and  belong  to  the  cryptogamous  or  flower- 
less  scries.  They  have  stems  and  branches,  but  neither 
leaves  nor  flowers.  The  stems  are  rush-like,  hollow,  and 
jointed,  arising  from  running  root-stocks,  and  terminated 
by  the  fru^jtilication  in  the  form  of  a  cone  or  spike,  com- 
posed of  shield-shaped  stalked  scales,  with  t^pore-eases 
underneath.  The  great  horsetail  [E.  Telmntein)  has  stems 
as  thick  as  a  man's  finger,  the  sheaths  enlarging  upward  ; 
is  very  rare,  and  only  found  on  the  shores  of  the  ujiper 
great  lakes  and  north-westward.  It  is  from  the  fact  that 
it  contains  so  large  a  quantity  of  silex,  and  is  consequently 
much  used  for  polishing,  that  it  derives  its  name  of"  scour- 
ing rush."  The  little,  common,  or  field  horsetail,  as  it  is 
variously  called,  is  indigenous  to  Illinois  and  New  Jersey, 
but  Is  found  on  almost  every  continent.  an<l  in  every  coun- 
try from  .Africa  to  the  Arctic  zone,  and  is  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  its  alleged  poisonous  influence  on  cattle  which 
partake  of  it,  though  no  tangible  proof  of  its  toxic  effects 
has,  as  yet,  been  brought  to  light.  One  thing  is  certain 
— that  the  plant,  when  dried,  is  perfeotly  innocuous,  from 
the  fact  that  it  has  frequently  been  largely  mixed,  in  that 
condition,  with  the  hay  nnd  other  food  given  to  horses  and 
other  animals.     The  other  species  are  £.  ;>rrt(cij«c,  found 


in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  other  northern  districts;  E. 
di/fv'tticum,  growing  in  wet,  shady  places  in  northern  locali- 
ties; E.  put  list  re,  prolific  iu  Wisconsin,  Niagara  Kiver, 
and  other  moist  localities;  E.  UmuHnm,  rather  common  in 
marshes  and  shallow  water;  E.  liiviipitnm,  indigenous  to 
dry,  clayish  soils,  and  found  in  Illinois  and  southward;  E. 
hi/einalc,  used  for  scouring  purposes  generally,  growing  on 
wet  banks,  and  common  in  northward  districts;  E.  van'e- 
(/(itaiii,  very  rare,  and  found  on  j^hores  and  river-banks, 
such  as  in  New  Hampshire  and  Niagara,  to  Wisconsin 
northward;  E.  aviipnidcfi,  a  species  peculiar  to  wooded 
hillsides  from  New  England  to  Pennsylvania.  Michigan, 
and  northward.  Finally,  the  nppn»priately-named  E. 
rohnntnuiy  from  three  to  six  feet  in  height,  and  growing 
along  the  river-banks  from  Ohio  to  IIIin<)is  and  southward, 
is  one  of  the  most  respectable  members  of  the  horsetail 
family, 

Ilors'ford  (Eben  Norton),  M,  D..  a  chemist,  h.  at 
Geneseo,  N.  Y.,  in  1818  ;  became  principal  of  the  Albany 
Female  Academy;  studied  chemistry  in  (icrmany  under 
Baron  Liebig ;  was  Kumford  professor  in  Harvard  Univer- 
sity 1S47-G;J,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School.  He  is  the  author  of  many  scientific 
jKipers,  and  has  given  much  attention  to  improved  methods 
of  making  bread. — His  wife,  Mauv  (GAitniSER),  (1S24-56), 
was  the  author  of  a  volume  of  poems  (1S55)  and  of  con- 
tributions to  periodical  literature. 

Hors'ham,  jmrliamcntary  borough  of  England,  in 
Sussex,  on  the  Adar.  It  has  a  fine  old  church  and  several 
good  educational  institutions.     Pop.  7S31. 

Horsham,  tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1.182. 

Hors'ley  (Charles  EnwARn),  son  of  William,  h.  at 
Brompton,  near  London,  Dec.  16,  1824.  Ilis  general  edu- 
cation was  conducted  at  the  Kensington  grammar  school, 
and  for  a  time  his  parents  tried  to  check  his  evident  love 
for  music,  but  a  favorable  opinion  of  Mcndelssolin,  who 
visited  London  in  1S.'52,  decided  the  question,  and  after 
some  years  of  preliminary  study  under  his  father,  Dr. 
Crotch,  and  other  eminent  English  musicians,  young 
Horsley  was  placed  with  the  celebrated  Moritz  Haupt- 
mann,  then  residing  with  Spohr  at  Cassel.  Here  for  three 
years  (1838-41)  he  had  the  advantage  of  thorough  theo- 
retical instruction  from  llanptmann  and  the  intimacy  and 
advice  of  Spohr.  Before  returning  home.  Horsley  passed 
several  months  with  Mendelssohn  in  Leipsic,  where  the 
great  pleasure  and  usefulness  of  this  part  of  his  education 
resulted  in  a  lifelong  friendship.  Horsley  returned  to  Lon- 
don in  1842,  where  he  remained  until  IStll,  when,  owing  to 
ill-health,  he  wont  to  Australia,  residing  for  some  years  in 
Melbourne,  Victoria,  where  it  may  truly  be  said  he  created 
the  true  taste  for  music  which  now  exists.  In  1S7I  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  in  1872  proceeded  to  New  York, 
where  as  organist  of  St.  John's  chapel,  Trinity  parish,  ho 
pursued  an  active  course  of  professional  success.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  three  oratorios,  />f(ri'(/(lS49),  Joticph  ( 1852), 
r;i(/eo»(ISOO)  :  cantatas.  CV,m»«(1854),  Euterpe  {\9.'{)),  liri- 
dal  Cautfttn  (1S70),  besides  a  large  number  of  symphonies, 
songs,  glees,  etc.  As  a  composer.  Horsley  ranked  on  an 
equality  with  the  best  men  of  his  time  in  originality  and 
learning.     D.  Feb.  27,  1876. 

Horsley  ( Jmis  Cai.ixott),  K.  A.,  eldest  son  of  William, 
an  excellent  painter  nf  the  modern  English  school,  b.  in 
London  Jan.  29,  18IG.  His  great  and  early  love  for  draw- 
ing was  observed  and  fostered  by  the  celebrated  painter 
(Horsley's  great-uncle),  Sir  A.  W.  Callcott,  K.  A.,  and  at 
I  the  age  of  fourteen  the  young  student  entered  the  drawing 
academy  of  Mr.  Sorsse,  one  of  the  best  trainers  of  juvenile 
artists,  and  subsequently  was  elected  a  stu<lcnt  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts.  Here  he  gainetl  all  the  best  prizes  for 
drawing,  etc..  nnd  on  the  competition  for  cartoons  for  the 
new  Houses  of  Parliament  he  received  a  premium  of  £.S00 
and  two  commissions  for  large  frescoes  in  the  same  build- 
ing. Since  that  time  his  career  has  had  an  uninterrupted 
;  success.  His  works,  too  numerous  to  mention,  command 
I  universal  attention  and  very  large  prices.  I^Ir.  Horsley 
became  a  Koyal  Academician  in  1805.  One  of  his  latest 
1  and  most  admired  paintings  is  a  large  altarpieeo  for  the 
chapel  of  St.  Thomas's  Hospital  in  London,  a  commission 
ordered  by  the  will  of  Sir  AV.  Tite,  the  celebrated  English 
architect.  Mr.  Horsley  resides  in  Loudon,  where  he  is 
greatly  respected  and  honored. 

Horsley  (SAMri;i,),  b.  in  1733  at  St.  Martin's-in-the- 
Fields.  London,  stmlietl  at  the  University  of  Cambridge; 
was  appointed  rector  of  Newington  in  1759,  bishop  of  St. 
David's  in  1788,  of  Rochester  in  1793,  nnd  of  St.  Asaph  in 
1802:  and  d.  at  Brighton  Oct.  4,  1S06.  He  gave  new 
editions  of  Apollonius  Pergaeus  (1770)  and  Newton  (1779- 
Sit)  ;  translated  Hosea  ;  published  Crittenl  OiHffniHttimis  on 
tkr    Riijhtrfntth    Ch'iptcr  uf  Innitih  ;     and    wrttte    essays    on 

mathematics  and  the  prosody  of  the  (ireek  and  Latin  Ian- 


IIORSLEY— HORVATH. 


1001 


gua^c!*.  But  his  controversy  with  Dr.  Priestley  conccruing 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  which  lusted  for  several  years,  at- 
tracted most  attention.  His  theological  works  ircro  col- 
lected in  G  vols,  in  1SJ5,  and  published  in  Loudon. 

Ilorsley  (William),  h.  at  AVhitchavcn,  in  Cumberland, 
Eii;;hind,  Nov.  1 J,  1774.  Shortly  after  his  birth  the  parents 
removed  to  London,  and  at  a  very  early  age  the  boy  devel- 
oped great  talents  for  musical  composition.  His  father's 
means  wore  inadequate  to  afford  Ills  sou  a  i-omjilcte  artistic 
education,  but  the  youth  possessed  suffieientscU'-rcliance  to 
prc-^ent  himself  to  the  distinguished  cumpo.ser,  l)r.  J.W.  Call- 
cott,  who,  perceiving  his  talent?,  took  the  lad  under  his  pro- 
tection, m;ide  him  his  assistant  at  the  orphan  asylum,  and 
finally  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  Jan.  12,  1S1.'J. 
Mr.  HorjiU-y  proved  himself  worthy  of  such  confidence,  and 
almost  surpassed  his  father-in-law  in  the  excelleuec  of  his 
works  and  the  correctness,  learning,  and  effect  of  his  com- 
positions. For  learning,  his  six  Huoks  of  Cauous  arc  nn- 
rivallcd  by  any  similar  specimens  since  Sebastian  liach  ; 
as  a  glee-writer,  "  By  Celia's  Arbor,"  "  See  the  Chariot  at 
Hand,"  "  Blow.  Wind,  thou  Balmy  Air,"  and  many  others 
testify  in  undying  beauty  to  the  greatness  of  this  master 
of  the  English  school  of  music.  Mr.  Horsley  took  the  de- 
gree of  Mus.  Bae.  Oxon.  early  in  the  present  century  ;  was 
organist  of  the  female  orphan  asylum  tor  fifty  years,  also  of 
the  Charter-house  and  Belgrave  chapels.  His  house  at 
Kensington  was  tho  favorite  resort  of  Alenilelssohn,  Spohr, 
Thalberg,  and  all  the  great  musicians  of  hi?  day.  His 
eldest  daughter  marrietl  1.  K.  Brunei,  the  distinguished 
engineer.  His  long  life  was  one  of  great  purity,  industry, 
and  benevolence.     D.  June,  1S69. 

Hor'ta^  the  largest  town  of  Fayal.  one  of  tho  Azorc 
Islands,  itself  sometimes  incorrectly  called  I'ayaL  It  has 
a  good  trade.     Pop.  Sj4y. 

Ilor'tcn,  town  of  Norway,  on  the  Gulf  of  Christiania, 
the  station  of  the  Norwegian  fleet,  has  an  arsenal  and  good 
shipbuilding  yards.     Pop.  about  5Q00. 

Hortense'  (ErfiEMi:  ni:  Bi:AirnARNAis),  b.  in  Paris 
17H.!;  d.  ls.'i7;  was  daughter  of  the  French  general  Alex- 
andre <Ie  Bcauharnais  and  of  Josephine  Tascher  de  la 
Pagerie,  who  became  the  wile  of  Napoleon  I.  In  1802  she 
married  Louis  Bonaparte,  atterwards  king  of  Holland,  and 
brother  of  Napoleon  \.  She  ga\o  him  three  sons,  tho 
youngest  being  afterwards  Napoleon  III.,  b.  in  1808. 
After  the  fall  of  the  First  Empire,  Queen  Hortense  resided 
usually  in  her  chilteau  of  Areueuberg,  Switzerland.  She 
wrote  light  poetry  and  is  the  author  of  one  song — *'  Partant 
pour  la  Syrie,"  which  under  tho  Third  Empire  was  a  kind 
of  national  air  for  the  Bonapartists.  She  is  buried  by  tho 
side  of  the  empress  Josephine  at  Hueil.  a  suburb  of  Paris, 
near  the  chiLteau  of  Malmaison.  Fklix  Aucaigne. 

Ilortcn'sius  (Qhintis),  son  of  L.  Hortensius,  a  pnctor 
of  upright  character.  The  son  was  b.  Ill  n.  c.  :  made  a 
8pec'.-h  in  the  forum  when  nineteen  years  old  which  gained 
the  applause  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  republic,  and  at  onco 
gave  him  rank  with  the  ablest  advocates  of  his  time;  served 
('Jl-90  B.  r.)  in  tho  Social  war,  in  which  he  became  a  mili- 
tary tribune;  defended  the  youthful  Pompey  (Sfi  B.C.), 
who  was  accused  of  the  embezzlement  of  public  booty  ;  at- 
tached himself  to  the  side  of  Sulla  and  the  aristocrats,  and 
was  the  ablest  advocate  at  Home  until  Cicero  arose  to  dis- 
tinction ;  was  qu:esl(ir  B.C.  81  :  ledilo  in  7  J  :  pnctor  ur- 
banus  72;  unsuccessfully  defended  Verres  against  Cicero 
70;  was  consul  C.)  n.  r. ;  and  aller  this  was  a  prominent 
opponent  of  Pompey  and  a  zealous  defender  of  Milo  in  tho 
qourr<l  with  Clod  ins.  Cicero  was  never  a  very  hearty 
friend  of  HortcnsiiL'^.  whom  he  seems  to  have  suspectcil  un- 
justly of  evil  designs.  The  moral  character  of  Hortensius 
was  not  altogether  admirable.  He  was  unscrupulous  as  to 
tlie  means  by  wlii<di  liis  successes  were  attained,  and  his  | 
private  life  was  exceedingly  luxurious,  if  not  immoral  ; 
but  his  nature  was  kindly  and  generous,  and  ho  had  many 
friends  and  tew  enemies. 

Ilor'ticiiltiirc  [Lat.  Aor/t(»,  a  "garden,"  and  cnlturo, 
**  attendance,"  "care  '*],  tlio  management  of  the  garden,  tlio 
cultivation  of  a  smaller  area  of  land  than  a  farm  or  lield. 
Horticulture  may  bo  divideil  into  FLOHrruLTimK  (which 
Hcr),  ur  the  ciilii\atiori  of  flowers  for  profit,  use,  or  orna- 
ment, and  kitchen  atid  market  gardening:  or  the  produc- 
tion of  vegetables  too  perishable  to  form  part  (d'lho  staple 
crops  of  agriculture,  and  hence  either  raise<l  in  small  quan- 
tities for  (lie  supply  of  a  single  family,  or  else  grown  as  tho 
product  of  a  special  branch  of  farming  near  largo  titwns, 
where  there  is  a  ready  market  an<l  where  manures  are  to  bo 
had  in  al>undance.  Lasdscai'K-Gaudksixo  and  Fruit- 
CrLTi'RK  (which  sec),  and  the  care  of  botanic  gardens, 
form  no  part  of  general  horticulture  (except  in  tho  ease  of 
sniall  fruit'*  and  dwurtVd  trees).  Market -gardening  is 
ecparated  from  agriculture  by  no  dofiuitu  line.     What  Is 


called  trnck-farmiiuj  in  tho  U.  S.  is  market-gardening  upon 
a  large   scale,  and   is  a  department  of  agriculture.     For 
market-gardening  the  first  essentials  are    abundant  ferti- 
lizers (intelligently  applied)  and   an   unfailing  supply  of 
well-directed  labor.     The  work  of  market-gardening  is  not 
heavy,  but  it  is  wearisome  and  incessant.     Almost  any  soil 
can  bo  made  to  grow  vegetables,  but  a  very  light  soil  will 
usually  afford  but  smiiU  profits,  if  any;  and  a  very  heavy 
soil  requires  thorough  an<l  expensive  underdraining,  and 
even  then  is  harder  to  work  and  docs  not  afford  so  early 
crops  as  some  others.    A  gootl  exposure  to  the  sun  and  pro- 
tection  from  heavy  winds  by  hills,  forests,  or  screens  of 
trees  arc   very   desirable.      It   is   ordinarily  best   for  the 
market-gardener  to  raise  a  succession  of  products,  the  spin- 
ach,   asparagus,    and    rhubarb    of    early    spring   and    tho 
growths  of  early  summer,  etc.  following  each  other  in  such 
a  way  that  there  is  something  to  sell  throughout  the  season. 
Frequently,  two  crops  ni.ay  bo  raised  from  tiie  same  ground 
in  a  single  year.     Many  early  crops  arc  greatly  forwarded 
by  the  proper  use  of  hot-beds  and  cold-frames.     In  the  ap- 
plicati()n  of  fertilizers  regard  should  be  had  to  tho  chem- 
ical constitution  of  the  j)lant  to  be  raised;  and  tho  samo 
consideration  ought  to  govern  tho  rotation  of  crops.     Suc- 
cess in  market-gardening  depends  largely  upon  tact  and 
skill  in  buying  and  selling,and  upon  buying  and  selling  at 
the  right  time.     Two  days  may  niako  a  difference  of  50  per 
cent,  in  the  prices  of  early  products ;  henco  tho  need  of 
promptness  and  energy.     The  bulk  of  a  crop  is  often  sold 
at  a  smnll  margin  above  cost;  hence  tho  need  of  economy 
and  prudence.     Two  other  most  important  things  arc  tho 
use  of  tho  best  seeds  of  tho  best  varieties,  and  fair  dealing 
with  nmrketnien  and  jobbers,  for  of  two  market-gardcnors 
one  may  sell  his  goods  at  a  fair  price  even  when  the  mar- 
ket is  dull,  while  the  other  cannot  sell  his  at  any  price,  be- 
cause the  latter  docs  not  supply  products  of  unifr)rm  qual- 
ity; his  berries  do  not  "grow  bigger  downward  through 
the  box."     This  principle  holds  good  in  every  department 
of  trade,  but  in  no  business  is  it  so  important  as  in  the  one 
we  arc  considering.     (See  Hl:nI)Kiison,  Uardcniiuj  for  Profit 
and  Practical  Horticulture;    QuiNN,  Moncif  in  the  Garden,) 
Horticulture  has  thriven  from  the  earliest  ages  and  in 
every  country  that  has  had  any  claim  to  be  called  civilized. 
In  Japan.  China,  India,   Persia,   Home,  Egypt,  Palestine, 
Assyria,  ChahUua,  from  tho  earliest  times,  great  attention 
was  pai<l  to  gardens.     At  the  very  first  man  was  put  **  into 
the  garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it  and  to  keep  it."    Most  elab- 
orate and  interesting  representations  of  gardens  exist  on 
the  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.     The  (JId  Testament 
Scriptures  abound  in  references  to  gardens,  and  in  the  lit- 
erature of  the  East  gardens  are  still  a  favorite  theme.    Tho 
6'«/iW«ji  ("  llosc-tJarden  ")  and  the  /iotff«/i  (*' Fruit-Gar- 
den ")  of  Saadi   arc   names   wliich    illustrate   the  Oriental 
fondness  for  gardens.     The  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon 
and  the  floating  gardens  of  Caslimero  and  Mexico  may  bo 
noticed.     Hallowed  associations  surround  the  forever  mem- 
orable garden  of  (icthscmane.    The  gardens  of  Alcinous  and 
those  of  the   Hespcridcs  are  a  part  of  the  traditions  of  tho 
heroic  age.     The  (ireeks,  says  Plutarch,  sometimes  planted 
violets  and  roses  among  the  onions  and  leeks.     Of  the  Ro- 
man gardens  we  have  full  accounts.     Floriculture,  kitchen- 
gardening,  landscape-gardening,  antl   topiary  work  were 
carried  by  them  to  a  high  perfection.    They  had  hot-houses 
and   conservatories    also.     In    Charlemagne's   time,   when 
gardening  was  one  of  the  lost  arts,  the  imperial  edict  com- 
manded every  man  who  could  do  so  to  have  a  garden,  and 
the  very  jjlants  to  l>e  grown  were  named.     Among  others, 
honse-leek  was  to  beset  upon  every  roof;  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  geographical  range  of  several  herbs  was  greatly 
wi<lened  by  the  decree.     Tho  Saracens  brought  the  love  of 
horticulture  into  Spain,  France,  and  Sicily  ;  ami  in   later 
times  every  monastery  hail  its  well-kept  garth.      Italy  and 
the  Low  Cotintries  especially  excelled  in  gardening.     Tlio 
Dutch  di'lighted  in  straight  lines,  clean  eullure,  and  topiary 
work.     The   Italian  taste  was  mttre  natural.     In  still  later 
times  the  S<'0(ch  have  excelled  as  gardeners,  and  at  present 
they  take  the  tirst  jilaco  in  this  department  of  industry. 

ClIAItLKS  W.  UrkKNE. 

Ilor'ton,  Ip.  of  Elk  co..  Pa.     Pop.  (::il. 

Ilorto'iiin,  tp.  of  Outagamie  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1080. 

llo'nis  [lir. 'npo?;  Egyptian,  //rtr,  tho  "day"],  the 
name  of  Kcveial  Egyptian  gods,  of  which  the  principal  was 
the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis.  He  was  the  sun-god,  and  is 
often  confounded  with  Harpoerates,  who  was  culled  the 
Younger  Horus;  also  with  Ilaroeris,  tho  hawk-beaded  gnd, 
calleil  tho  Elder  Horns.  He  is  also  confoundeil  with  the 
god  Ila  and  with  the  (Jrcek  Ajiollo,  whence  Edfou  was 
called  ApuUinopuIis  Magna,  since  it  was  a  great  seat  of  tho 
worship  of  Horns. 

Ilorvfilh'  (.Mihaly),  b.  Oct.  .10,  1809,  at  Szentcs,  Hun- 
gary; studied  theology  .ut  tho  Seminary  of  Waizon  1825; 


1002 


HOSACK— HOSPITAL. 


took  orders  in  1S30  ;  and  was  in  1S44  appointed  professor 
in  Vienna  of  tlic  Hungarian  language  and  literature. 
Durin"  the  Hungarian  revolution  in  1S18  he  was  made 
bisiiop"  of  Csanid  and  minister  of  public  edueation  and 
worship  After  the  revolution  he  lived  alternately  in 
France  Italy,  and  Switzerland  until  intili,  when  he  was 
permitted  to  return  to  Hungary.  His  principal  work  is  a 
general  lli.tm'j"/  Ilmuju,-,,  (4  vols.,  1S42-4G),  but  he  has 
also  treated  of  several  periods  of  Hungarian  history  sep- 
arate! v. 

Ilos'ack  (D.ivin),  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  in  New 
York  Aug.  :!1,  nr,9;  graduated  at  New  Jersey  College 
in  17sa,  and  in  ITUl  received  his  medical  degree  at  Phila- 
delphia; studied  in  Europe  until  17U4;  became  ^«-  ™J> 
professor  of  botany  in  Columbia  College;  was  (liJi- 
1807)  professor  of  materia  mcdica ;  professor  of  materia 
racdica  and  midwifery  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  1S07-11  ;  after  which  he  held  other  professorships 
there  until  182G.  After  this  he  was  until  KSoO  connected 
with  Rutgers  Medical  College.  He  was  one  of  the  fast 
mineralogists  and  botanists  of  his  time,  founded  the  first 
botanic  garden  in  .America,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
medical  treatises  which  long  had  a  standard  value.  He 
also  wrote  a  Life  of  Dr.  Hugh  Williamson  (1S20)  and  one 
of  DeWitt  Clinton  (ISi'J).     U.  Deo.  23,  lS:io. 

Ilosan'na,  a  Hebrew  term  of  blessing,  congratulation, 
or  well-wishing,  adopted  into  use  by  the  Christian  Church. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  one  of  the  subdivisions  ol  musi- 
cal masses,  "  Holy,  holv,  holy.  Lord  God  of  Sabaoth  ;  hea- 
ven and  earth  are  full  of  thy  glory.  Uosauna  in  the 
highest." 

Hose'a  [  Heb.  Hothen, "  deliverance"],  the  Ose'e  ['Otnie, 
■0,Ten]  of  the  LXX..  Vulgate,  and  New  Testament,  the  first 
in  order  of  arrangement,  but  apparently  third  in  order  of 
time,  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  His  prophetic  ac- 
tivity covers  a  period  of  about  60  years— say  from  784  to 
7'>4  B  c  He  belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel, 
and  set  himself  against  the  idolatrous  apostasy  which 
had  seemed  almost  essential  in  order  to  political  ludepcnd- 
enoe  In  style  he  is  the  obscurest  of  all  the  Hebrew 
prophets.  In  the  Rom.an  martyrology  he  is  commemo- 
rated with  Haggai  on  the  4th  of  July.     R.  D.  Hitchcock. 

Hoshe'a  (another  form  of  Hoscn),  the  last  king  of  Is- 
rael was  a  son  of  Elah ;  conspired  against  his  predecessor, 
Pek'ah,  .and  put  him  to  death  737  B.C.;  became  established 
on  the  throne  after  eight  years  of  war.  His  reign  was 
much  disturbed  bv  civil  commotions  and  by  the  invasions 
of  the  Assyrians."  He  very  ]>robably  perished  at  the  de- 
struction of  Samaria  (720  B.  c).  His  name  occurs  on  As- 
syrian monuments. 

Ho'siery  [from  hose,  "  stockings  "],  in  a  large  sense,  in- 
cludes knit  goods  of  all  kinds.  Stockings  were  originally 
made  of  cloth  and  woven  goods.  The  ancient  Greeks  cm- 
ployed  stockings  of  felt.  The  Romans,  we  are  told,  used 
no  stockings  until  after  Hadrian's  time.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
used  them,  and  so  did  the  people  of  mediaeval  Europe. 
Trunk-hose  were  a  combination  of  stockings  and  breeches. 
The  art  of  knittiug  is  reputed  to  be  a  Scottish  invention 
of  the  sixteenth  ecnturv,  and  St.  Fiacre,  a  Scoto-Irish  saint, 
was  made  patron  of  a  French  stocking-weavers'  guild  in 
1527.  It  is  almost  certain,  however,  that  the  art  of  knit- 
tin"'  is  older  than  this.  Hosiery  is  now  largely  manufac- 
tured in  the  U.  S.  bv  machinery.  Some  of  the  most  im- 
portant improvements  in  knitting-machines  are  of  Ameri- 
can origin. 

Ho'sius  [Gr.'Offiot,  "holy"],  b.  about  257  A.  i).,  per- 
haps in  Spain  or  perhaps  in  Egypt;  became  bishop  of  Cor- 
dova about  29G:  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Iliberi  (about 
300  A.  0.1 ;  was  persecuted  under  Diocletian  and  Maximian; 
was  highlv  honored  for  integrity  and  faithfulness;  was 
sent  by  Constantino  the  Great  to  Alexandria  to  conciliate 
the  contending  parties  of  Alexander  the  bishop  and  of 
Arius;  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice  (325  a.  i).).  and 
was,  according  to  some  writers,  its  president;  induced 
Constantino  to  ratifv  the  Nicenc  Creed  325:  was  at  the 
Council  of  Sardica  317,  and  perhaps  its  president;  was 
directed  by  Constantius  in  355  to  write  against  Alhanasius, 
but  refused;  was  compelled  by  the  emperor  to  attend  the 


HosKiNS,  an  Oxonian,  an  author,  and  a  prebendary  of  Here- 
ford, was  a  contemporary  of  the  foregoing,  and  is  stated 
to  have  been  his  brother. 

Ilos'incr  (llAnniKT  G.),b.  atWatertown,  Mass.,  Oct.  9, 
1S30.  Her  mother  d.  when  she  was  young,  and  her  father, 
anxious  for  the  health  nf  his  only  child,  insisted  upon  out- 
door exercise  and  athletic  sports.  She  became  expert  in 
rowing,  riding,  and  skating:  had  the  spirit  of  adventure; 
traveled  alone  in  the  West  as  far  as  the  Falls  of  St.  An- 
thony: visited  the  Dakota  Indians,  and  on  her  return  was 
distinguished  by  originality  of  min.l  and  independoneo  of 
manner.  She  took  anatomical  lessons  in  St.  Louis,  and 
both  worked  in  clay  and  chiselled  marble  at  home.  In 
1852  she  went  to  Rome  with  her  father  and  Miss  Charlotte 
Cushman  ;  was  received  into  Gibson's  studio;  studied  hard 
un^lcr  him,  and  s"on  won  her  way  to  public  favor.  Her 
statue  of  /'lie/,-,  sent  to  Roston  in  1S50.  made  her  reputa- 
tion in  her  own  country;  it  was  frequently  copied.  Her 
Bf<itr!cc  Ccnci  and  Xcvuhin,  both  full-length  statues,  the 
latter  of  colossal  size,  were  more  ambitious  works,  hut  of 
less  originality.  She  exhibited  at  the  I'aris  Exposition  in 
18G7  a  statue  called  The  Sleepmj  F'um.  The  legislature  of 
Missouri  honored  Miss  Ilosmer  with  a  commission  to  make 
a  statue  of  Thomas  H.  Benton.  With  the  exception  of  a. 
brief  visit  to  her  native  country,  the  artist  has  remained 
in  Rome  since  her  first  visit.  0.  li.  Fiiotiiix<:iiam. 

Ilosmcr  (William  llExny  CvvLKn).  A.  M.,  b.  at  Avon, 
N.  Y.,  May  25,  1814;  was  educated  at  Genesee  College; 
became  a  lawyer  of  Avon  and  a  master  in  chancery:  re- 
moved in  1854  to  New  York,  and  became  a  custom-house 
officer.  Author  of  The  FM  „f  T.rmnHch  (1830).  )-,„i.,m- 
dhm  (1844).  r/if  Monlhn,  llhd-iXolrt.  Lryniih  nj  //i,.- Aelic- 
ca„.  I„<li<«,  7'i-,../i'(i'...i«">i<i.S''"'r/«(1850),etc.;  Complete  I'oct- 
ical  Worhi,  (2  vols.,  1S53).  D.  at  Avon,  N.  Y.,  May  23,  l.S,7. 
Hos'pice  [Fr.  for  "  hospital"],  the  name  given  to  the 
houses  maintained  bv  ecclesiastics  for  the  relief  of  travel- 
lers passing  over  the  Alps  in  stormy  weather.  That  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  founded  in  962  and  inhabited  by  Augus- 
tinian  monks,  is  the  most  celebrated.  Others  arc  kept 
up  at  the  principal  passes  of  the  Alps.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  other  charitable  institutions,  such  as  the  former 
asvlum  upon  the  Abendberg,  Switzerland,  lor  the  treatment 
of'eretius,  and  various  establishments  for  those  suffering 
with  ment.al  disease. 

Hospin'ian  (RiDOLPn).  b.  at  Altdorf  Nov.  7,  1547; 
studied  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg;  held  different  posi- 
tions in  the  Reformed  Church  of  his  native  country,  and 
d.  at  Zurich  Mar.  11,  1626.  The  most  prominent  of  his 
works  are— /)e  .l/<yiiiu'/ii»  (1588),  Ih:  Fctlie  Chriatlaiiorum 
(1593),  De  Festia  JuJliorum  el  El!iiiirorum  (1592\  C'oiicor- 
dia  Ditcora  (1609),  which  occasioned  much  controversy 
with  the  (Jerman  Lutherans  ;  and  Hitlnria  Snerumenturia 
(1598-1602).  A  collected  edition  of 'his  works  was  pub- 
lished in  7  vols.  fol.  at  Geneva  in  1681. 

Hos'pital  [from  the  Latin  Aos/ji'faKs,  "  pertaining  to 
guests  or  strangers;"  Fr.  Iwpiial ;  Gcr.  A'lnii^ii/inin,  Laz- 
areth;  It.  oapedalr:].  Hospitals  for  the  sick  poor  appear 
to  have  been  established  in  India,  through  the  inllueneo 
of  Booddhist  priests,  about  220  ii.  c.  They  are,  however, 
more  especially  characteristic  of  Christianity,  and  were 
recognized  institutions  in  the  fourth  century.  (For  account 
of  the  first  hospitals,  properly  so  eallcd.  consult  H.  Haser, 
DisHcrtxtin  de  emu  ayrolonim ptibliea  a  Chrialiauis  Oriuuda, 
Grvphiswald,  1856.)  .         ... 

Hospitals,  as  now  existing,  are  institutions  intended  pri- 
marily for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  ;  secondarily, 
to  furnish  means  of  instruction  to  students  of  medicine,  to 
serve  as  monuments  or  memorials  of  their  founders,  or  as 
a  means  of  support  or  excuse  for  the  existence  of  a  society, 
charitable  organization,  or  medical  school.  The  general 
principles  of  hospital  location,  arrangement,  and  eonstrue- 
tion.  with  reference  to  the  requirements  of  the  sick  and  to 
facility  of  administration,  may  be  considered  as  fairly  es- 
tablished; but  while,  theoretically,  these  requirements  out- 
weigh all  others,  it  will  usually  be  found  in  piaetico  that  for 
any^proposed  hospital  there  will  be  somelhing  in  the  site, 
limit  of  cost,  or  purpose  of  the  builder  which  will  require  a 
modification  of  what  may  be  termed  the  standard  plan  ;  and 
that  in  inanv  eases  the  so-called   secondary  objects  will  be 


Council  of  Siriuium,  and  afte'r  wearisome  persecution  the  \  really,  though  not  perhaps   avowedly,  of  primary  import- 


aged  llosius  felt  eiinipelled  to  submit  in  part  to  the  impe 
rial  will,  and  to  take  the  communion  with  Arians,  but  he 
would  not  condemn  Athanasius.  In  357  he  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Cordova,  where  he  d.  in  358  a.  d. 

Uos'kins,  or  Iloskyns  (Jon.v),  b.  in  Herefordshire; 
was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  a  fellow  of  New  College, 
scrgcant-at-law,  and  a  justice  itinerant  in  Wales  ;  was  the 
instructor  of  Ben  Jonson.  Author  of  the  An  of  Memoii/, 
of  a  Greek  lexicon,  unlinishcd,  of  legal  writings,  and  ol 
Latin  and  English   epigrams.     D.    1638.— Another  John 


ancc.  Hospitals  may  be  designed  to  receive  patients  of 
both  sexes  and  all  ages,  or  may  be  more  or  less  si>eeial- 
ized,  as  for  women,  for  the  insane,  for  contagious  dis- 
eases, etc. 

In  some  respects  the  simplest  form  of  hospital  is  that 
intended  for  ailult  males  only,  as  in  the  military  and  naval 
service  ;  and  it  is  now  believed  that  in  these,  in  which  the 
secondary  objects  above  referred  to  need  not  be  ruiisid- 
ercd,  the  buildings  should  be  temporary  in  character— that 
is,  not   intended   to    last  more  than  ten  or  twelve  years. 


HOSPITAL. 


1003 


Such  hu.-ipitals  are  found,  by  experience,  to  be  more  favor- 
able to  tbc  recovery  of  the  sick  and  wounded,  because  of 
the  less  prevalence  of  erysipelas,  ho.<pituI  gangrene,  and 
other  seplica^Ditc  diseases,  than  the  much  mure  urnanicntal, 
pretentious,  and  cui^tly  structures  which  are  usually  desired 
by  societies,  municipalities,  or  private  donors.  In  a  linan- 
ctal  point  of  view,  the  temporary  hospitals  arc  the  most 
economical,  fur,  as  has  been  elsewhere  shown,*  if  the 
money  required  to  construct  a  stone  or  elaborately  orna- 
mented brick  hospital  were  divided  into  two  equal  parts, 
one-hiilf  being  used  to  put  up  frame  buildings  ol  the  same 
capacity,  and  the  other  half  being  invested  at  C  per  cent., 
the  income  from  the  latter  sum  would  suffice  to  furnish  a 
new  hoiipital  every  twelve  years  for  succeeding  generations. 

Tho  true  principles  of  hospital  eonslruction,  as  first  es- 
tablished by  a  commission  of  tho  French  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence? in  177S,  and  subsequently  elaborated  as  to  details 
by  Nightingale,  (Jalton,  Oppcrt,  and  others,  may  bo  briefly 
stated  as  follows  :  The  important  part  of  the  hospital  is 
the  ward,  which  should  be  separated  from  the  administra- 
tive part  of  the  institution,  and  should  be  arranged  in 
pavilions,  preferably  of  one  story,  and  never  more  than 
two,  in  height.  These  pavilion  wards  should  be  about  25 
feet  wide.  If  feet  high,  and  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  not 
less  than  100  square  feet  per  bed.  In  warm  climates  the 
height  should  be  15  feet  and  the  floor-space  per  bed  120 
square  feel.  Not  more  than  32  beds  should  bo  placed  in 
each  ward.  The  windows  should  bo  opposite  each  other, 
and  reach  from  within  three  feet  of  the  floor  to  one  foot 
from  thec^■iling:  tlicy  should  t)ccupy  one-third  of  tho  wall- 
space,  have  a  nearly  E.  and  W.  exposure,  and  in  cold  cli- 
mates should  be  double  sashed  or  of  plate-glass.  The  floors 
and  other  woodwork  should  be  of  hard  pine  or  oak.  with 
impervious  joints,  waxed,  oiled,  or  permeated  with  parat- 
fine,  an<l  polished.  It  is  usually  stated  that  the  wall-s  should 
be  made  as  smooth  and  non-absorptive  as  jiossiblc  by  tho 
use  of  parian  cement,  paraffine,  silicates,  oil-paint,  etc. 
It  has  been  even  proposed  to  make  them  of  glass.  The 
advantage  of  this  is  doubtful.  An  ordinary  plastered  wall 
absorbs  gases  and  organic  compounds  to  a  very  considera- 
ble extent,  and  they  arc  then  oxidized  au<l  reduced  to  more 
stable  compounds,  much  as  sewage  is  atfected  in  a  running 
stream,  and  the  ilcpuralivc  and  quasi-respiratory  powers  of 
such  walls  should  not  bo  overlooked.  iMaking  them  im- 
permeable is  somewhat  like  varnishing  an  atiimal's  skin, 
and  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  as  to  its  good  efl"ccts. 
For  a  permanent  hospital  it  might  be  best  to  construct  tho 
walls  with  the  ordinary  hard  finish — to  have,  as  suggested 
by  Dr.  George  Derby,  one  ward  always  ernjity  and  ojien  to 
the  outer  air — each  ward  being  tlius  emptied  and  fresh- 
ened in  succession — and  to  have  the  old  plaster  torn  out 
and  tho  walls  fresh  plastered  once  iu  five  or  six  years. 

The  great  object  is  to  have  the  ward  supplied  with  plenty 
of  light  and  fresh  air,  and  to  kee])  it  at  a  proper  tempera- 
ture. The  minimum  amount  of  fresh  air  to  be  furnished  is 
3000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  per  m:in,  and  under  some 
circumstances  it  may  bo  desirable  to  double  this  amount. 
The  modes  of  cfTectiug  this  will  bo  discussed  in  the  article 
Vkntii.atiox.  The  ventilation  of  each  ward,  water-closet, 
bath-n»om,  and  kitchen  should  be  entirely  inde|icndent 
of  all  other  rooms,  halls,  or  parts  of  tho  building.  The 
kittheii  and  laundry  should  be  either  iu  a  separate  building, 
or  in  the  upper  story  of  tho  adtninistrativc  building;  they 
should  never  be  put  beneath  tho  wards  or  ofliees.  The  va- 
rious offices  required  for  tho  administrative  department  arc 
necessarily  much  alike,  whether  the  institution  be  largo  or 
Fio.  1. 


pH 


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FlQ.  2. 


Regulation  plan  for  a  IT.  S.  post  Imspital  of  2-t  beds.  A,  attcnd- 
anl.H*  I'liotu  ;  It,  lialli-rufini ;  C.cl()'trts;  P,  dinnensary  ;  K,  earth 
or  water  closets;  H,  hall;  K,  kilehon ;  M,  mes»-rooni ;  N, 
nurse;  V,  pantry;  S,  stores;  St,  steward;  V,  verandah;  W. 
ward  ;  I  W,  isolation  ward. 


*  rironlar  No.  4,  War  Deparltnent.  Surpeon-Gcneral's  Ofliee, 
Washington,  1870 ;  Report  tm  Barrackt  and  UotpitaU,  pp.  xxli., 
xxiii. 


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Plan  of  the  Ilicks  Hospital,  near  Baltimore,  Md. 
A,  adniinistraliou  buildings;  M,  messordinint;-rooin;  K.  kitchen 
and  laundry;  At,  attendants' quarters;  L,  linen  anii  ilotliin;;; 
Qr,  quartermaster's  quarters;  S,  stores;  <J,  Kuard-bouse  ami 
quarters;  W,  wards;  C'h  W  M,  chief  wardmaster's  quarters; 
N,  nurses' quarters;  D  II. dead-house;  W  .S,  workshop;  C  W, 
ward  for  contagious  diseases.  N.  B.  The  light  portion  (N  B) 
not  built. 

Fig.  3. 


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Ground-plan  of  U.  S.  Army  General  Hospital,  West  Phila- 
driphia,  Pa..  18f.2. 
A,  adminlHrntlon  building;  O,  «»fflcors' quarters;  W,  wards;  K, 
kitchens;  K  I)  K.  exlia-<Iiet  kitchen  ;  La.laundry;  Ms,  mess- 
room  ;  M  St,  medical  store-room;  Com,  connnissary  store- 
room; ('.  corridor;  Bd,  band;  Sm,  smoking-room;  H,  builiT 
and  boiler-room:  K,  ent^iueer's  gong,  tire-pump,  elr,;  W  (', 
water-elosets;  /.  laboratory;  L.  lecture-room  and  lihrary;  S, 
sentry;  Ga,nate;  G, guard;  G  B.  guard-barnicks ;  r,  Il.miaid- 
houHe;  P,  printing-otfiee;  G  nmi  ]>,  clrrks'  and  driii,'u'i>l^' 
mess-room;  T,  tanks;  St,  stables  and  sheds;  F  S,  i\m;  stall"; 
Pa,  parade. 

A'o/'.— Capacity  beds:  rain.  2GC2;  max.  3124.  This  includes 
guard-barracks,  132. 

The  wiirds  are  each  21  feet  wide,  in  feet  high  at  the  wall,  and 
19  feet  at  the  nenk.  The  ward-iinislerV  and  .*^isiers'  rooms  in 
front,  and  the  bath-rootns  and  water-closets  in  the  rear,  take  20 
feel  from  each  ward.  The  wards  are  ventilated  at  the  ridge. 
Tho  central  or  administrniion  building,  the  store-houses,  extra- 


1004 


HOSPITALLERS-HOT-AIR   ENGINE. 


diet  kilchen,  and  smnkins  building  are  "f>  »7°  ^'°™^  '''f,';,; 
The  secon.l  ilorv  ofllie  firsl  n;inied  lurnisiies  <  uai  er>  for  t  i. 
officers  lat  or  ti.e  slore-roonis  und  extra-diet  ^.tcl.eu  lor  the 
S'lters  of  ri'arity,  clerks,  druggists,  and  l.osp.tal  attendanls, 
small;  hence  for  small  hospitals,  such  as  those  for  maitary 
posts  in  the  U.  S.  army,  which  usually  contain  Irom  I-  to 
24  beds,  the  ward  becomes  a  comparatively  small  part  ot 

the  buildinj;-  (l''iS-  !•)  ,  -i  j  f„. 

When  a  lar-e  number  of  patients  arc  to  be  provided  lor, 
the  pavilions  mav  be  arranged  to  radiate  from  a  common 
centre,  or  from  H-shaped  corridors,  or  m  ccliclm,  m  a  tri- 
angle.    These  plans  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  2,  3,  4 : 
Fio.  4. 


Plan  of  Lincoln  Hospital,  Washineton  D.  C. 
A,  administration  buildinc;  W,  wards;  L,  laundry  ;D,dimnB- 
rooin;  K,  principal  kitchen;  W  M,  chief  wardmasters  quar- 
ters; SC  Sisters  of  Charity's  quarters;  E,  *f  »'"-''"?l"L'.*g' 
store-room-  WO,  water-closets;  C,  cliapel ;  bt,  staljle,  t>, 
euard-house ;  D  U.  dead-house ;  Su,  surgeons'  quarters ;  L,  cor- 
?kb,r  (covered);  R,  reservoir;  CS,  cow-stable;  CA,  colored 
attendants. 


ittcndants.  ,  it   »         • 

The  three  large  hospitals  above  figured  were  all  Ameri- 
can arniv  hospitals  in  use  during  the  late  war.  Many  other 
ways  of' arranging  the  pavilions  can  be  easily  devised  to 
suit  locality,  direction  of  prevailing  winds,  etc. 

Besides  the  care  of  the  sick,  it  is  necessary  in  many  hos- 
pitals to  provide  for  the  supervision  and  restraint  of  the 
vicious.     A  considerable  portion  of  the  applicants  for  hos- 
pital relief  in  our  large  cities  are  suffering  from  the  effects 
of  lust  and  drink,  and  if  opportunity  bo  allowed  will  per- 
petuate or  ac-'ravate  their  maladies  by  repeating  the  origi- 
nal cause,     'fhe  proper  restraint  of  patients  without  giving 
the  building  a  gloomy  and  prison-like  aspect  is  best  secured 
by  placing  the  hospital  in  such  a  location  that  access  to 
meins  of  dissipation  shall  be  as  difRcult  as  possible.     On 
this  account  a  small  island  is  a  very  desirable  locality,  and 
especially  so  in  seaport   towns  and  for  marine  hospitals. 
Floating  temporary  hospitals  also  have  many  advan  ages 
at  such  points.     Whatever  be  th..  plan  of  the  hospital,  the 
most  important  thing  is  that  it  shall  be  under  the  constant 
hygienic  supervision  and  management  of  a  competent  man 
who  should  be  a  physician.     A  hospital  under  non-profes- 
sional superintendence,  or  which  is  to  rely  on  the  occasional 
advice  of  its  attending  physicians,  who  have  other  interes  s, 
will  almost  surely  deteriorate,  and  the  temporary  barrack- 
plan  is  specially"  useful  in  such  cases,  as  making  the  evil 
results  less  permanent  and  costly.  „       .    , 

(For  details  on  this  subject  consult  Oi-PF.nr,  Ho>p<loh. 
Infirnmno,  and  D;«p,n,„rU«  (London,  1SG7),  m  which  .3 
giVen,  pp.  xiii.-xvi.,  a  good  bibliography;  llfssov.  i/r.-/c 
,„r  Ir.  U.'.p;i,u,x  (Paris,  1S62):  Nir.iiTiNOAT.F;,  A.."-«  "" 
//„,,„■«-/.  (T.ondon,  1808.  lid  ed.) :  Essb,  2)^  Krankcn- 
hiiu-rr  (2d  cd.,  Berlin,  1S6S) ;  Bemocet  (A.),  Eli'd'  nur  In 
cniinlnirllon  den  ambulnncci  trmporaire:  nous  /■>rme  rfe 
Jl,tr<u„i<-mcnl»  fuh'C  r/'ioi  cinni  snr  hn  hupttniixciiili  pcr- 
„„u,r,'lH  (Paris,  1871):  il'porl  of  the  Ho,,al  Cov,m,»io>, 
{Si;TiiEiii.ANn  and  Gai.ton)  appnlnled  for  ^"'P™';'"'  'f 
CmlitUm  of  lIoHpitnh  nml  «.„■,■«,/■«  (London,  1863) ;  liAi.- 
Tf.N.  Rnyrl  Dr.criptii-,'  of  ,hc  llrrl.crt  Ho.p,tal  {London 
1  S(SM  ;  tiALTON,  An  Addrcm  on  ihc  (irncn,/  I'nncpleKwIm-h 
uhonld  be  Ohui-n-i-d  in  llie  Contlruction  of  IlnipilnlH  (\jon- 
don  ISO!));  Smith  (Stepiies),  Prmciph,  of  llo.pitnl  Con- 
,ln,rlio»  (New  York,  186r.)  ;  R<-po^<  """■"■"•f  T  ,'"" 
p.V,,/,,  Circular  4,  Surgeon- Genenil's  Office  (Washington, 

|g-Q>  JOII.S    S.  Bll.LlNOS,  M.   i). 


Ilos'pitallers,  a  name  given  to  the  members  of  various 
fraternities  and  sisterhoods  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
who  join  to  the  vows  of  perpetual  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  another  which  binds  them  to  serve  the  poor  and 
sick  in  hospitals.  Some  knightly  orders  also  took  the  mo- 
nastic and  hospital  vows-such  as  the  Knights  o  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  tirst-mentioned  order, 
at  least,  i?  appears  that  the  ho.piu.l.  they  founded  were 
rather  in  the  nature  of  honlds  or  public  inns.  There  have 
been  twelve  or  more  monastic  congregations  whose  mem- 
bers were  popularly  called  Hospitallers  but  the  erm  more 
generally  Jenotes  the  Knights  ol  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
(See  St.  Jons  of  jEursALEM,  KNuaiTS  of.) 

Ilos'liodar  rSlavie],  a  former  title  of  the  governors 
ofW  Ulachbi  and  Moldivia  under  the  Turks.  The  term 
si..nilies  •■  master."  The  same  officers  were  also  called 
wSiwodes  or  wojewods-,'.  c.  dukes  or  leaders.  Ihe  cza 
of  Russia  is  popularly  called  Inmoodur  or  ,jo,pod.,,  forms 
of  "hospodar;''  and  equivalent  titles  were  employed  by 
Polish  kings  and  Lithuanian  princes  in  former  days. 

Host  [Lat.  ho„l„.  "  victim,"  "sacrifice"],  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  consecrated  ^^^'^'^"'['^  ''/ZSord 
licved  by  that  Church  to  be  the  veritable  body  "f  •'"=  l-'™ 
Je  us  Christ.  As  such,  it  is  elevated  by  tlie  priest  at  the 
mass  for  the  adoration  of  the  people.  It  is  a  "rcular  w.a  cr 
or  cake  of  unleayened  bread,  having  yarious  emblematic 
figures,  made  of  the  finest  wheaten  flour  It  is  borne  upon 
a°plate  called  the  paten,  broken  by  the  priest  over  the 
chalice,  and  distributed  to  the  laity. 

Hos'tagcs  arc  persons  placed  under  the  control  of  the 
govenimcnfo?  a  strte  as  pl'edges  of  the  faithful  fulfilment 
of  a  treaty.  The  same  custom  has  taken  place  when  a  cap- 
tured vessel  is  allowed  to  go  on  its  way  upon  what  is  called 
a  ransom  contract,  and  also  in  other  stipulations  be  ween 
p.arties  at  war.  The  practice  is  going  out  of  use  in  the 
'Kr^-nientioned  case.  tL  last  instance  known  to  the  writer 
of  this  article  having  been  the  detention  of  two  B  itish 
noblemen  on  parole  at  Paris  after  the  peace  of  A.x-la- 
Clr  pelle  in  1748,  who  were,  in  fact,  to  remain  in  this  con- 
dition until  Cape  Breton  should  be  restored  t^o  Fran^c^^^^ 

Ho'strup  (Jens  CnniSTiAN),  b.  in  1819  :  studied  theol- 
n.rv  at  the  Un  versity  of  Copenhagen,  and  took  orders  in 
??  4  While  vet  a  young  .nan  he  became  the  fi.vor.te  ol 
the  Danish  people  on  account  of  hisconicdies-f^K"'"'"-.'''. 
E^EL„ir  \J,  Fodrcisen,  Me„er  o,j  Urhn.j,  etc.--whieh 
give  a  fresh  original,  and  exquisitely  humorous  picture  ot 
fl  e  D^uiish  middle  classes.  After  taking  orders  he  ceased 
to  wVite  for  the  theatre.  "  Life  has  become  too  grave  an 
affair  to  me ;  I  have  forgotten  to  laugh. 

Hot-air  En'gine,  a  prime  mover  in  which  the  motive- 
power  is  derived  TroMi  the  expansion  of  atmospheric  air  by 
IZi  Numerous  invcnti.ms'  of  this  kind  have  been  pro- 
Succl,  of  which  the  earliest  to  excite  intcres  was  hat  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Stirling,  now  ..f  tialston,  Ayrshire,  in  i^cot- 
and  patented  in  181C;  though  earlier  air  engines  were 
co^s'.rS^d  by  Sir  eieo;ge  Ca^ley  and  "'hers  which  seem 

to  bave  ^^^^^^ix:z  ::^t^'^y^^ 

provement  on  btlUings  cngini  ».>.."„(,  > 

Lothcr,  Mr.  James  Stirling  ;  and  this  "-s  pa  cn.ed  ,n  s  - 
and  a^ain,  with  further  improvements,  in  1840.  Among 
;^ore  rfecnt  inventions  of  this  class  which  have  been  more 
^r  less  successful  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Lriesson.  Wil- 
e^  Rope  and  Slmws  all  of  this  country,  and  those  of  Lau- 
beriu  an  1  Belon  of  France.  At  the  Vienna  l^NP-J"'""  «[ 
IS-  1  there  was  exhibited,  by  Friedrich  Siemens  "f  B"I'°. 
ind^r  the  name  of  a  ...lorunoU.r,  a  working  -'".l  o  a  hot- 
.'  .        .,„  ,.„;,,.  ,,  novel  plan  :  more  remarkable   how- 

::;;;^iU  ng^nuit^Z:  J  promise  of  utmty  It  would 
be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  an  article  like  the  present 
to  gWe  a  detailed  description  of  these  various  forms  of 
to   gi^t   II  '^'^'„.  __,  ,^  Vi„...:„„   c.w.h   nort  (Millars,  are  re- 


ne'lanisn,  Those  who  desire  such  particulars,  arc  r  - 
?e.rred  to  the  lUport  on  th.-  Morhinr^i  <•'"'.  .'"•"'"■^-f  '''^ 
l"Ltr-ial  .1.-,.,  etc.  in  the  Paris  Exposition  of  80,,  by 
the  pre  cm  writer.  In  what  follows,  it  is  proposed  to  give 
^ly^'t'^l^dr  characteristic  Uffercnees,  and  <» -' '-  -;;'^- 
general  principles  relating  to  this  mode  of  gcneiating  mo 

"  Anfonns  of  the  hot-air  engine  have  certain  advantages 
in  common,  and  all  arc  subject  to  certain  <1'^-';"'''^K«^ 
whSarc  i  .separable  from  the  system.  It  is  an  advantage 
hat  iK-v  require  no  boiler,  and  are  exempt  from  the  dan- 
ge  hfeh  arise  from  that  source.  Coubl  a_ir  be  emplo  ed 
a  a  pressure  equal  to  that  of  steam,  it  would  be  an  in, port- 
aL^rdva.  ta-e  to  be  free  from  the  great  weight  which  .he 
use  o  the  l»iler  necessitates,  and  -^-f^<^"''';^-^^l''' 
bulk  As  yet,  however,  this  condition  has  not  been  real- 
i,.d,  and  bene;  the  dimensions  of  the  'forking  par  s  of  air- 
onginos  are  necessarily  so  much  more  considerable  th.m 


HOT-AIR  ENGINE. 


1005 


those  of  steam-engines  of  corresponding  power,  as  to  ren- 
Jtr  llic  g:iin  in  lliis  direction,  if  there  is  any,  unimportant. 
It  is,  howcvir.  :m  advnntugo  that  air-engines  are  cheaper 
of  construc;lii)n  lh:in  those  driven  by  steam,  and  that  their 
uianageinent  is  easier,  and  requires  less  constant  watchful- 
ness. It  has  generally  been  claimed  for  thiin  that  they 
economize  fuel.  Theory  might  seem  to  justify  Ibis  claim, 
but  in  practice  it  has  not  been  generally  sustained.  The 
disadvantages  of  air-engines  consist  in  the  ditficulty  of 
heating  and  cooling  tho  air  employed,  with  the  rapidity 
necessary  to  secure  the  best  performance ;  and  in  tho  fact 
that  the  supply  of  the  cylinder  consumes  more  than  half 
the  power  developed.  To  this  it  may  be  added,  that,  while 
the  efhciency  of  the  machine  depends  upon  the  ditierenco 
between  the  ma.xinium  and  minimum  tcmperatuics,  there 
are  certain  practical  limits  which  neither  of  thcso  temper- 
atures can  transcend. 

Air-engines  may  bo  arranged  in  two  classes,  of  which 
the  first  embraces  those  which  draw  their  supplies  directly 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  discharge  them  into  the  atmo- 
sphere again  after  they  have  produced  their  effect ;  and  tho 
second,  those  which  employ  continually  the  same  air,  which 
is  alternately  heated  and  cooled  but  is  not  allowed  to  es- 
cape. Stirling's  first  engine  belonged  to  the  first  of  these 
classes;  his  later  forms,  to  the  second.  To  tho  first  also 
belong  Ericsson's,  Wilcox's.  Roper's,  Shaw's  and  lielou's;" 
to  the  second,  hauberau's.  The  second  class  have  the  ailvan- 
tage  that  they  admit  the  use  of  high  pressures;  but  this  is 
attended  with  the  disadvantage  that  they  require  refrigerat- 
ing appliances,  which,  with  the  first,  are  whidly  unnecessary. 

In  each  of  these  classes  a  subordinate  classification  may 
be  made,  according  as  the  air  is  heated  in  the  cylinder  in 
which  it  Dcrforms  its  work,  or  in  a  separate  chamber.  The 
jdan  of  the  Ericsson  engine  is  the  first  of  these.  That  of 
Koper's,  Shaw's  and  lielou's,  the  second.  In  Laubcrau's, 
which  docs  not  discharge  the  air,  the  heat  is  applied  in  one 
cylinder,  and  the  work  is  done  in  another.  In  this  class  of 
engines  the  arrangements  admit  of  a  variety  of  modifica- 
tions. The  heater  and  the  refrigerator,  for  example,  may 
be  both  independent  of  the  working  cylinder,  and  of  each 
other:  presenting  an  analogy  to  the  boiler  and  condenser 
of  the  steam-engine ;  or  the  refrigerator  only  m.iy  bo  sep- 
arate; or  finally,  as  in  the  engine  of  Lauberau,  the  heating 
and  refrigeration  may  take  place  at  the  opposite  extrem- 
ities of  the  same  vessel,  the  air  being  driven  from  one  end 
to  the  other  alternately  by  means  of  a  plunger. 

It  is  true  of  these,  as  of  all  engines  operated  by  heat, 
that  there  is  a  theoretic  limit  to  the  economy  of  which  they 
are  capable — that  is  to  say,  whatever  be  the  amount  of  heat 
received  from  the  source,  a  fraction  only  of  this  can  under 
any  circumstances  be  converted  into  mechanical  force  :  and 
theory  enables  us  to  state  definitely  the  maximum  value 
which  this  fraction  can  have.  This  maximum  depends  on 
the  extreme  temperatures  at  the  command  of  the  engineer. 
Suppose  the  highest  of  these  temperatures,  as  referred  to  the 
absolute  zero  (a  point  2".'!°  C.  below  the  freezing-point  of 
water)  to  be  represented  by  T,  and  the  lowest,  referred  to 
the  same  zero,  by  T';  then  if  Q  be  the  entire  quantity  of 
heat  imparted  to  the  air,  steam,  or  vapor  operating  any 
thermodynamic  engine;  and  U,  the  portion  of  that  quan- 
tity capable  of  being  converted  into  useful  effect,  it  is  true 
in  all  cased  that 

U     T  -  T' 

Q"  T  ■ 
This  principle  wo  take  at  present  for  granted.  For  tho 
demonstration  of  its  truth  see  T/fcrmofti/numim.  It  follows 
that,  in  proportion  as  the  interval  between  T  and  T'  is  in- 
creased, the  machine  will  work  with  correspondingly  greater 
economy.  This  interval  can  bo  increased  by  increasing  T, 
or  by  diminishing  T',  or  by  doing  both  at  once.  It  is  im- 
practicable, however,  to  employ  a  refrigerator  having  a 
temperature  below  that  of  the  weather.  We  must  therefore 
take  for  a  mean  lower  limit  about  17°  C,  or  t')2.i>°  K.,  a  tem- 
perature which,  referred  to  tho  absolute  zero,  is  equal  to 
21H»°  ('.  On  tho  other  hand,  a  practical  upper  limit  is  im- 
posed by  the  consideration  that  a  red  heat  is  reached  for 
solids  at  about  650°  C,  which  is  923°  C.  above  the  absolute 
zero.  This  limit  coulil  not  be  safely  approached  ;  but  sup- 
posing it  to  be  actually  attained,  the  economical  cocfhoient 
would  be 

121- 2««^  0.684, 
923 

or  a  little  more  than  two-thirds  of  tho  heat  taken  up  by 

the  air.     Probably  no  hot-air  engine  has  yet  been  actually 

employed  in  which  tho  temperature  has  been  carrii-d  much 

alxive  3110°  ('.  ^Vith  a  maximum  temperature  of  307°  C.  — 

.'iH{)°  C.  above  the  absolute  zero,  the  economical  coelEoioDt 

would  bo 

680-290      „,„ 

—  0.50, 

5S0  ' 


which  would  show  a  utilization  of  one-half  the  heat  taken 
up.  The  first  Ericsson  engine  was  designed  to  work  at  u 
maximum  temperature  of  about  460°  F.  =  232°  C  =  506° 
above  the  absolute  zero.  The  limit  of  economy  realizable  by 
it,  had  it  been  successful,  and  provided  tho  air  eould  have 
been  made  to  pass  through  the  complete  cycle  of  changes 
of  temperature  and  pressure  embraced  in  the  theory,  would 
b&vo  been 

505-290       „  .„„ 

— TX: =  0.426. 

50o 

But  in  point  of  fact,  no  hot-airenginefulfils,  or  can  fulfil 
completely,  the  theoretic  conditions.  In  order  to  do  so  it 
would  be  necessary  that  the  air  should  leave  the  working 
cylinder  at  the  minimum  temperature:  that  is  to  say,  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  that  of  the  supply  :  or  else  that,  by 
some  contrivance,  the  excess  of  heat  which  it  retains  should 
be  transferred  to  the  supply  on  its  way  to  the  working  cylin- 
der. As  tho  first  of  these  conditions — that  is  to  say,  tho 
expansion  of  the  air,  in  working,  sufficiently  to  reduce  the 
temperature  to  the  minimum — is  practically  unrealizable, 
it  is  the  second  which  inventors  have  in  many  instances 
sought  to  secure.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  emer- 
gent air  has,  in  some  eases,  been  made  to  jiass  through 
successive  sheets  of  wire  gauze,  or  between  thin  sheets  of 
metal,  or  has  been  in  some  other  manner  brought  into  con- 
tact with  metallic  surfaces  of  large  extent  in  proportion  to 
the  weight  of  the  mass,  in  order  that  the  excess  of  heat 
being  transferred  to  these  might  be  afterwards  taken  up  by 
the  cold  air  of  the  supply  as  it  enters.  The  first  of  the  ex- 
l)cdients  here  mentioned  was  employed  by  Ericsson,  and  the 
second  in  the  successive  inventions  of  Stirling.  In  Shaw's 
engine,  the  hot  air  escapes  through  a  cluster  of  thin  tubes, 
while  the  cold  air  circulates  between  them.  The  term 
"  regenerator"  was  applied  by  Ericsson  to  this  contrivance, 
as  applied  to  his  original  engine,  and  this  term  has  come 
into  general  use.  'The  regenerator  is  applicable  to  any 
form  of  engine,  but  it  is  not  employed  in  all.  The  theoretic 
advantage  is  considerable,  but  in  practice  is  not  fully  real- 
ized :  and  it  is  attended  with  the  disadvantage  of  sensibly 
increasing  the  amiiunt  of  the  )iassive  resistances  of  the 
machine.  In  fact,  in  order  that  the  regenerator,  suppose 
it  for  instance  to  be  a  succession  of  wire  gauze  sheets, 
should  entirely  absorb  the  excess  of  heat  of  the  escajiing 
air,  the  number  of  sheets  should  be  very  considerable.  It 
is  easily  seen  tluit  if  this  number  were  quite  unlimited, 
there  would  be  somewhere  a  point  at  which  the  air  wouM 
have  no  longer  any  heat  to  impart ;  its  temperature  being 
sensibly  reduced  to  that  of  the  metal.  From  this  jioiiit 
backward  to  the  cylinder  from  which  it  was  discharged, 
the  successive  sheets  of  wire  gauze  would  rise  in  temper- 
ature, and  the  last  one  would  have  sensibly  the  same 
temperature  as  that  with  which  the  air  emerged.  Tho 
number  of  sheets  which  would  be  required  effectually  to 
absorb  the  heat  would  depend  for  a  given  excess  of  temper- 
ature upon  the  closeness  of  the  meshes,  and  in  any  ease 
must  be  considerable.  The  obstruction  which  every  such 
contrivance  necessarily  presents  to  tho  free  passage  of  tho 
air,  creates  a  resistance  which  makes  its  presence  objection- 
able, and  which  may  go  far  to  neutralize  the  advantage 
which  it  is  designed  to  secure.  By  diminishing  the  number 
of  the  sheets  and  the  closeness  of  the  meshes,  the  resistance 
is  reduced,  but  the  absorption  of  the  heat  is  proportionally 
less  complete.  Practically,  where  the  regenerator  continues 
to  bo  used,  a  middle  course  is  taken  ;  the  economy  is  not 
wholly  realized,  and  the  obstruction  to  circulatiun  is  not 
very  serious.  This  is  the  case  in  the  engine  of  Shaw,  in 
which  the  regenerator  consists,  as  above  remarked,  of  a 
series  of  tubes.  It  is  to  be  considered,  however,  that  tho 
loss  of  heat  suffered  in  operating  engines  driven  by  heated 
air  or  steam  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  fraction,  largo 
as  it  is,  of  the  heat  which,  after  being  actually  imparted  to 
tho  medium,  is  unavailable  for  work.  If  this  were  true, 
the  cost  of  working  such  engines  would  fall  to  a  very  small 
proportion  of  what  it  actually  is.  It  is  unfortunately  the 
case  that  by  far  the  largest  source  of  loss  is  to  be  found  in 
the  escape  of  a  great  part  of  the  heat  which  the  comlnis- 
tiblo  develops,  in  other  ways  than  in  raising  the  lenijuT- 
ature  of  the  elastic  medium  which  does  tho  work.  And 
the  improvement  of  all  these  engines,  so  far  aa  economy  is 
concerned,  is  to  bo  sought  in  such  forms  of  furnace  and 
such  modes  of  applying  heat  as  may  reduce  what  is  now 
the  sheer  waste  cd  the  chimneys  or  of  the  radiating  surfaces, 
rather  than  in  tho  endeavor  to  push  to  extremes  the  tem- 
peratures employed  in  the  working  cylin<Ier.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  difficulty  of  guarding  against  los.sea 
by  conduction  and  radiation  is  enormously  iucrea.sid 
when  excessive  tempi'ratures  are  employed  :  and  al.-o  that 
such  temperatures  decompose  lubricants,  destroy  packing, 
and,  by  the  large  expansion  which  they  give  to  metals, 
loosen  joints,  and  impair  the  strength  of  tho  whole  struc- 
ture.    Since  the  l;irgt.^t   luuMi  lor  economy  is  evidi  ntly  in 


1006 


HOT-AIR  ENGINE. 


the  direction  of  preventing  the  useless  waste  at  pres- 
ent occurring,  the  effort  should  be  to  keep  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  as  low,  and  not  to  push  it  as  high,  as 
pussiljle. 

In  passing  to  particular  forra:^  of  hot-air  engine,  a  few 
words  only  can  be  given  to  each. 

Ericftsou's  Eiufhic. — This  engine  is  more  generally  known 
in  this  country  than  any  other  of  its  class.  In  its  present 
furni  it  differs  essentially  from  that  which  it  had  when  con- 
structed on  a  largo  scale,  about  the  year  ISoJ,  to  be  em- 
ployed as  the  motive-power  of  a  sea-going  vessel;  or, 
more  properly,  the  present  one  is  a  different  machine.  In 
the  original  model  a  working  cylinder  was  placed  imme- 
diately over  the  fire  of  the  furnace,  and  a  cylinder  of  supply 
of  about  two-thirds  the  capacity  was  placed  immediately 
over  that.  The  engine  was  single-acting,  the  working 
cylinders  were  quite  open,  and  the  working  pistous  were  of 
great  bulk  and  formed  of  non-conducting  substances,  being 
designed  to  fill  the  cylinders  when  at  the  point  of  the  lowest 
deiire^sion,  so  as  to  prevent  their  cooling  by  contact  with 
the  air  of  the  atmosphere.  The  bottom  of  each  cylinder 
was  arched,  forming  a  dome  for  a  furnace,  and  the  piston 
received  at  its  lower  surface  a  corresponding  figure.  The 
pistons  of  the  supply  cylinder  and  working  cylinder  were 
liimly  connected,  and  had  therefore  an  equal  length  of 
stroke.  At  the  descent  of  the  piston,  the  supply  cylinder 
was  filled  by  aspiration  from  the  atmosphere;  and  in  the 
ascent,  the  charge,  after  undergoing  compression,  was 
driven  into  a  reservoir,  from  which  it  passed  subsequently 
into  the  working  cylinder.  The  upward  stroke  being  com- 
jdeted,  the  heated  air  escaped  through  a  regenerator  formed 
of  wire  gauze,  depositing  there  its  excess  of  heat;  and  the 
new  charge  from  the  reservoir,  passing  to  the  working 
cylinder  through  the  same  regenerator,  re-absorbed  this 
heat,  and  thus  entered  the  heating-chamber  already  at  an 
elevated  temperature.  This  engine  performed  very  well  in 
practice,  so  far  as  its  performance  was  merely  a  question  of 
mechanics.  But  it  failed  practically,  because  the  heating 
arrangements  were  inadequate  to  the  demand  made  upon 
them.  Mr.  Ericsson  did  not  expect  to  be  dependent  on  his 
furnaces  for  the  supply  of  more  than  a  moderate  fraction 
of  the  heat  which  each  successive  charge  of  air  was  to  re- 
ceive. He  supposed  that  the  regenerators  would  serve  to 
transfer  so  large  a  quantity  from  each  charge  to  the  next, 
that  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  for  little  more  than 
the  always  inevitable  loss  by  mere  radiation  ;  but  this  an- 
ticipation was  not  realized.  Superadded  to  this,  however, 
there  was  a  further  cause  of  failure,  arising  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  heating  air  at  all  by  means  of  a  furnace.  Radiant 
heat  produces  scarcely  any  impression  upon  air.  The  in- 
ventors of  all  the  air  engines  which  have  been  to  any  degree 
successful  have  recognized  the  necessity  of  applying  their 
heat  as  much  as  possible  by  conduction  and  actual  contact. 
Mr.  Ericsson  himself  is  no  exception,  as  his  more  recent 
and  successful  invention  shows.  This  machine 'possesses  a 
special  interest,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  first  of  its 
class  to  secure  for  itself  a  recognized  place  in  the  indus- 
trial world  as  a  valuable  aid  to  productive  power. 

The  engine  at  present  known  as  the  Ericsson  is  far  less 
simple  to  appearance  than  the  one  above  described.  It  has 
a  horizontal  cylinder  within  which  at  one  end,  and  occupy- 
ing about  two-fifths  of  its  length,  is  the  furnace,  also  cyl- 
indrical, between  whieli  and  the  surrounding  cylinder  is  an 
annular  space.  AVithin  the  cylinder  there  are  two  pistons, 
the  inner,  or  that  nearest  the  furnace,  acting  as  a  supply 
]iiston.  and  the  other  as  the  driving  piston.  The  rods  of  the 
supply  piston  pass  through  the  driving  piston.  When,  by 
the  action  of  the  mechanism,  the  distance  between  the  two 
pistons  is  increased,  the  supply  is  received  by  inspiration 
through  valves  opening  inward  in  the  driving  piston.  When 
this  distance  is  diminished,  the  charge  is  driven  by  compres- 
sion thrju:^h  valves  in  the  supply  j)iston  opening  towards 
the  furnac.  Hut  these  valves  open  on  the  outside  of  a 
sheet-iron  cylindrical  bell,  carried  by  the  supply  piston, 
which  enters  into  the  annular  space  above  mentioned  be- 
tween the  furnace  wall  and  the  externa!  cylinder,  and  there- 
fore the  air  in  passing  them  is  obliged  to  pass  down  outside 
this  bell  to  the  extremity  of  the  annular  space,  and  to  re- 
turn inside  the  bell,  in  a  thin  annular  sheet  in  close  eon- 
tact  with  the  furnace  wall.  The  working  power  is  derived 
from  the  heat  thus  imparted.  Tliis}iower  is  effective  through 
not  quite  half  the  rev(dution.  Through  the  remainder  it  is 
zero,  or  the  resistances  predominate.  Hence,  a  heavy  fly- 
wheel is  necessary. 

As  to  the  economy  of  this  engine,  tests  were  made  by 
Mr.  Tresca,  sub-director  of  the  Cotmervntoire  dcB  Arta  ct 
Metiers,  of  Paris,  in  1801,  upon  a  specimen  engine  of  two- 
I  horse-power,  in  which  the  consumption  of  coal  amounted 
to  4^^  kilogrammes  (about  0  pounds)  per  horse  power 
per  hour — two  or  three  times  that  of  a,  g<jod  steam-engine. 
The  mean  maximum  temperature  of  the  heated  air  did  not 


exceed  270°,  and  the  expansion  of   volume  was  hardly  60 
percent.  { 1^5). 

S/iitw's  Eti</itic. — Of  this  the  jirincipal  parts  are  a  furnace, 
cylindrical  in  form,  of  boiler  iron,  lined  with  refractory 
brick;  two  single-acting  cylinders  working  alternately; 
and  a  regenerator,  which  consists  of  a  chamber  filled  with 
tubes  similar  to  those  of  a  tubular  boiler,  through  which 
the  exhaust  air  escapes.  The  air  is  heated  in  the  furnace 
immediately  in  contact  with  the  fuel,  of  which  it  at  the 
same  time  supports  the  combustion.  This  furnace  is  accord- 
ingly closed  air-tight,  fuel  being  supplied  when  necessary 
by  means  of  a  box  or  receiver  on  the  toj*.  between  which 
and  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  ciuuiiiunication  can  be 
opened;  the  box  itself  being,  in  the  mean  time,  tightly 
closed.  From  the  furnace,  the  air,  along  with  the  gaseous 
])rodacts  of  combustion,  is  admitted  beneath  the  pistons 
of  the  working  cylinders  alternately;  and  after  it  has 
performed  its  function,  it  is  discharged  through  the  tubes 
of  the  regenerator  into  the  chimney.  The  upper  ])ortions 
of  the  working  cylinders  are  employed  to  furnish  the  sup- 
j)ly  of  cold  air  from  the  atmosphere.  For  this  purpose  each 
piston  is  provided  with  a  trunk  considerably  smaller  in  di- 
ameter than  the  cylinder;  and  the  annular  space  between 
the  trunk  and  the  cylinder,  being  closed  in  at  the  top,  forms 
an  air  pump.  As  the  piston  descends,  the  air  of  the  atmo- 
•sphcre  enters  this  annular  space  through  valves  opening 
inward  ;  and  on  its  ascent  this  air  is  forced  into  the  regen- 
erator, where  it  becomes  partially  heated  by  contact  with 
the  lubes  through  which  the  dilated  air  is  escaping,  and 
thence  passes  into  the  furnace.  The  brick  lining  of  the 
furnace  is  double,  with  a  space  between  the  walls ;  and  thi.^^ 
space  the  cntcriug  air  from  the  regenerator  is  obliged  to 
traverse  before  it  reaches  the  fire.  Its  temperature,  which 
is  already  somewhat  raised  by  compression  and  by  contact 
with  the  tubes  of  the  regenerator,  becomes  still  more  ele- 
vated in  its  passage  through  this  space  ;  and  the  additional 
heat  which  is  wanted  to  bring  up  the  pressure  to  the  point 
required,  is  supplied  by  the  fuel.  In  this  engine,  the  diffi- 
culty which  impeded  the  success  of  most  earlier  inventions 
of  the  kind,  viz.,  that  of  adequately  heating  the  air,  is  in- 
geniously overcome.  The  heat  developed  by  combustion 
is  necessarily  taken  up  by  the  air  which  supports  the  com- 
bustion, and  by  the  gaseous  products  at  the  same  time  gen- 
erated. Hence  it  has  been  found  practicable  to  maintain 
a  pressure  under  the  pistons  averaging  about  an  atmo- 
sphere. But  it  must  be  observed  that  such  ,a  pressure  can 
only  be  secured  by  carrying  the  temperature  to  a  point 
destructive  of  lubricants  and  packing,  and  liable  to  cause 
leaks  by  unequal  expansion. 

Roper's  Eifjinc. — This  is  very  compact  and  well  adapted 
to  small  industrial  operations.  The  furnace  is  a  cast-iron 
cylinder  lined  with  fire-brick.  Immediately  over  the  fur- 
nace, and  formed  in  the  same  casting,  is  the  working  cyl- 
inder, smaller  in  diameter  than  the  furnace,  and  open  above. 
The  piston  rod  is  kept  vertical  by  means  of  a  guide;  and 
two  connecting  rods,  one  on  each  side  of  the  proper  piston- 
rod,  operate  balance  levers  united  at  their  opposite  ends 
by  a  cross-bar,  to  the  middle  of  which  is  attached  the  con- 
necting rod  which  turns  the  crank  of  the  main  shaft.  The 
balance  levers  are  pivoted  in  supports  secured  to  the  work- 
ing cylinder  itself,  and  they  carry,  also,  a  pair  of  rods 
which  operate  the  piston  of  the  supply  cylinder.  The  sup- 
ply cylinder  is  immediately  under  the  working  shaft,  and 
is  as  conveniently  near  the  furnace  as  practicable,  stand- 
ing upon  the  same  base  with  it.  The  furnace  is  air-tight, 
and  the  air  supply  is  forced  into  it  beneath  the  grate,  pass- 
ing through  the  fuel,  and  so  upward  into  the  working  cyl- 
inder. Provision  is  made  to  divide  the  air  current  so  as 
to  allow  a  part,  at  pleasure,  to  enter  the  furnace  above  the 
fuel,  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  rapidity  of  com- 
bustion, and  the  temperature  of  the  charge.  No  provision 
is  made  for  introducing  the  fuel  while  the  engine  is  in 
operation.  Occasiimal  interruptions  will  therefore  occur 
in  order  to  replenish  the  fire.  In  starting  the  machine  it  is 
necessary  to  turn  the  fly-wheel  for  a  few  revolutions  by 
hand.  And  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  fire  shall  be  well 
lighted  before  the  door  of  the  ash-pit  is  closed. 

Wifcnr's  Eiiffinc. — A  hot-air  engine  under  this  name  was 
exhibited  at  the  International  Exposition  of  London  in 
1862.  The  distinctive  peculiarity  of  this  consists  in  the 
employment  of  two  working  cylinders  through  which  the 
air  successively  passes.  The  furnace  is  in  the  lower  portion 
of  one  of  these  cylinders,  and  the  supply  pump  is  in  th.- 
upper  chamber  of  the  same  cylinder.  The  engine  is  furthtr 
provided  with  a  regenerator  of  thin  metal  plates.  The  air. 
after  being  compressed  in  the  supply  pump,  passes  through 
the  regenerator,  taking  up  the  heat  left  there  by  (he  last 
charge  of  escaping  air,  and  thence  into  the  .second  working 
cylinder.  In  this  it  produces  a  partial  effect,  due  to  the 
heat  already  absorbed,  and  then  enters  the  first  or  prin- 
cipal working  cylinder,  where  it  receives  the  heat  of  the 


HOT-AIR  ENGINE. 


1007 


furnace.  The  ndvantago  of  admittiog  the  supply  air  to 
the  cylinder  which  c-uutains  the  furnace  is  very  consider- 
able, as  it  tciid^  to  prevent  that  cylinder  from  being  over- 
heated, ivhilc  it  utilizes  the  heat  which  would  otherwise  bo 
injurious. 

Liiubentu'ii  Eiujiue, — In  this  a  certain  volume  of  air  is 
enclosed  in  a  cylinder  of  metal,  in  which  there  is  also  a  large 
moving  plunger,  which,  by  occupying  alternaloly  one  end 
and  the  other  of  the  cylinder,  displaces  the  air  and  drives 
it  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  upper  purliun  of  the  cyl- 
inder is  surrounded  b^'  a  jacket,  between  which  and  the 
cylinder  itself  there  is  a  constant  circulation  of  cold  water. 
As  the  plunger  itself  is  but  slightly  less  in  diameter  than 
the  interior  of  the  cylinder,  the  air  during  the  transfer  is 
reduced  to  a  thin  cylindrical  stratum,  and  is  brought  into 
close  contact  \vith  the  cold  walls.  The  eftVct  of  the  engine 
depends  as  much  upon  the  efficiency  of  this  cooling  process 
as  upon  the  subsequent  heating,  and  therefore  it  is  desir- 
able that  the  water  of  refrigeration  should  be  as  cold  as 
jiossiblc.  Hut  as  this  water  must  nt'oessarily  be  drawn 
from  natural  sources,  it  is  obvious  that  the  engine  will  bo 
more  efficient  in  winter  than  in  summer.     The  lower  por> 

Fig.  1. 


Laubcrau's  engine,  small  model. 

tion  of  the  cylinder  is  occupied  by  a  furnace  resembling 
the  furnace  of  the  Kricsstm  engine ;  viz.  a  cylinder  smaller 
than  the  air  cylinder,  with  an  annular  space  between  the 
walls  of  the  two.  The  plunger  also,  like  that  of  the  Erics- 
son engine,  is  provided  with  a  bell-shapcd  continuation, 
which  enters  the  annular  space  around  the  furnace. 

Fig.  1,  above,  shows  a  section  of  one  of  these  engines  of 
^mall  model,  in  which  K  is  the  furnacc-rooni  ;  but  here  the 
heat  is  applied  by  means  of  a  powerful  gas-lamp,  X.  The 
flame,  reverberating,  passes  down  the  narrow  annular  space 
X'  X'.nnd  the  products  of  combustion  are  conducted  otf  at 
Y.  D  is  the  plunger  with  its  attached  bell.  For  lightness 
it  is  partially  hollow.  F  is  the  space  filled  by  the  refrig- 
erating water.  A  A  on  the  left  is  the  working  cylinder,  and 
II  the  working  piston.  A  communicating  tube  shown  in 
dotted  lines  admits  the  heated  air  to  the  space  in  A  A  be- 
neath the  piston  when  the  plunger  rises,  and  allows  it  to 
return  to  G  (i  when  the  plunger  descends.  The  plunger  of 
course  receives  its  motion  from  the  working  piston.  As 
the  engine  is  but  single-acting,  a  fly-wheel  is  necessary. 
Provision  must  bo  made  by  a  force-pump  to  maintain  the 
flow  of  the  refrigerating  water.  If  the  conlincd  air  employed 
is  under  more  than  tlie  almospheric  pressure,  there  must 
also  be  some  contrivance  to  make  good  the  gracUial  waste 
by  leaka<;e  through  the  packings.  If  no  superior  pressure 
is  employecl,  a  small  shifting  vatvo  on  the  cold  sido  will 
sunice  fur  this  purpose. 

The  main  advantage,  however,  of  using  a  confined  body 
(•f  air  in  these  engines,  rather  than  to  draw  Ihc  successive 
charges  directly  from  the  atmosphere,  is  that  we  may  thus 
obtain  a  higher  pressure,  anrl  consequently  a  greater  power 
within  the  same  bulk.  But  this  advantage  brings  with  it 
the  attendant  necessity  of  employing  refrigerators,  which 
with  the  other  class  of  engines  are  wholly  unnecessary. 

In  the  larger  forms  of  Lauberau  cntrines,  the  cylinders 
arc  horizontal.  A  test  made  by  Air.  Trcsca  of  the  perform- 
ance of  one  of  these,  having  a  horse-power  of  about  four- 
fifths,  showed  a  consumption  of  •Ij'Y^th  kilogrammes  (about 
10  pounds)  of  coal  per  horse-power  per  hour;  while  the 
refrigeration  reijuired  THU  kilolitres  (IfSO  gallons)  of  wat<.T 
per  hour  also.      It   cannot,  therefore,  be  called  an  econom- 


ical source  of  power;  but  for  many  uses  in   which  but  a 
small  power  is  required,  it  may  be  practically  such. 

BcIoh'x  Enffinc. — The  only  hot-air  engine  which  has  as 
yet  been  employed  on  a  large  scale  as  the  motive  power  of 
an  important  industry,  is  that  patented  by  Uelou,  in  France, 
in  1800.  This  was  introduced,  ten  or  twelve  years  ago, 
into  a  largo  paper  manufactory  at  Cusset;  and  as  the  e.\- 
periments  made  with  it  there  seem  to  have  been  econom- 
ically successful,  while  little  is  known  of  it  in  this  country, 
it  deserves  a  more  particular  description  than  wo  have 
given  of  tho  others.  Belou's  engine  in  some  respects  re- 
FiG.  2. 


Kolou's  hot-air  engine — pian. 
sembles  Shaw's,  but  diff'ers  from  it  in  employing  but  ono 
cylinder,  which  is  double-acting,  and  in  having  an  inde- 
pendent supply-pumj)  and  no  regenerator.  The  cylinder, 
however,  is  surrounded  by  a  jacket,  between  which  and  the 
cylinder  itself  the  air  circulates  in  passing  from  the  supply- 
FiG.  3. 


Ik-luu's  bot-air  engine — elevation  and  partial  section. 


1008 


HOT-BED— HOTEL. 


pump  to  the  furnace.  The  engine  is  represented  in  Figs. 
2  and  3.  The  first  is  a  general  plan;  and  tho  second,  a 
vertical  section  passing  through  tho  axis  of  the  cylinder  and 
of  tlio  supj)ly-pnnip.  Tho  furnace  is  at  A,  and  tho  hopper 
for  fuel  at  li.  D  is  tho  cylinder  and  F  tho  suj)ply-puuip. 
The  air,  in  passing  from  F  to  tho  furnace,  is  driven  through 
tho  ppacc  (I  hetwccn  tho  ■working  cylinder  and  its  envelop- 
ingjacket.  A  portion  of  Iho  air,largeror  smaller  as  occa- 
sion may  require,  may  be  made  to  pass  into  tho  furuaeo 
over  (l»c  fuel,  and  not  through  it.  By  this  means  tho  in- 
tensity of  the  heat  may  bo  varied,  and  tho  working  ]>res- 
suro  increased  or  diminished.  M  is  tho  main  shaft,  N  tho 
fly-wheel,  and  Q  Q'  connecting  rods  wliich  exphiin  tiicm- 
sclvos.  Tho  fly-wheel  on  the  large  cngineatCusset  weighs 
about  fifteen  tons.  The  fuel  introduced  into  B  is  spread 
over  the  grate  by  a  mechanical  contrivance  operated  by  the 
arbor  D',  connected  with  an  eccentric  on  tho  main  shaft. 

Two  Cclou  engines  have  been  tested  by  Mr.  Trcsca;  one 
of  about  four  horse  power,  and  the  other  (which  is  the  en- 
gine at  Cusset)  of  nearly  thirty.  In  tho  smaller,  tho  con- 
sumption of  coal  per  liorse  power  per  hour  amounted  to 
2/jj'^  kilogrammes  (nearly  0  pounds) ;  in  the  larger,  only  ir^^^ 
kilograuinics  (three  pounds).  The  working  cylinder  of 
this  la'ter  had  a  capacity  of  about  eighty  cubic  feet;  that 
of  the  sup])ly  cylinder  was  about  half  as  great.  In  this 
case  the  amount  of  force  developed,  as  measured  by  tho  in- 
dications of  the  manometer,  was  equal  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-horse  power,  but  of  this  the  supply  absorbed  eighty- 
horse  power,  or  two-tliirds  of  tho  whole;  and  more  than 
ten-horse  power  was  estimated  to  be  necessary  to  overcome 
the  passive  resistances.  Less  than  thirty-horse  power, 
therefore,  or  one-quarter  of  the  whole,  was  actually  utilized. 
It  is  of  course  upon  the  horse  power  actually  utilized,  and 
not  upon  the  aggregate  energy  developed,  that  the  loregoing 
statement  of  consumption  is  founded.  The  performance 
is  therefore  about  equal  to  that  of  an  economical  steam 
engine. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  the  heat  was  carried 
to  a  height  which  could  not  but  tend  to  deteriorate  rapidly 
the  parts  of  the  engine  exposed  to  it;  and  especially  the 
interior  of  the  working  cylinder.  In  order  to  |)rotect  this 
surface,  it  was  constantly  lubricated  with  a  solution  of  soap 
in  \vater.  of  which  about  five  gallons  were  consumed  per 
hour.  There  was  also  a  large  final  loss;  the  escaping  air 
in  the  chimney  having  a  temperature  of  not  less  than 
250°  C.  =  4oO°"f.  above  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Mr.  Tres- 
ca  computes  that  fully  seven-eighths  of  the  heat  produced 
by  the  furnace  was  expended  unproductively.  Notwith- 
standing these  drawbacks  the  practical  result  actually  ob- 
tained is  eminently  encouraging  to  those  who  hope  to  see 
steam-power  advantageously  replaced  by  something  safer 
and  more  universally  available. 

To  the  class  of  hot-air  engines  belongs  properly  the  so- 
called  inflammable  gas  engine  known  as  Braytou's  Ready 
Motor.     For  an  account  of  this,  see  G.vs  Esginf,. 

F.  A.   P.   BAnNARD. 

Hot'"bed,a  frame  for  forcing  the  early  growth  of  plants 
in  cold  regions.  Its  top  is  a  glazed  sash,  sloping  towards 
tho  y.  The  glass  permits  the  sun's  rays  to  enter  and  heat 
the  air,  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  escape  of  the 
warm  air.  The  heat  of  the  sun  is  reinforced  by  that  of 
fermenting  animal  and  vegetable  matter — horse  dung,  wool- 
waste,  leaves,  chopped  straw,  and  the  like  —  which  fill  a 
trench  beneath  the  soil  of  the  hot-bed.  These  are  very 
necessary  to  prevent  freezingat  night  and  in  cloudy  weather. 
When  the  sun  shines  brightly  it  is  often  necessary  to  admit 
some  cold  air,  or  partly  to  cover  the  hot-bed  with  mats, 
otherwise  the  sun's  heat  may  blast  the  plants.  In  very 
cold  weather  bast  matting  is  spread  over  the  glass  to  keep 
from  freezing.  Hot-beds  are  very  essential  in  market- 
gardening  in  the  Northern  States. 

Ilotcli'kiss  {Vki.ona  R.).  D-  D..  b.  at  Spafford,  N.  Y., 
June  I'l.  IS16 ;  educated  at  Madison  University,  N.  Y. ;  pas- 
tor of  Baptist  churches  in  Poultnoy,  Vt.,  ISIl'J-l'J:  Rotfhes- 
ter,  N.  Y.,  ISI2-lfi:  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1846-19:  nutfalo. 
N.  v.,  1811t-ot  and  18f).'>-7:t;  was  professor  of  biblical  lit- 
erature in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary  1854  to  ISfiJ. 
He  is  now  (1876)  pastor  of  the  Washington  street  Baptist 
church  in  Buffalo,  X.  Y.  He  is  an  accomplished  theologian 
and  scholar. 

Hot  Creek,  post4p.  of  Nye  co.,  Nov.     Pop.  40. 

Hold'  [Old  Knf*. hostel  ;  Fr.  /((I///,  radical.  A (Jf*-,  "  land- 
lord "  or  '*  guest."  derived  by  some  from  the  Latin  kofipea, 
by  others  from  Aosftw,  "guest  "  or '*  enemy  ;'*  Middle  Lat. 
Ao«/f//orm],  an  inn  or  house  for  the  accommodation  of  trav- 
ellers, at  present  ajiplied  in  Kngland  and  America  to  the 
larger  or  better  class  of  such  establishments.  In  Franco 
the  word  is  used  not  only  in  this  sense,  but  also  means, 
as  it  did  exclusively  once,  any  largo  or  magnificent 
residence,  synonymous    with   chiitcau   and    palace.      Tho 


present  English  word  hotel  is  rather  of  French  than  Eng- 
lish origin.  From  the  earliest  ages,  among  the  Jews  and 
other  Semitic  people,  the  house  of  entertainment  for  trav- 
ellers was,  like  the  caravanserai  or  khan  of  the  present 
day,  simply  a  lodging,  the  occupants  of  which  provided 
their  own  food.  People  of  rank  or  respectability  were  en- 
tertained by  tho  local  governor  or  by  their  friends,  to  whom 
they  took  in  some  cases  letters  of  introduction.  For  those 
of  a  lower  or  poorer  class  there  ar()se  at  an  early  period,  in 
addition  to  tho  caravanserai,  a  tavern,  at  which  food  and 
drink  were  sold,  but  which  appears  to  have  been  invariably 
also  of  so  bad  a  char.acter  in  otlier  respects  that  in  Hebrew 
there  was  but  one  word  (HyU)  for  landlady  and  courtesan. 
Recent  investigation  makes  it  probable  that  the  inn  or 
khan  at  Bethlehem  where  Christ  was  born  was  the  habita- 
tion of  Chimham  (Jer.  xli.  18),  which  had  been  an  inn  for 
more  than  600  years,  and  was  p'-rhnps  originally  a  dwell- 
ing given  by  David  to  Chimham  (2  Sam.  xix.  I'S).  "In 
these  khans,"  says  Olivier,  '*  the  stables  join  the  chambers, 
and  are  better  lighted.  During  the  winter-time  tlie  former 
are  often  preferred  by  travellers  for  night-lodging;  and 
when,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  are  of  solid  masonry  or 
oven  real  eaves,  they  are  favorite  summer  retreats."  Tho 
Egyptians  had  lodging-taverns,  but  among  the  earlier 
(Jreeks  of  rank  travellers  were  entertained  only  by  private 
individuals.  This  was  systematized  by  giving  tickets 
(trvfi^oKa,  truacra-  houpjtnh'tcitis)^  on  presenting  which  the 
guest  was  received:  and  these  tesserre  were  handed  down 
from  father  to  son.  (Full  details  of  classic  inns  arc  given 
by  Michell ;  also  in  Pollux.)  The  Romans,  with  their  system 
of  roads  and  posting,  developed  post-houses  or  inns,  which 
under  the  Caesars  were  not  inferior  to  those  of  the  Mi'ldle 
Ages.  The  emperors  were  accustomed  to  give  to  ambassa- 
dors and  others,  as  a  great  privilege,  letters  which  not  only 
entitled  the  bearer  to  horses  and  lodging,  but  also  com- 
manded the  postmaster  to  furnish  bread,  wine,  beer,  pigs, 
poultry,  sheep,  fish,  fruit,  wax,  and  many  other  things  in 
abundance  properly  and  promptly.  Polybiu?  states  that 
in  his  time  inns  abounded  on  the  rna<ls.  and  that  provisions 
were  so  cheap  that  people  were  charged  for  all  they  ate  in 
a  day  only  the  fourth  of  an  obolus.  or  three-fifths  of  a  cent 
per  head.  All  the  inns  of  the  cities,  whether  good  or  bad, 
were  morally  infamous.  Whether  it  was  a  caupoun,  ta- 
bcnta,  (livcrsvi-ium,  (jrtnrn,  or  pnjnna  (cook-shop),  the  Ro- 
man tavern  was  invariably  a  brothel — none  the  less  because 
its  female  inmates  \verc  by  law  exempted  from  classification 
with  ordinary  prostitutes.  It  appears  from  Plautus,  Mar- 
tial, Apuleius,  and  others  that  tavern-keepers  were  sup- 
posed to  murder  their  guests,  and  even  to  feed  others  on 
their  bodies — a  story  which  passes  current  at  the  present 
day  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Cuba.  The  Greek  taverns,  ac- 
cording to  Aristophanes,  Lucian,  Aristotle,  and  Athcna^us, 
had  signs;  and  the  Romans  often  used  the  bush  and  jug- 
handle  [anna)  to  indicate  the  sale  of  wine.  Other  signs 
were  the  Mice  and  Weasels,  the  Fighting  Men,  the  Cock, 
anri  the  Old  Shepherd.  In  later  times  inns  had  the  Cross 
for  Christian  customers,  while  heathens  were  attracted  by 
the  sun  or  the  moon. 

The  inns  of  the  Middle  Ages  long  resembled  the  Roman, 
and  are  invariably  described  as  a  pl.ice  of  vile  debauchery, 
where  every  device  was  used  to  induee  guests  to  gamble,  to 
waste  their  money  on  wantons,  or  where  Ihcy  were  robbed 
outright.  The  evil  character  of  onlinary  inns  caused  the 
establishment  of  houses  of  entertainment  for  men  belong- 
ing to  different  callings  or  nations.  Thus,  in  Venice  tlie 
Germans  established  the  Alhcrt/o  dci  Ti-Hftt-hi,  at  which 
Germans  only  were  accommodated,  and  in  all  towns  there 
were  guild-taverns  for  the  travelling  members  of  their  re- 
spective crafts.  So  early,  however,  as  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury public  inns  began  to  improve,  especially  on  the  grand 
route  from  Venice  rid  Augsburg  and  Ghent,  and  in  the 
fourteenth  century  taverns  nppear  to  have  become  more 
and  more  "  the  general  lounge  even  of  the  industrious." 
There  are  many  hotels  in  Europe  ben  ring  the  name  of  "  The 
Cross  of  Malta,"  the  origin  of  wliich  was  as  follows  :  Before 
the  Crusades  hospitality  had  greatly  declined  throughout 
Europe.  The  Templars,  as  well  as  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  having  been  impressed  in  the  East  by 
tho  Arab /»»(///.■«,  or  inns  for  poor  travellers,  established 
similar  ones  near  their  "  comitianderies."  llenee,  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  derived  the  name  of  llonpitalfrrK. 
Many  of  these,  as  in  Bavaria.  Provence,  and  (""astile.  were 
really  palaces,  in  which  the  young  knights  also  lived.  Tho 
Crnix  <fr  Mftlta  is  familiar  to  all  who  have  travelled  on  the 
Continent. 

The  modern  hotel  dates  from  the  peace  which  followed 
tho  downfall  of  Napoleon  I,  The  annual  streams  of  tour- 
ists caused  the  establishment  of  a  better  class  of  accommo- 
dation, and  competition  rapiflly  made  luxury  commoner 
and  cheaper.  To  furnish  a  hotel  in  Switzerland  or  Ger- 
many properly,  according  to  Guyer  {Das  Ilutchccscn  dtr 


HOTELS  IX  AMERICA— UOT  SPRINGS. 


1009 


Geyeiiicnrt,  Zurich,  1874),  cost?,  admittiog  that  tbo  hotel  is 

to  contain  31)0  boarders — 

Furniture 1M.700  francs. 

Bel.'"  and  carpt'la. 92,120       " 

Mii.n -IV-'^O      " 

Srvicx'—fr.sUvor,  metal,  glass,  and  porcelain  6;Mttt       " 

KitcUen  utcusib ■■    S.OOO      " 

SGo./m  Trancs, 

or  about  $72, 70S.  But  until  railroads  were  rf;tab)isbed 
botel-kueperi?  on  the  i/ranile  route — i'.  e.  from  London  to 
Naples  rid  the  Rhine — were  generally  amrnablo  to  the 
charge  of  petty  deception,  as  is  indeed  »tilt  too  much 
the  case  in  France  and  Italy.  But  the  imnicnpo  business 
which  grew  on  the  route  Hoon  induced la  wiser  policy.  It 
was  found  more  profitable  to  cstablij^h  fixed  rates  for  every- 
thing— room?,  tahfc  d'hOtc,  and  service.  Thirty  years  ago 
it  was  usual  to  bargain  for  rooms,  the -host  often  asking 
three  times  as  much  as  he  intended  to  take. 

The  extraordinary  increase  of  hotels  of  late  years,  cspc- 
ciaJIy  in  summer  resorts,  has  been  such  as  to  render  pros- 
perous many  districts  which  at  ono  time  seemed  destined 
to  endless  poverty  ;  and  it  ser  ms  at  present  as  if  in  another 
gcneratiou  these  public  palaces  will  bo  in  sight  of  one  an- 
other all  over  the  mountaiu-eountry  of  Europe.  Thirty 
years  ago  the  wretchedness  of  Switzerland  was  painful ;  at 
present  real  poverty  seems  hardly  known  there  to  any  ono 
who  can  remember  the  old  time ;  and  this  chan^ic  is  due  in 
a  great  measure  to  the  railroads,  and  with  them  the  nume- 
rous anfl  excellent  hotels  and  peminnit  which  annually  at- 
tract so  many  visitors.  Ciiakles  G.  Leland. 

Hotels  in  America.  The  hotel,  in  its  strictest  sense 
as  a  pubtir-hnHHe,  has  reached  its  highest  development  in 
the  V.  S.,  and  particularly  in  our  larger  cities.  This  is  no 
American  boast,  but  the  united  testimony  of  unprejudiced 
travellers.  The  .\merican  hotels  are  not  perfect — very  far 
from  it — but  they  excel  all  European  hostelries  in  several 
particulars.  They  are  on  a  much  larger  scale;  the  ele- 
vator, an  American  invention,  and  rendered  necessary  by 
the  great  height  to  which  the  buildings  arc  carried,  is  now 
conneeted  with  all  first-class  hotels.  The  charges  at  these 
hotels  of  the  first  class  are  high,  but  when  the  service  ren- 
dered is  considered  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  exorbitant. 
It  is  certain  that  the  expenses  of  the  great  hotels  are  so 
heavy  that  even  with  their  rooms  generally  filled,  and  often 
crowded,  the  actual  profit  is  very  moderate,  and  in  a  dull 
season  they  not  unfrequently  become  bankrupts.  The  largest 
hotels  are  not,  as  might  have  been  supposed,  in  New  York, 
though  some  there  are  very  large,  but  in  some  of  the  largest 
of  the  Western  cities.  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  aii*l  San  Francisco 
taking  the  lead  in  this  particular.  Of  the  new  I'alace  Hotel 
at  the  latter  cily  wo  are  told  that  it  is  to  cover  an  area  of 
06,260  feet,  to  be  six  stories  in  height,  and  to  afford  com- 
fortable accommoilution  for  1200  guests.  It  is  to  have  a 
large  open  court  in  the  centre  with  flower-gardens  an'l 
fountains,  and  is  to  cost,  including  the  hind.  ?2, 600,01)0.  Ono 
or  two  of  the  Chicago  hotels,  and  one  at  least  of  the  St. 
Louis,  have  larger  accommodations  for  guests  than  this, 
though  possilily  not  a  larger  area.  The  summer  hotels  at 
Saratoga,  Long  Branch,  and  Newport  are  still  larger,  but 
they  are  open  merely  fur  three  or  four  months.  A  very 
elaborate  and  exhaustive  article  recently  (Dec,  1874)  pub- 
lished in  the  New  York  Tribune  gives  very  full  statistics  in 
regard  to  fifteen  of  the  leading  hotelsof  New  York  City  (less 
IhanonC'SCventb  of  the  whole  number,  though,  perhaps,  from 
their  size  ami  accommodations,  receiving  one-fourth  of  the 
guests).  These  hotels  were  the  Albemarle,  Ashland,  Bre- 
voort,  Fifth  Avenue,  (Jilscy,  Grand  Central,  (irand  Union, 
Hoffman,  iMetropolitan,  New  York,  St.  Nicholas,  Sturtc- 
vant,  I'nion  Square,  Winchester,  and  Windsor.  Together, 
they  had  1002  rooms — five  of  them  having  less  than  l.'iO 
rooms  each.  They  could  accommo'late  comfortably  GO.'JO 
guests,  an<I  upon  an  emergency,  7*1 10.  Their  daily  average 
through  the  year  was  3925;  they  employed  29^16  servants, 
of  whom  \t.'>i)  were  females,  1179  males,  and  ha<i  .'J90 
coaches  and  carriages  in  attendance.  The  beef  they  con- 
Bumed  required  the  slaughter  of  20,000  beeves  every  year, 
and  other  meals  almost  as  large  a  number  of  .iheep,  calves, 
and  swine;  6on,0UO  pounds  of  fish  and  I.. .000. 000  oysters 
were  also  served  up  upon  their  tables  ;  6,01)0,000  eggs  and 
1,.'>00,000  pounds  of  poultry  and  game;  10.000  barrels  of 
flour,  20,000  barrels  of  potatoes,  and  a  vast  amount  of 
green  nnd  root  vegetables  :  150.000  pounds  of  colTee,  3.'),000 
pounds  of  tea.  and  "00,000  poun<ls  of  sugar.  I,.'i00,000 
quarts  of  milk,  17'*, 000  quarts  of  cream,  more  than  l.M^OOO 
pounds  of  butter,  nltout  120,000  pounds  of  dried  fruits,  and 
nearly  TkI.OoO  gallons  nf  canned  fruits,  jellies,  etc.  Of  gas 
60. 000. 000  feet  were  required  for  illumination,  worth,  at 
the  current  price  in  New  York.  $106.000 ;  'J6,000  tons  of 
coal,  12,000  tons  of  ice,  and.  for  various  uses,  1,260.001) 
pounds  of  soap,  were  among  the  other  articles  required. 
Tbo  washing  of  table-linen,  bed  linen,  towels,  etc.  amounted 
Vol.  II.— r.( 


to  about  19,000,000  pieces  a  year.  This  was  aside  from  tho 
personal  clothing  of  guests  washed  in  the  laundries.  Tho 
waste  of  these  establishments  is  enormous.  That  from  tho 
tables  is  of  two  kinds--the  broken  meats,  etc.,  much  of 
which,  though  good  and  wholesome,  cannot  be  served  up 
a  second  time,  and  is  given  to  tho  charitable  institutions 
which  have  the  feeding  of  the  poor,  or  in  some  instances 
disposed  of  to  low  eating-houses,  etc.:  the  other  kind, 
coming  under  the  general  denominations  of  swill  and  gar- 
bage, is  nearly  an  absolute  waste,  nnd  amounts  in  these 
fifteen  hotels  to  11,000,000  pounrls  annually,  or  55,000  tons. 
The  wear  and  tear  of  hotel  furniture  is  estimated  at  20  per 
cent,  per  annum,  requiring  refurnishing  on  an  average 
onco  in  five  years.  The  receipts  of  these  fifteen  hotels 
average  about  $40,000  per  day,  or  $11,000,000  per  year,  but 
the  amount  of  net  profit  is  not  so  large  as  it  should  bo  for 
such  avast  expenditure.  These  figures  represent,  as  we  havo 
said,  but  15  of  the  108  hotels  of  New  York  City,  and  their 
expenditures  and  receipts  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  of  a  like  number  of  hotels  of  the  first-class  in  tho 
other  large  cities,  especially  those  of  the  West.  The  hotels 
of  the  second  and  third  class  fix  their  tariff  of  charges  con- 
siderably lower,  and,  really,  giving  less  service  and  lux- 
uries in  proportion  to  their  prices  than  the  first-class  ho- 
tels, are  generally  more  profitable.  Some  of  these  are  well 
managed,  and  with  less  liisplay  are  quite  as  comfortable  and 
home-like  as  the  high-priced  houses.  The  usual  charge  per 
diem  at  the  hotels  of  the  first-class  is  from  $4.60  to  ^6  per 
capita,  but  this  includes  no  extras,  such  as  wine,  cigars, 
fire  in  the  room,  etc.  etc.  Hotels  of  the  second  and  third 
classes,  when  not  on  "  tho  European  plan  "' — ('.  e.  affording 
lodging  only — charge  from  $2.50  to  S.'i.50,  and  somewhat 
less  than  the  others  for  extras. 

The  management  and  keeping  of  hotels,  as  conducted  in 
this  country,  involves  larger  aggregate  receipts  and  ex- 
jienditures  than  any  one  branch  of  manufacture.  Both  re- 
ceipts and  expenditures  are  counted  by  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  and  employ  in  various  ways  a  vast  number 
of  people.  L.  P.  Brockett. 

Hotel,  tp.  of  Surry  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  709. 

Ilo'tho  (HKiNRiri!  GiTSTAv),  b.  in  Berlin  May  22, 1802; 
studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  became 
professor  of  sesthetics  at  the  same  in  LSIjO.  He  also  held 
different  positions  at  the  art-galleries  of  Berlin,  and  d.  there 
Dec.  25,  1873.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Hegel,  and  his  books 
—  Gefichirhtc  tier  I)etttsvhen  nnd  Xirder/iiudhchcn  Mitlarci 
(1843),  Die  Malrrsrhule  van  EifrkH  (1859),  etc.,  as  well  as 
his  criticisms  in  the  Morrjciifdatt  and  his  lectures — bore 
very  strikiug  marks  of  the  ideas  and  of  the  terminology  of 
his  master.  But  he  deserves  great  praise  for  the  manner 
in  which  he  edited  Hegel's  VorbttHnrfcn  Uber  ^-Esthetik  [Z 
vols.,  1835-38),  chiefly  from  notes  taken  by  his  hearers. 

Hot-house.     See  Green-hoise. 

Hot  Ilou^e,  tp.  of  Cherokee  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  645. 

Hot'man  (Francois),  b.  at  Paris  Aug.  23,  1524,  and 
began  to  lecture  on  Roman  law  at  the  university  in  154G; 
but  having  embraced  the  Reformed  religion,  he  was  com- 

i)clled  to  leave  his  native  city  in  1647.  and  retired  to  Lyons, 
''rom  this  moment,  and  up  to  his  death  at  Bale,  Feb.  12, 
1590,  his  life  was  wandering  and  adventurous,  though  gen- 
erally brilliant,  and  his  participation  in  the  political  in- 
trigues of  his  time  xvas  very  active,  though  not  very  hon- 
orable. By  his  lectures  on  law  at  Lyons.  Genera,  Stras- 
burg,  Valence,  Bourges,  and  Paris,  and  especially  by  his 
work,  Frnuco-tiiilliii  (I573J,  ho  made  a  revolution  in  tho 
political  and  social  views  of  his  time,  and  many  of  his 
writings  are  still  read  with  great  interest;  as,  for  instance, 
Commeiitnrii  iu  A'.V  F.  Cii'crotiia  Oratioues  {\o5i)  arid  Com- 
mcntftriuM  in  fV.  lualitutinuum  Lthron  (15(30). 

Hot  Sprinf7,  county  of  S.  W.  Central  Arkansas.  Area, 
650  square  miles.  It  is  mountainous,  well  timbered,  and 
abounds  in  mineral  wealth.  Iron  ores,  novaculite  (Arkan- 
sas hone-stone),  salt,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  valuable 
minerals  are  obtained.  Corn,  pork,  nnd  tobacco  are  staple 
products.     Cap.  Roekport.     Pop.  in  1870,  5877. 

Hot  Spring  IiUliC,a  beautiful  lake  3  miles  N.  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  Ut.,  fed  by  the  hot  springs  near  by.  It  is  3 
miles  long  and  over  1  mile  broad.  Its  surface  partly  freezes 
over  in  winter. 

Hot  Springs,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Garland  co..  Ark..  55 
miles  S.  W.  of  Little  Rock.  It  has  about  sixty  thermal 
springs,  much  visited  by  invalids  and  others.  The  town 
has  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  several  hotels  and  ehutehes. 
The  springs  aro  very  copious,  and  some  of  them  discharge 
waters  of  tho  temperature  of  150°  F.  Pop.  of  v.  1270  ;  of 
tp.  1004. 

Hot  Sprinf^A,  tp.  of  Napa  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  2120. 

Hot  Springs,  posl-v.  of  Bath  co.,  Va.,  35  miles  N.  E. 
of  Wliito  Sulphur  Springs.      It  coutaina  several  thermal 


1010 


HOTTENTOTS— HOUGHTON. 


saline  springs  (of  a  temperature  of  lOC-lOB"  F.),  whose 
waters  are  useful  in  a  wide  range  of  diseases. 

Hot'tentots,  the  native  race  of  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa.  Their  present  territory  extends  northward  from 
Capo  Colony  to  Orange  River,  and  eastward  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  boundaries  of  Cafi'raria.  There  are  in  this 
vast  territory  some  well-wooded  regions  and  tracts  of  good 
pasture-land,  but  generally  it  is  an  arid  desert,  miserable 
is  the  race  which  inhabits  it.  The  Hottentots  look  like  a 
mixture  of  the  Mongolian  and  the  negro  race.  They  are 
tall,  meagre,  with  high  check-bones,  sallow  complexion, 
and  oblique  eyes,  but  they  have  thick  lips,  flat  nose,  and 
■woolly  hair  growing  in  tufts.  When  the  Dutch  first 
settled  at  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  Hottentots  were  quite  numerous. 
They  lived  as  herdsmen  and  hunters,  and  evinced  some 
skill"  in  rearing  cattle  and  catching  game  ;  but  their  huts 
were  miserable,  they  were  nearly  naked,  their  religious  and 
moral  ideas  very  few  and  weak,  and  their  customs  and 
habits  often  extremely  savage.  In  contact  with  the  Dutch 
they  sunk  still  lower— that  is  to  say,  they  sunk  below  the 
possibility  of  life.  They  sold  their  herds  for  rum,  and  died 
from  starvation  ;  their  "number  decreased  at  a  fearful  rate. 
Under  the  English  government  they  arc  much  better  off. 
Some  of  the  tribes  have  become  good  and  steady  workmen, 
and  show  receptibility  of  civilization,  though  others — as, 
for  instance,  the  Bushmen — have  proved  entirely  uufit  for 
civilized  life.  The  Bushmen  are  very  small  of  stature,  ugly 
above  description,  and  disgustingly  degraded.  They  are 
widely  scattered  through  sill  the  English  colonies  in  South- 
ern Africa,  but  their  number  is  rapidly  decreasing.  The 
language  of  the  Hottentots  has  several  marked  dialects, 
all  remarkable  for  the  presence  of  clicking  sounds.  (See 
Bleek,  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  S.  A/rJcau  Lanrjuarjes, 
1862-69.)  Curious  anatomical  peculiarities,  such  as  the 
steatopyga,  or  prominent  nates  of  the  women,  have  been 
observed  in  the  Hottentot  race,  but  are  not  universal.  The 
present  number  of  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  does  not  ex- 
ceed 150,000.  (See  Fritsch,  Drel  Jahre  in  SUda/rika, 
1869;    Die  Eingebornen  Siida/rikas,  1872.) 

Hottentot's  Bread,  a  kind  of  yam  ( TcMuiUnaria  ele- 
phaiitii.'n.  order  Dioscoreacea;)  growing  in  South  Africa. 
It  is  a  beautiful  vine,  growing  from  the  back  of  the  large, 
rough,  tortoise-like  tuberous  rhizoma,  which  grows  half  un- 
covered.    The  rhizoma  affords  starchy  food. 

Hot'tinger,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Swiss  scholars,  the 
most  prominent  of  whom  were — Johann  Heisrich,  b.  at  Zii- 
rich  Mar.  10.  1020  ;  studied  at  Groningcn  and  Leyden  ;  be- 
came professor  in  church  history  and  Oriental  languages  at 
Ziirich  and  Heidelberg;  and  was  drowned  near  the  former 
city  June  5,  1607.  By  his  writings,  Grammalica  Qnatuor 
Li'iiguarwn  flchraicv,  Chaldeir,  %)v'aca-,  ef  4r«iic.T  (1659), 
and  Eiifmuhr/tenm  Orienlalc  (1G61),  etc.,  ho  contributed 
very  much  to  a  better  understanding  and  a  more  general 
study  of  the  Semitic  languages. — Johaxn  .Tatob,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  b.  at  Zurich  in  1652,  and  d.  Dec.  18,  1735, 
as  professor  of  theology  at  the  university  of  his  native  city. 
He  wrote  llchcliache  KirchnrjeachichteXi  vols.,  1708-29),  a 
work  still  appreciated. — .Jon.vs\.lACOD.  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, b.  at  Zurich  in  1750,  and  d.  there  Feb.  4,  1SI9.  He 
was  professor  in  Latin  and  tireek,  and  took  part  very  ac- 
tively in  the  great  literary  movement  in  German  Switzer- 
land under  the  leader.^hip  of  Bodmer. — JoHAN':)  Jacob,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  b.  at  Zurich  in  1783,  and  d.  there 
in  1859:  wrote  Ucschlchie  der  Schweizerischen  Kirchen- 
trenmwj  {lS2a-27). 
Uottonia.     See  FEATUEn-roir,. 

Hou'brachen  (Arnold),  b.  at  Dort  Mar.  28, 1660,  and 
d.  in  Amsterdam  Oct.  14,  1719.  Of  great  value  are  his 
biogranhiea  of  Dutch  painters,  Grootc  srhmiburgh  der  neder- 
landsehc  koimttchilderH  en  sckitdrcsien  (1718). 

Houdiii'(RoBERTl,b.  atBlois  in  1805;  was  apprenticed 
to  a  watchmaker  at  I'aris  ;  studied  mechanics,  and  won  a 
medal  for  his  toys  and  automata  at  the  Paris  exhibition  of 
1841.  In  1845  ho  opened  in  the  Palais  Royal  a  series  of 
soirfies  fantastiques,  which  he  continued  for  ten  years.  In 
1855  he  retired  to  Blois  with  a  large  fortune.  But  in  1S56 
ho  went  to  Algeria  on  the  invitation  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, and  entered  into  a  competition  in  making  miracles 
with  the  marabouts  or  priests.  His  success  was  complete, 
and  he  contributed  much  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  bad 
influence  of  these  impostors  on  their  superstitious  country- 
men. After  his  return  he  published  his  Life  (1857)  and 
his  Cnufidenrr^  (1859).     D.  at  Blois  in  1871. 

Houdon'  I  Jeas  Axtoine),  b.  in  Versailles  Mar.  20, 
1741;  d.  in  Paris  July  15,  1828.  He  spent  ten  years  in 
Rome  as  the  king's  pensioner,  he  having  won  the  first 
prize  at  the  Royal  .\eademy  for  sculpture,  and  there  exe- 
cuted the  statuc'of  St.  Bruno  in  the  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli ; 


afterwards,  in  Paris,  made  statues  of  Voltaire.  Cicero,  Tour- 
ville,  and  busts  of  Napoleon,  Josephine,  Ney,  Rousseau, 
Diderot,  D'.Ucmbert,  Barthclfimy.  Mirabeau,  Franklin, 
Turgot.  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  time  ;  came  to  the 
XJ.  S.  with  Franklin  in  17S5.  and  modelled  the  statue  of 
Washington  in  the  capitol  at  Richmond.  Va.  While  mak- 
ing studies  for  the  statue  he  was  the  guest  of  Wai-hington 
at  Mt.  Vernon.  The  models  of  the  human  frame,  without 
the  covering  of  skin,  executed  for  the  .Academy,  exhibit  his 
knowledge  of  anatomv.  His  finished  statue."  and  busts  are 
highly  valued  as  portraits.  0.  B.  FROTni.xGii  VM. 

Hough  (Fraxkli.v  B.),  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  b.  at  Martinsville, 
N.  v..  July  20,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1843, 
and  at  Cleveland  Medical  College  in  1849  ;  practised  his 
profession  1848-52  at  Somerville,  N.  V.  He  has  since  been 
engaged  in  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,  and  resides  at 
Lowvillc.  N.  V.  Has  published  a  Catahrjiie  o/  Plants  of 
Leiois  Co.,  N.  Y.  (1847),  Hitlonj  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Frank- 
lin Cos.,  N.  Y.  (1853),  of  Jefl'erson  eo.  (1854),  of  Lewis  co. 
(1860).  Meteorological  Ohierrationa,  182C-50  (1854),  New 
York  CivilList  (1861),  Gazetteer nf  Nexe  York  (1872),  and 
many  other  works,  principally  historical. 

Hough  (Jons  Stocktox),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Yardlcyville, 
Bucks  CO.,  Pa.,  Dec.  5, 1845  ;  was  educated  at  Trenton,  N.  J., 
Fort  Edward  and  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Polytechnic 
College  of  Pennsylvania;  took  his  medical  degree  1808  at 
the  University  of  Pcnn.syivania.  Author  of  numerous 
papers  upon  q"ueftions  in  biology,  social  science,  pathology, 
etc. ;  was  resident  physician  of  the  Philadelphia  Hospital 
1868-69,  etc. 

Hough'ton,  county  of  the  N.  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
bordering  on  Lake  Superior.  Its  winter  climate  is  severe. 
It  has  abundance  of  valuable  ores  of  eojiper,  iron,  and 
silver,  which  are  extensively  wrought.  Keweenaw  Bay 
and  other  iulets  of  Lake  Superior  break  its  outline,  and 
abound  in  excellent  fish.  The  working  of  copper-mines  is 
the  principal  industry.  The  surface  is  broken.  Cap. 
Houghton.     Pop.  13,879. 

Houghton,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Houghton  co.,  Mich.,  on 
Lake  Portage,  an  arm  of  Lake  Superior,  is  the  centre  of 
the  great  copper-producing  district,  15.000  tons  being  an- 
nually shipped  from  this  port;  contains  3  churches,  a 
national  bank,  a  newspaper  and  binding  establishment,  2 
hotels,  machine-shops,  stores,  etc.  Principal  business,  min- 
ing.    Pop.  about  17U0.  J.  R.  Devereaux, 

Prop.  "  Portage  Lake  Mini.ng  Gazette." 
Houghton,  tp.  of  Keweenaw  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  1325. 
Houghton  (Doi-GLAss),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
21,  1809;  graduated  in  1829  at  the  Rensselaer  Institute  at 
Troy,  in  which  he  was  in  1S:!0  appointed  assistant  professor. 
Ho  made  a  valuable  report  of  the  botany  of  the  I'ppcr 
Mississippi  region,  to  which  he  was  sent  with  an  expedi- 
tion. He  became  a  practising  physician  in  Detroit,  Mich. ; 
State  geologist  in  1837;  mayor  of  Detroit  in  1842;  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Slate  University;  and  a  member  of  many 
learned  societies.  While  on  a  government  survey  ho  was 
drowned  in  Lake  Superior,  near  Eagle  River,  Oct.  13,1845. 
Houghton  (George  Frederick),  b.  at  Guilford,  Vt., 
May  31,  1820  ;  graduiitcd  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in 
1839;  became  a  lawyer  in  1841  ;  secretary  of  state  of  Ver- 
mont 1848-49;  State  attorney  for  Franklin  co.  1852-53; 
founded  the  Vermont  Transcripllf^ii,  and  became  connected 
with  the  Ctiureh  Journal  (N.  Y.)  soon  after.  D.  at  St. 
Alban's.  Vt.,  Sept.  22, 1870. 

Houghton  (Hexry  Clark),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Roxbury 
(Boston),  Mass.,  Jan.  22,  1837;  educated  at  Bridgcwatcr 
Normal  School:  became  an  instructor;  served  two  and  a 
half  years  in  the  late  Christian  Commission  ;  graduated 
M.  D.  from  New  York  University  1867  ;  resident  physician 
to  Five  Points  House  of  Industry  1867-69  ;  surgeon  to  New 
York  Ophthalmic  Hospital  since  1868;  professor  of  physi- 
oloi'v  in  New  York  Homoeopathic  College  1868-70;  pro- 
fcss'or  of  phvsiology  in  New  York  College  for  Women  since 
1869  :  member  .and  officer  of  various  professional  societies. 
Author  of  Lectures  on  the  Diseases  nf  the  Ear,  etc. 

Houghton  (Richard  Moscktos  Milncs).  Barox, 
D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  June  19, 1809 ;  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  long  an  independent  and  moderately  con- 
servative member  of  the  House  of  Commons  ;  widely  known 
as  a  poet  and  an  elegant  critic.  In  1803  he  was  raised  to 
the  pcerace.  He  has  published  several  volumes  of  poetry 
and  travels;  The  Heal  Union  of  England  and  Ireland 
(1845),  Lil'e  of  Keats  (1848),  and  other  works. 

Houghton  (Rotall),!).  at  Guilford,  Vt.,  Feb.  12,  1798, 
and  in  J833  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  was  (183o- 
51 )  a  prominent  banker  and  broker,  distinguished  for  honor 
and  probity.  After  leaving  business  he  became  a  citizen 
of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  where  he  d.  Mar.  22,  1873. 

Houghton  (William),  b.  at  Norwich  in  1807;  grad- 


IIOL'LTUN— IIOUSSA. 


1011 


uatcd  at  Highbury  College,  LondoD,  in  1832:  became  min- 
iater  of  tlio  Coiigregatioual  church  !it  Wiiiil.^or  in  IS^JIi,  of 
the  Congrc;;atioD:iI  society  at  KciiKingtou  iu  1S44,  uml  was 
elected  iu  ISJJ  chuiriuau  of  the  Congregational  Union  of 
England  and  Wales.  He  wrote  The  Ecctciiaiticnl  HUtory 
of  Efigf'iml  (4  vols.,  1870)  and  Country  U'uUff  of  a  Xatu- 
ratitt  ictth  hi$  Children  (1869). 

flourtODf  po8t-v.,  cap.  of  Aroostook  co.,  Mc.,  120  miles 
N.  K.  of  Bangor,  on  ibo  New  Brunswick  and  Canada  TX.  R. 
It  is  the  rendezvous  for  the  lumbermen  of  that  region. 
Has  a  savings  bank,  2  weekly  newspapers,  7  churches, 
atores  and  shops.     Pop.  2850. 

W.  S.  GiLM.vN,  Ed.  "Aroostook  Pioneeh." 
Iloiil'towny  tp,  of  Marion  co.,  W.  Va.  Pop.  33, 
llou'ma^  post-v„  cnpital  of  Tcrrc  Ronnc  parish.  La., 
70  miles  S.  \V.  of  New  Orleans,  with  whieh  it  is  connected 
bv  Morgan's  R.  U.  It  has  several  public  and  private 
pchoots,  a  convent  and  an  academy,  4  churches,  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.      I'op.  .'i'Ki, 

K.  \V.  Cu.NDON,  Eu.  "  Tkuke  Bonne  Repcbmcan." 

Hou-Xan%  or  Ilu-Xan^  province  of  China,  situated 
between  Lit.  '2i>°  and  30°  N.,  an.l  between  Ion.  109°  and 
114°  E..  comprises  an  area  of  74,32.')  sriuaro  miles,  with 
18,Cj2.j07  inhabitants.  The  surface  is  elevated,  in  many 
places  mountainous,  but  the  country  is  very  little  known. 
The  northern  part  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  largo  quau- 
tities  of  cotton.  Metals  are  said  to  abound,  but  mines  are 
not  worki  d.     Cap.  Chaog-Sha. 

Hound  [Ger.  Hand,  a  "dog"],  a  term  properly  ro- 
strijtej  to  those  dogs  which  luint  by  foIlowiDg  the  track 
of  the  game  by  scent.  This  delinition  includes  the  blood- 
hound, staghound,  foxhound,  beagle,  harrier,  and  a  few 
others,  but  docs  not  include  the  greyhound.  Most  hounds 
arc  muscular,  strong,  sagacious  animals,  with  large  j>cudu- 
lous  oars.  The  more  important  varieties  are  described 
umlcr  their  aphabetical  heads. 

Uoqnd^'fish,  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  larger  dog- 
fishes (whit_'h  are  themselves  small  f^peeies  of  sharks),  such 
as  the  Mnn(rlu.t  Lrviiiy  or  smooth  bound-tish  of  European 
8eas,  two  or  three  feet  long,  represented  in  America  At- 
lantic waters  by  M.  canU,  a  rather  larger  fish.  These  fishes 
have  flat  grinding  teeth,  adapted  well  to  their  food,  which 
consists  of  crustaceans  and  mollusks. 

Houns'field,  tp.  of  JcfTerson  eo.,  N.  Y.,  on  Lake  On- 
tario. It  includes  Sackett's  Hakbor  (which  see)  and 
several  islands.     Pop.  2630. 

Houns'low,  town  of  Middlesex,  Eng.,  10  miles  W.  of 
London,  cuusistiug  mainly  of  a  single  street.     Pop.  929-4, 

Hour  [Lat.  horn],  the  twenty-fourth  part  of  a  day,  or 
of  the  interval  between  two  consecutive  meridian  ])assages 
of  the  mean  sun  ( mean  solar  day ),  true  sun  (apparent  solar 
day),  or  of  a  fi\e<i  star  (sidereal  day).  As  mean  solar  time 
is  the  legally  recognized  time  according  to  which  the  affairs 
of  business  are  regulated,  anrl  is  the  time  kept  by  ordinary 
clo.'ks  and  watches,  the  word  hour,  in  its  usual  acceptance, 
is  understoorl  to  signify  a  mean  solar  hour.  As  the  mean 
solar  merjilian  ]ta!fsage  commonly  divides  the  interval  be- 
tween sunrise  and  sunset  unequally,  clocks  are  sometimes, 
and  for  certain  purposes,  constructed  to  give  apparent  time. 
Such  clocks  arc  called  equation  clocks  (see  Eqcation  op 
Time),  and  are  designed  to  mark  exactly  twelve  when  the 
true  sun  is  on  the  meridian.  Astroiiomieal  clocks  (so 
called),  or  the  clocks  of  astronoraieal  observatories,  are 
regulated  to  sidereal  time  for  convenience  in  reconiing  right 
ascensions  (which  are  measured  in  such  time),  or  to  facili- 
tate the  Hndin:?  of  celestial  objects  whose  right  ascenjiions 
are  known.     (See  Time.)  F.  A.  P.  Barnakd. 

Honr'«f;IasH,  a  contrivance  much  used,  before  the  in- 
vention and  iutroduclion  into  general  use  of  clocks  and 
watches,  for  the  measurement  of  time.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  glass  vessel  blown  into  a  form  externally  resem- 
bling the  figure  8,  or  presenting  the  appearance  of  two 
spberico-conoidal  bulbs  united  at  their  vertit;es.  In  the 
bluwing,  the  coutraetion  in  (be  mirbllr  1:4  rtuch  as  almost  to 
close  communication  between  the  bulbs.  This  passage  is 
then  smunlhly  drilled  out.  by  passing  the  drill  througli  the 
aperture  left  in  the  base  in  blowing;  and  a  quantity  of  fine  j 
and  dry  sand  is  then  introduced,  suflic^ient  to  oecupy  an 
hour  in  running  tlirough  this  pa.^^suge  from  one  V)ulb  to  the 
other  wh<-n  the  instrument  is  held  in  a  vertical  position. 
During  the  adjustment  the  external  aperture  is  temporarily 
closed  by  a  cork.  After  the  adjustment  this  aperture  shoultl 
bo  sealed  in  siieh  a  manner  as  effectually  to  exclude  moist- 
ure. The  whole  should  then  be  protected  by  a  surround- 
ing frame.  The  hour-glass  is  by  no  means  a  very  exact 
instrument.  .\  pereeptilile  difference  will  not  unfrequenlly 
be  observed  between  the  times  of  running  out,  aceording 
as  one  or  the  other  of  the  bulbs  is  uppermost.     Tempera- 


ture also  affects  its  performance ;  and  in  case  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  moisture  by  the  sand,  in  consequence  of  imperfect 
sealing,  its  irregularities  are  much  increased.  Half-hour 
glasses,  minute-glasses,  half-minute  glasses,  etc.  are  con- 
structed on  the  same  principle.  The  hour-glass  is  now 
rarely  used,  more  accurate  and  convenient  timekeepers 
having  superseded  it;  but  the  half-minute  glass  is  still 
employed  at  sea  to  time  the  running  of  the  log-line. 

F.  A.  P.  RinsAnn. 

Hour'is  (pi,),  ((*.  e.  the  "black-eyed"),  the  nymjihs  of 
Paradise,  whoso  society,  according  to  the  Koran,  is  to  be 
one  of  the  great  felicities  of  the  Mobammedan  believer 
after  death.  These  beings  are  of  pure  musk,  and  arc  en- 
dowed with  perjictual  youth,  health,  and  beauty. 

Hours*  The  [Cr.'llpat :  Lat.  U'^m].  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, the  goddesses  of  nature  and  the  seasons  of  theycar; 
in  later  times  the  personifications  of  justice  and  good  order. 
Their  number  nnd  mythus  are  variously  given.  At  Athens 
there  were  two — Thallo  (Spring)  and  Carpo  (Autumn). 
Ilesiod  makes  them  three — Eunomia.  Dice,  and  Irene.  In 
art  they  arc  blooming  nj-mphs,  laden  with  fruits  and 
flowers. 

Housatoti'iCy  post-v.  of  Great  Barrington  tp.,  Berk- 
shire CO.,  JIass.,  on  the  Ilousatonic  K.  II.,  21  miles  S.  of 
Pittsficid.     It  has  manufactures  of  bank-note  paper,  etc. 

HousatOllic  River  rises  by  several  head-streams  in 
Berkshire  co.,  Mass.,  tlows  S.,  and  traverses  the  State  of 
Connecticut,  falling  into  Long  Island  Sound  iu  lat.  41°  9' 
iV  N.,  Ion.  73°  0'  53"  \V.  For  14  miles  it  is  a  tidal  stream. 
Its  valley  abounds  in  wild  and  beautiful  scenery,  aud  it 
affords  water-p<»wer  for  numerous  manufactories. 

IIousc'-Fly,  the  Musm  d<»mrHi!ra  of  Europe  and  prob- 
ably of  the  U.  8.  (though  it  is  not  quite  certain  that  the 
house-flies  of  the  two  eontinents  are  identical  in  species),  a 
very  common  household  pest,  brcetling  as  a  maggot  in  heaps 
of  filth,  upon  which  it  feeds.  It  is  regarded  as  a  preventer 
of  disease  because  it  acts  as  a  scavenger,  and  thus  defers 
and  distributes  over  much  space  and  time  the  fermentation 
and  destruction  of  organic  substances.  Flies  arc  especially 
abundant  late  in  summer  and  early  in  autumn.  They  are 
generally  most  numerous  near  stables  and  ill-kept  dairies, 
and  their  presence  anywhere  in  numbers  may  be  regarded 
as  indicating  possible  danger  to  health  from  putrefying 
organic  matter.  Against  the  annoyance  of  flies,  cleanli- 
ness i.s  the  best  preventive. 

House'hold  SuTfrage,  Under  the  English  law,  the 
right  to  vote  in  boroughs  for  members  of  Parliament  is 
granted  to  male  persons  of  full  age  who  during  twelve 
months  preceiling  the  last  day  of  July  in  any  year,  as  well 
as  on  that  day,  have  been  necupiers.  either  as  owners  or 
tenants,  of  any  dwelling-house  within  the  borough,  and 
have  been  rated,  and  have  paid  tlie  rates,  in  a  speeilie<l  way 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor  iu  respect  to  the  premises.  The 
phrase  "dwelling-house  "  is  defined  by  the  act  to  mean  any 
part  of  a  house  oecupied  as  a  separate  dwelling,  aud  sepa- 
rately rated  f(tr  the  relief  of  the  poor.  The  right  of  suf- 
frage is  also  extended  to  lodgers  occupying  the  same  lodg- 
ings for  a  similar  period  to  that  jireseribed  for  oecupants 
of  dwelling-houses,  such  lodgings  being  of  the  clear  yearly 
value,  if  let  unfurnished,  of  £10  a  year  antl  upwards.  (See 
for  the  details  of  the  subject  .'10  and  31  Vict.  c.  102,  a.  n. 
1^07.)  Rules  of  a  similar  nature  in  respect  to  the  right  of 
voting  as  a  burgess  of  a  borough  at  municipal  elections  aro 
found  in  32  nnd  33  Vict.  eh.  53.  a.  i).  18G9.    T.  W.  Dwiunr. 

Household  Troops.     Sec  Giards. 

Ilouse'-I.eek  (Srnipcrvlvunt  tcctorum),  an  herb  of  the 
order  Crassulaeeje,  a  native  of  Europe,  often  cultivated  in 
the  V.  S.  It  takes  its  trivial  name  from  the  fuel  that  it  is 
often  set  ujion  the  roofs  of  cottages,  where  it  grows  well, 
propagating  abnn<lantly  by  ofi'scts  on  short  and  thick  run- 
ners, rarely  flowering.  As  a  remedy  for  bee-stings,  slight 
burns,  and  the  like  the  bruised  leaves  are  very  efficacious. 
Tiie  plant  was  once  so  highly  esteenu-d  as  a  cure  for  disease 
that  t'liarlemiigno  by  edict  compelled  his  subjects  to  keep 
it  in  their  houses  an<l  plant  it  on  their  roofs.  The  name 
house-leek  is  p<q>ularly  applied  to  several  other  crussulace- 
ouH  iilanls. 

House'mnid'8  Knee  (so  called  because  it  is  said, 
though  with  little  reas(u),  to  be  most  common  among  house- 
maiils,  who  scrub  stairs  nnd  flours  upon  their  knees),  an 
acute  or  chronic  dropsical  effusion  into  the  bursa  before  tlie 
knee-pan.  It  is  easily  diagnosticated,  and  docs  not  eom- 
nuinicalc  with  the  knee-joint  proper.  Acute  cases  may  bu 
cured  by  rest  and  the  application  of  iodine,  mercurials,  and 
tight  bandages  ;  chronic  one?,  by  compression  with  suitable 
splints,  or  even  by  evacuation  and  injection  of  iodine  solu- 
tion int<i  the  sac. 

House's  Creek,  tp.  of  Wake  eo.,  N.  C.     Pop.  2098. 

Hous'saf  or  Haus'saf  is  the  name  of  a  largo  tcrritorj 


1012 


HOUSSAYE— HOVEN, 


of  Central  Africa,  extending  between  lat.  12°  and  13°  N., 
and  between  Ion.  5°  and  10°  E.,  and  consisting  partly  of 
tracts  of  low  laud  inundated  by  the  Niger  and  its  affluents 
during  the  rainy  season,  partly  of  ranges  of  rocky  lulls  en- 
closing elevated  table-land.  The  inhabitants  have  in  some 
places  formed  imlependcnt  states,  in  others  they  have  been 
subjugated  by  neighboring  tribes,  cspeeially  the  Fellatahs, 
and  thus  the  name  llaussa  signifies  a  race  and  a  language, 
rather  than  a  jioliticat  unit. 

Houssaye'(Aus£NE),b.  at  Bruyeres.in  the  department 
of  Aisnc,  Mar,  28,  ISlo,  of  a  wealthy  father,  who  had  made 
his  fortune  in  the  milling  business.  About  18;J5  young 
lloussayc  presented  himself  in  the  Paris  fashionable  and 
literary  circles,  and  was  so  fortunate  as  to  become  the 
friend  of  Jules  Janin,  Theophile  Gaulhicr,  Jules  Sandcau, 
then  the  princes  of  criticism  and  light  literature.  Thanks 
to  them,  Arsuno  Houssaye  soon  attracted  public  attention 
to  bis  first  books,  and  afterwards  conquered  a  well-earned 
celebrity.  In  1841)  ho  became  director  of  the  Theatre 
Fran^aisc.  and  under  the  empire  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  museums.  Author  of  the  periodical  letters 
on  Paris  life  being  published  by  the  New  York  Tribune 
(lS7o).  Among  his  works  arc — Philonophi^s  et  Com^di- 
cnnen,  Len  jilles  iV Err,  Sons  la  Beijetire  ct  bohh  la  Terreitr, 
lilanchc  it  Maryuen'tr,  Nos  r/ramiea  damcfi,  Ifhtory  of  the 
Foriif-firftt  FanteiiH  of  the  French  Acadenn/,  ICing  Voltaire^ 
Ifistnri/  of  French  Art,  etc. — Henri,  his  son,  b.  Feb.  24, 
1848,  is  just  beginning  to  make  his  mark  in  the  literary 
world  of  France,  through  the  publication  of  his  History  of 
Aprlh-H,  Hintory  of  AlcibindcH,  etc.         Felix  ArCAIGXE. 

Ilous'toil)  county  of  Central  Georgia,  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  the  Oemulgee  River.  Area,  650  square  miles.  It  is 
level,  and  has  a  fertile,  calcareous,  and  well-cultivated  soil. 
Cotton,  pork,  and  corn  are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  South-western  and  other  railroads.  Cap.  Perry. 
Pop.  20,400. 

Houston,  the  south-easternmost  county  of  Minnesota, 
having  Iowa  on  the  S.  and  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  E. 
Area.  570  square  miles.  It  is  well  timbered  and  fertile, 
and  grain  is  its  chief  staple.     Cap.  Caledonia.     P.  14,936, 

Houston^  county  of  N".  W.  Central  Tennessee.  Area, 
about  ^fiO  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the 
Tennessee  River,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Memphis  Clar!;s- 
viile  and  Louisville  R.  R.  It  is  diversified  and  fertile. 
Cap.  Erin.     It  was  constituted  since  the  census  of  1870. 

Houston,county  of  the  E.  of  Texas.  Area,  1090  square 
miles.  It  is  well  timbered  and  watered,  and  generally 
rolling  and  fertile.  Coal  and  iron  are  found.  The  Inter- 
national and  Great  Northern  R.  R.  traverses  the  county, 
which  has  the  navigable  Neches  and  Trinity  rivers  respec- 
tively on  its  E.  and  W.  borders.  Cotton,  corn,  and  live- 
stock are  largely  produced.     Cap.  Crockett.     Pop.  S147. 

Houston,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Winston  co.,  Ala.,  55 
miles  N.  \V.  of  Elyton.     Pop.  of  tp.  498. 

Houston,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  111.     Pop.  1239. 

Houston,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Houston  co.,  Minn.,  on 
tlie  Southern  Minnesota  R.  R.,  19  miles  from  La  Crosse. 
Pop.  1075. 

Houston,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Chickasaw  co..  Miss.,  about 
42  miles  N.  W.  of  Columbus.  It  has  2  academies.  2 
churches,  a  newspaper,  2  hotels,  stores,  etc.;  contains  the 
usual  public  buildings.     Pop.  400. 

Frank  Burkitt,  En.  "Ciirkasaw  Messenger." 

Houston,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Texas  co.,  Mo.,  about  75 
miles  S.of  JeiVersou  City,  situated  in  a  mineral  region  ;  has 
large  forests  of  pine  and  saw-mills  in  the  neighborhood,  an 
acaiiemy,  the  county  court-house,  3  hotels,  2  newspapers, 
stores,  shops,  etc.  It  is  35  miles  from  the  St.  Louis  Salem 
and  Little  Rock  R.  R.     Pop.  about  200. 

Iii:N.  C.  Lowell,  En.  "Texas  Co.  Pioneer." 

Houston,  post-v.  of  Shelby  eo.,  0.,  on  the  Cleveland 
Columbus  CiuL-iunati  and  Indiana]>oiis  R.  R.     Pop.  5(>. 

Houston,  city,  cap.  of  Harris  co.,  Tex.,  in  lat.  29°  30', 
Ion.  94°  50',  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Buffalo  Bayou, 
60  miles  N.  W.  of  Galveston.  It  is  the  railroad  centre  of 
Texas.  The  city  is  situated  on  both  siilc.-*  the  bayou,  on 
gently  undulating  land,  and  has  steamhnat  c(<mmunication 
with  <ialvostim  daily.  It  contains  nuincnius  schools,  2 
academics  for  white  and  colored  scholars  respectively,  13 
churches,  2  national,  5  private,  and  1  savings  bank,  2  home 
insurance  companies,  the  Masonic  temple  of  the  Grand 
Lodge  of  Texas,  in  which  the  annual  meetings  arc  held,  a 
eily-hall  and  market-house  unsurpassed  in  the  South.  It 
has  cotton,  car,  soap,  and  Portland  cement  factories,  whilo 
its  manufactories  of  wngons,  carriages,  ploughs,  and  other 
agricultural  implements  are  a  source  oj"  large  revenue;  a 
large  ftouring-mill,  2  steam,  3  hand  fire-f-ngincs,  and  1  hook 
and  ladder  cumpan}*.     The  annual  State  fair  is  held  hero  on 


the  fair-grounds,  A  horse  railway  from  the  general  depots 
through  the  principal  streets  to  the  fair-grounds  is  in  suc- 
cessful operation.  There  are  4  large  hotels,  3  daily  and  5 
weekly  newspapers,  and  its  importance  as  a  railroad  and 
manufacturing  centre  is  rapidly  being  developed.  Pop. 
9.5S2.  E.  \V.  Tavlor. 

Houston  (David  C),  b.  in  New  York  ;  graduated  at 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  1.856,  and  assigned  to  the  corps 
of  engineers  with  the  rank  of  brevet  second  lieutenant;  but 
retained  at  the  Academy  as  assistant  professor  of  natural 
and  experimental  philosophy  until  Sept.,  1857,  when  ho 
WHS  plat-ed  on  construction  duty  at  Hampton  Roads,  and 
subsequently  at  Sandy  Hook.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  en- 
gaged at  iJlackburn's  Ford  and  Bull  Run  as  engineer  of 
Tyler's  division  ;  assistant  engineer  on  defences  of  Wash- 
ington;  chief  engineer  1st  army  corps,  department  of  the 
Rappahannock  :  of  3d  army  corps  at  Cedar  Mountain  and 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run;  of  1st  army  corps  at  South 
Mountain  and  Antietam  ;  of  department  of  the  Gulf  at 
the  siege  of  Port  Hudson,  Red  River  campaign,  etc. ;  brevet 
captain,  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  ctdouel  for  gallantry 
and  meritorious  conduct.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  he 
has  had  charge  of  the  defences  of  Narragansett  Bay,  R.  I., 
and  is  at  present  in  charge  of  extensive  river  and  harbor 
imj)ruvemcnts  in  the  North-west.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Houston  (George  P.),  U.  S.  M.  C. ;  entered  the  marine 
corps  as  a  second  lieutenant  Oct.  23,  ISCO;  became  a  first 
lieutenant  in  1861;  was  brevettcd  major  for  "gallant  and 
meritorious  services"  in  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  Aug.  5, 
1S04,  where  he  commanded  a  divisiou  of  the  Brooklyn's 
guns,  which  Capt.  Alden,  in  his  official  report,  says  he 
fought  "nobly  and  well."  Foxhai.l  A.  Parker. 

Houston  {George  Smith),  b.  in  Williamson  co.,  Tenn., 
Jan.  17,  1811;  removed  in  youth  to  Limestone  co.,  Ala. ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831  ;  was  chosen  district  solici- 
tor in  1837;  was  in  Congress  1841— 49  and  1851-01,  taking 
a  prominent  position  :  chosen  in  1S65  to  U.  S.  Senate,  but  did 
not  take  his  seat.  In  1874  was  elected  governor  of  Alabama, 
and  in  1S78  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator.     D.  Dec.  31,  1879. 

Houston  (Gen.  Sam),  b.  in  Rockbridge  co.,  Va.,  Mar. 
2,  1793.  Left  an  orphan  early  in  life  by  his  father's 
death,  be  went  with  his  mother  in  destitute  circumslances 
to  Tennessee,  then  the  verge  of  civilization.  Here  he  re- 
ceived a  scanty  education,  and  spent  most  of  his  youth- 
ful years  among  the  Cherokee  Indians.  During  a  portion 
of  tins  period  he  served  as  clerk  to  one  of  the  traders,  and 
also  taught  a  rustic  school.  In  1813  he  enlisted  as  a  pri- 
vate in  the  U.  S.  army,  and  served  under  Gen.  Jackson  in 
his  famous  campaign  against  the  Creek  Indians.  He  had 
so  distinguished  himself  on  several  occasions  that  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant, but  on  the  return  of  peace  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  army,  and  took  up  the  study  of  law  at 
Nashville.  His  political  career  now  commenced.  After 
holding  several  minor  otlices  he  was  sent  to  Congress  from 
Tennessee  in  1S23.  and  continued  a  member  of  the  House 
until  1827,  when  he  was  elected  governor  of  the  State.  In 
1829,  he  resigned  this  office  before  the  expiration  of  his 
term  ;  went  to  Arkansas  and  took  up  his  abode  among 
the  Cherokccs.  He  not  long  after  became  the  agent  of  this 
tribe  to  represent  their  interests  at  Wushington.  On  a  tirst 
visit  to  Texas,  just  before  the  election  of  delegates  to  the 
convention  called  there  to  form  a  constitution  preparatory 
to  the  admission  of  Texns  into  the  Mexican  union,  he  was 
unanimously  chosen  a  delegate  to  that  body.  The  consti- 
tution so  formed  was  rejected  by  the  Mexican  authorities, 
and  Texas  was  denied  admission  as  a  state  into  that  union. 
Santa  Anna,  the  president  of  the  Mexican  confederated  re- 
public, demanded  of  the  Texans  a  surrender  of  their  arms. 
Resistance  to  this  demand  was  <letermined  upon.  A  mili- 
tary force  was  organized,  and  Houston,  under  the  title  of 
general,  was  soon  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  it.  Ho 
comluctcd  the  war  which  ensued  with  great  vigor,  and 
brought  it  to  a  successful  termination  by  the  battle  of  San 
Jacinto  in  Apr.,  1S36,  in  which  Santa  Anna  was  captured, 
and  by  which  the  independence  of  Texns  as  a  separate  re- 
public was  achieved.  In  Oct.,  1S36,  (»en.  Houston  was  in- 
augurated the  first  president  of  the  new  republic.  In  1845- 
4G,  Texas  was  admitted  into  our  I'nion  as  one  of  the  U.S., 
and  Gen.  Houston  was  elected  as  one  of  the  two  Texas 
members  to  the  Senate  of  the  U.  S.  This  position  he  held 
for  twelve  years.  His  decided  opposition  to  the  policy  of 
secession  lost  him  the  confidence  of  the  people  for  whom 
he  had  done  so  much.  He  went  into  retirement,  and  sur- 
vived the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1801  for  a  short  time. 
Taken  all  in  all,  (Jen.  Houston  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able men  who  has  ever  figured  in  American  history.  D.  at 
Huntsville,  Tex..  July  25,  1S63.  A.  H.  Stei'UEXh. 

Ho'vcn,  or  Hoove,  a  disease  of  cattle  and  sheep, 
characterized  by  great  distension  of  the  stomach  by  car- 


HOVEY— HOWARD. 


1013 


bonic  acid  gas,  derived  Trom  fermentation  of  food.  It  is 
oflcn  seen  alur  :i  marked  change  from  a  mea^ro  to  »  rich 
pasture.  A  sin:irt  purge,  the  administration  uf  linic-wuler 
or  weak  ammunia-wMUT,  and  the  introduction  of  tho  stom- 
ach-tube arc  to  be  tried.  If  these  fail,  }iluu;;e  a  tiucar  and 
canula  into  the  slumueh  at  a  point  halfway  helwccD  the 
haunch-bonc  uud  the  hist  rib^  and  near  the  back-bone. 
There  is  some  danger  of  fatal  peritonitis  aftor  the  operation, 
but  most  animals  recover. 

Hov'ey  (Alvah),  D.  D..  b.  at  Greene,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  5, 
1820i  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  N.  H.,  1S44.  and 
Newton  (Ma.«s.)  Thcolocical  Institution  in  1S4S;  was  Uap- 
ti^t  pastor  at  North  tJloucester,  -Mi'.;  from  1S50  to  1SJ3 
instructor  in  biblical  literature  at  Newton  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  from  ISb'A  to  1856  professor  of  eeelcsinstical  his- 
tory. Since  ISjG  he  has  been  at  the  same  institution  pro- 
fc.-^S'ir  of  Christian  theology,  and  its  president  since  1S6S. 
ilc  has  published,  with  Uev.  I>.  I>.  Kurd,  a  translation  uf 
I'ertho's  Lifttif  Chrjfsogtom,  anil  by  hirnself.  Li/etnid  Times 
of  Itfinc  /?«'i-K»{lSjS),  Shite  of  the  /nipeuiUnt  Dead  ( ISb^}^ 
The  Afintrtr*  uf  Chritit  (180-4),  Scriptural  Law  of  Divorce 
(ISCSj,  Ooii  wit/t  Us  ( 1K72).  and.  privately,  Lectures  on  The- 
oluffif,  Jieliffiinif  aitU  the  Slate  (IS74), 

llovcy  (Ai.viy  P.).b.  at  Mt.  Vernon,  Tnd.,  May  S,  1821 ; 
Btu<lied  law  and  practised  his  profc?sion  with  success. 
Durin*  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed  major  of  Indiana 
volunteers,  subsequently  colonel,  serving  in  the  South-west 
at  Stiiloh  and  Corinth;  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general 
of  voluntevr^  Apr.  28,  1S02;  commanded  a  tlivision  at  tho 
battle  of  Champion  Hills,  contributing  largrly  to  tho  suc- 
cess of  that  day;  subsequently  engaged  in  the  Vieksburg 
campaign.  Brevctted  major-general  of  volunteers  Julv, 
18ti4  J  resigned  Oct.,  18G5.  In  1SC6  he  was  appointed  U.  S. 
minister  to  Peru.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

How  fLvMAS  Bartlrtt),  a.  M.,  M.  I)..  U.  in  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass.,  Feb.  2.i,  1838;  graduated  A.  B.  at  Dartmouth 
Cullogo  ISfiO;  studied  medicine  iu  the  medical  department 
of  that  college  and  in  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons;  took  the  medical  degree  in  1802;  practises 
at  Maiiuhestcr,  N.  II.;  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  iu  the  meiiical  department  of  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege I  SOU,  which  position  ho  holds  (187a). 

llow'urd,  county  in  the  W.  of  Arkansas.  Area.  Ci2b 
square  miles.  Its  \V.  border  is  washed  by  Saline  Creek. 
It  is  fertile,  rolling,  and  well  wooded.     Cap.  Centre  Poiut. 

Howard,  county  of  Dakota,  traversed  by  tho  Missouri 
and  the  Little  Missouri  rivers.  Its  N.  W.  corner  extends 
to  tiic  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone,    Area,  4320  square  miles. 

Howard,  county  of  N.  Central  Indiana.  Area,  310 
square  miles.  It  is  level  and  very  productive.  Cattle, 
grain,  ivool,  and  lumbi  r  are  stajilc  products.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Indiana(>olis  Peru  and  Chicago  and  the  Cin- 
cinnati and  Chicago  II.  Us.     Cap.  Kokomo.     Pop.  15,847. 

Howard,  county  of  the  N.  E.  of  Iowa,  bounded  on  tho 
N.  by  Minnesota.  Area.  o70  square  miles.  It  is  partly 
)iratrio  and  partly  timbcr-Iand,  and  h:ts  a  fertile  soil. 
tirain  is  the  staple  product.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  i*aul  K.  K.    Cap.  New  Oregon.    Pop.  0282. 

Howard,  county  of  the  S.  K.  of  Kansas,  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  Indian  Territory.  Area,  1271  square  miles.  It 
has  great  water-power  and  much  fine  tillage  land,  but  is 
especially  adapted  to  pasturage.  Cap,  Peru.  Pop.  271*1. 
Divided  since  1870  into  KIk  an'l  Chautauqua  counties. 

Howard,  county  near  the  centre  of  Maryland.  Area, 
.100  square  milrs.  It  has  a  good  soil  and  undulatini;  and 
hilly  surface,  with  abunciant  water-power.  (Jrain  and  to- 
bacco are  staple  products.  Cotton  goods,  flour,  and  iron 
are  manufa'dured.  (Jranile  and  iron  ores  arc  abundant. 
Cap.  Kllirnit  City.     Pop.  M,I50. 

Howard,  county  of  N.  Central  Missouri.  Area,  400 
square  miles.  It  is  undulating,  well  cultivated,  fertile,  and 
abounds  in  coal,  sandstone,  and  limestone.  Cattle,  grain, 
tobacco,  and  wool  arc  8laj)Ie  products.  The  Missouri  lUtws 
along  thr  W.  and  S.  boundaries.    Cap.  Fayette.    P.  17,2;J.^. 

Howiird,  county  of  Central  Nebraska,  drained  by  tho 
Loup  KiM'k  of  tho  river  Platte.  Area,  f»70  square  miles. 
It  is  well  adapted  to  grazing.  Cap.  St.  Paul.  There  is  no 
Btalemcut  of  its  pop.  in  the  census  of  1870. 

Howard,  Ip.  of  Conway  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  "t.'i. 

Howard,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1707. 

Iloivard,  post-tp.  of  Parke  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  55L 

Howard,  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1108. 

Howard,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  la.     Pop.  204. 

Hc'Ward,  tp.  of  Story  co.,  la.     Pop.  008. 

Hfr.ward,  tp.  of  Tanm  co..  la.     Pop.  10L3. 

H  iiftvard,  tp.  of  Wayne  en.,  la.      Poji.  J73. 


Howard,  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  Mich.,  od  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral K.  R.     Pop.  1171. 

Howard,  ip.  of  Gentry  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  I.TIO. 

Howard,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.  Pop. 
of  v.  107:  of  tp.  2122. 

Howard,  post-tp.  of  Knox  co.,  0.,  on  the  Cleveland 
Mt.  Vernon  and  Columbus  U.  K.     Pop.  800. 

Howard,  tp.  of  Centre  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  875. 

Howard,  post-b.  of  Centre  co..  Pa.,  on  the  Lockbavcn 
and  Tyrone  U.  K.,  1.1  miles  S.  W.  of  Lockhavon.  It  has 
iron  nianufaelurcs.     Pop.  334. 

Howard,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  Wis.  It  contains  the  vil- 
lage of  Kurt  Howard,     Pop.  3020. 

Howard  (CATriAniNK),  tho  fifth  wife  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  (luecn  of  England  for  some  months,  b.  in  1620,  a 
daughter  of  Kdniund  Howard,  third  son  of  Thomas  Howard, 
duke  of  Norfolk.  The  king  first  saw  !ier  at  a  banquet  given 
by  the  bishop  of  Winchester  in  1540.  He  had  just  married 
Anno  of  Clevcs,  and  his  dislike  for  that  vulgar  woman 
grew  into  disgust  by  comparison  with  the  graceful  and 
spirited  Catharine.  On  July  U,  1540.  he  was  divorced  front 
Anne,  and  on  Aug.  S  lie  married  Catliarine.  The  marriage 
was  very  hap])y.  The  queen  underttood  how  to  dispel  tho 
gloom  which  gathered  now  and  then  in  her  husband's  soul, 
and  to  manage  the  nioroseness  of  his  temper.  But  tho 
happiness  did  not  last  more  tluin  five  months.  Arclibishop 
Cranmer  communicated  to  the  king  the  confessions  of  a 
certain  LasccIIes,  according  to  which  Dereham  and  Man- 
nook,  two  gentlemen  in  the  service  of  the  duchess  of  N(»r- 
folk,  had  been  Catharine's  lovers  before  her  marriage.  Tho 
king  at  fir-^t  refused  to  believe.  Nevertheless,  Dereham 
and  Jlannoek  were  seized  and  questioned.  They  confessed, 
and  were  executed.  At  last,  even  the  queen  confessed. 
But  as  such  a  crime,  committed  before  marriage,  was  not  a 
sufiicicnt  reason  of  divorce,  her  conduct  after  marriage  was 
subjected  to  a  most  rigorous  scrutiny.  Very  suspicious 
circumstances  came  to  light.  She  had  taken  Dereham  into 
her  service  after  her  marriage.  Another  of  her  former 
lovers.  Thomas  ('ulpejipcr,  a  relative  of  hers  on  her  mother's 
side,  she  had  admitted  to  her  bed-chamber  one  night  for 
several  hours,  no  other  being  present  than  Lady  Rochford. 
After  a  protracted  trial  she  was  sentenced,  and  decapi- 
tated Feb.  13,  1542.  Most  historians  admit  the  disso- 
luteness of  her  conduct  before  her  marriage,  and  few  ])Ut 
any  confidence  in  her  loyalty  after  that  time,  but  there 
seems  to  be  an  under-current  of  jiolitieal  intrigue  running 
through  her  history.  At  the  head  of  tho  religious  reform 
party  stood  Cranmer.  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  while  the 
duke  of  Norfolk  and  IJisliop  Gardiner  represented  a  party 
which  wished  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Tho  king's  marriage  to  Anne  of  Cleves  was  the 
work  of  the  Reform  party,  which  linped  to  bring  tho  king 
entirely  over  to  their  side  by  placing  him  in  more  intimate 
connection  with  theticrman  Lutherans.  Hut  the  plan  had 
failed.  The  Howards  were  in  power.  The  Roman  Cat  Indie 
cause  was  in  the  ascendant,  and  it  is  more  than  jirobable 
that  the  fate  which  overtook  Catharine  Howard  arose  from 
thtse  eircuinsfances. 

Howard  ( Fi.onoARno),  M.  D.,  Pn.  D.,  h.  in  Stafford  co., 
Va.,  Mar.  II,  ISIl:  was  cclucated  at  CoUimbian  College 
an<l  (Jeorgetown  College,  I>.  C. ;  is  professor  of  obsletries, 
puerperal  diseases,  ami  diseases  of  children  in  the  medical 
department  of  (Jeorgetown  College,  Washington.  D.  C. ; 
president  of  the  Medical  Association  of  tlie  District  of  Co- 
lumbia 1874-75. 

Howard  (Hknrv),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Frederick  co.,  Md., 
May  2S,  1702  :  d.  at  Charlottesville,  Va..  Mar.  2.  1S74.  He 
took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  for  twenty-four  years  practised  in  Maryland. 
In  1837  he  filled  the  jirofessorship  of  obstetrics  and  disea>e8 
of  women  and  eliibtren  in  the  university  of  his  native 
State,  and  then  was  elected  professor  of  practice  and  ob- 
stetrics in  tho  University  of  Virginia,  which  he  occupied  to 
1807,  when  the  infirmities  of  age  eompolled  him  to  resign. 
He  left  an  enviable  reputation  for  his  devotion  to  the  pro- 
fession and  zeal  us  a  teacher.  Pai  i,  F.  Kvi;. 

Howard  (Jacob  M.),  LL.D..  b.  at  Shaftesburv,  A't.. 
1805;  d.  at  Detroit  in  1871.  Graduated  at  AVillinn'is  Col- 
lege 1830  :  taught  tn  academies  in  Massachusetts  and  Mich- 
igan in  1832;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  ls;i3;  became  a 
member  of  tho  legislature  in  ls;iS;  member  of  Congress  in 
1841— n,  and  attorney-general  of  Michigan  in  1855-01. 
From  1802  to  1871  he  represented  Michigan  as  its  Senator, 
and  was  the  sponsor  of  the  Rejiublieiin  party  in  1854,  tho 
drawing  uj»  o\'  the  platform  at  tho  first  convention  being 
also  attributed  to  him.  lie  is  known  in  tho  literary  world 
by  his  transhiti<m  of  the  Secrtt  Memoirs  uf  the  Emprcn9 
Junrphinr,  from  the  Frciieli. 

Howard   (John),  b.  at   Hackney,  near  London.  Sept. 


1014- 


HOWARD— HOWE. 


2,  1726.  From  his  father  he  inhcritcJ  a  considerable  for- 
tune, and  he  spent  his  y<uith  in  studying  medicine  anrl  in 
travelling.  Having  settled  at  rardiugton,  Bedford.-^hire, 
in  17oS,  and  having  made  himself  conspicuous  hy  his 
schools  and  model  cottages  for  the  peasantry,  he  was  elect- 
ed sheriff  in  l"7iJ.  On  visiting  the  jails  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  intolerable  conditions  under  which 
prisoners  lived  ;  thus  it  often  happened  that  a  ntan  spent 
several  years  in  jail  because  he  could  not  pay  the  jailer's 
fee  for  his  deliverance.  Howard  now  travelled  through  the 
whole  kingdom,  visited  all  its  jails,  and  presented  in  1774 
a  report  to  the  House  of  Commons,  the  result  of  which  was 
the  passing  of  two  reform  bills.  Next  he  went  to  the  Con- 
tinent, visited  Franco,  (Jcrniany,  and  Holland,  examined 
their  prisons,  and  published  on  his  return,  in  1777,  Slate 
of  the  Prisons  in  EnffUiud  and  Wales,  with  Preliminarif 
Observations  and  nn  Arconut  of  some  Foreir/n  Prisons,  to 
which  he  afterward  added  supplements,  having  made  new 
travels  and  new  researches.  The  immediate  result  was 
the  adoption,  on  trial,  of  the  hard-labor  system  in  some  of 
the  English  prisons.  In  1785  he  started  on  a  new  tour 
through  Italy.  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor,  in  order  to  make 
himself  acquainted  with  the  lazarettos,  and  on  his  return 
published,  in  1789,  An  Account  of  the  Principal  Lazarettos 
of  Europe.  In  order  to  push  his  researches  into  this  sub- 
ject still  further,  he  ^:tarte^l  in  the  same  year  on  a  tour  to 
Asia,  but  d.  Jan.  20,  1790,  at  Kherson,  Russia. 

Howard  (John  Eager), b.  in  Baltimore  co.,  Md.,  June 
4,  1752  ;  served  throughout  the  Revolutionary  war  with  the 
greatest  honor,  and  was  present  upon  most  of  the  important 
battle-tields  of  the  war,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  receiving  a  medal  from  Congress  for  his  valor 
at  the  Cowpcns,  Jan,  17,  1781.  He  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress 1787-88;  governor  of  Maryland  1789-92;  U.  S.  Sen- 
ator 1796-1S0;{;  and  in  1798  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  by  Washington.  He  was  a  man  of  wealth,  and  his 
reputation  for  valor  and  patriotism  made  his  old  age  one 
of  great  honor.     D.  Oct.  12,  1827. 

HOAVard  (Oliver  Otis),  LL.B.,  b.  at  Leeds,  Me,,  Nov.  8, 
1830  :  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1850,  and  at  the  Mili- 
tary Academy  1854,  when  he  was  promoted  in  the  army  to 
be  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  ordnance  ;  promoted  to  be 
second  lieutenant  Feb.,  1855,  first  lieutenant  July,  l!S57; 
served  as  assistant  at,  and  in  command  of,  arsenals  1S54— 
56;  as  chief  of  ordnance  against  hostile  Indians  in  Flor- 
ida 1857;  and  at  the  Military  Academy  as  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  from  Sept.,  1857,  to  June  3.  ISfil; 
resigned  June  7,  1861.  Appointed  colonel  of  the  third 
Maine  Vols.  June  4,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  in 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21  :  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  Sept.,  1861  :  served  in  the  Virginia 
Peninsular  campaign  lSti2,  and  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks 
(June  1)  was  twice  wounded,  losing  his  right  arm;  re- 
joined the  army  Aug..  1802,  and  was  engaged  in  the  battles 
of  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg  ;  appointed  major-general 
of  volunteers  Nov.,  lSti2;  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville 
(May,  1863)  he  commanded  the  11th  army  corps,  as  also 
at  Gettysburg.  July,  lJ>63.  Transferred  with  his  command 
to  Tennessee  Oct.,  1S63,  he  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of 
Lookout  Valley  and  Missionary  Ridge.  In  Aj)r.,  1801,  the 
11th  and  r2th  Qorps  were  united  to  form  the  2Uth  corps, 
and  Gen.  Howard  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  4th 
corps.  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  in  the  July  following 
to  that  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  being  engaged 
around  Dalton,  at  Resaca,  Kencsaw  Mountain,  siege  and 
occupation  of  Atlanta,  and  in  the  various  actions  and  bat- 
.  tics  during  the  famous  march  to  the  sea  with  Gen.  Sher- 
man, and  subsequent  invasion  of  the  Carolina?,  terminating 
with  the  surrender  of  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  at  Durham  Sta- 
tion, N.  .C,  Apr,  26,  1S65.  Appointed  commissioner  of 
Bureau  of  Refugees,  Frcedmcn,  and  Abandoned  Lands 
May,  1865,  which  position  he  retained  till  June,  1872; 
served  as  special  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs  1865,  and 
was  president  of  Howard  University  1869-73.  Gen.  How- 
ard was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the  U.  S.  army 
Dec.  21,  1801,  and  brevet  major-general  U.  S.  A.  1865. 

G.  C.  Simmons. 

Howard  (William  A.),  b.  in  Vermont;  graduated  at 
Middlebury  College  1830  ;  moved  to  Michigan,  from  which 
State  he  was  a  leading  member  of  Congress  on  the  anti- 
slavery  side  1855-61.  Being  a  man  i»f  high  order  of 
talents,  strong  convictions,  and  unquestioned  integrity,  ho 
had  not  only  the  respect  but  the  esteem  of  his  most  decided 
opponents.     Became  postmaster  of  Detroit  1861. 

A.  H.  Stephbns. 

How'nrd  Cen'tre,  post-tp.  of  Howard  co.,  la.  P,  294. 

How'ard  <'it'y,  post-v.  of  Montcalm  eo.,  Mich.,  ."^3 
miles  N.  of  Grand  Kitpids,  on  the  Detroit  Lansing  and  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  (Trand  Rapids  and  Indiana  R.  Us.  It 
has  good  graded  schools^  3  churches,  an  exchange   bank,  1 


newspaper,   several    large   lumber,  shingle,   and    planing 
mills,  2  hotels,  and  stores.     Pop.  about  1000. 

W.  E.  Morris,  Ed.  **  Record." 

Uow'ardsville,  pc^t-v.  of  San  Juan  co.,  Col. 

IIowardsviHc,  post-v.  of  Scottsvilie  tp.,  Albemarle 
CO.,  Va.     pup,  83, 

How'ard  I'niver'sity,  an  educational  foundation  sit- 
uate at  Seventh  street,  Washington,  D.  C,  established  by 
virtue  of  a  charter  granted  by  Congress  in  1867,  and  deriv- 
ing its  patronymic  from  one  of  its  most  prominent  founders. 
Gen.  0.  0.  Howard,  who  continued  to  occupy  the  presi- 
dential chair  until  1873,  when  he  resigned.  Though  neither 
creed,  color,  nor  sex  is  permitted  to  preclude  admi.^sion  to 
the  ranks  of  its  alumni,  the  institution  was  sjiecially  de- 
signed for  colored  people,  of  which  fully  two-thirds  of  its 
students  consist.  In  1872-73  the  total  number  receiving 
instruction  in  the  several  departments  (the  normal,  pre- 
paratory, collegiate,  theological,  legal,  and  medical)  was 
507.  The  university  is  placed  under  the  management  of 
twenty-one  trustees  ;  antl  though  the  U.  S.  government 
granted  aid  at  its  establishment,  it  is  now  entirely  depend- 
ent upon  voluntary  contributions  and  the  fees  of  students 
for  its  support.  It  possesses  a  library  of  7500  volumes, 
a  picture-gallery,  a  niincralogical  collection,  and  a  mu- 
seum of  curiosities.  The  terms  of  study  allotted  for  the 
students  in  the  various  departments  are — normal  depart- 
ment, 2  years;  preparatory,  .1  years ;  collegiate,  4  years; 
theological,  2  years;  law,  2  years;  and  medical,  3  years. 
Over  fifty  students  have  already  graduated  from  this  in- 
stitution. 

Howe,  tp.  of  Forest  co..  Pa.     Pop.  78. 

Howe,  tp,  of  Perry  co..  Pa.     Pop.  410. 

Howe  (Albion  Paris),  b.  at  Standish,  Me.,  Mar.  1.3, 
1818;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and 
appointed  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July  1,  1841  ;  after 
a  term  of  two  years  passed  on  frontier  and  garrison  duty, 
he  returned  to  West  Point  as  assistant  professor  of  mathe- 
matics, where  he  remained  until  1846;  served  throughout 
the  war  with  Mexico  with  credit  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city 
of  Mexico,  winning  the  brevet  of  captain  for  Contrcras  and 
Churubusco.  From  1S48  to  1801  the  monotony  of  garrison- 
life  was  relieved  by  occasional  expeditions  against  Indians, 
and  in  1851)  he  was  at  Harper's  Ferry  during  the  John 
Brown  insurrection  ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  ho 
was  a  captain  of  artillery,  and  accomjianied  Gen.  MeClellan 
in  his  campaign  in  West  Virginia,  at  Rich  Mountain,  etc., 
and  throughout  the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign  (1862) 
in  command  of  light  artillery  brigade,  having  been  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers  June  11,  ISfi2; 
subsequently*  in  all  the  various  battles  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  in  command  of  a  brigade  and  division  of  the 
0th  army  corps,  until  the  spring  of  1864,  when  he  was  as- 
signed to  duty  in  "Washington  as  inspector  of  artillery.  At 
present  serving  on  the  Pacific  Coast  with  his  regiment  (1th 
Artillery),  of  which  he  is  major.  G.  C.  SniMOXS. 

Howe  (Elias),  inventor  of  the  sewing-machine,  b. 
at  Spencer,  Mass.,  July  9,  1819;  was  the  son  of  a  farmer 
and  miller;  went  in  18115  to  Lowell,  and  worked  there,  and 
afterwards  in  Boston,  in  machine-shops.  In  1845  ho  com- 
pleted his  fir?t  machine,  and  patented  it  in  1846,  laboring 
with  the  greatest  persistency,  in  spite  of  poverty  and 
neglect,  working  for  a  time  as  an  engine-driver  on  a  rail- 
road for  small  wages  and  with  broken  health.  He  spent 
two  years  of  unsuccessful  exertion  in  England,  striving  in 
vain  to  bring  his  invention  into  notice,  lie  returned  to  the 
r.  S.  in  almost  hopeless  poverty,  to  find  that  his  patent 
had  been  violated  ;  but  he  at  last  found  friends  who  as- 
sisted him  with  money,  and  after  years  of  litigation  he 
made  good  his  claims  in  the  courts  in  1854.  He  atterwards 
realized  a  large  fortune  from  his  invention.  During  the 
civil  war  he  volunteered  as  a  private  of  the  17lh  Connecti- 
cut volunteers,  and  served  for  some  time.  He  received  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  many  medals.  D.  at 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y,,  Oct.  3,  1867. 

Howe  (Jonv),  b.  May  17. 1630,  in  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land :  d.  A]tr,  2,  1705;  completed  his  education  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford.  After  holding  for  several  years  a  rural 
curacy,  he  was  appointed  (1654)  domestic  chaplain  io  Crom- 
well, a  position  ho  held  until  the  death  of  the  PVolcctor 
(165S).  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  ami  univerr'ally  es- 
teemed for  his  ability  and  Christian  character.  *He  was 
the  friend  of  Baxter,  and  labored  in  the  same  lincwHh  him 
for  Christian  unity.  Ho  was  one  of  tho  leading  <tontro- 
versiftlist  writers  of  his  day  among  the  noneonlformist 
party,  hut  free  from  all  animosity  and  bitterness^  His 
principal  works  are — The  Oracles  of  God,  The  Living 
Triitple,  The  liefleemers  Tears  over  I^ont  Souls,  and  Thr\FilesS' 
ednesk  of  the  liiyhleons.  Editions  of  his  Complete^' Works 
during  the  present  century  have  been  issued  at  Ot^'idon, 


r 


HOWE— HOWITT. 


1015 


1810-22,  8  vols. ;  ibid.,  1S48,  3  vols. ;  anil  at  Phila.lclphia, 
2  vols.  The  best  biograiihy  is  that  of  Rogers,  Lonilou,  1830. 
Howe  (Il"ii.  .I.)SKiMi).  b.  in  Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  lvS04,  was 
tlic  son  of  Jolia  Howe,  a  loyalist  refugee  from  Boston.  Ho 
was  bred  a  printer,  and  in  1827  became  connected  with  the 
Acn^llon  newspaper,  and  in  1S28  cdilur  and  proprietor  of 
the  -Vora  Scoiiuii.  As  an  outspoken  liberal  ami  Iricud  of 
responsible  (;overnuient  he  was  invcUi-.l  in  a  vexatious 
libel-suit  and  fought  a  duel  with  iMr.  llahburton.  As  a 
mcni\)cr  of  the  Provincial  Parliament,  colonial  agent  in 
England,  provincial  secretary,  etc.,  ho  was  long  one  of 
the  most  prominent  men  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  resiionsible  government  in  the  jirovince. 
He  was  (1803-72)  secretary  of  state  for  the  provinces  in 
the  Dominion  government,  and  superintendent  of  Indian 
affairs  and  afterwards  became  a  incniber  of  the  Uominion 
Parliament  for  Hants,  N.  S. ;  was  afterwards  liculenant- 
eovernor  of  Nova  Scotia.     He  published  two  volumes  of 

V'''"'«  "'«'  •''«*''■"-•  ^"'"''  (1^^**)-     ^-  "'  ""''f"''  •'"'"' 
1,  IST.i. 

Howe  (JtxiA  Ward),  ihc  daughter  of  Mr.  Samuel 
Ward  and  the  wife  of  Dr.  S.  (1.  Howe,  b.  in  New\ork 
May  27,  ISl'J;  married  Dr.  Howe  in  1843.  Her  /'n«»,ou 
l-lmctr,  (lS.i4),  Wo,;l.  lor  ihe  Hour  (1850),  and  Lalcr 
/.uricn  (18GG)  contain  her  most  important  lyric  poems. 
Thr  World;  CI.C..  (I8Ji)  and  //.>,'"'.'/'"»  <  18:iS)  arc  dramas. 
Shu  has  also  published  two  volumes  of  travel,  and  mouy 
able  papers  upon  social  and  philosophical  subjects.  Many 
of  her  poems  are  of  a  high  order  of  merit.  She  is  an  active 
worker  in  the  woman's  sulTrago  movement. 

Howe  (KicHARD),  Eaki.,  b.  Mar.  19, 1725,  was  the  third 
son  of  the  second  Viscount  Howe;    studied  at  Eton  _nnd 
Westminster;  became  a  midshipman  under  Anson  1739; 
post-captain  for  gallantry  at  Fort  William  1715;  captured 
Cherbourg  and  Martignan  17i8:  succeeded  his  brother  as 
viscount  (Irish   peerage)   1758;    defeated  Conflans    17o9; 
treasurer  of  Ihe  navy  17(!5  ;  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  with 
chief  command  in  the  Mediterranean,  1770;  with  William 
Howe,  his  brother,  was  appointed  commissioner  to  avert 
the  war  in  the  American  colonies  177l>;  fought  D'Estaing 
off  Rhode  Mand  1778;  became  admiral  and  viscount  in 
tho  British  peerage,  bv  creation,  1782;  relieved  Gibraltar 
in  1782-  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  1783;  created  earl  1788; 
took  command  of  the   Channel   licet   1793;    defeated  the 
French  off    lirisl    1794;    K.  0.  and    general    ol    marines 
1795.     D.  in  London  Aug.  5,  1799.     Howe  was  of  a  stock 
related  closely  to  the  royal  family  by  illegitimate  descent. 
Howe   (Samiki,  (Jumi.KV),    M.  D.,  b.  in  Boston  Nov. 
10    ISOl  ;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1821  ;  was  a 
surgeon  in  the  (ireck  war  for  liberty  1824-27;  organized 
tho  surgical  service  and  was  placed  at  its  head.     Ho  then 
returned  to  America  for  aid,  and    afterwards    founded  a 
colony  on    the   Isthmus  of  Corinth.     In    1S31    ho  visited 
Europe  again  after  his  appointment  to  the  superintendency 
of  the  Perkins  Asylum  for  the  blind,  an.l  while  there  at- 
tempted, as  presiilent  of  the  Pcilish  cunmittce  ..f  Pans,  to 
carry  aid  to  the  struggling  Poles,  but  was  iiniinscmcd  fur 
six  weeks  in  Prussia.    After  1832  he  had  charge  ol  the  1  er- 
kins  Institute  f.ir  tho  blind.  South  Boston.  Mass.     Ho  was 
long  a  prominent  abolitionist.     In  1871  ho  was  one  of  tho 
U  .S  commissioners  to  Santo  Domingo.    Author  of /lii //i«- 
U,'r;,alSk^lrhofll,<-llrr.k  llrrolnUo,,  ns28),  lUodcr  for  lliC 
JUind  (1839).  'D.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  .Ian.  9,  1876. 

Howe  (TiMOTiiv  0.),  b.  at  I.ivcrmorc,  Me.,  Feb.  24, 
ISKi-  received  an  academic  education:  adopted  tho  pro- 
fession of  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar;  member  <.f 
State  legislature  1845;  removed  to  Wisconsin  late  in  IMJ, 
and  in  18511  was  elected  judge  of  the  circuit  an.l  supremo 
courts  of  Wisconsin,  which  position  he  hebl  until  185j, 
when  ho  resigned.  Chosen  U.  S.  Senator  for  Wisconsin  m 
181)1,  and  has  been  twice  re-elected. 

Howe  (Sir  William),  VisioiST,  b.  Aug.  10,  1720,  bro- 
ther of  Richard.  Karl  Howe;  stiolied  at  Kion  ;  entered  the 
dragoons;  served  at  liuebec  under  Wolfe;  colonel  of  the 
4th1'ool  17li  I,  and  major-general  1772;  took  the  chief  cuin- 
mand  in  North  America  1775.  after  Gage's  departure,  Howe 
having  previously  commanded  at  Bunker  Hill;  evacuated 
Boston  Mar..  17711;  went  to  Ilaliliix,  and  thence  to  Staten 
Mand  ;  gained  the  battle  of  l.mig  Island  Aug.  27  ;  occupied 
New  York  Sept.  15  ;  won  the  victory  oi  White  Plains  Oct.  28; 
of  Fort  Washington  Nov.  10;  of  Brandywine  Sept,  11, 
1777;  occuided  Philad.lidiiaSept.  2fi;  repulsed  W  ashing- 
ton  at  liermanlown  Oct,  4  :  was  superseded  by  Sir  H.  Clin- 
ton in  1778;  returned  to  England,  where  his  conduct  was 
vindicated  alter  a  parliamentary  investigation  ;  became  a 
lieutenant-general  1782;  general  1780;  succeeded  to  the 
Irish  peerage  as  viscount  1799.  1).  July  12,  1814.— The 
families  both  of  Earl  and  Viscount  Howe  arc  now  «xtinct, 
tho  present  Earls  Howe  being  of  tho  Cur/.on  family,  enno- 
bled in  1788  and  raised  to  tho  earldom  in  1821. 


How'cll,  county  of  Missouri,  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
Arkansas.  Area,  804  square  miles.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  and 
it  is  extensively  covered  with  pino  forests. .  Corn  is  the 
principal  product.     Cap.  West  Plains.     Pop.  4218. 

Howcll,post-v.,  cap.  of  Livingston  CO.,  Mich.,  50  miles 
N.  W.  of  Detroit,  on  Ihe  Detroit  Lansing  and  Lake  Michigan 
R.  R.,  is  surrounded  by  a  line  agricultural  district ;  has 
good  educational  advantages,  3  churches,  2  banks,  foundry 
and  inachino  shop,  sash  and  door  factory,  2  Hounng-nulls, 
2  newspapers,  stores,  etc.      Princijial  occupation,  dealing 
in  aTicultural  products  and  impleinents.   Pop.  of  Ip.  2o«3. 
J.  D.  Smith.  Ed.  '•Livingston  Rli'Uulican." 
Howell,  tp.  of  Howell  co..  Mo.     Pop.  970. 
Howell,  Ip.  of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.     It  contains  a 
number  of  villages.     Pop.  3371. 

Howell  (DAVin).  LL.D.,  a  native  of  New  Jersey,  was 
b.  in  1747,  and  d.  in  July,  1824.  At  Ihe  age  of  twenty- 
thrco  ho  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  iihilos"pby  and 
mathematics,  and  filled  the  chair  of  law  at  the  Brown  Uni- 
versity from  1790  to  1S24.  In  the  interval  he  hllcd  the 
several  offices  of  attorney-general  of  the  State,  judge  of 
tho  supreme  court,  member  of  tho  Continental  Congress, 
commissioner  for  settling  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  U.S., 
and  district  attorney,  and  was  subsequently  district  ludge 
for  Rhode  Island  till  his  death.  He  was  equally  distiii- 
l.ed  as  a  classical  scholar  and  political  argumcntator. 
Sec    First    Biennial    Suitle- 


gUl: 


HoweH    (James). 

"  Howell  (John  Apams),  V.  S.  N.,  b.  Mar  10,  1840,  in 
New  York;  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  185S;  became 
a  lieutenant  in  1861,  a  lieutenant-commander  m  180o; 
served  as  executive  officer  of  the  Ossipee  at  the  battle  of 
Mobile  Bav,  Aug.  5.  1804,  and  is  honorably  mentioned  in 
the  despatches  of  his  commanding  ofhcer.  Com.  W  .  i..  Lo 
J,     ,      '  Foxiiall  A.  Pakkku. 

Howell  (.Ions  C),  h.  Nov.  24,  1819,  in  Philadelphia; 
en"rcd  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  June  9  1836  ;  became  a 
passed  midshipman  in  1842,  a  lieutenant  in  1849,  a  com- 
'mander  in  1802.  a  captain  in  1860  a  commodore  in  IS,-, 
was  executive  officer  of  tho  steam-frigate  Minnesota  at  the 
battle  of  Hatteras  Inlet,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark,  and  commanded  the  Nereus  in 
both  Ihe  Fort  Fisher  fights.  For  -  cool  pcrlormance  of 
duty  ■■  recommended  for  promotion  by  Roar-admira  1  orlcr 
Jan  ^^  1805;  from  1808  to  1870  chief  of  staff  of  the  Eu- 
ropean fleet:  from  1870  to  1S72  commandant  of  navy-yard 


at  League  Island,  Philadelphia;  from  1872  to  1874  com- 
mandant of  navy-yard  at  Portsmouth,  N  "• ;  '"J'j'" 
1874,  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau  of  yards  and  docks. 

"  FoXnALL  A.  PAKkLR. 

HoAvell  (  Robert  BovTii  Crawford),  D.  D.,  b.  in  Wayne 
CO  N  C.  Mar.  10.  1801;  graduated  at  Columbian  College 
1820:  pastor  of  Baptist  church,  N'"-f"ll<.  }.'>■' .I'^-J.^'^ ' 
Nashvi'lle,  Tcnn.,  lS3'5-50  ;  Richmond  Va.,  8.0-0,  ;  Nash- 
ville Tenn.,  1857-68:  and  rendered  good  service  to  the 
cause  of  education.  He  wrote  several  works;  the  best 
known  is   On  the  Vcm-omhip.     I).  Apr.  J,  1808. 

How'clls  (William  Dean),  b.  at  Martinsville,  Belmont 
CO  0  Mar  1  18:17  ;  removed  to  Hamilton,  O..  in  1840  Willi 
his  fai'her,  who  was  a  printer.  His  father  w.is  of  Welsh,  his 
mother  of  Pennsvlvania-German  stock.  Mr.  Howe  Is  learned 
the  TJrinter's  trade  of  his  father,  and  was  afterwards  edi  ori- 
ully  connected  with  tho  Cincinnati  doz,,!,-  and  the  Uluo 
S,„U-  Jommd.  He  was  (1801-05)  U.  h.  consul  at  \  enicc. 
In  1871  he  became  editor-in-chief  of  tho  Atlo„l,c  Mo„tl,l,/. 
He  is  one  of  Ihe  most  facile  and  readable  authors  of  our 
time,'  a  graceful  iioet,  and  a  writer  of  dainty,  elegant  prose. 
His  wo?ks  are  /'ormn  of  Tn.,  /.',■,■,,„/«  (writ ten  «'il  i  J.  J. 
Piatt  1800),  Vniellon  /. ./c  (  1 860 ),  JUthoi,  ./<„,rMr.v»  ( 180l  ), 
A-o  //ore  Lo.t{m»),  k-nburbw,  iy,v;(,;/.c.  (1870)  /Ac,r  11  crf- 
d;.i,j  Journn,  (1872),  A  Chance  ^cj«ai»«(ince(18i3),  and  A 
foriiioiif  ('oncluiiun  (1874). 

Ilow'.'llsvillP,  Ip.  of  Robeson  CO.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1023. 

llowo''s  I'livc,  posl-v.  and  station  on  the  Albany  and 

Susquehanna  R.  R.,  in  Cobleskill  Ip.,  Schoharie  co.,  N.  Y. 

It  has  a  largo  natural  cave  and  important  quarries  and 

limekilns. 

llow'isoil  (RonERT  R.),  b.  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  in 
18''0  has  been  since  1845  a  prominent  lawyer  of  Richmond. 
He'h'as  publishe.l  a  JliHlory  of  VmjMa  (2  vols.,  1S40-18), 
/  irr,  of  Morgan,  Marion, and  liates,  Crimimil  /ri«(»  (1801), 
ii'  JI,Kt,.ni  of  the   Wtir  of  UOl-llS,  and  other  works. 

How'itt  (Mary),  wife  of  William  Howitt.b.  at  Uttoxc- 
Icr  En-land,  about  1804,  the  daughter  of  a  Mr,  liolham, 
a  tjuaker:  was  married  in  1823;  has  written  many  poems, 
bvinlis,  and  ballads,  some  novels,  and  inflruetive  books  for 
the  young;  Iranslalc.l  .Miss  Bremer's  worksand  some  td  those 
of  H    C,  Andersen,  and  was  with  her  husband  joint  author 


1016 


HOWITT— HUBBARD. 


of  The  Literature  and  Roninnce  of  Northern  Europe.  (18521 
aud  other  vaiiiable  works. — Her  daughter,  Mrs,  Anna 
Maky  Watts,  is  author  of  The  Art  Student  in  Muuirh 
(lSj:i),  The  School  of  Lt'/i',  etc..  and  a  painter  of  merit. — 
Another  dauj^htcr  is  a  successful  writer  of  books. 

Ilowitt  (AV1LI.IA.M),  b.  at  Heanor,  Derbyshire,  in  1795, 
of  Quaker  stock.  His  first  books  were  written  partly  by 
his  wife,  Mary  Howitt.  He  also  published  a  HiMtortf  of 
PrUvteraft  (1834),  Rnral  Life  in  En;fhii,d  {\^?>'i),  Student 
Life  in  Grrmaui/  (1S41),  liural  and  Domtstic  Life  in  Ger- 
mniit/  (1842),  Land,  Labor,  and  (iidd  (IS55),  au  account 
of  his  experience!'  in  .Australia;  lllstori/  of  Ewjhi-nd  (1854- 
(51).  and  translations  from  the  German.     D.  Mar.  2,  1879. 

How'itzer  [derived  by  Orinini  and  Littrfi  from  the 
Bohemian  hanfnicc,  "catapult"],  a  short  cannon  for  firing 
shells  horizoutally,  differing  in  this  from  the  mortar,  which 
is  used  for  vertical  fire.  It  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch 
in  ItJOfi,  aud  soon  became  of  general  use,  except  by  tho 
French,  who,  considerin;^  it  of  small  value  because  of  tho 
short  range  and  inaccurate  fire,  did  not  introduce  it  until 
after  Napoleon's  wars  had  shown  him  its  value.  The  how- 
itzer was  made  with  a  chamber  for  the  jiowdcr  (of  smaller 
diuinetrr  thiin  tho  bore),  and  with  a  length  of  bore  regulated 
to  admit  of  the  ithell  being  reached  by  the  hand,  to  adjust 
the  fuze  in  the  axis,  after  tho  gun  was  loaded.  After  tho 
adoption  of  sabotn  (a  block  of  wood  to  which  the  shell  is 
attached)  this  could  be  secured  in  long  guns,  and  the  how- 
itzers for  field  and  garrison  service  were  then  made  of 
greater  length  ancl  came  into  universal  use.  The  siege 
howitzer,  generally  of  S-in.  diameter,  is  still  made  short,  as 
tho  sabot  cannot  be  safely  used  if  the  gun  is  fired  over  ad- 
vance parties,  as  is  necessary  in  sicgo  firing.  Tho  first 
cannon  cast  by  the  colonial  authorities  of  America  were 
8-in.  and  2-4-pdr.  brass  howitzers,  some  of  which  are  now 
preserved.  The  Russians  in  1777  introduced  tho  Ucorne, 
au  improved  howitzer.  Howitzers,  except  for  siege  and 
mountain  service,  are  no  longer  manufactured  in  the  U.  S., 
as  our  present  guns  are  equally  suitable  for  ?hell-firing  in 
field  or  garrison  service.  P.  V.  Hagner. 

Ilow'land,  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  cc,  Me.,  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  Fenob:^cot  Kiver,  32  miles  N.  of  Bangor,  Me., 
near  the  European  and  North  American  R.  K,  It  has 
manufactures  of  lumber.     Pop.  170. 

Ilowland,  tp.  of  Trumbull  co.,  0.     Pop.  CGI. 
Iluwlaud  (Hon.  William  Pearce),  C.  B.,  b.  in   the 

State  of  New  York  May  29,  1811.  He  removed  when  young 
to  Canada,  and  became  one  of  the  wealthiest  merchants  of 
the  Upper  Province.  In  ISJS  he  was  elected  to  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada;  in  1862  became  minister  of  finance:  in 
I8fi;{  receiver-general;  in  IHGI  postmaster-general;  in  1806 
minister  of  finance ;  was  si^nt  as  a  delegate  to  England,  and 
was  made  a  C.  B. ;  in  1868  became  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  province  of  Ontario.     Ho  is  a  liberal  in  politics. 

HowI'ingMoil'keys,  a  genus  of  prehensile-tailed  mon- 
keys of  Soutli  America,  of  u  low  grade  of  intelligence,  fierce 
and  untamable  disposition,  and  large  size.  Some  t^vclvo 
or  fourteen  species  are  reported.  The  genus  {.l/yce?t'«  or 
Alu<Ota)  is  distinguished  from  all  others  by  tho  presence 
of  a  great  chamber  within  the  hyoid  bono  and  communi- 
cating with  tho  larynx.  The  possession  of  this  chamber 
gives  these  monkeys  the  power  of  jirodueing  those  tre- 
mendous howls  which  in  the  night  re-echo  for  half  a  league 
through  the  Brazilian  forests.  This  hideous  roar  is  proba- 
bly an  amorous  serenade.  The  ursine  howler  (.If.  uminus) 
is  the  best  known  species. 

ISows  (John  A.),  b.  in  New  York  City  in  18.'51,  and  d. 
in  the  same  city  Sept.  27.  187-1.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College,  and  after  studying  first  for  the  ministry,  and  after- 
wards for  the  law,  besides  being  connected  with  religious 
and  society  journals,  adopted  art  as  his  profession.  Ho 
painted  several  pictures  which  achieved  considerable  promi- 
nence, but  his  best  known  works  were  his  drawings  on  wood. 
Among  the  books  which  were  illustrated  by  him  exclusively 
were  A  Forcut  Jli/mn,  In  the  Woods,  Forest  Pictnrr.s  in  the 
Adirondacks,  A  Chriatnias  Carols  and  Co.xe's  Chriniian  lial- 
tudn.  J.  B.  Bishop. 

How'son  (.TonN-  Savl),  D.  D..  b.  in  England  in  1810 ; 
graduated  with  high  honors  at  Cambridge  in  18.37;  was  or- 
dained in  1815,  and  was  principal  of  the  Liverpool  College 
1849-(!5  ;  became  dean  of  Chester  in  1807.  nnd  is  examin- 
ing chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Ely.  With  W.  .1.  Conybeare 
he  published  (in  1S50-52)  Tht-' Life  and  Epiillea  of  St. 
I'anl,  furnishing  the  principal  part  of  tho  geographical 
and  historical  matter.  He  has  also  published  The  Charac- 
tn- of  St.  f»a»/(lS02;  .-id  ed.  1871).  The  Metaphors  of  St, 
/'.i.(>(18fi8).  The  CoN'panionit  of  St.  Paul  (1871). 

Ilox'ter,  town  of  Westphalia.  Prussin,  anciently  a  Hanse 
town.    It  is  28  railed  E.  N.  E.  of  Paderborn,  and  stands  on  \ 


the  Weser.  It  is  a  place  of  venerable  antiquity,  and  has 
brisk  manufactures  of  flax,  cotton,  and  paper.      Pop,  5041. 

lloy,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  2A  miles  from  Pomo- 
na. It  presents  a  coast  of  wild,  precipitous  cliffs,  in  some 
places  more  than  1000  feet  high,  but  to  the  S.  it  has  a  fine 
harbor  at  Longhopc.      Pop.  1486.  1 

Iloyle  (Ei)Mi'Nn),  author  of  sevenil  works  on  games, 
was  an  Englishman,  b.  1672.  and  d.  1769.  Since  his  death 
there  have  been  many  much  improved  editions,  British  and 
American,  of  lioyle'H  (iftmeii. 

lioyt  (Benjamin  Thomas),  son  of  the  Rev.Benj.R.  Hoyt, 
b.  at  Boston  Oct.  18,  1S20:  was  sueces?ively  teacher,  pro-  ' 

fessor.  and  president  in  various  collegiate  and  educational  i 

institutions,  and  editor  of  the  /ndinna  Slafi  SrhoolJonmal.  ! 

From  1846  to  1852  ho  occupied  the  position  of  principal  in 
the  schools  of  Mid<lletown,  Conn.,  and  Chelsea,  AlasB. 
From  1852  to  1858  he  was  president  of  the  institute  of 
Lawrenceburg,  and  of  the  College  for  Young  Women  in 
Indianapolis.     Ho   was   professor  of  Latin   from    1858  to  , 

1803,  and  professor  of  belles-lettres  aud  history  in  the  In-  ! 

diana  Asbury   University  until  his  death  at  Greeneastle,  J 

Ind,,  in  1867.      His  services  to  the  cause  of  education  in  J 

Indiana  as  superintendent  of  schools,  as  presideut  of  the  I 

State  Teachers'  Association,  and  as  au  educational  Writer  I 

were  invaluable. 

Iloyt  (Edwin),  b.  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  in  May,  1805. 
When  nineteen  years  oUl  lie  became  a  dry -goods  merchant 
of  Now  York.  In  18;J5  the  firm  of  Hoyt  &  Bogart  was 
established,  afterwards  Hoyt,  Tillinghast  &,  Co.  In  18aS 
the  firm  of  Hoyt,  Spragucs  &  Co,  was  constituted.  Mr. 
Hoyt  d.  in  New  York  May  lo,  1874.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  the  oldest  dry-goods  merchant  in  New  York, 
universally  honored  for  probity  and  mercantile  recfitudo.  i 

Hoyt  (Francis  Soithack),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Lyndon,  Vt., 
Nov.  6,  1822;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University,  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  in  184-1;  was  presideut  of  \Villanietto  Uni- 
versity, Salem,  Or.,  18J4-6U;  professor  of  clicmistry,  etc. 
in  tho  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  1800-72;  and  in  1872 
became  editor  of  tho  Western  Chrtntian  Advocate, 

Hoyt  (Joseph  Gibson),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Bunbarton,  N.  H., 
in  Jan.,  ]81o;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1840;  became  in- 
structor in  mathematics  ami  natural  jdiilosophy.  and  sub- 
sequently for  eighteen  years  fulfilled  the  duties  of  member 
of  tho  faculty  in  Phillips  Academy.  Exeter,  N.  H..  from 
1841  to  18.'»8;  and  was  appointed  chancellor  antl  pr<il"essor 
of  Greek  in  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  from  ISjU 
to  his  decease  at  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  in  1862.  His  chief  literary 
labors  comprised  a  carefully  revised  and  enlarged  Colton't 
Greek  Header,  and  a  volume  of  miscellaneous  writings,  re-  1 

views,  lectures,  aud  addresses. 

Ilaaca.  Sec  Guaca,  by  Com.  Foxhall  A.  Pakker, 
U.  S.  N. 

Hualapais'  Indians,  ahostile  tribe  of  Arizona,  found 
near  the  Colorado.  N.  of  the  Mohaves.     They  number  somo  ' 

1500.  ' 

Hualla'sca,  a  river  of  Peru,  rises  in  the  Andes  in  hit. 
11°  S.,  and  emj)ties  itself  into  the  Amazon  after  a  northerly  ; 

course  of  nearly  600  miles.  j 

Huamanga.    Sec  AvArrrno. 

Huancaveli'ca,  or  GuancabcUca,  town  of  Peru, 
situated  in  the  Andes  at  au  elevation  of   11,000  feet,  and 
engaged  chiefly  in  mining  gold  and  (luickslhcr.     It  is  reg- 
ularly built,  is  tho  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  ' 
but  is  rather  decreasing.     Pop.  5000.  ^ 

Illian'taf  a  well-built  town  in  the  department  of  Aya-  ' 

cucho,  Peru,  abuut  200  miles  S.  E.  of  Lima.  It  has  a  largo 
trade  in  drugs,  grain,  and  cattle.     Pop.  5000.  | 

Hua'nnco,  or  Gnanuco,  town  of  Peru,  situated  in  | 

an  exceedingly  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Andes. 
Sugar  and  coffee  are  raised  here,  both  of  excellent  quality, 
but  as  there  are  no  roads,  they  cannot  be  raised  for  expor- 
tation.    The  town  is  decaying.     Pop.  5000. 

Iliiara/',  town  of  Peru  and  the  capital  of  the  depart-  ' 

merit  of  Iluaraz.  on  the  Santa.  It  is  a  beautifully  situated 
and  well-built  town,  with  about  8000  inhabitants,  mostly  1 

mestizoes,  engaged  in  agriculture  and  garden  cultivation. 

Ilub'bard,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Trumbull  eo.,  0.,  on  a  I 

branch  of  the  Atlantic  and  Groat  Western  11.  K.  Here  arc 
important  coal  mines.     Pop.  of  v.  1120;  of  tji.  4588. 

Hubbard,  tp.  of  Dodge  co.,  Wis.  It  contains  the  vil- 
lage of  HomcoN  (which  see).     Pop.  .'J008. 

Ilnbbard  (Davio),  b.  in  Virginia,  removed  to  Law- 
rence CO.,  .Ma.,  nnd  in  1842  entered  the  State  legislature, 
having  previously  for  many  years  been  connected  with  the 
State  government;  was  in  Congress  l>s;J0-41  an<l  1849-51; 
a  man  of  decided  ability,  and  an  extreme  State  rights  man  ; 
wns  a  prominent  State  legislator,  and  after  the  war  of 
1861-05  removed  to  Nashville,  Tenn. 


HUBBARD— HUBMEYER. 


1017 


Hubbard  (Hkxky),  b.  at  Cliarlestown,  X.  H.,  May  3, 
1781;  graliiiLtoiJ  iit  Dartmouth  iu  Ii^o:j;  bccsiiuc  a  luwycr, 
and  waa  st-vcral  tinit'S  Speaker  of  the  New  ilaiunt^hirc 
House;  Judi^o  o(  prubato  in  Sullivan  co.  1S27--U;  Uciiio- 
oratic  member  ol"  Congress  IH2S'-.'»J,  and  for  a  short  time 
Speaker;  U.  S.  Senator  1835—11  ;  governor  of  New  llamp- 
ahire  lsr2-4;i;  U.  S.  assistant  treasurer  l«-lC-49.  D.  at 
Charlestown,  N.  H.,  June  6,  1S57. 

Hubbard  (Joiis),  M.  D..  LL.D.,  b.  at  Keadficld.  Mc., 
Mar.  22,  I7*J4;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  IslG  ;  taught 
in  Maine  and  Virginia  :  practised  medicine  in  Dinwiddio 
CO.,  Va.,  lS22-21t,  and  in  1830  removed  to  Hallowell,  Me. ; 
was  State  menator  1S42-43  ;  governor  of  Maine  l.SjU-53, 
and  a  Maiuc-Iaw  Democrat;  agent  for  the  U.  S.  treasury 
1857-oy  ;  commissioner  under  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  1859- 
01.     D.at  Hallowell,  Me.,  Feb.  G,  ISGU. 

Plubbard  (Joskph  Stillman),  b.  Sept.  7,  1823,  at  New 
Haven,  Conn. ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1813 ;  in  1844 
was  appointed  an  assi-^tant  in  the  High  School  Observatory 
at  Philadelphia,  thi'n  in  charge  of  the  distinguished  astron- 
omer, Sears  C.  Walker.  Tho  next  autumn  he  was  em- 
Eloycd  by  Capt.  (afterwards  Maj.-Gen.)  Fremont  to  reduce 
is  Rocky  Mountain  obsjcrvations,  and  was  invited  to  ac- 
company him  nn  his  next  cxpcilition.  Declining  this  offer, 
be  was  uppoiu'eil  and  commissioned  a  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  V.  S.  navy  May  7,  IS4i,  at  tho  instance  of 
Fremont  and  Senator  Benton,  and  was  at  once  assigned  to 
duty  in  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington,  where  ho 
remained  until  the  time  of  his  death.  He  soon  acquired  a 
brilliant  reputation,  and  the  printed  volumes  of  the  Wash- 
iugtoD  ob.servations  are  full  of  the  evidences  of  his  skill  as 
an  observer  and  computer.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  A^tronomicftl  Journal^  which  contains  his  elaborate 
investigations  on  Uiela's  comet,  as  also  those  on  the  great 
comet  of  1843,  on  tho  orbit  of  Kgeria,  and  on  other  sub- 
jects.    D.  Aug.  Ifi,  1SG3.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Ilubbard  (Sami-kl  Dickinson),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  Aug.  10,  17'J'J;  graduated  at  Yale  in  181U; 
waa  a  lawyer  and  a  wealthy  and  benevolent  manufacturer; 
a  Whig  member  of  Congress  1S46— 19;  postmaster-general 
1852-53.     D.  at  .Middletown,  Conn.,  Oct.  8,  1S55. 

Hubbard  (Wh.mam),  b.  in  England  in  1G21  ;  came  in 
youth  to  New  England;  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1042;  settled  as  minister  of  Ipswich,   Mass..  1G5S;  teni- 

?orary  pn-sident  of  Harvard  I'niversity  in  IG88:  and  d.  at 
pswieh  Sept,  14,  1704.  Author  of  fhv  Prcnent  State  of 
Ncie  Kntfla II fl  {1(j77),  Mrmoirn  of  Maj.-Uvn.  /Veju'ffon  ( 1084), 
and  a  /fiiton/  n/  Xcir  Eiujlmul,  for  which  the  colonial 
authorities  paid  him  £50.  Editions  of  this  work  were 
printed  in  1815  and  1848. 

Hub'bardston,  post-tp.  of  Worcester  co.,  Mass.,  04 
miles  W.  X.  W.  nf  Boston.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Boston 
Uarre  and  Gardner  and  the  Ware  Uiver  R.  Us. ;  has  a  fer- 
tile soil  and  manufactures  of  chairs  and  boxes.  It  has  3 
churchi-s  and  a  public  library.      Pop.  1054. 

llubbardston,  post-v.  of  Ionia  co.,  Mich.,  0  miles 
from  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee  U.  U.  It  has  3  churches, 
a  flouring-milt.  foundry,  and  steam  saw-mill,  sash  and 
blind  factory,  5  ilry-goods  and  clothing  stores,  2  drug 
stores,  mineral  springs,  1  newspaper,  and  good  water- 
power.     Pop.  531.      A.  V.  PiiisTKR,  Ed,  *'  Advicutisek." 

Ilub'bardsville,  post-v.  of  Hamilton  tp.,  Madison  co., 

N.  V.     Pop.  117. 

Ilub'burdton,  post-tp.  of  Rutland  co.,  Vt.,  7  miles 
N.  of  Castlcton.  It  has  2  churebcs  ami  nianufaetures  of 
leather.  Hero  the  Americans  under  Warner  and  Francis 
were  defeated  bv  tho  Hrilish  and  Hessians  under  Eraser, 
July  7,  1777.     Pop.  000. 

Ilub'ble,  tp.  of  Capo  Girardeau  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1089. 

Ilirber  (Fn.iN(;ois),  b.  at  Geneva  July  2,  1750.  IJeforo 
the  age  of  fifteen  bo  had  completed  a  course  of  physics 
under  De  Saussiire,  and  familiarised  himself  with  jiraetieal 
chemistry  in  (he  laboratory  of  a  relation.  Inheritance  and 
education  combined  to  awaken  early  in  him  a  passion  for 
natural  history,  but  intense  applieatiun  and  study  at  night 
by  dim  lamplight  or  moonlight  forcccl  liim  for  a  time  to 
suspend  his  s'udies.  His  fniher  took  him  to  Paris,  when 
ho  was  just  fifteen,  to  consult  tho  best  physicians.  Tron- 
chin  ordered  him  to  8pend  some  months  in  the  performance 
of  comnxm  farm-work,  whieh  soon  restored  his  general 
heallh,  but  hi«  ophthalmia  was  declared  incurable,  and  ho 
beeanie.  in  a  lew  year><,  totally  blind.  He  marrietl  Mario 
K'wnf'i'  l.ullin.  a  wife  who  proved  unfailing  in  her  tender- 
ness and  devotion.  By  tho  aid  of  his  wife,  his  son,  and  an 
intelligent  peasant  iiameil  Francis  Burnens,  whom  ho  train- 
ed to  the  work  of  ob:»crvation.  Hiibcr  <IevoteiI  his  life  to  the 
study  of  bees.  He  discovered  (hut  the  fertili/alion  of  tho 
quocn-boo  lakes  place  in  (he  air.  and  but  once,  and  that  ii 


queen  whoso  impregnation  is  deferred  beyond  the  twcnty- 
hrst  day  produces  only  drones.  IJe  conhrmed  Schirach's 
statement  that  bees  when  lett  queenless  can  convert  a 
worker-larva  into  a  queen  by  enlarging  its  cell  and  sup- 
plying it  with  diflerenl  food.  He  delermine<l  the  fact  of 
the  yearly  massacre  of  the  drones,  and  thai  it  lakes  place 
only  when  swarming-timo  ie>  past  and  a  fertile  queen  se- 
cured. He  observed  that  queens  manifest  bitter  animosity 
against  each  other,  engage  in  combats  if  there  are  two  in 
tho  hive  at  the  same  time,  and  destroy  all  royal  pujia;.  Ho 
investigated  the  question  of  the  modification  of  bees  in 
conse(|uence  of  the  size  of  cells  in  whieli  tliey  are  reared, 
and  witnessed  through  blown-glass  cells  all  the  processes 
of  tho  cocoon-spinning.  Ho  examined  into  the  senses  of 
bees,  and  determined  their  seat,  and  discovered  that  Ihey 
use  their  anteuure  for  the  communication  of  ideas  and  for 
the  accurate  performance  of  their  varied  work  within  tho 
darkened  hive.  He  found  that  the  workers  were  of  two 
kinds — wax-workers  and  nurse-bees — demontitrated  the  or- 
igin of  propolis,  and  discovered  the  whole  secret  of  the  se- 
cretion and  manipulation  of  wa.x  for  building  purpo.^es. 
He  detected  the  Sphinx  ittmpoH  in  its  ravages  in  the  hive, 
and  witnessed  the  bees'  contrivances  for  their  own  protec- 
tion. He  funnel  that  bees  respireJ,  absorbing  oxygen  and 
evolving  carbonic  acid,  and  that  the  purity  of  the  air  is 
maintained  by  a  system  of  ventilation,  the  currents  of  air 
being  induced  by  the  rhythmic  motion  of  their  wing?.  By 
means  of  dissections  niaile  at  his  request  by  ^Mdlle.  Jurino 
he  exploded  the  theory  of  neuters,  and  proved  tlie  worker 
to  be  an  imperfecth'  developed  female.  The  record  of  his 
work  he  first  gave  to  the  world  under  the  title  of  Lettren  tX 
67(. //ou;ic(  (171)2).  In  1700  other  discoveries  were  added 
to  the  former,  and  the  new  edition  was  entitled  Nonveltcs 
Ob»cn-ationH  titir  Ics  Aht^ill<:».  Later  editions  have  included 
his  subsequent  observations  under  the  same  title.  In  con- 
nection with  Scucbier  he  published  the  Mcnxn're  i:iir  Viiifln- 
eticc  tie  I' air  dtins  Ic  fjcnninnttonn  dtt  i/r<utin  {Geneva,  ISUl ). 
To  this  last  work  he  contributed  only  the  materials,  which 
were  worked  into  form  and  recorded  by  Sencbier.  He  d. 
Dec.  22,  1831,  in  full  possession  of  all  his  faculties.  The 
work  done  by  Huber  in  his  own  department  perhaps  equals 
that  done  by  all  observers  before  and  since;  his  observa- 
tions are  almost  without  a  flaw,  and  his  generalizations 
remarkably  accurate.  Mits.  S.  B.  llKimiCK. 

IIuber(JunANN  Xepomuk),  b.  in  .Munich  Aug.  IS,  1S30  ; 
graduated  at  the  university  of  his  native  city  1854  ;  became 
in  1851)  professor  of  theology,  at  which  time  he  published  his 
Philiimphit:  (Icr  Kirrhenrliter,  which  was  soon  alter  placed 
in  the  fndtx  £,rinir;/alnrii(n.  He  was  the  avowed  antago- 
nist of  the  Ultruuiuutanisls  ;  and  they,  in  turn,  used  every 
effort  to  coerce  him  to  silence,  but  without  success.  In  1871 
he  took  a  prominent  part  as  a  leader  in  the  war  against  tho 
Jesuits,  and  was  an  active  and  formidable  opponent  of  tlio 
dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  in  connection  with  the  Old 
Catholic  movement  in  Havaria.  He  wrote  .'■cveral  other 
polemical  works  and  j)amphlcts  in  support  of  his  peculiar 
views.     D.  Mar.,  1879. 

Ilubcr  (Pifure),  b.  at  Geneva  Jan.  23,  1777.  He  made 
investigations  upon  humble-bees,  ants,  butterflies,  etc.  His 
work  is  recorded  in  sixteen  memoirs,  to  be  found  in  /tiH, 
liritanniqnv  (1>*0I  and  181)5),  and  in  the  Minntin  •*  Sin\  Phtf*^ 
(Geneva,  from  1821  to  1843).  He  assisted  his  father  in  tho 
observations  and  publieatirm  of  the  second  part  of  Nutt- 
vfllfH  ()bncrvatlnUH  unr  IcR  Aheillea.  His  most  valuable  work 
is  translated  undcrthc  title  fliiton/  o/thc  Natinr  and  J/abits 
o/AntH  (1820).     D.  at  Vvcrdun  Dec.  22,  1840. 

Mks.  S.  B.  Heurick, 

Ilub'ley,  tp.  of  Schuylkill  co..  Pa.     Pop.  547. 

llub'mcyer,  or  iliibmaier  (Baltiiasak),  one  of  tho 
originators  c)f  tlio  Anabaptist  movement  in  Germany  in 
tho  first  part  of  tho  sixteenth  century,  b.  about  1480  at 
Friedberg,  near  Augsburg;  studied  theology  and  philos- 
ophy at  Freiburg  under  Kek  1503:  became  professor  of 
tbcolngy  in  Ingolstadt  in  1512,  nntl  in  1510  j.rcacher  at  tho 
eatiicdral  of  Kegensbnrg,  whence  he  removed  in  1523  to 
Waldshut.  Hero  he  embraced  the  Refonnation,  but  began 
soon  to  develop  original,  or  rather  separatist,  ideas,  especi- 
ally after  his  acquaintance  with  Thomas  Milmzer.  Ho 
tau^flit  that  it  was  wrong  to  bapti/c  small  children  ;  tho 
baptij^m  ought  not  to  take  place  until  the  full-grown  man 
demands  it  as  the  external  symbol  of  his  faith.  As  Hub* 
ineyer  was  a  very  gifted  jireachcr,  his  whole  congregation 
ndopteil  bis  ideas,  liut  soon  (lie  Austrian  government  inter- 
fered, and  he  (hen  Ilcd  (in  1525)  to  Zurich.  Imprisoned 
au'l  pi-rsecuted  here  also,  he  went  to  Nikt)lsbcrg  in  .Sloravia, 
where  he  formed  a  largo  Anabaptist  congregation.  Al- 
though ho  was  a  sound  and  clear-minded  man  himself,  be 
eould  not  prevent  the  religious  fanaticism  and  social  ec- 
centricities which  generally  oharaotcrized  the  Analiaptists 
from  breaking  out  in  his  uougrcgutiou.    Disorders  urose,  and 


1018 


HtJBNER— HUDSON. 


when,  at  the  death  of  Luilwig  of  Hungary,  Moravia  full  to 
FerJiuand  of  Austriii,  llubmeyer  was  seized,  carried  to 
Vienna,  sentenced  to  death,  and  burned  at  the  stake,  Mar. 
10,  I52S.  Some  of  liis  writings  were  colleeled  and  jmb- 
lished  in  1746.  (.Sec  Anahai-tists  and  Bai'Tists.) 

iliibner  (Josrpii  Ai-kxandek'I.  IJahon,  b.  at  Vienna 
Nov.  2t),  ISl  1.  JIaving  completed  his  studies  at  Vienna,  he 
travelled  in  Italy,  and  on  his  return  (in  1833)  was  intro- 
duced by  Prince  Mctternieh  into  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment, liis  diplomatic  career  began  at  Paris  in  1S37.  After 
several  minor  appointments  he  was  sent  ambassador  to 
Paris  in  ISH),  and  recalled  in  IS.iO.  It  was  to  him,  on  New 
Yi-ar's  liay,  1859,  that  Napoleon  III.  adflressed  the  remark 
which  foreshadowed  the  impending  Kranco-Austriau  war. 
From  18G0  to  1867  he  was  a  second  time  at  the  head  of 
the  Austrian  embassy  at  Home,  lie  has  managed  many 
delicate  and  difficult  matters  with  consummate  ability  and 
tact,  lie  visilcil  Ihe  U.  S.  in  1870.  and  again  in  1871,  when 
he  went  around  the  globe.  He  is  now  (187j)  residing  in 
Rome.  He  has  published  an  admirable  work  on  Pope 
t>ixtus  V. — ^ixtusdcr  Fiin/te  (2  vols.  1871  ;  English  trans. 
1872),  and  a  charming  account  of  his  ramble  around  the 
globe — Promrnafle  Autoiir  (In  Monde  (187^^;  3d  cd.  1S74; 
Eng.  trans.  1874).  R.  D.  Hitchcock. 

Hue  (Kvahiste  Regis),  b.  Aug.  1,  1813,  in  Toulouse, 
where  he  studied  theology;  entered  the  order  of  the  Lazar- 
ists  and  look  holy  orders  in  1839.  Immediately  after  he  set 
out  for  Macao,  where  he  lived  for  eighteen  months,  studying 
the  Chinese  language.  With  his  skin  dyed,  his  head  shaved, 
and  in  Chinese  costume  he  then  travelled  from  Canton 
through  the  interior  of  the  empire  to  Peking,  anti  from 
Peking  to  He-Shuy  in  Mongolia.  In  1S44  he  started  from 
He-Shuy  for  Lhassa  in  Thibet,  whicli  he  reached  in  1846, 
but  had  to  leave  after  a  stay  of  a  few  months.  He  now 
travelled  tlirough  the  southern  parts  of  the  empire  to  Can- 
ton, and  in  1852  he  left  China  iu  order  to  return  home.  His 
health  IkhI  suffered  very  much,  and  he  d.  iu  Paris  Mar.  31, 
1800.  Published  Souvenirs  d'un  royiiqe  dnmi  la  Tnrtnric, 
le  Thihft.  et  la  Chine  (2  vols.,  1852).  L'Empire  Cliinois  (2 
vols.,  1Sj4),  Le  Chrititiiiniume  en  Chine,  en  TartarfCf  et  en 
Thibet  (4  vols.,  1858),  all  translated  into  English. 

Huck'Ieberry  and  Blueberry,  names  applied  to  the 
North  American  representatives  of  the  AVnoiiTLEBERUY 
(which  see)  of  Europe.  Our  huckleberry-bushes  are  erica- 
ceous  shrubs  of  the  genera  Gai/lnsmtvia  and  Vaccininm.  The 
berries  are  extensively  marketed,  and  eaten  as  dessert  fruit 
and  in  pies  and  putldings.  Gai/hisnacin  hrachi/ccra,  dumosft, 
/rondoia,  rcsinotn,  and  ttrsina  furnisli  most  of  the  proper 
huckleberries,  mostly  hard  and  dark-colored  fruits;  the 
blueberries,  generally  lighter-colored,  softer,  and  sweeter 
than  the  huckleberries,  are  mostly  from  Vaccinimn  Pmn- 
vt/lranirum,  Cnnndcn^Cf  varillans^  coryinhosum,  and  others. 
The  annual  product  and  the  money-value  of  fruits  of  these 
two  genera  are  very  great. 

Ilild'ilorsficld,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
York,  at  the  continence  of  the  Holme  and  the  Colue.  It 
has  very  large  mauufaetures  of  cloths,  kerseymeres,  flush- 
ings, and  serges,  extensive  coal-mines  in  the  vicinity,  and 
easy  communication  with  all  important  commercial  points 
of  England.  Pop.  70,253;  of  parliamentary  borough,  74,358. 

Iliid'son,  county  of  the  N.  E,  of  New  Jersey,  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  the  Hudson  River  and  New  York  harbor. 
Area.  ISO  square  miles.  Its  eastern  border  is  marked  by 
the  Palisades,  a  remarkable  ridge  of  trap-rock.  The 
county  is  almost  entirely  suburban  to  New  York  City.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cigars,  clothing,  and  many  other  kinds 
of  goods.  It  is  traversed  by  numerous  railroads,  centring 
at  Jersey  City  and  Ilobokcn,  its  largest  cities.  Cap.  Jer- 
Bcy  City.     Pop.  12D.0G7. 

Hudson,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  McLean  co.,  III.,  on  the 
Illinois  Central  R.  R.,8  miles  N.of  Bloomington.    P.  1392. 

Hudson,  tp.  of  La  Porte  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  G36. 

Hudson,  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Me.,  15  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  IJangor.     It  manufactures  lumber.     Pop.  739. 

Hudson,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Middlesex  co..  Mass.,  16 
miles  N.  E.  of  Worcester,  on  the  Fitchburg  R.  R.  It  con- 
tains 3  churches,  a  savings  bank,  several  large  shoe-shops, 
foundry,  and  pianoforte  manufactory,  1  newspaper.  1  hotel, 
stores,  etc.  Principal  occupation,  shocmaking  and  farming. 
Po]t.  338t).  >Vonr>  &,  Rawson,  Eds.  •'Pionekr." 

Hudson,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Lcnawco  co.,  Mich.,  50 
miles  W.  of  Toledo,  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  South- 
ern R.  R,  It  has  2  union  schools.  7  churches,  2  banks, 
large  ('poke  and  butter-tub  factories,  2  newspapers,  carriage- 
shops,  and  other  manufactories.  P.  of  v.  2459:  of  tp.  4094. 
W.  T.  B.  ScnKUMKKHoitN,  En.  '■  Hcnsox  Gazette." 

Hudson,  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  448, 

Hudson,  tp.  of  Macon  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  137(3. 


post-v.  of  Hillsborough  co.,  N.  H.,  3 
Pop.  106fi. 


Hudson,  tp.  and 

miles  E.  of  Nashua. 

Hudson,  city,  cap.  of  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y.,  situated  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  at  the  natural  head  of 
navigation,  115  miles  N.  of  New  York,  and  30  miles  below 
Albany,  on  the  Huilson  and  IJostun  ami  the  Hudjion  River 
R.  Rs.  It  contains  the  Hudson  Academy,  one  of  the  old- 
est collegiate  schools  in  the  State.  15  churches,  4  banks, 
largo  manufactories  of  paper  car-wheels,  steam  iire-engines, 
and  stoves,  2  iron  furnaces,  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspa- 
pers, 6  hotels,  and  an  orphan  asylum.  The  city,  covering 
an  area  of  about  one  sq^uare  mile,  is  supplied  with  gas,  and 
water  from  the  river  is  being  introduced  (1875)  at  an  cx- 
]icnse  of  $250,000.  It  has  an  extensive  trade  by  the  river. 
Pop.  8015.  iM.  Paiikeh  Williams, 

Ei).  *'  Daily  Register  "  and  "  Weekly  Gazette." 

Hudson,  tp.and  post-v.  of  Summit  co.,  0.,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg  and  the  Cleveland  Mt. 
Vernon  and  Delaware  R.  Rs.,  24  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleveland. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Western  Reserve  College.     P.  of  tp.  1620. 

Hudson,  post-v.,  cap.  of  St.  Croix  co.,  Wis.,  IS  miles 
E.  of  St.  Paul,  Mo.,  on  the  West  Wisconsin  R.  R.  It  has 
an  academy  and  other  schools,  5  churches,  2  banks,  3  news- 
papers. 3  hotels,  railroad  machine-shops,  wagon  and  plough 
manufactories,  numerous  wheat  warehouses,  flouring-miUs, 
etc.  Principal  occupation,  farming.  Pop.  of  v.  1748;  of 
tp.  2203.  II.  A.  Taylor,  Ed.  "  Star  and  Times." 

Hudson,  tp.  of  Walworth  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1312. 

Hudson  (Erasmus  Darwin),  M.  D.,  b.  Dec.  15,  1806, 
at  Torringford.  Conn.,  was  educated  by  private  tutor  and 
at  Torringford  Academy;  graduated  in  medicine  at  the 
Berkshire  Medical  College  1S27  ;  practised  in  Rloonificld, 
Conn.,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  State  Medical 
Society,  etc.  In  1S2S  he  began  to  lecture  on  temperance. 
From  1837  to  1849  he  was  lecturing  agent  of  the  Connecti- 
cut Anti-slavery  Society  and  general  agent  of  the  American 
Anti-slavery  Society,  Since  1849  he  has  devoted  himself 
to  mechanical  and  orthopaedic  surgery,  not  only  in  private 
practice,  but  in  a  majority  of  the  government  cases  of  gun- 
shot injuries  of  bones,  resections,  ununited  fractures,  and 
amputations  at  the  knee  and  ankle  joint.  Ho  has  written 
Essay  on  Temperance  (1828);  was  a  contril)utor  to  The 
Liberator  and  Sational  Anti-tilareri/  Standard  (1837-40); 
co-editor  of  The  Charter  Oak  (1838-41);  has  published 
monographs  on  JiescctiDns (IS70),  Si/mc' it  Amputat ion  1 1871), 
Immobile  Apparatus  /vr  Ununited  Eractnrcs  (IS72);  and 
has  contributed  numerous  reported  cases,  published  in  the 
Medieul  and  Snrtpcal  Ilintori^  of  the  War  of  the  liebelliun 
(Washington,  1870-72). 

Hudson  (Erasmts  Dauwin,  Jr.),  A.B.,  M.  D.,  b.  Nov. 
10,  1843,  at  Northampton,  Mass.;  graduated  at  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  Y'ork  in  18C4,  and  at  the  (^ollegc  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons,  New  York  City,  in  lStJ7;  in  1807  and 
1808  was  house-surgeon  of  Bellevuo  Hospital;  since  186S 
has  been  engaged  in  the  practice  of  medicine;  served  as 
health  inspector  1869-70;  was  attending  physician  to  the 
class  for  diseases  of  the  eye,  out-door  department  of  Belle- 
vue  Hospital,  same  year;  was  attending  physician  at  North- 
western Dispensary  1S70-72  :  attending  physician  to  Trinity 
chapel  parish  and  Trinity  Home  1870-75;  and  since  1872 
has  been  professor  of  principles  and  ])raetico  of  medicine 
at  the  AVoman's  Medical  College  of  the  New  York  Infirmary. 
Ho  has  jiublishcd  lirpurt  of  Pnhe  and  liespiration  of  In- 
fants in  Klliufs  Ob^trtric  r/j"»("c  (1872).  and  monograph  on 
I^he  I'ri  vention  and  Early  Arrent  of  Pidmouan/  Phthisis. 
He  is  a  contributor  to  Johneon'H  Universal  Cyclopadia. 

Hudson  (FnEnERir),  b.  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  Apr.  2."), 
1819;  was  educated  in  Boston;  was  for  thirty  years  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  New  York  Herald.  Author  of 
Juurnalisni  in  the  U.  S.     D.  Oct.  21,  1875. 

Hudson  (Georce),  b.  at  York,  England,  about  ISOO; 
commenced  life  as  a  draper.  He  made  a  large  fortune  in 
railway  speculations  during  the  railway  excitement  of  1845- 
40,  was  known  as  the  "  railway  king,"  and  was  regarded 
in  England  and  Franco  as  an  oracle  on  the  subject  of  rail- 
way operations.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from 
1845  to  1S59,  and  was  three  times  elected  lord  mayor  of 
York.  After  exercising  influence  in  every  branch  of  so- 
ciety, ho  d.  in  reduced  circumstances  Dec.  14,  1871. 

Hudson  (Henry  or  Hendrik),  an  English  discoverer 
of  whose  birth  and  early  history  noliiing  is  known.  In 
1007  he  made  a  voyage  in  search  of  the  North-west  pas- 
sage. In  1008  ho  sailed  to  Nova  Zombla,  and  in  1009,  in 
the  service  of  the  Dutch  India  Company,  he  sailed  in  the 
Half  Moon  for  Davis"  Straits;  hut  reached  Cape  Cod, 
went  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  discovered  the  Hudson  River, 
up  which  he  sailed  as  far  as  where  Albany  stands.  In 
ItilO  he  sailed  again  in  an  English  ship,  discovered  Hud- 
son's Strait  and  Hudson's  Bay,  in  which  ho  wintered;  but 


HUDSON— HUET. 


lOl'J 


after  suffering  many  hardships  his  crew  became  mutinous 
and  «et  him,  witli  his  son  John  and  seven  infirm  sailors, 
adrift  in  a  shallup  :  after  whieh  ho  was  never  heard  of.  A 
part  of  his  crew  arrived  in  England  in  IGll.  Hudson 
published  Diicm  Voi/utieii  nnd  Xiirlhrni  /)i'«c.irtri'f»  (1607) 
and  A  Sccnml  V«ya<je  (ICOS).  (Sec  Oio.  AsiiKit's  mono- 
graph (Hakluyt  Soc.,  1859),  and  J.  JIekkditii  Head,  Jii.'s, 

/utjitii-t/  couceritlmj  Illtdmnl  (Ibtifi). 

Hudson  (Heniiv  Xokman),  b.  in  Cornwall,  Vt.,  Jan. 
2S,  ISU;  was  bred  a  farmer  and  coachmnker  ;  graduated 
in  1S40  at  .Middlebury  College;  he  afterwards  taught  in 
Keutucky,  .-ilabama,  and  elsewhere,  and  beeamc  a  successful 
lecturer  on  .Shakspcaro.  In  1^49  he  was  onlaincd  a  priest 
of  the  I'nilestant  Episcopal  Church  :  was  for  a  time  edi- 
tor of  the  Churchiiiiin  ;  rector  of  a  church  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  18J9-C0,  and  was  an  army  chaplain  during  the  civil 
war.  He  has  published  Lertureit  on  Shnktprnrc  (2  vols., 
1.S4S),  an  edition  of  .Shakspearc  (1 1  vols.,  ISiU-or),  A  Clmp- 
i'tin't  Viimpititjntcith  Gun,  /»u//cr  ( ISfiJ),  School  Shaktpearc 
(1870),  Shid'/iiare,  Ai's  Li/c,  etc.  (l.'*72).  Sermoiia  (lS7t). 

Ilildson  River,  called  also  North  River  in  its  lower 
course,  is  one  of  the  noblest  of  .American  streams.  It 
rises  some  3000  feet  above  tide-watcr  in  Essex  co.,  N.  Y., 
among  the  .Adirundacks.  After  a  ra]iid  and  devious  course 
among  the  mountains,  it  is  joined  by  the  Schroon  River, 
and  10  miles  farther  on  by  the  Saaondaga.  Thence  its 
course  is  generally  eastward  to  Sandy  Hill,  from  which 
point  it  flows  almost  duo  S.  to  its  mouth.  The  Itatten  Kill 
and  Hnosick  join  it  from  the  E.  At  Cohocs  it  receives  tlie 
Mohawk,  which  more  than  doubles  its  volume.  Three 
miles  below,  at  Troy,  it  becomes  a  navigable  tidal  stream. 
Above  this  it  is  chiefly  noteworthy  for  its  romantic  scenery 
and  its  noble  and  unfailing  water-power.  I!ut  it  is  pro- 
pn.ted  to  open  slack-water  navigation,  by  means  of  locks 
and  dams,  to  Eort  Edward.  The  largest  affluent  received 
below  Troy  is  the  Walkill.  The  tidal  rise  at  Albany  is  only 
one  foot,  and  below  this  point  there  aro  some  obstructions 
to  rapid  navigation,  the  most  noteworthy  of  which  is  the  \ 
"  Overslaugh  "  or  bar  at  Castleton.  To  remedy  these  difli-  ! 
eultics  the  U.  S.  have  expended  over  SI, 500,000  (besides 
largo  Slate  appropriations)  in  deepening  and  dredging 
channels,  building  dykes,  revetments,  and  the  like,  and  the 
work  is  not  yet  complete.  There  are  also  21  lighthouses 
and  lighted  beacons  owned  by  the  general  government  upon 
the  banks  of  this  river.  The  appropriations  have  been 
almost  entirely  expended  above  the  city  of  Hudson,  where 
the  obstructions  cease.  The  river  is  navigable  117  miles 
to  this  city  for  ships  of  the  first  class,  and  to  Troy,  IGfl 
miles,  for  steamers  and  schooners.  Tliirly  miles  below 
Troy  the  river  approaches  the  remarkably  line  scenery  of 
the  CatskiU  Mountains.  At  Xewburg,  IJO  miles  from  New 
York,  the  Hudson  enters  the  Highlands,  through  whoso 
impressive  scenery  it  flows  for  20  miles.  Helow  Verplank's 
I'oinI  the  river  expands  into  Havcrslraw  liay  and  the  Tap- 
paan  .'^ea,  a  noble,  lake-like  expansion.  Helow,  the  western 
bank  of  the  river  is  marked  by  the  Palisades,  a  preci])ico 
of  lofty  trap-rock,  at  some  points  jOO  feet  high.  The  fish- 
eries of  the  Hudson  are  of  consiil»!rable  im])cM-tance.  Shad, 
bass,  and  sturgeon  aro  extensively  taken,  and  several  spe- 
cies of  fish  native  to  the  .St.  Lawrence  basin  hav*-  natural- 
ized themselves  in  the  Hudson  since  the  opening  of  the 
Champlain  and  Eric  canals.  It  is  probable  that  the  Hud- 
son was  never  a  salmon  stream,  but  sonio  attempts  have 
been  made  to  stock  it  with  Sulmo  /iftlar  and  .S'.  f/iilnuat,  tho 
true  and  tho  California  salmon.  The  Erie  Canal  connects 
the  river  with  Luke  Eri<',  the  (^'haniplain  t'anal  with  Lake 
Cham])lain,  the  I)elawaro  and  Hudson  with  the  Pennsyl- 
vaniacoal-rcgi<tns.  The  river  is  thus  tho  thnrouglifare  for 
large  numbers  of  canal  ami  freight  boats  to  and  from  New 
York  and  the  neighboring  cities.  Its  passenger  steamers 
arc  not  excelled  in  splendor  by  any  vessels  afloat,  and  for 
size  and  spe<'d  tliey  take  a  high  rank.  The  waters  of  the 
Hudson  enter  the  inner  bay  of  New  York,  flowing  between 
Now  York  City  and  Jersey  City  on  the  E.  and  ^V.  respect- 
ively. Tho  river,  with  its  canal  connections,  has  done 
much  to  make  New  York  what  it  is  inilustrially  and  oom- 
mer.'ially.  It  is  about  ."iOO  miles  in  length.  It  was  naukcd 
in  honor  of  Henry  Hudson,  its  first  European  explorer. 

Ilmlsoii's  liny,  a  great  landlocked  sea  of  Hritish 
North  Anierica,  SOO  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  000 
miles  across,  lying  between  61°  anil  OP  N.  la(.  and  7HO 
ond  0.>°  ^^^  ion.  It  is  HO  much  ()bstriielcd  by  ieo  that  in 
winter  it  is  not  navigable.  At  no  time  is  its  navigation 
8;ifc  or  easy.  It  has  many  islands  and  shoals.  Of  late 
there  is  a  considerable  summer  whale-fishery  within  its 
limits.  Area,  IlilO.llOO  square  miles.  Hudson's  Strait  is 
its  outlet  to  tho  Allanlio. 

liudson'N  Hay  Company,  the  Inst  of  tho  great  Eng- 
lish conini'-reial  corporations,  was  chartered  .May  2,  1070,  by 
Charles  II.,  and  ceased  to  oxereiso  its  monopoly  Juno  2.'), 


1870,  after  200  years  of  authority  in  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America.  For  many  years  after  its  foundation  tho 
French  were  in  possession  of  Canada.  The  North-west  Com- 
pany of  Montreal  was  a  formidable  rival  from  1783  to  1821, 
when  the  younger  company  was  merged  into  the  older.  Tho 
]irincipal  trade  of  the  company  was  in  furs,  ond  it  was 
uniformly  a  ]irofitable  trade.  It  originally  possessed  a  pro- 
prietorship and  a  monopoly  of  trade  throughout  Hupert's 
Land,  as  the  land  whose  streams  flow  into  Hudson's  Uay 
was  called.  This  name  was  derived  from  the  famous  Prince 
Rupert,  the  principal  original  corporator.  In  1821  this 
jurisdiction  (with  the  original  authority  to  govern  and  also 
to  make  war  upon  savage  nations)  was  extended  westward 
to  tho  Pacific — tho  autliority  for  the  new  territory  to  last 
only  for  periods  of  twenty  years  by  royal  license.  From 
1849  to  1859,  ^'ancouvcr's  Island  was  also  licensed  to  this 
company.  .After  1.159  the  company  had  no  monopoly  VV. 
of  the  liocky  Mountains.  In  IKIW  the  company  was  au- 
thorized by  act  of  the  British  Parliament  to  surrender  its 
powers  and  rights  to  the  Crown  and  incorporate  its  terri- 
tories with  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In  1SG9  this  was 
carried  out,  and  in  1870  the  full  transfer  was  accomplished. 
Hudson's  Strait,  connecting  Hudson's  Bay  with 
Davis's  Strait  and  the  Atlantic  (Jccan,  in  British  North 
America,  is  situated  between  60°  and  64°  N.  lat.  and  65° 
and  77°  AV.  Ion.  It  is  450  miles  long,  and  its  breadth 
averages  100  miles,  the  narrowest  point  being  60  miles. 

Hue,  thecajiital  of  Anam,  on  the  Iluf,  near  its  entrance 
into  the  China  Sea.  In  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury it  was  regularly  fortified  by  Frencdi  engineers,  and  it 
is  generally  well  built,  but  it  is  accessible  only  to  small- 
vessels,  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  its  harbor.  Pop. 
100,000. 

HueI'va,  town  of  Southern  Spain,  the  capital  of  (ho 
province  of  Iluclvn,  at  the  junction  of  the  Odiel  and  the 
Tinto.  It  is  a  handsome  town,  but  unhealthy  on  account 
of  the  salt-marshes  in  its  vicinity.  It  has  a  lively  coasting- 
trade,  especially  in  fruits.     Pop.  8423. 

Huerfli'no,  county  of  Southern  Colorado,  lying  prin- 
ciiially  K.  of  the  main  Rocky  Mountain  range.  Area, 
about  ICOO  square  miles.  It  is  well  watered,  and  contains 
the  Huerfano  Park.  The  raising  of  cattle  and  wool  is  a 
leading  pursuit.     Cap.  AValsenburgh.     Pop.  2250. 

Hucr'ta,de  la  (A^icf.ntk  Gaucia),  b.  at  Zafra,  in  Es- 
tremadura,  in  1729,  and  d.  in  1797  in  Madrid,  where  ho 
held  the  ofiicc  of  first  librarian  of  tho  royal  library.  In 
the  hot  ccmtest  which  took  place  at  that  time  in  the  Span- 
ish literature  between  tho  adherents  of  the  French  influence 
and  the  defenders  of  tho  old  Spanish  taste,  Hucrta  headed 
the  latter  party,  and  exercised  a  considerable  influence, 
both  by  his  tragedy,  Iliiniic.l,  which  was  first  produced  in 
Madrid  in  1778,  and  made  a  great  success,  and  by  his  col- 
lection of  the  best  works  of  the  cMer  Spanish  dramatists 
(17  vols.,  1784-85).  He  also  published  two  volumes  of 
poems,  Obras  J'oeticas  (1778-79). 

Hues'ca,  town  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  tho  province  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Isuela.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
on  a  jdain  covered  with  vineyards  and  olive-forests,  and 
has  many  interesting  buildings,  among  which  are  a  (lolhio 
cathedral  built  in  14110,  a  university  founded  in  1354  (not 
now  in  operation),  ond  a  circus  for  bull-fighting.  It  is  a 
bishop's  sec.     Pop.  10,069. 

Hues'oar,  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Grenada, 
on  the  Cuardal.  It  has  some  manufactures  of  linen  goods. 
Pop.  7332. 

Huet'  (FitANi;oi9),  b.  at  Anilcau,  department  of  Euro- 
Ct-Loire,  Dec,  1S14;  d.  July  I,  1869.  nt  Paris,  where  ho 
requested  to  bo  buried  ci'n'i'rmciil— that  is,  without  the  ac- 
companiment of  any  religions  ceremonies.  Huet  was  ono 
of  tho  precursors  of  Dilllingcr.  Ilvacintho,  and  other  (lid 
Catholics,  though  his  own  doctrine,  which  found  some  ad- 
herents in  France,  bore  the  name  of  NeoCotholicism,  was 
opposed  to  the  ultra  dictates  of  tho  A'ntican,  and  claimed 
to  have  realized  the  alliance  of  reason  with  religion.  II  net 
was  a  pupil  or  disciple  of  liordas-Dcnioulin ;  he  held  a 
professorsbi|i  in  the  Cnivcrsity  of  Ghent.  About  1865  re- 
turned to  Paris,  and  was  tutor  lo  Priin^c  .Milan  Obrenovitch, 
whom  he  accompanied  lo  Servia  when  (he  prince  was  ele- 
vated to  tho  throne.  Huet  has  published  t'«ir(c«/fiiit'*;;(,  or 
Tntr  Hfiiittviitioii  of  Srifnccit,  Social  Jt«itj»  of  Chnnllotnti/f 
J5,'«mii/«  oil  llif  (.'iiliiollc  Uffiinn,  oto.        F£i.ix  AdiAiciNK. 

Huet  (Pirnmi:  DAXit;!.),  b.  at  Caen  Feb.  S,  1B30,  and 
educated  by  the  Jesuits  ;  nceoinpnnicd,  in  1652,  Boohart  (o 
the  court  of  Queen  (.'hristine  of  Sweden  ;  was  in  1670  ap- 
pointed sub-governor  under  Bossui't  (o  (he  dauphin  ;  (ook 
holv  orders  in  1676;  became  bishop  of  Avranohes  in  1692; 
retired  in  1699  first  to  Caen,  and  (hen  (o  (he  house  of  (he 
Jesuits  in  Paris;  and  d.  (hire  .Ian.  26,  1721.  As  n  young 
man  he  cultivated  polite  litcratun',  eom|iosed  a  romnnoo. 


1020 


HUEY— HUGO. 


Diane  tte  Cantro,  piiblitihcd  Carminn  Lathtn  et  Grtecn  (1664), 
and  wrote  Snr  t  Orit/i'nr  defi  Rt>mnufi  (1670).  lie  was  also 
an  adherent  of  the  Cartesian  philosojdiy,  but  afterwards  be- 
came one  of  its  adversaries  :  teuHnra  /*!n'lo»opJtin-  Cditcsiaufr 
(IGS'Jj  and  Mt»ii>irra  pmir  servir  u  f  flisfaire  fin  CartcHi'an- 
ismr  ( 1692).    The  most  prominent  of  his  other  writings  are 

—  Demount  ratio  Kvaiigclirn  (1670),  Hi/itinri:  (fit  Commerce 
ct  de  l(t  X*ivi(ffitinn  des  Aiictcus  (1716),  a  book  slill  of  great 
value,  and  CommottariuH  de  Kthus  ad  earn  pcrtincntibng 
(171 S},  lately  translated  by  Nizard. 

Hu'ey,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  Ark.  Pop.  153. 
Ilu'felnnd  (CinusTorii  Wimiki.m),  b.  Aug  12,  1762,  at 
Lan;;onsalza.  in  Thurinjjia:  studied  medicine  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Jena  and  (Tiittingen  ;  was  ajipointed  a  profes- 
sor in  nu'dicinc  at  the  University  of  Jena  in  1793,  and  re- 
moved in  1798  to  Uerlin.  where  in  1809,  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  new  university,  he  became  professor  in  special 
patholo;^y  and  tijorapeutirs ;  d.  Aug.  2b,  1836.  lie  was  a 
noble  and  kiml-hrarted  man,  of  sound  and  comprehensive 
view?,  and,  witii  the  exception  of  his  Enchiridion  mcdicum, 
oder  Aiiltitttntj  zur  mcdiciit.  Prajcie  (lS;i6),  most  of  his 
writings  have  a  generally  instructive,  philanthropical, 
rather  than  a  scientific  character,  such  as  Makroliotik 
ndrr  dii;  Kitust,  das  menschliche  Lchcn  zu  i-erliinf/crn  (1796), 
(inter  litith  fin  Mutter  iihrr  die  wichtitjstcn  Puukte  der  phi/- 
nischcn  ICrziehunff  der  Kinder  (1799),  etc.  These  books 
were  often  republished,  and  exercised  a  beneficial  influence. 
HuflT,  tp.  of  Spencer  co.,  Ind.  Pop.  1569. 
Huff's  Creek,  tp.  of  Wyoming  co,,  W.  Ya.  P.  342, 
IJil^  (Jon.VNN  LE0>'nARD),b.  at  Constance  June  1,1765; 
an  eminent  Roman  Catholic  theologian  and  professor,  au- 
thor of  numerous  learned  works  in  biblical  criticism,  of 
which  the  l>cst  known  is  an  Introdnctinn  to  the  Study  of  the 
N.  T,  (1808;  Eug.  trans.  1827).     D.  Mar.  11,  1840. 

Hii'gel,  von  (  Kaul  At.exaxder  Ansf.lm).  Baron,  b.  at 
Ratisbon  Apr.  25,  1796;  studied  law  at  Heidelberg  1811  ; 
entered  the  Austrian  array  in  1813,  and  was  employed  in 
different  diplomatic  missions;  retired  in  1824  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  the  study  of  natural  science;  under- 
took (18.'>l-37)  very  extensive  travels  through  Western  and 
Southern  Asia  ;  and  d.  at  Brussels  June  2,  1870.  He  wrote 
Kaschmir  iind  das  J'cich  der  Sikhs  (4  vols..  1840-42)  and 
Das  liccken  von  ICabid  (2  vols.,  1851-52).  His  rich  collec- 
tions in  cthnograpliy  and  natural  science  were  bought  by 
the  Austrian  government  and,  incorporated  with  the  collec- 
tions of  Vienna. 

Hiiger'  (Benjamin),  b.  at  Santee,  St.  James  parish, 
S.  C,  Nov.  22, 1805  ;  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  entered 
the  array  as  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July,  1825; 
served  on  topographical  and  ordnance  duty  till  May  1. 1832. 
when  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain  of  ordnance.  In  the 
war  with  Mexico  ho  was  chief  of  or<lnance  and  artillery 
with  Gen.  Scott's  army,  being  in  charge  of  the  siege-train 
at  A'era  Cruz,  and  present  at  the  battles  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
Molino  del  Key,  Chn]mUepec,  and  final  capture  of  the  city 
of  Mexico.  For  gallant  conduct  in  battle  he  was  brevettod 
major,  lieutuuiint-colonel,  and  colonel,  and  was  presented 
with  a  sword  of  honor  by  the  State  of  South  Carolina. 
From  1848  to  1861  ho  commanded  various  arsenals,  and 
was  employed  on  important  board  duties.  In  Apr.,  1861, 
being  ut  that  time  a  major  of  ordnance,  ho  resigned  his 
commission  and  espoused  the  Southern  cause.  He  was 
made  a  major-general  of  the  Confederate  army,  and  bore 
a  prominent  but  unsuccessful  jiiirt  in  the  early  days  of  tho 
civil  war.  Since  1809  ho  was  engaged  in  farming  in  Vir- 
ginia.    1).  at  Charleston,  S,  C,  Dec.,  IS77. 

IIii£:'c:iiis,  tp.  of  Gentry  co..  Mo.  Pop.  1112. 
Iliigtiins  (Wii.mah),  F.  R.  S.,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.D.,  b.  in 
Loud*>n  Feb.  7,  1824;  w:is  educated  at  the  City  School  and 
by  private  instructors,  giving  much  attention  to  the  ex- 
perimental study  of  the  physical  sciences  and  to  astron- 
omy ;  in  1852  was  made  a  memher  of  the  Microscopical  So- 
ciety, and  became  a  student  of  biologv ;  in  1855  established 
a  private  astronomical  ohservatory,  where  after  1862  ho 
gave  great  attention  to  spectroscopic  observations  upon  the 
heavenly  bodies,  with  important  results,  especially  with  re- 
spect to  the  discovery  of  (he  direction  and  rate  of  the 
proper  motions  of  tho  fixed  stars. 

Hughes,  post-v.  of  Arapahoe  co..  Col.,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Denver  Pacific  and  the  Boulder  Valley  R.  Rs.,  19 
miles  N.  of  Denver. 

Hughes,  post-tp.  of  Nodaway  co..  Mo.  Pop,  1420. 
Hughes  (Ball),  b.  in  London  Jan.  19,  1804;  d,  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  5,  1868;  studied  with  Edward  Hodge 
Bailey,  and  while  a  student  won  prizes  awarded  by  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  other  silver  and  gold  medals;  made 
busts  of  George  IV.  and  the  dukes  of  York,  Sussex,  and 
Cambridge;  came  to  New  York  in  1829;  made  the  marble 


statue  of  Hamilton — the  first  work  of  the  kind  done  in 
America — for  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1835;  also  the  high  relief  of  Bishop  Ho- 
bart  in  Trinity  church  :  the  casts  of  Little  NcK  and  Uncle 
Toby  in  the  Boston  Athcnieum  are  his  work,  and  the  bronze 
statue  of  Dr.  Bowditeh  in  the  cemetery  of  Mt.  Auhurn. 
Other  works  from  his  studio  are  a  bust  of  AVashinglou  Irv- 
ing, a  statuette  of  Gen.  Warren,  a  Crurijixiou,  a  model  for 
an  equestrian  statue  of  Washington.  He  was  a  man  of 
various  ingenuity,  a  lecturer  on  art  as  well  as  an  artist. 

0.  B.    FUOTHINOIIAM. 

Hlis:hes  (Most  Rev.  John),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Annahoghan, 
CO.  Tyrone,  Ireland.  June  24,1797;  emigrated  to  America  in 
1817,  and  worked  for  a  timeas  a  gardener  and  nurseryman  ; 
was  educated  at  Mt,  St.  Mary's  College,  Kmmittshurg,  Md., 
which  he  entered  in  181'.),  and  where  he  sustained  himself 
for  a  time  by  the  care  of  the  college  garden.  Here  he  won 
the  lifelong  esteem  of  Drs.  Dubois  and  Brut6,  both  after- 
wards bishops.  In  1825  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  and  in  the  siimeyeur  a  priest.  He  had 
(1826-38)  pastoral  charges  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  found- 
ed St.  John's  Asylum  in  1829,  and  established  The  i'lithdic 
JSernId  in  1S33.  In  1838  he  was  made  bishop  of  Basil- 
eopolis  f)(  partihuf,  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Dubois  of  New 
Y'^ork,  and  in  1842  he  became  bishop  of  New  Y'ork.  In  1839 
he  founded  St.  John's  College,  Fordham.  In  1850  he  was 
made  archbishop  of  New  York.  In  1 861-62  he  was  a  special 
agent  of  the  U.  S.  in  Europe,  and  in  1863  publicly  addressed 
the  draft-rioters  in  New  York  with  a  view  of  dii^suading 
them  from  violence.  He  d.  Jan.  3, 1SG4.  Archbishop  Hughes 
early  attracted  much  attention  by  his  controversial  corre- 
spondence with  Uev.  John  Breckinridge  in  1833-35.  In 
1839-42  he  was  prominent  in  the  struggle  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  against  the  ])ublic  school  system  of  New  York, 
and  in  1851  had  a  famous  controversy  with  the  Hon.  Eras- 
tus  Brooks  respecting  the  tenure  of  church  property.  Per- 
sonally he  was  a  kindly  and  genial  man.  His  writings, 
nearly  complete,  havo  been  published  in  two  vols.  8vo, 
(See  his  life  by  J.  R.  G.  Hassard,  1S66.) 

Hughes  (Thomas),  Q.  C,  b.  Oct.  20.  1823,  at  Newbury, 
Berks,  Eng. ;  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1845  ;  studied  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1 S4S  :  became  queen's  coun- 
sel in  1869;  was  in  Parliament  from  Lambeth  1865-68» 
from  Frome  1869-74.  Author  of  Tom  Jirown's  School  Daj/s 
(1856),  Scouring  of  the  White  J/orne  (iHbS),  Tom  finnpn  itt 
Oxford  (1861),  Alfred  the  Great  (1869),  etc.  Is  (1874) 
principal  of  the  College  for  Workingmen  and  Women,  Lon- 
don, and  prominent  in  practical  reforms  and  questions  of 
social  science. 

Hughes'ville,  post-b.  of  Lycoming  co.,  Pa.,  in  Wolf 
tp.,  19  miles  E.  of  WilUamsport.  It  has  a  large  lumber 
trade.     Pop.  456. 

Hughs,  county  of  Dakota,  having  the  Missouri  River 
as  its  S.  \V.  boundary.  It  is  not  organized.  Area,  about 
700  square  miles. 

Hughs,  tp.  of  Tuscaloosa  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  637. 

Hu'go  (VirTOU  Marie),  A'Icomte,  b.  at  Besaufon  Feb. 
26,  l8l)2.  His  father  was  an  officer  in  the  array  of  Napo- 
leon :  his  mother  came  from  La  Vendue, and  was  a  staunch 
royalist.  In  his  childhood  he  led  a  rather  errant  life,  mov- 
ing from  France  to  Italy,  and  from  Italy  to  Spain,  but  ho 
received,  nevertheless,  an  excellent  education.  In  1817  an 
ode  he  addressed  to  the  Academy,  tSnr  Irn  Aranta»/CH  de 
V£tnde,  was  highly  commended  by  that  institution,  and  in 
181S  he  gave  up  his  professional  education  to  devote  him- 
self exclusively  to  literature.  He  was  eminently  successful. 
In  1840,  after  publishing  his  novels,  tian  d' hlaude  (1823), 
Iiu»l-Jarffftl  (1826),  and  Xtttre  Dame  de  Air/s  (1S31),  his 
dramas,  Cromwell  (1827),  Marion  Dcbtrme  (1831),  Le  Jiui 
s'amufte  (1S32),  Lucrice  Bonjia  (1833).  Rmi  HUtu  (1838), 
and  Hcrnani  (1839),  and  the  two  celebrated  volumes  of 
lyrical  poems,  Lett  FeuHles  d' A ntumne  ( 1 831 )  and  Le» 
C/tantu  de  Crtpniirule  (1835),  he  stood  as  the  founder  of  a 
new  literary  scho(d  in  his  country,  and  was  acknowledged 
as  the  greatest  living  poet  of  France,  perhaps  of  Europe. 
In  1823,  Louis  XVIII. gave  him  apension  ;  in  1845,  Louis 
Philippe  created  him  a  peer  of  France  ;  and  in  1818  he  was 
elected  a  representative  of  the  city  of  Paris  both  to  the  con- 
stituent and  to  the  legislative  assembly.  When,  in  1851, 
Napoleon  banished  him  from  France,  lie  took  up  his  resi- 
dence on  the  island  of  Guernsey,  and  in  his  exile  he  wrote 
Ln  Leifcnde  den  ttitcleit  (1859),  /,<«  J/i«t'r«/</c«  ( 1862),  Lr$ 
TravaiUeura  de  la  Mer  (l^GG),  I'lfomme  r/in'  rit  (IS69).  and 
Quatre-vintft  treizr^  which  works  have  extended  his  fame, 
(hough  without  strengthening  it.  During  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  a  marked  change  has  taken  place  in  his  social  views. 
He  first  changed  from  a  royalist  into  a  worshipper  of  Na- 
poleon, and  when  he  eame  in  actual  contact  with  polities  ho 
became  a  republican  with  a  peculiar  touch  of  socialism.    The 


HUGUENOT— HULIN. 


1021 


influence  which  this  change  exercised  on  bis  litcrory  pro- 
(luctiun?  was  not  good,  llis  political  writings,  iV<i;)t>/<?oii  U 
/'Hit  and  Let  VhatimcntB,  are  nearly  worthless  ;  his  talent 
broke  down  completely  under  his  ire.  And  whenever  his 
social  views  hecoinc  visililc  in  his  romances  and  j>ocui3  the 
effect  is  painful ;  his  ideas  are  obscure,  because  they  are 
ba.<:cd  not  on  understanding,  but  on  sympathy,  and  his  sym- 
pathy with  the  mass,thepoor,  the  depressed,  tile  persecuted, 
is  offensive  to  the  reader,  because  it  is  violent  and  exagge- 
rated. Of  far  greater  and  much  more  beneficial  influence 
was  tlie  change  which  early  in  his  life  took  place  in  his  ar- 
tistic views.  lie  began  a  classicist,  and  ho  became  tlio 
founder  of  the  romantic  school ;  Madame  do  StaiM  and 
Chateaubriand  wrought  this  change  in  him.  The  supreme 
law  of  the  classical  school  was,  the  idea  shall  be  beautiful 
and  the  expressions  shall  be  polished  :  literature  is  a  mir- 
ror of  good  society.  Agiinsl  this  maxim  Victor  Hugo  pro- 
claims that  the  idea  shall  be  true  and  the  expression  natu- 
ral ;  literature  is  a  mirror  of  nature.  Ami  although  he  had 
to  fight  an  authority  of  200  years'  standing,  he  carried  his 
point,  and  made  his  principles  an  actual  influence  in  French 
literature — not,  like  Goethe,  by  the  magic  of  a  fresh  and 
rich  sensibility,  for  his  taste  is  narrow  and  even  a  little 
coarse,  but  by  dint  of  a  brilliant,  creative  power.  His 
imagination  is  his  talent.  His  poems  lack  the  moving 
warmth  of  a  full  heart.  His  dramas  lack  the  magical 
presence  of  a  complete  characterization.  His  romances  are 
like  turbulent  seas,  formless  expanses  of  colossal  forms. 
And  yet  in  all  his  writings,  even  the  latest  and  weakest,  he 
gives  pictures  of  nature  in  uproar  ami  of  man  in  passion 
which  delight  by  their  truth  as  much  as  they  astonish  by 
their  grandeur.  The  limits  of  his  genius  would  never  have 
been  visible  but  for  the  faults  of  his  method.  .Mtbough  in 
the  famous  preface  to  Cmmwrll,  he  tells  us  that  ordir  is  the 
principle  of  freedom  in  art,  rcgulnriii/  that  of  thraldom,  yet 
Ills  own  method  is  too  often  a  dead  mechanical  regularity, 
lioth  his  plans  of  composition  and  his  delineations  of  cha- 
racters show  it,  and  his  style  more  than  shoivs  it ;  it  cries 
it  out  alouil.  There  ore  whole  pages  in  his  books  in  which 
his  "  brilliant "  antitheses  sound  like  the  monotonous,  evcr- 
reeurring  grating  of  a  plane,  and  which  tell  too  plainly 
that  brilliancy,  especially  of  style,  is  something  which  can 
be  made  by  machinery.  Ci.kmens  Pkterskn. 

Ilu'gucnot,  tp.  of  Powhatan  co.,  \'n.  Pop.  2527. 
Huguenots,  the  name  by  which  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury the  Roman  Catholics  designated  the  adherents  of  the 
Calvinistio  Keformation  in  France.  It  is  of  doubtful  origin, 
some  deriving  it  from  the  (icrman  Eitlr/eiioiucn,  others  from 
the  words  J/itr  ii.,*,  with  which  one  of  the  earliest  jiublic 
documents  of  French  Protestantism  begins,  and  others 
again  from  //«//-)  (or  ///i'/i(.«)  CiprI,  the  first  king  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty.  Prof.  Mahn  (who  quotes  fifteen  deriva- 
tions) connects  the  name  with  //ic/iir*,  an  obscure  heretic. 
After  the  consolidation  of  the  Reformation  in  France,  it 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  Protestant  establislinient  of  that 
country  is  now  known  under  the  name  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France.  Protestantism  was  not  introduced  into 
France  from  Germany.  There  were  from  olden  times 
dissenting  elements  in  the  (iallican  Church,  especially  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  eountry.  where  the  Visigoths 
had  settled.  The  Visigoths  were  Arians,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  one  sect  after  the  other  arose  in  these  regions 
and  protested  against  the  authority  of  tho  pope  and  tho 
eloctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  as,  for  instance, 
tho  Albigenses.  The  general  eommolion  which  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  took  place  within  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  itself  was  strongly  felt  in  France,  and  showed  it- 
nclf  even  at  the  Sorboiine,  which,  next  to  the  pope,  was 
the  highest  theological  authority  in  Christendom.  liut  in 
France,  at  tho  court  of  Queen  AJargucrito  of  Navarre,  this 
movement  partly  assumed  a  merely  literary  form,  and  be- 
came a  simple  assertion  of  independence  raiher  than  a  ])ro. 
test,  until  Calvin  with  his  iron  hands  grasped  the  some- 
what vague  ten.lency  anil  gave  it  a  more  striking  stamp 
and  a  more  decided  direction  than  it  received  anywhere 
else.  Francis  I.  tried  to  slop  the  movement,  and  Hugue- 
nots were  burned.  Hut  during  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
(I.VI7-.>'.I)  Protestantism  was  rather  favoreil,  and  at  hia 
death  there  existed  a  Protestant  parly  of  great  political 
power;  and  a  religious  war  began  w'hiih  lasted  almost 
without  interruption  to  tho  end  df  tho  ccnturv.  was  re- 
neweil  in  the  following,  and  did  not  finally  subside  until 
the  spirit  of  tolerance,  the  best  acquisition  of  the  cigh- 
leenlh  eenlury,  made  religious  persecutions  an  impossi- 
bility in  France.  At  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  [larty 
stood  the  famous  family  of  tho  tiuises,  represented  by 
Huke  Francis  and  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine;  at  tho  head 
of  the  Protestants  stood  the  family  of  lioiirbon,  represented 
by  Ihc  king  of  .\avarrc  and  the  prince  of  ConiU-.  lietween 
the  two  parlies  the  rnyal  jiower.  represented  first  by  Cath- 


arino  of  Medici,  last  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  occupied  an 
intermediate  position,  using  with  great  art  the  one  to  crush 
tho  other.     Francis  II.,  a  son  of  Ucnry  II.  and  Catharino 
of  Medici,  married  in    Ijis   Mary   Stuart,  a  niece  of  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine.     He  was  only  fifteen  years  old  when 
in  IJJO  he  ascended  the  throne,  and  with  him  the  Guises 
were  brought  to  the  court  and  came  into  power.     Their  ar- 
rogance, ambition,  and   auducily  caused   immediately  Ihc 
formation  of  a  Protestant  jiarly,  anil  the  war  began.     Next 
year  (IJtiO)  Francis  died,  and  in  order  to  curb  the  (Juises, 
Catharine,  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  second  son, 
Charles  IX.,  favored  tho  Protestants.     The  edict  of  Jan. 
17,  1JG2,  gave  them  freedom  of  conscience  and  a  limited 
liberty  of  worship,  and   to  these   rights  were  added  scv 
oral  fortified  cities,  among  which  was  Rochellc,  as  places 
of  safety,  by  the  peace  of  St.  Gcrmain-en-Layc,  Aug.  8, 
1570 — a   peace  which  for  a  moment  slopped  the  war  that 
was  still  raging  in  spile  of  all  edicts  and  treaties.     Cath- 
arine, however,  meant  by  no  means  to  tolerate  Protestant- 
ism in  her  realm.     She  haled  it  as  an  abominable  heresy, 
and  she  began  to  fear  the  party  since,  during  the  preceding 
wars,  she  saw  how   it  was  supported  from  England  with 
money  and  from  (icrmany  with  troops.     Imniediatelv  after 
the  peace  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye  she  concluded  an  alliance 
with  the  Guises,  which  resulted  in  the  massacre  on  the  night 
of  St.  Bartholomew  (Aug.  25,  1572)  of  5000  Protestants — 
among    whom   was    Coligny,  their    leader — in    Paris,   and 
.30,000    in   the    provinces.     The    I'roteslauts   fled    to   their 
places  of  safety,  and  the  war  began  again  ;  but  the  royal 
army  was  repelled  from   Rochellc,  and  when  in   1574  the 
duke  of  Alciifon,  the  youngest  son  of   Catharine,  and  a 
large  party  of  the   Roman  Catholic  nobility,  allied  Ihem- 
selves    with   the    Protestants  against    the  queen    and    tho 
Guises,  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  stood  better  than  ever 
before.      Treaties    of  peace    were    concluded    and    broken 
several  times,  but  when  (in  1581)  Henry  of  Navarre,  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  parly,  became  heir-apparent  to  tho 
French  throne  on  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Aiijou,  it  came 
at  last  to  a  final  battle.     The  Guises  now  openly  avowed 
that  they  aspired  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  the  king, 
Henry  III.,  had   both    Duke    Henry   and    Cardinal    Louis 
murdered  at  Hlois  in  15SS.     Pursued  by  Ihc  Roman  Catho- 
lic parly,  he  then  fled  to  the  Protestant  eaiup,  but  next  year 
he  was  himself  killed  by  a  monk,  and  Henry  IV.  ascended 
the  throne.      Henry  entered  the   Roman   Catholic  Church 
from  political  reasons,  but  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  15118 
the  position  of  the   Reformed   Church   in   Franco  became 
finally  settled  and  secured,  and  there  was  peace  for  about 
twenty  years.     But  the  Protestants  possessed  in  their  places 
of  safety  and  in  their  right  of  assembling  a  political  power 
which  it  was  difficult  for  the  royal  authority  to  consent  to; 
and   when  the  idea  of  the  absolute  jiowcr  of  royally  found 
an  adequate  representative  in  Cardinal  Richelieu,  a  change 
in  the  political  position  of  the  Proleslants  was  unavoidable. 
The  war  lasted  from  102i   to  lli21l.     On  Oct.  28,  1()2S.  Ro- 
chellc was   taken  after  a  siege  of  fourteen  months;  of  its 
24,000  inhabitants  only  4000  were  left ;  the  rest  had  fallen 
or  perished  from   hunger.     Their  other  strongholds  were 
also  taken,  but  their  freedom  of  conscience,  and  even  their 
liberty  of   worship,  were  respected;    Richelieu's  measures 
were  purely  political.     Once  more,  however,  the  Proleslants 
of  Franco  had   to  experience  persecutions  on  account  of 
their  religion.     Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  Mainlenon,  who 
was  herself  bred  a  Protestant,  were  both  very  devout,  and 
after  the   death  of  Colbert   (1GS4)  their   devotion   showed 
itself  in  the  harshest  and  most  cruel  measures  against  tho 
Protestants.     Their   churches   were   destroyed    and    their 
property  confiscateil ;  bands  of  soldiers,  accompanied  by 
fanatical  monks,  scoured  the  country,  and  such  as  would 
not  renounce  their  religion    were  exiled  or  killed.     .Some 
fled  to  the  ('cvenncs.  where  they  were  butchereil ;  others  to 
.Swil/erland,   Holland,  ami   England.     In  tho  three  years 
following  immediately  after  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (t>et.  2.'t.  1085)  France  is  said   to  have  lost  nearly 
1,000,1100  inhabitants.      Louis  XV.  also  tried  to  do  some- 
thing "to  the  glory  of  (iod,"  and  issued  in   1752  an  edict 
which  <leclare<l   the   Protestant  baptism  and  marriage  in- 
valifl ;    but   the    edict    caused    such    an    indignation,  even 
among  the   Roman   Catholics,  that  it   had  to   be   revoked. 
I!y  the  d^ilr  A'o/.n/Aoi,  the  Cliarlra  of  |s|5  and    ls:',0,  and 
the  coiislilulions  of  184H  and   1872,  the  social  and  political 
position  of  the  I'rolcslants  in  France  has  been  made  equal 
to  that  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  during  the  last  twenty 
years  (heir  s|jiritual  life  has  developed  with  great  energy 
and  exerciscfl  a  considerable  influence  on  tho  Protestant 
churches  of  other  countries.    (Fklisk,   Hininlie  ilm  I'lu- 
Ictlanln  de  France ;  Haao,  La  France  Prolmlaiitr.) 

Ci.KME.xs  Pktkrsi;n. 
Iliiirts.  tp.  of  Edgefield  Co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  2550. 
Iliiliii',  or  lIuMin  (Pii-rrf.  At'ni:,sTix),  Coist,  b.  at 
Pans  Sept.  0,  1758;  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1771;  distin- 


1022 


HULL— HUMBLE-BEE. 


guishod  himself  at  the  storming  of  the  Bastilc  July  14, 
1789;  was  appointeil  captain  of  the  national  guard  Oct.  S, 
same  year,  but  became  ?u.''[>icious  to  Kobespierre  on  ac- 
count of  his  moderation,  and  was  imprisoned.  Liberated 
at  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  ho  entered  the  Italian  army;  was 
made  a  bris-idicr-goneral  in  1S03  :  presided  over  the  court- 
martial  which  sentenced  tho  duke  of  Enghien  to  death  Mar. 
24,  1^01;  was  military  governor  of  Vienna  in  1806.  of  Ber- 
lin in  I>07,  of  Paris  in  1SI2,  and  was  created  a  count  in 
1808.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  banished 
from  Franco  in  1  SI  6,  but  allowed  to  return  in  1819;  and  d. 
in  Paris,  blind.  Jan.  9,  1841.  In  1S23  he  published  Exp/i- 
cati'fus  it^KFten  aiix  homiufs  impartitiiij-  mt  sujrt  dc  in  com- 
minsion  mitttaire  iiisti'tttfe  en  Van  XII. pour  Juf/cr  le  due 
d'  Enfjhicn. 

llull,  or  Kin^ston^on-Hullf  one  of  the  commercial 
centres  of  England,  is  situated  in  tho  East  riding  of  York- 
shire, at  the  inllux  of  the  Hull  into  the  llumber,  and  is  de- 
fended by  a  citadel,  conuuanding  tho  entrance  of  the  Hull 
roads,  and  by  two  forts  lower  down  the  Humber,  at  the  vil- 
lage of  High  Paul.  The  most  rcuiarkablo  of  its  public 
buildings  are  tho  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  tho  oldest 
brick  building  in  England,  erected  in  1.112,  and  the  church 
of  St.  Mary,  Lowgate:  of  its  monuments,  an  equestrian 
statue  of  William  III.,  standing  in  the  markot-placc,  and 
a  statue  of  Wilberforce,  raised  on  a  fluted  Doric  column  SO 
feet  high.  It  has  many  benevolent  and  good  educational 
institutions,  a  Latin  and  a  medical  school,  a  school  of  navi- 
gation, a  botanical  garden,  museum,  and  several  associa- 
tions fur  science  and  art.  Its  manufactures  arc  quite  con- 
siderable, especially  of  linen  and  cotton  goods,  cordage, 
machinery,  chemicals,  leather,  sugar,  and  pottery.  In  its 
docks,  which  comprise  an  area  of  more  than  8"^  acres, 
much  shipbuilding  is  carried  on:  in  1S70,  5S4  vessels,  of 
71,805  tons  burden,  were  owned  at  Hull.  But  it  is  more 
especially  its  commerce  which  gives  Hull  its  great  import- 
ance. Nearly  all  the  traffic  between  England  and  Xorthern 
Europe  is  carried  on  through  this  port.  It  is  connected  by 
regular  steamship  lines  with  St.  Petersburg,  Kiinigsberg, 
Stettiu,  Copenhagen,  (Gothenburg,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Am- 
sterdam, Ilotterdam,  Antwerp,  and  Havre.  Linen  and  cot- 
ton goods,  hardware,  machinery,  iron,  and  coal  are  ex- 
ported ;  corn,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  timber,  and  bones  are  im- 
ported. In  1871,  3-417  vessels,  of  1.1S8,S11  tons,  entered  the 
harbor,  and  2911,  of  l,044,loS  tous,  cleared  it.  The  total 
value  of  imports  was  in  the  same  year  £15,076,095;  of  ex- 
ports, £27,:i87,07r..  Pop.  84,690 'in  1S51 :  97,661  in  1361: 
\2?,,\\\  in  1371. 

Hull,  a  thriving  v.  of  Ottawa  co.,  Quebec,  nearly  op- 
posite the  city  of  Ottawa,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
suspension  bridge.  It  has  a  very  great  water-power,  and 
manufactures  immense  quantities  of  lumber  and  some 
woollen  goods,  cooperage,  axes,  etc.  There  are  valuable 
iron -mines  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  of  sub-district,  8.318. 

HuU,  a  v.  of  Aviston  tp.,  Clinton  co.,  111.,  on  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  R.  R.,  25  miles  W.  of  .Sandoval.  Pop.  .300. 
Hull,  post-tp.  of  Plymouth  co.,  Ma^^s.,  consisting  of  a 
peninsula  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  long  isthmus 
called  Nantasket  Beach.  It  is  9  miles  S.  E.  of  Boston,  and 
is  an  attractive  summer  resort.  Pop.  261. 
Hull,  tp.  of  Portage  co..  Wis.  Pop.  621. 
Hull  (AsBcuv).  son  of  Hope,  b.  in  AVashington,  Wilkes 
CO.,  Ga.,  Jan.  .30,  1797;  graduated  at  the  State  University 
1814;  was  for  more  than  forty  years  secretary  and  trea- 
surer of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  same;  was  often  a 
member  of  the  legislature,  and  repeatedly  Speaker  of  the 
House;  was  a  member  of  the  secession  convention  of  1861, 
but  declined  its  presidency.  He  was  a  man  of  a  high  order 
of  talent  and  spotless  purity  of  character.  D.  at  his  resi- 
dence in  Athens  Jan.  25,  1866.  A.  H.  STKriiKxs. 

Hull  (Henry),  son  of  Hope,  b.  in  Washington,  Wilkes 
CO.,  (ia.,  Oct.  20,  1798;  graduated  at  tho  State  I'niversity 
1815;  studied  medicine,  and  rose  to  distinction  in  its  prac- 
tice; afterwards  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  his  alma 
mater  from  18.30  to  1S46,  when  he  resigned,  and  has  since 
devoted  his  time  to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits. 

A.  H.  Stkpiiens. 
Hull  (HoPE),oneof  the  founders  of  Methodism  in  Creor- 
gia  ',son  of  an  Englishman  of  the  same  name),  b.  in  Wor- 
cester CO..  ,Md..  Mar.  l:t,  I76:i ;  moved  to  Georgia,  and  es- 
tablished a  high  school  at  Washington  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century.  He  was  a  man  of  great  usefulness  and 
distinction  in  his  day,  an<l  made  an  impression  upon  tho 
times  in  Georgia  that  will  remain  for  generations  to  come. 
I),  near  Athens,  Ga.,  Oct.  4,  1818.  A.  H.  Stephens. 

Hull  (Isaac),  b.  at  Derby,  Conn.,  Mar.  9,  1775,  the  son 
of  a  Revolutionary  officer;  became  a  mariner,  and  when 
nineteen  years  of  ago  was  master  of  a  merchant  ship  in 
the  Loudon  trade;  became  lieutenant   U.  S.  na\"y  179S; 


[  was  made  first  lieutenant  of  the  Constitution  frigate  ISO! ; 
distinguished  himself  by  valor  and  skill  againtit  the  French 
on  the  coast  of  Hayti;  served  with  distinction  in  the  Bar- 
bary  expeditions  :  sailed  from  Annapolis  in  command  of 
\  the   Constitution   .luly  12,  1812,  and    for  three  days  was 
j  chased  by  a  British  squadron  of  five  ships,  from  which  he 
;  escaped   by  bold  and  ingenious  seamanship.     On  Aug.  19 
he  cni.'onntered  the  frigate  Guerriere.  Capt.  I)a<Tes.  one  of 
his  late  pursuers,  and  fought  her  for  half  an  hour  at  close 
quarters,  when  she  surrendered,  but  was  so  much  cut  up 
that  she  had  to  be  burned.     For  this,  the  first  naval  ad- 
1  vantage  of  the  war.  Hull  received  a  gold  medal  from  Con- 
gress ;  was  afterwards  made  a  naval  commissioner,  and  had 
command  of  various  navy-yards.     D.  Phila.  Feb.  13,  1843. 
I       Hull  (Wim.iam),  b.  at   Derby,  Conn.,  June  24,  175.3; 
;  graduated  at  Yale  1772;  studied  divinity  one  year;  went 
'  to  Litchfield  Law  School,  and  in  1775  was  admitted  to  the 
bar;  served  with  distinction  throughout  the  Revolutionary 
war,  in  which  he  rose  from  the  rank  of  captain  to  that  of 
I  colonel ;  became  a  very  successful  lawyer  of  Xewton.  Mass. ; 
was  major-general  of  militia  in  Shay's  insurrection;  com- 
missioner to  treat  with  the  Indians  of  Upper  Canada  1793; 
was  very  prominent  in  the  public  affairs  of  Massachusetts, 
,  in  which  State  he  became  a  judge  of  common  pleas;  gov- 
ernor of  Michigan  Territory  1805-14.     As  brigadier-gen- 
eral commanding  the  army  of  the  North-west  he  surren- 
dered Detroit  to  Gen.  Brock,  for  which  he  was  court-mar- 
tialed, found  guilty  of  cowardice,  and  sentenced  (1814)  to 
I  be  shot,  but  was  pardoned  in  consideration  of  his  age  and 
I  former  services.     He  published  T/ic  Campnif/n  n/"  the  North - 
'  west  A rmi/ {IS2 A).    D.  at  Newton.  Mass..  Nov.  29, 1825.  (Seo 
his  Life,  by  Maria  Campbell  and  James  Freeman  Clarke 
(1848),  in  which  Hull's  character  is  fully  vindicated.) 

Hull  (William  Hope),  son  of  Asbury,  b.  in  Athens,  Ga., 
Feb.  2,  1820:  graduated  at  tho  State  University  1838; 
studied  law  ;  was  elected  solicitor-general  of  the  western 
judicial  circuit  ;  held  many  positions  of  public  trust  :  was 
assistant  in  the  U.  S.  attorney-general's  office  during  Mr. 
Buchanan's  administration.  When  Georgia  passed  her 
ordinance  of  secession  he  returned  to  his  native  State  and 
resumed  his  profession.  D.  in  New  York  City  Sept.  13, 
1877.  A.  H.  Stephens. 

HuTlah  (John),  b.  at  Worcester,  Eng.,  in  1812;  drew 
general  attention  in  1836  by  his  comic  opera,  The  Village 
Cof/iicttr.s,  and  began  in  1838  to  work  for  the  establishment 
of  popular  singing  schools  in  England  after  the  French 
model.  Having  met  with  eminent  success  in  this  under- 
taking, he  was  appointed  musical  inspector  for  the  United 
Kingdfim  and  leader  of  the  orchestra  and  chorus  of  tho 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  Loudon. 

Hulme'ville,  post-v.  of  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  20  miles  from 
Philadflphia.  It  contains  a  school,  2  churches,  a  large 
cotton  and  grist  mill,  1  newspaper,  3  building  associations 
and  several  societies,  a  steam-laundry,  stores,  etc.  Pop. 
about  400.  William  Tilton,  Ed.  "  Hilmeville  Beacon." 

Hulse'ail  IjCc'mres,anumberof  lectures,  not  exceed- 
ing six  and  not  less  than  four  annually,  delivered  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  explanatory  of  the  evidences  of 
Christianity  and  of  the  difficultii'S  of  Scripture.  There  are 
also  a  Hulsean  professorship  of  divinity,  a  Hulsean  prize 
and  scholarships,  etc.  These  were  founded  by  the  Rev. 
John  llulse  (1708-90)  in  a  will  of  200  pages  closely  writ- 
ten, with  nine  codicils. 

Humane  Society  (Royal).  See  Resuscitation,  by 
B.  Howard.  A.  M.,  M.  D. 

Humanita'rians^aname  which  sometimes  designates 
that  school  of  Unitarians  who  consider  .Icsus  Christ  to 
have  been  a  mere  man,  without  superhuman  attributes.  It 
also  sometimes  designates  the  professors  of  the  so-called 
"  religiun  of  humanity."' 

Ilum'bcr^  the  estuary  of  the  Trent  and  the  Ouse,  hav- 
ing its  entrance  on  the  E.  coast  of  England,  in  lat.  53°  3S' 
N.  Its  average  breadth  is  between  2  and  3  miles,  and  it 
is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  up  to  Hull,  22  miles 
from  its  mouth. 

Humbert'^  prince  of  Piedmont,  crown  prince  of  Italy, 
b.  Mar.  14.  1844.  Ho  is  u  good  stddier;  took  part  in  the 
wars  of  1859  and  1806 ;  commanded  a  division  in  1866,  and 
covered  the  retreat  of  the  Italian  army  after  the  battle  of 
Custozza.  He  is  married  to  the  princess  Margaret  of  Savoy. 
Became  king  of  Italy  Jan.  9,  1878.  A.  Niemann. 

Ilum'ble-bee,  a  name  common  to  the  hymenopterous 
insects  of  the  genus  liombus,  nearly  fifty  species  of  which 
are  known  to  live  in  North  America  alone,  besides  numerous 
Old  World  species.  The  mother-bee  hibernates,  and  in  tho 
spring  selects  a  place  for  her  nest  in  a  wet,  mossy  place,  or 
in  a  mouse's  nest,  or  under  a  stump.  She  collects  pollen, 
mixes  honey  with  it.  laying  her  eggs  in  the  mass  from  time 
to  time,  and  meanwhllo  busily  adding  to  her  store  of  food. 


HUMBOLDT. 


1023 


From  tho  egg  to  the  perfect  insect  the  transformatioD  is 
very  gradual.  The  larvie  cat  out  cells  in  the  pollen  mass, 
spiouin;;  a  tining  of  i^ilk,  which  tho  oUl  hvc  furtifies  with 
wax.  The  y<»uug  bocs  come  I'orth  from  time  to  time  and 
add  to  tho  stores.  There  are  many  ways,  among  so  many 
species,  of  constructing  the  nest.  The  males,  females,  and 
working  hoes  appear  to  live  together  in  harmony.  The 
aggregate  number  of  injects  in  one  community  is  usually 
very  small  as  compared  with  the  numl)cr  in  one  swarm  of 
honey-bees.  The  humble-beo  is  beset  by  numerous  para- 
sitic insects.  Foxes,  skunks,  and  bears,  as  well  as  boys, 
know  well  how  to  extract  the  sweet  treasures  of  tho  humble- 
beo  from  the  earth  ;  for,  though  the  sting  is  severe,  most 
species  of  hiimblo-bees  aro  less  active  in  attack  or  dcfenco 
than  honey-bees,  hornets,  and  yellow  wasps. 

IItim'boIdt,county  of  thcN.  \V.  of  California,  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Area,  about  I'SOO  square 
miles.  Its  climate  is  cool  and  moist,  its  surface  broken,  and 
covered  with  forests  of  enormous  reclwood  and  other  trees. 
Cattle,  wool,  potatoes,  lumber,  and  grain  arc  staple  prod- 
ucts.    Petroleum  is  found.     Cap.  Eureka.     Pop.  0I4U. 

Humboldt,  county  of  N.  \V.  Central  Iowa.  Area,  4.'i2 
square  miles.  Its  surface  is  varied,  its  soil  ])roduetive  and 
well  watered.  Coal,  iron,  gypsum,  and  limestone  arc  found. 
Grain  is  tho  staple  agricultural  product.  It  is  traversed 
by  tho  Dcs  Moines  Valley  U.  K.    Cap.  Dakota.    Pop.  2690. 

Humboldt,  county  of  Nevada,  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Oregon.  Area,  I0,50U  square  miles.  It  contains  numliers 
of  lakes  and  streams  having  no  connection  with  tho  ecji. 
Most  of  the  surface  is  arid  and  broken  desert-land,  which 
in  some  parts  yields  ]»asturagc.  The  eounty  alTords  silver, 
gold,  sulphur,  and  other  minerals.  It  is  traversed  by  tho 
ilumbuldt  Uiver  and  the  Central  Paeilic  K.  R.  Cap.  Win- 
ncniucL-a.     Pop.  (exclusive  of  Indians),  lUlG. 

Humboldt,  tp.  of  Coles  co..  III.     Pop.  2023. 

Humboldt,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Humboldt  co..  la.,  17 
miles  \.  of  Fort  Dodge,  settled  by  a  colony  from  Western 
New  York,  their  original  constitution  forbidding  the  exist- 
ence of  either  liquor  or  gaming  saloons,  which  has  been 
ri;;idly  enforced  to  tho  present  time.  It  is  the  seat  of 
llutnboldt  College,  and  has  1  ohureh,  2  mills,  1  newspaper, 
1  hotel,  stores,  shops,  etc.  The  Dcs  Moines  River  fur- 
nishes ample  water-power,  not  utilized  to  any  extent.  The 
village  contains  several  fine  ]»arks.     Pop.  ;i:i4. 

Gko.  Elliott,  Ed.  "  Kosmos." 

Humboldt,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Allen  co.,  Kan.,  on  the 
Neoslio  Uiver  and  on  the  Leavenworth  Lawrence  and  Gal- 
vestim  and  tho  Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  R.  Rs.,  80  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Lawrence.  It  has  a  weekly  and  a  monthly 
periodical,  some  fine  business-houses,  a  bank,  and  manu- 
factures of  cigars,  etc.  The  river  is  crossed  here  by  a 
bridge.     Pop.  1202;  of  tp.  2035. 

Humboldt,  post-v.  of  Marquette  co.,  Mich.,  on  tho 
MarqueUe  Ilougnlon  and  Ontonagon  R.  R.,  27  miles  \V. 
of  Marquette,  in  the  iron-region. 

Humboldt,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Richardson  co.,  Neb., 
on  tho  AtehiMin  and  Nebraska  11.  R.,  21  miles  N.  AV.  of 
Falls  City.      Po]).  00.*).   ' 

Humboldt,  a  station  of  the  Central  Pacific  R.  R.,  422 
miles  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  is  in  Humboldt  co., 
Nev.     Pop,  of  Humboldt  tp.  136. 

Humboldt,  post-v.  of  Gibson  co.,  Tenn.,  12S  miles  W. 
of  \ashvilh-,  at  the  crossing  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and 
Memphis  and  Louisville  K.  R^.  It  contains  an  Odd  Fel- 
lows' female  institute  nnd  Masonic  high  school,  0  churches, 
and  sc'veral  largo  mills  and  shops.  It  has  1  newspaper. 
Pop.  about  .'UiOO.  I).  L.  Rivkus,  En.  "  Joitiinal." 

Humboldt,  Ip.  of  Brown  co.,  Wis.     Pop,  735. 

Humboldt,  von  (FitiBiinicii  Hkiniikii  Ai.kxandkr). 
R.UiON,  b.  Sept.  14.  1703,  at  Ilerlin,  of  a  wealthy  family, 
received,  together  with  his  eldi-r  brother,  Karl  Wilbelm,  a 
most  careful  education  in  his  home  under  the  direction  of 
his  mother,  his  father  having  died  very  early.  In  17^7  bo 
studied  at  tho  University  of  Frankfort-on-lhe-OdiT,  and 
after  spending  tho  following  year  in  Berlin,  occupied  in  the 
study  of  the  technology  of  miinufactures  and  (he  (Jreek  lan- 
guage, he  passed  two  years  iit  tho  University  of  (iottingen, 
sturiying  philology  under  Heyne  and  natural  history  un- 
der Blumt'obacb.  His  first  published  work,  I'vUfi-  di>-  Hn- 
Hnll'-„m  J!/if:t'n  (Berlin.  17110),  belongs  t()  this  pcrioil.  After 
n  rapid  journey  through  Belgium,  Holland.  England,  and 
France,  in  company  with  George  Foster,  ho  settled  for  some 
timo  in  Hambiirg,  studied  tlio  modern  languages  with 
great  zeal,  and  heard  lectures  on  banking  and  bookkeeping, 
having  determined  to  devote  himself  to  commorcial  pur- 
suits. His  ]iiissiim  for  slmlios.  especially  of  nature,  was 
too  strong,  however,  and  in  171*1  he  entered  the  celebraled 
mioing  school  at  Freiberg,  where  bo  studied  under  Woruer 


and  Leopold  von  Buch,  and  where  he  wrote  his  interesting 
essay  on  the  Flora   Suhferrunen    Friberr/eiisin,  which  ap- 
peared in  1793.    From  17'J2  to  1797  ho  occupied  a  superior 
position  as  a  mining  officer  at  Bayreuth,  at  the  came  time 
exploring  and  conducting  mines,  making  observations  and 
experiments  in  almost  every  field  of  natural  flcience,  study- 
ing history  and   philology,  making  geognostic  journeys, 
filling  diplomatic  missions,  and  finishing  his  great  work 
Uvher  dlcycrviztc  Mnektl-  und  Xerven/aacr,  tiehst  ycrjinit/imt- 
gcn    uhcr   den    chcmi»chcn  Procvun  den   Lcbens  in  dcr  Tfiier- 
Hitd  PjUinzemvelt  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1797);  which  book  is  still 
admired,  in  spite  of  the  subsequent  progress  of  physiologi- 
cal knowledge,  on  account  of  the  correctness  of  its  observa- 
tions, tho  ingeniousness  of  its  experiments,  and   the  gen- 
eral validity  of  its  conclusions.    On  the  death  of  his  mother 
{in  1797)  he  determined  to  gratify  his  desire  and  make  a 
scientific  journey  in  the  tropical  /.ones.     He  bad  prepared 
himself  for  the  task  tlirougb  several  years.     Ik'  mastered 
a  great  number  of  living  languages;  he  understood  how  to 
use  all  kinds  of  scientific  instruments;  ho  was  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  present  state  of  all  branches  of  natural 
science;  be  had  a  large  experience  in  scientific  travellin<»' 
and    in    making   observations    and    experiments;    he    had 
health  and    be   had   money.     He   first  ])lannod   a   tour  to 
Egypt  with  Lord  Bristol;  then  he  determined  to  join  tho 
expedition  of  Baudiu  which  the  Directory  of  France  sent 
out;   then  be  thought  of  accompanying  the  Swedish  con- 
sul, Skjoldebrund.  to  Tunis;  but  all  the?c  plans  failed.     It 
was    the    generosity    of    the    Spanish    government    which 
at  last  brought  him   to  America.     On    June  5,  1799,  he 
started   from  Corunna :   on  Aug.  3,  1804,  he  returned  to 
Bordenux.      He  spent  tive  years   in  the  Spanish  colonie9 
of  (Central  and  South  America,  walking,  riding  on  horse- 
back,   sailing,   rowing,    always  carrying    along  with   him 
a    whole    caravan    with    helpers    and    instruments.       Tho 
world  had  not  seen  anything  like  it  since  the  days  when 
Alexander  the  Groat  fitted  out  a  scientific  expedition  lor 
Aristotle.     And  the  results  corresjionded  to  the  prepara- 
tions.    Humboldt  brought  back  with  him  an  immense  store 
of  the  most  valuable  scientific  materials,  astronomical  de- 
terminations of  localities,  barometric   measurements,  me- 
tcorologic,  climatologic,  and  magnetic  obscrvatifms,  maps, 
profiles  of  mountains,  herbariums,  etc.    He  settled  in  Paris 
as  tho  scientific  centre  of   the  world,  and.  although  fre- 
quently  engaged  in   scientific   travels    or  diplomatic  mis- 
sions, he  resided  here  from  LSO.'i  to  1827,  occupied  with  the 
arrangement  and  publication  of  his  scientific  acquisitions, 
which  appeared  successively  during  this  period  in  twenty- 
nine  volumes,  written  in  Frencli  and  translated  into  Ger- 
man, and  accompanied  by  upwards  of  2U0U  excpiisite  illus- 
trations.   The  world  was  astonished.    The  information  was 
new,  exceedingly  attractive,  ranging  over  the  whole  field 
of  natural  science;  and  it  was  c(*rrect.     New  ideas  wero 
started,    the   geography   of   plants,    the    isotiiermal    lines, 
etc.;  new  impulses  were  received  by  every  branch  of  sci- 
ence;  nay,  an  infiuenee  was  felt  even  in  poetry  and  art. 
In  1827  ho  removed   to  Berlin   at  the  solicitation  of  the 
king,  and  resided  in  his  native  city  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
occupying  himself  with  diplomatic  offices  of  a   lighter  de- 
scription and   the  most  severe  studies.     The  two  remark- 
able  events  of  this  period    of   bis  life  were  the    Russian 
expedition    to   Central  Asia   and    tho   ])ublieation    of  bis 
Kofimotf.     In  1829  the  Russian  emperor  Nicholas  fitted  out 
a  most  magnilicent  expedition,  which  he  placed  under  the 
direction  of  Humboldt,  and  wliich  went   thruugb  Moscow, 
Kasan,and  Tol)olsk  to  the  Atlas  lAIounlains  and  the  Chinese 
frontier,  and  thence  back  to  the  Caspian  Sea.     The  results 
of  tliis  journey  Humbrddt  coiumunieated  in  his  Am'e  Cen- 
trah   {.*{  vols.,  Paris,  ISCi).     The  first  volume  of  A'oxmo^ 
appeared  in  IHl.'i;  the  fourth  ami  last  was  not  published 
till  after  tho  death  of  tho  author.  May  (>,  1859,     KtmmuH  is 
Humboldt's  chief  work,   the   most  perfect   and    tho   most 
characteristic.     It  gives  a  striking  and  attractive  descrip- 
tion of  the  numberless  varieties  of  forms  which  the  world 
contains,  but  this  multitude  it  gathers  under  total  views, 
anil  represents  tho  world  as  one  consistent  existence;  and 
there  is  no  mysticism  or  sentimentality  in  the  repnsenta- 
tion.    There  is  only  clear  generalization.     It  is  awonderlul 
book,  stupendous  in   its  learning,  admirable  in    its  ease. 
But  it  is  a  popular  book,  rather  than  a  scientific  one  ;  and 
although  we  suppose  that  science  is  proud  of  having  pro- 
duced such  a  work,   it  occasioned  a  swarm  of  imitations 
whicdi   bad  better  have  remained    unwritten.     There  is  a 
peculiarity  with  Humboldt  which  posterity  must  remember 
in  order  not  to  be  unjust  to  him.     '*  With  Iiim  ends  a  groat 
period  in  the  history  cd'  science,*'  says  Agassiz :    mid  that 
IS  just  his  peculiarity  ;  ho  was  the  end  of  a  perioij.  not  llio 
beginning.      l!o    was    the    plastic,    forming    power    which 
finishes,  not  tho  weird,  breaking  force  which  starts.     (Sco 
Kl.KNKE,    Alrxnnder     von     Ilninhuldt,    cin     hi*t<fraphischc9 
Vaikmal,  18iiU.)  Clemens  Petersen. 


1024 


HUMBOLDT,  VON— HUME. 


Huinboldtf  von  (Karl  Wilhelm),  Baron,  brother  of 
the  i>reu('diuj^.  b.  at  l*otsiliim  June  22.  1707.  After  finish- 
ing his  studiL's  of  philology  and  philosophy  at  Giittingcn, 
be  Ii\cd  iiltcrnatciy  at  Erfurt,  Weimar,  Jena,  and  Berlin 
in  intimate  intercourse  with  Suhiller,  Goethe,  F.  H.  Jacobi, 
and  otlicr  celebrities  of  his  time,  and  on  the  Thuriugian 
estates  of  his  wife,  the  spirited  Karoline  von  Dacheroden, 
whom  he  married  in  I7iH.  From  1797  to  1799  he  resided 
with  hi;<  family  in  Paris,  whence  he  made  a  journey  into 
Spain,  spending  his  time  partly  in  literary  occupations, 
poetical  and  critical,  uf  a  lighter  description,  partly  in 
jienelrating  and  exhaustive  linguistic  studies.  In  18U1  ho 
was  appointed  Prussian  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Rome, 
but  returned  in  1S08  to  Berlin  as  minister  of  the  interior, 
in  which  oflice  he  developed  great  activity  for  the  reorgan- 
ieatiou  of  the  Prussian  state,  more  especially  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  University  of  Berlin.  In  1810  he  went  as 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Vienna,  and  he  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  immense  diplomatic  stir  which  accom- 
panied and  followed  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  He  sat  at  the 
congresses  of  Prague,  Chatillon,  A'icnna,  and  Aix-Ia-Cha- 
pcUe  ;  ho  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris,  and  represented  Prus- 
sia in  the  first  German  diet.  lie  was  a  member  of  the 
Prussian  council  of  state  up  to  1SI9  ;  and  ho  exercised  a 
great  and  beneficial  influence  on  the  development  of  Ger- 
man affairs.  His  influence  was  preventive,  however,  rather 
than  productive.  As  a  statesman  he  possessed  great  busi- 
ness capacity,  industry,  clearness,  and  tact,  and  he  enter- 
tained liberal  and  even  largo  views  ;  but  he  had  no  inven- 
tion, hardly  any  ideas.  His  noble  sentiments  made  him  an 
ally  of  everything  noble,  and  the  respect  which  his  charac- 
ter, his  connections,  and  his  talents  commanded  prevented 
much  evil  from  taking  place:  but  there  is  hardly  anything 
positive  which  can  be  called  his  work.  In  general  litera- 
ture he  occupied  a  similar  position.  He  was  a  man  of  ex- 
quisite taste,  of  warm  interest,  of  ready  sympathy,  and  his 
correspondence  with  Schiller,  Goethe,  and  others  shows  how 
he  brought  light  and  elevation  along  with  him  wherever  he 
went.  But  his  poems,  his  criticisms,  his  letters,  have  only 
historical  interest.  The  influence  died  out  with  the  man. 
Not  so,  however,  with  his  scientific  works.  His  merits  in 
the  establishment  and  development  of  the  science  of  com- 
parative philology  are  lasting  as  they  are  great,  and  his 
linguistic  researches  are  in  many  points  both  ingenious  and 
exhaustive.  His  principal  works  in  this  line  are — lien'ch- 
tiijunffen  und  Zn»atzc  zu  AihJnntfH  Mifhrtdateg  iibcrdie  cnn- 
Utbrische  oder  bitM/,-i'nche  Sprache  ( 1817) ;  Prli/uiig  der  Untcr- 
SHchuuffen  iibcr  die  Vrbcivohner  Hinpnnicnit  vcrjuittch  der 
haskischeti  Sprnchf:  (1821) ;  Ucber  Dnali's  (1828) ;  Ueher  die 
Vencandtschn/t  der  Ortnndrrrhieii  mit  dem  Pronomcn  (1830); 
Uebcr  die  Kntcinprache  (lS.'lG-40)  ;  Vocdbnlairr.  in6dit  de 
In  langue  Tntirtine  (1813),  etc.  This  great  and  even  bril- 
liant scientific  activity  began  after  his  removal  from  <ithce. 
The  Prussian  king,  like  t!io  other  (Jorinan  princes,  broke 
the  promise  of  a  representative  constitution  which  he  had 
given  during  the  war  against  Xapoleon.  and  under  the  pre- 
text of  putting  down  dcmagogism  he  persecuted  liberty. 
Humboldt  understood  the  manoeuvre,  and  fought  against 
it  with  all  his  power.  Suddenly  (Dec.  31,  1S19)  he  was 
dismissed  in  a  signal  manner.  He  afterwards  lived  on  his 
estate  of  Tegcl  at  the  Lake  of  Spandau,  where  he  d.  Apr. 
8.  IS3o.  (Sec  SCHLESIEU,  Eriniicrnngrn  an  Wilhelm  von 
Jlumboldt,  1846.)  Clemens  Petkiisen, 

Iliimboldt  River,  the  longest  river  of  Nevada,  rises 
in  Elko  CO..  and  flows  :JS'i  miles  in  a  generally  S.  W.  course. 
Its  w.ater8  arc  alkaline,  being  charged  with  soda.  It  is 
nowhere  many  yards  in  width,  and  is  generally  fordable. 
Its  banks  have  clumps  of  willows  and  other  vegetation, 
and  there  are  some  fertile  alluvial  plains.  It  finally  ends 
in  Humboldt  Sink,  "a  marshy  spot  in  a  sandy  plain,"  not 
really  a  lake  except  in  high  stages  of  the  river.  The  river 
is  chiefly  remarkable  as  furnishing  the  only  K.  and  \V.  val- 
ley through  this  region,  while  N.  and  S.  valleys  are  nume- 
rous. The  Central  Pacific  R.  U.  follows  its  valley  for  many 
miles.  The  river-bottoms  average  a  mile  in  width  ;  outside 
of  these  the  land  is  good,  but  needs  irrigation.  Numerous 
streams  approach  the  Humboldt,  but  sink  after  leaving 
their  canons.  The  Little  Humboldt  is  its  largest  aflluent. 
But  in  high  water  the  Reese  River  passes  its  sink  and  flows 
into  the  Humboldt.  Some  five  miles  above  Humboldt  Lake 
are  the  "  Big  Meadows,"  with  an  area  of  6000  acres,  fur- 
nishing great  quantities  of  hay  and  some  peat.  The  sink 
is  3920  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Humboldt  Wells,  tp.  of  Elko  co.,  Nov.,  on  the  Cen- 
tral Pacilic  K.  R.  (Wells  Station),  fiG9  miles  N.  E.  of  San 
Francisco.  Here  are  some  twenty  very  deep  natural  wells 
of  good  water,  supposed  to  be  of  volcanic  origin.  Silver, 
lead,  and  copper  ores  are  found  and  smelted  here.  Wood, 
water,  and  grass  are  abundant.     Pop.  of  tp.  42. 

Ilum'bu^,  tp.  of  Siskiyou  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  2Jl. 


Hume,  tp.  of  Whitesides  co.,  HI,     Pop.  676. 

Hume,  tp.  of  Huron  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Huron.    P.  475. 

Hume,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Allegany  co.,  N.  Y.  The 
township  has  several  villages  and  very  extensive  water- 
power.     Pop.  of  Hume  or  Cuid  Creek  v.  254  ;  of  tp.  1^20. 

Hume  (David),  the  most  noted  of  modern  skeptical 
philosophers  and  a  distinguished  essayist  and  historian,  b. 
Apr.  20,  1711,  at  Edinburgh.  His  father,  Joseph  Hume  (or 
Home),  a  member  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocate.^,  and  pro- 
prietor of  the  estate  at  Ninewells  in  the  parish  of  Chirn- 
side,  Berwickshire,  died  leaving  Duvid  still  an  infant.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  Hume  entered  Edinburgh  University, 
and,  although  he  wa.s  intended  for  the  bar.  his  own  inclina- 
tion was  toward  literature,  his  favorite  authors  being  Ci- 
cero, Virgil,  Seneca,  and  Plutarch.  His  slender  means  let! 
him  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  to  enter  mercantile  life  at 
Bristol,  but  after  some  nuuiths  he  resolved  to  pursue  his 
literary  ])rujeets,  and  sought  cheap  living  and  retirement 
in  France  at  Rheims  and  La  Fleehe,  where  he  composed 
his  Treatise  oji  Human  Xature,  which  he  published  in  I73S, 
after  his  return  to  England.  **  It  fell  dead-born  from  the 
press,"  says  Hume,  "without  reaching  such  distinction  as 
even  to  e.xcite  a  murmur  among  the  zealots."  In  1741— 12 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  Moral  and  Political  Ea- 
Sfii/f,  which  were  favorably  received.  In  1744  his  reputa- 
tion for  skepticism  prevented  the  success  of  his  application 
for  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  In  1747  he  attended  tJen.  St.  Clair  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Vienna  and  Turin,  where  he  recast  the  first  part 
of  his  Treatine,  and  yuiblishcd  it  as  an  Inquiry  concerning 
the  Human  Understnndinff.  In  17r>l  he  became  librarian 
of  the  Advocates'  Library  in  Edinburgh,  which  position  ho 
held  for  five  years,  and.  availing  himself  of  its  resources, 
undertook  his  Hi^tortf  of  England,  publishing  the  first  vol- 
ume in  175-1,  treating  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles 
I.,  and  bringing  much  obloquy  upon  himself  fur  his  leni- 
ency shown  towards  Strafford  and  Charles  I. ;  but  his  sub- 
sequent volumes  achieved  great  popularity  for  the  work. 
His  Political  DisconrseSf  published  in  1752,  obtained  wide 
fame  on  the  Continent,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  cre- 
ation of  the  science  of  political  economy.  His  Inquiry 
concerning  the  Principles  of  Morals  appeared  in  1752.  He 
accepted  the  carl  of  Hertford's  invitation  to  attend  him  on 
bis  embassy  to  Paris  in  1703,  and  on  his  arrival  was 
"loaded  with  civilities"  by  the  nobility,  foreign  ambassa- 
dors, the  savants,  and  the  royal  family.  He  became  inti- 
mate in  the  circle  of  H'Alembert.  iMarmontel.  Diderot,  Du- 
clos,  Helv6tius,  Herault,  Buffon,  Malesherhes,  Hoibach,and 
Turgot,  and  was  the  special  favorite  of  the  ladies.  In 
17fi7-G.S  he  was  under-secrctary  of  state,  appointed  by 
Lord  Conway,  brother  of  the  earl  of  Hertford,  and  had 
charge  of  Scottish  affairs,  including  the  patronage  of  tbo 
churches.  He  resided  at  Edinburgh,  ami  was  chief  of  a 
literary  circle  including  Robertson,  Blair,  Lord  Kames, 
Adam  Ferguson.  Adam  Smith,  and  others.  Warned  by  an 
incurable  disease,  he  wrote  his  own  Life  and  provided  for 
the  publication  of  his  Dialognrs  on  Natural  Jiffigion,  a 
work  written  in  early  life,  and  calmly  awaited  death,  which 
came  Aug.  25,  1770.  His  philosophy  is  the  completest 
statement  of  the  ideas  that  produced  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  may  be  regarded  as  the  culmination  of  the  re- 
actionary movement  towards  individualism  and  naturalism 
inaugurated  in  the  era  of  Bacon  and  Locke,  and  reaching 
its  di'nt>u>  incut  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  has  been  the 
stimulating  cause  of  the  notable  systems  since.  Kant  con- 
fessed that  "  Hume's  exception  to  the  idea  of  causality 
first  interrupted  my  [Kant's]  dogmatic  slumber."  Hume 
exposes  the  basis  of  his  system  thus  :  "All  the  perceptions 
of  the  human  mind  resolve  themselves  into  two  distinct 
kinds,  which  I  call  impn-sKionn  and  ideas.  The  difference 
betwixt  them  consists  in  the  degrees  offeree  an'l  liveliness 
with  which  they  strike  upon  the  mind  and  make  their  way 
into  our  thought  and  consciousness.  Those  perceptions 
which  enter  with  the  most  force  and  violence  we  may  name 
imprcHninns.  and  under  this  name  include  all  our  sensations, 
passions,  and  emotions  as  they  make  their  first  appearance 
in  the  soul.  By  idcng,  I  mean  the  faint  images  of  these  in 
thinking  and  reasoning."  Thus,  ideas  arc  copies  of  im- 
pressions of  individual  things,  and  the  phase  of  universal- 
ity belonging  to  them  is  completely  ignored.  He  consist- 
ently denies  all  objective  validity  to  complex  ideas,  and 
holds  the  conceptions  of  substances,  modes,  and  relations 
to  be  fictions  of  the  mind.  Hence,  "  the  identity  which  wo 
ascribe  to  the  mind  of  man  is  only  a  fictitious  one."  The 
complex  idea  of  cause  and  effect  is,  as  Hume  says,  "de- 
rived from  experience,  which,  presenting  us  with  certain 
objects  constantly  conjoined  with  each  other,  produces  such 
a  habit  of  surveying  them  in  that  relation  that  we  cannot, 
without  a  senf^ible  violence,  survey  them  in  any  other." 
Hubit  is  the  sole  universality  and  necessity,     ilencc,  the 


HUMERUS— HUMPHREY. 


1025 


doctrine  of  an  Ahsoluto  First  Cause  is  unwarranted  in  phil- 
osophy. Pleasure  and  pain  form  the  basi«  of  moral  prin- 
ciples. His  fiiinems  arp;uinent  a;:jainst  miracles — invented 
in  1736  at  La  I'lrfhe  to  silence  a  Jesuit  who  claimed  the 
recent  occurrence  of  miracles  at  his  convent — is  this  :  *'  In- 
variable experience  is  in  favor  of  the  uniformity  of  nature, 
while  it  is  not  in  favor  of  the  infallibility  of  human  testi- 
mony :  hence  there  is,  in  all  cases,  a  greater  jirobabjlity  of 
the  falsity  of  the  testimony  as  to  the  occurrence  of  a  mir- 
acle than  of  the  violation  of  a  law  of  nature  thereby  im- 
plied." (For  best  sources  of  information  sec  the  A{/V  and 
Correnpntutenre  of  David  /ftiinr,  by  JoiIN  Hll.l.  IJlUToy,  2 
vols.,  Edinburgh,  IS  16;  also  Mi/  Omn  Lif'r,  in  ml.  i.  /fist, 
of  Kiifj.,  by  I).  lIiHK,  Boston,  1S30.)       Wm,  T.  Hauuis. 

Illl'merus,  the  large  cylindrical  bone  of  the  upper  arm 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow,  forming  at  its  upper  ex- 
tremity u  hemispherical  head,  which  is  connected  with  the 
scapula  and  two  tuberosities  fur  the  attachment  of  mus- 
cle;'. The  whole  combination  of  the  head  of  the  l)umerus, 
the  scapula,  and  the  clavicle  is  also  called  humerus. 

Humes  (Thomas  William).  S.  T.  D.,  b.  at  Knoxvillc, 
Tenn.,  Apr.  22,  ISIJ ;  graduated  in  IS-'JO  at  East  Tennessee 
College  (now  a  university):  was  rector  of  St.  John's 
church  (Protestant  Episcopal)  lS16-61and  lS6;j-69,  aud 
since  I8G5  has  been  president  of  East  Tennessee  University. 
Author  of  various  published  sermons  and  addresses. 

II  tun  in  ate  Nuns,  an  order  of  Benedictine  nuns,  called 
also  .\uns  ol"  Blassoili^  from  the  name  of  their  found- 
ress. They  served  as  nurses,  etc.  In  1571  they  were  sup- 
pressed by  Pius  V.  for  some  disorders,  but  a  few  convents, 
greatly  decayed,  still  exist  in  Italy. 

Ilumiriatcs  (I/Hmiliati),  an  order  of  canons  and  lay 
brothers  following  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  They  were 
originally  lay  brothers  of  a  congregation  founded  about 
113*.  In  1151  they  were  reformed  by  St.  John  of  Meda, 
and  became  in  part  canons  regular  of  St.  Benedict. 

Iluin'mel  i  Joiianv  Nkpomik  ),  b.  at  Presl)urg  Xov.  14, 
177S;  d.  at  Weimar  Oct.  17,  18:{7.  His  father,  a  proficient 
and  an  orchestra  leader,  commenced  his  son's  musical  ed- 
ucation by  teaching  him  the  violin.  But  the  eliild  showed 
little  aptitude,  and  was  thought  to  have  no  talent.  He  was 
then  taught  tosingand  tophiy  the  piano,  and  in  these  studies 
his  extraordinary  gifts  soon  berame  manifest.  In  one  year 
he  acquired  a  skill  that  made  liim  a  musical  prodigy.  The 
Ilummels  removed  to  Vienna,  whore  they  found  iMozart. 
The  talented  boy  so  interested  the  celebrated  man  that  ho  took 
the  lad  to  his  own  liouse  and  gave  him  lessons,  though  such 
work  was  much  against  Mozart's  taste.  At  nine  years  of  age 
he  was  so  much  ailmired  by  all  who  hearil  him  that  he  and 
his  father  made  a  concerting  tour  through  (fernuiny,  Den- 
mark, and  Scotland,  The  years  1791  and  171*2  he  passed 
in  liondou,  and  there  studied  the  pure,  methodical  style 
under  Clemenli.  At  tifteen  years  of  ago  he  returned  home, 
and  Bcttlctl  down  to  hard  stufly  in  Vienna  under  his  severe 
and  exacting  father,  lie  afterwards  became  tlie  pupil  of 
Alhreehtsbcrger  for  harmony,  and  of  Salieri  for  singing  aud 
the  principles  of  dramatic  composition;  in  1803  entered 
the  service  of  Prince  Nicholas  Eslerhazy.  for  whom  he 
wrote  his  first  mass,  which  was  well  received  by  Haydn. 
In  iHll  he  left  the  Esterhazy  service,  and  for  live  years 
gave  piano-lessons  in  Vienna ;  in  1816  was  appointed 
chapel-master  to  the  king  of  Wiirtemberg;  in  1820  re- 
signeil  that  oflice  and  became  ehapel-master  to  the  grand 
duke  of  Saxe-Weimar;  in  1822  obtained  leave  of  absence 
to  make  a  pedestrian  tour  in  Itussia,  where  he  was  en- 
thusiastically received;  in  1S23  travelled  through  Hol- 
land and  Belgium  on  his  way  to  Paris,  where  the  artistic 
world  showed  a  wortliy  appreciation  of  his  fame  and  genius. 
From  Paris  he  returned  to  Weimar,  which  ho  made  his  per- 
manent home.  Some  altercation  had  estranged  Beethoven 
from  Hummel.  In  1827,  when  Beethoven's  illness  gave 
anxiety.  Hummel  went  to  Vienna,  and  Iheir  dilTerences  were 
lost  in  the  fullest  reconciliation.  In  1820  he  made  asecond 
visit  to  Paris,  where,  six  years  before,  his  reception  had  been 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  passages  in  art;  but  now  his  per- 
formances were  a  failure.  In  London  his  presence  was 
scarcely  remarked.  One  other  tour,  in  Poland,  was  the  last 
of  his  wanderings;  the  rest  of  his  life  he  passed  quietly 
lit  Weimar. 

In  Hummel  wore  three  artists — the  performer,  the  im- 
proviser,  tlie  composer — in  eoeh  respect  ho  was  a  genius 
of  liigh  order.  As  a  performer  he  founded  a  school  which 
is  the  rneiins  liv  wliieh  most  of  his  n<»ted  sueeessors  have 
risen  to  eminence.  His  voluminouH  Mrthnd  for  the  piano 
was  a  new  and  valuable  creation  in  the  field  of  studv, 
classifying  the  dilheullies  of  fingering  and  other  details  of 
piano  practice.  The  greater  volume  and  sonority  atlaine<l 
liy  his  successors  made  Hummel's  touch  appear  weak  and 
t;imc  perhiips,  but  no  one  surpassed  him  in  jiurity.  regu- 
laritv.  and  citrreetness  of  execution,  or  in  <lelioiite  shading 
Vol..  11.— 6;-. 


and  beauty  of  phrasing.  As  an  improvisor  ho  was  very 
remarkable;  his  inspirations,  so  regular  in  form,  so  finished, 
yet  so  fresh  an<l  full  of  unexpected  fancies,  seemed  like 
meditated  compositions.  As  a  composer  he  is  not  generally 
appreciated  by  the  public.  Had  iJeethoven  not  been  his 
contemporary,  ho  jtrobably  would  stand  as  the  first  com- 
poser of  his  age  in  instrumental  music.  In  his  works 
nol>le.  elegant,  and  graceful  themes  are  treated  with  the 
skill  and  experience  of  a  consummate  master.  But  the 
most  perfect  finish  was  no  match  for  the  passion  and  power 
of  the  unapproachable  Beethoven.  His  most  esteemed 
works  are — the  Septuor  in  D  minor  Top.  74),  the  (juintct 
for  piano  (op.  87),  the'cnncerto?  in  A  minor  (op.  85),  in 
B  minor  (op.  80).  in  E  major  (op.  ]  10),  and  in  A  flat  major 
(op.  113),  and  the  grand  sonata  for  piano  for  four  hands 
(op.  02).  He  wrote  11  dramatic  compositions,  including 
operas,  ballets,  and  cantatas  ;  4  compositions  for  the  church  ; 
2^  instrumental  works,  including  overtures,  concerted  pieces 
forthe  piano,  violin,  violoncello;  and  many  sonatas  and  other 
compositions  for  the  piano.  C.  H.  FAnsuAM. 

Hum'melstOAvn,  post-b.  of  Dauphin  co..  Pa.,  9  miles 
E.  of  Harrisburg.  on  Swatara  Creek,  the  Union  Canal,  and 
the  Philadelphia  anil  Reading  K.  K. ;  has  fine  schools,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  bank,  4  churches,  several  mills  and 
machine-shops,  brownstone  saw-mill,  2  carriage  manu- 
factories, terra-cotta  works,  hotels,  etc.     Pop.  837. 

W.  R.  IIkndricks.  Pl'B.  **SUN." 

Hum'ming'*Bird,  the  name  of  many  genera  of  small 
slender-billed  American  birds  of  the  family  Trochilidae. 
They  arc  most  numerous  in  species  and  individuals  near 
the  equator,  are  very  numerous  in  Mexico,  and  one  species 
is  found  northward  in  summer  (^vcn  in  British  America. 
This  species  is  the  TrochiluH  colnbrin,  the  only  species  often 
seen  in  the  Northern  States.  It  is  known  as  the  ruby- 
throated  humming-bird.  In  its  flight  its  wings  produce 
that  well-known  humming  sound  wiiieh  is  so  characteristic 
of  the  family.  It  h;is  been  supposed  to  live  entirely  upon 
the  honey  which  it  is  well  known  to  gather  from  flowers, 
but  it  has  been  known  to  swallow  spiders  and  other  species, 
at  least,  certainly  eat  small  insects.  There  can,  however, 
be  no  doubt  that  the  long  hill  and  the  slcmier.  almost  pro- 
jectile tongue,  which  is  attached  to  the  hyoid  bone  in  a 
very  .singular  manner,  are  especially  adapted  to  the  collec- 
tion of  honey  from  fiowers  ;  and  the  siglit  of  these  brilliant 
little  birds  darting  about  from  flower  to  flower  with  light- 
ning speed  is  one  we  are  all  familiar  with.  Its  lichen- 
covered  nest,  lined  with  a  silky  fibre,  is  a  wonderfully  neat 
structure.  In  the  far  North-west  the  .Sr/anph<>nin  ru/H»t,  a 
very  brilliant  red  species,  appears  to  replace  the  foregoing. 
To  enumerate  even  the  genera  of  the  humming-birds  would 
bo  tedious.  There  are  some  400  species.  Of  these  only 
eight  or  ten  are  ever  found  in  the  U.  S.  The  largest  known 
species  ( Ift/lDrhan'n  (ji(iam,  eight  inches  long)  and  the  small- 
est {MelUcaija  nnnima,  whose  body  is  barely  one  and  a 
quarter  inches  long)  are  both  tropical. 

Illimp'bnck  Whale,  a  name  given  hy  sailors  to  those 
fin-backed  whah-s  ( I'aheiiopterida?)  which  have  the  dorsal 
^\n  represente<I  by  a  hump  or  bunch,  genernlly  about  tho 
size  of  a  man's  head.  They  form  a  group,  Megapterinie, 
comprising  three  genera,  M'-'fipdra,  J'neHropiti.  aud  Efch- 
richtiuH.  One  of  the  best  known  is  Merfaptera  longhnana, 
calleil  Johnston's  bumpb.aek,  found  in  the  North  Atlantic 
and  Arctic  waters.  It  is  fierce  and  dangerous,  but  is  killed 
for  its  oil,  which  is  worth  nearly  as  much  as  sperm  oil. 
The  baleen  is  short  and  poor. 

II 11  in 'phrcy,  post -t p.  of  Cattaraugus  CO.,  N.  Y.  P.  IOCS. 

Ililinphrry,  tp,  of  Darlington  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  896. 

Iliiinplirey  (Edward  PouTnit).  D.  I).,  LI,.!).,  oldest 
son  ol  Hemau,  noticed  below,  b.  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  Feb. 
10,  1808;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1828,  and  at  Andover 
in  1833;  was  tutor  at  Amherst  1832-33;  Irom  183:1  to  1835 

f)reached  at  Jeffersonville,  Ind.;  was  pastor  of  Second  Pres- 
lyterian  church  in  Ijouisville.  Ky.,  1835-53;  was  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history  in  l>anville(  Ky.)  Theological  Semi- 
nary 1853-66;  and  in  1866  took  charge  of  Crtllege  street 
church  in  Louisville.  He  has  published  numerous  dis- 
courses and  rf.'vievv  articles.  Although  lining  at  the  South 
during  the  war,  ho  was  loyal  to  tho  Vnion.  and  bore  an  im- 
portant |)art  in  the  reunion  of  the  two  branches  (Old  an<l 
New  School  I  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.     W.  S.  Tvlkk. 

Illlinphrry  (  Hkman).  D.  D.,  b.  in  West  Simshury,  Hart- 
ford CO.,  Conn.,  Mar.  26,  1779  :  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1S05.  He  was  pnslc)r  of  the  Congregational  church  in 
Fairfield.  Conn.,  ten  years;  pastor  of  the  church  in  Pitts- 
field,  Mass.,  five  years;  and  jiresident  of  Amherst  Col- 
lege twenty-three  years  (1823—15).  Taking  charge  of  that 
institution  in  its  infancy,  ho  c*)nlributed  largely  to  its 
growth  ami  prosperity,  aud  impressed  upon  it  much  of  hia 
own  character.     \i  tho  aamo  time  ho  exerted  a  leading  in- 


1026 


HUMPHREY— HUMUS. 


fluence  in  the  Congrcgationnl  and  Presbyterian  churches, 
and  iu  the  revivals,  missions,  and  national  religious  soci- 
eties which  had  their  origin  in  his  day.  He  wrote  often 
for  the  religious  uewspapers  and  journals,  particularly 
Thr  l>iin<:liliKl.  Till-  ChrixliiinS/iecliilor.aml  The  Srw  Yuri; 
OliMi-riT.  He  gave  to  the  jiuhlic  some  twenty-live  or 
thirty  sermons  and  addresses  on  special  occasions,  ami  left, 
besides,  piililished  works  to  the  number  of  eleven  volumes. 
Among  the  pamphlets, the  most  celebrated  was  his /'(iir/Z/c/ 
AWirr.il  liilrmpcraiice  itiiri  the  S/fiiv- Trade,  which,  while  it 
struck  a  heavy  blow  at  intemperance,  was  a  scarcely  less 
formiilalde  indictment  of  slavery.  Of  his  books,  the  7"iir 
ill  France,  Ureut  Jlrilain,  and  Uel;filim,  in  2  vols.,  has  had 
the  widest  circulation.  Dr.  Humphrey's  accurate  observa- 
tion, practical  wisdom,  and  racv  style  all  appear  to  advan- 
tage in  this  work.  D.  at  Pi'ttsticld  Apr.  :5.  ISGl.  (Sec 
IllsUiry  of  Amherst  Cnllciie,  by  the  author  of  this  sketch, 
and  Mriiiiirlal  Sketcliea  n'f  llemiin  and  Siiphia  Hiimphrci/, 
by  Z.  M.  HiMPHnEV  and'll.  Neii.l.)  W.  S.  Tvlkh. 

Humphrey  (.Iames).  a  son  of  Dr.  Heman  Humphrey, 
b.  at  Fiiirlicld,  Conn..  Oct.  9.  1811  ;  graduated  at  Amherst 
in  ISIil  ;  became  a  lawyer  of  Louisville,  Ky.  (where  he  re- 
sided but  one  year),  and  of  New  York.  He  was  (l,S:)S-riO 
and  isivt-lifi)  a  member  of  Congress  from  Xcw  York.  D. 
at  lirooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June  16,  1S66.  W.  S.  Tvler. 

Humphrey  (Zei'Iianiaii  Moore),  D.  D.,  fifth  son  of 
Dr.  Heman  Humphrey,  b.  at  Amherst,  Jlass..  Aug.  311, 
1824  ;  graduated  at  Amherst  College  184:1.  and  at  .'Vndover 
Theological  Seminary  ls4lt ;  a  popular  preacher  and  pastor 
of  churches  at  Racine  anil  Milwaukee.  Wis.,  1850-59;  of 
First  Presbyterian  church,  Chicago,  1S59-6S;  of  Calvary 
Presbyleri:in  church.  Philadelphia,  lSI)8-"a;  is  now  pro- 
fessor" of  ecclesiastical  history  and  eliurch  polity  at  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  0. ;  was  connected  with 
the  New  School  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  before 
the  reunion  of  1SI\9 ;  contributed  his  influence  to  the  re- 
union, and  was  elected  moderator  of  the  reunited  Church 
at  Chicago  in  1871. 

Hum'phreys,  county  of  N.  W.  Central  Tennessee. 
Area,  5ill  square  miles.  It  has  the  Tennessee  Kiver  for  its 
western  Ijouudary.  and  is  traversed  by  the  Nashville  and 
North-western  K.  R.  It  is  a  fertile  and  undulating  region. 
Cattle,  corn,  and  tobacco  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Wav- 
erly.     Pop.  9320. 

Hum'phreys  (.\NnnFw  .\TKt\soN).  LL.D.. b.  at  Phila- 
delphia, Pa..  Nov.  2.  1810:  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military 
Academy,  and  appointed  second  lieutcn.ant  of  artillery  .luly 
1, 1S:',1  ;'began  his  military  career  with  a  season  of  garrison 
duty  at  Tort  Moultrie,  S.  C. :  thereafter  employed  on  varied 
service,  including  a  period  in  the  Cherokee  Nation  and  an 
eight  miinlhs'  active  campaign  in  Florida,  participating  in 
several   actions  against   the  Seminides.  until   Sept.,  18110, 
when  he  resigned  his  commission.    Returned  to  the  service 
of  the  government  as  civil  engineer  the  following  year,  when 
his  health  was  restored,  and  reappointed  in  the  army  July  7, 
18:!8,  as  first  lieutenant  topographical  engineers  ;  promoted 
to  be  captain   1848,  major  Aug.,  18C1,  serving  during  this 
time  on  harlior  improvements;  again  actively  engaged  for 
eight  months  in  Florida  war,  and  for  five  years  (1844-49) 
in''charSc  of  the  Coast  Survey  ofliceat  Washington.  In  Nov., 
1850,  he  commenced  the    topographic    and  hydrographio 
survey  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  directed  l>y  Congress 
for  tlie  purpose  of  determining  the  most  practicable  plan 
for  securing  it  from  inundation,  as  well  as  for  deepening 
the  channels  of  the  river.     Compelled  by  sickness  in  1851 
to  reliniiuish  charge  of  this  work,  ho  visited  Kurnpe,  and 
from  a  |iersonal  examination  of  its  river-deltas  informed 
himself  of  the  knowledge  there  acfpiired  by  the  experience 
of  centuries  as  to  methods  of  protection  against  inundation. 
Returning  in  1854,  he  was  assigned  to  special  service  to  de- 
termine the  most  practicable  and  economical  route  for  a  rail- 
roail  from  the  Mississipjii  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  upon 
which  he  continued  until  1801,  meanwhile  serving  on  the 
lighthouse  board  and  on  various  commissinns.  anil  in  1857 
resumed    the  survey  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
shortly  after  his  retirement  from  the  work  in  1851  had  been 
discontinued,    Lieut.    Abbot    being    assigned    to    personal 
direction   of   the  work.      The   valuable   report   upon    Iho 
Physics  and  Hvdraulics  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver  was  sub- 
mitted in  Aug.i  1801,  having   been   hastened  to  a  close  by 
the  outbreak  of  civil  war.     In  Dec.,  1861.  Humphreys,  now 
major,  was  assigned  to  duty  on  the  stafl'  of  Gen.  McClellan, 
and   upon   the  transfer  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  to 
the  Virginia  Peninsula  was  apjioiuted  its  chief  topographi- 
cal engineer,   serving  as  such  throughout  the  campaign 


having  been  promoted,  however,  to  be  colonel.  A.  A.  D.  C, 
Mar.,  and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Apr.,  1862.  Upon 
the  return  of  Gen.  McClellan  to  the  command  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.  Gen.  Humphreys  was  (Sept.  l.'l.  1862)  as- 
signed to  oommand  a  division  of  new  troops  attached  to 


the  5th  corps  as  .Sd  division,  and  followed  the  army,  mak- 
ing a  night-march  of  20  miles  from  Monoeacy  Bridge,  join- 
ing it  at  Antictamon  the  morning  of  Sept.  18  ;  made  recon- 
naissance from  Sharpsburg  to  Lectown  Oct.  16-17  ;  engaged 
at  Fredericksburg.  Dec,  1802.  the  battle  closing  with  the  as- 
sault of  bis  division  on  the  "  stone  wall  "  at  Marye  Heights; 
iu  command  of  his  division  at  Chancellorsville,  the  time  of 
service  of  which  expiring  soon  after,  bo  was  (May  20)  as- 
signed to  the  2d  division  :iil  corps,  which  he  commanded 
with  great  ability  at  Gettysburg,  extricating  it  from  its  per- 
ilous position,  tliough  wiih  great  loss;  on  July  8  was  pro- 
moted to  be  m.ajor-general  of   volunteers  and  appointed 
chief  of  staB'  to  the  commanding  general  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac, which  important  and  responsible  duty  he  performeil 
wilh  great  credit  until  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  2il 
army  corps,  Nov.  25. 1804.  a  period  when,  though  the  close 
was  nigh,  much  hard  fighting  remained  to  bo  done.     In 
the  stirring  events  before  Petersburg  and  subsequent  pursuit 
of  the  Confederate  army  the  2d  corps  continued  to  bear  an 
important  part,  up  to  tiic  final  action  at  Farmvillc  Apr.  7, 
its  commander  winning  the  brevet  of  major-general  U.  S.  A. 
for  Sailor's  Creek.  Apr.  0,  1805.   Continued  in  the  volunteer 
service  until  Aug.  .SI,  1806,  during  the  first  half  of  the  year 
engaged  on  plans  for  the  relief  of  the  alluvial  region  of 
the  Mississippi  from  inundation:  Aug.  8,  1800,  appointed 
chief  of  engineers,  V.  S.  army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  which  position  he  stiil  retains  (1875).  In  addition 
to  the  high  duties  of  his  office  has  served  on  the  light- 
house board  and  on  various  commissions  coneerning  im- 
portant engineering  works.      Is  also  member  of   various 
American  and  foreign  scientific  societies.   G.  C.  SiMMOxs. 

Humphreys  (DAVin),  LL.D..  h.  at  Derby,  Conn.,  in 
1752:  entered  the  ormy  as  a  captain  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Revolutionary  war;  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to 
AVashington  in  1780  ;  accompanied  Jefferson  to  France  in 
1780  as  secretary  of  legation:  went  in  1794  to  Lisbon,  and 
in  1797  to  Madrid,  as  ambassador,  and  returned  to  America 
in  1802.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  merino  sheep 
to  this  country,  and  established  a  large  woollen  and  cotton 
factory  in  Derby.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  commanded 
the  militia  of  Connecticut,  and  d.  at  New  Haven  Feb.  21, 
1818.  While  residing  at  Hartford  ( 1780-SS)  he  published, 
together  with  Hopkins.  Barlow,  and  Trumbull,  tho  .Aiuir- 

cliiad.     The  most  prominent  of  his  other  poems  arc In 

Addremi  to  the  Avmiea  of  the  U.S.  (1782i,  The  Future  lllori/ 
of  the  U.  S..  The  Lore  of  Country,  and  The  Death  of  II  ii«A- 
iiK/iou.  He  also  wrote  a  I.U'e  of  Pnluam  in  1 79S.  His  works 
were  collected  and  published  in  New  York  in  1790  and  1804. 
Humphreys  (Henry  Noel),  b.  at  Birmingham  in 
1810  :  resided  for  several  years  on  the  Continent,  especial- 
ly in  Rome:  and  puidisbed  in  1840  his  first  work,  the  de- 
scriptions to  W.  B.  Cooke's  VIeien  in  Home.  Together  wilh 
I.  O.  Westwood.  he  published  in  the  same  year  Driiiih 
TlullerlheH.  and  their  Trannformaliinm  and  BriHnh  Moths, 
and  their  Transformations.  'Among  bis  other  publications 
arc— .-lii.iViit  Coins  and  Medals  iu  1850,  The  Coiuage  of  the 
British  Fmplrc  in  1854,  and  a  number  of  anonymous  novels. 
Hum'phry  (  Wim.iam  Gii.son),  M.  A.,  b.  in  1815  ;  grad- 
uated in  1837  at  Cambridge  :  was  Hulse.an  lecturer  at  that 
university  in  1849-50;  and  was  nomin.atcd  vicar  to  St. 
Martin-in-thc-Fields.  London,  1855.  His  Ilulscan  lectures 
were  on  The  Doelrinc  of  a  Future  Slate  and  The  Early  Proj- 
ress  of  the  Gospel.  He  has  also  written  A  Commcntar;/  on 
the  n'ool-  of  the  Arts  of  the  Apostles,  The  Character  of  Si. 
Paul  iu  1858,  Thcophiliu  of  Anlioch,  etc. 

Hu'mus  T'^er.  ITnmin:  Fr.  huinine;  from  Lat.  hwnus, 
"moist  earlli"  (soil)]:  Iluiiiii-  .Vcid  \Gkv.  flumlnsUurc; 
Fr.  aeide  /iiimiV/ii.-j  ;  lUmine  [Ger.  Flmin  ;  Fr.  viminc; 
from  Lat.  ulmus,  the  "elm  tree"]:  lUmic  Acid  (Ger. 
UlminsUurc;  Ft.  acidc  ,<lm!,,ue]  :  IJeiC  .Vcid  [tier,  (iein- 
sUnre:  Fr.  «cirf<-  flcii/nr:  from  Gr.  ri  or  r.a.  tlic  "earth  ]  j 
Crcnic  and  Apocrenic  Acids    [Ger.  Qnellsaure  and 

Qiiellsah.siiure  :    Fr.  arides  e,-,-,i/./.lc  and  ajMcrenyiue^  ;  from 

Gr.  Kpiji'i.  a  ••well"  or  ••spring");  l\itrohnmic  Acids, 
Silico-nitrohumic  Compounds,  I'eat,  etc.  Tins 
large  class  of  substances — comprising  the  proximate  or 
more  immediate  products  of  decay,  fermentation,  and  ero- 
macausis  of  plant-tissues,  under  subacrial  or  subaqueous 
agencies,  or  both— presents  great' chemical  difficulties  in  its 
exact  investigation.  It  has  therefore,  notwilhstauding  its 
essential  import.ancc  in  connection  with  several  sciences 
,„„1  arts  — including  (dant  physiology,  plant  nutritiori, 
chemical  geology,  ogrieulture.  watcr-supjdy,  etc.- received, 
so  far.  the  attention  of  but  few  chemists.  Fortunately, 
these  few  include  some  of  the  greatest  and  most  reliable 
names,  such  as  Berzclius.  Mulder.  Bcrlhclot,  Paul  Tbi'nard, 
etc. :  so  that  our  knowledge,  imperfect  and  incomplcic  as 
it  is.  has  especial  value.  The  ulmic  and  humic  subslances 
found  in  soil  and  vegetable  ••mould,"  rotten  wood,  peat, 
etc.  were  chiefly  investigated  by  Mulder  about  1.840- 


-45; 


HUMUS. 


1027 


the  cronic  and  npocrenic  compounds  l)y  Berzclius  about 
the  same  period,  and  later  also  by  Mulder;  while  the  highly 
imporiant  relatiuii?  of  the  huinic  suhslances  to  silica  were 
aunounccd  only  five  years  since  by  Paul  Th6nard,  and  arc 
but  obscurely  Ivnuwn. 

Ulmiiir. — This  is  the  name  j»iven  by  Mulder  to  that  por- 
tion of  brown  decaying  or  decayed  vegetable  matter,  such 
as  rotten  wood.  peat,  etc.,  which  is  insoluble  in  water,  adds, 
and  alkalies.  The  name  uimfne  originated  with  Klaproth, 
who  applied  it  to  what  was  probably  n  gun-.my  exudation 
friini  an  idm  tree.  The  propriety  of  its  use  here  is  not  evi- 
dent. Mulder  found  also  that  canc-sugur,  when  boiled 
with  acids,  air  being  absent,  yielded  brown  substances  so 
similar  in  composition  and  chemical  characters  that  he 
prepared  mitst  of  his  ulmino  and  ulmic  acid  for  investiga- 
tion in  this  way.  Mulder's  analyses  of  ulmine,  both  from 
peat  and  from  sugar,  yielded  him  the  formula  (now  nota- 
tion) ('-.•oHigO;:  which  it  will  be  useful  to  us  to  reduce  to 
nn  expression  **  isologous  "  (having  the  same  carbon-num- 
ber) with  those  now  most  commonly  in  use  for  cellulose, 
the  proximate  plnnt-constitucnt  from  which  natural  ul- 
mine is  generally,  or  at  least  chiefly,  formed — and  for  su- 
crose. 

Sucrose  (cane-sugar) Ci^HcsOn. 

Cellulose riiyijoOio. 

XTlminc rjslIsGOi.s.    " 

There  seems  small  ])robability  that  this  so  called  ulmine  is 
composed  of  a  single  definite  compound,  and  it  is  doubt- 
less a  mixture  of  two  or  more. 

The  illustrious  Itcrthclot  ]>ublished  in  ISOO  some  curious 
experiments  with  Mulder's  ulmine  from  sugar,  consisting 
in  the  application  thereto  of  his  new  synthetic  method  of 
hi/ilrnf/runtinn,  by  heating  to  27.*°  C,  underpressure,  with 
concentrated  bydriodic  acid.  {linllctin  dc  In  Soci/^f^  Ch!- 
mirjne  df  /*ori>,  Apr..  ISfiO,  p.  2^\.)  The  ulmino  was 
changed  almost  entirely  into  liquid  hydrocarbons,  from 
which  he  obtained,  by  fractional  distillation,  the  principal 
one.  boiling  at  about  200°,  which  gave  him  the  composition 
CttHsfi.  He  calls  it  hi/drtirrt  '»/  tfiiodcr'/lcnc.  This  is  evi- 
dently a  saturated  hydrocarbon,  homologous  with  marsh- 
gas.  CnHjn^?.  Like  the  parafhnes  and  other  pctroleum- 
hydnM-arlnms.  he  found  it  to  be  indiflVrent  to  the  action  of 
the  most  powerful  reagents.  These  facts  have  an  obvious 
bearing  on  tho  true  theory  of  petroleum-genesis. 

Uftnic  Acid, — This  is  tho  portion  of  brown  peat,  rotten 
wood,  sugar  rotted  by  hot  acids,  etc.  which  is  soluble  in 
alkalies.  Mulder's  formula,  amended,  is  CjoiruOa,  or  re- 
ducing, as  before,  to  an  isologuo  of  cellulose.  Ci^IIt  40^6. 
This  is  much  more  likely  to  bo  a  definite  compound  than 
ulmine,  and  it  will  bo  observed  that  it  difTers  from  cellulose 
by  not  very  far  from  HIIjO,  which  difTerencc.  if  exact, 
would  give  for  ulmic  acid  (doubling  tho  formula)  CimIIicOs, 
anil  would  make  the  action  of  tlio  acid  one  of  simple  de- 
hydration, as  usual.  Another  ehomist,  namoil  Ph-in.  has 
pjnce  made  analyses  of  ulmine  and  ulmic  acid,  and  claims 
that  they  are  isomeric,  both  eorrespon<ling  to  C-nUtH^^g. 
Ulmic  acid,  precipitated  from  alkaline  solutions  by  a  min- 
eral acid,  is  a  brownish  jelly,  which,  as  soon  as  the  precip- 
itating acid  is  washed  out,  begins  to  dissolve  in  the  wash- 
water.  Its  perfect  S'dubility  in  pure  water  and  in  alkalies 
is  partly  impaired  by  strong  desiccation,  ulmino  being 
probably  formed.  Nitric  acid  converts  it  into  formic  and 
oxalic  acids,  and  into  nporretiatc  of  ammonia.  Concen- 
trated muriatic  acirl,  without  access  of  air.  converts  it  into 
olminc.     A  nnmbrr  of  tdmnfrg  were  described  by  Mulder. 

HumuH  or  //iimitir. — Mulder  makes  this  to  be  a  jiroduct 
of  oxidation  of  ulmine,  with  separation  of  water.  His 
derivation  of  humino  from  ulmine  may  be  thus  expressed  : 
Ci^HfteOij  t-  Oort-0.:tH20=»C,2no04.5  =  humino.  Hu- 
minc  is  also  obtained  directly  from  sugar  by  long  boiling 
with  aeids  in  tho  presence  of  air,  and  dissolving  out  tlio 
ulmic  and  humie  acids  formed  from  tho  huniine  by  an  al- 
kali.    It  is  eonvortod  by  strong  alkalies  into  humic  acid. 

liumir  Acid  ( ('12H7  2'^3fi*. — Black  peat  contains  humic 
acid  in  combination  with  ammonia,  a  compound  so  strong 
lliat  boiling  with  soilic  carbonate  will  not  decompose  it, 
but  only  dissolve  it  to  a  double  humato  of  soda  and  am- 
monia. Potash  expels  the  ammonia,  but  with  destruction 
of  the  humic  acid.  MuMor  appears  to  have  obtained  pure 
humic  acid  only  artifiri:i|Iy,  h\  Inntr  bnilinu  of  sug:ir  S 
parts,  sulphuric  moriohydrate  2,  and  water  20,  disi^olving 
tho  dark-brown  produet  in  potash,  and  precipitating  with 
muriatic  acirl— a  brownish-blaek  slimy  mass,  which  when 
dry  is  insolubh- in  water,  black,  jet-like,  amorphous,  taste- 
less,  and  inodorous.  Nitric  acid  etrnverts  it  into  apocrenate 
of  ammonia,  with  formation  of  formic  and  oxalio  acids. 
Concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  without  air,  forms  a  now 
black  substance  of  curious  properties,  not  named  by  Mul- 
der. Mulder  makes  tho  remarkablp  statement  that  this 
liumie  acid,  wholly  fri'o  from  nitrogen,  exposed  in  a  moist 
pla'-o  fr.r   «\x    months  to  tho  air.  is  then  foimd  to  contain 


considerable  ammonia;  inferring  that  during  its  oxidation 
the  aerial  nitrogen  is  caused  to  combine  with  the  hydro- 
gen of  the  humic  acid,  and  presumably  also  that  in  soils 
this  same  process  of  ammonia-genesis  must  proceed  by 
virtue  of  their  contained  humic  acid.  Iloussin^ault's  ex- 
periments have  appeared  to  disprove  this  ;  but  F.  H.  Storer 
has  shown  ( liiif/rtin  0/  thf  liuHnrif  Af/riruftnral  IiiHtiftition, 

1874,  pp.  2G2-2riS)  that  Boussingault's  experiments  were 
not  conclusive,  and  has  reopened  a  number  of  questions 
connected  with  this  subject  ;  insomuch  that  a  re-examina- 
tion of  the  original  rest-arches  of  Mulder  seems  desirable. 
Mulder  found  rotten  willow-wood  to  be  composed,  in  part, 
of  humate  of  ammonia,  evolving  ammonia  with  potn?h. 
In  black  garden-mould  humic  acid  exists  also  as  humate 
of  ammonia,  with  crenic  and  apocrenic  salts,  and  is  difficult 
to  isolate.  From  such  soils  Mulder  obtained  his  </eicac!d, 
which  he  makes  to  be  Ci2^h.i^*.i' 

Crenic  and  Aporretn'c  Arida. — Berzelius  discovered  these 
two  compounds  together  in  a  mineral  uprivff  in  Sweden, 
whence  these  names.  They  arc  now  known  t*)  be  eommon 
products  of  vegetable  decay.  Mulder  first  found  them  in 
soils,  as  above  statecl.  They  are  also  found  in  some  iron 
ochres  and  bog  ores ;  and  Berzelius  recommends  their 
preparation  from  these  latter  by  boiling  with  potash,  add- 
ing acetic  acid  and  acetate  of  copper,  which  precipitates 
brown  apocren.ate  of  copper.  On  filtering,  saturating  with 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  adding  cupric  acetate  again  in 
excess,  the  greenish-white  crcnate  of  copper  goes  down 
completely  on  warming.  For  the  composition  of  these 
acids  Berzclius's  analyses  afford 

Crenic  acid CjiHsoOig. 

Apocrenic  acid Cj^HuOig. 

Mulder  states  that  they  cannot  be  obtained  wholly  free 
from  ammonia.  Crenic  acid,  isolated  from  the  cupric  crc- 
nate by  sulphohydric  acid,  and  dried,  forms  a  hard,  trans- 
parent, yellowish,  amorphous,  inodorous  mass,  of  acid  and 
astringent  taste,  solublo  in  all  proportions  in  water  and  alco- 
hol. Its  aqueous  solution  absorbs  oxygen,  producing  apo- 
crenic acid;  dissolves  in  eold  nitric  acid  without  reaction, 
and  is  apparently  not  much  acted  on  by  the  hoifiti^  acid. 
Apocrenic  acid  is  dark  in  color,  dissolves  with  brown  color 
in  water,  also  in  aloohol,  not  in  other;  has  an  acid  reaction 
on  litmus,  but  its  taste  is  astringent,  like  tannin,  and  not 
sour.  Sal-ammr)niac  and  murintir  acid  both  precipitate  it 
from  aqueous  solution  as  dark -brown  flocks. 

A  recent  experimenter.  M.  W.  Detmcr.  reports  that  ho 
could  not  accomplish  the  absorption  by  the  roots  of  plants, 
or  by  a  seawood,  of  solutions  of  humic  acid  or  of  soluble 
huniates,  but  that  crenic  acid,  on  the  contrary,  was  readily 
absorbed.  Ho  attributes  this  to  the  possession,  by  the 
humic  compounds,  of  a  coffoid  nature;  and  he  concludes 
that  humic  matters  in  the  soil  must  pass  by  oxidation  into 
crenntes  and  n(poorenatcs  before  nourishing  plants.  Ac- 
c«»rding  to  a  very  ])Ossible  hy])Othrsis,  however,  these  humus- 
matters  merely  act  as  ammonia-providers  for  the  roots, 
without  any  absorption  thereinto  on  their  own  part,  but  by 
forming  ammonia  from  tho  air.  If  this  bo  their  function, 
their  incapacity  of  absorption  by  the  roots  becomes  merely 
a  provision  to  secure  their  continuance  of  action. 

Jfunn'r  ^fnftrrH  and  SHira.—Jn  1S70,  M.  Paul  ThC-nard 
made  a  communication  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  a  merely  preliminary  kind,  which  appears  to  promise  an 
era  in  the  history  of  this  subject,  although  it  appears  to 
have  awakened  little  attentirm.  (  Coinptrt  licndnn,  vol.  Ixx. 
p.  1II2.)  Ho  claimed  to  have  discovored  that  by  certain 
modes  of  fixing  ammonia  in  humic  compounrls  by  substi- 
tution (as  in  tho  formation  of  ethylamino,  for  example),  he 
had  formed  at  least  four  new  compounds  of  the  humic  type 
which  had  tho  power  to  dissolve  groat  quantities  of  silica. 
These  bodies  possess  a  remarkable  (ixity,  not  completely 
losing  their  nitrogen  at  temperatures  between  1000°  and 
1200°  C.  These  new  compounds,  which  he  calls  nitro-humic 
acids  {aciden  uzhnmiffUfA,  contain  from  7.5  to  24  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  and  the  proporti()ns  of  silica  which  they  are 
oble  to  take  up  nrc  proportional  to  these  numbers.  There 
are  thus  formed  new  acids,  which  he  calls  silico-nitrohumio 
{Hi/icn-azhuini«fu^n)  acids.  Ills  nitrohumio  acids  exist  nat- 
urally in  small  proportion  in  soils.  In  his  brief  discus- 
sion of  the  subject  ho  maintains  that  the  silica  which  is 
always  found  in  solution  in  the  colored  li(|nids  that  leach 
from  soils  (as  had  been  shown  analytically  by  MM.  Verdcil 
and  Kisler)  has  entered  into  solution  in  the  form  of  his 
silieo-nitrohumic  aeids;  also  distinctly  favoring  tho  view 
that  the  tiitrnf/rn  uf  thr  nir  enicrs  here  into  the  process  for 
the  behoof  of  vegetation. 

prat. — It  is  manifest  that  the  above  facts  have  an  inti- 
mate bearing  upon  the  origin,  history,  composition,  nature 
and  properties  of  the  common  material  known  by  this  name, 
peat,  aecording  to  the  cirenmstances  of  its  formatitm  or 
subsequent  exposure  to  aerial  oxidation,  will  contain  either 
ulmic  or  humic  compounds,  or   both,  in  admixture   with 


1028 


HUNDRED— HUNGARY. 


more  or  less  of  unaUe:cJ  cellulose.  These  compounds  will 
contain  more  or  loss  ainiuonia  already  in  combination — 
even  if  the  ammonia-making  power  be  denied  lo  it — and 
hence  should  have  ils  value,  greater  or  less,  as  an  agricul- 
tural agent.  The  discussion  of  peat  as  a  fuel,  the  condi- 
tions of  it.s  growth  and  formation,  with  otlu-r  points  relat- 
ing to  peat,  will  be  elsewhere  treated  of.     IIknuv  Wl'Iitz. 

Hun'dred  [perhaps  because  originally  supposed  to  con- 
tain a  hundred  families],  a  division  of  many  English  coun- 
ties, is  stated  to  have  been  first  made  by  King  Alfred. 
Some  of  the  counties  have  no  hundreds,  but  have  wapen- 
tnkes.  wards,  or  other  similar  di\'isi<ins.  The  counties  of 
Delaware  are  likewise  divided  into  humireds. 

Huner'ic  ['Ovtupixo^],  the  second  king  of  the  Vandalic 
empire  in  Africa,  reigned  from  477  to  4M  a.  n.  He  was  a 
son  of  Gcnseric,  and  married  to  a  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Valentiuian.  lie  was  cruel  and  cowardly,  and  became  most 
noted  for  the  persecutions  which  he  raised  against  the  or- 
thodox Christians. 

Iluiifarvy  (Pal),  b.  Mar.  12, 1810,  at  Nagy-Pzalok,  in 
Hungary:  studied  law  ;  was  appointed  professor  in  juris- 
prudence in  1S!2  at  the  academy  of  Kasmark  ;  sat  in  the 
Hungarian  diet  1818-49,  and  has  lived  since  in  Pcsth.  By 
his  philological  and  ethnological  researches  he  has  defined 
the  position  of  the  Hungarian  language  in  the  Uro-AUaic 
family,  and  explained  its  relations  to  the  Finnish  and 
Turkish.  In  ISJG  he  founded  Ma(ji/ar  A't/ch-i-szrf,  a  period- 
ical for  the  Hungarian  language,  in  Peslh  ;  in  18(il  he  gave  a 
Cfnestontathiii  Fonu'rii. — His  brother,  Janos  Hl'NFALVY,  b. 
at  Gross-Schlagcudorf  June  8. 1820.  became  professor  of  sta- 
tistics and  history  at  Kasmark  in  lS4fi  :  took  part  in  the  Hun- 
garian rising  in  184S,  and  lives  since  1S5.S  in  Buda  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  the  Polytechnic  School.  He  has  written 
a  Uiiicei-Htil  History  (1862),  a  Geography  of  Hungary  {Z 
vols.,  1803-66).  etc. 

Hunga'rian  Grass,  an  annual  grass  much  sown  as  a 
forage-plant,  is  merely  a  variety  of  Sctaria  Germanica, 
the  common  millet.  It  is  valuable  for  its  quick,  luxuriant 
growth  on  even  poor  soils,  and  is  much  relished  by  horses 
and  cattle;  but  if  overfed  it  appears  to  act  as  a  diuretic, 
and  is  hence  by  many  considered  injurious  to  horses.  If 
fed  in  reasonable  quantity,  it  is  very  nutritious  and  quite 
harmless.     It  gives  a  good  weight  of  excellent  hay. 

Huu'gary,  in  the  wider  sense  of  the  word,  meaning  the 
countries  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  consists  of  Hungary 
proper,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  and  com- 
prises an  area  of  98,717  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
15.609,45a,  It  forms  an  independent  state,  the  kingdom 
of  Hungary,  and  constitutes  one  part  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire, the  Transleithan  kingdom,  being  connected  with  tho 
German  and  t^lavic  countries,  which  form  the  other,  the 
Cisleithan  j)art  of  the  empire,  by  a  common  dynasty,  a 
common  army  and  navy,  and  a  common  representation  in 
foreign  countries.  The  emperor  of  Austria  bears  the  title 
of  king  of  Hungary,  and  governs  tho  kingdom  of  Hungary 
by  a  responsible  ministry  and  a  diet,  which  assembles  an- 
nually and  consists  of  47.3  members,  of  whom  369  are  re- 
turned from  Hungary  proper,  96  from  Transylvania,  and 
18  from  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

Hungary,  in  tho  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  meaning 
Hungary  proper,  comprises  an  area  of  68.583  square  miles, 
with  1 1,630,397  inhabitants,  of  whom,  with  respect  to  races, 
4.950,000  are  Magyars.  2,:>&0,000  ^Slavi,  1,470,000  Rou- 
manians, 1,430,000  Germans,  and  tho  rest  belonging  to 
other  different  nationalities;  and  with  respect  to  religion, 
6,933,813  are  Roman  Catholics,  2,607.983  Protestants, 
2,395,81 8  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  and  51 7,338  arc  Jews. 

The  surface  of  the  country  presents  a  vast  plain  sloping 
down  from  tho  Carpathian  Mountains,  which  form  tho 
northern  boundary,  and  the  Alps,  which  cover  the  southern 
frontier  districts  towards  tho  Danube,  which,  with  its  pow- 
erful affluents,  the  Theiss,  the  Drave,  and  the  Save,  trav- 
erses it  and  drains  tho  soil.  The  soil  of  this  plain  is  in 
some  places  sandy,  almost  desert-like,  in  others,  especially 
along  the  Theiss,  swampy  and  marshy,  but  generally  it  is 
extremely  fertile,  and  by  tho  raj)id  progress  of  agriculture 
the  unproduc'.ive  portions  of  the  soil  arc  annually  dimin- 
ished. Tho  climate  has  also  its  drawbacks.  Tho  winters 
are  often  severe  and  protracted;  the  summers  are  often 
very  hot,  and  droughts  and  destructive  hailstorms  are  not 
unfrequent.  But  in  gener.al  it  is  agreeable,  healthful,  and 
favorable  to  agricultural  pursuits.  Of  the  soil,  one-third  is 
covered  with  splendid  oak  forests,  in  which  large  flocks  of 
Bwine  are  fed,  and  which  literally  swarm  with  jiheasants, 
partridges,  deer,  slags,  wild-boars,  and  wolves.  Another 
third  is  under  tillage,  and  although  agriculture,  in  spite 
of  recent  progress,  is  still  in  a  backward  state,  between 
60.000,000  and  70.000,000  bushels  of  wheat  of  first  quality 
are  annually  raised  over  the  demand  for  home  consumption. 
The  remaining  portion  is  partly  occupied  by  meadows,  where 


large  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  of  superior  quality 
are  reared,  partly  by  gardens,  orchards,  and  fields  uf  llax 
and  hemp,  and  partly  by  vineyards,  which  produce  the 
tiacst  wines  and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  half 
of  Europe.  No  less  abundant  is  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
country.  The  supply  of  rock-salt  is  inexhaustible ;  and  of 
other  useful  minerals  there  were  produced  in  1858,  44,000 
ounces  of  gold,  48,000  ounces  of  silver,  6300  cwts.  of  quick- 
silver, 27,000  cwts.  of  lead,  36.760  cwts.  of  copper,  1,676.000 
cwts.  of  iron,  and  over  7,000,000  cwts.  of  coal.  What  Hun- 
gary lacks  to  beconu)  one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the 
world  are,  first,  the  tools  of  modern  civilization — namely, 
associations  to  create  capital,  machinery  to  cheapen  pro- 
duction, and  railways  to  carry  the  products  into  the  mar- 
ket— and  then  a  little  more  of  that  spirit  which  understands 
how  to  use  these  tools,  a  little  more  of  that  modern  spirit 
which  prefers  the  bustle  and  energy  of  enterprise  to  the 
half-dreamy  enchantment  of  the  imagination. 

Hungary  is  inhabited  by  several  distinct  races  speaking 
several  distinct  languages,  but  the  predominant  race  is  the 
Magyar,  a  high-sj)iritcd,  proud,  and  generous  people, 
richly  gifted  in  every  respect,  in  body  strong,  mentally 
bright,  and  possessed  of  an  inexhaustible  energy.  They 
came  into  Hungary  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century.  The 
country  had  been  a  Roman  possession,  forming  parts  of  the 
two  provinces  of  Pannonia  and  Dacia.  After  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  empire  it  was  overrun  by  different  nations, 
among  which  the  Huns  and  the  Avars  sustained  themselves 
on  the  soil  for  the  longest  period,  and  are  supposed  to  have 
given  the  country  its  name.  At  the  close  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury it  was  divided  into  many  small  kingdoms,  and  Wal- 
lachs,  Bulgarians,  and  (iermans  formed  a  large  portion  of 
the  population.  The  Magyars  are  a  Turanian  per.ple, 
allied  to  the  Turks  and  to  the  Finns.  For  a  long  time  they 
dwelt  first  in  Caucasus,  and  then  in  the  region  between  tho 
Don  and  the  Dniester,  but  in  887  they  descended  under 
Arpad  into  the  plain  of  the  Danube,  and  after  ten  years' 
fighting  they  conquered  tho  country  and  ruled  from  tho 
summits  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains  to  the  foot  of  tho 
Styrian  Alps.  Their  history  falls  into  three  periods — under 
tho  dynasty  of  the  Arpads  to  1301;  under  tho  elective  mon- 
archy from  1301  to  1526,  and  under  the  dynasty  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  from  1526  to  our  time — but  during  its 
whole  course,  and  in  spite  of  the  many  splendid  deeds  and 
great  achievements  which  it  contains,  its  general  character 
throughout  is  a  peculiar  backwardness,  tending  either  to 
enslave  the  nation  by  indolence  or  to  break  it  into  fac- 
tions. The  most  remarkable  of  tho  Arpad  dynasty  was 
Stephen  I.,  from  997  to  1U3S.  He  was  crowned  by  Pope 
Sylvester  II.  in  1000  as  king  of  Hungary,  and  received  tho 
title  of  "His  Apostolic  JIajesty  "  (which  since  that  time 
has  been  the  title  of  the  Hungarian  kings)  as  a  reward  for 
his  exertions  in  Lehalf  of  the  Church.  Under  him  Chris- 
tianity was  established  among  the  people,  tho  country  was 
divided  into  bishoprics,  and  schools  were  founded  for  clas- 
sical and  theological  learning.  But  it  was  also  under  him 
that  Latin  became  not  only  the  official  langunge  of  the 
Hungarian  government,  but  also  tho  only  acknowledged 
vehicle  of  Hungarian  civilization  ;  and  this  ])itiful  mistake, 
this  great  calamity,  stood  unremedied  for  nearly  800  years, 
and  affected  tho  people  like  a  somniferous  potion.  During 
the  next  period  the  elements  of  faction  were  grafted  on 
the  nation.  Of  all  forms  of  government,  the  elective  mon- 
archy is  the  worst.  People  think  it  a  privilege  to  choose  for 
their  king  him  whom  they  like.  But  that  privilege  is  a 
curse.  If  a  king  were  elected  only  for  a  limited  time,  the 
election  would  be  a  privilege,  for  then  it  would  be  possible 
for  those  interests  which  were  defeated  at  tho  election  to 
live  and  work  on  as  a  party.  But  as  soon  as  the  king  is 
elected  for  life  the  party,  defeated  at  the  election,  immedi- 
ately becomes  a  faction.  Furthermore,  the  elective  monarchy 
gave  the  Hungarian  nubility  an  opi)ortunity  of  carrying 
changes  into  the  constitution  of  the  country  which  made  it 
possible  for  them  to  depress  the  peasantry  into  serfdom,  and 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  powerful  third  estate  living 
independent  in  the  cities;  and  the  nobility  did  not  for- 
get to  utilize  the  op])ortunity.  The  most  backward  period, 
however,  is  that  under  the  government  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg. Twice  the  Hungarians  saved  this  house  from  utter  ruin 
— first,  under  Maria  Thorrsa,  when  all  Kurope  felt  a  desiro 
to  divide  her  dominions  ;  and  a  second  time,  under  Francis, 
when  Napoleon  hesitated  whether  he  would  let  this  family 
cease  to  reign,  or  whether  he  would  marry  one  of  its  daugh- 
ters. But  this  fidelity  has  more  than  once  been  rewarded 
with  infamous  treachery.  Up  to  the  days  of  the  present  em- 
peror it  was  always  thn  policy  of  Austria  to  try  to  dissolve 
the  Hungarian  constitution,  and  recast  the  Hungarian  nation 
in  German  moulds.  Tho  effect  of  thispolicy  wasjust  opposite 
to  what  was  intended:  it  brought  the  different  estates  of  the 
Hungarian  people,  the  haughty  nobility  and  the  poor  serfs, 
nearer  together,  and  that  political  movement  in  modern 


HUNUARY. 


1029 


civilization  which  demands  equal  participation  in  tho  gov- 
ernment for  all  citizens  of  the  state,  equal  taxation  of  all 
tho  members  of  the  society,  equal  nckuowlcdgment  ot  all 
religious  denominations,  and  absolute  abrogation  of  all 
privileges  and  monopolies,  was  in  Hungary  brought  about 
by  tho  nobilitv  itself.     A  constitution  dictated  by  this  spirit, 
abolishing  feudality,  enacting  a  new  election  law,  and  pro- 
claiming the  liberty  of  the  press,  was  sanctioned  by  the 
diet  an  1  by  the  Austrian  crapernr  in  184?,  but  at  the  very 
same  lime'thc  Austrian  government  in  Vienna  began  agi- 
tatin".  through  its  agents,  the  German,  tJlavic.  and  Kou- 
manian  races  living  in  Hungary,  against  the  Magyars,  and 
it  succeeded  in  creating  such  an  uproar  and  confusion  in 
tho  country  that  the  abrogation  of  the  free  constitution  by 
Russian  arms  and  tho  establishment  of  an  unmixed  despot- 
ism seemed  the  only  means  by  «  bich  to  procure  order.    The 
relations  between  llungary  and  Austria  were  very  near  an 
open  rupture  when  the  revolution  of  Feb.,  1818.  broke  out 
in  Paris,  and  occasioned  a  similar  rising  in  Vienna.     On 
Mar.  13,  Prince  Mctternich  fell,  and  with  hiin  the  old  re- 
gime.    The  emperor  Ferdinand  acceded  in  principle  to  all 
the  demands  of  the   llungurians.     An  independent  Hun- 
garian ministry  was  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Count 
Batthyiinvi;  Kossuth  and  Ueak  were  among  its  members, 
and  the  Diet  of  Presburg  dissolved  after  sanctioning  the 
necessary  measures  for  tho  convocation  of  a  national  as- 
sembly at  Pestb  in  .July.     It  can  hardly  be  doubled,  how- 
ever, that  the  Austrian   government  began  to  undermine 
this  agreement  almost  from  the  very  moment  it  made  it.  The 
Slavonian,  Itoumauian,  and  German  parts  of  tho  popula- 
tion of  Hungary  were  jealous  of  the  predominance  of  the 
Magyars.    The  Germans  and  .Slavonians  of  Hungary  proper 
protested  against  the  separaticm   from  Austria,  and  Tran- 
sylvania and  Croatia  demanded  the  same  independence  of 
liie  lluiigiirian  crown  as  Hungary  of  the  Austrian.     This 
mnvement  was  stirred  up  by  secret  emissaries  from  Vienna, 
and  in  some  cases — as,  for  instance,  in  the  election  of  Jel- 
hu-hich  as  ban  of  Croatia,  and   his  defiant  opposition  to 
the    Hungarian   government — it   was   openly   encouraged. 
Soon  a  war  of  races  bndic  out  with  fury  within  the  boun- 
daries of  ilungary.     The  national  assembly  convened  in 
July,  and,  fired  by  the  eloquence  of  Kossuth,  it  promptly 
agreed   on  measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  Slavonian 
rebellion:  42,0110, UOO  florins  were  granted,  200,000  troops 
were    levied,    tho    Honviids    were    formed,    the    fortresses 
equipped,  cic.     But  from  this  time  tho  central  government 
at  Vienna  made  greater  and  greater  difficulties.     It  de- 
clared a  separation  between  Hungary  and  Austria  in  mili- 
tary and  financial  respeels  an  impossibility,  and  it  con- 
tinued to  employ  the  Hungarian  troops  for  tho  suppression 
of  tho   insurrection    in   its  Italian   ]irovinces.      At  last   it 
plainly  refused  to  sanction  the  measures  of  the  national 
assembly,  and  .lellachich  crossed  the  Drave.     In  Septem- 
ber the  cabinet  of  DatthySnyi  resigned,  and  a  coniinittce 
of  defence  under  tho  presidency  of  Kossuth  was  formed. 
A  vigorous  resistance  against  the  Slavonians  on  the  one 
siile  and  the  central  Austrian  government  on  tho  other  was 
organized;  Jellachich  was  defeated;  anil  when  a  new  ris- 
ing took  place  in  October  at  Vienna,  the  Hungarian  cause 
seemed  to  have  won.      IJut  in  December  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand abdicated:   Francis  .Joseph  acceded  to  the  throne; 
the  Austrian  arms  were  successful   in  Lombardy  ;  and  in 
the  spring  of  ISI'.t  an  Austrian  army  under  Prince  Wind- 
isehgriitz  entered  Ilungary.  demanding  unconditional  obe- 
dience 10  the  Austrian  aiitborily.     The  national  assembly, 
which  had  moved  from    Pestli  to  Debreczin,  declared  the 
house  of  Uapsburg  deposed,  chose  Kossuth  governor-gen- 
eral of  the  country,  and  a  deadly  struggle  commenced. 
The  various  successes,  the  military  heroism,  and  the  polit- 
ical confusion  with  which  it  was  carried  on   are  described 
in  the  articles  on  Bi;m,  Dkmhinski,  lioKc:i:i,  Ki,ai-ka,  Kos- 
suth, etc.     It  was  decided  by  the  intervention  of  Russia. 
One  Kussian  corps  under  Paniutine  entered  Hungary  from 
tho  W.,  another  under  I^iiders  from  the   K.,  while  a  third 
army,  numbcriug   130, 000  men.  under  Paskewieh.  entered 
tlio   Hungarian  plain   from  the  N.,  Aug.  13,  1840.     (iiirgei 
surrendered  at  Vihiyos;    Kossuth,  MC'sziiros,  and  others 
(led  to  Turkey  ;  and  many  of  the  richest  and  noblest  men 
of  the  nation  became  scattered  all  over  tlio  world.     Bat- 
thviinyi,  Kis,  and  others  were  executed,  and  all  tho  dun- 
geons of  the  empire  were  filled.     Thus  Austrian  order  was 
once  more  restored.     Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  terrible 
defeat,  the  resistance  of  the  Hungarian  people  was  by  no 
means  broken.     An  opposition  ogainst  the  Austrian  rule 
was  soon   formed  on   a  broader  basis  and  with   a  clearer 
consciousness,  and   the  demands  for  the  constitution  of 
1818    became  louder    and   louder   every    year.      At    last, 
after  the  battle  of  Sadowa  (.Tuly  3,  186(5),  and  the  entire 
separation   of  Austria  from   Germany,  the   Austrian  gov- 
crnmenl  felt  compelled  to  submit.      In  Feb.,  ISflV.an  iinle- 
pcndent  Hungariuu  ministry  was  formed  under  the  leader- 


ship of  Count  Andrdssy,  and  in  December  of  the  same  year 
the  final  emancipation  of  the  Hungarian  crown  on  the 
basis  of  the  constitution  of  1S4S  was  accomplished.  There 
still  reigns  a  good  deal  of  confusion  and  some  strife  in  the 
relations  of  the  country,  both  within  and  without,  hut, 
generally  speaking,  the  country  is  now  rapidly  progressing 
in  material  as  well  as  intellectual  respects. 

When  in  the  ninth  century  the  Magyars  settled  in  the 
Hungarian  plain,  their  language  was  already  fixed,  and 
seems  to  have  undergone  comparatively  few  and  unimport- 
ant changes.     The  foreign   words   it  lias  adopted,   Latin, 
Greek,   Slavic,    licnnan,    and    Turkish,    have    been    thor- 
oughly remodelled.     It  belongs  to   the  Turanian  family, 
is  nearest  akin  to  the  Turkish  and  Finnish,  and  resembles 
the  latter  closely  in  its  )ihonetic  system,  especially  in  its 
vocalization  and  in  its  grammatical  formations.     It  has, 
however,  in  its  compound  sibilants  ca  and  c  r,  and  gen- 
erally in  its  accent,  when  spoken  with  passion,  something 
weird    and   wild   which  tho  Finnish  has  not,  and   which 
sounds  very   strange  to  a  Saxon  car.     It  is   spoken,   at 
present,  in   tour  dialects — the  Gyori,  on  the  Raab  :    the 
Bihari,  on   tho  Theiss;  the  PaI6cz,  in  the  Mutra  Moun- 
tains; and  the  Sz6kely,  in  Transylvania.     The  last  is  said 
to  bo   somewhat  mixed  with  Tartar  words,  the  third  to 
contain  most  ancient  words,  but  tho   difference  between 
them   and  the  written  language  is  not,  great.     It  was  not, 
however,  until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  this  language  liecame  a  truly  literary  language  and 
the  bearer  of  a  national  civilization.     With  the  introduc- 
tion  of  Christianity,  about   1000,   Latin  became  the  lan- 
guage not  only  of  the  Church  and  its  service,  but  also  of 
the  Taw  and  all  court  proceedings.     Tiicre  were  monasteries 
and  ecclesiastical  seminaries  in   Hungary  in  the  elcvcntll 
century  ;  in  the  twelfth,  Magyars  frequented  tho  universi- 
ties of  Paris  and   Bologna;    and   in   the   Ihirtecnth,  they 
founded  libraries  and  schools  at  home.     But  all  communi- 
cation  with  Western  Europe,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  pro- 
cess of  civilization,  was  carried  on  in  the  Latin  language, 
and  the  national  tongue,  so  far  as  it  appeared  in  public, 
was  confined  to  the  eiunp  and  tho  tavern.     In  this  a  change 
took  place  with  tho  Reformation,  which   was  introduced 
into   Hungary  from  Bohemia.     Translations  of  the  Bible 
occur  as  early  as   1382,  but  in  tho  sixteenlh  they  became 
frequent;  Konijati  (li33),  Pesti   (1530),  Sylvester  (lo41), 
Heltai  (lo4G),  Szekely  (lO'lS),   Melius   (150,1),  etc.     The 
chronicle  of  the  country  was  written  in  the  native  tongue 
by  Szekely  (1550),  Tcmesvilri  (1509),  and  Heltai  (1572). 
liymns,   and  even  popular  songs,   were  produced.      The 
development  stopped  very  soon,  however,  here  as  in  Ger- 
many and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  though  from  differ- 
ent causes.     The  accession  of  the  house  of  Uapsburg  to 
the  Hungarian  throne  afler  tho  death  of  Louis  II.  in  1526, 
confirmed   Latin  as  the   oflicial  language  of  the  country. 
Tho   Reformation  itself  spread   German  widely  among  the 
middle  classes  to  the  detriment  of  the  native  tongue,  and 
alter  the  introduction  of  the  Jesuits  in  1561  the  Magyar 
language  was  looked  upon  as  a  cover  for  heresy.     In  the 
seventeenth  and   the  first  \r.u-i  of  tho  eighteenth  century 


I 

Latin  predominated  more  than  ever.  The  first  regular 
newspaper  of  the  country,  started  in  1721,  was  published 
in  Latin.  It  was  the  school  reforms  of  Jose]]h  II.  which 
first  awakened  the  ]iopiilar  spirit,  and  it  was  his  attempt 
at  Germanizing  the  people  which  made  the  awakened 
spirit  national;  the  attempt  was  met  with  the  most  de- 
cided resislance.  Laws  ivero  jjromulgalcd  which  intro- 
duced the  Hungarian  language  in  schools  and  courts  of  all 
degrees,  and  social  life  commenced  to  assume,  in  all  its 
various  branches,  a  most  decidedly  national  eliaiacter.  In 
1787,  Matthias  Rdth  started  in  Presburg  tho  first  Hunga- 
rian newspaper,  thereby  inaugurating  a  journalistic  liter- 
ature which  probably  has  employed  greater  talent  and 
exercised  a  deeper  influence  than  that  of  any  other  Euro- 
pean country.  Its  most  brilliant  period  embraces  the  years 
between  1840  and  1814,  when  Louis  Kossulh  edited  the 
/'.<i(i'  lliilnp,  and  treated  all  vital  questions  involved  in 
the  situation  of  the  Hungarian  people  with  a  nobleness  of 
tone  and  elegance  of  manner  wbiidi  actually  raised  the  lit- 
erary standard  of  the  nation.  In  1788,  Kiizinczy  com- 
menced his  Arar/i/ar  Miiiriim,  and  although  this,  as  well  as 
its  nearest  descendants  in  the  periodical  press,  was  con- 
fined to  the  rich  and  educated  classes,  from  it  sprung  a 
peculiar  kind  of  annuals  of  misoellaneous  contents.  Kl/mih; 
Kmlfuii,  elc.  wbieli  became  Very  popular.  In  1703,  Raday 
established  a  national  Iheaire  in  Pestb;  in  1817  appeared 
the  first  comedy  by  Kdroly  Kisliiliidy,  and  since  (he  debut 
uf  Joseph  Szigligeli  as  a  playwriler  in  1831  the  Magyar 
theatre  rests  principally  on  the  national  drama.  In  18311, 
Baron  Jnsikacomuieneed  bis  very  i)rolific  and  successful  ac- 
tivity as  a  romance- writer,  treating  subjects  of  the  history  of 
the  .Slagyarsafler  the  mode  of  Waller  Scott,  and  from  1842  to 
1810  appeared  the  //(»(../ 1/  :■/  IIhdiihiii  by  Horvilh.    Other 


1030 


HUNGARY  NECK— HUNT. 


fit-Ms  of  literature  and  science,  especially  travelling  sketches 
and  Innffuagc?,  have  been  taken  up  and  cultivated  with  equal 
success  during  the  course  of  the  preseut  century.  But  its 
true  inaufiuration  as  a  literary  language,  ns  Ihe  bearer  of 
a  national  civilization,  as  the  expression  of  a  national  ge- 
nius, the  Hungarian  language  received  by  the  publication 
in  |s]7  of  Iliiii/j/'n  Low,  by  Sandor  Kisfaludy.  An  un- 
broken chain  uf  lyrical  pmduclions  or  epics,  with  a  strong 
lyrif^al  tone,  of  different  character,  but  generally  of  great 
merit,  connects  //('/;»/)/'«  Love  with  our  days,  and  culmi- 
nated with  Sdndor  Petnfi.  With  Www  all  inspiration  from 
foreign  ideas,  all  imitation  of  foreigu  models,  censed.  The 
Magyar  genius  stood  fully  revealed,  free  and  independent, 
in  one  of  its  phases,  and  a  truly  national  school  of  po- 
etry was  formed;  one  of  its  chief  members  is  Joliann 
Ararcy.  Nor  was  the  check  which  this  development 
received  from  the  failure  of  tho  revolution  of  1.S48  abso- 
lute; on  tho  contrary,  after  a  short  and  merely  tem- 
porary disturbance,  it  went  on,  as  it  seems,  with  renewed 
vigor.  Clemens  PeteuseV. 

Ilimigary  Xeck,  tp.  of  Somerset  co.,  Md.,  on  Chesa- 
peake \i\i\.    Pop.  y3s. 

Hungary  Water,  a  perfume  for  the  toilet,  is  simply 
dilute  alcohol  aromatized  with  sage,  rosemary,  ginger-root, 
or  other  fragrant  substances,  and  then  distilled.  It  has  had 
a  limited  use  in  medicine  as  a  stiniulant. 

Hun'ger  [Ang.  Sax.  hmujcr'],  the  craving  for  food,  tho 
sensation  which  impels  animals  to  eat.  It  is  an  intensifi- 
cation of  what  is  called  the  appetite.  An  abnormal  condi- 
tion of  hunger  is  also  induced  in  animals  by  the  ablation 
of  the  spleen,  and  perhaps  by  tho  removal  of  other  ductless 
glands.  Hunger  is  probably  induced  normally  by  the  gen- 
eral need  of  nutriment  throughout  the  system,  but  the  sen- 
sation is  chiefly  referred  to  tho  stomach.  It  may  be  dimin- 
ished by  the  administration  of  various  drugs  and  by  the 
use  of  tobacco. 

Ilun'ncwell,  post-v.  of  Jackson  tp.,  Shelby  co.,  Mo., 
on  the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  R.  R.,  Zl  miles  W,  of  Han- 
nibal.    Pop.  327. 

Huns,  The  [Lat.  Hnnm'],  were  an  extremely  savage 
and  ugly  tribe  of  warlike  nomadcs,  with  dark  complexions, 
smrtll,  deep-set,  black  eyes,  broad  shoulders,  and  flat  noses. 
They  came  from  the  vast  barren  plateaus  of  Kastcrn  Asia, 
N.  of  China,  and  while  one  part  of  them  settled  along  tho 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  later  became  known  as  tho 
AVhite  Uuns,  the  other  part  crosj^cd  the  Volga  and  con- 
quered the  Alani,  who  became  incorporated  with  tlicm.  In 
370  they  crossed  the  Dnieper,  defeated  the  Goths,  and  drove 
them  over  the  Danube  into  the  Roman  province  of  Panno- 
nia.  In  434,  under  Attihi,  they  crossed  tho  Danube,  and 
tho  Roman  emperor,  Thcodosius  II.,  had  no  other  means 
of  stopping  them  than  by  paying  them  an  annual  tribute. 
When,  after  the  death  of  Thcodosius,  the  tribute  ceased 
to  be  paid,  Attihi  pushed  forward  and  visited  Gaul,  where 
he  was  defeated  on  tho  Catalaunian  plain,  and  Italy, 
where  Pope  Ken  I.  persuadeii  liim  to  retreat.  After  the 
death  of  Atlila  the  Huns  dissolved  and  disappeared 
among  the  other  barbarian  tribes.  The  Huns  were  proba- 
bly Tartars,  perhaps  of  tho  Mongol  branch,  but  the 
term  appears  to  have  been  used  somewhat  vaguely,  and 
to  have  included  Turkish  or  Ugrian  peoples,  perhaps  even 
the  Magyars. 

Hunt,  county  of  the  N.  E.  of  Texas.  Area,  935  square 
miles.  It  is  a  rolling  country,  with  abundance  of  hard- 
wood timber.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  Live-stock, 
corn,  cotton,  and  wool  arc  staple  jtroducts.  Cap.  Green- 
ville.    Pop.  10,291. 

Hunt,  tp.  of  Scott  CO.,  Ark.  Pop.  2S0. 
Hunt  (KnwAnn  B.),  b.  in  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y.,  LS22 ; 
graduated  at  West  Point  Military  Acaflemy  July  1,  1845, 
ami  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  engi- 
neers ;  jiroMiuted  to  be  second  lieutenant  Dec.,  1S4  J.  first  lieu- 
tenant July,  1803,  captain  July,  lSij9,  and  major  Mar.,  l.Stj3. 
Upon  entering  the  army  in  1845  ho  was  ordered  to  New 
York  as  assistant  to  the  board  of  engineers  fur  coast  de- 
fence, and  served  in  this  capacity  about  one  year,  when  he 
was  detailed  for  duty  at  West  Point  as  assistant  professor 
of  engineering,  which  position  he  retained  till  1849,  when 
he  was  ordered  to  Boston,  Mass.,  ns  assistant  engineer  in 
tho  construction  of  Fort  Warren.  From  1S51  to  1855  he 
was  on  duty  in  the  ofi'ice  of  Prof.  Baehe,  superintendent 
V.  S.  Coast  Survey,  and  from  1855  to  1857  was  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  fortifications  and  lighthouses  on  the 
coast  of  Rhode  Island.  He  was  transferred  to  Key  West, 
Fla.,  in  IS57,  and  engaged  in  tho  construction  of  Fort 
Taylor  until  18tJ2,  when  ho  was  relieved,  and  became  chief 
engineer  of  tho  department  of  the  Shenandoah,  which  po- 
sition ho  held  hut  a  short  time,  being  engaged  from  Apr., 
1862,  to  Oct.,  1863,  in  the  construction  of  forlifioations  in 


I  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  and  during  the  same  time 
on  special  duly  under  the  navy  department  in  perfecting 
his  invention  of  a  submarine  battery  (the  '*  Sea-Miner  ") ; 
and  it  was  while  eonducting  experiments  at  Brooklyn, 
X.  Y.,  with  this  device  that  he  was  overcome  by  escaping 
gas,  and,  falling  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel,  was  killed,  Oct. 
2,  ISfi.'J.  Ho  was  a  brother  of  ex-Gov.  Washington  Hunt 
of  New  York,  and  a  man  of  high  scientific  attainments, 
and  earnestly  devoted  to  his  country  and  profession;  mem- 
ber of  several  scientific  associations,  and  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  various  literary  and  scientific  publications. 

G.  C.  Simmons. 
Hunt  (Freeman),  b.  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  Mar.  21,  1804; 
entered  in  ISIG  a  printing-ofiiee  in  Boston  ;  established  the 
Ladies'  Mafjaziiic  and  recommenced  the  publication  of  tho 
Pcmn/  Mafjftzinc  ;  became  managing  director  of  the  Be- 
wick Company  and  edited  The  American  Marjazine ;  re- 
moved in  1831  to  New  York,  where  he  established  The 
Tratrflrr  in  1S31  and  the  Mrrchaiit's  Ma<jazinc  in  IS39. 
He  also  published  The  Z,H»rari/  of  Commerce  (1856—57)  and 
The  Lives  of  American  Merchants.  D.  at  Brooklyn  Mar. 
2,  185S. 

Hunt  (Helen),  a  daughter  of  the  late  Prof.  N.  W. 
Fiske,  b.  at  Amherst.  Mass.,  in  1831,  became  the  wife  of 
Maj.  E.  B.  Hunt  (1822-63)  of  the  U.  S.  engineers.  She 
resides  at  Newport,  11.  I.  Her  Verses  hy  //.  //.  (1871)  and 
Bitft  iif  Travel  (1872)  have  won  a  brilliant  popularity. 

Hunt  (IIexry  Jatkson),  b.  in  Detroit,  Mich,  (then  a 
Territory).  Sept.  14,  1819;  graduated  at  West  Point  Mili- 
tary Academy  July  1,  1839,  ond  entered  the  army  as  second 
lieutenant  of  artillery  ;  promoted  to  be  first  lieutenant  1840, 
captain  1852,  mnjor  18GI,  licuteuant-eolonel  18^3,  and  col- 
onel ISfiO;  served  on  frontier  and  garrison  duty  1839-46; 
in  the  Mexican  -war  1840—48,  at  Vera  Cruz.  Cerro  Gordo, 
Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey  (wounded),  ChapuUcpec.  and 
the  capture  of  tho  city  of  Mexico  (brevet  captain  and 
mrvjor).  During  tho  civil  war  served  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Gen.  McClcIlan,  and  commanded  the  artillery  reserves  uf 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  of 
1SG2,  r.nd  commanded  in  chief  the  artillery  of  that  army 
from  Sept.  18,  1CG2,  to  the  close  of  tlie  war.  Appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Sept.  15, 1862;  brevet  major- 
general  of  volunteers  and  brevet  colonel,  brigadier-general, 
and  major-general  of  volunteers  for  gallant  services  in  the 
field.  Author  of  various  reports  and  papers  on  artillery, 
artillery  projectiles,  tactics,  army  organization,  and  organi- 
zation of  artillery  schools ;  member  of  various  hoanls  for 
the  armament  of  fortification?,  and  president  of  the  per- 
manent artillery  board  for  the  army.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Hunt  (jAMrs  HnNUV  Leigh),  b.  at  Southgato,  Middle- 
sex, England,  Oct.  19,  17S4,  the  son  of  a  clergyman  who 
had  been  a  lawyer  in  Philadelphia.  Leigh  Hunt  was  edu- 
cated at  Christ's  Hospital,  read  law  for  a  time,  and  found 
a  place  in  the  war  ofiicc,  which  he  left  in  IS08.  His  Jitvc- 
nilia  (poems,  lt^01)  was  published  by  his  father,  and  in 
1805  ho  became  a  critic  for  the  JS'ews,  a  journal,  and  in 
1808  established,  with  his  brother  John,  The  JCxaminrr,  a 
journal  which  became  a  power  in  the  political  world  by 
reason  of  the  independent  course  of  its  editors.  The  bro- 
thers were  impri^^oned  (1812-15)  for  using  Irtnguage  which 
was  regarded  as  lacking  in  respect  for  the  prince  regent, 
but  the  kindness  of  Moore.  Byron,  and  the  AVhig  literati 
made  Hunt's  jail-Ufe  a  very  ptensimt  episode  in  his  career. 
His  best  poem,  Thr  Stori/  of  Jiiwini  {\^H)),  was  among  tho 
hooks  written  during  his  imprisonment.  His  literary  life 
was  one  of  much  activity;  many  volumes  of  poems,  essays, 
translations,  and  romance  followed  ;  but  in  spite  of  his  in- 
dustry Hunt  was  always  very  poor.  In  1822  he  visited 
Byron  in  Italy,  ami  quarrelled  with  him,  but  after  tho  lat- 
te'r's  death  published  ReeolhrtitmH  uf  Uxjrrm  in  1828.  Hunt 
performed  much  editorial  labor,  and  in  1S47  received  a  pen- 
sion of  £200.  Hunt  was  a  man  of  happy  disposition,  but  was 
of  a  character  not  altogether  admirable.  Dickens's  Harold 
Skimpole  is  believed  to  set  forth  Hunt's  least  aclmirablo 
qualities.  As  a  writer  he  had  a  felicitous  style  anil  an 
artistic  way  of  putting  things,  but  ho  wrote  too  often  when 
he  had  nothing  important  to  say,  and  most  of  his  many 
books  are  already  forgotten.  Among  the  best  are  .Ucii, 
yVmnvn,  nn<l  linuks  (1847)  and  J»^j6i*o_7ra7^/M/ ( 1850),  ed- 
ited by  Thornton  Hunt,  his  son.  Leigh  Hunt  d.  at  Putney 
Aug.  28.  1859. 

Hunt  (John),  b.  near  Lincoln,  England,  Juno  13, 1S12; 
joined  the  Wcsleyan  conference  in  1836,  and  in  1838  was 
sent  to  the  Fiji  Islands,  where  for  ten  years  ho  travelled 
and  preached,  introducing  Christianity  in  many  tribes.  D. 
there  in  1S48,  having  translated  the  New  Testament  into 
the  Fiji  tongue,  besides  writing  in  English  a  treatise  on 

Entirv  Sanetijicatifitt. 

Hunt  (HirtiARn  Monnis),  b.  in  Brattlcboro',  Vt.,^Oct. 
28, 1828;  went  to  Europe  iu  1843;  was  a  pupil  at  tho  Ecolo 


HUNT— HUNTER. 


1031 


dcs  Bcaax  Arts  in  Paris,  and  attained  distinction  there;  | 
was  made  an  inspector  ot'  the  builJin;;  between  the  Louvre  ' 
and  the  Tuilerics;  returned  to  America  in  ISii;  devoted 
himself  actively  to  his  profession,  and  has  been  of  service 
in   elevating  the  taste  for  architecture  at  home.     He  has 
built  villas  in  Newport,  residences  in  liostou  and  New  York, 
the  Stevens'  apartment-house,  the  Lenox  Library,  the  Di- 
vinity College  building  at  Vale,  the  Cnpitul  extension  at  1 
Washington,  and   is  the  architect  of  the  Trihtnn-  building 
in  New  York.     His  summer  residence  is  at  Newport;  in 
winter  he  lives  in  New  York.  O.  B.  Fiiotiiinuihu. 

Hunt  (RonERTt.b.  at  Dcvonporl,  England,  Sept.  B,  180". 
He  is  a  self-educated  man,  but  has  acquired  a  great  name, 
partly  by  his  annually  published  ilinrrnl  Stntiniim  for  the 
United  Kingilom,  which  he  was  the  first  to  establish, 
partly  by  his  researches  on  light,  communicated  to  the 
Tiiii',Mi,rtinnii  <;/"  lh<-  Itritinh  Amiodalifm,  whence  resulted 
the  discovery  of  several  important  photographic  processes 
and  a  better  understanding  of  the  chemical  in8uences  of 
the  solar  rays.  He  is  conservator  of  the  Mu.seum  of  Geol- 
ogy in  Lonilon.and  has  published  I'oclry  of  Science  (1848) 
and  Paiiilici  (1!<4'JJ. 

Hunt  (Tnoins).  M.  D..  b.  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  May  18, 
ISOS;  d.  in  New  Orleans  Mar.  30,  1S07;  graduated  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  Tuiversity  of  Pennsylvania  182'.i, 
and  in  ISGH  the  same  degree  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
Royal  Univer.sily  of  Havana.  Cuba.  He  was  the  first  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  physics  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  University  of  Louisiana  IS.U  ;  then  its  dean,  and  in 
IS48  became  professor  of  physiological  and  pathological 
anatomy,  which  he  held  at  his  death.  He  was  also  house- 
surgeon  to  the  Charity  Hospital:  president  of  the  Physico- 
Medical  Society  of  New  Orleans,  and  became  the  presiilent 
of  the  University  of  Louisiana  1SC6.  Uc  also  contributed 
largely  to  medical  journals.  P.\i!I,  F.  Eve. 

Hunt  (Thomas  Stkkrv),  F.  R.  S.,  LL.D.,  Ph.  D.,  b.  at 
Norwich,  Conn..  Sept.  5, 1S26 ;  studied  medicine  and  chem- 
istry, and  in  ISli  became  assistant  in  chemistry  to  Prof. 
Silliman:  served  under  Sir  W.  E.  Logan  as  chemist  and 
mineralogist  for  the  geological  survey  of  Canada  ;  was  in 
IHjjone  of  the  English  jurors  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
when  ho  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In 
185!)  ho  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  ha.s 
been  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Quebec 
anil  in  .Mctiill  College,  .Montreal,  and  now  lISTa)  holds  a 
similar  position  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. He  has  written  many  important  papers  upon  min- 
eralogy, chemistry,  dynamic  geology,  and  kindred  topics. 

Hunt  (Waup".  LL.r).,b.  at  Utica,  N.Y.,  Juno  U.ISIO; 
educated  at  Hamilton  and  Union  Colleges,  graduating  in 
182H:  was  mayor  of  Utica  and  member  of  the  New  York 
assembly ;  was  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  of  the  State  of 
New  York  from  1S6S  to  1873.  when  he  became  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S. 

Hunt  (Wasehsgton),  b.  at  Windham,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  5, 
181 1  :  admitted  to  the  bur  at  Loekport  in  18:M  ;  appointed 
first  judge  of  Niagara  Co.  in  l.s.'iil;  member  of  Congress 
|si:i-l'J;  comptroller  of  New  York  184il,  and  governor 
18JI-53.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  conservative 
wing  of  the  Whig  party,  and  when  Ibis  party  was  dissolved 
ho  became  a  Democrat.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Chicago 
Convention  in  1804,  and  d.  in  New  York  Feb.  2,  18G7. 

Hunt  (William  Hoi. man),  b.  in  London  in  1827;  stud- 
ied in  the  school  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  exhibited  for 
the  first  time  in  1840.  In  the  first  years  he  generally  took 
his  subject  from  some  poet,  Keats,  liulwer,  and  others,  but 
with  his  picture  .4  Vnurirlrd  lln'litih  Fiinlili/  Slicllnintj  a 
ChriHtinn  MUxioiutry  from  the  /\ rteriition  i//  thi-  DruidH, 
exhibited  in  18j0,  a  radical  change  had  taken  place,  not 
only  in  his  choice  of  subjects,  but  also  in  his  style  of  exe- 
cution ;  with  this  picture  the  new  school  of  pre-Raphael- 
ites  was,  if  nitt  fountled,  at  least  announced.  In  US.'j.'l  he 
painted  Our  Entjlitlt  C-m^tn;  in  18J4,  The  .lira/.'riir(/  t'uii- 
tcient-c  and  TIk:  Light  of  thr  Wurfti,  explained  in  two  letters 
by  Kuskiii,  published  in  the  Timirn;  in  18ti7,  After  Snnnct 
I'l'i  Kfifi/il!  and  in  1872,  The  Shfuloio  if  Ih.ilh. 

Hunt  (William  Mdiiiiis),  brother  of  Richard  M.,  b,  in 
Bratlleboro',  \l..  Mar.  31.  IS24  ;  entered  Harvard  College 
in  l.sio,  but  did  ntit  eomidetc  bis  course:  went  to  Diissel- 
dorf  in  18411:  in  1848  was  a  pupil  of  Coutnre  in  Paris;  re- 
turned to  the  U.S.  in  18.').i.  and  took  up  his  residence  in 
Newport,  but  removed  thence  to  .laniaica  Plain,  which  is 
now  ineluiled  in  lloston.  Hunt  was  one  of  the  first  to  intro- 
duce what  is  commonly  known  as  the  French  school  of  art 
into  America,  but  he  made  it  his  own,  and  used  it  to  ex- 
press original  ideas.  His  pictures  are  numerous  and  of 
great  variety  in  subject,  genre-painting  antl  portrait  being 
his  great  excellence.  Thr  Ltmt  Kid,  The  t  hitriilern,  tiirl 
at  the  Ftiuiitaiu,  Muri/iirritr,  Mi, mini/  Slur,  /ttit/ie  Cult, 
l>rn,nmtr  Itui/  are  well   known,  and   have  most,  if  not  all. 


been  reproiluccd  in  lithograph.  Some  of  his  portraits — 
those  of  Dana  the  poet,  Chief-Justice  Shaw,  and  several  of 
ladies— lire  much  admired,  but  in  this  work  he  was  unequal, 
his  success  depending  greatly  on  his  sympathy  with  the 
sitter.  For  several  years  Mr.  ilunt  taught  classes  of  ladies 
in  Boston,  and  awakened  enthusiasm  in  the  study  of  art. 
D.  Sept.  8,  1879.  0.  B.  Fkothixcham. 

Hunt'cr,  tp.  of  Edgar  co.,  III.     Pop.  1029. 

Hunter^  post-tp.  of  Greene  co.,  N.  Y..  in  the  Catskill 
Mountains.  It  was  formerly  celebrated  for  its  extensive 
tanneries,  and  is  an  attractive  summer  resort.     Pop.  1524. 

HuntCFf  tp.  of  Laurens  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  2657. 

Hunter  (David),  b.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  July  21, 
1802;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and 
entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  July, 
1822  :  engaged  for  fourteen  years  on  frontier  duty,  rising 
to  the  rank  of  captain  of  dragoons  1833;  resigned  in  1836. 
In  1842  he  re-entered  the  service  as  paymaster,  with  the 
radk  of  major,  on  which  duty  he  served  until  ISCl,  when 
(May  14)  he  was  appointed  colonel  6th  U.  S.  Cavalry,  and 
three  days  later  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  as  such 
commanding  division  at  Bull  Kun  (July  21),  where  he  was 
wounded  :  promoteil  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers  Aug., 
1801.  In  May,  1802,  while  in  command  of  the  department 
of  the  South,  he  issued  au  order  declaring  slavery  abol- 
ished in  that  department,  which  order  was  annulled  by 
Pres.  Lincoln  in  a  proclamation.  In  May,  1804,  Hunter 
succeeded  Gen.  Sigel  in  command  of  the  department  of 
West  Virginia;  the  battle  of  Piedmont  and  subsequent 
march  against  Lynchburg  riVi  Lexington  occurred  the  fol- 
lowing month:  a  strong  Confederate  force  arrived  in  good 
time  to  the  relief  of  that  city,  however,  and  Hunter's  am- 
munition giving  out,  he  made  a  hasty  retreat,  closely  pur- 
sued by  the  enemy.  In  1805  was  member  of  the  military 
commission  to  try  the  conspirators  engaged  in  the  assassi- 
nation of  Lincoln.    Retired  from  active  service  July,  1806. 

G.  C.  Simmons. 

Hunter  (John),  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Long  Calderwood,  near 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  July  14,1728  ;  youngest  of  ten  children, 
of  whom  one  was  the  afterwards  celebiated  William  Hun- 
ter. John  received  very  imperfect  instruction  at  school ; 
was  apprenticed  to  a  cabinetmaker ;  went  in  1748  to  study 
anatomy  with  his  brother  :  studied  at  Oxford  1753-54  ;  bo- 
came  asurgical  pujiil  at  St.  Bartholomew's  1751,  and  at  St. 
George's  1754  ;  studied  surgery  under  Cheseldcn  and  Pott  ; 
lectured  upon  anatomy  1754-5y  ;  attained  great  knowledge 
of  hunuin  and  comparative  anatomy  ;  served  in  France  and 
Portugal  as  staff-surgeon  1701-03;  began  to  practise  sur- 
gery in  London  1703;  was  made  F.  K.  S.  17117,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  publication  of  important  pajiers  containing 
new  discoveries  in  pathology  and  physiology  ;  became 
surgeon  to  St.  George's  Hospital  1708;  surgeon  extra- 
ordinary to  the  king  1776  ;  surgeon-general  of  the  forces 
and  inspector-general  of  hospitals  1790.  D.  in  London 
Oct.  10,  1793.  John  Hunter  was  the  boldest  and  best 
operator  of  his  time,  an  anatomist  of  marvellous  know- 
ledge, and  one  of  the  fathers  of  zoological  science.  His 
stylo  as  a  speaker  and  writer  was  bad.  owing  to  his 
defective  early  training.  His  manners  were  coarse  and 
repulsive  and  his  temper  violent,  but  ho  possessed  many 
strong  and  noble  moral  qualities.  He  was  one  of  the 
fnundtrs  of  the  modern  school  of  surgery.  Author  of 
Niilitriil  llitl.  of  the  Ilnmitn  Teeth  (1771-78),  On  Veueieal 
iJiHeauc  (1786),  ObneriattoHa  on  Certniit  I'lirtt  of  the  Anitiial 
Eeoniimii  (1780),  On  the  lllooil,  Injliimmotion,  and  ffiiii- 
tliot  Womuli  (1794).  Ho  was  the  collector  of  the  great 
Hunt.rian  Museum,  chiefly  of  pathological  and  anatomical 
specimens,  purchased  by  the  British  government  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Koyal  College  of  Surgeons. 

Hunter  (John-  Kklso).  b.  at  Dunkeith,  Ayrshire.  Dec. 
15,  IH02  ;  was  at  first  a  cobbler,  and  afterwards  a  portrait- 
painter  of  repute.  Hcpublisheil  The  Itilronpeit  oj  iin  Art- 
iat't  Life  (  1S07  I.  Life-.Slndien  „/  fhiiriietrr  ( 1870).  the  last 
highly  valued  as  containing  fresh  information  upon  the 
persons  and  places  celebrated  by  Burns,  Tannahill,  and 
other  Scottish  poets.    D.  at  Pollockshield  Feb.  3,  1S74. 

Hunter  (Jcuix  W.),  b.  in  Bedford  (now  in  Brooklyn), 
N.  Y.,  Oi't.  15.  1^*07;  became  n  clerk  in  the  New  York 
custom-house  Ix.'Jl;  was  assistant  auditor  there  1837-65; 
was  long  prominent  in  the  educational  affairs  of  Brooklyn, 
and  was  an  oflicer  of  the  Dime  Savings  Bank  ;  chosen  to 
Congress  in  1800,  and  in  1874  became  mayor  of  Brooklyn. 

Hunter  (Joshimi).     See  Ai-I'eniux. 

Hunter  (  Uobf.rt  MeiickkTaliakkuho),  b.  in  Essex  CO., 
Va.,  Apr.  21,  IHO'.I,  and  was  cilucated  at  the  University  of 
Virginitt  anil  the  WineheNler  Law  Sehocd  ;  member  of  the 
Virginia  house  of  delegates ;  was  a  member  of  Congress 
1S37-41  and  1845-47,  taking  u  prominent  position,  and 
being  Speaker  I839-tl.    lie  was  (1847-01  )  a  II.  S.  .Senator 


1032 


HUNTER— HUNTING. 


from  Virginia,  chairman  of  finance  committee,  find  was 
afterwards  Confederate  secretary  of  state,  and  t^till  later  a 
member  of  (he  Contederate  Senate,  and  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  wlio  met  Pres.  Lincoln  and  iMr.  Soward  at 
the  Ham}tton  lloads  conference  in  Feb.,  18G5.  i 

Hunter  (William),  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  elder  brother  of 
.lolin  Hunter,  was  b.  at  Long  Calderwood,  Scothmd,  May 
2;t.  1718:  studied  at  (ilas^ow  University  ITMJ— 17,  with  a 
view  to  the  ministry  .:  became  the  medical  jmpil  of  Cullen; 
studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh  and  Lontlon,  wliither  ho 
went  in  17-11;  began  to  lecture  on  surgery  anil  anatomy 
1710  ;  acquired  a  wide  fame  as  a  surgeon  and  accoucheur, 
devoting  himself  after  1719  chiefly  to  the  practice  of  ob- 
stetrics; took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  1750;  became  phys- 
ician to  the  queen  1761;  K.  R.  ^^  17G7;  professor  of  ana- 
tomy 1770;  president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  1781  ; 
associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Paris,  17S2.  D.  in 
London  Mar.  .'ifl,  17S:i.  His  splendid  collection  of  ana- 
tomical and  pathological  specimens,  coins,  books,  etc^  is 
now  the  Hunterian  Museum  of  the  University  of  Ulas- 
gdW  ;  it  was  partly  collected  by  John  Hunter,  from  whom 
he  was  for  many  years  estranged.  William  Hunter  sur- 
passed his  brother  in  scliolarship  and  courtesy,  but  was  not 
his  equal  in  professional  ability.  His  principal  published 
works  WGve  Medical  Cniiimnitrirics  {17(i2-fil)  and  the  splen- 
did Aiititttniia  Hiimaiii  Uteri  Graridi  {X77-i). 

Hunter  (William),  D.  D.,  b.  May  20,  1811,  in  the 
county  of  Antrim,  Ireland;  brought  to-  the  U,  S.  in  1S17, 
he  entered  Madison  College  in  1S:UI.  In  1S:?:J  he  began  his 
ministry  in  connection  with  the  Pittsburg  (Pa.)  conference. 
He  has  edited  the  Pittsburg  Conference  Journal,  also  the 
Pittsburg  C/iriHtian  Adrocate  (M.  E.),  and  was  presiding 
elder  in  the  Clarksburg  (Pa.)  and  Beaver  (Pa.)  districts. 
In  1855  he  became  Kramer  professor  of  Hebrew  and  bibli- 
cal literature  iu  Allegheny  College,  Pa.  In  1870  he  re- 
turnccl  to  pastoral  work,  and  in  1872  to  religious  journalism, 
being  then  re-elected  as  editor  of  the  CItri>itiiin  Aili-ornte. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  books  of  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs,  an<l  of  a  ])oem  on  American  Method inm,  «  Plea  for 
Unift/.  Some  of  his  devotional  songs  have  obtained  a 
wide  popularity,  and  are  sung  in  many  lands.  They  have 
been  translated  into  various  languages,  as  the  Bulgarian, 
several  dialects  of  India,  Africa,  Ceylon,  and  China.  D. 
at  Cleveland,  0.,  Oct.  IS,  1877.  A.  Stkvens. 

Hunter  (William),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Newport  Nov.  20, 
1774:  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1791;  studied 
me-lifine  for  some  time  under  his  celebrated  kinsman, 
John  Hunter,  in  London,  but  left  this  study  and  adopted 
that  of  law.  aiul  was  admitted  to  practise  in  Newport  on 
his  return  in  171*5.  He  was  member  of  Congress  179'.)- 
1811,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1811-21.  From  18;U  to  IS45  he 
was  chariff.  d'aifnirex  and  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
Brazil.     D.  at  Newport  Dec.  3,  1S49. 

Hunt'crdon,  county  of  New  Jersey,  bounded  on  the 
S.  W.  by  the  Dt-Iaware  Uiver.  Area,  about  400  square  miles. 
A  part  of  its  surfaei*  is  bndten,  but  its  soil  is  generally  very 
fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  fruit,  and  wool  arc  staple  jiroducts. 
It  has  manufactures  of  metallic  wares,  flour,  harnesses, 
carriages,  lumber,  and  other  goods,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
Central  R.  R.  of  New  .lersey.  the  Belvidere  Delaware,  and 
other  railroads.     Caj>,  FU-mington.     Pop.  .*JO,yO^. 

Iluut'er's,  tp.  of  Tehama  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  40. 

Hunter's  Hill,  tp.  of  Gates  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1401. 

Hunter's  Point,  tho  S.  W.  portion  of  Long  Island 
CiTV  (whi<'h  sec).  Queens  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  1590. 

Hunt'crsvillc,  a  v.  of  Spring  Creek  tp.,  Miami  co.,  0. 
Pop.  2;i:j. 

HuntorNvillc,  post-v.,county-seat  of  Pocahontas  co., 
W.  Va.,  cm  a  liui;  plateau,  40  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Whitt*  Sul- 
phur Sprini^s,  a  station  of  the  Chesapeake  anrl  Ohio  U.  R. 

Hunt'in^;,  like  war,  is  coeval  in  origin  with  man.  "  Be- 
fore it  was  a  pleasure,"  says  E.^  Blaze,  ''hunting  was  a  ne- 
cessity," since  people  wore  urged  to  it  not  only  by  hunger, 
but  by  the  need  of  protecting  themselves  from  wild  beasts. 
But  though  King  David  was  respected  for  skill  in  tho 
field,  it  is  evident  that  of  all  jnojile  the  Jews  were  least 
inclined  to  the  chase,  owing  to  their  being  religiously 
I  trained  to  avoid  almost  nil  amusements,  as  savoring  of 
Gentilism.  But  among  Greeks  and  Uomans  hunting  be- 
came sacred,  Apollo  and  Diana  being  its  chief  patrons, 
while  even  its  subordinate  dvpartments  had  caeli  a  tutelary 
deity.  Pollux  presiding  over  tho  training  of  horses  for  the 
chase,  Orion  of  assembling  dogs  in  packs,  and  Hippolytus 
cf  snares  and  toils.  The  influence  of  hunting  on  culture 
has  been  very  great,  and,  with  a  few  tlrawbacks.  very  ben- 
eficial to  man.  It  is  exhilarating,  and  in  most  forms  very 
condueivr  to  health,  as  it  induiu-s  much  expusure  to  fresh 
air  and  involves  exercise  in  many  forms;  in  fact,  it  may 
bo  assumed  as  a  broad  principle  that  those  race's  which  tako 


no  interest  in  field-sports,  and  thereby  become  unfamiliar 
with  Nature  in  her  wilder  forms,  are  generally  cowardly 
and  depraved.  It  is  said  that  the  chase  induces  cruelty, 
but  it  lias  been  remarked  that  the  Koraans  as  they  left  olV 
hunting  became  more  sanguinary  in  their  games,  and  tho 
French,  who  ridicule  *• /e  sport,"  and  say  that  an  Kngtish- 
man  always  remarks  if  the  weather  is  fine  that  **  one  ought 
to  kill  something,"  are  themselves  much  bloudier  and  more 
vindictive  in  their  political  outbursts  and  jiunishments. 
This  is  also  true  of  tlie  Chinese. 

A  subject  whose  history  is  as  old  as  that  of  humanity, 
and  which  embraces  the  taking  of  almost  all  animals,  from 
the  hare  to  the  elephant,  cannot  be  even  sketched  witliin 
our  limit,  and  we  shall  therefore  simply  spt-ak  of  what  is  at 
tho  jiresent  day  chiefly  understood  by  hunting,  or  that 
branch  of  it  which  involves  such  an  outlay  of  capital  as  to 
have  almost  entirely  appropriated  the  word  to  itself.  This 
is  the  pursuit  of  the  deer,  fox,  and  hare  on  horseback,  which 
in  Great  Britain  probably  costs  more  every  year  than  all 
the  games  of  ancient  Rome  did  iu  the  same  time.  The 
ancient  Britons,  in  fact,  were  vigorous  sportsmen,  and  Strabo 
informs  us  that  their  dogs  for  deer  were  exported  to  tho 
Continent,  and  particularly  to  Gaul.  The  iSaxon?  were  far 
more  addicted  to  hunting  than  the  Romans.  an<l  at  an  early 
period  established  those  forest-restrictions  which  play  such 
an  important  part  in  Englisli  history,  and  which,  in  fact, 
did  much  to  develop  the  art  into  that  earnest  form  which 
in  Kugland  is  a  serious  part  of  most  country  gentlemen*s 
lives.  As  early  as  the  ninth  century,  says  Strutt,  and  prob- 
ably long  before,  hunting  constituted  an  essential  part  of 
the  education  of  a  young  nobleman.  Alfred  tho  Great,  ac- 
cording to  Asserius,  was  most  carefully  trained  in  all  tho 
branches  of  the  art,  and  excelled  iu  them  before  he  was 
twelve  years  old.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  an- 
tiquaries more  familiar  with  MS3.  than  with  nature  have 
doubted  whether  horses  were  ever  employed  iu  hunting 
previous  to  the  Norman  Conquest,  since  it  is  not  probable 
that  people  who,  as  we  know,  had  horses  both  good  and 
fleet,  would  dismount  in  order  to  chase  a  deer  or  fox. 
Tho  very  fact  that  fox-hunting  was  a  special  amusement 
amonj;  the  Saxons  would  indicate  its  pursuit  on  horseback. 
Tho  fondness  of  every  Saxon  for  tho  chase,  and  the  feeling 
which  appears  to  be  innate  with  men  that  animals  fcra 
nnturm  are  common  property,  led  to  much  resistance  to 
forest-laws  through  the  Middle  Ages,  and  incredible  suft"er- 
ing.  Hundreds  of  villages  were  destroyed  by  tho  Norman 
kings  to  make  immense  parks;  and  so  severe  were  the 
penalties  enforced  for  poaching  that  it  was  commonly  said 
that  one  might  kill  a  man  with  more  impunity  than  a  deer. 
This  spirit  of  pre-emption  and  resistance  has  continued  to 
tho  present  day  in  England,  and  it  is  not  many  years  since 
Mr.  Thomas  Carlyle  discovered  that  England  had  "  more 
garac-Iaws  than  poor-laws."  Robin  Hood  and  his  followers 
were  in  a  great  measure  the  result  of  forest-laws.  Through 
the  Middle  Ages  hunting  increased  in  importance,  in  lux- 
urious details,  and,  so  to  speak,  in  science.  It  had  from 
remote  times  possessed  a  literature.  Aristotle  had  at  tho 
command  of  Alexander  the  Great  written  on  field-sports, 
and  tlie  Ci/ncrfcticii'i  (a  treatise  on  dogs  and  hunting)  of 
Xenophon  may  still  be  read  with  pleasure.  The  Roman 
writers  on  hunting  embrace  Pliny.  Horace,  Cicero,  Virgil, 
v^cneea,  and  Justin.  Early  in  tho  fourteenth  century  Eng- 
land had  several  treatises  on  the  subject.  That  of  William 
Twici.  huntsman-in-ehief  to  Edward  II.,  written  in  Norman 
French,  also  exists  iu  an  English  translation.  In  it  the 
poet-sportsman  thus  speaks  of  animals : 

"And  for  to  setto  young  hunterys  iu  the  way 

To  venery,  I  cast  me  tirst  to  go 
Of  which  four  bestes  be.  that  is  to  say, 

Tho  hare,  the  herte.  the  wulf,  and  the  wild  boor. 
But  then  there  ben  other  bestes  five  of  the  chase, 

Tlie  buek  the  first,  the  seeonde  is  the  do ; 
The  fox  the  third,  wbieh  hath  ever  hard  grace; 

The  forthe  theiuartyn,  and  the  last  the  roe." 

As  these  beasts  disajqicared  or  became  rare,  the  fox  grad- 
ually rose  to  be  the  first  in  consequence.  "Nimrod" 
(Charles  James  Apperly)  observes  that  it  was  about  150 
years  ago  when  the  fox  was  first  considered  an  animal 
of  the  higher  chase.  Hudibran,  he  observes,  has  a  great 
deal  about  the  hare,  but  not  cmc  word  about  the  fox.  and  in 
Suincrvillc's  poem  of  the  Chncc,  very  little  is  said  of  tho 
latter,  but  a  great  deal  of  the  hare  and  deer.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  in  England  then,  as  now  on  the  Continent, 
the  vfihtt  of  tho  game,  especially  as  an  edible,  was  always 
considered.  This  has  entirely  disappeared  at  present;  all 
that  is  eared  for  in  the  fox  is  his  *•  brush,"  while  "puss" 
(the  hare)  generally  goes  "to  the  dogs."  Chaucer  gave  in 
his  time  a  spirited  i)icturo  of  an  improvised  foot  fox-hunt: 

"Aha  the  fnx,  and  after  him  they  ran, 
And  she  with  staves  many  another  man. 
Ran  ('mII  our  dotj.  and  Talbot  and  (Jerlond, 
And  Mulkiu  with  her  distatl"  in  her  hund. 


HUNTINGBURG— HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 


1033 


Ran  cow  and  calf,  and  ckc  the  veray  hogges, 
So  fert*d  w»to  for  barking  of  ilit'tio^ites, 
And  iduiuling  of  the  men,  and  wunien  eke, 
They  ruiiiR'u  so,  hem  thought  her  hcrtes  brake." 

The  first  f'»x-liuntin^  was  with  so-called  *'  trencher  do;is." 
which  one  aulhority  declares  were  an  nsstmbly  of  any  and 
everythini^  iu  do^  shape,  but  it  i?  more  probable  that  they 
were  of  the  breed  of  broken-haired  harriers  which  still 
abound  in  Wale?,  and  are  an  excellent  doc^.  RIaino  states 
that  "the  first  real  steady  pack  of  foxhounds"  was  that 
of  Thomas  Fownes,  Esq.,  of  Stcpleton  in  l>orsctshirc,  in 
17;Ut.  "They  were,"  says  a  writer  of  ISIS,  "as  handsome 
and  fully  a-?  complete  in  every  respect  as  most  celebrated 
packs  of  the  present  day"  —  an  assertion  which  of  itself 
imlicatc:?  that  good  packs  had  existed  lon^  before;  and 
"Niinrod"  tells  us  that  a  pack  of  foxhounds  was  kept  by 
Lord  Arundel  in  Ifi'JO,  and  this  pack  subsequently  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  celebrated  Quorndon  Hounds. 
But  this  Arundel  pack  —  as  its  excellence  proves  —  was 
probably  far  from  beins:  the  first  in  Kn^land.  With  the 
great  improvement  iu  doj^s  in  modern  times,  and  the  con- 
stant ertorts  to  secure  better  horses,  the  system  of  hunting 
has  changed,  and  instead  of  sounding  the  horn  at  cock- 
crow, as  soon  as  they  could  see  to  ride,  ten,  eleven,  or  even 
twelve  o'clock  is  now  the  hour  for  huntsmen's  assembling. 
la  fact,  in  the  old  time  gentlemen  were  often  obliged  to 
ride  many  miles  hrfore  daybreak,  but  now  the  horses  are 
sent  by  "rail."  whilo  the  rider  takes  the  same  conveyance. 
In  the  old  time  hares  and  foxes  were  rare,  but  now  they  are 
Fo  carefully  preserved  that  hunters  arc  sure  of  them.  '  In 
fact,  foxes  are  often  imported  from  the  Continent  when  they 
become  scarce  in  any  part  of  England,  an<l  the  writer  knows 
of  a  gentleman  who  recently  br<Migbt  a  number  to  Ireland, 
lie  also  knows  of  another  gentleman  who,  having  bec-n 
suspected  of  shooting  or  poisoning  a  troublesome  fox,  was 
completely  cut  by  the  whole  country  and  shunned  like  a 
felon.  The  change  in  horses  for  hunting  has  also  been  very 
great.  A  century  ago  the  hunter  was  a  half-breed  animal^ 
of  great  ?frenglh  and  handsome,  powerful  frame — "acom- 
plete  snaQlc-bridle  horse,  and  a  standing  as  well  as  a  (ly- 
ing Icaper.''  He  had  great  endurance.  At  present  the 
thoroughbred. as  shown  in  the  "cock-tail,"  or  three-fourths 
pure  bloo<I,  delicate  but  fleet,  is  gra<lually  taking  the  place 
of  the  true  hunter.  The  crpcnuc  of  hunting  has  accord- 
ingly been  increased  in  proportion  to  these  changes.  A 
thoroughbred  horse,  though  he  can  for  a  short  time  perform 
greater  feats  of  speed,  and  in  fact  of  leaping,  is  soon  dis- 
abled, and  must  be  kept  from  three  to  seven  days  quiet 
after  a  hunt.  (lentlemcn  who  can  afford  it  have  two  and 
even  three  horses  brought  for  them  to  a  hunt.  In  short, 
hunting,  like  all  other  sports,  is  rapidly  assuming  in  Eng- 
land an  intcn!<ely  artificial  an'l  highly  elaborate  character, 
entirely  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  the  rfin^r  as  expressed  by 
poets  and  understood  by  the  world  at  large.  In  old  times 
the  buckskin  breeches,  well  staincfl  ami  worn,  were  cha- 
racteristic of  hunting,  but  the  ideal  rider  at  a  "meet"  at 
present  i.<?  an  fUijnnt  in  primrose  kid  gloves  and  snow- 
white  cords.  His  hounds  run  faster,  his  horses  leap,  it  is 
said,  higher  than  did  those  of  old.  but  to  one  who  has,  like 
the  writer,  hunted  both  buffalo  in  America  anil  foxes  and 
bares  in  Knglan'l,  the  latter  compares  with  the  former  as  a 
walk  d'twn  Ilrmd  street  in  the  season  does  with  a  pedestrian 
tour  among  the  Alps,  Hunting  in  Englaml,  notwithstand- 
ing the  ()stentation  of  expense  which  is  rapidly  reducing  it 
more  to  a  matter  of  money  and  style  than  is  po]>ulurly 
supposed,  is  still  of  incalculable  benefit,  since  it  pructicully 
familiarizes  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  with  good 
riding  in  its  truest  and  fullest  sense.  The  man  has  always 
a  physical— wc  may  say  a  nervous — superiority  who  can 
without  an  emotion  clear  hedge  anri  <litch  or  keep  the  sad- 
dle all  day  in  a  thorough  chase.  Were  it  not  for  hunting 
many  gentlemen  would  never  get  beyond  a  trot  on  tbo 
highway,  and  that  familiarity  with  the  itorse  in  all  his  best 
qualities  which  'uakes  a  man  mrinlier  wuuld  bo  lost.  It  is 
amusing  to  observe  the  manner  in  which  the  rules  of  sport 
are  carried  out  in  foreign  countries.  It  is  not  long  since  a 
gentleman  twenty  five  years  a  resident  in  India,  and  an 
experienced  tiger-hunter,  assured  the  writer  that  anyone 
known  to  have  killed  a  tiger-cub  would  be  "cut  "  by  every 
gentleman  in  his  part  of  the  country.  It  is  but  just  to  say 
that  (here  has  been  of  late  a  strong  reaction  against  this 
spirit  of  selfish  cruelty,  both  in  India  and  England.  The 
extent  to  which  hunting  is  pursued  may  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  during  the  week  beginning  with  Nov.  2S,  1S7(. 
170  packs  were  advertised  to  run  in  (In-at  Ilritain.  nn<l 
that  these  met  fiftni  two  to  four  times  tluring  the  week. 
Fifty  pounds  is  the  lowest  price  for  an  ordinary  hunting- 
horse;  at  many  meets  the  average  woubl  be  £l.'>0.  In  18  tO 
a  writer  estimated  the  average  cost  of  fourteen  hunters  at 
£700;  at  the  siiine  time,  he  wrote  that  incbulinij  these 
borsca  the  annual  expense  of  a  pack,  but  nut  including  the 


value  of  the  hounds,  would  be  £22.'i5.  It  would  be  safe 
to  double  this  sum  at  present.  A  few  years  later  "Nim- 
rod"  tells  us  that  ten  couple  of  hounds  were  sold  for  1000 
guineas,  and  that  Lonl  Mid«lIeton  had  many  hounds  for 
which  he  would  not  take  LMiO  guineas  apiece.  Strangers 
can,  however,  join  in  a  hunt  ut  moderate  expense.  A 
"tolerably  lair,"  though  seldom  a  really  good,  horse  niiiy 
be  hired  at  a  livery  stable  for  £1  to  follow  the  harriers,  ami 
£2  for  the  fox-hounds.  During  t*lic  hunt  an  official  will 
demand  from  him  from  five  to  ten  shillings  as  (he  regular 
fee.  Stag-hounds  arc  larger  than  fox-hounds ;  otherwise 
they  are  nearly  the  same.  The  harrier,  used  for  hunting 
hares,  "is  the  next  remove  after  the  stag  or  fox-hound 
from  the  talbot,"  or  old  English  hunting-dog.  There  are 
thrco  prominent  varieties.  The  modern  harrier  is  little 
more  than  a  dwarf  fox-hound.  The  beagle  is  a  very  small 
hound,  used  almost  entirely  for  hares,  and  is  frequently,  if 
not  generally,  followed  on  foot.        Ciiaui,i:s  (_J.  Lkla.\d. 

Hunt'in^bur§;,  post-v.  of  Dubois  co.,  Ind.,has  manu- 
factures of  flour,  lumber,  carriages,  wagons,  woollens,  fur- 
niture, tobacco,  saddlery,  etc.:  a  weekly  newspaper  (Ger- 
man), numerous  stores,  a  line  s,?hool-house,  5  churches;  is 
situated  in  a  region  abounding  in  block  and  canncl  coal, 
plumbago,  iron  ores,  fine  potter's  clay,  mineral  paints, 
lime,  and  sandstone,  and  is  the  centre  of  four  projected  rail- 
roads. Tobacco  is  extensively  produced  here,  as  well  as 
grain,  fruits,  etc.  E.  PurKHAKOT,  Prop.  "Signal." 

Ilunt'ingdon,  borough  of  England,  the  capital  of  tbo 
county  of  Huntingdon,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ouse.  Tho 
bouse  in  which  Oliver  Cromwell  was  born  still  stands. 
Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough,  6600. 

H.uiitingdon,  a  fertile  county  of  Quebec,  Canada,  tho 
westernmost  of  the  counties  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Cap. 
Huntingdon.      P<.p.  10,301. 

Iluiltillgdon,  pr)st-v.,  cap.  of  Huntingdon  co.,  Quebec, 
Canatla,  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Montreal,  in  a  good  agricultural 
region,  has  manufactures  of  farm-implements,  eastings, 
lumber,  etc.,  an  academy,  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  a  con- 
vent.    Pop.  of  sub-district,  70.1. 

lilintiiigdon,  county  of  S.  Central  Pennsylvania. 
Area,  I'M)  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  grnnd  moun- 
tain-ranges, but  has  very  fertile  valleys.  Bituminous  coal, 
iron  ore,  and  limestone  are  abundant.  Metallic  wares, 
leather,  carriages,  flour,  and  furniture  arc  among  the  lead- 
ing articles  of  manufacture.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc 
staple  products.  It  is  traversecl  by  the  .Juniata  Uiver  and 
the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Huntingdon  and  Broad  Top 
K.  Ks.     Cap.  Huntingdon.     Pop.  :il,2jl. 

Huntingdon,  post-l>.,  cap.  of  Huntingdon  co..  Pa.,  on 
the  Juniata,  at  the  junction  of  the  Huntingdon  and  Broad 
Top  U.  K.  with  the  Pennsylvania  R.  K.,  104  miles  W.  of 
Harrisburg.  It  has  a  national  and  a  private  bank,  1  re- 
ligious and  4  secular  newspapers,  2  planing-mills.  gas- 
works, manufactures  of  brooms,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture, 
etc.,  car-works,  an  academy,  u  select  .«chool,  and  8  churches, 
and  is  in  a  region  abounding  in  iron,  lead,  coal,  fire-clay, 
limestone,  and  fine  timber.  Pop.  :i03i. 
A.  B.  BiMMBAtfiH,  Lit.  Ed.  "  Jolrnai.  "  and  *'  Pilgrim." 

Huntingdon,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Carroll  co.,  Tenn.,  on 
the  Xasliville  Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.  It  has  a 
weekly  and  semi-weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  (lOtb 

Huntingdon  (Selina),  Coisthss  ok,  daughter  of 
Washington  Shirley,  Earl  Ferrers,  b.  1707.  and  became 
distinguished  in  the  religious  history  of  the  time  in  which 
she  lived.  In  172S  ^hc  was  married  to  Theophilus  Hastings, 
earl  of  Huntingdnn.  a  man  of  great  religions  zeal,  who 
died  Oct.  LI,  17-lt>.  Numerous  children  were  the  fruit  of 
this  marriage,  of  whom  four  rlied  young.  Whether  owing 
to  this  aflliction  or  not,  the  countess  became  a  very  devout 
and  zealous  Christian  ;  and  as  at  this  time  tlie  revivals  un- 
der Wesley  and  Whitcfield  were  at  (heir  height,  a  strong 
religious  excitement  existed  in  England.  The  countess  in- 
clined to  the  (*alvinistic  tenets  of  Whitcfield,  whom  sho 
made  her  private  chaplain,  and  she  became  the  leader  of 
Calvinistic  Methodism  in  Englund,  and  her  followers  were 
known  as  the  "Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connection." 
Her  large  means  were  devoted  to  the  ilissemination  of  her 
religious  views,  and  to  this  end  she  built  and  maintained  i\ 
college  at  Trevceca,  Wales,  for  the  education  of  Calvinistic 
ministers;  sho  also  built  chapels  throughout  England,  and 
provided  for  their  support.  It  is  said  that  in  all  she  erected 
Gl  chapels,  the  finest  of  which  is  at  Bath,  for  tho  manage- 
ment of  which  she  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  her  fortune  iu 
trust.     D.  .Juno  17,  171'I. 

Hunt'ingdonHhiro,  county  of  England,  bounde.l  by 
the  enunties  of  Cambridge,  Bedford,  and  Northampton. 
It  ettntains  22'.*,.^>ll  acres  of  low,  mostly  level  or  slightly 
hilly  ground,  watered  by  tho  Otise  and  the  Ncne,  and  well 
adapted  to  agriculture.      Pup.  (ll.'JfiO. 


1034 


HUNTING  QUARTER— HUNTSVILLE. 


Hun'ting  Quar'ter,  tp.  of  Carteret  co..  N.  C.  P.  940. 
Hunt'ington,  county  ot'  the  N.  E.  of  Indiana.  Arc.i, 
400  square  miles.  It  is'vcry  fertile  ami  generally  level. 
Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  lumber  are  staple  products.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Toledo  Wubash  and  Western  R.  U.  Cap. 
Huntington.     Pop.  19,0:;f,. 

Ilmilinston,  tp.  of  Elmore  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1.117. 
Iliintinstoii,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Fairfield  co..  Conn., 
1.')  miles  W.  of  New  llaveu.     Pop.  1527. 

Illintlllgton,  titv,  tp.,  cap.  of  Huntington  Co..  Ind., 
on  the  Toledo  Wabiish  and  Western  11.  U.  and  the  M  abash 
and  Erie  Canal,  24  mile.s  S.  W.  of  Fort  Wayne  and  US 
miles  S.  W.  of  Toledo.  It  contains  12  factories  working 
wood  into  various  shapes,  2  iron-foundries,  1  national  and 
1  private  bank,  f<  churches.  2  newspapers,  a  free  graded 
school,  a  public-school  building  costing  $JO,000,  the  usual 
number  of  stores,  and  is  the  dt-pot  for  a  large  lime-burn- 
ing region  operating  :;0  kilns.  A  library,  reading-room, 
aiiTl  museum  are  being  cstablisheil  in  connection  with  the 
iiublic  school.  The  city  is  built  on  both  banks  of  Little 
River.     Pop.  of  city.  202o  ;  of  tp.  4449. 

.loiiN  F.  MosKs,  Ed.  of  '•  IxnuxA  IlF.n.\i.D. ' 
Huntington,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Hampshire  co.,  JIass., 
on  the  Boston  and  Albany  R.  R.,  1 1'J  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Boston.  It  has  extensive  water-power,  and  manufac- 
tures of  paper,  flannels,  etc.  There  are  4  churches.  Pop. 
11. ^ft. 

Huntington,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Suffolk  co.,  N.  1 ..  on 
Long  Island  R.  R.,  .IS  miles  from  New  York,  with  wliieli 
it  is  also  connected  by  steamboat  the  greater  part  of  the 
year.  It  has  S  churches,  a  union  graded  school  building 
which  cost  $20,1100,  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  some  manu- 
factures and  trade.  About  .30.000.000  bricks  arc  annually 
made  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  24.3.3  ;   of  tp.  10.704. 

G.  H.  Shf.pard,  Ed.  "Long  Islander." 
Huntington,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  0.     Pop.  S020. 
Hiintiugton,  tp.  of  Gallia  co.,  0.     Pop.  1609. 
Huntington,  post-tp.  of  Lorain  co.,  0.     Pop.  834. 
Huntington,  tp.  of  Ross  co.,  0.     Pop.  2367. 
Huntington,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1595. 
Huntington,  tp.  of  Luzerne  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1847. 
Huntington,  post-tp.  of  Chittenden  co.,  Vt.,  19  miles 
W.  of    Jlontpelier,    has    manufactures  of  lumber.      Pop. 
8C4. 

Huntington,  city  of  Cabell  co..  West  Va..  on  Ohio 
River,  and  on  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  was  founded  in 
1S71.  anil  has  extensive  manufactures.  It  is  the  scat  of 
Marshall  College,  has  2  pulilic  schools,  9  churches.  3  hotels, 
and  2  newspapers.      J.  J.  Gilbeut,  Ed.  '■  Advertiskk." 

Huntington  (Coi.i.is  Potter),  b.  at  Harwinton,  Conn., 
Oct.  22,  lS2i  :  receiveil  a  common-school  education,  and  be- 
came interested  early  in  life  in  the  management  of  railroads  ; 
is  president  of  the  Soulliern  Pacific  Railroad  Co.;  vice- 
president  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  Co. ;  trustee  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Telegraph  Co.,  and  a  director  of  the 
Occidental  and  Oriental  Steamship  Co.         J.  B.  Bi.shop. 

Huntington  (C.  P.),  V.  S.  N.,  b.  Jan.  2,  1.S41.  in  Illi- 
nois: graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  1S61;  became  a 
lieutenant  in  1SG2.  a  lieutenant-commander  in  1S66  ;  was 
in  several  actions  on  the  Mississi]i)ii  River  in  1SG3  while 
serving  on  board  the  Monongahela.  and  in  ISfil,  at  the 
battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  owing  to  the  wounding  of  Command- 
er Mullauy,  was  for  a  while  in  command  of  the  Oneida, 
during  which  period  ho  distinguished  himself  for  his  cool- 
ness and  bravery.  Foxhai.l  A.  Paukeu. 

Huntington  (DANiET.),b.  in  New  York  Oct.  11,  ISlfi; 
educated  at  Hamilton  College:  was  first  .stimulated  to  the 
pursuit  of  art  by  Charles  L.  Elliot,  whom  he  met  while  a 
stuilent  :  in  1S;!5  began  to  study  under  Morse;  later  was  a 
pupil  of  Inman  ;  in  1S36  traveller!  and  sketched  in  the 
Highlands  of  the  Hudson;  in  ls39  went  to  Italy  and 
painted  figure-pieces;  returned  to  New  York,  paintcil  por- 
traits and  commenced  illustrations  of  the  Pihjrim'K  I^i-mj- 
rrnur  which  failure  of  eyesight  crimpolled  him  to  discon- 
tinue; revisited  Europe  in  1S44,  and  ]iainled  other  etun- 
position  pictures,  which  added  to  his  fame:  on  his  return 
resuuieil  the  painting  of  ])ortraits,  but  found  lime  to  exe- 
cute two  or  three  historical  pieces,  JIniri/  Vl/f.  <iud  Onth- 
arine  Ptirr,  Mori/  Siipihtrf  the  Ih-rtlli-wnn'aiit  of  Lniiif  Jaiir 
Grfi/,  and  Lmli/  June  (Irei/  in  the  Tower.  For  many  years 
past  his  permanent  resid-^nco  has  been  in  New  York,  where 
his  reputation  is  very  high.  Huntington  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  several  fields  of  art.  He  has  painteil  mountain 
scenery,  marine  views,  landscapes,  historical  compositions, 
cabinet  and  genre  pictures,  groups  and  figures  of  fancy, 
icleal  heads,  subjects  of  religious  story  ancl  sentiment;  but 
his  most  distinguished  work  is  in  portraiture,  .\mong  his 
numerous  sitters  have  been  Bishop  Mcllvaine,  Dr.  Muhlen- 


berg, Gulian  Verplanck.  Chancellor  Kent,  Lord  Morpeth, 
Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  Agassiz.  Bryant,  Lincoln.  R.  B.  Min- 
turn— names  that  suggest  a  wide  and  eminent  fame.  Hunt- 
ington's most  ambitious  picture  is  Tin-  Ilepublieun  ConrI  in 

the  Time  of  Waahinr/ion.  It  contains  sixty-four  figures,  all 
portraits  of  men  and  women  celebrated  in  the  Revolution- 
ary epoch— some  copied  from  original  j.aintings  by  Mal- 
bone,  Stuart,  Copley,  or  less  known  artists,  others  con- 
structed by  the  aid  of  family  lineaments  and  traditions — 
the  wholcgrouped  as  naturally  as  the  conditions  allowed. 
The  picture  \3  owned  by  A.  T.  Stewart.  Mr.  Huntington 
h.as  been  greatly  honored  by  his  profession  and  by  the  pub- 
lic. In  ISJO  aspccial  exhibition  was  made  in  New  York 
of  all  the  pictures  of  his  that  could  be  eollecteil,  the  best 
known  artists  and  citizens  joining  to  make  the  tribute 
worthily  expressive  of  their  regard.  On  May  14,  1862,  ho 
was  elected  president  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
a  position  to  which  none  but  artists  of  recognized  ability 
are  chosen.  0.  B.  Frothixgham. 

Huntington  (Rizht  Rev.  Frederic  Dan),  D.  D.,  b. 
at  ILidley,  Jlass..  Jlay  2S,  ISIU  :  graduated  at  Amherst  in 
1SS9  and  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  in  1S42.  En- 
tering the  Unitarian  ministry,  he  held  a  p.asloratc  in  Bos- 
ton iS42-55,  when  he  became  Plunimer  professor  of  Chris- 
tian morals  and  preacher  to  Harvard  University.  In  18.')9 
he  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church  ;  in  Islil  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Church  Monthli/  ;  and  in  ISG'J  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Central  New  York.  He  has  pub- 
lished 2  vols,  of  sermons,  one  of  lectures  on  Ilwiian  Soeirli/ 
(1860).  and  Letsons  oil  the  I'arcMea,  and  other  works. 

Huntington  (Jedidiah  Vinoent),  M.  D.,  b.  in  New 
York  Jan.  20,  1S15  :  was  educated  at  Yale  College  and  the 
University  of  New  York,  where  he  graduated  in  1835; 
graduated  M.  D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1838; 
was  professor  of  mental  philosophy  in  St.  John's  College, 
near  Flushing.  N.  Y..  for  three  years  ;  rector  of  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  in  Middlebury.  Vt. ;  in  Europe  1846-49; 
became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1S50;  was  editor  of  the  .IfWro- 
polilon,  Baltimore,  185.3-54;  founded  and  edited  (1855-57) 
the  Leader,  St.  Louis  ;  author  of  /■ociii«  (1842),  LikIi/  Mice, 
a  novel  (1849),  Alhan.  The  /■•orc«M1852),  The  Pretti/  Pl«le 
(1852),  Koecmarij  (1860),  nioiiile  tuitl  lirnnetle  (1858), 
Amerien  Dieeoi-cred  (1853),  a  poem,  and  some  translations 
from  the  French.  D.  at  Pan,  France,  Mar.  10,  1862.  Ho 
was  a  brother  of  Daniel  Huntington,  the  artist. 

Huntington  (Samiel),  LL.D.,  a  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  b.  at  Windham,  Conn.,  July  3, 
1731 ;  learned  the  trade  of  a  cooper;  became  in  1758  a  law- 
yer of  Norwich,  Conn.:  held  many  important  offices;  was 
a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  1776-83,  and  its 
president  1779-81  ;  judge  of  the  Connecticut  superior  court 
1774-84;  its  chief-justice  1784;  lieutenant-governor  of 
Connecticut  1785;  governor  1786-96.  He  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale  in  1787.  D.  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  Jan.  5,  1796. 

Huntington  (Samitel),  a  nephew  of  Gov.  Samuel 
Huntington  j  1731-96),  b.  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct.  4,  1765; 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1785  ;  became  a  lawyer  in  1793  ;  set- 
tled near  Painesville,  0.,  in  1800;  was  a  judge  of  tho 
common  pleas  court  1802-03  ;  of  tho  superior  court  in  1803, 
and  afterwards  chief-justice;  governor  of  Ohio  180.S-10;  a 
colonel  and  paymaster  in  the  war  of  1812-14.  HewasaLso 
a  member  of  the  first  constitutional  convention  of  Ohio,  and 
Speaker  of  the  first  State  senate.  D.  at  Painesville,  0., 
June  8,  1817. 

Huntington  City,  post-v.  of  Prince  George  co.,  Md., 
16  miles  from  Washington,  1).  ('..  at  the  junction  of  tho 
Baltimore  and  Potomac  ami  the  liowie  and  Pope's  Creek 
R.  Rs. ;  has  2  hotels,  a  weekly  newspaper,  railroad  machine- 
shops  ;  is  situated  in  a  farming  and  tobacco-growing  region. 

J.  W.  SioTT,   El).  •■  HlNTiyUToMAN." 

Ilunt'ley  Grove,  posl-v.  of  Grafton  ip.,  Jlcllenry  co., 
III.,  on  the  Galena  division  of  the  Chicago  and  North-west- 
ern R.  R.,  7  miles  N.  W.  of  Elgin. 

Iluntoon'  (Jonathan  O.),  b.  at  Unity,  N.  H..  in  1781 ; 
removed  to  JIaine,  of  which  State  he  was  governor  1830- 
31.     D.  at  Fairfield,  Me.,  Oct.  14,  1851. 

Ilunts'burg,  posttp.  of  Geauga  co.,  0.     Pop.  824. 

Hunts'viUc,  city,  cap.  of  Madison  co.,  Ala.,  tho 
"  tjueen  city  of  the  mountains,"  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful, thriving,  and  important  towns  in  the  State.  It  stands 
upon  the  bench  of  a  mountain  which  is  a  spur  of  the  Cum- 
berland Mountains;  is  on  the  Jlemphis  and  Charleston 
R.  R. :  has  a  brass  and  iron  foundry,  railroad  machine- 
shops,  planing  mills,  fire  department,  gas  and  water  works, 
a  national  and  a  savings  bank,  a  female  college  (Mcth- 
oilist).  a  female  .seminary  (Presbyterian),  9  churches,  3 
weekly  iiews]iapers.  and  fine  public  and  private  buildings. 
It  has  a  large  spring,  which   supplies  a  copious  stream, 


HUN'rSVlLLE— HUliON. 


1035 


tributary  to  the  Tennessee,  10  miles  distant.    Pop.  4907; 
of  tp.,  exclusive  of  city.  3511. 

«;.  M.  .loiissTox,  Kn.  and  Pcd.  "Advocate." 
Huntsvillf,  ])Ost-v.,  county-seat  of  Madison  co.,  Ark. 
Pup.  221. 

Huotsville,  post-tp.  of  Schuyler  co.,  III.     Pop.  1228. 
Hnntsvillc,  postv.  of  Madison  co..  IncL.on  the  Clcvc- 
Innd  Columlms  Cincinnati    and  Indianapolis  R.  R.,  and  in 
Fall  Creek  tp.     Pop.  202. 

Huntsvillc,ar.  of  West  River  tp.,  Randolph  co.,  Ind. 
Pop.  i:in. 

Uuntsvlllr,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Randolph  co.,  Mo.,  on  the 
.St.  Louis  Kansas  City  and  Northern  U.  U..  Ij:!  miles  from 
St.  Louis.  It  has  a  college  for  both  sexes,  important  coal- 
mines, a  woollen-mill,  machine-shop,  Houring-inill,  public 
high  school,  4  churches.  2  hotels,  2  newspapers,  etc. 

liiicii:  &   HtxTEii,  Pc  lis.  "Hkiiald." 
Huntsville,  tp.  of  Uockingliam  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1S80. 
Iluntsvillc,  posl-v.  of  .Mc.Arlbur  tp.,  Logan  co.,  0.,on 
the  Cincinnati  .^andusky  and  Cleveland  R.  R.     Pop.  ;i22. 
Hnntsvillc,  piist-v.,  county-seat  of  Scott  co.,  Tenn.,  on 
New  River.      Pop.  So. 

Iluntsvillc,  cily,  cap.  of  Walker  co.,  Tex.,  200  miles 
S.  E.  of  .\uslin,  on  a  branch  of  the  Houston  and  Great 
Northern  R.  11.  It  is  the  scat  of  the  State  penitentiary,  in 
which  arc  manufactured  elegant  furniture,  cotton  and  wool- 
len goods,  bouts,  wagons,  buggies,  etc.  There  arc  8  churches. 
It  is  the  scat  of.Vustin  College  (Presbyterian)  and  Andrew 
Female  Seminary  :  has  2  steam  corn-mills  and  cotton-gins, 
a  newspaper,  hotels,  :!  brickyards,  and  a  largo  tannery. 
Here  Oen.  Sam  lloustun  was  buried.  Chief  business,  ship- 
ping cotton.     Pop.  159'J.  G.  RoDixsos,  Ed.  "Itkm." 

Hunya'dy  (Jaxos),  b.  in  Hungary  at  the  close  of  the 
fonrlcenih  century,  but  the  year  and  the  place  of  his  birth, 
as  well  as  his  parentage  and  the  origin  of  his  surname, 
t'urri'iiii*,  are  unknown.  I'nder  Sigisniund  and  .\lbert  ho 
acquired  great  fame  by  the  valor  and  military  skill  with 
which  he  fought  against  the  Turks,  at  that  time  the  terror 
of  Europe;  and  by  .Vlbort  he  was  made  governor  of  the 
Hungarian  provinces  S.  of  the  Danube.  In  14.'i!),  Albert 
d..  and  VlaJislas,  king  of  Poland,  was  elected  king  of 
Hungary.  Under  his  reign  the  arms  of  Ilunyady  were 
still  more  successful.  He  drove  the  Turks  behind  the  Bal- 
kan, and  compelled  them  to  conclude  an  armistice  of  ten 
years  (July  12,  1441).  But  Vladislas  broke  this  armistice, 
and  the  result  was  the  battle  of  Varna,  in  which  the  Hun- 
garians were  totally  routed  and  tho  king  fell  (Nov.  10, 
Mil).  During  the  ininority  of  Ladislas,  a  son  of  Albert, 
who  was  elected  king  of  Hungary  in  1411,  Hunyady  gov- 
erned the  country,  and  he  showed  no  less  ability  as  a  states- 
man than  as  a  warrior.  Ho  kept  order  in  the  country  ;  and 
although  in  his  contests  with  the  Turks  he  met  with  some 
severe  reverses — as,  for  instance,  in  the  three  days'  battle 
of  Kossova,  Oct.  17,  1118 — ho  nevertheless  succeeded  in 
checking  their  progress  and  preventing  them  from  over- 
running the  whole  of  Europe.  His  most  brilliant  exploit 
was  the  attack  on  the  Turkish  camp  at  Belgrad  (.Inly  14, 
11 JC).  Miihammed  II.  ha<l  laid  siege  to  this  city  with  an 
army  of  1  jO.UOII  men  ami  :100  cannons.  But  with  a  far  in- 
ferior force  Ilunyady  eumpcllcd  him  to  break  up  the  siego 
and  draw  back,  leaving  behind  him  all  his  artillery. 
Shortly  after  Hunyady  died.  Of  his  two  suns,  the  oldest, 
Ladislas,  was  beheaded  at  Buda  fur  having  killed  Count 
Cilley,  a  personal  enemy  of  his  father:  the  younger, 
Matthias  Corvinus,  was  educaleil  by  (Jcorg  Podiebrad  of 
Bohemia,  and  became  king  of  Hungary  after  Ladislas. 

IlupchS  or  Iloopeh,  province  of  Central  China,  be- 
tween lat.  20°  and  .1:!°  .\.,  and  between  Ion.  108°  and  110° 
E.,  traversed  by  the  river  Yang-tze-Kiang.  Area,  70,4^0 
8<|uare  miles.  I'op.  2S, 0011,000.  It  is  tho  most  fertile  prov- 
ince of  the  Chinese  empire,  and  no  corner  of  it  is  left  un- 
cultivated.    Cap.  WooChang. 

Illip'IVId  (  Hkumaxs),  b.  at  Marburg  Mar.  31,  1798;  d. 
Apr.  24,  ]!<*jit;  was  successively  professor  at  Marburg  and 
Halle,  where  he  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages on  tho  death  of  (lesenius,  IS4:i.  His  most  import- 
ant work  is  a  Commrtitfji-y  on  the  I'nnlmH  (4  vols.,  lS.^,o-i;2), 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  originality  and  scholarship.  An 
iJnglish  translation  is  now  (187.J)  in  process  of  preparation. 
Ilnpp  (,I(iiiN  C),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Washington  co..  Pa.,  Nov. 
24,  ISIU:  gradualid  at  Wa«hinglun  College.  Pa.;  look  tho 
degree  of  M.  D.  from  tho  .leffersun  ,Mi'di<*al  College.  Phila- 
delphia, 1847,  and  seltleil  in  Wheiling,  Vn., where  ho  now 
resides.  He  has  coniributetl  Iargel,v  to  tho  Mfdicnl  awl 
Siiri/irnl  Itrpnrlrr  of  I'hihwlelpbia  ;  has  now  a  largo  prac- 
tice in  West  Virginia  ami  Ohio.  Paii.  F.  Evk. 

Ilu'ra,  or  Snntl-box  Tree  ( f/nrn  rrrpioum,  order 
Euphorbiaceu^),  a  native  of  tropical  America.     When  tho 


seed  is  ripo  tho  woody  capsule  bursts  with  a  load  report. 
It  was  once  customary  to  mako  sand-boxes  of  the  unripe 
woody  fruit,  and  it  is  related  that  these  boxes  would  some- 
times spontaneously  explode  after  being  used  for  years. 
The  seeds  are  sharply  purgative. 

Hurd  (RniiAnD),  U.  D.,  b.  in  Staffordshire,  England, 
in  1720  ;  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  his  <lcgree  in  1742,  and  continued  to  reside  till 
1767.  when  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Thurcaston,  in 
Leicestershire,  where  he  remained  until  1705,  when  ho  was 
chosen  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  :  promoted  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Gloucester  in  1707,  and  to  the  bishopric  of 
Lichliclil  and  Coventry  in  177a,  from  whence  he  was  trans- 
ferred in  1781  to  that  of  Worcester,  where  bo  continued 
until  his  death,  declining  the  offer  of  the  arcbbi.<hopric  of 
Canterbury  on  the  deatli  of  Dr.  Cornwallis  in  1783.  Ho 
was  the  lifelong  friend  and  admirer  of  Bishop  Warburton, 
whose  biographer  he  also  was,  and  wrote  numerous  pam- 
phlets vindicatory  of  Warburtou's  views.  Of  his  writings, 
which  were  very  numerous,  tlie  most  prominent  are  his 
DitiloqncH,  Li'ltpft  on  Homaticr.  and  Chii-fttry,  Eiiijlinh  Com- 
mrntartj  tin  the  Ejtintle  of  ILiiiii'ii  on  the  Art  of  PorAni, 
Tirelv:  DincoursiH  on  the  Projjhteice,  his  Sermona,  and  tho 
life  of  Bishop  Warburton.     D.  in  ISOS. 

Unr'dic,  a  flat  rectangular  framework  of  stakes  and 
wattles  employed  for  fencing  material  by  European  farmers, 
and  sometimes  used  in  warfare  in  the  construction  of  earth- 
works. Hurdles  arc  often  set  up  in  the  race-course  for 
horses  to  lcai>  over. 

HurUwnr',  a  small  town  of  Ilindostan,  situated  in  lat. 
29°  57'  N.  and  Ion.  7tl°  M'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  102J  feet 
above  tho  sea,  on  the  spot  where  the  Ganges  bursts  from 
the  hill-country  into  the  plain  of  Hindustan.  During  tho 
latter  part  of  March  and  the  beginning  of  April  this  placo 
is  yearly  visited  by  more  than  200,000  pil:.;rlms,  who  cunio 
to  make  their  ablutions  in  tlio  holy  water,  ami  on  some 
occasiims  tho  number  of  visitors  is  said  to  increase  to 
2,0110,000.  A  large  fair  is  held  here  at  tho  same  lime,  to 
which  the  products  of  all  tho  neighboring  countries  are 
brought.     Pop.  r>0U0. 

Iliir'dy-gurdy,  a  musical  instrument  of  tho  stringed 
kind,  formerly  much  used  by  the  European  peasantry,  but 
now  seldom  seen  except  in  the  hands  of  Savuyard  boys, 
who  play  it  in  the  streets.  It  consists  of  a  flat  sounding- 
board,  connected  by  tolerably  deep  ribs  to  a  back  of  the 
same  size  and  shape.  It  has  four  strings  of  gut,  which  are 
put  into  vibration  by  the  erige  of  a  wooden  wheel  turned 
by  a  handle.     It  is  suited  only  to  very  simple  melodies. 

Iliirrbiirt,  tp.  of  Logan  co.,  111.     Pup.  470. 

Illirl'biit  (.Stepiie.v  A.),  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Nov.  29, 
ISIJ;  received  a  liberal  education,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837  ;  removed  tu  Illinois  and  settled 
in  Belviilere.  In  1S47  he  was  eleclcil  tu  the  Slate  consti- 
tutional cunventiun  as  a  Whig ;  Presidential  elector  on  the 
Whig  ticket  1S48;  member  uf  the  State  legislature  IS,"i9, 
1801,  and  1807,  and  Presidential  elcelor  on  the  Republican 
ticket  1808.  During  the  civil  war  ho  was  appointed  in 
.May,  1801,  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  commanding 
a  division  at  the  battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing:  promoted  to 
be  mn.ior-gencral  of  volunteers  Se]it.,  1802,  and  commanded 
the  llitb  army  cor|is  and  department  of  the  Gulf.  In  1809 
he  wasa])poinlcd  minister  resident  to  the  V.  S.  of  Columbia, 
which  ollieo  he  held  till  1872;  elected  member  of  the  43d 
Congress  from  the  4th  district  of  Illinois.     G.  C.  Sim.moxs. 

Ilurlbiit  (Wii.i.iAM  IlKN-nv),  b.  in  Charleslon,  S.  C, 
July  3,  1S27.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1817,  at  Harvarrl  Divinity  School  in  ISID;  went  the  same 
year  to  the  University  of  ISerlin,  and  the  next  year  to  Rome 
and  Paris.  In  1852  he  entered  Harvard  Law  School,  and 
in  1853  went  to  the  West  Indies;  in  1864  published  /'/<■- 
tiirca  of  Ciili'i  :  in  1855  joined  the  staff  of  I'lilniim'n  M,t,,,t- 
zinc  and  the  .1//ii'.ui  ;  in  1850  went  to  England;  in  ls.,7 
ioinc*  the  New  York  Timet;  in  185S  travelled  through 
Englaml,  Gcnitany,  and  Russia;  in  lsfi2  joined  the  New 
York  H'urW  .•  spent  lSCB-07  in  travelling  through  Mexico, 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Italy;  visited  Suez  in  1801);  tho 
(Ecumenical  Cuuncil  at  Rome  in  l'<70,  Santo  Domingo  in 
1871  :  revisited  .Mexico  in  1871, and  again  in  1^72;  in  1873 
visited  Spanish  .\nicricn,  to  Cape  Horn,  returning  by  Mun- 
tevideo.  Brazil,  Portugal,  and  England.  Author  of  don 
Ellen  (IS5I),  Ocn.  McClcllan  and  the  Condnel  of  the  War 
(18011,  etc.  J.  B,  Bisilof. 

Ilur'ley,  post-lp,  of  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  has  extensive 
quarries  of  flagging  and  building-stone.     Pop.  2087. 

iiii'ron,  county  of  Ontario,  Canailn,  on  tho  E.  side  of 
Lake  Huron.  Area,  l.'i92  square  miles.  Tho  soil  is  very 
productive,  and  the  scenery  often  (lieturesque.  There  are 
2  ridings.  The  county  is  intersected  by  a  branch  of  the 
Graml  Trunk  Railway,     Cap.  (iudcrich.     Pop.  00,105, 


1086 


HURON— HUSH. 


Plliron,  county  of  Michifjan.  having  Lake  Huron  upon 
the  N.  and  E.  and  Saginaw  Hay  upon  the  W.  Area,  about 
8."J0  square  miles.  It  is  mostly  covered  with  pine  forests. 
Lumber  and  grain  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Port  Austin. 
Pop.  OOl'J. 

Huron,  county  of  the  N.  of  Ohio.  Area.  464  square 
miles.  It  is  level,  fertile,  and  well  cultivated.  Cattle, 
grain,  wool,  and  fruit  are  ])roduccd.  The  manufactures 
include  lumber,  carriages,  harnesses,  cooperage,  etc.  It  is 
travcrsecl  by  the  Cleveland  and  Columbus,  the  Sandusky 
Mansfield  and  Newark,  and  the  Cleveland  and  Toledo  11.  Ks, 
Cap.  Norwalk.     Pop.  28,j:J2. 

Huron,  post-tp.  of  Des  Moines  co.,  Ta.     Pop.  807. 

Huron,  tp.  of  Houghton  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  7C0. 

Huron,  tp.  of  Huron  co..  Mich.  It  contains  the  post-v. 
of  Huron  City,  on  Lake  Huron.     Pop.  4U3. 

Huron,  tp.  of  Wayne  co..  Mich.     Pop.  126.^. 

Huron,  post-tp.  of  Wavne  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Lake  Ontario. 
Pop.  201)0. 

Huron,  post-v.  of  Eric  co.,  0.,  on  Lake  Erie  and  on  the 

Lake  Shore  R.  R.,  8  miles  S.  E.  of  Sandusky,  at  the  mouth 
of  Huron  River.  It  has  a  good  trade,  the  river  serving  as 
a  harbor.      Pop.  G97  :  of  Huron  tp.  14S:i. 

Huron  Indians,  or  Wyandots,  a  tribe  of  Iroquois 
stock.  They  anciently  occupied  a  large  area  in  Canada, 
from  Montreal  westward.  Having  joined  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, they  were  set  upon  by  the  Six  Nations,  and,  with  the 
Eries,  were  nearly  exterminated  by  them  in  16;i6.  A  large 
party  of  them  took  refuge  on  St.  Joseph's  Island,  and  there 
perished  by  hunger.  A  party  of  them  settled  at  Ancienne 
Lorctte,  in  Lower  Canada,  where  some  200  of  their  descend- 
ants remain.  A  large  body  settled  S.  of  Lake  Superior, 
whence  they  were  expelled  by  the  Dakotas.  We  next  find 
tliem  in  Detroit,  and  then  about  Sandusky  and  N.  of  Luke 
Erie.  In  1704  they  could  muster  ;i(lO  fighting-mcn.  They 
served  against  the  U.  S.  in  1812-15.  In  is;i2  they  were 
removed  to  a  point  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas  River. 
They  numbered  in  1832,  6S7  :  in  1S3G,  575  ;  in  1S47,  6S7  ; 
in  I'SfiO,  435  ;  in  1870,222.  This  loss  is  partly  owing  to  the 
adoption  of  U.S.  citizenship  by  a  portion  of  the  tribe. 
This  portion  is  generally  prosperous  :  the  others  by  no 
means  so.  Their  reservation  of  20,000  acres  is  in  the  In- 
dian Territory,  between  the  Shawnee  and  Seneca  Indians. 
Those  of  the  U.  S.  bear  the  name  of  Wyandots,  the  name 
by  which  they  called  themselves,  while  their  long-sepa- 
rated brethren  of  Canada  are  still  called  Hurons. 

Huron,  Lake,  the  third  in  area  of  the  great  lakes  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Basin.  Its  area  is  23,800  square  miles. 
It  lies  between  the  State  of  Michigan  on  the  W.  and  the 
province  of  Ontario,  which  bounds  it  on  the  E.  Lake 
Huron  has  more  bays  and  good  harbors  than  any  other  of 
the  great  lakes.  The  principal  bay  is  Georgian  Bay  or 
Lake  Manitoulin,  in  Canadian  territory.  Near  the  entrance 
to  this  bay  is  a  chain  of  islands,  of  which  the  principal  is 
Great  Manitoulin,  a  rocky  and  thinly  inhabited  region. 
Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan  exceed  it  in  area.  The  river 
St.  Mary  connects  it  with  the  former,  and  Mackinac  Straits 
with  the  latter,  while  its  outlet  is  the  river  St.  Clair.  Lake 
Huron  averages  about  1000  feet  deep,  the  maximum  being 
about  ISOO  fet't.  Its  waters  are  clear  and  cold,  and  abound 
in  fish,  of  which  the  white-fish  is  commercially  the  most 
im])ortant.  The  lake  is  suliject  to  severe  storms.  The  season 
of  navigation  extends  from  about  May  1st  to  abuut  Dec. 
5th.  Its  surface  is  574  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  lake 
receives  the  waters  of  numerous  streams,  which  are  mostly 
not  very  large. 

llur'ricane,  tp.  of  Bradley  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  689. 

Ilurrii-ano,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  385. 

Hurriennr,  post-tp.  of  Saline  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  390. 

Hurricanr,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  111.     Pop.  1333. 

Hurrirauc,  post-tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  111.     8-  "24. 

Hurrii-ane,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  2285. 

Hurricane,  tp.  of  Lincoln  co,,  Mo.     Pop.  3712. 

Hurricane  [originally  a  Carib  word,  signifying  a 
**  hi'^h  wind  "]  is  distinguishable  from  cyclones,  storms,  etc. 
by  its  extreme  fury  and  .'•udden  change  in  character.  It  is 
not  neeessarily  rotatory,  as  in  a  cyclone,  or  spiral,  as  in 
whirlwinds,  but  may  partake  of  all  or  any  of  these  charac- 
teri>tics.  Hurricanes  are  unknown  in  the  polar  regions ; 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  torriil  zone,  where  they  are 
especially  violent ;  and  occasionally  occur  in  the  temperate 
zone,  either  indejiendcntly  or  on  their  transit  from  the 
torrid  zone.  They  arc  generally  accompanied  by  rain, 
thunder,  and  lightning.  In  the  Pacific  and  Northern  In- 
dian oceans  and  the  China  Sea  they  arc  called  tvphoons, 
but  po.-scss  the  same  distinctive  elements  as  the  hurricanes 
of  the  districtft  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  and  Southern  In- 


dian oceans.  The  premonitory  indications  of  a  hurricane 
arc  a  peculiar  haziness  of  atmosphere,  a  general  and  om- 
inous stillness  or  calmness  of  wind  and  tide,  and  a  peculiar 
feeling  of  physical  lassitude  or  indolence.  The  barometer 
falls  sensibly,  and  gradually  incrnising  winds  from  sonic 
unexpected  quarters  of  the  compass  arise.  The  hurricane 
arrives  at  its  climax  of  strength  in  from  four  to  twenty-four 
hours,  when  the  opposing  currents  of  wind,  rain,  etc.  sub- 
side as  gradually  as  they  commenced,  leaving  a  sad  wreck 
of  property  and  life  behind.  In  violence  the  hurricane  ex- 
ceeds the  force  of  the  strongest  waves.  The  highest  hur- 
ricane winds  on  the  British  coast  are  recorded  to  have  at- 
tained a  velocity  of  130  miles  per  hour.  In  reference  to 
hurricane-tracks,  their  course  appears  to  be.  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean,  southerly,  to  the  N.  of  the  Windward 
Islands;  northwardly,  over  Newfoundland.  Very  few  Imr- 
ricanes  occur  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  most  fre- 
quently visited  portions  of  the  U.S.  arc  the  coasts  of  Geor- 
gia and  South  Carolina.  The  origin  and  cause  of  the  hur- 
ricanes of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  but  little  known;  they 
have  occurred  in  the  neighborhood  of  Florida  when  a  cold 
N.  wind  has  conflicted  with  the  warm,  moist  air  of  the 
Gulf  and  ocean.  They  have  also  occurred  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  Gulf  of  JMexico  afterthc  presence  of  a  Texan 
norther.  The  great  proportion  of  the  Atlantic  hurricanes 
(both  ns  to  number,  extent,  and  violence)  originate  be- 
tween the  Windward  Islands  and  the  African  coart,  moving 
along  the  American  coast  on  its  route  to  Iceland  and  Nor- 
way.    (See  Winds.) 

Hurst  (John  F.),  D.  D.,  b.  Aug.  17,1SC4,  in  Dorchester 
CO.,  Md. ;  educated  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and 
Ilallo  University,  Germany  J  entered  the  Methodirt  minis- 
try in  1858,  and  in  1CC6  went  to  Germany  to  take  charge  of 
the  theological  instruction  in  the  Martin  ?.Iission  Inrtitutc, 
Bremen.  Ho  remained  five  years  in  Germany,  during  wliich 
time  ho  visited  all  the  leading  European  countries,  and  in 
1S70  made  the  tour  of  the  Er.st.  In  the  same  year  ho  ac- 
cepted the  professorship  of  historical  theology  in  the  Drew 
Theological  Seminarv,  Madison,  N.  J.,  made  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Rev.  Dr.  B.  H.  Nadal.  In  May,  1S73,  he'  was 
elected  president  of  the  same  seminary,  a  position  which 
he  still  occupies,  retaining  his  connection,  however,  with 
the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history.  Author  of  translations 
of  Ilagenbach's  Hintory  of  the  Church  in  the  Eif/htrmth 
and  yinetefjiith  Centuries  (2  vols.),  Langc's  Comnicntftrt/  nn 
Jiomans,  Van  Oosterzce's  Lectures  on  John's  Gonpcf,  and  of 
an  original ///w/ory  o/ /f((f/o*ia^r«Hi,  OutlincH  of  liiblr  and 
Church  HiMtori/,  and  Martj/rs  to  the  Tract  Caune.  lie  has 
in  preparation  a  Hintorti  of  the  Church,  which  will  cover  the 
entire  period  down  to  the  present  day. 

Hur'tcr,  von  fpRiFDuirn  Emantel),  b.  at  SchafT- 
hauseu  JMar.  19,  1787  ;  stuflied  theology  at  Giittingen ; 
was  appointed  minister  at  Schaffhausen  in  1824,  but  re- 
signed his  office  in  1841,  and  embraced  Catholicism  in  1844. 
In  1S4G  he  settled  at  Vienna,  and  was  apjiointcd  histori- 
ographer to  the  emperor  of  Austria.  D.  at  (iratz  Aug.  27, 
1865.  The  )>rincipal  of  his  works  are — GeschirUtc  den  ost- 
ffothiHchm  K'iulffs  Thcodort'ch  und  seiner  Jici/ieruuf/  (1807), 
Genchichtc  Pttpst  lunocenz  III,  nnd  seiner  ZeitycnoHScn 
(1834— 12),  Geschichte  A'atser  Ferdinand  If.  und  seiner  El- 
tern  (1850-57),  Die  Bef'eliidunf/  dcr  Katholischen  Kirche  in 
der  Schiccitz  srit  dem  jahre  1S34  (1842-43),  and  Gehurt  uud 
Wiedvr.jeburt  (1845). 

Uurtes'ville,  post-tp.  of  Russell  co.,  Ala.    Pop.  1440. 

Hushaud  and  Wife.  See  M.\RiaAf;R,  by  Pitor.  J.  N. 
Pomi:kov.  LL.D. 

Husbandry,  Patrons  of.  See  Patcons  of  Hrs- 
DAMutv.  by  L.  p.  Brockett,  a.  M.,  M.  D. 

Ilus'bands  fnEitMAN).b.  in  Pennsylvania,  but  removed 
to  Orange  c<i..  N.  C.,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
legislature  and  leader  of  the  Regulators,  of  which  party  he 
published  a  full  account  in  1770.  On  May  10,  1771,  a  con- 
flict took  place  between  Gov.  Tryon  and  the  Regulators; 
the  latter  were  defeated,  and  Husbands  flecl  to  IVnnsyl- 
vania.  In  1778  he  was  a  metnber  of  the  legislature  there  ; 
wasconccrneci  in  the  whisky  insurrection  in  171'4.and  associ- 
ated with  iiallatin.  Brackenridge,  and  others  as  a  com- 
mittee of  safety.  Having  been  imprisoned  for  a  short  time 
in  Philadelphia,  he  determined  to  return  home,  but  d.  o^ 
the  way.  Mar.,  1795. 

Huscli'ke  (GKonr.  Pnii.ipp  Eiu'ard),  b.  at  Miinden 
June  2(t,  ISOI  ;  studied  1S17  at  Gottingen,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  jurispruflenec  at  the  I'niversity  of 
Breslau  in  1827.  His  principal  writings  are — Stndhu  dea 
rowiichen  lUchts  (1840),  Gains  (1855),  Die  /i/uvischen 
Ta/eln  (1859). 

Hush,  town  of  Roumania  (Moldavia),  has  a  Greek 
bishop,  a  normal  school,  and  is  a  place  of  cotiimercial  im- 
portance.   Pop.  variously  estimated  at  from  4000  to  16,000. 


HUSKISSON— HUXCHESON. 


1037 


llas'kisson  (William),  b.  at  Birch-Moreton,  Worccs- 
fcrsUirc,  ICuglaud.  iM:ir.  II,  1770;  r<;siili<l  iis  a  student  in 
Paris  17S;;-'J2,  ivIrto  Iio  was  a  ineuiln-T  of  the  Soeiote  tie 
178'J,  a  liiuderatc  repubiioan  club,  and  at  tlie  fe'aiuc  time 
was  private  sccr,-tary  to  Lord  Gowcr.  the  Uritish  minister. 
He  witnc!?od  the  deslruetioo  of  tlic  liasiilo  and  opposed 
the  issue  of  the  assignats.  In  17'JJ,  Pitt  appointed  him 
an  undor-sccretary  for  war  and  for  tlie  coliMiies;  in  1790 
he  entered  Parliament;  became  secretary  of  the  treasury 
1804;  commissioner  of  woods  and  forests  ISIl;  member 
of  the  finance  committee  ISlC;  president  of  the  board  of 
trade  and  treasurer  of  the  navy  1S23;  was  colonial  sccre- 
tarv  1S27-1!9.  On  the  occasion  of  tlio  opening  of  the  Liv- 
erpool and  Manchester  Railway  (.Sept.  lo,  I.S.JO)  ho  was 
struck  by  one  of  the  engines,  and  d.  on  the  same  day. 
lluskisson's  brilliant  state  papers,  his  ability  in  public  af- 
fairs, and  his  liberal  principles,  which  had  (,'reat  iutluence 
upon  the  course  of  reform  in  Kngland.  entitle  liini  to  a  per- 
manent ]dace  in  history  ;  but  throughout  his  public  life  he 
hail  to  contend  with  the  strong  prejudices  of  the  English 
people,  who  generally  regarded  him  as  a  dangerous  inno- 
vator, with  deep  designs  against  the  interests  of  society. 

Hus§  (.ToiiN),  b.  in  l:i7.3  at  Ilussinctz,  in  .Southern  Bo- 
hemia, near  the  Bavarian  frontier;  entered  in  i:!S'J  the 
Vniversity  of  Prague,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  l.iOB,  and  begin  to  give  lectures  on  theology  and  |)hi- 
losophy  in  13US.  In  1401  ho  became  president  of  the  faculty 
of  theology,  and  in  1409  rector  of  the  university.  In  phi- 
loiiophy  he  was  a  realist,  and  in  opposition  to  the  German 
professors,  who  were  nominalists.  By  reviving  an  olil  ordi- 
nance of  Charles  IV'.,  which  gave  the  native  students  four 
votes  in  all  discussions  of  university  matters,  and  the  for- 
eign only  one,  he  caused  a  rupture,  and  the  Polish,  Saxon, 
anl  Bavarian  students,  with  their  professors.  50U0  in  num- 
ber, left  the  university.  But  those  remaining,  consisting 
chiefly  of  native  Bohemians,  drew  so  much  the  more  closely 
around  him.  and  in  his  contest  with  the  Church,  which  now 
began  to  grow  hot,  the  university  was  one  of  his  principal 
supports.  In  1 100  ho  had  taken  holy  orders,  and  in  1402 
he  ivas  appointed  preacher  at  the  Bethlehem  chapel  at 
Prague,  lie  delivered  his  sermons  in  the  Bohemian  lan- 
guage, and  gathered  immense  audiences,  lie  was  a  mild 
and  kind-hearted  man,  with  a  pure,  spiritual  enthusiasm, 
hut  his  sympathy  with  the  suffering  and  downtrodden  was 
impassioned,  and  his  opposition  to  vice,  fiilsehood,  and 
abuse  was  fierce.  In  a  short  time  he  became  the  idol  of  the 
lower  classes  of  Prague,  and  at  court  he  was  high  in  favor; 
he  was  the  confessor  of  (iueen  Sophia,  and  King  Wcnces- 
laufl  was  his  friend.  Nor  was  he  at  first  met  with  enmity 
bv  the  Church,  though  his  denunciations  of  the  false  doc- 
trines ill  her  teaching  and  the  vices  in  her  discipline  were 
very  loud.  But  by  degrees  .Vrchhishop  Sbynko  of  Prague 
became  frightened  at  the  commotion  which  lluss's  preach- 
ing caused,  and  as  he  knew  the  connection  existing  between 
the  ideas  of  llnss  and  the  writings  of  Wyclifi'e,  he  ordered 
all  books  by  the  latter  to  be  deposited  in  his  palace,  and 
appealed  to  the  pope.  Alexander  V.  sent  a  bull  against 
Wycliffc  and  all  who  held  his  opinions,  and  Sbynko  had 
Iho  books,  200  volumes,  publicly  burnt.  IIuss  protested, 
not  against  the  pope,  but  against  the  measures  of  Sbynko, 
and  addresscil  a  brilliant  exposition  of  the  whole  matter  to 
the  new  ]Mjpe,  .John  XXIII.  A  committee c»f  cardinals  was 
appointed,  and  Sbynko's  acts  were  denounced  as  transgres- 
sions of  his  legitimate  power,  but  at  the  same  time  lluss 
was  accused  of  heresy  and  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
pope.  The  king,  the  f|neen,  the  university,  the  magistrates 
of  Prague,  even  the  archbishop  himself,  wrote  to  the  pope 
to  attest  tiie  orthodoxy  of  Huss,  but  in  vain  ;  and.  as  he 
rcfnscii  to  ap])eQr,  he  was  condemned  and  excommunicated, 
an<l  a  ban  was  placed  on  the  city  which  received  him  within 
its  walls,  lie  left  Prague,  but  the  popular  inovcinents  be- 
came so  violent  that  Sbynko  had  to  flee  for  his  life,  and 
lluss  returned  to  his  chapel,  where  his  preaching  against 
the  pope  and  the  Church  became  bolder  and  bolder;  the 
po|)c  was  compelled  to  acfiuicsce.  But  in  1412, . I ohn  XXI 1 1, 
preached  a  crusado  against  La.lislas,  who  fought  with 
Louis  II.  for  the  possession  of  Naples,  ami  the  pope  granted 
indulgences  to  all  who  would  take  arms  against  Ladislas. 
Pcandaliied  at  seeing  the  head  of  the  Church  meddle  in 
this  way  with  secular  affairs,  lluss  gave,  in  his  Qiiimtin  tir 
Jtninfi/rutii^  nivc  tic  crucintit  painr  Jtntmiin  XXIII.  and 
C'lulrit  lliilliim  pnpn-  Junuuii  XX  III.,  an  expnsiliim  of  the 
frauds  and  lies,  doctrinal  and  historical,  on  which  the 
whole  Church  establishment  rested  ;  and  in  clearness  and 
conclusiveness  of  demonstration,  and  in  simplicity  ami  im- 
prcssiveness  of  representation,  these  writings  have  perhaps 
never  been  surpassed.  .\  new  bull  of  ban  was  flung  against 
him.  but  he  now  appealed  to  a  general  council  in  open  op. 
position  to  the  pope.  Provided  with  a  safeguard  from  tlie 
emperor  Sigismund,  he  repaired  to  Constance,  where  (Nov. 
I'.i,  1  11  1 !  the  general  council  opened.    He "  ■ ' 


well  received 


both  by  the  pope  and  the  prelates,  and  seemed  even  to  in- 
spire confidence.  But  by  the  intrigues  of  his  euemies 
affairs  soon  took  anothertnrn.  He  was  imprisoucd  first  in 
the  cathedral,  then  in  a  iJoininican  convent  on  an  island 
of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  then  in  the  castlu  of  Uottlebcn, 
where  chains  were  put  on  him  ;  and  when  at  last  (June, 
1415)  he  actually  appeared  before  the  council,  it  was  evi- 
dent that  he  was  condemned  before  ho  was  heard.  On 
July  G  he  was  sentenced,  and  the  same  day  he  was  burnt 
at  the  stake  outside  of  the  city,  and  his  ashes  were  strewn 
on  the  lihine.  Many  attempts  were  made  to  persuade  him 
to  recant,  but  he  refused,  and  he  died  singing  with  loud 
voice  the  h'l/ric  elelson.  Of  his  collected  works  there  aro 
two  editions,  Strasburg  (1525)  and  Nuvcmbcrg  (1558).  Of 
his  Bohemian  writings  there  is  an  edition  by  Erben  in 
1804.  His  letters  wero  translated  into  French  in  1810  by 
Emile  dc  Bonneehosc.  CLEMiixs  Pkteiises. 

Hussar'  [Hung.,  from  liiisz,  "twenty;"  every  twenty 
families  were  obliged  to  furni.sh  a  man],  originally  the  irreg- 
ular cavalry  of  Hungary  and  Croatia.  The  name  is  now  ap- 
plied to  many  light  cavalry  regiments  in  various  armies. 
The  British  army  (187.3)  had  sixteen  hussar  regiments. 

Ilus'sites  is  the  name  of  the  followers  of  Huss.  Im- 
mediately after  his  marlynlom  they  arose  in  Bohemia,  and 
took  a  frightful  revenge  <m  flic  priests,  monks,  and  prelates  of 
the  Konmn  Catholic  Church.  King  Wcnceslaus  succeeded, 
however,  in  appeasing  the  storm  by  granting  them  religious 
freedom  and  a])propriatiug  a  number  of  churches  for  their 
use.  But  when  the'  king  died  in  14  I'J,  and  the  pope  issued 
an  order  for  the  conversion  of  the  Hussites  by  force,  a  civil 
war  began.  They  assembled  under  the  leadership  of  John 
Ziska  on  Mount  Tabor,  captured  Prague,  pillaged  and  burnt 
the  monasteries,  and  defeated  at  Deutchbrod  in  1422,  and 
in  several  other  minor  encounters,  the  troops  of  Sigismund, 
the  German  emperor  and  the  heir  of  Wcnceslaus.  Ziska  d.  in 
1424,  but  his  successor,  Procopius,  a  former  monk,  was  still 
more  successful.  He  defeated  Sigismund  at  Micss  and  Ta- 
chau,  and  carried  the  war  into  Austria,  Bavaria,  Franconia, 
and  Saxony.  Meanwhile,  the  Hussites  had  separated  into 
two  parties',  the  Taboriles  and  the  Calixtines.  The  former 
were  the  most  radical,  and  acknowledged  no  doctrine  which 
was  not  immediately  given  by  the  text  of  the  Seriiiturcs; 
while  the  latter  held  a  more  moderate  position.  In  the  be- 
ginning, however,  they  acted  in  perfect  concert  with  each 
other.  But  in  I4:i.'!  the  Council  of  Bale  succeeded  in  com- 
ing to  an  agreement  with  the  Calixtines  ami  in  drawing 
them  out  of  the  contest,  the  result  of  which  was  that  the 
Tahorites  were  totally  defeated  at  Biimischbrod  in  14.'i4. 
By  the  treafv  of  Iglau'(14.''.n)  the  einiiernr  Sigismund  grant- 
ed to  Bohcn'iia  both  religious  and  )><ilitical  tVcedoin,  but  tho 
civil  war  did  not  cease  uutil  14S5,  when  King  Ladislas,  at 
the  diet  of  Kuttenbcrg.  solemnly  confirmed  tho  treaty  of 
Iglau.  (Sec  BoiiKMiA.s  Buf.tiiiikx.) 

Husson'  (.!i:\N  lloxoiif;  AuiSTinn),  h.  at  Paris  July  ."!, 
180.", ;  studied  si-ulpture  under  David,  and  received  the  first 
prize  in  l8:;o  for  his  7'Ac».'ri«,  and  the  gold  medal  in  ls:;7 
for  his  Gitindinii  Aiuitl.  His  most  celebrated  statues  aro 
lldiilfr,  in  the  museum  of  liicnoble,  and  Siimmtr  and  Au- 
tumn, in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris. 

Ilu'stocl  ( JAMi:s  W.),  h.  at  Bedford,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31, 1833; 
graduated  with  honors  at  Vale  1854  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
1857  ;  early  entercrl  public  life;  was  cho.scn  school  commis- 
sioner for 'Westchester  co.,  N.  v.,  ill  1858;  deputy  superin- 
tendent of  insurirncc  department  1800  ;  was  afterwards  har- 
bor-master and  then  deputy  captain  of  the  port  of  New 
York;  judge  advocate  for  the  7lll  brigade  New  York  Na- 
tional Guard,  etc. ;  became  major-general  of  the  5tli  divis- 
ion New  York  National  Guard  in  1H73;  Speaker  of  tho 
assembly  1874;  president  of  the  New  York  State  .Military 
Association  1874;  is  a  high  oflicial  of  tho  Masonic^  order 
and  a.  successful  lawyer.     Itceidcncc,  Pcckskill,  N.  \. 

Illl'stisfonI,  jiost-tp.  of  Uodgo  CO.,  Wis.    Pop.  1C96. 

Ilu'stoii,  tp.  of  Blair  Co.,  Pa.     Pop.  133S. 

Huston,  tp.  of  Centre  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  803. 

Huston,  tp.  of  Clearfield  co..  Pa.     Pop.  087. 

Iln'stonvillP,  post-v.  of  Lincoln  co.,  Ky.,  53  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  I'r.iTikfort.     Pop.  320. 

IIut'«-lirson  (FuAScis),  b.  Aug.  8,  1094,  at  Drumalig. 
I'Ister.  Ireland,  whither  his  grandfather  had  inimigraled 
from  Scotland;  studied  theology  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow 1712-10;  lived  as  a  public  teacher  in  Dublin  1717-29, 
during  which  period  he  published  Intjiitrif  iitio  Ihr  Ort;fiitttt 
at' our  IiUim  «J  llcauli/  iiiiil  Vhliii-  (1720)  and  X'litKrc  iiiid 
('iimluvt  of  thr  /'.M«.oi.»  iinrl  .\ffi-rii,m<i  (1728),  an.l  was  in 
1729  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  (Hasgow.  He  d.  during  a  visit  to  Dublin  Aug.  8, 
1740.' His  Stjnirm  „/  Maial  I'liilufjthii  was  publisbeil  by  his 
son  in  1755.  In  tho  history  of  Scottish  philosophy.  Ilutehe- 
son  occupies  a  conspicuous  place,  though  his  books  ceased  to 


1038 


HUTCHINS— HUTTEN,  VON. 


be  generally  read  soon  after  his  death.  Ho  was  strongly  op- 
posed to  Locko  and  the  whole  empirical  tendency  of  the 
English  philosophy,  and  this  may  be  considered  as  the 
prc-eminentiy  Scottish  clement  in  his  philosophy,  as  an  an- 
ticipation of  Dr.  Ueid.  Hut  by  his  own  time  he  was,  on 
the  otlicr  hand,  suspected  as  belonging  to  the  "  new  lights," 
and  intending  to  put  a  new  face  on  Scotch  theology;  and 
the  suspicion  was  right.  Moral  goodness  he  defines  as  the 
right  relation  between  the  propensities;  virtue  he  repre- 
sents as  hencvoleuce  ;  and  the  whole  moral  state  of  man  he 
rests  on  a  sense  jjceuliar  to  man,  the  moral  sense.  Uut  the 
assumption  of  a  moral  sense  brought  him  in  dangerous 
propin(|uity  to  the  opinion  that  man  could  be  moral  with- 
out knowing  God:  which  opinion  evidently  involved  that 
the  hcatiien  were  not  necessarily  condemned:  and  for  this 
very  sentence  his  former  teacher.  Prof.  Jcdin  Simsou,  had 
been  dismissed  from  the  University  of  (;iasgi»w  in  1729. 
llutcheson  delivered  his  lectures  in  English,  though  the 
banflbooks  in  logic,  metaphysics,  etc.,  which  he  published 
for  the  use  of  his  classes  arc  written  in  Latin. 

Hut'chilis  (Thomas),  b.  at  Monmouth,  N.  J.,  about  1730. 
At  an  early  age  he  entere<I  the  British  military  service,  and 
became  captain  in  the  '*  Iloyal  American  "  regiment;  acted 
as  engineer  in  (ien.  Henry  Bouquet's  famous  expedition 
against  the  Shawnees  (1764).  and  participated  creditably 
in  a  campaign  against  the  Florida  Indians.  Being  in  Lon- 
don in  1779,  his  known  clevotion  to  American  independence 
led  to  an  imprisonment  for  six  weeks  on  a  charge  of  main- 
taining correspondence  with  Franklin,  by  which  circum- 
stance he  is  said  to  have  lost  £12,000.  Soon  afterward  he 
sailed  from  Franco  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  joined  the 
army  under  Gen.  Greene,  receiving  the  title  of  "geographer- 
general."  He  furnished  the  maps  and  plates  for  Dr.  Smith's 
Arronnt  of  Bouquet's  Ejcpvdition  (  Phila.,  1765;  London, 
1706);  published  A  Toptajraphicnl  Dcncriptiou  of  Virginia, 
Pennni/lvatiin,  Mavifhind,  and  Cnrnllnnj  with  mapti  (London, 
1778;  in  French,  Paris,  17.S1);  and  An  Historical  and  To- 
pofjraphical  Description  uf  Louisiana  and  West  Florida 
(Phiia.,  1784),  besides  several  papers  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  scientific  societies  at  Philadelphia.  His  geographical 
works  were  largely  used  by  Dr.  i\Iorse  in  the  compilation 
of  his  American  tfnzetUcr.     D.  at  Pittsburg  Apr.  28,  1789. 

Ilut'chinson,  county  in  the  S.  E.  of  Dakota.  Area, 
about  720  square  miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Dakota 
lUver.     Cap.  Maxwell.     Pop.  37. 

Hutchinson,  city,  cap.  of    Reno  eo..  Kan.,    on    the 

Arkansas  and   the  Atchison  Topeka  and  Santa  Fc  R.  R., 

has  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  court-house,  bank,  churches  and 

schools,  and  is  in  a  healthy,  fertile  region.     Founded  1S71. 

C.  C.  HrTCiirs'soN,  En.  "  Resotrcks  of  Kaxsa.s." 

Hutchinson,  post-tp.  of  McLeod  co.,  Minn.     P.  440. 

Hutchinson  (Annk),  a  famous  religious  enthusiast, 
founder  of  the  .\ntinomian  sect  of  Xcw  England,  b.  at  Al- 
ford.  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  lJ9I,thedaughtcrof  Francis 
Marbury,  a  parish  clergyman.  On  her  mother's  side  she 
was  a  second  cousin  of  the  poet  Dryden.  In  10;i4  shccame 
to  Boston,  Mass.,  to  enjoy  the  preaching  of  John  Cotton. 
Here  she  instituted  meetings  of  women  for  the  discussion 
of  doctrinal  questions,  and  her  influence  crc:itcda  powerful 
faction  and  led  to  public  disturbances.  She  even  claimed 
a  measure  of  divine  inspiration.  In  10o7  she  was  ban- 
ished to  Rhode  Island,  where  she  was  the  leader  of  a  small 
sect  until  1042.  when,  after  her  husband's  death,  she  re- 
moved to  the  Dutch  colony  of  New  Amsterdam,  where  (as 
some  say  near  Hell  (iate,  or  according  to  others  near  Al- 
bany) she  was  murdered  by  the  Indians  in  KM.'i.  Among 
her  followers  was  her  brother-in-law,  .John  Wheelwright,  the 
founder  of  Exeter,  N.  H.,  and  Sir  Harry  Vane,  the  govern- 
or of  Massachusetts,  was  her  defender.  Even  John  Cotton 
seems  to  have  been  at  one  time  favorably  inclined  to  her 
doctrine. 

Hutchinson  {John),  b.  about  IGIG:  married,  in  ICiS, 
a  daughter  of  Sir  Allen  Apsley,  governor  of  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  settled  on  liis  estate  atOwthorpe.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Not- 
tingham Castle;  represented  Nottingham  in  the  Parliament, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  high  court  of  judiciary  which  sen- 
tenced the  king  to  death,  but  retired  from  public  life,  dis- 
agreeing with  Cromwell.  Shortly  after  the  Restoration  he 
was  arrested  and  detained  in  prison,  first  in  the  Tower,  and 
then  in  Sandown  Castle.  Kent,  where  ho  d.  Sept.  11,  1661. — 
His  wife,  Lrov  HrTciiissox.  who  survived  him  many  years, 
wrote  a  memoir  of  his  life,  which  was  published  in  London 
in  1S06  from  the  original  manuscript,  and  is  considered  a 
valuable  record  of  events. 

Hutchinson  (John),  b.  at  Spennithorne,  Yorkshire, 
in  1674  :  <1.  in  I7^>7.  Me  was  first  steward  an<i  then  riding 
purveyor  to  the  duke  of  Somerset,  and  had  dabbled  a  little 
in  many  different  things;  as,  for  instance,  mineralogy  and 


Hebrew.  In  1724  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
Moses's  Principia,  in  1727  the  second,  and  then  followed 
a  long  series  of  miscellaneous  writings,  12  vols,  in  all,  in 
whieli  ho  ridiculed  and  reduced  od  absHrdnm  Newton's 
views  of  nature  and  exjiuunded  his  own.  These  he  pro- 
fessed to  have  extracted  from  the  Old  Testament  by  means 
of  the  only  true  and  eomjietent  method  of  interpreting  the 
Hebrew  language,  which  he  alone  was  possessed  of.  By 
itself,  this  maze  of  craziness  and  ignorance  has  nothing 
remarkable,  but  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  it  found  believers 
and  adherents  in  England. 

Hutchinson  (Thomas),  b.  at  Boston  Sept.  9,  1711; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1727;  studied  law,  and 
served  as  representative  for  Boston  in  the  general  court  for 
ten  years;  was  three  times  Speaker;  iiecame  lieutenant- 
governor  in  175S,  chief-justice  in  1760,  acting  governor  in 
1 769,  and  was  commissioned  full  governor  in  1771.  Hutch- 
inson early  became  obnoxious  to  the  patriots  on  account  of 
his  unwavering  support  of  all  the  tyrannical  measures  of  the 
British  ministry.  In  the  Stamp  Act  riots  of  1 765  his  house 
was  twice  attacked;  on  the  second  occasion  (Aug.  26),  his 
furniture  was  burned  in  the  street  and  an  invaluable  col- 
lection of  historical  MSS.  lost  or  destroyed.  Brought  into 
constant  collision  with  the  assembly  and  council  (luring  the 
stormy  years  preceding  the  Revolution,  Hutchinson  was 
the  most  prominent  mark  in  America  for  the  invectives  of 
Otis,  Bowdoin,  Hancock,  and  the  two  Adams.  Wearied 
with  the  conflict,  he  saile<l  f<jr  England  on  leave  of  absence 
June  I,  1774,  and  never  returned  to  America.  His  services 
were  rewarded  by  a  pension  from  the  Crown.  Hutchinson 
was  an  accomplishcil  scholar,  and  his  writings  arc  valuable 
sources  of  information  for  New  England  liistory.  He  pub- 
lished in  1764  and  1707  two  volumes  of  a  Jliatori/  of  the 
J*rovincf  of  Massacfinnttts  liaj/,  and  in  1769  a  VnlUction  of 
Oriffinal  Papers  relative  to  the  History  of  th*!  C'olont/  of 
Massachusetts  Bajf.  A  third  volume  of  the  History,  com- 
pleting the  work  to  1774,  appeared  in  1828,  edited  by  the 
author's  grandson.  Rev.  John  Hutchinson.  D.  at  Bromp- 
ton,  Eng.,  June  3,  1780. 

Hutchinson  (Thomas  Joseph),  F.  R.  G.  S.,  served  as 
senior  surgeon  on  the  English  expedition  in  1854-55  to 
the  rivers  Niger.  Tshadda.  and  Bine,  and  was  appointed 
British  consul  in  this  territory  in  1855;  in  1S61  ho  was 
transferred  to  Rosario  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  in 
1870  to  Callao.  He  has  published  Narrative  of  the  Nifjcr 
Expedition  (1855),  Impnssionfi  of  Western  Africa  ilS58), 
Ten  Years  Amonif  the  Ethiopians  (1861),  Buenos  Ayres 
(1865),  Parana  (I'SOS),  and  Tico  Years  in  Pern  (1874). 

Hut'sonriHe,  ]>ost-tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  III.  Pop.  1S51. 

Hut'ten,  von  (  Ulrich),  was  a  kind  of  literary  knight- 
errant,  whose  influence  it  would  be  impossible  to  realize 
unless  his  life  were  viewed  in  connection  with  a  detailed 
description  of  his  time.  He  was  b.  in  the  castle  of  Steck- 
elberg,  near  Fulda,  in  the  electorate  of  Hesse,  Apr.  20, 
1488,  and  in  1498  lie  was  placed  in  a  monastery  in  Fulda 
in  order  to  become  a  monk.  But  in  1504  he  fled  to  Erfurt, 
where  he  conversed  with  poets  and  schcdars  :  and  when,  in 
the  next  year,  a  pestilential  disease  broke  out  and  com- 
pelled him  to  leave  the  city,  he  went  to  Cologne.  Here  he 
made  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  most  marked  speci- 
mens of  the  riri  ohiruri — as.  for  insJance,  lloogstraten — 
and  also  with  one  of  tbeirmost  decided  opponents,  Johan- 
nes Rhagius.  He  allied  himself  with  the  latter,  and  fol- 
lowccl  him  in  1506  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  a  new 
university  was  just  established.  Here  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  M.  A.,  and  published  his  first  poem.  Carmen  in 
Laudrm  Marchiir:  but  in  1508  he  was  attackecl  himself  by 
the  above-mentioned  disease,  and  for  several  years  he  wan- 
dered ar<tun<l  in  Northern  Germany,  experiencing  numy 
turns  of  fortune,  courted  to-da^'  and  beaten  to-morrow.  In 
1511  ho  was  in  Wittenberg,  where  he  juildished  his  Ars 
vcrsificatoria,  siud  in  1512  he  went  through  Moravia  and 
Bohemia,  through  Vienna,  to  Pavia.  in  order  to  study  law. 
But  after  the  conquest  of  Pavia  he  was  jdundcred  of  all  ho 
owned,  and  was  at  last  compelled  by  the  danger  of  starva- 
tion to  enlist  in  the  imperial  army.  He  left  it  very  soon, 
however,  and  returned  home  to  Germany,  and  during  the 
two  following  years  (15L5-15)  his  denunciations  of  TUrich, 
duko  of  Wiirtcmbcrg,  and  especially  his  defence  of  Rcuch- 
lin,  made  bis  name  quite  famous.  The  j>ublication  of 
Epistohc  obscurorum  vii-oi-urn,  in  the  writing  of  which 
he  probably  bore  a  part,  is  generally  considered  as  hav- 
ing furthered  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  In  1515  he 
once  more  went  to  Italy,  but  returned  again  in  1517:  was 
knighted  by  the  emperor  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  and  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  archbishop  of  Mentz.  Next  year, 
however,  he  retired  from  the  court,  and  at  this  time  he  be- 
gan the  publieation  of  the  severest  attacks  on  the  pope  and 
the  eb-rgy  written  in  German.  The  pope  demanded  his 
surrender  as  a  prisoner,  and  Huttcn  fled,  first  from  his  own 


HUrrER— HYACINTHE. 


1039 


castle,  and  then  from  that  of  Frani  von  Sickingen,  where 
he  found  rcfuic.  He  went  to  Switierland.  and  here,  again 
attacked  liv  his  old  disease,  he  d.  Aug.  l!:i.  lil.':J.  in  IJfenau, 
an  ijland  in  I-akc  Zurich.  A  coUe.-lcd  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  by  Bucking  (1S02),  and  a  biography 
by  Slrnuss  (1857). 

Hut'ter  (r.EOMTAiinT).  h.  at  Xollinsen,  Bavaria,  in  156.1 ; 
vludicd  thcd.igv  at  PtrasliiirK,  Leipsic.  Iloidellierg,  and 
.Iina,  and  was  appointed  in  l^'ufi  pridVssor  in  Wittenberg, 
where  he  d.  Oct.  23,  lOlfi-  His  most  prominent  works  are 
— /'.jneor./m  r-ncort  (1614).  written  in  defence  of  the  Lu- 
theran system  of  doctrines,  which  had  been  atl.ieked  by 
llospinia'n  in  his  CmcnUn  ,li,c.,r>:  and  (•■.m,,,;i<l/iim  l.,ro. 
r.iiii  ilicii/n./iranwi,  a  Lutheran  dogmatic  treatise,  which  has 
been  published  several  times;  last  ed.  180S. 

Iliit'ton,  post-lp.  of  Coles  co.,  111.  Pop.  2196. 
Iliitton,  Ip.  of  Putnam  CO.,  West  Va.  Pop.  ljG8. 
ilutton  (riiARLKS).  b.  at  Newcasllc-on-Tyne  Aug.  14, 
1737  ;  lived  at  Newcastle  as  teacher  from  1760  to  1773,  dur- 
ing which  period  he  wrote  his  Ticuliie  on  ylii//imc(/c  ami 
«<7"*--ile,/).Fi7  (1764),  Trrallie  im  Mfiiimrniivn  (1771),  and 
Prliir!/,!,^  <,f  Ilrkl'lfi  and  Malliciiialirut  fjcmnnntralion  of 
Ihe  Lair,  „f  Arche'n  (1772) :  was  in  1773  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  at  the  military  acailcniy  of  Woolwich. and 
in  1774  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  D.  .Ian. 
27,  IS23.  Besides  a  number  of  papers  in  the  Traiuaclimt 
of  the  Royal  Society,  in  the  I'/filonnpln'ral  Traiisnctimm, 
and  the  Ladiet'  Oi'ari/.  he  published  J'ahUa  of  PrndiKlt 
and  /'oicrrt  «/"  Xiimberii  ( 17S1 ),  Mathematical  Tablel  ( 1785), 
r.mrie  «f  Malhematica  (17'J8-1801),  and  Kecrcaliont  111 
M'llhrmiitlct  and  Xnlarul  Plii'liiiojihi/  (4  vols.,  1S03). 

Ilutton  fJA>fF.s).b.  in  Edinburgh  .Tunc  3.1726:  studied 
medicine  in  his  native  city,  in  I'aris.  and  at  Lcyden,  where 
he  look  the  decree  of  .M.'  1>. ;  engaged  after  his  return  to 
Knirland  first  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  then  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  concentrating  his  studies  on  tho  fields 
of  natural  science,  especially  geology.  The  principal  re- 
sults of  his  researches  were  a  Tlirnri/  nf  Iliin,  cnmmuni- 
caled  to  the  TranMarilont  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh,  and  a  Thron/  ../"  llir-  Earth,  in  which  he  claims  that 
most  geological  phenomena  which  by  Werner  and  his  school 
were  explained  as  effected  by  aqueous  influences  were  pro- 
duced by  igneous  fusion.  The  former  is  still  considered  a 
valuable  contribution  to  the  science  of  meteorology  ;  by  tho 
latter  (2  vols.,  17115-96)  he  established  tho  principle  of 
pliilonisin.     I),  in  Edinburgh  Mar.  26,  1797. 

Hux'Icy  (Thomas  Hkshy),  iM.  B.,  Pn.  I).,  LL.D., 
F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Eiling,  Middlesex,  England.  May  4,  1S25; 
became  a  student  of  Charing  Cross  Hospital  1S42;  gradu- 
ated .M.  B.,  with  honors,  from  the  University  of  London 
ISli:  was  assistant  surgeon  of  the  royal  navy  1816-53; 
Failed  around  the  world  in  II.  .M.  S.  Rattlesnake,  which 
then  perrormcd  surveying  service  in  Australasia,  1S46-50; 
became  V.  R.  S.  IS51,  in  acknowledgment  of  tho  value  of 
tho  observations  in  natural  science  made  by  him  while  in 
tlic  naval  service,  concerning  which  ho  had  from  time  to 
time  sent  papers  to  that  society  ;  became  in  1854  professor 
of  natural  history  in  the  School  of  Mines,  which  position 
he  retains  in  1875  :  Huntcrinn  professor  in  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons  1S63-69;  president  of  tho  (ieological  and 
the  Ethnological  societies  1S69-7U  ;  was  appointed  one  of 
the  royal  commissioners  im  scientific  instruction  and  the 
advancement  of  science  1S70;  was  on  the  London  school 
boar<l  1876-72;  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  1S72;  lord 
rectnr  of  the  I'uiversityof  Aberdeen  1S72;  and  has  twice 
been  named  Fullerinn  'professor  in  the  Royal  Institution. 
Prof.  Huxley  has  for  many  years  been  one  of  the  most  la- 
borious workers  in  biological  science.  The  comparative 
anatomy  of  both  vertebrate  and  invertebrate  animals,  and 
tho  systematic  arrangement  of  organisms,  have  been  the 
fields  in  which  he  has  been  chiefly  distinguished.  He  has 
proposed  several  bold  rearrangements  of  animals  into  new 
classes,  orders,  and  has  discovered  some  remarkable  analo- 
gies in  the  development  of  vertebrate  and  invertebrate 
animals.  His  theory  of  protoplasm,  his  able  advocacy  of 
the  Darwinian  hypothesis,  and  the  doctrine  lioldly  ad- 
vanceil  by  him  in  his  address  before  the  physiological  sec- 
tion of  the  British  Association  at  its  Belfast  meeting  in 
1874,  that  the  seemingly  voluntary  movements  of  animals, 
and  oven  of  men,  are  automatic  ami  independent  of  the 
will,  have  attracted  much  attention.  Author  of  Thr  Orranir 
I/i/drozoa  (1S57),  .Voii'»  Phirr  In  Xalnrr  (1863),  On  llir 
PluiHiral  Ilamt  af  Life  (1868),  Elrmcntari/  Plii/tiidiiriy 
(1.866),  fnlrndnrli,',n  tn  the  ClaimlJIralinn  nf  ytiiinin/«  (1869), 
Lai/  .S>riiioii«.  etc.  (1870),  'Vi'(i./ii<-«  and  Addretnci  (1873), 
and  of  many  important  scientific  papers. 

Iliiy,  town  of  Betginui,  in  the  province  of  Lidge,  at  the 
confluiuce  of  the  Hoyoux  and  the  .Maas.  It  is  strongly 
forlilied.  and   has   rieii  coiil  and  iron  mines  in  its  vicinity, 


which  is  mountainous,  almost  alpine,  in  its  character.   Pop. 
11,055. 

Huydecop'erfBAi.TnASAn),b.  in  Amsterdam  in  1695; 
filled  lor  many  years  the  office  of  sheriff  of  his  native  town, 
and  d.  there  Se[>t.  21,  1778.  llis  Latin  poems  and  his  Dutch 
tragedies.  Arltittm,  Arnarrii,  etc..  are  not  now  read,  but  his 
remarks  on  V'ondel's  translation  ui  Oridii  Mrttim<ir/>hnnri,and 
his  other  critical  and  linguistic  works,  started  in  the  Nether- 
lands the  grammatical  cultivation  of  the  Dutch  language. 

Hny'Rhcns  (CnnisTiAx),b.  at  the  Hague  .Apr.  14.  1629, 
and  cilucated  at  the  universities  of  Leydcn  and  Breda, 
where  he  stvnlied  law  and  mathematics.  He  made  several 
journeys  to  Denmark,  France,  and  Englan<l.  and  resided 
from  1665  to  IGSl,  at  the  invitation  of  Cdbert,  at  Paris, 
where  he  w.as  made  a  member  of  the  .\cademy  of  .Science 
and  had  apartments  assigncif  him  in  the  royal  library. 
Tho  latter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  at  the  Hague,  where  he 
d.  July  8.  1695.  .As  a  mathematician,  especially  as  a  geo- 
metrician, he  enjoyed  the  greatest  fame,  and  his  papers  on 
the  calculus  of  probabilities  and  on  the  quadrature  of  a 
portion  of  a  cycloid  were  considered  masterpieces.  His 
views  on  optics  and  mechanics  also  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. He  was  the  most  able  advocate  of  the  nndulatory 
hypothesis  of  light,  which  he  developed  in  1678.  It  was 
not  generally  adopted,  l)y  reason,  prol>alily,  of  the  great 
authority  of  Newtcm,  who  embraced  the  emission  hypoth- 
esis. By  the  later  labors  of  Young,  Frcsncl.  and  others  the 
doctrine  of  Iluyghens  was  restated,  and  is  now  universally 
received.  But  it  was  more  especially  his  astronomical  dis- 
coveries which  made  his  name  celebrated.  -At  different 
times  in  his  life  he  was  much  occujiied  in  making  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  telesc<)]>es,  and  in  l(i5C  he 
discovered  the  first  satellite  of  Saturn,  and  in  1659  the 
ring;  which  discoveries  he  described  in  his  Si/Ktrnia  Sattir- 
ninm  (16591.  He  became  still  more  widely  known  as  the 
inventor  of  the  pendulum  clock,  which  he  described  in  his 
/Inrolni/lum  (Jncillatnrlum  (1658).  His  works  were  pub- 
lished in  two  collections.  Opera  varia  (1724)  and  Opera 
reliijna  (1728). 

Iliiy'sum,  van  (.Ian),  b.  at  Amsterdam  in  1682;  re- 
ceived instruction  in  landscape  painting  from  his  father, 
but  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  painting  of  tiowcrs 
and  fruits,  in  which  (jmre  he  becinie  one  of  the  greatest 
masters,  if  not  the  very  greatest.  D.  in  his  native  city  in 
1749.  lie  was  jiroud.  jealous,  and  of  a  dithcult  tempera- 
ment;  kept  his  knowledge  of  the  preparation  of  colors  and 
oilier  tecliniealities  a  deep  secret:  worked  slowly,  Init  ac- 
quired a  naturalness  ami  life  in  drawing  and  a  warmth 
and  brilliancy  of  coloring  which  have  never  been  surpassed. 
His  representation  of  dewdrops  resting  on  the  tips  of 
grass,  of  down  floating  iu  the  air,  or  of  an  insect  crawling 
over  a  leaf,  arc  often  too  true,  making  an  impression  as  if 
the  fly  were  sittijig  on  tho  picture  and  not  on  the  flower. 
His  ]tainfings  are  found  only  in  the  greatest  galleries. 

Ily'ai'inth  [so  called  from  the  youth  Hyaciiithus,  slain 
by  the  quoit  of  AjioUo  ;  from  his  blood  the  flower  was  fabled 
to  have  sprung],  a  genus  of  bullious-rootcd  flowering  plants 
of  the  order  Liliacea>.  Several  species  are  natives  of  tho 
Old  Worlil.  Besides  these,  some  species  of  Mnicari  (globe- 
hyacinths)  and  Srilla,  or  stiuill,  are  called  hyacinths  by 
florists.  The  true  hyacinths  of  cultivation  arc  varieties  of 
Hi/aiinthnii  arirntalin.  There  are  a  great  many  kinds  pro- 
duced from  seed,  but  for  ordinary  culture  the  bulbs  are 
planted.  These  bulbs  come  eliielly  fioni  Haarlem  in  tho 
Netherlands.  They  do  best  in  a  rich  but  sandy  soil.  They 
arc  often  planted  in  pots,  and  for  house-culture  they  do 
tolerably  well  in  hyacinth-glasses  with  water  only.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  the  petals  of  the  hyacinth  are  inscribed 
with  the  llreek  letters  m.  ai,  .Apollo's  exelamalion  of  grief 
when  he  found  that  he  liail  slain  the  beautiful  llyaeinthus; 
or  va,  the  first  two  letters  of  his  name.  Hence,  .Milton  calls 
it  •'  tiiat  sanguine  flower  inscribed  with  woe."  Most  people 
fail  to  finil  any  such  mark  u|ion  the  hyacinth,  and  it  is  not 
certain  that  the  hyacinth  of  the  ancients  was  identical  with 
ours.  But  ."^prengel  iind  others  profess  to  have  sei-u  hya- 
cinths with  tlie  inscription.  //.  noH'tcriptua  is  the  bluebell 
of  lireat  Britain.  (See  Br.i'RnKi.f..) 

Ilyncinthf  or  Jacinth,  is  a  term  aj^plied  to  bright- 
coloreil  varieties  of  zircon,  a  mineral  that  crystallizes  in  the 
rlinietrie  system,  and  is  in  composition  a  silicate  of  zirconia. 
The  hvaeinth  is  used  as  a  gem,  and  varies  in  color  from 
various  shades  of  reil  to  orange.  It  is  doiibll'nl,  however, 
whether  this  is  the  ua*cie5oc  of  the  ancients,  which  may  have 
been  the  amethyst  or  the  sapphire. 

Ilyarintlie  (CiiAni.ns  Loyson,  called  Fatiii:r),  b.  at 

Orleans  in  1S27  ;  after  his  regular  course  of  studies  in  tho 

'  college  of  Pan  he  entered  the  ecclesiastical  college  of  St. 

'  Sulpice.     Four  years  after  he  was  ordaim-tl  priest,  and  was 

professor  of  theology  in   several  schools.     Ilyacinthe  wa.i 


1040 


HY^NA— HYBRIDITY. 


then  attached,  as  a  working  priest,  to  the  parish  of  St.  Sul- 
pice  in  Paris,  l)ut  he  soon  made  himself  a  monk,  and  en- 
tered the  convent  of  the  Carmelites  in  Lyons.  From  1804 
till  ISIl'J  he  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  preachers  ever 
licard,  at  liordeau.x,  Xante^,  and  in  Notre  Dame  of  Paris. 
But  he  was  then  suspected  of  uttering  too  liberal  religious 
doctrines,  severely  attacked  by  the  I'ltramontanc  papers, 
and  linally  excommunicated  by  tile  pope.  Father  llyacinthc 
soon  after  ( ISOD)  made  a  voyage  to  the  U.  S.,  where  he  was 
warmly  received.  t.ln  his  return  to  France  he  married  an 
American  lady,  who  bore  him  a  son.  Persecution,  open 
and  concealed,  com)ielled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Switzer- 
land, where  he  established  an  Old  Catholic  church  at  Gene- 
va, but  here  he  was  assailed  by  some  dissenters  of  his  own 
Church,  who  thought  he  was  not  sufficiently  radical  in  his 
doctrine,  because  he  contiuned  to  affirni  liis  faith  in  Ro- 
man Catholicism,  minus  the  maintenance  of  papal  infal- 
Hliility  and  other  secondary  dogmas.  For  some  time  F'alher 
llyaciuthe  did  not  preach,  but  he  has  recently  found  another 
congregation,  and  again  begun  preaching  in  another  church 
at  Ccneva.  F'ki.ix  Aucaigne. 

Hytr'iia  [Gr.  iawa:  Lat.  hiimnn],  a  genus  of  carnivorous 
mammals  belonging  to  the  -Eluroidca,  or  eat-like  division 
of  the  sub-order  Fissipedia,  order  Fcric.  As  in  the  cats 
and  dogs,  the  feet  are  digitigrade,  the  weight  of  the  body 
being  supported  by  the  toes  instead  of  by  the  whole  foot, 

as  in  the  bears.  Tlie  dental  formula  is — incisors  - — -, 
canines  — r,  premolars  .,  ~,  molars  - — -.  Iho  last  up- 
per tooth,  or  true  molar,  is  small,  transversely  elongated, 
and  tubercular:  the  last  jircmolar,  or  succcssional  tooth, 
being  the  sectorial  or  flesh  tooth.  In  the  lower  jaw  the 
true  molar  is  the  sectorial  tooth.  All  the  teeth,  especially 
the  molars,  are  large  and  strong,  and  set  in  powerful  jaws, 
which  are  worked  by  muscles  of  corresponding  develop- 
ment. The  hyivna  is  thus  fitted  to  obtain  its  living  by  de- 
vouring the  cartilages,  and  even  gnawing  and  crushing 
the  bones  of  animals  killed  by  the  lion  and  other  aetivo 
predaceous  beasts;  and  most  of  its  subsistence  is  thus  ob- 
tained, although  it  sometimes  captures  living  prey  by  the 
chase.  The  auditory  bullie  are  destitute  of  the  septum 
found  in  the  cats.  The  toes  are  straight,  with  blunt,  non- 
retractile  claws.  The  hind  legs  are  usually  short,  the  tail 
short  and  bushy,  and  the  neck  provided  with  a  short  bristly 
mane,  whence  the  classical  name,  signifying  a  *'  sow." 
Three  living  species  are  known:  two  of  these  are  from 
Southern  Africa — viz.  the  brown  hyicna  (//.  bntutiea),  with 
the  fur  clouded,  rather  long,  brain-case  compressed,  a  largo 
and  deep  sub-caudal  gland,  and  the  legs  of  nearly  equal 
length;  and  the  spotted  hya'Ua  (//.  crociifn),  with  no  sub- 
caudal  gland,  and  having  the  hinder  legs  short.  The  striped 
or  banded  hya'na  (/A  »f)i<i((i)  ranges  over  Africa  and  South- 
ern Asia.  The  fur  is  striped,  and  there  is  a  sub-caudal 
gland.  The  brain-case  is  larger  than  in  //.  Itruiim^a.  The 
cave  hyjcna  was  a  large  and  fierce  species  that  roamed  over 
the  continent  of  Europe  during  the  Quaternary,  and  left, 
especially  in  the  cave-deposits  of  Englaml,  abundant  fossil 
remains  of  its  own  bones,  mingled  with  those  of  otlicr  ani- 
mals licaring  unmistakable  marks  of  its  powerful  teeth. 
This  species,  notwithstamling  its  large  size,  is  now  regarded 
as  identical  with  the  spotted  liy;cna  of  South  Africa.  No 
species  of  hya-na,  recent  or  fossil,  is  yet  known  from  tho 
continent  of  America.  0.  C.  Mar.sii. 

Hyrcn'idte  [from  Gr.  vmya,  a  "sow;"  Lat.  V/irim],  n 
family  of  fissipedc  fera!  belonging  to  the  group  ,151uroidea 
(distinguished  by  the  relations  of  the  foramina  of  tho  basis 
of  the  skull  and  the  relations  of  the  auditory  bulla  to  tho 
paroccipital  and  mastoid  processes),  having  the  external 
aiipearance  of  a  dog,  but  with  the.  shoulders  elevated  :  ."!  1 
teeth  (M.  \;  P.  M.  ^:  C.  {;  1.^X2).  of  which  the  molars 
are  large  and  approximate,  tho  true  molars  rerluced  and 
tubercular,  and  tho  last  upper  premolar  sectorial  and  like 
tliat  of  the  cat  ;  the  true  lucdar  of  the  lower  jaw  sectorial; 
the  jaws  and  muscles  thereof  arc  very  powerful.  This 
family  has  been  established  fur  the  well-known  hyienas,  of 
which  there  are  two  genera:  (1)  Ifi/iriia,  including  species 
with  a  large  sub-caudal  gland,  the  tubercular  grinders  of 
the  upper  jaw  enlarged  and  with  three  roots,  and  colored 
with  clouded  areas  or  bands;  (2)  Crocutn,  with  no  sub- 
caudal  gland,  the  tubercular  grinders  of  the  upper  jaw 
small  with  only  two  roots,  and  tho  color  distributed  in 
spots.  The  three  living  recognized  species  of  the  family 
are  confined  to  Africa,  and  two  of  them  (//i/.r?M(  bntuiica 
anci  Crociita  titacittnia]  are  restricted  to  South  Africa.  In 
former  times,  however,  forms  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
the  living  species  existed  in  Northern  Europe,  and  their 
remains  have  been  found  in  abundance  in  caves  in  Eng- 
land, especially  at  Kirkdale  in  Yorkshire. 

TnEononE  Gill. 


H yn-n'otlon  [Gr.  iatva,  a  "  hyicna,"  and  oSovt,  a  '•  tooth"], 
an  exlinct  genus  of  carnivorous  mammals,  the  type  of  an 
extinct  family,  Hya!nodontid8D,  partaking,  in  jiart,  of  cha- 
racters of  the  wolves,  cats,  and  hyienas.  The  name  was 
first  used  for  a  species  from  Ihc  Lower  Miocene  of  France, 
and  the  genus  also  occurs  in  the  Upper  Eocene  of  that 
country.  Dr.  Leidy  has  also  described  three  species  frnm 
the  Miocene  of  Dakota.  The  largest  of  these,  //.  Iinnitlim, 
is  the  largest  known  species  of  the  genus,  and  equalled  in 
size  n  large  black  bear.  The  form  of  the  skull  is  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  the  wolf  and  that  of  the  opossum, 
tho  brain-case  being  suiall,.ns  in  the  latter  animal.  The 
temporal  fossae  arc  large,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  strong.  The 

■A—^  1—1 

3cisors  - — , ,  canines  - — i,  premolars 

All  the  true  molars,  both  above  and 


dental  formula  is— 
3—3  ,  3—3 
4-4'  ■"»'""  3~3- 
below,  are  sectorial  in  character,  the  posterior  one  being 
much  larger  and  stronger  than  the  other  two,  and  the  series 
is  remarkable  for  the  entire  absence  of  the  posterior  tuber- 
cular nndars  usually  found  in  Carnivores.  The  canines  re- 
semble those  of  the  wolf.  The  H.  trittntus  and  H.  crncitin« 
are  smaller  species,  the  latter  a  little  larger  than  the  red 
foi.  0.  C.  Maksii. 

Ilytrnodon'tida"  [from  vaira,  "hywna,"  and  oSovt,  a 
"tooth"],  a  family  of  mammals  which  has  generally  been 
referred  by  some  naturalists  to  the  order  Fera',  and  by 
others  to  the  order  Marsupialia.  They  had  apparently  44 
teeth  (M.  |,  P.  M.  $,  C.  j,  I.  i  X  2),  and  the  second  and 
third,  as  well  as  first,  true  molars  were  sectorial  ;  the  last 
premolar  of  the  lower  jaw  was  enlarged.  The  family  has 
been  based  upon  the  fossil  remains  of  several  species  of 
animals  which  have  been  found  in  the  Lower  and  Jliddle 
Tertiary  deposits  of  F'ronce,  and  especially  the  Paris  basin. 
There  has  been  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
systematic  relations  of  these  forms,  but  the  latest  original 
investigator.  Prof.  Gervais,  has  recently  obtained  casts 
from  the  interior  of  the  cranium  of  one  of  the  species,  and 
has  shown  that  in  the  former  the  brain  was  much  more  like 
that  of  a  marsupial  than  that  of  a  placental  Carnivora:  it 
further  agrees  with  the  marsupiiil  Thylaeinids  iu  the  sec- 
torial nature  of  all  the  true  molars;  but  on  the  other  hand 
it  apparently  resembled  the  Carnivores  in  the  development 
of  only  six  "incisor  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  the  absence  of 
the  inilectcd  margin  of  the  lower  jaw.      Theodork  Gii.l. 

Ilya'lea  [Gr.  CrdAto?,  "  glassy  "],  a  genus  of  transparent- 
shelled  pteropod  niollusks,  of  which  nineteen  species  arc 
found  in  the  Atlantic,  Mediterranean,  and  East  Indian 
waters.  The  mollusk  has  two  long  appendages  to  the 
mantle.  Ili/aha  tridcntalu  is  the  typical  species.  Some 
five  or  six  lossil  species  are  known. 

Hy'alitc,  or  MuUcr's  Glass,  a  form  of  opal  or  hy- 
drated  silica,  of  glassy  lustre.  It  occurs  as  an  incrusta- 
tion, generally  in  the  form  of  pellucid  drops. 

Ilyan'nis,  post-v.,  seaport,  and  harbor  of  refuge  on 
the  S.  side  of  Cape  Cod,  in  liarnslable  tp.,  Barnstable  co., 
Mass.,  is  the  S.  terminus  of  the  llyannis  branch  of  the  Capo 
Cod  K.  R.,  and  is  79  miles  from  ISoston.  It  has  a  national 
hank.  Its  outer  harbor  is  protected  by  a  breakwater.  Be- 
siilis  a  harbor-light.  llyannis  has  a  fixed  catroptric  light 
in  Inl.  41°  3S'  U"  N.,  Ion.  70°  IC  tiW  W. 
Hybernation.  See  lIinKUNATiox. 
Hybrid'ity,  or  Ily'bridism  [Lat.  hyhriila,  a  "mon- 
grel :  '  i)erhaps  from  the  Gr.  v^pn],  treats  of  the  issue  of  dis- 
similar kinds  of  animals  and  plants,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
offspring  of  parents  which  belong  respectively  to  different 
varieties  or  species.  FVw  subjecis  have  been  so  much  misun- 
derstood or  have  given  rise  to  so  many  superstitions  as  this. 
In  tho  olden  times,  and  indeed  until  quite  recently,  among 
the  educated  as  well  as  among  the  ignorant,  thegrossest  cre- 
dulity prevailed  respecting  the  possibility  of  offspring  be- 
tween the  most  dissimilar  forms.  Nor  was  this  credulity 
always  an  innocent  one  :  it  hiis  even  affected  the  laws  and 
customs  of  states.  The  belief  prevailing  that  women  could 
become  pregnant  from  intercourse  with  beasts,  laws  have 
been  framed  condemning  lo  death  the  parents  who  were 
judged  guilty  of  the  crime  of  such  unnatural  commerce.  In 
1543,  c.  </.,  a  woman  in  .'\vignon,  France,  was  delivered  of 
a  child  "which  was  thought  to  look  like  a  dog,  and  this 
supposed  resemblance  was  sufficient  evidence  that  tho 
molher  had  had  intercourse  with  the  dog,  and  she  was  con- 
sequently condemned,  with  her  quadruped  paramour,  to 
die  at  the  stake,  and  was  accordingly  executed.  Although 
such  beliefs  have  now  been  driven  lo  more  obscure  quarters, 
they  arc  by  no  means  extinct,  and  indeed  are  still  very 
prevalent;  "in  fact,  extravagant  accounts  of  animals  of 
mongrel  origin  arc  frequently  iniblished  in  the  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  It  may  therefore  be  advisable  lo  enter 
into  some  detail,  and  in  advance  to  deny  the  truth  of  most 
I  of  the  reports. 


IIYBRIDITY. 


1041 


Under  tho  gorifral  designation  of  hybrids  arc  embraced 
all  those  forms  whose  parents  belong  to  different  varieties 
or  species,  whether  the  offspring  is  fertile  or  not.  The 
word  hybrid  is  thus  essentially  similnr  in  its  meaning  to 
the  Anglo- Sax  on  term  montjrd,  but  for  present  use  it  has 
superseded  that  term,  leaving  the  latter  for  tlio  offspring 
between  vnrtctim^  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  for  fig- 
urative expressiitns.  French  writers  have  classified  the 
forms  embraced  under  this  general  term  under  three  cate- 
gories— viz.  (1)  Mi'ti?  (mestizoes);  (2)  Hy brides  (hybrids); 
and  (;{)  Mulcts  (mules).  (1)  Metis,  originally  specially  em- 
ployed to  designate  tho  offspring  of  an  Indian  mother  by 
a  white  father,  has  been  extended,  as  a  generic  term,  to 
animals  and  plants  of  mixed  origin — i.  c.  to  the  offspring 
of  two  races  or  vuriiticn  of  the  same  species,  as  well  as  of 
two  distinct  Bpecit-H — and  consequently  to  every  organized 
being  owing  its  origin  to  dissimilar  parents,  or  to  every 
product  of  u  cross.  (2)  Hybrid  is,  in  general  terms,  any  ani- 
mal or  plant  engendered  of  two  different  spedc/t.  (3)  Mulct, 
originally  applied  to  the  offspring  of  a  mare  by  a  jackass, 
is  extended  to  embrace  all  those  organized  beings  which  are 
analogous  to  it,  as  well  in  mixed  origin  as  in  ntfrilitt/,  and 
also  to  forms  characterized  by  their  sterility,  even  though 
their  origin  may  not  be  mixed,  as  in  the  case  of  bees,  wasps, 
etc.:  thus,  infecundity  is  the  prime  clement. 

Such  arc  the  distinctions  employed  by  French  authors, 
and  followed  in  the  dictionary  of  the  French  Academy,  but 
they  are  not  recognized  by  English  writers,  and  indeed 
scarcely  aeem  to  be  definite  enough  to  warrant  recognition. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  indicate  that  we  use  the  word  hybrid 
in  the  same  sense  as  the  French  do  mftis.  K  distinctive 
term  is,  however,  needetl  for  the  offspring  of  hybrids  inter 
ff,  and  the  word  mouf/rfi  might  be  extended,  in  accordance 
with  analogy,  to  such  forms. 

Repeated  and  prolonged  critical  observations  and  ex- 
periment- have  amply  demonstrated  thai  fruitful  union  i^ 
impossible  between  animals  or  plants  of  widely  different 
ppecies  (i.r.  belonging  to  decidedly  different  families),  and 
tliat  such  is  only  possible  within  comparatively  narrow 
although  uncertain  limits.  We  may  therefore  at  once  dis- 
tniss,  as  utterly  unworthy  of  belief,  the  many  re])ort8  of 
offspring  from  such  form-?  wlui'Ii  have  been  published  by 
even  accredited  writers  of  natural  history  in  past  times,  such, 
r.  (/.,  as  the  alleged  cases  of  hybrids  between  a  hen  and  a 
duck  ;  an  opossum  and  a  cat ;  a  boar  and  a  camel ;  an  otter 
and  a  rabbit ;  an  otter  and  a  sheep  ;  an  otter  and  a  cat; 
a  raccoon  and  a  eat ;  a  bear  an<l  a  hog ;  a  bear  and  a  dog ; 
a  cat  and  a  rat  ;  a  monkey  and  a  slut  ;  and  especially  women 
and  apes,  dogs,  or  other  animals.  Whatever  details  may  bo 
given  iiavc  been  found  to  lack  essential  requisites,  and  in  al- 
most all  cases  the  belief  has  had  its  origin  in  some  vague  exter- 
nal cliaractoristics  which  suggested  a  similarity  which  had, 
however,  no  real  existence  in  structure.  In  the  name  catn- 
clop'ird  we  have  a  term  which  is  the  expression  of  a  past 
belief  that  the  animal  in  question  was  a  hybrid  between  tho 
camel  and  the  leopard;  and  such  was  actually  claimed  to 
bo  the  origin  of  that  animal  by  some  old  writers — r.  _</.  Mat- 
lliicu  in  the  eleventh  century.  In  the  case  of  an  alleged  hy- 
brid between  a  cat  and  a  raccoon,  scon  at  Taunton,  Mass., 
an  Angola  eat  was  the  supposed  hybrid:  the  cx]»lanation 
lay  in  tho  fact  that  the  Angola  cat  is  a  large  animal  with 
a  bushy  tail  and  color  somewhat  resembling  the  raccoon, 
and  thus  it  received  the  name  of  r.accoon  cat;  the  step 
thence  to  the  belief  that  it  was  the  offspring  of  a  rac- 
coon an<l  cat  was  natural;  this  belief  at  a  distance  be- 
came embodied  in  the  assertion  of  such  origin  as  a  matter 
of  fact :  such  was  the  basis  of  a  statement  which  was  fully 
examined  into  by  the  writer  of  this  article.  Another  case 
was  simply  the  result  of  a  intsconception  of  the  meaning 
of  authors.  (Jeoffroy  St.-IIilaire  ami  Ilyrtl  refer  to  an  al- 
leged hybrid  between  the  axis  deer  and  hog,  said  to  have 
been  recorded  by  Hamilton  Smith  aud  Morton,  ancl  very 
properly  urge  that  such  an  offspring  would  be  impossible. 
On  referring  to  the  two  authors  mentioned,  however,  it  is 
evident  that  they  simply  alluded  to  supposed  hybrids  be- 
tween the  axino  buck  (Ccrvuii  n.r/*)  and  the  hog  deer  (Ccr- 
ii(»  porcinug),  designating  tho  latter  under  the  name 
"porcine  species"  (i".  c.  of  deer),  (itoffroy  St.-Hiiairo  in- 
terpreted tho  word  ''porcine  species"  to  mean  hog,  and 
hence  a  belief  quite  venial  (whatever  may  have  been  its 
basis  in  truth)  was  exaggerated  into  one  entirely  unpar- 
donable in  a  seientific  man.  The  alleged  eases  of  hybrids 
between  otters  and  other  animals  are  doubtless  tho  expres- 
sions of  another  scries  of  facts.  There  is  somewhat  of  a  tcml- 
ency  among  animals  towards  a  diminisheil  size  or  an  off- 
turned  position  of  tho  legs  which  recalls  tho  form  of  an 
otter,  as  is  exemplified,  r.  tj.,  in  tho  turnspit  dog  and  Ancon 
sheep.  These  Ancon  sheep  (which  have  been  especially 
referred  to  by  l>arwin  in  his  Oriifin  itf  Sp'cirit)  were  also 
called,  on  aeeuunt  of  this  peculiarity,  "ottor  shi-cp,"  nnd 
from  this  name  was  d'jubtkss  developed  the  report  of  hy- 
V..I,.  11.— IW, 


brids  between  sheep  and  otters.  Such  has  doubtless  been 
the  origin  of  the  belief  in  tho  other  otter-like  animals. 

Hybrids  partake  of  tho  characteristics  of  their  parents, 
and  the  extent  to  which  they  do  so  is,  within  a  certain  range, 
definitely  fixed  for  those  of  each  kind;  further,  tho  degree 
in  which  the  hybrid  shares  tho  characters  of  the  parent  is 
determined  by  the  sex  of  each  species  contributing  to  tho 
hybrid.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  hybrids  between  horses  ami 
asses,  which  arc  the  best  known,  wo  have  in  the  mule  tho 
offspring  of  the  mare  and  jackass,  and  in  the  hiuny  that 
of  the  stud-horse  and  shc-ass :  the  mule  resembles  in  many 
of  its  characters  the  ass  most,  but  is  larger,  while  the 
hinny  more  resembles  the  horse,  but  is  smaller  than  tho 
mule.  These  conditions  will  be  found  to  affect  tho  in- 
ternal organization  and  external  appearance,  and  the  like 
is  the  case  respecting  other  hybrids.  Therefore,  every  al- 
leged hybrid  should  exhibit  positive  evidences  in  its  organ- 
ization, as  well  as  its  external  appearance,  of  the  parentage 
on  both  sides;  and  if  such  evidences  are  not  afforded,  or 
if  only  a  vague  superficial  similarity  to  some  alleged  spe- 
cies exists,  while  the  fundamental  characters  are  all  those 
of  another  species,  we  are  necessarily  forced  to  conclude 
that  tho  allegation  as  to  hybridity  has  no  real  foundation, 
and  that  the  external  indications  are  illusive.  The  natural 
love  of  man  for  the  marvellous  prompts  to  a  ready  belief 
in  extraordinary  hybrids.  Pecuniary  interests  are  also  (dten 
involved  with  this  belief,  and  inducements  are  thus  held 
out  to  propagate  it.  Hence  arc  constantly  arising  fables 
respecting  hybrids  of  various  kinds. 

Hybrids  have  been  classed  in  various  categories;  e.  fj. 
(1)  according  to  general  aftinities  as  expressed  in  their 
structure;  (2)  according  to  tho  degree  of  aflinity  of  tho 
parents— I.  e.  whether  congeneric  with  each  other  or  bi- 
generic  (i.  e,  representatives  of  distinct  genera) ;  (iJ)  accord- 
ing to  tho  fertility  of  the  progeny  of  the  hybrids  or  other- 
wise;  (4)  according  to  the  degree  of  prolificacy  of  the  hy- 
brids :  and  (o)  according  to  the  frequency  or  rarity  of  their 
occurrence.  Our  present  purpose  will  bo  best  subserved  by 
the  consideration  of  the  species  arranged  according  to  their 
affinity. 

Among  the  Primate  mammals,  or  monkey  order,  nu- 
merous hybrids  have  been  obtained  by  congeneric  spe- 
cies of  monkeys;  c.  g.  (1)  the  common  macaque  or  kra 
{Mnrnrufi  cynomnlijiin)  and  bonnet  monkey  {M'trncim  sin- 
icT(s);  (2)  the  macaque  and  maimon  or  bruh  {M.  nemes- 
triuus) ;  and  (.*?)  the  papion  and  chaema  baboons  {  C.  sphinx 
and  C.  porrnriuH).  Among  the  Carnivores  also  numerous 
hybriils  have  been  obtained,  tho  chief  of  which  are  those 

(1)  between  domestic  or  feral  common  cats  and  the  smaller 
species  of  tho  countries  into  which  they  been  introduced; 

(2)  the  lion  and  tiger;  (3)  the  jaguar  and  panther;  (4) 
common  dogs  and  native  wild  species — e.  ij.  wolves,  jack- 
als, etc.:  and  (a)  dog  and  red  fox.  Among  seals  several 
cases  have  been  reported  of  hybrids  between  tho  sea-lion 
{Eiimetopiag  alcflcri)  and  fur-seal  ( Cnlorhiuus  tirsinns),  but 
these  require  confirmation.  Among  the  ungulates  numer- 
ous hybrids  have  also  been  produced,  among  which  may 
be  especially  enumerated  of  the  horse  family  (Kquiilie) 
(1)  tho  mule  between  the  ass  and  marc;  (2)  ass  and  zebra; 

(3)  ass  and  dauw  ;  (4)  quagga  and  horse;  (5)  kiang  and 
zebra;  (G)  kiang  and  dauw;  (7)  kiang  and  ass;  (S)  horse 
and  zebra;  and  (D)  quagga  nnd  horse.  Of  the  ox  fam- 
ily (IJovidie),  hybrids  have  been  raised  from  the  tlomestio 
cattle  and  almost  all  other  well-known  species  and  rep- 
resentatives, even  of  different  genera  (r.  y.  buffalo,  yak, 
and  bison),  and  also  between  these  nncl  so  many  other 
forms  that  specification  is  unnecessary.  Hybrids  have  also 
been  obtained  from  sheep  and  goats,  ami  various  species 
of  each  group.  Among  the  rodents  successful  intercourse 
has  been  effected  between  the  hare  and  rabbit;  and  their 
offspring  have  been  ndvantajjeously  raised  even  for  the 
market.  Among  tho  birds  hybridity  is  so  frequent,  and 
has  been  effected  between  such  widely  distinct  species,  and 
representatives  of  even  markedly  distinct  genera,  that  in- 
ability to  hybridize  is  rather  tho  exception  than  the  rule. 
The  most  notahle  cases  are  those  bct\veen  ditlVrent  generic 
types  of  the  Phasianida?  (common  fowl,  pheasants,  etc.) 
and  Anatida>  (ducks,  geese,  etc.).  Little  is  known  re- 
specting hybridity  in  reptiles  or  amphibians;  an<l  the 
only  case  that  need  be  specifically  alluded  to  i;*  one  that 
has  very  recently  been  procured,  by  Prof.  Paul  (Jervais, 
between  the  sircdon  of  Mexico  and  the  Iriton  (  Triton  c/-»>- 
tntiiH)  of  Europe,  members  of  two  different  families.  In 
this  case  young  were  hafeluvl  from  the  eci;s  of  females 
of  siredon  iniprcf^nated  I)y  the  triton,  but  did  not  live  to 
maturity,  all  having  died  within  a  short  time  after  hatch- 
ing. Among  tho  fishes  also  hybrids  between  diverse 
genera  have  been  obtained  :  ^.  7.  between  various  species 
of  .'^almonoids  and  Cyprinoids.  A  number  of  very  dis- 
tinet  forms,  existing  in  a  state  of  nature,  have  been  de- 
clared by  certain  auLliors  of  bii;h   reputation  (r.  ff.  Siebold 


1042 


HYDASPES— HYDE  PARK. 


and  Gunther)to  be  hybrids  between  representatives  of  dif- 
ferent geiieru :  such  arc  especially  (I)  Ourpio  Kullarii,  be- 
tween Vffprinus  carpio  and  V<irc.>i8iu8  vulfiuris  ;  (2)  Abrami- 
dopnis  Ltmci'artii,  between  species  of  Ahmmia  and  Leitcis- 
ciiH  ;  (3)  Bficcopsi'*  ohramo-rutiiHs,  between  a  species  of 
Abritniis  and  ^Sriirtlinini  cn/tkrt>pfithalniiu ;  (■{)  LeuciscuH 
(lolabrntuH,  between  AlbnmuH  liividits  and  S^jUftUiis  ceph- 
alus :  and  (5)  Chondrutttoiua  ryseUi,  between  Chondro- 
stoiiia  namiH  and  Tclcstcs  AtjaHsizii.  These,  however,  have 
not  been  cxperinicntally  determined  to  be  hybrids  (except, 
perhaps,  in  the  case  of  the  first),  and  there  is  etill  ground 
fur  i^kepticism. 

Such  are  some  of  the  best  known  and  most  characteristic 
cases  of  hybridity  among  the;  vertebrates.  Among  the  in- 
vertebrates there  are  less  known  and  determined  cases,  but 
hybrids  have  been  obtained  between  difiorent  species  of 
bees,  butterflies,  etc.,  and  many  intermediate  forms  found 
in  a  state  of  nature  have  been  supposed  to  be  hybrids. 
Several  botanists — c.  fj.  C.artncr.  Kiilreutcr,  Herbert,  No- 
ble, etc. — have  devoted  much  time  and  attention  to  the 
subject,  and  their  results,  although  affording  some  basis 
for  difference  of  opinion,  essentially  coincide  with  the  facts 
rehearsed  as  to  the  best  known  animals.  The  results  thus 
far  obtained  from  all  these  various  departments  may  be 
summarized  as  I'uIIo^vs;  (1)  Allied  species  arc  capable,  as  a 
rule,  uf  pairing  and  producing  ofispring,  and  this  capa- 
bility is  in  indefinite  ratio  to  the  degree  of  their  likeness. 
(2)  Hybrids  are  frequently  fertile  with  their  parents  when 
those  parents  are  closely  related  to  each  other.  (3)  Hy- 
brids are  more  rarely  fertile  among  themselves,  and  mostly 
(but  not  always)  in  cases  where  the  parents  are  very  closely 
and  even  suspiciously  related. 

The  degree  of  fertility  between  original  species  and  their 
hybrids  need  not  be  in  ratio  to  each  other;  c  <■/.  offspring 
between  certain  species  is  very  difficult  to  be  obtained,  but 
hybrids  which  have  been  once  obtained  may  be  fertile 
among  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  species 
will  pair  and  have  progeny  without  difficulty,  but  the  hy- 
brid offspring  may  be  nearly  or  absolutely  (?)  infertile;  and 
this  case  may  even  occur  in  the  same  genus,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  plant-genus  Dinuthns. 

From  all  these  facts  it  is  plain  that  there  is  every  degree 
of  difference  between  absolute  sterility  and  perfect  fertility 
in  the  intercourse  between  different  species;  that,  however, 
infertility  to  some  degree  attends  sexual  intercourse  be- 
tween different  species;  that  fertility  is  certainly  no  evidence 
of  specific  unity.  Fertility,  it  is  equally  plain,  is  almost 
imjioysible  between  species  of  different  families,  and  all 
j)opulur  accounts  to  the  contrary  may  be  at  once  set  down 
as  destitute  of  a  real  foundation.  The  explanation  of  this 
want  of  fertility  between  forms  that  are  very  dissimilar  is 
doubtless  to  be  found  in  some  liifference  of  structure  in  the 
genital  organs,  although  the  differences  may  be  so  ohscuro 
as  to  have  escaped  detection  till  the  present  time.  These 
difference?,  at  the  same  time,  need  not  necessarily  be  co- 
ordinated with  other  differences,  at  least  to  a  greater  extent 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  animal  economy;  and  hence  wo 
may  find  species  that  differ  considerably  in  appearance 
quite  tertile,  while  others  that  resemble  each  other  much 
more  closely  may  be  less  so.  There  must,  however,  be  some 
degree  of  co-ordination  between  the  modification  of  the 
genital  organs  and  those  of  the  other  organs  and  parts,  and 
hence  fertility  is  only  possible  within  acertain  limited  range. 

A  noteworthy  fact  is  that  domestication  and  cultivation 
exercise  an  appreciable  effect  upon  the  intercourse  between 
animals  and  plants  of  different  species,  and  increase  the 
degree  of  fertility:  in  a  state  of  nature  members  of  dif- 
ferent species  rarely  pair,  and  hence  hybrids  are  excep- 
tional, and  thus  specific  forms  are  perpetuated  pure  and 
undefiled  :  under  the  influence  of  man,  however,  mongrel 
races  readily  arise  and  are  indefinitely  sustained. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  it  is  advisable  to  allude  to 
some  very  curious  and,  at  first  sight,  inconsistent  phenom- 
ena exhibited  by  cross-breeding.  Many  plants  depend  for 
impregnation  upon  pollen  brought  by  insects  from  other 
imlividuals  ;  and  although  the  sexes  may  be  combined  in 
the  same  individual  ilower.  the  pollen  of  its  stamens  ap- 
pears to  be  insulficient  to  iin]>regnatc  its  ovary.  Kven  niak* 
ing  allowance  for  the  disturbing  effects  of  manipulation, 
enough  is  known  to  at  least  indicate  that  (hero  is  a  less 
degree  of  fertility  between  closely  related  individuals  than 
more  distant  ones.  The  evils  of  close  breeding  are  even 
recognized  by  man  in  the  laws  affecting  the  marriage  state, 
as  well  as  in  his  usage  in  the  rearing  of  his  domestic  ani- 
mals. It  may  be.  therefore,  that  even  the  difficulty  of  ob- 
taining hybriils  fertile  among  themselves  may  be  in  part 
duo  to  the  fact  that  those  hybrids  are  too  closely  related  by 
consanguinity,  and  that  the  conditions  for  perfect  exper- 
iments have  thus  not  been  completely  fuliilled.  Much  has 
been  done  towards  the  elucidation  of  the  subjeet,  but  much 
still  remains  to  be  done.  TiiLO.  Gill. 


Ilydas'pes,  the  name  by  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
designated  the  present  .Ijivlum  (which  see),  an  atfluent  of 
the  Ganges.  On  its  banks  was  fought  the  great  battle  be- 
tween Alexander  the  Great  and  Porus  in  ;i27  b.  c. 

Hvdat'idf  a  morbid  growth  characterized  by  the  devel- 
opment of  a  cyst,  which  contains  an  aqueous  and  transpa- 
rent lluid,  in  which  floats  a  parasitic  worm,  generally  the 
acephalocyst.  The  term  was  formerly  used  to  designate 
any  encysted  tumor  containing  a  transparent  liquid,  but 
it  is  now  restricted  to  that  form  which  encli'sea  a  parasite. 
The  organs  most  commonly  affected  by  this  jieeuliar  dis- 
ease are  the  uterus,  ovaries,  and  liver;  next  frequently  wo 
find  it  in  the  breast  and  testicles,  but  rarely  in  other  parts 
of  the  body.  It  generally  appears  as  a  round  hard  tumor, 
which  occasions  more  or  less  pain  and  inconvenience;  this 
tumor  is  made  up  of  hydatids,  although  we  sometimes  have 
it  occurring  singly,  when  it  will  be  proportirmately  large. 
Each  parasite  consists  of  a  body  and  head  ;  around  the 
latter  we  find  a  row  of  teeth  which  are  hook-like  and  sharp. 
The  body  is  solid,  and  displays  a  number  of  ovoid  bodies 
beneath  its  coat,  which  giNc  it  a  speckled  appearance.  As 
the  tumt)r  increases  in  size,  if  it  is  near  the  surface,  we  can 
feel  fluctuation;  the  pressure  under  the  skin  causes  it  to 
ulcerate,  and  the  hydatids  may  thus  perish.  If  they  arc 
situated  in  some  internal  organ,  they  may  produce  very 
serious  complications,  as  jieritonitis,  osteitis,  etc.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  excision  if  they  are  sufficiently  superficial, 
otherwise  we  can  do  nothing.     Edward  J.  Beumingham. 

Hyde,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Chester.  It 
is  a  rapidly  growing  place,  with  numerous  cotton-factories, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  are  extensive  coal-mines.  Pop., 
with  surroundings,  21,221. 

Hyde,  county  of  S.  E.  Central  Dakota,  Area,  about  995 
square  miles.  The  Missouri  Iliver  flows  for  some  distance 
along  its  S.  W.  border, 

Hyde,  county  of  the  E.  of  North  Carolina,  bounded  on 
the  E.  and  S.  by  Pamlico  Sound,  Area,  720  square  miles. 
It  abounds  in  marshes,  lakes,  and  forests.  Corn,  rice,  and 
forest  products  are  the  staples.  Cap.  Swan  Quarter.  Pop, 
6445, 

Hyde  (Alvan),  D.  D.,  LL.D..  b.  at  Franklin,  Conn., 
Feb.  2.  17t»S;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  17S8; 
studied  theology,  and  in  17U2  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  Lee,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  an  able  and  influential  pastor,  and 
a  zealous  friend  to  Williams  College,  of  which  he  was  for 
twenty-one  years  vice-president.  Dr.  Hyde  published  a 
number  of  sermons.     D.  at  Lee  Dec.  4,  18.13. 

Hyde  (Ammi  Bradford).  D,  D.,  b.  at  Oxford,  N.  Y., 
JIar.  I.'i,  1825;  graduated  at  AVesleyan  University  in  1840; 
entered  the  Methodist  Episcopal  ministry;  taught  (1846-Cl) 
in  the  seminary  at  Cazcnovia,  N.  Y.,  and  in  ISfit  became 
jtrofessor  of  Greek  in  Allegheny  College,  Mcadville,  Pa. 

Hyde  (.\nne).  a  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde,  earl  of 
Clarendon,  b.  in  1637,  and  lived  at  the  Hague  as  maid-of- 
honor  to  the  princess  of  Orange,  sister  to  Charles  II.  and 
James  II.  Here  James,  at  that  time  duke  of  York,  formed 
a  liaison  with  her,  and  shortly  after  the  restoration  of  his 
family  to  the  throne  of  England  in  16*>0  he  married  her 
clandestinely.  For  some  time  the  royal  family  would  not 
recognize  her,  and  much  intriguing  was  going  on  for  tho 
purpose  of  breaking  the  marriage;  but  .Anne's  perseverance 
at  last  conquered  all  difficulties.  She  was  not  handsome, 
but  very  prepossessing,  spirited,  and  dignified,  and  she  ex- 
ercised a  great  influence  on  her  husband.  She  was  a  Ro- 
man Catholic,  and  converted  him.  Her  two  daughters, 
however,  Mary  and  Anne,  who  both  became  queens  of  Eng- 
land, were  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion.  Anno  d.  in 
1671. 

Hyde  (Edward).     See  Clarendon. 

Hyde  Park,  an  enclosure  comprising  400  acres,  and 
extending  from  the  western  extremity  of  London  to  Ken- 
sington Gardens.  When  the  monasteries  were  dissolved 
under  Henry  VIIT.,  these  grounds  became  the  property  of 
the  Crown,  and  after  the  Restoration  it  became  the  favorite 
drive  and  promenade  of  London.     (Sec  London.) 

Hyde  Park,post-tp.  of  Cook  co.,  III.,  a  southern  suburb 
of  Chic;igo,  now  under  village  organization.  It  covers  49 
square  miles,  and  includes  4'J  villages,  towns,  and  hamlets; 
has  25  churches.  23  schools,  13  post-offices,  30  manufacto- 
ries, gas  and  water  works,  and  all  city  conveniences.  Ex- 
cept in  South  Chicago,  Hyde  Park  is  chiefly  inhabited  by 
persons  who  do  business  in  Chicago,  Pop.  in  1870,  3644; 
estimated  jiop,  in  1873,  35,000, 

I.  L,  VAN.SANT,  Ed.  "Socth  Side  News." 

Hyde  Park,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Norfolk  co„  Mass.,  7 
miles  from  Boston,  on  the  river  Xeponset.  and  on  the  Bos- 
ton aud  Providence  and  the  New  York  and  New  England 


HYDE   I'AKK— U\"DKA>GEA. 


1048 


R.  Us.;  has  a  savinga  bank,  public  library,  newspaper,  5 
churohcs,  excellent  graded  schools,  and  a  good  fire  dcpart- 
mtnt.  It  is  ehiclly  a  plaeo  of  rcsidcni-c  lor  persons  whoso 
places  of  business  arc  in  lioston.     Pop.  4i;i6. 

K.  0.  Gktciiell,  Ed.  "  Gazette." 
llyAe  Park,post-tp.of Wabashawco.,Minn.  Pop..S80. 
Hyde  Park,  Ip.  and  pnst-v.  of  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Hudson  River  and  the  Hudson  Uivcr  U.  R.,  5  miles  N. 
of  Poughkeepsie.  The  township  has  many  splendid  coun- 
try-houses. The  village  has  4  churches,  and  is  beautifully 
situated.     Pop.  600  ;  of  tp.  2093. 

Uyde  Park,  a  portion  of  Scranton,  Pa.  (in  Luterne 
CO.),  separated  from  the  main  part  of  the  city  by  the  river 
Lackawanna.  It  has  8  churches  (.S  with  M'clsh  services), 
S  halls— Odd  Fellows',  Masons',  and  Red  Men's — a  savings 
bank,  3  hotels,  etc.  Coal-mining  is  the  principal  industry. 
Hyde  Park  embraces  the  4th  and  5th  wards  of  the  city,  and 
is  built  upon  a  hill.  It  has  a  weekly  and  a  monthly  period- 
ical, both  in  the  AVelsh  language. 

\V.  RODERTS,  En.  OF  "  Y  Cyfaill." 
Hyde  Park,  postv.,  cap.  of  Lamoille  CO.,  Vt.,  on  the 
Portland  anil  Ogdenshurg  R.  U.,  has  a  national  bank,  a 
newspaper,  an  academy,  a  quarry  of  limestone,  beds  of 
mineral  paint,  a  copper-mine,  S  large  saw-mills,  besides 
several  smaller  ones,  manufactures  of  pails,  tubs,  pegs, 
starch,  and  a  very  great  water-power.  There  are  3  churches 
and  3  hotels.  The  manufacturing,  agricultural,  and  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  place  are  imporliint.  The  town- 
ship has  1 1  small  natur.%1  lakes  and  numerous  streams,  and 
is  a  good  place  for  fishing  and  as  a  summer  resort.  Pop. 
of  tp.  1624.  I'.  ('.  Mouse,  Ed.  "  XEWsnEALER." 

Hyderabad'  (or  Haiderabad,  as  it  is  written  in 
official  English  papers),  the  capital  of  the  nizam  of  tho 
Deeean,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Indian  princes  under 
English  protection.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  va- 
riously given  ;  the  best  source,  however  (Thornton,  Gazct- 
Itrr  of  the  Territorift  under  the  Qoierument  of  the  Bant 
India  Cnrnpiini/,  London,  1R57),  says  200,000.  Tho  city  is 
situated  in  the  centre  of  tho  plateau  of  the  Deevan,  about 
520  metres  above  tho  sea,  on  the  Mussi  River,  which  hero 
is  nearly  IfiO  mi-trcs  broad,  and  presents  a  magnificent 
prospect  with  its  numerous  mosques  and  surrounded  by 
granite  cliffs  of  a  strikingly  picturesque  form.  The  larger 
part  of  the  city,  more  especially  tho  old  city,  stands  on  tho 
southern  bank  of  the  Mussi;  on  tho  northern  is  that  quar- 
ter which  by  Englishmen  is  called  tho  Princess  Bazaar, 
and  which  contains  the  magnificent  building  of  tho  Eng- 
lish residency.  This  building  communicates  directly  with 
the  palace  of  the  nizaui,  standing  on  tho  opposite  bank  of 
the  river,  by  a  beautiful  stone  bridge  constructed  by  Col. 
Oliphant.  The  building  of  the  English  residency,  which 
was  commenced  in  \sm,  after  a  plan  by  T.  Russell,  and 
executed  in  grand  style  and  with  great  splendor,  is  tho 
most  beautiful  and  most  important  structure  of  tho  city. 
The  palace  of  tho  nizam  is  badly  situated,  and  has 
nothing  striking  about  it.  Amcmg  the  private  houses 
the  palace  of  the  influential  minister,  Salar  Jung,  is 
the  most  remarkable ;  tho  pala-e  of  .'Ihumsul  Umra, 
who  is  at  tho  head  of  tho  administration  together 
with  Salar  Jung,  is  also  noteworthy.  The  city  is  prin- 
cipallv  Mohammedan,  and  tho  most  prominent  of  its 
mosques  arc  the  cathedral  mosqui',  with  immensely  high 
minarets,  and  the  mosque  of  the  Prophet,  a  structure  of 
enormous  dimensions.  A  very  striking  buiMin;;  is  tho 
("hahar  Minar.  formerly  a  university.  Where  the  four 
principal  streets  cross  each  other  it  rises  on  four  immense 
arches,  so  that  the  streets  run  below  it.  The  city  is  very 
extensive,  but  contains  many  small  and  poor  houses  in 
narrow  streets;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  which,  however, 
is  too  weak  and  insignificant  to  make  a  real  fortification. 
The  surrounding  country  is  rich  in  magnificent  gardens 
with  numerous  ]>onds,  pavilions,  and  villas.  Hyderabad 
was  formerly  the  principal  market  for  tho  diamonds  cut  jn 
the  neighboring  (iolcou'la;  its  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
paper  arc  still  considerable;  himkhtmt,,  a  silk  embroidered 
with  g'dd.  and  turbans  ore  made.  A  railway  is  projected, 
which  will  connect  Hyderabad  with  Oulbarga  on  the  one 
side  and  Chnnda  on  tho  other. 

The  city  was  founded  in  tho  sixteenth  century  by  Mo- 
hammed kuli.  who  wagcrl  many  wars  with  the  neighbor- 
ing rajahs  and  formerl  an  alliani'e  with  Persia.  Among 
bis  successors,  .Vbdullah  arid  Abu  llusain  are  noteworthy; 
the  latter  was  defeated  in  Ills;  by  Aurungzebe.  The  pres- 
ent territory  of  the  niiain  is  tho  snnio  as  that  of  the  subnh 
of  the  Dcecau  in  Iho  time  of  tho  Mogul.  Area,  0.i,337 
square  miles.  Pop.  10,500,000.  A  grandson  of  one  of  tho 
ablest  generals  of  Aurungzebe,  Asuf  Jah,  made  himself  in- 
dependent lord  of  the  country  as  subadar  of  the  Doocan  in 
1724.  and  took  Hyderabad  for  his  capital.  Ho  founded  tho 
Asuf  dynasty.     His  successors  concluded  an  alliance  with 


Dupleix,  tho  Frcndh  governor  of  PonJichcrry,  and  kept  a 
French  army  corps,  commanded  by  Bussy.  But  on  tho 
outbreak  of  the  war  of  1756  the  policy  of  the  country 
changed.  On  Mar.  14,  1759,  tho  first  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  English  ;  the  nizam,  Salabut  Jung,  ceded  the  dis- 
trict of  Masulipatain  and  dismissed  the  French.  Tho  sec- 
ond treaty  was  concluded  Nov.  12,  17116;  the  nizam  ceded 
tho  districts  of  Ellore,  (iuntur,  and  Rajamandri.  and  bound 
himself  to  furnish  troops  on  the  receipt  of  an  annual  sub- 
sidy of  £90,000.  .Several  wars,  in  which  the  nizam  fur- 
nished auxiliary  troops  to  the  English  against  Tippoo  and 
against  the  Pindarees,  and  several  new  treaties  (Sept.  I, 
1798,  July  13.  1799,  Oct.  12,  1^00,  and  Dec.  12,  1822), 
broui^ht  the  nizam  more  and  more  imder  English  author- 
ity, and  great  misery  came  over  the  country,  threat  re- 
forms were  commenced,  however,  in  1853,  when  ,Salar  Jung 
became  minister.  According  to  a  treaty  which  the  resi- 
dent. Col.  Low,  mediated,  the  nizam  was  to  cede  more  land 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  all  his  financial  obligations  to  tho 
English,  and  only  furnish  5000  men,  infantry,  2000  horses, 
and  4  batteries.  But  Nasrn-d-Daulah  would  not  consent 
to  the  cession,  and  tho  treaty  was  not  ratified  until  under 
his  successor,  Afzula-d-Daulah,  when  Salar  .lung  had  be- 
come minister.  On  Dec.  31,  1800,  it  was  determined  that 
the  nizam,  as  a  reward  for  his  services  during  the  war  of 
1857-58,  should  receive  the  conquered  territory  of  .Shora- 
pur,  that  of  the  formerly  ceded  districts,  those  of  Raiehur 
Doab  ami  Dharasco  should  be  restored  to  him,  and  his 
debt,  £500,000,  cancelled.  The  English  retained  only  so 
much  of  the  territory  of  the  nizam  as  would  yield  an  an- 
nual revenue  of  £320,000,  to  pay  for  the  contingent  of 
auxiliaries  which  the  nizam  was  to  furnish.  This  district 
is  called  Haiderabad  assigned  districts,  or  lierar,  and  forms 
a  province  with  an  area  of  16.960  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
lation of  2.231,565.  Afzulu-d-Daulah  d.  Feb.  26, 1869,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Mir  Mahbub  Ali  Khan. 

AuGi;sT  Niemann. 
Hyderabad,  town  of  British  India,  the  capital  of  tho 
district  of  Sinde,  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  stands  near 
the  Indus,  in  lat.  25°  22'  N.,  lou.  68°  28'  E.  It  is  famous 
for  its  manufactures  of  arms  and  cutlery.  Pop.  about  24,000. 
Hy'der  A'li,  b.  in  1728  at  Bangalore,  which  his  f.athcr 
heldasafief  of  tho  rajah  of  Mysore.  In  1756  he  inherited  the 
fief  at  tho  death  of  his  elder  brother,  and  in  X'Wi  he  made 
himself  actual  ruler  of  Mysore,  having  to  the  rajah  noth- 
ing but  his  title  and  a  portion  of  tho  revenues,  liydcr  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  tho  Mohammedan  princes  of 
India,  both  with  respect  to  talent  and  to  character,  lie 
was  mild  and  just,  and  had  groat  respect  for  all  the  inven- 
tions of  a  higher  civilization.  Ho  encouraged  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  conuuercc.  His  army  he  organized  on 
tho  Prussian  plan,  and  had  it  commanded  chiefly  by  Eu- 
ropean oflicers,  but  he  was  himself  possessed  of  great  military 
talent,  and  was  eminently  successful  in  his  wars.  He  con- 
quered Calicut,  liednor.  Onor,  and  Cananor,  and  threw  off 
the  supremacy  of  the  Mahraltas  over  Mysore.  In  his  first 
war  with  the  English  ho  dictated  peace  under  the  walls  of 
Madras,  Apr.  15,  1769,  and  in  tho  war  between  the  English 
and  French  he  sided  with  tho  latter,  and  fought  with  va- 
rious success,  butd.  at  Chitorc  in  1782.  before  tho  war  was 
over;  his  son,  Tippoo  Sahib,  sueccedcd  him. 
Hydra  (Polyp).     Sec  HvniiotnA. 

Ily'dra,  an  island  of  Orcece,  off  tho  E.  coast  of  Morea, 
II  miles  long  and  3  miles  broad.  Pop.  in  1871,  11,684. 
It  is  high,  rocky,  and  bare  ;  and  almost  all  its  inhabitants 
live  in  the  town  of  Hydra,  situated  on  the  northern  coast 
of  tho  island,  with  a  good  harbor.  The  island  was  unin- 
habite<l  in  ancient  times.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuri.-s  fugitives  from  Albania,  Argolis,  and  Attica,  who 
fled  from  Turkish  oppression,  founded  tho  city,  and  it  soon 
rose  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  Hydra  is  still  one  of 
the  finest  cities  of  Greece.  In  1825  the  jiopulation  of  the 
island  was  estimated  at  40,000. 

Hydrac'id  [hif/rnycii  and  acid],  a  name  formerly  ap- 
plied by  chemists  to  those  acids  of  which  the  base  was 
sui.iiose'd  to  bo  hydrogen.  The  generally  received  theories 
of  the  constitution  of  acids  are  quite  at  variance  with  those 
oneo  prevalent ;  all  acids,  according  to  Dulong's  hypothe- 
sis, being  regarded  as  compounds  of  hydrogen  willi  some 
radical.  Tlie  term  is  at  present  u.sed  (when  usiil  at  all)  to 
designate  acids  formed  upon  tho  liydroelilorio  acid  type. 
(See  Aims,  by  C.  F.  CiiANni,EK,  Pii.  D.,  M.  D.,  LL.D.) 

Hydran'Rca  [Gr.  iioip, "  water,"  and  iJYYot,  a  "  vessel," 
perhaps  from  the  fondness  of  tho  plants  for  water],  a  genus 
of  shrubs  of  the  order  Saxifrngaoeie.  The  V.  S.  have  three 
(Southern)  species,  all  elegant  shrubs  iu  cultivation—//. 
radium,  arhoretren;  ami  ijiierrifutia.  Tho  common  hy- 
drangea of  the  green  bouse  is  //.  Iiurten'in  of  China.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  mutable  color  of  its  flowers.  It  requires 
peaty  earth  and  plenty  of  water,  and  is  very  hardy,      ff. 


1044 


HYDRASTIS  CANADENSIS— HYDRAULIC   ELEVATOR. 


Thnnberfjii  furnishes  leaves  which   are   highly  prized  in 
Japan  as  a  substitute  for  ten.     There  arc  other  species. 

Ilydras'tis  ranaclon'sis,  the  only  known  species 
of  its  genus.  (I  rauuneuliiceous  plant  of  the  U.  S.,  comraou 
in  many  parts,  and  known  as  puccoon,  yellow  root,  etc.,  is 
used  to  n  considerable  extent  in  medicine,  and  has  the 
power  of  dyeiu;;  a  rich  and  permanent  yellow.  Its  valu- 
able tonic  jtowers  depend  in  part  on  the  presence  of  ber- 
berin  and  hydrastin. 

llytlratc  of  Chloral.     See  Ciiloual. 

Hy'drate  of  Cro'ton-Chlo'ral.  By  papsin^;  dry  chlo- 
rine gas  over  pure  aldehyde,  there  are  formed  hydrochloric 
acid  and  the  chlorated  aldeliycle  of  crotonic  acid,  or  croton- 
chft'nil  (('4113030).  a  body  Imidinj;;  the  same  place  in  the 
allyl  group  that  chloral  docs  in  the  ethyl.  Obtained  pure, 
it  is  a  dense  oily  liquid  of  peculiar  odor.  Mixed  with 
excess  of  warm  water,  it  forms  croton-chloral  hydrate 
(C^HaCIgO  f  il'jO),  a  crystalline  substance  almost  insoluble 
in  cold,  but  soluble  in  hot  water  and  in  alcohol.  By  contact 
with  an  alkali. croton-chloral  first  forms  a  trichloratcd  com- 
pound, allyl-chloroform,  which  speedily  decomposes  into 
the  biclilorated  body  bichlorallyleiie.  Croton-chloral  hy- 
drate has  been  lately  tried  in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for 
chloral-hydrate  in  certain  cases.  Its  asserted  advantages 
arc  a  greater  freedom  from  danger  of  paralyzing  the  heart, 
and  a  special  ]H)wer  of  producing  anicsthesia — and  thus  re- 
lieving pain — in  the  parts  of  the  head  and  face  innervated 
by  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial  nerves.  Euward  Curtis. 

Hy'drates  [Or.  vSujp,  "water"].  This  term  is  applied 
to  compounds  formerly  supposed  to  contain  water.  Ac- 
cording to  the  recent  theories  of  chemistry,  most  hydrates 
are  supposed  to  be  compounds  of  hydroxyl  (Oil),  and  to 
be  produced  by  the  replacement  of  half  the  hydrogen  in 
water  (H2O).  The  following  examples  illustrate  the  two 
views : 

Sodic    hydrate Na20.n20.  Na(On). 

Calcic  "      CaO.Il20.  Ca(0H)2. 

Bismuthic  "      61203.31120.  Bi(0H)3. 

Aluininic    "      A^Os.^JII^O.  Al2(OU)6. 

Kthy  lie  alcohol CC2H5)20.H20.        C2U5(0I1). 

Ethene        "      C2H*0.}l20.  CjHit  011)2. 

Propenyl    "      (C3H5)203.:JFl20.     CaHslOlHs- 

Mannite     "     CeHsOa.aHaO.         €6118(011)6. 

Nitric  acid H-.O.NaOs.  (H0)N02. 

Sulphuric  acid H2O.SO3.  (II0)2S02. 

Phosphoric  acid 3H2O.P2O.  (HOJsPO. 

The  formation  of  hydrates  from  water  by  the  replacement 

of  hydrogen  is  shown  in  the  following  formulas: 

H.O  f  Na  =  Na(On)-^  U. 

II2O  is  H  ~  0  -  H  Sodic  hydrate  is  Na  -  0  -  H. 

Nitric  acid  is  H  -  0  -  NO2. 
2II2O  is  H2  =  O2  =  H2.     Calcic  hydrate  is  Ca  -  O2  =  Ih- 

Sulphuric  acid  is  H2  =  02  =  SO2. 
3H3O  is  113=^  03  =  113.       Bismuthic  hydrate  is  Bi  -  O3-  II3. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  313^03^  PO. 
4H2O  is  H4=  0*=  H4.      Stannic  hydrate  Su  ^04=  H4. 
6H2O  is  He  =  06^  He.      Ferric  •'        Fe2iOciH6. 

(See  article  Ciikmistuv.) 

Hydrates  maybe  formed  by — (1)  The  displacement  of 
hydrogen  in  water,  as  in  the  case  of  the  alkaline  metals,  as 
already  shown  for  sodium.  (2j  By  the  direct  union  of  the 
anhydrous  base  or  aeid  (anhydride)  with  water,  the  combi- 
nation being  often  attended  with  the  evolution  of  heat: 

n20  +  Na.jO-2NaOH. 

H2O  +  Ca0    -    ra(0H)2. 

2H2O  !  .SO2"02SO."  =2(H0)2S02. 

3H2O  +  P0"'03P0"'  ^  2(HOl3l'0. 
(3)  By  double  decomposition,  as  when  soluble  metallic  salts 
are  precipitated  by  alkaline  or  alkaline  earthy  hydrates: 
MKS04  +  ramHi2=  MgfOII)-.  fraS04. 
FeaClG  +  eKOH  =.Fc2fOH)o  '  CKCl. 
Hydrates  retain  their  water  with  various  degrees  of  force. 
Some, as  cupric  hydrate,  give  up  water  at  a  moderate  heat; 
others,  as  calcic,  ferric,  and  stannic  hydrates,  lose  it  at  a  red 
heat:  others,  as  sodic  andpotassic  hydrate. arc  not  decom- 
posed by  any  degree  of  heat.     Tribasic   phosphoric  aeid 
loses,  when  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  first  one-third,  then  an- 
other third,  (pf  its  water,  but  the  last  third  cannot  be  re- 
moved.    (See  Piiospiionrs.) 

The  volatile  acids  exhibit  peculiar  relations  to  water. 
They  form  a  series  of  hydrates  with  one,  two,  three,  four, 
or  more  molecules  of  water,  eaeh  hydrate  being  permanent 
under  certain  fixed  ecmditions  of  temperature  and  pressure. 
A  weaker  acid  under  these  conditions  gives  off  water,  a 
stronger  gives  off  acid,  till  the  most  permanent  compound 
alone  remains.  Thus,  we  have  H20.S03i  H-SO4  or  (H0)2 
S02),2Il20.S03  and  iUI-^O.SOj.  The  hydrate's  of  the  alka- 
line metals,  of  barium,  strontium,  and  thallium,  are  very 


soluble  in  water,  forming  strongly  alkaline  solutions.  Hy- 
drate of  calcium,  mercury,  lead,  and  silver  are  slightly 
soluble.  The  other  metallic  hydrates  are  insoluble,  or 
nearly  so.  The  hydrates  of  the  acid  radieals  (the  acids) 
and  the  alcoholic  hydrates  (the  alcohols)  arc  nearly  all 
soluble,  the  exceptions  being  certain  organic  bodies  of  high 
molecular  weights,  such  as  ])almitic,  stearic,  oleic  acid,  etc. 
Many  compounds  contain  water  evidently  as  such.  Thus, 
crystallized  baric  hydrate  is  Ba(OIl)2.-in2b  ;  alum  is  K2SO4. 
Al2(S04)3.24H20  ;  gypsum  is  ('aSO4.2n20  ;  cupric  sulphate 
is  CuS04.i)ll20.  Most  of  such  water  is  expelled  by  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  C,  but  some  salts  retain  a  portion  of  this 
water  with  greater  tenacity  than  the  rest.  Sulphate  of 
zinc,  ZuSOi.THjO,  becomes" Zn.SO4.H2O  at  101)°  C,  and  re- 
tains the  last  H2O  till  heated  to  238°  C.  This  last  molecule 
of  water  may  be  replaced  by  another  salt,  thus  : 

Crystallized  sulphate  of  zinc ZnPOi.IIaO  +  GH2O. 

Sulphate  of  zinc  and  potassium...ZnS04.K2S04  -|-  CIloO. 
The  water  easily  expelled  is  called  water  of  crystallization; 
the  water  in  ZnS04.H20  is  called  by  Graham  fouititufioual 
icdtci-f  and   such  compounds  are  called  by   Liebig  hnlhy- 
drntcs.  C.  F.  ClIAVDLEU. 

Ily'dra^  The  Lcrna^aiiy  in  Grecian  mythology,  was 
a  monster  with  the  body  of  a  serpent,  but  with  many  heads, 
seven,  nine,  fifty,  or  even  one  hundred,  which  grew  up  again 
as  often  as  they  were  cut  oft",  and  from  whoso  mouths  issued 
a  deadly  venom.  It  inhabited  tlic  marshes  of  Lerneea,  in 
Argolis,  but  was  destroyed  by  Hercules. 

Ilydraii'lic  Crane,  a  device  by  which  the  enormous 
power  of  the  hydrostatic  press  is  utilized  in  the  working 
of  derricks,  cranes,  etc.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  Great 
Britain,  where  the  *' hydraulic  **  or  hydrostatic  press  is  a 
favorite  means  of  exerting  great  force.  In  unloading  and 
loading  ships,  and  in  filling  railway  cars  with  heavy  goods, 
it  is  sometimes  convenient  to  have  a  considerable  number 
of  cranes,  which  if  managed  by  the  direct  application  of 
steam-power  would  require  complicated  and  cumbrous  ma- 
chinery ;  but  a  steam-engine  working  a  hydrostatic  press, 
with  r.n  accumulator  attached,  is  made  to  work  the  cranes 
by  very  simple  means,  the  necessary  rapidity  of  motion 
being  gained  by  long  leverage  and  the  use  of  jiullcys. 

Hydraulic  £levator,  or  Jkscenscur  Edoux.  This 
is  an  invention  of  M.  Leon  Edoux  of  Paris.  France,  de- 
signed to  lift  weights  by  hydraulic  pressure  from  level  to 
level,  though  in  its  actual  application  employed  only  to 
elevate  persons  from  story  to  story  in  public  hotels  or 
other  lofty  buildings.  Its  construction  may  be  understood 
from  the  following  description  of  an  elevator  of  this  kind 
which  was  in  ofieration  during  the  Exposition  of  1867  in 
Paris,  in  the  gallery  of  machines  of  the  Exposition:  The 
essential  parts  of  this  apparatus  consisted  of  a  cylinder  20 
metres  (GO  feet)  long,  sunken  ])erpendicularly  into  the  earth, 
with  a  plunger  descending  into  it  to  the  same  depth,  and 
packed  water-tight  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  Into  this, 
below  the  packing,  water,  from  the  source  from  which  the 
Exposition  received  its  supply  for  general  purposes,  was 
admitted,  by  means  of  a  valve  which  was  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  attendant.  The  piston  rose  tinder  the  pressure 
to  the  required  height,  and  was  maintained  there  by  clos- 
ing the  Aalve.  A  car  or  kiosk,  for  the  accommodation  of 
passengers,  rested  on  the  upper  extremity  of  the  piston, 
and  was  elevated  as  it  rose.  The  descent  was  effected  by 
opening  another  valve  whieh  allowed  the  water  to  escape 
at  the  level  of  the  earth's  surface;  when,  the  pressure  be- 
ing relieved,  the  car  descended  by  its  own  weight.  The 
diameter  of  the  piston  i)lungcr  was  0.25  metre  (10  inches), 
and  that  of  the  cylinder  only  sufficiently  greater  to  allow 
free  water-way.  The  plunger  was  a  hollow  easting,  turned 
and  polished  on  the  exterior,  anil  closed  at  the  bottom.  It 
was  tormed  of  four  lengths  carefully  united.  A  strong  wire 
cable  extending  through  the  interior  from  end  to  end  firmly 
bound  the  parts  together,  and  served  as  a  security  for  hold- 
ing them  in  position  in  case  of  the  occurrence  of  any  acci- 
dent. In  its  ascent,  the  car  was  guided  by  four  cast-iron 
columns,  whieh  formed  a  reetangular  framework  or  tower 
around  it.  These  columns  were  hollow  also,  aft'ording  space 
for  the  ascent  and  descent  of  heavy  weights  within  them, 
by  whieh  the  weight  of  the  empty  car  was  principally 
counterpoised.  Chains  ])assing  over  pulleys  at  the  top 
connected  these  weights  with  the  car  at  its  four  angles. 
I  Only  sufiicient  preponderance  was  given  to  the  car  to  allow 
,  it  to  descend  without  a  load.  The  resistance  to  whieh  the 
hydraulic  pressure  was  opposed  amounted,  therefore,  to 
1  little  more  than  the  weight  of  the  varying  charge.  It  is  to 
!  be  noticed,  however,  that  as  the  car  ascends  the  weight  op- 
i  pused  to  the  pressure  virtually  increases,  since  the  plunger, 
I  so  long  as  it  is  immersed,  is  buuycd  by  the  weight  of  an 
j  equal  bulk  of  water.  A  compeusjition  for  this  increase  of 
I  resistance  is  provided  by  Mr.  Edoux,  in  giving  to  the 
chains  a  weight  per  running  foot  equal  to  the  eighth  part 


HYDRAULIC  ENGINES. 


1045 


of  wciEht  of  the  piston— that  I  dependent    of    public   waterworks,    and   even    of   natural 


of  the  thus  accruinj!  increase 

is  to  say,  about  2  kilograms,  or  a  little  more  than  4  pounds. 
There  being  (our  chains,  and  each  chain  being  diminished 
one  foot  in  length  on  the  side  of  the  car.  and  increased  in 
length  on  the  side  of  the  counterpoise,  one  foot  for  each 
loo? of  elevation,  the  counterpoise  is  thus  increased  at  the 
same  time  15  kilograms,  or  about  31  pounds,  which  is 
equal  to  the  simultaneous  increase  in  the  virtual  weight 
of  the  piston. 

The  charge  which  an  apparatus  of  (his  kind  will  elevate, 
the  cross-section  of  the  piston  remaining  the  same,  will  de- 
pend on  the  height  of  the  hydraulic  head.  If  we  assume 
the  system  of  eounlerpoises  to  be  such  as  to  maintain  the 
whole  moving  apparatus  (supposed  to  bo  without  a  load) 
in  etiuilibrio  when  the  pressure  of  the  head  is  shut  off  and 
(he  escape-valve  is  open,  or  with  only  a  slight  predomi- 
nance of  weight  in  favor  of  descent,  and  to  do  this  in 
every  part  of  the  course,  the  elevating  force  will  be  found 
by  making  the  proper  substitutions  in  the  expression 
y=,i,,r'irli,  in  which  F  represents  the  force,  d  the  di- 
ameter of  the  piston,  w  the  weight  of  a  cubic  unit  (metre 
or  foot  as  the  ease  may  be)  of  water,  and  h  the  height  of 
the  head.  It  was  stated  that  the  reservoir  from  which  the 
supply  of  water  was  received  was  situated  at  an  elevation 
of  :1U  "metres  above  the  point  of  application.  Putting,  thore- 
.  fore,  A  =  30,  rf  =  0.2 j,  and  i(.=  1000  kilograms,  we  shall 
obtain  the  result  /' =  3.14IM  X  0.062.i  X  30  xKlOO  ^- 4  = 
1473  kilograms  nearly.  Putting  the  average  weight  of  an 
adult  at  00  kilograms,  say  130  pounds,  the  aacenaeur  was 
capable  of  carrying  up  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  persons 
at  a  time. 

It  will  bo  seen  that  the  ingenious  system  of  counter- 
poises introduced  by  Mr.  Kdoux  makes  the  height  to  which 
the  charge  is  elevated  quite  independent  of  the  height  of 
the  hydraulic  head.  Other  considerations,  however,  prac- 
tically limit  the  extent  to  which  the  system  can  be  applied. 
In  proportion  as  the  length  of  the  piston  is  increased  it 
becomes  nceessary  to  increase  its  diameter  and  the  thick- 
ness of  its  walls,  in  order  that  it  may  preserve  a  sufficient 
rigidity  under  the  increasing  strain  and  pressure  to  which 
it'will  be  liable.  Its  weight  will  be  correspondingly  in- 
creased, entailing  the  necessity  of  eriually  increasing  the 
weight  of  the  chains  and  counterpoises.  Thus  the  appar- 
atus will  become  too  ponderous  to  be  advantageously  em- 
|)loyed.  The  weight  of  the  pistons  of  the  uicemenrs  in  the 
xposition  was  2100  kilograms,  or  more  than  2  tons  each. 
This  weight  exceeded,  therefore,  alone,  not  considering  the 
car.-,  the  whole  force  of  elevation,  by  more  than  GOO  kilo- 
grams;  so  that  without  the  system  of  counterpoises  the 
apparatus  would  not  have  worked  at  all. 

On  the  other  hand,  fur  the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  hotel 
elevator,  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  source  of  water  by 
any  means  so  high  above  the  point  of  application  as  that 
which  operated  the  nucenaeura  of  the  Exposition.  It  is 
sufficient,  we  will  suppose,  that  such  an  elevator  may  bo 
capable  of  carrying  up  eight  persons  at  a  time,  having  a 
total  weight  of  ioOU  to  IKHI  pounds.  Assuming  an  outsido 
weight  of  1200,  and,  transforming  the  expression  above  for 

iF  4S00xl't 

the  value  of  h,  wo  have  h 


£' 


mPw      3.14159X100X62.5 
35  feet  nearly,  putting  the  diameter  of  the  piston  at  10 
inches,  and  toking  02.5  pounds  as  the  weight  of  a  oubio 
foot  of  water. 

If  the  diameter  of  the  piston  bo  enlarged  to  12  inches, 
the  hydraulic  head  required  will  be  but  twenty-four  feet. 
.Such  an  elevator  can  therefore  be  introduced  into  any 
house  in  which  the  water  rises  to  a  height  of  35  feet,  or 
even  24  feet,  above  (he  lowest  point  at  which  it  can  be  eon- 
ducted  off  after  being  discharged.  It  is  desirable,  of  course, 
to  have  a  eupcrduity  of  force,  but  that  can  abundantly  bo 
obtained  in  any  house  in  which  water  from  the  ]iublio 
works  is  delivered  in  the  third  story,  and  communication 
with  the  public  drains  can  be  established  from  the  base- 
ment. 

Hydraulic  elevators  in  dwellings  have  the  advantage 
over  mechanical  contrivances  for  (be  same  purpose  worked 
by  sIcam-cngincB,  turbines,  or  other  motors,  because  of 
their  siinplieity  of  eonslruction,  (heir  extreme  facility  of 
manngement.  their  perfectly  smooth  ami  silent  motion, 
and,  in  general,  their  largo  snneriority  in  point  of  economy 
in  operation.  The  economy,  however,  may  not  bo  realized 
in  large  eilics.  where  water  rales  are  high  ;  but  the  advan- 
tages are  in  nlber  respects  so  much  iu  favor  of  these  eleva- 
tors, especially  when  (he  security  attending  their  use  is  also 
taken  into  consideration,  as  to  justify  their  introduction 
oven  in  cases  where  it  might  bo  necessary  to  creoto  the 
hydraulic  head  by  means  of  steam-pumps.  If  steam- 
p'ower  has  to  be  u«e.l  at  all.  it  may  as  well  be  employed  in 
elevating  water  as  in  direedy  operating  an  elevator.  And 
if  this  plan  is  once  adopted  Iho  cstablishmont  bcoomos  in- 


sourccs  altogether,  after  having  provided  a  moderate  origi- 
nal supply,  since  the  same  water  may  bo  constantly  used 
over  and  over  again.  It  will  be  necessary  for  this  purpose 
to  have  a  tank  at  the  lowest  level  and  another  at  the  high- 
est. And  if  we  assume  {as  has  been  shown  above  to  be 
just)  a  height  of  35  feet  to  be  sufficient  in  ordinary  ca.ses, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  compute  the  work  which  an  engine 
would  have  to  perform  in  lifting  the  water  required  for  the 
daily  service  from  the  lower  tank  to  the  upper. 

Supposing  the  course  of  the  piston  to  be  60  feet,  and  its 
diameter,  as  above,  10  inches,  it  will  require  an  expendi- 
ture of  about  33  cubic  feet  of  water  for  each  ascension. 
Supposing  an  ascension  to  take  place  every  six  minutes,  or 
ten  every  hour,  which  is  about  the  fact  at  the  Charing  Cross 
Hotel  in  London,  and  that  the  elevator  is  in  operation 
eighteen  hours  a  day — i'.  c.  from  six  in  the  morning  until 
twelve  at  night — the  total  daily  expenditure  of  water  will 
be  5940  cubic  feet— say  8000- to  raise  which  35  feet  gives 
a  total  work  of  13,125,000  foot-pounds.  This  work  a  one- 
horse  power  engine  would  do  in  a  little  more  than  six  hours 
and  a  half. 

It  would  not  be  desirable,  however,  to  raise  the  whole 
quantity  at  onee.  nor  even  desirable  to  have  so  largo  a 
quantity  at  a  time  in  the  tanks,  since  the  weight  of  fiOOO 
cubic  feet  of  water  would  be  somewhere  near  190  tons.  A 
tank  capable  of  containing  200  cubic  feet  would  suffice  for 
six  ascents  ;  and  if  an  engine  should  bo  employed  con- 
stantly in  raising  the  water  as  it  is  drawn  down,  onethird 
of  a  single  horse-power  would  exceed  the  demand.  Such 
an  engine  could  probably  be  run  at  a  much  less  cost  than 
is  paid  in  London  for  the  supply  of  the  elevator  of  tho 
Charinu  Cross  Hotel,  which  was  stated  to  exceed  £1  a  day. 

F.  A.  P.  Baksaud. 
Hydraulic  Engines.  The  usual,  and  generally  tho 
most  eligible,  mode  of  employing  water-power  is  to  apply 
it  to  the  circumference  of  a  wheel.  (See  WAiEn-wuiCKi. 
and  TiiRBisi;.)  Occasionally,  however,  it  may  be  more 
advantageous  to  use  it  as  steam  is  used,  to  act  on  a  piston 
in  a  cylinder.  This  mode  of  application  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  case  of  a  small  supply  of  water  having  a 
large  fall.  Hydraulic  engines,  like  steam-engines,  may  bo 
cither  reciprocating  or  rotary.  Some  niodilications  arc 
necessary  in  the  constniclion  of  the  parts,  to  accommodate 
them  to  the  different  physical  properties  of  the  denser 
fluid.  The  induction  and  eduction  pi]ies,for  instance,  must 
bo  larger  than  arc  required  for  steam,  and  should  have  no 
abrupt  angles.  Freer  valve-ways  also  are  necessary  ;  the 
eduction  valve  should  open  very  promptly  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  and  tlie  induction  valve  should  not  close  until  the 
stroke  is  quite  completed— that  is  to  say,  tho  influx  should 
cease  and  the  cfllux  should  begin  exactly  at  the  same  mo- 
ment. Any  material  error  in  making  the  adjustments  de- 
signed to  accomplish  this  end,  or  any  imperfect  working 
of" tho  machinery  which  prevents  its  attainment,  will  pro- 
duce coneussion's  (, ■„»;)«  (h  hflicr,  "water-ram  blows,"  as 
they  are  called  by  the  French),  which  will  very  certainly 
be  injurious,  and  which  may  be  destructive.  In  the  hy- 
draul'ic  engines  which  have  been  most  extensively  intro- 
duced, and  most  successful  in  practice,  provision  is  mado 
by  relief  valves  or  other  expedients  to  mitigate  or  obvialo 
tho  evil  resulting  from  this  cause  ;  but  in  so  far  as  it  is 
possible  by  the  adjustments  of  the  machine  itself  to  permit 
the  column  by  which  it  is  operated  to  maintain  a  uniform 
vclocKy,  both  true  economy  of  jiower  and  durabilily  ol 
arts  will  be  best  consulted.  In  the  case  of  sleam,  a(len- 
to  the  particulars  here  jiointed  out  is  not  so  rigid'" 


1': 

necessary7th'c'd'ifferenee  arising  from  the  fact  that  steam 
is  eminently  compressible,  while  water  is  so  only  to  a  de- 
gree which  for  ordinary  purposes  may  bo  regarded  as 
insensible.  .        ,    ,  ,     ,       ,• 

It  is  only  in  some  special  industries  that  hydraulic  en- 
gines have  as  yet  been  extensively  introduecd.  In  large 
foundries  they  have  been  found  very  convenient  in  the 
working  of  cranes  and  other  heavy  maohinery.  lliey  have 
also  been  employed  occasionally  for  the  drainage  of  miius. 
A  remarkably  ingenious  illustration  of  their  possible  use- 
fulness for  this  latter  purpose  may  be  seen  at  present  in 
operation  at  lluclgoat,  in  Brillany.  The  great  waler-eii- 
eino  of  lluilgoat,  (he  invention  of  Mr.  Juncker,  engineer 
of  the  niiiK  s  it  is  employed  to  drain,  has  been  oflen  de- 
scribed. A  very  full  description  is  given  by  Mr.  Dchuinay 
in  his  Mrcliaiiii-n.  This  engine  is  single-acting,  and  it  acts 
directly  lo  lift  Iho  pisfon  of  the  pump  by  which  (he  water 
is  drawn  from  tho  mines.  It  makes  five  and  a  half  slrokes 
per  minu(e.  (he  stroke  being  2*  mistres,  or  more  than  8 
feet  in  length.  The  pislon  rod  is  230  metres  (767  foot) 
long,  and  it  weighs  16,000  kilograms— say  16  tons.  Tho 
power  of  (he  engine  is  derived  from  a  source  at  a  height 
lib  mi>tres  (370  feet)  above  its  own  level.  In  (his  case, 
though  the  direct  apjilieation  of  the  power  reduces  tho  en- 


U)4ii 


IIYDKAULIC  FORGING. 


gine  to  iu  simplest  furm,  yet  the  great  inertia  of  the  mov- 
ing  columns  of  water  requires  that  their  movements  should 
be  very  carefully  regulated.  In  a  reciprocating  eugiue 
there  are  moments  of  rest,  and  successive  periods  in  which 
the  piston  moves  in  opposite  directions.  When  the  driv- 
ing force  is  communicated  to  a  machine  through  a  crank, 
it  is  a  favorable  circumstauce  that  crank-motion  necessarily 
retards  the  movement  of  the  piston  toward  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  and  brings  it  insensibly  to  zero,  while  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  stroke  it  in  like  manner  favors  gradual  acceler- 
ation. But  iu  the  engine  at  Huclgoat,  withont  some  rac- 
clianieal  coutiivauce  to  rcdu^^e  very  gradually  the  volume 
of  intlowing  water  toward  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the  piston 
would  reach  the  limit  of  its  course  with  its  maximum  ve- 
locity, and  the  sudden  arrest  of  its  motion  would  produce 
a  concussion  which  no  strength  of  materials  could  resist. 
The  ingenuity  and  the  simplicity  of  the  contrivances  by 
which  this  powerful  maeliine  is  made  to  regulate  automati- 
cally its  own  motions,  so  as  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of 
the  slightest  perceptible  shock,  has  excited  the  highest  ad- 
miration of  every  engineer  who  has  examined  it. 

irydraulic  engines  upon  a  smaller  scale,  and  designed 
for  use  in  the  operations  of  ordinary  industry,  have  been 
constructed  in  a  variety  of  forms.  Several  of  these — as, 
for  instance,  the  hydraulic  motors  of  Perret  and  Coque  of 
France,  and  of  Garret,  Marshall  &  Co.  and  Ilamsbottom  of 
Great  Britain — are  described  in  full  in  the  Jicport  on  the 
Indtistrial  Arts  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  by  the  writer  of 
Fig.  1. 


Rarasbottom's  water-engine, 
this  article.  The  latter,  a  high-pressure  engine  which  has 
rendered  more  important  services  to  industry  than  any 
other  of  its  class,  is  represented  in  elevation  and  partial 
seetion  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  This  engine  is  oscillating,  and 
employs  two  eylinders  operating  the  same  working  shaft 
by  means  of  two  cranks  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The 
cylinders  arc  supported 
in  a  stout  framework  of 
cast  iron.  Fig.  1  is  a  sec- 
tion through  the  cylin- 
ders, which  arc  vertical, 
and  sliows  the  mode  of 
suspension  of  the  cylin- 
ders, and  the  elianncis  of 
indvi'-'tion  and  eduction, 
which  lire  marked  /,  and 
wliieh  are  east  with  the 
cylinder.  The  doited  cir- 
cles c  and  c'  show  the 
position  of  the  supply 
and  discharge  pipes.  Fig. 
.1  shows  a  cross-section 
of  the  cylinders  and  their  JT^ 
pivots,  and  in  this  will  ^Ji^ 
be  seen  the  places  of  at- 
tachment of  the  pipes 
just  mentioned  at  K  and 
K'.  The  pivots  are  of 
steel.  Those  intermediate 
between  the  eylinders 
are  firmly  fixed  in  the 
support.  The  externul 
pivots  admit  of  adjust-  Pwatusbottom's  water-engine, 
ment  Iiy  means  of  the  screws  and  screw-nuts  d  and/",  Fig. 


Fig.  3. 


2,  which  is  a  section  through  the  line  1  and  2.     Fig.  1 

shows  the  system  of  water-distribution.  The  apertures 
of  induction  and  eduction  are  represented  at  h  and  i,  and 
have  the  form  of  truncated  circular  sectors,  whose  centre 
is  the  centre  of  motion.  The  spaces  marked  h  arc  divided 
from  those  marked  »  by  a  sectoral  partition,  which  is  of 
precisely  the  same  area  in  cross-section  as  they.  The  aper- 
tures of  admission  and  discharge  on  the  side  of  the  cylin- 
ders are  also  of  the  same  form  and  dimensions.  The  sur- 
faces of  contact  between  the  cylinders  and  the  supjiort  D 
are  perfectly  plane  and  polished,  and  arc  made  water-tight 
by  means  of  the  adjusting  screws  U  and  /of  the  pivots. 
When  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of  its  course  in  either  direc- 
tion the  cylinder  will  be  truly  vertical.      In  this  position 

the   piston    is  momen- 
tarily at  rest,  and  both 
induction  and  eduction 
valves  should  bo  closed. 
Accordingly,  thedispo- 
i  sition   of   the   parts   is 
n\^|  such  that,  when  the  cy- 
'Q  Under   is   vertical,  tiie 
^,^  openings  by  which  the 
channels  j  j  communi- 
cate   with    the    supply 
and     discharge    pipes, 
present  themselves  ex- 
actly   opposite   to    the 
Cross-section  of  cylinders  and  their    solid  sector  dividing  h 
pivots.  from    i.     In    the   next 

moment  the  flow  of  water  will  recommence,  the  cylinder 
discharging  itself  from  the  full  side  of  the  piston,  and  fill- 
ing anew  on  the  opposite  side. 

From  this  statement  it  is  apparent  that  the  influx  and 
efflux  of  the  water  proceed  with  more  and  more  freedom 
from  the  beginning  to  the  middle  of  the  stroke,  when  the 
passages  are  at  their  maximum  opening,  and  that  from  this 
point  to  the  end  the  reverse  takes  place.  But  it  is  to  be 
also  observed  that,  from  the  nature  of  crank-motion,  tiie 
velocity  of  the  piston  varies  correspondingly,  and  that  the 
relation  of  the  supply  of  water  to  the  demand  is  very  nearly 
constant.  Very  nice  adjustment  is  evidently  necessary  in 
these  engines,  in  order  that  the  moment  of  the  absolute 
closing  of  the  valves  may  correspond  to  that  of  the  com- 
pletion of  tho  stroke  ;  and  as  it  is  possible  that  this  perfect 
coincidence  may  not  be  exactly  secured  or  permanently 
maintained,  some  provision  against  counter-pressure  and 
the  eff"ects  of  hydraulic  shocks  is  necessary.  Air-chambers 
and  relief-valves  are  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  re- 
lief-valves open  a  backward  communieation  between  the 
cylinder  and  tho  driving  column,  so  that  if  there  occurs  an 
obstruction  to  tho  discharge,  the  pressure  on  tho  two  sides 
of  tho  piston  will  be  equilibrated  by  the  opening  of  the 
valve.  The  engines  of  this  model  heretofore  in  use  are 
generally  small,  some  of  them  having  cylinders  of  not  more 
than  two  inches  in  diameter.  They  have  been  used  for  a 
variety  of  industrial  purposes,  as  for  operating  printing- 
presses,  circular  saws,  lathes,  etc..  as  well  as  for  cranes  nod 
other  machinery  in  foundries.  Their  siiiiplieity  and  neat- 
ness render  them  preferable  to  almost  nny  ether  form  of 
small  motor  wherever  the  hydraulic  head  can  be  easily  se- 
cured for  working  them.  But  in  general  it  is  not  a  natu- 
ral hydraulic  head  that  is  depended  on;  and  indeed  no 
natural  head  could  furnii^h.  in  machines  of  so  small  model 
as  those  employed  in  foundries,  anything  like  tho  largo 
power  which  they  exert.  The  head  is  established  in  an 
accumnhttor  of  power,  which  is  a  body  of  water  driven  into 
a  reservoir  under  heavy  pressure  by  forcing-pumps  worked 
by  steam.  For  lighter  industries  such  expedients  are  un- 
necessary. In  cities  in  which  the  water-distribution  is  from 
elevated  reservoirs,  and  in  which  the  water-supply  is  suffi- 
ciently abundant  to  justify  the  applieiition  of  a  porticm  of 
it  to  industrial  uses,  the  water-engine  is  recommended  by 
the  combined  advantages  of  simplicity,  neatness,  compact- 
ness, constant  readiness  for  work,  perfect  safety,  economy 
while  working.  an<i  the  absolute  cessation  of  expenditure 
during  interruptions  and  after  the  work  of  the  day  is  ended. 

F.  A.  P.  Baknaiid. 
Hydraulic  Forgrinp.  This  process  of  forging  con- 
sists essentially  in  substituting  the  powerful  and  continu- 
ous pressure  of  the  hydraulic  press  for  the  repeated  blows 
of  a  hammer  in  shaping  wrought  iron  ami  steel.  A  swcdge, 
or  mould,  of  the  desired  object  is  necessary,  and  under  tho 
proper  conditions  of  temperature  the  metal  may  be  forced 
into  cverv  angle  and  reeess  as  perfectly  ns  if  made  fluid  by 
fusion  and  cast :  but  objects  so  made  are  very  much  stronger 
than  castings,  and  are  claimed  to  be  even  superior  to  forg- 
ings  made  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  process  has  been 
carried  to  groat  perfection,  after  years  of  patient  experi- 
mentin-r.  by  Mr.  Haswell  at  the  machine-shops  of  the  Im- 
perial State  Railway  Co.  of  Austria,  in  Vienna.      It  is  used 


HYDKAULIC  PRESS-HYDRAULIC   RAM. 


1047 


there  chieav  for  forming  such  parts  of  locomotives  as 
cross-heads,'  link-bars,  axle-box  frames,  and  for  ear-wheels 
and  various  other  intricately  formed  parts  of  railway  roll- 
ing slock,  where  superior  strenglh  and  lightness  arc  import- 
ant It  is  also  used  instead  of  heavy  steam-hammers  tor 
drawing  down  large  ingots  of  Bessemer  steel.  The  results 
appear  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  ingots  so  treated 
give  stronger  and  more  homogeneous  bars  than  are  obtained 
by  hammeVing.  At  Vienna  two  large  hydraulic  presses  arc 
in  use— one  with  a  piston  24  inches  in  diameter,  giving 
I'HIO  tons  pressure,  and  one  with  an  18-inch  piston,  work- 
ing up  to  COO  tons  pressure.  The  pressure  m  the  pumps  is 
COJ  atmospheres.  The  action  is  vertical;  the  piston  de- 
scends upon  the  work,  and  for  forging  ingots  has  a  ham- 
nier-likc  head  opposed  to  an  anvil  of  the  usual  lorm  below 
In  drawing  down  an  ingot,  say  of  one  ton  weight,  of  soft 
Bessemer  steel,  the  work  commences  at  the  end,  and  alter 
each  squeeze  by  the  descending  piston  the  mass  is  pushed 
alon.'  until  the  first  half  of  the  length  of  the  ingot  has  been 
acted  on.  when  it  is  turned  end  for  end.  It  is  then  turned 
over  and  back  and  forth,  as  is  usual  under  a  hammer,  until 
the  whole  has  been  drawn  down  to  the  required  size.  In 
this  operation  there  is  no  noise  or  jar.  The  piston  descends 
slowly,  but  irresistibly,  and  forces  the  hot  metal  each  way 
as  if  'it  were  a  mass  o'f  soft  putty.  The  work  is  effectively 
pcrfurmed,  and  it  requires  less  time  than  ordinary  forging 
or  rolling.  The  pressure  affects  the  very  centre  of  the  mass 
of  the  in.'ot.  Its  action  is  by  no  means  superficial,  and  it 
is  far  more  effectual  in  modifying  the  structural  condition 
of  the  bar  than  blows  on  the  surface  can  he.  There  is  no 
distribution  of  the  force  of  the  blow  through  the  anvil  to 
the  foundation,  as  there  is  in  (he  violent  impact  of  a  steam- 
hammer.  The  ingot  yields  gradually  to  the  pressure,  and 
bulges  out  at  the  sides  and  end  as  in  Fig.  A,  and  is  not 
drawn  over  more  at  the  surface  than  at  the  centre,  so  as  to 
give  a  ragged  hollow  end  (Fig.  B),  such  as  is  usually 
formed  under  hammers  and  rollers. 


c 


Before  the  forging  of  an  ingot  is  completed  a  distinct 
structural  arrangement  of  the  steel  is  developed,  and  is 
seen  most  distinctly  when  the  h<.t  steel  sinks  down  under 
the  pressure.  As  the  piston-head  descends  into  the  mass, 
and  squeezes  it  upon  the  anvil,  the  lines  of  structure  visible 
in  the  sides  of  the  ingot  bend  downward,  and  are  com- 
pressed as  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  the  movement  ex- 
tending to  the  very  centre  of  the  mass.  |  | 
This  structure  or  "  fibre  "  is  doubtless 
the  result  of  a  difference  in  chemical 
constitution  in  planes  approximately 
parallel  to  the  squeezing  surfaces,  and,  |  ^ 
80  regarded,  the  process  may  be  consid- 
ered 10  be  more  favorable  to  the  development  of  structure 
or  "grain"  than  ordinary  forging.  But,  from  whatever 
cause  it  originates,  this  grain  is  an  important  factor  of 
strength  in  pressed  forgings,  and  characterizes  them  in  a 
remarkable  manner,  as  was  beautifully  exhibited  at  Vienna 
in  a  series  of  forged  objects  which  had  been  sawn  asunder 
and  etched  so  as  to  show  the  grain.  These  structural  pe- 
culiarities are  most  distinct  in  the  pressed  forgings  made 
from  piled  iron  masses,  and  are  beautifully  shown  in  etched 
sections  of  irregular  angular  objects  like  cross-heads,  as  in 
the  figure,  a  section  of  ft  cross-head,  about  i  natural  size, 
after  21  hours'  etching  in  aqua  regia: 


In  forging  such  objects  as  the  parts  of  machines  weigh- 
ing from  50  to  150  pounds  or  more,  a  mass  or  ball  of  metal 
is  cut  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  required  weight  from  the 
end  of  an  ingot,  and  is  heated  nearly  white  hot  prepara- 
tory to   being  thrown  into  the  mould.     The  moulds  are 
made  of  iron  or  steel,  in  several  parts  if  necessary,  and 
these  parts  are  securely  held  together  by  bands  of  wrought 
iron.     They  are  left  open  at  the  top  for  the  reception  of 
the  metal  and  for  the  descent  of  the  plunger  or  follower, 
which  is  attached  to  the  piston-head  of  the  hydraulic  press. 
The  shape  of  this   follower,  called  by  the  workmen  the 
"stamp,"  determines  the  shape  of  the  inside  of  the  object 
to   be  formed.     The  mould  is  placed   directly   under  the 
piston-head.     All  the  parts  being  properly  adjusted,  and 
the  inside  of  the  mould  and  the  surface  of  the  plunger  be- 
ing smeared  with  thick  oil  or  grease,  a  mass  of  hot  steel  is 
thrown  into  the  open  top  of  the  mould;   the  plunger  is 
brought  slowly  down,  and  pushes  the  hot  metal  before  it 
into  every  part  and  recess  of  the  mould.     The  excess  of 
metal,  if  "any.  after  the  mould  is  filled,  rises  on  each  side 
of  the   plunger   and   protrudes.     This   leaves  a  wing  or 
"burr"  which  is  afterwards  easily  cut  off  with  chisels;  but 
a  little  practice  enables  the  workmen  to  cut  off  masses  so 
near  the  required  weight  that  there  is  but  little  excess  to 
bo  trimmed  off.    When  the  stamp  has  reached  the  required 
depth  the  pressure  is  removed;  the  key  which  attaches  the 
stamp-head  to  the  piston  is  knocked  out;   the  piston  is 
raised  out  of  the  way,  and  the  mould  and  contents  are  re- 
moved from  the  bed  of- the  press.    A  few  blows  of  a  sledge- 
hammer detach  the  fastenings  of  the  mould  and  liberate 
the  forging,  which  is  thrown  aside  to  cool.     If  the  work 
has  been  well  done,  all  the  angles  of  the  object  arc  full  and 
solid.     All  pieces  pressed  in  the  same  mould  are  alike  m 
dimensions,  and  there  is  no  great  excess  of  metal  in  any 
part  to  be  cut  away;    and  consequently  it  requires  less 
labor  and  expense  to  fit  up  such  forgings  than  it  does  for 
those  of  irreplar  dimensions  made  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
The  rapidity  with  which  intricate  forgings  are  m.ide  is 
one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  the  method.     It  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  heavy  work,   where  there  are  many 
anglcs'and  interior  surfaces  to  be  shaped.     Of  such  objects 
as  cross-heads  for  locomotives  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
or  more  can  bo  made  in  a  day  with  hut  little  labor.     The 
moulds  are  mado  of  cast  iron,  and  are  used  cold.     The 
stamp-heads  are  also  of  cast  iron,  and  duplicates  are  kept 
on  hand  to  replace  those  which  break.     The  wheels  lor 
locomotives  and  for  railway  carriages  aro  forged  out  in 
this  way  in  segments,  which  are   afterwards   united   by 
welding  under  the  press.     The  process  is  also  applied  to 
forming  boiler-heads,   steam-domes,  etc.,  large  plates  of 
Bessemer  steel  being  forced  through  a  ring.    The  total  pro- 
duction of  pressed  forgings  at  the  railway-works,  Vienna, 
during  nine  months  previous  to  1873,  was  ^S.^O  pieces, 
weighing  1,071,200  pounds.  W.  P.  Bl.-vkis. 

Hydraulic  I'ress.     See  HvDnosTATic  Press,  by  .T.  P. 
FiuzKi.i.,  I'.  K. 

Hydraulic  Ram,  a  well-known  machine  invented  by 
Montgollier  for  elevating  a  part  of  the  water  furnisbed  by 
a  stream  to  a  height  greater  than  that  of  the  source  from 
which  it  is  drawn.  '  Its  action  depends  upon  the  property 
of  inertia  which  water,  in  common  with  all  heavy  bodies, 
possesses.  A  heavy  body,  moving  with  a  given  velocity, 
perforins,  while  being  brought  to  rest,  an  amount  of  me- 
chanical work  suflieicnt  to  raise  the  body  lo  the  height  duo 
to  the  velocity.  A  car.  for  instance,  moving  upon  a  track 
with  a  velocity  of  48  feet  per  second,  or  nearly  Xi  miles 
per  hour,  and  reaching  a  steep  incline,  would  mount  it  to  a 
height  of  .'IS. 82  feet  (friction  and  resistance  of  the  air  not 
considered),  that  being  the  height  which  a  heavy  body  must 
fall  to  acquire  a  velocity  of  48  feet  per  second.  The  me- 
chanical work  performed  by  a  moving  body  in  coming  to 
rest  is  represented  by  the  resistance  opposed  to  its  motion, 
miiUiplicil  by  the  distance  which  the  body  moves  against 
this  resistance;  so  that  the  resistance  necessary  lo  stop  a 
moving  body,  or  the  pressure  which  itcan  exert  while  stop- 
ping, is  great  or  small  according  as  its  motion  is  arrested 
suddenly  or  slowly.  ,     ,     .      ,  e 

In  the  hydraulic  ram  the  moving  body  is  the  ninss  ol 


The  lines  of  the  grain,  it  will  be  seen,  conform  in  ft  remark- 
able degree  «o  the  form  of  the  mnsB,  winding  in  and  out 
around  the  curves  and  angles  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give 
the  greatest  strength  where  it  is  most  needed.  These  lines 
show  in  a  very  interesting  way  the  flow  or  movement  of  the 
viscid  metal  when  under  pressure.  Kxpericneo  has  taught 
that  very  sharp  angles  in  some  parts  of  moulds  interfere 
with  the  proper  flow  of  thjomclnl.  This  difficulty  is  avoided 
by  rouniling  off  the  angles,  or  by  building  Ihcm  out  so  as 
t<>  give  more  space  for  the  metal  lo  move  in.  The  super- 
fluous metal  is  cut  away,  leaving  the  internal  curves  of  the 
grain  in  the  best  shape  for  Iho  strength  of  the  object. 


water  contiiiued  in  a  long  pine,  the  exit  of  which  is  alter- 
nately opened  and  closed.  The  resistance  opposed  to  the 
water's  motion  when  its  exit  is  closed,  is  the  elastic  force  of 
air  eontined  in  a  closed  vessel,  and  the  work  performed  by 
it  eonsist.s  in  compressing  this  air,  which,  by  its  tendency 
to  expand,  forces  the  water  to  a  higher  level.  The  accom- 
panying figure  is  a  section  of  a  hydraulin  ram.  showing 
also' the  chamber  or  pit  in  which  it  is  placed,  a  is  (he  sup- 
ply-pipe leading  from  the  pond  or  other  source  of  supply. 
The  longer  this  pipe  is,  the  better,  provided  there  is  fall 
enough  to  give  the  necessary  velocity  ;  i  is  a  cock  for  clos- 
ing tbo  supply-pipe;  o  is  a  plato  to  which  the  air-vessel  d 


1048 


HYDRAULICS  OF   RIVERS— IIYDKOCAREOXS. 


is  bolted.  Ilclow  this  plato  arc  two  compartments — one,  r, 
formiDfr  a  chauncl  IhroM'-h  \t|p.)i  the  water  passes  freely 
when  tho  valve  y  is  op-  :  i  Mninicating  with  the  air- 


Hydraulic  ram. 

vessel  by  the  valve  /,  which  allows  the  water  to  enter  the 
air-vessfl,  but  not  to  return.  The  other  compartment  com- 
municates freely  with  tho  air-vessel,  and  with  a  rising  pipe, 
not  shown  in  the  figure,  for  conveying  the  water  to  the 
higher  level.  The  valve  tj  being  in  the  position  shown,  the 
water  commences  to  move  through  the  supply-pipe,  escap- 
ing at  *7  and  passing  off  through  the  waste-pipe  h.  The 
velocity  soon  becomes  so  great  as  to  lift  tho  valve  jr,  which 
closes  the  outlet.  While  coming  to  rest  the  water  in  the 
pipe  exerts  a  pressure  sufficient  to  lift  the  valve/",  and  com- 
press air  in  the  air-vessel  by  flowing  into  it.  As  soon  as 
the  water  comes  to  rest,  the  pressure  censes,  the  valve  /' 
closes,  the  valve  //  opens,  and  tho  same  thing  occurs  again. 
The  expansion  of  the  air  in  the  air-vessel  causes  a  uniform 
flow  through  the  rising  pipe.  J.  P.  Frizell. 

Hydraulics  of  Rivers.  See  Rivers,  Hvdrallics 
OF,  by  Gln.  II.  L.  Abbot,  U.  S.  Army. 

Hydrides  [Gr.  vSwp,"  water"],  compounds  of  hydrogen 
with  metals,  alcohol-radicals,  organic  acid  radicals. 

Met'illic  HifdrideB. — Hydride  of  copper,  Cu-iH  or  CcuII, 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  hypophusphorous  acid  on 
cupric  sulphate.  With  HCl  it  yields  CcuCI  -f-  H.  Hydride 
of  iron  is  formed  by  the  action  of  zinc-ethyl  on  ferrous 
iodide.  It  is  a  black  metallic  powdor  which  evolves  H  in 
water.  Arseuurctted  hydrogen  (  HaAs)  and  antimouurctted 
hydrogen  (HgSb)  are  formed  when  solutions  of  thcso  metals 
are  brought  in  contact  with  metallic  zinc  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric or  hydrochloric  acid  or  potassio  hydrate.  They 
are  gases.  (See  Antimonv  and  Arsen'ious  Oxidh.) 

Hydrides  of  (he  Alcohol  Radicith*  —  The  parafiins,  as 
marsh-gas,  CH*.  etc.,  are  often  viewed  as  hydrides,  CH3II, 
etc.  (See  Hydkucarijons  and  Paraffins.) 

Hydrides  of  Acid  Radicals, — The  aldehydes  referred  to 
the  type  HII  constitute  this  class  of  compounds.  Acetic 
aldehyde  C^iUO  =  C2II3O.II ;  benzoic  aldehyde,  bitier-al- 
mond  oil,  is  the  hydride  of  benzoyl,  C7H5O.H.  (See  Alde- 
nvi)i:s  and  Almonds,  Oil  of.)  C.  F.  Chandler. 

Hydriodic  Acid.     See  Iodinf,,  by  E.  Waller,  E.  M. 

Hvdrobromic  Acid.  See  Bromine,  by  Prof.  C.  F. 
Chandlku,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Hydrocar'bons  [Gr.  v5<,ip,  "water,"  and  Lat.  carho, 
"coal"],  compounds  consisting  nf  carbon  and  hydrogen 
only.  Many  such  compounds  are  found  ready  formed 
in  nature;  most  of  tho  essential  oils,  as  turpentine,  lemon, 
orange,  bergamot,  neroli,  etc.,  are  hydrocarbons.  (See 
Essential  Om^.)  Caoutchouc  (see  India-Rcbber)  and 
Gitta-Perciia  (which  see)  are  hydrocarbons.  Methane 
(marsh-gas)  is  found  in  the  mud  of  stagnant  pools  and  in 
coal-beds,  and  under  the  name  ot  jire-damp  produces  the 
disastrous  explosions  in  mines.  Petroleum  and  ozocerite 
are  mixtures  of  several  homologous  hydrocarbons.  (See 
Petrolei'm.)  The  mo^t  fruitful  source  of  hydrocarbons  is 
the  destructive  distillation  of  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances. This  always  results  in  the  formation  of  tour  dis- 
tinct products :  (1)  the  charcoal  or  coke  which  remains  be- 
hind in  tho  retort  J  (2)  the  fixed  gases;  (3)  tho  tar;  (4) 
the  watery  product,  which  is  acid  when  distilled  from  non- 
nitrogenous  bodies,  such  as  wood,  etc.,  owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  acetic  acid,  and  alkaline  when  derived  from  nitro- 
genous bodies^  owing  to  the  presence  of  ammonia.  The 
gas  and  tar  consist  largely  of  hydrocarbons,  solid,  liquid, 
and  gaseous.  (For  a  detailed  statement  of  the  products  of 
the  destructive  distillation  of  coal,  see  article  Gas-Ligbt- 

ING.) 

The  hydrocarbons  are  the  simplest  of  all  organic  com- 
pounds, and  are  regarded  as  the  starting-points  from  which 
nil  other  organic  bodies  may  be  derived  by  substitution  or 
addition.  (For  the  methud!*  by  which  organic  compounds 
are  formed  from  hydrooarbon-*.  see  articles  Alojhol,  Ali- 


ZARESE,  Aniline,  and  Aniline  Colors.)  The  hydrocar- 
bons may  be  formed  (1)  synthetically  from  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  as  when  hydrogen  is  passed  over  carbon  heated 
to  redness  by  the  voltaic  arc : 

CarboQ.      H^'dmgcD.     Acetylene. 

Cs     +     Uj    =     C2U2. 
From  acetylene  other  more  complicated  hydrocarbons  may 
be  built  up.     (2)  From  compounds  containing  these  ele- 
ments: 


Carbon  Hydpogcn        rnr^n-..       «-.»,««<.  Cnnroua 

dbulphldc.         sOlpliidc.         Copper.      Methane.         en,'phide. 

CS2     -I-     211jS    +    8Cu   =   CHi    -H    4CU2S. 


Methane  (marsh-gas)  may  also  be  formed  from  carbon  diox- 
ide (CO2)  by  first  converting  this  into  carbon  monoxide 
(CO),  converting  this  into  formic  acid  (IlCIiOa),  and  then 
subjecting  a  salt  of  this  acid  to  destructive  distillation. 
Alcohol  heated  with  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  yields 
ethylene  (olefiaut  gas) : 

Alcohol.      S"^f^""'=   Ethylene. 

CalleO  +  HaSbi  =  C2II4  +  H2SO4  +  HjO. 
A  hydrocarbon  maybe  transformed  into  another  of  greater 
or  less  complexity;  methane  (CH*)  may  be  changed  to 
acetylene  (C2H2)  by  a  scries  of  induction  sparks,  or  to 
naphthalene  (CioHg)  by  a  very  high  temperature.  Methane 
and  carbon  monoxide  yield  tritylene  when  jiassed  through 
a  red-hot  tube  :  2V\\i  -\-  CO  =  CsHs  r  lU-O.  In  the  process 
of  cracking  (see  PLTnoLEiM)  the  heavy  hydrocarbons  are 
split  up  into  lighter  oils  by  exposure  to  temperatures  near 
their  boiling-points.  By  substitution,  the  hydrocarbons 
yield  haloid  ethers:  CHi -h  Cl2=  CII3CI  -|- HCI.  These,  in 
turn,  may  be  changed  to  alcohols  by  the  action  of  potassio 
hydrate  :  CH3CI  -f-  KIIO  =  CH3OH  +  KCl.  Hydrocarbons 
may  be  oxidized  eitlier  by  the  action  uf  the  air,  long  con- 
tinued, or  by  the  action  of  powerful  oxidizing  agents.  (See 
article  on  the  oxidation  of  petroleum,  by  W,  P.  Jenney,  in 
the  Am.  Chemiat,  Apr.,  187o,  and  also  "Oxidation  of  Car- 
bides of  Hydrogen  "  (by  chromic  acid)  in  the  Chem.  News, 
.\ix.  27.3.) 

Classijication  and  Nomenclature  of  the  Hydrocarbons, — 
The  simplest  of  all  hydrocarbons  is  methane  or  marsh-gas, 
Cn4.  This  is  a  saturated  molecule,  and  is  consequently 
incapable  of  combining  directly  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
etc.,  or  of  receiving  any  addition  of  hydrogen.  It  may, 
however,  unite  with  any  number  of  dyad  elements  or  rad- 
icals, as  such  a  radical  introduced  into  a  group  of  atoms 
neutralizes  one  unit  of  equivalence,  and  introduces  another, 
leaving  the  combining  power  or  equivalence  of  the  group 
the  same  as  before.  The  saturated  molecule,  CH4,  may 
therefore  take  up  any  number  of  molecules  of  the  dyad 
group,  Cn2,  giving  rise  to  a  homologous  series  (sec  Ilo- 
MOLOGv)  of  saturated  hydrocarbons:  CH4.C2H6.C3Hs,C4llio 
....CnIT2n  +  2-  Thesc  saturated  hydrocarbons  may  be 
deprived  of  two  atoms  or  one  molecule  of  hydrogen  (Hj), 
and  thus  produce  a  second  series  of  homologous  hydrocar- 
bons: CH^-CzIuXsHe-C^Hs C„H2„.  By  a  similar  re- 
moval of  H2  from  these  bodies  a  third  series  mav  bo  pro- 
duced: C2H2,C3H4.C4H6 C„H2«-2.  Twelve'such  suc- 
cessive series  are  already  known,  containing  even  numbers 
of  hvdrogen  atoms.  The  first  six  of  these  series,  with  the 
names  proposed  for  them  by  Hofinann  {Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  xv. 
67),  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Uctfaaac.  Methcnc. 

CHi       CH2 


Ethane. 


Elbcne. 

Call, 


F  Ik  inc. 
C2II1 


Propiinc.  Propcoe.    Proptnc.    Propone. 

fjUs     Calls     fjH,     C3H2 

QtmrtADC.  Quartcne    Qtmrltne.  Qiiartonc.  Qna7t<nio. 

(■(llio      C.Ils     I'.IU       C,H4      Cjlla 

QiiinUtnc.  Quintene.  Quiniinc.  Quintonc.  Qulotune. 

Csllii!      CsHio     C'slls      Calls      Csll,     CsHj 

S>'xtane.    Soxtene.    Scxtinc.    Soxtooe.    Se:(tune. 

Csllu     CsUia    Csllio    CsIIe     Cells     CsH,     CsH2. 

Fiml  Serlea  (Cnllflj  +  j) — Painffinn. — .Methane  (marsh- 
g!>s),  Cllt,  is  the  simpkst:  ethane  (C^lls)  and  propane 
(Calls^  are  also  gases  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Butane 
(CiHs)  is  a  liquid  above  D4°  F.  The  following  fifteen  or 
twenty  members  of  the  series  arc  liquids,  and  constitute  the 
greater  portion  of  petroleum  :  C27II56.  and  the  higher  mem- 
bers of  the  group,  constitute  the  beautiful  white  solid  known 
as  Paraffin  (which  sec). 

Sccnnd  Series  (CnHi.>„) — Olefinet.— The  simplest  mem- 
ber of  this  series  is  ethylene  (olefiant  gas),  CjH4,  and  tho 
scries  includes  gases,  liquids^  and  solids.  (See  Etiivlkne 
and  Olkfinks.) 

Third  Series  (C„Hi„  _  j). — Five  members  of  this  series 
are  known:  ethine  or  acetylene  (CjHj).  propine  ur  ally- 
lene  (Cslli),  quartine  or  crotonylenc  (C4Hc),  quintine  or 
valerylcne  (CsIIs),  and  se.xtine  or  diullyl  (t'ellio^.  They 
are  readily  formed  by  heating  tho  monobrouiinitfeU  deriva- 


HYDROCELE— HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 


1049 


tivesof  the  oleBncs  with  gndium  othjlate:  CsIIiBj  +  CsHs- 
NaO  =  NiiHr  +  CjlUOlI  4-  CsiU. 

Funtlh  Scnei  (('H„H2«  -  «) — Quintonc  or  valylene {C^He)' 
— The  terpcnes  f«co  Isomkkism)  were  supposed  to  belong 
to  thir<  scries,  but  uil  of  turpentine  is  now  believed  to  be  a 
hydride  of  cymol. 

/V/V/f  Series  {CnH2n-  g)  —  Aromatic  Ilydrorarhonn. — 
Benzol  (CgIIg)  is  the  simplest  member  of  the  series.  Other 
known  members  are  toluol  {C;Hsl.  xylol  (CgHio),  cumol 
(Cglln).  cymol  (Ciolfn).  and  laurol  (CuIIic).  This  and 
most  of  the  following  series  of  compounds  ftre  rcmarknblo 
for  the  readiness  with  which  the  members  exchange  H  for 
NO^'aud  form  nitro-dcrivatives : 

BcDiol.  Nitro-bcneol. 

C'elle  +  IIXO3  -  CcIIsNOj-f  HjO. 
From  these  nitro-derivativcs  the  amines  arc  readily  formed 
by  the  action  of  nascent  hydrogen  (see  Amines  and  Ani- 
line) : 

Nllr«-bpn/ol.  Anilini.'. 

C'ellsNOz  4-  He  =  Cel^N  f  21120. 
Sixth  Scriet  ( C„H2n  -  8).—Phenylcno  (Celli^  styrol,  or 
cinnamcne  (CgH^I. 

Seventh  Seri'ct  (Cll^n  -  lo)- — Cholcstercnc  (CofiH*,;). 
Ei'jhth     Series    (Cnllsn  -  12).  —  NAI'nTIIALKNB     {CioHy), 

(which  see). 

Ninth  Series  (CnH2« -  h).— Diphcnyl  (C12II10)  and  di- 
benzvl  (CuUu). 

Tenth  Series  (Cnllan  -  le).— Stilbeno  (CuHn). 

Eleventh     Series     (CnHzn  -  w). — ANTHRACENE     (CuUlo), 

(which  see). 

Tieel/tk  Series  (CnHju  -  m). — No  members  known. 

Thirteenth  Series  (CnH-jn  -  22).  —  PYRENB  (Ciellio)* 
(which  see). 

Fourteenth  Series  (CnH2n-  2*)- — Chryscno  (Cigllu). 

HtfdrOritrbonH   eont'tininfj   Uneven    Nnmbcr^   of  lilfdro(jcn 

Atoms. — The  saturated  hydrocarbons  of  the  first  series  may 
give  up  one,  two.  three,  or  more  atoms  of  II  in  exchange 
for  n,  Br,  or  I,  producing  haloid  salts,  from  whicii  the  al- 
cohols are  readily  derived,  as  already  shown  in  this  article. 
The  hydrocarbons  existing  in  these  haloid  salts  and  al- 
cohols are  compound  radicals,  as  raethvl  (CII3}*,  ethvl 
(C2II5)',  ethene  {('■iU,)'*,  propone  (CallcA  cthenyl  (CjIfaA 
propenyl  {C3II5)'",  olhine  (C'zII-i)'',  propino  (Call*)'',  ethinyl 
(C^ll)',  propinyl  (C3H3)',  propone  (CsIIa)*',  proponyl 
(CjH)*^.  etc.  The  radicals  with  even  numbers  of  II  atoms 
are  included  in  the  series  already  mentioned:  those  with 
uneven  numbers  of  II  atoms  may  bo  included  in  a  separate 
group  of  scries. 

Firnt  .SVriM.— (C„H2„  +  1).— Methyl  (CIIs),  ethyl  (C2TI5), 
etc.  These  are  the  radicals  of  the  common  alcohols, 
methyl  hydrate,  wood-naphtha  (CII3OII),  ethyl  or  com- 
mon alcohol  (t'jIlfiOII),  etc. 

Second  Scn'en  (C„II_»fi  -  1).  Mcthcnyl  (CH),  the  radical 
in  chloroform  (CHCI3)  and  iodoform  (Cllla);  propenyl 
(C.1H5).  the  radical  in  propenyl  alcohol,  glyceriuo  (C3II5 
(OIII3). 

Third  Sf-ries  (r„Il2„  _  3).— Propinyl  (C3H3). 

Fourth  Series  {Vnlijn  -  b)- — Proponyl  (0311). 

C.   F.  CnANDI-EK. 

Hy'drocelC  [Lat.  hydrocele  ;  Or.  OSpok^Atj.  from  iiSwp, 
"water."  and  itJJAij,  "  tumor"],  an  accumulation  of  water  be- 
tween the  two  serous  coverings  of  thotesticles  or  of  the  sper- 
matic cord,  known  as  the  tunica  vaginalis.  It  may  follow  an 
inflammation  of  the  testes,  but  generally  follows  strains.  It 
may  afTrct  both  siilcs  at  the  .'»ainc  time,  but  usually  we  find 
the  elTu^inn  on  one  side  only.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  musi- 
cians who  play  on  wind  instruments  are  more  subject  to 
this  disease  than  any  other  class  of  individuals;  it  seems 
to  be  due  to  the  constant  strain  produced  by  blowing.  It 
forms  a  pear-shaped,  painless  tumor,  wl)i<.-h  causes  uneasi- 
ness to  the  patient  only  on  account  of  its  .«i/o;  it  sonic- 
times  grows  BO  lorge  as  to  reach  nearly  down  lo  the  knees. 
Unless  the  sac  in  which  the  fluid  is  enclosed  bo  abnormally 
thick  and  distended  to  its  utmost  by  the  contained  fluid, 
flucluiitidn  can  be  felt.  There  is  no  impulse  felt  ujion 
cnuKliiug.  liy  strclching  tlio  integuments  over  the  tumor, 
and  placing  a  candle  behind  it  in  a  dark  room,  the  light 
will  be  transmitted;  this  would  not  oceur  if  the  swelling 
were  soliil.  Another  test  to  determine  the  consistence  of  it 
is  lo  plunge  a  needle  into  the  mass,  and  sec  whether  it  falls 
over  to  one  side  niid  floats  about,  or  retains  the  position  in 
which  it  was  placeil.  The  treatment  of  hydrocele  may  bo  di- 
vided into  the  palliative  nnd  the  radical.  The  former  consists 
in  drawing  olT  the  en"u8ed  fluid  by  the  trocar  and  eanula; 
this  relieves  the  patient  for  a  lontrer  or  shorter  time,  but 
the  sac  is  apt  to  fill  again,  when  the  operation  lias  to  bo 
repeated.  We  find  patients  submitting  to  this  operation 
from  onoo  to  four  times  annually  thrnut^hont  their  lives, 
rather  than  submit  to  a  procedure  which  is  jierfeotly  harm- 
less atii)  wiMihl  ensure  their  complete  reci.vory.  The  radical 
cure   is   ciTected   by  exciting  an   iuflummation   in   tho  sac 


which  shall  cause  tho  opposing  surfaces  to  adhere,  and  thus 
obliterate  the  cavity  and  prevent  further  cflTusion.  This  is 
sometimes  accomplished  by  irritating  the  surfaces  with  the 
end  of  the  eanula  before  it  is  withdrawn,  but  this  method 
is  uncertain.  Generally,  it  is  done  by  injecting  some  stim- 
ulating fluid;  for  this  it  was  customary  to  use  port  wine  or 
zinc  lotion,  but  more  recently  tincture  of  iodine  seems  to 
be  the  favorite.  A  prominent  New  York  surgeon  has  lately 
used  the  lunar  caustic  for  the  same  purpose;  this  causes 
more  general  disturbance  of  the  system,  but  it  is  never  ne- 
cessary to  use  it  a  second  time.  After  the  operation  tho 
patient  should  keep  in  bed  for  a  few  days  and  avoid  all 
stimulating  articles  of  diet.  If  there  is  much  inflamma- 
tion, cold  applications  locally  and  opium  internally  aro  the 
indications.  Edward  J.  BEUMiNcnAM. 

Hydroccph'alus  [Or.  vBpoKi^ta^ov,  from  v5wp,  "  water,'* 
and  jccf^ttA^,  "  head  "],  a  dropsical  cflusion  of  fluids  into  tho 
interior  of  the  skull,  occupying  one  or  more  of  the  ventricles 
of  the  brain  or  tho  sub-mcningcal  space,  or  both.  Acute 
hydrocephalus  is  ordinarily  a  symptom  of  Meningitis 
(which  sec),  particularly  of  tubercular  meningitis;  but 
cases  occur  in  which  no  tubercle  can  be  discovered  after 
death.  Tho  causes  of  chronic  hydrocepholus  are  various. 
Gross  states  that,  in  his  opinion,  a  sub-acute  or  chronic 
ar.achnitis,  usually  congenital,  is  a  frequent  cause.  It  is 
regarded  as  certain  that  arrest  of  development  of  the  brain- 
substance,  pressure  U]ion  the  veins  of  Gahn  by  masses  of 
tubercle  or  cancer,  and  in  fact  any  condition  which  obstructs 
the  venous  circulation  in  the  brain,  may  lead  to  hydroccph- 
nlio  eft'usion,  just  as  a  contracted  liver  produces  ascites.  It 
is  probable  also  that  in  arrest  of  brain-development  the  in- 
croaso  of  the  normal  sub-arachnoid  fluid  is  a  conservative 
process,  serving  to  keep  full  the  space  between  the  brain 
and  tho  cranium,  Tho  largo  ninjority  of  cases  are  congen- 
ital, and  hydrocephalus  must  be  set  dov.n  as  a  disease  (or 
symptom)  belonging  to  infantile  life;  but  cases  occasionally 
occur  in  mature  life  or  in  old  age.  Dean  Swil't,  after  three 
years  of  illness,  died  with  hydrocephalus,  the  result,  doubt- 
less, of  organic  brain-disease.  The  prognosis  of  chronic 
hydrocephalus  is  very  grave.  The  child  may  live  for  many 
years,  but  (with  rare  exceptions)  becomes  idiotic,  and  in 
some  cases  is  epileptic.  The  head  becomes  distended,  the 
fontanels  remain  open,  osna  triquetra  form  in  the  courses 
of  tho  cranial  sutures,  and  in  f(nne  eases  quarts  of  fluid  are 
effused,  consisting  of  water,  with  earthy  salts  and  a  little 
albumen;  while  in  acute  hydrocephalus  there  is  sometimes 
much  albumen  present,  with  some  pus-corpuscles  or  a  littlo 
blood.  "When  the  disease  is  detected  early,  mercurial  in- 
unctions, with  the  administration  of  the  iodides,  may  pos- 
sibly afi"ord  benefit.  Treatment  by  systematic  compression 
or  by  tapping  the  skull  (the  latter  operation  to  be  followed 
by  firm  compression)  has  been  tried  in  many  cases,  but  tho 
most  common  result  has  been  tlie  tpecdy  death  of  the  pa- 
tient, although  in  a  few  instances  it  would  appear  that 
moro  or  less  advantage  has  been  obtained  by  these  means. 
Tho  term  npuriouH  hi/dronphahut  is  sometimes  applied  to 
infantile  tyi)h()id  or  other  enteric  disease,  the  general 
symptoms  of  which  may  simulate  those  of  acute  menin- 
gitis. C.  ^^'.  OltEENE. 

Ilydrochlo'ric  Acid,  called  also  jlluriatic,  Chlo- 
rohydric,  and  Chlorhydric  Acid  [ancient  names, 
junrhte  arid,  spirit  of  siift;  Vi\  aeidc  muriotiquc,  acid«- 
chliirhifdrique  ;  tJcr.  Snhtiiiure,  Chloru-iiHseretoJfufiHrc^.  The 
muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid  of  commerce  and  of  tho 
laboratory  is  a  solution  in  water  of  the  gaseous  compound, 
HCI,  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine.  It  occurs  in  nature  only 
as  an  Irregular  product  of  volcanic  eruptions.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  natui'al  constituent  of  gastric  JuiccH.  Artiflcially, 
it  is  always  prepareil  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon 
common  salt,  tho  chloride  of  sodium — an  action  evolving 
tho  gaseous  chloride  of  hydrogen,  tho  latter  being  passed 
into  water  kept  cold,  which  absorbs  it  with  groat  avidity 
to  tho  maximum  extent  of  about  llil)  times  its  volume,  in- 
creasing in  liulk  one-third,  and  in  weight  about  "j  per  cent. 
In  commerce,  there  are  three  distinct  (|ualitic8 — the  common 
yellow  commercial  acid,  which  is  suhl  in  carboys,  an<l  which 
is  usually  quite  impure,  owing  its  yellow  color,  in  part  rtt 
least,  to  iron,  and  usually  containing  sulphurous  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  with  other  contaminations;  the  grade  calli'd 
"jeweller's  acid,"  which,  when  prepared  with  the  use  of 
distilled  water,  is  likely  to  bo  a  good  article,  suflicicntly  so 
even  for  medical  uso ;  and  tho  so-called  "chemically  pure'* 
acid,  U'v  analytical  uses,  which  should  of  course  be  made 
from  distilled  water,  and  should  justify  its  name. 

Hydrochloric  acid  gas  is  colorless  and  transparent,  and 
of  sufl^oeating  odor.  In  tho  air  it  forms  white  fumes  by 
condensing  tho  aqueous  vapor  to  a  liquid  fog.  It  contains 
by  weight  \)7.'2Ct  per  cent,  of  clilorine  and  2.7  I  of  hydrogen, 
and  by  vcdiiine  equal  measures  of  these  two  gases  combined 
without  condensation.     Under  a  pressure  of -10  atmospheres 


1050 


HYDROCHCERID.E— HYDRODYNAMICS. 


it  condenses  into  a  liquid.  Its  density  is  1.269,  air  being 
].  The  iiffinity  of  IK'I  for  water  iiso  great  that  the  latter, 
when  free  to  enter  a  vessel  filled  with  the  gas,  will  rush 
thereinto  with  almost  as  much  violence  as  into  a  vacuum, 
and  a  piece  of  ice  introduced  into  the  gas  will  mcit  ns  rap- 
idly as  in  a  lire.     ^Vhen  saturated  with  the  gas  the  liquid 


acid  has  a  density  of  1.20  or  1.21.  Such  acid  requires  a 
cold  of  60°  below  zero  F.  to  freeze  it.  Heated,  it  gives  off 
the  gas,  with  appearance  of  einiliition,  until  its  density 
runs  diiwn  to  1.094,  when  it  will  distill  over  unchanged. 
Tho  following  is  one  of  Dr.  Ure's  tables,  giving  the  compo- 
sition for  varying  specific  gravities: 


Spcciflc  gravity. 

AquC0U4  acid 
ofsp.  gr.  1.2. 

GaAcous  acid. 

Chlorine. 

Specific  gravitj. 

Aqueous  acid 
ofep.  gr.  1.2. 

Gaseous  acid. 

ChlorlDC. 

1.2000 

100 

40.777 

39.675 

1.1102 

55 

21.822 

22.426 

1.1910 

9.1 

38.738 

37.692 

I.IOOO 

50 

20..38S 

19.837 

1. 1 822 

90 

3G.700 

35.707 

1.0899 

45 

18.318 

17.854 

1.1721 

85 

.14.600 

33.724 

1.0793 

40 

IG.310 

15.870 

1.1701 

84 

34.252 

33.328 

1.0697 

35 

14.271 

13.887 

i.ir,2a 

SO 

82.621 

31.746 

1.0.597 

30 

12.233 

11.903 

i.i->;i9 

79 

32.213 

31.343 

1.0497 

25 

10.194 

9.919 

i.i'iig 

75 

39.582 

29.757 

1.0397 

20 

8.155 

7.9:h 

i.mo 

70 

28.544 

27.772 

1.0298 

15 

6.116 

5.951 

1.1308 

&i 

20.504 

2.5.7S9 

1.0200 

10 

4.078 

3.908 

1.120(i 

60 

24.466 

23.805 

1.0100 

S 

2.039 

1.984 

Testa  for  Purity. — Pure  acid  shouM  leave  no  tache  when 
a  drop  is  dried  on  briglit  platinum  foil  and  the  latter  ig- 
nited. To  test  for  sulplmrie  iind  sulphurous  acids,  evap- 
orate in  a  clean  porcelain  dish  after  adding  a  crystal  of 
nitrate  of  baryta,  or  a  little  clilorate  of  potash  and  chlor- 
ide of  barium.  The  dry  residue  should  then  form  a  clear 
solution  in  distilled  water  again.  Any  turbidity  is  sulphate 
of  baryta.  After  warming  with  a  fragment  of  chlorate  of 
potash,  saturation  with  ammonia  should  give  no  precipi- 
tate (iron).  It  must  not  tarnish  bright  copper  when  boiled  in 
it  (arsenic).  It  must  not  dissolve  on  boiling  therewith  tho 
minutest  speck  of  gokl-leaf  {nitric  and  nitrous  acids).  For 
most  uses  sulphurous  acid  is  likely  to  be  the  most  detrimental 
impurity,  and,  unfortunately,  is  one  of  the  most  common. 

In  case  of  poisoning  with  muriatic  acid,  tho  symptoms 
of  which  are  generally  similar  to  tliosc  of  other  corrosive 
mineral  acids,  nnitfncsln,  prepared  ch<tlk,  or  even  soap,  may 
be  administered  in  large  quantities  us  an  immediate  anti- 
dote. H.  WUUTZ. 

(For  the  medicinal  uses  of  hydrochloric  acid  sec  Mineral 
Acir>s.  by  Edward  Curtis,  M.  D.) 

Ilydrochflcr'idde  [Gr.  iiatup,  "water,"  and  x^'po?. 
"hog"],  a  family  of  symplicidentate  rodents  distinguished 
by  the  large  size,  the  great  oval  anteorbital  foramen,  and 
the  structure  of  the  four  molar  teeth  (the  posterior  of  whicli 
is  very  much  elongated,  and  transversely  simply  foldcrl, 
while  the  others  arc  provided  with  transverse  Y-shaped 
folds),  and  especially  by  the  union  of  the  alveolar  portion  of 
the  maxillary  bone  with  the  squamosal  about  the  level  of 
the  condyle;  tho  clavicles  are  obsolete;  the  fibula  and  tibia 
SL'parate  from  each  other;  and  the  nails  are  blunt  and 
somewhat  hnof-like  (whence  they  have  been  called  sub- 
ungulate);  the  hair  is  but  little  harsh.  This  family  is  es- 
tablished for  the  reception  of  the  capybara  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, which  is  by  far  the  largest  of  living  rodents.  As  indi- 
cated by  the  name,  it  frequents  the  water,  and  its  asjiect 
st>mcwhat  (but  very  slightly)  resembles  that  of  a  hog.  Un- 
like other  rodents,  it  has  not  a  "squat"  body,  with  limbs 
much  flexed,  but  it  walks  with  its  limbs  extended  from  the 
body  at  about  the  same  angle  as  do  the  large  quadrupeds. 

Theodore  Gill. 

Ilydrocyan'ic  Acid.  Hydrocyanic  acid  is  a  most 
deadly  poison  to  both  animals  and  plants.  In  the  anhy- 
drons  state  it  is  one  of  tho  most  active  destroyers  of  life 
known,  a  single  drop  put  on  the  tongue  killing  a  large  dog 
in  a  few  seconds,  and  death  being  even  caused  by  breathing 
its  fumes.  Even  the  medicinal  preparation,  a  dilute  aqueous 
solution  containing  2  per  cent,  of  the  anhydrous  acid,  is  a 
tremendous  poison,  and  must  be  used  cautiously.  In  ex- 
cessive dose  the  symptoms  are  merely  those  of  the  act  of 
death.  The  sufferer  falls  as  if  struck  by  lightning,  all  the 
vital  functions  being  apparently  arrested  simultaneously. 
In  less  dose  <Ieath  ensues  by  failure  of  breathing  after  a 
brief  interval  of  from  a  few  minutes  to  hnlf  an  hour  of  con- 
vulsion or  paralysis  and  collnpse.  The  nature  of  the  poi- 
sonous action  is  not  yet  thoroughly  made  out.  There  is  no 
chemical  antidote,  and  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  accident  or 
malice  death  is  generally  so  speedy  that  all  remedies  are 
too  late.  Ammonia,  atrojiine  by  subcutaneous  injection, 
artificial  respiration,  and  alternate  dnshings  of  hot  and 
cold  water  on  tho  chest,  are  tho  means  that  offer  most  hope. 
Medicinally,  tho  dilute  acid  is  useful  to  arrest  nausea  and 
vomiting,  nllay  cough,  and,  locally  applied,  to  relievo  irri- 
tati<ui  and  itching  of  the  skin.  Edward  CfitTis. 

Hydrodynamic  Engines.  See Hyduallic Engines, 

by    F,    A.    P.    llAlJNAUD. 

Ilydrodynam'ics  [Gr.  CSwp,  "water,"  and  Cwc^itKOf, 

"power,"  from  ^vfaaOax.,  to  "  be  able'*],  by  most  writers  treats 
of  the  laws  governing  the  motion  of  fluids.  Its  applica- 
tion, in  what  follows,  is  restricted  to  liquids,  of  which  water 


Fig.  J. 


is  considered  the  representative.  Water  remains  at  rest  only 
when  confined  on  all  sides.  In  this  condition  the  pressure 
in  any  given  direction,  at  any  point  in  the  liquid  mass,  is 
balanced  by  an  exactly  equal  jircssure  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. This  equality  of  pre.-^surcs  may  be  disturbed,  in 
water  confined  on  all  sides,  by  external  forces  acting  inter- 
mittently, as  the  wind  acting  upon  the  surface  of  large 
bodies  of  water.  This  gives  rise  to  oseiIhitor3'  movements 
called  waves,  but  does  not  move  any  particle  of  water  per- 
manently away  from  its  position  of  rest.  Continued  mo- 
tion in  any  one  direction  takes  [dace  only  when  an  open- 
ing is  made  in  the  boundary  ol  the  confining  reservoir. 
The  liquid  particles  adjacent  to  the  opening  are  no  longer 
sustained  by  the  resistance  of  the  boundary,  and,  yielding 
to  the  pressure  on  the  opposite  Bide,  are  set  in  motion  and 
driven  through  the  opening.  Their  displacement  disturbs 
the  equilibrium  of  adjoining  particles,  and  the  movement 
extends  to  all  parts  of  the  reservoir,  being,  if  we  suppose 
the  opening  to  be  small  as  compared  with  the  total  bound- 
ary of  the  reservoir,  active  in  the  vicinity  of  the  opening 
and  slower  in  parts  more  remote.  AVater  thus  moves  when- 
ever a  way  is  opened  by  which  its  surface  may  reach  a  lower 
level.  Its  velocity,  other  things  being  equal,  is  great  or 
small  according  as  the  descent  of  its  surface  during  the 
movement  is  great  or  small.  This  descent  of  the  surface 
is  called  the  hend. 

Velocity. — A  heavy  body  falling  freely,  acquires  velocity 
at  the  rate  of  ;>L*.2  feet  per  second.  This  figure  represents 
the  effect  of  gravity  acting 
without  obstruction.  A  body 
moving  under  a  force  greater 
or  less  than  its  own  weight 
acquires  a  proportionally 
greater  or  less  velocity.  The 
velocity  acquired  in  falling 
through  any  given  height  is 
found  by  multiplying  the 
height  by  twice  this  quantity 
and  extracting  the  square  root 
of  the  product.  The  velocity 
acquired  in  falling  4  feet,  for 
instance,  is  the  square  root  of 
4  times  0-1.4,  or  IG.Ol  feet  per 
second.  In  other  words,  Iti.Ol 
feet  per  second  is  the  velocity 
due  to  a  height  of  4  feet.  For 
all  ordinary  purposes,  it  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  say  that 
the  velocity  is  8  times  the  square  root  of  the  height,  and 

the  height  is  l-64th  of 
the  square  of  the  ve- 
locity. The  velocity  im- 
parted to  water  by  a 
given  head  is  the  same 
as  that  acquired  by  a 
heavy  body  in  falling 
through  a  height  equal 
to  the  head.  A  few  words 
of  explanation  are  neces- 
sary to  avoid  misappli- 
cation of  this  term 
"  head."  When  water 
issues  from  an  orifice  in 
the  vertical  side  of  a  ves- 
sel, the  head  producing 
the  velocity  with  which 
it  leaves  theorificc  is  the 
height  of  the  .surface  of 
water  in  the  vessel  above 
the  centre  of  the  orifice. 
If,  after  leaving  the  ori- 
fice, it  falls   to  a  lower  level  C,  tho  head   producing   the 


-^ 

A 
M... 

H 

\ 

IIYDKODYNAMICS. 


1051 


velocity  at  such  lower  level  is  the  height  A  C.  When  water 
issues  rroiQ  an  orifice  under  water,  the  head  is  the  height 
of  the  surt'aee  in  the  discharging  ahovc  that  in  the  receiving 
basin.  When  water  flows  from  one  basin  to  another  through 
a  long  pipe,  llje  head  producing  the  velocity  in  the  pipe  is 
not  the  height  of  the  surface  in  the  discharging  above  that 
in  the  receiving  b.isin.  The  motion  in  this  case  is  not  free. 
It  is  resisted,  and  a  part  of  the  head  isexpended,  not  in  pro- 
ducing motiou,  but  in  overcoming  certain  resistances.  Let 
Fig.  2  represent  the  entrance  to  the  pipe.  Sujiposo  u  small 
vertical  tube  to  be  inserted  in  the  pipe  near  its  origin.  The 
head  producing  motion  is  the  height  at  which  the  water  in 
the  reservoir  stands  above  that  in  the  tul)e.  The  following 
tabic  gives  the  velocities  due  to  heads  up  to  15  feet: 
Table  1. 


Hcul 

Tclocit; 

llrad 

Velocity 

Hntl 

Velocity 

Head 

Velocity 

In 

Id  fwt  pcT 

In 

lu  ftH-l  per 

In 

IQ  fivt  per 

ill 

In  rept  per 

(feci. 
0.0 

teconj. 

tM. 

weoDd. 

rat. 

•CCOQd. 

feet. 

second. 

0.000 

1.8 

10.700 

3.6 

15.217 

7.0 

21.219 

0.1 

2.-536 

1.9 

11.055 

3.7 

15.427 

7.5 

21.904 

0.2 

3.587 

2.0 

11.342 

3.8 

15.634 

8.0 

22.085 

0.3 

4.393 

2.1 

11.622 

3.9 

15.839 

8.5 

23.383 

0.4 

5.072 

2.2 

11.896 

4.0 

16.040 

9.0 

24.01)1 

0..') 

S.671 

2.3 

12.163 

4.1 

16.240 

9.5 

21.720 

O.f) 

6.212 

2.4 

12.425 

4.2 

10.4:47 

10.0 

2.5.362 

0.7 

6.710 

2.5 

12.681 

4.3 

16.631 

10.5 

25.988 

0.8 

7.173 

2.6 

12.932 

4.4 

16.823 

Il.O 

26.i;no 

0.9 

7.609 

2.7 

13.179 

4.5 

17.013 

11.5 

27.193 

1.0 

8.020 

2.8 

13.420 

4.6 

17.201 

12.0 

27.783 

1.1 

8.412 

2.9 

13.658 

4.7 

17.387 

12.5 

2R.3.)6 

1.2 

8.786 

3.0 

13.891 

4.8 

17.571 

13.0 

28.917 

1.3 

9.144 

ai 

14.121 

4.9 

17.753 

13.5 

29.463 

1.4 

S.-190 

3.2 

14.347 

5.0 

17.931 

14.0 

30,009 

1..1 

9.S23 

3.3 

14..509 

5.5 

18.809 

14.5 

30.510 

l.fi 

10.14.5 

3.4 

11.789 

6.0 

19.615 

lo.O 

•  31.062 

1.7 

10.457 

3.5 

15.004 

6.5 

20.448 

Ififftrantfc  Heml. — It  is  shown  in  the  article  UvnitosTAT- 
ics  that  the  pressure  per  square  inch  at  any  point  in  a  res- 
ervoir of  wati'r,  when  at  rest,  not  counting  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water  1-iiich 
square  reaching  vertically  from  the  given  point  to  the  level 
of  the  surface.  This  is  not  true  of  water  in  motion.  The 
head  cannot  exert  its  full  static  elTec-t  of  pressure  and  its 
dynamic  etfict  of  motion  at  tlie  same  time;  any  exertion 
of  one  of  these  effects  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
abatement  of  the  other.  Water  moving  with  the  full  ve- 
locity due  the  hydrostatic  head  is  under  no  jiressure.  The 
diminution  of  pressure  consequent  upon  the  motion  of  water 
is  representi'tl  by  the  head  due  the  velocity.  In  Fig.  2,  if 
the  velocity  in  the  pipe 
is  \  feet  per  second,  the 
pressure  upon  the  sides 
of  the  pipe  will  be  less 
than  that  corresponding 
to  the  height  of  the  wa'er 
in  the  reservoir  by  the 
hca<l  due  the  velocity  of 
4  feet  per  second — viz. 
0.25  foot;  t.  r.  the  water 
in  the  vertical  tube  will 
stand  0.25  foot  lower  than 
that  in  the  reservoir.  Let 
water  be  flowing  througli 
a  vessel  of  the  form  sliown 
at  Fig.  3,  A  H  represent- 
ing the  surtax'  Kuppos<d 
to  be  maintained  at  an 
invariable  level.  The 
water  will  move  fast  in 
the  contracted  and  slow 
in  the  expanded  section. 
In  a  tube  r  branching  up- 
ward from  the  widest  part 
the  water  will  stand  near- 
ly as  high  as  in  the  vessel;  in  the  tube 
lower.  -H  the  narrowest  part  the 
jtressurc  may  ho  negative,  or  less 
than  that  of  the  atmosphere,  so 
that  water  will  enter  tnc  vessel 
through  a  tube  /'.  brandling  down- 
war. I  as  indicated. 

EJIiuSt  in- the  DtHrhftrfff  nf  Witfrr 

from  (frifircH, — An  orifice,  in  its 
simplest  form,  is  an  opening  in  the  C 
wall  of  a  reservoir  remote  from 
any  other  side,  the  wall  being  sup- 
posed to  have  no  s<'nsible  thiek- 
neas.     This  supjiositinn  merely  irn-  i 

plies,  as  in  Fig.  I,  that  the  water 
escapes  as  a  jet.  an<l  does  not 
toucn  the  prolongation  of  the  ori- 
ficc  after  passing  the  plane  A   B. 


(/,  considerably 
Fio,  4. 

A 


"A 


Such    an    opening  i« 


called  nn  orifice  in  a  thin  plate,  and  when  the  term  ori- 
fice is  used  without  qualification,  this  is  usually  understood. 
C  D  is  the  axis  of  the  orifice,  A  B  the  plane  of  the  orifice. 
Contract  toil. — To  compute  the  quantity  of  water  dis- 
charged from  an  orifice  of  known  dimensions  under  a 
known  head  would  bo  a  very  simple  matter  if  the  fluid 
particles  traversed  the  orifice  in  parallel  directions  and 
without  resistance.  In  that  case  the  discharge  would  be 
the  product  of  the  velocity  due  the  head  multiplied  by  the 
area  of  the  orifice.  The  fluid  particles,  however,  approach 
the  orifice  in  converging  tlirections,  .sume  in  diametrically 
opposite  ones.  Arrived  at  the  plane  of  the  orifice,  they  do 
not  instantly  change  their  direction,  hut  still  tend  toward 
the  axis  of  the  orifice.  This  produces  what  is  called  eon- 
traction  of  the  fluid-vein.  At  a  distance  from  the  plane 
of  the  orifice  equal  to  one-half  its  diameter  the  fluid  par- 
ticles assume  parallel  directions,  and  here  the  contraction 
is  greatest,  the  diameter  of  the  stream  being  about  eight- 
tenths  that  of  the  orifice.  The  velocity  in  this  section  of 
the  stream  is  very  nearly  that  due  the  head,  falling  short 
of  it,  ordinarily,  about  3  per  cent.  The  ])roduct  of  the  area 
of  the  orifice  by  the  velocity  due  the  head  is  called  the  theo- 
retical discharge.  This  term  is  used  for  lack  id'  a  better, 
though  it  implies  what  is  not  true.  No  rational  theory  in- 
dicates this  as  the  true  discharge.  The  discharge  from  ori- 
fices is  always  considerably  less  than  this.  It  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  theoretical  discbarge  by  a  certain  fraction 
called  the  coeftieicnt  of  efiUix.  The  coefticient  of  contrac- 
tion is  the  fracti(tn  Iiy  which  the  area  of  the  orifice  must  bo 
multiplied  to  give  the  area  of  the  most  contracted  section 
of  the  stream  :  and  the  coeflicient  of  velocity  is  the  fraction 
by  which  the  ^clocily  due  the  head  must  be  multiplied  to 
give  the  actual  velocity  in  the  most  contraetcil  section  of 
the  stream.  Very  numerous  and  accurate  experiments 
have  been  made  to  determine  these  coefficients,  particularly 
the  first.  The  most  extended  scries  of  experiments  was 
made  in  1S28,  under  the  auspices  of  the  French  govern- 
ment by  two  of  its  military  engineers,  Poncelet  and  Les- 
bros.  It  results  from  these  experiments  that  the  coefficient 
of  efflux  is  not  constant  for  orifices  in  a  thin  plate,  being 
greater  for  small  orifices  and  low  velocities  than  for  the 
opposite  conditions — that  it  is  much  greater  for  long,  nar- 
row orifices  than  for  those  with  circular  or  nearly  square 
forms.  For  circular  orifices  Weisbach  found  the  results 
given  in  Table  2. 

Table  2. 


Diameter  of  orlQce, 
reel. 

Coefflclent  of  efflux  Tor  n  bead  of— 

i.sesitet. 

0.82  rcct. 

0.032.8 
O.O6.-16 
0.0984 
0.1312 

0.628 
0.021 
0.014 
0.607 

0.637 
0.6-19 
0.622 
0.614 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  coefficient  of  efflux  diminishes 
slightly  as  the  diameter  of  the  orifice  increases,  and  in- 
creases as  the  head  diminishes. 

Table  3  gives  values  of  the  coefficient  of  efllux  obtained 
by  Poncelet  and  Lesbros  for  rectangular  orifices: 

Table  3. 


llcocfflolcntor  ef- 

Cocmclcnt  of  cmiix  for  an  orlflce  0.656  feet  wide,  ,  llu,\  for  nn  orillco 

Willi  B  helKlit  of—                           1  1.9T    feet    wide. 

In 

wlitiaiieiglit  of— 

o.eM 

03J8 

O.I6( 

0098 

0.066 

0.033 

ooto 

0.066 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

tot. 

0.033 

0.007 

0.030 

0.600 

0.701 

0.644 

0.060 

0.572 

0.596 

0.015 

0.034 

o.6.'.n 

0.691 

0.643 

0.161 

0.58.-. 

0.005 

0.025 

0.610 

0.658 

0.i;79  1  0..'i97 

0.641 

0.262 

0.589 

0.0  lU 

0.029 

0.638 

O.050 

0.070      O.OOI 

0.640 

0.32H 

0.592 

0.011 

11.030 

0.037 

0.054 

0.060      0.002 

o.ao 

0.820 

0..599 

0.616 

0.0311 

0.032 

0.0)0 

0.053      0.6110 

0631 

1.640 

0.603 

0.017 

(I.IV.'8 

0.030 

0.610 

0.011 

0.007 

o,o:!o 

2.297 

0.604 

0.616 

0.027 

0.029 

0.037 

0.010 

0.007 

0.028 

3.2R1 

0.005 

0.015 

0.020 

0.028 

0.i;33 

0.I13L' 

0  00.-I 

0.026 

0.562 

0.601 

0.0117 

0.1113 

0.012 

0.012 

0.611 

11.002 

0.020 

9.843 

0.601 

11.003 

0.006 

0.008 

0.010 

O.OOU 

0.601 

0.615 

The  head  wns  measured  at  a  point  in  the  reservoir  where 
the  water  was  sensibly  still.  It  wns  measured  from  the 
level  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  orifice. 

/iouttdril  th-fficfH. — An  orifice  may  be  so  rounded  inter- 
nally as  to  almost  entirely  obliterate  the  contraction;  in 
which  case  the  coefficient  of  contraction  becomes  very 
nearly  equal  to  unity.  The  rounding  shiMild  he  such  as  to 
make  the  orifice  conform  in  shape  as  nearly  as  jiossible  to 
the  contrncted  vein.  Weisbauh  found  for  a  well-rounded 
orifice  about  0.4  inch  in  iliumeter  (he  following  results  : 

I-'ora  bend  of. onr.tifi.    i.r.i  ft.  U  ■'■  ft.     :.ti  ft.     32H  ft. 

CloetlicUnt  of  etilux 0.'J5U        0.DG7        0.'J7."»        O.'j'Jl        0.994 


1052 


HYDKODYNAMICS. 


It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  the  smallest  sectioQ 
of  the  opening  is  to  bo  regarded  as  the  orifice. 

To  exemplir_y  the  use  of  these  results,  let   the  orifice  at 
Fig.  0  bo  square,  2  inches  diameter ;  let  i  ig.  5. 

the  head  acting  on  the  centre  of  the  ori- 
tice  be  ;i  feet.  The  eoellicieiit  of  efflux 
should  be  about  0.1'"  ;  area  of  the  ori- 
fice, 4  square  inches  =  U. 028  square 
foot ;  velocity  due  head  by  Table  1, 
n.S9  feel  per  pocond  :  theoretical  di>- 
rharge,  0.028  x  13.S9  =  0.:i89  ;  actual 
do.  =  0.389  X  0.07  =  0..177  cubic  foot 
]ier  second.  Vnr  an  orifice  of  the  sanu- 
size  not  rounded  the  coefficient,  accord 
ing  to  Table  3,  should  be  0.00,  and  th.- 
discharge  0.389  x  0.60  =  0.233  cubiL- 
fuot  per  second.  The  discharge  is,  there- 
fore, increased  Gl  per  cent,  by  rounding  | 
the  orifice. 

Difft-'f-vnt    Degrees    of  Contraction. — 
The  more  the  direction  of  the  water  is  changed  in  passing 
the  orifice,  the  smaller  the  coefficient  of  efflux.  The  greatest 
Fig.  6.  Fig.  7. 


TabI/E  4. 


Part  of  tlic  I)cr!Inl^■ 
ttr  or  tile  iirilicc'Dti 
which  the  conlruc- 
tioQ  is  suppressed. 

DiMihsrgc,  R3    cum- 
l.:ired     Willi     lli;a 
from  a  simiJle  ou- 
nce uudcr  the  same 
coaditioos. 

0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
O.G 
0.7 

1.01.5 
1.031 
1.045 
1.052 
1.077 

i.ooa 

1.108 

change  of  direction  undergone  by  any  particle  of  water  in 


Fig.  10. 


passing  an  orifice  may 
be  as  much  as  ISO  de- 
grees, and  from  that 
down  to  nothing.  In  the 
orifice  Fig.  0  it  is  180 
degrees;  iu  Fig.  7,  be- 
tween ISO  and  90;  in 
Fig.  8,  90;  in  Fig.  9,  less 
than  'JO;  and  in  Fig.  10, 
nothing,  this  being  a 
rounded  orifice  involving  no  abrupt  change  in  the  direction 
of  the  water. 

Wcisbach  gives  the  following  as  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ments on  this  point  : 

Greatest  eliaiifc  nf  direction-  ,      »„ 

IW^  157^0  13i^    1I2H^    W>     67^"    ««     22M°  "M^    5«'      (^ 

Co.  of  cffl..0  5U    0.5«    O.o7?    O.GKl    0.632    0.681    0.7*1    0.882    OMii    O.WJ    0.1«6 


fnr 


>m)] 


Ictc  Contraction. — An   orifice  may  be  so  situated 


with  reference  to  the 
sides  of  the  reservoir  that 
the  water  cannot  ap- 
proach it  from  all  direc- 
tions. Thu^,  in  Fig.  11 
the  orifice  tt  can  be  ap- 
proached from  all  sides 
by  the  water;  h  can  bo 
approaehed  on  three 
sides;  c  on  two,  and  d 
on  one.  The  contraction 
15  here  said  to  be  sup- 
pressed on  the  sides  from 
which  the  approach  of 
the  water  is  prevented. 
tion  i.s  to  give  an  increased 
discharge,  and  also  to  in- 
cline the  direction  of  the 
effluent  stream  toward  the 
sides  on  which  the  contrac- 
tion is  suppressed.  In  the 
orifice  Fig.  12  the  tendency 
which  the  water  coming 
from  A,  has,  to  approach 
the  axis,  after  passing  the 
orifice,  is  not  balanced  by  a 
similar  tendency  in  thcop- 
positedirection,  and  the  re 


Fig.  n. 


d 
1 

J 

such  an  orifice,  according  to  Weisbach,  the  axis  C  D  of  the 

stream  is  inclined  to  E  F, 
the  axis  of  the  orifice, 
about  9  degrees.  Taljle 
■1  shows  the  eftect  of  sup- 
pressed contraction,  ac- 
cording to  Weisbach,  up- 
on the  discharge.  It  ex- 
plains itself.  AVhen,  f.r;., 
the  contraction  is  sup- 
pres.«ed  upon  four-tenths 
of  the  perimeter  of  the 
orifice,  the  discharge  is 
fi  per  cent,  greater  than 
from  a  simple  orifice  of 
the  same  size  and  form,  and  under  the  same  head. 

Imperfect  Contraction. — In  wliat  precedes,  the  orifice  is 
supposed  to  be  small  as  compared  witli  the  wall  of  the  res- 
ervoir in  which  it  is  placed.  \Vhen.  as  in  Fig.  13,  the  ori- 
fice is  but  slightly  less  in  area  than  the  wall  containing  it, 
the  result  is  a  diminished  contraction,  showing  itself  in  an 
increased  discharge,  and  also  in  the  apjjcarauce  of  the  is- 
suing stream,  which  is  Fig.  Vi. 
opaque  and  troubled,  , 
while  that  from  a  sim- 
^  pie  orifice  is  transpar- 
ent.  Table  j  shows  tlie 
effect  of  imperfect  con- 
traction, according  to  Weisbach. 

This  table  requires  no  explanation.  For  an  ori- 
fice, c.  <j.y  thrce-tenlhs  as  large  as  the  wall  contain- 
ing it,  the  discharge  is  0  per  cent,  greater  for  a 
circular  orifice.  7  per  cent,  for  a  rectangular  one, 
than  for  a  simple  orifice  similarly  circumstanced 
as  to  size,  form,  and  head,  iu  a  wall  of  practically 
unlimited  extent. 

Weirs. — This  form  of  orifice  is  peculiarly  adapt- 
ed to  the  measurement  of  water,  and  has  for  that 
reason  been  the  subject  of  very  numerous  and 
elaborate  experiments,  not  only  in  the  series  un- 
dertaken by  Poncelet  and  Lcsbros.  but  also,  upon 
a  larger  scale  an<l  with  every  precaution  necessary 
to  accuracy,  by  Francis  of  JIassachusetts.  Table  0 
is  computed  by  him  from  the  results  of  his  experiments.  It 

Table  5. 


Discharge  as  compared  with  thai  Troin  a 

Area  or  the  nriQco  as 

simple  orifice  under  the  same  condilioDS. 

COQipurcd  with  thatof 
the  side  coDtaiDiog  it. 

Circular. 

Rectaogular. 

0.05 

1.007 

1.009 

0.10 

1.014 

1.019 

0.15 

1.023 

\sm 

0.20 

1.034 

1.042 

0.2S 

1.045 

1.056 

0.30 

1.059 

1.071 

0..iS 

1.075 

1.0R8 

0.40 

1.092 

1.107 

0.4S 

1.112 

1  128 

0.50 

1.134 

1.152 

0.55 

1.161 

1.178 

0.60 

1.189 

1.208 

0.65 

1.223 

1.241 

0.70 

1.260 

1.278 

0.75 

1.303 

1.319 

0.80 

1.351 

I. SOS 

0.85 

1.408 

1.416 

0.90 

1.471 

1.473 

0.95 

1.546 

1.537 

1.00 

1.631 

1.031 

Table  6. 


The  effect  of 


incomplete  contrac- 
Fio.  12. 


w>-.^— ^ 


a 


Bult  is  an  inclined  direction  of  the   effluent    stream.     In 


nisoii. 

Depth 

nuch.  1 

Depth 

DIsch. 

Depth  DIseh. 

Depth 

Dlsoh. 

In 

In 

eul>.  ft. 

In 

cult.  ft. 

iu     jcub.  fl- 

.'° 

cuh.  ft. 

feci. 

per  sec. 
0.105 

feet. 
0.10 

per  sec.l 
0..^7  1 

feet. 
0.50 

per  sec. 
1.177 

feet     per  see. 

pcrteo. 

0.10 

0.70     l.O.'.O 

0.90 

2.843 

0.1 1 

0.121 

0.31 

0.575  I 

0.51 

1.213 

0.71  1  1.992 

U.91 

2.891 

0.12 

0.138 

0.32 

0.603 

0.52 

1.249 

0.72     2.034 

0.92 

2.938 

0.13 

0.1.% 

0.33 

0.631 

0.53 

1.285 

0.73     2.077  ' 

0.93 

2.9.96 

0.14 

0.174 

0.34 

0.660 

0..i4 

1.321 

0.74     2.120 

0.94 

3.035 

0.1.1 

0.193 

0.35 

0.6S9 

0.55 

1.3.18 

0.75     2.163 

0.95 

3.083 

0.16 

0.213 

0.36 

0.719 

0.55 

1.395 

0.76  1  2.206 

0.96 

3.132 

0.17 

0.233 

0.37 

0.749 

0..'i7 

1.433 

0.77  1  2.250 

0.9; 

3.181 

0.1. S 

0.254 

0.38 

0.7811 

0.58 

1.471 

0.78 

2.294 

0.98 

.3.231 

0.1'J 

0.276 

0.39 

0.811 

fl..59 

1.509 

0.79 

2.338 

0.99 

3.280 

0.20 

0.298 

0.40 

0.842 

0.60 

1.548 

0.80 

2.383 

1.00 

3.330 

0.21 

0.320 

0.41 

0.874 

0.61 

1..586 

0.81 

2.428 

1.1 

3.842 

0.22 

0.344 

0.42 

0.906 

0.62 

1.626 

0.82 

2.473 

1.2 

4..377 

0.23 

0.3C.7 

0.43 

0.939 

0.63 

1.665 

0.83 

2.518 

1.3 

4.936 

0.24 

0.391 

0.44 

0.972 

0.64 

1.705 

0.84 

2..564 

1.4 

6.516 

0.2o 

0.416 

0.45 

1.005 

0.65 

1.745 

0.8.5 

2.610 

1.5 

0.118 

056 

0.441 

0.46 

1.o:K) 

0.66 

1.78.5 

0.80 

2.656 

1.6 

6.739 

0.27 

0.467 

047 

1.073 

0.67 

1.826 

0.87 

2.702 

1.7 

7.381 

0.28 

0.493 

0.48 

1.107 

0.68 

1.867 

0.88 

2.749 

1.8 

8.042 

0.29 

0.520 

0.49 

1.142 

0.69 

1.909 

0.89 

2.796 

1.9 
2.0 

8.721  1 
9.419  1 

HYDRODYNAMICS. 


1053 


rio.  14. 


gives  the  discbarge  for  different  depth?,  from  a  weir  ono 
foot  in  horizontal  length.  The  depth  is  reckoned  from  the 
level  of  the  crest  of  the  weir,  and  is  taken  at  a  point  a  little 
up-stream  or  asirle.  beyond  the  curve  of  the  surface  conse- 
quent upon  the  discharjje.  To  correct  the  results  for  the 
cfTi-ct  of  eon(rao(ioD  nt  the  ends  of  the  weir,  the  length  is 
to  be  diminished  by  one-tenth 
of  the  depth  for  each  end- 
contraotion.  If  an  end  of  Ibu 
weir  coincide  with  a  vertical 
wall  of  the  canal  or  reser- 
voir, the  contraction  at  that 
end  is  annulled.  Fig.  11 
shows  the  form  of  the  hori- 
zontal crest  and  vertical  sidrs 
or  ends  of  the  weir  for  which 
this  table  is  computed.  The 
computation  by  Mr.  Francis's 


~\ 


=^,:;i 


formula  is  uncertain  for  depths  less  than  0.1  foot.  A  weir 
for  measuring  water  should  always  bo  short  enough  to  give 
a  greater  depth  than  this. 

To  find,  r.  r/.,  the  discharge  from  a  weir  with  two  end-con- 
tractions with  a  depth  of  O.S:J  foot,  the  length  of  tho  weir 
being  20  feet;  length  to  be  used  in  calculation,  20 —  2  X 
0.8;ixO.l  =  iy.S34:  discharge  for  ono  foot  in  length,  2.51  S 
cubic  feet  per  second;  total  discharge  =  lU. 831  X  2.518  = 
49.9-12  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  the  above  table  it  is  as- 
sumed that  the  opening  of  the  weir  is  inconsiderable,  com- 
pared with  the  cross-section  of  the  channel  through  which 
the  water  approaches  it.  Where  this  is  not  the  case,  the 
water  pa.-ses  the  weir  with  a  velocity  greater  than  that 
generated  by  tho  head,  as  measured  at  the  weir,  and  tho 
iliscliarge  is  consequently  greater  than  indicated  above. 
The  correction  for  this  source  of  inaccuracy  is  made  by  tho 
aid  of  Tablo  7,  given  by  Weisbach.  In  the  above  example 
let  the  section  of  the  weir-stream  be  four-tenths  that  of  the 
approaching  stream ;  tho  discharge,  according  to  Weisbach's 
table,  will  be  49.942  x  1-044  =  52.  n9  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Table  7. 


Section  of  »elr-itr«iiin 

ni»chargc  ai  compared  with  tbat  given  ia 
Tabic  6. 

..comparM  nidi  Ihat 

which   the   wiitiT  ap- 

For  a  wotr  witli  end. 

For    a    weir    without 

proujhc  tba  wclr. 

contraetlooi. 

cnd-contractiouH. 

0.05 

1.000 

1.042 

0.10 

1. 000 

1.04.5 

0.1.) 

1.001 

1.049 

0.20 

1.0{« 

1.056 

O.iS 

1.007 

1.0G4 

0.30 

1.014 

1.074 

O.M 

1.026 

1.086 

o.to 

1.014 

1.100 

0.1.1 

1.070 

1.116 

0.50 

1.107 

l.l:t3 

Short  Tabr9. — If  wo  apply  a  short  tube  externally  to  an 
orifice,  the  conditions  of  the  discharge  are  entirely  changed. 
From  the  simple  orifice  the  issuing  stream  is  contracted 
and  transparent;  from  tho  tube  it  is  uucontracted  and 
troubled.  The  velocity  of  tho  stream  is  diminished,  but 
its  cross-section  is  increased.  A  very  raaterinl  increase 
takes  place  in  tho  quantity  of  water  discharged.  Tho  tube 
must  have  a  length  of  2^  or  II  times  the  diameter  of  tho 
orifice,  otherwise  tho  stream,  when  the  head  is  consider- 
able, is  liable  to  issue  without  tourbiiig  the  lube,  in  which 
case  (he  latter  has  no  infiumrc  tipori  the  discharge.  Under 
heads  of  from  '.\  to  20  fret  the  coefiicient  of  efflux  through 
a  short  tube  \\  to  .3  inches  diameter  is  about  0.815.  It  in- 
creases somewhat  if  the  size  of  the  tube  is  increased  or  tho 
head  is  diminished,  being,  in  some  cases,  as  much  as  O.8.05. 
It  is  sufficiently  correct  for  most  purposes  to  say  that  the 
discharge  from  an  orifice  in  a  thin  plate  is  increased  one- 
third  by  the  addition  of  a  short  tube. 

I{t'ni»t finer  to  the  Motion  of  Watrr. — Though  Water  moves 
under  tho  acti<tn  of  tho  slightest  force,  it?  movement  is  al- 
ways accompanied  by  a  certain  resistance,  analogous  to 
that  which  solid  bodies  experience  in  sliding  or  moving 
one  upon  another.  There  is  this  difference,  however,  be- 
tween the  friction  of  solids  an<l  that  of  fluids:  the  former 
is  the  same  whether  the  movement  is  rapid  or  slow;  tho 
latter  iuerea'^cs  with  the  velocity.  A  car,  r.  fj.,  runs  down 
a  track  of  uniform  grade.  It  moves  because  the  force  of 
gravity  exceoils  tho  resisting  force  of  friction.  This  excess 
takes  effect  in  increasing  the  vdncity,  an<i  does  not  diminish 
ns  the  velocity  increases.  The  longer  the  car  continues  in 
motion,  the  faster  it  moves.  Thin,  at  least,  would  be  the 
case  if  it  dirl  not  encounter  a  fluid  resistance— that,  namely, 
of  the  air.  When,  on  the  contrary,  water  flows  down  an  in- 
clinnl  channel  or  through  an  inclined  pipe,  or,  what  is  tho 
same  thing,  tlirough  a  horizontal  pipe  under  the  action  of 
a   head,  tho   re-iisfuiKO   incr<:is"S   as   the  vrloritv  ini*r"iis's. 


Uniform  velocity  always  establishes  itself  at  such  a  rate  ns 
to  make  the  resistance  equal  to  the  moving  force.  The  head 
or  force  of  gravity  is  entirely  expended  in  overcoming  tho 
resistance  to  tho  water's  motion. 

M<itiou  of  Wnter  in  Lonij  Pijjca. — The  head  expended  in 
overcoming  the  resistance  to  motion  in  long  pipes  is  called 
"frietional  head,*'  and  sometimes  **  lost  head  "  or  "  loss  of 
bead."  It  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  pipe, 
and  nearly,  though  not  exactly,  proportional  to  the  square 
of  the  velocity.  It  is  less,  cutcria paribus,  for  a  large  pipe 
than  for  a  small  one,  and  depends  grcatl)'  upon  the  nature 
of  its  internal  surface,  being  much  greater  for  rough  than 
for  smooth  surfaces.  Table  S,  computed  from  the  results 
of  experiments  made  by  Henry  Darcy  at  the  expense  of  the 
French  government,  serves  for  any  calculations  ordinarily 
required  as  to  the  motion  of  water  in  pipes.  The  formula 
is  /i  /—  b  V-,  in  which  H  is  the  radius  of  the  pipe  in  feet; 
/,  the  loss  of  head  in  feet  per  linear  foot  of  pipe;  r,  the  ve- 
locity in  feet  per  second;  6  is  a  number  varying  with  tho 
size  of  the  pipe.  It  is  given  in  the  third  column.  If  the 
loss  of  head  per  foot  is  required,  the  velocity  and  size  of 

the  pipe  being  known,  /=  — -.     /is  found  by  multiplying 

the  quantity  in  the  fourth  column  by  the  square  of  the  ve- 
locity. If  we  desire  to  find  the  velocity  corresponding  to 
a  given  loss  of  head  per  foot,  we  must  multiply  the  square 
root  of  the  given  loss  of  head  by  the  quantity  in  the  fifth 
column. 

Table  8. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Diameter 

of  pi|ic, 

feet. 

Radius, 
tect. 

h. 

It 

VI 

0.04 

0.02 

0.0004780 

0,023900 

G.4C646 

0.08 

0.U4 

0.0003163 

0.007908 

11.24520 

0.12 

0.06 

0.0002623 

0.0O4372 

15.1238 

0.16 

0.08 

0.0002354 

0.002942 

18.4365 

0.20 

O.IO 

0.0002192 

0.002192 

21..3589 

0.24 

0.12 

0.00020S5 

0.001737 

23.9939 

0.28 

0.14 

0.0002007 

0.001434 

26.4074 

o.a2 

0.16 

0.00U1949 

0.001218 

28.6534 

0.36 

0.1. t 

0,0001904 

0.001058 

30.7138 

0.40 

0.20 

O.000IS69 

0.000934 

32.7210 

0.44 

0.22 

0.0001339 

0.000836 

3-I..5857 

0.48 

0.24 

0.0001K15 

0.000756 

36.3696 

0.52 

0.26 

0.0001794 

0.000690 

38.0093 

0.56 

0.28 

0.O0OI776 

0.0006.34 

39.7151 

0.60 

0.30 

0.00U1761 

0.000587 

41.2744 

0.64 

0.32 

0.0001747 

0.000546 

42.7900 

0.68 

0.34 

0.00017:ri 

0.000510 

44.2,';08 

0.72 

0,36 

0.0001725 

0.000479 

45.6912 

0.76 

0.38 

0.0001715 

0.000451 

47.0882 

0.80 

0.40 

0.0001707 

0.000427 

4S.,3934 

0.84 

0.42 

0.0001699 

0.000405 

49.0904 

0.88 

0.44 

0.0001G92 

0.000385 

60.9647 

0.92 

0.46 

0.00016,S6 

0.000367 

62.199C 

0.96 

0.48 

O.OOOlliSO 

0.000350 

63.4522 

1.00 

0.50 

0.0001074 

0.000335 

64.6358 

1.04 

0.52 

0.0001009 

0.000321 

55.816 

1.08 

0.54 

0.0001665 

0.000308 

66,980 

1.12 

0.56 

0.0001061 

0.000297 

68.020 

1.16 

0.58 

0.0001657 

0.0002,% 

69.131 

1.20 

0,60 

0.U001653 

0.000275 

60,302 

1.24 

0.62 

0.0001649 

0.000266 

61.314 

1.28 

0.04 

O.OOOIOIC 

0.000257 

C2.378 

1.32 

0.66 

0.0001643 

0.000249 

03.372 

1.36 

0,tW 

0.00011140 

0.000241 

64.4IG 

1.40 

0,70 

0.0001637 

0.000234 

6,5.372 

1.44 

0.72 

0.0001(i35 

0.000227 

60.372 

1.48 

0.74 

0.0001032 

0.000221 

67.267 

1.50 

0.75 

0.0001631 

0.000217 

67.S,S4 

1.00 

0.80 

0.(H)01620 

0.000203 

70.186 

1.70 

0.85 

0.0001621 

0.000191 

"2..'«7 

1.80 

0.90 

0.0<1»I617 

O.OOOIKO 

74.636 

1.90 

0.95 

0.0OOI6I3 

0.000170 

76.696 

2.00 

1.00 

0.0001610 

0.000161 

78.811 

2.10 

1.05 

0.0001007 

0.0001.53 

80.845 

2.20 

1.10 

0.0001604 

0.O0OI46 

82.761 

2.30 

1.15 

0.11001601 

0.000139 

84819 

2.40 

1.20 

0.0001599 

0.0001.33 

86.711 

2.50 

1.25 

0.0001597 

O00012S 

88.388 

2.00 

1,30 

0.00Ol.'.95 

0.000123 

90.107 

2.70 

1.35 

o.oooi.v.!;) 

0.0001  IS 

92.0,57 

2.80 

1.10 

0.0O01.>91 

0.000114 

93.059 

2.90 

1,15 

0.0001,590 

0.000110 

95,346 

3.00 

1,50 

0,0001,588 

0.000106 

97.129 

This  tabic  npplics  to  now  riist-iron  pipes.  For  pipes  conloi 
internally  witli  )>itun)eii  or  pitch  tlio  hiss  of  liead  will  ho 
about  two-tiiirils  ns  iiiiirh.  and  for  uncoateti  pipes,  long  in 
use.  twice  as  imnOi,  iis  imlicated  b.v  tiiis  table. 

Kxftmplr. — Wliat  is  the  loss  of  IieaJ  in  a  new  ca.'^t-iron 
pipe  1  foot  in  ilinnictcr,  .'iOOO  feet  long,  convoying  1  cuhio 
foot  >A  water  per  second — cross-section  of  pipe,  0.7854  foot : 

1 
velocity,  r-"^  =  1-273  feet  per  second  ?     /=  los.s  of  head 


per    foot    of   pipe 


»■■'=  0.000,1.35  X  1.273  X  1.273 


0.000543.    Total  loss  -  3000  y  0.000313  =  1.C29  feet.    What 


1054 


HYI)i:(>l>YXAMICS. 


quantity  of  water  would  this  pipe  deliver  with  a  loss  of  head 
of  10  feet?  /  =  3J85.V7=  0.05773,  »  =  54.6358  X  0.0577:) 
=  3.154.  Quantity,  0.7854x3.154  =  2.477  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

Jctf. When  water  issues  vertically  up\7ard  from  an  ori- 
fice in  a  vessel  under  pressure,  it  would  rise  to  a  height 
correspondiug  to  the  pressure,  if  it  encountered  no  resist- 
ance from  the  air  or  in  passing  tlirough  tlic  orifice.  Tho 
last-named  resistance,  however,  prevents  the  velocity  from 
being  quite  equal  to  that  due  the  pressure,  and  tho  first 
prevents  the  stream  from  rising  to  the  height  due  the  ve- 
locity. When  the  velocity  of  issue  is  from  3  to  20  feet,  the 
height  of  the  jet  is  subslaiitially  that  due  the  velocity.  For 
higher  velocities  the  resistance  of  the  air  has  a  greater  in- 
fluence. A  contracted  stream  rises  higher  than  an  uneon- 
tracted  one  of  the  same  size  and  issuing  under  the  same 
pressure,  tho  ccuitracted  stream  having  the  greater  initial 
velocity.  But  an  uncoutr.actrd  stream  will  rise  higher  than 
a  contracted  one  of  Ihe  same  initial  velocity,  as  the  latter 
presents  swells  and  bulges  which  increase  the  resistance  of 
tho  air.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  thick  stream  rises 
higher  than  a  thin  one.  An  orifice  well  rounded  internally, 
and  provided  externally  with  a  conical  converging  tube,  is 
most  favorable  for  a  great  height  of  jet.  Table  9  gives, 
upon  the  authority  of  Weisbach,  the  height  of  jet  for  dif- 
ferent velocities  and  different  forms  of  orifice  : 


Table  9. 


No.  of 

orifice. 

1 
2 
3 
4 

Height  of  jcl,  the  head  due  the  velocity  bcios— 

10  feet. 

a.fil 
9.71 
0.48 
9.C,9 

!0  feel. 

30    fct. 

40  feet. 

50  feet.      60  feet.   70   feet. 

1S.31 
18.74 
1S.53 
19.08 

25.93 
23.7.i 
23.77 
28.02 

32.58 
33.77 
33.97 
3G.39 

3S.12       42.76     45.99 
39.72    1  41.63     4S.23 
39.93    1  44.79     48.47 
44.09    1  51.08     57.31 

No.  1  was  a  circular  orifice  in  a  thin  plate  0.4  inch  diam- 
eter ;  No.  2  was  a  circular  orifice  0.  jB  inch  diameter ;  No.  3 
was  a  circular  converging  tube  5.9  inches  long,  I.IS  inches 
diameter  at  the  inner  end,  n. 39  at  the  outer  end;  No.  4  was 
a  shorter  tube  with  an  e.-cternal  orifice  of  0.56  inch  diameter. 
Expandlmi  Submerged  Tubes. — When  water  flows  through 
an  expanding  tube  AC  ( Fig.  15),  discharging  under  water, 


Fig.  15. 


alter  passing  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  tho  tube 
it  moves  with  a  con- 
tinually iliiu  in  ish  in  g  ve- 
locity. Now,  as  a  cer- 
tain force  nuist  be  ex- 
erted upon  water  to  ac- 
celerate its  nuition,  a 
certain  force  is  exerted 
by  water  when  its  mo- 
tion is  retarded.  This 
farce  is  here  employed 
iu  diminishing  the 
pressure  opposcil  to  the 
movement  of  the  water 
— viz.  that  due  to  the  subnicrgeuce  of  the  tube,  and  the  at- 
mosphere. The  result  is  a  virtual  increase  of  the  head. 
The  velocity  in  this  case  may  be  greatly  in  excess  of  that 
due  the  diff'crcnee  of  level  between  the  discharging  and  re- 
ceiving basins.  Mr.  Francis  has  made  very  careful  and  ac- 
curate experiments  upon  this  subject.  Ho  employed  a  tube 
of  the  form  shown  at  Fig.  15,  diverging  at  an  angle  of  5 
dcrecs.  It  was  made  in  five  parts,  .\,  IS,  C,  D.  E,  each  one 
foot  in  length.  The  mouthpiece  A  was  1.37  feet  diameter 
at  tho  inner  end,  rounded  by  a  cycloidal  curve  to  a  diam- 
eter of  O.I  foot  at  the  outer  end.  The  sections  B,  C,  I), 
Table  10. 


■'y^-y-^-'y-^ '  :<^^^'f^^ 


Head  or  dl  fference  of  level 

Velocitr  at  the  smallest 

Parts  of  the  tube  iD  use. 

between  the  two  bosloa, 

section  ns  compared  with 

tcct. 

that  duo  tho  head. 

A 

0.0339 

0.815 

0.230 

0.863 

0.938 

0.928 

1.514 

0.911 

A  B 

0.020 
0.100 

1.151 

1.S96 

0.8.54 

1..592 

1.470 

1.575 

A  B  C 

0.014 
0.002 

1.418 

1.7S4 

1.100 

2.104 

1.312 

2.123 

A,  B,  C,  D 

0.014 

I.3S5 

0.0.59 

1.817 

1.177 

2.431 

1.361 

2.427 

0.014 
0.057 

1.438 

1.R7G 

1.282 

2.421 

1.408 

2.267 

E,  were  respectively  0.145,  0.234,  0.321,  0.40S  foot  in  di- 
ameter at  the  outer  ends.  Table  10  is  a  summary  of  his 
results.  The  principles  of  the  flow  of  water  tlinuigh  di- 
verging tubes  find  a  useful  npplicatiuu  in  the  difl'user,  an 
appendage  applied  to  Ihe  turbine  water-wheel  by  .Mr.  Hoy- 
den. The  tvaler  is  discharged  from  tho  wheel  through  an 
expjinding  passage,  and  the  momentum  which  would  other- 
wise bo  wasted  is  employed  in  increasing  the  velocity  and 
consequent  effectiveness  of  the  water  jiassing  the  wheel. 

Yar'unia  llcsiiitnnceii  to  the  Motion  of  It'ii(er. —  Every  ab- 
rupt change  of  velocity  or  direction  in  the  motion  of  water 
is  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  head. 
"■     ■  manifesting  itself  in  pipes  by  a  di- 

minished pressure,  and  in  channels 
by  a  depression  <d'  the  surface,  after 
passing  the  point  of  such  change. 
An  abrupt  change  of  velocity  results 
from  an  enlargement  of  the  pipe 
(Fig.  16).  In  this  casethe  head  lost 
is  that  due  the  change  of  velocily. 
Thus,  if  the  pipe  IS  have  a  diameter 
3  times  that  of  A,  the  velocity  in  A 


ij^_|fSs|S=^  being  6  foot  per  second,  the  velocity 
F=i3i?SS==ii  will  be  I  =  5  foot  per  second  in  B. 
^  <ii:££=^  The  change  of  velocity  is  6  -  0.67  = 


A 


.Xs 


5.33    feet   per   second.     The 
due  this  velocity  is  0.442  foot. 


head 
This 


is  the  loss  of  head.     If  two  small  pipes  a  and  h,  reaching 
Indefinitely  upward,  are  inserted  one  in  A  and  one  in  B, 
the  water  in '<  will  stand  0.442 
' '°- "•  foot  lower  than  in  n.     This 

-A  loss  of  head  may  be  avoided 

g  by  making  the  enlargement 

r=:=  gradual.  At  the  entrance  to 
a  pipe  from  a  reservoir  or 
from  a  larger  ]iipe  a  loss  of 
-  head  takes  place.  If  the 
water  enters  through  an  ori- 
fice smaller  than  the  pipe  B, 
this  loss  may  be  very  great.  Table  11  is  given  by  Weis- 
bach as  tho  result  of  his  experiments  on  this  point.  When, 
c.  g.,  the  area  of  the  orifice  is  one-half  that  of  the  pipe,  the 
head  lost  is  5.256  times  that  due  the  velocity. 

Table  II.  Table  12. 


Area  of  the 

Loss   of   head, 

as     compared 

compared 

with  that  due 

with     that 

the  velocity  iu 

of  the  pipe. 

the  pipe. 

1.00 

0.480 

0.9 

•     0.734 

0.8 

1.109 

0.7 

l.STli 

O.G 

3.077 

0.5 

5.256 

0.4 

9.612 

0.3 

19.78 

0.2 

50.99 

0.1 

231.7 

Angle  of  de- 
viation, de- 
grees. 

Loss   of    head, 
as     compared 
wl'h  that  due 
the  vetocity. 

20 
40 
GO 
80 
90 
100 
110 
120 
130 
140 

0.046 
0.139 

0.3ii4 
0740 
0.984 
1.260 
1..5.^6 
I.S61 
2.1.58 
2.431 

Elbows  or  Atiijlcs  in  pipes  occasion  a  loss  of  head  depend- 
ing upon  the  amount  of  deviation  from  a  straight  line.  Ta- 
ble 12  is  given  by  Weisbach  for  a  pipe  a  little  less  than  IJ 
inches  in  diameter.  The  loss  of  head  is  considerably  greater 
for  smaller  pipes.  For  a  pipe  0.4  inch  diameter,  deviating 
90  degrees,  it  was  1.536  times  that  duo  the  velocity. 

Bends  in  pipes  occasion  a  considerable  loss  of  head, 
though  materially  less  than  occurs  with  elbows.  This  loss 
is  found  to  depend  upon  the  proporlinn  which  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  pipe  bears  to  the  radius  uf  Ihe  bend.  Table 
13,  given  bv  Weisbach.  ap])lies  to  this  case,  the  bends  being 
full  quadrants,  or  what  are  called  quarter  turns: 

Table  13. 


Loss  of  bead,  as  compared  with  that  due  the 

Semi-diameter  of  pipe. 

velocity. 

as     compared       with 
radius  of  curve. 

Recungular  pipe. 

Circular  pipe. 

0.1 

0.124 

0.131 

0.2 

0.135 

0.138 

0.3 

0.1  SO 

0.1.58 

0.4 

0.2,50 

0  206 

0.0 

o.:»s 

0.294 

0.6 

0.643 

0.440 

0.7 

1.015 

0.661 

0.8 

1.546 

0.977 

0.9 

2.271 

1.408 

1.0 

3.228 

1.978 

Resistance  of  Valves  and  Cocks.— A  knowledge  of  the  re- 
sistance occasioned  by  the  various  contrivances  for  control- 
ling the  ftow  of  water  in  pipes  is  of  great  importanee.  Tho 
several  tvpes  of  these  contrivances  are  indicated  by  Figs. 


HYDROFLUORIC  ACID. 


1055 


18  to  22.  For  largo  pipes  a.  sliding  gate  (Fig.  18)  is  used. 
It  is  niiscd  into  a  chamber  by  a  screw  working  through  a 
stuffing-box.  Wlicn  partly  closed,  it  leaves  a  crescent- 
shaped  opening  in  circular  pi|>cs,  and  a  rectangular  ono  in 
rectangular  pipes.      Fig.  ID  is  a  cock  consisting  of  a  cyliu- 

FiG.  19. 


Fig  18. 


surface  would  not  be  nffectcd  by  the  operation,  and  opening 
an  orifice  in  the  vessel's  bottom.    It'  the  vessel  Is  of  uniform 
horizontal  section,  and  the  urilicc  is  of  the  same  size  in  each 
case,  and  the  same  form  with  reference  to  inward  as  to  out- 
ward flow,  it  would  bo  filled  to  tho  level  of  the  external 
water  in  the  same  time  that  it  would 
require  to  empty  itself  when  so  filled 
if  suddenly  raised  clear  of  the  water. 
If  the  coefficient  of  cfllux   were  con- 
stant, this  time  would  be  twice  that 
required  to  discharge  the  same  quan- 
tity  of  water  through  the  saino  ori- 


drical  or  conical  plug  pierced  with  a  rectangular  opening. 
It  closes  tho  passage  by  turning  about  its  centre.  Fig.  20 
is  a  throttle-valve,  Fig.  21  a  puppet-valve,  and  Fig.  22  a 
clack-valve.  Prof.  Wcisbach  gives  the  following  results  for 
these  different  forms  of  valves: 

Table  14. 


SUUineymvci  (Fig.  18). 

Cocki  (Fig.  19). 

Cylindrical  pipes. 

RcctaDBular  plp«>. 

CyllDdHcal    pipes. 

Rectangular  pipes. 

Aroaof 

Ill-ad  loft. 

Area  of 

Head  lost, 

Area  of 

Head  lost, 

Area  of 

Head  lost. 

opon'K, 

an  cofu- 

.i|«:ti'g, 

a*  com- 

opcn-g. 

as  com- 

open's. 

as  com- 

M com- 

as com- 

pared 

as  com- 

pared 

as  com- 

pared 

pared 

wlth   that 

pared 

witii    ttiat 

pared 

nltti  ttiat 

pared 

Willi   tliat 

>Ull 

duo  tho 

Willi 

duo  tlio 

Witll 

due  tlic 

with 

duo  the 

Mx-tloa 

vctocltylD 

■  PClioQ 

vclocllyfn 

section 

velocity  In 

section 

vclocityin 

of  pipv. 

tbo  pipe. 

Of  pipe. 

tiio  pi[>C. 

of  pipe. 

the  pipe. 

of  pipe. 

the  pipe. 

1.000 

n.noo 

1.00 

0.00 

0-926 

0.0.1 

0.926 

0.0.5 

<J.9<S 

0.07 

0.9 

0.09 

0.S--.0 

0.29 

0.6-19 

0.31 

0.8.56 

0.26 

0  8 

0..i9 

0.772 

0.7.5 

0-709 

0.88 

(1.740 

0.81 

0.7 

0.9.-. 

0.C92 

l..'ili 

0.6S7 

1.84 

0.009 

2.06 

0.6 

2.08 

0.GI3 

3.10 

0.001 

3.45 

o.icr. 

S.-W 

0..') 

4.02 

o.ry.is 

.V47 

0..520 

0.1.5 

0.::15 

17.00 

0.4 

8.12 

0.4-18 

9.08 

0.436 

11.2 

0.159 

97.8 

0.3 

17.8 

o.:;s.i 

17.3 

0.3,';2 

20.7 

(1.2 

41.5 

o.:ii.i 

31.2 

0.2159 

41.0 

0.1 

19:i.0 

o.2.-,o 

52.G 

0.188 

9.5.3 

0.190 

105. 

0.110 

273.0 

0.1.)7 

206. 

0.091 

486. 

T.MILE   15. 


Tlirettic-valTM  (Flj.  20), 

Puppct-valvci 
(Fig.  -.11). 

Ciacit-vnlvcs 
(Fig-  Tl,. 

Area  of 
openlnn  as 
compared 

Head  io^l,  as  com. 

parL-<i  with    that  due 

the  velocity. 

Area  of 
opcng. 

Head  lost, 
etc. 

Anglo  of 

opening, 

Head  lost, 

with  section 

(Cylindri- 

Kectang- 

degrees. 

of  pipe. 

cal  pipe. 

ular  pipe. 

0.913 

0.2.J 

0.28 

0.9 

0.69 

1.5. 

90. 

0.826 

0.52 

0.4.5 

0.8 

1.10 

20. 

02. 

0.741 

0.90 

0.77 

0.7 

1.82 

25. 

42. 

0,0.-,8 

1..54 

1.34 

0.0 

3.03 

30. 

30. 

0..577 

2..51 

2.16 

0.5 

5.24 

3.5. 

20. 

0..500 

3.91 

3..'i4 

0.4 

9.67 

40. 

M. 

0.426 

6.22 

5.70 

0.3 

20.0 

45. 

9..5 

0.3.57 

10.8 

9.27 

0.2 

.52.0 

.50. 

6.6 

0.293 

18.7 

1.5.07 

0.1 

239.0 

55. 

4.6 

0.2*1 

32.6 

24.9 

60. 

3.2 

0.181 

.58.8 

42.7 

a5. 

2.3 

0.134 

11.8.0 

77.4 

70. 

1.7 

0.094 

2.->i5.0 

IM. 

0.030 

751.0 

368. 

Efflux  uuder  Varinhle  Pre^mire. — When  a  vessel  ( Fig,  2'i) 
cmjities  itself  through  an  orifice  in  its  bottom,  tho  head,  and 
consequently  the  rapidity  of  the  flow,  diniini.'^lies  as  tho  sur- 
face falls.  The  same  thing  occurs  when  a  vessel  is  filled 
through  an  oriliee  in  its  bottom,  as,  for  instance,  by  sinking 
it  to  a  certain  dentli   in  a  body  of  water  so  large  that  its 


fice  under  a  constant  head  equal  to 
that  acting  at  the  commencement  of 
the  flow ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  twice 
the  time  required  to  discharge  an  equal 
quantity  of  water  at  the  initial  rate. 
Tho  slight  increase  of  the  coefficient 
of  cffiux  as  the  head  diminishes  modi- 
fies this  and  the  following  statements 
slightly,  but  not  materially.  For  a 
vessel  larger  or  smaller  at  the  toji  than 
at  the  bottom,  the  above  proportion  would  not  hold  good, 
neither  would  the  time  of  emptying  Ije  equal  to  that  of  fill- 
ing. A  vessel  larger  at  the  top  than  the  bottom  requires 
less  time  to  empty  and  more  to  fill  than  one  of  uniform 
horizontal  section,  and  vice  vcrnd.  Such  a  vessel  will  empty 
with  its  small  end  uppermost  in  the  ,«ame  lime  that  it  will 
fill  in  a  reversed  position,  and  \-icc  vcrtid,  the  orifice  and 
initial  head  being  tho  same  in  both  cases;  the  orifice  being 
in  the  face  or  extremity  which  forms  the  botlom  for  tho 
time  being.  .  A  wedge-shaped  vessel  (Tig.  24)  will  empty 
itself  with  its  vertex  uppermost  in  25 
times  the  time  required  to  discharge 
an  equal  quantily  at  the  initial  rale  of 
flow.  In  a  rever.'^cd  ]iositiou  it  will 
empty  itself  in  \\  times  the  time  re- 
quired to  discharge  an  equal  quan- 
tity at  the  initial  rate.  A  vessel  liav- 
ing  the  form  of  a  pyramid  or  cone 
will  empty  itself  with  its  vertex  upward  in  V,^,  witli  its 
base  upward  in  1^  times  tho  time  required  to  discharge  an 
equal  quantity  at  the  initial  rate. 

The  commonest  form  of  vessel  for  holding  water  is  a 
conical  or  pyramidal  frustum.  The  contents  of  such  a 
vessel  are  separable  into  three  parts:  (1)  a  prism  or  cylin- 
der; (2)  a  wedgo;  {'.I)  a  pyramid.  This  will  rearlily  appear, 
as  regards  a  pyramidal  fVuslum.  from  an  inspection  of  Fig. 
25.  This  is  separable  into — (1 )  a  prism  or  parallelopipedonj 


Fig.  -24. 


Fio.  25. 


(2 )  two  wedges, 
whieh  may  be  con- 
sidered as  ono;  {'.\) 
a  pyramid.  A  con- 
ical frustum  or  tub 
contains  apjiroxi- 
niately — (I)  a  cy- 
linder whoso  base 
is  the  small  end ; 
(2)  a  wedge  whoso 
base  has  a  length 
equal  to  tlio  cir- 
cumferenco  of  tho  small  end,  and  a  breadth  equal  to  tho  ex- 
cess of  tho  radius  of  tho  large  end  over  that  of  thi'  small 
end;  and  {;J)  a  pyramid  whose  base  is  half  tlie  product 
of  the  difi"erence  of  the  circumferences  by  the  dinVreneo 
of  the  radii.  The  common  height  of  the  prism,  jiyramid, 
and  wedge  is  the  depth  of  water  in  tho  vessel.  When  a 
vessel  of  this  form  stands  ui)on  its  small  end,  the  time  re- 
quired (o  empty  it  is  twice  the  time  requited  to  discharge 
tlic  cylimier  or  prism  of  water,  one  and  one-third  that  re- 
qnire<I  to  discharge  the  wedge,  and  (uie  and  one-fifth  that 
required  for  the  pyramid,  at  the  initial  rate.  AVhen  it 
stanils  on  its  larger  end,  the  time  is  twice  that  required 
for  the  prism  or  cylinder,  two  and  two-thirds  tiuuH  that 
for  tho  wedge,  and  three  and  one-fifth  times  tliat  for  the 
pyrnniid,  at  the  initial  rate  of  flow.  J.  P.  Fiti/.KLI,. 

llyilrodiioric  Acid.  See  Fi.ronvDitic  Acii>,  by  Fkop. 
C.  V.  CirANDi.iin,  I'll.  I>..  M.  1».,  LL.D. 


1056 


HYDBOGEN. 


Hydro^TCn  [Fr.  ht/dyofjene;  GcT.  Wneseratofffjan;  earlier 
chemistti,  inflammable  «i>].  Hi'stori/. — The  ancients  believci! 
water  an  elementary  substance.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Paracelsus  discovered  that  iron  and  sulphuric  acid  engen- 
der tof^L'ther  an  ai-riform  hody  or  gas.  Not  until  1G7-  was 
this  ohserved,  hy  hoth  Maycrnc  and  Boyle,  to  be  combus- 
tible. It  was  henceforward  known  as  inflammable  air,  until 
Lavoisier,  after  the  discovery  of  its  chemical  nature  and 
origin,  called  it  ht/droz/rn,  or  wator-gcnorator,  from  the 
(ircek  vBuip  and  ytwdta.  In  1700,  Lemery  iliscovcred  that 
it  explodes  in  admixture  with  air.  Henceforth,  it  was  re- 
garded as  being  or  conveying  the  principle  of  fire,  and 
under  the  fauxuis  theory  of  Stahl  was  believed  to  be  wholly 
or  chiefly  composed  of  the  so-called  phlmjixton.  In  ITfifi 
t!io  groat  Kngli-jh  cheinist  Cavendisli  (irst  took  up  its  in- 
vestigation, and  qivickly  discovered  that  when  burned  it 
produces  water.  Two  other  chemists,  Macquer  and  Do  la 
Motherie,  recorded  the  same  observation  at  tlie  same  date. 
Nut  till  17S1,  however,  did  Cavcndi^i^h  complete  the  discov- 
ery by  burning  together  o.ri/ffcu — previously  discovered,  in 
1774,  by  Priestley — and  hydrogen,  and  fimling  that  the  sole 
product  was  water.  James  Watt  is  also  believed  to  liave 
made  the  same  discovery,  independently,  in  this  same  year 
(1781). 

Occurrence  in  Xnture. — Many  authorities  assert  that  hy- 
drogen is  never  found  free  in  nature  upon  the  earth.  It 
certainly  exists,  liowever,  in  volcanic  gases.  II.  Rose  and 
others  have  asserted  that  the  gas  found  compressed  in  the 
decrepitating  salt  of  Wieliczka  contains  free  hydrogen. 
Graham  found  it,  in  the  condition  be  called  "occlusion," 
in  the  iron  of  aerolites.  De  Candoile  made  the  remarkable 
statement  that  certain  fungi  evolve  free  hydrogen  night 
and  day.  The  spectroscope  detects  hydrogen  in  the  chro- 
mosphero  of  our  sun  and  in  many  other  stars ;  also  in  cer- 
tain nebula?.  Water  contains  one-ninth  of  its  weight,  or 
11.11  per  cent.,  of  hydrogen.  Steam,  and  water  in  other 
vaporous  forms,  contain  an  amount  of  hydrogen  which, 
when  set  free  in  gaseous  form,  is  found  to  assume,  at  the 
same  temperature,  exactly  the  volume  of  the  vapor  itself; 
gaseous  water  being  made  up  of  two  measures,  or  volumes, 
of  hydrogen,  an*!  one  of  oxygen ;  the  three  measures  con- 
densing, in  combining,  to  two  measures.  Steam  therefore 
contains  its  own  volume  of  hydrogen.  Liquid  water,  how- 
ever, contains  12158  times  its  volume  of  free  gaseous  hydro- 
gen. Hydrogen  occurs  also  in  nature  in  combination  with 
nitrogen,  as  ammonia ;  with  carbon,  as  marsh-gas,  the  chief 
constituent  of  rhe  gas  of  gas-wells  and  of  the  tire-damp  of 
coal-mines,  which,  of  all  known  compounds,  is  the  richest 
in  hydrogen,  containing  one-fourth  of  its  weight,  or  more 
than  twice  as  much  as  water.  It  also  contains  twice 
i(s  own  volume  of  hydrogen.  With  carbon  also,  as  j)otro- 
I('U[n  and  paraffine ;  and  as  an  essentia!  constituent  of  most 
of  the  solid  tissues  of  organic  beings,  both  animal  and  veg- 
ntablc;  and  therefore  of  all  mineral  substances  of  organic 
origin,  such  as  coals,  asphalts,  bitumens,  mineral  resins 
and  resinoids,  etc.  In  volcanic  gases  it  occurs  as  muriatic 
acid  gas;  also  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  under  many  cir- 
cumstances; and.  some  believe,  also  in  combination  with 
phosphorus,  as  native  phosphuretted  hydrogen. 

Prfparation. — Hydrogen  gas  may  he  obtained  from  water 
by  many  methods,  of  which  there  are  seven  principal  ones 
that  have  been  and  may  be  useil,  according  to  uircum- 
slanccs:  1.  The  method  of  Paracelsus,  with  iron  (or  zinc, 
which  is  oftener  now  used)  and  a  dilute  acid,  generally 
eitlier  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid.  This  is  the  most  com- 
mon method,  but  yields  generally  an  impure  and  very  mal- 
odorous hydrogen,  contaminated  by  combination  with  the 
impurities  of  the  metal  and  acid  used.  In  the  case  of  iron, 
important  quantities  of  volatile  and  gaseous  hydrocarbon 
compounds  are  formed  with  the  carbon  of  the  iron,  and  it  is 
dnubtfiil  whether  pure  hydrogen  can  be  obtained  by  any 
modification  of  this  method,  unless  possibly  by  the  use  of 
/inc  of  chemical  purity,  wliieh  must  then  be  mixed  with 
platinum  to  produce  voltaic  currents,  or  else  it  will  decom- 
jioso  the  acidulated  water  but  very  slowly.  2.  Metals  whose 
oxides  are  soluble  in  caustic  alkaline  solutions,  such  ns  zinc 
and  aluminum,  will  decomj)oso  water  and  evolve  hydrogen 
when  warmed  with  such  alkaline  solutions.  With  alumi- 
num free  from  carbon,  hydrogen  thus  prepared  should  bo 
]iure.  3.  The  alkali  metals,  such  as  potassium  and  sodium, 
tiecomposc  pure  water  directly  by  appropriating  its  oxygen 
and  setting  the  hydrogen  free — a  method  useful  only  as  a 
lecture  cx])erimen(.  4.  Metallic  iron,  when  incandescent, 
will  decompose  steam,  with  formation  of  magnetic  oxide 
of  iron  nnd  free  hydrogen.  This  method  is  not  to  bo  reo- 
ommendt*d  in  practice.  The  action  is  very  quickly  retarded, 
ami  becomes  sluggish,  from  the  coating  of  oxide  formed 
over  the  iron,  'k  A  far  more  rapid  and  practicable  method 
is  arrived  at  hy  substituting  for  the  iron  some  form  of 
mineral  or  artificial  carbon.  Hydrogen  is  thus  obtained 
in  admixture  with  carbonic  oxide.    Unless  the  temperature 


be  very  high,  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  is  also  formed.  At 
very  high  heats,  a  mixture  of  about  two  volumes  of  hydro- 
gen with  one  volume  of  carbonic  oxide,  and  but  a  small 
percentage  of  carbonic  acid,  may  in  this  way  be  prepared 
on  a  large  scale  from  steam.  This  is  known  technically  as 
"  water-gas,"  and  is  used  by  some  us  a  diluent  for  coal  nnd 
petroleum  gases  for  illuminating  purposes,  anil  is  proposed 
to  be  used  by  itself,  on  a  large  scale,  for  warming,  cooking, 
motor,  and  manufacturing  purposes,  fi.  By  "dissociation," 
or  the  method  discovered  by  Grove  in  1S4G — that  is,  by  the 
direct  decomposition  of  steam  by  a  high  heat,  which  will 
furnish  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Prof.  B.  Sil- 
liman  discovered  in  1S61)  that  this  mode  of  preparation 
may  be  effected  on  a  considerable  scale  by  forming  beneath 
the  surface  of  pure  water  the  voltaic  arc  from  a  battery  of 
considerable  power,  the  mixed  gases  coming  off  in  torrents. 
Pure  hydrogen  may  be  procured  by  absorbing  the  oxygen 
from  such  a  mixecl  gaseous  product,  7.  By  electrolysis 
of  water  containing  in  solution  some  substance  which  in- 
creases its  conducting  power  for  the  voltaic  current.  Hy- 
drogen is  then  evolved  from  the  cathode  or  negative  elec- 
trode, and  may  he  collected  in  a  state  of  purity. 

Hydrogen  is  also  a  product  of  the  destructive  distillation, 
at  incandescent  heats,  of  all  organic  substances.  Tiius, 
common  coal-gas  contains  40  per  cent,  or  more  of  this  gas 
as  a  proximate  constituent. 

Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  known  gas,  and  of  course,  there- 
fore, the  least  dense  of  all  known  substances.  Air  being  1, 
its  density  is  0.0693,  but  water  being  1,  its  density  is  only 
0.0000S07'4.  One  cubic  foot  weighs  ?,\).\\)A:)  grains,  an 
equal  volume  of  air  weighing  505  grains;  hence  its  use 
sometimes  for  filling  balloons.  Air  is  14.48  times  as  heavy 
as  hydrogen,  and  water  is  11,143  times  as  heavy.  The 
metallic  mineral   platiniridium,  the  heaviest  known  sub- 


stance fsp. 


is  over  250,000   times  as  hoavv  as 


hydrogen,  the  lightest.  Pure  hydrogen  is  colorless,  in- 
odorous, and  tasteless.  It  is  not  directly'  poisonous  when 
inhaled  pure,  death  ensuing  from  mere  absence  of  oxygen  ; 
but  it  should  never  be  inhaled  unless  certainly  pure,  the 
contaminations  that  are  incident  to  it  being  often  highly 
poisonous,  and  several  chemists  ha\  ing  lost  their  lives 
through  reckless  experiments  of  this  kind.  A  person 
breathing  it  speaks  with  a  peculiar  squeak.  The  great 
tenuity  of  hydrogen  gas  gives  it  a  great  penetrative  or  rapid 
diffusive  power;  many  solid  metals  are  even  readily  pene- 
trated or  permeated  through  their  pores,  iron  being  one  of 
these.  When  there  is  an  adhesive  attraction — or,  it  may 
be,  a  feeble  chemical  affinity — between  hydrogen  and  the 
metal,  the  former  may  become  largely  c<m<lensed  in  the 
pores  of  the  latter.  This  condensation,  called  by  (irnham 
'•occlusion,"  occurs  with  iron  (ns  in  meteoric  iron),  but 
much  more  notably  with  palladium,  which  Graham  caused 
to  condense  nntl  retain  600  or  700  times  its  volume  of 
hydrogen,  forming  what  he  imagined  to  bo  of  the  nature 
of  a  metallic  alloy  ;  whence  ho  believed  hydrogen  passed 
here  into  a  mctnUiv  form,  called  by  him  "  hydrogenium." 
Few  chemists,  however,  have  favored  this  hypothesis  of 
hydrogenium.  When  soft  iron  is  permeated  by  condensed 
hydrogen,  its  tenacity  is  greatly  injured  ;  and  Klein  and 
other  chemists  have  obtained  hy  voltaic  precipitation  iron 
otherwise  cheuiieally  pure,  but  so  largely  impregnated  with 
condenseil  hyiirogen  that  it  was  ns  brittle  as  glass,  and 
would  take  fire  from  a  flame,  and  burn  as  if  it  were  wet 
with  alcohol,  from  the  hydrogen  expelled  by  the  heat. 
Such  iron  becomes  soft  and  malleable  on  losing  its  hydro- 
gen. Iron  wire  often  loses  its  tenacity  when  it  is  immersed 
in  acid  "pickle,"  to  remove  films  of  oxide,  through  the 
condensation  of  hydrogen  in  the  substance  of  the  nielal; 
but  the  tenacity  is  said  to  return  after  a  time,  by  reason 
of  the  spontaneous  escape  of  the  hydrogen. 

Hydrogen,  in  its  tendency  to  combine  directly  under  nor- 
mal pressures  and  temperatures  with  oilier  elements,  is 
almost  as  passive  and  inert  as  nitrogen;  the  only  element 
towards  which  it  manifests  much  activity  being  chlorine. 
With  this  it  does  not  combine  sjiontaneously  in  the  dark, 
but  light  causes  an  immediate  combination  to  form  muri- 
atic acid  gas;  and  direct  sunshine  will  even  set  up  rapid 
and  ex]»losivc  combustion.  When  mix<!d  with  oxygen  or 
air  no  combination  takes  place  spontaneously,  but  contact 
with  certain  metals  causes  a  condensation  and  combination. 
to  form  water,  on  the  surfaces  of  such  metals,  developing 
heat  ;  which  may  easily  be  so  managed  as  to  raise  the 
metal  to  incandescence,  and  thus  cause  the  gaseous  mix- 
ture to  kinfllo  throughout,  with  explosion  if  confined.  This 
phenomenon,  discovered  by  Diibereiner,  furnishea  the 
principle  of  what  is  known  as  Diiberciner's  "  liydrogen 
lamp,"  in  which  a  jet  of  hydrogen,  generated  in  a  self- 
regulating  reservoir  of  that  gas,  may  be  emitted  into  the 
air,  and  the  gaseous  combustible  mixture  thus  formed 
caused  to  impinge  on  a  small  mass  of  platinum  in  spongy 
form,  which  latter  instantly  becomes  red  hot  and  kindles 


IIYDKOCiEX,   PEROXIDE  OF— HYDROGRAPHY. 


1057 


the  hydropen  jet.  Thus  fire  may  l>c  at  any  moment  ob- 
tainctl.  At  timperatures  higher  than  nonnal,  hydrogen  will 
combine  with  some  other  elements,  as  uith  sulphur  at  the 
boilin),!;-point  uf  the  latter,  to  form  snljihurottc*!  hydrogen, 
and  with  bromine  and  iodine,  at  a  reil  heat,  to  form  the 
hydracids  corresponding.  Kveu  witii  carbon,  at  the  intense 
temperature  of  the  voltaic  arc,  it  was  found  by  IJcrthclot  that 
ft  tendency  to  direct  combination  was  deveIo|>c<l,  one  pro- 
duct being  acetylene  gas.  There  are  other  eases  in  which 
hydrogen  aiipear;"  to  enter  directly  into  coni}>ination — 
namely,  when  in  the  act  of  bcingevolvod  from  wafer  by  the 
agency  of  a  metal,  or  of  electrolysis,  or  in  what  has  been 
cuMed  the  "nascent  state."  Vndcr  these  conditions  it  will 
even  manifest  sufficient  activity  to  decompose  other  exist- 
ing combinations  present  in  tlie  liquid,  and  ajijiropriato 
their  elements.  It  will  thus  take  uj).  for  example,  iirnni{c 
and  anttniiiiit/,  and  carry  them  along  with  itself  in  gaseous 
combinations.  This  is  the  principle  on  which  is  founded  the 
well-known  "Marsh's  test"  for  arsenic  and  antimony, 
which  is  of  such  immense  toxicological  importance. 

Henry  Wirtz. 
Ily'droson,  Peroxide  of,  called  also  Bioxicle, 
Itiiioviile,  Diovide,  and  Oeutoxidc  of  Hytlro;;en  ; 
al--o  Oxv;;euated  Water  [Fr.  rttn  oxi/>j^ii»<e  .-  Oer.  ira«- 
Kerntoff  Htfiirroxtfd,  SdnerKtuff wit  finer,  Oxi/dirtcn  ]Vns»rr]. 
It  was  discovered  in  1818  by  the  French  chemist  Thenard. 
lie  found,  when  peroxide  of  barium.  BaO.,  was  added  in 
the  cold  to  dilute  muriatic  acid,  IKM.  instead  of  a  decom- 
position, such  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  IJaOz  -h 
2IlCl-BaCl.i  +  IliO  +  0— that  is,  the  formation  of  neutral 
chloride  of  barium  and  water,  with  a  setting  free  of  the 
second  equivalent  of  oxygen  of  the  peroxide  —  that  no 
oxygen  appeared  to  be  set  free  at  all;  and  he  was  finally 
led  to  comprehend  that  the  rcactitm  is  as  follows:  na02  -|- 
2nCl  =  BaCli  f  Hj**:.  a  new  compound  being  formed,  con- 
taining twice  as  much  oxygen  as  water.  By  a  long,  com- 
plex, and  laborious  jtrocess  of  alternate  jiurifications  and 
concentraticms  Thenard  finally  obtained  the  hydrogen 
peroxide  almost  free  from  excess  of  water,  and  almost  of 
the  composition  stated,  containing  -175  times  its  volume  of 
oxygen  over  and  above  that  of  the  wafer  itself.  Polouze 
afterwards  devised  a  simpler  methoil,  founded  on  the  uso 
of  hydrolluoric  or  hydrofluosilicic  acid  (instead  of  hydro- 
chloric), which  aci(ls  precipitate  the  baryta  at  once  in  an 
insoluble  form.  The  final  concentration,  for  separation  of 
intermixed  water,  is  effected  in  mruo  over  oil  of  vitriol,  by 
reason  of  the  fact  that  the  new  compound,  though  volatile 
without  decomposition,  is  nevertheless  less  so  than  water 
itself.  The  resulting  product  is  transparent  and  colorless, 
with  a  density  =  1.452,  nearly  half  as  high  again  as  water; 
not  freezing  at  22°  V,  below  xero  :  tastes  like  tartar-cmcfic; 
and  makes  itching  sores  on  the  skin.  It  breaks  up  spon- 
taneously at  ordinary  temperatures  into  water  and  free 
'ixygen  when  pure,  but  the  presence  of  acids  makes  it  more 
stalile,  and  that  r.f  alkalies  less  so.  Tidd  preserves  it.  By 
suddenly  heating  it  to  the  temperafuro  of  boiling  water 
oxygen  is  evolved  \Tith  explosive  rapidity.  Mere  contact 
with  certain  substances,  as  charcoal,  some  metals,  and  some 
oxides,  sets  up  more  or  less  violent  ilecomposition,  often 
with  strong  evolution  of  heat.  On  many  substances  it 
acts  as  a  most  powerful  oxidizer,  converting  them  into  their 
highest  oxides.  Among  these  are  arsonious  and  sulphurous 
acids.  Sulphide  of  lead  becomes  sulphate.  Arsenic,  mo- 
lybdenum, chromium,  and  selenium  are  at  onco  converted 
into  their  highest  oxides.  On  the  oflicr  hand,  on  another 
class  of  substances  this  poculhir  compound  actually  operates 
as  a  powerful  reducer,  as  on  argentic;  and  mercurous  oxides, 
manganic  and  plumbic  peroxides,  chromic  and  permanganic 
acids;  oxygen  being  evolved  simultaneously  from  theoxirlo 
operated  on  and  from  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  itself, 
Bnuiie  first  (in  I8.'J0),  and  Schiinbein  afterwards,  proposed 
the  view  that  in  the  cases  in  which  peroxi<lo  of  hydrogen 
and  another  oxido  decomp(»se  each  other,  the  two  com- 
pounds contain  oxygen  in  two  dificrent  "allotropic"  mod- 
ifications, re|irosente<l  as  positive  and  negative  (-t-an(l  — 
oxygen ).  and  that  the  ordinary  molecule  of  oxygen  set  free 
was  producrrl  by  the  combination  of  these  positive  and 
negative  molecules.  Schonbein  showed  that  the  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  destro^-s  ozone,  and  he  viewed  ozone  as  being 
the  negative  oxygen  O,  and  the  sec(»nd  equivalent  of  oxy- 
gen in  peroxide  of  hydrogen  as  positive  oxygon  <),  which 
ho  also  called  *'antozone."  These  views  may  be  regarded 
as  still  in  controversy.  Meidinger.  and  subsef|uently  Sclion- 
bein,  fimnd  hydrogen-peroxide  in  water  that  has  undergone 
electrolysis.  It  has  been  fouml  nls<i  to  be  formed  in  many 
cases  of  slow  oxidatirm  of  moistened  substances,  such  as 
metals.  It  bleaches  indigo  and  decomposes  iodide  of  po- 
tassium, with  liberation  of  iodine,  easily  detectable  by  starch. 
It  alsi)  decolorizes  a  solution  itf  permanganate  of  pcdash 
bv  reduciioii.    With  chromic  acid  it  forms  perchroniie  acid  ; 

\..i,.  11.— i;: 


and  one  method  of  detecting  it  in  a  liquid  is  to  add  chromic 
acid  and  ether,  whereupon  the  latter  is  colored  bright  blue 
by  perehromic  acid,  in  its  presence. 

The  diseovcrerofperoxideofhydrogcn,  Thenard,  proposed 
its  use — after  testing  it  jtersonally — for  restoring  paintings 
which  had  become  <lim  through  the  conversion  of  the  wliile 
lead-carbonate  used  in  the  pigments  to  black  sulphide  of 
lead.  The  latter  is  at  once  converted  by  it  into  white  lead- 
sulphate.  Of  late  years  it  is  stated  that  it  has  been  large- 
ly sold,  in  France  at  least,  for  hhachiuff  liriiuj  human  httir, 
in  accordance  with  certain  dictates  of  fashion. 

IIknuv  Wurtz. 

Hydrogen,  Phosphides  of.  .See  Piiosphorus.  by 
PROK.  {'.  V.  CuANDi.Kit.  Til.  !>.,  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Hvdrogen,  Sulphides  of.  Sec  Sulimitr,  by  Prof. 
C.  F.  CnAN!>i.i:i(,  Pn.  D..  M.  !>.,  LL.D, 

lIvdrof;'raphy.  Hydrography,  a  comparatively  modern 
term,  is  deriveil  from  two  (Jreek  words,  one  of  which  sig- 
nifies "  water,"'  and  the  other  to  "  write  "  or  to  "  describe." 
This  science  has  for  its  object  the  measurement  and  de- 
scription of  all  the  surface-waters  of  the  earth,  together 
with  their  coasts  and  islands,  in  so  far  as  they  are  important 
and  useful  for  purposes  of  navigation  and  commerce.  Hy- 
drography embraces  within  its  scope,  therefore,  marine 
surveying,  the  construction  of  marine  charts,  and  the  col- 
lection and  publication,  under  various  suitable  forms,  of 
all  physical  and  other  information  tending  in  any  monner 
to  the  perfecling  of  navigation. 

Hydrography  natnr.ally  divides  itself  into  three  grand 
and  distinct  branches  —  viz.  Continental  Hydrography, 
having  for  its  object  the  measurement  and  investigation  of 
the  continental  waters;  Marine  Hydrography,  having  for 
its  object  the  ordinary  measurement  and  description  of  the 
seas,  coasts,  and  islands;  and,  lastly,  Pliysicol  Hydrog- 
raphy, having  for  its  object  the  determination  of  the 
winds,  currents,  variation,  and  many  other  things  respect- 
ing the  sea  as  a  whole,  which  can  only  be  discovered  by 
the  careful  and  laborious  study  of  a  vast  number  of  obser- 
vations, taken  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe. 

The  early  history  of  hydrography,  like  that  of  many 
other  of  the  art?  and  sciences,  is  involved  in  much  obscurity. 
AVe  know,  howe^er.  that  from  the  earliest  times  mariners 
have  made  uso  of  charts;  hence  it  may  be  said  that  hy- 
drography is,  in  reality,  as  old  as  navigation.  The  charts 
of  the  ancients  were  of  the  rudest  description,  being  mere 
sketches  of  the  coasts,  which  were  laid  down  according  to 
roughly  estimated  distances;  hence,  in  such  of  them  as 
remain  to  us  it  is  no  unusual  thing  to  find  the  coasts  and 
islands  represented  at  many  times  in  excess  of  their  actual 
extent.  Owing  to  various  causes,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  superstition,  timidity,  the  lack  of  proper  instru- 
ments for  making  observations  and  of  prtiper  ships  for 
making  extended  voyages,  the  acquisition  to  hydrographic 
knowh'dge  was,  for  many  centuries,  scarcely  worth  con- 
sidering. I>own  to  the  time  of  Homer,  who  flourished 
'.>()7  B.  ('.,  as  little  was  known  of  the  surface  of  the  earth 
as  Is  now  known  of  the  interior,  (ireccc  was  then  regarded 
as  the  centre  of  the  earth,  which  was  surrtuindcd,  at  the 
distance  of  &00  miles,  by  the  Octau  Jiiver  ;  later,  the  land 
was  extended  farther,  and  a  limited  form  given  to  the  old 
continent.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  (about  a.  n.  80)  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  was  referred  to  as  the  centre  of  every- 
thing; and  even  as  late  as  I.'tOO  the  p(tpc  gave  to  the  king 
of  Spain  all  countries  to  the  M'est  as  an  exteniled  plain  ;  the 
theory  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth  was  treated  as  a  heresy, 
and  was  not  fully  established  until  the  completion  of  llio 
first  voyage  of  circumnavigation  in  I J22. 

When,  however,  we  consider  that  the  mariner's  compass 
was  not  introduced  into  Furopo  until  about  the  twelfth 
century,  that  the  chronometer  was  only  invented  in  1(»7;"», 
and  reflecting  instruments,  for  measuring  angles,  brought, 
into  use  at  somewliere  near  the  same  lime,  we  can  readily 
understand  the  backward  state  <d'  hydrography  at  so 
late  a  period;  and  we  are  prepared  to  accept  the  ilatc 
commonly  given  as  the  one  wlicn  the  first  steps  were 
taken  towards  its  erection  into  a  science;  this  was  about 
I'liO,  when  Henry  tho  Navigattir.  a  Portuguese  prince, 
and  son  of  King  John  I.  <d'  Portugal,  founded  an  observa- 
tory at  i^agres.  in  Algarve,  near  t'ape  St.  Vincent,  and  by 
causing  persons  to  be  instructed  in  the  science  of  naviga- 
tion, by  sending  out  numerous  expeditioTis  of  discovery, 
by  collecting  hydrogrnphi<*  inforniaiion  from  persons  who 
had  made  n<tted  voyages,  and  by  constructing  nmny  marine 
charts  worthy  of  the  name,  there  laid  the  huindation  for 
the  science  of  hy»lrogra)»hy.  The  charts  in  the  time  of 
Henry,  though  a  great  improvement  over  those  of  an  earlier 
date,  were  yet  rude  and  imperfect  ;  the  instruments  for  de- 
termining positions  and  measuring  distances  with  accuracy 
had  not  yet  come  into  exislenrc  ;  the  log  was  iinltiiown  ;  and 
tho  astrolabe,  a  graduatid   ring  with  sights,  was  the  only 


1058 


HYDROGRAPHY. 


instrument  for  takini;  nltitudes.  Henry,  whom  we  may 
Btyle  the  first  hvilroijraphcr.  died  in  HB.'i.and  next  to  him, 
as  a  noted  laborer  in  the  science,  came  Christopher  Cohim- 
bus,  who.  alter  liaving  obtained  much  hydrographic  know- 
ledge by  study  and  an  experience  of  many  years  at  sea, 
became  a  maker  and  seller  of  marine  charts.  While  en- 
ga;^ed  in  tliis  occupation  he  conceiverl  his  «;rand  design  of 
a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  W.,  an<l  in  WJ'2  discovered 
America,  thus  extending  the  field  for  hydrographic  research 
more,  in  a  single  voyage,  than  had  the  laliors  of  all  the 
preceding  centuries.  The  way  having  been  thus  pointed 
out,  voyages  of  discovery  were  prosecuted  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  the  increase  in  hydrographic  knowledge  was  vast 
and  rapid  ;  but  the  formation  of  hydrography  into  an  ex- 
act science,  such  as  we  find  it  at  the  present  day,  had 
scarcely  yet  begun.  Founded  upon  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy, and  wrought  out  by  means  of  many  instruments 
of  the  utmost  precision,  tho  accuracy  of  liydrographic 
work  is  now  limited  only  by  the  accuracy  of  the  observer. 

Pursuing  further  the  events  connected  witli  the  gradual 
dcvclnptnent  of  the  science  of  hydrography,  we  find  many 
of  tlicm  worthy  of  mention.  Among  the  collections  of  tho 
works  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for  tho  year  1092 
may  be  fcmnd  a  memoir  by  Pothonot.  having  for  its  aim  to 
fix  the  place  occupied  by  an  observer  in  relation  to  three 
other  neighboring  ])oint-«,  the  positions  of  which  arc  known  ; 
this  is  the  famous  three-point  problem,  the  very  foundation 
of  marine  surveying,  and  which,  though  thus  early  discov- 
ered, does  not  seem  to  have  been  put  in  practice  until  many 
years  later.  Camus,  in  his  Course  of  Meithematir.s.  in  tho 
year  1753,  and  Dairy mp!e,  in  a  memoir  published  in  1771. 
recommended  to  navigators,  for  surveying  upon  tho  sea,  tho 
use  of  the  circle  .and  the  observation  of  three  ])oints.  To 
the  French  hydrographic  engineers  is  due  the  credit  of 
having  first  applied  tho  theorem  of  Pothenot,  and  they 
made  by  it  a  great  advance  in  hydrogr.aphy.  Alexander 
Dalrymple,  as  just  mentioned,  publislied  in  1771  a  memoir 
entitled  An  Esattyon  the  Mnst  Cummndions  Modes  nf  Murine 
Sxrrri/iuf/;  this  is  considered  as  tho  first  hydrographical 
work;  and  in  it  we  find  a  description  of  tho  construction 
and  adjustments  of  Hadlcy's  quadrant.  M.  Beautemps- 
Beaupr6.  a  celebrated  French  hydrographcr,  published  at 
Paris  in  1S08  a  work  called  .-In /ji^-o(/»c//o»  to  t/ir  Practice  o/ 
Marine  Snrvrtfinfj  und  fli»:  Constrnrtion  of  Sea-Charts,  ii/nv- 
triit'il  f»f  thlrtif-four  2>hit€»;  this  is  considered  astho  second 
hyilrographical  work.  Other  early  writers  upon  hydrog- 
ra()hy  were  tho  Jesuits  Ricciolus,  De  Charles,  and  Four- 
nicr.  tlie  latter  of  Avhora  published  in  ISM  the  Manuel  dn 
f\ibut''nr.  Cook,  in  tho  remarkable  voyages  which  have 
immortalized  his  name,  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  sys- 
tem of  running  surveying;  his  running  surveys,  however, 
were  very  defective,  as  they  were  based  ujion  compass-bear- 
ings and  other  unreliable  data;  later  fuHowers of  Cook  im- 
proved upon  his  method  by  substitu'ing  astronomical  for 
comj)ass-hearings  ;  but  it  was  not  until  1837,  in  tho  hydro- 
graphic  surveys  under  M.  Dumont  d'lTrviilc,  that  reliable 
running  surveys  were  made,  and  tho  present  m.athematic.al 
system  introduced.  Tn  1S23  the  work  of  M.  IJeautcmps- 
l,teaupr6  was  translated  into  English  by  ('apt.  Richard 
Copeland,  R.  N.,  aud  in  his  preface  this  officer  writes:  "  At 
no  period  of  our  history  has  tiio  attention  of  naval  men 
bnen  so  generally  directed  to  tlio  study  of  hydrography  as 
the  present:  yet  this  branch  of  nautical  science  has  been 
hitherto  so  little  cultivated  that  it  is  dilncult  to  find  ofiSccrs 
qualified  to  undertake  the  duties  of  surveyors." 

Although  numberless  discoveries  had  been  cfTected,  and 
vast  atiditions  made  to  the  stock  of  hydrograjdiic  infor- 
mation, prior  to  the  commencement  of  tho  jiresent  century, 
yet  the  great  hydrographic  works  did  not  begin  until  tluit 
time.  Then  Franco  reorganized  her  corps  of  hydrographic 
engineers,  and  began  the  survey  of  her  coasts;  and  other 
maritime  powers,  in  imitation  of  her,  created  special  corps 
for  hydrographic  work,  and  tho  true  hydrographic  survey 
of  the  world  began.  For  some  time  Franco  took  the  lead 
in  the  now  established  science  of  hydrography,  but  lier  un- 
fortunate political  complications  soon  caused  her  to  fall  be- 
hind some  of  her  rivals  in  the  work,  and  the  lead  was  taken, 
and  has  ever  since  been  maintained,  by  Kngland;  which 
naticn  at  the  present  time  docs  more  home  and  foreign 
hydrograjibie  work  in  each  year  than  dr>es  any  otlier  :  and  to 
her  are  we  at  this  time  indebted  for  by  far  the  greater  por- 
tion of  all  our  foreign  charts. 

For  about  300  years  after  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica by  Columbus  the  expeditions  fitted  out  and  sent  abroad  by 
maritime  powers  in  the  interests  of  hydrograjihy,  naviga- 
tion, and  commerce  were  more  properly  voyages  of  discov- 
ery, and  they  did  not  result  in  great  and  permanent  addi- 
tions to  hydrography;  the  surveys  made  during  these  voy- 
ages were  rough  ones,  and  the  charts  rude  in  comparison 
with  those  of  tho  present  day.  Of  this  nature  were  all  tho 
famous  voyages  completed  np  to  1791.      ,\t  this  time  was 


fitted  out  the  French  expedition,  under  Rear-admiral  d'En- 
trecasteaux,  to  go  in  search  of  La  Pcvousc.  Writing  of 
this  expedition,  JM.  Beautemps-Bcaupr^.  wl)o  was  the  prin- 
ci])al  marine  surveyor  ai'  it,  says  :  '•  During  the  time  which 
has  elapsed  between  the  time  of  the  first  attempt  at  bring- 
ing the  art  of  navigation  to  perfection  by  means  of  reflect- 
ing instruments  and  chronometers,  and  the  year  1791.  many 
celebrated  navigators  have  materially  increased  our  know- 
ledge of  hydrography,  and  it  has  already  become  difficult 
to  exceed  the  point  at  which  they  have  arrived;  every  sea 
has  been  explored,  and  there  remain  no  great  discoveries  to 
be  made."  He  then  goes  on  to  state  that  the  aim  of  the 
present  expedition,  in  order  that  it  might  be  of  benefit  to 
hydrography,  navigation,  etc..  would  be  to  give  more  accu- 
rate surveys  and  more  detailed  information  of  the  various 
fijreign  places  visited  by  it.  Here,  then,  ended  the  era  of 
reconnoissancc,  so  to  speak,  and  began  the  era  of  thorough 
hydrographical  surveying;  the  discoverers  were  now  suc- 
ceeded by  tho  surveyors,  who  hold  the  field  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  and  have  yet  a  vast  work  before  them,  while  the 
field  for  marine  discovery  has  been  almost  exhausted. 

The  vast  accumulation  of  hydrographic  information  by 
maritime  powers  led  early  to  the  establishment  by  them  of 
hydrographic  offices,  where  this  information  was  taken  in 
hand  and  wrought  into  marine  charts,  books  of  sailing- 
directions,  and  other  practical  shapes,  for  the  benefit  of 
navigation  and  commerce.  These  offices  soon  became,  and 
liave  ever  since  continued,  matters  of  prime  concern  to  all 
governments  having  a  marine,  and  they  form  a  most  im- 
portant branch  of  the  naval  administration.  Without  her 
own  efficient  hydrographical  establishment  no  maritime 
nation  can  feel  perfectly  independent  respecting  her  com- 
merce, nor  respecting  herself,  in  tho  event  of  foreign  com- 
plications, for  if  she  be  largely  dependent  upon  foreign 
hydrographical  supplies,  they  are  liable  to  be  cut  off  at  any 
time,  thus  creating  serious  delay  and  embarrassment.  The 
largest,  best  appointed,  and  most  important  hydrographic 
offices  in  the  world  are  those  of  England  and  France  ;  these 
together  publish  charts  and  sailing-directions  for  every 
portion  of  tho  known  world  :  they  each  issue  about  3000 
diff'crcnt  charts,  almost  all  of  which  arc  printed  from  en- 
graved plates,  and  about  100  hydrographical  works  on  va- 
rious subjects.  Both  these  offices  arc  under  the  direction 
of  naval  officers  of  high  rank  and  great  ability  in  the  spe- 
cial branch  in  which  they  are  serving.  The  original  sur- 
veys made  by  tho  French  and  English  during  each  3"car 
are  much  greater  in  extent  and  more  numerous  than  are 
those  furnished  by  all  the  other  maritime  powers  combined. 
Tho  French  have  now  in  hand  a  complete  survey  of  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  besides  many  others  in  divers  quarters  of 
the  globe.  The  English  arc  constantly  surveying  all  over 
the  world,  and  produce  many  new  and  original  charts  each 
year,  besides  sending  out  many  scientific  expeditions  in 
various  fields.  All  the  home  surveys  are  worked  up  and 
converted  into  marine  charts  at  the  various  hydrographic 
offices,  as  are  also  all  f<ireign  surveys  which  may  come  into 
their  possession  by  exchange,  tracing,  etc.  Here  are  writ- 
ten the  sailing-directions,  and  hence  issue  the  light-lists, 
notices  to  mariners,  etc. 

Tho  U.  S.  support,  at  present,  two  hydrographical  estab- 
lishments— a  regular  Hydrographic  Office  and  a  Coast  Sur- 
vey Office.  The  former  of  these  is  of  comparatively'  recent 
origin,  having  been  founded  only  in  ISOlJ,  yet  already  it 
issues  many  very  important  and  valuable  charts  and  works, 
derived,  in  great  measure,  from  the  U.  S.  exploring  and  sur- 
veying expeditions  under  Wilkes,  Rodgers,  Perry,  Page, 
and  others,  and  from  numerous  surveys  by  in<liviilual  ves- 
sels in  various  quarters  of  the  world.  This  office  has  now 
in  hand,  besides  its  regular  office-work,  the  survey  of  Lower 
California  and  its  gulf,  tho  survey  of  an  extensive  belt 
across  the  Pacific,  tho  running  of  a  line  of  soundings  across 
tho  Pacific,  the  survey  of  the  (iulf  coast  of  Mexico,  and  tho 
telegraphic  cstablisluuent  of  longitudes  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  issues  already  some  GOO  charts  of  various  kinds,  and  the 
nnist  com])leto  works  and  charts  ever  produced  on  physical 
hydrography.  Besides  tlic  charts  of  its  own  issue,  this  of- 
fice keeps  constantly  on  hand  some  20,0lM)  English  and  many 
French  charts  for  the  use  of  our  navy,  and  requires  annu- 
ally not  less  than  .0000  foreign  charts  to  supply  deficiencies 
in  this  stock.  Some  12,000  copies  of  its  own  charts,  and 
nmny  humlred  copies  of  its  works,  are  sold  annually  by 
this  office,  through  its  agents,  to  foreigners  and  to  our  mer- 
cantile marine. 

The  Coast  Survey  office  was  created  many  years  ago  for 
the  purpose  of  executing  the  hydrography  of  the  coasts 
and  inland  waters  of  the  V.  S..  and  it  has  made  great  prog- 
ress in  that  work,  which  is  the  greatest  hydrographical 
work  ever  undertaken  by  any  country.  This  office  does  no 
foreign  work  whatever,  being  confined  strictly  t(y  the  home 
field  ;  it  issues  about  700  charts  and  several  hydrogrnphical 
works,  and  keeps  constantly  employed  a  considerable  sur- 


HYDROIDA. 


10.59 


Tcying  force,  both  od  our  E.  and  W.  coasts,  making  the 
most  exact  anil  elaborate  surveys  of  any  hydrographical 
cstablisbmcnt  in  the  world. 

To  give  smuo  idiu  of  the  demand  for  charts  and  nautical 
books  uiion  iMu-  of  the  older  oflicts  by  navies  and  luercautilo 
marines,  it  may  be  slated  that  during  the  year  ISOD  the 
English  o6See  alone  sold  6S,2Sl)  charts  and  U'JIS  books  of 
sailing-directions,  etc.;  and  even  Ibis  large  amount  would 
fall  verv  far  short  of  an  annual  sale  at  this  date. 

I!v  reason  of  the  very  jierfect  mail  and  telegraphic  com- 
munication between  countries  at  the  present  day,  hydrog- 
raphers  are  enabled  to  keep  themselves  thoroughly  posted 
on  all  which  takes  place  concerning  the  science  in  any  quar- 
ter of  the  globe.  All  new  surveys  arc  published  at  oneo  by 
the  offieo  of  the  e(mntry  making  the  survey,  aud  no  new 
light  is  established,  nor  any  rock,  shoal,  or  danger  discov- 
ercil,  that  is  not  immediately  announced  in  a  notice  from 
some  one  of  the  offices,  and  copied  by  all  the  rest ;  all  the 
charts  and  plates  alTccted  by  these  notices  are  corrected  at 
once ;  the  notices  are  forwarded  to  all  naval  vessels  in  com- 
mission, that  they  may  correct  their  charts,  and  the  contents 
of  the  notices  arc  further  puljlislicd  in  the  leading  papers, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  merchant  marine.  There  is  a  perfect 
system  of  exchange  between  all  the  hydrographic  offices,  so 
tiiat  all  the  publications  of  any  one  arc  known  to  all  the 
rest  as  soon  as  they  arc  issueil. 

Of  the  arLi  embr.aced  within  the  scope  of  hydrography, 
the  first  and  chief  one  is  the  art  of  marine  surveying — an 
art  which,  it  is  said,  may  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs — an  art  of  very  ancient  origin,  therefore,  but 
nevertheless  of  very  recent  perfection.  iMarine  surveys, 
according  to  circumstances,  arc  conducted  in  two  distinct 
manners.  When  the  surveyor  is  fully  supplied  with  all  the 
necessary  instruments,  skilled  assistants,  etc.,  has  ample 
time  and  perfect  command  over  the  territory  which  he  is  to 
survey,  then  he  carries  on  a  combined  system  of  sea  and 
shore' observations,  which  should  result  in  the  production 
of  an  almost  faultless  work.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
there  is  a  lack  of  time,  when  a  hostile  coast  is  to  bo  sur- 
veyed, or  a  coast  of  such  a  nature  as  to  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  landing,  then  the  surveyor  must  resort  to  tho 
method  known  as  running  surveying,  and  make  all  his  ob- 
servations from  afloat:  this  method,  when  skilfully  and 
carefully  executed,  gives  very  reliable  results,  which, 
though  deficient  in  details,  are  sufficient  for  tho  construc- 
tion of  charts  for  coasting  purposes.  The  aim  of  the  sur- 
veyor is  to  furnish  such  plans  and  other  data  as  will  suffice 
fir  the  determination  of  the  following  particulars  of  the 
locality  surveyed  :  tides,  currents,  depths,  bottom,  rocks, 
shoals,  channels,  anchorages,  variation,  latitude,  longitude, 
landmarks,  leading-marks,  contour,  and  general  topogra- 
phy of  coasts.  These  particulars  concerning  a  locality, 
being  forwanleil  to  the  hydrographic  office,  are  there  taken 
in  hand,  carefully  examined,  verified,  and  finally  constructed 
into  a  marine  chart.  A  marine  chart  is  a  representation,  by 
priiji'ction  in  piano,  of  a  portion  of  water,  \vi(h  the  land 
which  it  surrfjunds  or  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  These 
cliarls  give  all  the  points  of  the  compass,  variation,  merid- 
ians, parallels,  coasts,  capes,  bays,  islands,  shoals,  depths, 
channels,  rocks,  bottom,  etc.  in  their  proper  positions  and 
proportions.  The  Mercator  projection,  which  represents 
all  the  meridians,  parallels,  and  courses  as  straight  lines,  is 
the  one  comnKJuly  employed  in  the  construction  of  marine 
charts,  except  in  Ihc  high  latitudes,  where,  owing  to  vari- 
ous causes,  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  employ  some 
one  of  the  circular  projections. 

According  to  the  use  for  which  they  arc  intended,  marine 
charts  are  divi<led  into  three  distinct  classes — viz.  general 
charts,  coast  charls,  and  harbor  cbarls.  The  first  class,  or 
general  charts,  arc  usually  const  meted  upon  a  small  scale — 
that  is,  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch  to  a  degree  of  latitude. 
They  furnish  only  general  outlines,  ollen  cover  whole 
oceans,  and  are  used  only  for  reference  charts  or  for  open 
off  shore  navigation — say,  to  within  iiO  or  75  miles  of  a 
coast.  Tho  second  class,  or  const  charts,  are  constructed 
upon  such  a  scale,  depending  much  upon  the  nature  of  the 
coast  t(i  be  represented,  as  will  enable  a  vessel  to  navigate 
by  them  clear  up  to  the  very  entrances  to  the  harbors 
thereon.  The  third  class,  or  barber  charts,  arc  upon  a  still 
larger  scale,  and  by  them  the  navigator  is  cnableil  to  con- 
duct his  vessel  through  tho  most  intricate  channels  of  en- 
trance, and  bring  her  to  tho  j)ropcr  spot  for  anchoring  in 
any  well-surveyed  harbor. 

Most  charts  arc  printed  from  engraved  copper  or  steel 
plates;  some  few  are  lithographed;  and.  by  a  process  of 
photo-lithography  of  recent  invention,  wo  arc  ni»w  enabled 
to  rcj)roduee  hundreds  of  copies  of  any  foreign  chart  which 
we  may  desire  in  almost  as  short  a  space  of  time  as  would 
be  rcrjuired  to  print  them  had  we  the  plates.  The  charts 
of  the  present  day.  issued  from  tho  leading  hydrographic 
offices  and  covering  exact  surveys,  are  so  perfect  in  topog- 


FlG.  1. 


Fio.  2. 


raphy,  construction,  and  detail  as  to  seem  to  leave  nothing 
more  to  be  added  to  them  which  would  be  of  any  aid  or 
benefit  to  navigation. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  the  history  of  the  origin,  rise,  progress, 
and  present  state  of  the  science  of  hydrography — a  science 
which,  except  in  its  physical  department,  has  reached  at 
this  time  to  such  a  state  of  perfection  as  to  render  it  one  of 
the  most  exact  of  all  the  sciences.      GkokgI':  W.  Sumskr. 

Ilydroi'tla   [Lat.  hi/<lrn;    (ir.  vjpo,  a  "tnythological 
monster,"  and  tli<K,  "  form  "],  one  of  the  orders  of  Acalephs, 
remarkable  for  forming  compound  colonies,  \isually  ccin- 
sisting  of   numerous   individual    zoiiids 
of  two  or  more  distinct  kinds,  organi- 
cally   united    together,    one    set    of  tho 
zobids    being,   in   all    cases,  devoted   to 
feeding  the  community,  another  to  sex- 
ual reproduction.    The  feeding  or  liydri- 
form  zoiiids  are  usually  fixed,  and  origi- 
nate from  eggs  produced  by  the  re|iro- 
ductive    or    medusifonn    zoiiids,    wliich 
originate  as  buds  from  the  former,  and 
may  either  remain  permanently  attached 
to    tliem   or   may    finally    become   frec- 
Syncoryn'- mirahiUs,  swimming  medusa;  (Figs.  2  and  .*!).    Tho 
with  medusa-  buds  nutritive  zoiiids  usually  consist  of  a  more 
(.^gassiz).  ^j.  ]|,jg  sivollen,  oval,  or  fusiform  body, 

changeable  in  form,  containing  a  large  digestive  cavity, 
with  a  simple  terminal  orifice  or  mouth,  and  bearing  exter- 
nally a  number  of  more  or  less  slender  tentacles,  either 
scattered  or  in  one  or  more  circles.  The  tentacles  aro 
covered  with  peculiar  minute  stinging  organs,  known 
as  thread-cells  or  "  lasso-cells,"  for  seizing  and  killing 
the  minute  animals  upon  which  they  prey.  The  body  of 
these  zoiiids  is  usually  supporteil  upon  a  hollow  slem  (Fig. 
2,  «i),  which  is  usually  covered  with  a  chitinous,  flexible 
sheath.  It  may  be  long  or  short,  and  is  sometimes  want- 
ing; and  then  the  body  arises  immediately  from  the  creep- 
ing root-like  tubes  serving  for  the  attachment  of  the  colony 
to  some  solid  support.  The  central  tube  of  tho  stem  com- 
municates freely  with  the  digestive  cavity  of  the  zoiiids, 
and  with  those  of  the  branches 
and  basal  tubes,  so  that  all  the 
zoiiids  of  a  colony  arc  intimately 
connected.  The  luitriiivc  lluitl  is 
circulated  freely  thriiugh  the  stems 
and  branches  by  means  of  vibrat- 
^  ., .  .  ing  cilia  that  cover  all  tlie  interior 
.  <g  W^^  surfaces.  There  may  be  but  one 
i\ 'L  y^S^  nutritive  zoiiid,  but  in  most  cases 
^^Lj/y^/tl  the  primitive  one,  originating  from 
?*/$r'!r9i^^  the  egg.  very  soon  gives  rise  to 
^^^^\\//^\^^  buds,  either  from  its  stem  or  from 
^      \  fil   V  hollow,  stolon-like  extensions  of 

its  base;  and  these  may  develop 
into  other  zoiiids,  like  tho  first, 
thus  producing  more  or  less  com- 
plex branching  colonies,  ofteti  con- 
sisting of  hundreds,  or  even  thou- 
sands, of  zoiiids.  Such  colonics 
often  grow  to  the  height  of  one  or 
two  feet  on  our  sea-coasts,  though 
the  zoiiids  themselves  may  be  very 
minute.  The  buds  destined  to 
form  reproductive  zoiiids,  or  mc- 
tenlacles;  i/,  a  medusa  dusoids,  are  produced  at  certain 
bud  not  fully  developed  reasons  of  the  year,  generally  on 
(Agassiz).  particular  parts  of  the  body,  stems, 

or  root-fibres,  the  position  varying  according  to  the  species. 
Thoy  start  ns  hernia-like,  hollow  BWcllings.  the  cavity 
communicating  with  that  of  the  stem  or  zoiiid  from  which 
the  bud  arises.  In  some  species  (Figs.  2,  -1)  the  mcdusoid 
buds  arise  directly  from  the  nutritive  zoiiids:  in  others  they 
arise  from  another  kind  of  asexual  zoiiid  (Fig.  0,  li),  usu- 
ally destitute  of  mouth  and  sto[n;ich,  and  apparently  des- 
tined for  this  particular  olhee  fl.lonluHti/lr).  The  reproduc- 
tive zoiiids  (d'len  develop  into  perfect  medusic  (Figs.  :;,  9), 
provided  with  tentacles,  loeouLotivc  disk,  proboscis,  stom- 
ach, radiating  and  circular  tubes,  and  sometimes  with 
reproductive  organs,  even  before  Ihcy  break  away  from 
the  i)odieels  by  which  they  were  attached;  but  they  com- 
monly increase  in  size  and  ]icrfection  of  parts  after  they 
become  independent  medusiv.  In  many  species,  however, 
the  mcdnsoiil  buds  never  develop  a  mouth,  stoumch,  nor 
locomotive  disk  (Figs.  4,  l>).  atid  often  neither  tentnclcs 
nor  radiating  and  circular  tubes  (Fig.  fi,  (/,  c).  though  these 
Romotimes  appear  in  a  rudimentary  state.  Such  mcdusoi<ls, 
known  as  Hptirmmci,  seldom  become  free,  but  dexelop  their 
reproductive  organs,  either  male  or  female,  and  produce 
embryos  while  still  atliiehed  to  the  colony,  after  which 
they  wither  away  and  disappear.  In  one  genus  ( IHmripir) 
the  sporosacs  become  detached,  and  swim  about  by  means 


One  of  the  zoolds  of  .S. 
mirabllia,  much  enlarg- 
ed: 0.  mouth  ;  e,  bndv  ;  /, 
leans 


1060 


HYDROIDA. 


of  tho  cilia  that  cover  the  whole  surface.  The  free  mcdussD 
of  hydroids  often  grow  to  large  size  after  becoming  free, 
in  some  species  attaining  the  diameter  of  ten  inches, 
while  others  never  exceed  a  quarter  of  an 
inch.  As  a  rule,  large  hydroid  mcdusio 
{■?■.  g.  Zi/'j'ittttcf>/Ui,  Ltt/oitt)  come  from 
small  and  inconspicuous  hydroid  colonies, 
while  those  hydroids  which  produce  large 
branching  colonies,  or  which  have  large 
nutritive  zoiiids,  generally  give  rise  to  mi- 
nute fixed  medusoids  (sporosacs)  or  to 
small  free  medusje  {^.  </.  Obvfia,  Si^rtularui, 
ICndeudrium,  Tuhulana).  The  free  hy- 
droid medusa^  may  be  distinguished  from 
tlin?c  of  the  DiHrophorre  by  tho  presence 
of  a  diaphragm-like  meml»rane  or  vthim 
(Fig.  o.  '^)  partially  closing  the  opening 
of  the  umbrella  or  bell-shaped  disk  ;  by 
the  simjile  (rarely  branched)  radiating 
canals;  by  the  existence  of  either  colored 
ocelli  or  of  spherical  sense-organs  (fitho- 
'■i/)i(s),  containing  one  or  more  hard  gran- 
ules, and  attached  to  the  margin  of  the 
umbrella  (Fig.  9) ;  and  by  the  position  of 
the  reproductive  organs,  which  are  either 
situated  between  the  imter  and  inner  walls 
of  tho  digestive  cavity  (Fig.  ^),  or  else 
depend,  in  tho  form  of  purse-like  lobes, 
from  tho  lower  side  of  the  radiating  canals 
(Fig.  y},  and  discharge  their  contents  ex- 
ternally through  a  rupture  of  the  outer 
wall.  All  the  sexual  zooids  of  one  colony 
arc  also  usually  of  one  sex,  though  a  few 
exceptions  to  this  occur  (e.  ff.  Hydrny  Di- 
jthasia).    The  free  medussQ  of  some  species 


Mature  free  me- 
dusa of  5.  r/n'm- 
hiiis:  0,  mouth ; 
h,  a  radiating 
tube;  r,  circu- 
lar tube ;  e,  ve- 
lum; /,  tenta- 
cles (AgassizJ. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Paryphacrf)cra,f>nGQ{  i\\Q  A  female  sporosac,  much  cn- 

zouids,  with  clusters  of  landed:    a,    tentacles;     6, 

mcdiisoid  buds  (spore-  pc^dicel;  c,  spadix;  </,  body 

sacs),     about    natural  of  embryo;  e,  tentacles  ;  /, 

size  (.\gassiz),  rudiment  of  stem  of  em- 

bryo (Agassiz). 

of  Ilydroidea  (c.  fj.  Lhzins  Di/nmorpkoea,  fft/bocodoUf  etc.) 
in  thfir  turn  jiroduce  medusae-buds,  which  bcconio  de- 
tached and  develop  into  mc-  Fig.  G. 
dusio  similar  to  those  from 
which  they  originated.  In 
Jfi/bocodon  these  buds  arise 
from  the  base  of  tho  large 
solitary  tentacle  on  the  mar- 
gin of  tho  disk  J  in  the  two 
other  genera  named  above 
they  are  produced  on  the  sides 
of  the  digestive  cavity  or 
"proboscis."  These  buds 
may  coexist  with  true  ova  in 
the  same  medusa.  A  few  in- 
stances of  reproduction  by 
spontaneous  division  liavo 
been  observed,  both  in  the 
medusic  and  in  the  nutritive 
zotiids. 

Two  types  of  sexual  rcpro- 
ductinn  have  been  observed. 
Inmost  of  the  species  the  eggs, 
after  fertilization  by  sperm- 
ulcs,   undergo  complete   seg- 


i^"% 


Jlfidraclinia  pofycHna,  part  of  fe- 
malf  colony  enlarge<l:  a,  nu- 
tritive zooiA  ;  6,  blaslostyie;  c, 
dt-feiisive  zoiiid  ;  d,  c,  /,  spuro- 
sacs  or  medusoid  buds  con- 
tain injjecgs  in  ditferent  stages 
of  development  (Agassiz). 


mentation  and  develop  directly  into  round  and  somewhat 
elongated  embryos  (Fig.  10.  «),  which  arc  covered  ex- 
ternally with  cilia,  by  means  of  which  they  swim  ac- 
tively about  for  a  time:  thc?e  young  embryt.-s  are  known 


as  phmufa.      They  consist   of  an  outer  layer  (ectoderm) 

made  up   of  prismatic   cells,  and  an    inner  layer  {endo- 

derm),  of  larger  and  more  globular  cells,  which  encloses 

Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 


■^^ 


Sertidaria  pumila,  on  a  Obelia     cointulssnralis,    a 

sea-weed  (Fucus),  nat-  gonotheca  and  two  Iiy- 

ural  size.  drothcoie,         enlarged 

(Agassiz). 

the  central  cavity.  In  this  stage  there  is  no  external 
opening.  The  planulai  soon  attach  themselves  to  some 
object  like  a  stone,  shell,  seaweed,  or  submerged  timber,  by 
one  end,  which  rapidly  enlarges  (Fig.  10,  6)  into  a  flat- 
tened disk-like  form;  the  cilia  disappear  at  the  same  time; 


Fig.  9. 


IT 


the  upper  end  then  begins 
to  enlarge,  and  the  interme- 
diate portion  becomes  nar- 
row and  elongated  to  form 
a  stem;  very  soon  the  upper 
end  enlarges  into  a  body, 
and  develops  a  mouth  at 
the  end,  and  the  central 
cavity  becomes  a  stomach; 
at  the  same  time  tentacles 
grow  out  around  the  mouth, 
and  a  thin  covering  of  ehit- 
inous  matter  is  deposited 
over  the  stem  and  lower 
ayita  JoAni(ori(,  the  mature  me- portion  of  the  bodv  (Fig. 
dusa,  enlarged.  J^j.  ^^   ^hat  the  little   hy- 

droids begin  to  resemble  the  adult  nutritive  zooids. 

The  second  mode  of  sexual  reproduction  is  only  met  with 
in  Tubularidiv,  Hydrn,  and  a  few  other  genera.     In    Tubn- 

laridfc     the      mcdu- 
^-  ^^^-  ^"-  ^-  soids  are  small  oval 

sporosacs    (Figs.   4, 
5),   arising  in   clus- 
ters   from  the  body 
just  above  the  long 
tentacles.      The  apa- 
dU   (Fig.  5,  c)  be- 
comes surrounded  by 
a   celhilar    mass    of 
Kmbryos  of   Melicertum    campanula:    n.  p.pr„,iiii,l         matter 
planu!a;&,embrv..sjustattathed,much  prminai         manor, 
Jmlarged  (A.  Agassiz).  ^'-ow    which,   in    the 

female,  irregular 
egg-like  masses  are  separated  from  time  to  time.  Each 
mass  soon  flattens  into  a  concave  disk,  which  rapidly 
becomes  angular,  and  then  the  angles  elongate  so  tliat 
tho  form  becomes  star-shaped;  the  rays  gradually  elon- 
gate into  tentacles  (Fig.  5,  <■) ;  the  outer  convex  surface 
protrudes,  and  shows  an  internal  cavity  ((/),  and  in  some 
cases  small  oral  tentacles  grow  out  around  the  end  :  iVom 
the  concave  side  a  projection  (  /')  is  devehiped,  which  will 
ultimately  form  the  stem.  In  this  state  the  embryo  hy- 
droid (actiuulfi)  is  discharged.  It  then  swims  about,  and 
also  creeps  upon  its  tentacles,  mouth  downward;  linally  it 
attaches  itself  by  the  opposite  end  (/),  which  expands  into 
a  disk  at  tho  base,  and  elongates  into  a  stem  ;  a  mouth  and 
stomach  are  formed,  and  it  then  lu'couies  a  nutritive  zooid. 
The  existing  Ilydroida  may  be  divided  into  four  princi- 
pal sub-orders.  TIio  coral-forming  species  {MiUfpora)  may 
constitute  a  fifth,  but  arc  little  known.  The  extinct  Grap- 
toh'trH  probably  rejiresent  a  sixth  sub-order. 

I.  The  Thecopbora  (or  ('alyptoi)lastea),  including  the 
families  Sertularidic  (Fig.  7),  Campanularidie  (Figs.  8,  9), 
Plumularid*,  etc..  are  characterized  by  having  all  parts, 
except  the  upper  portion  of  the  zooids.  covered  with  a 
chitinous  sheath:  around  the  body  of  each  zoiiid  this  forms 
a  protective  caliele,  into  which  tho  upper  parts  can  be  re- 
tracted when  disturbed.  In  Plumularida^  there  are  also 
smaller  cup-like  calicles  from  which  irregular  ])rocesses 
of  naked  sarcodo  may  be  extended.  The  medusoid  buds 
arise  from  a  blastostyle  enclosed  within  a  chitinous  cap- 
sule (•j'oiofh'ffi),  which  also  serves  to  contain  and  protect 


HYDROMETER. 


1061 


the  buds  until  developed  cither  into  fixed  sporosaes  or  free 
nieduste.  The  latter  usually  have  re)iroduclivo  organs  (re- 
garded as  sporosacs  by  Allinau)  on  the  radiating  tubes. 

II.  The  Aiheeata  (or  tiym-  Fic.  11. 
noblasteal,  including  Coryn- 
ida>  (Figs.  1,  2.  :i),  Clavida>, 
Ilydractinida;  (Fig.  C),  Tubu- 
laridiB  (Figs.  4,  5),  etc.,  usu- 
ally have  the  root-fibres  and 
stems  covered  with  a  chitinous 
shcalh,  but  this  does  not  form 
oalicles  around  the  nutritive 
zoijids.  nor  gonothcca-  around 
the  mcdusoid  buds,  which  are 
naked,  and  become  cither  spo- 
rosacs or  free  medusic.  The 
latter  have  their  reproductive 
organs  on  the  digestive  cavity, 
and  do  not  have  lithocysts  on 
the  margin. 

III.  The  i?iphonot)hora.  in- 
cluding Physalia  (the  "Por- 
tuguese man-of-war  "),Velella, 
Porpita,  etc.,  are  very  complex, 

free-swimming  colonies,  com- young  hydroids  of -V.  c«m;>a- 
posedofmanyunitedhydroids.  mila,  much  enlarged  (A. 
In  these  one  or  more  of  the  Agassiz). 
Eooids  becomes  transformed  into  a  floating  apparatus,  usu- 
ally in  the  form  of  a  vesicle  or  bladder  filled  with  air; 
others  ai3  nutritive  zoiiids ;  others  locomotive:  and  still 
others  reproductive.  Some  species  produce  free  medusa;, 
others  fixed  ones  or  sporosacs. 

IV.  The  Gymnochroa,  including  only  the  fresh-water 
Ilydrip.have  the  bodv  naked  and  furnished  with  a  sucking 
disk  for  volunlarv  adhesion  at  the  posterior  end.  They 
can  creep  about,  and  also  float  free  in  the  water.  The  re- 
productive zoiiids  are  very  simple  sporosacs,  arising  from 
the  sides  of  the  body,  both  sexes  often  on  the  same  hydra. 
The  male  sporosacs  are  conical  bodies  just  below  the  ten- 
tacles; the  female  ones  are  irregular  tuberculiform,  and 
situated  toward  the  base.  The  eggs  develop  into  ncinnil^, 
which  become  Ilvdra;.  The  ordinary  buds  arise  from  the 
sides  of  the  Hi/tlrn  as  simple  hernia;  of  the  body-walls, 
but  Ihcy  soon  elongate  and  develop  a  mouth,  stomach,  and 
tentacles  like  those  of  the  parent;  then  the  hollow  pedicel 
bv  which  they  are  united  to  the  parent  becomes  constricted, 
anil  the  voung  hydra;  detach  themselves,  and  soon  become 
exactly  like  the  first.  The  species  of  ffi/tira  inhabit  fresh 
water,  and  are  noted  for  their  wonderful  powers  of  repair- 
ing injuries,  restoring  lost  parts,  and  reproducing  the  entire 
body  even  from  minute  fragments.  A.  E.  Vebhii.l. 

liydrom'oter  [«r.  v6ap.  "  water,"  and  ^irpov,  " 
sure:"    Kr.    In/,lr,„iirir,],    Ara-ometer,    or 
(Jravimctcri    an    instrument  consisting  of 
three  parts:  (1)  a  graduated  stem  of  uniform 
diameter  and  cn.ss-scclion  ;   (2)  a  bulb  ;  (.'!)  a 
counlerpoise  or  ballast.     On  being  placed  in  a 
liquid    it  sinks  until    a  certain  point  on  the 
scale    is  on  a  level   with  the    surface   of   the 
liquid,  and  from  the  reading  of  the  scale  at 
that    point   the  specific  gravity  of  the   liquid 
is  cither  ascertained  directly  or  by  a  simple 
calculation.     The  principle  of  the  hydrometer 
is  simply  that  of  the  law  of  floating  bodies 
—viz.  that  when   a  body  flouts  the  weight  of 
the  bulk  of   liqui<l   displaced  is  equivalent  to 
the  weight   of  the  body  floated.      I'he  bulb  is 
put  on  in  order  that  the  instrument  may  float, 
anil    the  counterpoise    or   ballast    ensures    its 
floating  in  an  upright  position.     The  stem  is 
of  small  diameter,  in  order  that  small  difler- 
cnees  of  specific  gravities  in  liquids  may  show 
conBidoralilo  difl'erences  on  the  scale.     Hydro- 
meters arc  usually  of  glass,  though  they  are 
sometimes  made  of  metal,     (ilass  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  cleanliness,  resistance  to  corrosion, 
incaiinbilitv  of  fraudulent  alteration  except  by 
an  experienced  worker  in  glass,  and  its  facility 
ofmaiiufaclure.  Its  fragility,  however,  is  a  point 
against  it.     Some  of  the  first  hyilrometers  con- 
structed were  mailo  so  that  weights  might  j'"  ji,.jr(,„,(.ter 
aided  to  them,  either  in  a  pan  at  the  top  iif  the     • 
stem,  or  attached  between  the  bull,  and  counterpoise,  and 


hTdrometer,  however,  introduces  considerable  complication 
into  the  instrument,  and  renders  it  difiicult  of  accurate  ad- 
justment.    The  .Sikes  and  Dycas  instruments  have,  how- 
ever been  used  as  standards  in  the  Uritish  custom-house 
for  a  considerable  period.     The  Dycas  hydrometer  was  or- 
dered bv  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  the  ofiicial  instrument  in 
1790   and  was  still  in  use  in  ISW.     This  instrument  pos- 
sessed the  advantage  that  by  the  addition  of  weights  a 
considerable    range    might  be  given    to    the  instrument 
Nicholson's  hvdrometer    is,   like    the  preceding  ones,  ol 
metal,  and  has  not  only  a  pan  at  the  top  of  the  stem  for 
the  reception  of  weights,  but  has  also  a  pan  just  above  the 
counterpoise  for  the  reception  of  solids  of  which  it  may  be 
desirable  to  determine  the  specific  gravity.     The  majority 
of  the  hydrometers  at  present  in  use  are  invariable  in  size 
and  weight,  and  arc  usually  constructed  of  glass,     borne 
of  these  are  graduated,  so  as  to  read  ofl-  directly  in  specific 
gravities.      The  hydrometers  of  Schmidt  of  Berlin,  con- 
structed carefully  on  mathematical  principles,  have  given 
his  name  to  some  instruments,  made  on  this  plan  ;    but 
usually  hydrometers  made  on  this  plan  have  not  the  naino 
of  any  individual  attached  to  them.     Wilsons  or  Lovi  s 
beads  arc  a  peculiar  form  of  hydrometer  (if  a  number  of 
bodies  can  be  spoken  of  in  the  singular  -/"f '^'■)-    J^jy 
consist  of  a  number  of  bead-like  bulbs  of  glass,  slightly 
difl-ering  from   each   other  in  weight   or  volume,  each  en- 
graved with  a  number.     On  being  thrown  into  a  liquid, 
some  float,  while  others  sink,  while  the  figures  on  the  imo 
which  neither  floats  nor  sinks,  or  barely  floats  or  sinks,  show 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  under  examination.     Most 
hTdrLeters  are,  however,  constructed  with  an   arbitrary 
scale,  so   that  their  readings  contain  no   decimals.      Iho 
Twaddell  hvdrometer  is  so  graduated  that  the  >">"''^"  "f 
desrces  iniiicated,    multiplied  by   o  and    added    to  1000, 
give  the  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  referred  to  water  as 
1000      The  marine  hvdrometer  for  sea-water  has  a  range 
of  40  degrees,  the  number  of  degrees  indicating  t^e  third 
place  of  decimals  in  expressing  specific  gravities;  thus^  5 
'degrees  indicate  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.005  ;  22  degrees,  of  1.022 
etc      Hydrometers  with  an  arbitrary  scale  are  extensively 
used  in  certain  manufactures  or  for  testing  the  products  o 
such  manufactures,  and  are  graduated  with   this  object. 
Thus   that  of  Brix  (sometimes  called  a  saccharometer)  is 
graduated  so  as  to  indicate  at  once  the  percentage  of  sugar 
fn  an  aqueous  solution.     This  is  used  by  sugar-refiners  on 
he  Con'tineut.      Southworth's  hydrometer    f^f^'^J"?^ 
time  since  in  the  State  of  New  York  by  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture, has  the  zero-point  at  the  point  to  which  t'.e  instrn- 
ment  sinks  in  proof  spirits  (oO  vols,  of  alcohol  to  50  of 
water),  and  the  graduations  above  and  below  indicate  the 
percentages  above  or  below  proof.      The  hydrometer  ot 
Gay-Lussac  (also  called  alcoholometer)  is  graduated  so  that 
the  readings  give  the  percentage  of  alcoho   by  volume  iii 
an  alcoholic  solution,  in  which  alone  it  is  inlended  to  bo 
used      The  temperature,  which  is  an  imiiortaiit  laclor  m 
considering  the  indications  of  a  hydrometer,  is  lor  t.ay- 
Lus-e'    "n^strument,  1  o"  C.  or  50°  F.    A  table  of  corrections 
for  temperature  lias  been  P"bHshed.     The  a Icidmlon  der 
of  Trallcs  is  essentially  the  same  a.  that  ot  ^'^.  -l/";^^; 
but  is  intended  for  a  temperature  of  C0°  F.     This  is  now 
the  oflicial  instrument  for  testing  alccdiolic    iquors  in  tho 
U   S      Numerous  other  hydrometers  for  testing  alcoholic 
liquids  have  been  devised,  among  which  maybe  ">ont,oned 
Richter's,  which  reads  in  percentages  by  weight  of  alcohol: 
Mcissner's,  which  has  two  scales,  one  giving  percentage  by 
wei-ht,  and  the  other  by  volume,  etc.     Dmacourt  s  galac- 
ronfetc    is  intended  for  use  in  testing  samples  of  milk  for 
watering.     The  0  of  tho  scale  is  at  the  point  to  which  the 
Tns  rumcnt  sinks  in  pure  water;  tho  100  tlie  point   o  which 
i^sinks  in  pure  milk .  which  ordinarily  has  ■"^P-'ohe  grav- 
T  ofl  02i'      The  space  between  is  divided  into  100  equal 
parts,  and  the  readings  of  the  instrument  show,  with  a 
?o'e  approximation  to  the  truth,  the  amount  o    pure  milk 
which    he  sample  contains.     The  hydrometer  ol  lia  ling    s 
arbitrarily  graduated,  its  indications  being  converted  into 


3 


therefore  below  the  surface  of  tin 


liqui 


d.     Fahrenheit's  hy- 


drometer is  a  sample  of  one  having  the  pan  at  Iho  top  of 
the  stem,  to  which  weights  may  be  added  lu  order  to  sink 
tho  hydrometer  to  a  certain  mark.  Tho  bydromolers  ol 
Sikcs  and  nvcas  are  hydrometers  where  the  weights  arc 
added  to  the  portion  immersed  in  the  liquid  The  addi- 
tion of  weights  in  this  way.  by  increasing  the  volume  of 
tho  immersed  portion,  as  well  as  the  weight  of  tho  entire 


200       .        ... 
specific  gravities  by  the  formula  sp.  gr.  =  ^--,  "i  which 

„  represents  the  reading  of  the  hydrometer,  the  +  sign 
being  used  when  the  liquid  is  lighter  than  water,  the  - 
sfgi;  when  it  is  heavier.  This  instrument  is  used  by  many 
manufacturers,  dyers,  etc.  in  England. 

The  instrument,  however,  which  is  most  generally  used, 
,,„„i  here  and  abroad,  is  that  of  UaunK^  ^'•'''^"  "nT^V 
in,,  there  arc  two  instruments  bearing  the  name  i.f  "'"""'' 
the  one  for  liquids  lighter  than  water,  Ihe  othiM-  for  those 
heavier,  and  the  seah;s  do  not  correspond.  For  liquids 
lighter  than  water  the  zero-point  is  the  point  '» ;>>"5'' 'J 
instrument  sinks  in  a  solution  eontaiuing  0  parts  of  tom- 
mou  alt,  bv  weight,  in  00  of  water,  while  the  lO-niark  l.  at 
"he  poin     fo  wMeh  tho  instrument  sinks  ,n   pure  water. 


1062 


HYDROPATHY. 


Tlic  space  between  is  divided  into  ten  parts,  and  the 
j^radations  arc  continued  indefinitely.  For  liquids  heavier 
than  water  (lie  zero-point  is  the  point  to  which  the  instru- 
ment $\nks  in  pure  water,  and  16*^  is  at  the  point  to  which 
il  sinks  tn  a  solution  containing  15  parts  by  \vcight  of  coni- 

For  the  pOse  esprit,  sp.  gr.=  ^,"|^  _    ]  McCuUoh,  iZrpori  on 

Hiidrometers,  Pub. 
For  the  pSse  acide,  sp.  gr.  =  — i^''—  I       1^"*^- ''"'".  ^848. 


mon  salt  in  86  of  water.  The  space  is  divided  into  15 
parts,  and  the  gradations  arc  continued  indefinitely  down- 
ward. The  first-mentioned  instrument  is  called  the  p^se 
t:nprity  the  hitter  the  yjtKc  acidc.  The  formula)  for  convert- 
ing the  readings  into  specific  gravities  arc — 


136+1 

152  —  X    J 

Numerous  tables  have  been  constructed  by  different  scien- 
tific men,  showing  the  specific  gravities  corresponding  to 
the  indications  of  the  13autne  hydrometers.  They  diflTcr 
somewhat  among  themselves,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
common  salt  used  to  standardize  the  instruments  often  con- 
tains impurities,  which  cause  a  slight  difference  in  the  in- 
dications. Moreover,  the  liquids  used,  in  consequence  of 
the  attraction  of  the  glass  stem  of  the  hydrometer,  rise  in 
a  curve  against  it,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
exact  point  which  coincides  with  the  level  of  the  liquid,  and 
errors  of  manufacture  are*  thus  introduced.  The  specific 
gravities  corresponding  to  the  indications  of  the  liaume 
and  Beck  hydrometers  arc  given  as  follows  (  Watta'a  DUt., 
vol.  iii.  pp.*2U9,  210): 

CompariHitn  of  the  Der/rccs  of  Baume'a  Htfdmmetf.r  iritk  the 
rctil  Sp'cijic  (ii-fnitics  of  Liquids  heavier  than  water,  cal- 
culated hij  G Hpin' 8  formula. 


134+ 1 


Sp.  gr.  = 


144 
144  —  : 


(iilpin,  and 

V.  a.  Visp. 


Degrees 

gravity. 

Degrees. 

Spccinc 

gravity. 

Degrees. 

SpcciOo 
gravity. 

Degrees. 

SpcciQo 
gravity. 

0 

1.000 

20 

1.152 

39 

1.345 

58 

1.617 

1 

1.007 

21 

1.160 

40 

1.3.57 

59 

1.634 

2 

1.013 

22 

1.1C9 

41 

1.3G9 

60 

1.052 

3 

1.020 

23 

1.178 

42 

1.382 

61 

1.670 

4 

1.027 

24 

1.188 

43 

1.39.5 

02 

1.689 

5 

1.031 

2.5 

1.197 

44 

1.407 

63 

1.708 

fi 

1.041 

2f. 

1.20S 

43 

1.421 

64 

1.727 

7 

1.043 

27 

1.21G 

46 

1.434 

Gj 

1.747 

8 

1.055 

28 

1.22G 

47 

1.118 

CG 

1.767 

0 

1.0G3 

2!) 

1.23G 

48 

1.462 

67 

1.788 

10 

l.OTO 

30 

1.240 

49 

1.176 

68 

1.809 

11 

1.078 

31 

1.25G 

50 

1.490 

69 

1.831 

12 

1.08G 

32 

1.2G7 

51 

1.505 

70 

1.834 

13 

1.094 

33 

1.277 

52 

1.520 

71 

1.877 

14 

1.101 

34 

1.288 

03 

1.535 

72 

1.900 

lo 

1.109 

3o 

1.299 

61 

1..531 

73 

1.924 

Ifi 

I.IIS 

3G 

1.310 

53 

1.367 

74 

1,949 

17 

1.120 

37 

1.322 

56 

1.533 

75 

1.974 

IS 

1.134 

38 

1.333 

57 

l.GOO 

76 

2.000 

19 

1.143 

liaumCe  Hydrometer  for  Liquids  Htjhter  than  Water,  calcu- 
lated by  Gilpin's  formula. 


Degrees. 

Spccilio  ; 
gravity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Degrees. 

.Specillc 
gravity. 

10 

1.000 

23 

.913 

36 

.849 

49 

.789 

11 

U.993 

24 

.913 

37 

.844 

50 

.785 

12 

.986 

23 

.937 

33 

.8.39 

51 

.781 

13 

.980 

26 

.901 

39 

.8S4 

52 

.777 

14 

.973 

27 

.896 

40 

.830 

53 

.773 

15 

.967 

28 

.890 

41 

.82.5 

54 

.768 

16 

.960 

29 

.885 

42 

.820 

55 

.764 

17 

.934 

30 

.880 

43 

.816 

56 

.760 

18 

.948 

31 

.874 

41 

.811 

57 

.757 

19 

.942 

32 

.8G9 

43 

.807 

58 

.753 

20 

.936 

33 

.864 

4G 

.802 

59 

.749 

21 

.930 

34 

.859 

47 

.798 

60 

.745 

22 

.924 

35 

.854 

48 

.794 

Table  for  converting  degrees  of  Beck's  Hydrometer  into  real 
Specific  Gravities. 


. 

Speolflc  gravity. 

i 

Speoiac  gravity.  | 

SpceiQe  gravity. 

Greater 

Less 
tiiao 
1.000. 

.991  ! 

Greater 

Less 
than 
1.000. 

E 

Greater 

Less 

tlian 
1.000. 

° 

tbaul.OOO. 

Q 
23 

Ibanl.OOO. 

a 

thauiOOO. 

1 

1.006 

1.172 

.872  1 

48 

1393 

.7.80 

2 

I.0I2 

.9S8  1 

26 

1.181 

.867 

49 

1.4U3 

.776 

3 

I.OIS 

.983  > 

27 

1.1S9 

.863 

50 

1.417 

.773 

4 

1.024 

.977 

28 

1.197 

.859 

51 

1.429 

.769 

3 

I.OiiO 

.971 

29 

1.206 

.854 

52 

1.441 

.766 

6 

1.037 

.956 

30 

1.214 

.850 

53 

1.433 

.762 

7 

1.043 

.91)0 

31 

1.223 

.846 

54 

1.466 

.759 

8 

1.019 

.933 

32 

1.232 

.842 

55 

1.478 

.7.56 

9 

1.0.56 

.950 

33 

1.241 

.837 

.50 

1.491 

.752 

10 

1.063 

.944 

31 

1.250 

.833 

.57 

1.5M 

.719 

11 

1.069 

.939 

35 

1.2.59 

.829 

SS 

1.518 

.746 

12 

1.076 

.934 

36 

1.268 

.825 

59 

1.5-12 

.742 

13 

1.1 183 

.929 

37 

1.278 

.821 

60 

1.516 

.739 

14 

l.liOD 

.924 

38 

1.288 

.817 

61 

1..5G0 

.736 

13 

1.097 

.919 

39 

1.298 

.813 

G2 

1.574 

.733 

16 

1.104 

.914 

!  40 

1.303 

.810 

63 

1..589 

.730 

IT 

1.111 

.909 

41 

1.318 

.806 

64 

1.604 

.727 

IS 

1.118 

.904 

42 

1.328 

.802 

63 

1.619 

.723 

19 

1.120 

.899 

43 

1.339 

.798 

66 

1.635 

.720 

20 

l.I.)3 

.893 

44 

i.:M9 

.794 

07 

1.631 

.717 

21 

1.141 

.890 

43 

1.360 

.791 

68 

1.667 

.714 

22 

1.119 

.885 

46 

1.371 

.787 

69 

1.683 

.711 

23 

1.1.57 

.881 

47 

1.382 

.783 

70 

1.700 

.708 

24 

1.104 

.876 

The  Holland  hydrometer  is  essentially  the  same  as 
Kaume's,  used,  as  its  name  implies,  in  Holland,  where  it  is 
the  official  standard.  The  instrument  of  Carticr.  adopted 
at  one  time  by  the  French  government,  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  Buume.  The  22°-mark  of  each  is  the  same  ; 
for  other  points,  either  above  or  lielow,  15°  of  the  Carlier 
scale  correspond  with  16°  of  the  Baum6  scale.  The  con- 
struction of  this  instrument  was  really  an  infringement 
upon  Baum^,  who  was  thereby  deprived  of  the  emoluments 
wiiieh  he  would  otherwise  have  receivcil  had  his  instru- 
ments, instead  of  Carticr's,  been  adopted  by  the  government. 
Beck's  hydrometer  is  one  having  the  zero-point  corre- 
sponding to  a  sp.  gr,  of  1,  and  'M)  to  sp.  gr.  0.850,  and  the 
scale  is  extended  by  equal  divisions  both  above  and  below  0. 
Several  other  hydrometers  with  arbitrary  scales  have  been 
constructed,  but  as  a  general  rule  their  use  is  so  limited 
that  a  further  enumeration  of  the  instruments  is  unim- 
portant. 

Temperature  naturally  has  a  considerable  effect  on  the 
indications  of  the  hydrometer.  All  the  above-mentioned 
instruments  are  intended  to  be  used  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature, or  about  00°  F. 

A  hydrometer  resembling  a  flute — in  fact  a  graduated 
brass  tube  closed  and  loaded  at  one  end — is  det-cribed, 
under  the  name  of  hydroHcopittm,  in  a  letter  of  Synesius  to 
llyjiatia.  but  Archimedes  is  claimed  to  be  the  real  inventor. 
It  was  not  introduced  into  general  use,  however,  until  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  E.  Wallkk. 

Hydrop'athy  [Gr.  iiSup,  "  water."  and  naeelv,  from 
Traffxetf.  to  "  sufi'er  "].  The  numerous  health  institutions  in 
the  U.  S.  and  other  countries  under  ihe  names  of  '•  water- 
cures,"  "hydropathic  establishments,"  "hygienic  insti- 
tutes," and  '*  Iiygeian  homes,"  where  invalids  of  all  classes 
are  treated  by  means  of  bathing,  diet,  exercise,  and  other 
hygienic  agencies  to  the  exclusion  of  all  drug  medicines, 
illustrate  the  extensive  results  that  can  often  lie  traced  to 
insignificant  beginnings.  The  incident  of  a  >prained  wrist, 
and  the  instinctive  application  of  water  IVom  an  adjacent 
pum]»,  originated  an  entire  system  of  the  htaling  art. 
Vincent  Priessnitz,  a  German  peasant  of  Silesia,  being  then 
thirteen  years  of  age,  sprained  his  wrist,  and.  finding  that 
water  allayed  the  ])ain  and  inflammation,  followed  the  ap- 
plication with  that  of  a  wet  cloth  (  l'iii>irhl>i;/),  from  which 
also  he  received  much  beneiit.  Anotlier  accident,  Ihcerush- 
ing  of  his  thumb,  enabled  him  soon  after  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment of  water-treatment  with  a  similar  result.  But  in 
this  ease  the  cure  was  attended  with  a  rash  on  the  skin, 
which  lie  attributed  to  impurity  of  the  blood,  and  at  once 
conceived  the  idea  that  water  favored  (he  elimination  of 
morbid  matter  from  Ihe  system,  and  was  therefore  u  puri- 
fying as  well  as  a  soothing  agent.  This  rash  was  the 
origin  of  the  idea  of  '■  crisis  "  which  subsccjuently  became 
an  important  feature  in  the  hydropathic  treatment  of 
chronic  diseases,  although  at  the  present  lime  crises  aro 
regarded  as  accidental  complications,  ralher  than  essential 
conditions,  of  the  eliminating  processes.  In  his  nineteenth 
year  Priessnitz  met  with  an  accident  which  fractured  several 
ribs,  and  so  displaced  the  bones  that  the  surgeons  found  it 
difficult  to  rej)lace  them  satisfactorily.  But  the  sufferer 
was  equal  to  the  emergency.  I..eaning  over  a  window-sill 
and  inflating  the  lungs  to  the  utUKtst,  the  ingenious  patient 
succeeded  in  bringing  the  broken  ends  of  (lie  bones  in 
juxtaposition.  To  alleviate  the  soreness  and  inflammation, 
Priessnitz  npplied  his  favorite  wet  bandage.  This  relieved, 
and  was  followed  by  another  rash,  which  confirmed  him  in 
the  theory  that  water  was  a  powerful  eliminating  agent. 
In  his  intercourse  with  his  neighbors  Priessnitz  naturally 
suggested  the  water-treatment  to  others  in  their  various 
accidents  and  ailments,  and  acquired  considerable  reputa- 
tion as  a*'  water-doctor."  But  he  soon  learned  that  many 
severe  and  protracted  chronic  diseases  required  a  more 
thorougli  and  careful  management  and  a  stricter  regimen 
than  most  jiersons  were  able  or  willing  to  attend  to  in  con- 
nection with  business  and  family  cares  at  home.  This  ob- 
servation induced  !iim  to  open  an  institution  where  patients 
could  have  ])roper  nursing  facilities,  and  where  the  neces- 
sary discipline  could  be  enjoined  ;  and  in  IS^J'J  the  famtuis 
Griifcnberg  water-cure  began  to  receive  patients — whore, 
reducing  his  ]dan  to  something  like  order  and  system,  a 
variety  of  baths,  .adapted  to  ditTerent  cases  and  constitu- 
tions, was  added  to  the  remedial  appliances.     Among  these 


IIYDK0P1I1D.E— IIYDKOI'IIOBIA. 


1063 


were  the  flin-turh,  or  rubbing  wet  sheet,  the  wct-shoctpack, 
the  dry-blaukct  or  sweating  pack,  the  hip  or  *SVrs-bath,  (he 
head-bath,  fout-bath,  douche,  spray,  plunge,  wave,  etc. 
batlis. 

Patients  were  soon  attracted  to  rirUfenberg  from  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  ani!  the  writinj^s  uf  Claridge, 
Seudumore, Johnson, Wilson, and ( I ullyolKngland.  I'ranckc, 
Wfiss.  and  Munde  of  Germany,  and  Jlcnry  ('.  Wrij^ht  and 
Drs.  Trail  and  Shew  of  the  U.  S.,  made  the  public  tamiliar 
with  the  leading  features  of  the  system.  It  has  been 
charged  that  some  of  the  practice  at  Orafeuberg.  in  the 
application  of  cold  water,  water-drinking,  and  exercise, 
was  too  severe,  especially  for  the  feeble  invalids  suffering 
from  nervous  and  dyspeptic  affections.  It  wuuld  be  very 
strange  if,  in  the  infancy  of  the  sy!>tera.  such  errurs  did  not 
occur.  But  it  is  not  true  that  his  method  was  a  "  coftl 
water-cure."  nor  that  he  treated  all  diseases  with  "water 
alone."  He  attached  great  importance  to  the  auxiliaries 
of  8im|)lieity  of  diet,  due  exercise,  a  proper  amount  of 
sleep,  and  other  hygienic  infiuences.  Priessnitz  was  sus- 
pected of  using  more  or  less  medicine  clandestinely,  and  on 
that  suspicion  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  fi)r  prac- 
tising medicine  without  a  license  :  but  as  no  meciicine  of 
any  kind  could  be  found  by  analyzing  the  water  in  which 
his  patients  were  bathed  and  the  sponges  through  which 
the  patients  drank  while  enveloped  in  the  "pack,"  he  was 
acquitted  and  released. 

A  hydropathic  society  was  organized  in  London  in  1842, 
and  soon  after  institutions  were  opened  at  Malvern  and 
other  places  in  (Jreat  Britain.  The  system  was  introduced 
into  the  U.  S.  in  1S4;J  by  the  writings  of  Drs.  Trail  and 
Shew.  In  the  spring  of  ISU.  Dr.  Trail  opened  an  institu- 
ti<m  in  New  York,  and  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year  Dr. 
Shew  opened  another.  In  the  spring  of  1845,  Dr.  Shew 
opened  an  institution  at  Lebanon  Springs,  N.  Y.,  in  con- 
nection with  David  Camphcll.  In  a  few  years  thereafter 
there  were  U'O  similar  institutions  in  the  country. 

The  entire  literature  of  the  system  embraces  about  100 
volumes,  the  most  popular  and  com]trehcnsivo  of  which  are 
Dr.  Trail's  /fi/dropritftir  Eiiri/cfopTtlia  and  Dr.  Shcw's  ////- 
dropatfiir  Fnmihf  Plnjsirinti.  Of  European  works,  the  best 
known  are  rrnnche  on  the  W'ntrr-mre,  Johnmtn'n  ffi/drop- 
affiif,  and  O'ulft/  on  Chronic  DinrnHci.  The  W'ntcr-Cttrc 
Joiinuit  was  slarted  by  Dr.  Shew  in  LS44,  and  in  1S45 
transferred  to  Fowler  &  Wells,  who  continued  its  publi- 
cation for  twenty  years.  About  1S7:1  S.  H.  Wells,  who 
succeeded  the  firm  of  Fowler  A  Wells,  commcnctd  the 
publication  of  a  monthly  periodical  entitled  the  Science 
uf  lirnlth,  on  the  plan  of  the  original  Wtiter-Cnre  Jourvnt, 
and  intended  to  be  an  exponent  of  the  system.  But  it  must 
be  observed  that  in  the  U.  S.  the  term  hi/dropitthj/,  which 
literally  means  "  water-disease,"  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
misnomer:  and  the  majority  of  practitioners  have  adopted 
the  term  hygienic,  for  the  reason  that  tho  system  contem- 
plates the  treatment  of  diseases  by  means  of  all  hygienic 
agencies,  of  which  water  is  only  one.  They  claim,  too, 
that  while  in  many  cases — fevers  and  inllammations,  for 
example — water  may  he  the  leading  remedy,  in  other 
cases — dyspepsia,  scrofula,  plethora,  etc. — diet,  exercise, 
rcMl.  or  some  other  agency  may  bo  of  much  more  relative 
importance  than  water.  K.  T.  Thall. 

Ilydroph'id.T  [fromr.Sujp,"  water/* and S^i^."  serpent"], 
n  family  of  protcroglyph  serpents  (i.  r.  gcrpt-nts  with  front 
teeth  grooved  to  serve  as  canals  for  the  contents  of  the  poi- 
8on-glnnds)  distinguished  by  tho  compression  (»f  tho  caudal 
vertebra)  and  the  extension  of  their  neural  spines  and  liy- 
papophysea  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  compressed  tail,  which 
is  udiipted  for  s^vimming  by  propulsion  from  side  to  side. 
The  serpents  contained  in  this  group  are  highly  venomous, 
and  art-  pre-eminently  adnpted  for  aquatic  life.  They  arc 
ehirfly  inhabitants  of  tho  List  Indian  neas,  but  one  s|>ccies 
is  also  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central  America.  They 
arc  generally  beautifully  colored,  and  may  at  onco  be  rec- 
ognized by  their  very  compressed  tail.  Kcvcral  genera 
and  a  number  of  species  have  been  described. 

TnronoRE  Gri,L. 

Ily'drophilc,  or  Ilyilropliilidtr  [from  /fi/drophifui, 

"  water-lover,"  one  of  the  genera],  a  name  given  to  various 
water  beetles,  coleopterous  insects  often  having  oar-like 
legs  for  fiwiniming  purposes.  They  constitute  a  family, 
Ilydrophilidic,  whose  larvie  arc  carnivorous,  while  the  per- 
fect insects  live  on  decaying  vegetables.  Thus  they  arc 
important  water-scavengers.  The  brown  hydrophile  (//y- 
drophiluH  pircHM)  Is  ono  of  tho  largest  Kuropvan  beetles. 

Ilydropho'bia  (syns.  W'ntt  r-drrad,  liuhic»,  Rnhiet 
cnuiim,  ttiihivM  tunOitfioHti,  Ltfftn,  Li/nun,  Cifindf/aMO,  Ltfnna 
cnniii'i,  Entania  li/tta,  /ftfifraphithitt,  Airophobin^  Enthi»- 
tnuM  hi/druphohin,  Cfoium  htfdrophitltiti,  Ptiutophohift,  Pttra- 
ph'ifnti,  Phohndiju^i'i,  Phrinftfiinnt,  Ci/ntitithrnpitt,  litf^vatn- 
ptmiit,  Phrenitin  tatraiiM  ;    Kr.  Jiti'je,  Hydrophobic,  lirachy- 


potir,  Mftl  de  St.  Hubert  ;  Gcr.  Wttth  der  Huude,  I/uudit. 
WHthy  llttndtoUheit,  Wnthhrankhcit,  WaHnerHchctir  ;  Dutch, 
WntcrvrccH,  Hondndolhcid ;  Sp.  Jiabia,  Hidrofobin  ;  It. 
Rabbia,  Idro/obia  ;  Hung.  Dwhobctft  Kntyak  diibouxfit/rh  ; 
Polish,  li'itci'fX7i'nia;  Roumanian,  7'urburea:  Turk.  Kinftiz. 
Qiiodtiozfyy,  KtiUh  ;  Arab.  (  pure)  Ifd  ul  htiUtb  iiw  til  khucf 
ntia  alma:  (Algiers)  Mkloub;  (IJarbaryl  hith:  Dan.  ISnudn- 
krock  ;  Swed.  \\'attrjinknick  ;  Hind.  Ifautdntl  kiitta),  [from 
the  Greek  vBup,  "water,"  and  4>o^o<;,  "fear"]  is  a  remark- 
able disease  to  which  both  the  human  species  and  probably 
all  of  the  brute  creation  arc  subject.  In  examining  its 
very  interesting  history  we  find  that  the  Hebrew  writers 
are  altogether  silent  in  regard  to  it,  and  we  can  discover 
only  rare  allusions  to  it  among  other  authors  previous  to 
the  Christian  era.  Such  references,  however,  are  sufficient 
to  indicate  that,  although  it  may  not  have  been  so  prevalent 
among  the  nations  of  anti(juity  as  among  those  of  more 
modern  periods,  yet  it  was  in  very  ancient  times  recognized 
as  a  peculiar  disorder  iniesting  certain  animals,  and  even 
man  himself.  The  earliest  distinct  mention  of  the  disease 
occurs  in  a  Hindoo  medical  work  of  great  antiquity — dat- 
ing probably  as  far  back  as  nine  or  ten  centuries  before 
Christ — written  by  a  renowned  i)hysieian  named  Susruta. 
It  is  observed  therein  that  when  dogs,  jackals,  foxes,  wolves, 
bears,  or  tigers  become  rabid,  they  foam  at  the  mouth, 
which  remains  open  and  from  which  flows  saliva;  their 
tails  hang  down;  they  do  not  hear  or  see  well;  they  snap 
at  and  bite  one  another,  and  thus  communicate  the  same 
malady*  The  symptoms  of  hydrophobia  in  human  beings 
who  have  been  bitten  arc  likewise  detailed  briefly,  and  arc 
said  to  terminate  in  convulsions  and  death.  Scarification 
of  the  wound  and  burning  it  with  boiling  (/her — a  sort  of 
oil  made  from  butter — are  recommended,  as  well  as  various 
antidotes  to  bo  subsequently  a<Jministcred.  Tliis  concise 
and  rem.arkably  accurate  dciicription  of  the  affection,  with 
suggestions  for  treatment,  may  be  regarded  as  an  epitome 
of  all  ancient  and  modern  research  upon  the  subject.  Tho 
extract  given  can  be  found  in  Wise's  //ihtury  of  Medicine 
ftinoutf  the  HindonH.  Homer  is  supposed  to  allude  to  hydro- 
phobia in  the  expression  kuvo.  Xvffffijr^pa  of  the  fliud,  where 
Hector  is  compared  to  a  raging  dog.  There  are  two  pas- 
sages in  Hippocrates  whieli  appear  to  indicate  that  the 
physician  ot  Cos  had  observed  its  charaetcristic  symptoms 
in  man.  but  failed  to  regard  it  otherwise  than  as  a  variety 
of  idiopathic  phrcnitis.  His  contemjiorary.  Democritus, 
howevci",  who  was  a  famous  traveller,  had  probably  encoun- 
tered the  disease  in  foreign  regions,  as  he  was  evidently 
well  acquainted  with  its  most  striking  peculiarities.  Wo 
arc  informed  by  the  distinguished  jibysician  Cu^lius  Aure- 
lianus  that  Democritus.  in  a  treatise  upon  opisthotonos,  had 
described  the  affection  in  the  human  subject,  admitting  its 
origin  from  the  bite  of  rabid  animals,  but  ctjiisiduriug  it 
simply  as  a  form  of  tetanus.  Theocritus  and  Plalo  refer 
to  madness  among  wolves.  Aristotle,  in  his  Hittory  of 
Auimah,  remarks  that  dogs  are  afllicted  with  madness. 
quinsy,  and  gout;  that  the  first  renders  them  furious  and 
inclined  to  bite  other  animals,  which  thereupon  also  become 
rabid;  and  that  all  animals  execjit  man  are  liable  to  bo 
seized  with  and  destroyed  by  the  malady  so  engendered. 
Artemidorus  and  Gains,  who  flourished  some  two  centuries 
B.  c,  allude  to  the  disease,  the  former  locating  it  in  the 
stomach,  and  the  latter  in  the  j)neumogastric.  Aselepiades, 
less  than  100  years  a.  r.,  refers  the  chief  cause  of  hydro- 
phobia to  irritation  of  the  brain  membranes. 

In  the  early  jiortion  of  the  Christian  era  tho  allusions  to 
this  affection  become  more  frequent.  M.  Artorius.  tho 
friend  and  medical  attendant  of  .\ugustus.  speaks  of  it  in 
a  treatise  on  the  subject  as  being  situated  in  the  st<)mach. 
Gratius  Faliscus.  a  poet  of  the  same  period,  describes  rabies 
in  a  work  entitletl  the  (\i/ue(/rticnn.  Virgil,  in  his  (ironjicit, 
classes  rabies  among  the  di.'-tempcrs  of  cattle  and  sheep 
induced  by  a  pestilential  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 
Ovid  speaks  of  a  rabid  slie-wolf  and  rabid  centaurs  (ciiZ-m/i 
/iiinenibrca),  and  Pliny  <»f  the  bite  of  a  nm<l  dog.  Ovid 
states,  moreover,  that  hydrtqdiobia  and  gout  are  incurable 
maladies,  while  Pliny  advises  a  number  of  specifies  for  the 
prevention  of  the  former.  Horace  employs  the  expression 
rabicM  canin  in  a  figurative  sense,  applying  it  to  the  fierce 
heat  of  the  d(»g-slar.  instead  of  using  the  ordinary  phrase. 
antuH  nniiriifiT.  The  disease  is  mentioned  by  Columella,  ii 
writer  on  husbandry  in  the  first  century,  who  alludes  to  an 
opinion  eommon  among  shepherds  that  a  dog  may  be  en- 
8ure<l  against  rabies  by  biting  ofl'  the  last  bone  of  its  tail 
on  the  fortieth  day  after  birth.  This  is  still  a  popular  su- 
perstition. Suetonius  relers  to  wiM  animals  allVeted  with 
madness  (/cnt  rabidit ).  Kumedes,  a  physician  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  makes  some  interesting  observations  upon  tho 
discafie,  remarking  that  even  the  shedding  of  tears  will  ex- 
cite pharyngeal  spasms  in  an  affeetod  person.  Dioseor- 
itle-.  in  the  time  of  Nero,  appears  to  be  tlie  first  who  claims 
to  huvo  actually  observed  and  treated  the  disease.     Both 


1064 


HYDROPHOBIA. 


he  and  Galen  desoribo  it  as  attacking  animals  and  men, 
and  agree  in  the  opinion  of  its  uommunicability  from  the 
former  to  the  hitter  by  contact  of  morbid  saliva  with  the 
second  skin.  But  (lalen,  and  C'elsus  as  well,  concern  them- 
.■^elves  rather  with  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  hydro- 
phobia than  with  its  history  and  progress.  Their  contem- 
porary, Magnus  of  Ephesus,  locates  the  affei-tion  in  the 
stomach  and  diaphragm.  According  to  Plutarch,  it  was 
not  until  the  time  of  Pompcy  the  Great  that  the  rabific 
)M>ison  first  began  to  manifest  itself  among  human  beings. 
Andreas  of  Caryste,  a  physician  of  the  Alexandrian  school, 
has  left  a  work  upon  the  disease,  which  he  terms  Kyt-oAvaao?. 
CiKlius  Aurclianus,  whom  we  have  mentioned,  a  distin- 
guished physician  of  the  reign  of  Trajan  or  Hadrian,  or 
perhaps  as  late  as  the  fifth  century,  is  the  first  to  furnish 
an  accurate  detailed  description  of  the  affection  in  man, 
and  of  the  various  controversies  regarding  it.  He  men- 
tions it  as  being  endemic  in  Caria  and  Crete.  He  called  it 
pasHto  hi/drophubica,  and  relates  one  instance  of  its  occur- 
rence in  a  seamstress  who  used  her  teeth  to  rip  the  cloak 
of  a  hydropholiic  patient.  About  the  same  period  the 
affection  is  treated  of  with  more  or  less  minuteness  by 
Pedanius  Dioscorides  the  Cilician,  Claudius  ^Elianus.  Clau- 
dius Galeuus,  Oribasius,  and  Vegetius  Rcnatus.  /Etius,  a 
Mesopotamian  doctor  of  the  sixth  century,  is  the  first  to 
furnish  anything  like  an  accurate  description  of  rabies  in 
dogs.  A  century  later  the  physician  Paulas  ^Egineta  gives 
an  excellent  account  of  hydrophobia,  dividing  it  into  two 
varieties — viz.  that  arising  from  inoculation,  always  fatal, 
and  that  due  to  nervous  irritability,  capable  of  cure.  A 
similar  distinction  is  now  sometimes  made,  particularly  by 
French  authors.  Among  the  Arabian  physicians,  Yahia- 
ebn-Serapion,  Rhazes,  Africanus,  and  Avicenna  mention  the 
disease.  Yahia-ebn-Serapion,  who  lived  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, expresses  the  opinion  that  the  affection  produced  by 
the  bite  of  a  mad  dog  is  incurable.  Rhazes  affirms  that  a 
certain  hydrophobic  man  barked  by  night  like  a  dog  and 
died,  and  that  another  when  he  beheld  water  was  seized 
with  trembling,  extreme  terror,  and  rigors.  Avicenna,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  century,  describes  hy- 
drophobia with  considerable  fulness,  noticing  several  of  its 
phenomena  ignored  by  the  (rreek  and  Roman  authors.  He 
terms  it  simply  canit  rabi'di  morsus.  Since  the  time  of 
Paulus  .Egineta  we  find  the  disease  described  by  numerous 
European  writers,  the  study  of  its  symptomatology  es- 
pecially keeping  pace  with  the  general  progress  of  medical 
science.  In  1020  an  outbreak  of  rabies  among  dogs  is 
mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Uowel  the  Good.  From  that 
time  it  appears  to  have  been  well  known  in  England,  nu- 
merous specific  remedies,  charms,  and  incantations  against 
it  being  recommended  in  old  Anglo-.Saxon  manuscripts  still 
extant.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  modern  history 
of  rabies  is  obscure  until  the  thirteenth  century.  One  of 
the  earliest  reports  of  scientific  interest  refers  to  wolves 
afllicted  with  the  disease  in  Franconia,  Germany,  in  1271, 
where  more  than  thirty  shepherds  and  peasants  fell  victims 
to  their  attacks.  Since  that  period  wo  find  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  affection  as  ])rcvailing  in  an  epizootic  form  in 
almost  every  country  of  Europe,  but  more  particularly  in 
the  wooded  districts  of  Germany.  Switzerland,  and  France, 
appearing  to  attack  principally  wolves,  dogs,  and  foxes. 
\  ulpine  mailness.  however,  was  not  noticed  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century  in  Europe,  although  it  had 
appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of  Boston,  U.  S.,  in  170S. 
In  177t>  rabies  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  French 
AV'est  Indies,  and  in  178.?  it  became  extremely  prevalent 
throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  since  that  time  the  disease  in 
br»th  animals  and  men  has  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 
our  medical  literature.  It  was  unknown  in  South  America 
until  1^03,  when  it  broke  out  in  Peru.  It  has  been  recog- 
nized for  centuries  in  Northern  Africa,  hut  its  presence  in 
Western  anil  Southern  Africa  is  denied  upon  the  authority 
of  dii^tinguished  travellers.  In  Asia  its  history,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  very  ancient.  It  has  never  appeared  in  Australia 
or  New  Zealand. 

The  popular  belief  that  hydrophobia  is  in  all  animals 
characterized  by  an  nhhofrence  o/  irnter  was  long  since 
proved  to  be  erroneous.  The  mad  dog  laps  it  eagerly,  and 
will  not  hesitate  to  swim  in  it  when  it  obstructs  his  course. 
In  the  case  of  man,  however,  the  attempt  to  ilrink,  or  what- 
ever is  suggestive  in  any  manner  of  that  act,  induces  such 
dreadful  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  deglutition  and  respira- 
tion, with  sense  of  suffocation,  that  a  horror  of  fluids,  even 
though  associated  with  intolerable  thirst,  may  be  truly  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  characteristic 
features  of  the  disease.  For  these  reasons  a  distinct  term, 
nif/if".  has  been  employed  by  some  wrilers  to  designate  this 
affection  as  it  prevails  among  the  brute  creation,  the  word 
hi/drophobia  being  restricted  to  the  disorder  as  manifested 
in  num.  Such  a  distinction  is  observed  by  Fleming,  a 
recent  English  author,  who  has  written  certainly  the  best 


work  upon  the  subject.  Others  have  spoken  of  rabirM  in  a 
universal  sense,  while  endeavoring  to  abolish  entirely  the 
term  hydrophobia.  Numerous  other  more  or  less  compre- 
hensive terms  have  been  proposed  to  distinguish  the  affec- 
tion, but  hydrophobia  has  continued,  and  will  probably 
always  continue,  to  be  its  most  popular  and  general  name 
among  English-speaking  nations. 

Although  the  manifestations  of  hydrophobia  are  clearly 
modified  by  character,  habit,  and  temperament  in  various 
species  and  varieties  of  animals,  and  even  in  individual.s, 
it  is  undoubtedly  the  same  disease  in  all,  whatever  its  pecu- 
liar form  or  mode  of  origin  and  propagation.  It  is  almost 
universally  conceded  that  the  introduction  of  a  gpectjic  vinit, 
from  a  rabid  animal,  into  the  gysteni,  through  either  an  ac- 
tual wound,  an  abraded  KtirJ'iire,  or  a  drlirate  mucoiia  mem- 
brane, in  an  efmentiul  preliminary  to  the  licvrlopment  of  thin 
affection  in  man.  But  its  origin  among  brutes  has  always 
been,  and  still  is,  a  subject  of  much  discussion,  and  one 
worthy  of  our  most  serious  consideration.  Hydrophobia 
certainly  infests,  and  by  many  is  regarded  as  originating 
de  n'ico  among,  certain  Carnivora  —  viz.  the  dog,  wolf. 
jackal,  cat,  skunk,  and  raccoon  —  while  herbivorous  and 
other  creatures,  including  man,  contract  it  by  inoculation 
atone.  Of  the  various  conditions  asserted  as  favoring  its 
spontaneous  development  in  the  canine  race,  few  have  even 
a  probable  foundation.  They  are  principally  repressed  sex- 
ual desire,  extremes  of  atmospheric  temperature,  excitement 
of  anger,  want  of  water,  and  putrid  or  insufficient  food. 
Ziegler  fixes  the  origin  of  the  disease  in  lack  of  the  instinc- 
tive degree  of  nourishment  from  blood  and  flesh,  and  hence 
designates  it  Hfntdnrsf  and  Fleisclnjier.  Still  another  pre- 
sumed influence  is  the  presence  under  the  dog's  tongue 
of  a  worm-like  appendage,  whose  extirpation  in  pnppy- 
hood  is  considered  an  infallible  preventive  of  the  disease. 
This  idea  may  doubtless  be  referred  to  a  very  ancient  myth. 
Pliny  speaks  of  it,  terming  the  peculiar  appendage  lyssa. 
The  Germans  term  it  ToHwiirm,  or  worm  of  madness,  and 
among  them  it  has  long  been  a  popular  superstition.  The 
practice  of  removing  this  so-called  worm  still  exists  in 
Thrace,  Turkey,  Greece,  Roumania,  Moldo  -  Wallachia, 
Spain,  and  even  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  Its  efficacy  has  been 
entirely  disproved  by  scientific  investigation,  and  the  ojiera- 
tion  may  be  best  cb.aracterized,  in  the  expressive  language 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  as  "  a  substance — nobody  knows  what,  ex- 
tracted— nobody  knows  why."  The  other  presumed  causes 
of  spontaneous  hydrophobia  would  appear  to  be  equally 
equivocal.  Unsatisfied  salacity,  putrid  food,  hunger,  thirst, 
anger,  and  extremes  of  temperature  are  manifestly  circum- 
stances which  obtain  among  dogs  quite  generally  through- 
out the  world.  But  in  some  regions  abounding  in  dogs 
hydrophobia  has  always,  so  far  as  can  be  learned,  been 
either  totally  unknown  or  extremely  rare,  while  in  others 
exempt  from  it  for  ages  it  has  only  recently  appeared,  and 
in  most  instances  can  be  traced  positively  to  importation. 
Such  exemption  has  been  particularly  noticed  in  various 
islands  throughout  the  world  and  in  isolated  localities.  It 
is  related  that  Mr.  Meynell.  the  most  eminent  English  sports- 
man of  the  last  century,  preserved  his  kennel  of  hounds 
from  hydrophobia  during  many  years  by  forcing  every  new 
dog  to  undergo  a  rigid  quarantine  of  several  months  pre- 
paratory to  his  admission  into  the  pack.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  were  the  universal  adoption  of  such  a  system 
of  sequestration  practicable,  rabies  would  become  extin- 
guished. 

Jiohiev  caninn  prevails  indifferently  in  all  seasons,  as  the 
following  figures  prove  most  conclusively.  They  embody 
the  large  number  of  2620  distinct  and  authentic  cases  ob- 
served in  France,  Italy,  Austria,  England,  and  the  U.  S. 
The  foreign  statistics  refer  almost  exclusively  to  cases  in- 
vestigated by  distinguished  veterinary  surgeons;  those  of 
our  own  country  (1 01)  are  derived  from  a  report  on  the 
subject  by  Dr.  Blatchford  to  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation in  18.^6.  Of  the  2520  cases,  there  occurred  704  in 
the  spring,  621  in  the  summer.  60S  in  the  autumn,  and  587 
in  tlie  winter.  These  figures  demonstrate  the  absurdity  of 
repressive  laws  designed  to  be  in  operation  only  in  the  dog- 
days,  when  the  canine  race  is  ]iopularly  supposed,  as  Mr. 
Mayo  observes,  to  be  afflicted  with  a  sort  of  dog-lunacy, 
having  the  same  relation  to  Sirius  that  human  insanity  has 
to  the  moon. 

We  must  acknowledge  our  ignorance  of  any  influences 
concerned  in  the  spontaneous  development  of  this  disorder, 
and  accept  the  theory  of  j'm  reproduction  nolely  by  inoml'i- 
tion  from  one  animnl  to  another.  Such  certainly  is  the 
mode  of  its  transmission  in  the  rant  mnjority  of  in^tancm; 
and  although  it  be  urged  that  the  disease  must  have  sprung 
from  a  beginning,  such  argument  when  used  with  regard 
to  any  communicable  affection  can  only  remove  us  from  the 
sphere  of  susceptible  proof  hack  to  the  confines  of  the  mys- 
terious and  impenetrable  domain  of  original  causes.  It 
seems  quite  well  established  that  all  creatures  liable  to  con- 


HYDROPHOBIA. 


1065 


tract  the  disease  are  also  in  a  greater  or  less  dcgrco  compe- 
tent to  transmit  it.and  wcknowof  noanimal.s  exempt  from  it. 
It  is  true  that  herbiv<irou.'*  and  runiiniiting  beasts,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  their  jaws  and  teeth,  as  well  as  to  tlieir 
seldom  attempting  to  bite  when  rabid  (sheep  only  except- 
ed), rarely  communicate  the  disease;  and  hence  the  belief, 
entertained  for  some  time  by  such  eminent  men  as  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  and  the  veterinary  professors  Coleman  and 
Renault,  that  the  power  to  propagate  the  atfectlon  was  con- 
fincil  to  such  animals  as  naturally  employ  their  teeth  for 
weapons  of  offence.  The  fallacy  of  this  opinion  has  bet*n 
proved  by  numerous  unrjuestionable  experiments,  and  it  is 
now  likewise  conceded  by  the  best  authorities  that  the  sa- 
liva of  a  hydrophobic  human  being  is  capable  of  inoculat- 
ini;  the  disease. 

Among  the  various  crcnturca  subject  to  hydrophobia, 
the  dog,  on  account  of  its  intimate  association  witV  man. 
is  not  only  our  greatest  source  of  danger,  but  it  affords  us 
the  most  frequent  opportunities  for  observing  the  phenom- 
ena of  this  redoubtable  affection.  A  knowledge  of  the  dis- 
ease, therefore,  as  manifested  in  the  canine  race  is  of  vital 
importance  in  enabling  us  to  recognize  it  promptly,  and 
thus  to  escape  the  dreadful  consequences  of  its  communica- 
tion to  ourselves.  Hydrophobia  in  the  dog  has  been  by 
sumo  writers  rlivided  into  two  varieties,  dumb  and  furiouit 
rabies,  according  as  the  animal  is  silent  and  uuilcmonstra- 
tive  or  noisy  and  fierce.  Other  authors  recognize  still  a 
third  variety,  which  they  term  tntn^piH  rabies,  where  the 
animal  is  quiet,  indifferent,  and  unaggressive.  These  dis- 
tinctions, however,  are  by  no  means  clear,  and  are  alto- 
gether denied  by  VircUow.  who  considers  the  different 
forms  merely  as  prolonged  conditions  or  stages  which,  ac- 
cording to  him.  are — 1st,  the  stage  of  mehini-hulif;  2d,  the 
irrit'thle  and  fnriouH:  .'id,  the  purahjtlc  stage,  ft  is  often 
very  difficult  to  detect  the  existence  of  rabit;s  in  its  nascent 
state.  This  accounts  for  most  oases  of  hydrophobia  in  per- 
sons inoculated  by  dogs  supposed  not  to  have  been  mad 
which  dieil  or  were  injudiciously  destroyed  before  the  full 
development  of  the  disease.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
disposition  to  bite  is  not  apt  to  be  exhibited  until  the 
affection  is  well  established.  The  disease  is  first  mani- 
fested by  constant  restlessness,  uneasiness,  and  irritability 
of  temper,  the  dog  of  fondling  and  sociable  dispo;>ition  be- 
coming snarly,  morose,  and  shy,  retiring  under  pieces  of 
furniture,  into  dark  corners,  or  the  interior  of  its  kennel,  but 
not  remaining  long  in  any  one  spot,  and  being  continually 
engaged  in  licking,  scrati-hing,  or  rubbing  some  portion  of 
its  body.  Costivcness  and  vomiting  arc  often  present.  The 
appetite  becomes  depraved,  such  indigestible  substances  as 
hits  of  thread,  hair.  wood,  glass,  straw,  and  dung  being 
swallowed  by  the  animal,  which  also  shows  a  propensity 
to  lap  its  own  urino  and  oat  its  own  excrement.  It  grows 
quarrelsome  towards  its  canine  companions,  and  chases 
and  worries  the  eat.  The  countenance  undergoes  a  marked 
change;  that  of  the  doeilo  and  affectionate  dog  assumes  an 
earnest,  inquiring,  appealing  expression  ;  that  of  the  savage 
brute  becomes  the  very  ])icture  of  ferocity.  In  the  early 
stages  the  animal's  attachment  for  its  master  appears 
greatly  exaggerate»l,  and  as  long  as  it  retains  its  con- 
ficiouHness  it  will  refrain  from  injuring  him.  Two  early 
ancl  characteristic  signs  of  rabies  arc  a  pei-nliar  delirium, 
causin.;  the  animal  to  snap  at  imaginary  objects  in  the  air, 
and  a  remarkable  alteration  in  its  voice,  the  bark  ending 
very  abruptly  and  singularly  in  a  how]  a  fifth,  sixth,  or 
eighth  higher  than  at  the  conimeneeinent.  Souu-tinn-s  it 
will  utter  a  hoarse  inward  bark,  rising  slightly  in  tone  at 
the  close.  Common  .symjitoms  are  strabismus  and  twitch- 
ings  of  the  face.  In  a  couple  of  days  the  animal  begins  to 
lose  contri)l  of  its  vohmtary  muscles  and  experioncns  diffi- 
i-ulty  in  eating  and  drinking.  In  the  early  stages  frothy 
spume  or  slaver  is  generally  seen  <lripping  from  its  jaws, 
but  this  soon  lessons  in  quantity  and  becomes  thick  and 
glutinous,  adhering  to  the  corners  of  the  mouth  ami  fauces, 
and  causing  intense  desire  to  drink.  In  its  eagerness  to 
lap  water  the  d<»g  oflen  overturns  Ihe  vessel  containing  it. 
It  is  now  insensible  (o  pain — will  munch  burning  eoals  or 
even  mutilate  itself  without  apparent  suffering.  It  exhibits 
an  inclination  to  escape  from  home,  to  which  it  will  sometimes 
return  after  many  hours  of  absence.  It  is  restless  and  sav- 
;i;^c,  wandering  about,  attacking  innigiimry  objcetn  or  vent- 
ing its  fury  upon  real  ones.  If  confined,  it  gives  utterance 
to  the  peculiar  bark  and  howl  described.  When  at  large, 
however,  it  pives  forth  no  warning  noise,  but  sroms  only 
determined  upon  a  straightforward  trot.  If  interfered 
with,  and  more  espfcinlly  if  struck,  it  will  wreak  its  ven- 
geance on  the  offender,  but  will  seldom,  as  a  rule,  go  ont 
of  its  way  to  do  a  mischief,  and  if  pursued  will  generally 
endeavor  to  escape.  This  is  not  invariably  the  ease,  as  a 
natvirally  ferocious  dog  is  apt  to  hunt  out  its  pre}'  dili- 
gently, often  attacking  nmny  animals  and  persons  in  its 
fearful  course.     It  does  not  continue  its  progress  long,  but 


becomes  exhausted,  and  moves  with  unsteady,  tottering 
gait,  drooping  tail,  head  toward  the  ground,  mouth  open, 
and  ]trotruiled  tongue  of  a  Icad-bluo  color;  finally  paraly- 
sis ensues,  lirst  of  the  hind  quarters  and  then  of  the  whole 
body,  which  is  promptly  followed  by  death.  The  progress 
of  canine  rabies  is  rapid,  and  its  termination  almost  al- 
ways fatal.  Its  duration  rarely  exceeds  ten  days  ;  the  ordi- 
nary time  is  from  four  to  six  days.  Nothing  has  been  jiosi- 
tively  determined  with  regard  to  the  interval  elapsing  be- 
tween the  receipt  of  the  injury  and  the  appearance  of  rabies 
in  the  dog  and  other  animals.  It  seldom,  however,  exceeds 
six  nir)nths. 

The  phenomena  of  rabies  in  the  cat  arc  gloominess  of 
disposition,  restlessness,  tendency  to  bite  and  keep  aloof, 
thirst,  refusal  of  Ibod,  and  sometimes  depraved  ai>i)ctitc. 
When  the  disease  reaches  the  furious  stage,  the  original 
tigor-like  ferocity  of  the  animal  becomes  predominant;  it 
froths  at  the  mouth;  its  eyes  glare;  its  back  is  arched;  its 
tail  boats  its  flanks:  its  claws  are  rigidly  protruilcd.  If 
disturbed,  it  usually  flies  at  the  face.  It  soon  gets  hag- 
gard and  emaciated,  its  voice  sounds  hoarse  aud  sinister, 
and  paralysis  and  death  finally  supervene.  The  wolf  and 
fox,  and  in  fact  most  wild  t.'arnivora,  when  rabid  become 
extremely  audacious,  taking  to  the  fields  and  roads,  enter- 
ing towns,  and  without  hesitation  furiously  attacking  men, 
dogs,  horses,  herds,  and  flocks.  They  usually  fly  nt  the 
bands  or  face,  and  hence  their  wounds  are  nuieti  more  fre- 
quently followed  by  inoculation  than  those  of  dogs,  who 
are  apt  to  snap  at  the  legs,  and  from  whoso  teeth  the  rabid 
saliva  is  often  absorbed  by  the  clotliing.  Renault,  in  a  re- 
port to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Medicine  in  1S,')2,  presented 
statistics  of  2j4  persons  bitten  by  mad  wolves,  of  whom 
104  perisiied  from  hydrophobiii ;  wliiie,  according  to  Nie- 
Dieyer,  of  \Xl}  persons  bitten  by  rabid  dogs  in  Wiirteniberg, 
only  28  contracted  the  disease.  In  the  jug,  horse,  sheep, 
goat,  and  bovine  species  the  general  symptoms  of  rabies 
are  very  similar.  They  arc  manifestations  of  disagreeable 
sensations  at  the  seat  of  injury,  restlessness,  irascibility, 
hallucinations,  alteration  in  voice,  salivation,  exalta- 
tion of  sexual  desire,  great  susceptibility  to  external  in- 
fluences, loss  of  appetite,  difficulty  in  swallowing,  dilata- 
tion of  pupil,  congested  eye,  emaciation,  and  finally  par- 
alysis, C4)nia,  aud  death.  The  desire  to  bite  is  often  exhib- 
ited in  the  pig,  horse,  and  particularly  the  sheep.  All  have 
paroxysms  of  rage,  during  which  inoy  attack  everything 
within  reach  with  their  natural  weapons.  Fowls  manifest 
the  disease  by  restlessness,  excitability,  mental  delusions, 
and  frenzied  movements — finally  sraggering,  convulsions, 
and  paralysis.  They  are  often  aggressive,  and  sometimes 
endeavor  to  bite. 

Hydrophobia  in  our  own  species  possesses  a  deep  and 
melancholy  interest  on  account  of  the  peculiarity  (d'  its 
mysterious  and  often  prolonged  latency,  the  horrible  in- 
tensity of  its  paroxysms,  and  its  irresistible  fatality.  The 
most  venomous  reptile  or  insect  may  inflict  a  wound  for 
whoso  effects  an  antidote  may  be  successfully  administered, 
but  the  virus  of  the  rabid  animal,  when  once  its  insidious 
operation  has  begun,  defies  the  most  consummate  thera- 
peutical skill.  When  the  rabifio  poison  has  been  depos- 
ited within  the  body  no  extraonlinary  appearances  succeed 
about  the  ])oint  of  rece]ition,  which  seems  to  heal  and  cica- 
trize entirely  in  a  natural  manner.  At  that  spot,  however, 
the  virus  remains  prvdu,  until  at  some  uncertain  period  it 
comes  forth  steallhily  upon  its  deadly  errand.  Watson  in- 
fers that  it  is  shut  up  in  a  nndule  of  lymidi.  or  detained  in 
temporary  aii'l  jtrccarions  union  with  some  of  the  tissues, 
until  liberated  by  an  injury  t<i  the  cicatrix  or  some  consti- 
tutional disturbance.  The  duration  of  this  union  is  no  less 
variable  in  man  than  in  the  lower  animals.  According  to 
Thamhayn's  statisti<*s  of  220  cases  of  hydrophobia  in  tho 
human  subject  (in  Srfiwidt'n  J(tUrhHrh>i\  IJiJU),  the  period 
of  incubation  in  202  instances  ranged  fntni  three  days  to 
six  months.  In  1  l;'f,  or  the  large  majority,  it  extended  to 
from  fonr  to  thirteen  weeks,  fine  occurred  after  four  years, 
and  anr»tlier  after  five  and  a  half  years.  Many  other  un- 
questionable eases  of  prolonged  incubation  have  been  re- 
corded, and  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  Ihe  poison 
mav,  if  undisturbed  by  causes  such  as  those  mentioned, 
remain  latent  until  tlic  oecurrenee  of  natural  death. 

Abr)ut  the  year  1S|S,  Dr.  Maroehetti.  a  Russian  phy- 
sician, announced  that  ho  had  discovered  in  a  number  of 
eases  which  he  had  attended  in  tho  Ukraine  eharactoristiu 
phenomena  never  previously  noticed.  These  consisted  of 
pustules  beneath  the  tongue,  appearing  ordinarily  between 
three  and  nine  days  ufter  tlu'  bite,  and  which  contain  the 
virus  transmitted  from  the  point  of  injury,  their  iinmediato 
destruction  by  cauterization  being  necessary  in  order  to  arrest 
tho  disease.  Similar  appearances,  terin*'il  Itf^mr,  were  said 
to  exist  in  rabid  ilo^s.  This  announcement  crcatt'd  n  great 
sensation  in  the  medie:il  world,  but  Marochetti's  opinions 
were  soon  proven  to  bo  entirely  erroneous,  tho  su-called 


1066 


HYDROSTATIC  PRESS. 


pustules  Ijciiij;  simply  enlarged  mucous  follicles  caused  by 
the  disease. 

One  of  tho  earliest  symptoms  is  usually  a  tingling  sensa- 
tion at  tlic  cicatrix,  which  sometimes  opens  and  dit;chargos 
a  thin  ichorous  fluid,  lu  a  short  time  the  person  grows 
deji'ctcd,  morose,  taciturn,  restless,  and  irritable;  he  seeks 
solitude  and  shuns  bright  and  sudden  light.  Within  a 
period  varying  from  a  few  hours  to  gcveral  days  the  more 
serious  and  characteristic  symptoms  arc  developed.  The 
patient  is  sensible  of  a  stiiTuess  or  tightness  about  the 
throat,  and  is  troubled  with  some  difliculty  of  swallowing, 
espe?ially  liquids.  Deglutition  soon  becomes  impossible 
unless  attempted  with  the  utmost  resolution.  The  real 
paroxysms  of  the  disease  then  supervene:  they  arc  cither 
spontaneous  or  produced  by  anytliing  suggestive  in  the 
slightest  dcj;ree  of  the  idea  of  drinking;  they  arc  preceded 
by  chills  and  tremors.  During  these  attacks  sensations 
of  stricture  about  the  throat  and  chest  are  experienced  ;  the 
rcjipiration  is  painful  and  embarrassed,  and  interrupted 
with  sii;hs  and  sobs:  in  fact,  there  occur  terribly  violent 
spasms  of  the  muselesof  the  throat,  almost  intercepting  the 
entrance  of  air  into  the  trachea.  In  the  intervals  between 
the  paroxysms  the  patient  is  sometimes  calm  and  collected, 
retaining  full  consciousness  and  knowledge  of  his  condition, 
but  gener.iUy  he  exhibits  more  or  less  excitement  and  ir- 
regularity, and  occasionally  has  fits  like  those  of  insanity. 
Frequently  he  is  seized  with  a  species  of  delirium  ;  lie  seems 
to  see  about  him  swarms  of  flies;  he  converses  with  imag- 
inary persons  or  fancies  himself  in  the  midst  of  perils. 
When  suddenly  addressed,  liowever,  his  hallucinations  are 
for  a  time  dispelled.  0^'casionally,  in  some  of  ins  fits  of 
violence  he  will  attempt  to  bite  his  attendants,  will  roar, 
howl,  curse,  and  endeavor  to  destroy  anything  in  liis  reach. 
He  often  seems  conscious  of  the  approach  of  such  iittacks, 
and  will  beg  to  be  restrained.  Hypera^sthesia  of  the  skin 
and  acute  sensibility  of  the  nerves  distributed  to  tlie  other 
organs  of  the  senses  are  usual.  In  some  instances  there  is 
developed  unwonted  loquacity,  and  in  others  a  singular  in- 
crease of  intelligence.  The  latter  phenomenon  is  recorded 
in  the  Gnzette  den  Ilofjitatix,  Aug.  27,  ISJ4,  as  having  been 
noticed  in  the  case  of  a  confirmed  cretin,  seventeen  years 
old,  suffering  from  hydro])liobia.  The  paroxysms  are  some- 
times attended  with  involuntary  micturition,  priapism,  and 
^-emi^al  emissions.  A  very  characteristic  symptom  is  the 
cojiious  secretion  of  a  viscid,  tenacious  mucus  in  the  fauces, 
which  the  patient  constantly  hawks  up  and  spits  out  with 
vehomcn^-e  in  every  direction,  producing  a  sound  some- 
times imagined  to  resernlile  a  dug's  bark.  The  tongue  is 
at  first  coated  and  red,  afterwards  dry  and  brown.  Occa- 
sionally, there  is  vomiting  of  a  "  cofl'ce-ground  "  fluid.  The 
pulse  is  quick  and  excited,  becoming  VQry  frequent  and 
feeble  before  death.  The  urine  is  high-colored  and  scanty. 
It  generally  contains  albumen,  sometimes  sugar.  The 
temperature  of  the  body  is  always  elevated,  which  is  eoin- 
eldcnt  with  rapid  waste  of  tissue.  Often  within  a  few 
hours  a  plump  and  well-nourished  patient  grows  shrunken 
and  emaciated,  and  the  face  of  youth  is  transformed  into 
t'lo  shrivelled  visage  of  old  age.  As  the  disease  atlvancos 
cerebral  disorder  becomes  more  and  more  marked.  The 
eyes  are  staring,  bloodsliot.  and  always  open,  with  fre- 
quently dilated  pupil ;  the  speech  is  abrupt,  rapid,  and  in- 
coherent, and  at  length  there  is  eonfirnicd  delirium.  Some- 
times remissions  oe^ur.  and  the  patient  cats  and  even 
drinks — with  great  difliculty,  however.  Toward  the  end 
such  a  remission,  with  complete  subsidence  of  agony  and 
agitation,  is  not  uncommon.  But  this  relaxation  is  only  a 
delusive  cahn,  the  prelude  to  dissolution,  which  is  usually 
unattended  with  violent  symptoms.  Death  ordinarily  en- 
sues from  asphyxia.  The  duration  of  the  disease  is  gener- 
ally from  two  to  five  days.  It  has  been  known  to  terminate 
within  twenty-four  hours,  four  of  such  cases  being  recorded 
by  Thamh:vyn,  while  in  a  case  mentioned  by  Tardieu  life 
was  prolonged  for  nine  days. 

It  is  now  quite  generally  admitted  that  although  hydro- 
phobia may  be  originally  due  to  a  blood-contamin:ition.  its 
:ictiou  when  developed  is  manifested  exclusively  through 
tlie  nervous  sys'em,  and  princip.ally  that  ])ortion  whose 
functions  are  governed  by  the  medulla  oblongata.  In 
former  times  there  was  much  diversity  of  opinion  upon  the 
character  of  this  disease.  Some  eminent  men  believed  it 
to  be  a  c'lntinm-d  fcrcTy  while  others  even  went  so  far  as  to 
consider  it  a  putrid  fever.  Some  maintained  its  analogy  to 
yeUow  fivrr,  principally  on  account  of  the  ''cofl'ee-ground  " 
or  black  vomit  occasionally  observed.  Itocrhaavo  regarded 
it  a5  an  iiijidinntarort/  afi'eetion.  and  this  idea  was  generally 
accepted  until  the  time  of  CuUen,  who  placed  it  in  the  class 
J^'citrosiH,  or<ler  SpaHini. 

The  autopsieal  appearances  in  both  hydrophobic  do^s  and 
human  beings  are  variable  and  non-distinetive.  Bruek- 
miiller.  after  the  most  careful  auttipsies  of  .'J75  rabid  dogs 
during  a  period  of  twenty  years,  arrived  at  the  conclusion 


that  the  evidence  furnished  by  dissection  is  of  no  value  in 
defining  or  distinguishing  the  disease,  and  is  worthless  as 
a  foundation  for  any  theory.  In  man  the  most  careful  ex- 
aminations of  those  who  have  perished  from  hydntphobia 
hnvv  proved  similarly  inconclusive  as  to  the  pathogeny  of 
the  disease.  In  some  in.<tances  the  cerebrum,  eerebellum, 
medulla  oblongata,  spinal  cord,  and  eighth  jiair  of  nerves, 
in  both  origin  and  distribution,  have  been  fnund  apparently 
normal  after  the  closest  scrutiny  with  the  naked  eye  as  well 
as  skilful  microscopical  investigation.  It  is  true  that  con- 
gestion, effusion  of  lymph,  and  even  softening,  have  occa- 
sionally been  observed  in  portions  of  the  brain,  medulla,  or 
cord,  but  these  and  all  other  lesions  thus  far  discovered  in 
the  body  can  only  bo  regarded  as  vchuNh  of  the  dreadful 
disturbance  in  the  nervous  centres  and  respiratory  and  cir- 
culatory systems.  The  otlier  morbid  alterations  noticed 
may  be  briefly  mentioned  as  follows:  great  vascularity  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  fauces  and  air-passages;  in- 
tense pulmonary  congestion;  injection  of  (he  gastric  ves- 
sels; soniHimes  ecchymoses  and  effusion  of  dark  blood  in 
the  stomach.  The  whole  blood  is  usually  dark  and  grumous. 
There  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  hypera-mia  of  all  the  paren- 
chymatous organs.  Autenreith,  Brandreth.and  Sallin  have 
seen  the  nerves  communicating  with  the  cicatrix  inflamed. 
Ilallier  has  recently  aflirmed  that  he  has  discovered  in  the 
blood  of  hydrophobic  animals  a  micococcus  which  when 
cultivated  is  transformed  into  a  cryptogam,  to  which  ho 
gives  the  name  Lyasuphyton.  The  (listinctive  character, 
however,  of  these  disease-germs  remains  to  be  established. 
The  diseases  with  which  hydrophobia  in  man  may  be  con- 
founded are  tetanus  and  delirium  tremens,  and  in  dogs 
anthrax,  epilepsy,  and  distemper.  An  enumeration  of  the 
distinctions  between  hydrophobia  and  these  various  affec- 
tions would  occupy  more  space  than  the  limits  of  this  article 
will  permit.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  to  those  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  such  disorders  there  can  be  little  difficulty  in 
the  differential  diagnosis.  There  is,  moreover,  a  special 
hysterical  or  nuiital  fiT/drophfdn'a,  as  Trousseau  named  it, 
induced  by  emotion  on  seeing  hydrojihobic  patients,  through 
fear  of  the  disease  after  having  been  bitten,  or  even  in  very 
nervous  people  from  simply  hearing  the  description  of  a 
case.  In  this  spurious  hydrophobia  there  is  only  difficulty 
in  swallowing,  and  no  convulsions,  scantiness  of  urine,  or 
elevation  of  temperature.     It  is  very  rarely  fatal. 

When  once  the  rabific  virus  has  declared  its  presence  in 
the  human  sj-stem,  all  measures  hitherto  adopted  would 
appear  unavailing  to  arrest  its  course.  It  would  be  quite 
useless  to  mention  the  almost  numberless  "specifies"  which 
have  been  proposed  for  the  disease,  and  have  been  employed 
without  success,  from  time  immemorial.  The  fact  is,  that 
with  our  present  knowledge  the  most  satisfactory  treatment 
after  the  disease  has  appeared  consists  in  simjdy  fulfilling 
rational  indications — viz.  by  palliating  the  symptoms  as 
far  as  possible,  excluding  all  controllable  causes  of  mental 
and  physical  disturbance,  and  supporting  the  powers  of 
the  system  with  stimulants  and  appropriate  alimentation. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  we  have  at  our  command 
eflVctual  jiiuphiflnrtU-  means  for  destroying  the  jioison,  pro- 
vided they  be  employed  within  a  reasonable  time  after  the 
infliction  of  the  injury.  These  precautions  consist  in  (ho 
application  of  a  ligature,  if  possible,  to  impede  the  circu- 
lation from  the  wound,  in  sucking  the  wound,  and  in  its 
thorougli  cauterization,  nitiafe  of  silver  being  the  most 
valuable  agent;  but  if  this  be  not  available,  the  hot  iron,  a 
burning  coal,  potassa  fusa,  or  almost  any  acid  may  be  used. 
Mr.  Youatt,  the  very  best  authority  upon  this  subject,  tes- 
tified in  1S;;0,  before  a  committee  of  the  British  House  of 
Commons,  that  he  had  been  successful  in  arresting  the  in- 
oculation of  the  virus  by  means  of  cauterization  with  ni- 
trate of  silver  in  some  -100  human  eases  and  in  innumerable 
dogs — in  his  own  person,  morrover.  as  he  had  been  very 
frequently  wounded  by  rabid  dogs,  and  once  severely  by  a 
mad  cat.  Ch.\ulks  P.  Kissel. 

Hyilrostat'ic  Press,  a  machine  much  employed  in 
the  mechanic  arts  for  producing  great  pressures.  The 
pressure  apjdied  to  a  small  piston  or  jilunger  is  transmitted, 
through  the  medium  of  water,  to  a  larger  one,  and  increased 
in  the  same  proportion  in  which  the  sectional  area  of  the 
latter  exceeds  tliat  of  the  former.  Fig.  1  shows  the  main 
features  of  this  machine.  A  is  a  very  thick  and  strong 
cylinder,  generally  of  cast  iron.  A  broad  flange  surrounds 
its  mouth,  resting  upon  masonry.  B  is  the  plunger,  with 
.a  water-tight  packing  at/.  It  carries  the  platform  C,  on 
which  is  placed  the  body  to  be  submitted  to  pressure.  E, 
a  very  strong  plate  confined  by  the  uprights  D  D,  receives 
and  resists  the  pressure  exerted  by  B.  F  is  a  shaft  turned 
by  a  belt  and  pulley,  which,  by  means  of  an  eccentric,  works 
the  plunger  (i  of  the  force-pump  I.  The  force-pump  and 
its  accessories  are  shown  on  a  larger  scale  at  Fig.  2.  I  is 
the  force-pump  with  its  plunger  tJ,  working  through  a 
stuffing-box.     The  valve  II  opens  during  the  up  stroke  of 


IIYDKOSTATICS. 


101)7 


the  plunger  O,  nnd  closes  during  ils  down  stroke,  prevent- 
ing the  w:iter  from  being  driven  bacliward  through  tho 
supply-pipL-  X.  In  like  niiiii- 
ncr,  the  valve  K  is  closed 
during  the  np  stroke  and 
opens  during  the  down  stroke 
of  the  plunger.  The  pipe  0 
leads  to  the  cvlindcr.  L  is  a 
safety-valve  so  weighted  that 
when  the  pressure  becomes 
great  enough  to  endanger  the 
bursting  of  the  cylinder,  it 
allows  the  water  to  escape 
into  the  waste-pipe.  M  is  a 
branch  communicating  with 
the  wasle-jiipe.  A  cock  in 
this  pip<^.  upon  being  opened, 
allows  the  water  to  escape 
from  the  cylinder  and  tlio 
plunger  to  descend.  The 
packing  of  the  plunger  con- 
sists of  a  cupped  leather  col- 
lar I  Fig.  ."5)-  It  is  a  chan- 
nel-shaped collar  encircling 
the  pluuger  in  a  recess  formed 
in  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder, 
its  open  side  being  turned  to- 
ward  the  chamber  of  the  cy- 
linder. The  water  entering 
it  from  the  cylinder,  and 
tending  to  escape  on  the  op- 
posite siile,  keeps  it  firmly 
pressed  against  the  surface 
of  the  plunger.  If  the  diam- 
eter of  the  plunger  (i  bo 
one  inch,  and  that  of  tho  plunger  li  one  foot,  the  area  of 
the  cross-section  of  tho   latter  will  bo   144   times  that  of 

Fig.  2. 


characterizing  that  distinguished  investigator.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  density  of  water — f.  e.  its  weight  per  cubic 
foot — increases  from  :i2°  up  to  .10°  (in  strictness,  39.1"), 
and  thence  diminishes  up  to  the  boiling-point.  This  tem- 
perature, 39.1°,  is  called  the  temperature  of  maximum 
density.  For  ordinary  temperatures,  and  for  calculations 
not  requiring  great  exactness,  the  weight  of  water  may  bo 
taken  at  G24  pounds,  or  1000  ounces,  per  cubic  foot.  In 
what  follows  the  weight  will  be  assumed  as  that  correspond- 
ing to  a  temperature  of  60  degrees,  being  (j2.::7  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  Water  expands  about  ^.,  of  ils  volume  iu 
freezing.     A  cubic  foot  of  ice  weighs  57.5  ]>ouuds. 

Table  of  the    \Vci;iht  of   a   Cubic  Foot  of  Pure    Wnlcr  at 
Different  Temperalure$* 


the  former,  and  a  pressure  of  1  ton  applied  to  G  will  exert 
a  pressure  of  141  tons  upon  li.  About  10  per  cent,  of  the 
power  applied  to  li  is  abs(trbeii  by  the  friction  of  the  pack- 
ing collar.  These  arc  the  essential  parts  of  tho  hydraulic 
press,  though  in  the  different  forms  of  the  machine  adapted 
to  ils  numerous  uses  they  occupy  all  conceivable  positions 
with  reference  lo  one  another.  In  presses  for  fixing  car 
and  other  wheels  upon  their  axles  the  cylinder  is  sometinies 
horizontal.  In  Diauy  mochiues  the  force-pump  is  worked 
by  hand.  J.  I'.  Fiuzkll. 

Hydroslat'ics  [(Jr.  f-Swp. "  water,"  and  <TraTt«ij,  "statics," 
from  i<rro<»9ai.lo"  stand  "].  The  term  hydrostatics  is  used  by 
most  writers  to  mean  the  science  which  treats  of  the  mechan- 
ical properties  of  fluids  in  a  state  of  rest.  A  lluid  is  a  body 
which  offers  no  resistance  to  a  change  of  form.  Fluids  arc 
of  two  kinds:  (1)  elastic  fluids,  which  may  be  compressed 
to  any  extent  by  a  sufficient  force,  recovering  their  original 
volume  upon  the  withdrawal  of  the  force  ;  (1!)  liquids  which, 
though  strictly  speaking,  admitting  of  slight  compression, 
are  for  all  practical  purposes  lo  be  regarded  as  incompressi- 
ble. In  this  treatise  the  term  hydrostatics  is  restricted  to 
liquids,  of  which  water  is  taken  as  the  representative,  it 
being  understood  that  whatever  is  affirmed  of  water  is  true, 
with  certain  modifications  depending  upon  tho  weight,  for 
any  other  liquid. 

'(ifiin-nl  I'ropcrtlci  of  U'titrr. — As  indicated  above,  water 
is  slightly  compressible.  Its  volume  is  <liniinislu-d  about 
TUtHioon  ''•'*'  "  pressure  equal  lo  that  of  the  atmosphere,  or 
14.7  ptmnds  per  sriuarc  inch,  while  the  volume  of  air  would 
be  reduced  one-half  by  the  same  pressure.  Water  is  ex- 
pansible by  lu-at.  Its  exact  weight  per  cubic  foot  depends 
upon  ils  temperature.  Tho  accompanying  table  gives  Ihe 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  pure  water,  corresponiling  lo  dif- 
ferent teiiiperalures  by  I'ahrenheirs  scale.  The  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot  of  wati'r  at  the  temperature  of  maximum  den- 
sity is  taken  upon  tho  authority  of  Uunkine.  The  weights 
at  other  temperatures  are  c<»mpuled  by  tho  aid  of  a  table 
given  in  the  Trau^mlinuH  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  .Sciences 
lor  IS.iS,  by  (i.  Ilagen,  deduced  by  him  from  his  own  cx- 
ncriineuis,  which  were  made  with  all  the  care  and  accuracy 


Tdm. 

Weight, 

Tem. 

Wcisht. 

Tcm. 

Wciglil, 

Tern.  WelEllt.l 

Tcra. 

Weight. 

Fahr. 

Ibi 

r«lir. 
57 

Ibi. 

Kahr. 
82 

Iba. 

FaUr. 

lbs. 

164 

3? 

62.417 

62.382 

62.201 

114 

61.807 

60.920 

X\ 

62.419 

.'■,8 

62.377 

83 

62.191 

116 

01.777 

106 

00.879 

.•M 

02.421 

.W 

62.372 

84 

02.181 

118 

01.747 

108 

60.838 

■K\ 

62.422 

00 

62.307 

85 

62.171 

120 

01.710 

i;o 

60.796 

ar, 

02.424 

01 

02..361 

86 

62.161 

122    61.685 

1V2 

00.7.55 

37 

62.424 

6! 

62.356 

87 

62.150 

124    61.6.53 

1.4 

60.712 

«R 

62.42.". 

63 

62.350 

S8 

62.140 

120    61.621 

176 

00.070 

39 

62.42.5 

04 

62.344 

89 

02.129 

128    6I.58S 

1  178 

00.627 

40 

62.425 

ai 

02.3,38 

90 

02.118 

130    61..5.55 

180 

00.584 

41 

02.421 

66 

G2.:!31 

91 

62.107 

132    61. .521 

182 

00.540 

4'> 

62.424 

07 

02.325 

92 

62.095 

134    61.487 

184 

00.496 

43 

02.423 

OS 

02.318 

93 

62.084 

136  161.4.52 

186 

00.452 

44 

62.421 

69 

02.311 

94 

62.072 

i:i8  !  61.417 

1  188 

60.407 

4S 

62.420 

70 

02.303 

95 

62.000 

140 

01.3,si 

1110 

60.303 

4R 

02.418 

71 

02.290 

96 

C2.04S 

142 

01. .345 

192 

00.318 

47 

02.416 

7-,' 

02.288 

97 

02.030 

114 

01.3(18 

194 

00.272 

48 

62.414 

73 

02.280 

98 

62.024 

116 

61.271 

190 

00.227 

49 

02.41 1 

74 

62.272 

99 

02.012 

14S 

61.231 

198 

60.181 

50 

62.403 

62.261 

100 

61.990 

1.50  .61. 1911 

200 

60.135 

ill 

62.-105 

76 

62.235 

102 

61.973 

1.52    01.1.58 

202 

60.088 

.")? 

62.402 

77 

62.247 

104 

61.947 

1.54  ,61.119 

204 

60.042 

53 

02.39S 

7» 

62.2.38 

106 

61.920 

1.56  ,61.080 

200 

.59.995 

.14 

62.39 1 

79 

62.229 

ins 

61.893 

1.58    61.041 

208 

.59.948 

.5.1 

62.390 

.10 

62.220 

110 

61.86.5 

160    61.001 

210 

59.901 

56 

02.386 

81 

62.210 

112 

6I.8:i6 

162    60.961 

212 

.59.853 

PreMurc. — The  condition  of  fluidity  implies  that  tho 
fluid  particles  move,  with  reference  to  one  another,  under 
tho  action  of  tho  slightest  force;  one  consequence  of  which 
is,  that  a  pressure  apjilicd  at  any  part  of  a  fluid  mass  acts 
at  all  parts  of  it  and  in  all  directions.  If  a  vessel  with  a 
horizontal  bottom  bo  filled  wilh  water  lo  a  depth  of  ono 
foot,  every  square  foot  of  its  bottom  will  sustain  a  pressure 
of  02.:'"  pounds;  every  square  inch  will  sustain  a  pressure 
of  G2.:!7  ^  1U=0.4.'!3  pound.  Let  Fig.  1  be  a  prismatic 
vessel  containing  water.  \  IJ  Ihe  surface 
of  tho  liquid,  and  C  D  a  horizontal 
plane.  The  fluid  immediately  below 
B  this  plane  sustains  a  pressure  in  jiounds 
per  square  inch  of  0.4;13  time  the  height 
2)  AC  in  fed.  This  is  true  not  only  of  iho 
vertical  pressure,  but  also  of  that  in 
every  otlicr  direction.  The  fluid  par- 
ticles in  tho  plane  C  D  exert  the  above 
pressure  against  ono  another  and 
ogainst  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  Tho 
pressure  now  under  ciinsideratioii  is  that 
due  to  Ihe  weight  of  Ihe  water.  If  an 
additional  pressure  be  applied  lo  the  surface,  the  pressure 
at  any  point  wilhin  the  vessel  will  be  in- 
creased by  Ihe  same  number  of  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Such  an  additional 
pressure  is  always  present,  consisting 
in  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
in  its  ordinary  stale,  at  heights  not  far 
above  the  sea-level,  exerts  a  pressure  of 
14.7  pountls  per  square  inch.  Thus,  Ihe 
ab.solute  pressure  at  any  point  wilhin 
a  vessel  is  that  due  to  the  superincum- 
bent water,  increased  by  11.7  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Inasiuuch,  however,  as 
the  atmospheric  pressure  acts  u|ion  tho 
oulsido  of  tho  vessel  as  well  as  the  in- 
side, it  may,  for  most  practical  pur- 
poses, bo  neglected,  and  wo  may  reganl  the   pressure  us 

Unit  duo  to  ihe  weight 
"°-  •'•  of  Iho  liquid.    The  pres- 

sure at  any    jioini  in  a 
mass  of  water  does  not 


A 

Fio.  1. 

^ 

, J 

":^ 

Fig.  2. 


depend  at  all  upon  tho 
form  of  the  vessel  con- 
taining it.  This  may  bo 
n  prismatieal  vessel,  as 
in  Fig.  I,  a  vessel  with 
a  vortical  tubi-  (Fig.  2), 
with  an  inclined  tube 
(Fig.  3),  or  an  entirely  irregular  form  (Fig.  1 1.  Iti  either 
case,  if  we  neglect  tho  weight  of  tho  atmosphere,  Iho  pres- 


1068 


HYDROSTATICS. 


ure  in  any  horizontal  plane  C  D  depends  solely  upon  the 


Fir,.  4. 


It  is  often  conveni- 


vcrtical  height  from  this  plane  to  the 
horizontal  plane  A  U  of  the  surface. 
This  vertical  height  is  called  the  head. 
In  most  hydraulic  calculations  the 
pressure  is  designated  as  eo  m.any  feet 
of  head.  Thus  we  say,  a  head  of  10 
feet.  20  feet,  100  feet,  in  preference  to 
saying  a  pressure  of  4.33,  S.66,  43. .3, 
etc.  pouu  Js  per  square  inch. 

The  foregoing  considerations  ap- 
ply to  vessels  having  free  communi- 
cation with  the  atmosphere.  The 
pressure  in  confined  vessels  depends 
upon  other  conditions.  In  a  steam- 
hoiler,  for  instance,  the  pressure  de- 
pends upon  the  tension  of  the  steam, 
and  this,  again,  upon  the  temperature. 

ent  to  reduce  such  pressures  to  an  equivalent  head  of  water 
by  ilividing  the  pressure  in  pound?  per  square  inch  by  2..">. 
Let  B  (Fig.  5)  be  a  pipe  communicating  with  the  closed 
vessel  A,  both   filled  with  water. 
Let  P  bo  a  piston  fitting  closely 
in  the  tube  B.     -iVny  pressure  ap- 
plied to  this  piston  will  be  trans-  p[ 
milted  to  all  parts  of  the  vessel  A. 
If  the  area  of  the  piston  be  1  square 
inch,  and  the  pressure  applied  to 
it  be   ID  pounds,  the  pressure  at 
all  points  within  the  vessel  .V  will 
be    increased    by   10    pounds  per 
square  inch.     The  aggregate  pres- 
sure transmitted  to  the  surface  C 
D  will  be  as  many  times  10  pounds  B 
as    the    surface    contains    square 
inches.     If  wc  suppose  A  to  be  a 
strong  cylinder  accurately  bored, 
and  C  Dto  be  a  close-fitting  piston 
capable  of  moving  therein,  we  have 
a  hydrostatic  press,  and  may  readily  conceive  what  enorm- 
ous pressures  these  machines  are  capable  of  exerting. 

I'riasurfs  upon  the  Surfaces  of  Immersed  Solids. — To  find 
the  pressure  upon  a  horizontal  immersed  surface  offers  no 
diSiculty.  We  simply  multiply  the  area  of  the  surface  by 
the  pressure  due  the  head.  Thus,  the  pressure  upon  a 
horizontal  area  100  square  inches  in  extent  lying  lU  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  water  is  100  X  10  X  0.433  =  433 
pounds.  When  the  given  surface  is  verticsil  or  inclined, 
however,  the  question  is  not  so  simple,  the  head  being  dif- 
ferent upon  different  jiarts  of  the  surface  ;  and  when  the 
surface  is  bounded  by  eurved  lines,  the  operation  becomes 
very  complicated,  involving  the  more  intricate  processes  of 
mathematics.  The  general  principle  applicable  to  all  plane 
surfaces,  whether  bounded  by  straight  lines  or  eurved  lines, 
and  whether  vertical  or  inclined,  is  this  :  If  we  understand 
by  Ar'i'/ the  depth  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  surface  below 
the  surface  of  the  water,  the  pressure  may  be  found  in  the  same 
way  as  fur  horizontal  surfaces.  For  a  piano  surface  partly 
immersed  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  immersed  portion  is 
to  bo  used.  The  pressure  so  found  is  the  normal  pressure,  or 
that  perpendicular  to  the  surface.  In  the  case  of  an  inclined 
surface,  it  is  often  necessary  to  find  the  pressure  in  a  hori- 
zontal or  vertical  direction.  Understanding  the  term  head 
as  above,  the  horizontal  or  vertical  pressure  upon  an  in- 
clined plane  is  found  by  multiplying  its  horizontal  or  ver- 
tical projection  by  the  pressure  due  the  head.  Thus,  in 
Fig.  6,  let  A  C  represent  the  inclined  face  of  a  dam,  D  the 


Fig.  G. 


depend  at  all  upon  the  extent  of  the  body  of  water  behind 
it.  The  pressure  upon  A  C  is  the  same  whether  the  body 
of  water  confined  by  the  dam  is  limited  by  a  wall  or  surface 
at  F  (i,  or  is  practically  unlimited  in  extent,  as  a  great 
pond  or  lake. 

Preeturee  upon  Curved  Surfaces. — In  considering  such 
pressures,  the  object  usually  is  to  find  the  resultant  pres- 
sure, or  that  with  which  the  fluid  tends  to  give  motion  to 
the  surface,  or  to  resist  its  motion  in  some  particular  direc- 
tion, usually  horizontal  or  vertical.  The  pressure,  for  in- 
stance, tending  to  burst  a  water-pipe  is  not  the  entire  jires- 
sure  upon  the  curved  surface  of  the  pipe,  but  the  pressure 
tending  to  separate  one  half  the  pipe  from  the  ojiposite 
half,  and  is  represented  by  the  pressure  which  the  same 
bead  would  exert  upon  a  plane  whose  width  is  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe.  The  pressure  acting  upon  a  curved  surface  in 
any  given  horizontal  direction  is  the  same  as  would  be 
exerted  upon  the  projection  of  the  surface  on  a  vertical 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  given  direction.  The  ]iressure 
u]ion  a  curved  surface  in  a  vertical  direction  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  mass  of  water  lying  vertically  above  the  sur- 
face. In  finding,  according  to  this  principle,  the  upward 
pressure  upon  the  lower  surface  of  an  immersed  solid,  wo 
must  for  a  moment  regard  it  as  a  surface  merely,  not  per- 
taining to  a  solid,  and  suppose  the  space  between  it  and 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  be  wholly  occujiied  by  water. 

irri'7/l(  Lnsl  hi/  /mmerscd  SoUdu;    Sprrijic  Ururili/.—The 

upward  pressure  upon  an  immersed  solid  tends  to  raise  it ; 
the  downward  pressure  tends  to  sink  it.  This  latter  is  equal 
to  the  weight  of  the  mass  of  water  lying  vertically  above 
the  upper  surface.  The  excess  of  the  upward  over  the  down- 
ward pressure  is  evidently  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  mass 
of  water  displaced  hy  the' solid.  If  the  weight  of  the  solid 
is  less  than  this,  it  floats;  if  greater,  it  sinks.  In  either 
case,  the  weight  lost  bv  the  body  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
mass  of  water  displaced"  by  it.  This  property  is  emjdoyed 
in  determining  the  relation  between  the  weight  and  volume 
of  solid  bodies.  If  we  weigh  a  body  in  air,  or,  more  strictly, 
in  a  vacuum,  and  again  while  suspended  in  water,  the  dif- 
ference is  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  that  of 
the  body.  Dividing  the  entire  weight  of  the  body  hy  'he 
loss  of  weight  in  water,  we  have  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of 
the  body  to  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  water.  This  ratio 
is  called  the  specific  grariii/  of  the  substance.  A  body  lighter 
than  water  is  immersed  by  attaching  to  it  a  body  heavier 
than  water  whose  weight  "and  specific  gravity  are  known. 
The  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  lighter 
body  is  the  loss  of  weight  of  the  aggregate,  less  the  loss  of 
weight  of  the  heavy  body.  A  piece  of  dry  pine,  e.  g..  weighs 
27  pounds.  It  is  attached  to  a  piece  of  lead.  sp.  gr.  1 1.33, 
weighing  45  pounds.  The  aggregate  weight  in  water  is  8 
pounds  :  loss  of  weight,  64  pounds  ;  loss  of  weight  of  the 
lead,  45 -i-  11.33  =  3.97  pounds;  loss  of  weight  of  the  wood, 
or  weight  of  equivalent  bulk  of  water,  04  —  3.97  =  60.03 
pounds;  sp.  gr.  27 -:- 6U. 03  =  0.4498;  weight  per  cubic  foot, 
62.37  X  0.449S  =  28.05  pounds. 

Stabllily  of  Floaliiiij  Bodies. — When  a  solid  floats  in 
water,  it  takes  a  position  such  that  its  centre  of  gravity  is 
in  the  same  vertical  line  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
fluid  displaced  by  it.  This  position  is  called  a  position  of 
rest  or  equilibrium.  Most  floating  bodies  have  more  than 
one  jiosition  of  rest.  A  position  of  rest  is  said  to  be  stable 
when  the  body  tends  to  return  to  it  on  being  tilted  or  in- 
clined:  unstable,  when  it  tends  to  rotate  into  another  posi- 
tion. One  body  has  more  or  less  stability  than  another  ac- 
cording as  a  greater  or  less  inclination  is  necessary  to  over- 
come its  tendency  to  return  to  its  position  of  rest,  and  a 
greater  or  less  force  is  necessary  to  produce  that  inclina- 
tion. The  theory  of  the  stability  of  floating  bodies  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  shipbuilding.    Let  G  (Figs.  7  and  8) 

Fig.  7.  Fio.  8. 


centre  of  gravity  of  the  part  under  water,  F  \  B  the  hori- 
zontal lino  of  the  bottom,  C  B  a  vertical  line.  Then,  if 
.K  C  represent  the  normal  pressure  upon  the  dam,  C  B  will 
represent  the  pressure  tending  to  shove  it  horizontally,  and 
.K  B  that  tending  to  load  it  down.  It  will  he  noticed  that 
the  pressure  tending  to  move  an  inclined  dam  is  the  same 
as  for  a  vertical  dam  of  equal  height.  The  advantage  of 
the  former  consists  in  the  pressure  tending  to  load  it,  whioh 
has  the  same  effect  as  an  increase  of  its  weight.  It  must 
be  observed  that  the  pressure  upon  a  weir  or  dam  does  not 


be  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  floating  body  ;  11  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  fluid  displaced  by  it  in  its  position  of  rest ; 
11'  the  corresponding  point  in  an  inclined  jiosition.  A  line 
II  M  drawn  through  II  and  tJ  is  vertical  when  the  body  is 
in  its  position  of  rest.  In  the  inclined  position  11'  M  is 
vertical.  Two  forces  act  upon  the  body  :  ( 1 )  its  own  weight, 
acting  vertically  downward  through  I! ;  (2)  the  pressure  uf 
the  water,  acting  vertically  upward  through  11'.  The  direc- 
tion of  this  latter  force  intersects  the  line  II  (1  in  M.  If 
M  lies  above  G,  as  in  Fig.  7,  it   is  evident  that  the  two 


HYDROXYI^HYGIENE. 


loi;;) 


forces  will  tend  to  bring  the  body  back  to  its  position  of 
rest;  if  below  G.  iis  in  Fig.  S.  they  will  cause  it  to  recede 
farther  frcmi  tliat  pusilion.  Wlien  the  body  is  in  its  posi- 
tion of  rest,  these  forces  act  in  the  same  line  and  have  no 
tendency  to  cause  rotation.  The  position  of  M,  correspond- 
ing to  li  very  slight  inclination,  is  called  the  metacentrc. 
A  section  of  the  body  made  hy  a  plane  coincident  wilh  tho 
surface  of  the  water,  the  body  being  in  its  position  of  rest, 
is  called  its  plane  of  flotation.  A  Hoating  body  in  rocking 
or  oscillating  always  tends  to  revolve  around  a  horizontal 
line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  its  plane  of 
flotation.  The  height  of  the  nictacen(re  above  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  displaced  fluid  is  equal  to  the  moment 
of  inertia  of  the  plaue  of  flotation  wilh  reference  to  a  hori- 
zontal line  drawn  through  its  centre  of  gravity,  divided  by 
the  volume  of  the  displaced  fluid.  The  height  of  the  meta- 
ccntre  above  tho  centre  of  gravity  of  tho  body  determines 
its  degree  of  stability.  That  is  to  say,  among  all  the  posi- 
tions of  equilibrium  which  can  bo  assumed  by  a  body  of 
given  weight,  it  will  have  the  greatest  relative  stability  in 
that  in  which  its  metacentrc  is  highest.  The  absolute  sta- 
bility of  a  very  light  body  is  but  slight  in  any  position, 
since  the  lighter  the  body  the  less  the  forces  tending  to  re- 
store it  to  its  normal  position  when  disturbed.  Up  to  a 
certain  ]ioint  tho  stability  of  a  floating  body  is  increased 
by  increasing  its  weight.  It  is  fur  this  reason  that  a  vessel 
returning  without  cargo  from  a  distant  port  is  obliged  to 
take  on  board  a  quantity  of  heavy  material,  usually  sand, 
to  give  her  what  seamen  call  "stiffness."  On  tho  other 
hand,  beyond  a  certain  point  an  increase  of  weight  dimin- 
ishes the  stability  of  a  floating  body.  A  homogeneous  body 
when  entirely  submerged  has  no  stability  ;  it  rests  indiffer- 
ently in  any  position. 

Surface  vf  LiiimiU. — It  is  a  law  of  mechanics  that  tho 
surface  of  a  liquid  in  equilibrium  under  any  forces  what- 
ever is,  at  any  point,  perpendicular  to  the  resultant  of  tho 
forces  acting  upon  it  at  that  point.  When,  as  is  commonly 
the  case,  the  only  force  acting  upon  water  of  limited  e.vtcnt 
is  gravity,  its  surface,  so  far  as  our  senses  can  perceive,  as- 
sumes the  form  of  an  exactly  horizontal  plane.  In  strict- 
ness, however,  since  gravity  does  not  act  in  parallel  lines, 
but  in  lines  tending  toward  a  common  point — viz.  the  centre 
of  the  earth — no  liquid  surface  is  auex.act  plane,  but  forms 
a  part  of  the  surface  of  avast  sphere. 

When  water  is  contained  in  a  vessel  revolving  around  a 
vertical  axis,  its  surface  is  acted  on  at  any  point  by  two 
forces — viz.  gravity,  act- 
ing vertically,  and  tho 
centrifugal  force,  acting 
horizontally.  The  re- 
sultant force  is  neither 
horizontal  nor  vertical, 
but  inclined,  anrl  the 
surface  takes  such  a  form 
that  the  resultant  force 
is  at  all  ))oints  perpen- 
dicular to  it.  A  vertical 
section  of  the  surface  of 
water  in  a  vessel  (Kig.  9)  revolving  around  the  vertical  axis 
A  B,  is  the  curve  called  a  parabola.  J.  P.  Fhizf.i.l. 

Hytlrox'yl  f<!r.  iJSajp,  "water,"  ifw,  "sharp,"  and 
y)l,  the  aciil  radical  teruiinalion ),  a  univalent  radical  (Oil) 
which  in  its  chemical  relations  is  analogous  to  chlorine, 
bromine,  and  ioilinc,  and  may  he  substituted  in  compounds 
for  an  atom  of  hydrogen  or  other  monads.  Water  may  bo 
regnrdid  as  II. OH,  analogous  to  IK'I;  potassic  hydrate, 
K.OII,  to  Kl'l;  liaric  hydrate,  lia(Oll)..  lo  fiaCli.  (See 
llvnuATKS. )  liy  the  substitution  of  Oil  for  II  in  hydro- 
carbons the  .alcohols  arc  produced;  marsh-gas,  CH«,  yields 
methylic  alcohol,  OII3OII  :  ethane,  CjHo,  yields  ethylio 
(cominon)  alcohol,  OjlUOU  ;  propane,  CjHs,  yields  pro- 
pcnylio  alcohol  (glycerine),  ("3lIi(OII)3,  etc. 

C.   F.   CnAKDI.KR. 

IlyJircs,  town  of  Southern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Var.  It  is  famous  for  its  delicious  climate,  which  scorns 
to  be  an  cverlasliug  spring.     Pop.  l(l,!<7!<. 

HvCiei'a,  in  ancient  mythology,  tho  goddess  of  health, 
was  a  daughter  of  .'Esculapius,  and  worshipped  in  connec- 
tion wilh  him.  She  is  generally  reproscnlid  as  a  young 
girl  feeding  a  Hcr]ient,  the  synibid  of  health,  from  a  cup 
which  she  holds  in  her  left  hand,  tho  serpent  winding 
around  the  right  arm. 

Ily'uieiie,  the  science  and  art  of  preserving  hcnllh  and 
preventing  disease.  Coming  direclly  from  the  French  word 
hy<iitii'-f  the  term  may  bo  traced  to  tho  ilrcek  vyitu-o^, 
"licallhy,"  Ilygicia,  the  ancient  goddess  of  health,  being 
the  daughter  (some  say  tho  wife)  of  yKsculapius,  the  god  of 
medicine.  From  the  earliest  times  men  must  have  observed 
somewhat  of  the  favorable  or  unfavorable  influences  of  tho 
ciroumslanccs  under  which  they  lived.     As  an  art,  in  its 


FiQ.  9. 


B 


rude  beginnings,  hygiene  must  have  preceded  medicine, 
and  even  surgery.  The  early  temples  of  iEsculapius,  be- 
fore Hippocrates,  wcre»(iiii(oi'fri  ratherthan  medical  schools. 
Ilygicia  was  named,  with  other  deities,  in  the  oalh  wliich 
every  physician  was  required  to  take  as  one  of  the  Asclc- 
piadne:  "liy  Apollo  the  physician,  by  jEsculapius,  by 
Hygieia,  Panacea,  and  all  the  gods  and  goddesses."  Hip- 
jiocrates  wrote  the  first  hygienic  treatise  now  e.\tant — on 
yli'r*!,  W'titri-n^  find  f*Iart>i.  He  therein  pointed  out  too 
effects  of  climates  and  localities,  not  only  upon  health,  but 
olso  upon  the  characters  of  races  of  men,  anticipating  at 
so  early  a  date  (400  n.  c.)  the  conclusions  arrived  at  in 
recent  times  by  Montesquieu,  Michelet,  (?uyot.  and  Iluckle. 
Positive  sanitary  measures  were  probably  first  instituted 
by  Acron  of  Crotona,  of  tho  school  of  Pythagoras,  who  is 
said  to  have  dissi]tatcd  the  cause  of  a  plague  at  .\tliens  by 
means  of  fires  burned  in  the  streets.  Empedocles  after- 
wards found  it  possible  to  destroy  or  impede  the  action  of 
malaria,  in  one  instance  by  draining  a  swamp,  and  in  an- 
other by  building  a  high  w.all  to  protect  an  exposed  town. 
Ilerodicus  was  so  famous  for  his  application  of  gymnastics 
to  the  improvement  of  bcaltll  that  Plato  accused  him  of 
doing  an  ill  service  to  the  stale  by  keeping  alive  people 
who  ought  to  die,  because,  being  valetudinariaus,  they  cost 
more  than  they  were  worth  to  the  community.  The  Sji.ar- 
tans  reversed  this  in  their  custom  of  exposing  young  chil- 
dren to  the  dements,  whereby  only  those  survived  and 
grew  up  who  were  possessed  of  natural  hardihood.  Early 
writers  upon  the  preservation  of  health  were  Philiston, 
Diodes,  Plutarch,  Oclsus,  Galen,  Oribasius,  Aetius,  and 
Paulus  .'Egincta.  Ancient  Rome  showed  an  appreciation 
of  sanitary  art  by  extensive  drainage  of  the  base  of  the 
hills  on  which  the  city  was  built ;  by  the  immense  sewer, 
Cloaca  Maxima,  of  which  a  part  is  left,  the  oldest  ruin  in 
Europe,  thirteen  feet  in  diameter  at  the  outlet ;  by  the  aque- 
ducts ;  by  suburban  interments,  whose  number  is  .still  at- 
tested all  along  the  Appian  Way  ;  and  by  the  appointment 
of  oflicers  (niiiU-s)  whose  duty  it  was  to  inspect  and  regu- 
late tho  construction,  with  a  view  to  salubrity  and  safety, 
of  all  private  and  public  buildings.  In  Egypt  the  great 
pyramid  of  Cheops  has  an  arrangement  showing  an  early 
recognition  of  the  principles  of  ventilation  applied  to  its 
interior  chambers.  Embalming  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  not 
only  of  men  but  of  animals,  however  it  may  have  been  as- 
sociated with  religious  ideas,  is  so  well  adapted  to  the  jire- 
vention  of  in.salubrity  in  a  populous  land  with  a  tropical 
climate  as  to  make  it  appear  likely  that  it  sprang,  in  part 
at  least,  from  the  sanitary  sagacity  of  the  priesthood.  Sinco 
a  resemblance  is  traceable  in  many  particulars  between 
the  Mosaic  ceremonial  law  and  the  usages  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  it  is  also  likely  that  some  measures  fur  the  j>re- 
servation  of  health,  prescribed  in  the  Levitical  code,  cor- 
responded with  usages  known  to  the  Israelites  while  in  tho 
land  of  bondage.  Moses,  however,  must  have  much  ex- 
lendcil  the  provisions  required  fur  the  care  of  the  health 
of  his  people.  His  regulations  concerning  food,  ablutions, 
and  other  purifications,  and  segregation  of  persons  having 
certain  diseases,  were  precise  and  imperative. 

All  tho  most  enlightened  nations  of  antiquity  held  phys- 
ical culture  in  high  estimation.  .'Socrates,  the  philosopher, 
was  of  powerful  bodily  frame.  Plato  also  was  a  superior 
athlete,  and  so  were  Pericles  and  Alcibiades.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  intellectual  supremacy  of  the  Creeks  was 
in  some  part  owing  to  their  sedulous  care  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  whn/c  vnjaitizaliiin,  brain  and  body  together. 
Archiatcrs  (chief  physicians)  were  appointed  imblicly  by 
the  (ireeks  for  gratuitous  attendance  ujion  the  poor.  In 
most  of  the  cities  of  ancient  (ircece  public  baths  existed, 
for  tho  poor  as  well  us  tho  rich.  Itome  also  had,  at  one 
period,  hundreds  of  private  and  public  balh.s,  some  of 
which,  as  those  of  Caraculhi,  were  palatial  in  grandeur. 
Although  at  first  designed  for  hcallh,  these  degenerated 
afterwards  into  cITcminatc  luxuriuusness,  ns  the  j/i/miinKiVi 
did,  at  last,  into  the  scenes  of  gladiaturial  fights  of  men 
and  beasts.  Imitating  tho  (Ireeks,  the  Itoman  emjieror 
Antoninus  Pius  niipointcd  public  medical  officers  of  towns, 
and  Valcniinian  and  Valens  confiri[ied  the  privileges  of  tho 
colleges  of  arrliiiiiri pnpiilarcH  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  em- 
pire. Under  the  name  of  mcdici  ciiii<l<,lli  such  oflicers  con- 
tinued to  be  maintained  in  Italy  down  to  the  fiftccnlh  cen- 
tury. About  1  fill  the  emperor  .'^igismund  createil  the  offices 
of  mcintcr  ar:l  in  every  chief  city  of  (Jermany.  Of  this  func- 
tionary tho  modern  K'ninplii/Hicim  an^l  .Slaillaizt  uiay  be  re- 
gardc<i  as  in  some  sort  tho  successors.  In  (he  school  of  Saler- 
num,  in  Italy,  tho  oldest  medical  school  of  Europe,  founded 
in  the  ninth  century,  ins(ruc(ion  was  given  u|ion  tho  |ire- 
venliun  of  diseases,  ns  well  as  the  preservation  of  health. 
That  institution  gave  forth  in  the  twelfth  century  a  very  re- 
markable^ treatise,  tho  llc/hncn  SanllaliH  Siilcniilaiilim,  a 
poem  upon  the  maintenance  of  health,  in  "  leonine  "or  rhym- 
ing Latin  verses.  Many  of  the  precepts  in  this "  Code  of  Saler- 


1070 


HYGIENE. 


nura  "  are  sound  and  good  :  some  of  tbera  havo  passed  into 
almost  proverbial  inodurn  us^c.  Tlic  institution  ot  t/uttrun- 
tinc  in  ihf  Idurtecnth  century  in  Italy,  to  exclude  the 
plajjuc,  was  an  event  in  the  history  of  sanitary  progress. 
From  Florence  this  method  of  restriction  of  intercourse 
with  infected  places  sproail  first  to  Venice  and  Sardinia, 
and  afterward?;  throu<;hout  Europe.  In  America  the  first 
quarantine  law  was  enacted  xmcler  William  l*enu  in  1700, 
at  Philatlelpiiia.  (See  Quakantink.) 

Englancl  was  somewhat  later  than  Itnly  and  Germany 
to  advance  in  sanitary  improvements,  yet  some  quite  early 
lc;;isla'ion  was  in  this  direction,  as  an  ordinance  in  the 
reijn  of  Edward  II.,  forbiddinj:  the  sale  of  "  muzzled 
swine's  flesh;  "  one  under  Richard  II.,  to  prevent  the  jiol- 
lution  of  rivers,  drains,  etc.  ;  and  others  during  the  times 
of  Henry  VI.  and  VII.  and  Elizabeth,  for  the  inspection 
anl  cleansing  of  sewers,  prohibiting  the  slaughtering  of 
cattle  in  towns,  and  interdicting  the  overcrowding  of  dwell- 
in'j;s.  Jenuer's  introduction  of  vaccination  for  the  preven- 
tion of  smallpox  is  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  the  tri- 
umphs of  "  preventive  medicine,"  as  sanitary  science  has 
sometimes  been  called.  This  event  dates  from  1798.  (See 
VArciNATioN.)  But  the  benefits  conferred  u])on  mankind 
through  the  advance  of  knowledge  in  regarJ  to  the  causes 
of  disea^se  and  the  cimditions  necessary  for  health,  es- 
pecially in  communities,  have  been  obvious,  great,  and 
numerous.  In  the  time  of  the  great  medical  author  Syden- 
ham (1024-S7)  the  largest  part  of  the  mortality  of  London 
was  produced  by  four  diseases — plague,  smallpox,  scurvy, 
and  ilysentery.  Of  these,  the  first  has  long  disappeared 
from  Groat  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe ;  the  second 
has  been,  by  prevention,  shorn  of  most  of  its  destructive 
power:  the  third  is  now  seldom  known  except  in  places 
remote  from  civilized  life;  and  the  fourth  is  at  least  very 
much  less  mortal  than  formerly,  especially  in  cities. 
Macauhiy,  in  his  flt'st'tn/  nf  Eni/lniKl,  estimated  that  the 
dilVerencc  between  London  in  the  seventeenth  and  the  same 
c^y  in  the  nineteenth  century  is  as  great,  in  regard  to  mor- 
tality, as  between  that  of  the  time  of  prevalence  of  epi- 
demic ch<dera  and  that  of  ordinary  years.  In  Constanti- 
nople, in  513  A.  P.,  10,000  people  died  daily  during  one 
season  of  plague  alone;  in  l(i63,  tiS.OOO  died  of  that  disease 
in  the  city  of  London;  in  IfiSa,  not  a  sickly  year,  the 
deaths  in  London  were  1  in  20  of  the  inhabitants;  now 
they  average  about  1  in  40.  In  France  in  1772  the  annuiil 
proportion  of  deaths  was  1  in  25  ;  in  IS  10,  1  in  45.  The 
mean  duration  of  life  in  the  same  country  was.  in  1800,  2Si 
years;  now.  :iU  years.  At  Geneva  the  mean  probability 
of  life  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  8  or  U  years;  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  13  to  14  years;  in  the  eighteenth, 
about  :J0  years;  in  the  nineteenth,  40  to  45  years.  Life 
may  bo  safely  said  to  have  been,  on  the  average,  prolonged 
25  per  cent,  during  the  last  fifty  years.  While  improve- 
ments in  medical  and  surgical  practice  no  doubt  have  had 
their  share  in  effecting  tiiis  result,  the  greater  part  of  this 
very  important  change  must  be  ascribed  to  increased 
knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  laws  of  health.  Yet 
much  remains  to  be  done  before  the  ideal  of  perfect  sanita- 
tion is  attained.  Yellow  fever  and  cholera  are  still  at 
times  the  deadly  scourges  of  cities  and  of  some  other 
place* :  malarial  fevers  render  certain  localities  almost  un- 
inhabitable; and  the  mortality  of  towns,  especially  with 
young  children,  continues  to  be  far  in  excess  of  what  it 
ought  to  be  were  the  conditions  of  liealth  properly  main- 
tained. The  best  hope  of  the  sanitarian  and  philanthropist 
on  this  subject  is  that  which  is  derived  from  the  increased 
and  increasing  interest  in  all  that  concerns  health,  now  pre- 
vailing in  all  civilized  communities  amongst  educated  men. 

The  modern  literature  of  hygiene  had  its  beginning 
chieflvin  Fr.ance.  Bucrhaavoin  Hollan<l  { 1063-1 73S).  Locke 
(1032-1704)  in  England,  and  Cullen  (17I2-'J0)  in  Scotland, 
had  written  upon  physical  culture  and  other  sanitary  sub- 
jects, but  French  writers  first  gave  a  definite  form  to  the 
soicncc.  Prominent  among  those  who  havo  dealt  with  it 
in  France  have  been  Tourtelle.  Halle.  Du  Chatelet,  Tardieu, 
Villenne.  Foder^,  Cabanis.  Bomlin.  Levy,  and  Motard.  A  ' 
comparatively  early  English  writer  upon  personal  health 
was  Dr.  Andrew  Combe.  Climatology  has  been  ably  treated  ' 
of  by  Johnson,  Martin,  and  Johnston.  Public  hygiene  has 
had  its  later  lights  in  threat  Britain  in  Chadwick.  South-  | 
wood.  Smith,  Simon,  Letlieby,  Uumscy,  Groenhow,  and  I 
Florence  Nightingale.  On  the  general  subicct  of  hygiene 
must  be  added  the  names  of  Angus  Smith.  Parkcs,  Wilson, 
Mapothcr,  Guy,  Cameron,  and  Tilt.  On  tlio  continent 
of  Europe,  outside  of  France,  most  noted  as  sanitarians 
liavo  been  Quctelet.  Friedlander,  Miihry,  Casper,  Hufo- 
land.  Thiersch,  and  Pettenkofer.  In  America,  Dr.  Benja- 
min Hush  (174.>-1S13)  wrote  ably  upon  some  sanitary 
subjects.  The  first  American  treatise  on  the  Eiemc»t9  of 
Hytfiene  was  that  of  Prof.  Robley  Dunglison.of  which  a 
second  edition  was  published  at  Philadelphia  in  1S44.    No 


second  work  with  a  similar  title  appeared  until  the  issue 
of  a  Treatise  oh  Ht/i/ienr,  dr.,  by  Dr.  W.  A.  Hammond, 
then  surgeon-general  of  the  I'.  S.  army,  in  KSfili.  Di.  John 
Bell  of  Philadelphia  wrote  with  much  ability  and  learning 
on  iieijimen  and  Lotif/cvitif  (1.S42),  and  not  long  after  on 
iJatha  and  Mineral  Wtit^rn.  The  number  of  authors  upon 
subjects  connected  with  personal  and  public  health  has  lat- 
terly become  so  large  that  to  name  a  few  may  seem  invid- 
ious. It  may  be  justly  mentioned,  however,  that  the  late 
Drs.  Forrey  and  Gouverneur  Emerson  wrote  usefully  upon 
climatology  and  vital  statistics;  the  best  treatise  on  men- 
tal hygiene  yet  published  has  been  that  of  Dr.  Isaac  Hay  ; 
and  the  late  Dr.  Wilson  Jewell  of  Philailelphia,  the  Into 
Dr.  George  Derby  of  Boston.  Drs.  H.  I.  Bowditch,  Jarvis, 
and  Curtis  of  the  latter  city.  Dr.  Snow  of  Providence,  U.  I., 
the  late  Dr.  J.  H.  Griseom,  and  also  Drs.  E.  Harris.  A.  N. 
Bell,  and  others  of  New  York.  Dr.  Barton  of  New  Orleans, 
and  the  late  Dr.  Drake  of  Cincinnati.  0.,  have  contributed 
much  by  their  lahor.s  to  the  ])rngrcss  of  sanitary  science. 
The  oldest  periodical  published  ehiclly  \n  the  interest  of 
the  same  class  of  subjects  is  the  AimalcH  dc  Hi/t/irnc  J'tib- 
liqnc,  issued  now  for  many  years  at  Paris.  Amongst  other 
journals  at  present  in  circulation  arc  Pnblic  Ilvufth  in 
London,  and  the  Sauitarinu,  established  in  1873  in  New 
York.  Associations  devoted  to  hygienic  investigations  and 
to  the  promulgation  of  tlieir  results  are  the  Epidemiologi- 
cal Society  of  London  and  the  American  Public  Health 
Association.  The  latter  was  founded  in  1S72.  The  Social 
Science  Associations,  both  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the 
U.  S.,  take  cognizance  of  public  health  as  constituting  one 
of  their  leading  departments.  No  subject  has  of  lateycars 
advanced  more  rapidly  in  public  interest,  or  in  the  actual 
development  of  practical  knowledge  concerning  it. 

A  natural  classification  of  the  departments  belonging  to 
this  branch  of  science  is  that  into  Personal,  DoniCHtic,  and 
Public  Hifrjienc.  The  second  of  these,  however,  may  be 
merged  into  the  two  others.  Connected  also  with  public 
health  is  the  hygiene  of  cncampmentu  (military  or  other- 
wise) unil  maritime  {or  naval)  hygiene.  Moreover,  certain 
topics  arc  necessary  to  be  cfmsidercil  as  atVording  facts, 
theoretical  and  practical,  fundamental  to  the  above  depart- 
ments; e.g.  Vital  Statistics  and  Etiidoijif,  or  the  causation 
of  disease.  Personal  hygiene  may  either  refer  to  adults 
or  to  persons  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  or  it  may  be  eon- 
sidcred  especially  in  reference  to  children  or  to  women. 
Most  of  its  practical  precepts,  as  well  as  its  essential  prin- 
ciples, are  common  to  all  human  beings.  We  may  therefore 
divide  personal  hygiene  in  a  pliysiological  manner,  accord- 
ing to  the  functions  of  the  body,  thus:  alimentation  (food 
and  drink);  resi)iration,  including  all  atmospheric  influ- 
ences; circulation  of  the  blood  ;  clothing;  bathing  ;  excre- 
tion; reproduction  (sexual  hygiene);  exercise  and  muscu- 
lar development;  and  cerebro-nervous  (including  mental) 
hygiene.  Public  hygiene  embraces  measures  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  certain  causes  of  disease  from  communities,  com- 
monly named  under  quarantine,  and  the  methods  of  pre- 
serving health  by  internal  regulation  and  supervision,  des- 
ignated as  sanitary  police.  The  latter  refers  to  the  main- 
tenance of  cleanliness  in  streets,  markets,  dwellings, 
wharves,  etc. ;  drainage  and  sewerage  ;  abatement  of  nui- 
sances ;  inspection  of  water  and  food  supply;  public  vac- 
cination ;  oversight  of  certain  avocations  in  reference  to 
health  ;  and  medical  attendance  upon  the  poor. 

In  the  present  article,  considering  personal  hygiene 
chiefly,  our  space  may  be  best  occupied  with  a  brief  and 
summary  statement  of  some  of  the  most  important  condi- 
tions of  health,  in  connection  with  the  diflerent  functions, 
as  well  as  with  the  causes  of  disease. 

Alimentation. — Requisites  in  connection  with  food  arc, 
that  material  bo  furnished  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body 
for  two  purposes — ( 1 )  to  form  and  repair  its  tisanen  or  solid 
structures  and  fluid  secretions  for  special  uses;  (2)  to  gen- 
erate and  maintain  forct:.  which  is  consumed  in  the  rxter- 
iiat  activities  of  the  body  and  also  in  its  internal  func- 
tions— i.  e.  in  external  and  internal  work.  The  latter  sort 
of  work  is  exemplified  by  the  propulsive  contraction  of  the 
heart  and  the  slower  "peristaltic"  movement  of  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines;  also  by  the  chemical  manufacturing 
processes,  from  which  result  comjdex  materials,  such  as  the 
gastric  juice,  milk,  etc.  Vor  timtn*  -ma  Li  nt/,  food-substances 
must  be  obtained  which  contain  the  elements  of  which  the 
bo(ly  is  composed  (carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron,  calcium,  etc.) ;  these  must  be  in 
an  organic  state  (vegetable  or  animal,  n()t  mineral,  except 
salt), and  of  such  consistence  as  to  be  broken  up  or  crushed 
by  the  teeth  and  dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids.  The 
same  kinds  of  materials  avail  also  for /'^rcf -food,  the  ttimmnt 
of  force,  as  manifested  in  animal  heat,  muscle-power,  ncrvc- 
force,  growth-force,  etc.,  being  about  equivalent  to  that 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  ox(V«/ioh  of  the  samesub- 
stftnces  in  ordinary  combustion.    For  healthy  alimentation 


HYGIENE. 


1071 


food  must  bo  taken  in  sufficient  (jnantitie*  at  such  ttiferva^ 
as  will  meet  the  waste  of  the  body.  It  must  also  bo  caton 
sfotrh/,  chctreii  ihoroiii^hly.  antl  at  a  time  of  rrpogc  both  of 
body  and  mind.  Since  the  same  ultimate  elements  exist, 
in  nearly  the  same  states  of  elaboration,  in  )>lants  and  in 
animals,  it  is  sometimes  assorted  that  vcE^ctaldc  food  alone 
i?  ncce^isary  or  advantageous  to  man.  It  may  be  iiduiittcd 
that  men  can,  under  favorable  oirc»m!>tancei>,  exist  through 
Ion;;  periods  without  meat.  This  is  shown  iu  the  instances 
of  many  tribes  in  .'Vsia  and  Africa,  who  live  almost  entirely 
on  rice  and  other  grains,  and  also  by  many  of  the  peasantry 
ef  continental  Europe  and  the  Scotch  Highlanders,  who  are 
confined  to  a  diet  containing  very  little  animal  food.  Yet 
it  is  equally  true  that  men  can  exist  on  meat  alone,  as  is 
done  by  the  Indian  riders  of  tho  South  Anicricnn  pampas 
for  months  together,  and  by  some  impoverished  dwellers 
by  tlio  sea.  who  live  constantly  on  fish,  as  the  IVchorais  of 
Terra  del  Fuego,  the  poorer  Norwegians,  and  also  the  Es- 
quimaux and  other  natives  of  the  frlgiil  zone.  The  teeth 
and  digestive  organs  of  man,  compared  with  those  of  other 
animals,  show  him  to  be  adapted  to  a  mixed  diet.  Expe- 
rience shows,  moreover,  that,  at  least  in  the  artificial  cir- 
cumstances of  ordinary  civilization,  such  a  diet  is  the  most 
favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  full  vigor  in  an  active  or 
laborious  life.  Cunccntrated  diet  is  especially  needful  for 
those  engaged  in  severe  or  protracted  hmtn-tcorl-.  Not  moro 
than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  au.ount  of  food  consumed 
ought  to  consist  of  animal  substances.  Nature's  model 
foot!  is  milk,  consisting  of  representatives  of  three  classes 
of  substances — (1)  caseine  and  albumen,  nitroffruout  {i.  c. 
containingcarbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen):  sugar 
of  milk  or  lactin,  ^(tccJtarinc  (non-nitrogenous,  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen);  and  fnttt/  substances 
(making  butter) ;  these  last  also  being  non-nitrogenous.  It 
is  an  absolute  rule  in  alimentation  that  with  man  and  all 
the  higher  animals  life  can  be  sustainod  for  a  length  of  time 
only  by  a  diet  containing  nt  least  ttm  of  the  above-named 
three  classes  of  food-principles.  Milk  contains  also  saline 
ingredients  (chloride  of  sodium,  other  chlorides,  sulphates, 
phosphates,  and  carbonates) ;  and  these  arc  requisite  in 
certain  proportions  eif  her  in  our  solid  food  or  in  our  drink. 

Errors  concerning  diet  are  chiefly  the  following:  (1) 
Eating  too  fust,  thus  promoting  indigestion,  which  when 
chronic  or  habitual  is  termed  dyspepsia  ;  (2)  excess  in  tho 
amount  of  food  taken;  (3)  insuniciency  in  amount  or  de- 
fect of  quality  for  full  nutrition;  (4)  unwholesome  condi- 
tions of  food — (T.  y.  commencing  putrefaction,  or  changes 
produced  by  disease  in  animals  whose  meat  is  caton.  Cook- 
ing our  food  aids  digestion,  extending  the  range  of  articles 
available  for  human  diet,  besides  often  giving  a  moro  agree- 
able flavor  to  things  which  we  eat.  Raw  ve:;otables.  as 
celery,  loltuf'C.  radishes,  etc.,  and  fruits  in  moderation,  are 
wholesome.  Haw  meat  frozrti.tknd  thus  made  tender,  is  so 
also.  One  danger  attends  the  consumption  of  underdone 
muat — namely,  that  of  thu-'  rei:eiving  parasites  into  the 
body  :  in  the  case  of  beef,  Timin,  the  tapeworm  ;  of  pork, 
the  more  dangerous,  sometimes  fatal,  Trirhlnn.  (See  Tni- 
rniKA.)  This  danger  is  entirely  obviated  by  thoroughly 
cooking  meat.  Smrvif  is  prorlucod  especially  by  long  de- 
privation of  frcHh  rpf/rtnhh:  fooii.  Captain  Cook  first  as- 
certained this  to  bo  the  mode  of  causation  of  this  disease 
about  1770. 

Coiifiimrnti  aro  articles  used  in  diet  in  small  amounts  for 
seasoning,  as  salt,  vinegar,  pepper,  mustard.  Salt  is  need- 
ful as  an  ingredient  in  the  blooil  and  secretions  of  tho  body. 
Vinegar  is  innocent  at  least,  when  moderately  used.  Pep- 
per and  mustard  arc  most  serviceable  in  hot  climates  and 
for  persons  of  weak  <ligestion,  especially  in  old  ago.  For 
the  stomach,  as  for  other  organs,  it  is  a  true  principle  that 
alf  unnrrrnHtiri/  ittiiiniftitiiin  involvci  rt  wa«tt  oj  force  in  pro- 
pnrtioit  to  thr.  dftjree  of  rrr.rHn. 

Wntfr  is  inditipcnsablo  to  the  sustenance  of  lifo.  From 
20  to  -10  fluidounces  of  it,  alone  or  in  tho  form  of  some 
beverage,  are  nectled  by  every  adult  daily,  tho  greatest 
amount  umler  active  exercise  or  in  warm  weather.  Its 
purity  is  of  great  importance.  Excess  of  mineral  ingre- 
dients (most  commonly  carbonate,  sulphato,  and  chloride 
of  calcium,  making  hard  waters)  may  irritate  tho  stomach 
and  bowels.  Mori;  injtirious  is  excess  of  organie  nmtter, 
as  in  rivers  or  wells  poisoned  by  sewage,  streams  flowing 
through  graveyards,  ete.  Typhoid  fever,  ch<dera,  and  other 
disorders  arc  thus  produced  or  promoted.  A  ])uro  and 
abundant  water-supply  is  one  of  the  most  essential  requi- 
sites for  every  habitation,  an<l,  on  a  largo  scale,  ffir  every 
city.  Filtration  through  charcoal  and  gravel  will  improve 
that  which  is  defective;  but  if  no  good  supply  can  be  ob- 
tainerl  from  terrestrial  sources,  rain-water  may  be  used. 
This  also  requires  filtration  when  it  pa^iacs  through  tho  air 
over  a  crowded  eily.  Spring-water  is  mostly  the  be.-it ; 
well-water,  free  from  contamination,  is  about  equal  to  it. 
Wells    tor   drinking-water   should    never   bo    placed    near 


privies,  cess-pools,  or  barnyards.  Artesian  wells  yield 
wator  free  from  organic  matter,  but  often  warm  and  con- 
taining an  excess  of  mineral  matter.  Good  drinking  water 
should  contain  not  more  than  \.h  organic  matter  per  gallon  ; 
total  of  solids,  not  more  than  30  or  3j  grains  per  gallon. 
Variation  in  the  mineral  constituents,  so  perceptible  in 
many  rivers  (the  Mississippi,  Nile,  and  (langcs  especially), 
does  not  necessarily  render  water  unwhobrsonie.  The  water 
of  a  large,  deep  river  is  more  generally  desirable  than  that 
of  a  small,  shallow  stream,  as  water  grows  purer  as  it  flows 
by  oxidation  of  impurities  and  deposition  of  sediments. 
Sea-water  is  absolutely  undrinkable.  At  sea,  sometimes 
distillation  is  restirtcd  to  for  a  supply.  Distilled  water  is 
tasteless,  but  may  be  made  more  agreeable  by  agitation  w  ith 
the  air. 

On  tho  subject  of  tho  effects  of  stimulants,  weaker  and 
stronger,  as  tea,  cofTec,  cocoa,  alcohol,  etc.,  on  health,  refer- 
ence must  be  made  to  the  articles  in  this  work  treating  of 
those  substances.  We  may  repeat,  with  emphasis,  in  con- 
nection with  them,  the  important  hygienic  law,  that  all 
unnecessary  or  excessive  stimulation  involves  a  waste  of 
force  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  excess  above  the  level 
of  natural,  iiealthy  action.  Cocoa  is  scarcely  to  be  called 
a  stimulant:  it  is,  for  most  persons,  an  entirely  wbolesumo 
beverage.  Black  tea,  in  moderation,  is  innocent  for  all, 
and  under  the  wear  and  tear  of  ordinary  life  an  often  use- 
ful means  of  refreshment.  Cofi'cc  is  loo  ]>owcrful  an  ex- 
citant of  the  heart  and  nervous  centres  to  be  benefii-ial  to 
most  persons  us  a  daily  drink.  Its  best  place  is  that  of  a 
jirop  under  special  strain  of  muscular  or  mental  fatigue. 
Arctic  travellers  and  navigators  find  tea  and  coffee  the  best 
of  stimulants  under  exposure  to  cold,  wet,  anxiety,  and 
exhaustion.  Aleohol  bus  been  and  continues  to  be  a  sub- 
ject of  much  contention.  Avoiding  extreme  views,  it  may 
bo  stated  that  durintj  perfect  health  it  is  never  ncccusuri/, 
and  therefore  never  wholesome.  In  groat  prostration  from 
disease  it  is  often  the  most  valuable  of  supjiorting  agents. 
Stales  occur,  also,  between  illness  and  full  lieaUh,  in  which, 
under  the  judgment  of  physicians,  dilute  alcoholic  bever- 
ages (ale.  wine,  etc.)  may  be  emploj'ed  in  regulated  quan- 
tities with  advantage.  No  such  article  does  good  wlien  it 
hurries  the  pulse,  flushes  the  face,  or  disturbs  the  brain — 
I.  c.  acts  as  an  iiiebriaut  narcotic.  By  actual  observation, 
Drs.  Parkcs  and  B.  W.  Richardson,  and  Count  Wollowicz, 
have  provc<I  that  alcohol  unnecessarily  used  consumes  force 
by  excessive  action  of  the  heart,  reduces  muscular  strength, 
and  lowers  the  bodily  temperature.  Excess  causes  subse- 
quent depression,  begi-tting  a  craving  for  renewal  of  tho 
stimulation;  and  thus  grows  the  habit  of  indulgence,  with 
loss  of  power  of  the  will  to  resist  the  increasing  demand. 
Intemperance  in  this  manner  becomes  a  frequently  incura- 
ble disease.   (See  Mktiiomasia.j 

Hyfjicne  of  Respiration. — On  this  extensive  topic  we  can 
here  remark  but  very  briefly.  The  conditions  necessary 
for  healthy  respiration  are  as  follows  :  ( 1 )  Sound  lungs  and 
air-tul)os;  (2)  muscular  power  and  nerve-force;  (.'i)  pure 
atmosphero;  (4)  renewal  of  the  air,  including  removal  of 
the  exhaled  carbonic  acid  and  organic  matter,  and  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  oxygen.  (See  Atmosi'iieke,  Di.sini'kction, 
RKSPiiiATiitN,  and  Vkntii.ation.) 

Clothiu,f.—l\nA  must,  for  health,  be— ( 1 )  suflieient ;  (2) 
not  excessive  in  amount  or  pressure;  (3)  properly  dis- 
tributed over  the  body  ;  (i)  permeable  to  air  and  moisture; 
(5)  changed  frequently  enough  for  cleanliness.  Being  in- 
suffieiontly  clad  in  cold  weather  is  depressing  to  tho  system, 
inviting  attacks  of  disease,  especially  of  the  organs  within 
tho  chest.  Wearing  too  much  clothing  makes  the  skin 
delicate  and  the  whole  body  morbidly  susceptible  to  changes 
of  temperature.  The  order  of  warmth  in  materials  is  as  fol- 
lows: (l)fnrs  and  wool;  (2)  silk;  (."l)  entton,  as  muslin; 
(4)  linen.  In  clistribution  over  the  body,  the  vhrst  needs 
especial  protection  in  winter  and  in  cold  clinuites,  tho  ah- 
d'tmrn  in  warm  seasons  and  countries,  and  the  feet  in  all 
times  and  places,  unless  near  the  tropies.  Habit  of  course 
makes  a  difference  in  this  respect  with  every  one,  but  ex- 
posure never  hardens  any  one.  unless  the  system  reacts  at 
the  time,  so  as  to  suffer  no  chilling  or  depression.  It  is 
needful  in  hygiene,  as  in  eonstruetivo  engineering,  to  keep 
within  the  limits  of  perfect  recovery.  Children  should  br 
at  least  as  warmly  elad  as  adults,  since  their  power  of  r*' 
sisting  exposure  is  less  than  that  of  grown  persons.  Aged 
people  also  suffer  moro  from  cold  than  adolescents  or  those 
of  middle  age. 

On  /iathimf,  see  the  article  on  Baths. 

/Tj-rrr/ioii.— Health  requires  the  eonstnnt  or  regularly 
periinlie  removal  fro?n  tho  body  of  the  results  of  waste  »>t 
tho  tissues  and  combustion  of  nmterial  for  tho  generation 
of  force.  These  aro  analogous  to  the  smoke  and  ashes  of  ibi! 
locomolivc-engine.  By  the  lungs  wo  exeretc  carbonic  aeid  : 
other  matters  by  the  skin,  kidneys,  and  large  intestine.  If 
cither  of  these  eliminative  processes  be  arrested,  disorder 


1072 


IIY(ilNUS— HYGROMKTKY. 


must  ftt  once  occur  in  the  bod.vj  a  continued  interruption 
of  either  of  thcui  will  be  fatal.  Insufficiency  or  irregular- 
ity' in  the  ixction  uf  the  kidneys  or  bowels  promotes  or 
causes  disease.  Ke^lect  of  the  proper  action  of  the  bowels 
is  a  frequent  error,  often  bringing  on  habitual  constipiilion. 
Kvils  connected  with  this,  alwavs  endangered,  though  not 
always  resulting,  arc — {1 )  irritation  or  infianiiiiatiou  of  the 
liowels;  (2)  hernia  or  rupture,  with  jios.-^ihly  fatal  strangu- 
lation; {'A)  irremediable  obstruction  of  ilie  bowels;  (4) 
sympathetic  disorder  of  other  parts  of  the  system,  as  the 
liver,  brain,  etc. ;  (5)  blood-poisoning  from  uon-e.xcretion 
of  effete  putrcliablc  matter.  To  prevent  constipation  the 
most  important  measures  are — suthcipnt  daily  e.xercisc  in 
the  open  air;  a  varied  diet,  including  a  moderate  amount 
of  fresh  or  dried  fruit;  bran  bread:  and,  if  these  fail,  rhu- 
barb-root or  some  other  laxative  medicine. 

Ese.rvise. — Referring,  for  much  that  might  bo  said  on 
this  head  to  Gymnastics,  the  most  general  statements  are 
the  following:  Every  organ,  including  the  muscles,  requires 
for  its  healthy  development  while  growing,  and  afterwards 
for  maintenance  of  vigor,  these  conditions:  (1)  a  sufficient 
supply  of  blood  of  good  nourishing  quality;  (2)  innerva- 
tion— i.  e.  a  supply  of  nerve-force;  (3)  exercise,  according 
to  its  function:  (4)  intervals  of  repose.  Violent  exereiso 
is  not  conducive  to  health,  because  it  tends  to  exhaust  in- 
stead of  adding  to  the  strength,  and  also  because  it  agitates 
the  heart,  sometimes,  when  often  prolonged  and  repeated, 
I)roducing  morbid  enlargement  of  that  organ.  Increase  of 
strength  follows  exercise  only  when  it  is  followed  by  pfrjada 
uf  rent  sulJirirnf  to  remove  all  the  cffevta  n/j'atifjur.  I)r.  Wind- 
ship's  rule  has  been  never  to  exert  himself  up  to  the  top  of 
bis  capacity,  and  not  to  continue  any  very  severe  muscular 
efforts  long  at  a  time.  Upon  this  principle,  by  frequent 
and  considerable  though  still  moderate  daily  exercise,  the 
strength  of  most  persons  may  be  doubled  in  a  few  months. 
Invalids  require  to  be  very  cautious  in  the  amount  of  their 
exercise.  Many  cases  of  feeble  health  require  absolute 
rest,  or  only  passive  exercisCj  as  riding  in  a  carriage,  sail- 
ing, etc. 

Sfj-u(d  Hi/giene  is  a  subject  not  adapted  to  this  work. 
Mental  Ht/t/irne  is  too  extensive  a  topic  to  be  embraced 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  article.  The  best  treatise 
upon  it  is  that  of  Dr.  Isaac  Ray  (Boston,  1S63).  (See  Vital 
Statistics  for  facts  of  importance  bearing  upon  hygiene; 
a'.so,  PiBLio  Health  and  State  Mkdici.ve.) 

Hexry  Hartshorne. 
Ilv^i'nns,  a  name  which  occurs  in  Roman  literature 
pretixe'l  to  a  variety  of  treatises,  most  of  which  are  now 
lost.  Suetonius  in  his  lives  of  distinguished  grammarians 
has  given  a  brief  account  of  C.  Julius  Hyginus.  whom  he 
calls  a  freedman  of  Augustus  and  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  al- 
though, he  adds,  some  consider  him  a  native  of  Alexandria, 
and  say  thathe  was  broughtto  Rmno  when  a  boybyJulius 
Cicsar.  Ho  studied  under  Cornelius  Alexander,  and  was 
jtlaced  by  Augustus  over  the  library  founded  by  him  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Ovid.  Hvginus  wrulc  scholia  on  the  poems  of 
Virgil  and  of  Hclvius  Cinna:  lives  of  illustrious  men,  a 
work  similar  to  that  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  in  at  least  six 
books;  on  the  cities  of  Italy;  on  the  gods,  and  on  agricul- 
ture. These  are  all  lost.  To  this  writer  also  arc  assigned 
by  some  critics  two  works  still  extant — the  first  entitled 
Ftihnfanim  Uher,  containing  277  fabuhe,  considered  by  some 
an  extract  from  a  work  entitled  Oencttlorjiir  by  C.  J.  Hygi- 
nus ;  and  the  second  an  astronomical  treatise  of  the  signs 
and  constellations,  interspersed  with  fables,  in  four  books, 
entitled  I'ofti'ran  Astrouomic6n  lihri  IV.  Many,  however, 
regard  these  as  of  much  later  date  than  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. The  best  edition  of  the  two  works  is  in  the  Atic- 
tores  MiftJutijrnphi  Lotitit  ot  Van  Stavcrcn  (Leyden.  1742, 
4to).  To  a  different  writer,  styled  Hyginus  (Jromaticus  by 
way  of  distinction,  of  the  time  of  Trajan,  are  assigned  sev- 
eral treatises  on  surveying  and  mensuration  and  a  work  on 
castrametation.  The  remains  of  the  former  treatises  are 
collected  in  hachmann's  and  Uudorff's  Oromntiei  Vetrrrg 
(vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1S48),  and  the  work  J)c  Munitinnibna  Chh. 
frorum  by  C.  C.  L.  Lange  (Giittingcn,  1848).  (See,  for  the 
former  writer,  Tcuffel's  Ifht.  Latin  Lit.,  ^257:  and  for  the 
latter,  ?  3.3i>.)  H.  Drisler. 

Hy$;iniiSf  Saint,  reckoned  the  ninth  bishop  of  Rome.  ' 
is  thought  to  have  been  an  Athenian  philosopher  at  one 
time,  and  to  have  been   bishop  ir,U^142?  A.  v.;  but  very 
little  is  certainly  known  of  his  life.  ; 

Ilygrom'etry  [Gr.  vyp6^,  "moist,"  and  fxirpov,  "meas-  , 
uro"J.  This  terra  is  applied  to  the  measurement  of  the 
amount  of  vapor  in  the  air.  The  atmosphere  over  every  part 
of  the  earth  contains  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  invisible 
vapor,  which  gives  it  the  variable  qualities  denominated 
humidity,  dryness,  dampness,  and  aridity.  As  these  are  ele- 
ments ofclimate,  and  as  the  human  body  is  very  much  affected 


by  these  states  of  the  air,  the  subject  is  one  of  much  practical 
importance.     Before  speaking  of  the  methods  which  have 
been  devised  for  measuring  the  amount  of  vapor  in  the  at- 
mosphere, it  will  be  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  in  regard 
to  tiic  relation  which  exists  between  air  and  vapor.     In 
former  times   it  was  supposed  by  the  meteorologists  that 
water  in  the  form  of  vapor  was  dissolved  in  the  atmos]>herc', 
and  that  it  could  hold  in  solution,  at  a  given  temperature, 
only  a  definite  quantity,  and  when  this  quantity  was  pres- 
ent the  air  was  said  to  be  saturated.     It  was,    however, 
proved  by  Mr,  I)alton  that  vapor  exists  in  the  atmosphere 
in  an  almost  independent  state,  its    quantity  depending, 
where  water  is  present  for  its  generation,  entirely  on  the 
temperature.     In  studying  this  subjoet,  ^Ir.  Dalton  placed 
two  barometers  near  each  other  in  the  same  vessel,  contain- 
ing mercury.  One  of  these  barometers  was  used  as  a  stand- 
ard, and  into  the  other  was  introduced  n  small  quantity 
of  water,  which  ascended  through  the  mercury  up  into  the 
vacuum  at  the  top  of  the  column.     A  portion  of  this  water 
immediately  flashed   into  vapor,  and  by  its  elastic  or  ex- 
pansive force  depressed  the  column  of  mercury.     The  tube 
and  its  contents  were  then  gradually  heated  through  a  series 
of  degrees  of  the  thermometer,  and  the  diminution  of  the 
height  of  the  column  corresponding  to  each  degree,  as  com- 
pared with  the  standard,  was  noted.     At  each  increase  of 
temperature  a  new  portion  of  vapor  was  given  off  from  the 
water,  as  shown  by  the  diminution  of  the  latter  ;  which  vapor, 
being  forced  into  the  same  space,  increased  the  density  of 
that  already  existing,  and  consequently  its  elastic  force,  in 
accordance   with  the  law   of  Marriotte  ;    the  elastic   force, 
however,  was  also  increased  by  the  increase  of  tempera- 
ture, and  hence  in  the  table  formed  from  these  exj)eriments 
the  increment  of  elastic  force,  or  of  tension  of  the  vapor,  as 
it  is  callcti,  as  measured  by  the  depression  of  the  mercury 
in   the  barometer-tube,  was  in  a  geometrical  ratio,  while 
that  of  the  temperature  was  only  in  an  arithmetical  ratio. 
By  making  similar  experiments  with  a  small  quantity  of 
air,  not  sufficient  to  drive  the  mercury  entirely  from  tho 
lube,  and  forming  a  table  of  the  increase  of  expansive  force 
of  the  air  for  every  degree  of  heat,  and  then  allowing  a 
small  quantity  of  water  to  ascend  through  the  mercurial 
column,    a  portion    of  this  would   spring   into   vapor   less 
rapidly  than  before,  and  would  occupy  the  interstices  of 
the  air,  as  it  were,  and,  exerting  its  own  elastic  force,  would 
depress  the  mercury  an  additional  quantity  to  that  due  to 
the  elasticity  of  the  air.     A  new  table  being  forn:ed  of  tho 
elastic  force   of  this  mixture   for  different  degrees  of  tho 
thermometer,  and  the  corresponding  figures  of  the  table  of 
elastic  force  of  air  subtracted  from  it,  the  result  was  found 
precisely  the  same  as  that  given  by  vapor  alone.     Another 
point  to  be  determined  was  the  density  or  weight  of  a  given 
volume  of  vapor  of  a  liquid  formed  at  a  given  temperature. 
For  this  purpose  a  large  barometer-tube  was  employed  by 
(iay-Lussae,  and  a  known  volume  of  water,  contained  in  a 
bubble  of  very  thin  glass,  was  allowed  to  ascend  to  the  toji 
of  the  mercurial  column,  where,  by  a  gentle  increase  of 
heat,   the   buhble  was  burst,  in   consequence  of  the  more 
rapid  expansion  of  the  liquid  than  the  glass.     The  water 
thus  exposed  was  then  converted  into  vapor  by  gradually 
increasing  the  heat,  and  at  the  moment  the  liquid  entirely 
disappeai'cd  the  elastic  force  was  noted,  and  also  the  vol- 
ume.    By  repeating  this  experiment   with  different  quan- 
tities of  water  at  different  temperatures,  a  table  of  the  den- 
sity of  vapor  was  formed.     A  table  of  this  kind  indicates 
the  ratio  of  a  given  volume  of  the  vapor  to  that  of  tho 
same  volume  of  air  at  the  same  pressure  and  temperature. 
AVhat  we  have  given  in  the  jireceding  is  merely  ageneral 
view  of  the  process  by  which  the  elastic  force  and  density 
of  vapor  at  different  temperatures  existing  over  the  water 
from  which  it  is  formed  is  determined.     To  form  accurate 
tiiblcs  exhibiting  these  relations  requires  more  refined  pro- 
eesses,  especially  such  as  have  been  used  by  Rcgnault  of 
Paris,  for  \vhich  we  must  refer  to  the  articles  Elastioitt, 
Density,  etc.     Mr.  Dalton  inferred  from  his  experiments 
that  air  and  vapor  are  vacuums  to  each  other — that  an 
equal  ([iiantity  of  each  may  exist  in  the  same  space  at  the 
same  time,  each,  however,  exerting  its  own  elastic  pressure 
on  the  sides  of  the  containing  vessel.     He  also  arrived  at 
a  similar  conclusion  in  relation  to  the  diffusion  of  different 
gases  through  each  other,  each  actingasif  it  were  a  vacuum 
to  the  other,  and  repelling  only  its  own  atoms.     This  hy- 
pothesis is  in  accordance  with  the  dynamic  theory  of  heat, 
and  also  of  the  diffusion  and  elasticity  of  gases  and  vapors 
through  each  other.    That  the  air  is  a  vacuum  to  the  vapor 
of  water  is  true  only  in  their  statical  condition,  after  time 
has  been  allowed  for  the  diffusion  of  the  latter  through  the 
former;  during  the  process  of  diffusion  a  resistance  has  to 
be  overcome,  and  the  air  itself  is  expanded. 

At  no  part  of  tho  surface  of  the  earth  is  the  air  entirely 
devoid  of  moisture,  and  it  is  rarely  at  any  jioint  so  charged 
with  aqueous  vapor  as  that  the  quantity  is  equal  to  that 


HYGROMETRY. 


107 


wbich  a  given  spacocouM  contain  at  the  gircn  temperature. 
This  is  owing  to  tbc  prevalence  of  wind  and  the  slow  per- 
meation of  tbc  air  by  vapor.  If  tbe  air  is  entirely  filled 
with  vapor— that  is,  if  tbiro  is  as  much  vapor  in  it  as  tbc 
space  enn  conlaiii  at  that  temperature — the  sligiUest  ditui- 
uution  of  the  tiuiperature  will  cause  a  precipitation  of  tbc 
vapor  in  the  form  of  dew  or  mist.  If,  for  instance,  at  a 
higher  temperature  there  be  present  not  quite  as  much 
vapor  as  the  space  can  contain  at  that  temperature,  then, 
if  the  air  be  cowled  down  only  a  few  degrees,  some  of  the 
vapor  will  bo  deposited  in  the  liquid  state.  The  tempera- 
ture at  whieh  this  takes  place  is  called  the  dew-point. 
From  this  it  is  evident  tbut  if  tbe  quantity  of  vapor  in  the 
air  at  its  exisling  temperature  be  great,  the  dew-point  will 
be  high.  All  substances  exi>osed  to  tbc  air  will  be  affected 
by  tlio  tloposition  of  moisture  when  the  dew-point  is  reached, 
but  many  substances  will  be  affected  long  before  this  takes 
place ;  our  bodies,  for  instance,  will  experience  dampness, 
although  the  vapor  of  the  air  is  far  above  tbe  dew-point. 
On  the  other  band,  if  tlic  temperature  bo  far  above  that  of 
the  deposition  of  moisture,  the  air  will  have  a  condition  of 
dryness.  From  these  facts  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
sense  of  dryness  or  diimpness  docs  not  depend  upon  tbc 
absolute  amount  of  aqueous  vnpor  present  in  a  given  quan- 
tity of  air.  If  tbe  ternper.aturc  be  very  low,  although  the 
air  does  not  contain  much  vapor,  yet  this  may  approach 
very  near  to  the  maximum  amount  which  the  space  can 
contain  at  that  temperature,  and  being  near  tbe  point  of 

frccipitation,  it  will  have  the  characteristics  of  wetness, 
f  the  same  mixture  of  air  and  vapor  bo  heated  up  many 
degrees,  the  vapor  will  represent  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  amount  which  con  be  retained  at  the  higher  tempera- 
ture, and  hence  tbc  air  will  feel  very  dry.  In  a  space  sat- 
urated wich  vapor,  water  ceases  to  evaporate;  and  con- 
versely, in  a  space  where  there  is  little  vapor  in  relation  to 
the  temperature,  water  evaporates  rapidly.  Tbc  condition 
of  'Iryness  or  dampness  of  the  air  is  expressed  numerically 
by  the  conception  of  relative  humidity  which  is  the  fraction 
expressing  the  ratio  between  the  tension  {that  is,  elastic 
force)  of  vapor  actually  present  in  the  air  at  a  given  tom- 
per.iture,  and  that  of  the  greatest  amount  of  vapor  which 
it  can  contain  at  that  temperature.  The  amount  repro- 
sonliag  complclc  s:ituration  is  generally  indicated  as  100, 
and  on  this  principle  10,  jO,  ."O,  etJ,  will  denote  that  the 
air  contains  40,  jO,  or  ;10  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  amount 
which  ciu  be  contained  at  that  leinpcraturc. 

We  shall  now  proecod  to  describe  various  instruments 
raadu  use  of  in  hygromctry.  For  determining  the  relative 
dryness  or  dampness  of  tbe  air  various  modes  and  instru- 
ments have  been  employed:  most  of  tbe  latter  in  use  pre- 
vious to  the  expennicnis  of  Mr.  Dalton  would  more  appro- 
priately be  denominated  hygrosjopc-s  than  hygrometers. 
They  consist  principally  of  three  different  classes:  Ist, 
thos:;  composed  of  substances  which  arc  augmented  or  di- 
minished in  weight  by  a  change  in  the  humidity  of  the  air ; 
2d,  those  of  substances  which  increase  or  dimiui.sh  in  vol- 
ume :  and  '.^^,  tbosoo4"  substances  which  twist,  or  untwist  by 
changes  of  moisture.  Of  the  lirst  class  are  sul])buric  acid  ; 
various  deliquescent  salts,  such  as  the  chlorate  of  potassa, 
sulpbatoof  soda,  and  nitrate  and  chlorate  of  lime  ;  sponges, 
paper,  etc.  A  given  weight  of  these  substances  being  sus- 
pended from  one  end  of  the  beam  of  a  balance,  countor- 
jtoised  at  the  other  by  a  weight,  so  that  the  beam  will  bo 
hurizonta)  \vbcn  the  substance  is  in  n  state  of  extreme  dry- 
ness, or,  in  the  ease  of  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  condition  of  a 
given  drgreo  of  density,  by  an  increase  in  the  moisture  of 
the  air  the  weigbtecl  end  ol  the  beam  rises,  and  by  an  inde.K 
imlieates  tbc  change  in  tbc  moisture  of  the  atmosphere. 
All  the  insirunients  of  this  kind  arc  affected  by  tempera- 
ture, ns  well  as  by  the  moisture  of  tbc  air.  Tbc  amount  of 
water  absorbecl  by  sulphuric  acid  is  less  at  a  high  tempera- 
tun*,  and  the  affinity  of  all  substances  for  moisture  varies 
with  the  tempera' ore.  llygrosoopes  of  tbc  second  class, 
those  that  dnpcml  upon  ebange  of  volume  of  bodies,  consist 
chielly  of  hair,  of  threads  of  silk,  of  linen,  of  hemp  cords, 
of  goMlteatcrs'  skin,  of  slips  of  whalebone,  of  ivory,  and 
of  wood.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  is  that  of  the  hy- 
groseopo  of  Saussure,  which  consists  of  a  human  hair  de- 
prived (d"  grease  by  boiling  it  in  a  weak  solution  of  earbon- 
ato  of  soda.  This,  heing.lixccl  at  its  upper  en<i,  is  stretched 
by  a  small  weight  after  passing  round  a  delicate  pulley 
to  which  a  hand  is  attached;  by  an  increase  of  moisture 
the  hair  expands,  tbe  weight  at  Ihc  other  end  descends,  and 
the  pnlU'v  turns,  giving  motion  to  the  hand  or  pointer, 
whi*'h  indicates  the  degree  of  moisture  by  pointing  to  the 
division  on  a  graduated  arc.  This  instrument  is  graduated 
experimentally  by  placing  it  in  air  which  has  been  dried 
by  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterward  in  a  vessel  saturatoil  with 
moisture:  the  extreme  positions  of  the  point(*r  in  these  two 
conditions  Is  divided  into  100  parts  called  degrees.  In 
using  the  instrument  a  correction  must  bo  applied  for 
Vol.  jr.- 68 


temperature,  which  is  also  ascertained  by  direct  experi- 
ment. A  simple  hygroscope  which  will  serve  to  iudieatc  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  humidity  is  furmed  by  a  long  lish- 
ing-line  {previously  boiled  in  a  weak  solution  of  carbonate 
of  soda),  fastened  at  one  end  and  passed  backward  and 
\  forxvard  along  a  corridor  over  pulleys,  with  a  weight  to  keep 
I  it  tense  at  the  farther  end.  By  increase  of  dampness  a 
!  greater  amount  of  water  is  absorbed,  tbc  transverse  diam- 
I  etcr  of  the  cord  is  increased,  its  linear  extent  diminished, 
'  and  tbe  weight  consequently  rises.  A  pointer  ntlaclied  to 
the  weight  indicates  changes  in  tbe  moisture  by  an  arbi- 
trary scale.  An  amusing  hygroscope  of  this  class  can  bo 
constructed  of  two  pieces  of  wood  glued  together,  one  of 
which  is  soft  and  readily  absorbs  moisture.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  rectangle  is  formed  of  one  piece  of  say  (>  or  S  inches 
in  length  and  1*  inches  in  width,  the  longer  axis  of  which 
is  in  the  direction  of  tbc  fibre  of  the  wood;  to  this  is  glued 
another  jiieco  of  tbc  same  dimensions,  of  which  the  fibre  is 
at  riglit  angles  to  the  length.  If  tbe  gluing  has  been  ef- 
fected in  a  dry  condition  of  the  wood,  the  compound  struc- 
ture will  be  straight;  if,  however,  the  air  is  afterwards 
charged  with  vapor,  tbe  wood  will  absorb  moisture  and 
expand  unequally  in  different  directions,  assuming  the 
form  of  a  bow.  if.  now.  into  the  slip  of  wood  having  lon- 
gitudinal tibres  four  stiff  wires,  sharpened  at  tlic  outer  end, 
be  inserted,  so  as  to  resemble  the  legs  of  a  table,  with  the 
excc[)tion  that  each  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of  ;iO*'or  -10°  to 
the  perpendicular,  and  then  the  arrangement  be  placed  on 
a  long  shelf  of  soft  wood,  it  will  travel  in  the  course  of  a 
season  from  ()nc  end  to  tbe  other,  liy  an  increase  of  moist- 
ure the  upper  surface  will  become  convex,  and  the  binder 
feet  will  be  drawn  forward,  while  the  fore  ones,  on  account 
of  the  direction  of  their  action,  remain  fixed;  when  the 
moisture  diminishes,  and  the  wood  resumes  its  straight 
form,  the  fixed  points  will  be  tbc  hind  feet,  the  fore  ones 
being  projected  forward.  In  this  way  a  progressive  mo- 
tion will  be  produced  with  every  variation  of  moisture. 
The  effect  will  be  increased  by  making  tlie  lower  slip  of 
some  hard  wood  and  covering  it  with  varnish,  while  the 
upper  slip  with  transverse  fibres  is  of  soft  wood  and  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  tbc  air.  The  wood  may  be  cut  into 
the  shape  of  an  animal.  An  example  of  the  thiid  class  of  by - 
groscopcs  is  eatgnt,  which  untwists  when  moist  and  twists 
wlicn  dry.  There  is  a  well-known  toy  in  which  there  arc 
two  figures,  a  man  and  a  woman,  sui-pcndcd  by  a  piece  of 
this  substoncc,  and  so  adjusted  that  the  man  comes  out  of 
the  door  when  it  is  damp,  and  the  woman  when  it  is  dry. 

All  these  instruments,  as  we  have  said,  indicate,  riitbcr 
than  measure,  the  hygromctrie  state  of  tlic  air.  We  shall 
now  proceed  to  describe  instruments  by  which  the  state  of 
the  air  with  regard  to  moisture  can  bo  dctcrnjined  with  pre- 
cision ;  and  such  arc  denominated  hygrometers.  The  lirst 
of  these  is  Daniell's  dew-point  hygrometer.  This  instru- 
ment (Fig.  1)  is  composed  of 
two  glass  bulbs;  the  one.  A, 
is  more  than  half  filled  with 
ether,  and  contains  a  deli- 
cate therniouuter,  the  bulb 
of  wiiich  is  plunged  in  the 
liquid.  The  space  above  is 
void  of  air  and  of  everything 
but  tbe  vapor  of  ether.  The 
bulb  IS  is  covered  with  fine 
muslin,  upon  which,  during 
the  experiment,  ether  is  drop- 
ped. Tlio  evaporation  of  this 
produces  intense  cold,  in  eon- 
sequence  of  which  the  ether 
vapor  inside  IJ  is  rapidly  cnu- 
densed,  and  luncc  the  ether 
in  A  ns  rapidly  cvnporales. 
Danieirs  dew-point  hygrome-  Ti,e  evaporation  of  the  elher 
^^■'^*  in  A  cools  the  bulb  until  tbe 

air  surrounding  it  sinks  below 
tbc  dew-point.  Dew  is  theref<ire  deposited  on  tbc  nntsido 
of  A.  which  is  made  of  hbiek  glass,  in  order  that  this  de- 
position may  be  more  readily  observed.  At  tbc  moment 
of  the  deposition  the  tenifierature  is  read  from  tbe  seale  of 
tbe  tlu'rmometer  in  A.  When  the  dew  disappears  as  tbe 
temperature  rises  by  ceasing  to  drop  ether  on  the  bulb  11, 
the  same  thermometer  is  read  again,  and  the  mean  of  the 
two  readings  is  liiken  as  the  temperature  of  tbe  dew-point. 
A  thermometer.  C.  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  column 
which  supports  tbe  instrument,  gives  tbe  lemjierature  of 
the  air  nt  iho  moment  of  observation.  Ity  taking  from  a 
table  the  elastic  force  or  tension  of  vapor  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  tbe  air,  as  given  by  (',  and  also  the  tension  of  vapor 
at  the  temperature  of  the  dew-point,  the  ratio  of  the  two 
numbers,  the  first  being  called  lOt),  will  give  tho  relative 
bumiility.  The  dew-point  may  also  be  (ditninod  approxi- 
mately by  suspending  a  thermometer  in  a  bright  metallic 


Fro.  1. 


1074 


HYKSOS— PIYLID^. 


Regnault's  dew-puiut  hygrometer. 


tumbler  half  full  of  water  at  a  temperature  a  little  above 
tlio  dew-point,  and  gradually  cooling  it  by  pouring  in  ice- 
water  until  dew  begins  to  appear  on  the  surface  of  the 
metal;  at  this  moment  tlic  temperature  of  the  dew-point 
is  indicated  by  that  of  the  immersed  tliennometer.  In 
making  this  experiment  care  must  be  taken  to  stir  the 
water  in  the  tumbler,  and  not  to  suffer  the  moist  breath  to 
f;ill  upon  the  tumbler.  The  objection  to  this  method  is  its 
want  uf  d'jiioacy.  and  the  liability  to  produce  a  local  dew- 
point  by  the  evaporation  of  the  wafer. 

Regnault's  dew-point  hygrometer  is  an  improvement 
u]ion  that  of  Daniell.  It  consists  (Fig.  2)  of  two  tubes  or 
«hort  cylinders,  closed  at 

the  end,  of  polished  silver,  Fig.  2. 

having  glass  tubes  fixed 
to  them.  The  cylinder 
A  is  half  filled  with  ether. 
It  contains  a  thermom- 
eter t',  with  its  bulb 
in  the  ether,  and  also  a 
fine  glass  tube  open  at 
each  end,  the  extremity 
c  being  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  other 
being  plunged  below  the 
ether  in  A.  The  cylinder 
1>  also  contains  a  ther- 
mometer f,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  indicate  the 
temperature  of  the  air. 
There  is  a  communica- 
tion between  the  air  in 
A  and  an  exhausting 
tube  D  E.  To  the  end  E 
of  the  latter  tube  is  at- 
tached an  aspirator — that 
i?,  a  vessel  filled  with  wa- 
ter, which  being  allowed 
to  run  out  through  a  stop- 
cock near  the  bottom,  an 
Cfpial  (piantity  of  air  takes 
it>:  place,  which,  entering 
at  0  and  bubbling  up 
through  the  ether,  causes  the  latter  rapidly  to  evaporate, 
and  a  diminution  of  temperature  is  thus  produced  until  at 
length  dew  is  deposited  on  the  polished  silver  of  A;  and 
if  the  temperature  of  t'  be  immediately  noticed,  the  dew- 
point  may  be  obtained  with  great  exactness,  since  the  agi- 
tation of  the  other  renders  it  certain  that  the  temperature 
uf  this  thermometer  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the 
polished  silver,  while  the  thermometer  (  gives  the  undis- 
turbed temperature  of  the  air.  Although  observations  with 
this  instrument  give  the  clastic  force  of  vapor  of  the  air 
with  great  precision,  yet  it  is  not  as  convenient  to  use  as 
could  be  desired  for  the 
daily  registration  of  the 
liygrometric  condition 
of  tho  air  by  ordinary 
observers.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty  the  wet 
and  dry  bulb  hygrom- 
eter has  been  invented. 
It  was  devised  by  Ma- 
son, and  consists  of  two 
thermometers,  of  the 
same  size  of  bulb  and 
bore,  placed  alongside  of 
each  itther  (Kig.  -J)*  "no 
having  a  naked  dry 
bulb,  and  the  other  a 
bulb  covered  with  fine 
muslin,  moistened  at  the 
time  of  observation,  or 
kept  continually  moist 
by  the  ascent  of  water 
in  a  cotton  wick,  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 
Owing  to  the  evapora- 
tion from  the  covered 
bulb,  its  temperature  will 
bo  generally  below  that 
of  the  naked  bulb,  and 
this  difTcrenco  will  be 
greater  when  tho  air  i> 
very  dry.  When  it  \> 
wet,  or  near  the  dew- 
point,  the  evaporation 
will  be  very  slow,  and 
the  two  thermometers 
will  indicate  nearly  tho 
same  temperature.     It  has  been  objected  to  this  instru- 


Fig. 


Mason's  wet  and  dry  bulb  hygrom- 
eter. 


ment  that  the  evaporation  is  greater  when  there  is  a  cur- 
rent of  air,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  same  cur- 
rent tends  to  elevate  the  temperature  of  the  covered  bulb  in 
nearly  the  same  proportion.  By  compiiring  the  indications 
of  this  instrument  with  that  of  the  Uegnault  hygrometer,  a 
table  may  be  formed  experimentally  by  whieh  the  dew- 
point  and  elastic  tension  of  the  air  can  be  determined  at 
once  by  inspection.  l>r.  Apjohn  of  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, who  has  given  much  attention  to  this  subject,  has  ob- 

d      h 
tained  the  following  formulas:  f  =f—^  ^.»7'  '"^  which/ 

denotes  the  maximum  elasticity  or  tension  of  vapor  corre- 
sponding to  the  temperature  of  the  wet-bulb  thermometer; 
r  the  elasticity  of  vapor  present  in  the  air  which  we  de- 
sire to  find  ;  d  denotes  the  difference  in  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit's scale  between  the  two  thermometers  ;  and  /*  the  height 
of  the  barometer  when  accuracy  is  required.  This  formula 
is  for  temperatures  above  32°.    For  temperatures  below  this 

d      h 
point  the  formula  ^^ /=/— r^X^T-     Having  found /.  or 

the  elasticity  or  tension  of  vapor  present  in  the  air,  wo  have 
only  to  look  in  our  table  for  the  temperature  of  saturated 
vapor  /",  which  gives  the  dew-point.  A  series  of  tables  for 
facilitating  tho  process  of  obtaining  the  relative  humidity 
by  moans  of  tho  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers,  as  well 
as  by  the  dew-point  instrument,  have  been  constructed  for 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  Prof.  Guyot  of  Princeton 
College,  which  are  now  in  general  use  in  this  country  and 
in  various  parts  of  Europe.  Joseph  Henuy. 

Hyk'sos,  or  Hykshos  ("shepherd  kings"),  the  name 
given  by  Manctho  to  the  kings  of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth, 
and  seventeenth  dynasties  in  Egypt.  Their  capital  was 
Tanis  in  the  Delta,  the  "  Zoan  '*  of  the  Old  Testament,  now 
called  Sdn.  Important  discoveries  recently  made  there  by 
Mariette  throw  much  light  upon  this  very  obscure  portion 
of  Egyptian  history.  The  Hyksos  were  not,  as  some  have 
supposed,  the  Hebrews,  but  probably  a  collection  of  the 
nomadic  hordes  of  Arabia  and  Syria,  mostly  Canaanitcs. 
They  were  not  mere  savage  conquerors,  but  adopted  Egyp- 
tian'manners  and  customs  and  worshipped  Egyptian  gods. 
Thev  held  the  country  for  about  000  years — according  to 
Mariette,  from  about  2200  b.  c.  to  about  1700  B.  c. ;  Poole 
and  Wilkinson  sjiy  from  about  2000  to  about  1600  b.  c.  Tho 
present  inhabitants  of  SUn  and  tho  shores  of  Lake  Men- 
zaleh  have  exactly  the  same  Semitic  cast  of  features  as  com- 
pared with  the  regular  Egyptian  type.     II.  D.  Hitchcock. 

Hylirosau'rus  [Gr.  vX-q,  a  "forest,"  and  <javpo%y  a 
"lizard"],  a  large  extinct  reptile  fmni  the  Wealden  of 
England,  belonging  to  the  order  Dinosauria.  It  was  de- 
scribed by  Mantel!  in  1832.  Tho  teeth  are  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  tho  animal,  close  together,  and  set  in 
sockets,  with  a  subcylindrieal  fang  and  a  somewhat  com- 
pressed, expanded,  and  incurved  crown,  having  the  bor- 
ders of  tho  apical  half  straight  and  converging  to  a  blunt 
apex,  but  not  serrate,  and  indicating,  according  to  Owen,  a 
mixed  or  vegetable  diet  rather  than  a  carnivorous  one. 
The  skin  appear?  to  have  been  defended  by  suhcircular 
bony  scales,  and  largo  bony  spines  indicate  the  existence 
of  a  strong  crest  along  the  back.  Tho  length  of  this  ani- 
mal may  have  boon  twenty-five  feet,  and  the  i)artieulars 
of  its  structure,  so  far  as  known,  correspond  with  those  of 
other  Dinosauria,  for  which  sec  article  on  IlAnitosAunus. 

0.  C.  Marsh. 

Ily'lidir  [from  If i/l a,  the  ancient  name  of  the  "tree- 
frog  "j.  a  family  of  biitraehians  of  tho  order  Salientia  or 
Anura.  with  the  vertebra?  proco.dian  ;  the  sacral  diiipophyses 
dilated  at  their  extremities;  the  coccyx  articulated  by  con- 
dyles:  the  external  metacarpals  bound  together ;  the  ter- 
minal phalanges  .articulated  below  to  the  extremity  of  the 
penultimate,  swollen  at  the  base,  and  with  slender  curved 
and  claw-like  ends;  fronto-parictal  bones  shortened  an- 
teriorlv,  and  usually  embracing  a  fontanelle  ;  superior  plate 
of  ethmoid  never  covered  by  fronto-parietals,  and  usually 
produced  anteriorly  between  the  fronto-nasals.  The  family, 
with  the  limits  thus  given,  embraces  the  ordinary  tree-fmgs 
of  America  and  forms  related  in  structure  inhabiting  other 
parts  of  the  world.  It  has  been  thus  limited  by  Prof.  Cope, 
independently  of  adaptation  to  arboreal  life,  and  solely  with 
reference  to  the  agreement  of  its  members  in  the  particu- 
lars of  structure  implied  in  the  definition.  Atm<tst  all  the 
species  of  the  family,  however,  are  arboreal,  living  among 
the  branches  of  trees.  Some  of  them,  at  least,  undergo 
their  development  out  of  water,  and  come  out  from  the  egg 
with  tho  form  of  the  adult,  the  tadpole  stage  being  very 
transitory,  or  suppressed  and  limited  to  intraov.al  life. 
Tho  toes  arc  dilated  at  the  extremities  into  round  pcllct- 
like  extensions  which  act  as  suckers.  Prof.  Cope  lias  re- 
cognized 17  genera  and  \?>2  species  with  the  characters  as- 
signed to  the  family.    These  are  distributed  in  the  northern 


IIYU)HATIN.E— HYMEXOPTERA. 


1075 


hcraisphero,  as  well  as  in  Sonth  America  and  Australia,  bat 
none  are  found  in  Africa,  The  types  of  structure,  however, 
are  distributed  in  a  very  unequal  manner:  thus,  of  the 
known  species,  more  than  half  uelong  to  the  genus  Hyln^ 
and  most  of  these  are  Pouth  American,  a  number,  however, 
being  found  in  Australia  and  North  America.  Of  the  other 
generic  types,  13  arc  peculiar  to  tropical  America,  and  (ex- 
cept TrachifrrphfiluM)  have  only  one  to  three  species  each, 
while  Australia  has  only  a  single  peculiar  and  monotypic 
genus  {Hnnoiflea),  in  addition  to  its  ffi/ffr.  Two  genera 
(Arrt'n,  with  one  species,  and  Chorophiius,  with  fivel  are  pe- 
culiar to  North  America,  and  twelve  species  of  Hf/la  are 
also  inhabitants  thereof.  (See  Cope,  Trans.  Acad.  Nnt.  Sc. 
Philn.,  n.  ^..  vi.  S3-SS,  etc.)  Theodore  Gill. 

Hy  lobat'insc  [Gr.  uAtj,  "  wood,"  and  ^aivttv,  to  "  walk  "], 
a  sub-family  of  apes  (embracing  the  long-armed  gibbons), 
and  contrasting  with  the  group  Simiinac  (including  the 
gorilla  and  chimpanzee),  and  distinguished  from  them  by 
the  slender  form;  the  ilia)  of  the  pelvis  notalate;  the  cere- 
brum scarcely  or  not  at  all  projecting  backward  over  the 
cerebellum:  the  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  with  no  oblique 
rid:;e:  and  the  buttocks  provided  with  eallti:iities.  The 
gibbons  thus  form  an  intermediate  link  between  the  large 
apes  and  the  typical  monkeys  of  the  Old  World,  although 
they  are  most  nearly  related  to  the  apes.  They  live  chiefly 
among  the  trees,  swinging  to  and  fro  with  their  very  long 
arms.  They  delight  in  fruit.  When  walking  they  gener- 
ally apply  their  knuckles  to  the  ground,  and  yet  stoop  but 
little,  but  sometimes  walk  erect  with  their  long  arms  thrown 
upward  and  used  as  balancing-poles.  To  this  group  belong 
two  genera,  Siamamja  .and  Ift/lobntcfi.      Theodore  (Jill. 

Hy'men  [Gr.  'Yttrjv  or 'YM<Vato?].  the  Greek  god  of  mar- 
riage, perhaps  a  personification  of  the  nuptial  song,  called 
also  Ai/nicn,  and  probably  related  etymologically  to  hifmn. 
The  mythus  of  Hymen  varies  greatly.  He  is  represented 
as  a  comely  youth  bearing  the  bridal  torch. 

Hymenop'tera.  This  extensive  and  interesting  group 
of  insects  comprises  the  bees,  paper,  wood  and  sand  wasps, 
ants,  ichneumon-flies,  gall-flies,  and  saw-flies.  There  are 
estimated  to  be  2.'»,000  specie?,  of  which  perhaps  oOOO  spe- 
cies inhabit  the  U.  S..  the  number  of  ichneumon-flies  and 
their  allies  carrying  the  number  up.  Their  range  is  not 
confined  to  the  tropics  and  temperate  zone  alone,  but  a  few 
species  occur  near  the  North  Pole,  a  humble-bee  and  sev- 
eral species  of  ichneumon-flies  having  been  found  in  Po- 
laris Hay,  the  northernmost  point  yet  reached.  Their  geo- 
logical range  is  not  great,  the  earliest  species  known  occur- 
ring in  the  Jurassic  formation,  while  other  well-developed 
insects  (Neuroptcra)  have  been  found  as  low  down  as  the 
Devonian  formation. 

The  llymenoptera  fso  called  from  vfi^v,  a  "  membrane." 
and  irTfpdi-.  a  'Mving")  are  usually  characterized  by  the 
four  membranous,  naked  wings,  with  a  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  veins,  the  hinder  pair  being  much  smaller  than 
the  others;  by  the  large  head:  the  complication  of  the 
mouth-parts,  the  jaws  being  adapted  for  biting  as  well  as 
seizing  prey,  while  the  maxillie  and  labium  are  much  elon- 
gatccl  and  adapted  for  lapping  the  sweets  of  flowers:  the 
ligula.  or  so-called  tongue,  which  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
labium  or  under  lip,  sometimes  attaining  a  great  length; 
by  the  presence  of  a  well-developed  ovipositor — in  the  ants, 
wasps,  and  bees  modificil  to  form  a  sting.  The  more  im- 
portant character  separating  the  llymenoptera  from  other 
insects  is  the  fact  that  in  all  except  the  saw-flies  the  thorax 
consists  of  four  rings,  the  fourth  being  the  basal  ring  of 
the  abdomen,  which  in  tho  course  of  the  trunsformations 
of  tho  bee  or  wasp  i«  thrown  for\vard  on  to  the  thorax  or 
middle  region  of  the  body.  This  indicates  a  transfer  of 
foree  headward,  an  atlrairnblc  Instance  of  the  law  of  eepha- 
lization  discovered  by  Prof.  Dana.  For  these  and  other 
anatomical  features,  their  social  instincts,  the  differentia- 
tion of  the  sexes  in  certain  grouj)8,  and  their  complete 
transformations,  the  Hymenoptora  stand  at  tho  head  of  the 
insect  series.  The  young,  or  larva',  are  white,  soft,  fleshy, 
and  worm-like,  without  feet,  except  in  the  young  of  the 
saw-flies,  which  closely  resemble  caterpillars.  All  except 
the  liitter  arc  fed  by  the  parent^  either  directly  or  from 
stores  of  honey  and  pollen  or  animal  food  laid  up  before 
Ihi'ir  birth  by  their  parents.  The  pupa  is  inactive,  closely 
resembling  the  adult,  and  protected  by  a  thin  silken  co- 
coon, except  in  the  saw-flies,  which  approach  the  Lcpi- 
doptera  in  spinning  a  dense  cocoon,  as  well  as  in  the  oatcr- 
pillar-like  form  of  tin*  larvce. 

The  anatomy  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  very  complicated, 
iin^l  greatly  modified  in  accordance  with  the  varying  hab- 
its of  the  diflferent  species.  They  have  a  sucking  stomach 
opening  into  the  long  «esoph»t;us.  Tho  salivary  glands 
consist  of  two  short  ramified  tufis,  often  contained  entirely 
in  the  head.  The  honey  is  formed,  by  some  chemical  change 
as  jet  unknown,  from  the  food  contained  in  tbo  crop^  which 


is  regurgitated  into  the  honey-cellp.  A  charaot eristic  of 
those  species  provided  with  a  sting  is  the  two  large  poison- 
glands  situated  in  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  poison  se- 
creted in  them  is  discharged  into  a  pear-shaped  sac  lodged 
near  the  base  of  the  sting,  which  is  provided  with  a  pecu- 
liar muscular  apparatus  for  its  sudden  extension  and  with- 
drawal. The  poison  has  as  a  base  formic  acid,  which  im- 
parts the  poisonous  properties  to  the  secretion.  The  sting 
may  be  seen  in  a  rudimentary  condition  under  the  infegu 
raent  of  tho  larva.  At  that  period  it  consists  of  three  pairs 
of  simple  appendages  or  buds,  which,  by  their  increase  in 
length  and  by  changes  in  the  form  of  the  segments  at  the 
end  of  the  body  towards  the  close  of  the  pupa  state,  form 
the  sting.  Just  previous  to  this  period  the  three  pairs  of 
long  blades  may  be  separated,  the  two  outer  pairs  ensheath- 
ing  the  inner,  which  are  barbed,  and  constitute  the  sting 
proper. 

Another  feature  of  much  interest  in  the  bees  is  their  power 
of  secreting  wax.  This  is  accomplished  by  special  mi- 
nute one-celled  glands  lodged  just  under  the  skin,  opening 
externally  by  pores  connecting  with  a  fine  chitinous  tube 
in  the  integument.  In  Uic  honey-bee  these  pores  and 
glands  are  situated  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen.  In 
the  stingless  bees  (Trirfoua)  the  wax  is  secreted  on  the  up- 
per side.  The  jaws  of  the  bees  and  wasps  are  rounded  at 
the  extremity,  with  slightly  marked  teeth.  This  form  is 
of  use  in  the  honey  ant!  jiollen  gathering  bees,  while  in 
those  species  which  build  clay  nests  they  arc  used  as  trow- 
els. In  the  carnivorous  wasps,  such  as  the  Sphex  and 
Pompxlns,  the  jaws  are  sharp  and  hooked,  adapted  for  seiz- 
ing and  retaining  large  insects.  The  legs  are  also  exposed 
to  much  variation  In  the  different  genera.  For  example, 
in  the  hind  legs  in  the  pollen-gathering  bees,  such  as  the 
honey  and  humble-bee,  the  tibia  or  shank  is  very  broad 
and  hollo^Tcd  out  on  the  outer  side,  while  stiff  bristles  pro- 
ject over  the  depression  from  each  side,  forming  the  honey- 
basket  [corbiruium)  In  which  the  masses  of  honey  and  pol- 
len are  piled  up.  The  mode  in  which  the  bee  collects  tho 
pollen  is  very  curious.  She  gathers  it  from  the  flowers 
with  her  mandible,  from  which  it  is  removed  by  the  an- 
terior pair  of  legs.  From  there  it  is  passed  to  the  inter- 
mediate pair  of  legs  by  manifold  scrapings  and  twistings 
of  the  limbs,  whence  it  is  by  similar  manteuvres  deposited 
on  the  hind  legs.  (Shuckard.)  In  the  fossorial  species,  on 
the  contrary,  the  legs  are  slender,  but  very  hairy.  The 
sand-wa?p,  or  Sphcr,  for  examjde,  by  tho  aid  of  its  large 
sicklc-likc  mandibles,  which  are  of  use  in  removing  small 
stones  and  gravel,  digs  a  hole  from  four  to  six  inches  deep 
in  half  an  hour.  The  hairy  legs  are  used  much  as  a  dog 
docs  its  paws,  and  with  perhaps  nearly  equal  intelligence. 
Tho  carpenter-bee  and  wood-wasp  by  means  of  their  power- 
ful jaws  tunnel  regular  holes  several  inches  deep  in  solid 
wood,  the  stems  of  plants  and  shrubs,  or  the  trunks  of 
trees.  The  complicated,  many-chambered  nests  of  the  ants 
are  familiar  objects.  Indeed,  there  are  no  insects  which 
in  their  structure  are  more  highly  difTerentiatcd  than  the 
various  genera  of  Hymenoptera.  and  we  find  in  them  an 
intelligence  and  power  of  adaptation  to  new  and  unfore- 
seen circumstances  which  evince  something  more  than 
"blind  instinct,"  in  fact,  a  reason  perhaps  not  inferior  to 
that  shown  by  many  of  the  vertebrate  animals,  and  dilTer- 
ing  but  in  degree  from  that  of  man. 

Not  only  is  tho  individual  structure  of  the  Hymenoptera 
highly  complicated,  but  in  certain  genera  of  bees,  wasps, 
and  ants  there  is  a  difl"erentiation  of  tho  individual  into 
three  instead  of  two  sexual  forms — i.  e.  males,  females,  ami 
workers  (wrongly  called  neuters),  the  latter  being  sexually 
undeveloped  females.  In  the  bees  and  wasps  the  workers 
difi"er  from  the  queen  in  having  undeveloped  ovaries  and 
incomplete  a<*cessory  organs,  but  difl"er  externally  only  in 
size,  being  a  little  smaller  than  tho  females.  In  the  ants, 
however,  while  the  workers  are  much  smaller,  they  arc  also 
wingless,  and  differ  in  the  proportions  of  the  body. 

The  honey-bees  and  certain  wnsps  and  gall-flies  lay  eggs 
which  produce  young  without  being  fertilized  by  the  male. 
Von  Siebold  discovercl  that  only  tho  queens'  and  workers' 
eggs  are  fertilized  by  the  spermtitozoa  stored  in  the  rcrrp- 
tac.ulum  acntinin  of  the  female.  These  she  can  fertilize  ut 
will  (the  only  animal  known  to  possess  this  power  of  pro- 
ducing either  sex  at  pleasure),  and  retains  the  power  for  a 
period  of  five  years,  as  tho  muscles  guarding  the  duct  lead- 
ing from  tho  sporm-bag  are  supplied  with  a  nerve,  being 
thus  rendered  voluntary  and  subject  to  her  will.  When  she 
wishes  to  lay  an  egg  lo  produce  a  drone,  the  egg  is  allowed 
to  slip  out  of  the  oviduct  past  the  orifice  of  (lie  reccplacu- 
lum  seminis,  kept  closed  by  the  voluntary  muscle.  Drone 
eggs  are  also  laid  by  unfertilized  queen-bees,  and  in  somo 
cases  even  by  worker-bees.  It  is  well  known  that  bees 
when  deprived  of  their  queen  select  several  worker  eggs  or 
very  young  larva;  for  the  purpose  of  rearing  queens.  "  The 
colls  in  which  these  oggs  arc  situated  arc  lengthened  out 


1076 


IIYMliTTUS-lIY-MNOLOGY. 


and  the  end  turned  downward."   Whether,  as  Lcitch  (from 
whom   wc  have  quoted)  thinks,  the  development  into  a 
queen  is  caused  hy  the  increased  temperature  of  the  queen- 
cell   or    as  Iluber  previously  thought,  by  being  fed  with 
different  food  (the  royal  paste  or  jelly),  is  not  entirely  set- 
tled     Probably  both  causes—/,  c.  a   higher  temperature 
and  richer  food— taken  together,  arc  sufficient  to  produce 
an  increased  development  of  the  young  and  an  acceleration 
in  the  development  of  the  ovaries.     We  know  that  the  vir- 
gin reproduction  of  the  Apln^  is  terminated  on  the  approach 
of  cold  weather,  an.I  that  differences  in   temperature  and  ^ 
the  density  of  the  saline  lakes  in  which  the  Artemtu,  a. 
crustaceous  animal,  lives,  causes  it  to  develop  either  by 
layin"  eggs  in  the  normal  way  or  to  reproduce  partheno- 
geneticallv.     Von  Siebold   has   .also   ascertained  that   the 
common  European  Polhic,  Gallicn  reproduces  partheno- 
gencticallv.  the  workers  laying  eggs  without  intercourse 
with  the  'males.     The  Cynipides,  or  gall-flies,  have  long 
been  supposed  to  reproduce  in  this  manner,  but  it  has  re- 
cently been  proved  to  be  the  case  by  an  .American  entomol- 
ogist' Mr  Walsh.     He  ascertained  that  a  species  of  Ci/iitps 
in  Illinois  in  the  autumn   is  represented  by  females  alone. 
The«c  lay  e<"'S.  and  the  spring  brood  consists  of  males  and 
females.     HTprovcd  this  by  colonizing  certain  trees  with 
a  number  of  individuals  of  Cj/»!ps  (p,ercm-nc,c,ilnta,  and 
finding  the  next  spring  that  the  eggs  Laid  hy  them  pro- 
duced C.  qnercus-ipom/jirn.     The  autumn  brood  ol   Cu^nps 
consists  entirely  of  agamous  females,  while  the  vernal  brood 
consists  of  both  males  and  females;  and  -Mr.  \\  alsh  de- 
clares, after  several  experiments,  that  "the  agamous  au- 
tumnal female  form  of  this  Cipiips  (C.  q.  aclculal,,)  sooner 
or  later  reproduces  the  bi.se.xual  vernal  form,  and  is  thus 
"  a  mere  dimorphous  female  form  "  of  Cipilp"  '}■  spoMjifica. 
Mr   H   F.  Bassett  states  in  confirmation  that  in  Connecti- 
cut Cnunt  qi<erc«,-operalor  is  double  brooded  ;   thirty  of 
one  brood  of  females  ovipositing  in  the  buds  of  Q,iercus 
illc!f"lia.  while  some  of  a  second  brood  oviposited  m  the 
voun.r  acorns  of  the  same  species  of  oak.     From  these  and 
'other" facts  he  infers  "that  all  our  species  that  are  found 
only  in  the  female  sex  are  represented  in  another  gener.a- 
tion  bv  both  sexes,  and  that  the  two  broods  are,  owing  to 
seasonal  differences,  produced  from  galls  that  are  entirely 
distinct  from  each  other."     Here  again,  we  find  tempera- 
ture the  main  active  agent  in  inducing  an  abnormal  mode 
of  generation,  the  eggs  laid  by  the  fertilized  female  in  the 
heat  of  summer  producing  agamous  females. 

With  the  exception  of  the  white  ants,  which  belong  to 
the  Neuroptcra,  the  Hvmenoptera  is  the  only  group  of  in- 
sects affording  species  which  are  truly  social  .and  live  in 
colonies.     In  the  social  species  there  are  almost  invariably 
three  sexual  forms,  the  workers  forming  the  large  majority 
and   doing  most  of  the  work  of  the  colony.     They  even 
assist  largely  in  rearing  the  young,  the  males  and  females 
not  usuallv  laving  up  food  or  providing  for  their  offspring. 
This  division  of  labor  is  carried  on  unequally  in  the  ditlcr- 
ent  species,  and  is  best  marked  in   the  honey-bee,  whose 
colony  contains  but  one  female,  the  queen.     In  tho  colonics 
of  tho  ants  there  are  numerous  males  and  females,  and  in 
s.,me  genera  (/'/.'•.■.;"^-,  &■'>"")  two  sorts  of  workers— one 
with  a  lar-'e  head,  called  a  worker  major  or  soldier,  and  the 
usual  form  or  worker  minor.     In  the  honey-ant  of  Texas 
and  Mexico,  while  the  normal  workers  are  of   the  usual 
shape  and  perform  the  active  duties  of  tho  form.carmm  or 
nest     the  lar^e   worker  is  inactive  and  does  not  quit  the 
nest    but  lies  almost  immovable  in  its  gallery,  and  elabo- 
rates a  kind  of  honey  in  its  abdomen,  which  swells  up  as 
lir"-e  as  a  pea.     Certain  ants  also  enslave  other  species, 
makin.'  them  do  the  work  of  the  colony.     They  also  herd 
ai.hidM  in  their  underground  nests,  and  entertain  as  per- 
,,'ancnt  visitors  certain  beetles,  thus  adding  much  to  their 
labors  and  to  the  complexity  of  their  social  life. 

The  following  synopsis  presents  briefly  the  characters  of 
the  more  important  families  of  Hymcnoptera,  beginning 
with  the  lowest : 

1.  Body   short,  abdomen  sessile,  and  provided  with  an 

ovipositor   forming  a   saw:    larvae  caterpillarOike, 
with  9-11  pairs  of  legs:    Tenthredinidx  (saw-tlies). 

2.  Like  saw-flies,  but  tho  body  longer;   larva  with  six 

thoracic  legs,  and  abdomen  ending  in  a  horn  :    Uro- 
ccri'rfir  (horn-tails). 

3.  Minute,  with  a  short  compressed  abdomen,  and  a  slender 

long  ovipositor  :    ('viii/jiV/h- (gall-flics). 

4.  Body  slender,  with  a  long  prominent  ovipositor:  Ich- 

neumonifirr  (ichneumon-flies). 

5.  Body  usuallv  short  and  small,  ovipositor  short,  incon- 

spicuous;'  antenna-  elbowed;  wings  with  one  vein, 
with  metallic  colors  :  Clialcidiila-  (ichneumon-flies). 

6.  Minute ;  wings  with  one  or  no  veins :    Prnctotrt/ptdx 

(egg-parasites). 

7.  Body  oblong  ;  skin  very  dense,  with  a  powerful  sting : 

Chi-yaididx  (cuckoo-flies). 


IG 


18. 


8.  Body  slender;  antenna)  elbowed;  wingless  workers: 
Formicidx  (ants). 

9.  Ant-like;  body  very  hairy,  with  a  powerful  sting: 
MatHlidiT. 

10.  Body  hirsute,  with  short,  hairy,  spiny  legs;  eyes  often 
lunate ;  species  ofccn  of  large  size  and  gayly  colored : 

Sf:iiliidx. 

11.  Antenna;  long;  body  compressed;  color  usually  blue: 
I'ompilidir  (sand-wasps). 

12.  Like  the  Pompilidic,  but  the  body  not  compressed, 
and  abdomen  petiolated :  SphajidK  (sand  and  mud 
wasps). 

13.  Somewhat  like  the  Sphegidae,  but  with  the  abdomen 
sessile  and  oval,  conical :  Lnirld.f. 

U.  He.adlarge,body  flattened,  highly  colored:  Bembccidir. 
la!  Body  with  a  loiig,  club-shaped,  or  a  conical  sessile  ab- 
domen;  antenn;e  clavate :  Ai/'inuidir. 
Head  large,  cubical;  fore  legs  of  males  variously  modi- 
fied in  form;   body  high  colored,  like   the  wasps; 
tongue  short  :    Crnhmindir  (wood-wasps). 
Males,  females,  and  workers;  fore  wings  folded  once 

longitudinally  :    Veipid.r  (paper-wasps). 
Males,  females,  workers ;  social  in  the  higher  genera. 
Body  usually  hirsute ;  tongue  long ;  living  in  nests 
or  underground  tunnels  :  Apidiv  (bees). 

A.  S.  Fackakd,  Jn. 
Hvitiet'tus,  a  mountain-ridge  of  Greece,  4J  miles  S.  E. 
of  Athens,  2i;Sll  feet  high.     The  honey  collected  here  has 
been  famous  from  remote  antiquity  to  the  present  time  for 
its  exquisite  flavor. 

Hymnol'ogy  [Gr.  vmw,  a  "festive  song"  or  "ode," 
and  Aoyos.  "  discourse  "],  the  science  of  sacred  lyrical  poetry. 
A  hymn,  according  to  St.  Augustine,  "  must  be  praise  to  (Jod 
in  the  form  of  song."     By  the  looser  definition  which  pre- 
vails now,  it  is  a  lyric  expressive  of  religious  feeling,  or 
celebrating,  howeve'r  indirectly,  the  object  of  worship.  The 
Greek  pai?an  hvmns  were  in  honor  of  gods  and  heroes,  and 
were  usually  sung  at  their  festivals.  (See  a  fine  example, 
translated,  i'n  Mr.  Pai.crave's  Lyricnl  Poem«,  p.  2o8.)     A 
parallel  may  be  traced  between  these  and  the  Christian 
hymns  for  saints'  days,  etc.  The  more  ancient  Greek  hymns, 
as  Homer's,  aie  chiefly  descriptive,  and  are  considered  epic  ; 
the  later  ones,  as  of  Callimachus  and   Pindar,  lyric.     In 
most  of  these,  to  a  modern  mind,  the  devotional  and  cthi- 
cal   elements    arc    wanting;    not,    however,  in    Cleanthes' 
•'Hymn  to  Zeus."  and  in  the  noble  (unmetrical)   outburst 
of  Epictetus,  ■'  Of  Providence."  end  of  chap,  xvi.,  B.  1.  The 
Oriental  sacred  books,  especially  the  Vcdas,  contain  many 
hymns,  which  have  received  no  little  attention  of  late.     Of 
ail  the  sacred  poems  of  antiquity,  the  Jewish  Psalms  of 
course  are  the  most  familiar  and  most  precious.    They  have 
become  practically  incorporated  with  Christian  hymnody, 
and  their  influence  has  been  great  on  all  its  developments. 
Christian    hvmnody  is  coeval  with    Christianity;    from 
the  Christmas  song  oi'  angels  the  lyrical  element  had  large 
place  among  the  belongings  of  the  new  religion.     Every 
language  in  which  the  gospel  was  proclaimed  had  probably 
very  soon  its  own  supjdy  of  sacred  verse.     The  "  Tersane- 
tus"  the  "Gloria  in   Exeelsis,"  and  the  "Te  Deum  "  are 
of  early  though  unknown   date.      The  Syriac  hymns   of 
Ephrem    (d.   381)    have   been    translated.  (For   primitive 
Greek  hymns  in  an  English  dress  see  The  Voice  <•/  Chrh- 
li,ii,  Life   111  .N'oiif/.)     Clemens  Alexandrinus   and  Gregory 
Naziaiizen  arc  the  earliest  Christian  bymnists  or  hymn- 
writers  known.    In  later  times  Analnlius.  Andrew  of  Crete, 
John    Damascene,   Cosmas,  Stephen  the  Sabaite.  Theodore 
and  Joseph  of  the  Studium.  Methodius.  Tbeoctistus.  Met- 
rophanes,  and  others  sup|died  the  wants  of  Greek  worship 
till  the  tenth  century.  Some  of  their  productions  are  ex- 
quisitely translated  in  Dn.  Xeale'.s  ////m..«  oj  the  Easlcn, 
Church.  (See  al-so  Mrs.  Biiowsixc'.s  tfceft-  CJirlsliau  P„ei,.) 
The  seed  of  religious  song  was  soon  carried  into  Latin 
soil   where  it  bore  yet  more  abundant  though  hardly  richer 
fruit    (See  Dr.  Ne'ai.e's  paper  on  "Sacred  Latin  Poetry," 
J?i,ci;e/.   Mcirop..  vol.  "Roman    Literature.")     The   great 
name  here  is  Ambrose  (d.  397);  he  founded  a  school  of 
hvmn-wrilers,   and    had   many    now    forgotten    imitators, 
whose  work  is  often  indistinguishable  from  his  own.     The 
Ambrosian  hymns  are  marked  by  a  severe  simplicity,  which 
to  readers  unfamiliar  with  them  may  seem  hard  and  dry. 
After  him  came  Prudentius  (d.  about  413),  Venantius  For- 
tunatus  (d.  609),  Gregory  (d.  004).  Bede  (d.  73a).  Ihco- 
dulph  (d.  S21),Rabanus  Maurus.  Godeschcalcus.nnd  many 
others.     By  degrees   these  mcdiseval   bymnists  assume  a 
more  ornate  style  and  a  more  passionate  devotion.  St.  Ber- 
nard (d.  llo3)'and  his  namesake,  the  monk  of  Cluny,  have 
given  us  glowing  strains,  than  which  none  are  more  pre- 
cious to   English   and  American  worshippers   of  our  day. 
Peter  Damiaoi  (d.  1072),  Hildebert  (d.  1133).  Hildegarde 
(d.  1179).  Adam  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1192).  and  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas (d.  1274)  were  also  no  mean  poets.    Some  of  the  world  s 


IIYNKS— 11Y0P0TAMID.E. 


10 


i  i 


most  famous  hymns,  produced  at  this  period,  are  of  doubt- 
ful ori<;in  or  by  authoris  who  arc  known  by  a  single  piece; 
thus,  iMiiinent  far  (jrnndeur,  "  Vcui  Creator  Spiritus  "  uud 
'•  l>ics  Ir;i'  "  (by  Thomas  a  Cchinol.  and  for  lnvclincss  or 
pathos,  **  Vcni  Sancte  .Spiritus"  (Kobert  IF.  of  France). 
**Stabat  Mater"  (by  Jacopone),  and  "0  Dcus,  Ego  aino 
Te,"  questionably  ascribed  to  Xavier.  One  or  two  moJorns 
have  written  good  Latin  hymns, as  the  biothcrs  Satitolius 
Maglorianas  and  Viclorinus  (d.  lt)S4,  IGUT),  and  Clnirles 
Cotfin  {\\.  KlU).  For  this  department  of  literature  see  the 
Roman  and  Parisian  lirrviaricn  and  Daniki/s  ThrHUHrwi ; 
anil  lor  translations,  the  works  of  Newman,  ClianiUer.  Mant, 
Isaac  Williams,  Caswall,  Copeland,  Campbell,  Blew,  Neale, 
Chambers,  Kynaston. 

With  the  Ueformalion  came  a  new  birth  of  lyric  fervor, 
and  great  waves  of  saercd  song  in  the  vernacular  rolled 
over  the  Protestantizing  lands.  Clement  Marot  rendered 
the  Psalms  into  French  metre,  and  Calvin  himself  wrote  a 
hymn  or  two.  But  the  effect  was  naturally  greatest  in  Ger- 
niany,  where  arose  by  degrees  what  is  probably  the  largest, 
and  claimed  by  many  to  be  the  finest,  body  of  hymns  in 
any  language.  (For  this  subject  see  Miss  WiNKWORTn's 
Vhriitimi  Snujcrs  o/  fjermniii/ &nd  Mu.  KlfBLnn's  Historical 
Xot'-H  to  the  Li/rtt  (tcrnifinicft,  an<l  especially  Ivocii's  (ic- 
Hchiffile  (IcH  DentHchfii  Kirrhenllcd'i.  '.U\  cd.  7  vols.)  Lutlicr 
led  the  van,  and  was  closely  followed  by  Hans  S:ichs,  Paul 
Eber,  M.  Weiss  and  other  *'  Bohemian  Brethren,"  N.  Her- 
mann. Sclnecker,  Nicolai,  etc.  We  can  mention  but  a  few 
names  of  the  following  centuries,  in  chronological  order: 
Stegmann,  Meyfart,  John  Heermann,  Kinkart,  Risf,  (Jc- 
senius,  Clausnitzer,  Alberti,  Paul  Gcrhardt  (IfiOU-TG),  by 
common  consent  the  greatest  of  German  hymnists;  John 
Frank,  Xcumark,  Kcheffler  or  Angelas  Silesius,  Von  Rosen- 
roth,  Tcrsteegen  ;  J.  Xeander,  Von  Canitz,  C.  F.  Richtcr, 
Ro.Iigast,  G.  Arnold,  Laurenti,  A.  If.  Franke,  Bogatzky, 
Zinzendorf  (who  was  fiillowcd  by  other  Moravian  writers), 
S,  Frank,  S..-hmolkc;  Gcllert,  Klopstock,  Novalls,  Fouque, 
Spitta.  Knapp,  Lange.  Meta  Heusscr.  The  various  schools 
among  which  these  poets  divide  are  elaborately  discrim- 
inated by  Mr.  Kiibler.  An  immense  and  valuable  col- 
lection of  over  liltOf)  hymns  has  been  made  by  Albert  Knapp 
—  Li' tferm-hatz.  Many  tierman  hymns  have  been  rendered 
into  Knglish  by  John  Wesley.  I7mD-I0;  by  Jaciobi  and 
Ifabcrkorn,  1722-6(1;  by  the  Moravians,  175 (,  etc.;  and 
mure  recently  by  Miss  F.  E.  Cox,  A.  T.  Russell,  R.  Massie, 
Miss  Borthwick.  and  others  ;  specially  by  Miss  Winkworth, 
whose  Li/rn  Genmtiiivrt  (2  vols.)  and  Chorale  Hook  havo 
added  much  to  our  English  stock. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  have  their  own  hymnic  sup- 
plies, and  are  proud  of  them,  but  these  are  little  known  to 
English  readers.  In  Italy  and  France  there  is  not  so  much 
material  of  tins  sort.  Many  sacred  lyrics  of  Madame 
Guyon  (d.  1717)  were  translated  by  Cowper  in  1782. 

In  England  hymnoily  was  a  plant  of  late  growth;  its 
plaeL-  was  long  filled  by  psalmody.  Mylcs  Coverdalc,  one 
ol  the  Reformers,  in  I5."l-  put  furfh  forty  Ghostly  pM<tliitcn  ami 
S/n'riftiall  Si'iiiji-K,  but  there  is  no  evidcn'^e  of  these  having 
com-.'  into  use.  A  better  fortune  attended  Thomas  Stern- 
holJ's  PanltM  {1 J49),  completed  by  Hopkins  and  others  in 
1602:  this  0^^  Vrraiitn  became  popular,  and  was  bound  up 
with  the  Prayer  Book  for  nearly  three  centuries.  It  was 
afli-rwards  in  part  superseded  by  the  Nrw  Vcntinn  of  Tate 
and  Bra<ly  (I'lyt;).  .Aleantiinc,  the  Puritans  usecl  thcScotch 
ver.^ion  by  Francis  Rous  (Ifilj).  Hymns,  as  such,  were 
not  written  till  later,  for  (Jeorge  Herbert  and  his  contem- 
poraries were  sacred  poets  rather  than  hymni-;ts.  A  begin- 
ning on  a  small  scahr  was  made  by  Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor 
(lf..j.'>).  and  followed  up  by  John  Austin  (K'.fiH).  R.  Baxter 
(IftSi ),  and  eminently  by  .John  Mason  ( IfiS.'l),  whose  hymns 
were  perhaps  the  first  to  be  sung  (o  any  extent  in  Englaml 
as  accessories  of  worship.  AVilMarn  Harton.  .losepli  Sten- 
nctt.  an<l  Bishop  Ken  had  also  the  honor  ftf  pri-eeding  Dr. 
Watts.  The  latter  is  properlv  the  father  of  English  hymn- 
ody  ;  the  appearance  of  his  ffi/miifi  in  1707-01»,  and  of  his 
/*H'i/iiii  in  1711>,  introducetl  a  new  era:  they  were  hailed 
with  delight  by  the  Inilk  of  Dissenters,  and  for  a  long  time 
by  tbem  used  exclusively,  or  nearly  so,  in  Britain  and 
America.  The  publication  of  Cbnrles  Wesley's  first  hymns 
in  17;ttt  marked  another  era.  He  is  the  most  voluminous  of 
sicred  poets,  ami  one  of  the  most  gifted.  Fur  tifty  years 
he  continued  publishing,  and  his  verses,  recently  collected, 
fill  thirteen  volumes.  The  intliience  of  these  lyrics  was 
great  in  promoting  the  Wesleyan  revival.  J(»hn  Wesley 
also  wrote  hymns,  though  but  few.  His  great  Coffrrtion 
(1779).  eomposetl  chiefly  of  his  brother's  pieces,  was  hmg 
used  by  the  Methodists  everywhere,  and  is  still  the  basis 
of  their  various  hymn-books.  The  other  hymnists  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  except  Addison.  Pope,  and  Byrom.  were 
chiedy  followers  either  of  Wiitis  or  Wesley,  or  of  both.  To 
the  first  school  belong  Simon  Browne,  the  Scotch  Paraphra- 
sers,  Gibbons,  Boddume,  Fuwoctt,  Hawcis,  S.  Stonnott,  T. 


Scott,  Necdham,  Mrs.  Barbauld ;  to  the  second,  Cenniek, 
Hammond,  Olivers,  Toplady.  Hart,  Cowper,  Newton.  Med- 
ley. W.  Williams,  Ryland.  Grigg,  Perrouet.Scagrave,  Rob- 
inson, Shirley,  and  others,  show  the  intluence  of  both  mas- 
ters. (Much  of  our  knowleilgo  of  these  old  authors  is  duo 
to  Mr.  Daniel  Sedgwick  of  Bisliojisgate,  Lonclon,  who  for 
many  years  has  made  hymnology  a  special  study.) 

With  the  present  century  arose  James  Montgomery, 
whoso  services  and  influence  in  this  field  were  great,  and 
Thomas  Kelly.  The  year  1827  was  marked  by  the  appear- 
ance of  Bishop  Heber's  Hyuiii'tiuul  of  Keble's  Christian  Vvav. 
About  the  same  time  Sir  J.  B()wring,  Sir  R.  Grant,  Condcr. 
Edraeston,  Reed,  Lyte,  Miss  Aubcr,  and  Mrs.  Adams  wrote; 
more  recently  Charl(»fte  Elliott,  Dr.  Bonar,  George  Rawson, 
T.  T.  Lynch.  T.  II.  (Jill,  and  many  others.  Faber,  Cas- 
wall, and  Bridges  belong  to  the  Romish  Church.  That  of 
England,  long  negligent  in  this  p.articular,  was  awakened 
to  its  importance  by  the  Oxford  movement  of  IS.tIi,  and  a 
fresh  and  increasing  tide  ot  lyric  life  has  since  been  jioured 
in.  Dr.  Xcale.  Dean  Alfi)rd.  Bishop  Wordsworth.  Dr. 
Monsell,  Mrs.  .\lexaijdcr,  Sir  H.  W.  Baker,  Earl  Nelson. 
F.  T,  Palgravc,  W.  C.  Dix.  J.  Ellerton  are  noticeable 
names.  New  and  carefully  prepared  hymnals  are  con- 
stantly appearing,  ami  the  material  for  them  is  increasing 
every  day.  lu  no  previous  :ige,  perhaps,  were  more  and 
better  hymns  written  than  now. 

In  America,  having  the  literature  of  England  at  her 
back,  comj)aratively  little  has  been  done  or  was  needed. 
Davies.  Dwight,  Doane,  Onderdonk,  Muhlenberg,  Bryant, 
Alexander.  Pierpont,  Furness,  Coxe,  Ray  Palmer,  Sears, 
and  others  have  given  us  hymns,  a  few  of  which  will  not 
die.  Here,  as  in  England,  attention  is  being  paid  to 
hymnology.  and  the  improvement  in  this  department  of 
knowledge  and  worship  is  alrcatly  visible.  We  have  better 
hymnals  than  our  ancestors  hud,  and  the  next  generation 
will  have  still  better.  Various  books  have  been  written  on 
the  bibliograjthy  of  hymnology,  but  none  that  thoroughly 
covers  the  entire  ground.  The  best  thus  far  is  Josiah  Mil- 
ler's Siiujers  and  i^ou^s  of  the  Church  (1872). 

Fredkiuc  M.  Bird. 

Ilyncs,  tp.  of  Russell  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1120. 

Ilyiiobi'idir  [etymologj'  uncertain],  a  family  of  sala- 
niaaders  cstaldished  by  Prof.  Cope,  and  with  the  cranium 
deficient  in  an  anterior  axial  bone  ;  the  palatines  contigu- 
ous and  prolonged  over  the  parasphcnoid,  and  with  teeth 
on  their  posterior  external  margins:  the  jirefrontals  and 
}>terygoids  arc  well  de\'clopcd  ;  the  frontal  not  embraced 
by  parictals  and  prefrontals  ;  the  orbito-sphenoid  separated 
by  a  membranous  wall  from  the  prootic;  the  postfronto- 
squamosal  arch  is  atrophied,  iind  the  occipital  condyles  avo 
sessile.  The  family  includes  a  single  genus  (IIi/uobitiH) 
from  Japan,  and  is  most  nearly  related  to  the  Desmog- 
natbi<l:e  and  Pletliodonlidie  of  the  U.S.    Thkodori:  Gill. 

Ilyodon'tidjr  [  from  Y,  /.  c  the  U-shaped  or  hyitid  bone, 
and  oSoii?,  "totith  '"].  a  family  of  isospomlylous  teleocepha- 
lous  fishes,  having  a  herring-like  form  ;  cycloid  scales ; 
head  scaleless ;  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  by  tho 
snpramaxillaries  on  the  side,  and  with  those  bones  articu- 
lated to  the  extremities  of  the  intermaxillaries ;  and  tho 
dorsal  fin  behind  the  anus;  the  stomach  is  not  ciecal,  and 
has  only  one  ])yloric  appendage  ;  the  air-bladder  is  simple; 
the  ovaries  (lischargc  their  eggs  first  into  the  abdomirml 
cavity.  This  group  has  been  constituted  esnccially  for  tho 
reception  of  the  '"  moon-eye  heri'ing  ''  {f/i/oaoii  tcrt/iitKu)  of 
tho  lakes  and  Western  rivers,  to  whicli  it  is  peculiar.  It  is 
most  nearly  related  to  the  CUipeids  (herrings,  shad,  etc.). 

TuKonoiii-;  Gill. 

IIyog:aiioi'dea  [from  Y,  i.  c  the  U-shaped  or  byi>id 
apparatus,  and  (innoidca],  a  super-order  of  ganoid  fishes, 
chanieteri/.ed  by  the  completely  ossified  skeleton  ;  develop- 
ment of  the  intermaxillary  and  supramaxillarv  bones:  tho 
external  nasal  apertures;  the  development  of  tlie  njierou- 
liir  apparatus:  ami  the  complete  hyoid  apparatus  (whence 
the  name).  It  embraces  the  existing  families  Ainiida'  and 
Eepidosteida',  and  numerous  extinct  forms.     (Sec  Fisni:s.) 

Tiironoiti;  tiii.i.. 

Ily'oid  Konc,  a  bono  comparatively  unimportant  in 
man,  supporting  the  tongue,  but  represented  either  in  an 
osseous  condition  or  by  rudimentary  cartilages  throughout 
tho  Vertebral  a,  and  of  great  iinportiince  in  the  lower  classes. 
in  which  it  is  of  increased  coniplexity,  forming  the  support 
fur  the  lirancbial  n]iparatus. 

Ilyopoliim'idjr  [from  &«,  n  "hog,"  and  ttotomo?. 
''river  "J,  a  family  of  ungulate  mammals  belonging  to  the 
sub-order  Arliodactyla  and  the  group  with  '•  selenodont  " 
molars  (f".  r.  like  those  of  ruminants),  with  the  ujipcr  molars 
crowned  with  five  (.'tantoH-  2  post)  well-developetl  crescen- 
tifortn  lobes  ;  Ibo  canines  of  the  lower  jaw  simulating  and 
parallel  with  the  incisors;  incisors  persistent  (5x2)  in 
both  jaws;  dental  series  intorruptod  by  very  long  diaslo- 


1078 


HYOPSODUS— HYPERBOLOID. 


mata  above  and  below ;  and  the  canine  teeth  of  the  up- 
per jaw  well  developed;  the  snout  was  correspondingly 
elon<'atcd;  the  mastoid  processes  but  slightly  developed, 
and  the  zvgomatic  pnieesscs  of  the  squamosals  were  direct- 
ed forward  aud  backward  from  their  bases:  the  lower 
jaw  had  its  rami  produced  backward,  and  frequently 
armed  with  tubercles  projecting  outward  from  the  sides 
towards  the  front.  This  family  was  richly  dcveloi>ed  in 
the  early  Tertiary  period,  an.l  especially  in  the  Eocene  and 
Miocene  a"-e3.  the  name  Anthracotherida;  has  been  also 
^iveu  to  tie  group.  It  embraces  numerous  genera  and 
Species,  among  which  are  Uyopotamm  (with  its  synonyms 
or  sections,  Ancdm,  C,/clo;,,mtl,m,  /lothnodon),  AnlUraco- 
Ihrrinm.  T,<inmnl<m,  Diplupm,  etc.  The  richest  field  in 
which  their  remains  have  been  found  arc  the  Miocene  de- 
posits of  Auvcrgnc  in  France,  and  near  relations  have  been 
found  in  this  country  in  the  Orcodontid.c  or  Merycodoi- 
dontid*  The  species  varied  in  size,  from  dimensions  little 
more  than  those  of  a  rat  to  those  of  an  ass.  The  members 
of  this  family  have  lately  ( 1S75)  been  the  subjects  of  a  very 
elaborate  monograph  by  Dr.  Kowalevsky  ("On  the  Oste- 
olo.'y  of  the  Hvopotamida;,"  part  i.)  in  the  Philosophical 
Tru,isacHum  o(' ihe  Royal  Society  of  London  (voh  cl.'iin. 
pp.  19-95,  pi.  35-40).  Theodore  (.ill. 

Hyop'sodus  [(ir.  t,.  a"  hog,"  5*«,  "appearance,"  and 
iSovs  a  "  tooth  ■•],  an  extinct  genus  of  small  mammals  from 
the  Eocene  of  Wvomiiig.  named  from  its  supposed  resem- 
blance to  the  suillines,  but  now  known  to  belong  to  the 
Quadrumana.  (Sec  Qi'.idkumana,  Fossil.)  0.  C.  Marsh. 
Hyoscyamus.    See  Henbane. 

Hypa'tia  [-V^aT.-a].  daughter  of  Theon,  a  Greek  of  Al- 
exandria, no  less  renowned  for  her  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics than  of  the  \co-Platonic  philosophy,  which  she 
tau<'ht  with  applause  in  her  native  city.  Her  beauty  and 
modestv  were  also  celebrated,  but  the  clergy  believed  that 
she  made  use  of  her  influence  with  Orestes,  prefect  of  Alex- 
andria, to  the  injury  of  St.  Cyril,  then  the  archbishop  of 
Alexandria.  Accordingly,  she  was  set  upon  by  a  mob  led 
by  priests,  who  carried  her  into  a  church,  stripped  her  of 
her  clothes,  and  then  tore  her  in  pieces  (+15  A.  p.).  Theod- 
oret  accuses  Cyril  of  instigating  this  murder,  but  of  his 
guilt  there  is  no  proof. 

Hyper'bola  [(Jr.  virep. "  over,"  and  giA^eii'.  to  '•  throw  "], 
a  plaue  curve  that  mav  be  generated  by  a  point  moving  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  difreicnce  of  its  distances  from  two 
fixed  points  is  always  equal  to  a  given  distance.  The  fixed 
points  arc  called  Jori,  and  a  straight  line  drawn  through 
them  and  limited  by  the  curve  is  called  the  trausvcracaxia. 
The  centre  is  that  point  of  the  transverse  axis  which  is 
midway  between  the  foci,  and  a  line  through  this  point 
perpendicular  to  the  transverse  axis  is  called  the  coiym/nlc 
axis  This  axis  does  not  cut  the  curve,  but  it  is  limited  by 
the  condition  that  the  diagonal  of  the  rectangle  describes 
upon  it  and  the  transverse  axis  shall  bo  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance between  the  foci.  The  ecc.-ntrlcii;/  is  the  distance 
from  the  centre  to  either  focus,  divided  by  the  semi-trans- 
verse axis.  The  diagonals  of  the  rectangle  described  on 
the  axes  indefinit.ly  prolonged  are  anpnptote*  to  the  curve; 
as  we  recede  from  the  centre  the  curve  continually  ap- 
proaches these  lines,  becomes  tangent  to  them  at  an  infi- 
nite distance,  but  never  crosses  them.  These  asymptotes 
are  the  limits  of  the  curve.  If  h  is  less  than  <i,  the  angle 
between  the  asymptotes  is  acute  and  the  hyperbola  is 
ncute  •  if  fc  is  greater  than  a,  the  hyperbola  is  ohtunc  ;  if  6 
i*  equal  to  n,  the  hvpcrbola  is  rectangular  or  cpnlalerul. 

The  hypcrljula  is  one  of  the  conic  sections.  The  conic 
Mirface  from  which  every  variety  of  hyperbola  may  bo  cut 
bv  a  secant  plane  is  a  surface  that  may  bo  generated  by  a 
straight  line  moving  in  such  a  manner  as  to  touch  a  given 
circle  and  pass  through  a  given  point.  The  directing  circle 
is  called  the  lm«c  of  the  cone,  the  fixed  point  is  callcil  tlie 
vrric..:  the  moving  line  is  the  y.iio-nO-ijr,  any  position  ol 
this  line  is  an  element,  and  a  line  through  the  vertex  and 
centre  of  the  base  is  the  axh.  The  surface  thus  described 
consists  of  two  parts,  united  at  the  vertex,  which  are  called 
vappen  :  the  lower  nappe  is  the  ime  that  is  on  the  side  of 
the  base  :  the  other  one  is  called  the  upper  napnc.  By 
varying  the  position  of  the  vertex  with  respect  to  the  base, 
the'  cone  mav  be  made  right  or  oblique,  acute  or  obtuse. 
If  we  pass  a  plane  through  the  vertex  of  this  general 
cone,  it  will  cut  out  two  elements,  and  by  suitably  varying 
the  position  of  this  plane  these  elements  may  be  made  to 
have  any  inclination  to  each  other.  If  we  pass  a  second 
=ecaui  plane  parallel  to  the  first,  it  will  cut  from  the  cono 
a  hyperbola  whose  asymptotes  are  parallel  to  the  elements 
cut  out  by  the  first  plane.  The  plane  of  the  hyperbolacuts 
all  the  elements  of  the  cone  except  the  two  to  which^^lt  is 


A  system  of  planes  parallel  to  the  first  cut  out  a  system  of 
similar  hyperbolas— that  is,  hyperbolas  whose  axes  are  in 
a  given  ratio.  If  this  system  of  hyperbolas  is  projected 
on  the  plane  through  the  vertex  by  jirojectors  parallel  to 
the  line  that  joins  their  centres  with  the  vertex  of  the  cone, 
these  projections  ivill  be  equal,  in  all  respects,  to  the  curves 
themselves,  and  will  all  have  the  same  rectilineal  asymp- 
totes ;  they  will  also  be  curvilinear  asymptotes  to  one  an- 
other. The  lines  cut  out  by  the  plane  through  the  vertex 
maybe  regarded  as  a  hyperbola  whose  axes  are  infinitesi- 
mal ;  that  is.  they  may  be  regarded  as  the  limiting  case  of 
this  group  of  similar  "hyperbolas.  If  we  take  the  case  of 
an  oblique  cone,  and  suppose  the  vertex  to  move  towards 
the  plaue  of  the  base,  and  ultim.atcly  to  coincide  with  it, 
the  cone  will  reduce  to  a  sector  of  that  plane,  the  elements 
cut  out  by  the  plane  through  the  vertex  will  coincide  with 
each  other,  and  planes  parallel  to  the  first  plane  will  cut 
out  straight  lines  limited  towards  the  centre;  that  is,  in- 
definite straight  lines  with  a  part  removed.  Such  lines 
may  be  regarded  as  hyperbolas  whose  foci  are  at  the  ver- 
tices of  the  transverse  axis. 

Two  hyperbolas  which  are  so  related  that  the  transverse 
axis  of  either  is  the  conjugate  axis  of  the  other  are  called 
conjngatc  hvpcrbolas.  Two  conjugate  hyperbolas  have  the 
same  asymptotes,  and  their  four  foci  are  all  on  the  circum- 
ference of  the  same  circle.  Conjugate  hyperbolas  arc  so 
related  that  a  complete  discussion  of  cither  necessitates  that 
of  the  other;  in  fact,  they  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  single 
curve  with  four  branches.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
equation  of  the  complete  curve  may  bo  written  thus: 
„2,y2 _  6V2  =  T  «'-''^.  in  which  a  and  6  arc  the  semi-axes; 
the  upper  sio-n  corresponds  to  the  branches  whose  semi- 
transverse  axis  is  a,  and  the  lower  sign  to  the  branches 
whose  semi-transverse  axis  is  b.  An  examination  of  the 
above  equation  shows  that  there  are  four  values  of  i/  for 
each  value  of  x,  and  that  these  values,  taken  in  pairs,  are 
equal  with  contrary  signs;  also  that  there  are  four  values 
of  X  for  each  value  of  i/,  and  that  these,  taken  m  pairs,  are 
equal  with  contrary  signs;  consequently,  the  entire  curve 
is  svmmetrical  with  respect  to  both  axes.  All  values  of  x 
between  -  a  and  +  it  render  one  pair  of  values  of  i/  imag- 
inary and  the  other  pair  real ;  all  values  of  x  less  than  -  a, 
or  greater  than  -I- a,  make  both  pairs  of  values  of  y  real. 
In  like  manner,  all  values  of  >/  between  -  4  and  -^  4  make 
one  pair  of  values  of  x  imaginary  and  the  other  pair  real ; 
all  values  of  u  less  than  -  6,  and  greater  than  -f  h,  make 
both  pairs  of  values  of  x  real.     The  equation  of  the  com- 


mon asymptotes  of  the  four  branches  is  >^  =  ±-^  x,  as  may 

be  shown  by  a  discussion  of  the  general  etjuation  of  the 

curve. 

Two  conjugate  hyperbolas  may  be  cut  from  a  pair  cl  con- 
jugate cones,  or  from  a  pair  of  conjugate  hyperboloids. 
Let  there  be  two  straight  lines  intersecting  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  let  there  be  a  third  lino  lying  in  their 
plane  and  passing  through  their  common  point;  if  the  last 
line  is  revolved  about  each  of  the  others  in  turn,  it  will 
generate  a  pair  of  conjugate  cones  tangent  to  each  other, 
and  any  pl.ane  parallel  to  their  axes  will  cut  from  these 
cones  a  pair  of  conjugate  hyperbolas  whose  asymptotes 
are  parallel  to  the  elements  of  contact.  (For  particular 
properties  of  the  hvpcrbola  refer  to  special  treatises  on 
conic  sections,  of  which  Sadiox's  Conic  Seeiioni  is  prob- 
ably the  most  full  and  complete.)  W.  G.  Peck. 

Hyper'boloid,  a  surface  such  that  the  sections  made 
by  passing  planes  in  certain  directions  are  hyperbolas, 
there  are  two  classes— tV/i/jdViti  and  parabolic  hyperbo- 
loids In  the  former  all  the  plane  sections  that  are  not 
hvpcrbolas  are  ellipses,  and  in  the  latter  all  the  sections 
that  arc  not  hvpcrbolas  are  parabolas.  The  elliptical  hy- 
perboloids aro  divided  into  two  species— hyperboloids  of 
one  nappe  and  hvperboloids  of  two  nappes.  The  lormcr 
are  warped  surfaces,  and  the  latter  are  surfaces  of  double 
curvature.  In  the  hvperboloids  of  one  nappe  every  section 
made  bv  a  plane  parallel  to  a  tangent  plane  is  a  hyper- 
bola, and  all  other  plane  sections  are  ellipses  ;  in  the  hypcr- 
boloid  of  two  nappes  everv  section  made  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  a  tangent  plane  is  an  ellipse,  and  all  other  sections  arc 
hyperbolas.  If  two  conjugate  hyperbolas  arc  revolved 
about  either  axis,  they  will  generate  a  pair  of  conjugate 
hvperboloids  of  revolution,  and  their  common  asymptotes 


will  generate  a  cone  which  separates  the  two  and  is  a  com- 
mon asymptote  to  both.  The  hyperbola  that  revolves  about 
its  conjugate  axis  generates  a  hyperboloid  of  one  nappe; 
that  which  revolves  about  its  transverse  axis  generates  a 
hyperboloid  of  two  nappes;  and  the  asymptotic  cone  is 

Eri  sr  sdi-j;:  '.;;r:.t;:-  r.E?r  I '  ^iss'i^sr: .  ..„- ..,.-. .«.. 


IIYPKKBOREANS-HYPOCHLOROUS  ANHYDRIDE;  AND  HYPOCHLORITES.      1079 

one  genus,  Afi/xinr,  represented  by  species  in  the  norlhcrn 
and  southern' hemispheres;  and  (2)  Bdellostomida.'.  whoso 
ipeeics  are  confined  to  tho  Pacific  Ocean,  one  of  them  as- 
lendinc  as  far  northward  as  California.         TiiEO.  (iii.i.. 


may  bo  generated  by  a  straight  lino  moving  so  as  to  touch 
two  straight  lines  and  be  parallel  to  a  given  plane.  The 
fiXL-d  lines,  which  must  not  be  parallel,  are  called  dlrcctriceg, 
tlie  plane  is  called  the  /il'inc  direrUir,  the  moving  lino  is 
ciilled  the  i/mcrulrix,  and  any  position  of  tho  directrix  is 
called  an  c'lcmrnl  of  the  surface.  If  we  take  a  new  ]ilanc 
director  parallel  to  the  given  directrices,  and  any  two  ele- 
ments of  the  surface  as  directrices,  and  generate  a  surface 
in  the  same  manner  as  before,  it  will  coincide  with  tho  sur- 
face just  described.  The  surface  has  therefore  a  double 
mode  of  generation.  Through  any  point  of  the  surface 
two  straight  lines  can  always  be  drawn  that  will  coincide 
witli  the  surface,  and  the  plane  of  these  lines  will  be  tan- 
gent to  the  surface  at  that  point.  Any  plane  parallel  to  a 
tangent  plane  intersects  the  suxface  in  a  hyperbola ;  every 
other  plane,  in  a  parabola.  W.  G.  Peck. 

Ilyperbo'reans  [YirtpSifKiot,  "beyond  the  north 
wind."  or  lioreas],  a  mythical  people  who,  as  the  an- 
cient Oreoks  supposed,  dwelt  in  the  far  North  in  a  happy 
clime,  where  sickness,  old  age,  and  sorrow  were  unknown. 
Herodotus  believed  that  tho  myth  of  tho  Hyperboreans 
was  based  upon  facts;  which  opinion,  it  need  not  bo 
said,  is  now  known  to  bo  incorrect.    Tho  myth  is  variously 


given. 

Ilypercor'acoid  [(Jr.  virtp,  "upper,"  itopaf,  -crow, 
and  <iJo5,  "loriu"],  the  upper  bono  apposed  to  tho  inner 
surface  of  tho  great  scapular  cincture  of  the  typical  fishes. 
It  is  one  of  three  bones  which  together  are  homologous 
with  a  single  cartilage  in  the  more  generalized  fishes— i'.  c. 
ganoids— and  was  regarded  by  Cuvier  as  tlie  radius;  by 
Owen,  as  tho  ulna;  and  by  GcgenbaUr  .and  Parker,  .as  tho 
scapula.  TuEODOEiE  G11.L. 

Ilypcri'des,  a  patriotic  Athenian  orator,  b.  about  100 
n.  c,  a  friend  of  Demosthenes  and  a  pupil  of  Plato  and 
Isoerates  ;  began  life  as  a  practitioner  of  law  ;  was  faithful 
to  the  interests  of  the  people  in  the  contests  with  Philip, 
and  in  H.'iS  n.  c.  proposed  to  free  all  the  slaves  and  enfran- 
chise tho  resident  aliens  and  the  disfranchised  .\thcnians. 
In  .121  he  was  for  a  time  at  variance  with  llcmostlienes, 
whom  ho  accused  of  receiving  money  from  llarpalus.  In 
.122  II.  r.  he  was  cruelly  murdered  at  .Egina  by  tho  emissa- 
ries of  .\nlipator.  His  private  character  was  not  above 
suspicion,  but  his  public  acts  appear  to  have  been  uni- 
fr)rnily  disinterested  and  wise.  The  ancients  speak  in  high 
terms  of  the  purity  and  grace  of  his  style,  but  of  his  many 
orations  only  slight  fragments  existed  up  to  IS-I",  when 
f.>ur  orations  were  discovered  in  Egypt,  one  of  which, 
iirJp  r.v{ci';>rirou  ("in  defence  of  Euxenippus"),  only  was 
entire.  Published  by  liabington  (in  fac-simile),  London. 
IS.iO,  ISo.'i,  and  I80.S;  edited  by  Blass,  Loipsic,  ISliB,  and 
by  Miiller  in  Ortitont  Ailid,  Ptiris,  1358.  (Seo  Journal 
„/  I'lill:!;,,,/,  vol.  i.  pp.  10'J-I24.) 

Ilypcroar'tia  [Gr.  Jirepuia,  "palate,"  and  ipno?,  "per- 
fect"], an  order  of  marsipobranchiates  distinguished  by 
the  .lovelopniene  of  the  skull  and  the  eceeal  nature  of  tho 
median  external  nasal  aperture;  no  duct  perforating  tho 
palate,  which  is  therefore  left  entire  (whence  the  name). 
The  branchial  apertures  are  on  each  side  hehiml  the  head, 
and  seven  in  number;  the  inner  branchial  ducts  debouch 
into  a  separate  common  tube.  The  ova  are  small,  and  su- 
perliciallv  like  those  of  fishes.  Tho  young  undergo  a  com- 
plete metan\(irphosi3  after  leaving  the  egg.  The  larvic  have 
an  elongated  slit-like  mouth,  and  arc  without  teeth  or  eyes. 
In  this  condition  they  were  formerly  considered  to  be  mem- 
bers of  a  peculiar  group  (Auiuimcirtr»).  At  maturity  tho 
mouth  is  circular,  surroumled  by  a  lip,  and  armed  with 
Jontigcrous  lamellm  on  its  disk,  as  well  as  with  lingual 
teeth;  enlarged  plates  above  and  below  the  antrum  of  tho 
oesophagus  have  been  called  maxillary  and  mandibular, 
but  they  have  no  homologieal  relation  with  the  upper  and 
lower  jiiws  of  ordinary  fishes,  and  tho  lower  jaw  in  them  is 
absolutely  wanting.  This  order  embraces  only  a  single 
family  of  existing  species  (the  Petromy/.ontidie  or  lam- 
preys), of  which  there  are  at  least  five  genera,  three  of 
which  are  represented  in  North  .\merica.      TiiEo.  Gii.i.. 

Ilyperolrc'ta  [Gr.  uirtpua,  "palate,"  and  tptto«.  "pcr- 
forateil"].  an  order  of  marsipobranchiates  eharactcri7.cd  by 
the  structure  of  the  cranial  cartilages  iiinl  tho  complete 
tubulation  of  the  median  nasal  aperture,  and  its  |)erforation 
of  (ho  palate  (and  hoiico  the  nann')-  'I'be  branchial  a]ier- 
tures  are  developed  on  each  side  far  behind  the  head,  and 
are  variable  in  number;  the  inner  branchial  ducts  com- 
municate directly  with  the  oesophagus  ;  the  ova  arc  largo, 
and  provided  eac  h  with  an  oval  horny  case  constricted  at 
each  end,  and  with  numerous  filaments  thereto.  Tho  em- 
bryology is  still  unknown.  In  tho  adult  condition  tho 
mouth  has  no  lips  and  no  plates  on  the  disk,  but  a  median 
tooth  is  above  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus,  and  two  poo- 
tiniform  rows  or  teeth  on  the  tongue.  The  order  I  bus  de- 
fined is  composed  of  two  families— vii.  (1)  Myxinidu),  with 


cending  as  I 

Hy'pcrsthene  [Gr.  vni/i,  intensive,  and  irS.Vot, 
"strength  "],  the  Labrador  hornblende,  or,  more  strictly, 
the  thin-leaved,  brittle,  and  bronze-colored  variety  of  py- 
ro.xene,  an  impure  ferro-silicatc  of  magnesia.  It  is  often 
quite  handsome,  and  is  cut  as  an  ornamental  stone. 

Hyper'trophy  [Gr.  iin-cp,  "over,"  and  rpo-frq,  "nourish- 
ment"], in  |iatliology,tho  overgrowth  of  any  part  or  organ, 
or  the  disproportionately  largo  size  of  such  an  organ.  Hy- 
pertrophy is  simple,  horaccoplastic,  heteroplastic,  or  hyper- 
plastic, these  terms  defining  the  character  of  the  added  ma- 
terial which  gives  tho  increased  size.  It  may  be  caused, 
1st,  by  an  increased  exercise  of  the  part,  an  exemplification 
of  which  we  have  in  the  blacksmith's  arm  :  2dly,  by  an  in- 
creased supply  of  blood  to  a  part,  the  part  being  healthy; 
3dly,  from  some  local  derangement,  as  may  be  seen  in  ex- 
ostoses, fatty  tumors,  etc.  tho  treatment  of  hypertrophy 
has  been  very  unsatisfactory;  in  fact,  we  can  do  next  to 
nothing  for  patients  suffering  from  the  first  and  second 
varieties.  The  third  should  be  removed  by  the  knife  if 
any  inconvenience  is  caused.  EnwAiui  J.  Berminuiiam. 
Ilypuotism.     See  Mesmerism. 

Hvp'nuin  [Gr.  iinpai'],  a  very  large  genus  of  mosses  of 
tho  sub-order  Pleurocarpi  and  tribe  Ilypnea;.  Many  of 
them  are  large,  and  grow  on  wot  ground  or  on  old  logs. 
Tho  U.  S.  have  some  100  species,  many  of  which  are  Euro- 
pean also.  There  are  many  sub-genera,  some  of  which  arc 
probably  worthy  of  being  considered  genera. 

HypoL-hlorous  Anhydride;  and  Hypochlorites, 
or  Bleaching  Salts.  The  compounds  that  belong  iindi-r 
these  heads  comprise  many  of  the  most  valuable  of  our 
bleaching  and  disinfecting  agents.  Hiipnchlormis  aulii/- 
dridc,  formerly  called  hypochlorons  acid  (a  name  wc 
now  use  for  the  product  of  its  union  with  water),  has  the 
composition  C1»0,  containing  its  own  volume  of  gaseous 
chlorine,  and  by  weight  81.0  per  cent,  of  that  elcinenl.  It 
is  a  pale  yellow  gas,  which  explodes,  though  without  mu.li 
energy,  when  healed.  It  differs  much  in  odor  from  chlo- 
rine, and  is  condensed  by  snow  and  salt  to  a  deep  red,  very 
explosive  liquid.  It  is  prepared  in  the  gaseous  form  by 
reaction  of  dry  prrrijiiintcd  mercuric  oxide  on  chlorine  gas, 
an  oxyehlori'de  of  mercury  being  formed  :  2IIgO  +  t'li  = 
HgCI2HgO  + CljO.  Both  the  liquid  and  the  gas  combine 
with  water  to  form  hypochlorous  acid:  CI^^O  n  Hod  = 
ll^Cl-O-.  Solutions  of  the  acid  in  water  may  be  ]ireparid 
also  by  several  other  methods;  as  by  distilling  together, 
with  special  precautions,  bleaching  salt  and  a  mineral  acid  ; 
by  passing  air  and  muriatic  acid  gas  together  through  a 
heated  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  in  a  retort;  by 
passing  chlorine  into  water  in  which  carbonate  of  lime  is 
suspended.  In  tho  latter  caso  carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and 
tho  reaction  is  as  follows  ;  CaO,C02 -|- CU -I- H2O  =  CaClj 
+  CO2  +  II2CI2O2.  Tho  aqueous  hypochlorous  acid  that 
distills  over  in  each  ease  is  yellowish,  smells  like  the  gas, 
has  a  strong  peculiar  but  not  neid  taste,  and  corrodes  the 
skin  more  rapidly  than  nitric  acid.  It  cannot  be  preserved 
in  concentrated  form,  decomposing  spontaneously  in  time, 
though  it  is  sufficiently  stable  to  bo  distilled.  With  hydro- 
ehloric  acid  it  evolves  chlorine,  as  follows:  H2t'l-..02 -1- 
2IIC1  -=  2H2O  (  C'U.  It  is  of  course  a  very  powerful,  and 
would  bo  aVerv  useful  bleaching  and  oxidizing  agent,  wero 
it  not  for  its  "instability,  which  unfits  it  for  storage  and 
transportation.  The  immensely  valuable  properties  of  this 
substance  must  be  secured,  Ihcref.iic.  by  means  of  com- 
pounds, which  arc  capable  of  evolving  or  producing  it. 

Hill,;,lil;iilr  „i' piilimh  is  the  active  ingredient  of  what 
has  been  known  as  "  JavMr  wnlcr,"  or  "  rnu  (/<•  Jni^rllc  ;" 
also  called  "  chloride  of  potash."  This  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
of  peculiar  smell,  which  is  prepared  by  passing  chlonno 
iras  through  a  cold  solution  of  carbonate  ot  potash  : 
•!K,0,C02  +("U  -  2CO2  I-  2K<'1  +  K.CljOj.  It,  therefore, 
contains  both  potassio  hypochlorite  and  chloride  of  potas- 
sium. Tho  potassio  carbonate  solution  must  be  kept  cold. 
and  the  operation  must  conse  before  an  excess  of  chlorine 
over  two  equivalents  for  each  one  of  potash-carbonate  has 
been  used:  as.  unless  an  excess  of  the  latter  is  present, 
potassio  ehloriite  and  chlorite  may  be  formed,  with  an  in- 
creased proportion  of  chloride  of  liotassium.  Ilenee.  strong 
.lavelle  water  of  necessity  contains  an  excess  of  unchanged 
potassio  carbonate.  Another  method  of  preparing  .lavello 
water  is  by  adding  to  a  solution  of  "  bleaching  powder  "  or 
"chloride'of  lime"  (see  below)  a  soluliim  of  potassio  car- 
bonate, in  quantity  sufficient  to  precipitate  all  the  lime  as 
calcic  carbonate.  Tho  clear  decanted  liquid  will  contain 
the  same  constituents  as  before,  but  will  bo  likely  to  bo  less 
potent,  or  to  contain  less,  ill  Jiroportion.  of  the  active  con- 
stituent.    Javello  water  is  used  lor  taking  out  stains,  such 


1080 


HYPOCHONDRIA— HYPOPHOSPHOROUS  ACID. 


as  those  of  fruit,  from  wbito  textile  fabrics,  and  for  bleach- 
ing wood,  straw,  etc. 

Jfi/porliloritc  of  soda,  in  solution,  constitutes  what  is 
c:i11clI  '*  Labarraquc's  disinfecting  liquor,"  after  a  Parisian 
druggist  who  niauufacturcd  aiidsold  it  fDrdisinfe-cting  pur- 
poses. It  is  also  called  *'  chloride  of  soda,"  and  in  medicine 
'*  chlorinated  soda."  The  methods  of  preparation  are  pre- 
cisely simihir  to  those  given  above  for  the  potash-hypo- 
ehlorite,  u^ing  sodic  in:-tcad  of  potassic  carbonate.  In 
making  the  Labarraquo  solution,  for  whitdi  sodic  eariionatc 
and  gaseous  chlorine  are  the  materials,  but  half  the  amount 
of  chlorine  needed  for  complete  reaction  is  usimI,  and  no 
cnrbonic  aeid  is  evolved,  being  retained  a(iparently  as 
sociic  bicarbonate.  This  is  stated  to  furnish  a  more  per- 
manent or  stable  preparation  than  the  other  method.  The 
sodic  hypoc;lilorite  solution,  as  prepared  for  commerce,  has 
a  feeble  chlorinc-Iiko  odor,  alkaline  reaction,  and  strong 
bleaching  and  disinfecting  powers.  It  is  considered  a  very 
valuable  m:'dicinal  material. 

H;ip>ch(nrit€  of  Lime. — Under  this  head  it  is  proper  to 
treat  the  important  commercial  product  known  as  hlench- 
iuj  pnwih'r  or  chloride  ttf  lime  (tier.  Chlorkalk;  Fr.  chlo- 
ruve  de  rhmtx).  It  is  proved,  however,  by  recent  re- 
searches th.it  8olid  di'if  bleaching  powder  docs  not  contain 
cal(;ic  hypochlorite,  which  is  first  formed  by  the  action  of 
water  or  moisture  upon  it.  The  chloride  of  lime  of  com- 
merce is  |)re])arcd  by  exposure  of  dry  or  slightly  damp 
slacked  lime  to  chlorine  gas.  The  lime  is  spread  on  trays 
placL'd  in  a  stone  chamber  whoso  interior  can  bo  inspected 
through  glass  windows.  The  gas  must  be  passed  in  slowly 
at  first,  to  ]>revent  heating  of  the  lime,  which  would  pro- 
mote t!ic  formation  of  chloride  of  calcium,  to  the  detriment 
of  the  proiUict.  The  wliole  time  required  is  about  four 
days.  If  the  process  he  too  rapid,  and  heating  occurs, 
there  is  formed,  according  to  Schourcr-Kcstncr,  some  calcic 
chlorite,  CaCI-jOi.  It  forms  a  dry  or  slightly  moist  gray- 
ish-white powder,  having  a  peculiar,  highly  nauseous  odor, 
differing  from,  though  suggesting,  that  of  chlorine.  It 
gradually  discomposes  and  deteriorates  with  time,  and  can- 
not be  preserved  in  sealed  packages,  by  reason  of  slowly 
evolved  gas,  probably  chiefly  oxygen.  Barrcswil  proposed 
to  corapre.'S  it  into  cakes  or  blocks  made  as  hard  as  stone, 
asserting;  that  it  was  tnus  rendered  far  more  permanent. 

Chemical  Compusitlon  nnd  Cnn^titntion. — This  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy,  and  various  theories  havo 
been  successively  supposed  proved,  adopted,  and  aban- 
doned. Of  these  the  one  even  now  generally  in  vogue,  and 
taught  in  the  textbooks  of  all  countries,  makes  it  to  be  a 
mixture  of  calcic  chloride  aud  calcic  hypochlorite.  CaCIa + 
C.aCI-jOj,  whi;di  would  be  simply  formed  by  the  interaction 
of  2CaO  and  -ICl.  As  long  since,  however,  as  1SG2,  Fre- 
scnius  showed  that  cold  water,  when  first  added,  dissolves 
from  it  chiefly  calcic  clilorido,  and  that  to  get  much  hypo- 
chlorite requires  successive  washings  and  time.  lie  sug- 
gested tiiat  iiypochlorite  may  not  pre-exist,  but  may  ho 
formed  from  some  unknown  ingredient  by  reaction  with 
the  water.  Since  1867  this  fact  has  been  confirmed,  and 
the  view  rendered  certain  by  J.  Kolb,  who  founcl  that  pure 
dry  hydrate  of  lime,  when  completely  saturated  by  chlo- 
rine, fiinns  a  mass  containing  .'JS.,')  per  cent,  of  the  latter, 
and  having  the  empirical  cr)mposition  Cn3ll606Ci4,  in  which 
the  three  equivalents  of  water  and  the  three  equivalents  of 
oxide  of  calcium  (hypothetically  or  possibly  present)  are 
wholly  essential,  and  cannot  be  eliminated  without  a  com- 
plete destruction  of  the  constitution  of  tlio  bo  Iv.  Wafer, 
by  its  solvent  action,  leads  to  a  breaking  up  into  hydrate, 
chloride,  and  hypochlorite:  CuallcOgCU  -=  CaO.IIaO  + 
CnCl2  +  CaCloOj  +  2II20.  If  we  suppose  the  last  factor  of 
this  equation,  the  21130.  to  pre-exist,  as  such,  in  tiie  bleach- 
ing powder,  then  the  latter  is  a  Iiydrato  of  an  unknown 
coni]>ound  whose  empirical  formula  is  CasCUH^tOi.  The 
whole  question  of  the  true  nature  and  constitution  of  this 
product  in  the  solid  form  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be 
now  reo])ened,  and  to  be  a  matter  for  speculation  and  in- 
vestigation. It  is  regarded  now  as  proved  that  in  the  at- 
mosphere, by  virtue  of  its  moisture,  the  same  breaking  up 
occurs  n:<  represented  above  with  liquid  water,  and  that 
then,  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  hypochlorous  acid  is 
set  free  from  the  hypochlorite  that  has  been  formed  :  to 
which  latter  acid  the  diHin/cctiiif/  action  is  due,  and  not  to 
the  evolution  of  free  chlorine,  as  has  been  most  genor.ally 
believed. 

Ohtoriinetrif — Tcntinff  the  Value  of  Tileaehinff  Powder. — 
This  is  n  highly  important  laboratory  operation.  The 
jiractical  point  to  bo  settled  is  of  cour.se  the  rehitivc  amount 
of  active  chlorine,  or  its  equivalent,  that  is  present.  At 
the  present  day  this  must  be.  and  is  almost  altogether,  ef- 
fected by  rapid  methodfi  of  the  volumetric  class,  in  which 
very  closely  and  accur.atcly  mennnrcd  quantities  arc  em- 
ployed, of  solutions  of  known  strength  or  value, of  appro- 
priate reagents.     One  simple  method  that  has  been  much 


used  is  to  prepare  a  solution  of  the  lower  oxide  of  iron 
(ferrous  oxidcj  of  known  strength,  and  ascertain  how  much 
of  it  a  certain  weight  of  tlie  bleaching  powder  will  oxidize 
up  to  the  higher,  or  ferric  oxide;  the  jioint  being  deter- 
mined by  testing — after  every  addition  otthe  normal  ferrous 
solution — a  drop  of  the  solution  cx;imined  with  red  prus- 
siatc  of  potash.  Another  method  is  to  mix  the  weiglied 
bleaching  powder  with  muriatic  acid  an<l  iodide  of  jiotas- 
sium,  iodine  being  thus  set  free  in  amount  equivalent  to  the 
effective  clilorine,  and  coloring  the  liciuid  brown.  A  nor- 
mal solution  of  hi/poHidphite  of  soda  is  then  added,  in  suc- 
cessive measured  quantities,  until  the  color  vanishes,  when 
the  quantity  of  hyposulpliite  that  has  been  used  will  he  a 
datum  for  the  calculation  uf  the  value.  ^Iitny  other  meth- 
ods, similar  in  principle,  have  been  used.  A  first-c^a.^s, 
fresh-made  ariiclo  should  furnish  28  to  30  per  cent,  of  ef- 
fective chlorine. 

Ili/pochloiife  of  Mtigur^ia. — This,  in  solution — formed 
either  by  passing  chlorine  into  a  mixture  of  magnesia  with 
water,  or  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime 
with  sulphate  of  magnesia — is  recommended  for  bleaching 
uses  by  Bolley,  on  the  grounds  that  its  action  is  more  rapid 
tlian  common  bleachinp;-powder  by  reason  of  the  more 
ready  decomposition  of  the  magnesia  compound,  and  that 
magnesic  hydrate  is  less  caustic,  and  hence  less  liable  to 
injure  delicate  fabrics,  than  the  calcic  hydrate. 

lIi:.\KY  "WtrtTZ. 

H^*pochon'dria  (pl.)»  [Gr.  Ti  vToxoi-Spta,  the  regions 
"under  the  cariilagcs"],  in  an.atomy,  the  regions  of  the 
abdomen  on  eilher  side  of  tho  e]  igastrium.  The  name  is 
alro  given  to  tho  diseased  condition  of  late  more  frequently 
called  hypochondriasis  by  the  medical  profession. 

Hypochondri'asis  [ro-callcd  from  tho  old  belief  that 
the  hypochondria  wcro  the  scats  of  tho  disease],  a  morbid 
state  of  mind,  moro  common  in  men  than  in  women,  in 
which  tho  patient  imagines  that  ho  sutlers  from  diseases 
which  ho  does  not  posrcss,  and  in  which  he  sufTcrs  froia 
subjective  sensations  entirely  unaccounted  for  by  the  ob- 
jective signs  of  dircaso  iu  his  case.  Tho  disease  itself  is 
real.  It  may  result  from  dyspepsia,  from  Ecxi;al  excess, 
or  from  other  causes  interfering  with  tb.o  nutrition  of  tho 
nerve-centres.  Tl.c  disease  may  amount  to  positive  in- 
sanity, and  is  then  classed  fis  melancholia,  J'cdicuio  and 
hygienic  regimen  often  do  but  little  good.  Chccrfid  com- 
panionship, fichinr,  hunting,  and  boating,  long  journeys, 
even  tho  reading  of  well-sclcctcd  novels — in  fact,  arything 
which  will  divert  the  mind  from  its  habit  of  morbid  self- 
observation — will  bo  found  useful. 

Ilypocor'acoid  [Gr.  vtto,  " under,"  Kcipaf,  "crow,"  and 
c(6o?.  *■  form  "J,  the  inferior  bone  connccttd  with  tho  inside 
of  tho  great  scapular  girdle  of  the  typical  fishes.  It  is  ono 
of  three  bones  which  together  arc  homologous  with  tho 
intrascapular  or  coracoid  cartilage  of  the  ganoid  fishes, 
and  was  regarded  by  Cuvier  as  the  ulna;  by  Owen,  as  tho 
radius  :  by  Gegenbaiir,  as  the  prccoraeoid  ;  and  by  Parker, 
as  the  coracoid.  Tiicodorc  Gill. 

Ilypocy'cloid  [Or.  un-o.  "  under,"  *'  within,"  and  kvk\o~ 
ct6^s.  *' circular''],  a  curve  whose  course  is  generatid  by  a 
]»oint  iu  the  circumference  of  a  circle  roiling  on  the  con- 
cave side  of  a  fixed  circle.  When  the  rolling  circle  has  a 
radius  equal  to  just  half  that  of  the  fixed  circle,  ono  revo- 
lution of  the  smaller  circle  will  generate  a  hy])ocycIoid 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  greater  circle.  If  the  rolling 
circle  is  the  larger,  the  hypoej'cloid  becomes  equivalent  to 
an  epicycloid.  If  the  generating  point  of  a  hypeeycloid 
be  in  the  plane  of  the  rolling  circle,  but  not  in  its  circum- 
ference, the  curve  generated  is  a  hypotroehoid;  and  if  tho 
r.adius  of  the  fixed  circle  is  double  that  of  the  rolling  one, 
the  liypotrochoid  becomes  an  ellipse. 

Ilyp'o^enc  [from  tho  Or.  vwd,  •*  under,"  and  yiVoMoi, 
*M<)  be"  or  "  to  be  born  "].  a  term  in  geology.  ])ro])Osed  by 
Lyell  to  designate  roeks  tliat  arc  nether-formed,  or  formed 
at  great  depths,  nnd  consequently  underlie  sedimentary 
and  ejected  volcanic  rocks,  which  are  of  superficial  origin. 
(Jranito,  gneiss,  and  diorito  arc  examples  of  h^'pogcno 
rocks. 

Ilvponitric  Acid.  Pee  NixRocrN,  by  PnoF.  C.  F. 
rnvNPi.r.i!.  Vu.  I)..  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Ilypophos'phites,  salts  of  hypophosphorousacid.  In 
medicme  the  term  is  currently  used  as  referring  to  potas- 
sium, sodium,  and  calcium  hypophosphite,  which  arc  con- 
sidered by  some  to  yield  the  mcdicinnl  effects  of  phos- 
phorus, while  Uaa  from  the  laffcr's  jioisonous  qualities. 
They  were  not  loni;  since  highly  vaunted  as  remedies  for 
consumption,  but  have  not  sustained  their  reputation  in 
that  particular.     (See  Pno<irnoRis.)       EnwAim  Cimitis. 

Ilypophosphoroiis  Acid  and  Ilypophosphiles, 
Pee  I'Hosi-iioKi  s,  by  Pitor.  C  F.  CuASDLnu,  Pii.  D.,  j>I.  D., 
LL.D. 


HYPOPHTHALMIDiE-HYPSOMETRY. 


10«1 


Ilypophthal'midoE  [Gr.  6to." under  —i.  c.  "inferior 
or  1..W  .l„wu  "-i^aaAMM,  "c.vc,"  »nd  ill";  the  family 
terminal  ion],  a  faiuilv  of  nemaloKnatiii  or  silurouls  distin- 
cuishca  bv  the  persistent  distinction  and  very  sliclil  mod- 
ifieation  of  llic  anterior  dorsal  vertebrie.  and  Willi  the  head 
dcnresfcd;  oiiereula  dcvclu|,cd;  Ihe  inferior  pharyngeal 
holies  united  for  their  entire  length  ;  branchioste-a  rays 
nnineroiis;  the  dorsal  lin  developed  from  the  caudal  por- 
tion of  the  vertebral  column:  and  the  skin  naked.  Ihis 
faniilv  is  confined  to  South  America,  and  is  represented 
thcre'i.y  two  genera—//-//'"/''"''"'"'""-"'"'  i^'^*''>"''  species 
and  //.•,'.,7e.„»,  with  a  single  one.  These  differ  from  all 
other  repVesentatives  of  the  order  in  the  seiiaralion  of  the 
anterior  veriebric  in  contradistinction  to  their  eonnucneo 
into  one,  as  in  the  other  members  of  Ihe  group  ;  the  eyes 
arc  situated  very  low  down  behind  and  below  the  angle  of 
the  mouth;  and' from  this  peculiarity  Ihe  typical  genusand 
family  have  received  their  names.  In  other  respects  they 
hue  fonsiderablo  superficial  resemblance  to  the  cat-fishes 
of  our  own  waters.  TiiKOiJOUE  Gill. 

Ilyposul'pliitCS,  salts  of  hyposulphurous  acid.  Me- 
dicinally, the  alkaline  hyposulphites  may  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  corresponding  sulphites.  (Sec  .SuL- 
PiiiTKs.)  KowAuu  Crims. 

Ilyposulpliurous  and  Ilyposulphuric  Acids, 
Hyposulphites  and  Ilyposulphatcs.  Sec  Si  Liiitit, 
by  I'll"!-,  r.  V.  CiiANiii.Kii,  Pit.  !>.,  M-  D-i  LL-D- 

Ilypotlicca'tion  [Ur.  iiro,  ''under,"  and  riSijui,  to 
"place"].  In  the  civil  law  this  was  a  kind  of  pledge  in 
which  the  possession  of  the  thing  pledged  remamed  with 
the  .Icblor  instead  of  being  delivered  to  the  creditor  or 
lender,  as  in  eases  of  pledge  properly  so  called.  Strictly 
speakin',  it  applies  to  iminovablo  things,  not  susceptible 
of  delivery  from  hand  to  hand.  (See  Plkikik.)  The  tcrni 
is  but  little  used  at  common  law,  but  is  sometimes  employed 
with  reference  to  bottomry  bonds,  which  arc  given  to  ob- 
tain a  loan  of  money  by  making  a  vessel  security  for  tho 
repayment.    (See  liorroMiiy.) 

(;ko:iue  Chask.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwionr. 
llypoth'csis  [(Jr.  irTdSetru,  from  vworWrii^i,  to  "place 
under,"  to  "  sujipose"],  a  judgment  which  is  provisionally 
proposed  as  an  explanation  for  some  fact  or  group  of  lacts 
in  science,  and  which  may  he  discarded  if  found  untrue. 
When  an  examination  of  a  sufileicnt  number  of  tho  facts 
of  the  case  shows  that  the  hypothesis  will  stand  tho  tests 
of  exporienee,  and  is  not  inconsistent  with  known  facts  and 
prini-iples,  it  becomes  a  lhci>n/.    Tho  lii/potliciin  is  tho  work 
of  illla^'inalion.  the  t/iroiy/  the  fruit  of  observation  and  rea- 
soning?   The  lii/jmihciU   is   the  temporary  scafl'olding  by 
means  of  which' the  arch,  tho  perfect  theory,  is  constructed. 
Ilypsom'otry  [l!r.  i;i;<o!,  "  height,"  and  ^irpov,  "  meas- 
ure"), a.  branch  of  geodesy  which  treats  of  the  measure- 
ment of  heighls,  cither  absolute,  when  referring  to  the  sea- 
level,  or  relative,  between  any  two  distant  jilaces  on   Iho 
earth's  surface.  There  arc  three  jirineipal  and  iiidepeiidenl 
methods  in  use.    Tho  first  and  most  aceuratc  depends  on  llic 
property  of  (luids  when  at  rest  to  jirescnt  their  surfaces  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  gravity  ;  the  second  depends 
on  the  angular  measure  of  elevation,  in  combination  with 
Iho  kno'.vn  distance  of  the  object,  and  having  regard  to 
tho  effect  of  atmospheric  refraction:    tho  third   and  least 
accurate  method  depends  on  the  law  of  tho  decrease  of  pres- 
sure of  the  atniosphcre  willi  an  increase  of  altitude.     The 
first  method  cmplovs  Ihe  levelling  instrument,  the  second 
tho  theodolilc,  Ihe  third  the  barometer.     Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  aneroid  baromeler  (an  inslrumont  of  pre- 
cision and  of  great  simplicity  and  iiortability)  the  molhod 
of  measuring  differences  of  elevations  by  means  of  Iheteni- 
peralnreof  boiling  water  has  almost  been  abandoned;  it 
depends  on  the  kiiown  relation  between  the  variations  in 
the  atnios]iheric  pressure  and  the  corresponding  changes  in 
tho  boiling-point  of  water,  as  measured  by  a  very  Bcnsilive 
Iherinomcter;  Ihe  results,  however,  aro  subject  to  eonsiiler- 
ablc  unecrlainly.     The  aenond  or  Irigononielrical  method 
is  the  only  one  applioablc  in  ease  one  or  both  stations  aro 
inaccessible. 

(I)  Spirit  levelling  is  generally  conducted  as  follows: 
The  levelling  instrument  is  set  up  nearly  midway  between 
any  two  oonsvcutivo  stations,  A  and  li,  on  the  line  of  levels, 
and  after  its  ailjuslment  the  readings  of  the  slaves  placed 
over  Ihe  stations  aro  siicceBsively  taken  :  tho  lino  of  sight 
having  been  made  horizontal,  the  difference  in  the  readings 
cquals'lhe  differenecof  heighls  (A— I!).  The  inslrument  is 
next  placed  miilwav  between  stations  li  and  (',  and  Iho 
difference  of  heights  (B— I')  i»  ascerlaine.l  in  a  similar  way ; 
this  process  is  repealed  until  Ihe  lerminal  point  is  reached, 
which  is  freqiicully  many  hundred  miles  distiint  from  tho 
starting  point.  Tlie  principal  adjustment  of  the  inslrunient 
consists  in  placing  Ihe  optical  axis  or  lino  of  eollimation, 
asdelerinincd  by  the  centre  of  Ihe  objective  and  tho  intersec- 


tion of  the  cross-threads,  parallel  to  a  tangent  to  the  level, 

thus    rendering   the  sight-lino    horiiontol.     For   aeeuralo 

measure  tho  level  must  bo  very  sensitive;  it  is  filled  with 

Fig.  1. 


Level, 
alcohol  or  ether,  and  ils  inner  surface  is  generally  ground 
to  a,  radius  between  50  and  250  metres,  and  its  least  count 
usually  varies  between  a  few  seconds  and  less  than  a  single 
second  for  the  best  levels.     The  magnifying  jiower  of  Ihe 
telescope  emjiloyed  is  generally  within  the  limits  of  :;0  and 
JO  for  the  better  class  of  instruments.    To  render  the  effect 
of  any  imperfection  in  tho  yarious  adjustments  the  least 
possible,  also  to  make  the  effect  of  redaction  in  the  line  of 
sight  and  of  the  earth's  curvature  insensible,  the  instrument 
is'placcd  midway  between  any  two  stations;  if  this  .should 
not  be  the  case,  corrections  for  difference  of  refraction  and 
for  difference  of  curvature  for  tho  distances  to  the  staves 
must  be  ap)ilied.     This  is  done  readily  by  means  of  tables. 
The  distances  maybe  stepped  off",  or  may  be  measured  by 
a  tape-line,  but  arc  most  readily  ascertained  by  a  telemeter 
arrangement  in  the  telescope;  such,  for  instance,  as  two 
horizontal  threads  equidistant  from  the  central  thread.  Iho 
number  of  divisions  on  the  staff  includeil   between   them 
being  read  oil',  from  which  tho  dislanee  becomes  known. 
If  tlu;  distance  between  telescope  and  sliiff  isnot  limited  by 
Ihe  slope  or  configuration  of  the  ground,  il  should  be  taken 
as  great  as  the  optical  power  of  the  instrument  and  the 
sensibility  of  the  level  will  permit  without   detrimenl  to 
accuracy  :  ordinarily,  the  distance  varies  hetwern  !>»  and 
150  mitres,  though  occasionally  it  may  even  be  ilouble  the 
last-mentioned  distance.     The  staff  should  he  divi.led  deei- 
mally  (the  unit  being  the  metre  or  foot) ;  and  if  rend  by  tho 
observer  Ihrough  the  telescope,  which  is  preferable,  should 
ho  divided  into  block  epaces  willi  block  figures,  so  as  to  be 
seen  at  the  greatest  jiossible  distance  ;  if  Ihe  pointing  is  lo 
he  made  by  means  of  a  movable  largcl,  lime  will  be  saved, 
after  the  assistant  has  placed  the  target  very  nearly  at  the 
correct  height,  by  effecting  tho  exact  pointing  Ihrough  dis- 
levelling  the  instrument  and  eorreeliug  Ihe  result  for  change 
of  level?     Uespecting    tho    accuracy  atlainable,   the  mean 
error  may  be  staled  to  be  about  -jjoo  "''  ""-'  ''''*l'""'''  f'"" 
telescope's  magnifying  ten  times,  hut  will  decrease  lo  about 
„..t...  with    the"  best  instruments.      ]5y  convention,  tho 
average  surface  of  the  ocean  has  been  chosen  as  the  zero- 
level  from  which  to  count  abscdule  heighls:  lo  I'onueet  a 
lino  of  levels  with  it  a  scries  <d'  consecutive  high  and  low 
waters  must  be  observed,  from  which  the  mean  or  halt-licle 
level  is  to  be  deduced.     It  follows  that  if  we  could  level 
from  the  enualor  to  the  pole,  we  would  find  no  dillerciiee  ol 
height,  though  we  ni)proaehed  Ihe  ei.rlh's  cenlie  by  nearly 
K!  miles.  The  difference  of  height  between  any  two  distant 
Blalions  should  be  Ihe  same,  no  matter  over  what  route  the 
levels  have  been  carried;  Ihat  is,  the  local  defieclions  ol 
the  direelion  of  gravity  will  not  affect  the  result,  provide.l 
the  inlermediate  slalions  have  not  been  loi>  hir  aparl   in 
passin-  over  a  region  of  rapidly  ehangiiig  deviations  ol  Ihe 
plumbriine.  (For  detailed  infornialion  the  reader  may  eon- 
suit  TlK-mrtiKhc  widprurtlHchr  A  ulrilmi;/  sum  NirelUm,.  von 
S.  Stamiteii  (Wien,  ISI5);    7;ihl<„  „/  ll.-!,,l,t>.  ,ic.  </w.r. 
iniiicd  III/  llir  (Imil   rriijiinnmellu-iU  .Sm-r,;/   ;/  fiiiliil  (Cal- 
cultn,  ISfii!) ;  Nmlhiimit  ile  prfcUion  dc  la  Sinnac,  nmn,  In 
dii;i-ilmi  do.  A.  Hirtoh  ct  E.  Pluntamour  (Qcnive,    liftle, 

Lyon,  IH71).)  '     .       .  ... 

(2)  Trigonometrical  levelling  consists  in  measuring  the 
vertical  angle  bi'lween  Ihe  zenilli  of  Ihe  slalion  occupied  mid 
tho  ilislallt  ohiect  Ihe  beighl  of  which  is  lo  be  d.tcrmined  :  I  he 
hori/.onlal  dislanee  to  Ihis  object  must  he  known,  and  is  gen- 
erally given  by  triangulati and  the  measureil  angle  must 

bo  increased  iin  account  of  refraclion,  which  may  be  taken 
roughly  ns  proportional  to  the  length  of  are  of  junclion, 
and  onlinarilv  ei|nal  to  about  ,',  of  the  corresponrling 
nnr-le  al  ihe  earth's  centre.  Wc  may  either  inensiire  Iho 
double   zeiiilh  distance— one-half  of   Ihe    operation    with 


1082 


HYPSOMETRY. 


position  of  theodolite,  say  circle  left,  the  other  half  with 
circle  right  (the  instrameut  having  been  turned  1S0°  in 
azimuth) — or  if  the  zenith  point  (or  horizontal  point)  of 
the  vertical  circle  be  previously  determiucil,  it  will  suffice 
to  measure  the  single  zenith  distance  {or  altitude,  a  doprcs- 
sion  being  a  negative  altitude).     Irrespective  of  other  ad- 


justments of  the  theod- 
olite, those  for  eolliina- 
tion,  for  vertieality  of 
the  vertical  axis,  and 
for  horizontality  of  the 
horizontal  axis  of  the 
telescope  must  be  care- 
fully attended  to  ;  the 
observer  should  also  ex- 
amine the  vertieality  of 
the  plane  of  his  circle 
to  the  last-named  axis. 
The  principle  of  rejieti- 
tion  (use  of  the  repeat- 
ing circle)  is  not  recom- 
mended unless  the  grad- 
uation be  very  inferior 
in  comparison  with  the 
optical  power  of  the  tel- 
escope and  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  level ; 
the  accuracy  depends 
mainly  on  the  level, 
which  must  be  read  be- 
fore and  after  reversal. 
We  may  also  measure 
ditferences  of  zenith 
distances  or  small   an- 


KiG.  2. 


Theodolite. 


gles  of  elevation  (or  depression)  micrometrically,  either 
by  an  eye-piece  micrometer  or  by  a  micrometer  screw,  as 
shown  in  the  cut  of  the  levelling  instrument.  All  measures 
of  zenith  distances  are  affected  by  any  deflection  of  the 
plumb-lines  which  may  exist  in  the  vertical  planes  of  the 
stations,  but  the  uncertainties  in  the  results  for  height  de- 
pend chiefly  on  the  variations  of  the  atmospheric  refrac- 
tion, on  account  of  which,  for  accurate  work,  the  distances 
may  be  limited  to  about  20  and  2j  kilometres  (say  12  and 
15  statute  miles).  For  such  distances  very  accurate  results 
may  be  had  by  observing  only  within  about  two  hours  of 
apparent  noon,  during  which  period  the  refraction  is  steady 
and  is  near  its  minimum  value;  observations  taken  on  ob- 
jects at  great  distances,  say  100  kilometres  and  above, 
should  of  necessity  be  restricted  to  this  period  of  the  day 
(from  10  A.  M.  to  2' p.  M.).  Although  the  refraction  exhibits 
daily  variation,  and  is  a  function  of  the  temperature  and 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  yet  it  is  extremely  irregular; 
in  its  ordinary  variations  the  coefficient  keeps  within 
the  range  of  ^  to  ^g,  but  occasionally  and  abnormally  it 
may  be  several  times  greater,  or  it  may  become  zero,  or 
even  take  a  negative  value.  The  refraction  is  slightly 
greater  for  lines  crossing  water  than  for  lines  over  laud; 
it  diminishes  with  altitude  and  with  increasing  tempera- 
ture, but  increases  with  increasing  atmospheric  pressure; 
in  general,  its  value  depends  on  the  law  of  the  distribution 
of  temperature  with  height.  Thus,  the  more  rapid  the  de- 
crease of  temperature  the  smaller  the  refraction,  and  the 
slower  the  decrease  of  temperature  the  greater  the  refrac- 
tion ;  with  a  suihcicntly  rapid  decrease  of  temperature  it 
may  become  zero,  with  no  decrease,  or  for  a  constant  tem- 
perature the  refraction  is  large,and  will  still  increase  should 
the  temperature  increase  with  height.  If  we  measure  only 
one  zenith  distance,  a  value  of  the  refraction  must  bo 
adopted  suitable  to  the  circumstances;  if  we  measure  the 
zenith  distances  at  the  two  stations,  the  differeneo  in  the  two 
results  for  diflercnce  of  heights  will  indicate  a  change  in 
the  value  of  the  coeffieieut  and  the  error  of  the  assumed 
value  combined :  if  we  measure  reciprocal  and  simultaneous 
zenith  distances,  the  coefficient  of  refraction  can  bo  elim- 
inated under  the  supposition  that  it  is  the  same  at  each 
station,  and  that  there  is  no  effect  from  station  errors,  and 
from  such  measures  its  value  may  bo  determined.  If,  be- 
sides, the  difl"erence  of  level  between  the  two  stations  has 
been  ascertained  by  the  spirit-level,  the  angle  of  refraction 
may  be  deduced  for  each  station,  and  we  shall  generally 
find  the  refraction  at  the  upper  station  less  than  at  the 
lower  one.  Observations  of  the  sea-horizon  in  connection 
with  au  assumed  value  for  the  refraction  will  roughly  de- 
termine the  height  of  the  station  ;  the  state  of  the  tide  may 
also  be  cont^idered.  (For  the  usual  trigonometrical  formula) 
applying  to  these  cases  see  art.  Oeoi>ksy,  also  the  account  of 
the  principal  triangulation  of  the  ordnance  survey  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  by  Lieut. -Col.  II.  James  (London 
I85S).) 

In  Xo9.  147S-1480  and  1587-1500  of  the  Antronomiache 
Nachrtchten    (IStit'i),    Dr.    Bauernfeind   has    developed   at 


length  the  equation  to  the  path  of  a  ray  of  Tight  passing 
througli  the  atmosphere,  based  upon  Laplace's  differential 
equation  for  the  atmospheric  refraction.  {Mecuniqnc  Celeste, 
tome  iv.  p.  24G.)  An  application  of  this  to  experiments 
made  in  California  will  be  tound  in  Count  Sttrvet/  licport  for 
1871,  Appendix  No.  II. 

(3)  Passing  now  to  the  measure  of  heights  by  means  of 
the  barometer  {see  IJauometek),  this  instrument,  in  the 
form  of  a  mercurial  barometer,  may  be  regarded  as  essen- 
tially a  balance  in  which,  under  the  influence  of  gravity, 
the  mass  of  the  superincumbent  atmosphere  is  equilibrated 
by  a  mass  of  mercury:  in  tlie  Anehou)  IIarometer  (which 
see),  on  the  contrary,  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  counter- 
acted by  the  elasticity  of  a  corrugated  metallic  vessel  (gen- 
erally filled  with  gas,  sometimes  supplied  with  a  spring).  A 
change  of  gravity  could  not  therefore  be  indicated  by  an 
instrument  of  tlic  lirst  form,  but  would  be  by  one  of  the 
second  form.  Thus,  if  two  such  instruments,  side  by  side, 
were  to  read  alike  at  the  equator,  they  would,  if  they  could 
be  trunsported  to  the  Pole,  differ  at  the  latter  jdace,  the 
mercurial  barometer  remaining  unehnnged,  but  the  aneroid 
indicating  the  grentcr  pressure  existing  at  the  Pole.  This 
distinction  should  be  kept  in  view  in  hypsometry  :  the  ane- 
roid barometer,  however,  is  generally  used  only  as  a  difl"er- 
eutial  instrument,  and  as  such  maypo;^soss  great  accuracy, 
especially  when  the  following  reductions  arc  carefully  at- 
tended to. 

According  to  Mariottc's  law,  the  elastic  force  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  proportional  to  its  density:  further,  the  den- 
sities decrease  in  a  geometrical  progression  when  the  alti- 
!  tudcs  increase  in  an  arithmetical  one;    this  leads  directly 
;  to  the  simple  logarithmic  formula  for  the  difference  of 

height,  //^=  AT  log —,  where  6  and  h'  are  the  respective 

heights  of  the  mercurial  columns  at  the  lower  and  upper 
stations,  and  N  represents  a  numerical  coefficient,  found 
either  theoretically  or  practically  by  comparisons  of  results 
by  the  spirit-level  or  vertical  angles  and  the  barometric 
pressure.  iV  equals  nearly  IS, 400  metres.  The  mercurial 
columns  should  be  at  the  same  temperature;  if  not,  they 
may  be  reduced  to  0°  C,  or  H  may  be  corrected  by  means 

log  7-  —  "TT:;^  )-     Since  wo  must  rise 
6         1 2  (  o  0  / 

higher  in  warmer  than  in  cooler  air  for  the  same  decrease 
in  height  of  the  mercurial  column,  a  correction  for  tempera- 
ture is  needed;  taking  the  cocflieicnt  of  expau>ion  for  air 
=  j^3  for  the  centigrade  scale,  and  for  t  and  t'  the  atmo- 
spheric temperatures  at  the  lower  and  upper  stations,  the 

factor  becomes  jl-f  0.00367  ~^'~)?    fm'tlitr,  multiplying 

with  the  factors  (1 +  0.00262  cos  2.^)  to  allow  for  change  of 

/  2n  -1-  h\ 

gravity  with  change  of  latitude  <f),  and  with  1 1  H -  I,  to 

allow  for  decrease  of  gravity  with  height,  a  being  the 
altitude  of  the  lower  station  above  the  sea,  R  the  earth's 
radius  (about  0.'i(U'i740  metres),  and  h  an  approximate  value 
for  //,  we  obtain  finally  the  expression — 

^=l84oo"^^log^,-Y^^^+y^^^^ 

1 1  -H    *         I .     This  formula  is  only  intended  as  a  typical 

one;  numerous  expressions  have  been  given  in  various 
forms,  of  greater  or  less  complexity,  with  various  numeri- 
cal coefficients,  for  different  units,  and  for  use  either  with  or 
without  logarithms,  most  of  them  accompanied  by  tables  to 
facilitate  their  application.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes — those  adapted  to  a  mean  state  of  humidity  of  the 
air,  such  as  Laplace's  (see  Mecauiquc  (VUstc,  tome  iv.  p. 
292),  and  those  taking  into  consideration  the  actual  amount 
of  the  vapor  pressure,  such  as  Besscl's  (see  AHtnmoiitische 
XnvhrU-htnt,  Nos.  279,  May,  1835.  and  :J56,  357,  Sept.,  1838), 
which  contain  perhaps  the  most  complete  investigation 
made  on  the  subject.  The  first  height  determined  baro- 
metrically was  that  of  the  Puy  de  i>omo  in  1(>48.  at  the 
suggestion  of  Pascal,  and  I>r.  Ilallcy  was  the  first  (in  1080} 
to  establish  the  correct  theoretical  basis  for  computation  of 
heights;  many  of  the  formula}  coustruetcd  since  his  time 
have  been  collected  by  Dr.  Kiihlmann.  who  also  gives  an  ex- 
tensive list  of  authors  showing  the  great  extent  of  the  lit- 
erature on  the  barometer.  (See  Vie  harometyischcn  Jl'dhen- 
nicHnutiffen,  etc.,  von  Dk.  R.  Ht'HLMANN,  Leipsic,  1870.  For 
a  selection  of  formula)  and  tables,  sec  the  Smithsonian 
Mct^-oroloffical  and  Physiotojical  Tables,  by  Dn.  A.  GUYOT, 
AVasbington,  1850.) 

Respecting  the  accuracy  in  resulting  heights  attainable 
by  means  of  the  barometer  very  divergent  opinions  exist, 
but  it  is  believed  that  with  close  attention  to  sources  of 
error,  instrumental  and  local,  and  especially  to  the  efl"ect 
of   tho  daily  variation   of  the  pressure  and  temperature, 


IIYRACEUM— HYRCANUS. 


1083 


Flo.  3. 


great  relative  accuracy  may  bo  reached.  Errors  of  con- 
siderable muguiiiidc  may  creep  in  if  tlie  two  stations  are 
at  a  great  di.-tuiice  horizonlally,  but  tlicy  will  arise  princi- 
pally from  the  difiicully  uf  ascertaining  the  true  tempera- 
ture of  the  intervening  stratum  of  air,  whieh  cannot  be 
taken  equal  to  ihe  mean  of  the  temperature  observed  at 
the  lower  and  upper  stations;  indeed,  the  problem  has 
been  inverted,  ami  from  the  known  (by  level  or  triangula- 
tion)  ditfercnec  of  height  and  tlio  observed  pressures  the 
temperature  of  the  air  has  been  inferred.  In  this  way  it 
was  ascertained  that  the  intervening  air  partakes  very  con- 
siderably less  of  Ihe  daily  varialion  of  tem|)er:iture  than 
what  is  found  by  direct  observations  near  the  eartli's  sur- 
face. Ramond  (about  1810)  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
to  notice  the  relation  betiveen  barometrically-deduced 
heights  and  the  time  of  the  day  when  these  measures  were 
taken ;  Kreil  proposed  the  use  of  the  annual  meaus  of 
pressure  and  temperature  to  secure  reliable  results.  I'lauta- 
mour  and  Itiihlinann  have  given  special  attention  to  this 
subject;  it  appears  that  diflercnccs  of  heights,  barometri- 
cally determined,  reach  their  maximum  value  shortly  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  greatest  heat  of  the  day  ;  this  is  fully 
developed  on  clear  days,  less  so  in  cloudy  weather ;  in  win- 
ter, differences  of  heights  are  generally  found  too  small,  and 
too  great  in  summer;  heights  deduced  from  annual  means 
differ  little  from  the  truth.  For  accurate  hypsometric 
measures  the  hours  recommended  arc  the  following :  begin- 
ning with  March  and  ending  with  October,  S,  7A,  7,  6\,  GJ, 
7,  S,  10  A.  M.,  and  11.  7,  7,  9*,  flj.  7J,  0  r.  M.  (See  Cuatl  Sur- 
vci/  Hepurl  for  I.S71,  Appendi.i  No.  11.) 

To  correct  or  reduce  to  a  given  place  the  reading  (-4)  of 
an  aneroid  to  the  corresponding  reading  (B)  of  a  mer- 
curial barometer,  we  may  use  the  relation  It  =  A  -^-x-^-y 
((_  („l  +  I  {;) —/)„!,  where  J- is  an  index  correction,  y  is  a 
temperature  coelfieient,  and  z  a  pressure  coefficient;  which 
three  quantities  have  to  be  ascertained  e.\perimentally  for 
each  instrument,  and  require  to  be  tested  from  time  to  time, 
to  make  sure  of  their  constancy,  or  otherwise  allow  for 
change.  In  one  of  the  latest  forms  of  the  instrument,  in 
whieh  the  elastic  chamber  is  doing  no  mechanical  work,  it 
baa  been  provided  with  a  long  index-arm,  and  the  reading 
is  made  after  bringing  two  lines  to  coincidence  by  means 
of  a  screw  (made  by  J.  Goldschmid  of  ZUrich). 

When  the  temperature  of  the  boiling-point  of  water  has 
been  observeil,  wo  may  linil  the  corresponding  indication 
of  a  mercurial  barometer  by  means  of  Kegnault's  table, 
revised  by  A.  Morit?,,  as  given  by  A. 

Guyot  in  the  Smilhmminn  Mrtroro- 
liiijlcal  and  Plii/nirnl  Tuhlca  {Mi»ccl- 
laneoM  Collecii'm  Xo.  31,  Washing- 
ton, 1859).  The  idea  of  measuring 
heights  by  means  of  the  temperature 
of  boiling  waleroriginatcd  in  the  early 

f)art  of  the  last  century  with  Fahrcn- 
leit  i/'lill.  7V.in».,  vol.  xxxiii.)  and 
Cavallo  (/'/iiV.  7V'iii<i.,  vol.  Ixxi.);  the 
apparatus  itself  is  duo  to  Dr.  Wollas- 
ton  (Pkil.  rrriii..,  1817,  part  ii.). 
I'ig.  ;t  presents  the  instrument  as  made 
by  Cascllaof  Lon'Ion. 

The  idea  of  delineating  a  surface 
by  contour-lines,  or  lines  of  equal 
level,  originated  in  I7:(7  with  the 
Academician  Buaehe,  w  ho  applied  the 
principle  to  lines  of  eiiual  depth,  but 
refers  also  to  those  of  equal  elevation. 
A  general  hypsometric  atlas  was  pub- 
lished atWintcrthur  in  IS.^0  by  J.  M. 
Zieglcr,  hut  beautiful  and  most  in- 
structive applications  of  tliis  princi- 
pie  may  bo  seen  in  the  hypsomctrio 

charts  in  Dr.  Petcrmann's  Ocoyraphitclicn  Milthribmiicii 
(dotha) ;  for  instance,  in  No.  ii.,  1875.         C.  A.  Scmott. 

Ilyrn'ceiim,  a  substance  imported  from  Ihe  Capo  of 

(i J   Il.qie.  and  now  believed  to  bo  Ihe  excrement  of  the 

klip-ilas  (////r/ij-  Cnpentin).  ( ,'<ie  IIvii.vx.)  It  is  a  brown 
pitch  like  substance,  having  much  the  taste  ami  smell  of 
American  castoronm,  for  which  it  has  been  used  us  a  sub- 
stitute. It  was  formerly  collected  by  the  colonists  for  a 
ferlilizcr,  but  the  supply  has  given  out. 

Ilyrac'id.TC  [Or.  iipof,  "mouse,"  and  idir,  the  family 
termination],  the  only  existing  family  of  mammals  of  the 
order  llyracoidca,  at  oneo  distinguishable  by  the  rabbit- 
like  form  of  the  body  anil  the  small  size  of  the  animals 
(about  that  of  the  rai.bill,  combined  with  the  peculiarities 
noticed  under  the  ordinal  name.  The  best  known  species 
of  the  family  is  Ili/ruj-  .SViKiidcm,  an  inhabitant  of  Pales- 
tine, known  under  the  vernnoular  designation  of  ii-iti',  and 
whoso  ancient  designation  has  bei'n  translated  in  the  ae- 
oepted    version    of   the   liible,  oouey  — i.   c.   rabbit.      The 


species  is  frequent  in  rocky  regions  in  Palestine.  (See 
Tristram's  Xaturat  Hifluri/O/  the  Bible.)  A  number  of 
other  species  are  found  in  Africa.  Theodoiie  tiii.i.. 

Ifyracoi'dea  [dr.  vpof, "  mouse,"  and  oidt-n, the  super- 
family  affix],  an  order  of  educabilian  placental  or  mono- 
dclph  mammals,  with  feet  whose  inferior  surfaces  are  fur- 
nished with  ]pads  (as  in  rodents  and  carnivores),  toes  (four 
to  the  front,  three  to  the  hind  feet)  with  the  terminal  pha- 
langes encased  in  hoofs  (inner  nail  of  hind  foot  curved)  ; 
fore  feet  with  the  carpal  bones  in  two  iutcrlocking  rows, 
the  cuneiform  extending  inward  and  articulating  with  the 
magnum,  and  thus  forming  an  enlarged  attachment  for  the 
ulna,  which  is  anirorscly  produced,  and  the  unciform  and 
lunar  scparatcil  by  the  interposition  of  the  cuneiform  and 
magnum  ;  hind  feet  with  the  astragalus  at  the  anterior 
portion  extended  and  much  deflected  inward,  articulating 
in  front  only  with  the  navicular ;  teeth  ]icculiar,  the  molars 
resembling  those  of  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  incisors  four 
in  each  jaw,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  next  to  the  symphysis 
with  persistent  pul]is.  long  and  curved,  and  those  of  the 
lower  straight  and  normal.  The  placenta  is  deciduous  and 
zonary.  This  order  has  been  constituted  for  the  reception 
of  the  Hyraeida-,  which  were  formerly  supposed  by  natu- 
ralists to  be  related  to  the  rodents,  but  were  later  (c.  </.  by 
Cuvier,  etc.)  referred  next  to  the  rhinoceros. 

TjiEononr.  Gii.L. 

Ily'rax  [Or.  ipaf,  "mouse"],  a  genus  of  herbivorous 
mammals  belonging  to  the  order  llyracoidca.  These  ani- 
mals were  formerly  classed  with  the  rodents  on  account  of 
superficial  resemblances,  and  Cuvier  considered  them  as 
closely  related  to  the  rhinoceros  from  the  form  of  the  molar 
teeth.  They  are  now  regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct 
order.  In  fully  adult  animals  the  dental  formula  is — in- 
1_1  .        n— 0  ,        4—4  3—3 

cisorsr^;    canines— j;    premolars  ^— ;  molars  ^^. 

The  upper  incisors  arc  large,  triangular,  and  somewhat 
tusk-like  ;  as  in  the  rodents,  they  are  curveil  and  grow  from 
persistent  pulps.  The  lower  incisors  arc  straight  and  nor- 
mal in  their  mode  of  growth.  The  molar  series  strongly 
resembles  that  of  the  rhinoceros  in  miniature.  The  soles 
of  the  feet  are  furnishc<l  with  pads,  as  in  the  rodents  and 
carnivores,  but  the  terminal  joints  arc  furnished  with  hoofs 
or  flat  nails,  four  in  front  and  three  behind.  The  inner- 
most nailofthc  hind  foot  is  peculiarly  curved.  The  astrag- 
alus articulates  in  front  only  with  the  navicular.  There  are 
from  29  to  lU  dorsolumbar  verlebru",  the  greatest  number 
known  in  any  terrestrial  mammal.  The  tail  is  short  or 
wanting,  the  body  is  covered  with  fur,  and  the  snout  or 
muffle  is  split,  as  in  the  rodents,  .'icveral  species  have  been 
described,  but  they  are  found  only  in  Syria  and  Africa, 
where  they  inhabit  rocky  places  and  arc  known  as  damans. 
The  best-known  species  is  perhajis  the  klipdas  ( //.  cii;jc)i«i«) 
from  South  .\friea.  //.  .SVimi'dein  or  J/.  Si/n'tiriia  is  the 
coney  of  the  liil)le,  where  it  is  erroneously  regarded  as  a 
ruminant  from  its  habit  of  moving  the  jaws  constantly  from 
side  to  side.  0.  C.  M.\iisii. 

Hyrca'llia,  an  ancient  district  of  Asia,  the  present 
Mazauderan,  was  bounded  N.  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  E.  and 
S.  by  Parthia,  and  W.  by  Media.  It  was  inhabited  by 
nom'ades  of  rude  and  savage  habits,  and  its  extensive  for- 
ests swarmed  with  wild  beasts,  of  whieh  Ihe  Ilyrcanian 
tiger  is  often  mentioned.  The  honey  of  its  bees  was  much 
appreciated. 

Ilyrcail'us  ['YpKaw],  the  name  of  several  historic  Jews 
of  the  Maccaba;an  period,  of  whom  the  most  noteworthy  are 

(1)  ,ToiiN  llyni'AM-s,  son  and  successor  of  Simon  Macea- 

banis,  prince  and  high  ]iriest  of  the  .lews,  restorer  of  the 
independence  of  ,ludiEn,  and  founder  of  the  monarchy, 
which  continued  in  his  family  till  the  accession  of  llerod. 
When,  in  i:!7  ll.  r.,  Antioehiis  VI  I.  had  established  himself 
on  the  throne  of  Syria,  ho  deterniincd  to  reiluee  .luda'a  to 
its  former  condition  of  a  tributary  province  of  the  Syrian 
monarchy.  Ills  general,  Cenilebeus,  invailed  the  country 
with  a  great  force,  but  was  ilcfeatcd  by  .Judas  and  John 
Ilyrcanus,  two  sons  of  Simon  Maecabieus.  Shortly  alter, 
however,  in  135  ii.  n.,  Simon,  together  with  his  two  sons, 
Judas  and  Mattalhias,  was  assassinated  liy  his  8(.n  in-law. 
Ptolemy.  Ilyrcanus  now  assumed  Ihe  title  of  prince  and 
high  priest,  and  led  an  army  against  Ptolemy,  whom  he 
shut  up  in  the  fortress  of  Dagon,  Meanwhile,  Antioehus 
Sidetcs  invaded  Judica  with  a  large  army,  anil  Ilyrcanus, 
unable  to  meet  him  in  the  field,  retreated  to  Jerusalem, 
where  he  was  besieged  and  pressed  hard  by  Antioehus. 
At  lust  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  in  133  n.  c,  accord- 
ing to  whieh  tbo  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  were  to  be  do- 
molished  and  an  annual  tribute  paid  to  Syria.  Four  years 
aflerwanls  he  followed  .\ntiochii8  with  a  force  of  .lewish 
auxiliaries  on  his  expedition  against  Parlliia.  but  was  for- 
tunate enough  to  escape  Iho  disaster  which  overtook  the 


1084 


HYRE,  DE  LA— HYSTERIA. 


Syrian  king  and  army  by  an  earlier  return  to  Judsea.  As 
soon  as  AnfioehuH  was  dead,  Hyrcanus  hastened  to  secure 
t!ic  independence  of  his  own  reahu,  and  sent  an  cmbas^sy 
to  Rome  in  order  to  get  the  alliance  conL-kided  during  the 
reign  of  Simon  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In  this  he  suc- 
ceeded. He  also  conquered  Siehem  in  Samaria,  destroyed 
the  temple  of  Gerizim,  subdued  Idunia;n,  and  extended  the 
boundaries  of  Judfiea.  Meanwhile,  Demetrius  II.,  the 
brother  and  successor  of  Antiochus,  returned  from  his  cap- 
tivity in  Parthia,  and  prepared  himself  to  invade  .Iuda;a, 
but  was  prevented  by  an  internal  war,  in  which  he  was 
killed,  125  «.  c.  Hyrcanus  now  ruled  for  several  years  in 
peace,  but  at  last,  deeming  himself  strong  enough  for  the 
task,  he  invaded  Samaria  with  a  great  army  and  laid 
siege  to  the  capital.  The  Samarians  invoked  the  assist- 
ance oi'  Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  but  this  king  was  defeated 
by  Antigonus  and  Aristobulus,  two  sons  of  Hyrcanus, 
and  Samaria  was  taken  and  razed  to  the  ground,  109 
B.  c.  Hyrcanus  reigned  three  years  longer,  but  these 
latter  years  of  his  government  were  disturbed  not  a  little 
by  the  quarrels  of  the  two  powerful  socts,  the  Pharisees 
and  SaJducccs.  Hyrcanus  belonged  originally  to  the  for- 
mer party,  but  left  it  and  allied  himself  to  the  latter; 
he  d.  loii  B.  c.  (2)  Joii.v  Hvrcanl's  II.,  grandson  of 
the  foregoing,  son  of  Alexander  Jannieus;  was  appointed 
high  priest  by  Alexandra,  his  mother,  7S  b.  r.,  and  on  her 
death  ((»9  B.  c.)  assumed  the  sovereignty,  which  in  CO  ho 
resigned  to  his  more  energetic  brother,  Aristobulus :  fled 
for  protection  and  assistance  to  Aretas,  king  of  Stony  Ara- 
bia, fir> ;  cng;iged  in  a  civil  war,  but  without  success  until 
G3,  when  lie  was  reinstated  by  Pompey  and  made  high 
priest  and  ctlinarch  ;  was  deprived  of  the  latter  title  49, 
but  in  47  the  actual  sovereignty  was  restored  to  him  by 
Julius  ('xs:ir.  Meanwhile,  his  brother  Aristobulus  and 
Alexander,  son  of  Aristobulus,  who  made  him  much  trouble, 
were  put  to  death  by  the  Romans.  Antipater,  the  able 
lieutenant  of  Hyrcanus,  was  poisoned  with  the  consent  of 
the  higli  priest  44  d.  c,  and  the  young  Herod,  afterwards 
called  the  Great,  a  son  of  Antipater,  became  the  virtual 
ruler.  In  40  B.  c,  Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  induced 
the  Parthians  to  send  an  array  against  Hyrcanus,  who  was 
by  treachery  taken  prisoner,  deprived  of  his  cars,  and  then 
allowed  to  live  in  peace  at  Babylon,  where  he  remained 
until  'S-i  B.  r.,  wlien  he  retarncd  to  Jerusalem,  but,  falling 
under  the  suspicion  of  having  plotted  against  Herod,  he 
was  put  to  death  ;J0  b.  c. 

Ilyre,  de  la  (LAUHEXT),b.  in  France  in  IfiOo,  and  d.in 
Ht.')tl.  He  belongeil  to  the  so-called  school  of  Fontainebleau, 
wliose  founders  were  Primatice  and  Rosso,  and  which  de- 
veloped chierty  under  Italian  influence. 

Hyria,  or  Ilyrium,  an  inland  city  of  ancient  Cala- 
bria in  Southern  Italy,  situated  on  the  Appian  Road,  about 
midway  between  Brundusium  and  Tareiitum.  Herodotus 
represents  it  as  having  been  the  metropolis  of  the  Mcssa- 
pians.  ftiunded  by  a  colony  of  Cretans  on  their  return  from 
Sicily.  Strabo  mentions  that  a  palace  of  one  of  the  ancient 
native  kings  was  sliown  there  in  Iiis  time.  In  early  times 
it  was  a  place  of  importance,  and  near  the  modern  town 
of  Oria  inscriptions  have  been  found  in  the  Messapian  dia- 
lect, and  numerous  coins  in  Roman  charavters  bearing  the 
name  of  Orra.  There  was  at  least  one  other  place  of  the 
same  name  in  Southern  Italy,  ns  is  proved  by  coins  of 
another  class  found  in  Campania. 

IIvnnciitrii(1e,or  Krmentriidc,  a  daughter  of  Eude?, 
eoutit  of  Orleans,  was  married  Dee.  14.  S42.  to  Charles  the 
Bald  ;  tl.  Oct.  ('»,  Sfil).  She  did  not  mix  in  p(dities,  but  many 
religious  institutions  were  founded  and  endowed  by  her. 

llyrtacina,  city  of  Crete,  S.  E.  from  Polyrrhenia,  on 
the  southern  const  of  the  island,  near  the  temple  of  Arte- 
mis Dictynna.  Ruins  have  been  found  by  Mr.  Pashley, 
being  numerous  vestiges  of  polygonal  masonry,  on  a  hill 
near  the  modern  village  of  Temeuia.  Coins  of  the  ancient 
city  are  also  found. 

Hyr'tl  (Joskph),  M.  D.,  b.  Dec.  7,  1811,  at  Eisenstadt, 
Hungary;  was  educated  at  Vienna,  where  in  18;J:J  he  be- 
came prosector  in  anatomy;  was  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Prague  IS:;7-Jj:  professor  of  anatomy  at  Vienna  IS  15-74, 
and  for  a  part  of  the  time  was  rector  of  the  university.  He 
founded  the  Vienna  Museum  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  and 
made  an  incomparably  fine  private  eolieetion  of  materials  il- 
lustrative of  some  defiartments  of  comparative  anatomy 
(now  in  possession  of  Prof.  E.  D.  Cope,  Haddonfield,  N.  J.). 
Hyrtl  was  the  first  German  to  give  much  attention  to  regional 
anatomy,  ami  has  made  many  discoveries  in  human  and 
comparative  histology.  Author  of  J'tipof/mphiachc  Aiinto- 
mif  (2  vols.,  1S47),  Lchrbuch  tier  Auntomic  (1847;  many 
editions  since),  Ilnndbtivh  tier  pro/.- tisc hen  Zfi'glietlerunfjM' 
kniifit  (1S60),  Orhrr  eiitllosf  JVerifn  (1805),  Cebrr  Amp\dlen 
am  Pnrtita  Cynticut  der  FUche  (18G8),  />f>  fihttf/r/tiHiie  der 
menachlichen  Nachjeburt   in  normalen  und  abnormaien   Ver- 


hnltiiinsen  {1S70),  Daa  Nierenbecken  der  Siiugethierc  uud  dea 
Mcnschen  (1870). 

Uysia^9  town  of  Bceotia.  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount 
Cilhicron,  was  situated  on  the  high-road  from  Thebes  to 
Athens,  and  formed  an  important  point  in  the  strategic  dis- 
position to  the  battle  of  l'lat:ea.  In  the  time  of  Pausanins 
it  was  in  ruins;  an  unfinished  temple  of  Apollo  and  a  sacred 
well  were  still  extant;  now  nearly  every  trace  of  it  has  dis- 
appeared. 

Hys'sop  [Gr.  i;<Tau>iros ;  Heb.  f~o6].  the  Hyasopug  ojjfici- 
naliH,  a  half-shrubby  labiate  plant,  a  native  of  Europe, 
sparingly  naturalized  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  an  aromatic  stim- 
ulant, abounding  in  a  volatile  oil.  In  domestic  meilieine 
it  is  a  very  useful  expectorant.  Hedge  hyssop  is  tlie  pop- 
ular name  of  various  species  of  ^/r<(f(o/«,  of  the  order  Seroph- 
ulariaceffi.  As  the  hyssop  of  (Jreek  authors  is  conceded  to 
be  the  common  plant  of  that  name,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  it  was  also  that  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  but 
this  is  by  no  means  certain.  Celsius  has  enumerated  eigh- 
teen different  plants  wliich  have  been  considered  as  the 
scriptural  hyssop.  Dioseorides.  a  Greek  botanist,  described 
two  kinds,  and  the  Talmudists  have  done  the  same,  distin- 
guishing the  wild  hyssop  from  the  garden  plant  used  for 
food.  It  is  mentioned  of  Solomon  that  he  "  spake  of  trees, 
from  the  cedar  tree  that  is  in  Lebanon  even  unto  the  hys- 
sop that  springeth  out  of  the  wall:'*  and  in  Psalm  li.  it 
is  said.  "'  Purge  me  with  hyssop  and  I  shall  be  clean,'*  etc. ; 
from  which  indications  Dr.  J.  F.  Royle  has,  after  a  careful 
study  of  the  ancient  and  modern  notices,  identified  the  hys- 
sop of  Scrijifure  with  the  modern  eapcr-plant  (Cappuria 
spinom,  Linn.),  which  is  still  found  in  abundance  in  Egypt, 
Sinai,  and  Palestine. 

llystaspt'S,  author  of  a  prophctico-apoealyptie  work, 
Vatictnia  N/jfttaspis,  which  was  much  read  by  the  early 
Christians,  and  believed  to  contain  predictions  of  Christ 
and  the  future  of  his  kingdom.  Of  his  life  nothing  is 
known,  and  the  book  itself  has  vanished;  but  it  is  often 
mentioned  by  the  early  Christian  Fathers.  Justin  says  of 
it  that  "the  bad  demons,  in  their  efforts  to  pre\"ent  man's 
knowing  the  truth,  succeeded  in  establishing  a  law  whi'-h 
forbids  the  reading  of  the  j3i^AorYcrTao-T7ov.  .  .  under  penalty 
of  death;  but  the  Christians,  notwithstanding  this  law.  not 
only  read  the  books  themselves,  but  even  incited  the  hea- 
then to  study  them."  Clement  of  Alexandria  says  of  it 
that  '"the  Christians  found  in  it,  even  more  plainly  than 
in  the  books  of  the  Sibyllincs,  references  to  Christ  and  the 
future  of  his  kingdom,  and  especially  a  reference  to  Christ's 
divine  Sonship,  to  the  sufferings  which  awaited  him  and 
his  followers,  and  to  his  final  return." 

Hyste'ria  [from  uorepa.  the  "  womb  "],  a  peculiar  nerv- 
ous atfection  which  in  former  times  was  supposed  to  havo 
had  its  seat  in  the  womb,  but  at  the  present  day  Hasse's 
theory  of  its  origin  is  generally  received — viz.  that  it  arises 
from  a  nutritive  derangement  of  the  general  nervous  sys- 
tem, both  central  an<l  peripheral.  This  may  be  caused  by 
anv  organ  of  the  body  being  diseased,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  it  is  dependent  most  frequently  upon  disor- 
ders of  the  uterus  and  ovaries,  simply  because  these  affcc- 
tious  produce  a  deejier  impression  upon  the  nervous  system. 
Sometimes  irritation  of  the  genitals,  arising  from  excessive 
sexual  intercourse,  has  as  marked  an  influence  on  the  gen- 
eral nervous  system  as  a  well-marked  lesion  of  an  internal 
organ  ;  but  we  must  not  be  too  ready  to  ascribe  a  case  of 
hysteria  to  deranged  sexual  function,  for  Ilasse  attributes 
these  cases  to  a  ])sychical  rather  than  to  a  physical  cause. 
This  condition  of  the  nervous  system  may  also  be  produced 
by  improper  nourishment.  There  is  a  predisposition  to  the 
disease  manifested.  A  tendency,  either  congenital  or  ac- 
quired, plays  a  much  more  important  part  in  inducing  this 
affection  than  all  the  causes  enumerated. 

Hysteria  generally  attacks  women  from  the  age  of  pu- 
berty to  the  decline  of  menstruation.  It  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence among  men,  and  in  them  is  produced  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  in  which  it  is  produced  in  the  opposite  sex. 
Hysteria  may  nmnifest  itself  in  a  great  variety  of  ways; 
in  fact,  it  simulates  almost  every  known  disease,  and  often 
with  the  greatest  care  the  )>ractitioner  is  unable  to  ditler- 
cntiatc  them.  The  most  common  form,  however,  is  llio 
hysterical  fit.  In  some  cases  this  consists  merely  of  the 
twitching  of  the  muscles  of  a  particular  region,  as  of  the 
face,  arm,  or  leg.  In  other  eases  the  whole  body  is  affected 
at  once.  The  patient  generally  laughs  and  cries  alternately; 
this  is  due  to  spasm  of  the  group  of  muscles  which  operate 
in  producing  these  acts.  Another  very  common  accompa- 
niment of  these  paro.xysms  is  the  so-called  t/iobus  ht/tftcn'rim; 
this  consists  in  the  sensation  as  of  a  ball  rising  from  the 
uterus  and  ascending  through  the  abdominal  and  thoracic 
cavities  (o  the  throat,  and  is  caused  by  a  spasmodic  con- 
traction of  the  oesophagus.  The  patient  may  scream,  tear 
her  hair  and  clothes,  and  beat  her  breasts.     In  severe  cases 


HYSTEROTOMY— HYTU. 


1085 


we  sometimes  havo  loss  of  consciousness  and  convulsions; 
when  this  occurs  it  is  nimost  impossible  to  distinguish  it 
from  epilepsy.  The  (its  usually  terminate  with  the  dis- 
charge of  a  large  quantity  of  almost  colorless  urine.  Per- 
haps the  next  most  common  manifestation  of  the  disease  is 
hvpeneslhesia,  either  general  or  localized,  hut  most  fre- 
quently the  lairer.  Vnder  this  heading  would  come  hys- 
terical perilonilis,  in  which  the  patient  will  complain  of 
great  pain  and  tenderness  over  the  region  of  the  abdomen  ; 
she  will  jump  and  cry  "Ut  upon  the  slightest  touch.  Ac- 
companying this  condition  there  will  he  a  rft]>id  pulse  and 
increaseil  temperature.  The  characteristic  of  the  hysterical 
affLclion  is  that  the  pain  is  not  aggravated  upon  deep  pres- 
sure, and  if  you  distract  the  patient's  attention  from  her 
trouble,  you  can  very  often  knead  the  abdnnien  without  the 
least  discomfort  to  her.  The  "  stitch  in  the  side  '*  of  young 
girls  and  women  can  generally  bo  ascribed  to  hysterical 
livpenBslhcsia.  The  opposite  condition,  auLCsthcsia.  may 
occur,  sometimes,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  patient  will 
allow  your  finger  to  he  thrust  into  her  eye  or  needles  to  be 

filunged  deeply  into  the  flesh  without  wincing.  Hysterical 
lemiplegia  and  paraplegia  very  often  occur.  They  are 
very  perplexing  cases,  and  can  hardly  be  differentiated  by 
any  but  a  careful  ami  experienced  observer.  Paralysis  of 
the  muscular  fibres  of  the  bladder,  or  spasm  of  its  sphinc- 
ter, is  sometimes  simulated.  Hysterical  patients  very  often 
protend  that  they  are  suffering  intolerably  from  retention 
of  urine,  and  can  only  be  relieved  by  the  introduction  of 
the  catheter  several  times  a  day;  which,  indeed,  seems  to 
be  all  that  they  desire.  When  such  an  affection  is  made 
out  beyond  a  doubt  to  be  feigned,  it  is  best  to  leave  the 
patient  to  her  own  resources.  Even  in  cases  where  this 
has  been  dune,  the  patients  have  been  known  to  drink  their 
own  uriiiC  in  order  to  carry  out  the  deception.  Gravel  and 
stone  in  the  bladder  are  other  diseases  simulated;  the  pa- 
tient will  put  common  gravel  in  the  urine  after  it  has  been 
voided  and  pretend  to  have  i)asscd  it,  or  she  may  even 
place  sand  in  the  urethra.  Watson  records  a  ease  in  which 
a  young  woman  made  the  surgeons  in  one  of  the  London 
hospitals  believe  that  she  had  stone  in  the  bladder,  and  who 
actually  submitted  to  be  tied  upon  a  table  in  the  position 
usMally  adopted  for  operations  for  lithotomy,  before  a  the- 
atre full  of  s'udents,  before  the  deception  was  discovered. 
Hysteria  very  commonly  mimics  affections  of  the  spina  and 
joints.  Paticn's  have  been  known  to  have  been  kept  on 
their  backs  for  months,  and  even  years,  and  to  have  had 
blisters,  leeches,  and  issues  almost  constantly  applied  for 
supposed  disease  of  the  spine,  which  subsequently  was 
a9^*crtained  to  be  purely  nervous.  So  with  hip-joint  dis- 
ease, etc. 

There  arc  many  hysterical  affections  referred  to  the 
fauces,  aphonia  or  loss  of  voice,  mock  laryngitis  or  pha- 
ryngitis, stricture  of  the  oesophagus,  aud  many  curious 
sensations.  One  patient  imagined  that  a  number  of  tape- 
worms came  up  from  her  stomach  to  licr  throat,  lillcd 
her  ears,  and  came  out  upon  her  tongue.  Every  time  sho 
attempted  to  cateh  them  with  her  finger  they  would  dis- 
appear. This  occurreil  several  times  a  day,  and  it  was  im- 
possible to  persuade  her  that  such  a  thing  could  not  bap- 
pen.  Among  the  other  more  common  affections  simulated 
by  hysteria  are  pleurisy,  consumption,  cough,  hiccough,  in- 
digestion, in  which  the  patient  swallows  a  quantity  of  air, 
and  then  protends  to  be  suffering  from  tympanitis  and  eruc- 
tations ;  vomiting  also  sometimes  aeeoinpauies  this  hyster- 
ical dyspepsia,  simulating  cancer  of  the  stomach.  Very 
often  patients  Buffering  from  hysteria  have  a  depraved 
appetite;  they  eat  very  little  of  anything,  especially  at 
table,  and  will  hardly  touch  meat  at  all,  except  it  he  a  little 
ham  ;  they  will  devour  slate-pencils,  wafers,  chalk,  pickles, 
lemons,  and  such  "jut-of-Mic-way  articles.  Notwithstanding 
this  mode  of  life,  their  health  does  not  materially  deteriorate. 

We  next  come  to  speak  of  the  treatment.  This  nmy  be 
divided  into  two  modes — viz.  that  of  the  paroxysm,  and 
that  between  the  paroxysms.  In  the  first  variety  the  dress 
should  bo  loosened  and  plenty  of  fresh  air  admitted  into 
the  room.  An  emetic  should  then  by  administered  and  cold 
water  dashed  in  the  face;  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
tinue iloing  this  for  quite  a  while  (fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes), but  the  patients  will  generally  succumb  at  last.  If 
at  the  enil  of  this  time  no  iniprovenienl  be  noticed,  the 
strong  aqua-ammonia  should  be  held  to  the  nostrils,  and 
when  the  patient  draws  her  head  away,  i(  should  bo  fol- 
lowed by  the  bottle.  You  should  gel  the  confidence  of  the 
attendants,  and  be  very  careful  not  to  suy  anything  in  the 

Itrcsenee  of  the  patient  that  you  tin  not  wish  her  to  hear, 
laving  done  this,  if  there  is  still  no  improvement,  order, 
so  that  the  patient  can  hear  you.  two  or  three  flat-irons  to 
ho  heated  nearly  red  hot  ;  say  that  it  is  a  very  urgent  case, 
au'l  tint  you  intend  applying  them  along  the  ?pino.  The 
cases  in  which  iho  patients  will  give  the  irons  time  to  heal 
will  bo  verv  few.  and  sonietitnes,  when  they  have  resisted 


every  other  means,  the  mention  of  such  harsh  treatment  will 
make  them  start  up  instantly.  However,  should  they  still 
resist,  the  irons  should  be  applied  ice-cold  along  the  spine, 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  minutes.  In  tlic  intervals  be- 
tween the  paroxysms,  or  in  the  other  forms  of  hysteria, 
laxatives,  tonics,  and  the  correction  of  any  diseased  func- 
tion should  be  our  first  care.  Besides  this,  the  patient  may 
take  assafu?tida  pills,  infusion  of  quassia,  or,  what  seems  to 
be  much  better  now,  the  ammouiated  tincture  of  guaiuc. 
EnwAitit  J.  Hkumingham. 

Hysterot'omy  [Gr.  v<rrepa,  "  womb,"  .-md  rofi-q.  ••  a  cut- 
ting," from  rV^i-ctf, '*  to  nut  "],  orCapsareaii  Opera 'lion, 
the  delivery  of  a  child  by  opening  the  abdomen  of  the 
mother.  Pliny  (lib.  vii.  cap.  ix.)  says  that  Caisar  was  so 
called  from  being  taken  by  excision  out  of  the  womb  of 
his  mother,  and  that  such  persons  were  called  casonrH,  from 
the  Lat.  crrdu,  to  *•  cut."  There  is  an  obvious  improbability 
in  this  story,  for  there  were  other  Caesars  in  tlie  family  be- 
fore the  m;in  who  made  the  name  illustrious.  It  may  bo 
that  Julius  Ca;sarwas  born  in  the  manner  described,  but  it 
is  very  unlikely  that  this  was  the  origin  of  his  name.  If 
the  story  be  true,  the  mother  must  have  survived,  as  Aurclia 
was  alive  wlieii  her  son  invaded  liritain.  The  incision  is 
made  in  or  near  the  middle  line  of  the  boily,  to  the  length 
of  six  or  seven  inches.  The  uterus  is  exposed,  carefully 
opened,  the  child  lifted  out,  and  then  the  atlcr-birth.  The 
uterus  contracts,  the  wound  is  closed,  and  opium  is  given 
to  iilhiy  pain  and  nervous  irritabilit}'.  Ana?sthctics  should 
of  course  be  given.  In  recent  times  the  (,ii?sarean  opera- 
tion has  repeatedly  been  ])crformcd  with  complete  success, 
the  life  not  only  of  the  child  but  the  mother  having  been 
saved.  Some  women,  indeed,  have  had  several  children, 
ench  removed  through  an  abdominal  incision;  one  woinan 
submitted  to  it  seven  times.  Practitioners  arc  not  quite 
agreed  as  to  all  the  circumstances  which  justify  the  per- 
formance of  this  operation.  The  late  Dr.  tiibson  of  Phil- 
adelphia, who  jierformcd  the  operation  twice  on  the  same 
wom.'in  with  entire  success,  considered  the  operation  com- 
paratively safe  if  eomuieneed  early,  before  the  patient's 
strength  has  been  impaired  by  labor.  It  appears  that  out 
of  17  o]>eralions  jicrformed  during  or  at  the  close  of  the 
first  day  of  labor,  M  of  the  children  and  12  of  the  women 
were  saved.  (Sec  Ajucricau  Jounial  of  Medical  Seiencca 
for  July,  1872,  pp.  290,  291.) 

Rkvised  by  Wili.ard  Parker. 

Hystric'idac  [Gr,  varpi^,  "porcupine"],  a  family  of 
symplicidcntale  rodents,  of  moderate  size,  with  a  large 
anteorbital  foramen;  four  molar  teeth  (on  each  side  of  the 
upper  as  well  as  lower  jaw),  traversed  by  re-entering 
valleys  from  the  inner  as  well  as  outer  walls,  and  with  pit- 
liko  excavations  of  the  surface;  the  alveolar  portion  of  the 
Eupramaxillary  normally  connected;  the  clavicles  rudi- 
mentary or  obsolete;  the  fibula  and  tibia  separate  from 
each  other;  the  claws  of  all  the  feet  acute  or  little  blunt, 
and  huirs  developed  as  robust  si)ines.  To  Ibis  group  be- 
long the  porcupines  of  the  Old  AVoiId,  but  nut  those  of  the 
New,  they  being  distinguished  from  the  former  by  the  com- 
pletely developed  clavicles,  as  well  as  differences  of  Iho 
skull  and  dentition.  About  a  dozen  species  arc  distributed 
in  the  tropical  as  well  as  temjtcrale  portions  of  ihe  Old 
World,  and  especially  in  Africa  and  India.  Tlicy  havo 
been  combined  under  three  genera,  J/ffsln'.r,  A  r audi  ion,  and 
Athcrura.  TlIKODoni:  Gii.l.. 

Ilythn  [Ang.-*Sax.  hi/dr,  a  "haven"],  a  parliamentary 
and  muniei|>al  borough  and  market-town  in  the  county  of 
Kent,  England,  11  miles  S.  of  Canterbury.  Though  for- 
merly one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  it  is  now  half  a  mile  from  the 
sea,  while  the  adjacent  ancient  Koman  port  of  Lymne 
{PvrtiiH  LrmaniH)  is  now  nearly  -i  miles  troni  the  coast.  In 
ancient  times  an  important  battle  must  have  taken  place 
here,  as  is  shown  by  the  jdlcs.  containing  miiny  hundreds 
of  human  bones  mid  skulls  still  to  be  seen  under  the  elmn- 
cel  of  the  well-preserved  Normiin  chnreh.  Many  of  the 
skulls  are  of  extraordinary  f  izc,  and  have  deep  sword-cuts  in 
them  :  local  traditions  make  them  Danes,  and  fix  the  dale 
of  the  battle  at  abiml  10(10  a.  d.,  but  no  certain  account  has 
been  iireservud.  During  the  hist  century  smuggling  was 
carried  on  at  Hythc  to  a  great  extent,  but  since  it  became 
a  summer  watering-place  and  the  seat  of  the  national . •school 
of  musketry  (1S.'>1)  smuggling  has  ceased.  Pop.  of  munici- 
pal borough,  about  .'1000. 

Ilytu^  Ilitiif  or  Iti'i,  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  province 
of  Sao  Paulo,  on  Ihe  Tiele,  which  Iwcomcs  navigable  here, 
just  below  the  great  c;itariict,  is  neatly  Imilt.  and  is  <ineof 
the  most  prosperous  provincial  towns  of  the  country.  Tho 
plain  in  which  the  town  stands  extends  along  the  Ticl6  at 
tho  foot  of  a  plateau  of  considerable  elevation,  and  is  ex- 
tremely fertile,  covered  with  plantations  of  sugar  and  cot- 
Ion.  The  trade  in  mules  and  asses  is  a  considerable  one. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 


1086 


I— IBKAHIM  PASHA. 


I. 


I,  the  ninth  letter  of  the  Roman  alphabet,  was  once  in- 
terchangeable with  J,  which  is  a  form  of  the  same  letter, 
although  at  present  of  very  difFcreut  power.  I  is  a  vowel, 
and  in  English  has  three  well-marked  sounds:  (1)  the 
sound  of  long  e,  as  in  machine,  niarinc  ;  this  is  the  sound 
almost  invariably  given  to  it  in  all  other  languages  which 
have  this  letter;  (2)  the  "long  sound. "that  heard  in  mind, 
«?V/i(  ;  this  sound  is  strictly  a  diphthong  between  a  broad 
and  long  e  ;  and  (3)  the  -short"  sound,  heard  in  pin,  min- 
ion. As  a  numeral,  1  stands  for  one  (1).  In  chemistry  it 
is  the  symbol  of  iodine. 

laba'dius,  the  name  under  which  Ptolemy  described 
a  vast  island  of  the  East  Indies,  near  the  tfolden  Cher- 
sonesus.  It  was  fertile  in  grain  and  produced  gold;  the 
capital  was  called  Argyre.  From  the  similarity  of  names, 
both  of  which  mean  "barley,"  it  is  generally  thought  to 
be  identical  with  Java,  though  Humboldt  argues  for  Su- 
matra. 

lac'chns,  the  mystic  name  of  the  god  Dionysus  at 
Athens  and  Kleusis.  (See  Elkusinian  MvsTEniEs.)  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  lacchus,  the  Roman  liacchus,  was 
originally  distinct  from  the  Theban  Dionysus;  the  former 
being  a  Phrygian  divinity,  represented  as  a  child,  the  son 
of  Zeus  and  Demctcr,  while  the  latter  was  always  called 
the  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele. 

lal'ysus,  one  of  the  three  principal  Doric  cities  in 
Rhodes,  anciently  the  chief  place  of  the  island,  and  often 
taken  as  a  synonym  of  the  island  itself.  It  was  very  flour- 
ishing in  the  time  of  the  Homeric  poems,  and  some  remains 
of  its  ancient  greatness  are  still  seen  at  the  modern  village 
of  laliso.  The  foundation  of  lalysus  was  ascribed  to  a 
mythical  personage  of  that  name. 

lani'bic  [Lat.  iamhicus,  from  iambus  ;  Gr.  lafifSoy],  a 
poetic  metre  much  used  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  modern  verse, 
consisting  of  a  succession  of  iambi.  An  iambic  foot  is 
formed  either  of  one  short  and  one  long  syllable,  as  in 
amdnH,  or  of  an  unaccented  syllable  followed  by  one  ac- 
CL'uted,  as  in  esteem. 

lam'blichus,  a  Neo-Platonic  philosopher  of  the  fourth 
century  after  Christ,  was  a  disciple  of  Porphyry,  and  re- 
sided in  Syria.  With  him  that  combination  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy with  Oriental  mysticism  which  was  the  character- 
istic of  the  Neo-PIatonic  philosophy  became  mere  theurgy. 
He  taught  that  it  was  possible  lor  man  to  put  himself  in 
direct  communication  with  the  Deity  by  means  of  certain 
rites  and  ccremouics.  Five  books  of  his  work  on  Pythag- 
oras, and  his  book  on  the  Egyptian  theology,  are  still 
extant. 

lan'thina  [Gr.  ldv9tvo<;,  "violet-colored"],  a  genus  of 
mollusks  including  the  ocean-snails  or  violet  snails.  They 
have  a  snail-like  shell,  and  Ooat  on  the  open  sea,  supported 
by  a  cartilaginous  raft,  containing  air-vcsiele?.  The  float 
is  a  part  of  the  operculum.  They  have  no  power  of  rising 
or  sinking  in  the  water.  The  eggs  and  young  are  attached 
below  the  float.  They  arc  carnivorous  gasteropods  of  the 
family  Ilaliotidie.  and  feed  on  little  aciilephs.  There  are 
six  known  species.  They  arc  named  from  their  jmrple 
juice. 

lap'etUS  [Or.  'laiTfTo?],  in  Grecian  mythology,  a  son  of 
Uranus  and  Ge,  brother  ot  Kronos  and  Occanus,  and  father 
of  Atlas,  Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus.  Ho  was  regarded 
by  the  (Jreeks  as  the  father  of  all  the  human  race,  and  the 
name  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  J.\I'HETII  of  Gen- 
esis (which  see). 

Iatan%  post-v.  of  Marshall  tp.,  Platte  co.,  Mo.,  on  the 
Missouri  Itiver  and  on  the  Kansas  City  St.  Joseph  and 
Council  Bluffs  K.  11.     Pop.  129. 

Iba'f^ne,  town  of  Colombia,  department  of  Cundina- 
marca,  70  miles  W.  of  Bogota.     Pop.  6000. 

Ibar'ra,  town  of  Ecuador,  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano 
Inibaburu,  00  miles  N.  E.  of  Quito.  The  surrounding 
country  is  exceedingly  fertile  and  the  inhabitants  are 
mostly  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and  sugar. 
It  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake  ISflS.    Pop.  13,200. 

Ibcrdy  or  Yberii,  a  series  of  marshy  lakes  in  the 
province  of  Corricntes.  Argentine  Republic,  between  the 
rivers  Paran.'l  and  Uruguay. 

Ibc'ria^  one  of  the  names  under  which  Spain  was  known 
to  (he  ancients,  was  chiefly  used  by  the  Greeks,  and  prob- 
ably derived  from  Iberus,  the  Ebro. 


Iberia^  parish  of  Louisiana,  bounded  on  the  S.  by  tho 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Area,  ahout  000  square  miles.  It  is  di- 
vided into  three  portions  by  Grand  Lake  and  Vermilion 
Bay.  It  has  very  important  deposits  of  ruck-salt.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile,  the  surface  low.  level,  and  well  tim- 
bered. Cottou,  corn,  rice,  molasses,  and  sugar  are  staple 
products.      Cap.  New  Iberia.     Pop.  '.M142. 

Iberia,  post-v.  of  Washington  tp..  Morrow  co.,  0.,  on 
the  Cleveland  Columbus  and  Cincinnati  11.  R.     Pop.  238. 

I'berville,  fertile  county  of  Quebec.  Canada,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  river  Richelieu.  Area.  ISU  square  miles.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Stauslcad  Shefford  and  Chambly  R.  R. 
Cap.  Iberville.     Pop.  15,413. 

Iben'ille,  a  v.  (P.  0.  St.  Atoanase),  cap.  of  Iberville 
CO.,  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  river  Richelieu, 
opposite  St.  Johns,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  tine 
bridge.  It  is  the  seat  of  Canadian  Institute.  Pop.  of 
sub-district,  1497. 

Iberville,  parish  of  Louisiana,  extending  eastward 
from  the  Atchafulaya  River,  and  having  the  Mississipj)i  as 
a  part  of  its  eastern  boundary.  Area,  about  450  square 
miles.  Its  surface  is  low,  but  fertile,  and  it  is  sometimes 
subject  in  part  to  inundations.  Cotton,  corn,  sugar,  molas- 
ses, staple  products.     Cap.  Plaquemines.      Pop.  12,347. 

Iberville,  d'  (Pierre  Lemoine).  the  brother  of  tho 
Sicur  de  Bienville  and  of  five  other  able  public  men,  b.  at 
Montreal  July  20,  IGGl;  captured  Fort  Nelson  16SG  ; 
served  in  the  Schenectady  affair  1090 ;  in  1G96  destroy»!d 
St.  Johns,  and  took  nearly  all  of  Newfoundland  from  the 
British,  whom  he  defeated  in  Hudson's  Bay  in  the  naval 
fights  of  1G97.  In  1699  he  fortified  Bilox'i,  and  in  1700 
ascended  the  Mississippi  River.  In  1702  he  fortified  Dau- 
phin Island  and  founded  a  settlement  near  Mobile.  In 
170G,  with  three  ships,  he  attacked  and  captured  the  Isle 
of  Nevis.     D.  at  Havana,  Cuba,  July  9,  1706. 

I'bex  [Lat.],  a  genus  or  sub-genus  of  the  goat  family, 
distinguished  by  very  large  horns  and  rather  scanty  beards. 
The  species  of  Ibex,  as  generally  recognized,  are  /.  Alpinun 
(the  Boi'QUETiN  (which  see)  or  ibex  of  the  Alps),  /.  A/;c- 
naieus,  Hispanicns,  Caucasicns,  .SV^/rtVits,  Siibiaiius,  /limn- 
layamts,  and  others;  but  it  is  likely  that  some  or  all  are 
mere  varieties.  The  Alpine  ibex  breeds  freely  with  the 
goat. 

Ibiapuba,  a  mountain-chain  in  Brazil,  in  the  province 
of  Ceara. 

Ibicui,  a  large  river  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  flowing  AV.  into  tho  Uruguay. 

I'bis  [Gr.  Tpt«],  a  genus  of  wading  birds  of  the  family 
TantalidiB,  allied  to  the  snipes  and  herons,  and  having 
very  long  legs,  neck,  and  bill,  and  a  very  short  tail.  The 
American  species  are  I./alcinelfns,  the  glossy  ibis,  common 
also  to  the  Old  World  ;  the  white 
ibis  (/.  aiba)  of  Florida  (believ- 
ed with  some  reason  to  be  a 
mere  variety  of  the  sacred  ibis, 
hereafter  noticed),  and  tho  sear- 
let  ihis  (/.  rubra).  All  these 
arc  handsome  birds,  found  most- 
ly in  warm  regions.  The  wood- 
ibis  of  America  is  Tantulns  loc- 
vlator.  The  sacred  ibis  ( /.  rc- 
ligiosn)  of  Egypt,  as  well  as  tho 
glossy  ibis,  is  trequently  found 
"  embalmed  in  tliat  country.  It 
was  regarded  as  an  incarnation 
of  the  god  Thoth,  and  was  looked 
upon  with  peculiar  reverence  by 
all  classes  of  the  people.  The  staw-neeked  ibis  ( d'cronticua 
ttpinicof/ie)  is  a  large  Australian  bird  of  this  family. 

Ib'rahim  Pasha',  a  son  of  Mehemet  Ali,b.  at  Kavala. 
Roumelia,  in  1789.  His  father  was  appointed  viceroy  of 
Egypt  in  1806,  and  Ibrahim  very  soon  gave  brilliant  proof's 
of  the  great  personal  qualities  of  which  he  was  possessed 
by  subduing  the  wild  tribes  of  Up])er  Egypt  in  1S12,  l.y 
reducing  tho  Wahabees  and  conquering  a  great  part  of 
Arabia  in  1819.  by  reorganizing  the  Egyptian  army  after 
European  models  and  founding  a  navy,  and  by  his  cam- 
paign in  the  Peloponnesus  from  1S24  to  182S.  ilis  great- 
est exploit,  ho^vever,  was  his  Syrian  can)]>aign  in  \!^'M. 
Having  defeated  the  Turks  in  decisive  battles  at  Tripoli 
and  Horns,  he  conquered  tho  whole  of  Syria  in  one  year. 


IBYCUS— ICE. 


1087 


and  pushed  forward  into  Asia  Minor  to  Konieh.  Hero  he 
coinpletfly  routed  the  Turkish  army.  Dec.  20,  1S:12,  and  oa 
liis  tlcet  had  cliascd  tho  Turkish  ilect  from  place  to  place, 
the  way  to  Constantiuoplc  wns  open  to  him.  liul  Ru9!!>ia 
intcrfcrcil.  Peace  was  concluded,  and  the  whole  of  Syria 
was  ceded  to  Meliemet  Ali.  Ibrahim  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  new  province,  and  in  this  position  ho  showed 
that  ho  had  talents  not  onl^'  as  a  general,  but  also  as  a 
statesman  and  admini.-trator.  In  1839  war  again  broke 
out  between  Kgypt  and  the  Porte,  and  Ibrahim  ajrain  suc- 
ceeded in  routing  the  Turkish  army  compk-tely  at  Nezib, 
June  21,  Imt  tiiis  time  too  the  Ottoman  cmjiire  was  saved 
by  the  interference  of  the  European  powers.  Kngland. 
Austria,  an<l  Russia  agreed  to  compel  Mohcraet  Ali  to  givo 
up  Syria  and  Arabia,  ancl  content  himself  with  the  heredi- 
tary possession  of  Egypt ;  and  after  a  short  resistance  Me- 
hemet  Ali  had  to  submit.  Ibrahim  Pasha  lived  for  several 
years  as  a  private  gentleman  on  his  estates  at  Ilcliopolis, 
where  ho  established  large  and  very  fine  cotton  and  oli%'e 
plantations.  Hut  about  l!^  II.  Meliemet  AH  began  to  fall 
into  dotage,  and  the  government  now  devolved  on  Ibrahim 
Pasha.  In  IS  IS  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and  was  con- 
firmed as  viceroy  of  Egypt,  but  ho  d.  very  soon  after  his 
return,  at  Cairo,* Nov.  9,'lS48. 

Ib'ycus,  b.  at  Rhegium  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  and 
lived  for  some  time  in  Samos  at  the  court  of  Polycratcs. 
Of  his  poems  only  a  few  fragments  arc  left,  but  the  story 
of  his  death  is  known  by  all.  lie  was  attacked  by  robbers 
and  mortally  wounded  while  travelling  through  a  desert 
place  near  Corinth,  but  before  dying  called  upon  a  flock 
of  cranes  flying  over  him  to  avenge  his  death.  Shortly 
after  it  happened  at  Corinth  that  a  flock  of  cranes  flew 
over  the  theatre  while  a  performance  was  going  on,  and 
one  of  the  murderers  cried  out  involuntarily,  *'  Behold  ttie 
avengers  of  Ibycus!"  which  led  to  the  discovery  and  pun- 
ishment of  tho  crime.  Edited  by  Schneidewin  (Gottingen, 
18.13),  and  in  the  Poctv  Li/rici  Orieci  of  Bergk. 

I'^a,  town  of  Peru,  is  situated  in  lat.  14°  41'  S.,  and 
connected  by  railway  with  Pisio  on  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
through  whicli  it  exports  large  quantities  of  wheat,  maize, 
wine,  and  brandy.  Its  diniato  is  very  hot,  but  not  un- 
healthy.    Pop.  about  8000. 

IcardS  tp.  of  Burke  co,.  N.  C.     Pop.  929. 

Ica'ria,  or  Ic'arus  (Nikanu),  an  island  of  the  /Egcan 
Sea.  W.  iif  Samos.  It  is  some  15  miles  long  from  N.  E.  to 
S.  W,,  and  rather  narrow  ;  area,  50  square  miles.  It  has  a 
population  of  8000,  and,  as  of  old,  is  valued  for  its  pas- 
turage. 

Ic'aruSy  the  son  of  Dncdalus,  who  forgot,  according  to 
the  old  myth,  bis  father's  advice  on  their  flight  from  Crete, 
and  flew  so  high  that  the  sun  molted  the  wax  with  which 
tho  wings  were  attached  to  his  shoulders,  aud  he  foil  down 
and  was  dro\Tned  in  tho  aca  which  after  him  is  called  the 
Icarian. 

Ice,  The  freezing-point  of  water  is  .32°  F.  or  0°  C, 
The  presence  of  salt  impedes  congelation ;  sea-.water, 
thercfitre,  requires  a  temperature  strvoral  degrees  lower 
than  froHh  water  to  solidify.  Pure  water  placed  in  pol- 
ished vessels  may  be  reduced  17°  below  freezing-point  (to 
15°  F.)  without  congealing  if  it  bo  kept  perfectly  still ;  tho 
slightest  agitation  or  the  introduction  of  a  foreign  body 
will,  however,  cause  it  immediately  to  freeze:  in  which 
case  heat  U  engendered,  and  the  frozen  mass  comes  up  to 
the  usual  temperature,  32°  F.  Ice  in  assuming  the  solid 
form  expands  by  about  one-ninth  of  its  own  vohinio,  its 
specific  gravity  being  0.9IS4  at  the  temperature  32°  F.  or 
0°  C.  As  cold  increases,  solid  ice  contracts;  the  ico  on 
ponds  occasionally  cracks  from  this  cause  with  a  loud  re- 
port. Ice  sometimes  forms  at  the  bottom  of  streams  when 
the  water  above  does  not  freeze;  this  is  probably  duo  to 
the  extreme  stillness  below.  This  "anchor  ice,"  if  detached 
from  the  body  around  which  it  has  formed,  rises  and  floats 
on  tho  surface. 

Ico  is  the  normal  condition  of  water.  Ice,  wator,  steam, 
aqueous  vapor,  fog,  cloud,  etc.  are  chemically  identical; 
their  physical  din"erencc  is  due,  in  the  main,  to  the  greater 
or  lesser  separation  of  tho  molecules  by  the  action  of  heat. 
As  heat  is  withdrawn  from  water  its  constituent  particles 
approach,  in  accordance  with  tho  general  law  that  heat 
expands  and  cold  (or  the  absence  of  heat)  contracts  bodies. 
When  tho  temperature  39°  F,  or  4°  C.  is  reached,  tho  vol- 
ume of  water  begins  slowly  to  expand  ;  a  now  force,  that 
of  crystallization,  coming  in  to  modify  the  re.^ult.  Tho 
particles  of  water  are  marshalled  into  orderly  array,  and 
their  arrangement  is  so  changed  that  in  uniting  they  leave 
larger  inter-atomic  spaces  than  they  possessed  before  freez- 
ing began.  The  expansion  of  crystallization  compensates. 
an<l  more  than  compensates,  for  the  contra'-tinn  of  cold,  and 
tho  mass  expands  by  the  diff'orencc  of  the  opposing  forces. 
Water  in  freezing  gives  out  heat — i.  c.  that  molecular  force 


which  had  been  devoted  to  the  work  of  holding  asunder  the 
particles  of  water  and  maintaining  it  in  a  liquid  form,  is 
released  from  its  work  as  the  mass  solidifies,  and  becomes 
again  the  molecular  motion  known  as  heat.  In  crystalliz- 
ing each  molecule  approaches  every  other  under  the  con- 
trolling power  of  a  fixed  law;  each  spicule,  as  it  forms, 
unites  with  every  other  at  an  angle  of  00°.  As  a  result, 
ice-crystals  are  formed  infinite  in  beauty  and  variety,  but 
all  obedient  to  this  law — six-rayed  ice-blossoms  and  stars 
and  feathery  foliage,  whore  every  spine  joins  the  central 
stem  at  the  invariable  angle  60°.  The  ice  which  covers 
every  sea  and  lake  and  pond  is  built  up  of  film  upon  film 
of  just  such  exquisite  frostwork  as  sometimes  covers  the 
inner  surlaco  of  our  window-panes.  The  architecture  of 
tho  frost  may  bo  slowly  undone,  and  the  process,  in  the  re- 
verse, watched.  A  slab  of  ice,  cut  with  its  faces  parallel  to 
tho  plane  of  freezing,  is  placed  in  the  path  of  the  electric 
beam;  liquid  flowers  and  leaves  start  into  view  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  slab.     (See  fig.)     A  brilliant  central  nucleus 


Iceii  yntalx 
appears  in  each  figure  with  an  audible  click.  The  ice  as  it 
melts  contracts  ;  the  space  filled  by  the  frozen  flower  is  not 
quite  filled  by  the  liquid  one,  and  the  water,  which  has  been 
rendered  very  cohesive  by  the  elimination  of  the  air  in 
freezing,  ruptures  with  a  cound,  producing  the  central 
vacuum.  A  property  of  ice  discovered  by  Faraday  in  1S4I 
(see  Rkcelation)  accounts  for  tho  advance  of  the  great 
glacial  ice-masses  which  move  down  the  Alpine  and  Arctic 
valleys.  (See  Olacikhs.)  Tho  magnificent  icebergs  of  tho 
northern  seas  are  generally  only  the  terniiiiiil  nm>ses  of  tho 
Arctic  glaciers,  which  have  crept  over  the  beach  to  tho  sea, 
and  there  been  worn  away  and  broken  ofl"  by  tho  action  of 
the  waves  aud  the  tides.  The  ice-caves  described  by  Alpine 
travellers  as  existing  in  the  glaciers  are  very  beautiful; 
stalactite  and  stalagmite  of  pellucid  ice,  cIuBtering  branches, 
pillars,  Jind  domes  adorn  their  roofs,  floors,  ami  walls.  One 
of  them  shows  in  every  crevice  and  depression  of  its  walls 
the  lovely  blue  tint  eharacteristic  of  glacial  ice  in  shadow, 
while  tho  roof,  which  is  thin  enough  to  permit  tho  sun's 
rays  to  penetrate  it,  glows  with  a  delicate  rosy  tint.  Ordi- 
nary ice,  though  crystalline,  is  not  prismatic,  but  that 
which  has  frozen  at  a  temperature  below  32°  F.  shows  a 
decided  prisnmtic  structure.  In  many  of  tho  ice-caves  of 
France  and  Switzerland  this  structure  is  found;  sometimes 
the  stalactites  are  formed  of  common  ico  surrounded  with  a 
shell  of  the  prismatic.  The  interior,  being  the  softer,  melts. 
leaving  tho  stalactite  hollow.  Some  ice-prisms,  as  men- 
tioned in  Pof/(frti{/<tr/'it  Aimiifcii  (vol.  iv.  p.  475),  when  ex- 
amined by  polarized  light,  manifested  a  feeble  double  re- 
fracting power.  Tho  sudden  disappearance  of  enormous 
sheets  of  lakc-ico  is  explained  by  the  breaking  up  of  the 
vast  mass  into  prismatic  blocks.  A  stub  of  ice  through 
whiih  the  beam  of  tho  electric  lamp  is  sent  will  mark  its 
path  by  tho  formation  of  innumerable  little  luminous 
spots,  as  the  motes  mark  tho  path  of  a  sunbeam.  Tho 
snots  form  in  any  plane,  hut  in  those  which  arc  parallel  to 
tno  piano  <d'  freezing  they  shoot  out  spicules,  nntl  linally 
produce  the  flowers  before  desi*ribed.  The  planes  ;if  freez- 
ing of  a  bl'ick  of  ice  may  always  be  dctenuin^Ml   by  thus 


1088 


ICE. 


sending  the  beam  through  it  and  noting  the  formation  of 
the  ilowcrs  and  leaves. 

In  laUe-icc  liubhles  may  be  seen,  with  solid  layers  be- 
tween, evidently  marking  the  limits  of  successive  acts  of 
frcezin'.;,  and  with  each  block  composed  of  such  layers  of 
solid  ice  and  bubbles,  a  surface  layer  is  associated,  which 
gives  evidence  of  h.aving  been  acted  upon  by  external  influ- 
ences. In  Ihis  surface  layer  are  numerous  small  nir-bubbles 
around  which  a  bleb  of  water  CNists.  This  pheuomenon 
Agassii!  exjilaius  as  being  due  to  the  arrest  of  heat  by  the 
air,  and  the  melting  of  the  surrounding  ice  by  its  elevation 
of  tempcratnre.  Tyndall  holds,  and  proves  conclusively, 
that  the  mcUing  of  the  ice  in  the  interior  of  the  block  is 
due  to  its  conducting  power.  In  summer,  ice  is  often  only 
a  congeries  of  water-cells  in  a  skeleton  of  ice:  a  saw  will 
go  through  the  mass  with  comparative  ease.  In  freezing, 
water  excludes  the  l.irgest  p.irt  of  any  solid  held  in  solu- 
tion l)y  it;  this  quality  is  used  in  the  arts  to  concentrate 
certain  liquids.  As  a"  geologic  agent  ice  has  been  very 
prominent  (see  GLAcrEns),  not  only  by  means  of  glacial 
ai^tion,  but  by  the  disintegration  of  rocks  and  niountain- 
mas.scs,  which  have  then  been  carried  away  and  d;-posited 
as  lainiuatcd  strata  on  the  lowlands  or  the  ocean's  bed. 
Hoar  frost,  one  of  the  most  familiar  forms  of  ic:e,  is  only 
frozen  dew.  (See  Dew.)  Mrs.  S.  B.  IlERRirK. 

Ice.      Its    /Irlalione  In   Navigation,    Travel,  and    Trans- 
portation.— The  closing  of  rivers,  bays,  sounds,  and  estua- 
ries by  ice  greatly  impedes,  .and  sometimes  completely  pre- 
vents, navig.ilion  for  several  months  of  the  year.     N.  of 
the  lOth  degree  of  latitude  in  North  .\merica,  and  of  the 
5»tli  degree  in  Europe  and  Asia,  the  navigable  rivers  are 
closed  for  three  or  four  months,  and  in  the  higher  latitudes 
for  six  or  seven,  to  all  passage  of  steamers  or  sailing  ves- 
sels.    In  exceptionally  cold  seasons  the  estuaries,  harbors, 
bays,  and  saunds  of  these  regions  are  sometimes  closed  for 
several  weeks.     The  obstruction  of  the  East  Kivcr.  or  the 
estuary  between  Xew  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  of  the  N.ar- 
rows  and  inner  harbor  of  New  York,  the  Kill  von   Kull, 
and  Newark  Bay  fur  same  days  is  not  a  very  infrequent 
occurrence;  the  "winters  of  1SJ7-58,  of  lS6o  and  ISfiti,  and 
of  IS74-7a  arc  among  recent  instances  of  this  obstruction, 
and    during   the  last-named    severe  season    Long    Island 
Sound  was"  frozen  over  at  its  western  extremity  except  a 
narrow  channel,  and  Cape  Cod  Bay  was  closed  for  two  or 
three  weeks.     In  1741  it  is  said  that  Long  IsLand  Sound 
was  frozen  in  its  whole  extent,  and  that  an   adventurous 
citizen  drove  over  it  from  New  Y'ork  to  Greenpoi-t  in  his 
sleigh  or  cutter.     .\s  we  approach  the  Arctic  regions  tho 
olisrructions  to  navigation  from  ice  become  more  formidable. 
The  whaling  licet  has  met  with  heavy  losses  by  the  crush- 
ing of  their  vessels  in  the  ice,  and  the  numerous  Arctic  ex- 
peditions have  almost  without  exception  been  thwarted  or 
]irevcnted  by  the  ice  from  attaining  their  desired  results. 
But.  though  these  obstructions  to  navigation  cause  serious 
delays,  and  often  occasion  much  suffering,  they  .are  in  other 
respects  a  benefit.    The  Finns,  Laplanders,  Ostiaks,  Kamt- 
ehadalcs,  Esquimaux,  and  other  Northern  tribes  regard  the 
winter  season  as  the  most  .agreeable  of  the  year.     Warmly 
clad  in  furs  which  arc  impenetrable  by  the  intense  cold, 
thcv  go  firth  from  their  huts  built  of  the  ice,  and  journey 
long  distances  on  sledges  drawn  by  dogs  or  reindeer,  pre- 
ferring for  rapid   travel  the  comparatively  snrooth  ice  of 
the  bays  and  sounds  to  the  rougher  surfaces  of  the  drifted 
snow  and  ice  of  tho  shores.     In  more  civilized  countries 
skating  is  not  only  a  favorite  amusement,  but  in  Europe 
is  turned  to  practical  account,  the  pack-pcd<llers,  messen- 
gers, and  many  of  the  servants  performing  their  journeys 
on  skates  witli  great  ease  and  rapidity.     The  ice  boat,  a 
triangular  platform  rigged  with  large  and  strong  skating 
irons? and  propelled  by  immense  sails  which  enable  it  to 
scud  before  a  strong  wind  at  the  rate  of  50,  fiO,  or  even  70 
miles  an  hour,  is  becoming  a  very  popular  though  some- 
what dangerous  amusement  on  our  Northern  rivers;  and 
the  ice-bridges  which  span  the  larger  streams  above  the 
4'2d  degree  of  N.  lat.,  often  for  several  months  of  the  win- 
ter, furnish  a  safe  and  easy  transit  to  thousands  of  teams 
and  tens  of  Ihons.ands  of  foot-passengers,  though  to  the 
manifest  dissatisfaction  of  ferrymen  and  bridge-tenders. 

As  nn  Artirle  ../'  Commerce. — There  is  a  large  demand 
for  ice  as  a  commodity  for  three  distinct  purposes :  viz.  for 
its  cooling  qualities,  for  its  antiseptic  or  preserving  po^yer, 
and  for  its  use  in  medicine  and  surgery.  In  all  tropical 
and  semi-tro))ieal  countries  there  has  been  a  demand  in  all 
ages  for  some  means  of  cooling  wine  and  other  beverages, 
and  imparting  to  the  drinking-water  of  those  countries 
sufficient  coldness  to  make  it  pabatable.  The  means  natu- 
rallv  suggested  was  the  use  of  snow  brought  from  the 
mountains  and  stored  up  to  be  used  in  cooling  the  bever- 
ages in  use.  Solomon  undoubtedly  refers  to  this  practice 
(which  was  even  bef>rehis  time  in  extensive  use  in  Oriental 
countries)  in   Prov.  xxv.  1.1:  "As  the  cold  of  snow  in  the 


time  of  harvest,  so  is  a  faithful   messenger  to  them  that 
send  him  ;  for  he  refresheth  the  soul  of  his  masters."     Re- 
peated references  are  made  to  the  practice  by  Creek  and 
Konian  writers.  Theocritus.  .Aristotle   Horace,  and  Plutarch 
all  mention  it,  the  last  describing  minutely  the  methods 
adopted  for  preserving  the  snow.     Nero  cstablifhed  store- 
houses for  ice  and  snow  in  Uunie,  but  they  were  not  suffi- 
cient to   supply  the  demand.     It  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
snow  is  still  gathered  for  this  purpose  on  the  Apennines 
by  Italian  peasants  (or  was,  a  very  few  years  since),  and 
brought  into  Naples,  Rome,  and  Florence,  where  it  is  stored 
in  cellars  and  sold  to  the  wealthy  inhabitants.     Our  coun- 
tryman Mr.  W.  J.  Stillman,  when  consul  at  Rome,  under- 
took to  introduce  American  ice  there,  importing  a  cargo 
of  Wenham  Lake  ice,  and  ofl'ering  it  to  the  pcojde  at  the 
price  asked  for  this  dirty  snow;  but  he  was  informed  that 
he   could    not   bo   permitted    to   do  this,   as  the   right   to 
gather  and  vend  this  snow  was  one  of  the  vested  privi- 
leges of  tho  Italian  peasants,  and  must  not  be  disturbed. 
In   Spain  and   Portugal,  and  in  Sardinia  and  the  S.  of 
France,  snow,  and  sometimes  ice,  was  gathered  from  the 
mountains  and  stored  to  some  extent  in  the  cities  and  in 
icehouses  on  the  estates  of  wealthy  nobles  and  grandees, 
but  was  used  very  sparingly.     In  England  and  Scotland  it 
has  been  the  practice  for  two  or  three  centuries,  among  tho 
wealthy,  to  have  icehouses  on  their  estates,  and  (ill  them 
with  ice  each  year  from  the  nearest  accessible  lake,  river, 
or  mountain.     In  England,  however,  the  ice  was  generally 
thin  and  not  very  pure.     Ice  was  not  for  sale,  to  private 
customers  generally,  in  London   before  l.'i4.i,  and  only  a 
few  of  the  first-class  fishmongers  and  confectioners  made 
use  of  it.    Their  supplies  were  brought  from  ponds,  or  after 
lS2o  from  Norway.     The  wealthiest  citizens  and  some  of 
the  nobility  had  a'  small  supply  brought  from  their  country- 
seats,     lu  this  country  icehouses  have  been  very  common 
in  the  rur!il  districts  for  almost  two  centuries.     They  were 
cheap  affairs — a   cellar  dug    in  the  ground,  floored   with 
stone  on  which  straw  or  sawdust  was  thickly  strewn  :  the 
sides  ceiled  with  rough  boards  placed  nearly  a  foot  from 
the  earthy  wall,  and  the  space  between  filled  with  spent  Ian- 
bark  or  sawdust:  the  peaked  roof  covered  first  with  rough 
boards,  then  heavily  th.atehed  with  straw,  and  then  another 
roof  of  rough  boards  with  broken  joints;  the  ice  jmt  in 
during  the  coldest  weather  of  the  winter,  with  layers  of 
sjiwdust  or  straw  between,  and  then,  if  the  weather  was 
cold  enough,  water  thrown  over  each  layer  to  freeze  it  into 
a  solid  mass,  and  the  whole  covered  closely,  and  the  double 
or  triple  roof  put  on.     Access  to  it  was  generally  indirect, 
and  it  was  onlv  opened  at  night  in  hot  weather.     The  ex- 
pense was  considerable,  but  the  supply  was  generally  suf- 
ficient for  several  families.    In  our  large  cities  at  the  North 
as  late  as  1820  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  ice  even  for  tho 
purpose  of  cooling  water  or  other  beverages,  and  the  South- 
ern cities  were  entirely  without  it.     In  the  country,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  cities,  those  who  bad  no  icehouses  and 
no  interest  in  any.  made  use  of  cool  cellars  or  deep  wells  for 
keeping  butter,  milk,  etc.  cool,  and  for  the  preservation  of 
wines.  °  The  pitcher  of  water  was  wrapped  with  a  moist- 
ened napkin  and  cooled  by  the  evaporation.     lee  became 
a  commercial  product  on  a  small  scale  in  Boston  about  the 
beginning  of  this  century;  i.  c  it  was  kept  in  storehouses, 
and  probablv  carried  around  to  the  few   customers  who 
were  disposed  to  buy  at  about  tiiat  period.     As  early  as 
1,^05,  as  we  shall  see  further  on.  ice  was  exported  from  that 
city  to  the  West  Indies.    In  New  York  City  it  was  not  a  com- 
modity to  be  generally  bought  and  sold  before  lS2.'i,  though 
it  was  used  bv  the  butchers,  fishmongers,  and  perhaps  the 
conrectioncrs."at  an  earlier  date.     The  trafl^c  has  grown 
enormously  in  fifty  years.     It  now  employs  in  the  seven  or 
ei-ht  companies  in   New  York   City   u  capital  of  nearly 
$8,000,000,  gathers  from  1,000,000  to  1.600,000  tons  of  ice 
annually  (the  ice-crop  of  187o  exceeded  2.000.000  lons^,  em- 
ployin"-  over  10.000  men  and  over  4000  horses,  and  col- 
leet"s  from   fO.OOO.OOO  to  .«10.000,I100  for  its  products,  in- 
cluding the  ice  exported.     Portland,  ISoston,  Hartford.  New 
HavenT  Philadelphia,  AHiany.   Rochester.  Buflalo,  Cleve- 
land, Chicago,  Cincinnati.  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis  are  all 
largely  concerned   in  the  ice-trade,  though  the  last  three 
ilraw  "their  supplies  from  a  distance  and  ship  little  or  none 
to  other  points.     Many  of  the  smaller  cities  have  a  large 
local  trade  in  the  conimoility,  and  a  lew  of  them  export 
considerable  quantities.     The  capital  invested  in  the  busi- 
ness is  estimated  at  about  .'f:'.0. 1100,000. 

The  first  demand  for  ice  had  reference  solely  to  its  cool- 
ing qualities,  but  its  .antiseptic  properties  soon  created  for 
it  a  still  larger  market.  Indeed,  had  men  but  comprc- 
hcn.led  tho  lessons  taught  them  by  nature,  the  antiseptic 
character  of  ice  would  have  given  it  its  fir.st  v.aluc.  That 
meals  and  the  carcases  of  animals  intended  for  food  could 
be  transported  for  a  great  distance  when  frozen,  without 
injury,  was  a  fact  well  known  ages  ago  ;  but  the  practica- 


ICE. 


10«9 


bility  of  using  ice  to  preserve  such  meats  and  carcases,  even 
withuut  freezing  tbeui,  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  even 
to  the  keenest  ohservers,  though  glimpaes  of  the  truth  camo 
to  their  eyes,  from  tiuio  to  time;  thus,  in  King  Alfred's 
Anglo-Saxon  version  of  Orosius's  I/istoriurum  tKicergun 
l*a*jano8,  lib.  vii.,  in  an  udditiuu  by  Alfred  hiniseif,  giving 
the  narrative  of  one  Wulfstau,  an  early  Northern  naviga- 
tor, in  regard  to  the  Esthoniani^,  a  Finnish  tribe  E.  of  the 
Vistula,  whom  he  had  visited,  we  find  an  account  of  their 
practice  of  keeping  the  bodies  of  their  dead  in  their  houses 
ior  a  long  time  {frum  one  to  six  months,  according  to  their 
rank)  unburnt  and  not  embalmed;  and  then  follows  this 
remarkable  ])assage  (we  use  Thorpe's  translation) :  "And 
there  is  among  the  E.-<thonian!)  a  tribe  that  can  produce 
cold,  and  therefore  the  dead,  in  whom  they  proilure  that 
cold,  lie  so  long  there  and  do  not  putrefy  :  and  if  any  one 
sets  two  vc.^sels  full  of  ale  or  water,  they  contrive  that  one 
>^hall  bo  frozen,  be  it  summer  or  bo  it  winter."  This,  bo  it 
remembered,  was  in  the  eighth  century,  or  perhaps  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventh.  At  a  later  perioci  a  more  strik- 
ing illuatra'ion  of  the  antiseptic  property  of  ice  occurred. 
In  170;i,  after  an  unusually  protracted  period  of  rain  and 
tliaw,  there  was  discovered  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei 
and  along  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Sea  ^n  Siberia  a  vast 
deposit  uf  the  carcases  of  the  ma-ilodon  and  other  pre-his- 
toric  quadrupeds,  with  their  flesh  untainted  and  edible,  pre- 
servecl  from  putrefaction  and  decay  by  the  protecting  intlu- 
enco  of  the  ice  in  which  it  had  been  imbedded  for  thousands 
of  years.  This  flesh  was  greedily  devoured  by  the  Samo- 
icdes.  as  well  as  by  their  dogs,  the  wulves,  and  other  car- 
nivorous animals  who  gathered  to  prey  upon  this  mighty 
feast.  In  that  region,  according  to  Ernian.  an  attempt  to 
sink  a  well  resulted  in  finding  alternate  layers  of  ice  and 
gravel  to  a  depth  of  .3S2  feet.  In  this  vast  natural  refrig- 
erator, flesh  not  salted  or  prepared  in  any  way  had  been 
kept  from  jiutrefaclion,  change,  or  decay  for,  at  the  very 
least,  several  thousand  years.  Yet  so  slow  are  mankind  to 
loarn,  that  more  than  a  century  passed  before  the  idea  of 
preserving  dead  bodies  by  surrounding  them  with  ice,  or 
of  preserving  meats,  fruits,  butter,  milk,  etc.  from  putrefac- 
tion, fermentation,  or  decay  by  an  artificial  unil'orm  low 
temperature  produced  by  ice-packing,  occurred  to  any  one, 
or,  at  all  events,  before  it  was  reduced  to  practice.  Now, 
however,  ice  is  regarded  as  absolutely  necessary  during  the 
summer  months  in  jjroserving  the  boilies  of  the  dead  until 
the  time  of  burial;  and  it  forms  in  the  refrigerating  closet 
or  chest  one  of  the  most  inrlispensable  articles  of  household 
use  for  the  preservation  of  meats,  milk,  butter,  vegetables, 
or  fruits.  IJut  its  antiseptic  value  does  not  stop  here.  Kc- 
frigcrating  cars  bring  to  us  from  the  Pacific  coast  choico 
ripe  fruits,  game,  and  other  articles  which  it  would  other- 
wise be  impossible  to  obtain  in  this  market,  and  bear  back 
oysters  and  other  shellfish,  condensed  milk,  Imtter,  and 
other  articles  from  the  Atlantic  coast.  Steamers  fitted  up 
with  refrigerating  chambers  bring  beef  ancl  mutton  from 
Texas,  ripe  oranges,  lemons,  bananas,  and  guavas  from  the 
West  Indies,  South  American  fruits  from  Brazil,  and  carry 
in  return  milk,  butler,  oysters,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  etc. 
to  tropical  climates.  Preserving-houses  in  several  of  our 
'•ities  preserve  with  a  slight  percentage  of  loss,  oranges, 
Irmons,  grapes,  apples,  pcars^  peaches,  etc.  from  quo  to 
thrrc  years. 

The  exportation  of  ice,  which  commenced  in  1805  by  tho 
shipment  of  i;tO  tons  to  Martinique  by  Mr.  Frederick  Tu- 
dor of  Ho!4ton,  had  a  slow  growth.  For  the  first  ten  yeara 
Mr.  Tudor  made  little  or  no  profit  by  his  ventures;  in  1815 
ho  obtaineil  some  exclusive  privileges  from  the  Cuban  au- 
thorities, and  between  lSI7and  lS20l)t>gan  to  send  cargurs 
also  to  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  New  Orleans;  but  in  all 
thf-c  years  he  met  with  frequent  disasters,  and  from  the 
lung  passages  of  tho  sailing  vessels  often  lost  tho  greater 
part  of  his  cargoes.  As  lafe  as  1h;12  his  whole  annual  ship- 
ments amounted  to  but  ■l'io2  tons,  all  of  which  was  taken 
fr(»m  Fresh  Pond  in  Cambridge,  .Mass.  In  ls:(;t  bo  sent  his 
first  cargo  to  the  Fast  Indies,  shipping  ISO  Ions  to  Calcutta. 
Kighty  tons  melted  before  tho  arrival  of  the  cargo  at  that 
port,  but  the  remainder  sold  promjitly  at  a  large  profit. 
From  tliat  time  tho  business  began  to  thrive.  In  18.*!6, 
12,000  tons  were  exported  from  Hoston  abinc ;  in  18-10, 
r.5,0()0  tons:  in  IH.'je.  1  Ift.OOO  tons;  in  1806,  nearly  250,000 
tons;  and  in  1871,  though  other  ports  were,  and  had  been 
for  liventy  years  or  more,  partieiputing  in  the  export  trade, 
the  shipment  from  Ronton  was  more  than  itOO.OdU  tuns. 
Tlie  entire  export  from  thn  Northern  cities,  aside  from  tho 
supply  of  New  Orleans  and  other  cities  along  tho  Missis- 
sippi River,  which  was  drawn  nminly  from  the  North-west, 
was  in  IH70  about  .'iUO.OOil  tons,  and  in  1875  did  not  fall 
below  UOO.OOO  tons.  In  using  this  term  tj-purt,  hfiwevcr.  it 
is  proper  to  say  that  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  these 
shipments  are  to  the  cities  of  our  own  coast  and  of  tho  in- 
terior, tho  entire  export  to  foreign  countries  in  tho  year 
\'nr..  II.— <'.'.t 


ending  June  30,  1873,  being  only  5.3,553  tons,  and  in  1874, 
51.572  tons,  having  a  declared  value  in  1873  of  $1S8,0'J5, 
and  in  1874  of  $1'J8,013,  though  probably  realizing  three 
or  four  times  those  sums.  Tho  tra<le  with  (ircat  Britain  in 
this  commodity  is  increasing,  though  Norway  is  a  large 
competitor  fur  the  traffic,  and  commenced  it  as  early  as 
1821  ;  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  also  competing.  In 
tho  Southern  cities  of  this  country  and  of  Europe,  as  well 
as  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  artificial  ice  is 
supplying  a  considerable  part  of  the  demand. 

Afi  a  Jicmedial  Af/tnit  in  Medicine  and  Snrffcri/. — The  use 
of  ico  for  medical  and  surgical  purposes  is  one  of  the  addi- 
tions made  to  our  materia  medica  in  tho  present  century. 
Tho  Russians  had,  indeed,  for  200  years  or  more  passed 
from  their  intensely  hot  steam-bnths  into  a  bath  of  snow, 
but  this  was  rather  an  experiment  in  hygiene  than  an  item 
of  medical  treatment.  Ice  is  now  used  medically,  inter- 
nally and  externally ;  in  the  former  way,  by  breaking  it  up 
into  small  bits  to  be  swallowed  by  the  patient,  and  in  iced 
drinks  in  gastritis  and  gastric  fevers,  as  well  as  in  some 
diseases  of  tho  pharynx,  larynx,  or  bronchial  tubes.  Its 
external  uses  are  manifold;  it  is  applied,  pounded,  in  ice- 
bags  to  the  head  in  acute  mania,  iirain  fever,  or  some  inju- 
ries of  tho  brain;  to  the  temporal  arteries  and  carotids  in 
some  fevers  and  in  eases  of  diphtheria  and  scarlet  fever; 
along  the  spine  in  ice-bags  in  cholera,  yellow  fever,  etc.; 
over  the  bowcKs  in  cholera;  locally  in  rare  cases,  to  dimin- 
ish sensation  preparatory  to  surgical  or  dental  operations, 
rhigolcnc  and  other  frigorific  jircparations  being  more  easily 
manageable  and  more  convenient  of  application  than  iec. 
It  is  a  remedial  agent  of  great  value. 

The-  (tutherimj  und  Storimj  of  the  Ice-crop. — Although 
tho  act  of  freezing  expels  from  the  crystallized  mass  the 
salt  and  other  mineral  ingredients,  leaving  it  when  in  a 
frozen  state  very  nearly  pure  fresh  water,  yet  ico  formed 
from  or  floating  in  salt  water  gathers  in  the  interstices  be- 
tween the  crystals  so  much  salt,  brackish,  or  impure  water 
that  it  becomes  unfit  for  houscliobl  purposes.  Hence,  the 
ice-crop  must  bo  gathered  from  fresh-water  ponds  or  lakes 
or  from  rivers  above  tide-water.  The  supply  of  Boston, 
both  for  home  use  and  export,  is  derived  from  several  small 
lakes  at  no  great  distance  from  tho  city,  such  as  Fresh  Pund 
in  Cambridge;  Wenham  Lake,  about  IS  miles  from  tho 
city  ;  Saugus  Lake  or  Pond,  etc.  Portland  and  Bangor 
derive  their  supply  from  tho  Kennebec,  Penobscot,  and 
Androscoggin  rivers,  .above  tide-water,  and  from  some  of 
tho  great  lakes  of  Maine;  New  York,  from  the  Hudson 
above  tide-water,  and  from  Koekland,  Mahopjic.  (Jrecn- 
wood,  and  other  lakes;  Pbilndelpbia,  from  the  Delaware 
and  Schuylkill  above  the  Falls,  and  from  several  lakes  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  ;  the  North-western  cities, 
from  the  great  lakes  and  the  numerous  smaller  lakes  of 
Wisconsin.  Minnesota,  and  Dakota.  In  mo'-t  cases  the  ice- 
companies  have  secured  tho  right  to  take  tho  ice  from  these 
lakes  and  ponds  by  tho  purchase  of  the  lands  bordering  on 
them,  and  have  erected  largo  storehouses  on  the  shores  in 
which  to  deposit  tho  crop.  These  icehouses  are  somctinics 
of  brick,  but  oftcner  of  wood,  from  100  to  200  feet  in  width 
and  from  200  to  -100  feet  in  length,  with  double,  trij>le,  or 
quadru])le  walls,  and  generally  throe,  four,  or  five  stories 
in  height,  with  strong  floors  and  doors  closing  tightly  on 
each  floor,  but  no  windows.  There  are  numerous  inclined 
planes,  movalilo  and  adapted  to  each  story,  and  to  service 
without  as  well  as  within  ;  in  tho  larger  storehouses  a 
steam-elevator  is  used  to  drag  t)io  blocks  of  ico  up  the 
pianos.  The  capacity  of  these  storehouses  varies  with  the 
locality  and  the  conveniences  fur  shipping  ieu  from  them, 
many  of  them  being  cajiable  of  storing  from  20.000  to 
40,000  tons.  Tho  spaces  between  the  walls  are  filled  with 
sawduat,  spont  tan-nark,  or  some  other  poor  conductor  of 
heat. 

When  a  favorable  time  has  come  for  storing  the  ice,  thoro 
is  a  scene  of  great  activity  in  the  vicinity  of  iho  store- 
houses. On  the  Hudson  and  its  neighborhood  tho  period 
for  gathering  thu  ico  is  rarely  more  than  four  or  five  days 
at  one  time,  and  Si)metimea  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  in 
all,  and  hence  the  greatest  speed  is  necessary  in  securing 
the  crop.  Tho  thickness  of  tne  ico  being  ascertained  (and 
this  should  not  bo  less  than  ten  or  twelve  inches,  and  two 
feet  is  better),  the  ice-field  is  temporarily  fenced,  tlie  snow. 
if  there  is  any,  scraped  off  by  a  broail  scraper  drawn  by 
one  horse,  and  the  ico  planed  by  another  scrajier  armed 
with  a  steel  blade  to  thu  di-ptli  uf  pcriui]>s  two  inches,  to 
remove  the  porous  ice.  In  seasons  like  that  of  1871-75, 
where  the  ice  has  not  been  covered  willi  snow  and  is  two 
feet  or  more  thick,  clear,  solid,  and  transparent,  very  little 
scraping  is  retjuired.  Tho  surfaee  being  cleared,  the  nuirker 
eommcnees  his  work,  using  a  kind  of  ]iIough  drawn  by  ono 
horse,  which  makes  a  narrow  groove  about  three  inches 
deep,  and  running  tho  lines  five  feet  apart,  and  then  turn- 
ing and  crussing  these  by  another  scries  uf  grooves,  also 


1090 


ICEBERG— ICELAND. 


five  feet  apart,  so  as  to  make  square  blocks  five  feet  each 
way      If  the  ice  is  thick,  these  blocks  arc  reduced  by  au 
imiicment  like  a  harrovT  with  three  jiarallcl  rows  of  long 
sharp  tooth,  one  row   running  in  the  groove,  and  '^""<f' 
„1ohU,  with  a  Ion-,  sharp,  and  comparatively  Ihin  blade 
,  run  rnpidly  through  the  principal  grooves.     One  row  of 
blocks  is  then  cut  through  by  means  of   hand-saws,    he 
blocks  pushed  under  or  hauled  up  on  the  ice,  and  run  to  the 
inclined  planes  or  loaded  on  sleds.     The  succeeding  blocks 
arc  i.rie.l  ofl"  with  a  crowbar  by  one  gang,  and  another 
catches  them  with  boat-hooks  and  drags  them  up,  or  tows 
a  sheet  of  perhaps  fifty  blocks,  with  a  grappling-iron  and 
rope  or  chain,  by  horse-power,  toward  the  storehouse,  where 
it  is  broken  into  blocks,  run  up  the  inclined  plane  by  the 
elevator,  and  packed  away,  the  blocks  standing  on  end  and 
bein.'  seVaralld  hv  sawdust,  shavings,  rice-hulls,  or  spen 
tan      As  soon  as  a  floor  or  story  is  filled  the  doors  are  closed 
ti-hily.  and  the  inclined  planes  raised  to  the  next  story 
which  is  filled  in  the  same  w.ay.     There  are  g><"ers  and 
drainwavs  near  the  walls  which  receive  and  carry  off  the 
draii.ings  from  the  melting  of  the  ice.     During  the  moon- 
li..ht  niihts  the  work  is  carried  on  by  night  and  day  until 
the  storehouse?  arc  filled,  all  parties  working  with  a  will. 
The  cutting  and  storing  of  600  tons  in  an  hour  at  a  single 
storehouse  is  not  an  uncommon  feat.     The  cost  of  the  labor 
for  gathering  and  storing  the  ice  in  a  favorable  season  does 
not  e.\cecd  eight  or  ten  cents  per  ton. 

Ice  ii  very  perishable  if  exposed  to  the  air  m  the  summer 
temperature',  though  that  from  Canada,  Maine   a"d  Massa- 
chusetts, being  much  more  dense  than  that  of  the  Hudson 
River,  melts  less  readily.     On  the  Hudson  it  is  kept  in  the 
storehouses  till  just  before  it  is  wanted,  and  then  loaded 
into  barges,  which,  if  possible,  are  brought  directly  to  the 
storehouse,  and  a  half  dozen  or  more  of  these  barges  are 
towed  by  a  steamer  to  the  company's  city  wharves,  where 
it  is  either  received  into  a  storehouse  or  loaded  directly  trom 
the  barges  upon  the  heavy  covered  wagons  which  are  wait- 
ing to  "eccive  it.     The  net  cost  of  the  ice  delivered  to  city 
customers  in  New  York  or  Brooklyn  varies  from  S.2  to  ?.i 
T.er  ton.  and  in  unfavorable  seasons  may  reach  $4.     It  can 
be  shipped  in  large  cargoes  from  their  wharves  in  most  sea- 
son" profitably  at  ?1.50  to  S2  per  ton.     The  profits  on  the 
business  are  immense,  the  prices  to  the  large  packing  estab- 
Vishments  and  the  larger  hotels  ranging  from  bo  to  M  J  per 
Ion  •  to  butchers,  grocers,  druggists,  and  confectioners,  from 
?S  to  S''0  per  ton  ;  and  to  families  and  small  consumers, 
from  «U  to  S3n.     These  prices  have  provoked  such  com- 
petition that  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  maximum  will  again 
be  reached  in  those  cities.     In  1874  ice  was  brought  m 
large  quantities  from  Maine  and  sold  to  consumers  at  halt 
■the  prices  which  the  New  York  companies  had  fixed,  and  a 
-profitable  business  was  done  at  those  rates.     Ice  has  within 
the  part  few  years  become  a  necessity  of  lite,  the  loss  ot 
■which  entails  great  suffering,  and  should  no  more  be  subject 
to  the  caprices  of  spceul-ating  monopolies  than  wheat  flour 
i,i  any  other  indispensable  article  of  food  or  clothing.    _ 

A  rdficml  /ce.— That  ice  could  be  produced  by  mechanical 
and  chemieal  processes  has  been  long  known,  but  until  re- 
cently it  has  not  been  possible  to  do  this  at  so  lo>y  a  cost  as 
to  mike  it  profitable.     Within  the  past  fifteen  years,  how- 
ever, there  have  been  several  processes  patented  and  ma- 
eliines  constructed  which  accomplish  this  at  a  cost  euffici- 
ently  moderate  to  warrant  their  use  in  regions  below  the 
35th  parallel  of  N.  lat.     Siebc's  ether  ice-machino  was  the 
first  of  these,  and  made  ice  in  thin  plates  by  the  vaporua- 
tk>n  of  ether  acting  upon  a  strong  brine  which  -^'J'^"'^"''! 
through  a  cistern    containing   the   ice-moulds.     A   better 
machine  was  CarrC-'s  ammonia  ice-machine,  which  produce, 
cvlindersof  ice  bv  the  vaporization  of  liquid  ammonia,  at 
iinodcrateexpenJe,  though  with  some  dangerof  explosions. 
A  German  modification  of  this  produced  plates  of  i"  with 
k-=  aan-er  and  somewhat  less  expense,  but  the  cost  ol  the 
marhiuel  was   so  high   as  to  prevent  their  general  use; 
«COOI»  being  the  price  of  one  which  would  produce  ten  tons 
of  ice  per  day  bv  vtry  hard  work.    An  American  company 
attempted  the  inanufaeture,  using  for  the  iiiirposo  one  ot 
the  most  volatile  and  infiammable  of  the  naphthasproduced 
in  the  distillation  and  refining  of  petroleum.     Their  ina- 
chinery  was  simpler  than  that  of  the  foreign  processes,  but 
it  was  rather  a  refrigerating  than  an  icc-makiug  process, 
and  required  some  motive-power  to  keep  the  relngerating 
liquid  in  motion,  and  the  material  used  was  so  explosive 
and  dangcroiw  that  their  success  was  not  great.     By  none 
of  those  prneesses  could  ice  be  produced  at  a  less  cost  than 
^lor$J  at»n,  and  bvsome  of  them  the  cost  was  from  *<•  to 
$8  per  Ion.  In  the  Southern  cities,  like  Charlcsion,  Sayan- 
nah.  Mobile,  Now  Orleaof,  an.l  Memphis,  they  could  be 
used  to  advantage,  but  not  in  Northern  cities,  where  large 
consumers  could  ordinarily,  by  combining,  obtain  their  ice 
from  nature's  manufactory  at  j;4  per  ton.  or  even  lower. 
There  is,  however,  a  wide  field  for  the  inventive  gcuius  o: 


man  to  signalize  its  power  in  the  construction  of  a  simple, 
cheap,  and  effective  ice-machine,  employing  no  dangerous 
or  explosive  chemicals,  and  making  a  pure  ice  in  solid 
cakes,  at  a  price  so  low  as  to  compete  favorably  with  the 
natural  product.  L.  P.  Bhockeit. 

Icc'berg,  a  great  mass  of  ice  floating  in  the  sea.  Ice- 
bergs arc  huge  fragments  of  glaciers  detached  by  the  action 
of  the  water  from  the  lower  end  of  the  glacier.  Greenland, 
from  the  great  number  of  its  glaciers,  is  the  fatherland  of 
the  iceberg.  Icebergs  are  far  more  numerous  in  the  northern 
than  in  the  southern  polar  regions.  They  bring  with  them 
in  their  journeys  masses  of  rock,  earth,  and  sometimes 
seeds  of  plants.  Polar  bears  and  seals  are  sometimes  thus 
transported  from  one  region  to  another.  Icebergs  are  often 
of  prodigious  size  and  most  remarkable  shape.  They  have 
often  been  observed  to  measure  300  feet  in  height.  Only 
one-eighth  of  the  mass  is  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Icebergs  are  extremely  dangerous  to  navigators  in  polar 
seas.  These  dangers  are  extended  southward  by  the  Lab- 
rador current,  which  brings  great  numbers  of  them  into  the 
Atlantic,  where  they  arc  melted  by  the  warmer  waters  ol 
the  Gulf  Stream,  and  drop  their  loads  of  gravel  and  stone 
upon  the  banks  off  Newfoundland.  The  streams  of  water 
from  their  sides"  are  always  fre.sh. 

Ice'land  [Dan.  hlaud],  a  large   island  subject  to  the 
rule  of  the  king  of  Denmark,   and  situated  between   the 
Atlantic  and  the  Arctic  oceans,  between  lat    b.,     24    and 
66°  33'  N.,  and  between  Ion.  13°  31'  and  24°  1/  W.,  600 
miles  distant  from  Norway,  250  from  Greenland,  and  oOO 
from  Scotland.     Area,  39,207  square  miles.     Pop.  6fl,,b3. 
Cap.  Revkiavik.    Iceland  is  of  volcanic  formation,  and  the 
double  effects  of  the  intense  cold  of  a  northern  climate  with 
its  long,  bleak  winter  and  short,  dreamy  summer,  and  the 
tremeodous  volcanic  powers  which,  under  one  form  or  an- 
other seem  to  be  active  at  every  minute  and  on  every  spot, 
have  given  the  whole  island  a  most  singular  appearance- 
desolate  but  grand,  poor  but  interesting.     With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  southern  part,  which  presents  some  tracts  ol 
low  and  level  land,  the  whole  coast  is  high  and  precipitous  ; 
on  the  eastern  and  northern  sides  barren  and  inhospitable, 
on  the  southern  and  western  sides  indented  with  numerous 
deep  and  narrow  fjords,  which  afford  excellent  harbors,  and 
aloig  which  stretch  the  inhabited  valleys.  The  interior  is  a 
high  table-land  resting  on  Plutonic  rocks  covered  with  im- 
mense beds  of  lava,  and  broken  now  and  then  by  hot  springs 
(eeysers).  which  throw  columns  of  boiling  water  sometimes 
200  feet  high  into  the  air,  and  form  steaming  streams,  which 
after  a  short  course  disappear  under  the  lava.   It  is  studded 
all  over  with  conical  hills  of  smoking  ashes  and  boiling  pits 
of  sulphur,  and  traversed  by  ranges  of  mountains  whoso 
summits  are   often    connected   with   glaciers    which   lorm 
wherever  the  ground  rises  above  4000  ieet,  and  which  often 
descend  to  the  ocean,  making   it    dangerous,  almost  im- 
possible, to  travel  from  one  valley  to  the  other.     Oerafa 
Jukul(/oi-««  being  the  Icelandic  name  for  glacier)  is  the 
hi -best  point  of  the  island,  6420  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sen,  and  forms  in  the  south-eastern  part  the  centre  of 
an  immense  system   of  glaciers  and  volcanoes.     Its  first 
eruption  within  the  historic  period  took  place  in  1  '--i.^hcn 
it  suddenly  burst  forth,  filling  the  valleys  with  red-hot  lava, 
riising  up  islets  far  off  in  the  ocean,  and  sending  its  clouds 
of  ashes    hundreds  of  miles  over  the  sea.      The  famous 
Hrn  A  and  Gi:ysF.n  (which  see)  are  situated  in  the  south- 
western i.art:   Krafla   in   the  northern.     The   aofvity  of 
these  volcanoes  is  not  continuous:  there  seems  to  be  lO  or 
80  years  between  each  great  eruption  of  Hec  a.     Jlean- 
whi'lc.  au  innumerable  multitude  of  smaller  mud-volcanoes 
and   hot   springs  are  playing,  and  these  arc  often  of  so 
changeable  a  nature  that  they  may  be  lormcd  in  one  month 
and  disappear  in  the  other.     The  climate  of  Iceland  has 
changed,  and  seems  to  be  still  changing.     It  would  seem 
UiatUie  island  had  formerly  large  forests.  ^"'P''"'«f 
remains  of  them,  forming  a  peculiar  kind  of  brown  coal, 
arc  found  in  many  places,  and  arc  used,  together  with  the 
white  turf  and  drift-wood,  for  fuel.    Now  there  is  not  more 
than  one  tree  on  the  whole  island,  the  mountain-ash  at 
Akure"  ri  on  the  N.  coast,  25  feet  high.     The  Thingvalla 
Forest;  covering  an  area  of  about  ten  sq""^  "'■'"•  ""^ 
composed  of  willows  and  birches,  consists  of  shrubs  which 
arc  inlv  between  three  and  four  feet  high.     Dfcrent  sort= 
of  grain,  which  were  extensively  cultivated  300  years  ago, 
cannot  now  be  raised  at  all.  The  winter  is  not  extremely  se- 
en-, but  it  is  very  long  ;  in  .Inly,  and  even  in  August,    ce 
may  be  found  drifting  along  the  coast.     Only  a  few  gar.lon 
yegctables  and  potatoes  can  be  raised,  and  bread  made  from 
hnportod  meal  is  a  luxury.     But  in  the  valleys  grow  good 
grils  and  many  fine  herbs,  among  which  Icel"-!  mos» 
constitutes  a  e.uisiderable  item  of  exportation.     Therucrs 
and  the  fjords  abound   in   fish-salmon,   trout,  and  cod 
Numerous  seals  and  whales  gather  along  the  coasU   and 


ICELANDIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE— ICELAND  MOSS. 


1091 


Birartns  of  wild  sea-fowl?,  among  which  arc  the  eider-duck 
and  the  pwan.  vi!*it  the  shores.  Thus,  huntinj;,  fishing, 
and  rearing  ol'  sheep  are  the  chief  pursuits  of  the  Ice- 
hinder's  life,  and  cider-down,  dried  aud  salted  fish,  wool — 
generally  manufooturcd  into  socks  and  mittens — tallow,  and 
fish-oil  arc  the  main  articles  he  can  give  in  exchange  for 
manufactured  good?,  coffee,  tea.  wine,  tobacct),  coal,  and 
grain.  Among  minerals,  sulphur  is  found  in  enormous 
quantities  ;  also  iron,  rock-crystals,  and  the  famous  double- 
refracting  spar,  but  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  very 
little  developed.  The  value  of  the  total  annual  exportation 
is  about  ^.T.UOO.OOO.  Iceland  was  discovered  nud  (-(donized 
in  the  ninth  century  by  the  Norwegians,  who  here  formed 
an  indrp-ndent  republic.  In  a  short  time  the  country  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  and  developed  a  civil- 
ization which  far  surpassed  that  of  the  mother  country. 
But  feuds  between  the  different  families,  in  whi'-h  whole 
estates,  with  all  their  oceupants  and  all  the  property  be- 
longing to  them,  were  burned  down,  brought  the  independ- 
ence of  the  republic  to  an  end,  aud  made  the  country  a 
dependency  of  Norway.  In  l.'JSO  it  was.  together  with 
Norway,  united  to  Denmark,  an'l  remained  so  until  1811, 
when  N'orway  was  separated  from  that  country.  Iceland 
was  governed  by  a  StiptawtmalSr,  who  had  the  executive 
power,  and  waa  appointed  by  the  king,  and  an  Altht'iif/, 
which  had  the  legislative  power,  and  consisted  of  dep- 
uties chosen  by  each  county.  It  required  an  annual 
support  of  $60,000  from  Denmark.  But  in  1S7I,  upon 
the  celebration  of  the  one-thousandth  anniversary  of  the 
colonization  of  the  island,  Icclancl  became  entirely  in- 
dependent of  Denmark,  though  subject  to  the  king  as  tho 
head  of  tho  Icelandic  government.  Its  new  governmental 
iDstitutions  are  entirely  republican  in  spirit,  all  citizens 
having  equal  rights  and  perfect  religious  liberty. 

Tho  Icelanders  arc  a  noble  race  of  people — bra%'e.  of 
pure  morals,  and  intellectual  in  a  very  high  degree.  The 
old  tongue,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  three  .Scandi- 
navian languages,  they  have  kept  during  3000  years  in  its 
original  purity,  and  the  humblest  workman  can  read  and 
write,  and  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  Saf;as,  tho 
history  and  the  laws  of  his  country,  and  with  his  Bible. 
A  comparatively  large  number  of  students  cuuio  yearly 
to  tho  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  many  of  them  have 
aequired  celebrated  names  in  science.  Nay,  there  are  Ice- 
landic poems  so  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  loftiest  ideas 
and  sentiments  of  modern  civilization,  and  so  thoroughly 
impregnated  with  the  elegance  and  brilliancy  of  modern 
art.  that  in  reading  them  nobody  would  b-,'lieve  that  they 
were  written  in  a  low  but  built  of  lava-bloeks  and  moss, 
and  looking  out  on  tho  dreary  gloom  of  a  winter  of  nine 
months.  Ci.EMKNs  I'kterses. 

Icelandic  Language  and  Literature.  Under 
the  iiiime  of  Vuwh  titmjfi  ("  Danish  tongue")  or  Xttrnrna 
("  XurtluTu  speech  ")  one  language  was  generally  spoken 
throu;j;bout  tho  three  Scantlinavian  countries,  Denmark, 
iSwedcn,  and  Norway,  during  the  pagan  times  and  down  to 
about  the  eleventh  century.  There  were  no  doubt  local 
modifications  of  this  language,  the  more  so  as  tlic  Goths 
hud  come  into  the  country  in  two  difft-rL'nt  swarms,  on  two 
different  roads,  anr|  probably  also  at  two  different  periods. 
But  the  skalds  travelling  from  court  to  court,  or  visiting 
the  great  jarls  (earls)  on  their  estates,  were  universally 
understood,  and  the  Uunic  inscriptions  spread  over  the 
whole  of  Scandinavia  show  no  differences.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury this  language  was  brought  to  Iceland  by  the  Norwe- 
gians who  scttlc'l  on  the  island,  and  here,  in  a  distant  cor- 
ner of  the  world,  wIuTe  a  little  republic  flourishetl  for  more 
than  three  centuries  ("from  H2S  to  12r>2l,  it  was  consolidated 
into  a  rich,  and  even  brilliant  literature,  and  has  been  [)rc- 
serve<I,  almost  without  any  changes,  up  to  this  very  day. 
For  tlie  study  of  the  languages  of  the  Teutonic  family  this 
lei'Iandic  language,  as  it  is  now  generally  called,  is  of  par- 
amount importance;  for  although  its  literary  monuments 
ari'  much  younger  than,  for  instance,  Ulfila's  translation 
of  the  Bible,  still  its  growth  was  more  independent,  its  de- 
velopment more  energetic,  than  that  of  any  of  its  stster- 
ton;,;ues,  and  it  is  extant  in  a  literature  whose  study  is  ne- 
cessary for  a  full  understanding  of  the  history  of  Europe 
during  the  Middle  .4ges.  Its  most  characteristic  features, 
when  compared  with  other  Teutonic  languages,  are  these: 
it  has  no  indefinite  article,  and  the  definite  is  not  put  be- 
fore the  noun,  but  appended  to  the  end  of  it  :  the  first  and 
scQond  personal  pronouns  have  a  dual  form  :  the  verbs  have 
a  passive  form  unknown  to  otlicr  Teutonic  languages;  ami 
while  in  the  (Jermanic  tongues  the  infinitive  always  ends 
with  a  consonant,  it  ends  in  Icelandic  invariably  in  a  vowel. 
When  compared  with  modern  languages,  its  purity,  flexi- 
bility, and  richness  of  forms  give  it  a  peculiar  charm. 
Etymology,  which  in  EuRlish.  for  instance,  is  a  dear!  know- 
ledge, employable  only  by  a  proeess  of  reflect i<pn,  is  in  Ice- 
landic a  livinj;  principle  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  work- 


'  ing  instinctively.  New  words,  expressive  of  new  ideas  or 
I  new  shades,  are  formed  with  the  greatest  facility,  univcr- 
I  sally  understood,  and  easily  kept  alive  as  long  as  the  idea 
lives,  but  with  the  idea  they  die.  Originally,  this  language 
I  was  written  with  Uunic  characters,  but  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  the  Roman  alphabet  came  into  use. 
The  letters  c  and  fj  were  dropped  as  fully  represented  by  « 
and  ky  and  two  new  letters,  Srand  t>.  were  formed  to  repre- 
sent the  aspirated  */  {th  in  thoufjh)  and  the  aspirated  t  {th 
in  thtntijht).  For  the  complete  representation  of  the  some- 
what intricate  system  of  vocalization  the  vowels  were  pro- 
vided with  dots  and  strokes.  The  oldest  monument  of 
Icelandic  literature  is  the  poetical  Edda,  compiled  by 
Siemund  Sigfusson  (1054-li:t;i),  but  whose  single  parts 
probably  belong  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  This,  as 
well  as  the  prose  Edda,  compiled  or  written  by  .Snorri 
Sturleson  {lITS-1241),  is  chiefly  of  religious  or  mytholog- 
ical interest,  giving  a  representation  of  tho  contents  of  the 
old  pagan  faith.  The  prose  Edda,  however,  gives  also  a 
kind  of  review  of  the  art  of  poetry,  of  synonyms,  of  poetical 
words  and  phrases,  of  metres  and  strophes,  etc.  Proofs  of 
this  art  have  been  left  us,  not  only  in  the  songs  of  tho 
poetical  Edda,  and  in  fragments  of  songs  occurring  in  tho 
different  prose  works,  where  they  are  quoted  as  evidence 
or  applied  as  ornaments,  but  also  in  about  twenty  complete 

{)oems  or  drnpitn.  The  Icelandic  skalds  and  tbeirartwcro 
lighly  esteemed,  and  the  names  of  Egill  Skallagrimson, 
Eyvind  Finsson,  Thord  Kolbeinsson,and  Ivar  Ingimundar- 
son  were  celebrated  throughout  Scandinavia  as  much  as 
thoso  of  the  greatest  kings  and  jarls.  But  most  of  their 
productions  have  perished,  and  we  may  add  that  not  much 
seems  to  have  been  lost  thereby,  rcriphraec,  not  poetry, 
artificiality,  not  art,  were  the  character  of  these  poems. 
Nothing  was  called  by  its  true  name  or  represented  in  a 
true  manner.  Figures,  almost  contorted  into  enigmas, 
stalked  along  in  difficult  metres,  ringing  with  alliterations 
and  rhymes.  (Juite  otherwise  with  the  prose  literature,  the 
Sttf/as.  They  are  of  great  importance  for  the  history  of  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  of  still  greater  interest  to  the  his- 
tory of  European  civilization,  and  perfect  in  their  artistic 
form.  They  are  partly  fictitious,  taking  their  subjects  from 
old  songs — as,  for  instance,  V'OUninjfiH<njn  and  Fn'thJo/n- 
aaf/ft— or  from  foreign  talcs,  such  as  K'urlunififfnusiifuja, 
Tri'«/ftH(s»((7«,  and  Trojumanunannga;  partly  biographical, 
narrating  the  history  of  some  great  and  powerful  Icelanclic 
family,  as,  for  instance,  Xjtthnaijn,  EtjifuMfifffi,  Laxffnln- 
(tatjn,  YatnH<hrlann<jn  and  fj'retfiMnatfa ;  and  j)artly  histor- 
ical— as,  f(>r  instance.  fCiij/th'iit/antrr/tt  ar\dJ»iiiinn'kiitffasag(t, 
treating  Danish  history,  Hr.imakriutfla,  treating  Norwe- 
gian, and  Stur/inif/tntamt,  treating  Icelandic.  But  of  these 
three  divisions  of  the  sagas,  the  main  importance  rests  on 
the  second  one,  the  biographical.  M'ith  respect  to  form,  the 
/find  has  nothing  to  boast  of  before  XJ'tfuKfufa,  either  in 
plasticity  anri  precision  of  representation  or  in  simplicity 
and  grandeur  of  style.  The  form  of  the  Icelandic  saga  is 
perfect,  like  that  of  the  Greek  epic,  and  probably  produced 
in  the  same  manner,  though  under  such  very  difterent  cir- 
cumstances. In  the  S(ditude  of  tliat  island,  far  away  from 
the  rest  of  the  world,  in  the  loneliness  of  that  hearth,  many 
miles  distant  from  the  nearest  neighbor,  and  separatedfrom 
him  by  flaming  volcanoes  and  boisteroufe  fjords,  in  the 
stillness  of  that  long  twilight,  when  people  sat  frostbound 
or  snowbound  for  months,  the  falln-r  would  t(dl  about  Njnl 
slowly  and  with  emphasis,  and  the  son  would  listen,  rapt 
and  pondering.  Then,  when  the  time  came  for  the  son  to 
tell  the  story  to  a  younger  generation,  he  would  repeat  it 
word  by  word,  just  as  it  bad  been  fixed  in  his  mind,  and 
making  no  other  changes  than  such  as  were  inspired  by  en- 
thusiasm and  reverence.  Tlius  worked  out  into  perfection, 
the  saga  was  at  last  written  down  some  time  before  the  middle 
I  of  the  fifteenth  century,  at  which  period  literary  life  utterly 
I  declined  in  Iceland.  Great,  however,  as  the  lesthctic  in- 
terest <tf  the  sagas  is.  their  historical  interest  is  neverthe- 
I  less  still  greater.  They  are  the  only  pure  and  unmixed 
I  source  from  which  any  knowledge' can  bo  had  of  tho  jirim- 
itivc  character  of  the  Scandinavian  races.  Those  conceptions 
'  of  life  and  of  the  laws  of  life,  and  those  representations  of 
\  passions  and  of  the  ideals  of  passions,  which  the  pngas  con- 
'  tain,  may  he  differently  judged,  but  whether  they  areeon- 
'  8i<icred  sublime  or  rude,  it  was  nevertheless  these  which 
formeil  tho  (»crman  nation,  and  to  some  degree  also  the 
French  :  it  was  tln-se  which  conquered  Nornunidy  and  Enj;- 
land.  anrl  it  was  these  wliiidi  made  the  Crusades  and  settled 
down  at  last  in  feutlalism.  The  great  importance  of  the 
Icelandic  sagas  for  the  study  of  European  civilization  has 
beer»nie  more  and  more  appreciated  during;  the  course  of  tho 
present  century.  Ci.p.mkns  PrTKnsi:N. 

Iceland  IWosSf  a  lichen  belonging  to  the  genus  (Vtra- 
rin  {(\  /«/(iH(/(Vfi),  so  called  from  its  habitat,  but  found  in 
the  northern  parts  of  both  continents.  It  is  usecl  as  an 
article  of  f<tod  ;  boiled,  having  liceu   freed   from   its  bitter- 


1092 


ICELAND  SPAR-ICHTHYOLOGY. 


ness  by  repeated  maceration,  it  forms  a  nutritious  jelly,  or  ] 
it  may  be  powdered  and  mixed  in  cakes  or  bread.     It  is 
also  used  as  a  medicine  in  pulmonary  complaints. 

Iceland  Spar,  transparent  calc-spar,  of  which  the  beat 
specimens  are  obtained  from  Iceland.  It  displays  iu  great 
lierfcctiou  the  jihcnomcua  of  double  refraction. 

Icp-Plaiit,  an  herb  of  Southern  Europe  and  Northern 
and  Western  Africa,  the  Mcmitbn/dutlicmiim  crygtallinum, 
of  the  order  Mesembryaceie.  Its  succulent  leaves  are  cov- 
ered with  vesicles  which  appear  like  crystals  of  ice.  It  is 
often  seen  in  house-culture,  aud  has  demulcent,  diuretic, 
and  e,\pectorant  properties. 

Ichneu'mon  [Gr.  \.\vt<i^<.iv,  the  "  tracker  "].  a  name  in 
its  largest  sense  applicable  to  the  numerous  genera  of  small 
quadrupeds  of  the  family  Vivcrridic,  sub-family  llcrpes- 
tin.-c — all  Old-World  carnivorous  mammals  of  active  habits 
and  tierce  disposition,  preying  upon  serpents,  birds,  and 
small  game  of  many  kinds.  Hut  strictly,  the  name  desig- 
nates the  Uerpenlea'ivhnciiinon  of  Egypt.  It  is  famous  as 
the  devourer  of  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile  and  as  a  destroyer 
of  venomous  serpents.  Hence  it  was  worshipped  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  Spain  has  an  ichneumon,  Ilerpealea 
Widdrimjltjuii.     (See  Mlxgoos.) 

Ichneumon-flies  (lehneumonidtc),  a  great  family  of 
hymcnoptcrous  insects  which  are  of  the  greatest  service  to 
tlie  agriculturist  and  to  mankind,  since  they  deposit  their 
eggs  either  upon  or  within  the  eggs  or  larva;  of  larger  in- 
sects and  spiders,  the  future  larva  of  the  ichneumon-fly 
devouring  the  insect  upon  which  it  is  hatched.  Immense 
numbers  of  noxious  insects  are  thus  destroyed.  There  are 
nearly  ."iOOO  known  species  (one-half  American),  of  which 
.some  300  species  belong  to  Ichneumon,  the  typical  genus. 

Ichnol'ogy  px""''  "  track,"  and  Aoyot,  "  discourse  "],  or 
the  science  of  tracks,  a  name  proposed  by  Dr.  Buekland. 
The  animals  whose  existence  is  made  known  by  their  foot- 
marks upon  stone  may  be  called  Ichiiozon.  President 
Hitchcock  has  detailed  sixteen  permanent  characters  in 
footmarks  which  serve  to  distinguish  satisfactorily  differ- 
ent classes  of  animals.  The  following  are  examples  of 
them  :  whether  tracks  of  feet;  trails  made  by  the  body  or 
its  caudal  extremity  drawn  along  in  the  mud  ;  width  of  the 
track-way;  relative  size  of  hind  and  front  feet;  length  of 
step:  number  of  toes;  mode  of  progression  ;  spread  of  the 
toes;  character  of  the  heel,  claws,  and  pellets.  (See  fur- 
ther under  Fossil  FooipnixTS.)  C.  H.  Hitchcock. 

Ich'thin,  or  Ichthulin,  albuminoids  found  in  the 
eggs  of  cartilaginous  fishes. 

Ichthyocol,  or  Isinglass.  See  Gelatine. 
Ichthyol'ogy  [ixBii^,  a  "  fish,"  .and  Adyo!, "  discourse  "]  is 
that  branch  of  zoology  which  treats  of  the  vertebrated  an- 
imals  formerly  collectively  known  under  the  name  of  fishes, 
but  which  are  now  distributed  among  the  classes  (1) 
Fishes,  (2)  Selachlins  or  Elasmobraschiates,  (3t  Mau- 
SIPOBBAXCHIATES,  and  (4)  Leptocardia.ns.  Referring  to 
the  articles  under  those  several  heads,  as  well  as  that  under 
Vertebrates,  for  information  respecting  the  structure  and 
relations  of  each,  remarks  will  be  here  confined  to  the  most 
important  facts  in  the  bibliography  and  history  of  the 
group  of  classes.  In  or<ler  to  ensure  clearness  of  concep- 
tion, (1)  the  gre.it  general  works  on  fishes  will  bo  first  no- 
ticed, and  then  (2)  the  principal  stages  in  the  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  class  or  its  primary  constituents. 

I.  Gcuciiil  Wrirkf  and  Nnmeriral  Ai'i/uinilions. — Many 
ancient  and  mediscval  authors  had  published  coin])ilations 
containing  descriptions  of  various  species  of  fishes,  but 
none  can  be  said  to  have  advanced  ichthyology.  The  chief 
authors  afler  the  revival  of  learning  were  Helon,  Salviani, 
Kondolet,  Gcsner,  etc.  Their  works,  however,  were  chiefly 
of  local  interest,  and  related  mostly  to  the  fishes  of  the 
Jlcditerrancan.  The  first  general  work  that  deserves 
special  mention  was  the  Hisloria  Pitcium  of  Willoughby 
and  Ray,  published  in  IfiSfi.  In  1735,  Linnseus,  in  the 
first  edition  of  the  famous  Siitlcmn  JVntiinr,  first  introduced 
to  the  world  a  synopsis  of  the  arrangement  of  fishes  and 
digest  of  known  species,  which  Artcdi,  his  fellow-student, 
had  elabor.atcd;  but  that  author  having  come  to  an  un- 
timely death,  his  manuscripts  were  left  to  Linnajus,  and 
published  under  his  eilitorship  in  I73.'<  in  five  parts.  In 
these  parts  were  successively  considered  in  his  own  words 
— ( 1)  ichthyological  bibliography,  or  the  literary  history  of 
fishes,  in  which  was  given  an  enumeration  of  the  authors 
who  had  written  on  fishes;  (2)  ichthyological  philosophy, 
in  which  were  elucidated  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
science  ;  (;i)  the  genera  of  fishes,  in  which  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  ichthyology  was  proposed,  with  classes,  orders,  cha- 
racters of  genera,  specific  differences,  and  many  observa- 
tions; (4)  the  synonomy  of  almost  all  fishes,  in  which  was 
given  an  enumeration  of  the  names  of  fishes  mentioned  by 


all  authors  who  had  ever  written  of  them;  and  (5)  de- 
scriptions of  the  species  of  fishes  which  Artedi  had  dis- 
sccteil  and  examined  alive :  these  subjects  being  entitled 
at  length  in  Latin,  with  corresponding  titles.  Artedi  ad- 
mitted into  the  system  212  nominal  species  under  52  genera, 
but  these  are  to  be  divided  among  22.S  species  and  45  gen- 
era of  true  fishes,  and  14  species  and  7  genera  of  Plagiuri 
or  cetaceans,  Artedi  having,  like  all  his  predecessors,  con- 
founded these  two  groups  in  the  same  class.  Linnaus,  in 
(I)  the  first  edition  of  the  .S)y»(<nia  -Vodirir,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1735,  enumerated  145  nominal  species  of  fishes 
under  36  genera,  and  10  cetaceans  in  5  genera;  (2)  in  the 
fourth  titular  (or  second  original)  edition  he  had  23S  spe- 
cies of  fishes  under  4.S  genera,  and  8  cetaceans  under  5 
genera;  (3)  in  the  sixth  titular  (or  third  original)  edition, 
published  in  174S,  he  recognized  2S1  species  of  fishes,  dis- 
tributed under  47  genera,  and  12  cetaceans  under  R  genera  ; 
(4)  in  the  tenth  titular  (or  fifth  original i  edition  (wherein 
the  class  was  first  restricted  to  the  fishes  proper,  and  the 
cetaceans  separated  to  be  united  with  the  mammals)  ho 
increased  the  number  to  414  species  (including,  however, 
the  Amphibia  Nantes),  ranged  under  57  genera;  aud  (5) 
in  the  twelfth  titular  (or  sixth  original)  edition  (which  was 
the  last  one  in  the  lifetime  of  Linnaeus)  477  nominal  spe- 
cies of  fishes  (including  the  Amphibia  Nantes)  were  de- 
scribed and  placed  in  (Jl  genera.  The  eighth  titular  (or 
fifth  original )  edition  was  limited  to  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Between  1740  and  1749,  Jacob  Theodor  Klein,  secretary 
of  state  of  Dantzic,  published  five  numbers  or  "  missus  " 
of  a  work  on  ichthyology,  remarkable  for  its  crudity,  but 
which  has  had  a  considerable  reputation.  In  this  work 
51.'!  nominal  species  of  fishes  were  described,  and  referred 
to  61  genera,  quite  dilTerent  from  those  of  Artcdi  or  Lin- 
nteus.  From  1782  to  1795  a  great  work  on  fishes  was  pub- 
lished in  two  sections — one  of  three, "■''■  and  the  other  of 
ninet  volumes — by  Dr.  Mark  Elieser  Block,  a  physician 
of  Berlin,  in  which  about  418  species  of  fishes  were  de- 
scribed and  illustrated,  in  fine  large  oblong  folio  volumes 
of  plates,  but  the  drawings  are  very  inaccurate,  and  the 
coloring  still  more  erroneous.  During  the  time  the  work 
of  Bloch  was  being  published,  several  compilations  were 
issued  from  different  European  presses. 

In  1787,  Kene  Just  Haiiy  (better  known  as  "the  crys- 
tallographer")contriljuted,  anonymously,  a  volumefto  the 
natural  history  department  of  the  Eiici/ilapi'die  ilflh<id- 
iijiic,  describing  the  fishes  in  an  alphabetical  sequence 
under  their  French  names,  and  with  tabular  synopses, 
each  on  a  special  page,  giving  the  classes,  genera,  and 
species  under  their  French  names,  in  connection  with  the 
descriptions. 

In  the  foUowingyear  (1788)  the  Abbg  J.  P.  BonnaterreJ 
contributed  also  to  the  same  series  a  volume  under  the  title 
Ichthydotjit',  in  which  the  species  were  arranged  according 
to  the  Linntcan  classification,  and  illustrated  in  102  plates, 
representing  about  400  species,  which  he  had  collected 
from  all  sources.  Also  in  1788,  Johaun  Friedrieh  Gmelin 
issued  an  edition  of  the  Si/stema  A^tturir  of  Linna?us,  in 
which  he  collected  together  from  many  sources  descriptions 
of  species,  which  were,  however,  referred  to  their  places 
in  the  system  with  very  little  judgment;  he  raised  the 
apparent  number  of  species  to  826,  which  he  grouped  in 
65  genera,  but  many  of  these  were  identical  with  each 
other,  and  the  number  of  real  species  was  therefore  much 
less.  A  few  years  later  (in  1792)the  work  of  Linnaius's  friend 
(Artedi)  also  found  an  editor  in  Johann  Julius  Walbaum, 
who  used  the  dmera  /'iscium  as  a  nucleus  around  which 
he  brought,  in  the  form  of  foot  notes  and  appendices,  all 
the  species  which  he  could  collect  from  all  sources,  and 
which  amounted  to  about  »65.  grouped  under  228  genera; 
of  these  also  a  considerable  proportion  were  synonymous 
with  other  species.  , 

Between  I79S  and  1803,lj  Bernard  Germain  Kticnne  do 
la  Ville-sur-Illon,  Comic  dc  Lac6pi'de.  published  nn  exten- 
sive work  on  fishes  in  the  French  language,  entitled  Hii- 
tnire  Xaturellr  den  /'<»i»«on«,  in  which  he  introduced,  with 
very  great  modifications  in  the  system,  numerous  generic 
divisions  and  many  species  based  on  figures  made  chiefly 
by  French  naturalists  and  travellers  ;  very  little  wholesome 
criticism  was  exercised  in  this  work.  Fourteen  hundred 
and  sixty-three  (1463)  nominal  species  were  described. 


•Blnrh's  (D.  Marcus)  Oekonnmische  Naturgeschichle  der  Fitr/ie 
DeuUcMandi,  Berlin,  1782-83  (text,  3  vols.  4to;  atlas,  3  vols.,  obi. 
Ibl.l. 

t  Bloch's  (D.  Marcus)  Xnlurgeschichte  der  auslilndUclien  Ffiche, 
Berlin,  1783-9.')  (text,  9  vols.  4to;  atlas,  9  vols.  fob). 

JHaCly(Ren6Ju8t),  Ennie.hipMie.MUhodiriHe.^HistaireNnlurdk. 
Tome  troislf'Tue  ("onteniint  les  Poissons.— A  Lifje,  )7.'<7,  4to. 

?B(]nnaterre  (J.  1'.).  Tableau  Enct/elopfdique  el  .WlAoiliipie  des 
Inns  rir/na  dr.  la  AaJure.—Jc/ilhyolOffie.—A  Paris,  1788  (4to,  with 
lOJpl.i. 

I'  l.aci'ppde  (Comie  de).  Ifistoire  NatureWt  de»  Poisxom,  Paris, 
1798-1803  (4to,  T,  vols.). 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 


10D3 


In  I  SOI  the  Greek  scholar,  Johann  Gottlieb  Schneider,* 
who  hud  puid  considerable  attention  to  natural  history, 
!ind  cjpecially  ichthyology,  published  a  posthumous  work 
of  Bhich's,  hut  which  doubtless  owed  considonibic  to  him- 
self, under  the  title  Stfulema  Ichthyoloyia-  icuuihuH  ex.  illiia- 
tratiiiit.  In  this  work  the  species  were  primarily  grouped 
in  clas^^cs,  distinj^uished  nominally  by  the  number  of  fins, 
although  very  often  the  species  referred  to  the  classes  did 
not  support  the  characters  attributed  to  them.  The  classes 
were  again  divided  into  orders  distinguished  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ventral  fins. 

In  1803  and  180t,  George  Shaw  published  the  fourth  and 
fifth  vulumes  (in  four  parts)  of  his  Geneml  Zoitlinjjf,  nr  Si/n- 
tcmitlic  Xtitiiritt  Iltmtftrxf,  which  were  exclusively  devoted  to 
the  fishes.  He  adopted,  with  a  few  trifling  modifications, 
the  system  of  Linnanis.  as  rectified  by  Gniclin,  and  described 
12'50  nominal  species  of  fishes. 

With  Shaw  the  age  of  mere  compilations  of  descriptions 
of  species  of  fishes  came  to  an  end,  nnd  although  the  sub- 
sequent works  devoted  to  such  descriptions  were  few,  they 
were  far  more  valuable  in  every  respect,  and  based  chiefly 
on  original  materials  and  observation,  and  a  comparibon 
of  the  fishes  themselves. 

In  1828,  Baron  Georges  Cuvier  commenced  the  publica- 
tion, in  connection  with  M.  Aehillc  Valenciennes, f  of  a 
great  work  on  fishes  (ffinfoire  Xatiirrf/c  ties  PoiHsous), 
which  was  continued  through  many  years  (1828-(9),  and 
was  only  brought  to  a  stop  in  ISC.i,  when  twenty-two  vol- 
umes had  been  published;  all  of  the  apochil  fishes,  almost 
all  of  the  ganoids,  and  all  of  the  elasmobranchiates,  inar- 
sipobranohiates.  and  leptocardians  being  left  undescribed. 
The  first  ten  volumes  were  prepared  by  Cuvier  and  Valen- 
ciennes, each  elaborating  s])ecial  groups,  but  on  the  <lcath 
of  Cuvier.  and  after  the  publieation  of  tlie  manuscript  he 
left  behind,  the  work  was  carried  on  by  Valenciennes  alone. 
Owing  to  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  work  was 
published,  n  great  inctjuality  in  its  proportions  necessarily 
resulted,  the  last  volumes  describing  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  uow  known  species  than  the  earlier  ones;  4514  nominal 
species  of  fishes  were  described  in  the  twenty-two  volumes, 
almost  all  of  which  belong  to  the  typical  fishes  or  to  tho 
order  of  Teleocephali. 

In  connection  with  the  work  of  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes 
may  be  considered  one  by  A.  Dum6ril,J  bearing,  in  part, 
the  same  title — r'.  e.  Ifititoii'e  iVftturr/lt;  f/c*  /*>iiit»iiiin,  on 
/r/itfii/n{of/ie  tj/n^rafr.  This  work  is  complementarv  to  the 
preceding,  as  it  embraces  the  selachians,  ganoids,  and  lopho- 
nranohiates,  groups  which  had  not  been  described  by 
r'uvier  and  Valenciennes.  Two  large  volumes  were  pub- 
lished between  1805  and  1870,  when  the  death  of  its  author 
arrested  its  further  progress.  626  nominal  species  wero 
described  in  the  volumes  issued. 

Between  1859  and  1870,  in  the  form  of  a  Catalogue  of  the. 
Finheit  in  the  Jiritinh  Mitieum,,  by  Albert  Olinther.  M.  D.,^ 
all  the  species  recognized  by  the  author,  ns  well  fr<ini  au- 
topsy OS  descriptions  of  species  unknown  to  him,  wero  de- 
scribed. This  is  the  only  work  published  since  the  early 
part  of  the  century  which  contains  a  complete  conspec- 
tus of  the  living  fishes.  It  is  in  eight  volumes,  which 
were  issued  every  one  or  two  years.  The  author  udopte<l 
OSl.t  Hpccies  as  established,  while  1082  otliers  are  considered 
a?  doubtful,  and  refcrrerl  to  by  name  only  in  foot-notes  to 
the  genera  to  which  they  are  supposed  to  belong.  It  is 
assumed  that  about  1000,  however,  of  the  dr)ubtfui  species 
will  be  ultimately  confirmeil :  and,  allowing  1000  species  to 
have  been  described  (luring  the  eonrse  of  publieation  of 
the  pfries,  it  is  estimated  that  \ve  may  put  the  total  num- 
ber of  fishes  known  at  present  as  about  9000. 

II.  Prof/rin»  t,f  CfnHHifirtttinii. — Norhing  like  a  scientific 
ola8.-<ification  of  fishes  was  known  to  tbi-  ancient  nr  mediipval  ' 
authors,  Aristotle  in  this  respei-t  being  but  little  if  any  in  ad- 
vance of  otliers,  and  none  of  his  followers  or  successors  nro 
better.  The  first  germ  of  a  regular  system  based  on  any- 
tliing  like  scientific  principles  was  not  j>ub|ished  till  near 
the  end  of  tho  seventeenth  century.  In  lOSfi,  Kuy  pub- 
lished the  f/iMtun'tt  PtMciuut  left  by  bin  frien<l  Willoughbv, 
in  which  tho  species  wero  dichotomously  divided,  prim- 
arily, («)  into  (I.)  CAnTii.AnivKi,  and  ( II.)  Osski  ;  (h)  tho 
fortuer  fl.)  into  Lmif/i  (ineludintc  sharks)  and  f.nii  fin- 
eluding  rays):  and  tlie  latter  fll.l  into  Pi,  \Nt  nnd  Non- 
Pl.AM  ;  (rj  the  Pi.ASi  included  only  the  flat-fishes;  the  NoN- 
i-LANi  were  distinguished  uocordlng  to  tho   form   of  (he 

•  nineliU  (M.  E.^  ftt/nlemn  !rhthynU»fji(r  irnnihux  nr.  Htuxfrattim 
Pirnt  fthitiitn  nitetortJi  upu»  inrhoa/um  nhsatvU,  correxit,  irUerpolavit 
Ju.  fw'ol/lirb  Xr/m*'iV//T.— Kerolini.  IHOI.  Svn. 

t  Ciivler  (Itarnn  (leorif^i  and  Aebille  Valenciennes.  Ifistoire 
S'alurrllr  fif.t  i\,ijisr,ns  —A  Pari-*.  IK2H-I0  ('-"J  vols.  Kvo). 

J  nuin(iril  (Aujtusl).  itUtmrr  Xa/nreUr  deA  PbiAsonn,  on  Irhlhy- 
afoffie  fjrnf^raU,  ouvraRC  necompnitnC  de  planches,  Paris,  1865-^0 
(text.  "J  vols.  »vo  ;  atlas.  Inr(;er  8vo). 

<>(ianther  (Albert  C.  L.G.t.  OUatogne of  tha  FUhci  intheBriiiih 
iViueum.— lA>ndon,  18o9-7U  (»  vols.  8vo). 


body,  whether  eel-shaped  {Anguilliformea)  or  more  con- 
tracted ( rojyjore  rojitrarr/orr),  and  [fl)  those  according  to 
the  absence  of  ventrals  [nine  vcntralihuf)  or  their  presence 
{cum  vfiitralifittg) :  (c)  those  without  ventrals  were  only 
difFerentiatcd  into  genera;  those  with,  into  Malacoptcrr/^ii\ 
or  soft-rayed  fishes,  and  Arnuthnpterytjii,  or  spiny-rnyed 
fishes.  This  scheme  exhibits  some  idea  of  system,  but  in 
most  respects,  and  in  its  details,  it  is  quite  defective. 

Artedi  classified  the  45  genera  known  to  him  under  5 
orders,  accepting  to  a  considerable  extent  the  views  an- 
nounced in  tho  work  of  Willoughby  and  Ray.  These 
orders  were  (I)  Malacopterygii,  (2)  Acanthoptcrygii,  (3) 
Branchiostegii,  (I)  rhoudropterygii,  nnd  (5)  Plagiuri. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  observe  that  among  the  Malacop- 
terygians  ho  included  the  genera  Sifugnathus,  Stromatctm, 
and  Aiutrrhichas,  as  well  as  the  true  Malacopterygians  of 
later  authors  ;  and  under  the  Branchiostegi  he  combined 
the  genera  fialistrs,  Ontyacio)},  Ci/doptcnut,  and  Lnphinn. 

In  1758,  Linnteus  published  an  original  system  of  ichthy- 
*^^ogy>  >ind  («)  rejected  (as  Brisson  had  previously  done) 
the  cetaceans  from  the  class  of  fishes;  [h)  applied  the  bi- 
nomial system  of  nomenclature  to  the  species:  and  ((•)  intro- 
duced a  new  system  of  classification,  based  chiefly  upon  tho 
position  of  the  ventral  fins,  and  recognizing  5  orders,  distin- 
guished severally  (1)  by  the  supposed  structure  of  the  bran- 
chiae (Branchiostegi),  (2)  the  want  of  ventral  fins  (Apodes), 
or  their  presence  (3)  under  the  throat  (.lugulares),  or  (4)  at 
the  thorax  (Thoracici),  or  (5)  behind  the  ventrals  (Abdom- 
inales).  Linna-ns  ran  to  an  opposite  extreme  from  his  pre- 
decessors in  limiting  the  class,  and  not  only  excluded  the 
cetaceans,  but  committed  a  grave  error  in  separating  from 
the  fishes  and  referring  to  tlie  amphibians  the  flinndrop- 
ter3-gii  of  Artedi.  He  was  led  into  this  mistake  by  erro- 
neous information  respecting  the  air-bladder,  communicated 
to  him  by  Dr.  Garden  of  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  and  this  error 
was  still  further  aggravated  in  the  succeeding  edition  (the 
twelfth,  or  the  last  published  during  bis  life). 

The  true  fishes  were  again  brought  together  by  Gmelin  in 
his  edition  of  the  Sifntcma  Nnturrr^  and  the  class,  remaining 
purged  of  the  cetaceans,  was  retained  with  the  constituents 
generally  accorded  to  it  till  within  the  last  few  years. 

In  1801,  Bloch  and  Schneider  published  their  Systemn 
IchthifoliHjiiv,  in  which  they  distributed  the  genera  under 
1 1  classes,  distinguished  by  the  number  of  fins  from  eleven 
down  to  one — )'.  c.  Ilendecapterygii,  Decapterygii,  Enne- 
apterygii.Octoptcrygii,  Hcptapterygii.  Ilexapterygii.  Pent- 
apterygii,  Tetrupterygii,  Tripterygii,  Diptcrygii,  and  Mon- 
opterygii.  Within  the  classes  orders  were  recognized  based 
ujjon  the  ventral  fins — i.  c.  whether  jugular,  thoracic,  ab- 
dominal, or  wanting.  This  system  had  not  even  the  merit  of 
being  based  upon  a  correct  appreciation  or  count  of  the  fins  : 
and  independently  of  this,  it  was  in  the  highest  degree 
unnatural,  bringing  together  forms  that  were  in  nowise  re- 
lated, and  separating  others  that  were  very  closely  allied, 
or  even  congeneric  It  must  be  remembered,  in  this  con- 
nection, that  a  greater  or  less  number  of  fins  is  often  simply 
tho  expression  of  more  or  less  abbreviated  or  shortened 
raj"S,  and  more  or  less  deeply  incised  membrane — r.  y.  dif- 
ferences such  as  may  be  found  between  the  species  of  black 
bass  or  species  nnd  genera  of  Serranidn?,  etc. 

Nearly  eontcmiioraneously,  from  1799  to  1804,  appeared 
the  work  of  Lue^'pedc,  in  which  the  classification  adopted 
is  a  proerustean  system  of  (1)  sub-classes,  (2)  divisions,  and 
(3)  orders.  Flrnt. — .SV6-c^(««f(t,  based  on  the  supposed  con- 
sistence of  the  skeleton  {Sons-classes,  (1)  Poissons  carti- 
lagineux,  (2)  Poissons  osseux.)  Sreoud, —  /ViViaiV.im,  under 
each  sub-class,  established  on  the  supposed  presence  or  ab- 
sence and  various  combinations  (•))  of  the  opcrcnia  nnd 
branchiostegal  membrane — that  is.  the  presence  of  both,  of 
one,  or  the  other,  or  none.  Thirii. —  Ordtrfi,  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  ventrals  (Anodes),  or  their  presence 
at  difl*erent  regions  (.lugulaires,  Thoraciens,  Abdominaux). 
Several  of  these  categories  are  non-existent  in  nature,  and 
the  reference  of  species  to  them  is  due  to  erroneous  obser- 
vation or  supposition.  Numerous  new  genera  were  in  this 
work  for  the  first  time  instituted,  but  most  of  them  were 
very  bailly  defined  and  congeneric  species  were  frequently 
combined  with  other  types. 

In  ISOO.  M.  Dum^-rit.  in  his  Znoforfir  Auah/tt<inr,  pub- 
lished a  system  of  fishes  which  was  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent siii»iily  a  modificatiitn  of  Lacepi>de,  but  be  for  the  first 
time  introduced  the  category  of '*  families  "  in  the  classi- 
fication of  fishes:  his  arrangement,  however,  was  as  arti- 
ficial as  that  of  I.ac^'pt'^de. 

.Several  other  authors  published  new  arrangements  or 
introducecl  modificatiims  in  the  elassifientiitn  of  the  class  : 
among  them  wero  Hafincsque  in  ISIO,  Piilhis  in  1811.  Bali 
nesiiuc  anew  in  1815,  Do  Bhiinvillo  and  Gken  in  1816. 
Goldfur4s  in  1820.  and  Risso  in  1827.  Almost  all  of  their 
modifications,  however,  were  devoid  of  merit,  and  there- 
fore need  not  detain  us. 


1094 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 


In  1817,  Cuvier,  who  had  previously  published  numer- 
ous special  memoirs  on  fishes,  and  rectified  many  details  in 
their  classification,  introduced  his  complete  system  in  the 
first  edition  of  the  litynr  Atn'maf.  He  primarily  distin- 
^^uished  fishes  into  'H"]ioudroj)terygien8  "  and  "Osseux." 
The  ehondropterygian  fishes  were  disintegrated  into  those 
with  attached  brauchiaj  ("a  branchics  fixes")  and  those 
with  free  hranchiie  ("a  branchics  libres ")  :  the  former 
were  subdivided  into  *'Suceurs"  (Marsipobranehiatce^,  and 
into  "Selacicns"  (Elasniobranchiates) ;  the  latter  included 
only  the  sturgeons  and  paddle-fish  ("  Sturioniens  *').  The 
osseous  fishes  were  divided  into  the  orders  '*  Plectogna- 
thes,"  "  Lophobranchcs/*  **  Malacopterygiens  abdomi- 
naux,"  "Malacopterygiens  sub-brachiens,"  "Malacopte- 
rygiens apodes,"  and  *'  Acanthopti-rygiens." 

The  natural  groups  Plectognaths  and  Lophobranchs  were 
thus  for  the  first  time  recognized:  as  to  the  rest,  the  merit 
consisted  chiefly  in  the  criticism  exercised  in  the  elimina- 
tion of  doubtful  forms  and  their  proper  identification,  and 
in  approximations  of  minor  groups,  rather  than  in  the  ap- 
lireciation  of  the  outlines  of  classification. 

In  184fi,  Johann  Miiller,  the  most  able  anatomist  of  the 
ceutury,  who  had  long  been  engaged  on  very  elaborate  an- 
atomical investigations  of  difl"erent  groups  of  fishes,  gave 
expression  to  the  result  of  his  studies  in  a  remarkable 
memoir  on  the  classification  of  fishes.  He  recognized  in 
the  class  6  distinct  sub-classes — viz.  {!)  Leptocardii,  (2) 
INfarsiiiobranchii,  (3)  Elasmobranchii,  (4)  Ganoidea,  (o) 
Teleostei,  and  (6)  Dipnoi.  These  sub-classes  were  based 
upon  weighty  structural  diff"erences,  and  the  combinations 
indicated  by  them  were  far  superior  to  any  that  had  been 
previously  proposed.  Perhaps  his  most  valuable  results 
were  the  recognition  and  characterization  of  the  sub-class 
of  Ganoidea.  The  members  of  this  group  had  previously 
been  cither  (c,  *;.  by  Cuvier  and  his  followers)  widely  dis- 
persed and  their  relations  not  at  all  appreciated,  or  (by 
.\gassiz)  very  unlike  forms  had  been  combined  with  them 
in  one  group,  on  account  of  partial  agreement  in  characters 
of  very  slight  value.  Miiller  was  the  first  to  recognize  a 
natural  group  distinguished  by  definite  characters;  he  also 
defined,  in  a  much  more  scientific  manner  than  had  been 
previ(jusly  done,  the  sub-classes  which  had  already  received 
names  adopted  by  him.  On  the  whole,  his  classification 
marks  the  most  noteworthy  epoch  in  the  history  of  syste- 
matic ichthyology. 

The  great  majority  of  the  other  natural  classifications 
of  fishes  proposed  within  the  last  half  century  have  been 
either  slight  modifications  of  Cuvier's  or  iMUller's,  or  (e.  g. 
Owen's)  eclectic  ones  combining  seleclions  from  each. 

To  this  generalization,  however,  there  are  several  marked 
exceptions,  and  notably  the  classifications  of  Prof.  Agassi?, 
and  Dr.  von  Bleeker.  The  former  has  been  so  celebrated 
that  some  reference  to  it  may  be  demanded.  Tn  1833,  Prof. 
Agassi/,  published  his  views  respecting  the  ichthyological 
system,  and,  exclusively  basing  his  arrangement  on  the 
character  of  the  scales,  segregated  all  the  existing  and  fos- 
sil fishes  into  four  orders:  (1)  Ganoidei,  with  enamel-cov- 
ered scales;  (2)  Placoidei,  with  shagreen-like  scales;  (.3) 
Ctcnoiilei,  with  ordinary  scales  pectinated  at  their  free 
margins:  and  {-i)  Cycloidei,  with  ordinary  scales  entire  at 
their  free  margins.  The  illustrious  and  learned  author  re- 
tained this  classification  till  about  185".  It  was  not.  how- 
ever, received  with  favor  by  any  other  original  investigator, 
and  was  justly  objected  to  on  account  of  (1)  the  characters 
themselves  being  insufficient,  (2)  the  distinctions  being  very 
trivial  and  intergrading,  ns  well  as  (3)  on  account  of  defi- 
ciency in  diagnostic  precision,  large  numbers  of  forms  be- 
ing left  unprovided  for,  inasmuch  as  many  fishes  are  en- 
tirely destitute  of  scales.  Very  many  fishes,  also,  have  two 
kinds  of  scales  (cycloid  and  ctenoid)  in  different  parts  of 
the  body. 

In  1871,  Dr.  Albert  Giinther  proposed  a  modification  of 
the  system  which  has  been  much  noticed.  The  tendency 
among  zoologists  had  always  been  towards  a  differentiation 
of  the  fishes  into  the  teleost  and  ganoid  forms  on  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  the  selachian  types,  but  Dr.  (liinther  re- 
versed this,  combining  the  ganoids  and  selachians  in  one 
sub-class  ("  fourth  sub-class,  Pnlfcirfithift-s  '*),  contrasted 
with  that  of  the  TeUosts.  The  Pahvichthyes  were  subdi- 
vided into  two  "orders" — order  1,  ("honclropterygii.  with 
two  "sub-orders"  (Plagiostomata  and  Holoecpbali).  and 
order  2,  Ganoidei.  with  five  "sub-orders"  (Amioidei,  Lepi- 
dosteroiilei,  Polypteroidei,  '^hr)ndrostei,  and  Dipnoi). 

Many  other  modifications  have  been  proposed  by  vari- 
ous authors,  but  scarcely  require  notice  here.  Only  one 
other  system  need  detain  us.  In  1871,  Prof.  Edward 
1>.  Cope,  after  first  recognizing  three  classes  by  most 
authors  confounded  under  the  old  term  "Fishes"  (Lepto- 
curdii,  Dermopteri.  and  Pisces),  divided  the  fishes  proper 
primarily  into  5  sub-classes — viz.  (1)  Ilolocephali  (=  Elas- 
mobranchii bolooepbali,  Miiller),  (2)  SeUcbii  (==  Elasmo- 


branchii selachii,  Miiller),  (3)  Dipnoi  (Miiller),  (4)  Cros- 
sopterygia  {=  Ganoidei  erossopterygida?,  Huxley),  and 
(5)  Actinopteri  (new).  The  Holocephali,  Selachii,  and 
Dipnoi  had  the  same  limits  as  the  homonymous  sub- 
classes or  orders  of  Miiller.  The  Crossopterygia  included 
those  having  the  "  hyomandibular  articulated,  opercular 
bones  well  developed,  a  single  ceratohyal :  no  pelvic 
elements;  limbs  having  derivative  radii  of  the  primary 
series  on  the  extremity  of  the  basal  pieces,  which  are  in 
the  pectoral,  nietapterygium,  mesopterygium,  and  prop- 
terygium."  Three  orders  were  recognized — viz.  llaplistia, 
Cladistia,  and  Actiuistia.  The  Actinistia  embraced  such 
forms  as  had  *■  opercular  bones  well  developed  or  separate 
and  complex  suspensorium  :  a  double  ceratohyal,  no  pelvic 
elements:  primary  radii  of  fore  limb  parallel"  with  basilar 
elements,  and  entering  the  articulation  with  scapular  arch  ; 
basilar  elements  reduced  to  metapterygium,  and  very  rarely 
mesopterygium  ;  primary  radii  of  posterior  generally  re- 
duced to  one  rudiment."  This  sub-class  was  primarily  di- 
vided into  three  tribes:  Chondrostei  (Miiller)  with  2  orders; 
Physostomi  (Miiller),  with  12;  and  Physoclvsti  (Miiller), 
with  10. 

Cfasses. — From  this  point  more  lucid  ideas  may  be  ob- 
tained by  considering  the  primary  subdivisions  of  the  group 
known  under  the  general  name  of  ''Fishes."  Up  to  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  under  this  name  all  the 
vertebrated  inhabitants  of  the  waters  adapted  for  exclusive 
progression  through  the  liquid  medium  were  confounded; 
consequently,  the  true  fishes  and  cetaceans  had  not  been 
decidedly  separated.  In  1756,  for  the  first  time,  Mathurin 
Brisson  {lie^fnc  animnf,  (Ih-ise  m  neii/  chivsefi)  removed  the 
cetaceans  entirely  from  the  fishes,  distinguished  them  as  a 
class,  and  placed  them  immediately  after  the  mammals  ;  he 
therefore  was  the  first  naturalist  who  limited  the  class 
Pisces  to  the  typical  branchiferous  vertebrates.  As  pre- 
viously indicated,  Linnw^us  never  recognized  anything  like 
the  true  limits  of  the  class,  at  one  time  confounding  with 
them  the  cetaceans,  and  later,  when  he  excluded  them,  also 
excluding  typical  fishes  which  he  referred  to  the  class  of 
amphibians.  Gmelin,  however,  rectified  this  error,  and 
thenceforth  the  fishes  were  recognized  as  a  homogeneous 
class  until  a  comparatively  recent  date.  To  this  statement, 
however,  several  exceptions  must  be  noted.  E.  Geoffroy  St.- 
Ililaire  and  Latreille  (1825)  difi'erentiated  the  fishes  thus 
understood  into  tim  classes — viz.  (1)  Poissons  (=  Fishes 
proper)  and  (2)  Ichthyoderes  (=  Elasmobranchiates  and 
Mnrsipobranchiates),  the  Leptocardians  being  then  un- 
known. I.  Gcoffroy  St.-Hilaire,  Bonaparte  (18561.  and 
Moquin  Tandon  also  recognized  tiro  classes,  but  with  dif- 
ferent limits — viz.  Poissons  (=  Fishes,  Elasmobranchiates 
and  Marsipobranchiates)  and  Myelozoa  {=  Leptocardians). 
Agassiz  has  distinguished  /"nc  classes — viz.  (I)  iSIyzontes 
(=  Marsipobranchiates  and  Leptocardians).  (2)  Fishes,  (3) 
Ganoids  (2  and  3  =  Fishes  proper),  and  (4)  Selachians 
{=  Elasmobranchiates).  Ha'ckel  has  likewise  adopted/our 
classes,  but  very  different  from  those  proposed  by  Agassiz 
— viz.  (1)  Pisces,  (2)  Dipneusta  (=  Dipnoi),  (3)  Cyclostoma, 
and  (4)  Leptocardii.  (Jegenbaiir,  Schmidt,  Cope,  and  sev- 
eral other  recent  naturalists  recognize  three  classes — viz. 
(1)  Pisces,  (2)  Cyclostoma.  Cyelostoioata,  Dermopteri,  or 
Marsipobranchii.  and  (3)  Leptocardii. 

It  will  be  tlius  seen  that  the  present  tendency  and  the 
weight  of  authority  is  decitleilly  in  favor  of  the  recogni- 
tion of  class-value  for  the  differences  of  structure  exliibited 
by  several  constituent  groups  of  the  old  so-called  class  of 
"  Fishes,"  and  the  more  thoroughly  we  enter  upon  the 
comprehensive  study  of  the  anatomy  of  all  the  vertebrates, 
the  more  disposed  we  must  be  to  the  recognition  of  the 
naturalness  of  6uch  associations. 

In  fine,  on  a  review  of  the  various  step?  in  the  progress 
of  knowletlgc  gained  respecting  these  animals,  it  aj^pears 
that  the  early  Linnjean  and  post-Linniean  authors  rather 
added  to  the  confusion  in  which  species  were  already  in- 
volved than  advanced  the  science;  that  Cuvier  and  his 
disciples  did  much  to  clear  that  confusion  away,  and  intro- 
duce sound  methods  of  study  :  that  Miiller  made  a  great 
advance  in  the  rigorous  application  of  anatomical  ])rinci- 
ples  to  the  distinction  of  the  several  groups;  and  that  sub- 
se(|ucnt  progress  has  chiefly  resulted  from  the  more  or  less 
general  recognition  of  the  principle  that  the  consideratiC'D 
of  the  entire  structure  must  be  the  paramount  guide  to  a 
correct  appreciation  of  the  true  relations  of  the  various 
types  of  organization,  and  that  telet*1ogical  modifications 
are  quite  unimportant  in  comparison  with  morphological. 

(^/ftHniJirntlini. —  In  conclusion,  we  append  a  synopsis  of 
the  primary  and  secondary  groups,  down  to  sub-orders,  that 
maybe  most  advantageously  admitted  among  the  fishes; 
they  arc  arranged  in  an  inverted  ascending  series: 
Class  Pisi'Ks,  or  Fishks  I  E.  GeofFroy  St.-Hiiaire,  Latreille, 
Agassiz  (fraction),  Cope,  Gill). 
Sub-class  Teleostei. 


ICIITHYOKXIS— ICIITHYUSAURUS. 


lO'J.j 


Order  Plecto^nathi. 

Sub-urder  Uymnodontes, 
"         **     Ostraeodermi, 
"         '*     Sclerodcrmi. 
Order  Lopholtrawehii. 
Sub-order  Svngnathi, 
"        "    Sulcnostomi. 
Order  Pediculati. 
Order  Hemibriinchii. 
Order  Teleocephali. 

Sub-order  lU'tcrosoniata. 
"         *'     AuactiDtbini,  or  Jugularos, 
"         "     Acanthopteri, 
"         "     Pcrccsoce?, 
"         "     Svnentognathi, 
"         "     Ilaplomi, 
*'         "     Isospondyli, 
"         "     Eventngnnthi, 
"         "     Gymnoiioti. 
Order  Scypht»piictri. 
Order  Xematognathi. 
Order  Apodes. 

Sub-order  Ichtbyocephali, 
"         "     Ilolostonii. 
"         "     Eiichclyccphali, 
"         "     Colocephali, 
Order  Opistbomi. 
Sub-clafi.s  (tanoidei. 

Super-order  Hyoganoidci. 
Order  Cycloganoidei. 
Order  Rhonihogatioidei. 
Super-order  ChondrogaDoidci, 
Order  Chondrostei. 
Order  Sclacbostnmi. 
Super-order  Bracbioganoidci. 
Order  Cro««(iptcrygia. 
Order  Actinistia  (extinct). 
Super-order  Dipnoi. 
Order  Sireuoidei. 
(?)  Order  Placoganoidei  (extinct). 
Super-order  (?)  Aspidoganoidei  (extinct). 
Order  Cepbalaspidoidea  (extiuct)- 
(?)  Super-order  Aeanlhogunuidea  (extinct). 
Order  Acantbuduidea  (extinct). 
Class  Selachians  or  Elasinubrauchiates. 
Super-orrler  rhini:ene. 

Order  Holoeephali. 
Super-or<ier  Pbigiostomi. 
Order  Rain?. 

Sub-order  Masticura, 
'*  Pacbyura. 

Order  Srjuali. 

Sub-ordt-T  lUiinic, 
"  Galei. 

Class  Marsipohranchii. 

Order  llyjjeroartia. 
Order  Hyperotreti. 
Class  Leptocurdii. 

Order  Cirrostomi. 
Anthnritiea. — In  addition  to  the  general  worke  whose  titles 
have  been  sulynined  in  riH>t-noteH  to  thi.x  account,  the  fullow- 
ing  artictcH  may  bo  reft-rrcd  to — viz. :  "  Iclitbyology,"  hy  Sir 
John  K\i'AmuU*i\\,\\\  \\\e  iCntiiehtfurtUn  Jin'titiinicn  ;  *' Ob- 
ccrvfttionH  on  the  Systematic  Relations  of  the  Fishes, "  by 
Edward  D.  Cope,  in  the  I'nirtrdimjt  >,/  thr  American  Attso- 
ci.ttinn  fur  the  Advitnvrmt'itt  uf  Sri,  urr  /i,r  1S7 1  (IH72),  pp. 
;il7-.1i;i:  and  '*  Arranj^enK-nls  of  Ibe  Families  of  Fishes," 
by  Theodore  (Jill.  Lists  of  all  the  fisbca  of  Nwrth  America 
havu  been  given  by  DeKay.  Storer,  and  Gill  ;  those  of  Hrit- 
ish  America  have  been  deweribed  by  Richardson,  Forlin 
Storer,  Perley,  ami  Knight;  (hose  of  Maine  Ity  Holmes; 
of  MassiuOmst-lts,  by  Siorer  and  others;  those  of  Connec- 
ticut, by  Linslcy;  of  New  York,  by  Mitchill,  l>eKay.  and 
Ayres:  of  New  Jersey,  by  Ruird  and  Aldnitt  ;  andof'South 
Carolina,  by  llolbrook.  The  most  iinjiortant  of  these  for 
the  general  student  are  tho-e  of  DeKay,*^  Ilolbrook.f  and 
.Slorer.J  The  latent  list  of  (ho  species'  has  been  given  by 
(fill.?  and  In  that  work  nforences  will  be  ftinnd  to  other 
authors.  Numerous  artieles  on  Anieriean  fishrs  will  be 
found  in   iho  i^ruicfdintj*  uf  the  Acttdruit/  nf  Satural  Sci- 


encet  of  PhUadelphxa  ;  Proceed ttign  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Xfiturfti  Historif  :  ftoHton  Jnumal  of  Xatural  Niston^  ; 
AnnaU  of  the  Lt/vrum  nf  yntiirat  Ilintoryj  New  York  : 
and  especially  in  the  HeportM  nf  the  U.  S.  Commianioncr 
of  Fixh  nnd  FinherirH,  Prof.  .S.  F.  Raird. 

The  fossil  fishes  have  been  chieQy  studied  by  Agassiz, 
Pander,  Egerton,  Hugh  Miller.  Huxley,  and  Kner,  and 
those  of  the  U.  8.  have  been  well  illustrated  and  received 
much  attention  from  Dr.  Newberry,  whose  article  on  Fossil 
FisuES  in  this  volume  will  give  further  information. 

TiiKoiKJitK  Gill. 

Tchthyor'nis  [Gr.  ix^v^,  **  fish,"  and  opfis,  "  bird  "],  an 
extinct  giiiiis  of  birds  described  by  Prof.  Marsh  from  the 
Cretaceous  of  Kansas.  Thoy  pos'-essed  teeth  and  biconcave 
vertebriD,  from  which  fish-like  character  the  namo  is  derived. 

(See  OlWNTOKMTHES.) 

Ichthyosau'rus  [Gr.  ix^"?- "  ^"1^"  and  travpo^,  "liz- 
ard"], an  extinct  genus  of  marine  reptiles  having  some 
fish-Iiko  characters,  whence  the  name,  meaning  "fish- 
lizard."  In  general  form  these  reptiles  were  elongate,  with 
the  head  set  inimciliately  upon  the  body,  without  any  con- 
striction at  the  neck.  They  bad  four  (in-like  pad'iles,  and 
the  tail  was  flattened,  nn<l  probably  expanded  toward  the 
end  into  a  powerful  vortical  tail-fin.  as  in  the  fislies.  The 
skull  of  the  ichthyosaurus  is  elongated  and  tapering  at  the 


•Dekay  (Jamew  E.),  Znotofrtf  of  Xetr  York,  or  thn  New  York 
Ewna.  part  Iv..  Tithes  (Albany,  Ift-I?. -Ilo) ;  'XV,  nomlnMl  species 
iin- deHcrilK-d  aiul  nio.sily  fi^ored  ns  New  York  fl«lii>s. 

tHo|l>roitk  (.lolin  r>lwarihi.  Irht/n/ntni/i/  of  S»iith  niroiina 
(Charleston.  S.  C.  lit  c-I.  IKV. ;  'Jd  i-il.  ISfi'j.^to'.  unrtnlishedi. 

tSton-r  I  Havld  lliun)>hr<  vn),  .1  llixtoni  u(  Ihr  Hshe.i  uf  MoAJia- 
chiufUn  (Catiihrldk"*  mid  HoHton.  \M,1  \  r<jirinl<'d  from  J/>i/i.  Am. 
Arml.  Arf/i  fin./.SVi.,  JH.V{-tl7,  4i«i;  l:i:(  hix'cIi'm  tlifunil  <»■)  Mi  plates! 

?'11II  (Tb<'«Klon-i,  tiUaioffHf  uf  the  Fixhts  of  Ihr  J-:„At  (hiut  of 
ynrth  Atu'^rirfi  ( WiuhlnKtoii.  I8T;l,  Mn,  pultllHbed  by  the  Smlth- 
Hoitlan  InHtttiitioii);  :MI  iipeeics  enum«rate<l. 


lehUiyosaurus  (head). 
snout,  which,  in  the  upper  jaw,  is  formed  principally  by 
the  much-cniargfd  ])remaxillarics.  The  rami  of  the  man- 
dible arc  also  uuitcil  in  an  elongated  symphysis,  as  in  (ho 
moderu  gavial.  Tho  (ce(b  are  simple,  conical,  of  nearly 
equal  size,  and  in  an  unintcrruiited  series.  Their  surface 
is  marked  by  longitudinal  im*)ression8  antl  ritlges,  varying 
in  the  ditferent  species.  The}'  are  inserted  loosely  in  a 
long  and  deep  continuous  furrow,  and  were  retainecl  by 
slight  ridges  extending,  between  the  teeth,  along  the  sides 
and  bo((om  of  tho  furrow,  and  Iiy  the  gum  and  the  organ- 
ized membranes  continued  into  the  groove  nnd  \i\Hm  tlio 
base  of  the  teeth.  The  nostrils  are  small  and  near  the 
orbits,  which  are  jiirge  nnd  evidently  enclosed  highly  de- 
veloped eyes.  There  is  often  found  in  front  of  the  orbit  in 
fossil  skulls  a  circular  series  of  petrified  thin  bony  phites 
ranged  round  a  circular  aj^ertnre.  Such  a  series  of  scle- 
rotic plates  is  now  found  only  in  the  eyes  of  turtles,  lizards, 
and  birds,  showing,  writes  Dr.  lluckhind.  "that  the  enor- 
mous eye  of  which  they  formed  the  front  was  an  optical 
instrument  of  varied  and  ]>rodigious  power,  enabling  tho 
ichthyosaurus  to  ilcP(;ry  its  ]»rey  at  great  or  little  distances, 
in  the  oltscurity  of  night  or  in  tl»e  depths  of  tho  sea." 
There  are  in  the  skull  large  supratcmpural  fossie,  and  tho 
infratemporal  fossuj  are  closed  over  by  plates  of  bone 
The  centra  of  the  vertebra*  are  short  flattened  disks  and 
deeply  biconcave,  resembling  those  of  fishes.  ']'hc  only 
transverse  j)rocesses  t\wy  possess  are  tubercles  de\'cl(»pe  1 
from  the  sides  of  these  centra.  Tho  neural  arches  are 
forked  bones,  connected  only  by  cartilage,  with  two  flat 
surfaces,  one  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line  of  tho  upper 
surfat^es  of  the  centra  ;  ami  in  tho  greater  part  of  the  boily 
they  are  not  articulated  with  (»ne  another.  The  cerviciil 
and  dorsal  series  of  vertebrie  are  not  separated  by  any 
marked  characters;  and  there  is  no  sacrum,  but  tho  caudal 
vertebra'  are  distinguished  by  the  chevron  bones  which  are 
attached  to  their  un<ler  surfaces.  The  anterior  ribs  have  ii 
capitular  nnd  lubcreubir  articulation.  The  seiipula  is  nar- 
row. The  coracoiils  are  broad,  an<l  meet  on  the  iiiedinn 
lino  below.  The  clavicles  are  stout,  curved,  and  uniterl 
with  a  T-shaped  interelavicle.  The  shouhler-girdle  forim-d 
by  the  union  of  these  bones  resembled  that  of  the  sini^ulnr 
itquntie   mammal  <d'  .Australia,  the   ornilhorbynchus,  and 

1)robably  enabled  the  ichthyosaurus  to  visit  tho  shore,  per- 
mps  to  deposit  it.t  eggs,  when  it  would  crawl  with  its  belly 
dragging  on  tho  grouncl.  The  humerus  is  short  and 
prismatic,  nnd  distally  supports  two  bones  repn'senling  the 
radius  and  ulna.  Six  or  seven  bones  in  tho  two  following 
series  are  reckoned  as  cnrpals,  and  the  next  series  ate 
molaearpnls.  They  are  foHowcd  by  not  more  than  thr<  e  to 
flvo  compb'te  series  of  pnlygonul  bones,  representing  as 
many  dii;its.  which,  however,  sometimes  fork,  nnd  there 
are  in  addition  marginal  series  of  Imuios  upon  mch  side 
uf  the  padillo.  This  construction,  which  is  peculiar  to  tho 
ichthyosauri,  la  repeated  in  the  hind  paddles,  but  they  are 
much  smaller.  Tlio  pelvis  consisted  of  the  itrdinary  three 
bones  on  onob  side,  but  was  nut  couneotcd  with  the  verto- 


1096 


ICHTHYOSIS— ICONOCLAST. 


bral  column.  The  ischium,  as  well  as  the  pubis,  met  its 
follow  on  the  median  line.  The  body  seems  to  have  been 
covered  with  a  i^mooth  or  finely  wrinkled  skin,  imd  desti- 
tute of  scak'S.  These  animals  sometimes  attained  a  length 
of  more  than  thirty  feet,  and  were  predaccous  in  their 
habits,  as  is  witncj*sed  by  the  scales  and  bones  of  contem- 
porary iishes  sometimes  found  under  the  ribs  of  these 
fossils.  The  composition  of  the  singular  spiral  "  copro- 
litcs"  affords  additional  evidence  of  this  fact,  which  might 
also  be  easily  inferred  from  the  construction  of  the  jaws 
and  teeth.  Ichthyosauri  may  have  abounded  in  the  Triassic 
seas,  but  their  remains  have  not  been  certainly  identified 
earlier  than  the  Lias,  and  the  latest  species  occur  in  the 
Chalk.  0.  C.  Marsh, 

Ichthyo'sis  [Gr.  Ix&vi,  b,  **fish;"  i.  e.  "fish-skin  dis- 
ease "J.  a  disease  of  the  human  subject  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  scaly  growths  in  or  upon  the  integument. 
Three  distinct  diseases  have  been  called  by  this  name:  (1) 
Intra-utcrino  ichthyos-is,  in  whieh  the  remix  caaeoau,  or 
glutinous  secretion  of  the  skin  of  the  fcetus,  becomes  hard- 
ened into  a  horny  armor,  crippling  the  development  of  the 
child  and  leading  io  its  death.  (2)  True  ichthyosis  is  a 
hypertrophy  of  the  papillary  layer  of  the  skin  and  of  the 
epidermis.  The  patient  is  covered,  as  to  a  great  part  of 
the  body  and  limbs,  with  unsightly  scales  of  forms  varying 
in  different  patients.  This  disease  is  thus  far  quite  incu- 
rable. It  is  generally  hereditary,  but  is  not  always  so. 
Ichthyosis  has  been  known  to  cover  the  skin  of  the  knee 
after  recovery  from  severe  destructive  disease  of  the  joint. 
Frequent  bathing  and  anointing  are  useful,  but  never 
curative.  (3)  The  so-called  sebaceous  ichthyosis  depends 
on  excessive  functional  activity  of  the  sebaceous  glands,  the 
secretion  of  which  rapidly  hardens  into  scales.  This  dis- 
ease is  often  caused  by  some  reflex  disturbance,  and  is 
curable  as  a  rule.  Revised  Br  Willaru  Parker. 

Ic'ica  Res'in,  a  resin  from  Guiana,  similar  to  elemi. 

I'co,  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Ccara.  on  the 
Salgado,  is  well  built  and  thriving,  carrying  on  a  lively 
trade  in  the  products  of  the  province  and  in  European 
manufactures.     Pop.  about  6000, 

Ico'nilim  [now  Koutch],  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  high- 
road between  Ephesus  and  Antioch  of  Syria,  a  place  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  time  of  the  apostles  (Acts 
xiii.  61).  An  oasis  in  the  desert,  it  was  called  the  Damascus 
of  Lycaonia.  In  1099  a.  d.  the  Seljukian  Turks  made  it 
the  capital  of  their  kingdom  of  Roum.  It  was  captured 
by  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  1189,  and  recovered  by  the 
Turks  in  1190.  It  has  massive  walls,  between  two  and 
three  miles  in  circumference,  with  suburbs  almost  as  popu- 
lous as  the  city  itself.  Its  most  remarkable  building  is  the 
tomb  of  llazrct  Mevlana.  the  founder  of  the  Mevlevi  Der- 
vishes.    Pop.  nearly  .'iO.OUO.  R.  D.  Hitchcock, 

Icon'^oclast  [from  Gr.  cUwf,  "image,"  and  kAow,  "  I 
break  "],  a  name  given  in  the  eighth  century  to  the  de- 
stroyers of  images,  distinguishing  them  from  iconolaUrg, 
image-worshippers.  The  excessive  and  ever-increasing 
reverence  paid  to  images  in  the  Christian  Church  had 
already  been  reproved  by  some  of  its  most  enlightened 
members,  but  the  great  iconoclastic  conflict  was  begun  a.  d. 
72(3  by  Leo  the  Isaurian,  who  had  ascended  the  throne  of 
Byzantium  in  71".  As  the  writings  of  his  partisans  were 
either  destroyed  by  the  iconolaters  or  lost  tlirough  neglect, 
the  emperor's  motive  for  opposing  image-wurship  is  un- 
known to  us.  His  opponents  accused  him  of  listening  to 
Jewish  and  Mohammedan  advisers,  especially  to  the  rene- 
gade IJeser ;  and  it  may  be  that  a  contemplation  of  the 
simpler  Mohammedan  worship  led  him  to  condemn  the 
semi-pagan  Christianity  of  his  subjects.  His  first  edict 
(720)  forbade  the  adoration  of  images,  and  ordered  that 
such  pictures  as  were  movable  sliould  be  hung  higher,  so 
as  no  longer  to  receive  kisses  and  other  marks  of  devotion. 
Authors  disagree  as  to  the  chronology  of  these  events,  but 
according  to  Theophanes  and  later  Byzantine  historians, 
Pope  (iregory  II.,  upon  Leo's  publication  of  his  edict, 
wrote  to  him  demanding  its  revocation,  and  when  the  em- 
peror refused  compliance,  forbade  tho  Italians  Io  pay  their 
customary  tribute.  In  7U0,  Leo  held  a  council  at  Con- 
stantinople, at  whieh  he  commanded  the  destruction  of 
images  in  churches,  imposing  severe  penalties  on  those 
persons  who  should  persist  in  worshipping  them  :  he  also 
deposed  the  aged  patriarch  Gernianus,  who  disapproved  of 
his  measures,  and  put  Anastasius  in  his  place.  This  second 
edict  excited  the  ieonotaters,  among  whom  were  nearly  all 
the  clergy,  to  open  revidt.  An  oflicer  who.  by  Leo's  order, 
attcnipled  to  4k'iiitroy  a  miracle-working  image  of  Christ  at 
Constantinople,  was  bi-aten  to  de:ith  by  the  populace.  Tho 
islanders  of  the  Archipelago  proclaimed  a  new  emperor, 
one  Cosnias,  and  sailed  against  Constantinople;  the  rebels 
were  discomfited  by  the  Greek  fire,  and  Cosmas  was  made 
prisoner  and  executed.     In  731,  Gregory  II,  was  succeeded 


by  Gregory  III.,  also  an  enemy  to  iconoclasm.  This  pope 
and  Leo  the  Isaurian  both  died  in  741,  The  emperor  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Constantiue  Copronymus,  ^vho,  hav- 
ing defeated  the  usurper  Artavasdus,  continued  the  oppo- 
sition to  images.  In  754  he  convoked  a  council  at  Con- 
stantinople, called  by  the  Greeks  the  seventh  general  coun- 
cil, but  never  recognized  by  the  Roman  Church.  It  was 
composed  of  338  Oriental  bishops,  who  prohibited  all 
images,  and  anathematized  those  persons  who  should  set 
up  any,  either  in  a  church  or  private  house.  They  also 
cursed  by  name  the  principal  champions  of  image-worship 
— Gcrmanus  (who  had  not  long  survived  his  deposition), 
George  of  Cyprus,  and  the  learned  John  of  Damascus. 
The  monks  now  took  refuge  in  their  cloisters  or  in  deserts, 
whence  many  of  them  were  dragged  to  prison,  torture,  and 
even  death.  The  patriarch  Constantiue,  successor  of  Ana- 
stasius,  being  accused  of  disrespect  to  the  emperor,  was  pub- 
licly degraded  and  beheaded.  Constantiue  Copronymus 
died  of  fever  in  775.  His  son  and  successor,  Leo  Chazarus, 
though  in  weak  health  and  of  a  mild  disposition,  enforced 
the  laws  against  iconolatry.  After  Leo's  death  (a.  d.  780)  his 
wife,  Irene,  who  was  devoted  to  images,  became  guardian 
of  her  young  son,  Constantino  VI.,  and  immediately  pro- 
claimed liberty  of  conscience.  She  promoted  her  secretary. 
Tarasius,  a  layman,  to  the  patriarchate,  made  friends  with 
the  pope.  Adrian,  and  assembled  a  council,  first  in  786  at 
Constantinople,  where  it  was  dispersed  by  the  iconoclasts, 
then  in  the  following  year  at  Niciva.  It  was  attended  by 
375  bishops,  who  set  aside  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  (754),  anathematized  the  persons  who  had 
composed  it,  restored  tho  worship  of  images,  and  solemnly 
cursed  all  iconoclasts.  The  churches  of  France,  Germany, 
England,  and  Spain  took  a  middle  course  between  the  de- 
struction and  the  adoration  of  images,  which  they  regarded 
simply  as  useful  memorials  of  faith  and  history,  A  book 
of  controversy  was  composed  and  published  in  the  name 
of  Charlemagne,  who  assembled  a  council  of  300  bishops  at 
Frankfort.  This  assembly,  while  blaming  iconoclasts,  pro- 
nounced a  more  severe  censure  against  the  Council  of 
Nicaia.  In  the  Eastern  Church  the  decrees  of  the  Nicene 
Council  remained  in  force  until  813,  when  Leo  Armenus,  an 
enemy  to  images,  became  emperor,  and  treated  the  icono- 
laters with  great  severity.  Among  those  who  suffered  for 
their  doctrines  was  the  historian  Theophanes.  Leo  was 
murdered  in  820,  and  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  Michael 
the  Stammerer,  who  restored  image-worship  and  recalled 
the  monks  banished  by  his  predecessor.  Michael's  son, 
Theophilus,  became  emperor  in  829,  and  opposed  image- 
worship,  which,  after  his  death  (in  842),  was  again  estab- 
lished by  bis  wife.  Theodora,  who  governed  the  empire  for 
her  voung  son.  Michael,  afterwards  called  the  Drunkard, 
and  "instituted  a  festival,  still  kept  in  the  Greek  Church,  to 
celebrate  this  final  triumph  over  iconoclasm. 

The  original  motive  for  iconoclasm  is,  as  already  said, 
unknown  to  us;  but  whatever  it  may  have  been,  and  how- 
ever much  we  may  condemn  the  use  of  images,  we  must 
allow  that  their  overthroxv  by  Leo  and  his  successors  was  a 
mistake,  "a  (iremature  rationalism,"  as  Dean  Milman  ex- 
presses it.  It  was  a  violent  change,  but  not  a  reformation  ; 
a  rooting  up,  unfollowed  by  any  planting.  Pictures  aud 
statues,  sacred  books  for  those  who  could  read  no  others, 
were  destroyed,  and  nothing  better  was  given  to  replace 
them.  The  very  fact  that  they  frequently  were  not  re- 
garded simply  as  emblems,  but  adored  for  their  own  sakes, 
made  the  unwisdom  of  their  destruction  so  much  tho 
greater.  Ignorant  and  superstitious  persons  would  prob- 
ably have  cared  little  to  defend  mere  symbols,  hut  they 
clung  obstinately  to  carvings  and  paintings  which  were  to 
them  as  present  gods.  The  images  worked  miracles  of 
healing,  wept  tears,  and  shed  blood — in  short,  lived,  so  be- 
lieved their  worshippers,  as  truly  as  the  invisible  Christ 
and  his  saints  in  heaven.  AVhcn  Leo's  edicts  against 
images  were  followed  by  rebellion,  the  hatred  of  the  icono- 
clasts was  extended  from  ])ictures  and  statues  to  those  who 
adored  thoni.  AVo  may  suppose  that  each  party  in  this 
struggle  was  actively  cruel  towards  the  other,  but  tho  em- 
jierors  had  the  army  on  their  side,  and  eousequently  greater 
iiower  of  injury.  Tho  persecution  of  iconolaters  became 
particularly  violent  under  Constantino  Coi)ronymus,  of 
whose  barbarities  tho  Byzantine  historians  give  many  ter- 
rible examples.  This  emperor  was  chiefly  incensed  against 
the  monks.  He  destroyed  or  secularized  the  monasteries, 
and  subjected  their  inmates  to  every  possible  insult,  caus- 
ing them  to  break  their  vows  of  celibacy  under  pain  of 
exile  or  death.  The  governors  of  provinces  were  Constan- 
tine's  willing  agents,  the  most  zealous  being  Michael  Lacha- 
nodraco.  prefect  of  Thraee.  in  whieh  prefecture  there  was 
soon  left  hardly  one  man  bold  enough  to  wear  the  monkish 
dress.  Andrew  and  Stephen  were  the  two  chief  martyrs  of  this 
reign.  The  former,  having  reproached  the  emperor  for  his 
persecutions,  was  scourged  to  death.    Stephen,  an  eloquent 


ICTINTS— IDAHO. 


1097 


preacher  against  iooDoclasm,  was  killed  after  a  long  inipris> 
onmcut.  The  cause  of  his  violent  death  is  curiously  like  that 
of  Thoiniw  u  Beckefs.  Cuustantine,  hearing  that  even  in 
prison  he  spoke  in  defence  of  images,  cried,  ''  Am  I  or  is  this 
monk  the  emperor  of  the  world!'"  Some  soldiers  having 
heard  these  words,  took  Stephen  from  his  dungeon,  fast- 
ened thongs  to  his  feet,  and  so  draj^gcd  him  through  the 
streets  until  he  died;  they  then  cast  his  body  into  the 
common  grave  of  criminals.  The  patriarch  Conslantinc, 
though  an  iconoclast,  was  accused  of  conspiracy  and  of 
using  disrespectful  words  against  the  emperor.  Having 
been  ileposcd  from  the  patriarehutc  and  forced  to  acknow- 
ledge a  eunu«-h  as  his  successor,  he  was  banished  from  Con- 
stantinople, liut  the  emperor,  not  content  with  this  much 
vengeance,  had  him  brought  back  to  he  scourged,  exposed 
to  tiie  derision  of  the  populace,  an«l  finally  beheaded. 

The  term  iconoclast  has  in  modern  times  been  used  to 
designate  those  reformers  who,  tiirough  excess  of  zeal,  de- 
stroyed statues,  painte<l  windows,  and  other  works  of  art 
in  Uoman  Catholic  churches.  Jaskt  TitKEY. 

Icti'nns,  a  contemporary  of  Pericles,  built,  in  connec- 
tion with  Cullicrates.  the  Parthenon  in  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens,  whirh  was  linished  in  4.'iS  b.  c:  alpo  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Ejiicurius,  near  Phigalia  in  Arcadia,  and  the 
building  at  Kleusis  in  which  the  mysteries  wore  celebrated. 
All  these  were  of  the  Doric  order, 

I'da  [Or.  if  'iSri],  a  mountain  in  Asia  Minor,  is  a  spur  or 
branch  of  the  Taurus  system,  and  traverses  the  ancient 
Phrygia  and  Mysia,  itself  throwing  out  many  spurs.  From 
it  flow  the  (Jranicus,  the  Siuiois,  the  Seamander,  and  other 
streams  whose  names  are  historic.  Its  highest  point  is 
Mount  (Jargarus.  46J0  feet  high. — Another  Ida  [now  called 
Psiloriti],  enually  famous  in  song  and  story,  is  in  the  island 
of  Crete.  It  terminates  in  three  peaks,  and  rises  to  the 
height  of  7674  feet. 

Ida^  county  in  the  W.  of  Iowa.  Area,  432  square 
miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Mapio  River,  and  is  very 
fertile.     Cap.  Ida.     Pop.  220. 

Ida,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Ida  co.,  la.,  on  the  line  of  the  un- 
finished I.  P.  U.  U. ;  has  a  court-house,  weekly  newspaper, 
graded  schools,  2  churches,  etc.,  and  is  in  a  very  fertile  re- 
gion.    Pop.  oil,  much  increased  since  the  census. 

W,  P.  Evans,  Ed.  "  Iha  Coi  ntv  Pioneer." 

Ida^  post-tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Michigan 
Southern  R.  R.     Pop.  1020. 

Ida,  tp.  of  Douglas  CO..  I^finn.     Pop.  224. 

Ida'ciiiSf  or  Itha'i'ius,  b.  at  Limica,  in  Galicia, 
Spain,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  his  native  city  about  427,  but  was  deposed 
by  the  invading  Suevi  in  401,  and  d.  after  409.  Ho  wrote 
ft  Chrnnirinn,  arranged  according  to  the  succession  of  em- 
perors, and  embracing  the  period  from  .'i7*J  A.  n.  (at  which 
point  Hieronymus  breaks  o(Tj  to  429.  It  gives  a  brief  ac- 
count of  events  besides  the  enumeration  of  names  and 
dates,  and  is  considered  as  a  valuable  repertory  of  facts. 
It  was  first  pul>lished  complete  in  1019  by  Sirmond,  and  is 
incorporated  in  Hosier's  Cfironirtt  Mrilii  ylCrt  (1798). 

I'daho,  a  Territory  of  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  U.  S., 
lying  almost  wholly  in  the  upper  Columbia  River  basin.  It 
is  bounde<l  on  the  N'.  by  British  Columbia,  where  its  breadth 
Is  but  one  degree  of  longitude,  about  4S  miles  in  that  lati- 
tude; on  the  K.  it  is  bounded  by  M^mtana  and  Wyoming, 
contributing  also  for  about  26  miles  to  form  the  western 
boundary  of  the  National  Yellowstone  Park,  a  narrow  strip 
of  which  was  contributed  by  this  Territory  ;  the  lino  of  its 
Beparali»»n  frnm  Mnnfana  is,  in  the  X.  K.,  the  watershed  or 
divide  of  the  Hitter  Hoot  Mountains,  and  lower  d<<wn  the 
principal  Kneky  Mountain  chain,  which  sweeps  around  the 
liead-waters  of  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  River.  The 
Teton  range,  a  spur  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  which  branches 
off  almost  due  8.,  coincides  nearly  with  the  boundary-lino 
between  Idaho  and  Wyoming  T<*rritory  ;  on  the  .'^.  it  is 
bounded  by  L'tah  and  Nevada,  the  boumlary-line  b»ing  the 
42d  parallel:  on  the  W.  by  Oregon  and  Wusliingt<)n  Ter- 
ritory for  about  two-fifths  of  the  distance  (from  Fort  Ilois6 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Clearwater  Uivor),  the  Snake  River 
forming  the  u'-tual  boundary.  The  Territory  lies  between 
the  12d  and  the  49th  parallels  of  N.  lat.,  anil  between  the 
1 1  Ith  an<l  the  1 17th  meridians  of  W.  Ion.  from  (Jreenwich. 
Its  length  from  N.  to  .S.  is  about  442  miles;  its  breadth 
varies  from  4S  miles  at  the  northern  boundary  to  :i08  on 
the  southern,  the  mean  breadth  at  the  parallel  of  44°  .10', 
about  2.'>7  miles.  Its  area  is  80,294  square  miles,  or 
55,228,100  square  acres. 

/Vtce  of  the  t%ntntrtf. — Idaho  is  for  thr  most  part  a  moun- 
tainous country.  The  ItiKcr  Hoot  Mountains,  which  from 
their  origin  in  Rritish  Columbia  form  the  weslerninost  or 
outlying  rang)'  <»f  the  iJreat  Itocky  M'luntain  chain,  form 
at  the  north-eastern  line  of  Idaho  the  divide  between  it  and 


Montana,  and  from  the  northern  bank  of  the  Columbia 
River  and  its  tributary,  Clark's  Fork,  these  mountains 
have  covered  the  whole  country  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  with 
a  succession  of  spurs  or  short  ranges  running  nearly  due 
W.  Prominent  among  these,  both  from  their  height  and 
breadth,  are  the  Kootenai  Mountains  in  the  extreme  N.,  the 
Coeur  d'Aleno  Jlonntains  near  the  47th  parallel,  and  the 
Clearwater  or  Lapwai  Mountains  along  the  Clearwater 
River  and  its  tributaries.  As  the  Ritter  Root  Mountains 
near  the  M)X\\  parallel  draw  closer  to  the  main  chain  of 
the  Rocky  I^Iuuntains.  a  new  range  of  outliers,  forming 
almost  a  distinct  mountain-system  of  its  own  under  the 
name  of  the  Salmon  range,  follows  the  course  of  the  Salmon 
River  and  its  aflluents.  The  summits  of  this  range  are 
mostly  lufty,  rugged,  and  snow-capi)ed.  Many  of  them  are 
above  12,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  several  of  the  loftiest  over 
KJ.OOO  feet.  The  town  of  Klurence,  in  Florence  Basin.  2000 
feet  below  the  summit  of  Florence  Mountain,  is  11,100  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  is  jirobably  the  highest  town  in  the  U.  S. 
Spurs  from  this  range  along  the  Snake  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries have  received  the  names  of  Wciser,  Payette,  Bois6, 
Owyhee,  and  Sand  Toofiii  mountains.  Below  these,  and 
towards  the  S.  E.  along  a  part  of  the  Snake  River,  is  a 
somewhat  elevated  plateau  or  prairie  with  two  or  three 
terraces,  as  at  the  American  and  the  Shoshone  Falls,  but 
constituting  a  broad  and  tolerably  fertile  tract  of  arable 
soil.  S.  of  the  Snake  River  Valley  wo  find  the  Bear  River 
Mountains,  the  Goose  Creek  Mountains,  and  other  ranges 
which  form  a  part  uf  the  rim  of  the  (Ireat  Salt  Lake  Basin, 
while  in  the  extreme  S.  E.  of  the  Territory  Bear  River  and 
Bear  River  Lake  arc  within  that  basin. 

Rivers,  Lafccn,  etc. —  Although  some  of  the  summits  of  the 
Salmon  Mountains,  and  perhaps  of  the  others,  are  higher 
than  those  of  the  Rocky  Alountains  proper  in  the  same  lat- 
itude, yet  no  portion  of  the  waters  of  the  Territory  flows 
eastward.  With  the  exceptiitn  of  Bear  River  in  the  ex- 
treme S.  E.,  which  discharges  its  waters  into  the  tireat  Salt 
Lake,  the  entire  drainage  of  the  Territory  is  into  the  Co- 
lumbia River,  and  the  whole  region  is  a  part  of  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Columbia.  The  Clark's  or  North  Fork  of  tho 
Columbia  and  its  affluents,  including  the  Vermilion  River, 
tho  Pend  d'Oreille  Lake  and  its  tributary  streams,  and  the 
outlet  of  the  Iloo-doo  or  Tcssentines  Lake;  tlie  Spokane 
River,  a  smaller  but  considerable  branch  of  the  Columbia, 
with  the  beautiful  Ca'ur  d'Alene  Lake  and  its  affluents,  of 
which  it  is  the  outlet;  and,  as  the  principal  river  of  the 
Territory,  which  lias  a  course  of  about  8o0  miles  within  it, 
tho  Lewis  Fork  or  Snake  River,  which,  with  its  branches, 
tho  Clearwater  and  tho  Salmon,  with  their  nunu-rous  afflu- 
ents, Wciser  Creek,  Payette  River,  Boise  River,  Owyhee 
River,  Bruneau  Creek,  Salmon  Creek,  Malade  Hiver,  Gooso 
Creek,  Raft  River.  Baunaek  Creek,  Pont  Neuf  River,  Black- 
foot  River,  Teton  or  Pierre's  River,  and  Henry's  Fork, 
which  has  its  source  in  Henry's  Lake  on  the  borders  of 
Montana,  only  a  few  miles  from  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
drains  nearly  70,000  square  miles  of  the  Territory.  Tho 
only  other  river  of  any  size  in  the  Territory  is  Bear  River, 
which  drains  the  S.  E.  corner,  and  is,  as  wo  have  said,  trib- 
utary to  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  principal  lakes  bcBides 
Pend  d'Oreille,  Cu'ur  d'Alt^ne,  Tessen tines,  Bear,  and 
Henry's  lakes,  already  mentioned,  are  the  Payette  lakes  in 
Idaho  CO.,  and  several  unnamed  lakes  in  Alturasand  Bois6 
cos.  Many  of  these  rivers  have  fertile  valleys,  some  of 
them  of  considerable  extent,  which  constitute  the  best  ar- 
able lands  of  tho  Territory,  and  which  yield  even  to  a  rude 
cultivation  large  crops.  Prominent  among  these  valleys 
are  those  of  Wood  River.  North  Mabide.  Haft  Uiver.  Bear 
River.  Owyheo  Uiver.  the  upper  waters  of  Snake  Uiver  as 
far  dtiwn  as  Fort  Hall,  Long  Valley  around  Payette  lakes, 
Round  Valley,  the  Upper  Payette  valleys,  Indian  Valley, 
Lower,  rpper.  and  Weiser  River  valleys,  Boisf'  Valley,  tho 
(ireat  and  Little  Camas  Prairies,  Goose  Creek  Valley,  etc. 
The  Snako  River  is  navigable  without  dilfieulty  for  about 
2O0  miles  of  its  course  in  the  Territory  —  viz.  from  the 
mouth  of  Powder  Uiver  to  (he  Salmon  Falls,  just  above 
tho  mouth  of  Miiladc  River.  BeU'W  the  mouth  of  Powilcr 
River  for  IjO  miles  to  Lewiston,  where  it  turns  westward 
into  Washington  Territory,  tho  Snake  River  navigation, 
though  not  impossible  in  a  high  stage  of  water,  is  difiicult 
and  dangerous  from  the  numerous  obstructions,  nipiils,  etc. 
Above  the  mouth  of  tlie  Malade,  and  between  that  and  the 
junction  of  Bannack  Creek,  W.  Ion.  about  112°  40'.  thero 
are  three  remarkable  cataracts — Salmon  Falls,  in  W.  htn. 
about  114°  4.^)',  Shoshone  Falls,  111°  20',  and  American 
Falls,  about  112°  .'lO'.  Of  these,  Shoshone  Falls  arc  Iho 
most  note«l.  The  river  is  here  000  feet  wide,  the  descent  a 
little  greater  than  that  of  Niagara,  and  at  some  seasons  of 
tho  year  the  vtdumo  of  water  nearly  as  large,  while  the  sur- 
rniitiding  scenery  is  magnifiiMMit.  There  are  numerous  wa- 
terfalls in  the  Territory  of  great  beauty  and  inueb  greater 
height,  though  of  smaller  volume  of  water.    In  the  K.  S.  E. 


1098 


IDAHO. 


the  Territory  contributes  a  small  portion  to  that  wonder  of 
the  world,  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  and  the  region 
adjacent,  aliout  Henry's  Luke  and  the  whole  eourse  of  Hen- 
ry's Fork  iif  the  Snake  Kiver  to  its  delta-like  junction  with 
that  river  near  the  Crater  Buttes  and  the  Lava  Hills,  is  a 
region  full  of  \vondcrs  and  interest.  In  S.  E.  Idaho  there 
are  a  numher  of  sinks  or  tracts  where  the  roofs  of  deep 
caves  have  broken  through,  and  considerable  streams  sud- 
denly sink  below  the  surface  and  become  subterranean  in 
their  subsequent  course.  The  whole  region  is  volcanic,  and 
must  have  been  at  some  period  of  the  remote  past  in  a  con- 
dition of  active  eruption,  though  now  the  geysers,  steam- 
springs,  and  ^oda  springs  ancl  the  natural  hot  baths,  give 
but  faint  indications  of  its  former  activity. 

GfoJoijji. — The  geological  system  of  Idaho  is  very  simple. 
The  Eo7,oic  rocks  cover  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  Terri- 
tory, but  the  Snake  River  Valley,  the  valleys  of  the  Lower 
Salmon  Hiver.  the  Owyhee,  IJruneau,  Maladc,  McArthur, 
and  Weiser  rivers  are  evidently  volcanic.  The  ujjper  wa- 
ters of  Salmon  Ri^er  and  its  tributaries,  the  S.  fork  of  the 
Clearwater,  and  Bear  River,  flow  through  valleys  of  con- 
siderable width,  whioh  are  wholly  <»f  Tertiary  formation, 
and  there  :ire  also  Tertiary  plateaus  of  eonsiderablo  extent 
in  Southern  Idaho.  There  are  eight  or  nine  small  jiatches 
of  Silurian  rocks,  none  of  them  of  any  great  extent,  but 
lying  among  the  foot-hills  on  either  side  of  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains.  In  the  Bear  River  Valley,  not  far  from  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  there  is  a  small  outcrop  of  Cretaceous 
rocks. 

Mineralogii. — Gold  and  silver  ores  are  found  abundantly 
in  Idaho.  iJnld  was  first  discovered  in  the  Territory  in 
1S52,  on  the  Pend  d'Oreille  River,  and  near  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  but  there  were  no  considerable  mining  opera- 
tions commenced  until  ISRO,  when  placer-mining  was  be- 
gun on  the  S.  fork  of  Clearwater  Kiver.  There  are  now 
mines  of  gold  or  silver  at  tlie  sources  of  all  the  rivers  and 
in  every  county  of  the  Territory,  In  Kootenai  co.  there 
are  extensive  leads  in  the  quartz  veins,  and  many  quartz- 
mills  have  been  established.  The  placer-mines  of  Shoshone, 
Nez  Perce?,  Idaho,  and  Lemhi  cos.  yielded  in  1S72  about 
$500,000  gold  in  each  county.  In  Bo'ise  co.  over  $1,000,000 
worth  of  gold-dust  was  taken  out  in  the  summer  of  1872, 
and  several  quartz  gold-mines  were  opened  and  tunnelled 
which  yielded  largely.  In  Ada,  Alturas,  Owyhee,  and 
Oneida  cos.  the  mining  is  mostly  for  silver,  the  argentif- 
erous galena  and  other  silver  ores  of  that  region  yielding 
bountiful  returns,  ranging  from  ^120  to  $280  the  ton  of  ore. 
Placer  gold  is  found  also  in  considerable  quantities  in  Altu- 
ras and  Owyhee.  New  silver-mines  of  very  rich  ore  have 
recently  been  opened  near  the  Utah  line.  The  yield  of  gold 
and  silver  in  1872  in  the  Territory  was  estimated  at  somewhat 
more  than  S8, 000, 000.  The  placer-mines  under  the  improved 
methods  of  washing  will  give  out  in  a  few  years,  but  before 
that  time  there  will  be  sutticient  quartz-mines  opened  and 
a  sufficient  number  of  quartz-mills  in  operation  to  keep  up 
and  probably  increase  the  gold  production  of  the  Territory, 
But  Idaho  is  rich  in  other  metals,  ores,  and  minerals,  as 
well  as  in  gold  and  silver.  The  lead  from  the  argentiferous 
galena  is  so  pure  as  to  be  worth  saving  for  its  own  sake. 
There  are  extensive  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  at  various 
points  in  the  Territory ;  quarries  of  valuable  huilding- 
stonc  could  bo  opened  at  small  expense;  and  the  volcanic 
region  of  S.  E.  Idaho  yields  sulphur,  soda,  magnesia,  car- 
bonates and  sulphate  of  lime,  very  pure  salt,  and  other 
valuable  minerals  and  alkalies,  and  the  mineral  springs  of 
that  region  bid  fair  to  furnish  healing  to  the  nation. 

Vegetation. — The  mountains  of  the  Territory  are  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  forests  up  nearly  to  the  snowdine, 
and  the  forests  arc  largely  evergreen,  having  numerous  va- 
rieties and  species  of  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  tamarack,  and 
fir,  of  which  there  are  many  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  but  aside  from  these  there  are  large  tracts  of  red 
cedar  in  Kootenai  and  Shoshone  cos.  on  the  Ontt-hills  and 
mountain-slopes.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  largest  single 
tract  of  red  cedar  in  the  U.  S.,  and  it  is  of  excellent  qual- 
ity. In  the  more  southern  counties  there  are  many  decid- 
uous trees,  and  in  some  districts  vast  sage-plains  which 
were  at  first  supposed  to  be  worthless,  but  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  the  white  sage,  which  is  the  principal  species, 
after  ripening  its  seed  is  preferred  by  cattle  to  any  of  the 
grasses,  and  that  they  will  fatten  on  it  as  a  winter  browse. 
The  soil  of  sage-lands  is  mostly  a  decomposed  granite,  with 
a  considerable  quantity  of  vegetable  humus,  and  when  ir- 
rigateil,  for  whioh  the  Territory  offers  extraordinary  facil- 
ities, they  yield  very  large  crops — from  'Mi  to  45  bushels  of 
wheat  and  corresponding  amounts  of  other  cereals  to  the 
acre.  There  are  said  to  be  nearly  IB. 000, 000  acres  of  these 
lands.  The  river-valleys  are  very  fertile,  and  though  some 
of  them  require  occadional  irrigation  they  yield  large  crops. 
Agriculturally,  Idaho  is,  with  the  exception  of  these  val- 


leys, better  adapted  to  grazing  than  to  the  culture  of  cereals. 
Indian  corn  is  not  a  sure  crop,  owing  tn  the  late  and  early 
frosts.  The  greater  jiart  of  the  Territory  is  from  3000  to 
5000  feet  above  the  sea,  yet  e\en  in  the  northern  counties 
snow  seldom  lies  to  any  considerable  depth  in  the  valleys, 
and  cattle  can  browse,  and  even  fatten,  through  the  winter 
without  being  housed.  The  ordinary  garden  vegetables, 
as  well  as  potatoes,  do  well  in  the  valleys,  and  fruit  trees 
generally  yield  fruit  in  great  abundance  and  of  fine  flavor. 
The  smaller  wild  fruits  are  found  in  great  profusion  in  the 
fertile  valleys  and  on  the  mountain-slopes.  There  are  na- 
tive wild  grajies  of  the  Vitin  Itihrunrn  or  fox-grnjie  species 
which  ripen  in  the  valleys,  but  the  cultivated  species  and 
varieties  rcqviire  a  higher  temperature  and  less  liability  to 
frosts  during  the  summer  and  early  autumn  months  than 
are  found  in  most  sections  of  the  Territnry.  In  the  southern 
part,  however,  on  the  mountain-slopes  having  a  southern 
aspect,  and  especially  where  there  are  considerable  lakes 
with  steeply  sloping  banks,  the  culture  of  the  grape  may 
be  made  very  profitable. 

Zoolorj}/. — The  beasts  of  prey  are  those  characteristic  of 
the  Columbia  basin  and  of  the  Pacific  slope.  The  grizzly 
bear  (  Crstts  hor rih His  or  feroj-)  is  the  largest  and  most 
formidable  of  them,  and  his  congener,  the  black  bear  (  Ur- 
siis  Americanus),  is  also  found  in  the  forests  of  the  Territory. 
The  raccoon,  badger,  wolverine  [fr'u/o  lusruH),  iwa  sjjecics 
of  skunk  (the  Californui  and  the  little  strijied  skunk),  the 
fisher-marten,  the  American  sable  or  marten,  tlu'  mink,  the 
pjinther,  wild-eat  or  red  lynx,  and  the  banded  lynx,  rac- 
coon-fox or  mountain-cat,  the  gray  wolf,  the  coyote  or 
barking  wolf,  and  four  or  five  species  of  fox,  are  found. 
Among  the  rodents,  there  are  beavers,  moles,  several  species 
of  grounrl-squirrels,  and  at  least  three  of  the  tree-squirrels, 
the  yellow-footed  marmot,  and  at  least  three  species  of  bat. 
There  are  ten  or  twelve  species  of  the  mouse  family,  musk- 
rats,  gophers,  one  species  of  porcupine,  and  several  new 
species  of  rabbits  and  hares.  Among  the  ruminants  there 
arc  the  bison  or  American  buffalo,  the  moose  (Afce  Aineri- 
cintiiii),  the  elk,  the  blaek-tailed  and  mule  deer,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  or  prong-liorn  antelope,  and  the  big-horn  or 
Rocky  Mountain  sheep  ( Oris  luoutajirt).  The  birds  are 
very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  of  beautiful  plumage. 
Ninety-five  species,  including  specimens  of  most  of  the 
orders  and  families  found  on  this  continent,  were  shot  by 
the  naturalists  of  the  JIayden  expedition  either  in  or  near 
this  Territory.  The  species  of  reptiles  are  not  very  numer- 
ous, though  some  of  the  harmless  snakes  and  batrachians 
abound  in  the  marshy  portions  of  the  Territory.  There  are 
three,  and  possibly  four,  species  of  rattlesnake,  fifteen  or  six- 
teen species  of  harmless  snakes,  tw<i  tortoises,  at  least  fifteen 
species  of  lizard,  ten  or  twelve  of  frogs,  several  toads,  newts, 
etc.  Fish  of  the  usual  fresh-water  kinds  are  found  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers.  There  are  also  several  fresh-water  mol- 
lusks  and  testaeeans.  The  various  geological  ex])editions 
which  have  traverr^ed  this  and  the  adjacent  Territories  have 
unearthed  numerous  and  very  interesting  fossils.  Among 
the  larger  mammals  discovered  are  several  of  the  mastodon, 
elephant,  and  ta|)ir  families;  new  fossils  of  the  bear  and 
monkey  families,  ten  or  eleven  genera  allied  to  the  horse, 
marsupials,  rodents,  several  genera  of  erocodiles,  alligators, 
and  otlier  saurians,  tortoises  and  turtles  in  great  numbers, 
lizards,  serpents,  batrachians,  and  twenty-six  species  of 
fish,  many  of  them  of  large  size.  Not  all,  perhaps  not  the 
greater  part,  of  these  were  fovmd  within  the  geogra])hical 
limits  of  Idaho,  but  they  occurred  in  the  geological  forma- 
tion and  the  deposits  which  are  eommon  to  S.  E.  Idaho 
and  the  adjacent  Tcrritoriea  of  Montana,  "Wyoming,  and 
Dakota. 

Climate. — Statistical  tables  of  the  climate  of  the  greater 
part  of  Idaho  are  wanting.  AVe  know,  indeed,  that  W.  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  in  the  upper  Columbia 
River  basin,  there  is  but  a  moderate  amount  of  either  snow 
or  rainfall,  and  that  the  climate  is  much  milder,  even  though 
the  land  is  elevated,  than  E.  of  th«ise  mountains.  The  an- 
nual range  of  the  thermometer  in  Northern  Idaho,  in  the 
river  and  lake  valleys,  is  said  to  be  between  5°  and  03°  F., 
though  in  exceptional  seasons  it  may  surpass  either  bound- 
ary by  two  or  three  degrees.  The  most  of  the  central  por- 
tions of  the  Territory  is  very  mountainous,  though  with 
valleys  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  in  width  wherever  there 
are  streams  of  water.  These  valleys  are  from  .3000  to  5000 
feet  above  the  sea,  but  the  climate  is  very  equable.  Far- 
ther S.  are  extensive  plains  covered  with  snge-bushes  and 
grease-wood,  but  these  give  way  to  fine  crops  when  the 
land  can  be  irrigated.  The  rainfall  is  small  here,  though 
greater  than  in  Ci)b>rado,  or  perhaps  than  in  Wyoming,  but 
the  facilities  for  irrigation  are  much  better,  and  on  all  the 
higher  summits  there  is  perpetual  snow.  In  S.  E.  Idaho, 
which  belongs  really  to  the  tJreat  Salt  Lake  Basin,  there  is 
a  somewhat  different  climate,  and  perhaps  a  slightly  greater 
rainfall.     At  Fort  Uall,  4754  feet  above  the  sea,  in  1871  the 


IDAHO. 


1099 


barometric  range  from  June  to  October  was  but  f^  of  an 
inch;  the  mean  temperature  for  June  was  fi4.62'=  F. ;  of 
July,  70.44°;  of  August,  70.90°:  of  September,  57.78°; 
and  of  the  first  eighteen  davs  of  October.  .■)7.:'S°.  The 
average  observations  of  the  Hayden  expedition  the  same 
summer  for  June  and  July,  from  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Territory  to  the  Montana  line,  corresponded  very  nearly 
with  the  temperature  at  Fort  Hall. 

Agriciiltiiriil  /'r<)(/u<(«.— .\ccording  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  irere  in  that  year  only  77,l.'!y  acres  of  land  in  farms 
in  the  Territory,  of  which  only  20.60:!  were  under  tillage, 
50,536  being  woodland  or  other  unimproved  lands,  being 
65.5  per  cent,  of  the  entire  land  in  farms.  The  average 
siic  of  the  farms  was  186  acres,  or  a  little  more  than  a 
iiuarler  section.  The  value  of  the  farms  in  the  Territory 
in  1870  was  $492,860.  and  of  farming  implements  and  ma- 
chinery, $59,295;  the  farm  products  of  the  same  year  were 
valued"  at  $637.797 ;  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for 
slaughter  were  valued  at  $57.9:12  ;  home  manufactures,  at 
$.'.(.730;  the  forest  products,  though  of  considerable 
amount,  were  not  reported  ;  market-garden  products  were 
estimated  at  $24,577;  orchard  products,  at  $725;  wages 
paid  to  agricultural  laborers,  including  board,  $153,007. 
In  1869,  75,650  bushels  of  wheat  were  harvested,  almost  all 
of  it  spring  wheal:  1756  bushels  of  rye;  5750  bushels  of 
Indian  corn;  100,119  bushels  of  oats;  72,310  bushels  of 
barley.  There  were  2776  horses  reported  :  59,996  neat  cat- 
tle; 3415  pounds  of  wool;  6985  tons  of  hay;  21  pounds 
of  hops:  64.5.i4  bushels  of  potatoes:  610  bushels  of  peas 
and  beans;  14  bushels  of  grass-seed:  the  value  of  all  live- 
stock was  $520,580.  Besides  the  horses  enumerated  above, 
there  were  371  mules  and  asses:  of  the  neat  cattle,  4171 
were  milch  cows,  522  working  oxen;  the  remainder  were 
probably  for  the  most  part  cattle  driven  into  the  Territory 
lor  pasturage:  the  number  of  sheep  was  1021;  of  swine, 
2316.  The  dairy  products  were  111.480  pounds  of  butter, 
4464  pounils  of  cheese,  and  11,250  gallons  of  milk  sold. 
The  increase  of  population  since  1870  has  unquestionably 
more  than  douldcd,  perhaps  quadrupled,  all  these  amounts, 
but  there  are  no  available  returns  which  give  even  approx- 
imately accurate  figures  of  the  actual  production. 

.W.iii.i/Vi'dirr.  iiMil  fii'liiatnal  /'nidurta.— The  inilustrial 
progress  of  Idaho  since  1870  has  been  rapid,  but  there  are 
not,  we  believe,  any  existing  statistics  to  show  its  extent. 
In  1870  there  were  101  manufacturing  establishments  of  all 
kinds,  in  which  II  steam-engines  of  311  aggregate  horse- 
power, and  16  water-wheels  of  295  horse-power,  furnished 
the  motive  force;  in  these  establishments  205  hands  were 
employed,  a  capital  of  $742,300  was  invested.  .$112,372 
wages  were  paid,  raw  material  to  the  value  of  $691,785  was 
u.«ed,  and  the  annual  product  was  $1,047,624.  Of  this 
amount,  the  greater  part  was  the  product  of  smelling  fur- 
naces for  the  extraction  of  silver  and  gold  from  the  argent- 
iferous galena  and  other  ores,  and  Owyhee  co.  claimed 
$464,116  of  the  product,  .\da  co.,  $317,025,  and  BoisC  co., 
$156,147.  leaving  only  $110,000  bclween  the  other  six  coun- 
ties. The  milling  of  quart/.,  a  branch  of  this  smelting  in- 
dustry, yielded  alone  a  i)niiluet  of  $523,100. 

Hoilriinilf.—.Ki  yet  (.May,  1875)  there  is  not  a  mile  of 
railroad  in  the  Territory,  though  the  Ogden  and  Franklin 
branch  of  the  I'nion  Pacific  comes  lo  its  southern  border. 
The  Xorlhern  Pacific  was  intended  lo  traverse  by  two  dis- 
tinct ami  widely  separated  lines  the  northern  counties  of 
the  Territory— one  line  f.)llowing  the  valley  of  the  Clear- 
water through  .'hoshone  co.  and  the  northern  border  of  Nci 
Perees  co.  to  Lewislon,  at  the  junction  of  the  t'lcarwater 
ami  .8nake  rivers,  while  the  other  or  more  northern  route, 
striking  north-westward  near  Freiichtown,  .Mont.,  was  to 
follow  the  valley  of  Clark's  Fork  i>f  the  Columbia,  around 
the  northerly  shore  of  Lake  Pend  d'Orcillo,  and  then  turn 
south-westward  till  it  reached  the  ,>;p(.knne  lliver  in  Wash- 
ington Territory,  its  whole  course  in  Idaho  being  in  Koote- 
nai CO.  Kventually  this  road  will  probably  be  built,  but 
whether  it  will  follow  either  or  both  these  roules  is  uncer- 
tain. \  road  is  projected,  in  continuation  of  the  Ogden 
an<l  Franklin  branch  already  spr.ken  of,  to  extend  through 
S.  K.  Idaho  lo  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  II  would 
probably  follow  the  valleys  of  the  Bear  Uiver,  the  upper 
.Snake  lliver,  and  Henry's  Fork.  Another  road,  projected, 
is  from  .Monument  Point  or  Terrace  on  the  Central  Pacific, 
up  the  valley  of  .>5allnon  Creek  lo  Silver  Bar  at  the  mouth 
of  .Maladi'  Kiver,  from  whence  the  Snake  River  is  naviga- 
ble for  200  miles  lo  the  moulh  of  Powder  Hiver,  and  could 
bo  rendered  navigable  at  a  moderate  expense  to  Lewiston 
at  the  juncliim  of  the  Clearwater.  Eventually,  probably, 
this  road  would  follow  the  valley  of  Snake  River,  and  thus 
connect  the  CenlrnI  Paeilie  nilh  Ihe  (iregun  and  Washing- 
ton lines.  All  Ihese  projects,  however,  have  been  postponed 
almost  indefinitely  by  Ihe  failure  of  the  great  banking-house 
which  was  engaged  in  promoting  them. 

Financr;  etc. — The  asaesjed  valuation  of  Idaho  Terri- 


tory in  1870  was  $5,292,205,  and  the  true  valuation  was 
estimated  to  be  $6,552,081 ;  of  this,  three-fifths  were  in  the 
two  counties  of  Bois6  and  Owyhee,  and  nearly  four-fifths  in 
the  throe  counties  of  Boise,  Owyhee,  and  Ada.  The  entire 
taxes,  not  national,  of  the  Territory  were  $174,711,  of 
which  $40,594  were  territorial  and  $132,171  county  taxes. 
In  1873  the  internal  revenue  tax  of  the  Territory  was 
$19,275.80.  The  jmblic  debt  of  the  counties  in  1870  was 
$218,522.  and  Bois6  City  had  besides  a  debt  of  $4099.  The 
Territory  has  an  assay-office  at  Bois€  City  which  assays 
several  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  gold  and  casts  it  into 
bars  for  trausportalion.  The  ]jrincipal  exports  of  Idaho 
arc  gold  and  caltle.  Of  the  former,  about  $7,500,000  is 
sent  from  the  Territory  yearly ;  of  the  latter,  probably 
about  20,000  head  go  to  market.  The  imports  are  mostly 
of  manufactured  products,  which,  owing  to  the  great  ex- 
pense of  tran.s]>ortation,  bear  a  high  price.  There  is  one 
national  bank  at  Boise  City,  with  a  capital  of  $100,000  and 
liberty  to  increase  to  $500,000:  no  savings  banks,  and  4 
private  banking-houses — 2  at  Boisf  City  and  2  at  Idaho 
Cilv.  There  are  no  life  or  fire  insurance  companies  in  the 
Territory. 

Popiitntion. — The  true  population  of  Idaho  Territory  in 
1870.  including  Indians,  nomadic  and  on  reservations,  was 
20,583,  of  whom  5631  were  Indians,  3284  were  on^the  va- 
rious Indian  reservations  of  the  Territory,  4274  were 
Chinese.  10.618  whites,  and  60  colored.  As  the  Territory 
was  not  organized  until  ISI'i3.  and  there  was  only  a  mere 
handful  of  settlers  within  its  limits  in  1800,  there  is  no 
recor<l  of  population  earlier  than  1870.  The  density  of 
the  po]iulation  in  the  Territory  in  1870,  exclusive  of  tribal 
Indians,  was  0.17  to  the  square  mile.  Of  the  constitutional 
population  (14,999),  12,184  were  males,  2815  females:  7114 
were  natives,  of  whom  5054  were  males  and  2060  females; 
7885  were  of  foreign  birth,  of  whom  7130  were  males  and 
755  females;  10,61s  were  whites,  of  whom  7073  were  males 
and  2645  females.  Of  these  lO.ClS  white  persons.  7018  were 
natives  (5002  males  and  2016  females);  3000  were  of  for- 
eign birth  (2971  males  and  029  females).  Of  the  00  of  Af- 
rican descent,  42  were  males  and  18  females;  of  these.  47 
were  natives  of  Ihe  I'.  .'^.  and  13  of  foreign  birth.  Of  the 
4274  Chinese,  4148  were  males  and  126  females;  there  were 
47  civilized  Indians.  21  males  and  20  females.  Of  the  to- 
tal population,  1095  (897  males  and  798  females)  were  of 
school  age.  9430  males  were  of  military  age  (18  to  45), 
10,313  males  were  21  years  old  and  upwards  (citizen's  age), 
and  5557  males  were  actually  eitiiens. 

Education. — In  1870  there  were  25  schools  of  all  classes 
in  Idaho,  having  23  male  and  10  female  teachers,  and  602 
male  and  600  female  pujiils  ;  Ihe  income  of  these  schools 
for  the  year  ending  June  1,  1870,  was  $19,938,  of  which 
$16,178  "was  from  taxation  and  public  funds  and  $3700 
from  other  sources,  including  tuition.  Of  lliesc  schools,  21 
were  public,  having  20  male  and  0  female  teachers,  and 
1048  pupils  and  $16,178  income;  there  were  4  privalo 
schools,  having  7  teachers  (3  male  and  4  female)  and  ICO 
scholars  (75  male  and  85  female),  and  $3760  income,  mostly 
from  tuition.  There  was  no  college,  scientific,  professional, 
or  technical  school.  At  the  beginning  of  1873  there  were 
37  school  districts.  32  public  schools,  00  teachers  (20  male, 
34  female)  ;  20  school-houses  ;  the  average  mimllily  pay 
of  teachers  was  $162.50  ;  there  were  1898  children  of  school 
age,  of  whom  1416  were  enrolled  in  school,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  nearly  1000.  The  sum  of  $22,490.81  was  re- 
ceiveil  for  school  jiurposes  from  all  sources,  and  $17,219.56 
expended.  There  is  a  school  law  and  school  board,  with 
a  superintendent,  in  each  of  the  nine  counties. 

Lilnnriet,  Xeicpnprrh,  etc.— In  1870  there  WCro  11  pub- 
lic libraries,  with  2860  volumes,  and  32  private  libraries, 
with  7705  volumes,  making  in  all  43  libraries,  with  10,025 
volumes.  There  were  6  newspapers  in  the  Territory— 1 
tri-weekly,  1  semi-weekly,  and  4  weekly- wilh  an  aggre- 
gate circulation  of  2750,  and  an  aggregalo  annual  issue  of 
200,200  copies.  In  the  same  year  there  were  15  churches 
of  all  denominations.  12  church"  edifices.  2150  sillings.  ami 
$18,200  estimated  value  of  church  jiroperly.  Of  these,  2 
were  Baptist,  having  2  church  edifices,  175  sillings,  and 
church  property  valued  at  $2000;  6  ProtestanI  E^iiseopnl 
churches,  wilh  4  edifices,  600  sittings,  and  $1000  ol  church 
'  properly;  1  Presbyterian  church;  and  4  Roman  Calholic 
'  cougregalions.  wilh  4  church  edifices,  575  sillings,  and 
1  $11,000  of  ehurih  property.  In  1873  Ihe  number  of  con- 
gregations had  increased  io  10,  of  which,  however,  6  were 
missions.  There  were  also  6  missions  of  the  Jesuit  Fa- 
thers ainiing  Ihe  In^liuns.  Of  the  9  regular  priests,  0  were 
missionaries  among  Iho  Indians,  and  one  was  the  vicar 
apostolic  of  the  vicariate  of  Idaho. 

CiniMtlluliutt,  (''inrlit,  lOpvptrntixtirrt  Ml  ConffrcK*,  etc. — 
The  governor  and  seerelary  of  state  arc  appointed  by  Ihe 
President  for  a  term  of  four  years;  the  treasurer,  comptrol- 
ler, and  luporinloudent  of  publio  instruction  are  elected  by 


1100 


IDAHO— IDEALISM. 


the  people.  The  legislature  comprises  a  council  of  13  mem- 
bers, chosen  for  two  ycaris,  and  a  house  of  representatives 
of  25  members,  chosen  for  one  year.  The  constitution  of 
the  Territory  is  similar  to  other  territorial  constitutions, 
and  will  be  abrogated  when  the  Territory  becomes  suffi- 
ciently po])ulous  for  admission  as  a  State.  The  su- 
premo court  consists  of  a  chief-Justice  and  two  associate 
justices,  appointed  by  the  President  for  four  years.  It 
holds  at  least  one  session  annually  at  the  territorial  capi- 
tal. The  Territory  is  divided  into  three  judicial  districts, 
in  each  of  which  one  of  the  supremo  mart  justices  holds  a 
district  court  session.  The  Territory  has  a  delegate  in 
Congress,  who  is  entitled  to  speak  on  any  question,  but  not 
to  vote. 

Cminfief. — The  Territory  is  divided  into  ten  counties,  as 
follows : 

Pop.  in  1870. 


Counties. 

Lemhi 988 

Ncz  Pcrces Ifi07 

Oneida 1022 

Owyhee 1713 

Shoshone 722 


Counties.  Pop.  in  1S70. 

Ada 2fi75 

Altnras 689 

Hoist'' 38.34 

Idaiio 849 

Kootenai  (new  county  taken 

from  Shoshone). 
Prinripal  Tutcns. — Bois6  City,  the  capital  both  of  the 
Territory  and  of  Ada  county,  has  a  population  of  loOO  to 
20U0.  Idaho  City,  county-seat  of  Boist'-  county,  is  of  about 
the  same  population;  Lcwiston,  capital  of  Nez  Perccs 
county.  Silver  City,  Malade  City,  and  Florence  are  the 
other  towns  of  note. 

IliHtnry. — The  history  of  Idaho  Territory  is  very  brief. 
AVith  the  exception  of  the  bold  explorers,  Lewis  and  Clark, 
who  early  in  the  present  century  followed  up  nearly  to  their 
sources  the  two  forks  of  the  Columbia,  Clark's  and  Lewis's 
Forks,  which  traverse  this  Territory,  the  only  white  men 
who  had  trodden  its  soil  previous  to  1S50  were  some  of  the 
trappers  and  hunters  who  had  penetrated  its  mountains 
and  valleys  in  pursuit  of  their  game.  In  1852  gold  was 
disc;»vered  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  Territory, 
but  it  attracted  few  miners  or  settlers.  It  formed  a  por- 
tion of  the  Territory  of  Oregon  up  to  1S03.  Its  first  paying 
gold-mine  was  opened  at  Oro  Fino  in  186(1,  and  others  in 
Owyhee  county  in  1862.  When  first  organized  it  included 
portions  of  the  previous  Territories  of  Oregon,  Washington, 
Utah,  and  Nebraska.  In  ISGl  its  boundaries  were  changed, 
and  a  part  set  off  to  Montana.  While  it  possesses  as  much 
arable  hind,  as  large  a  proportion  of  forest  and  grazing 
lands,  and  as  valuable  mineral  wealth  as  most  of  the  Ter- 
ritories, its  settlement  has  been  much  impeded  by  its  in- 
accessibility. It  has  no  railroads,  and  no  good  wagon- 
roads  traversing  any  great  extent.  Yet  it  is  steadily  and 
healthily  growing,  and  from  its  tine  climate,  its  valuable 
mines,  and  its  large  extent  of  grazing  lands  it  must  become 
an  important  Territory  and  State. 
Governors. — 

William  H.  Wallace 18G3-f.4|David  W.  Ballard 1868-70 

Caleb  Lvon IHivl-CiGilHIman  Marston 1870-71 

Paviti  W.  Hallard l-^GG-67  Thomas  W.  Bennett 1871-75 

Isaac  L.  Gibbs 1857-681 

L.  P.  Brockrtt. 
Idaho,  county  of  Idaho,  extending  E.  and  W.from  Ore- 
gon to  Montana.  It  is  generally  mountainous,  and  is  very 
dt'fi'-ient  in  roads.  The  river-valleys  are  generally  deep, 
fertile,  and  so  well  sheltered  from  winds  that  cattle  need 
no  protection  in  winter.  The  Piiy<'tto  Valley  is  a  splendid 
prairie,  producing  gr.ass,  grain,  cattle,  and  some  timber. 
It  abounds  in  game  and  fish.  Cap.  Mount  Idaho.  P.  849. 
Idaho,  post-v.,  county-seat  of  Clear  Creek  co.,  Col.,  in 
Clear  Creek  Valley,  among  the  Rocky  Mountains.  l^A  miles 
W.  of  Denver  and  5  miles  from  Cqncord,  on  the  Colorado 
Central  R.  U.  It  is  in  a  most  romantic  region,  and  is  well 
known  for  its  hot  .and  cold  mineral  springs,  which  are  use- 
ful in  a  very  wide  range  of  diseases.  Idaho  has  ample 
hotel  accommodation,  and  is  visited  every  summer  by  great 
numbers  for  the  purpose  of  regaining  health  by  means  of 
the  baths  and  tlie  charming  climate. 

Idaho  City,  post-v..  cap.  of  Bois6  co.,  Id.,  in  a  valley 
of  a  spur  of  the  Salmon  River  Mountains ;  lat.  -13°  4o'  N., 
Ion.  115°  30'  W.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  a  very  important 
mining  region  ;  has  a  national  bank,  a  weekly  newspaper, 
public  and  private  schools,  2  churches,  a  court-house,  jail, 
and  various  manufacturing  and  business  firms. 

T.  J.  SiTToN,  El).  ''InAHo  Woni.i)." 
IdaMium  (now  Dali),  a  promontory  of  the  E.  coast  of 
Cyprus,  on   which    was  situated    a   celebrated   temple   of 
Aphrodite;  hence  her  surname,  /dalia. 

I'davillc,   post-v.  of  Jackson  tp.,  White  co.,  Xnd.,  on 

the  Columbus  Chicago  and  Indiana  Centriil  R.  R.     P.  197. 

Ide,  a  fish  of  the  carp  family  ( Cy prinida-),  the  Leiici»cu9 

Idu>t,  found  in  rocky  lakes  of  Northern   Europe.     It  is  a 

good  table-fish. 

Ide  (George  Barto.n),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Coventry,  Vt.,  in 


1806;  graduated  at  Middlcbury  College  in  1830;  entered 
the  ministry  ;  became  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  in  Albany, 
N.  y.,  in  1834,  of  the  Old  Federal  street  church  in  Boston 
in  1835,  of  the  First  Bajitist  church  in  Philadelphia  in 
1838.  and  of  a  church  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1852.  Dr. 
Ide  was  distinguished  for  scholarship,  eloquence,  and  logi- 
cal power;  he  was  averse  to  writing  for  publication,  but  in 
the  course  of  a  ministry  of  forty-two  years  quite  a  number 
of  his  .sermons  appeared  separately  or  in  volumes.  D.  at 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Apr.  16,  1872. 

Idc'a,  one  of  the  most  important  terms  in  mental  phil- 
osophy (from  the  (ireek  lUa  or  e'fio?,  as  employed  by  Plato 
to  signify  what  is  objectivtdy  permanent  under  changing 
phenomena),  used  in  modern  times,  especially  since  Des- 
cartes, to  designate  subjective  notions  and  representations 
with  or  without  objective  validity.  Plato  discovered,  as  a 
result  of  his  "dialectic,"  that  under  the  constant  change 
which  goes  on  with  individual  things  there  is  a  permanent 
form  or  type  of  the  process,  which  abides — somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  the  "  persistent  force  "  or  "  law  of  nature  " 
described  in  modern  science.  These  archetypal  forms  or 
"  ideas  "  he  represented  as  existing  prior  to.  and  independ- 
ent of.  things  manifest  to  the  senses.  Aristotle  held  to 
the  doctrine  of  a  pure,  self-active  form  {irpwrov  etSo*).  which 
transcends  material  existence,  but  he  opposed  Plato's 
doctrine  of  independent  ideas.  The  doctrine  of  the  exist- 
ence of  ideas  as  logical  conditions  of  reality,  and  as  con- 
ditions of  the  possibility  of  all  the  general  conceptions 
which  the  mind  forms,  was  held  by  Spinoza,  Malebranche, 
and  Leibnitz,  in  a  modified  form.  Descartes  was  so  strongly 
impressed  with  this  doctrine  that  he  attempted  to  prove 
the  existence  of  God  from  the  subjective  idea  of  a  most 
jierfeot  being.  The  ancient  philosophers  investigated  the 
question.  What  is  true  in  and  for  itself?  The  moderns 
propose  the  problem  of  certitude.  How  to  proceed  from 
thought  to  being?  Since  the  time  of  Locke  it  has  been 
common  usage  to  designate  by  the  term  "ideas"  all 
thoughts,  notions,  conceptions,  images,  perceptions,  and 
intuitions,  whether  necessary  or  arbitrary.  According  to 
the  sensational  school  of  Locke  and  Hume,  all  ideas  take 
their  rise  in  sensation,  and  immediate  sensuous  imj)res- 
sions  give  the  most  adequate  knowledge,  while  ideas,  and 
especially  complex  ideas,  are  fainter  and  less  valid  copies 
of  reality.  Kant  pointed  out  the  objective  validity  of 
universal  and  necessary  ideas;  they  were  to  be  regarded 
as  expressing  logical  conditions  of  reality  in  time  and 
space.  But  ideas  proper  were  with  him  the  product  of 
the  reason  in  its  regulative  activity,  llcgel  gave  the  name 
of  idea  (Ider)  to  the  highest  actuality — the  universal  form 
of  existence  considered  as  a  totality,  self-related  activity, 
or  thinking  reason.  This  was  a  return  to  Plato's  insight, 
or  rather  to  that  of  Aristotle.  Taking  "idea"  in  the 
modern  acceptation  as  the  common  term  for  all  representa- 
tions, it  may  signify — I.  Sensuous  ideas  =  images  of  sense 
formed  in  the  lowest  stage  of  thinking;  II.  Abstract  ideas 
=  general  concepts  formed  by  abstraction  and  generali- 
zation from  experience;  III.  Concrete  ideas  =  synthetical 
conceptions  or  notions  formed  by  tracing  out  necessary  re- 
lations and  correlations  dialectieally  ;  IV.  Absolute  idea  = 
the  comprehension  of  the  totality  in  its  self-determination 
(what  the  Platonists  speak  of  as  "knowing  by  wholes"). 
Ideas  are  spoken  of  as  simple  or  complex,  necessary  or 
contingent,  absolute  or  relative,  universal  or  particular, 
innate  or  adventitious,  clear  or  obscure,  ad('<jiuitc  or  inade- 
quate, etc.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Ido'alism,  a  philosophical  doctrine  defined  (a)  as  hold- 
ing that  in  external  perception  the  objects  immediately 
known  are  ideas,  or  (h)  as  holding  that  the  external  world 
is  a  mere  phenomenon  manifesting  a  superseusuous  essence 
which  is  (1)  spirit,  reason,  or  thinking  intelligence  and 
will,  or  (2)  force,  law.  or  some  unconscious  principle  of 
evolution.  According  to  the  former  definition,  nearly  all 
philosophers,  excepting  those  belonging  to  the  Scottish 
school,  would  fall  in  the  class  of  idealists,  thus  numbering 
such  difterent  systems  as  those  of  Locke.  Hume,  Kant, 
Plato.  Aristotle,  Descartes,  etc.  all  in  one  school.  Accord- 
ing to  the  latter  definition,  the  theistic  or  spiritualistic 
thinkers  would  be  classed  in  one  divi?i<»n  (tf  the  idealistic 
school,  while  the  pantheistic  thinkers  (including  even  the 
modern  "  positivists  ")  would  belong  to  the  other  division  : 
and  opposed  to  these  would  be  the  nominalistic  branch  of 
matcrmlists  and  the  .«elf-styled  "common-sen.se"  thinkers. 
It  has  been  contended,  in  fact,  that  all  philosophy  must  be 
impliedly  idealistic  in  that  it  undertakes  to  explain  im- 
mediate things — or  at  least  the  knowledge  of  them — and 
thereby  presupposes  a  unity  or  ground  for  them  u[ion 
which  they  depend.  All  dependent  things  arc  in  a  certain 
sense  ideal  or  potential,  and  underlying  the  external  mul- 
tiplicity of  such  things  there  is  .a  unity.  AVere  there  no 
interdependence  or  correlation  among  things,  it  is  held  that 


IDELER— IDIOCY. 


1101 


there   could    be   no   philosophy.      Although    Parmcnidcs, 
Anuxagoras.  and  especially  Pythagoras,  arc  to  be  regarded 
ns  idealists,  yet  Plato  is  the  idealist  par  txccllciice,  and  the 
father  of  that  selmol  of  thiukers.     His  "ideas"  or  arehc- 
lynal  forms — irofoStiyiuiTii. — are  immaterial  and  eternal  cs- 
seuces  which  arc  shadowed  forth  or  manifested  by  finite 
realities.     Finite  things  are  "  copies  "  of  ideas,  and  by  rea- 
son of  their  inadequateness  as  copies  they  are  in  a  state  of 
perpetual  flux  or  transition  from  one  phase  to  another,  each 
imperfection  giving  place  to  a  more  correct  copy,  which, 
again,  is  defective  in  some  other  respect.    Thus,  the  process 
of  finite  things  arises  from  their  mutual  imperfection,  and 
from  the  consequent  struggle  to  attain  adcquaieness.    .Sub- 
stantiallv  identical  with  this  is  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle,  who 
opposes  the  doctrine  of  "  ideas  "  as  separate  archetypes,  and 
lays  stress  on  an  intelligent  First  Cause  as  the  supreme 
principle  of  explanation.     The  Nco-PIatonists  were  Aris- 
totelian  in  the  scientific  form  of  their  systems,  but  they 
betray  a  strong  Oriental   influence  upon   their  modes  of   i 
thinking.     Oriental  idealism  is  unable  to  reconcile  the  in- 
finite with  the  finite,  holding  the  former  to  bo  the  uncon- 
ditioned and  indeterminate,  consequently  as   impersonal. 
The    Neo-Platonists   endeavor   to    seize    a   first    principle 
higher  than  intelligence  or  than  consciousness  ;  they  seek, 
after  the  manner  of  Oriental  idealism,  an  impersonal  abso- 
lute uuitv.     The  idealism  of  Plotinus  and  Proclus,  and  es- 
pecially that  of  lamblichus  and  .'^ynesius,  strives  to  reach 
a  primordial  essence  as  the  secret  ineff'ablo  cause  and  final 
goal  of  all  things.     The  visible  world  of  time  and  space  is 
a  creation  i>f  the  soul  in  its  "lapse"  or  descent  from  the 
divine    world  of   ideas   or   eternal    verities.     Valcntinian 
Gnosticism  undertook  to  furnish  a  Neo-Platonio  basis  for 
Christianity,  adding,  however,  a  more  explicit  principle 
of  mediation  or  means  of  return  from  the  "  lapse"  to  the 
highest  principle,     .\lcxander  of  Aphrodisi.is,  and  more 
especially  the  .\rabian  commentators  of  Aristotle,  set  up  a 
pantheistic  idealism  ;  which  indeed  is  the  outcome  of  Ori- 
ental monotheism  as  contrasted  with  the  Christian  Trini- 
tarianism.     The  ideal  principle  to  which  all  individual  ex- 
istences in  the  world  arc  subordinated,  and  before  which 
thov  perish,  is  a  world-soul  conscious  in  individuals  not  en- 
dowed with  immortality,  and  not  possessing,  of  itself,  per- 
sonality.     Christian    philosophy,   as    such,    is    essentially 
idealistic,  inasmuch  as  it  has  to  provide  a  speculative  basis 
for  the  doctrine  of  a  personal  Creator  and  for  an  immortal 
creature.    Thomas  Aquinas  .says  that  Ood  "  eternally  knows 
all  things  as  present,  and  through  this  knowledge  these 
things  themselves  arc  caused."     But  with  the  disputes  of 
Nominalism  and  Uealism  arose  the  distinction  which  sepa- 
rates later  philosophy  into  iikalism  and  materialism.    The 
"realism"  of  Anselm,  Albertus  .Magnus,  and   Aquinas,  is 
idealism   in  the  ]iroper  sense  of  tho  term,  holding  to  the 
origin  of  the  world  from  the  thought  of  Ood,  tlin.ugh  his 
eternal  ideas  which  make  possible  our  cognition  of  things 
by  means  of  general  ideas,  these  being  the  subjective  cor- 
relates to  the  eternal  ideas  manifested  in  individual  things. 
Kcttlism  thus   holds  the  universe  to  exist  oiitc  rem  in  the 
mind  of  Ood,  in  rem  in  tho  phenomena  of  the  world,  and 
poll  rem  in  the  human  mind  recognizing  it  by  the  act  of 
cognition.    Numin.alism,  as  developed  by  Uoscellinns.  .\bc- 
lard,  and  Occam,  looked  upon  general  terms  as  arbitrary 
creations!  /liiliurneia)  without  objective  reality  correspond- 
ing to  the'in.     Ilach  individual  thing  exists  in  its  isolated 
independence,  and  there  is  no  species  or  genus  or  class  in 
nature,  but  only  individual  beings.     Hence,  sensuous  cer- 
titude is  the  nearest  approai  h  to  truth,  and  abstract  or 
general  ideas  are  tho  fartnest  removed  from  it. — But  when 
the  mind  perceives  the  existence  of  essential  relations  in  na- 
ture, such  as  it  names  force,  /die,  life,  etc.,  indicating  de- 
pendence and  interdependence  among  tho  things  in  tho 
world,  it  finds  itself  obliged  to  recognize,  perforce,  the  ob- 
jective validity  of  its  complex  or  general  ideas  expressing 
'•substances,  modes,  and   relations."     Powers  and  forces 
give  rise  to  indivbluals,  and  cause  theni  to  vanish  again. 
While   tho   particular    individuals   begin    and   cease,    the 
power  or  force  persists,  and  is  mnni/cilett  in  the  evanes- 
cence of  things  as  much  as  in  their  origination,  and  thus 
proves  itself  to  possess  greater  reality  than  tho  particular 
things  which  Nominalism  supposes  to  bo  the  only  reality. 
The  existence  of  processes  which  are  generic  in  their  na- 
ture and  corrcspoml  to  our  general  ideas,  comes  to  con- 
Rciousness  in  modern  natural  science  as  the  doctrine  of  the 
"  persistence  of  force."     In  the  first  stage  of  idealism,  ac- 
cordingly, all  individuality  is  looked  upon  ns  transitory, 
and  an  abstract  unity  of  force  is  regarded  ns  the  ultimate 
reality  which  swallows  up  all  special  existences,  spiritual 
or  material.     From  this  pantheistic  idealism  to  spiritual 
idealism  the  transition  lies  in  tho  perception  that  all  force 
or  essential  relation  is  necessarily,  in  the  last  analysis,  a 
phase  of  sclf-determinalion,  and  hence  of  jiersonal  being. 
This  insight  is  the  key  to  the  idealism  of  Aristotle,  Lcib- 


niti,  Aquinas,  Eckharl,  Hegel,  and  of  most  thinkers  who 
have  founded  svstems  that  explain  human  institutions. 
Idealism,  accord'ing  to  Sir  William  Hamilton,  deduces  the 
object  from  the  subject,  while  materialism  deduces  tho 
subject  from  the  object.  This  would  exclude  the  numer- 
ous forms  of  idealism  wherein  both  subject  and  object  are 
deduced  from  a  spiritual  principle.  Among  distinguished 
modern  philosophers,  called  idealists  in  accordance  with 
one  or  the  other  of  the  above  definitions,  are  to  be  named 
Berkeley  and  .Malebranche  as  theological  idealists  ;  Des- 
cartes, as  )irobleinatieal  idealist ;  Hume,  as  skeptical 
idealist:  Kant,  as  transcendental  idealist ;  Fichte,  as  sub- 
jective idealist ;  Schelling,  as  objective  idealist ;  Hegel,  as 
absolute  idealist:  Schopenhauer,  as  theoretical  idealist; 
Jacobi  and  Schleiermacher,  as  sentimental  idealists:  Spi- 
noza, as  substantial  idealist.  These  and  similar  designa- 
tions arc  liable  to  convey  a  false  impression  unless  supple- 
mented by  reference  to  the  full  systems  of  those  thinkers. 
(Sec  KnAiTii'.s  /Icrkcle;/,  Philadelphia,  1874:  also  the  sev- 
eral articles  in  this  work  on  the  philosophers  above  named, 
on  Sciiooi.MES,  and  on  PniLOSoniv.)  W.  T.  llARnis. 

I'deler  (CiiRisTrAX  la-nwic.l,  b.  at  Gross-Brese,  in  tho 
Prussian  province  of  Brandenburg,  .<ept.  21,  17GB,  and  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  and  chronology  at  the  I  ni- 
versity  of  Berlin  in  1821.  His  principal  works  arc  — 
llnmlbuch  dcr  miitliemalhcheii  iinrf  Icehniscliai  Vhrnnotogic 
(ISSIjand  Die  Zcitrcchmiy  der  Chinesen  (1839);  but  his 
earlier  writings.  Hitloritche  UnlcrgKcliungen  iibcr  die  a«- 
Ironomiaehe  Hcobiichlmn/en  dcr  Altai  (1S06),  Haudhuch  dcr 
Fronzmiaelicii  Spraehc  iwd  Liltcralur  (1852),  etc.,  were  also 
well  received.     D.  in  Berlin  Aug.  10,  1846. 

Iden'tity,  a  philosophical  term  used  to  indicate  unity 
with  persistence  and  continuity.     By  it  is  not  meant  ab- 
stract unity,  but  unity  in  plurality,  in  multiplicity,  succes- 
sion, diversitv,  or  change.     Hence  it  is  predicablo  of  sub- 
stance, and    of  tho  quantity  of  force,    matter,    and  other 
essential  relations  in  nature.     It  is  more  especially  jiredi- 
cable  of  life  and  of  personality.     Personal  identity  is  at- 
tested through  conseionsness  and  memory.     In  conscious- 
ness there  is  the  antithesis  of  subject  and  object,  and  the 
self  is  certain  of  the  identity  of  itself  as  subject  with  itself 
as  object.     This  identity  is  a  mystery,  perhaps  identical 
with  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity,  or  of  the  participation  ol 
tho  particular  thing  in  the  generic  or  universal.     Identity 
may  be  regarded  as  existing  in  various  degrees:  I.  As  the 
identity  of  the  inorganic  substances  in  nature— of  the  min- 
eral, fo'r  examidc.     Here  there  is  supposed  to  be  an  iden- 
tity in  material  or  substance— an  identity  of  composition, 
but  scarcely  any  identity  that  might  be  called  individual 
identity,  although  in  the"  crystal  this  begins  to  be  suggested. 
II.  In'tbo  plant,  according  to  Aristotle,  dwells  the  7ionii«i- 
i.i.'/  soul,  so  that  there  is  identity  of  life,  and  even  of  ]irop- 
agation  of  species— identity  of  individual  and  identity  of 
genus.     There  is  a  preservation  of  identity  under  diverse 
conditions  and  transmutations.     III.  In  the  animal  tbeio 
is  a  still  more  remarkable  preservation  of  identity,  iiias- 
inucli  as  to  tbiM-v,  (ofiif  soul  is  added  the/cc/iiifl  soul,  and 
the  individual  animal  feels  his  identity  even  in  his  extrem- 
ities.    IV.  Man  thinks  his  identity,  and  consciousniss  is 
tho  result.     In  his  entire  history  man  may  bo  regarded  as 
coming  into  identii  v  with  himself— i.  e.  as  realizing,  by  edu- 
cation, in  himself,  his  faculties  and  possibilities  us  mind, 
and  as  making  these  actual  in  the  world  in  the  shape  ol 
institutions  and  social   organizations.     Man's    uleiitity   is 
personal  identity,  and  essentially  difl'crent  from  the  identity 
of  tho  plant,  wl'iich  grows  and  reneats  its  s|)ecies  in  new 
individuals,  or  from  the  animal,  which  also  JeeU,  but  can- 
not generalize.     In  man  the  species.or  the  generic  process, 
enters  entire  in  each  individual  as  consciousness,  the  uni- 
versal and  particular  being  identical  with  the  iiolividuiil— 
constituting  subject,  object,  and  union  of  tho  two.     Tho 
doctrine  of  id.ntitv.   as  taught  by  Schelling  (see  Sciiki.- 
I INU)    holds  the  absolute  to  be  the  identity  of  the  ideal  and 
real   or  of  the  subjective  and  objective— matter  and  mind 
being  the  two  poles  of  one  infinite  substance.     The  Prin- 
ciple of  Identity   in  logic  slates  in  another  form  what  the 
PriiKiido  of  Contradiction  lays  d.iwn  ns  the  lundaniental 
law  of  thought— namely,  that  a  thing  cannot  he  and  ii,.(  ie 
ot  tho  name  time.  (Sco  Louie,  oud  Immortality.) 

W.  T.  Harris. 
Idos.    Sco  Cai-esds. 

Id'iocy  [from  the  Or.  iJiuTijt,  a  "private  person,"  hence 
an  unlettered  man.  and  finally  an  idiot,  or  person  without 
mental  enpacitv |.  the  want  of  a  natural  and  harmonious 
development  ol'  the  menial,  active,  and  moral  powers  and 
faculties  of  a  human  being,  dependent  upon  some  defect  or 
infirmity  of  the  nervous  organization.  It  varies  in  degree, 
ennlingent  upon  the  exieni  of  nervous  degeneracy,  from  a 
slight  iinpuinnent  of  the  mental  faculties,  or  imbecility,  by 
insensible  gradations  and  shades,  down  to  complete  idiocy. 


1102 


IDIOCY. 


This  maximum  of  imperfcclion  and  incapacity  stops  sliort 
only  at  a  condition  of  nerve  degeneracy  inconsistent  with 
thccontinuance  of  human  life.  Idiocy  may  exist  with  an 
apparent  condition  of  bodily  health,  but  is  more  commonly 
associated  with  obviously  disoiused  physical  states  or  some 
impairment  of  general  physiological  functions.  There  is  a 
notable  form  of  idiocy  that  is  known  as  cretinism,  which  is 
a  marked  want  of  mental  development,  associated  with  ex- 
treme scrofulous  degeneracy  and  great  bodily  deformity. 
This  is  more  commonly  prevalent  in  mountainous  districts. 
Idiocy  is  sometimes  confounded  with  dementia,  which  is  a 
loss  of  mental  powers  and  faculties  once  possessed.  This 
occurs  at  a  period  of  life  later  than  childhood. 

Various  methods  of  classification  of  idiocy  have  been 
suggested,  but  these  are  either  arbitrary  or  based  upon 
pathological  distinctions  that  are  valueless  for  any  prac- 
tical purposes  of  classilication.  Of  the  first  class,  those 
based  upon  differences  in  mental  capacity,  it  may  be  said 
that  they  have  a  certain  convenience  when  it  is  fully  under- 
stood that  thev  are  proposed  only  to  define  general  degrees 
of  mental  defi"ciencv  that  nevertheless  run  into  each  other 
by  insensible  gradations.  Of  the  latter,  where  idiocy  is 
classified  bv  known  or  probable  pathological  conditions 
underlying  "it,  such  distinctions  are  of  little  pr.actical  value 
in  devising  modes  of  obviating  the  resulting  mental  stales 
or  in  predicting  the  results  of  such  methods.  A  patholog- 
ical classification  may,  however,  be  used  to  indicate  the 
ordinary  and  immediate  causes  which  produce  idiocy. 
From  such  a  study  it  would  be  seen  to  occur,  first,  as  a 
form  of  human  degeneracy,  the  result  of  congenital  or  post- 
natal influences;  or,  secondly,  as  a  consequence  of  acci- 
dental causes  that  have  interrupted  or  checked  the  laws  of 
normal  human  growth.  Of  the  former,  a  majority  may  be 
classed  as  the  result  of  hereditary  neuroses  in  one  or  both 
families.  The  intermarriage  of  near  relatives  is  a  not  in- 
frequent cause  of  idiocy,  because  it  intensifies  the  family 
defects  and  vices  in  the  offspring.  Again,  ill-health,  any 
serious  constitutional  affection,  or  the  intemperance  of  one 
or  both  parents  at  the  time  of  conception,  insufficient  food, 
continued  ill-health,  depressing  influences,  or  any  sudden 
shook  to  the  mother  during  gestation.  Of  the  latter,  all  in- 
juries to  the  brain  in  infancy,  whether  the  result  of  primary 
or  secondary  disease  or  from  accidental  causes.  Thus,  on 
the  one  hand  there  may  be  the  ill  efi'ects  of  convulsions, 
epilepsy,  hydrocephalus^  or  any  primary  brain  disease,  or 
the  translation  of  eruptive  diseases  to  the  brain.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  injuries  to  the  brain  in  partu- 
rition from  instrumental  interference  or  otherwise,  from 
blows  on  the  head  or  concussion  in  infancy,  and  in  rare 
instances  from  fright.  Premature  ossification  of  the  skull 
may  prevent  mental  development  by  checking  or  stopping 
cerebral  growth.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  search  for 
causation  is  a  blind  one. 

Idiocy  has  existed  in  all  ages  and  in  every  country.    The 
relative  number  of  idiots  in  any  community  will  depend 
upon  the  physical  and  social   influences  that  lead  towards 
nerve-degeneracy,  but  the  ratio  to  the  general  population 
seems  to  be  an  increasing  one.    With  the  present  imperfect 
civilization  of  the  civi/ized  world,  it  is  safe  to  estimate  the 
number  as  at  least  one  to  every  thousand  in  the  population. 
The  statistics  of  the  sutiject  would  support  this  estimate, 
after  excluding  all  cases  of  dementia,  and  not  including 
those  unrecognized  as  idiots  on  account  of  infancy.     Their 
status  as  subjects  of  law  and  objects  of  pity  and  charily 
had  been  recognized  from  time  immemorial,  hut  any  known 
attempts  to  ameliorate  their  condition  were  reserved  for 
quite  recent  times.     In  fact,  systematic  efforts  for  the  im- 
provement of  their  condition   date   back  only  some  forty 
years.     There  was  a  prior  period  of  incubation,  in  which 
circumstances  combined  to  direct  attention  to  this  class, 
to  their  peculiarities  and  their  needs.     Efforts  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  insane,  to  educate  deaf-mutes  and  the 
blind,  had  been  attended  with  great  success.     In  individ- 
ual instances,  where  idiocy  had  been  studied  and  some  de- 
gree of  improvement  had  been  attained,  the  facts  had  found 
their  way  to  the  public  ear.     Scientific  curiosity  had  been 
awakened  as  to  the  nature  of    idiocy  and  the  extent  to 
which  remedial  means  might  be  rationally  applied.     Civil- 
ized communities  wero  thus  made  ripe  for  an  extension  of 
experimental  measures  of  relief  to  the  class  of  idiots.     By 
general  consent  the  name  of  Dr.  Edward  8eguin  of  Paris 
stands  at  the  head  of  European  specialists  in  the  manage- 
ment and  training  of  idiots.     He  organized  a  school   for 
the  purpose  in  lS:iS.     His  intelligence,  skill,  and  zeal,  to- 
gether with  a  happy  faculty  of  presenting  his  principles 
and  methods  of  instruction  and  the  results,  attracted  pub- 
lic attention.     The  public  authorities  of  Franco  and  scien- 
tific bodies  acknowledged  the  merits  of  his  system.     Visit- 
ors from  many  nations  went  to  see  the  wonderful  results. 
Thus  were  sown  the  seeds  that  have  ripened  into  extended 
labors  in  the  same  direction  in  many  lands.     His  work  on 


the  management,  training,  and  education  of  idiots,  pub- 
lished in  Paris  in  1840,  has  been  almost  the  only  textbook 
on  the  subject  till  the  issue  of  a  second  treatise  in  English 
published  in  18G6  in  New  York,  where  he  now  resides. 

Institutions  have  been  established  in  many  of  the  conti- 
nental states  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain  the  growth  and 
spread  of  institutions  for  idiots  has  been  almost  unexam- 
pled. Beginning  with  a  small  school  founded  by  some 
benevolent  ladies  in  Bath  but  a  little  more  than  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  there  are  now  eight  institutions,  public  and 
private,  in  England,  three  in  Scotland,  and  one  in  Ireland. 
More  than  1000  idiots  and  imbeciles  are  now  gathered  in 
institutions  designed  for  their  management  and  instruction, 
supported  by  their  friends  or  by  the  liberality  of  wealthy 
and  benevolent  individuals.  Besides  these,  several  large 
custodial  establishments  exist  where  indigent  and  pauper 
eases  of  idiocy  are  properly  cared  for  at  the  public  expense. 
In  Great  Britain,  therefore,  the  cause  of  the  amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  idiots  may  be  regarded  as  having  been 
fairly  adopted  and  placed  upon  a  firm  foundation,  both  as 
a  charity  and  a  measure  of  public  policy.  In  the  U.  S. 
efforts  at  instruction  in  individual  cases  of  idiocy  or  imbe- 
cility were  undertaken  as  early  as  181S.  The  first  school, 
however,  was  opened  at  Barre,  Mass.,  in  1848.  Only  a  few 
months  later,  an  experimental  school,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  was  begun  at  Boston.  To 
this  enterprise  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  long  identified  with  the 
education  of  the  blind  and  other  works  of  philanthropy, 
gave  the  prestige  of  his  name.  Thence  followed  the  estab- 
lishment of  similar  institutions  in  other  States,  a  list  of 
which  is  here  given  : 


Name  BQdlocalioQ  of  Institution. 


Priv.ins 

stale  " 

State  " 

State  " 

State  " 

State  " 

State  " 

State  ' 

City  " 

Priv.  ' 

Slate  ' 


..Barre,  Mass 

S.Boston,  Mass.. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y... 

Media,  Pa 

Columbus,  O 

Lakeville,  Conn. 
Frankfort.  Ky... 
.Tacksonville.IlI. 
New  Y'orkCily.. 
Fayville,  Mass... 

Glenwood,  la 

Total  number 


SuperintcodeQU 


When 

found- 

cd. 

1848 
184S 
1831 
1863 
1SS7 
1858 
1860 
18G.5 
1865 
1870 
1876 
under  instruction 


No.  or 

pupils. 


t)r.  George  Brown... 

Dr.  S.  G.  Howe 

Dr.  H.  B.  Wilbur 

Dr.  I.  N.  Kerlin 

Dr.  (i.  A.  Doren 

Dr.  II.  .M.  Knight.... 

Dr.  E.  H.  Black 

Dr.  C.  T.Wilbur 

Com.  of  Charities... 
Mm'es  Knight  AGreen 


120 
198 
22.-i 
357 
57 
99 
100 
200 

30 


I4B8 


The  underlying  or  associated  physical  causes  of  idiocy 
have  been  referred  to.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  they 
are,  the  most  of  them,  not  directly  remediable;  but  in  an 
indirect  way  much  may  be  done  to  obviate  their  conse- 
quences, if  lio  more.  These  physical  causes  may  be  classed 
either  as  defects  or  infirmities.  As  a  defect,  there  may  be 
want  of  size  or  want  of  brain-capacity,  from  whatever 
cause  arising :  a  want  of  proper  anatomical  relation  or 
connection  in  the  elementary  parts  of  the  brain,  or  various 
abnormal  modifications  of  its  more  intimate  structure  or 
organization.  As  an  infirmity,  there  may  be  a  general  de- 
fault of  normal  functional  activity.  This  statement  includes 
a  variety  of  subtle  conditions  or  influences  that  may  be 
suggested  or  inferred,  rather  than  demonstrated,  originat- 
ing in  the  brain  itself  or  derived  from  im]iairincnt  of  func- 
tion of  remote  but  correlated  organs.  Of  these  physical 
causes  of  the  first  category,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  cannot 
absolutely  he  removed  by  any  treatment.  They  are  con- 
genital, organic  defects  or  abnormal  organic  conditions  in- 
duced by  disease  in  a  region  and  in  tissues  not  susceptible 
of  much  modification  by  remedial  measures.  In  other 
words,  absorption  and  regeneration  cannot  bo  rendered 
active  and  operative.  Of  the  second  class  of  physical 
states  or  influences,  some  degree  of  reformation  under  fa- 
voring circumstances  may  be  predicated.  Thus,  to  estab- 
lish a  healthv  functional  activity  of  the  nervous  system  and 
other  bodily  organs,  hygienic  and  remedial  measures  may 
be  undertaken  with  a  reasonable  hope  of  success.  To  bring 
the  brain  and  the  nerves  of  relation  into  exercise,  increas- 
ing their  forces,  actual  and  potential,  is  the  work  of  edu- 
cation. And  inasmuch  as  nil  jiliysiological  growth  is  the 
result  of  reciprocal  action  between  organ  and  function, 
while  size  or  capacity  and  perfection  of  organism  controls 
and  determines  the  amount  of  functional  activity,  so  im- 
perfection of  organic  structure  and  want  of  size  may  be 
the  result  of  the  absence  of  proper  functional  exercise  in 
the  brain,  as  in  any  other  organ.  Education,  then,  may 
have  an  indirect  efl'ect  in  obviating  even  the  profounder 
causes  of  idiocy.  Rational  efforts  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  condition  of  idiots  resolve  themselves,  first,  into  mea- 
sures of  management,  training,  and  education.  In  insti- 
tutions for  this  purpose  the  same  general  features  are 
everywhere  seen  :  a  gymnasium,  to  develop  muscular  power, 
attention,  dexterity  and  a  proper  carriage :  a  nursery,  where 
the  younger  and  lower  grailes  of  pupils  are  trained  to  habits 
of  cleanliness,  decency,  order,  and  self-care;  a  school-room. 


IDIOSYNCRASY— IDUM.EA. 


1103 


with  a  coQiplete  Bcalo  of  mental  exercises,  from  those  ap- 
plicable to  the  first  dawning»  of  sense-power  and  sensc- 
T.erceptiou  up  to  the  ordinary  studies  of  an  elementary 
school  The  same  principles  of  education  are  hero  as  in 
any  other  system  of  instruction.  But  the  special  adapta- 
tions of  these  principles  to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  this 
class  of  pupils  mav  bo  quite  varied.  The  will  of  the  teacher 
may  be  needed  to'supplement  an  absence  of  spontaneous- 
ness  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  beginnings  of  instruc- 
tion will  he  at  such  a  point  in  the  series  of  exercises  as  the 
cxigeucies  of  each  case  may  demand.  The  progress  will 
be  bv  such  gradual  steps  as  are  within  the  reach  of  each 
puniVs  intelligence.  The  acquisitions  of  each  day.  in  the 
way  of  greater  nerve-force,  awakened  intelligence,  and  in- 
creased self-control,  are  applied  to  the  practical  matters 
of  everv-day  life  in  the  household  or  elsewhere.  The  ulti- 
mate end  of  all  these  efforts  is  to  establish  good  habits,  to 
impart  a  capacity  and  a  willingness  for  some  form  of  use- 
ful occupation,  to  develop  greater  power  of  self-control 
and  if  possible,  to  bring  idiots  under  the  sway  of  moral 
obligation.  The  experience  of  institutiuns  now  for  many 
years  in  operation  has  established  tho  fact  that  the  ma- 
jority of  idiots  of  a  school  attending  age  and  condition 
are  susceptible  of  marked  improvement,  and  may  attain 
the  end  proposed  bv  their  education  in  the  manner  and  by 
the  means  thus  briefly  indicated.  Ordinarily,  tho  precise 
extent  of  iraprovability  can  be  determined  only  by  experi- 
ment, as  the  actual  physiological  limitations  of  the  mental 
growth  can  only  thus  bo  ascertained.  Of  some,  unim- 
provability  may  be  predicted  at  the  very  outset;  thus, 
where  the  degeneracy  is  of  a  kind  to  be  self-developing 
with  the  progress  of  age;  where  there  is  an  obviously  un- 
derlying pathological  condition  progressive  in  its  nature  ; 
where  there  is  such  a  degree  of  deformity  as  to  prevent  the  [ 
use  of  the  various  means  of  training,  etc.;  and,  finally, 
where  there  is  an  extreme  nervous  excitability,  the  natural 
termination  of  which  is  in  some  form  of  insanity,— for  all 
such  unimprovable  cases  there  is  needed  another  class  of 
institutions— namely,  of  a  custodial  character.  As  a  ques- 
tion of  social  science  two  practical  principles  may  be  laid 
down  as  to  the  disposition  of  idiots.  First,  it  involves  less 
trouble  and  no  more  actual  expense  to  care  for  them  by 
themselves  in  the  hands  of  competent  persons,  and  with 
proper  surroundings  and  appliances,  than  in  the  public 
almshouse  with  other  socially  dependent  classes,  or  even  lu 
the  homes  of  indigence.  Secondly,  whenever  practicable 
it  is  a  wise  public  economy  that  provides  for  them  appro- 
nria'c  means  of  management,  training,  and  education. 
•^  II.  B.  Wilbur. 

Idiosyn'crasy  [Or.  ;«io(rvY«p«<ria.  a  "peculiar  admix- 
ture"], a  marked  individual  trait  of  any  function  of  body 
or  of  mind  which  is  possessed  by  only  one  or  by  very  few  per- 
sons. Certain  bodily  idiosyncrasies  appear  to  bo  compat- 
ible with  perfect  health.  Others  arise  from  diseased  con- 
ditions, and  cease  upon  tho  cure  of  the  disease.  Mental 
idiosyncrasies  may  not  amount  to  marks  of  insanity,  and 
yet  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a  line  between  the  two. 

I'dlewild  Cave,  a  large  cave  at  White  Pine,  Nev.  It 
was  discovered  by  miners  who  ran  a  shaft  into  it.  It  has 
been  but  imperfectly  explored. 

I'docrase  [Ur.  «ISoi,  "f„rm,"  and  Jtpaai?,  "  mixture," 
from  its  resemblances  to  other  minerals],  a  mineral  crystal- 
lizing in  the  dimctric  system,  and  essentially  a  silicate  of 
alumina  and  lime,  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  iron,  and 
in  some  cases  also  containing  magnesia,  etc. ;  hardness, 
6.5;  specific  gravity, . 1. 4.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  lavas,  but 
is  also  met  with  in' gneiss,  serpentine,  aud  granular  lime- 
stone. 

Idol'atry  [from  the  dr.  «Koi,  an  "  image."  and  XoTp«ii«ii 
to  "servo"]  is  distinguished  from  iMAr.K-Wuiisim' (whic 


ich 
see)  or  iconolatry  in  this,  that  tho  former  is  applied  to 
literally  worshipping  the  images  themselves,  whereas  icon- 
olatry is  restricted  to  signifying  simply  the  use  of  images 
to  direct  the  mind  in  worshiji  to  tho  deity  or  saint  repre- 
sented. Tho  ignorant  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
the  two,  and  end  by  believing  that  there  arc  sanctity  and  mi- 
raculous or  magical  virtue  in  the  image  itself.  Idolatry  ap- 
]i.  :ir3  to  be  of  great  antiquity.  Tho  Turanian  races  (/.  <:.  the 
i  ionic,  Turkish,  Tartar,  aiid  Iral-.Mlaic,  Dravidian,  and 
.ognalc  tribes,  including  perhaps  tho  Basque  and  Etruscan) 
worshippod  tho  spirits  of  their  ancestors,  and  represented 
these  by  little  images,  as  did  tho  Romans,  who  derived  the 
custom  from  the  Etrurians.  As  soon  as  the  belief  was 
established  that  tho  departed  were  immortal,  it  would  occur 
to  the  survivors  that  their  spirits  might  benefit  them,  and 
that  this  might  be  made  sure  by  worship.  The  beginning 
of  this  <  ii//ii«  was  before  all  history,  since  Boucher  do  Per- 
thes found  that  the  earliest  races  huried  their  dead  in  urns 
with  offerings.  The  more  civilized  branch  of  humanity 
divided  into  tho  Indo-European  and  tieiuilic.     The  former 


appear  to  have  been  inspired  with  a  deeply  poetical  and 
pantheistic  spirit,  from  which  came  the  tcudeuey  to  deify 
not  only  the  principal  forces  in  nature,  but  all  their  sub- 
divisions, so  that  eventually  there  was  a  god  or  goddess  for 
every  separate  river  or  kindof  jilant — all  represented  more 
or  less  by  images,  which  were  worshipped.     The  Semitic 
races  limited  their  ideas,  expressed  in  gods,  to  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  reproductiveness  and  death,  especially  the  former, 
whence  resulted  a  sex-worship  and  obscene  rites.  But  thoy 
found  in  Moses  and  Mohammed  reformers  who  vigorously 
repressed  all  nature-worship  and  its  resultant  idolatry  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  very  strictly  forbid  the  making  of 
graven  images;  Mohammed,  with  great  practical  shrewd- 
ness, going  8o  far  as  to  forbid  the  making  of  any  image  what- 
ever. It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  literal  worship  of  images  in 
themselves  ajipears  to  be  in  proportion  to  their  monstrosity 
and  ugliness.     The  (jrecks  maile  statues  of  their  gods,  but 
seem  to  have  merely  admired  the  former  while  thoy  adored 
the  latter.     In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Virgins  of 
Raphael  and  of  the  great  artists  genernlly  serve  merely  fur 
icnnolnln/,  but  where  irlol<iln/\s  developed  it  is  common  to 
some  barbarously  adorned  rural  image  or  to  one  absolutely 
hideous — e.f).  the  jet-blaek  Virgin  of  Altiltting.     The  tend- 
ency of  humanity  to  invest  material  objects  with  magical 
virtues  is  universal.     A  savage  who  has  by  chance  always 
killed  his  enemies  or  his  game  with  a  certain  weapon  soon 
believes  that  it  possesses  a  peculiar  virtue,  and  this  belief 
readily  extends  to  ornaments  and  amulets,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  bring  luck.     From  amulets — pebbles  or  beads — 
the  faith  readily  extends  to  human  images,  whether  of  an- 
cestors or  representing  powers  of  nature.  Idolaters  of  every 
country  endeavor  to  please  their  divinity  by  sacrifices,  and 
many  punish  it  when  their  prayers  are  not  answered.     It 
is  not  many  years,  as  the  writer  can  vouch,  since  the  in- 
habitants of  Segni,  in  Italy,  having  prayed  in  vain  to  St. 
Bruno   for  rain,  took  his    image  down,  punished    it  with 
stripes,  and  stuck  it  into  the  mu.l  of  a  river  heail  down- 
ward.  A  great  shower  happening  to  fall  immediately  after, 
tho  people  came  in  solemn  procession,  took  the  imago  up, 
washed  it.  and  reinstated  it  in  its  shrine.     It  is  needless  to 
say  that  the  Catholic  Church  does  not  sanction  such  idol- 
atry, though  it  encourages  iconolatry.     A  curious  form  of 
idolatry  is  the  totem-worship   by  which  a  certain  sacred 
animal  is  regarded  as  originating  and  protecting  families 
and  tribes  of  a  common  descent.     This  was  to  be  found, 
<•.  g..  among  the  Teutonic  Wolfinge — whose  names  survive 
inlludolf,  Wolfgang,  etc. — as  also  among  North  American 
Indians.     Sir  .John  Lubbock  briefly  explains  this  as  fol- 
lows :  "  In  endeavoring  to  account  for  the  worship  of  ani- 
mals we   must  remember  that  names  are  very  frequently 
taken  fnim  them.     Tho  children  ancl  followers  of  a  man 
called  the  Bear  or  the  Lion  would  make  that  a  tribal  name. 
Hence  the  animal  itself  would  bo  first  respected,  then  wor- 
shipped."    Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  regards  this  as  the  origin 
of  fetichism,  or  the  lowest  forms  of  all  idolatry.  "  He  whose 
family  tradition  is  that  his  ancestor  was  the  crab,  will  con- 
ceive'thc  crab  as  having  a  disguised  inner  power  like  his 
own.    Hence  .  .  .  multitudinous  things  around  will  acquire 
imaginary  personalities."     Idols  representing  forms  half 
human,  half  brutal,  also  originate,  in  all  probability,  from 
this  source.     There  is  more  than  one  royal  or  noble  family 
in  Europe  and  the  East  which  has  a  tradition  that  it  spi^ang 
from  the  amours  of  a  woman  with  an  animal,  the  animal 
having  been  simply  a  man  named  after  one.     According  to 
Max  Miiller,  races  so  rude  as  to  have  simply  one  word  for 
every  one  idea,  cannot  represent  active  powers,  natural  or 
supernatural,  in  any  but  a  personal  and  more  or  less  human 
form.    This  would  also  account  for  the  origin  of  nuieh  rude 
idolatry.     Iconolatry  becomes  idolatry  when  the  image  is 
believed  to  wink,  bow,  or  display  signs  of  life,  owing  to  the 
actual  presence  in  it  of  the  spirit  which  it  represents,  or 
when  it  is  believed  to  possess  healing  or  magical  power. 
Tho  most  extensively  disseminated  idols  arc  those  of  Boud- 
dha  and  of  the  Chinese  queen  of  heaven,  which  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  Isis.  Cii.uiles  Q.  Lelaxo. 

Id'ria,  town  of  Austria,  in  Carniola,  on  the  Idriza.  It 
is  situated  in  a  kettle-shapeil  valley,  and  is  famous  for  its 
quicksilver-mines,  which  arc  said  to  be  the  richest  in  Eunqio. 
producing  annually  3000  cwts.     Pop.  4;i00. 

Id'stcdt,  a  y.  of  Sleswick,  noteworthy  on  account  of 
the  battle  (.luly  21  and  2.i.  1S50)  by  which  tho  Hanes 
crushed  the  Sleswick-IIolstein  rebellion. 

Idumic'a,  territory  of  Western  Asia,  was  bounded  N. 
bv  .Judiea,  \V.  by  tho  Mediterranean.  At  one  time  it  com- 
prised parts  of  Judiea  a.s  far  N.  as  Hebron,  and  in  Arabia 
the  peninsula  of  Petrnja.  It  was  inlmbiled  by  the  descend- 


ants  of  Esau,  and  was  annexed  to  .ludxa  by  David,  and 
later  by  the  .\Iaceabees.  The  relations  between  the  .lews 
and  the  Iduniwans  (Edomiles)  were  always  hostiloand  full 
of  haired,  even  after  the  Jews  had  received  an  Idumican 


1104 


lESI— IGNORAKTIA  JURIS. 


dynasty  in  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  in  whose  time  the 
Idumienns  were,  however,  Jews  in  rehgion. 

le'si,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ancona.  It  is 
said  to  he  of  Pelasgian  origin,  and  through  the  I  mbnans 
and  Gauls  it  passed  to  the  Unmans,  traces  of  whose  c,y,.- 
lation  arc  everywhere  seen.  The  city  walls  are  Hanked  hy 
over" ,  and  the  place  is  well  supplied  with  good  water.  1  he 
public 'buildings'  are  very  respcetable,  ".n''.~"l'"°;""'^^^^^: 
Dietures,  as  well  as  some  curious  antiquil.es.  Ihe  trade 
^nd  manufactures  of  this  town  are  very  considerable. 
Pop.  in  IST-l,  18,912. 

IfliantI  (.\rr.isT  Wilhei-m).  b.  at  Hanover  Apr  in, 
176'.l ;  took  to  the  stage  at  Gotha  in  1777  ;  acted  ...  M.an- 
hcim  I77il,  and  became  in  179G  director  of  the  National 
Th  a.re  of  Berlin,  where  he  d.  Sep..  22,  ISU  ."'^dramas 
of  which  he  wrote  a  great  number,  =^°d,7'"'^Vv  and  ScaT 
were  performed  on  all  the  stages  of  Germany  and  bcan- 
dinavfa,  are  narrow,  sentimental  and  affected  P'o'";^;^^  <>/ 
the  trivialities  of  everyday  life  ;  but  hey  "7"' ^  '"g"'*'^^^ 
without  psychological  interest  and  ">''f.","^'.<=^^^^-^^^'i7 
actor  he  was  the  perfection  of  th.at  wh.ch  b.s  dramas  in- 
tended to  represent-the  natural,  the  noble,  the  true  ;  bu  ho 
was  great  only  in  the  representation  of  that  which  m  reality 
Ts  small-         ■  CLCMP.N-S  Petersen. 

Igasu'ric  -Vcid  [Malay,  igasura,  ••  vom.ting-nut  ], 
an  acid  fo.ind  in  \nx  vomica  and  St.  Ignat.us  beans,  and 
in  the  root  of  Sln/rhnna  colubrma. 

leasu'rine  [.Malay,  .;7as".-i,  "vomiting-nut"],  an  al- 
kaloid which  occurs  in  .Vnx  vomica  in  company  w.tli  strych- 
nine and  brucine.  It  is  intensely  poisonous.  (See  Desno.x, 
,/  Pli„vm.  [.■>.],  XXV.  202.  and  Sehutzenbcrger,  Compt.rend., 
xivi.  1234;  Ann.  Ch.  Ph-irm.,  cviii.  .'US.) 

lelau',  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Moravia,  on 
the  Iglawa.  It  is  an  old  but  well-built  town,  w.th  exten- 
sive Tnanufactures  of  cloth,  tobacco,  and  mach.ncry,  and 
rich  silver-mines  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  20,112. 

Igle'sias,  town  of  Sardinia,  in  the  province  of  Cagliari. 
It  io  a  walled  city,  with  crenelated  towers  and  a  castle,  and 
is  situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  portions  of  the  island. 
Silver  and  other  mines  are  found  in  the  vicinity,  and  sd 
prosperous  are  the  mining  operations  that  tt.s  town  is 
known  in  Sardinia  as  the  "city  of  the  mines.  There  is, 
however,  little  general  industry  except  among  the  women, 
who  make  quantities  of  linen  and  woollen  stuffs.  P.  9816. 
lelesias  (Jose  Mauia).  See  Ait-exdix. 
Ig'lo,  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Zips,  on  the 
Hernad.  has  copper  aud  iron  works,  and  a  considerable 
trade.     Pop.  o90U. 

lena'tius,  Smst,  bishop  and  martyr.   It  is  not  known 
whinher  he  was  of  Svrian  or  of  Greek  descent,  nor  whose 
disciple  he  was.     Eusebius  (ff.Vf.,  iii.  22)  makes  h..n  the 
seco..d  bishop  of  Antioch,  Evodius  having  been  the  first 
The  Ap;,tolic.   Co»,ltlulio„3  (vii.  46)  ra.ake    Evod.us  .ind 
Ic-natius  bishops  together— Evodius  appo.nted  by   Peter, 
aid  Ignatius  by  Paul.     Baronius  and   Natalis  Alexander 
think  thev  were  bishops  tojether— Evod.us  of  the  Jews, 
Ignatius  of  the  Gentiles.     That  be  was  a  martyr,  hav.ng 
b?cn   condemned  at  Antioch,  and  taken   to  R»n.o  to   be 
thrown  to  the  lions,  is  hardly  to  be  doubted.     Tho  dateot 
his  martyrdom  is.  however,  a  mooted  question.    The  earliest 
date  is  that  recently  given  by  Dresscl  on  the  authority  of 
a  now  codex  of  the  .Varf./r.nm,  first  edited   by  hl.n  m  Uj. 
(••d  ed   ISi;:)).  which  begins :  '•  In  the  fifth  year  of  tho  reign 
of  the  emperor  Trajan,"  i.  c.  102  A.  D.     The  old  M.,r,;,r,u,„, 
which  has  the  api.oarance  of  having  been  tampered  with, 
names   Dec.  20,  107.     Hut  as  it  is  now  generally  adm.ttc.l 
that  T,-aian  did  not  go  to  the  East  till   114,  winter.ng  at 
\ntioch' 114-15.  critical   opinion   is  now   gravitating   to- 
wards 115.      Perhaps  we  may  say  Dec.   20,    Ho.      Bear- 
in.'    the    name   of    Ignatius    there    are    fifteen    £;)^«('c., 
ei^ht  of  which    (three   in    a  Latin  and  five    in    a    Greek 
recension)   are  now  generally  considered   spurious.     The 
rc.naining  seven    (A>/n'«K<«.,   Man""'""'-   TraUinm,  Ka- 
ma,,-    written    at   Smyrna;    Philadrlphiam,   i„„yn!taM, 
f'ohrnrp,  written  at  froas)  are  in  two   (Ireek  reeons.ons  : 
(l)the  longer,  first  published  by  Pacieus  in  los,  ;  (2)  the 
shorter,  first  published  by  Archbishop  Usher  in  1644.    Three 
of   the  seven    (AyK„-..»»,    llo„,.;,».    I'„l,r"n>)   ""<>    P."''- 
lished.  with  a  translation,  in  a  still  shorter  Synac  rpocnsion, 
by  Curcton  in  1S45.     Since  then  the  Ignatmn  controversy 
has  been  renewed  with  great  sharpness.     The  several  opin- 
ions are  as  follows :  ( 1 )  KiUen  thinks  them  all  spur.ous,  b..t 
imagines  that  the  Syriac  three  were  the  first  to  be  forged. 
in  the  time  of  Origen  (18,5-254),  soon  after  which  they  were 
translated  into  Greek,  expanded,  and  others  added,  belorc 
the  time  of  Eusebius,  who  had  the  seven.     (2)  Baur  and 
Hilgenfeld  think  them  all  spurious,  but  are  of  the  opinion 
that  the  seven  shorter  Greek  epistles  were  the  first  to  bo 
forced   after  150.     The  .Svriac  three,  it  is  contended,  read 


like  extracts.  (3)  Cureton,  Bunsen,  Ritschl,  and  L.ps.us 
advocate  tho  genuineness  of  the  Syriac  three.  (4)  A  strung 
array  of  the  ablest  critics,  both  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic,  such  as  Gicscler,  Uhlhorn,  Miihler,  and  llcfcle, 
may  still  be  reckoned  on  the  side  of  the  shorter  Greek  re- 
cension. The  longer  Greek  differ  from  tho  shorter  in  tho 
greater  emphasis  which  is  put— (1)  upon  episcopacy;  (2) 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  R.  D-  Hitchcock. 

Ignatius,  Loyola.  See  Loyola. 
Ignatius'  Bean,  or  Bean  of  St.  Ignatius,  the 
beau-like  seed  of  .SVn/r/in.w  J.piatii.  a  rather  large  shrub 
with  curious  vine-like  branches  growing  in  the  Phil.pp.nes, 
and  belonging  to  tho  order  Loganiiieeic.  The  seed  is  an 
inch  long,  half  an  inch  thick,  aud  has  the  proper!. cs  of 
nux  vo.uica.  but  more  actively,  for  it  contains  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  strychnin.  Tlic  commercial  supply  is  irreg- 
ular. The  seed  was  named  by  the  Jesuits  in  honor  of 
Ignatius  Loyola,  their  founder. 

I"'neous  Rocks  are  those  which  have  been  formed  by 
the  "cooling  of  melted  materials,  as  distinguished  from 
sedimentan/  rocks,  which  are  formed  of  mater.al  depos.tcd 
from  water,  and  mrinmorphic  rocks,  scdin.cntary  ...  the.r 
origin,  but  much  changed  in  character  by  the  action  of 
he^t  and  pressure.  Igneous  rocks  arc  formed  by  the  cool- 
ing of  lavas  from  volcanoes  or  of  the  fused  matters  cast  up 
through  fissures  in  the  earth's  crust,  constituting  dykes  of 
non-stratified  rock.  Igneous  rocks  are  either  /Mgpalhic 
(white  trap,  porphyry,  trachyte,  phonolite,  pitchstone,  ob- 
sidian, pumice,  etc.)  or  .n.gilic  (diorite,  basalt,  doler.tc, 
etc  )  Granite,  greenstone,  etc.  are  sometimes  reckoned  as 
igneous  rocks,  but  in  many  cases  they  appear  to  be  truly 
metamorphic. 

le'nis  Fat'uns  [Lat.  "  vain  or  foolish  light ;"  Fr./cii- 
fullcl-   Ger.  Inlifht  or  /rnci'sci],  a  luminous  meteor,  ap- 
pearing  during   summer  and  autumn   nights  on  marshy 
land,  ifear  stagnant  water,  in  graveyards  and  other  places 
where  decomposition  is  going  on.     It  is  an  unsteady  blu.sb 
light   usually  seen  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
gfound,  sometimes  stationary,  but  commonly  moving  with 
great  rapidity.     It  appears  brightest  at  a  distance,  and  re- 
cedes from  the  observer  as  he  tries  to  approach  it ;  thus 
travellers  have  frequently  lost  their  lives  through  being 
deluded  by  it  into  dangerous  bogs.     From  Us  resemblance 
to  a  li.'htcd  wifp  of  straw  or  torch  borne  quickly  aloiig.  it 
has  received  a  number  of  names,  such  as  Will-o  -the-W.sp, 
Jack-  (or  Peg-)  o'-Lantern,  Friar's  Lantern,  Kit-w.tb-thc- 
Canstick  (,-.c.  candlestick),  and  has    given  r.se  to   many 
popular  legends.     It  was  formerly  attributed  by  the  coun- 
tr/-people  to  evil   spirits,  who  found    pleasure  in   lur.ng 
hunian  beings  to  destruction,  but  was  sometimes  supposed 
to  be  souls  escaped  from  purgatory,  all  in  flames,  with  the 
hope  of  inducing  men  to  pray  for  their  deliverance.    •\\  hen 
appearing  in  churchyards,  the  ignis  fatuus  is  still  m  some 
places  called  "  corpse-candle,' a.id  regarded  as  a  presage 
of  speedv  death,  geuerallv  to  the  person  by  whom  .t  .9  seen. 
The   English  gypsies,  to  whom,  owing  to  the.r  out-of-door 
life,  the  ignis  fatuus  is  a  familiar  spectacle,  call  it  mnWos 
v„„„eU>.  or  ghost-light.     A  light  of  this  species,  called  .n 
Buckinghamshire  "Ihe  Wat,"  is  said  to  haunt  prisons,  and 
when  seen  bv  a  prisoner  before  his  trial  is  considered  an 
unfavorable  "omen.     The  cause  of  the  ignis  fatuus  is  not 
fullv  decided.     Some  meteorologists  refer  it  to  electricity  ; 
others  to  an  issue  of  marsh-gas  (light  earburetted  hydro- 
gen I   caused  bv  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  and 
inflamed  bv  an  electric  spark.     It  is  most  generally  sup- 
posed to  b'e  phosphuretted  hydrogen  arising  from  decom- 
posing animal  matter;  this  gas  takes  fire  spontaneously 
upon  coming  into  contact   with  atmospheric  air.     Beloro 
the  introduction  of  an  improved  agricultural  syst^em,  and 
the  almost  universal  drainage  of   marsh-lands,  the  ign.s 
fatuus  was  a  very  ordinary  phenomenon.     .U  present  it  is 
more  r.arolv  seen,  and  is  often  vainly  sought  lor  by  students 
of  meteorology.     Sir  Isaac  Newton  defined  it  as   •  a  vapor 
shining  without  heat,"  but  other  observers  havo  described 
it  as  producing  a  slight  degree  of  warmth,  and  have  even 
succeeded  in  igniting  flax  at  its  flame.     Janet  1  ucKtv. 
Ignoramus.    Sec  Gbaxd  Jury. 
Ignonintia  Facti.     See  Ic.sorantia  Jims. 
Ignoran'tiaJu'ris  (Lat.,  "ignorance  of  the  law"].    It 
is  a  cardinal  legal  principle  that  ignorance  of  the  law  a  - 
fords  no  excuse  for  a  violation  of,  or  fa.lure  to  observe,  its 
requirements.     Il  is  conclusively  presumed  that  every  ono 
is  acquainted  with  the  established  rules  of  law.  and  under- 
stands that  his  eondtict  should  be  regulated  in  accordance 
with  them,  without  regard  to  bis  lack  of  opportunity  to  ac- 
quire such  knowledge.     This  presumption.  tho..gh  .t  may 
work  great  hardship  in  particular  cases,  is  based  upon  the 
necessitv  of  securing  the  practical  and  u..iform  enforcement 
of  the  liw,  and  is  therefore  demanded  by  cous.dcrat.ons  ot 


lli.NUUANTlNKS— ILKIM. 


1105 


publlo  policy.  If  a  different  rule  were  adopted,  the  desire 
to  avoid  legal  necountahility  would  lead  to  a  general  disre- 
gard of  the  law,  and  it  might  therelorc  be  transgressed 
with  impunity,  and  would  beeomo  wholly  ineffeetive.  In 
regard  to  itfiiornucc  v/ /net,  however,  there  is  not  the  same 
reason  for  a  similar  presumption,  and  a  diflVrent  rule  is 
established.  Aets  done  or  transactions  entered  into  incon- 
sequence of  ignorance  of  material  facts,  when  the  lack  of 
knowledge  is  notatlributable  to  unreasonalile  remissness  in 
inquiry  or  a  disregard  of  readily  available  sources  of  in- 
formation, will  not,  therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  be  held  to 
iniiiosc  any  legal  liability,  or  at  least  the  same  degree  of 
liibility  as  would  otherwise  have  been  incurred.  These 
rules  as  to  ignorance  of  law  and  of  fact  arc  at  ]iresent  rec- 
ognized in  the  common-law  tribunals,  as  well  as  in  courts 
of  equity.  Kor  examjile,  in  civil  cases  it  is  lu-ld  that  if 
money  is  paid  in  any  transaction  with  full  knowledge  of 
the  facts,  but  in  ignorance  of  the  doctrines  of  hiw  applying 
to  the  case, it  cannot  bo  recovered  back  if  there  be  nothing 
unconscientious  on  other  grounds  in  the  retention  of  it; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  if  money  be  paid  through  ignorance 
of  the  facts  merely,  ami  without  laches,  it  will  in  general 
be  recoverable.  In  like  manner,  in  criminal  law,  if  an 
offence  be  committed  which  is  in  fact  a  crime,  though  not 
known  to  be  such  by  the  wrongdoer,  the  plea  of  ignorance 
that  the  law  forbade  such  an  act  will  not  be  accepted  in 
justification  :  but  if  a  house-owner  should,  in  the  exercise 
of  a  reasonable  degree  of  caution,  and  in  the  belief  that  it 
was  necessary  for  self-protection,  kill  a  person  by  night  in 
his  house  whom  ho  innocently  but  mistakenly  believed  to 
bo  a  burglar,  his  ignorance  would  be  upon  a  point  of  fact, 
and  would  free  him  from  responsibility.  Ignorance  of  the 
laws  of  a  foreign  state  is  deemed  to  bo  ignorance  of  fact, 
and  the  States  of  the  I'nion  are  for  this  purpose  deemed  to 
be  foreign  to  one  another. 

Hut  these  rules  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  ignorance  are 
modified  at  times  by  other  principles  of  law,  so  that  their 
application  is  not  invaria!>le.  Thus,  if  a  point  of  law  bo 
doubtful,  and  certainty  of  knowledge  thereon  cannot  be 
attained,  a  compromise  of  claims  atVectcd  by  it  will  gen- 
erally be  sustained  as  estalilishing  the  rights  of  tho  parlies, 
since  it  is  desirable  that  litigation  be  diminished.  More- 
over, if  a  person's  ignorance  of  law  has  afforded  another 
opportunity  to  practice  fraud  or  imposition  upon  him,  his 
ignorance  will  not  preclude  him  fr(uu  obtaining  relief,  since, 
if  such  were  the  ease,  the  other  party  would  bo  permitted 
to  profit  by  his  own  wrong,  .^gain,  it  is  a  salutary  rulo 
of  law  that  when  one  of  two  innocent  parties  must  Buflcr 
the  loss  resulting  from  any  act.  the  consequences  should 
fall  upon  the  one  who  has  caused  or  enable*!  the  act  to  be 
committed,  rather  than  upon  tho  other.  Hence,  if  a  person 
assume  to  act  as  agent  for  another  in  conducting  any  trans- 
action, believing  that  he  has  authority  so  to  act,  while  ho 
has  no  authority  in  reality,  the  interests  of  tho  third  person 
with  whom  he  deals  upon  such  a  basis  will  generally  bo 
protected,  and  the  pretended  agent  will  have  no  claim  to 
relief  on  the  ground  of  ignorance  of  material  facts.  Tho 
generally  prevalent  doctrine  is,  that  he  woubl  be  liable  to 
the  third  pcraim  in  such  a  case  upon  an  implied  warranty 
of  authority.  In  like  manner,  special  considerations  may 
at  times  lead  tho  courts  to  modify  tho  application  of  tho 
rules  cimeerning  the  effect  of  ignorance,  and  courts  of 
equity  particularly  may,  in  peculiar  cases  of  hardship,  oc- 
casionally grant  special  indulgence  to  one  innocently  vio- 
lating tho  law.  (See  Mistakk.) 

(iKoucE  CiiAsi:.    Kevised  dv  T.  W.  DwionT. 

Ipnornntincs.      See   Brethren   or    Tin:   Ciiuistian 

I        Schools. 

Igunln'cia,  town  of  Spain,  in  tho  province  of  Barce- 
lona, on  the  Noya.  It  is  an  old  and  gloomy  town,  with  a 
bright  and  handsome  suburb,  a  brisk  trade  in  wine,  oil,  and 
fruits,  and  extensive  manufactures  of  weapons  and  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  with  several  paper-mills  iu  the  vicinity. 
I'op.  14,000. 

Igiin'nn  [Sp.],  a  genus  of  lizards  inhabiting  Central 
and  Siiulh  America  ami  the  West  In<lies.  These  animals 
are  of  large  size,  often  four  or  five  feet  in  length  to  the  end 

]  of  the  tail,  which  is  l(!ng,  slender,  compressed,  and  covered 
with  small,  e(|\ml,  imbricated,  and  carinated  scales.  The 
body  is  also  scaly,  and  provitlecl  with  a  prominent  median 
fold  of  integument  under  the  throat,  forming  a  conspicuous 
dewlap,  which  is  serrated  in  front,  with  large  scales,  An- 
othiT  fold  along  the  back  is  similarly  raiseil  into  a  deeply 
and  acutely  sirrnleil  crest,  highest  on  the  dorsal  region  and 
extending  upon  the  tail.  There  is  a  single  row  of  femoral 
pores.  The  tongue  is  short,  contractile,  and  iHptehed  at  tho 
lip.  There  is  a  ilouble  row  of  small  teeth  upon  the  ptery- 
goid bones  of  tho  palate,  and  larger  teeth  upon  tho  usual 
maxillary  bones.  These  teeth  have  the  crown  compressed, 
acute,  arid  with  a  scrruled  margin.  Tho  external  surfaoe 
Vol..  II.— 711 


of  tho  crown  is  coated  with  enamel  ond  traversed  by  a 
median  longitudinal  ridge.  The  bases  of  tho  teeth  are 
elongated,  subrylindrical,  and  soldered  to  excavations  on 
the  inner  surface  of  the  outer  wall  of  a  shalloiv,  oblique 
alveolar  groove,  thus  exhibiting  tho  pleurodont  type  of 
dentition.  The  vertebra;,  besides  the  ordinary  articulation 
by  the  zygapophyses  or  oblique  processes  from  the  arches, 
are  further  united  by  a  process  (zygosphene)  from  the  front 
part  of  each  arch,  which  fits  into  a  cavity  {zygautnun) 
upon  the  posterior  face  of  the  preceding  arch;  and  in  this 
respect  they  resemble  the  vertebra;  of  serpents.  There  are 
five  well-developed  toes  on  each  foot,  all  provided  with 
claws.  They  are  active  animals,  living  mostly  upon  trees, 
and  are  herbivorous.  Their  flesh  is  considered  a  delicacy. 
The  best-known  species  is  Itjvana  tnherculata,  so  named 
from  the  tubercular  scales  upon  the  sides  of  the  neck. 

0.  C.  XlAusn. 
Igrua'nodon  [from  Sp.  ir^uana,  a  species  of  lizard,  and 
Gr.  oSoiit,  '•tooth"],  a  genus  of  extinct  reptiles  belonging 
to  tho  order  Dinosauria.  and  found  in  the  Wealdeu  and 
Cretaceous  of  Europe.  These  reptiles  were  first  discovered 
by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  Wcalden  of  Tilgatc  Forest,  and  Iho 
remains  fir.«t  found  consisted  of  teeth.  The  name  of  the 
animal  was  intended  to  express  the  reseniblance  of  these 
teeth  to  those  of  the  iguana.  As  in  that  animal,  the  base 
of  tho  tooth  is  elongated,  the  crown  expanded  and  notched 
on  the  margin  ;  at  first  it  is  acuminated  and  compressed, 
its  sloping  sides  serrated,  and  one  surface,  external  in  the 
upper  jaw,  internal  in  the  lower,  is  traversed  by  a  median 
longitudinal  ridge  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  enamel. 
On  each  side  of  this  ridge  are  one  or  two  lower  ridges, 
separated  from  each  other  and  from  the  serrated  margin 
by  wide  smooth  grooves.  The  marginal  serrations  are  seen 
under  a  low  magnifying  power  to  be  tr.'insverscly  notched. 
These  teeth  were  set  in  sockets  giving  a  firm  support  for 
mastication,  by  which  they  seem  to  have  been  worn  until 
nearly  tho  whole  crown  was  gone.  In  the  earlier  stages  of 
use  a  sharp,  irregular  edge  was  maintained  by  the  layer  of 
enamel ;  later,  the  ossified  pulp,  harder  than  tho  dentine, 
formed  a  transverse  ridge,  fitting  the  tooth  for  its  work  as 
a  molar  for  grinding  and  bruising  the  coarse  vegetables 
that  formed  the  food  of  these  animals.  The  vertebra;  of 
the  neck  were  moderately  convex  in  front,  concave  behind, 
becoming  concave  on  both  faces  in  the  dorsals,  resembling 
those  of  some  mammals,  while  other  points  of  structure 
allied  these  animals  with  the  birds.  The  ribs  were  bifurcate. 
Tho  shoulder-girdle  resembled  that  of  lizards,  and  the  fore 
legs  were  comparatively  small.  The  pelvis  had  the  ilium 
extending  far  in  front  of  the  acetabulum,  and  furnishing 
only  a  widily  arebid  roof  to  that  cavity.  Tho  ischium  was 
much  elongated,  had  an  obturator  process  as  in  birds,  and 
probably  united  with  its  fellow  in  a  median  ventral  sym- 
physis. The  unusually  large  bones  of  the  hind  limbs  were 
exeavatecl  by  a  large  medullary  cavity,  and  fitted  for  ter- 
restrial locomotion.  The  femur  had  a  strong  inner  tro- 
ch.anter.  and  its  distal  end  was  bird-like  in  the  ilevelopinent 
of  a  strong  ridge,  which  played  between  the  tit)ia  and  lilnila. 
Tho  metatarsals  were  elongated,  and  so  fitted  together  as  to 
hardly  if  at  all  move  on  one  another.  The  inner  and  outer 
digits  were  short  or  rudimentary,  leaving  only  three  well- 
developed  toes,  of  which  tho  middle  was  the  largest  and 
strongest.  Large  three-toed  tracks  iu  tho  Wealdcn  aro 
sncli  as  might  have  been  made  by  these  animals.  A/uouo- 
(loH  Mtiiilclli  (so  named  by  Prof.  Owen  for  its  discoverer) 
was  thirty  feet  in  length,  with  a  bulky  body,  and  was  per. 
haps  tho  largest  of  terrestrial  animals.  This  genus  has 
not  yet  been  identified  from  America.  (Sec  IlAnnosAiuus.) 

0.  C.  Marsh. 

Ili'Inne-Ili'lang  [Tagel.  for  "flower  of  flowers"],  Iho 
rich  and  ]ir)\verful  jurfume  of  t'noiiu  niliiratintima,  a  noblo 
forest  tree  of  the  Philipjiines  and  Malay  Islamls.  Tho 
volatile  oil  of  the  flowers  of  the  tree  is  largely  em]iloyed  in 
making  the  rich  hanrlkercbief-perfumc  of  I  his  name.  This 
oil  is  distilled  in  the  East,  and  is  worth  about  $2J0  a 
pound. 

Il'cliostcr,  snmll  town  of  England,  in  Somersetshire, 
on  the  Ivel.  is  noteworthy  as  the  birlhplaee  of  Koger  liaeon, 
and  there  are  iu  tho  neighborhood  many  llomau  remains. 
Pop.  7!<I. 

IIC-«lc»Fraiicc',an  old  province  of  France,  with  Paris 
for  its  capital,  is  now  divided  into  the  departments  of  Seine, 
Oisc,  Aisne,  Seine-et-Marne,  and  Scine-et-Oiso. 

Ilcx'boro,  a  village  of  Washington  tp.,  Hocking  co.,  <). 
Pop.  iVl. 

ireum  [Or.  »;*u,  to  "twist,"  from  its  convoluted  np- 
penrance].  tlie  lowest  portion  of  the  small  intestine,  extend- 
ing from  the  jejunum  to  the  bend  of  the  colon.  In  niiin  it 
is  about  twelve  feet  long,  thus  including  some  threc-fiftlis 
of  the  length  of  the  small  intestine.  It  is  one  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  in  calibre,  is  thinner  and  narrower  than  tho  jo- 


110(5 


ILEUS-ILLINOIS. 


iunum,  has  less  marked  valvulm  co„mvente,,  and  is  ordi- 
narily the  only  part  of  the  intestine  which  has  Peyer  s 
patches  (agminatcd  glands)  upon  its  inner  surface. 

H'eus  r«r-  «;^'«'  '^  "  twisting ;"  Lat.  vol,:ulu>,  or  miserere 
men  i  very  painful  disease  of  the  intestine,  produced  by 
mechanical  obstruction,  as  by  twisting,  intussusception  or 
knotting  of  the  cntrail.  Intense  pain,  persistent  vomiting 
(sometimes  stercoraceous),  hiccough,  etc.  are  characteristic 
symptoms.  Intussusception,  or  the  passage  of  a  part  ot 
tiie  intestine  into  the  cavity  of  another  part,  is  one  of  he 
most  common  conditions,  as  when  the  lower  part  of  the 
small  intestine  is  slipped  down  into  the  large  intestine 
The  disease  is  very  often  fatal.  Spontaneous  reduction  of 
the  displacement  may  occur;  the  intussusceptcd  part  may 
slou-h  away  and  .in  inflammatory  process  occur  resulting 
in  rceoverv  ;  dilatation  of  the  bowels  by  the  bellows  may 
effect  a  cJre.  As  a  last  resort,  gastrotomy  may  bo  tried 
with  possible  success. 

Ilex.     See  Holm  Oak  and  IIollv. 

Ilha'vo,  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Beira,  is 
well  built  and  thriving.  In  its  neighborhood  is  the  cele- 
brated glass  and  porcelain  manufactory  of  Vista  Alegre. 
Pop.  S215.  .,         ^  .      ,  . 

Ilic'ic  Acid  [Lat.  ilex,  "holly"],  an  acid  contained  m 
the  leaves  of  the  holly,  Ilex  aqnifolnim. 

Ilic'in  [Lat.  ilex,  '•  holly  "],  the  bitter  principle  of  holly. 

Ilex  (irjui/'olium.  ,.     i  .,  <■ 

lliiats',  or  Iliyats',  the  name  of  the  nomadic  tribes  ot 
Persia  Thev  are  of  various  descent,  Turkish,  Arabic,  etc., 
and  most  of  them  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Sunni  see  . 
Each  tribe  has  a  district  or  graiing-ground  appointed  to  it, 
for  which  it  pays  a  tribute  in  lambs,  oxen,  etc.,  money  be- 
in-  unknown  among  them;  but  on  account  of  the  some- 
what unsettled  social  state,  it  happens  every  now  and  then 
that  a  tribe  falls  into  habits  of  robbery  and  plunder. 

Ilini'za,  or  Ilinis'sa,  a  volcano  of  the  Cordilleras  of 
Ecuador,  South  America,  10  miles  S.  of  Quito.  Its  two 
peaks,  from  which  smoke  and  flames  have  been  seen  to  is- 
sue, rise  17,:iS0  feet  high. 

Il'ion.post-v.  of  German  Flats  tp.,  Herkimer  Co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  S.  hank  of  the  Mohawk  River  and  on  the  Eric  Canal. 
Hion  Station,  on  the  New  York  Central  R.  R.,  70  miles  from 
Albany,  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  in  Herkimer 
tn  liorse  railroads  connect  Hion  with  Mohawk  and  Her- 
kimer It  has  4  churches,  a  national  bank,  2  weekly  news- 
papers, and  extensive  manufactures  of  firearms,  sewing-ma- 
chines, agricultural  implements,  and  other  goods.  P.  287b. 
Hion,  or  Ilium.     See  Troy. 

Ilis'sus,  a  river  of  Attica,  rises  near  Hymettus  and 
flow=  to  the  Phalcrie  Bay.  In  ancient  times  it  was  cele- 
brated for  its  beautiful  scenery,  but  its  waters  have  now 
greatly  decreased,  and  near  Athens  it  is  dry  in  summer. 

Iliian'thin  [Lat.  i7ex,  "holly,"  and  Gr.  fa^Sd,,  "yel- 
low "],  C17II.2O11.  a  yellow  dye  contained  in  the  leaves  ot 
hollv.  Ilex  aqulfoUum. 

li'kcstou,  town  of  England,  in  Derbyshire,  8  miles  N. 
E.  of  Derby.  It  has  large  manufactures  of  hosiery,  l-><='=- and 
§ilk.  and  rich  coal  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity.  P.  Sbb.. 
Illawa'ra,  post-v.  of  Carroll  parish.  La. 
ine-et-Vilaine',departincnt  of  North-western  France, 
in  Brittany,  bordering  on  the  English  Channel.  Area,  2a04 
square  miles.  Pop.  5S9,i:i2.  The  ground  is  mostly  low 
occupied  along  the  sea  by  dunes  and  marshes,  but  much 
of  the  soil  is  fertile,  producing,  besides  good  crops  of  gram, 
lar-e  quantities  of  hemp  and  flax,  which  are  mannfacti.red 
into  thread,  cordage,  and  woven  goods.  The  oyster  fish- 
eries are  considerable.     Cap.  Rennes. 

irier,  a  river  of  Southern  Germany,  rises  in  the  lyrol, 
flows  N.  through  Bavaria,  and  empties  into  the  Danube. 

Illima'ni,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Bolivian  Andes,  sit- 
ua'ci  ""a ..  ih  :i7'  S^and  Ton.  67°  49'  W.  It  i;  2>.\49  ^ct 
high,  and  covered  with  glaciers  to  the  height  of  10,350  feet. 
mini,  tp.  of  Macon  co.,  111.  Pop.  S21. 
Illinois',  one  of  the  central  Stales  of  the  Union,  lying 
in  the  ui.pcr  Mississippi  Valley,  extending  from  the  par- 
allel of  -M"  59'  N.  lat.  to  that  of  42°  30',  and  from  8, ° 
35'  to  91°  40'  W.  Ion.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  AVisconsin,  E. 
by  Lake  Michigan,  Indiana  (from  which  it  is  in  part  sep- 
arated by  the  Wabash  River),  and  by  Kentucky,  from 
which  it  is  separated  on  the  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the  Ohio  River. 
It  is  also  separated  from  Missouri  for  a  short  distance  on 
tho  S  by  the  Mississippi  River,  which  forms  its  entire 
western  boundary,  severing  it  from  the  States  of  Missouri 
and  Iowa.  Its  territory  extends  both  on  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi rivers  to  the  middle  of  those  rivers.  Its  area  is 
55,410  square  miles,  or  35,462,400  acres. 

Face  of  the  Comi/ri/.— Illinois  may  be  described  m  gen- 
eral t«riii3  as  a  gently  inclined  plain  sloping  from  Lake 


Michigan  toward  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio.  A  somewhat 
elevated  plateau  extends  from  Wisconsin  into  tho  N  W. 
section  of  the  State,  and  is  there  manifest  in  some  bluffs 


Seal  of  Illinois. 


and  hills,  and  another  moderate  elevation  includes  Ford 
and  the  adjacent  counties :   but  neither  of  these  secticms 
rises  to  a  greater  height  than  SOO  feet  above  the  sea,  while 
the  Grand'Prairie  is  not  more  than  500  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  the  lowest  portion  of  the  State,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi,  is  340  feet  above  tho  Gulf  of  Me.xico. 
The  State  is  therefore  very  nearly  level.    The  N.  W  .  corner 
is  the  most  uneven  portion  of  the  State,  though  the^nvcrs 
have  in  some  instances  cut  such  deep  channels  into  the  clay 
and  alluvial  soil  as  to  give  a  broken  appearance  to  the  sur- 
face     In  the  extreme  S.  there  is  a  range  of  remarkable 
hills  crossing  the  State  from  Grand  Tower  to  Shawncetown. 
Rivers,  Lake,.  c(c.— The  State  is  drained  almost  exclu- 
sively by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  the  Ohio  and 
it<  affluent  the  Wabash,  the  Kaskaskia,  the  Illinois,  and 
Rock  rivers,  and  the  smaller  affluents  and  tributary  streams 
of  the=e.    A  few  short  and  inconsiderable  streams  flow  into 
Lake  Michigan,  but  the  largest  of  these,  the  Chicago  River, 
now  flows  bv  an  artificially  deepened  channe    through  the 
HIinois  Canil  into  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Hliiiois  River. 
The  HIinois,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Dcs  Plaincs 
River  from  Wisconsin  and  the  Kankakee  from  Indiana,  is 
the  largest  river  wholly  within  tho  State.     Its  course  is 
nearly  500  miles  in  length,  of  which  245  are  navigable,  and 
its  principal  affluents  are  Fox.  Spoon,  and  La  Mam  nvers 
and  Crooked  Creek  from  the  N.  and  W..  and  Vermilion, 
Mackinaw,  and  Sangamon  rivers  and  Macoupin  Creek  from 
the  S   and  E.      In  Woodford  and  Peoria  cos.  its  bed  ex- 
pands and  forms  Peoria  Lake.     It  enters  the  Mississippi 
River  15  miles  above  Alton.     The  Kaskaskia  River  rises 
in  Champaign  co.,  and  runs  in  a  nearly  parallel  course  with 
the  Illinois  for  250  miles,  joining  the  Mississippi  near  Ches- 
ter in  Randolph  co.    Rock  River  enters  the  State  from  M  is- 
eonsin.and  finds  its  way  to  the  Missi.=sippi  at  Rock  Island. 
The  Big  Vermilion,  Embarras.  and  Little  W  abash  arc  trib- 
ularies  of  the  Wabash  ;  the  Saline  and  Cash  of  the  Ohio 
The  Big  Muddy  is  a  smaller  but  considerable  affluent  of  the 
Mississippi.     Lake  Pishtaka  in  the  N.  E   is  the  only  con- 
siderable lake,  besides  the  expansion  of  Illinois  River  al- 
ready mentioned,  in  the  State.  . 

G^eolony.-^h^  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  II  inois  be- 
longs  to  the  Carboniferous  era,  the  great  coal-llcld  of  the 
State  extending  375  miles  in  length  from  N.  W   to  S    ^  , 
and  in  breadth  from  St.  Louis  to  the  N.  E.  about  200  miles^ 
The  thickness  of  these  coal-measures  is  much  less  than 
those  of  the  same  formation  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania; 
and  as  the  strata  are  thrown  into  waves,  tr.aversing  the 
State  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  the  limestones  and  sandstones 
of  tho  formations  below  arc  frequently  brought  to    he  sur- 
face.    The  workable  beds  of  coal  are  comparatu;e  y  small 
for  the  large  area  occupied  by  the  coal-measures.    The  N.  L 
portion  of  the  State  for  a  considerable  distance  from  Lake 
'Michigan  belongs  to  the  Post-tertiary  formation.  J''"°;'- 
ley  of  the  Illinois  River  (which  has  cut  for  itself  a  deep 
channel)  consists  of  successive  terraces  of  limestone,  indi- 
cating that  at  a  period  not  geologically  remote  the  waters 
of  the  great  lakes  found  an  outlet  through  this  channel  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     In  the  S.  E.  strata  belonging  to  the 
Permian  group  have  been  discovered  overlying  the  coal- 
;  measures  eonlirmahly.     In  the  N.  W.  corner  ot  the  State, 
I  in  Jo  Daviess  Co..  there  is  a  small  distnol  forming  the  ter- 
minal portion  of  the  great  Western  lead-bearmg  belt.    Tho 


ILLINOIS. 


1107 


argentiferous  galena  is  found  in  the  lower  Silurian  lime- 
stones, and  the  mines  are  so  productive  as  to  form  an  im- 
portant item  in  the  products  of  the  State.  The  soils  of  the 
Slate  are  of  diluvial  origin,  and  seem  to  indicate  that  at  an 
carlv  period  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  State  was 
a  po'rtion  of  the  bed  of  an  immense  lake.  The  jirainc  soils 
are  very  deep  and  fertile;  in  some  of  the  bottom-lands  the 
loam  and  mould  are  reported  to  be  from  25  to  100  feet  in 
depth.     Whatever  the  depth,  the  loam  is  underlaid  by  a 


prevail,  and  in  the  vicinitv  of  the  Ohio  River  yellow  pine, 
cypress,  and  cedar.  The  prairies  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  where  not  under  cultivation,  are  carpeted  with  a 
profusion  of  flowers,  those  of  the  same  or  allied  species 
forming  large  masses  of  bloom,  and  then  giving  way  to 
those  of  an  entirely  different  family.  Later  in  the  season 
the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  renders  these  broad  lands  much 
less  attractive.  The  grasses  in  the  rich  and  fertile  soil 
attain  great  height,  and  their  stems  are  stiff  and  almost 
The  State  abounds  in  fruit  trees,  and  much  of  its 


dense,  almost  entirely  impervious,  clay,  which  keeps  the      --''y-^f-^^^^,,^^^  ^„^,i,^..     ^hc  apple,  peach,  pear,  plum, 

cherry,  apricot,  etc.  are  successfully  cultivated;  grapes  of 
all  varieties  do  well,  and  the  smaller  fruits,  as  strawberries, 


moisture  from  leaching  away.  ,    ,     o     .     • 

Mineralo,,,/.— First  among  the  minerals  of  the  State  13 
the  coal.     Wo  have  already  spoken  of  the  extent  of  the 
great  coal-field.      Its  area  is  estimated  at  45,000  square 
miles  but  much  of  it  is  not  workable.     The  coal  is  bitu- 
minous, containing  from  :i  to  20  per  cent,  of  incombustible 
materials:  and  in  some  of  the  mines  the  cannel  coal  pre- 
dominates; in  others  excellent  smelting  coals  are  found. 
In  1S70  there  were  over  400  mines  worked,  and  the  product 
amounted  in  round  numbers  to  2,500.000  tons.    Ith.-is  since 
increased  to  a  little  more  than  .'^OOO.OOO  tons.    The  position 
of   these  coal-mines,  readily  accessible  by  railroads  and 
convenient  to  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  Wabash,  and  fur- 
nishiug  to  the  vast  manufacturing  establishments  of  St. 
Louis  and  Chicago,  as  well  as  to  the  countless  steamers  on 
the  Mississippi,  abundant  fuel  for  steam  purposes,  greatly 
enhances  their  value.     The  iron  ores  of  the  State  are  not 
very  valuable,  though  they  answer  a  good  purpose  when 
mixed  with  the  valuable  specular,  spathic,  and  ha3malitio 
ores  so  readily  and  cheaply  brought  into  the  State  from 
Missouri  and  from  the  L.ako  Superior  iron-region.     Lead 
ore  containing  a   considerable   percentage   of   silver   (ar- 
gentiferous  galena)  is   mined   in    large  quantities  in    Jo 
Daviess  co.,  and  the  flourishing  city  of  G.alena  derives  its 
name  from  it.     There  are  fine  and  productive  veins  of  cop- 
per ore  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  on  the  Peckaton- 
ica   River  and   I'lum  Creek.     Zinc  is  also   mined   in  the 
northern  part  of  the  State.    Limestone  of  excellent  quality, 
both  for  burning  and  for  building,  a  drab  freestone  of  great 
beauty,  gypsum,  and  a  fine  variegated  marble,  are  among 
the  other  mineral  treasures  of  economic  value;  there  are 
salt-springs  in  .Jackson,  Vermilion,  and  Gallatin  cos.;  sul- 
phur and'chalybca'e  springs  in  Jefferson  co.,  and  other 
meilicinal  springs  between  Ottawa  and  Peru.     A  cave  in 
the  rock  in  Hardin  co.,  ou  the  Ohio,  presents,  as  the  place 
is  approached,  a  vast  mass  of  rocks  of  a  castellated  appear- 
ance, resembling  the  ruins  of  some  fortress  of  the  Middle 
;\gcs.     The  entrance  to  the  cave,  which  is  from  the  river, 
ami  ii  but  a  little  above  high  w.alcr,  introduces  the  visitor 
to  a  chamber  80  feet  square  and  25  feet  high,  with  a  farther 
chamber  of  smaller  size  beyond.     It  was  in  the  early  year.s 
of  this  century   the  resort  and  hiding-place  of  bands  of 
robbers,  counterfeiters,  ami  river-pirates.     Starved  Rock, 
the  Lover's  Leap,  and  Buffalo  Rock  are  well-known  points 
on  the  Illinois  River  near  Ottawa. 

I',.;,<-(-,(i'.,;i.— Though  not  by  any  means  a  densely  wooded 
State,  Illinois  has  a  sufficiency  of  woodland  for  its  present 
homo  requirements,  but  imports  much  timber  from  the 
States  farther  N.  Most  of  its  prairies  have  islands  of  oak 
and  other  forest  trees,  and  where  the  limestones  and  sand- 
stones have  broken  through  the  overlying  coal-iucasurcs 
there  are  wooded  bolts  of  considerable  extent.  lUit  for  her 
extensive  coal  production,  however,  the  State  would  have 
been  long  ere  this  completely  denuded  of  its  forests.  .\s  it 
is,  a  little  more  than  one-sixth  (Ifi.9  percent.)  of  its  surface 
is  wnodlauil.  The  forest  trees  most  abundant  are  oak,  black 
walnut,  sugar  maple,  ash,  clin,  locust,  linden,  hickory,  per- 
simmon, pecan,  and  in  the  bottom-lands  cottonwood,  syca- 
more, buckeye,  tulip  tree,  poplar,  beach,  and  black  birch 


raspberries,  blackberries,  etc.,  arc  raised  in  great  quantities. 
Ziiolofju. — There  are  a  few  deer  left  in  the  State,  though 
most  of  the  larger  game  has  disappeared.  Bears,  wild-eats, 
and  panthers  arc  very  rare.  The  coyote  or  prairie  wolf  is 
occasionally  found  in  the  sparsely  settled  districts  ;  there 
are  some  foxes,  mainly  the  fuscous  or  red  fox,  aud  of  the 
rodents,  the  gopher,  several  species  of  squirrel,  and  numer- 
ous field  and  dormice.  There  arc  at  least  two  species  of 
hares.  The  wild-turkey,  stateliest  of  game-birds,  the  prai- 
rie-hen, a  species  of  grouse,  and  an  abundance  of  other 
feathered  game,  are  slill  found  in  great  numbers  on  the 
prairies  and  in  the  woodlands.  The  rivers  and  lakes  abound 
in  fish  of  good  quality— the  white-fish,  the  great  lake-trout, 
black  bass,  catfish,  and  other  species.  The  insect  tribe  are 
in  their  usual  variety,  about  20,000  species  having  been 
enumerated  in  the  Slate,  though  less  troublesome  than  far- 
ther S.,  except  the  small  number  of  species  injurious  to 
vegetation.     These  in  some  years  appear  in  countless  num- 

cii'mafe.— Stretching  as  Illinois  docs  over  five  and  a  half 
degrees  of  latitude,  there  is  of  course  considerable  variety 
in  its  climate.     In  the  northern  portion  the  annual  range 
of  the  thermometer  is  very  great,  the  summer  heat  being  at 
times  intense,  and  the  cold  of  winter  very  severe.     At  Chi- 
cago, and  in  the  N.  of  the  State  generally,  the  prevalent 
winds  throughout  the  year  are  those  from  the  S.  W.  and  S., 
though  in   the  spring  and  summer  N.  and  W.  winds  arc 
moderately  frequent.     The  wind  blows  almost  constantly  in 
some  direction,  only  44  out  of  1100  observations  noting  a 
calm  condition  of  tlic  atmosphere.    At  Cairo,  in  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  State,  the  most  prevalent  wind  was  that 
from  the'  S.,  though  closely  followed  by  that  from  the  N.  E., 
while  those  from  the  N.  and  the  S.  E.  were  less  frequent. 
About  one-eleventh  of  the  observations  represented  the  ab- 
sence of  wind.     At  Rock  Island  the  S.  W.  wind  was  the 
prevalent  one,  though  N.  W.  and   N.  K.  winds  were  also 
common.     The  annual  range  of  the  thermometer  in  Peoria 
in  1859  and  1800  was  117°  F.  (the  maximum  being  104°  in 
July  and  the  minimum  -i:)°  in  December);  in  liiley,  Mc- 
Ilciiry  CO.,  near  the  N.  line  of  the  State,  12:!°  F.     In  40  N. 
lat.  tiie  mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  about  54°;  of  the 
summer  77°.  iuul  of  the  winter  3:i°  .lO'.    At  Beloit  on  the  N. 
line  of  the  State  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  47°  :I0' ; 
at  Cairo  58°  30'.  About  245  days  of  the  year  ore  clear  and 
120  cloudy  or  rainy.     The  climate  is  generally  healthy,  the 
paludal  fevers  which  prevailed  in  the  early  settlement  of 
the  State   having   mostly  disappeared  or    become  greatly 
mitigated  with  more  thorough    cultivation  and    drainage. 
In   the  low   and   swampy  bottom-lands,  especially  in  the 
Bouthern  part  of  the  State,  bilious  and   intermittent  fevers 
and   diseases  of  the  bowels  are  prevalent.     The  following 
table,  eomiiilcd  from  the  signal  service  report  of  1873,  gives 
the  mean  temperature,  and  range  and  barometer  mean,  to- 
gether with   the   rainfall  of  each  month,  and  the  annual 
rainfall  and  the  annual  means  of  barometer  and  thermom- 
eter in  1872-73  for  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Cairo  : 


BABOurniR,  monthljr  nnd  annual  mean  prcaoiira. 


Ctil™ico»  (lat.  «" 

52'.  Inn.  SJ"  3*  ; 

All-    above    Ma, 

f,;,7  n. ) .10.093  30.080  30.1M  30.051 

Rock    Inland    tilt. 

IP  aC,  Ion.  OOo 

SA' ;    nit.    above 

nea.GOS  ft.).... 
Cairo  I    (laL    370 

Ion.  85^  la';  nil 

nbove  ■OB,  3.Vi  ft.) 


30.110  30.118  30.W5 
Wl.lM  IWl.llW  IW.W30J30 


30.000 
90.010 


■ami  a.soe 

tt.SSS  20.683 
3I>.DO!l'29.S0!> 


30.000 

29.034 
30.004 


30.012 

30.000 
30.028 


30.003  30.022 


30.040  30.0&1 


TiiKiuJOMrrKR,  monthly  and  annual  mean  tcmiicraUirc. 


£>3.9|70.2  71.2 

.6i77.»,Ii.« 
IM.7  77.678.7 


62.4 


40.26 


48.47 


62.3 
68.9135.67 


Chicago 

Rook  Inland... 
Cairo 


TiiuuioMKTBR,  monthly  rangoa. 


I><° 


72° 


W 


Vio  1  Hfi  I  ii'  I  sV'>  1 41^'  i  IB'' 


Raovitall.  monthly  and  annual  amouuta  In  Inobea,  oto^ 

n' 


470     0.6.1!  1.06 

....    O.filll.S'^ 

jw'p  1  Si'^  1 46^  III  I6'0.f,7 


n.47  O.Rt 

0.77  1.4:1  

6,fisl  •1.27  3  64 


6.37;  2.10 
.',.6714.4 


•  Annualraago  ot  tborroomcter,  lie",  from  »30  (July)  u,  -laf  (Deo.). 


If*  ■'■■™ 
Manual  ranBOotlhcrmomelcr,  104",  from  OO"  (July)  to  -B"  (Jan.) 


28.73 
25.21 
4I.I>S 


1108 


ILLINOIS. 


The  report  of  the  State  department  of  agriculture,  pre- 
sented to  the  Illinois  legislature  in  1S74,  throws  adUitional 
lio-ht  on  the  climate  of  different  parts  of  Central  Illinois. 
a"  Sandwich,  l)c  Kalb  co.  (lat.  41°  :U',  Ion.  SS°  30',  eleva- 
tion above  sea-level,  GT-l  feet),  the  highest  degree  of  heat 
in  187:5  (..Tune  2-t)  was  9S° ;  the  lowest  (Jan.  2a)  was  —-^^, 
the  ranijo  12:!°  ;  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  48.7°; 
mean  temperature  of  summer  mouths,  71.5°;  of  winter 
months  ''2.9°;  the  prevailing  wind  was  W.  for  10  months 
of  the  12  ;  E.  and  N.  W.  for  the  other  two.  There  were 
r'7  fair  and  2.'i8  cloudy  davs,  143  days  without  frost;  the 
last  frost  of  spring  was  April  24,  and  the  tirst  of  autumn 
Sent.  14.  The  total  rainfall  was  45.4  inches,  April,  July, 
Dec.  and  Aug.  being  the  months  of  greatest  precipitation. 
This  town  seems  to  be  the  centre  of  greatest  precipitation 
in  the  State,  its  average  rainfall  for  sixteen  years  being 
.M)  17  inches.  Havana,  in  Mason  co.  (lat.  41°  14',  Ion.  90° 
W  ,  elevation  465  feet  above  the  sea),  had  for  its  maximum 
temperature  in  1872, 102°  (in  Aug.),  for  its  minimum  -2:, 
in  Dec— living  an  annual  range  of  125°.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  year  was  49..3° ;  of  the  winter  months 
2''  7°-  of  the  summer  months,  74.:i°.  The  annual  rainfall 
of  the  same  year,  33.10  inches,  of  which  9.83  inches  fell  in 
the  month  of"  June.  In  1S71  the  rainfall  was  :W.90  inches, 
and  in  the  first  nine  months  of  lS7:i  it  was  33.42  inches. 
Evanston,  near  Chicago,  elevated  044  feet  above  the  sea, 
from  observations  taken  for  several  successive  years,  has 
the  least  rainfall  of  any  town  in  the  State,  the  average  be- 
ing 24.78  inches. 

Anriciilturai  ProdiKlloiis.—ln    1870,    according   to    the 
census  the  value  of  the  farms  in  Illinois  was  $920,506,346  ; 
of  farming  implements,  .534,570,546;    of  forest  products, 
«!1  087  144-  of  home  manufactures,  $l,408,01o;  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $56,718,944:  of  all  live- 
stock, $149,756,698 ;  of  farm  products,  $210,800,585  ;  of  or- 
chard products,  $3,571,789;  of  marliet-gardens,  t.76o,992  ; 
makin.'  a  gr.and  total  of  farming  lands  and  productions  of 
''I  3791:52,100.    Vast  as  this  aggregate  is  for  a  State  which 
sixty  years  ago  had  not  20,000  inhabitants,  the  four  years 
which  have  sfnce  passed  have  greatly  increased  it.  In  1873 
the  assessed  value  of  cultivated  farm-lands  (stated  by  the 
State  auditor  to  be  less  than  40  per  cent,  of  their  real  value) 
was  $642,912,908,  representing  a  real  value  of  not  less  than 
$1,600,000,000:  the  assessed  value  of  town  and  city  lots 
was  $243,961,152:    and  these  were  similarly  underrated. 
The  valuation  of  railroad  property  (70  per  cent,  of  actual 
valuation),  the  vast  property  of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  K. 
being   excluded,    that   road   paying    a    ^P""^''}^^'^.'^^ 
$98  400.545.53,  representing  an  actual  value  of  &128,0U0,uuu ; 
while  tiie  as.sessmcnt  of  personal  property,  which  was  of 
course  greatly  underrated,  was  $302,778,499.     The  actual 
propcrtv  of  the  State,  real  and  personal,  was  not  less  than 
$■>  ,800,000,000.     The  live-stock  of  the  State  was  reported 
as'foUuws  by  the  State  board  of  equalization  in  the  summer 
of  1873-  ho'rses,  930,947  (the  A'lricnltnml,  Report  of  Jan., 
1873  estimates  them  at  1,049,400,  at  the  average  price  of 
$66  31 ),  averaging  a  value  of  $52.41 ,  and  giving  an  aggregate 
value  of  $48,790,933  (i\vi  Aaricutlurnl  Report  above  named 
gives  their  value  as  $60,585,714);  cattle,  board  of.<;qu=^'- 
ization    2,014,801,  valued  at  $17.74  per  head  =  4...o,r42,ol)3 
(the  Report  makes  the  number  1,971.800,  but  the  value 
$51709,806):    mules    and    asses,    98,316,    average   value, 
$■,9  09     a<'"ro<'ate    $5,809,404    (the   Ayrlrulliirnl    Report 
makes'  thrnumber  about  the  same  (98,800),  but  the  valu- 
ation $72.58,   giving    an    aggregate    of  $(.i,  8,0-4).      iho 
State  board  gives  the  number  of  sheep  as  1,092.080,  and 
the    aggregate   value,  $2,140,474,   while    the   A;iri"tllnrnl 
/ffiKH-r  makes    the    number    1,394,300,    and   their   value 
$4  461  460       The    State    board    reports    3,360,083    hogs, 
'averaging  $3.17,  and  worth  in  the  '^•iS'-<'g^'<:  ^'V;^^''^^' 
while  the  Ayrieultural  Report  makes  the  number  3,700,300, 
averaging    $1.30,    and    having    an    aggregate    value    ot 
«l5  9t7  090      The  aggregate  value  of  the  live-stock  was 
iirobahlV  somewhat  greater  than  the  very  largo  sum  stated 
in  the  census  report.     We  have  not  the  full  crop-returns 
of   1873,   but   those  of  1872   give   283,481,600   bushels   of 
corn,    worth   $68,035,584 :    25,329,027    bushels   of    wheat, 
worth  at  a  low  estimate  $31,154,703;  66,519.146  bushels 
of  oats,  worth  $13,303,829;  3,267,356  tons  of  hay.  worth 
$31  039  877:  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  etc.,  worth  $t, 240.,  ,10; 
tobacco,  valued  at  $1,276,000;  hemp,  flax,  etc,  $1,316,000  ; 
dairy  products,  $13.79.8,630  ;  pasture,  valued  at  $24,..61,ob.!, 
and  other  farm  products,  not  specially  enumerated  in  t he 
returns  for  1872,  were  valued   at  over  $25,000,000.     The 
year  1873  showed  a  very  considerable   increase  on  these 

large  sums. 

M,i„»i;,et„ri«y  /nrfii.frv.— The  State  has  made  great 
s'ridcs  "in  manufacturing  since  the  census  of  1870  was 
taken  especially  in  Chicago  and  the  other  cities;  and 
ther"'is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  manufacturing 
statistics  of  the  State,  always  ascertained  with  great  diffi- 


culty, and  often  onlv  by  crude  estimates,  are  very  inade- 
quately represented  in  the  ninth  census  ;  still,  these  returns 
are  later  and  more  comjilete  than  any  other.    In  1870  there 
were  reported  in  Illinois  12,597  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, emploving  for   motive-power   2330   steam-engines 
having  an  aggregate  of  73,091  horse-power,  and  528  water- 
wheels  with  an  aggregate  of  12,953  horse-power.     These 
establishments  employed  82,979    hands,  of  whom    73.045 
were  men,  6717  women,  and  3217  children  ;  the  capital  used 
was  reported  as  $94,368,057  ;  the  wages  paid  ^amounted_to 
$:;l  100,244;  the  raw  material  purcha.sed  to  $127,600,077; 
the' annual  product  to   $205,620,672.     The  first  rank  in 
these  manufactures  belongs  to  flouring-mill  products,  for 
which  there  were  681  establishments,  employing  3581  hands 
and  a  capital  of  $12,931,000,  paying  wages  to  the  amount 
of  $1,704,778,  using  raw  material  valued  at  $32,090,825, 
and  producing  flour  and  meal  valued  at  $39,413,618.    Next 
in  importance  was  the  p.acking  of  pork  and  other  cut  meats, 
in  which  33  establishments  were  reported  as  engaged,  em- 
ploying 2236  hands  and  a  capital  of  $6,921,000,  p.aying 
$448,560  wages;   using  $16,836,541    of  raw  material,  and 
producing  $19,818,851  of  packed  meats  annually.    In  Jan., 
1873,  the°product  of  this  branch  of  industry  in  the  city  of 
Chicago  alone  for  the  previous  year  was  $19,153,851.     As 
many  of  the  smaller  cities  of  the  State  are  engaged  in  this 
business,  it  is  evident  that  it  had  largely  increased,  or  that 
the  census  report  was  much  below  the  facts.    JIalt  and  dis- 
tilled liquors,  in  which  193  establishments  were  engaged, 
employing  1955  hands  and  $7,397,900,  paying  $1,031,142 
wat'cs    usin.'  $6,898,377  of  raw  material,  and  producing 
li<|Sors  valued   at  $12,042,975,  came    next;    and  lumber, 
planed  and  sawed,  is  not  far  behind,  410  establishments 
producing    $11,382,649.     Agricultural    implements    came 
next.  294  establishments  producing  these  to  the  value  of 
$8,880,390.     The  various  manufactures  of  iron  produced 
in' 130  establishments  wares  valued  at  $7,738,443;  458  es- 
tablishments produced  clothing  valued  at  $8,407,005;  1165 
manufactories  produced   carriages  and  wagons  valued  at 
$6  019  ■'91.     Machinery  of  all  descriptions  was  produced 
in'l31  establishments  to  the  value  of  $6,398,794  ;  the  man- 
ufacture of  tobacco  in  its  various  forms,  in  274  factories, 
produced  goods  of  the  value  of  $4,319,716  ;  leather,  tanned 
and   curried,   in   97  establishments,  was  produced  to  the 
value  of  $4,148,163;  woollen  goods,  in  85  factories,  were 
produced  to  the  value  of  $2,725,690  ;  printing  and  publish- 
in-  in  129  offices,  to  the  amount  of  $2,727,519;  furniture, 
37T factories,  to  the  amount  of  $2,982,522  ;  391  cooper-shops 
produced  goods  valued  at  $2,501,531 :  hoots  and  shoes,  in 
88  factories,  were  made  to  the  amount  of  $2,298,130;  oils, 
animal  and  vegetable,  in  17  establishments,  were  produced 
to  the  value  of  $2,642,733;  saddlery  and  harness,  in  687 
establishments,  to  the  amount  of  $2,581,416;  sash,  doori!, 
and  blinds,  in  94  factories,  to  the  value  of  $2,316,320;  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  wares,  in  478  shops,  to  the  amount 
of  -*•' 194  812;   24  confectionery  establishments  produced 
good's  to 'the  value  of  $1,948,710;   128  bakeries  produced 
Soods  valued  at  $1,732,885  ;  240  brick-kilns  made  bricks 
To  the  value  of  $1,638,761;  marble  and  stone  work,  includ- 
ing monuments  and  tombstones,  were  produced  in  122  es- 
tablishments to  the  value  of  $2,098,209;  soap  and  candles, 
in  24  factories,  to  the  amount  of  $1 ,250,930  ;  grease  and  tal- 
low, in  5  rendering-factories,  to  the  amount  of  $1,412,900; 
paper  was  made  in  16  mills  to  the  amount  of  f'.T'MOO; 
railroad  cars,  in  5  car-shops,  to  the  amount  ol  $1,010,007. 
The  other  branches  of  manufacture,  though  of  large  aggre- 
gate amount,  did  not  individually  produce  goods  to  the 
value  of  $1,000,000. 

Railrooih.—'Vhe  railroad  system  of  Illinois  has  acquired 
a  remarkable  development,  scarcely  any  county  being  un- 
traversed  by  one  or  more  lines.  The  number  of  miles  ol 
railroad  now  existing  in  Illinois  exceeds  that  of  any  other 
State  of  the  Union,  the  increase  having  been  especially 
rapid  since  the  close  of  the  war,  during  which  time  the 
mileage  has  more  than  doubled.  In  1850  there  were  only 
111  miles  of  track,  while  in  1855  there  were  8b,  ;  in  1860, 
"790  ■  in  1865,  3157;  in  1870,  4823;  in  1871,  5904;  and  in 
187'^  6361  This  statement  shows  the  remarkable  tact  that 
more  than  1000  miles  of  railroad  track  were  constructed  in 
Illinois  in  a  single  year.  The  most  important  railroad  the 
Illinois  Central,  traverses  the  length  of  the  State  from  Chi- 
cago to  Cairo,  705  miles:  it  was  commenced  in  I80I,  and 
bv"the  aid  of  an  immense  grant  of  public  lands  was  coui- 
pieted  within  about  five  years.  The  railway  interests  of 
Illinois  form  so  vast  and  complicated  a  portion  of  its  ma- 
terial wealth  as  to  have  become  the  subject  of  much  special 
legislation.  By  the  constitutional  convention  of  18,0, 
State  control  over  the  railroads  was  organized  in  consider- 
able detail,  and  general  supplementary  laws  for  their  gov- 
ernment were  enacted  in  1871  and  1.873.  The  following 
table  gives  the  condition  of  all  the  railroads  of  the  btato 
to  Jan.  1,  1874  : 


ILLINOIS. 


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ILLINOIS. 


f, -nance*.— The  assessed  valuation  of  property  in  IS.  J 
was-  real  estate,  $612,912,908;  railroad  property  (not  in- 
cluding the  Illinois  Central,  which  pays  annually  into  the 
Stale  treasury  a  certain  percentage  of  its  gross  receipts), 
S9S  400.54O.O.3.  This  was  stated  to  be  70  per  cent,  ot  the 
true  valuation,  while  that  of  real  estate  was  only  about  40 
per  cent.  Personal  property,  certain  specified  kinds  ot 
propertv,  including,  besides  stocks  and  bonds,  live-stock, 
fireproof  safes,  carriages  and  wagons,  musical  instruments, 
plate  and  jewelry,  diamonds,  agricultural  and  manufactur- 
in.-  tools  and  machinery,  watches  and  clocks,  sewing-ma- 
ehTnes,etc.,S?.02,S0:5,262;  making  the  entire  assessed  valu- 
ation 81,044,116,715.53.  The  increased  assessment  ot  rail- 
road property  and  stocks,  and  of  stock  of  telegraph  and 
other  corporations,  ordered  by  the  State  board  of  equalua- 
tion.  brought  the  whole  assessment  of  the  year  up  to 
SI  339,570,950,  which  is  probably  not  quite  one-hall  the 
actual  value  of  real  and  personal  estate  of  the  btate.  The 
State  tax  on  this  valuation  is  three  mills,  and  there  are  also 
school  fund  and  canal  debt  fund  taxes,  aside  from  the 
county,  town,  and  eitv  taxes,  which  are  of  varying  amount. 
The  other  items  of  revenue  to  the  State  are— 7  per  cent,  ol 
the  gross  earnings  of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  K,  paid  semi- 
annually, and  which  now  amounts  to  nearly  S.oOO,000  per 
annum  :  insurance  fees  and  fines  collected  from  agents,  and 
other  fines  and  forfeitures ;  tolls  and  rents  from  the  State  canal 
and  slack-water  navigation  ;  and  occasionally  other  sources. 

The  annual  State  expenditure  for  the  fiscal  years  18,1  and 
1872  was  $0,000,039.57,  but  this  included  the  payment  ot 
^53  408  470  of  the  State  debt.  In  Jan.,  1873,  the  entire 
Stkte  debt  was  $1,732,407.18,  the  treasury  reserve  having 
been  used  for  this  reduction.  In  .Tan..  1874.  it  had  been 
still  further  reduced,  and  then  stood  at  Sl,706,,  j0.o9.  Ihe 
amount  of  railroad  bonds  outstanding  Jan.  1,  IS, 4,  which 
had  been  issued  by  counties,  townships,  cities,  and  incor- 
porated towns  in  the  State,  was  $13,501,051.58;  this  was 
apportioned  as  follows:  45  counties  had  bonds  outstanding 
to  the  amount  of  85,380,904;  212  townships,  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  $6,003,147.58;  17  cities,  bonds  amounting  to 
81  019.500;  27  incorporated  towns,  bonds  amounting  to 
^467  500  But  the  counties,  towns,  and  cities  had  other 
debts  besides  these.  In  1S70  the  amount  of  these  was  for 
the  counties  $12,817,922,  and  of  the  towns  and  cities 
S"4  483  010.  It  has  been  considerably  reduced  since  that 
date,  but  more  than  one-half  of  the  last  item  is  the  debt  of 
the  city  of  Chicago. 

Commerce.— Tha  grand  system  of  railroads  which  cross 
the  State  in  all  directions  and  connect  it  with  the  great 
lakes,  with  all  the  ports  on  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  Missouri,  as  well  as  with  the  opulent  cities  of  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Pacific  coasts;  the  Illinois  Canal,  100  miles 
in  length,  which  connects  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Missis- 


sippi:  the  Mississippi  River,  navigable  for  the  largest 
steamers  alon"  the  whole  western  boundary  of  the  btatc; 
and  the  Ohio  and  Wabash,  which  are  navigable  for  one- 
half  the  eastern  and  the  whole  southern  boundary,  together 
with  the  other  navigable  rivers  in  the  State,— give  to  Illinois 
unsurpassed  facilities  for  commerce  which  arc  most  indus- 
triously improved.  The  entire  amount  of  its  internal 
traflic  cannot  well  be  ascertained,  for  its  surplus  agricul- 
tural and  mechanical  products  are  shipped  from  ports  with- 
out as  well  as  from  those  within  the  State.  Some  idea  of 
their  magnitude  can  be  formed  when  wc  state  that  the  re- 
ceipts and  shipments  of  grain,  flour,  and  other  articles  of 
commerce  in  the  port  of  Chicago  alone  in  1872  w-ere  over 
$370,000,000.  A  very  considerable  portion  of  the  com- 
merce of  St.  Louis  is  in  the  productions  of  Illinois,  and 
considerable  quantities  of  its  products  find  their  way  to 
market  through  Indianapolis,  Louisville.  Cincinnati,  and 
Toledo  while  no  small  amount  is  shipped  directly  and 
without  breaking  bulk  to  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  and  New  Orleans.  The  direct  foreign  com- 
merce of  the  State  is  mostly  carried  on  through  the  port 
of  Chicago  bv  Ihe  way  of  the  great  lakes,  the  AVelland 
Canal,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  This  is  large  and  con- 
stantly increasing.  ,.      I 

Bm,!.-s.— There  were  in  Nov.,  1874,  152  national  banks 
in  the  State,  of  which  10  were  closing,  leaving  142  in  oper- 
ation. The  capital  paid  into  these  banks  was  $20,338,0,0  ; 
the  amount  of  bonds  on  deposit,  $10,742,400;  the  circula- 
tion issued,  $23,296,405;  the  amount  of  actual  circulabon, 
$10,035,201;  their  assets,  Sept.  12.  1873,  $41,489,877.07; 
their  surplus  and  undivided  profits,  $3,790,083.84;  and 
their  liabilities,  $37,699,793.73.  There  were  at  the  same 
time  12  State  banks  and  savings  banks  doing  a  discount 
and  deposit  business;  these  had  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$3,300,000.  There  were  also  217  private  banking-houses 
doing  business  in  the  State.  „      .     „, . 

Insurance  Companics—Mt^^T  the  great  fire  m  Chicago  in 
isn    many  of  the  fire  insurance  companies  of  the  btate 

went  into  liquidation,  but  in  J""«' .18pv'«r-nr4m/and 
operation,  having  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,,  08,400  and 
assets  to  the  amount  of  $2,508,000.  There  were  in  July, 
1873  0  life  insurance  companies,  all  in  Chicago,  having  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $1,800,000,  and  assets  to  the  amount 
of  $3,355,000.  .,  ,  .. 

Pon„!alion.—'Thc  following  table  shows  the  popn  ation 
at  each  census,  beginning  with  1800,  when  the  population 
of  what  was  then  the  Nerth-west  Territory  was  first  distin- 
guished bv  districts,  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  what  is  now 
the  State  "of  Illinois  could  be  distinguished  from  the  other 
inhabitants  of  that  vast  Territory  ;  it  also  includes  the  dis- 
tinctions of  color  and  nativity,  and  the  density  of  popula- 
tion, so  far  as  obtainable : 


year. 


1800 
1810 
18-20 
1830 
1840 
18.iO 
1860 
1865 
1870 


02 

.0044 
.22 
1.00 
2.84 
8.59 
15.37 
30.90 
38.64 
45.34 


ToUk)  population. 


2,458 

12,282 

.55,103 

157,445 

47<\,183 

851.470 

1,711,951 

2.I4I.510 

2,539,891 


2  **" 

4 

5:! 
1.55, 
4 

840 
,704, 
1.124 
:,.511 


.501 
783 
,061 
,254 
.034 
,291 
,170 
,096 


183 
781 
1,374 
2.384 
3,929 
5,4:i6 
7,628 
17,340 
28,702 


736,149 
1,387,308 

2.024,693 


111,892 
324,643 


515,198 


168  slaves. 
917  slaves. 
747  slaves. 
331  slaves. 
3,429  of  unknown  nativity. 

986,035  of  foreign  parentage. 


Of  those  of  foreign  birth  in  1870,  203,758  ^«"  b"™  ■" 
Germany  ;  192,960  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  32,5o0 
in  BriUshAmeHca;  29,979  in  Sweden,  n^??' "'-^ZZY' 
10911  in  France;  89S0  in  Swit^.erland ;  73o0in  Bohemia 
4180  in  Holland;  3711  in  Denmark  ;  2099  in  Austria ;  1690 
in  Poland  ;  1071  in  Belgium  ;  and  2033  in  all  other  foreign 
countries.  In  the  enumeration  of  sexes,  there  were  in  ]8d0 
44S321  males  and  403,1  19  females;  of  these,  44o,o44  were 
white  males  and  400,490  white  females,  2777  colored  ma  es 
and  2659  colored  females.  In  ISCO  there  were  902,701  males 
and  809,190  females;  of  these  898,941  were  while  males  and 
805,350  white  females,  3809  colored  males  and  u819  co  ored 
females.  In  1805  there  were  1,102,223  males  and  .0+1-2" 
females,  of  whom  1,09.3,111  were  white  males,  1.033,059 
white  females,  9112  colored  males,  and  822S  eoloredjemalos. 
In  1870  there  were  of  all  races  and  colors  l.p '»•.?, «,'""' 
and  1,223,351  females  in  the  Slate  ;  of  these,  1,03.1,161  were 
native  males,  and  991.532  native  females;  283,3,6  males  of 
foreign  birth  and  231,822  females;  1,.301,5S3  white  males 
and  1,209,513  white  females;  14,934  colored  males  and 
13,828  colored  females;  19  Indian  males  and  13  fcini^l'^s- 
Of  the  total  male  population  (1,316,537  males%  52o,8,3 
were  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  or  of  "'.''"^jiy  "?« =  "\ 
these  346,564  were  natives  and  179,309  foreigners ;  518,924 


white  and  6941  colored ;  625,139  males  were  21  years  old  and 
upward,  or  of  the  voting  age  ;  of  these,  390,735  were  natives 
and  2:i4,4t;4  of  foreign  birth,  and  542,833  were  citizens.  Of 
school  age— I.  c.  between  6  and  21  years- there  were  414,547 
males  and  404,219  females. 

Education.— In  1870  there  were  in  the  State  86,368  per- 
sons of  ten  years  old  and  over  who  could  not  read  and 
133,584  who  could  not  write  :  of  these,  90  o9j  were  of  na- 
tive and  42,989  of  foreign  birth  ;  97.6ob  whites  (40,801 
males  and  56,857  females)  were  over  21  years  of  age  while 
8051  colored  (3960  males  and  4082  females)  over  21  wero 
equally  illiterate.  Of  the  persons  attending  schooI_  in  18, 0 
{o4S  ''■25  in  number),  522.939  were  natives  and  2p,286  ol 
foreig,;  birth;  285,283  wero  males  (284,084  whites  and 
Te^coloredj'and  '262,968  females  (2'51/,1-„"h ''' wefe 
1155  colored).  According  to  the  census  of  IS,  0  there  were 
in  the  State  11.835  schools  of  all  classes,  with  2_4,0o6  teach- 
ers (10,411  males,  13,645  females)  and  767,i /5  pupils  or 
students  (389,955  males  and  377.820  females)  The  annual 
income  of  these  schools  was  $9,070,009,  of  "h,ch  $252,569 
was  derived  from  endowments.  $6,027,510  from  taxation 
and  public  funds,  and  $3,689,930  from  other  sources  in- 
cluding tuition.  Of  these  schools,  11,050  were  classed  as 
public  schools,  having  20,097   teachers   (8,91   males  and 


ILLINOIS. 


1111 


ll,.106  females)  and  C77,r)23  scholars  (:il3,«5  males  and 
iis'l.l'S females).  The incomeof  these schoola  wasS7,SlU,J(>a, 
of  which  .•?,'..8i8.24y  was  from  taxation  and  public  funds, 
and  SI/JJL'.OIti  from  other  sources,  including  tuition  ;  SO 
schools  were  classical,  professional,  and  techuical.  having 
671  teachers  (^H  males  and  217  females)  and  11.7o6  stu- 
dents (72.-).')  males,  4500  females),  and  $S'j6,n72  of  income, 
of  which  $222,374   was  from    endowment,  $101,318   from 
taxation  and  public  funds,  and  $il2.6S0  from  othersourccs, 
including  tuition  :  705  were  private  schools  of  lower  grade, 
having  33SS  teachers  (12fifl  males  and  2122  females)  and 
T*  107  nunils   (:!y.255  males  and  39,142  females),  and  an 
annual  im.nno  of  $1,203,372,  of  which  mi95  was  from 
endowment,  $7943  from  public  funds,  and  Sl,22o  2.U  from 
other  sources,  including  tuition.   The  sessions  of  the  Illinois 
k<.islaturo  being  only  biennial,  there  is  no  report  frnin  the 
smioriniendent  of  public  instruction  of  later  (late  than  .hui., 
Irt73    and  the  statistics  are  only  to  the  autumn  ot  \»iZ. 
This' report  gives  the  number  of  persons  of  school  age  (6  to 
21  years)  in  the  Slate  in  Sept.,  1S72,  as  882,093  ;  the  num- 
berof  school  districts.  11,231,  of  which  10,707  had  schools 
in  session  si.t  months  or  more  of  the  year,  and  2,5  for  less 
than  six  months,  while  189  had  no  schools.     There  wore 
II  390  public  free  schools,  of  which  91   were  public  high 
sel'iools,  651  graded  schools,  and  10,414  ungraded  schools. 
In  these  schools  there  were  20.924  teachers,  of  whom  9094 
were  male  teachers  and  11,459  females  ;  and  002,049  schol- 
ars nttcndcdihcm.of  whom  345,023  were  males  and  310,426 
females.     The  schools  were  maintained  an  average  period 
of  0  9  months.     The  number  of  private  schools  reported  in 
1S72  was  430,  having  34,784  pupils.     The  total  number  of 
public  school-houses  in  the  autumn  of  1872  was  11,289,  of 
which  470  were  built  during  the  year  at  an  average  cost 
of  $1517  05  each!     The  estimated  value  of  school-houses  in 
the  State  in  the  autumn  of  1872  was  $12,477,039  ;  of  the 
school  lots,  grounds,  and   appurtenances,  $2,603,938  ;  of 
other  lands  and  properly  belonging  to  districts.  52,537,917  ; 
of  furniture,  apparatus,  and  libraries,  $1,373,950;  of  re- 
pairs and  improvements,  $883,204;  making  a  total  appro.x- 
iniate  value  of  $19,876,708.  Thonumbcrof  district  school  li- 
braries was  S30.  and  of  volumes  in  them  54,280^    The  aggre- 
gale  principal  of  township  school  funds  was  $1,808,555.01, 
and  the  iniorest  received  $528,811.47.  Thchighcst  monthly 
wa"e3  paid   to  teachers  was,  to  males,  $2uO ;  to  females, 
$120;    the  lowest  was,  to  males,  $12;    to  females,   $9.50. 
The  average  monthly  salaries  were,  to  males,  $50 ;  to  fe- 
males, $39."    In  75  of  the  102  counties  of  the  State  the  sal- 
aries of  the  best  male  teachers  range  from  $100  to  $250, 
and  in  SO  counties  the  salaries  of  the  best  female  teachers 
range  from  SJOto  $120.    The  total  annual  cost  per  scholar, 
including  tuition,  incidental  expenses,  and  0  per  cent,  in- 
terest on  the  estimated  valuation  of  school    property,  is, 
upon  the  number  enrolled,  $9.25  ;  upon  the  average  daily 
attendance,  $18.58.     In  1872,  100  teachers'  instilutes  were 
held  and  attended  by  7771  teachers,  and  instructed  by  632 
lecturers  and  instructors.     They  continued  an  average  of 
5.4  days,  or,  in  effect,  a  week.     The  amount  received  from 
all  sources  for  school  purposes  in  1872  was  $7,500,122.70, 
and  the  expenditures  for  the  s.amo  year  $7,480,889.24.   The 
whole  amount  of  principal  of  the  common  school  funds  of 
the  State,  Oct.  I,  1872,   was  $0,382,248.08.     For  the  in- 
etruclion  of  the  teachers  of  these  schools,  besides  the  teach- 
ers' institutes,  there  is  the  Illinois  State  Teachers'  Insti- 
tute, which  holds  an  annual  session  of  fourteen  days,  gener- 
ally devoted  to  natural  science;  two  normal  universities 
—viz.  the  Illinois   State  Normal  University    at   Normal, 
founded  in  1857,  a  most  admirable  institution,  with  every 
facility  for  thorough  instruction  in  the  art  of  teaching,  ex- 
pending about  $31,500  annually,  and  having  an  average 
of  20ft7iornial  pupils  annually,  besides  tho  large  attend- 
ance on  its  model  school ;  and  the  Southern  Normal  Uni- 
versity, at  Carbondale,  which,  foundcil  in  1809,  commenced 
actual  instruction  in  Doc.,  1873.    There  are  also  other  very 
efrielcnl  normal  training  schools— the  Cook  County  Normal 
School,  at  Englewood.  7  miles  S.  of  Chicago  court-house, 
establLshed   in   1807,  which  in   1872  had  207  pupils;  the 
Peoria  County  Normal  School,  in   Peoria,  established  in 
1908,  and  having  about  85  pupils  ;  and  tho  Ocrman-Eng- 
lish  Normal  School,  at  (lalena.  etc. 

The  State  has  also  provided  lilicrally,  in  connection  with 
tho  national  agricultural  college  grant,  for  the  scientific  and 
practical  education  of  those  desiring  to  obtain  such  educa- 
tion. Tho  Illinois  Inilustrinl  University,  located  at  Urbana 
and  Champaign,  is  now  in  its  seventh  year  of  instruction, 
anil  is  in  most  respects  a  moilel  institution  of  its  kind.  In 
Jan  ,  1874,  it  had  lands  valued  at  $80,000.  buildings  and 
improvements  valued  at  $175,000,  furniture,  library,  cab- 
inets  and  apparatus  valued  at  $75,000.  and  funds  and  in- 
ves'mentst.i  the  ninounl  of  $124,000.  making  its  total  assets 
$700  Onn.  Its  annuiil  eurnnt  expcndilurc  is  about  $08,000, 
but  of  this  about  $27,000,  belonging  to  tho  expenses  of  tho 


farm,  gardens,  and  mechanical  shops,  is  repaid  from  their 
products.     It  has  eleven  distinct  courses  of  study,  agri- 
cultural, mechanical,  civil  engineering,  military,  chemical, 
mathematical,  natural  history,  classical,  etc.,  a_ faculty  of 
24  professors  and  other  instructors,  and  in  1873  had  320 
male  and  74  female  students,  of  whom  300  were  from  Illi- 
nois, 33  from  other  States  and  Territories,  and  7  from  foreign 
countries.     There  is  also  an  efl'icieut  and  well-conducted 
soldiers'  college  at  Fulton.  III.    Of  the  other  institutions  of 
hifhcr  education  in  Illinois,  there  are  C  so-called  univeisi- 
tie°,  4  of  them,  as  well  as  3  of  tho  colleges,  being  universi- 
ties in  fact,  in  tho  sense  of  having  professional  or  scientific 
schools  connected  with  them;   19  colleges,  several  of  them 
with  professional  or  scientific  schools  attached  to  them,  and 
nearly  all  under  tho  care  and  patronage  of  some  religious 
denomination.      These    institutions    have  about  220  ]iro- 
fessors  and  over  4000  students.     There  are  also  10  female 
colleges  and  seminaries  of  the  highest  grade,  having  98 
professors  and  teachers  and  over  2300  pupils;  and  40scnii- 
uaries  and  academies  of  high  grade  for  both  sexes,  having 
about  300  professors  and  teachers  and  nearly  4200  pupils. 
There  are  also,  aside  from  the  Illinois  Industrial  University, 
3  scientific  schools— tho  scientific  departments  of  Chicago 
and  Blackburn  universities,  at  Chicago   and  Carlmvillc, 
and  tho  Illinois  Agricultural  College  at  Irvington  ;  10  theo- 
logical schools  or  seminaries,  4  of  them  at  Chicago,  having 
3.5'professors  and  .about  280  students ;  2  law  schools,  one  at 
Chicago  and  tho  other  at  Lebanon  ;  3  medical  schools  of 
the  reo-ular  practice,  1  eclectic,  and  1  homoeopathic,  and  1 
college  of  pharmacy.     These  have  75  professors  and  over 
500  students.  ,       .         r    »       . 

The  institutions  of  special  education  for  tho  untortunate, 
orphans,  diseased,  and  endangered  classes  are— (1 )  the  Illi- 
nois Institution  for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at 
Jacksonville,  founded  in  1810,  and  having  25  teachers  and 
other  officers,  and  294  jnipils.    lis  current  annual  expendi- 
ture is  about  $08,750  per  annum,  all  of  it  opi.ropriatcd  by 
the  State;  (2)  tho  Illinois  Institution  for  the  Education 
of  tho  Blind,  also  at  Jacksonville,  founded  in    1848.  and 
having  9  teachers  and  other  oflicers,  and  00  pupils.and  ex- 
pending annually  about  $17,000,  all  of  it  appropriated  by 
the  State;  (3)  the  Illinois  Charitable  Eye  and  Ear  luflrm- 
ary,  at  Chicago,  expending  about  $15,000  per  annum,  of 
which  $10,000   is  derived  from  the  Slate;  (4)  the  Illuiois 
Institution  for  tho  Education  of  Fecblc-Minded  Children, 
at  Jacksonville,  founded  in  1805.  and  incorporated  in  1871  ; 
it  has  7   teachers  and   other  officers,  and   107   pupils:  it 
is  now  in  rented  premises,  but  is  to  have  a  new  building 
completed   in  the  winter  of  1875  ;  its  expenses  arc  about 
$24,000,  all  furnished  by  the  State;  (5)  the  Illinois   Sol- 
diers' Orphans'  Home,  at  Normal,  founded  in   1805.  has  0 
teachers   and    320   pupils,    and    expends    annually    about 
$52,000,  all  furnished  by  the  State,  besides  the  products 
of  tho  farm  and  house,  which  arc  njiplied  to  materially  re- 
duce the  expense  po-  capita  ;  (0)  the  Illinois  State  Reform 
School,  at  Ponliac,  founded  in   1870.  which  has  3  officers, 
100  inmates,  and  expends  about  $33,000  per  year,  of  which 
$■'5  000  is  derived  from  the  State.     There  are  other  relorin 
and  industrial  schools  in  the  State,  but  they  arc  established 
by  cities  or  counties,  and  not  by  the  State.     That  in  (  hi- 
cigo  is  a  great  success.     It  had  212  inmates  in  18,2,  most 
of  whom  were  reported  reformed. 

In  this  connection  it  is  as  well  perhaps  to  speak  ot  I  10 
charitable  institutions  of  the  Slate,  which,  though  not  di- 
rectly educational  in  their  character,  have  yet  some  eomiec- 
tion  with  education.  The  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at  Jack- 
sonville, founded  1847.  has  an  average  of  450  patients,  and 
its  current  expenses  arc  about  $1 10.000  per  annuin  ;  tho 
Northern  llnspilal  and  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  at  Elgin, 
founded  in  1808,  in  1873  luill  7  officers  and  an  average  of 
about  200  patients,  and  its  expcndilurc  is  in  round  numbers 
$50,000  per  annum:  the  Siiulhcrn  Hospital  lor  the  Insane 
at  Anna,  is  a  new  inslilulion.  intemled  for  250  patients, and 
has  nearly  that  number  now.  Its  annual  expenses  aro 
ab,)ut  $2.50  per  patient,  and  when  it  is  full  will  rcMu.ro 
$02,500  per  annum.  Tho  two  latter,  when  Iheir  lmildin;,-s 
are  completcl.  will  acconimodnte  950  patients,  llicre  is 
also  an  insane  asylum  for  Cook  eounly,  really  a  part  ol 
Cook  county  almshouse,  which  has  200  patients,  and  2 
small  private  asylums.  Tho  number  of  insane  persons  in 
the  Slalo  exceeds  3000. 

/',M,7„v,».„  nn'(  Cr.mr.- Of  the  2303  paupers  returned  in 
theeensusof  1870, 1213  were  native  whiles,  4 1  native  colored, 
1109  foreigners.  Of  1795  persons  in  prison  Juno  1,  1870, 
1229  were  native  whiles,  143  nalivo  colored,  and  423  for- 
eigners :  1552  persons  were  convicted  during  the  year.  The 
Slate  penitentiary,  at  Joliet,  was  for  many  years  managed 
at  a  heavy  loss,  hut  since  June,  1872.  it  has  ciirncd  a  con- 
siderable sum  over  its  expenses,  while  its  general  condition 
lias  been  greatly  improved.  There  were  in  Jan.,  1873, 
1321  convicts  in  the  penitentiary,  15  of  them  females.    Tho 


1112 


ILLINOIS. 


prison  has  a,  large  library,  and  provision  is  made  for  the 
instruction  of  the  prisoners  in  elementary  studies,  as  well 
as  for  tlieir  religious  welfare. 

l.iliraries. — There  were  in  the  State  in  1870,  13,570 
libraries  of  all  classes,  public  and  private,  containing 
3,32a, i)U  volumes;  of  these,  3705,  eontaining  924,513  vol- 
umes, were  public  libraries;  these  included  one  State  libra- 
ry, with  10,000  vols.;  53  town  and  city  libraries,  with 
35.010  vols. ;  135  court  and  law  libraries,  with  23,S32  vols.; 
1122  school  and  college  libraries,  with  1+0,759  vols.;  2308 
Sunday  school  and  church  libraries,  with  480,100  vols. ;  7 
literary  and  benevolent  associations,  with  153,492  vols.; 
79  circulating  libr.aries,  with  75,352  vols. ;  and  9SG5  private 
libraries,  with  2,399,309  volumes. 

Newtpapera  and  Periodiciits. — There  were  in  Illinois  in 
1870,  505  newspapers,  having  on  aggregate  circulation  of 
1,722.541,  and  an  aggregate  annual  issue  of  113,140,492 
copies.  Of  these,  39  were  dailies,  with  a  circulation  of 
106,400;  10  were  tri-weekly,  with  40,570  circulation;  4 
were  semi-weekly,  with  2950  circulation  ;  364  were  weekly, 
with  890,913  circulation;  11  were  semi-monthly,  with 
107,900  circulation;  72  were  monthly,  with  490,808  circu- 
lation; 2  were  bi-monthly,  with  11,000  circulation;  and  3 
were  quarterly,  with  12,000  circulation. 

C'Aiirc/ics.— There    were    in     1870    in    the    .=tate    4298 
churches,    of    all    denominations,    3459    church    edifices, 
1,201,403  sittings,  and  $22,01)4,283  of  church  property.     Of 
the  churches  at  that  date,  722  were  Baptist,  with  571  church 
edifices.  181,454  sittings,  and  $2,601,612  of  church  property. 
According  to  the  Baptist  Year  Bool:  for  1875,  the  number 
of  associations  in  1874  was  44;  of  churches,  1056;  of  or- 
dained ministers,  732;  of  communicants,  08,313;  of  addi- 
tions. 7.333  ;  of  iSunday  schools,  640  ;  of  teachers  and  schol- 
ars, 59,700;  of  volumes  in   libraries,  01,088;  of  contribu- 
tions for  benevolent  and  church  purposes,  S924.179.     The 
Christian  Connection  and  the   Disciples,  in  1870  had  350 
churches,  251  church  edifices,  85,175  sittings,  and  J621,450 
of  church  property.     They   have  incrca.sed   somewhat  in 
four  years,  hut  their  statistics   are  so  incomplete  that  it  is 
difficult  to  s.iy  how  much.     The  Congregationalists  in  1870 
had  212  churches,  188  church  edifices,  66,137  sittings,  and 
$1,867,800  of  church  property.      At  the  close  of  1874  they 
had  239  churches,  221  ordained  ministers,  20,557  communi- 
cants, and  25,766  scholars  in   the  Sabbath  schools.     The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  had  in  the  State  in  1870,  105 
parishes,  85  church  edifices,  30,395  sittings,  and  ftl .426,300 
of  church  property.     In  1874  there  were  101  parishes,  91 
clergymen,  0785  communicants.  953    confirmations,  (i838 
Sunday  school  teachers  and  scholars,  and  the  contributions 
to  benevolent  and  church  purposes  were  8149,812.97.    The 
Bvangelic:il  .\ssoci!ition  had  in  1870,  68  churches,  56  church 
edifices,  20,176  sittings,  S329.650  of  church  property.     In 
1873  they  had   73  itinerant   and    72    local    preachers,  94 
churchetij  8171    members,  and   about  $500,000  of  church 
property.     The  Friends  had  in  1870,  5  meetings,  4  meet- 
ing-houses,   with    1000    sittings,    and    $13,400    meeting- 
house property.     They  have  increased  considerably  within 
the    last   four   years."  The    Lutherans    in    1870    had   230 
churches,  207  church  edifices,   74.301   sittings,  81,043,476 
church  property.     The  Lutheran  church  has  so  many  dif- 
ferent councils,"  ministeriums,  and  synods  in  the  U.  S.  that 
it  is  difficult  to  isolate  the  churches  of  any  one  State;  but 
as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained  they  had  about  260  churches 
and  25,.i00  members  in  Illinois  in  1873.     The  Methodists 
of  all  the  Methodist  bodies  in  1870  had  1426  churches,  1124 
church  edifices,  357.073  sittings,  and  $5,206,620  of  church 
property.     In  1874  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  alone 
had  in  "the  State  about  1900  niinister.s  of  whom  998  were 
itinerants,  1321   churches,  108,120  members,  $5,700,731  of 
church  property,  1046  Sabbath  schools,  145,861  teachers 
and  scholars  ;  while  the  other  Methodist  bodies  had  per- 
haps one-third  of  that  numbej.      The  Presbyterians,  in- 
cluding all  branches,  in  1870  had  595  churches,  523  church 
edifices,  184,849  sittings,  $3,637,625  of  church  property. 
In  1S73  the    Presbyterian   General  Assembly  (Northern) 
had  435  ordained  m"inisters,  482  churches,  and  38.557  mem 


property.     In  1874  there  were  in  the  State  313  priests,  459 
congregations,  and  an  adherent  population   of   probably 
226,000.     The  Second  Adventists  in   1S70  had  8  churches, 
6  church  edifices,  1300  sittings,  $7100  of  church  property. 
The  Unitarians  had  23  congregations,  17  church  edifices, 
5960  sittings,  and  $492,900  of  church  property.     The  Uni- 
ted   Brethren    in   Christ    (German    Methodists)   had    125 
churches,  58  church  edifices,  17.996  sittings,  and  $126,800 
of  church  property.     In  1873  there  were  324  churches,  210 
ministers,  and  11,351  members.     The  Universalists  in  1870 
had  62  congregations,  44  church  edifices,  15,225  sittings, 
and  $543,300  of  church  property.     In  1873  they  reported 
79  parishes,  52  congregations,  2776  members,  and  about 
16,000  adherent  population.     There  were  also  perhajis  200 
congregations  of  the  minor  denominations,  with  1511  church 
edifices,  35,000  sittings,  and  $125,000  of  church  property. 
Gonatilialon,   Courts,  etc. — The    present    constitution  of 
Illinois  was  adopted  by  a  constitutional  convention  held 
in  1870,  and  ratified  by  the  people  of  the  State  the  same 
year.     It  contains  a  bill  of  rights  based  on  the  priucijilcs 
of  English  constitutional  law,  defines  the  qualifications  for 
legislators,  prescribes  that  the  senate  shall  consist  of  51 
senators,  elected  for  four  years,  but  in  two  classes,  those  in 
the  odd-numbered  districts  being  elected  in  1874,  and  every 
four  years  thereafter,  and  those  in  the  even-numbered  dis- 
tricts" in  1872,  and  every  four  years  thereafter;  the  house 
of  representatives  to  consist  of  153  members,  elected  for 
two  years.     The  legislative  sessions  are  biennial.     They 
are  prohibited  from  special  legislation  ;  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment,  but  the 
senate  must  be  the  trial  court  for  the  impeachment.     Mi- 
nority representation  is  provided  for.     The  pay  of  senators 
and  representatives  is  $5  per  day,  10  cents  a  mile  for  actual 
mileage,  and  $50  per  session  for  postage,  stationery,  etc. 
The  executive  department  consists  of  a  governor,  lieuten- 
ant-governor, secretary  of  state,  auditor  of  public  accounts, 
treasurer,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  attor- 
ney-general, all  elected  by  the  people,  and  all,  except  the 
treasurer  (whose  term  is  two  years),  for  four  years.     The 
treasurer  is  ineligible  for  re-election  for  two  years  after  the 
expiration  of  his  term.     The  governor  has  the  veto  power, 
which  can  only  be  overridden  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
all  the  members  elected.    The  judicial  powers  of  the  gov- 
ernment   of    the  State    are  vested  in  one  supreme    court 
(which   is   also  a  court  of  appeals),  circuit  courts  (which 
may  have  appellate  jurisdiction  to  a  certain  extent),  county 
courts,  justices  of  the  peace,  police  magistrates,  and  such 
courts  as  may  he  created  by  law  in  and  for  cities  and  in- 
corporated towns.      The   supremo  court  eousists  of  seven 
judges,  one  of  whom  shall  be  the  chief-justice,  and  four 
shall  constitute  a  quorum.      The  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  are  elected  by  the  people  of  their  respective  districts 
for  a  term  of  nine  years,  and  provision  is  made  so  that 
their  terms  of  office"  shall  expire  at  different  times.     The 
chief-justice  is  chosen  by  his  associates,  and  holds  his  office 
till  the  expiration  of  his  term.     The  circuit  courts  are  held 
in  judicial  circuits  of  100,000  inhabitants,  exccjit  in  Cook 
county  or  other  counties  having  more  than  100,000  inhab- 
itants (which  form  a  single  judicial  circuit  whatever  their 
population),   and    the    circuit  judges   hold    office  for   si.\ 
years,     .ludges  of  county  courts  hold  office  for  four  years. 
Probate  judges  are  elected  for  four  years,  and,  except  as 
above,  1  to  every  50.000  inhabitants.     The  minor  judicial 
offuicrs  iire  to  be  elected  in  such  districts  as  the  legislature 
shall  provide.     Every  person  having  resided  in  the  State 
one  year,  in  the  county  90  days,  and  in  the  election  district 
30  d'ays  next  preceding  any  election  therein,  who  was  an 
elector  in  the  State  on  Apr,  1,  1848,  or  obtained  a  certificate 
of  naturalization  before  any  court  of  record  in  the  Slate 
prior  to  Jan,  1,  1870,  or  who  is  a  male  citizen  of  the  U.  S. 
above  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote 
at  such  election.     All  votes  ore  by  ballot.     No  elector  loses 
his  residence  by  reason  of  absence  on  business  of  the  U.  S. 
or  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  or  in  the  military  and  naval  ser- 
vice of  the  U.  S.,  and  no  soldier,  seaman,  or  marine  in  the 
army  or  navy  of  the  U.  S.  is  deemed  a  resident  of  the  State 
-  '    ■  ■    •■         '    therein.     The  general 


hers-    the    United    Presbyterians    had    74   ministers,    87  :  in  eonsequcuoo  of  being  stationed  ,u-  „;„,,, 

ehur;he.'.  and  6836  comm"unica„ts.  There  were  also  eon-  \  assem_bly  has  power  to  pass  Jaw-s  excludmg  from  the  r.ght 
sidcrable  numbers  belonging  to  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
South,  to  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians,  and  to  the  Kc- 
formcd  and  other  independent  synods.  The  Reformed 
Church  in  America  (lato  Dutch)  in  1870  had  14  churches, 
14  church  edifices,  4880  sittings,  and  $160,200  of  church 
property.     In  1873  the  same  Church  had  20  ministers,  19 


of  sufrr.igc  persons  convicted  of  infamous  crimes.  An  ef- 
ficient system  of  free-school  education  is  provided  for.  and 
the  legislature  and  counties,  cities,  towns,  etc.  arc  for  ever 
prohibited  from  making  any  .appropriation  or  paying  from 
any  public  fund  whatever  anything  in  aid  of  any  college, 
seminary,  literary  or  scientific   institution  which   is  con- 

bmehos  and  1 78-  communicants.  The  Reformed  Church  i  trolled  by  any  Church  or  sectarian  denomination  whatever. 
th^U^  (late  German)  in  1870  had  32  churches,  30  i  No  teacher  or  school  officer  is  allowed  to  be  .nfercsted  .n 

hurch  edifices,  7170  sittings,  $93,000  of  church  property. 


It  has  since  increased,  but  the  arrangement  of  their  statis- 
tics is  such  that  we  cannot  separate  those  of  Illinois.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  had  290  congregations,  219 
church    edifices,    136,900    sittings,   $4,010,050    of    church 


the  sale,  proceeds,  or  profits  of  .any  hook,  apparatus,  or 
furniture  used  in  any  school.  There  arc  also  provisions 
in  relation  to  counties,  to  railroads,  warehouses.  State 
revenues,  etc.  The  State  under  the  new  apportionment  has 
19  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  Congress. 


ILLINOIS. 


1113 


Vniiutif-K. — The  State  is  dividcil  into  102  counties,  whose 
Dames  and  population  in  1870, 186U,  and  1S6U  were  Uv-i  follows: 


Cotmnu. 

ToUlpop 
ItlTO. 

Uiilc, 

imo. 

Female, 

i»;o. 

Toul  pop 
ItttO. 

TotJil  pop. 
1(00. 

.30,305 

10,564 

13,152 

12,942 

12,20- 

32,4ir 

6,.362 

16,703 

11, .580 

32,737 

20,363 

18,719 

1.5,87.- 

16,285 

25,23.3 

1    349,966 

13,889 

12,223 

23,265 

14,768 

13,484 

16,635 

21,450 

7,565 

15,653 

19,638 

9,103 

12,632 

.33,291 

ll,l:i4 

20,277 

14,938 

13,014 

85,935 

5,113 

12,582 

3.5,506 

25,782 

19,634 

11,234 

17,864 

1.3,054 

27,820 

11,248 

39,091 

24,352 

12,399 

39,322 

21,014 

60,792 

12,3.i;i 

27,171 

31,471 

23,053 

26,431 

32,726 

41,131 

20,622 

10,9.36 

16,181 

9,581 

2:;,.309 

23,762 

53,983 

11,7.35 

18,7u9 

12,982 

25,314 

23,403 

10,.383 

27,492 

47,310 

13.723 

10,953 

.30,768 

11,437 

8,7.32 

6,280 

20,8.39 

12.803 

29,7.« 

12,714 

46,:i32 

17,419 

10,631 

23,476 

10,7.31 

61,058 

31,008 

27,903 

16,518 

80,338 

8,811 

23,174 

17,699 

19,768 

10,846 

27,603 

43,013 

17,.329 

29,301 

I  s,!136 

j.519,891 

28,52- 

5,20< 

6,765 

6,S6j 

6,2.39 

16,898 

3,562 

8.70C 

6,089 

17,423 

10,881 

9,650 

8,131 

8,614 

12,984 

180,007 

7,018 

6,274 

12,002 

7,845 

7,118 

8,784 

11,077 

3,840 

8,256 

10,170 

6,039 

6,484 

19,739 

.3,716 

10,677 

7,741 

6,532 

18,309 

2,670 

6.801 

18.487 

13,481 

10,331 

5,738 

9,010 

7,932 

14,196 

5,713 

19,836 

12,703 

0,435 

20,014 

10,096 

31,228 

0,383 

14,220 

16.632 

12,445 

13,690 

16,963 

22,8S8 

10,501 

8,334 

8,083 

4,890 

13,540 

12,174 

28,310 

6,237 

9,789 

6,815 

13,235 

14,579 

5,481 

14,.'J.35 

21,244 

7,133 

6,632 

13,811 

6,794 

4,571 

3,223 

10,889 

6,439 

1.3,369 

6,378 

24,010 

9,479 

6^37 

1.3,231 

5,663 

27,323 

1.3,598 

14/.45 

8,,3a7 

1.3,702 

4,427 

12,100 

9,1.37 

10,201 

8,407 

14,371 

23,221 

9,062 

14,762 

9,993 

1,316,637 

27,835 

5,298 

6,387 

6,377 

5,946 

15,517 

3,000 

8,003 

6,491 

15,314 

9,482 

9,069 

7,744 

7,671 

12,251 

169,959 

0,871 

5,949 

11,263 

6,923 

6,306 

7.901 

10,373 

3,723 

7,397 

9,468 

4,064 

6,163 

18,.3.>2 

5,418 

9,600 

7,197 

6,432 

17,420' 

2,443 

.5,781 1 

17,019 

12,301' 

9,273 

5,196, 

8,854 

7,092' 

13.624 

5,333 

19,225 

11,614 

5,944' 

19,503 

10,318 

29,.361 

6,150 

12,951 

14,809 

10,008 

12,.39l! 

1.3,701 

21,243; 

10,12ll 

8,102! 

7,.301 

4,685 

12,963 

11,588 

23,618 

6,493 

8,980 

6,167 

12,039 

13,884 

4,904 

13,137 

2i,29C 

0,.388 

6,101 

14,9,37 

5,613 

4,181 

3,037 1 

9,970 

6,304! 

11,414' 

6,326' 

22,342' 

7,940 

4,973 

12,2.!2 

5.0S6 

2:1,743 

15,020' 

13,,338 

8,151 

14,626 

4,414' 

11,074 

8.442 

9,.5,54 

8,379 

13,132 

19,793' 

8  267 

14,539 

89k; 

1,223,354 

41.32: 
4,70- 
981.' 
11.67t 
9,U38 
26,<2C 
5,144 
11,73; 
11,. 323 
14.629 
10,491. 
14,987 
9.:i3r 
10,941 
14,203 
141,951 
11,531 
8,311 
19,080 
10,820 
7,140 
14,701 
16,925 
5,454 
7,816 
11,189 
1,979 
9,393 
33,338 
8,035 
16,093 
10,379 
9,915 
29,065 
3,759 
9,301 
20,630 
12,325 
9,539 
8,561 
12,955 
12,051 
27,:i25 
9,:!42 
30,052 
1.3,412 
13,074 
28,633 
18,257 
48,332 
9,214 
17,051 
11,637 
14,272 
13,738 
21,602 
31,251 
12,739 
13,437 
10,931 
6,213 
20,039 
22,089 
28,772 
9,584 
15,012 
12,832 
13,979 
22.112 
6,383 
22,838 
36,601 
9,552 
0,127 
27,249 
0,742 
3,913 
6,.387 
17,205 
9,711 
21,005 
9,331 
32,274 
14,681 
9,059 
14,613 
9,004 
37,691 
2-3,112 
21,470 
11,181 
19,800 
7,313 
18,336 
13,731 
13,223 
12,403 
18,737 
29,331 
12,203 
21.491 
13,283 
1,711.951 

26,508 

2,484 

Bund 

6144 

7,624 
7,108 

8,841 

Calhoun « 

Carroll 

3,231 
4  3S6 

ra-<s 

7,253 

Charapnixn  

2,619 
3,203 

riark 

Hriy  

9,5:12 
4,289 

.5,i;;9 

Cok-s 

9,:;35 

C-Kjk 

43,385 
7,135 

3,718 

I).  Kalb 

7,540 

I),.  Witt 

5,002 

r>oii?las 

9,290 

rU'ar 

Edwards „ 

10,692 
3,.324 
3  799 

8,075 

Ford   

Franklin 

6  681 

Fulton 

Gallatin 

22,508 
,5,443 

12,429 
3,023 
6,362 

14,6.52 
2  887 

H'^'odersoQ 

4,612 

Ilmrv 

3,807 
4,149 

Iroquois 

Ja'K:<on 

,Tasn'*r 

5,832 
3,220 

8,109 

.T,>rs-y 

7,:;34 

Jo  Daviess 

,T'>hnson 

18,691 
4,114 

10,703 

7,730 

l;!,279 

14,226 

17,815 

0,121 

6,292 

1,.332 

6,128 

3,938 

12,3.35 

20,411 

6,720 

5,  ISO 

6,921 

4,092 

7,616 

14,973 

10,163 

6,:M9 

,5,216 

7,679 

6,277 

16,034 

3,2:m 

10,020 

17,517 

6,278 

1,606 

18,f!19 

3,975 

2,205 

.3,921 

11,079 

4,012 

6,937 

5,3?3 

19,228 

10,373 

7,914 

7,P07 

3,710 

20,  IPO 

11,636 

12,032 

7,613 

11, -'92 

4,090 

8,176 

0,9.33 

6,823 

8,925 

5,361 

16,703 

7.316 

11,773 

4,-15 

8.51.470 

Kankakee 

Kndall 

Lake 

La  Salle 

1,-1- 

Llvini^ston 

r>»'ran 

Ma-on 

Mili^.iti  

Marion 

Mir^hall 

M^<.n 

Mi^sac 

M  -Donom-h 

Mllonry 

M  Ivan 

M  nard 

M-rCLT 1 

M'tnt^onicry 

Mnfjan 

M'lUllrlo 

Ofli- 

P"nna 

P"rrv  

Plait 

Piko 

Popo  

Pulaski 

Uaii.li.Ipli 

Ki -liland - 

"^alinp 

^ari'^amon 

^  liuyler 

■ili'lliy'.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."".'.'.'.!! 

"ilark 

<t.  rblr 

^1  ■plii^nson 

Ta7'MreU 

Wiliaili 

Wavno 

Wliif 

\Vliilcsiile« 

Will 

Williams'tn  

Winn'-hat-o 

V..o-lford 

Total 

Prinrtpnl  TotciiM. — Chicap;**  is  t^^c  largest  city,  not  only 
of  Illinois,  hut  of  the  re-^ion  formerly  coinprised  in  the 
North-west  Territory,  Its  population  in  1S7«  was  298,977 
and  has  since  increased  with  great  rapidity,  notwithstand- 
ing the  terribly  destructive  lire  of  Oct.,'  1S7I.  Quincy, 
Peoria,  and  Springfield  are  cities  of  hctwecn  20,000  iind 
30,000  inhahitants  ;  IJluominglon,  Aurora,  Uockford,  Galcs- 
burg,  Jacksonville,  and  probably  Alton,  have  more  than 
10,000  and  less  than  20.000:  Belleville,  Frecport.  Calena, 
Kock  Island,  Ottawa,  Decatur,  and  Joliet,  Irom  SOOO  to 
10.000;  Cairo.  East  St.  Louis,  Elgin.  Pekin,  and  La  Salle, 
from  0000  (o  SOOO  :  Chamjtaign.  Danville,  Dixon,  >Vaukcgan, 
Monmouth,  Molinc,  Litclifield,  Mcndota,  Peru,  Sterling, 
AVarsaw.  Princeton.  Morris,  Bclvidcre,  Canton,  Geneseo, 
and  !*aris  have  about  oOnO  inhabitants  each. 

///\/or^.— Tlie  fir^rt  white  settlements  in  this  State  were 
made  by  the  French  from  Canada,  and  were  the  result  of 
the  enterprise  of  the  great  explorer,  the  Sicur  de  la  Snlle. 
He  set  out  from  Canada  in  1079.  crosf-cd  the  lakes,  and  de- 
scended a  river,  on  the  banks  of  which  he  found  an  Indian 
tribe  whom  he  names  in   his  journal  the  Illini,  and  from 
whom  be  gave  the  river  the  name  Illinois.     Gaining  their 
good-will,  he  establi^^hed  a  small   fort  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  left  the  Chevalier  doTonty  there  with  a  few  men, 
naming  his  little  fort  Creve  Coeur.     After  descending  the 
Mississippi  for  some  distance,  be  returned  to  Canada,  but 
in  ir>S2  came  again   to  the   Illinois  River  with  a  colony 
of  Canadians,  and  made  a  beginning  of   settlements  at 
Kaskaskia,  Kabokia,  and  some  other  towns.     These  settle- 
ments increased,  and  (he  Jesuit  missionaries  who  visited  the 
region  early  in  the  eiglitecnth  century  were  so  delighted  with 
it  that  they  described  it  as  a  new  paradise.     The  colunists, 
like  most  of  the  French  emigrants  of  that  period,  main- 
tained the  most  friendly  relations  with   the  Indians,  and 
cvcntuall3'  so  far  degenerated  as  to  bcuome  very  little  above 
the  Indians  among  whom  they  dwelt.     The  vagabond  and 
reckless  life  of  the  half-breed  Canadian  vovageur  is  wdl 
known,  and  the  greater  part  of  (lie  c<»lonists  were  of  this 
class.     In  nc.'J  the  English  government,  by  the  conquest 
of  Canada,  succeeded  to  the  dominion  over  all  this  region, 
to  which  the  French  had  previously  laid  claim,  but  in  the 
twenty  years  that  followed  they  seem  to  have  paid  very 
littlo  attention   to   this  portion  of  their  domain.     At  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  war  this  region  was  ceded  to  the 
U.  S.,  and  in  1787  the  whole  countr3"  N.  of  the  Ohio  River 
to  the  Canadian  line  was  erected  into  the  North-west  Ter- 
ritory.    In  1?00,  Ohio  was  made  a  separate  Territory;  in 
ISOJ,  Michigan  was  set  off  as  a  distinct  Territory;   and  in 
1809,  Indiana  Territory  was  organi/xd.     This  left  for  Illi- 
nois Territory,  as  it  was  soon  after  organized,  the  present 
States  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  and  part  of  Minnesota. 
The  census  of  ISIO   reported    12.2S2   inhabilants   in    this 
Territory.     The  Indians  had  fur  several  years  been  very 
troublesome,  and  the  settlement  of  the  Territory  liad  been 
hindered  by  their  hostilities.     In  Aug..  1812,  they  attacked 
the  fort  at  the  mouth  of  Chicago  River,  and  murdered  most 
of  the  garrisim  and  the  settlers  in  the  vicinity.     They  wero 
severely  punished  for  these  outrages,  and  the  hostile  tribes 
being  finally  driven  away,  the  northern  section  began  to  at- 
tract a  largo  body  of  immigrants.      In   18IS   it  was  found 
that  there  were  35,220  inhabitants  in  the  Territory,  and  all 
but  a  very  fc^r  within  the  present  limits  of  the  Stale.     In 
that  year  Illinois  was  admitted  with  the  present  limits  into 
the  Union  as  a  State.     Two  years  Inter  it  bad  6.'j,2ll   in- 
liabitants,  and  in  1S.30,  I.'i7,'l'l5,  a  gain  of  18'».2  per  cent. 
In  18:;2  the  troubles  with  tlie  Sac  and  Fox  and  other  tribes 
of  Indians,  which  had  existed  for  a  year  or  two.  culminated 
in  the  RIack  Hawk  war  and  (he  finnl  removal  of  all  (he  In- 
dians from  the  State.     During  the  continuance  of  lutstilitics 
there  was  much  excitement  ami  alarm  in  the  State,  but  llio 
result   was   eminently   beneficial    in    making   more   widely 
known   the  great  advantages   the  State  offered   to   iuimi- 
gr.ants.     Congress  granted  an  appropriation   in   1S3(  for 
tho  improvement  of  the  harbor  at  Chicago,  and  in    1835 
tbo  Illinni.s  and  Lake  Michigan  Canal,  conneding  (he  great 
lakes  with  tho  Mississippi   River,  was  pntjectrd  and  the 
State  bank  organlzeiL     Jn  July,  183fi,  the  canal  was  com- 
menced and  several  railroad  enterprises  undertaken.     Rut 
tho  financial  panic  of  1S:;7  fell  with  crushing  effect  upon 
Illinois,  and  led  to  the  abandonment  of  every  work  of  in- 
ternal improvement.     Tbo  growth  of  the  State  in  popula- 
tion conlinuerl.  however.  thr«iugli  all  (bis  period  of  depres- 
sion,and  in  |8|0  it  had  470.183  inhabitants,  a  gain  of  202.1 
p"'r  cent,  from  Is;i0.     In  18(0  the  Mormons  removed  from 
Afissfiiiri  to  Naiivoo  in  Illinois,  and.  rapidly  increasing  in 
numbers,  commenced  erecting  their  t'mple  there.     From 
the  first  their  lawlessness  and  their  irregular  and  profligate 
lives  had  prejudiced  the  people  against  them,  and  as  their 
offences  became  more  tlajjrant  there  was  manifested  a  very 
general  d'-teriuinafinn  tu  <Irivc  (hrm  out  of  the  Sfa'*'.     In 
JuDCf   1841,  tho  brothers  Joseph  and    Hyrum  Smith,  tlio 


1114 


ILLINOIS— ILLINOIS  AND  MICHIGAN   CANAL. 


leaders  of  the  Mormons,  having  been  arrested  and  con- 
fined in  €arlha_i;e  jail,  tlic  jail  was  surrounded  by  a  intib 
on  the  27th  of  that  month,  and  the  Smiths  were  both  mur- 
dered, lu  the  following  autumn  the  iMormons.  to  the  num- 
ber of  about  L'O.IUIO.  left  the  State  under  the  leadership  of 
BriL^ham  Vouii;;,  and  commenced  their  migration  to  Utah. 
In  i.SJ  J  (he  population,  according  to  the  State  census,  was 
043,482.  In  1S47  a  ne\v  State  constitution  was  ado])tcd. 
In  1S50,  the  tide  of  emigration  having  set  very  strongly 
toward  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  tlic  percentage  of  increase  of 
population  had  fallen  oft'  considerably,  the  census  rupoit- 
ing  only  Hj1,470  inhabitants,  an  increase  of  only  SO. 7  per 
cent,  on  the  previous  decade.  In  18,'»li,  Congress  granted 
a  vast  quantity  of  land  to  the  Illinois  Central  llailroad  Co. 
for  tlie  construction  of  their  railway  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  State.  This,  and  the  other  railroad  enter- 
prises which  folhjwed  it,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  growth 
of  the  State,  and  have  made  its  development  more  rapid 
than  that  of  any  State  which  had  preceded  it.  A  great 
city  was  rapidly  growing  up  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and 
river  and  lake,  canal  and  railroads,  were  all  contributing 
to  its  swift  and  irrcsistilde  progress.  In  18(10  the  popula- 
tion of  the  State  was  1. 711.1)51,  a  little  more  than  double 
that  of  1830,  and  it  had  but  very  little  government  land 
remaining  unsold.  The  civil  war  taxed  the  resources  of 
the  State  very  severely,  but  her  citizens  rcspnnded  most 
nobly,  and  by  the  aid  of  improved  agricultural  machinery 
she  was  able  to  send  a  very  large  force,  more  than  her  full 
quota,  into  the  field,  and  jet  retain  her  pre-eminence  as  the 
granary  of  the  nation.     Owing  to  the  losses  of  the  war  the 


increase  of  her  population  was  proportionally  less  in  1S70 
than  in  18GU,  though  the  actual  increase  was  nearly  the 
same  as  in  the  previous  decade.  The  census  report  gives 
her  in  1870,  2,639,S'J1,  an  addition  of  827,940.  Since 
1870  she  has  enjoyed  (except  the  great  calamity  of  the 
Chicago  fire)  uninterrupted  prosjicrily,  and  her  growth  has 
been  as  rapid  as  at  any  former  period  of  her  history.  The 
conflict  in  regard  to  policy  which  in  1873  and  1874  had 
occurred  between  the  farming  pcfjjulatiou  and  the  railway 
comjKinies,  though  it  may  cause  some  bitterness  of  Iculiug 
for  a  time,  is  di:stini.Ml  to  be  settled  on  terms  which  will  bo 
fair  and  just  to  both  parties,  and  in  the  end  will  result  in 
an  increased  business  and  a  more  satisfactory  develojnncnt 
of  the  vast  resources  of  the  State.  In  1870  the  State  ngain 
revised  its  constitution  very  thoroughly,  and  in  the  inter- 
ests of  an  economical  and  wise  government. 

Coventors  o/  Illinois. — 

Term. 

Territory. 

Ninian  Edwards 1809-18 

State. 

Shadrack  Bond 1S18-22 

Edward  Coles lS22-*2r> 

Ninian  Edwards 182G-30 

John  R'-ynolds 1K30-:J4 

Jnsepli  Duncan I8:J4-38 

Thomas  Carlin 1838-42 


Term. 

Thomas  Ford 1842-46 

Aupuslus  C.  I'rtuch lS-lG-53 

.Toil  A.  MatUbun 185»-57 

WilliuHJ  H,  Kitsell 1857-Gl 

Richard  Yates 186I-fi5 

Kiciiard  J.  OKlesby ISG-VeD 

.Inhn  M.  Palmer 18C9-73 

Richard  .1,  O^jlcsby 1*57:1-73 

John  L.  Beveridge 1873- 

Vntr  at  Presiflrntial  Elcctioux. — Illinois  not  having  been 
admitted  into  thr  Union  as  a  State  until  1818,  her  first  voto 
for  President  was  cast  in  1820, 


as 

1820 
1824 

1828 
1832 
183S 

1840 
1844 

1848 
1852 
1856 
18G0 
1804' 
18GS 
18721 


CaDdidale^  who  received  the 
electoral  vole. 

James  Monroe  P 1 

D.  D.  Tompkins  V.-P....  ) 

AnJrew  Jackson  P 

John  Quincv  Adams  P 

lolin  C.  Calhoun  V.-P 

.\iulrew  Jackson  P 1 

Joh  n  C.  Calhoun  V.-P...  ) 

.\nilrew  Jackson  P ) 

M.  Van  Buren  V.-P / 

Martin  Van  Buron  P 1 

R.  M.  Johnson  V.-P j 

Martin  Van  Burcn  P. 
R.  M.  Johnson  V.-P.., 

JaniLS  K.  Polk  P 

G.  M.  Dallas  V.-P 

L'-'wis  (.'ass  P 1 

\V.  O.  Butler  V.-P f 

Franklin  Pierca  P 

William  R.  King  V.-P.. 

.lames  liuchanan  P 

.I.e.  BrcckiMiridse  V.-F 

.\braham  Lincoln  P 1 

II.  Uamlin  V.-P f 

Abraham  Lincoln  P ) 

A.  Jolinson  V.-P / 

U.  S.  Grant  P 1 

Schuvler  Colfax  V.-P J 

U.  S. "Grant  P I 

Henry  Wilson  V.-P J 


u 

Popular 
vote. 

3 

Not  rec. 

2 
1 
3 

1,901 
1,642 

3 

6,763 

5 

14,147 

5 

17,275 

5 

47,476 

9 

57,920 

9 

56,300 

11 

80,597 

11 

105,348 

11 

172,161 

16 

189,490 

16 

250,303 

21 

241.944 

J.  Q.  Adams  P.. 
R.  Rush  V.-P..., 


John  Quiney  Adams  P.. 


.T.  Q.  Adams  P 

R.  Rush  V.-P 

II.  Clay  P 

John  Sergeant  V.-P.. 

W.H.Harrison  P 

F.  Granger  V.-P 


W.  H.Harrison  P > 

J.  Tyler  V.-P f 

H.Clay  P 1 

Th.  Freliniibuvsen  V.-P.  ( 

Zach.  Taylor  P ) 

M.  I-'iUmore  V.-l' ( 

Winfield  Scott  V | 

W.  A.  Graham  V.-P ) 

iTohn  C.  Fremont  P.... 

W.  L.  Dayton  V.-P 

S.  A.  Douglas  P 

H.  V.  Johnson  V.-P.. 

(;.  B.  McClellan   P > 

G.  II.  Pendleton  V.-P.../ 

Horatio  Seyniiiur  P | 

F.  P.  Blair  V.-P f 

Horace  Greeley  P \ 

B.  Gratz  Brown  V.-P j 


Not  rec. 

1,542 

1,581 
5,429 
14,292 

4.5,537 

45,528 
53,047 
64,934 
96,189 
160,215 
158,730 
199,143 
184,938 


/Crawford  P.. 
Ih.  Clay  P 


("John  Floyd  and  Wilkins 

\  Williiiui  Wirt  and  Henry  Lee.. 

Hujch  White  and  John  Tyler...  "l 

Daniel  Webster «... 

W.  P.  Mangum  and  Smith J 

J.  G.  Birnev  P 


J.  G.  Birney  P 

M.  Van  Burcn  P 

J.  P.  Hale  P.,  and  Julian  V.-P 

Fillmore  P.,  and  Donaldson  V.-P. 

(  Breckenridtje  P.,  and  Lane  V.-P 
1  Bell  P.,  and  Everett  V.-P 


C.  O'Cbnor  P.. 


Popular 


219 
1,047 


Not  rep. 

1-19 

3,570 

15,774 

9,966 

37,444 

2.-J04 
4.913 


8,058 


Illinois,  tp.  of  Pope  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  16j7. 

Illinois,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  Ark.     Pop.  1200. 

Illinois  and  i>licliigan  Canal.  This  importantline 
of  commuuieation  unites  Lake  Michigan  with  the  navigable 
waters  uf  the  Illinois  River — that  is  to  say.  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico — and  the  summit-level 
of  the  canal  lies  about  580  feet  above  tide-water.  The  near 
approach  of  these  waters  to  each  other  was  known  to  the 
curly  fur-traders  and  Indian  misi^ionaries  of  Canada.  By 
the  Fo.x  River  (by  Green  Bay)  and  the  Wisconsin  River, 
Father  Marquette,  the  Jesuit,  passed  from  the  lake  to  the 
Mississippi,  descending  that  river  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Illinois,  lie  returned  to  the  lake  by  this  last-named  stream 
and  Chicago  River,  having  to  make  but  short  portages  at 
the  two  intermediate  points  ;  this  in  the  year  lli7.'i.  Soon 
after  the  formation  of  the  State  of  Illinois  from  the  North- 
■we.-it  Territory — say,  in  the  year  1S22 — Congress  granted 
the  right  of  way  through  the  public  lands  "  for  the  route  of 
a  canal  connecting  the  Illinois  River  with  the  southern  bend 
of  Lake  ^Michigan,"  and  in  the  year  1S27  a  further  grant 
was  made  to  aid  the  State  in  the  construction  of  a  canal — 
viz.  a  quantity  of  land  "  equal  to  one-half  of  five  sections 
in  width  on  each  side  of  the  canal,  reserving  each  alternate 
section  to  the  U.  S.  from  one  end  of  the  said  canal  to  the 
other;"  this  and  a  .^similar  grant  made  to  tlie  State  of  In- 
diana, also  in  1-S27,  for  aid  in  the  construction  of  the  Erie 
and  Wabash  Canal,  constituted  the  first  material  support 
by  grants  of  public  lands  made  by  Congress  under  tlie  sys- 
tem of  *'  internal  improvements,"  so  called  in  that  day. 
The  number  of  acres  included  in  the  grant  to  Illinois  orig- 


L.  P.  BnoCKETT. 

inally  was  280,000;  but  it  having  been  discovered  subse- 
quently that  the  State  had  not  received  its  full  quota  under 
the  terms  of  the  law,  an  additional  32,895  acres  was  granted 
in  the  year  1854,  making  the  aggregate  of  318,895  acres  re- 
ceived by  the  State.  Prior  to  this  grant  of  land  by  the 
U.  S.,  the  State  of  Illinois,  in  the  year  1825,  had  received 
a  rejiort  from  a  board  of  commissioners  appointed  by  tho 
legislature  to  examine  the  route  of  the  proposed  canal, 
favorable  to  tho  project,  stating  tho  estimated  cost  of  five 
several  plans,  varying  in  amount  from  $('ioll,000  to  $71G,0(lO  ; 
the  length  of  the  canal  being  about  100  miles.  In  1829  a 
new  board  of  commissioners  was  organized,  with  authority 
to  construct  the  canal  and  to  dispose  of  the  lands  granted 
by  Congress  to  provide  means  for  carrying  on  the  work. 
In  the  following  year  experimental  surveys  were  made  liv  a 
party  of  engineers  acting  under  the  orders  of  tho  war  de- 
partment, but  their  investigations  were  confined  principally 
to  the  question  of  a  supply  of  water.  In  the  year  1833 
other  surveys  and  estimates  were  made  by  the  State,  and 
tho  engineers  then  employed  reported  the  cost  of  a  canal 
40  feet  wide  and  4  feet  deep  at  $4,04.'!,000. 

It  was  not  until  1830,  however,  that  really  efficient  meas- 
ures were  adopted  for  the  prosecution  of  the  work.  A  board 
of  commissioners  was  again  organized  in  that  year,  with 
authority  to  construct  the  canal,  an  experienced  engineer 
was  appointed,  surveys  were  made,  and  estimates  in  detail 
furnished  for  an  enlarged  work — to  wit,  for  a  canal  00  feet 
wide  at  surface,  36  feet  at  bottom,  and  fi  foet  deep.  The 
estimate  upon  this  basis  for  the  work  and  its  apju-ndages 
was  $S,G."t4,OllO.  The  work  wa^  put  und<T  eontra'-t  in  June, 
1830,  and  was  prosecuted  uninterruptedly  until  Mar.,  1841, 


ILLINOIS  AND   MICHIGAN   CANAL. 


1115 


when  operations  wore  suspended  for  the  want  of  adequate 
means  to  carrv  on  the  same.  In  Feb.,  IS  13,  the  governor 
was  authorised  bv  hiw  to  negotiate  a  loan  of  $1,000,000 
solely  on  the  credit  and  pledge  of  the  caual,  its  lolls,  rev- 
enues and  lands,  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  work. 
The  n'sTotiation  of  this  loan  occupied  more  than  two  years, 
fur  it  w°is  not  until  June,  1S45,  that  the  lull  amount  ol  sub- 
scriptions re.iuircd  was  secured.  At  that  time  a  contract 
wi^  a-rced  upon  and  executed  between  the  .State  of  Illinois 
and  the  subscribers  to  the  loan  of  $1,GUU,UU0.  The  canal 
and  all  its  works,  with  225,000  acres  ol  land  and  LOOO  lots 
in  rhica^o,  Loi-kport,  La  Salle,  etc.,  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  three  trustees,  with  full  authority  to  complete  the 
canal,  sell  the  lands  and  lots,  and,  possibly,  to  restore  the 
canal  and  remaining  property  (after  payment  of  the  loan 
and  the  bonds)  to  the  State  of  Illinois.  .        j.         , 

In  the  original  plan  of  the  canal  it  was  designed  to  make 
a  through  cut  from  the  waters  of  Lake    Michigan  to  the 
main  eastern  branch  of  the  Illinois  Kiver  (the  Dcs  Plaices    : 
bv  this  the  summit-level,  some  SO  miles  in  length,  would 
receive  a  never-ending  supply  of  water  from  the  lake  for 
navi<'atioa  and  for  lockage  of  the  inferior  levels— say,  to 
the  entrance  of  the  main  southern  branch,  the  Kankakee, 
cnterin"  the  Illinois   Kiver  50  miles  below   Chicago,  and 
about  midway  of  the  canal.     The  formation  of  the  land 
between  the  iake  and  the  Des  Plaines  presented  nothing 
formidable  in  appearance,  being   an  almost    flat   prairie, 
more  or  less  wet,  and  rising  only  from  12  to  15  feet  above 
the  ordinary    level   of  Lake   Michigan;    hence  the   plan 
adopted  for"  the  construction  of  the  lino  of  canal  between 
the  two  points  named  established  itself,  as  it  were,  for  there 
seemed  to  bo  no  alternative  to  desire.    However,  during  the 
year  1837  (the  second  season  of  work)  the  cuttings  proved 
to  be  very  difficult  and  e.-ipensive  upon  the  summit  division, 
19  miles  averaging  IS  feet  in  depth,  the  lower  12  feet,  be- 
ing ceincnlcd  clay,  next  8  miles  (Saganski  Loup)  the  cut- 
ting was  in  magnesian  limestone,  U  to  IS  feet  in  depth, 
with  abundance  of  water.    These  results,  as  developed  dur- 
ing the  later  progress  of  the  work,  le  I  to  the  modilication 
of  "the  plan  of  ISlifi.  by  the  act  of  the  legislature  of  1S43,  in 
a  most  important  feature— to  wit,  authority  to  abandon  the 
through  cut,  to  raise  the  summit-level  one  lock  in  height, 
and  to  rely  for  the  supply  of  water  therefor  upon  tho  trib- 
utaries of  the  Illinois  Kiver,  the  Calumet,  Des  Plaines,  etc. 
In  .June,  1815,  the  trustees  before  referred  to  wein placed 
in  possession  of  the  canal,  lands,  etc.,  and  proceeded  to 
organize  their  work  by  distributing  their  duties  among  each 
other,  appointing  a  chief  engineer  and  assistants  (tho  same 
who  had  planned  and  constructed  the  work  from  the  begin- 
ning in  1836),  a  secretary,  land-agents,  etc.     Under  tho  act 
of  lS-13  the  lands  and  lots  were  valued  by  appraisers  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose,  contracts  were  entered  into  lor 
the  construction  of  the  canal  and  feeders,  and  the  work  was 
pushed  forward  diligently  and  successfully  to  its  completion 
and  opening  for  purposes  of  navigation  in  Apr.,  1848,  tho 
same  falling  within  the  period  prescribed  in  tho  act  of  1843 
jiy,  three  years — and  it  may  bo  added  the  cost  of  com- 
pleting the  canal  and  its  subsidiary  works  fell  within  tho 
estimate  male  by  the  chief  engineer  in  tho  year  1843— 
$1,429, fine.     Tills  sum,  added  to  the  previous  cost,  esti- 
mated'at  S4,T40,fi20,  exhibits  tho  entire  cost  at  $6,170,220 
at  the  opening  of  the  canal  for  navigation,  Apr.,  1848. 

VeHcrijiliou  <>/  the   dinrd  aiiri  iM  lKor/«.— Tho   eastern 
terminus  of  the  canal  is  at  the  S.  branch  of  tho  Chicago 
River,  anil  5  miles  from  the  entrance  of  tho  main  stream 
into  the  lake.     The  line  is  direct  to  the  valley  of  tho  Des 
Plaines  at  Summit,  about  8  miles  distant ;  thence  it  pursues 
that  valley  uninterruptedly  to  the  mouth  of  tho  Kankakee 
River,  42  miles,  passing  through   the  towns  of  Loekport 
anri  .I'oliet,  and  receiving  within  the  tlistanco  named  four 
fe„,icr3— Calumet,  Des   Plaints,  Du  Pag.-,  and   Kankakco; 
between  the  junction  of  tho  Kankakee  and  Des  Plaines  tho 
combined  rivers  lake  tho  name  of  Illinois,  and  within  this 
valley  tho  canal  pursues  its  course  to  its  western  terminus. 
La  Siille.  passing  through  the  towns  of  Morris  and  Ottawa, 
and  receiving  tho  important  Fox  River  feeder  at  the  last- 
named  place;  tho  entire  length  of  tho  canal  proper  being 
90  miles.     Tho  difference  of  level   between  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Illinois  River  at  La  Salic  is  1  15  feet,  and  in  tho 
ori"inal    or   through-cut    plan    this    fall    was   distributed 
through  15  locks,  varying  in   lift  from  3}  to  I2i  feet  each. 
Upon  the  modified  or'raised-lovcl  plan  two  additional  locks 
became  necessary- one  of  8  feel  at  the  easlern  end  of  tho 
snmmit-level,  and  one  of  10  feet  at  the  western  end,  the 
difTcrcncc,  2  feet,  being  given  to  the  declivity  between  the 
two  locks.     The  canal  is  96  miles  in  length.  CO  feet  wide 
at  the  surface,  34  feet  at  bottom,  and  6  feet  deep.     The  17 
locks  arc  110  X  18  feet,  designed  fpr  boats  carrying  100  to 

150  tons.  ,         ,„„.., 

There  are  flye  feeders  of  the  aggregate  length  of  2.)  miles, 
all   navigable,  and  40  feet  wi.lo  and  4  feet  deep  ;  4  aque- 


ducts ;  and  7  dams— two  of  tho  last  of  stone  at  Joliet,  for 
crossing  the  river.  There  are  e.xtensivo  basins  at  Loekport, 
Joliet,  Du  Page,  Ottawa,  and  La  Salle;  three  of  these  fur- 
nishing ample  water-power  for  manufacturing  purpo.«cs. 

Notwithstanding  the  full  provision  made  for  a  supply 
of  water  by  feeders  in  the  original  plan,  it  was  found  ne- 
cessary in  the  modified  or  raised-level  to  introduce  a  fur- 
ther supply  upon  tho  summit-level  to  meet  wants  which 
might  bo  produced  by  droughts.     So,  in  addition  to  the 
Calumet  and  Des  Plaines,  it  was  decided  to  add  two  pump- 
in"-engines  (steam)  at  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  canal 
(Bridgeport),  of  power  suflicient  to  raise  any  desired  quan- 
tity of  water  from  the  lake-level  that  might  be  needed  for 
the  summit  and  for  lockages  below.     As  the  lift  was  but  8 
feet  at  an  ordinary  stage  of  tho  lake,  tho  pumping  appa- 
ratus required  was  quite  simple  and  not  costly.     It  con- 
sisted (finally)  of  two  steam-engines,  with  the  power  ap- 
plied to  twowhecis  of  38  feet  diameter,  with  buckets  of  10 
feet  length  or  width,  called,  in  England,  "  scoop-whcels," 
each  wheel  working  in  a  stone  cell  or  chamber,  independ- 
ently of  each  other,  and  each  capable  of  delivering  15,000 
cubic  feet  per  minute  upon  the  summit-level.  The  entire  cost 
of  these  two  machines,  with  all  the  necessary  buildings  and 
appendages,  was  about  $55,000,  and  these  were  continued 
in  use  every  year,  except  the  year  1855,  from  1848  to  1870, 
inclusive.     In  connection  with  this  brief  account  of  these 
useful  auxiliaries  for  purposes  of  the  canal,  they  became 
indispensable  to  the  city  of  Chicago  at  an  early  day  for 
sanitary  purposes.     That  is  to  say,  the  drainage  and  ^cw- 
a-o  of  the  city  were  discharged  into  the  Chicago  River 
for  a  distance  of  five  orsi.x  miles,  their  only  outlet  being  to 
tho  lake  through  the  same  river.     Now,  with  the  wind  in 
a  certain  direction,  the  wafer  of  the  river  could  not  find  lis 
way  into  the  lake;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  forced  back  to- 
wards tho  interior,  and  if  long  continued  the  effect  upon 
the  atmosphere  was  simply  dreadful.     To  obviate  this  evil 
an   arrangement   was  made   with  the  city   aulhorities  by 
which  the  pumping-engines  at  Bridgijiort  were  brought 
into  use,  thereby  withdrawing  the  foul  water  from  Ihe  river, 
emptying  it  in'to  the  summit-level  of  the  canal,  and  as  a 
consequence  substituting  the  pure  water  from  the  lake  for 
refilling   the   river.     At  a   later  day,   when   the  drainiige 
question  became  vital,  the  city  of  Chicago  in  the  year  1865 
obtained  an  act  from  the  legislature  providing  for  the  com- 
pletion of  tho  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  upon  Ihe  plan 
adopted  bv  tho  State  in  1S3G.     Under  the  authority  of  that 
act  tho  original  or  through-cut  plan  was  carried  out— an 
operation  requiring  about  four  years  in  time  and  an  ex- 
penditure of  some  $3,000,000  ;  but  the  great  object  was  sc- 
„,„.„H_.lrninnirn   for  the  city:   for  all  that  part  of  it,  at 


cured— drainage  for  the  city;  for  all  that  pa 
least,  which  lies  upon  the  S.  side  of  the  river,  and  on  tho 
S.  branch,  is  carried  through  the  canal  to  the  Des  Plaines 
River,  and  there  discharged.  Other  means  have  been  pro- 
posed, it  is  understood,  for  cleansing  and  purifying  the  N. 
branch,  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  with  like  good  results. 

In  connection  with  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  tho 
improvement  of  the  Illinois  River  by  a  system  of  locks 
and  dams  has  been  inaugurated  by  the  Stale  of  Illinois, 
with  some  moneyed  assistance  from  the  general  govern- 
ment. This  river,  for  its  very  moderate  fall,  some  45  feet 
only  from  La  Salle  (outlet  of  the  canal)  to  its  mouth,  a  dis- 
tance of  213  miles,  is  wonderfully  well  adapted  to  improve- 
ment bv  locks  and  dams,  not  more  Ihan  seven,  perhaps, 
being  necessary  to  furnish  an  unbroken  navigation  from 
Chicago  to  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  following  schedule  exhibits  tho  entire  amount  ol 
money  received  and  expended  by  the  board  of  trustees  of 
the  lUinois  and  Michigan  Canal  from  the  organization  of 
the  trust  in  June,  1845,  to  Nov.  23,  1870-23  years: 


OlnssillcaUoD. 


Rocfllptfl. 


Loan  of  Sl,600,000,  principal  and  in 

terest ■• ■ 

Conslnictirm  of  canal,  feeders,  etc... 
Canal-lands,  sah-s,  jirotection,  etc... 
Arrears  of   Interest    on   registered 

bonds •- 

Piinelpal  of  rcKislcred  bonds. 

Maintenance  and  repairs  of  canal 

and  feeders " 

Tolls,  collections,  inspectioos   and 

salaries 

Canal  daniaKc.s.  flowaRO,  etc 

(Jeneral  expenses  and  contingencies 
Premium  on  jrokl  for  dividends  on 

tioiids  payable  in  London 

Interest  and  exebanRP 

Losses    on     "Wildcat"     currency, 

counlerfeit  bills,  broken    banks, 

etc.,  1.14H  to  l.Ht;:i.  Inclusive 

Balanr.'  in  hands  of  treasurer  Nov 

30,  1S70 

Total 


$1,601,891.00 

2,i;t2.25 

4,698,320.02 


111,003.97 
4,385,675.77 

S 


923.27 
179,911.00 


$10,979,861.18 


$2,153,771.31 

1,429,606.21 
115,023.23 

2,l.'>.5,r,22.38 
2,113,840.34 

1,828,802.05 

1!)7,S95.17 

22,163.32 

415,507.71 

362,303.25 
21,073.80 


14,563.52 


11 IG 


ILLINOIS  INDIANS-ILLUMINATI. 


By  analysing  the  figures  in  this  table  the  cost  of  mainten- 
ance repairs,  and  renewals  of  the  canal  and  all  its  works, 
its  feeder.-,  iiumiiing-engiues,  etc.,  for  a  long  series  of  years. 


can  be  usuVullv  exhibited,  to  wit :  91!  miles  canal  iiropcr; 
25  miles  navigable  feeders;  2  pumping-engmcs,  with  uc- 
cessary  adjuncts  of  every  description  :  tlie  cost  per  mile 
per  annum  was  $010,  the  gross  sum  expende-d  therelor  hav- 
nx'  been  Sl.Tl'.SOO.  The  canal  reverted  to  the  htate  ol 
Illinois  in  ISTI.  the  registered  canal  bonds,  principal  and 
interest,  and  the  loan  of  $1,000,000,  princijial  and  mterest, 
havin-  been  paid  by  the  trustees  uu.lcr  the  terms  ot  the 
contract  with  the  State.  The  amount  of  the  hrsl  was 
$4,G:!l,7fi.^,  and  of  the  last,  $2,1.^3,771;  total  of  both 
$8  7S5.j:i7.  Since  Mav,  1S71,  the  canal  has  been  controlled 
and  worked  by  three  commissioners  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose by  the  legislature  of  the  State.  W.  U.  Swikt. 

Illinois  Indians,  a  confederacy  of  tribes,  including 
the  Cahokia,  Peoria,  IvasUaskia.  Tamaroji,  and  Moingwcna 
Indians,  who  were  Algonkins,  and  the  Micliigamcas,  proba- 
bly of  Dakota  race.  Their  principal  territories  were  in 
what  is  now  Illinois,  but  they  also  occupied  lands  W  ol  the 
Mississippi.  They  were  faithful  allies  of  the  French,  and 
were  often  at  war  with  the  non-Algonkin  tribes  and  with 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes.  At  present  there  are  a  few  relics  of 
these  once  powerful  tribes  living  in  the  Indian  Territory. 
The  name  Illinois  means  "  superior  people,"  according  to 
Gallatin. 

Illinois  Industrial  University,  at  Urbana,  county- 
seat  of  Champaign  co.,  Central  Illinois.  It  was  the  first 
collco  established  under  the  laws  of  Congress  of  July, 
lS61°and  .July,  1800,  and  under  acts  of  the  legislature  of 
Illinois  bearing  date  Jan.  25,  Feb.  2S,  and  Mar.  8  1S07, 
"  to  teach  in  the  most  thorough  manner  such  branches  ot 
learnin"  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts  including  military  tactics,  and  not  excluding  other 
scientific  or  literary  studies."  The  Congressional  land- 
grant  amounted  to  -180,000  acres,  which  was  sold  as  scrip 
and  the  proceeds  invested  in  interest-bearing  bonds,  except 
25  000  acres,  which  were  located  in  Nebraska  and  Min- 
nesota and  are  hold  bv  the  university.  The  county  of 
Champai'-n  made  a  donation  of  $450,000  in  buildings,  lands, 
and  farm?.  The  State  of  Illinois  has  for  sever.al  definite 
purposes  contributed  nearly  S.'.OO.OOO.  The  assets  of  the 
university  are  nearly  $1,000,000,  with  a  regular  income  of 
about  SIO.OOO.  The  main  university  building  is  21i  feet 
in  length,  with  two  wings  extending  124  feet  to  the  rear, 
3  storfes  hi-'h,  with  basement  and  mans.ards.  It  has  one 
fireproof  wi'ng,  with  a  library  of  nearly  10,000  volumes,  a 
lan'e  cabinet  of  geological,  zoological,  and  other  specimens, 
and  a  physical  laboratory ;  in  the  other  parts  of  the  build- 
inf  lecture  and  recitation  rooms  for  1000  students,  a  large 
chapel    society   rooms,  etc.     The  old  university  building 


Illinois  River,  the  largest  stream  in  Illinois,  nearly 
bisects  that  .Slate.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  tho  Dea 
Plaincs  and  Kankakee  rivers,  and  flows  S.  W.,  Iravcvsiiig 
Peoria  Lake,  and  reaches  the  Mississippi  Uiver  20  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  navigable  215 
miles  by  steamers,  and,  with  the  canal  from  Chicago  to 
La  Salle,  affords  an  all-water  route  from  tlio  Mississippi  to 
Lake  Michigan.  Its  channel  is  to  bo  dredged  to  the  miui- 
mum  depth  of  four  feet. 

Illiop'olis,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Sangamon  co..  III.,  on 
the  Toledo  Wabash  and  Western  K.  11.,  22  miles  E.  of 
Spriuglield.     Pop.  of  v.  305;  of  tp.  1829. 

Illuminated  .Manuscripts  were  very  common  among 
the  Egyptians,  who  employed  many  colored  figures,  gen- 
erally red:  and  the  art  of  illuminating  manuscripts  was 
probably  practised  by  all  nations  of  antiquity  in  which 
papyrus  and  parchment  were  used.  It  has  been  denied 
that  the  ancient  Romans  illuminated  their  manuscripts, 
but  passages  in  Ovid  and  Pliny  fully  indicate  that  some 
works  were  highly  ornamented  and  illustrated,  liyzanlino 
and  Italian  illuminations  arc  no  doubt  simple  deyclopmcnts 
of  an  ancient  classic  art.  Both  stylos  are  gorgeous  with 
gold  and  bright  colors,  and  deal  very  freely  in  idd  Greek 
and  Roman  architectural  ornaments.  Quite  independent 
of  classic  art  an  origin.al  style  of  illuminating  manuscripts 
sprang  up  in  Great  Britain,  especially  in  Ireland,  whence 
it  was  carried  abroad  by  Irish  munks,  adopted  in  the 
schools  founded  iiy  Charlemagne,  and  spread  all  oyer  Ku- 
rope.  There  is  doubt  as  to  whether  the  elaborately  inter- 
twined knotwork.  generally  called  Kunic,  is  purely  of  Irish 
orifin,  but  there  can  be  none  that  the  most  elegant  appli- 
cations of  it  were  Iliberno-Saxon.  Of  these  works  Mr. 
Digby  Wyalt  remarks,  that  in  delicacy  of  handling  and 
minute  but  faultless  execution  the  whole  range  of  paloeog- 
raphv  offers  nothing  comparable;  a  detailed  description  is 
found  in  Owen  Jones's  Grammar  of  Onmmctit.  With  the 
invention  and  general  introduction  of  the  printing-press  the 
artol  illumination  vanished  from  Europe,  but  the  Persians, 
Arabs,  Turks,  and  Chinese  still  produce  very  delicately 
and  beautifully  illuminated  works,  charming  as  regards 
industry  and  grace,  but  inferior  to  the  European  with  re- 
spect to  strength  and  character.  C.  G.  Lelaxb. 

Illumina'ti  [from  the  Lat.  iUumuiatim.  "  those  who  are 
enli-htcued"].  From  early  times,  both  in  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope, the  mystics  and  thcosophists  of  different  religions, 
belicyin"  that  by  abstraction  and  devotion  to  God  a  diviuo 
li.'ht  wal  shed  on  the  soul,  have  called  themselves  Illumi- 
nati,  or  the  Illuminated,  in  one  language  or  another.  Among 
these  were  disciples  of  Jacob  Bohme,  Swedenborg.  and 
many  others  of  tho  scyentccnth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Aboit  100  years  ago,  when  the  most  radical  theories  as  to 
eovernment,  religion,  and  morals  were  inspiring  all  Eu- 
two  ideas  became  prevalent— the  one  of  a  skeptical 


shops,  iron  and  wood  working  machinery,  a  20-horse-power 
engine  of  the  university  make,  mechanical  cabinet,  pattern 
and  paint  room,  foundry,  etc.  The  upper  story  is  one  largo 
drill-hall,  with  armories  and  artillery-rooms  in  towers. 
There  is  a  farm  of  410  acres,  with  large  barn  and  farm- 
house, collection  of  agricultural  implements,  specimen  herds 
of  Durham,  Ayrshire,  Herefordshire.  Devon,  and  Jersey 
cattle.  Berkshire  and  Essex  swine,  Southdown  sheep,  etc. 
The  horticultural  and  experimental  farms.  200  acres,  with 
specimen  orchard  of  3000  fruit  trees,  large  nurseries,  forest 
plantation,  experimental  plots,  farmhouse,  large  barn,  and 
erecnhouscs.  The  university  was  opened  in  1809  ;  in  1871 
women  were  admilted,  and  the  attendance  was  as  follows : 
1800,  78;  1870, 196;  IS71  (254  men,  23  women),  277;   1872 


Law  in  Ingolsladt,  inspi.-,- , ,  ,  .     .       ,    i 

with  whom  he  had  some  personal  quarrel,  and  instructed 
by  certain  passages  in  the  works  of  Bode,  a  professorin 
Frankfort,  conceived  the  idea  of  a  secret  society  which 
should  unite  all  mankind  in  brotherly  union,  introduce 
iustice,  abolish  all  abuses  resulting  from  priestcraft  and 
aristocracy,  extend  education,  surround  kings  with  wise 
counsellors,  and  in  short  reform  society.  This  union 
foundcl,  it  is  said.  May  1,  1770,  received  at  first  for  its 
members  the  name  of  Pcrfectibilists,  and  then  Illuminati 
A  mystical  and  m:.gical  order,  called  the  11  umines  of 
Avr^non,  had  been  already  founded  in  1760  by  Pernety 
and  Grabianca.  It  does  not  appear  that  \\  e.shaupt  in- 
clined to  magic  or  Rosicrucianism  ;  in  fact,  his  quarrel 


neering  and  architecture;  (3)  colleg 
chemistry,  and  n.atural  history:  (4)  college  of  literature 
and  art;  (5)  school  of  commerce;  (fi)  school  of  military 
science:  (7)  school  of  domestic  science  (for  women).  Dr. 
J.  M.  Gregory  is  regent  of  the  university  ;  the  faculty  con- 
sists of  13  professors,  9  assistants,  and  0  foremen  in  the 
practical  departments.  The  management  of  affairs  is  in 
the  hands  of  aboard  of  IrusteesofO  members,  who  elect  their 
president.  They  arc  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 
State,  who  himself,  with  the  president  of  the  State  Agricul- 
tural Society,  is  an  ex-officio  member.  This  university  is 
forbi<lden  by  Slate  law  to  e<mfer  degrees,  but  gives  certifi- 
cates of  scholarship,  with  record  of  all  studies  pursued,  and 
standing  attained  in  each.  S.  W.  SnATTtcK. 


ind  major.  Scotch  kniglil.  epope  or  priest,  regent  or 
prin«.  illuminatus,  magus,  and  king.  -As  >»»'>  ■"-"•<■"" 
'of  old.  Weishaupt  led  his  pupils  through  different  grades 
of  free  thought  up  to  complete  "  emancipa  ion.  A  noted 
writer.  Baron  Adolph  Fii'inz  Fried.  Lndwig  von  knigge, 
joined  the  order,  and  through  his  influence  it  rapidlj  in- 
creased  Weishaupt,  who  was  a  weak  man,  could  not  re- 
frain from  expressing  to  his  neophytes  his  ■advanced  opiii- 
i  ions,  and,  moved  by  fear  or  jealousy,  q'""-"  '7\  "  '^^ 
Kni"K0.  This  resulted  in  complete  exposure,  and  works 
appeared  revealing  all  the  secrets  of  the  order.  On  Jan. 
■>•'  1784  an  edict  was  issued  for  its  suppression  in  Bavaria. 
W'^eishaupt  was  dismissed  from  the  university,  and  retired 


ILLUMINATION— IMAGK-WOKSHIP. 


1117 


to  Ratisbon  and  llalle,  where  he  d.  1830,  aged  eighty-three. 
He  had  use*!  German  Masonry  to  forwunl  his  views,  hav- 
ing been  in  advunuo  of  it  as  regards  puliliciil  radicalism; 
French  Freemasonry  ia  its  turn  borrowed  largely  from 
Illumineeism,  the  latter  being  introduced  into  the  seven 
Musonic  lodges  of  Paris  by  Ilode.  who  became  ehief  of  the 
order  after  \Vcisliaupt  lost  \u»  influence.  It  is  said  that 
llhnninati  still  exist;  if  so.  they  are  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  ranks  of  the  Communists.  The  name  Illuminati 
belongs  rightly  tr)  the  QriETisTs  and  Mystics  (wliiih  see), 
who  existi'il  in  one  furm  or  the  other  under  this  name  since 
thL-  earliest  age  of  Christianity,  but  at  present  the  word  is 
popularly  understood  as  applicable  only  to  Weishaupt's 
order.  (For  works  on  this  subject  see  I'Abb^  IJarrucI, 
Mtmoi'rt;  I'rof.  John  Robison,  Pronfa  nf  «  Connpiraci/j 
etc.,  Kdinburgh,  1797;  Pro*>f>t  of  the  I'Jxintence  of  Illumin- 
itm  (an  abstract  of  the  works  of  Barruel  and  Robison),  by 
Seth  Payson,  Charlct^ton  (America),  ls02.  These  works, 
however,  arc  so  prejudiced  as  to  be  of  little  real  value  to 
any  save  the  most  impartial  reader.  Also,  Larousse.  Diet. 
CiiivrrnrUe,  article  "  Illumin6es,"  and  an  article  by  the 
writer  on  the  same  in  iXid  Princeton- KtiHKmt  Monthly  18-12.) 

ClIAItI.ES  G.  Lelanu. 

Illumination.  See  iLLUMisATKn  .Manusckipts,  by 
Chaui.ks  G.  Lkmni),  a.  M. 

lllus'trated  Puhlica'tions  are  those  which  combine 
engravings  and  grapliic  ligurcs  with  lctter-])ress.  The  old- 
est form  \>i  book-illusIratii>n,  that  by  wood-engravings,  is 
slill,  on  the  whole,  the  best.  During  tho  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  still  earlier,  copper-plate  engravings  were  fre- 
quent in  brioks,  but  liad  to  be  separately  printed.  Aqua- 
tint came  next  intct  favor,  but  was  open  to  the  same  objec- 
tion. Finally,  wood-cuts  have  been  restored  to  favor,  and 
in  the  hands  of  the  best  engravers  have  fairly  surpassed, 
for  illustrative  purposes,  an^'thing  ever  done  by  the  old 
masters  of  the  art.  Of  late,  photography,  photozincography, 
photolithography,  nature-printing,  and  a  variety  of  other 
transfer  processes  have  been  considerably  employed,  and 
arc  valuable  for  special  uses,  but  there  is  no  process  yet 
ilcvised  that  is  likely  to  supersede  wood-engraving. 

Illyr'ia,  tp.  of  Fayette  eo.,  Ia.     Pop.  851. 

Illyr'icum,  or  Illyria,  a  name  which  now  has  no  geo- 
graphical or  political  signification,  but  which  at  different 
epochs  has  denoted  important  provinces  of  different  em- 
pires. It  was  in  ancient  times  inhabited  by  a  fierce,  war- 
like, and  savage  tribe,  allied  to  the  Thrncians  anri  addicted 
to  robbery  and  piracy.  The  eastern  i)ortion  of  tho  coun- 
try, corresponding  nearly  to  the  modern  Albania,  was  eon- 
fpiered  in  ;ijy  B.  c.  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  annexed  to 
Slaeedonia.  The  western  portion,  comprising  the  modern 
Datmatin,  Croatia,  Uer/egovina,  and  parts  of  Kosnia,  re- 
nmiue<l  independent  till  the  middle  (»f  the  last  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  when  it  was  conqueroil  by  tlio 
Romans  and  raaile  a  Roman  province.  At  the  >livision  of 
the  Roman  empire  both  Illyris  Gru'ca  and  Tllyris  Romana 
f*'!!  tn  tlic  K;isfern  em])ire,  I)ut  the  Slavic  tribes  which  had 
fettled  in  Illyris  Romana  soon  made  themselves  independ- 
ent. l>iiring  the  .Middle  Ages  Illyricum  was  divided  be- 
tween the  Venetians,  the  Hungarians,  and  the  Turks,  and 
the  name  fell  out  of  use  until  Xapoleon  in  ISO'J  organized 
the  IMyrian  provinces,  consisting  of  (Jarlnthia,  Carniola, 
llalmatia,  Istria,  antl  parts  of  t'roatia,  and  incorporated 
Ihem  with  France.  In  ISl,')  these  provinces  were  formed 
into  a  kingdom  and  annexed  to  Austria.  The  kingdom 
has  since  been  dissolved,  and  for  administrative  purposes 
divided  into  provinces,  but  tho  territories  are  still  Austrian 
possessions. 

limcn'y  a  lake  of  N'orth-wcstern  Russia,  in  tho  govern- 
ment of  Novgorod.  It  is  'M^  miles  long  l>y  2\  broail,  and 
very  rich  in  fisli,  but  untit  for  navigatictn  on  account  of  its 
stormincsa.  The  Volchow  connects  it  with  the  Lake  of 
Ladoga. 

irinrnite,  titanifcrous  iron.     See  Titanates. 

Ilnic'niiim  [from  //"ifn,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Sibo- 
rin.  vvhero  the  ore  is  found],  a  supposed  element  announced 
by  Hermann,  regarded  by  Rose  as  impure  niobium  (eolum- 
bium). 

Ilopan'^o,  a  lake  of  Central  America,  in  the  republic 
of  San  Salvador,  bordering  on  the  departments  of  La  Paz, 
San  Salvador,  and  Cuscatlan,  is  situate<l  in  the  centre  of  a 
very  terfile,  well  populated,  and  well-cultivated  plain,  and 
eelelirated  for  its  beuuly. 

Im'a;;e-wor'ship,  or  IconolatrVf  as  distinguished 
from  ifiolatry,  is  the  adoration  r.f  imiigt's  or  extreme  honor 
paid  to  them  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  According 
to  ancient  legemls,  iniages  of  Christ  are  as  old  na  Chris- 
tianity ;  St.  Luke,  say  they,  left  portraits  both  of  his  divine 
Master  and  of  the  \'irgin  Mary  ;  our  Lord  himself  gave  to 
St.  Ver<)nica   a  liandkercbief  upon  which  his  face  was  mi- 


raculously impressed  :  the  woman  who  was  healed  by  touch- 
ing his  garment  (Mark  v.  2j)  set  up  his  statue  at  Caisarea- 
Philippi.  Some  Greek  controversialists,  whose  assertion  is 
supported  by  Baronius,  afiirm  that  a  council  of  Aniioch  in 
opostolic  times  sanctioned  the  worshiji  of  images;  but  most 
authorities,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  agree  that  they 
were  little,  if  at  all.  used  during  the  first  three  centuries 
after  Christ :  and  the  correctness  of  this  opinion  ie  borne 
out  by  the  silence  of  heathens  on  tho  subject.  They  were 
frequently  reproached  by  the  early  Christians  with  ador- 
ing lifeless  gods,  yet  we  read  of  no  instance  in  which  tliey 
recriminated  ;  nor  during  tho  hist  persecution,  when  Chris- 
tian churches  were  plundered,  were  any  images  seized  in 
them.  Tho  Council  of  Elvira,  about  a.  d.  "M^,  decreed  that 
pictures  were  not  to  be  in  a  ciiurch,  lest  ihey  should  be- 
come objects  of  worship.  In  the  same  century  Epiphanius, 
bishop  of  Cyprus,  having  found  before  the  door  of  a  cer- 
tain church  in  Palestine  a  veil  or  curtain  whereon  was  a 
picture  of  Christ,  tore  it  down,  and  sent  a  plain  one  to  he 
used  in  its  stead.  St.  Augustine  disapproved  of  images, 
which  evidently  were  worshipped  in  liis  time.  "I  have 
known,"  he  says,  ''many  adorers  of  tombs  and  pictures" 
.  .  .  whom  "the  Catholic  Church  condeiiuis  and  daily 
studies  to  correct  OS  froward  ehildrLii."  Tlie  pictures  of 
living  persons  were  frequently  put  in  churches.  That  of 
Paulinus,  bishop  of  Kola,  was  during  his  lifetime  ])laced 
in  the  church  built  by  Scverus.  Paulinus  caused  the  ba- 
silica of  St.  Felix  to  be  adorned  with  paintings  of  Bibhs 
stories,  that  the  jieosants  who  assembled  there  niigbt  have 
their  minds  occupied  with  sacred  sul>jeets.  In  Ihe  sixth  cen- 
tury, Sercnus,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  seeing  that  his  people 
gave  undue  honor  to  images,  caused  those  in  his  diocese  to 
be  defaced  or  broken.  For  this  deed,  wliich  offendeii  many 
]iersons,  he  was  censured  by  (Jregory  the  Great,  who,  how- 
ever, praised  his  zeal  against  the  worship  of  things  made 
by  hands.  From  this  time  image-wtirship  greatly  increased, 
and  in  the  eighth  century  disputes  respecting  it  caused  that 
great  schism  (see  Iconoclast)  which  separated  the  Western 
from  the  Eastern  empire.  The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Nicje a 
(a.  d.  7S7)  were  rejected  by  nearly  all  Western  nations, 
who,  while  adorning  their  churches  with  images,  refused 
to  worship  them,  and  this  decision  was  confirmed  by  tho 
Councils  of  Frankfort  (794),  of  Paris  (S25),  and  of  Aix-la- 
Cliapellc  (829).  Rut  iconolatry  spread  by  degries  through 
the  whole  of  Europe.  Miracles  were  attributed  to  a  par- 
ticular picture  or  statue,  around  which  Hocked  crowds  of 
worshippers  bringing  rich  ofl'erings  to  the  church  wherein 
it  was  placed.  This  preference  for  some  special  image — a 
remnant,  doubtltss,  of  the  old  pagans'  tutelary  idolatry — 
was  discouraged  by  many  wise  ecclesiastics  and  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Mayeuce  (16-19),  which  decreed  that  such 
objects  of  peculiar  devotion  should  be  removed  from 
churches.  The  doctrine,  still  held  by  enlightened  Roman 
Catholics,  that  images  are  mere  reminders  of  Christ  and 
the  saints,  was  set  forth  by  tho  Councils  of  Poissy  (liJCl) 
and  of  Trent  (lOCIi,  .'sess.  25);  the  latter  insisted  tliat  such 
representations  are  to  receive  due  veneration,  not  on  ac- 
count of  any  divinity  or  virtue  in  themselves,  but  because 
honor  is  thus  refleetcd  on  those  whom  tliey  represent.  Tiiis 
same  doctrine  is  very  clearly  explained  by  ^f.  Sanders,  a 
divine  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Both  pictures  and  statues  are  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  Gretk  Church  forbids  statues,  but  this  pro- 
hibition is  comparatively  modern,  for  one  of  the  Virgin 
was  ])laecd  by  tlie  emjicror  .Ldianncs  Zemisces  (a.  p.  970) 
in  tiie  metropolitan  elinreh.  and  was  honored  as  the  pal- 
ladium of  the  state.  And  in  tho  eleventh  century  Alexis 
Comncnus,  needing  money,  caused  many  gold  and  silver 
images  to  be  taken  from  the  churches  and  made  into  coin, 
which  act  I^eo,  bi^llop  of  Clialcedon,  denounced  as  sacri- 
lege. At  tlie  Reformation,  images  were  condemned  by 
Zwinglinsand  Calvin,  but  Luther  regarded  them  as  unim- 
portant ornaments,  useful  for  instructing  the  people;  and 
(lis  followers  still  admit  thim  into  their  places  of  worship. 
They  are  forbidden  by  the  Church  of  England,  though  some 
of  the  more  advanced  Ritualists  defend  their  use. 

Even  after  imagc-worshiii  was  sanctioned  by  the  popes, 
it  was  forbidclen  to  delineate  God  the  Father.  This  may 
be  atlributeil  partly  (<>  the  influence  nf  Gnrtstic  theories, 
partly  to  a  fear  lest  the  idea  of  .Jupiter  should  lie  recalled. 
Paulinus  describes  a  jiainting  where  the  Father  is  rcpre- 
aontcd  by  a  voice : 

"  PIrno  coruseat  Trfnilas  mysterlo: 
Stat Cbrlslus  anno;  vox  Patris  ea-lo  tonat ; 
i;t  per  eolumbam  Splritus  Sanetus  tiuit." 
At   a  later   jterind  (iod  the  Father  was   represented  by   a 
hand  extended  from  clouds,  generally  in  the  attitude  of 
blessing.     After  tlic  twelfth  century  ho  was  depicted  as  a 
venerable  man.  frequently  wearing  royal  or  pupa!   alt  ire. 
Christ  was  at  first  representeil  as  ii  lamb  or  a  lion  :  iifter- 
wards  as  a  man,  generally  of  great  beauty.     \   dove  has 


Ills 


1MA(j1NAKIES. 


always  been  emblematical  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  in  the  twelfth 
ccntjry  artists  began  to  depict  him  as  a  human  being, 
somotinics  very  young,  but  more  ooniuionly  of  mature  age. 
The  cross  is  not  merely  a  symbol  of  Christ's  death,  but  in 
itself  is  an  object  of  veneration.  It  is  pcrsonilied,  as  it 
were,  and  the  details  of  its  history  are  given.  It  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  many  poems,  especially  by  Rabanus 
Mauru.s  bishop  of  Mcntz.  Saints  and  martyrs  arc  repre- 
sented with  certain  appropriate  emblems,  for  details  of 
which  see  Didron's  Iconnr/rapliic  Chrctienne  :  Mrs.  Jame- 
son's  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  etc.        J.I.NET  TucKEY. 

Imag'iliarics  (in  mathematics).  It  is  a  very  remark- 
able and  important  attribute  of  all  s;/mbnh  that,  while  ab- 
solutely c.-iscntial  aids  not  only  to  reasoning,  but  to  the 
very  exnres.sion  of  thought,  they  ever  refuse  to  limit  their 
meaning  to  the  particular  idea  for  the  expression  of  which 
they  were  invented.  From  mere  rn'ds,  tliey  become  not  only 
provocatives  of  thought,  hut,  as  it  were,  rcvealers  of  new 
fields  of  investig.ation.  Thus,  the  symbol  of  euhtractlnn, 
from  being  the  mere  sign  of  a  simple  arithmetical  opera- 
tion, has  become  incentive  to,  and  symbolic  of,  tho  most 
transcendental  of  mathematical  conceptions. 

If,  passing  from  arithmetic  to  algebra  (or  universal  arith- 
metic), wo  .?yraboli7.o  magnitudes  by  letters  a  and  b,  and 
tho  operation  of  subtraction  by  the  minus  sign,  tho  expres- 
sion n—b  IS  symbolic  both  of  the  operation  performed  and 
of  the  result  of  the  oper.ation.  So  long  as  b  is  less  than  a, 
tho  symbolism,  without  any  stretch  of  meaning,  is  complete 
and  simple.  But  what  if  6  exceed  a?  Since  the  given 
magnitude  can  yield  to  the  process  of  subtr.actioo  no  more 
than  itself,  wh.at  can  a  —  b{b  exceeding  n)  indicate  but  an 
impossihilitij  ?  If  we  commence  with  considering  hypo- 
thetical values  of  6  less  than  a,  and  go  on  increasing  them, 
the  remainders  become  smaller  and  smaller,  and  finally  {b 
=  ri)  becomes  zero  (or  nothing),  reaching  the  absolute  limit 
of  m.ignitude,  considered  ns  such  mcrehj.  A  quantity  less 
than  nothing  is  simply  an  "impossibility,"  or  a  contradic- 
tion in  terms.  Nevertheless,  so  long  as  our  subtraction  is 
algebraic  (that  is,  merely  symbolic),  and  the  quantities  a 
aa'd  b  are  indeterminate— that  is  to  say,  represoutatis-es  of 
any  pairs  of  single  values  we  may  have  cause  to  assign — 
wo  operate  algebraically  upon  the  expression  a  —  b  with- 
out concerning  ourselves  with  their  relative  magnitude  ; 
and  if  we  obtain  a  negative  quantity  as  tho  final  result  of 
our  operations,  instead  of  reg.irding  'it  as  imaginary,  or 
involving  in  the  problem  data  of  impossible  fulfilment,  wo 
evade  thTs  by  an  ints-rpretation  which  involves  considera- 
tions other  than  thoso  of  pure  magnitude.  The  geometrical 
idea  of  direction  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  these.  If 
n  and  b  be  supposed  to  represent  linear  extension  (which 
is  but  one  of  many  notions  of  mn'jnitude),  a  +  b  must  re- 
present a  length  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  respective  lengths. 
But  if  a  bo  a  distance  measured  in  tjiren  direction  from  a 
given  point.  th=  adding  of  .another  distance  implies  the  lay- 
\n"  off  of  the  distance  b  from  the  extreme  limit  reached  by  a 
in^the  same  direction:  the  subtracting  will  therefore  imply 
tho  reverse  direction  ;  and  if  6  exceed  a,  the  excess  will  ex- 
tend in  this  reverse  direction  beyond  the  starting-point  of 
the  distance  a.  Thus,  we  have  the  negative  result  a  —  b 
interpreted  as  a  distance  equal  to  tho  absolute  difference, 
but  laid  off  as  a  distance  in  the  rerrrse  direction. 

Now,  it  appears  that  if  wo  multiply  together  algebraical 
or  numerical  expressions  maiie  up  of  several  terms  cto- 
nected  by  the  signs  of  addition  and  subtraction,  +  and  — , 
the  individual  products  resulting  from  the  combination  of 
terms  Bf   multiplier  and  multiplicand  having  like  signs 
must  receive  the  plus  sign  :  of  unlike  signs,  tho  minus  sign. 
Hence,  the  "  rule  of  signs"  of  multiplication  .and  division. 
But  what  meaning  can  we  attach  to  multipUjing  —  n  by  —  h, 
or  (reverting  to   numbers)  —  4  by  —5?     Tho  sign  —  was 
invented   simply  to  indicate  subtraction  without  ulterior 
reference;  its  existence,  therefore,  implies  a  minnend  as 
much  as  it  does  a  subtrahend.     We  have  already  encoun- 
tered the  difficulty  of   assigning  meaning  to  the  isolated 
expression  —  b,  and  now  we  have  another  logical  problem  ; 
we  have  to  use  the  negative  sign  as  an  integral  part  of  a 
multipHcr — i.  c.  to  determine  how  it  shall  operate  in  an 
"operation"  quite  alien  to  the  idea  of  that  particular  one 
to  express  which  it  was  invented.     Algebraists  appreciate 
very  well  the  rationale  of  the  (before-mentioned)  "rule  of 
signs,"  and  we  need  not  dwell  upon  it.     It  is  a  logical  nc- 
cessitv  of  our  agreeing  to  accept  a  —  b  a,s  symbolizing  both 
the  operation  of  subtraction  and   tho  remainder,  without 
reo-ard  to  (still  undetermined,  perhaps)  relative  values  of  a 
nn'l  b.     Wo  have  shown   how  the  "impossibility"  of  a 
"  negative"  quantity  disappears  when  we  call  in  besides  the 
ideas  of  ptiro   phvsical    magnitude   some  of    its   attributes, 
such  as  that  of  direction.     A  negative  dimension  must  be 
interpreted  as  one  laid  off  in  the  rercrsc  direction  to  that 
attributed  to  the  positive  one;  i'.  c.  the  negative  sign  re- 
verses direction.     This  was  arrived  at  without  reference  to 


multijilication;  we  now  see  that  it  is  in  perfect  accordance 
with  the  logic  of  the  latter  algebraic  operation.  If  multi- 
plying by  -(-  1,  one  be  understood  as  taking  the  multipli- 
caud  unee,just  as  it  is,  multiplying  by  —  1  must  be  under- 
stood as  reversing  its  direction.  Logical  as  all  this  is  in  its 
geometrical  interpretations,  we  must  still  remember  that  wc 
have,  in  inventing  a  universal  arithmetic,  departed  very 
far  from  the  simple  meanings  we  assigned  to  the  "  opera- 
tions" of  common  arithmetic.  To  "multiply  "  any  thing, 
or  any  magnitude,  or  any  number,  is  to  take  or  "  repeat  " 
the  thing,  magnitude,  or  number  a  specified  number  of 
times,  llcnce,  muUiplyiug  hg  anything  but  an  arithmetical 
number  is  unmeaning;  still  more  unintelligible  (abstractly) 
would  be  multiplying  by  something  itself  less  than  nothing. 
It  very  soon  appears,  however,  thnt  wc  cannot  make  an 
algebra  without  conceding  wider  n.caning  to  its  symbols; 
and  in  fact  they  have  an  inexorable  logic  of  their  own 
which /o;*ce»  such  extension  of  meaning. 

Since,  by  the  rule  of  signs,  a  negative  quantity  multi- 
plied by  itself  produces  a  positive  product,  we  have  no 
means  of  representing  the  square  root  of  a  negatire  (fuonttti/ 
except  by  indicating  upon  it  the  operation  itself, 
square  root  of  o'^  can  be  written  either  as  -(- a  or 
for  the  square  root        "       '  '*         ^; -- i-- 


Tho 
but 
-  a^  we  have  no  alternative  but  to  write 


(_  n2)i,or  l/— a^;  or,  separating  —  «'•'  into  two  factors,  n' 
and  —  1,  to  perform  the  operation  on  the  first  and  indicate 
it  on  tho  second,  —  1  ;  lhus<r>''—  1.  Hence,  the  symbol  K  —  1 
is  the  symbol  of  "impossibility,"  or,  as  more  commonly 
known,  the  symbol  of  an  "  imaginary  quantity."  Why? 
Because  we  cniinot  interpret  it  by  any  real  representation 
of  magnitude  associated  or  not  with  other  .attributes?  Wo 
have  seen  how  the  absurdity  of  quantity  less  than  nothing 
was  evaded  (geometrically)  by  associating  the  idea  of  direc- 
tion. Now,  if  we  multiply  a,  considered  as  a  line  laid  off 
to  the  right,  hy  V^— 1,  the  analytic  product  is  nl'  — 1; 
midtiply  again,  and  the  second  product  is  —  «  ;  i'.  e.  wc  have, 
by  two  successive  operations,  reversed  the  direction,  as  if 
we  had  revolved  the  length  a  about  its  starting-point 
through  a  semicircle.  Is  it  not,  therefore,  perfectly  logical 
to  consider  one  opei^ation  of  the  V  —  \  to  be  half  this  rota- 
tion— i'.  e.  that  aV^  —  l  shall  indicate  the  length  laid  off  in 
the  direction  perpendicular  to  the  direction  chosen  for  a? 

So  long  as  we  deal  with  dimensions  of  ?f  "•/(// only,  and  inter- 
pret these,  when  real,  geometrically  by  one  single  Hue  of  real 
direction,  this  interpretation  of  V  -1  is  logical  and  consist- 
ent. If  we  concede  that  the  application  v'-  1  be  interpreted 
as  indicating  a  direction  perpendicular  thereto,  and  further- 
more that  the  sum  of  a  -|-  ll^  —  1  be  the  distance  accnm- 
pVished  from  the  origin,  .after  traversing  the  distance  n  in 
the  fixed  direction,  and  then  the  distance  6  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  thereto,  and  call  this  accomplished  distance 
p  (involving  also  the  conception  of  its  direction],  and  call 
the  linear  distance  r,  we  shall  have  p  =  (a  -(- 1 V  —  l).  Let 
9  bo  the  angle  which  p  makes  with  the  direction  o[_a;  then 
tho  foregoing  is equi\'alent  top^=  r  (cos9  +  sin  «l/—  l).  If, 
by  Maclaurin's  theorem,  t*>'-i  be  developed  (f  being  the  Na- 

pierian  logarithmic  base)  into  1  +  ''— l~'2~2;i 

— — .  etc.,  wc  shall  find  two  sets  of  terms — one  real,  and 

2.3.4' 

the  other  having  V  —  1  as  a  factor ;  the  sum  of  the  first  set 

makes  up  the  algebraic  development  of  cos  9 ;  the  sum  of 

tho  others  that  of  sin  e\/^l ;  hence,  the  equation,  which 

is  the  connecting  bond  between   exponentials  and  circuiar 

functions  (the  so-called  "  transccndcntals  "), 

c»l'rT=  cos9  +  sin«l/-l.  (1) 

Hence  also  _  

r(cos  e  +  sin  ev'—\)^  re*' ->  =  p. 
Wc  must  therefore  interpret  <•*''-  '  as  the  symbol  of  rota- 
tion through  tho  angls  0  :  and  as  9  may  be  any  angle  wliat- 
cver,  it  readily  follows  from  (1)  that 

l/_  1  =  (cos  »  +  sin  01 


1  .     1 

cos  —8  +  sin  ^  e 


■1 


(2) 


a  result  well  known  as  "  Dc  Moivrc's  theorem." 

Tho  conception  of  multiple  roots  of  unity— the  assump- 
tion of  their  necessary  existence— is  a  secondari/  one ;  and 
tho  conception  and  tlio  assumption  come  not  from  the  na- 
ture of  things,  but  as  corollaries  of  the  logic  of  our  sym- 
bolism. The  idea  of  "powers"  and  "roofs"  is  based  on 
numbers;  nothing  can.  in  the  strict  and  original  meaning 
of  multiplication,  multiply  itself  by  itself,  but  a  number. 
Hence,  there  is  no  other  root  of  unity  Aiif  unity.  Our  alge- 
braical symbolism  has  carried  with  it  an  extension  of  the 
idea  of  multiplication,  and  has  created  a  "rule  of  signs  " 
by  which  we  have  come  to   regard  -  1  also  as  a  real  root. 


IMAGINARIES. 


1119 


For  the  idea  of  $fiil  more  "roots" — of  roots  in  number 
equal  to  the  degree — //m/ comes  from  other  considerations. 
Ir  wp  multiply  l<>j;ether  u  factors  of  the  form  .r  —  a,  a*  —  h, 
X  ~  c,  etc.,  wc  ohtiiin  an  anali/tical  expression  of  the  nth 
degree  in  x  of  the  form 
x"  +  {a  +  6  +  c,  ctc.)a-'*-*  +  {ab  +  nc  +  he  +,  etc.)  a:»- ^ — 

{abc  -i-,  etc.),  x"  ~  ',  etc ±  abed 

A  superficial  examination  will  shoiv  tho  law  by  which 
the  coelfRMcnts  of  tho  different  powers  of  x  arc  formed  from 
the  N  symbols  *7,  It,  r,  etc. ;  that  the  iudopeiuluiit  term  is 
(abalractiun  made  of  bujiim)  iUq  product  o/  thnu  ail.  Con- 
versely, given  an  expression  of  the  Hth  degree, 

X"  +  vla-«-i  -f  Bx^--  ....   JrQy 
it  should  be  resolvable  into  factors  ar —  «,  x  —  6,  etc.,  of 
which  the  n,  ft,  r,  etc.  would  be  determinable  in  terms  of 
tho  n  ijiren  coofTicicnts  A,  li,  C .  .  .  .  and  Q ;  just  as,  £/i'yc», 
a,  bj  c,  etc.,  w©  have  tho  values  of 

A  =  -  {'t  +  b  +  c  ^  d,  etc.), 

B  =  +  {ab  -}-  6c  +  ac,  etc.), 

Q=  iz{abcd  ....); 
so  wo  should,  conversely,  havo  u  ditfcrcnt  expressions  for 
a,  by  c,  etc.,  as  onalt/fical  comhinationfi  o/ A,  /i  .  .  .  .  Q : 
combinations  which  liave  no  reference  to  A,  ft  ...  .  etc., 
as  reprvsentations  of  ina'juitnde  or  ffunntttativc  value  (to 
which,  indeed,  we  havo  made  no  reference),  but  which 
should  result  from  certain  laws  of  nuali/tical  combination. 
For  all  analytical  expressions  of  the  2d,  3d,  and  4tb  de- 
grees, and,  exceptionally,  for  some  cases  of  tho  higher  de- 
gree, we  huno  these  combinati()ns  ;-  but  whether  wc  know 
them  or  not,  they  aro  supposed  to  he  determinable,  and  in 
the  sense  of  Kifinbolic  determinations  they  would,  if  found, 
all  be  real.  Thus,  for  the  2d  degree  we  would  have 
a  =  —  1  ^  +  i/ 1  A'l—Q, 

These  arc  tho  two  analytical  or  symbolic  roots  (as  they 
may  properly  be  callc;!).  Substituted  for  «  and  b  in  tho 
factors  X  —a,  x'—  b,  their  product  becomes  x^  -f-  Ax  +  Q, 
(the  given  expression)  ;  and  in  like  manner  we  should  ob- 
tain x"  +  Ax"—^  4-  lix"—^  ....  4-  ^,  had  we  the  u  cor- 
responding expressions  for  a,  ft,  c,  etc.  If,  now,  wo  pass 
to  (juantitatirn  considerations,  and  ask  for  vulnrHof  x  which 
shall  render  tho  above  expression  "equal  to  zero,"  wc  rec- 
ognize that  tho  very  "roots"  we  have  obtained  arc  the 
symbols  of  such  values.  Does  it  follow,  therefore,  that 
there  arc  »  diffcrcot  quantitative  values  for  x?  By  no 
means. 

If  it  turns  out,  on  coming  to  assign  values  (that  is,  on 
converting  uur  svmbols  into  specific  magnitudes)  that  Q  is 
greater  than  ^A^  (in  our  expression  of  the  2d  degree), 
thrn  the  diffvyencc  (which  we  may  call  D)  must  have  the 
minus  sign,  and  the  symbol  of  impnssihiliti/  V  —I  makes 
its  appearance,  and  wc  havo 

by  which  wo  learn  that  tho  partirulnr  conditions  cannot  bo 
fullilled  by  any  linear  magnitude;  but  all  this  is  an  after 
consideration.  The  roots  are  "  imaginary  "  because  wo  can- 
not assign  any  idea  of  ''quantity"  or  "magnitude"  to 
them.  Uut  the  two  symbolic  roots  (.T)  are  the  ral  solutions 
of  the  equation,  nevertheless.  And  did  we  /:iioir  how  to  com- 
bine .4,  //  ....  (^,  etc.  for  the  equation  of  ihe  nth  degree, 
wc  should  have  n  symbolic  expressions  for  a,  ft,  c,  d  .  .  .  . 
tho  reolitt/  of  which  (as  distinguished  from  "  imaginary  ") 
is  entirely  a  !>ubordinale  question;  as  analytical  or  sym- 
bolical expressions  they  would  be  always  the  same,  and 
alwayH  real.  If  we  deal  directly  with  uinnhrrs  in  place  of 
tho  letters  A,  //,  C,  etc,  the  positive  or  negative  character 
of  quantities  under  the  radical  sign  arc  indeed  forced  into 
notice  at  once. .  Nevertheless,  it  is  supposed  that  the  sym- 
bolic combinations  which  satisfy  the  conditions^whcthcr 
we  choose  to  call  them  real  or  not — nitiifl  exist.  Hence,  tho 
expression  x"  —  1  =  0  (a  particular  case  in  which  A,  li,  C, 
etc.  aro  each  icro,  and  ^^  —  I)  should  be  resolvable  into 
symbolic  factors,  ii,  in  number.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  wo 
assert  tliat  the  number  of  '•  routs  of  unity  "  must  equal  tho 
indt'X  of  the  degree  of  extraction.  Analysts  have  not  been 
alile  to  disrorer  the  rtymbolic  forma  of  llio  roots  of  the  gen- 
eral equation  of  tho  »th  degree.  Nor  havo  they  been  ablo 
to  solve  (/(Vf//</ the  particular  form  jr"  —  I  =  0.  They  know, 
however,  that  had  they  the  tjcneral  solutions  for  a,   ft,   c, 

etc.  in   terms  of  A,   It,   (' Q,  by  making  in  them 

^^—1  and  A,  Ii,  (\  etc,  zero,  they  would  obtain  ii  dif- 
ferent symbolic  expressions,  each  of  which  would  havo 
unity  for  its  nth  power;  and,  moreover,  thoy  would  havo 

•  It  U  curiously  illustrative  that  for  tho  cnso  of  three  real 
roots  for  equal iou.H  of  (he  third  dt'cn-e.  Ihi-sc  LoinliinallonH  nro 
so  piindy  inia/t/firitl  that  they  caunot  be  interpreted  as  expres- 
slotis  of  mai;nltude. 


^  =  (— 1)  for  their  product,  and  A  (zero)  for  their  sum, 
and  B  (zero)  for  sum  of  products  taken  two  and  two,  etc. 
Inasmucii  as  none  of  them  can  be  zero,  and  no  combination 
of  +  1  and  —  1  can  meet  these  conditions,  the  sole  remain- 
ing symbol  (for  all  even  degrees  of  extraction  resolve  into 
this)  r  —  1  must  enter  ;  and  the  roots  containing  it  must  be 
tn pairs  involving  like  terms  multiplied  by  it  with  contrary 
signs,  so  that  the  sum  of  thum  all  (which  constitutes  the 
coefficient  A ),  and  the  sum,  in  pairs  (which  constitutes  Ii), 
etc.,  shall  all  be  zero. 

But  such  tjencral  analytic  combinations  have  never  been 
arrived  at  (except  for  a  few  of  the  lower  degrees)  by  alge- 
braic solution.  The  real  symholie  relation  tietwecn  expo- 
nentials and  circular  functions  indicated  by  Be  Moivre's 
theorem  (already  given)  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  roots 
of  the  particular  form  ,r"  —1. 

Suppose  d  to  be  zero  or2Tr,  or  any  even  multiple  2m  of  n- ; 

the  second  member  of  (2)  becomes  1" ,  while  the  first  mcm- 

2m  2m  — -      ^      ,'-     , 

bcr  cos  —  It  +  sin  —  n  i/—  1.    For  1»* ,  therefore,  we  get 

n  n        *^ 

as  many  symbolic  expressions  for  the  Hth  root  of  unity  as 
wc  can  give  different  forms  to  the  first  member  by  assign- 
ing to  ;/)  values  from  zero  to  n.  If,  e.  //.,  we  take  12  for  tho 
value  of  j(,  wc  have  the  twplvc  roots,  grouping  them  in 
pairs  (since  cos  30°  =  cos  330°  and  sin  30°  =  —  sin  330°,  etc.). 

cos      0°±sin      0°  V^-  1  =  -|- 1, 

cos    30° ±  sin    30°/-l  =  i  V3±j  /- 3, 
cos    00°  ±  sin    00°  l/-lj=i±^j/3l/— 1, 

cos    90°  i:  sin    90°  l/— J_=  ±  l/- 1,    _     

cos  I20°isin  ]20°l/-l  =-\h\V^V~\, 
cos  150°  ±  sin  1  J0° /-J_=  -  |  l/3±  J  l/  — 1, 
cos  1S0°  ±  sin  180°  /-  1  =  -  1. 

In  tho.  sense  of  being  symholic  solutions,  these  expres- 
sions aro  truly  and  perfectly  such,  and  therefore  completely 
real,  ^\'e  sec  also  how  curiously  these  solutions  knd  them- 
selves to  interpretation — almost  flow  from — the  geometri- 
cal interpretation  of  direction,  or  the  mechanical  one  of 
rotation.  Each  one  of  these  roots,  thus  interpreted,  indi- 
cates a  unity-line,  or  radius,  rotated  from  the  normal  -|-  1 
direction  tbrongh  an  angle  which,  tnelre  times  repeated,  re- 
stores that  radius  to  that  normal  ])OsiXon. 

For  many  fields  of  investigation  this  wholly  logical  in- 
terpretation of  V-^  — 1,  or  modifications  of  it,  is  fruitful  of 
results.  Ajipliod  to  the  study  of  certain  funt-tions  of  a 
eintjlc  variable  (that  is,  of  a  single  gcotnetrical  dimension), 
it  led  to  the  discovery  by  Abel  of  douljlr  periodiciti/  in  cer- 
tain important  and  well-known  functions,  the  theory  of 
which,  as  developed  by  (.'auchy,  has  led  to  results  of  great 
importance.  From  what  goes  before,  it  need  excite  no  sur- 
prise that  the  consideration  of  imnginarirs — so  called — has 
played  so  important  a  part  as  it  Inis  done  in  the  theory  of 
equations,  and  it  seems  (le->tincd  to  equal  potency  in  de- 
veloping the  theory  of  functions.  "  IJut,"  say  the  au- 
thors f  of  the  Theoric  des  fonctions  douitlement  p^riodique, 
"to  comprehend  tho  importance  of  this  idea  wc  must  do 
away  with  the  sort  of  antagonism  or  opposition  which  has 
been  permitted  to  subsist  betwei-n  what,  up  to  the  present 
time,  have  been  called  real  and  iinaifinari/  quantities." 

Would  it  not  be  more  correct  to  say  that  when  wo  resort 
to  symbols  as  aids  to  reasoning,  wo  should  dismiss  tho  idea 
of  quantiti/  (to  which,  after  all,  wc  attach  no  very  precise 
notions,  blending  in  various  ways  Ibc  fundamental  notions 
of  uui(fnitn>lr  and  numbr.r  with  sundry  ineidiMituls  thereto), 
and  simply  accept  all  Ibc  forms  which  under  the  laws  of 
symbolization  mako  their  appearance,  as  real ;  nt  least  so 
long  as  they  are  merely  serving  their  nurposc  as  aids  to 
reasoning.  There  should  then  never  liave  been  a  doubt 
concerning  tho  legitimacy  and  (ruth  of  solutions  obtained 
through  agencies  or  intervention  of  tho  so-called  imngi- 
naries. 

In  thus  claiming  reality  for  tho  imaginary  forma  ns  le- 
gitimate symbolic  instrunu  nis  of  investigation,  it  is  not  to 
be  understood  that,  though  geometrical  interpretation:"  have 
been  found  for  imaginary  expressions  where  only  linear  di- 
mension is  concerned,  all  imaginary  forms  are  susceplililc 
of  or  nrrd  other  interpretation  than  that  of  *'  impo^9ibility." 

Tho  Cartesian  equations  of  tho  circle  and  the  right  lino 
involve  tiro  dimensions  of  space  measured  by  a  common 
linear  unit.  We  cannot,  therefore,  use  either  as  a  direction 
indicated  by  k— 1.  If  wo  eliminate  between  them  tho 
symbol  representing  one  of  those  dimensions  (//,  for  in- 
stance), wc  havo  an  '*  equation  "  of  tho  2d  degree  in  .r,  tho 
two  roots  of  which  are  tliuso  values  of  x  for  which  t/  is  tho 

tBrlot  ct  Bouquet  (Paris,  1859). 


1120 


IMAGINATION. 


same  in  the  two  equations:  in  other  words  anil  geometri- 
cally spcakini.  the  two  roots  correspond  to  the  abscissie  of 
the  two  inlersections  of  the  line  with  the  circle. 

If  the  perpendicular  distance  of  the  lino  from  Iho  centre 
exceed  the  nuiius  of  the  circle,  there  can  be  no  intimeelion; 
but  (his  ia  a  matter  which  results  from  assigning  definite 
values  to  the  symbols  by  which  these  relations  arc  deter- 
mined. Hence,  these  annli/iicnt  roota  must  always  exist 
under  forms  irrespective  of  such  assignment,  and  icliellicr 
there  he  inlri-tectiiin  or  not.  If  there  be  no  intersection, 
there  can  be  no  linear  value  of  .t,  answering  as  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  result;  if  there  were,  it  would  be  in  direct 
conflict  with  the  geometrical  fact,  and  prove  our  symbolic 
logic  wrong.  The  symbol  V  —1  which  first  revealed  itself 
as'one  to  which  no  "idea  of  pure  magnitude  could  be  as- 
signed, hero  comes  in  very  logically  {after  specifying  iidues) 
as^the  symbol  of  geometrical  impossibility.  Both  planar 
direclioiis  of  space  have  been  appropriated  otherwise,  so 
that  our  former  interpretations  are  excluded,  and  whether 
there  may  or  may  not  he,  nevertheless,  some  logical  inter- 
pretation, is  another  question.  For  such  a  case  that  of 
"  impossibility  "  is  wholly  sufficient,  and  the  expression  of 
it  neeetfiri/.  Xeverthclcss,  the  processes  of  analysis — and 
this  is  the  point  to  be  insisted  on — take  no  account  of  the 
distinction  between  real  and  imaginary,  so  important  in 
pure  geometry.  If.  in  the  above  example,  wo  take  the 
combined  figure  of  circle  and  intersecting  line  and  deduce 
certain  properties  (e.  //.  those  concerning  poles  and  poliirs), 
such  properties  may  liobl  true  and  be  predicated  on  purely 
analytical  grounds  (see  Salmon,  Coiii'e  .S'ccfioim),  though  there 
be  no  real  intersections.  This  principle  "of  continuity" 
is  but  another  form  of  the  proposition  that  the  so-called 
'•  imaginary  "  forms  of  symbols  are,  in  the  purely  symbolic 
rcgioiTs  ofthought  to  which  they  legitimately  belong,  as 
real  as  any  other  symbolic  forms. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  notion  of  "  n  roots  "  to  every 
equation  of  the  nth  degree  is  a  purely  analytical  conception, 
founiled  upon  the  assumption  that  since  the  A,  B,  V,  etc. 
of  the  equation  are  easily  derived  from  the  n,  b,  c,  etc.  of 
the  factors  (.r  — n)  (x— 6),  etc.,  when  the  latter  arc  known, 
the  iitcertte  openitiitn  must  tie  practieabfe.  But  it  is  not.  and 
it  may  be  safely  asserted,  I  think,  that  our  algebraic  sym- 
bols are  iinl  mi'aeeplibU  of  thi-  required  combinntiom.  All 
eflTorts  to  find  them  have  failed  for  equations  of  higher  than 
the  4th  degree.  It  is  reasoned,  indeed,  that  there  viuH  be 
certain  funeiloni  of  A,  H,  C  to  express  such  real  values  of 
3-  as  will  satisfy  the  equation,  since  these  values  depend 
vpon  those  of  the  coefficients.  But  this  is  another  ques- 
tion :  the  hypothetieally  realizable  analytical  solutions 
could  make  no  distinction  between  "real"  and  "  imagi- 
nary ;"  they  could  differ  from  one  another  only  by  permn- 
tnlioiis  of  letters  and  signs,  while  the  distinction  of  "  real  " 
and  "  imaginary  "  is  an  ofter  result  ensuing  in  the  transi- 
tion from  the  general  to  the  particular.'^  I'lJiics,  indeed 
(if  there  be  such),  which  satisfy  the  equation  may  be  found 
with  all  desired  accuracy  by  the  tentative  and  test  pro- 
cesses known  to  the  "theory  of  equations"  and  "higher 
ab'cbra."  but  these  are  not  "  roots  "  in  the  nuttli/tieni  sense. 
It°would,  therefore,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  be  quite  war- 
rantable to  say  that,  instead  of  "  ii  roots,"  there  are  (in 
general)  no  rn'ola  iil  nil  to  an  equation  of  the  >ith  degree, 
where  >i  exceeds /our.  Conceptions  duo  to  symbolism,  the 
symbolism  which  should  exhibit  them,  is,  at  yet,  quite  as 
"imaginary  "  as  the  so-called  "  imaginaries  "  for  which  I 
have  claimed  a  logical  ralson  d'etre,  and  a  reality  not  only 
as  agents  of  thought,  but  as  true  analytical  solutions.  That 
a  higher  transcendental  analysis  may  yet  give,  in  visible 
form,  a  "local  habitation"  to  these  "airy  nothings,"  is 
quite  possible,  and,  indeed,  is  rendered,  by  the  theorem  of 
Cauchy,  and  by  other  considerations,  quite  probable. 

J.  G.  Barnard. 
Ima^jina'tion  [Lat.  I'nm^o,  an  "imago;"  imnfiimiri, 
to  "  imagine"].  An  image  is  simply  the  representation  of 
anything  formed  of  real  substance,  but  as  in  early  times  it 
generally  set  forth  some  being  which  had  only  a  fancied 
existence,  it  soon  became  the  base  of  a  verb  signifying  not 
only  the  voluntary  creation  in  the  mind  of  literal  things, 
but  all  formation  of  iileas  or  representations  by  modifying 
and  oombiuing  conceptions.  The  first  stage  is  clearly  set 
forth  by  Glauvil  when  he  says,  "  Now.  our  simple  appre- 
hension of  corporal  objects,  if  present,  we  call  gmite  ;  if 
absent,  we  properly  name  it  imnffination."  From  this  root, 
imatjo,  which  according  to  Vossius  and  Festus  is  derived 
from  imilor,  to  "imitate"  'ab  imitatioue  dietn),  came  sev- 
eral words  bearing  varied  meanings,  as.  for  instance,  imaijt- 
notim,  "  whimsical,  full  of  strange  fancies  "  and  "  conceits," 


and  Smarflnntut,  "  fashioned  or  formed  :"  in  all  of  which  tho 
English  language  has  unfortunately  not  only  followed  tho 
Latin,  but  even  gone  beyond  it.  as  when,  for  instance,  wo 
hear  "  I  imagine  that  you  are  in  the  right."  instead  of  "  I 
think  "  or  "  believe."  The  consequence  of  this  weakness, 
so  characteristic  of  Latin  derivatives,  has  been  to  burden 
a  few  words,  all  from  the  same  source,  with  very  difl'crcnt 
meanings,  the  further  result  being  frequently  a  great  con- 
fusion of  ideas,  even  among  good  writers.  .According  to 
Adilison.  all  that  is  pleasurable  to  the  imagination — i.  e. 
all  that  engages  its  active  powers — is  reduced  to  greatness, 
novelty,  ancl  beauty.  Thus,  the  imaf/hiary  here  chiefly  in- 
volves three  of  the  noblest  attractions  which  can  give  value 
to  a  work,  while  Blair,  on  the  contrary,  uses  it  to  signify 
simply  the  worthless.  The  German  word  for  imagination, 
Einhildmiij  (i.  c.  in-  or  on-buildingi,  is  derived  from  liild, 
an  "  image,"  but  is  more  accurately  defined  and  ripplied 
than  its  English  synonym.  "  It  is,"  says  Kant,  "  the  power 
to  bring  an  image  when  absent  before  the  perception  ;" 
while,  according  to  Fichte,  "  it  is  the  ability  to  imotje  under 
the  name  of  imagination."  In  analyzing  the  faculty  we 
may  first  observe  that  when  wc  recall  the  image  of  any- 
thing we  simply  remember,  and  do  not  in  reality  imagine 
it,  though  many  people  would  misuse  the  word  in  this 
manner.  If  wc  recall  the  image  involuntarily,  but  in  any 
other  relation  than  its  own,  we  exert,  so  to  speak,  a  passive 
imagination.  But  if  we  deliberately  vary  and  combine 
ideas  derived  through  observation  or  memory  into  iicm 
forms  and  relations,  wc  then  exert  our  active  imagination. 
When  the  mind  devotes  its  active  power  to  truthful  and 
)iraetical  objects,  wc  recognize  it  as  rensoii  ;  when  it  grati- 
fies simply  taste,  as  for  the  new,  the  beautiful,  or  what  is 
agreeable  through  association  or  culture,  it  acts  as  the  im- 
agination. In  reasoning  we  select  from  or  classify  that 
which  already  exists  or  is  created  ;  in  uuotjiniiiij  we  en- 
deavor with  this  material  to  create.  Hence,  imagination 
is  identified  with  invention  and  originality.  In  verbal  ex- 
pression its  chief  form  is  poetry,  the  identification  of  which 
reation  is  shown  in  the  Greek  origin  of 


'make;"  also  in  the  Old 


•E 


Even  the  appearance  of  an  essentinth/  imaijinnrji  form  i'  —  (i^ 
Id  not  prove  non-reality;  (or  we  have  observed  that  in  the 
simplest  case  of  the  M  degree  real  roots  appear  inextricably  in- 
volved in  imaginary  forms. 


art  with  original  crea 

tho  word  poem's,  from  poet'}),  to  ' 

English  word  mater,  a  "poet." 

Imagination  is  the  guiding  power  in  art,  as  reason  is  of 
science.  In  pure  chemistry,  geology,  or  astronomy  the 
only  object  is  to  ascertain  what  exists.  As  science  becomes 
technology — i.  e.  applied  to  specific  wants,  or  creat  vc — it 
also  assumes  the  character  of  art.  Our  reasoning  power, 
it  may  bo  said,  occupies  itself  with  discovering  that 
which  is  true,  which  in  turn  is  the  basis  of  the  useful; 
but  imagination  ministers  chiefly  and  directly  to  pleas- 
ure. Between  reason  (or  science)  and  art  (or  imagina- 
tion) lies,  however,  a  vast  range  of  the  ap]ilic:ition  of 
skill  to  the  arig,  by  which  plural  we  understand  some- 
thing more  practical  and  useful  than  art  in  its  higher 
forms.  But  as  no  work  of  imagination  can  he  successful 
as  to  the  end  in  view  without  an  outline  of  reason,  so  no 
rational  investigation  and  no  sciences  ajipcal  to  human 
sympathy  unless  they  be  inspired  with  that  spirit  of  orig- 
inality which  is  akin  to  imagination.  It  is  not  unusual 
to  say  of  men  who  write  on  the  driest  topics,  though  they 
confine  themselves  strictly  to  the  subject,  that  they  are 
(jenial — meaning  that  they  m.anifcst  the  keen  and  active 
interest  caused  by  genius,  and  are  quick  to  perceive  and 
set  forth  what  is  new.  .^uch  mind?  arc  those  in  which 
imagination  is  active  and  makes  itself  felt,  even  while 
strictly  reasoning.  The  poet  without  reason  becomes  fan- 
tastic, or  so  unreal  that  his  works  are  most  widely  remote 
from  aim  or  usefulness  ;  while  the  man  of  science  without 
imagination  sinks  into  the  mere  analyst  and  dull  investi- 
gator, who  plays  only  a  secondary  part  in  the  pursuit  of 
truth.  The  concurrent  opinion  of  mankind  establishes  the 
fact  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  beauty,  and  a  comparison 
of  human  intellect  and  of  natural  laws,  as  developed  in 
form  and  color,  gives  us  an  approxiiiuite  standard  of  tho 
beautiful.  The  Venus  of  Milo  is  not  only  beautiful  be- 
cause people  have  been  trained  to  think  so.  but  because 
anatomy  has  determined  that  practical  perfection  agrees 
with  the  so-called  rrstheiie.  Now.  as  the  exercise  of  tho 
imagination  is  a  pleasure,  and  as  the  beautiful  is  a  pleas- 
ure, the  two  possess  a  common  ground  :  and  it  is  with  the 
latter  that  the  former  is  chiefly  occupied.  It  is  true  that 
the  imagination,  like  nature,  can,  and  often  does,  display 
its  power  in  that  which  is  repulsive,  but  in  precisely  tho 
same  proportion  both  seem  to  act  most  naturally  on  the 
agreeable,  the  harmonious,  or,  in  a  word,  on  the  beautiful, 
ifencc  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  greatest  artists, 
whether  painters  or  sculptors,  and  the  best  poets,  are  also 
the  most  imaginative  of  men;  and  it  is  certain  that  the 
first  among  them  have  devoteil  their  powers  to  setting  lorth 
that  which  is  most  purely  agreeable — that  is.  what  is  most 
beautiful.  The  craving  for  novelty,  variety,  and  contrast 
is  a  deeply  seated  want.  Nature  herself  indicating  this  in 


IMBECILITY. 


1121 


the  constant  chanson  nnd  effects  which  she  makes  in  colors 
ami  ID  ill!  thing.s.    When  the  imaginntion  leaves  the  purely 
beautiful,  nnd    busies   itself  more  with  widely  viirifd  ele- 
ments for  the  sake  of  grotifying  the  taste  for  clianfje  and 
contrast,  it  <lovcIu|iP  the  appnlling,  the  sturtliiii:.  the  gro- 
tesque or  quaini  ;   :\nd  when  6omc  reinnrkable  incongruity 
presients  at  the  same  linio  a  resemblance  to  sonii-lhing  con- 
gruous and   real,  it   gives  us   humor  with  its  subordinate 
form,  wit.     Hence  we   may  say  that  a  writer  has  a  witty 
imagination,  or  one  which  is  humorous,  grotesque,  terrible, 
or  appalling.     The  same  general  faculty,  that  of  ereative- 
nes!",  of  originating  fornix  nnd  combinations  which  never 
e.xistcd,  underlies  all  these  different  developments.     It  may 
be  observed  that  there  are  arts  in  which  a  great  degree  of 
feeling,  whether  of  beauty,  humor,  horror,  or  other  senti- 
ments, may  bo  excited  with  but  little   imagery — /.  c.  with 
comparatively   little    creative   imagination — as   by    music, 
wliich  a<;t8  through  ill-defined  a:>sociation  ;  and   (hero  are 
also  artists  who  can   produce  great  effects   without  much 
imaginative  effort.     For  imagination  is  always  creative  in 
]iroportion   to  its  integrity,  and  though  groat  effects  may 
be  produced,  they  an;  not  due  entirely  to  the  imagination 
of  the  artist  when  by  suggesting  he  causes  the  beholder  to 
complete  the  work  in  bis  own  mind.     Alany  modern  paint- 
ings illustrate  this.     The  connection  of  association  with 
imagination,  as  of  actual  thought  and  mere  emotion,  is  dif- 
ficult to  analyze,  and  yet  it  is  in  this  obscure  realm  that 
our  creative  faculty,  often  with  very  little  material,  exerts 
some  of  its  most  startling  effoLits.     A  flash  of  light  in  dark- 
ness or  a  mysterious  whisper  will  excito  the  imagination 
into  presenting  the  most  extraordinary  forms  or  apprehen- 
sions;  an<l  of  this  we  have  remarkable  illustrations  in  the 
witch-manias,  vampire-faiths,  and  similar  mental  epidem- 
ics which  have  swept  over  Europe.     When  the  brain  is  so 
affected  that  imagination  alone  remains  active,  without  the 
guiding  power  of  reason,  insanity  invariably  exists,  while 
the  mind  utterly  devoid  of  imagination  is  that  of  an  i<liot. 
It  has  been  observed  that  .as  the  flower  precedes  the  fruit, 
so  in  the  history  of  races  the  period  in  which  imagination 
exerts  its  principal  influence  always  goes  bi-foro  a  raoro 
matured  and   rational  age.      Thus,  the  Middle  Ages  pre- 
sented in  contrast  to  the  ninotconth  century  a  carnival  of 
gay,  be;iutifiil,  and  grotesque  life,  inspired  by  imagination, 
on<l  not  without  full   development   of  all  its  darkest  nnrl 
most  mysterious  forms.     Pno  regard  should  be  had  to  the 
true  meaning  of  the  imagination  in  the  use  of  certain  words 
which  partake  of  its  nature.     One  of  these  \s  fnntnfty,  from 
which   is  derived  "fantastic."       It   is  gf-norally  held  that 
the  more  a  work  of  imagination  is  separated  from  tlio  rea- 
sonable, and  the  more  it  is  devoid   of  actual   moaning  or 
what  is  popularly  understood  by  a  moral,  the  more  fantas- 
tic does  it   become.     A   work   may  be  highly  imaginative 
without  being  fantastic,  but  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of 
any  fantastic  work  pro-iceding  from  human  will  which  is 
nit  of    the    imagination.      Dreams    in    their    relation    to 
thought  and  the  colian  harp  in  music  are  purely  fantastic, 
and  the  word  is  well  applierl  to  such  writings  or  paintings 
as  resemble  them.     Closely  allied  to  the  fantastic   Is  tlio 
tfrntitf/nr,  in  which,  however,  th*^  cliief  distint^tion   is  sim- 
ply as  lo  form  ami  material.     When  the  jtarts  of  a  compo- 
sition are  extremely  varieil,  novel,  and  unexpected,  it  is 
grotesque.       It   may  have  both   meaning  and   moral,    but 
while  it  is  in  substance  lik''  the  fantastic,  it  differs  from  it 
in   this,  that    the  fantastic  nerd  not  necessarily  be  varied 
and  novel  in  its  elements  (»r  inspired  with  startling  incon- 
gruities.    Ity /(iiiri/  wo  understand   the  imagination  whon 
it  creates  fantasies.      Common    usage,   however,   while   it 
allows  to  fancy  an  action   in  what  is   light  and   graceful, 
seems  to  separate  it  from  the  fantastic,  as  though  the  latter 
were  more  extravagant  or  more  nearly  allied  to  the  gro- 
tesrjun.     To  fancy  nmy.  in  fact,  be  defined  as  to  iumgino, 
to  believe,  or  to  conceive  without  certainty.     To  fancy  In 
the  sense  of  to  Hke  implies  that  a  downright,  deeply  settled 
desire  is  not  i\'^  yet  in  being,  but  only  that  imagination  has 
surrouncled  the  object  with  ugrecalile  associations.      In  one 
sense,  to  fancy  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  to  imagine,  which 
is,  strictly  Kpeaking,  ineorroct.  since  in  expressing  the  not 
of  imagining  wo   should  qualify  it  with   sonio  word  indi- 
cating whether  it  bo  devoid  of  reason. 

Charles  G.  Lrlanp. 
Imbccil'ity.  The  term  imbeeilily,  at  law,  follows  in 
interpretation  the  etymology  of  the  Latin  ndjoolivo  imie- 
ciffii»,  from  which  it  is  deriverl,  ami  means  "weakness  of 
min<l."  liut  inasmuch  as  its  import,  when  npftlied  to  the 
admeasurement  of  civil  rights  and  responsibilities,  is  one 
of  variable  character,  the  law  treats  it  ns  a  condititm  of 
qiiofi/ird  rather  than  nfmnlutf!  ineompetencv.  Hence,  the 
acts  of  imbeciles,  whether  in  the  nature  of  eontracls.  wills, 
or  torts,  are  always  open  to  the  suspicion  of  lacking  n 
legally  assenting  niintl.  and  as  stich  tin'  former  are  void- 
able wherever  things  can  be  restored  (o  their  previous  con- 
Vui..  II.— 71 


dition.  In  the  Roman  law  a  refined  distinction  was  made 
between  incapacity  arising  from  mental  weakness  and  that 
arising  from  <lisease.  In  the  former  case  it  placed  the 
party  under  a  tutm-,  in  the  latter  under  a  citrfttor.  The 
former  wore  regarded  as  mental  infants,  or  minors  whose 
weakness  age  might  cure  if  of  the  malo  sex,  while  women 
were  held  to  be  perpetual  minors  and  always  under  guard 
ianship.     (Sec  Insiit.,  lib.  i.,  tit.  xiii..  (A>  Tutclia.) 

The  liberality  of  the  common  law  has  never  tolerated 
such  refinements  in  mental  discrimination  between  the 
sexes  as  this,  nor  imported  such  subtle  distinctions  into 
the  field  of  guardianship.  Under  its  canons  imbecility 
derives  no  special  complexion  from  the  sex  of  its  subjects, 
and  their  acts  are  never  weighed  per  n'-,  so  mucli  ns  ifimttii 
line,  or  in  relation  to  the  merits  of  a  particular  transac- 
tion. Imbeciles  being  possessed  of  some  share  of  mental 
capacity,  whatever  may  bo  its  degree,  arc  not  therefore 
disqualified  from  performing  legal  acts  involving  legal  re- 
sponsibilities. But  their  acts  are  always  looked  upon  with 
suspicion,  ns  likely  to  bo  influenced  by  fraud  or  compul- 
sion ;  for  it  is  particularly  against  extraneous  influences 
that  such  persons  need  to  bo  guarded.  Says  Mr.  Justice 
Story  in  this  connection:  "The  acts  and  contracts  of  per- 
sons who  arc  of  weak  understanding,  and  who  are  thereby 
liable  to  impositions,  will  be  held  void  in  courts  of  equity 
if  the  nature  of  Iho  oct  or  contract  justify  the  conclusion 
that  the  party  ha^  not  exercised  a  deliberate  judgment,  but 
has  been  inipot-cd  upon,  circumvented,  or  overcome  by 
cunning  or  undue  influence."  (1  JCc/.  Jun'sp.,  ^  2.18.)  I'lider 
this  principle  any  misrepresentations,  over-importnnities, 
improper  influences,  or  anything,  in  fact,  which  limits  the 
free  moral  agency,  will  tend  to  annul  the  acts  of  an  imbe 
eilc,  although  they  might  not  bo  suflleiont  to  operate  coer- 
civcly  upon  an  ordinary  mind;  for  legal  competency  must 
bo  estimated  by  the  character  of  the  act  performed,  as  well 
as  by  the  mental  power  of  the  actor:  and  it  is  b.y  this  rule 
alone  that  an  equitable  interpretation  can  be  applied  to  the 
Contracts  of  a  person  alleged  to  be  imbecile.  It  will  bo 
goon  by  this  that  the  contracts  of  such  persons,  whether  of 
marriage,  purchase  or  sale,  labor  or  hire,  arc  not  neces- 
sarily void,  but  simply  voidable,  upon  proof  that  they  were 
made  under  eireumstnnces  disarlvantageous  to  a  right  com- 
j  ]>robension  of  their  full  imjiort  by  Ibc  party  of  weak  un- 
derstanding, and  provided  always  that  things  can  he  re- 
stored to  their  original  status.  But  an  imbecile  has  the 
same  right  ns  any  other  person  knowingly  to  enter  into  a 
contract  where  the  advantages  to  bo  gained  arc  not  mutual. 
The  law  can  only  ])rotcct  him  so  far  us  he  did  not  know  the 
true  nature  and  consequences  of  the  act  ho  was  performing, 
and  to  that  same  extent  could  not  bo  said  to  have  given  a 
legal  assent  to  the  transaction. 

The  voidability  of  any  contract  made  under  such  cir- 
cumstances will  turlher  depend  upon  the  fact  of  its  present 
condition.  Is  it  still  cxvutortf  or  is  it  cxrvutcd  /  And  if 
the  latter,  t(t  what  extent?  If  not  completely  so.  and  the 
condition  of  the  things  operated  ujion  by  the  contract  is  not 
materially  altered,  then  the  contract  may  be  annulled,  and 
the  parties  restored  to  their  previous  condition.  But  in 
tho  case  of  wholly  exeeuted  contracts,  this  reilintegratinn 
of  parties  cannot  always  Ito  accomplished  without  serious 
detriment  to  third  ancl  innocent  parties,  who  have  acted 
l)ona  Jifir  nnd  in  ignorancoof  the  taint  in  the  original  con- 
tract. Hence,  in  such  cases  the  ccmtract  will  have  to  stand, 
and  the  injured  party  must  seek  his  remedy  in  another  way, 
for  here  equity  follows  the  law. 

In  regard  to  in'fh  made  by  imbeciles,  whether  the  imbe- 
cility be  congenital  or  supervene  ns  a  consequence  of  old 
age.  the  general  rule  is  to  allow  tho  instrument  to  prove  the 
capacity  of  the  testator,  nnd  not  to  set  it  aside  as  void  »ifi 
tin'tio  because  executed  liy  a  person  of  weak  understanding. 
Tho  subject-matter  of  wills  differs  so  widely  that  an  ini 
hecile  may  often  find  it  entirely  within  tho  range  of  his 
comprehension  to  dispose  rationally  of  what  he  possesses. 
Particularly  is  this  tho  case  where  pcrsoinil  pnijurty  i>  iti 
volved,  and  the  leniency  of  cmstruetion  jiut  upon  tjic  en 
dition  of  such  testators  has  always  been  deemed  wiser  and 
more  humane  than  to  insist  upon  the  posscssif>n  by  them  of 
a  mental  power  superior  to  tho  necessities  of  the  act  lo  be 
performed.  Hence,  wills  have  been  sustained  where  testa 
tors  were  very  ageil  and  greatly  debilitated  ;  when*  llicv 
were  very  deaf  and  partially  blind:  where  thev  were  so 
paralyzecl  ns  to  be  unable  to  write  or  feed  themselves;  and 
where  they  exhibited  ridiculous  eeoentricities  in  conduct  or 
religious  belief.  In  all  the  above  cases  it  was  shown  that 
they  had  reason  enough  to  kiMUT  intelligently  what  tb-y 
were  doing.  The  low  asks  no  more.  Whatever,  thereioje. 
may  be  the  physical  condition  «pf  a  testator,  citherns  fo  age 
or  bodily  intirmilics.  so  long  as  he  has  the  mental  ability  to 
perlorni  the  act  intelligontly,  his  legal  capacity  cannot  bo 
called  into  question. 

As  luturtH  committed  by  imbeciles,  they  nre  placed  upon 


1122 


IMBERT-IMITATIVE  MUSIC. 


the  same  footing  as  those  committed  by  the  insane,  and 
their  estates  are  responsiWc  in  civil  damages  to  any  party 
ao-"Tievcd.  Whenever  the  tort  becomes  a  crime  with  a 
iiersonal  nenaltv  afiixed.thcn  the  legal  responsibility  of  the 
wrongdoer  wilfbe  tested  hy  a  similar  standard  to  that  ap- 
plied'to  those  who  labor  under  partial  insanity.  The  an- 
*^-  •■  ■   "■-  nil 


alo-y  upon  which  this  rule  is  founded  is  not  a  perfect  one 
in  any  sense,  since  mental  wealtness  in  the  imbecile  is  not 
contcinporarv  with  actual  physical  disease,  as  in  the  insane ; 
but  it  serves  the  purposes  of  justice  and  humanity  best  to 
associate  these  two  classes  into  one  category,  because  the 
law  does  nut  concern  itself  so  much  with  the  possible  causes 
of  mental  weakness  as  with  their  consequences  upon  human 
conduct;  and  if  an  act  be  done  by  any  mind  incompetent 
at  the  time  to  act  intelligcntlv  and  as  a  free  moral  iigcnt.  it 
is  alike  the  act  of  an  irresponsible  being,  whether  that  being 
be  styled  imbecile  or  insane.  In  either  ease  the  law  con- 
siders the  m,>/„«  anhiiu,  to  be  wanting.  But  this  does  not 
negative  the  fact  that  both  imbeciles  and  persons  partially 
insane  are  often  found  who  are  legally  competent  to  commit 
crimes,  and  if  so  are  fit  subjects  lor  punishment. 

John  OnnRONArx. 

Imbert'  (B.vrtholomew),  b.  at  Nimes  in  1747;  studied 
in  liis  native  city,  and  removed  in  1707  to  Paris,  where  ho 
en<'a"-ed  in  literary  pursuits,  and  d.  Aug.  23,  1790.  Ilis 
poenr  Le  J„.jemc„t\)r  Purls  (published  in  1772),  achieved  a 
great  success,  but  in  spite  of  the  many  small  triumphs  which 
he  enjoyed  in  nearly  all  fields  of  fiction,  tragedy,  comedy, 
etc..  the  onlv  work  which  has  jiroved  to  be  of  lasting  in- 
terest is  his  Choix  (rniickne/abliaitx,  in  verse  (2  vols.,  17S8). 
Im'bros  ['In^poi.  now  Emhro],  a  Turkish  island  of  the 
jEca-an,  U  miles  W.  by  N.  of  the  entrance  to  tho  Helles- 
pont. It  is  18  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  contains  sev- 
eral villages,  though  none  of  them  are  historically  import- 
ant. Theisland  is  rough  and  wooded,  but  very  fertile,  pro- 
ducing corn,  wine,  oil,  and  cotton.  The  highest  peak  is 
1S4J  feet  above  the  sea.      Pop.  4000. 

Imhof  (Jacob  AViliielm),  b.  at  Nuremberg  Mar.  8, 
Ifiil  ;  studied  at  Altorf:  travelled  much  in  Germany,  tho 
Netherlands,  France,  and  Italy,  and  settled  in  1G73  in  his 
native  city,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  genealogical 
studies,  andd.  Dec.  20,  172S.  His  most  important  works 
ate— SjiUUc'iium  Ritlei-huaianniim  (6  vols.,  Tubingen,  1683- 
Sj),  containing  seventy  new  genealogical  tables,  and  Xn- 
tilta  S.  R.  0.  Imperii  procernm  (2  vols.,  Tubingen,  1084), 
of  which  a  fifth  edition  was  issued  in  1732,  containing  fif- 
teen plates  of  arms.  He  has  also  given  numerous  genealogi- 
cal contributions  to  English,  French,  and  Italian  history. 

Im'ides,   monamides  in  which  two  atoms  of   hydro- 
gen are  replaced  by  a  diatomic   radical,  as  /tuccinimidc, 
N(f',H402)"H,  and  pTro-tartrimide.  N(C5ll60)"H.      (See 
Amioes,  by  PnoF.  C.  F.  Chasdleh,  Pn.  D.,  M.  D.,  LL.D.) 
Imita'tion.     In  music,  a  subject,  group  of  notes,  or 
short  strain  is  said  to  be  imilnlcd  when,  after  its  first  ap- 
pearance, it  is  repealed,  with  more  or  less  exactness,  by  one 
or  more  of  tho  various  parts  of  the  composition.     Imita- 
tions of  a  given  theme  may  take  pl.ace,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, on  any  of  the  intervals  of  the  diatonic  sealo,  and 
admit  of  great  diversity  in  their  treatment.     Imitations 
may  be  either  strirl  or  free,  clirril  or  inrcrsc,  rctroijrutlc  or 
inrerHv-retroyrade.     In  strict   imitation  the   answer  must 
correspond  exactly  with  the  theme,  not  only  in  movement, 
degrees  of  the  scale,  and  quality  of  notes,  but  also  in  tho 
succession  of  tones  and  Ecmilones  in  each  step  of  its  prog- 
ress.    This  rigid  sjiccics  of  iinituliou  is  practicable  only 
under  certain  limitations,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  struc- 
ture of  the  diatonic  scale.     If  the  scale  consisted  of  a  reg- 
ular  succession  of  irhult  Imiet,  it  is  evident  that  a  given 
theme  might  be  repeated  on  any  degree  of  such  a  scale 
without  undergoing   any  material    change   or  distortion. 
But  as  the  scale  really  is  a  succession  of  (■./if«  and  mmi- 
tonei  in  a  certain  fixed  order,  it  follows  that  a  theme  when 
moved  from  its  place  to  a  higher  or  lower  one  on  the  scale 
(the  octave  excepted)  will  no  longer  be  strictly  true  in  the 
succession  of  its  intervals.     In/rcc  imitation  all  this  pre- 
caution is  unnecessary,  as  a  general   resemblance  to  the 
theme  is  suflieicnt.  Uilliam  Staiston. 

Im'itative  .Mu'sic.  Under  this  term  is  comprehended 
such  music  as  is  intended  to  be  representative,  descriptive, 
or  suggestive  of  certain  ideas  and  things  cj-ler}Hit  to  the 
mrinic  ilmlf—i.  c.  to  music  considcrcil  as  mere  melody  and 
harmony.  Music  thus  possesses  two  distinct  properties  t>r 
oflices.  \  strain  of  music  may  be  beautiful,  grand,  and 
impressive  in  its  own  nature,  and  capable  of  producing  in 
the  mind  certain  peculiar  feelings  and  sentiments  not 
obtainablo  from  any  other  agency  ;  or,  on  (he  other  hand, 
music  may  be  so  contrived  and  ingeniously  written  as  to 
bear  so  near  a  resemblance  to  ]iartioular  external  objects, 
sounds,  motions,  and  even  strongly-marked  events,  as  to 


recall  them  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer,  iii  acldilifin  to  the 
emotions  arising  out  of  its  own  intrinsic  powers  and  em- 
anating from  itself  alone.  A  similar  effect  may  also  result 
from  mere  association  of  ideas — as,  for  instance,  when 
theatrical  music  reminds  us  of  the  theatre,  and  church 
music  of  the  church,  because  the  music  and  the  place 
where  it  is  generally  heard  have  become  associated  to- 
gether in  our  minds."  lint  such  a  case  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  what  we  call  imitative  music.  Nor  can  the 
mere  reproduction  of  certain  sounds  under  new  conditions 

as,  for  instance,  when  the  actual  notes  of  the  hunter's 

horn,  the  military  bugle,  or  the  chimes  and  changes  of 
church-bells  are  played  on  other  instruments — be  included 
under  this  term ;  they  are  mere  copies. 

The  simplest  kind  of  imitiitivc  music  is  that  which  repre- 
sents vtntinit.  whether  on  an  even  jdane,  or  on  ascending 
and  descending  grades,  or  by  leaps  from  high  to  low,  and 
low  to  high,  etc.  There  seems  to  be  some  mysterious 
analogy  very  generally  felt  between  the  grave  or  acute  in 
the  musical  "scale  and  the  familiar  idea  of  depth  and  height. 
When  we  move  from  the  graver  jiart  of  the  scale  to  tho 
more  acute  we  call  it  (iKcciuliiuj.a.nA  progress  from  acute  to 
grave  we  call  di^aceiidiiir/.  A  sound  is  .«aid  to  be  hitjh  or  low 
in  proportion  as  it  is  acute  or  grave,  and  the  extremes  are 
regarded  as  very  deep,  profound,  and  abysmal,  or  very 
high,  lofty,  and  "soaring.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this  im- 
pression by  composers  when  they  connect  with  words  sig- 
nifying motion,  height,  depth,  etc.  notes  suggesting  corre- 
sponding ideas.  That  this  resemblance  is  not  altogether 
arbitrary  or  fanciful,  but  founded  on  some  natural  principle, 
will  appear  from  an  examinatiim  of  Ex.  1,  where  at  o  the 
music  and  the  words  seem  to  be  in  antagonism,  while  at  6 
they  mntualiy  support  each  other : 
Ex.  1.— n 


^^^^^P 


i- 


I     rise. 

Among  imitations,  properly  so  called,  are  those  repre- 
sentative—or at  least  suggestive— of  a  large  class  of  m.iiie, 
or  iitimusical  »oiin(/«,  such  as  the  roar  of  cannon,  the  clash- 
ing of  swords,  the  tramp  of  horses,  the  steady  marching  of 
troops,  tho  cries  of  wounded  men.  the  wails  of  the  dis- 
tressed, and  the  groans  of  the  dying:  the  solemn  move- 
ment of  a  funeral  procession,  and  the  elastic  spring  id'  mer- 
riment in  a  ball-room;  the  familiar  sounds  uttered  by  do- 
mestic animals,  the  lowing  of  cattle,  the  screams  and  roar- 
ing of  wild  beasts,  the  croaking  of  frogs,  and  the  buzz  of 
insects;  the  pattering  of  lain  and  the  clatter  of  hail  ;  the 
roll  of  dist.ant  thunder,  the  moaning  of  the  wind,  and  the 
furious  rushing  of  the  storm.  All  these  and  many  other 
noises,  including  crying,  sneezing,  and  uproarious  laughter, 
the  hum  of  the  ol'd  spinning-wheel,  the  strokes  on  tho 
smith's  anvil,  tho  chirp  of  the  cricket,  and  the  rocking  of 
the  cradle,  have  been  imitated  with  more  or  less  success  in 
musical  compositions:  or,  in  oilier  words,  musical  forms 
and  combinations  have  been  so  used  as  to  remind  the  hearer 
of  things  which  are  essentially  unmusical. 

More  nearly  approaching  the  sounds  represented  on  the 
diatonic  and  chion-.atic  scales  are  the  songs  or  utterances  of 
certain  birds,  to  which  may  be  added  the  crowing  of  cocks, 
the  alarin-crv  of  hens,  the  cooing  of  doves,  the  solitary 
notes  of  thc'ciukoo.  and  the  dismal  screech  of  the  night- 
owl;  also  the  tap  and  roll  of  the  military  drum,  the  half- 
mnsical  cries  of  sailors  in  hoisting  and  of  hawkers  in  tho 
streets,  together  with  the  rude  noises  of  barbaric  music  and 
gypsy  songs.  Some  of  these  may  be  imitated  so  closely  as 
to  be"undcistood  or  rccognizeil  by  the  hearer  without  effort 
or  previous  admonition.  With  less  distinctness  music  may 
be  ma.lo  to  represent  the  calmness  of  eventide,  the  sweets 
of  pastoral  lilc.  the  tumult  of  war,  the  raging  of  the  sea, 
the  noise  of  floods,  earthquakes,  tornadoes,  etc.  \  cry 
few  persons,  on  hearing  the  introductory  movements  to 
Haydn's  S,rcn  Last  Words  and  the  Crc.tio,,.  would  sus- 
pec"t  thai  the  former  was  intended  for  an  earthquake,  or 
that  the  latter  was  set  forth  as  a"  representation  ol  chaos. 

The  most  extraordinary  of  all  musical  imitations  arc 
those  which  profess  to  deal  with  objects  not  of  hearing  but 
of  siaht  There  is  an  api>arent  absurdity  in  all  such  at- 
temots  to  represent  through  one  sense  things  that  belong 
to  another.  And  yet  between  sight  and  hearing  a  certain 
correspondence  has  been  found  to  exist,  sufficient  to  form 
a  basis  for  a  partial  interchange  of  symbols.  It  is  very 
necessary,  however,  for  complete  success  that  thr  hearer 
,ho<dd  be  iij,,jri,cd  b,r„rchai,d,  or  by  words  annexed,    ^- 


ichttt 


I MLA  Y— IMM  ERMANN. 


1123 


1*  f»  that  the  mtuic  i>  intended  to  reprenent.  Moro  than  half 
of  tho  effect  lies  in  the  prcpariition  of  the  hearer's  miud  ; 
for  Iho  very  same  music  inifjht  have  been  used — had  the 
composer  so  pleaserl — for  the  stirring  up  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent class  of  emotions.  Haydn's  representation  of  the 
creation  of  light,  for  example,  has  been  both  severely  criti- 
cised and  entiiusiastieally  admired.  In  itself,  it  is  doubt- 
less nothing  more  than  a  common  nmjor  triad  coming  with 
sudden  force  on  the  car  as  the  termination  of  a  progression 
in  the  minor  mode.  In  any  other  connection,  or  in  any 
other  piece,  it  would  have  attracted  no  special  notice ; 
but  the  hearer's  mind  having  been  prepared  by  the  pre- 
vious words  and  music,  and  brouglit  into  an  attitude  of 
eager  expectancy  by  tlio  I)ivine  command,  "  Let  there  be 
liglit,"  he  is  forcibly  struck  with  the  outburst  on  the  words, 
**.\nil  there  was  I.IGEIT,"  so  that,  as  Hombet  remarlis,  his 
eyes  arc  dazzletl,  '*  as  by  the  Hash  of  the  midday  sun  on 
one  just  emerging  from  a  dark  cavern."  Many  otlier  visual 
objects  arc  thus  successfully  illustrated  in  musical  works 
by  an  appeal  to  the  ear,  as  may  he  seen  in  the  Crctitinn^ 
the  oratorios  of  Handel,  Spohr's  Lunt  Jiiitijmrut,  Mendels- 
sohn's E/ijfih,  etc.  .-Vinong  these  objects  are  the  brooding 
of  <larkness  over  the  deep,  the  fall  of  the  apostate  nngels, 
tho  rushing  floods,  tho  upheaval  of  mountains,  the  rising 
of  tho  sun  anil  moon,  tlio  growth  of  ]dants,  tho  whirl  of 
insect  life,  the  loa]>ing  of  doer,  the  dark  and  bright  sides  of 
nature,  decay  and  death,  and  finally  the  resurrection.  But 
music  representing  these,  however  skilfully  written,  cannot 
bo  its  own  interpreter  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case. 
When,  however,  its  meaning  is  conveyed  by  words  or  other- 
wise to  the  hearer's  mind,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  tracing 
resemblances,  even  though  their  viviilness  must  depend, 
for  tho  most  part,  on  the  help  of  imagination. 

AVii.i.iAU  Staintox. 
Iin'laV)  posttp.  of  Lapeer  CO.,  Mich.     Pop.  121.'!. 

Im'lay  Cit'y,  post-v.  of  Imlay  tp.,  Lapeer  co.,  Mich., 
on  the  Chicago  and  I'oint  Huron  It.  11.,  :U  miles  W.  of 
Port  Huron.     It  has  a  very  large  grain-elevator. 

Immac'nlatc  Conccp'tion  or  the  Vircin  Mary, 

araodorn  dogma  of  (he  Roman  Church,  proclaimed  by  Pope 
Pius  IX.  on  tho  feast  of  tho  Conception,  Deir.  S,  1*851,  in 
the  church  of  St.  Peter,  and  in  tho  presence  of  more  than 
200  cardinals,  bishops,  and  other  dignitaries,  in  these  words : 
"  That  the  most  blessed  \'irgin  Mary,  in  the  first  moment 
of  her  conception,  by  a  special  grace  and  privilege  of  Al- 
mighty trod,  in  virtue  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  was  preserved 
immaculate  from  all  stain  of  original  sin"  ('tli  omni  orii/i. 
flrt/f*  ritlpre  Ifthf,  prenrrriitnin  tinmitrtriit).  This  the  papal 
bull  "  Ineffabilis  iJcns"  declares  to  bo  a  <livinely  revealed 
fact  and  dogma  which  must  hereafter  bo  constantly  be- 
lieved by  all  Catholics,  on  pain  of  excommunication.  Tho 
dogma  was  not  sanctioned  by  any  (ecumenical  council,  but 
since  tho  Vatican  Council  of  1S71I  doclared  the  pope  infal- 
lible, independent  of  a  council,  tho  decree  of  1H.'jI  must  bo  re- 
ceived as  an  infalliblo  utterance,  and  cannot  bo  changed. 
Pins  IX.  had  previously,  by  an  encyclical  of  Fob.  2,  ISI'J, 
invited  tho  opinion  of  tho  (!atholic  bishops  on  tho  subject, 
and  received  more  than  (ittO  affirmative  answers  :  only  4  dis- 
sented from  tho  pope's  view,  and  52,  while  agreeing  with 
him  in  tho  dogma  itself,  deemed  it  inopportune  to  dcfino 
and  proclaim  it.  This  shows  that  the  t'Midcncy  of  the  Ko- 
man  (^'hurch  was  strongly  in  this  direction.  The  dogma  of 
the  imiuaulato  conception  and  the  Vatican  ilogmaof  papal 
infallibility  are  tho  characteristic  features  of  m»lern  Ro- 
manism, as  distinct  from  tho  Romanism  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  widen  Iho  breach  between  it  and  the  (Ireck  and 
Protestant  churches.  By  the  ileereo  of  ISJI  the  Virgin 
Mary  is  taken  out  of  the  family  of  tho  redeemed,  and  de- 
clarcil  absolutely  free  from  all  complication  with  tho  fall 
of  Adam  and  its  consequences.  The  definition  of  such  a 
dogma  presupposes  a  divine  revelation,  for  (loil  omniscient 
alone  knows  the  fact  of  tho  imnmculatu  eonoejition  ;  and  as 
the  Ilible  nowhere  informs  us  of  it,  (lod  must  have  revealed 
it  to  Pius  IX.  in  1851,  cither  directly  or  through  tho  voice 
of  Iho  fiOO  bishops  assenting  to  his  view.  But  if  he  is 
really  infallible,  ho  did  not  need  the  advice  of  others. 

From  tho  Roman  standpoint  this  dogma  cimpletes  tho 
Mariology  and  Mariolatry,  which  step  by  step  proceeded 
from  the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary  to  her  frceilora  from 
actual  sin  after  the  conception  of  the  .Saviour,  then  to  free- 
dom from  sin  after  her  birth,  and  at  last  to  her  freeilom  from 
original  or  hereditary  sin.  The  only  thing  lift  now  is  to 
proclaim  tho  dogma  of  her  assumption  to  bea\-en.  which 
has  long  since  been  n  pious  opinion  in  the  Roman  Church. 
To  this  corresponds  tlio  progress  in  the  worship  of  .Mary 
and  tho  multiplication  of  her  festivals.  Her  worship  even 
overshadows  the  worship  of  Christ.  ,"she,  the  tender,  com- 
passionate, lovely  woman,  is  invoked  for  her  powerful  in- 
tercession, rather  than  her  Pivino  .Son.  ,Shi' is  made  the 
fountain  of  all  grace,  the  mcdialri.x  between  Christ  and  tho 


believer,  and  is  virtually  put  in  the  place  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  There  is  scarcely  an  epithet  of  Christ  which  devout 
Roman  Catholics  do  not  apply  to  the  Virgin  (sec  St.  I.igu- 
ori's  Gliirio  c/ .1/(111/),  and  Pope  Pius  I.X.,  who  is  himself 
an  intense  worshijipcr  of  Mary,  has  sanctioned  the  false 
interpretation  of  (ien.  iii.  l.i,  that  she  (not  Christ)  "crush- 
ed the  head  of  the  ser|tent." 

As  to  the  history  of  the  dogma,  no  passage  in  its  favor 
can  be  found  in  the  Old  or  New  Testament  {for  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  I'lulcranifcliiim  just  alluded  to  is  clearly 
ruled  out  by  tho  Hebrew  text).  On  the  contrary,  the  Bible 
declares  all  men  to  be  sinners  and  in  need  of  redem)iti(m, 
and  exempts  Christ  alone,  the  sinless  Redeemer,  from  this 
universal  rule.  Mary  herself  calls  fiod  h<-r  Savinuf  (Luke 
i.  47),  and  thereby  includes  herself  in  the  number  of  the 
saved  ;  which  im]dies  her  sense  of  personal  sin  and  guilt. 
With  this  corresponds  also  the  predicate  given  her  bv  the 

angel  ( i .  2,S ).  cililmd  irith  r/riicr,  h  ighl;/  fiivnrcd  (Kf^upiTcuMe'cl, 

which  the  Vulgate  has  mischievousiy  changed  into  the  ac- 
tive 'irnlin  pleii'i.  full  of  ijrnt-e).  'The  Christian  Fathers, 
though  many  of  them  (even  St.  Augustine)  exempted  Mary 
from  actual  transgression,  know  nothing  of  her  freedom 
from  original  sin,  but  ahvays  imply,  and  often  expressly 
teach,  the  contrary.  Some,  as  Irenieus.  Tertullian.  Origen, 
and  Chrysostom,  interpret  (^brisfs  words  at  the  wedding 
of  Cana  (.lohn  ii.  4)  ns  a  rebuke  of  her  unseasonable  haste 
and  immoderate  ambition.  The  origin  of  the  dogma  must 
bo  sought  in  the  Ajioeryphal  (iospels,  which  substituted 
mythology  for  real  history,  and  nourished  superstition 
rather  than  rational  faith. 

The  doctrine  crept  into  theology  through  tho  door  of 
worship.  The  first  clear  trace  of  it  is  found  in  the  twelfth 
century,  in  the  south  of  France,  when  the  canons  of  Lyons 
introduced  the  festival  of  the  conception  of  the  imniaeulatc 
Mary,  Dee.  1*,  Ii;!'.l.  This  proves  that  the  belief  then  ex- 
isteil  as  a  pious  ojiinion,  but  by  no  means  as  a  dogma.  On 
the  contrary,  St.  Bernard,  the  greatest  doctor  and  saint  of 
his  age,  opposed  the  new  festival  as  an  nnnnthorized  inno. 
vation,  derogatory  to  the  dienity  of  Christ,  the  only  sinless 
being  in  the  world.  He  asked  the  canons  of  Lyons  wlicnee 
they  discovered  such  a  biilden  fact.  On  the  .slime  ground 
they  might  appoint  festivals  for  the  conception  of  the 
mother,  grandmother,  and  greal-grandmother  of  Mary,  and 
so  back  to  the  beginning.  The  same  ground  is  taken  es- 
sentially by  the  greatest  Sohiinlioen,  as  Anselm.  Bonaven- 
tura,  Alberlus  Magnus.  Thomas  .Aquinas.  But  during  the 
fourteenth  century,  through  the  influence  ehieny  of  Duns 
Scotns,  "the  subtle  doctor."  the  doctrine  of  the  iinniaeulate 
conception  became  apart  of  (he  theology  of  the  Franciscans 
orScotists.  and  was  a  bone  ofcontrnlion  between  them  and 
the  Dominicans  or  Thomisls.  They  charged  each  other 
with  heresy  for  holding  the  one  view  or  the  other.  The 
Council  of  Trent  did  not  settle  the  question,  but  rather 
leaned  towards  the  Franciscan  side.  Soon  afterwards  the 
.Tesuits  took  up  the  same  side,  and  defended  it  against  tho 
.Innsenists.  To  their  zeal  and  perseverance,  and  their  in- 
fluence over  Pope  Pius  I.\.,  the  recent  triumph  of  the  dog- 
ma is  eliiefly  due.  The  whole  Rnniau  Catholic  world  qui- 
etly acquiesced  until  the  Vatican  Council  roused  the  "  Old 
Catholic  "  opposition  against  jiapal  infallibility,  which  ex- 
tended also  to  the  dogma  of  the  immaculate  conception. 

Litniitiire. — The  papal  bull  hirfTiihilig  /Iriin  ( Dec.  S, 
1S54);  Perrone,  On  ihr  [nnnnnilfttr  i'lmrrptinn  (Latin,  (!cr- 
man,  etc.,  1840);  Passaglia,  he  inimttr.  Dfiprtrrr  tnnpcr 
Viri).  cnnr,  (l,'!54  «e(/.,  3  vols.):  Preuss,  The  Jtomlnh  fine, 
trine  of'  the  fmmaeufrtte  Cnnreptinn  (German  and  ICnglish. 
lsfi,'',)j  Puscy,  Eirenikan  (part  ii.,  ISr.Tl;  H.  B.  Smith. 
Melhnrl.  Qiinrlerh/  Iter,  for  1S55  ;  Hnse,  IIinKlh,,.,!.-  „f  P,„l- 
eifant  Pntemien  (1871).  Of  older  Catholic  works  we  men- 
tion .T.Turrecremata,  De  reritntr  ennceptinniit  hcttt.  VtrtjiniH 
n5l7:  republished  by  Pusey,  18110),  and  .1.  de  Lnunoy,  a 
.lanscnist,  J'r-rii:Ti/iti<:nei  ile  l\,iieeptii  II.  Mnriie  Yiiij. 
(1C77),  both  against  tho  immaculate  conception. 

PlIlI.IP  .SrItAFK. 

Im'mcrmann  (Kahi.  Li:ni;REriiT),  b.  at  JIagdcburg 
Apr.  24,  179r>;  studied  181:!  at  Halle;  took  nart  in  the 
campaign  of  181.'),  and  wrote,  in  opposition  to  tlio  political 
enthusiasm  prevailing  at  that  time  at  all  (lernian  uni- 
versities, I'rhrr  ilir  .Slriitiijhiileu  Jtr  Stndiiciiilen  in  Halle 
fI817),  which  book  was  solemnly  burnt  at  Warlburg  by 
Iho  students.  Shorlly  after  he  received  a  government  office 
in  his  native  eitv,  whence  ho  removed  to  Miinster  in  IS2lt, 
and  to  DiHselilorf  in  1827.  From  18:M  to  18:;S  he  under- 
took the  nianagenient  of  the  theatre  of  Dilsseldorf.  in 
which,  boiviver.  he  succeeded  only  partly,  though  his  per- 
fect taste  and  pure  enthusiasm  exercised  a  beneficial  in- 
fluence on  the  (iermnn  theatre.  Tho  most  remarkable  of 
his  many  comcdios  are — Don  Anrje  der  l.irle  08211  and 
Die  Sehnle  der  Friimmen  (1829);  of  his  tragedio--,  Mej-in 
fI8:!2)and  Ghimonda  (18;19);  of  his  romance^,  Epupmrn 
(18.10)   and   iUiiiicA/iomcii   (181)8).     As  an  author  ho  had 


1124 


IMMORTALITY  (OF  THE  SOUL)— IMPANATION. 


inoro  artistic  training  tlian  natural  talent,  and  a  greater 
power  of  reflection  tlian  of  imagination  or  feeling:  very 
charming,  however,  is  his  tale,  Talifiintchcn  (ISoOi,  on  ac- 
count of  its  naivete.  His  controversy  with  Platen  made  a 
great  sensation,  or  rather  scandal,  and  brought  no  results. 
D.  Aug.  25,  lS-10. 

Immortarity  (of  the  Soul),  the  doctrine  that  the 
human  soul  is  impcrishaljle,  being  .separable  from  the  body 
at  dealli  and  destined  to  a  conscious  life  beyond  the  grave. 
The  history  of  this  doctrine  is  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  idea  of  substantiality,  or,  indeed,  of  the  idea 
of  God.  Without  a  personal  (iod  there  could  be  no  im- 
mortality. If  the  substantial  is  found  to  be  a  rigid,  lifeless 
substance  or  an  unconscious  force,  there  can  be  no  per- 
sistent individuality.  But,  in  spite  of  philosophical  or 
theological  tenets,  the  belief  in  a  future  life  is  almost  uni- 
versally prevalent.  Among  degraded  savages,  as  in  Central 
Africa."  it  takes  the  form  of  dcuiouology,  or  belief  in  spec- 
tres or  ghosts.  In  Asia,  where  the  theological  dogmas  do 
not  reconcile  the  Universal  or  Absolute  with  the  existence 
of  the  individual  being,  making  the  Supremo  Being  an  un- 
conscious substance  destined  to  absorb  the  individual  man 
at  death,  still  the  popular  belief  holds  to  the  doctrine  of 
immortality.  Egypt  is  especially  noted  as  the  country 
where  '»rcat  stress  was  laid  on  the  doctrine  of  immortality. 
The  temples,  sphinxes,  statues,  and  pyramids,  all  had  some 
suggestiou  of  the  future  life  of  the  soul.  The  cycle  of  the 
risTand  fall  of  the  Nile,  and  of  the  life  of  the  seed  in  its 
germination,  growth,  fruit-bearing,  and  decay,  is  closely 
coiniectcd  with  the  doctrine  of  immortality.  The  soul's 
cvele  is  set  at  3000  years,  after  which  it  returns  from  its 
wanderings  to  the  body  again.  Hence  the  care  with 
which  the  Egyptians  preserved  the  body  by  embalming  it, 
and  the  extravagant  outlay  of  human  labor  on  the  Pyra- 
mids as  tombs  of  the  kings  and  symbols  of  their  faith. 
With  Greece  the  Oriental  idea  of  the  subordination  of  the 
soul  to  nature  gives  way  for  a  more  spiritual  theory.  The 
Greek  conceives  the  spiritual  as  something  independent  of, 
or  at  least  as  a  reaction  against,  nature.  Spirit  is  essen- 
tially self-determining  and  free.  The  portrayal  of  its  ideals 
of  free  activity  gave  to  the  world  the  forms  of  the  divinities 
of  Olympus.  The  Titans  or  powers  of  nature  are  subdued 
and  made  serviceable  to  .spirit.  The  Roman  phase  of  civ- 
ilization is  devoted  to  the  formulating  of  the  will  into  laws 
and  defined  rights.  The  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  the  general  will  as  embodied  in  the  state  is  the  charivc- 
teristic°Roman  principle.  Immortality,  with  Greece  and 
Home,  assumed  a  definite  shape,  elevated  far  ivboye  the 
Oriental  conception,  inasmuch  as  it  eliminated  the  principle 
of  transmigration.  But  there  was  not  an  adequate  rcali- 
/.ation  as  yet  of  the  principle  of  infinite  responsibility, 
which  the  Christian  religion  first  added  to  th.at  of  the  im- 
mortal destiny  of  the  soul,  making  man,  moreover,  the  ob- 
ject of  divine  mediation.  The  growth  of  the  idea  of  the 
substantiality  of  the  soul,  as  thus  traced,  is  marked  in  the 
world's  history  by  the  corresponding  growth  of  institutions 
of  a  humanitarian  character. 

Tlie  proofs  of  immortality  are  numerous  and  of  varying 
degrees  of  strictness.  Among  those  most  relied  upon  by 
the  popular  mind  arc  the  following:  I.  The  return  or 
resurrection  from  the  dead.  II.  (Jeneral  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  the  soul  after  death:  probability  that  such  general 
beliefs  of  mankind  are  well  founded.  III.  (ieneral  desire 
of  man  to  live  for  ever,  and  his  horror  at  annihilation.  IV. 
The  infinite  perfectibility  of  the  human  mind,  never  reach- 
ing its  full  cap:icity  in  this  life;  contrary  to  the  course  of 
n:Uure  or  to  the  Divine  character  to  endow  a  being  with 
cajiaeities  never  to  be  developed.  V.  The  fact  that  per- 
fect justice  is  not  dispensed  in  this  life;  the  goml  sun"er 
and  the  wicked  triumph:  necessity  of  future  retribution 
to  justify  God's  government.— The  metaphysical  doctrine 
of  immortality  includes  various  positions,  favorable  and 
unfavorable,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  follow- 
ing: I.  The  highest  principle  is  regarded  as  indetermi- 
nate  pantheism  ;  consciousness  considered  to  be  a  disease 

or  evil  of  which  death  or  unconscionsness  (Nirvana)  is  the 
cure.  II.  Highest  principle  a  rational  intelligence— mono- 
theism :  the  .soul  a  transient  incarnation  which  vanishes  in 
death  (Arabic  interpretation  of  Aristotle).  III.  The  soul 
held  to  have  pre-existed  in  an  intelligible  world,  and  to 
have  come  hither  through  a  lapse  from  holiness  or  for 
necessary  experience:  death  releases  the  imprisoned  soul, 
and  it  rejoins  its  former  state  or  enters  a  new  body 
(emanation  theory— Phito).  IV.  Aristotle's  doctrine  of 
the  pure  reason  (roiJc)  as  an  unconditioned  energy,  im- 
perishable, while  the  lower  faculties  of  the  soul,  such  as 
sensation,  imagination,  feeling,  memory,  etc.,  are  perish- 
able. This  doctrine  has  been  the  occasion  of  much  contro- 
versy. An  immortality  which  should  eut  off  an  individual 
from'  his  past  would  not  preserve  his  identity.  But  the 
experience  of  ordinary  life  exhibits  to  us  a  constant  wan- 


ing of  the  faculties  of  mere  sensuous  perception,  of  mere 
mechanical  memory,  and  of  fancy,  with  a  corresponding 
increase  of  the  higher  faculty  of  inference  or  reason. 
Hence,  the  lower  faculties  may  be  said  correctly  to  be 
perishable,  while  the  faculty  of  insight,  which  sees  in  an 
individual  all  its  p.ast  history  at  a  gUvnee,  is  immortal  or 
continually  on  the  incre:ise.  The  immortal  life  would  use 
the  perishable  faculties  less  and  less,  but  might  never  lose 
them  altogether.  The  disputes  of  the  Schoolmen  over  this 
question  were  very  essential  to  the  support  of  the  Christian 
dogma.  V.  From  the  time  of  the  Sehoolracn,  arguments 
in  favor  of  immortality,  drawn  from  the  "simplicity  of  the 
soul,"  were  in  vogue,  and  especbally  elaborated  by  the 
Leibnitzo-Wolflian  philosophy.  VI.  Kant  attacks  all  the- 
oretic proofs  of  immortality  as  based  on  a  paralogism  in- 
volving an  unwarranted  inference  from  the  phenomenal 
appearance  of  the  soul  as  Ego  to  the  same  as  Noumenon. 
But  he  finds  immortality  to  be  established  as  a  practical 
postulate  of  the  Will.  VII.  Hegel  exhibited  immortality 
as  the  esscnti,al  attribute  of  conscious  beings,  denying  it  to 
animals  (in  the  closing  chajiter  of  his  Plitlngoplii/  of  Xalnre). 
Recent  discussions  of  the  subject  have  been  rather  skeptical 
in  their  tendency,  espechally  in  Germany,  England,  France, 
•and  America,  owing  to  the  prevailing  evolutional  theories 
in  science.  German  literature  was  quite  prolific  in  treatises 
on  immortality  for  several  years  alter  the  death  of  Hegel. 
Feucrb;ieh,  Strauss,  Conradi,  Michelct,  F.  Riehter,  and  oth- 
ers held  a  negative  attitude  toward  the  doctrine,  and  con- 
tended that  the  only  immortality  is  th.at  of  the  race  or  spe- 
cies. Marheineke.Blasche,  Weisse,  Ilinriehs,  Feehner.  J. 
H.  Fichte,  and,  above  all,  Goschel,  defended  the  doctrine 
of  individual  immortality.  W.  T.  Harrts. 

Immortelles'  [Fr.,  "immortal"],  or  Everlasting 
Flowers,  arc  flowers  largely  employed  in  Europe,  es)ieci- 
ally  in  France,  for  the  m.anufacture  of  wreaths  and  crosses 
for  the  adornment  of  churches  and  cemeteries.  The  IleU- 
cIin/Kum  Or:ntt<dc,  a  native  of  Crete,  but  much  cultivated 
in  Southern  France,  is  the  flower  chiefly  used  for  the  abcive 
purpose,  though  there  are  many  other  genera  of  plants,  snch 
as  llhoclitiilhc,  which  arc  also  occasionally  employed.  The 
use  of  immortelles  in  America  is  of  recent  origin,  and  they 
are  usually  imported  from  France. 

I'mola  [Lat.  Forum  Conielii],  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Bologna,  about  20  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Bologna.  It  was  enlarged  and  embellished,  if  not  actually 
founded,  by  the  dictator  Sulla,  who  sent  a  colony  here  about 
80  B.  c,  and  throughout  the  Roman  period  it  was  a  town 
of  some  importance.  Cato  had  a  villa  here.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  claimed  by  the  see  of  Rome  as  a  part 
of  the  r/i'/'f  o/"  CuiitlniiUne.  but  was  suliject  to  frequent  as- 
saults and  occupations  bv  the  rival  powers  that  then  divided 
the  Peninsula.  From  the  time  of  Julius  II.  it  formed  a  part 
of  the  Roman  states,  except  when  held  for  a  short  time  by 
the  French  in  1737.  until  the  whole  papal  territory  was  an- 
nexed to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  town  is  well  built, 
and  surrounded  by  its  old  walls  with  towers  and  trench. 
Its  manufactures,  "leather,  wax,  glass,  majolica,  silk,  and 
hempen  stuffs,  are  very  considerable.  A  choice  wine  called 
vino  sniilo  is  made  here.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Imola  (Innopeszo  FnASCuc-ci  da),  an  Italian  painter 
of  Bologna,  an  imitator  of  Raphael.     D.  1549. 

Impale'ment,  or  Empalement  [Lat.  in,  and  pnlM, 
a  "stake"],  a  form  of  capital  punishment  by  means  of  a 
stake  thrust  through  the  body.  The  victim  was  often  raised 
up  from  the  earth,  and  one  end  of  the  stake  was  driven  into 
I  the  ground  :  hence  the  Greeks  ajiplieil  the  name  (rraiipuffit 
("stake-punishment")  to  crucifixion  as  well  as  impale- 
ment. Impalement  is  still  practised  in  half-civilized  and 
barbarous  countries.  The  driving  a  stake  through  the  heart 
of  a  suicide  and  his  burial  under  the  cross-roads  arose,  it 
is  believed,  from  a  fear  that  his  spirit  would  otherwise  walk 
and  frighten  the  living. 

Impana'tion  [I-at.  I'li,  and  ?mMi'«,  "  bread"],  a  term 
belonging  to  the  Eucharistic  controver.sy.  invented  soon 
after."and  in  opposition  to,  that  of  Tian^nhiilnniintioti.  It 
was  intended  to  express  the  intimate  union  of  the  bles.sed 
body  and  blood  with  the  consecrated  eUmcnIs,  without  a 
ileslruction  of  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine.  Rupert, 
abbot  of  Deutz  near  Cologne  fd.  ll.'JJ).  who  first  used  the 
word,  likened  the  mystery  implied  to  that  of  the  incarna- 
tion, wherein  the  divine  nature  was  conjoined  with  the 
human  nature  in  the  one  person  of  Christ.  By  body  he 
mnant  that  which  hung  upon  the  cross,  and  by  blood,  that 
which  flowed  from  the  Crucified  ;  but  yet  he  denied  the  real 
presence  in  a  gross  and  carnal  sense:  "  Fit  corpus  Christi 
et  sanguis,  mm  mntatum  in  carnis  saporcm  sue  san- 
guinis horrorem,  sed,"  etc.  Impanation,  like  .all  terms  in- 
tended to  simplify  our  conception  of  a  mystery,  is  liable  to 
misinterjirctation,  and  is  not  now  used  by  anj^one  as  ex- 
pressive of  his  own  views. 


W.  F.  Brand. 


IMPEACHMENT. 


1125 


Impeach'inent,  in  law,  is  commoDly  used  to  denote  a  I 
mode  of  trial  of  a  crimiuul  offence.  The  fame  word  is 
used  in  the  law  of  evidence  to  menu  the  act  of  discrediting  I 
a  witness  before  a  jury  or  court  tryin<;  a  question  of  fact,  j 
by  showing  that  Ik*  is  unworthy  of  belief.  In  this  article  ■ 
it  will  bo  employed  exclusively  in  the  sense  first  pointed 
out. 

Id  the  early  English  law  when  a  crime  was  committed  it 
was  regarded  in  three  aspects — either  as  an  injury  to  the 
individual  or  his  family,  to  the  king,  or  to  the  state  or  na- 
tion. The  injury  to  the  individual  was  prosecuted  by  a 
proceeding  called  an  appeal;  that  su,)posed  to  be  done  to 
the  king  or  executive  officer,  by  indictment;  while  the 
wrong  done  to  the  state  was  redressed  by  a  proceeding 
termed  an  impeachment.  The  appeal  having  become  obso- 
lete, there  remained  two  great  criminal  proceedings — in- 
dictment and  impeachment.  The  resemblance  between  an 
indictment  and  an  impeachment  should  be  briefly  noticed. 
The  office  of  an  indictment  is  to  present  to  an  ordinary 
court  of  justice  the  opinion  of  a  select  body  of  citizens 
that  there  is  apparent  reason  to  believe  that  there  has  been 
a  criminal  violation  of  law  hy  a  specifled  person.  Notwith- 
standing tliis,  the  law  still  presumes  his  innocence,  and 
takes  no  action  against  him  except  that  \vhich  is  necessary 
to  secure  his  attendance  at  the  trial.  Ultimately,  tho  case 
is  presented  to  another  (or  trial)  jury,  by  whom  tho  result 
is  determined,  either  acquitting  or  convicting  the  person 
charged  in  the  indictment.  It  is  apparent  that  an  indict- 
ment is  but  a  mode  of  procedure  adopted  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  caution  and  deliberation  in  judicial  affairs.  It 
presupposes  tho  existence  and  definition  of  the  crime  for 
whi<:h  the  prisoner  is  to  be  tried. 

The  same  general  train  of  thought  is  present  in  tho  case 
of  an  impeachment.  Instead,  however,  of  being  made  by 
a  fimall  number  of  persons,  it  is  a  presentment  of  the  House 
of  Commons  as  representing  the  state.  It  is  made  in  writ- 
ing under  the  name  of  "articles  of  impeachment."  The 
articles  are  presented  before  a  tribunal  acting  judicially — 
not,  it  is  true,  an  ordinary  court  of  justice,  but  the  entire 
House  of  Lords.  The  Commons  may  impeach  for  any 
crime,  whether  it  be  a  felony  or  misdemeanor,  no  matter  by 
whom  committed,  whether  a  peer  or  commoner,  and  may 
attach  to  conviction  tho  ordinary  punishments.  There  is 
one  important  distinction  that  should  bo  noticed  between 
the  two  modes  of  proceeding.  An  indictment  can  only  bo 
found  in  a  particular  county,  and  in  general  only  in  that 
where  the  offence  was  committed.  An  impeachment,  from 
tho  nature  of  the  case,  is  confined  to  no  locality.  It  has 
been  sometimes  resorted  to  in  England  for  the  prosecution 
of  an  ordinary  crime,  to  avoid  the  necessity  that  would 
otherwinB  exist  of  prosecuting  tho  case  by  inrlictment  in  a 

Particular  county.  The  effect  of  an  impeachment  by  the 
louse  of  Commons,  like  an  indictment  by  a  grand  jury,  is 
only  an  affirmation  that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
there  has  been  a  violation  of  law  by  the  person  impeached. 
It  must  be  cnnducfed  in  accordance  with  rules  of  evidence. 
The  person  impeached  can  only  be  convicted  of  a  crime 
already  known  to  the  law  to  which  regular  methods  of  pun- 
ishment can  be  attached. 

A  court  of  impe:u-hment  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  "court  of  the  lord  high  steward."  This  court  is  or- 
ganized in  the  following  case.  Whenex-or  a  peer  of  the 
realm  is  imlictcd  in  an  ordinary  court  of  justice,  in  order 
that  his  case  may  be  removed  to  be  triiMl  by  hts  peers,  the 
king  issues  a  cunimission  to  a  partii-ular  nolileman  to  act 
as  jutlge,  who  is  then  calle<l,  for  the  time  being,  **  lord  high 
steward."  By  the  commission  other  noblemen  arc  asso- 
ciated with  him  to  decide  the  questions  of  fiict  which  mny 
arise  in  tho  case.  The  court  is  therefore  substantially  com- 
poscil  of  a  judge  and  jury.  It  differs  from  a  court  of  ini- 
|ieachmcnt  in  three  respects:  it  can  only  dispose  of  the 
questions  arising  upon  an  indictment  found  )>y  a  grand 
jury;  it  may,  and  perhaps  must,  sit  during  a  recess  of 
Parliament;  and  it  may  consist  of  a  small  number  of  peers 
{r.  (f.  twelve),  instead  of  the  entire  house.  It  is  a  court 
that  a  king  might  easily  pack  with  bis  own  creatures  in 
order  to  ruin  an  obnoxious  nobleman.  This  is  forbidden 
by  statute  in  cases  of  trial  for  treason,  and  (he  entire 
House  of  Lords  must  in  that  case  be  summoned.  As  tho 
presiding  officer  of  the  court  of  impcnchment  in  capital 
cases  is  also  termed  a  "lord  high  stewartl,"  much  caro  is 
sometimes  requireil  in  reading  legal  history  to  distinguish 
bct\Teen  the  two  tribunals. 

The  Jtitliriftt  nature  of  an  impcnchmcnt  is  also  readily 
seen  by  contrasting  it  with  a  bill  of  attaimler  or  of  pnins 
and  penalties.  These  latter  are  mere  laws.  The  houses 
of  Parliament  in  passing  such  bills  ena<*t  that  a  person  is 
guilty  of  .1  crime.  Though  they  may  go  tlimugb  forms  of 
judicial  inquiry,  their  tlocision  is  a  law  and  not  ajndffment. 
Bills  of  attainder  are  wholly  contrary  to  sound  legislation, 
as  they  are  an  assumption  by  a  legislature  of  judicial  power. 


An  impeachment  is  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  alone. 
Unless  that  bo dy^  were  to  follow  judicial  forms,  and  to  give 
their  decisions  upon  evidence  and  inquiry  as  applied  to  a 
violation  of  law.  an  impeachmeut  would  be  more  objection- 
able than  a  bill  of  attainder,  for  it  would  need  only  the 
arbitrary  will  of  one  house  to  lake  away  one's  liberty  or 
life,  instead  of  the  concurrence  of  two. 

The  result  is,  that  under  the  English  law  there  have  been 
from  time  immemorial  two  parallel  modes  of  reaching  an 
alleged  criminal :  he  might  be  either  indicted  or  impcacheil. 
The  two  proceedings  are  deemed  to  bo  wholly  distinct.  If 
he  is  indicted  first,  he  may  be  impeached  afterwards;  and, 
conversely,  an  impeachment  is  no  answer  to  an  indictment. 
It  might  seem,  at  first  sight,  that  if  this  were  so,  an  im- 
peachment should  never  be  resorted  to.  as  this  proceeding  is 
dilatory,  cumbrous,  and  expensive.  Tho  reasons  for  adopt- 
ing it  in  special  cases  have  mainly  been  because  it  could 
more  readily  be  made  an  instrument  of  faction,  or  because  it 
was  a  powerful  weapon  in  times  of  political  disturbance  or 
revolution.  Again,  there  have  been  instances  of  a  salutary 
effect  from  its  use,  where  an  alleged  criminal  was  a  man 
of  power  and  influence,  and  likely  by  tho  weight  of  his 
name  and  by  his  position  to  ilisturb  the  judgment  of  the 
ordinary  criminal  courts.  It  is  a  weakness  necessarily  ap- 
pertaining to  this  court  that  there  is  no  appeal  from  or 
review  of  its  decisions.  Unlike  all  other  courts  with  which 
men  trained  in  English  jurisprudence  are  familiar,  it  de- 
cides at  once  and  irreversibly  lioth  upon  the  law  and  tho 
fact.  The  absence  of  repeated  discussion  and  consideration, 
which  are,  in  general,  so  fully  accorded  to  suitors  through 
the  action  of  appellate  courts,  may  in  times  of  political 
excitement  lead  to  inconsiderate  and  unjust  decisions,  and 
it  is  too  much  to  expect  from  these  tribunals  that  there 
will  be  an  unbroken  adherence  to  wise  and  safe  precedents. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  connected  with  Ibis 
whole  subject  is,  whether  an  impeachment  can  be  had 
where  the  act  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot  be  prose- 
cuted by  indictment.  Can  an  impeachment  be  had  for  any 
act  unless  it  constitutes  a  criiin-  against  the  general  law  of 
the  land  ?  Can  this  mode  of  trial  be  extended  to  mere  acts 
of  indecorum  having  no  fixed  criminal  aspects?  Crimes 
may,  of  course,  exist  either  by  the  rules  of  the  common 
law  or  by  statute.  Can  there  be  an  impeachment  in  the 
absence  of  any  form  of  crime?  If  this  question  is  to  be 
decided  by  the  nile>;  of  the  English  law,  it  would  have  to 
be  said  that  prineiidcs  and  precedents  are  both  opposed 
to  an  impeachment  except  for  a  crime.  The  most  recent 
and  leading  cases  upon  this  subject  are  those  of  the  earl 
of  Macclcsfielil.  of  Warren  Hastings,  and  of  Lord  Melville. 
In  Iho  case  of  the  carl  of  Macclesfield,  who  was  impeached 
for  the  sale  of  offices  connected  with  the  administration  of 
justice,  the  whole  argument  of  counsel  was,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  show,  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  disprove,  that 
the  sale  of  such  an  oflice  was  contrary  cither  to  a  rule  of 
tho  common  law  or  of  an  act  of  Parliament.  He  was  de- 
clared guilty,  hut  only  on  the  ground  that  a  statute  jiasscd 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  had  been  violated.  Lord 
Camjibell,  a  great  jurist  of  our  day,  who  defends  the  im- 
pcaclimeut,  rests  its  lawfulness  solely  on  the  ground  that 
tliis  statute  ha<l  been  violated.  (4  Campbrll's  L>>nl  Climi- 
c*7Ao>,  536;  Ifi  Howell's  Stntt  Triah.  i<'2'^.)  In  the  case 
of  Warren  Hastings  (1788),  th^  Lords  resolved  that  they 
would  insist  on  the  same  rules  of  evidence  us  were  ajiplied 
in  tho  inferior  courts  of  justice.  In  the  trial  of  Lord  Mel- 
ville in  ISOfi  for  malversation  in  office,  the(|ucstion  was  put 
to  the  judges  whether  the  acts  with  whieh  he  was  charged 
wero  unlawful,  so  as  to  be  the  subject  of  information  or 
indictment.  It  having  been  decided  that  they  were  not, 
Lord  Melville  was  acquitted.  (29  Howell's  Sfnte  7'riah, 
1170.)  These  decisions  were  made  n(  a  time  when  there 
was  no  party  feeling,  and  wlun  the  House  of  Lords  in- 
tended to  act  with  judicial  Impartiality.  They  are  there- 
fore entitlerl  to  much  weight.  In  nmnv  instances  it  should 
bo  observed  that  tho  court  asks  the  opinion  of  the  ordinary 
judges  upon  the  law  of  crime  and  the  relevancy  of  evidence, 
and  closely  follows  their  views.  Reference  may  also  bo 
made  to  the  opinion  of  leading  text-writers  and  jurists. 
Wooddeson  is  particularly  clear  and  emphatic.  He  says: 
"The  trial  differs  not  in  essentials  from  criminal  prosecu- 
tions before  Inferior  courts.  The  same  rules  of  evidence, 
the  same  legal  notions  of  crimes  and  punishments,  ]trevail. 
/'or  I'niprfichmrntt  are  not  /rtimrd  to  after  thr  htir,  but  tn 
carrt/  it  into  more  rffrciunl  rjreetttian  ichcrc  it  mitjht  be  t>b- 
gtrtivtcff  bif  thr  influence  of  ^*(>  pnirerftd  dch'nquvut*,  or  not 
frt«i7v  i/itraverefi  in  the  courln  of  ordituinf  f'uriiiflivttou  by 
renttfiU  uf  the  prruHar  tfUuHttf  ti/  the  tii/ci/rti  criuirti.  Tfic 
jut/tpnrnl  thereof  in  fn  be  Murh  an  i»  irarrantetf  b>/  irijal  prin- 
ciptr»  nr  prerrdrntK."  (2  /.rrturra,  fill.)  The  Same  view 
is  well  expressed  by  Lord  Chancellor  Cowpcr  in  the  year 
1715,  who  says:  "Though  one  of  your  lonlships  supposes 
this  impeachment  to  bo  out  of  tho  ordinary  and  common 


1126 


IMPEACHMENT. 


course  of  law  and  justice,  it  13  yot  as  much  a  couvso  of 
prOL'CCciing  according  to  the  conimnn  law  as  any  other 
whatever."  (See  also  Cushing,  Law  and  J'ructUc  <>/  LeyiH- 
titlitc  Agscmbiirti,  ^  2oC>'J  ;  4  Hlaekstonc's  Comm.f  259  ;  and 
the  able  argument  of  Jlr.  Webster,  5  Worka,  pp.  613-jIj, 
in  ik-fcnco  of  Judge  Prcscott.) 

This  subject  has  assumed  great  importance  in  recent 
trial.s  by  impeachment  in  the  U.  S.  It  must  be  conceded 
that  public  and  professional  opinion  is  here  to  some  extent 
divided  upon  it.  Impeachment  as  used  under  American 
law  docs  not  have  so  wide  a  scope  as  in  Kngland,  though 
we  have  derived  it  from  the  law  of  that  country.  Tlic  ob- 
ject of  the  trial  licrc  is  to  reach  ofhcial  delinquency,  and 
to  remove  the  offending  officer  from  oftico  or  to  impose  a 
permanent  disqualification  upon  him.  it  is,  however,  con- 
ceived that  this  does  not  vary  the  case.  The  impeachment 
is  still  fur  a  crime;  thenfficcr  is  to  be  removed  or  disqualified 
because  ho  has  committed  an  act  in  the  nature  of  a  crime. 
tJu  no  other  theory  can  there  bo  a  strictly  judicial  proceed- 
ing. There  must  have  licen  a  wrong  committLd.  but  bow 
can  th:it  be  unless  there  has  been  a  ^■iolation  of  law  ?  AVith- 
out  a  crime  how  can  there  be  a  trial,  and  how  is  it  possible 
to  apply  any  rules  of  evidence?  Mr.  Hallam  contends, 
with  great  force  of  reasoning,  that  not  only  must  a  crime 
be  committed,  hut  it  must  be  set  forlli  in  the  articles  of  im- 
peachment. Thu?,  if  there  were  an  impeachment  for  trea- 
son, the  offence  described  should  of  itself,  in  jioiut  of  law, 
constitute  treason.  His  argument  is  that  the  court  can 
only  trif  an  offender  for  an  existing  crime.  It  cannot  create 
an  offence  by  its  fiat.  (2  Const.  Hist..  412,  413,  Murray's  ed. 
ISiifi.)  (An  able  presentation  of  an  oppo.sitc  view  has  been 
made  by  Judge  William  Lawrence  of  Ohio.  See  American 
Law  Ih'jistrr,  vol.  vi.  p.  Gil.) 

In  the  constitution  of  New  York  of  the  year  1777  im- 
peachment and  indictment  are  coupled  together,  as  if  they 
were  deemfd  tu  be  only  different  modes  of  trial  of  tlic  same 
offence  :  "  l\\  every  trial  on  impeachment  or  indictment  for 
crimes  or  niisdemciinors  the  parly  impeached  or  indicted 
shall  be  alloweil  counsel  as  in  civil  actions."  (Art.  34.)  In 
the  U.  S.  Constitution  it  is  "declared  that  the  President 
and  other  civil  officers  of  the  U.  S.  sliall  be  removed  from 
office  on  impea(diment  f(jr  and  conviction  of  treason,  bribery, 
and  othur  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors."  (.\rt,  2.^4.) 
Who  can  doubt  that  the  words  *•  treason  "  and  ''  bribery" 
are  here  used  to  mean  specific  crimes.  Ac:;ording  to  all 
ordinary  rules  of  construction,  the  words  '■  other  crimes" 
must  have  a  similur  application.  The  same  general  ques- 
tion was  discussed  to  some  extent  by  tlie  judges  of  the  New 
York  court  of  appeals  in  the  recent  case  of  the  impeachment 
of  George  G.  liarnard  as  a  judicial  officer  of  the  S^atc.  The 
drift  of  the  opinions  would  seem  to  be  that  an  act  to  be  im- 
jjcachable  must  bo  of  a  criminal  nature,  and  usually  the 
suhjtctof  an  indictment,  though  this  rule  might  not  always 
apjdy  to  a  judge.  Thus,  on  grounds  of  public  policy  ho 
may  be  exempt  from  ordinary  criminal  prosecutions  for 
acts  affecting  the  administration  of  justice.  (Sec  ojiiuions 
of  Grover,  Andrews,  and  Folger,  judges,  7Vi'a/,  etc.,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  2n:i7.  2ir.7,  2170.) 

Minti' of  Proccdnrc. — When  an  impeachment  is  resolved 
upon  in  Englaml.a  membcrof  the  House  of  Commons  usu- 
ally rises  in  his  place  and  makes  a  charge  of  crime,  which 
he  siipports  by  proofs,  and  ihen  moves  for  an  impeachment. 
If  this  motion  is  susfained,  the  number  is  ordered  to  go  to 
the  House  of  Lords  in  company  with  others  to  institute  the 
impeachment.  Written  articles  are  subsequently  presented. 
In  this  country  the  impeachment  is  commonly  brought  for- 
ward by  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  more  popular 
branch  of  the  legislature.  The  matter  of  arrest  of  the  per- 
son impeached  is  of  much  consequence  in  the  Knglish  law, 
as  the  proceeding  may  involve  liberty  or  life.  In  the  U.  S. 
no  arrest  is  necessary,  as,  if  the  party  has  been  properly 
summoned,  the  trial  may  go  forward  in  his  absence,  and  the 
whole  object  of  the  proceeding  is  achieved  by  removing 
him  from  office  or  imposing  a  disqualification  for  the  future, 
or  both.  The  subject  of  suspension  from  ofiice  is.  how- 
ever, one  of  grave  consequence,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
so  imjcirtant  an  officer  as  that  of  President  of  the  U.  iS. 
A  consiitutinn  may  proviile  for  a  suspension  in  office  while 
an  impenchment  is  pending,  when  of  course  no  question 
arises.  The  U.  .S.  Constitution  is  silent  upon  the  subject, 
and  the  only  source  of  information  open  to  us  is  the  prac- 
tice arloptett  in  England.  It  is  not  necessary  to  consider 
the  ease  which  has  frequently  occurred  in  England,  of  the 
impeachment  of  a  member  of  either  house  of  the  legisla- 
ture, as  no  such  practice  is  adopted  here,  each  house  by 
the  r.  S.  Constitution  having  the  nower  of  expulsion.  The 
inquiry  will  acconlingly  be  limited  to  the  case  of  the  sus- 
pension of  executive  or  judicial  officers  from  office  after 
impeachment  and  before  judgment.  These  cases  are  of 
two  general  classes:  (I)  where  the  office  is  held  at  the 
king's  pleasure;  (2)  where  the  tenure  of  office  is  fixed,  so 


that  the  officer  has  a  claim  to  continue  in  his  office.  In  the 
first  class  of  cases  the  only  way  in  which  the  impeaching 
bodies  coulil  express  their  wishes  to  the  king  would  bo 
by  an  ''address"  or  joint  resolution.  Although  the  Com- 
mons have  frequently  asked  the  House  of  Lords  to  concur 
with  them  in  sucli  an  address,  that  body  has  regularly  re- 
fused to  do  so  while  the  iin]ieachment  was  pending.  The 
course  (»f  jjroeeeding  is  manifest  in  the  case  of  the  trial  of 
Lord  Bacon  while  lord  high  chancellor.  After  he  had  been 
imjieached,  and  had  confessed  his  crime,  we  arc  told  by 
historians  that  a  difficulty  remained  in  proceeding  furtlicr 
while  he  retaineil  the  great  seal,  for  by  the  rules  of  the  House 
of  Lords  acting  as  a  court  of  impeachment  a  defendant  pro- 
duced before  them  is  to  receive  sentence  <m  his  knees  at  Iho 
bar,  and  the  lord  chancellor,  if  present,  must  preside  on  the 
woolsack  and  render  sentence.  This  rule  made  it  necessary 
that  Lord  Bacon  should  pronounce  sentence  on  himself. 
This  embarrassment  was  only  removed  hy  the  Lords  en- 
treating the  king,  after  Bacon's  confession,  on  Apr.  30, 1021, 
to  sequester  the  great  seal,  i  Lnrdn  Jonrnali,  Apr.  .10,  ir)21.) 
The  king  requested  its  surrender,  and  received  it  on  May  1. 
This  course  of  proceeding  is  a  very  potent  argument  against 
the  existence  in  the  impeaching  tribunal  of  any  power  of 
suspension  or  removal.  In  fact,  it  is  contrary  to  nUJudiciitl 
theories  that  a  court  while  a  proceeding  is  pending  should 
do  any  act  savoring  of  punishment  or  deprivation  of  rights. 
Such  an  act  is  executive  in  its  nature;  and  though  it  might 
bo  allowed  by  statute  in  England  or  by  constitutional  pro- 
vision in  this  country,  it  would  not  be  tolerated  as  an  or- 
dinary branch  of  judicial  procedure.  Reference  may  also 
bo  made  to  the  case  of  the  worthless  and  incapable  Scroggs, 
chief-iusticc  of  the  king's  bench  in  the  reign  of  Charles  H. 
The  House  of  Lords  absolutely  refuseil  to  join  the  Com- 
mons in  addressing  the  king  to  suspend  liim  from  oflioc.  It 
was  understood  by  the  Commons  to  be  a  positive  decision 
upon  the  point  that  while  an  offieehnldcr  was  uncondeinned 
he  should  not  bo  suspended  from  the  administration  of  his 
office.  Their  leaders  complained  in  their  places  that  the 
''Lords  would  not  address  to  sequester  Scroggs  from  his 
place,  but  would  leave  it  to  his  modrtttif  whether  ho  would 
exercise  it  or  no."  (8  Howell's  Stnte  Trinh,  21.'^,  214:  LJ 
Journals  Uoune  of  Lords,  73;    Foss,  Liim  of  JndijfS,   170.) 

In  the  second  class  of  cases,  where  the  tenure  of  office 
is  permanent,  the  argument  is  still  stronger.  Even  the 
Commons  have  not  insisted  on  suspension  or  sequestration 
in  this  class  of  cases.  That  house  has  drawn  a  distinction 
between  the  two  cases,  refusing  in  a  well-known  instance 
to  address  the  king  to  remove  the  duke  of  Buckingham 
from  an  office  of  a  permanent  nature,  though  it  asked  for 
his  dismissal  from  an  office  held  at  the  royal  pleasure.  (6 
Howell's  Strife  Trials,  1004.) 

According  to  these  principles,  what  rule  should  be  ap- 
plied in  the  ease  of  the  inipeaidiment  nf  the  President  of 
the  U.  S.?  Undoubtedly,  tlio  people  have  a  right  to  his 
continuous  services,  of  which  they  cannot  be  deprived  by 
either  l)rane!i  of  Congress  acting  in  an  impeachment  before 
his  conviction,  unless  by  some  constitutional  provision, 
either  express  or  implied.  There  is  certainly  no  express 
clause  in  the  Constitution,  nor,  according  to  what  has  been 
seen,  are  there  any  im]ilications  to  be  drawn  from  English 
practice.  It  may  bo  added  that  there  is  evidence  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  debates  of  llie  framers  of  the  Constitution 
that  their  opinion  coincidetl  with  the  English  view,  though 
great  stress  shouKl  not  be  laid  on  discussions  of  this  kind. 
(See  2  Madison  r<ipcr«,  1 1 J4  ;  3  ib.,  1572,  1573.)  It  seems 
quite  plain  that  an  implied  power  to  suspend  the  President 
from  office,  beginning  to  operate  at  the  very  moment  of  his 
impeachment  by  tlie  House  of  Kepresentativcs,  would  bo 
of  a  highly  dangerous  character,  as  a  majority  adverse  to 
that  functionary  might  sci/e  upon  this  mode  of  removing 
a  President  obnoxious  to  them,  and  by  dilatory  processes 
might  prolong  the  trial  so  as  substaniially  to  remove  him 
from  othcc  without  any  real  cause.  In  this  way,  a  mod© 
of  trial  for  grave  crimes  which  was  only  intended  to  be 
used  in  extreme  cases  when  the  majesty  ut  the  people  was 
offended,  might  be  resorted  to  on  frivolous  and  absurd 
pretexts,  and  as  ft  method  of  scourging  or  frightening  a 
political  opponent;  or  an  impatient  legislature  might  re- 
sort to  this  process  to  grasp  at  executive  authority  or  to 
overcome  executive  vetoes. 

Assuming  that  articles  of  impeachment  have  been  pre- 
pared, and  an  answer  received  an<l  reply  made  if  necessary, 
a  day  is  fixed  fnr  the  trial  of  the  cause.  The  court  in  Eng- 
land is  organized  with  inueh  pomp  and  solemnity.  .\ 
graphic  description  of  it  will  be  found  in  the  case  of  the 
trial  of  the  earl  of  Stafford  (7  Howell's  Stntr  Trials,  1194), 
as  well  as  in  the  essay  of  Lord  iMaeaulay  upon  the  life  and 
career  of  Warren  Hastings.  The  proceedings  on  the  part 
of  the  House  of  Commons  are  conducted  by  a  committee, 
called  *'  managers."  An  opening  speech  having  been  made, 
the  trial  proceeds  much  in  the  same  way  as  in  ordinary 


IMPENETRABILITY— IMPERATBIZ,   VILLA  DA. 


1127 


Criniiuiil  proceeding;?.  coudscI  repre?on(in{^  tlic  accused.  And 
evidence  being  adduced  in  ii  formal  and  regular  way.  The 
proceedings  are  Irequeutly  dilatory,  and  u  prorogation  or 
dis<iolutiuu  of  I'arliauient  may  intervene.  It  has  been  de- 
cided that  such  an  event  docs  not  vitiate  the  proceedings 
8o  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  commence  a;::iin,  but  that 
they  will  continue  until  a  conclusiou  is  reached.  1,1  May's 
CoHHt.  JJiat.,  4;i7,  and  authorities  cited.) 

The  rules  attending  judgment  arc  special.  Questions 
which  are  considered  to  involve  the  merits  of  the  case  hav- 
ing been  agreed  upon,  each  member  of  the  court  is  interro- 
gated by  the  presi<ling  officer  a;»  to  his  opinion  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  accused  and  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
peers,  commencing  with  the  one  lowest  in  rnnk,  as  tho  ques- 
tions are  put  to  them  rise  successively  in  their  places,  and 
standing  uncovered  and  placing  their  right  hands  upon 
tlieir  breasts,  say.  as  the  ease  may  be,  "Guilty"  or  "  S'ot 
guilty,  upon  my  honor."  If  the  accused  is  found  guilty, 
the  next  step  is  for  the  Commons  to  dcnmnd  judgment. 
Impeachiueuts  in  England  have  within  tho  last  one  hun- 
dred years  been  very  rare,  only  tw«  being  known  to  have 
taken  place — that  of  Warren  Hastings  and  that  of  Lord 
Melville.  (I  May.  Const.  I/i'Mt.,  -llJo.) 

Under  the  U.  S.  Constitution  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives presents  tlie  impeachment.  The  trial  is  had  before 
the  Senate,  except  that  when  the  President  of  tho  V.  S.  is 
tried  tho  chief-justico  of  the  iSupreme  Court  presides,  the 
Vice-President  in  that  case  not  sitting.  Tho  Senators  act- 
ing as  a  court  of  impeachment  are  ref(uircd  to  taico  an  oath 
or  affirmation.  There  is  less  formaliiy  in  rendering  judg- 
ment. Ka?h  member,  rising  in  his  place,  votes  guilty  or 
not  guilty  upon  the  respective  ''articles  of  impeachment " 
presented  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  Two-thirds 
of  the  members  present  must  concur  to  ensure  a  convic- 
tion. I'ndcr  the  English  law  a  par<lon  by  the  king  cannot 
he  pltmlt  tl  ill  (jiir  u(  an  impeachment.  The  effect  of  this 
provision  is  that  the  king  cannot  prevent  the  trial  and  con- 
viction of  the  accused.  After  judgment  the  onliuary  rule 
is  unilerstood  to  apply,  and  the  king  may  pardon.  Under 
the  U.  S.  Constitution  the  President  is  deprived  altogether 
of  the  power  to  pardon.  There  seems  to  be  a  good  reason 
fur  the  distinction  in  the  two  countries,  as  under  the  Eng- 
Ii>li  law  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is  both  criminal  and 
political  in  its  nature,  while  in  the  U.  S.  it  is  political. 
having  only  to  do  with  officers  and  their  administration  of 
office. 

In  tlie  various  States  of  the  Union  it  is  the  common 
praetici?  to  provide  in  tlieir  respective  constitutions  fcir  the 
organization  of  a  court  of  inipcachmout  to  try  State  oHi- 
cers.  In  the  main,  the  general  outlines  <»f  the  clauses  of 
the  IJ.  S.  Constitution  are  followcil.  Tho  more  popular 
hramdi  of  the  legislature  presents  tlie  impcaciiment,  while 
the  upper  house  or  senate  tries  it.  In  New  V»jrk  the  judges 
of  the  court  of  appeals  and  the  lieiitenunt-govornor  arc 
joined  with  the  senate,  though  the  latter  officer  does  not 
sit  when  the  governor  is  impeached.  Some  of  tho  States 
proviile  expressly  in  their  constitutions  for  the  suspension 
of  officers  from  office  when  on  trial.  In  some  there  is  a  re- 
quirement that  tho  eliief-jusiiee  of  the  supremo  or  other 
high  court  shall  presiile  when  the  governor  is  trieil.  The 
details  must  be  sought  in  the  resiiective  State  constitutions. 

Reference  is  made  bebtw  to  some  nfihc  more  jirominent 
cases  of  impeachment  in  ICnglniid  and  in  this  country: 
Trial  of  I-ord  Latimer,  A.  n.  l.iTtJ;  ib.  of  llie  .lukeof  Suffolk, 
A.  D.  1  (f)!t ;  ib.  of  Mompes^on  and  ass^^tciates,  temp.  .Tames 
1.;  ib.  of  Lorcl  Bacon,  do.:  trial  of  Lonl  Inanity  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  :  trial  of  earl  of  Macclcslielil.  172j; 
trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  ITHM;  ib.  of  Lord  Melville.  IsOfi. 
Many  of  these  and  (»ther  cases  arc  found  in  Howell's  Sintr 
TriaU.  Ilatsell's  U«j-/-«,  and  the  journals  of  the  two  bouses 
should  be  referrcfi  to.  Recent  impeachments  in  the  U.  S. 
are  that  of  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  U.  S.,  ISOH, 
published  in  il  vols.;  also  that  of  (leorge  0.  Barnard, 
judge  in  New  York,  1872,  publishcil  in  :i  vols.  Earlier 
cases  were  Iho  impeachment  «d"  William  Itlount,  a  Renntor 
of  tho  \}.i^.,  17;)7.  published  in  Whart<.n's  Sintf  Trinh, 
2011 :  tha*  of  .'^amind  Chase,  asstjciate  justice  Supreme  Court 
U.  S..  I  SOI.  published  by  Smith  .t  Lloyd.  11  vols.  ;  ami  that 
of.lnhn  Pickering,  ilislrict  juclgo  of  New  Ham]ishire,  lHO;i 
(see  'i  Hildreth's  ///«/.  /'.  .S'..  ..IS).  See  also  2  Story's  Cnmm. 
on  thr  (\,nnlitntiim;  Cuslling's  L*iw  ttnti  /*rnrtirr  uf  I,rifi9- 
int;rr  AHMr,„hfir».  T.   W.    D WIGHT. 

Impcnetrabirity  (Lat.  imp^nrtrnhifin,  "not  to  be 
peni-trated  "].  one  of  the  essential  properties  of  matter, 
implying  that  no  two  bodies  can  oeeiipy  (he  sann'  portion 
of  space  in  the  snme  instant  of  time.  If  a  nail  be  driven 
into  a  piece  of  wood,  it  does  not,  properly  speaking,  pt-nr- 
trnfr  tiie  wood,  for  the  fibres  are  driven  aside  before  the 
nail  can  enter.  With  regard  to  liquids,  the  property  may 
be  jiroved  by  very  simple  experiments.  I^et  a  vcswel  bo 
filled  to  tho  brim  with  water,  and  a  solid  incapable  of  solu- 


tion in  water  be  plunged  into  it;  a  portion  of  tho  water 
will  overflow,  exactly  equal  in  bulk  to  the  body  immersed. 
If  a  cork  be  rammed  hard  into  tho  neck  of  a  phial  full  of 
water,  the  phial  will  burst,  while  its  neck  remains  entire. 
The  disposition  of  air  to  resist  penetration  may  be  illus- 
trated in  the  following  manner:  Let  a  tall  glass  vessel  he 
nearly  tilled  with  water,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  lighted 
taper  is  set  to  lloat.  Jf  over  this  glass  a  smaller  cylindi  ieal 
vessel,  likewise  of  glass,  be  inverted  and  pressed  downward, 
.the  contained  :iir  maintaining  its  place,  the  internal  body 
of  tlic  water  will  descend,  while  the  rest  will  rise  up  at  tho 
sides,  and  the  tajier  will  continue  to  burn  for  some  seconds 
encompassed  by  tho  whole  mass  of  liquid.  (Leslie's  L'/e- 
incntu  a/  A'atitnil  Philosophy.)  The  lightest  gases  arc  really 
as  impenetrable  as  tho  densest  solid,  although,  owing  to 
their  compressibility,  it  is  not  reailily  made  apparent. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  property  applies  only  to  the  «/om» 
of  a  boily.  In  many  phenomena,  bodies  apjtear  to  pene- 
trate each  other;  thus,  the  volume  of  a  compound  body  is 
always  less  than  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  its  constituents; 
for  instance,  the  volume  of  a  mixture  of  water  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  or  of  water  and  alcohol,  is  less  than  the  sum 
of  the  volumes  before  mixture,  in  all  these  cases,  how- 
ever, the  penetration  is  merely  apparent,  and  arises  from 
tho  fact  that  in  every  body  there  are  interstices  or  spaces 
unoccupied  bv  matter.  (Ganot's  Phyaice,  cd.  Atkinson, 
Now  York,  1S72.) 

Impeii'nates,  or  Impcnnes  [Lat.  in,  and  pnina,  "a 
wing"j,  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  swimming  birds  having  shoft 
wings  covered  with  feathers  resembling  scales ;  the  penguin 
{AptcnodifUit)  and  the  great  auk  {Alrn  intpcnuis)  are  exam- 
ples of  this  group,  wliich,  however,  is  not  a  natural  one. 

Imperador%  Villa  do  [Port.,  ''city  of  the  emperor"], 
large  town  in  Rra/.il,  province  of  Parahiba,  'J.)  miles  N.  \V. 
of  Pcrnambueo.  It  has  a  considerable  traffic  in  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  Brazil  wood,  drugs,  and  timber. 

Impcr'ative,  Categorical  or  Moral.  In  the  ter- 
minology of  the  Kantian  school  of  psycliologieal  ethics, 
this  expression  denotes  tho  idea  of  Duty.  "Man,  in  the 
consciousness  of  his  moral  liberty,  recognizes  two  great 
laws  regulating  his  will;  the  first  promjtts  hiin  to  seek  bis 
own  well-being:  the  second  romuntn<h  him  to  bo  virtuous, 
even  at  the  sacrifice  of  happiness.  From  this  opposition 
in  !iis  moral  nature  between  Desire  and  Conscience  springs 
up  tho  Idea  of  I)uty."  otherwise  the  Moral  Imperative,  to 
which  term  Kant  added  the  epithet  (ntet/oricft!  to  indicate 
tlutt  its  commands  are  absolute  and  unconditional. 

Imperative  Mood  [Lat.  imprro.  "I  command"],  in 
grammar,  tho  form  of  tbo  verb  which  denotes  command, 
entreaty,  or,  in  general,  desire, 

Iinpera'to  (Fi:itnAN'Ti;),  b.  in  Naples.  Italy,  about  ir)fir) ; 
be<'anic  a  dru^gi^t  ;  made  a  fine  collection  of  minerals  ; 
foundeil  a  butanieal  garilen  at  Naples,  and  devoted  himself 
with  great  enthusiasm  to  natural  history,  on  which  subject 
he  ])ublislied  a  folio  volume.  Orfla  /xtoriti  Naturah-  l.ihri 
XXVUf.  (Naples,  iJiHlt.  which  was  reprinted  at  Venice 
in  ir.7'J.  and  translated  into  Latin  (Cologne.  KlO.'i).  It  is 
not  so  much  a  treatise  upon  natural  history  as  a  descriptive 
catalogue  of  plants,  minerals,  and  precious  stones,  having 
no  great  seienliiic  value.  It  was,  however,  the  occasion  of 
a  curious  literary  controversy,,  it  having  been  vigorously 
asserted  and  denied  that  the  work  was  written  by  one  Ni- 
colas Stelliola,  who  sold  it  to  luipcrato  for  100  dueats.  Tho 
authority  of  Tiraboschi  is  unfavorable  to  the  claims  of  Im- 
perato.  wh(t  was.  however,  on  terms  of  intimacy  nnd  cor- 
respomlcnce  with  several  eminent  naturalists.  He  lived  far 
into  tlie  seventeenth  eentury. 

Impcra'tor  [Lat..  "  commander"].  During  the  entire 
existence  of  the  Roman  republic,  of  which  the  forms  were 
preserveil  for  bunrlreds  of  years  after  the  republican  spirit 
had  disappeared  before  tho  eneroaehmcnt  of  centrati/ation 
combinerl  with  universal  dominion,  the  title  imprmtor  had 
a  meaning  verv  different  from  that  of  the  Ryznntine,  tho 
mediieval.  or  the  modern  term  "emperor."  Originally  of 
purely  military  ap|die[»lion.  it  meant  nearly  tho  same  as 
"  captain  "  or  "  general,"  nnd  the  soldiers  who  on  tlio  bal- 
tle-lield  acclaimed  their  leader  impn-ittor  meant  only  to  ex- 
press their  belief  that  he  wtis  worthy  to  exercise  command. 
The  concentration  of  power  in  the  hands  (»f  .\ugustus  and 
his  successors,  with  which  their  title  of  imprmlor  is  ])opu- 
larly  associateil.  was  exercised  not  by  virtue  of  that  title, 
l)ut  bv  accumulating  in  tlio  bands  of  a  single  indivirluat 
the  additional  offices  of  consul,  proconsul,  tribune,  pontifex 
maximus.  and  censor ;  tho  attribution  of  all  these  powers 
to  an  imprvitinr  is  a  later  iib'a. 

Iinperatri'/%  Villa  dn  [Port.,  "city  of  thoemnress"], 
town  tif  Brazil,  province  ttf  Cearll,  on  the  Serra  Urubure- 
lama.  Medicinal  plants  are  abundant  in  the  mori/f  (forest), 
and  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  nnci  suit  nre  all  found  in 
greater  or  less  (|uantities  in  tho  adjacent  mountains. 


1128 


IMPERFECT— IMPRISONMENT. 


ImpcrTect,  id  music,  a.  term  indicating  deficiency  or  a 
Tvunt  (jf  comjileteuess  or  finality.  An  impcriect  iiitamtf  is 
one  whicli  is  a  ccmitoue  less  than  the  ])erfect.  Thus,  the 
interval  B — F  is  an  imperfect  htth  ;  but  by  the  addition 
of  a  semitone  to  eitiier  the  higher  or  lower  term — l.  c.  by 
flattening  B  or  sharpening  F — the  interval  becomes  per- 
fect. Thirds  and  sixths  are  commonly  regarded  as  im- 
perfect intervals,  because  they  may  bo  readily  changed 
from  major  to  minor,  or  from  minor  to  major,  by  the  use 
of  a  flat,  sharp,  or  natural.  An  imjierfect  thind  is  one  in 
which  some  of  its  intervals  are  wanting;  as  when,  in  a  chord 
of  the  seventh,  we  occasionally  omit  the  third,  the  fifth,  or 
even  the  root.  In  some  cases  tico  of  these  intervals  are 
omitted.  The  imperfect  cadence  (or  half  cadence)  is  that 
in  which  the  harmony  of  the  triad  is  followed  by  that  of 
the  dominant,  being  the  exact  contrary  of  the  perfect  ca- 
denee.  lly  some  writers  several  other  cadences,  not  final, 
arc  termed  imperfect.  William  Staunton. 

Iinpeti'$;o  [La!,  an  "attack."  from  impcfn,  to  "rush 
ui)on  "J,  a  skin  disease,  resembling  eczema  in  being  more 
or  less  diffuse  jnllammation,  but  resulting,  unlike  eczema, 
in  pus-formation.  T!ic  rrneta  Ittrten  of  young  infants  is 
one  of  its  forms,  which  are  rather  numerous.  True  im- 
petigo is  not  contagious.  It  freiiuentiy  is  cured  by  time 
alone,  but  if  persistent  should  be  treated  with  oxide-of- 
zinc  ointment  or  some  other  mild  stimulant.  The  so-called 
iinj/ctif/tt  Jifjni-«tt<t  is  a  distinct  disease,  depending  on  the 
presence  of  Tiic/i>>phift(nt  tnii»nraiiit,  a  parasitic  vegetation. 
Epilation  of  the  part  with  irritant  washes,  as  of  corrosive 
sublitiiate,  will  cure  the  disease,  which  is  truly  contagious. 

Impey  (Sir  Elijah),  chief-justice  of  Bengal  in  1774, 
ber:une  infamous  in  history  by  liis  atrocious  perversion  of 
law.  He  sentenced  the  celebrated  Nuncomar  to  death  for 
the  assumed  crime  of  forgery  in  1775,  w.as  recalled  in  17S2, 
impeached  in  17SS.  and  d.  Feb.  I,  1SI2.     (See  Macaulay's 

Eumtif  nit     W'trrru    Ilfistill'/M.) 

lin'pcyaii  Phoas'ant,  the  Lophnphonin  fmpei/anuft,  a 
fine  large  jdieasant  frijm  the  Himalayas,  is  nearly  as  large 
as  a  turkey,  splendidly  cidored.and  has  been  domesticated. 
It  is  a  native  <if  the  higii.  cold  regions  of  the  Himalaya. 

Im'plements,  Agricultural.  Of  these,  the  more 
important  are  noticed  under  their  alphabetical  heads. 
The  manufacture  of  this  class  of  goods  is  a  very  extensive 
industry  in  the  U.  S.  In  1870  there  were  reported  207fi 
establishments,  employing  2o,24'J  persons,  a  capital  of 
$.'U.s:;4,600,  paying  $12,lol,J0-l  as  wages,  and  producing 
goods  worth  $21, 170,025. 

Imports.     See  CoMMRnrK,  by  ,J.  S.  Giijboxs. 

Impos'tors,  The  Three  (Dr  tn'bns  fmposton'btia),  a 
supposed  work  attacking  the  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mo- 
hammedan religions,  which  at  various  times  since  the  tenth 
century  has  been  written  of  by  theologians  and  others. 
The  most  diverse  statements  have  been  maile  as  to  its  au- 
thorship and  cliaracter,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  a  genuine 
work  of  this  title  ever  existed.  But  in  later  times  there 
have  been  many  spurious  works  written,  pretending  to  be 
the  real  De  tn'bua  Impnstonhua.  Not  one  of  them  is  of 
any  great  antiquity  or  of  any  possible  value. 

Impress'ment,  in  English  law.  is  defined  as  the  for- 
cible levying  of  mariners  in  time  of  war  for  the  king's  ser- 
vice at  sea.  It  was  formerly  the  usiuil  method  of  manning 
the  liritish  navy,  and  a  similar  procedure  waa  employed  by 
otlier  maritime  powers.  The  power  of  impressment  was  a 
branch  of  the  royal  prerogative,  first  mentioned  in  the  statute 
2  Richard  II.  c.  4  as  a  recognized  usage.  .Many  acts  of 
Parliament  from  the  time  of  Queen  Mary  down  to  George 
III.  rcgubited  the  system  of  impressment  and  exempted 
certain  classes  of  mariners.  The  mariner?  were  seized  by 
an  officer  acting  under  an  impress-warrant,  and  having 
under  his  oifdcrs  an  armed  party  of  picked  men  (the  press- 
gang),  with  which  ho  visited  the  usual  haunts  of  seamen 
and  violently  seized  the  most  robust  men,  not  without  fro- 
({uent  and  bloody  struggles.  A  merehant-vcasel  or  a  priva- 
teer was  also  liable  to  bo  so  depleted  of  sailors  by  any  man- 
of-war  as  to  becrippled  for  all  practical  jiurposcs.  The  laws 
sanctioning  impressment  are  still  unrepealol.  but  the  sys- 
tem of  bounties  lias  practically  taken  its  place.  The  im- 
pressment of  American  sailors  was  an  abuse  practised  for 
several  years  by  tJreat  Britain  during  the  great  continental 
war  against  the  French  empire,  notwithstanding  the  con- 
stant and  earnest  protest  of  the  1^  S.  government  :  and  this 
finally  became  the  immediate  eause  of  the  war  of  ISI2  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  It  has  been  often  noted  that  in 
the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Ghent  in  IHU  nothing  was 
stipulated  regarding  this  original  eauee  of  the  war;  never- 
theless, the  American  doctrine  achieveil  a  practical  victory, 
and  impressment  has  not  since  been  employed  by  Great 
Britain,  not  even  during  the  Crimean  war.  It  will  prob- 
ably never  be  revived.  roiiTEit  C.  Bliss. 


Impris'onment.  In  the  most  comprehensive  sense  of 
the  term,  imprisonment  denotes  any  deprivation  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  whether  by  actual  onfinement  or  simply  by 
forcible  restraint  or  detention  against  a  person's  will.  I)c- 
taining  a  man  in  a  public  street  or  taking  him  into  custody, 
either  by  the  exercise  of  actual  force  or  by  the  exhibition 
of  such  real  or  assumed  authority  as  secures  his  submis- 
sion, would,  in  this  view,  be  a  sutlieient  imprisonment. 
When  no  actual  force  is  employcil  the  imprisonment  is 
termed  constructive  ;  in  other  cases,  actual.  When  the  re- 
straint upon  a  man's  person  is  unlawful  it  is  called  "false 
imprisonment,"  and  this  is  a  violation  of  personal  rights 
for  which  an  action  at  law  may  be  instituted  and  damages 
recovered.  (See  False  Impkisonmknt.)  In  its  narrower 
signification,  however,  and  according  to  more  popular 
usage,  imprisonment  denotes  an  actual  confinement  of  the 
person  under  legal  process  in  some  prison  or  jail  which  la 
specifically  employed  for  such  a  purpose  in  accordance 
with  provisions  of  law.  The  power  to  imprison,  using  the 
word  in  this  narrower  sense,  is  either  inherent  in  courts  or 
magistrates  as  one  of  their  essential  prerogatives,  or  is 
conferred  upon  them  by  statute.  Imjirisonmtnt  is  em- 
ployed in  both  civil  and  criminal  proceedings.  It  may  be 
used  as  a  form  of  civil  remedy,  as  when  a  debtor  is  arrested 
and  held  in  custody  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  satis- 
faction of  some  debt  wliieh  ho  is  under  obligation  to  l)ay  ; 
or  it  may  be  adojiteil  as  a  means  of  obtaining  testimony, 
as  where,  in  criminal  cases,  witnesses  are  kept  in  confine- 
ment that  they  may  be  forthcoming  at  the  trial  of  a  cause  ; 
or  it  may  be  cmi)Ioycd  as  a  mode  of  punishment,  as  where 
persons  guilty  of  contempt  of  court  or  convicted  of  a  crimi- 
nal offence  are  sentenced  to  be  kept  in  prison  for  particular 
periods.  These  are  the  most  imjiortant  purposes  fornfaioh 
imprisonment  under  authority  of  law  is  employed,  though 
particular  classes  of  persons  may  be  placed  in  legal  con- 
finement for  still  different  reasons,  as,  for  instance,  where 
lunatics  are  confined  in  asylums;  but  places  of  this  kind 
are  not  usually  known  as  prisons,  and  this  kind  of  impris- 
onment will  not  therefore  be  considered  in  this  connec- 
tion. (See  Insanity.)  Imprisonment  for  debt  was  at  com- 
mon law  iu  former  times  generally  allowed  at  the  suit  of  a 
creditor  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  became  the  regular 
practice.  But  in  recent  times  the  tendency  has  been  to 
abolish  it  by  statute,  excc])t  in  relation  to  particular  classes 
of  debts,  among  which  arc  usually  included  those  founded 
upon  fraud  or  misfeasance,  fines  and  penalties,  etc.  la 
England  the  first  statute  of  this  kind  was  passed  in  183H, 
but  the  act  which  at  present  (1S7,"))  regulates  this  subject 
was  enacted  in  IS(i9  {'.',2  and  33  Vict.  eh.  62).  This  provides 
that  no  person  Shall  be  imprisoned  for  making  default  in 
the  jiayment  of  a  sum  of  money  except  in  cases  of  penal- 
ties not  arising  upon  contract,  of  default  by  trustees  in 
making  iiayments  directed  by  a  court  of  equity,  of  default 
in  payment  of  a  sum  recoverable  summarily  before  a  jus- 
tice, and  in  a  few  other  cases  of  less  importance.  In  these 
excepted  cases  the  imjirisonment  cannot  continue  longer 
than  a  year.  There  are  also  some  further  qualifications 
of  the  general  rule  in  special  instances.  Thus,  when  a 
jjcrson  makes  default  in  the  pavment  of  any  debt  due  in 
pursuance  of  the  order  or  judgment  of  a  competent  court, 
and  is  proved  to  have  had  the  means  to  jiay  since  the  order 
or  judgment  was  rendered,  he  may  be  committed  to  prison 
for  a  term  not  exceeding  six  weeks,  or  until  payment  is 
made.  Arrest  and  imprisonment  upon  mesne  i)roccss  is 
abolished  entirely,  with  the  single  exception  that  where 
the  suit  is  for  XoO  or  more,  and  there  is  reason  to  apprc- 
heinl  that  tlie  defendant  will  leave  England,  he  may,  on 
proper  evidence  under  oath  of  these  and  a  few  other 
neeessary  facts,  be  iniprisoneil  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
six  months,  or  held  to  bail.  In  New  York  an  act  to  abolish 
imprisonment  for  debt  was  passed  iu  1S3I,  and  is  still  in 
force.  This  provides  that  no  person  shall  he  imprisoned 
on  civil  process  at  law  or  on  execution  in  equity  founded 
on  contract  except  in  the  following  cases:  in  proceedings  as 
for  contempts  to  enforce  civil  remedies,  in  actions  for  fines 
and  penalties,  or  on  promises  to  marry,  or  for  moneys  col- 
lected bv  any  pul)lie  ofTicer,  and  in  actions  for  any  miscon- 
duct or  negleet  in  ofliee  or  in  any  jM-ofessional  employment. 
Moreover,  in  eases  of  debt  claimed  in  any  suit  or  founded 
upon  any  judgment  or  decree  of  a  court  of  record,  the  de- 
fendant may  be  arrested  upon  an  aflidavit  of  the  plaintiff 
stating  the  sum  due  to  be  more  than  $51',  ami  charging  the 
commission  of  certain  fraudulent  aels;  as,  that  the  defenil- 
ant  is  about  to  remove  any  of  his  proi)erty  out  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court  to  defraud  his  creditors,  that  he 
frauilulently  conceals  property,  or  has  assigned,  removed, 
or  disposed  of  it  with  like  intent,  or  that  the  debt  was 
fraudulently  contracted.  The  defendant  is  thereupon  eom- 
milted  to  prison,  unless  he  either  pays  the  debt  and  custs 
of  the  suit  or  gives  security  to  pay  them  within  a  certain 
time,  or  unless  he  makes  an  assignment  of  his  property  for 


IMPROVISATION. 


1129 


the  benefit  of  his  creditors,  or  gives  security  that  ho  will 
.  make  such  an  assigninent  or  that  he  will  not  rlitipose  of  any 
of  his  property  until  the  demand  against  liJm  is  satisfied. 
If  he  makes  such  an  assignment  uf  his  properly,  there  are 
provisions  in  the  act  hy  wliieh  he  may  ho  discharged  from 
his  indebtedness.  Further  provisions  of  an  analngous  na- 
ture to  those  contained  in  this  act  were  embodied  in  the 
New  York  code,  adopted  in  ISIS,  The  debtnr  may  be  ar- 
rested and  imprisoned  cither  on  mesne  or  on  final  process. 
The  jirincipal  grounds  of  arrest  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
the  same  as  those  enumerated  in  the  previous  act.  The 
defendant,  witen  arrested  upon  mesne  ])rt>cess,  may  be  ad- 
mitted to  bail.  The  imprisonment  upon  final  process  is  for 
the  same  causes,  and  is  applicable  when  the  execution 
against  the  clcbtor's  property  has  been  returned  unsatisfied, 
in  whole  or  in  part.  The  most  important  difference  be- 
tween these  provisions  ancl  those  of  the  earlier  statute  is 
that  in  (he  later  act  means  only  are  provided  for  securing 
the  paynien*  uf  the  debt  of  an  individual  creditor,  and  there 
is  no  ajjsignment  provided  for  in  behalf  of  all  the  creditors, 
or  any  means  afforded  of  obtaining  a  discharge  of  the 
debtor  from  alt  his  obligations.  A  large  number  of  the  States 
of  the  Union  have  acluptcd  :*imilar  statutes.  (A  compre- 
hensive summary  of  these  may  be  found  in  Kent's  Comuuttt- 
nrieSf  vol.  it.  pp.  .'J9S,  .^99.  For  the  rules  regulating  the 
subject  of  arrest  on  civil  process,  see  Arrest.) 

In  criminal  proceedings,  imprisonment  is  employed  as  a 
means  of  detaining  alleged  offenders  in  custoily.  in  certain 
cases,  to  ensure  their  appearance  at  the  time  of  trial,  and 
also  as  a  common  form  of  punishment  to  which  a  convicted 
prisoner  maybe  BcnteuccJ.  It  is  the  ordinary  penalty  both 
in  cases  of  felony  and  of  misdetneanor.  and  the  classes  of 
offences  in  which  a  sentence  of  this  kincl  may  bo  given,  and 
the  terms  of  imprisonment  which  may  be  imposed,  are  gen- 
erally determined  by  specific  statutory  provisions.  A  min- 
imum and  a  maximum  pcriotl  are  usually  declared  as  ap- 
propriate to  any  particular  crime,  ami  the  magistrate  may 
impose  a  greater  or  less  term  within  these  limits  according 
to  his  discretion.  Fines  arc  frequently  imposed  in  connec- 
tion with  imprisonment  as  an  a*lditional  penalty.  (See 
FiNR.)  The  means  of  adequately  adapting  the  severity 
of  the  penalty  to  the  degree  of  heinousness  in  the  (iflTcnce, 
which  is  affordeil  by  the  facility  with  whi'-h  longer  or 
shorter  terms  of  impris4inment  may  be  meted  out.  nnd  tho 
opportunity  which  is  given  for  tho  reformation  of  offenders 
when  they  arc  confined  in  ])risons,  render  this  one  of  tho 
mc»3t  salutary  modes  of  punishment  which  the  law  provides. 
(.Sec  PrNisi!Mi:vT.  For  tho  methods  of  pris<in  manage- 
ment and  discipline,  see  Prisons,  Phison  I>isrM'i.iNK.) 

Imprisonment  in  cases  of  contempt  of  court  is  discussed 
under  the  topic  Costkmpt.  In  regard  to  the  imprisonment 
of  witnesses  to  secure  their  testimony,  see  Witskss. 

The  remedies  which  the  law  affords  in  cases  of  unlawful 
imprisonment  are  of  various  kinds.  Thus,  the  j)erson  who 
has  wrongfully  caused  or  procured  the  confinement  of  an- 
other may,  as  has  been  stated,  be  sued  by  the  latter  in  a 
civil  action  for  false  imprisonment,  or  he  may  be  subjected 
to  a  criminal  proseeution.  When  the  prisoner  desires  to 
obtain  a  release  or  ilisehargc.  a  petition  upon  h<thcnft  cnrjmH 
may  bo  marie  by  him  or  in  his  behalf  to  the  proper  court. 
And  a  petition  of  this  kind  may  even  be  resorterl  to  when 
tho  imprisonment  is  not  unlawful,  as  in  cases  where  a  per- 
son confined  under  legal  process  desires  to  be  admitted  to 
bail,  or  to  have  the  reasons  for  his  detention  investigated 
and  its  validity  determined.  (The  rules  upon  this  subject 
arc  stated  under  the  topie  Habkas  Corits.) 

(fKounR  Chask.     Rkviskd  dy  T.  W.  Dwiciit. 

Improvisa'tion  is  the  art  of  composing  poetry  cxtem- 
])oraneonsly.  Although  the  term  embraces  every  rhythmic 
form  of  impromptu  song  or  recitation,  and  is  sometimes 
even  applied  to  un])remeiUtated  prose  declamation,  es- 
pecially to  that  of  a  highly  figurative  and  impassioned  cha- 
racter, yet  it  is  restricted  in  jiopular  use  not  merely  to 
metrical  compositions,  but  to  those  which  please  by  syllabic 
consonance  or  corresp<>ndeiice  of  sound.  The  moilern  ear, 
in  tho  countries  and  clauses  where  improvisation  is  most 
practised,  has  lieen  trained  to  demand  not  only  a  regular 
recurrence  of  metrical  feet  or  accentual  longs  ami  shorts, 
but  lull  or  half  rhyme,  assonance,  or  at  least  alliteration, 
as  an  indispensable  condition  of  this  species  of  intellectual 
entertainment.  Hut  even  in  Italy  anrl  Spain,  especially  in 
the  more  olevateil  and  refined  exercise  of  the  art,  that  ^a- 
tiety  of  rhyme  whiidi  led  Trissino  to  invent  modorn  blank 
verse — first  emplnyeil  in  his  S^iphnninhn  in  I. '('J  I— sometimes 
induces  improvisators  to  dispense  with  this  ornament,  and 
to  content  themselves  with  a  simple  iambic  or  trochaic  ar- 
rangement of  nylhibles  in  verses  of  a  determinate  length. 
There  are,  too,  nations  in  whose  extemporaneous  ])oelry 
parallelisms  in  sense  or  imagery,  coupled  with  metre,  sup- 
ply the  place  of  consonance.  Keadcrs  familiar  with  Kate, 
vain  and   //mwalha  will  readily  perceive  that  this  varied 


repetition  of  thought  and  illustration  may  bo  used  with 
very  happy  effect  in  improvised  as  well  as  in  deliberate 
composition.  Improvisation  is  doubtless  the  most  primitive 
and  universal  mode  of  expressing  poetic  feeling,  and  it 
appears  to  have  always  existed  among  semi-barbarous 
races  sufficiently  advanced  in  intellectual  development  to 
derive  pleasure  from  any  form  of  poetry.  The  early  poets 
of  Greece  and  of  many  other  ancient  c<nintries  were  min- 
strels, and  chantecl  their  compositions,  which  were  in  a 
great  degree  extemporaneous  in  detail  and  expression, 
though  probably  not  often  in  subject  and  general  treatment, 
to  a  musical  accompaniment,  wJiich  we  must  suppose  too 
simple  to  have  served  much  other  purpose  than  to  mark 
the  time  or  metre.  The  improvisators  of  recent  ages  have 
not  generally  availed  themselves  of  this  expedient.  The 
most  genial  examjilcs  of  modern  improvisation  are  found 
among  peoples  and  in  classes  possessing  a  considerable 
amount  of  traditional,  though  not  of  scholastic,  culture. 
With  the  diffusion  of  instruction,  and  of  printed,  and  espe- 
cially of  periodical  literature,  and  above  all,  with  a  wider 
participation  of  the  higher  and  mi<Idle  ranks  in  active 
business  nnd  political  life,  it  gradually  ceases  to  enjoy 
favor,  and  the  power  of  irnjtrovisation  diminishes  with  tho 
social  demand  for  it.  The  rhetorical  character  of  impro- 
vised poetry  depends  less  on  the  material  condition  and 
mode  of  life  than  on  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  social 
training  and  habits  of  the  composer  and  liis  audience  :  its 
special  forms,  as  indeed  those  of  all  poetry,  are  determined, 
or  at  least  greatly  intluenced,  by  tho  orthoopical  system 
and  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  language  emjdoyed 
by  the  bard.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  jdiysical  character- 
istics of  the  scene  of  tho  poem  are  less  frequently  re- 
flected in  unpremeditated  verse  than  the  actions  and  pas- 
sions of  the  bard  and  his  personages.  Ileal  nature  is 
too  familiarly  known  to  the  uomade,  the  shepherd,  and 
the  rustic  cultivator  as  a  hard  and  niggard  landlord  to 
be  an  attractive  feature  in  his  imaginative  recreations,  and 


his  spontaneous  lyrics  teach  i 


1  more  of  the  man  him- 
self than  of  Ins  surroundings.  This  consideration  furnishes 
an  argument  againstthcautlienticity  of  the  pretended  poems 
of  Ossian.  They  have  too  much  material  coiifrur  lorah 
to  bo  accepted  as  genuine  specimens  of  bardic  song.  The 
most  untrained  ear  readily  seizes  and  soon  learns  to  enjoy 
accented  rhythm,  and  a  frequency  of  corresjjonding  sounds 
in  a  given  language  almost  mechanically  prompts  a  dispo- 
sition to  employ  them  as  a  means  of  giving  a  melodious 
expression  to  feeling  and  to  thought.  A  strongly  marked 
syllabic  accent  and  an  abundance  of  rhymes,  therefore,  are 
circumstances  favorable  to  the  invention  and  free  and  ready 
employment  of  ])oetical  forms;  and  it  is  chiefly  in  languages 
marked  by  these  characteristics  that  impro\  isation  is  most 
general.  The  modern  languages  of  the  Latin  stock — with 
tho  exception  of  French,  which  is  scarcely  Latin  otherwise 
than  in  vocabulary — have  a  very  distinctly  acccnteil  ])ro- 
nunciation;  they  abound  in  rli\  nied  endings,  and  they  ac- 
cordingly present  great  material  facilities  for  the  construc- 
tion of  verse.  All  inflected  languages  to  a  certain  extent 
supply  rhymes,  because  words  of  the  same  class  and  in  the 
same  grammatical  category  have  generally  the  same  final 
syllabk'  or  syllables.  But.  on  the  otlior  hand,  the  very  fact 
tiiat  like  endings  occur  only  in  like  categories  makes  words 
disparate  which  in  nninflected  tongues  might  freely  be 
paired  in  rhymes  under  almost  any  circumstances.  To  ex- 
cm])li(y ;  the  Italian  fftino  is  radically  the  same  word  as  tho 
Latin  (oiniii:  the  Italian  pnum*  the  same  as  the  Latin  pan- 
unit.  Now,  anii't  and  paiiuo  have  each  but  one  change  of 
form,  the  plurals  mini  and  panui;  auuuit  and  pauuun,  in 
their  different  cases  and  numbers,  have  each  eight  vari- 
ations of  ending.  The  Italian  words,  then,  in  their  re- 
spective singulars  and  jdurals.  rhyme  with  each  oilier  in 
all  syntactical  combinations;  the  I>atin,with  the  exception 
of  thccoincidence  between  the  genitive  singular  ami  nomi- 
native plural,  can  be  employed  us  rhymes  only  when  they 
happen  to  be  in  tho  same  case.  Besides  this,  the  regular 
diminutive  ami  augmentative  nninflected  forms,  in  which 
Italian  is  so  rich,  arc  a  great  re^ouree  to  the  rhymer.  A 
comi)arison  between  Italian  and  tho  (!othic  languages 
would  furnish  analogous  illustrations,  and  there  is  one  pe- 
culiarity of  the  inllectional  system  of  the  Icelandic  which 
merits  notice  as  having  profialdy  influenced  the  poetic 
forms  of  its  literature  in  a  curious  way.  S(>i>u>j  iiifiections, 
or  those  where  etymological  variations  consist  in  vowel- 
change,  are  more  common  in  Icelandic  than  in  the  other 
(iothic  languages,  and  wore  so  in  a  still  higher  degree  at 
an  earlier  stage  of  the  language.  For  example,  tho  nomi- 
native singular  hUnd  has  tho  genitive  hauJar,  the  dative 
singular  hrmlt.  Laud  singular  has  the  nominative  and 
accusative  plural  fi'mtt.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  fact  that  wo 
are  to  ascribe  the  adoption  of  /laf/  rfit/mr,  which,  as  well  as 
allitoratitm,  is  now  generally  an  indispensable  feature  of 
Icelandic  verse,  oven  when  ordinary  end-rhymes  also  aro 


1130 


IMPUTATION. 


employed,  ffnf/  i-hi/nieM  are  syllables  containing  the  same 
final  consonants  with  different  vowels,  and  both  they  and 
full  rhymes  arc  introduced  aecordiu!^  to  certain  rules,  gene- 
rally not  at  the  close,  but  in  the  body  of  the  verse.  Thus, 
while  /li'iml  singular  and  /Unti  ])lural  are  full  rhymes,  both 
those  forms  arc  gctod  half  rhymes  with  the  singular  laud 
and  with  the  genitive  and  dative  haudaf  and  hentH.  A 
vowel-ehange,  tlicrcfore,  which  destroys  a  full  rhyme  often 
maki's  amends  by  sujiplying  several  linlf  rhymes.  But  not- 
withstantiing  this  and  ])eculiar  prosodicul  advantages  of 
other  tiothic  languages,  there  is  uo  doubt  that  in  facility 
of  versification  Italian  surpasses  not  only  these,  but  the 
Spanish  also.  The  Spanish,  indeed,  gains  in  this  respect 
by  allowing  nRsonauce,  or  the  corrcspoudence  of  vowels 
while  the  final  consonants  difler;  but  its  consonances  ap- 
ppur  to  be  fewer  than  in  Italian,  and  the  rigor  of  its  rules 
in  the  employment  of  rhyme  renders  it  less  tractable  as  a 
metrical  medium  than  the  sister  speech.  Reasoning  from 
analogy,  wo  should  expect  to  find  improvisation  in  all  not 
abs<>bitcly  savage  races  whose  languages  exhibit  uncommon 
orthocpical  facilities  for  melodious  or  harmonious  expres- 
sion. Hence  the  Cherokees — whose  remarkable  speech  has 
but  eighty-five  possible  syllabic  combinations  of  elementary 
Boun<ls,  and  therefore  supcrabouu<Js  in  rhymes,  and  who, 
like  the  other  Xorth  American  Indians,  iiave  great  readi- 
ness in  extemporaneous  prose  harangue — ought,  in  their 
present  partially  civilized  condition,  to  excel  in  improvised 
verso.  But  we  do  not  know  that  any  species  of  native  poetry 
is  cultivated  among  them. 

Our  knowledgeof  the  extemporaneous  poetry  of  unlettered 
peoples  amounts  to  little  more  than  we  have  already  stated. 
Such  races,  of  course,  cannot  commit  their  own  effusions  to 
writing,  and  strangers  rarely  know  enough  of  any  unwritten 
language  to  be  able  to  seize  and  record  its  poetic  accents. 
Ancient  compositions  of  this  sort  have  indeed  been  handed 
down  and  long  preserved  by  tradition,  but  in  this  mode  of 
transmission  the  diction,  thoughts,  and  imagery  change 
with  changing  generations,  and  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
time  the  poem  ceases  to  be  identifiable  with  the  original. 
Probably  the  most  authentic  specimens  we  possess  of  primi- 
tive improvised  poetry  are  those  which  occur  in  the  sagas 
or  narrative  literature  of  Iceland.  These  usually  extend 
to  but  a  few  couplets,  and,  rhetorically  speaking,  are  little 
more  than  cjaculatory  expressions  of  thought  or  feeling. 
But,  though  they  are  generally  frigid  in  tone  and  destitute 
of  real  poetical  merit,  they  are,  to  the  last  degree,  artificial 
and  complicated  in  structure  and  figurative  in  diction.  AVe 
can  scarcely  suppose  that  such  nuy.'v  dij}iriha  could  have 
been  truly  extemporaneous,  and  we  cannot  help  suspecting 
that  most  of  them,  like  the  sudden  inspirations  of  many 
professional  modern  orators,  belong  to  the  class  of  premedi- 
tated impromptus,  deliberately  composed  and  stored  up  for 
use  wlicn  the  occasion  should  present  itself,  or  that  they 
have  been  much  elaborated  by  the  historians  who  quote 
tht-m. 

There  have  been  improvviaatori  in  almost  all  European 
peoples,  but  in  none  of  the  Gothic  or  Latin  countries,  ex- 
cept in  Italy  and  perhaps  Spain,  have  they  been  numerous  1 
enough  and  gifted  enough  to  have  had  any  real  literary  ) 
importance.  Some  of  the  Italian  improvvisatori  of  the 
sixteenth  century  composed  in  Latin  as  will  as  in  their 
native  language,  and  many  of  those  of  thv'  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth,  as  well  ns  of  the  present  century,  were  persons 
almost  as  remarkable  for  learning  as  for  dexterity  in  the 
production  of  unpremeditated  verse.  Perfetti  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  t'orilla  in  the  eighteenth,  Sgricci  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth,  were  all  persons  of  high  cul- 
ture, and  in  our  own  times  Regaldi  and  Giannina  Milli 
combine  with  a  surprisingly  ready  command  of  varied 
versification  a  range  of  thought  and  of  illustration  which 
shows  a  wide  acquaintance  with  history,  willi  life,  an«l  with 
literature.  Some  of  the  published  works  of  Italian  improv- 
visatori  are  of  unequivocal  merit,  and  few  of  them  are  with- 
out more  or  less  frequent  flashes  of  genius,  but  as  a  general 
rule  we  admire  the  art  rather  than  the  product,  tlio  loom 
rather  than  the  tissue.  As  we  have  already  hinted,  im- 
provisation is  now  much  less  common  than  formerly  ns  an 
entertainment  of  highly  cultivated  circles  in  Italy.  Though 
still  occasionally  practised  in  fashionable  society,  it  is,  so 
far  as  such  society  is  concerned,  substantially  a  thing  of 
the  past,  but  it  subsists  with  almost  unabated  vitality 
among  the  peasantry  of  many  provinces.  Tigri's  Cnnti 
Popofari  Titnl  Giuliani's  Z»V/»/rt'/'/tf>  Vlvtnte  defla  Toacniia, 
which  contain  many  specimen?  of  impromptu  verse  taken 
down  as  faithfully  as  possible  from  the  lips  of  peasant  re- 
citers, are  well  worth  the  attention  of  the  reader.  The  as- 
tonishing quickness  of  intellect  of  the  Italian  people  shows 
itself  as  brilliantly  in  the  unpremeditated  lays  of  the  rustic 
as  in  animated  discussion  and  action  in  the  educated  classes. 
Improvisators  ef  lioth  sexes,  who  are  what  the  Italians  call 
anuh'aietiy  or  unable  to  read  or  write,  extemporize,  like  their 


brethren  of  higher  culture  and  social  condition,  in  every 
metre,  every  structure  of  verse,  couplet,  and  stanz.a,  every 
style  of  poetic  composition,  lyric,  narrative,  didactic,  dia- 
logue between  two  rival  bards,  nrradcH  umbo,  and  dramatic; 
and  it  is  worth  noticing  that  at  many  of  the  popular  theatres 
the  playwright  only  furnishes  the  characters — which  indeed 
are  usually  regular  stock  )-6lc8 — and  the  skeleton  of  the 
drama,  leaving  the  personages  to  extemporize  the  dialogue, 
which  is  often  most  genial  and  spirited,  as  the  action  pro- 
ceeds. The  rnstic  bard  has  an  inj])ortant  advantage  in  the 
childlike  simplicity  of  his  hearers,  who.  like  real  children, 
are  never  tired  of  iteration.  The  child  never  objects  to  a 
tale  that  is  "twice  told."  The  peasant  extemporizer,  in 
his  narrow  range  of  thoughts,  words,  and  imagery,  may 
use  the  same  maxim  or  proverb,  the  same  epithets,  the 
same  similes,  the  same  pairs  of  rhymes,  indefinitely,  and 
his  audience  are  as  little  wearied  with  his  repetitions  as 
was  the  old  German  with  hearing  Gisclhcr  always  called 
"the  youthful"  through  a  narrative  which  extends  from 
his  boyhood  to  his  old  age,  or  the  Fiulander  with  the  ever- 
repeated  epithet  of  "old  and  truthful,"  which  Kalevala 
constantly  applies  to  Wainamoiuen,even  when  he  is  lying. 
The  educated  improvvisatore,  with  his  m(»re  multifarious 
culture,  has  of  course  a  larger  and  more  diversified  stock 
of  material,  and,  like  the  preacher  and  the  popular  speaker, 
he  habitually  prepares  at  leisure  new  verbal  combinations, 
happy  turns  of  expression,  similes,  and  illustrations,  to  be 
introduced  into  his  recitations  as  occasion  serves.  But 
these  stores  cannot  be  inexhaustible,  and  when  the  stock 
grows  thin  and  ins])iration  flags,  he  cannot  repeat  himself 
to  his  exacting  audience,  as  the  humble  bard  may  do  in 
his  rustic  circle,  and  he  usually  retires  from  the  field  after 
a  short  though,  It  may  be,  a  brilliant  career. 

GnoRGH  P.  Marsh. 
Imputa'tion  of  sin,  guilt,  and  merit.  This  word  is  the 
English  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  DuH,  hanhar,  which  is 
represented  in  theSeptuagint  and  the  New  Testament  by  the 
Greek  word  Ao-yt'^o/xai.  These  words  are  of  very  frequent  oc- 
currence in  the  Scriptures,  and  are  variously  translated  in 
our  version  ;  e.  fj.,  to  tkitik  (Job  xxxv.  2  and  Rom.  ii.  3 ) ;  to 
rcfjard  iJsa.  xxxiii.  8) ;  ?o  esteem  (Isa.  xxix.  It),  17  and  Rom. 
xiv.  14) ;  to  rerlrnn  (2  Sam.  iv.  2) ;  to  be  rerhoncdforor  among 
(Rom.  iv.  4:  Luke  xxii.  .*>7):  to  i/npiite  (Lev.  vii.  18  and 
Rom.  iv.  G-S)  ;  to  iaif  to  one's  ckarf/e  {2  Tim.  iv.  IC),  etc. 
Liddell  and  Scott  deiine  the  general  meaning  of  Aoyt^o/iai 
to  he  "to  count,  deem,  consider,  that  anything  is."      Crc- 

mcr  ifiib.   T/ieo.  Lex.    of  A.   7>«^  Greek)  says  /ioyi^eudai   ti 

TtVi,  "  to  reckon  anything  to  a  person,  to  put  to  his  account, 
either  in  his  favor  or  as  what  he  must  be  answerable  for." 
lu  Christian  theology  this  word  is  used  in  connection  with 
the  terras  "  sin,"  "  guilt,"  *■  merit,"  *'  righteousness,"  etc. 

Shi  includes  two  essential  elements:  (1)  Mnculn,  moral 
pollution  or  defilement,  as  sin  stands  opposed  to  holiness; 
(2)  reatuB,  0"'^^^  ^^  it  stands  opposed  to  Justice.  Again, 
rectus  or  guilt  must  be  distinguished  as  (I)  reatus  culpn-f 
desert  of  blame,  and  (2)  reatus  ^a'na-,  just  obligation  to 
punishment.  It  is  agreed  by  all  parties  that  neither  the 
rnaciifa,  ])ollution,  nor  the  rentun  cidpn\  desert  of  blame,  can 
be  separated  from  the  person  sinning,  and  imputed  or 
charged  to  »he  account  of  another  person.  But  the  whole 
Christian  Church,  Roman,  Lutheran,  and  Reformed,  is 
agreed  that  the  rentns  ptrute,  or  just  liability  to  punish- 
ment, may  be  charged  to  the  account  of  other  persons  than 
the  actual  transgressor  when  those  other  persons  stand  in 
such  a  relation  to  the  actual  transgressor  as.  for  any  reason, 
to  be  justly  responsible  for  his  action.  *'  To  tn)|>ute  sin  or 
guilt,"  therefore,  is  to  charge  the  legal  responsibility  for 
transgression  upon  any  one  as  the  ground  «f  judicial  pro- 
cess. **  Xot  to  impute  sin  "  is  to  "cover  it,"  remit  its  pun- 
ishment, and  so  refuse  to  make  it  the  substance  of  a  penal 
indictment  (Rom.  iv.  G-8),  Thus,  though  for  very  differ- 
ent reasons,  was  the  guilt  (rmtus  pwurr)  of  Adam's  act  of 
apostasy  imputed  or  charged  to  the  account  of  nil  his  nat- 
ural descendants,  who  are  punished  together  with  him  ; 
and  the  "many  olTenees "  uf  all  his  peoj>Io  were  "la-d 
upon"  or  charged  to  the  account  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and 
he  suffered  their  punishment  vicariously — i.  c.  in  their 
stead  and  behalf.  "  The  Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniqui- 
ties of  us  all  "  (Isa.  liii.  f.-l2;  Gal.  iii.  13;  1  Pet.  ii.  2-1); 
"  Therefore  as  by  the  offence  of  one.  judgment  came  upon 
all  men  to  condemnation"  (Rom.  v.  IS). 

Merit  must  also  be  distinguished  (1)  as  worthiness  of 
praise,  which  is  inseparable  from  the  person,  and  (2)  wor- 
thiness of  reward,  which  may  be  "imputed"  or  credited  to 
all  who  by  previous  union  or  stipulation  may  have  rights 
involved  in  the  action  of  the  meritorious  agent.  HiijhttniiH- 
nena  means  "that  which  satisfies  law"  (CVfWfr).  all  th:it 
constitutes  the  condition  of  acceptance  or  of  reward — i.  e. 
of  forensic  justification.  This  righteousness  may  bo 
wrought  out  personally  in  behalf  of  one's  self,  or  vi'-ari- 
ously  in  behalf  of  another.      Thus  by  the  rewardableness 


INACHUS— IN'CLINED  PLANE. 


1131 


of  Cbrist's  obedience,  or  his  vicarious  ri;;fhteousncss  im- 
puted lo  all  who  hflieve,  as  the  ;;roun(i  of  tlicir  sins  being 
parJuned  and  thfir  persona  aueepted  and  treiiled  as  those 
with  re;;ard  to  whuiu  all  tlie  demands  of  the  hiw  have  been 
fulfilleil.  '*  Even  so  by  the  ri;j;htL'OUMneiis  of  one  the  free 
pift  came  upon  ail  men  unto  justilication  of  life;*'  ".So  by 
the  obedience  of  one  shall  many  be  made  righteous  "  (Kom. 
V.  IS,  19  and  iv.  :i-a). 

The  entire  Church  agrees  as  to  the  fact,  though  difiercnt 
theories  exist  as  to  the  jrrounds.  of  the  imputation  of 
Adam's  first  ."in.  The  imputation  of  Cliri^t's  merits  is 
clearly  hehl  hy  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  but 
is  obscured  in  the  llonian  Church  by  their  doctrine  of  works, 
subjective  justification,  etc.  IJclhirniine.  Ann'us.  ;/rat.,  v.  17  : 
"(The  first  sin)  was  iuij)ufed  to  all  who  were  born  from 
Adam."  Fonn.  of  Concord,  p.  I'lllit,  ilase :  '■  We  all,  on  ac- 
count of  the  disobedience  o(  Adam  and  Eve,  are  by  na- 
ture children  of  wrath."  James  Arminius  ( 1000-1  (JOU); 
"Whatever  punishment  therefore  was  inflicted  ou  our  first 
parents  .  .  .  now  rests  on  all  their  posterity."  I'onu.  of 
Conront,  p.  fiSJ,  Hase :  'MVe  believe  that  a  sinner  is  justi- 
fied before  tiod  .  .  .  only  on  account  of  the  single  merit, 
the  perfect  obedience  and  severe  suffering,  death,  and  resur- 
rection of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  whoso  obedience  is  im- 
puted  to  us  for  righteousness."     To   the  same  effect   see 

Jfcidrlhr.rg  C'lfrchifni,  quos.    ))().    and    WrHtDiliister  CouJ\  of 

Faith,  ch.  ii.  ^  1,  and  all  other  Protestant  symbols. 

A.  A.  HODRF, 

In'achuSy  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  god  of  the  river 
Inaehiis  in  Argos.  who  in  the  dispute  between  Poseidon 
and  Here  about  the  possession  of  Argos  decidcil  in  favor 
of  the  latter,  and  hence  was  deprived  of  his  water  by  Po- 
seidon and  made  dry  exeept  in  the  rainy  reason.  In  otlier 
places  Ina^hus  is  referred  to  .as  the  first  king  of  Argos.  who 
after  the  flood  of  Deucalion  led  I  he  Argivcsl'rom  the  moun- 
tains down  into  the  plains;  hence  Argos  is  often  called 
Inachian. 

Inarching*     Sec  Aiicuation-. 

In'ca  [a  Qiiichua  worl.  signifying  *' chief"],  in  its 
strictest  sense,  designates  the  aI>soliitc  monarch  of  the  an- 
cient Peruvian  empire,  who  was  also  chief  jiriest  and  the 
recipient  of  divine  honors.  He  was  the  doscimdant,  hy 
unmixctl  blood,  of  .Manco  Capac  and  of  the  sun.  The  inca 
mn^t,  if  possible,  be  the  child  of  his  predecessor  by  his  own 
sister— a  custom  which  also  prevailed  in  ancient  Egypt,  in 
Persia,  and  in  many  other  lands.  In  a  larger  sense,  the 
whole  ruling  and  sacerdotal  caste  of  ancient  Peru  were 
called  incas.  They  also  received  a  superstitious  reverence 
from  the  lower  ranks,  and  jiossosscd  mnny  social  and  jio- 
litieij  privil-gcs.  It  is  claimed  hy  c-rtain  South  American 
Indians  that  the  old  blof>d-royal  is  still  ])reservcd. 

Ilicanta'tion  [from  I'l/,  "upon."  "over,"  and  rnuto,  to 
"ch;int"l  Wits  a  lorni  of  magiif  wliich  was  much  believed  in 
durin'^  tlie  Middle  Ages  by  all  (icrmanic  and  msiny  other 
nations,  and  of  which  some  remnants  are  still  extant  in 
certain  popular  superstitions  in  Rngliin'l,  Scnndinavia,  an*! 
Germany.  It  consisted  in  the  chanting  or  solemn  recita- 
tion or  mys'ical  murmuring  of  certain  phrases,  generally 
of  no  incauin;;,  but  of  a  striking  rhythm.  In  the  mouths 
of  certain  persons  these  jihrases  had  the  power  of  killing  or 
curing  a  man,  of  blessing  or  blasting  a  field,  of  raising  or 
laying  a  storm;  or  they  could  compel  the  spirits  of  the 
elements,  or  even  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  to  apjicar  and 
make  revelations.  Most  often,  however,  inc-aniation  was 
applied  only  as  an  accompaniment  to  other  witchcraft,  a-^, 
fur  instance,  to  the  preparation  of  tovc-potions  or  similar 
magical  drugs;  and  remnants  of  this  form  arc  still  exist- 
ing among  the  European  peasantry.  In  many  j)Iaces  the 
first  use  of  a  new  tool,  a  new  dress,  etc.  is  invariably  ac- 
companied by  the  pronunciation  of  certain  phrases;  and 
now  and  thf-n  some  old  hag  may  bo  met  with  in  .Scothuwl, 
Norway,  Jutland,  and  certain  parts  of  (Jermany  who  iie- 
knowIedgi'H  that  she  can  euro  fe\or,  aches,  rheumatism, 
consumption,  heart  disease,  etc.  by  means  of  a  formula  t<hii 
has  received  in  some  m3'sterious  way  from  another  oM  hnij. 
The  incantations  in  Mufhrth  and,  Fitunt  give  a  very  vivid 
picture  of  this  kinrl  of  magic. 

Incnr'natc  Word,  Lnilics  of  the,  a  congregation 
of  nuns  founded  1I>1.'.'>  by  .Jeanne  Marie  Chczan)  do  Matcl 
(I^DtJ-ir>70),  approved  hy  the  pope  in  l(i:t;5.  Their  work 
was  at  first  one  of  instrnelion,  but  in  IS(ifl  they  assumed 
the  caro  of  hospitals.  Tiiey  have  (1S76;  eight  houses  in 
Texas. 

Incnrna'tioii  [Lat.  I'a,  and  mro,  cnmh,  "  flcwh  "],  a 
term  ap])liid  grtK-rally  to  the  presoneo  of  deity  in  a  mortal 
form;  theologically,  to  the  union  of  God  and  man  in  (he 
person  of  Christ.  The  motives  for  the  incarnation  were — 
(iod's  li»vo  for  man.  nnd  will  to  save  bim  from  the  worst 
coiisecptrnees  of  sin  ( .John  iii.  1  ti).  his  de«ire  to  raise  human 
nature  by  joining  the  divine  nature  to  it^  and  to  show  man- 


kind "a  perfect  and  exalted  model  of  human  excellence." 
That  Christ  might  be  given  to  the  world  two  princi])les 
were  united — the  Holy  Ghost  from  heaven,  the  Virgin 
Mary  on  earth  (Luke  i.  ;jj).  Through  his  conception  by 
the  Spirit  he  was  entirely  holy,  "  pericet  God;"  through 
his  human  birth  hu  had  capal>ility  for  all  human  infirmi- 
ties exeept  sin.  was  "perfect  man,"  jiosscssing  a  "reason- 
able soul."  (See  Nickxk  and  Athasasian  Crickijs.)  No 
dogma  has  caused  more  dissension  in  the  Christian  Church, 
Among  its  early  oii])osers  were  the  Sabellians;  the  Samo- 
satencs,  followers  of  Paul  of  Samosata;  the  Origenists; 
the  Manicha;ans;  and,  most  important  of  all.  the  Arians 
in  the  fourth  century.  (See  Anns,)  In  the  fifth  century 
arose  the  sect  of  Eutychians,  who.  while  aeknriwledging 
Christ's  (lodheail,  denied  liis  assumption  of  humanity. 
In  modern  times  tlic  doctrine  of  Christ's  incarnation  has 
been  rejected  by  the  Monnrehians,  the  PutrJpassians,  and 
the  Unitarians.  Many  authors,  among  whom  StrauFs  and 
Renan  are  eminent,  have  in  our  day  written  aldy  to  prove 
the  mere  manhood  of  Christ  ;  and  tlic  more  advanced  of 
the  Broad  Church  ])arty  are  regarded  as  tending  towards 
their  opinion.  (See  The  /nrnnmtifni,  etc.,  by  J.  Metdrum 
(London,  1S07)  ;  Pull,  JJr/etiHi'o  Fidci  Aiccnn-;  Whately, 
EsHftyn  un  some  uf  the  Pecufiarities  of  the  ChrUtitin  licfiy- 
ion.)  Janct  Tl'ckev. 

In'cense  [Lat.  inrmda,  to  "  burn  "].  a  substance  burned 
for  the  fragrance  of  its  smoke,  and  used  in  the  performance 
of  a  relisious  ceremony.  Tlie  ancient  Egyptian,  the  He- 
brew, the  Crahmanical,  and  other  religious  ceremonials 
made  use  of  incense-burning.  The  Roman  Catholics  and 
some  of  the  Eastern  churches  use  incense  in  their  services. 
Tlie  Catholic  Apostolic  (Irvlngite)  Cliurch  has  adopted  the 
practice.  Various  gums  and  spices  are  enijiloycd,  but  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Ciiureh  olilianum  is  used,  mixed  with 
storax,  cascarilla,  and  other  ingredients.  It  is  burned  in  a 
thurible  or  censer  swung  by  chains. 

In'cest  [Lat.  inrcHtnm,  from  in,  **  not,"  and  castni, 
"chaste"],  cohabitation  or  carnal  intercourse  between  a 
man  and  a  woman  related  to  each  other  in  any  of  the  de- 
grees within  whi(di  marriage  is  proiiibitcd  by  law.  This 
was  not  a  criminal  offence  at  common  law,  but,  like  adultery 
and  fornication,  it  was  left  to  the  cognizance  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical courts,  which  had  power  to  annul  incestuous  mar- 
riages aufl  to  require  the  offender  to  perform  a  public  pen- 
ance in  the  parish  eluirch.  Such  a  marriage  was  therefore 
not  void,  but  voidable,  and  sentence  declaring  its  nullity 
was  required  to  he  pronounced  during  the  lifetime  of  both 
of  the  |)arties  or  it  couhl  not  be  pronounced  at  all.  But  by 
statute  t)  and  0  William  TV.  ch.  b\  ( lSr..'i-:;(i)  murriages  be- 
tween jK-rsons  within  the  prohiljited  degrees  are  declared 
absolutely  null  and  void.  What  these  degrees  are  is  not 
stated  by  the  statute,  and  this  point  is  to  be  determined 
hy  the  previously  established  rules  of  the  canon  law  and 
older  statutes.  IleIationshii>  both  hy  consanguinity  anil 
by  affinity  is  coriiprehended  within  the  prohibition  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  .«o-ealled  Lcviticai  degrees.  If  is  held 
that  marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister  is  within  these 
degrees,  and  consequently  void.  The  disability  by  con- 
sanguinity a[iplies  to  those  who  are  of  illegitiniiitc  as  well 
as  to  those  of  legitimate  birth.  No  statute  has,  however, 
been  passeil  in  Eni;land  declaring  incest  to  be  a  crime,  so 
that  it  is  not  indictable  at  present  any  more  than  formerly. 
In  the  States  of  the  Union  incestuous  nnirriages  are  gene- 
rally pndiiliited  by  statute,  anil  the  degrees  of  relationsliip 
to  wliieli  the  prohibition  a)ii)lii  s  are.  as  a  rule,  specincally 
declared.  Connection  by  affinity  is  not  usually  marie  a 
cause  of  incapacity  to  marry.  In  New  York,  for  instance, 
marriages  between  ])arents  and  children,  including  grand- 
parents and  grandchildren,  and  between  brothers  and  sis- 
ters of  the  half  as  well  as  of  tlic  whole  hlooil,  are  incest- 
uous and  voiil.  This  provision  applies  to  illegilimato  as 
well  as  to  legitimate  ehihiren.  Incct-t  is  also  declared  lo 
be  a  crime  by  some  of  the  Slates.  In  New  York  it  is  made 
a  felony,  anil  is  pnnisliable  by  inij>risonment  in  a  State 
prison  for  a  term  not  exceeding  ton  years. 

(^i:or(m;  Ciiask.     Ri:visr:n  dv  T.  W.  DwiniiT. 

Inch'bnid  i  Ki.i/.  uu-.tii  Simi'Son),  h.  Oct.  If),  17:»3.  at 
Stannin'^lii'ld.  Suffolkshire,  Englaml;  nmrricd  in  KT2  the 
actor  In<dibald,  and  went  upon  the  stage  the  fame  year; 
acted  in  London  and  other  English  cities  with  considerable 
success,  luit  retired  from  thr  stngn  in  17S1),  and  devoted 
herself  to  literary  pursuits.  She  translated  a  great  number 
of  drannis  fnon  the  French  and  German,  and  publi>hed 
Thf  /tritinh  Thrittrr,  a  collection  of  dramas  in  2o  vols. 
(LSOft-OK).  The  Modrrn  Thfttlrc,  a  e.dlection  in  10  vols. 
(If^O!)),  and  a  colli-elion  of  FnrvrH  in  7  vols.  Her  greatest 
success,  howevf'r,  was  her  romaiieo  in  l  vols.,  .1  Si'mjifr 
S'ort/.  published  in  17U1,  and  translated  into  several  of  tlie 
Eur>>|M-iin  lnngiiiit;es.     I),  in  London  Aug.  I,  lS'2l. 

Inclined  Plane,  in  mechanics  (witli  the  wheel  and 


1132 


IN  CCENA  DOMINI— INDEPENDENCE  OF  STATES. 


ftxie,  the  pulley,  the  screw,  the  wedge,  and  the  lever),  one 
of  the  so-called  "mechanical  powers"  or  *' simple  ma- 
cliincs."  by  which  a  small  force,  nctinj^  throiiph  a  great 
Icni^th  of  path,  is  made  to  overcome  a  greater  force  through 
a  short  length  of  path,  tho  intensity  of  the  rniallcr  force  re- 
quired to  the  greater  being  inversely  as  the  leni;tii  r.f  path 
through  which  each  acts.  Thus,  a  heavy  gun  islit(ed  through 
a  vertical  height  of  say  10  feet  (gravity  or  the  weight  of  the 
gun  acting  vertically),  and  its  path  being  thus  estimated  by 
a  tractive  force  of  ^th  the  weight  of  the  gun  acting  along  an 
inclined  plane  (or  romp)  Kill  feet  long  from  foot  to  summit. 
■An  inclined  plane  in  general  is  an  artificially-made  nunp 
or  surface  inclined  at  a  small  angle  to  the  horizon.  (For 
inclined  planes  for  railroads  sec  RAii.noAns;  for  canals, 
SCO  b;cr-iNKi>  Tlanes  for  Canals,  in  Aitendix.) 

In  Cw'na  Do'mini  [Lat.  for  "  at  the  Lord's  Supper ;" 
its  first  words  as  at  one  time  written,  it  having  after  1027 
been  read  annually  for  many  years  on  Ilnly  Thursday,  the 
anniversary  of  tho  first  eucharistic  feast],  a  famous  bull 
against  heretics,  schismatics,  sacrilegious  persons,  pirates, 
forgers,  and  others.  This  bull  is  of  very  ancient  and  un- 
certain date.  Opposed  by  several  governments  of  Europe 
ns  an  infringement  upon  royal  privileges,  thi?  bull  was  de- 
clared void  in  lylO  by  the  Council  of  Tours;  but  it  still  was 
annually  read  at  Rome,  though  often  modified  in  form, 
until  1770,  when  its  annual  promulgation  ceased,  another 
and  more  modest  document  taking  its  place.  Easter  Mon- 
day was  finally  appointed  for  its  annual  promulgation. 

In'come-Tax,  a  form  of  direct  tax  based  upon  the  ac- 
tual annual  income  of  individual  citizens.  Theoretically, 
it  is  the  most  equitable  of  all  taxes,  according  most  fully 
with  the  generally  accepted  maxim  of  Adam  Smith,  that 
"the  subjects  of  every  state  ought  to  contribute  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  government  as  nearly  as  possible  in  proportion 
to  their  res]>octive  abilities;  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the 
revenues  which  they  respectively  enjoy  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  state.**  It  would  seem  fairest  that  a  small  per- 
centage should  be  levied  on  all  incomes.  Cut  most  advo- 
cates of  this  tax  insist  that  incomes  beluw  a  certain  amount 
should  go  altogether  uutaxed,  and  that  tho  percentage 
should  be  increased  on  the  larger  incomes.  Usage  has 
adopted  those  two  features.  The  chief  objection  to  an  in- 
come-tax is  the  difficulty,  almost  impossibility,  of  ascer- 
taining men's  real  incomes;  partly  because  many  keep  no 
accurate  accounts,  and  partly  bccnuse  few,  comparatively, 
will  make  truthful  report  of  their  incomes,  and  the  inquis- 
itorial nature  of  the  tax  is  offensive.  Hence  the  honest 
and  conscientious  bear  the  most  of  this  burden. 

In  Great  liritain  an  iu'-oiue-tax  was  first  levied  in  1798, 
but  it  was  abandoned  soon  after  the  close  of  the  Xapoleouic 
wars.  Tt  was  again  instituted  in  IS  12,  and  has  been  con- 
tinued froui  that  time  to  the  present  (1S75),  not  without 
mucli  murmuring  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Incomes 
under  £100  are  exempt,  and  a  lower  percentage  is  levied 
on  those  between  £100  and  £1.»0.  It  is  estimated  that 
nearly  one-sixth  of  the  annual  revenue  of  the  kingclom  is 
derived  from  this  source.  In  the  l'.  S.  the  national  gov- 
ernment collected  an  income-tax  for  ten  years,  from  ISO;! 
to  1872.  The  first  law  exempted  $000,  and  levied  5  per 
cent,  on  all  incomes  above  that  sum  to  ?jOOO,  7  per  cent. 
on  all  from  $5000  to  $10,000,  and  10  per  cent,  on  all  above 
$H>,O00.  Whatever  was  ]>aid  for  rent  or  repairs  was  de- 
ducted. Subsequent  legislation  increased  the  amount  ex- 
empted—first, to  $1000.  and  later  to  $2000.  The  largest 
amount  raised  in  any  one  year  from  personal  incomes  wa3 
in  1SG«— about  $Gl,6u(l,Oo6,  fnim  460.170  persons  asscssc-l. 
Actual  experience  under  the  law  tended  to  relieve  difficul- 
ties an<l  objections.  When  most  efficiently  carried  out,  con- 
cealment and  dishonesty  wore  certainly  not  greater  under 
this  form  of  tax  than  under  auy  other  form  affecting  per- 
sonal property.  A.  L.  Chaims. 

Incoinmensurables*  See  Couuensurables,  by  F.  A. 
1*.  Barn  \in>. 

Incorporeal  lie reditaincnts.  See  IlEnEDiTAMEMs 
iNconiuittAi.,  by  I'ltoK.  T.  W.  DwuJiiT,  liL.D. 

Iiiciibation.     See  IIatciiisg. 

Incuin'brance,  or  Encumbrance,  a  burden,  im- 
pediment, a  hindrance:  in  law,  a  legal  claim  on  an  estate, 
for  the  discharge  of  which  the  estate  is  liable.  The  term 
is  a  general  name  for  liabilities  by  which  an  estate  in  lands 
and  hereditaments  may  be  burdened,  such  as  mortgages 
and  annuities. 

Incunab'ula,  the  name  given  by  bibliographers  to 
Iwoks  printed  betore  IJtlO.  and  important  not  only  for  the 
history  of  printing,  but  also  in  artistic  and  scientific  re- 
spects. The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  rNCti;i<i6i(/M,  a 
'•cradle,"  hence  generally  "beginning." 

Indenture.  See  Deed,  by  Pkof.  T.  W,  Dwionr, 
LL.D. 


Independence,  The,  of  the  U.  S.  of  America. 

See  Deilahatio.n  of  Isdei'Endence. 

Indcpen'dence,  county  in  thcN.  E,  of  Arkansas,  trav- 
ersed by  the  navigable  White  Kivcr.  .-Vrea.  1010  square 
miles.  It  is  iiilly  and  very  f'^rtile,  producing  grain,  to- 
bacco, cotton,  wool,  cattle,  ana  hay.  The  county  is  well 
timbered,  and  contains  lead  and  other  valuable  minerals. 
Cap.  Batcsville.     Pop.  14,.>;'.G. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Autaga  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  Ii:;7. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  220. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Pliillips  co.,  Ark,     Pop.  63S. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Pope  co..  Ark.     Pop.  210. 

Independence,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Inyo  co..  Cab,  275 
miles  N.  of  Los  Angeles,  in  the  fertile  Owens  Valley,  and 
in  a  region  abounding  in  gold,  silver,  and  lead  ores,  both 
quartz  and  galena.  It  is  ;jj  miles  Is.  E.  of  Mt.  Whitney, 
believed  to  be  the  highest  mountain  in  the  V.  S.  Its  court- 
house, destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1872,  has  been  rebuilt 
in  fine  style.  It  has  a  weekly  newspaper  and  important 
business  interests.     Pop.  of  tp.  400. 

CUALFANT  it   PaIIKEU.  PlBS.  "  InVO  iNDEPEXnENT." 

Independence,  tp.  of  Saline  co.,  III.     Pop.  G-IS. 
Independence,  a  v.  of  Madison  co.,  Ind.,  in  Boono 

tp.     Poj).  40. 

Independence,  post-v.  of  Warren  tp.,  Warren  co., 
Ind.,  on  the  W.  t'ork  of  White  River  and  on  the  Toledo 
Wabash  and  Western  U.  K.     Pop.  183. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Appanoose  co.,  la.    Pop.loriO. 

Independence,  city,  cap.  of  Buchanan  eo.,  la.,  on  tho 
river  Wapsipinicon,  and  on  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Bur- 
lington Cedar  Rapids  and  Minnesota  R.  Rs..  65  miles  AV.  of 
Dubuque.    Its  school  buildings  cost  $75,000  ;  it  has  2  banks, 

2  newspapers,  1*  churches,  apubUc  library,  :»  fire  companies, 

3  parks,  spacious  fair-grounds,  and  very  fine  mills.  It  is 
a  very  handsome  town,  and  is  the  scat  of  a  State  insane 
asylum,  of  which  the  buildings  cost  nearly  $1,000,000.  It  is 
in  a  rich  agricultural  region.     Pop.  2945. 

W.  BaHMIAUT,  Ed.  "  iNDnPFXDESCE  CONSEUVATIVE." 

Independence,  tp.  of  Jasper  co.,  la.     Pop.  8:14. 

Independence,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Montgomery  co..  Kan., 
on  a  liranch  of  the  Leavenworth  Lawrence  and  tialvcston 
R.  R.,  Ili4  miles  by  rail  8.  by  W,  of  Lawrence,  and  on  tho 
river  Verdigris.  It  was  founded  in  1870,  has  5  churches,  3 
banks,  3  weekly  newspapers,  a  fine  school-building,  and  is 
an  important  business  centre.  Pop.  4.35  ;  of  tp.  131)4  ;  much 
increased  since  the  census.     W.  T.  YoE,  Ed.  **  Tribfxe." 

Independence,  post-v.  of  Kenton  co.,  Ky.,  on  the 
Louisville  and  Cincinnati  U.  R.     Pop.  134. 

Indci)endcnce,  tp.  of  Oakland  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  1586. 

Independence,  tj>.  of  Henncpiu  co-.^Iinn.  Pop.  502. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Dunklin  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  747. 

Independence,  city.  can.  of  Jackson  co..  Mo.,  10  miles 
E.  of  Kansas  City,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  narrow- 
gauge  railroad.  It  is  3  miles  from  the  Missouri  River;  is 
the  seat  of  2  colleges  and  other  important  public  and  pri- 
vate schools;  is  a  well-built  town:  has  2  banks  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.  It  has  a  historical  fame  as  being  for 
many  years  the  head-quarters  of  the  overland  routes  to 
Oregon,  California,  New  Mexico,  etc.  Founded  1S27.  Pop. 
3184.  J.  N.  SOLTHEKN,  Ed.  **Se.ntisel." 

Independence,  tp.  of  Macon  co.,  Mo.    Pop.  1120. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Nodaway  co..  Mo.     Pop.  670. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Schuyler  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1 115. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  N.  J.      Pop.  1766. 

Independence,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  .\llegany  co.,  N.  Y. 
It  has  considerable  manufacturing  interests.     Po]).  1175. 

Independence,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Cuyahoga  co.,  0.,  4 
miles  from  Clevclaud.      Pop.  1701. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  0.  Pop.  1395. 

Independence,  tp.  of  Beaver  co..  Pa.     Pop,  728. 

Independence,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Washington  co., 
Pa.,  7  miles  from  Wellsburg,  W.  Va,  Pop.  of  v.  144;  of 
tp.  077. 

Independence,  post-v.  of  Washington  co.,  Tex.,  25 
miles  from  Hempstead  on  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central 
11.  R.,  12  miles  from  Brenham  on  the  Austin  branch  of 
that  line,  and  situated  near  the  Yegua  River.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Baylor  I'niversity  and  Baylor  Female  College,  be- 
longing to  the  Baptists,  the  university  containing  a  library 
of  2700  volumes.     It  has  public  schools  and  3  churches. 

Independence,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Grayson  co.,  Va. 

Independence  of  States.  States  are  said,  in  polit- 
ical science,  and  especially  in  international  law.  to  be  in- 
dependent when  they  are  self-governing  as  far  us  internal 


^^^ii^^pi^^^^^E  PLANTATION-INDEPENDENTS^ 


1133 


relations  are  concerned,  and  can  perform  towards  other  1 
states  all  inlcrn,itional  nets.  The  term,  denol.n^'  the  ne- 
gaUonuf  control,  is  the  negative  side  of  s„v,.rc,,„.y  «_l.cn 
fl?at  term  is  tnk-,.  in  its  strict  sense.  Thus,  no  Mute  of  the 
U  S  isinJopcMdeut.  because  the  separate  .■stales  are  not 
ttbsuiutelv  so  fKovorninir.  and  because  they  have  properlj 
:„7nu'rn^.ional  character,  while  the  qua  „y  belongs  to  the 
V.  S.  as  reallv  as  to  any  simple  torm  ol  "■<"""■;>'>•.  But 
the  „„rddoes-not  imply  the  power  of  absolutely  tree  action 
be!-a«se  treaty,  temporary  or  V'^V't-'^'' :^%''^ZlZ- 
such  free  action. 


Independence  Plantation,  a  settlemeut  in  I'enob-  j 
soot  CO.,  Me.     IV'p.  l'"^''- 

Indenen'dents.     I.  A  politico-religious  party  in  the 
tin  "of  the"o„M".nwealth  of  Kngland      The  conthct  wh.ch   , 
became  a  civil  war  in  tho  reigu  of  Charles  I   was.  po  f- 
callv    a  conflict  between   a  king  wh.,  thought  himself  a  , 
so  erei-n  bv  divine  right  with  absolute  power,  and  a  peo-  | 
«^  deU-rmined  to  mamtain  the.r  inherited  liberty  and  to 
Ca  d       with  new  securities.     But  tho  poltical  questions 
^f  the  time  were  intimately  blended  with  religious  and  ec- 
clesmstieal  questions,  which  had  been  agitated  lor  a   luu- 
dred  years.     The  English  Reformation,  il  we  regard  .    as 
pocee^iing  from  the  people,  was  characterized  by  a  violen 
kniipathv  against  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  the  Middle 
r.el,  and  therefore  against  all  compromises  with  what  was, 
in" the  view  of  the  Reformers,  a  mischievous  superstition. 
Re-arded  as  proceeding  from  the  government,  it  was  mainly 
l„7"l  empt  to  make  Knghmd  independent  ol  n.n.<,hycon- 
?er  ing  upon  the  sovereign  the  ecclesiastical  jimsdiction 
wh  -h    had    belonged    to    tho    p.ipe.     Consequently     there 
aro.e  a  conflict  between  tho  ideal  reformation,  expected  but 
"„t  vet  attained,  and  the  government  nforma  ion,  abhoi- 
rc,  t  of  radicalism  and  disposed  to  retain  whatever  of  the 
an    ent  svslein  was  not  incompatible  with  the  supremacy 
o?  the  Crown  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.     As  tlio  confl.c    pro- 
ceeded   the    I'uritan   or   reforming  party  became  almost 
identical  with  tho  political  party  opposed  to  absolu  ism  in 
he  state  ;  and.  on  the  other  hand,  the  court  party,  devoted 
„  tl  o  king,  became  the  conservative  I'^rty  in  the  Church. 
At    he  be^nningof  the  Long  Parliament  (lOiO)  the  par  y 
of  law  and  liberty  in  the  slate,  and  of  reformation  iii    he 
Churrb%ad  no  dennite  plan  for  tho  reconstruction  of  tho 
eccnastical  establishm'.nt,  an,l  all  who  were  opposed  to 
Uiat   establishment    as    then   organized   and    administered 
c    1  d  act  together.     Hut  when  tho  conllicl  had  become  a 
war  between  the  king  and  tho  Parliament   and  especially 
I    er   "the  Solemn    League  and   ^^1"'']'^,  nrZ'   I    i 
Puritanism  of  England  and  that  of  Scotland  (1G4J)  had 
b  0  ,X  a  powerful  Scottish   influence  into  the  southern 
k  ngdom,  diversities  of  opinion  as  to  the  f"'"™  »";■•"    " 
of  tlie  Church  of  England  began  to  bo  '"M-'r  '"'t  '"    lie 
relation  to  public  affairs.     It  was  assume,    t liat  tl'c  d    irol 
reformation  of  the  national  Church  was  to  bo  efrected  by 
the  authority  of  the  nation,  as    in  the  preeeding  century 
the  reforinaiiou  under  Henry  VIH.  and   Edward  V   ..a  id 
af.erwards  under  Elizabeth,  had  been  eftected.   Accordingly, 
the  Parliament  had  convened,  not  "/"'P'-"^^"'"^';"^"';'' 
„r  convocation  that  might  as.nimo  to  bo  the  t ''".';f  f""l    " 
.et  up  an  aulhority  co-ordinate  or  in  conflict  "'"     '"  ^'V, 
thori  y  of  the  state,  but  only  an  •' Assembly  ot    Duines, 
who  were  to  consider  such  matters  only  as  might  bo  refer  ed 
to  them  bv  the  Parliam.-nt,  and  to  give  advieo  which     he 
Pa  liamenl  might  accept  or  reject      J  he  nienibers  of  t  he 
Assemblv  were  selecte.l  with  the  evident  design  that  all  Prot- 
fstat  diversities  of   opinion  con.-erning  the  eonsti..ition 
a       oriler  of  the  Church  should  be  fairly  expressed  and 
considered.     Such  diversities  of  opinion  developed  parties 
both  in  tho  Assembly  of  Divines  and  m  tho  Parliamen  . 
.q.rne  had  for  their  ideal  a  r.:due"d  episcopacy,  will,  a  1,1- 
nriy  expurgated  in  the  inlce.t  ollhorough  1  rolesta  iitisni. 
Others,  formidable  in  number  and  in  zeal,  desired  to  see 
tho  national  Church  governed  by  presbvterial  and  synodi- 
cal  assemblies,  alter  the  fashion  of  the  llelormed  or  (  alvin- 
■  Stic   churches   on   the   Continent   an.l   in    .Seo  land.     .S  i  1 
another  party  had  heard  of  "  the  New  Englaml  way,    and, 
be",  "  in  cor?espondenco  with  Puritan  friends  who  had  re- 
moved  to  ^Llssaehusell3  and  Connecticut,  and  were  there 
inslituting  what  thev  deemed  a  more  primitive  system  of 
..eelcsiastical  order,  they  had  learncl  to  recogni/.e  no  other 
church  government  than  that  of  vduntary  churches   self- 
governed    under    Christ    and    mutually    indepe.ident,   yet 
bound  to  each  other  in  relations  of  comity  and  niutual  in- 
tercourse.    Those  who  preferred  that  -  New  Kngla,.,!  way 
to  tho  scheme  of  a  reformed  and  purilied  national  Church 

were  known  as  /ii</>v"'"''''""- 

In  both  Houses  of  the  Long  Parliament  there  were  some 
eminent  men  who.  while  heartily  agreeing  with  "-e  niajor- 
i,V  in  the  subversion  of  tho  eeclesiaslical  system  which  md 
been  established  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  were  not  willing 


to  establish  in  its  place  a  presbyterian  ^""P''"'^'''^'','  '"] 
of  Scotland.     Among  the  peers.  Lord  Say  and  Seal,  Lord 
lirooke.  and  a  few  others  were  in  full  sympathy   on  relig- 
ous  grounds,  with  the  "  dissenting  brethren."  or  Independ- 
ents  who  were  a  small  but  able  and  persistent  minority 
in  tl  e  Assemblv  of  Divines.     In  the  House  of  Commons  a 
few  men  of  eniinent  ability  had  aceeptcl,  with   religious 
faith,  the  New  England  church  polity  as  better    han  any 
reformed  episcopate  or  any  presbytcrial  and  synodical  gov- 
ernment.    One  of  them  was  Sir  Henry  Vane,  the  younger 
who  ha.l  lived  a  year  or  two  in  New  England,  where  he  h.wl 
made  his  entrance  into  public  life  as  governor  of  Massa- 
ehusetts      Another  was  Nathaniel  Fiennes.  who  was  a  son 
of  Viscount  Say  and  Seal,  and  a  trusted  lea.ler.  and  was 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  Committee  of  bafe ty   the 
executive  council  through  wliieb  Parlianient  governed  Eng- 
Hnd  while  in  conflict  with  the  king.     Another  was  0  iver 
Ciomwell,  who  was  the  kinsman  and  close  friend  ol  .lohn 
Ilamp.len,  and  had  already  succeeded  to  a  large  share  of 
'   that    llnstrious  patriot's  influence  in  the  House,      lo  these 
i   may        added  tlie  name  of  Oliver  St.  John    one  of  the  nios 
'   emfnent  lawvers  of    England,  who  had   been    counsel  lor 
jZ    Ian  pden  in  the  ship-money  case,  who  was  atlerwards 
so  Ic  tor- Jneral,  and  who  was  no  less  a  st.atesman  thiin  a 
awver      In  the  strictly  ecclesiastical  use  of  the  name,  the 
Spendents,difl-eriug  from  the  Presbyterians  not  on  doc- 
t"inaH  oints,but  only  on  church  government,  were  a  small 
thoiul   able  minority  in  the  nation,  as  well  as  m  the  As- 
em.lv  of  Divines  and  in  the  Parliament.     Their  deman, 
wTs  not  that  their  ecclesiastical  system  s liou  d  he  establ.sl  ed 
bv  law  and  all  others  suppressed,  but  only  that  the  chnrche 
wh  ch  thev  were  eonstiti.ting  by  voluntary  agreement  inight 
bo  to  crated.     Politically,  however,  the  Independen  s  be- 
came  a  numerous  and  powerful  party.     The  Bap  ists  (or 
:rthev  were  then  opptobriously  ^al'-l,  '  -  .A->"P<-^ 
were  Independents,  religiously  as  well  as  politicallj .     All 
he  swarmin-  "sectaries"  in  that  age  ol  excitement   the 
"secT    and  schisms"  which  so  terrified  those  who  had  set 
their  hearts  on  national  nniformity.  were  eoun  cd  with  the 
sue  party,  and  the  army  was  full  of  them.     In  the  prog- 
c      o     inqilirv  and  controversy  about  ecclesiastical  reei- 
s  ruction  the  scheme  preferred  by  the  mnjonty  of  the  1  uil- 
an  clergy  was  not,  on  the  whole,  gaining  favor  in  Parlia- 
nent       An    increasing   number  of   e„l  ghtened   men  wero 
determined  that  the  Presbyterian  discipline,  enlorcing  by 
ehur™  cmirts  its  strict  morality  and  its  rigid  dogmatism, 
8   on      not,  wilh  their  consent,  be  established  in  England 
a    a  sv"te  n  to  vliieh  all  Englishmen  must  be  by  law  suh- 
ecred-     Mostof  tho  laymen  in  the  Assembly  of  Dtvincs- 
fmong  whom  tho  lawyers  Sel.len  and  Whiteloeke  were  con- 
s^  ous-seem  to  have  favored  the  opinion  that  there  ought 
to  be  no  distinction  between  ecclesiastical  govcn.nien    and 
civil    that  participation  in  Christian  sacramen  s  should  be 
"he  r'i'ht  of  ever'  citizen,  and  that  there  should  be  no  ex- 
co  nmunicatiou  or  church  censure  but  by  the  -S-  •-'«• 
These  men  were  called  Erastians  ;  and  two  ol  tl  e  clergy- 
men in  the  Assembly-.he  two,  ^f ''""'-';   ','';-"'J^: 
were  in  some  respects    the  most    learned-held  the  same 
heory      The  learning  and  ability  of  the  Erastians.  as  well 
as    iK- veal  ami  enthuriasm  of  the  •' sectaries."  went  to  , n - 
crea  e  the  strength  of  the  In.lependents  as  a  poll  ical  party 
rthe  Parliament  and  in  the  nation.  /^  ha    had  bee,,    he 
„reat    I'uritan  party,  intent  on  the  relormation  of  the  im- 
f^U'Zurch  Ll  -the  vindication  of  KngHs h    il^r.y   was 
,iivi,i,.,l   and  br.dicn  up.     On  one  side  were  tho  1  lesbyte- 
iai      as       al    1     o    nliiformity  of  doctrine  and  disciplino 
;    1  ;  nat  onal  Chmeh  as  (Jucen  Eli.abi.h  and  her  prelates 
Ta,!  ever  been  for  unilormitv  of  ritual,  and  as  abhorrent  of 
es.     Are   bishop  Laud  himself  ha,l  been.     On  the  other 
side  were  the  In.lependents,  inelu.ling  all  those  who   hoiight 
or  felt  thi     n„    e-clesiastieal  government  of  E.iglan,     by 
pres  vteries  ami  svnods  might  b,.  as  irksom..  as   hat  whi.'h 
[lad  been  so  l„telv-abolished.     The  division  had  been   f,..m 
he  first    inevitable,  for  it  was  the  result  ot  pri„ei|.l,s    hat 
could  m.tereeon;ile,l.  an.l  that  c.uld  n.d  but  come  into 
CO   f^  c    ov  r  anv  definite  pr.q.osal  for  eccles,ast,c,.l  recon- 
sm    t  m.     Puritanism,  looking  to  S.-..,  an.l  and  relying  ■« 
Hi.    ••S.demn  League  and  Covenant,"  ha.l  becnie  Presby- 
te  ian  s, ,.  an.l,  the  king   ami  his  party  being  va„.,u,she.  , 
Tf        .1  a  n.^w  antagonist  in  the  parly  of  the  In.lepen.le  its. 
V     .,,  the  cnln.lof  afl-airs  in   the  name  ,d  the  Parlia- 
ment   i.    passe,!  from  the  Presbyterians  lo  the  Indepen.l- 
Tt"        ek  "g.whoha.l  been  for  s..nie  ,„ne  a  prison...  and 
who  in  his  neg.,tia.b,ns  with  all  parties  I.a.l  shown 
loo  faithless  t.i  be  trust.'d.  was   brought   lo  trial  b.  tore  a 
e  inn  ission  .■onstitute.l  f..r  the  purpose,  was  con.  eniiied  to 
3:  ami  »as  beheade.l  (.Ian.  ■.'».  IfilO).      Eor  tha     runs^ 
„rli.,nll.e   In.lependents  as  a  party  were  responsibh.     In 
ennneetion    with   it.  and  as  preliminary  to  the  ordinance 
wle  I    onstitute.l  the  cmniilsion.  th,.  House  of  Comnioiis 
"len  reduce.!   t..  a  s.uall   remnant  of  ,1s  original   number, 


1134 


INDETERMINATE. 


matlc  a  formal  declaration  that  tlic  people,  under  Go<l.  arc  ] 
the  nriginal  of  all  just  power;   that  the  I'oninions  House  I 
in  Parliament,  bein.i;  ehoscn  by  and  representing  the  peo- 
ple, have  the  supreme  power;  and  that  whatever  is  by  them   j 
enacted  has  the  ibree  of  law,  tliou-;!!  tlie  eonsent  of  kinj^  j 
ancl  pet-rs  he  not  added  to  it.     A  few  days  alter  the  death  j 
of  Charli'S  I.  (Feb.  fi)  it  was  voted  in  the  same  assembly   i 
thiit  tlie  House  of  Peers  in  Parliament  is  useless,  danger-  I 
ous.  and  ouj^ht  to  be  ab()lished.     Tlie  next  day  it  was  voted 
that  the  office  of  a  kinj;  in  the  English  nation,  and  to  have 
tlio  power  in  a  sin^^Ie  |jerson,  is  unneecssary,  burdensome, 
anil  dangerous  to  the  liberty,  safety,  and  pul)lic  interest  of 
the  people.     A  council  of  state,  to  be  annunlly  appointed, 
was  invested  witii  the  executive  power.     Of  that  body,  five  | 
were  peers  (for  though  tlio  House  of  Lords  had  been  abol-  i 
ished,  such  of  the  peers  as  had  not  adhered  to  the  king  in  ' 
his  wjir  against  the  Parliament  were  permitted  to  retain  ] 
Ihcir  estates  and  their  titles  of  honor) ;  two  were  sons  of 
peers;  five  were  baronets;  two  were  keepers  of  the  seal; 
three  were  the  chief  judges  respectively  of  the  three  great 
courts  of  law  ;  three  were  eminent  military  commanders  in 
the  service  of  the  Parliament;  five  were  knights,  and  the 
remaining  seventeen,  untitled,  were,  all  save  one.  members 
of  t)io  body  that  appointed  them.     John   Bradshaw,  who 
hnil  presided  in  the  trial  of  the  king,  was  chosen  president 
of  tlio  council,  and   his   kinsman,   John    Milton,  was    its 
Latin  secretary,  for  it  had  determined  that  its  corrcsponcl- 
ence  with  foreign  governments  should  be  only  in  the  lan- 
guage which  was  common  to  Christendom, 

The  attempt  of   the   Imlependents  to  convert  England 
into  a  republic  failed,  os  similar  iittcmpts  have  failed  in 
other  countries.     It  was  the  attempt  of  a  republican  mi- 
nority against  the  will  of  the  anti-republican  majority.  Of 
the  three  parties  into  which  the  English  nation  was  at  that 
time  divided,  the  Independents,  though  strong  in  the  abil- 
ity and  enthusinsm  of  their  leaders  and  in  their  control  of 
a  veteran  and  victorious  army,  were  numerically  the  weak- 
est.    The  most  numerous  party,  when  the  residuary  Par- 
liament decreed  the  abolition  of  monarchy,  was  the  Pres- 
byterian, animated  with  zeal  for  a  national  Church  and  for 
religious  uniformity,  hut  abhorrent  of  that  religious  liberty 
which  the  republic  was  to  establish,  and  which  to  the  aver- 
age Englishman  of  that  age  seemed  almost   identical  with 
irreligion.     But  only  less  numerous  was  the  party  which, 
having  adhered  to  the  king,  retained  its  sympathy  with  the 
lost  cause,  and  which  favored  an  episcopal  rather  than  a 
prosbyterial  government  over  the  national  (^hurch.  and  the 
beauty  of  a  venerable  liturgy  rather  than  the  fervor  of  ex- 
temporaneous jirayers  in  the  worshipping  assembly.   These 
two  parties  together  were  in  truth  the  body  of  the  English 
people;   and  as  they  were  agreed  in  desiring  a  national 
Churcli,  together  with  the  old  government  by  king,  lords, 
and  commons,  they  were  also  agreed  in  hating  and  fearing 
the  victorious  Independents.     In  a  (rue  republic  the  ma-   j 
jority  must  rule,  but  the  founders  of  "the  Commonwealth   j 
of  England '*  attempted  to  establish  a  republican  govern-  t 
ment  over  an  anti-republican  people.     Conscious  of  being  1 
sustained  by  only  a  small  minority,  the  Parliament,  a  mere   j 
residuum  of  the  great  body  which  met  in  1040,  dared  not   i 
ajipeal  to  the  people  by  dissolving  itself  and  calling  for  a  \ 
new   election.     All    the   ability    with    which    it   governed  I 
through  its  council  of  state  enuld  not  win  for  it  the  conti-   | 
dcnce  of  the  nation.     It  aimed  at  the  establishment  of  lib-    | 
crty  and  justice,  but  by  the  great  majority  of  Englishmen   I 
it  was  felt  to  be  a  usurpation  supported  hy  military  power. 

In  the  fif'h  year  of  the  Commonwealth   the  republican   ' 
Parliament,  derisively  called  "the  Ilum[i."  was  working  at   | 
a  hill  for  its  own  dissolution,  and  wsis  endeavoring  to  pro-   j 
vide  such  arrangements  for  the  election  of  its  successor  as   I 
would  secure  the  ascendency  of  its  own  ]>arty,  when  it  was   I 
dissolved  and  dispersed  (lt)5;i)  by  the  military  power  which   j 
had  made  it  what  it  was.     Then  followed  the  Protectorate  I 
of  Oliveii  Cuomwkm.  (which  see),  who  attempted  in  an-   | 
other  way  what  the  statesmen  of  the  Uump  were  nnaiile  to   ! 
do.     H?  was  in  fact  a  "  king  by  the  grace  of  (lod,"  though 
without  the  crown  or  the  name  of  king;  and  had  his  reign   ' 
been  prolonged,  the  vigor  and  sjdcndor  of  his  government 
might  have  reconciled  (he  English  people  to  that  principle 
of  government  which  first  made  the  Indepemlents  a  politi- 
cal party:   which    was  so  abhorred   by   the  Presbyterians  i 
that  to   escape   from  it    they   aided  in   the   restoration  of 
Charles  II.;  which  was  only  imperfectly  recognized  in  the 
*'  Act  of  Toleration"  (lOSil):  nnd  which  is  now  triumphantly 
marching    toward    the   disestablishntent    of   the' national 
Church  in  England — the  principle  of  religious  toleration. 
On  that  principle  the  Independents  were  united,  though  it 
is  not  to  bo  supposed  that  all  of  them — perhaps  not  that 
any  of  them — saw  clearly  the  reach,  or  consented  to  all  the 
legitimate  applications,  of  the  principle.   (Sec  the  histories 
of  England,  especially  Godwin's   Vuuimnnirciltb  of  JCmj- 
l.iinl.  Lkonaud  Bacon. 


II.  A  religious  body  in  England  holding  that  every 
stated  congregation  of  Christian  believers  associated  under 
a  voluntary  agreement,  formal  or  informal,  for  Christian 
worship  and  for  mutual  watchfulness  and  helpfulness  in 
the  Christian  life,  is  a  complete  Church,  invested  with 
every  prerogative  wbi<di  Christ  has  conferred  on  any 
Church,  and  dependent  for  the  exercit^e  of  ecclesiastical 
funtitions  on  no  authority  exterior  to  itself,  whether  secidar 
or  hierarchical.  (See  Conguhgationai.ism.)  The  most  con- 
siderable difierenee  between  Independency  in  England  and 
Congregationalism  in  the  U.  8.  is  that  in  the  former  the 
principle  of  the  fellowship  and  mutual  responsibility  of 
churches,  though  recognized,  is  not  so  fully  developetl 
and  made  practical  as  in  the  latter.  The  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory of  England  gives  no  dcfiuite  trace  of  a  Church  consti- 
tuted on  the  platform  of  Indopendeney  earlier  than  1507. 
More  than  ten  years  later,  Robert  Browne,  a  clergyman  of 
the  EstaVdished  Church,  began  to  jireaeh  against  all  na- 
tional churches,  and  to  urge  the  duty  of  falling  back  upon 
the  original  constitution  of  Christian  socii-ties  as  deduced 
by  him  from  the  \ew  Testament.  Compelled  by  persecu- 
tion to  take  refuge  in  the  Netherlamls.  he  printed  there 
(l.')S2),  for  circulation  in  England,  two  books,  in  which  he 
propounded  his  new  idea  and  method  of  church  reformation 
— a  method  as  unwelcome  to  the  Puritans,  who  were  work- 
ing and  suffering  for  a  reformation  by  act  of  Parliament, 
as  it  was  to  the  bitterest  enemies  of  Puritanism.  His  idea 
was  ''  reformation  without  tarrying  for  any."  or  separation 
from  the  national  Church  as  an  essentially  anti-Christian 
institution,  and  the  formation  of  independent  churches.  It 
was  impossible  to  suppre-s  the  idea,  for,  notwithstanding 
the  prison  and  the  gallows,  the  early  "separatists"  woulil 
not  attend  the  parish  churches,  would  hold  their  con- 
venticles, would  propagate  their  revolutionary  opinions, 
and  persecution  cxacerliated  their  enthusiasm  into  fanati- 
cism. They  were  called  "  Brownists."  though  Browne  had 
deserted  them.  They  were  also  called  *•  Barrowists."  from 
Henry  Barrowc,  another  of  their  champions,  who  was  one 
of  their  martyrs.  At  a  later  date  ( in  the  time  of  the  Long 
Parliament)  (hey  began  to  be  called  Independents,  and  they 
accepted  the  name.  By  that  name  their  successors  have 
ordinarily  been  designated  till  the  present  century,  though 
now  they  prefer  to  call  themselves  Congregationalists. 

The  Independents  or  Congregationalists  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  British  colonies  are  a  numerous  and  enter])rising 
body  of  Christians.  They  have  more  than  .'JOOO  cliurches, 
and  the  number  is  constantly  increasing.  The  Lontlon 
Missionary  .Society,  though  not  exclusiv<ly  theirs,  is  the 
organization  through  which  they  conduct  their  foreign 
missions.  They  have  a  home  missionary  society  for  their 
work  in  England,  and  a  colonial  missionary  society  to  aid 
their  churches  in  the  colonies.  Exehuleil  till  within  a  few 
years  past  from  the  universities,  they  lia\e  established  col- 
leges of  their  own  for  the  classical  and  theological  educa- 
tion of  their  ministers:  and  their  colleges  in  England  are 
now  affiliated  with  the  London  I'niversity.  Several  jour- 
nals, weekly  and  monthly,  are  ojnductcd  in  their  interest, 
and  the  lin'tix/i  Qmn-f' ifi/  Jinitw  may  be  regarded  as  rep- 
resenting, unofficially,  their  principles.  (.See  .Skeats's  //("«- 
tortf  of  the  Ficc  Cfiitrc/irt>  nf  Eixjluml.)      LkoNARD  Bacon. 

Independent  Treasury,    See  TuEAsiftv  op  Unitfd 

Statks. 

Indcter'minate.  A  mathematical  quantity  is  said  to 
ho  imictermitKitf  when  it  admits  of  an  infinite  number  of 
values.  An  etfuntntu  is  said  to  be  iitf/rtmniwtte  when  the 
unknown  quantities  that  enter  it  admit  of  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  values.  Thus,  the  equation  of  a  straight  lino 
y  =  r(.r  -f  fc  is  indeterminate;  for,  if  we  give  to  x  any  value, 
we  can  find  from  the  equation  a  corresponding  value  of  y 
such  that  the  assnmeil  and  deduced  values  will  satisfy  the 
equation;  that  is,  there  are  infinite  sets  of  values  of  .r 
and  ;/ that  will  satisfy  the  given  equation.  In  like  manner, 
it  may  be  shown  that  any  equation  which  contains  moro 
than  one  unknown  quantity  is  indeterniinale  :  it  is  obvious 
that  any  group  of  simultaneous  equations  is  indeterminate 
when  the  group  contains  fewer  equations  than  there  arc 
unknown  quantities;  hence,  the  equations  of  lines  and  sur- 
faces used  in  analytical  geometry  are  indeterminate.  For 
this  reason  analytical  geometry  is  often  called  indeter- 
minate geometry.  A  pn,hlt  m  is  saitl  to  lie  tuihterminnte 
when  it  admits  <if  an  infinite  number  of  solutions.  A  prob- 
lem will  be  indeterminate  when  the  number  of  independent 
ermditions  is  less  than  the  number  of  required  parts,  for  in 
that  ease  the  numberof  equations  tliat  express  the  imjiosed 
conditions  will  he  less  than  the  number  of  unknown  quan- 
tities ;  the  equations  of  the  problem  will  therefore  be  in- 
ileterminate,  and  consequently  the  problem  itself  will  bo 
iniletenninate.  Thus,  the  problem  in  which  it  is  required 
to  find  a  point  from  which  the  tangents  to  two  given  circles 
shall  be  equal  is  indeterminate;  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem shows  that  there  arc  an  infinite  numberof  such  points. 


INDETERMINATE  ANALYSIS— INDEX,  CONCORDANCE,  ETC. 


113.3 


which,  taken  together,  lunke  up  a  straight  line  cnllod  the  I 
radical  axis  of  the  two  circles.  W.  0.  Pkck. 

Indeterminate  Analysis  is  that  branch  of  annlysis  | 
wliich  treats  of  the  si>luti«<a  nf  inilt'tiTininale  problems.  I 
In  most  practical  cases  the  ;;iven  conditions  limit  llie  num-  i 
ber  of  solutions,  without  iifTrcting  the  mode  of  treatment,  j 
The  method  of  treatinjif  indeterminate  problems  will  he 
best  illustrated  by  means  of  a  problem  of  this  ehararter. 

Let  it  he  required  to  find  what  year  of  the  current  Julian   ' 
period  corresponds  to  1S75  A.  n..  that  year  beini;  the  eighth  ; 
of  the  current  nol<tr  cifcle,  the   fourteenth  of  the  current 
huinr  ri^^l>\  and  (he  third  of  the  current  cyctr  of  int/ictioii. 
The  statement  of  this  problem  depends  on  the  following 
definitions:  the  Mftfaf  tt/r(e  is  a  ])eriod  of  28  years:  the  ! 
tini'ir  ci/cir  is  a  period  of  19  years  ;  the  ci/ric  of  {u<llrtion  i 
is  a  period  of  15  years;  tlio  D'fnujHiitn  period  is  a  period 
of  2S  X  19,  or  532  years,  whose  first  year  is  the  first  year 
of  a  solar  and  also  of  a  lunar  cycle  ;  and  the  JtdUtn  period 
is  a  period  of  2S  X  19  X  1''.  or  T'JSO  years,  whoso  first  year 
is  the  first  year  of  a  solar  cycle,  of  a  lunar  cycle,  and  also 
of  a  cycle  nf  indiction. 

Firnt.  To  fin<l  the  year  of  the  current  Dionysian  period, 
let  X  denote  the  number  of  complete  solar  cycles  that  have   I 
elapsed  since  the  begiuuin;;  of  this  period,  and  tf  the  nuiii-   ■■ 
her  of  complete  lunar  cycles  that  have  elapsed ;  from  the   | 
conditions  of  the  problem  we  have  I 

I9y -f.ll^2S^  +  8,  or  19^V  =  28j-_G.  (1) 

It  is  required  to  find  the  least  entire  values  of  .r  and  y  that 
will  satisfy  equation  (1) ;  dividing  by  19,  we  have 

in  which  tho  last  term  must  be  a  whole  number;  placing 
this  equal  to  t,  wc  have 

9*~6  =  19f,  orx  =  2/  +  -^*,  (:J) 

in  which  tho  last  terra  must  be  a  whole  number;  tho  least 
vubio  of  (  that  will  satisfy  this  condition  is  ',\  ;  this  value 
of  /  in  (o)  gives  a:=  7,  and  this  in  (2)  gives  i/  =  10  ;  hen-jc, 
the  year  187j  is  tho  204th  year  of  tho  current  Dionysian 
period. 

Srrondli/.  To  find  tho  year  of  tho  current  Julian  period, 
let  II  denote  the  number  of  complete  Dionysian  periods  that 
have  elapsed  since  the  beginning  of  the  current  Julian 
period,  and  z  tho  number  of  complete  cycles  of  indiction; 
wo  shall  have,  as  before, 

155  +  3=-532u  +  20-t,  ors  =  35w  +  13  +  — -^  *j      (4) 

placing  tho  fractioaal  term  equal  to  «,  wo  bavo 

7k  -h  6  =s  15»,  or  H  =  2»  +  — — .  (5) 

The  least  entire  value  of  «  that  will  satisfy  (6)  is  «  =  H, 
which  gives  ii  =  12  ands—  liJU.  Hence,  the  year  IS".")  is 
the  053.Sth  year  of  the  current  Julian  ]!eriod.  We  also  find 
that  since  the  beginning  of  this  jieriod  2;j5  conipluto  solar 
cycles  have  elapsed,  and  439  complete  lunar  cycles. 

W.  G.  Pi:cK. 

Indeterminate  ('ocflicicnts.  An  idmtir'tl  etfun- 
fion  is  nil  equation  that  is  true  for  all  values  of  tho  unknown 
quantity  or  quantities  that  enter  it.  In  every  such  equa- 
tion the  unknown  quantity  or  quantities  are  indeterminate, 
and  the  cot^fficients  of  the  different  powers  and  combina- 
tions of  powers  of  these  quantities  aro  called  indrttriniinUc 
citrjjifi'riitg.  If  an  identical  equation  containing  any  num- 
ber of  unknown  quantities  is  cleared  of  fractions,  tho  co- 
enielents  id'  the  like  powers  and  eoinljinations  of  powers  in 
the  t wo  nii'tnbfrs  are  rcs]>ectively  iH|ual  to  each  other.  This 
is  tfifi  pn'iiri/ilr «)/  iti<lctrfmiiuitt'.  c'trj/irit'iitH:  it  is  much  used 
in  developing  ((uantities  into  series  and  in  resolving  frac- 
tions into  partial  fractions.  W.  (J.  Pkck. 

In'dcv,  Concordanoo^  Digest,  Talile  of  Con* 
tents.  In  bililidgraphy,  an  index  is  an  ulplmhetical  list 
or  table  of  tho  principal  suhjects,  facts,  words,  or  names 
discussed,  employed,  or  noticed  in  the  work  to  which  it  is 
appeinb'd,  with  references  to  tho  chapter,  page,  or  para- 
graph in  which  they  occur.  Indexes  are  usually  printed 
at  the  end  of  the  last  (or  sometimes  of  each  separate)  vol- 
unn-  of  tho  book.  An  index  may  be  general  or  special, 
comprising  in  the  latter  ease  suhjoets,  nnf  {u<lr.r  ;  words, 
vrrhiti  iudrx  ;  or  personal  ur  geographical  names.  Tho 
title  '*  index  "  is  also  applied  to  independf^nt  lists  of  books 
— c,  tf.  the  Iiifirj'  fCr/tiirijafitriuit  or  ludrx  Lihronim  t*rtt- 
hihitorum  of  (he  Komish  Church:  or  to  catalogues  of  nuh- 
jccta,  as  tho  manuscript  tables  in  some  libraries,  which 
refer  tho  student  to  all  the  works  in  the  library  in  which 
a  given  subject  is  treated  of.  Indexes  separately  jtrinted 
sometimes  embrace  the  contents  of  more  than  on«  work,  as 
AVuber's  valuable  index  to  J.(irimin's  Dnifaihc  O'rammattk 
and  to  his  (Jesrhichtc  drr  Dmtnchrn  S/>raffif\ 


A  concordance  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  words  occurring 
in  a  particular  work  or  collection  of  works.  It  diflfers  from 
a  verbal  index  by  being  somewhat  more  full,  as  it  usually 
cites  enough  of  tho  passage  whore  the  word  occurs  to  show 
its  grammatical  relations  to  the  period.  (See  CoNcoitDANrK.) 
To  the  list  there  given  may  br  addetl  Fliigel's  ('otimrdnnre 
to  the  K'ttrmi,  II.  II.  Furness's  Cimcordfiticr  to  t/ir  /^triiiit 
uf  S/niknprure,  and  that  of  Piendergast  to  the  J'oems  of 
Miltun  (Madras,  1.S57). 

A  digest  is  an  alphabetical  table  of  subjects,  differing 
from  a  real  index  or  index  of  subjects  by  being  suftieiently 
copious  to  give  a  sutuinary  of  the  doctrines  of  the  littok  on 
each  topic  referred  \o.  Tho  word  is  most  frequently  ap- 
plied to  tabular  abstracts  of  points  judieinlly  decided  in 
books  of  legal  reports.  Digests  are  often  published  sep- 
arately, and  comprise  tho  contents  of  voluminous  series  of 
reports. 

A  table  of  contents  is  a  list  of  the  subjects  or  important 
facts  discussed  in  tho  work  or  volume  to  which  it  helongs, 
arranged  in  tho  order  in  which  Ihey  oeeur  in  the  text.  It 
is  usually  printed  after  the  preface  or  introduction.  It  in 
some  degree  serves  the  jmrpose  of  an  index,  but  its  general 
use  is  rather  to  give  a  conspectus  or  comprehensive  view 
of  the  matter  and  method  of  the  work  than  to  aid  the  stu- 
dent to  find  particular  passa<;cs.  Tahles  of  contents  are 
doubtless  older  th:in  indexes  with  references  to  folios  or 
pages.  The  jircpaiation  ttf  an  index  is  a  work  of  too  much 
labor  to  bo  ordinarily  performed  for  a  single  copy.  Tho 
manuscript  copies  of  any  work  would  not  usually  corre- 
spond in  column  or  page,  and  therefore  a  prige-referenec 
index  prejiared  for  one  cojiy  would  nttt  serve  for  another, 
while  a  table  of  contents,  following  the  method  of  the  hook, 
would  answer  equally  well  for  all,  however  dilfcrently  jiagcd. 
The  most  familiarly  known  ancient  table  of  contents  is  that 
which  forms  the  first  book  of  the  Xtittmil  //iston/  of  Pliny 
tho  Elder.  This  tabic,  as  Pliny  says  in  the  dedlt-ation,  he 
prepared  in  order  that  "as  any  man  is  desirous  to  know 
this  or  that,  he  may. seek  and  readily  fincl  in  what  ])laee  to 
meet  with  the  same."  IIo  adds:  "This  learned  I  of  Va- 
lerius Soranus,  one  of  our  own  Latin  writers,  who  hath 
done  tho  like  before  me."  Pliny  therefore  intended  this 
tabic  to  serve  tho  purpose  of  an  index,  and  as  the  catalogue 
of  precious  stones  in  chapter  x.  book  xxxvii.  of  tlie  JVut- 
nral  I/ixtori/  shows  that  be  was  acquainted  with  the  valuo 
of  an  alphabetical  arrangement,  it  is  singular  that  he 
should  not  have  employed  it  in  his  tai)le,  referring  to  books 
instead  of  pages.  M"e  should  infer  from  Pliny's  language 
that  ho  knew  no  other  examjile  of  a  table  of  contents  than 
that  of  Soranus.  but  Cicero,  \'arro,  f^eneca.  and  Quintilian 
use  the  word  index  in  a  way  which  shows  that  something 
like  tabular  summaries  or  digests  of  the  matter  of  philo- 
sophical and  other  writings  existed  in  their  times.  Tho 
LartntitiiiH  of  14()j  (the  first  book  printed  in  It;ily  with  a 
date)  has  a  table  of  contents  following  the  order  of  the 
chapters,  but  it  refers  also  to  the  folios  on  which  the  chap- 
ters commence.  These  numeral  references  are  pn'utrd,  hut 
tho  numeration  of  the  folios,  as  well  as  the  headiiit^s  of  tho 
chajiters,  is  manuscript.  At  the  end  rif  the  second  volume 
of  the  Latin  Hible  printed  hy  Pannartz  at  llomein  1171  isa 
copious  niphabetical  list  of  Hebrew  proper  names  occurring 
in  the  Scriptures,  with  interpretations  of  tho  etymological 
meaning.  The  early  editions  of  ancient  classics  tire  verj 
commonly  provided  with  tables  of  contents  and  with  reg- 
isters of  the  signatures,  hut  alphabetical  reference  intlexes 
wore  hardly  known  until  the  practice  of  numbering  tho 
folios  or  pages  became  general.  Tho  tables  of  contents  in 
fifteenth-century  editions  often  refer  U*  the  folios  by  printed 
numerals,  but  in  books  of  that  age  the  folios  themselves 
aro  rarely  numbered  typographically,  and  Aldus  Manutius 
in  one  of  his  i)refaecs  advises  students  to  numher  them  by 
hand.  The  Aii/nn  GrlUun  puhlisheil  at  the  press  of  Aldus 
after  his  death  in  I.'il.'i  lias  its  folios  numbereil,  and  is  one 
of  the  earliest  examples  of  completeness  in  indexes.  It  is 
jirovi^lecl  with  an  iudrr  corviit  i/iirr  nnfitfn  f/Zf/nn,  etc.  in  six- 
teen folios,  containing  not  only  sulijeel.H,  but  single  words, 
arranged  in  nc'arly  exact  nlphahetii'iil  order,  and  with 
printed  references  to  tho  folios  ;  also  with  an  uttrr  imfcc,  or 
table  of  matters,  ffiiir  nd  f/nninmit train  Hi'vr  tid  utiim  nrtnt 
prrtiinnnt,\n  fifteen  folios,  arranged  under  chapters  in  the 
order  in  which  the  subjects  occur,  and  with  relVTcnees  lo 
tho  number  of  the  folios.  These  two  (ahles  precede  tho 
text.  After  the  text  follow  a  list  of  the  titles  of  the  chap- 
ters in  the  same  order  as  in  the  volume,  in  twenty-lhreo 
folios,  without  references  to  (he  numbered  folios,  and  an- 
other li^l,  in  twenty-eight  folicis,  <if  the  Ctreek  quotations 
emjiloyed  by  Aulus  (Jellius,  with  Latin  translations,  and 
with  references  l<i  the  nufiiatnrrn  of  the  sheets.  In  this  book, 
then,  we  find  nearly  all  the  forms  of  imlex  known  to  nnidern 
bihliography.  It  is  probable  that  verbal  imlexi's— and,  wo 
may  add,  glossaries  and  dictionaries — ori^inate<|  in  tho 
practice  of  making  glosses  or  notes  explanatory  of  particu- 


1136 


INDEX-INDEX  LIBRORUM  PROHIBITORUM. 


lar  words  on  the  margin  of  manuscripts.  When  a  scholiast  j 
had  thus  annotated  a  vohimc  it  would  be  an  easy  step  to 
collect  the  notes  into  a  table.  An  alphabetical  arrangement 
would  naturally  suggest  itself  as  the  most  convenient,  and 
the  collection  of  glosses  would  grow  until  it  embraced  all 
the  obscure  or  otherwise  noticeable  words  employed  by  the 
author,  and  finally  answer  the  purpose  not  only  of  a  glossary 
or  special  dictionary  of  the  vocabulary  or  stock  of  words 
of  the  writer,  but  also  of  an  index. 

Verbal  indexes  and  concordances  are  most  useful,  not  to 
say  indispensable,  aids  in  philology  and  criticism,  and  real 
indcNCS  are  not  less  so  in  llie  study  of  works  of  science, 
and  even  of  general  literature,  especially  history.     If  such 
works  conformed  strictly  to  philosophical  method,  real  in- 
dexes would  be  less  needed,  and  tables  of  contents  would 
sufficieullv  answer  the  general  purpose  of  a  guide  to  the 
matter  of'a  volume.     Uut.  unfortunately,  French  writers 
alone  seem  to  possess  the  science  of  method,  and  English 
as  well  as  German  literature  is  conspicuous  for  the  want  of 
this  excellence.     Besides  this,  the  encyclopffidic   learning 
of  German  (and  in  late  years  of  English)  scholars   both 
tempts  and  facilitates  the  accumulation  of   an    immense 
mass  of  subsidiary,  illustrative,  and  documentary  material 
in  their  works  which  it  is  impossible  so  to  arrange  that 
any  perfection  of  method  could  conduct  the  student  to  it. 
It  is  perhaps  to  a  consciousness  of  the  want  of  a  power  of 
orderly  arrangement  that  we  owe  the  English  habit  of  sup- 
plying all  books  of  serious  scientific  or  philosophical  pre- 
tcnsio'ns  with  full  indexes;  and  the  absence  of  these  con- 
veniences  is  one  of  the  greatest  annoyances  a  foreigner 
experiences  in  the  study  of  the  graver  literature  and  science 
of  Germany.     The  German  editions  of  classical  authors, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  gener.ally  furnished  with  complete 
indexes,  and  we  can  hardly  point  to  any  more  satisfactory 
labor  of  this  sort  than  the  inv.iluable  re.tl  and  nominal 
word-lists  in    the   fourth   volume    of   Groskurd's   German 
translation  of  Strabo.    By  the  force  of  a  habit  which  seems 
almost  like  a  conspiracy  among  authors  the  books  which 
perhaps  above  all  others  require  verbal  indexes  are  almost 
always  without  them.     Wc  refer  to  grammars,  especially 
of  foreign  languages,  among  which  it  would  bo  hard  to  find 
one  provided  with  such  an  index  as  the  student  needs  as  a 
help  iu  the  actual  use  of  the  tongue  he  is  acquiring.     Un- 
doubtedly, the  habit  of   desultory   reading,  which   is  en- 
couraged' by  copious  indexes,  is  an  evil,  but  in  the  present 
enormous  multiplication  of  works  which  claim  the  atten- 
tion of  the  scholar  it  is  a  necessary  evil.     Life  is  not  long 
enough,  nor  is  the  action  of  eye  and  mind  swift  enough,  to 
put  i"s  iu  complete  possession  of  the  literature  of  any  im- 
portant subject.     The  old  rule,  miiltiim   iioii  miilta,  is  no 
longer  practicable  for  men  of  the  comprehensive  scholar- 
ship required  by  our  ago:  and  those  who  aspire  to  the  pos- 
session of  what  is  called  "general  knowledge"  must  con- 
tent themselves  with  little  more  than  gleanings  from  the 
works  of  special  inquirers.     For  such  persons — and  they 
must  always  be  the  vast  majority — indexes  are  an  indis- 
pensable guide  to  literature  and  science.     Nor  is  it  merely 
dilettanti  and  persons   in  pursuit  of   general   iutelligenco 
aluue  who  need  such  helps.    The  most  tenacious  memory  of 
the  most  )ihilosophic  scholar  can  retain  but  a  relatively 
small  proporticm  of  what  he  reads,  and  for  refreshiiig  his 
recollection,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of  his  learning  in  his 
own  compositions — for  wc  all  build  more  or  less  on  the 
labors  of  our  predecessors— he  needs  indexes   almost   as 
much  as  the  mere  amateur.     Authors  ought,  as  a  gener.al 
rule,  to  be  required  to  furnish  these  facilities  for  the  study 
of  their  works.     Public  opinion  can  do  something  to  en- 
force the  ]perl'ormance  of  this  duty;  and  in  all  cases  when 
an  index  is  worth  making  critics  should  always  stigmatize 
the  want  of  it  as  not  only  a  serious  defect,  but  as  a  grave 
literary  offence.     Of  course  in  works  of  ephemeral  litera- 
ture the  result  would  not  bo  worth  the  labor,  but  in  books 
which  aspire  to  a  sufficiently  wide  and  permanent  circula- 
tion to  need  tlie  protection  of  copyright  it  would  be  neither 
unjust  nor  unwise  to  make  good  indexes  a  legal  requisite 
for  securing  a  monopoly  to  authors  or  publishers. 

Gkorge  p.  M.\rsh. 
Index,  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  Mo.  Pop.  795. 
Iii'dex  Libro'rum  Prohibitc'rum.  This  title  is 
applied  to  official  lists  issued  from  time  to  time,  under  papal 
authoritv.  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  at  Konic, 
enumerating'  books,  single  sheets,  engravings,  and  other 
printed  matter  the  use  or  even  possession  of  which  is  for- 
bidden by  the  Church.  The  proscription  of  books  deemed 
hereticalin  religion,  treasonable  or  seditious  iu  politics,  or 
corrupt  in  morals,  is  a  practice  of  very  ancient  date.  Not 
to  speak  of  examples  under  heathen  and  modern  civil  gov- 
ernments, wo  find  that  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  the 
works  of  Arius  were  denounced  .and  i>ul)licly  burnt  by  the 
authorities  of  the  Church,  and  the  writings  of  other  here- 
tics often  met  with  the  same  fate  at  different  periods  in  the 


course  of  the  Middle  Ages.     The  right  of  prohibiting  the 
use  of  such  books  is  a  necessary  incident  of  the  general 
authority  claimed  by  the  Romish   Church  over  the  con- 
sciences of  the  faithful,  and  not  only  popes  and  councils, 
but  inferior  spiritual  directors  and  confessors,  have  exer- 
cised it  at  all  times  as  a  regular  part  of  the  discipline  of 
the  Catholic  Church.     These  prohibitions  were  naturally 
at  first  special,  and  it  docs  not  appear  that  any  general 
list  of  condemned  books  was  promulgated  before  the  year 
1540,  when  the  emperor  Charles  V.  published  a  list  of  for- 
bidden works,  which  was  followed  in  1548  and  1550  by  new 
imperial  edicts  prohibiting  to  his  subject?  the  use  of  all 
books  contained  in  a  catalogue  drawn  up  by  his  order  by 
the  doctors  of  the  Tniversity  of  Eouvain.     Lists  of  books 
condemned  by  the  theological  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Paris  were  issued  by  royal  authority  in  1545  and  1551,  and 
similar  catalogues  appeared  about  the  same  time  under  the 
sanction  of  the  theologians  of  other  great  European  schools 
of  learning.     The  first  formal  pontifical  index  is  said  to  be 
that  issued  in  155"  by  Paul  IV.,  and  this,  as  revised  and 
enlarged  in  conformity  with  certain  canons  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  established 
and  charged  with  the  censorship  of  books  by  Pius  IV.,  was 
reissued  under  his  authority  in  15f)4.     New  and  more  com- 
prehensive lists  apjieared  under  Gregory  XIII..  Sixtus  V., 
Clement  VIII.,  and  .Alexander  VII..  and  many  more  or 
less  modified  editions,  supplemented  from  year  to  year  by 
the  Congregation,  have  been  published  since.     In  the  ear- 
liest indexes  the  prohibition  of  the  works  enumerated  was 
absolute,  but  Sixtus  V.  organized  a  board  of  censure  for 
the  preparation  of  a  list  of  books  which  might  be  used  after 
due  expurgation  ;  and  this  seems  to  have  been  printed  un- 
der the  title  of  liiclrx  librornm  Ej-piirgniiclonim,  or  Ej-jntr- 
rjatorhm,  but  wo  believe  that  the  same  Congregation  now 
exercises  the  functions  of  both  condemnati<m  and  expur- 
g.ation.     The  I'egiitn-  Iiullcln  prescribed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  together  with  additional  rules  by  Clement  VIII.  and 
Alexander  VII.,  are  contained  in  many  editions  of  the  /»- 
tiex.     They  forbid  all  books  condemned  by  popes  or  cecu- 
menical  councils  before  the  year  1515;   all  the  works  of 
•  heresiarehs,    as    Luther.    Zuinglius,    C;ilvin,   Friedenberg. 
Schwenkfeld.  ami  h!i  si'miYo,  whatever  may  be  their  titles 
or  subjects;  the  writings  of  all  other  heretics  on  religious 
topics;  books  of  immoral  tendency,  except  the  works  of 
•ancient  heathen  authors,  which  are  permitted  propter  eer- 
monis  ehr/iiJitiain  et  proprielntcm,  though  not  to  boys;   and 
books  on  the  various  arts  of  divination,  auguries,  omens, 
sorcery,  and  magic.     They  also  contain  provisions  author- 
izing "the  bishop  and  confessor  to  allow  to   learned  and 
pious  men  the  use  of  modern  translations  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, not  made  by  heretics,  by  way  of  illustration  of  the 
Vulgate  text,  though  not  as  authoritative,  as  well  as  for 
the  permission  of  various  other  classes  of  books  and   for 
the  censure  and  expurg.ation  of  literary  works.    In  modern 
editions  of  the  Index  some  of  the  publications  are  noted  as 
prohibited  absolutely,  others  until  corrected  or  expurgated 
bv  new  editions,  erasure  or  obliteration  of  condemned  pass- 
ages, or  substitution  of  cartons  for  the  leaves  containing 
such  passages.     The  Intlr^x  and  supplements  down  to  1754 
embrace  about   20.000   titles,  including  flying  sheets  and 
engravings.     Many  of  these  are  repetitions,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  hundreds  of  cases  these  titles  include  all  the 
works  of  voluminous  authors,  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  the 
condemned  publications  greatly  exceed  the  number  wc  have 
stated.     The  Inrlt-x  is  not  designed  for  the  common  use  of 
lay  believers,  but  rather  for  the  guidance  of  confessors  ;  and 
as  the  vast  multiplication  of  printed  books  now  renders  a 
universal  censorship  of  the  literature  of  the  world  impos- 
sible, spiritual  directors  are  often  obliged  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  more  comprehensive  clauses  of  the  rules,  some 
of  which  admit  consideralilo  latitude  of  interpretation.    In 
the  recent  supplements  to  the  Imlcx  the  condemnation  is 
gencr.ally  confined  to  publications  (for  the  most  part  by 
professedly  Catholic  writers)  conspicuous  as  dangerous  at- 
tacks upon  the  doctrines,  discipline,  prerogatives,  or  privi- 
leges of  the  Church,  and  as  at  the  same  time  likely  to  ac- 
quire a  wide  popular  circulation. 

The  earlier  Indexes  furnish  some  interesting  contribu- 
tions to  literary  history  by  fixing  the  date  of  the  original 
jmblication  of  "books  condemned,  and  by  giving  titles  of 
works  no  copies  of  which  are  now  known  to  exist.  At  the 
same  time  they  illustrate,  by  what  they  insert  and  what 
they  omit,  the"  fluctuations  of  religious  tendency  in  the 
Catholic  Church  itself;  but  the  value  of  all  this  informa- 
tion is  diminished  by  the  vagueness  of  the  indications, 
which  are  frequently  so  bald  that  wc  cannot  now  identify 
the  book  intended.  In  earlier  centuries  the  prohibitions 
of  the  Index  controlled  the  intellectual  culture  of  the  Cath- 
olic world,  and  they  incidentally  caused  the  destruction  of 
great  numbers  of  works  of  more  or  less  importance  in  eccle- 
siastical literature.    Confessors  deny  absolution  to  penitents 


INDIA. 


ii;i7 


who  refiisa  to  deliver  up  books  oxpresslr  or  impliedly  for- 
bidden, and  these,  when  surrendered,  arc  Konenilly  burnt 
or  HO  iiiutiliited  as  to  be  illegible.  This  explains  the  rarity 
of  many  old  books  formerly  widely  read;  as  an  illustration 
of  which  wo  may  refer  to  the  treatise  on  the  lUnrfitH  of'  the 
Deith  It/  Chrint,  as;;ribed  lo  Aonio  Paleario.  of  which  only 
two  or  three  copies  are  known  to  survive,  thnuj^h  not  less 
than  lO.OOU  or  JO.OOO  were  sold  within  a  very  few  years 
after  its  publication  in  lo43.  In  the  present  state  of  pub- 
lic opiniun  in  many  Catholic  countries  the  condemnation 
of  a  book  by  the  IndfW  discourages  few  from  reading  it, 
hut,  on  the  contrary,  it  often  serves  as  a  recommendation 
which  increases  instead  of  diminishing  its  popularity  and 
circulation.  Gkorgk  1*.  iMaksii. 

In'clia:  Its  GnonRApnv  and  Ethn'oi.ogy,  and  its  Las- 

OUACKS  AND  LiTKRATURE  OTHKR  THAN  SANSKRIT.       India,  a 

lar*je  peninsula  of  Southern  Asia,  otherwise  called  "The 
E.ist  Indies,"  and  "Hindustan.*'  The  meaning  of  these 
terms  has  frequently  been  strangely  misconceived.  Ilin- 
duslan  does  not  mean  "  the  land  of  blacks,"  but  "  the  coun- 
try (if  llie  river  Indus — the  fertilizer."  The  river's  name, 
Siinlhu,  is  derived  from  tlie  root  «^ft»f^,  to  *' flow,"  "  irri- 
gate," **  fertilize."  The  manner  in  which  the  letter  «  has 
dropped  out  of  its  place,  and  the  letter  A  substituted,  in 
ffiri'Iimtan,  opens  up  a  strange  leaf  in  the  earliest  history 
of  India.  The  old  Persians,  speaking  Zend  (see  Parsees), 
many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  crossing  over  from 
Persia  to  India,  were  met  by  the  broad  waters  of  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  rivers  in  the  world.  They  asked  its 
name,  and  were  tolil  it  was  the  Siiidiiu,  the  "irrigator"  or 
the  ''fertilizer."  liut.  very  curious  to  say,  they  could  not 
pronounce  ",  nor  is  that  letter  to  be  found  in  their  alphabet. 
The  Zend-speaking  people  thus  called  the  river  the  /find. 
Stan  being  the  Persian  for  **  land,"  wo  thus  have  "  Hindu- 
stan," "the  land  of  the  fertilizing  river."  But  there  was 
still  to  ensue  another  strange  change.  The  iJrccks  with 
Alexander  crossed  over  to  India,  and  also  came  to  the  river 
and  asked  its  name.  I'pon  being  told  that  it  was  /find,  they 
naturally  added  the  on,  making  IHnditH.  But  the  Greek  af- 
phabet  itself  is  deficient  of  a  letter,  and  that  is  A.  So  InditR 
remained  for  the  name  of  the  river,  and  India  or  the  /ndic» 
for  that  of  the  country.  The  fact  is  a  very  strange  one, 
therefore,  that  were  it  not  for  a  people  living  in  ancient 
times  close  to  the  north-western  frontier  of  India  being 
uniible  to  pronounce  the  letter  /f,  wc  should  now  be  talking 
and  writing  of  the  river  t'^indus  and  the  country  Sindia. 

Geiiijyuphy. — The  India  of  the  present  day  extends  from 
Peshawur,  a  frontier  town  in  the  N.  W.  of  the  Peninsula 
{:v:,'=  57'  iV.  lat..  71°  -tn°  E.  Ion.),  to  the  banks  of  the  Bur- 
mese river  Salwin  in  the  E..  and  from  the  long  chain  of  the 
Ilimfltayas  in  the  N.  to  Cape  Comorin  in  the  S.  (lat.  N.  S° 
C,  Ion.  E.  77°  ■iO').  It  is  divided  commonly  into  two  great 
ilivisions,  Hither  and  Further  India — namely,  that  portion 
to  (ho  W,  and  th;it  portion  to  the  E.  of  the  Ganges.  Hither 
India — that  is,  India  within  (he  (Janges,  otherwise  called 
Hindustan — is  that  pfirtion  which  mn^t  almost  wholly  mo- 
nopolize our  attention.  The  rest  consists  of  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese peninsula  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago; 
and  it  is  a  pity — though  it  was  perhaps  unavoidable — that 
the  gf'ography  of  this  portion  of  the  British  dominions  in 
the  East  should  have  been  in  any  way  mixerl  up  with  that 
of  80  distinct  a  country  as  Hindustan.  Inclu<liMg  Further 
India,  geographers  inform  us  that  the  extent  of  Inriia  from 
W.  to  E.  is  about  HJOU  miles,  antl  that  from  X.  to  S.  it  falls 
little  short  of  2000  miles.  India  ontuins  about  1,000,000 
square  miles.  Of  British  India  tho  entire  population, 
as  returned  by  tho  census  of  1.S71-72.  is  about  2S:i. 000,000. 
(See  Imua:  Historv.)  Leaving  asitio  tho  Aryan  and  Ko- 
larian  inhabitants  of  India,  the  jiopulation  of  the  Dra- 
vidian  peoples  has  been  minutely  and  accurately  ascertained 
by  the  father  of  the  writer — the  Bev.  Dr.  Caldwell,  author 
of  the  f\nnp'irtttirr  fintmmitr  nf  thr  l)ntvidittn  I^'innnnnrH. 
The  list  is  esjie^ially  interesting,  as  it  gives  a  clue  to  Iho 
relative  numerical  strength  at  the  present  time  of  the  chief 
section  <if  (he  aboriginal  Indian  races  to  that  of  Hindus 
(if  later  origin.  The  Tamil-speaking  rommuiiitv  numbers 
1I,.^00,000;  the  T<'lugu.  1  .'...'jOO.OOO  :  Ciinares.'.  'n.L'aO.OOO ; 
Malayalam.  :t,7.»0.000  :  Tulu,  .'tOO.OOO  ;  Co-»rg.  I  .'.0,000  ;  Tuda, 
7.)2;*Kotn.  1112;  Gond,  l,!:^,.'."^  :  Ku.  2(i7,y01  :  Kajma- 
hal,  U.OS'J;  and  Oraon,  2fi:!.000.  Thus  tho  toliil  number 
of  persons  speaking  the  Drnvidiiin  diiileets  is  estimated  at 
l.'i,ritiO,o:J2.  However,  a  subtraction  must  be  nnnle  in  this 
sum-total,  as  the  Tamils  arc  an  enterprising  and  migratory 
pi'oplc,  and  many  of  them  arc  (o  be  found  scattered  over 
I  lie  globe.  Th"  numerical  strength  of  the  ethnological  , 
family  of  Indian  Kolar^ans  is  much  smaller  ctill  than  that 
nf  the  I>ravidians.  Tho  Aryans  arc  everywhere  in  enor- 
uHtus  mnjority. 

Bri(ish  Hindustan  is  made  up,  first,  of  districts  wholly 
umler  the  sway  of  Britain;  aecontlly,  of  a  few  scattered 
ports  and  townships  belonging  to  other  European  nations; 
Vol.  II.— 72 


I  thirdly,  of  protected  states;  and  fourthly,  of  allied  inde- 
pendent states.  The  whole  country  is  formally  divided  in(o 
three  presidencies — that  of  Bengal,  capital  Calcutta;  thnt 
of  Madras,  capital  iMadras:  that  of  Bombay,  capital  Bom- 
bay. Bengal  is  umlor  a  lieutenant-governor,  but  his  pow- 
ers are  limited,  in  that  he  has  only  control  over  that  portion 
of  tho  presidency  which  comprises  Xorth  and  South  Behar. 
Orissa,  Assam,  and  Bengal  ])ropcr.  The  North-west  Prov- 
inces, capital  Allahabad,  arc  also  under  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor. Tho  Panjaub  has  also  its  lieutenant-governor.  Oudo 
is  under  a  chief  commissioner,  as  is  also  Mysore.  Indore, 
in  Central  India,  is  under  an  agency.  The  Central  Prov- 
inces are  under  commissioners.  Kajputina  is  governed  by 
a  political  agent,  t'ommissioners,  political  residents,  and 
high  oflicials  deputed  by  tlie  governments  of  tho  various 
presidencies  overlook  the  interests  of  Travancore,  Cochin, 
Poodoocottah.  Baroda.  Kolapore,  Cutch,  Vizianagram.  Jey- 
pur,  the  states  of  (iuzcrat  and  Kattiawar.  etc.  The  follow- 
ing are  tho  titles  of  the  rulers  of  the  twelve  i)rincipal  feud- 
atory states  in  India:  the  nizam  of  Hyderabad,  maharajah 
scindiah  of  Gwalior,  the  paikwar  of  Barmla.  niaharajah 
of  Jeypur.  maharajah  of  Travancore,  maharajah  of  Cash- 
mcer.  maharajah  (d"  .Toodjioor,  the  holkar.  the  begum  of 
Bhopal.  maharajah  r>f  Pultiala.  maharajah  (d"  Oodevpore, 
and  maharajah  <)f  Bhurtpon-.  The  island  of  (Jna.  with  a 
small  scrap  of  the  adjoining  mainland,  belrjugs  to  the  Por- 
tuguese. The  inhabitants  do  not  exceed  4(10,000.  The 
French  still  possess  five  small  settlements  in  India,  and  the 
population  of  all  of  them  put  together  docs  not  amount  to 
250,000  inhabitants.  They  are  ( I  )  Pondicherry,  on  the  Co- 
romandel  or  eastern  coast;  (2)  Knrikal,  close  to  Pondi- 
cherry; (.3)  Vanaon,  in  Orissa;  (4)  Chandanngore,  in  Ben- 
gal; and  (5)  MahC',  on  the  Malabar  or  western  coast.  Tho 
physical  characteristics  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  arc  remark- 
ably striking  and  simple  for  so  largo  a  tract  of  country. 
Hin<tustan  is  especially  remarkable  for  the  height  of  its 
mountains,  the  breadth  of  its  plains,  and  the  size  of  its 
rivers.  Whilst  other  countries,  however,  can  show  plains 
of  vaster  extent  and  rivers  of  greater  volume,  the  Hiniii- 
layas  stand  suj>reme  amongst  the  mountains  of  the  world. 
The  highest  peak  in  them  (Mount  Everest,  in  Nepaul) 
reaches  31,0flt}  feet;  and  the  Himiilayan  chain  possesses 
thirty-nine  other  peaks  taller  than  Chimbornzo.  the  height 
of  which  is  reckoned  to  be  21.124  fret.  The  other  principal 
mountain-ranges  in  Hinduslan  are  the  Viiidhyas.  wliiL-h 
extend  through  Behar  and  the  North-west  Provinces,  along 
the  N.  bank  of  the  Xerbudda  River,  to  Broach;  the  East- 
ern and  Western  (Jhauts.  which,  running  stuithward,  meet 
at  the  Neilgherry  Hills  in  the  Madras  presidency,  and  then 
continue  their  united  course  to  Cape  (_'omorin  ;  the  Sulei- 
man and  Hala  Mountains,  on  the  N.  W.  frontier;  the  ."^at- 
poora  Hills;  the  Bajmahal  Hills;  and  the  Garrows,  to  tho 
E.  of  Bengal.  Most  of  these  great  ranges  are  called  "  hills  " 
in  common  Indian  parlance.  For  instance,  the  Neilgherry 
Hilh — not  Mfuntainft — are  spoken  of,  and  yet  one  of  these 
*'  hills"  rises  to  the  height  of  8700  feet.  The  river-sy.'stcm 
of  Hindustan  is  very  extensive  and  ramitied.  The  great 
rivers  are  the  Indus,  tho  Ganges,  the  Brahmaputra,  tho 
Xcrbudda,  the  Taptee.  the  Malianuddee.  the  (iodaveri.  tho 
Kistna.  the  Peniulr.  the  Pulilr.  and  the  Cauvcry.  The  trib- 
utary rivers  of  the  first  two  of  tiiesc  are  such  large  and  im- 
portant streams  in  themselves  that  mention  must  be  made 
of  them.  The  tributaries  of  the  Indus  are  the  Cabool  and 
the  five  rivers  which  irrigate  and  give  its  name  to  the  Pan- 
jaub— namely,  tlie  .Theluiu,  the  Chinab,  the  Bavi,  the  Bias, 
and  the  Suthj.  The  tributaries  of  the  (ianges  are,  first 
and  foremost,  tho  Jumna;  then  no  less  than  fifteen  other 
rivers,  each  of  large  size,  and  in  the  rainy  seasons,  or 
"  monsoon.*,"  of  great  volume. 

The  vast  peninsula  of  India  is  crowded  with  cities  of 
great  size,  fertile  plains  irrigated  and  cultivated,  deserts 
such  as  that  (d'  Bajpuluna,  and  wild,  inaccessible  jungles. 
Kcmghly  speaking,  in  all  hulia  there  is  only  one  European 
to  .'ijOO  natives,  and  tho  standing  wonder  is,  how  Britain 
can  keep  its  footing  in  tho  East.  One  explanation  of  this 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Hindus  are,  as  a  nation, 
tho  most  disunited  on  the  ("ace  <d'  the  globe.  Not  only  are 
they  separatcrl  amongst  themselves  by  natural  ethnological 
distinctions,  but  by  greater  barriers  of  their  own  raising. 
Their  innumerable  religious  divisions,  and  especially  their 
countless  eiist^'  distinctions,  prevent  them  from  becoming  a 
united  people  capable  <d"  governing  Ihemselves.  If  Britain 
were  to  leave  India  to-morrow,  the  Peninsula  eould  only 
find  safety  from  utter  anarehv.  and  especially  from  bloody 
internecine  wars  between  Mohammedan  and  Hindu,  by 
seeking  the  protection  of  souk'  other  civilized  power. 

A  few  brii'f  particulars  may  In-  further  added  ere  passing 
from  this  epitome  of  Indian  gcnpraphy.  The  western 
coast  of  the  Peninsula,  washed  by  (he  Indian  Ocean,  is 
called  the  Malabar  const  ;  the  eastern  shore,  washed  by  tho 
Bay  of  Bengal,  ii?  called  the  Coroinandel  coast.     All  kind^ 


lliJS 


INDIA. 


of  climate  prevail  in  different  localities  in  India,  nccord- 
in"  to  their  different  situation  and  elevation.     The  line  ol 
CT?ate^t  boat  is  said  to  pass  through  the  city  of  Madras. 
The  heat  of  certain  district.",  such  as  IJensal  proper  and 
the  southern  parts  of  the  Malabar  coast,  where  there  is  a 
heavy  rainfall,  and  consequently  a  natural  exuberance  of 
troiiical  vegetation,  is  moist  and  enervating,  and  the  cli- 
mate often  malarious;  the  climate,  however,  of  many  other 
parts  of  India  is  dry  and  cNliilarating.     Then,  .again,  as 
the  peninsula  of  India  narrows  southward,  it  becomes  more 
open  to   and  affected  by  the  sea-breezes,  and   its  climate 
cunscnuentlv  becomes  more  equable.     All  through  India, 
in  the  hiU-r'anges,  are  delightful  sites  for  stations,  canton- 
ments, and  retreats,  whore  the  climate  is  balmy  ""'l  t^'"- 
peratc.     Tennvson  writes  of  "  the  sweet  half-English  ^eil- 
Lherry   air;"  "and   bis   description  is   thoroughly  true  to 
nature.      In  these  hill-ranges— from  the   llim.'llayas   and 
mo-intains    of  Assam  to  the    southernmost  spurs  ot    tho 
Ghauts,  overlooking  the  triple  line  of  the  breakers  of  Cape 
Clomorin— tea,  cotTee,  and  cinchona  cultivation  is  rapidly 
extendini'.     Evervwhere  throughout  India  a  network  of 
roads  is  being  spread,  and  great  attention  is  being  paid  to 
the  linino-  of  those  with  avenue  trees,  to  protect  wayfarers 
as  much  as  possible  against  the  tropical  sun.     Canals  and 
railwavs,  too,  are  opening  up  the  country  in  every  direction. 
One  can  now  travel  by  rail  from  Negapatam  to  Calcutta, 
and  shortly  one  will  be  able  to  pass  from  the  roots  of  the 
Himilavas,  at  Darjceling.  to  Tuticorin.  in  Tinnevelly,  only 
a  few  niiles  from   Cape  Comorin.      The  government  has 
been  takin"  ui>  public  works  of  every  kind,  and  in  a  short 
time  several  of  the  great  irrigation  works  now  in  progress 
are  expected  to  .alter  the  face  of  hirge  tracts  in  India,  where 
water  means  wealth.     Change  is  rapidly  following  change, 
and  we  can  only  dimly  guess  what  tho  India  of  a  few  years 

hence  may  be.  „  ^    ,.  .     .       .    ,    <• 

Ethnology.— The  ethnology  of  India  may  he  treated  ot 
under  three  heads— namely,  tho  Aryan,  the  Kolarian,  and 
the  Dravidian.     But  befo.e  we  enter  upon  a  critical  ex- 
amination of  the  existing  races  and  languages  of  India,  the 
oucstion  natur.ally  arises.  What  do  we  know  of  the  peop  c 
of  Hindustan  in  the  very  earliest  times  ?     It  is  a  very  little 
indeed  that  wo  do  know,  but  that  little  is  extremely  intcr- 
estinn-,  as  it  carries  us  back— just  as  in  tho  case  of  Egyp- 
tian Sntiquitios— to  the  extreme  youth  of  the  world.     Long 
before  the  Aryans  came  into  India  tho  Peninsula  appears 
to  have  been  peopled  by  aborigines,  and  in  vfls,  in  al 
prob.ability,  even  densely.     But  when  did  tho  Aryans  first 
enter  Hindustan?      It  is  impossible  to   tell,   and    all  wo 
know  is  that  there  appears  to  have  been  a  succession  ot 
\ryan  invasions,  and  that  the  Aryans  did   not  como  over  ^ 
in 'one  vast  flood  at  once.     In  all  probability  they  were  , 
pourincr  in,  little  bv  little,  wave  after  wave,  even  while  the 
PvramTds  were  being  built.     Yet  when  they  did  arrive  in 
India  they  undoubtedly  found  there  those  two  great  classes 
of  aboriginal  inhabitants  which  still  survive  in  the  Penin-  | 
«ul.a— namely,  the  Kolarians  and  the  Dravidians.     This  is 
capable  of  clear  proof.     But  setting  this  niatter  for  a  while 
aside,  let  us  turn  to  a  still  more  ancient  pliaso  of  the  sub- 
io.-t      How  did  the  Dravidians  and  Kolarians  themselves 
get  'into  India?  or  were  they  really  from  the   first  ahorig- 
ines  '     Here  we  come  to  questions  affecting  a  time  not  long 
subsequent  to  the  building  of  th^  Tower  of  Babel      All 
kinds  of  theories  have  been  advanced,  but  some  are  at  least 
plausible,  and  appear  to  be  borne  out  by   evidence  of  eon- 
'iderable  weight      It  has,  for  instance,  been  clearly  ascer- 
tained that  the  Dravidian  dialects  are  of   the  s.amc  stock, 
and  intimately  connected  with  the  .«cythic   etc.;  whereas 
the   Kolarian  "dialects  are  distinctly  Indo-thuiese.     It  is 
probable,  then,  that  the   Dravidian    was   introduced   into 
India  from  the  N.  W.,  and  that  the  KoUinan  entere,l    from 
tho  N    E.     But  if  thov  so  entered,  what  did  they  find  be- 
fore them  in   the  land?     It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
Negrito  element  evidently  observ.ahle  in  some  of  tlieir  tribes 
can  only  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the  Dravidians 
and  Kolarians,  on    entering  India,  found   ins  ailed  there 
already  a  black  race,  with  thick  lips,  no  beards,  high  cheek- 
bones/and woolly  hair,  and  that  to  some  extent  they  be- 
came commingled  with  them.    In  the  case  of  the  Kolarians 
=ome  Orientalists  insist  on  this  theory  very  strongly.     In 
them  the  distinct  Mongolian  typo  of  face  is  ajiparent,  yet 
frequently  the  Xegrito  type  appears  just  as  prominently  ; 
indeed,  many  of  them  appear  to  be  simply  Africans  with 
almond-shaped  eves.     But.  taken   as  a  whole,  the  Negrito 
theory  is  more  ingenious  than  reliable.     The  Negrito  type 
of  phVsique,  if  observable  in  Hindustan,  must  be  a  corrupt 
one  for  it  is  eharactcriied  by  diminutiveness,  and  many 
African  races  are  strong  and  powerful  of  build.     However, 
the  Ncrito  facial  angle,  the  flatness  of  the  nose,  the  woolly 
head,  the  absence  of  beard,  etc.  are  quite  strikingly  ob- 
servable in  many  of  the  Indian   aboriginal   tribes.     Col. 
Dalton  remarks  them  in  the  Orions.     The  African  temj.er- 


<  ament,  too,  is  to  some  extent  observable  in  many  of  the 
least  civiliied  Indian  races— love  for  music,  light-hearted- 
ness,  impulsiveness,  and  the  rest.     When  examining  into 
the  ethnology  of  any  country,  six  considerations  should 
prevail  with'the  student—namely,  (1)  physical   and  (2) 
mental    characteristics,  (3)    religions,  (4)    languages,  (5) 
laws,  and  (0)   habits  and  customs.     Whatever  may  have 
been  tho  origin  of  the  Kolarians  and  Dravidians,  by  each 
one  of  the  above  six  points  we  can  see  clearly  that  they  arc 
distinctly  non-Aryan  classes  of  the  Indian  people.  Notwith- 
standing the  theories  to  which  allusion  has  been  made,  the 
Kolarians  and    Dravidians   may.   speaking  generally,  be 
termed  without  hesitation  Indian  abcn-igines,  and  Aryans 
the  invaders  and  civilizers.    We  know  nothing  of  the  state 
of  India  before  the  Aryan   invasion.     In  every  prob.ability 
society  was  in  the  rudest  and  most  patriarchal  state.     The 
earliest  word  for  "  monarch  "  in  Southern  India  is. 70a  (i.  c.a 
"  cowherd,"  or  a  man  of  the  shepherd  caste) :  and  this  evi- 
dently points  to  a  time  when  the  possession  of  cattle  was 
considered  to  confer  a  dignity  which  is  now  attained  by  the 
possession  of  an  illustrious  ancestry  and  gold  and  cities  and 
fortresses  and  armies  and  fleets.     The  changes  which  fol- 
lowed upon  the  Aryan  invasions  from  the  N.  W.  have  left 
clear  traces  behind  them,  and  thus  we  can  speak  with  some 
certainty  concerning  this  part  of  the  subject.    The  invaders, 
not  only  by  their  numbers  but  by  their  civiliz.ation,  appear 
to  have  driven   the  aborigines  everywhere  before    them, 
especially   in   a  southward   direction.      Not  so,  however, 
with  thc"Kolarians,  as  a  whole,  was  this  exactly  the  case  ; 
the  advancing  Aryan  tide  seems  rather  to  have  gradually 
surrounded  them,"  cut  them  off  and  islanded  them,  so  to 
speak.      This    appears    also    to  have  been  the  case  with 
one  or  two   Dravidian   tribes,  such  as  that  of  Kajmahal. 
Yet  one  more  point  must  bo  noticed.     Not  only  did  the 
Aryans    push    the    aborigines    southward,  hut   to  a  con- 
sid'erable    extent  followed  with    them    and    intermingled 
with   them.     At   a  very  early  age   Cape  Comorin  was  as 
well    known   to   Brahmins    as  to   the  aboriginal   Shauars 
of  Tinnevelly  and  Travancorc.     Let  us  now  take  up   the 
threefold  division  of  this  part  of  our  subject,  first  speak- 
ing of  tho  languages  and  literature  of  the  Kolarians  (as  this 
may  be   dismissed  very   briefly);    then,  secondly,  of  tho 
Prakrits  of  Northern  India  and  the  peoples  speaking  them  ; 
and  then,  thirdly,  of  the  languages  and  literature  of  South- 
ern India.  ,   ,       ,  , 

I.  The  Kolarians.— VndQV  this  general  head  may  be 
classed  the  Coours  of  Elliehpoor:  the  Korewahs  of  Sirgoo- 
iah  and  Juspove:  the  Moondahs  of  Chutia  Nagpur,  also 
the  Keriahs  of  that  district ;  the  Hos  of  Pingbhoora ;  the 
Bhoomij  of  Manbhoom  and  Dulbhoom  ;  the  Nakales,  the 
Kodas;  the  Sonthals  of  Manbhoom,  Singbhoom.  Cuttack, 
the  tributary  Mcbals,  Ilazrrebagh,  and  the  Sonthal  Per- 
gunnahs:  th'e  .Tuangs  or  Puttoons  of  Cuttack,  Keonjur,  Pal 
Lehra,  Dhenkanal.  and  Hindole;  Ghatwals:  Bendkurrs, 
Birhoc=,  Boyars;  Kharwars  and  Rajwars  in  South  Behar ; 
Kaurs  near  Oodevporc;  and  the  Koolees  and  Bheels  ol 
Guzernt  and  Raip"ulana.  All  these  are  undoubtedly  Indian 
aborigines,  not  of  the  Dravidian  stock.  Their  languages 
arc  of  tho  rudest  description.  Literature  they  have  none. 
Many  of  the  more  civilized  of  these  scattered  tribes  speak 
Hindi  and  other  Aryan  dialects.  As  a  rule  they  practice 
most  degraded  customs,  some  living  almost  entirely  naked. 
"  Puttoons,"  for  instance,  mean  "  the  leaf-elad."  (The  render 
who  is  curious  to  know  more  of  these  tribes  should  consult 
Dalton's  magnificent  work  on  the  Eil„iolog,i  uj  Ilcu,/al:kit: 
George  Campbell's  interesting  but  inaccurate  contributions 
to  hllla,,  Elluwlogy  (Journal  of  the  IScn.jal  AnlaUc  Sor,cl,l. 
vol.  xxxv.,  part  ii..  etc.).)  Col.  Dalton;s  list  of  the  Bengal 
Kolarians  is  as  follows:  the  .Tuangs.  Kharrias,  Mundahs, 
Hos,  Bhumii,  Ho  or  Larka  Kols.  Sanlals.  Birhors.  Korwars, 
Kurs,  and  Kurkus  or  Muasis.  The  particulars  of  the  habits 
and  customs  of  these  tribes  given  by  the  gallant  author  arc 
very  curious  and  interesting.  He  also  furnishes  a  vocabu- 
lary of  familiar  words  in  the  Kolarian  dialects,  and  photo- 
graphs carefully  de,iicting  the  typical  characteristics  of  the 
various  tribes  which  speak  those  and  other  Bengal  vernac- 

II  We  have  now  to  turn  our  attention  to  tho  languages 
and  iitcrature,  other  than  Sanskrit,  of  the  Aryan  inhabit- 
ants of  Hindustan.  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
philological  fields  in  the  world,  and  is  one  which  has  re- 
cently been  wonderfully  opened  up  by  Mr.  Beames  in  his 
r.mmarative  Grammar  of  the  Mothrn  Arr/an  Languago  oj 
India.  These  languages  .arc  seven  in  number— namely, 
Sindhi,  Panjaubi,  Marathi.  Gujerati,  Hmdi.  Oriya.  and 
Bengali.  Sindhi  is  sjioken  in  the  extreme  ^.  "  .  of  India, 
and'next  to  it  Panjaubi.  in  the  land  of  the  five  rivers.  In 
the  Bombay  presidency  Gujerati  and  .Marathi  i.revail. 
Hindi  holds  the  great  central  position  amongst  the  Aryan 
lan"ua.'es  of  Hindustan.  At  the  very  outset  it  should  be 
renumbered   that  Hindustani,  or  Urdu,  is   simply  Hindi 


INDIA. 


1139 


plni  a  great  deal  of  Persinn.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Hin- 
dustani liati  a  f;;re»t  hold  of  Tntlia,  in  that  it  is  tlie  lingua 
franco,  SO  to  f;|)cak,of  Hindustan  ;  it  is  tlie  language  which 
is  chiefly  used  everywhere  in  the  Peninsula  a.s  a  medium 
of  general  eommunicatiuu  ;  but  when  treating  of  the  lan- 
guages and  literatures  of  Hindu  Aryans  it  must  merely  be 
con?iiIered  as  a  dialect  of  Hindi.  Oriya  is  the  language  of 
Orissa,  and  Ilengali  of  IJciigal.  Each  one  of  tlicse  seven 
vernaculars  is  ba^cd  on  the  IVakrits  of  the  Sanskrit.  First, 
let  us  glance  at  them  as  a  whole,  noting  their  origin  from 
the  graml  parent  stem.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Aryans 
did  not  come  over  to  India  ali  at  once.  There  were  suc- 
cessive waves  uf  immigration,  and  the  immigrants,  in 
every  probability,  spoke  various  dialects  of  the  common 
language.  As  Mr.  IJeames  says,  "One  only  of  these  dia- 
lects, however,  became  at  an  early  period  the  vehicle  of 
religious  sen'iment,  au'l  the  hymns  called  the  Vedas  were 
transmitted  orally  for  centuries,  in  all  probability  with  the 
strictest  accuracy.  After  a  time  the  iJrahinans,  consciously 
and  intentionally,  set  themselves  to  the  task  of  constructing 
a  sacred  language  by  preserving  and  reducing  to  rule  the 
grammatical  elements  of  this  Vcdic  tongue.  Wc  cannot 
tell  whether  in  carrying  out  this  task  they  availed  them- 
selves of  the  stores  of  one  dialect  alone — probably  they  did 
not — but  with  that  rare  power  of  analysis  for  which  (hey 
have  ever  been  distinguished  they  seized  on  the  salient 
features  of  Aryan  speech  as  contained  in  all  the  dialects, 
and  moulded  them  into  one  harmonious  whole;  thus,  for 
the  first  time  in  their  history,  giving  to  the  Aryan  tribes 
one  common  language,  designed  to  be  used  as  the  instru- 
ment fur  expressing  thoughts  of  such  a  nature  as  should 
be  deemed  worthy  of  preservation  to  all  time."  All  this 
was  before  the  art  of  writing,  but  when  that  art  was  dis- 
covered, it  was  chiefly  used  to  reproduce  works  in  Sanskrit, 
that  sacred  queen  of  all  Aryan  languages.  But  all  this 
time,  whilst  Panini  an<l  others  were  engaged  in  fossilizing, 
polishing,  and  perfecting  Sanskrit,  the  local  dialects  con- 
tinued to  exist.  As  they  had  been  anterior,  in  their  rude 
shapes,  to  the  pcrfectecl  sacred  tongue,  so  after  Sanskrit 
ceased  to  be  spoken — save  perhaps  by  a  few  of  the  holiest 
and  most  learned  of  the  Brahuiaus — they  continued  to  be 
generally  spoken  by  the  common  people,  and  were  being 
continually  developed  into  now  verna'-ular  forms.  These 
forms  of  Aryan  speech,  other  than  Sanskrit,  and  spoken  by 
the  masses,  are  the  Prakrits.  They  were  all  of  the  same 
stock  as  the  Sanskrit,  but  they  went  on  changing  like 
clouds,  whilst  Sanskrit  remained  within  its  own  fixed 
limits  like  the  sea.  So  holy  was  the  language  ()f  the  Vedas 
that  many  of  (he  formuhe  wont  to  be  repeated  by  Brahmans 
were  regarded  by  thcin  to  be  composed  of  letters  each  one 
of  which  was  a  divinity.  The  Prakrits,  on  the  other  hand. 
were  conslantly  being  changc'l  as  they  carao  in  contact  with 
foreign  tongues  or  with  each  other.  At  one  time  they  are 
said  to  have  numbcreil  no  less  than  twenty-two.  However, 
in  the  earliest  records  we  find  that  they  are  generally  classed 
under  five  distinct  heads.  First,  there  was  Mahiir;"Lshtri, 
the  chief  of  the  five,  mainly  spoken  iu  Southern  Uajputilna 
uml  the  northern  portions  of  that  part  of  India  which  we 
roughly  term  now  "iMahratta  country."  The  second  was 
the  Sauraseni.  which  was  spoken  near  Malhura.  The 
third  was  the  Magadhi,  the  dialc?t  which  was  spoken  in 
I!ehar,  and  which  is  the  parent  of  Ceylonese  Pali.  Fourth- 
ly, there  was  the  Pais.Vjhi  :  and  fifthly,  there  was  the 
Apabhransa,  or  '*  corrupt"  Prakrit,  of  Siu<lh  and  Western 
Uajput^na.  Ucames  remarks  :  "  In  the  Sanskrit  <lramas  a 
s'ill  more  artificial  distinction  prevails,  a  different  dialect 
being  attributed  to  each  class  'of  chara<'lers.  Thus,  kings 
and  IJrahmans  speak  Sanskrit,  ladies  of  high  rank  Mah:\- 
rlshtri,  whilst  servants,  soldiers,  buffoons,  and  the  like, 
use  one  or  other  of  the  inferior  dialects."  But  one  of  the 
Prakrits  has  come  down  to  u?*  embalmed  in  a  more  note- 
worthy way.  Magadhi  will  not  be  forgotten  as  long  as  the 
Itlernlures  of  the  Kast  rcmiiin  unobliterated.  It  was  used 
in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  to  preserve  the  teaching 
of  .Sakyamuni,  'MJotanuv  Buddha,"  the  founder  of  a  relig- 
ious system  which  overran  all  India  and  crushed  nearly 
all  the  life  out  of  Urahmanism  for  ten  eeuttirirs.  Mngadhi 
is  simply  Pali,  the  sa'-rcd  ''written"  language  of  Ceylon. 
Sakyamuni  died  in  'i-l^  n.  r.,  in  *)ya  in  Southern  Behar, 
and  his  teachings,  preserved  to  us  in  Magadhi,  give  us  a 
ciciir  insight  into  that  Pnikrit  in  its  form  in  those  days. 
Buddhists,  even  at  that  early  time,  protlu'-cd  nuiiiy  ami 
voluminous  works,  and  Jains  to  n  greiit  extent  copied 
them,  for  wo  have  many  .laina  sacred  writincs  in  the  Ma- 
hirilshtri  prakrit.  The  last  point  which  need  he  mentioned 
about  the  prakrits  is  that  tncy  are  **  syntheticul  or  inllec- 
tional  langua(;es."  Out  of  these  prakrits  sprnn;;  the  mod- 
ern  seven  Aryan  vernaculars  of  India.  In  the  composition 
of  each  of  these  dialects  wc  havu  three  elements  :  ( 1 )  words 
the  same  as  Sanskrit  words;  (2)  words  like  Sanskrit;  (li)  a 
number  of  non-Aryuu  wurd.i.     The  difference  between  the 


non-Aryan  vernaculars  of  India  seems  mainly  to  consist  in 
the  different  apportionment  amongst  each  of  these  three 
diflcrent  classes  of  words — ^words  which  are  severally  called 
by  the  felicitous  Sanskrit  appellations  of  Tatenma,  Tad- 
bhfiva,  and  Devaja,  Of  the  modern  Aryan  vernaculars  it 
may  be  said — 

"These  lauftuaseA 
Are  one  at  root.  Their  natures-  are  alike; 
But,  being  grafted  into  ilivcrse  soils. 
In  sliapc  of  leafy  bouvjlis  dissimilar  seem, 
Differ  in  hue  aii'd  fravjraiire  of  their  (lowers, 
And  vary  in  taste  of  their  abundant  fruit." 
Let  us  take  each  of  them  in  turn.  First.  Sindhi.  the  most 
north-westerly  of  the  modern  Aryan  dialects  of  India,  and 
perhaps  the  roughest  and  least  Sanskriti/.ed.  The  first 
jiroviuce  in  India  which  was  contjucred  by  invaders  from 
the  N.  AV.  was  undoubtedly  Sindh,  and  next  the  Panjaub. 
It  was  in  these  provinces  that  Mohammedanism  was  rooted 
the  earliest.  Brahmins,  from  the  earliest  times,  appear  to 
have  avoided  these  two  provinces  to  a  considerable  extent. 
So  we  learn  that  the  earliest  Prakrits  spoken  in  Sindh  were 
noted  for  their  corruptness.  The  country  seems  to  have 
been  left  by  the  Brahmins  to  pastoral  tribes,  such  as  the 
Abhiri.  the  (Injars,  and  afterwards  to  the  excommunicated 
Ksbatriva  Juts.  The  whole  land  from  the  earliest  times 
appears  to  have  been  in  a  state  of  chronic  convulsion. 
Towns  were  constantly  pillaged,  cultivated  tracts  desolated, 
cattle  slaughtered,  tribes  broken  up,  and  the  pojiulation 
seems  to  have  carried  on  a  stormy  and  precarious  existence 
under  the  shadow  of  perennial  wars.  It  was  hut  natural 
that  in  such  a  case  little  time  could  be  devoted  by  loeiil 
pundits  to  the  improvement  of  the  language,  by  correcting 
it  from  time  to  time,  and  by  introducing  into  it,  to  give  it 
fresh  vitality,  new  blood  fripm  the  old  and  yet  vigorously 
healthy  language  of  the  Vedic  hymns  and  great  dramas. 
So  Sindhi  is  still  a  rough  aud  in  many  ways  :in  anomalous 
language.  For  instance,  whilst  Hindi  is  content  with  only 
three  f(»rm8  of  the  genitive  particle,  Sindhi  demands  no  less 
than  twenty.  (Sec  D.  Trumpp's  St'ui/hi  Oram  mar.)  But 
there  is  something  charming  about  the  roughness  of  Sindhi 
to  some  scholars,  just  as  some  wine-tasters  revel  in  the 
roughness  of  some  wines.  Beanies,  for  instance,  speaks  of 
Sindhi  as  having  "  somewhat  the  charm  of  wild  flowers  in 
a  hedge,  whose  untamed  luxuriance  pleases  more  than  the 
regular  splcn4lor  of  the  parterre.  .  .  .  There  is  a  flavor  of 
wheaten  flour  and  a  reek  of  cottage  smcdvc  about  Panjaubi 
and  Sindhi,  which  is  infinitely  more  natural  and  cajitivating 
than  anything  which  the  hide-bound,  pundit-ridden  lan- 
guages of  the  eastern  parts  of  India  can  show  us."  But 
this  is,  perhajis.  more  prettily  juit  than  true,  just  as  some 
poets  imagine  that  there  is  more  real  soul-music  in  the 
]irattle  of  a  child  than  in  tlie  trained  voice  of  a  prima 
donna.  Sindhi  has  three  dialects— the  Sirai,  in  the  N.  of 
Sindh;  Viehohii,  in  the  central  parts;  and  Lari,  in  the  S. 
and  along  the  sea-coast.  There  are  many  other  dialects, 
but  only  the  above  need  be  mentioned.  It  remains  to  lie 
mentioned  that  Sindhi  bus  very  Httlo  literature  and  no 
fixed  system  of  writing.  M'c  must  now  pass  on  to  Panjaubi, 
but  a  great  deal  of  what  has  been  said  of  Simlhi  applies  to 
it.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Mohammedan  power 
was  in  a  measure  consolidated  iu  the  Panjaub  -JflO  years  be- 
fore such  was  the  case  in  the  lands  where  Hindi  is  spoken. 
Thus,  the  Prakrit  had  U  ss  time  in  its  infancy  to  become 
trained  and  guided,  and  the  Mussulman  iu\  aders  found  a 
more  virgin  soil  to  plant  their  own  idioms.  They  brought 
numbers  of  their  own  words  with  tliem.  which  became  en- 
grafted into  Panjaubi  before  the  Sanskrit  equivalents  had 
time  to  s)>rintc  up  in  the  language.  Yet  it  has  been  truly 
said  that  the  Panjaubi  of  the  present  day  is,  after  all.  an  idd 
Hindi  dialect.  In  Panjaubi.  for  reasons  already  relVrred  to. 
there  is  a  great  ndniixture  of  Arabic  aud  Persian,  and  but 
little  "  Tatsania"  Sanskrit  terms,  such  as  are  to  be  found  in 
Bengali  and  Oriyn.  Panjaubi  is  similar  to  Hindi  in  rcganl 
to  the  nouns  in  the  language,  which  have  the  same  sim- 
plicity of  declension.  The  verbs  too  arc  alike,  with  only 
faint  dialectic  differences.  The  pronouns  alto  are  nearly 
the  same  in  both  languages.  Th- claims  of  Panjaubi  to  be 
considcre.l  an  indepcmlent  languaKc  rest  upon  its  phonetic 
system  aud  upon  its  peculiarities  of  phraseology.  The 
character  in  which  Panjaubi  Is  written  is  called  (ninmiukfii. 
It  employs  thirty-fivo  letters.  As  ft)r  its  literature,  it  is 
very  searitv.  Nanak.  the  relicions  reformer  and  founder 
of  the  Sikh  creed,  is  the  earliest  author  in  the  binffua^e, 
vet  nothing  of  his  is  extant  which  is  distinctively  Panjaubi. 
The  iHaleets  of  Punjnubi  are  almost  innumerable,  but  are 
hardly  distinguishable  one  from  the  other.  But  on  the 
borders  of  the  Paiijaubi-speiiking  country,  on  all  sides,  the 
language  almost  imperceptibly  dovetails  with  other  ver- 
naculars. This  has  given  great  trouble  to  superficial  lin- 
guists, and  has  led  to  many  mistakes.  Wc  now  c«imo  to 
Maratbi.  It  must  not  be  too  hastily  coneludi'd  that  Mnra- 
thi  is  the  direct  lineal  descendant  of  the  Mahlrasbtri  Pra 


I 


1140 


INDIA. 


krit.     Indeed,  these  two  have  little  in  common  save  the 
name.     Magadhi  and  Saurascni  Prakrits  mainly  He  at  the 
base  of  Marathi.     It  is  ou  the  wliule  an  elegant  and  cul- 
tured tongue.     Mahratta  Brahmans  took  great  care  ot   the 
language  Tn  its  somewhat  rude  inlancy,  and  the  wave  of 
Mohanunedan  invasion   was   somewhat  late   in   sweeping 
over  the  country  where  it  had  its  central  hold.     Marathi 
contains  a  good  many  "  Tutmma"  Sanskrit  words,  and  is 
a  pleasing  fluent  tongue.     The  language  is  a  playlul  one; 
it   delichts   in   assonances  and   harmonious  phrases   and 
•'jin.'lin'  formations."     In  structure  it  is  comparatively 
oomplicatcd.     Its  phraseology   is  copious   and   beautiful. 
Grammatically  considered,  Marathi  is  as  much  the  German 
of  the  Aryan  vernaculars  of  India  as  Hindi  is  the  English. 
It  possesses  a  great  array  of  terminations  and  mflcctiuns. 
It  is  just  as  difficult  to  determine  the  gender  of  a  noun  in 
Marathi  as  in  German.     In  every  part  the  language  shows 
the  effects  of  the  labors  of  learned  pundits  who  worked  lor 
centuries  to  beautify  and  polish  it.     The  Mar.athi  pronoun 
is  nearly  the  pure  Prakrit.     The  verb  is  participial  m  its 
formation.     The  literature  of  the  language  is  copious,     ihe 
following  mav  be  taken  as  a  brief  yet  fair  summary  of  it : 
"Namadeva,'the  first  poet,  whose  date  is  uncertain,  but 
probably  about  1290  A.  i>..  drew  his  inspiration,  as  was  the 
case  with  so  many  poets  of  his  time,  from  the  writings  of 
Kabir  and  other  reformers.     Contemporary  with  hun  was 
the  famous  Dynilnadeva,  who  wrote  a  poem  called  Dni/dn- 
calnrari.     Then  follows  a  long  string  of  more  or  less  ob- 
scure poets,  among  whom  Sridhar  deserves  notice  on  ac- 
count of  his  voluminous  Pauranic  paraphrases.     Tukaram, 
the  most  celebrated  Marathi  author,  was  (A.  D.  1609)  a  eon- 
temporary  of  the  illustrious  Sivaji.  (See  India  :  its  His- 
tory.)    An  admirably  printed  edition  of  Tukaram  s  poems 
has  been  produced  at   Bombay  recently  by  two  pundits. 
The  poems  are  called  Ahhaiu/ns,  or  '  Unbroken:'  probably 
from  their  being  of  indefinite  length  and  strung  together 
in  a  loose  flowing  metre.     Tukaram  was  a  half-crazed  de- 
votee such  as  we  see  so  commonly  in  India,  who  began  life 
as  a  petty  shopkeeper,  but,  being   unsuccessful,  devoted 
himself  to   the  worship  of  the  idol  Vitoba,  whose  ohiet 
shrine  is  at  Pandharpur.     At  the  temple  of  this  idol  at 
Dehu,  near  Poena,  Tukaram  spent  the  greater  part  of  his 
life  in  improvising  these  endless  Abhtunjns,  which  were  co  ■ 
lected  by  his  disciples.     Ho  eventually  started  ofi'  on  a  pil- 
grimat'e,  and,  as  he  never  returned,  he  probably  died  on  the 
road,  l)ut  his  followers  chose  to  believe  that  he  had  ascended 
to  heaven."     There  is  nothing  very  original  or  striking  m 
Tukaram's  poems.     They  are  like  the  ordinary  run  of  In- 
dian religious  poems.     Here  is  a  specimen : 
"Torches,  unihrellas,  liorses— these  are  ot  no  value. 
Wliy  now  O  lord  of  Pandhari,  dost  thou  entanscle  me  in  them  . 
Honor,  pomp,  sliow-tliese  are  merely  the  excrement  of  swine. 
Tukaram  says,  O  Lord,  hasten  thou  to  deliver  me! 
The  reader  will  see  that  all  this  is  rank  commonplace,  but 
ill   JIarathi   the  mellifluous  diction   atones  for  much,  and 
Tukaram's  jmems  are   household   words   in    the   Bombay 
presidency.    Ne.xt  to  Tukaram  came  Moropaut  (a.  D.  liLO), 
ami  his  poems  arc  preferred  by  some  to  those  of  Tukaram. 
There  is  aisp  a  wide   Anacreontic  literature  in   Marathi, 
which  may  be  styled  "  Rabelaisian  without  the  wit,  and 
with  twice  the    amount  of  impurity."     The    chief  prose 
works    in   Marathi    are    the  Bahhars,  or  "  Chroniclea  of 
Kin-rs  ■•  much  of  which  is  legendary  and  impossible.     Me 
must  now  pass  on  to  speak  of  Gujerati.     This  language 
has  a  greater  admi.'cturc  of  Arabic  and  Persian  in  it  tlian 
Marathi  has.     It  is  avowedly  a  dialect  of  the  Saurasom 
Prakrit,  and  .ns  a  language  is  only  partially  developed.    It 
retains  throe  genders,  whereas  Hindi  and  Panjaubi  have 
only  two.     The  pronouns  are  almost  identical  with  those 
in   Hindi.     According  to  some  grammarians,  the  Gujerati 
verb  rejoices  in  five  presents,  seventeen  preterites,  and  four 
futures,  but  these,  in  practice,  can  be  greatly  reduced  and 
simplified.     Of  lato  days  Gujerati  is  becoming  more  and 
more  emploved  as  a  commercial  language,  especially  by 
the  P.ar3ees'of  Bombay,  and  thus  it  is  becoming  rapidly 
impregnated  with  foreign  phrases  and  idioms,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  purity  of  the  language.     The  first  Gujerati 
author  of  note  is  Xarsingh  Mchta,  who  flourished  in  llo7 
A.  D.     His  writings  are  religious,  and  arc  east  in  the  form 
of  short  poems  somewhat  i-esembling  sonnets.     After  hiiii 
the  chief  Gujerati  writers  arc  Vi.shnu  Das,  Shiv  Das,  and 
Samal  Bhatt.     It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Gujerati  of 
the  present  day  is  strikingly  similar  to  that  language  when 
it  was  first  written.     We  now  come  to  Hindi.     This  lan- 
gua^'O  is  justly  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  modern  Aryan 
languages  of  India.    It  is  spoken  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
(ian"-es  from  the  source  of  the  Jumna  to  Rajmahal.     In  a 
wor.r  Hindi  holds  the  central  position  of  all  of  the  Aryan 
lan^-uar-es  of  India,  and  the  country  in  which  it  is  spoken 
has' ever  been  the  centre  of  Aryan  Hinduism.     »e  have 
lUreadv  mentioned  the  close  relationship  which  exists  be- 


tween Hindi  and  Urdu  or  Hindustani.     It  has  been  truly 
said  that  Hindi  is  to  modcru  India  what  Sanskrit  was  to 
the  ancient.    The  central  scat  of  Hindi  itself  has  ever  been 
Delhi.  Mr.  Beames  savs  :  "  In  respect  of  'ladbhnien>,  Hindi 
stands  pre-eminent,  whether  it  be  that  form  of  Hindi  which 
relies  principally  ou  indigenous  sources  for  its  words,  or 
that  other  widcfy  employed  form  which  has  incorporated 
the  flower  and  grace  of  Persian   and  Arabic  nouns,  and 
which  is  sometimes  called  Urdu,  sometimes  Hindustani." 
The  multiform  strength  of  Hindi  is  in  a  measure  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  great  central   area  of  India  in  which  that 
lancuafc  is  spoken  has  always  been  occupied  by  Hindus 
and'  M°ussulmans.    in   tolerably    equal   proportions;    thus, 
whilst  Sanskrit  has  not  been  forgotten,  Arable  and  Per- 
sian words  have  been  allowed,  in  due  measure,  to  enrich 
the  vernacular.     Of  the  seven   modern  Aryan  languages, 
Hindi  is  the  most  advanced,  as  it  shows  the  most  marked 
r^so  from  the  synthetical  to  the  analytical  state.     In  its 
verbs  Hindi  has  greatly  rejected  the  Sanskrit  inflectional 
system.     Only  one  Hindi  tense  is  synthetical— namely,  the 
indefinite  present,  which  has  been  corrupted  from  the  pres- 
ent indicative  of  the  Sanskrit.     The  date  of  the  earliest 
Hindi  poem  is  A.  n.  1200.     It  is  a  famous  one— namely, 
the  Prithlrdh  linsan  of  Chand  Bardili.     This  Chand  was 
a  native  of  Lahore.     He  was  a  professional  bhat  or  min- 
strel  and  was  attached  to  the  court  of  the  Kajput  king 
Prithirai,  the  last  Hindu  monarch  of  Delhi.     The  poem  is 
the  record  of  the  ancestry,  birth,  life,  heroic  deeds,  and 
final  overthrow  of  Prithir.aj  ;  but  upon  the  history  which 
thus  forms  the  basis  of  the  work  Chand  Bardii  builds  a 
fantastic  structure  of  religion  and  mythology.     The  gods 
come  down   to  earth:  celestial  garlands  descend   on   the 
brows  of  heroes :  Siva  follows  the  war-path  and  drinks  the 
blood  of  the  wounded ;  the  power  obtained  by  sacrifice  and 
penance,  even  over  deities,  is  magical ;  and  birds  and  beasts 
converse  like  men.   Subsequent  to  Chand  Bardai,  Hindi  lit- 
erature became  crowded  with  long,  verbose,  dull,  religious 
poems.  Tulsi  Das  adapted  from  the  Sanskrit  the  Jidmai/aim 
of  Valmiki.     Bebari  Lai  was  a  correct  and  elegant  Hindi 
writer  whose  poems  are  concise,  pretty,  graceful,  and  some- 
times meritoriously  thoughtful.    We  now  come  to  the  Oriya 
language.     This  language,  like  the  Bengali,  is  higlily  im- 
pregnated   with    Sanskrit,    and    overflows    with    Tnt«a,mi 
woi°ds.     But  it  is  a  neglected  tongue,  and  retains  to  the 
present  day  many  rude  archaic  forms.     The  mountainous 
character  o"f  the  country  of  Orissa.  stretching  along  a  lonely 
shore-line,  peopled  bv  men  accustomed  to  a  solitary  life  in 
great  measure,  often  decimated  by  famine  and  disease  or 
devastated  bv  periodical  cyclones,  itself  furnishes  a  reason 
for  the  very  partial  cultivation  and  polish  of  the  language 
spoken  there.  The  literature  of  Oriyacommenecs  with  Upen- 
dro  Bhauj,  who  composed  a  large  number  of  religious  poems 
which  are  held  of  high  account.  The  poet  was  the  brother  of 
the  rajah  of  Gumsar,  a  small  hill-state,  which  has  always 
maintained  its  reputation  for  preserving  the  Oriya  language 
within  its  borders  in  the  most  perfect  and  pure  state.  Upen- 
dro  Bhaiij  did  not  live  more  than  300  years  ago.     He  com- 
posed  two  rhyming  dictionaries,  the  SiihrUmuU,    and  the 
ChitahkiddHo'.    Many  of  his  minor  poems  arc  superlatively 
indecent,  and  withal    filled  with   puerile  verbal  quibbles. 
Nearly  contemporaneously  with  Upendro  Bhanj  flourished 
another  Oriya  poet,  named  Dinkrishno  Dis,  who  wrote  the 
RanakiiUulii,  the  most  famous  poem  in  the  language,     fho 
poem  owes  its  celebrity  to  its  mellifluous  and  harmonious 
versification;  as  for  the  rest,  it  is  simply  a  farrago  of  ob- 
«c-nity      The  Ilhayav,idc,!lu,  RdrndynM,  Padma  Furami, 
and  L<,hsh,„i  Puraim  arc  albreprcsented  in  Oriya  by  adap. 
tations  more  or  less  felicitous.     In  conclusion,  it  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  Oriya  character  is  the  clumsiest  of  In- 
dian alphabets.     We  have  now  to  refer,  briefly,  to  the  last 
of  the  seven  modern  Aryan  languages  of  India— namely, 
Bengali.     Occupying  the  most  easterly  iiosition  of  these 
laiig°uages,  it  possesses  the  largest  share  ot  the  pure  y  ,^an- 
skrit  element  in  its  composition.     The  origin  ol  the  lan- 
guage was  a  very  obscure  one,  and  for  centuries  it  was 
c.-ctrtmelv  rude.     It  is  only  lately  that  Bengali  literature 
has,  with  marvellous  success,  sprung  up.     Four  centuries 
a»o   Bengali   was  unwritten.      Then   it  closely   resembled 
ifindi,  but  since  that  time  a  marked  change  has  crept  over 
it.     The  i.overty  of  the  laiigu.agc  began  to  be  so  e  early, 
from  the  first,  apparent  to  Bengali  pundits  that  they  had    o 
have  recourse  to  an  enormous  number  of  l„lmma  words  to 
patch  up  their  difliculties.    The  Bengali  noun  has  a  purely 
'nfleetional  genitive.     There  is  no  preparalion  of  the  base 
(iender  is  practically  neglected.     The  verb  is  simple  and 
i  constructed  on  the  participial  system.     The  pronouns  are 
I  almost  the  same  as  in  the  Prakrit.     The  singular  of    he 
\  pronoun  and  of  the  verb  has  been  banished  l.om  use,  the 
1     ilural  being  u.scd  for  politeness'  sake,  and  two  new  plurals 
being  added  for  convenience'  sake.     The  alphabet  of  the 
Bengali   is  very  elegant  and  facile:  the  typogr.aphy  of  a 


INDIA. 


1141 


Bengali  book  is  simply  charming  to  look  at  and  read.  The 
alphabet  may  be  described  a?  "  very  little  changed  from 
the  Kutila  brought  down  from  Kanaiij  by  the  Hrahmans 
whom  King  Adi-sur  invited  to  Bengal  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eleventh  century."  The  literature  of  liengali,  as  it  is 
at  present,  is  far  ahead  of  all  other  portions  of  Aryan  India. 
The  reformer  Cliaitanya  first  gave  it  its  imjictus  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  Kirtnns  or  lyrics  which  he  collected 
soon  became  popular.  But  the  first  Bengali  poet  was  prob- 
ably Vidyipati.  Some  writers  have  ascribed  to  him  a  date 
as  early  as  a.  n.  i;!20,  but  he  probably  flourished  consider- 
ably later.  Another  famous  Bengali  writer  of  the  earliest 
period  of  its  literature  is  Kabi  Kankau,  The  adapters  of 
the  Raiiitif/nud  and  Mufiuf'fi'hotn  in  Bengali  were  the  poets 
Kftsidas  and  Kritibas.  Another  Bengali  j)Oct  of  note  is 
Bh&rat  Thandra  Uai,  Kabi,  or  satirical  poemi^.  have  much 
popularitj'  in  Bengal,  and  have  been  composed  by  different 
authors  at  different  times.  Iswar  Chandra  (Jupta,  the  Ben- 
gali Rabclai?,  was  famous  half  a  century  ago  for  his  spark- 
ling wit.  Three  great  modern  Bengali  writers  may  be 
mentioned.  The  first  is  Babu  Piari  Chandra  Mittra.  who 
is  the  author  of  AUahr  Ohnrcr  DuhU  ("Tlie  Spoilt  Child 
of  the  House  of  A'lil").  a  clever  novel,  which  is  by  far 
the  best  fiction  in  the  language,  and  abounds  in  wit  and 
humor.  The  sccon<I  is  Michael  Madhusiidan  Datt,  a  native 
Christian,  whose  voluminous  works  have  gained  for  him 
a  very  high  rank  in  Bengali.  And  the  third  is  Kali  Pra- 
sauna  Singh,  a  clever  but  sometimes  coarse  writer,  who  has 
the  art  of  depicting  in  the  most  felicitous  way  the  main 
characteristics  and  foibles  of  his  countrymen.  The  most 
modern  developments  of  Aryan  literature  may  bo  spoken 
of,  together  with  the  latest  phases  of  Dravidian  letters, 
after  we  have  glanced  at  the  South  Indian  family  of  lan- 
guages, which  coDstituto  the  third  great  division  of  Indian 
tongues. 

Iir.  Dravidian  Lanffuat/c»  and  Literature. — This  family 
of  languages  consi.^Es  of  the  following  mem'jcrs:  Tamil. 
TcluRu,  Canarese,  Malayalam,  Tulu,  Coorg,  Tudn,  Gond, 
Ku,  Rajmahal,  and  Oraon.  In  this  brief  epitome  the  last 
seven  of  these  dialects  need  only  be  mentioned.  They 
have  no  literature,  and  the  interest  which  attaches  to  the 
four  dialects  mentioned  first  wholly  eclipses  any  thf^so  seven 
might  possess  were  they  the  only  representatives  of  Dra- 
vidian speech  in  India.  For  the  same  reason  wc  ouly  need 
make  a  passing  allusion  to  Brahui,  a  language  wliieli  has  a 
strong  Dravidian  clement  in  it,  though  not  Dravidian.  nor 
spoken  on  the  Indian  side  of  the  north-western  frontier,  but 
which,  however,  somewhat  attracts  attention,  as  it  forms  an 
important  link  in  t  ho  chain  which  binds  the  Dravidian  pro])cr 
to  the  Scythian  group  of  tongues.  With  this  group  all  tho 
Dravidian  languages  of  India  arc  radically  connected,  and 
the  Scj'thian  family  to  which  they  are  the  mott  intimately 
allied  is  the  Finnish  or  Ugrian.  {See  tho  introduction  to 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Caldwell's  Cnrnptirfittvc  Grauimar  of  the  Dra- 
ridi'in  Lftnffiiufft*.)  The  m'tst  important  of  tho  four  prin- 
cipal Dravidian  languages  is  undoubtedly  Tamil.  Next  to 
Sanskrit,  it  stands  supreme  as  an  Indian  language,  both  in 
regard  to  its  structure,  its  genius,  and  its  varied,  ancient, 
and  original  literature.  However,  our  notice  of  Tamil  will 
at  present  bo  very  cursory,  as  particular  mention  of  it  is 
m:ide  elsewhere.  (See  Tamil.)  Speaking  generally.  Dra- 
virlian  India  is  tho  whole  of  that  portion  of  tho  Peninsula 
which  lies  to  tho  S.  of  the  Nerbuddi  River  and  the  Vindhya 
Mountains.  There  are,  of  course,  offshoots  from  this  broad 
ba«ie,  and  wo  find  Driividian  words  in  use  amongst  the 
mountain-fastnesses  of  Bi.-looehistan,  in  tho  northernmost 
jungles  of  the  Rajmabal  hills,  and  in  parts  of  Ceylon.  Tho 
term  "Dravidian"  is  of  Sanskrit  origin.  It  means  "be- 
longing to  the  country  of  the  Dravidas."  The  country  of 
tho  Dravidas  properly  means  Tamil-land.  The  Dravidas 
arc  described  in  Sanskrit  dictionaries  as  "men  of  an  out- 
cast tribe,  descended  from  degraded  Kshatriyas."  Of  course 
this  simply  exemplifies  the  low  opinitm  which  was  at  first 
entertained  by  the  .Aryan  invaders  of  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants of  India.  Indeed,  as  represented  In  great  Brah- 
man poems,  the  Dravidians  were  uncouth,  savage,  given  to 
horriliic  rites,  caters  of  raw  meat,  cannibals,  disturbers  of 
bidy  hermits  engaged  in  contemplation,  and  giants  or  apes 
in  form.  Even  in  thefninous  KtlmCn/ftun,  in  xThichpoem  the 
Dravidian  chief,  Hanunirin,  is  represented  as  RuinnV  most 
devoted  and  useful  ally,  that  South  Indian  king  is  ridiculed 
at  the  same  time  that  he  iw  praised  by  being  portrayed  as  a 
monkey-god.  The  Tamils,  of  all  the  Dravidas,  first  expe- 
rienced the  dawn  of  Dravidian  civilization  :  ond  with  this 
epoch  tho  name  of  Agastynr,  the  "  snge."  the  "  Cnnopus  " 
of  Snulhern  India,  is  insepnrably  connected.  The  <lnte  of 
this  epoch  mny  bo  fixrd  at  about  the  sixth  century  B.  c. 
But  notwithstanding  the  comparative  antiquity  of  this  date, 
it  was  not  till  more  than  twelve  centuries  subsequently 
that,  in  all  probability,  Tamil  literature  began  to  spring 
up,  and  of  all   Dravidian  literature  the  Tamil  is  the  oldest 


as  well  as  most  important.  In  the  case  of  Tamil,  just  as 
in  the  case  of  Telugu  and  Canarese,  the  period  of  the  dom- 
ination of  the  .Jainas  was  that  in  which  the  vernacular  lit- 
erature sprung  up  and  flourished.  Malayalam  literature  is 
not  more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half  old.  That  lan- 
guage has  in  its  composition  a  very  large  admixture  of  San- 
skrit, and  its  literature  mainly  consists  in  translations  and 
adaptations  from  the  Sanskrit.  This  must  also  be  affirmed 
of  Telugu  an<l  Canarese,  only  the  literature  of  these  lan- 
guages dates  from  several  centuries  jirevious  to  the  rise  of 
Malayalam  literature.  The  first  Telugu  grammar  is  said 
to  have  been  written  by  Kanva,  in  the  days  of  Andhra- 
raya.  the  king  in  whose  reign  Sanskrit  was  first  introduced 
into  the  Telu;^u  country.  But  his  work  is  not  extant,  and 
the  oldest  which  exists  is  by  a  Brahman  called  Nannnppa; 
but  this  grammar,  though  about  Telugu.  is  written  in  San- 
skrit. ?fantm])pa  translated  the  MnhCibhtirnta  into  Telugu; 
and  this  is  the  earliest  work  extant  in  the  language.  Its 
date  is  probably  the  twelfth  century.  Telugu  is  a  sweet 
and  sonorous  language,  but  has  not  the  logical  precision, 
sturdincss,  and  great  copiousness  of  Tamil.  Mr.  C.  P. 
Brown's  admirable  Grammar  and  Dirtioimn/  of  TehnjH 
should  be  consulted  by  every  student  of  that  language. 
Canarese  uses  a  character  identical  with  that  of  Telugu, 
but  differs  very  widely  in  most  other  particulars.  It  lacks 
the  wonderful  richness  of  Tamil,  a  language  remarkably 
full  of  synonyms  and  exact  in  its  grammatical  structure. 
The  Jaina  period,  during  which  litcratui*.-  flourished  most 
conspicuously  in  Tamil-land,  extended  from  the  end  of  the 
seventh  to  the  thirteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
oldest  work  extant  in  tho  language  is  the  Tid-Kuppit/am 
{"  Tho  Old  Composition  ").  This  is  a  grammar  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  was  probably  written  in  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century,  but  in  it  arc  to  be  found  quotations  from  poems 
of  a  still  earlier  date,  though  these  have  not  come  down  (o 
us  intact.  The  JCural  of  Tiruvalluvar,  the  greatest  work 
in  the  Tamil  language  in  the  opinion  of  many,  was  prob- 
ably written  before  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  It  is  a 
great  storehouse  of  polished  distichs  on  all  subjects  con- 
nected with  morals  and  political  economy.  The  Chiui&- 
mani,  a  great  Tamil  epic  poem,  containing  some  15,000 
lines,  was  probably  written  not  a  century  later;  and  shortly 
afterwards  tho  Nan-ntkly  a  High  Tamil  grammar,  appears 
to  have  been  composed.  By  this  time,  too,  several  of  the 
works  ascribed  to  Auvvei  (''the  matron  "),  a  distinguished 
Tamil  poetess,  were  probably  written.  (For  further  par- 
ticulars regarding  Tamil  and  its  literature  see  Tamil.) 

In  conclufion,  we  must  m::ke  several  general  remarks 
concerning  Hindu  literature  as  a  whole.  First,  the  greater 
part  of  it  is  incontestably  poetical  in  form.  That  is.  Hin- 
dus from  time  immemorial  have  been  accustomed  to  throw 
their  thoughts — no  matter  on  what  subject,  and  no  matter 
whether  using  an  Aryan  or  Dravidian  language — into  verse 
instead  of  prose.  If,  for  instance,  in  the  N.,  Chand  Barddi 
wishes  to  perpetuate  in  writing  the  history  of  the  glories 
and  sorrows  of  tho  heroic  Prithiraj,  he  does  so  in  Hindi 
verse;  and  if  in  the  S.,  Tiruvalluvar  desires  to  teach  the 
priests  and  sages  of  Madura  the  principles  of  political 
economy,  be  does  so  in  Tamil  verse.  Thus,  Hindu  liter- 
aure  is  chiefly  poetical.  AVe  have  poems  on  astronomy, 
and  poems  on  medicine,  and  poems  on  grammar.  This, 
after  all,  was  but  to  be  expected,  for,  just  as  children  are 
imaginative,  nations  in  their  infancy  arc  naturally  poetical. 
But  now,  everywhere  in  India,  a  sound  sturdy  prose  liter- 
ature is  springing  up.  This  is  especially  the  ease  in  Ben- 
gali and  Tamil.  Tricks  of  style,  ossonanees,  mimetic  words, 
flowery  metaphors  and  similes,  j'ugling  rhymes,  and  vapor- 
ous expletives, — all  these  arc  being  gradually  exchanged  for 
a  sober,  robust  diction,  and  simple,  straightforward  lan- 
guage which  clearly  expresses  llie  thoughts  meant  to  bo 
conveyed  by  it.  Secondly.  Indian  poetry,  os  a  whole,  is 
poor.  Hindu  poets  constantly  aim  more  at  writing  beauti- 
fully than  at  thinking  deeply.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  glit- 
ter, but  little  intrinsic  value.  Of  course  there  are  some  ex- 
ceptions. I  should  plaeo  Tamil  poetry,  with  that  of  San- 
skrit, wholly  outsidoof  Ibis  category  :  that  is,  taking  Tamil 
poetry  as  a  whole.  The  thonghtful  couplets  of  Tiruval- 
luvar. tho  descriptive  power  of  Kamban's  gorgeous  verse, 
Bcrchi'fl  stalely  and  splendid  periods,  Auvveiyar's  chaste 
and  elegant  stanzas,  TiLyum^nnvar's  pure  and  sidemn 
strains  of  meditative  poesy,  tho  exuberant  fancy  displayed 
in  the  ChintAmani,  the  roughly-expressed  home-truths  of 
the  Siltars  or  poetical  quietists  of  Tamil-land,  tho  earnest 
sadness  of  Pnttiragiriyar.  and  the  jiassionate  volubility  of 
Sivavaykkiar,  hater  of  latler-ilny  Brahmanieal  supcrsli- 
tions. — all  these  and  many  more  are  phases  of  Tamil  poetry 
which  raise  it  as  a  wh'de — if  we  eoubl  only  forget  tho 
beauty  and  majesty  of  Ihe  .'^ansk^il  dntma — higher  not  only 
than  the  poetry  of  any  other  Dravidian  or  modern  Aryan 
language,  but  also  than  Sanskrit  itself.  In  the  last  place, 
any  notice,  however  brief,  of  Indian  literature  would  bo  iu- 


1142 


INDIA:   ITS  HISTOBY. 


complete  if  no  allusion  were  made  to  two  effects  which  have 
been  produced  by  the  introduction  of  English  civilization 
into  Hindustan.     Translations  in  the  various  vernaculars 
arc  everywhere  appearing  of  the  works  of  the   leading 
thinkers  of  Christendom,  and  the  native  press  has  lieeomc 
an  established  fact.     It  is  quite  true  Ihat  many  of  these 
translation.'!  are   in   wretched  taste,  and    arc   worse  than 
merely  worthless :  it  is  quite  true  that  many  of  the  triins- 
lators  are  foreigners,  and  barbarize  the  language  into  which 
thev  translate  by  flooding  it  with  unnatural  idioms  and 
terms:  and  it  is  quite  true  that,  in  Bengal  especially,  the 
vernacular  press  is  in  too  great  a  hurry,  and  works  of  a 
trashy  nature  arc  being  flung  in  cartloads  upon  the  public. 
But  notwithstanding  all  this  tlic   benefit   is  incalculably 
c-rcatcr  than  the  mischief.     The  effect  now  being  ]>roduced 
mion  the  languages  and  liter.ature  of  India  resell bles  that 
wonderful    quickening   power   which    began    suddenly  to 
exert  itself  in  Europe  immediately  after  the  art  of  printing 
was  discovered;  and  though  much  evil  may  have  resulted 
from  the  discovery  of  this  art.  who  can  think  of  that  when 
the  untold  good  it  has  effected  is  taken  into  consideration.' 
The  vernacular  journalistic  literature  of  India  is  daily  as- 
suming wider  proportions,  and  in   Calcutta  .and  Bombay, 
and  to°a  very  slight  extent  in  Madras,  the  newspaper  press 
is  already  a  power.     In  Calcutta  the  Bengalis  have  what 
we  should  call  a  farthing  daily  paper,  and  m  Bombay  tlie 
Parsees  have  their  Puwh.     The  number  of  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthlv  native  periodicals  throughout  India,  already 
very  great,  is  rapidly  increasing.     The  statistics,  if  given 
to-day,  would  have  to  be  added  to  to-morrow.     The  publi- 
cation of  tracts,  books,  and  Bibles  by  missionary  societies 
forms  a  large  item  in  tbo  modern  literary  activity  of  India. 
The  schoolbook  and  vernacular  literary  societies  of  India, 
patronized  by  the  English  government,  arc  also  aiding  m 
the  work  of  civilization.     Attempts  have  from  time  to  time 
been  made  to  adapt  the  Roman  character  to  the  vernacu- 
lars, many  of  which  employ  cumbrous  and  clumsy  alpha- 
bets but  as  yet  such  attempts  have  failed  in  gaining  the 
approval  of  Hindus  themselves.     Many  Hindu  books  were 
of  old  written  on  palmyra-palm  leaves:  paper,now  bccom- 
in"  plentiful,  is  being  widely  employed  instead.    The  know- 
Icdfo  of  English  is  rapidly  extending,  and  there  has  been 
much  discussion  as  to  the  ultimate  effect  of  this.    French  is 
used  in  the  French  settlements,  and  Portuguese  is  spoken 
at  Goa      In  conclusion,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  a  small 
but  very  interesting  colony  of  Jews  at  Cochin  on  the  Mala- 
bar use'  Hebrew  much  in  the  same  way  that  modern  Brah- 
maos  in  India  use  Sanskrit.  R-  C.  C.iLDWr.LL. 

India  :  its  History.     There  can  bo  little  doubt  that 
the  iiopulation  of  the  whole  of  the  Indian  em))ire  must  be 
estimated  a:',  at  present,  not  under  300,000.00(1.     This  re- 
markable fact  is  made  obvious  by  the  results  of  the  Indian 
census  of  1S71-72.     These  results  (at  the  time  oi  the  pen- 
nin.'  of  this  paper)  have  not  yet  been  published,  but  it  is 
known   that  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  British  India 
has  been  computed  at  28:1,000,000,  and  that  in  this  number 
the  inhabitants  of  all  of  the  independent  provinces,of  sev- 
eral Indian  protected  states,  of  remote  hill  and  forest  trilies. 
and  of  the  tribes  peopling  the  north-eastern   frontier  of 
India  have  unavoidably  not  been  included.     India  is  the 
molt  thickly  populated  country  in  the  world  to  which  the 
census  has  yet  been  apjilied  :  and  now  that  it  has  been  ap- 
plied, the  startling  question  arises  if  it  be  not,  after  all.  the 
inost  populous  country  iu  the  globe,  not  excepting  China 
itself.     The  po|mlation  of  China  was  some  time  ago  sup- 
priaed  to  be  500,000,000  ;  now  it  is  computed  at  400,000,000. 
But  there  has  been  no  census  of  China,  and  geographers 
ami  ethnologists  will  begin  to  ask  themselves  the  question, 
'•  On  what   grounds  do  wo  give  the  pre-eminence   in  the 
matter  of  population  to  China  over  India  ?"     In  writing  a 
brief  epitome  of  the  history  of  India,  we  advisedly  draw 
attention  thus  prominently  to  the  present  slate  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  that  country.     India  has  never  been  so  thickly 
populated  .as  it  now  is,  and  there  are  clear  signs  that  its  pres- 
ent population  is  daily  increasing  at  a  swift  rate.     I'rom 
this  fact,  as  from  a  (linnacle,  we  look  down  on  the  past. 
Here  is  a  country  which  from  the  earliest  ages  has  been  the 
scene  of  national  convulsions.     It  hrs  Iieen  the  prey  of 
successive  invasions  and  the  vicliin  of  constant  intestine 
strife.     Then  a  civilized  ]>ower  from  Europe  set  its  foot  on 
the  soil.     After  a  brief  and  necessary  struggle  the  reign  ol 
order  began.  What  is  the  result  ?  The  country  is  protected 
from  foreign  raids,  and  internal  warfare  is  gradually  and 
thoroughly  repressed.    Trade  and  commerce  spring  up  and 
flourish:  "wealth   and  education   spread  more  among 
masses  ;  the  weak  and  outcast  begin  to  enjoy  safety- 
peace.     Canals  fertilize  the  country  they  open  up 


prevented.  Is  it  a  wonder,  then,  that  such  a  change  in  the 
history  of  a  country  should  be  followed  by  a  marked  in- 
crease in  its  population,  and  that  this  increase  should  be 
pointed  to  as  one  of  the  evidences  of  the  beneficial  nature 
of  that  change?  The  past  of  India,  though  writers  may 
describe  its  glory  in  some  things,  has  been,  after  all,  only 
a  glorious  night'.  Even  now  we  have  only  a  dawn.  The 
Aay  is  yet  to  come  when  the  full  effects  of  Ihe  i)resent  civil- 
ized government  of  India  will  bo  realized. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  India  from  the  earliest  times, 
we  are  necessarily  led  to  speak  of  its  ethnology.  It  may 
be  premised  that' the  conglomerate  character  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  India  is  only  less  remarkable  than  their  number. 
(With  regard  to  Indian  ethnological  questions  not  touched 
upon  in  "this  article,  see  India  :  its  ClEOGitAPDV,  Ethnol- 
ogy. LaNGTAGES,  ANn  LiTERATfUE.) 

The  history  of  India  may  best  be  written  of  under  ten 
distinct  head's:  I.  The  history  of  ancient  India  till  the  time 
of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  A.D.  "lOOl.  II.  The  history  of  India 
from  this  first  Mohammedan  invasion  to  the  date  of  the 
first  battle  of  Panipat,  A.  n.  1 J2G.  III.  The  history  of  the 
Mon-nl  empire  from  the  first  battle  of  Punipat  to  the  death 
of  The  last  Mogul  emperor,  in  1859.  IV.  The  history  of 
the  Mahrattas  from  the  birth  of  Sivaji  (a.  p.  1027)  to  the 
present  time.  V.  The  history  of  the  Carnatic  from  the  date 
of  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of  129+  A.  D.  YI.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Portuguese  in  India  since  the  landing  of  Yasco 
da'Gama  in  1408  A.  n.  YII.  The  history  of  the  European 
companies  which  vied  with  each  other  in  the  strugslo 
to  get  a  share  in  Indian  trade  before  1744  A.  D.  YIII. 
The  history  of  the  English  and  French  in  India  till  the 
surrender  of  Pondicherry.  A.  d.  1761.  IX.  The  history  of 
the  British  power  in  India,  leading  up  to  the  appointment 
of  the  first  governor-general.  X.  The  history  of  the  Brit- 
ish power  in  India,  as  marked  out  by  the  successive  rfiguncs 
of  different  goyernors-gencral,  since  the  days  of  Warren 
Hastings  to  the  present  day. 

I.    The  Ancient  History  of  India. — The  earliest  history 
of  India  is  involved  in  the  "deepest  obscurity.     No  date  of 
a  public  event  can  be  fi.xcd  before  B.C.  327,  and  no  connected 
narrative  of  Indian  national  transactions  can  be  attempted 
till  1300  years  .after.    We  have  only  traditions  and  legends 
to  guidc'us,  and  the  very  heterogeneous  character  of  the 
races  which  from  time  immemorial  have  peopled  India  adds 
another  obstacle  to  research.     However,  everything  is  not 
guesswork,  and  authorities  who  h.ave  entered  deeply  into 
the  subject  arrive  at  a  number  of  conclusions  winch  may 
be  regarded  as  at  least  approximately  accurate.     ( I )  The 
VciIaZ  which  are  the  oldest  sacred  hymns  of  the  Aryan 
Hindus,  were  probably  arranged  in  their  present  form  as 
early  as  1400  n.c.     Their  actual  antiquity  is  much  greater, 
but  cannot  bo  decided  on,  even  a)iproxiinatcly.  (See  Sak- 
SKRiT.)     (21  Even  before  the  time  of  Moses  (b.  1574  B.  c.) 
India  and  Europe  were  in  active  communication  by  sea. 
Yessels  used  to  plv  between  India  and  the  ports  of  the  Red 
8ca  and  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Saba-an  and  the  Phoenician 
commerce  of  those  old  days  with  Hindustan  was  probably 
the  most  lucrative  in  the  whole  world  at  that  time.     (3)  In 
the  days  of  Solomon  we  read  of  the  ships  of  Tarshish  trad- 
ing with  Ophir.  and  bringing  from  thence  to  Jerus.alem 
'•  gold  and  ivory,  apes  and  peacocks."     Sir  Emerson  Teii- 
ne'ut,  in  his  admirable  work  on  Ceylon,  considers  that  the 
port  of  (ialle  in   Ceylon  is  Ophir.     In  the  earliest  days 
Galle  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  Eastern  emporiums.     But 
wherever  Ophir  may  have  been  situated,  one  thing  is  cer- 
tain—namely,  that  the  Hebrew  equivalent  for  "  peacock, 
which  appears  in  the  Bible,  is  simply  Ihe  Tamil  word  ta-ei. 
(4)  The  history  of  the  Solar  and  Lunar  dynasties  of  India 
is  in  a  great  measure  founded  on  fact,  as  clear  traces  of 
the  invasions  recorded  in  connection  with  them  now  remain. 
The  magnificent  Hindu  epic,  the  Jlum,',i,„„>,,  records  the 
adventures  of  Rami-i.thc  hero  of  the  Solar  race,  who  con- 
quered Ceylon,  probably  in  the  year  1200  b.  v.    The  Malia- 
hharatn  is  the  great  record  of  the  Lunar  dynasty.     It  de- 
scribes the  wars  of  Ihe  Pandus  and  Kurus,  which  were  prob- 
ably fought  between  1400  and  l."00  b.  c.     The  great  battle 
was  fought  at  Taneshwar,  30  miles  W.  of  Delhi,     (a)  Go- 
tama  Buddha,  the  fouuderof  Buddhism,  d.  at  Uya.  in  South 
Behar,  about  543  b.  c.     (0)  The  conquest  of  India  by  Bae- 


tbc 
and 
Every- 
wirero  sanitary  measures  are  adopted  for  the  security  of 
the  people  from  the  ravages  of  pestilence.  Rewards  are 
given  for  the  destruction  of  snakes  and  tigers.  A  terriW^ 
famine  appears,  and  it  is  promptly  relieved  and  loss  of  life 


conquered  the  Punjaub  and  Scinde,  and  made  it  a  satraj.y. 
The  tribute  paid  to  him  by  this  satrapy  i'/i"''  '."  , '''^^ 
been  wholly  in  gold,  and  to  have  amounted  to  1,-..0.00U 
pounds  sterling.  (8)  Alexander  the  Great,  having  defealed 
Parius  and  conquered  Persia,  proceeded  to  India.  In  n.  c. 
■:.:m  he  founded  the  city  of  Herat  on  the  frontier.  Three 
years  later  he  crossed  the  Khyber  Pass  and  the  Indus  at 


INDIA:  ITS  HISTORY. 


1143 


\t.ock.     He  fought  and  overcame  Porus  at  Gujirat  on  the  1  own  son-in-law,  because  of  which  he  himself  was  assassi; 
■^  B  _  _  .  — ,^ ,  Dated,  anil  his  iissassm,  named  the  ■' Durnei  ot  lue  «  oria. 


,TclMm.  assisted  l.vTnxiles,  a  prince  of  the  country  between 
the  .frlum  aud  Indus.  Thence  he  advanced  to  the  Sutlej, 
but  had  to  return  because  his  soldiers,  alarmed  at  his  rapid 
progress  into  such  unknown  countries,  superstitiously  re- 
fused to  advance.  We  know  this  much  of  the  India  of 
Alexander,  that  the  Hindus  at  thai  time  were  considered  to 
be  wonderfully  civilized.  Their  cities  were  most  opulent 
and  arts  andscionces  flourished.  (9)  About  this  time  in 
Bengal  there  were  dynasties  of  Pala  and  Sena  kings.  Other 
little-known  dynasties  reigned  at  Delhi.  Ajmecr.  Mewar, 
and  (iuierat.  The  latter,  in  the  second  century  A  '  ' 
a  Riijput  dvnastv  called  Balabhi.  The  Persians,  under 
Nushirvan.  are  supposed  to  have  conquered  and  driven 
these  jirinccs  out  of  Newar,  where  they  had  emigrated  in 
the  sixth  century  A.  D. 

Concerning  ancient  India  few  other  particulars  are 
known,  but  we  have  yet  to  touch  on  an  important  subject 
connected  with  the  general  colonization  of  the  peninsula 
of  Ilindostan  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the  very  earliest 
a'cs,  long  before  the  writing  of  the  Vednn  or  the  entry 
of  the  Arvan  races  into  India,  there  appears  to  have  ex- 
isted in  the  eouiitrv  an  aboriginal  people,  thoroughly  non- 
Aryan  in  their  c'haraclcrislies,  and  who  were  possibly 
of  "the  same  familv  as  the  Mongols  and  other  tribes  of 
Central  Asia.  Invasion  after  invasion  poured  down  like 
successive  tides  into  India,  and  always  from  the  N.  W.. 
and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  were  either  pushed  down 
southward  or  left,  here  and  there,  in  isolated  districts  of 
hill  and  forest  land,  like  islands,  surrounded  by  the  ad- 
vancing wave  of  colonization.  The  first  invasion  we  know 
of  is  tiio  .\rvan.  and  this  may  have  taken  place  in  the 
times  of  the'llebrew  patriarchs.  Then  came  the  Moham- 
medan and  mixe.l  invasions,  also  from  the  >'.  W..  pushing 
the  Indian  aborigines  still  farther  southward,  or  islanding 
them  still  more  completely  in  the  impenetrable  jungles  and 
mountainous  regions  of  the  Peninsula.  Here  we  have  one 
great  clue  to  the  ethnological  puzzles  which  India  of  the 
present  day  places  before  the  student.  But  the  whole  of 
this  subject  will  be  found  fully  entered  into  in  India:  its 
Gkochapiiv.  ETiixoi.or.Y,  Laxguark,  and  Literatitre. 

II.  The  Hiilnni  of  the  ilnhnmmcdiin  Pntirr  in  /iitlin/rom 
itt  Firtt  Ettitbtiiliment  !n  1001,  hij  Mnlimiid  of  Ghnzni,  la 
in  OierlhroK  and  llii-  Etinhllilimcnt  of  the  Mi.yul  Empire 
in  iJ-'ff.— The  period  of  Indian  history  we  now  enter  upon 
is  certainly  one  of  the  ghastliest  epochs  which  could  be 
presented  to  the  reader's  mind.  For  more  than  .')00  years. 
Intlia,  or  at  least  the  northern,  and  especially  the  norlb- 
western,  portions  of  the  Peninsula,  literally  reeked  with 
blood.  One  sovereign  overturned  another,  one  dynasty 
supplanted  another,  and  again  and  again  recurred  the 
same  old  story.  The  first  act  of  a  monarch  on  ascending 
his  throne  was  to  murder  his  relatives,  spoil  a  city,  desolate 
a  province,  and  .slaughter,  immolate,  or  iin])ale  certain 
given  thousands— men.  women,  and  children— of  his  pre- 
decessor's adherents.  Except  in  rare  instances  mercy  was 
not  known.      The   glory  of  the    .Mohammedan  dynasties 


which  preceded  the  establi.shment  of  the  .Moguls— .1fo)i(/M/«. 
as  they  ought  to  be  termed — consisted   in  the  sacking  of 
cities,  "in  the  plunder  of  temples,  and  in  a  series  of  bloody 
vii-tories.     Nearly  all  the  Mohammedan  invaders  of  India 
at  this  time  were  Afghans  or  Pathans.     Originally  fire- 
worshippers,  thev  were  converted  to  Islam,  and  in  bigotry 
soon  surpassed  those  who  converted  them.     They  first,  for 
several   centuries,  contented  Iheniselvcs  with    feeble   raids 
into  India.     Hui  Mahinud  of  (ihazni  was  more  fortunate, 
and  after  ten  raids  succeeded  in  annexing  Lahore  and  its 
fertile  territories.     His  standard  was  black,  fit  enildem  of 
his  crimes.     Ho  stormed  Batinda,  a  fortress  of  enormous 
strength, whereupon  ,Ii-i|>al,  king  of  Lahore,  abdicated  and 
committed  suicide.     After  this  he  eugagcl  in  nine  more 
bloody   raids    before   making  Lahore  his    residence,    and 
thus  finally  laying  the  foundation  of  Mohammedan  power 
in  India.  "  During  this  period  he   gained  many  victories, 
and  still  further  did  he  subsequently  signalize  himself   He 
attacked  Somnath  in  (iuzerat.     This  was  the  most  ancient 
and  opulent  shrine  of  the  Uajpuls.     A  terrible  battle  was 
fought.     All  the  R.ajput  princes  banded  together,  and  op- 
posed, with   desperate   bravery,  the  iconoclast  of  (ihazni. 
But  their  efforts  were  unavailing.     Somnath  was  captured, 
and  the  booty  obtained  in   gold  and  precious   stones  was 
simidy    incalculahle.      For    more    than    100    years    subse- 
quently the  desolation  of  .<omnalh  remained  as  a  monu- 
ment to  the  desperate  and  fanatical  couniffe  of  .Mahmud. 
Ho  d.  in  lO.'iO.     His  son,   Ma«auil.   sueeeeded   bim.   after 
having  blinded  bis  twin-brother,  but   Masaud  was  after- 
wards depnseil.  and  the  blind  prince  rose  to  the  throne.   In  a 
few  years  all  was  in  confusion  again,  and  there  was  a  1-apid 
aeriei  of  assassinations  in  the  royal  households.     In  HIS, 
Beirain  ascended  the  throne.     He  was  an  estimable  prince, 
as  things  then  went,  but  could  not  resist  murdering  his 


introduced  the  (ihoriar  dynasty  and  reigned  in  his  steed. 
A  Turki  slave.  Kutb-ud-Deen,  succeeded  him,  and  founded 
the  first  Indian  slave  dynasty.     His  son,  Ar.am,  succeeded 
him,  and  was  in  a  year  deposed  by  .\ltainish.  When  Altaiuii-h 
in  his  turn  died,  liis  sou  succeeded  him,  but  in  seven  months 
was  depo.sed  by  his  beautiful  and  clever  sister,  Rezia,  who 
is  known  to  have  been  the  only  female  who  has  ever  ruled 
personally  in  Delhi.     Her  Britannic  Majesty,  Queen  Vic- 
..!,:,.<...      toria.  is  '•empress  of  India,"  but  tjueen  Rezia  is  the  only 
.  p.,  had  I  female  potentate  who  has  ruled,  as  the  head  of  all  Indian 
sovereigns,  in  the  capital  of  Hindoslan,  for  such  Delhi  was 
then  reckoned.     It  is  narrated  of  her  that  she  adopted  a 
very  ultra-Bloomer  costume,  and  went  about  administering 
justice  amougst  men  as  if   she  herself  were  a  man.     A 
Turki  chief,  Altunia.  rebelled  against  her.     There  was  a 
severe  battle,  and  she  was  defeated  :    but  she  soon  con- 
quered her  conqueror — by  marrying  him.     Shortly  after- 
wards she  and  her  husband  fell  victims   to  a  rising  of 
nobles.    Beiram,  her  brother,  ascended  the  throne  of  Delhi 
after  her,  but  was  soon  quietly  assassinated.     His  succes- 
sor   Masaud,  was   deposed.      Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud   and 
Balin  followed  after  him.  and  were  themselves  succeeded 
by  Kei  Kobad.     With  him  ended  the  dynasty  of  the  slaves 
of  the  sultan  of  Ghor.     Kobad's  life  appears  not  to  have 
been  remarkable  for  anything  but  vice.     He  poisoned  his 
prime  minister,  plunged  into  the  wildest  debaucheries,  aud 
ended  his  life  miserably  after  an  attack  of  palsy.     He  was 
followed  bv  Feroz  Shah,  who  inaugurated  a  new  dynasty 
of  these  Pathan  kings  of  India  in  the  year  12kS.     He  was 
followed  bv  a  prince   of   great  ability,  who    reigned   for 
twenty-one'  vears.  and  on  the  whole  successfully  and  glor- 
iouslv".  but  w"as  rightly  termed,  Ijy  Mohammedan  historians, 
"the"   Sanguinary."      Alla-ud-din-Khilji— such    was    his 
name— began  his"  reign  by  murdering  his  aged  uucle  just 
as  the  old  man  was  patting  him  affectionately  on  his  check 
and  assuring  bim  of  his  friendship.    He  next  distinguished 
himself  by  killing  the  two  sons  of  Feroz  Shah,  his  prede- 
cessor.    Constantly,  at  this  time,  the  Moguls  were  attempt- 
in"  to  establish  themselves  in  India.    Alla-ud-din  sent  out 
his  able  general.  Zafur  Khan,  against  them,  and  was  com- 
pletely victorious.     But  the  "sanguinary  "  potentate  was 
jealous,  and  allowed  the  valiant  soldier  who  had  saved  his 
kingdom  to  be  sacrificed,  just  in  such  a  manner  as  we  are 
informed  in  the  Holv  Scriptures  Uriah  was.     He  then  con- 
quered Rajputfina.     When  the  Rajputs  found  his  army  at 
the  gates  of  Chitoor.  the  queen  aud  all  the  women  of  the 
city,  with  their  children,  flung  themselves  on  an  immenso 
pv'ro  that  had  been  previously  prepared,  and  died  in  the 
fl'amcs  they  themselves    kindled,  whilst  the  Rajput  men, 
fin-hting  to"the  last,  allowed  Ibemselves  to  be  slain,  one  by 
one,  outside  the  walls,  rather  than  yield.     Padmani.  the 
queen,  was  a  woman  of  rare  beauty,  and  the  Rajputs  still 
remember  her  name  with  devotion.     Alla-ud-din  captured, 
during  the  course  of  his  wars,  a  young,  handsome  eunuch 
named  Malik  Kafur.  whom  he  appointed  his  prime  min- 
ister, fiebl-niarshal,  and  viceroy.     Malik  subsequently  poi- 
soned his  master  and  rose  to  his  throne.     Malik  kafur  next 
blinded  the  two  sons  of  Alla-ud-din,  but  the  third  escaped, 
raised  the  armv,  and  killed  the  treacherous  eunuch.     The 
name  of  this  sin  of  Alla-ud-din  was  Mubank.     The  very 
first  thing  this  sovereign  did  was  to  murder  those  who  fore- 
warned him  of  Malik  Kafur's  purpose  and  protected  him, 
and   the  second  thing  he  did  was  to   put  out  his  infant 
brother's  eyes.     The  rest  of  his  life  JIubarik  spent  in  de- 
baucheries "and  flavine  his  enemies  alive.     Kliusru  khan, 
whom  he  made  bis  vizier,  was  a   Gujcrat  Parwary  slave. 
After  ablv  conducting  his  master's  aftairs,  be  assassinated 
him  and  reigned  in  his  stead,  but  was  soon  himself  assassi- 
nated  and  in  l.'t21,  Ohiaz-ud-dcen-Tughlak.  his  murderer, 
sat  himself  on  the  vacant  lhr..nc  aud  began  the  dynasty 
of  the  Tiighlaks.  which   is  cninmonly  known   as  the  filth 
\firhan  dvnisly      -Tuna  Khan,  the  son  of  Ghiaz,  contrived 
to  ki'll  his  fallier  bv  the  lall  of  a  gorgeous  pavilion  into 
which  the  uiisuspeeiiug  king  was  induced  to  enter.     .luna 
Khan  was  a  verv  Icarne.l  but   inilTiciuit  ruler:   his  state 
grew  insolvent  aiid  everywhere  rebellions  menaced   bun. 
We  need  not  refer  to  the  remaining  kings  of  this  miserable 
dvnastv      The  seventh  dvnasly  was  more  wretched  flill 
under  ih'e  weak  sway  of  the  four  Syeds.     The  last  dyna.«ly 
of  the  Mohammedan  power,  before  the  .Mogul  empire  ab- 
sorbed all.  was  that  of  the  three  Lo.lis.     The  last  of  these 
Ibrahim,   f.oight    Sultan    Baber,   the    Tartar   governor   of 
f'abonl.     The  latter  sacked  nnil  burnt  Lahore,  and  over- 
threw IlM-nhiin  at  the  famous  battle  of  Panipat.     Ibr.allim 
was  killed.  Dilhi  and  Agra  were  taken,  and  from  this  tiino 
(l.'>2fi)  must  he  ilnted  tho  rise  and  progress  of  the  Mogul 
empire  in  India. 

irr.    The  ffinlnni  a/Ihe  M„^,il  Empire.— The  Jlogul  em- 
pire was  one  of  the  most  splendid  dominations  India  hat 


1144 


INDIA:   ITS  HISTORY. 


over  known.     In  its  i)almiest  days  it  was  a  sovircc  of  real 
and  wide  good  to  Hindustan.    According  to  Mohammedan 
aulliorilies  there  were  fifteen  eni]ierors  of  tliis  dynasty; 
some  later  authorities  say  seventeen,  for  as  tlic  tenth  and 
eleventh  rulers  of  this  line  they  include  two  Rafis,  who.se 
comhined  rule  only  extended  over  a  period  of  three  months 
in  17111.     Omitting  these,  we  have  the  following  emjierors  : 
Baber,  who  ruled  from  1526  to  1.^)30;  Humayun,  li.JO-oG; 
Akbar.  Ij5(i-1605;  Jehangir,  16U3-28;  Shah  Jchan,  1028- 
58:   Aurungzccb,  105.8-1707;   Shah  Alam  I.,  1707-12 ;  Je- 
handar  Shah.  1712-13;   Farukshir,    1713-lU;    Mubammed 
Shah,  1710-48;  Ahmed  Shah,  1748-54;  Alamgir,  1754-59; 
Shah  Ahim  II.,  1759-1806;  Akbar  II.,  1800-37;  Moham- 
med Bahadur,  1837-57.     Baber,  the  founder  of  this  noblo 
nice  of  kin"s,  was  descended  from  the  Tartar  Tamerlane, 
bis  mother  being  a  Mongol.     He  hated  the  Mongols,  yet 
his  dynasty  obtained  the  name  of  that  race  under  the  cor- 
rupt form  of  "  Mogul."    His  life  was  one  long  battle.    Pani- 
pat  secured  bis  footing  in  India.    The  plunder  of  Agra  find 
Debi  in  1526  at  once  raised  him  to  a  position  of  immense 
power,  for  opulence  means  power  in  the  East,  as  a  rule. 
In  1529  be  conquered  Behar  and  Bengal.     His  death  (in 
1530J  was  a  romance  iu  itself.     His  eldest  son,  Humayun, 
■was  mortally  sick.     Baber  pr.iyed  that  his  own  life  might 
be  accepted 'for  that  of  bis  son.     Strange  to  say,  from  that 
hour  the  son  recovered  .ind  the  father's  health  declined. 
A  beautiful  tomb  in  Cabul  covers  his  remains.      Humayun 
now  ascended  the  throne,  but  in  stormy  times,     lie  was 
defeated  by  bis  enemies,  and  during  his  lligbt  from  India 
his  son.  the  famous  Akbar,  the  glory  of  the  Mogul  dynasty, 
was  born.    After  many  years  of  exile  and  suO'ering,  during 
which  time  India  was"  convulsed  under  unsettled  govern- 
ments, he  returned,  invaded  India,  took  Lahore,  and  shortly 
afterwards  met  with  a  fatal  accident  in  his  palace.     His 
son,  Akbar.  was  now  only  thirteen  years  old.     Under  the 
able  generalship  of  Beiram  Khan,  a  Persban,  Akbar's  hotly- 
contested  position  was  established.    In  15CU,  Boir.am  Khan, 
who    had  gradually  been    usurping  too    much  power,  at- 
tempted a  revolt  against  AUbar,  but  was   defeated,  cap- 
tured, and  generously  pardoned,  but  on   his  way  to  re- 
lii^ious  retirement  in  Mecca  was  assassinated  in  Guzerat. 
Akbar,  then  in  bis  eighteenth  year,  was  at  length  recog- 
nized as  the  real  as  well  as  nominal  emperor  of  Delhi.    He 
had  Ijeen  nursed  in  warfare  from  his  childhood,  and  under- 
gone a  wonderfully  successful  training  for  his  difficult  posi- 
tion.   He  entered  upon  a  number  of  campaigns  immediately 
after  Beiram's  death,  proved  successful  iu  almost  all  his 
undertakings,  and  e.xhibited,  in  the  midst  of  all  his  most 
e.xhilarating  victories,  an  equable  temper  and  a  liberality 
and  mercifulness  quite  remarkable  in  those  savage  times. 
The  reader  must  not  forget  that  all  the  Mogul  emperors 
were   Mohammedans.     Some    of    them    were    exceedingly 
bigoted  ones,  and  oppressed  the  Hindus  iu  the  most  cruel 
w.ay.     But  .\kbar  set  before  him  a  policy  of  conciliation 
which  has  never  been  paralleled  in  Indian  history  till  Eu- 
rope claimed  India  for  her  own.     In  1592,  Akbar  obliter- 
ated evcrv  trace  of  the  Afghan  dynasty  in  India.    All  over 
India — ainongst   the    Rajputs,  in    Cashmeer,  Scinde,  and 
Kandahar — the  armies  of  Akbar  were  victorious.     Akbar 
next  anne.ted  Khandeisb  and  took  .\hmednuggur  in  the 
Deccan.     At  length   (in   1605)  this  wise  pcditician,  great 
monarch,  and  large-hearted  man  died,  and  was  buried  near 
Agra,  and  Jebaugir,  his  son,  reigned  in  his  stead.     He  was 
inTemperate,  violent,  and  soiled  his  hands  with  blood  as 
his  father  never  did  before  him.     He  was  a  bigoted  Mus- 
sulman, and  alienated  the  Hindus  by  reversing  his  father'^ 
well-advised  policy.    This  emperor  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
husband  of  a  beautiful  and  wise  woman,   Nur  .Jchan,  or 
"  Light  of  the  World."     The  name  of  that  mighty  empress 
upheld  the  dynasty  like  a  spell.     Even  when,  after  a  ter- 
rible disaster,  her  "unworthy  husband  had  been  captured, 
she  rushed  to  share  his  captivity,  plotted  his  escape,  over- 
threw the  enemy,  iind  restored  to  the  emperor  bis  throne. 
At  length  he  died,  and  Shah  Jchan  succeeded  him.     Little 
need  be  said  of  this  emperor.     He  lived  surrounded   by 
battles  with  the  Deccan  in  the  S.,  decimated  by  pestilence 
and  f;vniine.    Suddenly  he  fell  dangerously  sick.     His  sons 
fought  for  the  throne  "while  the  parent  was  still  alive.    Au- 
rungzeeb  was  the  most  successful  of  these,  and  assumed  the 
imperial  dignity  in  1G5S,  putling  nearly  all  his  opponents 
and  relations  to  death,  and  his  aged  father  in  prison,  where 
ho  died  eight  years  after.     Thus  began  the  most  super- 
ficially magnificent  reign  India  has  ever  known — a  reign 
to  laud  which  to  the  utmost  JIuhammedan  chroniclers  can 
find  no  words  sufficient.     Aurungzeeb  utterly  revoked  the 
policy  of  Akbar.     He  was  a  most  narrow-minded  Mussul- 
man, and  the  slaughter  of  infidels  was  his  supreme  delight. 
Everywhere  Hindus  fled  before  his  h.ateful  power.     But  he 
was  .a  man  of  immense  resource,  ability,  self-relianee,  and 
resolution.     His  armies,  minutely  under  his  personal  su- 
pervision, carried  all  before  them.    Every  detail  of  civil  or 


military  government  passed  under  his  eye.  He  spared  no 
labor  himself,  and  enforced  in  certain  military  matters  the 
most  rigid  diseipliue,  whilst  in  others  he  gave  his  fanatical 
troops  the  utmost  license.  But  it  was  dangerous  for  one 
of  bis  subjects  to  become  too  successful.  He  was  morbidly 
jealous,  and  the  general  who  rose  to  too  great  eminence 
after  a  campaign  was  as  a  rule  assassinated  fur  bis  pains. 
Mosques,  mausoleums,  minarets,  and  palaces  rose  rapidly 
in  the  great  ceutres  of  Muhammcd.auism,  but  works  of  gen- 
eral utility  were  neglected.  Enormous  wealth  flowed  into 
the  coffers  of  the  emperor,  and  flowed  out  as  fast  without 
doing  any  good,  further  than  aggrandizing  the  dynasty. 
At  length,  in  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  Aurungzccb 
died,  and  with  him,  it  has  been  said,  the  Mogul  empire 
passed  away.  Internal  divisions  rent  it ;  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  wars  between  different  pretenders  to  the  throne 
set  the  vvholc  land  aflame;  the  Mahratlas  grew  up  to  be  a 
mighty  and  warlike  people,  who  defied  the  power  of  the 
kiiigs  of  Delhi;  the  llujputs  rose  and  won  for  themselves 
independence  ;  the  Carnatie  became  the  great  battle-ground 
of  India.  So  change  succeeded  change,  as  one  Mogul  em- 
peror succeeded  another,  till  in  1857  the  last  miserable  ruler 
of  the  house,  Mohammed  Bahadur  Shah,  rose  against  Brit- 
ain and  abetted  the  mutineers.  His  sons  and  grandson 
were  shot,  and  he  himself  transported  for  life  to  Burmah, 
where,  in  Maulmain,  he  died.  Such  was  the  close  of  the 
Mogul  empire. 

IV.  Tlic  Illclun/o/lJie  Cni-iiaHc. — ^Vc  must  briefly  glance 
at  this,  without  entering  into  any  detail.  Hitherto,  the  In- 
dian history  we  have  gone  over  has  related  almost  wholly 
to  North-western  and  Northern  India.  Southern  India 
now  claims  a  word  Jor  itself.  It  was  hero  that,  after  the 
first  Aryan  invasion  thousands  of  years  ago,  the  aborigines 
chiefly  'took  shelter  and  became  massed  in  dense  commu- 
nities. Then  afterwards,  when  other  invasions  from  the 
N.  W.  succeeded,  and  the  Afghans  and  the  hordes  of  Baber 
poured,  in  wave  after  wave,  into  India,  still  Southern  In- 
dia remained  as  the  great  refuge  for  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  the  Peninsula.  Curious  references  to  Southern  India  ap- 
pear in  the  writings  of  Ctesias,  the  Persian  court-physieian 
IB.  c.  400).  Several  )io"rts  on  the  Coromandcl  coast  of  South- 
ern India  have  been  identified  with  those  mentioned  in  the 
famous  Pcutingerian  Tables.  The  Carnatie,  till  A.  B.  1294, 
was  wholly  ruled  by  Hindu  rajahs.  After  that  it  became 
successively  a  Mohammedan,  Mabratta,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish battle-"field.  Tlie  Carnatie  is  interesting  as  having  been 
the  scene  of  the  glories  of  the  Pandiyan  .and  Chola  dynas- 
ties. The  capital  of  the  Chola  dynasty  was  Conjevcram. 
The  Pandiya  rajahs  took  Madura  in  the  S.  for  their  cajnlal, 
and  the  batter  city  has  been  regarded  as  the  Benares  of  the 
Deccan.  It  was  the  great  Carnatie  centre  of  Hindu  activity 
from  the  eighth  century  till  quite  recently.  It  was  the  fos- 
ter-mother of  art,  science,  literature,  and  religion.  From 
the  earliest  times  Southern  India  has  lieen  one  vast  gran- 
ary. It  was  boasted  by  the  chroniclers  of  six  centuries  ago 
th"at  "  not  a  span  of  land  in  the  Deccan  was  free  from  cul- 
tivation under  the  Chola  and  Pandiya  kings."  Every- 
where stately  temples  arose,  and  in  the  present  day  the 
sculptured  shrines  of  Srirangam,  Chillambram,  the  Seven 
Pagodas,  Madura,  Tanjore,  and  Ramcswaram  vie,  in  their 
way,  with  the  most  famous  specimens  of  ancient  architec- 
ture in  the  Bombay  or  Calcutta  presidencies— with  the 
caves  of  Elephanta  or  the  Taj  at  Agra.  The  Carnatie  is 
the  scene  of  Nizain-ul-Mulk's  enduring  successes.  The  fa- 
mous Vizian.agar  Hindu  kingdom,  once  occupying  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  countrv  now  called  the  JIadras  presidency, 
has  still  a  limited  jilaee  in  Soulbcrn  India.  The  fertile 
provinces  of  Mysore  and  Travancorc  have  an  interesting 
history  ;  and  it  was  in  the  Carnatie  that  the  English  had 
to  figlit  to  the  death— first  with  Hyder  AM,  and  then  with 
Tippoii  Sultan. 

V  The  IlUtorv  of  the  Mahratlas.— Mai.  ere  passing  on, 
we  must  at  least  allude  to  the  Mahrattas,  without  a  men- 
tion of  whose  astonishing  successes  as  a  brave,  warlike 
power  the  briefest  epitome  of  Indian  hisb.ry  would  be  im- 
perfect. The  founder  of  the  Mabratta  p..wer  was  the  great 
Sivaji,  a  man  who  was  at  the  same  time  as  bravo  and  in- 
trepid as  a  lion  and  cunning  and  wary  as  a  serpent.  He 
was  born  in  1027  a.  d.  The  .Mahrattas  at  that  time  were 
good  fighters  and  thorough  balers  of  the  Mohammedans. 
Their  militarv  tactics  were  formcil  upon  plans  which  ad- 
mirably suited  the  countrv  they  inh;ibited:  and  these  tac- 
tics Sivaji  perfected.  Tlieir  ciuntry  is  one  which  presents 
a  constant  sueeession  of  rooky  hills  and  masses  of  boulders, 
rising  above  alluvial  plains.  In  these  elevations  the  people 
constructed  their  most  impregnable  hill-forts.  The  race 
themselves  were  hardv,  naturally  active  and  brave,  capital 
skirmishers,  and  rea"dv  to  go  to  the  world's  end,  so  to 
si.eak  for  plunder.  Their  svstem  of  warfare  was  of  the 
rough  and  impetuous  kind,  and  the  (Ian  of  Mabratta  cav- 
alry rendered  them  dreaded  everywhere.     Tennyson,  the 


INDIA:  ITS  HISTOEY. 


1145 


poct-laureate    of   England,  is    quite  felicitous  when    he 
writes — 

'■  Whtu  in  iriW  Mahratla  batlle  fell  ray  father,  evil-starr'd. 
Sivaji  began  his  career  at  the  early  age  of  nineteen  in 
eeiiing  the  hill-fort  of  Tornca  and  then  in  building  an- 
other. He  next  took  in  succession  several  other  forts,  and 
attacked  the  Vizianagar  government,  and  also  carried  his 
frecbooting  expeditions  even  into  Mogul  territory,  then  | 
under  Shah  Jchan.  The  Vizianagar  power  sent  Afzal 
Khan  to  crush  Sivaji,  but  the  wily  Mahralta  entrapped  * 
the  general,  plaved  lihud  to  his  Eglon,  and  destroyed  the  : 
whole  of  his  armv.  After  three  years  the  ^  izuinagar  j 
government  was  glad  to  make  peace  with  the  man  whose 
name  was  a  terror  from  the  Malabar  to  the  Coromandel  ' 
coast;  whereupon,  at  once,  Sivaji  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Moguls  and  ravaged  their  territories  to  the  very  gates  ; 
of  Aurifngabad.  Then,  to  inspirit  his  troops,  he  performed  | 
an  exploH  of  incredil.le  daring.  At  midnight  he  slipped,  j 
whollv  by  himself,  into  the  city,  joined  in  some  marriage 
festivities,  surprised  the  Mogul  viceroy  and  wounded  him, 
killed  his  son  and  attendants,  and  escaped  to  his  own  force 
scot-free.  For  many  years  he  carried  on  this  war  during 
the  reign  of  Aurungzeeb  at  Delhi.  Siv.iji  attacked  Surat, 
got  together  a  fleet  of  8j  sail,  and  became  the  terror  of 
the  whole  Malabar  coast,  and  annoyed  the  Mussulmans 
by  constantly  chasing  and  destroying  their  Arabian  pil- 
grim-vessels.  At  length,  by  weight  of  numbers,  Sivaji 
was  partially  subdued,  and  was  actually  induced  to  Join 
the  Mogul  forces  as  their  ally.  This  he  did,  and,  as  he 
could  never  live  without  fighting,  attacked  the  Vizianagar 
power  and  gained  a  series  of  brilliant  engagements.  Shortly 
afterwards,  breaking  again  with  the  iMoguls,  he  caused 
himself  to  be  solemnly  enthroned  in  Rligliur.  He  weighed 
himself  agaiust  gold,  and  gave  the  ten  stone  of  the  precious 
inetal  which  represented  his  weight  to  his  lirahman  sub- 
jects. Ho  next  engaged  in  a  raid  in  the  South,  and  re- 
turned with  great  plunder  to  Raighur.  his  capital.  He  d. 
Apr.  j.  11)80.  Sambagi  succeeded  him,  but  he  was  the  weak 
f.)n  of  a  great  father.  At  length  ( in  lOS'J)  Aurungzeeb  cap- 
tured hiin,  i)Ut  a  red-hot  iron  to  his  eyes,  had  his  tongue  lorn 
out  by  the  roots,  and  then  decapitated  him.  From  those 
days  to  the  present,  though  the  character  and  fortunes  of 
their  successive  chiefs  have  changed,  the  Mahratlas  have 
still  remained  a  warlike  people.  They  measured  swords 
bravely  with  the  Portuguese  and  English,  and  were  not 
thoroughly  taken  in  band  till,  after  having  been  over  and 
over  agaiii  hopelessly  vanquished  by  the  British  arms,  the 
"  subsidiary  system  "  was  put  in  force,  and  the  land  is  now 

[it  IlCUCC. 

VI.     The   Hilton/  of  the  Portngueae  in  Indiu. — Whilst 
treating  of  this  portion  of  our  subject,  we  may  also  speak 
of  (VII.)  the  history  of  the  various  Indo-European  com- 
panies ;  of  (VIM. >  the  history  of  the  French  in  India  till 
their  surrender  of  Pondiehcrry  ;  and  of  (IX.)  Anglo-Indian 
history  till  the  npiiointment  of  the  first  governor-general. 
In  1 197,  Vaseo  da  llama  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  IIo])e, 
procured  a  pilot  at  Melinda,  struck  out  boldly  across  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  landed  at  f'alicut  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
where  ho  was  received  with  great  pomp  by  the  rajah.     Dsx 
liama,  having  thus  o].ened  up  the  way  to  India,  returned  i 
to  Portugal,  and  in  151)0  a  second  expedition  was  sent  out 
to   India  under  Alvarez  Cabral.      Eight  friars  were  sent 
with   this  expedition  to  propagate  Christianity  in  India, 
but  on  arrival  they  used  the  sword  as  freely  as  the  gospel. 
V/ar  naturally  followed,  and  the   Portuguese  bombarded 
Calient  and  burnt  the  shii.ping  in   the  harbor,  and  then 
withdrew  to  Cochin.      In  a  year's  time  they  returned  to 
Portugal,  eminently  suceessful  for  the  time  being,  as  far  as 
mere   trade  went,  for  the  whole  Inilian  Ocean  was  now  at 
the  ecimman.l   of  their  ficet.       liut   their  arrogant   policy 
made  them  hated  in  India.     In   Io02,  Vaseo  da  liama  re- 
turned to  Calicut,  and  .some  of  bis  first  acts  were  to  burn  a 
ship  with  all  its  crew  and  to  cut  off  the  hands  and  feet  of 
fifty  natives  of  various  classes  collected  from   the  native 
vesVels  in  Calicut  harbor.      He  returned  to  Europe  without 
accomiilishing  anything  better.     In   l.^OJ   the  Portuguese 
sent  out  their  first  viceroy.  Almeyda.     In  1 JOS,  Albuquer- 
que, the  greatest  name  in  Portuguese  Indian  history,  suc- 
ceeded Alineyda,  and  in  the  next  year  he  captured  the  city 
and  fine  harbor  of  (Ina,  and  at  once  the  power  of  Portugal 
rose  to  importance  in  Inilia.     liut  soiui  wars  sprung  up  on 
every  side,  and  alter  Albuquerque's  death  the  Mahratlas  and 
Mohammedans  pressed   the  colony  very  sorely,  anil  within 
a  century  the   Portuguece  empire  in  the  East— in  Ceylon 
and  the  .Sloluecas  as  well  as  at  Goa— may  be  sai.l  to  have 
almost  utterly  collapsed.      With  it  also,  fortunately,  ool- 
lapsed  the  Inquisition  and  other  peculiar  institutions  which 
Ihe  Portuguese  introduced  into  India  for  the  "  benefit      of 
Hindus,    "shortly  after  the  first  nppeaianee  of  the  Portu- 
euesc  in   India  four   European   East   India  coinimnies  fol- 
lowcl  them— namely,  the  Hutch  in   liUl,  the   English  in 


1600,  the  French  in  1C6S,  and  the  Danish  in  IGIC.  The 
Dutch  settlements  in  India  have  never  been  very  iiuporlaut, 
and  have  subseciueutly  all  been  ceded  to  England.  Tliesc 
were  Negapatani.  Bimlipatam,  Pulicat,  and  Sadras.  Tho 
Danes  established  themselves  at  Tranquebar  and  Ser- 
ampore,  and  sold  these  places  subsequently  to  the  English 
in  1845.  At  tho  present  da_y  it  is  most  curious  to  notice 
these  quaint  Dutch  and  Danish  towns  in  India,  which  have 
a  curious  Oid-World  air  about  them.     In  l.'»7'J  i 


a  curious  uiu- >i  oriu  air  aoouL  iiieiii.     xu  i./i .»  an  Euglish- 
man   named  Thomas  Stevens  travelled  to  Goa,  and  pub- 
lished a  narrative  of  his  travels  in  England.     The  book 
attracted  great  attention.      Other   English  travellers    re- 
counted their  adventures,  and  some  of  them  travelled  t"  the 
court  of  Akbar  with  letters  from  the  English  queen  Eliza- 
beth: and  then  (in   lliOO)  Queen  Elizabeth  determined  on 
incorporating  by  charter  the  famous   P.rilish   East  India 
Compauy.     The  company   was  to  be  tho  medium  of  all 
trade-communication  between   Britain  and   India  ;  was  to 
have  twenty-four  directors  and  one  chairman  ;  and  in  lfi24 
the  company  was  formally  authorized  to  punish,  even  cap- 
itally, their  .servants,  and' thus  were  regarded  as  a  govern- 
ment as  well  as  a  trading  association.     lu   IGU  the  first 
English  factory  was  established  at  Surat,  ou   the  western 
coast,  and  five  years  later,  besides  several  other  factories, 
the  company  had  one  on  the  eastern  coast,  at  Masulipatam. 
In  11139,  Fort  St.  George,  at  Madras,  was  built.    In  1G4»  the 
first  Bengal  factory  was  established  at  Hooglily.  Everywhere 
along  the  sea-line  factories,  more  or  less  fortified,  sprung 
up.  and  did  a  rapidly  increasing  business.     At  length,  in 
1664,  Sivaji  attacked"Surat,  and  the  natives  first  learned  to 
appreciate  the  bravery  and  aptitude  for  war  of  the  English, 
who  successfully  drove  the  victorious  Mahratlas  back,  and 
protected  the  town  of  Surat  in  a  manner  which  so  delighted 
Aurungzeeb  that  he  forthwith    gave  the  English  tinders 
great  concessions.  In  lOOS,  Bombay  wa«  made  into  a  pres- 
idency.    It  had  been  given  to  England  as  a  part  ol  the 
dowry  of  Catharine  of  Braganza.     In    1098    a   fort    was 
ordered  to  he  built  in  Bengal :  it  was  called  Fort  William. 
Thus  begins  the  history  of  Calcutta.     But  bclore  this  tlie 
French  had  lauded  iu  India.     The  famous  Colbert  organ- 
ized a  company  on  a  firm  basis  in  1CG4.  under  the  patron- 
age of  Louis  XIV.     This  company  began  rapidly  to  estab- 
lish factories  near  existing  British  ones;  for  instance,  in 
Masulipatam  and  Surat.     In  1G74  the  French  bought  Pon- 
diehcrry, on  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  still  belongs  to 
their  government;  Francois  Martin  was  the  founder.     In 
109:)    Pondicherry  was  attacked  and  taken  by  the  Dutch, 
but  was  subsequc'ntlv  returned  after  the  Peace  of  Ryswick. 
It  was  then  more  eiaborately  fortified  by  the  French,  and 
soon  rose  into  great  importance  as  a  mart  and  port  on  tlie 
Coromandel  coast.     In  IGSS,  Aurungzeeb  gave  the  Freiich 
Chandanagore,  in  Bengal,  a  small  settlement  which  they 
possess  at  the  present  day.     In  17:il.  Dupleix,  the  French 
Clive,  was  appointed  director  of  Chandanagore.     Every- 
where the  French  factories  rose  and  flourished,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  it  was  seen  that  the  supremacy  of  !■  ranee 
or  that  of  England  in  India  must  be  decided  by  force  of 
arms.  From  the  first  there  had  been  no  boundaries  between 
Ihe  rival  companies,  and   their  factories    were  indiscrimi- 
nately dotted  over  the  Peninsula.  When  war  between  Eng- 
land "and  France  broke  out  in  Europe,  Ihe  spark  would 
naturally  fly  to  India  and  the  whole  country  be  ablaze. 
This  was  clearly  anticipated,  and  thus  French  and  English 
vied  with  each  other  to  obtain  influence  and  form  alliances 
with  those  native  potentates  who  happened  to  possess  at 
the  time  large  standing  armies.     At  length  war  did  break 
out  between  England  and  France  in  Europe,  and  the  flame 
spread  to  India.   Dupleix  and  Ea  Bourdoiinais  thelieuch 
admiral,  attacked  Madras  in  174G,  took  it  and  the  garrison 
and  compelled  the  English  to  redeem  it  with  a  ransom  of 
four  lakhs  and  40,000  rupees.     The  English  cantives  were 
sent  as  prisoners  to  Pondicherry,  saving  a  few  who  escaped 
Among  these  latter  was  the  future  hero  of  India,  I  live.  At 
this   brilliant    French   success  the   nawab  ol   Arcot   grew 
jealous,  and  sent  10,0011  men  against  them.    But  the  wlu.lo 
of  this  armv  was  overthrown  by  2.10  Ircnchmen  under  Du- 
pleix and  Paradis,  assisted  by  only  700  native  troops     Plie 
fame  of  this  splendid  achievement  spread  through  all  Imlia. 
The  French  wore  rcgarde.l  as  the  greatest  Euroiiean  pow-er 
in  India.    This  state  of  afl-airs  continued  till  1.4S,  when  by 
Ihe   Peace  of  Aix-ln-Cliapelle  England   and  1  ranee  were 
once  more  at  unity.    Dupleix,  mortified  and  chagrined,  had 
to  deliver  back  Madras  to  the  Knglish.  Peace  was  nothing 
to   continue   between   the  two  European  powers  in   India. 
The  throne  uf  Arcot  was  the  subject  of  a  war  helwecn  the 
occupier.  Anwar-ud-deen,  and  Chanda  Sahib,  the  aspirant. 
Tho  latter  had  the  symiiathies  and  assistance  of  the  Frciicli, 
and  was  at  first  successful.  Anwar-uddeen  was  killed.   1  lie 
British  then  supported  tho  succession  of  his  son  as  against 
Chanda  Sahibs  claims,  and  inarched  GOO  Englishmen,  un- 
I  der  Lawrence  and  Clive,  together  with  a  vast  native  army 


1146 


INDIA:  ITS  HISTORY, 


(a  largo  part  of  wliich  was  composed  of  Mahratta  soldiers),  j 
towards  Pondicherry.  Now  the  tables  were  turned,  and  i 
the  Kn;;lish  won  the  day.  But  in  a  short  time  the  French,  j 
under  the  able  and  irrepressible  Duj)U'ix,  suddenly  mur- 
dcreil  Xazir  Jung,  the  viceroy  of  the  Deccan  whom  the 
English  had  appointed,  and  in  a  great  measure  regained 
their  jjrcstige  in  Snuthorti  India.  In  1751  the  Freneli  were  | 
still  the  real  rulers  of  the  Carnatic.  But  now  a  terrible  ; 
strugi^Iecoinnicnccd.  Tlio  Knglish  were  thoroughly  aroused.  I 
('live  with  ;120  men  and  i  officers  took  Arcot,  and  held  it  j 
lor  seven  weeks  against  10,000  of  Chanda  Sahib's  troops. 
At  length  the  garrison  was  relieved  by  Sauiulers  after  a  ' 
desperate  fight ;  Chanda  Sahib  fled.  Tlie  prestige  of  Eng-  j 
land  rose  anew.  In  1762,  ("live  followed  up  his  victories.  I 
Dupleix  had  built  a  town  and  pillar  to  commemorate  his 
successes;  these  Clivc  deinolislied,  and  thereby  greatly 
impressed  the  minds  of  the  superstitious  Hindus.  Next, 
the  rock  of  Trichinopoly,  beleaguered  by  the  French,  was 
relieved.  The  French  army  was  caught  in  a  trap  in  an 
island  between  the  Cauvcry  and  Colcroon  rivers,  and  Law, 
the  general,  "Hj  FrctichTncn.  and  2000  native  troops  were 
captured  by  Lawrence  an<l  Cl.ivo.  Chanda  Sahib  fled  to 
Tanjiire,  and  was  there  soon  after  assassinated.  After 
this,  for  several  years,  Du})lcix  did  his  best  to  retrieve  tho 
French  cause,  but  failed.  In  175fi  the  news  reached  India 
that  Eu'/land  and  France  were  again  at  war.  The  French 
general  Lally  came  and  took  the  field,  and  unsuccessfully 
besieged  Madras.  The  English  commanclcr,  VA're  Coote, 
soon  after  landed,  and  opened  the  campaign  against  tho  | 
French.  The  decisive  battle  of  Wandewash  was  fought.  Tho  I 
French  power  was  for  ever  utterly  crushed  in  India.  But  | 
two  years  before  this  the  great  battle  of  Plassey  had  been 
fought  in  tho  North,  and  all  India  was  already  virtually 
nt  the  mercy  of  England.  At  first  the  English  factories 
had  been  unimportant  in  Bengal,  as  compared  witli  Madras. 
In  17.')0  a  new  native  ruler  ascended  the  throne  of  Bengal, 
Behar,  and  <.>rissa.  This  was  that  most  infamous  name  in 
all  Indian  history — Nawab  Surajah  Dowlah.  This  man 
suddenly  attacked  the  English  in  Bengal,  first  at  Cossira- 
bazaar,  and  then  at  Calcutta.  Drake,  the  governor,  found 
no  means  of  resisting  the  overwiiolming  enemy.  Sending 
all  tho  women  and  children  out  of  the  settlement  by  ship, 
he  himself  followed,  leaving  Mr.  Holwell  and  145  Euro- 
peans behind  to  treat  with  Surajah  Dowlah.  The  infuriated 
nawab  now  entered  Calcutta.  That  evening — a  sultry  one 
in  tho  hot  month  of  June — the  entire  number  of  the  146 
I'nglish  captives  was  crammed  into  a  dungeon  eighteen 
IVct  square,  with  only  two  small  breathing-hides  in  it.  In 
such  a  climate  as  that  of  India  in  the  month  of  June,  tho 
j.rison  would  have  been  found  very  oppressive  for  one 
European  prisoner,  but  here  were  146  thrust  into  it.  The 
horrors  of  that  night  can  scarcely  be  even  imagined.  In 
the  morning  all  of  the  captives  were  dead  with  the  excep- 
tion of  2.'},  and  these  were  at  the  last  gasp  and  i)resented  a 
s:id  sight.  Such  is  the  memorable  episode  of  the  Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta.  The  news  of  the  atrocity  quickly  flew  to 
Madras,  and  soon  Clive  was  in  Bengal,  where  he  carried 
tvcrything  before  him,  A  hollow  ])eace  was  made  in  1767, 
liut  soon  broken.  The  nawab  must  be  deposed.  In  tho 
intrigues  necessary  to  obtain  native  co-operation  towards 
this  end,  a  wily  Bengalee  named  Oinichund  was  employed. 
The  plot  grew  ripe,  whon  suddenly  thuichund  informed 
Clivc  that  he  woubl  n-veal  nil  uuless  lie  were  jiromisod,  by 
a  clause  in  the  treaty  nominating  Meer  .Taflir  to  tho  throne 
of  Surajah  Dowlah.  the  sum  of  ;i. 000. 000  rupees.  Clivo 
now  k-nt  his  hand  to  the  one  ignoble  action  of  his  life. 
Two  treaties  were  drawn  up — one  on  red  and  one  on  white 
jiaper.  The  one  on  red  was  tho  false  treaty,  with  tho 
clause  which  Omichund  required  inserted  in  it.  This  was 
shown  to  tho  Bengalee,  and  he  was  satisfied.  Clive  now 
wrote  to  tho  Nawab  Surajah  Dowlah  dnnanding  instant 
satisfaction  for  all  the  injuries  which  had  been  incurred  by 
the  Eufi^lish,  stating  that  he  must  answer  to  tho  British 
army  for  his  crimes  unless  he  at  once  satisfied  each  one  of 
the  claims  which  shr)uhl  be  made.  Of  course  the  nawab 
sprang  to  arms,  and  with  50,000  infantry,  18,000  cavalry, 
and  an  immense  train  of  artillery,  ]ioured  down  on  tho 
English  general  with  his  (\'>Q  European  infantry,  1.^)0  gun- 
ners, 2100  Sepoys,  a  few  Portuguese,  and  10  j>ioccs  of  ar- 
tillery. On  the  evening  of  .Tune  22,  Clive  held  the  only 
council  he  summoned  in  nil  his  campaigns.  It  was  a  very 
anxioua  one.  Thirteen  of  the  members  of  it  voted  against 
attacking  the  immense  army  of  Surajah.  Seven — one  of 
whom  was  the  sagu'-ious  anil  intrepid  Coote — voted  in  favor 
of  the  attack.  After  the  council  liad  risen  Clive  took  a 
lonely  walk  on  the  rivor-bnnk.  The  whole  scene  is  an  his- 
torical one.  The  next  morning  was  to  eee  the  vast  penin- 
sula of  Hindustan,  from  tho  Ilimalayas  to  Cape  Comorin, 
virtually  won  for  Britain.  CHve  and  his  little  army  at- 
tacked the  nawab  with  the  dawn.  Plassey  was  fought  and 
won  on  .lune  21^,  K.''*".     The  victory  was  terrible  and  com- 


plete, though  the  English  only  lost  72  killed  and  wounded. 
Surajah  was  seized  and  jiut  to  death  by  his  successor.  But 
the  English  soon  had  occasion  to  dethrone  Meer  Jaffir  and 
to  appoint  Meer  Kassim,  his  sou-in-la\v,  as  nawab.  But 
ho  soon  rebelled,  ami  at  Patna  massacred  14S  English 
gentlemen  and  soldiers  in  cold  blood.  He  was,  however, 
soon  vanquished.  By  successful  wars  and  tho  natural  oper- 
ations of  trade  the  English  power  in  India  went  on  increas- 
ing and  consolidating,  till  (in  1774)  Warren  Hastings  be- 
came tho  first  govcruor-gcnerjil  rtf  British  India. 

X.  The  (jovrruorH-ffcneruf  nf  /ntfifi. — A\'arr('n  Hastings, 
as  ho  was  tiie  first,  may  bo  regarded  as  also  undoubtedly 
the  greatest,  of  the  governors-general  of  India.  Whatever 
may  have  been  his  mistakes,  he  was  brave,  honest,  disin- 
terested, and  of  great  ability  as  a  statesman  and  soldier. 
His  governorship  extended  from  1774  to  I7S5.  Tho  chief 
events  of  this  time  may  thus  be  briefly  summed  up.  Tho 
famous  Regulating  Act  was  passed,  by  which  the  Parliament 
of  Britain  formally  recognized  the  East  India  Company  as 
a  ruling  body,  it  being  agreed  in  the  charter  that  the  gov- 
ernor-general should  be  paid  £26.000  ji  year  and  have  a 
supremo  council  of  four,  and  that  India  should  possess  a 
supreme  court  of  Judicature.  It  was  at  the  same  time 
stipulated  that  England  should  receive  from  tho  East  India 
Company  forty  lakhs  of  rupees  annually.  It  was  in  virtue 
of  this  act.  and  under  the  provisions  of  it,  that  Hastings 
became  governor  general.  Col.  Monson,  Gen.  Clavcring, 
Philip  Francis,  and  Jlr.  Barwell  were  his  council  of  four. 
The  first  three  of  these  did  everything  they  could  to  thwart 
the  governor-general.  Francis  was  their  leader.  He  is 
■well  known  to  English  history  as  that  Sir  Philip  Francia 
who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  Lettcra  of 
Jatiiua.  An  implacable  hater,  in  social  life  a  heartless  vil- 
lain and  debauchee,  in  public  life  a  shrewd  and  calculating 
politician,  he  was  an  unscrupulous  enemy  of  great  poaver; 
and  to  him  must  chiefly  be  traced  Hastings'  final  impeach- 
ment. To  proceed,  Shujah-ud-Dowlah.  nawab-vizier  of 
Oude.  died  in  1775.  His  mother  and  widow,  called  begums, 
claimed  his  treasures,  2,000,000  rupees,  and  for  a  time  they 
got  possession  of  them.  Thus,  the  young  nawab  entered 
upon  his  reign  with  an  empty  treasury,  g(d  into  debt,  and 
accused  the  begums  of  plotting  against  Hastings.  The  lat- 
ter suddenly  cut  the  knot  of  the  difficulty  by  making  tho 
begums  pay  0,700.000  ru)>ecs  to  the  East  India  Company. 
Shortly  before  this  a  wily  native  named  Nuncoomar  tried 
to  crush  Hastings  by  ascribing  to  the  governor-general 
crimes  of  various  kinds.  The  three  members  in  the  su- 
preme council  inimical  to  Hastings  actually  believed  this 
accuser,  and  favored  him  in  his  designs  against  their  com- 
mon foe.  But  Hastings  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  Tho 
Brahmin  had  supported  his  evidence  against  Hastings  by 
documents  palpably  forged.  An  eminent  native  merchant 
suddenly  brought  a  suit  against  Nuncoomar  for  forgery. 
The  case  was  heard  before  the  chief-justice  of  Calcuttii,  Sir 
Elijah  Impey.  The  real  prosecutor  of  course  was  Hastings. 
Nune<K)mar  was  fouud  guilly  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged. 
To  the  horror  of  all  Bengal,  the  lioly  Brahmin  was  not  rc- 
])rievrd.  The  execution  was  not  forgotten  for  many  a  day. 
On  the  pari  of  Hastings  it  was  a  stroke  as  politic  as  it  was 
pitiless.  It  at  once  asserted  his  power  even  against  the 
majority  of  his  council,  and  this  was  needed  at  a  time  when 
the  Mysoreans.  the  Dutch,  the  French,  and  the  Mahrattas 
were  all  fighting  together  against  the  English.  At  length 
{in  17S6)  Hastings  retired  to  England,  jlis  impeachment 
belongs  to  English  history.  In  1780,  Lord  Cornwallis  went 
out  to  India  as  the  second  governor-geueral.  He  had  done 
nothing  to  justify  his  appointment,  unless  his  delivering 
himself  and  his  army  in  America  to  Washington  only  five 
years  previously  may  have  been  regarded  as  a  sign  of  his 
good  sense.  During  his  governorship  he  did  nothing  re- 
markable, save  to  give  his  im])rimatur  to  an  excellent  sys- 
tem of  land  settlement.  The  third  governor-general  was 
Sir  John  Shore  (UlKUHS).  Tho  fourth  was  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley,  whose  r6gime  extended  from  171*8  to  1805.  The 
marquis  was  one  of  the  ablest  men  who  ever  set  foot  in  In- 
dia. He  acted  with  great  decisicm  of  character  in  his  deal- 
ings with  native  potentates,  and  by  everywhere  pursuing 
a  wise  policy  of  friendly  intervention,  using  violent  inter- 
vention when  absolutely  necessary,  he  aggrandized  tho 
British  power  and  firmly  consolidated  it.  Hydcr  Ali  in  tho 
Cjirnatic  had  been  overthrown.  Under  the  marquis  Welles- 
ley  the  fourth  Mysore  war,  against  Tipjioo  Sultan.  s<m  of 
Hydcr.  was  successfully  terminated  in  1700.  Scringapatam 
was  taken.  It  would  require  n  history  in  itself  to  describe 
seriatim  the  struggles  of  the  British  power  in  India  in  the 
Carnatic  with  Hyder  Ali  and  the  "  Tiger  of  tho  Deccan," 
his  son.  But  it  was  in  this  year  (17ltO)  that  the  stronghold 
of  the  latter,  Serin(;apataiu.  was  stormed,  and  Tippoo  him- 
self slain  under  a  heap  of  his  fierce  defenders.  In  ISOl  tho 
aflTairs  of  Oude  were  regulated.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
second  Mahratta  war  was  sueccssfully  brought  to  a  close. 


INDIA  INK-IXDIAXA. 


1147 


Everywhere  the  Britifh  arras  were  victorious.    Lord  Corn- 
wallis,   for  the  sefon.l   time  covcrnor-gcncral.  succeeded 
Marquis  Wcllcsli-v  in  ISOj.     His  policy  was  that  of  peace 
at  any  price,     lie  did  not  live  loug  euough  to  do  serious 
mi'chicf,  an.l   Sir  (Jcorgc  Barlow  suceeedcl   him   in  the 
same  vcar,  and  governed  till  1807.     lie  was  inclined  lo 
cniiv  Lord  Cornwallis.  with  certain  laudable  exceptions. 
On '.July  10.  ISllO.  at  2  a.  «..  the  Sepoys  of  the  Carnatic 
icilitary  station  of  Vellore  mutinied,  and  massacred  in 
European  troops.     Their  reasons  for  thus  rising  against 
the    British  Government  were  stated  to  be  that  the  new 
„„7.;,-.e   sanctioned  as  a  head-dress   for  the  troops  was 
really  a  European  hat.  and  that  the  emblem  of  the  cross 
had  been  introduced  into  their  uniforms:  Jjy  which  the  Se- 
poys auderstood   they  were  to    be  made    forcibly   Chris- 
tian"     "So  great  a   fire  a  little  spark  kiudlcth.       They 
were'nuicklv  overcome.      Earl   Minto   succeeded   Barlow 
in    l"*!);    and    his  governor-generalship   lasted    till    IM... 
The  Travaneore  war  broke  out   and  was  riuellcd  during 
this   period.      The  marquis   of  Hastings  succeeded    Earl 
Minti  in   ISU,  and   his  rule   lasted  till    lS2:i       lie,  like 
his  predecessor,  was  a  man  of  statesmanlike  ability,      llie 
war  of  Ncpaul  was  entered  into  at  this  time,  and  termi-  1 
nated  in  a  measure  favorably  for  the  British  arm«.     The 
eighth  governor-general  was  Lord  Amherst  (182.i-LiS).   His 
rfeimo  was  first  distinguished  by  the  hazardous  under- 
taking,  yet  successful  termination,  of   the  Burmese   war. 
In  182i,  Malacca  and  Singapore  were  ceded  by  the  Dutch 
to  the  British  empire  in  the  East.     Lord  Bcntinck  was  (he 
ninth  governor-general  (1828-35).     At  this  time  the  Thugs  j 
were  repressed  and  the  horrible  practice  of  the  self-immola- 
tion of  Hindu  widows  isee  Sittkf.)  forbidden.    Lord  Auck-  , 
land  was  the  tenth  governor-general.     The  fatal  Afghan 
expedition  and  the  Chinese  war  marked  his  r.-gime.     I'rom 
I14'    to   IS  1 1,  Lord   Ellenborough   ruled  as  the  eleventh  . 
governor-general.     During  this  time  Sir  Charles   Napier  | 
conquere.l  and  quieted  Scinde.     His  laconic  despatch  after 
taking  the  countrv  will  be  remembered  :  "  /'err„n  .    —i.  e. 
••  I  have  sinned  ""i  Scinde).     The  twelfth  governor-general 
was  Lord  llardmge  (ISH-IT).    The  first  Puujaub  war  was 
now  fought,  and  four  great  battles  were  won  in  54  days. 
The  thirteenth  governor-gcnetal  was  the  earl  of  Dalhousie 
(184S-5G).     Oudc  was  now  annexed,  the  second  Burmese 
and  the  second   Punj.aub  wars  fought,  and  the  system  of 
Indian  railways  and  telegraphs  organized.     The  fourteenth 
governor-general  was  Lord  Canning  (ISofi-Cl),  and  his  r6- 
L'irao  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten  in  the  annals  ol  Hind'>s- 
tan,  because  of  the  great  Indian   Sepoy  mutiny  of   ISo,. 
Hero  again  we  enter  upon  an  episode  of  Indian  history 
upon  which  hundr.'.l-i  of  volumes  have  been  written      The 
s'pov  regiments  were  getting  dissatisfied.     They  felt  their 
numerical  power.      They    had   been    furnished    with    new 
Enfield  rifles.     Bigoted  Mussulmans  among  them  declared 
that   the  new  cartridges  which  had  been   supplied  to  the 
lro(,ps  ha.l  been  smeared  with  the  fat  of  pigs  and  cows. 
On  Mar.  10  the  mutiny  began  at  Berhampore.     Everywhere 
throughout   India  fanatics,  ascetics,  fakirs,  and  moulvics 
ru«hed  about  spreading  disaffection,  and  prophesying  the 
fill  of  the  British  power  and  the  extermination  of  white 
men  from  the  face  of  India.     Especially  the  Mobainiiie.hins 
considered  that  they  were  to  regain   their  cmimc   in   the 
East      The  last  .M.igul  emperor  headed  them.     The  signal 
for  war  was  circulated  from  the  Himalayas  to  Cape  Como- 
rin  in  the  form  of  flat  flour-cakes  called  .liup/iniiir,.     At 
Meerut  the  first  great  outbreak  took  place.      1  he  eyes  ot 
the     European     officers    throughout    India     were    fata  y 
blinded      They  believe<l  in  their  men,  and  their  naturally 
honest  Anglo-Saxon  character  could  not  fathom  the  depths 
of  the  treachery  of  the  wily  Asiatic.     The  European  part 
of  Mcernt  was  burnt,  and  every  English  man,  woman,  an.l 
child    massacred.     At    Delhi    the    commissioner,    military 
coniniandant,    the   chaplain    and  his    poor  daughter  first 
met  their  doom  in   the  sight  of  the  last   Mogul  emperor. 
Everywhere  the  land  was  in  flames  against  the  white  inan. 
Tlo-  lii>rrible  massaere  of  ( 'awnjiore  forms  one  ol  the  blackest 
ni.'es  i>f  the  history  of  the  world,  and  was  perloriued  un- 
diTihc  supervision  of  that  supremest  of  miscreants,  Nana 
>Jahib      The  garrison  defended  themselves,  but  were  prom- 
ised tiieir  lives  if  they  would  depart  and  give  up  the  treas- 
ures of  the  place  to  liie  muline.rs.     Alter  a  long  struggle 
thev  consenlcl.     When  they  were  once  in  the  boats  which 
were  to  convey  them  nwav.  Nana  Sahib  and  the  treacher- 
ous mulineers'on  the  bank  of  the  river  opene.l  fire.     Men, 
women,  and  children  were  killed,  mutilated,  and  w.mndcd. 
Many  were  .Iragged   back   to  the  shore.     Fair  and   noble 
Euroiiean  ladies  were  carried  back  to  the  ei  y,  sumred  pol- 
lulioii  worse  than  death,  and  were  flung  with  their  children 
down  the  now  famous  well  of  Cawnpore.     Sir  Henry  Have- 
lock  soon  avenged  their  .leath.     Outram  aiul  C  yde  and 
Lawrence  and   Neill    arc   a  few   of   the  l.onorab  e  names 
which   shine  in   that  dark   and  stormy  time.     Lucknow 


and  Delhi  were  stormed.  The  mutiny  was  quelled,  but  the 
shadow  of  it  has  not  vet  passed  from  the  hearts  of  living 
men  who  have  ha.l  anything  to  do  with  India.  In  l.s,,s. 
(he  year  after  the  mutiny,  a  great  change  was  inaugunited. 
India  was  placed  under" the  direct  authority  of  the  eiown 
of  Britain  :  the  East  India  Company  was  done  away  with  ; 
the  governor-general  was  made  "viceroy;"  the  Indian 
European  army,  as  such,  was  abolished;  the  Indian  civil 
service  was  thrown  open  to  competition.  Tho  governor- 
general  is  now  responsible,  not  to  a  board  of  East  India 
Company  directors,  but  to  the  secretary  of  state  for  India, 
assisted  bv  a  council  of  fifteen  members.  Queen  Victoria 
issued,  on  all  this  being  determined,  a  solemn  proclamation 
to  India,  which  now  the  native  princes  and  Hindus  gener- 
ally regard  a.s  the  supreme  charter  of  (heir  liberlies.  After 
Lord  Canning's  rf-gime.  Lord  Elgin.  Sir  .lohn  Lawrence, 
the  earl  of  Mayo  (assassinated  at  the  Andaman  Islands), 
and  Lord  Nor'thbrook  have  followed  as  governors-gener.al 
and  viceroys.  Lord  Xorthbrook  is  now  (1875)  in  power, 
and  his  governnien(  has  been  especially  marked  by  the  wis- 
dom and  thoroughness  with  which  a  fearful  Indian  famine 
in  Bchar  and  Bengal  has  been  met  and  finally  overcome. 

R.  C.  Caldweli-. 
India  (or  Chinal  Ink  is  of  two  kinds :  (1)  the  dried 
pigment  frimi  certain  cuttle-fishes.     When  browned  by  tho 
action  of  an  alkali  it  bceomes  sepia.     It  is  prepared  in 
1  Italy,  in  Turkey,  and  in  Asia.  (2)  A  mixture  o(  fine  lamp- 
black with  glue'or  size  and  a  little  camphor.    It  is  prepared 
in  China,  and  is  a  very  useful  pigment.     Bo(h  of  tlie  above 
1  arc  used  in  Asia  as  writing  inks,  and  both  are  practically 

indelible.  (See  I.vK,  by  I'ltoF.  B.  Sii.i.niAN-,  M.  D.) 

1       India  Matting,  a   material   largely  employed    ns    a 

summer  carpeting  and   for  the  covering  of  the  floors  of 

,  sleeping  chambers.     It  is  imported  from  Bengal,  where  it 

I  is  woven  from  the  stems  of  Papyrus  Pangurci  or  coi-jni- 

hositft. 


In'dian,  tp.  of  I'lumas  co..  Cal.    Pop.  8S0. 

Indian,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  Me.     Pop.  14. 

Indiiin,  tp.  of  Williamsburg  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1147. 

India'na,  one  of  the  central  States  of  the  American 
Union,  Iving  between  tho  parallels  of  .'57°  46'  and  41°  4G' 
N    lat.,  and  the  meridians  of  84°  49'  and  88°  2'  W.  Ion. 


Seal  of  Indiana. 
Its  ereatest  lenglli  from  \.  to  S.  is  277  miles,  and  its  great- 
est brea.Kh  from  E.  to  W.  176  miles,  while  its  average 
breadlh  is  about  1  10  miles.  It  is  bounded  N  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  State  of  Michigan,  the  parallel  of  41 
46'  being  the  boundurv-line ;  E.  by  Ohio,  its  eastern  limit 
being  a  line  drawn  due  N.  from  the  mouth  of  the  (.reat 
Miami  niver:  S.  E.  an.l  S.  by  Keiilueky,  from  which  it  is 
divided  by  the  llliio  River;  W.  by  Illinois,  the  boundary 
being  tho  meridian  of  87°  :UI'  W.  until  (hat  meridian  strikes 
the  Wabash  River,  and  thoneo  through  the  inid.Ue  ol  the 
main  channel  of  the  Wabash  River  to  its  entrance  int..  (he 
Ohio  The  area  of  the  State  is  :!:i,S01l  square  miles,  or 
'21,6:17,760  acres.     In  1870  it  ha.l  40.75  inhabitants  to  the 

square  mile.  .  •       •     r„ 

/•'.I.-.  ../'  Ihe  Countri/. — There  are  no  mountains  in  In- 
diana, and  n.i  hills  of'consi.lerahle  height  except  what  are 
ealle.l'  the  river-hills.  The  rivers  which  drain  the  Slat.- 
have  in  the  pn.gress  of  ages  ero.lcd  valleys  of  e..nsi.leial.le 
dei.th  an.l  uiucli  greater  width  than  (heir  ].resent  ehonn.ls, 
'  an.l  the  slopes  which  bound  these  valleys  give  (h.-  appcar- 
ftuce  of  hills  varying  from  200  („  400  feet  in  heighl  above 
the  river-vallevs,  an.l  at  (ho  highest  points  being  ab..ul  600 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  highest  p..rli..n8 
of  (he  State  are  on  its  E.  an.l  W.  si.Ies,  some  of  the  river- 
hills  along  tho  Wabash  Valley  attaining  (he  alliludo  of 


1148 


INDIANA. 


GOO  feet  above  the  sea :  and  from  these  points  to  the  Ohio 
below  the  falls  near  Louisville  there  is  a  gradual  slope  ot 
somewhat   more   than    100    feet.      There    is.   however    no 
marked  or  distinct  watershed  in  any  part  ot    tlie  M.ue. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  State  is  very  level,  the  remainder 
broken  or  ndlinj:.  but  with  no  high  elevations.    But  owing 
to  this  re.ature  of  river-hills  an  aeeount  of  the  nver-systems 
of  the  Slate  and  their  valleys  is  necessary  to  a  full  umlcr- 
standing  of  the  face  of  the  country      Beginning  ">""'';; 
S    we  have  first  the  Ohio  River  Valley,  including  that  ol 
the  White  Water  River,  whicb  occupies  a  tract  of  aliout 
5.500  square  miles  in  the  State.     The  Ohio  River  borders 
the  State  for  a  distance,  by  the  course  of  the  river,  of  about 
3S0  miles.     The  Ohio  River  Valley  on  the   Indiana  side 
was  originally  covered  with  heavy  forests.     The  river-hils 
are  rugged  and  broken,  a.i.l  about  a  dn/eu  -'"■^■;'«^' ""j^'  ^ 
small  and  not  navigablc-Ihe  Great  Miami  and  the  Wa  a  h 
being  the  only  c.oeptions-break  thi^igh  the  "ver-^lulls 
on  the  X.  sidean.l  form  bold  bluffs.     The  valleys  of  the  E. 
and  W.  forks  of  White  River,  and  the  prairie-lands  which 
thev  enclose,  extend  from  the  Wabash   to  the   Ohio   line, 
coverin"  a  little  more  than  a  degree  of  latitude  and  an  area 
of  aboiil  9000  square  miles,  or  somewhat  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  of  the  State.     The  region  is  almost  uni- 
versally level,  and  the  eastern  part  was  originally  heavily 
timbered,  while  the  W.  is  prairie,  with  oceasiona  ly  some 
low,  broken  hills.     The  streams  are  generally  clear  and 
unfailing,  and  there  are  sufficient  falls  to  furnish  a^""' »" 
water-power.    The  soil  is  very  rich-much  better  than  that 
of  the  Ohio    River  Valley.      The  valley  of   the  Wabash 
River  and  its  affluents  is  the  largest  in  the  State,  covering 
an  area  of  over  12,000  squ.are  miles.    It  interlocks  with  the 
M-hite  River  V.alley,  and  resembles  it  in  its  fertility.     The 
K   portion  is  somewhat  more  rolling  and  broken.     There 
are  considerable  waterfalls  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  vab 
lev      The  Wabash  has  a  course  of  COO  miles,  and,  though 
much  obstructed  by  drift-wood  and  silt,  might  be  made 
navi-rable  for  steamboats  of  light  draft  to  Wabash  in  W  a- 
ba^h°co.,  about  400  miles,  though  only  by  a  heavy  expendi- 
ture   The  valley  of  the  Maumec  and  its  principal  trilnitary, 
the  St.  Joseph." occupies  a  tract  of  about  2000  miles  in  the 
N    E   part  of  the  State,  and  slopes  gently  toward  Lake 
Eric'into  which  the  Maumee  discharges  its  waters.     An- 
other and  larger  St.  .Joseph's  River,  from  Michigan,  dip- 
pin-  down  into  Elkhart  and  St.  Joseph  cos.  and  returning 
to  Michigan,  drains  those  counties  into  Lake  Michigan: 
while  in  the  N.  W.  the  Kankakee,  an  affluent  of  the  llli- 
nni.  with  its  branches,  drains  eight  counties  into  that  river. 
The  Kankakee  Valley  is  somewhat  swampy,  and  the  river 
expands  at  several  points  into  broad  marshy  lakes,      iho 
soil  is  generally  good,  though  near  Lake  Michigan  it  is 
sandy  a^d  barren.    The  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  .n  the  State 
are  the  Great  .Miami,  which  touches  its  S.  E   border,  and 
its  main  affluent,  the  White  Water,  the  Laugbery,  Indian 
Kentucky,  Fourteen  Mile.  Silver,  Buck  Creek.  Indiai.  Blue, 
Great  Blue,  Little  Blue,  Oil  Creek,  Anderson  s.  Little  Pig- 
eon, Big  Pigeon,  and  the  Wabash:  of  these  only  the  f.r.t 
and  last  are  navigable  <.r  of  much  importance.     Tlie  Wa- 
rces  in  Ohio.     Its  course  is  N.  W.  to  Hun- 


bash  has  its  sources  in  Ohio.     Its  course  . -  - 

tiu.'ton  CO.,  thence  W.  by  S.  to  Amsterdam  m  Cass  co., 
thence  S  W.  to  Baltimore  in  Warren  cA.,  and  thence  !r., 
biarii..'  sli-btlv  W..  till  it  enters  the  Ohio.  Its  principal 
?i?,  aaries-areifrom  the  S.  and  E  the  Salamon.e  Mis^ 
8is,inewa,  Deer  Creek,  Wildcat  Creek.  Sugar  or  Rock,  Big 

and  Little  Raccoon  rivers,  Otter   ""■<"■'•/''''"'';•,''"',„  e^ 
creeks,  and  White  River:  from  the  N.  and  W..  Ee  .  Tip pe- 
~  Little,  Vermilion,  Embarras,  and  Little  Wabash,  the 
fa     three  bJing  mainly  in  Illinois.     The  E   and  ^^  .forks 
vhich,  uniting: form  the  White  River,  the  largest  affluent 
of  the  Wabash,  have  themselves  a  number  of  tributaries  of 
considerable  size.    Among  those  of  the  E  fork  a>e  fie  Sal  , 
Mus.atatuck,  Sand,  Clifty.  Flat   K'^k.  SuK-"-  ^I'^^'V'' 
and  Lick  Creek,  while  th.-  W.  fork  has  Fall  Creek,  Big    .- 
dian   Bean  Bhissom,  Richland,  and  Prairie  creeks,  and  hel 
River      The  St.  Joseph's  and  the  St.  Mary's  unite  to  form 
the  Maumee  in  the  N.  E.,  and  the  Michigan  St.  Joseph  >:c- 
eoives  the  Pigeon  River  and  the  Little  and  Big  K"^l>art  m 
the  State.     The  Kankakee  has  several  small  fecdeis  in  the 
State,  and  its  principal  branch,  the  Iroquois   after  a  con- 
siderable course  in  Indiana,  unites  with  ,t  in  Illinois.    Deep 
and  Calumet  rivers,  small  streams  which  flow  into  Lake 
Michigan,  run  very  near  its  shores.     The  State  is  well  wa- 
tered.  There  are  numerous  small  lakes  and  ponds,  but  none 
of  large  size.     Beaver  Lake,  the  largest,  is  in  Newton  eo., 
an.l  covers  about  10.000  acres.     The  southern  shore  has  an 
extensive  marsh.    There  are  also  several  very  pretty  s.iiall 
lakes  in  Noble.  Kosciusko,  Marshal,  S'»'^' »">'„I';.  ^^-^J^ 
COS.,  and  three  or  four  in  Knox  co.  in  the  S.  W.  part  ot  tbe 

^"o'°'.?o.,w.-Indiana  has  not  a  great  variety  of  geological  . 
formations  on  or  near  the  surface.     The  Silurian  system  .»  1 


the  oldest  in  the  State,  and,  proceeding  in  a  direction  about 
S  W  by  S.  from  bmh  Lakes  .Michigan  and  Erie,  it  appears 
in  the  e'xtreme  N.  W.  and  S.  E.  of  the  State.  In  both  eiises 
il  dil.s  under  the  Devonian  rocks,  which  occupy  with  their 
formations  about  three-fiflhs  of  the  surface  of  the  btate. 
In  Benton  co.  the  Illinois  coal-field  enters  the  State,  the 
Devonian  rocks  dipping  b.neath  it.  The  coal-m.asurcs 
extend  from  the  Wabash  River  to  Crawford  eo.  on  the 
Ohio,  and  crossing  the  Ohio  enter  Kentucky.  Their  area 
in  Indiana  is  .about  7700  square  miles.  There  are  many 
different  qualities  and  varieties  of  this  coal.  At  Cannel  on 
and  other  points  on  the  river  it  is  found  high  up  on  the 
river-bluffs  as  cannel  coal,  and  is  in  great  demand  |..r 
river-steamers  and  for  domestic  purjioses.  and  at  various 
points  along  the  Wabash  and  Erie  (anal,  from  Evonsville 
northward,  seams  of  free-burning  bituminous  coal  of  good 
quality  are  worked.  In  Spencer  co..  and  thence  N.  N.  »  . 
to  Clav  eo.  and  above,  the  block  coal  (so  named  from  its 
occurring  in  quadrangular  blocks  of  varying  thickness)  is 
abundant.  It  is  easily  mined,  and  is  found  to  be  superior 
to  anv  other  coal  known,  and  even  to  charcoal,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  pig  iron  and  steel.  Two  specimens  of  this  block 
coal  analyzed  by  Prof.  Dclafontaine  gave  the  following  rc- 

'  Water  at  "12°  F l.SC-3.91 ;  Fixed  carbon ^;?2;:^X'?', 

VolaMk.  n^atte? 37.11-:!0.K4     Ash,  while 2.80-2.44 

'  On  distillation  in  a  closed  vessel  the  following  resulU  were 

obtained:  . 

(•o);e G3.05  I  Water,  approximately....  15.11 

Tar,  approximately 15.30  ,  Gas •      •_ 

The  water  contained  ammonia  and  other  soluble  chcnii- 
cals  besides  a  small  amount  of  hydrosulphate  of  ammonia. 
The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  was  0.3  per  cent.,  and  ot 
sulphuric  acid.  0.0  per  cent.     The  amount  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  verv  much  less  than  that  of  the  best  English  smell- 
ing coals,  "those  of  Pontypool,  Bcdwas,  Eborvale.  etc.,  and 
there  was  an  entire  absence  of  sulphur,  of  which  there  was 
a  notable  percentage  in  the  English  coals.    Tbe  importance 
of  these  facts  to  iron-masters  is  very  evident,  as_^the  phos- 
phorus (or  phosphoric  acid)  and  sulphur  are  the  two  in- 
eiedicnts  which  have  most  seriously  injured  the  quality  o 
American  iron.     It  is  found,  too,  that  there  is  very  m.ch 
less  phosphorus  than  in  charcoal,  that  from  elm.  oak,  and 
appli  tree  wood  yielding  from  4  to  V  per  cent  of  phosphorus, 
while  the  block  coal  yielded  but  three-tenths  of  1  per  cent. 
This  coal  is  said  to  make  also  the  best  Bessemer  steel.  Salt- 
springs  are  found  along  the  borders  of  the  coal  formation. 
There  are  also  many  quarries  of  white  limestone  of  excel- 
lent quality  for  building  purposes,  a  fine  sandstone  like  the 
Chen.ung  or  Portsmouth  (0.)  sandstone,  slate,  brick,  and 
norcelain  clays.     Some  grindstones,  small  deposits  of  gyp- 
Cu.  and  bog-iron  ore.  though  not  sufficiently  abundant  to 
pay  for  working,  are  the  other  principal  minerals  of  the 

'^' "vVr/ftnt.-on.— The  State  in  its  earlier  history  was  largely 
cover'ed  with  forests,  having  much  less  open  prairie  than 
Illinois,  but  under  the  influence  of  settlements,  the  demands 
of  its  railroads,  and  the  requirements  for  fuel  these  forests 
are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  less  attention  is  given  to  the 
culture  of  forest  trees  than  should  be.  A  careful  investiga- 
tion bv  the  agricultural  department  gives  the  entire  average 
in  woodland  in  the  State  at  7..S41,145  acres  or  34.8  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  area.  The  forests  are  mainly  deciduous 
trees,  such  as  black  walnut,  white,  red.  burr,  and  black  oak, 
hickorv,  sugar,  and  red  maple,  ash,  beech,  linden,  svea. 
more,  el  «.  and  tulip  or  whitewood.  There  is  very  li He 
native  pine,  spruce' or  hemlock  in  the  State.  The  under- 
growths  are  principally  dogwood,  pawpaw,  wild  plum. 
Thorn,  persiininon,  erab-anple.  etc.  1  he  "'^""^"ke  ( /.....- 
,,l„,ll„;„)  and  some  of  tKe  species  of  ■'"»"''^^''  »",,['  "^ 
along  the  streams.  Wild  flowers  are  abundant,  although 
Tin.  number  of  species  is  not  large.  W  ild  aiumals.  espe- 
ciallv  the  Carnivora.  are  nearly  extinct  in  the  Mate  Bears 
are  very  seldom  seen  ;  the  coyote  or  prairie-wolf  is  becon,- 
inir  rare :  and  occasionally  the  raccoon,  opossum,  and  skunk, 
as  well  as  the  woodchiiek  or  ground  hog  and  the  gopher 
are  found.  Hares  or  rabbits  and  squirrels  abound  ni  the 
forests,  and  the  smaller  rodents  are  sufticenlly  picnt.v.  -The 
Erouse  or  prairie-hen  has  been  bunted  so  relnitless ly  that 
ft  is  comparatively  scarce.  Pigeons,  partridges,  and  occa- 
sionallv  wild-turkeys  are  found. 

CV,Lle  -The  climate  is  liable  to  sudden  and  frequent 
changes.  The  range  of  the  thermometer  each  ■^""t';. '« 
very  great.  The  heat  in  summer  is  intense,  and  the  win- 
ter'i  cold  equally  severe.  These  extremes  »>«.  ";i""' 
greater  in  the  northern  than  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 
The  following  table  gives  the  monthly  and  annual  "^"'P''™- 
ture,  range  of  the  thermometer  monthly,  average  annua 
pressure  of  barometer,-  direction  of  winds,  and  annual 
maximum  and  minimum  temperature  in  M"=>l'gan  C  t.^ 
Logansport,  Indianapolis,  and  New  Albany-four  poinU 


INDIANA. 


1149 


nearly  cquiUistant  from  each  other,  and  fairly  representing 
tha  different  climates  of  the  State — in  the  years  1S72-73  : 


UtCTituin 
City. 

LoOAJtHPOBT. 

[ifUUKAPOLU. 

.Vbw   .iLIANY. 

Ob«ervftUoilt. 

L«.  JI'ss-.N. 

I.!>1.  (0°  «    N. 

L«l.  S90  «'  S. 

L»t.  M'  20'  X. 

Ixm.UGJiT'W. 

l.on.(i<r>2.'W. 

Un  .«;'(»»•. 

Loh.7:P03'W. 

Ann'l    mean 

Klcr.,G5ifcet. 

Klc«-.,510tc<!l. 

Elcv.,  746.7  n. 

Elcv.,  <96  IM. 

pr>.'&iure  ba- 

rniueter 

30.033 

30.023 

30.060 

Monthly 

range  of 

temperature: 

October 

54° 

64° 

54° 

52° 

Xovembcr.. 

61° 

48° 

42° 

53° 

December... 

69^ 



35° 

65° 

January 

07" 



38° 

0j.5° 

February... 

71° 

54° 

50° 

01.0° 

March 

72° 

71° 

60° 

6.S.0° 

■\pril 

5S° 
52° 
48° 

asP 

30° 

■trp 
40° 

32° 
4.3° 

48° 
41° 
40° 
35° 
41° 

52.0° 

I     rfav 

43.0° 

41.0° 

July 

35.0° 

1     Auj^ust 

31.0° 

1     ,'Septcinber.. 

47° 

4-1° 

53° 

52.0° 

j  Monthly 

mean  temp- 

erature: 

October 

50.8° 

44..'!° 

50.0° 

56.0° 

November.. 

32.5° 

35.2° 

36.0° 

37.5° 

December... 

20.3° 

24.4° 

'29.4° 

January 

20.7° 

25.0° 

31.1° 

Februa'ry... 

24.0° 

31.3° 

30.4° 

36.8° 

March. 

34.6° 

31.7° 

:i8.5° 

43.3° 

.\pril 

42.3° 
53.9° 
70.2° 
71.2° 
71.7° 

47.7° 
53.1° 

7i!i'° 

73.5° 

50.3° 
04.0° 
77.0° 
73.5° 
75.0° 

51.0° 

May 

07° 

78° 

July 

79° 

.\USU3l 

78° 

September.. 

62.4° 

62.7° 

64.0° 

69.5° 

Ann'l    mean 

1  temperature. 

46.25' 

53.0° 

50.84° 

55.23° 

.Monthly 

!     rainfall; 

'     October 

0.05 

\     ^-'^ 

f    1.07 

3.92 

I     N'tvorabcr.. 

l.OC 

1    0.80 

0.56 

December... 

0.19 

t 

?   2.10 

2..'iS 

January 

2.53 

V  12.3 

J    4.50 

2.93 

F.:bruary... 

0..17 

i 

•2.85 

5.42 

Mar.-^h 

0..'i9 

) 

343 

3.39 

April 

0  12 

V    10.5 
■   12.8 

■J    5.91 

3.05 

May- 

7.20 
1.44 
4.04 
1.SS 

1    3.89 
f  3.70 
J  11.23. 
1.   1.32 

5.73 

3.87 

July 

3.43 

August 

3.04 

S.:ptcmbpr.. 

2.511 

-.... 

1.76 

2.51) 

.\n.  rainfall... 

23.75 

42.8 

42.o6 

40.42 

Prev.  winds: 

Parts  of  davs 

of  N.  wind. 

128 



90 

96 

"  N.  W.  " 

85 

147 

188 

"    \V.      " 

141 

142 

113 

"    S.  W.  " 

213 

176 

l.")0 

"    8. 

117 

180 

192 

"    S.  E.   " 

79 

78 

8S 

"     E.        " 

79 

64 

143 

"    N.  E.  " 

Ml 

83 

100 

"    Calm  " 

44 

133 

1-27 

Max.  temp.... 

102° 

Wi" 

101° 

9.-.0 

Minimum 

-■ifi 

— 1U° 

-8° 

-4° 

A'jfirAiltnrnl  Pivdncts. — Indiana  belongs  to  tlic  grain- 
growinj5  Statos,  and  in  some  of  the  grains  takes  a  very 
high  rank.  Its  production  of  cereals  in  the  year  ISli'J-TO, 
aocr>rding  to  the  census,  was — uf  wheat,  27,7 17,222  huslieU; 
of  rvc,  •iD7,l'>'S ;  of  Indian  eurn,  i}\,Wl,y.iS ;  of  oatH, 
S.5'j6,409;  of  barley,  ;i0rp,2r»2 ;  of  buckwheat,  80,2111. 
Four  years  later  thct^o  crops  were  reported  as  follows: 
wheat,  2U.k;{2,O00  bushels  (a  decided  falling  off);  rye, 
;;'.I7. 111)0 :  Indian  corn,  G7,><  10.000  fa  gain  of  ncarlv 
ir.,7lfi,000  buMhcls);  oats,  ll.HIO.OOO  (a  gain  of  10  per 
cent.):  barley,  608,000;  buckwheat,  irt'J.UOO  (or  almost 
double).  The  crop  of  Irish  potatoes  in  18011-70  was 
.'...IIMJ.OU  bushels:  in  l-s;:!, only  2,520.000  ;  tobacco  in  1809- 
70,  0,:t2j.3'J2  pounds:  in  187;t,  16,(100,1)00;  hay  in  Isfill. 
1.070,708  tons;  in  1S7:J,  S'.Kt.liOU.  The  value  of  these 
nine  crops  in  187-'*  was  $70,66fi,260,  tliese  constituting  not 
nioro  than  one-half  of  all  farm  productions  in  value.  The 
value  of  all  farm  proiluctions  in  ISO't-70  was  $122.91  4, ^^02, 
and  this  incliicled,  besides  otl)cr  iniporhint  items  to  bo  men- 
tioned nre?enlly,  $2,868,080  of  orchard  products,  $187,179 
of  market-garden  products,  $2.15(6.079  of  forest  products, 
$r»06,fi:!y  of  homo  manufactures,  and  $30,240,902  of  animals 
>laiightcre)l  or  nold  for  slaughter ;  nearly  $r»7. 1*00, 000  in 
all.  In  lSOll-7",  aTording  to  the  census,  Indiana  pro- 
duced 5.029.02."t  poinuls  of  wool,  36,620  buslicts  of  peas  and 
beans.  160,706  bufshels  of  sweet  potatoes,  19,479  gallons  of 
wine,  22,916,386  pounds  of  butler,  283,807  pound  J"  of  cheese; 
and  sold  930. 9S3  gallons  of  milk.  The  iflablishmcnt  of 
butter  and  cheese  factories  since  that  time  in  the  State, 
nearly  IiiO   being  now  in  operation,  hits  tloubled  the  pro- 


duction of  butter  and  cheese.  Among  the  other  agricul- 
tural products  of  1869  were  Cl,li>S  bushels  of  clover  seed, 
17.377  bu.^hels  of  other  grass-seed,  03,884  pounds  of  hops, 
22  tons  of  hemp,  37.771  pounds  of  flax,  401,931  bushels  of 
Qaxsecd,  1,332,332  pounds  of  maple-sugar,  227,880  gallons 
of  maple-molasses.  2,020,212  gallons  of  sorglium  molasses, 
12,0('J  pounds  of  beeswax,  and  396,278  pounds  of  honey. 
In  1870  there  were  in  the  State  497,883  horses,  43,260 
mules  and  asses.  393.730  mileli  cows,  14,088  working  oxen, 
018,300  other  cattle,  1.012.080  sheep,  and  1,872,230  hogs. 
The  value  of  all  the  live-stock  was  estimated  to  be 
$83,780,782.  In  1874  the  numbers  of  each  were  as  fol- 
lows :  Horses,  049,600  ;  mules  and  asses,  68,600 ;  jnilch 
cows,  448,100;  oxen  and  other  cattle,  780,300;  sheep, 
1,722.500:  hogs,  2,490,700.  The  value  of  this  live-stock 
was  estimated  at  $91,401,474. 

M'i)ntf<trtiir>"i. — Manufacturing  industry  has  been  of  slow 
growth  in  Indiana,  but  has  now  attained  to  a  considerable 
magnitude,  and  is  rapi'lly  increasing.  The  largest  branches 
of  manufacture  arc  (lour  and  flouring-raill  proilnct?.  lumber, 
woollen  goods,  machinery,  cars  and  carriages,  iron  and  iron 
goods  (now  rapidly  increasing),  furniture,  boot.s  and  shoes, 
clothing,  agricultural  implements,  packed  meats,  and  sad- 
dlery and  harness.  In  1870  there  were  11,847  manufactories 
in  the  State,  in  running  which  there  were  used  2881  steam- 
engines  of  76,851  horse-power,  and  1090  water-wheels  of 
23,618  horse-power;  employing  68,862  hands,  of  whom 
61,112  were  men,  2272  women,  ancl  2108  cbildreu;  using  a 
capital  (undor-cstimated)  of  $62,062,426  ;  paying  wages  to 
the  amount  of  $18,360,780  ;  working  up  raw  material  of  tlie 
value  of  $63,136,192;  and  producing  to  the  amount  of 
$108,017,278.  The  largest  industry  was  that  of  flouring 
and  grist  mill  i>roducts,  in  wKifh  902  establishments,  era- 
l)loying  3214  persons  and  a  capital  estimated  at  $8,516,627, 
produced  goods  of  the  value  of  $26,371,322.  Next  came 
lumber,  planed  and  sawed,  and  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
which  together,  in  2006  mills  and  factories,  employed 
10.724  persons,  and  produced  lumber,  etc.  to  the  value  of 
$1 1,788,203.  In  wool-carding  and  dressing  and  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  goods  there  were  176  mills,  em])loying 
2409  hands,  and  producing  goods  to  the  value  of  $4,329,71 1. 
In  the  way  of  machinery,  98  machine-shops,  employing  2592 
hanils,  produced  wares  of  the  value  of  5^l.l4il,3S4.  In  the 
manufacture  of  carriages  and  wagons,  770  t^hops,  employ- 
ing 3326  hands,  produced  goods  to  the  value  of  $3,()lti,068, 
and  10  car-shops,  employing  1403  hands,  made  cars  for  p.as- 
sengers  and  freight  valued  at  $2,677,720.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture  362  establishments,  employing  3190  hands, 
niaile  goods  of  the  value  of  $3,820,930.  Carpentering  and 
building,  in  996  establishments,  employing  2893  hands,  pro- 
duced houses,  etc.  to  the  value  of  $3,44"8,959.  Distilled  and 
malt  liquors  were  produced  in  136  distilleries  and  breweries, 
with  the  aid  of  723  men,  to  the  amount  of  $3,363,560.  Iron 
in  the  various  forms  of  manufacture  was  produced  in  122 
establishments,  em])loying  2101  hanils.  to  the  amount  of 
$7,447,147;  the  present  amount  exceeds  $12,000,000. 
Packed  meats  (Ijeef  and  pork)  were  produced  in  12  cstab- 
lishincnt.s.  employing  407  men,  to  the  value  of  $2,826,021  ; 
boots  and  shoes,  in  988  shops,  employing  2702  hands,  pro- 
duccil  goods  to  the  value  of  $2,099,114.  Clothing  for  men 
and  women  was  produced  in  267  establishments, emjiloying 
1019  hands,  to  the  value  of  $2,329,787.  Agricultural  im- 
plements were  produced  in  124  establishments,  employing 
1208  hands,  to  the  amount  of  .$2,128,791.  (^JOper^lge  was 
carried  on  in  367  sliops.  employing  1S08  hands,  to  the 
amount  of  $1,921,878.  Saddlery  and  harness,  in  430  es- 
tablishments, em]»loying  1833  hands,  to  the  amount  of 
$1,064,311.  Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  in  322  es- 
tablishments, to  the  value  of  $1,293,200.  Printing  and 
publishing,  in  09  establif^hnu-nts,  to  the  amount  of 
^1,(08,142.  Placksmithing,  in  1332  establishments,  em- 
ploying 2G62  men  and  boys,  to  tho  amount  of  $1,910,037. 

iinilrnndn  amf  Ctuifih. — Indiana  is  interlaced  with  a 
complete  network  of  railroads,  traversing  nearly  every 
county.  Acfvirding  to  Poor's  UtiHioad  Mttuntil  for  1874- 
76.  at  the  beginning  of  1874  there  were  22  railroatls  par- 
tially or  wholly  within  tho  State,  showing  tho  total  length 
of  railway  track  to  be  3837.06  miles.  In  Jan.,  1876,  the 
number  of  miles  of  railroad  in  the  State  had  increased 
to  4,378.06  miles,  though  the  cost  of  roads  and  eipiip- 
ment  was  re])resented  Ijy  about  tho  same  figures  an  tlio 
year  before.  There  arc  two  canals  in  the  State.  The 
Wabash  and  Kric,  from  Kvansville  to  Toledo,  a  part,  of 
the  way  by  plaek-water  navigation  of  the  Wabash  and 
Maumce.  is  407  miles  in  length,  379  of  which  nre  in  In- 
diana. It  is  no^v  unu><ed  beyond  Lafayette.  Tho  White 
Water  Cjinal  is  76  miles  in  length,  from  Lawrcnccburg  on 
the  Ohio  to  Hagerstown.  It  is  of  more  service  thnn  the 
other.  The  statiNtiea  of  the  compbted  railroad)  in  the 
State  at  the  beginning  of  tho  year  1874  are  presented  in 
the  tabic  on  tho  next  page. 


1150 


INDIANA. 


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Fmnjiccs.— The  State  debt  of  Indiana  on  Oct.  31,  1S73, 
was  $4,895,81.'i.31.  Of  this.  $9!14,0.".U.I2  was  held  abroad, 
but  wa9  paj-able  on  presentation,  a  sufficient  balance  being 
retained  in  the  treasury  to  meet  the  bonds  as  fast  as  they 
are  surrendered.  The  "remainder  of  the  debt.  $3,904,783.22, 
is  held  by  tho  Stale  for  the  school  fund,  and  is  not  negoti- 
able, the  State  paving  the  interest  on  it  annually  to  tho 
schools.  The  receipts  of  the  Stale  treasury  for  the  year 
ending  Oct.  31.  1S73,  were,  including  the  balance  on  hand 
at  the  close  of  the  preceding  year,  $4,3(IU,G03 


ance  from  the  previous  year  was  $755,024.87.  Tho  dis- 
bursements of  the  year,  which  included  the  redemption  of 
the  unsurrendered  bonds  of  1S3C.  the  reimbursement  of 
over  890,000  of  illegal  ta.\es,  and  the  payment  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  expenses  of  the  legislature  of  1871,  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  expenses,  amounted  in  all  to 
§4,115,457.55.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal 
estate  in  1870  was  S0r.3.4.)5.044,  of  which  f4r,O,120,974  was 
of  real  estate  and  $203,334,070  of  per.s<inal  estate.  The 
true  valuation  of  that  year,  according  to  the  estimates  of 
the  r.  S.  marshals,  was' $1,2(58,180,543. 

C'immcrri:. — Indiana  has  no  foreign  commerce  CTCcpt 
that  transacted  through  the  ports  of  Chicago,  111.,  and 
Miami  and  .^andusky.  0.:  the  amount  of  this  is  very  con- 
siderable, but  not  easily  separable  from  that  of  the  adja- 
cent Stales.  The  intei-Statc  commerce  of  the  State  is  very 
large.  The  gross  earnings  of  its  railroads  from  freights  in 
1873  were  $1(;,915,744.  which  could  hardly  represent  less 
than  $1,000,000,000  of  freight  shipped  and  received,  while 
to  this  is  to  be  added  ils'lake  and  river  freights.  The 
transportation  of  iron  ores  from  Lake  Superior  and  from 
Missouri  to  the  newly-established  blast  furnaces  of  the 
block-coal  region  for  smelting  is  a  branch  of  commerce 
which  has  made  great  progress  within  the  past  three  years, 
while  the  moving  of  its  vast  crop  of  cereals,  its  million  or 
more  of  hogs  for  slaughter,  and  its  immense  droves  of  caltle. 
task  even  Ihe  large  capacity  of  its  numerous  railways.  The 
return  freights  of  manufactured  goods,  imported  and  do- 
mestic, adcflargely  to  the  mighty  aggregate.  There  were  in 
Nov.,  1874, 104  national  banks  in  the  State,  6  of  which  were 
closing.  These  had  an  aggregate  capital  of  $18,278,8110; 
$16,575,300  of  bonds  on  deposit,  $21,333,075  circulation 
issued,  and  an  actual  circulation  of  $14,905,206.  There 
were  also  19  State  banks,  under  special  charters,  having  a 
capital  of  $2,080,000  (savings  banks'  amount  of  deposits 
not  stated),  and  96  private  banking-houses,  including  2 
insurance  companies  which  did  also  a  banking  business. 

/n/iiiraiicf.— There  were  in  July.  1873.  2  fire  insurance 
companies  in  the  State,  both  at  Indiana|ioIis,  one  of  them 
mutual,  the  other  with  a  capital  of  $250,000,  and  the  two 
having  assets  amounting  to  $600,402.  There  was  1  life 
insurance  company  (mutual),  also  at  Indianapolis,  with  as- 
sets to  the  amount  of  $303,159. 

Ediii-nti'ni. — In   1870  there  were,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus, 395,263  children  and  ycmlh  who  atteuded  school  some 
portion  of  the  year:  of  these.  391,524  were  of  native  and 
3739  of  foreign  birth;  207,996  were  males  (206,363  whiles, 
1620  colored,  and   13   Indians).  187,267  females  (185,777 
white.  1469  colored,  and  21  Indians).     In  the  same  year 
there  were  76,634  persons,  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  who 
could  not  read,  and  127,124  who  could  not  write.     Of  the 
latter  number.  113,185  were  natives  of  the  State  and  13,939 
of  foreign  birlh  ;    118,761  were  whiles,  8258  colored,  105 
Indians;  5938  males  between  10  and  15  years  old,  and  5134 
females  between  the  same  ages  ;  7878  males  were  between 
15  and  21  years,  and  7752  females  between  the  same  ages; 
36,543  males  were  over  21  years  of  age,  and  60,839  females 
were  over  21.     There  were  in  1870,  9073   schools  of  all 
classes  in  the  Stale,  with  11,652  teachers  (6678  males  and 
4974  females)  and  464.477  pupils  (237,664  males  and  226,813 
females).     The  total  income  of  these  scho(ds  for  the  year 
ending  .June  I,  1870,  was  $2,499,511.  of  which  $50,620  was 
derived  from  endowment,  $2,126,502  from  taxation  and  the 
public  funds,  .and  $322,389  from  other  sources,  including 
tuition.     Of  these  schools,  8871  were  public,  or  belonging 
to   the  coinnion-sehool  system  of  the  State.     These  had 
11,042  teachers  (6402  males  and  4640  females)  and  446.076 
pupils  (228,189  males  and  217.887  females).    Their  income 
was  $2,063,599,  of  which  $2,002,052  was  from  taxation  and 
the  public  funds,  and  $61,547  from  other  sources,  includ- 
ing tuition.     There  were  50  classical,  professional,  or  tech- 
nical schools  (inelu.ling  colleges),  having  325  instructors 
(184  males  and  141  females)  and  8337  students  (4930  males 
and  .3401  females).     The  total  income  of  these  schools  was 
$366,511,  of  which  $50,620  was  from  endowment,  $118,250 
from' taxation  or  public  funds.  $197,041  from  other  sources, 
including  tuition  ;  and  152  other  schools,  with  285  teachers 
(92  males  and  193  females)  and  10,1164  scholars  (4539  males 
and  5525  females),  with  an  income   of  $09,401,  of  which 
$6200  was  derived  from  taxation  or  Ihe  public  funds,  and 
$0,3,201  from  tuition.     Of  the  public  schools,  there  were  1 
normal,  with  0  teachers  (3  male  and  3  female)  and  49  male 
an.l  54  female  students:  69  high  schools,  with  229  teachers 
(106  male  and  123  femalcl  and  5228  male  aud  4845  female 
pupils:  371   grammar  and  graded  common  schools,  wjlh 
171  male  and  558  female  teachers,  and  17,578  male,  18,751 
female  scholars:  and  S430  ungraded  common  schools,  with 
6122  male  and  3956  female  teachers,  and  205,334  male  and 
194,237  female  scholars.     Of  tho  schools  not  public,  there 
were  6  universities  (so  named),  with  06  male  and  7  female 


Tho  bal-  '  professors  or  instructors,  1428  male  and  239  female  stu- 


IXDIANA. 


ll.H 


deoLs,  and  an  income  of  $;>2,S00  from  endowment,  $17,700 
from  Iho  public  funds,  and  $17,OaO  from  tuition,  etc.  There 
wore  I.'J  colleges,  witU  116  mule  and  2S  fcmalu  iostructors, 
21,U  male  and  071  female  students,  and  au  iucomc  of 
$I8,J20  from  endowment,  $17,700  from  the  public  funds, 
and  $l't»,o;jO  from  tuition,  etc.  There  were  10  academies, 
with  20  male  and  00  female  teachers,  i:!0j  male  and  2275 
female  pupiU,  and  $7;nOOO  iucomc,  of  which  SIOOO  was 
from  endowment  and  $S0J0  from  the  public  fun^ls.  There 
were  I  law  school,  with  2  professors  and  51  students;  1 
medical  school,  with  5  prt)fessors  and  I'.i  students;  2  the- 
ological schools,  with  -J  professors  and  -Ui  students.  There 
were  7  eommereial  schools  or  colleges,  with  15  instructors, 
and  782  male  and  '.VA  female  |>upils;  I  institute  for  the 
blind,  with  .1  male  and  -1  female  teachers,  .and  4:)  male  aud 
57  female  pupils,  which  received  from  the  ^tatc  $;I2,500 
annually  ;  I  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dunil>.  with  8  male 
and  5  female  teachers,  143  male  aud  120  female  pupils, 
which  received  $00,000  from  the  .'»tate  annimllv.  There 
were  also  4  schools  of  art  and  music,  with  4  male  and  5 
female  teachers.  .'M  male  aud  218  female  pupils,  and  an  in- 
come of  $8720  from  tuition.  There  was  alst)  1  other  tech- 
nical school,  with  .'I  teachers,  Gl  male  and  18  female  pupils, 
and  an  income  of  $1720,  of  which  SI  100  was  from  endow- 
ment. Of  the  other  private  schools  of  the  State.  124  were 
day  and  boarding  schools,  with  58  male  and  143  female 
teachers,  and  2802  male  ancl  3404  female  pupils,  and  a 
revenue  from  tuition  of  $47,427 ;  28  were  ]iarochial  and 
charity  schools,  with  ,'!4  male  and  50  female  teachers,  17.37 
male  and  2031  female  scholars,  and  a  revenue  of  $0200 
from  the  public  funds  and  $15,774  from  other  sources. 
There  was  consitlerable  progress  made  in  the  next  two 
years  foUtiwing  the  census.  The  State  has  the  largest 
school  fund  (though  it  is  not  quite  all  productive)  of  any 


State  in  the  Union;  it  amounted  in  1874  to  $8,616,031. 
The  amount  of  revenue  for  the  public  schools  in  1S72  was 
$1,717,443.34.  The  legal  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  years, 
and  there  were  in  the  State  031,540  persons  between  these 
ages.  The  number  enrolled  in  the  schools  was  450,451,  and 
the  average  attendance  208,056.  The  total  number  of  dis- 
tricts was  0100,  aud  schools  were  taught  in  all  but  70  of 
these.  There  were  145  graded  schools;  the  average  length 
of  the  schools  in  days  was  116  days,  or  23  school  weeks  and 
1  day.  The  whole  number  of  teachers  in  1872  was  12,248 
(7430  males  and  481s  females).  The  male  primary-school 
teachers  receive  an  average  of  $1.05  per  day,  the  female 
primary-school  teachers,  $1.47  per  day ;  male  high-school 
teachers,  S3. 77  per  day;  female  high-school  teachers,  $2.40 
per  day.  The  whole  number  of  school-houses  in  1872  was 
U080 ;  of  these,  88  were  of  stone,  877  of  brick,  7568  of  frame, 
547  of  logs.  The  total  valuation  of  school  property  for  1872 
was  $0,100,480.15.  In  the  matter  of  higher  education  there 
are  10  colleges  and  universities,  so  called,  and  3  collegiate 
institutions  exclusively  for  the  instruction  of  women.  The 
State  university  is  a  university  in  the  sense  of  having  ]>ro- 
fessional  and  scientific  schools  connected  with  it ;  and, 
though  they  have  not  all  the  professional  schools  attached 
to  each,  yet  as  having  some  schools  of  post-graduate  in- 
struction. Wabash  College.  Hanover  College,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Notre  Dame,  the  Xorth-western  Christian  Univer- 
sity, and  Howard  College  may  be  reckoned  as  universities. 
Hartsville  University  has  a  United  Brethren  theological 
seminary  connected  with  it.  but  Indiana  Asbury  Univer- 
sity has  no  post-graduate  schools. 

Population. — The  following  table  exhibits  the  population 
at  each  period,  jiccording  to  the  census,  since  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Territory  in  the  various  relations  of  race, 
sex,  and  color : 


Ceoaui 
jrcar*. 


1800 
IKIO 

Hl.i 

isjn 

ISM 
18:W 
13:i5 
1811) 
1845 
13:iO 
lS-,4 
18M 
IS.iS 
1870 


5.3  W 

2J,sao 

l'-i.V,T38 

saoiii'ra 

678,098 

on.V.M 

l,338,7io 

1,03'5,837 


free  eolortd. 

Slaves. 

Indians. 

163 
303 

135 
237 

ioii 

"ij 
■'"3 



290 
240 

1,230 

3,629 
"7,Va5 

11, -.'Gi 

11,428 

24,560 

Tout. 


5,641 

24,520 

00,074 

147,178 

224,717 

343,031 

485,053 

685,800 

82.'i,410 

988,410 

1,143,905 

1,:»0,42S 

1,.")3 1.080 

1,080,637 


2,574 
12,570 

77,303 

177,742 

357,704 

611,893 

699,200 

857,994 


2,003 
11,320 

69,685 

165,286 

329,339 

476,523 

651,168 

822,643 


930,458 
1,232,144 
1,539,103 


Foretgncrs. 


55,572 
118,284 
141,474 


Of  the  native  population  in  1870,  770,009  were  males  and 
760.151  females;  of  the  foreign  population,  78,085  were 
males  and  62,480  females :  of  the  white  population,  845,307 
were  males  aud  810,530  were  females;  of  the  colored  race, 
12,585  were  males  and  11,075  females.  Of  the  567,175  per- 
sons of  scho(d  age  (5  to  18  years)  in  the  State  in  1870, 
287,357  were  males  antl  270,818  females;  of  those  of  native 
birth,  282,424  were  males  and  274,080  females  ;  of  those  of 
foreign  birth,  1033  were  males  and  '4832  females;  of  the 
white  population  of  school  age,  283,486  were  males  and 
275,1121  liMuales.  There  were  3830  colored  males  and  3842 
culured  females  of  school  age,  41  luilian  mule  children  and 
55  female  children.  Of  the  military  age  (18  tr»  45),  there 
wore  of  all  classes  310, G>8  males;  of  these  274,618  were 
natives,  45,010  of  foreign  birth,  314,329  whites,  5294  col- 
ored, and  35  Indians.  Of  the  ago  of  citizenship  (21  years 
and  upwards),  there  were  388,2.31  unties,  of  whom  318.055 
were  natives.  70,176  foreigners,  382,070  whites.  0113  col- 
ored, 48  Indians,  and  .370,780  actual  citizens.  The  density 
of  the  population  to  the  square  mile  was  in  1850,29.24;  in 
1800,  30.04;  in  1870,  49.71.  The  number  of  families  in 
the  .State  in  1850  was  171,501;  the  number  of  ilwellings, 
170,178;  in  1800,  the  number  of  families  was  2ls,60l,  and 
r>f  dwellings,  256.946  ;  in  1870,  the  number  of  families  was 
320,100,  and  of  dwellings,  318,469.  The  number  of  per- 
sons to  a  family  at  these  three  periods  was  respectively 
5.70,  5. 1.3,  and  5.25.  The  number  of  persons  to  n  dwelling, 
5.81,  5.26,  and  5.28. 

Mtifufiitnr,  t*iittpri-iitm,  and  Cn'mr. — The  State  liaa  a 
well-comlueted  hospital  for  the  insane,  though  overcrowded 
with  patients;  on  Nov.  I,  1873,  it  harl  474  inmates,  and  its 
expenilitures  for  the  year  were  $155, 170. .'[3.  In  the  two 
.State  prisons,  at  Micliigan  City  an<l  .leffersonxille,  there 
were  res|iectivcly  295  and  3S7  prisi>ners ;  these  prisons 
are  self-supporting.  The  house  of  refuge  IukI  216  boys  in 
charge;  its  expenditures  for  I  873  were  $56,508,06,  of  which 
$31,900  was  from  the  State  tretuiury.  There  is  also  a  re- 
formatory institute  for  women  and  girls,  and  a  homo  for 
soldiers'  orphans,  both  supported  by  the  .^tale.  The  census 
reports  but  3(>52  paupers,  an  cstitiiate  so  far  below  the  truth 
that  it  is  of  no  value  for  statistical  purposes.     During  the 


year  ending  June  1, 1870,  1374  persons  were  convicted  in 
the  criiuiinil  courts  of  the  State,  and  907  persons  were  con- 
fined in  the  county  jails  on  the  1st  of  .lune  of  that  year. 
Of  these,  091  were  native  whites,  04  native  colored,  and  152 
foreigners. 

Libriirlea. — There  were  reported  by  the  ninth  census 
2333  ]iublic  libraries,  containing  027,894  volumes,  of  which 
1  was  a  Sliite  library,  with  17,^70  vtdumcs;  52  town  :nid 
city  libraries,  with  39,029  volumes;  92  court  and  law  li- 
braries, with  10,308  volumes  ;  1000  school  and  college  libra- 
ries, with  323,391  volumes:  1075  Sabbath-.school  libiaries, 
with  201.692  volumes;  87  church  libraries,  with  24,356  vol- 
umes ;  20  circulating,  with  8248  volumes ;  and  2968  private 
libraries,  with  497,059  volumes. 

Acicspapt-i-H  ami  Prriotiirai». — In  1870  the  number  of 
ncwspajicrs  and  pcriotlicals  of  all  classes  in  the  State  was 
293,  having  an  aggregate  circulation  of  303,542,  and  issuing 
annually  20,964,984  copies.  Oflliese.  20  were  dailies,  with 
a  circulation  of  42,300;  3  tri-wccklics,  circulation  2200;  1 
semi-weekly,  circulation  350;  2.33  weeklies,  circulation 
239,.342;  6  semi-monthlies,  circulation  9200;  28  nuinthlies, 
circulation  64,150;  2  bi-monthlies,  circulation  6000,  There 
were  6  advertising  sheets,  with  8700  circulation  ;  5  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural,  with  a  circulation  of  11,500;  0  or- 
gans of  ben<'\  olcnt  or  secret  societies,  with  7250  circula- 
tion ;  4  cotnniercial  and  financial,  with  13,000  circulation; 
16  illustralcrl  literary  or  miscellaneous,  with  27,350  circula- 
tion ;  2  10,  including  all  the  dailies  and  most  of  the  weeklitNS, 
political,  with  a  circulation  of  256,342;  9  religious,  with 
29,600  circulation  ;  7  technical  or  professional,  with  a  cir- 
cuhitifui  of  9800.  There  has  been  a  considerable  a<lvaiu'o 
in  the  number  t>f  periodicals  in  the  State  since  IS70,  espe- 
cially in  the  agricultural  anil  miscellaneous  class. 

t'Aiirt7/i».— There  were  in  I870,  according  to  the  census, 
3698  churches  of  all  ih'nominatiuns,  with  .'ilOO  ihurch 
edifices,  1,008,380  sittings,  and  $11,912,227  of  church  prop- 
erty. Of  these,  there  were  552  regular  liaptist  churches, 
476  church  edifices,  1.35,575  sittings,  and  $1,047,625  of 
church  ijroperty.  In  1874,  according  to  the  llapiinl  Yrnr- 
//.I"/-  for  1875,  there  were  30  associations,  56.3  Ihiplist 
churches,  333  ordained  ministers,  and  39,352  members  of 


11.52 


INDIANA. 


the  churches:   .jg.i  Sunday  schools,  with   11,1119  teachers 
,ind  sciiolars :  li;J,Si;j  volumes  in  Sunday-school  libraries : 
and  the  amount  expended  for  benevolent  contributions  and 
church   purpopcs   was  S;t(il,763.     The  census  of    ISTO   re- 
ported fi8  churches  of   minor   Baptist  denominations,    15 
church  edifices,    HJ.SOU   sittings,  $S'J.700  of  church  prop- 
erty.    Of  the  Christian  Connection,  which  in  the  census  in- 
cludes also  the  Disciples,  unci  probably  to  some  extent  the 
Christian   Union  churches,  the  report  of   1S70   gave  455 
churches,  37"  church  edifices,  122,775  sittiners.and  SS10,S75 
of  church  property.     In  1870  the  Congregationalists  in  In- 
diana were  reported  as  having  IS  churches.  12  church  edi- 
fices, isno  sittings,  and  $ll'.I.StOO  of  church  property.     In 
lS7t   they  had  25  churches,   19  ordained   ministers,   and 
12.).'}  members.     The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  had  in 
1S70,  19  parishes,  .IS  church  edifices.  in,:i00sittings,$4y2. 500 
of  church  projierty.     The   Prntrntant  Epitrtipttl  Almnnnc 
for  1S75  gives  liut  -12  parishes.  ;^.9  ordained  clergymen,  3210 
communicants,  3S11  Sumlay-school  teachers  and  scholars, 
and  $1 17,50.3  of  contributions  for  benevolent  and  church 
purposes.    The  Evangelical  Association  (AHiright  Method- 
ists) had  47  churches,  40  church  edifices.  10,925  sittings, 
and  S124,G00  of  church  property.     In   1873  they  had  85 
ministers,    80    churches,   5909    members.     The    Society  of 
Friends  in  1870  had  81  meetings,  76  meeting-houses,  29.500 
sittings,  $203,800  of  church  property.     The  Jews  had  5  so- 
cieties,  4  synagogues,   1900  sittings.  $113,000   of  church 
property.     The  Lutherans  in  187(1  had  195  churches.  180 
church  "edifices,  62,285  sittings,  and  SB1»,600  of  church 
property.     There  has  been  a  decided  increase  since  that 
time,  but  owing  to  the  formation  of  their  synods  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  accurate  statistics.     Their  membership  is 
probably  about  12.000.     The  Methodists  of  all  classes  had, 
according  to  the  census  in  1870,  1403  churches.  1121  church 
edifices.  346.125  sittings,  and  $3,291,427  of  church  prop- 
erty.    In  1873  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  alone  had 
605  travelling  preachers,  1361  church  edifices,  100,434  mem- 
bers, $3,672,215  of  church  property.     The  Moravians  in 
1870  had  2  churches,  2  church  edifices,  650  sittings,  and 
$5000  of  church  property.     The   New  Jerusalem   Church 
(Swodenborgians)  had  1   church,  1  church  edifice,  100  sit- 
tings. $4000  of  church  property.    The  Presbyterians  (Pres- 
byterian  (lencral   Assembly,   North,   and   United    Presby- 
terians)  in    1870   had   .333   churches,  315   church   edifices, 
116.500  sittings,  and  $2,000,550  of  church  property.     In 
1873  the  Northern  General  .Assembly  had  2  synods,  8  pres- 
byteries. 210  ordained  ministers,  297  churches,  and  21.644 
members.     The  United   Presbyterians  had  9  presbyteries, 
72  ministers,  98  churches,  and  8517  communicants.    There 
was  also  a  considerable  number  of  Ueformcil  and  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  churches.    Of  the  minor  Presbyterian 
bodies,  the  census  reports  42  churches.  42  church  edifices, 
12.100  sittings.  $71,550  of  eluirch  property.     There  were  in 
1870  two   Reformed  churches   (late  Dutch).  2  (dlurch  edi- 
fices, 500  sittings,  $8200  of  church  property:  34  Reformed 
(late  German)  churches,  33  church  edifices,  8880  sittings, 
$97,300  of  church  property.     In  1870  there  were  204  Ro- 
man Catholic   congregations,   201   church  edifices,  86.830 
sittings,  $2,511,700   of   church   property."    In   1874    there 
were  2  dioceses.  2  bishops,  183  priests,  243  churches  and 
chapels.  94-  congregations  and  stations,  and  an  adherent 
population   in    the  two  dioceses  of  somewhat  more  than 
130,000.     There  was  in   1870,  1    Unitarian  society  in  the 
.State.    Tlie  United  Brethren  in  Christ  (trcrman  Method- 
ists) in  1870  hacl  ISl  churches,  12!  cliureh  edifices,  33.975 
sitting.?,  $188,000  of  church  jiropcrty.     In   1874  ihcy  li:id 
507  churches,  270  ministers,  and  21,521    members.     The 
Univcrsalists  in  1870  h;id48  congregations,  15  church  edi- 
fices,  6300  sittings,  .$73,100   of  church   property.     Their 
present  numbers  are  (1874)  40  congregations.  24  ministi-rs. 
and  2.334  members.  There  were  also  in  1870,  4  union  orgjin- 
izations,  with  5  church  edifices,  1200  sittings,  and  $.3500  of 
church  property. 

CotiHtitHtion,  Courts,  nrprcsentfitiret  in  Cimr/resn,  etc. — The 

f)rescnt  constitution  of  Indiana  was  adopted  in  1851,  but 
las  undergone  some  amendment  from  time  to  time.  Its 
genera!  provisions  arc  similar  to  those  of  most  of  the  West- 
ern States.  The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary 
of  state,  treasurer,  auditor,  attorney-general,  and  supcrin- 
tcn<lent  of  pulilic  instruction  arc  chosen  by  the  people  at 
elections  heUl  lui  the  2(1  of  October  in  each  alternate  year. 
The  govern(tr  and  lieutenant-governor  hold  office  for  four 
years:  the  otht'r  officers  for  two  years  only.  The  legisla- 
ture, which  consists  of  a  senate  of  50  members,  chosen  for 
four  years,  one-half  being  elected  every  second  year,  and  a 
house  of  representatives  of  98  members,  elected  biennially, 
meets  regularly  in  January  in  the  odd  years,  1875, 1877,  etc. 
By  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  ratified  in  1873.  the 
courts  of  common  picas  were  abolished,  and  the  judiciary 
now  consists  of  a  supreme  court  of  four  judges,  chosen  by 
the  people  for  seven  years,  and  38  circuit  courts  meeting  in 


their  several  districts,  the  judges  of  whioh  are  elected  for 
six  years.  There  are  no  county  courts.  The  divorce  laws, 
which  have  been  for  many  years  a  reproach  to  the  State, 
were  materially  modified  and  remodelled  by  the  legislature 
of  1873.  Under  the  new  apportionment  of  1872,  Indiana 
has  13  members  of  Congress. 

Cinnitirn. — The  .State  has  92  counties  ;  the  following  table 
gives  the  names  and  popul:iti<m  (male  and  iemale)  and 
total  of  each  in  1870,  and  the  total  population  of  each  in 
1860  and  1850: 


CoUDttCJ. 


Adams 

Alien 

Bartholomew 

Ucnton 

Blackford 

Boone 

Brown 

Carroll 

Cass 

darke 

Clay 

Clinton 

Crawford 

Daviess 

Dearborn 

Decatur 

Dc  Kalb 

Delaware 

.Dubois 

Elkhart 

Fayette 

Floyd 

Fountain 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Gibson 

Grant 

Greene 

Hamilton 

Hancock 

Harrison 

Hendricks 

Henry 

Howard 

Huntington 

Jackson 

.Tasper...^ 

.lay 

.leifersou 

.Jennings 

.Tubnson 

Knox 

Kosciusko 

La  Grange , 

Lake 

Laj>orte 

Lawrence 

Madison 

Marion 

Marshall 

Martin 

Miami 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

Jlorgan 

Newton 

Noble 

Ohio 

Orange 

Owen 

Parke 

IVrrv 

Pike. 

Porter 

Posey 

Pulaski 

Putnam 

linlnlolph 

"ipley 

Rush 

ScotI 

Shelby 

Spencer 

Starke 

Steuben 

St.  Joseph 

Sullivan 

Switzerland 

Tippecanoe 

Tipton 

rninn 

Vanderburgh 

Vermilion 

\v:n 

AVabasb 

Warren 

W;irwick 

WasbingtOD ™ 

\\'avne 

Weils 

While 

Whitlev I 


Male  pop- 

ulatiou. 

1870. 

R.m 

22,474 

10,763 

3,113 

3.24.5 

11..510 

4.412 

R,.3.|6 

12,472 

12.7.3-1 

D.908 

8.S18 

4,978 

8,37.5 

12.162 

9,098 

8.805 

9.763 

0,390 

13,318 

0,258 

11.4.39 

8,.53S 

10,183 

C.G06 

8,893 

9.461 

9,782 

10,700 

7.740 

10.10.5 

10..363 

ll.OSS 

8.005 

9,702 

9.-5-1 

3,226 

7,G2C 

1.5,063 

8,117 

9.:i.57 

11,039 

11,946 

7,219 

6,4;«) 

13,970 

7,391 

11.700 

.36.920 

10,420 

5.696 

10,7.50 

7,059 

12,.301 

8,925 

3,109 

10..383 

2,944 

6,851 

8.147 

9.407 

7.490 

7,070 

7,199 

9,886 

3,943 

11,009 

11,018 

10,062 

8,906 

3,998 

11,2.50 

9,247 

2,076 

6,593 

i:!,061 

9,:i29 

6,045 

17,396 

6,117 

3.244 

16.797 

6,639 

17,008 

10,840 

5,.309 

9,098 

9.:!.5.5 

16.866 

6,954 

.5.519 

.:«.3 


Female     Total  pop- 1  Total  pop- 
popiila-       uluUon,       ulatloR, 


popiila- 
tioD.lSTO. 

.5.671 

21,020 

10.370 
2,502 
3,027 

11.053 
4,209 
7,806 

11.721 

12,0.36 
9,176 
8,512 
4,873 
8,372 

11,954 
9,8.55 
8,862 
9,267 
6,207 

12.708 
5,218 

11,861 
7,854 

10,040 
6,120 
8,478 
9,020 
9,732 

10,176 
7,383 
9,808 
9,914 

11,298 
7,842 
9,331 
9.403 
3,128 
7.374 

14,678 
8,101 
9.009 

10.523 

11,5.85 
li,929 
5.900 

13,092 
7,2:17 

11,070 

a5.019 
9,791 
5.407 

10.:i02 
7.109 

11,464 
8,603 
2.720 

10,006 
2.893 
6,046  ! 
7,990 
8.7.59 
7,311    I 
6,709  I 
6,743 

9,299 

S,*JS 

10.505  I 

11.244 

10,315 

8,6(>0 

3.875 
10,642 

8,751 

1,812 

6,261 
12.261 

9,124 

6,0S9 
16,119 

6,8.36 

3,097 
16..'H8 

5,201 
16,i>ll 
10,465 

4.895 

8,.555 

9,140 
17,182 

6,631 

6,0*5 

7,0.56 


uluUon, 
I8T0. 


Totals 8.57.994    822,643    1, 6,80,6.37 |,l,i50.428i  988,4 ir.  | 


ll,:!82i 
43,491 
21,i:i:!j 
5,615 
6.2721 
22..593 
8,681 
16,1.52 
24.193 
24,770 
19.084 

l7,:i;io 

9,851 
16,74 
24,116 
19.053 
17,167 
19,030 
12,.59' 
26.026 
10,476 
23.:S00 
16,389 
20,223 
12,726 
17.37: 
18.48; 
19,514 
20,882 
1.5,123 
19,913 
20,277 
22,9.% 
1.5,84" 
19.030 
18,974 

G,;i54 
15,000 
29.741 
16.218 
18,366 
21, .502 
23.531 
14.148 
12,339 
27,062 
14,628 
22,770 
71,939 
20,211 
11,103 
21.052 
14.168 
23,705 
17,528 

5,829 
20,389 

5,837 
13,497 
16,137 
18,106 
1-1,801  i 
13,779| 
13.912 
I9,185i 
7.801 
21.514 
22.802 
20,9! 
17,62i; 
7.87: 

21. .sg; 

17,99.>i 
3.888 
12,854 
2.5.:!r- 
18.453 
12.1.34 
33,5: 
11,953 
6,341 
33,115 
10,,'<40 
3.!,.5.19 
21.305 
10.20! 
17,6.53 
18,495 
34,0*8 
13,,585 
10,.5.5t 
14.4991 


I  UM.    pull 

ulatloR, 
1B60. 


9,252 
29,;!28 
17,865 

2,809 

4,122 
16,753 

6,.507 
13.189 
16,813 
20,502 
12.161 
14.5a5 

8,226 
13,323 
24,406 
17,294 
13,880 
16,753 
10,394 
20,986 
10,225 
20,li!3 
15,.560 
19.519 

9^422 
14,.532 
15,797 
16,041 
17,310 
12,802 
18,521 
16,953 
20,119 
12,.524 
14,807 
16,286 

4,291 
11,399 
25,030 
14,749 
14,654 
16,056 
17,418 
11,366 

9,145 
22,919 
13,09; 
16,518 
39,855 
12,722 

8,975 
10,8:51 
12,847 
20,888 
16,110 

2,300 
14,915 

5,402 
12,076 
14.370 
15,5;i8 
11,847 
10,078 
10,313 
16,167 
5,711 
20,081 
18,997 
19,054 
16,193 
7,303 
19,509 
14,.556 
2,195 
10,374 
18,455 
15,004 
12,098; 
25,7261 
8,170 
7,109 
20,.552 
9,4221 
22.517 
:7,.547 
10,057 
13,261 
17,909 1 
29..558| 
10,844 
8,2.58 
10.730 


Tola!  pop 

ulalioD, 

1850. 

5.797 
10,919 
12,428 

1,144 

2,860 
11,031 

4,s-46 
11,(115 
ll,(l:il 
15.S-J8 

7,944 
11,.SG9 

0,524 
10,:'.52 
20.100 
1-5,107 

8,251 
10,843 

6,321 
12,690 
10.217 
14,875 
13,253 
17,908 

5,982 
10,771 
11,092 
12,313 
12,084 

9,098 
15,286 
1-1 .083 
17,605 

6,057 

7,S,50 
11.017 

3,-540 

7,017 
2:j,916 
12,096 
12,101 
11,084 
10,24:1 

8,3H7 

3.991 
12,145 
12,097 
12,375 
24,103 

5,348 

5,i)41 
11,:)34 
II, 286 
1S,0,V4 
14,576 

7.940 
5,:i0S 
10,809 
12.106 
14.908 
7,268 
7,720 

5,2:m 

12,519 

2,095 
18,615 
14,725 
1-1.820 
10.415 

5.885 
15,.5n2 

8,616 
557 

6,101 
ln,'.l51 
10,141 
12,!132 
19,377 

3,5:!2 

G  91 1 
1I,!14 

S.GGl 
15,289 
12.138 

7,387 

8,811 
17,040 
25.:wo 

6.1.52 

4,701 

5. inn 


INDIANA. 


ll.V] 


Pn'ncipnt  Totcnt. — Indianapolis,  the  capital,  lias  some- 
what more  thau  50.000  iuhiibitants;  Evansvjlle,  Fort 
Wayne,  Tt-rrc  Iluutr,  and  New  AMjudv  range  between 
]S,doO  and  L'j.OOO  iuluibiiuDt:* :  LuniycLtc,  MnJison,  and 
Uichmond,  between  U'.UUO  and  KS.OOO  ;  Logansport,  Jef- 
lersonville,  Suurh  Bend,  Laporte*  and  Vinceuues,  between 
bOOU  and  12,000,  while  Michigan  City,  Aurora,  Columbus, 


Crawfordsville,  Elkhart,  Goshen,  Grecncasllc,  Lawrence- 
burg,  and  Peru  each  contain  from  1000  to  SOOO  inhab- 
itant:<. 

KUctoral  nnd  Popular  Vote  at  President utl  Ehrtioun. — 
Indiana  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State  in  ISHi,  and 
the  same  year  participated  for  tbo  first  time  in  a  presiden- 
tial election  : 


1S16 
1820 
1S2-1 
1828 
18.12 
I33G 
IS40 
1814 
1813, 
13.'.2j 
I8oC 
ISCO' 
1864* 
1868 
1872 


CaodliLitea  wbo  reccivrd  iho 
slcxtoral  vote  of  UK  Slaic 


James  Monroe  P. ) 

D.I).  Tompkins  V.-P....  f 

Janit-8  MonnM*  P | 

D.  I>.  Tompkins  V.-P...  / 

Andrew  .hickson  P I 

J.  C.CiiMiDiin  V.-P ] 

Andrt*w  Jackson  P I 

J.  r.  Ciillionn  V.-P ( 

Aiuirewr  Jackson  P 

M.  Van  Biiren  V.-P 

\\\  H.  Harrison  P 

F.  (Jran-,'Lr  V.-P 

W.  H.  HarriMm  P 

John  TvbT  V.-P 

James  k.  Polk  P 

(i.  M.  Dalhis  V.-P 

Lewis('a.ss  P 

W.  O.Huller  V.-P 

Franklin  Pierce  P 

W.  R.  Kinfi  V.-P 

James  Itiu'hanan  P 

J.  ('.  Itreekfnrid;;e  V.-P. 

.\braliam  Lincoln  P 

II.  Hamlin  V.-P 

Abraham  Lincoln  P 

A.  Johnson  V.-P 

U.  S.  (irant  P 

S.  Culfax  V.-P „ 

U.  S.  (Jranl  V 

Henry  WiUua  V,-P 


Not  rec 

Not  rec 

7,a4;l 

22,2.37 

31,552 

41,281 

65,302 

70,131 

74,74.5 

95,340 

118,670 

139,040 

150,422 

176,552 

186,147 


Ritfns  Kinc:  P \ 

J.  MarshairV.-P J 

John  Qiiiucy  Adams  P... 

.Tohn  Quincv  Adams  P..  1 

N.  Saulurd   V.-P ] 

John  Quincv  Adams  P..  I 

R.  Rush  V.-P J 

Henry  Clay  P. I 

J.  Sergeant  V.-I* ( 

M.  Van  lUiren  P 1 

U.  M.  Johnson  V.-P f 

M.  Van  Karen  P 1 

R.  M.  Johnson  V.-P ' 

Henry  Clay  P 

T.  Frelinuhuysen  V.-P.. 

Zachary  Taylor  P 

M.  Fillinorc  V.-P 

Winfield  Scott  P 

W.  A.  Graham  V.-P 

J.C.  Fremont  P 

\V.  L.  Dayton  V.-P 

S.  A.  Douglas  P 

H.  V.  Johnson  V.-P 

if.  B.  McCIellan  P 

<;.  H.  Pendleton  V.-P... 

H.  Sevinour  P 

F.  P.iJIair  V.-P 

Horace  (ireelev  P 

B.Gratz  Brown  V.-P 


Not  rec 
Not  rec. 

3,095 

17,052 

15,472 

32,478 

51,701 

67,807 

69,907 

80,901 

94,375 

115,509 

130,233 

166,980 

163,632 


Henry  Chiy  P.. 


J.  Ci.  Birnoy   P 

M.  Van  Buren  P > 

C.  F.  Adams  V.-P f 

John  P.  Hide  P 1 

G.  W.  Julian  V.-P / 

M.  Fillmore  P j 

A.J.  Donelson  V.-P J 

{Breckenridge  and  Lane 
Bell  and  Everett 

Charles  O'Conor  P 


Popular 
vote. 


8,100 

0,929 

22,386 
12.295 
5,306 


Histonj. — Indiana  was  originally  a  part  of  the  French 
possession?,  and  probably  a  Canadian  French  colony  had 
established  one  or  more  trading-posts  within  its  present 
boundaries  before  the  close  of  the  sevcntecnih  century.  In 
1702  there  wa.''  a  fresh  migration  of  cousiclerablc  numbers, 
who  settled  at  Vineeunes,  Corydon,  and  other  points.  They 
speedily  made  friends  of  the  Indian  tribes  then  inhabiting 
the  country,  and  so  far  amalgamated  with,  them  as  to  adopt 
(heir  habits  antl  customs.  Nothing  was  heard  of  (hem  till 
the  cession  of  the  territory  to  the  English  in  I7IJ'!,  when  by 
the  treaty  their  territorial  rights  were  confirmed.  By  tho 
treaty  of  17H:1  this,  as  well  as  the  whole  North-west  Terri- 
tory, was  transferred  to  the  C  »S.  In  178S  there  was  trou- 
ble witli  the  Indians,  and  a  local  war  en.>ued  which  caused 
great  distress  among  the  .settlers  at  Vincenncs,  The  In- 
dians were  attacked  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Tippecanoe  by 
Gen.  Wilkinson  in  I7'.n.  anil  through  his  judicious  man- 
agement and  that  of  <ien.  Wayne  several  victories  were 
gained,  the  Indians  were  compelled  to  submit,  and  a  dan- 
gerous confederation  of  the  tribes  was  broken  up.  A  time  of 
greater  peace  and  quietness  followe*!.  very  little  disturbed  by 
the  rai'ls  of  hostile  Indians.  In  17'J3  tho  l'.  S.  obtained  sev- 
eral eliijiblc  tracts  of  land  by  the  treaty  of  Greenville,  and 
It  considerable  number  of  emigrants  settled  in  the  Territory. 
Ohio  was  erected  into  a  separate  Territory  May  7,  1800, 
and  all  tho  country  W\  and  N.  of  it  organized  as  tbo  new 
government  of  Indiana.  The  same  year,  according  to  the 
IL  S.  census,  there  were  ISTo  inhabitants  in  the  (irchent 
limits  of  the  State.  Michigan  Territory  was  set  off  from 
it  in  IS05,  and  Illinois  Territory  in  ISOU.  leaving  Indiana 
Territory  with  its  present  boundaries.  In  IHIO,  notwith- 
Btanding  some  Indian  troubles  in  tho  five  or  six  years  pre- 
ceding, the  jiopnlation  had  increased  to  24.520.  In  ISll 
the  Shawnees.  one  of  the  largest  tribes  of  Indians  in  the 
Territory,  were  excited  to  a  eomjdete  frenzy  by  the  elo- 
(punec  of  their  propliet  and  leader,  Tccuraseh,  and  com- 
menced a  scries  of  raitis  and  outrnires  against  the  settlers. 
The  governor  of  tho  Territory,  William  Henry  Harrison 
(afterwards  President  of  the  U.  S.),  assembled  a  fcrco  of 
regulars  and  militia  at  Vincenncs,  and  on  Nov.  fl,  ISll, 
marched  to  Tippecanoe  on  the  Wabash,  the  prophet*s  town, 
nnd  demamled  the  restoration  of  the  property  which  the 
Imliuus  had  taken  from  the  settlers.  After  a  parley  the 
Indians  proposed  a  delay  till  the  next  morning,  nnd  gave 
intimations  of  their  readiness  to  enter  into  an  amicable  ar- 
rangement. During  the  nigh(,  liowever.  they  nmde  a  sud- 
ilen  and  violent  attack  on  the  forces  under  Gov.  Harrison, 
but,  to  their  surprise,  found  them  watchful  and  prepared. 
A  short  but  sanguiimry  battle  ensued;  the  In'lians,  untler 
tlio  shouts  and  encouragements  of  their  propliet  leader, 
fought  with  tho  utmost  desperation;  but  they  could  not 
resist  the  steady  and  resolute  advance  of  the  white  troops, 
and  after  a  terrible  slaughter  they  fled,  sullen,  bnt  thor- 
oughly defeated;  and  soon  after,  their  town  having  been 

Vol..  11.—::; 


burned  and  tho  surrounding  country  laid  waste  by  the  vic- 
torious troops,  the  Shawnces  sued  for  peace.  The  war  with 
Great  Britain,  which  soon  followed,  gave  a  fresh  impulse 
to  Indian  hostilities,  but  the  tribes  were  again  thoroughly 
bumbled  and  subdued,  and  after  the  peace  of  1815  never 
molested  the  Indiana  settlers  again.  In  Dec  1815,  tho 
subject  of  admission  into  the  Union  as  a  8tatc  began  to  bo 
agitated  throughout  the  Territory ;  in  Apr.,  ISItJ.  an  en- 
abling act  was  passed  by  Congress;  a  convention  was 
called,  and  the  first  constitution  of  Indiana  adopted  Juno 
21),  and  on  Doc.  II,  1815,  Indiana  was  admitted  into  tho 
Union.  Her  growth  from  this  time  onward  was  very  rapid, 
the  census  (»f  1S21)  .-^bowing  an  increase  of  500.2  ])er  cent, 
during  the  preceding  decade.  The  completion  of  the  Erie 
Canal  and  tho  building  of  tho  National  Road  stimulatctl 
immigration  Into  the  fertile  and  beautiful  State,  and  moro 
than  :i, 500.000  acres  of  government  lands  were  purchased 
within  the  Slate  in  tho  ten  years  ending  witli  1S;10,  and 
the  population  had  increased  I.'!;}. I  per  cent.  Then  com- 
menced an  era  of  wild  speculation.  Eight  railroad  com- 
panies were  incorporated,  the  AVabash  and  Erie  Canal 
was  begun  and  driven  forward  with  great  rapidity,  a 
State  bank  with  thirteen  branches  organized,  antl  numer- 
ous other  great  enterprises  fostered  by  the  State  and  its 
banks.  When  the  crash  came  in  18^7  there  was  general 
bankruptcy  and  a  State  debt  of  $14,057,000,  tho  interest 
of  which  was  not  paid  wholly  or  in  part  till  1816.  Yet  in 
lS-10  it  was  found  that  the  population  of  the  State  hat! 
doubled,  and  that  immigrants  to  tho  State  had  taken  up 
9,122,688  acres  of  government  lands.  In  I8  1(J  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  the  resumption  of  interest  on  iho 
State  debt,  and  prosperity  began  to  return.  In  1850  tho 
increase  of  population  during  the  previous  deca<lc  was 
found  to  be  44.1  per  cent.  In  iSjl  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted,  and  in  185;'.  a  free-banking  law  nasscd.  The  de- 
cade from  1850  to  1800  was  marked  by  tiic  completion  of 
its  great  canal  from  the  lakes  to  the  Ohio,  as  well  as  by  tho 
execution  of  other  important  public  works,  and  by  the  great 
increase  of  its  railroad  facilities,  from  228  miles  in  1850  to 
2163  miles  in  1800.  Tho  financial  panic  of  185"  made 
havoc  of  (he  free  banks  of  the  State,  but  produced  far  less 
di-saster  than  that  of  IS.'t".  In  the  late  civil  war  Indiana 
sent  her  full  quota  to  the  field,  and  though  there  was  some 
trouble  at  first  through  the  machinations  of  those  opposecl 
to  the  war.  which  necessitated  tho  assumption  of  unusual 
war-pnwers  by  the  governor,  tho  general  record  of  tho 
State  for  patritdism  and  efficient  service  was  in  the  highest 
degree  honorable  to  it.  In  two  or  three  instances  its  leg- 
islature, under  the  influence  of  unwise  and  partisan  leaders, 
has  attempted  something  in  the  nature  of  a  coup  d'/tat, 
but  the  result  of  these  efforts  has  so  soon  returned  to  plague 
and  injure  their  contrivers  that  it  is  hardly  possible  that 
they  will  ever  again  be  attempted.  Like  some  of  its  sister 
States,  Indiana  has  been  agitated  of  late  on  the  question 


11.J4 


INDIANA— INDIANAPOLIS. 


of  cheap  transportation  of  produce,  but  it  has  not  de- 
veloped in  that  State  so  decidod  an  antagonism  between 
tlic  raih'oad  companies  and  the  farmers  as  in  some  of  the 
other  Stales,  mainly  perhaps  because  her  facilities  fin- 
transportation  are  less  dependent  upon  tlie  railroads  than 
some,  and  in  part,  also,  because  that  her  railroad  compa- 
nies have  been  less  liostilc  to  the  producing  classes  from 
uhom  they  derive  their  support.  The  National  Congress 
(if  Agriculture  which  mot  at  Indianapolis  in  May,  1873, 
discussed  this  question  very  tborouglily  and  in  an  excellent 
j^pirit. 

(jovcrnors. — 

Term. 

TERRITORY. 

William  U.  Harrison ISOO-lt 

John  CiUsoii  (acting) I811-i:{ 

Thuinas  Posi-'y 1S13-16 

State. 

Jonathan  Jennings 18IG-22 

William  Hendricks 1822-25 

James  B.  Rav 182r>-31 

Noah  Noble.! 1831-37 


Intliaiin,  county  of  S.  W 


Term. 

David  Wallace 1837-40 

Samuel  Iliuger 1840-43 

James  Whilcomb 184:i-48 

Paris  C.  Dtiuning 1848-19 

Joscpli  A.  Wrisht 1849-57 

Aslihfl  P.  Wilhird lS.-)7-61 

Oliver  P.  Morton ISfil-G? 

Conrad  Baker 18fi7-73 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks... 1873- 
L.  P.  Brockett. 
Central  Pennsvlvania.    Area, 


77tl  square  miles.  It  is  hilly,  but  for  the  most  part  quite 
fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Bitu- 
minous coal,  iron  ore.  and  salt-springs  are  found.  Metal- 
lic wares,  wagons,  leather,  lumber,  furniture,  castings,  and 
farm  implements  are  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  Its 
soutbern  part  is  traversed  by  the  Pennsvlvania  R.  R.  Cap. 
Indiana.     Pop.  30.1:JS.  '* 

Iniliaiia,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  la.     Pop.  1332. 

Intliana,  tp.  of  Allegheny  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  2S06. 

Iniliana,  post-b.,  cap.  of  Indiana  co.,  Pa.,  72  miles 
N.  K.  (if  Pittsburg,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Indiana  branch 
of  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  has  2  banks.  3  planing-mills,  2 
foundries,  I  machine-shop,  a  fine  court-house,  3  newspa- 
pers, a  national  bank,  several  churches,  and  a  large  trade 
in  lumber  and  agricultural  products.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
State  normal  school  erected  at  a  cost  of  $!25.000.  Pop. 
1005.  S.  A.  Smith,  En.  "Messenger." 

Indianap'olis,  city,  capital  of  Indiana,  and  seat  of 
justice  of  Marion  co.,  is  situated  near  the  geographical 
centre  of  the  State,  UKistly  on  a  plain,  on  the  E.  bank  of 
■White  River,  in  3'J°  55'  N.  lat.  and  86°  05'  W.  Ion.  Its 
first  settlement  was  made  in  1S19.     It  was  settled  as  the 


seat  of  government  in  1820,  laid  out  in  1821,  and  occupied 
as  the  capital  in  lS2i.  Its  streets,  lined  with  forest  trees,  arc 
from  00  to  100  feet  wide,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles, 
except  four  broad  diagonal  avenues,  which  converge  towards 
a  circular  park  in  (he  centre.  Numerous  railways  have 
opened  communication  with  every  portion  of  the  State  and 
the  great  commercial  eities.  Its  first  railroad,  the  Jladison, 
was  built  in  18-17.  The  population  then  was  about  lOUIt. 
It  now  has  13  rjiilroads  in  operation,  and  one  in  process  of 
construction,  with  their  numerous  branthes  and  connec- 
tions giving  direct  access  to  all  but  t>  of  the  i!2  counties 
of  the  State.  These  roads  centre  in  the  Union  depot,  where 
82  passenger-trains  and  328  passenger-cars  enter  and  leave 
daily,  with  an  average  of  10,000  persons  daily,  and  3.000,000 
yearly.  The  number  of  freight-cars  for  the  last  eight 
months  of  1S74  was  470,000,  making  for  the  year  more  than 
700,000.  These  railroads  traverse  localities  unsurpassed 
in  agriculture  and  mineral  resources,  thus  furnishing  facil- 
ities for  supjdying  the  raw  material  to  the  manufacturers 
and  for  distributing  the  jiroducts  of  the  city.  Situated 
near  the  centre  of  the  great  corn-belt,  it  is  the  natural 
grain-market  for  a  vast  area.  There  are  two  large  grain- 
elevators  and  ten  fiouring-mills.  There  are  8  pork-packing 
houses,  and  1  for  packing  beef.  The  total  hog-])roduct  fur 
1874  was  valued  at  SS. 500, 000.  Indianapolis  possesses  pe- 
culiar advantages  for  manufactures  of  iron  and  wood.  Im- 
mense forests  of  timber,  beds  of  coal,  and  mines  of  iron  ore 
abound  in  the  State.  Five  railroads  in  three  hours'  run 
reach  eoal-fields  of  nearly  8000  square  miles.  Excellent 
for  fuel,  the  block  coal  is  unrivalled  for  working  iron  and 
steel.  Its  manufacturing  interests  are  specially  represented 
by  2  rolling-mills,  malleable-iron  works,  car-works,  saw- 
factories,  18  or  20  foundries,  maehiiic-shops,  and  shops  for 
various  branches  of  iron  and  brass  work,  numerous  saw 
andjdaning  mills,  and  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories,  manu- 
iactories  for  agricultural  implements,  carriages,  sewing- 
machines,  household  furniture,  school  furniture,  church  and 
parlor  organs,  pianos,  boots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  glass,  starch,  glue, '•  Sarven  wheels,"  step-ladders, 
and  wooden  ware,  ami  many  others.  There  are  30  incor- 
porated manufacturing  institutions.  The  entire  manufac- 
turing capital  invested  is  not  less  than  $12,000,000.  The 
number  of  buildings  erected  in  1874  was  2900,  in  value 
nearly  $8,000,000. 

The  Belt  Railway  now  (1875)  building  around  the  city 


Statu  CapitoL, 

will  more  completely  connect  the  various  lines  of  railroad  ' 
anil  aid  the  transfer  of  freight,  location  of  workshops,  ware- 
biiuscs.  stockyards,  etc.  The  Central  Canal,  cutting  a  bend 
of  White  Uivcr,  furnishes  partial  water-power  for  llouring- 
niills  and  factories.  The  tire  dcjiartmcnt  has  7  steam  lire- 
engines,  with  100  men,  and  an  electric  alarm  telegraph. 
AValer  is  furnished  by  the  Holly  system,  having  45  miles 
of  pipe.  The  street  railw.ay  has  18  miles  of  track,  50  cars 
an<i  150  men.  There  are  G  national,  10  private,  and  2 
sa\  ings  banks,  with  a  united  capital  of  about  $5,000,000. 
A  manufaclurcrs'  and  real  estate  exchange,  meeting  weekly  ; 
a  board  of  trade,  meeting  daily,  exchanging  products  and 


Indianapolis. 

securing  market  reports  from  the  great  marts  of  trade;  7 
home  insurance  companies ;  118  American  and  foreign 
companies  represented  here;  numerous  lodges  of  Masons 
ami  Odd  Fellows  ancl  orders  of  secret  and  benevolent 
societies;  acity  hospital ;  free  dispensary  :  board  of  health  ; 
national  surgical  institute;  home  for  friendless  women  ;  3 
homes  for  orphans ;  sisters  of  Providence;  Bible  society; 
V.  M.  C  A.,  etc.  Here  are  State  institution*!  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  the  blind,  and  insane,  and  the  women's  prison 
an<l  reformatory  institute.  There  are  5  English  and  2  CJer- 
maii  daily  newspapers.  12  English  and  5  (Jerman  weeklies, 
and  12  monthly  publications ;  17  job  printing  and  publish- 


INDIAN    Ai:aill'KLAUO— INDIAN    LANGUAGES   OF   AMKIUCA. 


1155 


!ng  establishments ;  6  libraries  (the  city  library  ha?  17,000 
vols.);  a  reading-room,  with  the  leaOing  American  and 
European  periodicals.  This  and  the  library  are  supported 
by  a  Slate  tax.  They  are  open  daily,  an<i  free  to  all. 
There  arc  a  universiity,  law  school,  2  medical  colleges,  a 
Catholic  theylogicul  seminary,  6  (lermaii  and  several  select 
and  private  school?.  The  free-school  system  is  maintained 
by  local  and  State  taxation  and  by  its  .vhare  of  the  State 
school  fund  uf  $H, 000. 000,  which  is  larger,  by  more  than 
$*_', 01)0. 000.  than  that  of  any  other  State;  a  city  high  school, 
training  s-hool,  and  20  district  schools.  The  number  of 
school  cliildren  enumerated  is  over  20,000;  value  of  city 
school  property,  $700,000;  assessed  value  of  taxable?, 
$72,000,0110  ;  rate  of  city  tax  187I.SI.10  on  S100,Statc  and 
county  tax,  71  cents  on  $100.  Tht'rc  are  70  churches — 12 
Pre-byterian,  is  Methodi-t,  7  Baptist,  b  Episcopal,  5 
Chrisiian.  5  Lutheran,  4  Catholic.  2  Congregational,  2 
Hebrew;  all  others,  10.  Crown  Hill  Cemetery,  2  miles 
N.  \V.  of  the  city,  opened  in  1S(U,  enclo.-:es  w.'iO  acres. 
Among  the  puidic  buildings  is  the  Statc-hou^c,  built 
in  IS.'Io,  of  brick,  in  the  tirecian  style,  containing  the 
legislative  chamber.  State  library,  State  agricultural  so- 
ciety and  geological  cabinet.  It  being  in  a  decaying 
condition,  measures  have  been  taken  to  replace  it.  The 
State  building,  of  brick,  contains  rooms  for  the  State 
ancl  supreme  court  oflicers.  The  State  benevolent  institu- 
tions are  located  in  or  near  the  city,  ancl  are  monuments 
of  the  munificence  of  the  State.  The  U.  S.  court-house  and 
post-ofR<^'e  is  of  iron  and  dressed  stone,  costing  $200,000  : 
on  an  elevation  just  E.  of  the  city  are  the  U.  S.  arsenal 
buildings,  four  in  number,  in  an  enclosure  of  70  acres,  com- 
m:tn<ling  and  beautiful.  The  county  court-house  surpasses 
any  building  here  in  dimensions  and  tasteful  design,  of 
dressed  stone  and  iron,  275  by  I'M)  feet,  three  stories  with 
ccntriil  tower  of  200  feet,  high  basement,  and  mansard  roof 
in  the  Renaissance  style  of  architecture.  The  immense  Ex- 
position building,  built  in  1873  by  the  State  agricultural 
society,  is  of  brick,  :108  by  150  foot,  two  stories  high,  with 
elovafed  galleries.  It  is  N.  of  the  city,  in  the  State  fair- 
grounds, and  cost  $I.'.0,000.  The  Union  dCpAt,  of  brick, 
sfone  and  iron,  although  420  by  200  feet,  is  too  small  for 
the  local  trains.  The  chamber  of  commerce  building,  sub- 
stantial and  imposing,  erected  last  year,  cost  .$";>, OOO. 
Among  other  structures  worthy  of  note  are  the  Odd  Fel- 
lows' Hall  and  the  Masonic  Hall,  the  Academy  of  Music, 
many  of  its  churches  and  massive  business-blocks,  not  a 
few  of  whicli  are  models  of  construction  and  tinish.  The 
h'^-alth  record  of  Indianapolis  will  compare  favorably  with 
th:it  of  any  citv  East  or  West.  Population  in  1850."  8091; 
in  Isr.O,  18.000';  in  1870,  48,244.  Charlfs  N.  Todd. 

Indinii  Archipelago.     See  Eastkus  Auchipki.ago, 

Indian  ArcliiU'rtnrc.  See  Auciiitkctiri:  of  the 
Ami  KM  \\   AiiMi:i.;iNi:s,  by  Hon.  L.  H.  Morgan,  LL.D. 

Indian  Hran.     Sec  Catai.pa. 

Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  [Zm  maijH,  Linn.],  the  most 
nbundsint  of  the  cereals,  and  most  important  grain  raised 
by  American  farmers,  belongs  to  the  tribe  Phiilarid;c  of 
the  naturul  order  (Inimineai  or  grasses.  It  is  indigenous 
t<»  Americu,  where  it  luifn  alw.iys  formed  the  chief  food  of 
tlic  Indian  races,  from  which  the  name  is  derived.  Its  cul- 
tivation was  introduced  from  America  to  Southern  Europe 
and  Asia  and  to  Northern  Africa,  where  it  spread  with 
great  rapidity.  It  is  alleged  that  this  grain  wiis  known  in 
very  ancient  times  (o  the  Chinese,  but  if  so  it  fell  into  com- 
plete oblivion.  Indian  corn  is  properly  a  sub-tropical  grain, 
a  native  probably  of  the  table-lands  of  Mexico  or  Peru,  the 
great  height  of  which  gives  them  a  distinct  character  from 
the  lowlands  in  the  same  latitude.  It  thrives  best  under  a 
hot  summer  sun,  and  its  rapid  growth  and  ripening  give 
it  a  peculiar  value  for  high  Northern  latitudes,  where  the 
summer  hi-at  is  as  intense  as  the  winter  cold.  In  England 
the  summer  heat  is  not  sufficiently  intense  to  favor  its  pro- 
duction. The  chemical  ingredients  of  Indian  corn  are 
chietly  starch  and  oil;  it  yields  abundance  of  phosphorus, 
and  is  n  most  nutritious  and  heallhful  diet.  There  are 
many  varieties,  presenting  great  differences  and  possessing 
very  unequal  value.  The  original  type  was  probably  the 
wild  variety,  having  a  separate  husk  to  each  grain;  the 
lowest  variant  types  appear  to  ho  the  small  riee-corn  and 
nop  corn,  and  the  highest  is  perhaps  the  '•  Improved  King 
Philip."  The  lower  types  hybridi/.e  very  readily;  not  so 
the  higher,  which  appear  lo  have  nearly  or  quite  reached 
the  limit  of  perfecrihility.  New  varieties  are  constantly 
appearing,  and  with  proper  care  most  valuable  improve- 
ments might  bo  introduced.  As  food  for  man  there  is  a 
great  difference  in  the  varieties.  Tusearora  corn  contains 
no  oil.  rice-corn  contains  the  most,  pop-corn  next,  Canada 
corn  ranks  third,  and  brown  corn  fourth.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  effect  of  careful  cultivation  is  to  augment  the 
starchy  at  the  expense  of  the  fatty  contonts.     The  lato- 


ripening  kind  called  sweet  corn  furnishes  when  green  a 
savory  article  of  food  for  several  months  (say  from  July  15 
to  Oct.  15),  either  boiled  or  roasted.  Indian  corn  in  the 
U.  S.'is  emphatically  the  poor  man's  crop.  licing  hardy 
and  easily  cultivated,  it  is  the  first  grain  planted  by  the 
new  settler  amid  stuutjis  and  iullen  trees,  by  the  aid  of  the 
hoe  alone.  The  yield  ranges  from  10  bushels  to  the  acre, 
which  is  the  average  on  the  worn  lands  of  the  Gulf  States, 
to  200  bushels,  the  apparent  maximum  yield  which  in  a 
few  instances  has  been  produced  under  very  exceptional 
circumstances  from  small  and  carefully-tended  patches  in 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  In  the  Central  States  the  aver- 
age yield  is  from  25  to  30  bushels  per  acre.  The  price  has 
fluctuated  from  5  or  10  cents  per  bushel,  at  which  it  was 
often  sold  in  Kentucky  and  Ohitt  early  in  the  j)resent  cen- 
tury, to  $1  ami  njore,  at  which  it  has  been  sold  in  the  East- 
ern cities.  The  height  of  the  full-grown  corn  varies,  accord- 
ing to  species  and  soil,  from  three  to  eighteen  feet.  The 
method  of  cultivation  formerly  in  universal  use  was  plant- 
ing in  rows  of  hills  some  five  feet  apart,  but  ibis  has  been 
replaced  to  a  great  extent  of  late  years  by  the  more  advan- 
tageous system  of  sowing  in  drills,  economizing  manual 
labor  by  the  use  of  imjiroved  ploughs  and  other  imple- 
ments. The  yield  and  quality  of  the  grain  are  much  im- 
proved by  careful  selection  of  the  best  ears  for  seed,  and 
by  soaking  the  seed-corn  in  copperas  or  Unic-water,  which 
hastens  the  process  of  sprouting  and  protects  the  seed  from 
certain  insects.  The  average  time  of  planting  is  May  20 
to  June  1.  The  total  yield  in  the  U.  S.  in  1870  was 
7G0.*J44,549  bushels;  the  largest  yield  in  a  single  State  was 
that  of  Illinois,  12".),02],:iU5  buslu-ls.  (For  further  statistics 
see  articles  upon  the  several  Stales.)  Porter  C.  Buss. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  liullock  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  11G2. 

Indian  Creek,  a  v.  and  tp.  of  Trinity  co.,  Cal.  Pop. 
of  V.  I8:i;  of  tp.  78;j. 

Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  III.     Pop.  433, 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  White  co..  111.     Pop.  2U10. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1348. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  988. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Pulaski  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  812. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Mills  co.,  la.     Pop.  GUO. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Story  co.,  la.     Pop.  1074. 
Indian  Creek,  post-tp.  of  Monroe  co..  Mo.     Pop.  654. 
Indian  Creek,  tp.  of  Pike  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1103. 
Indian  Cress,     See  Tuoi'-KOLACE-f;. 
Indian  Cnenniber.     Sec  Medeola. 
Indian  Dye.     See  Puccoon. 

Indian  Fields,  tp.  of  Tuscola  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  825. 
Indian  Fifj.     See  Caotace.*;. 

Indian  <;r»>ve,  tp.  of  Livingston  co.,  111.  Pop.  2G35. 
En  ilia  II  II<Mnp.  See  Cannabis,  Hasiiism,  Arocv.vACE.t:. 
Indian  Hill,  tp.  of  Abbeville  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1920. 

Indian  Lake,  post-tp.  of  Hamilton  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  the 
Adirondac  region.  The  tp.  incUules  many  lakes  (among 
them  Indian  and  the  Eckford  lakes).     Pop.  202. 

Indian  Land,  (p.  of  Lancaster  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  9G9. 

Indian  Liui;;uages  of  America.  In  a  general 
view  of  the  languages  of  the  Western  World  their  number 
and  variety  are  at  first  more  remarkable  than  is  that  ap- 
proach to  uniformity  in  plan  of  thought  nu'i  verbal  struc- 
ture which  establishes  something  like  a  family  likeness 
among  them  all.  No  accurate  enumeration  of  these  lan- 
guages has  been  or  can  be  made.  Kirclier  in  1075,  on  such 
information  as  he  could  gather  from  Jesuit  missionaries, 
(  stimated  the  number  at  abctut  5<MI.  Garcia  cited  authority 
for  reckoning  more  than  50t)0.  Ilerrera  had  been  told  that 
every  village  in  Mexico  bad  a  language  of  its  own.  anil 
Ilervas  adopted  a  statement  that  the  number  of  South 
American  languages  and  dialects  was  between  1500  and 
2000.  One  estimate  is  as  good  as  another,  since  none  can 
be  based  on  suflicient  data.  Somewhat  nearer  approxima- 
tir>n  may  be  bad  to  the  number  of  gftnfcs  or  families  of 
speech  in  North  America.  In  ISlfi,  Mr.  (iallalin  enume- 
rated thirty-two  distinct  families  in  and  N.  of  the  U.  S., 
not  including  the  languages  of  California,  which  were  not 
then — and  arc  not  even  yet — sutliciently  well  known  to 
Justify  their  arnmgement  by  families.  T!io  acquisition  of 
New  Slexicn  by  the  V.  S.  made  a  eonsiderabto  addition  to 
Mr.  (lallatin's  list.  His  classification,  so  far  as  it  goes,  has 
been  generally  accepted  by  philologists,  subse({uent  inves- 
tigations having  confirmed  ni'ift  of  his  conclusions,  or  at 
least  havintr  faileil  (with  perhaps  two  exceptions)  lo  estab- 
lish affinity  between  the  linguistic  groups  he  separated. 

At  least  four-fifths  of  North  America  K.  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  N.  of  Mexico  was  occupied  by  nations  and 


1156 


INDIAN   LANGUAGES  OF  AMERICA. 


wandering  tribes  speaking  dialects  of  not  more  than  four 
radically  distinct  languages — namely,  the  EsKiuu,  Atha- 
bascan, Algoxkin,  and  Sioux  or  Dakota.  The  Eskimo 
was  spoken,  in  various  dialects,  near  the  shores  at'  the 
Northern  Ocean,  from  the  E.  coast  of  Greenland  to  Beh- 
riu^'s  .Straits,  a  distance  of  nut  less  than  j4t)0  miles,  and  it 
extended  southward  on  the  Atlantic  to  the  Straits  of  Bell- 
isle  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  S.  of  the  Eskimos  the 
territory  between  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Kocky  Mountains, 
and  stretchini;  westward,  between  5U°  and  IJU°  N.  lat., 
nearly  to  the  Pacific,  was  occupied  by  the  .Athabasias 
family  in  numerous  tribes,  among  which  may  be  named  the 
Chepewyans  (see  Northern  I.ndians).  and  the  nearly-re- 
lated ■•  bog  Ribs."  the  Slave  and  the  Beaver  Indians,  the 
Takulliis,  anil  probably  the  Loucheux.  E.  of  the  lloeky 
Mountains  the  most  southerly  of  known  .-Vthabasean  tribes 
is  that  of  the  Sussees,  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan Uiver,  about  51°  N.  lat.;  but  W.  of  the  moun- 
tains offsets  from  this  stook  have  been  traced  as  far  S.  as 
Mexico.  Small  tribes  and  bands  of  Athabascans  were 
found  near  the  Pacific  in  Soathern  Oregon  and  Northern 
California,  and  Prof  W.  W.  Turner  showed  that  the  Apache 
nation  of  .Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  including  the  Navajos, 
Pinalenos,  and  Jicarillas,  belong  to  the  same  great  family 
of  speech.  (See  Dr.  J.  C.  E.  Buschmanu's  Der  AlhnpaH- 
kisrhe  Spruchatamm  dunjealellt,  Berlin,  ISJo,  and  his  Uas 
Apache,  mit  einer  ai/atem.  Wurtta/cl  d.  Athap.  liprach- 
stamms,  18f)0-63.)  E.  of  the  Mississippi,  and  of  a  line 
drawn  north-westerly  from  the  head-waters  of  that  river  to 
those  of  the  Missinipi  (Churchill's)  Kiver,  was  the  vast 
territory  of  the  .\lgonkins,  within  the  bounds  of  which, 
however,  was  comprehended  that  of  two  groups  of  Iroquois 
tribes,  speaking  a  radically  ditferent  language.  'When 
North  America  became  known  to  Europeans  the  .■VIgonkin 
country  was  hounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Athabascan,  Hud- 
son's Bay,  and  the  Labrador  Eskimos;  E.by  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  .Atlantic  as  far  S.  at  least  as  Cape  Hatteras ; 
S.  by  an  irregular  line  running  westwardly  from  that  cape 
to  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  or  its  vicinity. 
One  Algonkin  tribe,  the  SaUiknn  or  Blru:kf:mt,\s  found  far 
W.,  between  the  head-waters  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  the 
Missouri,  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  .Mountains,  and  another, 
the  Oiei/cnnc  or  .S'/iyejoic,  roameil  till  lately  the  country  that 
borders  the  North  and  South  Platte  rivers,  to  which  region 
they  seem  to  have  strayed  from  the  far  N.  "  The  most 
widely  diffused  and  the  most  fertile  in  dialects  "  of  all  North 
.American  languages,  the  Algonkin,  was  (in  the  words  of 
Mr.  Bancroft)  "the  mother-tongue  of  those  who  greeted 
the  colonists  of  Raleigh  at  Roanoke  and  of  those  who  wel- 
comed the  Pilgrims  to  Plymouth.  It  was  heard  from  the 
Bay  of  Gaspc  to  the  valley  of  the  Dcs  Moines;  from  Cape 
Fear,  and  it  may  bo  from  the  Savannah,  to  the  land  of  the 
Eskimos;  from  the  Cumberland  River  of  Kentucky  to  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Missinipi.  It  was  spoken,  though 
not  exclusively,  in  a  territory  that  extended  through  sixty 
degrees  of  longitude  and  more  th.an  twenty  degrees  of  lati- 
tude." In  some  of  its  numerous  dialects  the  polysynthetic 
type  or  plan  of  structure  seems  to  have  attained  its  highest 
expression  and  the  grammatical  apparatus  its  nicest  adjust- 
ment. Some  of  its  characteristic  features  will  be  noticed 
hereafter.  The  fourth  great  North  .American  family,  the 
Dakota,  or  Sionx  (the  latter  being  an  abbreviation  of 
Xiuidemcwioiijc,  itself  a  French  corruption  of  the  name 
given  to  the  D.akota3  by  their  rivals  and  enemies,  the  Al- 
gonkins),  claimed  most  of  the  region  between  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Rooky  Mountains,  from  the  Saskatchewan 
on  the  X.  to  .Arkansas  Kiver  at  the  S.  A  detached  tribe, 
the  HViiiutn^oM,  were  found  (with  a  tradition  of  a  removal 
from  the  W.)  near  Green  Bay  and  Lake  .Michigan.  .Another 
Sioux  tribe,  the  Amiiiibuiiis,  wandered  N.  along  the  upper 
Missouri  and  the  Assiniboin  rivers  to  the  W.  side  of  Luke 
AVinnipeg  and  the  Saskatchewan,  and  became  allies  of  the 
Algonkins.  Next  to  the  Algonkin  language,  that  of  the 
Dakotas,  perhaps,  has  been  most  thoroughly  investigated, 
and  the  labors  of  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions,  liberally  seconded  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  the  publication  of  a  grammar  and  copious 
dictionary  (edited  by  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs),  have  brought 
this  language  prominently  to  the  notice  of  .American  and 
European  philologists.  (See  Dakota  Ixdiaxs.)  To  the 
tribes  named  in  that  article  as  speaking  languages  of  the 
Dakota  stock  may  be  added  the  Omnhas,  Ponkas,  loways, 
Otos,  .Mandans,  and  Minitaris  or  Hidatsii.  The  /'<iirnec« 
and  Coynanrftr^  were  included  by  mistake.  An  loicai/ 
Grammar,  by  Rev.  W.  Hamilton  and  S.  M.  Irwin,  was 
printed  in  1S48,  and  a  Ormnmar  and  Dn-tionary  of  the 
Jlalattn  Lanijnatje  by  Dr.  W.  Matthews  in  1873  (J.  G. 
.Shea.  New  York). 

Next  after  these  four  principal  families,  those  of  the  Iro- 
quois, the  CiiAIiTA-.MusKOKi,  and  the  Chkrokek  (if  the  last 
two  may  not  ultimately  bo  reduced  to  one)  were  the  most 


considerable.  The  Iroquois-speaking  tribes  were,  as  has 
been  stated,  nearly  enclosed  within  the  territory  of  the  Al- 
gonkins. Their  northern  group  comprised  the  "  Five  Na- 
tions" living  S.of  Lakes  Va-\v  and  Ontario  and  of  the  river 
St.  Lawrence,  and  W.  of  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain, 
and.  further  N.,  the  Huron s  or  Wyandots,  the  Attiwandarons 
("Neutral  Nation"),  the  Eries,  and  the  Andastcs.  The 
southern  Iroquois,  separateil  from  their  congeners  by  inter- 
vening .Algonkin  tribes,  were  the  Nottoways,  and  perhaps 
the  Meherrins  or  Tnteloes,  of  Southern  Virgini.a  and  North 
Carolina,  and  S.  of  these  the  Tuscaroras.  who  removed 
northward  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  joined  the 
confederated  Five  (thereattcr  known  as  the  Six)  Nations. 
(.See  lltoguois,  and  L.  II.  Morgan's  Lriit/iit:  of  thr.  Iroijuoin.) 
Recent  investigations  by  Mr.  Horatio  Hale  have  thrown 
doubts  on  the  hitherto  accepted  affinity  of  the  Tnteloes  and 
Iroquois,  if  they  have  not  fully  established  the  connection 
of  the  former  with  the  Dakota  slock.  Mr.  Hale  regards 
the  Tutelo  as  a  Dakota  dialect,  and  inclines  to  the  belief 
that  formerly  '•  the  whole  of  what  is  now  the  central  por- 
tion of  the  U.  S.,  from  the  Mississippi  nearly  to  the  Atlan- 
tic, was  occupied  by  Dakota  tribes,  who  have  been  cut  uj* 
and  gradually  exterminated  by  the  intrusive  and  more  en- 
ergetic Algonkins  and  Iroquois."  (.Sec  Proceed in(/i  of  Am. 
Philolotjival  Socielij,  1871,  p.  15.  For  a  general  view  of  the 
Iroquois  language,  sec  (iailatin's  SynopsU  of  the  Indian 
Tribes,  pp.  U32-2;J8,  and  Etudes  philoUnjiqueH  snr  queltfucs 
Laiiijuea  Sanvarjes,  par  N.  0.,  Montreal,  1866.)  TheCHAiiTA- 
MusKOKi  family,  comprising  the  Choctaws  and  Chicasas, 
Muskokis  or  Creeks,  Seminoles,  Coassattis,  Alabamns,  and 
Hitchitis,  oecujjied  the  territory  now  constituting  the  States 
of  Georgia,  .Alabama.  ^lississippi,  and  Florida,  with  a  jior- 
tion  of  Louisiana  E.  of  the  Mississijipi,  except  the  shore  of 
the  Gulf  from  Mobile  westward  and  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, inhabited  by  various  small  tribes,  and  a  tract  in 
Northern  .Alabama,  on  both  sides  of  the  Tennessee  River, 
which  belonged  to  the  Cherokees.  The  Choctaws  and 
Chicasas  speak  nearly  related  dialects  of  the  same  lan- 
guage, to  which  probably  the  llitchiti  also  belongs.  The 
Creeks,  Seminoles,  and  small  tribes  of  Coassattis  and  Ala- 
bamas  speak  dialects  of  another  language  of  the  same 
stock.  (For  the  Choctaw,  sec  Byington's  Choctaw  Gram- 
mar, edited  by  Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton,  1870,  and  his  EntiUsh 
and  Choctaw  Definer.  1852;  Rev.  A.  Wright's  vocabulary 
and  grammatical  notes,  in  Gallatin's  Synopsis.  Extensive 
vocabularies  of  the  Muskoki.  Coassaiti,. Alabama,  Chitctaw, 
and  llitchiti  are  preparing  for  publication  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.)  The  Cherokees  {Tsalatfi)  lived  in 
villages  along  the  Tennessee  River  and  its  tributaries, 
their  country  extending  over  the  mountainous  regions  of 
East  Tennessee  and  the  ni)rthern  portions  of  Georgia  and 
-Alabama.  In  the  Cherokee  language  every  syllable  ends 
in  a  vowel  or  a  nasal,  and  this  peculiarity,  with  the  ab- 
sence (with  rare  exceptions)  of  double  consonants,  inclined 
Mr.  Gallatin  to  adopt  Barton's  suggestion  of  the  affinity 
of  the  Cherokee  and  Iroquois.  .At  present,  however,  such 
affinity  cannot  be  considered  as  established.  The  inven- 
tion of  a  syllabic  alphabet  by  George  Guess  (or  Sequoyah), 
a  half-breed  Cherokee,  in  1826,  has  promoted  the  general 
education  of  that  nation,  but  for  those  to  whom  the  lan- 
guage is  not  vernacular  the  necessity  of  learning  eighty- 
live  arbitrarily-chosen  characters  interposes  an  additional 
obstacle  to  its  study.  (See  Mr.  Pickering's  Remarks  on 
the  Indian  Lanrjnatjes  of  America,  from  the  Eneyctopixdia 
Americana,  vol.  vi.;  Rev.  S.  A.  Worcester's  Jlemarks  on 
the  Principles  of  the  Cherokee,  in  Schoolcraft's  Indian 
Tribes,  ii.,  413;  H.  C.  von  Gabelentz's  Grainmatik  d. 
Tscherokesischen  Sprache.) 

The  seven  families  which  have  been  mentioned  were 
spread  over  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  territory  N.  of 
Mexico,  E.of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Between  these  moun- 
tains and  the  .Sierra  Nevaila  the  most  important  family  is 
that  of  the  SnosiioNK.  occupying  Utah,  Ne\  ada,  the  southern 
part  of  Idaho  ami  Oregon,  including  the  Kizh  and  Netcia 
of  iSouthcrn  California  and  the  Conmnches  of  the  prairies 
of  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  with  the  Shoshtmes  or  Snake  In- 
dians, Wihinasht,  and  Bannacks  in  the  valleys  of  Snake  and 
Owvhee  rivers,  and  the  several  divisions  of  the  Ute  (Utah) 
nation.  Dr.  J.  C.  E.  Buschmann  has  endeavored,  but  as 
yet  with  questionable  success,  to  establish  the  connection 
of  this  family  with  the  Sonora  stock  of  Northern  Mexico. 
N.  of  the  Shoshones,  between  45°  and  52°  XO'  N.  lat.,  are 
two  considerable  families,  the  Saiiaptix  and  the  Sni.isn 
(TsinAii.i-SEi.isn  of  Hale).  The  former  includes,  besides 
the  Sahaptins  proper  (NcJ  Percys),  the  Walla-Wallns, 
Yakamas,  Pelouse,  and  Kliketats,  in  Northern  Oregon,  the 
south-eastern  portion  of  Washington,  and  the  western  bor- 
der of  Idaho.  The  Tsiiiaii.i-Sklish  are  distributed  by 
Mr.  Hale  in  four  groups,  represented  by  (1)  the  Shushwaps 
or  .Atnahs  of  British  Columbia,  and  the  "  Flatheads,"  or 
Selish  proper,  on  the  upper  Columbia  and  its  tributaiics, 


IXDIAN   LANGUAGES  OF  AMERICA. 


1157 


including  the  Pend  d'Oreillcs.  Caeurf<  d'Alenc,  Spokanes, 
nnd  Piskous;  (2)  the  N'skwally,  on  Piigcl  Sound;  (3)  the 
T^ilIailish  or  Cliihailish,  bclwotn  the  N'skwally  and  tho 
ocean,  and  the  Kowelitsk  or  Cowlitz,  S.  of  the  N'skwally; 
and  (4)  the  KiMainuks  (Tilhiinookti).  alonj;  the  coast  of 
Norlh-wc?tern  Oregon.  Of  these,  only  the  first  group,  tho 
Selish  and  Shushwaps,  arc  inland  tribes?,  the  other  three 
divisions  iK-ing  ineluded  geogra]>hicaIIy  with  the  Sound 
Indians.  Little  prngrc??  in  elassification  of  the  languages 
of  numerous  small  tribes  of  the  Pacific  coast  has  been  made 
since  the  publication  of  Mr.  Hale's  vocabularies.  (  U.  S.  Ex- 
pforiti'f  E.rprifit!',n,vo].\u.,"  Ethnography  and  Philology.") 
Kor  all  that  is  known  of  their  territorial  divisions,  past  and 
present,  see  the  first  volume  of  Mr.  JI.  H.  Bancmft's  iWitive 
/iitrcn  xtf  the  Pacijir  Stntce,  1874.  Of  the  structure  of  tho 
Sahaptin  and  Selish  languages,  Mr.  Ilale's  grammatical 
notes  to  vocabularies  give  the  best  general  account.  Seo 
also  M.  C.  Pandosy's  (I'mmmttr  and  Dictiouart/  »f  On:  )'«- 
k'tmn  (a  Sahaptin  dialect),  and  Mengarini's  (i'rammatica 
/.tntjn.T  ScticiF^  both  printed  in  J.  G.  Shea's  scries  of  Amcr- 
iVfin  Linffiiintiea, 

Of  langunges  spoken  near  tho  southern  border  of  the 
U.S.,  two  or  three  have  already  been  mentioned  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Athabascan  and  Shoshone  stocks.  The  Caddocs 
(properly,  Cado-hadacho),  Adais,  (.'hctimachas,  and  Atta- 
capas.  tribes  or  remnants  of  tribes  W.  of  the  Mississippi,  on 
the  Red  River  and  between  it  and  tho  (lulf,  speak  four 
hinguages,  which  Mr.  (Jiillatin  classes  as  railically  distinct. 
To  the  Caddo  belong  the  dialects  of  tho  Nandakoes.  tho 
Nabedaches,  and  tlie  Inics  or  Ttirhir.n,  who  have  given 
their  name  to  the  State  of  Texas.  The  Yitma  language  is 
sp'>ken  on  both  sides  of  the  (Colorado  River,  above  and 
below  the  junction  of  the  (lila.  To  it  belong  the  dialects 
of  the  Coco-Maricopas,  now  living  in  a  village  on  the  N. 
bank  of  tho  (Jihi:  the  Cuchans,  near  the  Colorado;  tho 
Mohavt'S,  farther  N. ;  the  ilualapais,  Yampais,  in  Arizona; 
and  the  Dieguenos, near  the  Pacific  in  Southern  California. 
The  Pima,  with  its  dialects,  spoken  on  the  Gila  and  its 
southern  affluents,  is  included  by  Buschmann  in  his  Sonora 
family,  of  which  the  Taraluimara,  Tepeguana,  Cora,  and 
Cahita  of  North-western  Mexico  constitute  tho  first  group  ; 
tho  Tubar,  Iliaqui,  Kudcve,  and  Opata  of  Sonora  make  the 
second;  tho  I'iina  the  third;  and  the  Kizh,  Comanche, 
Shoshone,  elc.  tho  fourth.  (Sec  Buschmann's  Die  Spnmt 
d.  AztekinchiH  Sprnrftc,  otc,  Uerlin,  ISaO,  and  his  Die  Pima 
Sprnchc,  1857.  A  grammar  of  the  Pima  or  Nevome,  trans- 
lated by  Iluckinghani  Smith,  has  been  printed  in  Shea's 
Amrrirnn  Lint/nittica,  vol.  V.)  The  isolated  languages  of 
tho  Pitrfj/'iH  or  V'illagc  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
near  the  Rio  Grande,  and  between  it  and  the  upper  Colo- 
rado, ])resent  problems  of  special  interest  to  ethnologists 
and  philologists  which  still  remain  unsolved.  In  these 
scattered  villages  dialects  arc  spoken  of  four  or  five  distinct 
languages,  between  no  two  of  which  have  genetic  relations 
been  established. 

The  picture-writings  of  tho  Aztecs,  the  incised  symbols 
on  the  atones  of  Palenquc,  Copan,and  Yucatan,  with  other 
evidences  of  a  higher  civilization  than  appears  to  have  been 
attained  by  northern  nations,  impart  peculiar  interest  to 
tho  languages  of  Mnxiro  and  ('i;ntrai.  Amkuica.  Since 
tho  publication  in  1815  of  Mr.  (jtallatin's  A^»^■'^  on  the  S'tnii- 
civilized  jWafioiiti  of  Mexico,  etc.  (  Trann.  Am.  ICfhnof.  Soc^ 
vol.  1.),  much  has  been  done  for  the  comparative  philology 
of  these  tongues,  particularly  by  Pimcnlol's  i'nndro  dt:- 
Hrripfirtt  t/  rump'irtitino  dc  Ihh  IrnffnnH  ile  Mexico  (1862-05) 
anil  the  flvtxjrtifitt  dr  Inn  hnipmH  dc  Mfxint  of  Orozco  y 
Ilorra  (Mex.,  IKCI).  The  most  important  family  is  that  of 
which  (he  Mexican  proper,  Xtthutttl  or  Aztv,  is  the  reoog- 
nized  type.  This  appears  to  have  been  spoken  by  tlic 
Nahuatlacs  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  adjacent 
country  to  the  K.  and  S.,  and  in  numerous  dialects  it  ex- 
tended throughout  the  Mexican  empire.  Ruschinann  in 
his  principal  work,  /^iV  .Syxrrcji  d.  Aztrh.  Sprnchc,  main- 
tains the  northern  origin  of  tho  Toltecs  and  Nahuatlacs, 
and  has  collected  tho  evidence  of  affrnity  of  the  Aztec  with 
the  languages  of  North-western  Mexico,  and  of  the  latter 
with  the  languages  of  Sonora  and  Lower  California.  De 
Charencey,  A'o/tVc  •itr  qurlqurt  fnmiUra  dc  litutpun  dii  Mrx- 
iqitr  (1S7U),  accepting  Puschmann's  chissirication,  recog- 
nizes in  tlic  "  Chichimecan  family  "  two  groups — tho  north- 
ern or  "Oregon,"  comprising  the  Ctunanehe,  Kizh,  Sho- 
shone, Uto,  etc.;  tho  southern  or  "Mexican,"  including 
the  Pima  and  other  languages  of  Sunora,  with  the  Cora 
and  the  .A/.tec.  The  Otomi  or  Uin  hni.  spoken  by  tribes 
N.  and  \V.  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  differs  widely  from 
other  languages  of  this  region,  and  its  jjresumcd  monosyl- 
labi(:  character,  together  with  certain  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture, has  leil  some  writers  to  regard  it  as  utterly  discordant 
from  the  general  typo  of  American  speech,  and  as  probably 
of  foreign  origin.  But  tho  monosyllabic  character  is  much 
less  apparent  in  tho  J/azd/iui',  a  dialect  of  tho  Otomi,  and 


disappears  in  tho  Matlazinga  or  Pirinda  of  Toluca,  tho 
affinity  of  which  to  the  Otimi  sceras  established  by  recent 
investigations.  Other  Mexican  languages  of  undetermined 
affinities  are  represented  by  the  Tarasca  (of  Miehoaean), 
Tlapanec  (Puebia),  Totonaco  (Puelda  and  Vera  Cruz),  Za- 
poteco  and  Mixteco  ((_)axaca),  Zotjui  and  Mixe  {in  parts 
of  Oaxaca,  Tabasco,  and  Chiapas).  The  lluaxteco  or  Hu- 
astee,  which  is  spoken  in  the  N.  of  Vera  Cruz  and  in  Puebia, 
has  fexv  coincidences  with  the  Mexican  or  the  Otomi,  but 
is  allied  to  tho  great  Maya  family.  To  tho  Moi/ft  stock 
belong  tho  Quieh6,  Kakchiquel.  Zutugil,  Ixil.  Choi  (or  Pu- 
tum),  JIame,  and  IVikonchi  of  Guatemala;  Tzcndal,  Zot- 
zil  (Chamula),  Chorti,  and  Liicandon  of  Chiajias;  Chontal 
of  Tabasco  ;  with  the  Maya  of  Yucatan.  The  Abb^-  liras- 
seur  de  Bourbourg,  an  enthusiastic  and  indefatigable  stu- 
dent of  Central  American  antiquities  and  languages,  pub- 
lished, besides  a  grammar  an<l  vocabulary  of  the  Quiehf* 
(Paris,  1SG2),  translations  of  tho  Pojad  Vnh,  or  sacred 
book,  and  of  a  Quiche  drama,  Hahinal-Avhi.  His  discov- 
ery in  18C3  of  an  ancient  phonetic  alphabet  employed  by 
the  Mayas  of  Yucatan,  preserved  in  manuscript  by  Bishop 
Landa,  excited  hopes  that  the  pictured  annals  and  seutj)- 
tured  stones  of  Central  America  must  soon  give  up  their 
secrets.  The  hope  is  not  yet  realized,  'f'lie  AbV'6  Bras- 
seur's  attempt  at  translation  of  a  part  of  the  Troano  manu- 
script by  means  of  Landa's  alphabet  was,  as  ho  subsecfucntly 
admitted,  unsuccessful.  More  ample  materials  for  tho 
study  of  the  Maya  language  and  its  dialects  may  hereafter 
enable  scholars  to  use  the  key  which  his  discovery  supplied. 
Dr.  n.  Berendt,  who  has  given  many  years  to  the  investi- 
gation of  Central  American  languages,  has  compiled  from 
ancient  manuscripts  a  copious  Maya  dictionary,  which  it 
is  hoped  will  soon  be  published.  (For  the  literature  of 
Central  American  languages,  seo  E.  G.Squier's  Monof/raph 
of  Authors  nh't  have  written  on  the  Lauffuagea  of  Central 
Amcricoy  1861.) 

In  SorTi!  Amkrica  the  numlier  and  diversity  of  idioms  arc 
much  greater  than  in  the  North.  "  Of  no  part  of  the  world," 
says  Latham,  "is  the  comjiarativc  philology  more  uncer- 
tain nnd  obscure."  For  a  general  classification,  that  of  A. 
d'Orbigny  (//Ifnmme  Am/^rivaiu,  Paris,  18;j*J)  has  been 
accepted  provisionally,  though  it  is  founded  on  the  physi- 
cal types  of  races  which  the  author  regards  as  distinct,  and 
not  primarily  on  language.  Varying  (with  Dr.  Prichard 
and  other  recent  writers)  (he  order  of  D'Orbigny "s  groups, 
the  South  American  nations  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
I.  A.NDO-PKitrviAN,  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to  Capo 
Horn,  comprising  (1)  the  /'eruviaji — Quiehuas  or  Kcchuas 
(whose  language  was  spoken  by  all  tribes  subject  to  tho 
Incas)  and  the  near-related  Ayniaras;  Atacamas  orOlipes; 
and  Changes:  (2)  the  AntiHinu  (of  the  Eastern  Andes) — 
Yuracaros  of  Bolivia,  Moceteniis,  Tacanas,  Marojms,  Apo- 
listas.  and  various  isolated  tribes  of  unknown  atlinitios; 
(:J)  South-Aiidi'in—Araucans  of  Chili,  Patiigonians  (Te- 
huelhet),  and  Fucgians  (Yacana-cunny,  Aliklmolips,  Peche- 
rays,  etc.). —  H.  Kastkkn  Nations  (Hrasilio-(«uaranian  of 
D'Orbigny);  (1)  Tupi-Uuaranian — including  many  tribes 
speaking  languages  distinct  from  the  Guarnni,  and  of  un- 
known affinities;  (2)  O/W^trffii  — comprising  nations  of 
the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  Guiana,  and  Vene- 
zuela, allied  to  the  Caribs  of  tho  Antilles,  Tamanacas, 
Cbaymns,  Guarafinas,  Cuinanagotos,  etc.  ;  (ii)  nations  and 
isolated  tribes  speaking  languages  which  seem  not  to  belong 
to  the  Tupi-Guarani  or  the  Carib  stock,  but  whieh.  with 
few  exceptions,  have  never  been  adequately  investigated. 
Among  these  are  tlie  '*  Botoeudos"  (AimorC-s,  GuaymarC's), 
Goyatacas,  Paris,  (iuatos,  Parcels,  etc.  (For  tho  names 
and  what  little  is  known  of  the  languages  of  these  nations 
see  Von  Marti tis's  important  HeitrUije  z,  Ethnog.  uud 
Sprnchcul-nudr  Aimriku'ii.  with  a  volume  of  vocabularies. 
lS()7.j — III.  MiOLANi)  nations,  including  (1)  those  on  the 
Lower  Paraguay  and  tho  great  plain  of  Cham — the  (luay- 
curfls,  Lengoas,  Tohas,  Abipones,  Mbocobis,  Mbayas,  Guay- 
anos  or  (Juiilaches,  Guatrts,  Payaguas  or  Payaquofis,  and 
others;  and  (2)  tho  C/iifptitnf  and  the  Moxoh — between 
Potosi  an<l  t\w  upper  streams  of  the  Parana — with  whom 
D'Orbigny  groups  seventeen  other  tribes  attached  to  the 
Chiquito  and  Moxo  missions,  speaking  different  languages. 

Looking  back  to  the  vast  field  which  has  been  only  par- 
tially surveyeil,  the  (ptestion  presents  itself:  Ls  there  any 
bond  of  union  between  these  numerous  families  of  lan- 
guages radically  distinct?  any  characteristic  features  com- 
mon to  th<'in  all  whieh  testify  to  tho  original  unity  of  all, 
or  at  least  distinguish  them  as  a  class  from  languages  of 
the  Kastern  hemisphere?  The  answer  must  be  given  less 
confiiiently  now  than  it  might  have  been  fifty  years  ago, 
when  the  attention  of  scholars  ha*!  been  directed  to  only  a 
few  of  tlie  American  families  of  speech,  and  it  was  easy  to 
assume  that  tho  structural  and  grammatical  characteristics 
of  these  were  common  to  all  Indian  languages.  At  present, 
broad  generalizations  are  felt  to  be  hazardous.      As    the 


1158 


INDIAN  LANGUAGES  OF  AMERICA. 


range  of  observation  bus  widened,  and  new  linguistic  ] 
groups  and  isolated  dialects  have  been  brought  to  notice,  I 
it  has  been  disc-overed  not  only  that  American  tongues 
difl'er  among  themselves  in  some  of  the  features  which 
formerly  were  regarded  as  distinctive  of  the  class,  but  that 
no  one  of  these  features  is,  in  kind  if  in  degree,  peculiarly 
American.  After  twenty-five  years'  stuiiy  Mr.  Gallatin 
reached  the  conclusion  in  which  scholars  have  been  obliged 
to  rest — that  ''  although  he  perceived  and  was  satisfied  of 
the  similarity  of  character  in  the  structure  of  all  the  known 
Anierican  languages,  he  could  not  define  with  precision 
the  general  features  common  to  all."  No  morpholof/icil 
classification  which  has  yet  been  proposed  provides  a  place 
for  American  languages  exclusively,  nor  in  fact  can  their 
separation  as  a  class  be  established  by  morphological  cha- 
racteristics or  external  peculiarities  of  structure.  Their 
common  likeness  is  in  theW  plan  <>/  thomfht,  rather  than  in 
their  methods  of  combining  elements  of  words  or  annexing 
formatives  to  roots.  Mr.  Duponcoau  was  the  first  to  sug- 
gest this  in  his  correspondence  with  Mr.  Heckeweidcr  in 
1816.  and  more  explicitly  in  the  report  of  the  historical 
and  literary  committee  of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety in  1819.  He  observed  in  all  known  American  lan- 
guages, from  Greenland  to  Cape  Horn,  a  common  type  or 
plan  of  construction,  for  which  he  proposed  the  name  of 
'■syntactic,'*  or  '*  polysynthetlc,"  as  being  that  *■  in  which 
the  greatest  number  of  ideas  are  comprised  in  the  least 
numl)er  of  words,"  this  being  effected  principally  in  two 
ways:  (1)  By  a  peculiar  mode  of  compounding  locations 
"by  interweaving  together  the  most  significant  sounds  or 
syllables  of  each  simple  word"  employed  in  composition; 
(2)  by  "  an  analogous  combination  of  the  various  parts  of 
speech,  particularly  by  means  of  the  verb,  so  that  its  va- 
rious forms  and  inflections  will  express  not  only  the  prin- 
cipal action,  but  the  greatest  possible  number  of  the  moral 
ideas  and  physical  objects  connected  with  it,  and  will  com- 
bine itself  to  the  greatest  extent  with  those  conceptions 
which  are  the  subjects  of  other  parts  of  speech,  and  in 
other  languages  require  to  be  expressed  by  separate  and 
distinct  words."  It  is  to  the  union  of  these  two  methods  of 
synthesis,  or  more  accurately  to  the  constant  trmUncif  to 
extreme  synthesis  which  underlies  them  both,  that  American 
languages  owe  that  common  likeness  which  seems  to  indi- 
cate genetic  relationship.  The  class-distinction  founded 
merely  on  the  peculiar  mo(ie  of  compounding  words — which 
was  not  quite  accurately  stated  by  Mr.  Duponceau — was 
not  generally  accepted  by  European  scholars.  W.  von 
Uumbuldt  in  1822,  suggesting  a  threefold  division  of  hu- 
man language,  as  isolating,  agglutinative,  or  inflectional, 
referred  the  American  tongues  to  the  second  or**  aggluti- 
native" oriler,  associating  them  with  the  so-called  Turanian, 
and  denving  them  the  possession  of  true  inflections  and 
grammatical  forms.  This  classification  has  been  generally 
adopted  as  sufficient  for  practical  purposes,  though  mani- 
festly inexact,  for  ''when  we  analyze  each  language  more 
carefully,  we  find  there  is  none  exclusively  isolating,  or  ex- 
clusively agglutinative,  or  exclusively  inflectional."  (Prof. 
M.  Miillcr,  On  the  Strati ftcdtion  of  Lnnf/iiftf/e,  p.  IS.  Other 
defects  of  Humboldt's  threefoM  division  are  noticed  by 
Prof.  Whitney,  fjaitf/uafje  aud  the  Science  of  Lnufjunrje, 
;;t)0  ff.)  If  the  American  languages  must  be  brought  under 
this  classification,  a  considerable  number  of  them  certainly 
are  as  fairly  entitled  to  inclusion  in  the  inflectional  class  as 
are  the  Semitic  or  the  Indo-European.  No  definition  of  an 
inflectional  Language  has  been  given  that  will  exclude  the 
Algonkin  while  including  the  Hebrew.  The  modification 
of  the  root  by  varying  vocalization  is  as  well-marked  a 
feature  of  one' language  as  of  the  other.  And  if  the  appli- 
cation of  the  term  "  j)olysynthetic  "  is  to  be  restricted  to  the 
morphological  features  of  language,  it  may  bo  given  as 
appropriately  to  the  Turkish,  and  perhaps  to  the  Basque, 
as  to  the  American.  Mr.  Duponceau  was  mistaken  in  sup- 
posing that  in  the  mode  of  componmlinq  words  the  Algon- 
kin materially  differed  from  the  Indo-European.  There  is 
no  *'  interweaving  together  the  most  significant  sounds  or 
syllaldes  of  each  simple  word"  to  form  the  compound  in 
any  other  sense  than  is  true  of  the  Latin  or  the  English 
language.  The  runts  of  each  simple  word  enter  intb  com- 
position, divested  of  grammatical  formatives,  but  entire 
and  unchanged. 

"The  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  Indian  lan- 
guages" was  first  clearly  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Gallatin 
[Siinopnin  of  the  Indian  fribeii,  164)  AS  "a  universal  tend- 
ency to  express  in  the  same  word  not  only  all  that  modi- 
fies or  relates  to  the  same  object  i>r  action,  but  both  the  ac- 
tion and  the  object,  thus  concentrating  in  a  single  expres- 
sion a  complex  idea  or  several  ideas  among  which  there  is 
a  natural  connection.  All  the  other  features  of  the  lan- 
guage seem  to  be  subordinate  to  that  general  principle." 
This  tendency  charaettrizes  the  whole  plan  of  thought,  and 
is  at  the  very  roots  of  language.     It  is  found  everywhere 


in  American  speech,  and,  so  far  as  the  languages  of  the 
world  have  been  investigated,  it  is  found  in  the  same  de- 
gree nowhere  else.  The  word-clusters  all  gather  about 
verbal  roots  or  assume  verbal  forms.  It  may  almost  be 
said  with  truth  that  Indian  languages — pronouns  and  a 
few  particles  excepted — are  all  verbs.  Every  word  may  be 
conjugated  by  moods  aU'I  tenses;  every  so-called  noun  has 
its  preterite  and  future,  its  indicative  and  subjunctive ;  and 
many  nouns  have  active  and  passive  voices.  Every  syn- 
thesis is  predicative,  and.  however  long  and  cumbrous,  is 
built  on  a  verbal  theme  and  assumes  one  of  the  conjuga- 
tion-forms of  a  derivative  or  compound  verb.  The  Chip- 
pewa language  (said  Bishop  Baraga,  who  had  attained  a 
remarkable  proficiency  in  its  study)  "is  a  language  of 
verbs.  All  depends  on  the  verb,  and  almost  all  is  or  can 
be  transformed  into  verbs."  Father  Lacombe  {Grammaire 
CrlHc,  p.  53)  characterizes  the  Cree  in  nearly  the  same 
words.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Byington,  after  fifty  years'  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Choctaw,  asked,  "  Cannot  all  Choctaw  nouns 
be  treated  as  verbs?"  ( ''Ao<?f«iP  tfrfi*H»iar,  p.  45.)  Prof. 
Steintbal  has,  it  is  true,  taken  the  opposite  view,  and  he  is 
followed  by  Fr.  Miiller  and  some  others  in  denying  to  the 
Algonkin  languages  true  verb-forms,  and  treating  the 
synthesis  as  a  noun  and  its  prefixed  pronoun  as  always 
possessive :  but  no  long  or  very  intimate  acquaintance  with 
any  Algonkin  dialect  is  required  fur  showing  the  error  of 
this  position.  Mr.  Gallatin  justly  regarded  *' the  happy 
manner  by  which,  through  the  insertion  of  a  single  parti- 
cle, not  only  tenses  and  our  common  moods,  but  almost 
every  modification  of  the  action,  is  specially  expressed,"  as 
the  chief  excellence  of  Indian  speech.  The  nature  of  the 
polysynthetlc  structure,  and  some  of  the  grammatical  de- 
vices employed  in  its  composition,  can  best  be  shown  by 
examples.  It  must  be  rentembered,  however,  that  these 
syntheses  were  framed  by  missionaries,  not  by  the  Indians 
themselves,  to  express  conceptions  foreign  to  the  Imlian 
nature  and  language,  or  in  some  instances  merely  to  exhibit 
the  resources  of  these  languages  and  the  almost  infinite 
possibilities  of  verbal  eomjtosition. 

Eliot,  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Algonkin 
dialect  of  Massachusetts,  uses  for  "our  lusts"  the  word 
nHm-mnlch-e-kod-tan'ta-nioo-on-f/a-nitn-no-nask.  It  was  not 
easy  to  give  an  Indian  the  Puritan  conception  of  lust  as 
"sinful  longing."  Eliot's  synthesis  is  a  verbal,  with  the 
affixes  of  the  double  plural — i'.  e.  of  the  pronoun  and  the 
action  or  desire.  The  verb  kvdtantam  means  "to  long  for, 
to  greatly  desire  ;"  malche-kodtantajn  is  "  badly  to  desire  ;" 
mntrhc'kodtantam-oo'onk  is  a  verbal,  "badly  longing  or 
desiring;"  num  (for  n)  is  the  possessive  pronoun  "my," 
which  becomes  plural,  "  our,"  by  the  insertion  of -fmuoa 
before  the  final  -ash,  which  is  the  plural  termination  of  the 
verbal.  The  whole  expresses  "our  evil  longings."  If  for 
matrhe,  tcunni  should  be  substituted,  the  meaning  becomes 
"  our  good  (or  pleasing)  longings  ;"  if  -ji»h  be  substituted 
for  kodt,  it  will  be  "our  evil  hatings;"  and  so  on.  La- 
combe, in  his  Grammaire  de  la  Lnnqite  dea  Crin  (1874), 
gives  examples  of  more  cumbrous  and  exaggerated  syn- 
thesis. In  Western  Cree,  Kit-ondicd-aonit/aw-i-iru'taKKnten- 
{■fjan-ubisk-n-m-i-s-iai-uotc-ok  means  "  our  small  gold  can- 
dlesticks." (The  hyphens  here  divide  elcraents  of  synthe- 
sis and  euphonic  connectives,  not  syllables.)  Lacombc'a 
analysis  is  too  long  to  be  given  here.  The  literal  transla- 
tion is  something  like  this:  "Our  yellow-silver  lighting- 
instruments  of  metal,  the  very  small  ;"  but  the  first  letter, 
A-,  is  the  characteristic  of  the  incluaive  plural,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  the  urn  (after  ubink),  gives  the  meaning,  "  be- 
longing to  all  of  tin"  "yours  and  mine,"  which  the  Eng- 
lish pronoun  does  not  express.  The  Rev.  Experience  May- 
hew,  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  of  Martha's  Vineyard  in 
1722,  gave  a  similar  specimen  of  word-building:  Nup- 
pahk-  nuh-  td  -pc-  pe-  nan  -wiit-ckut-chiih-qnS  -  ka-Jtch-cha- 
ufh-cha-c-nin-uu-innn-no-nOK;  *'  our  well-skilled  looking- 
glass-makers."  Of  the  twenty-two  syllables,  eight  are  re- 
quired for  the  name  of  "looking-glass."  which,  like  every 
Indian  name,  conveys  a  specific  description  of  the  object 
as  a  "clearly-reflecting  instrument."  In  the  preceding 
examples  the'process  of  forming  highly  compounded  words 
bv  combining  several  significant  roots  is  nearly  the  same — 
the  pronominal  affixes  excepted— as  in  the  Lai  in,  German, 
or  English  language.  Such  compounds  as  "  imperturba- 
bilis."  "expergefactus,"  "  incomprehcnsibleness, '  do  not 
difl'er  essentially  (as  Mr.  Gallatin  observes),  "cither  in  the 
number,  nature,  or  arrangement  of  their  elements,  from  a 
large  portion  of  the  Indian  compounded  words."  Of  an- 
other mode  of  synthesis,  and  one  more  characteristic  of 
American  speech,  some  of  the  conjugation-forms  of  Algon- 
kin verbs  supply  good  illustrations.  Baraga  gives,  in  the 
Chippewa,  rfe^i'm/itAiimrfo'/,  meaning.  "I  think  what  they 
say  of  that  poor  fellow  is  but  too  true."  The  significant 
roiit  here  is  deb-i  (in  the  Massachusetts  dialect  tapi),  "  it 
,  satisfies,  it  equals,"  hence,  "  it  is  true."     The  primary  verb 


IXDIAN  LANGUAGES  OF  AMKRICA. 


1159 


is  (l^hice,  "he  speaks  true;"  the  Iransitivc-animate  form  is 
dfhinmn^  **  he  Speaks  th<"  truth  o/' another  pirHou  ,*"  and  of 
this  the  '*  pitting  form"  (us  liaraga  caMs  it)  is  dt'himitHhij 
"he  speaks  the  (ruth  of  another,  poor  fellow!'*  or  imper- 
sonally, "what  tlipy  say  of  liini  i^  unfortuniiIf!y  true;"  in 
the  "  lUihitative  "  form,  this  bcctunes  d.'biiiinufn'n-adtiff,  **  I 
think  what  they  say,"  etc.  All  cxoept  the  radical  ili'b  is 
grammar,  and  each  successive  modification  of  the  meaning 
is  given  hy  regular  conjugation-forms.  In  another  family 
of  language  we  have,  as  a  specimen  of  Choctaw  synthesis 
(Gallatin's  Sifitopsh,  '24*.*),  \Vi-ni-taw'-ti-<fr'(ji'nn'li-sK-nw'- 
luutj-ta-tuttc-ne-li-'ti-fie-ttti  ,*  translated,  *'  They  will  by  that 
time  have  nearly  done  granting  [favors]  from  a  distance  to 
thee  and  rac."  The  same  capacity  of  synthesis  is  found  in 
languages  of  the  Pacific  coast,  of  Mexico,  and  of  South 
America.  In  the  Sahaptin  (Nez  Perce)  of  Ore^^on  the 
word  K'i-thnp-tau-tn-af-n-ivihnnn-knH-nn-ui'Uin  signifies  "he 
travelled  hy  on  foot  in  a  rainy  night."  The  jirimary  verb 
is  iciknay  "  to  travel  on  foot  :"  tntt  and  tunln.  are  adverbial 
prefixes,  meaning,  respectively,  "  by  night"  and  "in  the 
rain;"  hnu  denotes  a  "passing  by;"?(rt  is  the  characteristic 
of  the  indicative  mood,  hi  of  the  third  person,  etc.  (Ilule's 
Nfitcn  nil  Lntufxaffcn  o/  the  ytirth-iccst.)  Paredes  observes 
that  Mexican  compounds  usually  consist  of  two  words  only, 
occasionally  of  three,  and  that  such  as  exceed  the  latter 
number  are  principally  used  with  reference  to  sacred  things, 
having  been  formed  by  the  missionaries.  Of  these,  tlovn- 
tziiitifiztffitlacoUi,  for  "  original  sin,"  is  un  example.  This 
is  compoumlcd  from  tlncatl,  "a  person,"  tzinti/htfi,  "  com- 
mencement "  or  "principle,"  anil  fffilfacolfi,  "sin."  The 
name  srcnis  a  long  one.  tint  perhaps  the  doctrine  has  never 
been  clearly  taught  in  fewer  syllai)le9. 

The  process  of  word-growth  will  be  most  conveniently 
cxhibite<l  by  bringing  together  some  of  the  <ierivatives  of 
a  single  root.  The  following  are  selected  from  Chippewa 
words  (in  HaragaV*  Dictionttn/)  formed  on  the  verbal  root 
WAn,  "to  see."  With  the  verb  in  the  indicative  is  given 
the  conditional  participle,  which  is  used  as  a  noun  to  de- 
note ono  who  may  or  habitually  does  perform  the  act  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb,  or  who  is  vonceirvd  ax  performing  it. 
To  fnrm  this  nomm  nctnrifi,  and  generally  in  conditional 
statements,  the  principal  vowel  of  the  root  is  strengthened  ; 
thus,  wAh'iy  "  he  sees."  makes  icniabid,  "  a  seer  " — /.  r.  one 
conceived  as  seeing,  who  may,  can,  or  habitually  does  sec; 
ilhif  "he  remains,"  makes  /AiV,  "ono  who  remains;'*  viOn, 
"ho  dies,"  n/hrtd,  "a  dead  person;*'  ^iossr,  "  he  hunts," 
f}finH)if,d ^  "a  hunter,"  etc.  If  the  verb  has  an  adverbial  or 
other  prefix,  the  ehan<;e  takes  place  in  the  vowel  of  the 
prefix,  and  that  of  the  principal  root  is  not  afTected.  This 
vowel-change,  a  characteristic  feature  of  Algonkin  lan- 
guages, is  in  itself  a  sufficient  reason  for  regarding  them 
as  iiijh'rtitnitif,  and  a  sufficient  proof  that  they  are  not  des- 
titute of  true  verb-forms. 

The  root  wab  is  found  in  the  prim.iry  verb  mAb-t,  "ho 
sees;"  and  by  the  passive  sense,  "to  be  seen,"  come  the 
meanings  "  to  be  light,  bright,  white,"  or  otherwise  visible, 
Mcnce. 

WAiuc't.  it  dawns,  lit.  "there  is  seeing;"   w.innfuf,  to-mor- 
row, lit.  "at  the  dawn;"  conditional  (with  change  of 
vowel)  WAiAB'»",7,  at  dawning — i.e,  whenever  it  daivns. 
WAOrtHi  (n.),  dawn,  the  ea-^t ;  WAii'/n-ony,  in  the  east ;  hence, 

a  name  fif  the  mornin;;  star. 
hiwKVi'ni,  dawn  (lit.  "seeing")  comes, 
nin  WAnrrni",  I  sco  (an  animate  object);  WAiABffmrtt/,  one 

who  sees,  etc. 
nm  \VA'B«»*/'fn,  I  aeo  (an  inanimate  object) :  WAiA'Daiirfant/, 

ono  who  sees,  etc. 
nin   bftn'\\'.(ind<nt,  I   lose  sight  of  (it);   benKHandanrj,  i)HQ 

wh(»  loses  sight,  etc. 
nin  wxwbftndiH^  I  sec  myself:  part.  wwAvinudiaed. 
uln  WAttnuditft;,  I  sec  something  (intrans.);  part*  iptnub- 

audiffrd. 

nin  WAWiiufjr^  I  see,  look  on  (indof.  intrana.);  part,  icfn'/ii- 
auijrd. 

nin  offA'a,  r  see  from  a  distance:  p.  whintthid. 

\\ KVitinmri,  he  is  a  sorcerer  (seer) ;  p.  tnaiAbnnowid. 

nin  WAHi'ft.  I  make  him  see;  p.  trninbind. 

iii'nwAii'"'.  I  am  seeing — /.  c.  I  survive  the  night. 

in/i  wA'n'HiiV*,  I  (with  difTiculty)  Rurvivo  the  winter, 

wabm/,  a  swan  (literally,  "ho  is  while"). 

WAii"«,  a  hare. 

\v\i\iffini,  a  blossom  (lit.  "  it  is  seen  "). 

V,  AViif/itn,  while  clay  ;   irAbiijuiifr,  he  plasters  with  elay. 

WA'nAR/</'(;i  (intens.t.  lime — /.  r.  very  white  clay;  tcubabi' 
(jitniif,  he  whitens  with  lime. 

iVA'B'V//n,  white  fiannel. 

WAB"»*ni,  a  blanket. 

WAB'f'"'/-.  tin — f.  r.  white  metal :  nhik  i?  not  nn  independ- 
ent word,  but  a  generic  formative  of  names  for  rocks 
and  minerals. 

viAfiiithhi.  it  becomes  white,  is  whitish  or  gray. 


WABjWiA'iHt",  he  is  whitish;  part.  waiCibiihhinid,  a   whitish 

man. 
WAHtHhkiice,   ho  is  (by  nature)   whitish;   part,  tcai/ibinh' 

kitcedf  a  white  (whitish)  man. 
In  the  greater  number  of  the  derivatives  here  given,  tbo 
root  has  its  secondary  or  passive  sense,  "  seen  "=  while,  or 
distinctly  visible.  Still  more  numerous  arc  the  verbs  ex- 
pressing inodtH  of  seeing  and  relations  of  the  subject  to  the 
object  of  sight.  The  variety  of  conjugation-forms  that  any 
of  these  verbs  may  assume  is  practically  without  limits.  A 
paradigm  of  the  primary  nin  nmb — in  Schoolcraft's  orthog- 
ra))hy  ne  wnnh — fills  90  quarto  pages  (2'.iy-;>SS)  of  the  olh 
vol.  of  his  Information  renpectivij,  etc.  the  Indian  Tribes. 
A  manuscript  paradigm  of  the  same  verb,  by  the  llcv. 
Thomas  Ilurlburt.  is  still  more  extensive,  and  he  declares, 
moreover,  that  having  estimated  as  nearly  as  he  eould  all 
the  p<tssible  "inficctions  of  this  one  root  wab,  he  finds 
about  20,0110,000."  Evidently,  however,  he  uses  the  term 
"inflections"  in  a  larger  sense  than  grammarians  will  al- 
low it.  making  it  include  such  modifications  of  the  action 
as  arc  elTeeted  by  prefixing  or  incorporating  adverbial  par- 
ticles. But  apart  from  all  these,  which  belong  rather  to 
the  composition  of  words  than  to  grammar,  Indian  conju- 
gational  forms  arc  prodigiously  numerous.  They  may  bo 
referred  to  three  classes:  (1)  ;>»r«f>*((i/,  expressing  by  the 
so-called  "transitions'*  the  grammatical  person  of  the  ob- 
ject as  well  as  of  the  subject  of  the  verb;  (2)  animat<^  and 
inanimate,  distinguishing  the  object  or  subject,  or  both,  as 
belonging  to  ono  or  the  other  of  these  two  classes;  (3)  mo- 
da(  and  irirrnnistnntial,  corresponding  more  nearly  to  the 
Scmitie  than  to  Indo-Kuropean  forms  of  conjugation,  though 
far  exceeding  the  former  in  number  and  variety.  The  per- 
sonal conjugations,  in  which  the  pronouns  of  the  subject 
and  the  object  are  united  with  the  verb,  are  found  in  all 
American  languages  that  have  been  investigated,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  class.  Tho 
division  of  nouns  into  animate  antl  inanimate  is  not  pecu- 
liar to,  nor  is  it  recognized  in  all,  these  languages.  Such  a 
distinction  is  observed  in  the  (new)  Persian,  and  by  Kafir 
tribes  in  South  Africa;  and  there  is  something  like  it  in 
the  Tamil  and  other  Dravidian  tongues  of  Southern  India, 
which  divide  nouns  into  "  high  caste  "  or  "rational,"  and 
"no-caste"  or  "irrational."  It  pervades  the  entire  struc- 
ture of  Algonkin  languages,  aiul  is  pcrhiips  their  most 
striking  feature,  modifying  the  inficctions  of  all  nouns  and 
the  conjugations  of  every  verb,  according  as  the  action  is 
exerted  by  or  upon  an  animate  or  inanimate  object.  Thus, 
a  Cliippcwa  Indian  says,  nin  pahitrint,  "  I  strike  him  " — 
e.  ,'/.  a  man  or  a  horse ;  nin  pakid'aii,  "  I  strike  it,"  a  stone, 
a  block,  or  other  inanimate  thing;  jimi  pakiteiffe, '^  I  am 
striking  "  (somebody  or  something  indefinite) ;  ni'ii  pakitfo- 
man,  "  I  Strike  (an  animate  object)  belonging  to  him" — 
e.f/.  his  child,  his  horse  :  pokitfitfan,  "it  strikes"  (and,  used 
as  a  noun,  "a  hammer");  pakit{:itisKin,  "it  strikes  some- 
thing" (unintentionally),  etc.  In  some  cases  the  distinc- 
tion is  not  merely  a  granimatieal  one,  but  inheres  in  tho 
root  —  r.  <f.  nin  niidjiu,  "I  cat"  something  inanimate, 
whence,  impersonally,  midjim,  "it  is  eaten"  or  "they  eat 
it,"  used  as  a  noun  meaning  "  food,"  and  the  participial 
niadjid,  "an  cater:"  but  nin  amwa,  "I  eat"  somctliing  of 
the  animate  class  (which  includes  bread,  corn,  jiotatocs, 
fruits,  as  well  as  the  Hesh  of  certain  animals),  and  tinirad, 
"an  eater."  In  no  other  American  family  is  this  distinc- 
tion so  stronj;ly  marked  or  of  so  extended  application  as 
in  the  Alt;onkin,  but  it  is  found  in  the  Iroquois,  less  promi- 
nently in  the  (Mierokee,  in  some  Jlcxican  langunges,  in  tho 
Arrawak  of  Cuiana,  the  Quiehmi  of  Peru,  the  Tupi  ((lun- 
rani)  of  Ilrazil.  etc.  In  the  Dakota  it  is  indicated  only  in 
the  plural  of  animate  nouns. 

Algonkin  verbs  have  not  only  conjugation-forms  corre- 
sponding to  the  active,  middle,  nnd  jiassive  voices  of  Indo- 
European  languages,  but  a  great  variety  of  niudal  and 
circumstantial  conjugations,  such  as  the  ineepli\e,  causa- 
tive, dcsidcralivc,  frequentative,  habitual,  mutual,  involun- 
tary, simulative  ('■.,7.  niha,  *' ho  sleeps;"  uibA/cano,  "ho 
feigns  sleep**),  compulsive,  deteriorative  or  derogative, 
etc.;  and  many  of  these  forms  may  bo  conjugated  alfirma- 
tively,  negatively.  an<l  donhtinrffi/.  the  system  of  personal 
"  transitions  "  ami  the  distinction  between  animate  and  in- 
animate, in  subject  and  object,  being  maintained  through- 
out. Similar  richness  of  verbal  expression  brlonK^  *" 
other  American  tongues.  Von  Tschudi  enumerates  thir- 
teen classes  or  forms  of  Quiehua  verbs,  all  formed  from  the 
primary  by  cftnjugational  suflixes. 

In  nniny  languages  nouns  have  tho  same  form  in  tho 
plural  as  in  tho  singular,  })lurality  being  expressed  by  an 
independent  W()rd  mcanint;  "  many.**  by  n  numeral,  or  only 
by  the  foibtwini;  verb.  Others,  like  the  Sioux-DaUoIa.  have 
a  plural  form  U*r  anitnatr  ntiuns.  but  not  for  the  inanittmte. 
In  tin-  Algonkin  each  of  these  two  classes  has  its  charac- 
teristic plural,  that  of  animate  nouns  being  nearly  the  samo 


1160 


INDIAN  LANGUAGES  OF  AMERICA. 


in  all  dialects  of  the  family,  while  the  termination  of  the 
inanimate  iilural  varies  considerably.  Cherokee  nouns, 
pronouns,  and  vcrlis  huve  dual  as  well  as  plural  forms.  an(l 
the  Iroquois  has  in  addition  to  these  an  "indeterminate" 
or  collective  plural.  The  distinction  of  prranim,  as  first, 
second,  and  third,  is  so  well  established  in  Kut'lish  gram- 
mar that  it  SCCIU3  to  us  the  only  natural  one.  In  many 
Indian  languages  there  is  no  pronoun  of  the  third  person, 
its  iilace  being  supplied  by  a  demonstrative.  In  many 
others  there  are  Iwn  pronouns  of  the  first  person  ]ilural, 
wliich.  combinin'^  with  nouns  and  verbs,  form  the  inrhisirv 
and  exrliiHirr,  or  "general"  and  "limited,"  plurals,  tlie 
former  including  both  the  speaker  and  those  l<>  whom  he 
speaks  ("you  and  I"),  the  latter  including  only  the 
•speaker  and  those  /'w  whom  he  speaks,  and  excluding  all 
others  ("  we,  not  you  ").  The  Cherokee  distinguishes  two 
tlilr<l  persons  as  ";)rc»t"(  or  ab^-cnl.  and  has  also  two  first 
persons,  dual  and  plural;  and  the  same  distinction  is  ob- 
served in  the  Cliavma  (and  perhaps  other  Caribi-Tamana- 
eau  dialects  1,  the"  Quichua.  etc.  The  double  first  person 
plural  (inclusive  and  exclusive)  belongs  to  all  Algonkin 
languages,  to  the   Iroquo-    '^'        '■"    ''' 


Cherokee,  Choctaw,  Pahaptin 


(i»  doing,  the  act  expressed  by  the  verb,  corresponding  to 
the  English  iiomeii  iiciorii  in  -rr.  This  name  is  formed  as 
a  coniii'tional  particijile,  or  as  the  third  person  singular  of 
the  conditional  present,  with  a  change  of  the  vowel  of  the 
root:  thus,  from  Chip.  iiu>«i<;  "he  huut.<,"  comes  ;i/iiMal, 
"  a  hunter ;"  from  ijimotli,  "  he  steals,"  iji'moilid,  "  one  who 
steals,  a  thief"  (anil  if  the  name  is  intended  to  convey  a  re- 
proach, ff^mof/isHKiii.  "one  who  too  much  steals,  an  habit- 
ual thief  ") ;  from  ujl(nn,  "  he  makes  it,"  w<Jili>'l.  •■  one  who 
makes,"  etc.  Another  very  large  class  of  nouns  is  formed 
from  the  indicative  present,  to  denote  the  action  of  the  verb, 
answering  to  the  English  substantive  participle  in  -iii<i:  <•.  </. 
(Chip.)'/i'm'!(''',  "he  steals;"  ii!mM!-irin,  "stealing,  theft;" 
mi'./(i(/i'.'"he  fights;"  m/'/^li/iin'/i.  "  fighting,  war;"  muiikwc, 
"  lie  drinks  ;"  miiiihii-hrhi,  "drinking  "  (so,  miiiilcirHnfiMvin, 
"too  much  drinking,  intemperance:"  minikuH'S.Mriii,  "not 
drinking,  abstinence").  Other  verb-nouns  serve  to  name 
instruments  for  performing  the  act  exjiressed  by  the  verb; 
as  from  C\\\f.pakll(lrii:,  "  he  strikes,"  is  formed  pahih  n/nn, 
"  a  hammer,"  literally  "  it  strikes  ;"  from  pMikIti,  "  it  ex- 
plodes, bursts"  (with  noise),  comes  pAiilikixiijan,  "a  gun' 
■  can  exploding  instrument;  from  //i' 


instrument;  from  j'ibdinbandan,  "he 


(Ne°z  PotcM,  Ouichua.  and  others.    It  is  found  also  in  the  !  looks  through  something,     j,l,„u,b„ndj,,pw,      an   instru 


Dravidian  languages  of  Southern  India,  in  the  Manchu,  in 
Polynesian  aiid  some  .Australian  dialects,  and  in  those  of 
Hottentot  tribes  of  South  ,\frica.  and  would  seem  to  have 
been  verv  "pncrally  resorted  to,  at  one  stage  of  the  devel- 
opment of  language,  in  finding  a  way  from  the  primitive 
dual  to  the  conception  of  unlimited  plur.ility.  In  the 
Cherokee,  as  has  been  said,  the  dual  as  well  as  the  plural 
has  inclusive  and  exclusive  forms  for  the  first  person — "  we 
two"  it.  <:  "he  and  I"),  and  "wo  two"  (i.  e.  "thou  and 
I,  and  not  be  "I;  but  in  the  ibtrd  person  there  is  no  dis- 
tinction made  between  dual  and  plural. 

In  some  Indian  languages,  and  particularly  in  the  Al- 
gonkin  family,  both   transitive  verbs  and  the  (animate) 
nouns  and  pronouns  they  govern  have  two  or  three  third- 
persrm.al  forms,  distinguishing  degrees  of  rel.atioo  to  the 
subject  of    the    verb.     Baraga  ( Otvlnpwe   Ornmmnr)   and 
Lacombe    (Grammaire   Crlae)  call   these   the    simple,  the 
second,  and  the  third-third  persons;  Cuoq  (Eiitdet  plulo- 
lii,,:,iiics)  denominates  the  second  as  the  third  person  "ob- 
viatif,"  and  the  third  as  the  "  sur-obviatif "     To  take  an 
example  from  the  English:  in  "John  struck  Paul,"  John 
is  the  first-third  and  Paul  the  second-third  person;    in 
"John  struck  Paul's  son,"  "son"  is  the   third-third,  or 
"  sur-obviatif."     If  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  in  the  first 
or  second  person,  the  governed  noun  (if  in  the  third  per- 
son) has  the  first  or  simple  form:  '(Chip.)  nin  sagia  iintu, 
"  I  love  my-fathcr;  "   if  there  are  two  third  persons  in  the 
sentence,  one  takes  the    second-third  form— e.  g.  aw  inini 
nd-amikilav-au  iiossAN',  "that  man  works  for  (serves)  my 
father;"    if   there  arc  three  or   more    third  persons,   tho 
first  is  in  the  simple  form,  the  second  in  the  second  third 
or  obviative.  the  third  and  all  others  in  the  third-third  or 
super-obviative;    e.    .7.    Jnscp    o-r/i-odaplnan    abintidil'i.KS 
nt/lni-fiaie,  "Joseph  took  the  young  child  and  A/«  mother."  [ 
(This  example  is  t;ikeu  from  Baraga,  p.  72. i     In  the  Chip- 
pewa,  the  second-third  person  ends  in  11,  an,  or  011,  the 
third-third  in  «/,  aul,  or  oiii',  and  a  corresponding  change 
is  made  in  tho  form  of  tho  governing  verb ;  e.  <j.  Jak  ,it- 
ttlcemAN  o-«r,/.-,7l,\N-ISI   Sabrl\s   of -f.aiVlNI,  "The  sister  of 
,Tacques  loved  the  daughter  of  Elizabeth;"  lit.  "Jacques 
his-sister  she-loved  Elizabeth  her-daughter,"  where  "  sis- 
ter"    and    Elizabeth    .are    in    the    second-third    person, 
"dauo'hter"  in  the  third-third,  and  tho  verb  has  the  dou- 
ble affix  of  second  and  third,  a»-hn.  (Cuoq,)     The  Eskimo 
has  two  forms  for  the  third  person,  one  of  which,  accord- 
in"  to  Egedc,  is  used  only  when  tho  object  of  the  verb  be- 
lonc/H  In  \he  subject;  thus,  kitnrnX  UirnivS.,  "he  gave  it  to 
his'(anotlier  person's)  child,"  but  kilornl  lurniva,  "  he  gave 
it  to  his  (own)  child."     Eliot,  in  his  Massachusetts  version 
of  the  Bible,  makes  use  of  the  "obviative"  form,  but  has 
not  mentioned  it  in  his  grammar  of  the  language;  and  as 
Zeisbergcr  seems  not  to  have  discovered  it  in  the  so-called 
Delaware,  it  was  not  brought  to  the  notice  of  Duponeeau, 
Gallatin,  or  Pickering.     It  is  probable  that  some  such  dis- 
tinction between  the  principal  ami  the  ilependent  third 
persons  inav  be  found  in  most  American  dialects.     Pandosy 
in  his  Yakiima  ( Sahaptin )  grammar  notices  a  difference  of 
inflection  "  when  the  governing  substantive  is  itself  gov- 
erned by  a  verb,"    In  the  Quichua  the  distinction  is  effected 
by  special  forms  of  the  demonstrative;    in  the  Tupi  of 
Brazil,  bv  a  "reflexive  particle." 

Not  tlie  least  remarkable  feature  of  these  languages  is 
the  facility  with  which  concrete  and  abstract  names  may 
be  formed  not  only  from  every  verb,  but  from  the  several 
voices,  moods,  and  tenses  of  tho  verb.  One  species  of 
vcrb.nouu,  of  very  frequent  use  in  Algonkin  speech,  has 
been  mentioned  liefnre— that,  namely,  which  designates  a 
person  who  habitually  docs,  or  may  do,  or  who  is  conceived 


and 
s^giidi 


ment  made  for  looking  through,  a  spy-glass,"  etc.  Since 
everv  so-called  adjective  may  be  conjugated  as  a  verb,  from 
which  nouns  may  be  formed  for  designating  the  actor, 
action,  and  instrument,  ami  since  the  formation  of  all  such 
verb-nouns  is  regular,  so  that  every  new  name  is  self-de- 
fining, it  is  plain  that  the  possible  enlargement  of  the  vo- 
cabulary is  absolutely  without  limit.  The  Inilian  languages 
are  far  richer  in  concrete  and  special  than  in  abstract  and 
general  names  ;  but  this  is  not  because  they  are  inadequate 
to  the  expression  of  abstract  ideas  or  generalizations,  but 
because  the  Indian  aims  always  at  the  attainment  of  abso- 
lute precision,  and  at  an  exactness  of  denotation  w-bich 
higher  culture  and  larger  intelligence  permit  Indo  Euro- 
peans to  disregard.  There  is  an  illustration  of  this  in  the 
nicety  of  the  distinction  made  between  the  active  and  pas- 
sive substantive-participle  in  many  American  languages. 
Tho  Indian  has  no  expression  for  abslracl  love,  hate,  truth, 
fear,  anger,  etc.  Love,  for  instance,  is  either  "  a  loving"  or 
"a  being-loved,"  according  as  it  is  referred  to  its  subject 
or  objcc',  and  it  is  named  by  an  active  or  passive  verb- 
noun.  In  English  "the  love  of  God"  may  mean  cither 
man's  love  to  God,  or  God's  love  to  m.an.  The  Algonkin 
avoids  this  ambiguity.  In  the  Chippewa,  for  example,  _ 
from  tagiiice,  "  he  loves,"  is  formed  suijiimuin,  "  a  loving 

(love  giveyt) ; 
from  sfi'jiUjoiii,  "  he  is  loved,"  is  formed  s&gHgoaiiein,  "  a 
being-loved"  (love  received); 
from  mlgiidiii,  "he  loves  himself,"  is  formed  a&glidisiwhi, 
"  self-loving ;" 
d  from  the  miitu.al  conjugation-form  of  the  same  verb, 
liwhi,  "mutual  loving."  So,  from  pnkitfige,  "he 
strikes,"  come  pak'itdqewin,  "a  beating  given."  and  paki- 
lligowin,  "a  beating  "received."  And  the  form  of  these 
veib-nouns  may  be  modified  according  as  the  object  of  the 
action  or  emotion  is  animate  or  inanimate.  Similar  dis- 
tinctions are  found  in  other  American  languages.  Paredes 
(quoted  by  Gallatin)  notes  the  double  forms  of  verbal  nouns 
in  the  Mexican,  "both  of  which  exjiress  tlie  acts  of  doing 
that  which  the  verb  signifies."  the  former  actively,  tho 
latter  passively  ;  thus,  "  tella  <,•"<'" i-"-"-'  is  '  the  love  I  have 
for  another.'  iivtla  rollmvw  is  'the  love  another  has  for 
me.'  "  In  the  (Juichua.  Von  Tschudi  notices  four  kinds  of 
verb-nouns,  formed  respectively  from  the  active  participle 
and  the  imperfect,  perfect,  and  future  of  tho  innuitivc,  in 
both  active  and  passive  voices— c,  7.  from  apa.  "  to  bear," 
come  apuk,  "bearer,"  apa,j.  "the  burden"  (that  which  is 
borne),  apnsca,  "he  who  has  borne,"  apanca  or  apana, 
"  that  which  is  to  be  borne,"  etc. 

"Scmic  learned  Europeans  have  not  disdained  to  study 
tho  structure  of  the  idioms  of  America  with  the  same  care 
as  they  study  those  of  the  Semitic  languages  and  of  the 
Greek 'and  Latin.  They  no  longer."  said  Baron  von  Hum- 
boldt, "attribute  to  the  imperfection  of  a  language  what 
belon-'S  to  the  rudeness  of  the  nation.  It  is  acknowledged 
that  almost  evervwhere  tho  Indian  idioms  display  greater 
richness  and  more  delicate  gradations  than  might  be  sup- 
posed from  the  uncultivated  state  of  the  people  by  whom 
thev  are  spoken ;"  and  he  observed  as  evidence  of  this  that 
ihe  Idi/h  of  Theocritus  "had  been  translated,  with  grace- 
ful simplieitv,  into  the  language  of  the  Incas,  and  that  he 
was  assured'  that,  excepting  treatises  on  science  and  phi- 
losophy, there  is  scarcely  anv  work  of  modern  literature 
that  might  not  be  translated  into  the  Peruvian."  Vixera 
has  "iv'en  a  translation  of  an  ode  of  Anaercnn  into  Olmni. 
The  Abb6  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg.  by  his  French  version  of 
the  Itabmnl-Achi.  from  the  Quiche  of  Guatemala,  has  shown 
i  that  lan"ua''e  to  he  not  ill-furnished  for  poetical  and  dra- 
I  matic   cSmp'osition.     In  the  Algonkin,  Iroquois,  Chahta- 


INDIAN  OCEAN— INDIAN  RED. 


IIGI 


Muskoki,  Dakota,  and  other  North  American  families  the 
rcailineas  aud  taae  with  which  new  words  have  been  lormed 
for  ideas  and  objects  previouply  uiiknuwn — the  funnation 
being  always  in  strict  accordance  with  (he  structural  laws 
of  the  lan^ua;;c — j;ive  sufficient  evidence  (as  Mr.  Gallatin 
remarked)  that  these  Indian  tongues  "  had  within  them- 
sclve:<  the  po\ver  of  progressive  iuiproveineut  whenever 
required  by  an  advance  in  knowledge  or  civilization."  The 
author  of  /^tudea  phtloiofjir/ws  mtr  fftif/quex  Lanynei  Sun- 
vnijfM  tie  VAm^r!'/ue  (Montreal,  1800)  and  oi  Jvfjtment  frron6 
de  M.  Enirnt  /Irnnn  sur  lea  Lnngnm  Snuvatjcn  (1SG9),  who 
wriic3  with  oxcollent  knowledge  of  his  subject  so  far  as  the 
northern  Ab^onkin  and  the  Iroquois  dialects  are  concerned, 
has  shown  h<tw  •iili2:ht  foundation  there  is  for  the  opinions 
expressed  l>y  M.  Ilenan  and  some  other  eminent  philologists 
of  Europe,  that  these  languages  are  incapable  of  exi)ressing 
abstract  idea?,  that  their  richness  in  forms  and  in  special 
terms  is  at  the  expense  of  accuracy  in  denotation,  and  that 
they  are  destitute  of  true  inflections.  On  this  last  point 
something  has  already  been  said  in  this  article,  but  it  may 
be  well  to  add  the  weil-considcred  statement  of  Mr.  Galla- 
tin in  his  last  work,  that  "the  Indian  languages  abound 
with  inflections,  having  precisely  the  same  character  with 
those  which  are  universally  considered  as  such  in  other" 
—or,  as  he  says  elsewhere — '*  in  the  classical  languages." 

However  numerous  may  be  the  derivatives  and  possible 
syntheses,  the  number  of  n>'»/*  in  any  Indian  dialect  is 
small.  Those,  of  course,  are  common  to  all  languaces  of 
the  same  family,  but  they  are  not  exempt  from  phonetic 
change  in  passing  from  one  dialect  to  another.  Their 
identity  may  thus  be  nearly  lost,  and  perhaps  cannot  be 
established  except  by  extensive  comparison  of  dialects. 
Th?  Dakota  name  for  "ten."  for  example,  is  in  the  Sioux 
wl-hrhe-inrm;  in  the  Winnebago,  kh'ra-pun;  in  the  Ponka, 
(jlhe-bn.  Those  (rejecting  a  prefix  in  the  Sioux)  are  merely 
phonetic  variations  of  the  same  name;  kche,  kU'ra,  anjl 
tjfhe  are  equivalent,  and  so  are  mnn,  puiif  and  b'l.  In  the 
Alg<mkin  family  the  range  of  divergence  is  less  wide,  yet 
still  considerable:  the  Abnaki  areni,  "man,"  and  the  Illi- 
nois i7/i«i,  are  nut  far  a[»art  or  from  Chippewa  i'hi'h/;  in 
Micmac  I'un  (or  c/*hiO  and  Quinnipi  ten  the  difference  is 
more  apparent,  and  still  more  in  Hudson's  Bay  Cree  ethin'u, 
Wi-stern  Oreo  ii/i'nti.  and  .Shyeunc  it'mi. 

Till  the  comparative  grammar  of  the  languages  of  each 
of  the  principal  American  families  shall  have  been  investi- 
gated, and  the  laws  and  limits  of  jthonetic  change  are  bet- 
ter un'lerstood  than  at  present,  questions  as  to  the  genetic 
relation  of  one  of  these  families  to  another  must  remain  un- 
answered. As  yet,  philology  has  no  sufiicient  data  for  de- 
termining either  the  fact  or  the  degree  of  such  relationship. 
SMII  less  is  the  philologist  competent  to  decide,  on  evidence 
now  supplied  by  langua-xc,  that  any  family  of  American 
speech  is,  or  is  not,  of  Asiatic,  European,  or  African  deri- 
vation. In  support  of  difTereut  theories  rcspcctiitg  the 
origin  of  the  Indian  races,  various  resemblances  and  analo- 
gies have  been  pointed  out  between  American  dialects  and 
one  or  another  of  the  languages  of  the  OM  World.  Those 
who  believed  the  Indians  to  be  descendants  of  the  lost 
tribes  of  Israel,  discovered  in  their  languages  striking  af- 
finities to  the  Hebrew,  and  one  writer  conjectured  that  the 
Mohawks  were  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  because  their  name  cor- 
responds so  nearly  to  Hebrew  ^fri^■f|„f:r/:,  translated  "law- 
giver" in  Gen.  xlix.  10.  Vater  in  Mithriffatci  gave  a  long 
r^t  of  words  of  similar  sound  and  meaning  in  Indian  and 
Asiatic  languages,  as  evidence  that  America  was  peopled 
by  emigration  from  North-eastern  Asia.  The  vocabulary 
of  the  Caribs  ha:*  been  made  to  give  ovidonceof  their  African 
origin.  M.deCharencey,  impressed  by  structural  unci  gram- 
matical resemblances  between  certain  American  dialects — 
particul.irly  the  Eastern  Algonkin — and  the  Hasque,  is  led 
to  believe  that  the  New  Worbl  was  peopled  by  Iberian  colo- 
nists fromAVestern  Europe.  (  l>r^  AjjimtfHtlr  (e  f'tn'jne  linirfHe 
nvrc  ten  hfiomcn  flu  \<nirrnti-}finir/e,  1807.)      The  Supposed 

likeness  of  some  Indian  words  to  Greek,  I*atin,  and  San- 
scrit has  more  (ban  once  been  pointed  out;  as,  for  exomplo, 
Algonkin  iritfirnm  and  <lr.  oiicoc,  L'lt.  virni;  Aztec  f^nt/  and 
(Jr.  9^09.  Kviflence  satisfactory  to  such  as  were  predis- 
pn-icd  to  accept  it  has  been  found  of  the  genetic  connection 
netween  American  speech  and  Egyptian,  Mongolian.  Tun- 
gusic,  Sanioyedic,  Malayan,  and  Polynesian,  and  in  fact 
almost  every  known  language  of  the  world.  On  the  other 
band,  ethnologists  of  the  school  of  Morton,  Nott,  and  GHd- 
don  attach  litdo  weight  to  any  such  evidence  of  extra- 
American  afTinify,  and  regard  the  languages  of  the  Indians, 
like  their  raee,  as  autochthonous. 

For  a  general  view  of  the  structure  and  comparative 
grammar  of  North  American  languages,  Mr.  flallatin's 
S'fnnpiiiii  n/  the  Indian  Ti'ihen  {TrnnMfictionn  of  the  Am. 
Aiftifj,   Sftriehf,  vol.   ii.).  Supplemented    by    his   notes   on 

Hale"fl    Vornhu/nrirn   (  Trann.  Am.   Ethnnl.  .S'onV/y,  vol.  ii.), 

are  still  the  best  guides.     Mr.  Pickering's  excellent  paper 


I  on  Indian  Lang^iageg  of  America  (in  the  Appendix  to  the 
Enci/ct.  Ainerivfuut,  vol.  vi.,  and  separately'  printed  iSol), 
and  his  notes  to  the   reprint  of   Eliot's  Indian   Grammar 
I    liegiui  (in  il/«««.  I/iit.  Cotiet:tit*us,  2d  series,  vol.  ix.),  should 
i  be  consulted,  and  a  paper  by  Dr.  F.  Lieber  On  the  Plan  of 
I     Thotitfht  in  Amcricitn   Lanijmtgei^y  in    vol.  li.  (pp.  340-i.'M9) 
j  of  Schoolcraft's  great  collection  of  /JiHlitrical  and  Statia- 
1   lical  Iii/ormati'in  rcHpcctiug  the  Indian    TrihcH  (6   vols.  4tO, 
'  1851-66) — a  work  which  contains  much  valuable  material, 
though  this,  unfortunately,  cannot  easily  be  separated  from 
I  the  worthless  mass  in  which  it  is  buried.     The  third  vol- 
I  umc  of  MithridatcH,  by  Adelung  and  Vatcr  (1:^12-10),  eup- 
I  plies  much  valuable  information,  particularly  as  to  South 
I  American  languages.     For   the    general   bibliography  sec 
'  Triibner's    edition  of   Ludewig's   Littiniturc    of  American 
'  Abtjriffinal  Lanf/uaj/ett,  with   Prof.  W.  M'.  Turner's  addi- 
tions and  corrections.     An  Ensat/  tounrdi  an  Indian  Ilib- 
'  litujrapbify  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Field  (New  York,  IST.'J),  though 
'  primarily    designed    only   as    the   catalogue  of  a  private 
library,   is   a  convenient   and    useful    b(.ok    of    relerence. 
For  languages  of  the  Pacific  coast,  Horatio    Hale's   col- 
lected   vocabularies    and    grammatical    notes    in   vol.   vii. 
{Ethnorjraphij   and   P/iilolof/i/)    of   the    Ih pint   of  the    U.   S. 
Ej'ploriny  Ejpedition,  supplied  much  valuable  material,  to 
which  W.  H.  Dall's  Alanl-a  and  its   liesourecs  maile  im- 
portant  additions.     The   best   authorities  for  the  Dakota 
and  Athabascan  languages  have  been  mentioned  elsewhere 
in  this  article.     For  the  Eskimo  sec  the  Uroenlamhk  Oram- 
matica  of  0.    Fabricius  (Copenhagen,   l"i)l).  and    Klcin- 
Schmidt's    Gramnmtik   d.    (iroenl.   Sprache    (Berlin,    lKf)l). 
For  the  Algonkin,  besides  the  works  of  Duponceau,  Pick- 
ering, and  Gallatin,  see  Baraga's  Otcfiipin-  Grammar  and 
Dictionary^  J.   Howe's   Cree   Grammar,   Lacombc's   Gram- 
mnirc  de  la  Lantjne  dee  CrU  (Montreal,  1874)  and  accom- 
panying Diet ionary f  and  the  two  works  previously  jncn- 
tioncd  by  **N.  0.,  ancieu  missiounaire  "  (M.  Cuoq).  Etndcn 
philoioffiqncit,  etc.  and  Jufjcmrnt  erronf  de  M.Ernei^t  Itcnan, 
etc.,  which  give  a  good  outline  of  Iroquois  as  well  as  Al- 
gonkin grammar.     For  the  languages  of  South  .America 
generally  see  C.  F.  P. von  Marlins's  HeitrUf/cznrEthiiof/raphie 
iind  Spracheuknndc  Amerifca'n  (Leipsic,  1867),  and  A.  d'Or- 
bigny,  I/IIomme  Amerirain,  etc.  (Paris,  1839);  an<i  as  an 
aid  to  the  comparison  of  South  with  North  American  lan- 
guages, .r.  J.  von  Tschudi's  Vic   Qnirhna  Sprache  (Wien, 
186;;)  is  of  special  value.  J.  Hamhonh  TitrMBirr.L. 

Indian  Ocean  is  tlio  name  of  the  vast  sheet  of  water 
between  Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia,  traversed  by  the  equa- 
torial current,  flowing  from  E.  to  W.  with  a  somewhat 
varying  velocity,  and  forming  a  very  rapid  current  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 

Indiano'la,  post -v.,  cap.  of  Warren  co.,  la.,  on  the 
Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  R.  R.,  Indiauola  branch, 
20  miles  S.  of  Dcs  Moines.  It  is  the  seat  of  Simpson  Cen- 
tenary College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  has  a  national  and 
a  private  bank,  graded  school,  grist-mill,  pinning  mill, 
manufactures  of  farming  implements,  several  chuichcs,  'A 
weekly  newspapers,  etc.,  and  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  and 
fertile  region.     Pop.  1428. 

Graiiasi  &  Knox,  Prns.  "  Herald." 
Indiauola,  port  of  entry,  cap.  of  Calhoun  co.,  Tex.,  on 
the  W.  ^;hore  of  Matagorda  liay,  10  miles  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Its  harbor  is  large  and  commodious  ;  it  has 
steamers  thrice  a  week  from  New  Orleiins,  and  two  lines  of 
sailing  vessels  ply  regularly  to  New  York,  and  there  arc 
many  other  domestic  ports  with  which  it  has  a  trade. 
About  ten  vessels  bring  lumlicr  from  Florida  and  I-ouisiana. 
Cattle,  wool,  hides,  cotton,  ct-.  are  extensively  .^hipped 
from  this  point,  from  which  the  Gulf.  Western  Texas  and 
Paeific  H.  K.  already  extends  over  70  miles  into  the  in- 
terior. The  town  has  two  banks,  a  weekly  ncwspnncr.  and 
several  lari;e  importing  ami  wholesale  establisliments. 
Pop.  lOUO:  of  Old  Indianola,  200.  On  Sept.  15,  1H7.*".  a 
severe  storm,  lasting  live  days,  visited  the  coast  from  Gal- 
vestitn  to  Indianola,  causing  the  waters  to  rise  and  flood  the 
more  exposed  places,  sweeping  away  several  smoll  villages, 
with  great  loss  of  life,  and  destroying  much  properly  in  *ial- 
veston,  Matiigorda,  and  other  towns.  Indianola  was  sub- 
merged, and  except  the  larger  business-houses,  was  entirely 
swept  away.  The  loss  of  life  throughout  this  section  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  over  200, 

CiiARi.PS  A.  OosntRV,  En.  "Bri.i.ETiN." 
Indian  Orchard,  a  pleasant  manufacturing  postv., 
constifntimr  a  part  of  SprincOeld.  Mass.  (Hampden  eo.l.   It 
is  0  miles  N.  E.  of  Springfleld.  on  the  Boston  and  Alliany 
and  the  Sprimrfield  ,\thol  and  North-eastern  K.  Ks. 
Indian  I'oiiil,  tp.  of  Knox  co.,  HI.     Pop.  18.14. 
Indian  I'rairic,  tp.  of  Wayne  co..  III.     Pop.  1727. 
Indian  Hod,  a  mineral  pigment  from  Persia,  consist- 
ing of  ferric  oxide  and  silica. 


1162 


INDIAN  RIDGE— INDIAN  TERRITORY. 


Indian  Ridge,  tp.  of  Clarke  co.,  Ala.  Pop.  31G. 
Indian  River,  in  lirevard  and  Volusia  cos..  Fla.,  is  a 
narrow  tidal  channel  parutU'l  and  usually  only  half  a  luile 
from  the  coast.  It  extends  S.  S.  E.  from  a  point  some  IS 
mile3  N.  \V.  of  Cape  Canaveral  to  Indian  Kivcr  Inlet, 
100  miles  distant,  and  is  continuous  southward  60  miles  to 
Jupiter  Inlet  as  St.  Lucie's  Sound.  It  is  in  a  beautiful 
and  healthful  region,  and  the  river  abounds  in  fish.  It  is 
n:Lvif;able,  and  the  inlet  will  admit  vessels  of  5  fectdraught. 
The  river  is  becoming  a  resort  for  invalids  and  sportsmen. 
Indian  River,  hundred  of  Sussex  eo.,  Del.  P.  1GG7. 
Indians,  American.  At  the  time  of  the  discovery 
of  America  the  whnlc  continent  was  oecujtied  by  scattered 
tribes,  and  as  the  land  was  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  Asia, 
and  called  India  or  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  the  inhab- 
itants received  the  name  of  Indians.  The  question  of  the 
origin  of  this  population  was  for  centuries  a  much-disputed 
one.  Some  tribes — for  instance,  the  Athabascans — i)Os- 
sessed  a  tradition  concerning  their  emigration  across  the 
P.aeific,  and  different  scholars  endeavored  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  American  Indians  and  the  Jews, 
Welsh.  Mongols,  Malays,  and  other  races  of  the  eastern 
continent.  The  attempts  were  nf)t  successful;  and  while 
the  modes  of  living  and  the  implements  of  the  American 
Indians  resemble  very  much  those  belonging  to  the  earlier 
stages  of  European  and  Asiatic  races,  no  link  of  connec- 
tion has  been  found  between  the  respective  languages.  The 
dilTcrent  dialects  or  languages  spoken  by  the  American 
aborigines  seem,  in  spite  of  all  variations,  to  have  origin- 
ated from  one  common  stock,  and  an  identity  of  race  seems 
furthermore  to  be  confirmed  by  an  extensive  community 
in  physiological  traits  and  in  the  general  character  of  their 
civilizaMon.  At  the  time  of  the  discovery  there  was  a 
great  diiTercnce  between  the  tribes  living  in  Peru.  Central 
America.  Mexico,  and  New  Mexico,  and  those  living  far- 
ther to  the  S.  or  to  the  N.,  with  respect  to  the  stage  of 
civilization  which  they  respectively  represented.  The  for- 
mer had  domesticated  the  llama;  they  cultivated  maize, 
squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  plantains,  etc. ;  they  built  houses 
of  adobe  and  temples  of  stone  ;  they  understood  the  art  of 
pottery,  of  making  bronze,  etc.  The  latter  were  sometimes 
almost  wh'dly  savage,  living  in  holes  in  the  ground,  and  eat- 
ing their  fish  and  game  raw.  And  yet  there  were  certain 
common  traits  in  religious  ideas,  in  moral  character.in  form 
of  government,  in  industry  and  mode  of  living,  etc.,  which 
pervaded  the  whole  race  from  the  savage  to  the  semi-civil- 
ized, (For  more  particular  information  see  Am-HiTECTnuE 
OF  THK  American  Abdiuoines,  M.\n  and  his  Migrations, 
Indian  IjANGUAOKS,  Tuibk,  etc.,  and  the  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent tribes.) 

Indian  Shot.     See  Canna. 

Indian  Springs,  post-v.  of  Butts  co.,  Ga..  has  saline 
suljihur  springs,  much  visited  for  the  cure  of  rheumatism 
and  stomach  and  liver  disorders.  It  has  1  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  24S. 

Indian  Springs,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Washington  co., 
Md.     I'u]).  \i>i>o. 

Indian  Springes,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  12S0. 
Indian  Summer.  Sec  Dark  Day,  in  Appendix. 
Indian  Territory,  a  tract  of  land  originally  belong- 
ing to  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  which  was  set  apart  by 
the  government  of  the  U.  S.  as  a  permanent  home  for  such 
of  the  Indian  tribes  as  could  be  induced  to  settle  there.  It 
included  at  first  all  the  unorganized  portion  of  the  Loui- 
siana cession  lying  W.  of  its  eastern  meridian,  and  in  ISjO 
its  area  was  stated  at  105,274  miles;  but  Kansas  and  a 
part  of  Nebraska  were  subsequently  taken  from  it,  and  the 
bounilary  between  North-western  Texas  and  the  north- 
wciitern  portion  of  this  Territory  was  carefully  surveyed. 
As  it  exists  at  present,  its  northern  boundary  is  the  117th 
parallel  of  N.  lat.,  which  separates  it  from  Kansas  and  for 
one  degree  of  longitude  from  Colorado  ;  its  eastern  bound- 
ary is  the  meritlian  of  94°  30'  W.  Ion.,  which  divides  it 
from  Arkansas  and  for  a  short  distance  from  Missouri; 
the  lied  River,  which  separates  it  from  Texas,  is  its 
southern  boundary  as  far  as  to  the  100th  meridian,  which 
it  follows  northward  for  its  western  boundary  to  the  par- 
allel of  .30°  30',  and  then  turns  westward  on  this  par- 
allel to  the  10;',d  meridian  (the  eastern  boundary  of  New 
Mexico^,  when  it  again  runs  N.  along  that  meridian  to  the 
37th  parallel.  It  has  thus  Texas  for  its  southern  and 
western  boundary,  except  for  a  distance  of  35  miles  on  the 
103d  meridian,  where  it  joins  New  Mexico.  Its  area  is 
stated  at  0H,001  square  miles,  or  44,164.2-10  acres,  which  is 
probably  a  near  approximation  to  the  actual  area.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Territory  has  been  granted  in  districts 
proportioned  lo  their  numbers  to  those  Indi.an  tribes  which 
wiuld  confine  themselves  to  their  respective  tracts,  either 
cultivating  them  or  using  them  as  hunting-grounds,  but 


about  one-fifth  of  the  present  area  (8,947,473  acres)  was 
ceded  back  by  the  Chickasaws,  Cherokces,  Creeks,  and 
Seminoles  to  the  U.  S.  in  ISGG  and  1S67,  and  is  now  held 
by  the  government  to  be  u:^ed  as  a  home  by  other  Indian 
tribes  when  they  can  be  induced  to  settle  down  upon  these 
lands  as  a  (permanent  home. 

Fact  of  the  C'niutn/. — There  is  a  gentle  declination  from 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  M<mntains.  which  occupy  the 
extreme  X.  W.  portion  of  this  Territory,  towards  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  and  this  general  slope  trends  also  somewhat 
towards  the  S.  E.,  so  as  to  reach  the  valley  of  the  lower  Red 
River.  Between  the  Red  and  Canadian  rivers  there  arc 
several  groujis  and  ranees  of  mountains  of  no  very  great 
elevation,  as  the  Washita  Mountains,  the  Potcau  and  tlio 
Sans  Bois  mountains.  In  theeastirn  pari  of  the  Territory 
the  rivers  have  broad  and  fertile  bottom-lands,  sometimes 
overflowed  in  spring  or  early  summer,  which  are  usually 
shut  in  by  blufis  more  or  less  abrupt,  which  form  the 
boundaries  of  the  undulating  uplamls.  The  western  por- 
tion, especially  the  narrow  strip  ext*  nding  from  the  100th 
to  the  103d  meridian,  is  arid  and  for  the  most  part  treeless, 
forming  a  portion  of  that  gradually  diminishing  region 
formerly  known  as  the  dreat  American  Desert.  Tlio  Ar- 
kansas and  Red  rivers,  with  their  affluents,  drain  the  Ter- 
ritory. Some  of  these  affluents  are  nearly  as  large  as  the 
main  rivers.  The  Arkansas  enters  the  Tcrritoiy  near  the 
97th  meridian,  ami  leaves  it  at  Fort  Smith,  in  lat.  about 
35°  30',  but  its  principal  tributary,  the  Canadian  River, 
traverses  the  entire  Territory  from  W.  to  E.,  as  do  also 
its  N.  fork  and  the  Cimarron  or  Red  fork  of  the  Arkansas. 
The  other  alilucnts  of  the  Arkansas  are,  from  the  N.,  Ver- 
digris and  Little  Verdigris  and  Neosho  rivers  and  Flint 
Creek;  from  the  W..  Little  Arkansas,  Black  Bear,  Wolf 
Creek,  and  Poteau  River,  a  branch  of  the  Canadian.  The 
tributaries  of  the  Red  River  in  the  Territory  are  the  N. 
fork  of  Red  River,  Cedar  Creek,  with  numerous  branches, 
tHe  Washita  River,  a  large  and  long  stream.  Muddy  Creek, 
Walnut  Creek,  Baggy  River,  and  Kianashi  River. 

Gcologi/. — E.  of  the  97th  meridian  most  of  the  Territory 
belongs  to  the  coal-measures,  though  we  believe  but  littlo 
coal  has  as  yet  been  mined  there.  There  is,  however,  a 
small  tract  of  Eozoic  rocks  on  the  Arkansas  River  between 
the  Cherokee  and  (he  Creek  countries,  about  lat.  35°  30', 
and  another  in  the  S.  W.,  crossed  by  the  35th  parallel  and 
Ion.  99^  W.  All  the  rest  of  the  Territory  belongs  to  tho 
Triassic  and  Jurassic  formations,  except  a  little  tract  of 
Cretaceous  rocks  in  the  extreme  N.  W.,  on  the  borders  of 
New  Mexico.  The  barren  and  sandy  table-lands  of  tho 
narrow  strip  in  the  N.  W.  arc  often  covered,  especially  in 
summer,  with  saline  efflorescence. 

Vegetation. — The  eastern  part  of  the  Territory  has  much 
rich  and  fertile  land,  not  only  on  the  river-bottoms,  but  on 
the  upland  prairies  and  woodlands.  A  bolt  of  forest,  known 
as  the  ■**  Cross  Timbers,"  from  5  to  30  miles  in  width,  ex- 
tends along  the  border  of  the  t^'arboniferous  formation  from 
tho  Arkansas  River  to  the  Brazos,  and  separates  the  fertile 
and  rich  prairie-lands  from  the  dry  and  sterile  table-lands 
of  the  N.  W.  W.  of  these  there  are  few  trees  except  in  tho 
river-bottom?:,  and  the  soil  grows  more  and  more  arid  and 
unproductive,  till  at  last  there  arc  only  thorny  cacti,  yuc- 
cas, and  the  gray  sagebush  to  be  seen,  and  even  these  only 
in  scattered  and  widely  separated  ])atclics. 

Animals. — This  is  still,  especially  in  its  central  and  west- 
ern portions,  the  favorite  haunt  of  the  buffalo,  Ihenutclopc, 
and  to  some  extent  of  the  wild  horse;  deer  and  other  game 
abound;  the  black  or  brown  bear  is  found  in  the  "  Cross 
Timbers:"  and  the  prairie  dog.  the  wild-turkcy,  the  prairie- 
hen,  the  sage-hen.  and  a  great  variety  of  birds  of  prey,  as 
well  as  those  noted  for  beautiful  jdumago  or  for  melodious 
song,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Territory.  There  are 
not  many  fish  in  the  rivers,  which,  except  the  Arkansas 
and  Red,  are  usually  dry,  except  in  pools,  in  the  summer. 

CT(Hjarf.— Like  that  of  most  of  the  region  between  tho 
same  parallels  W.  of  the  Mississippi,  the  climate  is  warm 
and  inclined  to  drought.  In  the  S.  E.  it  is  more  moist,  tho 
average  rainfall  being  52  inches,  but  it  is  also  hot,  tho 
mean  annual  temperature  exceeding  00°  F.  In  the  central 
portion  there  is  not  quite  so  much  heat,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  ranging  from  57°  to  59°,  and  tho  rainfall  hav- 
ing diminished  to  35  inches.  In  the  N.  W,  the  menn  tem- 
perature of  the  year  is  lower,  not  exceeding  55°,  being 
reduced  by  tho  cold  **  northers  "  from  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  the  rainfall  docs  not  average  more  than  20  inches  for 
the  year. 

ProductionM. — The  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Chickasaws,  Choc- 
taws,  Pcnecas.  Quapaws,  and  Shawnees  have  settled  on  their 
reservations,  ami  many  of  them  have  good  farms  and  have 
made  considerable  jirogress  in  civilization.  These  tribes 
had  before  (he  late  w.ar  many  slaves,  ami  raised  largo  crops 
which  they  sent  to  market.  Since  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  many  of  them  still  hire  laborers  and  are  wealthy; 


INDIAN   TEKRITOKY. 


11(J3 


but  as  no  taxes  arc  levied  on  either  their  personal  or  real 
c^itute,  the  census  does  not  report  their  productions.  The 
other  tribes  are  nomadic,  and  make  little  or  no  efTort  to  till 
the  soil  or  engage  in  any  branch  of  civilized  industry-  The 
following  statistics  were  gathered  in  relation  to  the  Terri- 
tory in  1-S72:  Acres  of  improved  land.  204,(17-1  ;  bu.^hels  of 
wheat,  etc.,  C,7'Jy,.iJ5;  value  of  farm  ](roduce,  SI.GO.'i,(J10  ; 
numbor  of  horses,  cattle,  etc.,  *101,4li;>:  their  value, 
$I,!U7,101;  total  value  of  real  and  pcrsoniil  property, 
$Ifi.l>S7.S18.  Land  is  held  ia  common,  and  is  not  included 
in  this  valuation. 

There  is  one  railroad,  which  traverses  this  Territory  from 
N.  to  S. — the  Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  Railway — 200 
miles  of  it  within  the  Territory.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Railway  also  extends  from  Seneca  to  Vir.ita,  a  distance  of 
about  ?f5  miles  in  the  Territory,  connecting  there  with  the 
Mis^souri  Kansas  and  Texa?.  Numerous  other  railroads 
have  been  projected,  and  one,  a  Pacific  Railway  to  follow 
the  ."loth  parallel,  has  been  endeavoring  to  obtain  from  Con- 
gress the  right  of  way  anrl  a  grant  of  lands  through  the 
Territory,  but  the  Indians  oppose  it. 

IhmKii,  rtc. — There  are  no  banks,  savings  banks,  insu- 
rance companies,  or.  so  far  as  we  can  learn,  private  bank- 
ing-houst?s,  ID  the  Territory. 

Population, — Until  the  census  of  1S70  there  had  been  no 
attempt  to  take  a  full  census  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  In- 
dian Territory.  As  the  Indians  v/ere  not  taxed,  and  had 
no  interest  as  voters,  etc.  in  tho  giivcrnmcnt  of  the  V.  S., 
there  seemed  no  other  motive  except  that  of  curiosify  for 
such  enumeration.  The  number  of  white  persons  and  of 
persons  of  African  descent  in  tho  Territory  was  enume- 
rated. In  ISfiO  these  together  numbered  9701.  In  1870  tho 
change  wliicli  had  taken  place  in  tho  relations  of  sonic  of 
the  tribes  during  and  consequ'-nt  upon  the  late  civil  war 
made  an  enumeration  necessary.  The  U.  S.  marshal  re- 
ported in  1S70  that  there  wore  in  the  Territory  CS,Iii2  in- 
habitants. Of  these,  2  107  were  white?,  0.173  colored  per- 
sons of  African  descent.  .'>9,.'JC7  Indians  sustaining  tribal 
relations,  of  whom  19,007  wcro  on  reservations  an<l  at 
agencies  and  more  or  less  civilized.  (Of  these,  388-i  wcro 
m^n,  4t85  women,  51  It)  male  children,  and  5592  female 
children.)  There  were  also  5900  reported  as  estimated 
luembers  of  these  reservations  and  agencies,  but  not  ac- 
tually enumerated  by  the  as-sistant  marshals.  Tho  c^^ti- 
matcd  number  of  nomadic  Indians  (i".  c.  notou  reservations 
or  located  at  or  near  agencies)  in  the  Territory  was  ;>4,400. 
Later  statistic?,  taken  in  IS72,  give  a  materially  dificrcnt 
statement.  They  make  the  number  of  civilized  Indians, 
including  the  Cbcrokccs,  Choctaws,  Creeks,  Chickasaws, 
Seminoles,  Quapaws,  Senecas,  Wyandots,  Shawnee?,  etc., 
5.'),S74,  occupying  reservations  of  19,018,095  acres,  of  which 
216,850  acres  arc  under  cultivation  by  individuals  and  4  155 
by  iho  government.  These  Indians  occupy  5;M4  dwelling- 
houses.  The  uncivilized  Indians,  including  stragglers  and 
Osages,  Caildoes,  Kiowas,  Comanchcs,  Apaches  and  Dela- 
warcs,  Chc-yennes,  Arapahoes  and  Apaches,  numbered 
I  1.515,  making  an  aggregate  of  70,^89  Indians,  or  about 
11,000  more  than  the  census  reported.  The  Osages,  Kio- 
was,  Comanches,  and  stragglers  had  reservations  amount- 
ing to  9,544,720  acres,  of  which  only  2G0;i  acres  wcro  culti- 
vated by  individuals  and  006  by  tho  government.  The 
other  uncivilized  Indians,  numbering  0:VJ2,  had  no  definito 
reservations,  but  roamed  at  will  through  tho  15,000,000 
acres  of  unallotted  lands*.  Tlio  uncivilized  Indians  had  in 
all  but  250  ]>ermanent  buildings.  Tho  total  amount  of 
funds  held  in  trust  by  tho  U.  S.  government  fur  all  these 
tribes,  civilized  and  uncivilized,  is  about  $8,000,000. 

Edncntion. — The  schools  are  mostly  contlned  to  tho 
Chcrokees,  Choctaws,  Creeks,  Chickasaws,  and  Seminoles, 
the  other  tribes  caring  little  for  schools.  In  these  five 
tribes  there  were  in  187.T,  15H  sehools,  with  4700  sehohirs. 
Tho  Cherokeos  had  in  1H7.T,  00  of  these  schools,  attended 
by  2'iOO  children,  and  besides,  an  orphan  school,  with  90 
pupils,  1  female  high  school,  and  1  (Moravian)  missionary 
school.  Their  school  fuu'l  amounts  to  $520,1.11,04,  and 
their  orphan  fund  to  $218,000.51.  The  Creiks  had  in  187.'!, 
1  boarding  school  and  .'il  day  schools,  attended  by  800 
pupils.  The  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws  had  2  boarding 
schools  and  4S  day  schools.  an<!  ll*;»9  scholars.  The  Semi- 
noles, 5  day  schools  ancl  20"  s;^bolars.  The  school  funds 
for  all  tho  tribes  except  the  Chcrokees  amount  to  about 
$251,000.  Tho  leading  chiefs  of  the  Cherokees,  Creeks, 
and  Choctaws  advocate  the  abolition  of  tho  tribal  system, 
tho  holding  of  the  lands  in  severalty,  and  tho  education  of 
tho  children  to  tit  them  for  citi/.ensliip. 

/irligton. — Tho  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws.  and  Chick- 
asaws have  been  for  half  a  century  under  missionary  in- 
struction, and  n  very  considerable  proportion  of  thorn  arc 
membrrs  of  ("hrislian  churches.  The  nggr^'Kate  number 
of  church  members  in  tbc>;e  four  tribes  somewhat  exceeds 
7.*>(in,      of  tlu'S<*.  over  ilUKl  are   Chcrokees,  2050   Creeks, 


2500  Chickasaws  and  Choctaws.     lu  tbo  entire  Territory 
the  Baptists  in    1«74  had  3  ossooiatious,  61    churches,  47 
ministers,   and   3910   members.       The   Methodist  Church, 
South,    has  also   a  considerable  number  of  churches  and 
communicants    in    the    Territory,  and    several    missions 
j  among  the  less  civilized   Indians.     Their   report  of  thuir 
I  conferences  in  1874  gives  for  the  Indian  mission  (not  all, 
!  we  think,  in   this  Territory)  20  travelling  preachers.  82 
!  local  preachers,  172  while,  454  colored,  and  4590   Indian 
members.     Tho  Presbyterians,  both  Xortb  and  South,  have 
mission  stations  in  the  Territory,  as  have  also  the  Cougre- 
gationalists.     The  Roman  Catholics  have  two  nii.'sion  sta- 
tions, and  there  arc  several  Moravian  congregations. 

yewspapem. — There  are  three  or  four  newspapers  print- 
ed in  the  Territory.  One.  at  Tahlcr|uali.  is  partly  in  the 
Cherokee  language,  and  one  at  Caddo  is.  we  believe,  in  the 
Creek  or  Choctaw.  Konc  of  these  papers  have  a  very  largo 
circulation. 

The  fjovcrnment  of  the  civilized  Indians,  and  indeed  of 
all  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Territory,  is  one  of  independent 
chiefs,  whose  ])Ower  is,  however,  limited.  The  tribes  are 
the  wards  of  the  U.  S.  government,  which  nevertheless  in- 
terferes as  seldom  as  possiI)le.  For  the  purpose  of  punish- 
ing crimes  against  citizens  of  the  V .  S.  the  Territory  is 
annexed  to  the  judicial  districts  of  Arkansas  and  I^Iissouri. 
Tho  Chcrokees  have  a  legislature  or  council  of  their  own, 
as  do  some  of  the  other  civilized  tribes,  thougli  not  so  com- 
pletely organized.  They  have  also  courts  and  a  code  of 
laws,  few  and  simple,  but  suflk-icnt  for  their  purposes. 
They  aro  not  represented,  even  by  a  delegate,  in  Congress, 
but  occasionally,  when  tliey  desire  some  change  in  their 
arrangements  with  the  U.  S.  governnunt,  they  send  some 
of  their  most  intelligent  chiefs  to  Washington  to  rejircsent 
their  case  before  tho  President,  the  secretary  of  the  inte- 
rior, or  a  congressional  committee. 

Divisionft  of  the  Tcrritonj. — There  are.  of  course,  no 
counties  or  townships  in  the  Territory,  but  all  the  civiliztd 
tribes,  and  sonio  of  the  uncivilized,  have  their  reservations 
— considcrablo  trarts  of  land.  lying  each  in  ono  body,  which 
is  tho  joint  property  of  tho  whole  tribe.  Some  of  the  tribes, 
having  diminished  in  numbers,  had  more  land  than  they 
needed,  and  have  ceded  it  back  to  the  U.  S.  for  a  liberal 
sum  of  money,  which  is  invested  and  the  income  applitd 
to  tho  use  of  the  tribe. 

Tho  reservations  set  apart  for  tho  tribes  now  there  are  as 
follows : 


Cherokees 

ChocCaw8 

Ciceks 

Chickasaws 

Seminciles 

Quapaws,   Senecas,  Wy 
anduts,  Shawnees,  etc.' 

Osages 

Caddoes 

Kiuwas 

Comanches 

Frayments  of  tribes  set- 
tled luKetber 


No.  of 
booses. 


879 
83 


9 
104 


Popula- 
tion, 
OS  I'd. 


17,217 
16,000 
12,295 
6,000 
2,438 

1.219 

2,823 
1,52^ 
2.000 
2,198 

1.192 


Acrca  of  |  Improved 
rcscrva-      b^  tiidi 
tion.  viduals. 


89,250 
50,000 
31,000 
SO.OOfJ 
7,600 


90 
92.'* 
186 

60 

1.342 


Imi»r'd 
))j-  gov 
orDiD't. 


4,390 


65 
116 
ISO 

70 
250 


Tho  two  branches  of  the  .Apache  tribe  (Pima  and  Coyote) 
or  BO  many  of  them  as  aro  in  this  Territory,  the  Delaware?, 
Cheyennes,  and  Arapahoes,  numbering  together  4774  per- 
sons, have  as  yet  no  definite  reservations. 

7'o,r,M. — There  are  no  large  towns  in  the  Territory. 
Tahleqnab,  tbo  capital  of  the  Cherokee  country:  Caddo, 
the  largest  settlement  in  the  Choctaw  nation;  Vinita,  tho 
point  of  junction  of  the  Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  and, 
the  S.  W.  branch  of  the  Pacitic  railroads;  IJlue  Jacket, 
on  the  former  road:  Muf^eogte,  in  the  Creek  country;  and 
Tishomingo,  in  the  Chickasaw  Nation, — are  settlements  of 
moderate  size.  Tho  U.  S.  government  has  ten  or  twelve 
forts,  some  of  thein  of  considerable  size,  in  the  Territory. 

//inton/. — The  history  of  the  Territory  is  very  brief. 
Though  a  part  of  tho  Louisiana  purchase,  it  does  not  seem 
to  have  had  at  any  time  any  considerable  population.  It 
was  occasionally  traversed  by  the  Apaches,  Comanches,  or 
Arapahoes,  and  perhaps  by  the  Cheyennes,  in  the  pur.-^uit 
of  tlie  buffalo  or  the  wild'  horse.  It  was  sehcted  by  tho 
V.  S.  Kovernment  in  1H;12  as  the  homo  of  tho  tribes  E.  of 
the  Mississippi,  principally  on  account  of  its  remoteness 
from  while  settlements,  and  the  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Cliieka- 
flaws,  ami  Cherokees  were  removed  thither  from  18,'{.'i  to 
IH.'tS.and  the  Seminoles  and  some  fragments  of  other  tribes 
a  little  later.  Tho  first  grunts  of  land  secured  to  them  by 
treaty  were  mmdi  larger  than  thuse  they  now  li'dd,  and 
embraced  portions  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  By  subse- 
quent treaties  these  were  ceded  back  to  tho  V.  S.     During 

'These  havo  each  a  sepnrnle  though  small  reserTAtlon. 


11G4 


INDIAN   TOHACCO— INDIA  EUBBER. 


the  late  civil  war  several  of  the  more  civilized  tribes  took 
the  side  of  the  South,  and  were  at  first  held  to  have  for- 
feited their  lands,  but  were  finally  reinstated  in  their  pos- 
session. L.  P.  BnOCKETT. 

Iniliiin  Tobacco.     See  Lobelia. 

In'diantowu,  a  thriving  suburb  of  St.  John,  N.  B., 
near  the  moulh  of  the  St.  John  River.  }lere  the  river 
steamers  have  their  wharves,  A  steam-ferry  connects  it 
with  Point  Pleasant.  Indiantown  has  large  steam  saw- 
mills and  an  extensive  lumber-trade.     Pop.  about  2oOU. 

Indian  Town,  tp.  of  Bureau  co.,  III.     Pop.  lOGO. 

Indian  Valley,  post-tp.  of  Floyd  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1+75. 

Indian  Village,  tp.  of  Tama  co.,  la.     Pop.  1523. 

Indian  Yellow,  or  Pnrree,  a  yellow  pigment,  oon- 
sistins    essentially   of  euxanthato  of  magnesium.       (See 

PlKlTEE.) 

India  Rubber,  Caoutchouc  (from  cachuchu  of  the 

South  .American  Indians),  or  (iuin  Elastic  [Ger.  Aawf- 
«c/iii/.-  Feilci-liai-z;  Fr.  caviilchoiic],  a  peculiar  substance, 
composed  of  carbon  and  hvdrogeu,  found  in  suspension  in 
the  milky  juice  of  a  great  many  difi'erent  families  oi  plants. 
It  has  been  stated  that  all  milky  vegetable  juices  contain 
it,  but  this  is  not  the  ease,  many  of  these  juices  yield  gum- 
resins  free  from  caoutchouc. 

//,«(,„.,y._AlthoU','h  known  at  a  very  early  date  to  the 
Peruvians  and  thethinese,  it  was  not  brought  to  Europe 
till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  first 
scientific  notice  with  resard  to  it  appeared  in  the  Traiiaac- 
(ion»  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1735  from  the 
pen  of  M.  dc  la  Condamine,  who  had  noticed  it,  under  the 
name  of  cnclnichu,  on  his  voyage  down  the  Amazon.  He 
describes  it  as  in  constant  use  among  the  natives  in  the 
form  of  bottles,  boots,  etc.,  and  for  making  cloth  water- 
proof. In  1751  he  again  called  attention  to  "the  elastic 
resin"  of  Cayenne  {Mem.  tie  V Acad.  Eni/ale,  1751,  pp.  17, 
319),  his  friend  M.  Fresncau  having  reported  its  occurrence 
in  the  French  colonv  of  Cavenne.  Herissant  and  Macquer 
(Mem.  <le  V Acad.  R-<j.,  1703,  p.  49)  published  their  chem- 
ical investigations  on  "  solution  of  caoutchouc,"  and  Mac- 
quer in  1 7G8,  "  on  means  of  dissolving  the  resin  caoutchouc." 
Priestley  (1770)  mentioned  the  use  of  the  gum  for  erasing 
lead-pencil  marks,  its  cost  being  three  shillings  fo-  "  "  ""l"- 


'a  cubi- 


cal piece  of  about  half  an  inch."     Berniard  published  in- 
vestigations in  17S1 ;  Fourcroy,  on  the  sap  in  1790;  tiros- 
sart.  "  on  the  means  of  making  instruments  of  gum  elastic 
in  1791 .    Important  contributions  to  the  chemistry  of  caout- 
chouc have  been  made  by  Faraday,  Xees  von  Eisenbach  and 
Marquart,  .\driani,  Ilimly,  Payen,  Bouchardat,  and  others, 
while  the  practical  applications  have  been  made  by  Mack- 
intosh, llandcock,  Goodyear,  A.  G.  Day,  and  other  invent- 
ors.    The  first  use  made  of  caoutchouc  in  Europe  was  for 
crasin"  pencil-marks;  it  was  then  used  in  solution  in  oil 
of  iurpentine  and  alcohol  and  in  coal-tar  naphtha  for  water- 
proofinc  cloth,  the  most  important  industry  of  this  kind 
havin^^been  founded  in  1823  by  M.ackintosh  at  Glasgow. 
Rubber  overshoes,  made  by  the  natives  of  pure  gum,  wore 
imported  from  Pari  in  1S25,  and  formed  an  important  ar- 
ticle of  commerce  till  the  increased  price  of  the  gum  made 
it  necessary  to  limit  its  use  to  a  minimum  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  cloth  overshoes  covered  with  rubber  much  di- 
luted with  litharge,  whiting,  etc.,  and  vulcanized  with  sul- 
phur  which  are  now  in  use.     In  1826,  Rattier  and  Gmbal 
introduced  machinery  for  cutting  threads  of  rubber  for  the 
manufacture  of  elastic  fabrics,  which  have  since  been  exten- 
sivclv  produced.     The  most  important  invention  in  regard 
to  rubber  was  made  bv  Charles  Goodyear  of  Massachusetts 
in  1><:'.9,  and  patented" June  15,  ISM.     It  consisted  in  mix- 
ing with  the  rubber  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur,  fashioning 
the  articles  from  the  plastic  material,  and  curimj  or  ndcnn- 
izimi  the  mixture  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  205°  to 
270°  F.     The  product,  known  as  vulcanized  rubber,  pos- 
sessed all  the  desirable  properties  of  rubber  with  none  of 
its  objectionable  qualities,  and  soon  found  a  thousand  im- 
portant applications.     The  next  great  step  in  the  rubber 
inrlustry  was  the  invention  of  hard  rubber  or  vulcanite. 
The  invention  is  claimed  for  Kelson   Goodyear,  but  the 
writer,  after  the  most  careful  investigation  of  the  subject, 
believes  that  the  real  inventor  of  flexible  "  whalebone " 
rubber  was  Austin  G.  Day  of  Connecticut.     Nelson  Good- 
year's  caveat,  filed  Dec.  31,  1819.  and  his  patent,  granted 
May  6.  1851,  are  for  a  hard,  stifl",  inflexible  compound, 
which  he  says  is  best  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of 
rubber,  sulphur,  magnesia,  etc.     Day  patented   .Aug.   10, 
1S58,  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  rubber  and  1  of  sulphur, 
275°  to  300°  F.,  which  he  describes  as  flexible 


though  his  representatives  have  succeeded  in  monopolizing 
Day's  invention  under  the  plea  that  it  was  covered  by 
Goodyear's  patent.  (See  Am.  Cliemht,  ii.  329.) 

Doinny. — Caoutchouc  is  produced  by  numerous  trees  and 
shrubs   of  the   families    Euphorbiaccoe,  Urticacea:,  Arto- 
carpacea;,  Asclepiadcic,  and  (inchonacea;.     The  best  rub- 
ber, which  is  brought  from  Para,  South  America,  is  ob- 
tained  from    the  Hiphonia  diislica  of   Persoon,  Siphoiiia 
Cachiichii  of  Rich,  JtUropha  clantica  of  Linnaius,  and  Hevea 
Gmnnensis  of  Aublet.  Six  or  seven  other  species  ofSiphonia 
furnish  caoutchouc  in  Central  and  South  .\meriea.     In  In- 
dia the  most  abundant  rubber  tree  is  the /'I'ciM  c?a«(i'ca.    It 
occurs  on  tiie  coast  of  Coromandel,  and  is  abundant  over 
more  than  10,000  square  miles  in  Assam:  grows  solitary  or 
in  twofold  or  threefold  groups.     The  main  trunk  of  one 
measured  71  feet  in  eircumfercnce,  while  the  girth  of  the 
main  trunk  with  the  supjiorts  immediately  around  it  was 
120  feet.     The  area  covered  by  the  expanded  branches  was 
610  square  feet,  and  the  height  of  the  central  tree  was  100 
feet.  It  was  computed  that  43,310  of  these  trees  grew  wilhin 
a  length  of  30  miles  and  a  breadth  of  S  miles  in  the  forest 
near  Forozepoor,  in  the  district  of  Chardwar,  in  Assam. 
The  same  tree  was  said  to  be  equally  abundant  in  the  dis- 
trict  of  Naudwar.      The    geographical    range   in    Assam 
seemed  to  be  between  25°  10'  and  27°  20'  N.  lat.,  and  90° 
40'  and  95°  30'  E.  Ion.     It  grows  on  the  slopes  of  hills  up 
to  an  elevation  of  probably  2250  feet.    The  I'rccnla  elatlica 
abounds  in  the  islands  oi'  the  Indian  Archipelago,  at  Su- 
matra and  Pcnang:  produces  the  ginlawau  of  the  Malays. 
It  is  described  as  a  creeper  of  growth  so  rapid  that  in  five 
years  it  extends  200  feet,  and  is  from  20  to  30  inches  in 
"girth  ;  can  yield  by  tapping,  without  being  injured.  50  to 
60  pounds  of  caoutchouc  in  one  season.     The  families  of 
plants  yielding  caoutchouc  thrive  in  tropical  parts  of  the 
world  where  high  tem])eraturo  is  combined  with  moisture. 
The  belt  of  land  around  the  globe  500  miles  N.  and  500 
miles  S.  of  the  equator  abounds  in  trees  producing  the  gum 
of  India  rubber.     "We  find,  accordingly,  that  caoutchouc  is 
imported  from  Para  and  other  places  in  South  America, 
from  Central  America,  India,  Singapore,  Vera  Cruz.  Sierra 
Leone,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Pcnang.     The  caoutchouc  of 
Para.  South   America,  is  produced   by  Sipliaiiia   elaalica  ; 
Central  America.  Siphoin'n  caontchouc,  Castlfleja  elastica ; 
Penang,  Urceola  elastica;  Sumatra,  I'rcrnhi  cloHlica;  Java, 
a  species  of  Ficua ;    continent  of  India,  Ficua  elaalica; 
Sierra  Leone,  a  species  of  Siphraiia.     The  industrial  de- 
mands for  India  rubber  are  so  important  that  experiments 
have  been  made  in  Brazil  with  a  view  to  cultivate  the  trees, 
as  the  cinchonas  have  been  grown  in  the  Himalaya.  Caout- 
chouc occurs  in  opium  to  the  extent  of  4  or  5  per  cent. : 
also  in  the  juice  of  the  milkweed  (Aaclepiaa),  which  grows 
abundantly  in  the  T'.  S.  and  Canada.     Efforts  have  been 
made  to  extract  it  from  milkweed,  and  it  is  said  that  a 
company  has  been  recently  organized  for  this  purpose  in 
Canada. 

Sources  of  Supply.— Most  of  the  rubber  of  commerce  is 
derived  from  South  America,  from  Par.'i,  Central  America, 
Mexico.  Carthagena,  etc. ;  smaller  quantities  from  Java,  Pe- 
nang. Singapore,  Assam,  and  Natal. 

VoUectiiuj  the  Cilice.— The  juice  is  obtained  by  tapping, 
that  drawn  from  old  trees  in  the  cold  season  being  pre- 
ferred, and  the  flow  being  greater  the  higher  the  incisions 
are  made  in  the  tree.  AVhen  the  bleeding  is  confined  to  the 
cold  months,  and  not  repeated  too  often,  the  trees  do  not 
appear  to  suffer  in  consequence. 

Propertiea  and  Cumpoaition  of  the  Juice. — Caoutchouc 
juice  or  sap  has  been  imported  from  time  to  time  into 
England  in  considerable  quantities,  but  it  is  found  more 
economical  to  prepare  the  crude  rubber  where  the  juice  is 
collected.  It  resembles  ordinary  cow's  milk  in  color  and 
consistence.  Its  sp.  gr.  varies  from  1.012  to  1.041.  Sev- 
eral circumstances  may  conduce  to  give  the  commercial 
juice  a  gravish-brown,  milky-gray,  or  pale-yellow  color, 
but  the  pure"  juice,  as  it  issues  from  the  tree,  is  white.  Dr. 
Adriani,  who  made  some  valuable  (Chem.  Neioa.  ii.  277, 
289)  experiments  upon  the  fresh  juice  of  the  Ficua  elaalica, 
apped  bv  himself,  says  that  as  the  general  result  of  bis 


tapj.^..  --.  ---, — ., - 

experiments  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  contained  in  the 
niilkv  juice  decreases  according  to  its  being  collected  from 
incisions  made  in  the  higher  and  consequently  younger 
parts  of  the  plant.  The  tree  which  yielded  the  juice  for 
his  experiments  was  a  young  plant  2.25  metres  in  height. 

Per  cent. 

25.15 
24.05 
20.98 
17.70 


Height  ut  which 

ToUl 

cvaportttod. 

il  was  talccn. 

residue. 

OMiX  cnns. 

0.30  metres. 

0.04(5  grms 

0.?.9.'» 

1.74       " 

0.09.5      " 

0.M3      •' 

2.10      " 

0.030      " 

0.S2.'i      " 

Top. 

0.145      " 

heated  to  *J7j"  to  .^uu"  r.,  wuicn  ne  acscnutrs  as  ihjajmi^  i  •        .    ,    ,     ,  ..i    i,  lu     -  .:„-s  ;»  ti,^ 

and  ehastie.     This  produc  ,  correctly  described  by  Day,  is  \  These  figures  prove,  as  stated  above,  that  the  J  •>«   "  'he 

Urn  vurcantte  or  ha?d  rubber  whieh"is  so  extensively  man-  '  older  parts  of  the  ,,lant  does  contain   more  ™l'd  matt" 

factuVed  for  combs,  pen-holders,  jewelrv.  etc.    lioodycar's  than  that  in  the  younger  parts      O'd  trees,  then,  furnish 

bUtle  compound  hv.s  never  been  an  arUcle  of  commerce.  '  the  richest  juice,  and  Mr.  Grifliths  states  that  the  juice  of 


INDIA   RUBBER. 


11G5 


the  reflex  roots,  which  lie  exposed,  is  richer  in  gum  than  I  cream.  This  is  removed,  diffused  through  a  fresli  quanl.ly 
any  'vhiel.  is  ubscquen.lv  druwn  ofT.  If  the  juice  be  left  '  of  water,  and  again  left  to  rise  to  the  .urfaee  By  repca  - 
arrest  for  a  few  hours,  the  globules  of  the  gum  rise  to  the  I  ing  this  operation  til  the  wash-water  .8  perleetly  lMn,.ul, 
surface  and  float  like  cream  on  milk.  Heat  and  agitation  the  caoutchouc  may  be  obta.ned  very  nearly  pure.  It  i 
also  cause  the  juice  to  coagulate. 

statements  concerning  the  action  of  alcohol,  .\ilriani  affirm- 

atcs  that  in 


There  is  a  conflict  in  the  j  then  to  be  spread  upon  a  plate  of  unglazed  earthenware 
to  absorb  the  water,  and  afterwards  pressed.  'llic 
crude  rubber  of  commerce  presents  difl'ercnt  shapes  ami 
structure  according  to  the  method  and  care  employed  in 
its  preparation.  The  purest  from  Pari  is  much  mure 
valuable  than  that  from  other  localities.  It  appears  in 
lar^e  bottles  and  thick  plates,  often  entirely  free  from  im- 
purities, and  very  light  colored  within.     The  Carthagcna 


lent. 


ing  that  it  produces  coagulation,  while  Ire  slates  that 
two  samples  of  juice  containing,  respectively,  20  per  een 
and  :i"  per  cent,  of  solid  caoutchouc,  alcohol  of  0.82:')  s 
gr.  afforded  no  appearance  of  coagulum  when  mixed  with 
them   in  any  proportion.     The  juice  of  the   Ocjnca,  and 

possiblv  tha't  of  other  plants,  produces  coagulation  of  the  ;  , ,  •,-     ,  „  •,■       ,nn  „  „„^c 

caoutchouc  juice.     The"^  emulsive  juice  mixes  readily  with  ]  gum  comes  in  very  large  lumps,  often  weighing  ^OOfoanAs, 
.     .■'.         ,  ,: :_:.   ,1 1,  ;.  ,i„„i.  ,„>t  i^n.  !  and  evidently  formed  by  pressing  thin  sheets  together.     It 


water,  alcohol,  and  pvroxylic  spirit,  though  it  does  not  be- 
come at  all  clearer;  it  will  not  mix  with  eaoutebine.  naph- 
tha, nor,  indeed,  with  any  of  the  usual  solvents  of  solid 
caoutchouc,  but  remains  a"t  the  bottom  of  these  liquids  as 
distinct  as  mercury  does  under  water.  When  caoutchouc 
has  once  been  coagulated  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  it  back 
a<;ain  to  the  emulsive  state.  Ammonia  prevents  coagula- 
tion, and  was  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  importation  of 


I  black  within  as  well  as  without.  The  East  Indian  gum 
appears  as  a  conglomerate  of  light  and  dark  reddish- 
brown  masses,  often  mixed  with  much  wood,  bark,  leaves, 
gravel,  etc.  Crude  impure  rubber  often  undergoes  a  very 
injurious  change,  especially  when  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  It  softens,  becomes  smeary  and  semi- 
fluid like  tar.     African  gum  is  said  to  be  more  liable  to 


inuid  caoutchouc  prior  to  Isoi     The  following  physical  i  suffer  in  this  way  than  any  other      In  the  interior  of  many 
17    .        .      ,  '....,..._.    •    - .~! r ,    A.^1,.;         ,^f  tUn  hnll«  wl»n>b  comc  from  Hrazil   and  the  jiast    liniies 


and  chemical  properties  of  the  juice  are  taken  from  Adri- 
ani's  paper:  Under  the  microscope  caoutchouc  juice  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  clear  liquid  wherein  float  a  largo  num- 
ber of  spherical  globules.  These  globules  strongly  refract 
light,  and  present,  consequently,  black  circumferences  by 
transmitted  light,  while  they  reflect  the  light  with  a  white 
color.  The  diameter  of  the  globules  varies  from  ^iJuu  to 
5X5  of  an  inch,  averaging  about  yulisij.  The  reaction  of 
the  iuico  is  slightly  acid.  The  addition  of  water  produces 
no  change.  Alcohol  does  not  change  the  appearance  of  the 
globules?  but  causes  the  formation  of  groups  of  needle- 
shaped  crystals.  Ether  causes  the  globules  to  adhere  to- 
gether and  form  an  amorphous  mass,  and  also  develops 
crystals,  which  appear  to  be  a  magnesian  salt  of  a  pe- 
culiar organic  acid.  The  following  analyses  have  been 
published: 

Juiee  of  Ficus  claatica  (Adriani). 

Water 

f'aoiitchouc 

R  sin,  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  not  in  ether   

Magnesia,  combined  with  peculiar  organic  acid 

A  lubstance  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  not  in  ether 


An  organic  substance,  soluble  in  water,  takes  a  yellow 
tinae  with  alkalies  (dextrine),  and  traces  of  salts  of  hme 
and  soda i_ 


82.30 

1.58 
4.49 

0.36 


^Hi'ce  0/  Siphonia  cachachu  {^Faraday). 
Water,  acid,  etc ^-^ 


('aoutehouc 


31.70 


Siibitauccs  soluljle  in  water,  not  in  alcohol 2.90 

Albuminous  precipitate l.JO 

Peculiar  bitter  coloring-matter,  a  highly  azotized  body  I     ^  jj 

Wai > L- 

100.00 

Dr.  Urc  found  in  two  specimens  20  per  cent,  and  .37  per 
cent.,  respectively,  of  caoutchouc.  Alcohol  of  0.825  sp.  gr. 
failed  to  afford  any  appearance  of  coagulum  when  mixed 
in  any  proportion  ;  whence  he  infers,  contrary  to  the  con- 
clusions of  Faraday,  that  albumen  is  not  a  necessary  con- 
stituent of  the  juice.  A.  (Jirard  (Cniiipl.  rend.,  07,  523)  dis- 
covered a  crvstalli'/alilo  saccharine  substance,  damhanUe 
(CjIIs'Ja).  in  the  white  liquid  found  in  the  interior  of  tho 
loaves  of  caoutchouc  from  fi.aboon  on  tho  W.  coast  of 
Africa.  Later,  he  noticed  another  saccharine  substance, 
hnn<i;it<:  (r,Il;Oo).  {Cnmpl.  rend..  7:!,  420.)  Both  these 
bodies  may  be  sublimed  without  decomposition. 

Prepiiritllon  of  llic  Crude  Cnnnlchoiic. — The  juice  is  dried 
over  a  fire,  when  it  becomes  blackened  by  smoke,  or  in  tho 
sun.  iThen  it  is  very  light-colored,  on  moulds  of  clay,  pad- 
dbs,  or  (formerly)  on  lasts  imported  from  tho  U.  S.  for 
ov.'rshoes.  According  to  Mr.  Edwards,  the  last,  on  the 
end  of  a  stick,  was  dipped  into  tho  milk,  and  immediately 
held  over  the  smoke  to  dry;  it  was  then  redipped,  and  tho 
pr  (cess  repeatoil  till  the  shoo  was  of  sufhcieiit  thickness. 
When  clay  moulds  arc  used,  tlwy  are  subspqucnlly  bri>kcn 
and  shaken  out  of  the  rubber  bottles  pro  luccd  upon  them. 
The  juice  is  sometimes  evaporated  by  solar  heat,  a  pellicle 
of  rubber  forming  on  the  surface,  and  being  renewed  as 
fast  as  it  is  removed  until  all  the  rubber  is  removed.  Those 
sheets  are  rolled  into  balls  and  combined  into  masses.  In 
Nicaragua  the  juice  is  coagulated  by  an  application  of  tho 
juice  of  tho  bojuca  vine.  Tho  coagulatcil  mass  is  pressed 
in'o  cakes  by  hand,  and  rolled  out  into  a  sheet  on  a  hoard 
with  a  wooden  roller.  These  .sheets  are  called  lorlillas; 
they  arc  about  2  feet  in  diameter  and  2  inches  thick.  Fara- 
nends  for  the  i>urification  of  eaoiitchouc  to  dilute 


of  the  balls  which  come  from  Brazil  and  the  East  Indies 
spots  are  often  found  of  a  viscid,  tarry  matter,  which  when 
exposed  to  the  air  seems  to  act  like  a  ferment  and  decom- 
poses the  whole  m:vss  into  a  viscid,  sticky,  .semi-fluid  sub- 
stance which  is  good  for  nothing. 

Plii/aieiii    Prnperlies    of    Caoutchouc. — Pure    caoutchouc 
freshiy  prepared  is  colorless  and  translucent.     The  dark 
color  which    it  generally   exhibits   is   attributed   to   soot 
and  to  aloctic    and    other  impurities,  and   to    tho  action 
of  sunlight  and  oxygen.     It  is  a  bad  conductor  of  beat 
and  a  non-conductor  of  electricity.     It  develops  electricity 
by  friction.    Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  0.'J20  to  0.902. 
"Its  texture  is  not  fibrous,  but  under  the  microscope  it  is 
seen  to  contain  pores,  irregularly  rounded  and  very  numer- 
ous, which  communicate  with  each  other,  and  become  dis- 
tended by  capillary  attraction  in  those  liquids  in  which 
caoutchouc  is  not  soluble.     Thin  sections  of  different  qual- 
ities of  gum,  immersed  iu  water  during  thirty  days,  ab- 
sorbed from  18.7  to  2G.t  per  cent.     Their  volumes  were  in- 
creased from  yjjj  to  jJS^,  and  their  tenacity  aud  adhesive- 
ness wore  impaired.     It  takes  a  very  long  time  to  eliminate 
water  from  thick  masses  of  gum,  since  the  exterior  pores 
contract  in  drying,  and  thus  retard  the  desiccation  of  tho 
interior.    Anhydrous  alcohol,  especially  when  warm,  easily 
penetrates  thin  sections  of  caoutchouc.     Immersed  during 
eight  days  and  warmed  at  intervals,  the  sections  become 
opaque  lind  more  adhesive,  even  in  the  midst  of  the  liquid  ; 
their  volume  was  increased  9.4  per  cent.,  and  the  weight  13 
per  cent.,  although  the  alcohol  had  dissolved  ^^jj  of  an 
oily,  yellowish,  fatty  matter.     After  evaporation  of  the  ab- 
sorbed alcohol,  the  caoutchouc  was  less  tenacious,  more 
translucent  and  adhesive  than  before  treatment."  (Poi/ni.) 
Freshly-cut  surfaces  adhere  easily  and  firmly  when  pressed 
together — a  property  which  is  made  available  in  forming 
tubes  and  vessels  out  of  sheet  caoutchouc.    By  cold  or  long 
quiescence  it  becomes  hard  and  stiff,  but  not  brittle.     It  is 
capable  of  condensation  under  compression.     A  cube  of  2J 
inches  was  compressed  ^  under  a  pressure  of  200  tons.    It 
is   perfectly  elastic,    becoming   turbid   and   fibrous   when 
strongly  stretched.      Gerald  observed  that  fibres  which  may 
be  extended  to  six  times  their  length,  might  again  be  ex- 
tended six  times  after  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F., 
and  that  the  original  length  could  thus  be  extended  from  1 
to  llir)25.     The  diameter  being  of  course  at  the  same  time 
diminished,  fibres  of  remarkable  fineness  arc  obtained  m 
this  way.    Rubber  mav  bo  temporarily  deprived  of  its  elas- 
ticity.    If  a  strip  be  forcibly  stretched,  and  while  in  this 
condition  be  quicklv  cooled,  it  will  lose  its  clnslicity,  and 
may  be  left  for  an  indefinite  time  without  regaining  it.     A 
siinplo  way  of  cooling  the  strip  is  to  wet  it  and  evaporate 
the  water  by  vibrating  it  rapidly  in  the  air.     In  the  above 
condition  tlic  caoutchouc  resembles  frozen  rubber,  though  it 
is  not  quite  so  rigid  as  it  might  be  in  such  a  state.     It  somi 
regains  its  clnslieily  on  being  subjected  to  an  atmosphire 
of  "0°  F..  or  even   much  below  this;   but  rubber  deprived 
of  its  latent  bent  by  compression  has  been  kept  several 
weeks  in  an  atmosphere  of  80°  F.  without  returning  to  its 
normal  condition.     If  the  heat  be  raised  much  above  Ml". 
or  if  the  rubber  be  placed  in  contact  with  a  good  conduct. .r 
at  S0°,  it  grailually  recovers  its  latent  heal,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  is  restored  to  ils  original  dimensions.     If  succes- 
sive portions  of  the  inelastic  strip  be  pinched  between  Iho 
fingers,  it  conlrnets  powerfully  in  these  parts,  leaving  the 
others  unaff<clerl,  thereby  preserving  the  nppeararce  of  a 
string  of  knots  or  beads,  which  may  be  preserved  in  this 
slate  fnr  any  length  of  time  if  not  handled  and  if  kept  at  a 


thJ  natural  juic"  with  four  times  its  weight  of  water,  and  '  moderate  temperature.  The  junctions  of  the  different  por- 
leave  it  at  rest  for  tw.nty-four  hours.  The  caontchouo  1  tions  continue  abrupt  and  well  defined,  showing  that  there 
then  separates  and  rises  to  tho  surface  in  tho  form  of  a  1  is  no  tendency  to  distribution  or  equilibrium  of  the  latent 


11G6 


INDIA   KUBBEK. 


beat.  When  the  inelustic  strip  is  enclosed  in  the  hand  a 
slight  degree  t>f  coolness  i?  felt  from  the  rapid  absorption 
of  heat.  The  above  peculiarity  is  slated  to  belong  to  the 
native  gum,  and  to  be  hardly  perceptible  in  the  rubber  pre- 
pared in  either  of  the  following  methods:  (I)  solution  in 
turpentine  and  subsequent  drying.  :uid  (2)  merely  grind- 
ing the  crude  material  to  a  pasty  mass  and  reducing  to 
thin  sheets  between  heated  rollers.  Another  nietho<l  of 
rendering  caoutchouc  inelastic  was  employed  in  IS  10  in 
the  man ufacrt lire  of  "clastic  tissues,"  to  jircparc  the  threads 
for  receiving  a  sheath  upon  the  braiding-machine.  The 
threads  were  stretched  by  hand,  in  the  act  of  winding  upon 
the  reel,  to  seven  or  eight  times  their  natural  length,  and 
left  (wo  or  three  weeks  in  a  state  of  tension.  The  elasticity 
in  this  case  also  may  be  restored  by  warming  tlie  rubber — 
rubbing  it  between  the  palms  of  tlic  liaTuls.  for  instance. 
Considerable  heat  is  developed  in  the  sudden  extension  of 
caoutchouc.  Mr.  Brockedon  states  that  ho  raised  the  tem- 
perature of  an  ounce  of  water  two  degrees  in  fifteen  min- 
utes, by  collecting  the  heat  evolved  by  the  extension  of 
caoutchouc  thread.  {  FlfnnNt,m.)  An  apparent  pai-mhu-  lias 
been  announced  in  the  fact  that  India  rubber,  when  stretched 
and  exposed  to  the  heat,  contracts  instead  of  expanding — 
a  fact  very  contrary  to  common  experience  as  the  result  of 
the  application  of  heat.  This  is  explained,  however,  by  tlie 
fact  tliat  the  rubber  is  very  porous  and  filled  with  air-cells, 
which,  when  the  rubber  is  stretched,  assume  an  elongated 
shape.  AVhen  heat  is  applied  it  of  course  expands  the  rub- 
ber to  a  certain  degree,  but  at  the  same  time  it  expands  the 
air-cells,  which,  liy  shortening  their  longitudinal  axes,  pro- 
duces a  virtual  cimtraction  of  the  rubber. 

Elfect  of  Heat  on  Caoutchouc. — "  Below  0°  C.  it  becomes 
hard  and  rigid.  When  heated  it  gradually  softens,  and  at 
120*^  C.  (21^°  F.)  begins  to  melt;  when  it  is  fused  it  re- 
mains greasy  and  semi-fluid  after  cooling,  but  if  exposed 
to  the  air  in  thin  layers  gradually  dries  up  and  recovers  its 
original  properties,  provided  it  has  not  been  heated  much 
ab'.ive  its  melting-point.  If,  however,  it  be  heated  to  200°  C. 
(:VJS°  F.).  it  begins  to  fume,  and  is  converted  into  a  viscid 
mass  which  no  longer  dries  up.  If  mixed  in  this  state  with 
half  its  weight  of  lime  slaked  to  powder,  it  forms  a  tena- 
cious non-drying  cement,  which  serves  admirably  for  at- 
taching glass  jdates  to  vessels  with  ground  lips,  such  as  aro 
used  for  preserving  anatomical  preparations,  as  it  forms  an 
air-tight  but  cnsily-loosened  joint;  if  a  drying  cement  be 
required,  a  quantity  of  red  lead  may  be  added  equal  in 
weight  to  the  lime."  {  \\'aftf>.)  By  destructive  distillation 
caoutchouc  yields  an  empyreumatic  oil  called  oil  of  eaout- 
cAoKc,  which  is  a  mixture  of  a  considerable  number  of  h}'- 
drocarbons.  The  following  compounds  have  been  recog- 
nized by  Bouchardat,  Himly,  and  G.  AVilliams  : 

CoTn[>nsUioa.  Sp.  gr.  Boiling- point. 

Tetrylene C^U^  0.G30  32°  F. 

Caoutchenc C4H8  0.650  58°  F. 

Faradavin 0.654  91°  F. 

Isoprenc C5H-  0.6S2  100°  F. 

Cauutehin t^'ioHie  0.842  352°  F. 

Hoveene t'nHo^  0.921  599°  F. 

Creosote,  resin,  etc. 
From  impure  gum  small  quantities  of  carbon  dioxide,  car- 
bon monoxide,  water,  and  ammonia  are  also  produced.  The 
residue  left  in  the  retort  forms,  when  dissolved  in  oil,  a  var- 
nish impervious  to  moisture  and  very  elastic.  Exposed  at 
once  to  a  reel  heat,  caoutchouc  yields  .10.000  cubic  feet  of 
extremely  rich  gas  to  the  ton,  which  is  free  from  ammonia 
and  sulphur  compounds.  Ignited  in  contact  with  the  air, 
it  burns  with  a  sooty  flame. 

F^\:rt  4,/  Water  on  Caoutchouc, — Water,  whether  hot  or 
cold,  has  no  solvent  action  upon  it,  but  by  long  boiling  in 
this  liquid  it  swells  to  some  extent,  in  which  state  it  is  af- 
fected by  some  solvents  with  greater  facility  than  in  its 
ordinary  condition.  Exposed  to  the  air,  the  caoutchouc 
resumes  after  a  timo  its  original  form,  though  the  desicca- 
tion proceeds  very  slowly.  The  absorption  of  water  by 
thin  sheets  has  been  already  alluded  to.  W.  A.  Miller  no- 
ticed that  when  a  sheet  of  the  best  masticated  rubber  was 
exposed  in  water,  open  to  the  air,  to  diffused  light,  it  finally 
absorbed  87  per  cent,  of  water,  becoming  white,  opaque, 
slimy,  and  sticky.  In  this  condition  water  could  be  squeezed 
out  of  it.  In  sea-water,  under  like  conditions,  it  absorbed 
only  0  per  cent. 

Si*fubifit}/  uf  Caoutchouc. — In  alcohol  it  swells  and  soft- 
ens, but  docs  not  dissolve.  Alcohol  precipitates  it  from  its 
solutions.  It  .sometimes  extracts  a  fatty,  fusible  yellow 
matter,  which  is  probably  an  oxidation  product.  Ether, 
freed  from  alcohol  by  washing  with  water,  dissolves  caout- 
chouc in  moderate  quantity,  leaving  it  on  evaporation 
with  its  original  properties,  except  that  it  adheres  firmly 
like  a  sheet  newly  cut.  "No  solvent  appears  to  make  a 
complete  solutir)n  of  caoutchouc,  but  a  mixture  formed  by 
the  interposition  of  the  dissolved  portion  between  the  pores 
of  the  insoluble  substance,  which  is  considerably  swelled 


up,  and  has  thus  become  easy  to  disintegrate.  By  employ- 
ing a  sufficient  quantity  of  these  .solvents,  renewed  from 
timo  to  time,  without  agitation,  so  as  not  tu  break  the  tume- 
fied portion,  the  caoutchouc  may  be  completely  separated  into 
two  parts — viz.  a  substance  perfectly  soluble,  ductile,  and 
adhering  strongly  to  the  surface  of  bodies  to  which  it  is. ap- 
plied; and  anothorsubstance,  elastic,  tenacious,  and  sparing- 
ly soluble.  The  proportions  of  these  two  principles  vary  with 
the  quantity  of  the  caoutchouc  and  the  nature  of  thcsolvent 
employed.  Anhydrous  ether  extract?  from  amber-colored 
caoutchoucCil  percent,  of  white  soluble  matter:  oil  of  turpen- 
tine separates  from  common  caoutchouc -10  per  cent,  of  sol- 
uble matter  having  a  yellow  color."  (  M'atts.)  Chloroform, 
oil  of  caoutchouc,  oil  of  turpentine,  oil  of  lavender,  and 
many  other  essential  oils  aro  solvents  for  caoutchouc.  A 
mixture  of  1  part  of  caoutchouc  with  1 1  of  oil  uf  turpentine, 
worked  up  to  a  thin  paste,  to  which  is  then  added  i  part  of 
allot  concentrated  .solution  of  sulphide  of  jtotassium  (K2S5), 
leaves  the  caoutchouc  on  evaporation  perfectly  clastic  and 
without  viscosity.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  one  of  the  best 
solvents,  particularly  when  mixed  with  fi  to  8  per  cent,  of 
absolute  alcohol.  ''If  the  alcohol  be  mixed  with  a  little 
water,  a  dough  is  obtained,  from  which  the  caoutchouc  may 
be  drawn  out  into  threads  and  spun.  By  Gerard's  process 
gutta  ]>ercha  is  also  soluble  in  the  above  mixtures  of  sul- 
phurct  of  carbon  and  alcohol."  (  Urc.)  Considerable  dis- 
crepancy exists  among  writers  with  regard  to  the  solubility 
I  of  caoutchouc  in  the  fixed  oils,  especially  in  linseed  oil. 
According  to  Booth,  linseed  oil  has  no  efifect.  J.  Sjiiller 
exposed  virgin,  unmanufaeturcd  rubber  for  nine  months  to 
the  action  of  boiled  and  of  imboilcd  linseed  oil.  *'  It  re- 
sisted the  action  of  the  solvents,"  he  says,  "almost  per- 
fectly retaining  its  toughness,  except  in  tliosc  parts  which 
were  al)0ve  the  surface  of  the  liquid  and  exposed  to  light. 
A'irgin  rubber,  masticated  and  treated  in  the  same  way, 
was  in  each  case  greatly  swollen  and  gelatinized,  and,  in- 
deed, in  the  case  of  the  unboiled  oil,  was  completely  dis- 
solved." Perfectly  dissolved  by  boiling  linseed  oil.  {Hcun- 
ler,)  Linseed  oil  dissolves  caoutchouc,  forming  a  varnish 
which,  according  to  Ure  and  Parnell,  has  not  the  property 
of  depositing  the  gum  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Vnrrcntrapp. 
in  the  Ilaudirortetbuch,  says  linseed  oil  behaves  like  other 
fatty  oils,  which  take  up  a  little  caoutchouc  when  healed. 
He  also  remarks  that  different  varieties  of  gum  behave  very 
differently  with  regard  to  solvents,  some  being  with  difli- 
culty  soluble  even  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  He  attributes  this 
difference  to  the  presence  of  more  or  less  water.  Coal  tar 
naphtha,  benzol,  coal  and  shale  oil  naphthas,  and  petro- 
leum naphtha  arc  all  solvents  for  caoutchouc.  The  naphtha 
solution  or  varnish  was  used  in  pre])aring  the  waterproof 
cloth  of  Mackintosh,  being  placed  between  two  thicknesses 
of  the  cloth.  A  mixture  of  60  parts  of  benzol  and  70  parts 
of  rectified  turpentine  has  been  recently  recommended  as  a 
solvent  for  2(>  parts  of  caoutchouc.  The  crude  gum  must 
first  be  boiled  in  water  to  remove  dirt,  etc.,  cut  underwater 
into  sheets  about  one-third  of  an  inch  thick,  rolled  out  into 
thin  strips,  and  thoroughly  dried  in  a  heated  room.  The 
mixture  of  gum,  etc.  must  be  passed  through  a  mill.  The 
benzol  and  turpentine  must  be  free  from  fat. 

Action  of  Hraffiiitft  on  Cftoiitrhouc.  —  .■\cids  and  alkalies 
have  no  effect  on  it  when  dilute,  and  little  when  concen- 
trated imless  heated.  Sulphuric  acid  carbonizes  it  slightly 
on  the  surface  when  cold,  but  entirely  decomposes  it  when 
hot,  with  the  formation  of  carbonic  and  sulphurous  acids. 
Strong  nitric  acid  decomposes  it,  especially  when  heated, 
forming  carbonic  and  oxalic  acids,  and  evolving  nitric 
oxide.  The  strongest  potash  lye  dors  not  attack  it  at  a 
boiling  heat.  (lasos,  such  as  chlorine,  sulphurous  acid,  and 
fluo-siiicic  acid,  have  no  action  upon  it,  but  nitrous  acid 
vapor  readily  attacks  it.  Ammonia,  after  a  eont.act  pro- 
longed several  months,  seems  to  exert  the  curious  influ- 
ence of  bringing  it  back  to  the  state  of  an  emulsion,  in 
which  form  it  may  be  used  as  a  varnish,  as  it  recovers  its 
peculiar  qualities  on  drying.  Thoroughly  kneaded  with 
sulphur  and  exposed  to  hcnt  for  several  hours,  it  is  con- 
verted into  vufcanizcd  rubber,  which,  with  less  than  1  of 
sulphur  to  l  of  gum,  is  soft  and  pliable  ;  with  half  its 
weight  of  sulphur,  after  c.xi)Osure  to  a  temperature  above 
2S0°  F.,  it  is  hard  and  flexible,  like  whalebone — vufennite, 
W.  A.  Miller  has  shown  {J,  Loud.  Chcni.  Soc,  ISfio,  p. 
273),  in  an  investigation  on  the  Decay  o/Gutta  Pcreha  and 
Caoutchouc,  that  caoutchouc  is  liable  to  deterioration  by 
exposure  to  the  action  of  oxygen  in  the  presence  of  solar 
light,  but  the  gum  is  less  rapidly  injured  by  their  influence 
when  in  the  native  state  than  when  it  has  been  previously 
masticated.  When  subjected  to  the  action  of  air,  excluded 
from  light,  it  docs  not  experience  any  marked  change,  even 
during  very  long  periods.  It  is,  however,  important  to  ob- 
serve that  the  masticated  rubber  is  much  more  porous  than 
(he  unmanufaeturcd  caoutchouc.  A  sample  of  the  best 
Pari  rubber  after  nine  months'  exposure  had  gained  2.S 


INDIA   RUBBER. 


Iti7 


per  cent.,  had  become  brown  and  sttckj,  and  yielded  to  al- 
cohol 1 1. SI  per  cent,  ol'  a  resin  containing  C.  6'.2'i,  II.  y.d4, 
0.  2.^.23. 

CJtemind  Compotitidn  of  Caoutchouc. — According  to  the 
experiments  of  Ore  {Fhit.  Traim.,  1S22),  confirineil  by  those 
of  Famday  {Quart.  Journal  of  Sc.^  Lit.,  and  Art^  .xi.  IK), 
caoutchouc  is  composed  wholly  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
containing  S7.5  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  12. j  bydro;;en.  It 
is  not,  however,  a  simple  proximate  principle,  but  chielly  a 
mixture  of  two  substances,  one  much  more  sulublo  in  ether, 
benzole,  and  other  liquids  than  the  other.  The  following 
analyses  have  been  published  (Ure's  Phil.  Trajm.^  1822; 
Faraday "f  Q.  .J.  Sci.,  1826,  xxi.  19;  G.  Williams's  J.  Chem. 
Sue,  XV.  \2.',): 

TjT6. 


Carbon 90. 

Hvdrogen 9.12 

Oxygen 0.88 

Nilrosen „ 

Loss „... 

Ash 


Faradaj. 

S7.2 

i; 


^O.lViUlams.-, 
Browa.      VeUow. 


SG.l 
12.S 


100.0 


l  0.7 

0.9 

100.0 


S7.2 
12.8 


lOO.O 


100.00 

The  following  are  the  results  of  W.  A.  Miller's  analyses  of 
pure  manufactured  ParA  rubber,  compared  with  a  sample 
of  good  sheet  masticated  or  manufactured  rubber  (J.  Chem. 
Soc,  1865,  iii.  273): 

VlrglD. 

Pure  caoutchouc 96.(50 

Ucsin 1.80 

MoUture 1.30 

Ash ^0.30 

iooloo 

Deducting  moisture  and  ash,  the  elementary  composition 
gave — 

virgin. 

Carbon 8.5.S2 

Hydrogen 11.11 

Oxygen 3.07 

100.00 


Masticated. 

9G.i;4 

2.06 

0.82 

_0^ 

loo.nb 


Uastlcated. 

85.53 

12.06 

2.41 


100.00 


Fig, 


Adrian!  {Chem.  A'cict,  ii.,  1860,  314)  found  the  following 
composition  for  a  sample  of  caoutchouc  which  had  brcii 
dried  for  months  over  sulphuric  acid.  The  specimen  was 
in  part  readily  reduced  to  powder,  and  cuutaincd  C.  87. 2j, 
H.  10.34,  0.  11.40;  total,  99.99.  This  sample  also  con- 
tained nitrogen,  but  its  quantity  was  not  deterniine.i. 
Several  chemists  report  the  presence  of  nitrogen  in  com- 
mercial caoutchouc.  Adriani  found  that  a  sample  of  the 
above  caoutchouc,  after  having  been  confined  in  very  dry 
air  for  some  weeks,  lost  its  most  prominent  physical  proper- 
tics,  and  that  a  change  set  in  which  Payen  compares  with 
the  growing  rancid  of  fats  and  oils.  "  Perhaps,"  Adriani 
says,  '•  the  decom])OsitioM  starts  from  that  eonslituent  por- 
tion which  contains  nitrogen,  although  this  element  is 
present  in  only  minute  quantity." 

Caoutchouc  luanu/acturca  have  of  late  years  acquired 
enormous  importance,  and  are  found  in  every  department 
of  the  industrial  arts.  The  caoutchouc  is  used  (1)  in 
blooUs,  cakes,  sheets,  etc. ;  (2)  in  tapes  or  threads  in  woven 
fabrics  for  the  production  of  elastic  tissues:  (3)  as  a  var- 
nish between  two  surfaces  of  cloth  or  on  one  surface,  for 
the  production  of  waterproof  fabrics:  (4)  in  solution  alone 
or  combined  with  other  substances  as  a  cement ;  (5)  com- 
bined with  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur  and  mixed  with 
other  substances,  as  tio/t  vulcanized  rubbet;  lor  the  manu- 
facture of  overshoes,  boots,  gloves,  waterproof  clolhing,  and 
other  goods,  life-preservers,  gas-bags,  steam  and  water 
packing,  belting,  tire-hose,  tubing,  springs,  artificial  sponge, 
etc. ;  (6)  combined  with  a  larger  prujjortion  of  sulpliur.  and 
cured  at  .a  higher  temperature,  as  hard  vulcanized  rubber, 
or  vulcanite,  lor  the  mauutacture  of  combs,  pen  and  pencil 
holders,  rulers,  inkstands,  buttons,  canes,  syringes,  jewelry, 
and  colored  with  vermilion  for  mountings  for  artificial 
teeth,  etc.:  (7)  combined  with  asphalts,  oils,  sulphur,  etc., 
and  vulcanized,  as  the  kerite  of  A.  G.  Day,  for  covering 
telegraph  wire— a  most  valuable  substitute  for  gutta  pcrcha 
for  air-lines,  as  it  is  not  affected  by  atmospheric  intlueuces, 
which  so  quickly  destroy  the  latter  substance. 
1. 


->tieatlng  rolls. 
Purijicalion  of  the  Crude  Gum. — The  crude  gum  is  soaked 
in  hill  water,  to  tvbich  is  frequently  added  ?"me  soda-lev 
in  order  to  .«ol'len  and  cleanse  it.     It  is  then  masticated 


between  most  powerful  rolls  made  of  chilled  iron,  under 
streams  of  cold  water.     By  this  operation  it  is  lorn  into 


shreds  and  cleansed  of  its  impurities,  and  finally  appears 
as  a  loose  mat  composed  of  shreds.  These  mats  are  placed 
in  drying-rooms  heated  by  steam  for  several  weeks,  to  re- 
move the  moisture.  When  ready  for  use  they  are  kneaded 
botwoen  smooth  rolls,  which  aro  hollow  and  warmed  by 


1108 


INDIA    KUBIJKK. 


steam,  one  of  which  revolves  much  faster  than  the  other. 
Ilt're  the  gum  is  thoroughly  mixed  and  reduced  to  a  homo- 
geneous mass,  ready  for  cutting  into  any  desired  lurni,  or 
for  mixture  with  the  materials  necessary  to  convert  it  iuto 
soft  or  hard  vulcanized  rubber. 

Cutting  into  t/hccts  is  performed  by  a  self-acting  machine, 
in  which  a  straight  steel  bhidc,  kept  cool  witli  water,  vi- 
brates in  a  horizontal  position.  tStripn  or  bamis  arc  cut 
from  disks  by  circular  shears,  like  those  used  in  paper- 
works. Thi'cudft  of  India  rnbher  for  %?caviug  into  elastic 
fabrics  are  cither  natural  or  vulcanized  ;  they  are  cut  from 
ribbons  or  bands  by  circular  cutting  edges.  "They  are 
stretfht'd.  and  kept  extended  till  nciirly  deprived  of  their 
cbisticity,  and  till  they  furm  a  thread  of  moderate  tiueness. 
Tliis  thread  is  pnt  into  a  braid-machine  and  covered  with 
a  sheath  of  cotton,  silk,  linen,  or  worsted.  The  clothed 
caoutchouc  is  then  laid  as  warp  in  a  loom  and  woven  into 
an  elegant  ribbon.  AVhen  woven,  it  is  exposed  upon  a  table 
to  the  action  of  a  hot  smoothing-iron,  which  restoring  to 
the  caoutchouc  oil  its  primitive  elasticity,  the  ribbon  re- 
tracts considerably  in  length,  and  the  braiding  corrugates 
equally  upon  the  caoutchouc  cores.  Such  bauds  possess  a 
remarkable  elasticity,  combined  with  any  desired  degree 
of  softness.  Sometimes  cloth  is  made  of  these  braided 
strands  of  caoutchouc^  used  both  as  warp  and  as  weft, 


which  is  therefore  elastic  in  alt  directions.  When  a  light 
fabric  is  required,  the  strands  of  caoutchouc,  either  naked 
or  braided,  are  alternated  withcommon  wurpyarns."  (  Ure.) 
Hound  threads  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  India  rubber 
and  bisulphide  of  carbon,  with  a  little  absolute  alcohol. 
This  jiaste  is  put  into  a  vertical  cylinder,  somewhat  similar 
to  those  which  are  used  by  the  vennicelH-niakcrs.  The 
elastic  matter,  forced  through  by  the  piston,  comes  out  in 
threads  through  small  lioles  placed  in  a  single  row,  in  order 
that  they  may  not  overlie  cacli  other — a  precaution  that  is 
not  required  in  the  making  of  vermicelli.  The  threads  arc 
received  on  an  endless  web  of  velvet  in  motion,  and  trav- 
erse in  this  way  a  course  of  V\  feet  ;  they  are  then  taken 
up  by  a  web  of  common  cloth,  which  passes  over  a  space 
ot  600  to  GGO  feet  in  about  ten  minutes.  At  the  end  of  this 
journey  they  are  sufficiently  dried  ;  the  solvent  is  in  great 
measure  separated :  the  threads  then  quit  the  web,  and  are 
received  into  channels  or  grooves,  whicli  conduct  them  into 
small  cups  disposed  in  seven  rows,  in  such  manner  that 
each  one  has  its  own  particular  cup.  When  the  cups  are 
full  the  filament  is  taken  out,  and  is  left  for  some  days  ex- 
posed to  the  action  ot"  the  air.  The  threads  prcluced  by 
pressure  have  any  required  thickness,  and  this  may  be 
made  to  var}'  at  ]tleasure.  Experience  has  shoivn  that  a 
thickness  of  .0394  of  an  inch  is  preferable  for  regular  work, 


Mixing 

but  these  do  not  suffice  for  all  kinds  of  fabrics :  in  a  great  I 
number  of  cases  they  must  be  used  finer.     For  this  pur- 
pose annealing  is  resorted  to.  The  caoutchouc,  being  drawn  j 
out  and  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  239°  F.,  no   longer 
shrinks,  but  retains  the  leni^th  it  has  acquired,  and  more-   ; 
over  may  even  be  drawn  out  anew.  By  thus  stretching  and 
annealing  it  successively  a  thread  of   caoutchouc  may  be 
brought  to  a  degree  of  fineness  limited  only  by  the  dex-  ■ 
tcrity   of  the   workman,  and   may,  for  example,  be  repre- 
sented  by  a   length  of  'JK.-|nO   feet  to  2.20h  pounds.     The 
thread  thus  obtained  is  of  common  caoutchouc,  but  noth- 
ing is  simpler  tlmn  to  make,  in  the  same  manner,  thread 
of  vulcanized  caoutchouc;  for  this  purpose  it  is  only  ne- 
cessary to  incorporate  the  caoutchouc   into  a  paste  with 
flowers  of  sulphur,  and  to  heat  to  the  temperature  of  2GG° 
or  2S4°.     I.ct  it  be  noted  in  passing  that  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  239°.  necessary  for  the  annealing  of  the  stretched 
thread,  no  vuhranization  takes  place,     i  hfmtjtratt.) 

Wdterprof,/  f'ttbriri  are  made  by  jdacing  a  varnish  or 
paste  of  caoutchouc,  dissolved  in  any  of  its  solventSj  be- 
tween two  layers  of  cloth  (doubh^-trxture  fnhrim)  or  on  one 
side  of  the  cloth  [einffU-ttxtnre  fabrim).  The  poorest  kind 
of  rubber  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  An  objection  ex- 
isted to  the  single- texture  fabrics,  as  the  rubber  surface  was 


rolls. 

liable  to  become  sticky  and  adhere  when  exposed  to  the 
sun,  closely  packed,  or  brought  in  contact  with  perspira- 
tion, hot  surfaces,  grease,  etc.  This  was  prevented  by  the 
sincalor  process  (nine  m/orc.  "  without  heat  "),  the  nature 
of  which  was  kept  secret.  It  is  also  prevented  by  using 
vulcanized  rubber,  the  mixture  of  rubber,  sulphur,  etc.  be- 
ing applied  to  the  cloth  by  means  of  calender  rolls,  and 
vulcanized  afterwards. 

liuhhrr  cenuniM^  possessing  astonishing  adhesive  proper- 
ties, are  made  by  combining  solutions  of  caoutcliouc  in 
naphtha  or  other  suitable  s»dvent  with  other  materials  of  a 
resinous  character.  Jeffrey's  marine  glue  is  made  by  dis- 
solving 1  pound  of  caoutchouc  in  1  gallon  coal-tar  naphtha, 
and  adding  20  pounds  shell-lac.  The  mixture  is  gently 
hoatecl  till  uniform,  and  is  then  pourcci  nut  upon  platts  of 
iron  to  solidify.  For  use  it  is  melted  at  a  ttmperature  of 
about  2j0°  F.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  wood  joined 
by  it  breaks  sooner  across  the  fibres  than  at  the  joint.  A 
cheaper  marine  glue  is  made  by  substituting  asphalt  for  the 
shell-lac.  A  liquid  marine  glue  is  made  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  the  solvent. 

Su/f  rufrnnized  rnoiitchoucwas  invented  by  Charles  Good 
year  of  Mnssnehusetts.  In  the  early  introduction  of  In- 
dia-rubber goods  it  was  found  that  the  articles  were  not 


INDIA   RUBBER. 


11  oy 


only  liable  to  serious  injury  from  various  causes,  but  they 
were  often  fouud  to  <ielcriorate  and  become  almu.st  useless 
after  a  few  years  of  the  most  careful  use.  The  following 
arc  some  of  the  most  serious  disadvantages  of  the  uuvul- 
caiiizcd  gum  :  (Ij  It  becomes  rigid  and  iullexiblc  in  cold 
weather.  (2)  It  is  softened  and  decompo.^ed  in  tlie  sun 
and  hot  weather,  (o)  It  is  very  soluble,  and  quickly  dis- 
solved when  brought  iu  contact  with  any  kind  of  grease, 
ess.'utial  or  fatty  oils,  and,  though  more  slowly,  yet  as 
eurely,  cli.-<sulveU  by  jierspiration.  (1)  It  is,  in  its  native 
state,  so  very  adhesive  that  when  any  two  surfaces  are 
brought  in  contact  they  become,  by  slight  pressure,  one 
mass  that  cannot  be  separated.  (5)  It  loses  its  elasticity 
by  continued  tension  or  constant  use.  (GJ  It  has  a  very 
unpleasant  odor.  The  Mackintosh  goods  made  in  England, 
and  in  which  a  solvent  was  used,  were  less  liable  tu  damage 
and  decomposition,  because  the  gum  was  protected  by  be- 
ing spread  between  two  cloths.  Even  iu  these  goods,  liow- 
ever,  the  gum  was  found  to  melt  and  penetrate  through  the 
meshes  of  the  cloth  iu  a  warm  climate,  or  when  much  worn 


by  those  who  perspire  freely,  and  purchasers  were  cautioned 
against  approaching  too  near  the  fire  with  the  goods.  The 
inability  to  overcome  these  defects  caused  the  failure  of 
many  manufacturers  in  Boston,  South  Boston,  Chelsea, 
Woburn,  anil  Eramingham,  Mass.,  and  in  Staten  Island 
and  Troy,  X.  Y.  Factories  had  been  started  in  these 
places  with  capitals  varying  from  850,000  to  $500,000. 
In  thcsummer  of  Isllfi,  Mr.  Uoodyear  became  acquainted 
with  Xathauiel  Ilayward,  who  had  been  em]iloycd  as  lore- 
man  of  the  Eagle  Company  at  Wobuin,  where  he  had  made 
use  of  sulphur  by  imi)regnating  the  solvent  with  it.  It  was 
through  him  that  Mr.  (joo.lycar  received  the  first  kncjw- 
ledge  of  the  use  of  sulphur  as  a  ilrii r  of  guni-elustic.  Mr. 
Goodyear  purchased  the  claim  for  combining  suljihur  wilh 
India  rubber,  for  which  a  |)atent  was  taken  out  Feb.  24, 
18o0.  "It  should  be  remarked,"  says  Mr.  G.,  "that  this 
claim  was  for  the  use  of  sulphur,  and  not  for  the  heating  or 
vulcanizing  j)rocess,  which  he  subsequently  discovered." 
Mr.  G.  manufactured  a  large  lot  of  goods  containing  sul- 
phur, but  they  all  decomposed  iu  a  short  time.     While  cx- 


perinienllng  upon  sciuiu  of  tlie  material,  after  the  failure  of 
the  compound,  to  ascertain  tho  effect  of  heat  upon  it,  he  was 
surprised  to  find  that  the  specimen,  being  carelessly  brought 
iu  contact  with  a  hot  stove,  charreil  like  leather.  Ho  in- 
ferre.l  .lircctly  that  if  the  process  of  charring  could  bo 
stopped  at  the  right  point,  it  might  divest  the  gum  of  its 
native  adhesiveness  Ihrougboul.  Upon  further  trial  he  was 
convinced  of  the  correctness  of  this  inference  by  fin. ling  that 
India  rubber  could  not  be  melted  in  boiling  sul|ihur  iit  any 
heat  ever  so  great,  but  always  charred.  On  heating  one  of 
his  specimens  before  an  open  fire,  ho  noticed  upon  tho  edge 
of  tho  charreil  iiorlions  of  the  fabric  a  line  or  border  that 
was  not  eharreil,  but  perfectly  cured.  Ilis  discovery  was 
now  estalilisheil  ;  it  renuiined  only  to  complete  it  in  detail. 
In  speaking  previously  of  Ihc  obstacles  that  stood  in  his 
way,  Mr.  Goodyear  says  :  "  No  one  who  had  any  knowledge 
of  tho  nature  of  the  gum  would  bo  likely  to  apply  a  high 
degree  of  heat  to  it  fnini  design,  when  it  was  so  well  known 
that  it  would  melt  {il  ii  low  lempcralure."  Tho  process  of 
treating  caoutchouc  which  .Mr.  (ioodycar  thus  discovered  is 

Vnr..  ri— r-i 


known  as  vulcanization.  Tho  product  of  his  manufacture 
is  known  as  tin/t  ruhhrr.  Since  there  are  to-day  other  jiro- 
cesseg  for  treating  caoutcltouc  difl'erent  from  that  of  Charles 
tioodyear.  and  which  in  sonie  instances  yield  an  entirely 
different  product,  but  all  i>f  which  pass  under  Ihc  same  gen- 
oral  designation  of  "vulcanization."  tho  latter  term  must 
ho  understood  as  embracing  thr  trrulmrtii  a/  caoiilrlintii:  irith 
Komf  /ontt  nf  Htilphur  fn  iji'rrt  {'irtm'tt  cftant/en  in  tin  prfij}crticHj 
(uiil  i/ifld  If  ifdf't  or  tt  httrif  priitUict, 

The  folhiwing  vahmble  properties  of  tho  soft  vulcanized 
rubber  are  enumerated  by  Mr.  tioodyear:  (1)  Kt'mfirifi/. — 
Improved  and  increased  as  regards  strength  and  continu- 
ance, and  also  made  available  in  all  climates  and  in  all  cir- 
cumsliinci'S.  {'2)  I'linln'/i'li/. —  Pliable  in  the  highest  degree, 
not  being  alTected  or  made  rigid  by  the  greatest  cold.  (.1) 
J)nraln'lifi/. —  Unchanged  by  time,  whether  kept  in  a  wet  or 
dry  slate.  (1)  /im^lnhili'lt/. — Not  absolutely  in.soluble.  be- 
cause it  can  be  snfteiied,  and  even  dissolved,  by  pnwcrful 
solvents  of  tho  gum  when  heated  and  boiled.  Its  power  of 
rosistaoco  to  solvents  and  other  destructive  chemical  agents 


1170 


INDIA  RUBBER. 


is,  however,  truly  great.  In  a  few  words,  it  is  either  im- 
proved or  remaius  uuinjured  when  exposed  to  destructive 
Uciits  that  destroy  other  fabrics,  and  even  wood,  leaiher, 
and  the  metals,  such  as  iron,  coiipcr,  and  brass.  (»)  Vh- 
altemhilUii  by  Climate  and  Ailijicial  i/caf.— tudurancc of 
artificial  iica't  very  great ;  when  eompouudcd  with  partic- 
ular reference  to  this  quality,  and  with  a  larger  proportion 
of  sulphur  than  is  ordinarily  used,  it  will  bear  a  ''cat  ol 
•iOO°  F  Above  this  chars,  but  does  not  melt.  {6)  Iiiadhc- 
8,-,-«irs».— Entirely  free  from  this  objection,  no  way  being 
vet  found  to  unite  it  firmly,  even  when  it  is  desired.  (() 
'/mue.meabHUy  lo  Air.  Gu^es,  n>,d  /,,V/H/rf».— Improved  lor 
retaining  water  and  other  liquids,  as  it  is  not  sottencd  by 
thi-iu,  but  it  cannot  bo  stated  that  it  is  more  impervious  to 
air  and  gases.  (8)  Plu^lidti/.—'ihc  facility  with  which  it 
is  lormed  into  any  shape  before  being  heated  in  the  oven 
i^  not  surpassed  by  wax  or  by  lead,  or  any  other  material. 
i9)Xan-dectnc  Projieri,/.— One  of  the  best  non-conductors 
of  electricity.  (10)  Odw:— Mr.  Goodyear  says  that  vul- 
canized India  rubber  is,  to  a  very  great  extent,  freed  Irom 
the  natural  offensive  odor  of  the  native  gum. 

Tluon/  ut'  Viilcanhal!oi,.—T:he  sulphur  appears  to  com- 
bine directly  with  the  rubber  ;  the  total  chaugo  in  jiroper- 
ties  and  insolubility  in  the  ordinary  solvents  for  rubber 
makes  the  theory  of  mere  mechanical  mixture  untenable; 
while  the  fact  tliat  no  appreciable  quantity  of  sulphuretted 
hvdroo-en  is  evolved  during  the  operation  makes  it  improb- 
able that  a  substitution  of  sulphur  for  hydrogen  ocsurs. 
In  experiments  conducted  by  Prof.  B.  PiUimao  and  the 
writer  it  was  found  that  mixtures  of  sulphur,  even  when 
vulcanized  into  hard  vulcanite,  lost  only  2  to  3  per  cent,  in 
weii'ht,  of  which  much  was  moisture:  in  two  eases  the 
ll-jS'produeed  amounted  to  0.36-0.5y  per  cent,  of  the  weight  j 

of  the  mixture.  a-    .    ,  i       i 

The   mnniifaetiire  of  soft  vulcanite  ffoods  is  cBected  by 
simple  mechanical  means.     The  purified  and  masticated  j 
gum  is  kneaded  on  the  warm  rolls  with  the  proper  proper-   ^ 
tion  of  sulphur;  less  than  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  gum,  ; 
(ioodvear's  patent  states,  generally  o  or  6  iier  cent,  in  prac-  i 
ti^e.  "  Various  other  substances  are  added  to  increase  the  | 
volume  of  the  product  and  make  the  caoutchouc,  which  is  ^ 
the  most  expensive  material,  go  further.     The  following  is  | 
a  mixture  in  common  use:  rubber  16,  sulphur  1,  whitmg 
14    white  lead  2i,  litharge  2.    Lead  compounds  blacken  the 
('oods  by  forming  black  sulphide  of  lead  ;  oxide  of  zinc  is 
Sometimes    used  in  its  place.     Refuse  vulcanized   rubber 
and  fabrics  composed  of  rubber  and  cloth  are  torn  up  on 
the  masticating  rolls  and  incorporated  with  the  mass  for 
some  goods.     After  the  mass  is  kneaded  into  a  uniform 
mixture,  it  is  taken  from  the  rolls  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
sheet  and  rolled  into  smooth  sheets  between  calender  rolls. 
From  these  plastic  sheets  articles  of  any  desired  shape  are 
readily  formed  by  simple  mechanical  means.    The  mixture 
may  also  be  applied  on  the  calender  rolls  to  one  or  both 
sides  of  cloth  or  canvas.     As  the  mixture  is  in  this  con- 
dilion  very  adhesive,  the  coated  cloth  can  be  cut  and  fash- 
ioned into"  overshoes,  boots,  fire-hose,  etc.,  each  article  con-  i 
sistin"  pr.actieally  of  one  single  piece  after  vulcanization. 
The  combination  with  the  rubber  of  cloth  or  canvas  gives 
great  strength  to  the  manufactured  articles,  while  the  rub- 
ber gives  tbe  waterproof  properties.     Fire-hose  made  of 
several  layers  of  rubber-coated  cotton  duck  was  found  by 
Prof.  Henry  Morton  and  the  writer  to  withstand  an  internal 
water-pressure  of  from  375  to  -13o  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.     To  prevent  the  decay  of  the  canvas  of  this  hose, 
Mr.  John   Murphy  of  the  New  York   Gutta  Pcrcha   and 
Rubber  Manufacturing  Co.  uses  carbolic  acid,   which    is 
simply  incorporated  with  the  rubber  mixture  before  it  is 
applied  to  the  cloth.     Sheets  built  up  of  successive  layers 
of  canvas  and  rubber  are  extensively  employed  for  valves 
and  for  [lacking. 

The  heali'mi  or  vuhaniz!ng  is  conducted  in  very  strong 
horizontal  cast-iron  cylinders  {the  healert).  one  end  of 
which  is  movable  and  serves  as  a  door.  The  goods  to  be 
vulcanized  arc  loaded  upon  a  car  and  run  in  on  a  railway 
which  extends  along  the  bottom  of  the  healer.  To  prevent 
adhesion  of  the  different  articles,  powdered  soapslone  (stea- 
tite) is  freely  used,  the  goods  being  often  packed  in  boxes 
filled  with  this  substance.  When  the  heater  is  charged  the 
door  is  securely  fastened,  and  steam  from  a  high-jiressure 
boiler  let  in  till  the  desired  temperature  is  secured.     The 


ited  extent,  though,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  sulphuri- 
zation  of  the  caoutchouc  is  more  or  less  superficial,  the 
manufactured  articles  arc  inferior  to  those  yulcauized  by 
Goodyear's  process;  in  fact,  they  arc  sometimes  almost 
worthless.  The  caoutchouc  articles  are  simply  immersed 
in  a  mixture  of  10  parts  of  sulphide  of  carbon  and  1  part 
of  chloride  of  sulphur:  they  are  next  placed  in  a  room 
heated  to  70°  F..  and  when  all  the  sulphide  of  carbon  has 
been  volatilized,  the  jiroccss  is  in  so  far  complete  that  it  is 
only  requisite  to  boil  them  in  a  solution  of  1  pound  of 
caustic  potassa  to  3  gallons  of  water,  the  vulcanized  caout- 
chouc being  next  washed  to  remove  excess  of  alkali.  Hum- 
phrey in  1S70  introduced  the  use  of  gasolene  from  petro- 
leum', instead  of  sulphide  of  carbon,  as  the  former  fluid 
dissolves  chloride  of  sulphur  readily. 

Other  methods  of  rukaiihoiiun  have  been  tried,  but  with 
little  success:  (1)  Bv  immersing  the  sheet  caoutchouc  in 
sulphur  heated  to  233°  F.  till  it  has  absorbed  about  ,"5  of 
its  weight,  and  then  heating  it  for  a  short  time  to  302°  F.^ 
or  by  immersing  the  caoutchouc  in  sulphur  heated  to  302 
F.,  a'nd  keefiing  up  that  temiieraturc  till  the  sulphuration  is 
complete.  (2)  Handeoek  :  exposing  the  rubber  in  sheets  to 
vapors  of  sulphur.  (3)  II.  Gaultier  do  Claubry  ( l!-GO)  vul- 
canizes caoutchouc  by  the  aid  of  bleaehing-powder  and 
flowers  of  sulphur.  This  mixture  produces  chloride  of  sul- 
phur, and  the  caoutchouc  treated  by  it  contains  some  chlo- 
ride of  calcium.  (4),  Gerard:  by  immersing  articles  ol 
caoutchouc  in  a  solution  of  polysulphide  of  calcium  or  po- 
tassium, marking  2.5°  Baumc,  keeping  them  in  it  for  three 
hours  at  a  temi>erature  of  300°  F.  under  a  pressure  ol  » 
atmospheres  or  7o  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  goods 
are  finally  washed  with  an  alkaline  ley  of  G0°  B.  (0) 
Burke :  mixing  the  rubber  with  o  to  li  per  cent,  of  orange 
sulphide  of  antimony  (kermm).  and  heating  the  articles 
fashioned  from  it  to  2i0°-2S0°  F.  ,       ,      . 

Hard  vulcanized  caoutchouc,  vulcanite,  chonile,  hard  rub- 
ber, is  prciiared  by  kneading  together  10  parts  of  rubber 
and  S  of  suliduir  in  the  manner  already  described  for  soft 
rubber,  rolling  the  pKastic  mixture  into  sheets,  rods,  tubes, 
and  other  forms,  and  vulcanizing  in  a  steam-tight  heater. 
To  secure  a  smooth,  polished  surface  each  article  may  be 
enveloped  in  thick  tin-foil,  which  is  stripped  off  after  vul- 
canization.    The  articles  are  placed  in  the  heater  in  trays 
filled  with  powdered  soapstone  or  water.     The  product  is 
very  hard,  .and  possesses  a  spring-like  elasticity,  like  that 
of  whalebone.     It  may  be  sawed,  filed,  and  worked  in  a 
lathe  like  ivory,  and  admits  a  very  high  polish.     Its  color 
is  dark  brown,  nearly  black.     It  may  be  colored  jet  black 
by  the  addition  of  a"little  litharge,  red  by  vermilion.     A 
mixture  of  10  parts  of  rubber,  G  of  sulphur,  and  12  ol  ver- 
milion is  bright  red,  and  is  mucb  used.     AVhcn  properly 
made,  vulcanite  is  not  brittle:  an  elastic  shred  may  be  cut 
with  a  penknife  from  its   edge.      The   careful  regulation 
of  the  temiierature  of  the  heater  during  its  vulcanization 
is  necessary  to  secure  the  best  product.      The  following 
heat  gives  cxeellent  results:  1  hour  at  275°  F.;  3  hours  at 
300°:  3  hours  at  30.1°.     Vulcanite  differs  from  soft  rubber 
in  the  proportion  of  sulphur  used,  in  the  high  heats  used 
in  curing  it,  and  in  its  hardness.     The  turnings  and  bor- 
ings of  vulcanite  are  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  pressed 
in^hot  iron  moulds  for  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  strips 
for  knife-handles,  etc.     The  vulcanite  is  not  attacked  by 
solvents,  neither  those  which  dissolve  the  pure  caoutchouc 
nor  the  mineral  acids  and  alkalies.     On  this  account  it  is 
used  in  place  of  glass  for  cups  for  galvanic  batteries.     It 
is  also  especially  distinguished  by  the  largo  quantity  of 
electricity  which  it  evolves  when  rubbed ;  hence  it  makes 
an  excellent  material  for  the  plates  of  electrical  machines. 
It  will  be  impossible  to  enumerate  the  various  applica- 
tions of  this  material;  some  of  them  have  been  already 
mentioned.     An  important  application  is  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  emery-wheels  and   hones  for  sharpening  scythes, 
sickles,  etc.     For  this  purpose  it  is  mixed  before  vulcaniz- 
ing with  emery  or  quartz.    The  following  proportions  give 
excellent  results:  rubber,  11  parts;  sulphur,  5  parts;  em- 
ery, 100  parts.  ,  ,     ,  . 

Nelson  Goodyear  is  generally  considered  to  have  been 
the  discoverer  of  flexible  vulcanite,  and  was  claimed  to  be 
such  by  Henry  E.  Goodyear,  the  administrator  of  his 
estiite.  No  one  will  dispu'io  his  claim  to  the  discovery  of 
hard  rubber,  but  the  writer  and  others  who  have  carelully 
of  the  case  believe  that  Austin  (.. 


temperature  employed  and  the  time  of  exposure  vary  some-  ,  cxamiiied  the  history..    ---,--„„;,:,,,„  „,,i,,„nUe   which 
what  according  to    he  character  of  the  articles:  5  hours  at      Day  of  Connee, cut  invented  the  A?^''' ''J"'  ""'/^rJ'i'^J 

■-      ■  is  the  only  kind  that  ever  possessed  any  practical  value  or 

commercial  importance.  Nelson  Goodyear's  original  pat- 
ent was  granted  May  0,  1S51.  In  this  he  says  :  •■  I  he  na- 
ture of  my  invention  consists  in  so  compounding  caout- 
choue  with  other  substances  that  the  composition  thus 
formed,  when  subjected  to  the  heating  or  curing  process 
described  in  the  patent  of  Charles  Goodyear,  dato^d  Juno 
16,  1844,  and  in  the  reissue  of  said  patent,  dated  Dec.  25, 


210°  F.  is  stated  to  be  the  temperature  employed  for  fire- 
hose. The  following  4i-hour  "heat"  is  used  in  some  of 
the  factories  where  smaller  articles  are  made :  1  hour  at 
255°  F. :  1  hour  at  260°  ;  1  hour  at  265°  :  1  hour  at  270°  : 
J  hour  at  275°.  The  temperature  should  never  exceed 
230°  F. 

Parket'a  cold  vulcanizing  proeem  was  patented  by  Alex- 
ander Parkes  of  Birmingham,  and  has  been  used  to  a  lim- 


INDIBILIS— INDICOPLELSTKS. 


1171 


1849,  will  form  a  bard,  stiff  substance  hitherto  unknown 
,cte.  The  indispcnsal)le  ingredients  used  in  my  coui- 
position  are  caoutchouc  and  sulphur :  and  when  only  these 
two  ingredients  are  used,  the  best  proportions  will  be  about 
equal  parts  bv  wci'.'ht  of  each  of  them  ;  indeed,  a  much 
less  proportion  of  sulpliur  will  not  suHiee.  But  though  the 
combination  of  so  largo  a  proportion  of  sulphur  with  the 
caoutchouc  will  produce,  when  cured,  a  hard  substance,  a 
still  better  result  will  be  obtained  by  the  introduction  of 
magnesia,  lime,  carbonate  of  magnesia  or  lime,  or  sulphate 
of  mainesia  or  lime,  into  the  composition,  in  which  case 
the  fo'Tbnving  pr"i>ortion  will  be  found  a  highly  .advan- 
tageous one— uamclv,  1  pound  of  caoutchouc,  J  pound  of 
EuTphur.  and  i  pounil  of  magnesia  or  lime,  or  carbonate 
of  nui'niesia  or  lime,  or  sulphate  of  magnesia  or  lime  .  .  .  , 
etc.  The  compound  must  be  subjected  to  the  heating  or 
curiu"  process  already  mentioned  as  patented  by  Charles 
Goodyear,  and  to  which  reference  is  hereby  made  for  a  par- 
ticula'r  description  thereof:  in  most  cases  the  heat  will  be 
required  to  be  raised  as  high  as  260°  or  275"  F.,  and  the 
time  of  exposure  to  the  heat  will  range  from  three  to  six 
hours  or  even  longer  .  .  .  ,  etc.  What  I  do  claim  as  my 
invention,  and  desire  to  secure  by  letters  patent,  is  the  com- 
bining of  India  rubber  and  sulphur,  either  with  or  without 
shell-Tae.  for  making  a  hard  and  indexible  substance  hith- 
erto unknown,  substanlially  as  herein  set  forth.  And  I 
also  claim  the  combining  of  India  rubber,  sulphur,  and 
magnesia  or  lime,  or  a  carbonate  or  a  sulphate  of  magnesia 
or  of  lime,  either  with  or  without  shell-lac,  for  making  a 
hard  and  inflexible  substance  hitherto  unknown,  substan- 
tially as  herein  set  forth."  The  product  of  the  foregoing 
specifications  is  distinctly  stated  to  be  an  inflexible  sub- 
stance. 

On  the  death  of  Nelson  Goodyear,  Henry  B.  Goodyear, 
his  administrator,  obtained  two  separate  reissues  of  the 
oriiinal  patent— ono  for  the  process  of  manufacture,  and 
the~othcr  for  the  product,  both  hearing  date  of  May  8, 1858.  ! 
In  both  these  reissues  we  find  an  entirely  new  property 
claimed  for  the  product— viz..  theeprimj-like  properly,  under 
flrriire.  fonnd  in  irlmlebonc.  The  writer  has  discussed 
this  subject  with  the  men  who  worked  in  the  factory  when 
Goodyear  made  his  experiments,  and  who  say  that  he  never 
made  '■  whalebone  rubber,"  but  simply  a  hard,  brittle  com- 
pound. He  used  a  large  proportion  of  magnesia  in  all  bis 
cnmiiounds,  and  did  not  heat  them  above  275°  F. ;  both  of 
which  facts  are  fatal  to  the  theory  that  he  made  whalebone 
rubber.  His  specimens  were  cured  in  a  heater  used  for 
soft-rubber  goods,  which  was  run  at  heats  from  255°  to 
275°  F. ;  a  higher  temperature  would  h.avc  ruined  the  goods. 
In  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  on  this  subject,  made 
on  a  large  scale  by  Prof.  B.  Silliman  and  the  writer,  it  was 
found  that  a  mixture  of  rubber  Hi.  sulphur  8,  and  mag- 
nesia 8  was  converted  into  a  hard,  brittle  compound  by  a 
temperature  of  275°  F.,  but  under  no  conditions  into 
whalebone  rubber;  while  a  mixture  of  rubber  10  and  sul- 
phur 8  could  not  bo  hardened  at  all  unless  heated  above 
275°  F.  This  conliruis  the  other  statements  with  regard  to 
(ioodyear'a  hard,  brittle,  and  useless  product.  Day  has 
never"  been  able  to  vindicate  his  claims  to  this  invention  iu 
t  he  courts  against  the  powerful  combination  of  capital  which 
hoMs  the  Goodyear  patents.    (.«co  .41/1.  Clieminl,  ii.  329.) 

IhnliU  rwlcnnite.  consisting  of  rubber  l(i,  sulphur  6  to 
8.  vermilion  12  to  Iti.  was  mixed  and  sold  to  the  dentists, 
who  used  it  for  plates  lor  mounting  artificial  teeth.  This 
is  ono  of  the  most  important  applications  of  hard  rubber 
ever  made,  as  it  greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  artificial  teeth. 
The  dentist  makes  a  mould  of  the  mouth  in  plaster  of  Paris, 
sets  a  plate  of  the  plastic-rubber  mixture  in  it,  arranges 
the  porcL-lain  teeth  in  proper  position,  and  heats  the  whole 
in  a  small  vulcani/.er  over  a  gas-burner,  thus  converting 
the  whole  into  a  light  plate  of  teeth  which  fits  the  mouth 
of  the  patient.  The  high  charges  of  the  patentees  of  this 
application  of  vulcanite  drove  the  dentists  to  seek  to  evade 
the  pilents.  The  greatest  success  attended  the  eiforls  of  J. 
B.  Newl>rongh  and  E.  Fagali  of  New  York,  who  obtained 
patents  for  hardening  rubber  by  means  of  iodine  and  bro- 
mine. Considerable  litigation  resulted,  which  finally  ter- 
minatcil  in  a  compromise.  It  was  found  that  rubber  could 
be  hardene  1  by  iodine  .and  colored  with  oxide  of  iron  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  sulphur,  but  when  colored  with  vermil- 
ion a  certain  addition  of  sulphur  was  required — less,  how- 
ever, than  the  minimum  of  the  hard-rubber  patents.  (See 
Am.  Cliemini,  ii.  :!73.)  Newbrough  also  sucecedeil  in  hard- 
ening rubber  with  a  product  obtained  by  treating  oil  of 
turpentine  with  oil  of  vitriol. 

Cumpanndi  nf  coitl-lnr,  n'pfiiill.  etc.  with  caoutchouc  have 
been  frequently  tested,  but  they  can  bo  used  only  for  very 
inferior  goods. 

Kirltc  is  a  compound  containing  coal-tar  and  asphalt, 
with  several  other  substances,  the  exact  nature  of  which  is 
a  secret.    It  was  invented  by  Austin  G.  Day,  and  is  exten- 


sively used  for  covering  telegraph  wire.  It  is  cheaper  than 
gutta  percha.  and  possesses  the  additional  advantage  of  re- 
sisting the  atmospheric  influences  which  destroy  this  sub- 
stance. 

Knmptnllcon  is  the  name  that  was  given  to  a  mixture  ot 
India  rubber,  gutta  pereha.  and  cork  or  wood  sawdust.  It 
was  rolled  iuto  sheets,  vulcanized  by  contact  with  sulphur, 
and  used  for  floor-cloth. 

Arlifieial  caonleliouc  has  been  made  from  oil,  chloride  of 
sulphur,  and  collodion  (/'nr/t-ueiic),  and  from  the  resinous 
body  produced  by  the  oxidation  of  linseed  oil  (Camptienn). 

S'talislii'H  of  the  India  rubber  industry  arc  given  in  the 
9th  census  report.  The  capital  invested  in  this  industry 
in  the  U.  S.  in  1870  was  $7,4S6,G00,  the  number  of  estab- 
lishments SG,  hands  employed  6025,  the  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts S14,566,:i74.  ,.     .    . 

Literature. — Gnm-elnslic  ond  its  Vnneties,  trilli  a  De- 
tailed Account  of  ilv  Applicalionis  and  Vies,  and  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  Vulcanization  by  Charlcn  Goodyear  (New  Haven, 
Conn.,  iSo.l);  The  Caoutchouc  or  India  Jtnlber  Monnjuc- 
ture  in  England,  by  Thomas  Handcoek  (London,  1857); 
The  Hoot  and  Sho'e  Manufacturer's  (inide  (including  a  his- 
tory of  India  rubber  and  gutta  percha),  by  W.  H.  Kiehard- 
son  (Boston,  1858) ;  Nouvcan  manuel  complel  du  Fabricant 
d\ 
pa 


Vobjets  en  Caoutchouc,  en  Irutia  percha  et  en  Uommefactice, 
jarM.  Paulin  Desormeaux  (Manuel  Roret,  Paris,  1855); 
'Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha  considered  chiefly  in  their 
Chemical  Relations,  by  T.  M.  Blossom  (a  most  valuable 
series  of  papers,  written  largely  from  notes  collected  by  the 
writer  of  this  article,  and  extensively  quoted  here);  Aw. 
Chemist,  ii.  81,  137,  173,  225.  287,  329,  373.  (See  also  Ure's 
Diet  ,  Payen's  Precis  de  Chimie  Industrielle,  Handle,  d. 
Chemie,  Muspratt's  CTicni.,  especially  the  last  German  edi- 
(iou  )  C.  F.  CuANDLEit. 

Indi'bilis,  a  Spanish  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Ilergetes, 
first  mentioned  in  B.  c.  218  as  commanding  the  native  aux- 
iliaries under  llanuo,  the  Carthaginian  governor.  In  212, 
Indibilis  led  a  force  of  7500  men  to  the  aid  of  Hasdrubal 
.against  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  who  was  killed  in  b.attle.  Soon 
afterward  he  came  iuto  conflict  with  the  Carthaginian  gov- 
ernor, who  required  the  surrender  of  his  daughters  as  pledges 
of  fidelity.  These  hostages  were  captured  by  the  younger 
Scipio  (A"fricanus)  in  210,  and  thehonorabletreatineut  given 
them  so  impressed  Indibilis  that  in  the  following  year  (209) 
he  joined  his  forces  to  the  Romans.  In  200  they  revolted 
from  Rome,  but  were  conquered  and  pardoned;  again  revolt- 
ed in  the  following  year  (205),  when  he  was  defeated  and 
killed. 

In'dican.  Pee  Ixdigo.  by  Vvmv.  C.  F.  Citasdliir,  Pii. 
D.,  M.  I).,  LL.D. 

Indicoplcus'tcs  (Cosm.\5).  an  Egyptian  trader  in  the 
sixth  century;  in  early  life  made  extensive  voyages  in  the 
East,  visiting  Syria,  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Persia,  and  India, 
carefully  observing  the  modes  of  life,  manners,  and  customs 
of  all  tlio  ncoplcs  with  whom  he  opened  a  tralfic.  and  prob- 
ably kecp'ing  a  journal  of  his  wanderings.  After  many 
years  spent  in  this  manner.  Cosmas  renounced  the  world, 
and,  entering  a  monastery,  devoted  himself  to  contempla- 
tion and  study.  His  store  of  personal  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy, whiehhad' gained  him  the  surname  of  ludico-pleus- 
les  ("  the  Indian  navigator"),  was  increased  by  the  study 
of  Scripture  and  the  ancient  writers,  until  he  became  the 
oracle  of  Egypt  upon  all  matters  of  cosmography.  In  his 
old  age  ho  wrote  in  Greek  a  work  in  twelve  books  upon 
universal  geography,  usually  cited  by  the  Latin  title.  7'.<- 
porjraphia  Chriiliu'na  sire  Chrisliailorum  Opinio  de  Mundn, 
of  which  the  chief  object  was  to  combat  the  opinion  of  the 
astronomers  that  the  earth  is  a  spherical  body.  According 
to  Cosmas.  the  shape  and  proportions  of  the  earth  an- 
shadowed  forth  in  Scripture  by  the  description  of  the  Jew- 
ish labernaelr.  It  is  a  vast  cdiloug  plain  enclosed  by  tlir 
ocean,  the  length  from  E.  t..  W.  being  just  twice  that  froin 
N.  to  S.  Multitudes  of  proofs  were  adduced  in  support  ot 
this  oiiinion  from  Scripture,  reason,  testimony,  and  the  au- 
thority of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  In  the  part  of  his 
work  ba.sed  upon  personal  observation.  Cosmas  described 
the  countries  ho  had  visited  with  consiilerablo  accuracy, 
and  inserts  by  way  of  episodes  many  curious  pieces  of  in- 
formation, the  most  important  of  which  related  to  an  in- 
scribed marble  throne  set  up  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  (217- 
222  n.  r.)  at  .\iliilis  in  Nubia,  near  the  coast  ol  the  Ued 
Sea.  He  also  preserved  some  fragments  of  ancient  wiileis 
otherwise  unknown.  The  book  of  Cosmas  was  written  at 
different  times,  and  the  manuscripts  vary  much  in  com- 
pleteness. It  was  first  published  by  Montfaucon  in  his  Cid- 
lerllo  A''*i'a  I'atrum  rt  Scriptorum  Grircorum.  vol.  ii.  (Paris, 
17001.  and  this  is  still  the  best  edition.  Cosmas  wrote  other 
works,  commentaries  on  Psalms  and  Canticles,  a  treatise  of 
Universal  Cosmoijraphy,  and  .UdoiioMi'di/  7Vi4/e«, no  longer 
extant. 


ll; 


INUICTION— INDIGESTION. 


Indic'tion  [Lat.  inrficfio,  "proclamation"],  the  name  | 
used  in  clironology  for  a  certain  method  of  reckoning  time   j 
by  periods  of  fifteen  years.    This  method  was  occasioned  hy 
a  tax  which  was  Icvijd  in  the  Roman  empire  every  tifteenth 
year,  and  the  point  of  time  from  which  the  indictions  be-  | 
gan   was  Sept.   15,  .•?12.     lis  use  in  reckoning  time   was 
cummcnced  chiefly  by  ecclesiastical  historians  during  the 
life  of  Athanasius.     Later  on,  when  the  method  was  adopt-  i 
ed  by  the  popes,  Jan.  1,  HID,  was  fixed  as  the  slartiug-point, 
and  tliis  change  was  called  the  papal  indiction.     During 
the  Middle  Ages  reckoning  by  indictions  was  commonly 
used,  not  only  by  writers,  but  in  practical  life,  in  charters  [ 
and  public  deeds.  (As  to  the  historical  coinmelicement  of 
the  era  of  indictions,  sec  Gibbon's  Utclinc  uiid  Fall.) 

Indict'ment  [Lat.  indtco,  to  "  show  "],  a  written  accu- 
sation  of  one  or  more  persons  of  an   indictable   offence, 
consisting  of  a  felony  or  misdemeanor,  preferred  to,  and  i 
prc.=entccf  upon    oath    by,    a    grand    jury.     (See    Granu  i 
Jiiitv,  Crime.)     A  draught    of  the    indictment,    prepared 
by  the  attorney-general,' district  attorney,  or  other  proper 
officer    representing   the   government,    is  laid    before    the 
grand   jury    when    they    are   lawfully   convened,    and    if 
twelve  or  more  of  them"  are  satisfied,  from  the  ei parte  evi- 
dence presented  to  them,  that  there  is  ;)ri'ma /noie  reason  to 
conclude  that  the  alleged  offender  is  guilty,  the  words  "  A 
true  bill"  are  written  upon  the  back  of  the  draught,  and 
the  indictment  is  then  said  to  be  "  found;"  and  upon  the 
basis  of  the  charges  therein  cont.ained  the  prisoner  is  placed 
on  trial,  at  a  regular  session  of  the  proper  court,  before  a 
petit  jury.  (Sec  JfRV.)     When  a  presentment  is  made  by 
the  grand  jurv,  an  indictment  containing  the  charges  pre- 
sented is  drawn  up  subsequently,  and  upon  this  the  party 
.accused  is  tried.    (For  a  definition  of  "presentment"  see 
(jRANn  JiRY.)     An  indictment  commences  with  a  formal 
preliminary    statement    termed    the    "  caption,"   contains 
next  the  special  charge  or  accusation,   sometimes  termed 
technically  the  "  statement"  or  the  "  body  of  the  indictment," 
and  terminates  with  a  formal  ending,  called  the  "conclu- 
sion."    The   caption,  which  is,    strictly  speaking,   in  the 
nature  of  a  preamble  only,  and  no  part  of  the  indictment 
proper,  states  the  name  and  term  of  the  court  in  which  the 
indictment  was  found,  the  names  of  the  justices,  and  the 
fact  that  the  grand  jurv  was  lawfully  convened,  and  that 
they  were  duly  sworn  and  charged.     It  shows  .an  observ- 
ance of  such  "forms  and  rules  of  law  as  must  be  complied 
with  before  the  finding  of  the  indictment,  in  order  that  the 
court  may  aciiuirc  jurisdiction  in  the  particular  instance. 
The  "  statement  "  or  body  of  the  indictment  is  a  narrative 
of  the  offence  charged,  and  must  contain  a  full  and  partic- 
ular deseriiition  of  the  alleged  crime,  and  have  such  a  de- 
gree of  certainty  ami  precision  in  the  accusation  that  it 
may  he  seen  by"  the  court  that  the  act  charged,   if  true, 
woiild  constitut'c  a  crime.    The  name  of  the  prisonershnuld 
be  stated,  or  if  that  is  not  known,  he  should  be  so  described 
as  to  bo  adequately  identified.  The  time  and  place  at  which 
the  ofTcneo  was  committed  should  also  be  alleged,  though 
it  is  not  generally  necessary  that  allegations  on  these  par- 
ticular points  should  be  jiroved  exactly  as  charged.     It  is, 
however,  essential  that  in  staling  the  time  the  offence  should 
appear  to  have  been  committed  before  the  finding  of  the 
in<lictment,  ami  within  the  period  prescribed  bylaw  for  the 
iirosceution  of  the  particular  crime  alleged.     Moreover,  in 
certain  classes  of  cases  the  time  must  be  specified  correctly, 
and  any  variance  between  the  allegation  and  the  proof  will 
lie  fatal.     Thus,  in  the  indictment  for  perjury,  the  day  on 
which  the  perjury  was  committed  must  be  truly    staled. 
When  murder  is  "charged,  the  death  must  be  described  as 
occurring  within  a  year  and  a  day  from  the  time  when  the 
fatal  injury  is  alleged  to  have  been  committed.     The  place 
namcil  must  be  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.     When 
several  persons  engage  in  the  commission  of  an  offence,  they 
may  be   indicted   cither  jointly  or  separately.     It  is  an  al- 
lowable and  frequent  practice  to  describe  the  same  offence 
in  the  indictment  in  several  difi'erent  ways,  the  successive 
statements  being  termed  "  counts;"  the  object  of  this  is  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  a  variance  or  failure  of  proof. 
liy  variously  modifying  the  terms  of  the  accusation  in  this 
way,  it  is  rendered  more  likely  that  some  one  of  the  counts 
will  accurately  correspond  with  the  evidence  to  bo  adduced, 
and  if  any  count  is  sustained,  the  ])risoner  may  be  con- 
victed.  Whenever  an  indictment  charges  an  offence  created 
or  declared  by  statute,  it  must  be  accurately  framed  in  ac- 
cordance wilii  the  provisions  of  the   statute.     There   are 
also  various  rules  of  law  which  must  be  observed  to  prevent 
the  allegations  of  an  indictment  from  being  absurd,  incon- 
sistent, or  repugnant.     Particular  technical  averments  are 
sometimes  necessary  to  be  employed.    Thus,  in  a  charge  of 
felony,  the  word  "  fVloniously  "  must  be  used  ;  in  a  case  of 
burglary,  the  word  "  burglariously."    So  larceny  is  alleged 
by  the  words  "  took  and  carried  away."     Hut  though  there 
are  certain  formalities  to  be  observed  in  framing  every  in- 


dictment, the  allegation  of  the  nature  of  the  offence  and 
the  acts  constituting  it  will  afl"ord  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
special  discretion  and  professional  skill.  The  general  rule 
is  that  the  indictment  must  charge  explicitly  everything 
that  is  necessary  to  constitute  the  offence;  every  material 
circumstance  embraced  within  the  definition  of  the  alleged 
crime  must  be  stated.  The '•conclusion  "  of  the  indictment 
is  a  formal  statement  with  which  the  law  requires  that  it 
should  end.  The  usual  phraseology  is.  "against  the  peace 
and  dignity  "  of  the  king  or  commonwealth.  In  indict- 
ments for  a  statutory  offence  it  is  customary  to  use  also  the 
phrase  "  contrary  to  the  form  of  the  statute  in  such  case 
made  and  provided."  Since  in  the  U.  S.  crimes  arc  gen- 
erally defined  by  statute,  this  mode  of  concluding  the  in- 
dictment is  commonly  employed.  The  mode  of  framing  the 
body  of  the  indictment  is  also  sometimes  modified  by  statu- 
tory" provisions.  Only  the  common-law  rules  upon  the  sub- 
ject have  been  here  stated. 

At  common  law.  the  defendant  was  not,  in  eases  of  treason 
and  felony,  entitled  to  a  copy  of  the  indictment.  In  prose- 
cutions fo"r  high  treason  the  rule  was  changed  in  England  by 
statute,  and  it  was  provided  that  a  copy  should  be  given  to 
him  ten  days  before  the  trial.  But  in  other  cases  of  felony  the 
rule  remained  unaltered.  The  court  at  the  time  of  the  ar- 
raignment would  order  the  indictment  to  be  read  over  slowly 
to  the  prisoner,  but  would  grant  no  further  privilege  in  this 
respect.  This  harsh  rule  has  been  abolished  in  several  of 
the  States  of  the  Union  by  statute.  Thus,  in  New  York 
every  person  indicted  for  any  offence,  who  shall  have  been 
arrested  or  held  to  bail,  "shall  on  demand,  and  on  paying 
the  fees  allowed  by  law  therefor,  be  entitled  to  a  copy  of 
the  indictment  and"  of  all  indorsements  thereon."  Similar 
statutes  have  been  enacted  in  New  Hampshire,  'Vermont, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Georgia,  Texas,  and  a 
few  other  States. 

Gkorge  Chase.     Revised  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 
Indies,  East.     See  India,  Ixdo-China,  and  Eastern 

ARCnU'ELACO. 

Indies,  West.     Sec  Antili.i:s.  and  West  Indies. 
Indiges'tion,  or  Dyspepsia  [Gr.  SiJs,  "bad,"  and 

i  TTfTTTu,  to  "  digest  "].     Indigestion  has  many  forms,  and  in- 

I  eludes  groups  of  symptoms  indicative  of  departure  from 
one  or  many  of  the  conditions  of  healthy  digestion.     The 

i  digestive  process  is  complex,  and  is  performed  by  the 
agency  of  the  saliva,  the  g.astric  juice,  and  the  intestinal, 
pancreatic,  and  biliary  secretions.  For  the  proper  secre- 
tion of  these  several  digestive  fluids  the  blood  must  be  in  a 

I  healthy  state,  and  be  freely  supplied  to  the  glandular  struc- 

i  lure  of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  innervation  es- 
sential to  the  digeflive  process  demands   moderation  of 

j  mental  activity,  emolion.al  tranquillity,  vigor  and  healthful 

I  action  of  the  liervous  centres,  especially  of  the  sympathetic 
system.  Tonicity  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestine  is  essential  for  the  thorough  contact  and  ad- 
mixture of  food  with  the  digestive  fluids,  for  its  transit 
through  the  intestinal  tract,  and  for  the  regular  evacualion 

i  from  the  bowels  of  undigested  and  excretory  mailer.  In- 
digestion may  be  gastric  or  inteslinal — often  the  two  com- 
bined.    It  i.s  either  primary — an  essential  disorder  of  Iho 

I  digestive  ap])aratus — or  secondary  and  symptomatic  of 
disease  in  other  organs.  Obstruction  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  by  chronic  disease  of  a  large  vascular  organ— as, 
the  liver,  spleen,  or  kidney — induces  ]iassive  congestion 
of  the  mucous  surfaces.  Heart  disease,  rapidity  of  circula- 
tion, and  elevation  of  temperature  in  fevers  and  febrile  dis- 
orders cause  gastro-intestinal  engorgement,  catarrh,  and  in- 
digestion. When  bile  is  imperfectly  eliminated,  when  urea  is 
imperfectly  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  when  fa-ca!  matter  is 
retained  and  absorbed",  the  efl'cic  elements  circulating  in 

I  the  blood  excite  gastric  or  intestinal  or  gastrointestinal  ca- 
tarrh. Primary  or  idiopathic  indigestion  includes  all  oases 
in  which  careful  investigation  has  failed  to  discover  a  de- 
pendency on  other  disease.     It  may  be  a  simple  functional 

I  disorder  of  digestion,  or  due  to  an  organic  cause  in  some  part 
of  the  digestive  tract.  Functional  dyspepsia  is  termed  atonic. 
Organic  dyspepsia,  if  mild  and  due  to  temporary  and  slight 
lesions  of  the  secretory  surface,  is  termed  irritative ;  if  severe, 
it  is  designated  chronic  gastritis,  a  condition  which  by  as- 
sociated symptoms  and  physical  exploration  may  be  found 
to  depend  upon  ulcer,  cancer,  or  inflammatory  thickening. 
Atonic  dyspepsia  may  be  due  to  defective  innervation — 
from  continuous  and  exhaustive  mental  action  ;  from  emo- 
tional disturbances,  as  excitement,  sorrow,  fear:  from  pro- 
longed exercise  and  fatigue;  from  dissipation.  It  may  bo 
caused  by  deficient  supjily  and  quality  of  the  blood,  inac- 
tive circulation  from  indolence  and  neglect  of  exercise, 
ana-mia  and  impoverished  blood  from  privation  or  recent 
sickness.  Deficient  or  perverted  secretion  of  digestive 
fluids  results.  Reversely,  digestion  may  be  interfered  wilh 
by  excess  of  blood  and  gastric  catarrh,  when  neglected 


INDIGHIRKA. 


117:; 


cleanliness  or  chilling  of  the  skin  or  cold  extremities  dc- 
tcruiiuu  bluod  to  internal  parts.  Obesity,  indolence,  gen- 
eral debility  may  lower  the  tonicity  of  the  muscular  struc- 
ture of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  weaken  the  peri- 
staltic movcuienls.  causing  failure  in  the  contact  of  food 
with  digestive  fluids,  and  resulting  in  its  accumulation  and 
fermentation.  .As  a  rule,  however,  nervo-force.  bluod-sup- 
ply,  and  digestive  apparatus  are  not  primarily  at  fault,  and 
arc  adequate  to  ordinary  digestion,  the  majority  of  indi- 
gestions being  the  result  of  gross  excesses  of  diet  and  vio- 
lations of  hygienic  law,  excess  of  food,  too  frequent  meals, 
rapid  eating  with  incomplete  mastication  and  insalivation, 
food  unfit  for  digestion  or  improperly  and  insuiliciently 
cooked,  the  habitual  use  of  condiments,  rendering  the 
peptic  glands  dependent  upon  their  stimulus,  the  imbibi- 
tion in  excess  of  liquids,  as  water,  tea.  or  coffee,  at  meals, 
causing  ililulion  of  the  gastric  juice.  .Alcoholic  stimulants 
create  temporary  and  artificial  appetite,  but  soon  destroy 
healthy  digestifin.  Tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco  impair  the  in- 
nervation of  the  stomach. 

The  chief  symptoms  of  gastric  indigestion  are  sense  of 
fulness,  weight,  distress,  and  dull  ])ain  over  the  stomach, 
coated  or  irritable  tongue,  foul  breath,  perverted  appetite 
— usually  poor  in  the  morning,  and  often  morbid  and  ir- 
regular— sometimes  nau.sea  and  vomiting,  eructations  of 
gas,  regurgitation  of  acid  or  alkaline  liquids  and  of  food, 
often  constipation,  and  less  often  colicky  pain,  with  irregu- 
larity and  looseness.  There  may  exist  lassitude,  mental 
inactivity,  drowsiness,  cranial  oppression,  headache,  ver- 
tigo, sometimes  clouded  vision,  diplopia  or  double  vision, 
and  numerous  nervous  symptoms  and  perversions  of  the 
senses  may  exist:  shortness  of  breath,  sighing  respiration. 
prwoordial  distress,  palpitation  and  irregular  action  of  the 
ncarl.  There  may  be  poor  circulation  ;  relaxed  and  pallid 
or  sallow  surface  and  complexion  ;  cold  hands  and  feet ;  in 
women,  menstrual  disorders.  With  the  more  marked  and 
aggravated  symptoms  there  may  bo  mental  depression, 
anxiety,  ilespondoncy,  and  apprehension,  constituting  hy- 
pochimilria.  A  diagnosis  of  the  form  of  dyspepsia  is  es- 
sential to  a  correct  treatment.  Atonic  may  bo  distinguished 
from  irritative  dyspepsia  by  the  following  differences: 


In  Functional  or  Atonic  DyS' 
pcpxia. 

1.  Deficiency  or  irregularity 

of  appetite,   absence   of 
thirst. 

2.  IngL-stion   of  food   affords 

sense   of  comfort  for   a 
time. 

3.  Food  retained. 

4.  Condiments  and  stiiiitilants 

craved,  aid  dii^estion,  and 
cause  sensr-  of  comfort. 

5.  Languor  and  inaptitude  for 

exertion    during    diges- 
tion. 

6.  Tongue  pale,  broad,  flabby, 

thinlv  furred. 

7.  nreathVoul. 
«.  No  fever. 

9.  IVrsons    In    general   good 
health  and  flesli. 


In  Irritative  Dyspepsia. 


food, 


10.  Constitutional 
few. 


1.  Morbid    craving  for 

morbid  thirst. 

2.  Ingestion  of  food  causes  dis- 

tress. 

3.  Food    often    ejected   when 

taken,  or  soon  after. 

4.  Condiments  and  stimulants 

create    or  intensify   dis- 
t  ress. 
.5.  Pain  and    mental   distress 
during  diu'estion. 

6.  Tont;ue  small,  comiiact,  red, 

with  elevated  papilla*  or 
sensitive  abradi-cl  patches. 

7.  Breath  may  or  may  not  be 

foul. 

«.  Often  slight  fever. 

9.  Reduced  health,  bad  nutri- 
tion, and  emaciation. 


symptoms    10.  Variable  general  cllects. 


The  symptoms  of  functional  and  irritative  dyspepsia  often 
coexist.  In  functional  dyspepsia  the  fermentation  of  food 
develops  gases.  Kructalions  may  be  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
from  acetous  fermentation,  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid 
gas  from  ileconiposition  <)f  hydrocarbons  or  fatty  food,  or 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  from  decomposition  of  nitrog- 
enous substances,  as  meats,  eggs.  f)f  regurgitated  liquiils, 
the  most  common  is  a  clear,  opalescent.  ii]si|,id.  alkaline 
liquid,  sometimes  saltish  or  brackish,  probably  the  accumu- 
lation in  the  oesophagus  of  saliva,  and  its  frequent  rising 
in  the  throat  is  known  as  watcrbrash  or  pyrosis.  In  gas- 
trie  catarrh  gelatinous  mucus  may  rise  in  the  throat.  Tho 
regurgitation  of  acid,  acrid  liquid,  causes  sense  of  burning 
in  the  sfomach,  beneath  tho  slernum,  ami  in  the  throat, 
technically  cardialgia,  popularly  termed  heartburn.  Such 
fluid  is  usually  serum  or  sero-mueus,  containing  ncclie  or 
lactic  acid.  If  brown,  acrid,  bitter,  rancid,  and  offcnsii-e, 
it  is  due  tr)  the  conversion  of  fatty  food  inio  butyric  acid. 
Food  may  be  regurgitated  at  various  stages  of  i'ls  diges- 
tion. When  fioil  is  ejected  many  hours  after  ingestion,  it 
may  present  products  of  fermentation— sporules  of  Ttirnhi 
cercrlii!ir,or  sporules  aggregated  into  segmentated,  cubical 
masses,  known  as  Snrcintr  rrtitricn/i  tt'irrinn,  a  *•  wool- 
pack  ").  tJoffee. ground  substance  in  ejecta  is  due  to  blood 
which  has  undergone  gastric  digestion,  and  indicates  an 
abraded,  ulcerated,  bleeding  surl^ace.  The  aceumulatitm 
of  food  and  its  ejection  en  mnniif  hours  after  ingestion 
denote  obstruction  at  the  lower  or  pyloric  orifice.  Tho 
prevalent  idea  that  gastric  juice  is  often  regurgilnted  is 
erroneous.     Bile    appears  in    regurgitated   fluids   seldom, 


and  in  vomited  matter  only  after  prolonged  or  violent  cme- 
sis.  In  aged  persons  a  steadily  progressive  loss  of  appe- 
tite, progressive  inanition  and  emaciation,  and  death  from 
slow  asthenia,  without  other  symptoms  of  indigestion  or 
evidence  of  disease  in  other  organs,  result  from  degene- 
ration of  the  gastric  and  intestinal  tubules,  the  peptic 
glands.  When  fatty  food  passes  in  the  fa-ces  undi<'cstcd 
disease  of  the  pancreas  may  be  suspected.  "  ' 

Atonic  dyspepsia  predis|ioses  to  acute  indigestion,  sub- 
acute gastritis,  gastroenteric  catarrh— the  cholera  morbus 
of  adults  and  cholera  infantum  of  children whenever  ex- 
citing causes  are  superadded,  as  the  imbibition  of  cold 
water  or  eating  acrid  fruit.s,  chilling  of  the  heated  bodv  in 
summer.  Indigestion  may  at  first  induce  looseness  of'ihe 
bowels,  irregular  action,  or  diarrhiea.  but  ultimately  pro- 
duces constipation.  Indigestion,  by  developing  lactic  acid 
in  excess,  is  the  frequent  cause  of  rheumatism.  It  is  the 
source  of  the  lithic  acid  or  gouty  diathesis.  Indigestion  is 
tho  frequent  cause  of  urinary  precipitates.  Imperfect  di- 
gestion of  nitrogenous  food  gives  rise  to  oxalic  acbl.  oxalate 
of  lime  in  the  urine,  irritation  and  congestion  of  the  kid- 
neys and  bla<lder.  Indigestion  in  young  and  susceptible 
children  and  infants  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  convul- 
sions and  sudden  febrile  attacks.  It  may  be  the  chief  or 
only  cause  of  chorea  (.St.  Vilus's  dance).  Chronic  irrila- 
tive  dyspepsia  is  most  often  the  result  of  alcoholic  excess, 
less  often  of  excessive  errors  of  diet,  or  may  he  symp- 
tomatic of  gastric  ulcer,  pyloric  constriction,  or  malignant 
disease. 

In  the  treatment  of  indigestion  regulation  of  diet  alone 
often  effects  a  cure.     The  diet  should  be  nutritious,  mod- 
erate in  quantity,  taken   at  regular  intervals,  and  slowly 
eaten.     The  food  at  breakfast  should  be  simple  and  laxa- 
tive, at  dinner  substantial,  at  supper  light.    Of  dishes  there 
should  be  variety,  yet  simplicity,  including  animal  food, 
vegetables,  nndfruits  in  rcslricted  quantities.    ISread  should 
be  stale  or  aerated.     Milk  may  be  freely  taken,  corrected 
with  soda  or  lime-water.     Fatty  food,  grease,  sugar,  and 
pastry  should  bo  avoided.     Artificial  adjuvants  to  the  diet, 
as  Licbig's  prepared  food.  Ridge's  food,  and  malt  extract 
are  of  value.     Drink  of  any  kind  a(  meals  should  be  very 
limited.     Attention  to  general  regimen  is  essential.     There 
must  bo  outdoor  exercise,  freedom  from  mental  stress,  from 
physical  fatigue,  and  dissipation  in  any  form.     liy  cloth- 
ing, aclivo  friction,  and  judicious  bathing  the  external  cir- 
culation is  ke|it  vigorous.     Tendency  of  the  fcod  to  decom- 
pose demands  correctives.     For  the  acid  stomach,  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  the  bicarbonate  of  potash,  or  lime-water :  for 
alkaline  fluid  and  gastric  mucus,  diluie  mineral  acids  and 
acidulated  drinks.     Bisniulh,  either  (he  subnitrate  or  sub- 
carbonate,  is  the  remedy  for  pyrosis.     When  the  stomach 
fails  to  digest  albuminoids,  pepsinc  may  be  given.     I'au- 
creatino  will  aid  the  intestinal  digestion  of  fat.     Ferment- 
ation of  food,  with  fetid  products  and  foul  breath,  may  be 
treated  by  the  sulphite,  bisulphite,  <u-  hyposnlphilc- of  soda, 
the  sulpho-carbolale  of  soda;  eharcoar  is  also  efficacious. 
In  atony  of  the  stomach.  eariiiinati\'cs.  as  ginger,  calamus, 
capsicum,  and  compound  tincture  of  cardamum  sfimulatc 
glandular  secretion;    bider  vegelable   tonics,  chnnioniile, 
quassia,  calumbo,  gentian,  wild-cherry  bark,  casearilla,  and 
cinchona  barks  create  nppelite,  and  nux  vomica  increases 
the  muscular  tone  ami  activity  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines and  prevents  flatulence.      Quinine  and   ferruginous 
tonics,  ns  the  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine,  the  biotophos- 
phate  and  carbonate  of  iron,  and  lilaud's  pills  produce  gen- 
eral vigor,  improve  the  blood,  and  aid  digestion.      Laxa- 
tives are  essential  when  constipation  exists  ;  violent  eaihar- 
tics  are  to  be  avoided.     Laxative  food,  as  the  coarse  cereals 
and  ripe  fruit  before  breakfast,  may  be  tried.     Tamarinds 
and  figs,  ,St.  (iermain  tea,  senna,  and  magnesia  may  be 
used  to  stiiuulato  the  bowels  to  action,     fiflcn  active  exer- 
cise, walking,  or  horseback  riding  will  sufllee.     Hubbing 
and  kneading  the  bowels  or  the  ajiplicalion  of  electricitv 
to  the  nbdouiiiial  muscles  will  cure  obstinate  constipation. 
Rhubarb,  podophyllin,  or  dried  ox  bile  in  small  quantities 
may  be  needed  fo  increase  the  secretion  of  bile,  aloes  to 
unload  the  reclum,  belladonna  and  nux  vomica  to  create 
])Crmaneiit  tonicity  ami   regular  action  of  the  bowels.     A 
judicious  combiiialion  of  these  remedies  in  a  fonic-laxativo 
tiill  may  be  taken  until  the  slomaeh  and  intestines  resume 
lieallhy  and  vigortuis  activity.     i<alino    purges  are  to  be 
avoided.    Rut  the  milder  mineral  wafers  may  be  taken  when 
acid  indigestion  is  present  or  there  is  a  personal  tendency 
to  rheumalisiu  or  gout.  K.  D.uiwi.v  UriisoN,  Jii. 

Indighir'ka,  or  /npndnnin  Kolimn,  a  river  of 
Easlcm  .Liberia,  rises  in  the  Yablonoi  Mountains,  in  Ibe 
government  of  .lakoolsk,  and  enters  fbe  Arctic  Ocean  in 
Ion.  1J0°  E..  after  a  course  of  7on  miles,  mostlv  Ihiough 
deserts  and  froion  marshfs.  A  few  villages  are' senflered 
along  its  banks,  whoso  inhabitants  live  exclusively  by 
hunting. 


1174 


INDIGO. 


In'di|;o  (Indicum  of  the  ancients),  the  most  important 
blue  dvo  known.  It  is  olilaincti  from  several  epecies  of  the 
genus /ii(/iV/"."'''n  which  grow  princi])ally  in  warm  elimales. 
it  has  also  been  noticed  in  uiorbiil  urine,  and  Dr.  Sehnnek 
has  shown  that  it  may  be  obtained  from  the  urine  of  healthy 
men  and  animals  by  the  action  of  strong  acids.  It  has 
also  been  observed  in  the  milk  of  cows. 

JJhlori/. — This  most  valuable  dyeing  substance  was  used 
as  a  dyesluff  in  India  and  Kgyptlong  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  it,  although 
Ihi-y  only  used  it  as  a  pigment,  not  knowing  how  to  render 
it  soluble,  and  so  available  for  dyeing.  It  is  only  since  the 
sixteenth  century,  or  from  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 
passage  to  India"  rouml  the  Capo  of  Ciood  Hope,  that  it  has 
become  generally  known  in  Europe;  and  its  emjdoyment 
as  a  dye  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  opposition  it  met  with 
from  the  large  vested  interests  of  the  woad-cultivatnrs.  wlio 
induced  the  English,  French,  and  (Jerman  governments  to 
)iromulgate  several  enactments  against  its  use.  So  severe 
were  some  of  them  that  Henry  IV.  of  France  issued  an 
edict  condemning  to  death  any  one  who  used  that  perni- 
cious drug  called  the  '•  devil's  food."  It  is  only  since  the 
year  17:i7  that  the  French  dyers  have  had  the  right  of 
"using  indigo  without  restriction.  It  was  urged  against 
this  dye  that  it  was  fugitive,  and  even  prejudicial  to  tho 
wool.  "  The  Dutch  were  the  first  to  introduce  it. 


Indigofera. 

liotanrj. — This  coloring  matter  is  furnished  by  the  leaves 
of  several  species  of  plants  belonging  to  very  different 
genera  and  orders— from  Indiijofcra  lincloria.  I.  Anil,  I. 
dinpermn,  and  /.  pieudolincloria,  cultivated  especially  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies;  also  from  Ntriiim  liiictoiiiim 
and  Calanthe  rcrndi/o/i'd,  natives  of  Hindostan  ;  Aaclqiiua 
lincloria  and  Mursdrnin  liiirlorin  of  Sumatra;  Pubjrimmm 
tinclniium,  hatis  iiidiijulica,  Jntdcia  tincluria,  and  lildia 
Tankenilliir  of  China;  and  Amorpha  fruticoiia  of  South 
Carolina.  The  only  European  plant  which  yields  true  in- 
digo-blue is  Imlis  (i'iif(ori'«,WoAn  (which  see).  This  plant 
was  mucli  used  in  ICuropc  before  the  introduction  of  indigo, 
but  it  is  inferior  in  quality  and  small  in  quantity,  and  is 
now  used  only  as  an  addition  to  the  indigo-vat.  jMany 
other  European  plants  yield  blue  coloring-matters,  but  they 
arc  not  believed  to  be  identical  with  indigo. 

Cidliiatiim. — The  indigo-planis  require  a  warm  climate, 
with  not  too  much  rain.  The  seeds  arc  sown  about  the 
first  of  -April,  and  in  tho  latter  part  of  June  the  flower- 
buds  burst  and  the  plants  will  bear  cutting.  Two  months 
later  a  second  inferior  cutting  is  taken,  and  a  third  and 
fourth  of  diminished  value  may  be  made. 

Jndicaii. — The  jlants  do  not  contain  the  indigo  when 
they  arc  gathered,  but  a  peculiar  substance,  indican,  which 
is  a  yellow,  transparent,  glutinous  solid,  soluble  in  alc()hf>l, 
ether,  and  water.    Indican  is  a  glucosidc,  and  is  converted 


by  fermentation  or  by  boiling  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  into  indigo-blue,  indigo-red,  etc.,  and  a  peculiar 
glucose-like  body,  indigluein: 

Inillcnn.  IrnJiRO-btuc.        Indiglucin. 

CmHsiNOh  -f  2II2O  =  CsHiNO  -r  SCeHioOe. 
Fermentation  does  not  appear  to  be  essential,  as  a  mere  in- 
fusion of  the  plant  in  hot  water  deposits  indigo  on  standing 
in  the  air.  Indican  yields  by  decomposition,  besides  indi- 
go-blue and  indigo-red.  a  variety  of  bodies,  as  o.\indicanine, 
oxindieasin.  indicasin.  indieanin.  indifulvin,  indihumin, 
etc.  (See  H'oKs's />lc^,  article  "Indican.")  Indican  has 
been  found  in  human  blood  and  urine. 

The  crlraiiiun  0/  the  iiidif/o  in  Bengal  is  effected  cither 
from  fresh  or  dry  leaves.  (1)  From  thr  Fi-esh  Leaves, — 
Two  large  stone  cisterns  are  provided — the  sleeper,  or  fer- 
menting vat,  about  20  feet  square  and  .3  feet  deep,  and  the 
healer^  standing  lower,  of  the  same  width,  but  a  third 
longer.  The  fresh  plants,  tied  in  bundles,  are  siratilio.l  in 
the  steeper  and  fastened  down  by  beams.  They  are  then 
covered  »vith  water,  when  fermentalion  begins  at  once,  and 
is  completed  in  fourteen  or  fifteen  hours.  The  liquid  is  at 
first  yellow,  but  bectunt-s  dark  green,  and  exhibits  a  blue 
scum.  It  is  drawn  oil'  into  the  beater,  and  ten  men  beat  it 
with  oars  or  shovels  called  bmf/itets.  Paddle-wlieels  or 
dashers  have  been  used.  After  being  beaten  for  an  hour 
•and  a  half,  if  the  previous  fermentation  has  been  satisfac- 
tory the  indigo  agglomerates  into  flocks  and  settles  as  a 
precipitate.  Tho  object  of  the  beating  is  to  introduce 
oxygen.  The  precipitation  may  bo  hastened  by  the  ad- 
dition of  lime-water,  but  this  throws  down  extractive  mat- 
ter, and  makes  the  indigo  hard  and  reil.  The  precipitate 
is  allowed  to  subside,  the  supernatant  water  is  drawn  off, 
and  the  moist  precipitate  is  strained  through  a  coarse  bag. 
It  is  then  boiled  to  separate  a  yellow  exiraetive  matter  and 
increase  the  density  and  intensity  of  its  color.  It  is  then 
.sent  to  the  dripping  or  filtering  vat,  which  contains  a  per- 
forated false  bottom  covered  with  cotton  cloth.  The  drain- 
ed magma  is  placed  in  a  strong  bag  and  squeezed  in  a 
press,  and  the  moist  mass  is  cut  with  a  brass  wire  into 
cubes  about  three  inches  each  way.  The  cubes  arc  dried 
in  the  air,  a  white  cftiorescencc  which  appears  during  tho 
drying  being  removed  with  a  brush;  1000-  parts  of  tho 
liquor  from  the  steeping  vat  yield  0.50  to  0.7;i  indigo.  (2) 
Frum  Dried  Leaves. — The  cuttings  are  dried  in  the  sun, 
the  leaves  separated  from  the  stems  by  thrashing,  ami 
stored  away  for  convenient  treatment.  To  obtain  the  in- 
digo they  arc  macerated  for  two  hours  with  six  times  their 
bulk  of  water.  Tho  solution  is  treated  as  when  obtained 
from  wet  leaves.  As  the  use  of  dry  leaves  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  select  the  most  suitable  weather  for  macerating, 
the  indigo  produced  is  more  uniform,  and  the  fermenta- 
tion, capricious  in  its  course,  is  superseded  by  simple  ma- 
ceration. 

In  the  hilly  regions  of  India  the  leaves  of  the  Xerium 
tincloriiini,  a  small  tree,  are  treated  for  the  extraction  of 
indigo.  It  is  necessary  to  use  hot  water  for  steeping ; 
L'oO  pounds  of  fresh  leaves  yield  1  pound  of  indigo.  Dr. 
Schunck  has  explained  why  if  the  indigo-manufacturer 
does  not  manage  the  fermenttition  with  great  care  the  in- 
digo will  be  poor  in  quality  and  small  in  quantity,  and 
even  in  some  cases  entirely  lose  the  eoloring-malfer.  Tlie 
indiglucin  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  indican 
is  liable  to  pass  by  fermentation  into  alcohol  and  acetic 
acid,  and  these  bodies  unite  with  the  indigo  and  form  a 
body  which  resists  oxidation,  and  consequently  fails  to 
furnish  indigo: 

Indigo.  Alcohol.         Acetic  add. 

CslIsNO -f  SCjHcO -(- SCjHiOa -1- COj 

New  compound.        Walter. 
=  C3lU39NOl-|-lall20. 

The  eommereinl  t^nrielics  of  indigo  .arc  very  numerous. 
The  Bengal  indigo  ranks  first  in  quality  ;  it  is  classified 
as — fine  blue,  fine  purple  and  violet,  fine  red  and  violet, 
good  |)urple  and  violet,  middling  violet,  middling  defec- 
tive, consuming  fine,  middling  and  good,  ordinary,  and  ordi- 
nary and  lean  trash.  Some  merchants  recogni/.c  sixteen 
distinct  grades.  Besides  the  Bengal,  there  occurs  in  com- 
merce the  Java,  twenty-one  grades.  The  Bengal  and  Java 
range  from  40  to  SO  per  cent,  of  indigo-blue;  the  remain- 
ing varieties  vary  from  10  to  .17  per  cent.;  they  arc  Coro- 
mandel,  Oude,  Madras,  Manila,  Egyptian,  Guatemala, 
Caraceas,  and  Mexican. 

J'rnperlies  0/  ihe  Crude  Indigo. — The  color  is  deep  blue, 
with  a  shade  more  or  less  purple  or  violet.  It  is  devoid 
of  smell  and  taste*  It  may  be  dry  or  moist,  hard  or  soft, 
compact  or  porous.  Being  always  more  or  less  porous,  it 
adheres  slightly  to  the  tongue."  Its  fracture  is  dull  and 
earthy.  The  streak  )>rodueed  by  the  nail  is  glossy  and 
purplish-red  in  the  best  qualities;  when  it  is  dull,  and  the 
indigo  furrows  on  each  side  of  the  streak,  tho  qualify  is 
poor.     The  best  indigo  floats  upon  walcr. 


INDIGO. 


1175 


0)m/)o«i7iono/Priu/e/iirfi<7o.— Besides  indigo-bIue(indigo. 
tine),  which  is  the  characteristic  constituent  of  indigo,  and 
which  varies  in  quantity  from  10  to  SO  per  cent.,  a  variety 
of  other  bodies  are  present,  either  derived  from  the  plant 
or  aided  intentionally.  Among  these  are  ( 1 )  indigo-gluten, 
a  nitrogenous  body  resembling  ordinary  vegetable  gluten. 
It  is  extracted  bT  treating  the  indigo  with  aeiil  ami  then 
boiling  with  wate'r.  (2)  Indigo-brown,  extracted  by  alka- 
lies. The  indigo-green  of  some  authors  is  supposed  to  be 
a  mixture  of  indigo-brown  and  a  little  indigo-blue.  {Xj  In- 
digo-red, extracted  bv  boiling  alcohol.  (4)  Brown  resinous 
bodies,  (b)  .Mineral  matters  (ash),  usually  from  0  to  12  per 
cent.,  but  sometimes  SO  to  40  per  cent,  in  Madras  indigo. 
They  arc  composed  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime, 
oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  soda-salts,  clay.  sand,  .and  some- 
times a  trace  of  copper  and  lead.  ffi>  Water,  from  .I  to  10 
per  cent.  Chevreul  gives  the  following  analysis  of  a  fair 
samplo  of  Guatemala  indigo: 

Indigotine 

.Soluble  in  water:  gum,  etc.,  deoxidized  indigo,  a  green 

matter  combined  with  ammonia,  etc 12. 

."Soluble  in   alcohol :  resin,  green  matters,  a  trace  of 

indigo-blue ■"■;• 

A  red  resin,  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid o. 

Carbonate  of  lime ^• 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina 

Silica  (sand)  and  clay 


4o. 


_3. 

100^ 
The  nduUeranU  are  starch  (most  common),  rosin,  Prus- 
sian blue,  smalt,  ground  dyewoods,  etc. 

The  pnr!fi<-nt!on  nf  iiuliyo  is  effected  by  boiling  it  succes- 
sively with  dilute  acid,  water,  and  alcohol.  The  pure  in- 
digotine mav  be  extracted  by  changing  it  to  soluble  white 
indigo  by  reducing  agents,  as  explained  further  on,  and 
subsequently  reoxidizing  it. 

Inrliiin  hlue,  iiitlignline,  oxidized  indigo  (CbHsNO),  may 
be  obtained  nearly  pure  by  exhausting  indigo  by  solvents 
as  above  mentioned.  It  may  also  be  obtained  (1 )  by  sub- 
limation, in  crvstals.  mixing  the  powdered  indigo  with 
plaster  of  Paris  and  water,  spreading  it  on  an  iron  plate  to 
harden,  and  carefully  heating  the  dry  cake:  (2)  by  solution 
in  boiling  aniline,  which  deposits  it  in  crystals  on  cooling; 
(3)  by  reducing  it  to  soluble  white  indigo  by  contact  with 
gr.-ipe'-sugar,  soda-ley,  water,  and  alcohol,  or  by  contact 
with  slaked  lime,  copperas,  and  water.  The  yellow  solu- 
tion obtained  deposits  indigotine  as  a  blue  powder  when 
expoacil  to  the  air.  Indigotine  appears  as  blue  crystals 
with  a  coppery  lustre,  or  as  a  dark-blue  powder,  .acquiring 
this  lustre  when  rubbed  with  a  hard  body.  It  h:is  neither 
tasic  nor  smell,  acid  nor  basic  properties:  sn.  gr.  1.500. 
Ilealed  in  the  open  air.  it  melts,  boils,  and  burns  with  a 
smoky  flame.  Heated  in  a  current  of  air  at  about  .SfiO"  F., 
it  volatilizes  without  decomposition  ns  a  purple  vapor.  It 
is  insoluble  in  water,  in  dilute  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  and  in  alkaline  lyes,  in  cold  ether,  alcohol,  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  fatly  oil's.  Its  best  solvent  is  boiling  ani- 
line. It  is  soluble  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  hot  creosote, 
phenol,  benzol,  chloroform,  alcohol,  ether,  cssenti.il  oils, 
falty  oils,  petroleum,  amylic  alcohol ;  in  the  acetates,  chlor- 
ides, etc.  of  aniline,  morphine,  cle,,  bees'  wax.  .lapan  wax, 
Canauba  wax,  parafhn.  spermaceti,  and  stearic  acid.  It 
is  soluble  in  anhvdrous  acetic  acid  to  which  a  very  small 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added,  and  is  precipi- 
tated from  the  solution  by  the  addition  of  water.  This  is 
the  only  process  known  by  which  indigotine  can  ho  repro- 
duced in  its  priinilive  state  on  fabrics,  without  previous 
rcduelion  to  S'dnble  while  indigo. 

Tlie  aclimi  nf  Htilphiiic  arid  mi  indigo  gives  rise  to  three 
distinct  compounds,  the  production  nf  which  depends  upon 
the  strength  and  ratio  of  the  acid,  the  temperature,  and  the 
duration  of  thecontiicl :  it  is  diffieult  to  conduct  the  renclion 
sn  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  at  least  a  small  portion 
of  each.  If  powdered  indigo  is  digested  with  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  the  deep-blue  liquid  poured  into  40  or  ofl  purls  of  cold 
water,  a  purple  powder  remains  umlissolved  which  is  (1) 
suhdiophfcnicic  acid,  while  the  deep-blue  solution  contains 
(2)  sulphindigotic  and  (.T)  hy)io5ulphindigolio  acid.  By 
forming  the  ammonium-salts  of  the  Inst  two  acids,  evapor- 
ating t')  dryness,  and  digesting  with  alcohol,  the  hypo- 
sulphindigotalc  only  is  dissolved. 

kdphnphfrniric  Arid  (2r,IUX0.Sn.,),  S,dphnpnr,mr,e 
Arid.  rndi<tn.l':irplr.  r/imiiViii.— This  acid  is  best  prepared 
by  adding  1  part  of  indigo  to  4  parls  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and 
healing  from  .10  minutes  to  an  hour,  or  until  a  drop  gives 
a  deep  purido  color  with  a  large  quantity  of  coM  water. 
Too  high  a  temperature  or  too  long  digestion  causes  the 
formation  of  mucli  sulphindigotic  acid.  The  acid  mixture 
is  thrown  into  40  to  .'iO  parls  cold  water,  and  the  beaulifiil 
purple  precipitate  is  collecleil  on  a  filter  and  washed  with 
weak  hvdrochlorio  acid.    It  forms  a  blue  mass  or  ft  purple- 


red  powder.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  soluble  in  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  especially  in  the  fuming  acid  :  both  grad- 
ually change  it  into  sulphindigotic  acid,  more  rapidly  if 
heated.  It  is  insoluble  in  dilute  acids.  The  salts  of  this 
acid  are  prepared  by  adding  its  solution  to  an  aqueous 
solution  of  anv  salt."  They  ajipear  as  purple  nocks,  which 
are  but  slightly  soluble  in  water.  When  dry  they  arc  red. 
Their  solutions  are  blue:  are  reduced  to  yellow  liquids  by 
sulphydric  acid,  copperas,  and  lime,  or  by  caustic  alkalies. 
I  but  become  blue  again  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Wool  may 
!  be  dyed  with  this  acid  by  immersing  it  in  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion and  adding  a  little  hydrochloric  acid.  By  passing  the 
wool  so  dyed  through  a  weak  bath  of  carbonate  of  soda 
various  shades  of  purple  may  be  produced,  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphindisrotic.  which  is  always  present,  being  removed, 
and  the  sulphophcenicate  of  soda  being  formed,  which  is  a 
faster  dye  than  the  acid.  .\  peculiar  purple-blue,  consisting 
probablv  of  the  soda-salt  of  this  acid,  has  been  invented  by 
I,,  and  E.  Boilley  {Tlinrjl.  pnl.  ./..  clix.  ."18),  and  patented 
in  England  bv  .lohnson^  It  is  m.ade  by  dropping  powdered 
indigo  into  20  times  its  weight  of  fused  acid  sulphate  of 
soda,  pouring  the  product  into  a  large  quantity  of  water. 
and  adding  common  salt.  It  separates  as  a  precipitate  of 
silky  crystals,  possessing  a  beautiful  coppery  lustre  when 
dry.  Sec  samples  dyed  with  it  in  Rep.  Cliim.  app.,  1861, 
p.  21.1. 

Sulphindiqotir  Arid  (rsIIsNO.POs).  Sulphote  of  hidujn. 
Soluble  nine  Imlitjo.  Sidphiudylir  Acid,  Sulphoranilir 
Arid. — This  acid  is  prepared  by  dissolving  1  part  of  in- 
digo in  10  or  12  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (0 
parts  of  fuming  acid  answer  the  same  purpose),  and  heat- 
ing the  whole  for  several  hours  at  120'  F.  The  operation 
is  "complete  when  a  portion  dissolves  completely  in  cold 
water.  The  product  is  a  mixture  of  this  acid  with  hypo- 
sulphindigotic  acid.  To  free  it  from  this,  and  the  impuri- 
ties derived  from  the  indigo,  well-washed  wool  is  allowed 
to  absorb  the  dvcs  from  the  solution.  This  is  washed  in 
water  and  digested  in  a  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  which  dissolves  both  acids.  On  evaporating  to 
dryness  the  two  Rmmonia-snlts  may  be  separated  by  alco- 
hol (8.1  per  cent.)  in  which  the  sulphindigotate  is  insoluble. 
This  separation  is  not  resorted  to  in  prnelice.  the  mixture 
of  the  two  acids  being  used  directly.  The  sulphindigolio 
acid  may  be  freed  from  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  by 
adding  an  excess  of  a  solution  of  common  salt.  It  is  then 
obtained  as  a  blue  precipitate  which  may  bo  drained  on  a 
filter.  Sulphindigotic  acid  is  very  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol,  but  not  in  strong  saline  solutions.  Charcoal,  espe- 
cially that  from  blood,  removes  it  completely  from  its  aque- 
ous "solution,  but  yields  it  to  alkaline  carbonates.  It  is 
decomposed  by  an  excess  of  caustic  alkali,  and  ihe  color 
cannot  be  restored.  Reducing  agents,  as  stannous  and 
ferrous  salts,  sulphydric  acid,  nascent  hydrogen,  etc.,  de- 
colorize it.  the  color  being  restored  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
Sulphindigotatcs  arc  formed  by  neutralizing  the  free  acid 
or  by  double  decomposition.  They  do  not  crystallize,  are 
dark  blue  with  a  coppery  lustre,  and  taste  feebly  saline  and 
decidedly  of  indigo.  The  alkaline  sulphindigolntes  are 
slightly 'soluble  in  cold  water  (requiring  100  lo  150  parts), 
more  so  in  hot  water.  The  lime,  magnesia,  and  alumina 
salts  arc  freely  soluble.  The  solution  is  blue  by  reflected 
light,  red  by  transmitted  light. 

Alknlitir  Sidphivdirjolaltl.  IndirfO-Carmitie,  TUnc-Carmine, 
SnUihle  fndii/o.  and  Prrclpltnird  Indiijo  are  prepared  by 
adding  alkaline  carbonates  to  the  diluted  solution  of  llio 
acid.  They  appear  as  precipitates,  being  insoluble  in 
saline  solutions  ;  Ihe  alkaline  sulphates  formed  at  the  same 
time  arc  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  The  potassium-salt 
di««olves  in  MO  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  inucli  less  boil- 
ing water:  I  ]iart  of  salt  gives  a  blue  odor  lo  500,000  parts 
of  water,  about  ^^  grain  per  gallon.  Water  containing  1 
per  cent,  of  acetate  of  sodium  does  not  dissolve  it  in  the 
cold.  It  is  soluble  in  sulphuric  acid,  insoluble  in  concen- 
traled  hydrochloric  and  in  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0.800.  The 
sodium-sail  rescnibles  Ihe  potassium-salt,  and  is  used  fur 
similar  purposes,  much  more  extensively.  It  is  more  solu- 
ble in  saline  solutions.  Besides  being  useful  as  a  dye.  Ihe 
indigo-carmine  is  used  ns  a  water-color  pigment,  and  made 
into  balls  with  starch  and  a  little  gum-water  it  is  used  ns 
wa.shing  blue. 

/fiipoKidpliiiidii/olie  Arid.  HtlpoHidphornridir  And. — Tins 
acid,  the  compiisition  of  wliich  is  not  known,  has  been 
already  menticmed  as  always  occurring  in  Ihe  solulion  ob- 
tained by  Irentiug  indigo  wilh  sulphuric  ncid.  The  acid 
differs  little  from  sulphindigolic  ncid.  and  Ihe  sails  arc 
distinguished  chiefly  by  their  solubility  in  alcohol  of  84 
per  cent. 

CnmmrrrinI  Prrpnrnltonn  of  Indigo  and  flidphurir  And 
are  mixtures  of  the  three  acirls  above  mentioned  or  their 
salts.  There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  preparation :  (I) 
The  simple  solution  of  Ihe  aciib  in  water,  known  as  .'^n.mn 


1176 


INDIGO. 


blue  ( having  been  first  iutroduced  by  Barth  at  (irossenhayn 
in  Saxony  in  174.')).  chemic,  chemic  blue,  sour  extract  of  in- 
diffo,  Hiilpluttcof  indi'jo,  etc.  Numerous  receipts  are  given 
for  its  preparation.  Tcrsoz  saj's  mix  1  poumi  each  of  in- 
digo, lumin;;  sulphuric  acid,  and  uil  of  vitriol.  Aft'T 
standing  48  hours,  heat  the  mixture  over  a  water-bath  till 
it  gives  no  precipitate  in  cold  water.  Dilute  to  1.134  or 
1S°  B.  Haussmimn  uses  indigo  1,  fuming  acid  0.5.  An- 
other adds  gradually  1  part  indigo  to  5  or  0  fuming  acid 
or  10  to  12  common  acid,  allnwr^  it  to  stand  24  to  48  hours, 
pours  into  cold  water,  and  liltcrs.  Another:  1  pound  in- 
digo in  15  pounds  common  acid;  keep  at  120-140°  F.  for 
tliree  days.  (2)  The  precipitated  acids.  pnHte,sirrct  extract, 
made  by  adding  a  strong  solution  of  salt  to  the  diluted  and 
liltcrcd  solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid.  Ji'cti/»ts. — 1 
jtnund  indigo,  5  acid,  10  to  13  hours  at  100"  V.,  dihited 
with  3  gallons  water,  filtered,  concentrated  to  .'i  gallons, 
treated  with  4  pounds  of  common  salt,  drained  on  a  filter. 
Another:  10  pounds  indigo,  80  acid,  24  hours  at  80°  F., 
diluted  with  5  gallons  water,  treated  with  solution  of  80 
pounds  salt  in  smallest  quantity  of  water.  (3)  Neutral 
soda-salts,  inditfO'Carminr,  fmlnble  iuditjo,  solid  bine,  chemic, 
centfciu,  centho-nidphtitr,  extrnrt  of  indiffn.  This  is  made 
by  neutralizing  the  solution  of  indig<i  in  sulphuric  acid  by 
carbonate  of  soda;  being  insoluble  in  saline  solutions,  it 
appears  as  a  jirecipitate,  which  is  washed  on  a  filter  with 
solution  of  salt,  and  sold  as  a  paste  or  as  a  dry  powder. 
The  washing  with  salt-solutiou  removes  green  matters 
(cblorophyTO  and  improves  the  shades.  Jicrdpts. — .Add 
37  pounds  acid  to  4  pounds  indigo,  keep  at  fi0°-70^  F.  for 
8  days.  Pour  into  it  a  solution  of  40  pounds  salt,  then  a 
solution  of  t)0  puunds  carbonate-of-soda  crystals:  add  2 
pounds  precipitated  carbonate  of  lime;  filter,  wash  with 
salt-solution.  The  yield  is  120  pounds.  Adding  acid  to 
indigo  secures  a  richer  and  purer  color.  An  inferior  quality 
is  made  with  8  pounds  indigo,  74  acid.  144  salt,  112  ear- 
bonate-of-soda  crystals,  and  4  chalk,  in  same  manner.  A 
fair  sample  of  carmine  of  indigo  gave  water  86.,  indigo 
10.2,  saline  residue  4.8. 

I)i/cing  with  S'tilphuric-Acid  Compounds  of  Indigo, — (1) 
Cotton  has  no  atfinity  for  these  compounds,  and  they  are 
never  used  except  for  a  faint  bluing  for  market,  as  in  wash- 
ing clothes.  For  this  purpose  the  free  sulphuric  acid  is 
removed  by  acetate  of  lead,  or  neutralized  by  acetate  of 
soda,  the  product  being  erroneously  called  "acetate  of  in- 
digo." (2)  Wool  is  dyed  only  in  the  aeids  or  in  carmines 
.ii-i'lulated,  as  alkalies,  and  even  soap,  are  liable  to  remove 
tlic  color.  Saxon  blue  (acid)  was  formerly  used  with  alum 
and  cream  of  tartar.  Carmine  is  now  preferred  with  alum 
and  cream  of  tartar,  used  warm.  For  printing,  so-called 
"acetate  of  indigo"  is  used.  These  colors  are  fugitive, 
and  are  now  generally  replaced  by  Prussian  blue,  etc.,  ex- 
cept for  compound  colors,  as  green,  olive,  gray,  black,  etc. 
(I!)  .Silk  is  dyed  in  the  same  manner  as  wool,  but  is  gener- 
ally first  alumed.  Carntincis  generally  used,  as  it  is  easily 
fixed,  and  is  free  from  the  green  tinge  of  the  acids.  For 
printing,  a  solution  of  carmine,  with  oxalic  acid  and  gum, 
with  sometimes  a  little  alum,  is  used. 

Indigo-White  (C16II12N2O2),  Jndigogen,  White  Indigo, 
Reduced  or  Deoxidized  Indigo. — The  sulphuric-acid  com- 
pounds of  indigo  already  described  are  not  suitable  for 
dyeing  cotton,  and  as  they  do  not  give  colors  on  wool  and 
silk  that  can  be  considered  fast,  indigo  would  have  but  a 
limited  ajiplication  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing  wero  it 
not  fur  the  indigo-wbite.  This  compound  is  produced  by 
the  action  of  reducing  agents  on  indigo,  and  results  in  the 
addition  to  a  double  molecule  of  indigotine  of  a  double 
atom  or  molecule  of  hydrogen,  H2; 

Indigotine  IndlffOKCH- 

2C8H5NO2  -h  H2  =  C16H12N2O2. 

Chcvreul  supposed  that  indigogcn  existed  ready  formed  in 
the  indigo-plants,  but  this  was  shown  by  Pchunck  to  be 
erroneous,  (1 )  because  indigogcn  is  soluble  only  in  alkaline 
solutions,  while  the  juices  of  these  plants  are  acid:  (2)  be- 
cause indigogcn  turns  blue  on  exposure  to  the  air  by  oxi- 
dation, forming  indigotine;  (3)  he  determined  the  com- 
]iound  existing  in  the  plants  to  be  the  glucosidc  indican 
(CjolhiXOiT),  as  ;ilready  slated.  The  indigogcn  being 
soluble  in  alkalies,  the  dyer  has  only  to  impregnate  his 
yarns  and  fabrics  with  the  solution  and  expose  them  to  the 
atmosphere,  when  the  insoluble  blue  indigotine  is  formcil 
throughout  their  substance,  and  they  arc  uniformly  dyed 
with  the  most  permanent  and  insoluble  blue. 

ImliitrtKcn.  Owsen-  Indlitnllnc.  Wmcr. 

CieHnNjOj  +  b  =  2CeIliX0  +  H2O. 
(For  advanced  views  on  the  constitution  of  indigotine  and 
indigogcn  see  Liiwcnthal  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  Ixx.  468);  Bacyer 
(Her.  Phem.  Gm.,  ISGf*,  17),  and  A.  Sireckcr  (Jnhrrth.  li. 
Chem.,  1808,  789).)  A  great  variety  of  reducing  agents  ac- 
complish this  change  in  indigotine  : 


(1)  Alkaline  metals  which  decompose  water,  as  sodium, 

potassium,  sodium  amalgam,  etc. 

(2)  Metals  which  doconipose  water  in  the  presence  of  an 
allvuiine  base,  as  tin,  antimony,  aluminum,  zinc,  and  phos- 
pljorus. 

(:i)  Metallic  o\idcs  capable  of  higher  oxidation,  as  fer- 
rous, manganous,  and  stannous  o.xides. 

(4)  Acids  capable  of  higher  oxidaliim,  as  phosphorous, 
hypophosphorous.  hyposulphurous.  and  sulphurous  acids. 

{.i)  Some  sulphurets.  pliosphuret?,  ami  arscnurets,  as 
realgar,  orpimcnt,  stannous  sulphide,  sulphides  of  anti- 
mony, potassium,  sodium,  hydrogen,  etc. 

(G)  Organic  bodies  oxidizablo  in  presence  of  alkalies,  as 
glucose,  gallic  acid,  etc. 

(7)  Reducing  and  alkaline  fermentations,  as  the  butyrous 
and  urinous. 

Liiwenthal  denies  the  production  of  indigogcn  by  sul- 
phurous and  phosphorous  aeids,  sulphiclc  of  potassium, 
and  some  of  the  other  substances  mentioned  above.  {J.pr. 
a,..  Ixx.  U,?,.) 

Indigogcn  may  be  prepared  from  indigo  purified  by  hy- 
drochloric acid  by  mixing  it  with  slaked  lime,  ferrous  sul- 
phate, and  water  in  vessels  so  arranged  that  air  is  excludLd. 
The  clear  yellow  solution  produced  is  transferred  to  an- 
other vessel,  and  tlie  indigogcn  precipitated  by  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  precipitate  is  filtered  in  un  atmosphere 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  washed  with  dilute  sulphurous  acid. 
It  is  a  grayish-white,  lustrous  body,  insoluble  in  water  and 
acids,  soluble  in  alkalies,  alcohol,  and  ether.  lis  solutions 
are  yellow,  and  turn  blue  and  deposit  indigotine  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  Indigogcn  forms  with  lime  a  neutral 
compound  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  a  basic  compound 
almost  insoluble.  The  latter  is  precipitated  from  a  solu- 
tion of  the  neutral  compound  by  digestion  with  an  excess 
of  lime.  It  is  also  formed  when  indigo  is  digested  with 
copperas  and  «»  extf-ss  of  lime  in  making  the  solution  of 
indigogcn.  It  is  a  lemon-yellow  compound,  which  in  the 
air  becomes  first  green,  then  blue.  Most  metallic  salts 
produce  in  solutions  of  indigogcn  precipitates  which  arc 
generally  white,  but  become  blue  in  the  air,  Berzelius 
supposed  from  these  properties  of  the  lime-compounds  that 
an  excess  of  lime  should  be  carefully  avoided,  but  .Schlum- 
berger  has  shown  that  in  practice  other  conditions  occur 
which  not  only  prevent  any  injurious  results  from  such 
excess,  but  make  its  ]ircscnee  very  desirable. 

Applicaflon  0/  ludltjfujrn  in  Dyeing  and  CftUco-printinff. 
— This  form  of  indigo  being  soluble,  can  be  made  to  pene- 
trate textile  fibres,  and  when  by  oxidation  the  indigogcn  is 
converted  into  insoluble  blue  indigotine,  the  color  is  fixed 
in  the  pores  of  the  fibres,  so  as  to  adhere  firmly  and  resist 
the  action  of  washing  and  soap.  Indigogcn  is  employed  as 
follows : 

(1)  Orclluari/  "Vat-dyeinr)." — The  indigo  is  reduced  and 
dissolved,  and  the  yarn  or  cloth  is  immersed,  and  then  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  Figures  in  white,  which  may  even  be  col- 
ored, are  produced  by  printing  on  resiKta  beforehand,  which 
prevent  the  penclration  of  the  dye,  or  discharges  after 
dyeing,  which  remove  the  color, 

(2)  "  Pencil  Illue." — The  solution  of  reduced  indigo  is 
printed  or  painted  on  certain  portions  only  of  the  cloth 
with  a  "pencil,"  a  small  flat,  blunt-|iointed  piece  of  wood. 

(?,)  "  Precipilitleil  III-  Faut  Illiir." — Indigogcn  is  precip- 
itated as  a  paste  in  combination  with  strongly  reducing 
metallic  oxides,  as  hydrated  stannous  oxide,  to  prevent 
too  rapid  oxidation.  This  paste,  properly  thickened,  is 
jirinled  on  the  goods,  and  the  cloth  is  then  passed  through 
lime-water  or  soda-Icy  to  replace  the  stannous  oxide  and 
form  a  soluble  compound  of  indigogcn,  which  penetrates 
the  fibre  and  is  fixed  by  subsequent  exposure. 

(■I)  "  Chinii  llhie." — Pulverized  indigo  is  printed  on  tho 
cloth,  and  theu  so  treated,  by  passing  it  successively  through 
milk  of  lime,  copperas,  soda-ley,  ami  sulphuric  acid,  as  to 
fix  the  color  by  causing  local  reduction  and  solution,  and 
subsequent  oxidation. 

The  inrfiV/o  tin(»  or  solutions  employed  by  dyers  and  cal- 
ico-printers are  varied  according  to  the  character  of  the 

goods. 

Cnid  rain  are  produced  by  reducing  agents  of  a  mineral 
origin,  while  warm  rain  are  produced  by  organic  matters 
which  undergo  fermentation,  and  thus  develop  indigogcn. 

fl)  The  Cnpptras  Viil. — To  2000  gallons  water  arc  added 
\  CO  pounds  indigo,  180  slaked  lime,  120  ferrous  sul[ihatc 
(copperas),  which  must  be  free  from  every  trace  of  copper- 
salt.  This  vat  is  used  for  calico,  linen  yarn,  linen  thread, 
and  hemp  yarn  and  thread.  After  exposure  to  the  air  the 
color  of  the  goods  can  be  improved  by  passing  them  through 
hot  milk  of  lime  or  caustic  alkali,  by  which  some  yellow 
matters  are  eliminated. 

(2)  The  Tin  Vat,  commonly  used  for  calico-printing.— 
The  indigo  is  reduced  by  a  solution  of  stannous  oxide  in 
soda-ley.     By  adding  to  this  an  acid  solution  of  tin,  a  pre- 


INDIGO. 


1177 


cipitato  is  obtained  consisting  of  indigogcu  and  stannous 
oxide,  which  i^  u^cd  in  printing. 

(3)  The  Orpimeiit  \'tit  is  uiude  by  mixing  indigo^  sulphide 
of  arsenic^  and  potasli.    It  is  ciiiefly  used  in  calico-prititiug. 

(4)  The  Zinc  Vitt  has  recently  been  introduced  by  R. 
Schloesser  it  Co.  of  Manchester,  Eng.,  as  a  luarlccd  iin- 
provctnent  on  ibo  copperas  vat.  It  is  free  froui  the  bulky 
precipitate  of  oxide  of  iron,  and  avoids  the  loss  of  indigo 
due  to  its  combination  with  this  oxide.  It  is  composed  of 
2000  giillous  of  water.  20  pounds  indigo.  30  iron  horings, 
30  of  their  remarkable  powdered  zinc,  36  quicklime.  The 
zinc  furnishes  hydrogen  by  decomposing  water. 

(5)  The  Ifi/poMiifphite  Vat  was  introduced  by  Schiitzen- 
berger  and  be  Lalande  (Chem.  Ciutr.,  1873,  735).  The 
authors  employ  a  solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite  as  the 
reducing  agent  for  the  indigo.  A  Sfihitiou  of  sodium  bi- 
sulphite of  30°  to  3j°  B.,  is  agitated  with  pieces  of  sheet 
or  granulated  7,inc  in  a  closed  vessel.  The  quantity  of  zinc 
should  till  about  one-fourth  of  the  internal  space  of  the 
ves-jcl.  After  about  an  hour  the  solution  is  mixed  with 
milk  of  lime  in  excess,  which  precipitates  the  zinc-salt. 
After  agitation  and  the  addition  of  water,  the  liquid  is  fil- 
tered or  the  clear  solution  decanted,  tl»e  whole  operation 
being  conducted  with  as  complete  exclusion  of  air  as  pos- 
sible. The  hyposulphite  solution  so  obtaineil  is  added  to 
the  indic;o,  together  with  the  necessary  amount  of  lime  and 
soda.  The  yellow  solution  obtained  contains,  as  insoluble 
constituents,  only  the  earthy  matters  in  the  indigo.  From 
1  kilo,  indigo  a  very  concentrated  vat  of  from  10  to  \b 
litres  can  be  prepared.  The  dyeing  of  cotton  take?  place 
in  the  cold,  that  of  woollens  with  gentle  warmth.  The  ex- 
cess of  sodium  hyposulphite  is  said  to  reduce  the  froth 
which  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  bath,  Uy  adopting  the 
foregoing  method  in  the  case  of  woollens,  clearer  and  fresher 
tints  are  obtainable.  A  new  method  of  printing  with  a. 
concentrated  and  thickened  alkaline  solution  of  indigo  re- 
duced with  great  excess  of  sodium  hyposulphite,  gives  uni- 
versal satisfaction,  and  is  certain  to  supersede  the  older 
costly  and  troublesome  process  in  whicli  tin  and  tin-salts 
are  employeil.  For  oxidation,  the  printed  pieces  are  hung 
out  in  the  air  12  to  It  hours,  and  then  washed  and  soa[)ed. 
In  comparison  with  the  older  method,  50  to  CO  per  cent, 
of  intligo  is  economized,  the  shades  arc  liner  and  more 
permanent,  and  the  definition  sharper. 

(tJ)  The  W'uad  or  Pastei  Val. — In  former  timcs  woad  was 
the  only  material  known  to  the  dyers  of  Europe  for  pro- 
ducing the  blue  color  of  indigo.  For  this  jiurposc  it  was 
previously  submitted  to  a  peculiar  process  of  fermentation, 
and  the  product  was  named  pastel  in  France.  For  most 
purposes  indigo  has  taken  the  j>lace  of  woad  in  the  dye- 
house,  and  for  cotton  goods  it  is  now  used  alone.  In  the 
dyeing  of  woollen  goods,  however,  the  use  of  woad  has 
been  retained  to  the  present  day,  for  the  purpose  rather 
of  exciting  fermentation,  and  thus  reducing  the  indigo 
which  is  employed  at  the  same  time,  than  of  imparting  any 
color  to  the  material  to  bo  dyed.  Indeed,  the  woad  used 
by  wooden  dyers  in  this  country  contains  no  trace  of  col- 
oring-matter. \'ariou8  substitutes,  such  as  rhubarb-leaves, 
turnip-tops,  weld,  an'l  other  vegetable  matters,  have  ac- 
cordingly been  tried,  but  without  success,  since  the  fer- 
mentation is  more  steadily  maintained  by  means  of  woad 
than  by  any  other  material.  Pastel,  whit-h  does  contain  a 
little  blue  coloring-matter,  is  preferred  to  woad  by  many 
of  the  French  dyers.  The  materials  employed  in  the  ordi- 
nary woad  or  pastel  vat,  in  aiblitton  to  woad  and  indigo, 
arc  mad<ler,  bran,  and  lime.  The  chemical  action  which 
takes  Jdace  in  the  woad  vat  is  not  diflicult  to  understand. 
The  nitrogenous  matters  of  the  woad  begin,  when  the  tem- 
perature is  raised,  to  enter  into  a  slate  of  fermentation, 
which  is  kept  up  by  means  of  the  sugar,  starch,  extractive 
matter,  etc.  of  the  madder  and  bran.  In  consequence  of 
the  f<'rmentation,  the  indigo-bhie  becomes  reduced,  and  is 
then  dissolved  by  the  lime,  thus  rendering  the  liquid  fit  for 
dyeing.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the 
process  of  fermentation  from  passing  into  one  of  putrefac- 
tion, which  if  allowed  to  proceed  wouhl  lead  to  tne  entire 
destruction  of  the  indigo-blue  in  the  liquor.  If  any  tend- 
ency to  do  so  is  observed,  it  is  arrested  by  the  addition 
of  lime,  which  combines  with  the  acetic,  lactic,  and  other 
orf^anic  acids  that  commence  to  form  when  putrefaction 
sets  in.  On  the  other  hand,  an  excess  of  lime  must  also  be 
avoided,  since  the  reduced  indigo-blue  is  thereby  rendered 
insoluble,  an<l  unfit  to  combine  with  the  material.  In  set- 
tinga  vat  the  following  materials  are  used  :  5  cwt.  woad.  30 
pounds  indigo.  5(»  bran,  7  madder,  and  10  (juarts  lime.  The 
vat  is  first  filled  with  water  heatecl  to  1  H)°  F. ;  the  materials 
are  then  added  and  well  mixed.  The  whole  is  covered,  and 
allowed  to  stand  over  night.  At  6  o'clock  the  next  morning 
5 quarts  more  lime  are  addecl ;  at  10  o'clock,  ;'>  pints  more: 
at  1*2,  the  vat  is  hcuteil  to  120°  F. ;  and  at  3,  another  quart 
of  lime  is  added.     The  vat  is  now  ready  for  use.  (6Vf.) 


(7)  The  Potash  or  Indian  Fnf.^Eight  pounds  of  pow- 
dered indigo  are  added  to  a  bath  containing  3i  pounds 
bran,  3*  pounds  madder,  and  12  pounds  potash,  which  is 
maintained  for  several  hours  at  a  temperature  of  2UU°  F. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  to  IUU°  F.,  when  fermentation 
ensues.  After  about  -48  hours  the  indigo  is  rendered  solu- 
ble, being  reduced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  sugar  and 
other  products  contained  in  the  bran  and  the  madder-root 
during  the  process  of  fermentation.  The  bath  should  have 
a  greenish-yellow  appearance,  having  a  frothy  scum  of  a 
blue  coppery  hue.  (C'tfrrrt.) 

(8)  The  German  Vut. — Of  late  years  improvements  have 
been  made  in  this  class  of  vats,  by  which  the  expense  of 
using  madder  is  avoided.  They  are  now  prepared  by  add- 
ing to  water,  at  a  temperature  of  200°  F..  2i)  hnekets*  bran, 
2C  pounds  soda  crystals.  12  pounds  indigo,  and  f>  pounds 
slaked  lime.  After  five  hours  the  bath  is  allowed  to  cool 
to  100°  F..  when  fermentation  ensues  and  the  indigo  is  dis- 
solved in  the  alkali.  (  Ca/vrrt.) 

(0)  The  i'n'nc  Vat  is  employed  only  in  small  dvc-housea 
and  in  certain  localities,  as  at  Vcrviers,  for  the  dyeing  of 
wool.  The  putrefying  urine  furnishes  at  once  the  reducing 
agents  to  convert  the  blue  into  white  indigo,  and  the  am- 
monia necessary  to  dissolve  the  latter.  (  Wfrtlx'tt  Diet,) 

Jicgists  for  printing  on  cloth  to  prevent  the  dying  of  cer- 
tain portions,  aud  thus  |)roducc  figures  on  a  blue  ground, 
act  eitiier  mechanically,  as  wax.  pipeclay,  etc.,  or  chem- 
ically, by  oxidizing  the  indigogen  before  it  can  penetrate 
the  fibre,  as  salts  of  copper,  mercuric  chloride,  etc.  The 
following  are  receipts  for  difierent  results  (Crooks,  p.  474) : 
(1)  For  Deep  Ulue. — Water,  4  litres;  sulphate  of  copper, 
1.26  kilos.:  acetate  of  copper,  500  grms. ;  nitrate  of  copper, 
875  grms.;  alum.  240  grms.;  pipeclay,  2.125  kilos.;  dex- 
trine, 1.25  kilos.  (2)  For  Medium  Iifu>\ — Water,  4  litres; 
sulphate  of  co[)per,  500  grms. ;  acetate  of  copper,  250  grms. ; 
nitrate  of  copper.  500  grms. ;  alum.  2-JO  grms. :  pipeclay,  2 
kilos.;  dextrine.  1  kilo.  (3)  Jird  Rrsist,go-rttUid  Lapis. — 
Red  liquor  (acetate  of  alumina),  sp.  gr.  1.07,  12  litres; 
gum  Senegal.  2  to  3  kilos.;  pipeclay,  4  to  6  kilos.;  olive 
oil.  1  kilo.:  sulphate  of  copper.  1  kilo.;  nitrate  of  copper, 
500  grms.  ;  sal-ammoniac,  1.5  kilos.  (4)  White  l.apitt.  No. 
1, — Lime-juice,  sp.  gr.  I.IOO,  5  litres  ;  thickened  lime-juice, 
thickened  with  1.5  kilos,  of  gum  upon  2  Hires,  1.5  litres; 
sulphate  of  copper,  1  kilo. ;  pipeclay.  3  kilos.  No.  £, — 
Water,  2  litres;  sulphate  of  zinc,  1  kilo.;  pipeclny,  725 
grms.;  gum  Senegal,  500  grms.;  solution  of  nitrate  of  cop- 
per, sp.  gr.  1.52,  0.12  litre.  (5)  Far  While  UndcvniurdtnitH 
and  for  lilne  Cuntnurs. —  Caustic  soda  solution,  sp.  gr.  1.070, 
8  litres;  arseniatc of polassa. 3.5  kilos. ;  corrosive  suhlimate, 
500  grms.;  pipeclay,  3  kilos.;  gum  Senegal,  1.5  kilos. 

f)i^chnr//c  Puttern»t  are  ])roduce<l  by  dyeing  the  cotton 
cloth  of  a  uniform  blue  in  the  copperas  vat.  and  then  print- 
ing upon  it  the  desired  figures  with  some  powerful  oxidizing 
agent,  which  will  destroy  the  blue  indigotine  by  converting 
it  into  soluble  jsatin.  leaving  the  figure  in  white.  The 
most  useful  discharge  is  chromic  acid,  but  as  it  would  be 
exhausted  by  the  thickener  before  it  reaehed  the  cloth,  a 
circuitous  proces?  must  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  secure  its 
action.  On  the  blue  cloth  hichromote  or  chromatc  of  pot- 
ash is  padded  (see  Cai.ico-I'UI.nti.vg},  and  when  this  has 
been  dried  in  the  dark,  the  figures  to  be  discharged  arc 
printed  with  a  mixture  of  acid  ;  oxalic,  tartaric,  nitric,  or 
sulphuric:  a  thickener,  gum,  dextrine,  or  starch:  and  some 
]>ipeclay.  The  chromic  acid  is  set  free  and  the  color  dis- 
charged at  once,  and  the  goods  are  washed  in  warm  water 
to  which  s<»me  chalk  has  been  added  to  neutralize  the  ex- 
cess of  acid.  Another  plan  is  to  print  on  iho  blue  cloth 
chromatc  of  lead  properly  thickened,  and  pass  through 
warm  hydrochl*»rie  acid,  when  chromic  acid  and  chlorine 
are  liberated,  which  discharge  the  color.  Hvdrated  binox- 
ido  of  manganese  may  be  substituted  for  ehroniate  of  lead. 
The  discharges  can  be  made  to  include  mordants,  Fr>  that 
colored  designs  on  a  blue  ground  may  be  produced.  Thus, 
if  acetate  of  alumina  or  of  iron,  or  both  together,  bo  mixed 
with  a  discharge,  and  the  alumina  fixed  in  the  washing  oflT, 
the  goods  may  be  dyed  in  madder  or  garuneino  with  the 
prorluetiun  of  red,  lilac,  purple,  or  chocolate  designs.  Pome- 
times  the  discharge  and  resist  are  comliined  together ;  for 
instance,  on  a  light-blue  ground  are  printed  simultaneously, 
first,  an  ordinary  resist  ;  second,  the  same  resist,  lo  whieh 
have  been  added  hichromate  of  potash  and  hydrochloric 
acid  ;  on  vutling  again  a  pattern  of  light  blue  and  white 
will  be  found  on  a  deep-blue  ground.  liwript^. — (  i) 
Chrome  liquor:  water.  2  litres;  yellow  cliromate  of  potasli, 
500  grms.  f2i  Acid  composition:  tartaric  acid,  3  kilos.; 
oxalic  aeiil.  250  grms.;  dextrine,  4  kilos.;  nitric  neid,  500 
grms. ;  woter,  4  litres. 

Printimj  /'enrif  fttur,  for  which  the  orpimcnt  vat  is  used, 
was  formerly  cfTeeted  hy  hand,  but  is  now  acconiplished 
from  rolls  by  the  aid  of  the  "doctor  box,"  I»y  which  the 
blue  oxidized  layer  of  color  la  removed  and  the  roll  works 


1178 


INDIGO. 


last  in  the  green  solution  cont.aining  the  indigogen.  carry-  j 

ing  it  at  once  to  the  cloth.     lUrfipt  fnr  iiii  Orplmnil  Mijc-  i 

(1,,-e  for  Ihirk  Pcnril  /?/.i«-.— Inrtigo-pulp.  HI  gallons,  con- 

tiVinin"  40  pounils  indigo;  vcllow  orpiment,  4(1   iiounds ; 

soda-lov.   70°  Tw..  lU  g.allons  ;  water,  1st   gall.ms:  lime,   I 

4  pounds.     Coil  till  vellow,  when  sprea.l  on  glass:  let  .set- 
tle, and  thicken  the  clear  liquor  with  120  pounds  gum  sonc- 

gai.  I  l-'or  further  details  with  regard  to  use  of  indigo  in  : 

calico-printing  see  works  mentioned  at  end  of  this  article.) 
PiodiiclH  i>f  Ihc  Ikcnmponitiiin  of  /iiidv,...— Chhuine  de- 
stroys moist  indigo,  as    well    as   its  sulphuric-acid    com- 
pounds, with  the  formation  of  a  variety  of  jiroducls  which 

vary  with  tlie  conditions  of  the  treatment.     Among  them 

have  heen  noticed  trichlor-.aniline,  trichlor-phcnol.  chlor- 

isatin,  and  ilichlor-isatin.       Dilute    nitric   acid   produces 

isatin    (CsHsNOj)    and    a   hrown    resin;    a   stronger  acid 

forms  indimitic  (nitrosalievlic)  acid  (C7ll3{NO.hO:)) ;  very 

stron"  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.43)  yields  picric  acid  (trinitrophenol) 

(CellafNO.ViO),  forming  at  the  same  time  carbonic,  prus- 

sic,  and  oxalic  acids,  and  the  so-called  artificial  indigo- 

rcsin  :  5  parts  fuming  nitric  acid  become  so  heated  with  1 

part  indigo  that  the  mass  takes  fire.  Chromic  acid  de- 
stroys indi"o.  with  the  formation  of  isatin.     Boiled  with 

dilute  potash,   indigo   is   but   slightly    attacked,  but   with 

strong  potash  it  is  completely  dccomjiosed,  with  the  forma- 
tion of   indigogcn   and  isatate  of  potassium.   KChIIcN'^s 

(Gcrhardt,     liev.    Sr'icnI.,    x.    371).    of    ehrys.anilic    acid 

(Fritzsche).     Fused  with  potassic  hydrate,  it  yields,  first, 

isatic  acid  (CkHtXOjI  :  then,  from  this,  phcnyl-carhamic 

acid  (CtIItNiIj);  and  further  salicylic  acid  (CvHeOa),  and 

phenvlamine  (aniline),  CeHjX. 

Ariifirlal  AirfiV/".— The  nature  of  the  products  derived 

from  indigo  as  iiist  mentioned  has  created  the  imjiression 
in  the  minds  of'ch'-.niss  that  indigo  will  be  prepared  arti- 
ficially from  carbolic  :icid.  Recently,  Emmerling  and  Eng- 
Icr  have  actually  produced  indigotiue  from  a  com|iound 
acetone  discovered  in  1S57  by  Friedel,  which  they  call 
acclophrnmic.  Indigotino  is  isomeric  with  cyanide  of  ben- 
zoyl, C,Il50.CN.  „         .      , 

'TesUiici  and  Vahmtwn  nf  TntHfin.—Wnter  is  determined 
hy  drying  a  weighed  sample  at  212°  F.  in  a  platinum  cru- 
cible. After  weighing,  the  whole  is  ignited  for  the  per- 
centage of  ash.  Starch  may  bo  detected  by  boiling  with 
sliMitly  alkaline  water,  and  testing  the  cold  filtrate  with 
iodine."  Older  methods  for  determining  appro.ximately  the 
percentage  of  indigotine  were  based  upou  oxidation— more 
recent  methods  on  reduction.  The  following  methods  are 
given  in   n'alti'a  Did.  : 

(1)  Willi  Clilnrim;  Wttter.^A.  weighed  quantity  of  the 
finely  pulverized  indigo  is  added  by  small  portions  to  a 
measured  quantity  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  chlo- 
rine as  long  as  it'dissolves  with  yellow  color,  and  the  qnan- 

titv  thus  dissolved  is  ascertained  by  weighing  the  residue.   {  NoOj  +  lc203=  ^ic"-'  + 
A  similar  trial  is  then  made  with  perfectly  pure  indigo-blue,   ,  the  sample  of  indigo  i 

and  a  comparison  of  the  two  results  gives  the  proportion       -' "" "" 

of  coloring-matter  in  the  sample  of  commercial  indigo  un- 
der examination.  As  the  strength  of  the  chlorine-water 
alters  very  quickly,  it  cannot  be  titrated  long  beforehand. 

('•')' 117///  Chloride  of  ii'mc— The  indigo  is  first  dissolved 
bv  digestion  for  five  or  six  hours  at  60°  or  00°  with  fuming 
sulphuric  acid;  the  solution  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  dis- 
tilled water,  and  poured  into  a  gradu.ated  burette,  and  from 
this  vessel  it  is  added  drop  bv  drop  to  a  measured  quantity 
of  aqueous  chloride  of  lime,  till  the  blue  color  just  becomes 
permanent.  A  similar  experiment  being  then  made  with 
an  equal  weight  of  pure  indigo-blue,  the  coloring  power 
of  the  two  samples  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  quantities 
of  the  blue  solution  consumed  in  the  two  experiments. 
(Schlumberger.  Ilidl.  Sor.  Inditstr.  dc  MidUniiiu:  vol.  xv.) 

({'.)  Willi' lliidnirhlnrir  Arid  and  Chlorate  of  folasitiitm. 
—1  "-rm.  of  finely  pulverized  indigo  is  digested  for  some 
hour"  with  10  grms.  of  fuming  sulphuric  oeid,  agitating 
from  lime  to  time  to  assist  the  solution.  The  liquid  is 
then  poured  into  a  basin  containing  a  kilogramme  of  water ; 
."iO  grms.  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  are  addcil,  and  the 
liquid  ia  heated  to  the  boiling-point.  On  the  other  hand, 
0.2.')  grin,  of  chlorate  of  potassium  is  dissolved  in  100  grms. 
of  water,  and  the  solution  is  poured  into  a  graduated  bu- 
rette, and  added  drop  by  drop  to  the  boiling  indigo  solution 
till  the  blue  ccdor  changes  to  red-brown.  The  richness  of  the 
sample  of  indigo  is  directly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of 
chlorate  consumed.  (Bolley,  Ann.  Ch.  I'harm.,  Ixxv.  242.) 
(4)  tt',V/i  .S'lilphiirir  Arid  and  Arid  Chromale  of  Potail- 
,,-„„,._The  mo.le  of  proceeding  is  the  same  as  that  just 
described:  10  grms.  of  pure  indigo-blue  prepared  by 
Fritzschc's  method  require  for  decoloration  exactly  7J 
parts  of  the  acid  ehromate.  (Penny,  Chcm.  Soe.  J.,  v.  297.) 
All  these  methods  are  liable  to  the  objection  that  it  is 
diflicult  to  institute  an  exact  comparison  between  the  dif- 
ferent shades  of  color  rejulting  from  the  oxidation  of  the 


indigo  in  different  cases,  the  pure  green  tint  thus  jiroducfd 
in  solutions  of  pure  indigo-blue  giving  place  to  a  dirty 
olive  or  broivnisli-green  when  crude  indigo  is  used,  in  eon- 
sequence  of  the  impurities  contained  in  it.  Moreover,  in 
dissolving  indigo  in  strimg  sull>hiiric  acid  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  avoid  the  formation  of  suljilnirous  acid,  the 
jiresence  of  which  will  of  course  raise  the  apparent  per- 
centage of  indigo-blue  in  the  sample.  By  employing  thc.so 
methods,  indeed,  it  is  common  to  find  in  a  good  sample  of 
indigo  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  pure  indigo-blue,  whereas 
the  best  qualities  seldom  contain  above  fiO  per  cent.,  and 
average  qualities  not  more  than  40  to  .SO  per  cent. 

The  following  methods,  which  depend  upon  the  reduc- 
tion instead  of  the  oxidation  of  the  indigo,  give  more  ex- 
act results : 

(5)  Wilh  Prolosulphale  of  Iron. — A  weighed  quantity  of 
the  finely  pulverized  indigo  is  well  mixed  with  an  equal 
weight  of  pure  lime  jireviously  slaked  with  water.  The 
inix'ture  is  poured  into  a  stopjiered  bottle  of  known  capa- 
city, and  the  mortar  is  well  rinsed  with  water,  which  is 
adiled  to  (he  rest.  The  bottle  is  now  heated  in  a  water- 
bath  for  several  hours,  and  a  quantity  i>f  finely  powdered 
sulphate  of  iron  is  added  ;  the  bottle  is  then  filled  up  with 
water;  the  stopper  is  inserted  :  and  after  the  contents  have 
been  well  shaken,  the  whole  is  loft  at  rest  for  several  hours, 
till  the  indigo  is  reduced  and  the  sediment  has  sunk  to  the 
bottom.  A  portion  of  the  clear  liquor  is  then  drawn  ofi" 
with  a  siphon,  and  the  quantity  of  liquid  having  been  ac- 
curately measured,  it  is  mixed  with  an  excess  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  the  precipitate,  after  having  been  oxidized 
(by  exposure  to  the  airi,  is  collected  on  a  weighed  filter  and 
washed  with  water.  Lastly,  the  filter  with  the  indigo-blue 
is  dried  at  the  heat  of  the  water-bath  and  weighed  :  and 
the  weight  of  the  filter  having  been  siibtractcd  from  that 
of  the  whole,  the  weight  of  the  indigo-lilue  is  ascertained. 
Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  whole  quiintity  of  liquid 
was  200  measures,  and  that  .'iO  measures  have  been  drawn 
off,  yielding  10  grains  of  indigo-blue;  then  the  total  quan- 
tity" of  indigo-blue  in  the  sample  is  40  grains.  For  60 
grains  of  indigo  it  is  necessary  to  take  from  1  pound  to  2 
pounds  of  water.  This  method,  though  rather  tedious, 
gives  better  results  than  any  of  the  preceding.  The  quan- 
tity of  indigo-blue  indicated  by  it  is  usually  somewhat  less 
than  the  actual  quantity  contained  in  the  sample. 

Leuchs  {Zcilschr.  /.'Chcni.  [2].  v.  150)  converts  the  in- 
digo into  indigo-white  by  digestion  with  ferrous  sulphate 
ami  milk  of  lime,  mixes  the  clear  solution,  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  with  a  solution  of  amnionio-ferric  sulphate, 
and  determines  the  quantity  of  ferrous  salt  thereby  pro- 
duced by  means  of  a  -[Jj  normal  solution  of  potassium  ehro- 
mate. The  conversion  of  indigo-white  into  indigo-blue  by 
ferric  salts  takes  place  as  shown  by  the  equation  :  ("isHi!- 
~  0 -*- II..0  +  CicIIioXiO,..  l.:!l  grm.  of 
mixed,  in  a  tall  cylindrical,  well- 
closed  vessel,  with  a  quantity  of  lime  and  solution  of  fer- 
rous .=ulphate  occupying  .100  cub.  cent.;  100  c.  c.  of  the 
clear  solution  are  tlien  added  to  C,r<^  c.  c.  of  a  solution  of 
ammnniacal  iron-alum  acidulated  with  sniidiuric  aci.l :  the 
liquid  is  filtered,  and  100  c.  c.  of  it  titrated  with  the  ^th 
chrome-solution.  If  the  hitter  be  added  from  a  measuring 
tube  divided  into  J  c.  c,  each  division  will  correspond  to  1 
p.  c.  indigo-blue  in  the  sample  under  examination. 

(6)  Wilh  S'laininim  Chlioidr.—Thc  tin-solntion  is  titrated 
with  a  solution  of  pure  indigo-blue,  ]ircparcd  by  dissolving 
the  substance  dried  at  21(i°-2M°  C.  (410°-44fi°  F.)  in  ir, 
parts  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  with  the  addition  of  pounded 
glass  to  divide  the  indigo  and  facilitate  Ihc  solution.  The 
indigo-solution  thus  obtained  is  diluted  with  water  till  a 
litre  of  it  contains  exactly  1  grm.  of  indigo-blue.  The  in- 
digo to  be  examined  is  then  dissolved  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  the  titrated  tin-solution  is  added  to  it  from  a  burette 
till  the  blue  color  changes  through  green  to  light  yellow. 
Iron,  if  present  in  the  indigo,  must  first  be  removed  by  di- 
gestion in  hydrochloric  acid,  with  addition  of  pounded 
glass.  (E.  Mulder,  Scheik.  Onderz.,  iii.  [1],  37  ;  Jahretber., 
1860,  p.  613.) 

(7)  Wilh  Zinc. — A  solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid 
is  diluted  with  water  and  hydrochloric  aci.l.  and  decolor- 
ized by  zinc  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  anhydride.  A 
measured  volume  of  this  solution  is  then  introduced  into  a 
graduated  tube  filled  with  air  or  oxygen  gas.  and  the  vol- 
ume of  oxygen  absorbed  is  read  olT  after  a  few  hours.  A 
similar  exp'erimcnt  is  then  made  with  pure  indigo-blue,  and 
the  value  of  the  commercial  sample  is  determined  by  ciun- 
parison  of  the  results.  _        .... 

/.i/enidii-c— In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  at  the 

end  of  Camco-prixtixc,  see  AV,(f«  upon  Indiifo.  by.Tolin  Q. 

Hayes,  in  the  BuUelin  of  the  Xalionul  Aiiocialion  of    11  ool 

.V<."iM,/Vic(»ivr»  (Boston, 187.3) :  Lecture  by  Dr.  Crnce  Calvert. 

■    Am.  ('h',ni>l.   iii.   221;    Handbook   of  Dyeinn  and    Cnhrn. 

;  priniinq.  bv  W.  Crooks  (London.  1874).     C.  F.  Cii.vNnLEn. 


INDIGO  BIRD— INDIVIDUALITY. 


1179 


Indiffo  Birdy  Ctfanoapiza  ctfanen,  one  of  our  most  beau- 
tiful native  finches,  is  of  u  rich  grceuish-blue.  feeds  on  seeds 
and  insect?,  nests  in  the  L*.  S.,  usually  on  n  low  bush  or  oa 
tnll  grass,  and  winters  in  tropical  America.  The  bird  is 
nearly  six  inched  loDg>  and  has  a  brief  but  very  pleasant 
song. 

Iiulisotinc.  See  Indigo,  by  Pnop.  C.  F.  CnANDi-ER, 
Vu.  1)..  M.  I>.,  LL.D. 

Indirect'.  In  music,  consecutive  unisons,  fifths  and 
octaves,  arc  said  to  be  indirect  when  thoy  arc  not  aetuiilly 
expressed  in  form,  but  still  implied  or  involved  in  the  pro- 
gres?ion. 

In'dium  [Or.  ivSiKovy  "dark-bluo  dyo"],  a  metal  dis- 
covered by  means  of  the  spectroscope  in  Freiberg  zinc- 
blcndc  by  Keich  and  Riehter  in  lS(j:i.  It  has  since  been 
found  in  various  zinc  mineral;^  and  in  wolfram,  also  in  the 
flue-dust  of  the  furnaces  in  which  zinc  ores  are  treated,  as 
well  as  in  the  zinc  itself.  The  zinc-blende  of  Roxbury. 
Conn.,  was  found  by  Pruf.  Cornwall  to  contain  a  con.-^iiler- 
able  proportion  of  indium.  The  Freiberg  zinc  contains 
about  U.OJ  per  cent,  of  indium.  liiittgcr  found  the  flue- 
dust  of  the  (iosler  furnaces  to  contain  about  0.1  per  cent, 
of  the  oxide  In203.  Metallic  indium  is  obtained  by  dis- 
solving the  ores  or  metal  in  acid  and  udciing  pieces  of 
metallic  zinc  to  the  solution.  The  indium,  together  with 
some  small  amounts  uf  other  metals,  is  thereby  precipi- 
tated in  the  metallic  state.  ^Vhcn  purified  the  metal  is 
found  to  have  a  bluish-silvery  lustre,  resembling  lead  in  its 
softness  and  ductility.  Its  specific  gravity  is  7A2\.  atomic 
weight  li:J.4.  It  tarnishes  slo^vly  in  air.  Its  melting-point 
is  170°  C.  (3iy°  F.).  Its  very  low  fusion-point  compared 
with  other  metals  permanent  in  air  is  a  striking  peculiarity. 
It  is  not  very  volatile,  and  resists  oxidation  at  tempera- 
tures considerably  above  its  point  of  fusion.  The  spectrum 
consists  of  two  blue  lines.  E.  Wallek. 

IndividuaTity  [Lat.  {tnliv{dnu8,"tha.t  cannot  be  di- 
vided"], in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  is  defined  as 
"a  state  of  oneness  *'  (Arbnthnfit),  or  "  the  quality  of  being 
individual;  separate  or  distinct  existence"  {  Wovccufer) ; 
and  the  idea  obtained  is  of  a  complete  unit  which  is  itself 
indivisible  without  mutilation.  The  current  idea,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  based  chiefly  upon  a  contemplation  of  the  higher 
forms  of  life,  is  so  distinct  in  this  respect  that  it  assumes 
an  axiomatic  cliaracter,  but,  far  from  being  thus  self-evi- 
dent, there  are  few  questions  involved  in  such  uncertainty, 
and  concerning  wliich  opinions  have  varied  so  widely,  as 
respecting  this  very  subject.  Some  of  tlic  definitions  that 
have  been  given  are  radically  antagonistic.  Thus,  on  one 
hand.  Sehultz-.Schultzonstcin,  in  the  consideration  of  plants, 
has  regarded  "  not  only  the  shoot,  but  even  its  single  parts, 
the  internodes.  with  their  leaves,  as  series  of  individuals 
shooting  out  of  each  other,  or  intimately  connected  by 
continuablc  bu(l  formation."  On  the  other  hand,  Huxley, 
by  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  increase  in  the  lower 
animals,  was  led  to  believe  that  "the  inUiriilHal  animal  is 
the  sum  of  the  phenomena  presented  by  a  single  life;  in 
other  words,  it  is  all  those  animal  forms  which  proceed 
from  a  single  egg,  taken  together."  The  many  inter- 
mediate views  have  been  based  upon  a  partial  consider- 
ation of  the  facts  in  the  case,  and  take  their  shade  from 
the  nature  of  the  phenomena  studied.  If  we  attempt  to 
opply  either  of  the  definitions  cited,  the  results  will  often 
appear  to  be  absurd  in  view  of  the  conventional  idea  of 
individuality.  Thus,  if  wo  accept  the  signification  of 
tSchultz-Schultzcnstein  for  the  plant,  for  the  coral  animal, 
or  for  the  protozoon.  not  only  will  the  flowers  and  the 
leaves,  as  well  as  the  distinct  animals,  be  individuals, 
but  the  intermediate  spaces  will  represent  indefinite  indi- 
viduals :  in  this  case  potentiality  of  individualism,  or  the 
possible  future  development  of  a  more  or  less  perfect  plant 
or  nnitnal  from  the  space  in  question,  is  contounded  with 
actual  indtvi'luality,  or  the  positive  developnient  of  a  plant 
or  animal.  Rut  if  we  accept  Huxley's  definition  it  becomes, 
in  the  lower  forms  of  life,  equally  impnssildo  to  recognize 
either  the  constituents  of  the  individual  or  the  complete 
individual.  Inasmuch  as  (he  sum  of  the  production  of  an 
egg  or  a  seed  constitutes  the  *'  individual  "  in  tho  caso  of 
|»olyps,  hydroids,  etc.,  which  are  capable  of  indefinite  re- 
proilucli<)U  by  budiliiig  and  by  excised  parts,  the  traces  of 
individuality  would  bo  only  evi4lent  if  the  entire  life-phe- 
nomena, from  the  moment  of  exclusion  from  the  egg  to  tho 
death  of  the  last  constituent,  could  bo  observed:  in  tho 
case  of  plants,  too,  the  constituents  of  the  Individual  may 
be  propngatecl  lor  centuries,  and  may  he  spread  over  the 
ghdie — r.  ;/.  tho  weeping  willows,  and  the  many  plants 
that  are  almost  exclusively  raised  from  buds  or  shoots — 
and  although  they  may  be  thus  entirely  disconnected,  and 
many  of  the  derivative  plants  dead,  inasmuch  as  thoy  were 
derivetl  from  the  same  germ,  they  are  only  parts  of  an  in- 
dividual.      Su'd)   arc  tlie  contrary   views   that   have  hern 


entertained,  and  such  the  logical  results  of  the  opposite 
views.  At  first,  both  views  might  appear  equally  absurd, 
but  they  are  really  not  so,  and  both  arc  worthy  of  serious 
consideration.  They  follow  naturally  from  different  ways 
of  viewing  the  dift'used  or  limited  individuality  in  the 
lower  forms  of  life,  which  diflfers  thus  widely  from  the 
specific  individuality  in  the  higher  and  more  familiar 
forms.  Nevertheless,  the  mind  revolts  from  such  exten- 
sion of  the  idea  of  individuality,  and  a  study  of  certain 
phenomena,  and  the  terms  generally  applied  to  them  in 
the  higher  forms  of  life,  may  furnish  hints  for  a  moro 
satisfactory  restriction  of  the  term  "  individual." 

In  the  domain  of  teratology,  or  the  science  which  treats 
of  monsters,  there  is  a  special  department  of  double  mon- 
sters— i".  c  the  undoubted  product  of  a  single  egg  or  ovum, 
but  the  contents  of  whicli  were  early  segregated  into  two 
more  or  less  distinct  components,  and  both  developed 
therefrom.  There  is,  among  such  monsters,  every  grade 
of  differentiation  up  to  those  twin  organisms,  such  as  tho 
"Siamese  Twins,"  which  severally  manifest  differences  of 
habit  and  temperament,  as  well  as  possess  a  nearlv  or 
quite  com])lete  and  independent  set  of  organs.  Xow, 
whatever  we  might  call  the  other  double  monsters,  and 
wherever  we  might  be  disposed  to  draw  the  line  of  dis- 
tinction, the  world  would  undoubtedly  regard  each  of  the 
constituents  of  the  compound  organism  known  as  the 
"Siamese  Twins"  as  an  indivitlual  man. 

If  we  also  view  the  female  of  any  vertebrate  animal,  wo 
shall  find  a  greater  or  less  number  of  well-developed  eggs, 
and  potentially  each  of  those  is  an  individual,  as  under 
certain  exciting  causes  it  may  develop  into  an  organism 
similar  to  the  parent.  Nevertheless,  there  is  room  for 
much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  when,  exactly,  the  indi- 
vidual conies  into  existence,  for  there  are  all  grades  from 
tho  formation  of  the  egg  to  its  maturity  as  a  simple  egg, 
its  fecundation,  and  the  development  thereafter  of  a  foptus. 
A  similar  although  less  obvious  difiiculty  as  to  tho  precise 
identification  of  the  individual  thus  may  or  does  j)revaii  in 
the  vertebrates  as  in  the  lowest  of  animals  and  plants.  It 
may  also  be  recalled  that  the  body  of  man  as  well  as  all 
other  animals  is  subject  to  constant  changes  by  molecular 
action.  Distinguishing,  however,  between  potential  and 
fully-developed  individuality,  wc  may,  from  tho  consider- 
ation and  appreciation  of  tiie  phenomena  which  would  be 
generally  recognized  as  individuality  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals, be  furnished  with  a  clue  for  its  recognition  in  tho 
lower. 

If,  now,  we  are  prepared  to  admit,  e.  ff.,  the  "Siamese 
Twins"  as  true  individuals,  notwithstanding  their  union 
and  their  origin  from  a  single  ovum,  we  must  be  prepared 
to  apply  the  same  principles  to  other  forms,  and  designate 
as  individuals  forms  which  resemble  and  arc  homologous 
with  others  possessing  all  the  elements  of  individuality. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  tho  couiuion  "sea-flowers"  or  **  sea- 
anemones  "  ( Actiniida*,  etc.)  wc  have  undoubted  individual- 
ity exhibited  in  the  single  product  of  each  egg,  and  which 
does  not  increase  by  budding.  Rut  in  the  case  of  tho 
colony  of  coral  animals  wc  have  a  number  of  similar  forms 
connected  together  and  constituting  a  trcc-liUe  combina- 
tion. Inasmuch  as  there  is  in  all  except  their  union  an 
exact  homology  between  tho  Actiuiidx'  and  each  of  the  coral 
animals,  we  arc  therefore  compelled  to  recognize  each  ci>n- 
stitucut  of  the  colony  as  an  individual.  In  like  manner 
are  we  obliged  to  recognize  the  individuality  of  tho  several 
constituents  of  the  colony  among  acalephs,  but  in  the  caso 
of  many  of  these  there  is  every  gradatimj  between  a 
specialized  individual  and  a  mere  permanent  bud.  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  recognition  of  individuality  for  the 
several  components  in  these  instances  is  attended  with  less 
cniliarrassnient  than  an  extreme  course  either  way.  Indi- 
viduality, it  must,  however,  be  remembered,  is  much  less 
defined  In  these  budding  and  composite  types  than  in  tho 
nionogenotic-egged  animals. 

Still  less  is  individuality  developed  in  tho  vegetal  king- 
d<un.  In  plants  generally,  the  elements  of  generation  and 
repntduction  (flowers,  etc.)  are  developed  periodically,  and 
apparently  as  secondary  products  of  tho  seed.  Tho 
"  flowers  "  and  "  fruit,"  e,  g.,  are  simply  tho  outgrowth  of 
the  '•  plant  ;"  in  composite  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  tlio 
*•  zoiJids  "  are  the  prominent  objects,  and  are  simply  con- 
nected by  a  continuous  basis.  Nevertheless,  the  term  '"  in- 
dividual "  is  better  applicable  to  tho  organisms  which  arc 
destined  io  continue  tho  species,  and  which  perform  the 
samo  rule  in  the  vegetal  kingdom  as  do  tho  sexes  in  tho 
animal  kingdom,  than  ( 1 )  to  the  undifferentiated  as  well  as 
dificrentiated  part  of  the  plant,  or  than  (2)  to  the  sum  of 
the  products  (which  maybe  scattered  throughout  the  world) 
from  a  single  seed.  It  will  bo,  however,  in  any  case,  im- 
possible to  always  discriminate  exactly  the  individual,  for 
the  adage  "  Natura  wu\\  facit  saltum  "  is  as  applicable  in 
lliis  case  as  in  others.     Rut  by  recalling  the  phenomena 


1180 


INDIVISIBLES— INDO-CHINA,  FARTHER   INDIA,  ETC. 


connected  with  reproduction  in  the  several  departments  of 
nature,  and  attending  to  the  distinction  between  putential 
and  actual  individuality,  there  will  be  few  coses  where 
serious  doubt  will  practieally  exist. 

Although  the  npi)Iication  of  the  term  "  individual"  to 
eatrh  more  or  less  jierfect  expression  or  simulacrum  of  the 
reproduelivc  organism  seems  thus  to  bo  most  ad\  isable, 
it  is  important  to  distinguish  the  difference  in  the  physi- 
ological as  well  as  morphological  value  of  the  individuals. 
Thus,  the  specialized  single  product  of  an  egg  is  the  per- 
fect *'2oo7i"  or  animal,  while  (he  separate  constituents  of  a 
colony  derived  from  a  single  egg  are  called  by  jiuxicy 
'^z-ioii/n,"  or  auimal-like  organisms. 

The  principal  differences  in  the  inter-relations  of  indi- 
viduals among  various  nnimals  are  the  following: 

I.  The  simple  product  of  an  egg  incapable  o\'  multipli- 
cation by  budding  or  fission,  i,  «■.  typical  animals. 

a.  The  sexes  differentiated  in  distinct  individuals:  ver- 
tebrates generally,  most  articulates,  majority  of  mollusks, 
many  radiates,  cte. 

b.  The  sexes  united  in  the  same  individual :  a  few  fishes, 
many  worms,  many  mollusks,  many  radiates,  etc. 

II.  The  compound  product  of  an  egg  capable  of  multi- 
plication by  budding  or  fission,  giving  rise  to  new  indi- 
viduals or  "  zociids.'' 

a.  The  zooids  undergo  little  change,  the  egg-bearing 
form  being  an  ordinary  individual.     Example,  Hydra. 

h.  The  zoiiids  undergo  great  change,  the  egg-bearing 
form  being  a  specialized  individual.  Example,  most 
acalephs. 

Thus  the  individual,  as  one  separate  animal,  is  very  def- 
inite in  the  higher  types  and  quite  indefinite  in  the  lower. 
In  the  Coelenterates,  etc.  the  jihenomena  of  individuality 
may  be  best  considered  in  connection  with  their  reproduc- 
tion. (See  Repkodlxtion.)  Theodore  Gill. 

Indivis'ibles.  In  the  mediaeval  geometry  the  victhoff  of 
itulirhib/ci  was  essentially  the  same  as  the  modern  method 
of  infinitesimals.  It  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that  lines 
arc  made  up  of  an  infinite  number  of  ioHnitcsimal  points, 
that  surfaces  are  made  up  of  an  infinite  number  of  lines,  and 
that  volumes  are  maile  up  of  an  infinite  number  of  surfaces. 
The  method  of  indivisibles  holds  the  same  relation  to  tho 
infinitesimal  calculus,  as  devised  by  Leibnitz,  that  the  an- 
cient method  of  exhaustions  does  to  tho  method  of  limits, 
as  employed  by  Newton,  As  an  example  of  tho  method 
of  indivisibles,  lot  it  be  required  to  deduce  an  e.^pression 
for  tlie  volume  of  a  right  eone  with  a  circular  base.  De- 
note tho  area  of  the  base  by  A,  the  altitude  of  tho  cone  by 
/(.  and  let  h  be  divided  into  an  infinite  number  of  equal 
parts;  through  each  point  of  division  supjiose  a  piano  to 
be  passed,  cutting  out  a  section  parallel  to  the  base,  and 
denote  the  distance  of  any  such  section  from  the  vertex  by 
h'.  Then,  if  we  denote  the  area  of  this  section  by  a,  we 
shall  have,  from  the  principles  of  elementary  geometry, 

a:  A:  :  h'^  :  7i^,  or  a  =  ^^X  h'^. 

From  the  nature  of  indivisibles  wo  shall  have  tho  volume 
of  the  cone  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  sections  from  tho 

vortex  to  tho  base;  that  is,  the  volume  will  be  equal  to  '-- 

multiplied  by  the  sum  of  tho  squares  of  all  the  values  of /(' 
from  tho  vertex  to  the  base.  If  we  take  one  of  (he  equal 
divisions  of  the  altitude  as  a  unit,  and  call  it  1,  the  differ- 
ent values  of  A'  will  be  the  series  of  natural  numbers  from 
(I  to  h;  but  the  limit  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  na- 
tural numbers  from  0  to  A,  when  h  approaches  co,  is  equal 

A3  A      A3 

to   -  ;  hence,  the  required  volume  is  equal  to  -X    '  or  to 

A  - ;  that  is,  the  volume  is  equal    to  the  base  multiplied 

by  one-third  of  the  altitude.  This  result  agrees  with  the 
■well-known  expression  for  tho  volume  of  a  right  eone  with 
a  circular  base.  W,  G.  Peck. 

In'do-Chi'na,  Farther  India^  and  India-be-  | 
yond-the-(>an§;es  are  the  names  given  to  that  portion 

of  the  south-eastern  peninsula  of  Asia  which  is  bounded 
on  tho  N.  by  Thibet  and  China,  on  tho  W.  by  the  Gulf  of 
Tonquin  and  the  China  Sea.   S.  and   S.  W.  by  the  China  j 
Sea,  the  Strait  of    Malacca,  the  Gulf  of    Martaban,  and  \ 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  N.  \\\  by  Hindustan.     Its  ' 
area  is  about  S50,0()0  square  miles,  and  tho  population  is  j 
estimated  at  2J.000.0un.  The  adjacent  islands  of  Andaman, 
.Mergui,  Nicobar.  and  Prince  of  Wales  belong  to  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula. 

PhtfDical  Friiturrx. — A  bold,  picturesque  chain  of  moun- 
tains runs  through  the  country  in  a  continuous  and  unbro- 
ken ridge  parallel  with  the  coast,  increasing  in  altitude  as 
it  approaches  the  city  of  Hue.  the  cnjiital  of  Cochin-China. 
The  northern  jtrovince  of  Tonquin  consists  of  a  vast  j)lain 


watered    by    the    Songkha    Kivor.     Cochin-China  proper 
stretches  along  the   coast,  and  exhibits  every  diversity  of 
scenery  between   11°  and  18°  N.  lat.     The  ^Meikhoug.  or 
Cambodia,  which  is  tho  largest  river  of  the  Indo-Chiucso 
peninsula,  takes  its   rise  in  Yun-nan   on  the  frontiers  of 
S'efan,  where  it  is  called  Lan-Tsang:  towards  the  S.  it   is 
renamed  Kew-Iung-Keang,  or  Nino   Dragon  River.      Tho 
volume  of   water   which  it  receives  from  the  stupendous 
mountains  through  which  it  forces  its  way  renders  it  a 
'  mighty  stream.     It  not  only  traverses  tho  kingdoms  of 
I   Laos  and  Cambodia,  but  after  a  course  of  more  ;han  l.')00 
I  miles  separates  into  several  distinct  branches  before  empty- 
I  ing   itself    into    the  China  Sea.     Cochin-China,  from    its 
I  many  navigable  rivers,  its  central  position,  and  its  numer- 
ous excellent  harbors,  possesses  extraordin:iry  advantages 
for  commerce.     The  Bay  of  Turon,  situated  in  lat.  10°  7' 
N..  is  equalled  by  few  in  the  Eastern  World  for  its  beauty 
of  scenery;  and  for  the  security  and  convenience  which  it 
affords  to  shipping  it  can  he  surpassed   by  none  in  tho 
world.     The  chief  town  is  Hue.  or  "  the  head."  situated  on 
a  river  navigable  for  sliips  of  moderate  buidcn.     It  is  for- 
tified, and  all  its  arrangoincDts  are  carried  on  in  a  style  in 
which  both  magnitude  and  neatness  are  observed,  showing 
a  bold  and  warlike  people.     The  other  important  towns  are 
Cachoa  in    Tonquin,  Saigon   in   Cambodia  Ta  mercantilo 
town  of  some  importance,  situatcil  on  a  branch  of  the  Sai- 
gon River),  Faifi.  now  in  ruins,  and  Turon.  once  the  chief 
mart   of    trade    between    China   and  Japan.     Udong,  tho 
present  capital  of  Cambodia,   is  situated  N.  E.  of  Kom- 
put,    one    of    its    ports,    and    about   4^    miles  from  that 
arm  of  the  j\Icikhong  wliich   forms  the  great  lake  Tala- 
Sarp,   lying    KJ5    miles    from    Koraput.     A   marshy   plain 
covered  with  a  dense  but  magnificent  forest  stretches  in  an 
nnlirokcn    lino  almost  to   the  very   gates  of  the  city   of 
Udong.     The  Songkha.  or  "great  river"  of  Tonquin,  has 
a  course  of  nearly  400  miles,  while  Hue.  the  river  of  Cochin- 
China  proper,   flows    through   a   cultivated   country    and 
abounds  in  the  finest  scenery  aflorded  by  any  of  tlie  rivers 
of  Asi.i.     The  changes  of  climate  in  these  regions  are  sud- 
den.    Heavy  rains  tall  during  the  summer,  which  produce 
a  general   inundation  at   the  end  of  October,  after  which 
the  climate  is  pleasant  for  about   three  months  and  best 
fitted  for  European  travel.     Biitish  Burmah  or  Arraean, 
I   Pegu,  Martaban,  and  Tenasserim.  including  all  the  AV.  or 
frontier  lands,  with  their  rivers  and  ports,  are  permanent 
portions  of  British  territory  and  under  tho  direct  control 
of  British  authorities.     Tho  kingdom  of  Slam  lies  in  tho 
middle,  extends  to  tho  Gulf  of  Siam.  and  comprises  some 
portions  of  tho  Malayan  peninsula.     To  the  E.  and  N.  E. 
of  tho  frontier  of  British  Burmah  and  around  some  portion 
of  the  iSalwcen   River  arc  found  several  tribes  of  Karens, 
more  properly  Khtiricns,  some  of  which  acknowledge  Brit- 
ish, some  Siamese,  and  others  Burmese  suzerainty,  while 
there  are  other  tribes  which  are  not  only  really  but  nomi- 
nally independent,  and  arc  said  to  be  as  wild  as  the  moun- 
tains they  Mihabit.     Passing  over  the  Salween  valley,  and 
approaching  tho  northern  portions  of  Cambodia,  there  are 
found  the  Shan  states,  tributary  to  Burmah,  and  acknow- 
ledging their  vassalage  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  distance 
from  the  Burmese  capital.     To  the  W.  of  these  Shan  states 
are  other  tribes  whose  comparative  ])roximity  to  the  Irra- 
waddeo  makes  them  more  substantially  submissive  to  the 
Burmese  government  :  and.  strange  to  say,  in  crossing  the 
Mcikhong    River  other  Shan   states  are  met  with   which 
are  tributary  to  China.     But  within  the  boundary  of  tho 
Siamese  territory,  near  the  western  frontiers  of  Anam,  tho 
southern  limits  of  China  proper,  and  the  eastern  boundaries 
of  tho   Burman  emjdre,  are  all   occupied  by   Shan  states 
whose  allegiance  to  any  of  these  four  powers  seems  to  bo 
very  ill  defined.     Tlio  Kakhyans  arc  a  portion  of  the  vast 
horde  of  Singphoos  which   inhabits  the  mountains  N.  of 
Assam.    They  have  succeeded  in  ousting  many  of  the  Shan 
tribes,  particularly  the   l*aloungs,   from  the  hill-districts. 
The  commercial  state  of  the  Kakhyans,  which  is  the  name 
given   to  the  Singphoos  by   the  Burmese,  is  in   some  re- 
spects very  remarkable.     They  grow  cotton  in  part  of  tho 
country,  out  of  wliich  they  manufacture  a  strong  fabric  for 
exjiort   and  for  their  own  consumption,  which   is  of  such 
excellent  quality   that    Manchester  could    not  attempt  to 
compete  with  it  in  cheajtness  and  durability,  owing,  no 
doubt,  to  the  nominal  value  of  labor  among  them.     Tho 
Kakhyans  constantly  levy    black-mail  even   to  within   6 
miles  of  Bamho,  the  seat  of  a  Burman  governor  of  tho  rank 
of  wongyee.    Everywhere  they  inspire  the  people  with  such 
terror  that  no  Burmese  or  Siamese  will  travel  alone  in  their 
vicinity.     The  general  population  of  Northern  Burmah  is 
Shan;  there  are  also  several  other  tribes  along  the  upper 
defile,  such  as  the  Pawons,  Katha,  Khadoos,  etc.    AM  these 
tribes  are  Booddhists,  bearing  a  good  character  for  quiet, 
orderly  conduct,  with  some  enterprise  in  trade  and  agri- 
culture.    The  mineral  products  arc  yet  undeveloped  ;  the 


IXDO-CIIIXA,   FARTHER  INDIA,  ETC. 


1181 


lead  and  silver  of  Burmah,  however,  are  found  in  the  Shan 
Blati'S.  The  Shans  are  a  fine,  athletic,  larjije-boned  race, 
with  hing  hair,  which  ihuy  twist  into  a  knot  licliind,  after 
the  fai<hinn  <A'  the  Uuriufse;  their  dress  i^  simply  a  coarse 
bag.  with  holes  cut  in  it  for  the  head  and  arms.  Their 
language  is  a  dialect  between  that  of  the  Burmese  and  the 
Laotians.  The  hitter  call  them  Khonpah,  "  wild  forest- 
mrn."  The  Mai  Longec  teak-forests  are  fnuud  in  this 
region;  (hey  have  three  large  streams  running  through 
them,  the  Salueng,  tlie  Ma  Home,  and  Ma  N'oi.  These 
large  streams  are  supplied  by  numerous  small  ones  which 
the  pt'ople  call  hueiH.  Through  those  lesser  streams  most 
of  the  teak-tiraber  is  floated  into  the  hirgcr  streams,  by 
which  it  is  carried  for  sale  into  the  Miiulmein  River.  Many 
thousands  of  logs  are  thus  floated  annually  into  the  great 
markets  of  Buruiah,  Maulmein.  and  Siam  from  the  famous 
Mai  Longce  forests.  These  forests,  which  pro<luce  unfail- 
ing supplies  of  the  finest  teak-wood  in  the  world,  are  owned 
by  a  few  hereditary  princes  of  Chiengmai.  The  Laos  iron- 
works are  next  in  importance.  Ban  Boor,  the  home  of 
iron,  is  a  Laotian  mining-town.  The  iron-works  arc  about 
two  days'  journey  from  tlie  town  ;  the  reason  the  miners 
live  so  fur  from  their  work  is  that  the  grounil  in  the  locality 
of  the  mines  is  sterile,  and  they  believe  the  jihicc  to  bo  in- 
fested with  evil  spirits.  Tbey  always  offer  fowls  and  a 
variety  of  other  offerings  to  the  place  before  they  commence 
operations,  from  a  superstition  that  if  they  did  not  do  so 
they  would  be  afilicted  with  some  dreadful  mahi'ly.  The 
iron  is  very  abundant  here  ;  it  is  smelted  at  tlio  mines,  an<i 
conveyed  to  the  town  by  means  of  elephants.  The  process 
of  working  the  iron  is  very  simple,  the  heaviest  of  the  work 
being  ilone  by  tlie  women.  The  young  men  are  the  miners, 
the  elderly  men  arc  the  blacksmitlis.  the  young  women  use 
the  sle'lgc-hammers,  and  the  old  women  and  children  are 
the  bellows-blowers.  Taking  the  slender  means  they  have 
for  working  iron  into  consideration,  it  is  surprising  to  sec 
the  variety  of  tools  they  make.  Chiengmai  is  the  capital 
of  the  Laos.  The  surrounding  scenery  is  very  beautiful. 
To  the  westwaril,  about  3  miles  from  the  capital,  are  the 
Doic  .Sua  Tape  Hills,  about  snO  to  1000  feet  high.  Tho 
female  popul.ation  of  Chiengmai  are  a  hard-working,  in- 
dustrious people.  They  are  all  weavers  and  spinners. 
The  whole  process  of  spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing  the 
cotton  and  silk  is  performed  by  tho  Laos  women.  They 
make  silk  saroangs  of  a  strong,  duraldc.  and  excellent 
texture.  They  arc  dyed  after  the  fashion  of  tho  Scotch 
tartan,  only  of  a  broader  pattern.  The  woollen  patooarps 
are  also  made  by  them,  many  of  which  are  ex])ortcd.  The 
whole  of  tlie  market  business  is  carried  on  by  women.  Tho 
market-girls  come  from  the  suburbs  of  Chiengmai,  bringing 
with  them  vegetables,  fruit,  flowers,  eggs,  preserves,  anil 
fowls  for  sale,  or  for  exchange  for  salt  and  salt  fish,  which 
arc  very  dear  here.  Tho  Laos  are  a  hardy,  industrious. 
and  peaceable  people,  having  a  wholesome  sense  of  what 
is  right  and  just.  The  laws  are  severe;  tlioft  is  invariably 
punished  hy  death,  drunkenness  by  imprisonment.  Tho 
persons  of  the  females  are  held  sacred.  The  Laos  form  of 
niarringo  is  in  most  cases  performed  and  recorded  hy  tho 
Mrti'.  or  magistrate :  a  divorce  may  be  obtained  where  tho 
parlies  arc  not  comfortably  suiteil  to  eaeh  other  ;  morality 
IS  nowhere  better  observed.  Tho  Laos  are  a  decidedly 
musical  people,  and  certainly  ono  of  the  most  interesting 
of  the  Imlo-Chincso  race?. 

French  or  Lower  Cochin-China  lies  in  tho  southern  ex- 
tromity  of  tho  enstcrn  portion  of  the  rndo-Cliinese  penin- 
sula, lilt.  'J^  5'-10''  N.,  Ion.  10J='-I(I7*'  E.     This  vast  terri- 
tory has  been  gradually  aciiuired  by  tho  French  after  tho 
dreadful  war  sai<l  to  be  provoked  by  the  continuous  perse- 
cution of  tho  Christians  by  the  king  of  Anani,  who  is  sup- 
posfil  lo  have  secretly  instigated  the  cruel  murder  of  cer- 
tain French  and  Spanish  missionaries  in  his  kingdom.    At  : 
tho  conelusion  of  this   war,  whleb  very  greatly  increased  I 
the  military  presligfi  of  the  French  army  in  Cochin-China,  : 
three  rich  provinces,  called  Ban-IIoa,  Meitho,  and  Saigon,  \ 
with  the  islands  of  Puloh,  Candour,  and  a  few  others  off    ' 
the  coast,  oamo  into  the  French  possession  (IStU).    In  1867 
new  hostilities  led  to  fresh  annexations  of  three  provinces,  j 
A   new  treaty  was  formed  ceding  Vinchalong,  Chandour, 
and  Ihiytieng,  thus  yieMing  lo  the  colony  of  Coehin-Chino 
Franfiiise  an  area  of  21.000  sfjuarc  miles,  and  a  population 
in  LS7U-72  of  I.20l,-S7.    Aceoniing  to  the  established  sys- 
tem of  the  Indo-Chinese  govcrnnn'iits,  every  male  belongs 
to  the  king,  and  must  either  enlist   in  his  unny,  or  work 
one-third,   if  not  one-half,  of  the  year  for  the  sovereign 
without  any   pay.      In   urging  (m   the  vigorous  measures 
which   led  to  tho  French  ami  Cochin  Chinese  wars  Napo- 
leon III.  seems  to  iiavc  been  inspired  with  the  tradition 
that  Franco  had  prior  elaims  to  be  adjusted,  ami  far  greiiter 
wrongs  to  bo  redressed,  than  even  those  which  ostensibly 
led  the  French  and  Spanish  governments  to  resolve  on  war. 
Cambodia  was  formerly  a  large,  powerful,  and  indcpcDdcnt 


nation,  and  its  kings  were  often  at  war  with  Anam  and 
Siam.  On  some  occasions  the  Cambodians  were  victorious, 
and  succeeded  in  subjugating  tho  provinces,  at  other  times 
the  Anamitcs  or  the  Siamese  had  tho  advantage.  During 
the  reign  of  His  Siamese  Majesty  P'hra-Chow-Maha-Cha- 
krapi\t.  who  rcignctl  in  the  old  capital  of  Ayodhya  in  the 
year  16-10  (.v.  n.),  the  Siamese,  being  at  war  with  Pegu, 
were  laid  siege  to  hy  the  Cambodians.  Having  subdued 
the  Peguans,  the  king  of  Siam  pursued  the  Cambodians, 
marched  to  the  very  capital  of  Cambodia,  and  besieged  it, 
cutting  off  all  supplies,  until  the  king  of  Cambodia  ac- 
knowledged himself  vanquished,  and  offered  to  become 
tributary  to  Siam  ;  on  which  the  king  of  Siam  returned  to 
Ayodhya.  taking  with  him  as  hostages  the  two  sons  of  tho 
king  of  Cambodia,  the  elder  of  whom  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Siamese  province  of  Savankalok.  On  the 
death  of  the  king  of  Cambodia  the  king  of  Siam  was  about 
to  ai)point  as  his  successor  the  governor  of  Savankalok, 
when  he  learned  that  a  relative  of  the  deceased  king,  as- 
sisted by  the  Cochin-Chinese,  had  resolved  to  throw  off  his 
allegiance  to  the  monarch  of  Siam.  The  latter  sent  a  large 
army  against  the  insurgents,  but  the  Siamese  were  defeated 
and  Camboilia  became  a  province  of  Cocliin-China.  Fi- 
nally, the  king  of  Siam.  having  once  more  repelled  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Peguans  and  Burmese,  marched  to  Cambodia, 
captured  the  capital,  put  tho  king  to  death,  and  appointed 
king  in  his  stead  one  of  the  princes,  P'hra-Narai-Raina, 
who  was  friendly  to  Siam.  From  that  time  fur  the  space 
of  300  years  the  kings  of  Siam  have  held  the  right  to  es- 
tablish the  rulers  of  Cambodia  and  to  the  payment  of  an 
annual  tribute.  In  17S7.  Ghialong,  the  king  of  Anam,  de- 
sirous of  securing  his  throne  against  the  joint  armies  of 
Cambodia  and  Siam,  entered  into  the  famous  treaty  with 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  by  which  he  agreed,  in  return  for 
French  ai<l.  to  cede  to  his  allies  the  beautiful  town  and 
harbor  of  Turon  Kwang  Han  and  two  atljacent  islands. 
The  vigorous  help  afforded  by  France  proved  effective  not 
only  in  establishing  (Ihialong  on  the  throne,  hut  in  adding 
to  his  dominions  the  rich  provinces  of  Tonquln  and  Cam- 
bodia. But  the  promises  made  in  the  treaty  to  Franco 
were  never  fulfille<l.  with  the  exception  that  the  French 
Christian  missionaries  enjoyed  perfect  civil  and  religious 
freedom.  After  the  death  of  Ghialong.  and  during  the 
reigns  of  the  three  successive  emperors  who  followed  him, 
Cochin-China  was  once  more  ])lmiged  into  a  series  of  wars, 
which  led  to  the  persecution  of  French  Catholic  mission- 
aries, and  which  continued  uff  and  on  for  several  years, 
until  the  establishment  of  Lower  or  French  Cochin-China, 
when  the  kingdom  of  Cambodia  was  onec  more  declared 
independent  of  Siam.  Tho  ruler  of  this  kingdom,  in  real- 
ity only  a  viceroy  aj)]iointed  by  the  king  of  Siam,  was 
crowned  king  in  tlie  jtresencc  of  the  French  and  Siamese 
representatives,  at  his  capital  of  Udong.  under  the  title  of 
P'lira-Xarodom.  etc..  in  June,  IStVl.  P'hra-Xarodom  has 
lately  ceded  to  the  French  authorities  the  right  of  forming 
a  settlement  on  tlie  banks  of  the  Meikhong  Kiver  at  the 
junction  where  its  four  arms  divide  before  falling  into  tho 
China  Sea,  said  to  bo  one  of  the  most  delightful  sites  in 
the  entire  kingdom.  Ever  since  the  instalment  of  P'hra- 
Narodom  under  the  French  jtrotectorate  nothing  has  been 
left  undone  to  secure  the  good-will  of  the  natives.  Tho 
laws  and  customs  of  the  ancient  regime  are  resjiectcd,  and 
even  upheld:  tlic  natural  municipalities  are  carefully  pre- 
served; the  laud-tax,  which  has  always  been  obnoxiuus  to 
the  cultivator  of  the  suil,  has  been  lowered  :  and,  above  all, 
tho  proportion  of  able-bodied  men  annually  required  for 
mililary  and  police  service  has  been  considerably  lessened. 
In  ISnt)  a  new  law  was  issued  regulating  civil  ofliccs.  The 
resources  of  the  country,  however,  are  as  yet  but  poorly 
developed,  although  rice  of  a  very  fine  quality  is  produced 
in  great  abundance;  cotton,  sugar,  indigo,  silk,  and  to- 
bacco are  also  successfully  cultivated,  but  not  with  their 
utmost  possible  results.  The  dwarf  mulberry  grows  freely  ; 
silkworms  are  raised  with  great  facility,  even  with  the  poor 
attention  given  to  this  branch  of  industry;  hemp,  the  betel, 
and  the  areca-nut  are  also  abundant.  The  natives  j)artic- 
ularly  excel  in  naval  architecture,  owing  no  doubt  to  tlio 
magnificent  size  and  qualify  of  tho  timber  employcii  for 
that  purpose;  their  row-galleys  and  i>leasure-bargrs  are 
often  from  ;'»0  to  80  feet  in  length,  composed  of  fine  single 
planks,  each  extending  from  one  extremity  to  the  other. 
They  empli>y  various  descriptions  of  vessels  in  their  coast- 
ing-trade, in  fishing,  and  in  eidleeting  the  hvthr-de-mfr,  or 
Kea-slug.  and  the  swallows'  nests  among  the  cluster  of  islands 
ealh'il  the  Paracels.  Their  tracling  vessels  are  built  on  tho 
plan  of  the  Chinese  junks.  The  religion  of  the  most  part 
of  the  inliabitanis  of  (lie  Indo('bines<>  jieninsula  is  a  niod- 
itioatittn  of  the  system  of  Booddha.  A  yearly  contrihution 
is  levied  by  the  government  for  tho  sujiport  of  a  certain 
number  of  temples,  priests,  and  monasteries,  in  which  tho 
priests  invoke  tho  deity  for  the  public  welfare.    Voluntary 


1182 


INDO-GERMANIC   LANGUAGES— INDRA. 


contributions  of  the  people  for  the  support  of  the  priests 
are  very  groat,  as  they  are  extremely  superstitious. 

Iiulu-  Cliiiiii'-  Rncrs  and  L<iii;iitiiiieii. — The  chief  character- 
istics of  the  various  races  inhabiting  llic  Indo-Chinese  pcn- 
insuhi  arc  mainly  two:  (1)  Ihey  arc  move  or  less  of  Mon- 
golian type:  (2)  they  speak  languages  classed  as  monosyl- 
labic. These  races  are  now  divided  into  seven  groups: 
The  ThiheHyan  and  liholyali,  who  inhabit  Thibet  proper 
N.  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  comprise  the  first  group. 
Tlic  most  important  of  the  races  under  this  head  arc  Hhors, 
Dliciplilas,  Lepchas,  Bhutans,  Kharatis,  Semboos,  Nawars, 
with  many  others.  The  second  group  comprises  the  liur- 
mcsc  and'the  Lohyla  races,  now  in  possession  of  the  west- 
ern ]iortion  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula.  A  number  of 
wild  tribes,  commonly  called  Lohyta,  arc  offshoots  of  these 
respective  races.  The  third  group  is  the  numerous  Nagha 
tribes,  or  serpent-worshippers.  They  style  themselves 
Kli:iwphcc,  and  nre  founil  scattered  all  along  the  regions 
W.  iif  the  river  Kho])hccli.  The  remaining  tribes  worthy 
of  mention  are  the  Khycngs,  who  inhabit  the  Yoomahdong 
Mountains,  which  separate  Assam  from  the  beautiful  valley 
of  the  Irrawaddcc:  the  Kharicns,  a  wild  but  remarkable 
hill-tribe,  who  occupy  the  mountains  of  Pegu  and  the 
southern  part  of  Burinah  (the  more  civilized  Kbaricns  arc 
found  scattered  in  the  valleys  of  the  Irrawaddeo  and  the 
Salween) :  the  Sabaing,  who  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Sitta- 
wong,  may  be  classed  with  this  group.  All  the  various 
tribes  which  are  found  among  the  mountain-regions  and 
river-valleys  of  this  province  arc  probably  the  aborigines 
of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula.  Another  ancient  and  abo- 
riginal tribe  inhabiting  the  delta  of  the  Irrawaddee  is  the 
Mongs,  called  Talaengs  by  the  Burmese.  The  Khamains, 
or  inhabitants  of  Cambodia;  Shans,  called  Penonis  by  the 
Cambodians,  Kho  by  the  Siamese,  and  Moio  by  the  Anam- 
ites — all  these  names  simply  mean  savages.  The  whole 
chain  of  mountains  which  extends  from  the  N.  of  Tonqnin 
to  the  S.  of  Cochin-China  is  inhabited  by  wild  primitive 
tribes  speaking  many  different  dialects.  The  savage  Stiens 
also  inhabit  these  mountain-regions.  The  Siamese,  or 
rather  the  Thais  ("free  men"),  arc  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  Indo-Chinese  nations.  (See  SiAM.)  The 
Laos  inhabit  the  interior;  they  are  classed  under  two 
heads — Laou  poouk  khoa,  "white"  or  "not  tattooed" 
Laos,  and  the  Laou  poouk  dun,  "  tattooed  Laos." 

The  Indo-Chinese  langu.agcs  are  of  monosyllabic  charac- 
ter.   On  the  primitive  language  of  the  Anamitcs  was  grafted 
the  Chinese.     Booddhism  had  specially  selected  the  ver- 
naculars of  the  day  as  the  vehicle  for  its  teaching;  thus,  all 
over  Tndo-China  are  found  in  use  a  stratum  of  words  having 
no  affinity  with  their  languages,  but  which  have  been  in- 
troduced by  the  early   Booddhist  missionaries.     All   the 
Indo-Chinese  languages  are  distinguished  by  certain  rising 
;md  falling  accents,  and  a  great  number  of  words  when  thus 
moiliiicd  cx]iress  entirely  different  meanings.     There  are 
eight  of  these  accentuations,  properly  speaking— the  soft, 
the  abrupt,  the  grave,  the  sharp,  the  circumllex,  the  broad, 
the  rising,  and  the  falling;  only  five  are  used  in  common. 
Without  some  knowledge  of  the  musical  inflections  and 
modilications  of  sound  it  is  impossible  to  understand  any 
of  the  Imlo-Chincse  languages.     All  the  other  languages 
of  this  group  were  originally  dialects.     In  this  sense  the 
Cambodian,    Siamese,   and    Burmese    represent   the   most 
wiilely  diffused  form  of  the  Indo-Chinese  languages.     But 
there"  is  a  marked  dilTcrenee  between   the  speech  of  the 
Siamese,  the  Cambodians,  and  the  Burmese.    The  Burmese 
alphabet  employs  a  grc:it  number  of  double  and  tripb'  con- 
sonants; the  f/i  sound  is  used  with  a  marked  guttural  bre:itb- 
ing,  which  the  Siamese  and  Cambodians  render  into  «/>.    In 
all  these  dialects  not  oidy  the  words,  but  the  vowels  them- 
selves, arc  so  complicated  liy  virtue  of  a  system  of  tones, 
like  those  of  music,  that  a  single  vowel  has  several  dis- 
tinct methods  of  utterance,  and  unless  the  word  be  pro- 
nouncerl  correctly,  not  only  as  to  sound  but  to  tone,  the 
meaning  is  entirely  changed.     The  alphabets  of  the  Bur- 
mese and  Siamese  are  very  different  in  character.     The 
Burmese  use  a  round  character  supposed   to  be  derived 
from  Ceylon.     The  Siamese  use  a  very  handsome  upright 
character,  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Cambodians,  which 
is  still  iiscd  for  their  saered  books,  and  sometimes  called 
Maghadhi  and  at  others  Pali.    I'ali  means  simply  writing, 
not  language.    The  Laos,  in  the  N.  of  Siam.  speak  a  dialect 
peculiar  to  themselves,  but  with  many  Siamese  and  Cam- 
bodian affixes,  and  the  alphabet  is  like  that  of  the  Burmese. 
(See  Asinlir  Joimiul;  Slum   and   Cmlnn-Chtnii,  by  John 
Crawfurd;  Trnrela  in  Indo-Chlna,  by  M.  H.  Mouhot ;  and 
Tiniiih  in  the  Kiiiijdom  of  Chicnymni.  by  Lieut.  S.  11.  I'oole.) 
JIiis.  A.  II.  Leoxowess. 
Indo-Gcrmanic  LanguaKcs.    See  Laxgu.ige,  by 
Pniu-.  W.  D.  WiiiTNMV.  I'll.  1).,  LL.I). 

Iiitlo'rei  a  subsidiary  or  protected  state  of  Hindustan, 
belon-iug  to  the  family  of  Holkar,  and  consisting  of  sev- 


eral almost  insulated  territories  situated  on  the  slope  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains  along  the  river  Nevbudda.  Area,  42.')0 
square  miles.  Pop.  SI;;. 01  J.  The  inhabitants  belong  mostly 
to  the  aboriginal  tribe  of  the  Bheels,  one  of  the  wildest  and 
most  savage  of  India.  Cap.  Indore,  situated  in  lat.  22°  42' 
N.  and  Ion.  75°  5U'  E.,  with  l.i.DOO  inhabitants. 

Indorsement.  See  Bill  oi-  Excu.tNGi:,  by  Piior.  T. 
W.  DwiciiT,  l.L.D. 

lu'dra.  The  ancient  Hindus,  in  the  Vedic  period  of 
their  religion,  did  not  worship  the  Indian  Triad  or  heroes, 
but  deified  and  worshipped  the  sky,  the  sun,  the  dawn,  fire, 
lightning,  wiml,  and  other  elements.  Indra  was  the  chief 
of  the  deities  then  worshipped.  His  name  is  from  the  .San- 
skrit root  id,  to  "sec,  discover,  or  discern."  Indra  denoted 
the  sky,  which,  from  overhanging  the  world,  was  supposed 
to  discern  all.  It  also  ajipears  from  the  name  given  to  the 
sapphire,  Indra-iiila,  or  "  ludra-blue,"  and  from  other  con- 
siderations, that  it  was  on  account  of  the  blue  color  of  the 
sky  that  the  stone  received  the  name  of  the  Hindu  deity. 
The  primitive  Aryans  of  India  believed  that  it  was  the  sky 
which  caused  rain,  and  they  therefore  regarded  Indra,  or 
the  sky.  as  the  chief  of  the  gods.  From  all  that  we  find 
narrated  about  Indra,  it  is  evident  that  his  causing  rain 
was  regarded  by  Hindus  as  the  most  important  evidence 
of  his  divine  power.  M'atcr  means  wealth  in  the  East,  and 
Indr.a's  compelling  the  fleeting  clouds  to  pause  over  the 
riee-cl.ad  country,  and  drop  their  precious  burdens  on  the 
earth,  was  esteemed  as  the  ehiefest  of  his  godlike  exploits. 
In  offering  him  praise  as  the  author  of  rain,  Hindus  fancied 
that  the  cloud  which  failed  to  bring  rain  was  an  osiira,  OJ 
demon.  Sueli  a  cloud  was  ])articuhirly  a  rrifra  (from  vri, 
to  "  hide  or  envelop  "),  because  it  spread  over  the  face  of 
the  heaven  and  tried  to  obscure  the  face  of  the  sun.  Hin- 
dus pictured  Indra's  undertaking  to  cause  rain  as  his  going 
forth  to  do  battle  with  this  evil  vritro:  and  they  represented 
rain  to  be  caused  by  his  cleaving  the  demon-cloud  with  his 
i-a;Vo,  or  thunderbolt,  and  thereby  slaying  the  nsiirn.  With 
reference  to  this  feat,  numberless  songs  were  composed  in 
praise  of  the  sky-god  ;  and  inasmuch  as  Indra  was  com- 
pletely victorious  in  every  one  of  his  contests  with  the 
cloud-demons,  he  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  generally 
as  the  giver  of  victory,  and  in  particular  as  the  god  who 
enabled  the  .\ryan  invaders  of  India  to  conquer  the  abo- 
rigines; and  sohis  worship  rapidly  became  more  and  more 
popular.  In  the  epic  and  Puranie  periods  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  Indra  enjoyed  great  legendary  fame,  but  he  grad- 
ually lust  his  place  in  the  Indian  Pantheon  as  the  chief  of 
the  gods.  In  Vedic  times,  however,  he  was  supreme,  or 
only  shared  his  throne  with  ^.^iii'  (fire),  Siii;/u  (the  sun), 
the  Miiniix  (winds),  and  f'sAiis  (the  dawnb  The  hymns  in 
praise  of  Indra  arc  amongst  the  most  spirited  and  beautiful 
in  the  Jlii)-  Vrda.  It  is  impossible  to  introduce  lengthy  ex- 
tr.acts  into  this  place,  but  one  famous  one  may  be  given.  In 
the  .12d  Sakta  of  the  1st  Maudala  of  the  Ulij-Veda  it  is 
written  as  follows : 

1.  I  declare  the  former  valorous  deeds  ofludni— deeds  which  the 

tbunderer  has  achieved.  He  cast  the  waters  down  to  earth  ; 
he  broke  a  way  for  the  torrents  of  the  mountains. 

2.  He  clove  the  torrent  which  sought  refuse  on  the  mountain. 

Tr.islilru  ilbe  smith)  sharpened  for  bim  his  far-whirling 
thunderbolt;  the  fullowinK  waters  quickly  hasteucd  to  the 
ocean,  like  cows  hasleuiug  to  their  calves. 

«  «  »  * 

3.  Inasmuch,  Indra,  as  thou  hast  divided  the  first-born  of  the 

elouds,  thou  bast  deslroved  the  delusions  of  the  delnders, 
and  then  causing  the  siin,  the  dawn,  the  sky,  to  api)Car, 
thou  hast  not  left  an  enemy  to  oppose  thee.  .       ,    ., 

4  With  his  vast  and  destructive  thunderbolt  Tudra  struck  the 

dark,  mutilated  Vrilni.  As  the  trunks  of  trees  are  felled  by 
the  axe,  so  lies  Ahi  prostrate  on  the  earlh. 

*  *  •  * 

5  The  mother  of  Vriira  was  bending  over  her  son,  when  Indra 

struck  her  back  with  his  bolt.  So  they  lay,  the  iii..llier 
above,  the  son  below;  and  Danu  slept  with  her  son,  like  a 
cow  witli  its  calf 

.  «  •  • 

6  Then  Indra,  the  wielder  of  the  thunderbolt,  became  the  sov- 

erci-.;ii  of  all  that  is  movable  and  iiuuiovable,  of  bunied  and 
of  bornless  cattle  ;  and  as  be  abides  the  monarch  of  men,  he 
comprehended  all  things  within  him,  as  the  circumlerence 
comprehends  the  spokes  of  the  wheel. 
As  the  sky.  though  changeable,  constantly  reverts  to  its 
perfection  of  cloudless  beauty,  so  Indra  was  celebrated  as 
the  "  ever-youthful  "  and  "  the  unfading."    As  he  was  sup- 
poscil  cspe"ciallv  to  protect  the  Aryans,  he  was  praised  as 
•'  the  discoinfiteV  of  those  who  neglect  religious  rites  '  and 
"b.rd  of  the  devout."     But  as  time  went  by  the  worship- 
pers of  Indra  gradually  regarded  him  us  more  a  god  of 
war  than  anything  else:  and  so,  by  a  natural  transition, 
they  passed  on  to  anthropomorphize  their  deity,  and  im- 
agined him  at  length  to  be  a  brave,  imperious,  impetuous 
monarch.      In    i\\e  Ailnrnin-lin'ihmiimt    (an    anciellt_  ex- 
planatory eommeularv  on'  the  .1/.i.i(r<i»  of  the  ICuj    Vrda) 
Indra  is'reg.arded  as  the  ruler  of  the  inferior  gods,  and  the 


INDKE  -IXDL'CTIOX  AND  ABSTKACTION. 


urn 


personification  of  all  that  n  mortal  king  should  be.  Indra 
afterwards  bccamu  luss  an  object  of  wor^^hip  than  of  ad- 
miration, and  in  the  epic  and  Puranic  period  of  Hindu 
literature  ho  was  made  a  favorite  subject  lor  the  ehibornte 
and  extravagant  eulogies  of  poets.  The>e  gradually  in- 
vcsNd  him  with  a  peculiar  splendor,  whirh  again  attracted 
to  the  gud  the  langui.ihiiig  attention  of  Uiuduslan,  and  re- 
vived his  ciiltitH.  He  was  now  represented  as  enthroned  in 
the  east  as  one  of  the  eight  guardians  of  the  world.  He 
divflt  in  an  ineflably  luxurious  paradij^c.  Sirtirifii,  the  hoaven 
of  the  inferior  divinities,  and  the  final  blissful  goal  of  all 
pious  mortal.'^  who  had  attained  sanctity  hy  a  life  spent  on 
earth  devoted  to  the  due  performance  of  religious  duties. 
It  was  hero  that  Iho  Gundhnrvaa  gang  in  chorus  songs 
sweeter  tlian  any  ever  heard  by  man  ;  and  it  was  here  that 
the  lovely  dancing-girls,  the  A}}9<ttusn»,  displayed  those 
blushing  charms  which  tlie  austerest  of  mortal  hermits 
could  scarcely  resist.  Here,  too,  rose  the  turrets  of  the 
most  glorious  of  cities.  Am&ravitti  ;  and  here  spread  that 
most  exquisite  of  gardens,  Xmnfannf  with  its  five  all-yield- 
ing trees.  Surrounded  by  all  this  happiness  and  beauty, 
Indra  still  sent  the  sweet  rain  upon  the  earth,  and  struck 
the  cloud-demons  who  refused  to  obey  his  behests  with  his 
unerring  vajni.  We  now  find  him  being  represented  in 
paintings  and  sculptures.  He  possesses  innumerable  eyes.. 
as  the  sky-god  who  discerns  all.  These  eyes  are  repre- 
sented as  thickly  covering  his  body.  He  has  four  arms, 
perhaps  typical  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  sky.  In  one 
famous  painting  he  is  represented  as  riding  on  an  elephant 
with  three  trunks.  In  another  he  is  depicted  as  standing 
on  an  elephant,  whilst  a  tree  grows  out  of  his  head  and 
peacocks  nestle  in  its  branches.  The  eyes  in  the  tails  of 
the  peacocks  may  n-prcscnt  the  stars  of  the  firmament. 
Indra  figures  in  four  Interesting  drawings  in  Moor's //i'ik/h 
Pantheon.  Sculptures  of  the  god  are  to  be  found  in  the 
caves  of  Elephanta  and  Ellura.  The  characteristics  and 
attributes  ascribed  to  Indra  in  Indian  mythology  are  capi- 
tally reproduced  by  Sir  W.  Junes  in  his  famous  hymn  to 
the  god,  who  is  represented  as 

"Mounted  on  the  sun's  brl^lit  beam, 
Darter  of  the  swilt  blue  bolt. 
Sprinkler  of  gonial  dews  and  fruitful  rains 
O'er  hills  and  tbirsly  plains.'* 
The  following  lines  may  also  be  quoted,  as  they  vividly 
bring  before  the  reader  the  god  himself,  his  appearance,  bis 
"robes  of  changing  dyes"  (perhaps  the  variable  clouds), 
and  the  deities  which  act  as  his  servants.     The  story  to 
which  the  lines  arc  a  sequel  is  this:  Indra  on  one  occasion 
assumed  the  form  of  a  shepherd-lad,  that  he  might  steal 
some  pomegranate-flowers  from  a  garden  **  to  detrk  the  dark 
tresses  of  his  charming  consort,  ludrani.''     Whereupon, 
"The  reckless  peasant,  who  these  glowinc  flowers, 

Hopeful  of  rubi«*d  fruit,  had  fostered  long, 

Si-i/.t'd,  and  with  cordaw  strong 

SbackltH!  thp  ^f»d  who  irave  him  showers. 

Hlr:ii.:ht  from  st-vt-n  winrls  iuimortal  ^cnii  flew: 

Vakin'a  ijreen,  whom  foamy  waves  obey; 

Itriijbt  Vahni,  fluiiiint;  like  the  lamp  of  day ; 

KrviiKA,  sou^'ht  by  all,  <'njoye<l  by  tuw; 

M  \ttT"T.  who  bills  the  wiiiu'M  brc-zrs  play  ; 

Si. Til  ^'am\,  rulhlfHs  ju(li.'tv,  and  ls.\coId; 

\\"\l\\  Naiukit,  mildly  hold; — 

They,  with  the  rud<ly  Ibish  whieh  points  his  thunder. 

It -nd  his  vain  bands  u^'^under. 

Th'  rxidting  C'hI  resuuies  hin  thousand  eyes. 

Four  arms  divine,  and  lob^'S  of  cbauging'dyes." 

These  lines  allude  to  a  late  period  of  the  cultus  of  Indra, 
as  he  is  represented  as  taking  the  form  of  a  shepherd-boy. 
Still,  the  idea  of  Indra  breomiiig  occasionally  incarnate  is 
oni*  which  does  not  seem  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  even  some 
of  the  Vedic  hymns,  in  which  he  is  lauded  as  the  destroyer 
of  certain  chiefs  who  arc  aetually  mentioned  by  name.  One 
feature  of  his  earliest  worship  was  the  ofl'iTing  to  him,  by 

f>iou^  IJrahumns,  of  the  juice  of  the  soma-phint.  The  later 
egends  about  Indra  are  not  all  creilitablc  to  him.  The 
sl«'ry  of  his  seduction  of  Ahilya,  the  handsome  consort  of 
Gotama,  is  narrated  in  all  its  coarseness  in  the  :'.8th  chap- 
ter of  the  itnmQifnmt.  Hntced,  Indra  became  in  Puranic 
timt.'S  noted  for  his  profligacy.  He  constantly  sent  Ap- 
iKu-aitftM  (Iho  beautiful  dancing-girlH  of  his  paradise)  to 
tempt  ascctifs.  When  the  holy  hermit,  Viswamitra,  had 
been  cngage<l  for  thousands  of  years  in  praetising  the  most 
rigorous  austerities,  Indra  fent  the  moi't  beautiful  yrnnhi 
to  him.  The  unfortunate  sage  was  immediately  overcome, 
'•  for,  seeing  her  bathing,  of  surprising  form,  uii|mrallelcd  in 
beauty,  her  clothes  wetted  by  the  stream  exhibiting  her 
fascinating  symmetry  of  frame,  he.  subdued  by  the  arrows 
of  Kttfi(f<trf,a,  approacheil  her,  and  five  times  five  years 
spent  in  dalliance  with  her  passed  away  like  a  moment." 
At  length,  however,  (he  ascetic  exclaimed,  "What !  are  my 
wisdom,  my  firm  resolution,  my  nusterities,  all  destroyed 
at  onee,  and  by  a  woman  ?  Seduced  by  the  crime  in  which 
Indra  delights,  I  am  stripped  of  the  advantages  arising 


from  all  my  austerities.*'  (Jiamiit/aua,  section  60.)  Indra 
is  also  called  by  the  names  of  Sak-rOf  Vajrapani,  Siitakratii, 
VritnihuHf   Vuanva,  and  Makcmira.         K.  C.  Caldwkll. 

Indrc,  department  of  Central  France,  on  the  Intlre,  a 
tributary  to  the  Loire.  Area,  2024  square  miles.  Pop. 
277, til*:;.  Although  a  part  of  the  surface  is  barren  or 
swampy,  considerable  quantities  of  wine  and  wheat  arc 
niised  for  exportation.  Among  articles  of  industry  arc 
cutlery,  earthenware,  leather,  and  cotton  cloths.  Of  ;J4,0tlO 
children  between  seven  and  thirteen  years,  Ill.OOO  did  not 
receive  any  school  education  in  iSo".  Cap.  Chatcauroux. 
Indre,  a  river  of  France,  chiefly  in  the  department  of 
the  same  name,  flows  into  the  Loire  S.  W.  of  Tours,  after 
a  X.  AV.  course  of  1 16  miles.  It  is  navigable  from  Locbcs 
to  the  Loire,  45  miles, 

Indre-et-IiOire,  department  of  Central  France,  on 
the  Loire,  along  which  high  dykes  have  been  built  to  pre- 
vent inundations.  Area,  2332  square  miles.  Pop.  317,027. 
Wine  and  wheat  are  produced,  trufilcs  and  fruits  are  raised, 
and  the  culture  and  nmnufacturc  of  silk  are  steadily  in- 
creasing. Of  39,809  children  between  seven  and  thirteen 
years,  8645  did  not  receive  any  school  education  at  all  in 
1857.     Cap.  Tours. 

Induction  and  Abstrac'tion  arc  the  two  forms  of 
Genke:.\i,i/,ation  (wliich  see),  abstraction  comparing  ]ihe- 
nometia  with  respect  to  the  similarity  of  their  substance, 
and  establishing  a  class;  induction  comparing  jthcnomcna 
with  respect  to  the  similarity  of  their  cause,  and  establish- 
ing a  law  as  the  result  "of  the  generalization.  As  reduction 
is  the  opposite  to  abstraction,  deduction  is  the  opposite  to 
induction.  Cy  abstraction  the  definition  of  a  species  is 
established;  by  reduction  a  specimen  is  referred  to  its  spe- 
cies. By  induction  the  law  is  established  which  governs  cer- 
tain phenomena;  by  deduction  a  phenomenon  is  explained 
as  governed  by  a  certain  law.  The  establishment  of  the 
law  of  gravitation  from  the  fact  that  ajiples  fall  to  the 
earth  is  an  induction  ;  the  explanation  of  the  ]>benonienon 
of  ebb  and  flood  from  the  law  of  gravitation  is  a  deduction. 
It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  although  these  disti net  ions 
arcof  great  importance  as  means  of  understanding  thorough- 
ly the  logical  operations  of  the  human  mind,  yet  in  actual 
thinking  the^'  occur  very  seldom,  if  ever,  in  a  perfectly  un- 
mixed state.  In  thinking  we  generally  use  the  two  o]»po- 
site  methods  of  operation  at  once,  just  as  in  seeing  we  use 
both  the  eyes,  in  iiearing  both  the  ejirs,  in  working  both 
the  hands,  and  in  walking  both  the  legs.  It  is  true,  in 
general,  that  inventions  are  the  fruits  of  deduction,  and  dis- 
coveries of  induction  ;  and  as  it  is  the  natural  order  tliat  the 
law  shall  be  fouml  by  induction  before  it  can  be  applied  by 
deduction,  we  find,  as  a  general  rule,  that  discoveries  pre- 
cede inventions.  First  came  Oersted's  discovery  of  elect  ro- 
magnetism,  then  Morse's  inveution  of  the  telegraph.  Kut 
was  the  invention  of  the  lightning-rod  a  mere  deduction? 
or  was  the  discovery  of  the  globular  form  of  the  earth  a 
more  induction  ?  With  Ptolemy,  who  after  Hipparchus 
assumed  that  the  earth  is  a  globe  from  the  movements  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  it  is  as  impossible  to  reduce  the  rea- 
soning process  to  a  merely  inductive  or  merely  deductive 

'  method  as  it  would  be  to  say  whether  it  is  the  right  hand 
which  washes  the  Icit  or  the  left  which  washes  the  right. 

The  inductive  process  of  reasoning  has  received  its  most 
thorough  analysis  from  Stuart  Mill  in  his  Si/nlim  *>/  Lni/lc. 

I  He  distinguishes  between  four  different  methods  in  which 
the   inductive  operation  can  he  carried  on — namely,  Iho 

,  methods  of  agreement,  of  diirerence,  of  residues,  and  of 
concomitant  variations— and  he  condenses  the  descrijition 
of  each  method  into  a  formal  cnn(»n  or  rule  of  in<luetion. 
Thus,  tho  first  canon,  or  the  rule  of  the  method  of  agree- 
ment, pronounces  that  )'/  two  or  mure  iiiKtaiit-cH  of  the  phe- 
nomenon  under  invfttiyntion   have  onfi/  one  circnnititanec  mi 

j  common,  the  circitviHtiincc  in  ichivh  ahnic  aft  the  inntitnee^ 
atfrce  {»  the  cnnae  of  the  ffiiin  phenomenon.    IJut  ns  in  many 

'  cases  it  would  be  n  difl'ieult  and  liiborious.  not  to  say  end- 
less and  impracticable  task,  out  of  the  millions  vi'  eircum- 
stances  whieh  may  accompany  a  phenomenon  in  dilferent 
instances,  to  eliminate  (hose  whieli  arc  accidental,  because 

,  they  do  not  occur  in  all  instances,  and  single  out  that  one 
which  must  be  the  cause,  because  it  is  ever  recurring,  it  is 
necessary  (o  follow  another  method  in  carrying  on  the  ope- 
ration of  induction.  In  such  eases  it  will  be  found  more 
expedient  to  single  out  that  one  circumstance  by  the  ex- 
clusion of  which  the  phenomenon  disappears,  and  which 
consequently  must  bo  its  cause.  The  rule  of  Ibis  method, 
the  method  of  diflferonce,  is  expressed  in  the  following 
canon  :  //*  mi  tnntnner  in  trkieh  the  phenomenon  ntult  r  in- 
ventiiftttion  oceurn^  and  an  i'iit/«uirr  in  rr/n'r/i  it  doen  not  oe- 
riir,  htirit  ccerif  eircnmntnnce  exrrpt  one  in  common  (that  one 
o'tnrrinif  oii/y  t'li  the  former),  the  eiicumatance  in  tchieh 
itluui-   thf   two    inxtfineeg   differ    in   the   caune,  or  ft  uerrsgnrif 

.  p'lrt  *f  the  cuime,  of  the  phenomenon.    Tlicrc  are  phenomena, 


IIM 


INDULGENCE— INES  DE  CASTRO. 


however — and  as  our  knowledge  extends  they  become  more 
frequent — of  which  the  causes  are  partly  known,  ])artly  un- 
known. In  such  cases  the  method  of  residues  must  bo  re- 
sorted to,  for  which  the  rule  is:  Subduct  from  any  phcnomcn>tn 
stirh  pnrt  as  is  kvown  bi/  }>rrrtouH  iiitliiction  to  br  the  tffect 
of  certain  antecedents,  and  the  residue  o/  the  p!i<nonicnvn  /« 
the  rifcrt  of  the  remuinintf  antecedents.  Finally,  there  are 
phononicna  of  which  the  cause  cannot  be  found  out  by  any 
kind  of  elimination,  because  the  causal  a;j;ency  is  universal. 
Thus,  the  laws  governing;  jihcnumf-na  caused  by  the  earth's 
attrai-tiou  or  by  heat  cannot  be  ascertained  by  any  of  the 
tbree  former  methods  of  induction,  because  we  cannot  get 
out  of  the  sphere  of  the  earth's  attraction,  and  because 
there  is  nothing  in  which  heat  is  absent.  In  such  cases 
the  method  of  concomitant  variations  must  be  applied,  the 
rule  fur  which  is:  Whatever  phenomenon  raries  in  ant/ tnan- 
jier  irh>  nrrrr  another  phenomenon  varies  in  some  particular 
mannrr,  in  either  a  cause  of  that  phenomenon,  or  is  connected 
irith  it  throuffh  some  fact  of  causation.  The  precision  and 
exhaust iveness  of  these  rules  arc  striking,  but  it  is  also  ob- 
vious that  real  thinking  seldom,  if  ever,  follows  any  of  these 
tracks  exclusively.  As  induction  and  deduction  generally 
walk  together,  hand  in  hand^  so  also  the  different  methods 
of  induction.  Clemens  Petersen. 

Indulgence  meant  originally  a  release  from  the  tem- 
poral penalties  which  remain  due  for  a  sin  after  the  sin 
itself  has  been  remitted  by  confession  and  absolution,  and 
was  granted  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church  not  only  by  the  pope,  but  by  all  the  bishops,  to  in- 
firm persons  or  to  those  penitents  who  showed  extraordi- 
nary contrition.  I3y  degrees,  the  practice  of  remitting 
punishment  for  money  was  introduced,  the  bishops  allow- 
ing offenders  to  buy  off  the  canonical  penalties  by  bestow- 
ing gifts  for  some  religious  purpose:  and  from  this  time 
the  popes  began  to  reserve  for  themselves  the  right  of 
granting,  or  rather  selling,  indulgences.  In  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  this  right  was  extended  in  an  enor- 
mous degree.  After  the  establishment  of  the  doctrine  of 
Oi'EitA  SiPEiiEUOttATORiA  (whichsce)  the  pope  arrogated  not 
only  the  privilege  of  releasing  from  temporal  penalties,  but 
the  power  of  forgiving  sin;  and  this  enormous  extension 
was  accompanied  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
with  the  most  scandalous  practices.  (See  Reformation, 
Tetzel.) 

In'dus,  the  great  river  of  Southern  Asia  which  separates 
Hindustan  from  Afghanistan.  It  rises  in  the  Himalayas  in 
lat.  ."il°  20'  N.  and  Ion.  81°  15'  E.,  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  Kailas,  at  an  elevation  of  18,000  feet.  After  receiving 
the  (Jartope,  it  bursts  through  the  Himalayas  and  flows 
through  the  lowland  to  the  Arabian  Sea.  At  Attock,  the 
point  where  Alexander  entered  into  India,  \m)  miles  from 
its  outlet,  and  at  an  elevation  of  only  1000  feet,  it  receives 
the  Cabool  and  becomes  navigable:  470  miles  from  the 
ocean  it  is  joined  by  the  Punjaub,  which  is  formed  by  the 
conniicneo  of  five  large  rivers;  but  at  Migani,  S  miles  N. 
of  Hyderabad  and  75  miles  from  the  ocean,  it  divides  and 
forms  a  delta  whose  breadth  along  the  coast  is  130  miles. 
It  enters  the  Arabian  Sea  through  a  great  number  of 
mouths,  of  which  the  Koree  is  the  widest  and  deepest,  but 
even  that  one  is  not  accessible  forvcj^sols  of  more  than  fifty 
tons,  the  channel  being  much  encumbered  by  shoals  and 
mud-banks.  The  Indus  abounds  in  fish,  but  is  much  in- 
fested with  crocodiles. 

Industrial  Kxhibitions.  See  Exposition,  Inter- 
national ANh  I'sivKUsAi.,  by  F.  A.  P.  IJausahd:  and 
Km'iisition,  Tim-:  International  Universal,  by  Prof. 
W.  P.  Ulaki:.  a.  M.,  Pii.  B. 

Indus'trinI  Schools,  a  term  which  may  have  several 
applications,  hut  of  which  the  strict  legal  meaning  in  Great 
Britain  is  confined  to  institutions,  established  or  recognized 
by  the  government,  to  which  juvenile  offenders  may  be  sent 
by  a  magistrate.  Attempts  to  ingraft  the  industrial  feature 
upon  voluntary  schools  have  not  been  rewarded  with  much 
success,  at  least  as  regards  their  usefulness  to  the  lower 
classes;  and  in  the  British  revised  code  the  grants  for- 
merly made  to  such  schools  were  discontinued.  It  seems 
necessary  to  the  usefulness  of  industrial  schools  that  the 
chiMren  be  wholly  withilrawn  from  the  control  of  parents, 
and  their  entire  direction  assumed  by  the  school  author- 
ities, in  which  carsc  they  naturally  become  assimilated  to 
reform  schools  or  houses  of  correction,  thus  suppressing  the 
element  of  sjjontaneity  which  alone  can  entitle  industrial 
schools  to  a  classification  ajiart  from  discijdinary  institu- 
tions. The  number  of  industrial  seliools  in  England  and 
Scotland  in  ISGl  was  only  oil,  with  iilSU  pupils. 

Industry,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  McDonough  co.,  111.,  8 
miles  from  Macomb  City.     Pop    37S  ;  of  tp.  1533. 

Industry,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co..  Jle..  10  miles  N.E. 
of  Fitrmington.  It  has  -1  churches,  and  manufactures  of 
agricultural  tools.     Pop.  725. 


Industry,  a  v.  of  York  tp.,  Belmont  co.,  0.,  ^  mile 
from  Powhatan  Point,  on  the  Ohio  River.     Pop.  58. 

Industry,  post-tp.  of  Beaver  co..  Pa.,  on  the  Ohio 
River  and  the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg  R.  R.     Pop.  "96. 

luebri'cty  [Lat.  inebriare,  "to  make  drunk"],  in  the 
present  acceptation  of  the  term,  is  used  to  denote  the  dis- 
eased condition  of  the  system  produced  by  the  habitual  use 
of  alcohol.  Its  synonyms  are  ahohofism.  di/psomania,  and 
oinomnnifi.  Alcohol  introduced  into  the  circulation  acts 
upon,  and  to  a  certain  extent  destroys,  the  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blood,  and  thus,  secondarily,  affects  all  the  organs 
of  the  body.  Its  most  common  moilc  of  introduction  into 
the  system  is  in  the  form  of  s]iirituous  and  fermented 
drinks:  and  in  those  addicted  to  its  habitual  use  the  prin- 
cipal lesions  arc  chronic  hypcra^mia  and  subsequent 
softening  of  the  brain,  cirrhosis  and  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  liver,  fatty  degeneration  of  the  kidneys,  and  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  heart.  Formerly,  inebriety  was  re- 
garded as  a  crime,  but  within  a  few  years  science  has 
shown  it  to  be  a  disease,  and  institutions  have  been  es- 
tablished for  its  treatment  and  cure.  Statistics  f:-om 
these  institutions  have  demonstrated — I.  Inebriety  is  a  dis- 
ease, and  is  curable.  11.  Relapses  may  or  may  not  occur. 
The  patients  in  hospitals  for  the  treatment  of  inebriates 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes — viz.  I.  Those  who  by 
social  indulgence,  without  hereditary  taint,  have  become 
inebriates.  These,  as  a  class,  are  curable  by  the  aid  of  an 
institution.  II.  Those  in  whom  the  disease  is  inherited, 
in  which  cases  it  manifests  itself  in  paroxysms  ("sprees") 
at  variable  intervals.  These  are  more  difficult  to  restore 
to  health.  III.  Those  who  seem  totally  depraved  in  all 
their  instincts,  and  exhibit  no  desire  for  restoration  to 
health.  These,  as  a  class,  are  incurable,  and  should,  for 
the  ])rotection  of  society,  be  placed  under  permanent  re- 
straint in  institutions  distinct  from  those  of  a  reformatory 
character.  Carefully  prepared  reports  from  hospitals  for 
inebriates  show  that  a  very  large  percentage  (between  50 
and  fiO)  of  the  patients  treated  in  them  are  restored  per- 
manently. WiLLARD  Parker. 

InequaTity  [Lat.  in,  and  rrqualitas'].  An  inequality 
is  an  algebraic  expression  indicating  that  one  quantity  is 
greater  or  less  than  another.  The  sign  >  is  called  the  sign 
of  inequality:  when  placed  between  two  quantities,  it  in- 
dicates that  the  quantity  at  the  opening  is  greater  than  the 
other.  Thus,  the  expressions  3>2  and  5<9  arc  inequal- 
ities; the  former  is  read  3  is  greater  than  2,  and  the  latter, 
5  is  frus  than  9.  The  parts  connected  by  the  sign  are  called 
members;  that  on  the  left  of  the  sign  is  called  the  /rr»/  mem- 
ber, and  that  on  the  right  the  second  member.  Of  two  un- 
equal quantities,  that  is  algebraically  the  greater  whose 
value  is  nearer  to  -(■  co.  Two  inequalities  are  said  to  sub- 
sist in  the  same  nmxe  when  the  greater  quantity  is  in  the 
first  member  of  both,  or  in  the  second  member  of  both;  they 
subsist  in  a  contrari/  sense  when  the  greater  quantity  is  in 
the  first  member  of  one  and  in  the  second  member  of  the 
other.  Thus,  the  inequalities  3>7  and  4>9subsist  in  the 
same  sense,  but  the  inequalities  3>7and  9<I4  subsist  in 
a  contrary  sense. 

Inequalities  may  bo  transformed  in  accordance  with  Iho 
following  principles:  (1)  If  we  add  the  same  quantity  to, 
or  subtract  it  fr<)m,  both  members,  the  resulting  inequality 
will  subsist  in  the  same  sense.  (2)  If  two  inequalities 
subsist  in  the  same  sense,  and  if  we  add  them  member  to 
member,  the  resulting  inequality  will  subsist  in  the  same 
sense.  (3)  If  both  members  of^  an  inequality  are  multi- 
plied or  divided  by  the  same  positive  quantity,  the  result- 
ing inequality  will  subsist  in  the  same  sense.  If  both 
members  are  multiplied  or  divided  by  the  sumo  negative 
quantity,  the  resulting  inequality  will  subsist  in  a  contrary 
sense.  (I)  If  both  members  of  an  inequality  are  positive, 
and  if  both  are  raised  to  any  power,  the  resulting  inequal- 
ity will  subsist  in  the  same  sense. 

These  principles  enable  us  to  reduce  an  inequality  to 
another  in  which  one  member  is  the  unknown  (piantity; 
the  other  member  is  then  a  limiting  value  of  that  nuantily. 

W.  (i.  Peck. 

Iner'tia,  or  Vis  Iner'tiro  [Lat.,  the  "power  of  inac- 
tivity "],  a  universal  properly  of  matter  by  reason  of  which 
if  in  motion  it  will  for  ever  continue  in  motion,  or  if  at  rest 
it  will  for  ever  continue  at  rest,  unless  operated  upon  by 
some  external  force, 

I'nes  de  Cas'tro,  descended  from  one  of  the  richest 
and  noblest  families  of  <!alicia.  when  her  cousin.  Donna 
Coustantia,  married  Don  Pedro,  the  crown  prince  of  Portu- 
gal, nceompanied  her  as  maid-of-honor.  Incs  was  very 
beautiful ;  she  was  called  *'  Incs  with  the  heron-neck."  At 
the  first  glance  I>on  Pedro  fell  in  love  with  her,  and  when, 
in  13tl.  Honna  Cimstantia  died,  ho  secretly  married  her. 
In  135.'i.  Don  Pedro's  father,  the  old  king  of  Portugal,  Al- 
fonso IV.,  had  her  assassinated  for  political  reasons;  and 


INFALLIBILIST— INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  POPE. 


1185 


the  passioDato  depth  and  wild  character  of  the  lore  which 
Don  Pedro  bnd  entcrtaiued  for  her  became  nppareut  in  his 
sorrow  and  in  his  revenge.  AVhen  Alfonso  died  iu  1367 
and  Pedro  became  kiu}^,  the  corpse  of  Ines  was  placed  on 
the  throne  in  royal  attire  and  received  royal  homan;e ;  then 
it  was  solemnly  entombed  under  a  niagnificenl  munumeut 
and  with  f^or^eous  jirocessioiial  pomp,  llcrassassins  were 
put  to  deiilh  in  a  most  cruel  manner. 

Infal'libiliHt  [Lat.  mi,  "  not."  and /.t/Zjfc/^  "capable 
of  erring  "],  one  who  believes  in  the  infallibility  of  the  pope. 
The  term  is  of  recent  origin,  and  was  brought  into  use  in 
1870,  during  the  Vatican  Council,  which  at  first  was  divided 
between  iuf'-tiUhiUftH  and  nnti-in/affibiHita,  but  at  last  de- 
cided that  the  pope  was  infallible — »'.  c.  free  from  all  error — 
in  his  official  utterances  as  the  head  of  the  Catholic  Church 
on  questions  of  faith  and  morals.  Theanti-infallibilists  were 
divided  into  two  parties — those  who  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  papal  infallibility  from  principle,  as  false  (Bishops  Ilefele, 
Marct.  Kenriok.  Darboy),  and  those  who  oppo:?cd  it  only 
from  expediency,  deeming  it  inopportune,  or  untimely  and 
unwise  to  define  and  to  declare  the  dogma ;  hence  the  latter 
were  called  also  tnopportiini^t^y  as  distinct  from  the  oppor- 
tHHtata.     (See  I.vfallibihtv  and  Vatican  Cor.voii,.) 

Philip  Schaff. 

Infallibil'ity  of  the  Pope,    Infallibility  [It.  inj\d~ 

lihilitii;  i^]^Vkn.  iii/alihilidnd:  Yt.  in/aHdhUitf.;  Ger.  I n/al- 
lihiUtlU,  C^t/ehlbftrkeit]  is  exemption  from  error  (incrra- 
bility),  and  corresponds  to  impeccnhllity,  or  exemption  from 
8in  (sinlcssnessl ;  the  former  is  the  perfection  of  knowledge. 
the  latter  tho  perfection  of  will  or  character;  both  are 
united  in  (Jod  and  in  Christ,  but  not  in  any  human  being 
in  this  world  of  sin  and  error.  The  word  is  chiefly  used 
in  connection  with  tho  Church  and  tho  bishop  of  Home. 
All  Christians  believe  that  tho  word  of  Uod  in  the  Bible  is 
inspired,  and  hence  infallible.  The  Greek  Church  holds,  in 
addition  to  this,  that  the  Church  universal,  as  represented 
in  a  truly  cecumenical  council,  is  infallible,  but  restricts 
this  to  the  first  seven  councils  from  .32 j  to  787.  The  Roman 
Church  goes  still  farther,  and  declares  the  pope,  even  with- 
out an  oecumenical  council,  infallible,  not  indeed  in  his  in- 
dividual but  in  his  official  character,  whenever  he  speaks 
ex  rafAr(/i-<i— that  is,  whenever  he  addresses  tho  whole 
Catholic  world  on  a  matter  touching  Christian  faith  or 
morals.  This  view  was  formerly  a  disputed  opinion,  stronglv 
opposed  by  the  Galileans  and  all  liberal  Catholics,  but  is 
now  by  a  decree  of  the  Vatican  Council  a  dogma  of  faith 
which  must  bo  believed  by  every  Catholic  on  pain  of  ex- 
communication and  damnation.  Tho  Vatican  decree  of 
July  IS,  isTfl,  thus  states  the  new  dogma:  *' Therefore, 
faithfully  adhering  to  tho  tradition  received  from  tho  be- 
ginning of  tho  Christian  faith,  for  the  glory  of  God  our 
Saviour,  tho  exaltation  of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  the 
salvation  of  Christian  ]icople.  the  Sacred  Council  approv- 
ing, wo  teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  divinely  re- 
vealed ;  that  the  liomnn  pontiff,  when  ho  speiiks  ex  cathrdnt 
— that  is,  when  in  discharge  of  the  office  of  pastor  and  doc- 
tor of  all  Christians,  by  virtue  of  his  supremo  apostolic  au- 
thority, he  defines  a  doctrine  regarding  faith  or  morals  to 
bo  held  by  tho  universal  Church,  by  tho  divine  assistance 
promised  to  him  in  bles>'e<l  Peter — is  pofiPitirff  of  that  infal- 
lihifiti/  icilfi  irfu'rh  thr  divine  /icdeemer  teHfed  thnt  kit  f-hnrch 
nhonld  he  endmrrd  /or  drjinxng  doctrine  rcfjardinfj  faith  or 
moraf»;  and  that,  therefore,  such  definitions  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  are  irrr/'ormahfc  of'  themielreii,nn<\  not  from  tho  con- 
sent of  the  Church.  But  if  any  one — which  may  (iod  avert ! 
— presume  to  contradict  this  our  definition,  let  him  bo 
anathemn." 

Papal  infallibility  was  the  chief  topic  of  tho  Vatican  Coun- 
cil ;  it  was  <liscussed  under  powerful  opposition  for  several 
months,  and  carried  at  last  by  the  infiuencc  of  thepope  and 
the  Jesuits.  When  tho  vote  was  first  taken  in  ?ecrct  session 
(July  13,  1S70).  451  bishops  voted  in  tho  aflirmativc  (pinret), 
88  in  the  negative  (non  phieet),  (12  voted  with  u  qualification 
(  pfarrt  jurta  mo'/iim),  and  over  SO.  though  present  in  Rome, 
ai)stained  from  voting.  On  tho  evening  of  the  same  day 
the  minority,  which  inelud«d  the  alilost  and  most  influen- 
tial prelates  fas  Darboy  of  Paris.  Schwnrzenbcrg  of  Prague, 
Hnuscher  of  Vienna.  I>upanloup  of  OrK-ans,  Forster  of 
Preplan.  Ketleler  of  .Mayence,  Strossmeyer  of  Bosnia, 
Hefelo  of  Hottenburg.  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis^,  sent  a  depu- 
tation to  the  pope,  which  begged  him  on  their  knees  to 
modify  the  proposed  decree  ami  to  nnike  some  concession 
for  the  pearo  and  unity  of  tho  Church;  but  Pius  IX.  sur- 
prised tno  deputiition  with  the  assurnnce  that  tho  Church 
h:id  always  believed  in  tho  unconditional  infnllibility  of 
tho  pope,  file  claims  to  be  the  infallible  judge  of  the 
Church's  teaching,  aeeording  to  the  saying  attributed  to 
him,  **  I  am  tho  trarlition.")  In  tho  secret  session  of  July 
1ft,  on  motion  of  some  Spanish  bishop,  an  addition  was  in- 
serted, which  makes  the  decree  still  more  obnoxious  by  de- 
claring tho  pope  infallible  hr/m-c  and  icithout  tho  consont 
X(i..  ir.— 7.i 


of  the  Church  (non  antem  ex  comienaH  ecclena).  On  the 
17th  of  July,  56  bishops  opposed  to  the  new  dogma  sent  a 
written  protest  to  the  pope,  declaring  their  firm  adherence 
to  their  conviction,  but  also  their  reluctance  to  vuto  against 
him  in  his  face  on  a  matter  aff"ecting  him  personally,  and 
asking  leave  to  return  home.  On  the  evening  of  the  same 
day  the  signers  of  this  protest,  and  60  additional  members 
of  the  opposition,  left  Rome  (taking  advantage  of  the  ru- 
mors of  war),  and  by  this  cowardly  act  they  gave  an  easy 
victory  to  the  majority  and  the  triumph  of  error.  In  the 
public  session,  held  July  18,  there  were  but  535  members 
present,  and  all  voted  pfaeet  except  two  (Bishop  Riccio  of 
Sicily  and  Bishop  Fitzgerald  of  Arkansas),  who  changed 
their  vote  before  the  close  of  the  session.  After  the  vote 
the  pope,  amidst  a  fearful  thunderstorm  and  flashes  of 
lightning,  read  by  candlelight  in  St.  Peter's  cathedral  the 
decree. of  his  own  infallibility.  The  ilay  after.  Napoleon 
III.,  his  chief  politic:il  support,  declared  war  against  (ler- 
many  ;  tins  war  in  a  few  weeks  swept  away  both  his  tlirone 
and  that  of  tho  pope,  and  resulted  in  the  prostration  of 
France,  the  unification  of  Italy,  and  the  rise  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  under  the  lead  of  Protestant  Prussia,  Tho 
proclamation  of  this  new  dogma  is  the  cause  of  secession 
of  the  "Old  Catholics"  under  the  lead  of  Doliingcr  (here- 
tofore the  prido  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Germany)  and 
other  eminent  Catholic  scholars.  It  is  also  the  cause  of  the 
renewal  of  the  serious  conflict  between  the  pope  and  tho 
emperor,  since  no  independent  government  can  treat  with 
an  infallible  pope  on  terms  of  equality.  It  may  yet  lead  to 
a  religious  war  in  Kurope.  The  Old  Catholic  movement 
would  have  become  much  more  formidable  if  some,  at  least, 
of  the  protesting  members  of  tho  council  had  remained 
faithful  to  their  convictions,  but  all  of  them  submitted,  even 
those  who  during  tho  council  bad  made  an  unanswerable 
argument  against  papal  infallibility.  As  they  all  professed 
to  believe  in  the  infallibility  of  an  oecumenical  council, 
they  had  either  to  give  up  this  faith  and  virtually  become 
Protestants,  or  to  admit  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  after 
it  had  been  so  decreed  by  the  Vatican  Council,  which  they 
admitted  to  be  oecumenical.  To  a  Protestant  this  very 
council  furnishes  the  best  argument  against  the  infallibility 
of  an  opcumenical  council,  since  it  solemnly  affirms  what 
three  other  oecumenical  councils  positively  denied — viz.  tho 
infallibility  of  the  p0])c.  Either  the  council  is  fallible  or 
the  pope  is  fallible,  or  both  are  fallible.  It  is  impossible 
that  both  are  infallible,  since  they  contradict  each  other. 

This  new  dogma  is  the  apex  of  the  pyramid  of  the  Ro- 
man hierarchy.  Logically,  it  is  more  consistent  than  tho 
Gallican  theory,  as  an  absolute  monarchy  is  more  consist- 
ent than  a  constitutional  monarcliy.  It  teaches  an  unbro- 
ken and  cvcr-activo  infallibility,  while  (lallicanism  secures 
only  a  periodic  and  intermittent  infallibility,  which  re- 
veals itself  in  an  wuumcuical  council.  But  neither  theory 
can  stand  the  test  of  history,  and  is  a  mere  pretension. 
Papal  infallibility  especially  is  unknown  to  the  Bible  and 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Church,  and  was  never  heard  of 
till  the  period  of  the  forged  decretals  in  the  ninth  century. 
It  lacks  every  one  of  the  three  essential  marks  of  catho- 
licity (the  ftcnipcr,  the  uhif/ue.  and  the  ab  omtiibns).  It  is 
not  taught  by  any  of  the  Fathers,  (ireck  or  Latin,  nor  by 
any  of  the  oecumenical  creeds,  nor  any  of  the  oecumenical 
councils.  On  tho  contrary,  the  sixth  tccumenieal  council, 
which  was  held  in  Constuntinoplo  OSO,  nud  is  universally 
acknowledged  in  the  Kiist  and  the  West,  condemned  and 
excommunicated  Pope  Monorius  I.  ((i2."t-ri3S)  *' as  a  heretic 
(Monothclite),  %vho,  with  the  help  of  the  old  serpent,  had 
scattered  deadly  error."  This  anathema  was  solemnly  re- 
peated by  tho  seventh  and  by  the  eighth  oecumenical  coun- 
cils (787  and  8fi9).  and  even  by  the  popes  themselves,  who 
down  to  the  eleventh  century,  in  a  solemn  oath  at  their  ac- 
cession, endorsc'l  the  sixth  oecumenical  council  and  pro- 
nounced "an  eternal  anathema"  on  the  authors  of  tho 
Monothclito  heresy,  tngelhcr  with  Pope  Ilonorius,  *•  be- 
cause he  had  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  perverse  doc- 
trines of  the  heretics."  This  papal  oath  was  probably 
prescribed  by  Gregctry  If.  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  and  is  prinlerl  in  the  Liter  dinrnu«  and  Liber  pon- 
tiJira/iH  ilown  to  the  eleventh  century.  Even  the  editions 
of  the  Roman  Breviary  before  the  sixteenth  century  re- 
iterated the  charge  of  heresy  against  Ilonorius.  Pope  Leo 
II.  strongly  confirmed  the  decree  of  the  couneil  against  his 
precleeessor  Monorius.  and  denounced  him  as  one  who  "en- 
deavored by  profane  treason  to  overthrow  the  immaculate 
faith  of  the  Roman  Church  "  (" yi/i"  hanc  apoatoUinm  eccte- 
tiinm  non  aponto/irte  traditionin  dortrina  inHtntrit,  ned  pro- 
ffinn  prodifionr  innnaeitlatnin  Jidi  m  tinbverterc  rtnintnH  eit  "). 
(See  Mansi,  t'onci/in,  torn.  xi.  p.  731.)  This  case  of  Ilono- 
rius is  as  clear  as  daylight  (according  to  tho  triumphant 
argument  even  of  Roman  Catholic  scholars  before  the  pas- 
sage of  the  decree,  such  as  Marct,  Gratry,  Kenrick,  and 
Hofole),  and  is  alono  suflioiont  to  overthrow  the  colossal 


1186 


INFANT. 


claim  as  a  historical  lie  {"  si  falttu  in  uno,/ahiia  in  om- 
nibus"). , 

But  history  knows  of  other  heretical  popes:  Zc]ihirinus 
(201-219)  unci  Callistus  (219-22u)  were  Patripassians ; 
liibcriiis  (."ioS)  signed  an  Arian  creed  and  condcinned  Ath- 
anasius,  "the  father  of  orthodoxy."  who  mentions  tlie  fact 
with  indignation  ;  Feli.x  II.  was  a  decided  Arian  :  Zosimus 
( tIT)  at  li"rst  endorsed  the  heresy  of  Pelagiusand  Coclestius, 
whom  his  predecessor.  Innocent  I.,  had  condemned:  Vigil- 
ius  (5;!8-55.i)  vacillated  between  two  opposite  decisions 
durin»  the  Three  Chapter  controversy,  and  therehy  pro- 
duccd'a  long  schism  in  the  West;  .lohn  XXII.  (d.  l:i34) 
denounced  an  opinion  of  .Nicholas  III.  and  Clement  V.  as 
heretical :  several  popes  taught  the  universal  depravity  of 
men  in  a  manner  tlnlt  clearly  includes  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  is  irreconcilable  with  the  recent  dogma  of  the  immacu- 
late conception;  Si.xtus  V.  issued  an  edition  of  the  Latin 
liiblc  with  innumerable  blunders,  |iartly  of  his  own  mak- 
ing, and  declared  it  the  only  true  authentic  text.  Bel- 
larmin,  the  great  Roman  controversialist  and  infallibilist, 
could  not  deny  the  facts,  and  advised  the  printing  of  a  new 
edition  with  :v  Iving  statement  in  the  preface,  charging  the 
errors  of  the  infallible  pope  upon  the  fallible  printer,  though 
the  )>opo  had  himself  corrected  the  proofs.  The  present 
pope  started  out  as  a  political  reformer  and  advocate  of 
Italian  unity,  which  he  now  detests  as  the  worst  enemy 
of  the  Church. 

The  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals  first  set  up  the  claim  of 
infambility,  and  by  a   monstrous   forgery,  long  since  ex- 
ploded, put  it  with  other  falsehoods  into  the  mouths  of  the 
oldest  popes  in  barbarous  French  Latin  and  with  glaring 
anachronisms.     Other  hierarchical  fictions,  as  the  legend 
of  the  donation  of  Constantino  and  his  baptism  by  Popo 
Sylvester,  arose  in  the  same  uncritical   and  superstitious 
a^e,  and  were  readily  believed.     But  there  was  no  time 
wTicn   these  claims  were  not  resisted.     The  famous  oecu- 
menical Council  of  Constance  (1414-18)  asserted  its  supe- 
riority over  the  pope  by  deposing  one  pope  (.John  XXIII.) 
for  infamous  crimes,  and  another  pope  (Benedict  XIII.) 
for  heresy,  and  electing  a  third  one  in  their  place  (.Martin 
v.).     Tlicre  is  no  escape  here  from  the  logical  dilemma, 
either  to  admit  the  vali'lity  of  the  council  or  to  invalidate 
the  election  of  Martin  V.  and  his  successors;  both  alterna- 
tives are  fatal  to  papal  infallibility.     After  the  Reformation 
the  Jesuits  became  the  unscrupulous  and  untiring  cham- 
pions of  this  doctrine,  but  they  failed  in  their  eWort  to  com-   j 
mit   the  Council  of   Trent.     All  the  .Jansenists    and  the  I 
greatest   modern    ch.ampions   of    Romanism,    as   Bossuet, 
Mcihler.  and  the  principal  popular  catechisms  used  before 
Ism,  deny  the  infallibility  of  the  pope.     The  Irish  bishops 
Doyle,  .Murray,  Kelly,  affirracd   under  oath  before  a  com- 
mittee of  the   British   Parliament  in  182.i,  and  openly  dc- 
chired  in  a  Pastnml  Aildreus  to  their  clergy  and  laity  in 
182(),  that  the  infallibility  of  the  popo  is  "not  an  .article 
of  the  Catholic  faith."     It  was  on  this  explicit  testimony 
th.at  tho  Catholic  emancipation   liill  was  carried  through 
Parliament.     The  Vatican   Council  was  convened  chiefly 
hy  .Jesuitical  influence  for  the  purpose  of  defining  this  now 
dogma  and  killing   (Jallicanism :  but  tho  arguments  and 
facts  were  on  the  part  of  the  opposition,  which  might  have 
triumphed  it'  its  moral  courage  had  been  equal  to  its  learn- 
ing and  ability.     Liberal  Catholicism  is  now  crushed  by 
au"hority.     The  Vatican  system  requires  tho  slaughter  of 
private  judgment  and   individual  conscience,  and  divides 
tho  allegiance  between  the  popo  and  the  home  government 
whenever  they  come  in  collision  (as  may  be  the  case  in  the 
questions  of  education,  marriage,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
temporal  power).     We  must  indeed  respect  the  higher  law 
and  "obey  God,  more  tha^  m.an,"  but  tho  pope,  far  from 
hein"  God  .\lmighty.  is  a  mortal,  sinful  man;  anil  the  gov- 
ernment which  the  apostles   disobeyed  was  not  the  state, 
but  tho  cccUtinnticnl  government  of  the  ,Tcwish  hierarchy, 
which  forbade  them  to  preach  tho  gospel  (.\cts  v.  29),  and 
set  a  bad  example  to  the  Roman  hierarchy, 

Litcraliirr. — 1.  In  favor  of  papal  infallibility:  Arch- 
bishop Cardoni,  E/nrubratto  tic  doffmnfira  liomani  Poitlijiris 
infallibitiinie  (Rome,  1870,  semi-oflieial) ;  Archbishop 
Manning,  Pari  Prinilrrjium  (London,  1871)  ;  also  his  reply 
to  Gladstone  (1874) :  ,\rchbishop  Deehamps,  l.'Infnillibiliif 
et  le  Cnncilr  Gfniral  (Paris,  1SI59) ;  Weninger,  tlir  In/ull/- 
bilili/o/lhr  Pope  (German  and  French.  1809):  .T,  11. New- 
man, Leiur  In  the  Duke  i,f  Norfidk.  in  reply  to  Gladstone's 
Valirfin  Drerers  (London  and  New  York,  1874),  ft  very 
qualified  defence  of  infallibility,  with  a  reserve  of  the 
rights  of  conscience.  Older  champions  of  infallibility  are 
Bellarmin,  Litta,  Liguori,  and  Count  do  Maislre.  2.  Against 
papal  infallibility  :  (a)  By  members  of  the  Vatican  Council 
—Bishop  Maret  (dean  of  the  theological  faculty  in  Paris), 
Iht  Cnncile  (Ifntnil  el  He  la  pair  reUijieuse  (Paris,  18fi9,  2 
vols,) ;  Archbishop  Darboy,  Ln  libcrif  du  Conrileet  I'in/ail- 
Ubiliti   (in  Friedrich's  jjocumenta,    i.    129-1S6) ;    Bishop 


Hefele,  the  author  of  the  best  history  of  councils,  Cnma 
Htinorii  Paps'  { Neap..  1870)  ;  and  Ilonorius  mid  das  seeltste 
aWjemeine  Vuncit  (Tubingen,  IS70;  trans,  by  H.  B.  Smilh 
in  the  Presbi/t.  Qimrt.  Jtcr.  for  Apr.,  1872,  p.  273)  ;  Arch- 
bishop Kenrick  of  .St.  Louis.  Coucio  in  Concilia  Valicano 
habcnda  al  nnn  habita  (Naples.  1870;  reprinted  in  Fried- 
rich's  /Jo'umciifo,  i.  I87-22U).  (t)  By  Catholics  not  mem- 
bers of  tho  council,  now  mostly  Old  Catholic  sccedcrs— 
Janus  (pseudonymous).  7Vic  Pope  and  the  Council  (German 
and  English,  Leips.  and  London,  I8C9)  ;  Dlillingcr,  I'cber 
die  Unfchllmrluits-Adresse  (Munich,  1870):  Rciukens, 
now  Old  Catholic  bishop,  Vcbcr  piipulliche  Unfvhlbarkeil 
(Munich,  1870) :  A,  Gratry,  Four  Letters  to  the  Ilinhop  of 
Orleans  (Uupanloup)  and  the  Archbishop  of  Malincs  (De- 
champs),  (in  French,  German,  and  English,  1870.  Gratry 
recanted  on  his  deathbed),  (c)  By  Protestants— W.  E. 
Gladstone,  The  Vatican  Decrees  in  their  liearinij  on  Ciril 
Allegiance  (Lond.,  1874),  wilh  a  history  of  the  council  and 
the  text  of  the  decrees,  by  Philip  Schaff  (New  York,  Har- 
pers, 1875)  ;  Gladstone,  Vaticanism,  nii  Ansieer  to  Ucpronfs 
and  Replies,  oi  JIanning,  Ncwm.an,  and  others  (Lond.  and 
New  York,  lS7a).  Comp.  also  the  literature  on  the  Vatican 
CoixciL.  Philip  Sciiapf. 

In'fant,  in  law,  is  a  person  whoonaceount  of  youth  and 
inexperience  is  incapacitated  either  wholly  or  in  part  from 
entering  into  contracts  or  performing  specific  acts.  The 
incapacity  may  be  natural  or  artificial,  and  is  affected  by 
rules  of  positive  law.  Thus,  under  some  systems  of  law  a 
person  has  not  full  capacity  until  attaining  the  ago  of 
twenty-five  ;  under  the  rules  of  the  common  law  full  ca- 
pacity is  attained  at  the  age  of  twenty-one;  though  by  a 
special  rule  a  marriage  m:iy  be  contracted  by  a  male  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  l^y  a  female  at  the  age  of  twelve.  Wills 
of  personal  property  may  be  made  at  the  same  age.  These 
rules  were  borrowed  from  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  where 
questions  concerning  the  validity  of  marriages  and  of  wills 
of  personal  property  were  disposed  of.  This  matter  in  the 
V.  18.  is  to  some  extent  regulated  by  statute.  A  promise 
to  marry  is  not  binding  unless  the  promiser  is  of  full  age. 
By  an  ancient  rule  which  is  still  law  a  person  becomes 
twenty-one  on  the  day  preceding  the  anniversary  of  his 
birthday.  This  is  on  account  of  the  legal  pro]iosition  that 
the  law" recognizes  no  fraction  of  a  day.  and  as  full  nuijor- 
ity  would  be  reached  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  day,  it 
is  attained  by  this  rule  at  any  time  on  that  day.  In  some 
states  females  attain  majority  at  an  earlier  age  than  males. 
This  diversity  of  rules  in  the  difi"erent  states  or  nations 
leads  to  interesting  questions  in  private  international  law. 
(See  Intf.rnatioxat.  Law.  Privatf..)  Thus,  if  a  person 
not  of  age  in  a  country  where  he  is  domiciled  hajipcns  to 
be  temporarily  in  a  country  where  he  is  of  sufficient  age  to 
make  contracts,  and  docs  in  fact  assume  to  contract,  the 
question  will  be  whether  the  validity  of  his  contract  is  to 
be  tested  bv  the  law  of  his  domicile  or  of  the  place  where 
the  contract  is  niailc  or  to  be  performed.  Under  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  law  the  law  of  the  place  where  the  con- 
tract is  made  is  assumed  to  govern.  In  testing  the  validity 
of  a  will  of  personal  property  reference  will  be  liad  to  tho 
law  of  the  domicile,  and  of  a  like  disposition  of  land  to  the 
law  of  the  place  where  the  Land  is  situated. 

The  subject  maybe  considered  under  the  following  prin- 
cipal divisions  :  1.  The  capacity  of  infants  to  make  eon- 
tracts,  and  to  do  o'thcr  acts  of  a  civil  nature  involving  judg- 
ment and  discretion:  II.  Their  liability  fur  wrongs  (torls) ; 
III.  Their  rcsponsil.ilitv  for  crimes  ;  I V.  Tlicir  rights  in  a 
court  of  equity;  V.  Their  liability  as  properly -owners  to 
bear  the  legal  burdens  imposed  on  property. 

I.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  an  infant's  contract  is  not 
binding  upon  him.  There  has  been  great  controversy  upon 
the  point  whcllier  his  ai'ts  arc  void  or  voidable.  The  elfce.t 
of  this  distinction  is.  tlial  if  the  contract  is  void,  it  is  inca- 
piililo  of  confirmation  by  the  infant  on  ;ittaining  majority. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  voidable,  the  infant  has  the  power 
of  confirmation.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  in  modern 
law  to  construe  the  act  to  be  voidable  rather  than  voul,  and 
there  arc  but  few  contracts  made  by  infants  at  the  present 
ilay  which  are  incapable  of  ciuifirmation.  This  rule  makes 
the  subject  of  confirmation  of  much  importance,  ond  fre- 
iiuentlv'queslinns  arise  as  to  the  point  whether  it  may  take 
place  by  implication  as  well  as  by  express  agreement.  It 
has  often  been  decided  by  the  courts  that  confirmation  may 
be  inferred  in  certain  cases  from  acquiescence  for  a  consul- 
erable  time  after  mnjoritv,  particularly  where  the  Iruits  of 
the  transaction  are  still  enjoyed  by  the  infant,  as  in  the 
case  of  purchase  of  property  or  the  execution  of  a  lease. 
In  the  latter  case  the  reception  of  rent  would  be  strong 
evidence  of  confirmation.  This  doctrine  would  not  he  so 
readily  admitted  in  (he  case  of  the  sale  of  the  inf:vnt's  land, 
and  there  arc  authorities  of  high  respeelabibty  which 
maintain  that  the  title  will  not  bo  perfect  in  this  ca^e.  in 
the  absence  of  direct  confirmation,  until  there  has  betn  pes- 


INFANT. 


lis? 


Bession  by  tho  grantee  for  the  time  required  by  the  statute 
of  limitations.  (See  Limitations.  Stati'tk  ok.)  A  person 
will  not  be  liable  to  pay  a  <Iebt  conlractod  during  infancy 
without  a  promise  to  pay  made  after  majority. 

Under  these  doctrines  it  is  plain  that  an  infant  at  his 
majority  may,  except  in  special  instances  to  be  hereafter 
mentioned,  repudiate  his  contract  at  will.  In  doinsj  this 
bo  must^  in  general,  return  to  the  other  party  what  he  has 
received  from  him.  His  infancy  is  to  bu  used  "as  a  shield 
and  not  as  a  sword."  Should  he  repudiate  the  contract,  it 
would  seem  that  he  would  be  under  a  legal  duty  to  make 
restitution  only  in  case  the  property  was  under  his  control. 
In  other  words,  he  nui.^t.  on  rescinding  a  contract,  put  the 
opposite  party  back  in  his  original  position,  if  that  is  in 
his  power.  If  he  makes  a  contract  to  serve  another  for  a 
epecificd  time,  he  may  repudiate  the  contract,  and  still  ex- 
act payment  for  what  he  may  have  dono  under  it. 

The  principal  exception  to  tho  voidable  nature  of  the  in- 
fant's contract  consists  in  the  fact  that  he  may  bind  him- 
Felf  for  "necessaries."  This  term  refers  to  contracts  for 
fooci,  clothing,  shelter,  medical  attendance,  and  proper  in- 
struction or  education.  There  will,  of  course,  bo  a  wide 
ranze  in  respect  to  these  articles,  depenrling  upon  the  in- 
fant's wealth  and  position  in  society.  While  the  judge? 
determine  as  matter  of  law  the  classes  of  things  for  whicli 
infants  arc  liable,  they  refer  special  cases  to  the  jury  to 
decide  whether,  under  all  the  circumstances,  the  expendi- 
ture was  proper.  There  may.  however,  be  cases  of  such  a 
glaring  character  as  to  show  that  the  goods  could  not  on 
any  theory  be  necessary,  when  the  judge  will  dismiss  the 
case.  It  should  be  added  that  while  the  infant  may  be 
bound  by  his  contract  in  respect  to  such  articles,  it  does  not 
follow  that  he  will  be  required  to  pay  the  price  which  is 
charged  to  his  account  or  which  he  has  agreed  to  pay.  He 
can  only  be  held  for  tho  real  value  of  tho  goods,  without 
reference  to  the  price  fixed,  though  that  be  stipulated  by 
his  note  or  bond.  Under  these  rules,  if  an  infant  should 
borrow  money  with  an  intention  expressed  to  tho  lender  to 
purchase  necessaries,  he  could  not  be  made  to  repay  the 
money  unless  it  wore  actually  used  for  that  purpose.  These 
rules,  being  designed  for  the  infant's  protection,  are  liber- 
ally construe!  by  the  courts.  The  doctrines  applicable  to 
necessaries  would  be  extended  to  his  wife  and  children,  and 
he  could  contract  for  their  support.  There?  may  sometimes 
be  a  question  whether  the  price  of  supplies  is  to  be  paid  by 
the  infant  or  liis  parent.  Tho  true  line  of  inquiry  in  such 
a  case  is,  To  whom  wis  the  credit  ffiven  f  If  given  to  the 
parent,  tho  tradesman  cannot  recover  of  the  infant,  though 
the  parent  should  prove  pecuniarily  irresponsible. 

Witliout  pursuing  this  branch  of  tho  subject  further, 
mention  may  be  made  of  certain  ofher  ca^es  in  which  the 
infant  will  be  bound  by  his  acts.  It  is  a  general  rule  that 
he  will  be  hound  whenever  he  voluntarily  does  that  which 
ho  could  have  legally  been  compelled  (o  ilo  :  r.  7.  if  ho 
could  have  been  refjiiired.  as  a  trustee,  to  execute  a  dee<i, 
his  voluntary  execution  of  it  will  be  sufficient.  Tho  same 
rule  will  be  .applied  if  statute  law  gives  him  in  special  in- 
Btanr-es  an  exceptional  capacity  to  act,  as  where  ho  is  au- 
thorized by  law  to  enlii^t  in  the  army  or  navy  or  required 
to  support  an  illegitimate  chihl. 

In  th™  following  instances  an  infant  is  hv  the  law  of  this 
country  usually  incapable.  He  cannot  hold  a  public  office 
or  act  as  an  exe?'itoror  administrator  until  he  is  seventeen, 
and  in  some  States  until  twenty-one  Mhough  ho  may  be 
appointed),  nor  can  the  doctrine  of  estoppel  be  applied  to 
him  in  a  court  of  law.  though  it  may  be  in  some  instances 
inequity:  nor  can  he  in  general  npp<Mnt,  an  attorney  or 
appear  in  court  by  an  attorney,  though  a  next  friend  or 
guardian  may  act  for  him.  who  may  appoint  an  attorney; 
nor  will  tho  statuteof  limitationn  begin  to  run  against  hiin. 
The  explanation  of  the  la>Jt  branch  of  this  statement  is.  that 
if  a  cause  of  action  should  arise  during  his  infancy,  neglect 
cannot  be  imputed  to  him  for  failing  to  vin*licate  his  rights 
by  nctitm.  Accordingly,  the  statuteof  limitations,  which 
is  framed  to  prevent  undue  tlelay  in  litigation,  will  not  ap- 
ply to  him  until  his  infaney  ha«  ceased.  The  rule,  how- 
ever, does  not  extend  to  the  case  where  the  infant  takes  by 
succession  from  another  a  right  which  might  during  the 
ownership  of  his  predecessor  have  been  enforced  by  action. 

n.  LinhiUhf  of  the  fii/ant /or  MVom/A/ .!r/*  (torts).— In 
this  class  of  cases  the  ground  of  liability  is  a  wrongful  act 
and  consequent  damage  to  another.  The  reason  for  the  in- 
fant's exemption  from  liahilily  here  fails.  There  is  no  longer 
any  policy  of  the  law  to  protect  him  from  responsibility. 
Tho  artificial  rule  of  incapacity  is  dispensed  witn,  and  if  nn 
infant  having  sufTirient  di««cretion  commits  a  wrongful  aet 
and  causes  injiirv,  he  will  he  liable  to  an  action  as  though  he 
were  an  adult.  There  will  frequently  he  eases  in  which  it  will 
be  difficult  to  rlraw  the  line  between  liability  upon  contract 
and  responsibility  for  a  tort.  It  is  in  a  certain  sense  true 
that  a  wrong  may  arise  out  of  a  contract,  and  tho  inquiry 


must  be  made  as  to  tho  rule  to  be  applied  in  such  a  case.  For 
example,  nn  infant  may  hire  a  horse,  and  from  his  youth 
and  inexperience  may  treat  the  animal  injudiciously  by 
overdriving  hira  or  watering  him  when  heated,  and  thus 
cause  damage.  To  hold  the  infant  liable  in  such  a  case 
would  be  substantially  to  break  down  all  the  safeguards 
which  the  law  has  e.slabliished  for  his  protection.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  infant  simply  use<l  the  contract  as  an 
opportunity  or  an  occasion  to  commit  a  wrong,  or  if,  in  the 
case  supposed,  ho  wilfully  abused  the  animal,  the  wrong 
could  in  no  proper  sense  be  said  to  arise  out  of  the  contract, 
and  the  infant  would  be  responsible.  Owing  to  this  dis- 
tinction a  prolonged  controversy  has  existed  among  jurists 
as  to  the  point  whether  an  infant  is  liable  for  fraud  prac- 
tised by  him  in  the  making  of  a  contract.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  is  claimed  that  the  fraud  is  so  inseparable  from  the  eon- 
tract  that  the  right  to  plead  his  infancy  includes  the  right 
to  exempt  himself  from  responsibility  for  the  fraud.  On 
this  view,  the  only  remedy  of  the  injured  party  would  bo 
to  annul  the  contract  on  account  of  the  fraud,  and  to  de- 
mand a  return  by  the  infant  of  what  be  bad  receivecl  under 
it.  This  is  the  view  prevailing  in  the  Knglish  courts.  On 
tho  other  hand,  it  has  been  nmintained  in  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican courts  that  the  fraud  is  such  a  wrongful  act  as  to  give 
a  substantive  ground  for  an  action  of  damages.  The  weight 
of  reason  would  seem  to  be  with  the  Knglish  view,  and  the 
opposite  doctrine  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  established 
in  this  country.  Courts  of  equity  have  held  in  some  in- 
stances that  an  infant  who  has  fraudulently  represented 
himself  ns  of  full  age.  and  has  obtained  property  on  that 
basis,  is  estopped  from  denying  that  he  is  of  full  age,  and 
have  thus  by  this  artificial  rule  indirectly  held  him  respon- 
sible for  his  fraud.  This  doctrine  is  not  very  satisfactory, 
and  rests  more  upon  authority  than  u]ion  5oli<l  jirincijile. 
The  law  upon  the  whole  subject  of  the  distinction  between 
tho  infant's  liability  for  a  wrong,  whether  considered  as 
connected  with  a  contract  or  as  independent  of  it.  is  in  an 
obscure  and  perhaps  transitional  state,  and  only  general 
and  probable  results  can  be  given.  A  clear  instance  of 
liability  may  he  found  in  the  case  of  the  wilful  use  of  a 
chattel  entrusted  to  him  under  a  contract  in  a  way  pro- 
hibited by  the  owner,  and  consequent  damage.  An  Kng- 
lish illustration  is  the  act  of  hiring  a  horse,  with  a  pro- 
hibition by  the  owner  against  using  it  to  jump  fences,  and 
the  deliberate  use  of  it  by  him  notwithstanding,  followed 
by  damage.  This  is  really  an  exercise  of  an  act  of  owner- 
ship inconsistent  with  the  contract  of  hiring,  and  substan- 
tially an  appropriation  of  the  chattel  to  the  infant's  own 
use,  and  thus  the  act  is  a  wrong  unconnected  with  the  con- 
tract. 

III.  Cnpacittj  of  Infants  to  Commit  Crimes. — Tho  same 
act  which  when  regarded  from  the  point  of  view  that  an 
individual  is  injured  constitutes  a  tort,  may  in  reference  to 
society  be  regarded  as  a  crime.  There  is  no  good  reason 
why  if  there  is  sufficient  intelligence  on  the  part  of  tho 
infant  he  should  not  be  responsible.  The  arbitrary  rule 
established  for  his  protection  in  the  case  of  contracts 
should  be  discarderl,  and  the  sole  point  of  inquiry  should 
concern  his  actual  capacity  to  understand  the  nature  and 
consequcnecs  of  (be  act  done.  The  criminal  law.  however, 
contains  the  arbitrary  rule  that  under  seven  years  (pf  ago 
he  cannot  commit  a  felonious  crime.  When  he  is  between 
seven  and  fourteen  years  of  age  there  is  no  presumption 
either  in  his  favor  or  against  him:  his  actual  capacity  is 
fully  open  to  investigation.  When  fourteen  years  of  ago 
and  upwards  he  is  presumed  to  be  capable,  and  the  burden 
is  cast  npon  him  to  produce  evidence  of  incapacity.  For 
physical  reasons  a  male  infant  under  fourteen  years  of  ago 
is  conclusively  presumed  in  Kngland  to  be  incapable  of 
committing  the  crime  of  rape.  This  rule  has  been  dis- 
carded in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  ])crhaps  elsewhere, 
on  the  ground  that  puberty  is  attained  hero  at  an  earlier 
age  than  in  Englanrl.  Tho  older  law-books  are  disfigured 
with  accounts  of  children  of  tender  years  who  have  been 
executed  for  capital  crimes.  The  more  humane  policy  of 
modern  times  is  to  sentence  juvenile  criminals  to  houses 
of  refug**  or  correction,  where  educational  and  disciplinary 
measures  are  resorted  to  with  a  view  to  eradicate,  or  at  least 
to  ameliorate,  their  vicious  dispositions. 

IV.  The  PoHitinii  of  an  Infant  ill  a  Court  of  Eqnit\f. — 
Infants  are  favorites  of  this  court,  and  are  frequently  under 
its  special  proteetion  ns  being  its  wards.  The  court  has 
abundant  power  to  protect  them  by  means  of  its  ability  to 

funish  for  contempt  those  who  interfere  with  its  orders, 
n  thot  court  the  authority  of  a  parent  is  regarded  rather 
as  a  trust  than  ns  a  power,  and  the  court  may  for  good 
reasons  withdraw  a  child  from  its  parent's  custody,  and 
give  it  over  to  persons  deemed  capable  to  train  and  educate 
it.  (See  PAnKNT  ami  CiiiKn.)  When  the  property  of  nn 
infant  is  before  this  os  well  as  other  einirts,  a  guardian  for 
tho  purposes  of  tho  litigation  {ad  litem)  may  bo  appointed 


1188 


INFANTADO-INFANTRY. 


to  look  uftcr  his  interests.  He  at  the  same  time  will  not 
be  alloweil  by  his  negligence  or  inattention  to  aficct  injuri- 
ously the  infant's  estate,  and  any  untoward  admissions  in 
an  action  jircjudicial  to  his  ri-^hts  will  not  be  regarded. 
The  validity  of  his  marringo  settlements  frequently  come 
before  this  court.  It  is  a  wcll-settlcd  rule  of  the  Knglish 
law  that  a  female  infant  may  on  the  eve  of  marriage,  by  a 
proper  settlement,  bar  herself  of  all  claim  of  dower  in  her 
husband's  land.  This  may  be  done  under  a  statute  as  early 
as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  known  as  the  "statute  of 
jointures."  The  same  general  rule  prevails  in  this  country. 
Her  right  to  part  with  h^r  utcii  rftt  caiatr  in  this  way  is 
much  more  restricted,  and  a  settlement  having  that  effect 
may  he  avoided  by  her  after  attaining  majority,  and  after 
the  termination  of  the  marriage,  and.  according  to  the 
views  of  some  jurists,  even  during  its  continuance.  The 
same  rule  would  bo  applied  to  the  case  of  a  male  infant 
making  a  settlement  of  his  real  estate.  The  power  of  both 
classes  of  infants  in  respect  to  personal  properly  is  much 
less  restricted.  The  whole  subject  is  at  present  regulated 
in  England  by  statute. 

V.  An  infant  considered  as  an  owner  of  property  is  liable 
to  the  burdens  incident  to  ownership.  Thus,  he  would  be 
bound  to  pay  taxes  or  other  assessments  of  a  legal  nature. 
His  land  can  be  taken  under  the  rules  of  eminent  domain 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  an  adult.  There  would  bo 
a  distinction  between  property  cast  upon  him  by  a  rule  of 
law — e.  {/.  by  descent — and  that  which  be  has  acquired  by 
his  own  act.  In  the  first  case,  the  law  would  make  him 
competent  to  hear  the  burden,  and  ho  could  only  shift  it 
off  by  a  sale.  On  the  other  hand,  where  he  had  acquired  it 
by  his  own  act,  he  could  reputliate  the  transaction,  and 
thus  relieve  himself  from  liability.  But  even  in  this  ease, 
so  long  as  he  remained  owner  his  liability  to  such  burdens 
would  continue.  { Reference  may  be  had  for  further  informa- 
tion to  the  treatisesof  Bingham  and  Jlacpherson  on  f>\fanrif; 
Forsyth  on  the  Custody  of  In/aiitu;  Chambers  on  Chancery 
Jnriftdiction  ;  and  to  the  treatises  of  Reeve  and  Schooler 
on  the  Domestic  lielnfionn,  as  well  as  to  more  general 
works,  such  as  Kent's  Comnienturien,  and  Story  on  Eqiiittj 
Jurinpiudence.  See  also  GiARDiAN  and  Parent  and  Child.) 

T.  AV.  DWIGHT. 

Infanta'dOf  a  district  in  Spain  which  formerly  consti- 
tuted the  personal  domain  of  the  infantes  or  royal  princes, 
aod  which  gave  title  to  a  dukedom,  created  in  1403,  which 
was  held  by  several  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Spanish 
nobles.  It  was  composed  of  the  four  villages  of  Penas  de 
San  Pedro,  Alcoccr,  Salmeron,  and  Valdeolivas,  situated  in 
the  province  of  Guadalajara,  about  50  miles  due  E.  from 
Madrid. 

Iiifan'te  [Lat.  in/ans,  "an  infant"],  in  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal the  official  title  of  the  princes  of  the  blood-royal,  the 
princesses  being  called  iu/antafi.  The  heir-apparent  to  the 
throne,  however,  was  not  called  an  infante,-  in  Spain  his 
title  was  principe  de  Anttirtai,  or  simply  fl  principr,  "  the 
prince;"  and  in  Portugal,  until  the  separation  of  the  Amer- 
ican colony,  he  was  called  the  prince  of  Brazil.  The  name 
infante  was  also  applied  in  Spain  at  an  early  period  to  the 
children  of  the  nobility,  and  the  "seven  infants  of  Lara," 
who  were  killecl  in  an  attempt  to  rescue  their  father,  the 
8€?lt)y  or  lord  of  Lara,  from  Moorish  captivity  in  Cordova, 
arc  famous  in  Spanish  ballad-poetry  and  romance. 

Infante  (Jose  MifiUKi,),  b.  in  Santiago  de  Chili  in 
177S,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment of  1810,  which  resulted  in  the  independence  of  Span- 
ish America  ;  a  member  of  several  of  i\\Q  jnnta»  of  govern- 
ment established  by  the  insurgents;  was  president  of  the 
provisional  juntas  of  182.3  and  1S2.);  member  of  the  '"con- 
gress of  plenipotentiaries"  in  IS.'U,  and  chief-justice  in 
1S1;I.  Infante  was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  earliest  po- 
litical newspapers  of  Chili,  and  was  prominent  in  organ- 
izing the  common-school  system  of  his  country.  1>.  in 
Santiago  Apr.  9,  1841. 

Infan'ticidc,  Law  concerning.  Infanticide,  at 
common  law,  consists  in  the  doing  of  any  act  whereby  the 
death  of  an  infant  child  is  caused  after  it  is  fully  born 
alive.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  killing  of  a  child 
within  its  mother's  womb,  which  is  now  known  as  fivticide. 
When  the  death  of  the  new-born  infant  is  occasioned  by  an 
unlawful  act,  as  distinguished  from  mere  accident  or  un- 
avoidable casualty,  such  act  will  constitute  the  crime  of 
felonious  homicide  (see  Homicide),  nnd  may  be  either  mur- 
der or  manslaughter,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
particular  case.  (See  Mirdkr,  Mas.slai'«htkk.)  In  every 
instance,  however,  the  death  must  occur  after  the  actual 
birth  of  the  child,  or  no  crime  is  committed.  If  means  be 
used  for  the  procurement  of  an  abortion  upon  the  person 
of  the  mother,  either  by  the  administering  of  medicines  or 
by  the  use  of  instruments,  or  in  any  other  way  whatever, 
and  the  foetus  is  destroyed  before  birth,  the  aot  is  neither 


murder  nor  manslaughter  at  common  law.  This  defect  in 
the  law  has,  however,  been  generally  remedied  in  recent 
times  by  the  enactment  of  statutes  for  the  prevention  and 
punishment  of  abortion.  (Sec  Adortion.)  The  doctrine  of 
the  common  law  is  that  when  a  child  is  fully  born  he  first 
becomes  a  human  being  within  the  scope  of  that  rule  in  the 
law  of  homicide  which  requires  that  the  person  killed  shall 
be  '*  a  reasonable  creature  in  being,"  in  order  that  the  act 
of  killing  may  be  iclonious.  The  infant  is  said  to  be  actu- 
ally and  fully  born  when  eirri/part  of  it  is  wholly  produced 
or  separated  from  the  body  of  its  mother  in  a  living  state. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  umbilical  cord  be  severed,  nor 
that  the  child  should  ever  have  hroalhecl  before  being  killed, 
if  it  was  fully  delivered  and  alive.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
it  be  proved  that  the  child  did  breathe  before  its  death,  this 
will  not  be  sufficient  evidence  that  its  birth  was  eomplete, 
as  breathing  sometimes  begins  during  the  progress  of  tlio 
delivery.  It  is  only  requisite  to  constitute  criminal  infanti- 
cide that  death  occur  after  actual  birth.  The  injuries  may 
have  been  inflicted  previously.  Thus,  if  a  child  is  born 
alive,  but  subsequently  dies  from  the  effect  of  bruises  which 
it  received  wliile  in  the  womb,  the  person  inflicting  the  in- 
juries is  chargeable  with  murder  or  manslaughter.  But 
if  the  dealh  occur  during  the  progress  of  the  delivery, 
though  a  portion  of  the  child's  person  has  been  removed 
from  its  mother's  body,  no  crime  is  committed.  It  is  not, 
however,  necessary  that  the  full  period  of  gestation  should 
be  completed,  for  if  a  person  intending  to  procure  an  abor- 
tion does  an  act  which  causes  a  child  to  be  born  before  the 
expiration  of  the  natural  time,  and  it  dies  in  consequence 
of  its  exposure  to  the  external  world  or  from  the  injuries 
it  has  received,  he  will  be  guilty  of  murder.  (See  the  works 
of  Bishop,  of  Wharton,  of  Russell  on  Criminal  Lnic;  Whar- 
ton on  Homicide:  Archbold's  Criminal  Practice,  For  tho 
various  medical  tests  employed  to  determine  the  cause  of 
a  child's  death,  and  whether  it  has  occurred  before  or  after 
birth,  such  works  may  be  consulted  as  Wharton  and  Stille's 
Medical  Juritprudence:  Beck  OR  the  same  subject ;  and  also 
Taylor.)      George  Chase.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Bwigiit. 

In'fant  Je'sns,  Daughters  of  the,  an  order  of  nuns 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Founded  at  Rome  by  Anna 
Moroni  of  Lucca  for  the  industrial  instruction  of  poor  girls  ; 
it  was  first  acknowledged  in  1673  by  Clement  X.  No  con- 
vent can  have  more  than  thirty-three  members,  that  being 
the  number  of  years  Jesus  was  on  the  earth.  There  was 
also  an  older  order  called  "Sisters  of  the  Good  Jesus," 
which  a])pears  to  have  been  long  extinct. 

In'fantry  [Lat.  infana,  "child"  or  "servant,"  applied  to 
servants  who  went  on  foot,  and  infanteria^  to  foot-soldiers 
generally]  is  that  portion  of  a  military  establishment  armed 
and  equipped  for  marching  and  fighting  on  foot,  in  contra- 
distinction to  artillery  and  cavalry.     It  is  the  oldest  of  the 
"three  arms"  into  which  armies  arc  conventionally  divided; 
was  the  favorite  of  the  Greeks,  the  Gauls,  the  (ierinans,  and 
the  Franks,  and  was  that  mainly  with  which  Rome  con- 
quered the  world.     Under  Grecian  and  Roman  civilization 
it  attained  pre-eminence  as  the  arm  of  battle,  but  fell  into 
contempt  and  comparative  desuetude  early  in  tho  Middle 
Ages,  and  did  not  emerge  from  that  obscurity  till  the  de- 
cline of  the  feudal  system.     It  steadily  increased  in  power 
from  the  tirst  years  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  is  now 
recognized  as  constituting  the  principal  strength  of  mili- 
tary organizations.     This  importance  results  from  the  fact 
that  it  can  be  used  everywhere,  "  in  mountains  or  on  plains, 
in  woody  or  open  countries,  in  cities  or  in  fiehls.  on  rivers 
or  at  sea,  in  the  redoubt  or  in  the  attack  on  the  breach." 
It  is  tho  self-sustaining  arm  in  the  field  of  battle,  and  is 
moreover  less  expensive,  man  for  man,  than  its  auxiliaries. 
j       Aitcitnt  Infantry. — The  primitive  fonnation  of  heavy  in- 
fantry was  massive,  as  is  shown   in   the  solid  squares  of 
I  10,000  men  portrayed  in  Egy])tian  history,  and  this  order 
I  was  gradually  reduced  in  depth  through  the  Persian  and 
Dorian  formations  till  it  reached  the  phalangial   systems 
of   Sparta,  Thebes,  and    Athens.     These    systems  became 
!  homologous  under  the  Macedonian  empire,  and  the  ])halan.\ 
as  it  existed  under  that  domination  is  now  described.    The 
I  foot -soldiers  were  divided  into  three  classes — ihe  hopl it ea, 
or  heavy   infantry,  in  complete  armor  and  carrying  the 
sarissa.  a  spear  over  twenty  feet  in  length  ;  the  peltaetrH,  or 
light  infantry,  with  shorter  spears  and  less  eomplete  armor; 
and  tho  puilif,  or  sharpshooters,  who  wore  no  armor  and 
carried  only  missile  weapons.    Tlie  pfiolanjc.  comparable,  in 
size  at  least,  to  a  modern  division,  consisted  nominally  of 
4ii:Kt  hoplites,  organized  into  two  ^e/f/rc/uVf  (or  brigades), 
each  consisting  of  two  cftiUnrrhra  (regiments  or  battalions), 
■  and  these  in  turn  divided  into  four  ftyntagmata  (battalions 
or   companies).      Tho    syntagma    combined   sixteen    files, 
I  each  file  (lovhos)  containing  sixteen  men;  and  thus  in  line 
I  of  battle  tho  phalanx  presented  a  nominal  front  of  2i>{\  men 
1  and  a  depth  of  IG  men.     In  open  order,  as  for  the  march, 


INFANTRY. 


1189 


there  were  intervals  of  about  six  feet  between  the  files;  in 
close  order,  us  in  advancing  to  the  attack,  the  spaces  be- 
tween ranks  and  files  were  reduced  to  about  three  leet ;  and 
in  the  locked,  or  dcfent;ive  order,  the  men  closed  shoulder 
to  shouhler  on  the  front  rank,  overlappint;  tlieir  shields; 
and  in  this  order  presented  an  almost  iniponetralile  hedge 
of  steel  to  the  enemy.  The  peltastes  bad  a  similiar  forma- 
tion, though  of  less  depth  and  under  ditlVrcnt  denomina- 
tions, but  it  is  not  clear  that  tlie  psilse  Imd  any  MSlcmatic 
orgnnization.  Four  of  these  elementary  phalanges,  with 
their  complement  of  light  infantry  and  cavalry,  formed  the 
grand  phalanx,  or  army  corps. 

But  a  rival  system,  substantially  anticipated  in  tlie  He- 
brew armies  of  Joshua,  reappeared  in  |{otnau  infantry. 
The  fcgion  was  coetanoous  with  the  foundation  of  Rome, 
and,  in  so  far  as  it  combined  all  the  constituent  eletnents, 
was  a  prototype  of  the  corps  d'armee  of  to-day.  Originally, 
legionary  infantry  was  massed  according  to  the  phahingial 
method,  but  as  early  as  340  u.  r.  that  formation  had  been 
superseded  by  a  system  of  heavy  lines  so  divided  into  tac- 
tical units,  called  tnanipuH,  tliat  while  each  line  and  each 
unit  could  act  separately,  they  could  execute  combined 
movements  with  celerity  and  precision.  The  complement 
of  infantry  for  each  legion  gradually  increased  from  .'iOOO 
to  6000.  and  in  the  details  of  equipment  and  organization 
changes  were  frequent.  As  existing  in  the  First  Punic  war, 
and  consisting  nominally  of  4200  pidH'H,  the  heavy  in- 
fantry was  formed  in  three  lines — in  the  first  line  l-IH)  hni>. 
tafi,  young  and  inexi)erienced  warriors  ;  in  the  second.  1200 
pniicipen,  men  in  full  vigor  of  life;  and  in  the  third^OOO 
trinrii,  the  veteran  trotips.  Kach  line  was  divided  into  ten 
fnaM(7)i(^(' (companies),  tbe  first  two  lines  being  in  ten  ranks 
and  the  third  in  six  ranks;  and  in  each  company  the  space 
between  ranks  and  files  was  about  three  feet,  the  men  in 
rear  of  the  front  rank  standing  opposite  the  intervals  of 
the  rank  next  in  their  front.  To  this  force  was  attached  a 
corp  of  12U0  celiten  (skirmishers),  who  probably  had  neither 
company  organization  nor  fixed  position  in  the  legion.  At 
this  period  all  of  the  heavy  infantry  were  equipped  in  com- 
plete armor,  and  were  armed  with  the  short  straight  sword  ; 
the  haatati  and  principes  also  carried  heavy  javelins,  and 
the  triarii  had  long  spears.  The  velites  wore  no  armor, 
and  used  none  but  missile  weapons.  l*rior  to  this  period 
the  long  spear  had  been  borne  by  the  hastati,  and  the  pi- 
htmy  a  heavy  javelin,  by  the  triarii ;  hence  the  name  of  the 
first  line,  and  the  designation  of  that  and  tho  second  line  as 
antepilani.  These  misnomers  obtained,  however,  till  these 
classifications  of  heavy  infantry  ceased.  In  tho  Second 
Punic  war  the  manipuli  of  a  legion  were  grouped  into  ten 
rohorlen  (battalions),  consisting  each  of  a  eornj)any  of  has- 
tati, one  of  principes.  and  one  of  triarii,  with  probably  a 
corresponding  proportion  of  velites.  About  100  h.  c.  the 
heavy  infantry,  ceasing  to  bo  divided  into  classes,  are 
armed  and  equipped  alike,  the  velites  disappear  from  the 
legion,  separate  corps  of  light  infantry  are  formed  from  tho 
auxiliary  forces,  and  the  cohort,  becoming  the  tactical  unit, 
resembles  more  closely  the  morlern  battalion.  This  was  tho 
formation  employed  by  Maritis  and  Ciesar,  and  maintained 
till  about  the  time  of  Hadrian:  and  subsequent  modifiea- 
tinns  did  not  destroy  the  distinctive  features  of  tho  system. 

Tho  contrast  between  the  rival  systems  of  antiquity  is 
confined  to  the  heavy  infantry,  or  troops  of  tho  line,  and 
is,  briefly,  that  of  large  masses  comparatively  inert,  with 
smaller  force-units  of  corresponding  mobility.  The  pha- 
lanx, thougli  equal  t<j  a  modern  division  in  numbers,  was, 
tactically  speaking,  simply  a  huge  battalion,  and  its  usual 
figure  was  that  of  an  oblong  rectangle  (Fig.  1).  This  for- 
Fio.  1. 


I 


tL. 


^HZEES 


mation  cniiM  chanjjo.  iind  pxleml  or  onnlnict  its  front,  nnd 
form  roliiniiK'i,  sqiuircy.  wcij^rx.  etc.  ft  wiis  peculijirly  for- 
miilalilr  in  ilffonKivc  nlliludp.  nnd  was  ovorivhdniinK  in  an 
onHlnuglit  over  finorutilc  grounil  and  for  short  distancos ; 
hut  there  scorns  ttt  have  lieen  no  provision  for  mantnivor- 
ing  hy  fractional  parts  except  to  form  masses  of  greater 
depth,  and  the  phalanx  ongnKed  at  all  was  enitaged  as  a 
whole.  On  tho  other  hand,  the  taelieal  units  of  the  legion 
never  exccedecl  fillO  men,  and  these  could  he  maniruvcred 
separately,  in  croups,  or  as  a  whole.  The  formations  most 
cbaractcristio  of  tho  Uoman  system  were  the  manipular  ar- 

mumQ  Mmmmm  M 

ray  in  quincunx  order  (Fig.  2).  and  the  later  formation  in 
two  or  more  lines  of  ecdiorts,  with  small  intervals  in  each 


line  for  the  passage  of  light  troops  ;  and  from  either  of  these 
orders,  columns,  continuous  lines,  hollow  and  solid  sqnares. 
etc.  were  readily  derived.  The  manipular  system  gave  grent 
flexibility  to  the  legionary  infantry,  but  at  tho  expense  of 
its  powers  of  resistance,  and  the  later  cohort  formation  as 
arranged  by  Csesar  (Fig.  ;i)  was  a  partial  reversion  to  the 
Ki.;.  :i. 


T  I    I 


phftlangial  order.  iModern  criticism  is  pronounced  in  favor 
of  the  Roman  cohort,  but  in  its  renaissance  infantry  was 
again  displayed  after  the  rival  methods  of  Alexander  and 
Ciesar;  and  in  conijiaring  the  two  systems  there  is  danger 
of  overestimating  the  effect  of  purely  tactical  combinations 
upon  the  fortunes  of  ancient  armies.  At  Marathon  an 
Athenian  line  only  four  deep  and  at  "double  time"  suc- 
eessfnlly  charged  great  odds  in  dense  masses;  at  Leuctra 
the  Spartan  line,  eight  deep,  is  pierced  by  tiie  Theban  col- 
umn :  Greeks  in  phalanx  conquer  the  Persians  in  like  order, 
but  finally  succumb  to  the  Roman  cohort,  hut  that  in  turn 
was  annihilated  by  tho  barbarian  hosts  in  phalangial  ar- 
ray ;  and  it  is  significant  in  this  connection  that  while 
Pyrrhus  and  Hannibal  adopted  Roman  wenpons,  ihey  did 
not  discard  the  niassi\e  formation. 

In  the  Miffillc  A(jrn  infantry  eontinued  to  constitute  the 
principal  strength  of  the  dominant  powers  of  Europe  till 
the  feudal  system  was  established.  In  the  seven  days' 
battle  of  Tours  (a.  n.  7.'52}  we  find  tho  heavy  battalions  of 
the  Franks  defying  the  fury  of  the  Saracenic  cavalry,  and 
for  ever  turning  back  the  northern  tide  of  Moslem  inva- 
sion: this,  however,  was  its  last  creditable  appearance  for 
several  centuries.  I>uring  the  period  of  its  aliasement,  war 
was  pre-eminently  the  occupation  of  mankind,  but  military 
science  was  in  abeyance.  Armies  worthy  of  tho  name 
ceased  to  exist,  and  all  discipline  disap])eareii ;  cavalry  be- 
came the  principal  arm,  and  for  over  400  yenrs  the  mnn-at- 
arms  in  conijiarative  security  trani]>led  the  despised  infant- 
ry, then  a  tumultuous  mob  that  pillaged  or  fled  as  fortune 
served  their  mounted  musters.  But  feudalism  forced  roy- 
alty into  alliance  with  the  commons;  to  curb  the  nol)Ie  iho 
king  armed  and  disciplined  the  peasant.  ''Communal" 
militia  was  organized,  and  soon  proved  superior  to  the  ba- 
ronial followlngs,  and  as  early  as  1214  some  of  the  German 
infantry  is  ilescribed  as  "  very  good,  and  trained  to  fight 
on  the  level  vrm  <tijniuH(  cnralry."  In  the  next  century 
Flemish  infantry  with  crossbow  and  ])artisan  overthrows 
the  chivalry  of  France  at  Courtrai  (Ki02),  the  Austrian 
man-at-arms  comes  to  signal  grief  on  the  Swiss  pike  at 
Morgarten  (i:il.'>).  Sempach  (i;'.8fi),and  Nafels  (i:i88),  and 
the  Knglish  knight  dismounts  to  fight  beside  the  victorious 
archer  at  Cressy  and  Poitiers  (l.'!4fi-f)n).  The  prestige  thus 
re-established,  though  often  challenged,  was  never  lost; 
corps  of  pikemen  and  archers  became  essential  elements  in 
all  military  organizations :  ami  in  the  standing  armies 
raised  nbout  the  miiidle  (if  the  fifteenth  century  these  troops 
attained  such  steadiness  and  dexterity  that  cavalry,  in  its 
last  crustnceons  security,  soon  fared  but  indifl"erently  in 
disputing  precedence  with  infantry;  and  when  the  weap- 
ons  of  the  latter  delivered  missiles  through  the  heaviest 
plate-armor  that  man  and  beast  ctuild  bear,  the  issue  was 
decided.  Cavulry  was  still  important,  but  was  relegated 
to  an  auxiliary  position. 

From  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  till  about  the  battle 
of  Pavia  (1.02.'i)  defnils  of  military  formations  are  exceed- 
ingly meagre.  While  systematic  arrangements  obtained, 
there  appears  to  have  been  adherence  t(t  the  systems  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  At  Casilinum  (a.  n.  UbX)  the  Franks 
in  phalangial  wedge  are  defeated  by  the  cohorts  of  Narses  ; 
at  Tours  they  are  victorious  in  massive  square;  ot  Hast- 
ings tlie  Anghf-Saxons  adopt<'d  n  similar  order;  at  Ron- 
vines  (1214)  the  Gernnins  were  in  hollow  square;  the  iUhut 
of  Swiss  infantry  ts  in  Grecian  wedges  and  sqnares;  wliilc 
the  Spanish  infantry,  eqimlly  famous  a  few  years  later,  fir?t 
appears  in  the  Rinuan  order,  and.  like  its  prototype,  ex- 
hibits a  pnrtiiil  reversion  to  the  (Jreek  method  when  con- 
fronted with  the  Swiss  copy.  The  principal  infantry 
weapons,  ofl'ensive  and  defensive,  during  this  period  were 
straight  swords,  pikes,  axes,  spiked  clubs,  hmgbows,  hal- 
berds, crossbows,  parlisa?is.  helmets,  ntail-jackets,  corselets, 
and  shields.  As  in  former  perioils.  the  use  of  missile  arms 
is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  light  troops. 

Mmlcrn  iit/autn/  is  conveniently  nssumecl  to  date  from 
the  general  introduction  of  firearms  —  not  because  that 
event  at  once  revolutionized  military  methoils.bnt  because 
from  that  period  there  is  aullientie  record  of  the  gnidnal 
revival  of  military  science.     Firearms  were  in  general  use 


1190 


INFANTRY. 


when  tho  battle  of  Pavia  occurred,  but  for  many  years 
these  weapons  were  unwieiay,  uncertain  of  aim,  and  lim- 
ited in  range.     They  did  not  entirely  supersede  the  bow 
till  about  tho  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the 
musket  did  not  become  tho  sole  arm  of  civilucd  infantry 
till   at  the  beginning  of  tho  eighteenth  century,  it  became, 
with  the  socU'ct  l)ayonet,  a  pyro-ballistic  Jiikc.     In  the  in- 
fantry "bands"   organized    by   Francis   I.   in    laii,   and 
promptly  imitated  by  other  nations,  the  arquebusiers  and 
archers'in  equal  proportion  to  each  other,  constituted  two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  force;  in  1562.  "regiments''  of  about 
3000  men  become  common,  and,  the  bow  disajipeanng,  the 
proportion  of  firearms  is  soon  increased  to  one-hall.     At 
the  bc^'inning  of  the  Thirty  Yeais'  war  "battalions     of 
about  500  men  had  been  organized,  which  in  extended  or- 
der presented  a  line  of  contiguous  company  squares,  ten  or 
twelve  r.anks  in  depth,  with  the  light  infantry  (then  mus- 
keteers) on  the  flank.-!.     But  notwithstanding  the  steadily 
increasing  destructiveness  of  artillery  and  small-arms  these 
battalions  were  still  habitually  massed  for  action  into  close 
columns  of  twenty,  and  even  thirty,  files;  and  these  un- 
wieldy imitations  of  tho  phalanx   suffered  an  additional 
incunilirance  in  the  immediate  pro.ximity  of  the   enemy 
from  the  huddling  of  their  own  musketeers  within  the  pro- 
tection of  their  pikes.     The  impotence  of  this  system  was 
rudely  exposed  by  tho  genius  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  awaken  Europe  to  the  value 
of  infantry  fire.     His  innovations  consisted  simply  in  so 
adaptini'  "his  battalion  formation  and  gr.and  tactical  com- 
bination's as  to  develop  tho  full  force  of  his  own  fire  with 
the  least  possible  exposure  to  that  from  the  enemy.     To 
accomplish  this  result,  he  formed  battalions  of  mobile  di- 
mensions, reduced  the  depth  of  his  ranks  to  six  men,  in- 
creased  the  proportion   of  firearms  to   about  three-fifths, 
li-rhtened  the  musket,  shortcnc.i  the  pike,  discarded  useless 
annor,  and   introduced  the  cartridge  and  cartridge-bo.x. 
Moreover,  bis  men  were  taught  to  use  the  spade  as  well  as 
their  legs.     His  usual  order  of  battle  was  in  two  lines,  re- 
sembling the  quincunx  system  of  the  Romans  (Fig.  i).  The 
Fig.  4. 


Peace  of  Paris  to  the  present  day  but  trifling  differences 

have  existed  in  the  organizations  of  difl'erent  nations.    The 

English  were  probably  the  first  to  adopt  a  habitual  forma- 

FiG.  .5. 


^OFFICERS  ■N.COfFICEflS 


(File-closers  and  supernu- 
meraries omitted.) 


^1        n^dJisD        ^ 

^  piKEMEN  DmUSKETEERS 

superiority  of  the  Swedish  system  was  so  forcibly  demon- 
strated at  Breitenfeld  and  Lutzen  (1031-32)  as  to  be  gen- 
erally and  speedily  adopted. 

About  1670  the  bayonet  was  generally  introduced,  and 
the  proportion  of  pikemen  was  correspondingly  reduced, 
till  in  1075  it  did  not  exceed  one-fourth  in  any  of  the  prin- 
cipal armies.  The  socket  bayonet  appeared  in  IfiO'J,  and 
within  six  ycar.s  tho  pike  virtually  disappeared  from  the 
battle-field;  and  while  all  infantry  is  armed  with  the  same 
weapon,  the  distinction  between  heavy  and  light  corps, 
originating  in  the  incompatibility  of  the  ancient  wielded 
and  missile  weapons,  remains  nominal.  AVith  the  discard- 
in.'  of  pikes  came  a  reduction  of  lineal  formations  to  four 
ranks,  but  the  distance  between  the  ranks  was  yariable; 
in  them  the  elbow-touch  was  not  preserved,  and  the  ca- 
dence step,  common  from  the  most  remote  period  of  Egyp- 
tian history  till  the  extinction  of  classic  civilization,  was 
not  yet  revived.  This  contrivance  for  securing  mobility 
in  cohesive  order  was  adopted  by  Marshal  gaxe,  whose 
battalions  thereupon  astonished  both  Iricnd  and  toe  by  the 
aggressiye  use  of  their  legs. 

Frederick  the  Gteat  is  generally  considered  as  the  next 
reformer  of  military  methods,  and  the  maneuvering  of  his 
battalions  and  their  evolutions  in  line  of  battle  certainly 
reconciled  celerity  with  precision  of  combination  to  a  de- 
gree till  then  comparatively,  if  not  totally,  unknown.  At- 
taching greater  importance  to  the  fire  of  his  infantry  than 
to  thei"  use  of  the  bayonet,  he  increased  the  volume  of  fire 
by  extending  the  battalion  in  three  ranks,  and  by  thorough 
drill  so  accustomed  his  troops  to  tho  use  of  their  weapons 
and  to  steadiness  in  marching  that  in  unwavering  lines, 
advancing  or  retreating,  they  could  pour  well-sustained 
volleys  upon  the  enemy.  His  battalion,  two  of  which  con- 
stituted a  regiment,  consisted  of  six  companies,  five  of  fu- 
.silicrs,  and  one  of  grenadiers,  and  its  nominal  strength  was 
090  men,  rank  and  file.  Each  battalion  was  divided  for 
tactical  purposes  into  eight  divisions,  and  each"company 
into  four  sections,  but,  unfortunately,  his  division  embraced 
sections  of  three  different  cuinpanies  (Fig.  5).  A  force  of 
supernumeraries  accompanied  each  battalion  to  fill  vacan- 
cies in  the  ranks.  The  Seven  Years'  war  made  the  Prus- 
sian infantry  tho  arohotypo  for  Christendom,  and  from  tho 


tion  in  two  ranks,  and  the  propriety  of  reduction  to  one 
rank  is  now  seriously  discussed,  and  is  provided  for  in  the 
U.  S.  tactics. 

The  division  of  infantry  into  light  and  heavy  troops, 
that  had  become  nominal  about  the  year  1700,  was  revived, 
first  by  placing  the  new  arms,  as  muskets  were  improved 
in  range  and  accuracy,  in  the  hands  of  picked  men  from 
each  battalion  or  in  special  corps  (fusiliers,  grenadiers, 
etc.).  and  subsequently  by  the  introduction  of  rifled  arms, 
which  as  first  employed  were  deemed  unsuitable  for  "  troops 
of  tho  line."  Corps  of  riflemen  were  accordingly  organ- 
ized under  various  denominations  (chasseurs,  tirailleurs, 
etc.),  were  trained  in  gymnastic  exercises,  and  specially 
drilled  for  marching  and  fighting  in  open  order  as  sharp- 
shooters. But  in  the  present  day  the  distinction  is  again 
nominal.  The  rifle  is  universal,  and  all  infantry  is  really 
light  infantry.  .     .     ^ 

The  present  organization  of  infantry  is  in  Companif.s, 
Battalions,  and  Regiments  (which  see);  for  tactical  pur- 
poses the  companies  are  generally  divided  into  platoous, 
the  battalions  into  wings  and  divisions;  and  for  like  pur- 
poses the  battalions  are  grouped  into  Brigaues  and  Divis- 
ions (which  see).  Regimental  organizations  are  purely 
administrative;  in  the  armies  of  Europe  they  generally 
consist  of  two  or  more  battalions,  and  the  nominal  battal- 
ion strength,  rank  and  file,  ranges  from  500  to  UlOO  men. 

In  the  army  of  the  U.  S.  the  infantry  is  organized  into 
twenty-five  regiments,  each  consisting  of  one  battalion  of 
ten  co"inpanies.  To  each  regiment  there  is  a  colonel,  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, major,  adjutant,  quartermaster,  sergeant- 
major,  quartermaster-sergeant,  chief  musician,  and  two 
principal  musicians,  and  to  the  two  "  colored  regiments 
a  chaplain  each. 


Each  company  has  a  captain,  two  lieu- 
tenants, five  sergeants,  four  corporals,  two  musicians,  two 
artificers,  a  wagoner,  and,  under  the  organic  law,  from  oO 
to  100  privates,  but  under  temiioiary  restrictions  in  the  an- 
nual appropriation  for  the  army  the  number  of  privates 
avera.'cs  only  34.  which  gives  a  regimental  strength,  rank 
and  hie,  of  about  4S0  men.  The  companies  arc  permanently 
designated  bv  Iclters  of  the  alphabet,  and  are  so  posted  in 
the  battalion  as  to  have  the  senior  captain  on  the  right, 
the  next  in  rank  on  the  left,  the  third  in  the  centre,  and  so 
on  The  lieutenants,  when  not  commanding  subdivisions, 
and  the  sergeants,  when  not  acting  as  guides,  constitute 
the  "file-closers."  and  are  stationed  in  rear  of  tlieir  re- 
spective companies.  The  various  distinctive  formations 
of  our  battalion  and  of  a  company  are  indicated  m  ligs. 
6  and  7.  The  individual  soldier  is  armed  with  a  brecch- 
FiG.  6. 


A. HUE  OF  OATTLE. 

B.  CtCSC  COLUMN  BY  DIVISIOM. 

C.RALLY  AGWMST   CAVALRTf, 


loading  rifle  and  triangular  bayonet,  and  is  now  experi- 
menting with  a  contrivance  designed  to  combine  the  dan- 
gerous qualities  of  the  bayonet  with  the  protective  virtues 
of  the  spade.  His  uniform  is  distinguished  by  light-blue 
trimmings,  and  in  heavy  marching  order  he  carries  a  knap- 
sack with  complete  change  of  clothing,  a  blanket  great- 
coat, several  days'  rations  in  haversack,  a  canteen  of  water, 
and  00  rounds  of  ammunition. 

Theoretically,  the  proportion  of  infantry  in  all  properly 
organized  armies  sliould  be  from  two-thirds  to  three-four  hs 
of  the  permanent  establishment,  but  as  efficient  infantry 
can  bo  created  moio  readily  than  serviceable  artillery  or 


INFANT  SCHOOLS— INFINITE. 


1191 


cavalry,  thi»  proportion  is  rarely  maintained  i»  a  peace 
c.ttablif^limcnt.  In  the  U.  S.  service  the  proportion  of  the 
three  arms  is  about — artillery  ODC-eighth,  cavalry  three- 

Fio.  7. 

A. 


~li- 


□ 

6 


□ 

3 


cm 


C3 

7 


DCZ2C3 

2  9        6 


n  r 

1  1 

r 

T 

B 

-1 

-] 

1 

1   n 

5 

- 

- 

- 

' 

' 

_ 

El   D        Q        D        □ 


A,  in  line;  B,  column  of  fours.  1, captain;  2,  first  lieutenant;  3. 
second  lieutenant ;  4.  first  sergeant;  5,  second  sergeant;  6,  lliird 
sergeant;  7,  fourlb  sergeant;  8,  lil'lh  sergeant;  9,  musicianfi. 

eighths,  and  infantry  unc-half,  but  the  exigencies  of  this 
service  demand  a  cuDstant  interchange  of  duties  between 
the  three  arms.  Kdbeut  N.  tScoTX. 

InTant  Schools  were  originally  charitable  institutions 
that  sprang  up  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
simply  to  relieve  the  mothers  of  the  laboring  classes  of  the 
care  of  their  little  children  when  they  are  away  at  day 
labor.  Their  value  was  merely  that  they  kept  the  children 
out  of  the  streets  and  physically  comfortable.  They  got 
the  name  of  »cAoo/«  because  among  the  devices  for  keeping 
them  quiet  by  circumventing  their  spontaneous  activity, 
they  were  taught  to  march  and  some  gymnastic  exercises, 
ond  to  sing  in  rhyme  or  intone  the  multiplication  table, 
the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  of  the  months  of  the 
year,  and  other  things  of  that  kind.  The  best  thing  taught 
in  the  infant  schools  was  to  sing  hymns,  for  music  is  the 
natural  language  of  piety,  and  little  children  thus  get  the 
notion  of  religion  and  some  of  its  most  suggestive  sym- 
bols into  their  ''chambers  of  imagery."  Some  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  I'estalozzi.  and  especially  Wildcrspin.  endeavored 
to  develop  something  educational  out  of  these  charitable 
institutions,  introducing  some  object-teaching,  lint  they 
were  not  even  the  germ  of  the  kindartjartcn  (see  KlioRltEL 
and  KiNDKRtJARTKN),  becausc  they  were  not  founded  on  any 
study  of  the  nature  of  childhood,  and  tlieir  methori  was 
simply  ronliti'T,  which  is  the  opposite  of  cnldvatimj;  so  far 
from  preparing  children  for  the  schools  of  instruction,  as 
the  kindergarten  education  docs,  their  substitution  of  memo- 
rized words  for  observed  things  renders  children  less  sus- 
ceptible of  being  taught  the  way  to  discover  facts  and 
truth.  Our  countryman,  jMr.  A.  B.  Alcott,  in  articles 
written  in  the  first  Journal  of  EdncntloH  published  in 
America — which  was  edited  by  William  Uussell  in  Boston 
in  the  years  1820-29 — pointed  out  the  radical  defect  of  the 
infant  school  method  of  dealing  with  children's  minds.  lie 
made  experiments  of  a  more  vital  one.  His  wonderful 
success  in  touching  into  activity  the  moral  sense  of  the 
neglected  children  in  the  cellars  of  Broad  strcci,  gathered 
by  some  charitable  ladies  of  Buston  into  an  infant  school  in 
182G,  atfracted  the  attention  of  (ho  cultivated  classes,  and 
led  to  the  establishment  of  a  school,  of  which  a  volume 
called  the  Record  of  n  School  gives  an  account,  and  which 
contains  a  genuine  study  of  childhood  and  a  high  appre- 
ciation of  Mr.  Alcott.  But  in  the  last  edition  of  this  book 
the  author  is  seen  to  have  bei-omr  the  disciple  of  Froebel's 
broailer  and  more  natural  method,  whoso  scope  involves  all 
that  is  good  in  the  infant  school,  corrects  its  errors,  and 
supplies  its  deficiencies.  Klizabrth  P.  Pkaiioov. 

Infanzona'dOf  a  district  comprising  72  villages  in  the 
plain-country  of  (he  Spani.-^h  province  of  Vizcaya  or  Bis- 
cay ;  it  was  eonsiilered  as  tlic  noblest  region  of  tlie  Itncquo 
country,  and  its  reprcBentattvcs  enjoyed  a  preference  at  the 
juntttH.  The  name  is  supposed  to  imply  that  this  territory 
was  once  the  flomain  of  the  iuftnzonrx — liir-rally,  the 
"great  infants" — of  the  royal  family.  The  territory  is 
divided  into  the  five  merindudet  of  Uribe,  Busturia,  Ar- 
ratin,  Bi-<Iia,  and  .Marquina. 

Infi'ction.     See  Contagion. 

In'lidel  [Lat.  in/?^/*:/!'*,  "unfaithful,"  "unbelieving"], 
a  term  a]»plied,  usually  with  something  of  reproach,  (1)  to 
disbelievers  in  the  Thristian  religion,  whether  atheists  or 
deists  (see  ArnEtsM.  Dfists);  (2)  to  non-believers,  such  as 
Mohammedans  and  heathens,  but  this  uflo  of  the  word  is 
antif|uated  an<l  nnw  unfrequent;  while  (;'. )  the  skeptic  or 
dovibter  (soe  Skki'TIcism),  as  a  non-believiT,  is  aNo  io  some 


extent  liable  to  the  reproach  of  infidelity  ;  and  in  popular 
parlance  the  term  free-thinker  is  synonymous  with  iutidel. 
(See  FnEi:-TniSKEKs,  by  0.  B.  Fkothinguam.) 

In'finitc  [t'ri^  negative,  and  _^«i>,  "end  "].  In  music, 
certain  canonical  compositions  which  have  no  proper  close 
arc  called  infinite  (or  without  termination),  because  each 
part,  on  arriving  at  the  last  note,  immediately  returns  to 
the  first  and  proceeds  as  before,  the  number  of  repetitions 
being  at  the  pleasure  of  the  performers  and  terminated  by 
an  arbitrary  signal.  The  real  ending  should  always  be  on 
the  chord  of  the  tonic  or  one  of  its  inversions,  and  this 
also  on  a  principal  accented  part  of  a  bar  or  measure. 
Sometimes  a  final  cadence  is  expressly  added  to  the  canon, 
or  is  a  part  of  its  construction,  and  forms  the  proper  ter- 
mination. The  canon  is,  in  such  case,  said  to  be  finite. 
Kohner  remarks  that  "  an  infinite  unrestricted  canon  is 
easily  made  finite, and  a  finite  made  infinite:  it  is  required 
only  to  add  a  cadence  in  the  one  case,  and  to  take  it  away 
in  the  other."  William  Staixton. 

Inflnitej  in  philosophy.  As  a  philosophical  term, 
"infinite"  expresses  the  form  of  Being  which  is  self- 
related  and  contains  no  implied  contrast  to  other-being. 
If  the  term  is  used  to  ex])ress  a  contrast  with  the  finite 
or  indefinite,  and  the  infinite  is  regarded  as  a  "  beyond" 
to  the  finite,  the  thought  of  the  infinite  is  inadequate, 
and  the  conception  is  really  that  of  one  finite  over 
against  another.  The  infinite  must  be  conceived  as  con- 
taining the  finite  within  it  as  an  essential  element  of  its 
self-relation.  There  arc  three  significations  in  which  the 
term  "infinite"  is  employed,  corresponding  to  the  three 
stages  of  theoretical  reflection:  («)  the  dogmatic,  (/>)  the 
skeptical,  (r)  the  speculative.  I.  As  merely  negative  of 
the  finite,  in  which  case  the  finite  expresses  concrete  reality 
and  fulness  of  relations,  while  the  infinite  expresses  a  mere- 
ly abstract  and  negative  notion.  '■  conceived  only  by  think- 
ing away  the  very  conditions  under  which  thought  itself  is 
realized."  The  infinite  in  this  sense  is.  according  to  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  "  the  unconditionally  unlimited;"  the 
absolute,  defined  as  "the  unconditionally  limited,"  being 
the  other  species  constituting  the  genus  of  the  "uncon- 
ditioned." Such  an  Infinite,  being  indeterminate,  and  de- 
void of  all  properties  or  attributes,  and  without  distinction 
or  difference  from  anything  else  or  within  itself,  is  an  empty 
abstraction.  The  very  thought  of  it  involves  self-contra- 
diction;  the  form  of  its  definition  places  it  in  relation  or 
contrast,  as  excluding  the  finite,  while  the  content  of  its 
definition  denies  all  relation  or  determination  whatsoever. 
The  attempt  to  conceive  such  a  thought  results  in  a  sort  of 
ideal  oscillation  between  the  determined  and  undetermined 
— the  thought  of  the  Indefinite,  or  Infinite  Progress.  II. 
The  "infinite  progress"  is  the  form  under  wliich  the  infi- 
nite is  most  commonly  thought.  The  infinite  divisibility 
of  space,  its  infinite  extent,  the  infinite  regress  of  causes  or 
conditions  in  the  search  of  a  First  Cause,  the  doctrine  of 
moral  perfectibility,  etc.,  furnish  practical  examples.  The 
mind  passes  from  one  phase  to  its  opposite,  and  returns 
again  only  to  repeat  the  process;  for  it  finds  in  eucli  phaso 
its  other,  and  endeavors  analytically  to  separate  them. 
Each  cause,  inasmuch  as  it  begins  to  act,  must  have  an- 
other cause  to  explain  the  occasion  of  its  action  at  this 
particular  time;  each  space  divided  furnishes  two  spaces 
which  are  in  all  respects  like  the  first  space,  and  capable 
of  division  :igain  ;  beyond  any  space  which  wo  may  con- 
ceive or  picture  in  our  minds  there  is  still  other  (<paco ; 
whatever  is,  is  finite  iiud  imperfect,  and  therefore  ought  to 
bo  reformed  or  improved.  \n  the  thought  of  the  infinite 
as  a  progress  there  is  an  unconscious  dual  activity  in  tho 
mind,  in  which  the  inuiginatiiui  and  reflection  take  part. 
Tho  famous  "  antinomies  "  of  Kant  arise  in  this  way.  Tho 
finite  is  pictured  to  the  mind,  and  tho  pure  reflection  tran- 
scends the  picture  or  image,  and  defines  for  itself  tho  logi- 
cal conditions  of  the  finite,  but  immediately  applies  these 
conditions  to  a  finite  realization  and  renews  its  mental  im- 
age. Sir  William  Ilamillon  held  that  "all  that  is  conceiv- 
able in  thought  lies  between  two  extremes,  which,  as  con- 
tradictory oi'  each  other,  cannot  bulb  be  true,  but  of  which 
as  mutual  contradictories  one  must  be  true."  His  proof  is 
"by  application  to  the  |)henomena."  In  regard  to  space, 
for  example,  he  finds,  on  tho  one  hand,  that  we  are  unable 
to  conceive  space  as  hounded,  for  then  it  would  be  surruund- 
cd  by  space:  on  the  other  hanil,  wo  cannot  conceive  it  as 
infinite,  fur  we  arc  unable  to  "realize  in  thought"  unlimit- 
ed space  by  "transcending  in  fancy  "  tho  finite,  or  even  by 
"exhausting  imagination"  in  tho  attempt  to  image  it.  In 
this  we  have  (ho  representative  faculty  t'liilitig  to  produce 
an  adequate  picture  of  infinite  space.  Since  even  mental 
pictures  must  be  finite,  a  successful  picture  of  space  as  a 
whole  would  prove  its  finitude,  and  thus  contradict  the  in- 
ference of  pure  reflection,  which  pronounces  space  infitiitc, 
on  the  ground  that  any  limitatir.n  nf  space  must  be  made  hy 


1192 


INFINITES  AND  INFINITESIMALS— INFLAMMATION. 


space  itself  and  thus  continue  it  instead  of  ending  it.  Since, 
however,  an  image  or  pielure  of  space  is  impossible,  the  two 
results  harmonize,  and  tli<TC  is  no  antinomy.  III.  t'uder 
the  thought  of  the  "infinite  progress"  lies,  therefore,  the 
thought  of  the  positive  infinite.  Spinoza  culled  this  the 
infinitum  octti  vcf  rati'onin,  to  disttnguiiili  it  from  the  infini- 
tuih.  itnnfftnationtu,  already  described.  The  infinite  recur- 
rence of  the  same  limits  implies  the  necessary  self-relntion 
of  the  process.  To  affirm  that  beyond  every  conceivable 
boundary  or  assignable  limit  there  is  still  more  space,  im- 
plies an  insight  into  the  self-limiting  or  self-continuing 
nature  of  space.  If  it  related  to  something  else,  it  were 
finite;  to  be  infinite,  it  must  be  its  own  limit  or  rtZ/^ritm. 
The  highest  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  conscious 
being,  wherein  the  subject  is  its  o\vn  object,  knowing  and 
known  being  identical.  Aristotle  makes  the  Infinite  and 
highest  truth  to  be  vorja-i^  rojjo-ew?. — Dr.  Noah  Porter  {The 
Hum.  Int.,  p.  057)  gives  this  standpoint  clearly:  "The 
'antinomies'  of  Kant  and  the  *  essential  contradictories' 
of  Hamilton,  each  of  which  seems  necessary  to  the  mind, 
and  each  of  which  excludes  the  other,  are  all  made  by  the 
mind  itself  in  the  attempt  to  illustrate  the  infinite  by  the 
finite.  The  antinomies  of  Kant  are  incompatibilities  be- 
tween an  {muf/e  and  a  relation  which  the  image  exempli- 
fies, or  between  two  images  adduced  to  illustrate  different 
relations,  or  between  two  concepts  which  are  not  both  ne- 
cessary to  the  mind.  The  solution  of  them  is  to  be  found 
in  the  restatement  of  the  conceptions  between  which  these 
incompatibilities  are  said  to  exist."  ''When  Hamilton 
says  we  must  conceive  of  space  as  a  bounded  or  not  bound- 
ed sphere,  he  introduces  the  image  of  an  object  existing  in 
space  and  limited  in  space,  in  order  to  illustrate  space  it- 
self, and  confounds  the  one  with  the  other.  To  introduce 
the  image  of  an  extended  object  to  show  that  space  exists 
and  holds  some  relation  to  every  extended  object,  is  legiti- 
mate, but  to  substitute  the  limited — i.  c.  an  extended  ob- 
ject— for  the  true  unlimited — i.  e.  space  which  makes  ex- 
tension possible — and  then  to  be  embarrassed  by  the  incom- 
patibilities of  our  own  creation,  is  to  fall  into  the  very  se- 
rious error  of  confouuding  the  image  with  the  notion  (an- 
Hchauunff  with  the  Berfriff)  against  which  Hamilton  ex- 
pressly cautions  his  pupils."  While  nominalists  and  ma- 
terialists have  generally  denied  the  possibility  of  knowing 
the  infinite,  for  subjective  or  objective  reasons,  most  real- 
ists and  idealists  have  claimed  a  knowledge  of  it  more  or 
less  adequate.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Infinites  and  Infinitesimals.  In  mathematics,  an 
infinite  quitntiti/  is  a  quantity  greater  than  any  assignable 
quantity  of  the  same  kind,  and  an  iufinitetinial  is  a  quan- 
tity less  than  any  assignable  quantity'  of  the  same  kind. 
To  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  terms  infinite  and  in- 
finitesimal, let  us  take  the  fraction  —,  whose  numerator  is  a 

finite  constant — that  is,  a  quantity  that  contains  a  definite 
number  of  known  units — and  whose  denominator  is  ran  a - 
hie.  As  X  diminishes,  the  value  of  the  fraction  increases; 
when  X  becomes  exceedingly  small,  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tion becomes  exceedingly  large;  in  all  cases  we  can  give  to 
X  a  value  so  small  as  to  make  the  fraction  greater  than  any 
assignable  quantity  of  the  same  kind.  The  value  towards 
which  the  fraction  tends  as  .r  tends  toward  0  is  said  to  bo 
infinite,  and  is  denoted  by  the  symbol  :c.  Again,  as  x  in- 
creases, the  value  of  the  fraction  diminishes;  when  x  be- 
comes exceedingly  great,  the  value  of  the  fraction  becomes 
exceedingly  small  :  in  all  cases  we  can  give  a  value  to  x 
so  great  that  it  will  make  the  fraction  less  than  any  as- 
signable quantity  of  the  same  kind.  The  value  towards 
which  the  fraction  tends  when  x  tends  towartls  infinity  is 
said  to  be  infinitc^inifil,  and  is  often,  though  not  properly, 
denoted  by  the  symbol  0.  These  relations  are  expressed  by 
saying  that  a  finite  quantity  divided  by  an  infinitesimal  is 
infinite,  and  a  finite  quantity  divided  by  infinity  is  an  in- 
finitesimal: that  is,  !-  =  '»  and  —  =  0.  Neither  an  infi- 
0  00 

nitc  nor  an  infinitesimal  can  bo  expressed  in  terms  of  a 
finite  unit. 

The  terms  infinite  and  infinitesimal,  as  above  explained, 
are  purely  technical,  and  their  signification  must  not  bo 
confounded  with  their  absolute  or  popular  meanings.  Thus, 
the  0  or  naught  of  common  language  is  an  absolute  nega- 
tion of  quantity,  whereas  the  infinitesimal,  or  the  0  as  wo 
have  described  it,  is  a  quantity,  but  it  is  a  quantity  so 
small  that  it  is  inappreciable  in  comparison  with  any  finite 
quiintily. 

Infinites  and  infinitesimals,  according  to  their  technical 
signification,  may  be  compared  with  each  other;  that  is, 
they  may  have  definite  ratios.     Thus,  if  we  take  the  cx- 

rt     2a     :ia  ... 

pressions  — ,  — ,  — ,  etc.,  x  being  the  same  in  all,  and  then 

if  we  suppose  x  to  become  infinitely  small,  thero  will  result 


a  series  of  infinites  of  which  the  second  is  twice  the  first, 
the  third  three  times  the  first,  and  so  on.  Again,  if  we 
suppose  X  to  become  infinitely  great,  there  will  result  a 
scries  of  infinitesimals  in  which  each  bears  a  definite  ratio 
to  every  other  one.  The  principle  here  enunciated  is  the 
basis  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus;  thus,  the  ratio  of  the 
infinitesimal  increment  of  the  variable  to  the  correspond- 
ing increment  of  the  functiun  is  a  definite  ratio,  and  is 
calleil  the  differential  coefficient  of  the  function.  The  ratio 
of  these  simultaneous  increments  can  be  found  from  the  re- 
lation between  the  function  and  its  variable,  and  conversely 
the  relation  between  the  function  and  variable  may  be 
found  from  the  ratio  of  their  infinitesimal  increments. 

The  terms  infinite  and  infinite.-imal  are  purely  relative, 
so  that  we  may  have  infinites  that  are  infinitely  great  with 
respect  to  other  infinites,  and  infinitesimals  that  are  in- 
finitely small  with  respect  to  oftier  infinitesimals.     For,  let 

1         X        x*-* 
us  take  the  continued  identical  equation, —  =  —  =  —r->  etc.; 

if  we  suppose  x  to  be  infinitely  great  with  respect  to  1,  then 
will  J-  be  infinitely  great  with  respect  to  r.  j^  will  be  in- 
finitely great  with  respect  to  x^,  and  so  on  :  if  we  suppose 
X  to  be  infinitely  small  with  respect  to  1,  then  will  x^  be  in- 
finitely small  with  respect  to  x,  x^  will  be  infinitely  small 
with  respect  to  x^,  and  so  on.  Infinites  and  infinitesimals 
may  be  either  positive  or  negative.  Thus,  if  n  divided  by 
X  is  a  positive  infinite  or  infinitesimal,  then  will  —a  divided 
by  X  be  a  negative  infinite  or  infinitesimal. 

Infinites  and  infinitesimals  are  subject  to  definite  rules, 
and  the  resulting  calculus  is  as  rigorous  and  true  as  the 
calculus  of  finite  quantities.  In  fact,  many  of  the  processes 
of  geometry  are  based  on  the  ideas  of  infinites  and  in- 
finitesimals as  above  explained.  Thus,  if  we  inscribe  a 
regular  polygon  in  a  circle,  and  then  bisect  the  arcs  sub- 
tended by  each  side  of  the  polygon,  and  join  the  points  of 
bisection  with  the  adjacent  vertices  of  the  polygon,  there 
will  be  inscribed  a  second  regular  polygon  having  twice  as 
many  sides  as  the  given  one;  this  polygon  will  coincide 
more  nearly  with  the  circle  than  the  first.  If  we  form  a 
third  regular  polygon  in  the  same  manner,  having  t^vice  as 
many  sides  as  the  second,  it  will  coincide  still  more  nearly 
with  the  circle  than  the  second,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  If 
we  conceive  this  process  of  bisection  and  formation  of 
polygons,  each  having  twice  as  many  sides  as  the  preced- 
ing one,  to  be  continued,  the  varying  polygon  will  con- 
tinually approach  the  circle,  and  finally,  when  the  number 
of  sides  of  the  polygon  becomes  infinite,  the  polygon  will 
coincide  with  the  circle.  Hence,  we  say  that  a  circle  is  a 
regular  polygon  having  an  infinite  number  of  siilcs,  and 
consequently  whatever  can  be  predicated  of  regular  poly- 
gons can  also  be  predicated  of  the  circle.  Thus,  the  area 
of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  its  perimeter  multiplied  by 
one-half  of  its  apothem  ;  but  the  perimeter  of  a  circle  is  its 
circumference,  and  the  apothem  of  a  circle  is  its  radius; 
hence,  the  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  its  circumference  mul- 
tiplied by  one-half  of  its  radius.  W.  G.  Peck. 

luflammable-gas  Engine*    See  Gas-Exgive. 

Inflamma'tion  l'l4nt.  infimn mo.  infiatnmntnJn,to  "  kin- 
dle, "  yfa»JH)«,  *' flame"],  a  morbid  process  characterized 
by  heat,  redness,  pain,  and  swelling.  The  predisposing 
cause  may  be  anything  which  tends  to  influence  injuri- 
ously the  animal  economy — plethora  or  aniemia.  When 
a  part  has  once  been  the  seat  of  inflammation,  it  is  very 
liable  to  be  affected  again  under  the  slightest  exciting 
cause.  Ago  is  a  predisposing  cause  of  inflammation  ;  in 
infancy  the  parts  most  subject  to  become  inflamed  are  the 
bowels,  pharynx,  larynx,  and  brain,  whereas  during  adult 
life  these  parts  are  seldom  affected,  the  favorite  seat  then 
being  the  lungs,  heart,  urinary  ap])aratus,  etc.  Sex  exerts 
a  certain  influence;  a  female  is  more  apt  to  suffer  from 
peritonitis,  phlebitis,  or  cellulitis  in  consequence  of  the  par- 
turient act.  So  the  tcm])erament,  food,  occupation,  climate, 
etc.  ail  influence,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  suscepti- 
bility of  the  individual  to  be  attacked  by  inflammation. 
The  exciting  causes  may  be  divided  into  the  constitutional 
and  local :  the  former  includes  all  those  agents  which  are 
capable  of  rendering  the  blood  impure,  as  poisonous  gases, 
cold.  heat.  etc.  The  loc.il  cause  is  generally  an  injury  of 
some  kind,  cither  chemical  or  mechanical.  Every  vascular 
part  may  be  the  seat  of  inflammation,  and  usually  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  its  vascularity.  It  also  seems 
necessary  that  nerves  should  be  present.  Cartilage  con- 
tains no  nerves  and  but  few  vessels,  and  is  therefore  rarely 
the  seat  of  inflammation.  Epidermis,  hair,  and  the  nails 
arc  never  inflamed,  being  destitute  of  blood-vessels,  nerves, 
and  lymphatics.  Inflammation  may  extend  from  one  part 
to  another  in  one  of  the  following  ways:  By  continuity  of 
tissue;  thus  wo  find  that  in  inflammation  of  the  arachnoid 
the  inflammatory  action  after  a  few  days  extends  to  the 
brain-substance  and  causes  delirium;  through  the  agency  of 


INFLECTION— INFLEXION. 


1193 


tho  blood-vessels,  ihcy  carrying  the  products  of  the  inflnm- 
matory  actiou  to  heulthy  jiarts,  nnd  exciting  therein  a  dis- 
eased action;  and  through  the  nervous  system  ;  but  the 
last  way  is  probably  more  theoretical  than  borne  out  by 
fact.  Tho  inlhimmation  more  likely  arisi's  de  novo  than 
that  it  is  produced  through  nervous  sympathy. 

Inflammation  is  generally  divided  into  the  acute  and 
chronic  varieties;  the  former  runs  a  rapid  course  and  is 
attended  by  well-marked  symptoms — pain,  heat,  redness, 
and  swelling.  The.-c  have  been  given  as  the  symptoms  of 
intlammalion  from  tho  time  of  Hippocratus.  The  swelling 
is  caused  by  enlargement  of  the  vessels,  and  more  particu- 
larly from  serous  effusion,  whicli  takes  place  into  the  ad- 
jacent tissues:  at  a  later  period  we  have  plastic  exuda- 
tion, which  in  the  end  tends  to  lessen  tho  size  of  a  part. 
Tho  redness  is  a  leading  feature,  and  is  due  to  enlarge- 
ment of  the  vessels  and  an  increase  of  the  coloring-matter 
of  the  blood.  Pain  is  not  essential  to  the  disease — pneu- 
monia and  encephalitis  are  not  painful  diseases — but  ex- 
ternal inflammations  are  always  attended  with  pain,  which 
is  line  to  pressure  upon  the  ultimate  sensitive  nervous  fila- 
ments. Serous  membranes  stand  next  to  fibrous  structures 
of  joints  in  tlie  severity  of  innamniafion,  altliough  we  may 
have  serous  membranes  inflamed  without  pain,  as  in  puer- 
peral peritonitis.  The  heat  is  a  direct  result  of  hypcra^mia. 
It  is  chiefly  felt  in  external  inflammations  ;  the  part  re- 
ceives more  blood,  and  is  consequently  of  a  higher  temper- 
ature than  the  rest  of  tho  surface,  but  it  never-  rises  above 
tho  heat  of  the  blood.  Acute  iuflammatiou  is  always  at- 
tended by  more  or  less  fever,  which  may  bo  ushered  in  by  a 
chill.  The  pulse  runs  up  to  100-120,  the  respirations  are 
increased  in  number  to  2;')  or  ;iO  per  minute,  and  the  tem- 
perature is  raised  to  10li°-10l°  F.  ;  tho  secretions  are  sup- 
pressed, and  there  is  headache  and  sometimes  delirium. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  exact 
changes  which  take  place  in  a  part  attacked  by  inflamma- 
tion by  artificially  producing  an  inflammation  in  the  web 
of  a  frog's  foot  or  the  wing  of  a  bat,  and  closely  watching 
tho  changes  under  a  powerful  microscope;  these  observa- 
tions have  led  to  the  t'ollowing  conclusions  :  In  inflamma- 
tion the  first  change  is  in  tho  ganglionic  system  of  nerves, 
but  of  this  system  we  know  nothing  except  its  efl'erts.  This 
nervous  system  influences  the  variou.s  ilelerminations  of 
blood,  as  seen  in  blushing  and  the  local  temporary  engorge- 
ment of  nervous  women;  as  also  congestions,  which  aro 
not  mechanical  in  their  cauHC,  but  occur  from  a  passive 
atato  of  tho  vessels.  Next  we  will  notice  the  changes  which 
arc  seen  to  occur  in  the  blood- ve^sr-ls.  There  is  at  first 
active  congestion  of  the  part,  and  this  condition  is  causetl 
by  internal  or  external  irritation.  Soon  stagnation  is  ob- 
served to  take  place  at  points.  In  the  natural  state  the  red 
blood-corpuscles  never  touch  the  walls  of  the  capillaries, 
but  in  intlainmation  this  rule  no  longer  obtains,  ancl  they 
begin  to  adhere  to  the  walls  and  to  each  other.  This  is 
known  as  tho  nfasia  ;  as  it  increases  tho  vessels  continue  to 
dilate,  and  very  soon  after  tho  stasis  is  established  tho 
vessels  begin  to  cxu'lo  their  contents,  which  makes  its  ap- 
pearance amongst  tho  tissues.  This  exudation  is  not  a 
coagulation  of  tho  blood  as  seen  outsitio  tho  body  ;  it  is 
serous  at  first,  but  is  80<»n  followed  by  an  efl"usion  of  lymph 
or  li(|uor  sanguinis,  which,  according  to  the  old  theory, 
might  be  organized  into  false  membrane  or  degenerate  into 
pus,  it  depenrling  on  the  tissues  involved  and  the  consti- 
tution of  tho  patient.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
Cohnheim's  theory  of  the  formation  of  pus  is  tho  one  gen- 
erally received — viz.  that  tho  corpuscles  arc  identical  with 
tho  white  blood-corpuscles,  which  arc  exuded  through  tho 
walls  of  the  vessels.  In  process  of  tiuio  the  false  membranu 
becomes  smooth.  It  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  whether 
nerves  aro  f<)rmed  in  tho  tissues  or  not.  Two  theories  aro 
given  to  account  for  the  formati'in  of  vessels  in  these  now 
productions — viz.  Vogol's  and  JIunter's.  Vogel  believes 
that  ho  has  seen  tho  membrane  itself  produce  the  blood, 
and  afterwards  the  vessels  to  contain  this  blood,  and  ho 
gays  that  finally  these  new  vessels  communicate  with  the 
old  ones.  Hunter  believes  that  tho  new  vessels  are  given 
off  from  tho  old  ones.  After  vessels  have  been  formed  in 
these  new  tissues  contraction  commences,  and  both  tho 
membrane  and  the  vessels  become  smaller  and  firmer.  This 
contraction  sometimes  proves  a  serious  nuLtter,  as  in  tho 
contraction  of  hands  around  tho  intestines,  especially  in 
tho  neighborhood  of  tho  rectum  :  the  elTerts  of  the  contrac- 
tion are  also  serious  about  tho  pericardium,  causing  at  times 
hypertriipliy  of  the  lieiirt;  the  pleura  sufl'ers  least  from  it. 

Tho  duratif.n  and  character  of  tho  inflammation  vary 
with  the  eiindition  of  the  part  afl'eetcd  and  the  constitution 
of  the  patient.  When  once  fairly  established,  it  may  de- 
stroy life  by  exhaustion  or  by  interfering  with  tho  function 
of  S(tme  importunt  organ,  as  the  lungs  or  heart.  It  may 
aN'o  terminate  in  resolution,  suppuration,  or  murtifieation, 
|{'--^olution  consists  in  the  restoration  of  tho  alicctcd  part 


to  its  normal  condition,  without  suppuration  having  taken 
place.  It  is  by  far  the  most  favorable  termination  of  in- 
flammatory action.  Suppuration  consistsof  the  formation 
of  a  fluid  called  pus,  as  described  above  :  it  is  a  yellowish 
liquid,  in  which  float  numerous  small  round  granular  cor- 
puscles. When  the  pus  is  thin,  dirty,  and  acrid,  it  is  called 
ichor.  When  suppuration  continues  fur  any  length  of 
time,  it  gives  rise  to  a  fever  known  as  hectic  fever.  Tliis 
is  diurnal  in  character,  commencing  with  a  chill,  followed 
by  a  fever,  and  then  sweating.  The  chill  lasts  from  half  an 
hour  to  an  hour,  the  fever  from  one  to  tw«f  hours.  In  a 
great  many  cases  the  three  stages  arc  not  well  marked,  one, 
or  even  two,  of  them  being  often  times  omitted.  The  in- 
flammatory action  may  be  so  intense  as  to  deprive  the  part 
of  its  proper  supply  of  blood,  and  so  cause  ulceration  and 
mortification  (see  Gangiikni;)  ;  this  condition  is  attended 
by  a  symptomatic  typhoid  fever,  the  sym])toms  of  which 
are — dry  tongue  with  sordes,  trembling,  restlessness,  de- 
lirium, muscio  volitantes,  pulse  feeble,  small,  and  frequent, 
involuntary  evacuations. 

Truttmcnt  of  /iijlaviinnti'on. — We  havo  local  and  consti- 
tution.al  means  for  combating  this  ctmdition  ;  sometimes 
one  abme  will  do  the  work,  but  generally  we  emjiloy  them 
conjointly.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  rcnunc  tho 
cause,  if  discoverable;  if  not,  the  bowels  should  be  freely 
moved  once  a  day,  and  the  skin  and  kidneys  be  made  to 
act  by  the  adminir^tration  of  diajihorctics  and  diuretics. 
Careful  attention  sliould  be  paid  to  the  diet  and  regimen 
of  the  patient,  and  beat  and  moisture  applied  to  tlie  in- 
flamed part,  either  in  the  form  of  poultices  or  spongio- 
peline  or  the  hot-water  bath.  If  the  ])aticnt  be  plctlioric, 
it  will  be  a  great  benefit  at  times  to  bleed  him  to  the  amount 
of  about  sixteen  ounces.  This  practice  has  been  greatly 
decried  of  late,  but  prac^titioners  are  too  apt  to  swing  from 
one  extreme  to  the  other;  from  tho  practice  of  almost 
bleeding  a  person  to  death  for  the  most  trivial  ailment  tbey 
havo  come  to  discard  the  lancet  altogether.  How  the  benefit 
arising  from  the  moderate  abstraction  of  lilood  from  a  ro- 
bust, healthy  individual  who  has  been  stricken  down  with 
pneumonia  or  any  acute  inflammation,  can  be  questioned, 
is  a  mystery.  Surgeons,  however,  aro  not  so  averse  to 
local  blood-letting,  which  may  be  done  by  scarifications 
with  a  lancet,  by  wet  or  dry  cujiping,  (tr  leeches.  It  seems 
to  afl"ord  instant  relief  to  the  patient  by  removing  pressure 
and  consecjuent  irritation  of  the  inflamed  part.  Cold  evap- 
orating lotions  (MJiitinuously  applied  arc  a  great  relief.  They 
cause  the  capillaries  to  contract,  and  thereby  diminish  tho 
afflux  of  blood,  EnwAitn  J.  liKitMi.NGiiAM. 

Indcc'tion  [Lat.  itijirftn,  iuftxum,  to  "bend"],  tho 
general  term  eoniprising  all  Ihe  various  modifications  of  a 
word  {declension,  conjugation,  etc.)  by  which  modifications 
of  the  idea  (plurality,  past  and  future  tense,  etc.)  are  ox- 
pressed.  In  the  monosyllabic  languages  any  change  which 
tho  iili'a  undergoes  is  expressed  by  the  addition  of  an  inde- 
pendent word  ;  in  the  agglutinative,  these  additions  do  not 
remain  independent,  but  conibine  with  the  j)rimitive  sig- 
nification and  form  composite  wonls  ;  but  in  the  inflectional 
languages  a  change  of  tho  end  of  the  word — with  or  with- 
out some  phonetic  change  in  the  root  itself — suffices  to  ex- 
press the  various  modifications  of  the  idea.  It  must  bo  ob- 
served, however,  that  these  inflectional  endings  are  not  mere- 
ly arbitrary  signs  ;  they  were  originally  independent  words 
themselves.  Thus,  the  ending  </ found  in  the  nominative  sin- 
gular of  many  nouns  in  the  (Jreek  and  l^atin  languages  is 
a  remnant  of  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person; 
and  the  endings  forming  the  oblique  cases  wore  originally 
pronouns  indicative  of  some  direction  of  motion — wheve 
(dative  and  ablative),  trfiithcr  (accusative),  and  whcnve 
(genitive).  Or,  to  take  an  example  from  a  conjugation,  tho 
endings  hat  and  vll,  inilicating  tliejiast  tenses  in  the  Latin 
language,  are  simply  phonetic  modifieations  of  the  aux- 
iliary verb  f'li'it  and  f'tn't.  Hut  as  the  laws  of  ])honetio 
change  aro  very  diff'ereni  in  the  diflferent  languages,  and 
imperfectly  known  in  them  all,  and  as  a  still  greater  uncer- 
tainty prevails  with  respect  to  tho  laws  of  phonetic  decay, 
tho  whole  subject  of  inflection  is  as  yet  very  obscure. 

Inflcx'ion*    A  point  of  inflexion  is  a  point  nt  which  a 
curve  from  being  concave  in 
^  any   direction    becomes   con- 

y^  cave  in  the  opposite  direetio>i. 

Thus,  in  tho  curve  V  S  Q, 
tho  concavity  is  turned  down- 
ward from  P  to  S  and  upward 
from  S  to  Q;  hence,  S  is  a 
point  of  inflexion.  In  passing 
a  point  of  inflexion  tho  ra- 
dius of  curvature  of  the  curve 
changes  sign  by  passing 
through  »;  but  this  requires 
that  the  second  difl'erential  uf  the  ordinate  should  change  sign 


y 

^y  ^ 

^ 

0 

X 

1194 


INFLORESCENCE— INFLUENZA. 


by  passinj?  through  0;  henco,  we  may  deteruiiue  the  num- 
ber and  pusitioiis  of  the  points  of  inllexiou  on  acurve  whose 
equation  is  given  by  the  Ibllowing  process:  DifiLTenliatc 
the  equation  of  the  curve  twice,'  then  from  these  equations 
and  the  equation  of  the  curve  find  the  value  of  the  second 
dilTcrential  of  y  in  lerni.s  of  ^,  and  place  the  result  equal  to 
0;  from  (he  resulting  equation  find  the  values  ot"  j-;  these 
will  indicate  the  positions  of  all  the  points  that  can  by  pos- 
sibility be  points  of  inflexion.  Then  test  these  values  of  j- 
as  follows:  substitute  each  value  of  j-,  first  diminishol  by, 
and  sccondltf  increased  In',  an  inlinitcly  small  quantity  for 
X  in  the  second  differential  of//,  and  see  if  the  re;*ults  have 
contrary  signs;  if  so,  the  corresponding  value  is  the 
abscissa  of  a  point  of  inflexion;  if  not,  it  does  not  corre- 
spond to  a  point  of  inflexion.  \V.  G.  Peck. 

Inflores'cence  [Lat.  injlorcgco,  to  "begin  to  blos- 
som"], the  term  which  botanists  use  to  designate  the  ar- 
rangement of  flowers  upon  a  plant.  Flowers  and  branches 
arc  evolved  from  buds.  These  two  kinds  of  buds  agree  in 
the  positions  which  they  occupy;  consequently,  flower- 
buds,  like  leaf-bud?,  may  terminate  the  stem  or  branches 
or  may  rise  from  the  axils  of  leaves.  The  former  arc  called 
terminttf,  the  latter  axUlury.  AVhen  one  fluwer  only  occu- 
pies the  summit  of  tiie  stem,  it  is  tfymimtl  nnd  Holitnnj ; 
when  only  one  occurs  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  it  is  oxifUtrt/ 
niifl  oh'tai-}/.  If  several  flowers  are  developed  near  each 
other  on  a  stem  or  branch,  so  as  to  form  a  cluster,  the  con- 
tiguous leaves  arc  generally  unlike  ordinary  foliage,  and 
are  known  as  bravt.'t.  The  stalk  which  supports  a  Ho\ver 
or  a  flower-cluster  is  its  pcdiiueff\  and  the  stalk  of  each 
flower  of  a  cluster,  its  pedicel.  When  flowers  have  no  sup- 
porting stalks,  they  are  sessile.  The  axis  of  inflorescence 
is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  the  stalk  on  which  the 
flowers  of  a  cluster  are  arranged.  AVhen  it  bears  sessile 
flowers,  it  is  called  the  rhachis;  when  it  is  very  much  short- 
ened and  thickened,  the  rereptnde.  All  forms  of  inflores- 
cence are  referred  to  two  types,  or  to  a  combination  of  the 
two.  These  plans  are  known  under  the  following  names: 
(1)  indefinite,  indetcrmiu'ite,  or  ccntriprtnl ;  (2)  d'jinite, 
determinnte,  or  centrifugal  ;  (;i)  mixed,  in  which  the  main 
axis  develops  in  one  way,  and  the  separate  flower-clusters 
in  the  other. 

1.  fndr/inite  injlorescence  is  characterized  by  the  spring- 
ing of  flowers  from  axillary  buds,  while  the  terminal  bud 
of  the  stem  develops  as  an  ortiJnary  branch,  by  winch  the 
main  axis  may  be  indefinitely  prolonged.  The  simplest 
ease  is  that  in  which  the  flowers  are  axillary  and  solitary. 
Many  such  solitary  flowers  may  appear  as  the  main  axis 
lengthens.  If  approximateJ,  and  the  leaves  are  di- 
minished to  bract;;,  tiiey  form  a  flower-cluster  of  the  in- 
definite sort.  Such  clusters  are  simple  when  the  pe- 
duncle is  unbranched,  compound  when  tlie  peduncle 
branches  to  support  smaller  clusters  of  the  same  kind. 
Simple,  indefinite  clusters  may  have  (1)  the  flowers  borne 
on  pedicels  along  the  sides  of  an  elongated  axis  {raceme); 
f2)  along  a  shorter  axis,  the  lower  pedicels  length- 
ened {corymb)'.  {'6)  clustered  on  an  axis  which  is  so  short 
that  all  the  flower-stalks  appear  to  spring  from  the 
same  point  {umbel).      If  the  flowers  are  sessile  and  ar- 

I  ranged  along  a  lengthened  axis,  the  cluster  is  a  npike  ;  if 

the  axis  is  very  short,  a  head.  The  ament  or  catkin  is  a 
I  peculiar  scaly  and  usually  drooping  spike.     The  spadix 

I  is  a  fleshy  spike  or  head  with    inconspicuous  flowers,  the 

whole  frequently  enveloped   by  a  showy  bract,  a  sjmthc. 

The  raceme,  corymb,  and  umbel  may  become  compound. 

If  the  two  former  branch  irregularly,  they  form  a  panicle  ; 

if  this  is  crowded  into  a  compact  cluster,  it  is  sometimes 
I  called  thi/rsus.     The  little  clusters  of  a  compound  umhcl 

I  are  ttmbclle.ts.     When  several  bracts  are  grouped  closely 

together  at  the  base  of  a  cluster,  they  constitute  an    /»i- 

volncre  ;  if  they  occur  at  the  base  of  partial  clusters,  i')t- 

volncels. 

2.  Definite  Infloreacence. — In  this  the  main  stem,  or  each 
successive  independent  branch,  is  terminated  by  a  flower. 
When  a  blossom  is  evolved  from  a  terminal  bud,  growth  of 
the  stem  or  branch  is  of  Cfiurse  arrested,  and  all  further 
growth  depends  upon  the  development  of  other  axes  or 
branches  from  axils  below,  which  in  turn  are  arrested  in 
the  same  way.  The  simplest  definite  inflorescence  is  that 
of  a  solitary  and  terminal  flower.     When  several  branches 

I  from  the  axils  underneath  have  been  successively  termi- 

;  nated  by  blossoms,  the  cluster  so  produced  may  be  distin- 

I  guished  from  one  of  the  indefinite  kind  by  the  reversal  of 

the  order  in  which  the  flowers  expand.  The  upper  flowers 
bloom  earlier  than  thoge  which  arc  below.  Such  a  cluster 
is  a  ci/me.  Cymes  may  be  simple  or  compound.  The  clus- 
ters of  a  compound  cyme  are  termed  et/mules.  A  very  com- 
pact cyme  is  called  a  fascicle  or  glomerule.  Cymes  of  an 
anomalous  character  result  from  tlie  suppression  of  the  cen- 
tral flower  or  one  of  the  side  hranches. 

3.  Mixed  lufiortsccnce. — Indefinite  and  definite  inflores- 


cence may  occur  in  the  same  plant,  and  in  two  ways:  first 
(as  in  Composita}),  by  centrifugal  development  of  tbo 
branches  which  bear  the  heads,  while  the  flowers  of  each 
iiead  expand  centripetally  ;  second,  the  reverse  of  this,  has 
the  main  axis(as  in  Labiatio)  producing,  in  centripetal  or- 
der, clusters  which  develop  centrifugally. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  principal  sorts  of  in- 
florescence at  one  view : 

A.  Indefinite,  from  axillary  buds. 
Simple : 

Flowers  on  pedicels : 

On  the  sides  of  a  lengthened  axis,  raceme. 

On  a  short  axis,  lower  pedicels  lengthened,  corymb. 

On  an  extremely  short  axis,  umbel. 
Flowers  sessile: 

On  an  elongated  axis,  spike. 

On  a  very  short  axis,  head. 

With  their  varieties,  apadix  and  catkin. 
Compound: 

Branching  regularly,  compound  raceme^  corymhy  and 

umbel. 
Branching  irregularly,  T^ajuV^c  and  thi/raua. 

B.  DcfiititCy  from  terminal  buds: 

Open,  mostly  flat-topped,  at'mjj/e  and  comjjownti  cyme. 
Contracted,  fascicle. 

C.  Mixed.  G.  L.  GooDAi.n. 
Influen'za  [It.;  as  if  produced  by   the  influence  of 

the  stars],  an  essential,  intecrtious,  epidemic,  febrile  dis- 
ease, characterized  by  a  variable  degree  of  constitutional 
disturbance,  especially  nervous  depression,  and  having  a 
local  expression  in  irritation  and  catarrhal  inflammation  of 
the  air-passages  and  their  appendages.  The  name  "  influ- 
enza" is  Italian,  indicating  "the  influence"  of  a  prevail- 
ing atmospheric  cause.  In  Fr:vnce  it  is  termed  la  yrippe, 
from  eifjrijiper,  to  "seize,"  indicating  the  sudden,  precipi- 
tate onset  of  the  epidemic  and  of  the  individual  attack. 
It  is  also  termed  epidemic  catarrh,  epidemic  bronchitis,  and, 
better,  epidemic  catarrhal  fever.  It  is  described  as  first 
prevailing  in  Europe  in  the  tenth  century,  and  later  in  tho 
years  1.311, 1387,  and  1403.  But  its  certain  and  undoubted 
record  begins  with  the  epidemic  of  1610.  Since  that  time 
to  the  year  187o  there  have  been  ninety-two  epidemics,  of 
variable  severity  and  at.  irregular  intervals.  These  epi- 
demics are  singularly  uniform  in  identity  of  characteristics 
and  in  obedience  to  law  of  origin  and  dilVusion.  The  dis- 
ease appears  suddenly  in  the  E.  or  N.  E..  usually  in  the  N. 
of  Europe,  exceptionally  in  the  Indies  or  Northern  Asia, 
and  travels  to  the  W.  It  travels  in  cycles,  invading  tho 
whole  of  Northern  Europe,  often  extending  to  America, 
and  exceptionally  fell  in  the  equatorial  regions  and  the 
southern  hemisphere.  Unlike  cholera,  its  diflusion  docs  not 
depend  on  human  commerce.  Its  progress  is  rapid,  a  great 
wave  from  E.  to  W.  precipitating  itself  upon  communities 
and  countries  with  a  suddenness  warranting  the  names 
popularly  applied  to  it — "lightning  catarrh,"  *'Ic  petit 
courricr,"  "la  grippe."  Less  often  it  appears  coincidently 
at  places  far  removed,  as  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
London  in  18;!0.  In  its  zone  of  progress  it  often  ajtpears 
simultaneously  at  many  isolated  foci,  from  which  it  seems 
to  radiate  until  disseminated  over  vast  areas.  Its  influ- 
ence is  not  confined  to  the  continents,  but  is  immediately 
exerted  at  mid-sea  upon  all  who  sail  into  the  districts  of 
atmospheric  infection.  Appearing  in  a  community,  it  at- 
tacks a  majority  of  its  members,  of  both  sexes,  of  all  ages 
ami  social  position,  and  with  a  rapidity  precluding  the  idea 
of  communicability.  No  nationality  is  exempt,  and  as  a 
rule  only  a  fractional  part  of  the  population  escapes  its 
effects.  *It  would  a])pear  to  attack  preferably  women,  next 
adult  males,  and  lastly  children.  In  some  epidemics  chil- 
dren are  exeni])t.  During  the  prevalence  of  influenza  tho 
animal  vitality  is  lowered,  tho  type  of  other  diseases  is 
modified,  assuming  adynamic  or  typhoid  forms,  and  tend- 
ing to  a  greater  general  mortality.  Influenza  is  not  con- 
fined to  man.  but  often  extends  its  epidemic  influences  to 
the  domesticated  animals,  especially  the  horse,  and  is  known 
as  the  fpizoiitic.  In  England  the  epidemics  of  172S,  1732, 
1733,  1737,  1743,  IS03,  183!,  and  1837  were  accompanied 
by  the  epizootic  among  cows,  horses,  and  dogs.  The  pesti- 
lential epizootic  extending  throughout  the  II.  S.  in  1872- 
73,  attacking  in  New  York  ltl,(U)U  horses,  was  an  epidemic 
of  influenza,  prevailing  with  less  severity  among  men. 
The  influenza  is  first  recorded  in  America  in  1577.  Tho 
chief  epidemics  in  Europe  have  extended  to  this  country. 
The  most  noticeable  ones  are  that  at  the  close  of  the  war 
of  1SI2.  that  of  1843,  of  1872.  and  tho  recent  season  1874- 
7J,  in  which  pneumonia  has  existed  as  a  frequent  and  fatal 
complication.  Of  the  intimate  nature  of  the  subtle  atmo- 
spheric or  telluric  cause  of  influenza  nothing  is  definitely 
known.  Schonbein  regarded  an  excess  of  ozone  in  the  air 
as  producing  bronchial  irritation.  Prout  attributed  the 
disease  to  selenuretted  hvdrogen.     Much  has  been  written 


INFORMATION. 


1195 


of  its  concurrence  with  the  appearance  of  comets  and 
meteoric  showers,  and  the  opinion  \»  in  favor  that  electrical 
and  magnetic  disturbances  of  the  atmosphere  arc  related 
to  the  epidemics.  The  advocates  of  the  "germ-iheory  of 
disease  "  regard  influenza  as  due  to  the  wide  dis^eniination, 
by  air-curreni?".  nt"  animalcula  or  crvptogaiiiic  vegetable 
products  —  malarial  emanations.  Elircnberg  describes 
"  dust-fog  cnrrf^nls  "  in  the  higher  strata  of  the  atmosphere, 
from  whicii  many  genera  of  animalcules  may  be  collected. 
The  epidemic  of  influenza  occurs  at  nil  seasons  of  the  year, 
often  in  the  spring,  and  in  both  warm  and  cold,  in  dry  and 
damp  or  foggy  weather.  The  usual  duration,  in  one  local- 
ity, of  an  epidemic  is  from  four  to  six  weeks,  exceptionally 
much  longer.  There  may  be  local  recurrences  in  the  same 
season,  but  as  a  rule  the  victims  of  the  first  are  exempt 
from  the  second  attack. 

As  regards  the  disease,  it  is  thought  that  a  specific  poison 
is  absorbed  and  circulates  in  the  blood,  irritating  the  nerve- 
centres,  producing  prostration  and  febrile  disturbance,  and 
causing  hypersecretion  and  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  air-passages.  The  symptoms  vary  in  severitj' 
in  different  epidemics  and  in  individual  cases.  The  onset 
is  sudden.  anuouncciJ  in  severe  cases  by  a  marked  rigor, 
more  often  by  chill  and  shivering  alternating  with  flashes 
of  heat.  Then  follow  general  lassitude,  debility,  nervous 
prostration,  soreness  and  stiffness  of  the  limbs,  pains  in  the 
neck,  back,  and  loins,  hcatlachc.  frontal  oppression,  pain  in 
the  orbits,  cheek-bones,  and  root  of  the  nose,  injection  and 
sensilivencs  of  the  eyes,  with  copious  flow  of  tears — often 
heated,  the  '*  fiery  tears'*  of  the  early  records — sneezing 
and  tingling,  followed  by  watery  and  often  acrid  discharge 
from  the  nose,  soreness  of  the  tonsils.  Eustachian  tubes,  and 
ears,  experienced  in  swallowing,  hoarseness,  u  short,  fre- 
quent, harassing  cough,  with  slight  cxpeotoratinn,  and  a 
slight  fever  of  the  remittent  form,  having  its  exacerbation 
towards  evening.  The  fever  is  seldom  pronounced,  but  the 
restlessness,  irritabiliiy,  exhaustion,  an*!  mental  depression 
arc  mnrkcil.  and  usually  disproportionate  to  the  bronchial 
complication.  In  other  cases  there  is  soreness,  tightness, 
and  pain  beneath  the  sternum,  dyspnoea,  sense  of  suffoca- 
tion, and  danger  of  capillary  bronchitis  or  pneumonia. 
The?e  unfortunate  complications  are  the  chief  causes  of 
death  from  iiifliieiizn,  and  occur  mainly  in  the  aged,  in  inva- 
lids, and  in  delicate  rhildren.  The  usual  duration  of  raild 
cases  is  from  .three  to  five  ilays,  of  grave  cases  from  seven 
to  ten  days.  The  termination  of  the  disease  is  often  as 
sudden  as  its  onset,  and  frequently  occurs  with  a  critical 
and  profuse  perspiration  or  liiarrhoea.  The  mortality  from 
uncomplicated  influenza  in  healthy  persons  is  very  slight. 
Influenza  has  no  pathology  indicarive  of  its  specific  nature, 
and  presents  only  the  lesions  of  the  associated  catarrh — 
tumefaction  and  redness  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  nose, 
the  tear-duct,  anri  eyelids,  the  frontal  and  maxillary  sinuses, 
of  the  throat,  Kustachian  tube,  and  mcnibrana  tympani,  of 
the  larynx  and  bronchial  tubes,  and  the  lesions  t»f  pneumo- 
nia when  it  exists.  The  majority  of  cases  are  mild  and 
require  no  treatment.  A  purge  at  the  outset  may  shorten 
their  duration.  More  marked  eases  require  a  preliminary 
purgative,  a  tow  diet,  the  avoidance  of  exposure  to  cold, 
resort  to  hot  draughts,  as  of  lemonailo  or  elder-bloom  ten, 
to  stimulating  foot-baths,  to  the  use  of  Dover's  powder, 
Tully's  powder,  spiritus  Mindereri.  or  other  remedies  to 
secure  free  perspiration,  and  the  relief  of  bronchial  conges- 
tion by  inhalation  of  steam,  by  ammonia,  or  l»y  stimulating 
expectorants.  Ileailache  and  <lislress  in  the  nose  and  or- 
bits, duo  to  irritation  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane  and 
its  processes,  may  bo  relieved  by  the  inunction  of  oil  or 
grease  or  by  the  insufllation  of  warm  ano>lyno  solutions. 
Quinine  in  doses  of  five  grains  three  times  a  day.  if  taken 
at  the  beginning,  may  cut  short  the  attack.  When  the 
bronchitis  tends  I<»  become  capillary,  i|uinine  or  tincture  of 
bark  is  indicated  to  support  the  strength,  ammonia  to  favor 
the  liquidity  ami  discnargo  of  mucus,  and  the  oil-silk 
jacket  to  favor  free  secretion.  The  extensions  of  pneumo- 
nia may  be  limited  by  arterial  seihttivrs,  earbnnat4>  of  am- 
monia, quinine,  and  anodyne  jjoullicrs  or  fomentations. 
It  \9  essential  to  ftroper  treatment  to  rrmember  (hat  blood- 
infection  is  primary  ami  bronchitis  or  pnnumonia  is  sec- 
ondary ;  the  constitutional  disease  will  admit  of  no  de- 
pressing remedies,  and  the  speedy  termination  of  the  in- 
flammatory complications  will  follow  supporting  measures. 
During  epidemics  of  influenza  the  aged  and  feeble  should 
keep  within-doors  in  well-warmed  rooms,  and  partake  of 
quinine,  ammonia,  and  guardfd  but  nourishing  diet,  as 
measures  of  prevention.  E.  Dakwin  IhnsoN.  Jr. 

Informa'tionv  in  law,  a  written  charge  or  aceu«ation 
made  against  a  defendant  in  a  suit  or  pr'H-c'ding  which  is 
<lircctly  instituted  against  him  in  behalf  of  the  state  or  gov- 
ernment by  the  attorney-general  or  other  proper  law-oflieer 
ropresenting  the  government.  It  is  so  ealled  bi-caupr  it  is 
founded  upon  iu/nnuittiitn  given,  or  supposed  to  bo  given, 


by  the  prosecuting  oflliccr.  This  form  of  legal  process  is 
employed  in  proceedings  of  various  kinds,  being  used  either 
as  a  mode  of  criminal  prosecution,  a  form  of  civil  remeily, 
or  a  particular  method  of  instituting  a  suit  in  equity  in 
certain  cases.  These  various  modes  of  legal  procedure  may 
be  considered  separately. 

I.  In  criminal  prosecutions  the  proceeding  by  informa- 
tion at  common  law  i.«,  in  cases  of  misdemeanor  (except 
misprision  of  treason),  a  mode  of  remedy  which  may  be 
adopted,  if  deemed  desirable,  in  jdace  of  an  indictment, 
which  is  the  usual  method  of  prosecuting  in  cases  both  of 
felony  and  of  misdemeanor.  The  difference  between  an  in- 
formation and  an  indictment  is  that  in  the  former  the  accu- 
sation or  charge  is  presented  directly  by  the  attorney-gen- 
eral or  prosecuting  officer,  while  in  the  latter  the  accusation 
proceeds  directly  from  a  grnnrl  Jury,  upon  whose  oath  it  is 
based,  (.'^ee  Indiptment,  Ueiand  Jrnv.)  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, differ  materially  in  form  and  substance.  There  must 
be  the  same  rlegrec  of  particularity  and  precision  in  stating 
the  offence  charged,  the  same  observance  of  the  ordinary 
rules  of  pleading.  It  is  only  in  some  merely  formal  and 
comparatively  unimportant  statements  at  the  commence- 
ment and  the  close  that  a  diversity  exists  in  the  general 
nature  of  the  contents  ;  and  whether  the  prosecution  be  in- 
stituted in  the  one  way  or  in  the  other,  the  charge  must  be 
tried  before  a  petit  jury.  Criminal  informations  in  the 
English  law  arc  cither  such  as  are  partly  at  the  suit  of  the 
Crown  and  partly  at  that  of  a  subject,  or  such  as  are  wholly 
at  the  suit  (d'  the  Crown.  The  former  arc  brought  upon 
certain  penal  statutes  at  the  instance  of  common  informers. 
The  latter  arc  of  two  kinds:  (I)  Those  filed  ex-n^rin  by 
the  attorney-general,  or,  in  the  Viicaney  of  his  office,  by  the 
solicitor-general,  solely  in  behalf  of  the  Crown;  and  1 2) 
those  filed  by  the  king's  coroner  and  attorney  in  the  court 
of  king's  bench,  usually  called  the  master  of  the  crown 
office,  at  the  relation  of  some  private  per.son  or  common  in- 
former. These  two  varieties  of  proceeding  by  information 
in  the  name  of  the  king  alone  may  bo  resorted  to  in  all 
cases  of  misdemeanor  (with  the  single  exception  already 
mentioned),  but  in  practice  are  commonly  employed  when 
the  offence  is  of  a  particularly  grave  and  serious  character, 
or  has  an  especial  tendency  to  disturb  the  administration 
of  the  government,  or  when  a  more  speedy  mode  of  prose- 
cution is  desired  than  a  proceeding  by  regular  indictment. 
In  both  these  classes  of  cases  the  prosecuting  officer  in 
early  times  possessed  authority  to  file  an  information  at  his 
own  option,  without  obtaining  permission  from  the  chief 
court  of  criminal  jurisdiction,  the  king's  bench;  and  this 
independent  j)rerogative  is  still  retained  in  regard  to  such 
informations  as  are  included  within  the  first  chiss,  where 
the  Crown  is  the  actual  jirosecutor.  But  in  relation  to  in- 
formations presented  at  the  instance  of  some  private  per- 
son, in  which  the  Crown  appears  only  as  the  nominal 
prosecutor,  the  practice  has  been  changed.  It  had  become 
customary  to  instifute  a  proceeding  of  this  kind  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course  at  the  application  of  any  one;  and.  as  no 
penalty  was  imposed  upon  the  applicant  in  case  the  accu- 
sation proved  groundless,  this  method  of  prosecution  was 
often  adopted  for  purposes  of  vexation  and  oppression.  To 
remedy  tliis  evil  a  statute  was  passed  in  161*2  (-1  and  5 
Will,  anil  M.  ell.  IS),  providing  that  informations  should 
not  be  filed  at  the  suit  of  a  private  person  except  by  leave 
of  the  court,  and  on  such  persons  giving  security  to  tho 
party  proceeded  against  for  costs. 

In  tliis  country  several  of  the  Slates  have  retained  the 
English  practice  of  prosecution  by  information,  though  tho 
extent  of  its  application  and  the  mode  of  procedure  are 
variously  modified  by  statute.  Thus,  informations  may 
be  presenteil  for  all  offences  declared  to  be  misdemeanors, 
as  distinguished  from  felonies,  in  New  York,  Connecti- 
cut, Massaehusetts,  New  Ilanijisbire,  and  a  few  other 
Slates.  Tho  officer  by  whom  it  is  usually  jirovidcd  that  tho 
information  shall  be  filed  is  the  attorney-general  of  the 
State.  This  mode  of  procedure  is,  however,  much  less  fre- 
quent in  this  country  than  the  proceeding  by  indictment. 
In  Pennsylvania  anrI  a  few  other  States  there  can  be  ]»ro- 
eccding  by  information  where  an  indictment  lies.  In  the 
Federal  courts  informations  have  sometimes  been  resorted 
to  in  cases  of  illegal  exportation  of  goods,  smuggling,  etc., 
but  havi;  never  been  especially  authorized  by  any  laws  of 
Congress.  Uy  the  provisions  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution  no 
offence  which  is  capital  or  infamous  can  bo  prosecuted  by 
information,  but  only  by  indictment. 

IT.  The  use  of  an  information  as  n  form  of  civil  remedy 
is  most  common  in  the  proceeding  which  is  technically 
known  as  an  "  information  in  the  nature  of  a  quo  tvnnanto." 
The  ancient  oommon-taw  writ  of  tfuo  icnrranto  has  been 
fluperscded  by  this  more  convenient  practice.  (See  Quo 
WAunASTo.)  The  object  of  such  informations  is  to  inquire  by 
what  authority  or  warrant  tho  defendant  exercises  certain 
official  or  corporate  powers,  or  assorts  a  right  to  certain  fran- 


1196 


INFORMER— INFUSORIA. 


chises  or  offices  which  are  alleged  to  be  unlawfully  claimed 
or  to  have  been  forleited,  Thiis.  for  example,  an  informa- 
tion may  be  presented  against  an  unincorporated  associa- 
tion for  assuming  corporate  powers;  against  a  lawfully  or- 
ganized corporation  for  non-user,  long  neglect,  or  misuse 
of  it:^  franchises  or  powers,  or  for  a  violation  of  its  charter 
or  the  provisions  of  any  law  ;  against  any  ])crson  for  a 
usurpation  of  or  intrusion  into  a  public  office,  or  for  the 
exercise  of  any  franchise  not  conferred  upon  him  by  law, 
or  for  the  performance  of  otficiai  duties  after  his  office  has 
bfcn  forfeite<i,  or  after  the  term  for  which  he  was  appointed 
or  elected  has  expired.  This  is  a  common  form  of  pro- 
cedure against  corporations  to  deprive  them  of  their  fran- 
chises and  obtain  their  dissolution,  on  the  ground  that  cor- 
porate powers  have  been  forfeited  by  misfeasance.  The 
remedy  by  information  in  these  cases  was  originally  a 
criminal  proceeding,  in  analogy  with  its  use  in  the  prose- 
cution of  offences  strictly  criiniual.  and  it  still  remains  so 
in  form.  Its  object  was  to  secure  the  imposition  of  a  line 
upon  the  defendant  if  convicted,  as  well  as  an  ouster  from 
the  office  or  franchise  unlawfully  claimed.  But  in  sub- 
stance it  is  a  civil  jirocecding.  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
try  and  determine  the  defendant's  right  to  the  franchise, 
and  to  secure  its  forfeiture  if  wrongfully  exercised.  In 
England,  informations  in  the  nature  of  a  <jno  warranto 
may  be  presented  in  three  ways:  they  may  be  filed  (1)  by 
the  attorucy-gencral  of  his  own  authority,  and  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  an  iiidependt'Ht  discretion:  (2)  by  the  master  of 
the  crown  office  under  the  permission  or  direction  of  the 
court  of  king's  bench  ;  and  (3)  by  the  proper  officer  upon 
leave  of  the  court  at  the  relation  of  some  person  or  persons 
who  desire  to  prosecute  the  defendant.  The  first  two  modes 
of  presentation  are  the  same  as  those  which  have  been 
already  mentioned  as  appropriate  to  the  prosecution  of 
misdemeanors  in  criminal  procedure.  The  third  is  a  form 
of  practice  established  by  the  statute  of  Anne,  ch.  20.  It 
affords  the  means  of  determining  controversies  between 
private  parties  in  regard  to  the  right  to  corporate  or  other 
franchises,  public  offices,  ete.  The  Crown  or  state,  repre- 
sented by  the  attorney-general  or  other  officer,  is  only  tho 
nominal  prosecutor,  the  party  at  whose  instance  the  pro- 
ceeding is  instituted  being  the  actual  prosecutor.  It  is 
provided  by  the  statute  that  this  party  shall  be  technically 
designated  in  the  proceeding  as  the  "  relator,"  because  from 
him  the  relation  proceeds  upon  which  the  inform.ation  is 
based.  At  common  law  no  such  party  as  a  relator  is 
known  in  a  proceeding  upon  information.  This  form  of 
practice  was  originally  introduced  by  the  statute.  Infor- 
mations at  the  suit  of  a  private  person  can  be  presented 
only  by  leave  of  the  court,  which  will  be  granted,  not  ar- 
bitrarily nor  as  a  matter  of  course,  but  in  the  exercise  of  a 
sound  discretion.  Permission  will  usually  be  granted  when 
the  right  upon  which  the  suit  is  based  is  disputed  or  uncer- 
tain, or  depends  upon  a  point  of  doubtful  law,  or  where 
there  is  no  other  remedy. 

In  several  of  the  American  States  the  proceeding  by  in- 
formation in  the  nature  of  a  fjuo  irnrranto  is  still  in  use, 
and  corresponds  very  closely  with  the  English  practice. 
The  suit  is  usually  instituted  by  the  attorney-general  of 
the  State  of  his  own  authority,  or  by  the  private  prosecutor 
or  ''relator,"  who  employs  the  name  of  the  attorney-gen- 
eral in  the  proceeding  as  a  matter  of  form.  When  the  suit 
is  at  the  instance  of  a  private  person  the  case  is  regularly  en- 
titled "  The  People"  (or  "  The  Attorney- General  ")  *'  ex  ref, 
(i.  c.  €jc  ri'liittonr,  "  from  the  relation  of")  A.  B.  r*.  C.  D.," 
A.  B.  being  the  relator  and  C.  D.  tho  dofi-udant.  The 
power  to  file  an  information  of  this  kind  in  some  States 
depends  upon  special  statutes  corresponding  with  the  Eng- 
lish statute  of  Anne,  while  in  otliers  the  same  practice  is 
adopted,  irrespective  of  any  statute,  as  part  of  their  com- 
mon-law system  of  procedure.  It  is  the  usual  rule  that  the 
leave  of  the  court  shall  be  obtained  in  cases  of  this  kind, 
as  in  England.  In  New  York  informations  in  the  nature 
of  a  qito  tcarrant<»  were  in  use  until  1S4S,  but  the  (_'()de  of 
Civil  Procedure  adopted  in  that  ye.ar  abolished  the  pro- 
ceeding, substituting  in  its  place  a  special  form  of  civil 
action,  which  nevertheless  accomplishes  tho  same  results 
by  a  very  similar  mode  of  practice. 

Another  instance  of  the  use  of  the  proceeding  by  infor- 
mation as  a  form  of  civil  remedy  is  found  in  the  common- 
law  practice  in  England  of  filing  an  information  in  the 
court  of  exchequer  for  the  recovery  of  money  or  other 
chattels  claimed  by  the  Crown,  or  to  obtain  damages  for 
any  injury  committed  upon  tho  lands  or  the  possessions 
of  the  Crown.  The  attorney. general  institutes  the  suit  of 
his  own  authority  and  at  his  own  discretion.  The  most 
common  informations  of  this  kind  are  the  information  of 
intrnsion  and  the  information  of  debt,  the  former  being 
presented  for  any  trespass  upon  the  lands  of  the  Crown, 
the  latter  upon  any  contract  for  moneys  due  to  the  Crown 
or  for  forfeitures  under  penal  statutes.     In  the  U.  S.  in- 


formations are  not  unfrequently  employed  in  the  Federal 
courts  for  the  recovery  of  penalties  and  forfeitures,  as,  e,  tf., 
in  cases  of  violation  of  the  revenue  laws.  These  are  usu- 
ally civil  proceedings  iu  rem.  (See  In  Rem.) 

III.  The  method  of  instituting  suits  in  equity  by  means 
of  an  information  exhibits  much  the  same  form  ot  practice 
as  in  the  common-law  courts.  In  England  the  suit  may 
be  wholly  in  the  interests  of  the  Crown,  in  which  ease  it  is 
institutcii  directly  by  the  attorney-general  or  solicitor-gen- 
eral of  his  own  authority,  or  it  may  concern  the  rights  and 
interests  of  other  parties  than  tlic  Crown.  In  cases  of  this 
latter  kind  the  government  officer  sometimes  acts  at  his 
own  discretion,  but  generally  upon  the  relation  of  the  party 
wliose  rights  are  involved,  who  is  then  termed  the  "  relator." 
When  the  interests  of  idiots  or  lunatics  are  concerned  the 
attorney-general  may  exhibit  informations  in  their  behalf 
ejC'Ojficio,  representing  the  Crown  as  pnrms  pain'ir.  It  is 
the  common  practice  in  England  to  regulate  the  adminis- 
tration of  charities  by  proceedings  upon  information.  As 
the  Crown  has  the  general  supervision  of  charities,  the 
attorney-general  may  act  of  his  own  authority,  no  relator 
being  necessary.  Generally,  however,  he  only  proceeds  at 
the  instance  of  some  relator,  who  is  made  responsible  for 
costs  in  case  the  information  has  been  improperly  filed. 
There  has  been  some  discussion  among  jurists  upon  the 
point  whether  the  power  of  the  attorney -general  to  file  an 
information  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  or  administer- 
ing a  "charity"  was  a  regular  part  of  English  jurispru- 
dence, or  was  derived  from  the  statute  of  4:i  Eliz.  ch.  4, 
concerning  charities.  The  inquiry  has  assumed  importance 
in  some  of  the  States  in  which  that  statute  has  not  been 
re-enacted  or  recognized.  Careful  investigation  shows  that 
the  information  has  its  roots  in  equity  as  well  as  in  strict 
common  law.  The  authorities  are  collected  in  Dwight's 
Argument  in  the  Rose  Will  Caite  (New  York,  1S63),  pp.  257- 
270.  Informations  were  used  for  this  purpose  in  this 
country  during  the  colonial  period.  An  interesting  illus- 
tration is  Cullen's  charity  in  the  court  of  chancery  in  the 
province  of  Xcw  York  Sept.  7,  1707.  There  was  a  leg- 
acy '*  to  the  poor  of  the  city  of  New  York  and  of  Albania  " 
(  Albany),  which  was  enforced  in  their  favor  by  the  attorney- 
general.  The  proceedings  and  information  are  found  at 
length  in  the  same  volume  f  pp.  .'U4-;i.iI ).  In  the  C  S. 
informations  may  be  euiploycd  as  a  mode  of  instituting 
equitable  suits  in  some  of  the  States,  but  tbe  practice  is 
not  so  common  as  in  England.  (On  this  whole  subject  see 
Cole  on  Informat'tonfty  Angell  and  Ames  on  Cin'pnrationSf 
Bishop's  Criminal  Procedure.  DanicH's  Chancery  Practice, 
Tudor  on  Charitable  f/sc*,  Boyle  on  Charities.) 

GEoitr.F,  Chase.    Revised  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Inform'er*  This  word  is  employed  in  law  as  a  techni- 
cal designation,  denoting  a  person  who  brings  suit  or  pre- 
fers an  accusation  against  another  for  the  violation  of  some 
penal  statute.  It  is  sometimes  provided  in  a  statute  of 
this  kind  that  the  whole  or  a  certain  portion  of  the  penalty 
recovered  from  the  pers-m  who  shall  be  convicted  of  vio- 
lating its  provisions  shall  be  given  to  any  one  who  will  sue 
for  the  same,  or  who  will  give  information  of  the  offence  to 
the  proper  prosecuting  officer.  The  party  by  whom  the 
proceeding  may  be  instigated  is  sometimes  termed  not 
merely  "informer,**  but  "common  informer,"  because  he 
may  be  any  member  of  the  community.  The  object  of 
such  legislation  is  to  elicit  the  active  efforts  of  the  people 
generally  in  the  detection  and  punishment  of  wrongdoers 
by  the  prospect  of  a  reward.  Actions  brought  by  an  in- 
former under  such  a  statute,  when  the  penalty  is  recovera- 
ble partly  for  himself  and  partly  for  the  benefit  of  the  state, 
are  technically  termed  f/ui  tarn  actions  (f/nf"  tarn,  I.at.,  "  who 
as  well"),  because  tho  plaintiff  is  described  in  the  suit  as 
one  ir/io  Hxirs  as  well  for  the  king  or  commonwealth  as  for 
himself.  This  peculiar  Latin  phrase  was  adopted  at  a 
time  when  legal  pleadings  were  expressed  in  that  language, 
and  these  words  formed  the  commencement  of  the  allega- 
tion in  which  the  plaintiff  described  the  character  in  which 
he  appeared  in  the  action.  Statutes  authorizing  71*/  tarn 
actions  are  more  common  in  England  than  in  this  country. 
Gkoroe  Chase.     Revisfo  uy  T.  W.  Dwigiit. 

InfllSO'ria  [Lat.  in/undo,  infusum,  to  "pour  over,"  to 
"make  an  infusion."  because  these  organisms  wrrc  first  ob- 
served in  infusions].  If  organic  substances,  either  animal 
or  vegetable,  are  soaked  in  water,  the  liquid  dissolves  por- 
tions of  the  solid  mnttcr,  forming  an  "organic  infusion." 
If  Ibis  be  exposed  to  the  air,  a  scum  or  pellicle  forms  upon 
the  surface,  which,  when  examined  under  the  microscope, 
is  found  to  be  composed  of  minute  molecules.  Presently 
thesemoleculesunitetoform  short  filaments  called  bacteria, 
or,  if  the  segments  are  of  considerahle  length  and  jointed, 
they  are  known  as  vibrioneii.  When  perfectly  developed,  these 
two  organisms  exhibit  vibratile  movements.  After  a  while 
they  disintegrate,  and  there  result  small  spherical  bodies 
moving  actively  through  the  fluid,  which  are  called  monads. 


INGALLS— INGEKSOLL. 


iiy? 


These  arc  often  ciliated  and  possess  a  mouth.  Two  theories 
explain  this  growth:  (1)  Tncse  or^^anisnis  are  produced 
spontaneuu^^ly,  and  arc  not  ilcrivod  IVom  any  pre-existing 


Infusoria  in  mud  of  the  Antarcilc  Ocran,  greatly  magnified. 

(Capi.  James  RussJ 

germs;  (2)  they  originate  from  germs  of  extremely  minute 
size,  di!<}>cminated  tlirougli  the  atmosphere  and  in  various 
solid  Buhstanccs.  whioh  develop  into  these  fungus  organ- 
isms under  favorable  conditions.  Klahorate  experiments 
have  hecn  instituted  to  show  whether  these  organisms  will 
germinate  in  infu'jioiis  which  have  been  subjected  to  great 
iipjit  and  deprived  of  air,  with  ro--*uIts  favoring  the  second 
theory,  though  observers  are  not  yet  agreed.  It  is  estab- 
lished, hiiwcvcr,  that  the  bacteria  and  vibriones  are  alga', 
or  the  simplest  kind  of  plant,  while  the  monatls  are  ani- 
mals, sometimes  the  larval  forma  of  tlie  higher  Infusoria. 
They  are  never  generated  except  in  organic  solutions. 
Later  writers  restrict  the  name  of  Infusoria  to  the  higher 
division  of  the  Protozoa,  excluding  the  forms  already  spe- 
cified. They  possess  a  mouth,  rudimentary  digestive  cavity, 
and  vibratile  cilia  or  contractile  filaments.  They  are  ex- 
tremely minute,  and  their  bodies  consist  of  three  distinct 
layers,  (ienerally,  they  have  the  power  of  swimming  about 
freely,  while  some  are  fixcil  in  the  adult  period,  and  others 
constitute  colonies  by  budrling.  The  outer  layer  is  a  trans- 
parent cuticle.  The  central  mass  is  a  soft,  semi-fluid  sub- 
stance, c:ipable  of  receiving  particles  of  forxl,  and  is  known 
as  sareode.  An  intermediate  layer  is  of  firm  and  consistent 
sarcodc.  The  Infusoria  are  <livided  into  the  three  orders  of 
Ciliata,  Suctoria,  and  Klagdlata.  They  arc  most  abundant 
in  fresh  water  in  every  country  upon  the  face  of  the  earth 
wherever  organic  matter  is  held  in  solution.  They  also 
occur  in  the  ocean.  The  higher  forms  are  to  be  sought  for 
on  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants,  not  in  artificial  infusions. 

C.  JI.  Hm  iicoi'K. 
IircnIlR  (UiTFi's),  b.  at  Denmark,  Me.,  1820  ;  graduated 
from  the  1'.  J<.  Military  Academy  in  ISJ.'S.  and  entered  the 
army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  rifles;  transferred  to 
the  dragoons  ISi/i,  and  to  the  quartermaster's  department, 
with  the  rank  of  captain,  in  ISIM,  rising  through  succes- 
fllvo  grades  to  be  ( IH71 )  ctdoncl  and  assistant  quartermas- 
ter-general U.  S.  A.  From  the  date  of  his  graduation  In- 
galls  served  with  his  regiment  on  quartermaster  duty  almost 
constantly  on  the  frontier,  participating  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  and  various  expeditions,  up  to  ISliO,  when  he  was 
ordered  to  Washington,  I>.  C,  where,  on  the  outbreak  of 
civil  war  in  IStil.  ho  was  at  once  called  u|ton  to  assume  re- 
sponsible duties  as  chief  i|uartermaster  of  the  ra]»idly  arriv- 
ing volunteers,  in  proviiling  for  the  embarkation  of  the 
Army  of  the  I'otomac  to  the  Virginia  Peninsula,  in  trans- 
ferring the  vast  supplies  of  that  army  from  the  Vork  to 
the  James  Uiver,  and  as  chief  quarlermnster  nl'  (hat  army 
in  the  suh«iequent  evacuation  of  the  Peninstila,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  new  base  of  supplies  at  Acquia  Creek,  and, 
as  chief  i(uar(ermnster  of  the  armies  of  tlio  I'otomac  and 
of  the  James,  of  establishing  a  d<''pot  of  stipplies  at  City 
Point  ami  supply  of  Iho-^o  armies.  Kis  duties,  ennstantly 
increasing  in  magnitude  and  responsibility,  were  diseharg- 
ed  with  great  ability  and  despatch.  Hreveltcd  lieutenant- 
colonel  to  major-general.  At  the  chtso  of  the  war  served  at 
head-quarters  of  the  army,  and  in  18fi7  at  New  York  City 
as  chief  quarternmster  of  military  division'of  the  Atlantic. 

(1.    C.   J^IMMONS. 

Inf^nil'ni  [Gr.'lYyavvoi],  a  Lignrian  tribe  inhabiting 
the  sea-eoast  and  mountains  W.  of  (Jenoa  in  the  first  and 
second  centuries  B.C.  Their  capital  was  Albium  Ingaununi, 
now  called  Albenga.     They  boro  a  prominent  part  in  the 


long-continued  wars  between  the  Komans  and  the  Ligur 
ians,  and  in  the  Second  Punie  war  they  were  effeetivo  allies 
of  the  Carthaginians.  They  were  routed  in  a  great  battle 
by  the  proconsul  .Kniilius  Paulus  (B.  r.  ISl).  losing  l.'i.OOO 
killed.  From  this  time  little  more  is  heard  of  the  Ingauni, 
but  they  were  still  recognized  as  a  separate  tribe  in  the 
time  of  Strabo  an4l  Pliny. 

Ins'bcrt,  or  Sanct  Iii$;l>ort,  town  of  Germany,  in 
Rhenish  liavaria,  on  the  Kohrbaeh,  has  largo  coal,  iron, 
and  quicksilver  mines.      Pop.  8433. 

Iii^$;elmun8ter,  town  of  Belgium,  province  of  AYcst 
Flanders,  7V  miles  N.  of  Courtrai,  noted  for  a  victory 
gained  by  the  French  over  the  allied  Knglish  and  lluno- 
verians.  May  10.  1701.     Pop.  5Q00. 

In'selo\V(Ji:AN),  daughter  of  William  Ingelow,  b.  1830 
at  Boston,  England ;  has  published  several  volumes  of  verse 
(1863,  18t)7,  1871 ).  besides  prose  works  of  fiction,  including 
Talcs  of  Orrh  (18G0),  Studiea  for  ,Stor!rti  (18(U).  //„ni€ 
Thouf/htfi  and  Home  Scenes  (i8(;7),  OJ}'  the  Sfcrllnja 
(1872),  etc.  Immediately  on  the  publication  of  her  first 
volume  of  poems  she  was  recognized  as  an  original  poet, 
and  her  fame  has  grown  wider  ever  since.  Sometimes  her 
poems  have  something  scattered  and  romantically  vague 
in  the  total  representation  of  the  idea,  as  is  the  case  in  one 
of  her  most  celebrated  poems.  '*  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of 
Lincolnshire."  liut  the  details  iioth  of  human  character 
and  of  nature  are  often  painted  with  a  most  exquisite  del- 
icacy, as,  for  instance,  in  *' Tiie  Letter  L ;"  and  there  is 
always  in  her  verses  a  genuine  warmth  and  noble  natural- 
ness, connected  with  simplicity  and  grace. 

Iii'f;<!inaiin  (Pkiinhaiu)  Skvf.uin),  b.  May  2S.  17>^0; 
studied  at  tlie  tniversity  of  Copenhagen  ;  travelled  181S-IU 
through  (Jermany,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  ami  was 
appointed  in  1SJ2  professor  of  Banish  literature  and  lan- 
guage at  the  Academy  of  Soriie,  which  position  he  filled 
till  his  death.  Feb.  24."isr.2.  In  1811  he  ]>ubli>hed  his  first 
volume  of  poems,  and  afterwards  attempted  almost  every 
kind  of  fiction;  his  collected  works  comprise  ijy  volumes. 
But  he  became  eminent  only  in  two  directions.  Inspired 
by  Walter  Scott,  ho  treated  the  most  brilliant  and  rcunantic 
period  of  the  history  of  Denmark  in  a  series  of  romances — 
Va/dtmur  Scier  (1^20),  Erik  McnvcWn  Barndom  (I82S), 
Kitutj  Erik  o'j  de  Frcdliisc  (1833),  and  Prindn  Otto  »;/  hmis 
tSaiiitid  { 1835) :  and  these  romances,  though  inferior  to  their 
model  in  historical  truth  and  in  jiowcr  of  characterization 
and  description,  became  truly  popular.  There  existsperhaps 
no  Dane  who  bus  not  read  them  ;  they  were  also  translated 
into  (Jerman  and  Knglisb,  and  are  fVe{juently  found  among 
the  Scandinavians  in  the  Wc>^t.  An  etjual  impression  he 
produced  by  his  hymns  and  religious  songs,  of  which  some 
morning  and  evening  songs  were  unsurpassable  for  tender- 
ness and  purity  of  feeling.  Ci-emkns  Pktkrsen. 

In'gt'lihousz  (.Iax).  h,  at  Rreda.  Holland,  in  1730; 
studied  medicine,  and  after  practising  in  Hnlland  went  to 
England  in  1707;  travelled  in  Franco  and  Italy,  and  re- 
turned to  London,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  seientilio 
research,  and  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  in 
whoso  Tr<ii\8<totit,un  he  published  several  important  essays. 
To  Dr.  Ingenhousz  is  ascribed  the  first  medical  use  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  the  invention  of  tiie  plate  electrical  machine; 
he  discovered  that  plants  when  exposed  to  light  exhale 
oxygen,  and  when  dej>rived  of  light  exhale  carbonic  ncid. 
He  d.  at  Rowood,  the  seat  of  the  marquis  of  Lansdown, 
Sept.  7.  1709. 

In'gcrsall,  town  of  Oxford  co..  Out.,  Canada,  on  tho 
Thames  and  the  Creat  Western  Railway.  10  miles  liy  rail 
from  London,  has  a  heavy  trade  in  grain  and  lumber,  im- 
portant manufactures  of  farm  implements,  woollen  goods, 
eheeso,  and  lumber.  1  branch  bank,  and  2  weekly  newspa- 
pers. It  has  fine  public  buildings,  and  is  rapidly  increasing 
in  ini])ortan<'e.      lN>p.  ftf  sub-district,  1022. 

liigersoll,  tp.  of  Miillund  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  402. 

IllCcrsoll  (Chaui.ks  Anthon  v).  A.  M.,  b.  at  New.  Haven. 
Conn.,  in  l70^^ ;  held  a  high  rank  at  the  bar,  and  after  hi»td- 
ing  various  important  oflices  was  appointed  judge  of  tho 
U.  S.  district  court  by  President  Pierce.     D.  Feb.  9,  1800. 

In^erHoll  (Ciiaklks  Jakiid),  h.  in  Philadelphia  Od.  3, 
17^i'.',  was  a  son  of  Jared  Ingersoll  (1710-1822).  He  ro- 
ceivetl  a  eollegiate  educati^ui ;  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  a 
member  of  Congress  1813-14  and  1811-4";  l'.  S.  district 
attorney  lSi;i-20,  and  held  varittus  important  oflTices.  Ho 
wrote  ('fii'imnrn,  n.  poem  ( ISOtt).  InrhiifuiuK  Lcttrrg  (  1810), 
J/inliiririil  Skrtrh  *\f  the  Srruud  War  with  Grcnf  Hritain 
f  1  vols..  |8if)-,'»2),  anil  several  other  works,  chiefly  liistor- 
ieal  and  )ioelical.     D.  in  Philadelphia  Jan.  14,  lS(i2. 

Ilif^rrHOll  (CiiAiti.is  RoBcnrsK  LL.D..  b.  at  Ni-w  Ha- 
ven. Conn.,  Sept.  Ifi,  I82I  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1810.  and  at  the  Yalo  liaw  School  in  1844.  since  which  lime 
he  has  been  a  practising  lawyer  in  his  native  city,  which  ho 


1198 


INGERSOLL— INGRES. 


has  several  times  represented  in  the  general  assembly  of 
the  State.  He  was  elected  governor  of  Connecticut  by  the 
Democratic  party  in  1S73,  was  re-elected  in  1874,  and  again 
in  IST.i. 

Ingcrsoll  f.T,\REr)t.  LL.D..b.  in  Connecticut  in  17(0,  and 
gradunfcd  at  Yale  in  I7(J6.  He  studied  law  in  Lotidonjand 
settled  in  Phihidi'lphin,  whore  he  became  a  prominent  law- 
yer, lie  was  a  member  of  Congres'S  T7'^0-SI  ;  n  member 
of  tbe  convention  which  framed  the  V.  S.  Constitution  in 
1787.  Ho  afterwards  licid  many  important  public  positions; 
was  often  atturney-geueral  of  Tennsylvania ;  and  at  tbe 
time  of  his  death  was  presiding  judge  of  the  district  court 
for  Philadelphia  CO.,  Pa.     D.  Oct.  -i!,  1S22. 

Ili^crsoll  (JosKPH  RF.Er»).  LL.D.,  D.  C.  L..  a  son  of 
Jarcd  lugcrsoU,  b.  in  Philadelphia  June  II,  17^0:  j^rad- 
uatcd  at  Princeton  in  1804,  and  became  a  prominent  law- 
yer of  Piiiladelphia.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  Congress 
1835-37  and  IN42-4U,  and  U.  S.  minister  to  Eughmd  18J0- 
53.  He  published  a  memoir  of  Samuel  Breck  (18ri3)  and 
*SVcc««/on  a  Folly  and  a  Crime.  D.  in  Philadelphia  Feb, 
20,  ISC.S. 

Ingersoll  (Ralph  Isaacs),  LL.D.,  b.  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  17.S8;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1808;  studied  law, 
and  took  high  rank  at  the  bar  of  his  native  city;  was  the 
Democratic  leader  in  the  Connecticut  legislature  in  the 
tempestuous  session  of  1819,  and  afterward  until  1825, 
when  he  was  chosen  to  the  lower  house  of  Congress,  re- 
maining there  four  terms,  and  taking  liigh  rank  in  tho 
practical  machinery  of  legislation.  In  1833  he  declined  a 
re-election  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  his  ]irofession, 
which  he  continued  to  do  with  great  ability  and  success 
for  tlie  remainder  of  his  life,  refusing  "all  temptations  to 
accept  jtolitical  appointments,  except  on  one  occasion  iu 
1840.  when,  at  the  personal  solicitation  of  Pres.  Polk,  he 
accepted  and  filled  for  two  years  the  post  of  minister  to 
Rus.^ia.     D.  at  New  Haven  Aug.  27,  1872. 

Ins^'ham,  county  of  S.  Central  Michigan.  Area,  576 
square  miles.  It  is  level,  fertile,  and  well  timbered,  and 
produces  coal  and  iron  ore.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  aro 
staple  products.  Lumber,  carriages,  brick,  ami  saddlery 
are  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  various  railroads,  centring  at  Lansing,  the  cap- 
ital of  .Michigan,  which  is  io  this  county.  Cap.  Mason. 
Pop.  2;..20S. 

Iiis^ham,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  la.     Pop.  293. 

Ingham,  tp.  of  Ingham  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1392. 

Ingham  (Bknjamis),  b.  at  Ossett,  Yorkshire,  England, 
June  11.  1712;  was  educated  at  Batley  School  and  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  where  in  1733  he  became  .associated  with 
John  and  Charles  Wesley,  the  founders  of  Methodism.  Ho 
was  ordained  and  accompanied  Joiin  We:?ley  to  Georgia  in 
1735,  remaining  two  years  in  America,  returning  with  Wes- 
ley, and  accompanying  him  in  his  visit  to  the  IMoravians 
io  (Jermany.  So  strong  was  his  attraction  to  that  body  of 
Christians  that  he  wished  to  assimilate  the  rising  Method- 
ism to  their  type,  and  he  actually  foun>Icd  in  Yorkshire 
several  congregations  of  what  might  be  called  Moravian 
Methodists,  otherwise  "  Ingbaraites,*' and  in  a  few  years 
there  were  in  England  84  of  these  societies.  In  process  of 
time  Ingham,  who  had  married  a  sister  of  the  earl  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, removed  to  Abberford  and  evangelized  the  whole 
surrounding  region,  being  elected  a  bisliop  or  tjeucral  orcr- 
eeer  hy  the  Church  he  bad  founded,  which  was  long  in  fel- 
lowship with  Methodism,  but  in  1759  and  the  succeeding 
years  three-fourths  of  the  societies,  and  finally  Ingham 
himself,  went  over  to  tho  Sandemanians  (which  sec).  lie 
d.  in  1772. 

Ingham  (Charles  C),  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  179C; 
belonged  to  an  artistic  family,  and  early  developed  a  ge- 
nius for  painting:  gained  a  prize  from  the  Dublin  Academy 
when  only  twenty  years  of  age  ;  came  to  the  U.  S.,  and  with 
a  brother  attained  the  first  rank  of  portrait-painters  in  New 
York  ( 'ity,  where  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design.     D.  in  New  York  City  Dec.  10,  18ti3. 

In^hira'mi  (Chevalier  Francksco),  b.  at  Volterra,  It- 
aly, in  1772.  was  sent  in  boyhood  to  Naples  to  study  at  the 
military  scIiodI  ;  the  examination  of  the  Museo  Rorbonico 
determined  his  vocation  for  the  study  of  antiquities.  His 
Mounmeuti  Etrusrhi,  in  10  vols.  ( 1821-27),  is  the  most  com- 
plete account  of  Etruscan  antiquities.  Ho  wrote  also  (ral- 
Icria  Omericn,  in  3  vols.  (1827-28),  Mumco  Etntnco-Chiu- 
Rino,  in  4  vols.  (1833),  a  Jfintori/  of  7\tMffitjt/,  in  16  vols. 
(1841-45),  and  numerous  other  works  which  gained  him  a 
Kuropoan  reputation.     D.  at  Florence  May  17,  IS4G. 

In'glcby  (Clk^!knt  Mansfiklo).  b.  Oct.  29,  1S2.1,  at 
Edg'mston.  near  Birmingham.  England:  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge :  became  professor  in  philosophy  in  1855  at  the  Mid- 
land Institute  of  Birmingham,  and  foreign  secretary  to  tho 
Roval  Institute  of  Literature  in  1870.    He  wrote  The  Skak' 


gpeare  Fabrications  (1S59),  Vieic  of  the  Shal'gpeare  Contro- 

vcrsj/  (1861),  Introttartiou  to  i^fetapht/sics  (IS^^J). 

In'glis  (Davih).  LL.D.,  D.  D..  b.  June  8, 1825,  at  Green- 
law, Berwickshire,  Scotland  ;  educated  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  graduated  in  1841,  and  completed  his 
theological  studies  there  in  1S44;  in  1816  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Bedford,  Westchester 
CO.,  N.  Y.  ;  in  1849  accepted  a  call  to  St.  (Jabricl  street 
church,  Montreal:  and  in  1851  became  pastor  of  tho  Mc- 
Nab  street  cliurch,  Hamiltiui.  Ont.  After  a  pastorate  of 
sixteen  years  hereraove*!  to  Toronto,  having  been  called  by 
the  (Jeneral  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Can- 
ada to  the  chair  c)f  systematic  theology  in  Knox  College. 
From  Toronto  be  removed  in  1872  to  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  and 
bceamc  pastor  of  Reformed  (Dutch  )  church  on  the  Heights. 
He  was  the  author  of  Tri-Cinteunni  nud  TlKnifcugivinfj  Ser- 
mons,  liiyhti-oneneHs  Exaltrfh  a  A'atimi,  Si/ftematic  Thfolotjtj 
ill  its  JiclativH  to  Modern  Thought,  etc.     D.  Dec.  15,  1877. 

Inglis  (Hf.nrv  David),  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in 
1795;  travelled  extensively  in  various  countries  in  Europe, 
and  under  the  pseudonym  of  '*  Derwent  Conway"  pub- 
lished some  very  entertaining  works — Talcs  of  ArdenneSf 
Solitari/  Walks  ihrontjh  Af<tiiif  Lnnds.  Joun\e>f  through  Nor- 
iCfty,  Siccdt  II.  and  Dvitmurk,  Tour  through  Sicitzerland,  etc., 
Spain  in  ISSO,  New  Gtl  lilas^  or  Pedro  of  Ptnajlor,  Jonr- 
ney  thronifhout  Ireland  in  lA'34-  The  Tyrol,  and  Rambles  in 
the  Fontsteps  of  Don  Qni.rote.  The  works  of  Mr.  IngUs  aro 
filled  with  information  which  is  generally  sought  in  vain 
in  works  of  travel ;  they  have  been  frequently  reprinted, 
and  have  become,  in  a  measure,  authoritative.  D.  in  Lon- 
don Mar.  20,  1835. 

lu'golstadt,  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  province  of  Upper 
Bavaria,  on  the  Danube.  Its  fortifications,  which  were  de- 
stroyed by  Moreau  in  1800,  were  rebuilt  in  1830,  and  aro 
considered  very  strong.  It  has  some  manufactures  of 
leather  and  paper.  It  was  once  the  seiLt  of  a  famous  uni- 
versity, ^vbich  was  founded  in  1472.  transferred  to  Land- 
shut  in  lst)(l,  and  thence  to  Munich  in  1S26.      Pop.  15,025. 

Ili^graham,  tp.  of  Mills  co.,  la.     Pop.  318. 

Ingraham  (Di-ntan  N.),  b.  Dec.  6. 1802,  at  Charleston, 
S.  C. ;  entered  tho  U.  S.  navy  in  1812  as  midshipman  :  rose 
to  the  rank  of  cnptain,  and  rendered  himself  famous  in  tho 
Martin  Koszta  affair  at  Smyrna  in  1S53:  for  his  conduct 
in  this  matter  he  was  voted  thanks  and  a  medal  by  Con- 
gress. Afterwards  he  Avas  appointed  chief  of  the  ordnance 
bureau  of  the  naval  dep.artment,  which  position  he  held 
until  South  Carolina  passed  her  ordinance  of  secession  in 
1860;  he  then  resigned  his  commission  in  tho  U.  S.  navy 
and  took  service  under  the  Confederate  States,  in  which  ho 
ruse  to  tbe  rank  of  commodore.  A.  H.  Stepiikns. 

Ingraham  (.Joseph  H.),  b.  in  PorHand.  Me.,  in  1809; 
early  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits,  but  afterwards  became 
an  instructor  in  Washington  College,  Miss.  He  published 
The  S'otith-tcest,  by  n  Yankee  (1836).  which  was  followed 
by  a  considerable  number  of  romances,  some  of  which  bad 
a  very  wide  popularity.  He  afterwards  took  orders  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  in  charge  of  a  par- 
ish at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  where  he  had  also  a  boys' 
school.  Besides  the  above  works  ho  wrote  The  Prince  of 
the  /fouse  of  Darid  (1855).  The  Pillar  of  Fire  (1859),  and 
Thr  Throne  of  D^fiid.     D.  in  1861. 

In'gram  Cross-RoadSy  tp.  of  Lauderdale  co.,  Ala. 
Pup.  511. 

Ingram's,  tp.  of  Johnston  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1326. 

In'gres  ^Jran  Dominiqte  Ai'custin),  b.  at  Montauban, 
France,  Sept.  15.  1781  :d.at  Paris  Jan.  14.  1867.  His  father,  a 
painter  and  sculptor,  had  him  instructed  in  music,  hut  the 
passi(m  for  painting  was  early  awakened  ;  he  studied  un<ier 
MI\I.  Roquc  and  Briant.  and  at  nineteen  entered  the  stucUo 
of  David  ;  at  twenty-one  gained  tlie  second  grau'I  prize  ;  .it 
t^vonty-two  gained  the  first  grand  prize  for  the  painting  of 
Achilles  in  hin  Tent  receiving  the  Ambassadors  of  Agamem- 
non, in  the  Kcolo  des  Beaux-Arts;  in  1806  visited  Rome, 
took  up  his  residence  there,  and  sent  thence  to  Paris  seve- 
ral canvases,  wliieh  were  not  received  with  special  favt)r. 
Between  1814  and  1832  many  works  wercfinislicd  and  sent 
to  the  exhibitions  at  the  Louvre,  historical  pieces  mostly 
from  classical  and  modern  story  —  Virgil  reading  the 
yFneid  to  Augwtns,  Franccnca  de  I'iniini,  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  bentnirittif  the  Golden  Flreee  on  thr  Marshal  dc  Uer- 
trick — but  none  of  his  works  had  the  reputation  in  Paris 
that  they  had  in  Italy.  M.  Ingrcs*s  fame  dated  from  works 
executed  in  Florence — 77(c  Entrance  of  Charles  V.  into 
Paris  and  The  Vow  of  Louis  XI  IT.  The  artist  received  the 
decoration  of  the  cross  from  the  king,  and  was  nia<le  suc- 
cessor of  Baron  Denon  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  The 
Apotheosis  of  Homer  (1827)  and  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sym- 
phorian  excited  much  controversy  among  the  critics.  Sen- 
sitive to  assault,  the  artist  left  France  lor  Italy,  where  he 


INGRIANS— INJU.N'CTION. 


1199 


was  made  director  of  the  Villa  do'  Modici.  In  Italy  his 
productive  period  returned.  The  Venuv  Aunilt/otnctic,  Jesus 
aitionrf  the  IfnctofM.  Mnliere  in  Am  Librnrtj,  iittrtuf-  in  Court 
Cuntume,  Jcau  d' Arc  at  the  C*mn€crittiun  of  Chnrlm  VII., 
were  amonj?  bis  more  celebrated  compositions.  Tiidcr  the 
Third  Napoleon.  lDi;res  painted  on  the  coiling  of  the  Hfttcl 
do  Villc  a  f;ri'at  picture.  The  Apothi:o«iH  <>/  Kapulcon  /., 
with  the  legend.  In  nepote  rrdiriviin.  At  the  Exposition  of 
ISjj  the  artist's  works  were  displayed  in  a  room  devoted 
exclusively  to  them.  A  museum  at  Montaubun  bears  his 
name.  He  received  a  grand  medal  irnm  tiie  jury  of  the 
Internationnl  Exhibition,  was  made  an  nflicer  in  the  Legion 
of  Honor  (  1S41 ).  commander  (IS-IJ),  liigh  officer  (ISSJ). 
senator  ( I StllH.  and  was  also  elected  member  ol  the  imperial 
council  uf  public  instruction.  0.  U.  FitoxniscnAM. 

In'grians,  a  Finnish  or  Ugrian  race,  inhabiting  Ingria, 
or  Ingermannlancl.  a  portion  of  Russia  now  mostly  included 
in  the  government  of  St.  Petersburg.  They  arc  mainly 
Lutherans,  very  poor  and  ignorant,  but  the  process  of 
Russiani/ing  in  manners  and  religion  is  going  on.  The 
true  Ingrians  (Votlj  are  estimatctl  to  number  17,>^0fl,  but 
there  are  reported  in  the  district  42,97'J  Savakot  and  !?'.>, ">M 
Auramoiset — Finnish  peoples  allied  by  language  with  the 
Karclians  rather  than  with  the  Ingriansand  the  true  Finn?. 

Intiamban%    Iiihamba'na,    or    Inhambaucy    a 

Portuguese  town  of  .Mozambique,  lat.  2.'J°  o'J'  iS.,  Ion.  .'Jj" 
51'  K.,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  It 
has  a  trade  by  sea  in  wa.\,  ivory,  etc.     Pop.  IU,II00, 

Inheritance*     See  Heir. 

In^a,  a  genus  of  toothed  delphinoid  cetaceans  of  tho 
family  Iniida>,  which  contains  one  known  living  species 
and  several  fossil  genera.  Tlie  Im'n  /Ittfiriemtiit,  of  the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  the  interior  of  South  America,  is  from 
seven  to  frmrteen  feet  long,  is  carnivorous  an<l  gregarious, 
and  is  caught  for  its  oil.  The  females  care  tenderly  for 
their  young. 

Injaya,  The  Logical  School.  Sec  Hindu  Pni- 
Losoi-nv,  by  Piiof.  John  XJowsu.v. 

Injnnc'tion  [Lat.  injnnctio],  in  its  more  general  sense, 
as  a  law  term,  is  an  order  mado  by  a  court  possessing 
equitable  powers,  atldressed  to  a  designated  person,  and 
commanding  him  either  (I)  not  to  commit  some  act  which 
he  threatens  to  commit,  or  (2)  to  desist  from  the  further 
prosecution  of  somo  act  which  he  has  already  commenced, 
or  (.*1)  to  restore  to  its  former  condition  something  which 
has  been  interfered  with  and  altered  by  his  act.  This  judi- 
cial instrument  for  tlie  prevention  of  wrong  was,  like  many 
other  remedies  and  forms  of  proceeding,  borrowed  directly 
from  the  Roman  law.  in  which  it  was  extensively  used  un- 
der the  name  of  *•  interdict."  Interdicts  were  commands 
issued  by  the  prietor  or  other  magistrate,  in  which  he  or- 
dered something  to  be  done  or  not  to  bo  done.  7'ho  num- 
ber of  particular  instances  in  wliieb  they  n)ight  be  used 
was  very  great,  and  inrleed  tliey  might  be  resorted  to  for 
tho  protection  of  all  species  of  property,  public  and  private. 
The  certainty  and  ease  with  which  threatened  wrongs  could 
bo  prevented  by  their  means,  and  a  restoration  of  rights 
could  bo  effected,  raised  the  remedial  department  of  the 
Raman  law  to  a  high  position  of  practical  etficacy  which 
has  been  surpassed  by  no  mofU-rn  system  of  jurisprudence. 
The  primary  division  of  interdicts  was  into  three  classes: 
(1)  Prohibitory,  which  prohiltiterl  something  Crom  being 
done;  (2)  rcstoratory,  wliich  cnminamlfd  sometbing  to  be 
restored;  and  (3)  exhibitorv,  which  directed  some  person 
or  thing  to  be  prorluced  and  exiiibited.  In  this  last  class 
wa«  one.  i/c  fihei'o  honiine  ej-hihem/o,  which  was  used  to  pre- 
vent a  freeman  from  being  restrained  of  his  liberty  by  any 
person  whatsoever,  and  which  therefore  bore  some  resem- 
blance to  our  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

Tlic  only  speeics  of  injunction  for  a  long  time  used  hy 
the  Eiiirlish  and  American  courts  as  a  part  of  the  equita- 
ble relief  administered  by  them  resembled  and  was  bor- 
rowed from  tho  prohibitory  interdict  of  tho  Roman  juris- 
prudence, since  it  merely  forbade  the  commission  of  some 
act;  but  a  modified  form  has  been  recently  introrluccd 
under  tho  name  of  *'  mandatory  injunetion,"  which  is  sim- 
ilar in  its  design  and  etVecIs  to  the  restorntory  interdict. 
Tho  ancient  common  law  furnished  no  remerlies  which 
were  directly  preventive:  its  reliefs,  in  all  (trdiiiary  ]>rivatc 
coiitro\  ersies,  were  either  (1)  the  recovery  <d*  money  as  a 
compensation  f'>r  the  wrong  complained  <»f.  or  (2)  the  re- 
covery of  a  specific  tract  of  land,  or  (II|  the  recovery  of  a 
specific  chattel.  Tho  court  of  chancery,  untrammelled  hy 
the  arbitrary  and  technical  forms  and  doctrines  of  the  law- 
courts,  and  administering  a  remedial  system  which  those 
triliunals  could  not  or  would  nr>t  administer,  was  ablo  to 
introduce  a  preventive  moilo  of  relief,  and  from  tho  very 
outset  the  injunction  became  the  most  potent  instrument 
in  building  up  its  peculiar  jurisprudence.     Tho  flrst  im- 


portant and  constant  use  to  which  it  was  put  was  tho  re- 
straining the  prosecution  of  suits  in  courts  of  law.  As  the 
doctrines  of  equity  arc  often  quite  different  from  those 
which  prevail  at  law.  and  since  from  the  same  facts  and 
circumstances  involved  in  a  given  controversy  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  law  would  regard  one  party  as  possessing 
the  legal  right,  while  equity  would  look  u|)on  the  other  as 
the  one  entitled  to  relief,  it  necessarily  follows  that  the 
courts  of  law  would  decide  stich  controversy  when  brought 
before  them  in  favor  of  one  litigant,  and  the  court  of  equity 
would  render  its  decree  in  favor  of  his  antagonist.  If, 
therefore,  the  person  who  held  the  legal  right  should  bring 
an  action  in  a  coinm<in-hnv  court,  ho  would  necessarily  re- 
cover a  judgment,  while  at  the  same  time  if  his  adversary 
should  prosecute  his  demand  in  chancery,  a  decree  would 
be  rendered  in  his  favor  establishing  his  claim  in  direct 
antagonism  to  the  decision  made  by  the  court  of  law.  In 
this  manner  an  unseemly  confiict  might  have  arisen  and 
been  perpefuatecl  between  the  two  classes  of  tribunals,  had 
the  chancellor  not  posscssc<l  the  preventive  instrument  of 
injunction  which  enabled  him  to  enforce  his  own  decrees 
and  uphold  his  own  jurisdiction.  The  ]>rohibition  was 
not,  however,  directctl  ai;aiiist  the  courts  of  law  nor  the 
judges  thereof  personally,  but  against  tlic  suitors  before 
those  courts.  The  theory  of  the  court  was,  that  it  was  un- 
just and  inequitable  for  the  suitor  in  the  particular  case 
to  make  use  of  his  strict  legal  remedies.  Tlic  mandate  of 
the  court  was  accordingly  addressed  to  him  to  refrain  from 
doing  an  act  whicdi  in  right  and  conscience  he  ought  not 
to  do.  By  the  use  of  the  injunction  the  chancellor,  when  a 
proceeding  was  instituted  before  him  to  establish  an  equi- 
table right,  forbade  the  opposing  party  from  commencing 
orcarrying  on  any  action  in  a  court  of  law  based  ujum  the 
same  facts  an<l  circumstances,  and  thus  a  conflict  of  juris- 
diction in  all  cases  wns  prevented.  In  this  manner  and 
for  this  purpose  an  injunction  to  stay  the  prosecution  of 
suits  at  law  became,  from  the  very  commencement  of  his 
judicial  functions,  an  ordinary  remedial  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  the  chancellor,  anrl  by  its  means  alone  was  ho 
finally  enableil  to  establish  his  jurisdiction  and  to  create 
the  system  of  equity  jurisprudence  as  a  co-ordinate  branch 
of  English  law. 

The  question  as  to  the  power  to  interfere  by  injunction 
being  decided  favorably,  the  court  of  chancery  at  length 
established  the  ftdlowing  general  principle,  which  deter- 
mined the  occasions  in  whicii  it  would  resort  to  such  pre- 
ventive remedy.  In  all  cases  where  the  courts  of  law  can 
furnish  an  adequate  relief  "Tor  the  wrong  done  or  about  to 
be  done,  equity  will  not  interjiose  its  restraining  power,  but 
j  will  leave  the  injured  (tarty  to  his  legal  action.  By  tho 
term  "adequate  relief"  is  meant  the  recovery  of  a  judg- 
ment at  law  which  is  considered  asufHcicnt  satisfaction  for 
the  wrong  done  or  contemplated  :  and  it  embraces,  in  gen- 
eral, all  those  cases  in  which  pecuniary  compensation  can 
be  awarded  in  the  form  of  debt  or  damages,  and  those  in 
which  tin-  thing  itself,  land  or  chattels,  can  be  restored  to 
the  rightful  possessor.  The  most  important  occasions  to 
which  this  principle  docs  not  npply.  and  in  which,  there- 
fore, an  injunction  will  be  granted  in  order  to  prevent  a 
threatencrl  wrong  or  tt)  restrain  the  further  commission  of 
an  incquit,;iblc  act.  arc  the  following  :  ( I )  To  restrain  pro- 
ceedings at  law.  This  general  class  embraces  many  par- 
ticular instances.  Among  tho  grounds  for  such  interfer- 
ence, tho  most  imjiortant  arc  when  the  legal  right  and  tho 
proceedings  to  enforce  it  arc  aft"ecled  by  fraud,  mistake,  or 
accident  ;  when  they  require  a  long  accounting;  when  tho 
litigation  is  vexatious;  when  the  controversy  involves  tho 
rights  and  duties  of  trustees,  partners,  executors,  admin- 
istrators, sureties.  uHirtgagors.  ancl  mortgagees,  or  requires 
the  nmrshallinir  of  assets,  or  depends  upon  tlie  effects  (if  an 
equitable  set-idV  or  assignment.  In  these,  and  in  certain 
other  similar  instances,  the  litigant  parlies  and  their  at- 
torneys and  agents  will  be  restrained  from  carrying  on 
proceedings  not  only  in  courts  having  full  common-taw 
powers,  but  also  in  tribunals  of  an  inferi<»r  or  special  juris- 
diction. In  addition  to  this  use  of  the  injunction,  it  is 
also  resorted  to  in  eerljiin  well-defined  clashes  of  eases  to 
prevent  the  commission  of  acts  which  would  bo  so  perma- 
nently injurious  to  property  that  no  adequate  relief  could 
ho  given  by  the  common  law  remedy  of  damages.  It  is 
true  that  in  all  the  instances  about  to  be  mentioned  somo 
pecuniary  compcnsati<ni  could  bo  obtained,  hut  from  the 
very  continuous  and  lasting  nature  of  (he  wrongful  act 
done,  repeated  and  perhaps  innumerable  suitsat  law  would 
be  necessary,  uidess  it  could  be  stcqjped  at  once  by  some 
preventive  relief.  Tho  classes  of  cases  thus  described,  in 
which  a  wrong  will  bo  prevented  beenuse  the  law  can  give 
no  suthcient  remedy,  are  as  follows:  (2)  to  restrain  tho 
conimission  of  waste,  which  is  necessarily  a  permanent  in- 
jury to  tho  land  wasted;  (.1)  to  restrain  continuous  or  re- 
peated trespasses  upon  land.     Although  an  injunction  will 


1200 


INK. 


not  be  granted  to  prevent  violence  to  the  person  nor  to 
chattels,  nor  single  acts  of  injury  to  lands,  yet  if  the  tres- 
pass to  land  is  vontinuons.  so  that  it  becomes  analogous  in 
its  effects  to  wasti'.  courts  of  equity  will  now  interfere,  by 
a  liberal  use  of  the  injunction,  both  to  ])revent  the  further 
wrong  and  to  compel  a  restoration  of  the  ])reniiscs  to  their 
original  condition;  (-1)  to  restrain  the  creation  and  main- 
tenance of  nuisances ;  (5)  to  prevent  the  infringement  of 
patents  and  copyrights,  and  the  unlawful  use  or  piracy  of 
tratle-marks  ;  (G)  to  restrain  the  breach  of  covenants  or 
agreements  in  a  few  special  instances.  In  general,  the 
breach  of  an  agreement  will  not  bo  enjoined,  but  in  a  few 
cases,  where  the  injury  would  be  of  such  a  character  that 
damages  would  be  no  adequate  relief,  courts  of  equity  will 
interfere  by  injunction.  In  some  eases  an  injunction  is 
used  as  a  moans  of  enforcing  an  agreement.  Thus,  where 
a  parly  has  agreed  that  be  will  iu>l  do  a  particular  thing, 
an  injunction  will  causo  him  to  fullil  his  contract;  (7)  to 
restrain  a  disposition  of  their  property  by  debtors  so  as  to 
hinder,  delay,  or  defraud  their  creditors;  (S)  to  restrain 
assignments  and  transfers  of  property  which  would  inter- 
fere with  the  settlement  of  bankrupts'  estates.  These  arc 
the  most  important  and  usual  cases  in  which  the  power  of 
eqviity  triluinals  to  issue  an  injunction  is  now  firmly  estab- 
lished. There  are  somo  other  special  and  exceptional  in- 
stances which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enumer.ale. 

In  respect  to  their  effects,  injunctions  are  either  prohib- 
itory or  m.andatory.  In  the  former  class  the  order  of  the 
court  is  negative,  and  commands  the  party  vnt  to  do  the 
specified  act;  in  the  latter,  it  is  aflirmative,  and  commands 
the  party  to  Jo  the  specified  act.  The  object  of  a  manda- 
torv  injunction  is  generally  to  compel  the  defendant  to  re- 
move some  structure  which  he  has  wrongfully  erected,  and 
which  is  a  nuisance  or  a  trespass,  and  to  restore  the  premises 
to  their  original  condition. 

In  respect  to  their  form  and  the  manner  of  granting  them, 
injunctions  are  either  final  and  perpetual  or  interlocutory 
and  temporary.  Final  injunctions  aro  granted  after  the 
hearing  and  decision  of  the  cause,  anfl  form  a  part  of  tbo 
decree  which  <letermines  the  rights  of  the  parties.  Inter- 
locutory or  temjjorary  injunctions  aro  orders  made  at  the 
commencement  of  the  action  or  during  its  pendency,  on 
the  application  of  the  plaintiff.  Their  object  is  to  prevent 
the  defendant  from  so  interfering  with  or  disposing  of  the 
subject-matter  in  controversy  as  to  render  a  final  decree 
against  him  ineffectual. 

The  reformed  system  of  procedure  which  has  been 
ailoptcd  in  many  of  the  V.  i^.  has  to  a  great  extent  obviated 
one  most  important  use  of  the  injunction  as  above  described. 
According  to  that  procedure,  equitable  defence  can  bo  set 
up  and  maintained  in  legal  actions;  the  whole  matter  in 
dispute,  the  legal  and  equitable  rights  and  claims  of  tho 
parties,  can  be  presented  and  adjudicated  upon  in  one  con- 
troversy, and  the  holder  of  the  equitable  right  is  no  longer 
forced  to  institute  a  separ.ate  suit  in  chancery  and  to  enjoin 
the  adverse  action  brought  against  him  in  a  court  of  law. 
AVhenever  this  ])rocedure  prevails,  therefore,  the  employ- 
ment of  the  injunction  to  restrain  the  prosecution  of  suits 
at  law  is  in  most  cases  no  longer  necessary  or  proper. 
With  this  single  exception  tiie  preventive  remedy  of  in- 
junction is  freely  usecl  by  our  courts,  although  in  most  of 
the  .'itates  the  same  tribunals  are  clothed  with  both  equit- 
able and  common-law  powers  and  jurisdiction. 

■Tonx  NollTON  POMEBOV. 

Ink  [Fr.  encre  ;  Ger.  Tinle  ;  Lat.  alrnmciiliim].  Any 
colored  fluid  used  in  writing  or  printing  is  an  ink.  Tho 
essential  difference  in  composition  between  writing  inks 
and  printing  inks  leads  to  a  natural  division  of  tbo  sub- 
ject. We  will  consider  first  writing  inks,  and  subsequently 
printing  inks. 

I.  AViiiTiso  Inks.  //i«(orica?.— Very  little  is  definitely 
known  of  the  composition  of  the  inks  used  I)y  tho  ancients, 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  use  of  the  stylus  indi- 
cates the  use  also  of  carbon  inks,  not  unlike,  probably, 
the  China  or  India  ink  which  is  still  the  almost  exclusive 
atramontal  substance  used  among  the  Chinese  and  other 
Asiatic  peoples.  Tho  use  of  iron  salts  is  certainly  very 
ancient.  Dr.  IJIagdcu  (Phil.  Trnna.,  vol.  Ixxvii.)  found 
that  the  faded  cljaractcrs  of  very  ancient  MSS.  could 
bo  restored  by  the  use  of  prussiato  of  jxttash  and  diluti- 
muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  less  ])erfectly  by  infusion 
of  galls,  redevelojiing  tho  iron  black.  Pliny,  Dioscorides, 
and  other  ancient  writers  give  evidence,  however,  that  car- 
bon in  the  form  of  soot  was  the  essential  constituent  of 
ancient  ink. 

flliick  Ink-9. — Tho  black  ink  in  common  use  in  modern 
times  is  made  from  the  action  of  infusion  of  gallnuts  upon 
green  vitriol,  exposing  the  product  to  the  influence  of  air, 
and  hohling  the  precipitate  in  suspension  by  gum,  sugar, 
or  mucilage.  This  fluid,  the  production  of  which  is  more 
particularly  described  beyond,  is  far  from  being  chemically 


perfect,  and  is  open  to  the  objections  that  it  corrodes  steel 
pens,  is  prone  to  mould  in  warm  weather,  and  to  deposit  a 
sediment  on  standing.  The  writing  is  also  liable  to  grow 
yellow  or  brown  with  age,  and,  when  not  carefully  pre- 
])ared.  to  destroy  the  paper  on  which  it  is  used,  liut  these 
dilficulties  arc  in  great  part  capable  of  correction  by  skilful 
nnmufaeture  and  tho  use  of  proper  ])recautions.  The  fact 
that  well-made  iron  inks  stain  tho  substance  of  the  paper 
with  a  stain  diftieult  of  removal,  and  speedily  growing 
darker  with  age  up  to  a  certain  time,  has  rendered  their 
use  verv  general  in  sjiite  of  their  acknowledged  defects. 
The  carbon  writing  inks  are  liable  also  to  the  objection 
that  they  arc  not  true  solutions,  and  usually  are  wanting 
in  fluidity.  Tbo  logwood  chrome  ink  is  a  true  solution, 
but  open  to  some  serious  objections.  Stephens's  and  Ar- 
nold's writing  fluids  are  true  solutions  with  an  iron  base, 
pale  when  first  written  with,  but  rapidly  growing  darker 
to  a  fine  black,  and  possessing  many  exeellfuccs.  Tho 
aniline  dyes  also  aiTord  some  good  black  or  blue-black  inks, 
which  have  many  good  qualities.  Somo  of  these  are  mea- 
tioned  beyond. 

Nulgoll  Iron  Iiil-n. — Both  gallic  and  gallo-tannic  acids, 
which  co-exist  in  the  infusion  of  galls,  especially  after  con- 
siderable exposure  to  air.  produce  deep-black  precipitates 
with  ferric  salts,  but  with  ferrous  salts  whitish  |irecipilates, 
becoming  black  by  exposure  to  air.  As  gallic  acid  pro- 
duces a  much  deeper  black  with  ferric  salts  than  tannic  or 
tanno-gallic  acid,  we  sec  why  it  is  advantageous  to  leave 
the  infusion  exposed  for  many  days  to  air,  in  order  that 
the  tannic  may  be  changed  to  gallic  acid,  fium  arable  or 
gum  Senegal  is  added  to  retain  the  precipitate  in  suspen- 
sion, prevents  the  formation  of  a  sediment,  and  adds  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  lustre.  To  prevent  the  growth  of  mould 
somo  essential  oil,  carbolic  acid  in  small  quantity,  and 
rarely  corrosive  sublimate,  are  used.  Other  vegetables 
containing  tannin  aro  often  substitutes  for  gallnuts,  chiefly 
from  motives  of  economy,  but  only  with  a  loss  of  quality. 
Logwood  is,  however,  used  in  certain  inks,  as  giving 
not  only  tannin,  but  a  peculiar  color.  Recipes  without 
number"  exist  in  the  technical  books  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  iron  black  ink,  and  each  manufacturer  boasts  his 
own.  Many  of  them  arc  worthless,  as  containing  too  much 
acid  or  too  little  g.all-infusion,  too  much  gum  or  some  other 
objectionable  ingredient  in  excess,  or  some  defect  in  manu- 
facture. We  will  select  a  few  only  of  tho  best,  and  such  as 
have  been  prepared  with  some  regard  to  the  chemical 
character  of  tho  ingredients.  Dr.  Lewis,  at  the  close  of  tho 
last  centurv.  who  seems  to  have  been  tho  first  chemist  to 
study  ink  quantitatively,  found  that  equal  weights  of  gulls 
and  sulphate  of  iron  gave  an  ink  which,  although  of  a  good 
color  when  used,  subsequently  heeamo  yellowish-brown  ; 
that  as  tho  quantity  of  sulphate  was  increased  the  inks 
were  less  durable  in  color;  and  that  those  in  which  the 
galls  predominated  were  most  persistent.  The  proportions 
which  ho  found  best  by  experiment  were — 

Powdered  sulphate  of  iron 1  ounce. 

<  .round  loswood 1      " 

Itruiscd  palls 3      " 

<jum  arable , I      " 

Wldto  wine,  or  acetic  acid 1  quart. 

lie  found  that  although  water  answered  for  all  ordinary 
purposes,  white  wine  gave  a  deeper-colored  product,  and 
the  ink  made  with  acetic  acid  was  still  blacker.  Alcidiol 
was  injurious  to  tho  color,  causing  a  dcjtosition  of  the  tinc- 
torial precipitate.  A  decoction  of  logwood,  substituted  for 
water,  improved  the  black  both  in  richness  and  depth  of 
tint.  Ho  directs  tho  materials  to  be  put  into  a  glass,  earth- 
enware, or  other  non-metallic  vessel,  and  the  mixture  agi- 
tated four  or  five  times  every  day.  In  ten  or  twelve  days 
it  is  ready  for  use — ^if  placed  in  a  warm  situation  consider- 
ably earlier;  but  if  the  ink  is  allowed  to  remain  on  tbo 
materiel  it  continues  to  improve  for  a  lengthened  period. 
When  decanted  it  may  be  kept  in  good  order  with  greater 
certainty  if  a  few  broken — not  bruised — galls  and  tivo  or 
three  fragments  of  iron  arc  placed  in  it.  {Mimpralt.)  Dr. 
Urc,  whoinade  careful  researches  upon  inks,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing directions  for  the  best  black  ink  :  To  make  12  gal- 
lons of  ink  we  may  take  12  pounds  of  nutgalls,  5  pounds 
of  green  sulphate  of  iron,  5  pounds  of  gum  Senegal,  12  gal- 
lons of  water.  The  bruised  nutgalls  are  to  be  put  into  a 
cylindrical  copper  of  a  depth  equal  to  its  diameter,  and 

I   boiled  during  three  hours  with  three-fourths  of  the  above 

1  ([uaulitvof  water,  taking  care  to  add  fresh  water  to  replace 
what  is'lost  by  cva]ioration.     The  decoction  is  to  be  emp- 

I  tied  into  a  tub,  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  liquid  being 
drawn  off,  the  lees  are  to  be  drained.     The  gum   is  to  he 

i  dissolved  in  a  sm.all  quantity  of  hot  water,  and  the  muci- 
lage thus  formed,  being  filtered,  is  added  to  tho  clear  de- 
coction. The  sulphiite  of  iron  must  likewise  be  scp.arately 
dissolved  and  well  mixe.l  with  the  above.     The  color  dark- 

1  ens  by  degrees,  in  consequence  of  the  peroxidation  of  tho 


INK. 


12IJ1 


iron,  on  exposing  the  ink  to  the  nctioD  of  the  air.  But  ink 
afforJa  a  more  durable  writing  when  used  lu  the  pale  state, 
because  ita  particlfis  are  then  tiner  and  penetrate  the  paper 
more  intimately.  M'hen  ink  cunsists  chiefly  of  taunnte  of 
peroxide  of  iron,  however  black,  it  is  merely  euperfieial, 
and  is  easily  erased  or  effaced.  Therefore,  whenever  the 
liquid  made  by  the  ab<ive  recipe  ha.-*  arquircd  a  moderately 
deep  tint  it  should  be  drawn  off  clear  into  bottles  and  well 
corked  up.  Pome  ink-makers  allow  it  to  mould  a  little  in 
the  casks  before  bottling:,  and  suppose  that  it  will  thereby 
bo  not  so  liable  to  become  mouldy  in  the  bottle?.  The  ink 
made  by  the  recijie  piven  above  i?  niucb  more  rich  and 
powerful  than  many  of  the  inks  commonly  sold.  To  bring 
it  to  their  standard  a  half  more  water  may  safely  be  added, 
or  even  20  gallons  of  tolerable  ink  may  bo  made  from 
that  weight  of  materials,  as  I  have  ascertained.  Sumach 
and  logwood  admit  of  only  about  one-half  of  the  copperas 
that  galls  will  take  to  bring  out  the  maximum  amount  of 
black  dye.  M'utts  has  tabulated  various  recipes  for  the 
preparation  of  black  ink,  calculated  for  1(100  parts  of 
water,  as  follows : 

a.         h.        e.       d.       t.       f.      g. 

Galls 225     187     133     125     66     62     31 

Copperas 75       73       55       24     22     31     19 

Oumarabic 25       73       55       24     111     31       8 

h.  i,  k.  I.         m. 

Galls 50     174     50         60     42 

Logwood 100         20     21 

Copperas 32       87     10         20     21 

Sulphate  of  copper  ...       5 

Gum 9       43     47         20     10 

Sugar 23     1000 

Vinegar 125     135 

Of  the  genuine  inks  {*t-(j).  a,  b,  and  c  arc  too  strong  for  or- 
"linary  use ;  ft,  r,  and  /  are  perhaps  the  best ;  y  would  bo 
somewhat  too  pale.  The  re-t  (h-m)  cannot  he  recommend- 
ed, excepting  for  special  purposes.  Sulphate  of  copper 
deepens  the  color  of  the  precipitate,  but  renders  it  more 
compact  an<l  heavy,  anci  therefore  more  apt  to  settle  down. 
A  certain  quantity  of  sugar  renders  the  ink  more  fluid,  and 
permits  the  addition  of  a  larger  proportion  of  gum.  It  like- 
wise renders  the  ink  adhesive  when  dry,  so  that  a  copy  of 
the  writing  may  easily  be  taken  off  l)y  the  copying-press. 
.An  ink  containing  lorjwood  with  the  galls  has  been  much 
used  in  Germany,  and  is  mafle  as  follows  :  1  kilo,  of  coarsely 
pulverized  nutgalls  and  l.')0  grms.  of  logwood  chips  are  ex- 
hausted with  5  litres  of  hot  water ;  600  grms.  of  gum  arable 
are  dissolved  in  25  litres  of  water:  and  500  grms.  of  sul- 
ph.ite  of  iron  in  some  litres  of  water;  each  of  these  solu- 
tions being  made  separately.  This  done,  the  gall-logwood 
infusion  is  mixed  with  those  of  the  gum  and  copperas;  a 
few  drop3  of  es«<ential  oil  of  cloves  or  of  gaultheria  (winter- 
green  oil)  having  been  added,  there  is  added  as  much  water 
lis  will  bring  the  bulk  of  the  liquid  up  tr>  II  litres.  M'liilo 
this  kind  of  ink  attacks  nml  corrodes  steel  pens,  it  has  the 
adilitional  disailvantago  that  after  a  time  the  writing  be- 
rnmes  yellow.  Booth  gives  the  following  formula) :  For  su- 
perior black  ink,  take  12  pounds  Aleppo  galls.  4  pounds 
'iilphate  of  iron,  3^  pounds  of  gum,  ami  18  gallons  of  water. 
For  a  fine  exchequer  ink,  fO  pounds  of  Aleppo  galls,  9 
pounds  of  sulphate  of  iron.  HI  pounds  of  gum,  and  (5  gal- 
lons of  water.  In  both  these  cases  it  is  directed  that  the 
bruised  galls  be  exhausted  by  three  consecutive  boilings, 
each  time  diminishing  the  quantity  of  water,  and  supply- 
ing by  fresh  aildition  any  loss  by  evaporatitm.  The  eop- 
])cras  and  gum  in  solution  are  added  to  the  strained  decoc- 
tion of  galls  whilst  both  are  yet  warm,  and  the  whole  is 
allowed  to  repose  for  several  weeks,  when  the  fluid  is  drawn 
off  from  the  sediment.  A  few  cloves,  or  some  drops  of  cre- 
osote, are  added  (o  prevent  any  parasitic  growth.  The  best 
fluid  to  dilute  ink  which  has  become  too  thick  for  use  is  a 
strong  decoction  of  coffre,  which  improvcfl  the  lufltro  and 
c<dor  of  ink  without  decomposing  it. 

The  imperfections  inherent  in  the  ordinary  black  ink 
from  gulls  and  iron  salts  became  more  manifest  on  the  in- 
trodui'tion  of  the  steel  pen,  which,  aside  from  its  being  cor- 
roded more  or  less  rapidly,  caused,  the  ink  to  concrete  and 
deposit  its  coloring-matter.  These  imperfections  have  been 
sought  to  bo  avoided  by  the  introduction  of  various  Jhiid 
iiif.-M,  H-hirh  are  true  s<dutions.  The  first  of  these  in  order 
of  time  was  the  flni<l  of  Henry  Stephens  of  London,  who 
prepared  a  blue  liquid  wliieli  iiossesses  the  property  of 
turning  in  a  few  hours  after  writing  to  nn  Intense  black. 
It  biis  the  advantage  of  perfeet  fluidity,  flowing  easily  from 
the  pen  upon  the  paper,  with  which  it  forms  a  tenacious 
combination.  These  properties  were  imparted  to  the  ordi- 
nary gallic  ink  by  adding  to  it  sulphate  of  indigo,  which 
holds  the  coloring-matters  in  solution.  The  so-called  ali- 
z'triu  hikii  (a  mere  commercial  name,  by  no  means  imply- 
ing that  they  contain  the  alizarin  of  madder)  cmsist  of 
common  ink  mixed  with  :i  litfle  free  sulphur!''  acid,  which, 
V..r..  II.— n; 


like  other  acids,  retards  the  oxidation  of  the  ferrous  precipi- 
tate (see  Ikon.  Salts  of),  so  that  the  writing  becomes 
block  only  after  exposure  to  the  air;  the  change  being, 
perhaps,  accelerated  by  the  neutralization  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  by  the  basic  substances  contained  in  the  paper;  the 
ink  blackens  very  quickly  when  exposed  to  ammouiacal 
vapors.  A  certain  quantity  of  sulphindigotic  acid  or  its 
sodium-salt  (indigo-carmine)  is  usually  added,  so  that  the 
ink  may  not  appear  too  ]iale  in  writing.  An  ink  of  this 
kind  may  be  prepared  by  exhausting  40  parts  by  weight 
of  nutgalls  with  112  parts  water,  and  then  adding  7  parts 
copperas  and  i  part  oxalic  acid.  At  the  same  time,  1  part 
of  finely  pulverized  indigo-blue  is  dissolved  In  4  parts  fum- 
ing sulphuric  acid;  the  solution  after  twenty-four  hours  is 
diluted  with  water,  and  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  soda;  the  precipitate  is  collected,  washed  to 
remove  the  saline  solution,  then  suspended  in  water;  and 
this  liquid  is  added  to  the  former  till  the  whole  exhibit?  a 
rather  deep  greenish-blue  color.  Stark,  after  manufactur- 
ing and  testing  for  fourteen  years  22'J  different  kinds  of 
ink,  states  that  he  found  nothing  for  durability  of  writing 
and  genera!  excellence  to  compare  with  gallnut-copperas 
ink,  with  a  certain  amount  of  sulf)hate  of  indigo.  He  gives 
as  his  final  preference  for  the  best  ink  :  To  each  1  gallon, 
12  ounces  of  best  gallnuts,  8  ounces  of  copperas,  8  fluid- 
ounces  of  sulphate  of  indigo.  4  to  6  ounces  of  gum  arabic, 
and  a  few  cloves.  As  metallic  iron  impairs  the  quality  of 
all  iron  inks,  he  recommends  that  all  legal  and  other  im- 
portant documents  be  written  with  a  gold  or  quill  pen. 
(  Ch\  Etuj.  <md  Arch.  Jour.,  Aug.,  1855.) 

Chrome  ink  is  preparer!  by  adding  1  part  of  chromate  of 
potassa  to  1000  jiarts  of  a  saturated  solution  of  logwood, 
made  by  boiling  22  pounds  of  logwood  in  a  suflicicnt  quan- 
tity of  water  to  give  14  gallons  of  decoction  ;  to  this  men- 
struum, when  cold,  the  chromate  is  gradually  added  and 
the  mixture  well  stirred.  The  addition  of  gum  is  injurious. 
If  care  is  taken  not  to  permit  the  ]iroportion  of  chrome  salt 
to  exceed  1  part  for  1000  parts  of  decoction  of  logwood,  a 
deep  blue-black  writing  fluid  is  formed  which  drops  no  de- 
posit, like  the  ordinary  gallate-of-iron  ink.  Paper  written 
upon  with  it  may  be  washed  with  a  s])onge  or  be  left  twenty- 
four  hours  under  water  without  the  marks  being  erased. 
"Weak  acids  do  not  destroy  the  writing,  nor  do  they  even 
change  the  shade,  whilst  that  made  from  galls  is  effaced, 
and  the  ink  made  with  logwood  and  sulphate  of  iron  is 
turned  red.  Runge,  the  discoverer  of  this  ink.  used  it  with 
steel  pens  for  two  years  without  their  becoming  rusty  or 
obstructe<l  by  solid  njatter.  It  is  not  liable  to  turn  mouldy, 
but.  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  incompatible  to  use  it  with 
pens  which  are  dipi)ed  in  ordinary  ink,  and  it  is  prone  to 
gelatinize.  A  much-esteemed  French  fluid  ink,  *•  the  black- 
violet  ink  of  Houcn,"  is  prepared  by  boiling  750  ]»art8  of 
logwood  with  6000  parts  of  water,  35  parts  of  alum,  31 
parts  of  gum  arable,  and  15  parts  of  sngar-candv,  leaving 
the  mixture  to  stand  for  two  or  three  days,  and  straining 
through  a  linen  cloth.  A  chnuiio  ink  unlike  Kunge's 
chromate-of-potash  ink  has  been  proposed  by  C.  Puscher 
in  Nuremberg,  1S67,  thus:  Take  10  loths  of  logwood  ex- 
tract with  four  times  its  volume  of  water,  boiled  till  half 
the  water  is  evaporatcil ;  2  loths  of  ebrome  alum  are  then 
dissolved  in  half  the  same  volume  of  water,  and  both  solu- 
tions mixed  and  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes,  in  which  lime 
it  should  be  in  solution.  Add  further  1  bithof  gum  arabic, 
end  we  have  25  loths  of  a  clear  deep  violrt-blue  eolution. 
which  Boon  writes  black.  To  convert  this  into  a  good 
cojiying  ink,  add  1  loth  gum  arabic  and  *  loth  of  glucose 
or  glycerine.    (Wagner.  */"Arc«-/?erjVAr,  xiii.  IS67.) 

Vanndhtm  BInrk  Ink. — Berzelius  advised  the  UBO  of 
vanadate  of  ammonia  with  infusion  of  gallnuts.  A  sur- 
]irisinglv  small  quantity  of  the  vanadium  salt  suffices  to 
produce  a  perfectly  black  ink — so  small,  as  lierzelius  says, 
it  will  not  bo  worth  consi<!erlng  when  ranadium  is  more 
generally  known.  The  writing  obtained  with  this  ink  is 
perfectly  black.  Xo  sediment  forms  from  it.  It  flows  read- 
ily from  the  pen.  ancl  does  not  ci)rrode  steel ;  is  not  attacked 
by  dilute  alkalies,  but  is  turned  red  by  acids.  Dr.  A.  A. 
liayes  (Prorml.  Am.  A  caff.,  lt<75)  has  lately  shown  the 
vanadium  comi»ound9  to  bo  far  more  widely  diffused  than 
was  before  known.  Althougli  this  ink  cannot  be  said  to  bo 
absolutely  indelible,  yet  it  strongly  resists  reagents  which 
cause  common  ink  to  disappear. 

An  excellent  rxtrmporuur<,tin  ink  is  nmde  oa  follows  : 
Take  of  taniiie  an<l  gallic  acids  each  20  grains ;  dissolve  in 
two  fluid-ounee«  of  water;  also  take  crystallized  green  vit- 
riol (sulfdiale  of  iron  I  and  of  tirlrd  eulpbate  {tuif/than  /V/ti 
exHirrntum  \.  of  eoch  15  grains,  and  dissedve  these  separately 
in  a  like  quantity  of  water  (best  distilled)  :  mix  the  two  so- 
lutions and  add  of  mucilage  {mnvilngo  ffummi  nrnhiri)  2\ 
fluid-drachms,  of  oil  of  cloves  2  drtips.  This  is  by  no  nieiins 
a  cheap  ink.  but  is  very  permanent,  and  of  a  beautiful  black 
color. 


1202 


INK. 


For  travcllincf  expeditions  it  is  convenient  to  have  ink  in 
cakes  and  iitk-puirdvra;  two  of  tlic  following  recipes  for  these 
are  quoted  from  AVatts's  iJictiomtry:  Ink  in  (^aketf. — 42  parts 
of  f^ood  nnt_;;;allsand  .'J  parts  of  madder  are  boiled  in  about  Fix 
times  their  \veight  of  water;  tlic  filtered  decocticm  is  mixed 
with  ;">i  parts  copperas  and  2  parts  pyrolijnaie  of  iron  ;  I J 
parts  solution  of  in<li<;o  (in  sulphuric  acid, diluted  with  water) 
are  then  added ;  the  nnxturc  is  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness 
at  a  j;entle  heat  and  with  constant  stirring;  and  the  pasty 
iiiasi^  is  then  made  intoeakes  nndtliorou^hly  tlricd.  This  ink, 
dissolved  In  6  parts  of  hot  water,  is  said  to  make  an  excellent 
ropyin;;  ink,  and  in  10  or  12  parts  water  a  very  fine  writing 
ink.  Portfihfe  luk. — At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Pnlytceh- 
nic  Association  of  Frankfort.  M.  Bnttj*cr  exhibited  a  new 
kind  of  ink  which  is  convenient  for  travellers.  It  is  prc- 
pired  by  saturating  white  bibulous  paper  with  aniline 
blaek.  and  then  pressing  several  sheets  together,  so  as  to 
form  a  compact  block.  Other  aniline  colors  may  be  om- 
jiloyed  for  making  red,  violet,  green,  and  other  inks.  A 
piece  of  the  prepared  jiaper  two  or  three  centimetres  eqnaro 
will  furnish  sufficient  ink  for  a  long  correspondence  by  sim- 
ply steeping  it  in  a  li'flc  water.  Ink  Poicdcr. — A  solid 
chrome  ink  may  be  made  by  triturating  together  to  a  fine 
powder  lOD  parts  extract  of  logwood.  1  part  neutral  chro- 
mate  of  potassium,  and  -^^  indigo-carmine;  1  part  of  this 
powder,  added  to  .".2  parts  water,  is  said  to  make  very  good 
ink.  A  mixture  of  4  parts  pounded  galls,  2  parts  copperas, 
and  1  part  gum  arabic  is  also  frequently  sold  as  an  ink- 
powder. 

Cnpying  inks  are  only  concentrated  common  inks,  to 
which  more  gum  and  sugar  or  a  portion  of  glycerine  is 
added.  If  the  body  is  good,  thrco  or  four  legible  copies 
may  br  taken  from  the  same  writing  by  the  copying-press. 
A  very  much  esteemed  French  copying  ink  is  made  thus: 
Take  30  grms.  of  extract  of  logwood.  7. J  grms.  of  crystal- 
lized carbon.atc  of  soda  ;  boil  this  with  210  grins,  of  water, 
and  add.  while  vif^orously  stirring,  ;i0  grms.  of  glycerine. 
When  the  fluid  has  become  cold,  dissolve  in  it  1  grm.  of 
neutral  chromate  of  potassa.  and  add.  lastly,  7.6  grms.  of 
gura  arabic,  previously  m.ade  into  a  thick  mucilage  with 
water.  The  paper  upon  which  it  is  desired  to  transfer  a 
capy  need  not  be  moistened  if  this  ink  is  used.  The  fol- 
lowing preparation  is  much  recommended :  4  parts  by 
weight  of  logwood  extract  arc  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  fiO 
parts  vinegar  and  70  parts  water;  and  .T  parts  copperas,  2 
parts  alum,  2  parts  gum  arabic,  and  4  parts  sugar  are  then 
added.  This  ink  is  at  first  more  violet  than  the  Rouen  ink, 
which  is  also  used  as  a  copying  ink.  Another  like  prep.ara- 
tion  of  American  origin  is  as  follows:  Take  V  a  pound  of 
extract  of  lo:;wood  (Sanford's  is  best),  2  ounces  of  alum,  4 
drachms  of  blue  and  as  much  of  green  vitriol,  and  1  ounce 
of  sugar:  boil  thcpo  ingredients  with  4  pints  of  water,  filter 
the  ilocoetion  through  flannel,  and  add  to  it  a  solution  of  4 
draclims  of  yellow  chromate  of  potassa  in  -1  ounces  of  wa- 
ter, and  finally  2  ounces  of  ehemic  blue  in  2  ounces  of 
glycerine.  The  ehemic  blue,  also  called  '*  blue  dye."  is  the 
solution  of  indigo  in  oil  of  vitriol,  and  otherwise  used  for 
dyeing  wool.  Letter-books,  with  pajicr  kept  moist  by  gly- 
cerine, have  been  prepared  which  are  said  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  using  a  brush  or  sponge  in  copying  U'ttcrs.  A 
good  copying  ink  is  said  in  the  Chcm.  Cent.  lifaft  (for  1S().^,  j 
'My'2)  to  be  obtained  by  using  16  grammes  of  logwood  ox-  I 
triiet,  2  of  alum,  |  ouch  of  green  vitriol  and  blue  vitriol, 
antl  1  of  .sugar,  boiled  in  .*'  pints  of  water;  strain  and  add 
)  of  chromate  of  potassa  in  4  of  water.  Then  add  2  of  i 
sulphate  of  indigo  and  2  of  glycerine.  The  indi*;o  solution 
is  made  by  treating  \  powdered  indigo  with  5  Nordhausen 
acid,  and  rlilute  with  '.'>  pints  of  water. 

Nnthe  Vrfffrfnlifr  fnkn. — The  juice  of  Con'an'a  tki/mi/oli'a, 
or  ink-plant  of  New  (Inmada,  locally  called  chnnchi,  is  at 
first  of  a  somewhat  reddish  color,  but  becomes  intensely 
I'lack  in  a  few  hours.     This  juice  can  bo  used  for  writing 
without   requiring  any   further  preparation.     It  corrodes 
ftcel   pens   less   than   ordinary    ink,   and    resists    chemical 
agents  better.     All  the  old  documents  under  the  Spanish   ' 
dominion  in  America  were  written  with  chauchi.    Pea-\s'ater  I 
does  not  affect  it.     Experiments  are  being  made  in  Europe  ' 
to    acclimate    this    ink-plant.     The    Srqnniit    f/i;/(nitra,    or 
''  big  trees,"  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  furnish  a  peculi.ar  sort 
of  tannin,  highly  colored  ami  largely  soluble  in  wnfer.  fur-  ' 
nishing  a  strong  deep  reddish-black  liquid  whieli  I  find  to 
be  a  quite  tolerable  natural  ink  when  used  alone,  and  with  , 
a   steel    pen    the   color    is    rendered    much    darker.     This 
coloring-matter  is  found  only  in  the  cones,  the  seeds  being 
implanted  in  it,  and  it  also  fills  the  spaces  between  the 
scales  of  tiic  cone.     A  gum  resin  accompanies  the  tunnin 
which  is  quite  soluble  in  ililuted  alcohol.     Boiling  injures  ' 
the  color  of  this  natural  ink,  which  cold  water  sufiiccs  to  i 
exhaust.     It  is  highly  ]irobable  that   observations  to  this 
end  will  discover  other  valuable  native  inks.  (Sec  beyond 
In(fr-fil,fr  .\fni-kif>;j  Inkdoin  anacardium  nut.>    The  Deuteche 


I   Ind.  Zcitnutj  gives  the  following  recipe  for  an  old  and  well- 
known   natural  ink:   lilnck  Ink  J'ruia  Elder  Ticnicn. — The 
I   bruised  berries  arc  ])Iaccd  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  kei»t  in 
■  a  warm  place  for  three  days,  then  pressed  out  and  filtered. 
,   The  filtered  juice  is  of  such  an  intense  dark  color  that  it 
,  takes  200  parts  of  water  to  reduce  it  to  the  shade  of  dark 
I  red  wine.     Add  to  the   12^   quarts  of  this  filtered  juice  1 
ounce  of  sulphato  of  iron  and  the  same  quantity  of  crude 
I  pyroligneous  acid,  and  an    ink   is  prepared   which»  when 
I  first  used,  has  a  violet  color,  but  when  dry  is  indigo  blue- 
black.     This  ink  is  superior  in  many  respect?  to  that  pre- 
pared with  galls :   it  docs  not  become  thick  so  .soon,  it  flows 
easier  from  the  pen  without  gumming,  and  in  writing  the 
letters  do  not  run  into  one  another.     There  is  quite  a  list 
of  plants  whose  seeds  give  a  lasting  black  color  as  inks 
and  dyes  of  silk  and  linen  fabrics  or  hair.  Such  are,4m^ri> 
toxifcra,  Camovhtdia  hilCffn'/olia,  C  dciitatn   and  C.  pnnc- 
tnafa,  Cotida  tdhn  (or  EcHpta  cvcctn),  the  seeds  of  which 
the  inhabitants  of  Cochin-Cliiua  use  to  color  their  hair  of 
a  permanent  black.     Jidicofjict  cane^ccnn  bears  juicy  ber- 
ries, the  juice  of  which  alone  can  be  used  as  ink,  and  leaves 
permanent  stains  on  linen,  etc. 

Colored  Writnif/  Ink^. — Ink  may  he  made  of  almost  any 
desired  color,  and  the  variety.,  richness,  and  permanence 
of  colored  inks  have  been  greatly  increased  of  late  by  the 
introduction  of  aniline  colors,  many  of  which  may  be  used 
with  great  advantage,  and  have  already  u.  wide  circulation 
under  various  trade-names. 

Hed  ink  is  usually  made  from  cither  cochineal  or  Brazil- 
wood, the  latter  being  the  nunc  permanent.  But  some  of 
the  aniline  reds  are  rapidly  replacing  the  former  sorts.  Tbo 
cochineal  inks  are  the  brightest,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
dearest  and  most  fugitive.  The  best  is  a  solution  of  pure 
carmine  in  caustic  ammonia;  it  must  be  preserved  in  well- 
stopped  vessels.  Buttger  recommends  1  part  of  good  car- 
mine, 120  caustic  ammonia,  and  H  parts  gum  arabic.  A 
cheaper  but  less  brightly  colored  ink  is  made  by  drenching 
12  parts  of  pulverized  cochineal  and  4  parts  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia  (or  pearl-aslO  with  .'12  parts  hot  water,  then 
digesting  and  pouring  off  the  clear  liquid.  Addition  of 
cream  of  tartar  and  st.annic  chloride  renders  the  ink  more 
scarlet;  cream  of  tartar  and  an  equal  weight  of  alum  give 
it  a  crimson  tint.  Brftzil'innod  inks  arc  made  by  boiling 
the  wood  in  water,  adiUng  tin-salt  (stannous  chloride)  or 
cream  of  tartar  and  alum  to  modify  the  tint,  and  thicken- 
ing with  gum  arabic;  e.  </. -l  j)arls  Brazil-wood  boiled  in 
fiO  parts  of  water,  the  decoction  boiled  down  to  ."C  parts, 
filtered,  and  mixed  with  i  part  of  tin-salt  and  i  part  gum 
arabic  ;  or  8  parts  Brazil-wood,  boiled  with  2  [larts  alura 
and  2  parts  cream  of  tartar  in  120  parts  water;  the  liquid 
concentrated  to  0  parts  by  weight,  and  mixed  with  2  parts 
gum  arabic  and  2  parts  sugar.  Ucade's  patent  red  ink 
(1847)  is  made  as  follows:  Cochineal  is  first  boiled  in  suc- 
cessive quantities  of  ])urc  water  till  it  ceases,  or  nearly  so, 
to  afford  tinctorial  matter.  It  is  then  subjected  to  ebullition 
with  dilute  ammonia,  which  dissolves  the  remainder  of  tbo 
tint-giving  principle,  leaving  the  animal  matter  nearly 
white.  These  aqueous  and  ammoniacal  decoctions  aro 
then  mixcfl  in  an  earthenware  vessel,  and  the  crdoring- 
matter  is  then  thrown  down  I>y  means  of  the  double  chloride 
of  ammonium  and  tin.  The  compound  thus  formed  is  sub- 
sequently boiled  in  ammonia,  and  iodide  of  tin  is  then 
added  till  the  required  degree  of  brilliancy  of  hue  is  ob- 
tained :  this  completes  the  (noecss,  the  degree  of  body  rc- 
quircti  in  tlie  ink  being  given  by  an  ad  libitum  addition  of 
w.ater.  This  ink,  says  the  patentee,  is  greatly  superior  to 
the  common  solutions  from  peach  and  Brazil-wood,  not 
only  in  permanent  richness  of  color,  but  also  in  its  free- 
dom from  acid,  and  couscqucnt  fitness  for  uso  with  steel 
pens. 

lilue  Inks. — The  most  familiar  blue  ink  is  Stephens's 
patent  blue  writing  fluid,  which  is  ,^0  parts  of  soluble  Prus- 
sian blue  (Paris  blue)  dissolved  in  4  jiarts  of  oxalic  acid 
in  1000  parts  of  water.  Common  Prussian  blue  is  digested 
in  successive  portions  of  hydrochloric  acid  until  the  solu- 
tion ceases  to  react  for  iron  with  fcrrocyanidc  of  potassium. 
It  is  then  washed  completely  neutral  with  water,  gently 
dried,  and  carefully  mixed  with  oxalic  acid  in  fine  powder, 
drenched  with  pure  cold  water  added  in  small  portions 
at  a  time,  making  a  solution  more  or  less  dense  according 
to  the  intensity  of  color  desired.  For  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion, 0  parts  of  Prussian  blue,  weighed  before  the  acid 
treatment,  will  after  digestion  be  taken  up  by  1  part  of 
oxalic  acitl  and  a  proportional  aimuint  of  water.  Stephens's 
Prussian  blue  ink  fa<les  in  the  light,  but  is  restored  in  the 
dark — a  fact  familiarly  known  to  dyers  as  true  of  textile 
fabrics  dyed  with  Prussian  blue.  This  blue  ink  resists  the 
action  of  chlorine  ancl  strong  acids,  but  it  yields  to  oxalic 
acid  and  alkalies.  Reade's  patent  blue  ink  is  nothing  more 
than  soluble  Prussian  blue  prepared  by  a  costly  reaction 
between   ferric    iodide   and   potassium    fcrrocyanidc.      Dr. 


INK. 


1203 


Xormandy  prepared  also  a  blue  ink  from  ferrocyanide  of 
iron  macerated  in  potassium  binoxalatc,  but  it  is  not  better 
than  Stephens's.  Ohmc's  blue  ink  is  also  soluble  Prus- 
si:in  blue.  It  is  curious  to  sec  the  recent  revival  of  the  sol- 
uble Prussian  blue  iuk  iu  II.N.  Nissen's  patent,  which  was 
nothin;^  new.  (  ir</_7*i<T,  187-1.)  The  aniUnc  Unc  in/en  arc 
not  quite  equal  to  the  color  of  a  well-made  Berlin  blue  ink, 
showing  usually  of  a  little  ^ray  cast.  But  any  one  who  knows 
the  trouble  it  costs  to  make  the  Berlin  blue  ink,  and  how  easily 
thi-i  aniline  ink  is  made,  will  prefer  the  nearly  equal  indi;;o 
and  blue-red  aniline  ink.  To  produce  it  take  1  part  ot'6/e«  tfc 
niiit  (bleu  do  Paris)  in  200-2.30  parts  boilinj;  water.  If  it 
shows  the  coppery  sheen  on  the  paper,  add  more  water.  In 
use  this  ink  holds  like  the  fuchsinc  ink.  The  alkali  blue  (it  B. 
or  6  B.)  furnishciii  a  blue  ink  of  a  most  delicate  shade,  but- 
this  ink  is  rather  costly.  Xormandy's  pnrpfr  ink  is  a  log- 
wood ink,  prepared  as  follows:  To  12  pounds  of  Campeachy 
logwood  add  as  many  gallons  of  boiling  water ;  pour  the  in- 
fusion through  a  funnel,  with  a  strainer  made  of  coarse  flan- 
nel, on  1  pound  of  hydrate  or  acetate  of  copper  (verdigris) 
finely  powdered;  at  the  bottom  of  the  funnel  a  sponge  is 
placed;  then  aild  immediately  14  pounds  of  alum,  and  for 
each  17  gallon?  of  liquid  add  l  pounds  of  gum  arable  or 
senega!;  lot  these  remain  for  three  or  four  days,  and  a 
beautiful  purple  will  be  produced.  The  aniline  jturple  and 
violet  inks  far  exceed  all  others  in  brilliancy,  are  free  from 
corrosive  action,  quite  sufficiently  permanent,  and  may  be 
ren«lcred  practically  indelible.  The  same  is  true  of  tho 
aniline  green.  Viofct  nnift'ne  ink  is  most  easily  made  of 
all  aniline  inks.  Take  1  part  of  violpt  blue  anilino  to  .100 
parts  water.  The  solution  is  of  a  vivid  and  beautiful  vio- 
let color,  never  lets  fall  a  precipitate,  flows  smoothly,  and 
dries  quickly.  It  is  greatly  to  be  preferred  to  tho  common 
copying  ink  made  from  logwood,  alum,  cuprio  sulphate, 
sulphate  of  indigo,  and  glycerine.  A  pen  that  has  been 
used  for  such  copying  ink  if  dipped  in  aniline  violet  ink 
ins'antly  impairs  its  Ciilor  and  granulates  it.  Orccn  itniluic 
ink  is  the  finest  color,  but  most  costly,  of  all  thcso  brilliant 
inks.  Take  1  part  of  methyl  green  (methyl  iodide),  solu- 
ble in  water,  to  100-110  parts  of  boiling  water:  this  gives 
a  shining  blue  green  ;  if  a  yellow  green  is  desired,  add  a 
little  picric  acid.  It  will  by  its  remarkable  beauty  displace 
all  existing  green  inks.  Chrome  ffrren  ink,  after  AVincklcr : 
Disj^olvc  180  grains  of  bichromate  of  potassa  in  1  fluid- 
ounce  of  water;  add  to  tho  menstruum,  while  warm,  J  an 
ounce  of  spirit  of  wine;  then  decompose  the  mixture  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  until  it  assumes  a  brown  color. 
Tho  liquor  is  now  evaporated  lill  it  is  reduced  In  quantity 
to  one-half,  when  it  is  diluted  with  2  ounces  of  distilled 
water,  filtered,  mixed  with  S  an  ounce  of  alcohol,  subse- 
quently with  a  few  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
allowed  to  rest  till  after  some  time  it  assumes  a  beautiful 
green  color.  It  is  finally  adapted  for  use  by  the  addition 
of  a  small  quantity  of  gum  arabic.  Vrflow  anifine  ink  is 
not  to  bo  commendotl.  The  mixture  of  1  part  picric  acid 
in  120-110  parts  water  is  almost  never  used.  Much  yet 
remains  to  be  done  to  perfect  and  develop  tho  anilino  inks, 
for  which  ample  materials  already  exist. 

C'lt'bon  (Hid  other  nn-cnllr-il  Intlrlibte  Writinfj  <iud  Mark- 
inrj  fnkn.—T\\Q  resistance  ofTcred  by  car'mn  to  tho  action 
of  chemical  agents  is  well  known,  and  it  is  honco  tho  basis 
of  tho  most  permanent  and  unchangeable  inks,  cdiiefly 
printing  inks,  as  carbon  cannot  bo  brought  into  solution. 
All  inks  on  this  basis  must  be,  like  China  or  India  ink, 
serlinifnts  held  in  suspension  by  some  vehicle,  and  conse- 
quently less  fluiil  than  is  desirable  for  ca-^y  and  constant 
use  with  a  pen  of  inod?rn  construction.  Ilenco,  wo  find 
Oriental  nations  writing  chiefly  with  a  pencil  of  camel's 
hair,  and  the  ancient  nations  with  a  stylus  of  split  reed. 
Tho  elaborate  engrossing  on  parchment  in  both  ancient 
and  mo  b^rn  times,  in  inks  of  all  colors  and  in  gold  and 
silver  sizing,  is  performed  with  liko  implement^)  and  tho 
uso  of  colors  held  up  in  vehicles  of  various  kinds,  and  al- 
ways of  a  certain  consistence  nnauited  to  uso  in  an  ordinary 
pen.  XL-vertheless,  the  ingenuity  of  prantieal  chemists  and 
mauufii  "turers  has  dev  iscd  numerous  carlion  and  other  in- 
deliblo  or  permanent  inks,  of  which  we  will  mcntitm  some 
of  tho  most  important.  Jndinn  Iuk  nr  Cfiinn  Ink. — This 
well-known  pigment  is  prepared  from  finely  divide!  earbon, 
chiefly  lam|>ldnek  or  tlio  soot  of  the  oil  of  sesam/"*,  formed 
into  cakes  by  tho  use  of  some  glutinous  vehicle  or  adhesive 
substanct*.  suf'h  an  gum-water  or  glue.  Mcrim^-e  says  in  hia 
work  (  hr  la  Printiirr  d  f'lliiif'  )  the  Chinese  do  not  uso  gluo 
in  tlio  fabrication  of  Ihnir  ink,  but  certain  vegetable  juices, 
which  render  it  more  brilliant  and  more  indelible  on  paper. 
Other  authentic  accounts  of  the  manufacture  of  this  famous 
ink  by  tho  Thinnse  state  in  substance  as  follows:  The  basis 
of  all  the  different  kinds  and  qualities  of  Fndia  ink  is  lamp- 
black, the  best  of  which  is  obtaincrl  from  pig's-fo,»t  and  other 
oils,  and  sometimes  fr«im  resins,  while  an  inferior  sort  is  made 
from  pine  wood.     The  materials  are  burned  iu  a  furnace 


about  100  feet  long,  along  tho  sides  and  top  of  which  tho 
smoke  condenses.  That  most  remote  from  tho  fire  and 
nearest  the  top  is  the  liuest.  and  is  carefully  kept  separate 
from  the  rest.  Glue  made  from  the  skin  of  the  bufi'alo  of 
the  country  is  soaked  in  water  for  a  time  until  it  is  much 
swollen,  and  afterwards  completely  dissolved.  The  lamp- 
black is  then  introduced  and  worked  in  until  it  forms  a 
soft  paste.  When  the  materials  are  thoroughly  mixed  a 
quantity  of  the  oil  of  pens  is  added,  and  the  tenij)crature 
maintained  for  a  time  iit  from  110°  to  1(0°.  until  the  paste 
is  homogeneous  in  character.  It  is  then  removed  and  sepa- 
rated into  little  cakes,  which  arc  allowed  to  remain  for  some 
time  drying  and  becoming  mellow,  after  which  they  are 
strongly  compressed  in  wooden  moulds,  on  the  interior  of 
which  arc  engraved  tho  characters  which  arc  seen  u])on  the 
cakes.  The  surface  of  the  cakes  is  finally  coated  with  a 
kind  of  animal  wax,  which  gives  a  polish  and  prevents  tho 
ink  from  staining  the  hands.  The  peculiar  odor  of  India 
ink  is  produced  by  adding  to  it,  during  the  process  of 
preparation,  a  mixture  of  Borneo  camphor  and  musk. 
Only  the  finer  qualities,  however,  receive  this  addition. 
Merim^c  (before  quoted)  gives  the  following  directions  for 
preparing  this  ink  with  glue.  A  concentrated  infusion  of 
gallniits  is  turned  into  a  solution  of  glue.  Tho  elastic,  re- 
sinous-looking product  (artificial  leather)  is  immediately 
washed  clear  of  the  mother-liquor  by  hot  water,  and  is  then 
dissolved  in  a  thin  solution  of  clarified  glue.  Kilter  this 
Folntion,  and  concentrate  to  the  proper  degree  for  incorpo- 
rating it  with  purified  lampblack.  Infusion  of  galls  renders 
the  iuk  permanent  on  paper,  otherwise  it  might  be  removed 
mechanically.  Provost  says  that  lamphlack  purified  by  pot- 
ash ley.  when  mixed  with  a  solution  of  refined  glue  and 
dried,  formed  an  ink  which  was  preferred  by  artists  to  that 
of  China.  Ritfault  in  his  treatise  on  the  jifaiui/adure  of 
Colors  gives  the  following  formula  for  the  preparation  of 
China  ink,  by  which  this  color,  it  is  said,  is  now  largely  pro- 
duced in  rur;)pc  and  sold  as  the  original  article:  Calcined 
lampblack,  100  parts;  boghead  shaleblack,  in  imjtalpablo 
powder.  50  parts;  indigo-carmine,  in  cakes,  10  parts;  car- 
mine lake,  5  parts;  gum  arabic  (first  quality),  10  parts; 
purified  oxgall,  20  parts  ;  alcoholic  extract  of  musk,  5  parts. 
The  gum  is  dissolved  in  50  to  GO  parts  of  pure  water,  and 
tho  solution  filtered  through  a  cloth.  The  indigo-carmine, 
lake,  lampblack,  and  shalc!)lack  arc  incorporated  with  this 
liquor,  and  tho  whole  ground  upon  a  slab  with  a  muller, 
in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  colors;  but  in  this  case  the 
grinding  takes  much  longer.  AVhen  tho  paste  is  thoroughly 
homogeneous  the  oxgall  is  gradually  added,  and  then  the 
alcoholic  extract  of  musk.  The  more  the  black  is  ground 
tho  finer  it  is.  The  black  is  then  allowed  to  dry  in  the  air 
until  it  has  acquired  sufficient  consistency  to  be  moulded 
into  cakes,  which  in  their  turn  are  still  further  dried  in  tho 
air  out  of  the  reach  of  dust.  When  quite  firm  these  cakes 
aro  compressed  in  bronze  moulds,  having  appropriate  de- 
signs engraved  upon  them.  The  mouhlcd  ink  is  then 
wrapped  in  tin-foil  with  a  second  envelope  of  gilt  paper. 
Tho  ink  which  has  been  prepared  in  this  manner  possesses 
all  tho  properties  of  the  real  Chinese  article.  Its  grain  is 
smooth,  it  flows  very  well,  mixes  perfectly  with  many  other 
colors,  and  becomes  so  firmly  fixed  to  the  jiaper  that  other 
colors  may  he  spread  over  it  without  washing  it  out.  The 
indf-lihli'.  ink  tif  the  Acutlcuii/  of  SririirrH  of  Paris  was  pre- 
pared in  l^"j  by  a  commission  culled  for  by  the  minister  of 
finance,  charged  with  the  duty  of  discovering  a  truly  indel- 
ible writing  ink  for  use  on  the  public  securities,  banli-notcs, 
etc.  The  result  was  an  ink  formed  by  dissolving  China  iuk 
in  dihtle  ht/firochloric  arid.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  tho 
Academy  ink  described  below  from  Prof.  Johnson  is  in  a 
sense  the  same  as  this,  substituting  an  alkaline  for  an  acid 
vehicle,  both  very  dilute.  Either  of  these  vehicles  will 
serve  to  penetrate  the  paper  and  prevent  the  easy  mechan- 
ical removal  of  (he  coloring-matter.  The  alkaline  vehicle 
has  tho  advantage  of  not  attacking  sttel  pens,  and  of  over- 
coming a  certain  unetuousncss  of  surface  found  on  some 
highly-finished  papers  or  imparted  by  the  fingers  of  some 
persona  in  tho  act  of  writing.  I  do  not  find  mention  of 
these  inks  in  any  of  tho  cyclopip»lias.  The  little  manual 
Uoret  of  MM.  Champour  ct  F.  Malepeyre  (Xourcnii 
ninnttrf  romptrt  dr  ht  /uhrtrafion  dm  rncrrn,  Purls,  l^^O) 
gives  tho  report  of  the  commission  of  the  Aoadcmy,  hut  it 
does  not  .«peak  of  the  nlkiiline  menstruum.  The  Avadcmtf 
ink,  so  called,  is  China  ink  lieM  in  sohition  by  about  1  per 
cent,  of  potassic  hydrate.  Pritf.  S.  W.  Johnson,  who  has 
used  this  ink  for  some  time,  informs  me  that  it  is  made 
cither  by  rubbing  up  tho  India  cake  in  polash-wntt  r.  or 
more  easily  by  placing  a  small  lump  of  the  India  ink  in  a 
bottle  with  loss  than  its  bulk  of  stick  potash  and  a  little 
water.  The  ink  slowly  dissolves  in  the  strong  potash  lyc, 
and  is  then  largely  Ihinneil  with  water.  This  ink  holds  up 
its  carbon  in  the  veh'ele  almost  without  precipitation,  flows 
freely  from  the  pen,  writes  perfectly  black,  and  is  completely 


1204 


INK. 


unalterable  by  time  or  chemical  agents.  A  good  permanent 
writing  ink  may  be  made  extemporaneously  by  mixing  any 
good  ink  with  a  little  genuine  China  ink.  It  will  resist 
washing  with  a  camel's  hair  brush  and  the  action  of  oxalic 
acid, chlorine,  etc.  It  writes  well  also  with  a  pen.  and  may 
be  used  on  both  paper  and  textile  fabrics.  The  vanadium 
ink  already  mentioned  is  a  good  iudelililc  ink.  Other  in- 
delible carbon  inks  arc  made  as  follows:  Traill  (Kdiiilir/. 
Phil.  Tnuis:.)  says:  Gluten,  obtained  in  the  ordinary  way, 
is  kept  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  in  water,  and 
is  then  digested  in  acetic  acid  having  the  specific  gravity 
1  0:):i  or  1.0.34,  in  the  proportion  of  ?,  parts  of  gluten  to  .0 
parts  of  the  acid.  Bv  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat  a  grayish- 
white,  saponaceous  fluid,  which  may  be  kept  for  some  time, 
,  .    ■       >       T7, Q  ...  lo  ^-..;.,n  nf  *lio  fin(.st  liiinnblack 


;  obtained. 


iceous  iiuiu,  «iiii.w  lu.ij   "^  ...J-.  —  

From  8  to  12  grains  of  the  finest  lampblack 
of  indigo  form  the  coloring-matter  for  each 


antl  z  grams  oi   luuigo  luim  lu,.  vvjiv-i.^g,  .........  -- 

fluid-ounce  of  the  vehicle,  with  which  it  must  be  thoroughly 
incorporated.     An  agreeable  aroma  may  be  communicated 
bv  di>'esting  bruised  cloves,  pimento,  or  cinnamon  in  a 
portion  of  the  original  acid.     This  ink  may  bo  used  with 
a  steel  pen,  but  should  not  be  left  in  it.     It  resists  water, 
chlorine,  and  dilute  acids,  but  it  is  not  calculated  for  wnt- 
in"  im  parchment.     Henry  .Stephens's  varbou  ink  has  be- 
come famous,  and  is  made  by  boiling  shell-lac,  or  common 
resin,  in  carbonate  of  soda,  potassa,  or  ammonia  solution, 
in  about  equal  proportions,  until  all  the  resin  is  dissolved. 
This  solution  is  then  mixed  with  finely-levigated  lampblack 
until  it  has  the  proper  consistence.     This  alkaline  liquid 
may  also  be  mixed  with  other  colors  to  form  an  indelible 
ink.     Dr.  Normandy  has  suggested  an   indelible  writing 
ink  which  cannot  be  obliterated  or  defaced  by  any  known 
chemical  a^ent :    24  pounds  of  Frankfort  black  must  be 
ground  with  mucilage— formed  by  adding  20  pounds  of 
gum  to   00  gallons  of  water— and  the  mixture    strained 
through  a  coarse  flannel,  or  passed  through  a  funnel  the 
tube  of  which  is  closed  by  a  sponge  ;  4  pounds  of  oxalic 
acid  are  then  added,  together  with  as  much  decoction  of 
cochineal  and  sulphate  of  indigo  as  will  give  the  required 
shade.     Bossin's  indelible  ink  is  made  of  2  parts  of  pow- 
dered acetate  of  copper,  4  parts  of  sal-ammoniac,  1  part 
of  lampblack,  and  20  parts  of  water,  well  mixed  together. 
They  make  a  good  indelible  ink,  which,  however,  must  al- 
ways be  shaken  before  using.     Scott  has  patented  (1S40) 
.an  "indelible  ink  in  which  gas-carbon  (/.  e.  carbon  from  the 
burning  of  coal-tar)  and  indigo  or  Prussian  blue  in  very 
fine  powder  are  incorporated  in  a  logwood  and  gallnut  ink. 
Imlelihle  Markinq  f„lcs.—Dr.  BiMsev  (Bnijenschea  Iiid. 
„„,;  {Icwrrb-Blatt,  Dec,  1872)  states  that  the  juice  of  the 
anacardinin  nut  (Auacnrrliiin   Orientale)  contains  an  oily 
matter  which  by  exposure  to  air  gradually  assumes  an  in- 
tense black  color;  this  color  is  acted  on  neither  by  acids, 
alkalies,  chlorine,  nor  cyanide  of  potassium.    The  powdered 
nut  is  treated  in  a  closed  glass  bottle  with  gasoline,  and 
after  so  digesting  some  lime  is  left  exposed  to  air  for  spon- 
taneous evaporation.     The  remaining  fluid,  which  is  tbick- 
ish    is  used  either  by  writing  or  stamping  by  a  die  upon 
linen  or  cotton.     The  color  is  at  first  dirty  brown,  but  it 
gradually  becomes  intensely  black— an  efl'ect  produced  in- 
stantly by  moistening  the  linen  or  cotton  with  liquid  am- 
monia.    The  same  author  also  gives  the  following  lormula 
for  an  indclihti-  aniline-  hUtrk  wriiinf/  ink  (Din.jhr,  Jan., 
IST'l)  ■  3  65  grammes  of  aniline  black  are  rubbed  fine  in  a 
liorcclain  mortar  with  00  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  2'2 
grammes  of  alcohol.     This  solution  is  mixed  with  a  h.d 
solution  of  1.S2  grammes  of  gum  arable  in  8j  grammes  ol 
hot  water.     This  ink  does  not  attack  steel  pens,  and  is  not 
acted  on  by  strong  mineral  acids  or  by  alkalies.     If  the 
.aniline  black  solution  is  diluted  with  shell-lac  solution  (21 
grammes  in  Sfi  of  alcidiol ).  an  aniline  black  lake  is  obtained 
which  is  suited  for  coloring  wood  and  leather.  An  indelible 
marking  ink,  described  by  Jacobson    {.MireK-liinrh.  xii. 
BS),  is  prepared  from  aniline  by  mixing  the  two  foMowmg 
solutions  :  (n)  cupreous  solution— 8.52  grm.  of  crystallized 
chloride  of  copper,  10.65  grm.  of  chlorate  of  soda,  and  j.-.j 
grm.  of  chloride  of  aniinonium  arc  dissolved  in  BO  grm. 
of  distilled  water;  (h)  aniline  solution— 20  grm.  of  hydro- 
chlorate  of  aniline  are  dissolved   in  :'.0  grm.   of  distilled 
water,  and  20  grm.  of  a  solution  of  gum  arable  (1  of  gum 
to  2  of  water)  with  10  grm.  of  glycerine  are  added.     By 
mixing  in  the  cold  4  parts  of  the  aniline  solution  with  1 
part  of  the  cupreous  solution,  a  green  liquiil  is  obtained 
which  can  be  used  immediatelv  for  tracing  characters  upon 
linen  ;  the  marks,  however,  alter  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
davs.     It  is  neccssarv  to  keep  the  solutions  separate  until 
required  for  use.     If'ihe  fluid  does  not  flow  easily  from  the 
pen,  it  may  bo  diluted  without  fear  of  diminishing  the  in- 
tensity of  the  tint,  which,  at  first  green,  gradually  darkens 
and  becomes  black.     Heat  causes  the  change  to  take  place 
instantaneously  ;  a  steam  heat  is  sufiicient,  and  is  better 
for  the  fabric 'than  a  hot  iron.     Afterwards  the  linen  is 
washed  in  warm  soap  and  water. 


Indelible  Bine   Mol,,bdeniLm  /at.- Roder  directs  (/o/^( 
Xoiizblall,  185B,  112)  to   dissolve  five  parts  of    oxide  ol 
racdybdenum  in  the  smallest  necessary  quantity  of  murnatic 
acid;    also  diss..lve  2  parts  of  extract  of   licence  and    (. 
of  gum  arable  in  210  parts  of  water.     Mix  the  solutions, 
and  write  with  them  on  the  linen  to  be  marked.     After 
writing,  moisten  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zmc  in  wa  er. 
This  is  an  ink  not  only  indelible  in  ordinary  washing,  but 
in  acids  and  alkalies.'   It  is  said  this  ink  cannot  possibly 
be  removed,  except  by  destroying  the  article  written  upon 
In  fact,  it  is  an  utterly  indelible  blue  dye,  while  the  so-ca  led 
indelible  silver  inks  may  be  removed  by  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, and  other  chemical   agents.     Mirate-of-sdeer  mark- 
inn  ink,,  although  commonly  called  indelible,  yield  readily 
to  the  solvent  power  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (ammonia  and 
chlorine).     One  of  the    best  is  Red,eood;.   made  as    fol- 
lows:    Dissolve    1   ounce  of  nitrate   of  silver   and    li  of 
crystallized  carbonate  of  soda  in  separate  portions  of  dis- 
til'led  water,  and  mix  the  solutions:  collect  the  resulting 
precipitate  on  a  filter,  edulcorate  it  well  with  distilled  water, 
and  introduce  it,  while  still  moist,  into  a  «  edgewood-ware 
mortar;  add  8  scruples  of  tartaric  acid,  and  triturate  the 
whole  until  eff-ervesceuce  has  ceased  :  next  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  ammonia  to  dissolve  the  tartrate  of  silver; 
mix  in  4  fluid-drachms  of  archil,  i  drachms  of  white  sugar, 
and  12  of  finelv-powdered  gum  arable;    and  pour  in  as 
much  water  as'will   make  6  ounces  of  mixture.     By  this 
r.rocess  the  nitric  acid,  which  is  essential  to  a  good  mark- 
ing ink,  is  retained,  and  the  tartrate  of  silver  formed  is 
soluble  in  half  the  quantity  of  ammonia  ordinarily  required 
when  nitrate  of  silver  is  the  basis  of  the  ink.     This  flu  d 
requires  no  preparation  on  the  cloth,  and  becomes  instantly 
da\  on  application  of  a  gentle  heat.     It  does  not  a  tack 
the  most  delicate  tissues.     M.  Kuhr  (Co.mo,  June,  1.S69) 
recommends  the  following  preparation  :  1  part  of  hypophos- 
phite  of  soda  and  2  parts  of  gum  arable  are  dissolved  in 
16  parts  of  distilled  water.     The  tissue,  linen  or  cotton,  to 
be  marked  is  thoroughly  moistened  with  this  liquid,  and 
then  left  to  dry.     After  having  become  well  dried   the  fol- 
lowing liquid,  composed  of  1  part  of  nitrate  of  silver  and 
6  parts  of  gum  dis'solved  in  6  parts  of  distdled  water,  is 
used  as  marking  ink  with  a  quill-pen      The  mixtures  here 
described  are  stated  to  yield   an  indelible  and  very  deep 
black-colored  ink.     Numerous  other  ""l"'«   f"'',,""";';^:' ,^ 
ink  from  nitrate  of  silver  might  be  cited,  but  these  will 
suflice,  espeoiallv  as  the  more  modern  improvements  in  this 
art  render  them   no  longer  of  so  much  use  as  fo""^'";'^-' 
Gold,  ph„inn,n,  pallndinm,  iridinn,,  and  other  metals  of  the 
same  class  are  used  to  produce  indelible  marking  inks  by 
usiugthe  chloride  solutions.    Merget,  in  h.s  researches  upon 
gaset  as  developers  in  photographic  work   has  ^bowii    hat 
the  salts  of  this  scries  of  metals  are  reduced   by  certain 
gases  in   presence  of  moisture,  and  that  vapor  of  mercury 
Ih-en  off  at  as  h,w  a  temperature  as  40°  f.  will  serve  to 
reduce  gold,  etc.  in  the  substance  of  tissues,  paper    c  e., 
producing  indelible  stains  of  a  color  corresponding  to  the 
metal.     The  dampness  of  the  tissue  must  be  preserved  by 
a  solution  of  ferric  tartrate,  ammonic  nitrate,  or  some  other 
hvgrosopic  salt.  ( r„m;,(f»  Z^"-/.,  .xxvi.  14,0.)  _ 

■  I  good  permanent  ink  may  be  made  by  mixing  a  strong 
solution  of  chloride  of  platinum  with  a  little  pot..sh,  sugar 
and  gum  to  thicken.  The  writing  made  therewith  should 
be  passed  over  with  a  hot  smoothing-iron  to  fix  i  .  An  ink 
for  writing  on  -Jne  plant-lal.el,  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
equal  parts  acetate  of  copper  and  sal-ainmoniac  ■>  distilled 
water.  When  characters  are  written  with  this  solution  on  a 
zinc  plate  the  copper  is  precipitated  forming  deep  black, 
very  durable  marks.  Ink  for  marking  copper  and  ,<he, 
•es  els  may  be  made  by  boiling  suljdiide  o  antimony  in 
strong  potash  ley,  leaving  the  liquid  to  cool  and  fi  tering 
from  Separated  kermes.  As  this  iquid  does  not  act  upon 
iron,  steel  pens  may  be  used  for  writing  with  ,t  on  the  metal. 
The  characters  on  copper  and  silver  ain-  black  and  yer,  d  - 
able  ;  on  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  less  durable.  Ink  Jo,  11  ,  ,l,na 
on  ff/o.,-A  solution  of  fluoride  ol  ammonia  is  recom- 
mended as  furnishing  a  ready  means  of  writing  with  a  pen 
of  any  kind  upon  glass,  and  is  especially  "'i»P  "^  f"  "^^  j 
lin-'  bottles,  cylinder-tubes,  etc.  m  the  laboratory ,  as  well 
as  for  marking  the  degrees  upon  hydrometers  and  apparatus 
of  similar  construction.  ,     ,      vi     ■    .„;,i  rt;i„(e 

Bemov.d  of  /„/r-.^'(o/M..-Dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  oxalic  acid  will  destroy  and  rcno  e 
the  color  of  most  gall  and  logwood  inks.  CWoruie  s.  lu- 
tion  or  as  bleaching-powder  acts  in  a  similar  manner  1  o- 
tassie,  sodic,  and  ammonic  hydrate  attack  many  c°'"^'  '""'• 
alternated  with  the  acids,  destroy  stains  "h><=l>  »"  ""Re- 
moved from  paper  and  tissues  by  either  ■^l"'"'-,.^"  /^.^^^j 
plication  of  chemical  agents  to  paper  requires  that  it  should 
L  free  from  the  binding  of  a  volume.  Ozone  'P^^  Powerhil 
bleaching  agent,  and  has  been  recommended  for  removing 
stains  from  engravings.     Bottger  recommends  the  use  ol 


INK. 


120o 


pyrophosphate  of  soda  to  remove  ink-flecks  from  colored 
goods  which  will  not  allow  the  employment  of  bleacbing- 
powdors  and  oxalic  acid. 

Si/mpatfi'dc  inki  arc  those  fluid?  which,  when  used  to 
write  upon  paper,  arc  invisible  until  broujrht  out  by  heat 
or  the  influence  of  some  chemical  aj^ent.  Acetate-of-lead 
solution  leaves  no  trace  of  the  marks  made  by  the  pen 
nnlil  exposed  to  sulphydric  acid  vapor,  when  it  suddenly 
develops  an  intense  brown-Mack  incluliblo  color.  A  weak 
i*«/ii«r«ii  o/  'jiilU  leaves  no  sign  of  the  writing  until  dctel- 
oped  by  a  solution  of  iron.  Even  milk  (mentioned  by  Ovid) 
will  develop  visible  characters  by  gently  heating  the  paper, 
or  even  by  dusting  it  over  with  some  dark  powder.  The 
Kame  \a  true  of  ftuyar-wftter.  Water  made  aci'l  with  dilute 
gufphun'r  nri'fi.  Written  with  a  quill  or  gold  pen,  is  quite 
invisible  till  by  a  slight  warming  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  leaves  the  acid  in  a  form  sufficiently  concentrated  to 
char  the  paper  in  black  characters.  Dilute  yrllmr  pruti»utte 
of  potnah  develop*"  blue  with  a  ferric  salt.  The  metal 
cobalt  is  remarkable  for  the  fine  blue-greeu  tint  it  develops 
on  paper  written  with  a  jtolution  of  its  chloride,  while  the 
acetate  of  cobalt  develops  pink  when  helil  to  the  fire.  A 
winter  landscape-drawing  may  thus  be  made  to  show  ver- 
dure and  pink  flowers,  which  disappear  again  on  cooling. 
Nitrate  of  cobalt,  with  ')xalic  acid  as  a  mordant,  develops 
hfue.  Chloride  of  anlimon.v  develops  ycUow  by  decoction 
of  galls.  Subacetate  of  lead  also  develops  yellow  by  hy- 
driodic  acid,  and  a  dilute  solution  of  eupric  eliloride  forms  a 
beautiful  sympathetic  ink.  developing  afiuoycllow  colorby 
heat,  and  fading  out  ag:iin  when  cooled.  Colorless  arsenito 
of  potassa  solution  develojis  a  lively  green  when  washerl 
over  with  a  dilute  solution  of  a  eupric  salt.  Chloride  of 
gold  turns  to  purple  of  Cassius  when  washed  with  stannous 
chloride.  An  acid  solution  of  ferric  chloride,  so  dilute  as  to 
he  quite  invisible  when  written  on  paper,  becomes  blood- 
red  on  washing  with  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  and  again 
invisible  by  vapor  of  ammonia,  and  these  changes  can  be 
alternated  at  pleasure.  Linen  stained  with  nitrate  of  silver 
or  indelible  ink  may  l)e  bleached  by  first  moistening  the 
spots  with  tincture  of  iodine,  which  is  followed  soon  after 
with  solution  of  sodic  hyposulpliite.  This  removes  the 
silver  stain,  and  also  the  blue  color  duo  to  the  iodide  of 
starch.  Another  method  is  by  treating  the  spot  first  with 
eupric  chloride  (not  too  strong),  and  then  with  hyposulphite 
of  sodium,  and  in  any  case  washing  well  after  in  ample 
water. 

Ink  which  has  become  faded  out  by  ago  may  often  bo 
redeveloped  by  tracing  the  characters  with  a  pencil  wet 
with  gallic  acid.  If  the  ink  was  an  iron  ink,  it  will  be  tlnis 
plainly  developed.  Ink  which  has  been  too  long  written  to 
allow  of  copying  by  the  press  may  be  rendered  transferable 
again  by  using  water  slightly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid  with  which  to  moisten  the  copy  paper.  This  method, 
however,  fails  on  very  old  writing — r.rj.  a  century.  Such 
documents,  says  M.  Niepce  do  ,St.  Victor,  may  bo  repro- 
duced by  using  copy  paper  wetted  with  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  glucose  or  honey  instead  of  water.  After  pressing, 
this  paper  is  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  strong  ammonia, 
which  brings  out  clearly  lines  otherwise  quite  invisible. 
The  fading  out  of  old  MSS.  occurs  ehielly  when  the  writ- 
ing is  removed  from  the  presence  of  light  into  a  dark 
Rn<l  damp  place.  An  old  MS.  written  in  IMO  a.  n.  is  now 
preserved  in  the  abbey  of  Cluny  in  France,  and  is  to-day 
as  fine  a  black  color  as  can  be  seen,  in  spite  of  the  rav- 
ages nf  time.  An  eflort  has  been  made  by  M.  Carre  to 
fix  (he  relative  age  of  old  MSS.  by  the  use  of  dilute  H('l. 
(1  :  Ul),  which  has  the  power  of  changing  the  color  of  log. 
wood  inks  red.  and  alters  also  the  gallnnt  inks,  while  it  has 
no  eff"cct  on  carbon  ink.  But  some  of  the  ancient  MSS.  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  changed  red  by  this 
treatment.  But  such  methods  are  very  unsatisfactory,  and 
may  bo  completely  illusory. 

Lith'tfjrttphic  Writintj  Ink. — Tho  lithographic  art  is  de- 
scribe I  under  Litiiogkaimiv.  Two  kinds  of  ink  are  used 
in  this  art — one,  eallcil  lithographic  crayons  or  chalk,  forms 
the  pencil  with  which  the  artist  traces  bis  designs.  Tho 
composition  of  these  crayons  has  received  much  attention, 
as  the  success  of  the  art  depends  upon  them.  The  compo- 
sition of  which  they  are  formed  must  be  firm  enough  to 
hold  a  fine  point  to  secure  delieney  in  drawing,  and  yet 
adhere  strongly  to  the  stone.  Tho  French  crayons  of  Ber- 
nard and  helarue  i>f  Paris  are  made  of  best  quality  wax  \ 
parts,  dry  white  tallow  poap  2  parts,  white  (alhpw  2  parts, 
gum-lac  2  parts,  lampblack  1  part,  copal  varnish  I  part. 
The  wax  is  melted  over  a  gentle  fire,  the  laf  broken  small, 
added  as  it  melts,  then  the  soup  in  fine  Hha\ings,  the  tallow, 
and  lastly  the  copal  and  liimpblurk,  stirring  nil  the  time 
with  a  spatula.  Il  is  ca«<t  in  brass  cylindrical  moulds.  An- 
other preparation  is  as  follows:  For  \\  ounces  of  shoU-lao 
take  2  ounces  of  soap,  3  ounces  of  white  wax,  and  about  1 
ounce  of  tallow  ;  add  about  :i  tablcspoonfuls  of  a  strong 


solution  of  gum  sandarach,  and  when  ready  color  with 
lampblack.  The  lithographic  jtrinting  ink  is  describeil 
under  Ln iiofiitAi-nv  ;  its  composition  is  similar  to  tin- 
crayon  ink,  but  it  is  made  thinner,  and  acts  as  an  emul- 
sion. 

II.  Printing  Ink  (Fr.  Enere  d'imprtmt^re:  Gcr.  liuch- 
driicker/nrbc). — Printer's  ink  is  a  carbon  ink  in  an  oily  and 
resinous  vehicle.  The  carbon  is  lamplilack.  sometimes 
ivory-black,  and  with  a  little  indigo  or  Prussian  blue.  The 
oil  is  generally  boiled  and  burned  linseed  oil,  or  in  some  Eu- 
ropean countries  nut  oil.  In  addition  to  thesechief  ingre- 
dients, rosin  and  turpentine  are  used,  more  rarely  balsam 
copaiba,  and  lastly  soap  (common  yellow  rosin  soap)  is  a 
very  essential  ingredient.  Tho  preparation  of  these  in- 
gredients requires  care,  and  every  manufacturer  has  his 
own  methods  and  technical  secrets  in  the  manufacture  of 
his  ink,  which  printers  in  these  days  seldom  or  never  make 
for  themselves,  Tho  conditions  required  of  a  good  ink  are 
chiefly — (1|  that  it  distribute  it^elf  easily  and  well  over 
the  rollers  and  typof  (2)  it  must  give  a  sharp  and  clean 
impression,  without  adhering  to  the  type  tenaciously  or 
blurring  the  paper  with  excels  of  oil  :  ('■**)\i  must  dry  rap- 
idly on  the  ]>aper,  but  remain  soft  upon  the  type  and  roll- 
ers ;  this  is  especially  important  for  the  rapid-moving 
printing-maehines  of  modern  times  and  the  exigencies  of 
great  newspapers,  jirinting  .'JO.OdU  to  HIO.OOO  im]>reFsion8 
in  two  or  three  hours ;  (4)  it  must  be  black,  and  not  brown 
in  color;  and,  lastly,  it  must  be  proof  against  all  the  rav- 
ages of  time  and  the  power  of  chemical  agents.  It  is  not. 
however,  to  be  understood  that  even  the  best  |>rinter's  ink 
is  incapable  of  being  removed  by  means  of  chemical  skill, 
as  such  is  not  the  case.  The  linseed  oil  is  clarified  from 
the  fatty  matters,  and  the  pure  oil  is  boiled  with  great  care 
at  a  carefully  regulated  temperature;  and  during  the  boil- 
ing the  best  pale  yellow  soap  is  aclded  to  give  it  consist- 
ency, and  the  require<l  dryers  arc  also  now  mixed  with  it. 
The  best  black  is  that  olttainctl  from  the  smoke  of  naphtha, 
the  combustion  being  carefully  regulated.  This  black  is 
grountl  up  carefully  with  the  drying  oil.  which  has  assumed 
the  character  of  a  varnish,  and  the  ink  is  comjilete.  The 
oil  demands  particular  attention.  It  is  clarified  from  the 
fatty  and  useless  matters,  and  is  better  if  old,  and  must  not 
only  beh)ng  boiled,  but  burned  by  setting  fire  to  the  vapors 
floating  over  it,  tho  flames  being  extinguished  by  a  tight- 
fitting  metallic  cover  shut  over  the  boiler,  which  should 
never  be  more  than  half  full.  The  following  account  of 
Savage's  process  (of  England)  is  condensed  from  Ure  by 
Watts:  10  or  12  gallons  of  the  oil  are  set  over  the  fire  in 
an  iron  pot  cajtablc  of  holding  at  least  half  as  much  more, 
for  the  oil  swells  up  greatly,  and  its  boiling  over  into  the 
fire  would  be  very  dangerous.  When  it  boils,  it  is  con- 
tinually stirred  with  an  iron  ladle;  and  if  it  do  not  itself 
take  fire,  it  is  kinillcd  with  a  piece  of  flaming  paper  or 
wood  ;  for  simple  boiling,  without  the  actual  inflammation 
of  the  oil,  does  not  communicate  a  sufficient  degree  of  the 
drying  quality  required.  The  oil  is  suffered  to  burn  for 
half  an  houror  luore,  and  the  flame  being  then  extinguished 
by  covering  the  vessel  close,  the  boiling  is  afterwards  con- 
tinued with  a  gentle  heat  till  the  oil  appears  of  a  proper 
consistence:  in  this  state  it  is  called  varnish.  Mr.  Savage 
in  his  work  on  the  /'rrpnratitm  nf  Priutintj  luk  [  London, 
\^'\2)  says  that  good  varnish  for  printing  ink  cannot  bo 
made  without  allowing  the  oil  to  burn.  The  (lerman  prac- 
tice appears,  however,  to  be  somewhat  diff"erent  ;  for  in  tho 
I/fitifliri'irtrrhurh  ifef  Chenn'r  ( Bd.  vii.  p.  ;tlM  )  it  is  stated 
that  the  oil  should  be  heated  only  till  the  vapor  which  rises 
from  it  can  be  set  <in  fire  with  a  piece  of  burning  paper, 
but  will  cease  to  burn  of  itself  after  a  little  while,  or  at 
least  will  be  easily  extinguished  by  putting  on  tho  cover; 
further,  that  if  this  temperature  be  exceeded  there  is  great 
danger  of  the  oil  getting  into  a  state  of  violent  combustion, 
which  cannot  be  extinguished  even  by  covering  tho  vessel, 
and  may  occasion  an  enorntous  loss  of  oil.  Il  is  necessary 
to  have  two  kinds  of  this  varnish,  a  thicker  and  a  thinner, 
from  the  greater  or  less  boiling,  to  be  occasionally  mixed 
together  as  diflV-rent  purposes  may  require,  that  which  an 
swers  wril  in  hot  weather  being  too  thick  in  cold,  and  large 
characters  not  rctpiiring  so  stifi'an  ink  as  small  ones.  'I'hc 
thickest  varnish,  when  cold,  may  be  drawn  into  threads 
like  weak  glue,  by  which  criterion  the  workmen  judge  of 
the  due  boiling,  small  quantities  being  from  time  to  time 
taken  out  an«i  dr<»ppei|  upon  a  tile  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
very  viscid  and  tenacious,  like  tho  soft  resinous  juices  or 
thick  turpentine.  Neither  water  nor  alcohol  dissolves  it, 
hnt  it  mingles  readily  enough  with  fresh  oil,  and  unites 
with  mueilaires  into  a  mass  diffusible  in  water  in  an  emul- 
sive form.  The  oil  loses  from  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  of 
its  weight  by  boiling  into  the  thick  varnish.  For  lelter- 
presB  printing  ink  the  addition  of  soap  to  the  varnish  is 
indispensable,  to  enable  the  ink  to  bo  taken  up  clearly  from 
tho  types  by  tho  moistened  paper  without  smearing.     Tho 


1206 


INKBERRY— INNKEEPERS. 


soap  useil  for  the  purpose  is  yellow  resin  soap  ;  it  is  cut 
into  thin  slices,  well  dried,  rubbed  to  coarse  powder,  and 
incorporated  by  small  portions  at  a  time  with  the  varnish, 
which  is  then  once  uiorc  ])Iaced  over  the  fire,  to  expel  any 
remaining  moisture.  The  coloring-matter  of  black  print- 
ing ink  is  the  best  lampblack,  previously  calcined  to  free 
it  from  empyrcumatic  oils  and  resins.  Its  somewhat  brown- 
ish color  is  corrected  by  the  addition  of  a  little  Prussian 
blue  or  indigo. 

The  ink  used  by  copper-plate  printers  differs  in  the  oil, 
which  is  not  so  much  boiled  aa  to  acquire  the  adhesive 
quality.  This  would  render  it  less  disposed  to  enter  the 
cavities  of  the  engraving,  and  more  difficult  either  to  be 
spread  or  wiped  off.  (  Ure.)  *  The  black  is  likewise  of  a  dif- 
Jerent  kind.  Instead  of  lampblack  or  sublimed  charcoal, 
the  Frankfort-black  is  used,  which  is  a  residual  or  denser 
charcoal,  said  to  be  made  from  vine-twigs.  Lampblack  is 
$n'nl  to  give  a  degree  of  toughness  to  the  ink  which  the 
I'rankfort  does  not,  but  the  goodness  of  the  color  seems  to 
\)G  the  leading  inducement  fur  the  use  of  the  latter.  One 
pound  of  a  superfine  printing  ink  may  be  made  by  the  fol- 
lowing recipe  of  Mr.  Savage  :  Balsam  of  copaiba,  D  ounces  ; 
lampblack,  ."i  ounces;  indigo  and  Prussian  blue  together, 
p.  leq.  li  ounces:  Indian  red,  3  ounce;  turpentine  (yellow) 
soap,  dry,  ?>  ounces.  This  mixture  is  to  be  ground  upon  a 
slab  with  a  muUer  to  an  impalpable  smoothness. 

Colored  prhitinij  inkn  arc  made  by  using  in  place  of  car- 
bon any  desired  color  to  mix  with  the  varnish.  Ink  of  any 
tint  of  color  may  thus  bo  obtained,  and  by  the  use  of  the 
bronze  powders,  made  now  ofalmost  all  colors,  everj- metallic 
effect  required  by  ornamental  printing  may  be  readily  pro- 
ducod.  In  the  use  of  bronzes  a  nearly  colorless  size  is 
used  in  place  of  ink,  and  the  bronze  powder  is  dusted  on 
while  the  size  is  yet  fresh.  B.  Silliman. 

Ink'berry  (Ilex  glabra),  the  popular  name  of  an  elegant 
shrub,  generally  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  with  slender 
and  flexible  stems,  brilliant,  evergreen  leaves,  leathery  and 
shining  on  the  nurface  and  of  a  lanceolate  form,  and  pro- 
ducing small  black  berries.  It  is  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America,  and  is  now  much  cultivated  by 
florists. 

Inkerman',  a  small  Tartar  village  in  the  Crimea,  near 
the  E.  extremity  of  the  harbor  of  Scbastopol.  It  is  built 
on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  supposed  to  bo  the  Ctenos 
mentioned  by  Strabo,  at  the  foot  of  a  perpendicular  hill, 
which  rises  several  hundred  feet  above  the  valley  of  the 
river  Tchernaya,  and  is  covered  with  remains  of  walls  and 
towers,  while  in  the  sides  are  numerous  eaves  hewn  in  the 
pnlid  rock,  with  traces  of  altars,  chapels,  and  paintings. 
The  heights  of  Inkerman  opposite  to  thi?  hill,  across 
tlie  valley  of  the  Tchernaya,  arc  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  one  of  the  most  desperate  battles  of  recent  times  (Xov. 
.'j,  1854),  in  which  11,000  allied  English  and  French  troops 
(chiefly  the  former)  heM  their  ground  for  many  hours 
against  00,000  Russians,  ultimately  driving  them  from  tho 
field  with  great  loss.  The  action  began  early  in  tlie  morn- 
ing by  the  Russians  attempting  to  carry  the  allied  posi- 
tions by  assault.  Tho  fifth  volume  of  Kinglake's  graphic 
HtHtori}  of  the  Cfinintn  Wnr.  recently  |>ublished  (1S76),  is 
entirely  occupied  with  the  battle  of  Inkerman. 

InMiind,  post-tp.  of  Cedar  co.,  la.     Pop.  1112. 

Inlaiitl,  post-tp.  of  IJenzic  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  204. 

Inland  Navigation.  Sec  Navigation,  Islasd  (Ca- 
NAi.si.  by  .1.  ,J.  K.  CuoKs.  and  Navigation,  I.nland  (Rivers 
AND  Lakks),  by  W.  E.  iMkkkm.i,. 

Inlay 'ing,  the  ornamentation  of  surfaces  of  wood,  metal, 
shell,  stone,  etc.  with  pieces  of  a  different  color.  Marquet- 
crie,  Florentine  work  ov pivtra  dura,  damaskeening,  mosaic- 
work,  etc.  are  forms  of  this  art.  Italy,  mcdiirval  Byzan- 
tium, Damascus,  Russia,  India,  China,  and  Japan  have 
all  had  schools  of  these  arts,  where  most  nu-ritorions  work 
has  been  done.  Russia,  Italy,  and  the  East  are  the  most 
iui])ortnnt  seats  at  present  of  the  inlaycr's  art. 

In'man  (Hiary),  b.  in  TItica,  N.  Y..  Oct.  2«.  1801; 
d.  in  New  York  Jan.  17,  lS4fi.  His  earliest  inclination 
was  towanis  a  military  life;  he  !iad  already  secured  a  com- 
mission to  enter  the  Academy  at  M'est  Point,  when  tho 
8ight  of  Westmiillcr's  fJmiae  deter.mined  his  bent  to  another 
career.  He  studied  with  John  Wesley  Jarvis ;  went  to 
Boston  as  a  portrait-painter  in  1822;  in  1S;12  removed  to 
Philadelphia:  from  thence,  chiefly  in  order  to  be  in  tho 
country,  he  went  to  Mount  Holly.  N.  J.;  returned  to  New 
York,  but,  being  disabled  by  ill-health,  was  induced  to  visit 
England  with  commissions  to  paint  for  American  friends 
portraits  of  Chalmers,  Mncaulay,  and  Wordsworth.  In 
1845,  resisting  strong  professional  and  social  temptations 

♦  In  the  Hiindir/'irttrhueh  dfr  f7irv}ifi  (\'ii.^99)  it  is  stated,  on  the 
contrary,  that  ink  for  copper-plate  print  iiic  is  prepared  with  the 
thickest  linsced-oil  varnish,  which  has  been  allowed  to  burn. 


to  remain  in  England,  where  his  success  as  an  artist  and 
his  popularity  as  a  man  had  been  eminent,  ho  returned  to 
his  native  land,  to  sicken  again  and  die.  Inman's  reputa- 
tion was  established  early,  and  continued  to  increase. 
Among  his  sitters  were  Bishops  Mclh-aine  and  White,  Dr. 
Hawks,  William  Wirt,  Nicholas  Biddle,  Judge  Bctts,  Col. 
Johnson,  Horace  Binney,  Audubon,  Chief-Justice  Nelson, 
De  Witt  Clinton,  Martin  Van  Buren,  and  William  H. 
Seward.  His  portraits  were  life  size,  cabinet  size,  and  in 
miniature.  The  subjects  of  his  other  pieces  were  various 
— Birutini  Wood,  Hi/dal  Water,  Lake  of  the  Disiiiaf  Swamp, 
Trout-FUhiiifj,  The  Xewahni/,  Hip  Van  Winkle  Atcakinij, 
Scene  from  the  Jiridc  of  Lnmmcrmoor,  Family  Gruitpn, 
Sterne's  ^farill,  Mnmhlc-the- I*cfj,  and  others  of  unequal 
merit.  He  executed  a  great  deal  in  crayon  and  with  the 
pen,  and  did  work  in  litliograph.  He  was  a  pleasing  writer 
also  of  sketches  antl  letters,  a  man  of  fine  literary  taste 
and  poetic  feeling.  His  best  works  are  portraits,  in  private 
bouses,  not  easily  seen.  They  entitle  their  author  to  a  very 
high  rank  among  artists.  0.  B.  FROiiiiNGnAM. 

Inman  (J.  O'B.l,  son  of  Henry,  as  an  artist  known 
chieily  by  delicate  flower-pieces  and  genre  pictures,  pleas- 
ing in  color  and  graceful  in  sentiment;  has  lived  several 
years  in  Rome,  where  his  work  has  elicited  praise  from 
critics. 

Inman  TThomas).  M.  D.,  a  physician  and  botanist  of 
Liverpool,  England,  was  for  some  years  professor  nt  medi- 
cal institutions  in  London  ;  wrote  numerous  medical  works, 
but  is  chiefly  known  as  author  of  a  very  remarkable  and 
learned  but  eccentric  book,  Ancient  Faiths  Embodied  in 
Ancient  Tiamcs  (ISOtl). 

Inn.     See  Hotel,  by  C.  G.  Leland,  A.  M.,  and  Inn- 

KEEPF.RS,  by  J.  N.   POMEROY. 

Inn  [Lat.  (Enus'].  a  river  of  S.  Germany,  and  the  largest 
Alpine  tributary  of  the  Danube,  takes  its  rise  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Orisons  from  the  Lake  of  Longhino,  nearly  TOUO 
feet  above  the  sea;  flows  N.  E.  through  that  canton,  form- 
ing the  valley  of  the  Engadine  ;  enters  the  Tyrol  at  Fin- 
stermunz  ;  flows  with  great  violence  through  Northern  Ty- 
rol by  lunspruck  ;  flows  through  Bavaria  for  about  90  miles 
to  Braunau.  whence  it  continues  nearly  N.,  forming  tho 
boundary  between  Upper  Austria  and  Bavaria,  and  enters 
the  Danube  at  Passau,  after  a  course  of  Z\b  miles.  It  re- 
ceives tho  river  Salzach  from  the  S. ;  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Innspruck  for  small  vessels,  and  to  Hall,  S  miles  below,  for 
steamboats.  Engadine  is  the  name  of  the  Upper  Inn  in 
tho  Romansch  language,  spoken  by  a  small  remnant  of  an 
ancient  nation  near  the  head  of  this  river.  The  Inn  is 
broader  than  the  Danube  at  their  junction. 

In'nes  (Thomas),  b.  in  ]rpr)2,  of  a  noble  Scottish  family  ; 
was  educated  in  the  College  of  Navarre  in  Paris;  became 
a  Catholic  priest,  and  succeeded  his  brother  Louis  as  princi- 
pal of  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  highly  esteemed  ethnological  work,  A  Critical  Fitsny  on 
the  Ancient  Inhnbitantu  uf  thr  \orthrrn  Pttrts  of  Britain 
(17211),  and  divides  with  his  brother  Louis  tlie  reputed 
authorship  of  the  Mrmoim  of  James  //.,  published  in  1816 
by  Dr.  Clarke.     D.  at  ParisFeb.  9,  1744. 

In'ncss  (George),  b.  in  Newburg,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y., 
May  1,  1S2j  ;  took  lessons  in  art ;  came  to  New  York  at  six- 
teen, and  studied  engraving;  was  prevented  by  ill-health 
from  pursuing  his  object ;  returned  to  his  home  in  Newark, 
N.  J. ;  emerged  four  years  later;  spent  a  month  with  Re- 
gis Gignoux,  and  then  began  his  career  as  a  landscape- 
artist.  Inness  has  been  called  a  disciple  of  Theodore 
Rousseau,  whoso  pictures  his  own  in  sentiment  resemble. 
His  landscapes  arc  touched  with  imagination  and  charged 
with  poetic  feeling.  His  themes  are  imaginative:  Pence 
and  I*leutif.  The  Sign  of  Promise,  A  Viniou  of  Faith,  The 
Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death,  The  Apocalyptic  Vision  of 
the  Xcw  Jerusalem  and  the  Jttrer  of  Life.  His  less  am- 
bitious works,  A  Pasiing  Storm,  Summer  Afternoon,  Tici- 
li'jht,  Snnshinc  and  Shftdow,  Moist  (Jreen  Level  trith  Trees, 
show  a  tender  sympathy  with  nature.  Inness  has  twice 
visited  Europe,  but  never  studied  there  with  a  master.  Ho 
now  (1S75)  resides  at  Boston,  Mass.    0.  B.  Frotiilngham. 

Inn'keepers.  An  innkeeper  is  one  who  carries  on  tho 
business  of  receiving  into  his  house  and  entertaining  guests. 
An  inn,  which  is  the  technical  legal  name,  and  includes  tho 
tavern  and  hotel,  is  the  house  in  which  he  thus  receives  and 
furnishes  entertainment.  The  word  "guests"  is  used  in 
this  definition  in  its  technical  legal  sense,  which  will  be  here- 
after defined.  It  is  not  necessary  that  a  person  should  confine 
his  entertainment  to  actual  travellers  in  order  that  iiis  house 
should  be  an  inn  and  himself  an  innkeeper.  It  is  enough 
that  ho  keeps  a  public-house,  and  holds  himself  out  as 
ready  to  receive  all  who  come,  and  to  furnish  them  general 
entertainment,  including  lodging  and  food.  Provision  need 
not  be  made  for  horses  and  carriages  and  cattle,  although 


INNKEEPERS. 


1207 


this  is  customary,  and  probably  universal  in  country 
taverns.  There  is  a  legal  clistinction  between  an  inn  and 
a  boardin;;-house  and  a  restaurant.  A  boarding-huuse  is 
not  an  inn,  because  (he  |iroprictor  does  not  hold  himself 
out  generally  to  take  all  who  apply,  but  only  receives  thoFO 
with  whom  ho  chooses  tn  make  an  agreement.  A  special 
contract  is  the  basis  of  all  the  legal  relations  between  the 
keeper  of  a  boarding-house  and  his  boarder,  while  a  com- 
mon-law public  duty  is  the  basis  of  all  the  kgul  relations 
between  the  innkeeper  and  his  guest.  Still,  an  innkeeper 
may.  in  the  same  house  in  which  ho  entertains  guest?,  also 
have  boarders.  As  to  the  one  class  of  persons,  he  willhuld  tlio 
relation  of  innkeeper,  and  as  to  the  other  that  of  boarding- 
house  keeper.  The  proprietor  of  a  restaurant,  like  the  inn- 
keeper, holds  liimself  out  to  the  public  at  large,  but  not  as 
one  who  furnishes  general  accommodation  and  entertain- 
ment, for  he  furnishes  only  food.  A  person,  however,  docs 
not  lose  his  legal  character  as  an  innkeeper  because  he  docs 
not  actually  supply  all  his  guests  by  a  laUc-d'hotf.  If  he 
furnishes  lorlginga  to  all  who  come,  and  means  by  which 
they  may  all  obtain  meals  at  bis  house  if  they  choose,  ho 
keeps  an  inn.  In  fact,  the  common-law  doctrines  in  refer- 
ence to  this  entire  subject  giew  up  at  a  time  when  meals 
were  furnished  at  inns  only  as  they  wcro  ordered,  and  tho 
tabU-ii'hotc  system  was  unknown. 

Before  describing  tho  legal  rights  and  obligations  of  tho 
innkeeper,  it  is  important  to  determine  who  is  a '**/»<?«(" 
at  an  inn,  for  it  is  only  towards  his  guests  that  tho  inn- 
keeper's peculiar  and  severe  liabilities  exist.  All  persons 
who  apply  for  entertainment  or  refreshment  to  him  as  an 
intilrceprr — that  is,  in  virtue  of  his  inn — and  obtain  it.  are 
guests,  and  his  common-law  duty  to  them  arises.  On  tho 
other  hand,  if  an  innkeeper  has  a  restaurant  also  in  con- 
nection with  his  inn,  and  a  person  only  procures  refreshment 
thereat;  or  if  ho  maintains  a  stable  for  public  accommoda- 
tion, and  a  person  simply  leaves  his  horses  or  cattle  to  be 
taken  care  of,  without  himself  becoming  a-guest;  or,  finally, 
if  tho  innkeeper  by  a  special  contract  receives  a  person  into 
his  house  in  tho  character  of  a  boarder — in  neither  of  these 
cases  do  tho  legal  rights  of  a  guest  c.\ist  in  favor  of  tho  one 
party,  or  the  legal  responsibilities  of  an  innkeeper  devolve 
upon  tho  other.  These  propositions  may  be  better  illus- 
trated and  explained  by  a  roferenco  to  tho  facts  of  a  few 
judicial  decisions  than  by  any  general  discussion.  I  pur- 
posely select  those  whicli  aro  extreme,  in  order  to  nhow  tho 
extent  to  which  the  common-law  obligations  have  been  car- 
ried by  the  courts.  There  can  be  no  possible  doubt  or  dif- 
ficulty in  respect  to  tho  relations  of  tlie  parties  where  trav- 
ellers and  others  are  actually  received  into  an  inn,  and  nre 
entertiiineil  in  the  ordinary  manner  and  under  ordinary  eir- 
curastances :  it  is  tho  extreme  and  somewhat  exceptional 
instances  which  indicate  tho  limits  of  the  legal  rule.  In  an 
early  case  decided  by  tho  Knglish  court  of  king's  bench  a 
person  came  into  an  inn  situated  in  a  market-town  and  re- 
quested permission  to  leavo  a  box  of  giod-*  until  the  next 
markot-day.  The  request  being  refused,  ho  sat  down  in 
tho  public-room  and  ordered  some  liquor.  This  was  sup- 
plied, and  he  remained  a  8h<irt  time  drinking  it,  having 
plft''cd  the  box  on  tho  floor  behind  him.  When  ho  arr)se 
and  was  about  to  go,  it  was  discovered  that  the  goo*ls  had 
been  stolen.  For  this  Io.ss  the  keeper  of  the  inn  was  held 
responsible;  tho  procuring  and  iiartaking  of  tho  liquor  in 
his  house  made  the  owner  of  the  box  a  guest  for  tho  timo 
being,  and  subjectetl  tho  other,  while  that  relation  lasted, 
to  the  eommon-law  liability  in  respect  of  the  property  wliieh 
had  been  constructively  jilaced  in  liis  custody.  Tho  facts 
of  an  analogous  case  dc^ddcd  a  few  years  past  by  tho  su- 
premo court  of  New  York  show  that  the  same  severe  rule 
is  still  enforced.  A  person  came  into  an  inn  about  seven 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  procured  souje  liquor  at  the  bar 
for  himself  and  for  others  in  his  company.  Taking  off  his 
overcoat,  and  directing  it  to  bo  hung  up,  ho  immediately 
left  tho  house,  and  was  absent  tho  entire  day.  Upon  his 
return  lato  in  tho  nftern<ton  the  coat  was  gone,  and  tho  inn- 
keeper was  adjudged  bound  to  mako  good  this  loss.  Tho 
facts  of  still  another  case  are  given  to  illustrate  the  dis- 
tineriun  already  mentioned  between  the  furnishing  enter- 
tainment by  an  innkeeper,  (i*  uttrft,  which  makes  the  |>arty 
entertained  a  guest,  and  the  furnishing  it  in  some  other 
capacity,  which  does  not  givo  rise  to  the  same  legal  condi- 
tion. The  owner  of  a  eily  hotel  hud  in  connection  with  it 
a  saloou  or  restaurant.  On  a  certain  oemsion  a  public  ball 
was  given  at  his  bouse.  One  of  the  eompany  in  attetnlance 
at  tho  ball  upon  bis  arrival  took  off  his  cont  and  other 
outside  wrappings  and  left  them  in  charge  of  a  servant  of 
tho  proprietor.  iMiring  the  evening  he  visited  the  restau- 
rant and  obtained  liquor  and  other  rcfrephment.  The  arti- 
cles which  he  hud  entrusted  to  the  servant  were  missing, 
cither  lost  or  stolon  ;  hut  as  tho  ftict«  narrated  diti  not  o()n- 
stitute  their  owner  n  guest  of  tho  inn,  he  was  not  ablo  to 
fix  any  responsibility  for  them  upon  tho  innkeeper. 


The  peculiar  duties  and  obligations  which  aro  imposed 
upon  the  innkeeper  in  virtue  of  his  public  occupation  are 
two  in  number;  the  first  being  in  respect  of  tho  gueyts 
personally,  and  the  second  in  respect  of  their  goods. 

(1)  In  Jicspcct  of  the  Guests  Pfisfmally, — The  keeper  of 
an  inn  is  bound  to  receive  all  travellers  and  wayfaring  men 
and  other  applicants,  and  to  entertain  them  for  a  reason- 
able compensation  if  he  has  room,  and  if  they  aro  well 
behaved  and  free  from  any  special  personal  qualities 
which  might  disturb  the  good  order  and  well-being  of  his 
house.  The  "  reasonable  compensation  "  hero  spoken  of 
means  tho  prices  customary  at  that  particular  house.  A 
'•Fifth  Avenue  hotel**  is  not  compelled  to  receive  persons 
at  tho  rates  charged  by  a  country  tavern.  The  duty  to  re- 
ceive depends  also  upon  the  conduct  of  the  applicant  and 
the  condition  of  the  inn.  If  the  latter  is  full,  no  ono  has 
a  legal  right  to  bo  received,  and  the  law  does  not  prescribe 
tho  amount  or  limit  of  accommodalion  in  this  respect.  Nor 
is  the  landlord  obliged  to  admit  a  person  who  is  intoxi- 
cated or  disorderly,  or  wlio  is  inflicted  with  a  contagiou.-^  or 
infectious  disease  wliich  would  be  dangerous  to  the  hcaltli 
of  the  inmates,  nor,  perhaps,  a  person  of  notoriously  bad 
character  and  reputation,  whose  presence  would  be  highly 
offensive  to  other  guests.  A  refusal  to  comply  with  the  ob- 
ligation thus  described — that  is.  to  receive  an  npplleant 
against  whom  no  legal  objection  existed,  and  when  there 
was  roou\  for  his  accommodation — gives  a  right  of  action 
in  favor  of  tho  injured  party  against  the  innkeeper  to  re- 
cover tho  damages  caused  by  the  unlawful  rejection.  Such 
actions  are  of  course  very  infrequent,  but  the  right  to 
maintain  them  is  recognized  by  tho  highest  authorities,  an- 
cient and  modern.  At  tho  common  law  an  indictment  for 
a  misdemeanor  also  lay  against  the  innkeeper  wlio  should 
violate  this  his  public  duty. 

(2)  In  JicRprct  of  the  Giirsffi'  (joods.— The  eommon-law 
doctrine  is  well  established  that  the  innkeeper  is  responsi- 
ble for  all  tho  goods  received  into  his  custody — or,  as  it  is 
often  Baid,  received  within  tho  curtilage  of  the  inn — from 
a  guest;  in  other  words,  he  is  liable  for  all  losses  of  and 
injuries  to  such  goods,  even  in  the  absence  of  his  own 
or  his  servant's  negligence  or  other  wrong,  except  where 
tho  loss  is  directly  occasioned  by  the  *'  act  of  God,*'  or  by 
tho  "  act  of  public  enemies,"  or  by  tho  fraud  or  negligence 
of  the  guest  himself  or  his  servant  or  companion.  Ilr  is, 
therefore,  in  fact,  an  insurer  o(  his  guest's  goods,  while  in 
his  custody,  against  all  losses  and  iujr.rics  whatsoever,  un- 
less resulting  from  some  one  of  the  three  causes  jusl  men- 
tioned. This  rigorous  rule  of  the  common  law,  originating 
at  a  very  ancient  period  in  English  history,  when  all  trav- 
elling was  dangerous,  and  when  it  was  supposed  that  inn- 
keepers were  often  in  league  with  robbers,  has  been  main- 
tained to  the  present  day,  and  is  still  enforced  in  all  tho 
States  of  tho  Union,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  unless 
modified  by  tho  legislature.  In  Vermont,  however,  a  less 
stringent  rule  prc\ails  as  the  result  of  judicial  decision, 
and  the  innkeeper  is  not  held  responsible  for  losses  occa- 
sioned by  casualties  over  which  he  bad  no  control,  such  as 
incendiary  fires.  Tho  term  ''act  of  God"  is  not  synony- 
mous with  "inevitable  accident."  It  is  an  occurrence 
which  arises  entirely  from  natural  causes  outsido  of  tho 
ordinary  course  of  events,  and  in  whicli  human  agency 
could  not  by  possiliility  have  intervened.  The  most  famil- 
iar examples  aro  lightning,  storms,  unusual  fre.-^hets,  earth- 
quakes, and  the  like.  The  term  "public  enemies"  implies 
actual  war,  and  it  docs  not  include  mere  robbers,  rioters, 
or  mobs.  If  an  insurrection  should  attain  such  magnitude 
that  it  amounted  to  a  war,  the  rebels  would  become  public 
enemies  within  the  meaning  of  tho  phrase  ns  hero  used. 
Applying  these  explanations,  tho  innkeeper  is  seen  lo  bo 
responsililo  for  all  losses  of  tho  goods  while  in  his  custody 
except  those  which  result  immediately  from  extraordinary 
natural  events,  such  ns  lighlning-slrokes,  earthquakes,  etc., 
or  from  the  violence  of  the  hostile  forces  in  time  of  war,  or 
from  tho  fraud  or  negligence  of  the  guest  himself.  In 
order  that  the  liability  thus  deseribed  should  arise,  the  ar- 
ticles must  be  under  the  control,  actual  or  constructive,  of 
tho  innkeeper.  In  respect  lo  the  extent  of  the  liability, 
and  tho  kind  of  gooils  to  which  it  applies,  an  attempt  Inis 
been  made  in  a  few  recent  decisions  to  restrict  it  to  tho 
personal  baggage  of  the  guest,  including  such  an  amount 
of  money  only  as  may  bo  reasonably  necessary  for  his 
travelling  expenses,  ami  thus  to  place  tlio  responsibility 
of  the  innkeeper  for  his  guest's  goods  and  that  of  tho 
common  carrier  of  passengers  for  their  luggage  upon 
exactly  tho  same  footing.  This  limitation,  however,  is 
opposed  to  tho  rule  as  established  by  an  overwhelming 
army  »if  deei'lcd  ca«es.  No  restriction  has  been  placed 
eithi-r  upon  tho  extent  of  tho  liability  or  upon  the  kind 
of  goods  ombraood  within  it.  Innkeepors  have  been 
hold  responsible  for  baggage,  for  nuinry  in  largo  sums 
wbothor  in  trunks  or  in  separate  packages,  for  nicrchan- 


1208 


INNOCENT. 


dise  of  aU  sorts,  for  animals,  for  vehicles;  in  short,   for  i 
o  erv  snecies  of  personal  property  which  can  be  brough    . 
witLin?he  curtilage  of  th*;   inn  and  left   in   the.r   legal 
Tu  todv      It  "ill  be  seen  from  the  foregomg  that  this  strm-  j 
eent  obiigation  imposed  upon  the  innkeeper  extends  only 
f,!  a,e  ffoods  of  hi    guests!     In  respect  to  those  plaeed  ,n 
h,s  care  and  eustod/by  persons  other  than  guests,  h.slega 
dutv"  far   ess  onemus  :  he  is  responsible  for  them  only  a 
a  knoMt"     or  as  a  bailee  for  hire-that  is.  for  losses  and 
fnUes  caused  bv  the  wrongful  or  negligent  acts  and  om.s- 
8ions  of  hituself  or  his  agents  and  servants,  and  no  l^u    1  er 
]""„t  Su.Morn  M.nlificallun^.-'Ihe  common-law  l.ab.l.ty 
of   unkeepers  has  beci  partially  relieved  by  legislation.    A 
statute  pa-ed  in  Xew  York  in  1855  enacts  that  «hen  an  inn- 
keeper   hall  provide  a  safe  for  the  deposit  of  any  moneys, 
fewc"  or  oriaments  belonging  to  a  guest,  and  shall  notify 
him  thereof  bv  posting  a  notice  stating  the  existence  of 
'Th  Ife  in   Uie  roo.n  occupied  by  such  guest,  and  such 
cue.t  shall  neglect  to  deposit  his  moneys,  jewels,  or  orna- 
ments in  the  safe  so  furnished,  the  innkeeper  shall  not  be 
"sponsible  for  the  loss  of  such  moneys,  jewels,  or  ornaments 
A  sLilar  statute  has  been  passed  in  many,  and  V^fMy 
fo  rst,  of  the  other  States,  as  well  as  in  England  (26  and 
07  v";     ch.  41,  ?  I).     Only  one  method,  it  will  be  seen,    s 
here  expressly  mentioned  of  communicating  information  to 
a  gue' t'^^hat  i  safe  has  been  provided  m  compliance  with 
"he  law-namelv.  by  a  written  or  printed  n°f™  P'jf,''  '° 
he  room  occupied  by  him.     It  is  very  properly  held,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  absence  of  this  construe  ive  mode  of    m- 
part  ng  the  knowledge,  a  direct,  personal  notification  will 
L  wer'the  same  purpose.      The  relief  'bus  given  to,,^ 
innkeeper  extends  only  to  '•■moneys,  jewels,   and    orna- 
ments!"    AU  other  articles  placed  in  his  custody  by  a  gues 
"e  left  to  the  operation  of  the  common-law  r_ulee^^^U,at 


■•nioneVs!  jewelF,  and  ornaments''  are  within  the  meaning 
ot  the  statite  ?     Xo  exception  is  made  in  its  language,  but 
some  of  the  courts  have  attempted  to  engraft  one  upon  its 
tlZs-  and  there  arc  cases  which  hold  that  an  amount  of 
monev'  sufficient  for  daily  expenses,  and  the  P"--^  J«- 
els  and  ornaments  ordinarily  worn  are  not  mcluded,  and 
need  not  be  deposited  in  the  safe  in  order  that  the  innkeeper 
should  be  responsible  for  their  loss.     These  decisions  have 
not  been  generallv  followed,  and  the  better  opinion  is,  that 
"ll  moncjs,  jewels,  and  ornaments  must  be  plaeed  in  the 
safe  or  no  n'.ponsibilitv  for  their  safety  arises    except,  of 
CO  rse.  the  lia^nlity  which  would  result  from  the  wrong  ul 
at  Jo    the  landlord  himself.     When  the  P™"^"'"    °f    l^" 
stilute  have  been  complied  with  by  the  guest,  and  the  de.- 
-nate'l  ardcles  have  been  delivered  to  the  innkeeper  or  his 
ervan ts  in  order  that  they  may  bo  deposited  •"  tlic  «-fe 
bis  eommon-law  obligation  in  respect  to  their  safety  at  once 
a  taches  to  its  full  extent,  and  continues  as  long  as  the  spc- 
ei  vl  cu' tody  lasts.     There  is  a  tendency  to  relax  by  leg.sla- 
t.'n  the  severe  ,,,,,onsibilities  of  au  innkeeper.     Thus,  m 
X  w  York  itTs  pro'vided  by  statute  that  he  is  "ot  l.ab  e  for 
g,ods  destroyed  by  ^re  in  an  outbuilding,  where  he  .s  no 
.  f„„li    «nd  the  fire  is  the  work  of  an  incendiary,     f-till 
b'dr  legislation  is  to  be  noticed  in  England  in  the  stat- 

KH:i;rts^^:srwS^:u!^:=-- 

1,;^  in  his  room,    h.  ;nn;^ceper  hav.g  no  rea»       <o_^sup- 

l;:?:!"  "^moX  no'^^':;!:r  r-^oods  on.oa.lL. 
l;:^Ln  is  sometimes  given  bj^s^t^e,  as.  xew  Wk. 

(See  Bailment.)  •'""•  .    ■   .■  u^ 

,„„„ce„t  .  ,  S.,^  h  ^.t  AH;an.  was^.lec,ed  bis^ 

:!i,^rS:l.n^^.:^'-;^;Kast..nbeh^f^fthepa^. 

-^tf?^=o:'iu::i:^':m::^^::^-^tk; 

ecute  Ihc  Donatists.  who  were  excoramuni  at  b  the 
Council  of  Carthage  (4»5|:  made  e«rt.ons  t,.  sine  Kome 
from  Aliric  and  his  Vis  goths.  who  nevertheless  saiKcu 
[  iTeVtv  Aug  2tNl"=  condemned  the  doctrines  of  the 
Pelagians  and  the  Xovatians ;  first  practised  the  system 
^f'se'^d^ng  legates  to  represent  the  m^f^^^^y^^.^%1 
districts:  was  vigorous  in  maintaining  ^^e  "g"  "J  »  '  ^ 
,„  exercise  appellant  jurisdiction  over  "'^er  bishopric 
and  enforced  the  celibacy  of  the  clcrgv.     D.  Mar.  1-,  -i}' 


of  France.  Germany,  and  England:  was  supported  by  St. 
liernard  and  by  the  Council  of  Khemis ;  was  forcibly  re^- 
stored  to  power  at  Rome  by  Lothaire,  whom  he  crowned 
emperor  in^he  church  of  St.  John  Lateran  "f^  >--.»?.';- 
driven  from  Rome  the  same  year;  held  a  counci    at  I  isa 
and   excommunicated   his   rival;    was    again  restored  by 
Lothaire  1137.  and  was  finally  recognized  by  the  rebc   lou 
cardinals  after  the  death  of  Anaeletus  in  "Ss.     Innocent 
convoked  in  1139  the  second  Council  of  Lateran   attended 
by  lOUO  bishops;  condemned  the  opinions  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia  and  of  Abelard  (ll-KM:  pronounced  an  interdict 
upon  the  kingdom  of  France,  and  had  bis  temporal  au- 
XrUy  overthrown  bv  an  insurrection  of  the  Romans,  who 
rest"rld  the  senate  and  the  tribunes  of  ancient  Rome^    D^ 
«ent     21     1143.— IxsocEST    III.    I /.-'oi-i"    f «'"").    b-    'n 
n1^  'at  Anagni;   studied  at  Rome,  Par  s,  and  Bo^gna: 
became  a  cardinal-deacon  in  1189  ;  succeeded  Ce lestine  I II. 

riaces  of  the  kings  of  France  and  Leon,  and  in  both  in- 
st. fees  the  pope  was  victorious;  '='!'»I'-"i,I^'°.\t'?  "/ 
En!'land  bv  the  same  means,  to  give  up  the  right  of  in- 
yc"titnre'  and  make  his  possessions  the  tributary  fiet  of 
RomeTeaused  himself  t!.  '-,-knowledged  suzerain  of 
Sicily^  Bavaria^  and^D.^a.^  =  ^i;^-ef,-^j^: 

SrndJr'th'rL^Un'  empire  -  Cons.nHnople ;  eon 

the  no  es  in  temporal  matters,  his  power  being  as  much 
lUe  ^Uof  avorLg  condiHons  ^;;^^^ -,?--« 
and  ambition.— 1NN0I.NT  ^i';-  "V.   _  ,,'-K_sn   and  d.  in 


I  cniorceo  loe  ti-iiijin.. ,V  ,,t  ■   r> 

i  feast  iseelebrated.-IxsooEXT  II.  ( l.reynru.l  .< 


•I""' 


,rhi\ 


?1^^rr;?l^^^r;o;i,'a;;da«orw„rds  abbot 
lnheconven.of.«..Xi.h...as;;vas.ega. 

r  br/evci;  '.^  etiina/s.  but    Peter  de  Leon  was  put 
JorWar^l  as  pope  by  a  minority  of  the  electoral  body  under 
[he^Ule  of  Anleletus  II.     Innocent  was  driven  from  Rome 
„en   to  C  unyin  France;  was  recognized  by  the  monarchs 


and  ambition.— INNOi  I.M    ii»-.  -»■■■•        '_  ,    ,    . 

bishop  of  EjonsKi.,  ana  Author  of  numer- 

chosenpopo.n  1;' «  •/■  J"°f^,\:;  Vl.  (£<ln,ue   Aul.-,Kh. 

^^1Sr4i"o^>:'^S:o  '^ll^kli^t  al.  ar^- 
hi  ho,  orRavennl  became  cardinal  in  13S9  pope  in  1404. 
I)  X-'v  fi  140G:  was  a  man  of  learning  and  of  mai^-  Mr- 
U.  JNo\.  o.  ^*  "'       ..  r  f,-/..rniiiii'«""i«'" '''"')• ''-'n  Genoa 

lri4T2rGr:  k  oek  wL:  a  man  of  irregular  life,  the 
:th  r  of  many  bastard  children,  and  --  '»--^/,';^° 
ordained;  became  bishop  ot  Savoue  and  .^l""'  "inrt  ear 
d  na    in  1453;   obtained  the  papacy  by  simony  in  1484. 

ri     -1    iVrrr   under  ook"  o\evive  the  ancient  discipline 

i::f';^;^,^:;landh..^arr.swithT...^ 

'-F?^S^S^\:3eni.:-ri:s 
-  p-r?  ?2iSr:;gi;f7:;vr  :r^^^ 

li,hed  a  brief  abolishing  the  nghi    .  ^^^ 

exercised  by  foreign  "■"'."'f'!"^":' !  '  (   , '„  ,t \nd    entered 

;  French    envoy,  who   "n''"'»'°"'"'^./f;  condemnation 

i   Rome  with  a  military  escort ;  '""^['""'I'^J",-,,^  .,  joined 

l,v  ,be  Inquisition  of  Mol-o  s  d-tniie  of  «^^e  _      J 

the  League  of  AuRsburg  and  d.  Aug^l-^  !«»«•  ^^, 


IXNOCENTIUS— INNS  OF  COURT. 


1209 


D.  Sept.  27. 1700.— Innocent  XIII.  {Michel  Angeto  Conti), 
b.  at  Rome  May  US,  1055:  became  archbi.-ihop  of  Tarsus 
in  1695,  car>liDul  in  1707,  and  bishop  of  Viterho  in  1712; 
succeeded  Clement  XI.  in  1721 ;  and  d.  Mar.  7,  1724.  He 
was  virtuous  and  devitut,  but  not  a  very  capable  ponliff.  and 
there  is  reu.'Jon  to  believe  that  he  was  poisoned  in  conse- 
quence of  his  determination  to  suppress  the  Jesuits. 

C'HARI.KS  W.  (iltEKNE. 

Innocen'tius,  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  times  of  Constan- 
tine  the  (ireat  and  his  sons  Constantius  and  Constans.  by 
whom  his  wrilings  and  opinions  were  invested  with  a  kind 
of  legislative  force.  None  of  his  works  has  survived,  and 
their  tenor  is  known  only  bj'  a  few  references  of  later  writers. 

Innocents'  Day  [in  Old  Enj^lish.  Chi/derman'],  the  day 
on  which  the  Culholic  and  Ansli<^au  churches  celebrate  the 
ma!>sacre  of  the  children  at  Bethlehem,  who  are  called  the 
Jf"fy  [nnoreutt  and  considered  as  the  earliest  Christian 
martyrs  (Dec.  28).  The  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  London, 
used  to  choose  a  Kimj  uf  the  Covkneyt  on  this  day  ;  children 
were  permitted  to  wear  the  clothes  of  thoir  elders  and  ex- 
erci!>e  a  mook  authority-  ;  in  the  convent  the  youngest  nun 
became  lady  superior  for  the  nonce,  etc.  The  priest  on  this 
day  wears  a  blue  gown  in  church.  In  some  Catholic  coun- 
tries the  festival  of  the  Holy  Innocents  is  even  now  cele- 
brated by  playing  practical  jokes,  precisely  as  in  the  U.  S. 
the  1st  of  .April  is  reckoned  ,-1//  Fooin  Dni/.  In  Spanish- 
American  countries,  after  a  practical  joke  has  been  ])layed, 
the  expression  equivalent  to  **  April  fool"  is,  Qur  la  ino- 
cenria  le  viiftja — t.  e.  "  May  your  innocence  protect  you !" 

Inns  of  Court,  colleges  in  London  designed  for  the 
education  of  students  for  practice  at  the  bar,  and  having 
at  the  same  time  the  right  to  admit  persons  to  practice. 
These  institutions  do  not  govern  attorneys,  who  arc 
admitted  to  practice  under  the  direction  of  the  courts. 
The  Inns  of  Court  were  situated  between  the  city  of  Lon- 
don and  Westminster.  They  are  four  in  number,  having 
preparatory  schools  called  Inns  of  Chancery.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  Inns  of  Chancery  are  only  used  as  chaniners. 
The  Inns  of  Court  arc  the  Inner  Temple,  the  Middle  Tem- 
ple, Lincoln's  Inn,  and  (iray's  Inn.  To  the  first  of  these 
are  attached  the  Inns  of  Chancery,  called  respectively 
Clement's,  Clifford's,  and  Lyon's  Inn;  to  the  Midf'le  Tem- 
ple, New  Inn  :  to  Lincoln's  Inn,  Fumival's,  Thavies^,  and 
byrnHiid's  Inn  ;  while  to  (Iray's  Inn  arc  added  Barnard's 
and  Staples'  Inn.  The  Inns  of  Court  are  voluntary  soci- 
eties and  unincorporated.  They  are  thus  described  by 
Pearce :  ''They  are  voluntary  societies,  for  ages  submitting 
to  government  analogous  to  other  seminaries  of  learning; 
from  lime  immemorial  enjoying  the  protection  of  the  Cro\vn  ; 
at  common  law  suhject  to  the  visitorial  powers  of  the  judges 
of  the  superior  courts,  who  possess  a  domestic  jurisdiction 
over  these  bodies,  to  whom  an  appeal  lies  in  every  case 
against  orders  affecting  members  of  these  societies,  form- 
ing a  university  with  power  to  grant  degrees  in  the  munici- 
pal law  of  Knglan<l,  which  constitute  indispensable  qual- 
ifications for  practice  in  the  superior  courts  of  law;  no 
corporations,  and  possessing  no  charters  from  the  Crown  ; 
by  the  policy  of  the  common  law  permitted  self-govern- 
ment, suhject  to  the  qualifications  mentioned  in  order  to 
secure  the  independence  of  the  bar."  They  were  called  inns, 
or  in  the  Latin  records  **  Ao«/>»'rm,'*  as  distinguished  from 
public  lodging-houses  (f/i'(vr«oriVi).  The  meaning  of  the 
term  is  well  shown  by  an  order  of  the  judges  issued  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  wherein  it  being  set  forth  that  as  the 
institution  of  these  societies  was  chiefly  ordained  for  the 
profession  of  the  law.  and  in  a  secondary  degree  for  the 
sons  and  youth  of  riper  years  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  of 
,the  realm,  and  in  no  sort  f"ir  lodging  or  abode  of  country 
gentlemen,  which  if  it  should  he  sufferc)!  would  turn  them 
from  konpitin  to  diremnrifi,  it  was  j>rovided  that  no  person 
who  4lid  not  belong  to  the  society  should  bo  admitted  or 
allowed  to  lodge  in  the  houses.  Being  unincorporatc<l,  the 
momhers  have  heen  oblig'^d  to  resort  to  speoml  methods 
to  keep  the  title  to  the  yiroperly  in  the  society.  The  first 
grant  was  made  to  a  select  numl»er  in  trust  for  the  society 
at  large.  This  select  number  forms  the  bench.  As  the 
members  die,  others  are  chosen  from  the  society,  nnd  new 
conveyances  are  iinide  from  time  to  time,  the  suceecsion  hav- 
ing heen  thus  kept  up  lor  hundreds  of  years.  (She/ford  on 
Afortmain,  p.  :t3.) 

These  colleges  existed  at  a  remote  period  in  English  his- 
tory. Kortescue,  writing  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  gives 
a  pleasing  account  of  them  as  they  existed  in  his  time.  Ho 
says:  "The  students  resorted  thither  in  Ereut  numbers  to 
bo  taught  as  in  common  schools.  Hero  they  Irarn  to  sing 
and  to  exorcise  themselves  in  all  kind-<  of  harmony.  On 
the  working  day(»  they  study  law,  and  on  the  h<tly  days 
Rcripture,  and  their  demeanor  is  like  the  hchnvlor  of  suoh 
as  are  coupled  together  in  prrfeel  amity.  There*  is  no  place 
where  are  found  so  many  students  past  childhood  as  here." 


The  early  modes  of  instruction  in  these  institutions  were 
disputations  (or  moor*)  and  readings  or  lectures.    The  mem- 
bers were  divided  into  four  grades — benchers,  utter  barris- 
ters, inner  barristers,  and  students.     The  government  nf 
the  society  was  committed  to  the  benchers,  or  seniors,  the 
discussions  and  readings  appertaining  to  the  barristers.     In 
the  course  of  time  the  office  of  reader  came  to  be  attended 
with  great  expense.     8towe  informs  us  that  the  reader  in 
his  day  for  upwards  of  three  weeks  kept  a  splendid  taMe. 
feasting  the  nobility,  judges,  hishops.  principal  oflicers  of 
state,  and  sometimes  the  king  himself,  insomuch  that  it  has 
cost  a  reader  above  £1000 — certainly  a  large  sura  of  money 
at   that    day.     Curious   details   are   given   by  tbc  authors 
cited  at  the  end  of  this  article  as  to  the  masquerades  and 
revcllings  at  the  inns,  growing  more  numerous  and  attrac- 
tive as  the  business  of  instruction  declined.     The  requisi- 
tions for  admission  to  the  society  became  nominal.     *' The 
applicants  were  examined  in  the  classics  to  ascertain  how 
they  had  spent  their  time  before  coming  to  the   inn,  and 
whether  they  had  the  manners  of  gentlemen."     After  the 
stutlent  period  had  jiasscd  the  requisites  for  admission  to 
practice  consisted  mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  student  had 
eaten  a  certain  nunihcr  of  dinners  in  each  year  for  a  fixed 
number  of  years  in  the  common  hall.     Until  within  a  few 
years  all  instruction  was  dispensed  with.     This  entire  tle- 
parture  from  the  original  theory  of  the  schools  attracted 
until  recently  but  little  attention,  and  where  it  was  no- 
ticed only  elicited  mild  expressitpns  of  dissatisfaction.    Her- 
bert, writing  in  ISO*,  says:  "  It  may  be  worth  a  question, 
however,  whether  the  total  rejection  of  every  restraint  in 
professed  seminaries  of  instniction  is  an  improvement  or  a 
disadvantage."     Latterly,  the  hest  professional  sentiment 
has  strongly  tended  in  favor  of  making  these  institutions 
[  true  seminaries  of  learning,  and  amjile  courses  of  lectures 
!  have   been   introduced,  and   opportunities  given  to   those 
I  students  who  may  desire  careful  instruction  to  receive  it. 
The  rules  adopted  hy  the  benchers  provide  for  a  prelimi- 
I  nary  examination,  testing  the  student's  general  culture.    It 
j  is  quite  certain  that  the  result  of  the  renewed  interest  in 
j  legal   education,  nf  which   the  present  lord   chancellor   is 
I  a  distinguished  exponent,  will  be  to  produce  a  class  of  law- 
I  yers  not  only  versed  in  the  rules  of  the  common  law,  but 
I  well  informed  as  to  the  principles  of  the  Roman  law  and 
I  the  doctrines  of  general  jurisprudence. 

I       The  benchers  not  only  have  the  ]>ower  of  admitting  per- 
sons to  the  bar.  hut  also  of  disbarring   those  whom  they 
deem  unfit  to  practise.     From  their  decision  no  appeal  lies 
I  to  any  court  as  such,  but  only  to  the  judges,  exercising  a 
limited  power  of  review  in  the  cdiaraeter  of  visitors.     By 
:  this  means  the  general  sentiment  of  the  profession,  as  rep- 
I  resented  by  the  benchers,  may  exercise  a  most  salutary  con- 
trol over  delinquent  members,  while,  owing  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  judges,  there  is  but  little  danger  that  so  great 
!  a  power  will  be  wantonly  or  capriciously  exercised.    These 
I  principles  are  well  illustrated  in  a  recent  case  (187-1),  where 
j  a  barrister  brought  a  suit  in  eciuity  against  his  inn,  pray- 
ing, among  other  things,  that  he  might  he  adjudged  to  ho 
entitled  to  retire  from  the  inn  without  undertaking  not  to 
practise  at  the  bar.     The  c-ourt  decided  that  it  had  no  juris- 
(Jiction  over  the  subject  ;  the  whole  matter  was  between  a 
voluntary  society  and  a  member.     The  sole  question   was, 
whether  he  had  couijilied  with  the  rules  of  the  society,  and 
that  point  the  court  had  no  power  to  determine.      His  ap- 
peal was  to  the  judges  as  visitors.     The  object  of  the  bar- 
rister in   bringing  this  suit  was  avowedly  to  obtain  a  de- 
cision   that  the  monopoly  enjoyed  by  the    inns  to  admit 
barristers  was  not  founded  upon  any  rule  of  law,  but  dc- 
jiended  solely  on  the  sufferance  of  the  judges.     The  judg- 
ment must  be  regarded  as  an  emphatic  reaflirmanoe  of  the 
authority  of  the  Inns  of  Court. 

The  beauty  and  quiet  rejiose  of  the  grounds  where  the 
inns  are  situated  are  justly  celebrated.  Herbert,  writing 
in  1804,  gives  a  pleasing  description  of  them  as  they  ap- 
pear to  one  looking  from  the  Inner  Temple:  "A  beautiful 
garclen  on  the  Thames  side,  ehielly  covered  with  green- 
sward and  having  a  spacious  gravel  walk  or  terrace  on  the 
woter's  edge,  fronts  the  hall.  This  is  laid  out  with  great 
taste  and  kept  in  perfect  order,  and  in  summer-time  forms 
a  crowded  prninenatle ;  from  whence  the  view  up  and  down 
the  river  is  extremely  rich.  Blaekfriars  bridge,  part  of 
Westminster  bridge,  and  the  elegant  back  frimt  of  Somerset 
House,  with  the  winding  Thames,  the  opposite  busy  shore, 
nnd  the  beautiful  swell  of  the  distant  Surrey  hills,  all  to- 
gether form  nn  assemblage  of  objects  unrivalled  in  variety 
ami  mngnifleence."  Otoferenoe  may  ho  made  for  further 
information  to  Herbert's  Antiquitirn  of  the  Inut  of  (.'iturt 
ttuff  Chiturrrtf  (London,  1S04);  Poaroo's  Ifi^tmy  tf  ihr  fnna 
of'  Court  nnd  Chnnffry  (J.nndon,  I8IS);  Ireland's  fiiii»  of 
Court;  Wharton's  Low  Dictionnri/,  title  "  Inns  of  Ctotrt." 
For  Information  as  to  the  inns  of  Ireland  nee  I>uhigg*s 
Kin'/t  Inu».)  T.  W.  iJwiOHT. 


1210 


INNSPRUCK-INQUISITION. 


Inns'priick,  or  Innsbruck,  town  of  Austria,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Tyrol,  on  the  Inn.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at 
an  elevation  of  I  SOU  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  en- 
circled bv  mountains  from  (1000  to  8000  feet  high.  The 
five  suburbs  which  form  the  new  part  of  the  town  arc  finely 
laid  out  and  well  built.  The  cathedral  contains  the  cele- 
brated monument  of  Maximilian  I.,  of  marble  and  bronze, 
and  aNo  that  of  Andreas  Hofer.  Innspruck  has  a  wcll- 
frequtnlod  univcrsily  and  extensive  manufactures  of  cloth, 
silk,  iind  gloves.  Pup.  1C,S10. 
Inniiit.     Pec  EsgiJiMAUx. 

Ino,  in  Oreeian  nivthology,  was  secretly  married  to 
Athanias,  kin'  of  OichomenuF,  to  whom  she  bore  two  sons, 
Loar.hus  and  Mclicertes.  Having  accepted  from  Hermes 
the  voun"  Dionysus  to  nurse.  Here  visited  her  and  her  hus- 
band with  madness,  when  Ath.amas  slew  Learchus.  Ino 
did  with  Mclicertes  in  her  arms  and  leaped  into  (he  sea. 
where  she  was  changed  into  a  sea-goddess,  Leucolhca.  As 
the  myth  of  Ino  was  much  used  by  the  Greek  dramatists, 
it  received  many  enlargements  and  augmentations,  and  ex- 
ists in  many  different  versions. 

Inocar'pus  edu'lis,  a  stately  evergreen  tree  of  the 
Pacific  Islands,  and  of  (he  order  Thymclaceie,  producing  a 
nut  which  after  roasting  is  a  palatable  and  important  food. 
The  tree  puts  out  from  its  trunk  curious  plank-likc  but- 
tresses, which  arc  very  convenient  to  the  natives  for  use  as 
natural  boards,  after  peeling  off  the  bark.  Some  of  these 
planks  are  four  feet  wide  at  the  base. 

Inocilla'tion  \h^l.  !m,cuh,  to  "bud"],  in  general,  the 
intentional  or  accidental  conveyance  of  disease  to  an  indi- 
vidual by  means  of  the  actual  application  of  morbific  ma- 
terial tohis  person,  especially  upon  a  wound  ;  in  particular, 
it  signifies  such  a  transfer  of  variola,  or  smallpox  ;  which 
proceeding  is  also  known  by  the  more  specific  term  of  rnn- 
oh.Hon.    Inoculated  smallpox  differs  from  natural  smallpox 
chiefly  in  its  course  being  milder  and  shorter,  the  mortality 
of  the  former  being  less  than  1  per  cent.,  whereas  that  of  the 
latter  ran"cs  from  10  to  ;.0  per  cent.     This  comparatively 
mild  character  of  the  inoculated  disease  seems  to  have  ex- 
cited the  attention  of  the  Chinese  and  certain  other  Oriental 
peoples  at  a  very  early  period,  and  hence  they  have  prac- 
tised intentional  inoculation  from  time  immemorial  for  the 
Tiurpose  of  procuring  immunity  from  the  natural  smallpox. 
The  practice  found   its  way  into  Europe  by  way  of  Con- 
stantinople,  where   it  was  openly  introduced  in   ^\^  p"  \ 
1701      The  influence  possessed  by  Drs.  Timoni  and  I  yla-  : 
riui  overcame  the  religious    scruples  of  the  Turks,  an.l  , 
inonilation   became   a  recognized  practice.      AlthouKh  ;t  , 
was  favorably  spoken  of  in  England  as  early  as  I,  14,  i     1 
was  not  until'  1722  that  the  first  inoculation  vvas  performed  j 
in  that  country— upon  the  daughter  of  L.a.ly  >Iary  \V  orlley  j 
Montagu,  wife  of  the  British  ambassador  at  Constantino- 
ple     At  first  it  met  with  some  opposition  in  England,  Init  j 
after  a  few  years  it  was  extensively  practised,  and  rapidly  1 
spread  to  France,  Germany,  and  other  continental   coun- 
ties       In  America   it  was  advocated   by  the  Rev^  Cot  on 
Mather,  and  first  practised  in  1721  by  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston 
of  Boston      The  proceeding  consisted  essentially  in  the  in- 
sertion of  lymph  from  a  smallpox  pustule  into  an  incision 
or  abrasion  made  for  the  purpose.     In  Asiatic  countries, 
h.iwevcr.the  practice  was  somewhat  difTcrent :  for  instance, 
the  Chinese  inserted  a  variolous  crust  or  a  bit  of  linen  from 
the  clothing  of  a  smallpox  patient  into  the  nostrils.     This 
was  called  "  buying  the  smallpox,"  and  the  proceeding  was 
invested  with  a  quasi-religious  sort  of  rays  cry.     Inocula- 
tiun  stood  the  test  of  experience  as  regarded  the  protection 
of  the  individual  inoculated,  but  it  proved  the  source  of 
disaster  to  the  communily  at  large,  since  inoculated  small- 
pox was  found  to  be  as  infectious  as  the  natural  disease, 
and  therefore  served  to  spread  the  latter  broadcast  to  a 
ereater  extent  than  would  otherwise  have  occurred     Owing 
Shiellv  to  this  fact,  but  partly  also  to  other  considerations 
which  need  not  he  mentioned  here,  inoculation  was  rapidly 
sunplaiitcd  bv  the  announcement  of  Jenncr's  discovery  ot 
VA.rivvTiox'twhiehsec).  in  the  year  UOS,  and  has  now 
fallen  into  complete  desuetude.     Although  perhaps  some- 
what more  cfiicient  than  vaccination,  it  was  fraught  wiin 
such  danger  that  it  does  not  deserve  to  be  revncd. 

FnANK  P.  FoSTEIt. 
Ino'sic    Acid     [Gr.    U,    iy^.    "muselc,"  —fihrc"], 
CsIlsXjOe.  an  acid  found  in  the  mother-liquor  m  prepar- 
ing creatine  from  flcsh-juioc. 

In'osite  [Gr.  U.  i^w,  "muscle,"  "fibre"],  or  PlinsP- 
omannitc,  CoHijOo.  a  variety  of  glneoso  found  in  the 
heart  lun"s.  kidneys,  liver,  spleen,  and  brain,  and  in  tlie 
urine  in  a  case  of  Urighfs  disease;  also  in  kidnoy-beane, 
common  peas,  cabbage,  potato-shoots,  asparagus,  etc.  1 
is  soluble  in  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ethor:  i»  not 
discolored  by  boiling  with  potassic  hydrate;  does  not  ler- 
mcnt  in  contact  with  yeast ;  undergoes  lacteous  fermentation 


under  the  influence  of  cheese,  flesh,  or  decaying  membrane 
and  chalk.  Evaporated  nearly  to  dryness  with  nitric  acid, 
treated  with  ammonia  and  calcic  chloride,  and  again  evap- 
orated, it  yields  a  characteristic  rose-tint. 

C.   F.   CllASDLKR. 

luowrnc'law,  town  of  Prussi.a,  in  the  province  of  Po- 
sen.  It  has  luaiuilaeturcsof  saltpetre  and  a  rauch-fiequentcd 
cattlcfair.      Here  are  great  beds  of  rock-salt.     Poji.  7429. 

In  Par'libus  Infidel'ium  ("in  the  regions  of  the 
unbelievers").  .Since  the  Church  of  Rome  in  theory  still 
holds  ecclesiastical  sway  in  those  countries  wlicme  the 
Church  has  been  expelled  (such  as  parts  of  Asia  and  North 
Africa),  the  custom  has  long  prevailed  of  giving  to  suflra- 
gans,  coadjutors,  vicars-general,  missionary  bishops,  and 
other  inferior  dignitaries  the  nominal  bishoprics  of  jilaces 
far  remote  from  their  scene  of  duty.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  two  missionary  bishops  at  jiresent  (IS75)  serving  in 
North-western  British  America  are  respectively  bishops  of 
Satala  and  Anemurium,  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  Such  prel- 
ates are  called  bishops  j'li  parlibuD  tnfulvlium,  or  simply 
bishops  in  jxirtlbiis. 

In  Perso'nam.     Sec  Ix  Reh. 


In'quest  of  Office.     In  English  practice  this  is  an 
inquiry  made  by  the  king's  (or  queen's)  ofl'icer,  his  sheriff, 
coroner,  or  eschcator,  virltitc  officii  or  by  writ  sent  to  them 
for  that  purpose,  or  bv  commissioners  specially  appointed, 
concerning  any  matter  that  entitles  the  king  to  the  ,.os- 
session  of  lands  or  tenements,  goods  or  chattels.     The  in- 
vestigation is  made  with  the  aid  of  a  jury,  which  is  not 
required  to  consist  of  any  specific  number  of  persons,  but 
may  have  either  twelve  or  more  or  lAs,     The  most  im- 
portant cases  in  which  inquiries  of  this  kind  arc  instituted 
relate  to  the  escheat  and  forfeiture  of  lands  to  (he  (  rown, 
cither  by  reason  of  the  alienage  of  their  owner,  who  ac- 
quired them  by  conveyance  or  devise,  or  because  llierc  are 
no  heirs  of  a  "deceased  person  to  inherit  the  land  of  which 
he  died  seized.     Upon  a  finding  by  the  jury  that  the  owner 
is  an  alien,  or  that  he  has  died  leaving  no  heirs,  the  prop- 
erty vests  immediately  in  the  Crown  without  any  lurther 
proceeding  being  necessary.      As  the  inquiry  terminates 
with  a  fii"li"9  «'■  certain  facts  by  the  jury,  the  proceeding 
is  sometimes  termed  "office  found,"  which  is  aii  abbrevia- 
tion for  the  fuller  expression,  "  inquest  of  office  found. 
Inquests  of  oSice  were  originally  devised  as  an  authentic 
means  of  giving  the  king  his  right  by  solemn  matter  of 
record,  and   in  order  that  by  the  intervention  of  a  jury 
the  subject  might  be  protected  against  arbitrary  seizures 
of  his  property.     In  the  U.  S.  this  form  of  procedure  .3 
still  retained  in  a  number  of  the  States,  though  it  is  not 
uniformly  made  applicable  to  the  same  classes  of  cases  as 
in  English  practice.    It  is  only  resorted  to  when  real  prop- 
erty is  to  be  forfeited  to  the  Slate  and  does  not  apply  to 
pefsonaltv.    It  is  a  proceeding  employed  chiefly  when  lands 
escheat  to  the  State  for  want  of  heirs.     In  some  of  tho 
States   also,  the  common-law  rules  regarding  the  right  ot 
aliens  to  hold  lands  still  prevail,  and  in  these  an  inquest 
of  office  would  generally  be  applicable  to  vest  lands  ac- 
quired bv  purchase  in  the  State,  unless  a  different  mode  of 
procedure  has  been  adojited  by  statute.     In  a  number  of 
the  States,  however,  statutes  have  been  enacted  enabling 
aliens  to  hold  lands  by  an  indefeasible  title      An  inquest 
of  office  in  the  Slates  following  the  New  \ork  code  ol  pro- 
cedure is  an  action  instituted  by  the  attorney-general  of 
the  Stale.  (Sec  J\'c«>  YmI.-  Code,  ?  447.) 

Georck  Chase.  REVisEn  bv  T.  W.  Dwicht. 
Innuisi'tion  [l.at.  in^.n-itio,  a  "  seeking"  or  "searcli- 
in-  for,"  "inquiring  into."  "examination;"  used  in  the 
Vulgate.  Acts  xii.  1'.'].  in  law.  a  seeking  for  proof  in  sup- 
port of  an  accusation,  a  legal  investigation,  invorving  tho 
examin-atioii  of  the  inquisitors  anJ.""  ""l"'^"""';  P^»- 
cess.  (See  Carpzov,  /'n-c  „ov.  m,,,n-n,L  Ao.r.  Hcv.  Cnm.,  ed. 
Quint  1  fiG5,  index. )  In  history,  first  a  process  of  investi- 
gation, then  a  tribunal  under  various  forms  ""J  "Yd.hea- 
Tions,  then  a  fixed  institution  of  a  twolo  d  type,  bearing 

the  names  h„,u'''i^<>  >""■"''=''  I""";""'':  ^"nT"rfTZ' 
II  Sauto  Officio.  La  Co«i,,(<:,aiioi.  .„  S..„„  Ojff,cc.  <•'^•'^'■^'- 
nrrichl.  K  ncnjcrici,!.  established  in  some  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  and  slates  to  protect  "'f.  f''>'l' J-/ 
searching  out  and  bringing  to  penance  or  I'"";f ;"«  ^"^T 
ties,  unbelievers,  and  certain  classes  of  <>«'="'"»»«%"'' 
I  morals  and  tho  canon  law.  (See  Du  Cange,  «/o.-n';.  Med 
Hiufim.  L.tiuiio,..  iii.  S44.)  (  For  the  early  relations  of 
the  Church  to  errorists  see  Heresy.) 

.\  careful  defining  and  classification  may  help  us  to  avoid 
some  of  tho  confusion  which  marks  many  of  the  accounts 

°'l  n:t;;:w"i  /„,..,./o„.-This  was  nm  alriliu.^ 
bu  a  civil  process.  The  emperor  Theodosius  the  Great 
r-:C4\)  used  inquisitors  or  inquirers  after  tho  heretics 
for  the  detection  especially  of  the  Mauichaeans  (382).    They 


INQUISITION. 


1:211 


were  appointed  hy  the  prefect  of  the  prtetoriuni.  Aggra- 
vated cases  of  leaJcrsliip  in  certain  specified  forms  of  heresy 
were  punislied  witli  dealli.  (Theodorut:,  //I'ff.  EvxUt.t  v.  Itj.) 
Justinian  ( J25-a05)  employed  similar  officers  to  search  for 
heretics  in  general  (62!)).  The  Christian  doctrine,  as  de- 
fined hy  the  four  hidy  synods  general,  and  the  canons  framed 
by  them,  were  acknowledged  as  part  of  the  law  of  the  en)- 
pire,  and  heresy  thus  hecaine  a  civil  olTence,  the  trial  and 
penal  visitation  of  which  belonged  solely  to  the  civil  mag- 
istrate. The  whole  matter  was  confined  lo  the  ordinary 
courts,  and  the  bishops  exercised  for  centuries  no  tcnijioral 
jurisiliction.  The  bishop  Ithaeius  reached  Priscilian 
through  the  civil  powers.  But  the  Church  had  not  then 
learned  to  make  the  subtle  distinction  which  afterwards 
became  so  general.  Though  Priscilian  was  a  very  danger- 
ous hercsiarch,  and  though  his  trial  and  torture  were  con- 
ducted by  the  prefect,  and  his  behcailing  was  ordered  by  the 
emperor' (^Sj),  the  issue  was  regarded  with  widespread 
horror,  Ithaeius  was  degraded,  excommunicated,  and  died 
in  exile,  and  the  best  men  in  the  Church  refused  commu- 
nion with  his  supporters.  (Baronius,  Aniialcn,  ann,  ;i,Sl, 
38 J,  :isri,  :i!)7.     i^ce  Ukresv.) 

II.  Thr  Di'oceanii  fii>jnisll!i>ii  gradually  arose  out  of  the 
imperial,  relieved  it  of  part  of  its  duties,  and  gave  it  a 
subordinate  character  in  the  infliction  of  penally.  This 
iniuisition  was  not  a  tribunal,  but  an  ecclesiastical  process 
or  function.  As  the  penalties  visited  upon  olfenders  under 
the  codes  of  Theodosius  .and  ,Iustinian  wore  largely  of  an  ec- 
clesiastical nature,  and  the  bishops  were  more  and  more 
recognised  as  governmental  aids,  the  civil  powers  coni- 
mittoil  the  jurisdiction  in  inquisitorial  cases  to  the  bishops 
in  their  several  dioceses  (.about  800).  Tho  bishops  used 
for  this  purpose  their  synodal  courts.  There  tho  accused 
were  examined.  If  found  guilty,  they  wero  instructed  and 
admonished.  If  they  remained  obdurate,  Ihey  were  loft  in 
the  hands  of  tho  secular  court  to  bo  ])unishc  1  under  tlio 
common  law.  This  sort  of  function  assumed  a  far  wider 
significancy  in  the  twelfth  century.  Pope  Lucius  III.  (  llSl- 
8j)  at  the  synod  of  Verona  (llSl)  prepared  »  decree 
against  tho  heretics  of  that  time.  He  puts  them  under  per- 
petual anathema.  Laymen  arc  to  be  delivered  into  tho 
hands  of  the  scsular  judges  to  be  ]>unished  unless  they 
abjure  at  once.  Tho  relapsed  are  not  to  bo  allowed  a 
second  pardon.  The  bishops  are  to  make  at  least  an  an- 
nual visitation  to  dcS!:over  such  heretics.  All  tho  secular 
authorities  are  to  render  every  ]>03sible  aid  in  tho  work 
under  pain  of  excommunication  and  forfciluro  of  dignities. 
"  In  this  decree,"  says  Fleury,  "  we  see  tho  concurrence  of 
the  two  powers — tho  ecclesiastical  and  civil — for  tho  extir- 
pation of  heresies."  He  considers  this  decree  a*  involving 
the  germ  of  the  Inquisition.  (Fleury,  Hist.  Ecrlcs.,  iv.  700; 
Du  Pin,  Twelfth  Century,  ch.  ix.) 

III.  The  Papal  I.eijalhie  fiiqitinitioii,  for  which  tho  way 
was  preparing,  became  independent  of  the  diocesan,  though 
coexistent  in  part  with  it.  It  was  create  1  by  special  com- 
mission, was  not  permanent,  was  not  an  institution.  The 
disalTeetion  toward  tho  Church  whitdi  marked  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  spread  more  and  more  rapidly.  In  .South- 
ern Franco  her  opponents  ha<l  become  almost  tho  dominant 

arty.     To  Innocent   III.  (llUS-rjlO)  it  seemed  that  tho 

ishons  wero  carrying  on  proceedings  against  these  heretics 
in  quite  too  languishing  a  stylo.     Whatever  might  bo  tho 

ihilosophy  of  it,  their  lack  of  success  was  beyond  dispute. 

le  sent,  therefore,  as  papal  Irgalei,  tho  Cistercians  Raineri 
ond  (iuido  into  .Southern  France  tr)  give  more  energy  to  tho 
repression  of  tho  Wal  lenses  ( 1  ISIS),  with  authority  to  em- 
ploy the  interdict  in  coercing  the  civil  powers.  Peter  of 
Caslclnau  was  appointed  associate  inquisitor  in  Southern 
Franco  (1200),  and  was  active,  in  conjunction  with  other 
Cistercians,  against  the  heretics,  from  Toulouse  as  a  centre 
(120:1).  The  powers  of  tho  papal  legates  wero  further 
enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  tho  easo  of  non-compliant  bishops. 
To  meet  tho  popular  aversion  created  by  tho  dissolute 
lives  of  the  clergy,  Diego,  bishop  of  Osma,  and  Dominic, 
by  permission  of  the  pope,  went  on  foot  and  in  poverty 
to  preach  among  the  heretics.  Peter  anil  Raoul  were  sent 
on  a  mission  among  the  Albigenses  (1200).  Count  Ray- 
mond humbled  himself  before  tho  legate,  Peter  of  Castcl- 
nau  (1207),  and  promised  to  aid  in  extirpating  the  heretics 
ho  had  been  protecting.  Dominie  urged  the  crnsndc  against 
tho  Albigenses  (I20S|.  Tho  Icgatine  inquisitors  to  a  largo 
degree  acted  indepenilcntly  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese; 
they  held  n  court  of  their  own,  and  by  authority  of  tho 
pope  wont  on  to  try.  to  condemn,  and  to  inflict  penalties, 
anil,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  magistracy,  even  death 
itself.  Raonl  feigned  himself  one  of  the  heretics,  and  got 
possession  of  their  secrets.  Many  priests,  monks,  laymen, 
and  women  were  thus  detected,  and  conrlemned  in  a  coun- 
cil at  Paris.  Ten  were  burned  ami  four  imprisoned  for  lifo 
(1200).  Proceedings  so  crafty,  unsernpulous.  and  vigorous 
had  all  the  success  of  which  their  nature  allows.  Tho  search 


was  very  thorough,  and  the  remedy  seemed  temporarily 
almost  complete.  Peter  do  Castelnau,  by  a  baud  never 
traced,  was  murdered  near  Toulouso  (120S).  (Guillaumc  do 
Nangis,  67ir»iii<;iic  ,■  lluizot,  Coll.  d.  Memoins,  xiii.  1)7.) 
But  his  death  helped  ti)  complete  tho  work  of  his  life.  In- 
nocent, exasperated  to  the  last  degree  by  the  death  of  his 
faithful  servant,  hurled  against  tho  .\lbigcuscs  a  crusade, 
in  part  under  Arnold  (afterwards  archbishop  of  Narbonne) 
as  legate  (1209),  which  after  a  bloody  struggle  ended  in 
their  extermination. 

IV.  Jlitir  of'  the  hiquisitioii  an  a  Permanent  fiigU'titlion — 
Acta  of  the  I'niin-iU.^Tha  vigor  with  which  tho  Icgatine 
inquisition  had  acted,  the  success  of  its  mission,  and  tho 
enormous  jircssure  on  the  Church,  which  ihc  old  mode  of 
procedure  had  allowcil  to  increase,  and  of  which  the  new 
measures  had  been  but  a  local  and  temporary  jtalliativc, 
strengthened  the  tendency  to  give  system  antl  permanence 
to  some  institution  which  should  furnish  the  specific  relief 
required  in  the  time  of  crisis.  The  olTicinl  initiative  in 
this  work  may  be  said  to  have  been  made  by  the  Twelfth 
General  Council,  the  Fourth  Latcran  (1215).  Innocent  III. 
presiding.  It  took  the  first  steps  in  the  direction  of  a  i)er- 
mancnt  inquisition.  It  virtually  gave  something  of  tho 
character  ot  an  inquisitoi-ial  tril>nnal  to  the  synodal  courts 
of  the  bishops.  Provincial  synods  were  to  be  held  an- 
nually, and  violations  of  the  Latcran  canons  were  to  bo 
rigorously  punished.  The  punitive  discijdine  was  no  longer 
to  bo  a  spontaneous  and  irresponsible  matter,  but  the 
courls  were  to  be  under  Church  decree — by  pre-eminence, 
courts  for  the  searching  ont,  trial,  and  punishment  of  here- 
tics. The  condemned  were  to  be  left  in  the  hands  of  tho 
secular  power,  and  their  goods  were  to  be  confiscated.  Tho 
secular  powers  were  to  be  admonished  and  induced,  and, 
should  it  prove  necessary,  were  to  bo  eoinpcllcd  (eompellnu- 
lur)  to  the  utmost  of  their  power  to  exterminate  all  who 
wero  pointed  out  os  heretics  by  the  Church  (ttnlrcmos  hirre- 
ticoti  ub  eccfceia  (taiiotatnu.  pro  ririhicn  cxtenniuttrr).  Any 
prince  declining  thus  to  purge  his  land  of  heresy  wag  to  bo 
excommunicated.  If  he  persisted,  complaint  was  to  bo 
made  to  the  pope,  who  was  then  to  absolve  his  vassals  from 
their  allegiance  and  allow  the  country  lo  be  seiy.cd  by  Catho- 
lics who  should  extcrminale  the  heretics.  Those  who  joined 
in  tho  crusade  for  the  extermination  of  heretics  {hrrre- 
(iVonini  e.rtcniiuiiiim)  were  to  have  the  same  indulgence  as 
tho  crusaders  who  went  to  tho  Holy  Land.  Every  bishop 
was  to  sec  to  the  carrying  out  of  these  provisions  under 
pain  of  canonical  vengeance  (ultionls).  lie  was  to  be  de- 
posed for  neglect  to  cleanse  his  diocese  of  the  leaven  of 
heretical  ])ravity,  and  his  successor  was  lo  be  one  who  had 
both  the  will  and  i>ower  to  destroy  it.  The  mclhod  of 
proceeding  against  olVcnders  was  by  accusation,  denun- 
ciation, and  inquisition.  (Carrania,  Suiiima  Conciliorum, 
Antwerp,  1550,  liS5,  336;  cd.  .Schram,  August.  Vindelic, 
1778,  vol.  iii.  3G-3U;  Fleury,  ///«(.  Ecclcxlasti'qiie,  Paris, 
1840,  V.  123.)  Tho  Council'of  Toulouso  (1220)  adopted  a 
number  of  canons  tending  to  give  permanent  character  lo 
tho  Inquisition  as  an  institution.  It  was  ordained  that  tho 
bishop  should  make  an  annual  visitation,  and  sec  lo  it  that 
in  all  parishes  one  priest  and  three  laymen  of  good  repute 
shoubl  be  appointed  lo  ilcvolc  their  entire  time  lo  the  mak- 
ing the  iiiquisitiou  for  heretics.  The  local  magistracy  was 
to  unite  in  this  search.  Any  one  permitting  a  hrrctic  to  re- 
main in  his  country,  or  who  in  any  way  shiehh  d  him,  was 
to  be  punished  by  forfeiture  of  land,  personal  properly,  and 
official  position.'  All  heretics  were  to  be  luuuUd  over  lo 
the  archbishop,  bishop,  or  local  authorities,  'llie  houses 
in  which  they  wero  found  were  lo  bo  levelled  with  tho 
ground.  Heretics,  and  those  under  charge  or  suspicion  of 
heresy,  wero  to  be  excluded  from  medical  ]iraclicc  {offirin 
medlri  noil  utcntiir).  Any  one  could  make  ii:quisilion  and 
seiuo  heretics  in  Ihc  country  of  anollier.  Genuine  penitents 
wero  lo  he  removed  from  the  tainted  ncigliloiliood,  wero 
to  wear  two  crosses  on  their  clothing,  diUcrent  in  color 
from  it.  till  the  bishop  allowed  Ihcm  to  be  laid  aside. 
Their  forl'iiturc  of  |)ublic  ri);hls  could  only  be  rcliKUcI  by  a 
papal  dispensation.  Ili  relics  driven  to  penitence  by  fear 
were  lo  be  imprisoned,  so  as  to  prevent  their  corrupting 
others.  Men  from  the  ago  of  fourteen,  and  women  from 
twelve,  were  lo  nuiko  oath,  and  renew  it  every  two  years, 
that  they  woulil  inlorm  on  heretics.  The  laity  were  strictly 
prohibited  from  having  the  Holy  Scriptures.  (Carrania- 
.Schram.  .Vuniiiio,  iii.  70-72;  Ilarduin,  /ctn  Coneiliorum, 
Paris,  1711,  xii.  173;  Mansi,  Cnlleriln,  Vcnct.,  1778,  xxiii. 
1SI2;   Fleury,  V.  21  1:  Du  Pin,  Thirlrcnth  Cent.) 

The  local  councils  of  this  era  I'olloweil  up  Ihc  work  of  tho 
Fourth  Latcran  with  special  provisions  in  its  rpirit.  Thus, 
tho  Council  of  ChiVteau-Oontier  (  Mayenoe,  1231 ),  .lews  can- 
not testify  against  Christians;  tho  Counoil  of  Bezifres 
(1233),  tho  laying  olT  of  Ihc  crosses  shall  be  ennsidercd  suf- 
ficient proof  of  heresy  ( Fleury,  v.  252) ;  the  Council  of 
Aries  (1231)  convicted  heretics  to  bo  imprisoned  for  life. 


1212 


INQUISITION. 


the  heretic  detected  after  death  to  be  exhumed  and  given  , 
to  the  secular  judgment  (Fleury,  v.  266).     The  Council  of 
Narbonno  (12:'.5),  under  direction  of  the  pope,  laid  down  j 
rules  for  the  Dominican  inquisitors.     Prisons  were  to  be 
constructed  for  the  converts  who  had  not  properly  to  sup- 
port them  in  .iuil.     Those  \vho  relapsed  into  heresy  were, 
with<uU  furlher  hearing,  to  be  left  to  the  secular  judges  for 
punishment.     No  one  was  to  be  e.vcused  from  imprisonment  I 
because  of  old  age,  of  wife,  parents,  or  children  :  the  names 
of  witnesses  were  not  to  be  made  known  by  word  or  sign.  ■ 
Even  the  infamous  and  convicts  were  eligible  as  witnesses.  I 
(Carranza-Schram,  iii.  S3;    Fleury,  v.  271;  Du  Pin,  Cent. 
Xlll..  ch.  vi.) 

V.  Oninnic  Euinhliithment  of  the  Inquintton. — Gregory  J.  A. 
(1227-41)  found  that  not  even  the  multiplication  of  rigorous 
canonscould  overcome  the  scrupulosity,  the  mildness,  or,  per- 
haps, sometimes,  the  indolence  of  the  bishops.  In  Aug.,  1231, 
he  placed  the  Inquisition  in  the  charge  of  the  Dominicans, 
an  order  specially  founded  for  the  defence  of  the  Church 
against  heresy.  Papal  inquisitors  ofthat  order  were  appoint- 
ed for  Germany,  .\ragon,  and  Austria  (1232).  and  for  Lom- 
bardy  and  Southern  France(1233).  They  were  made  formally 
free  from  all  restrictive  dependency  on  the  bishops  (1233), 
and  could  in  certain  cases  summon  the  bishops  themselves 
before  them.  The  Inquisition  then  became  an  org.anized 
institution,  a  permanent  tribunal,  papal  in  its  supreme  au- 
thority, and  administered  mainly,  though  not  exclusively, 
by  the'  Dominican  order.  Under  its  jurisdiction  persistent 
heresy  was  treated  with  unsparing  severity.  But  "the 
Church  does  not  thirst  for  blood."  That  maxim  was  too 
fixed  to  be  disregarded.  Blood  had  to  be  shed,  the  Church's 
need  required  it,  but  the  Church  could  not  shed  it  with  her 
own  hands.  The  casuists  and  divines  hardly  discuss  the 
question  whether  the  Church,  as  such,  can  shed  blood;  it 
is  agreed  that  she  cannot.  That  the  Church  might  not 
even' wear  the  ajipearance  of  staining  herself  with  blood  it 
was  necessary  that  the  princes  should  obligate  themselves 
toco-work  with  her  in  carrying  out  the  measures  designed  to 
repress  heresy.  Louis  IX.  of  France  (afterwards  canon- 
ized) had  shown  his  willingness,  out  of  a  pious  mind,  to 
use  the  powers  of  the  state  against  the  Albigenses  (122S). 
Raymond  VII.  of  Toulouse  (1233)  and  Frederick  II.  of 
Germany  (1234)  followed  up  the  work  by  the  requisite 
laws,  but  neither  of  them  with  the  unsuspected  zeal  of  St. 
Louis.  As  these  movements  in  the  state  followed  in  a 
secondary  way  \ipon  the  suggestions  of  the  Church,  the 
Inquisition  of  this  type  may  properly  bo  called  an  eccle- 
siastico-political  tribunal.  Both  Church  and  state  co-op- 
erated in  it,  but  the  Church  was  supreme,  and  used  the 
state.  The  relation  was  reversed  in  the  Inquisition  as  it 
existed  at  a  later  period,  especially  in  Spain  :  there  Church 
and  state  still  co-operated,  but  the  state  was  supreme  and 
used  the  Church.  ,  m  . 

VI.  Method  and  Laws  nf  the  Ecr-leniagtico-political  Tri- 
hwnnl,  the  "  Andeut"  Iiiquinltion.—Wo  have  seen  the  regu- 
lations established  by  the  councils,  under  which  the  seizure 
and  trial  of  persons  "suspected  of  heresy  and  other  crimes 
took  place.  Their  fellows  in  guilt,  and  even  common  con- 
victs, were  accepted  as  witnesses  against  them.  The  ac- 
cused were  to  know  nothing  of  them.  Confession  was 
wrung  from  them  by  torture.  The  torture  of  those  sus- 
iiected  of  heresy  was  sanctioneil  by  Innocent  IV.  (1202). 
The  torture  was  at  the  beginning  applied  by  the  civil  au- 
thorities, but  as  the  requisite  secrecy  was  impossible  with 
this  arrangement,  the  Inquisition  subsequently  took  the 
matter  into  its  own  hands,  under  direction  of  I'rban  IV. 
(1261-61).  The  penalties  inflicted  were  penances  of  various 
kinds,  forfeiture  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  rights,  confisca- 
tion of  property,  imprisonment  or  the  galleys,  sometimes 
for  life,  and  capital  punishment,  usually  by  burning  alive. 
In  mitigated  cases  persons  were  strangled  first  and  burned 
afterwards.  Rigorous  as  the  Inquisition  was  even  in  this 
form,  it  was  in  many  respects  less  arbitrary  and  severe  than 
the  politico-eccIesiastic.ll  Inquisition  of  after  times.  The 
bishops. were  not  wholly  ignored,  the  law  of  secrecy  was  not 
ns  strictly  enforced,  the  means  of  defence  were  more  ample. 
In  Aragon  and  even  in  other  countries  conviction  of  heresy 
was  not  followed  by  sequestration  of  property.  In  a  word, 
the  Inquisition  in  its  prevailingly  ecclesiastical  form  was 
more  dependent,  more  open  to  the  influence  of  public  senti- 
ment, less  compact  and  centralized,  rather  local  than  na- 
tional, and  altogether  less  terrible. 

VII.  The  Ere!,-iifi»l!ro-pol :i!cal  hquxnition,  Bx'lory  nf. — 
1.  In  France.— T\\o  special  sphereof  the  Inquisition  in  the 
period  of  its  earliest  organization  was  in  Southern  France 
(1229-34'!.  Its  proceedings  were  marked  with  such  severity 
that  an  insurrection  of  the  people  took  place,  and  it  was 
driven  out  of  Toulouse  and  Narbonne.  Four  of  the  in- 
quisitors were  put  to  death  in  Toulouse,  and  the  pope  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  the  Inquisition  from  that  place.  It 
was  again  restored,  and  again  fell  into  its  earlier  cruelty. 


It  was.  however,  put  under  some  restrictions  by  Philip  the 
Fair  (12SO-1314).  In  the  fourteenth  century  it  died  out  in 
France.  When,  two  centuries  later,  an  attempt  was  made, 
under  cover  of  the  intense  passions  excited  by  the  Reforma- 
tion, to  bring  it  in  again  and  use  it  against  the  Huguenots, 
the  ministers  of  Henry  II.  I  l.i47-o9)  assured  him  that  per- 
sistence in  the  movement  would  bring  on  a  civil  war.  His 
queen,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  and  others,  Roman  Catholics 
and  ardent  opposers  of  Protestantism,  resisted  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Inquisition.  But.  though  the  Inquisition  was 
not  allowed  a  formal  estaiilishmcnt  in  France,  its  in- 
fluence, though  with  a  certain  furtiveness.  has  been  very 
great  there  at  times.  The  Cn.\MBRE  Aupkxte  (which  see) 
(1535)  was  associated  with  an  inquisitorial  tribunal,  of 
which  the  pope  was  a  corresponding  member.  Both  were 
established  by  Francis  I.  (1515-47),  who  more  than  once, 
with  his  mistress,  enjoyed  the  excitement  of  the  public 
burning  of  heretics.  '.Several  heretics  were  burned  when 
Henry  II.  entered  Paris  in  1540,  and  the  cruelties  of  the 
conjo'int  tribunal  aided  in  bringing  on  the  religious  war  of 
1560. 

2.  Germany. — The  Inquisition  was  introduced  into  a  num- 
ber of  other  countries.     In  some  it  was  unable  to  obtain  a 
permanent  footing,  and  in  all  its  spirit  and  history  were  in 
some  measure  modified  by  the  character  of  the  nationality. 
Conrad  of  Marlnirg,  a  Dominican,  was  appointed  by  Greg- 
ory IX.  grand  inquisitor  of  Germany  (1231).     He  aroused 
the  pope  to  a  crusade  against  the  STEnixGEKS  (which  see), 
while   the   Inquisition    proceeded   with   judicial   measures 
against  them  as  heretics.    The  cruel  earnestness  of  Conrad, 
w'hich  imperilled  the  lives  even  of  those  who  gave  their 
souls  to  his  keeping,  directed  itself  alike  against  the  high 
and  the   low   with  an   impartiality   which  intensified  the 
common   aversion  of  people,  princes,  and  bishops  toward 
the  Inquisition,  and  made  it   for  ever  impossible  that  it 
should  find  a  permanent  home  in  Geriuany.     The  pope  was 
appealed  to,  and,  expressing  wonder  at  the  long  endurance 
of  such  atrocities,  disavowed  the  excesses  of  his  official. 
Before  his  reply  was  received  Conrad  was  assassinated  Ijy 
some  German  iobles  (Julv  30, 1233).    Droso,  a  Dominican, 
was  associated  in  spirit  and  work  with  him.  (See  Hofler  in 
Wetzcr    and    Weltes'    Kireh-Lexic.,   and    Wagenmann   in 
Herzog's  Real  Encjldop..  '•  Konrad.")      For  more  than  a 
century  the  Inquisition  seemed  robbed  ot  its  vitality  in 
Germa'nv  by  its  own  excesses,  but  in  the  fourteenth  century 
the  BEr.'HARns  and  Beguises  (which  see)  were  persecuted 
with  great  severity  (1367)  by  AValter  Karling  and  another 
inquisitor,  both  Dominicans,  sent  by  I'rban  V.  (1362-70). 
Their  work  was  legalized  and  efficiently  sustained  by  three 
edicts  granted  by  Charles  IV.  (136(1).     Gregory   XI.  en- 
larged  the  number   of  inquisitors    for    Germany    to   five 
(1372).   and    Boniface    IX.   sent  six   for    North   Germany 
(about'  1399).     Toward  the  close  of  Ihe  fifteenth  century  it 
received  a  new  impetus  from  the  bull  '•  Summis  desiderantes 
affcctibns,"  isfued  bv  Innocent  VIII.  (Dec.  5.  14S41.  in 
which  he  alarmed  all  Germany,  and  stimulated  to  the  last 
degree  the  superstitions  of  the  peojde,  by  informing  them 
that  their  country  was  overrun  with  witchcraft,  and  in  the 
hands  of  magicians  who  were  in  covenant  with  the  devil. 
For  the  extirpation  of  these  criminals  he  appointed  two 
inquisitors.  Heinrich  Kfimcr  {In^tHor,  '-merchant,"  is  the 
I.al  inizcd  form  in  which  it  often  occurs )  and  .lakob  .Spreugcr. 
Out  of  the  confessions  of  those  charged   with  witchcraft, 
aided  bv  suggestive  questions  and  the  torture,  was  built  up 
ft  complete  system  of  demonology.     The  jirocesses  and  re- 
sults of  thcs'e  examinations  were  wrought  up  by  Sprenger 
in   the  Mallens   Malefiearum,  the  "  Hammer  of  Witches, 
who  were  assumed  to  be  for  the  most  part  feminine  ( Cologne. 
14^9)      This  book  long  remained  an  authority  in  the  pro- 
ceedings against  that  class  of  ofl-enders.     The  repression 
became    the    excitant.     The  temptation  of  sulTering  and 
publicity  alwars  swells  the  number  of  crimes  of  the  imagi- 
nation. "An  epidemical  mania  swejit  over  (.crmany.    Ihou- 
sandsof  women  were  burned  or  tortured  to  death,  some- 
timcs'confessing,  ofltimes  boasting,  that  they  were  witches. 
Science,  authoritv,  and  law  made  superstition  almost  invin- 
cible, and  one  o{  the  latest  roots  of   medurval   thinking 
whi.-h  clung  to  the  soil  of  Germany  and  of  other  parts  ol 
the  Protestant  in  common  with  the  Catholic  world  was  the 
belief  in  witches.     The   Reformation  com]ilctcly  broke  the 
power  of  the   Inquisition   in    Germany.     The  Jesuits  en- 
deavored to  restore  it  in  Austria  and  Bohemia.    In  Bavaria 
(1.599)  it  was  formally  established,  but  it   lacked  vitality, 
and  soon  vanished  from  all  parts  of  Germany. 

3  Italy— Itnme.— In  Italv  its  life  was  protracted,  though 
political'complications  prevented  its  assuming  the  seventy 
I  of  character  displayed  wherever  the  government  completely 
controlled  it  or  it  controlled  the  goi-ernment.  It  was  in- 
troduce,!  into  Italy  by  Gregory  IX-  <  •-''f 'Vv  A  rT-  rii 
tribunal  at  Rome  was  employed  by  Paul  IV.  (155o-59) 
against  Protestantism.      He   declared    in   his   last   hours 


INQUISITION. 


1213 


that  he  found  in  it  the  onlv  roenns  of  rescuing  the  Roman 
Catholic  religi.in  an.l  the  authority  of  the  aiic.=tnlie  see 
from  (lostruclion.  i  (Jnuphrius.  quoted  in  Hoi.legiicr,  //i«(or. 
I'Hutit.,  I09S,  2lt.)  lu  conjuuelion  with  the  liinuisilion 
.too.l  Ihe  Connrefc'iition  of  the  Holy  Office,  whi.h  a  short 
time  heforo  ha.l  heen  established  by  Paul  ill.  (Ija4-a0), 
xvhoso  action  in  so  doing  had  been  influenced  by  Cardinal 
CaralTa,  afterwards  I'aul  IV.  Sixlus  V.  (1,-.S5-'JII  I  enlarged 
the  powers  of  the  Congregation  (I.'.SSi.  The  Koinan  In- 
qui"ition  was  eomiiosed  of  twelve  cardinals  and  ot  ofllcials 
styled  consultors  or  riualifiealors.  The  chief  inquisitor  was 
alVavs  a  Dominieau.  The  pope  himself  met  with  the  court 
at  leiit  once  a  week,  and  eontlrmed  its  .lecisions.  Inqui- 
sitorial courts,  with  a  general  similarity  of  ..rgani/.atinn, 
but  with  a  varying  number  of  members,  chosen  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  IIolv  Office,  were  introduced  through- 
out Italy.  The  Inquisition  in  Italy  was  abolished  by  Na- 
poleon ("l80.'<),  was  sanctioned  again  by  Pius  VII.  (l^lt|. 
but  was  used  after  that  time  mainly  as  a  disciplinary  tri- 
bunal fur  the  clergy,  and  was  cstinguisbed  by  the  oonsoli-  | 
dation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  Oct.  '.>.  17S70. 

4.    IV.iiVf.— The  re|iublic  of  Venice  refused    to    receivo 
from  the  pope  an  inquisition  dependent  on  him,  but  insti- 
tuted one  under  stale  control  (llisff).     The  papal  nuncio  j 
pre-id-d  indeed  in  it.  but  with  him  were  associated  the 
patriarch,  the  pater  inquisitor,  who  was  always  a  Francis-  ! 
can.   and    three  civil  judges,   without   whose  concurrence  , 
nothing  could  be  decided  (12S9 1.    The  Venetian  Inquisition 
mi"ht  indeed  ho  classified  as  politico-ecclesiastical,  as  the  i 
poUtical  was  in  some  sense  the  primary  element,  and  so 
take  its  place  with  Spain.     But  the  Inquisition  of  Venice 
was  really  in  the  main  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal,  kept  such   I 
bv  the  stale.     While  Spain  stimulated  the  In.iuisition,  and 
g'avo  it  the  largest  powers.  Venice  restrained   it,  confined    1 
its  iurisdiction  to  cases  of  heresy,  did  not  allow  it  to  deprive 
the"  heirs  of  the  condemned  of  the  properly,  and  gave  it 
no  censorship  of  books.     The  Creeks  and  Armenians  had 
froe.lom   of  worship,    the   .lews    were    tolerated,   and   the 
University  of  Pa.lua  was  not  limited  to  Roman  Catholics 
in  conferring   its  degrees  in   divinity.     The  ecclesiastical 
Inquisition  of  Venice  is  not   to  he  confounded  with  the 
stale  Inquisition.  (See  Fra  Paolo.  M»r>i<,U!er ;  Fleury,  d. 
96;   Darn,  ff/.f.  rfe  Venhe  (1819),  i.  405-+I2;  ii.  532;  iv. 
342,  160.) 

.i.  Xnplrt.  Sidli/,  Tiincnni/.—The  Inquisition  was  never 
established  in  Naples.  It  was  prevented  on  the  one  side 
bv  (he  dim  -ulties  with  the  pope,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
unwillingness  of  the  pope  that  an  Inquisition  should  ba 
established  independent  of  his  own  control.  The  Inquisi- 
tion  which  was  established  in  Niijiles  under  the  control  ol 
the  general  inquisitor  of  Spain  was  abrogated  17S2.  It 
was  restore.I  in  Sardinia  by  (iregory  XVI.  (l.'*:;.'!),  and 
stood  until  1.848.  In  Tuscany,  the  grand  duke  had  re- 
luctantly given  up  (ialileo  to  the  Roman  Inc|uisition  ( Ifif.;!). 
The  Tuscan  In(|uisition  was  supjircsscl  by  the  gniiid  duke 
Leopold  II.  (|h2I-.'>9).  In  the  political  reaction  following 
the  year  1819  the  Inquisition  exhibited  tokens  of  a  re- 
vivcl  life  in  Tuscanv.  An  evidence  of  this  which  aroused 
Chrislenrlom  was  the  sentencing  of  FitAVcKsm  and  Ros  v 
Mauiai  (which  see)  lo  the  galleys  (18.-i2 1  for  having  be- 
come Protcsiauls.  The  incorporation  of  Tuscany  into  the 
united  kin,' bun  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel  (1859) 
put  an  end  lo  its  Iii([uisitiop.  ,        ,    . 

«  Oih.r  r,„„if,iV«.— In  Poland  it  was  introduced  by 
Pope  .lohn  X.KII.  (i:'.2-),  but  was  soon  abolished.  All 
the  efforts  of  the  pope  to  introduce  it  as  on  institution  into 
England  were  fulile.  Inquisitors  were  sent  thither,  but 
exercised  lilile  influence,  as  Knglaii.l,  with  a  very  decided 
disposition  to  exterminate  heresy,  preferred  to  do  it  in  her 
own  independent  fashion.  ,,,,,, 

VIII.    Tllf  /'nllllfn-Kfrlfiatllrill   /lliyill'ldoM — llir  "Mntl- 

/ii./iiMiVio".— 1.  S'/miii.  The  ecelcsias- 


tico  political  Inquisition  had  been  fixed  in  Spain  in  Ara 
gon,  and  lo  its  central  inquisitor,  Nicolaus  Eyineric  (d. 
1399),  wo  owe  the  Dhrclnrlum  lui/iiinilnntm,  which  is  a 
voucher  for  Ihe  substantial  unity  of  the  spirit  and  method 
of  the  In<|uisition  under  its  two  forms,  P.ut  the  old  In- 
quisition of  Aragon  is  almost  forgotten  in  the  ni'W  Iuc|ui- 
silion  of  Castile.  The  great  thealri'  of  the  most  terrible 
form  of  this  Inquisition  ami  of  its  highest  activity  has  been 
Spain.  The  whole  purpose  and  strength  of  the  Church  and 
Sl;ile  has  never  been  so  centralized  as  there,  in  the  reprcs-  i 
sion  of  what  was  regardetl  as  a  common  evil  Ihrcatening 
the  life  of  both,  A  vigorous  absolutism  on  the  throne 
found  a  congenial  mind  in  the  Church,  for  State  and  Church 
were  welded  together  in  Spain  in  a  theocratic  conjunction 

almost  without  parallel  in  i Icrn  history.     The  primary 

rei-ons  of  all  these  facts  are  connected  with  the  entire 
eirlier  history  of  that  land  an.l  with  civil  and  religious 
necessities,  largely  real,  and  always  phiiisible,  which  rose 
out  of  that  history.     The  long  struggle  with  the  Moors  had 


been  one  in  which  Ihe  antagonisms  of  races  bad  been  vivi- 
fied by  the  antagonisms  of  religions.     The  Moors  had  been 
beaten   in   the   field,  but  their  conquerors   felt   that   there 
could  be  no  abiding  security  for  Spain  till  the  vanquished 
accepted  the  faith  of  the  victors.     The  Jews  had  from  an 
ancient  period  been  a  numerous,  active,  and    influential 
element  in  Spain.     .\s  between  Christianity  and  Moham- 
medanism, they  had  been  more  sympalhetic  with  the  lat- 
ter than  with  tiic  former.    Jew  and  Mohammedan  had  been 
compelled  toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  ( 1391 ) 
to  make  a  profession  of  Christianily.    These  reluctant  con- 
verts, Moorish  and  Jewish,  were  more  than  suspected  of 
clinging  in  secret  lo  the  faith  they  had  pulilicly  renounced. 
They  w'crc  charged  with  atrocious  ads  and  dangerous  de- 
signs involving  the  government  and  the  Church.     A  com- 
pulsory fidelity  is  the  natural  sequence  of  a  compulsory 
profession.    Of  this  compulsion  the  Inquisition  became  the 
organ.     One  of  the  earliest  distinctive  movements  in  this 
direclion  wa.s  made  by  Cardinal  Pedro  Gonzales  de  Men- 
doza.  archbishop  first 'of  Seville,  and  afterwards  of  Toledo, 
who  (1470)  gathered  together  the  legal  maxims  and  regu- 
lations bv  which  a  sifting  of  these  pretended  converts  might 
be  made.'     This  collection  was  circulated  among  the  clergy 
to  arouse  and  give  precision  to  their  cfiorts  to  repress  the 
imminent  mischief  and  peril.     As  this  measure  lacked  Ihe 
cogency  in  which  relief  alone  could  be  found,  the  cardinal 
proceeded  (1477)  to  punish  in  Seville  a  number  of  persons 
of  Jewish  origin  who  were  charged  with  maintaining  in 
secret  the  laws  and  usages  of  their  fathers.     He  then  sub- 
mitted to  the  government  the  sketch  of  a  permanent  eccle- 
siastical  court,  in  which  the  early  vigor  of  Ihe  older  In- 
quisition, which  had  been  allowed  to  languish,  should  bo 
restored.  Inn  which  should  possess  larger  powers  and  more 
effectual  methods.     In  short,  it  was  to  he  the  Inquisition 
reformed.     The  plan  met  with  the  approval  of  Ferdinand 
and  (after  a  temporary  hes'italion  1  of  Isabella.    At  the  car- 
dinal's suggestion,  which  was   all-potent   (he  was   called 
"third  king  of   Spain"),  the  jdaii   was  submitted  lo  the 
Cortes  at  Toledo  ( 1480  i,  and.  despite  the  opposition  of  a 
number  of  the  states  of  the  kingdom,  was  adopted.     The 
king  and  queen  loved  the  Church  and  loved  their  people. 
They  meant  to  strengthen  the  throne  by  the  altar,  and  the 
alta'r  bv  the  throne.     Thev  meant  to  serve  the  Church  and 
to  use  the  Church.     They  wished  to  secure  the  goodwill  of 
the  pope,  and  to  gain  by  it.    In  their  motives  were  mingled 
fear,  piety,  patriotism,  absolutism,  and  ambition.     Heresy 
waste  he  repressed  :  the  dangerous  races  were  to  be  kept 
under  ;  the  arrogance  of  the  hereditary  nobility  and  of  the 
clergy  was  to  be  held  in  check  ;  and  the  royal  wealth  and 
prerogative  enlarged   and   made  sure.     In   no  permanent 
forms  of  persecution  has  there  ever  heen  a  comiilcte  sc]ia- 
ration  of  political  from  religious  motives.  On  petition  ol  the 
sovereigns.  Sixlus   IV.  had   issued  a  bull  I  Nov.  1.  14,81 
outhorizing  them  to  appoint  and  depose  iiii|iiisilors.  and 
to  possess  Ihemsclvcs  of  the  property  of  the  condciiinc<l 
for  the  royal  treasury.     The  Inquisition  assumed  the  cha- 
racter of  a  predoniin'aiillv.  though  not  exclusively,  stale  in- 
stitution, in  which  the'  tbr.uic  was  largely  allowed  lo  define 
for   itscll    how   it   would   use   the    Church,  yet   under   such 
bonils   of  fealty    lo  the   Church  as  made   it   qncstionablo 
which  wnuM  be  master  if  llicir  councils  should  ever  be  di- 
vided.   The  papal  permission  was  not  formally  acted  upon 
till  Sept    17.  1480,  when  Ihe  king  and  queen  nominale.l  as 
inquisitors  two  Dominicans.  Morill,.  (previously  inquisitor 
in   Aragon)  ami   St.   Marlin.      AVith  them   was   conjmncd 
as  asscss.ir  Mclina,  the  queen's  counsellor,  and  as  procura- 
tor-fiscal, Lopez,  her  ehuplain.     This  court  began  Us  offi- 
cial work   (.Ian.  2.  14*1 1   by  the  publication  of  an   edict 
which  gave  directions  in  regard  to  the  arrest  of  heretics. 
These  were  f,ir  the  most  part  the  "new  Christians.    Jews 
who  hail  professcil  conversion.     The  entire  body  of  nobles 
was  threatened  with  loss  of  title  and  estate  if  they  neglect- 
ed the  orders  of  the  Inquisition.     Numbers  ol  Jews  were 
accused.      F.iur  days  after  Ihe  first  edict.  II  of  the  condcniiied 
were  burncl.  17  in'ore  in  March,  an.l  by  Nov.  I  27.^j>ersons 
had  been  sacrificcl  in  the  autos-da-f.- ol  Seville.    The  .lead 
were  accused  and  convicted,  an.l  their  remains  dug  up  and 
bnrn.-.I.      Many   of  the  convicts   were   .if    high   position. 
Wealth  secme.l'nilher  to  invite  than  turn  asi.le  the  stroke. 
The  i.laguc  called  the  Inqui-ilion  t.i  a.lj.uirn  lo  Aracena, 
but  di.l  not  relax  its  energy.      In  that  year  (or.  according 
to  one  inleri. relation  of  .Mariana  (xxiv.  17).  within  several 
years)  Ihe  total  iiumher  burnc.I  alive  is  computed  at  20110. 
'Many  nior.'  were  burneil  in  effigy  ;  17.000  were  reconcile.I— 
that  is.  ha.l  the  capital  sentence  c.immuliMl  I.,  iniprisonment 
for  life,  c.mfiscalion,  anil  other  nenallics.     The  Jews  fl.d 
in  great  numbers.     Some  bore  their  sorrow  I..  Ihe  iiontill 
himself.     Sixlus  IV.  (1481)  wrote  lo  Ferdinand  rebuking 
the  iiKiuisitors  for  their  severity,  an.l  llircalene.l  them  with 
deprivati.m.      Hut  in  1  (8.T  he  quietcl  the  scruples  of  Isa- 
bella an, 1  encouraged  Fcr.linau.l  an.l  her  lo  continue  the 


1214 


INQUISITION. 


good  work.  In  this  samn  year(I48:t)  he  appointccl  Thomas 
dc  Torqucmada.  a  Dominican  prior,  inqui.-'itor-general  of 
Castile  and  Ara<2:on.  This  nmn  was  confessor  of  tlie  queen, 
and  had  prepared  her  mind  to  shake  off  its  womanly  aver- 
sion to  tile  cNlirpalion  of  heresy  by  force.  lie  was  now 
invested  with  full  powers  to  give  the  coniplotest  unity, 
method,  and  cfliciency  to  the  Holy  Office.  The  estimate 
of  the  number  burnt  aiivc — principally  nominally  Christian 
Jews — in  the  eighteen  years  of  his  ministry  ranges  from 
about  '.mou  to  lli.dllO;  between  nOOO  and  TDUII  werc^  burned 
in  effigy.  This  was  not  the  triflinc,  the  almost  ludicrous 
tiling  which  the  words  suggest  to  the  modern  mind,  but 
invoTvcd  infamv  to  the  dead,  and  to  the  living  the  loss  of 
all  that  makes  life  dear.  Nearly  100,0(10  were  punished  in 
other  ways.  Overawed  by  the  grand  inquisitor,  the  Span- 
ish sovereign  signed  the  edict  for  the  expulsion  of  the  .lews 
(Mar.  :iU,  1492).  Fearing  because  he  had  in.ado  himself  to 
be  so  feared,  guarding  against  poison  at  homo  and  against 
assassination  when  he  went  abroad,  the  "confessor  of  sov- 
ereigns" died  in  quiet  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight  (149S). 
(Pee  Preseott's  Fcnliii'ind  mul  hiibrUa,  i.  25i-2G8,  and 
Wctzer  u.  Wclte's  A'.  L..  v.  (iil.)  Diego  de  Dcga,  a  Do- 
minican friar,  the  friend  of  Columbus,  archbishop  of  Seville, 
Ferdinand's  confessor,  and  preceptor  of  his  son  John,  suc- 
ceeded Torqucmada  as  gr.and  inquisitor  (1499).  lie  issued 
statutes  or  instructions  for  the  regulation  of  the  tribunals 
( 1500-0  t).  .-Vn  insurrection  excited  by  the  extreme  meas- 
ures of  the  inquisitors  led  to  his  removal  (150(5).  Under 
his  administration  1004  were  burned  alive,  8:i2  in  effigy, 
and  :i2,450  punished  in  other  ways.  (  Herzog,  Jlt-nl- Enci/kl. 
xviii.  X.\2.)  The  third  inquisitor-general  was  Cardinal 
Francis  Xiinenes  do  Cisneros  (1507-17).  In  those  ten 
years  Morciite  (iv.  255.  cd.  1818)  computes  that  2530  were 
burned  alive.  1.3G8  in  effigy,  47,20.'!  were  punished  in  other 
wavs;  but  in  this  estimate  is  included  those  who  suffered 
in  Aragon,  whose  Inquisition  was  not  subject  to  Ximcnes. 
(Hcrzog,  li.  E..  vi.  687;  Hefele's  Xi'mnim,  tr.  by  Calton, 
.'!'.I9.)  'riie  Inquisition  in  Spain  long  maintained  its  orig- 
inal rigor.  Philip  II.  (1555-98)  used  it  with  effect  to  the 
crusbing  out  of  Protestantism. 

The  style  of  procedure  in  the  trials  of  the  Spanish  In- 
quisition  was  very  thoroughly  mcthoilizcd.      It  was    the 
business  of  subordinate  officials,  called  "  familiars,"  to  ar- 
rest the  heretics  and  bring  them  to  the  place  of  judgment. 
The  familiars  were  supposed  to  take  the  place  of  a  godfather 
(padrino)  to  the  accused.      -\s  the  position   had  various 
prerogatives  of  an  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  nature,  it  was 
greatly  sought  for.     The  various  tribunals  which  were  es- 
tablished in  the  provinces  and  colonies  were  formed  on  the 
general   model  furnished  in   Madrid.      They  consisted  of 
three  inquisitors,  three  secretaries,  an  alguazil  (constable), 
three  receivers  and  assessors,  together  with  the  familiars 
and  jailers.     Every  inquisitor  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the 
test  of    the  fasct   limpia  (''pure  family"):    that    is,  w.as 
obliged  to  show  that  he  sprang  from  an  old  and  unsuspect- 
ed Christian  ancestry,  none  of  whom  had  ever  been  brought 
before  the  Inquisition.     Ho  was  also  sworn  to  secrecy.     In 
its  earlier  history,  as  the  "  ancient "  Inquisition,  it  had  con- 
fined itself  to  charges  of  heresy  or  the  suspicion  of  holding 
or  conniving  at  it,  of  astrology,  fortune-telling  and  witch- 
craft, of  blasphemy,  of  offenctts  against  the  Holy  Office  itself 
or  its  officials.     In  its  Later  form  the  civil  power,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  popes,  extended  its  jurisdiction   over 
professed  converts  from  the  Jews.  Mohammedans,  and  over 
unbelievers,  in  as  far  as  any  of  these  classes  gave  offence  to 
the  Holy  Office.     The  immediate  process  in  Spain  was  as 
follows:'  The  person  suspected  or  indicted  wa^  summoned 
three  times  (eilifialilur)—!.  e.  by  a  public  judicial  citation. 
If  be  failed  to  a|ipear,  he  was,  under  reservation  of  a  yet 
severer  punislimenf.  excommunicated  in  cttutiimtiriam  and 
fined.  .Vn  o])porlunity  of  escape  was  rarely  allowed  to  those 
who  were  criminated.     The  familiars,  the  holy  l/crmaiidfid 
(the  government  police  fraternity),  and  the  Fraternity  of  the 
Conciada  followed  pitilessly  on  the  lr.acks  of  all  who  had  been 
designated  by  the  Inquisition.     If  the  person  criminated 
appeared,  he  was  at  once  put  under  arrest.     The  suspicion 
of  the  crime  was  enough  to  cause  his  desertion  by  kindred  and 
friends.    They  did  not  dare  even  to  make  their  appearance 
with  proof  of  his  innocence,  lest  sympathy  with  his  person 
should  be  construed  as  evidence  of  sympathy  willi  his  heresy. 
After  the  prisoner  had  been  rigorously  examined,  a  list 
was  made  of  his  effects,  especially  of  his  books  and  papers, 
and  his  property  was  confiscated  so  far  as  was  necessary 
to  cover  the  preliminary  investigation.     To  render  recog- 
nition easy  in  case  he  should  escape,  his  head  was  shaven. 
He  was  committed  to  a  dark  prison.     If  ho  promptly  con- 
fessed his  guilt,  real  or  alleged,  he  was  as  a  penitent  spared 
the  penalty  of  death.     But  even  in  that  case  he  and  his 
entire  kindred  were  ilishonored  and  declared  incompetent 
to  bear  anv  office  of  public  trust.    If  be  denied  the  charge, 
and  the  proofs  were  insufficient,  ho  was  dismissed,  but  as  a 


person  suspected  he  remained  under  the  surveillance  of  the 
familiars.  The  ordinary  result  of  this  was,  that  he  was  ar- 
rested a  second  time,  and  then  began  the  lingering  process 
of  the  Inquisition  proper.  This  was  conducted  in  general 
accordance  with  the  prescriptions  which  are  found  in  the 
DirccUii-ium  Iiuiuinltorum  of  IS'ICOI.AIS  EvMKRIC  (which 
sec).  If  the  prisoner  refused  to  confess  at  the  first  hear- 
ing, he  was  remanded  to  prison,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
several  months  was  requirc<i  to  make  oath  before  the  cruci- 
fix that  he  would  acknowledge  the  whole  truth.  If  he  re- 
fused to  do  this,  he  was  condemned  without  any  further 
eviilence.  If  he  took  the  oath,  leading  questions  were  put 
to  him  well  calculated  to  entangle  him.  The  lcg.al  coun- 
sellor was  not  to  act  in  the  interest  of  his  client,  nor  see 
him  in  private,  but  was  to  urge  him  to  the  confession  of 
the  truth.  The  accused  was  not  to  know  who  were  wit- 
nesses against  him.  Their  testimony  was  received  on 
their  unsubstantiated  word,  and  was  laid  before  the  ac- 
cused in  such  a  fragmentary  form  as  was  necessary  to  keep 
him  ignorant  who  his  accusers  were.  Even  in  this  shape 
it  was  frequently  postponed  for  years.  Any  one  was  re- 
ceived as  witness  against  him.  Two  hearsay  witnesses 
counted  as  one  eye-witness.  The  testimony  of  the  informer 
himself  was  admitted.  The  domestics  and  the  family  of  the 
accused  were  allowed  to  testify  against  hiu),  but  not  in  his 
favor.  If,  after  all  this,  the  attainted  one  stood  firm  in  his 
refusal  to  confess,  he  was  subjected  to  the  three  grades  of 
torture— the  cord,  the  water,  and  the  fire — under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  inquisitors  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  If  the 
wretched  being  was  brought  to  confession,  he  was  put  to 
the  torture  a  second  time  to  ascertain  his  motives.  A  third 
time  ho  was  tortured  to  lead  him  to  betray  those  who  were 
his  accomplices  and  .sympathizers.  'When  everything  had 
been  extorted  from  him  he  was  left  to  his  angui.sh  without 
medical  care.  After  these  confessions  he  was  regarded  as 
a  penitent,  but  a  solemn  abjuration  was  required  of  him. 
If  it  was  his  acts  which  had  brought  upon  him  an  impu- 
tation of  heresy,  his  abjuration  was  said  to  be  de  levi — 
'■  from  a  light  suspicion."  If  after  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  he  had  acknowledged  himself  guilty  of  Judaism 
or  heresv.  it  was  dc  rchcmcnt! — of  a  grave  or  violent  sus- 
picion. If  he  made  his  peace  with  the  Church,  including 
a  promise  voluntarily  to  subject  himself  to  all  the  punish- 
ments which  might  yet  be  in  reserve,  it  was  in  forma.  Tho 
person  convicted  was  generally  condemned  to  imprisonment 
or  to  the  galleys  for  life,  his  goods  were  confiscated,  and  his 
family  stamped  as  infamous.  Any  one  who  both  confessed 
and  abjured  was  punished  by  being  compelled  for  a  fixed 
period  to  wear  over  a  black  undergarment  the  Knmbeiiito 
(the  French  form  of  the  word  is  »<iii  h(nil»),  a  slccvtlcss 
coat,  with  a  red  St.  Andrew's  cross  (substituted  by  Ximenes 
(1514)  for  the  ordinary  cross)  on  its  back  and  breast.  Tho 
penitent  {saiiibntii'ido]  who  attempted  to  lay  off  this  coat 
before  the  time  appointed  was  punished  as  impenitent. 
AVhcn  the  time  of  his  penance  was  over  the  coat  was  hung 
up  in  the  church,  with  his  name  and  a  statement  of  his  of- 
fences attached  to  it.  Relapse  into  his  crime  was  punished 
with  death.  If  the  three  grailes  of  torture  failed  to  extort 
a  confession,  the  accused  was  thrown  into  a  more  wretched 
prison.  Of  prisons  there  were  three  grades — public,  inter- 
mediary, and  secret.  If  even  this  produced  no  results,  tho 
opposite  policy  was  tried.  Relatives  and  friends  were  per- 
mitted to  see  him  :  the  hope  was  excited  in  his  mind  that 
a  penitent  confession  might  yet  secure  pardon  or  pity  for 
him.  If  any  one  died  under  suspicion,  or  if  suspicion  was 
first  excited  after  his  death,  the  trial  went  on  as  if  he  were 
living.  If  forty  years  had  passed  between  his  decease  and 
his  conviction,  his  heirs  retained  his  property,  but  were  in- 
famous and  incapable  of  bearing  public  office.  If  the  re- 
mains of  the  suspected  dead  could  bo  found,  they  were 
burned:  if  not,  the  burning  in  efiigy  was  substituted. 

When  the  various  formalities  had  been  gone  through  the 
Aiito-da-Fk  (which  see)  was  held.  The  most  appalling 
feature  of  this,  and  the  most  attractive  to  the  thousands 
whom  it  brought  together,  was  the  burning  to  death  of 
the  eondeinncd.  But  the  autos-da-fe  were  not  exclusively 
scenes  of  death.  In  some  there  were  no  executions.  Re- 
lief was  brought  to  burdened  hearts  by  the  announcement 
of  release  or  pen.ance,  or  of  punishments  short  of  death, 
and  the  tenderer  passions,  as  well  as  the  fiercer,  drew  crowds 
logelher.  The  autos-da-fe  were  a  climax  to  the  solemn  autos 
of'thc  religious  drama.  They  were  dramas  of  awful  reali- 
ties, and  seemed  to  the  people  an  epitome  and  anticipation 
of  the  terrors  and  pardons  of  the  Last  Judgment.  In  the 
seventeenth,  and  vet  more  in  the  oighlecntli,  century  these 
•'acts  of  faith"  became  rarer.  The  material  had  been  re- 
latively burned  out.  But.  more  than  this,  better  convictions 
as  to  the  true  mode  of  dealing  with  error  had  become  more 
general.  The  penalties  were  executed  privately.  The  tri- 
bunal lost  more  and  more  of  its  most  drea.lful  characterislics, 
and  finally  came  to  fight  with  books  rather  than  with  men. 


INQUISITION. 


1215 


Charles  Til.  (17Jtf-8S)  imposed  legal  restrictions  on  it.  No 
final  tentcoce  could  be  passed  without  the  concurrence  of 
the  kinf^,  and  no  new  regulations  could  bo  established  with- 
out his  sanction.  The  ^riind  inquisitor  was  relegated  ( 17f>2) 
to  a  monastery  for  coudeniniug  a  book  contrary  to  the 
wishes  of  the  king.  Count  Aranda,  minister  of  state, 
limited  the  powers  of  the  Inquisition  still  further  in  1770. 
Though  Aranda  was  overthrown  in  177.'t  by  the  influeuec  of 
the  clergy,  public  opinion  sustained  the  spirit  in  which  he 
had  acted  toward  the  Inquisition.  The  pope  himself  or- 
dcrcl  various  restrictions  of  its  powers.  IJy  an  edict  of 
Joseph  IJonnpartc.  is?uod  from  Madrid  Dee.  4,  ISOS,  it  was 
abrogated  as  prejudicial  to  the  civil  government.  Krom 
the  period  of  its  introduction  in  its  later  form  into  Spain 
(14S1  )  to  tho  time  of  its  abrogation  f  ISOS)  it  is  estimated 
by  Llorente  that  tho  Inquisition  had  burned  alive  .■J1,912 
of  those  whom  it  had  tried,  had  burned  in  efiigy  17,G09, 
and  had  inflicted  severe  punishments  of  other  kinds  on 
291.!."jri  persons.  These  direct  sufferings  involved  sorrow 
and  calamity  to  millions.  On  tho  return  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
to  tho  thpme(lSM)ho  restored  tho  Inquisition.  In  the 
rcvolutTon  of  \^20  one  of  the  first  objects  of  the  pojiular 
fury  was  the  Casa  Santa,  the  palace  of  the  Inf(uisition  at 
Miulrid.  Tho  tribunal  itself  was  again  abolished  by  tho 
Cortes.  The  clerical  or  "apostolic"  party  considered  tho 
restoration  of  the  Inquisition  a  matter  of  vital  necessity, 
and  labored  energetically  to  bring  it  about.  In  ]S2a  a 
junta  favorable  to  tho  Inquisition  came  in,  and  in  lS20thc 
InqnUition  was  re-cstablisbcd  in  Valeneia.  After  the  deatJi 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  tl.S:i:!),the  law  of  July  15,  1S;J4,  again 
abolished  it,  and  by  a  royal  edict  of  ISlJj  its  property  was 
confi.'cated  and  devoted  to  tho  payment  of  tho  jiublic  debt. 
In  the  now  constitution  of  1855  tho  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion i.-i  cstablislied  by  law,  private  freedom  of  faith  is 
protected  from  jiorsecution,  but  liberty  of  worship  is  not 
granted.  In  .*pite  of  this,  in  i8o7  very  active  proceedings 
wore  ontured  into  against  all  persons  and  books  suspected 
of  tho  taint  of  Protestantism.  By  the  new  constitution  of 
18u9  tho  nation  binds  itself  to  sustain  in  good  faith  the 
Roman  Catholic  wormhip  and  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy. 
Foreigners  nf  other  eonfessicms  resident  in  Spain  arc  tole- 
rated in  both  the  private  and  public  rights  of  religion,  lim- 
ited only  by  tho  general  rules  of  morality  and  law.  Span- 
iards who  fttrsakc  the  Roman  Catholic  faitfi  arc  tolerated 
under  the  pamo  general  provision. 

2.  The  Xcthrrlfinfin. — From  Spain,  where  the  Inquisition 
had  been  so  efficient  an  instrument  of  tho  slate.  Clmrles  V. 
flJlO-jft)  and  Philip  IT.  (IjjG-'J.'I)  endeavored  to  transfer 
it  to  the  Netherlands,  to  be  used  against  the  Reformation. 
"The  number  of  Netherlanders  burned,  strangled,  behead- 
ed, or  buried  alive  in  obedience  to  tho  edict  of  Charles  V. 
.  ,  .  has  been  placed  as  high  as  100,1)00  by  distinguished 
autliorities.  and  has  never  been  put  at  a  lower  mark  than 
50,000.  Charlt'S  was  no  fanatic.  It  was  political  rather 
than  religious  heterodoxy  which  the  despot  wishecl  to  sup- 
press." (Motley,  Itinf  of  the  lintck  firpithlic,  i.  114.)  The 
result  of  the  policy  of  which  the  Inquisition  was  a  jire- 
cminent  part  was  tho  revolt  of  the  Xcfhcrlands.  After  an 
eighty  years'  war.  in  tho  course  of  which  millions  of  lives 
wore  sacrificed,  the  country  almost  depopulated  by  the  sav- 
agery of  .\Iva,  the  remnant  of  tho  pcuple  condemned  to  death 
in  a  mass  by  the  Inquisition,  tho  institution  of  horror  was 
rooted  from  the  land,  ami  the  lanil  itself  lost  for  over  to 
Spain.  The  .Tew  lives.  Protestantism  lives,  free  govern- 
ment live^.but  tho  system  centring  tn  tho  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion, robbing  of  life  all  to  which  it  clung,  lies,  a  withered 
parasite,  on  the  tree  it  exhausted.  (Sco  Prescott,  PhSlip  If. 
(I8jj),  and  his  edition  of  Robertson's  C/iftrfcH  ]'.;  Rrandl, 
I/itt.  of  Itcfitrmntiun  in  lloUand  ( IG7I) ;  Motley,  Llorente, 
Puighlanch.) 

.3.  Anirririi, — Soon  after  tho  discovery  of  America  the 
Spaniards  Introduced  tho  Inquisiti(»n  into  it.  Mexico, 
Carthagena,  and  Lima  were  the  principal  scuts  of  its  juris- 
diction. (See  Prescolt's  Mvxicn  a.v\{\  l\ru.) 

A.  /*oriiit/fif. — The  Intjuisition  was  intr'>duccd  into  Por- 
tugal under  Spanish  domination  (loi>7)  after  a  protracted 
resistance.  Its  supremo  court  was  in  Lisbon.  The  grand 
inquisitor  was  nominated  by  tho  king  and  confirmed  by 
tho  pope.  .John  IV.  nf  Uragnnza.  after  the  liberation  of  his 
country  fnun  tho  Spanish  "sixty  years'  captivity  "  (IfilO), 
was  anxiou:*  to  abolish  the  Inquisition,  and  withdrew  from 
it  tho  right  of  confiscation.  John  himself  was  put,  after  his 
death  ( l(i.'>0),  under  (ho  ban,  and  not  for  Rome  time  was  a  sol- 
emn abs'dution  pronounced  over  his  body.  The  Portuguese 
Inquisition  exhibited  special  severity  in  Iho  Kawt  IniiicH; 
Ooa  was  its  centre.  Pombal  (1750-«2)  repressed  or  used  tho 
Inquisition  as  might  best  promote  bis  political  reforms. 
Neverlhfloss.  by  his  influence  tho  Inquisition  was  obliged 
to  state  the  charge  and  give  the  names  of  the  witnesses  to  the 
accused,  who  was  entitled  to  (he  choice  of  a  lawyer  as  his 
advocate,  and  had  the  right  of  conferring  with  him.     No 


gentcncG  could  be  executed  until  it  was  confirmed  by  the 
royal  council.  John  VI.  (17y2-iy20)  abolished  the  In- 
quisition both  at  hume  and  in  the  colonics.  Dun  Miguel 
(1828-.'J4)  showed  a  strong  di.^position  to  restore  it,  but  was 
not  able  to  do  so.  The  WDrld  over,  the  Inquisition,  in  both 
its  forms,  has  fallen.  U'hatcvcr  may  be  tho  difierence  in 
their  details,  the  historical  conditions  of  its  life  in  both 
forms  arc  substantially  the  ^ainc. 

IX.  Defences  of  the.  Inquinition. — Paramo,  in  his  work  on 
ihz  Sacr  eft  liKfuiaidon  { 1  .')!)8),  treats  of  its  "dignity  and  util- 
ity," and  in  1  JlMJ  he  published  an  answer  to  the  objections 
made  against  it.  But  tho  best  defences  of  the  Inquisition 
belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  period  of  ii.s  decline  and 
extinction.  The  two  best  known  arc  from  the  hands  of 
Count  do  Maislre  and  of  Mefcle.  So  far  as  these  defences 
rest  upon  the  cxjtosure  of  the  confusion  in  clasfilication  and 
mi.stakes  in  facts  fairly  chargeable  upon  writers  on  the  In- 
quisition, they  will  be  found  accepted  and  embodied  in  this 
article.  Baudri  has  very  compactly  and  forcibly  presented 
the  argument  for  his  Church  in  these  words:  *•  There  are 
three  points  which  wo  arc  carefully  to  hold  in  view  :  I.  As 
a  distinctly  spiritual  institution  for  (he  preservation  of  purity 
of  faith  and  sound  discijdinc  (he  Inrjuisilion  needs  no  vin-. 
dication.  In  this  aspect  it  is  wholly  correspondent  with 
the  plan  and  spirit  of  Christ.  II.  When  it  has  been  united 
with  tho  civil  power,  or  has  been  shaped  into  a  state  In- 
quisition, as  in  Spain,  it  was  the  State,  not  tho  Church, 
which  sought  the  conjunction.  III.  As  to  the  abuses  and 
abominations  of  the  Inquisition,  the  reply  to  be  made  is, 
first,  (bat  these  have  sometimes  been  overstated  ;  further, 
that  what  are  called  the  victims  of  the  Inquisition  were 
either  common  criminals,  who  would  have  been  punished 
in  accordiince  with  the  laws  and  spirit  of  the  time  bad  there 
been   no   Inquisition,  or  if  they  were  licretics    they   were 

?unisbed  by  civil  law  as  ofi'cndcrs  against  the  public  weal." 
n  All  pern'.  Kireh.  lexik.,  v.  Ascbbach  (iii.  4S0,  1850), 
Ilefele  has  argued  on  the  same  general  basis,  and  with 
great  circumstantialitv  of  detail  in  Cnrdiunl  Xiineuen  (Tiib., 
184!:  2d  ed.  18.M.  pp.  207-370:  Eng.  transl.  by  Dalton, 
ISGO,  270-400)  and  in  his  article  "Inquisition"  in  Wetzer 
and  Welte's  Kirrhin- Lex  ikon  (l-SjO).  The  main  points 
made  by  him.  and  the  spirit  in  which  they  are  received  by 
intelligent  Protestants,  are  well  presented  by  Ilerzog : 
"  Ilofelc  has  made  (be  effort  to  put  (he  Spanish  Inquisition 
in  its  true  light.  He  has  done  this  partly  by  showing  that 
its  character  was  rather  political  than  ecclesiastical,  partly 
by  exposing  unjust  crimination  of  it,  an<l  ]iarlly  by  correct- 
ing mistaken  allegations  as  tt)  its  ])roccdures.  Such  an 
effort  deserves,"  in  general,  a  thorough  acknowUdgmcnt  and 
praise.  It  is  not  fair  to  paint  the  Spanish  Inquisition 
blacker  than  it  really  was.  In  its  very  nature,  withont  a 
single  tonch  of  the  pencil,  its  hues  arc  sunibre  enough.  It  is 
especially  necessary  to  bring  into  relief  the  influence  exer- 
cised n])on  the  Sjianish  Inquisition  by  the  royal  authority, 
and,  wc  might  aild,  iiy  the  national  character.  Ilefele  begins 
by  carefully  showing  that  the  Inquisition  was  at  once  the 
creature  and  the  organ  of  the  royal  absolutism.  It  is  unde- 
niable that,  at  the  beginning  especially,  it  was  this  in  a 
liigher  flegrcc  than  it  was  an  ecclesiastical  institution. 
(The  conference  between  the  king  and  the  grand  inquisitor 
in  Schiller's  Vint  Cuilott  rests,  (lierefore,  upon  a  mistaken 
impression  as  to  their  mutual  I'clations.)  On  this  ground 
Ilefele  relieves  tho  Thurch  of  all  the  odious  and  fciirlul  as- 
sociations which  cling  to  the  name  of  the  Inquisition.  I(e 
then  points  out  carefully  h(tw  often  nml  liow  strongly, 
though  usually  without  result,  the  po[ies  endeavored  to  put 
a  check  u])on  the  cruel  and  initniKous  nets  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. There  has  been,  in  fact,  no  other  institution  of  tho 
Catholic  Church  on  which  the  papal  censures  have  been  so 
earnestly  and  repeatedly  directed.  No  fact  could  more 
strikingly  illustrate  the  spirit  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition, 
aufl  show  tho  pertinacious  severity  of  its  procedure;  for  it 
will  hardly  be  nmintained  by  Ciitholics  themselves  that  the 
tendency  of  the  popes  has  been  toward  undue  leniency  to- 
ward those  who  refused  obedience  to  tho  Church.  Hcfcle 
goes  on  to  correct  the  excessive  estimates  of  the  number 
of  the  victims  of  (he  Inquisition.  He  corrects  the  chief 
mistake  which  Llorenle  made  on  this  point  when  ho  stated 
that  Torquemada  alone,  in  the  first  year  of  his  administra- 
tion at  Seville,  burned  to  deii'tli  2000  persons,  while  accord- 
ing to  Mariana  these  2000  nre  to  be  divided  among  all  the 
years  of  his  rule  and  the  whole  body  of  inquisitorial  tri- 
bunals uiuier  him.  The  words  of  Mariana  quote«l  by  Ilefelo 
do  not,  however,  necessarily  bear  the  sense  he  puts  on  them  : 
A  Toniiienntiln  nirninrmif  tluo  miUiticrfmntnn  »"*/»*-.  etc.  (  Ma- 
riana, xxiv.  1 7.)  Ilcfclo  further  directs  attention  to  thr  fact 
that  tho  proccfUiro  of  tho  Inquisition,  in  fact  its  entire 
nietho<),  was  no  worse,  and  indeed  was  in  nmny  respects  far 
milder,  than  that  of  the  criminal  law  of  tho  era.  whoso 
severity  and  inhumanity  iire  bevnud  dispute.  True  as  tliis 
is  in  general,  yet  wc  must  be  careful  not  too  readily  to  infer 


1216 


IN  REM. 


that  the  course  of  procedure  was  always  in  keeping  with 
special  mitigations.  It  is  in  this  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
same  system,  which  in  the  written  account  wear  a  less  re- 
pulsive air,  hut  in  whirh  the  contrast  is  great  between 
theory  uml  practice.  The  nit-thud.  for  exampU\  by  which 
the  rule  that  forhaclc  mon-  th:in  one  applieutitin  of  the  Inr- 
ture  wa!"  evaded,  shows  of  iiow  illtle  value  were  those  miti- 
gations on  which  Ilefele  relies.  The  wretch  who  had  been 
almost  tortured  to  death  was  allowed  to  rest  for  a  couple 
of  days  until  he  was  sufficiently  recovered  to  endure  new 
tnrtures.  This  was  styled  tlie  interruption  and  resump- 
tion of  the  one  torture.  But  why  need  we  argue?  Sad 
as  is  the  theme,  yet  it  is  hard  to  avoid  a  smile  when 
Ht'fi'lc  treats  as  if  it  were  made  in  serious  earnest  the 
official  request  of  the  inquisitors,  when  they  gave  over  the 
condemned  to  the  civil  power,  that  their  lives  should  be 
spared,  and  puts  it  exclusively  to  the  account  of  the  secular 
]>ower  that  this  petition  sank  to  an  empty  formality.  It 
seems  that  even  in  Germany  there  is  a  man  who  could 
persuade  ns  that  in  those  days  the  maxim  was  held  in  good 
faith,  Errlrnia  nhhiirri't  <t  mniffninc  / — '  The  Church  shrinks 
from  bloodshed.'  Hefele  further  adopts  the  opinion  of 
Joseph  le  Maistre  that  the  Inquisition  was  not  detrimental 
to  the  intellectual  life  of  S|>ain — an  opinion  with  which 
Huber,  a  Protestant  author,  has  recently  concurred.  The 
clumsy  manner  in  which  the  opposite  view  has  often  been 
maintained  gave  some  color  to  this  opinion.  The  com- 
mission of  the  Cortes  which  (1812)  introduced  the  motion 
to  abolish  the  Inquisition,  for  example,  says.  'From  the 
moment  the  Inquisition  appeared  authors  vanished.*  There 
is  no  disputing  that  precisely  at  the  time- at  which  the  In- 
quisition entered  on  its  work,  there  began  in  Spain  an  ac- 
tive intellectual  life,  and  that  even  poetry  bloomed  in  new 
beauty.  Hefele  of  coarse  does  not  go  to  the  extreme  of  re- 
garding this  as  the  work  of  the  Inquisition,  but  he  claims 
that  it  proves  that  the  Inquisition  did  not  have  the  repres- 
sive effect  charged  on  it.  But  in  the  nature  of  the  case  it 
was  involved  that  the  fruits  of  the  Inquisition  could  only 
ripen  at  a  later  period.  Is  it  necessary  to  say  what  these 
fruits  are?  What  has  Spain  been  for  the  last  two  centu- 
ries ?  In  answering  this  question  we  must  indeed  he  care- 
ful not  to  charge  all  the  misery  of  Spain  on  the  Inquisi- 
tion. Nevertheless,  so  much  stands  fast  that  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  absolutism  by  which  Spain  has  been  sunk 
so  low  has  been  bound  up  with  the  working  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. But  Hefele  goes  on,  and  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
a  feeling  of  profound  astonishment  when  we  read  that  the 
Inquisition  so  far  wrought  beneficently  when,  as  with  an 
inspired  vocation,  it  saved  Spain  from  innumerable  errors 
and  heresies,  and  fmm  the  horrors  of  the  religions  wars  oc- 
casioned by  the  Reformation.  Ilefele  does  not  indeed  put 
forth  these  views  directly.  He  urges  them  not  in  his  own 
name,  but  under  the  authority  of  the  most  cultivated,  the 
noblest  intellects  among  the  authors  of  Spain.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  he  is  not  ready  unreservedly  to  contradict 
them,  and  though  he  doi-s  not  entirely  adopt  them,  yet 
there  is  an  unmistakalilo  effort  on  his  part  to  commend 
them  as  judgments  which  carry  with  them  great  weight. 
Thut  a  (ierman  Roman  Catholic,  who  should  be  familiar, 
alike  from  history  antl  personal  observation,  with  the  hap- 
py inlluence  which  Protestantism  has  exercised  on  Roman 
Catholicism  itself,  should  envy  Spain  the  repose  of  the 
grave,  once  deep,  but  now  long  broken,  proves  most  clearly 
that  the  old  spirit  of  Rouian  Catholicism  is  not  extinct. 
This,  inch-ed.  is  made  manifest  by  many  other  signs  of  the 
times.  Mefele  also  reviews  the  work  of  Llorentc.  That 
this  book  is  fairly  open  to  many  sorts  of  censure  is  demon- 
strated, and  yet  it  may  be  said  that  Hefele  involuntarily 
becomes  its  apologist,  for  every  fact  which  he  adduces  to 
set  the  Inquisition  in  a  fairer  light  is  drawn  from  Llorentc 
himself.  This  shows  very  clearly  that  hlorente's  work  was 
not  written  purely  for  the  making  out  of  a  case."  (lical- 
Eiiriikhipadie  f.  protest  Thcolof/ic  tt.  Kirche,  1856,  vi.  690- 
fH»2.') 

X.  JiihUogrnphtf  and  litrrotiirr, — The  bibliography,  di- 
rect and  collateral,  of  the  Inquisition  is  large.  Lists  of 
the  most  important  works  will  be  found  in  Lipenius.  liibf. 
Theuin,,.,  1685,  ii.  100:  ib.,  iiibl.  Fhih.M..  1081,  i.  r^'^•,  ib., 
lillf.  .fund.,  iri79.  2.11:  Walch.  lUhf.  Thcnf.  StL.  I75K-62. 
ii.  lilt;  iii.  T.'t"  ;  Xnsselt,  yl/urci'*  zn.  K.  fiUcher,  1800,8, 
.'50 :  Fuhrmann,  Iluudirihicrhiich  Reluj.  h.  Kirrhvtuje- 
srhiehtc,  1828,  ii.  458:  Winer,  Handbuch  Theofoff.  Lttrrat., 
18.38,  i.  096;  Urasse,  Lrhrb.  d,  Litnilnfeschich'te,  1840,  ii. 
I,  3;  Danz.  Unirmi.  WUrterburh,  1848,  451  ;  Clericus, 
liihlir.  StHdrnt'ii  AnniHtnnt,  Ediub..    1844.  48;    PooIc.  Iiulcj- 

to  Ptriod.  Lit.,  185H,  240,  457;  Denis,  Pinion,  Martonno, 
Nouv.  Man.  dc  liibliotjr.  Vn\ver*eUr,  1857,  ii.  .39;  Pierer, 
Unir.  Ltxik.y  1859,  viii.  928;  Pfirenn^s.  Dirtinnnaire  d. 
Bib/iftfjinphif^  Cnthnh'f/ur.  1859.  iji.  545,  671  :  Branct,  ^fa- 
huei  dii  Libraire,  1865,  vi.  1164;  Malcom,  Throlotjiml  In- 
dex, 1868,  241  :   Kurtz.  Lrhrinuh   d.  K'irchfii'jrttrh.,  1874.  i. 


374,  399.  Among  the  most  important  works  may  be  men- 
tioned :  (1)  those  which  are  documentary,  embracing  rules. 
methods  of  procedure,  and  instructions.  Qiii^fitioueM  ( Fifteen 
Questions  for  the  Inquisition )  prepared  by  Cardinal  Falcodi, 
afterwards  Clement  IV.  ( 1265-68).  edited  with  the  annota- 
tions of  Carrera,  an<l  his  treatise  of  the  mode  of  procedure 
in  the  Holy  Office  (1641),  with  the  Pntxin  infjuiMitorum  of 
Pegna,  and  additions  by  Carrera  (1669).  Clement  V. 
(1305-14)  presented  to  the  council  at  Vienne  (1311-12) 
special  instructions  for  the  inquisitors.  These  form  a  ])art 
of  the  Cl'-mriitinet,  v.  iii.  1,  2.  3  i  t'ot-fiuH  JuriM,  Colon,  ftlun. 
1730).  Eymeric,  forforty-four  years  inquisitor-general  of 
Aragon  (d.  1399),  wrote  the  Ifirtrtnyimu  InquiMitornm.  The 
first  part  gives  the  ancient  Church  laws  and  decretals  ;  the 
second  part,  the  papal  laws  concerning  heretics  and  inqui- 
sitors; the  tiiird  part  details  the  methods  to  be  observed 
by  the  inquisitors:  first  published  1503.  with  commentary 
of  Pegna,  1578.  Simanca,  Praxin  hiFrenfon,  Venet.,  1568- 
73:  ib.  De  CathoUcin  fuMtitiitlonibus,  1575;  Reuss,  .Vnwm- 
liit}</  {CoffrctinH  of  fuHtrnctiiinn  from  the  SpaiiiMh,  colferted 
bif  order  of  (\irdiiiaf  Mnnrttjue),  %vith  a  sketch  by  Spittler, 
1*788.  2.  Histories:  Xiffrhnot,  1582;  Paramo.  1598;  Mar.'ol- 
lier,  1013:  Limhoreh  (best  of  the  old  worksl.  1692.  Me- 
moires:  1716,  Baker,  TifTensee,  Baumgarten.  1741  ;  Cramer, 
1784;  liai'sonu.  Erz'dbh.  1784;  Caused  Celebren  ftntnrjPreK, 
1827;  Rule's  Hifitori/  of  the  Inquisition  from  its  Entahligh- 
ment  in  the  Tirelfih  Centnri/  to  ita  Extinetion  in  tkf  Aine- 
teenth,  1874.  The  French  Inquisition.  De  la  JMothe-Largon, 
1829;  the  Venetian  Inquisition.  Paul  (Sarpi),  1638;  the 
Spanish  Inquisition.  Oonsalvi,  1567;  Arnold,  1609;  Ursi- 
nus.  1611  :  Bebel.  1692;  luqniiition  in  Spnnien  it.  Achtfu- 
stiirken,  Leipsic.  1810:  Puigblanch,  Inqniaition  VumnKked, 
tr.  by  Walton,  1816:  Lloreute,  1815.  1818. 1820  ;  De  Mais- 
tre, Lettrrit  snr  V hiffuis,  Enparjuole,  1822;  Hefele,  AV»*ifne«, 
2d  ed.  1851 ;  transl.  by  Dalton,  1860.  The  Portuguese  In- 
quisition, Herculano,*  1858;  at  Go'a,  Dellon,  1668.  The 
histories  of  the  heretics,  councils,  martyrs,  the  papacy,  the 
religious  orders,  are  of  importance  here.  The  best  general 
church  histories  arc  also  useful.  Among  those  of  the  most 
importance  on  the  history  of  the  Inquisition  are  Bzovius, 
Spondanus,  Raynaldus.  and  Fleury  among  the  Roman 
Catholic  writers,  and  Mosheim  and  Sehriickh  among  Prot- 
estant church  historians.  Some  of  the  monographs  on 
special  eras  and  ]>artieular  nations  are  also  important : 
Brandt's  Netherlaudm,  Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  Mac- 
Crie's  Spain  and  Itafi/,  Ranke's  Popes,  the  works  of  Pres- 
cott  and  Jlotley.  Prescott's  statements  in  regard  to  the 
In((uisition  have  been  reviewed  by  Archbishop  Spalding, 
Miitrcllanea,  1866.  A  thorough  history  of  the  Inquisition 
is  greatly  needed.  Mr.  H.  C.  Lea,  of  Philadelphia,  is  en- 
gaged upon  such  a  work,  which  will  doubtless  prove  worthy 
nf  the  distinguished  reputation  he  has  won  by  his  other 
monographs  on  ecclesiastical  history.         C.  P.  KitArxH. 

In  Rem  [Lat.,  ''against  the  thing"],  a  technical  legal 
term  used  to  designate  an  action  or  proceeding  directly  in- 
stituted against  the  thing  or  property  the  title  to  which  is 
in  question,  or  upon  which  some  lien  or  claim  is  made,  or 
to  denote  the  judgment  or  decree  which  is  the  result  of 
such  an  action  or  jiroceeding.  It  is  also  applied  to  decis- 
ions directly  determining  the  legal  stntun  of  a  party  before 
the  court  with  reference  to  marriage,  divorce,  bastardy, 
settlement,  and  other  similar  personal  relations.  Actions 
against  the  person,  which  are  the  ordinary  forms  of  suit  in 
courts  of  general  jurisdiction,  are  termed,  by  way  of  con- 
tradistinction, proceedings  in  firrsouam.  Suits  in  rem  fre- 
quently occur  in  courts  of  n<lmiralty  an«l  in  proceedings 
under  revenue  laws.  Of  this  nature  are  proceedings  for 
the  enforcement  of  maritime  liens  against  a  vessel  or  cargo, 
for  the  recovery  of  salvage,  for  the  condemnation  and  for- 
feiture of  property  on  account  of  a  violation  of  the  revenue 
laws,  or  as  prize  in  time  of  war.  and,  in  general,  all  actions 
in  admiralty  whereaclaim  is  madedirectly  against  specific 
property.  The  title  which  such  an  admiralty  cause  receives 
indicates  that  the  action  is  in  rem,  since  the  properly  is 
represented  as  if  it  were  made  defendant  in  the  jiroceeding, 
as,  e.  fj.,  *'  The  V.  S.  vx.  The  Ship  Osjtrey."  The  jiroccedings 
to  enforce  the  judgment  or  decree  of  the  court  in  such  cases 
are  confined  to  the  property  which  is  made  the  subject  of 
the  claim  in  the  aoti<in.  On  the  contrary,  in  suits  in  per- 
sonam the  judgment  of  the  court  is  carrierl  into  effect  by 
the  levy  of  an  execution,  and  all  the  property  of  the  de- 
fendant, with  the  exception  of  a  few  classes  of  articles  ex- 
empted by  statute,  may.  if  necessary,  be  sold  to  satisfy  the 
judgment.  A  judgment  or  decree  in  rtm,  whether  the  suit 
be  against  specific  jiropcrty  or  with  reference  to  personal 
sttttHs,  is,  in  general,  binding  and  conclusive,  not  only  upon 
the  parties  in  the  cause,  hut  upon  all  persons.  It  will,  sub- 
ject  to  some  exceptions,  be  deemed  valid  and  binding  in 
foreign  countries  if  the  court  by  which  it  was  rendered  ha'l 
jurisdiction  of  the  proceeding.  The  judgment  may,  how- 
ever, be  invalidated  unless  it  were  obtained  honfi  fidp  and 


INSANITY. 


1217 


without  fraudulent  means,  and  unless  the  suit  was  con- 
ducted with  an  observance  of  the  regular  and  requisite 
forms.  Whiitcvcr  di.'sposi'.ion,  therefore,  a  court  having 
jurisdiction  makes  of  property  by  a  judgment  in  rem,  or 
whatever  determination  it  makes  in  regard  to  ntntut,  set- 
tles the  question  generally  as  to  all  the  world.  This  ob- 
ligatory force  of  judgments  in  rem  is  based  chiefly  upon 
considerations  of  public  policy,  since  it  ia  desirable  that  Iho 
title  to  propcrlv  which  has  been  the  subject  of  litigation 
should  not  be  left  doubtful,  ami  also  that  the  personal  re- 
lations of  every  member  of  the  community  .should  be  defin- 
itively settled.  (Sen  . I  iDOinNT.)  This  doctrine  also  rests 
partly  upon  the  ground  that  in  most  cases  in  which  judg- 
ments of  this  kind  can  be  rendered  all  persons  who  have  any 
interest  in  the  subject  in  controversy  may  appear  and  assert 
their  rights.   Gkokge  Chase.    Revised  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Insan'ity'  [Lat.  intanilng,  "unsoundness  "]  is  a  mani- 
festation of  disease  of  the  brain,  characterized  by  a  gen- 
eral or  ]iartial  derangement  of  one  or  more  faculties  of  the 
mind,  and  in  which,  while  consciousness  is  not  abolished, 
mental  freedom  is  perverted,  weakened,  or  destroyed.  An 
essential  feature  of  the  definition  here  given  is,  that  insaii- 
ity  depends  upon  a  diseased  condition  of  the  brain.  It  is 
therefore  only  a  symptom,  like  paralysis,  coma,  or  any  other 
phenomenon  of  cerebral  disorder;  but  as  wc  cannot  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  alBrm  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy  what  part  of  the  brain  is  affected  in  any  given  case 
of  insanity,  or  even  say  how  it  is  disordered,  wc  arc  ob- 
liged to  take  the  manifestation  for  the  disease.  It  is  not 
many  years  ago  that  cough  was  regarded  as  a  disease,  and  \ 
bv  niany  paralvsis  still  is.  In  reality,  these  arc  symptoms 
referable  to  disease  of  some  part  of  the  respiratory  or  ner- 
vous apparatus,  and  are  not  diseases  in  themselves.  But  it 
is  questioned  by  some  even  at  the  present  time  whether 
in.sanity  may  not  exist  and  the  brain  be  in  a  perfectly 
healthy  condition.  The  relation  of  mental  aberration  to 
cerebral  derangement  certainly  cannot  be  invariable,  unless 
the  normal  mind  is  directly  dependent  upon  a  normal  stato 
of  the  brain.  If.  however,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  mind 
comes  from  the  brain,  or.  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing 
in  physiology,  is  manifested  through  the  brain,  it  follows 
lo"ic!illv,  as  well  as  pathologically,  that  ins.anity  is  the  re- 
stiit  of  "cerebral  disorder.  The  proofs  of  this  relation  arc 
the  following:  .      ,-    . 

(1)  The  action  of  on  organ,  even  within  the  limits  of 
health,  frequently  gives  rise  to  sensations  of  various  kinds, 
and  slight  functional  derangements  are  very  distinctly  felt. 
Thus,  the  pain  of  indigestion  is  referred  to  the  stomach  or 
howcis,  as  the  case  maybe;  difficulties  with  the  urinary 
excretion  are  accompanied  by  uneasiness  in  the  kidneys; 
derangements  in  the  secretion  of  the  bile  are  often  only  in- 
dicated by  pain  in  the  liver;  loud  noises  produce  unpleas- 
ant feelings  in  the  ears,  and  excessive  or  improper  use  of 
the  eyes  causes  pain  in  these  organs.  So  it  is  with  the 
brain.  Though  ordinarily  we  are  not  conscious  of  any 
particular  sensation  when  we  use  it  in  thinking  (and  the 
same  is  true,  mulnliM  mulaniliii,  of  the  other  organs  men- 
tioned), yet  inordinate  mental  exertion  gives  rise  to  head- 
ache, vertigo,  and  other  derangements  of  sensibility  rcfcra- 
bio  to  Iho  brain.  In  some  persons  even  slight  mental  ac- 
tion invariably  iiroduccs  pain  in  the  head,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  the  brain  becomes  diseascil  when  it  is  unduly 
taxed,  just  as  d'lcs  the  stomach,  the  eye,  or  a  muscle. 

(2)  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain  impairs  in  some  way 
or  other  the  powers  of  the  mind.  A  blow  on  tlio  head 
causes  confusion  of  ideas,  and  if  hard  enough  may  destroy 
consciousness  or  the  power  of  thought  altogether.  A  piece 
of  hone  or  a  bullet  pressing  on  the  brain  likewise  destroys 
the  ability  to  think  ;  and  though  examples  are  not  wanting 
of  terrible  wounds  of  tho  brain  in  which  there  is  for  a 
time  no  well-marked  impairment  of  the  mind,  careful  ex- 
amination will  reveal  Ibe  existence  of  deterioration  from 
tho  first,  and  eventually  tho  patients  die  with  head-symp- 
toms. The  various  diseases  of  tho  brain  likewise  produce 
at  some  time  or  other  of  their  course  derangement  in  tho 
evolution  of  mind,  and  insanity  is  generally  shown  after 
death  to  have  been  accompanied  by  structural  changes  in 
tho  brain, 

(3)  Tho  notion  of  the  brain,  like  tho  functionation  of 


•The  writer  of  this  vorv  at)lc  article  has  einploycil  the  lan- 
cuaKC  commonly  used  liv  ilie  wboi.l  of  pby»iol<.i;isls  who  hold 
the  doctrine  of  the  correlation  of  nirntal  and  physical  foreen. 
To  those  who,  like  the  editors  of  Ibis  wiirk,  do  not  cntcrlnin  that 
vlnw  the  interest  of  the  article  will  not  be  Impaired  by  tills 
circumstance;  while  those  to  whom  the  doctrine  Is  ncccplablo 
will  esteem  il  on  this  account  as  more  strictly  in  harmony 
with  Ibe  actual  slate  of  advanced  physloloRical  science.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  writer,  and  many  others  who  regard  the 
mind  as  a  funeticu  of  the  brain,  disclaim  the  Inipulatlon  of 
materbilisin  east  upon  them  bv  some  ;  and  Ibis  diselainier  should 
beconsiderol  in  judginj;  ufthelrmodes  of  speaking— l-DS.  JOHN- 
SOS'S  t'vi  i.or.KruA. 

Vol,.  II.— 77  


other  organs,  results  in  tho  disintegration  of  its  substance, 
and  this  destruction  of  tissue  is  in  direct  proportion  to  Hie 
amount  of  mental  work  done.  We  find,  therefore,  that  tho 
alkaline  phosphates,  which  arc  mainly  derived  from  the 
destructive  metamorphosis  of  ihe  nervous  tissue,  and  which 
arc  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  are  increased  in  quantity  after 
severe  intellectual  labor,  and  are  diminished  by  mental 
quietude.  In  a  memoir  published  several  years  ago  I  gave 
the  results  of  experiments  performed  upon  myself,  which 
show  very  conclusively  that  increased  use  of  the  brain 
causes  increased  decay  of  its  substance. 

(4)  The  si/e  of  the  brain  is  well  known  to  have  a  direct 
relation  to  the  intelligence  of  the  individual;  and  when 
all  other  conditions  are  alike  it  may  be  said  that  the  largest 
brain  will  produce  tho  greatest  amount  of  mental  energy. 
Quality  is,  however,  an  important  factor,  and  when  witn 
great  size  there  is  also  a  large  amount  of  gray  matter,  tho 
intellectual  capacity  is  at  its  maximum.  Thus,  Dr.  Thur- 
nani  has  shown  tliat  the  average  weight  of  tho  brain  in 
Europeans  is  411  ounces,  while  in  ten  men  rcraarkaldc  for 
their  intellectual  development  it  was  64.7  ounces.  Of  these, 
the  brain  of  Cuvier,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  weighed  C4.5 
ounces.  Spurzheim's  5J.00.  and  Daniel  Webster's  53.5.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  brain  is  small  in  idiots.  Of  three  idiots 
whose  ages  were  sixteen,  forty,  and  fifty  years  respectively, 
Tiedemann  found  the  weight  of  their  brains  to  bo  19J,  2Jj, 
and  22*  ounces.  Mr.  Gore  has  reported  the  case  of  a  wo- 
man forty-two  years  of  age  whose  intellect  was  infantine, 
who  couid  scarcely  speak  a  few  words,  whoso  gait  was  un- 
steady, and  whose  chief  occupation  was  carrying  and  nurs- 
ing a' doll.  After  death  her  brain  was  found  lo  weigh  but 
10  ounces  and  5  grains.  Mr.  Mar.shall  has  also  reported  a 
case  of  microcephaly  in  the  person  of  a  boy  twelve  years 
old  whose  brain  weighed  but  S<  ounces.  The  convolutions 
were  stronglv  marked,  though  narrow  and  few  in  number. 
(5)  Exjieriments  performed  upon  the  nerves  and  nerve- 
centres  show  that  from  the  brain  proceeds  the  force  by 
which  muscles  arc  mrivcil.  and  tliat  it  is  the  organ  by  which 
sensations  are  perceived.  Thus,  division  of  a  nerve  sup- 
plying a  certain  muscle  cuts  off  the  connection  between  tho 
brain  and  thai  muscle,  and  hence  the  will  can  no  longer 
cause  it  to  contract.  Division  of  the  optic  nerve  prevents 
the  perception  of  visional  images,  and  so  likewise  for  the 
other  nerves  of  special  sense. 

From  all  of  which  considerations  the  connection  between 
the  brain  and  the  mind  is  as  clearly  made  out  as  any  other 
fact  in  jihvsiology.  The  miii'l  differs  from  forces  in  gen- 
eral in  being  compoun<l  — that  is,  in  being  niado  up  of 
several  other  forces.  These  arc  perception,  the  intellcel, 
the  emotions,  and  Ihe  will.  All  the  mental  manifestations 
of  which  Ihe  brain  is  capable  are  embraced  in  one  or  inoro 
of  these  parts.  Either  one  of  them  may  bo  exercised  in- 
dependently of  the  other,  though  they  are  very  intimately 
connected,  and  in  all  continuous  mental  jiroccsscs  are 
brought  more  or  less  into  relative  and  consecutive  action. 
As  constituting  the  basis  of  the  classification  of  the  several 
forms  of  insanitv  to  be  considered  in  this  article,  it  is  ex- 
pedient to    describe  briefly  these    four  sub-forces  of  tho 

1.  I'crrepli'in.— 'By  perception  is  to  bo  understood  that 
part  of  Iho  mind  whoso  oflico  it  is  to  place  the  individual 
in  relation  with  external  objecls.  For  Ihccvolulion  of  this 
force  the  mind  is  in  iutimale  relation  with  certain  special 
organs  which  servo  the  purpose  of  receiving  impressions 
of  objects.  Thus,  an  image  is  formed  upon  the  retina, 
anil  the  optic  nerve  transmits  the  excitation  lo  its  ganglion 
or  part  of  Ihe  brain.  This  at  once  functionates,  tho  force 
called  perception  is  tvolved,  and  the  image  is  perceived. 
If  the  retina  bo  sufiicienlly  diseased  the  image  i»  not  formed ; 
if  the  opiic  nerve  be  in  an  abnormal  condiliim,  Iho  excita- 
tion is  not  transmitted  ;  if  the  ganglion  be  disordered,  the 
pereeptivo  force  is  rot  evolved.  I-iko  reasoning  is  appli- 
cable to  the  other  senses,  hearing,  taste,  smell,  and  touch. 
Perception  may  bo  exercised  without  any  su|ierior  intelleo- 
tuul  act— without  anv  ideation  whatever.  Thus,  if  Iho 
cerebrum  of  a  pigeon  be  removed,  the  animal  is  still  cajiablo 
of  seeing  and  of  hearing,  but  it  obtains  no  idea  from  these 
senses.     Tho  mind,  with  tho  exception  of  perception,  is 

lost.  ,.    ,      1      ■ 

2.  Tlic  Inlrllret.—Xn  the  normal  condition  of  the  lirain 
tho  excitation  of  a  sense  and  tho  consequent  perception  do 
not  stop  at  the  special  ganglion  of  llint  sense,  but  are 
transmitted  to  a  inoro  complex  pari  of  Iho  brain,  where 
tho  perception  is  resolved  into  an  idea.  Thus,  the  imago 
impressed  upon  tho  retina,  Ihe  perception  of  which  has 
been  formed  bv  a  sensory  ganglion,  ullimalely  causes  tho 
evolution  of  another  force,  by  which  all  its  nllribulcs  ca- 
pable of  being  represented  upon  Ihe  retina  are  more  or  less 
perfectlv  appreciated  accoriling  to  tho  slruclural  qualities 
of  tho  ideational  centre.  To  the  formation  of  tho  idea 
several  important  faculties  and  modes  of  expression  of  the 


1218 


INSANITY. 


intellect  contribute.  Tlius,  if  we  suppose  the  retina  to  have 
received  the  image  of  a  ball,  a  higher  ganglion  converts 
this  into  a  perception,  and  a  still  higher  one  into  an  idea; 
and  this  idea  relates  to  the  size,  the  form,  the  color,  the 
material,  etc.  primarily,  and  to  the  origin,  uses,  ownership, 
etc.  secondarilv.  In  gaining  this  conception  of  the  thing 
impressed  upon  the  retina,  the  memory,  judgment,  and 
other  faculties  of  the  intellect  are  brought  into  action,  and 
the  process  of  reasoning  is  carried  on. 

3.  The.  Emntiom. — .\n  idea  in  its  turn  excites  another 
part  of  the  brain  to  action,  and  an  emotion  is  produced,  or 
this  last-named  force  may  be  evolveil  under  certain  circum- 
stances witliout  the  intermediation  of  the  idea,  but  solely 
from  tlie  transmission  of  a  perception  to  the  emotional 
ganglion.  An  emotion  is  that  pleasurable  or  painful  feel- 
ing which  arises  in  us  in  consequence  of  sensorial  impres- 
siims  or  intellectual  action.  .According  to  Bain,  the  word 
^million  is  used  to  comprehend  all  that  is  understood  by 
feelings,  states  of  feeling,  pleasure,  pain,  passion,  senti- 
ments, affection,  etc.  Within  the  limits  of  health  the  emo- 
tions act  powerfully  on  certain  organs  of  the  body,  and 
thus  express  their  liwn  activity.  Thus,  grief  is  exhil)ited 
bv  the  flow  of  tears  from  the  over-excitation  of  the  l.achry- 
ninl  gland;  extreme  joy  may  also  cause  weeping:  the  jaw 
falls  and  the  angles  of  the  mouth  curl  downward  in  morti- 
fication or  sorrow,  while  in  pleasure  the  face  expands  late- 
rally. The  eyes,  the  nose,  and  the  mouth  are  the  three 
facial  centres  from  which  emotional  expression  is  mainly 
produced.  Other  organs  of  the  body,  as  the  salivary 
glands,  the  heart,  the  mammary  gliinds,  the  liver,  the  kid- 
neys, and  in  fact  nearly  every  viscus  of  the  body,  may 
exhibit  the  effects  of  emotion  by  the  transmission  of  exci- 
tations through  the  sympathetic  nerve.  Most  of  the  result- 
ing effects  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sympathetic  nerve 
especially  presides  over  the  vaso-motor  system,  and  thus 
regulates  the  calibre  of  the  blood-vessels. 

4.  Thf  Will. — By  volition  acts  are  performed.  Some 
acts  are  automatic,  but  all  done  in  consequence  of  intellec- 
tion are  the  result  of  willing,  and  are  for  some  specific  pur- 
pose connected  with  an  idea.  Volition  in  the  scries  of 
mental  manifestations  may  precede  emotion,  but  it  always 
follows  perception  and  ideation. 

To  sum  up  these  outlines  :  a  person  walking  in  the  street 
sees  a  man  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  way — jicrceptiou;  he 
recognizes  him  as  a  friend  whom  he  has  not  met  for  many 
years — liilelkri;  he  determines  to  go  across  and  speak  to 
him — will;  he  does  so,  and  exhibits  joy  at  the  rcuuion^ 
ciiKiluiii.  Or,  to  alter  the  sequence  somewhat,  a  person  at 
a  theatre  sees  and  hears  an  actor  on  the  stage — pc-eeptioii; 
the  attitudes,  gestures,  .and  words  of  the  player  call  up  cer- 
tain ideas— Intellect;  he  is  moved  to  great  joy  or  grief — 
emotion;  and  determining  to  recognize  the  aliility  of  the 
actor — wilt — claps  his  hands  or  throws  him  a  bouquet. 

In  individuals  whose  brains  are  well  formed,  free  from 
structural  changes,  and  .are  nourished  with  a  duo  supply, 
neither  excessive  nor  deficient,  of  healthy  blood,  the  per- 
ception, the  intellect,  the  emotions,  ami  the  will  are  mani- 
fested in  a  manner  common  to  mankind  in  general.  Slight 
changes  in  the  formation  or  nutrition  of  the  brain  induce 
corresponding  changes  in  the  several  parts  of  the  mind  or 
in  it  as  a  whole.  As  no  two  brains  are  precisely  alike,  so  no 
two  persons  are  exactly  alike  in  their  mental  processes. 
So  long,  however,  as  the  deviations  are  not  directly  at 
variance  with  the  average  human  mind,  the  individual  is 
sane  ;  if  they  are  at  variance,  ho  is  insane.  But  within  the 
limits  of  mental  health  marked  irregularities  are  met  with 
in  different  parts  of  the  mind.  Thus,  some  persons  are 
noted  for  never  perceiving  things  as  the  majority  of  people 
perceive  them;  others  have  the  emotional  system  inordi- 
nately or  deficiently  developed;  others  are  weak  in  judg- 
ment, defective  in  memory,  feeble  in  powers  of  application 
or  vacillating  in  their  opinions;  others,  again,  are  lacking 
in  volitional  power — in  the  ability  to  perform  cert;iin  acts, 
to  refrain  from  others,  or  to  follow  a  definite  course  of  ac- 
tion which  the  intellect  tells  them  is  expedient  or  wise. 
Persons  whose  minds  deviate  in  some  one  or  more  notable 
respects  from  the  ordinary  standard,  but  yet  whose  mental 
processes  are  not  directly  at  variance  with  that  standard, 
are  said  to  be  eccentric.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  the 
line  between  strong  eccentricity  and  n\ild  insanity.  About 
the  former,  however,  there  is  this  marked  chnracteristic — 
that  its  manifestations  are  according  to  a  fixed  system,  are 
not  founiied  on  delusions,  and  are  generally  excited  by  those 
emotions  or  desires  which  are  reficcted  ba^'k  to  the  individ- 
ual, such  as  pride,  vanity,  the  love  of  ai>|irol)alion  or  of 
notoriety,  etc.  Eccentric  persons  stand  upon  the  verge  of 
insanity,  with  a  decided  ]>redisposition  to  mental  disease, 
and  ordinarily  if  they  do  not  pass  the  limit  it  is  for  want 
t)f  a  sufficient  exciting  cause.  Instances  of  eccentricity 
I'lssing  into  positive  insanity  arc  common  enough,  and  in- 
'iuirv  will  frequcu'ty  disclose  the  fact  that  the  insane  have 


been  eccentric  for  several  years  before  becoming  affected 
with  cerebral  disease  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  de- 
cided mental  aberration. 

Many  classifications  have  been  made  of  the  various  phe- 
nomena met  with  in  insanity.  Obviously,  the  only  proper 
arrangement  would  be  one  based  on  the  actual  brain-lesions, 
but  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is  impossible 
to  make  such  a  one.  We  cannot  say,  for  instance,  that 
when  an  individual  hiis  a  delusion,  such  or  such  a  part  of 
his  brain  is  nflectcd,  nor  that  when  he  is  melancholio 
another  part  is  involved.  We  arc  obliged,  therefore,  either 
to  arrange  the  symptoms  into  groups  without  any  philo- 
sophical basis,  orto  classify  them  according  to  the  relation 
which  they  bear  to  the  several  parts  of  the  mind.  Follow- 
ing this  latter  jdan,  we  have — I.  l\rrr],iioniil  intnnlty,  cha- 
racterized by  the  tendency  to  the  formation  of  erroneous 
perceptions,  cither  from  false  impressions  of  real  objects 
(illusions),  or  from  no  external  excitation  whatever  (hallu- 
cinations). II.  Intellecliiol  iimnnil;/,  char,actcrized  by  the 
existence  of  delusions.  III.  Euiotionnl  insuniii/,  charac- 
terized by  the  uncontrolled  or  imperfectly  controlled  pre- 
dominance of  one  or  more  of  the  emotions.  IV.  VoUlionnl 
innnnlty,  in  which  there  is  an  inability  to  exert  the  full 
will-po"wer.  either  affirmatively  or  negatively.  V.  .V<i)ii'i, 
characterized  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  of  these  forms 
in  the  same  individual.  VI.  General  pnnitijHis,  a  peculiar 
form  of  insanity  attended  with  progressively  advancing 
loss  of  mental  and  motor  power.  VII.  Idiocy  and  de- 
meniin,  the  first  due  to  the  fact  that  there  are  original 
structural  defects  in  the  brain;  the  second  resulting  from 
the  supervention  of  organic  changes  in  a  brain  originally 
of  normal  power. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  these  several  types,  it  is 
necessary  to  touch  upon  certain  important  symptoms  of 
mental  disorder,  the  character  and  import  of  which  must 
be  clearly  understood.  These  are  illusion,  hallucination, 
delusion,  incoherence,  and  delirium. 

Illusion. — .\n  illusion  is  a  false  perception  of  a  real  sen- 
sori;vl  impression.  Thus,  a  person  seeing  a  ball  roll  over 
the  floor,  and  imagining  it  to  be  a  mouse,  has  an  illusion 
of  the  sense  of  sight;  another,  hearing  the  pattering  of 
the  rain  on  the  roof,  and  perceiving  in  this  sound  the  voice 
of  some  one  calling  him,  has  an  illusion  of  the  sense  of 
hearing;  another,  having  some  bitter  substance  placed 
upon  his  tongue,  and  forming  the  perception  of  a  sweet 
flavor,  has  an  illusion  of  the  sense  of  taste;  and  so  on  as 
regards  the  other  senses.  In  all  such  eases  there  is  a  ma- 
terial basis  for  the  perception,  but  this  latter  is  not  in  exact 
relation  with  the  former.  Illusions  arc  not  always  indica- 
tive of  cerebral  disorder:  indeed,  they  are  very  common 
with  all  of  us  under  certain  circumstances.  It  is,  |)crhap?, 
never  the  case  that  the  perception  is  precisely  in  accord- 
ance with  the  real  projierties  of  the  substance  making  the 
sensorial  impression.  We  never  see,  hear,  taste,  smell,  or 
feel  things  exactly  as  they  are.  This  imperfection  may  be 
due  to  surrounding  circumstances  not  being  favorable. 
Insuflicicnt  light  may  thus  make  our  vision  imperfect ;  loud 
noises  may  render  us  incapable  of  appreciating  gentle 
sounds  :  a  strongly  sa]iid  substance  previously  rubbed  over 
the  tongue  and  faiiecs  prevents  our  distinguishing  delicate 
flavors;  a  powerful  odor  may  make  such  an  impression  on 
the  Schneiderian  membr.ane  that  other  odors  for  a  long  time 
smell  like  it;  and  exposure  to  very  cold  weather  interferes 
markedlv  with  the  discriminating  |iowcr  of  the  sense  of 
touch,  "imperfect  perceptions  are  often  formed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  perceptive  ganglia  being  otherwise  occupied. 
Thus,  if  we  arc  looking  intently  at  some  object  of  interest, 
we  arc  apt  not  to  attend  to  the  sounds  which  reach  our  ears, 
and  consequently  no  clear  perception  of  them  is  formed. 
Illusions  of  all  tlie  senses,  but  especially  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing, are  met  with  in  insanity,  and  particularly  in  those 
acuteforms  characterized  by  the  presence  of  delirium. 

Hnllncinntiiin.—A  hallucination  is  a  false  perception 
without  any  material  basis,  and  is  centric  in  its  origin.  It 
is  more,  therefore,  than  an  erroneous  interpretation  of  a 
real  object,  for  it  is  entirely  forme. 1  by  the  mind.  An 
individual  who  on  looking  at  a  blank  wall  perceives  it  to 
he  covered  with  pictures  has  a  hallucination ;  another 
who  when  no  sound  reaches  his  ears  hears  voices  whisper- 
ing to  him  also  suffers  from  a  hiillueinalion  ;  and  such 
fafse  perceptions  may  be  created  as  regards  all  kinds  of 
!  sensorial  excitations.  The  organs  of  the  senses,  in  f.ict,  arc 
not  necessarv  to  the  existence  of  hallucinations.  T'""''  '' 
the  eyes  be  closed,  images  mav  still  be  seen  :  if  the  hearing 
be  lost,  voices  mav  still  be  heard;  and  the  reason  for  this 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  erroneous  perception  consli- 
tuiiiig  the  hallucination  is  formed  in  that  part  of  the  braiii 
which  ordinarilv  requires  the  excitation  of  a  sensorial  im- 
pression for  its'funetionation.  Hallucinations  arc  always 
I  evidence  of  cerebral  derangement,  and  are  common  phe- 
.  nomena  of  insanity.     They  may  be  exc;t-:d  by  emotions  of 


INSANITY. 


1219 


various  kinds,  by  which  the  chnroctcr  or  quantity  of  the 
blood  circulatin<;  in  the  braiu  is  changed,  by  intellectual 
exertion,  by  cerliiiu  drugs,  and  many  other  factors  to  bo 
presently  more  fully  considered. 

DofiiMioii. — Illusions  and  balluciuations  may  exist,  and 
the  individual  be  perfeelly  sensible  that  they  arc  not  reali- 
ties. In  such  ca^:es  the  intellect  is  not  involved.  IjuI  if  he 
accepts  his  false  perceptions  as  facts,  his  intellei-t  partici- 
pates, and  he  has  delusions.  A  delusion  is.  therefore,  a 
faL-^c  belief.  It  may  be  based  upon  an  illusion  or  a  baU 
lucination,  may  result  from  false  reasoning  in  regard  to 
real  oecurroDccs,  or  be  evolved  out  of  the  intellect  spon- 
taneously by  the  result  of  imperfect  infurniation  or  of- 
an  inability  to  weigh  evidence  or  to  discriminate  between 
the  true  and  the  false.  Delusions  arc  not  a  lost  for  insan- 
ity, as  most  lawyers  and  many  physicians  believe.  If  thoy 
were,  one-half  the  world  would  bo  trying  to  put  the  other 
half  in  luualie  a^vlums.  They  may  be  present  without  co- 
existent insanity,  and  many  c:ises  run  their  course  without 
them.  To  be  indicative  of  insanity  a  delusion  must  be 
in  regard  to  a  matter  of  fact,  and  contrary  to  the  custom- 
ary moilo  of  thought  of  the  individual.  Thus,  a  believer 
in  Spiritualism  is  not  necessarily  insane  because  he  sees 
and  converses  with  the  spirit  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  for 
bis  delusion  is  one  not  capable  of  proof  or  disproof,  and  it 
is  a  part  of  his  mentality  to  believe  in  the  existouco  of 
spirits  :iiid  In  the  possibility  of  evoking  them  so  as  to  see 
tln-m  and  talk  with  them.  But,  if  a  non-he!i(*ver  in  Ppirit- 
ualisin  should  imagine  that  ho  was  in  the  habit  of  seeing 
Franklin's  spirit,  and  of  conversing  with  it,  it  would  be 
good  evidence  of  his  insanity.  And,  further,  though  the 
Spiritualist  might  think  he  had  interviews  with  Franklin, 
and  still  be  sane,  yet  if  he  believed,  without  foumlalion  and 
contr.ary  to  evidence,  that  his  brother  tiad  tried  to  poison 
him,  he  would  have  a  delusion  sufiicicnt  to  indicate  insanity. 

At  a  former  period  of  the  world's  history  a  belief  in  the 
possibility  of  seeing  devils  and  demons  of  various  kinds, 
and  of  suffering  from  (heir  torments,  was  commonly  enter- 
tained. Indeed,  it  is  religiously  held  now  by  a  great  many 
otherwise  sensible  people.  Such  a  belief  is,  according  to 
our  mode  of  thought,  a  delusion,  and  probably  nine-tenths 
of  those  who  rcail  this  article  will  agree  with  mc  in  so  re- 
garding it.  But  it  certainly  would  not  be  safe  to  consider 
every  one  holding  such  a  creed  as  insane.  A  like  reason- 
ing applies  to  the  holders  of  every  other  form  of  belief  not 
in  aci!ordance  with  our  own.  A  delusion,  to  be  Indicative 
of  insanity,  must  bo  such  a  belief  ns  would  not  be  enter- 
tained in  the  ordinary  normal  condition  of  the  individual, 
must  relate  to  a  matter  of  fa-'t,  must  have  been  formed 
without  such  evidence  as  would  have  been  necessary  to 
convince  in  health,  anci  must  be  held  against  such  positive 
testimony  as  would  have  in  health  sufliccd  to  eradiciito  it. 
Insanity  may  exist  without  delusions  at  any  time  being 
pre?ent.  Thus,  there  may  bo  emotional  insanity,  the  main 
feiiture  of  which  consists  of  mental  depression  with  an  un- 
reasoning tendency  to  suicide;  or  there  may  be  volitional 
insanity,  characterized  by  an  inability  to  refrain  from  set- 
ting fire  to  neighbors*  houscs'or  from  committing  homicide. 

/nrohrrriirr. — A  person  is  said  to  be  incoherent  when  the 
words  he  utters  are  without  proper  relation  to  each  other, 
or  when  his  language  is  not  in  accordance  with  h'.s  ideas. 
Incoherence  is  a  prominent  feature  of  delirium,  and  is  some- 
times met  with  in  the  chronic  insane.  It  is  directly  due 
either  to  the  impossibility  of  keeping  the  attention  suffi- 
ciontly  long  on  one  idea  for  its  full  consi'li-ration.  or  to  a 
like  difficulty  in  co-ordinating  those  parts  of  tho  brain 
whii'h  arc  eoncernod  in  the  formation  and  expression  of 
thoughts. 

D'  fi'riiiin. — Delirium  is  that  condition  in  which  there  arc 
illusions,  lialluoinalions,  delusions,  iiml  incohereneo,  to- 
gether with  a  general  excess  of  motility,  an  inability  to 
sleep,  and  an  acceleration  of  pulse.  In  acute  delirium 
these  phenomena  are  xtcII  marked  ;  in  the  low  and  chronic 
firms  they  arc  less  strongly  indicated.  Srimetimes  one  or 
the  other  of  these  elements  notably  preitouiiiiates.  De- 
lirium is  present  in  the  early  stages  uf  acute  mania,  and 
mny  exist  ns  an  oet^ompaniment  of  certain  disea<<es  uf  tho 
brain  which  do  not  ordinarily  cause  insanity,  such  as  eer- 
cbnil  congestion  or  aniemin.  It  is  alsi  common  in  fovors 
and  in  several  other  disorders  of  the  system. 

I.  f*rrcrftlifnifif  fimnnfttf.  —  In  uncomplicated  peroop- 
tional  insanity  those  parts  of  the  brain  only  are  disordered 
whi-'h  are  concerned  in  tho  formation  of  )percepti<)ns.  It 
constitutes  the  primary  form  of  mental  aberration,  and  of 
itself  is  not  of  sudi  ii  character  as  t<i  lessen  the  responsibil- 
ity of  the  individual  or  to  warrant  any  interftrenco  with 
his  right'*.  It  consists  entirely  in  false  perceptions,  and  if 
the  intellect  is  for  a  moment  deceived,  the  error  is  im- 
tnoiliately  corrected.  As  already  stated,  these  are  either 
illusi(ms  or  hallucinations.  In  some  cases  the  erroneous 
pnr*'  pfions   m;iy   cocr.i>'t    in   tbe   sriinc   individual.      They 


may  bo  related  to  all  tho  senses,  but  are  especially  common 
as  regards  sight  and  bearing.  Illusions,  as  already  men- 
tioned, arc  not  necessarily  due  to  any  centric  difficulty, 
though  such  an  origin  is  common.  Thus,  it  is  an  illusion 
if  a  person  on  looking  at  an  object  sees  two  images.  This 
result  is  due  to  sonic  cause  destroying  the  parallelism  of 
the  visual  axes,  and  may  be  produced  by  a  tumor  of  tho 
orbit  or  by  i>aralysis  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  ocular  mus- 
cles. Even  in  such  a  case,  if  the  paralysis  were  due  to 
central  lesion  the  higher  ganglia  of  the  brain  might  escape 
implication.  Illusions  arc  often  exciteil  by  emotional  dis- 
turbances, and  are  then  probably  directly  due  to  some  dc- 
rangetncnt  of  the  cerebral  circulation.  The  false  percep- 
tions Galled  hallucinations  are  of  more  importance  than 
illusions  in  the  symptomatology  of  insanity  in  general.  In 
the  purely  perceptional  form  of  mental  aberration  they  are 
also  exceedingly  interesting,  and  arc  very  often  troublesome 
symptoms.  Thus,  a  gentleman  who  had  overworked  himself 
in  financial  business  was  subject  to  hallucinations  of  hear- 
ing, which,  however,  did  not  in  the  least  impose  on  his  in- 
tellect. As  he  walked  through  the  streets  to  his  place  of 
business  lie  heard  a  voice  continually  whispering  to  him, 
"Take  care!  take  care!"  So  strong  was  the  impression 
made  that  he  often  involuntarily  turned  round  to  sec  who 
was  speaking  to  him.  In  another  case  a  gcntlemiin  saw 
images  of  various  kinds  as  soon  as  his  head  touched  the 
pillow,  though  they  were  never  present  when  he  was  stand- 
ing or  sitting.  The  case  of  Nicohii,  the  German  bookseller 
of  tho  last  century,  is  well  known  as  remarkable,  and  others 
are  afforded  in  the  eases  of  Jerome  Cardan,  Pascal,  and 
many  other  noted  personages.  Like  illusions,  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  hallucinations  is  generally  derangement  of 
the  cerebral  circulation,  either  as  regards  quantity  or  qual- 
ity. As  is  well  known,  they  are  frequently  produced  by 
alcoholic  liquors,  opium,  belladonna.  Indian  hemp,  and 
other  drugs.  They  may  also  result  from  mental  exertion 
and  emotional  disturbances,  from  an  overloaded  stomach, 
or  may  occur  in  the  course  of  various  diseases,  especially 
those  of  a  febrile  or  exhausting  character.  Perceptional 
insanity  may  make  its  appearance  suddenly,  the  first  evi- 
dence of  its  presence  being  the  illusion  or  hallucination. 
Usually,  hovvever,  there  are  prodromata  indicating  cerebral 
derangement.  These  are  pain  in  the  head,  irritiibility  of 
temper,  suffusion  of  tho  eyes,  noises  in  the  ears,  a  general 
restlessness,  and  some  febrile  excitement.  The  skin  is  gen- 
erally dry,  the  mouth  parched,  the  bowels  costive,  and  the 
urine  high-colored  and  scanty.  If  not  arrested,  it  may 
pass  into  one  or  the  other  of  the  following  types  of  mental 
aberration. 

II.  fiitrlfvcticaf  Inifuit'ti/. — The  essential  feature  of  intel- 
lectual insanity  is  delusion.  It  may  be  developed  suddenly, 
or,  as  is  generally  the  case,  is  preceded  by  evidences  of 
cerebral  disorder,  which,  though  at  the  time  of  their  occur- 
rence not  attracting  particular  attention,  arc  called  to  mind 
by  the  oi)Scrver3  after  the  disease  has  become  fully  devel- 
oped. In  tho  first  stages  of  intellectual  insanity  it  is  not 
often  that  the  delusions  are  fixed,  and  they  may  succeed 
each  other  with  such  rapidity  that  the  patient  resembles 
one  affected  with  mania.  They  may  be  based  on  illusions 
or  hallucinations,  or  may  arise  froni  the  reasoning  of  the 
patient  from  purely  imaginary  premises  not  connected  with 
the  senses.  Sometimes  they  are  spontaneous,  and  at  othi-rs 
they  appear  to  come  from  dreams.  Thus,  a  gentleman  who 
bad  for  several  days  Iiccn  singular  in  bis  behavior  awoke 
in  the  night  and  imagined  that  he  saw  his  wife  standing 
by  his  bcdsido  with  a  phial  of  prussic  acid,  which  she  was 
about  to  empty  into  his  mouth.  The  hallueination  took 
such  strong  nold  of  him  that  ho  went  into  the  ailjoining 
roi»ui,  wlnTc  his  wile  slept,  to  see  if  she  were  there  or  not, 
and,  th<iugh  he  fouml  her  sleeping  quietly,  be  awoke  h  r 
and  accusi-d  her  of  having  attempted  lo  poison  him.  No 
an)ount  of  argument  or  persuasion  could  eradicate  the  false 
belief  from  bis  mind.  Another  for  several  days  had  been 
spending  money  very  freely  in  articles  of  little  or  no  usvi 
to  him,  when  one  morning  be  announced  lo  bis  faniily  that 
for  several  days  ho  had  been  thinking  a  great  mistake  had 
been  committed  in  his  conception,  and  that  his  soul  had 
got  into  the  wrong  body.  Ho  was  therefore  convinced  that 
ho  was  not  the  man  he  should  have  been,  ami  hence  be  had 
done  a  great  many  things  which  were  altogether  repugnant 
to  his  physical  senses  :  so  long  as  the  antagonism  eontinui  d 
between  his  mind  and  his  body  there  was  no  hope  of  any 
happiness  for  him  in  tbifl  world.  In  this  ease  there  had 
never  been  any  hallucination  or  illusion  of  any  of  the 
senses.  The  dohnion  was  therefore  entirely  the  result  of 
the  patient's  own  perverted  thoughts.  When  rapidly  fol- 
lowing each  other,  delusions  are  clearly  spontaneous,  are 
not  tho  result  of  any  series  of  thoughts,  but  come  on  the 
spur  of  the  mnnient  and  upon  very  nlight  suggestions.  As 
they  arc  rearlily  fiirmcil,  they  are  not  fixed  in  character. 
A  lady,  for  instauL-e,  after  receiving  some  very  sorrowful 


1220 


INSANITY. 


news  relative  to  her  husband,  imagined  that  she  had  lost 
her  eyesight.  For  a  few  hours  she  remained  w.th  her  eyes 
shut  alleging  that  there  were  two  deep  cavities  behind  the 
lids  Suddenly  she  opened  them,  said  she  saw  perfectly 
well,  but  that  the  top  of  her  head  had  been  cut  oft  ;  and 
this  was  almost  immediately  changed  to  the  belief  that 
she  was  perishing  with  cold  ;  and  so  on,  no  one  delusion 
lastin"  lunger  than  a  few  minutes.  In  many  cases  like 
this  the  erroneous  beliefs  are  excited  by  sensations  m  va- 
rious parts  of  the  body,  but  this  was  not  so  in  the  present 

instance.  ,    .         ...      „ 

The  connection  between  dreams  and  insanity  is  very 
close.  Most  of  us  have  at  times  had  such  vivid  dreams 
that  they  have  been  removed  from  our  mind  with  difficulty. 
There  appears  to  bo  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  de  usions 
of  the  insane  have  dreams  for  their  cause.  The  delusions 
of  the  insane  are  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  connected 
more  or  less  directly  with  themselves.  Thus,  a  person  be- 
lieves that  his  leg  is  made  of  glass,  that  his  head  is  reversed 
on  his  shoulders,  that  he  is  some  great  personage,  that  a 
lar-e  fortune  has  been  left  to  him,  or  that  some  misfortune 
has  deprived  him  of  his  property  or  his  friends.  He  will 
often  reason  logically  and  forcibly  from  the  premises  he 
has  assumed,  and  will  give  no  evidence  ol  insanity  outs.de 
of  his  delusion.  Such  cases  are  embraced  under  the  term 
"reasoning  mania."  and  the  skill  and  .acumen  exhibited 
by  persons  thus  affected  are  often  surprising.  «  hen  it  is 
important,  in  their  estimation,  for  them  to  conceal  their 
delusion,  they  will  often  do  so  for  a  long  time,  and  strata- 
gems of  various  kinds  are  necessary  to  their  speedy  detec- 
tion.    Sooner  or  later,  however,  the  delusion  comes  out. 

The  designation  monomania  can  properly  be  applied  to 
many  of  the  cases  of  intellectual  insanity       In  the  uncom- 
plicated form  of  the  disease  it  is  rare,  after  it  is  fully  es- 
tablished, that  more  than  a  single  object  or  a  small  class 
of  objects  is  the  subject  of  the  delusion.     The  delusions  of 
the  insane  may  be  comprehended  under  two  categories— 
those  which  are  of  a  pleasant  or  exalted  character  and 
those  which  are  unpleasant  or  morbid.    These  usually  leave 
their  impress  on  the  countenance  of  the  patient,  and  his 
actions  and  manner  are  in  accordance  with  them.    It  would 
be  strange  if  this  were  not  the  case.     The  only  guide  which 
man  has  for  his  actions  is  his  reason.     lie  weighs  argu- 
ments and  motives,  and  determines  according  to  the  bear- 
in-'   which   they  may  have   on   his  mental   processes.       A 
deTusion   is,  in   many  cases,  simply  a  false    premise  ;  the 
conclusions  which  the  individual  draws  from  it  are  entirely 
lo.'ical.     Taking,  for  instance,  the  case  of  the  gentleman 
who  had  imbibed  the  idea  that  his  wife  had  attempted  to 
pni.son  him,  and  admitting  that  he  was  correct  in  this  no- 
tion, his  subsequent  actions— his  denunciations,  his  re  usal 
to  live  with  her,  his  efforts  to  have  her  imprisoned,  etc.— 
are  perfectly  reasonable.     The  line  of  conduct  was  such  as 
most  men  would  have  pursued  under  like  eircumstances 
In  such  cases,  therefore,  there  is  no  fault  in  the  intellectual 
process  after  the  fir.st  step  is  taken.     It  is  this  first  step 
'vhich  constitutes  the  disease;  it  is  the  delusion  which  en- 
slaves the  mind.  ,.     .    ,  i  .»,  ■ 
Intellectual  insanity  is  often  uncomplicated  by  any  other 
form  of  mental  derangement.     There  are  no  illusions   no 
halhioinations.  no  overpowering  uiHuence  of  'ho  emouons, 
and  no  loss  of  control  over  the  will.     Even  when  the  de- 
lusion is  of  such  a  character  as  apparently  to  be  connected 
with  some  one  of  the  senses,  and  thus  to  be  based  upon  a 
false  perception,  full  inquiry  will  often  show  that  there  is 
no  error  of  the  sensorial   processes    centric  or   eccentric. 
Thus   a  lady  had  the  delusion  that  she  had  lost  her  palate, 
as  she  called  it.     A  mirror  was  held  to  her  face,  and  while 
she  opened  her  mouth  the  fact  was  pointed  out  to  her  tha 
all  the  parts  were  present.     '•  Yes,"  she  replied,  "  I  see  all 
that ;  the  form  is  there,  I  know  very  well,  but  the  substance 
is  .rone  ;"  and  no  arguments  could  convince  her  to  the  eon- 
traTy      A  gentleman  conceived  that  his  right  hand  was 
made  of  glass,  and  therefore,  to  prevent  its  being  broken 
he  kept  it  earcfullv  enclosed  in  a  stout  case  made  to  fit  it 
accurately.     On  calling  his  attention  to  the  physical  qual- 
ities of  his  hand,  and  pointing  out  how  they  differed  Irom 
those  of  glass,  he  said,  "  I  once  thought  just  as  you  do 
Mv  brain  was  then  incapable  of  appreciating  minute  dil- 
ferences  as  well  as  it  can  now  ;  and  though  I  confess  that 
my  senses  still  convey  to  me  the  idea  that  my  hand  is  like 
other  people's,  yet  I  know  the  conception  is  erroneous,  and 
I  correct  it  at  once  by  my  reason.     My  hand  looks  like 
flesh  and  blood,  but  it  is  glass  for  all  that,     ^"thlng  is 
more  calculated  to  deceive  than  the  senses.'      Persons  al- 
tVKod   with  uncomplicated    intellectual    insanity  may  go 
throu^'h  the  world  without  giving  any  considerable  evi- 
dcnee  of  mental  derangement  unless  the  subject  of  their 
delusion   be  touched    upon.     Still,  there    is    no  telling  to 
what  extremes  a  delusion   may  carry  its  subject.     SucU  a 
person,  for  instance,  imagines  that  he  is  the  emperor  of 


Russia.  At  first  he  does  not  comprehend  the  full  import- 
ance of  his  supposed  position,  and  if  of  moderate  reason- 
in"- power,  possessing  deficient  information,  and  naturally 
of'a  quiet  disposition,  he  may  never  go  further  than  dress- 
ing himself  in  some  tawdry  finery  and  strutting  pompously 
through  the  wards  of  the  hospital.  But  under  other  cir- 
cumstances he  reflects  upon  the  greatness  of  his  station, 
and  thus  from  time  to  time  conceives  new  ideas  of  his 
powers  and  importance,  and  may  thus  become  a  very  trouble- 
some patient,  lie  comes  to  believe,  perhaps,  that  he  has 
the  power  of  life  and  death,  and  may  attempt  to  exercise 
his  imaginary  prerogative.  Delusions  in  regard  to  relatives 
and  friends  are  very  common,  and  hence  the  conduct  of  the 
person  entertaining  them  is  changed  as  it  relates  to  the  ob- 
jects of  his  erroneous  ideas.  It  is  a  usual  thing,  therefore, 
for  such  an  insane  person  to  disinherit  those  who  would 
naturally  be  heirs  to  his  property.  This  point  is  of  im- 
portance in  its  medico-legal  relations. 

Delusions  may  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  aftect  the 
emotions  secondarily.  A  very  common  delusion  is  that  of 
having  committed  the  unpardonable  sin,  and  accordingly 
the  patient  suffers  great  emotional  disturbance.  This  in- 
fluence upon  the  emotions  is  perfectly  natural  and  logical, 
for  if  the  person  really  has  committed  a  sin  for  which  there 
is  no  hope  of  pardon,  and  has  thus  incurred  the  punish- 
ment of  eternal  damnation,  it  would  be  strange  if  the  emo- 
tions of  sorrow  and  despair  were  not  excited  into  activity. 
Such  cases,  however,  are  not  to  be  embraced  under  the  head 
of  emotional  insanity  :  and  though  at  first  sight  they  may 
appear  to  be  of  that  type,  inquiry  will  reveal  the  fact  ot 
the  pro-existence  of  the  delusion. 

III.  Emolwinil  /nsniiiV^.- The  emotions  are  at  all  times 
difBcultto  control,  but  thev  may  acquire  such  undue  promi- 
nence as  to  dominate  over  the  intellect  and  the  will,  and 
assume  the  entire  mastery  of  the  actions  in  one  or  more  re- 
spects     This  effect  mav  be  produced  suddenly,  from  the 
operation  of  some  cause  capable  of  disturbing  the  normal 
balance  which  exists  among  the  several  parts  of  the  mind, 
or  it  may  result  from  influences  which  act  slowly,  but  with 
gradually  increasing  efi'ect.     In    either  ease  there  is  not 
necessarily  either  delusion  or  error  of  judgment,  but  it  very 
generally  happens  that  the  intellect  sooner  or  later  becomes 
'  involved.     Emotional  insanity  may  be  produced  without 
there  being  any  discoverable  cause,  and  without  the  patient 
being  able  to  allege  a  motive.     Some  emotions  arc  more 
frequently  disordered  than  others.     Those  of  a  sorrowful 
character  are  pre-eminent  in  this  respect,  and  when  they 
are  afl-ectcd  the  tyjie  of  insanity  called  melancholia  is  the 
result      This  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic  in  its  course. 
The  first  is  rarely  uncomplicated,  and  hence  will  be  more 
properly  considered  under  the  head  of  Mann,.     Homicide 
suicide'and  other  crimes  may  be  the  result  of  emotional 
insanity  as  well  as  of  intellectual  insanity.     The  most  com- 
mon of  these  is  undoubtedly  suicide,  the  individual  com- 
mitting self-destruction  in  order  to  escape  from  the  depress- 
ing influences  which  act  upon  him.     A  person,  for  instance, 
to'eite  the  example  previously  given,  imbibes  the  delusion 
that  he  has  committed  the  unpardonable  sin  or  that  God 
has  deserted  him,  and  in  consequence  passes  into  a  condi- 
tion of  settled  melancholy,  during  which  he  may  attempt 
self-destruction  to  escape  from  his  harrowing  thoughts,  or 
commit  a  homicide  in  order  that  the  same  end  may  be  ac- 
complished by  his  being  hanged  for  murder.     Other  emo- 
tions may  of  course  be  excited  into  morbid  activity  by  de- 
rangement of  the   intellect.     Delusional  jealousy,  anger, 
hatred,  or  love  may  thus  urge  their  unfortunate  victim  to 
the  periietration  of  crime,  plunge  him  into  a  depth  ol  un- 
hapiiiness  from  which  Ihero  is  no  escape,  or  lift  him  into 
an  ecstasy  of  bliss  far  exceeding  that  derivable  irom  the 
i  realization  of  all  his  wishes.  j  ,„,.„, i 

Under  the  head  of  moral  insanity,  Dr.  Prichard  several 
years  a^o  described  a  form  of  mental  derangement  which 
imbrac?s  several  species  which  are  now  more  proper  y 
placed  under  other  heads.  ,«everal  of  these  are  c  early 
[motional  in  character,  and  most  of  them  relate  o  altered 
modes  of  feeling  or  of  the  affective  faculties  and  therefore, 
in  the  largest  sense  of  the  word,  may  also  be  called  emo- 
tional. Careful  and  thorough  inquiry  will,  however,  often 
show  that  the  primary  difficulty  is  one  ot  defect  not  of 
aberration  or  exaggeration,  and  that,  therefore,  t he  e  in- 
stances of  deficient  moral  sense,  leading  the  subjects  to  he 
perpetration  of  crimes  of  various  kinds,  sh«""l.''°,  «'f  ;,!^ 
mider  the  head  of  imbecility.  Many  cases  of  1^  hat  are 
called  temporary  insanity,  mania  ephemera,  transitory 
mania,  and  morbid  impulse  are  really  instances  of  cmo  lonal 
insanity.  That  such  a  condition  exists  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  and  it  is  important,  both  as  regards  the  subject  and 
society,  to  be  able  to  recognize  or  to  disprove  its  presence 
A  few  words,  therefore,  on  this  point  will  not  be  out  ot 
place  The  state  with  which  transitory  emotional  insanity 
is 'most  apt  to  be  confounded  is  that  which  has  been  desig- 


INSANITY. 


1221 


natcd  *'  beat  of  passion."  Pnssion  is  cmotiunnl  activity.  It 
refers  to  that  niodo  of  the  mind  in  which  certain  imprcs- 
siunii  or  emotioD.s  arc  felt,  and  which  is  accuinpiuiicd  by  a 
tendency  or  impulse,  often  irresistible,  to  act  in  accordance 
with  these  impressions  or  emotions  irrespective  of  the  in- 
tellect. An  act  performed  in  tho  heat  of  passion  is  one 
prompted  by  an  emotion  which  for  the  moment  controls  the 
will,  the  intellect  not  being  called  into  action.  It  is  an  act, 
thercfure.  performed  without  reflection.  The  passions  are, 
to  a  certain  extent,  under  the  control  of  the  will,  and  this 
power  of  checkin;^  their  manifestations  is  capable  of  being 
greatly  increased  by  self-discipline.  Some  persons  hold 
their  passions  in  entire  subjugation  ;  others  are  led  away 
by  very  slight  emotional  disturbances.  Tho  law  recognizes 
the  natural  weakness  of  man  in  this  respect,  and  wisely 
discriminates  between  acts  done  after  duo  reflection  and 
tho«c  committed  in  tlio  midst  of  passional  excitement. 

The  acts  performed  during  temporary  emotional  insanity, 
in  their  more  obvious  aspects  and  when  viewecl  isolatedly, 
resemble  those  done  in  the  heat  of  passion.  But  they  are 
so  only  as  regards  the  acts  themselves.  Thus,  a  person 
entering  the  room  at  tiio  very  moment  when  one  man  was 
in  tho  act  of  shooting  another  would  be  unable  to  tell 
whether  the  homicide  was  done  in  the  heat  of  passion  or 
under  tho  influeneo  of  an  attack  of  temporary  insanity; 
he  would  be  equally  unable  to  say  whether  it  was  committed 
in  malice  aforethought  or  in  self-defence.  The  act,  there- 
fore, by  itself,  can  teach  us  nothing.  Wo  must  look  to  tho 
attentling  eircum.stances  and  to  tho  antecedents  of  the  per- 
petrator for  the  facts  which  are  to  enlighten  us  as  to  tho 
state  of  mind  of  the  actor.  Now,  tho  conditions  of  tem- 
porary emotional  insanity  are  so  well  market!  that  tho  act 
which  indicates  the  height  of  tho  paroxysm  may  almost  bo 
disregarded,  for  it  is  always  preceded  by  symptoms  of 
mental  aberration,  while  acts  done  in  tho  heat  of  passion 
are  notthtis  foreshadowed.  And  as  regards  the  subsequent 
state  of  tho  inrlividual  tho  distinction  is  equally  apparent. 
Tho  one  who  has  committed  a  criminal  act  in  tlic  heat  of 
passion  soon  subsides  to  his  ordinary  condition  of  equa- 
nimity, and  generally  begins  to  think  of  his  safety.  Tiio 
one  who  has  pcrpetrate<l  a  similar  act  during  an  attack  of 
temporary  emotional  insanity  never  thinks  of  escape,  nor 
even  avoids  publicity.  He  may  even  boast  of  his  Tonduct 
or  deliver  himself  into  the  bands  of  tho  law.  What  is, 
however,  of  greater  importance  is  tho  fact  that  though  ho 
may  subside  into  a  condition  of  comparative  sanity,  tho 
evidences  of  disease  are  still  present,  and  remain  iu  him 
for  days,  weeks,  or  even  months  and  years.  These  symp- 
tonu  arc  generally  those  of  cerebral  congestion,  ta  which 
attention  has  already  been  directed.  In  the  heat,  of  passion 
the  act  follows  immediately  on  tho  excitation  of  whicli  it 
is  tho  logical  sequence.  In  temporary  insanity  the  act  is 
tho  culmination  of  a  series  of  disordered  physical  and  men- 
tal manifestations,  and  may  or  may  not  be  in  relation  with 
tho  emotional  cause.  Tho  distinction  'm  therefore  clear 
and  preoise. 

IV,  Volitional  liiaaniti/, — In  uncomplicated  volitional 
insanity  there  arc  no  delusions  and  no  emotional  disturb- 
ances, but  solely  an  inability  to  exert  the  will  in  accordaneo 
with  the  intellect.  Many  cases  of  inrtrbid  impulse  arc  in- 
stances of  volitional  insanity,  in  which  an  idea  suddenly 
flashes  across  tho  mind  and  is  immediately  carried  out  by 
tho  individual,  although  his  intellect  and  his  emotions  arc 
strongly  exerted  against  it.  Thus,  a  ]»ers(m  who  previously 
has  not  exhibited  any  very  obvious  aymptoins  of  mental 
derangement — though  careful  inquiry  will  invariably  show 
that  slight  evidences  of  cerebral  disease  have  been  present 
for  some  days — instanta.neously  feels  a  morbid  impulse  to 
commit  a  murder  or  perpetrate  some  other  criminal  act, 
and  is  forced  to  yield,  notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  ho 
may  make.  Numerous  cases  of  this  kind  arc  on  record. 
Thus,  l^.squirol  relates  the  case  of  a  man  thirty-two  years  old, 
of  a  nervous  temperament  and  quiet  disposition,  who  had 
been  well  educated  and  who  was  fotid  of  tho  fine  arts.  Ho  had 
sufl^ered  from  a  brain  disorder,  but  had  been  several  months 
cured.  After  being  in  Paris  for  about  two  months,  during 
which  time  he  led  a  perfectly  regular  life,  ho  one  day  en- 
tered the  Palais  do  Justice  and  attacked  an  advoca'o  with 
great  fury.  Tho  next  morning  when  seen  by  I-isquirol  he 
was  perfectly  tranquil  and  erunposed,  showed  no  onger 
whatever,  and  had  slept  well  all  night.  Tho  same  day  he 
designed  a  landscape.  He  recoUeelcMl  what  be  had  done 
the  previous  day,  and  spoke  of  it  with  coolness.  He  de- 
clared that  ho  had  entertained  no  ill-will  against  tho  a<lvo- 
eatc,  had  never  even  seen  him  before,  and  had  no  t)usiness 
with  bim  or  any  other  lawver.  He  eouM  not  understand, 
ho  said,  what  had  aetuate<l  him  to  umke  the  af<sault.  Sub- 
setpiently  ho  exhibited  no  intlioatifms  whatever  of  being 
insane.  Many  instances  of  so-called  moral  insanity  may 
properly  be  placed  under  the  head  of  volitional  insanity, 
fur   tliey  arc  characterized   by  an   inability  to  so  exert  tho 


nill  OS  to  refrain  from  the  perpetration  of  acts  known  to  bo 
crimes.      Of  such   are  cases  of  kleptomania,  dipsomania, 
pyromania,  etc.     The  will  in  insanity  is  often  secondarily 
affected  through  disturbance  originating  in  the  intellect  or 
the  emotions,  and  acts  are  hence  performed  which  give 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  mental  aberration.     In  mania 
of  all  kinds,  and  especially  in  dementia  and  general  paral- 
;  ysis,  there  is  either  a  loss  of  volitional  control  or  an  in- 
ability to  exert  the  normal  wilI-])ower. 
I       V.  Mania. — In  mania  the  mind  is  affected   in   several, 
'  generally  all  of  its  parts.     There  are  illusions,  hallucina- 
'  tions,  delusions,  emotional   disturbance,  and  loss  of  voli- 
I  tional  power  or  control.     The  patient  is  either  morbidly 
excited  or  depressed,  and  is  often  violent  in  his  language 
and  actions.     Acute  mania  is  the  more  common  species  of 
mental   aberration,  and  in  its  two  types  of  exaltation  and 
depression  constitutes  the  form  most  commonly  met  witli. 

Ai*nte  Mania  ivith  Exaltation  has  its  prodromatic  stage, 
the  symptoms  of  which  arc  very  similar  to  those  which 
precede  an  attack  of  fully  developed  cerebral  congestion. 
These,  in  the  main,  are  pain  and  fulness  in  the  head,  eon- 
fusion  of  ideas,  increased  irritability  of  the  mind,  and, 
above  all,  wakefulness.  In  addition,  there  arc  restlessness 
of  body  and  a  singularity  of  btrhavior  which  strikes  those 
thrown  into  intimate  relations  with  the  subject,  and  causes 
them  to  suspect  that  something  is  wrong  with  him.  The 
character  and  disposition  undergo  a  change,  ami  it  is  very 
common  for  unfounded  prejudices  to  bo  formed  against 
persons  formerly  highly  esteemed.  Before  very  long  there 
are  illusions  and  hallucinations.  At  first  the  patient  strug- 
gles against  them,  but  eventually  ho  accepts  them  as  true, 
and  hcucc  becomes  subject  to  delusions.  These  are  rarely 
fixed  in  tho  earlier  stages,  and  may  not  be  so  through  tho 
whole  course  of  tho  disorder.  Willi  these  symptoms  there 
arc  derangements  in  other  organs  besides  the  brain.  Thus, 
the  appetite  is  lessened,  the  bowels  are  torpid,  the  kidneys 
fail  to  eliminate  the  normal  quantity  of  urine,  the  heart 
becomes  irregular  in  its  actions  and  beats  with  increased 
frequency — a  certain  sign  of  a  weak  and  excited  nervous 
system — and  the  skin  is  cither  bathed  in  persjiiration  or  is 
dry  and  hard.  AVilh  the  full  development  of  the  disorder 
the  ])atlcnt  becoracs  incoherent  and  rambling,  showing  a 
great  disposition  to  talk,  to  laugh,  and  to  sing,  and  to  in- 
dulge in  antics  of  various  kinds.  His  delusions  mainly 
have  reference  to  himself;  he  imagines  that  he  is  some 
great  personage,  that  he  has  suddenly  become  very  rich,  or 
that  ho  has  been  specially  singled  out  for  some  other  piece 
of  good  fortune.  Not  unfrequcntly  ho  is  exceedingly  trou- 
blesome, clestroying  the  furniture  of  his  room,  tearing  his 
clothes,  attacking  those  around  liim,  and  making  all  kimis 
of  attempts  to  escape  from  rcslraiiit;  but  at  the  same  time 
there  is  rarely  any  serious  effort  to  do  great  bodily  harm 
either  to  himself  or  others.  Sometimes,  however — and  this 
fact  should  always  be  boruc  in  mind  by  the  attendants — 
there  isadispositiun  to  perpetrate  acts  of  extreme  violence, 
and  such  a  tendency,  even  when  not  previously  manifested, 
may  very  suddenly  bo  developed.  As  a  rule,  patients  with 
acute  mania  lose  all  sense  of  decency,  and  become  exceed- 
ingly filthy  in  their  habits  and  obscene  in  their  language 
and  conducl.  ,\t  times  such  hinatios  exhibit  a  surprising 
degree  of  cunning,  and  arc  able  to  exercise  great  control 
over  their  conduct  when  they  have  an  end  to  accomplish. 
They  may  thus  deceive  tho  young  and  inexperienced  jdiy- 
sieian,  and  induce  liim  to  forego  the  idea  of  jiulting  them 
under  permanent  restraint,  or  they  may  so  impose  on 
him  as  to  inrluce  him  to  relax  his  vigilance,  and  thus  allow 
of  their  committing  some  outrageous  act.  It  must  bo  re- 
membered tliat  acute  mania  is  not  suddenly  cured,  hut  runs 
a  definite  and  allotted  course.  It  is  rare  that  the  memory  of 
tho  patient  suffers  to  any  eonsiderahlo  extent  in  acuto 
mania.  The  patients  are  perfectly  conscious  of  their  i^ur- 
rountlings,  and  are  seldom  deceived  by  the  subterfuge  so 
frequently  and  so  unjustifiably  employed  that  they  are  to 
be  taken  to  a  hotel  or  a  country-seat  when  about  to  depart 
for  an  asylum.  If  the  stratagem  does  for  a  moment  impose 
upon  them,  they  recollect  the  frauil,  and  will  not  again  re- 
pose confidence  in  those  who  have  perpetrated  it.  Their 
a]>petites  are  generally  unchanged.  If  in  the  habit  <if 
smoking  ()r  drinking,  they  still  want  their  tobacco  and  their 
wine,  and  are  usually  able  to  eat  a  full  allowance  of  food. 
After  tlieir  entrance  into  the  asylum  the  main  object  of 
their  lives  is  to  get  out  again  as  soon  as  possible.  They 
often  recognize  their  condition,  and  will  call  attention  to 
any  indications  of  improvement  they  may  exhibit.  They 
ore  not  for  a  moment  deceived  by  tho  delusions  of  their 
fellow-Iunaties,  It  is  rarely  the  case  that  tho  sleep  is  regu- 
lar an«I  sound.  Often  they  will  lie  awake  at  night  talking 
over  their  plans,  or  else  will  annoy  their  attenilants  in  every 
conceivable  way.  Although  Imving  usually  um-omfortablo 
feelings  in  the  head,  they  rarely  suffer  from  ucule  ])ain  in 
that  part  of  the  body. 


1222 


INSANITY. 


Acule  Mania  with  Depreuion.—'Tha  acute  melancholia 
of  many  authors  is  a  very  terrible  form  of  mental  aberra- 
tion. Lilie  that  just  described,  it  is  generally  preceded  by 
proJriimata,  which  indicate  by  their  character  the  type  ol 
insanity  which  is  about  to  be  developed,  but  it  often  ap- 
pears with  great  suddenness.     In  the  case  of  a  lady  the 


hand 
ever 


tir.-it  eviilencc  of  menial  disorder  was  a  violent  scream,  due 
to  the  fact  that  an  idea  had  instantaneously  (lashed  through 
her  mind  that  she  had  committed  the  unpardonable  sin,  and 
had  consequently  lost  all  hope  of  saving  her  soul.  For  sev- 
eral  days  she  continued,  with  scarcely  an  intermission,  to 
scream,  to  cry,  and  to  sob,  at  the  same  time  showing  the 
greatest  terror  from  apprehension  that  the  devils  were  ap- 
proaching her.     Graduallv  this  extreme  state  became  less 
violent,  but  she  still  continued  to  be  actuated  by  intense 
fear,  and  paced  the   floor  night   and   day,  wringing  her 
s,   weeping,  and   exclaiming,   "  Lost !   lost !    lost   for 
In  another  case  of  a  lady  the  idea  suddenly  oc- 
curred to  her  that  she  was  about  to  bo  killed.  She  screamed 
and  begged  and  prayed  to  those  around  her  not  to  allow  her 
to  bo  injured.    In  the  furniture  and  attendants  she  saw  her 
murderers,  and  to  escape  from  them  made  several  attempts 
to  throw  herself  out  of  the  window.     Then  she  believed 
that  she  was  to  be  poisoned,  and  refused  all  food  with  the 
utmost  pertinacity,  closing  her  teeth  so  firmly  together  that 
it  was  only  by  the  use  of  great  strength  that  they  could  be 
opened.     Of  all  the  forms  of  insanity,  this  is  the  ono  in 
which  illusions  and  hallucinations  of  the  senses  are  most 
common.     Those  are  particularly  so  as  regards  sight  and 
hearing,  and  do  not,  as  a  general  thing,  refer  to  the  body 
of  the'patient,  although  generally  in  direct  relation  with 
his  delusion.     In  all  cases  of  acute  mania  with  depression 
too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  to  prevent  self-injury  or 
suicide.     It  must  bo  constantly  kept  in  mind  that  the  idea 
is  a  very  common  ono  with  this  class  of  patients,  and  that 
frequently  they  manifest  great  astuteness  in  concealing  it 
till  they  are  ready  to  make  the  attempt. 

VI.   Gem-ral  Pnrnlii^ia. — The  affection  known  as  general  | 
paralysis  was  first  described  by  Delaye  in  1822,  by  Baylc 
in  the  same  year,  and,  with  much  more  thoroughness  and 
exactness,  by  Calmeil  in  1820.     It  is  a  very  common  form 
of  mental  derangement,  and,  aside  from  the  implication 
of  the  mind,  presents  the  very  striking  feature  of  a  grad- 
ually advancing  paralysis,  which  derives  its  name  from  the 
fact"  that  it  involves, "sooner  or  later,  nearly  every  muscle 
of  the  body.     This  paralysis  may  show  itself  at  the  same 
time  that  the  insanity  is  manifested,  it  may  precede  the 
mental  derangement,  or  it  may  be  subsequent  thereto.   The 
latter  is  much  the  more  usual  order.     The  mental  .symp- 
toms differ  in  several  important  respects  from  those  which 
occur  in  other  forms  of  insanity.     The  first  indication   of 
disease  is  generally  an  excessive  .anxiety  in  regard  to  mat- 
ters which  are  really  of  no  great  importance.     Of  the  cases 
which  have  come  under  my  care,  one  was  first  made  ap- 
parent by  a  morbid  apprehension  on  the  part  of  the  patient 
that  he  was  not  managing  some  trust-funds  in  the  best  pos- 
sible way  :    another,  by  the  idea  that  he  was  constantly 
wounding  the  feelings  "of  his  friends  ;  and  another  was  con- 
stantly changing  his  mind  about  the  most  trivial  things, 
and  a"piiarently  thinking  that  the  world  watched  with  great 
anxiety  all  his  movementa.     At  first,  the  general   mental 
type  is"  that  of  depression.   The  emotions  are  easily  excited, 
and  the  delusions  which  soon  make  their  appearance  are  of 
the  melancholic  form.     The  idea  of  propriety  in  the  every- 
day acts  of  life  seems  to  be  lost,  and  the  patient  will  com- 
mit all  kinds  of  indecent  acts  without  appearing  to  bo  aware 
that  he   is  doing   anything  unusual.     His    memory  fails 
rapidly,  and  his"  intellectual  vigor  declines  from  the  very 
first.    "Hence,  he  is  not  able  to  argue  in  defence  of  his  de- 
lusions, but  attacks  with  physical  force  those  who  venture 
to  differ  with  him.     His  acts  are  in  other  respects  eccentric 
and  absurd.     He  spends  money  in  things  which  arc  of  no 
manner  of  use  to  him,  and  at  the  same  time  refuses  to  pay 
his  small  debts;  he  harasses  in  every  possible  way  those 
who  are  about  him,  gives  them  impossible  orders,  and  then 
abuses  them  if  they  are  not  at  once  obeyed  ;  he  is  whimsical 
at  the  table,  and  drinks  vor.aciously,  or  declares  that  noth- 
ing is  cooked  to  suit  him,  and  leaves  the  table  in  a  rage, 
(iradually  the  form  of  his  mental  aberration  changes;  he 
becomes    more    cheerful,    forms    all    kinds    of    impossible 
schemes  for    suddenly  acquiring  great  wealth,  and   these 
are  quickly  abandoned   for  others  equally  impracticable. 
Thus,  delusion  after  delusion   rapidly  succeeds  each  other, 
and   those,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  relate  to  the 
grandeur,  the  wealth,  the  physical  strength,  or  some  other 
great   quality  of   the   patient,  constituting   the  dclire  dc>i 
,jnaule\ir»  of  the  French.     Ono  will   tell  of  his  immense 
palaces  built  of  gold  and  inlaid  with  precious  stones,  and 
in  the  next  breath  will  descant  on  his  great  weight  or  his 
extreme  lightness,  or  on  the  number  of  children  he  has,  or 
on  the  millions  of  operas  ho  has  composed.    Another  urges 


his  great  importance  in  the  political  world— tells  us  that 
he  has  elected  all  the  members  of  Congress  himself,  that  ho 
has  paid  off  the  national  debt,  and  that  in  consequence  ho 
is  to  be  made  emperor  of  the  United  States,  witli  a  salary 
of  a  thousand  millions  a  year;  fh.at  he  is  goiug  to  have  a 
thousand  physicians,  who  are  to  be  clothed  in  blue  velvet 
uniforms  embroidered  with  gold  and  diamonds;  that  he 
has  chartered  the  Great  Eastern  for  a  pleasure-trip,  and 
engaged  ten  thousand  musiciiins  and  a  similar  number  of 
ballet-dancers  to  go  with  him.  The  next  day  he  has  for- 
gotten all  these  fancies,  and  is  off  on  another  series  of  ab- 
surd ideas.  In  no  respect  is  he  restrained  in  the  extent  of 
his  delusions.  Impossibilities  arc  not  regarded.  While 
scarcely  able  to  drag  one  leg  after  the  other,  he  will  brag 
of  his  "great  flcetness  of  foot,  and  in  the  very  death-gnsp 
will  mutter  about  his  extreme  strength  or  endurance.  The 
.symptoms  connected  with  sensation  are  equally  well  marked. 
In  the  early  stage  headache  is  often  very  severe— so  much 
so  that,  as  Westphal  has  remarked  in  his  excellent  mono- 
graph on  the  subject  of  general  paralysis,  the  patient  often 
dashes  his  head  against  the  wall.  At  other  times  the  feel- 
ing in  the  head  is  that  of  fulness  or  tightness,  and  these 
sensations  are  often  accompanied  with  vertigo.     Neuralgia 


.'/'■' 


in  various  parts  of  the  body  is  common,  and  some  of  my 
patients  have  complained  of  the  different  degrees  of  numb- 
ness, especially  in   the  hands  and    feet.     But  still  more 
strongly  manifested  are  the  disorders  of  motility,  duo  to 
the  progressive  paralysis.     Ono  which  is  very  often  ob- 
served before  any  mental  derangement  is  perceived  is  a 
slight  defect  of  .articulation,  due  to  paralysis  of  the  lips. 
At''fir3t  this  is  scarcely  perceptible ;  there  is  merely  a  little 
trembling— an  action  such  as  that  seen  in  persons  who  arc 
endcavorlnc  to  restrain  their  emotions— but  it  is  suflicient 
to  give  indistinctness  to  the  utterance  of  those  words  which 
contain  labial  letters.     The  tongue  is  the  next  to  be  affect- 
ed     Examination  shows  that  there  are  fibrillary  contrac- 
tions of  the  muscles,  and  the  organ  is  moved  with  less  fa- 
cility.   The  articulation  is  slovenly,  words  are  slurred  over, 
and"there  are  both  stammering  and  stuttering.    The  patient 
notices  these  difficulties,  and  in  endeavoring  to  obviate  them 
makes  matters  worse  by  his  inability  to  be  exact,  contrast- 
ing strongly  with  his  efforts.     The  paralysis  of  the  tongue 
graduallv  becomes  more  complete,  and   at  last  this  organ 
can  only"  be  moved  with  great  difficulty.     The  other  facial 
muscles"  participate,  and  a  blank,  somewhat  sorrowl'ul   ex- 
pression is  constantly  present.     The  voice  loses  its  fulness 
and  there  is  great  difficultv  of  swallowing.     The  muscles 
of  the  eye  are  also  generally  involved,  producing  ptosis 
from  paralvsis  of  the  levator  palpebraj  superiosus,  diplopia 
from  impli'cation  of  the  internal  rcctu.s,  and  contraction  of 
the  pupil ;  all  of  these  effects,  except  the  last,  being  due 
to  lesion  existing  at  the  point  of  origin  or  in  the  course  of 
the  third  nerve.    The  pupils  arc  often  unequal,  ami  Austin 
declares,  with  all  seriousness,  that  contraction  of  the  right 
pupil  is  associated  with  melancholic  delusions,  and  con- 
traction of  the  left  pupil  with  elation.     Further  investiga- 
tion has  not  confirmed  this  theory.     The  gait  of  patients 
affected  with  paralvsis  is  very  peculiar,  and  is  of  two  dis- 
tinct kinds.     In  the  one  it  is  similar  to  that  of  a  person 
suffering  from  sclerosis  of  the  posterior  columns  of  the  S])i- 
nal  cord"  (locomotor  ataxia).     The  feet  are  lifted  high,  anil 
are  thrown  down  with  a  great  deal  of  force,  the  heel  strik- 
inc  the  ground  first.     As  Westphal  remarks,  patients  with 
th?s  gait  cannot  stand  with  the  eyes  shut  and  the  feet  close 
tcether.    In  the  other  kind  the  feet  are  scarcely  lifted  from 
the  ground,  but  are  shuffled  over  it,  and  the  action  is  some- 
what like  that  of  a  person  attempting  to  balance  himself 
on  a  tio-ht-rope.     Patients  with  this  gait  can  without  d.lli- 
culty  st°and  with  the  eyes  shut.     As  regards  the  upjicr  ex- 
tremities, the  fingers  lose  their  strength  and  delicate  co- 
ordinating power.    The  handwriting  is  shaky,  and  there  18 
awkwardness  in  buttoning  the  clothing.     The  grip  of  the 
hand  is  still  strong,  but  there  is  an  impossibility,  as  shown 
bv  the  dynainograph,  of  maintaining  a  continuous  muscu- 
lar contraction  for  even  a  few  seconds.     The  senses,  with 
the  exception  of  sight,  do  not  often  become  materially  af- 
fected.    Atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve  causes  amaurosis  or 
amblvopia.    t)phthalinoscopic  examination  will  very  gene- 
rallv"detect  this  condition  of  iho  papilla  at  a  very  early 
sta^e  of  the  disease,  together  with  retinal   and  choroidal 
anl?inia.     Convulsive  seizures  occur,  and  these  are  gene- 
rally epileptiform  in  character,  though  occasionally  they 
are  of  the  nature  of  apoplexy.     They  vary  greatly  in  cha- 
racter, sometimes  resembling  the  petit  mnl  of  epilepsy,  at 
others  characterized  bv  strong  convulsive  movements  or 
coma     Besides  these,  there  are  attacks  of  complete  paraly- 
sis of  certain  muscles,  which,  however,  rarely  leave  any 
permanent  effects,  the  usual  degree  of  power  being  regained 
in  a  few  davs.  ,     ,  , 

The  course  of  general  paralysis  is  often  marked  by  pe- 
riods of  great  improvement,  and  the  patient's  friends  im- 


INSANITY. 


1223 


n.rine  that  he  is  certainly  recovering.  The  symptoms,  men- 
tiTl  un.l  phvficttl,  all  abate  in  violence,  ami  may  even  dis- 
appear to  such  an  cttent  as  not  to  bo  evuknt  to  general 
oii'crvcrs.  lint  the  phvsieian  must  not  bo  deceived,  for 
the  amelioration  is  merely  tem|.urary.  and  sooner  or  later 
the  disease  regains  its  former  ascendency.  M  no  time, 
even  during  the  height  of  the  remission,  is  the  mind  of  the 
patient  in  such  a  condition  as  to  admit  of  any  consKlerable 
intclleolual  exertion.  There  may  be  an  absence  of  delu- 
f  iuns,  but  mental  weakness  still  exists.  Progressively,  this 
decline  in  the  force  of  the  mind  becomes  more  strongly 
marked,  until  at  last  a  condition  of  extreme  aementia  is 
reached.  Simullaucouslv,  tho  physical  power  diminishes, 
until  finallv  the  patient,  unlible  to  walk,  to  stand,  or  even 
to  sit  is  cunfined  to  his  bed  for  the  rest  of  his  existence, 
lied  ■■■ores  form  ami  deglutition  becomes  more  ami  more 
difficult  From  this  cause  the  food  may  become  impacted 
in  the  fauces. and  thus  death  bo  produced  by  interruption  of 
tho  rcspiratcry  process,  or  the  food  may  enter  the  larynx. 
The  sensibility  of  tho  lining  menibr:inc  of  the  checks  and 
fauces  is  notablv  diminished,  and  hence  the  patient  in  eat- 
in"-  goes  on  filling  his  mouth,  not  knowing  that  he  is  doing 
•^o"  When  he  at  last  attempts  to  swallow,  the  mass  of  food 
is  greater  than  can  pass  down  tho  o?sopliagus,  and  unless 
some  one  is  near  to  assist  him  ho  chokes  to  death.  Death 
may  otherwise  take  place  from  a  gradual  cessation  of  tlic 
respiratory  process  or  from  sheer  exhaustion.  The  dura- 
tion of  general  paralysis  is  variable.  Sometimes  death  re- 
sults in  a  few  months,  and  in  others  it  may  bo  deferred  for 
five  or  six  years.  The  average  period  is  about  three  years. 
General  paralvsis  is  not  likely  to  be  confounded  with  any 
other  affection  than  chronic  aleoliolic  intoxication,  from 
which  the  hislorv  "f  the  case  and  its  general  progress  will 
suffice  to  distinguish  it.  With  lead-paralysis  it  has  scarcely 
anv  features  in  common,  (iencral  paralysis  is  almost  invan- 
abiv  fatal.  A  few  cases  of  recovery  have  been  reported, 
but  there  is  room  for  doubting  that  most  of  them  were 
actual  cases  of  the  disease,  and  the  others  were  probably, 
as  (Jriesingcr  suggests,  instances  in  which  tho  remission 
was  long.  , 

VII.  f'li'on/  mid  ncmnil!rt.—ln  idiocy  there  la  such  an 
abnormal  organization  of  the  nervous  system  or  arrest  of 
development  that  deficiency  of  mind  results  as  a  natural 
conscquenco.  Many  idiots  are  possessed  of  less  intellectual 
force  than  well-trained  dogs  or  other  animals.  Occasion- 
ally, iiliols  show  an  excessive  development  of  some  one 
menial  faculty,  which  has  appeared  Ui  grow  at  the  expense 
of  all  the  rest.  This  is  especially  seen  as  regards  tho  ca- 
pacity for  appreciating  and  remembering  musical  tones 
and  f'or  acnuiring  the  ability  to  perform  automatically,  as 
it  were,  upon  some  musical  instrument.  There  is  scarcely 
an  idiot  whose  mental  status  cannot  be  elevated  by  systom- 
tttic  and  appropriate  education,  though  where  tho  cranial 
development  is  small  no  very  material  progress  is  to  bo  ex- 
pected. 

/>.mf).(m.— Dementia  may  be  primary,  hut  such  is  very 
rarely  the  case,  it  being  in  the  vast  maj.irity  of  instances 
the  conscquenco  of  an  acute  attack  of  insanity  or  incident 
to  old  a-c.  The  characteristic  feature  of  dementia  is  mental 
weakneiTs,  and  this  is  shown  as  regards  the  emotions,  tho 
intellect,  and  the  will.  The  former  are  not  held  under  con- 
trol ■  slight  matters  bring  them  into  inordinate  action,  and 
tears  are  shcil  and  laughter  excited  when  there  is  no  ade- 
quate cause  for  the  one  or  the  other.  The  intellect  is  af- 
fected in  all  its  parts.  The  power  of  application  or  of  fixing 
the  attention  is  materially  lessened  :  and  this  is  doubtless 
ono  reason  whv  iiiiperfeet  ideas  arc  formed  of  very  simple 
matters,  and  «hv  it  is  so  difficult  to  conceive  a  series  of 
connected  thoughts.  The  memory,  especially  for  recent 
events,  is  weakened  to  an  extreme  degree,  and  the  delu- 
sions of  the  patient,  if  still  preseiil.  are  constantly  under- 
going change  from  the  impossibility  of  reeolbeling  them. 
Volition  is  almost  entirely  abolished.  The  patient  is  al- 
together controlled  by  others,  the  idea  of  otTering  opposition 
to  their  wishes  never  entering  his  mind.  Tho  facial  ex- 
pression of  a  ]ialicnt  affected  with  ileminlia  is  not  always 
characterislic.and  this  mainly  for  the  iiason  that  the  ]ihys- 
ical  health  is  generally  good.  The  deficiency  of  mental 
power  is,  however,  readily  perceived  in  the  majority  of 
cases  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  excite  the  brain  to  action. 
Tho  failure  of  the  face  to  respond  to  the  ideas  sought  to  bo 
conveyed  beeoines  very  evident. 

CiiiifH. .\mong  the  causes  inherent  in  the  individual 

none  is  so  powerful  in  its  action  as  here.litary  tendency. 
This  may  show  itself  not  only  by  the  fact  that  ancestors 
hnvo  been  insane,  but  that  insanity  in  the  de-eendaiitsniay 
have  resulted  from  hysteria,  epilepsy,  catalepsy,  or  some 
other  general  nervous  affection  in  them.  It  ofleii  hamicns, 
too,  that  the  .lisease,  like  many  others  known  to  be  hered- 
itary skips  a  generation.  Insanity  is  more  common  in 
males  than  in  females,  though  tho  diffcronco  is  not  eo  groat 


as  ronny  suppose.  The  period  of  life  between  twenty-five 
and  forty-five  is  that  at  which  insanity  is  most  liable  to 
make  its  appearance.  Cases  are  on  record  of  infants  having 
manifested  unequivocal  symptoms  of  mental  aberration, 
but  the  affection  is  not  often  met  with  under  the  age  of 
puberty.  The  civil  condition  of  the  individual  as  regards 
marriage  or  celibacy  exercises  an  effect  over  the  causation 
of  insanity.  Statistics  show  that  celibates  of  both  sexes  aro 
more  liable  tlian  the  married.  So  far  as  males  are  con- 
cerned, this  result  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  in  celi- 
bacy, as  a  rule,  the  mode  of  lifu  is  more  irregular.  In- 
sanity is  assuredly  more  common  among  civili/.ed  than  un- 
civilized nations,  but  as  regards  the  dirt'erent  classes  of  in- 
dividuals who  go  to  make  up  a  civili/.ed  community,  it  is 
very  certain  that  the  refined,  educated,  and  wealthy  classes 
arc  not  so  liable  to  insanity  as  the  lower  orders.  The  ex- 
citin"  causes  are  both  moral  and  physical.  Of  the  former, 
emotional  disturbance,  grief,  tenor,  disappointed  aflec- 
tion.  anxiety,  ^rcat  joy.  etc.  stand  first  in  infiuence.  It  is 
doubtful  if  "moderate  intellectual  exertion  ever,  of  itself, 
causes  insanity.  It  is  only  when  the  brain  is  worked  night 
and  day,  to  the  depriv.ati<m  of  sleep  and  without  sufficient 
change,  that  insanity  results  from  mental  labor.  Continual 
thinking  on  one  subject  is  the  most  effectual  way  of  produ- 
cing insanity  by  the  action  of  the  brain,  .'\mongthephys- 
icaf  causes,  drunkenness,  the  use  of  opium  and  other  nar- 
cotics excessive  sexual  indulgence,  blows  on  the  head,  ex- 
posure to  severe  heat  or  cold,  tho  puerperal  state,  and  cer- 
tain diseases  may  be  referred  to. 

Other  points  in  tho  natural  history  of  insanity,  such  as 
the  diagnosis,  the  prognosis,  tho  morbid  anatomy,  and  the 
treatment,  would  lead  too  much  into  the  domain  of  medical 
science  to  warrant  consideration  here. 

Prci'idrncc  iif  Iiimnilij. — The  question  whether  insanity 
is  or  is  not  on  the  increase  has  for  many  years  been  dis- 
cussed, but  with  no  very  definite  result.  Tho  weight  of 
evidence,  however,  appears  to  bo  to  the  effect  that,  although 
tho  number  of  the  insane  reported  in  official  documents  is 
greater  every  veor,  this  increase  is  apparent  only,  and  is 
duo  to  tho  facts  that  the  registry  is  constantly  becoming 
more  complete,  that  eases  of  insanity  are,  through  the  ad- 
vance of  medical  science,  more  readily  recognized,  and 
that  through  the  same  cause  there  aro  fewer  deaths,  and 
that  hence  tho  same  cases  are  counted  every  year.  Thus, 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  .Medico- Psycliologieal  Associa- 
tion of  Great  Britain  by  Dr.  Maudsley  in  Dec,  1S71,  it  is 
shown  that  in  1.S44  there  were  in  England  and  Wales, 
20,011  registered  insane  persons,  including  idiots,  or  1  in 
802  of  the  population;  on  Jan.  1.  18;)!),  tho  total  number 
I  was  ;>0,7G2,  or  1  in  b?,i;  in  ISO.'),  tho  number  was  J:'),!!.")!!, 
or  1  in  431;  and  on  Jan.  1,  ISTl,  the  total  number  was 
50,75.'),  or  1  in  400. 

Now,  it  is  very  clearly  shown,  by  inquiring  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  new  cascsOccurriiig  every  year,  that  the  great  increase 
in  tho  number  borne  on  the  registers  is  not  thte  result  of 
any  markcil  increase  in  the  number  of  persons  becoming 
insane  in  any  one  year.  Thus,  Dr.  Maudsley  gives  tho 
following  table,  showing  tho  proportion  of  admissions  to 
the  population  in  each  of  tho  twelve  years  from  '""■"  '" 
1870,  inclusive: 


1850  to 


In  lsr,.->,  1  in.. 
In  isilii,  1  in.. 
In  ISCT,  1  in.. 
In  im'.s.  1  in.. 
Ill  l>^i>'.',  1  ill.. 
In  1*170,  1  ill.. 


,...2,013 
....2,111 

2.01.1 

....l.9:m 

....l.U.Vi 
1,901 


In  18r,0,  1  in 2,114 

In  isr.o,  1  in 2,092 

In  isni.  1  in 2,15G 

III  lH(,i,  1  ill 2,240 

In  l.si;:i,  1  in 2,307 

In  ISOl,  1  in 2,192 

This  table  shows  a  slight  increase  during  the  last  throo 
years,  but  it  is  fully  accounted  for  by  the  greater  diligence 
cxerciseil  in  finding  ca.ses,  ami  by  the  fact  that  many  cases 
of  mental  disease  are  recognized  and  counted  as  such  when 
formerly  they  were  not.  ,      -  ,, 

Upon  the  wliole.  Dr.  Maudsley  draws  the  following  eon- 
elusions:  "(11  There  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  an  in- 
crease in  the  proportion  of  cases  of  insanity  lo  llie  [lopula- 
tion;  and  no  evidence,  therefore,  of  an  inercnsrd  halnhly 
to  insanity.  (2)  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  such  an  iii- 
erease  in  I.nler  to  account  for  the  undoubted  great  increase 
in  the  niiml.er  of  registered  insane  persons.  (3)  The  dif- 
ference between  I  insane  person  in  812  of  the  poi.ulalion 
in  1841,  and  1  in  100  in  1870,  is  mainly,  if  not  entirely, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  former  year  the  returns  in- 
clmled  only  liiilf  tho  existing  insane  persons  in  the  country, 
while  in  llie  latter  year  nearly  all  of  them  have  been  regis- 
tered. (4)  Some  part  of  the  difference  is  owing  lo  the  laet 
that  certain  patients  aro  registered  as  lunatics  now  who 
would  never  have  been  thought  so  in  times  past.  (5)  A 
lower  rale  of  mortality  and  a  lower  pereentago  of  recov- 
eries may  account  for' a  part  of  the  increase  in  the  total 
amount  of  insanity.  (6)  Tho  proportion  of  admissions 
lo  tho  population,  which  rcprescnis  approximalely  tho 
occurring  cases    of  insanity,  does  not,   when   tho  ncecs- 


1224 


INSANITY   BEFORE  THE  LAW. 


sary  allowances  are  made,  yield  evidence  of  any  serious 

increase.'*  .       ,         i   ti 

In  the  U  P.  similar  conditions  have  existed,  and  like 
results  have  hecn  obtained.  Thus,  in  1S60  the  total  num- 
ber of  the  insane,  including  idiots,  was— of  males  22,841, 
and  of  females  I'J.SS.'i,  being  a  total  of  42,824;  while  m 
1S70  the  numbers  were— for  males  30,S0o,  and  for  iemales 
29  772,  total  59,677.  Now,  in  ISGO  the  total  population 
was  ai, 185,741,  giving  a  ratio  of  insane  to  the  population 
of  1  in  about  728;  in  1S70  the  population  was  3S,Uo,G41, 
or  1  in  about  every  637.  Hero  the  apparent  ratio  is  not  to 
be  ascribed  to  anv  actual  increase,  but  to  the  fact  that  the 
researches  were  more  thorough  in  1870  than  in  1860,  and 
that  hence  a  greater  number  of  the  insane  were  discovered 
than  in  the  previous  census.  There  is  no  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  insanity  is  more  common  in  England  than  the 
V.  S., "though  a  superficial  consideration  of  the  foregoing 
statistics  would  lead  to  this  conclusion;  but  it  is  very  cer- 
tain that  the  registry  in  the  former  country  is  much  more 
thorough.  But,  as  will  readily  be  admitted  by  all  neurol- 
ogists, there  are  periods  during  which  insanity  is  more 
common  than  at  others,  and  hence  it  is  not  safe  to  take  any 
statistics  which  do  not  extend  over  a  long  series  of  years. 
If,  for  instance,  the  number  of  insane  in  Franco  for  the 
vear  before  the  recent  war  with  Germany  bo  compared 
with  the  number  existing  in  the  year  after  the  war,  the  latter 
will  be  found  to  be  much  the  greater ;  and  the  like  is  true 
of  our  own  recent  civil  war,  and  of  all  other  periods  of 
political  excitement.  Still,  taking  the  civilized  world  as  a 
whole,  it  will  be  found  that  the  exciting  and  restraining 
influences  about  b.alance  one  another,  and  that  insanity  is 
not  more  frequent  now  than  it  was  at  any  former  period 
duriu"  which  records  have  been  kept. 

Cure  or'  the  Insane.—In  every  State  of  the  Union,  with 
the  exception  of  Delaware,  Florida,  and  Nevada,  there 
are  suitable  asylums  for  the  reception  and  treatment  of 
cases  of  insanity.  All  the  States,  with  the  exception  of 
those  named,  have  one  or  more  public  institutions,  and  in 
addition  there  arc  a  number  of  private  asylums  in  various 
parts  of  the  countrv.  The  U.  S.  has  thus  not  notably  fail- 
ed in  its  duty  to  the  unfortunate  class  of  individuals  under 
consideration,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  interest  which  liaj 
been  manifested,  and  which  has  in  numerous  instances  led 
to  the  construction  of  .asylums,  has  been  due  to  the  dis- 
interested exertions  of  Miss  D.  L.  Dix,  which  have  led  to 
the  action  of  State  legislatures  in  the  direction  mentioned. 
It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  however,  that  here,  as  every- 
where else,  the  provision  is  not  so  full  as  it  ought  to 
be,  and  this  is  especially  to  be  noted  as  regards  the  pau- 
per insane,  who  in  many  States  are  still  kept  in  the  county 
poorhouscs  or  boarded  out.  The  whole  question  of  such 
provision  is  still  somewhat  unsettled  in  relation  to  the  ex- 
act kind  of  protection  and  treatment  certain  of  the  insane 
should  receive.  The  advocates  of  entire  non-restraint — 
which  in  reality  docs  not  exist— have  gone  so  far  as  to 
recommend  thc'cstablishnient  of  colonies  of  the  insane  m 
villages  ;  and  one  such  has  been  for  some  time  in  operation 
at  (iiieel  in  Belgium,  with  but  moderate  success. 

Whether  or  not  the  insane  should  be  treated  in  separate 
and  distinct  institutions,  or  in  general  hospitals  more  or 
less  isolated  from  the  other  patients,  is  a  subject  well  worthy 
the  fullest  consideration.  At  a  time  when  insanity  was 
considered  to  bo  a  disease  of  the  mind,  and  not  of  tlio 
brain,  asylums  were  well  enough,  for  the  treatment  thought 
to  be  necessary  could  be  more  advantageously  carried  out 
bv  metaphysicians  than  by  physicians.  But  at  the  present 
day  more  practical  and  far  more  scientific  notions  are 
prevalent,  and  it  is  beginning  to  be  a  recognized  principle 
that  insanity  is  not  to  be  treated  from  any  very  different 
thenuieutical  standpoint  than  that  proper  for  gastritis  or 
intermittent  fever.  Hence,  the  insane  require  medical 
treatment;  and  the  more  thoroughly  educated  the  physi- 
cian is  in  his  science  as  a  whole,  the  higher  will  bo  his 
qualifications  for  ministering  to  the  unfortunate  class  of 
beings  under  consideration.  So  far  as  curative  influences 
extend,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  insane  may  be  better 
treated  in  their  own  homes  than  in  asylums.  But  owing 
to  the  character  of  the  insanity,  or  to  the  impossibility  of 
providing  the  necessary  restraint  and  care,  a  certain  num- 
ber of  lunatics  absolutely  require  sequestration. 

Ilibliorirapliii.— The  number  of  monographs  and  treatises 
devoted  to  the' subject  of  insanity  is  very  large.  The  most 
that  can  be  done  here  is  to  cite  the  more  important  published 
during  the  last  100  years  :  Crichton,  An  Inijuiri/  inlo  llir^  A"o- 
Ifire  and  Orii/iu  of  Meulal  DernniicmenI,  r.li\  ( London,  1798)  ; 
Arnold,  Obacnatinna  on  the  Nulure,  Kind',  Causes,  and 
/'reventton  of  Jtuiiniti/  (London,  1806);  Haslam,  Observa- 
tions on  Afnilness  and  Melancholy  (London,  1809);  Pinel, 
TraiK  medico-philosnpliique  enr  I'alKnation  mentalc 
(Paris  1809);  Rash.  Med  leal  Inquiries  and  Observations 
upon  Diseases  of  the  Mind  (Philadelphia,  1812);  Georgot, 


Discussion  medicn-legale  sur  la  folic  oil  alienation  mcnlale 
(Paris,  1826):  Calmeil,  JJe  la  parabjsic  considirie  chez 
ies  aliinia  (Vans,  l>ii6) ;  Guislain,  Traite  sur  I'alienalton 
mentale  (.\msterdam,  1,826) ;  Conolly,  An  Inquiry  Cunccrn- 
inij  the  Indications  of  Insanity  (Loudon,  1830);  Pritohard, 
A  Treatise  on  Insanity  and  other  Affections  of  the  Mind 
(London,  1835);  Broussais,  Ue  I'irritation  el  de  la  folic 
(Paris,  1839);  Calmeil,  Ue  la  folic,  etc.  (Paris,  1845);  Es- 
quirol,  Bes  maladies  mcntalcs,  etc.  (Paris,  1838);  Kiescr, 
Elemente  der  Paychiatrik  (Breslau  and  Bonn,  1855); 
Brigham,  Observalions  on  the  Injluencc  of  lieH'jion  upon  the 
Health  and  Physical  Welfare  of  Mankind  (Boston,  1835); 
Griesinger,  Pathologic  und  Therapic  des  psyehischen 
Krankheiten  (Stuttgart,  ISGl).;  Schriidcr  van  der  Kolk, 
Die  Pathologic  und  Therapic  der  Geisteakrunkheiten  auf 
anatomisch  physiologisch  6'ri/iuHn</c  (Braunschweig,  186.1) ; 
Bucknill  and  Tukc,  A  Manual  of  I'syvhological  Medicine 
(London,  1858);  Winslow,  Obscure  Diseases  of  the  Brain 
and  Disorders  of  the  Mind  (London,  1860) ;  Morel,  Traitl 
des  maladies  mcntalcs  (Paris,  1860) ;  Ray,  Menial  Hygiene 
(Boston,  1863) ;  also  various  important  papers  collected 
and  published  with  the  title  Contributions  to  Menial  Path- 
ology ;  also  Medical  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity  (5th  cd., 
Boston,  1S71);  Lcidesdrorf,  Lehrbuch  der  psyehischen 
Krankheiten  (Erlangen,  1875):  Sankcy,  Lectures  on  Men- 
tal Diseases  (London,  ISGG);  Maudsley,  The  Physiology, 
and  Pathology  ol' the  Mind  (London,  1867);  Blandford, 
Insanity,  and  it's  Treatment  (Edinburgh,  1871) ;  Dickson, 
Medicine  in  Relation  to  Mind  (London,  1874) ;  Ham^mond, 
Insanity  in  its  Relations  to  Crime  (New  York,  1873),  A 
Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  (6th  ed..  New 
York,  1875),  Morbid  Impulse  (New  York,  1874),  and  va- 
rious monographs  in  the  Psychological  Journal. 

William  A.  Hammond. 
Insanity  before  the  Law.     The  term  insanity,  al- 
though unsusceptible  of  a  strict  definition,  hasyet  received 
at  law  a  convenient  interpretation  in  the  phrase  noii  cu))i;)08 
Mentis.     By  this  is  meant  a  condition  of  mind,  resulting 
from  the  influences  of  bodily  disease,  in  which  the  individual 
has  lost  control  of  his  faculties.     Ho  cannot  think  as  ho 
either  wants  to  or  needs  to.  and  consequently  as  he  would 
think  if  in  the  enjoyment  of  mental  health.     He  is  under 
coercion  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  cannot,  although 
at  times  conscious  of  his  infirmity,  overpower  it  by  any 
eflfort  of  the  will.     He  is  the  slave  of  his  mental  faculties, 
whose  caprices  henceforth  rule  him  and  give  color  to  his 
actions.     But  however  good  may  bo  the  legal  phrase  iion 
compos  mentis  when  used  in  its  general  application  to  the 
insane,  the  attempt  to  subdivide  this  class  into  four  cate- 
gories, as  made  by  Lord  Coke,  is  one  resting  upon  ignor- 
ance of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  and  therefore  confound- 
ing symptoms  with  sources.   In  his  first  category  he  places 
idiots   or  natural   fools.     But,    properly    speaking,    many 
idiots  are  teachable,  and  can  use  their  faculties  to  the  ex- 
tent of  their  possession  of  them,  so  that  they  are  not  neces- 
sarily noil  compos,  any  more  than  is  an  infant.     Their  pos- 
sibilities are.  like  his,  a  question  for  future  demonstration  ; 
and  while  they  may  always  need  guardians,  this  does  not 
per  sc  constitute  them  insane.     So  with  his  third  category 
of  lunatics.     Science  docs  not  at  this  day  admit  that  lunar 
influences  can  singly  or  conjointly  tend  to  produce  insanity. 
Speaking  with  technical  accuracy,  there  are  no  lunatics, 
however  otherwise  insane  any  person  so  called  may  be.    So 
also  with  Lord  Coke's  fourth  category  of  drunkards.    Such 
people,  having  voluntarily  placed  themselves  in  this  con- 
dition, arc  not  legally  insane,  since  the  law  holds  them  ac- 
countable for  all  acts"  done  while  in  that  slate.     It  is  only 
in  his  second  category  that  Coke  properly  describes  (he  in- 
sane, according  to  modern  views  of  the  sources  of  thcircon- 
dition,  by  describing  them  as  persons  who  were  of  good 
and  sound  memory,  but  by  sickness,  grief,  or  other  accident 
wholly  lose  their  memory  and  understanding. 

The  presence  of  the  basic  element  of  disease  is,  there- 
fore, the  indispensable  prerequisite  to  any  legal  recognition 
of  insanity  ;  and  no  other  form  of  insanity  than  that  which 
springs  from  bodily  disease  is  known  to  the  law.  Hence, 
it  can  lake  no  cognizance  of  any  forms  of  moral  disorder, 
regarding  them  purely  as  varieties  of  dcpr.avity  until  they 
are  shown  to  be  the  offspring  of  physical  disease.  Then, 
and  then  only,  it  considers  these  in  their  bearing  upon 
questions  of  intention  and  responsibility.  It  is  true  that 
in  medical  investigations  inio  the  symptoms  of  insanity, 
moral  acts  arc  allowed  much  weight,  as  tending  to  show  the 
progress  rather  than  the  existence  of  the  disease ;  but  in  mcdi- 
eineno  more  than  in  law  are  such  acts,  ;;«•  «c,  considered 
primd  facie  evidence  of  mental  disorder.  For  in  all  cases 
the  individual  must  bo  gauged  by  his  own  standard,  and 
questions  of  mental  strength  and  competency  in  this  direc- 
tion or  that  are  questions  of  der/rcea  relating  to  facts.  There 
is  scarcely  a  lunatic  to  be  found  who  cannot  perform  some 
acts  in  a  "rational  way,  and  were  those  acts  alone  to  bo  oh- 


INSANITY   BEFORE  THE   LAW. 


125 


served  nothinE  would  bo  discovered  in  them  evidencing  1  «anc,  as  in  the  State  of  New  1  ork  where  they  are  clasM- 
inslnit'v  I  is  ow°n"  to  those  varieties  in  the  complexion  lied  as  cither  pr.r„,e  patients,  ,„</w.,(..  or /.--y-e,-,.  Rut 
of  Z-Ji'ordrZloV    aifrerinKan.lesundoribichit  i  tho  common  law  knows  nothmg  of  th,s  k.nd,  .ts  ,nq«,ry 


is  viewed,  that  the  law  has  recognized  the  necessity  of  vary- 
ing the  legal  significance  of  the  acts  of  persons  medically 
adjadired  to  bo  insane.  They  arc  not  to  bo  absolutely  dis- 
franchised on  this  account,  but  their  acts  will  be  weighed 
apart  from  their  condition,  and  if  found  proper  and  right 
will  be  sustained.  The  scrutiny  of  such  acts  is  directed  to 
the  discovcrv  of  how  far  the  actor  was  at  the  time  an  in- 
telligent and  free  moral  agent :  and  while  merely  impor- 
tuning a  person  would  bo  considered  no  just  ground  for 
invalidating  the  acts  of  ono  who  was  sane,  it  would  tend  to 
raise  a  presumption  of  undue  influence  in  the  case  of  one 
who  was  insane.  The  phrase  '■  mental  unsoundness,"  which 
is  the  modern  svnonvin  of  tho  ancient  term  iioii  com/)o» 
moilU.  has,  therefore,  been  very  generally  adopted,  because 
it  expresses,  like  its  Latin  analogue,  the  fact  that  the  mind 
is  unbalanced,  and  the  party  not  possessed  of  the  same 
power  of  regulating  its  functions  as  formerly.  'Vet  to  the 
cTtent  and  within  the  limits  of  that  power  many  rational 
acts  mav  bo  done.  ,       ,    .i 

Under  the  shadow  of  these  principles  it  follows  that  both 
mental  unsoundness  and  weakness  of  mind  may  vary  in 
the  degrees  of  their  manifestation  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  their  border-lines  wholly  indiscernible.  Exactly 
when  tho  transit  occurs  from  mere  eccentricity  to  loss  of 
mental  equilibrium,  exactly  when  weakness  of  mind  passes 
into  conlirmod  imbecility,  are  moments  not  to  be  ascer- 
tained witli  dcliniteness  from  any  single  act  committed. 
Signs,  symptoms,  and  acts  must  be  grouped,  evidence  must 
he'cumulativo  and  plenary  before  any  judgment  can  be 
safely  pronounced,  since  in  no  department  of  human  evi. 
donc'o  is  there  such  a  field  for  debate  and  contention  over 
premises,  over  the  relative  weight  of  facts,  and  over  the 
conclusions  which  can  logically  be  deduced  from  them.  It 
is  here  that  most  commonly  occurs  the  fallacy  of  commut- 
ing the  subjective  with  tho  objective,  of  thinking  as  we 
feel,  and  of  reasoning  al')ne  from  our  consciousness;  for  it 
is  incidental  to  our  nature  to  believe  implicitly  tho  testi- 
mony of  our  senses,  and  necessarily  of  discrediting  that 
which  contradicts  their  report.  Thus,  many  persons  squan- 
der their  propertv  through  extravagance  who  are  not  in- 
sane, and  raauv  persons  legally  adjudged  insane  are  dis- 
posed to  bo  frugal :  the  former,  so  far  as  properly  is  con- 
cerned, need  guardians  more  than  the  latter,  and  yet  the 
law  cannot  interfere  with  their  sovereign  rights  over  their 
own  so  long  as  they  are  not  insane.  According  to  tho 
standard  by  which  tlic  miser  regulates  his  conduct,  tho  ex- 
travagant are  insane;  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  ex- 
travagant, the  miser  is  insane.  Each  juilges  the  other  by 
the  rule  of  his  own  life  and  the  standard  of  his  own  feel- 
ings, and  thus  it  is  that  each  may  judge  erroneously. 

Tho  modern  phrase  "mental  unsoundness"  is  intended 
to  cover  the  same  ground  as  the  varieties  of  nm  com/yo» 
metmfi  did  at  common  law.  It  is  to  ho  distinguished, 
therefore,  from  the  phrase  "  insanity,"  which  implies  the 
highest  grade  of  unsoundness  as  tested  in  any  particular 
direction.  Thus,  the  term  '•  partial  insanity  at  law  "is  the 
equivalent  of  monomania  in  medicine,  and  imports  limita- 
tion in  the  nlcni  rather  than  in  the  (/«//<■<■  of  insanity.  It 
is  complete  insanitv  as  far  as  it  goes,  and  as  such  tends  to 
nullify  all  civil  acts  infcolcd  by  it.  In  mental  unsound- 
ness wo  have  rather  an  inappotcney  than  a  strict  disorder 
of  mind  founde.l  upon  bodily  disease.  We  can  apply  tho 
term  with  proprietv  to  any  adult  mind  in  which  there  is 
present  a  manifest  incapacity  to  deal  with  the  ordinary 
contingencies  of  life.  Hence,  we  may  speak  of  an  idiot  or 
imbecile  as  being  mentally  unsound,  meaning  thereby  that 
such  person  is  unequal  to  the  ordinary  strains  of  complex 
business  relation-,  although  able  to  feed,  clollie,  and  pro- 
tect himself.  In  him  the  incapacity  consists  in  not  being 
able  to  rise  above  a  fixed  plane  of  action,  while  in  the  par- 
tially insane  tho  mind  can  attempt,  and  does  generally,  to 
execute,  but  does  this  in  a  faulty  way,  obedient  to  the  co- 
ercion of  some  disordered  foculty  or  overpowering  delu- 
sion. The  law,  adapting  its  principles  to  these  varying 
phenomena  of  mental  action,  therefore  recognizes  innnnili/. 
parllnl  iinnni'/i/,  and  mrnlnl  miiomxlnrtt  as  varieties  of 
mental  incapacity,  passing  from  simple  weakness  to  com- 
plete delirium  and  incoherence  of  ideas. 

/iMdiii'i/.  or  Minin. — Insanity  proper  is  distinguishable, 
both  in  law  anil  medicine,  from  the  merely  temporary  de- 
lirium of  fever,  and  is  only  recognized  as  a  condition  of 
legal  incompetency  when  hecomo  on  established  habit  of 
lift.  Tho  common  law  takes  no  special  ciignizance  of  oouto 
stages  as  set  opposite  to  chronic,  tho  prcibkin  to  bo  solved 
in  every  inquisition  of  lunacy  being  simply  that  of  eompon 
onion  c"om/.o«.  Statutes  mny.  for  purposes  of  hospital  elassi- 
fication  or  equitable  regard  for  individual  and  pecuniary 
circumstances,  establish  special  distinctions  among  tho  in- 


being  directed  to  the  question  of  saue  or  Hoii-«aiic  as  an 
established  condition.     Hence,  even  a  habitual  drunkard 
or  an  imbecile  is  not  considered   legally  insane,  but  only 
weak-minded  to  the  extent  that  evidence  ni.ay  show  him  to 
he  unfitted  to  manage  his  own  affairs.     Little  need  be  said, 
therefore,  to  show  that  insanity,  under  whatever  name  re- 
cognized in  medicine,  has  but  one  designation  in  law,  and 
that  designation  is  founded  upon  the  fact  that  mental  in- 
competency exists  in  such  permanent  form  that  there  is 
continuous  enslavement  or  duress  of  the  reasoning  faculties. 
Consequently,  every  act  performed  by  such  a  mind  which 
involves  responsibility  at  law  is  voiilnhlc.  although  not  ne- 
cessarily void.     There  may  bo  acts  which,  without  injury 
to  other  parties,  enure  to  tho  benefit  of  the  lunatic,  and  it 
would  be  manifestly  a  wrong  to  him  to  set  them   aside 
merely  because  of  the  condition  of  mind  in  which  he  per- 
formed them.     Thus,  a  lunatic  may  purcha.so  necessaries 
or  employ  a  physician  or  any  other  skilled  labor,  and  his 
contract  would  be  sustained  if  otherwise  reasonable.     The 
law  always  permits  the  exercise  of  every  right  which  an 
individual  can  enjoy  without  injury  to  others  or  himself. 
Hence,  persons  legally  insane  and  in  charge  of  committees 
have  been  allowed  to  perform  many  acts  of  a  character  iiii- 
plying  the  possession  of  mental  competency  to  a  certain 
degree.     Nor  is  there  nnythiug  paradoxical  in  this,  since 
it  is  simply  following  tho  law  of  our  mental  constitution, 
which  presents  us  with  great  disparities  of  strength  in  tho 
faculties  of  the  same  mind  even  in  health.     In  law  no  per- 
son is  presumably  insane  until  .after  office  found,  and  par- 
tics  may  deal  with  him  as  though  sane,  provided  nothing 
in  his  manner  or  language  be  calculated  to  give  warning 
of  his  real  condition.     In  such  cases,  as  elsewhere  slated, 
his  contracts  are  not  even  voidable  if  their  subject-matter 
has  passed  into  such  a  condition   that  it  cannot  be   re- 
stored to  its  previous  stale.     It  would  be  a  great  hard- 
.ship  and  a  manifest  wrong  to  a  bona  Jhle  purchaser  from  a 
lunatic  for  a  valuable  consideration,  who  had  subsequently 
disposed  of  the  ])roperty,  to  compel  him  to  restore  it  spe- 
cifically;  and  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  any  principle  of 
equity  upon  which  this  could  be  demanded  from  the  mere 
incident  of  the  partv's  lunacy.     If  the  transaction  is  un- 
tainted by  fraud,  whv  should  it  be  set  aside?  If  it  be  a  reason- 
able act  i-easonablv  performed,  that  is  all  which  the  law  can 
or  does  exact.     But  as  the  act  is  always  open  to  suspicion 
derived  from  the  menial  condition  of  one  of  the  parties,  it 
behooves  men  to  know  whom  they  are  dealing  with,  and  to 
what  extent  their  transactions  may  be  subsequently  voidable. 
Whence  it  follows  that  whenever  a  person  is  in  charge  of  a 
committee,  this  constitutes  to  the  world  notice  of  his  mental 
incompetenev,  and  all  jiersons  deal  with  him  at  their  peril. 
It  is  not  competent  for  them  to  plead  ignorance  of  these 
facts,  because  tlu-y  are  barred  by  a  judicial  record;  and 
although  it  may  bo  that  nothing  in  the  conduct  of  tho  lu- 
natic or  the  character  of  the  transaction  is  suggestive  of 
insanity,  still  courts  of  equity  will  readily  inteh-eno  to  an- 
nul the  contract  if  tho  least  cloud  of  suspicion  is  6cen  to 

rest  upon  it.  , ,     ,  .     1    i  • 

PorHut  /,i»«iii'(i/.— It  is  unquestionably  demonstrated  in 
medicine  that  such  a  condition  as  that  known  under  tho  name 
of  moiiumiiiiia  or  piirlial  iiiaunili/  cannot  exist  «(rir(,«.i,iii» 
vcrliiH  "  We  are  mad  or  not  mad ;  wo  cannot  he  hall  deranged 
or  three  quarters,  full  face  or  profile."  Such  is  the  languago 
of  one  of  the  leading  Europeon  authorities  in  psycholog- 
ical medicine.  These  aro  facts  which  all  experience  of  in- 
sanity certifies  to.     But,  practically  speaking,  an  insane 


person  mav  do  many  reasonable  things  which,  having  no 
flavor  of  insanitv  in"  them,  the  law  will  not  set  aside.  To 
that  extent,  therefore,  it  legalizes  a  sane  act  by  whomsoever 
committed.  And  if  a  person  being  notoriously  insane  is 
capable  of  doing  habitually  a  majority  of  his  acis  in  a  rea- 
sonable way.  and  only  a  few  in  a  persistently  insane  way, 
there  seems  to  he  no  just  objection  in  law,  particularly  lor 
convenience  of  description,  to  designating  such  person  as 
parHall,/  insane.  For,  after  all,  insanity  is  largely  a  ques- 
tion of  <Jc<;r-,-»  of  more  or  less  mental  power,  and  it  cannot 
bo  gauged  bv  the  same  standards  which  medicine  applies 
to  it.  Municipal  law  must  rest  of  necessity  very  largely 
upon  artificial  reasons,  including  convenience  as  among  its 
chief  ones.  And  since  insanity  proper  has  its  varying  tem- 
peratures and  seasons,  during  which  tho  indivi.lual  hceonies 
more  or  less  competent  to  perform  ordinary  octs  in  a  rea- 
sonable wuv,  it  follows  us  a  cori.llary  that  one  who  has  never 
exhibited  this  form  of  disease  in  any  other  than  a  mild 
typo  is  entitled  to  as  much  more  freedom  of  legal  action, 
ns  bo  would  be  to  as  much  more  freedom  of  personal  liberty 
if   in   an   asylum.      The    simple   question    nt    law   is   lliis 

viz.  T"  what  extent  aro  bis  acta  rational?     If  they  bo 

BO  in  the  majority  of  instances,  then  in  the  mojority  of  in- 


12-2G 


INSANITY   BEFORE  THE  LAW. 


stances  his  acts  do  not  differ  from  those  of  a  sane  man,  and 
to  that  extent  thev  deserve  to  be  sustained.     It  is  only  for 
convenience'  sake  that  the  term  "  partial  insanity     is  used, 
for  the  le^al  principles  governing  it  are  all  found  applying 
to  insanity  in  its  larger  sense,  and  the  latter  includes  the 
former  both  legally  as  well  as  medically.     iMunicipal  law 
looks  only  to  the  remlta  of  disease  in  its  psychological  in- 
auiries,  and  does  not  concern  itself  with  specific  names  or 
phoscs  of  insanity,  both  which  are  often  but  symptoms  ot 
a  common  disease  arrived  at  different  stages  of  progress. 
Hence,  courts  cannot  make  judicial  distinctions  m  the  eivil 
or  criminal  responsibility  of  the  insane  based  upon  med- 
ical designations  of  the  particular  form  of  that  disorder 
under  which  they  may  labor.    It  is  sufficient  for  them  that 
the  rry„lt  of  sucii  disorder  has  been  to  degrade  or  to  over- 
throw the  reason,  because  the  condition  of  the  remnn  and 
the  win  are  the  only  standards  by  which  the  law  judges 
human  responsibility.     It  might  happen,  indeed,  that^in  a 
question  relating  to  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  lucnl 
intervals  the  prcdieabililv  of  such  could  not  bo  determined 
without  knowing  the  degree  or  form  of  mental  disorder 
which  the  party  exhibited,  but  it  is  clear  that  even  in  such 
cases  courts  would  venture  to  give  no  opinions  of  their  own, 
relyin"  solely  upon  those  of  medical  experts.     Therefore, 
there  arc  no  legal  grounds  upon  which  to  discuss  such  top- 
ics as  melancholia  or  ihmentin.  since  they  are  not  specific 
diseases,  but  only  symptoms  of  insanity,  either  in  its  in- 
cipient, its  middle,  or  its  last  stage.     Formerly,  these  were 
treated  as  rnrletkt  of  partial  insanity  ;  now  a  better  com- 
prehension of  the  pathology  of  that  disease  has  classified 
them  where  thev  belong,  among  symptoms.    It  is  for  tliese 
reasons  that  American  courts  have  not  followed  the  dicta 
of  En"li3h  tribunals  in  passing  upon  questions  involving 
partia?  insanity.     All  our  decisions,  whenever  this  point 
has  been  nino'ed.  have  reaffirmed  the  one  cardinal  principle 
that  the  law  cannot  concern  itself  with  degrees  of  insanity, 
and  that  it  is  sufficient,  in  the  interests  of  true  equity,  to 
lay  down  the  rule  that  wherever  the  subject-matter  of  the 
transaction,  be  it  contract  or  will,  is  not  infected  with  in- 
sanity, the  act  even  of  one  alleged  to  be  partially  insane 
is  only  voidable,  and  not  ah  inlilo  void.     In  England  this 
was  also  the  rule,  repeated  and  reaffirmed  in  all  those  de- 
cisions which  have  immortalized  the  name  of  .Sir  .John  Nic- 
oll    nor  was  it  ever  questioned  until  the  year  IS+S,  when 
Lord  Brougham,  in  a  case  before  the  privy  council,  ruled 
that  it  was'crroneous  to  suppose  that  a  mind  shown  to  bo 
partially  insane  could  be  really  sound  upon  any  subject, 
and  therefore  competent  to  make  a  will.    This  decision  was 
the  first  introduction  of  a  purely  psychological  dogma  into 
the  elements  of  a  legal  judgment,  and  while  abstractly  sus- 
tainable on  the  basis  of  fahm  in  imo,  faUiis  In  omnibus. 
has  not,  as  before  stated,   secured  any  favor  before  our 
courts.    Hence,  with  us  partial  insanity  does  not  nccesaarily 
invalidate  an  executed  contract,  nor  testamentary  capacity, 
unless  it  enters  into  and  infects  the  subject-matter  of  the 
contract  or  will.     Where  no  evidence  of  such  mental  dis- 
order appears  upon  the  face  or  in  the  texture  of  the  instru- 
ment the  partial  ins.anitv  of  the  testator  at  the  time  of  its 
execution,  although  a  matter  of  general  notoriety,  as  where 
he  was  in  charge  of  a  cominittcc,  will  not.  Ipm  fnctn.  in- 
validate his  will.    Nor  do  defects  of  the  senses  incapacitate 
if  the  testator  possesses  sufficient  mind  to  perform  a  valid 
testamentary  act;  but  in  such  cases  it  must  be  proved  that 
the  mind  accompanied  the  will,  particularly  where  such  in- 
strument is  neither  holoiraphic  nor  officious.     These  doc- 
trines of  American  law,  it  will  be  seen,  are  far  in  advance 
of   those  of   the  civil  law.  which  rendered   the  deaf  and 
dumb  intestable  if  the  infirmity  was  congenital,  or  of  Brit- 
ish courts,  which  adopt  the  rule  that  every  act  of  an  un- 
sound mind  is  necessarily  an  irrational  one. 

•So,  too,  in  relation  to  responsibility  for  crimes  committed 
by  persons  alleged  to  be  partially  insane  or  temporarily 
insane,  the  law  has  discarded  all  those  terms  of  medical 
designation  which  imputed  insanity  to  the  instincts  alone. 
Kegarding  these,  when  perverted,  as  exponents  either  of 
voluntary  depravity  or  as  states  of  mental  duress  and  loss 
of  self-control  arising  from  disease,  it  requires  to  know  sim- 
ply whether  the  party  is  capable  of  discerning  the  true  na- 
ture and  consequences  of  his  acts,  coupled  with  the  power  of 
acting  or  abstaining  from  acting  in  a  particular  way.  .^nd 
if  not,  why  not?  The  true  test  of  criminal  responsibility 
before  the  law  is  the  possession  of  reason  and  frec-wiU. 
When  both  these  are  present  the  party  is  responsible  ;  when 
either  is  absent,  he  is  not.  By  reason  is  meant  an  intelli- 
gent comprehension  of  the  circumstances  in  the  midst  of 
which  one  is  placed:  and  by  free-will  is  meant  the  power 
of  doing  or  abstaining  from  doing  a  particular  act.  No 
mental  duress  can  be  pleaded  as  insanity  which  has  not  its 
foundation  in  disease.  Hence,  drunkenness  or  heat  of 
blood,  both  which  work  loss  of  self-control  and  possibly 
reason,  are  not  bars  to  criminal  responsibility,  for  they  do 


not,  in  their  uncomplicated  form,  rest  upon  disease  as  their 
foundation;  and  yet  a  case  may  be  imagined  where  a  sane 
epileptic  might  become  insane  through  drink  or  heat  of 
blood  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  an  irresponsible  agent. 
Here  the  foundations  of  mental  power  are  already  under- 
mined, and  a  cause  of  insufficient  magnitude  to  overthrow 
a  healthy  brain  becomes  the  dcteriniuiug  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction "of  insanity;  for.  after  .all,  the  only  physiological 
test  of  mental  power  is  the  ability  to  bear  strain. 

Mental  Unsomidnejis.—lhe  condition  known  as  mental 
unsoundness  at  law  is  one  which  is  easily  confounded  with 
imbecility  wherever  the  congenital  character  of  this  slate 
is  overlooked.  There  are  those,  too,  who  may  think  that 
the  attempt  to  distinguish  them  by  name  is  an  attempt  to 
establish  a  distinction  without  a  diffeicnce  in  fact.  But  it 
will  be  seen  upon  reflection  that  a  born  imbecile  does  not 
necessarily  present  us  with  a  ease  of  unsound  mind,  for 
every  chi'ld,  if  his  mind  does  not  develop  proportionally 
with"  his  body,  but  remains  infantile  after  adult  age,  repre- 
sents to  a  certain  extent  imbecility  in  some  one  of  its 
phases.  There  may  be  weakness  in  intensity  or  cxtensity 
of  action  in  minds  otherwise  sound,  without,  however, 
there  bein"  absolute  imbecility,  for  there  arc  as  in.any  va- 
rieties of  original  constitntion  among  healthy  minds  as 
there  are  among  healthy  bodies,  and  every  one  must  bo 

I  1 

ip< 


indeed  by  a  standard  w'hich  is  derived  from  observations 
maife  upo'n  the  majority  of  men.     What  constitutes  abso- 
lute mental  health  or  absolute  mental  sti-englh  is  a  very 
difficult   question    to   answer   categorically.      Mental    un- 
soundness is  frequently  used  also  as  synonymous  with  in- 
sanity, and  in  medicine  there  is  no  improiiricty  in  com- 
muting these  terms,  but  at  law  there  is  a  distinetioii  be- 
tween them,  resting  upon  the  fact  that  mental  unsoundness 
may  be,  and  frequently  is,  due  to  other  causes  than  disease, 
wh"creas  insanity,  whether  manifested   as   mama,  melan- 
eholla.  or  epileptic  vertiqo,  has  always  a  foundation  ot 
physical  disease  to  rest  upon.     Thus,  mental  unsoundness 
may  arise  from  age,  from  habitual  drunkenness  or  other 
vic"es  producing  precocious  senility,  or  from  a  natural  ex- 
haustion of  the  mental  powers  as  a  consequence  of  inherited 
weakness,  though  unaccompanied  by  appreciable  bodily 
disease.     Its  subjects  not  being  necessarily  dangerous  to 
themselves  or  the  community,  it  would  be  wrong  to  de- 
i.rive  them  of  their  liberty  or  the  control  of  their  property 
from  the  simple  fact  of  mental  unsoundness,  until  it  was 
first  shown  that  some  form  of  guardianship  was  necessary 
for  their  well-being.     And  while  in  an  individual  pursuing 
a  mechanical  vocation  mental  unsoundness,  to  even  a  very 
considerable  degree,  might  not  impair  his  usefulness,  in  a 
professional  man  like  a  judge,  a  lawyer,  or  a  physician  t he 
least  dimming  of  the  mental  mirror  might  jeopardize  the 
entire  value  of  his  personal  services,  and  require  also,  finm 
the  more  enlarged  character  of  his  possessions,  that  their 
care  should  be  assigned  to  a  guardian  or  committee      The 
necessity  for  thus  differentiating  men  according  to  the  ex- 
tent of  power  present  in  them  for  self-guidance  or  the  care 
of  property  forms  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult 
problems  with  which  courts  of  equity  have  to  deal  :  for  it 
is  always  reducible  to  a  question  of  plus  or  minus  power, 
measured  both  in  action  and  at  rest,  in  the  midst  of  such 
variable  factors  as  age,  health,  previous  education,  habitual 
employment,  future  exigencies,  and  the  like,  all  of  which 
have  ri  disturbing  influence  in  reading  the  scale  of  any  hu- 
man being's  character  and  possibilities.     Nevertheless,  the 


distinctions  between  simple  mental  unsoundness  and  posi- 
tive insanity  may  be  drawn  with  sufficient  clearness  to  en- 
able us  to  classify  an  individual  with  relation  to  his  civil 
responsibility,  because  the  law  will  always  secure  hiin  his 
personal  rights  to  the  fullest  extent  commensurate  with  liis 
ability  to  enjoy  them,  treating  him  not  as  an  imbecile  ab- 
solutely, but  as  one  over  whose  mind  a  him  has  come  ot 
unequ.;i  density  and  of  varying  consequences.  His  power 
over  property,  and  much  more  over  his  own  person,  wil 
not  be  taken" from  him  until  it  is  abundantly  shown  that 
its  further  exercise  is  incompatible  with  personal  safely 

or  pecuniary  welfare.  

In  determining  criminal  responsibility  in  connection 
with  mental  unsoundness  a  different  standard  has  to  bo 
employed.  The  peace  and  safely  of  society  requiring  that 
every  individual  should  restrain  his  passions  m  their  tend- 
ency" to  overpower  his  self-control,  the  mere  fact  of  mental 
weakness  is  not  an  answer  to  an  indictment  for  ermie  un- 
less that  weakness  or  unsoundness  be  the  direct  offsi.ring 
of  disease,  and  the  disease  overpower  the  reason  and  the 
free-will  at  the  moment  of  committing  the  offence.  A  weaK 
mind  is  not  absolved  from  the  duty  of  watching  over  its 
own  conduct  and  restraining  its  evil  propensities;  and 
while  it  mi-'ht  not  merit  the  same  degree  of  punishment 
for  offendin"  as  a  strong  one.  it  would  bo  wrong  to  assert 
that  it  was  wholly  dispunishable  cither  in  law  or  ,„  foro 
i  comoienti^.  J"""  Ohdronaux. 


INSANITY   BEKORE  THE   LAW-INSCKIFTION. 


1227 


Insanity  before  the  Law  (Supplemental).    Jarit- 

dlcliml  of  C'ouriM  of  Chmicfrij  at  U  ike  Ciittmii/  and  Control 
of  Iiisant  /'t/soin.— Tlio  court  of  clinnccr.v  in  England  has, 
from  a  vcrv  rarlv  period,  exercised  a  general  power  of 
supervision"  and  Jimtrol  in  relation  to  tlio  interests  of  per 
sons  of  unsound  mind,  their  custody,  and  protection.    Tl 


'his 


power,  though  its  origin  is  si.ininhal  obscure,  is  generally 
deemed  bv  writers  upon  equity  jurispru.lcncc  to  have  had 
its  source  in  the  general  delegation  to  the  court  of  the  in- 
herent prorojative  of  the  Crown  as  /ki/-cii»  i>aiiliv  to  pro- 
tect those  who  arc  incapable  of  protecting  and  caring  for 
themselves.     But  as  tho  result  of  legislation  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  II.  (KiOl),  tho  authority  of  the  chancellor  m 
regard  to  insane  persons  has  hcen  in  many  respects  con- 
ferred   since    that  time  l)V  special  commission   Irom    the 
Crown  under  the  king's  sign-manual.     This  warrant  gives 
to  the  chancellor  the  right  to  provi.lo  for  their  maintenance 
and  for  tho  care  of  their  persons  and  estates.     The  chief 
objects  for  which  this  special  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is 
exercised  arc  the  ascertainment  of  the  fact  of  insanity  by 
a  judicial  investigation,  tho  placing  of  a  person  judicially 
declared  to  bo  insane  under  the  guardianship  of  one  or 
more  persons  termed  a  "coinmitlce."  and  Ihc  subsequent 
control  of  the  committee  in  the  management  of  the  insane 
person's  property  and  the  custody  of  his  person.     In  mak- 
ing an  inquiry  in  regard  to  a  person's  insanity,  the  practice 
is  to  issue  a  commission  out  of  the  court  of  chancery,  upon 
a  proper  petition  addressed  to  the  chancellor,  authoriiing 
the  commissioners  therein  designated  to  examine  into  the 
person's  mental  condition  with  the  aid  of  a  jury,  and  com- 
manding them  to  report  to  the  court  the  result  of  the  in- 
quisition.    This  commission  is  said  to  be  "  in  the  nature 
of  a  writ  </c  hiiiiiii'ro  iiiqnimido."   The  commissioners  have 
power  to   summon  witnesses  and  to  examine  the  person 
tiimsrlf  who  is  supposed  to  he  insane,  if  he  thinks  fit  to  be 
present.     The  commission  may  issue  even  against  a  non- 
resident if  he  have  lands  or  other  property  within  the  juris- 
diction of  Ihc  court.     The  degree  of  mental  unsoundness 
which  will  justify  the  appointment  of  a  committee  need 
not  be  so  great  as  to  amount  to  idiocy  or  lunacy.     Mental 
imbecility,  resulting  from  age,  inlirmily,  disease,  or  the  de- 
cay of  the  natural  powers,  may  bo  sullieicnt.     Tho  finding 
of  the  jury,  however,  must  show  that  the  person  is  to  such 
an  extent  of  unsound  mind  as  to  bo  incapable  of  governing 
himself    and    managing    his   property    and    directing  his 
affairs.     And  this  conclusion  must  be  directly  stated  in  the 
report  as  Ihc  result  of  the  investigation,  and  appear  as  a 
positive  verdict   by  the  jury.     It  will  not  be  enough  to 
state  the  facts  proved  which  indicate  tho  existence  of  in-   I 
sanity,  leaving  it  for  the  court  to  draw  tho  conclusion  that 
it  actually  exists,  since  this  is  the  appropriate  province  of    | 
tho  jury.'  If  there  be  any  irregularily  in  conduc-ling  the  in-   , 
quisition.  or  if  the   return   he  insullicicnt  in  law,  or  if  the 
verdict  rendcrc<l  be  attributable  to  mistake  or  partiality, 
the  inquisition  may  be  quashed  and  a  new  commission  l)o 
issued.     If  the  return  untruly   finds  the  party  insane,  it 
may  bo  traversed  (or  allcgeil  to  be  false)  by  himself  or,  on 
proper  terms,  by  any  one  who  has  a  claim  against  him  upon 
contract;  and  the  court  may  in  its  discretion  allow  funds 
out  of  the  estate  for  Iho  trial  of  the  issue  thus  formed.    In. 
tho  appointment  of  a  cominittce.  relalives  of  the  ])erson  ad- 
judged insane  are  usually  chosen,  though  this  is  not  neces- 
sary^    It  is  the  duty  of  the  committee  to  manage  the  prop- 
erly entrusted  to  their  charge  carefully  and  prudently,  to 
mako  such  investments  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  tho 
estate  reasonably  profitable,  and  lo  account  for  the  manner 
of  adininistraticin  when   required  by  the  court.     All  gills 
or  contracts  made  by  the  insane  person  himself  after  tho 
actual  finding  of   the   inquisition  arc  utterly  void.     Tho 
power  of  tho  committeo  to  deal  with  the  property  in  the 
oxcrciso    of   an    in(b'pendent   discretion    is    very    limited. 
In  most  instances  special  aulhority  to  charge  or  dispose 
of  the  property  must  be  nbtaincd  from  tho  court.     In  tho 
management  of  the  estate  under  tho  direction  of  the  court 
tho  interest  of  the  insane  person  is  to  be  regarded  ralhcr 
than  the  interest  of  those  who  are  enlilled  lo  the  succession. 
An  order  may  be  made  autbori7.ing  a  cliango  of  personal 
property  into  real  or  of  real  into  personal,  if  it  be  deemed 
for  his  advantage.     So,  in  making  provision  for  those  who 
are  dependent  upon   him,  the  same  principle  is   followerl, 
and  expenditures  may  be  made  ont  of  his  properly  which 
ho    is  not  legally  bound  to  incur  if   Hoy  are    substanti- 
ally for  his  a  Ivanlage.     Thus,  if  the  falber  of  a  family  bo 
a  lunatic   ami  under  tho  charge  of  a  committee,  tho  moro 
legal  right  of  bis  n  ife  and  children  will  not  be  regarded  by 
the  court,  but  an  allowance  may  be  made  suilable  to  their 
station  in  life.     Provision  may  even  be  made  in  some  cases 
for  Iho  support  of  persons  who  arc  nut  related  lo  the  insane 
person,  and  have  no  legal  claim  upon  him  for  mninlenanco, 
as.  r.  If.,  persons   whom   he  has   ndoplcd   as  chililren,   or 
his  brothers  and  sisters.     This  is  on  tho  ground  that  it  is 


reasonably  presumable  that  the  owner  of  the  properly 
would  have  made  a  like  disposition  of  tho  income  under 
such  circumslanees.  and  that  his  interests  are  promoted  by 
assisling  those  whom  he  lias  made  dependent  upon  him- 
self, or  who  arc  intimately  related  to  him.  In  such  cases 
the  court  exercises  its  own  discretion  in  fixing  tho  amount 
of  tho  .allowaiicc  which  it  authorizes  to  be  made.  The 
education  of  tho  children  of  the  insane  person  and  a  rea- 
sonable provision  for  the  ordinary  expenditures  of  his 
family  will  be  deemed  of  special  importance  by  tho  court. 
After  a  proper  allowance  has  been  made  for  the  maintcn- 
anco  of  a  lunatic  and  his  family,  any  surplus  remaining 
will  be  appropriated  to  the  payment  of  his  debts.  I'pon 
a  petition  bv  a  crcdilor  a  reference  will  be  ordered  to  dc- 
teriniuo  the  amount  of  the  debt  and  its  validity,  and  if  a 
report  be  made  in  favor  of  the  creditor,  the  court  will  order 
the  debt  to  be  discharged  if  there  are  sufficient  assets. 
After  the  appointment  of  a  committee,  suits  in  belialf  of  tho 
lunatic  must  be  instituted  in  tho  name  of  tho  committee, 
who  are  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  suit.  The  luna- 
tic, however,  is  usually  joined  as  a  p.arly  plaintiff.  So 
suits  against  the  lunatic  are  brought  against  the  comniillce. 
On  thc"death  of  the  insane  person  the  power  of  a.lniinis- 
tration  ceases,  though  the  committee  still  continue  under 
the  control  of  the  court  until  there  has  been  a  final  account- 
in".  Should  an  insane  person  after  being  ])laccd  under  the 
guardianship  of  a  committee  be  restored  to  sounrlncss  of 
mind,  the  court  may  either  remove  the  committee  altogether, 
or  suspend  its  authority  until  it  can  be  ascertained  whether 
tho  restoration  to  sanity  will  be  permanent  or  temporary. 
The  members  of  a  committee  are  not  allowed,  as  a  general 
rule,  any  compensation  for  their  services,  but  arc  only  en- 
titled to"  receive  remuneration  for  necessary  disbursements. 
The  question  has  recently  arisen  whether  if  a  person  has 
become  permanently  insane,  but  no  inquisilicm  has  been 
held  and  no  committee  appointed,  a  suit  can  be  brought  in 
his  behalf  by  his  next  friend;  and  it  is  held  that  this  may 
be  done. 

In  this  country  courts  of  equity  in  some  of  tho  btates 
exercise  the  samejurisdiction  in  relation  to  persons  of  un- 
sound mind  as  the  English  court  of  chancery.  This  is  the 
case  in  New  York.  In  other  States  such  persons  arc  placed 
under  the  charge  of  guardians  appointed  by  courts  ofiiro- 
bale,  as  in  iMassachusctts.  Tho  mode  of  nppointing  a  com- 
mitteo or  guardian  anil  the  extent  of  their  authority  aro 
usually  regulated  to  a  great  degree  by  statute.  Tho  same 
general  principles  prevail  in  regard  to  the  power  ol  the 
court  exercising  such  jurisrliction,  and  its  control  over  tho 
management  and  disposition  of  property,  as  have  been  es- 
tablished in  the  English  procedure,  though  minor  ilifier- 
ences  exist  which  need  not  be  here  delaiUd.  In  some  of 
'  tho  States  the  same  power  is  exercised  in  regard  lo  the  cus- 
tody and  control  of  habitual  drunkards  and  spcndlhrifis  as 
in  relation  to  insane  persons.  (SecShclford  on  Lunacy; 
Willard  on  E'lnilij  .Inrinprndrwr  ;  Adams  on  B/m'/.i/.) 

(!i:oni:K  CiiASi;.  Ukviskh  bv  T.  W.  Dwiciit. 
Inscrip'tion  [  I.at.  iii, "  on,"  and  tr.rihcrc,  to  "  write  "], 
language  inscribed,  sculptured,  written,  or  impressed  upon 
clay  tablets,  metals,  wood,  stone,  or  other  niatenal  except 
papyrus,  paper,  or  other  fragile  subslances  used  for  books. 
Stone  was  principally  used  for  the  purpose,  and  rocks  at 
tho  very  earliest  period,  some  nations,  as  the  Egyptians, 
Assyria"ns,  Creeks,  and  Ilomans.  using  inscriptions  for 
ofiiJial  and  other  records.  In  the  East  the  oldest  nabylo- 
nian  and  Assyrian  inscriptions,  cut  in  the  cuneiform  or 
wodge-sbaped  characters,  dale  as  early  as  Hie  oldest  liaby- 
loniaii  (or  Assyrian)  reign,  being  Ihal  of  Urukli,  about  2000 
n  (■  These  were  continued  as  late  as  the  Roman  empire, 
and  tho  most  remarkable  is  that  of  Parius  Ilyslaspis  at 
liehistun,  giving  an  accouni  of  his  subjeclion  oi  the  dif- 
ferent nations  and  rivals  to  his  power.  It  is  in  lli»e  kinds 
of  cuneiform  and  languages-lho  Persian.  Median,  and 
Habylonian.  Another  remarkable  inscniilion  is  that  of 
Had'ii  Abad,  in  a  character  called  Pehlevi— which  later 
came  into  use  in  Persia-and  is  supposed  to  refer  to  tho 
Parthian  monarch  Sapor.  The  inscrii.lions  of  the  Egyp- 
tians are  as  old  as  Hie  Pabyloni.iu,  and  are  in  the  li.ero- 
glynhic  cliaractcr.  the  oldest  known  being  a  slab  of  the 
reign  of  the  monarch  Sent  of  tho  seccuid  dymisly,  accord- 
ing lo  some  chronologisis  above  3000  n.  r.  In  Egyjil  tho 
n«o  of  inscriiilb.ns  more  extensively  prevailed  than  else- 
where, the  walls  of  l.mibs.  temples,  and  oilier  buddings,  be- 
sides objects  of  use  or  attire,  being  covered  with  I  hem.  The 
most  remarkable  aro  those  recording  tho  working  of  the 
mines  at  Ml.  Sinai  from  tho  third  to  (ho  eighteenth  dy- 
nasty, others  detailing  ibe  expulsion  of  the  Shepherd  rulers 
or  invaders,  the  wars  ..f  Tlmllimes  III.  un.l  I!iimese«  II., 
Ibe  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Ihc  Ethiopian  king  Pianchi,  tho 
tablet  of  San  or  decree  of  tho  synod  of  priests  lieM  at 
Canopm  2.1.S  n.  c,  and  the  llosetta  Stone,  or  synodical  dc- 
oroo  of  priests  at  Memphis  lUO  u.  c,  both  of  which  aro 


12  J« 


INSECT   FERTILIZATION— INSOLVENCY. 


in  three  languages,  Egyptian  hieroglyphic,  Demotic,  and 
Greek,  and  which  are  keys  to  the  decipherment  and  inter- 
pretation of  the  hieroglyphs.  Amongst  the  Semitic  na- 
tions of  Palestine  iuscriptiuus  were  more  rarely  used,  and 
seldom  of  any  length.  Of  these,  the  best  known  are  the  in- 
scription on  the  coffin  of  Asmunazar,  king  of  f^idon,  and 
the  Dhiban  Tablet  or  Moabite  Stone  of  Mcsha.  king  of 
Moab,  about  DOO  b.  c,  the  oldest  known  in  the  Phrcnician 
charaetcr.  Numerous  inscriptions  arc  found  in  the  Wady 
JMokatteb  at  Sinai,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
work  of  the  Israelites  after  the  Exodus,  but  now  referred 
to  a  later  date,  about  300  B.C.  or  later,  and  attributed  to 
the  N:ib:itheans.  Many  lliniyaritic  inscriptions  of  a  still 
later  datu  have  been  found  at  the  dyke  of  Mareb  and  Sanaa 
in  Southern  Arabia,  some  on  bronze  plates  which  hove  been 
affixed  as  votive  offerings  to  the  temples  of  the  gods.  Be- 
yond the  rule  of  the  Egyptians  few  or  no  inscriptions  have 
"been  fi)und  in  Central  and  Southern  Africa,  but  at  the  sites 
of  Carthage  and  Utica,  Punic  inscriptions,  chiefly  votive,  in 
a  Phoenician  character,  have  been  found,  and  at  Dugga 
and  other  places,  in  a  peculiar  script  called  Libyan,  one 
bilingual  in  both  characters.  Another  remarkable  inscrip- 
tion is  a  bilingual  one  in  the  Cypriote  and  Phoenician 
character  found  at  Dall,  dated  in  the  reign  of  Melekiathon, 
king  of  Cittium  and  Idalium.  The  Jews  appear  not  to 
have  used  inscriptions  at  an  early  period,  and  none  are 
known  earlier  than  the  Christian  era.  It  is  in  Greece  that 
inscriptions  of  all  classes  and  on  all  objects  abounded,  the 
oldest  to  which  a  date  can  be  given  being  that  of  Abu- 
simbcl  in  the  reign  of  Psammetiehus  I.,  about  B.  c.  665. 
They  have  continued  in  use  till  the  present  day,  and  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  have  been  found  at  Athens  ;  but  on 
the  whole,  the  Greek  inscriptions,  although  throwing  con- 
siderable light  on  the  municipal  and  social  life  of  the 
Greeks,  are  not  of  great  historical  value.  The  Roman  in- 
scriptions, which  commence  with  the  republic  about  the 
time  of  the  fall  of  Corinth,  145  b.  c,  continue  till  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Latin  language.  There  arc  also  above  2000 
Etruscan  inscriptions,  but  the  language  has  not  been  de- 
ciphered. In  India  no  inscriptions  have  been  discovered 
earlier  than  the  age  of  Asoka,  about  400  b.  c.  but  in  China 
that  of  Vu  has  been  referred  to  2205  b.  c,  although  its  au- 
thenticity is  more  than  doubtful.  Inscriptions  of  1200  b  c, 
however,  exist.  Those  of  Indo-China  and  Japan  are  much 
more  recent.  In  America  the  inscribed  monuments  of 
Mexico  and  Yucatan  are  of  an  undefined  antiquity.  For 
pala'ography,  the  verification  of  history,  chronology,  geo- 
graphical sites,  the  appreciation  of  the  social  and  municipal 
condition  of  nations,  and  the  relative  antiquity  of  monu- 
ments, inscriptions  are  of  the  highest  importance.  In 
numismatics,  iuacription  means  the  letters  in  the  area,  not 
round  the  device.  Inscriptions  are  more  sparingly  used  in 
modern  times,  except  for  sepulchral  purposes,  printing 
having  superseded  their  public  employment.  They  are 
sometimes  found  in  relief  or  in  bronze  letters  attached  by 
plugs  to  marble  or  other  material,  and  were  often  painted 
for  greater  distinctness.  S.  Biitcii. 

In'scct  Fertiliza'tion.  One  of  the  most  significant 
modern  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  vegetable  physiology 
is  that  the  services  of  insects  are  indispensable  for  the  fer- 
tilization of  numerous  kinds  of  flowers,  which  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  pollen  cannot  pass  without  external  aid 
from  the  stamens  to  the  pistils  of  the  same  plant,  much  less 
to  those  of  other  plants.  Hence,  these  flowers  are  provided 
with  a  nectar  which  attracts  insects,  and  is  so  placed  that 
to  reacli  it  they  must  first  come  in  contact  with  the  stamen, 
from  which  the  ptdlen  adheres  to  (he  insect's  body,  and  is 
communicated  in  the  same  manner  to  the  pistils  of  the  same 
or  of  other  flowers.  The  popularization  of  these  fuets  is 
chiefly  due  to  Mr.  Charles  Dnrwin.  who,  in  his  monograph 
on  Fcrtifizati'on  of  Orchids  {18fi2).  has  exhaustively  traced 
the  operations  of  insects  in  relation  to  a  single  botanical 
family. 

Iiiscctiv'ora  [Lat.  i»i«fcf«,  "insects,"  and  vorai-c,  to 
'*  eat  "],  an  order  of  jneducabilian  placental  mammals  whoso 
anterior  as  well  as  posterior  limbs  are  primarily  adapted 
for  walking,  although  they  may  be  secondarily  modified 
for  other  purposes.  The  carpal  bones  of  the  jiroximal  as 
well  as  distal  rows,  ami  the  metacarpal  as  well  as  pha- 
lange;il  bones,  are  normally  diiToreutiatcd  and  developed; 
the  ulna  and  radius  arc  more  or  less  distinct;  clavicles  are 
always  present  and  well  developed ;  the  hind  limbs  are 
normally  related  to  the  pelvis,  and  their  elements  to  each 
other  ;  no  calcar  or  spur-like  appendage  above  the  ankle  is 
developed;  the  lower  jaw  has  well-defined  condyles,  which 
are  more  or  less  transverse,  and  arc  received  into  special 
glenoid  pockets.  The  teeth  arc  diphyodont,  and  are  of 
three  kinds  {i.  c.  canines,  molars,  and  incisors),  but  arc 
more  or  less  aberrant  from  the  typical  forms:  the  molars 
in  tbo  most  familiar  types  have  sharp-pointed  cusps.     The 


placenta  is  deciduate  and  discoidal.     The  order  is  divisible 

into  two  sub-orders — (1)  Dermoptcra,  including  the  Galco- 
pithecid;c  ;  and  (2)  liestioe,  including  all  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  order.  These  sub-orders  are  chiefly  based  on 
modifications  of  the  anterior  members  and  of  the  dentition. 
(1)  The  Dermoptcra  are  Insectivores  with  members  modi- 
fied for  flight  or  progression  in  the  air,  the  limbs  being 
much  elongated  and  very  slender,  and  connected  by  an 
extension  of  the  skin  which  involves  the  wrists  and  ankles 
and  advances  forward  to  the  neck,  and  backward  inclosing 
the  tail;  the  condylar  portion  of  the  lower  jaw  extends 
outward  ;  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  palmate 
and  deeply  pectinated,  while  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  as 
well  as  the  autcrior  molars  of  both  jaws,  are  compressed, 
and  have  multicuspid  crests.  (2)  The  Bestia;  are  Insect- 
ivores with  members  modified  for  walking  or  progression  on 
the  ground,  the  limbs  being  comparatively  short  and  robust, 
and  tree:  the  condylar  portion  of  the  lower  jaw  does  not 
extend  outward  ;  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  con- 
ical and  not  pectinated  ;  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  as  well  as 
the  anterior  molars  of  both  jaws,  more  or  less  conic,  and 
with  unilobate  crowns.  The  licstin-  are  divided  into  eight 
families — viz.  Tupayidse,  Macroscclida^  Erinaceida?,  Tal- 
pidse,  Soricidip,  Centetids,  Potamogalidip,  and  Chryso- 
chlorida?.  These  types  are  limited  to  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, Asia,  and  Africa,  only  one  (Centetida^)  being  rep- 
resented in  Cuba  and  Hayti,  and  none  in  South  America 
or  Australia.  Theodore  Gill. 

Insectivorous  Plants  capture  insects  and  consume 
them.  That  some  plants  capture  insects  has  long  been 
I  known  :  that  a  few  might  possibly  make  use  of  their  prey 
I  as  food  was  suspected  long  ago;  but  it  is  only  of  late  that 
i  the  suspicion  has  deepened  into  certainty.  The  clearest 
j  case  is  that  of  Dinntrn  mttncipttla.  (Sec  DiON,tA.)  An 
I  allied  plant.  Droskka  (which  see)  or  Sundew,  efl"ects  its 
j  captures  by  the  aid  of  bristles  which  arc  somewhat  sensi- 
j  tive,  and  have  at  their  glandular  tips  drops  of  a  glutinous 
exudation.  This  insect-lime  holds  its  victim  while  the  sur- 
1  rounding  tips  converge  towards  the  insect.  Pitcher-plttutu 
i  (see  DAULiXGTONiAJof  different  families  attractinsects  to  the 
i  open  mouth  of  their  hollow  leaves.  The  mouth  is  guarded 
!  by  short  stiff  needles  which  point  downward.  Over  these 
!  the  descent  of  the  insect  is  easy,  a  return  difficult.  In  the 
'  liquid  of  the  hollow  leaf  insects  are  drowned,  and  scon  de- 
I  compose.  That  the  liquid  thus  enriched  serves  as  food  for 
I  the  plant  is  not  proved,  but  is  probable.  Minute  ai>imals 
j  in  water  are  entrapped  by  the  leaf-appendages  of  hladder- 
I  icort.  The  stomach-shaped  sacs  have  a  mouth  provided 
with  delicate  hairs  which  converge  within  to  form  a  funnel. 
Through  this  guard  minute  organisms  can  pass  in,  but  not 
I  readily  out.  The  mechanism  for  entrapping  is  elaborate; 
'  it  is  unlikely  that  the  captures  effected  by  it  are  not  of  ser- 
I  vice  to  the  plant.  Mr.  Charles  Darwin  published  an  clab- 
;  orate  work  on  Itisectivoroua  Plants [iSlo).  G.  L.  GooDALE. 
Insects.  See  Entomology,  and  the  names  of  the  orders 
,  and  of  impffftant  species  of  insects. 

j       Insesso'res  [pi.,  the  Lat.  for  *'perchers**],a  term  used 
by  ornithologists  in   various   senses.      Some   systematists 
apply  the  term  to  a  great  sub-class,  including  the  order 
,  Posseres  (Oscincs,  or  "singers,"  Clamatores,  or  "  crying- 
i  birds,"  etc.).  the  order  Strisores.or  **  shrieking  birds,"  and 
I  the  order  Raptores,  or  "birds  of  prey."     Others  exclude 
I  the  Kaptores  from  the  order.     But  most  popular  authors 
I  make  the  term  synonymous  with  "passerine  birds,"  and 
I  consequently  make  the  term  a  comparatively  narrow  one. 
Insolvency  [Lat.  in,  and  solrrre,  to  "  pay  "],  the  state 
of  a  person  who  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts  as  they  fall  duo 
or  in  the  usual  course  of  trade  or  business.     Tliis  is  the 
general  and  most  comprehensive  sense  in  which  the  term 
is  used,  but  in  the  English  law  until  recently  it  was  usually 
employed  in  a  restricted  technical  meaning,  and  was  care- 
fully distinguished  from  bankruptcy.     A  bankrupt  under 
the  English  system  was  a  trader  or  merchant  who  had  be- 
come unable  to  pay  his  debts.     Those  only  were  termed 
insolvents  who  were  not   traders  or  merchants,  and  could 
not  meet  their  obligations.     In  the  legislation  regulating 
the  distribution  of  a  failing  debtor's  property  among  his 
creditors  the  same  distinction  was  preserved,  and  laws  were 
termed  bankrupt  or  insolvent  laws  according  as  they  ap- 
plied to  one  or  the  other  class  of  persons.     The  additional 
distinction  was  also  established  that  bankrupt  laws  ope- 
rated to  relievo  a  trader  absolutely  from  his  present  in- 
debtedness, while  insolvent  laws  only  discharged  a  debtor 
from  imprisonment,  while  they  left  his  future  acquisitions 
still  liable  to  the  claims  of  his  creditors.     But  even  in  Eng- 
land these  precise  distinctions  arc  disregarded  in  recent 
legislation,  and  it  is  declared  in  the  latest  bankrupt  act, 
which  took  effect  on  .Tan.  1,  1870,  that  all  persons  may  be 
I  adjudged  bankrupts  whether  they  are  traders  or  not.    This 
I  statute  contains  the  same  general  jtrovisions  concerning  the 


INSOLVENCY. 


122'J 


\ 


adjudication  of  bnnkruptcy  in  reference  to  all  classes  of  I 
failing  debtors,  and  makes  no  distincliou  between  them  in 
regard  to  the  riglil  to  <.l,tain  a  discharge  and  the  method  of 
procuring  it.  In  the  V.  S.  the  accurate  discrimination  bc- 
tvreen  bankruptcy  and  insolvency  which  formerly  prevailed  I 
in  England  has  licvcr  been  observed  in  legislation.  Stat-  | 
utes  of  the  Slates  have  been  termed  insidvent  luws  which  ] 
were  similar  in  their  objects  and  the  general  nature  of  : 
their  provisions  to  the  English  bankrupt  acts.  There  has, 
however,  been  a  somewhat  different  application  of  the  | 
terms  bankrupt  and  insolvent  in  actual  usage,  though  this 
has  depended  upon  other  grounds  of  distinction.  l!y  the 
U.  S.  Constitution  power  is  given  to  Congress  to  establish 
a  uniform  rule  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout 
the  U.  R.  In  pursuance  of  the  authority  given  by  this 
provision,  statutes  have  from  time  to  time  been  enacted  by 
Congress  which  have  been  designated  distinctively  bank- 
rupt acts.  Those  enacted  before  the  act  which  is  at  pres- 
ent in  force  were  repealed  within  a  few  years  after  their 
pa'^sage.  and  laws  passed  in  the  Slates  severally  upon  the 
subject  took  their  place.  These  Slate  statutes  were  gener- 
ally termed  insolvent  laws  by  way  of  distinction  from  the 
legislation  of  Congress,  even  though  there  was  no  material 
difference  in  the  general  character  of  the  provisions  which 
they  contained.  The  discrimination,  therefore,  did  not  de- 
pend upon  the  diverse  nature  of  the  laws  adopted,  nor  upon 
the  different  classes  of  persons  affected  by  their  provisions, 
but  upon  the  circumstance  whether  the  legislature  by  which 
they  were  enacted  was  a  State  body  or  the  I'.  S.  Congress. 
This  distinction,  however.  <lid  not  rest  upon  any  substan- 
tial basis,  and  the  terms  '•  bankruptcy  "  and  "  in.solvency  " 
were  oflen  employed  interchangeably.  It  was  decided 
that  a  bankrupt  law  might  contain  those  regulations  which 
were  generally  found  in  insolvent  laws,  and  an  insolvent 
law  might  contain  those  which  arc  common  to  a  bankrupt 
law.  The  power  given  to  Congress  to  establish  a  sysleni 
of  bankruptcy  laws  causes  its  legislation  ujion  the  subject 
to  supersede  that  of  the  Stales.  This  was  the  effect  of  the 
resent  bankrupt  act.  which  went  into  ojieration  in  ISO". 
.t  would,  therefore,  be  of  little  imporlance  to  consider  the 
insolvent  svstems  of  the  several  States  as  they  prevailed 
licforo  the  a"doplion  of  this  act.  They  were  all  enacted  for 
the  same  general  inirpose,  to  secure  tho  division  of  a  fail- 
ing debtor's  assets  proportionally  among  bis  creditors, 
liiough  the  regulations  prescribed  for  the  adainment  of 
this  object  were  somewhat  diverse.  The  provisions  of  tho 
present  bankrupt  law  will  be  found  under  the  title  li.iNK- 
uiiPT.  The  supcrscdurc  of  the  State  insolvent  laws  by  the 
II.  S.  system  of  bankruptcy  has  been  a  salutary  change, 
since  the  regulations  thus  estalilisbcd  by  Congress  have  a 
uniform  effect  and  operation  throughout  all  the  States,  and 
controversies  similar  to  those  which  previously  arose  in 
regard  to  the  effect  in  one  Slate  of  decisions  under  tho  in- 
solvency laws  of  another  can  no  longer  occur.  The  opera- 
tion of 'the  law  of  ca.-h  Slate  upon  the  subject  was  conlined 
to  ils  own  limits,  and  a  debtor's  discharge  obtained  in  one 
Stale  might  be  of  no  validity  in  another. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  for  insolvent  debtors  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  a  resort  to  tho  methods  of  obtaining 
a  discharge  from  "their  indebtedness  established  by  bank- 
rupt laws,  by  a  voluntary  arrangement  with  their  creditors, 
who  agree  to  accept  a  |iart  paynieut  in  full  satisfaction  of 
their  claims,  ami  grant  tho  debtor  a  complete  release.  .Vn 
agreement  of  this  kind  is  technically  termed  "  an  agree- 
ment  for  a  composition,"  or  simply  "  a  composilion."  This 
is  usually  made  by  deed  termed  a  "composilion  deed," 
though  n'hen  the  indebtedness  is  based  upon  simple  con- 
tract the  agreement  may  be  made  by  jiarol— i'.  r.  cither 
orally  or  by  an  instrument  not  under  seal.  The  composi- 
tion must  in  all  cases  be  founded  upon  a  sufficient  consid- 
eration or  it  will  have  no  valiility.  When  the  arrangement 
is  made  with  a  single  creditor,  tho  agreement  which  bo 
makes  to  accept  a  certain  percentage  of  the  delit  in  full 
satisfaction,  even  though  it  be  followed  by  an  acceptance  of 
the  amount  fixed  upon,  will  not  eonsliluto  a  consideration 
and  the  arrangement  will  bo  void.  Even  if  a  receipt  be 
given  whiidi  is  expressed  as  being  in  full  discharge  of  tho 
claim,  the  debtor  will  still  bo  liable  for  tho  entire  debt. 
That  tho  agreement  may  bo  binding  in  such  a  case  there 
must  be  a  new  and  independent  consideration,  such  as  tho 
paynieut  of  a  sum  of  money  by  a  third  jierson,  or  an  en- 
gagement by  the  debtor  lo  ]>ay  the  reilueed  sum  in  a  man- 
ner or  at  a  time  more  advantageous  lo  the  creditor  than  was 
originallv  agreed  upon,  or  there  must  be  a  release  under 
scab  which  imports  a  consideration.  Hut  nn  arrangement 
for  a  coni|iosition  made  with  more  than  a  single  creditor 
will  be  valid,  though  there  be  no  independent  consideration. 
The  benefit  which  each  credilor  gains  by  the  engngemcnt 
of  the  others  to  forbear,  and  tho  conncqiienl  securing  of  a 
fund  for  the  mutual  benefit  of  nil,  is  a  sufficient  considera- 
tion  to  sustain  the  agreement  into  which  they  mutually 


enter.  Tho  composition  deed  or  agreement  is  not  required 
to  be  of  any  special  form.  It  may  contain  such  reserva- 
tions or  conditions  as  the  parties  may  choose  to  insert  ami 
make  binding  upon  tlieinselves,  provided  these  are  not 
fraudulent  nor  invaliil  by  general  rules  of  law.  Thus,  it 
is  sometimes  provided  tiiat  the  agreement  shall  not  bo 
binding  upon  any  of  the  creditors  executing  it  until  each 
and  every  creditor  who  has  a  claim  against  the  dcblor  shall 
also  enter  into  the  same  compromise.  So  there  may  be  a 
reservation  in  the  deed  preserving  the  rights  of  a  creditor 
against  the  debtor's  sureties,  though  it  provides  for  an  ab- 
solute release  of  the  dcblor  himself,  and  contains  a  cove- 
nant not  to  sue  him.  Such  conditions  will  be  held  valid, 
and  will  be  enforced  according  to  their  terms.  If  they  are 
not  fully  complied  with,  the  debtor  will  be  liable  to  the  ex- 
tent of  his  original  indebtedness.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
all  the  creditors  of  an  insolvent  enter  into  the  composition 
deed.  If  any  less  number  agree  to  its  terms.  Ihey  will  be 
bound  by  it, "anil  will  only  be  entitled  to  the  perccniage 
agreed  lipon,  unless  they  have  qualified  their  acceptance 
by  the  stipulation  that  the  consent  of  all  must  be  obtained 
before  any  shall  he  bound.  One  partner  may  agree  to  a 
composition  of  a  partnership  debt,  and  tho  agreement  will 
bo  binding  upon  the  firm.  A  creditor's  assent  to  a  com- 
position may  be  signified  as  well  by  surrendering  debts 
and  taking  composition  notes  as  by  executing  a  composi- 
tion deed."  But  after  such  assent  has  once  been  given,  in 
whatever  pro]>er  modo  it  may  be  indicated,  it  cannot  bo 
subsequently  withdrawn  by  the  creditor  without  the  debt- 
or's consent  if  the  agreement  bo  originally  valid  and  be 
properly  fulfilled,  liut  if  any  one  of  the  creditors  be  after- 
wards refused  the  benefit  which  a  faithful  performance  of 
tho  agreement  would  afford  him,  it  will  cease  to  be  binding 
upon  him.  So.  unless  payment  of  the  sum  stipulated  in 
the  agreement  for  composition  be  made  at  the  time  ap- 
pointed, the  original  debt  is  revived.  Any  creditor  who  joins 
in  a  composition  is  not  allowed  to  include  in  it  only  a  portion 
of  his  claim  against  the  debtor,  and  sue  for  (he  amount  of 
the  residue.  He  must  agree  to  a  compromise  of  the  entire 
claim,  or  else  avoid  entering  into  the  composition  arrange- 
ment. When  a  creditor  signs  his  name  to  a  composition 
deed  without  specifying  the  amount  of  the  indebtedness, 
the  agreement  will  be  Inld  ap]ilieable  to  the  full  amount  of 
his  existing  claim.  After  a  eom|iOsition  has  been  agreed  upon 
with  several  creditors,  every  agreement  or  arrangement  by 
which  an  advantage  is  secretly  secured  to  any  one  of  them 
which  is  withheld  from  tho  others  is  a  fraud  upon  the  credi- 
tors from  whom  it  is  concealed,  and  consequently  invalid. 
No  securities  given  in  pursuance  of  such  an  agiecment  will 
bo  enforceable.  So,  when  there  is  an  arrangement  for  a  com- 
position it  is  a  fraud  in  any  one  credilor  to  sue  the  insolvent 
contrary  to  tho  terms  of  Ihc  coni|ironiisc.  Composilion 
deeds  and  other  agrecmcnls  of  a  similar  nature,  if  fairly 
made  and  executed,  and  not  invalidated  b.y  any  subsequent 
fraudulent  transactions,  will  be  duly  carried  into  cfi'ect  by 
the  courts.  Tho  validity  of  such  arrangeiuenis  depends 
upon  tho  same  principles  as  Ihe  legal  doctrine  of  accord 
and  satisfaction.  (See  Accoun  ANn  Satisfaction.)  They 
acconi)ilish  practically  the  same  results  as  bankrupt  and 
insolvent  laws,  by  securing  a  ratable  division  of  an  iiistd- 
vent  debtor's  assets  among  his  creditors  as  a  condition  of  his 
full  discharge. 

Another  modo  by  which  insolvent  debtors  are  accustomed 
to  secure  a  division  of  I  heir  property  among  their  creditors, 
without  taking  ailvanlage  of  bankrujit  laws,  is  by  making 
an  assignment  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  their  creditors. 
Tho  assignee  of  tho  property  becomes  a  trustee,  and  the 
creditors  are  ccs/iii's  i/iie  Inttl.  Such  a  transaction  is  gov- 
erned by  the  general  rules  jiertaining  to  all  modes  of  as- 
signment in  trust,  and  the  assignee  slanils  in  the  same  posi- 
tion with  reference  to  his  rights  and  defences  against  third 
persons  as  tho  assignor.  He  is  under  the  same  responsi- 
bility as  nil  persons  who  are  authorized  to  admiuislera  trust 
fund,  and  is  held  to  a  failbful  discharge  of  his  duly.  Tho 
mode  of  making  the  assignment  and  of  distributing  the 
assets  recciveil  is  frequently  regululed  by  slalule.  It  is 
also  sometimes  jirovided  that  a  schedule  of  the  debts  paya- 
ble and  the  available  assets  bo  delivered  losome  magistrate. 
with  an  aflidavil  as  lo  ils  accuracy,  and  also  that  the  as- 
signee shall  give  a  bond  with  sufficient  sureties.  If  the 
assignment  is  fiauilulent,  it  may  be  set  aside.  liefore  the 
cnaelmcnt  of  tho  U.  S.  bankrupt  law  a  debtor  might  make 
in  some  of  Ihe  Slates  what  were  known  as  )iieferenlial  as- 
signments, by  which  the  claim  of  one  creditor  might  be 
preferred  lo  that  of  anolher;  but  this  act  prohibits  the 
making  of  such  nssignnionts  within  a  specified  time  (two 
in<tnths)  before  the  filing  of  the  petition  in  baukrupley. 
Such  an  assignment,  if  made,  is  void,  and  Ihe  assignee  in 
bankruptcy  may  recover  the  properly  from  the  parl_\  receiv- 
ing it.  The  claims  of  all  the  crcilitors  must  be  paid  propor- 
tiolialcly.     (iKouGi;  CiiAsi;.    Ki;visi;n  uy  T.  W  .  IHvight. 


1230 


INSPIRATION. 


Iiispira'tiou  [from  the  Lat.  iiispinttio;  Gr.  eftn-f«vffi? 
or  iiirvtiv,  to  ••  brciithe  into  "  or  "  upon,"  to  infuse  into,  to 
inspire  (llic  soul)  from  some  supernatural  source.  In  tho 
classics  it  may  be  the  mind  under  the  iulluence  of  any 
divinity,  but  the  New  Testament,  by  the  use  of  the  adjec- 
tive fltd:ri'eu(7T05  (2  Tim.  iii.  IC),  defines  this  source  to 
be  the  one  personal  God],  that  superintending  influence  of 
tho  Holy  Spirit  over  tlic  minds  of  Scripture  writers  which 
secures  such  a  record  as  t!od  designs.  The  subject  is  im- 
portant, as  attempting  to  answer  the  question.  Have  we  in 
tho  Bible  an  infallible  guide  to  religious  belief  and  prac- 
tice ?  The  method  best  adapted  to  an  impartial  considera- 
tion of  the  moral  evidence  is — //■.■^  indications  of  the 
superhuman  origin  of  the  Bible;  moiirf,  objections  to  the 
same;  and  lliirti,  specific  inspiration. 

I.    SliPERlIt'MAN     OltlGIS    OF    THE    SlUIPTUBES. Of    tho 

lines  of  argument  indicating  this,  tho  following  may  here 
bo  given. 

1.  The  Scripliirea  nf  the  Old  and  iVew  Tcftamnts  coiisti- 
lute  a  iinltjuc  book,  being  (")  the  product  of  many  writers 
scattered  over  a  pei-iod  of  ten  centuries,  and  so  without 
tho  possibility  of  consulting  as  to  the  design  or  character 
of  each  other's  writings;  and  yet,  (h)  though  independent 
compositions  of  many  men  in  different  ages,  still  a  self- 
consistent  whole — a  nniiij  in  doctrine  and  method,  in  both 
respects  unlike  all  other  hooks.  At  the  same  time,  (o)  it 
has  a  thoroughly  historic  basis  and  application,  thus  ren- 
dering a  unity,  on  the  one  hand,  more  difficult,  and  afford- 
ing on  the  otlicr  a  valuable  test  of  credibility.  "  This 
alono  sharply  discriminates  it  from  all  other  so-called 
sacred  books,  from  which  the  historic  element  is  almost 
wholly  wanting."  (Raijem.)  (d)  Tlirough  great  vencr.ition 
for  it.  especially  on  the  part  of  tho  Jews,  it  has  been  pre- 
served in  such  marvellous  purity  that  the  most  careful 
criticism  and  collation  of  manuscripts  finds  occasion  for 
few  important,  and  very  rarely  of  fundamental,  ch.anges. 
Furthermore,  (c)  that  is  true  of  the  Bible  which  has  been 
realized  in  no  other  book  —  it  can  be  translated  into  all 
languages  and  still  retain  its  import,  its  force,  and,  to 
great  extent,  its  beauty. 

2.  The  ThiirovijUhi  Mnnnlheistic  Character  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  nr/alnsl  the  Siippoeitinii  of  their  Unmun  Orir/iii. — 
For  I'l)  they  were  written  at  a  time  or  times  when  all 
nations  were  poly theists,  and  yet  from  beginning  to  end  they 
assert  the  existence  of  >,iie  onli/  true  God.  Moreover,  (b) 
liow  is  it  to  be  explained  that  monotheism  should  be  taught 
by  a  people  whose  "  fathers  worshipped  other  gods,"  and 
who,  once  reclaimed,  were  disposed  to  relapse  into  idolatry  ? 

.'!.  The  Moralili/  a/  the  llible  nhnwH  n  Siipcriorili/  in  ihear 
reiprriii. — (a)  It  makes  God  supreme  as  «iic/i,  and  will  not 
allow  human  virtue  to  become  separated  from  him  or  his 
honor.  Connecting  morality  with  theology,  it  subordinates 
virtue  to  religion,  (b)  In  Scripture  the  heroic  virtues  most 
highly  applauded  by  men  are  regarded  as  inferior  to  the 
pitn'.ire  ones  of  forgiveness,  patience,  and  submission,  (c) 
Its  incentives  to  virtue  are  duty,  God's  will,  his  holiness, 
his  favor,  and  blessedness  the  fruit  of  holiness— quite  un- 
like those  urged  in  the  schools  of  philcisophy.  It  is  to  bo 
allied  (d)  that  its  superior  morality  is  nevertheless  one 
which,  in  its  process  of  nllitinmciil,  is  in  conflict  with  the 
sentiments  and  current  maxims  of  mankind. 

•4.  The  Ileliqidm  TcnchiiKj  and  Method  of  Scripture  arc 
Peculiar  to  iltelf.  —  If  not  in  making  God  everywhere 
supreme,  and  having  for  its  dc«ign  to  set  men  right  with 
God,  that  Christianity,  its  religion,  which  is  pre-eminently 
the  sum  of  its  teachings,  has  many  things  that  are  «iii 
r/cncriii.  («)  Its  aii(/ior  appears  in  a  character  altogether 
his  own— human,  divine,  man.  God,  both  in  one:  without 
beginning  of  days,  yet  in  time  inearnalo  :  sinless,  yet  dying 
for^sinncrs.  As  the  infidel  Diderot  confessed,  it  lies  not 
within  the  possibility  of  human  genius  to  invent  such  a 
character.  (A)  Tho  Bible  teaches  salvation  —  impossible 
without  him — secured  by  and  in  the  incarnate  Son  of  God. 
Hence,  both  as  a  possibility  and  in  its  method,  salvation, 
aa  taught  in  Scripture,  is  divine  and  supernatural.  {<■) 
Notwithstanding  this,  rather  in  consequence  of  it,  Chris- 
tianity is  represented  to  be  exclusive  of  .all  other  religions. 
But  (rf)  it  allows  no  coercion,  but  leaves  its  claims,  though 
universal  and  morally  inflexible,  to  the  intelligent  and 
voluntary  acceiitance  of  all,  while  yet,  ('■)  though  allowing 
no  compromise  of  doctrine  or  metliod,  an<l  requiring  faith 
as  the  test  of  either,  it  boldly  announces  a  certain  and 
abundant  future  «mccc»»  to  the  Christianity  which  it  advo- 
cates. 

5.  Could  the  ITumnn  Intellect  Produce  tuck  a  Hook .' — It 
has,  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  book,  held  the  at- 
tention and  enlisted  the  interest  of  mankind  for  centuries : 
has  shown  itself  adapted  to  the  wants  of  all;  "has  gone 
hand  in  hand  with  the  moral  and  intellectual  cnltivation 
of  the  species  ;"  and  *'  its  very  presence  as  ,a  believed  book 
has   rendered    tho   nations   emphatically  a   chosen  race." 


{Coleridge.)  And  if  not  from  God.  the  Bible  presents  tho 
fourfold  anomaly;  (")  It  would  substitute  for  all  human 
the  one  God-ordained  system,  although  the  tendency  of  tho 
race  has  ever  been  /ram  God  to  man-devised  religions.  (A) 
Nowhere  else  is  human  nature  willing  to  represent  itself, 
as  the  Bible  does,  destitute  of  restorative  energy,  and  re- 
quiring a  divine  interposition  to  save  it  from  itself.  And 
if  proiluced  by  men,  then  (c)  by  a  people  whoso  history  it 
condemns,  whose  belief  it  opposes,  and  whose  morality  was 
not  adapted  to  receive  it ;  and  ((/)  as  no  other  hook  has  been 
able  to  do  even  approximately,  it  has  impressed  the  difl'er- 
cnt  chisses  of  its  readers  in  all  ages  with  a  sincere  and 
reverential  conviction  of  its  diriuc  ori;/lu. 

II.  Odjections. — These  m.ay  be  jmt  into  three  classes: 

1.  Those  which  seem  to  Invalidate  the  Claim  of  the  llible 
as  bciiir/  from  Hod. — Examples:  Since  all  from  the  first 
needed  it,  why  was  revelation  delayed  so  long,  and  then 
given  to  so  few?  If  from  God,  why  has  the  Bible,  on  tho 
one  hand,  so  many  things  insignificant,  and,  on  the  other, 
many  that  are  obscure?  And  how  can  a  book  which  is 
from  God  sanction  cruelty  and  injustice?  This  whole 
class  of  objections  may  first  be  met  by  analogy,  like  that 
of  Butler.  Similar  and  equally  weighty  objections  lie 
against  "the  constitution  and  course  of  nature;"  hence, 
why  should  those  who  admit  theism  object  to  the  word  of 
God  because  of  what  is  found  equally  in  the  system  nf 
thini/s  which  he  h.as  ordained  and  controls?  Analogy,  in- 
deed, can  only  silence  objections  by  showing  Xljust  as  rea- 
sonable to  admit  the  Bible  as  the  course  of  nature  to  be 
from  God  ;  while  the  word  of  God  often  aids  in  surmount- 
ing difficulties  which  Nature  herself  cannot  do  even  in  her 
own  sphere.  For  example  ;  in  the  course  of  nature  war, 
famine,  and  earthquake  destroy  the  good  and  bad  alike,  but 
when  God  orders  Amaick  destroyed  the  judgment  is  seen 
to  be  penal,  because  that  people  is  declared  ripe  for  de- 
struction. If  the  innocent  Son  of  God  is  permitted  to 
sufTer  for  the  guilty,  this  is  justified  by  the  work  of  grace 
as  a  whole,  which  satisfies  law  and  justice,  and  rises 
higher  than  the  possibility  of  pure  law.  And  if  it  is  for 
man's  good  that  many  things  lie  before  him  in  obscurity, 
requiring  patient  study,  as  nature  does,  revelation  is  given, 
it  must  be  remembered,  to  those  on  probation,  and  that  an 
intellectual  is  necessary  before  and  in  order  to  a  moral  pro- 
bation, and  that  both  are  best  secured  by  a  communication 
of  God's  will  neither  too  clear  nor  too  obscure. 

2.  Objections  Presumptive  ufjainst  Plenary  Infpiratiou. — 
Apparent  discrepancies,  inaccuracies,  seeming  conflict  with 
science.  Tho  objections  cannot  be  here  discussed  seriatim, 
hut  the  following  remarks  may  indicate  tho  proper  treat- 
ment of  them:  (a)  The  language  of  sense  and  sight,  not 
of  science,  is  alone  adapted  to  all  peoples  and  times,  and 
Scripture  writers — who  arc  to  be  interpreted  accordingly  — 
have  wisely  chosen  the  former.  ('>)  If  a  mistake  is  really 
found  in  the  Bible,  if  a  date,  a  reading,  a  historic  state- 
ment, is  prored  to  be  wrong,  tho  correction  is,  in  so  far ^  to 
be  made,  and  can  be,  without  invalidating  other  parts,  (r) 
Nothing  is  to  be  feared  from  the  most  thorough  scientific 
inquiry  if  it  bo  honest,  but  assumptions  and  hypotheses 
should  not  disturb  the  biblical  student  until  fully  verified 
and  accepted  in  their  appropriate  field  of  science,  (rf)  Ki 
in  the  past  the  most  careful  inquiry  has  lessened  the  num- 
ber of  supposed  errors,  so  we  have  reason  to  believe  it  will 
be  in  the  future,  and  that  science  and  Scripture  will  in  the 
end  be  admitted  not  to  conflict.  "With  all  the  pains  and 
ingenuity  which  have  been  bestowed  upon  the  subject,  no 
charge  of  error,  even  in  matters  of  human  knowledge,  has 
ever  yet  been  substantiated  against  any  of  the  writers  of 
Scripture.  But  even  if  it  had  been  otherwise,  is  it  not 
conceivable  that  there  might  be  infallible  divine  teaching 
in  all  things  spiritual  and  heavenly,  whilst  on  mere  mat- 
ters of  history  or  of  daily  life  prophets  and  evangelists 
might  have  been  suffered  to  write  as  men?"  (Prof.  Brotme 
of  Cambridge,  Eng.)  "  We  have  no  means  of  settling  def- 
initely whether  a  posse  pcccare  in  minor  matters  may  or 
may  iiot  be  compatible  with  a  divine  revelation  communi- 

I  eati-d  through  human  media;  but  certainly  till  inaccuracies, 
fairly  and  incontcstably  proved  to  be  so,  are  brought  home 
to  tiie  Scripture,  wo  seem  logically  justified  in  believing 
that  as  it  is  with  nine-tenths  of  the  alleged  contradictions  in 
Scripture,  so  it  is  with  the  alleged  inaccuracy."  (Ellicolt.) 
:!.  Objections  from  the  Xotnre  itself  of  Inspiration.— ll 
has  been  said  that  a  full  inspiration  should  give  idcniiii/ 
of  expression  when  tho  same  events  arc  narrated  by  differ- 
ent writers:  which  is  evidently  not  the  case.  And  again, 
that  inspiration  must  involve  a  suspension  of  the  writer's 
own  powers,  but  that  intimation  is  given  (hat  they  arc  still 
free.  Further,  that  men.  being  themselves  fallible,  could 
not  be  the  media  of  infallible  truth.  And,  moreover,  as  by 
Kant,  that  the  writers  could  not  clearly  distinguish  a  state 
of  inspiration  from  their  own  thought.  To  which  class  of 
objections  it  is  replied  («)  that  iusjjiration  must  he  neces- 


INSPIRED,  THE— INSTALLATION. 


1231 


sarily  a  secret  miracle,  not  cognizable  by  common  con- 
sciousness, but  yet  clearly  so  by  those  made  the  subjects 
of  it,  and  to  be  received  on  their  testimony  if  credible  men. 
(6)  No  theory  of  inj-piration  can  be  (enable  which  docs  not 
allow  freedom  and  individuality  in  the  writers.  At  the 
same  time  («■)  it  is  claimed  f<»r  the  Scripture  writers  that. 
though  in  themselves  fallible,  they  arc  kept  from  error  in 
that  /or  tchirh  they  are  employed  by  the  divine  Spirit. 
"Human  instrumentality  .  .  .  has  been  moulded  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  into  the  orj^anism  of  revelation — each  ray  of  (he 
divine  li'^ht  has  hcen  borne  to  mnDkind  through  the  me- 
dium best  suited  for  its  trunsmission  ;  and  yet.  while  bor- 
rowing in  its  course  that  particular  hue  which  the  medium 
lends  through  which  it  passes,  it  retains,  no  less  sensibly, 
the  purity  of  the  source  from  wiiich  it  streams.*'  (Lcr.)  It 
may  be  observed  that  objections  to  the  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture arc  raised  in  one  way  or  another  from  its  human  ele- 
ment, and  that  it  depends  largely  on  the  use  made  of  this 
what  theory  shall  he  adopted— whether  the  Bible  shall  be 
received,  and  how  fur.  as  infiillible. 

III.  SrKriFic  iNsniRATioN. — The  theories  need  to  be  dis- 
tinguished and  the  proof  given. 

A.  TiiDJRiEs. — These  would  group  themselves  into  three 
classes,  according  as  the  Bible  is  held  to  be  not  at  ail  from 
Gotlf  pnrt/i/  from  him.  or  tthuUy  from  him. 

1.  Tlir  liible  h,  t'n  no  Pccnh'itr  Seuitr.from  God, — Natural~ 
inm  or  /'oHt'tirt'sin,  ignoring  a  personal  God,  logically  rejects 
revelation;  Panthchm,  regarding  everything  alike  divine 
and  inspired,  can  admit  nothing  to  be  peculiarly  so;  and 
/iittionafitriii  linds  as  much  in  Homer  and  Plato  to  call  in- 
spired as  in  Isaiah  or  Paul. 

2,  T/ie  fiiblc  in  Partially  fnnpired,  since  it  CONTAINS,  hut 
IS  SOT,  a  Hrrclatiun  from  dod. — Varieties  are — {a)  parts 
only  are  inspired:  (h)  the  writers  possess  a  consciousness, 
however  high,  differing,  not  in  kind  but  in  dctjrce  only, 
from*  that  of  others,  (c)  There  must  be  a  '*  unifying  fac- 
ulty" which  is  subjective.  This  class,  in  all  its  varieties, 
finds  it  not  difficult  to  assume  dcf/rcrn  of  inspiration,  but 
not  easy  to  determine  the  authority  for  Scripture;  while, 
moreover,  the  subjective  state  of  tho  individual  becomes 
the  critrrion  in  each  particular  case. 

It.  T/ic  fiihh,  hriiiij  fmm  Gnd,  poHHCHscs  a  Full  luipfrn- 
tion. — («)  The  mechanical  theory  of  dictation,  the  writers 
being  mere  amanuenses,  would  indeed  give  plenary  in- 
spiration, but  not  the  manifold  human  clement,  nor  the 
variety  in  style  and  freedom  of  the  writers  which  every- 
where prevail.  It  is  hence  to  be  rejected  for  (h)  the  dy- 
namir  theory,  whieli  holds  to  the  divine  superintendence 
throui^hdut,  but  affirms  the  result  to  be  gainecl  through  the 
free  activity  of  the  writers'  own  minds.  '*  Inspiration  is 
that  divine  influence  under  which  all  parts  of  the  Bible 
have  been  committed  to  writing,  whether  they  contain  an 
account  of  ordinary  historical  facts  or  the  narrative  of  su- 
jiernatural  revelation."  (Lcc.)  If  (Jod  communicates  his 
will,  it  is  through,  as  well  as  to,  man,  and  in  a  genuinely 
human  form.  But  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  between 
rrrrlntioit  and  tunpiration.  The  former  refers  rather  to  the 
divine  thought  communicated — nut  otherwise  knowiiblc ; 
the  hitter,  to  the  record  of  whatever  truth  (iod  would  have 
recorderl.  Hence,  there  may  be  revelation  without  inspira- 
tion, as  to  Malaam  and  Xehuchadncz7.ar ;  and  inspiration 
without  revelation,  as  through  all  parts  not  directly  re- 
vealed.    Tho  Bible  thus  contains  a  rcrc^atioji,  and  is  an 

inspiration. 

B.  PnooF. — I.  Presumptive. — f«)  All  the  lines  of  argument 
showing  the  Bible  to  bo  superhuman  ;  r.  <j.  its  brief,  graphic, 
but  unaflorncd  narrative,  as  in  the  Gospels;  its  simple  com- 
prehensiveness, as  tho  Ten  Commandments,  which  con- 
vinced an  able  but  infidel  Inwyer  that  they  could  not  bo 
human.  (Sec  under  I.  of  this  article.)  {h)  A  revelatiim 
grants  d.nncl  this  because  supernatural  instruction  is  need- 
ed, inspiration  may  bo  presumed,  since  a  mere  human  rec- 
ord of  whatever  truth  would  not  bo  an  infallible  guide. 
{'■)  Tho  doubtful  attitude  into  which  wc  are  tlirown  by 
denying  inspirnlir»n  favors  it,  since  without  this  we  could 
have  n<)  uhjrctirc  standard  of  religious  truth  binding  on 
all,  and  i<h  inspiration  may  be  precumed  from  the  thor- 
oughly harmonious  commingling  of  the  prophetic  and 
miraenlous  with  tho  historic  and  diilactic  ]>ortions,  which 
is  evervwhcro  found.  If  Scripture  is  the  divine  in  the  hu- 
man, the  human  seems  at  all  points  nervadeil  by  the  divine 
like  an  incarnation.  (.ScoT.  \t<iw\9,  hirinr- Human  in  Scrips 
fure;  also  I.  Taylor's  Hrhrrw  Poetry,  and  H.  Uogers's  Hit- 
prrhuman   f frit/in  nf  the  lUldr.) 

2.  Mnrr  Dirrrt. — (a)  Tho  Scripture  writerfl  distinguish 
between  a  divine  communication  and  their  own  subjective 
sfate,  false  prophecy  being  subjective  only,  "  prophets  of 
tho  deceit  of  their  own  heart,"  the  true  having  a  valid 
ground  outside  of  their  Own  mind,  like  the  rul]  of  a  bonk 
in  whieh  wa«  written  "  the  word  of  the  Lord  "  (rf.  .ler.  xxiii. 
L'.'i,  L'l;,  and  Ezek.  ii.  0,   10).     (h)  The  wtitcis  imply  their 


belief  in  the  organic   unity  of  Scripture  by  quoting  and 
using  what  others  had  said,  all  such  utterances  being  treated 
as  binding;  also,  by  assuming  often  a  pregnancy  of  mean- 
ing in  the  original  words,     (c)  Inspiration    of  the   Xcw 
Testament  writers.    [Xutc.  Paul,  one  of  the  most  important 
writers,  was  an  apontU  miravuluunly  prejmrcd  for  this  ofliec 
(Gal.  i.  11. 12).  which  he  c^(j"mc</  f  I  Cor.  ix.  1-6),  and  which 
was  admitted  by  others  (Gal.  ii.  0).     Alt  other  New  Testa- 
ment writers  were  apostles,  save  Mark  ami  Luke.  Whether 
they  wrote.  .Mark  under  the  supervision  of  Peter,  and  Luko 
under  that  of  Paul,  or  were  t/i'rcct/y  inspired,  their  writings 
certainly  have  been  more  readily  received  than  some  other 
portions.     Hence,  the  argument  for  the  inspiration  of  tho 
New  Testament  is  substantially  that  for  tlie  inspiration  of 
the  apostles  as  such,  and  is  summarily  this  :]  ( 1 )  The  apos- 
tles were  promised  divine  direction  when  arraigned  as  wit- 
nesses :  *'  Take  no  thought  how  or  what  ye  shall  speak.  It 
is  not  ye  that  speak,  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  that 
f!peaketh  in  you  "*  (Mark  x.  19,  20).     (2)  And  were  to  ho 
kept  from  mistakes  in  their  ofliciai  testimony:  "The  Spirit 
of  truth  .  .  .  will  guide  you  into  all  truth,  and  he  will 
show  you  things  to  come"  (John  xvi.  i:*.).     Also  in  respect 
to  the  past:  "He  shall  bring  all  things  to  your  rcinein- 
brance"  (John   xiv.  2C).     And  (T.)  The  Spirit  was  to  co- 
operate in  their  testimony  (cf.  John  xv.  2C,  27,  with  Acts  i. 
6-8).     (4)  They  affirm  their  own  inspiration:  "  Wc  have 
received   .  .   .  the  Sjiirit  which    is    of  (Jod  .  .  .  that  wc 
might    know  the  things  of  (iod,  which  things  we  speak, 
not  in  words  which  man's  wis<iom  teaclieth.  but  whieh  tho 
Holy  Ghost  tcacheth"  (I  Cor.  ii.  12,  III;  Eph.  iii.  2-;>) ; 
while  (6)  They  assume  without  argument  that  others  will 
admit  their  inspiration:  'MVhen  _ve  received  the  word  of 
God  which  ye  heard  of  us.  ye  received  it  not  as  the  word 
of  men,  but  as  it  is  in  truth  the  word  of  God"  (1  Thc?s. 
ii.  13;    iv.    8).      Accordingly,  (0)  they  speak  and    write 
as  for  God  and  with   his   authority:   "  Maketh  manifest 
the  savor  of  his  knowledge  by  us  in  every  place."    (See  Rom. 
XV.  l.'i-Ill:  2  Cor.  ii.  11  :  iii'.S  ;  iv.  5:  v.  20.)    (d)  Inspira- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament.     (I)  The  New  Testament  gives 
proof  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Old,  recognizing  the  three 
parts  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures- — the  Lnw  or  Pentateuch,  by 
referring  to  or  quoting  various  passages,  and  saying.  "God 
commandcil,"  or  "Ye  reject  the  commandment  of  God;" 
the  Psalms  ( Ilagiographa),  as  in  Mark  xii.36,  '■*  David  said 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  ;"  and  the  Prophets,  Luke  xviii.  .^1,  etc. 
Moreover,  our  Lord  speaks  of  the  customary  divisions,  and 
then  combines  the  three  as  *'  Scrijjfurcs  :"  "An  things  must 
be  fulfilled  which  were  written  in  the  law  of  Moses  and  in 
tho  prophets    and   in   the  ptahus    concerning    me.       Then 
opened   he  their  understandings,  that  they  might  under- 
stand the  SWiptures"  (Luke  xxiv.  44.  45).     (2)  Tiie  Old 
Testament  contains  in  itself  corroborative  proof.     For  ex- 
ample, the  prophet  jnust  speak,  though  he  might  die  ineon- 
s'.qucnce.     (Sec  Jer.  xxvi.  1 1-1 1.)     Pn trudrrs  wcvc  to  bo 
severely  punished  even  by  dealli  (cf.  Deut.  xiii.  I-o  with 
Zcch.  xiii.  .*i  and  Jer.  xxviii.  11-17).     It  is  further  sugges- 
tive that  direction  was  given  to  record  hintorienl  events: 
"  Moses  wrote  their  goings  out  according  to  their  journey- 

ings,  by  thr  rtanmnud/nrut  of  the  Lord"  {^utu.  XXXlii.  1.2), 
Finally,  the  Old  Testament  writers,  like  those  of  the  New, 
affirm  that  they  speak  in  the  name  of  the  Lord:  "Tho 
Spirit  of  the  Lord  spake  by  me,  and  his  word  was  in  my 
tongue.  Tho  God  of  Israel  said  :*'  "  Lest  they  should  hear 
the  law  and  the  words  which  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath  sent  in 
his  Spirit  by  the  former  prophets"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  2,  .'i ; 
Zeeh.  vii.  12). 

Sueh  is  the  outline  of  proof — necessarily  of  a  moral  eha- 
racler.  but  found  to  bo  cumulative — that  in  the  ScripfnrcH 
of  the  Old  o;k/ AVip  Testaments  ice  hare  nn  objective  standard 
/troriflrd  by  Hod  himself  a«  an  infallible  yuidc  to  rvligious 
belief  nnd  prarticc.  J.  It.  IlruiiKK. 

InspirotU  The,  or  The  Coinnninity  of  True  I«- 

spiniiion,  a  small  sect  of  ('hristians  who  trace  lluir 
origin  both  to  the  old  (icrman  Mvsties  and  Pietists,  and 
through  the"  French  Prophets"  to  thcCamisardsof  France. 
They  accept  the  teaching  of  Bohmo  anci  Schwenkenfeld. 
They  reject  the  sacraments,  (iractisc  to  some  extent  com- 
munism in  respect  of  property,  nnd  are  evangelical  in  doc- 
trine. They  profess  at  times  to  receive  divine  inspiration, 
passing  into  a  somiuimbulistio  state.  They  liave  commu- 
nities in  Iowa  nn<l  Canada.  From  1814  to  18j4  they  had  a 
flourishing  eoinmunity  at  Kbeni'zer,  Wc^t  Seneca  tjt..  Erie 
CO.,  N.  v.,  u  hence  they  removed  to  Amana,  la. 

Instnllil'tioii  [Low  Lat.  r'li.and  stallum,  a  "  seat  "],  tho 
oeremoniul  act  by  which  nn  ordained  minister  is  furnmlly 
put  in  pos.'^ession  of  his  ofllco  and  empowered  to  exercise 
its  functions  and  receive  its  emoluments.  Tn  the  English 
Church  the  <'eremoniul  form  differs  according  to  the  ofilco 
conferred,  and  alsti  the  name,  inthronitotion  being  the 
tcchuioiil  term  in  rcfercuco  to  a  bishop,  and  iuduction  for 


1232 


INSTERBURG— INSTINCT. 


the  lower  clergy,  while  iimtallalion  properly  refers  to  the 
office  of  a  canon  or  prebendary  in  a  cathedral  ehurch.  In 
the  Congregational  Church  ol  America  the  term  applies  to 
all  ministers,  and  is  distinguished  from  orrfiimd'oii  as  being 
the  conlcning  "f  the  pastoral  office  over  a  particular  church. 
Ill'stcrbiirg,  town  of  I'russia,  in  the  province  of  Prussia. 
at  the  conftucncc  of  the  Angerap  and  the  Insler.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  industry  in  weaving,  tanning,  brewing. 
and  distilling,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  corn  and  linseed.  It 
owes  a  great  deal  of  its  pmsperity  to  a  number  of  Scottish 
families  which  settled  here  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Top.  riSa. 

lu'stilict  [Lat.  insliiiclwi.  "incitement  "].  Instinct,  in 
popular  language,  is  generally  contrasted  with  reason.  It 
is  spoken  of  as  an  entity,  a  principle  controlling  the  lower 
animals,  and  peculiar  to'thcm.  Instinct  more  properly  im- 
jilies  a  peculiar  mode  of  action  which  may  ])rcvail  in  the 
lower  animals  or  man.  It  is  a  name  for  a  class  of  impulses 
and  capabilities  that  give  rise  to  actions  apparently  con- 
nected with  voluntary  powers— actions  for  the  benctil  of 
the  actor,  hut  independent  of  intelligence.  Instinctive  acts 
thus  simulate  intelligent  action,  while  there  is  no  compre- 
hension by  the  actor  of  ends,  or  of  means  in  relation  to 
ends.  Such  comprehension,  wherever  found,  is  the  work 
of  intelligence.  But  instead  of  attempting  at  the  outset  to 
frame  a  concise  definition  of  instinct,  we  shall  give  a  series 
of  definitions  and  explanations  which  will  aid  us  in  under- 
standing the  nature  of  instinctive  actions,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  functional  and  reflex  action  on  the  one  hand,  and 
intelligent  action  on  the  other. 

1.  An  iiitliiiri  may  be  defined  as  .an  impulse  to  a  particu- 
lar kind  of  action  which  the  being  needs  to  perform  as  an 
individual  or  representative  of  a  species,  but  which  it  could 
not  possibly  learn  to  perform  before  it  needs  to  act.  In- 
stinct, as  a  general  term,  jiroperly  includes  all  the  original 
impulses  (excepting  the  appetites)  and  that  apparent 
knowledge  and  skill  which  animals  have  without  experi- 
ence. There  are  some  actions  which  have  been  regarded 
as  instinctive  that  are  probably  only  refle.x;  that  is,  actions 
produced  without  volition,  as  the  immediate  eilect  of  some 
stimulus.  The  stinging  by  a  bee  is  plainly  a  reflex  action,  be- 
cause the  abdomen  of  the  bee  when  severed  from  the  thorax 
will  not  only  thrust  out  the  sting,  but  will  direct  the  sting 
towards  th J  part  that  is  ton  died.  But  when  the  bee  flics  at 
an  enemy  in  defence  of  its  nest,  the  act  is  instinctive,  as  that 
term  is  generally  nsed.  The  definition  of  reflex  action  has 
been  so  extended  by  some  as  to  embrace  all  the  acts  which 
wo  terra  instinctive.  (  Demnrtcs,  Hirhi-rl  .Spencer.)  We  can- 
not, however,  regard  the  return  of  fishes  to  their  breeding- 
places,  the  migration  of  birds,  or  the  storing  up  of  food  by 
animals  of  difl'cront  kinds  as  in  any  proper  sense  reflex 
actions.  They  are  so  complex,  involve  so  much  of  timo 
and  space  for  their  completion,  and  so  simulate  the  wisest 
and  most  skilful  actions  of  intelligent  beings,  that  they  at 
least  deserve  a  specific  name,  which  we  have  in  the  word 
itiHlinctive.  The  activities  properly  denominated  instinct- 
ive may  be  classified  into  four  grou)is:  (n)  Impulses  aris- 
ing beyond  the  sjiherc  of  the  appetites,  or  ministering  to 
the  appetites,  as  the  impulse  to  migrate,  to  store  food  for 
winter;  also  the  desires  so  called  in  man.  U')  .Ability 
(knowledge?)  without  instruction  for  meeting  the  demands 
of  the  appetites  and  desires,  and  for  doing  those  things 
essential  for  the  continuance  of  the  individual  and  the 
species,  (c)  Ability  (skill?)  without  instruction  or  prac- 
tice to  carry  out  the  plans  necessary  for  the  good  of  the 
species,  as  the  various  methods  of  securing  food,  the  build- 
ing of  nests,  and  care  of  young,  (il)  -Ability  (knowledge?) 
arising  independently  of  any  demand  of  the  appetites,  as 
recognition  of  certain  enemies  without  instruction  or  ex- 
perience. 

Three  things  are  involved  in  the  highest  manifestations 
of  those  activities  which  are  together  labelled  Ixstixct — 
impnhi'.  kiioirlnlyc,  and  aki'll.  or  an  iihiHiii  that  in  action 
simulates  both  knowledge  and  skill.  In  the  animal  king- 
dom, as  now  existing,  wo  find  impulses  to  .specific  actions, 
and  so  much  of  apparent  knowledge  and  skill  belonging 
to  each  species  as  shall  enable  its  members  at  birth  to  he- 
gin  life  successfully;  just  as  a  certain  completeness  of  or- 
gans is  given  to  them  at  birth  that  the  vital  processes  may 
go  on  to  perfection.  .\s  the  physical  .system  develops,  new 
instincts  are  developed  to  secure  the  proper  use  of  organs 
and  the  proper  relations  of  the  whole  being  to  the  world. 
However  the  result  may  have  been  securctl,  we  now  find,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  that  structure,  function,  and  instinct  in 
all  species  supplement  each  other  in  a  wonderful  manner. 
The  special  manifestations  of  instinctive  action  illustrative 
of  these  general  propositions  are  exhibited  by  animals, 
chiefly,  in  the  following  manner:  (1)  By  those  acts  that 
supplement  physiological  functions,  as  in  the  choice  of 
food,  the  methods  of  securing  it,  and  the  union  of  the  sexes. 


(2)  By  the  natural  recognition  of  certain  enemies,  and  by 
those  specific  acts  to  avoid  them,  common  to  all  members 
of  the  same  species.  (3)  By  the  use  of  special  structures, 
as  the  fang  of  the  rattlesnake  for  defence  and  the  use  of 
the  oil-gland  by  fowls  in  dressing  their  feathers.  (J)  By 
those  acts  necessary  for  the  existence  of  communities  of 
difterent  kinds  of  individuals,  as  in  the  ease  of  bees  and 
ants,  where  individuals  from  the  same  mother  have  difl"er- 
ent  instincts,  but  all  working  together  for  the  welfare  of 
the  .s])ecies.  (Sec  Bke  and  .\nt. )  (5)  By  the  development 
of  special  impulses  incidental  to  the  ])arcntal  relation  for 
providing  for  and  defending  the  young.  (See  Daibdii.) 
(G)  By  the  structure  of  complicated  homes  characteristic 
of  difi'ercnt  species.  (7)  By  the  peculiar  impulses  of  the 
young,  by  which  they  are  at  once  brought  into  proper  re- 
lations to  their  parents  and  the  world.  The  young  of  our 
hoof-bearing  aninmls,  for  instance,  must  seek  the  udder  for 
themselves,  as  the  m'jther  cannot  aid  them.  (8)  By  the 
change  of  impulse  and  habit  in  different  stages  of  existence 
of  tho  same  individual  for  its  own  advantage,  as  among 
insects.  (0)  By  those  impulses  and  actions  of  animals  de- 
manding certain  changes  in  other  beings  to  complete  their 
work,  as  the  formation  of  oak-galls  to  complete  the  work 
of  the  insect  in  providing  for  its  young.  (10)  By  tho 
many  cases  in  which  the  instinctive  act  exactly  supple- 
ments structure  and  function,  as  in  the  honey-bee,  which 
has  the  function  in  the  rings  of  its  body  of  secreting  wax, 
and  in  its  m.andibks  instruments  for  forming  a  cell.  In- 
stinct prompts  the  bee  to  use  the  iustrunient  and  the  prod- 
uct of  its  function  to  construct  its  comb.  {Sec  Bkk.)  (11) 
Bv  the  interaction  of  tho  instiuct  of  the  mother  and  that 
of  the  young,  as  when  the  fowl  gives  the  note  of  warning, 
and  the  young  instantly  scatter  from  her  and  hide,  because 
she  cannot  protect  them.  (12)  By  those  cases,  as  among 
fishes  and  many  insects,  in  which  the  young  never  sec  the 
parent,  never  have  an  opportunity  to  learn  from  one  of 
their  kind,  and  yet  instinctive  impulse  directs  them  in  the 
same  way  and  in  the  best  way  in  all  the  exigencies  of  life. 
A  careful  study  of  the  subject  shows  the  great  difliculty 
of  distinguishing  instinctive  action  from  reflex  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  intelligent  on  the  other.  This  difliculty 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  difi'ercnt  kinds  of  acts  are  often 
alike  in  their  results;  and  in  the  chief  fielil  of  their  mani- 
festations— that  is.  among  the  lower  animals — wo  have  no 
means  of  determining  their  nature  but  observation  as  to  the 
method  and  the  condition  of  the  action.  Whether  there  is 
among  them  conscious  relation  of  the  actor  to  the  act  it  is 
imjiossible  for  us  to  learn,  except  by  inference.  Reflex 
and  instinctive  acts  are  both  in  the  same  line,  for  the  ben- 
efit of  the  individual  in  whieli  they  appear,  or  when  against 
the  welfare  of  the  individual  they  are  for  the  welfare  of 
the  species  to  which  he  belongs.  As  bnth  classes  of  acts 
are  in  the  same  line,  and  are  alike  in  their  results,  it  be- 
comes diflienlt,  not  to  say  impossible,  to  apply  a  satisfac- 
tory test  for  determining  the  class  to  which  certain  acts 
belong.  The  young  bird  jnst  from  the  egg  raises  its  head 
and  opens  its  bill  to  receive  food.  Whether  that  act  is  sim- 
ply reflex,  or  belongs  to  those  acts  properly  denominated 
instinctive,  we  cannot  certainly  determine.  But  tho  act  is 
in  tho  same  line  as  the  instinctive  work  of  the  bird  when, 
becoming  older,  it  seeks  food  for  itself.  Instinctive  acts 
commend  themselves  to  reason  as  tho  best  possible  for  the 
being  that  performs  them  :  and  in  the  lower  animals  they 
so  simulate  intelligent  action,  and  seem  to  be  so  intimately 
joined  to  it  in  man,  that  it  is  here  also  very  diflienlt  to 
apply  in  a  satisfactory  manner  any  test  for  distinguishing 
one  kind  from  the  other.  Hence  arises  the  difficulty  of 
proving  that  the  lower  animals  ever  perform  any  acts 
higher  in  kind  than  instinctive.  They  plainly  learn  by 
experience,  and  as  a  consequence  of  that  experience  per- 
form acts  that  they  would  fail  to  perform  without  it.  They 
come  to  have  great  power  in  interpreting  the  actions  and 
words  of  men.  Many  facts  seem  to  imply  that  there  is  in 
some  of  the  higher  animals  an  apprehension  of  means  in 
relation  to  ends.  As  before  intimated,  such  an  apprehen- 
sion is  inlclligence. 

Instinctive  impulses  appear  in  man,  and  the  instinctive 
principle  of  action  plays  an  important  part  even  in  his 
higher  nature.  Hamilton  says:  "We  can  hardly  find  o 
more  snitablo  expression  to  indicate  those  incomprehensi- 
ble spontaneities  themselves,  of  which  the  primary  facts  of 
consciousness  are  the  manifestation,  than  rational  or  hitct- 
heliinl  iiitlinrte."  (.Vt^o/).,  Bowen's  ed..  p.  205.)  I'res.  Hop- 
kins says:  "  What  is  conscience  but  a  rational  instinct,  a 
guide  without  comprehension,  but  rational,  because  it  re- 
veals itself  as  the  voice  of  Hod,  which  all  instinct  is  with- 
out thus  revealing  itself?"  {Mor.  Science,  1st  ed.,  p.  244.) 
The  impulse  of  worship  seems  to  be  plainly  instinctive.  It 
is  sure  to  appear  in  some  form  under  proper  conditions. 

Tliciirici. — The  prevailing  theories  in  regard  to  instinct- 
ive action  may  in  the  main  be  reduced  to  three:  (1)  That 


INSTITUTE  OF   FRAN'CE,   TIIK. 


12:!;] 


these  impulses  nnd  capabiliiios  were  the  direct  c<ff  of  the 
Creator  to  each  species  a.-*  its  essential  outtit.  This  theory 
would  be  satisfied  with  the  doctrine  of  special  creations,  or 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  according  to  a  plan,  by  which  new 
organs  and  new  instincts  are  co-ordinated  in  the  evolution 
of  new  species  from  one  form,  as  the  organs  and  instincts 
of  the  individual  are  co-ordinated  in  its  evolution  from  the 
e»».  The  essential  thing  in  this  theory  is  tliat  each  species 
shall  have  as  an  original  gift  all  tho:jc  instinctive  powers 
and  capabilities  essential  to  its  existence  as  a  species  and 
the  development  of  its  members  as  individuals.  (Sec 
EvouTiov.)  (2)  That  what  we  call  instinct  is  simply  the 
accumulate'!  results  of  individual  exjieriouce,  fixed  by  rep- 
etition and  received  by  the  living  races  by  inheritance. 
Kvery  instinct,  according  to  Lewes,  is  an  "organized  ex- 
perience," a  "lapsed  intelligence"  (A'n^fre,  Apr.,  1873); 
**it^  genesis  fis]  from  actions  that  at  first  were  tentative, 
in  other  words  intelligent "  fA-'>/(/*>nM  n/  Li/f  nwl  Mind, 
vol.  i.  pp.  20S,  209).  {.1)  Mr.  Darwin,  while  allowing  that 
some  intelligent  actions  may  become  converted  into  in- 
sfincts,  and  bo  inherited,  claims  for  the  greater  number  of 
complex  instincts  an  entirely  different  origin;  that  is, 
"through  the  natural  selection  of  variations  of  simpler  in- 
s*inctive  actions"  (Ihireut  o/  .IA/m,  vol.  i.  p.  :J7)— varia- 
tions that  arise  from  unknown  causes.  IIo  thus  attempts 
tu  explain  the  most  complex  ca.«es  of  instinctive  action. 
The  full  discuRsioD  of  his  theory  as  a  whcdc,  and  the  spe- 
cific oases  under  it,  would  require  more  space  than  we  can 
give.     (See  Chadboume's  InntSnct  in  Atiimatit  and  Man.) 

The  impulses  of  animal  life  arc  functional,  as  the  appe- 
tites, or  instinctive,  as  the  desires.  In  the  animal  king- 
dom, as  it  now  exists,  the  impulses  find  their  expression 
through  complex  directing  powers  that  supply  for  these 
lower  animals  the  place  of  acquired  knowledge  and  skill  in 
man.  In  specific  simple  acts  instinctive  action  depends 
upon  the  impression  made  upon  the  senses.  Instinct  may 
thus  bo  deceived  by  appearances.  In  many  cases  we  find 
instincts  the  exercise  of  which  immediately  after  birth  is 
essential  to  life,  as  the  instinct  of  the  young  mammal  to 
seek  the  udder.  We  cannot  conceive  of  a  time  when  such 
an  instinct  was  not  essential  to  all  such  animals.  If  wo 
attempt,  with  Darwin,  to  explain  the  comb-making  instinct 
of  the  honey-bee  by  the  influence  of  natural  selection  in 
preserving  those  swarms  that  built  best,  because  they  used 
less  honey  in  making  wax  {Orifjin  nf  Spf^riet),  wo  cannot 
help  asking  how  we  shall  account  for  the  similar  six-sided 
cells  in  the  nest  of  the  wasp,  where  no  honey  is  used  for 
making  wax  and  no  food  stored  for  winter.  We  can  only 
state  as  a  fact  that  we  find  each  species  as  it  now  exists 
endowed  with  such  instincts  as  enable  it  as  a  whole  to  hold 
its  place  in  the  world  against  all  ordinary  contingencies. 
We  find  these  impulses  and  directive  powers  arising  in  in- 
dividuals as  naturally  as  the  difi'erent  organs  develop  by 
growth.  The  young  animal  comes  into  the  world  with  a 
physical  organization  suflicient  for  carrying  on  the  work 
<»f  the  physical  system  to  perfection,  and  with  instinctive 
impulses  and  capabilities  sufficient  for  beginning  and  car- 
rying on  the  same  work.  While  physiological  forces  carry 
on  the  growth  within  the  body,  instinctive  forces  adjust 
the  relations  of  the  animal  to  the  external  world.  Through 
flii'se  impulses  and  activities  all  animals  are  urgeil  on  to 
their  end  in  that  course  best  for  the  species  as  a  whole. 

lu  man  the  instinctive  impulses  are  never  wholly  self- 
directive,  but  are  conditional  for  the  action  of  that  rational 
niiture  through  which  man  as  a  free  agent  seeks  his  own 
en»l.  (Consult  Kirby's  /irii/ffeicnt^'r  Trrntiiir:  Wood  (J.  G.), 
IfnnicM  irith'tut  Ihiufh:  Bain,  The.  Sruttm  and  the  fntrlirrt.- 
Lewes  (<i.  H.),  I'l-'tbitmn  o/  Lift- and  Mind;  Diirwin,  Oi'i- 
fjin  of  S fir r tin,  De»c*iit  of  Man,  etc. ;  Wallace,  Xatural  Sc- 
ffit'tion;  Spalding,  Mncmiilan'n  Mag.,  Feb.,  1873  ;  Flourens 
(P.),  I)e  I'lit/itinct  ft  r/iiteffiffrnrr  d't  Animaitx;  Chad- 
bourne.  fnntinrt  in  AnimrtU  and  Man,)    P.  A.  CiiAluiorRNK. 

In'MtituCe  of  Francey  The,  occupies  a  unique  posi- 
tion amongst  the  learned  societies  and  academies  of  Ku- 
r(»pe.  "  Many  countries,"  says  Ernest  Uenan  (himself  a 
member  of  the  Institute),  "have  academies  which  may 
rival  ours  by  the  fame  of  their  members  and  by  the  im- 
piirtance  of  their  works.  France  only  has  an  In»iitut 
where  all  the  efforts  of  the  humiin  mind  are  bound  together 
in  one  shenf ;  where  the  poet,  the  philosopher,  the  histo- 
ri;in,  the  phibdogist,  the  critic,  the  mathematician,  the 
physician,  the  astronomer,  the  naturnlist.  the  chemist,  the 
lawyer,  the  sculptor,  the  painter,  and  the  musician  may 
call  themselves  comrades." 

As  early  as  l.'i7li,  Franco  had  begun  to  imitate  the  Ital- 
inn^  in  the  matter  «f  academies,  but  it  was  half  a  century 
later  before  its  famous  Academy  arose.  In  a  time  of  in- 
tellectual activity  literary  coteries  and  clubs  naturally 
flourish.  To  one  of  these  knots  of  literary  men  Uichclicu 
made  a  proposition  that  they  should  be  converted  into  a 
corporate  body.  With  some  hesitation  tbo  ofTor  was  oo- 
Vol..  IT.— 7A 


oepted.  The  king's  letters  patent  were  issued  early  in  1G35, 
nnd  after  two  years  an<i  a  half  more  the  sanction  of  the 
Piirliamrnt  of  Paris  was  obtained,  and  the  Aradftntc 
Frant;aiin-  came  into  existence,  the  first  learned  society 
endowed  and  erected  into  a  corporation.  Its  chief  aim  was 
to  fix  the  standard  of  the  language,  and  a  dictionary  was 
the  thing  first  thought  of.  This  has  notatlvanced  very  far, 
and  is  less  likely  to  be  completed  now  than  when  it  was 
first  undertaken.  A  less  elaborate  dictionary  was  issued 
under  its  supervision  in  Hi'J4,  and  has  since  been  frequently 
reprinted.  In  order  to  flatter  the  inordinate  vanity  of 
Louis  XIV.  a  committee  of  the  Aeatlemie  were  entrusted 
with  the  task  of  drawing  inscriptions  for  medals,  etc.  in 
commemoration  of  his  glories.  In  this  manner  ci>mmenccd 
the  Acadtmicdes  InncriptiouH  et  //r//c«-A<'^/re«,  which  after- 
wards devoted  itself  with  great  spirit  to  the  study  of  an- 
tiquities. In  IfiOO,  Colbert  founded  the  Acadrmie  dea  Sct- 
encfg;  between  IGtS  and  1671  arose  three  more  academies, 
sculpture  and  painting,  music,  and  architecture,  which  at 
the  last-named  date  became  the  Arad^mi*:  den  licanr  Artft. 
These  learned  societies  were  all  <lissolved  by  the  National 
Convention  in  1791.  The  Revolution  did  not  seek  to  dis- 
courage literature  and  learning,  but  to  break  the  conti- 
nuity which  bound  thera  to  the  royal  and  aristocratic  past 
of  Freneli  history.  For  the  continuance  of  their  work  the 
same  c<mvention  in  1795  called  into  existence  the  Institut, 
which  was  in  almost  every  way  the  heir  of  the  older  asso- 
ciations. The  three  men  who  had  the  greatest  share  in  the 
framing  of  its  constitution  were  Lakaual,  Daunou,  and 
Carnot.  It  was  divided  into  three  classes,  which  were  re- 
spectively charged  with  the  advancement  of  ( I )  physical 
sciences  and  mathematics,  (2)  moral  and  political  sciences, 
(.1)  literature  and  fine  arts.  The  Directory  nominated  48 
persons,  a  third  of  the  members,  and  these  elected  the  re- 
mainder. Some  changes  were  introduced  by  the  First  Con- 
sul, wlio  looked  with  suspicion  ujion  a  body  which  might 
be  expected  to  unite  intellect  and  independence.  The 
modifications  of  1803  were  in  some  respects  improvements. 
They  involved,  h<)wcver,  approval  of  the  chief  of  the  state 
for  each  election,  and  provided  that  moral  and  political  sci- 
ences shonid  only  be  studied  in  their  relation  to  history. 
Whilst  mathematics  and  physics  flourishcil  by  the  aid  of 
Lagrange,  Bertbollet,  etc.,  the  literary  sections  displayed 
comparatively  little  spirit.  In  1807  they  undertook  the 
continuation  of  the  Ilistoire  liltrrairt-  dc  Ai  France,  com- 
menced by  the  Benedictines.  The  Restoration  was  as 
eager  to  link  the  institutions  of  Franco  with  its  monarch- 
icalpast  as  the  Revolution  had  been  anxious  to  destroy  their 
continuity.  Tho  Institute  indeed  escaped  destruction,  but 
a  roval  ordnnnaucc  in  ISIG,  after  naming  the  foundation 
of  tbo  old  academies  as  one  of  the  glories  of  tho  ancestors 
of  Louis  XVIII.,  declared  that  it  was  right  and  proper 
{cnm^enahlr)  to  restore  to  each  class  of  tho  Institute  its 
original  name,  in  order  to  bind  together  their  ancient  glory 
with  that  which  they  had  since  acquired.  Tho  opportu- 
nity was  taken  of  depriving  twenty-two  persons  of  their 
right  of  membership.  David  tho  painter,  Monge,  Lakanal, 
and  Siey^s  were  amongst  the  illustrious  victims  of  royal 
spitefulness,  an<l  their  places  were  supplied  by  nominees  of 
the  Crown.  Tbo  unity  which  had  been  one  of  the  aims  of 
tho  Institute  was  l)roken.  During  tho  Restoration  it  lan- 
guished. Tho  revolution  of  July  (lid  something  to  improve 
upon  tho  feebleness  and  intriguing  spirit  with  which  it 
hail  become  infected.  Guizot  in  1832  restored  the  class 
which  Napoleon  had  supjiresscd.  Ten  of  its  old  members 
were  fouml,  and  they  constituted  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
Arailrmiv  drn  SciciiccH  moral* s  ft  p(ditii/iit>'.  The  fear  of 
socialism,  which  reigns  perennial  in  the  well  to-do  French- 
man's breast,  led  Cavaignao  to  ask  tho  aid  of  this  Academy 
in  combating  the  communistic  ideas  of  the  wearer.s  of 
blouses.  They  complied,  and  produced  a  volume  of  small 
treatises  which,  as  Renan  remarks,  j.robably  had  not  a 
single  reader  amongst  those  whom  ibey  wanted  to  convert. 
In  its  present  organization  the  Institute  is  made  uj)  of  five 
distinct  academies,  each  having  its  own  officers,  meetings, 
publications,  etc.:  (H  Tho  Aradrmir  Franraitir.  Its  origin 
has  alreiidy  been  given.  The  number  of  members  is  re- 
stricted tn  forty.  The  elections  have  not  always  depended 
upon  merit  alone.  The  old  Academy  rejected  Moli("^rc,  and 
tho  influence  of  Monsignor  Dujianloup,  bishop  of  Orleans, 
suflleed  to  procure  the  rejection  of  LittrC'  on  bis  first  can- 
didature. Tliat  the  Academy  which  in  2011  years  has  not 
got  past  the  letter  (!  of  its  dictionary  should  blackball  tlie 
man  who  single-handed  accomplished  the  neglected  labor, 
is  indeed  a  striking  proof  that  the  highest  culture  is  not 
suffleiont  to  ensure  eitiier  the  presence  of  justice  or  tho 
absence  of  bigotry.  A  body  like  the  .Academy  is  generally 
conservative,  yet  in  1827  it  had  the  courage  to  address  the 
king  in  opposition  to  the  laws  for  tho  restriction  of  the 
press.  The  Academy  has  the  functions  of  a  high  jury. 
The  French,  with  their  passion  for  liberty,  have  also  a  pro- 


1234 


INSTITUTES-INSURANCE. 


dilection  for  authority,  and  the  approhation  of  the  Academy 
is  one  of  the  prices  to  which  young  authors  look  forward. 
The  Academy  is  rich.  The  annual  allowance  fron,  the 
state  is  about"  Si.OOO  francs,  a  good  part  of  wh.ch  goes  m 
member"-  allowances.  The  prices  for  eloquence  and  poetry 
X"rb  1000  francs.  Whether  any  prii^j  poem  wdl  ever  go 
down  to  posterity  may  be  doubted.  The  Montyon  pr.ze 
for™rtue  is  well  known:  20,000  francs  "e  .vearly  d.v  d.^ 
amon-t  poor  persons  who  have  distinguished  themselves 
r  some  s'^eeiallv  virtuous  act.  Montyon  also  left  a  yearly 
•ri^eTo  rew.ard  the  publication  of  the  book  most eondncn-e 
0  public  morality.  De  Toef,uevillc-s  work  on  An,er.ean 
de^c  acy  is  perhaps  the  most  not,0,le  book  wh.eh  has  re- 
ceived this  diltinction.  The  prU-  Gohert.  founded  m  IS.W, 
's  for  the  most  eloquent  work  relating  o  the  h.story  of 
Fr'nee  Thierry  and  H.  Martin  have  been  amongst  its 
Faureale^.  It  amounts  to  10,000  francs.  There  are  many 
other  prizes.  In  ISBfl  the  emperor  created  a  f  and  b.en- 
niarnri  e  of  20,000  francs  to  be  awarded  m  turn  to  he 
special  Tudes  represented  by  each  of  the  five  academies. 
T^l  e  n  s  tTwhom^t  was  awarded  was  M.  Tluers.  who  un- 
meaiately  presented  it  to  the  Academy  for  the  foundation 
of  an  annual  prize  of  :i000  francs. 

(2)    The  Arn.U'mie  rf«  I„s«-;pl!ous  el  Ilel!c.-Lclt,-es.--lt 
has  40  ordinary,  f  0  honor.ary.  8  foreign  assncates   and  oO 
correspondingmembers.     It  has  the  distr.bnt.on  ot  variou 
pre     the  most  important  being  that  fonndod  by  Gobert 
Fo    th^most  learned'work  relating  to  the  h.story  of  France 
(31    The  Acndlmk  dcs  .SV,V„c.»,  having  6o  ordinary    10 
honorary.  8  foreign,  and  100  corresponding  members.     The 
r^t  brilliant  names  in  French  science  have  adorned  the 
roll  of  this  academy.     Arago,  Ampere   Gay-Lussac  in  the 
new,  as  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Ilauy  in  the  old   have  made  it 
°rtrTo„s.°  The  descriptions  of  French  '/f  .^'.  .h". '"^^P^- 
etc  issued  by  the  old  academy  were  useful  in  their  da^ 
and  have  still  their  value.     In  the  new  academy  assoc.ated 
tork  has  been  left  aside,  and  it  is  the  indu-idual  labors  of 
Us  members  which  are  chronicled  in   the  Complcs  revdm 
This,  by  its  frequent  publication,  is  now  the  most^important 
scientific  periodical.      The  eight  foreign  members  of  the 
academy  may  be  regarded  as  those  whom  a  eompetent 
though  not  always  nnprejudiced  jury  regard  ^^  'he  most  em- 
inent men  of  science  out  of  France.     It  is  related  tha   when 
Dalton,  during  his  visit  to  Paris,  attended  a  session  (in  his 
en  acitV  of  foreign  member),  those  present  stood  up  in  h, 
honor,  a  compliment  which  was  not  paid  to  the  emperor 
when  he  joined  their  body.  ,        ,        .a       j-    „.„    in 

(4)  The  Arademie  cU,  Beaux  Arts  has  40  ordinary,  10 
honorary,  10  foreign  associate,  and  40  eorrespoud.ng  mem- 
bers.    It  distributes  a  number  of  prizes  and  has  published 

a  dictionary  of  the  tine  arts. 

(51  The 'Ae,«{fmie  dca  Seieuces  morales  et pnhtuiues  has 
40  ordinary,  B  honorary,  6  foreign  associate,  and  40  corrc- 

^''"^i'chfs'th'e"manner  in  which  the  Institute  i.  divided. 
All  the  year  there  are  five  academies  but  on  the  14th  oi 
Au-ust  the  Institute  holds  a  general  meeting  of  all  the 
secUons  of  which  it  is  composed.  There  ,s  a  line  and  rare 
mriry  attached  to  the  Ins.itut.  Each  member  receives 
a  salary  of  1500  francs,  and  the  s6creta,res  perpeluels  Imo 
fifloV francs  per  year.  The  Institute  is  a  creation  of  which 
FraLmay'wel  be  proud.  Beyond  the  personal  renown 
oi  its  members  and  the  value  of  their  labors,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Institute  shows  that  Its  founders  had  a  clear 
sense  of  the  udidarite  of  knowledge-a  unity  sometimes  lost 
sight  of  in  our  own  age,  when  nearly  every  savant  is  a 
spec  alist.  The  tr.adition  of  the  old  academies  lias  stereo- 
typed the  Internal  form  of  the  Institute,  and  probably  pre- 
vented a  -rowth  and  classification  of  its  sections  more  in 
accordance  with  the  present  state  o^^-;';-;-^,   ^   ^^^^ 

Institntes  (of  Jistini.in).    See  Law,  by  Prof.  T.  W. 
DwiGiiT,  LL.D.  „. 

Institii'tion  [Lat.  >laU,ere  in,  "to  establish  on    J,  a 
word  which  is  especially  used  in  the  plural,  and  applied  to 
a  scries  of  doctrines  and  to  some  establishments.     1  or  in- 
stance, there  are  political,  judicial,  theological,  medical 
charitable,  and  other  inslitutions.     It  applies  more  to  the 
immaterial  aim  than  to  the  material  and  practical  repre- 
sentalion  of  said  institutions.    A  political  institution  mean 
a  whole  set  of  such  or  such  doctrines,  rather  than  the  kind 
of  government  entrusted  with  their  application.     A  med- 
ical institution  applies  to  the  intellectual  part  of  the  con- 
cern, and  not  to  the  building  in  which  the  intellectual  and 
medical  programme  is  carried  out.    When  ""-Vhi'dy  speaks 
of  the  "  poUtical  institutions  -  of  the  U.  S.,  he  thinks  more 
of  the  .,).>.•(  of  the  political  principles  embodied  in     he 
American  Constitution  than  of  the  letter  of  that  Consti- 
tution, which  provides  for  the  organization  of  a  Congrc  s 
of  a  supreme  court,  and  other  practical  .applications  of  the 
Dcclar-ation  of  Independence.  FiiLix  Av'CAloE. 


Insnr'ance  [from  in  and  «iirp],  in  its  most  general  def- 
inition, is  a  contract  whereby  one  agrees,  for  a  suui  of  money, 
to  indemnify  another  in  case  the  latter  shall  suffer  loss  by 
certain  specified  risks.     It  is  termed  vmrme  or  J,re  accord- 
in.'  as  it  is  applied  to  maritime  or  fire  risks.     It  was  un- 
known to  the  ancients,  and  had  its  origin  in  the  exigences 
of  modern  commerce.     It  was  first  applied  to  mercantile 
adventures.     The  fear  of  pecuniary  rum  by  the  loss  ot 
ship  or  cargo  checked  the  spirit  of  enterprise.     Few  were 
so  wealthy  as  to  he  able  to  hear  alone  so  great  a  loss,  but 
bv  dividing  the  risk  amongst  many  it  was  seen  that  the  in- 
convenience to  each  of  the  proportion  of  loss  which  he  as- 
sumed might  become  trivial.    Thus  originated  the  practice 
of  insurance,  which  has  for  its  purpose  to  break  the  force 
1  of  the  blow  of  calamity  by  increasing  the  power  of  resist- 
i  ance      Though  known  and  practised  amongst  th"  commer- 
1  cial  communities  of  Southern  Europe  at  a  much  earlier  pc- 
;  riod    it  was  a  comparative  novelty  in  England  in  the  time 
!  of  Elizabeth.      During  the  last  century,  however,  it  has 
1  received  an  immense  development,  until  now  every  prudent 
I  person  who  has  property  at  risk  takes  care  to  seek  shelter 
i   under  a  p.dicv  of  insurance.     Tlie  principles  which  under- 
lie the  contract  are  substantially  the  same  to  whatever  sub- 
ieet-matter  they  may  be   applied,  modified  only   as  the 
peculiarities  of  the  different  risks  assumed  may  require. 
Its  fundamental  principle  is  indemnity  for  loss;  and  so 
far  as  it  is  made  the  means  of  accomplishing  more  than 
this  it  pas!-es  over  into  the  domain  of  speculation  and  leads 
to  the  mischiefs  of  gambling.     It  is  a  personal  «!>'■•."<"- 
I  insuring  not  the  thing,  but  the  person  interested  m  Us 
preservation,  against  loss  to  him  by  reason  of  injury  to  it 
The  person  who  undertakes  to  pay  in  crise  of  loss  is  termed 
the  insurer;  the  danger  against  which  he  undertakes,  the 
risk-  the  person  protected,  the  insured;  the  sum  which  he 
pays  for  the  protection,  the  premium  ;  and  the  con  raet  it- 
.elf  when  reduced  to  form,  the  policy.     So  general   if  not 
universal,  was  the  use  of  a  policy  in  the  early  history  of 
the  contract  that  until  quite  recently  it  has  been  doub  ed 
whether  writing  was  not  essential   to  the  vali.lUy  of  the 
contract-  but  it  is  now  conceded  that  both  a  verbal  agree- 
ment to  issue  a  policy  and  a  verbal  agreement  to  insure  are 
valid,  even  though  the  contract  covers  a  period  of  tunc 
longer  than  one  year,  as  the  contract  may  be  determined 
by  the  happcnin'g  of  the  event  insured  against^ within  a 
year,  and 'so   is  not  within  the  statute  of  frauds.     Even 
corporations,  which,  under  the  ancient  stringency  of  the 
common  law,  could  only  bind  themselves  Kv  a  con  ract 
under  seal,  it  is  now  held,  may  contract  verbally  by  then 
officers  or  other  agents.     All  persons  competent  to  make 
other  contracts  may  be  parties  to  this.     Formerly,  and  to 
some   extent  at  the  present   day,  as  in   the  case  of  the 
"Lloyd's"— a  society  of  private  capitalists  who  meet  at 
Lloyd's  subscription-rooms  in  London,  and   subscribe  to 
such  proportions  of  the  risks  there  offered  as  they  may 
feel  inclined  to-the  business  was  carried  on  by  private 
underwriters;  but  the  superior  advantages  of  public  com- 
panies now  give  them  the  chief  control.     Policies  are  for 


panics  now  give  mem  me  cu,...  ^„,.,.«..     -  ■  ■■ 
k  sum  agreed  upon  to  be  paid  in  ease  of  loss,  hence  called 
valued-  or  for  whatever  the  amount  of  the  loss  may  prove 
to  be,  hence  called  open  :  for  a  fixed  time  or  for  the  voyage, 
hence  called  time  or  voyage  as  the  case  may  be      The  con- 
tract is  complete  and  binding  when  the  parties  have  agreed 
upon  all  its  terms,  and,  if  entered  into  by  correspondence, 
when  the  letter  accepting  the  terms  offered  is  depositetl  in 
the  oflice  for  transmission  in  due  course  of  mail      If  the 
terms  are  agreed  upon  and  the  policy  is  made,  it  will  bo 
valid  and  bimling  without  delivery  if  it  be  the  understand- 
in-  of  the  parties  that  it  shall  become  operative  from  and 
affer  a  certain  act.    The  law  will  not  permit  an  illegal  bus- 
iness or  an  unlawful  enterprise  to  be  encouraged  by  insu- 
rance     Nor  will  U  permit  the  insurance  of  an  interest  the 
protection  of  which  would  manifestly  tend  to  evils  which 
would  more  than  counterbalance  the  advantages  of  insu- 
ranee.    Seamen's  wages,  for  instancc^eannot  be  insured   as 
this  would  tend  to  render  them  indifl-crent    o  the  safety  of 
the  ship  upon  which  their  wages  depend.    W  hatever,  how- 
ever,  does  not  contravene  good  morals   or  sound  public 
po     V  may  receive  protection.    Subject  to  these  l'""'"''""^- 
Lv  propertv  or  interest  in  its  preservation  may  be  the  sub- 
1  1ect-ra'tter-of  the  contract.     Policies  without  -his  ,n  erest 
io  support  them  are  wager  policies,  and  are  prohUii  cd  as  a 
specierof  gambling  and  a  temptation  to  fraud  and  crime 
;  T^he  insurance,  however,  in  the  same  policy  o   a  lawful  "'.d 
i  a  prohibited  interest  will  not  vitiate  the  policy  as  to  the 
ulZl  interest  if  it  be  separate  and  distinct.     Insurable 
interests  are  as  manifold  as  the  relations  of  indu  uhials  to 
propertv.     Whoever  owns  property,  whether  by  an  abso- 
ute^  r  qualified,  legal  or  equitable  title,  or  any  . uteres    in 
propertv,  or  has  upon  him  the  duty  or  in  him  the  right  to 
rrofect  and  preserve  if.  may  insure  it  to  the  extent  of  his 
nterest  or  liability.     The  owner  of  a  vessel  or  house,  the 


INSURANCE. 


12o 


moves  on  her  way.  ami  ends,  in  the  absence  of  express 
stipulation,  when  she  has  been  moored  in  safety  nt  her  port 
of  desi illation.  Like  a  voluntary  deviation,  a  substantial 
alteration  in  the  property  insured  against  fire,  such  as  to 
make  the  risk  in  kind  a'dilfcreiit  one  from   that  assunK<l, 


mortgagee  or  lessee,  e.tccators,  administrators,  and  trus- 
tees, common  carriers  and  bailees  generally,  consignors, 
supurcargties,  whose  compensation  depends  upon  the  suc- 
cess of  the  voya^je,  or  under  instructions  to  land  goods  and 
wait  for  a  market,  captors  and  salvors  having  a  well- 
founded  expectation  of  an  allowance  out  of  the  property 
captured  or  saved,  and  sheriffs  and  l^ther  officers  of  the  law 
having  the  care  and  custody  of  property,  may  severally 
insure  their  respective  interests.     The  insurability  of  the 

interest  depends  not  at  all  upon  its  value,  provided  it  has      .  ,  .    ,,„„„.,.,., 

some  value-  nor  is  it  any  objection  .hat  several  interests  in  !  terations.  the  insured  could  neillur  ,,reser>e  his  pro pirtj 
fomewiiuL,  iiui  15  in....,  V  J _      ___^  ^^^^^   decay  nor  avail  himself    of   improved   methods  of 


will  avoid  the  policy.  Ordinary  uml  reasonable  changes 
and  repairs,  however,  made  in  gooil  faith  for  the  due  pres- 
ervation of  the  property  or  prosecution  of  the  business, 
will  not  vitiate  the  jiolicy,  although  alterations  increasing 
the  risk  are  forbidden.     If  such  rejiairs  were  deemed  al- 


tho  same  property  are  coineidenlally  insured.  The  mort 
gagor  may  insure' to  the  full  value  of  the  jiroperty,  and  the 
mortgagee  or  successive  mortgagees  may  nt  the  same  time 
insure  t'o  the  amount  of  their  several  interests,  and  each 
may  recover,  in  ease  of  loss,  to  the  extent  of  the  several 
amounts  insured,  though  the  aggregate  of  these  may  much 
exceed  the  entire  value  of  the  property.  .V  iiartnir  may 
insure  the  entire  stork  of  the  copartnership,  being  inter- 
ested in  the  whole,  out  of  which  to  realize  his  share,  and 
for  the  same  reason,  no  doubt,  a  stockhobler  in  an  incorpo- 
rated company  may  insure  the  entire  property  of  the  com- 
pany to  the  amount  and  for  the  protection  of  his  interest. 
The  vendee  in  possession  of  real  estate  under  a  contract 
partly  perf.inncd,  but  not  enforceable  at  law  or  in  equity, 
since"  the  venilor  may  not  refuse  to  perform,  an  insolvent 
debtor,  in  the  possible  surplus  which  may  come  to  him  after 
payment  of  his  deiits.  and  the  niechanic  who  has  a  lien 
upon  the  building  for  labor  or  materials  furnished,  have  also 
insurable  interests.  The  interest  must  subsist  at  the  time 
of  elTccling  the  policy  ancl  at  the  time  of  the  loss,  though 
it  need  not  continue  the  same  in  amount  or  wiihnut  inter- 
ruption. If  an  insured  vessel  be  solil,  ami  repurchased 
during  the  time  covered  by  the  policy,  the  policy  will  cease 
to  protect  during  the  period  of  alienation,  but  will  reat- 
tach anil  protect  after  the  repurchase.  Slocks  of  goods 
may  be  sold  anil  replaced  by  others  under  the  same  ]iolicy. 
The  shifting  interests  of  a  mortgagee  who  makes  advances 
and  receives  payments  from  time  to  time  may  likewise  bo 
prnteeted. 

The  policy  is  generally  issued  upon  an  application  con- 
taining certain  statements  descriptive  of  the  property  in- 
sured and  the  circumstances  affecting  the  risk.  These 
statements  are  termed  representations,  and  if  by  reference 
or  otherwise  they  arc  made  part  of  the  policy,  they  are 
termed  warranties.  A  warranty  is  an  agreement  that  a 
fact  is  as  stated,  or  some  future  act  or  omission  shall  bo  as 
promised,  upon  penally  of  forfeiture  of  all  rights  under  the 
poli.'y  if  the  statement  prove  untrue  or  the  iironii.so  be  not 
kepi :  while  a  representaiiun,  being  no  jiart  of  the  contract, 
but  only  an  inducement  thereto,  need  be  true  only  so  far  as 
is  material  to  the  risk.     Untruthfulness  or  mistake  in  a 

,  will  not  avoiil 


business— a  result  which  neither  party  can  be  presumed 
to  contemplate.  Alterations  in  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances, as  in  the  erection  of  new  buildings  and  changes 
not  under  the  control  of  the  insured,  unless  by  special 
stipul.ation.  are  not  imputable  to  him.  If  the  insurer  will 
i.rotect  himself  to  this  cxient,  he  must  so  stipulate  in 
clear  and  express  terms.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the 
rates  of  premium  are  based  upon  an  assumed  liability  for 
such  risks;  nor  would  any  (irudent  person  accept  a  |Mp!icy 
which  did  not  protect  him" from  dangers  beyond  his  control, 
the  most  perilous  perhaps  to  which  he  is  exposed.  It  is 
common  to  except  from  the  risk  such  articles,  uses,  and 
tr.ades  as  are  regarded  ns  specially  hazardous,  and  the  risk 
of  which  the  insurer  docs  not  wish  to  assume.  This  is 
done  by  including  them  in  a  memorandum  of  articles  ex- 
cluded, in  which  case  nothing  can  be  claimed  as  indemnity 
in  case  of  loss  of,  or  damage  to,  such  excluded  articles;  or 
it  may  be  done  by  a  clause  in  the  policy  prohibiting  the 
use  of  the  premises  for  such  and  such  inocesscs,  Irailes,  or 
businesses,  or  for  keeping  or  storing  sueli  and  such  goods, 
on  penally,  unless  specially  aulhorized  by  Ihe  policy,  of 
avoidonce'of  the  policy.  In  Ibis  case  special  aulliority  is 
deemed  to  be  given  if  the  subject-matter  of  insurance,  by 
fair  intcrprelation  and  according  to  usage,  includes  the  ex- 
cepted article  or  use.  The  insurance  of  a  stock  in  trade, 
for  instance,  "such  as  is  usually  kept  in  a  country  store." 
will  permit  the  keeping  of  all  such  goods  as  are  usually 
kept  in  such  stores,  although  some  of  them  may.  Iiy  Ihe 
terms  of  the  policy,  bo  iirohibitc.I  as  hazardous.  The  in- 
surance of  a  "furniture  business"  will  likewise  permit 
the  use  of  such  oils  and  varnishes  as  are  customarily  useil 
in  the  manufacture  and  preparation  of  furniture  for  sale, 
although  tlio  keeping  and  use  of  such  oils  and  varnishes  may 
be  expressly  prohiliited.  And  if.  during  the  period  of  insur- 
ance. s<iine'new  process  not  used  or  known  before  comes  into 
vogue,  it  may  be  adopted  by  Ihe  insureil  wiUnuil  prejudice 
to  his  rights,  unless  it  be  of  such  a  characler  as  manifcslly 
to  makc'the  risk  greater  than  cither  party  ciuild  have  eon- 
temlilalcd.  It  cannot  be  sujiposed  that  in  such  cases  it  is 
the  intention  of  Ihe  parties  that  the  iiisureil  shall  be  tied 
down   to  the   methods  and   iiroce-scs  of  Ihe  dale  of  the 


sured'of  an  unlawful  act  upon  the  ]iremiscs  a  use  of  the 
f  expre'ssiin'or  otiier  cireumslanco  there     premises  for  that  purpose.    I'laying  a  single  game  of  cards 


rcnrcscntali.m.  unless  material   to  the  risk,  ...i.  .."..  ....u...  ........   --    .■■-    -   -                      .                         i,;„,c,.lf  nf  kocIi 

Ihe  l.olicv,  while  cither  in  a  warrantv,  unless  imputable  to  policy,  and  deprived  of  the  right  to  a   ail  lunisell  ol  suUi 

I  e  f  u     o     he  insurer,  will  be  fatal,  whether  material  to  the  ,  improvements  as  may  bo  nceessary  to  the  successful  prose- 

ineiauii  Ol  in.  in.ur  r,                       .                                     .  e,„ion  of  the  business.    "  Use  and  keeping "  mean  habitual 

use  and  keeping.     A  mere  casual  use  of  a  prohibited  arti- 
cle  as,  for  instance,  benzine  or  naphtha  to  lie  niixe.l  with 

paint  while  repairs  aro  going  on,  or  Ihe  building  a  tire 
for  the  purpose  of  heating  tar  to  bo  used  in  the  course 
of  such  repairs— does  not  conlrnvenc  a  policy  prohibiting 
the  kcoiiing  of  fire  or  the  introduction  of  hazardous  arti- 
cles njion  the  premises.  Nor  is  the  permission  by  the  in- 
■     -  ■      "  '       t  upon  the  ]iremi 

,  _L>.  I'laying  a  sing 
Iocs  not  make  the  premises  a  gambling-saloon.  Unless 
otherwise  agreed,  houses  may  bo  left  vacant,  tenants  may 
be  changed,  factories  may  he  worked  or  shut  il.iwn.  and 
properly  may  bo  watched  and  cared  for,  heated,  and  lighted 
at  the  (iiscre'tion  of  the  insured;  an. I  slipulalions  for  tho 
use  of  care  an.l  i.rccaution  against  lire  arc  generally  not 
warranties,  but  representations  to  be  earric.I  out  by  sub- 
stantially doing  that  which  is  jirovidcd.  In  such  ease 
cnniTale'nts  will  do.  Keeping  ashes  in  any  rcceplaele 
made  of  crpiallv  incombuslibl'-  nialeriiil  is  a  fulfilment  of 
on  agreement  to  k.  cp  llieni  in  an  iron  receplaele.  Notice 
is  fre(pienHy  rei|uired  of  any  changes  in  Ihe  circumslanees 
or  surroundings  of  the  insured  property  aflecting  the  risk, 
in  oriler  that  the  insurer  may  have  the  option  to  continue 
or  cancel  the  policy.  I'lider  lliis  n-quirement  notice  nerd 
be  given  only  of  such  changes  as  arc  material :  an.l  if 
within  a  reasonable  lime  after  notice  the  option  to  cancel 
is  not  signifieil,  all  objection  to  Ihe  change  will  be  presumed 
to  be  waiveil.  and  Ihe  policy  will  remain  a  valid  sccurily. 
Anil,  generally,  it  may  bo  sai.l  that  whenever  a  eondilion 


risk  or  not.  A  warranty  that  a  ship  is  American,  or  that 
she  will  sail  at  a  given  time,  will  bo  violated  if  she  bo 
liritish  or  sail  at  a  ilifforent  time.  A  representation  that 
a  buililing  is  occupie.l  in  its  several  parts  for  certain  spe- 
cified purposes  will  not  be  vilialcd  though  it  appear  tliat 
Olio  of  the  aparlmcnts  bo  ililferenlly  occupied,  or  not  occu- 
piel  at  all,  if  the  dilTcrenco  bo  not  material  to  the  risk. 
Warranties  are  not  favored,  because  they  work  forfeitures 
ami  somelimcs  operate  very  harshly;  and  for  this  reason, 
if  from  Ihe  form  of  expressioi 

is  chance  for  doubt,  a  statement  will  be  rogar.led  as  a  repre- 
s.'nlation  rather  than  a  warranty.  It  is  sometimes  said 
that  representations  shouhl  bo  more  full  in  marine  than  in 
fire  policies,  since  in  the  former  there  is  less  opportunity 
for  personal  inspecli.in.  liut  this  .lepcnds  upon  cireum- 
flnnces.  and  is  no  rul.'  of  law.  That  representation  is  ma- 
terial which  induces  the  insurer  to  lake  a  risk  upon  terms 
less  fav.irable  to  himself  than  ho  would  liavo  ina.le  had  he 
known  Ihe  trulli.  The  same  test  applies  to  a  concealment, 
which  is  Ihe  wilhhol.ling  a  fact  which  ought  to  bo  mado 
known,  if  auili  fact  be  not  known  or  ought  not  to  be  ex- 
pcclc  I  1.1  be  known,  to  the  insurer,  an.l  is  known,  or  ought 
t.)  be  kn.iwii,  to  the  insured.  Mere  silence  about  a  matter 
which  is  unknown,  or  about  which  it  is  not  to  bo  expected 
that  the  insured  wouM  know,  is  no  concealment.  War- 
ranties specially  stated  in  tho  contract  are  express.  There 
arc  als.i  implied  warranlics.  as  of  ownership,  scaworlhi- 
ness  at  the  eiunnieneemcnl  of  a  v.iyage  policy,  and  against 
deviation — which  is  a  voluntary  departure  from  Ihe  usual 
course  of  Ihe  voyage  without    necessity  or  juslificalion. 


1  the  right  to  Ir.-at 


as    for  instance,  to  avoid  capture  or  lo  save  lifc-nnd  such      has  been  vi..laled,  giving  lo  the  insure 

^s  bstanlial  al,-ralion  as 'to  change  the  identity  of  Ihe      the  policy  as  yoid,  any  subse,,uent   recognition  by  I  hen, 

?i.k    ssum  .Seaworthiness  is  ntness  for  Ihe  parlicular  ,  after  knowledge  of  the  breach  of  the  policy  as  a  subsisting 


service  and  is  one  thing  at  one  time  and  place  and  another  ,  and  valid  contract,  as  by  Ihe  „cc,-|,laMcc  of  premiums  o: 
'"        ■  '^  .     The  voyage  com-      the  .loing  of  any  oilier  ad  Irom  wliieli  il  may  bo  fairly  in 


at  another,  according  to  cireiimstanecs 
monccs  w 


r.  according  lo  cireiimsiiui.-es.      i ...-  »-.>..^.;  ^ -*  .......  ,    .   .      „ „.,«„(• 

hen  tho  vessel  casts  loose  from  her  fastenings  and  .  ferred  that  the  insurers  do  not  mean  to  take  advantage  of 


1230 


INSURANCE. 


the  breach,  will  bo  a  sufficient  answer  to  any  attempt  by 
them  to  set  up  the  breach  against  a  claim  for  Ing!«.  Aliciui- 
tion  or  i*alc  of  course  suspends  the  ojjcratioii  of  the  p<)Iicv, 
as  when  the  property  passes  out  of  the  hands  of  the  insured, 
having  nothing  at  risk  he  can  suffer  no  loss;  and  if  the 
alienation  continue  till  the  time  of  loss,  nothing  can  he  re- 
covered hy  the  insured.  Having  lost  nothing,  he  can  claim 
no  indemnity.  But  there  is  no  alienation  so  Kuig  a?'  tlie  iii- 
suroil  retains  an  interest  in  the  suhject-matter,  altlinugh 
that  interest  may  have  undergone  a  change  or  even  suffered 
a  great  diminution.  A  mortgage  is  not  an  alienation,  nor 
is  a  written  agreement,  with  or  without  seal,  to  convey,  nor 
is  a  deseent  of  property  to  heirs;  and  such  qualified 
changes  in  the  title  or  interest  will  not  work  a  forfeiture 
unless  specifically  so  agreed  upon.  Even  an  absolute  sale 
bv  one  partner  of  his  interest  to  his  copartner  is  not  to  hn 
regarded  as  an  alienation,  but  rather  a  shifting  of  interests 
among  joint-owners,  so  long  as  no  stranger  is  admitted. 
As  any  substantial  change  in  the  relation  which  the  insured 
holds  to  the  property  insured  is  a  matter  of  consequence 
affecting  the  judgment  of  the  insurer  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  risk  and  the  propriety  of  continuing  it.  the  charaeter 
of  the  person  insured  being  oftentimes  an  important  ele- 
ment in  making  up  the  estimation,  so  it  is  of  consequence 
to  him  to  know  the  true  state  of  the  title  and  interest  of 
the  insured  in  the  property  insured,  whether  absolute  or 
qualifie'l  or  incumbered,  or  how  otherwise,  to  the  end  that 
in  adjusting  the  amount  to  be  insured  so  much  in  value 
shall  be  left  unprotected  as  to  make  the  insured  himself 
also  interested  in  guarding  against  loss. 

The  sound  principle  of  insurance  is  that  the  insured  must 
be  in  such  position  that  in  case  of  total  loss  ho  must  him- 
self necessarily  suffer  loss.  If  he  be  insured  to  the  full 
value  of  possible  loss,  he  may  be  tempted  to  carelessness, 
or  even  fraud  and  crime.  He  may  not  only  neglect  all  pre- 
caution to  prevent  the  happening  of  the  peril  insured 
against,  but  he  may  be  tempted  to  scuttle  his  own  ship  or 
set  fire  to  his  own  house.  To  inquiries  made  touching 
these  and  various  other  circumstances  affecting  the  judg- 
ment of  the  insurer  upon  the  value  of  the  risk  the  answers 
must  be  with  precision  and  certainty  if  they  amount  to 
warranties,  or  only  with  substantial  truth  if  they  are  rep- 
resentations merely.  If  no  specific  title  be  required,  then 
any  form  or  extent  of  title  or  ownership  will  he  sufficient. 
A  declaration  of  ownership  sim])ly  is  but  a  declaration  that 
the  applicant  is  in  some  form  or  sense  an  owner.  In  mutual 
insurance  the  true  state  of  the  title  is  more  especially  ma- 
terial, since  the  lien  which  such  companies  usually  have 
upon  the  real  estate  they  insure  constitutes  to  some  extent 
the  capital  of  the  company.  It  is  therefore  of  importance 
that  the  title  should  be  such  that  a  lien  will  attach.  Hence, 
a  misrepresentation  as  to  the  title  may  he  material  in  a 
mutual  company,  while  it  might  lie  quite  immaterial  in  a 
stock  company.  It  is  also  material,  and  for  the  same  rea- 
sons, that  the  insurer  should  know  nut  only  w1iat  insurance 
may  already  exist  upon  the  property  upon  which  insurance 
is  applied  for,  but  also  whether  any  and  what  furtlier  in- 
surance may  thereafter  be  obtained.  I'pon  these  points, 
therefore,  inquiries  and  stipulations  are  usually  made. 
Other  insurance  is  additional,  prior,  or  sul>sequent  insurance 
effected  hy  the  same  person,  or  for  his  benefit  and  with  his 
consent,  upon  the  same  subject-matter,  risk,  ami  interest. 
Owners  of  different  interests  may  insure  them  respectively 
without  violating  the  condition  against  other  insurance. 
The  additional  insurance  must  also  bo  valid,  or  it  is  no  in- 
surance. A  policy  by  its  own  terms  void  if  there  he  prior 
insurance  without  notice,  will  not  he  a  breach  of  the  terms 
of  a  prior  policy  to  be  void  if  other  insurance  be  obtained 
without  notice.  When  notice  of  subsequent  insurance  is 
required,  it  must  be  given  within  reasonable  time,  and  if 
the  insurers,  having  the  option  to  cancel  the  policy  upon 
such  nntiee,  neglect  so  to  do  for  an  unreasonable  time,  or 
meanwhile  recognize  the  validity  of  the  policy  as  a  subsist- 
ing contract,  they  will  be  held  to  have  waived  the  right  to 
insist  upon  a  forfeiture. 

Ovor-valuation  of  the  property  insured  is  another  mode 
in  which  the  insurer  may  be  misled  into  making  a  contract 
which  he  would  not  otherwise  have  made.  While  intending 
only  to  make  the  prudent  contract  of  insuring  one-iialf  the 
value  of  the  property,  he  may  be  led  by  over-valuation  into 
the  risky  contract  of  insuring  the  property  up  to,  or  even 
beyond,  its  full  value.  If  this  over-valuation  be  fraudu- 
lent, or  so  gross  as  to  justify  the  inference  of  fraucl,  the 
policy  will  ho  void,  whether  there  be  or  be  not  any  stipula- 
tion therein  upon  this  point  of  over-valuation. 

The  assignment  of  the  policy  without  the  consent  of  the 
insurers  is  often  forbi<Men.  and  is  objectionable  upon  the 
same  grounds  as  alienation  is  objectionable.  The  insurers 
may  be  quite  willing  to  insure  one  person,  while  they  might 
bo  quite  unwilling  to  insure  another,  or  that  to  that  other 
should  be  transferred  the  interest  in  the  policy.     Strictly 


speakings  a  policy  is  not  assignable  or  negotiable,  so  as  to 
give  the  assignee  the  right,  in  his  own  name,  to  claim  the 
benefit  of  the  contract.  In  order  to  this  there  must  be  an 
assent  of  the  insurers  to  enter  into  direct  relations  with  the 
assignee,  as  by  consenting  to  the  assignment  and  to  pay 
the  assignee  in  ease  of  loss.  In  such  cases  the  assignee 
will  be  substituted  for  the  assignor,  and  may  recover  as  he, 
and  only  as  he.  could  recover;  so  that  if  the  assignor  after 
the  assignment  violate  any  of  the  conditions  of  tho  con- 
tract, this  violation  will  work  a  forfeiture  of  the  right  of  both 
the  assignor  and  assignee  to  recover  under  the  policy.  To 
avoid  this  result,  the  polii'v  and  property  may  both  be 
transferred  to  the  same  person  with  the  assent  of  the  in- 
surer, the  assignee  securing  by  a  new  note  or  otlier  memo- 
randum the  obligations  of  the  assignor  towards  the  insurer. 
The  transaction  thus  becomes  substantially  a  new  contract. 
rather  than  nn  assignment  of  an  old  one.  and  is  not  subject 
to  be  ilefeated  by  the  delinquencies  of  the  assignor,  the 
original  insured. 

The  premium  is  the  consideration  which  (he  insurer  re- 
ceives for  the  risk  he  assumes,  and  is  greater  or  less  ac- 
cording as  experience  and  tibscrvation  have  shown  that  tho 
chances  of  loss  upon  the  particular  risk  are  greater  or  less. 
The  premium  is  usually  paid  when  the  policy  is  delivered, 
but  this  is  not  necessarily  so.  And  even  though  by  the 
terms  of  the  policy  it  can  only  become  operative  on  J*ay- 
nient  of  the  premium,  a  delivery  of  the  ]iolicy  wilhont  in- 
sisting upon  this  condition  will  make  it  operative.  It  is  » 
conditiim  for  the  benefit  of  the  insurer,  and  like  other  sim- 
ilar conditions  he  may  waive  it  if  he  will.  In  the  absence 
of  express  sti|)ulatinn  as  to  tlie  modes  of  payment,  a  note 
or  check  sent  hy  mail,  if  so  requested,  or  any  other  ordi- 
nary mode  of  payment  acceded  to  by  the  insurer  or  his 
agent  having  authority  in  the  premises,  will  he  sufficient. 
Should  it  so  hapjien  that  the  property  insured  is  never  ex- 
posed to  the  perils  insured  against — in  other  words,  if  the 
risk  never  attaches — the  insurer  may  demand  a  return  of 
the  premium  if  he  has  not  been  guilty  of  any  fraud.  The 
whole  premium,  however,  is  earned  if  the  risk  attaches  even 
for  a  moment. 

In  marine  policies,  unless  restricted,  the  risk  extends  fo 
all  losses  proximately  caused  hy  the  perils  of  the  sea — that 
is.  all  losses  which  happen  fortuitously  from  the  extraor- 
dinary action  of  the  winds  and  waves,  stranding,  collision, 
lightning,  and  other  like  natural  and  unavoidable  aocidents 
connected  with  navigation.  Besides  these  perils,  it  is  usual 
in  marine  policies  to  insure  against  loss  by  fire,  barratry — 
7.  e.  tho  fraudulent  misconduct  of  the  master  or  crew — theft, 
piracy,  capture,  arrests,  and  detentions.  As  uo  one  can 
stipulate  for  immunity  from  the  consequences  of  his  own 
fraudulent  or  criminal  misconduct,  where  the  master  of  n 
vessel  is  also  owner,  barratry  is  not  covered  by  the  policy 
any  more  than  a  house  is  protectetl  to  the  owner  against 
loss  by  fire  set  purposely  by  himself.  But  in  both  marine 
and  fire  insurance  loss  by  mere  negligence  of  the  owner  or 
of  his  servants  will  be  covered  by  the  policy.  In  fact,  ng 
it  is  inij>ossible  for  any  one  who  has  even  a  moderately  ex- 
tendeil  business  to  give  his  personal  attention  to  all  Ihe 
details,  one  of  the  prime  objects  of  insurance  is  to  guard 
against  the  negligence  of  servants.  An<I  negligence  of  the 
insured  himself,  not  so  gross  as  to  warrant  the  inference  of 
fraud,  will  also  be  within  the  risk.  All  losses  directly  at- 
tributable to  the  risk  insured  against  come  within  tho 
sweep  of  the  p<dicy  unless  there  be  nn  exceptitm  stated  in 
the  policy  itself.  Damage  by  fire  may  happen  without 
actual  ignition,  as  by  cranking  of  glass,  or  the  blistering  of 
pictures,  or  the  scorching  of  paint,  or  heating  and  thus 
ilestroying  the  value  of  certain  articles  of  commerce.  Dam- 
age by  fire  produced  by  lightning  is  within  the  risk,  but 
damage  or  demolition  by  liglitning  without  burning  is  not. 
To  protect  in  such  a  case  the  insurance  must  be  against 
loss  by  lightning.  So  damage  by  fire  resulting  from  ex- 
plosion, as  of  gunpowder,  for  instance,  is  within  the  risk. 
Explosion  is  but  the  burning  of  the  gunpowder  by  sudden 
combustion,  and  if  damage  results  by  concussion  from  such 
an  explosion  it  is  damage  by  fire.  But  loss  occasioned  V)y 
theexpl'ision  of  a  steam-hoiK-r.  the  bursting  itself  not  being 
occasioned  by  unusual  fire,  and  no  fire  supervening,  is  not 
a  loss  by  fire.  Whether  such  loss  would  be  a  loss  by  ex- 
plosion is  a  mooted  question,  some  holding  that  explosion 
is  the  remote  and  fire  the  immediate  cause,  while  others 
luild  that  explosion  is  the  immediate  cause  through  fire. 
Damages  and  expenses  in  reasonable  efforts  to  save  the  in- 
sured property  from  destruction,  as  by  water,  removal, 
covering  up,  or  any  other  suitable  means,  are  included 
within  the  risk  of  a  fire  policy.  So  arc  damages  by  falling 
walls  if  the  walls  fall  by  reason  of  the  fire.  If,  however, 
they  fall  by  their  own  inherent  weakness,  crushing  the  in- 
sured property  in  tho  ruins,  whence  fire  supervenes,  this  is 
not  a  loss  by  fire,  as  the  property  is  destroyed  by  the  fall 
and  not  by  fire.     So  loss  by  the  bursting  of  a  boiler,  where- 


INSUKAXCE. 


l-S.il 


by  a  vcascl  ^oes  down  at  once,  is  not  loss  "subsequent  to  | 
and  in  consequence  of  such  bursting,"  the  bursting  and  the  ! 
loss  being  pnictically  simultaneous.     When  a  vessel  sinks 
till  the  water  reaches  htr  furnaces  and  drives  out  the  firo 
upon  her  w(>odwork,5o  that  the  vessel  is  burned  to  the  wa- 
ter's edi:e.  the  loss  is  attributable  to  the  lire  if,  but  for  the  | 
supervention  n{  the  fire,  she  would  not  have  sunk  ;   other-   | 
wise  not.     When  tlicre  arc  two  concurrent  causes  to  which 
the  loss  may  l>e  attributed,  the  predominating  and  cflicicnt 
cause  where  the  damage  is  indiscriminate  will  be  deemed  to 
be  the  true  cause. 

If  it  be  doubtful  what  property  is  covered  by  the  policy, 
the  doubt  will  be  resolved  in  favor  of  the  insured.    A  house  I 
or  building  includes  all  the  appurtenances  m-cessury  to  the  ! 
ordinary  use  of  the  principal  building,  and  a  mill  includes 
the  machinery  by  which  it  is  operated.      Property  in  trust  ' 
is  not  limiteil  to  property  technically  held  in  trust,  but  in- 
cludes all  such  property  as  the  insured  m:iy  have  the  cus-  i 
toily  and  care  of  for  special  purposes;  and  a  ])olicy  may  ' 
be  so  wor<l('d  as  to  follow  and  protect  jiroporty  as  it  passes 
through    divers   hands,   as   by    expressly    insuring   goods  , 
"sold,  but  not  removed." 

When  there  is  an  actual  total  loss,  the  insured  recovers  I 
to  the  foil  amount  of  his  insurance  if  the  property  be  worth 
so  much,  and  there  be  no  express  limitation  to  a  proportion   i 
of  the  loss.     Tn  marine  insurance  there  is  a  constructive   , 
total  loss  whereby,  when  the  property,  though  not  entirely   j 
destroyed,  is  dama^xed  to  such  an  apparent  extent  as  prnc-   i 
tically  to  render  the  voyage  worthless  as  a  pecuniary  ad- 
venture, as  where  the  damage  exceeds  one-half  of  the  value 
of  the  vessel  or  of  the  gon<Is,  or  the  vessel   be  captured  or 
detained  by  embargo,  the  insured  may  abandon   the  dam- 
aged or  detained  property  to  the  underwriter  and  claim  lor 
a  total  loss,  leaving  the  latter  from  that  time  forth  to  get 
what  he  can  by  sale  or  use  out  of  the  abandoned  property. 
This  rule  promotes  commerco  by  reinstating  the  insured  ; 
immediately   in  his  capital,  wherewith   to  engage   in  new 
a'lvcntures.  rather  than  to  subji-ct  him  to  delay  and  possi-    i 
lile  ruin  by  further  efforts  to  restore  his  shattered  fortunes. 
It  is  at  the  option  of  the  insurer  whether  he  will  abandon,   | 
and  this  option  must   be  made  within  reasonable  time,  and   , 
notice  thereof  given  to  the  insurer  in  onlerthat  he  may  at 
once  avad  himself  of  his  right  to  treat  the  pntperty  as  his  , 
own  and  make  the  most  out  of  it.     The  abandonment  car- 
ries with   it  all  rights  and  claims  on  account  of  ship  or  1 
cari;o,  so  that  if  the  ship  be  recovered  aiul  the  voyage  com-   | 
pb'lc'I  and  niadii  productive,  the  insurer  will   have  all   the  i 
benefit  both  of  the  property  recovered  and  of  the  ])rofits  in   : 
the  way  of  freights  carne'l.  or  citherwise.     In  the  U.  S.,   ■ 
however,  only  so  much  of  freight  goes  to  the  insurer  as  is 
earned  after  the  abandonment.     When  the  loss  is  jiartial 
the  rule  in  marine  insurance  is  that  the  cost  of  repairing 
the  vessel,  less  one-third  for  the  greater  value  of  the  new 
subfllituted  for  the  old.  may  be  recovered.     But  in  fire  in- 
puranee  there  is  no  right  of  abandonment,   and  no  rule 
of    proportionate    deduction    <m    account    <»f    the    greater 
value   of  the   new,   actual   indemnity    being  the   limit  of 
the    rij;ht    to   recover.       In   either   case,    when   goods   are 
dania[;ed,  the  insured  recovers  the  difference  lietweeu  the 
value  of  the  damaged  goods  as  they  are  ami  the  market 
prieeof  sound  goojs  of  like  kind.     The  adjustment  of  ma- 
rine losses,  when  all  the  interests  saved  are  to  contrilnite 
their  proportion  of  indemnity  lor  those  lost,  is  oftentimes  a 
matter  of  great  nicety,  and  comes  under  the  head  of  gen- 
eral   average,  a   peculiar  and    intricate    branch    of  mnri- 
limo    law.       There    is    less    difViculty    in    adjusting    losses 
under  fire  pojieies,  where  general  average  contribution  is 
unknown.     I'nder  both  kinds  of  insurance,  however,  there 
may  be  (livers  policies  upon  the  same  subject-matter,  in 
whieh  case,  if  the  loss  be  less  than  the  aggregate  insurance, 
either  insurer  may  be  held  for  the  entire  lous,  unless  there 
be  an  average  clause,  as  it  is  called,  limiting  bis  liabilities 
to  his  pro)i(!rtion  of  tho  loss.      In  case  he  pays  it.  ho  will 
have  his  claim  over  for  his  inrlcniniry  against  each  of  his 
co-insurers.  Only  tho  actual  loss  can,  however,  be  recovered 
by  the  insured  from  all  the  insurers.     The  amount  of  loss 
recoverable  within  the  limits  of  the  amount  insured  iloes 
not  always  depend  on  the  vulue  nf  the  interest  to  the  in- 
sured.     If  the  insured  has  any  insurable  interest,  and  that 
interest  attaches  to  tho  whole  property,  he  may  recover  for 
the  whole  value.     Thus,  n  commission   merchant,  netuatly 
interested  only  to  the  amount  of  his  advances  iind  com- 
MiissifMix,  may  recover  to  the  full  value  of  the  j;oods  lost, 
hobling  any  lialaneo  for  his  consignor.     A  mortgagor  may 
insure  lo  the  full  value  of  the  property,  and  recover  the 
whole  loss,  althnugh  the  insureil  mortgagee  may  also  re- 
cover to  the  full  amount  of  his  interest,  and  thus  tho  in- 
sured he  compelled  to  pay  mucdi  more  than  thewbolc  value 
of  the  property  ilestroycil.     The  respective  enntracls  are 
indepenrlent,   an<l  cover  distinct    interests,   eaeh  of  whieh 
mny  extend  to  tho  whole  value  of  tho  property.     Special 


and  extraordinary  circumstances — as  that  the  building  in- 
sured is  on  leased  land,  and  must  be  soon  removed  at  great 
cost  or  forfeited,  or  that  a  house  is  about  to  be  sold  on  exe- 
cution, or  that  duties  have  or  have  not  been  paid  on  im- 
ported articles — do  U'li  v;iry  the  rule  of  damages.    The  fair 
market-value  of  the  jirupcrty,  without  regard  to  such  cir- 
cumstances,  is    the   criterion  of  tho  amount  of  the    loss. 
Sometimes  tho  policy  stipulates  that  the  insured,  in  case  of 
loss,  shall  recover  only  a  certain  projiortion — two-thirds, 
for  instance — of  the  actual  damage.     In  such  case  the  in- 
sured will  be  entitled  to  the  whole  amount  of  his   loss  if 
that  does  not  exceed  two-thirds  of  the  whole  loss.    A  part- 
ner after  the  death  of  his  co-partner  can  tmly  recover  for 
loss  to  the  partnership  property  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  tho 
dissolution  by  <lcatli.      Goods  bought  after  the  dissolution 
will  not  be  covered  unless  by  special  agreement.   When  tho 
right  to  repair  or  rebuild  is  reserved  to  tho  insurer,  as  it 
sometimes  is,  as  a  mode  of  payment  to  which  they  may  re- 
sort if  they  deem  the  claim  for  loss  exorbitant,  it  is  optional 
with  him  whether  he  will  or  will  not  avail  himself  of  his 
right;  and  if  he  do  not.  the  rule  of  clamages  is  the  actual 
loss,  and  not  the  cost  of  restoration,  which  may  be,  as  in  the 
case  of  an  old  and  dilapidated  building,  greatly  above  the 
actual  loss.    If  a  new  building  be  erected  by  the  insured,  it 
is  not  the  cost  of  the  new,  but  the  value  of  the  old  one  de- 
stroyed, that  is  recoverable.     And  the  option  of  rebuilding 
must  bo  mado    known  without   unreasonable   delay.     An 
agreement  to  replace  goods  stands  u])on  the  same  footing. 
The  insured  is  to  he  indemnified,  and  no  more.     If  the  in- 
surer be  prevented  from  rebuilding  or  replacing  without  the 
fault  of  the  insured,  as  by  the  intervention  of  the  jiublic 
authorities,  that  is  his  misfortune,  but  no  defence  against 
the  claim  of  the  insured.     When  the  insured  is  not  desig- 
nated by  name  in  the  policy,  but  is  referred  to  indefinitely 
as  *•  the  estate  of  A  "  or  "  whom  it  may  concern."  tho  loss 
will  be  payable  to  all  such  persons  as  can  bring  themselves 
within  the  scope  of  the  designation  ;  and  if  the  policy  be 
to  A  for  the  benefit  of  whom  it  may  concern,  A  will  tako 
the  loss  and  hold  it  for  the  parties  in  interest.     Sometimes 
disputes  arise  as  to  the  disposition  of  the  loss  after  it   is 
paid  or  as  to  the  right  of  the  several  parties  in  interest. 
But  as  a  rule  neither  con  claim  anything  from  the  other 
unless  by  the  terms  of  the  policy  it  appears  that  it  was  the 
intention  of  tho  parties  that  one  should  be  heuefiteil  by  the 
payment  to  another.     If  the  loss  be  paid  to  a  mortgiigec, 
the  insurer  can  neither  require  liim  to  assign  the  mortgage, 
nor  can  the  mortgagor  require  the  money  to  be  applied  to- 
wards the  reduction  of  the  mortgage  or  to  repairing  tho 
damage.    Each  party  stands  on  his  own  contract  as  against 
the  other,  unless  it  appears  to  be  intended  that  some  third 
party  shall  have  an  interest,  as  where  a  mortgagee  insures 
at  the  expense  of  the  mortgagor.     But  when  the  insurer 
pays  a  loss  caused  by  the  wrongful  act  of  some  thirtl  person, 
against  whom  tho  insured  might  have  brought  an  action, 
the  insurer  is  said  to  be  subrogated  to  the  right  of  the  in- 
sured against  the  wrongdoer,  and  may,  in  the  name  of  tho 
latter,  recover  against  him  whatever  sum  the  insureil  might 
have  recovered.     This  right  is  based  u]»on  the  ground  that 
it  is  just  that  the  wrongdoer  shall  be  made  to  bear  the  loss 
which  he  has  occasioned.     Tlic  liability  of  the  wrongiloer  is 
!  first  and  chief:  and  if  the  insured  insists,  as  he  may,  upon 
I  proceeding  against   the  insurer,  he  is  in  fairness  bound  to 
i  allow  the  insurer  to  use  his  name  in  proceeding  against  tho 
I  wrongdoer.    But  if  the  insurer  pay  tho  loss,  and  nfterwards 
I  the  insured  jiroeceds  against  the  wrongdoer,  tho  latter  can 
I  claim  no  advimtage  by  the  payment.     If  A  sets  fire  (o  B's 
house,  and  B  gels  his  insurance,  A  cannot  avail  himself  of 
,  this  fact  as  a  defence  to  a  suit  by  B  against  A  for  damages. 
j  After  loss  the  insurers  must  be  notified,  and  generally  agree 
to  pay  in  so  many  days  after  proof  of  the  loss.     If  no 
■  form  of  notice  he  agreed  upon,  any  notice,  verbal  or  writ- 
,  ten,   will  answer.      Notice  "  forthwith  "   is  notice  without 
I  unreasonable  delay,  and  should  be  given  to  the  person  desig- 
'  nated  in  the  policy,  or,  this  wanting,  to  some  officer  of  tho 
'  insurance  company  or  to  some  agent  acting  in  its  behalf. 
The  proofs  of  loss  must  also  be  such  as  are  required  by  the 
terms  of  the  policy,  and  substantiiilly  in  the  form  required 
and  within  the  time  specified.    If  the  certificate  of  the  min- 
ister of  the  parish  or  <if  the  nearest  magistrate  to  any  par- 
ticular fact,  or  that  the  loss  is  as  stated,  be  required,  sucli 
i  certificate  miift  be   ]iroduced    before  payment  con  ho  dc- 
!  manded  ;  ond  if  the  minister  or  the  magistrate  in  some  sense 
I  nearest    will   not   so  certify,    the  insured  must   fail   in  bis 
I  claim.    It  is  his  misfortune  that  he  cannot  ccunply  with  the 
I  terms  of  the  ctmtraet  into  which  he  has  voluntarily  entereil. 
and  which  seems  to  be  perleclly  proper  and   fair.     Such 
I  agreements  shouhl  bo  avoiiled.  or  provision  maiic  for  some 
'  snbfititute<l  niodo  of  proof;   ns.  for  instance,  the  rertificoto 
of  some  other  satisfactory  person.      In  fact,  as  these  arbi- 
trary ccmditions  ore  mode  by  insurers  in  their  own  special 
interest,  they  may  waive  them  if  they  please  either  in  form 


1238 


INSURANCE,  LIFE— INTEREST. 


or  substance  :  and  if  they  receive  notice  or  proof,  however 
inforniJiI  or  imperfect  or  out  of  accord  with  the  requtre- 
meiits  of  the  jioHcy,  without  objection,  and  do  not  give  the 
in?urod  to  uii<ifr.<tand  thiit  Ihcj-  are  insufficient  and  unsatis- 
factory, and  in  what  respect,  so  that  he  may  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  supply  thedcticiencies,  or  if  the  insurers,  by  silence 
or  otherwise,  induce  in  the  mind  of  the  in^ureil  the  belief 
that  they  are  sufficient,  they  will  not  be  permitted  to  inter- 
pose such  insufliciency  against  a  claim  for  loss.  If  upon 
ihe  receipt  of  verbal  notice  of  a  loss  the  insurers  declare 
they  will  not  ])ay,  this  will  relievo  the  insured  from  the  duty 
of  further  notice  or  proof.  The  law  does  not  require  a  use- 
less formality.  If  stipulation  be  made  that  suit  shall  not  be 
brought  against  the  insurer  unless  within  a  limited  time, 
the  insured  will  be  bound  by  it.  It  isreasouable  to  require 
that  disputed  claims  should  be  brought  to  an  early  trial, 
while  the  facts  are  comparatively  fresh  and  the  witnesses 
are  at  hand.  But  an  agreement  that  a  suit  shall  be  brought 
in  a  certain  place  or  court,  or  that  the  whole  matter  in  lUs- 
pute  shall  bo  submitted  to  arbitration,  has  no  validity.  The 
law  determines  how  and  where  suits  shall  bo  tried,  and 
parlies  cannot  by  their  agreements  settle  or  unsettle  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  courts.  And  when  to  an  action  to  re- 
cover a  loss  the  insurers  set  up  in  defence  any  breach  of 
condition,  misrepresentation,  or  other  matter,  it  is  always 
a  good  reply  that  such  breach  or  other  delinquency  is 
chargeable  to  the  act  or  omission  of  the  insurers  themselves 
or  (heir  agent. 

In  mutual  insurance  the  holders  of  policies  besides  being 
insured  are  also  insurers.  They  are  members  of  the  com- 
pany, and  by  virtue  of  their  membership  arc  oldigcd  to 
contrilnite  to  the  losses  of  their  associates,  and  have  the 
right  to  claim  from  them  by  way  of  assessment  or  contri- 
bution, in  proportion  to  the  amounts  for  which  they  are 
severally  insured,  indemnity  for  their  respective  losses. 
Rightly  managed,  it  is  the  safest  and  cheapest  form  of  in- 
surance, since,  whatever  be  the  rate  of  premium,  the  asso- 
ciates participate  in  the  profits  ;  and  if  the  premium  be  tixed 
sufficiently  high  the  aggregate  amount  of  premiums,  paid 
or  promised  by  deposit  notes,  will  constitute  a  capital 
adequate  under  any  but  most  extraordinary  circumstances 
to  meet  contingent  losses.  J.  Wilder  Mav. 

Insurance,  Life,     See  Life  Assurance. 

Integral  Calculus.     See  Calci^ls. 

Intellect.  Sec  JIixD,  by  IIox.  W.  T.  Harris,  A.  M., 
LL.D. 

Intemperance.  See  Inebriety,  by  Prof.  Witr,ARD 
Parker,  M.  I>.,  LL.D.,  and  Intoxication,  by  E.  J,  Ber- 

MINGHAM,  M.  D. 

Intercala'tif>n  [Lat.  intercal'trr,  to  "insert"],  the  in- 
sertiou  of  supplementary  days  or  months  into  the  calendar 
in  order  to  cfiVct  an  adjustment  between  the  civil  and  tho 
natural  year.     (See  Calendar,  by  F.  A.  P.  Barnard.) 

In'tcrconrse,  tp.  of  Sumter  co.,  Ala.     I'uj).  440. 

Intercourse  (Ri^ht  of)  between  Slates.  This 
expression  can  include  political  and  cnninieicial  inter- 
course, togetlier  with  the  right  of  individuals  to  pass  into 
or  through  a  given  country.  No  text-writer  on  the  law  of 
nations,  so  far  as  wo  kni>w,  maintains  that  nations  are 
bound  to  have  commuuieatiun  with  one  another  by  am- 
bassadors; least  of  all  would  the  claim  to  send  resident 
ambassadors  be  admitted  as  having  the  nature  of  strict 
right.  As  for  tho  right  of  commercial  intercourse,  it  is 
hard  to  maintain  that  a  nation  may  rightfully  force  an- 
other into  such  a  relation.  It  must  begin  in  a  voluntary 
way,  on  terms  agreeable  to  both  parties.  If,  now,  one  of 
the  states  wants  nothing  that  the  other  can  furnish,  with 
what  right  can  tho  other,  to  satisfy  its  wants,  compel  it  to 
take  certain  products?  But  if  there  is  a  theoretical  diffi- 
culty in  such  demands,  intercourse  is  pretty  sure  to  begin 
wlienever  an  honest,  peaceable  way  of  bringing  it  about  be 
tried,  because  all  men  iovo  to  exchange,  and  can  be  soon 
made  to  see  the  advantages  of  so  doing.  As  for  the  right 
of  travelling  into  or  across  a  country,  if  this  be  necessary 
in  onler  that  a  nation  may  have  access  to  the  rest  of  tho 
world,  it  seems  to  be  a  right,  subject  to  such  precautions 
ns  may  prevent  dangers  from  foreigners.    T,  I>.  Woolsey. 

In'terdict  [Lat.  intcrUirtum,  a  *■  prohibition"],  in  Eu- 
ropean history,  censure  ])ronounced  liy  the  pope,  by  a  syn- 
od, or  by  a  bishop,  withdrawing  from  particular  persons  or 
places,  or  both,  certain  religious  privileges.  It  still  exists 
in  theory  as  one  of  t)ie  ecclesiastical  censures  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  but  is  seldom  exercised,  except  towanla 
individuals,  who  may  be,  for  example,  interdicted  from  en- 
tering a  chureh.  It  is  also  sometimes  pronounced  against 
places  whore  liorribic  crimes  have  been  committed.  In  the 
Dark  Ages  tlie  interdict  was  the  most  terrible  of  punish- 
ments. Every  man's  hand  was  against  the  interdicted  per- 
son, and  even  great  princes  have  been  humbled  by  tho  power 


of  this  censure.  At  one  time  no  bell  might  ring  or  organ 
be  played  in  an  interdicted  district:  the  church  doors  were 
locked  ;  services  were  performed  without  solemnities  and  in 
secret ;  all  crosses  and  ornaments  were  hidden  ;  Lenten  food 
only  could  be  eaten  :  no  one  could  give  or  receive  a  kiss : 
the  Kucharist  was  not  given  except  to  the  dying;  no  man 
could  shave  his  beard  or  brush  his  hair  until  the  interdict 
was  raised.  But  few  interdicts,  however,  were  so  severe  as 
this,  though  at  the  best  an  interdict  was  regarded  as  a  se- 
vere measure.  The  Church  licrsclf  from  time  to  time  miti- 
gateil  the  terrors  of  this  dreadful  visitation.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  interdicts  were  that  laid  upon  all  France  by 
Gregory  V.  in  1)9S ;  that  laid  on  England  by  Alexander  III. 
in  1171  as  a  punishment  for  the  murder  of  A'Becket  :  that 
laid  liy  the  same  pontiff  upon  Scotland  in  llSO;  by  Inno- 
cent III.  on  France,  1200;  on  England  in  1209  under  King 
John  ;  on  Venice  by  Paul  V.  in  lt)06. 

Interesse  Termini.     See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

In'terest  [Lat.  interest  (an  impersonal  verbal  form), 
"it  is  of  advantage"],  the  compensation  paid  for  the  use 
of  money  borrowed.  The  most  c<mvenient  form  of  capital 
to.  bo  loaned,  for  both  lender  and  borrower,  is  money. 
Hence,  loans  arc  most  commonly  made  in  money.  an<l  in- 
terest is  always  reckoned  at  a  certain  per  cent,  of  a  defined 
sura  of  money,  which  is  called  the  prinripnf:  the  per  cent, 
paid  is  called  the  ma-,  and  is  usually  stated  as  the  rate  per 
annum,  though  often  payable  at  sliorter  intervals  than  a 
year.  The  compensation  for  the  use  of  capital  in  the  form 
of  land  and  fixed  improvements  upon  land  is  called  rent. 
This  is  determined  In*  other  considerations  than  the 
money-value  of  the  property  loaned  or  leased.  (See  Rent.) 
But  in  tho  case  of  other  kinds  of  property  an  estimate 
is  commonly  made  of  the  value  in  money,  and  interest 
is  charged  accordingly  at  the  current  rate.  Thus,  one 
may  purchase  a  steam-engine  for  a  mill,  or  cotton  to  be 
worked  u]i  in  a  mill,  and  give  his  note  for  its  value,  to 
be  paid  at  tho  end  of  six  months,  with  interest.  Or  he 
may  borrow  of  a  friend  the  money  with  which,  as  an  in- 
strument of  exchange,  to  make  either  purchase,  and  give 
his  note  on  interest.  Tho  transactions  arc  essentially  the 
same.  The  engine  or  the  material  is  what  he  wants,  and 
what  he  actually  borrows  and  uses  as  a  part  of  the  capital 
of  his  business. 

The  rightfulnessof  interest  rests  upon  two  facts  :  (1)  The 
fact  tb.at  capital  is  the  result  of  past  labor,  preserved  by 
self-denial  in  saving.  One's  right  of  property  in  that  which 
he  has  earned  and  saved  is  indefeasible,  and  it  is  but  simple 
justice  that  if  the  owner  allows  another  to  use  his  property 
instead  of  using  it  himself,  he  should  be  compensated.  This 
is  all  plain  enough  in  the  case  of  the  engine  or  the  cotton, 
and  the  principle  certainly  holds  good  when  by  a  sinijde 
exchange  the  jiroperty  saved  takes  the  form  of  money.  It 
is  tho  ]>roperty-right  which  is  to  be  recognized,  tho  same 
always,  whatever  may  be  the  material  form  in  which  it  is 
embodied.  (2)  The  fact  that  in  the  production  of  values 
present  labor  is  crippled,  almost  fruitless,  witliout  the  prod- 
ucts of  ])ast  labor — /.c.  capital — to  work  upon  and  to  work 
with.  Tho  effectiveness  of  labor  is  increased  many  fold  by 
tho  capital  joined  with  it.  Hence,  he  who  provides  the 
capital  may  rightly  claim  to  share  with  the  laborer  in  the 
profit  of  tho  joint  result :  and  the  labcirer  can  well  afford  to 
pay  for  the  advantage  he  gains.  The  loan  is  made  for  Ihe 
sake  of  bringing  present  labor  into  union  with  past  lalmr, 
all  the  same  whether  it  is  money  or  that  which  money  can 
buy  that  passes  from  borrower  to  lender.  The  etymology 
of  the  term  *•  interest,"  and  its  fitness  in  this  applietition, 
imply  such  a  mutual  advantage  to  b(»rrower  and  lender. 
Where  mouey  is  burrowed  to  provide  for  the  immediate 
su])port  of  an  individual  or  a  family,  or  for  some  |)rosent 
gratification,  the  property  which  it  represents  is  consumed 
at  once,  without  a  profit ;  but  the  loan  is  made  in  some  an- 
ticipation of  mean.s  to  be  realized  from  labor  or  other  sources 
at  a  t'uture  day.  and  the  consideration  is.  even  then,  a  sup- 
posed advantage  to  the  borrower  as  well  as  to  the  lender. 
This  iutereat  or  mutual  advantage  marks  the  prime  differ- 
ence between  a  loan  and  a  gift. 

The  genera!  rate  of  interest  in  a  community  is  deter- 
mined by  three  considerations:  (1)  The  average  produc- 
tiveness of  industry:  (2)  the  jiroporfion  between  tho  sup- 
ply of  capital  and  the  demand  for  it;  (.'i)  the  degree  of 
security  given  to  contracts  by  the  protection  of  law  and 
prevalent  moral  sentiment.  In  a  new  country  these  con- 
siderations combine.  Lalior  is  very  jiroductive  in  develop- 
ing new  and  rich  resources;  capital  is  scarce,  because  the 
hardships  of  pioneer-life  repel  the  rich  ;  and  contracts  are 
insecure,  because  law  and  social  order  and  mutual  con- 
fidence are  not  well  established.  Hence,  tho  rate  of  interest 
in  a  new  country  is  high.  It  declines  gradually  as.  in  the 
course  of  time,  population  increases,  society  bec«»mes  organ- 
ized, wealth  is  accumulated,  and  tho  fertility  of  the  virgin 


INTEREST,  HISTORY  OF— INTEREST,   LAW  CONCERNING. 


1239 


soil  ond  other  priiuitive  rcs'jurces  of  nature  are  exhausted. 
In  particular  case.*',  especially  of  speculation,  tlio  rate  of 
interest  is  affected  hy  risk  on  the  one  hand  and  the  ex- 
pectation of  great  i)rofits  on  the  other.  The  j:tueral  rate 
of  interest  is  lowest  in  an  old  country,  where  the  aeuumu- 
lation  of  wealth  is  large,  industry  is  active,  exchanges  are 
rapid,  and  men's  integrity  and  honor  are  sustained  by 
found  public  sentiment  and  guarded  by  good  laws  well 
executed.  (Jreat  fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  interest  arise 
chiefly  from  the  infusion  of  the  element  of  credit  in  the 
currency  of  a  country,  and  the  consequent  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  volume  of  currency,  with  the  reckless 
siieculations,  panics,  and  commercial  crises  incident  thereto. 
\\'hfttcver  imparts  instability  to  the  instrument  of  exchange 
must  cause  fluctuation  in  all  prices  and  uncertainty  to  all 
contracts;  and  to  all  such  influences  interest  is  most  sen- 
sitive. -A.  L.  Chaimn'. 

Interest,  History  of.  From  the  time  of  Thespis 
'lownward.  as  has  been  remarked  by  Bentham.  there  is 
scarcely  an  instance  where  a  lender  and  a  borrower  of 
money  appear  upnn  the  stage  without  the  sympathies  of 
the  audience  being  enlisted  for  the  latter.  The  ])hilos- 
ophers  of  Greece  and  Rome  never  emancipated  themselves 
from  the  current  of  popular  opinion  upon  this  subject,  and 
their  extant  writings  afl"ord  abundant  proofs  of  the  odium 
which  they  contributed  to  fasten  upon  the  money-lender. 
Iloth  the  philosophers  and  the  common  people  usually 
r.randed  the  money-lenders  as  the  main  cause  of  the  de- 
cline of  the  Roman  empire.  The  laws  of  Rome  expressly 
authorized  the  practice,  but  the  legislators  were  constantly 
attempting  to  regulate  the  terms  of  interest.  The  severity 
'if  Roman  law  against  insolvent  debtors  drove  men  to  ex- 
haust every  resource  to  maintain  their  credit  ;  and  the 
exorbitant  interest  exacted  from  the  unfortunate  confirmed 
the  popular  idea  that  "  interest  is  wealth  made  from  the 
poverty  of  others."  The  evils  above  indicatccl  had  become 
an  important  feature  of  society  at  the  time  when  the  au- 
thority of  the  Christian  Church  was  first  brought  into  the 
scale.  The  Christians  of  the  first  two  centuries  were  poor, 
industrious,  and  ofsiniple  tastes  and  habits  ;  hence  they  had 
little  occasion  for  availing  themselves  of  the  services  of  the 
money-lender.  Accordingly,  the  writings  of  the  Christian 
Fathers  unanimously  reflect  an  intense  condemnation  of 
••u?urv,"and  when  Christian  ascendency  stamped  its  imago 
upon  the  earliest  legislative  codes  of  semi-barbarian  and 
mediccval  Eurfti»e,  divine  and  human  anathemas  were  alike 
incorporated  thi-rein.  The  ''usury"  of  the  .Middle  Ages 
wiis  simjdy  what  the  name  implies,  the  price  of  the  »«*' 
of  money  at  whatever  rate;  it  was  strictly  synonymous 
with  intercut.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  rates  of  in- 
terest then  current  would  now  be  deemed  exorbitant.  The 
monopoly  of  usury  which  the  Jews  long  enjoyed  was  owing 
not  more  to  their  peculiar  genius  for  monetary  transactions 
than  to  the  fact  that  they  alone  had  no  conscientious  scru- 
ples against  the  practice.  It  was  not  until  the  eleventh 
century  that  the  Lombards,  and  still  later  that  the  Chris- 
tian merchants  of  Florence,  became  the  rivals  of  the  Jew- 
ish usurers.  It  was  the  revival  of  the  commercial  spirit 
among  the  republics  of  Northern  Italy  that  initiated  that 
conflict  of  opinion  between  the  Church  and  the  world  which 
has  finally  culminated  during  the  present  century  in  a  gen- 
eral recognition  of  the  lawfulness  and  usefulness  of  money- 
lending.  When  the  Eastern  commercial  enterprises  of 
Venice,  Pisa,  (Jenoa,  and  Anmlfi  proved  the  possibility  of 
obtaining  from  cajMtal  in  legitimate  traffic  a  rich  return, 
it  was  no  longer  thouglit  a  hardship  to  pay  handsomely 
for  the  control  of  capital  for  investment.  The  old  idea 
was  that  men  would  only  borrow  irtoney  from  usurers  un- 
der the  impulse  of  hanl  necessity  ;  thus,  when  the  business 
was  presented  in  another  and  an  agreeable  light,  as  a 
means  of  obtaining  a  share  of  the  '*  wealth  of  Ormus  or  of 
ind,"  the  credit  system  of  the  modern  world  wns  founded. 
It  is  true  that  the  earliest  Reformers  did  not  innovate  up<m 
the  current  theological  view  of  usury,  and  some  Trotestant 
writers,  like  the  celebrated  secretary  of  slate  of  t^ueen 
Elizabeth,  Sir  Thomas  Wilson,  vehemently  denounced  it 
119  contrary  to  the  law  of  nature;  but  the  eommercial  en- 
terprise (if  ProtC!4tant  countries  silently  and  speedily  pro- 
■liu'cd  a  healthful  change  of  sentiment.  Salmasius  and 
(irotius  lent  the  great  weight  of  their  names  to  the  same 
scale,  ami  by  tbo  middle  of  the  seventeenth  eenlury  the 
lawfulness  of  money-lending  was  generally  admitted  in 
Protestant  countries.  The  battle  was  Imrfjer  among  the 
Cntholies,  from  the  immense  mass  of  theological  tradition 
which  had  to  be  overoine.  The  means  linally  employed 
for  eiTecting  a  change  of  opinion  consiHte<l  of  subtleties  of 
casuistry  as  to  permissible  cases  of  usury  ;  then  n  distino- 
tion  was  drawn  between  a  fair  and  an  excessive  rate  of 
interest ;  the  former  was  justitied,  and  the  odium  embodied 
in  the  word  uiturt/  was  exclusively  attached  to  Ihe  latter. 
Ity  an  easy  gradation  of  thought  the  modern   meaning  of 


the  word  was  ascribed  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  to 
the  canons  of  medi:eval  councils  in  their  denunciations  of 
usury.  Finally,  the  civil  and  canon  laws  were  held  to  ini- 
])ly  merely  tlur  right  to  regulate  the  umoitiit  of  interest, 
which  has  accordingly  been  the  sole  object  of  recent  legis- 
lation thereupon.  It  was  reserved  for  the  economists  of 
the  school  of  Locke,  Hume,  and  Adam  Smith  to  exjiosc, 
and  ultimately  to  overthrow,  a  legislative  folly  which  had 
been  current  for  so  many  centuries.  The  final  demonstra- 
tion of  the  utility  of  interest  was  made  by  Jeremy  Benthani 
in  his  famous  Ltttern  on  Vmiry  (1787).  It  only  remains  to 
add  a  few  statistical  data  upon  legislative  enactments  af- 
fecting the  rate  of  interest.  In  the  earliest  Roman  law- 
code,  the  Ttceli-fi  Tables  (b.  c.  460),  the  rate  of  interest  was 
established;  the  restrictions  were  removed  by  the  Licinian 
laws  '166-;i6j  ;  the  former  law  was  re-established  357  :  the 
rate  was  again  lowered  '.'A7 ;  all  interest  was  prohibited  by 
the  Genusi.in  law  341;  the  Sempronian  law  extended  a 
uniform  legislation  to  the  allied  Italian  nations  193;  the 
rate  was  fixed  at  6  per  cent,  by  Justinian  a.  n.  529.  In 
England,  the  rate  was  fixed  at  10  per  cent,  by  act  37  Hen. 
Vni.  c.  9,  1543—14:  the  taking  of  interest  was  prohibited 
by  acts  5  and  fi  Edw.  VI.  c.  20,  1652;  the  latter  was  re- 
pealed by  13  Eliz.  c.  8,  1570;  interest  was  restricted  to  8 
per  cent,  by  act  21  Jac.  I.  c.  17,  1G23 ;  to  G  per  cent,  by  act 
12  Car.  II.  c.  13.  16GU  :  to  5  per  cent,  by  act  12  Ann.  st.  2, 
c.  IG,  1713;  finally,  most  of  the  preceding  legislation  was 
repealed  by  act  17  and  act  l-S  Vict.  c.  90,  of  Aug.  10,  1S54. 
(See  the  works  of  Locke.  Hume.  A.  Smith,  Turgot.  Ucn- 
tham,  J.  B.  J^ay,  M.  Chevalier,  J.  S.  .Mill,  and  W.  E.  H. 
Lecky.)  PoitiEit  C.  Bliss. 

Interest,  Law  Concerning.  In  tlie  comprehensive 
sense  in  which  the  word  iutcrtnt  is  popularly  used,  it  denotes 
any  compensation  for  the  use  of  money  which  a  debtor  pays 
to  the  creditor,  but  in  legal  usage  it  has  obtained  also  a 
technical  meaning  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  usury, 
and  denotes  such  a  measure  or  rale  of  com])ensation  as  is 
allowecl  by  law.  Usury,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  excess 
of  compensation  above  the  rate  established  by  law.  This 
is  a  distinction  whose  original  introduction  into  legislation 
is  attributable  to  the  belief  which  was  generally  prevalent 
in  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  Church  and  in  tlie 
Middle  Ages  that  it  was  wrongful  and  contrary  to  the  ex- 
press teachings  of  Scripture  to  receive  any  payment  for 
the  use  of  money.  The  necessities  of  trade  caused  legal 
sanction  to  be  given  at  an  early  period  to  the  taking  of  a 
certain  specified  percentage  upon  the  sum  loaned,  but  the 
common  conviction  that  there  was  an  element  of  extortion 
and  oppression  in  requiring  compensation  for  money  still 
remained  a]iparent  in  the  stringent  laws  which  were  en- 
acted to  jiruvent  the  taking  of  higher  rates  than  that  which 
was  established  as  legal.  (See  Ust'RV.)  The  results  of  this 
theory  are  abundantly  manifest  in  the  law  even  at  the 
present  day.  Until  within  a  few  years  nearly  all  of  the 
States  of  this  country  had  laws  prohibiting  the  taking  of 
more  than  an  established  rate  of  interest,  and  though  the 
]iroliibition  has  been  removed  in  a  few  of  them  by  recent 
legislation,  in  the  majority  of  them  such  laws  are  still  in 
force.  In  England  there  was  an  established  legal  rate 
until  1854,  but  in  that  year  all  the  laws  against  usury  were 
repealed.  In  the  U.  S.  the  lawful  rate  generally  jirevailing 
is  G  per  cent,  upon  the  sum  loaned,  or  ]»rincipal.  In  New 
York  it  is  7  per  cent.  In  some  of  the  States  there  is  a 
particular  rate  declared  applicable  to  ordinary  transactions 
in  the  absence  of  any  special  agreement,  but  the  parties 
arc  allowed  to  stipulate  for  a  higher  rate  if  they  desire. 
Laws  to  prohibit  the  taking  of  usury  never  i.revenl  an 
agreement  being  made  for  a  lower  rale  than  that  estab- 
lished by  law,  but  only  forbid  Ihe  parties  from  stipulating 
for  a  higher  rate.  The  obligation  of  u  debtor  to  jiay  inter- 
est ujion  the  sum  which  ho  owes  may  either  arise  out  of 
contract,  in  which  he  expressly  or  impliedly  agrees  to  its 
payment,  or  may  be  in  the  nature  of  a  jienalty  imposed 
ujKin  him  for  default  in  Ihe  payment  of  the  principal  at 
the  time  when  it  was  due,  or  for  the  misuse  of  trust  funds 
committed  to  his  charge.  In  the  one  case,  interest  is  said 
to  be  pii-yublo  by  contract,  while  in  the  other  it  is  given  by 
wav  of  damages,  notwitlislanding  there  is  no  agreement 
for  its  payment.  A  contract  to  pay  interest  may  l>e  either 
express  or  implied.  It  is  vxprmH  when  there  is  a  positive 
stipulation  between  the  parlies  thai  Ihe  amount  ])aynble  to 
the  creditor  shall  bear  interest,  and  the  lime  from  which  it 
shall  be  reck<»nei|,  the  manner  in  which  it  fihall  be  jmyable, 
and  the  rate  al  which  it  shall  be  estimated  may  be  directly 
specified  in  Ihe  agreement.  If  no  rate  is  mentioned,  the 
legal  rate  is  underslond.  No  higher  rate,  however,  can  bo 
agreed  upon  than  that  established  as  legal  unless  such  an 
agreement  is  expressly  authorized  by  statute.  If  by  the 
terms  of  the  contract  the  debt  is  to  bear  interest,  but  Ihe 
time  from  which  it  is  to  be  reckoned  is  not  staled,  interest 
will  generally  bo  computed  from  the  date  of  the  contract 


1240 


INTERFERENCE. 


or  the  time  when  it  is  made.  The  stipulations  of  the  par- 
ties may  relate  to  the  computation  of  interest  not  only 
until  the  time  of  the  maturity  of  the  deht,  but  after  the 
debt  has  become  due  and  in  case  of  default  in  payment. 
If  a  rate  be  fixed  upon  not  obnoxious  to  the  laws  a^^ainst 
usurv.  and  it  ifl  provided  by  the  terms  of  the  contrnct  that 
intercs^t  shall  continue  to  he  reckoned  iit  the  same  rate  if 
the  debt  be  not  dischar<;ed  when  payable,  the  computation 
ivill  be  made  at  this  uniform  rate  until  the  time  of  actual 
payment.  If.  however,  there  is  no  stipulation  as  Ui  the  rate 
of  interest  which  the  debt  shall  bear  after  maturity,  it  be- 
comes an  important  question  whether  the  rate  agreed  upon 
as  computable  before  maturity  shall  continue  after  that 
time,  or  the  rate  fixed  by  statute.  I'pon  this  point  the 
decisions  are  still  in  conflict,  so  that  no  settled  rule  can  be 
stated.  The  prevailinij  doctrine  appears  to  be  that  inter- 
est shall  be  reckoned  at  the  statutory  rate  after  the  default, 
since  the  provision  in  the  contract  can  have  no  force  after 
that  time  in  the  absence  of  express  specification,  and  in- 
terest must  be  given,  if  at  all.  by  operation  of  hiw.and  by 
way  of  damages  for  the  debtor's  failure  to  pay  at  the  time 
appointed.  A  contract  to  pay  interest  is  imph'tti  when  nn 
agreement  is  entered  into  of  such  a  nature  that  an  obliga- 
tion to  pay  interest  is  naturally  inci<leutal  to  it,  and  is  to 
be  presumed  as  within  the  contemplation  of  the  parlies. 
Thus,  it  may  bo  inferred  from  the  course  of  dealing  be- 
tween the  ])arties.  as  where  interest  has  before  been  charged 
and  allowed  under  like  circumstances,  or  where  it  has  been 
the  uniform  practice  of  the  creditor  to  charge  interest,  and 
this  was  known  to  the  debtor  at  the  time  of  the  transaction 
bv  which  the  debt  was  incurred.  So.  where  there  is  a 
general  usage  in  any  particular  trade  or  branch  of  business 
to  charge  and  allow  interest,  parties  having  knowledge  of 
the  usage  are  deemed  to  contract  with  reference  to  it.  For 
example,  interest  is  not  usually  recoverable  on  an  open 
running  account  for  goods  sold,  but  if  there  be  a  usage  in 
any  particular  Slate  or  locality  for  merchants  to  charge 
interest  upon  such  accounts  at  the  expirati(m  of  a  certain 
term  of  credit,  and  the  purchaser  can  reasonably  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  acquainted  with  such  usage,  he  will  be  charge- 
able with  interest,  which  will  usually  be  computed  at  the 
legal  rate. 

interest  recoverable  as  damages  is  given  by  operation  of 
law,  and  does  not  depend  upon  contract,  express  or  im- 
plied. It  is  the  general  practice  in  the  courts  of  this  coun- 
try to  award  interest,  computed  at  the  legal  rate,  for  de- 
fault in  the  payment  of  any  liquidaletl  debt  or  claim  at 
the  time  it  becomes  due.  The  time  from  \vhich  it  is  reck- 
oned is  the  d.ate  when  payment  should  properly  have  been 
made.  This  practice  depends  partly  upon  the  ground  that 
the  debtor  in  retaining  the  amount  due  gains  the  benefit  of 
its  use,  and  should  justly  reimburse  the  creditor  at  a  rate 
of  interest  which  measures  the  iucome  which  might  ordi- 
narily be  derived  from  the  money,  and  partly  upon  the 
ground  that  the  debtor  should  be  punished  for  his  default 
by  increasing  the  amount  of  the  debt.  The  time  when  the 
debt  becomes  payable  is  frequently  fixed  upon  by  the  par- 
ties when  the  transact i(m  occurs  out  of  which  the  debt 
arises,  and  the  interest  will  be  computed  in  such  cases  from 
the  date  ajipointed.  Interest  will  be  given  as  damages 
whether  the  deht  bore  interest  before  maturity  or  not.  In 
many  instances  the  time  when  the  debt  originally  becomes 
pavable  does  not  depend  upon  agreement,  and  must  be  de- 
termined by  special  rules.  The  general  principle  is  that 
interest  will  be  c<un])Uled  from  the  lime  when  the  creditor 
might  have  brought  action  to  enforce  his  claim.  Thus. 
when  money  is  lent  to  another  or  paid  to  his  use.  interest 
accrues  from  the  time  of  the  loan  or  payment.  When  goods 
arc  sold,  and  no  time  of  payment  is  specified  or  credit 
given,  interest  is  coiu|iutable  from  the  day  of  the  sale.  A 
note  payable  on  demand  draws  interest  from  the  time  of 
the  demand.  It  shouhl  be,  however,  noted  that  for  some 
purposes  a  note  on  deruaml  is  due  immediately  :  e.  g.  for 
the  running  of  the  statute  of  limitations.  (See  Limitations, 
Stati  TK  oF.l  So,  generally,  wherever  there  is  an  unsettled 
claim  with  no  ileterminate  time  for  payment,  the  creditor 
may  demnnd  payment,  and,  if  it  be  refiiscd,  inieircsl  will 
run  from  the  time  of  the  demand.  When  eredit  is  given, 
interest  will  bo  calculated  from  the  expiration  of  the  time 
of  credit.  Tpon  a  judgment  it  is  reckoned  from  the  time 
when  the  judgment  was  rendered,  .hulgments  did  not  hear 
interest  at  common  law,  but  this  rule  has  been  generally 
changed  in  this  country.  T'pon  unliquidated  demands  in- 
terest is  not,  in  general,  collectible,  since  there  is  no  specific 
sum  upon  which  it  can  bo  reekimed  until  the  amount  of  the 
claim  is  liquidated  or  ascertained,  and  usually  no  definite 
time  at  which  payment  is  to  be  made  and  from  which  the 
interest  can  be  computed.  Thus,  a  debt  for  board  and 
lodging,  where  there  was  no  price  or  time  of  payment  ex- 
pr'^csly  or  impliedly  fixed,  will  not  draw  interest  until  it  is 
leduced  to  a  judgment,  or  its  amount  otherwise  liquidated. 


AVhile.  as  has  already  been  seen,  interest  cannot  be  charged 
upon  the  items  of  a  running  account  for  goods  sold  or  ser- 
vices rendered  unless  there  be  a  particular  usage  to  the  con 
trary,  still,  after  there  has  been  a  mutual  agreement  of  the 
parlies  upon  a  balance  struck,  and  the  amount  due  thus  as- 
certained, interest  may  generally  be  computed  upon  this 
balance.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  creditors,  when  they 
desire  to  secure  the  settlement  of  an  open  account,  to  send  to 
the  debtor  a  statement  of  the  items  of  the  account,  and  of  iho 
amount  computed  to  be  payable,  and  the  assent  of  the  debtor 
to  the  correctness  ()f  the  balance  may  be  presumed  from  his 
failure  to  make  objection  to  its  accuracy  after  a  reasonable 
opportunity  for  examination.  This  presumption,  however, 
is  not  conclusive,  but  may  be  rebutted.  Generally,  after  the 
lapse  of  a  reasonable  time,  interest  will  commence  to  run 
upon  the  balance  stated.  Tn  cases  where  the  debt  arises  from 
an  unliquidated  claim,  but  the  time  of  payment  was  deter- 
minate, and  the  amount  then  due  could  have  been  ascer- 
tained by  computation,  it  is  the  law  in  New  York,  and  gen- 
erally in  this  country,  that  interest  may  be  collected  upon 
that  amount  from  the  appointed  time,  upon  the  principle 
that  that  is  certain  which  can  be  rendered  certain.  The 
English  courts,  however,  do  not  allow  interest  in  such  cases. 
It  is  on  the  ground  that  a  creditor's  claim  is  unliquidated 
that  interest  is  not  generally  given  in  actions  for  damages 
for  tortious  injury.  In  cases  of  the  conversion  of  personal 
property,  however,  interest  is  usually  recoverable  upon  its 
value  from  the  time  of  conversion,  since  that  value  is  in 
general  readily  ascertainable,  and  the  retention  of  the  prop- 
erty is  a  continued  wrongful  act  from  the  time  it  is  taken 
or  wrongfully  detained.  The  same  rule  is  also  applied  in 
some  other  cases  of  injury  to  property  where  the  amount 
of  the  claim  can  be  computed.  It  is  not  so  general  a  prac- 
tice in  the  courts  of  England  as  in  this  country  to  award 
interest  as  damages  for  the  wrongful  detention  of  a  debt. 
It  is  only  in  relation  to  particular  modes  of  incurring  in- 
debtedness that  interest  is  held  collectible  on  this  ground. 

Interest  given  by  way  of  damages  for  the  maladminis- 
tration of  trust  funds  is  not  grounded  upon  the  detention 
of  a  debt  after  it  is  regularly  payable,  hut  depends,  in  the 
main,  upon  the  same  principles — viz.  that  the  owner  of  the 
properly  or  debt  is  entitled  to  the  percentage  which  might 
be  obtained  upon  it  by  a  faithful  administration  of  the 
trust,  and  that  interest  may  be  chargeable  as  a  means  of 
punishment.  Thus,  guardians,  executors  and  administra- 
tors, and  trustees  of  every  kind  will  be  charged  interest 
upon  all  trust  funds  in  their  hands  which  it  is  their  duty 
to  invest,  upon  failure  on  their  part  to  do  so  within  a  rea- 
sonable time  or  with  proper  jirecautions  against  loss. 
(lenerally.  simple  interest  will  be  charged  against  them,  or 
the  rate  which  would  have  been  obtained  by  a  judicious 
investment,  but  in  cases  of  gross  delinquency  compound 
interest  may  even  be  recovered. 

Compound  interest,  by  which  is  meant  interest  computed 
upon  a  sura  consisting  of  the  principal  and  previously  ac- 
crued interest,  is  not  in  general  recoverable  at  law.  To 
require  its  payment  is  thought  to  savor  of  usury  and  to  bo 
unduly  oppressive  upon  the  debtor.  P^ven  though  there  be 
an  express  agreement  that  compound  interest  shall  be  paid, 
the  contract  will  not  be  usually  enforceable  for  more  than 
simple  interest.  When,  however,  interest  has  already  ac- 
crued and  become  payable,  nn  agreement  that  it  shall  be 
added  to  the  principal,  and  that  interest  shall  be  subse- 
quently computed  upon  the  new  principal  thus  formed,  will 
generally  bo  deemeil  valid.  In  like  manner,  compound  in- 
terest may  be  payable  in  certain  kinds  of  inereautile  trans- 
actions by  virtue  of  usage.  And  even  where  it  would  not 
generally  be  recoverable  upon  an  ordinary  contract  in 
which  its  payment  was  agreed  upon,  yet  if  it  is  actually 
]>aid  it  cannot  he  recovered  hack.  When]>ar(ial  payments 
are  made  from  time  to  time  upon  an  interest-bearing  debt, 
it  is  necessary  tn  apply  them  towards  the  discharge  of  the 
debt  in  such  a  way  that  interest  shall  never  be  reckoned 
upon  interest.  The  following  is  the  rule  which  has  been 
generally  uflopted  :  Compute  the  intcrct-t  on  the  principal 
from  the  time  when  interest  became  I'ayalde  to  the  first 
time  when  a  payment  alone,  or  in  conjunction  with  pre- 
ceding payments,  shall  equal  or  exceed  the  interest  due  od 
the  principal,  deduct  this  sum.  and  compute  interest  on 
the  balance  as  before.  By  this  rule  there  is  never  any 
balance  of  interest  remaining  after  dctlucting  a  payment 
upoD  which  subsequent  interest  can  be  reckoned. 

tiKOHRK  Chase.     Rkvised  bv  T.  W.  DwionT. 

Tnterfer'ence  [Lat.  inter,  "between,"  and  fen're,  "to 
strike"],  a  term  used  in  hydrodynamics,  acoustics,  and  op- 
tics to  denote  the  mutual  intluence  of  different  undulations 
which  conspire  or  conflict  in  consequence  of  (he  superposi- 
tion of  one  upon  the  other.  A  gross  illustration  often  em- 
ployed in  explaining  this  Idea  is  to  refer  to  the  appearances 
presented  by  the  intersecting  rings  formed  in  water  into 
which  two  jiebbles  have  been  thrown.     The  elevated  rings 


INTERFEREN'CE. 


1241 


and  their  iDtervening  depressions  are  undulations:  the 
mulecular  muvemeuls  ure  verlical,  uliile  the  undulation 
](rogre53  is  liorizuntut.  AVheu  thu  riuj^s  intersect,  ihc  points 
where  two  ridgt;*  crusy  are  doubly  eU'vated ;  the  jioiuts 
where  two  hollows  cross  arc  doubly  depressed  ;  while  the 
points  in  which  a  ridge  in  one  syt-teni  crosses  a  hollow  of 
the  other  are  neither  elevated  nor  depressed.  The  term 
applied  to  this  influence  of  one  undulation  upon  another  is 

intfrfemtrr. 

The  interferences  of  liquid  waves  are  finely  illustriited  in 
the  undulations  of  mercury  contained  in  a  vessel  of  ellipti- 
cal figure.  If  a  disturbance  be  produced  at  one  of  the  focal 
points  of  the  ellipse,  the  circular  waves  proceeding  from 
this  will,  by  reflection  from  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  form  a 
second  similar  system  having  for  its  centre  the  other  focus. 
If  the  corresponding  points  of  interference  be  connected, 
they  will  form,  as  the  figure  shows,  two  sets  of  curves,  el- 
liptical and  hyperbolic,  having  for  their  common  foci  the 
foci  of  the  original  ellipse. 

Fig.  1. 


Tho  interference  of  u  i ,  -  u  n  i  i    nften  very  percepti- 

ble.    It  is  observed  only  in  niiisK-;il  ^^imiids.  because  it  t'<(ii 
only  be  observed  in  those  whose  undulations  are  continuous  i 
and  uniform:  and  such  sounds  are  musical.     It  is  best  ob-  | 
served  when  the  waves  are  long — as  in  the  case  of  the  grave 
tones  of  (he  heavier  organ-pipes.    The  sinking  anil  swelling 
of  the  sound,  called  by  musicians  the  hf-nt,  is  owing  to  one 
of  tho  interfering  waves  being  slightly  longer  or  shorter 
than  the  other.     In  many  repetitions  this  slight  dificrcnce 
of  length  accumulates  until  it  reaches  half  an  undulation  ; 
when,  if  tho  two  waves   originally  conspired — that    is   (to 
borrow  again  an    illustration  from  the  water),  if  their  two 
crests  were  originally  superposed— they  will,  after  this  dif- 
ference has  crept  in,  be  in  conflict;  or  the  crest  of  one  will 
fall  upon  the  hollow  of  tlio  other.     During  this  interval,  a 
sinking  of  tho  sound  will  have  been  observed:  but  imme- 
diately after,  as  the  ilifference  of  path   goes  on   increasing 
from   a  half  to   a  whole    undulation,  the  sound  will   swell   ! 
again  as  the  two  crests  once  more  approach  superposition.  ' 
It  need  hardly  bo  remarked  that  the  interference  of  waves  ' 
of  fioun'l  of  it^r/frtti/  rifiiii/  Irinjih  would  not  be  perceptible  , 
to  a  person  stanrling  motionless;  for,  in  that  case,  the  re- 
sultant sounil  would  be  a  co»i*Mii/.     Should  he  endeavor,  by  ! 
moving  about  while  two  boflies  of  precisi-ly  similar  jiitch   j 
are  sounding,  to  j)ass  from  the  jioinls  of  cr»nspiring  to  those  ! 
of  conflieliiig  undulation,  he  would  not  find  it  easy  to  detect  , 
these  points  for  several  reasons.      In  the  first   |dace,  when   | 
tho  molecular  movements  are  normal  to  the  wave  front,  as 
in  tho  case  of  sound,  there  is  no  cnmpfttt-  interference,  or 
approaeh  to  comphte  interference,  except  where  the  waves 
are  tangential,  or  apppiximately  so,  to  each  other;  except, 
therefore,  in  or  near  the  line  of  the  centres;  and  except,  it 
may  be  added,  when  the  <Iistance  between  the  centres  is  an 
exact  number  of  half  undulations.     Again,  at  the  iiift-nivc- 
tinii^  of  sonorous  waves,  whether  the  nioIe<-ular  movements 
conspiroorconrtict,  the  resultant  of  these  movements  is  never 
BO  great  as  the  sum,  nor  so  small  as  the  diff^erencc,  of  the 
two  components.     The  difference  of  intensity  between  tho 
maxima  and  minima  of  sonu'l  in   such  eiises  will  not  bo 
striking,  unl«  ss  they  succeed   titr-Ii  other  with  brief  inter- 
vening intervals  of  time,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hmtn.^ 

It  18,  however,  by  this  second  method  that  we  detect  tho 
interferences  of  light,  and  not  at  all  by  the  first.  That  is 
to  say,  wo  discover  these  interferences  by  moving  the  eye 
through  the  space  where  they  exist,  in  the  course  of  which 


•The  rather  dilTtcult  experiment  of  local i:tn(j  tho  Interfer- 
ences of  sound  from  iwn  pipcn  hi  perfect  unison  was  successfully 
acconiplisbcil  by  Mr.  Pespreiz. 


movement  the  points  of  maximum  and  minimum  brightness 
are  easily  observed  :  or  we  let  fall  the  interfering  rays  upon 
a  white  surface,  when  the  same  points  will  become  manifest 
by  their  diflcreuce  of  illuminating  power.  The  first  method 
is  best,  especially  if  tho  eye  be  assisted  by  a  lens;  hut  the 
second  is  that  which  was  used  l)y  the  earliest  observers. 
Wc  cannot  detect  the  interferences  of  light  by  observing 
periodical  maxima  or  minima,  like  the  beats  in  music,  be- 
cause of  the  almost  inconceivable  shortness  of  the  undu- 
lations. But  if  the  waves  of  light  were  as  long  as  the  waves 
of  sound,  interferences  might  easily  be  made  to  manifest 
themselves  in  this  manner. 

The  phenomena  attending  tiie  interferences  of  luminous 
waves  are  such  as  to  compel  us  to  assume  that  the  molecular 
movements  are  not,  as  in  sound-waves,  normal  to  the  wave 
front,  but  are,  as  in  liquid-waves,  in  the  wave  front  itself, 
and  normal  to  the  direction  of  progress.  In  liquid-waves 
gra^'ity  determines  the  azimuthal  direction  of  these  move- 
ments, confining  them  to  the  vertical  plane  y)asging  through 
the  wave  centre,  or  origin  of  molecular  disturbance.  In 
the  case  of  luminous  waves,  there  is  no  such  determining 
or  constraining  force;  and  hence  it  happens  tiiat  ordinary 
light  has  no  determinate  plane  or  azimuth  of  vibration  ; 
but  its  successive  undulations  assume  every  variety  of  azi- 
muth. There  is  no  proof,  however,  that  changes  of  azimuth 
arc  incessant  ;  in  other  words,  that  many  undulations,  in 
fact  many  thousands  or  perhaps  millions,  do  not  follow 
each  other,  usually,  in  tho  same  azimuth,  between  tho 
changes.  This,  indeed,  is  probable,  since  the  ethereal  vi- 
brations take  their  character  from  those  of  tho  luminous 
body;  and  these  may  reasonably  be  presumed  to  have  a 
certain  jiersistence  in  their  modes  of  viliration,  or  at  Icust 
not  to  undergo  incessant  and  abrupt  changes.  Beyond  a 
certain  limit,  however,  this  persistency  could  not  continue; 
nor  could  there,  among  the  changes  which  occur,  be  a  pre- 
dominating disjiosition  to  return  to  one  azimuth  oftrncr 
than  to  another,  or  to  remain  in  it  longer,  without  impart- 
ing to  the  light,  more  or  less  decidedly,  the  character  of 
polarization.  If  five  hundrccl  millions  of  the  mean  undu- 
lations of  white  light  were  to  follow  eacli  other  in  a  single 
azimuth,  they  would  occupy  It  s.s  than  the  one-niilliontli  part 
of  a  second  ;  and,  accordingly,  if  five  hundred  millions  of 
such  undulations  should  take  place  in  each  of  a  million 
difl'crent  azimuths  successively,  the  whole  would  be  per- 
formed in  one  second,  and  no  instrumental  tist  could  de- 
tect polarization  in  the  aggregate  beam.  The  polarization 
of  light  consists,  therefore,  in  the  determination  of  all  its 
vibrations  to  a  single  plane.     (See  Poi.akization.) 

AVhen  two  polarized  rays  f(dIow  each  other  in  the  same 
path,  or  intersect  uiuler  a  very  acute  angle,  it  is  obvious 
that,  if  their  planes  of  polarization  agree  in  azimuth,  they 
arc  in  condition  to  interfere.  If  in  phase  of  undulation 
they  are  perfectly  accordant,  the  two  waves  will  be  super- 
posed, and  the  ni'decular  velocity  of  the  resultant  wave 
will  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  velocities  tif  the  two  com- 
])onents;  but  if  there  is  a  ditVerence  of  pliasc  between  tlicm 
amounting  to  exactly  half  an  undulation,  then  the  crest  of 
one  wave  will  fall  on  the  hollo\v  of  the  other,  and  tho  re- 
sultant molecular  velocity  will  be  equal  to  the  diflerenco 
of  velocities  of  the  com|)oncnls.  If  tlie  dificrcnce  of  phase 
is  any  other  fraction  of  an  nmlulatiun.  the  resultant  molec- 
ular velocity,  and  eonse(|uently  the  resultant  intensity  of  the 
luminous  eliect.  may  be  deduced  by  means  (tfii  mathematical 
formula  into  which  this  diflVrence  of  jdiase  enters  as  an  ele- 
ment. If  the  azimuths  of  molecular  motion  are  difi'ercut, 
the  effect  of  interference  on  nii>leeulur  velocity  and  luminous 
intensity  will  vary  with  this  dilVcrencc:  and  the  character 
of  the  niovemeiit  itself  will  change  with  difierence  of  phase, 
becoming  elliptical  or  even  circular,  instead  of  remaining 
as  originally  rectilinear.  If  the  difference  in  azimuth  is 
l»0°,  the  luminous  intensity  is  not  afiVctcd  by  diflVrence  of 
jiliase,  and  lienec  the  interference  is  insensible  to  direct  ob- 
servation ;  but  on  testing  the  condition  of  the  light  by 
suitable  optical  methods,  the  molecular  movement  may 
always  be  resolved  into  its  two  component  rectilinear  move- 
ments. 

Kays  of  common  light,  if  the  diflferencc  of  their  paths 
be  not  very  great,  will  interfere,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  their  umlulations  are  confined  to  no  determinate 
azimuth.  This  fact  proves,  what  has  been  above  assumed, 
that  the  changes  of  azimuth  in  common  light  cannot  bo 
incessant.  Hut  there  is  one  condition  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  protluce  interference  in  any  case:  it  is  that  tho 
rays  shall  have  a  common  origin.  If  the  light  subjected 
to  experiment  be  unpolarized,  the  necessity  of  the  condition 
is  easily  explained.  The  changes  of  the  azimuth  of  vibra- 
tion in  two  sudi  rays  eould  not,  except  upon  a  supposition 
which  has  an  infinity  of  chances  against  it.  take  place  at 
tho  same  intervals  and  in  the  ,>.amo  order;  and  if  they  did, 
the  chances  would  be  equally  great  against  the  coincidence 
of  those  planes.     But  as  it  is  true  of  polarized  as  well  as 


]:i42 


IXTERFEEENCE— INTERMITTENT  FEVER,   ETC. 


of  ordinary  liglit.  wo  must  look  for  a  different  explanation, 
and  we  find  it  in  the  fact  that  light  is  not  homogeneous  hut 
(MiniT»oun<l :  there  being  present,  in  every  lumiiious  emana- 
tion, undulations  insensibly  difleriug  from  each  other  in 
length  through  a  range  ai)proaehiiig  the  ratio  of  I  to  2. 
When  two  minute  and  isolated  portions  of  a  wave  thus 
constituted  are  brought  together  by  rcileetion,  by  refraction, 
or  by  ditfraclion,  at  a  very  minute  angle  and  with  a  very 
slightly  difl'erent  length  of  path,  interferences  of  aulago- 
nism  will  take  place  between  some  of  these  elementary 
movements,  and  interferences  of  reinforcement  between 
others.  Coloreil  stripes  or  fringes  will  therefore  make  their 
appearance  ;  but  these,  owing  to  the  diflerenees  of  interval 
between  those  of  different  colors,  will  at  each  repetition  be 
less  and  less  distinctly  separated  from  neighboring  ones,  and 
llie  whole  will  soon  overrun  each  other,  producing  while 
by  the  blending  of  their  colors,  and  uniformity  of  inlcnsily 
by  the  nverbipping  of  the  brighter  and  fainter  stripes. 
Even  with  wave  elements  from  the  same  source,  sensible 
interference  cannot  be  produced  when  the  paths  of  the 
uniting  waves  differ  by  more  than  a  very  few  units  in  the 
number  of  their  undulations.  The  jxissibility  of  their 
sensibly  interfering  at  all  therefore  depends  on  their  abso- 
lute identity  of  conilition  at  a  distance  from  the  point  of 
interference"  differing  by  only  this  small  amount,  .'^ueh 
identity  will  necessarily  be  found  at  contiguous  points  of 
a  wave  front  from  a  single  centre;  but  the  chances  are  in- 
tinitely  against  its  occurrence  in  points  taken  in  two  wave 
fronts"  from  different  centres.  To  this  it  maybe  added, 
that  the  actual  sources  in  nature  of  luminous  emanations 
are  not  jierfectly  fi.'sed  points.  There  are  irregularities  at 
the  very  origin  of  the  uudulatious.  or  at  the  surface  of  the 
luminous  body,  which  are  propagated  with  the  undulations, 
and  which  ]irevent  the  permanent  eoineideuce  or  conflict 
of  two  sets  of  undulations,  unless  both  arc  equilUy  affected 
by  the  same  irregularities.  An  instability,  for  example, 
.affecting  the  position  of  the  origin  of  two  successive  sets 
of  undulations  to  the  e.itent  of  a  single  one-hundred-thou- 
sandlh  part  of  an  inch,  would  put  tlicm  into  entirely  oppo- 
site jihases.  (^'onsidcring  the  activity  and  energy  of  the 
forces  .at  work  at  the  surfaces  of  incamlcsceut  bodies,  it  is 
impossible  to  believe  that  the  waves  they  generate  can  have 
their  origins  absolutely  invariable  in  position. 

Interference  is  the  cause  of  the  colors  of  thin  plates  or 
films  (as  those  of  soap-bubbles)  of  Newton's  rings  (which 
see),  of  ruled-plate  spectra  (see  Spectkim),  and  of  the 
iridescence  which  distinguishes  many  objects  in  the  mineral 
anil  organic  world.  In  the  earlier  history  of  optics,  most 
or  all  of  these  ]>henomena  were  accounted  for  more  or  less 
satisfactorily,  upon  hy]iolheses  having  nothing  in  common 
with  the  theory  of  umluhitioii.  Of  the  truth  of  the  undu- 
lalory  theory  itself,  Kresncl  jiroposcd  an  experimental  test, 
whieil  he  afterwards  successfully  em]iloyed  as  follows: 
— Two  mirrors  of  polished  metal  arc  placed  edge  to  edge 
and  very  nearly.  l>ut  not  (piile  in  the  same  plane.  A  small 
solar  beam  brought  into  a  dark  room  and  concentrated  by 
a  lens  of  short  focus  forms  a  radiant  before  these  mirrors. 

Fig.  2. 


The  light  from  this  radiant  reflected  by  these  mirrors, 
forms,  after  reflection,  two  intersecting  waves,  which,  being 
received  upon  a  screen,  produce  precisely  the  scries  of 


parallel  bright  and  dark  stripes  which  theory  leads  us  to 
anticipate. 

In  the  figure,  R  is  the  radiant,  A  B  and  A  C  are  the 
mirrors.  S  and  S'  are  the  apparent  sources  of  the  reflected 
undulations.  The  circular  ares  described  with  these  |iuints 
as  centres  represent  the  intersecting  waves,  the  full  lines 
representing  the  crests  and  the  dotted  lines  the  hollows. 
Where  two  full  lines  or  two  dotted  lines  intersect,  as  at  o 
and  I.  there  is  reinforcement,  and  a  bright  stripe  is  seen  ; 
where  the  intersectiim  takes  ]dace  between  a  full  line  and 
a  dotted  line,  there  is  conflict,  and  the  stripe  is  dark. 

Further  and  quite  conclusive  confirmation  of  the  truth 
of  this  theory  of  interference  has  been  derived  from  the 
chromatic  phenomena  of  polarized  light.  (See  Poi..\iiiZA- 
Tiox  "I-  I.ic^iiT.)  F.  A.  P.  Bah.nard. 

Inlcrfer'ciice  [Lat.  iuifr,  "between,"  and /cn're,  to 
'•strike  ■■].  or  IiiU-rvculiou  [Lat.  i;i(.rrcii(iVj, '-coming 
between"].  In  international  law  these  words  are  used  of 
the  measures  which  one  stale  takes  to  prevent  injury  to 
itself  arising  from  the  political  measures  of  another  state, 
or  growing  for  some  other  reason  out  of  the  other  sovereign's 
coniluct.  The  principal  cases  of  interference  are — first, 
that  for  the  purjiose  of  ]ireserving  the  balance  of  power — 
that  is,  of  preventing  a  state  from  gaining,  by  ]iolilical 
means  or  by  force,  an  accession  of  power  which  would  be 
dangerous  to  its  neighbors.  Many  alliances  and  wars  have 
take°i  place  in  Euroiie  on  this  ground  within  the  last  four 
centuries.  The  plea  here  is  self-preservaticm.  A  second 
class  of  instances  of  interference,  all  or  nearly  all  of  a 
modern  age.  have  grown  out  of  the  efforts  of  nations  to 
right  themselves  against  tyrannical  governments  by  revo- 
lution. The  plea  here  also  is  sell-preservation— that  no 
government  can  stand  ag.ainst  the  revolutionary  fever  of 
neighboring  countries.  But  the  plea  is  made  for  the  benefit 
of  The  powers  that  be,  and  not  lor  that  of  the  people.  As 
a  practical  rule,  it  does  not  ai)ply  to  great  nations  like 
France,  which  changes  its  political  forms  at  will,  without 
standing  in  fear  of  other  states.  It  is  also  a  dangerous 
rule  to  those  who  follow  it.  for  it  only  intensifies  revolutions 
within  and  without  by  exciting  the  feeling  that  there  is  a 
radical,  endless  antagonism  between  the  interest  and  \yill 
of  legitimate  governments,  so  called,  and  the  nations  which 
they^rv  to  keep  down.  A  llihil  and  more  righteous  kind 
of  "interference  is  that  used  when  a  government  commits 
great  inhumanitv  in  punishing  revolutionists,  or  great  cru- 
elty against  rebels  in  war.  (In  the  whole,  there  is  a  some- 
what viigue  border-line,  beyond  which,  in  extreme  cases, 
nations  having  common  interests  and  a  common  civilija- 
tion  will  pass,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  evil  or  to  avert 
danger  from  themselves.  T.  I).  Wool.SEY. 

In'terim,  the  name  of  certain  formulas  or  confessions 
of  faith  adopted  by  the  Reformation  in  (iermany  at  the  in- 
stance of  Charles  v..  with  the  object  of  maintaining  the 
«fii/ii«  </iin  until  a  general  council  could  dcciile  all  questions 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants.  There  were  three  such  : 
the  Interim  of  Hatishon  (loll  i.  of  Augsburg  (May  15, 
l.i4.S),  and  of  Lcijisic  (iJec.  22.  1518).  each  being  the  result 
of  conferences  between  Catholic  and  Protestant  theologians 
upon  the  points  at  issue.  These  interims  were  in  reality  des- 
potic ordinances  of  Charles  V,.  forbidding  the  Protestants  to 
innovate  n|ion  the  doctrines  or  rites  they  had  once  professed 
or  agreed  to.  No  permanent  result  could  be  expected  from 
such  attempts  at  compromise  ;  accordingly,  the  Leipsic  In- 
terim was  generally  disobeyed  and  resisted  by  arms,  was 
abrogated  by  Charles  in  15i2,  and  was  finally  superseded 
by  the  Angsiiurg  Confession,  confirmed  to  the  Protestant 
slates  in  l.i5.i  by  the  diet  of  .\ugsburg. 

In'terlakcil,  a  v.  of  .-Jwitzerland.  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
on  the  Aar.  It  has  only  InOU  or  20011  inhabitants,  and 
consists  mostly  of  hotels"  and  boanling-houses.  As  it  is 
beautifuUv  situ.ated.  and  its  surroumlings  presc  ut  some  of 
the  finest  prospects  of  Switzerland  (the  Slanbbach  and  the 
Jungfrau),  it  is  visited  during  the  summer  by  many  thou- 
sand tourists. 

In'lcrlutlc.  This  term,  which  originally  meant  certain 
short  pieces  of  music  inserted  between  the  acts  of  a  drama 
or  in  any  other  intervals  of  a  public  performance,  is  now 
more  coilimonlv  applied  to  the  brief  strains  usually  played 
by  organists  between  the  verses  of  metre  iisalms  and  hymns 
in  divine  worship.  Interludes  are  now  jiassing  out  of  use 
as  a  needless  interruption,  or  are  introduced  only  once  or 
twice  in  long  hymns  for  the  relief  of  the  singers. 

Iiitormit'tciit  Fe'vcr,  Agiic-roviM,  and  Apuc, 
an  essential,  periodic  fever  resulting  In.m  infection  ol  the 
blood  by  malaria  or  marsh-miasm.  JIalaria  emanates  from 
decomp'osing  vegetable  matter  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
air  and  the  sun's  heat.  It  exists  in  swampy  districts  and 
in  low,  damp,  umlrained  places,  upon  the  banks  of  rivers, 
upon  inlets  of  salt  water,  where  variable  water-level  and 
tides  expose  a  saturated  soil  to  the  atmosphere.     Malaria 


INTKRXAL   KKVKNUE-INTEKXATIOXAL   LAW. 


124:'. 


is  most  concentrated  and  intermittent  fever  most  prevalent 
and  severe  in  the  tropic?,  where  vegetation   is  luxuriant, 
ami  11  soil  enriched  by  decaying  plants  and  falling  foliage 
is  subjected  to  the  extreme  influences  of  alternate  seasons 
of  rain  and  drought.     In  temperate  regions  it  is  present  in 
new  districts.  ,!isappcnring  as  the  land  is  populated,  culti-  , 
vatcd,  and  drained.     It  may  appear  in  cities  by  the  expo- 
sure of  marshv  subsoil  when  excavating  to  build,  or  by  the 
escape  of  maiarial  air  from  defective  street   sewers  con- 
structed in  a  swampv  substratum  or  emptying  on  a  malarial 
water-course,  whose  tidal  changes  ilam  back  inarsh-iniasni  i 
to  escape  in  the  various  quarters  from   which  the  sewers 
extend.     Intermittent  fever  occurs  in  paroxysms  separated 
by  intermissions  or  non-febrile  periods.     The  paroxysms 
niay  recur  dailv.  constituting  the  "quotidian"  form,  or  on 
nlternale  days!  the  ■•tertian"  form,  since  it  recurs  on  the 
third  day,  including  the  previous  attack.     There  is  also  a 
"  ((uartan  "  form.     Kxccptiimally,  there  may  bo  a  "  double 
quotidian,"  with  one  strong  and  one  mild  attack  each  day;  ^ 
a  "  double  tertian,"  with  a  daily  onset,  that  of  every  second  , 
day  being  relatively   weak:  a'Moublc  quartan,"  having 
two   attacks   in    every    three    days.      Febrile    paroxysms  | 
usually  recur  at  a  definite  hour  each  day  or  alternate  day. 
A  recurrence  of  successive  paroxysms  at  an  earlier  hour  , 
for  each  attack  is  termed  "anticipating."  and  indicates  an  I 
increasing  malarial  influence.     When  the  paroxysms  come 
at  a  later  period,   with   successive  attacks,   it   is  termed 
"postponing"  or  "retarding,"  and  indicates  a  subsidence 
of  the  malarial  influence.     Paroxysms  may  occur  a  fen- 
hours  after  cx]posurc  to  malaria  or  after  a  period  of  incu- 
bation as  long  as  two  weeks.     A  paroxysm  has  three  dis- 
tinct periods  or  stages  :  (l)cold  stage;  (2)  hot  stage:  (3) 
sweating  stage.     The  average  duration  of  the  cold  stage  is  I 
one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour;  it  may  be  a  few 
moments  or  two  to  three  hours.     It  begins  with  shivering, 
chilliness  in  the  loins,  extending  to  back  and  limbs,  mus- 
cular tremor,  the  lips  quiver,  teeth  chatter,  and  the  whole 
bodv  is  shaken.    The  respiration  is  sighing,  the  pulse  feeble, 
the  "face  pale  or  livid,  the  nails  livid,  the  lingers  waxen  and 
cold.     The  general  surface  is  (lale,  cold,  often  shrivelled. 
The  thermometer  in  the  mouth  or  armpit,  however,  reveals 
an  increased   temperature  of  the  blood  even  in   the  cold 
sl.age,  the  blood   having  been   expelled  from  the  skin  and 
extremities  by  the  involuntary  contraction  of  the  elastic 
tissues  of  the  skin.     During  the  first  stage  there  is  therefore 
a  determination  of  blood  to  internal  organs,  which  may  bo 
dangerously  congested,  constituting  the  "pernicious"  or 
"  congestive  "  forms.    Headache,  vomiting,  tenderness  over 
the  liver  and  spleen,  arc  9yin|itomalic  of  such  congestion. 
The  transition  from  the  cold  to  the  hot  stage  is  gradual  ; 
chilliness  ceases,  flushings  of  he.al  are  felt,  "  the  coldness 
melts  away."     The  skin   becomes  hot  and  red,  pulse  full 
and   bounding,  the  face  flushed,  headache  increases,  the 
lem|ierature  of  the  surface  may  be  10o°  or  100°  F.     The 
duration  of  the  hot  stage  is  from  three  to  eight  hours.     The 
third  or  sweating  singe  at  lirsl  is  gradual ;  moisture  appears 
on   the  face,  snon   on    the   trunk   and   extremities.      Ileat. 
headache,  thirst,  and  restlessness  subsiile,  the  temperature 
falls  nipidlv,  the  person  is  drowsy,  falls  into  long  and  re- 
freshing sleep,  with  profuse  or  slight  sweating.     The  dura- 
tion of  this  stage  is  from  three  to  four  hours.     During  the 
intermissions  or  apyrexial  periiuls  there  may  be  good  health, 
or  in  graver  cases  impaired  digestion,  debility,  pallor,  or 
sallow  cachectic  complexion.     Malaria   ininoverishes  the 
red  corpuscles  ami  lessens  the  albumen  of  the  blood.     In- 
termiltent  fever  tends  to  recur  when  incompletely   cured, 
either  in  marked  paroxysms  or  in  less  pronounced  "  latent," 
"masked,"  "concealed"  forms,  vague  symptoms  of  ehilli- 
ncsa  and  weariness  known  as  "dumb  ague"  or  in  periodic 
neuralgia.     The  spleen  is  often  |iermanently  enlarged,  and 
is  termed  "  .igue  cake."     The  periodical  recurrence  of  the 
iiaroxvsms  is  due  to  successive  en"orls  at  elimination,  the 


nierval  being  the  time  required  for  the  zymotic  material 
f  malaria  to  redevelop  and  impress  the  system. 


tie  time  reqiui 

develop  and  it 

The  paroxysms  recpiiro  no  treatment  other  than  warm 
drinks  an.l  blanketing  .luring  the  cold  stage,  cooling  ilrinks 
and  sponging  during  the  febrile  or  hot  stage.  The  treal- 
locnt  for  the  prevention  of  the  paroxysms  is  to  be  in  the 
periods  of  intermission.  The  i  hief  of  remedies  is  the 
Peruvian  or  cinchona  bark,  and  the  alkaloids  derived  from 
it.  (iuinine  is  mostly  nseil  in  the  form  if  the  sulphate  ami 
Uisulphate,  less  oflen'the  muriate,  t'inchoniiie  is  an  alkaloi.l 
resembling  quinine,  but  less  powerful.  The  niotbcr-liquor 
from  which  these  nlkaloi.ls  are  precipitated  is  evaporated, 
and  an  impure,  eru.lc  sediment,  in  part  i|uinine  and  ein- 
ehonine,  and  mainlv  qiiini"idia  ami  cioclomioidin,  or 
amorphous  alkaloids. 'is  .ditained,  and  is  mneb  used— known 
as  "chinoidine."  Salicine.  the  alkaloid  of  willow  bark, 
berberinc,  piperine,  api"l.  eucalyptus,  and  other  vegetable 
substitutes  are  w.aker  and  less  eflicacious  than  quinine. 
(rode  "r  unblcaebed  quinine,  an  inexpensive  arliolo,  has 


recently  been  ascertained  to  have  the  full  efficacy.  Quinine 
is  given  either  in  one  full  dose  of  ten  or  more  grains  or  in 
divided  doses  of  live  grains  three  times  a  day  to  break  the 
jiaroxysms,  and  continued  in  smaller  doses  for  many  days 
to  prevent  their  recurrence.  Fowler's  solution  of  arseuite 
of  potash  is  second  only  to  quinine  in  power.  Nitric  acid, 
sulphites  of  soda,  ferrocyanidc  of  iron,  chloride  of  aniuio- 
niuni  are  al.«o  uscil.  The  patient  may  be  more  efliciently 
and  permanently  cured  by  combining  eholagogue  cathartics, 
and  subsequently  employing  iron  and  tonics  generally. 
The  prevention  of  intermittent  fever  is  to  be  sought  by 
soil-drainage,  by  avoiding  damp  night  air,  and  sleeping  in 
closed  rooms  well  above  the  ground.  The  sunflower  freely 
planted  adjacent  to  dwellings  has  been  considered  protec- 
tive by  absorbing  malaria,  and  more  recently  the  £iica- 
li/pliis'glnhiiliu,  or  Australian  fever  tree,  has  been  exten- 
sively planted  in  Algiers,  at  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  and  in 
Cuba,  and  is  asserted  to  lessen,  or  even  eradicate,  malaria 
by  its  presence.  K.  D.inwis  Hi  Dso.v,  Ju. 

Internal  Revenue.    See  Kevexi  e. 

Interna'tional  L.a\v,lNTRoiuTTioNTo.   International 
law  is  a  collection  of  rules  by  which  nations,  and  their 
members  respectively,  arc  supposed  to  be  governed  in  their 
relations  with  each  other.     In  its  exact  sense,  law  is  a  rule 
of  properlv  and  of  conduct  prescribed  by  sovereign  power. 
Strictly  speaking,  therefore,  as  nations  have  no  ecnnmon 
superior,  thev  cannot  be  said  to  be  subject  to  human  law. 
But  there  is  "nevertheless  a  body  of  rules,  more  or  less  gen- 
erally  recognized,   by  which   nations  profess  to   regulate 
their  own  ccmduct  towards  each  other,  and  the  conduct  of 
their  citizens  respectively.     Being  rules  of  jiropcrly  and 
of  conduct,  though  not  prescribed  by  a  superior,  they  are 
somewhat  looselv  designated  as  laws:  and  taken  together 
they  form  whtit  is  called  international  law.  and  as  such  are 
enforced  bv  each  nation  separately  upon  persons  and  things 
within  its  jurisdiction.     This  body  of  rules  is  derived  from 
custom  or  treaty.     From  the  earliest  times  there  must  have 
been  some  .«ort  of  rule,  tacit  or  expressed.  f<ir  the  inter- 
course, however  small,  which  must  have  existed   between 
nations,  and  must  have  begun  with  the  beginning  of  na- 
tions.   No  community  has  ever  yet  existed,  and  none  could 
exist,  so  independent:  and  isolated  as  to  have  no  communi- 
cation whatever  with  its  neighbors  ;  and  intercourse  between 
communities,  as  between  individuals,  necessarily  required 
some  kind  of   regulation.     We  find,  accordingly,  in   the 
oldest  historical   records,   mention  of  messengers  or  em- 
bassies .sent  bv  nation  or  king  to  another  nation  or  king, 
1  and  of  compacts  between  them.     Treaties  followed  the  iin- 
i  written  regulations  as  a  matter  of  course,  for  the  necessity 
i  of  changing  or  of  adding  to  existing  rules  led  to  express 
stipulations.    These  were  expressed  as  stipulations  between 
individuals  were  expressed  ;  orally  before  a  written  lan- 
guage was  known,  and  orally  or  in  writing  afterwards.   Of 
these  treaties  or  compacts  between  nations  there  are  many 
and  mullil'orni  records.     Various  collections  of  them  have 
been  made,  the   most   important  and  coinidele  of  which 
are  those  of  Domont,  Kousset.  Martens.  M<.rliard.  Saiuwer, 
Calvo,  and  I>e   Clercq.     Notwithstanding  the   treaties  ol 
every   kind   and   form   that    have   been   entered   into,  the 
greater  part  of  international  law  is  to  this  day  customary 
only.     These  customs  have  been  declared  and  enforced  by 
judicial  decisions,  and  .set  forth  in  the  writings  of  publi- 
cists in  all  the  languages  of  Euro]ie. 

The  b.idy  of  law  which  we  have  thus  described  is  some- 
times also' called  public  law,  or  the  law  of  nations.  Its 
formation  has  been  gradual,  and  its  history  is  curious  and 
instructive.  Thev  err  greatly  who  say  that  it  is  the  sole 
product  of  modcrii  times.  It  is  the  product  of  all  times  ever 
since  there  were  nations  upon  the  earth,  though  its  greatest 
development  is  unquestionably  modern.  The  .Anipbietyonic 
Council  enforced  a  kind  of  international  law  among  the 
(ireeks,  by  which,  among  other  things,  an  exchange  of 
prisoners  of  war  and  a  truce  after  a  battle  fir  the  burial 
of  the  dead  were  enjoined.  The  Humans,  improving  »]'"n 
the  (Jrccks,  instituted  a  college  of  heralds  for  the  declara- 
tion of  war.  and  established  one  important  and  bcnefieeni 
rnle  :  thai  none  but  a  soldier  sworn  into  the  service  could 
fight  the  common  enemy.  Christianity  wrought,  with  il^ 
other  changes,  a  great  change  in  public  law.  The  spirit 
of  Christian  brotherhood  found  its  way  into  cabinets  and 
camps.  The  citir.eii  ol  iinotbcr  stale  or  the  subject  of  an- 
other king  was  yet  a  brother  in  Christ,  and  the  barriers 
which  separated  natiims  were,  in  part  at  least,  tbriiwn 
down.  The  influence  of  the  Christian  Church  upon  the 
public  law  of  the  world  cannot  be  overestimated.  .As  soon 
as  the  brotherhood  id'  man  came  to  be  aeeepted  as  a  re- 
ligious tenet,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  old  doctrine  of  the 
natural  antipathy  of  nations  shoubl,  sr>oner  or  later,  dis- 
appear. In  the  "earliest  ages  the  stranger  had  been  sc- 
oounled  an  enemy,   and    even   the   victims   of   shipwreck 


1244 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


might  lawfully  have  boon  plundered.  Such  barbarities  fell 
before  the  gnjpti :  and  othtrs  (less  gross),  which  kept  their 
hold  in  spite  of  the  Bible  and  the  Church,  gradually  Ussened 
in  intensity  and  in  number.  The  laws  of  slates,  the  ordi- 
nances of  kings,  and  the  writings  of  publicists  have  mod- 
erated the  severity  of  earlier  times,  while  every  new  treaty 
between  nations  lias  been  an  addition  to  public  law.  Start- 
ing from  the  theory  of  the  natural  rights  of  men  and  the 
equality  of  nations",  publicists  have  striven  lo  establish  the 
code  of  ethics  as  the  law  of  nations.  Montesquieu  de- 
clared it  as  a  maxim  that  nations  .should  do  each  other  as 
muuh  good  in  peace  and  as  little  harm  in  war  as  possible 
without  injury  to  their  own  interests.  The  rules  of  the 
Ihinseatie  Leiigue,  the  laws  of  Wisby  ami  of  Oleron,  the 
I'onsolato  del  Mare,  and  the  Ordinances  of  Louis  XIV.  were 
all  so  many  contributions  to  international  law.  A  host  of 
writers  have  discussed  its  principles  and  enforced  its  pre- 
cepts. .Aristotle,  I'ieero,  Bacon,  tJrotius,  Barbeyrac,  I'uf- 
IVn.V.rf,  Wolfius,  Burlamaqui,  Rutherforth,  Bynkershoek, 
and  \attel  before  our  times,  and  in  our  own  days  Kent, 
Wheaton,  Phillimorc,  Twiss,  Lawrence,  Wharton,  Woolsey, 
llalleck.  Field,  lleffter.  Bluntschli.  Hautefeuille,  Cauchy, 
Paricu,  Masse,  Calv",  Mancini.  lloltzendorf,  tiiraud.  Gold- 
schmidt,  .\sser,  Lorimer,  Westlake,  Bernard,  and  Pieran- 
toni  are  among  those  who  have  written  on  the  subject.  Of 
all  these  writers,  lirotius  stands  as  the  acknowledged  head. 
As  now  existing,  international  law  is  a  science  of  which 
the  major  part  is  generally  understood  and  accepted.  The 
residue  consists  of  propositions  more  or  less  dis]iuted  or 
unsettled.  Kegarded  as  a  whole,  it  consists  of  two  main 
divisions  ;  one  treating  of  peace,  and  the  other  of  war,  or 
rather  of  the  relations  of  nations  and  of  their  members  to 
each  other,  excejit  as  they  are  modified  by  a  state  of  war, 
and  the  modifications  of  "these  relations  produced  by  war. 

The  portion  of  international  law  relating  to  peace  is  nat- 
urally subdivided  into  two  divisions;  one  public  and  the 
other  private.  Public  international  law  contains  the  rules 
respecting  the  relations  of  nations  to  each  other,  and  to  the 
members  of  other  nations  ;  private  international  law  con- 
tains the  rules  respecting  the  relations  of  the  members  of 
a  nation  to  the  members  of  other  nations.  Only  tlie  briefest 
possil)le  enumeration  of  the  subjects  treated  in  the  various 
subdivisions  of  these  two  departments  can  here  be  given. 
In  respect  to  the  first  department,  they  relate  to  the  essen- 
tial rights  of  nations,  such  as  their  sovereignty,  equality, 
]]crpetuity,  territory,  projierty :  to  their  extra-territorial 
action  in  regard  to  navigation,  discovery,  exploration,  and 
colonization;  to  fisheries  and  )iiracy ;  to  the  intercourse  of 
nations  with  each  other  by  means  of  accredited  agents  ;  to 
international  compacts,  asylum  and  extradition,  national 
character  and  jurisiliction,  and  domicile;  and  to  the  re- 
ciprocal duties  of  nations  to  foreigners,  and  of  foreigners 
to  the  nation  where  they  live,  in  respect  of  residence,  occu- 
pation, religion,  obedience  to  the  laws,  taxation,  civil  and 
military  service.  To  the  subject  of  private  internationni 
law  belong  provisions  respecting  private  rights  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice.  Hero  may  be  groujied  together 
regulations  concerning  personal  c.Tpacily,  social  condition, 
the  validity  and  iuterpretatiou  of  contracts,  the  ell'cel  of 
marriages  and  divorces,  the  devolution  of  property  at 
death,  the  administration  of  justice,  procedure  and  evi- 
denee,  as  these  subjects  apply  to  the  persons  and  property 
of  foreigners. 

This  brief  enumeration  shows  how  vast  is   the  scope, 
and    how    varicil    are    the    details,   of    international    law. 
The  tenilency  of  the  science  is  strongly  towards  ameliora- 
tion.    Various  causes  are  working  to  produce  this  result, 
such  as  increasing  intercourse  between  dift'erent  parts  of 
the  world  and  the  waste  and  suffering  of  war.     Men  are 
perceiving  more  and  more  the  need  of  reforming  and  of 
defining  clearly  the  rights  and  duties  of  nations,  that  war 
may  be  discouraged,  international  controversies  avoided, 
ami  international   intercourse  increased.      The  changing 
circumstances   of    men    always   require   a    corresponding 
change  in  the  rules  which  guide  and  restrain  them.     The 
opjircssion  of  standing  armies,  the  tyranny   of  conscrip- 
tions, the  burden  of  taxation  to  meet  the  interest  of  debts 
contracted  for  war.  are  all  so  many  moti\'es  to  modify,  if 
it  be  possible,  and  to  define  with  exactness,  the  rules  by 
which  nations  are  to  be  guided  in  their  intercourse  with 
each  other.     Of  all  the  measures  taken  in  our  time  for  the 
civilization  of  international  intercourse  and  the  settlement 
of  internati<uml  difTerenees.  none  is  comparable  to  that  of 
international  arbitration.     The  idea  is  not  new — indeed  it 
is  as  old  as  Henry  IV.  of  France — but  the  practice  is  mod- 
ern. America  has  the  honor,  on  whi<di  she  nmy  justly  pride 
herself,  of  having  oftenest  taught  by  ]ireeept  and  t»ftenest 
ailopteil  in  jtractiee  the  closing  of  international  controver- 
sies by  the  intervention  of  irnjiartial  arbiters.     There  arc 
many"  instances  of  international  arbitration,  and  among 
them  the  following:  One  in  17'J4,  between  the  U.  S.  and 


Great  Britain  to  decide  what  river  is  the  river  St.  Croix  ; 
one  in  1SU2,  between  the  V.  S.  and  Spain  respecting  the  ex- 
cesses committed  during  the  previous  war  ;  one  in  1S22  be- 
tween the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain  respecting  slaves  taken 
during  the  war  of  1S12  ;  ami  another  afterwards  between 
the  same  powers  respecting  the  limits  of  the  J^latecjf  Maine: 
then  in  1S4:;,  between  Great  Britain  and  France  respecting 
the  capture  of  British  ships  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa; 
in  1S:!'J  and  in  I  CfiS,  between  the  U.S.  and  Mexico  respect- 
ing claims  upon  the  latter:  in  lS5:t.  between  the  V .  S.  and 
Great  Britain  respect ing  certain  questions  under  former  tren- 
tics  ;  in  IS.'iti,  the  international  commission  at  the  mouths  of 
the  Danube;  in  18o7,  the  arbitr;ition  between  Prussia  and 
Switzerland  in  the  affair  of  Xeuichatel  ;  in  INiS,  between 
the  U.  S.  and  Chili  respecting  captures  by  the  latter;  in 
LSCn,  between  the  V.  S.  and  New  Grenada,  and  between 
the  U.  S.  and  Costa  Rica;  in  l.-<6:i,  between  the  U.  S.  and 
Peru  respecting  the  vessels  Lizzie  Thompson  and  Georgi- 
ana;  in  184'.l,  between  the  U.  S.  and  Brazil:  and  in  1.S67. 
respecting  the  grand  duehy  of  Luxemb.purg.  The  most 
memorable  instance  is  the  arbitration  of  Geneva  between 
the  r.  S.  and  Great  Britain  for  the  settlement  of  the  dis- 
pute growing  out  of  the  deprediitions  of  the  .Mabama  and 
other  Confederate  cruisers  built  and  sent  from  England 
during  the  civil  war.  This  arbitration  was  preceded  by  a 
joint''high  commission  of  the  two  governments,  by  which 
a  treaty  called  the  Treaty  of  Washington  was  negotiated, 
and  aii  arbitrntion  at  Geneva  agreed  ujion,  to  proceed  ac- 
cording to  three  rules  of  neutrality  then  first  formally 
enunciated. 

A  provision  for  arbitration  has  been  introduced  into 
several  treaties:  in  one  between  Spain  and  the  Hawaiian 
Islands :  in  another  between  Spain  and  Sweden  ;  in  another 
between  Spain  and  Uruguay  ;  and  in  seven  different  trea- 
ties negotiated  by  Sir  John  Bowring. 

The  arbitration  of  Geneva  was  followed  by  ft  TOtc  of  the 
British  House  of  Commons  on  July  S,  1873,  by  which,  on 
the  motion  of  Mr.  Henry  Rieh.ard,  it  was  resolved  :  "  That 
an  humble  address  be  presented  to  Her  Majesty,  praying 
that  she  will  be  graciously  pleased  to  instruct  her  principal 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  to  enter  into  commu- 
nication with  foreign  powers  with  a  view  to  further  im- 
provement in  international  law  and  the  establishment  of  a 
general  and  permanent  system  of  international  arbitra- 
tion." The  measures  which  have  been  lately  taken  for  the 
codificaticm  of  international  law  are  of  much  significance. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Social  Science,  held  at  Manchester  in  Oct.,  18IJfi.  » 
motion  was  made  by  Mr.  David  Dudley  Field  for  the  tt))- 
pointment  of  a  committee  to  prepare  the  outlines  of  an 
international  code.  The  proposal  was  agreed  to,  and  a 
committee  appointed,  comprising  jurists  of  different  coun- 
tries. Some  circumstances,  however,  led  Mr.  Field  to  pre- 
pare and  to  publish  in  1872  a  draft  of  the  whole  work, 
which  he  entitled  Hi-til'l  Oulliiict  of  iiii  Intrrniitional  Votlr. 
In  18(18  Prof.  Illunt.sehli  of  Heidelberg  published  a  work 
(M;ili:rncii  V,ill.-'ii;rlil  ilcr  L'hilisi'rlin  Stnlrii.  ah  lieclilt- 
hmh  LarijcKUlIt)  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
under  the  title  of  I)i„it  Inlimuiiuiml  Cui/i/it.  On  Sept.  8, 
187:1,  eleven  publicists  .assembled  at  Ghent  and  founded  »u 
institute  of  international  law.  The  number  of  members  is 
limited  to  fifty.  The  next  meeting  of  the  institute  was 
held  at  Geneva  in  Aug.,  1874,  and  the  Ibllowing  three  sub- 
jects were  there  more  or  less  examined,  anil  reports  there- 
on were  made:  uainelv,  international  arbitration  ;  the  three 
rules  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington  ;  and  private  interna- 
tional law.  On  0"ct.  10,  1873,  upon  the  invitation  of  an 
American  committee,  a  conference  was  held  at  Brussels, 
where  was  founded  an  association  for  the  reform  and  eodi- 
fieutiou  of  the  law  of  nations.  This  conference  was  at- 
tended by  representatives  from  America.  Kngland,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Belgium, 
comprising  soi'ne  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  on  inter- 
national law.  The  two  following  res.dutions  were  unani- 
mously adopted  :  "I.  The  conference  declares  that  an  in- 
ternational code,  defining  with  as  much  precision  as  pos- 


sible the  rights  and  duties  of  nations  and  of  their  members, 
is  eminently  desirable  in  the  interest  of  peace,  public  order, 
and  gcnera'l  prosperity.  It  is  therefore  of  opinion  that  no 
effort  should  be  neglected  to  obtain  the  preparation  and 
adoption  of  such  a  code.  The  conference  reserve  the  ques- 
tion as  lo  how  far  the  codification  of  interimtional  law 
should  be  simply  scientific,  and  how  far  it  should  be  incor- 
porated into  treaties  or  conventions  formally  accepted  l>y 
s,.vereign  slates.  H.  The  conference  declares  that  it  re- 
gar<l»  arbilnilion  as  the  means  essentially  just,  reasonalde, 
and  even  obligatory  upon  nations,  for  the  settlement  of  in- 
tcrniitional  differences  which  cannot  be  settled  by  negotia- 
tion. It  abstains  from  affirming  that  in  all  eases  without 
exception  these  means  are  applicable,  but  it  believes  that 
the  exceptions  are  rare.     It  is  convinced  that  no  difference 


INTERXATIONAL   LAW. 


1245 


own  1' 

same 


•hould  be  considered  as  insoluble  until  after  a  clear  expla- 
nation of  the  matter  in  difterence,  u  sufficient  delay,  and  i 
the  exhauatiou   of  all   |.acific  means  uf  acconimodution. 
This   association    had   another  meeting  in   1S7I.  at  which   I 
t.apcrs  were  ..resented  on  various  branches  of  international  | 
law      That  the  steps  thus  taken  may  lead  to  such  a  reform 
and  codification  of  internati..nal  law  as  will  define,  with  all 
the  precision  possible,  the  rights  and  duiies  of  nations,  and 
thus  lesson  the  occasions  of  dispute  and  the  ,.pp..rlunilies 
of  conflict,  the  wise  and  good  of  all  countries  must  de- 
voullvhope.  DAVm  D,  I.I.KV  Hkld. 

International  I.aAV,  Simmarv  or  its   Pkixciples. 

—I  ICi.ihlt  .1:1./  (M;,,„lluns  «(  \almis,  cjcrpt  ».-  Jar  n« 
/*,,■  „r/ Modijhd  I.J  iy„r.—  \.  Hero  we  speak,  first,  of  the 
essential  nature  of  a  slate,  and  of  the  parties  to  inter- 
national  law.  (.<)  An  individual  man  cannot  bo  a  party 
of  this  kind,  but  can  only  claim,  if  a  stranger,  humane 
treatment.  The  law  of  nature  will  be  respected  by  the 
courts,  but  the  law  of  nations  is  not  as  broad  nor  does  it 
cover  the  same  ground  as  the  law  of  nature.  «  hen  certain 
blacks,  imported  against  Spanish  law  into  Cuba,  rose  on 
the  crew,  killed  the  captain,  and  came  into  the  waters  of 
the  U.  S.,  our  Supremo  Court  held  that  if  not  slaves  they 
were  not  eommitting  piracy  in  getting  the  vessel  into  their 
ower;  and  so  thcv  were  not  delivered  up.  liy  the 
application  of  the'laws  of  humanity,  persons  fleeing 
fr.mi  cruelty  at  home,  or  shipwrecko.l  mariners  from  a 
country  not  under  our  law  of  nations,  would  be  treated 
with  the  same  kindness  as  those  with  whose  countries  we 
had  treaty  relations. 

None  are  parties  to  international  law  except  independent 
oreaniie.i  communities— that  is.  nations  properly  so  speak- 
in-,  communilios  having  the  full  power  of  making  treaty 
contracts  with  other  nations.  This  definition  will  exclude 
from  active  partnership  in  international  law  all  protected 
or  dependent  states,  all  provinces  and  colonies,  all  eon- 
tcdcracies,  the  members  of  which  by  their  organic  law  form 
3  close  union,  and  the  separate  kingdoms  which  become 
one  by  a  perpetual  compact.  Thus,  the  separate  States  ot 
the  U.  S.  have  no  more  power  than  private  persons  have 
of  making  arrang.-menls  with  foreign  nations,  unless  per- 
haps that  ol  selling  Slate  lands  to  them  for  purposes  not 
inconsistent  with  the  Federal  Union.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  form  of  governinont  or  of  religion  excludes  an  inde- 
pendent state  from  participation  in  international  law; 
there  are  examples  of  all  forms  of  government  among  the 
nations  which  acknowlc.l-e  this  law,  and  of  various  forms 
of  a  common  Christian  religion;  even  Turkey,  a  Moham- 
medan state,  belongs  to  this  international  brotherhood,  and 
there  are  si^ns  that  other  stales  more  remote  from  our  civ- 
iliiation  will  move  in  the  same  direction.  Although  the 
present  international  law  originated  within  the  circle  ot 
Christian  nations,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  ein-  ; 
brace  heathen  states  if  they  could  consent  to  come  under 
its  iirovisions. 

(h)  Independent  states  arc  said  to  be  norerci./ii  ami  c/iiof. 
The  latter  term  dioiolcs  r<iHnl!l,i  in  rights  and  obligations, 
which  is  the  same  as  saying  that  they  are  all  equally  states, 
r,r  a  slate  has  certain  fixed  relations  towards  the  members 
of  it,  and  towards  other  states,  out  of  which  rights  and  obli- 
gations grow.  Si/.f,  therefore,  and  rank  or  dignity  according 
to  the  etiquette  of  courts,  have  nothing  to  do  with  this  slate 
cqaalitv.  .VovrciViif^,  again,  denotes  properly  the  condition 
of  havi'n"  no  superior  in  the  political  sj.here,  and  is  insepa- 
rable from  in  li'pcn.lonce.  It  is  an  unfortunate  word,  espe- 
cially in  the  U.  S.,  because  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
talkin"  of  qualified  and  divided  sovereignly.  But  as  far 
as  inlernali.inal  law  is  concerned,  only  the  Union  or  state 
cilled  the  United  States  is  sovereign;  the  separate  States 
in  this  sense  have  not  a  particle  of  sovereignty.  But  the 
Slates  have  local  powers  of  great  moment,  and  might  com- 
mit a  crime  against  the  law  of  nations.  Who  is  respon- 
sible? Clearly  the  U.  S.  Some  one  must  be,  and  no  one 
else,  under  our  Constilution,  can  bo  called  to  account. 

(e)  Kvery  state  which  is  capable  by  its  organization  of 
fiiUilling  the  ends  fur  which  states  exist,  and  especially 
that  of  entering  into  treaty  relations  to  others,  is  /r./iti'mn/c. 
International  law  knows  onlv  states  dc  facto:  it  does  not 
iretend  to  decide  that  allhough  they  exist  they  have  no 
ridil  to  exist,  nor  dois  it  pretend  to  deny  such  right  to 
an  organized  communilv  that  has  begun  to  exist  by  revo- 
Intionarv  means.  In  fact,  a  large  part  of  the  slates  of  Eu- 
rope anil  America  have  in  violent  ways  passed  through 
scparalions  or  unions  or  changis  of  form  within  the  last 
century.  It  mav  happen,  however,  that  an  organized  com- 
munity, which  lias  heretofore  been  a  portion  or  a  depend- 
ence of  another,  is  acting  as  an  independent  body,  and  re- 
sistin"  efforls  to  force  it  back  into  its  former  condition. 
Whatsis  the  legal  attitude  of  old  stales  toward  such  a  new- 
comer' They  have  no  relations  lo  it  whatever,  and  have 
acknowledged  the  state  from  which  it  has  separated  as  one 


of  their  bodv.  Thev  can,  if  they  please,  aid  the  parent 
state  to  subdue  it:  a'gainst  this  help  from  one  state  to  an- 
other there  is  no  law.  Or  they  can  remain  neutral  while  a 
contest  is  going  on.  But  they  cannot  aid  the  insurrection- 
ists wilhoul  thereliy  engaging  in  war  with  the  parent  stale ; 
and  if  the  new  coniniuuity  has  so  far  become  inde]iendent 
that  the  parent  state  gives  up  endeavors  to  bring  it  back 
into  subjection— if.  in  short,  the  new  state  is  without  ques- 
tion a  slate  dc  fuctv — they  cannot,  with  any  reason  or  pro- 
priety, refuse  to  concede  to  the  eiunmunily  thus  born  a  place 
among  the  parlies  to  international  law.  A  slate  being  a 
miirdFiii  pert'iiia.  capable  of  taking  obligations  upon  itself, 
cannot  destrov  the  obligations  by  any  change  of  eonstitn- 
tion.  Thus,  the  V .  S.  acknowledged  that  it  was  bound  to 
pay  the  debts  of  the  old  Confederation,  and  when  Denmark 
and  Norway  separated  in  1S14  they  look  each  an  equitable 
share  of  the  debt  of  the  old  kingdom. 

(</)  A  state's  independence  is  exercised  especially  in  the 
free  management  of  internal  affairs.     The  right  of  inter- 
ference in  the  internal  policy  of  a  state,  or  even  in  its  ex- 
ternal peaceful  policv.  is  so  inconsistent  with  the  end  for 
which  separate  states  exist  in  the  world  that  such  inde- 
pendence is  universally  aeknowledgid.    Yet  there  are  sev- 
eral exceptions  to  the  rule  of  non-interferrnce  cither  en- 
dorsed or  admitted  by  international  law.    The  first  of  these 
that  we  mention  is  interference  for  the  preservation  of  the 
balance  of  power.     That  is,  -whrn.  by  diplomatic  means,  a 
state  is  bec.iming  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  its  neighbors,  it 
is  held  that  thev  mav  fake  combined  measures  lo  check  such 
growth.    Thus!  when  by  management  in  1  TiMi  the  throne  of 
Spain  passed  over  to  a  grandson  of  Louis  XVI..  a  large  part 
of  the  European  powers  combined  to  prevent  it.  and  wilb 
this  the  war  of  Succession  was  begun.    Intervention  for  this 
purpose  will  not  be  resorted  to  unless  the  aggrandizeiueut 
takes  place  bv  political  measures,  unless  those  who  arc  par- 
ties to  it  live"  near  enough  to  fear  each  other's  increase  of 
power,  and  unless  such   increase  takes  place  on  the  land. 
Commercial  growth,  colonial  growth  in  remote  parts,  fur- 
nish little  ground  for  apprehension.     The  jiica  lor  inter- 
vention in  this  case  is  self-preservation.     The  same  plea, 
after  the  French  Kevolulion  and  the  fall  of  NaiioUon,  was 
made  for  iuterference  in  the  hitnuul  afi'airs  of  oilier  states. 
It  was  urged  that  the  right  of  a  peoide  to  alter  lis  govern- 
ment against  the  will  of  the  reigning  dynasty  is  danger- 
ous, anil  that  revolution  is  opposed  to  lbs  peace  of  all  sjatcs 
in  the  neighborhood.    On  this  plea  some  ot  the  leading  pow- 
ers of  Europe  put  down  revolutions  in  Italy  and  Spnui.  al- 
though they  did  not  venture  to  obstruct  the  way  ol  rcMJu- 
tion  in  France  after  the  restoialiiui  of  Ihe  Bourbons.     'Ihe 
principle  has  never  been  admitted  by  England:  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  principle  of  national  sovereignty,  and  it  only 
delays  and  intensifies  revolution.     A  princi|.le  just  the  op- 
posite of  such   intervention,   and   intended  to   prevent   lis 
application  to  the  Spanish  South  American  republics,  lay 
at  the  bottom  of  the  "Monroe  Doctrine  "-that  is.  of  the 
declaration,  made  bv  Pres.  Jlonroe  in  1^23,  that  the  U.  S. 
would  ''consider  anv  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  allied  Eu- 
ropean powers  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion  ol  our 
hemisphere  as  dangenms  to  our  peace  ami  salely.       Ibis 
declaration,  highly  jusi  and  timely,  against  political  inlcr- 
fcrenco  was  made  in  concurrence  with  English  policy,  at  a 
time  when  Mr.  Canning  opposed  the  measures  ol  the  had- 
ing eontinenlal  states,  and  it  had  a  decided  eflect.    JSor  has 
the  policv  on  our  part  ever  been  altered.      lo  this  righteous 
ound  for  interlerence  we  add  anolher.  diclated  by  feel- 
of  humanilv,  when  anv  great  cruelly  or  barharily  is 


I" 


comm'itledr'such  was  Vhepret"ext  f..r  interfering  on  behalf 
of  the  Creeks  in  their  struggle  for  liberly  in  l^.. .  1  ic 
three  great  iiowers.  tircat  Britain.  France,  and  Hussia.  by 
their  efl-cclua:  aid  destroyed  the  Turkish  power  in  .'-oulbern 
(Ireeco  and  built  up  a  Creek  monarchy.  It  is  held.  als... 
that  atrocious  barbarities  in  war,  csneeially  in  civil  war, 

but  measures  lor  Ihe 


will  justify  not  onlv  reinonstranees, 
prolection"  of  the  weaker  power,  to  the  extent  even  ol  an 
earlier  recognili.in  of  its  independence  on  that  account. 
But  all  thcso  instances  of  interference,  so  lar  as  they  arc 
to  be  iuslificd  at  all.  are  to  be  regarded  as  extreme  and 
exceptional  cases.  T^ie  exception  must  bo  looked  at  wilh 
severe  impartiality,  as  a  measure  of  necessity,  and  not  be 

made  Ihe  rule.  ,  n-      ■ 

2.  Anolher  right  of  a  state  is  that  of  Prnperlf/niKl  hn-i- 
ton/  A  stale  cannot  exist  wilhoul  being  sovereign  wilhin 
eer'lnin  limits.  A  slate  may  hold  properly  like  a  private 
person,  such  as  public  buildings,  ships  and  forts,  ulioecu- 
pied  lands,  etc.;  it  is  Ihe  protector  id'  all  private  property 
within  its  limits,  and  has  the  right  of  taxing  its  ciiizens  or 
subjects:  and  it  is  also  territorial  sovereign  within  the 
"same  limits,  by  which  is  intended  that  it  exercises  juris- 
.liclion  there  over  properly,  territory,  etc.  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  foreicn  powers.  A  state's  territory  consists  ol  all  the 
surface  uf  the  earth,  land  or  water,  wiiliin  such  l.coindaries ; 


124(5 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


of  the  sea-line  to  the  dislancc  of  a  marine  league  from  the  | 
shore:  and  of  harbors,  gulfs,  and  straits  within  certain  not 
very  reniole  headlands.  Jlere  observe  (n)  that  the  elaiui 
of  control  over  the  sea  for  a  marine  league  is  a  rule  dictated 
by  sclf-nreservalion  and  the  necessities  of  conuucrce.  If, 
for  instance,  war  between  two  other  powers  could  be  waged 
within  sight  of  land,  serious  evils  to  the  nation  inhabiting 
the  land  would  grow  out  of  it ;  and  if  there  were  no  control 
over  the  i>|>erations  of  commerce  within  a  moderate  distance 
from  the  shore,  there  would  be  room  for  many  evasions  of 
the  laws  touching  the  revenue.  The  eontr<il  over  such  an 
extent  of  sea  is  an  iuiiilmi  to  the  occupation  of  the  coast.  I 
(4)  There  is  no  absolute  rule  as  to  the  remoteness  of  the 
headlands  within  which  the  waters  are  subject  to  territorial 
laws.  It  is  perh.aps  enough  to  say  that  they  ought  to  bo 
near  enough  to  enable  vessels  to  ascertain  when  they  arc  j 
within  territorial  jurisdiction,  and  that  a  very  considerable  i 
interval  would  obstruct  the  freedom  of  the  seas  and  be  un- 
necessary for  national  self-defence,  (e)  Outside  of  such 
limits  tlie  sea  is  free  to  all  nations,  so  that  the  right  of 
using  it  for  commerce  or  for  fishing  purposes  is  eomiuon.  | 
But  wliilc  fishing— c.;/.  on  the  banks  of  Xewfouudland,  as 
being  a  part  of  the  ocean— is  free,  the  power  of  spreading 
and  drying  nets  and  of  curing  fish  on  adjoining  coasts  caii 
be  lawfully  exercised  by  foreigners  only  under  sanction  of 
treaties,  (tl)  It  was  claimed  by  llUbuer  and  other  writers 
in  the  interest  of  neutrals  in  the  last  century  that  HhqM  on 
the  high  seas  were  territory.  This,  however,  was  an  un- 
fouudctl  position,  taken  for  the  purpose  of  preventing,  as 
far  as  theory  could,  the  cxcrcisoof  war-rights,  such  as  that 
of  searching  neutral  vessels.  A  commercial  vessel  on  the 
high  sea,  so  long  as  it  retains  the  national  character  and 
commits  no  )iiratical  act,  is  under  the  exclusive  juris- 
diction of  its  own  courts,  but  its  deck  is  not  properly 
territory.  The  vessel  is  sim]dy  private  property  under 
the  jiroteetion  of  its  own  country.  Hence,  when  it  lies 
in  a  foreign  port  it  may  be  attached  for  debt,  and  its 
crew  may  be  amenable  to  the  laws  of  the  port  and  of  the 
foreign  country,  (ci  Ilivcrs  bounding  two  states,  unless 
treaty  pronounces  otherwise,  are  common  to  both,  and  the 
boundary-line  passes  ahmg  the  principal  channel.  (/) 
Rivers  rising  in  one  state,  and  having  their  entrances 
into  the  sea  in  another,  have  been  treated  by  international 
law  as  subject  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  state 
within  whose  boundaries  they  are  contained.  Thus,  the 
dwellers  on  the  upper  waters  have  no  right  to  descend  to 
the  sea  through  other  territory  except  by  concession  ;  and 
yet  there  seciiis  to  be  the  highest  equity,  amounting  almost 
to  a  right,  in  their  free  use  of  the  entire  river.  The  conflict 
between  strict  territoriiil  right  and  this  equitable  claim  has 
been  settled  by  a  succession  of  treaties,  chiefly  made  within 
the  last  sixty  years,  which  have  now  opencil  all  or  nearly 
all  the  navigable  rivers  of  the  Christian  world  to  those  who 
live  in  states  situated  on  their  uiiper  waters,  and  some  of 
them  to  outside  nations.  The  Rhine  and  the  .Scheldt  were 
opened  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  lSl.i;  the  Danube  by 
the  Peace  of  Paris  in  l.S.')li:  the  La  Plata  and  its  great 
system  of  waters  by  treaties  from  18 jl!  onward;  the  Ama- 
zon in  isfifi  ;  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  after  varying  arrange- 
ments, by  the  Treaty  of  Washington  in  isri,  which  treaty 
also  provided  for  the  free  navigation  of  the  Yukon,  Porcu- 
pine, and  .Stikine,  rivers  of  Alaska,  as  an  earlier  one  had 
provided  for  that  of  a  principal  branch  of  the  Columbia 
rising  in  British  territory, 

'.).  The  Rrlaliiina  of  t'lireijitern  in'lliin  n  Coiiiiln/  to  ils 
Laim  and  Hurernmeut.—lUve:  we  eomo  to  a  department  of 
international  law  where  the  rules  of  comity,  or  of  humanity 
and  comity — that  is,  not  of  strict  right  and  obligation,  but 
of  equity  "and  duty — determine  the  shape  of  the  science. 
Of  course,  these  rules  express  themselves  with  some  diller- 
ences  in  a  multitude  of  treaties,  but  the  general  tendency 
of  modern  times  is  towards  increased  privilege,  so  that  all 
the  disadvantages  of  one  foreign  nation  as  compared  with 
another  arc  disappearing  with  every  new  treaty.  It  has 
been  contendcil  that  no  nation  has  a  ri'jht  to  shut  its  ports 
to  the  rest  of  the  world  or  to  prevent  their  passage  through 
its  territory,  if  this  should  be  necessary  for  their  interests. 
It  has  even  been  said  that  there  is  no  right  of  cutting  off 
other  nations  from  the  use  of  necessaries  that  cannot  be  ob- 
tained elsewhere.  But  intercourse  can  hariUy  be  called  a 
right  between  nations,  any  more  Ihau  between  individuals 
of  the  same  nation.  I  nni  not  bound  to  trade  with  anyone, 
but  may  raise  everything  which  I  use.  I  have  the  right  of 
contract,  but  nobody  is  bound  to  make  a  contract  with  me. 
The  most  civilized  nations  obstruct  the  way  of  free  trade 
by  highly  protective  tariffs.  The  true  view  seems  to  bo 
that  a  nation  may  shut  itself  out  from  the  society  of  the 
world,  and  that  there  is  no  right  to  force  it  from  auch  a 
position.  And  in  truth  intercourse  takes  care  of  itself:  it 
is  so  natural,  a  savage  even  is  so  ready  to  accept  that  which 
he  cannot  produce  in  exchange  for  that  of  which  ho  has  an 


abundance,  that  only  an  ojiportunity  of  awakening  a  sense 
of  want,  and  fair  treatment  afterward,  are  needc(L  The 
])riucipal  jioints  to  be  noticed  under  this  head  are — («)lhat 
aliens  eutering  a  country  are  subject  to  its  laws,  unless  ex- 
empted by  treiity  or  internaticjnal  usage,  (b)  Their  con- 
dition is  not  necessarily  tlnit  of  citizens — in  fact,  ordinarily 
they  cannot  vote  nor  hold  re;il  property — but  they  have  a 
secure  enjoyment  of  their  proj)erty,  subject  to  ordinary  tax- 
ation, the  use  of  the  courts,  and  the  same  rights  of  contract 
and  eomniuuication  with  others.  Sometimes  they  are  called 
on  to  aid  the  country  by  persoiuil  service  in  time  of  war,  but 
this,  we  believe,  is  not  common  unless  they  are  domiciled, 
nor  does  it  seem  to  be  right.  They  can  make  wills  in 
favor  of  heirs  abroad,  transmit  property  to  their  own  land, 
and  have  consuls  as  well  as  aml>:isPadors  of  their  native 
country  as  their  protectors,  (c)  There  are  several  de- 
scriptions of  persons  who  enjoy  what  is  called  exterrito- 
riality— that  is,  they  arc  exempt,  in  whole  or  in  part,  from 
the  action  of  local  laws — such  as  sovereigns  travelling 
through  a  foreign  friendly  country,  ships  of  war  in  its 
ports,  foreign  armies  if  allowed  to  pass  through  its  borders, 
and  ambassadors  accredited  to  its  government.  The  crews 
of  ships  of  war,  when  on  shore,  arc  under  the  control  of  the 
ptdice;  and  it  seems  that  police  ])Owcr  may  be  exercised 
when  soldiers  in  transit  stray  away  from  the  army  or  from 
their  corps.  The  exterritori:ility  of  ambassadors  will  be 
considered  hereafter,  {it)  There  are  some  nations  where, 
by  special  treaties,  the  residents  from  Christian  lands  are 
exempt  from  the  local  laws,  and  ]daccd  under  the  protec- 
tion of  consuls  or  other  representatives  of  their  own  nation. 
This  practice  first  arose  in  the  Jliddlc  Ages,  when  there 
seemed  to  be  a  wide  gulf  between  the  Turks  and  the  Chris- 
tians, and  when  personal,  instead  of  territorial,  law  did  not 
seem  as  strange  as  it  docs  now.  Such  nations  are  Turkey, 
JIuscat,  Japan,  and  China.  Thus,  by  the  treaty  of  1858 
criminal  acts  of  Chinese  subjects  towards  citizens  of  the 
U.  8.  are  punishable  by  the  Chinese  authorities  according 
to  the  law  of  China,  and  "citizens  of  the  U.  S.,  either  on 
shore  or  in  any  merchant  vessel,  who  may  insult,  trouble, 
or  wound  the  persons  or  injure  the  property  of  Chinese,  or 
commit  any  other  im]iroper  act  in  China,  shall  be  punished 
only  by  the  consul  or  other  public  functionary  thereto 
authorized  according  to  the  laws  of  the  V.  S."  The  saino 
provision  is  found  in  our  treaty  of  18j8  with  Japan,  by 
which  also  the  courts  of  Japan  and  the  consular  courts  are 
respectively  opened  for  the  recovery  of  just  claims,  (e) 
Foreigners  may  have  privileges  in  Christian  states,  if  mere 
residents  or  travellers.  But  there  is  also  a  condition  known 
to  the  law  called  ilfimirilc,  the  criterion  of  which  consists  in 
residence  with  no  intention  of  returning  to  one's  native 
country  or  departing  elsewhere  except  for  temporary  pur- 
poses. This  status  is  of  inqtortance  where  the  question  is. 
Who  is  an  enemy  aiul  who  a  neutral  ?  It  is  also  of  import- 
ance in  IxTEn.NATioNAi.  PuivATi:  Law  (which  sec).  (/) 
There  is  still  a  closer  relation  which  an  alien  may  form 
with  the  country  of  his  residence,  called  mititni/lzfition.  By 
this  process  he  becomes  a  citizen,  ha^■ing  all  or  nearly  all 
the  rights  of  native-born  citizens.  In  England  it  was  for- 
merly held  that  no  English  native-born  subject  could  ex- 
patriate himself,  nor  could  a  foreigner  be  naturalized  with- 
out a  special  act  of  Parliament.  But  by  an  act  of  1814  a 
principal  secretary  of  state,  on  petition  from  a  foreigner 
desirous  of  being  naturalized,  can  grant  him  all  the  ca|)a- 
citics  and  rights  of  a  natural-born  British  subject  except 
that  of  being  a  member  of  the  privy  council  or  a  member 
of  either  house  of  Parliament.  The  secretary  may  except 
other  rights  also.  In  the  U.  S.  five  years'  residence  is  neces- 
sary before  naturalization,  and  three  years'  residence  after 
a  U'gal  ileclaration  of  intention  to  become  n  citizen  and  to 
renounce  former  nationality.  (;/)  As  the  laws  of  countries 
difl'er  in  regard  to  the  hold  they  have  upon  native-born 
persons,  it  may  happen  that  one  is  legally  a  citizen  or  sub- 
ject of  two  states,  and  collisions  of  jurisdiction  can  thence 
arise.  Recent  arrangements  with  the  North  Oerman  Con- 
feeleralion,  with  Bavaria,  and  with  (ireat  Britain  have  re- 
moved a  great  part  of  the  possibility  of  such  collisions. 
(/,)  Aliens  taking  refuge  in  any  country  on  account  of 
crime  form  a  class  by  themselves.  If  the  crime  is  political 
the  freest  nations  now  give  to  such  persims  their  protection. 
If  it  is  a  gross  crime  against  person  or  ])roperty,  treaties  of 
extradition  provide  for  their  being  delivered  up.  This  sub- 
ject, which  has  a  connection  with  international  private 
law,  will  be  considered  under  that  title.  (0  The  rights  of 
copy  and  patent  which  persons  enjoy  in  their  own  country 
are  "to  a  considerable  extent  granted  to  them  in  other  coun- 
tries according  to  a  rule  of  reciprocity. 

4.  A.  The  Riiihta  iif  Lnjulinti  anil  Urprcscntalion,  or  Ain- 
bnitnilorn  niirf  Comiils. — Every  party  to  international  law 
is  a  treaty-making  power,  and  every  such  power  must  act 
by  some  representative.  No  inferior  community,  no  body 
of  lower  grade  than  a  stale,  no  organization  trying  to  be- 


INTERNATIONAL   LAW. 


l'>47 


come  a  state  but  not  yet  reeostniied  as  such,  is  entitled  to  ! 
scnil  reprcscnl-.itivfj  abroad  who  have  international  rights. 
A  province  vr  colony  or  city  may  have  agents  in  foreign 
lands,  but  such  persons  have  none  of  the  rights  of  aiiihai- 
tailori.  This  term,  iimbiitimi'ir,  iniiy  bo  used  generically 
to  include  various  grades  or  kinds  of  diplonialic  ministers, 
and  it  is  often  used  also  to  denote  mif,  and  generally  the 
hiiihcti.  class  of  such  ministers.  Other  words  arc  Itijulet 
Olid  iiH/iriV,«.  usually  denoting  rcprescutatives  of  the  pope; 
chnnjfn  d'nffnirrt,  si  word  for  a  lower  grade  of  ambassadors  ; 
c»r«i/«  and  pleuiiMlrnli'iriet.  which  latter  term  generally 
means  less  than  its  derivation  implies.  There  are  again 
ambassador?  sent  for  a  particular  object,  and  others  whose 
functions  relate  to  all  the  political  transactions  of  a  nation 
with  another;  there  arc  temporary  and  resident  ambassa- 
dors; there  are  also  persons  who  discharge  the  office  with- 
out taking  the  name,  as  kings  or  commanders  of  armies 
sometimes  negotiate  treaties.  .All  ambassadors,  of  what- 
ever rank  they  may  bo,  have  the  privileges  ivhich  belong 
to  this  class  of  persons  by  the  law  of  nations.  j 

Ambassadors  have  had  from  very  early  times  a  sacred  I 
character,  which  has  been  sometimes  accounted  for  by  their  | 
being  origin.ally  persons  of  a  religious  order  :  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  say  that  the  office  was  protected  by  religious  sanc- 
tions on  account  of  its  great  importance.  The  ancient 
herald  became  a  sacred  person  because  ho  could  not  other-  j 
wise  safelv  mediate  between  armctl  men.  The  ambassador 
needs  for  his  protection  the  same  sanctions,  and,  as  he 
represents  the  highest  interests  of  a  state,  it  is  a  great 
crime  to  treat  him  with  indignity  or  injury.  There  is  a 
difference  between  the  ambassadors  of  ancient  and  those 
of  modern  times,  consisting  especially  in  iliin — that  the 
former  were  sent  for  a  temporary  purpose,  and  relumed 
after  completing  their  work,  but  the  latter,  since  the  time 
of  Louis  XI.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  Ihc  Catholic  of 
Spain,  have  generally  resided  in  the  foreign  country  for  a 
considerable  time.  The  resident  minister  is  now  expected 
to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  piditics  nf  the  country 
where  he  lives,  to  calculate  the  chances  of  war  and  peace, 
to  use  a  constant  influence  in  behalf  of  his  own  country: 
and  thus,  since  this  custom  began,  nations  have  felt  them- 
selves more  secure  than  before.  As  intercourse  is  suspended 
by  war.  ambassadors,  on  the  outbreak  of  a  war  or  in  ex- 
pectation of  it.  are  either  dismissed  or  summoned  home. 
When  peace  returns,  the  renewal  of  intercourse  is  marked 
by  the  parties  receiving  each  other's  diplomatic  represent- 
atives. 

.\n  ambassador  represents  the  sovereign  or  the  sov- 
ereignty of  his  country.  In  a  republic  Ihc  power  of  ap- 
p.iinting  such  officers  is  determined  by  Ihc  constitution  or 
the  laws,  but  instructions  are  given  by  the  executive  au- 
thority. In  most  monarchies  the  king  or  emperor  appoints 
those  who  represent  him  in  foreign  courts,  but  this  he  docs 
as  the  head  of  the  government.  Hence,  when  a  sovereign 
is  deposed,  and  is  no  longer  the  aetual  bead  of  the  ailiuin- 
islration,  other  ccuintrics  are  not  bound  to  recognize  bis 
ambassadors,  nor  on  the  other  hand  are  they  bound  to  re- 
ceive those  of  a  new  sovereign  tie  i'hHo.  The  rule  here, 
apart  from  dynas'ie  and  political  preferences,  is  the  same 
which  holds  good  when  new  slates  are  recognized.  When 
the  lie  I'lirln  government  is  ncfiuicsced  in  by  a  country,  and 
is  in  orderly  operation,  other  countries  will  enter  into  neiv 
diplomatic  relations  with  it.  If  agents  of  the  old  and  dis- 
placeil  anihorily  are  received  also,  they  will  have  no  rank, 
and  to  do  thisal  all  after  an  established  stale  of  things 
exists  in  the  revolutionized  country  is  an  unfriemlly  pro- 
ceeding, implying  a  hope  that  there  may  bo  a  countor- 
rcvnbition. 

The  privileges  of  anibaosadors  may  be  comprised  under 
the  terms  inviidabilily  and  exterritoriality.  As  llie  privi- 
leges Ihemselvcs  arc,  in  great  part  at  least,  due  to  comity, 
and  as  the  feelings  of  men  \vill  change  from  age  to  ago 
with  changes  of  civilization  and  greater  closeness  of  inter- 
course, these  terms,  especially  the  second,  may  vary  some- 
what in  their  extent  of  meaning.  It  will  not  be  safe  to  give 
to  exterritoriality  the  broarlcst  meaning  it  can  bear,  an<l 
then  from  that  meaning  deduce  the  privileges  accorded. 
^\'e  must  inquire  what  is  the  general  umlerstanding  of  the 
present  age  in  regard  to  the  position  which  an  ambassador 
may  lake  in  a  foreign  land,  and  then  ])erha|»s  it  may  bap- 
pen  that  his  own  country  will  somewhat  contract  his  lati- 
tude of  privilege.  The  privileges  in  fiuestion  arc  (a)  in- 
viidabilily of  person  ;  that  is,  exemption  from  all  violence, 
whether  proceeding  from  Ihc  public  authority  or  from  pri- 
vate persons.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  that  Iho 
public  nnthority,  when  be  has  commilteil  a  gross  crime, 
may  send  him  beyond  the  borders,  using  so  much  force  as 
is  necessary  for  Ibis  end;  and  that  private  persons  do  not 
lose  Iheir  rights  of  self-defence  if  he  is  an  aggressor.  ('>) 
He  has  various  privileges,  summed  up  in  llie  word  exterri- 
toriality, which  amount  to  cxeniplion  from  Ihc  operation 


of  foreign  law.     There  is  no  departure  from  Iho  theory  of 
his  office  if  when  he  returns  home  he  is  called  to  account 
for  transactions  pronounced  to  be  illegal  by  his  country's 
laws  which  take  place  while  he  resides  abroad  ;  but  usually 
he  is  not  called  lo  account.     His  first  privilege — which  may 
be  referred  to  his  inviolable  character,  as  well  as  to  his  ex- 
territorial— is  his  exeiiiptioli /rom  (he  criminal  jurisdietion 
of  the  country  where  he  is  resident.     If  there  he  commits 
crimes,  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  the  moral  sense  of 
mankind,  he  cannot  be  tried  nor  punished,  but  can  be  re- 
quired to  leave  the  land,  and  only  in  an  extreme  case,  if 
he  refuses  to  do  this,  can   force  bo  applied,     lie  cannot 
commit  treason,  but  he  can  abet  treason  an<l  be  a  party  to 
revolutionary  measures,  yet  his  punishment  must  be  left 
to  his   own  sovereign  and  country.      iSoine  of  the  older 
British  lawyers,  as  fir  Matthew  liale,  thought  that  any 
capital  offence  except  treason,  as  rape,  munlcr,  or  theft, 
might  subject  an  ambassador  to  indictment  and  trial  like 
other  aliens ;  and  still  later  it  was  held  that  for  crimes  com- 
mitted by  them  against  those  moral  laws  which  keep  all 
societies  together  they  might  be   brought  to  justice  like 
other  offenders.     Hut  this  opinion  would  hanlly  find  favor 
at  present.     Both  the  law  and  the  feeling  of  England  have 
increased  in  the  rcs|iect  they  attach  to  these  foreign  repre- 
sentatives.    The  need  of  a  rule  is  obvious,  for  if  subject  to 
arrest  and  trial  an  ambassador  might  not  be  able  to  dis- 
charge his  functions.     (<■)  The  nnil>assador  is  exempt  from 
the  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  land  where  he  is  resident.     This 
exem])tion  is  conceded  to  him  everywhere,  although  it  is 
not  strictly  necessary  for  the  discharge  of  hisdulies.     If  he 
contracts  ilebls.  the  only  remedy  is  by  appeal  to  his  sov- 
ereign or  by  suit  in  his  country's  courts  after  his  return 
home.     The    laws  of  the  U.  S.  include   distress   for    rent 
among  other  legal  remedies  which  arc  denied  lo  the  cred- 
itors of  a   foreign  minister,     (f/)  The  hotel  also  and  the 
goods  of  the  ambassador  have  the  same  immunity  from 
local  jurisdiction.     As  far  as  he  himself  and  bis  retinue  are 
concerned,  his  house  is  a  sanctuary,  but  the  iluinunity  will 
not  allow  him  lo  defy  the  law  of  the  land  by  sheltering 
transgressors.     It  is  admitted,  we  believe,  at  the  present 
day,  on  all  hands,  Ih.at  criminals  belonging  to  the  coun- 
try of   bis  residence,   if   not   his  servants  at   the  time  of 
llie  crime,  may  be  searched  for  and  seized   in   his  hotel, 
and  Hull  all  Ihc  force  necessary  for  effecting  an  entrance 
for  this  purpose  may  he  applied,     (c)  By  national  com- 
!  ity  the  personal  efl'tcts  of   the   foreign    minister  and  the 
■  ai-licles  from   abroad   which  he   needs  for  himself  and  his 
family  arc  cxcmjit  from  duties.     lie  may.  however,  be  re- 
quired to  pay  taxes  on   his  hotel  if  it  belongs  to  him  or 
to  his  government,  and  he  is    liable  to  the  payment  of 
i  tolls  and  postage,  but  cannot  be  compelled  to  have  troops 
quartered  upon  him.     Formerly,  ambassadors  abused  their 
privilege  of  having  goods  passed  free  of  duty  through  the 
cuslom-house.  and,  as  Bynkershoek,  near  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  charges  upon  them,  they  imported 
merchandise  which  they  afterwards  sold.     The  same  abuse 
I  continued  for  sonic  lime  afterward,  and  was,  when  diseov 
I  cred,  complained  of  in  more  than  imo  country.     Within  a 
few  years  a  minister  of  Ihc  V.  ■^.  in  .<pain  has  been  charge.! 
with  making  imporliilions  for  himself  on  account  of  certain 
mcrcliants.     It  is  plain  that  exemptions  from  duties  were 
never  intended  to  cover  any  articles  besides  those  intended 
for  the  use  of  the  embassy,  and  it  would  be  no  breach  ol 
comilv  to  have  even  this  privilege  taken  away.     (./)   Lib 
eriy  of  worship.     This  is    allowed  in  all  Christian  lands, 
anil  even  beyond  their  borders,  lo  ambassadors,  Iheir  fami 
lies,  and,  by  a  stretch  of  comity,  to  oilier  persons  belonging 
to  Ihc  same  nation,  but  coreligionists  with  the  ambassador, 
if  subiects  of  the  slate  in  whose  biuinds  he  resides,  arc  per- 
mitted only  by  sufferance  to  be  present.     This  exemption, 
of  course,  has  no  signilicauco  wh<  re,  as  in  the  V .  S.,  all  re- 
ligions are  free;  and  it  has,  at  least  in  one  instance,  been 
claimed  that,  where  Ihere  was  already  a  church  of  the  re- 
ligion which  the  foreign  minister  professes,  the  permission 
to  set  up  another  for   himself  might  be  denied  him.     The 
jealousies  of  Catholic  and   Protestant  Christians,  in  times 
past,  have  led  lo  the  rule  that  the  ambassador's  worship 
must  he  pririilr.  and  even  /roii.c worship,  wilboul  hell,  or- 
gan, or  other  sign  making  it  known  to  the  public,  anil  that 
the  cliapliiin  must  not  appear  in  his  canonicals.     The  rea- 
sons for  this  frceilom   of    worship  are  obvious.     No  sinic 
could  with  any  regard  for  its  own  dignity  consent  to  send 
a  minister  lo  another  court,  where  he  was  forbidden  to  ex- 
ercise his  own  or  his  country's  religion,  and  no  honest  or 
honorable  man  would  be  willing  to  represent   bis  govern- 
ment where  such  prohibition  existed.    (;/)  That  Ihc  foreign 
minister  may  freely  discharge  his  functions  he  must  have 
some  assurance  of  having  his  retinue  at  command.     Ac- 
cordingly, his  family,  the   secretary  of  legation,  ami  Iho 
other  officials  who  compose  his  train  have  the  snnie  exemp- 
tions which  are  couccded  lo  him.     In   this  privilege  bis 


1248 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


servants  are  included,  and  as  these  may  bo  subjects  of  the 
countrv.  nnd  '•  Imd  subjects'*  besides,  this  usage  creates 
some  difficulty.  If  it  shuuld  appear  that  he  took  a  knave. 
or  even  a  political  luvpccff  into  his  service  in  order  to  shield 
him  from  the  law,  this  would  at  least  bo  a  ground  of  com- 
plaint against  him  to  his  own  government.  A  custom  for- 
merlv  ob^icrved.  then  disused,  then  again  brought  into  vogue 
in  later  time-;,  is  that  of  requiring  from  ambassadors  official 
lists  of  their  servants,  to  secure  to  the  latter  the  protection 
desired.  (A)  If  the  state  itself  has  no  direct  enntrol  over 
an  ambassador's  suite,  it  is  evident  that  he  ought  to  have, 
but  how  much  power  he  may  use  over  them  is  a  matter,  in 
part,  fur  his  own  country  to  decide.  In  former  times  the 
jurisdiction  of  foreign  ministers  was  almost  as  great  as 
that  of  consuls  from  Christian  states  in  Mohammedan 
countries.  When  Sully,  tlien  marquis  of  Uosny,  repre- 
sented the  French  court  in  England  in  100:1,  one  of  his 
train  having  killed  an  Knglishman  in  a  quarrel,  a  jury  of 
Frenchmen  being  called  together  found  the  man  guilty,  and 
delivered  him  over  to  the  English  authorities  for  execution. 
It  is  evident  that  the  exercise  of  high  justice  would  not 
now  be  allowed  in  any  Christian  state,  and  no  notice  would 
be  taken  of  such  a  procedure.  The  ambassador  now  can 
only  collect  evidence  in  criminal  eases  and  send  a  member 
of  his  suite  home  for  trial.  Nor  has  he  properly  any  cii-i'l 
jurisdiction  except  that  of  a  voluntary  kind,  such  as  re- 
ceiving and  legalizing  testaments  and  affixing  his  seal. 
"The  right  of  contentious  jurisdiction  is  nowhere."  accord- 
ing to  Hcffter  ({*  21G),  "conceded  to  ambassadors  in  Chris- 
tian countries,  even  over  the  people  of  his  suite."  (()  An 
ambassador  can  be  also  a  merchant,  and  merchants  in 
former  times  not  infre([uently  represented  small  states,  or, 
it  might  be,  the  same  person  acted  for  several  states.  Fur- 
thermore, a  native  of  a  state  formerly  acted  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  foreign  state  in  his  own  country.  None  of 
these  usages  are  common  now,  and  some  of  them  are  almost 
unknown.  While  they  existed,  the  douI)le  character  of  the 
ambassador  gave  rise  to  various  questions.  Thus,  it  was 
asked  whether  the  ambassador  had  any  more  rights  as  a 
merchant  than  others  of  his  class.  The  answer  given  to 
this  was  that  as  far  as  his  commercial  relations  were  con- 
cerned, he  stood  on  the  same  level  with  everybody  else, 
although,  of  course,  his  person  still  remained  inviolate. 
Again,  if  he  were  an  ambassador  to  his  own  government, 
and  withal  a  resident  there,  while  it  might  be  free  to  refuse 
him  recognition  in  this  capacity,  yet,  as  soon  as  his  own 
country  consented  to  receive  him,  it  admitted  that  he  had 
nil  the  rights  of  other  like  persons.  The  case  of  Wicque- 
fort,  the  author  of  L'ttmltnitHadeitr  et  hcs  funviions,  was 
unique.  He  was  not  only  a  native  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces when  he  represented  the  duke  of  I^iineburg,  but  he 
also  held  an  office  under  the  States  General,  and  was  accused 
of  betraying  state  secrets  to  foreigners.  For  this  he  was 
tried,  condemned,  and  sentenced  to  confiscation  of  goods 
and  imprisonment  for  life.  The  case  so  far  diflered  from 
that  of  other  natives  employed  by  foreigners  that,  while 
they  are  in  the  act  of  accepting  them  in  the  character  of 
agents  clothed  with  the  rights  of  agents,  he  could  not  di- 
vest himself  uf  the  responsibility  which  his  being  a  public 
officer  iraposcil  on  him.  For  aught  that  appeared,  the  Dutch 
had  as  much  right  to  punish  him  for  this  crime  as  the  duke 
of  Liineburg  would  have  had  if  he  had  detected  him  in 
gross  violations  of  his  duty  as  an  ambassador,  and  had 
been  able  to  secure  his  person  within  the  duchy.  (  /)  Has 
the  ambassador  such  a  kind  of  inviolability  that  third  par- 
ties— for  instance,  enemies  of  his  country — are  bound  to 
respect  his  official  immunities  ?  The  answer  given  by  his- 
tory is  that  one  enemy  has  had  no  scruple  at  cajituring 
negotiators  of  the  other,  and  at  treating  them  like  every 
other  foe  in  war.  Further,  although  a  friendly  power 
would  bo  regarded  as  c<)mmitting  a  hostile  act  if  it  seized 
or  imprisoned  such  a  person,  yet  it  might  refuse  him  transit 
through  its  territory,  and  in  the  act  of  transit,  if  ho  were 
found  past-ing  into  a  hostile  country,  he  might  bo  prevented 
from  pursuing  his  journey.  Cases  have  occurred  also 
where  foreign  ministers  were  arrested  in  a  third  country  on 
account  of  pecuniary  obligations  contracted  there.  But 
there  is  no  right  to  seize  even  an  enemy's  ambassador  on  a 
neutral  ship,  much  less  on  neutral  soil,  (k)  The  ambassa- 
dor's rights  begin  when  he  lands  in  the  country  to  which  he 
is  sent,  and  continue  until  he  leaves  its  soil ;  and  tliis  whether 
he  is  received  or  not,  and  whether  peaceful  relations  con- 
tinue between  his  country  and  that  to  which  he  is  sent  or  not. 
On  his  arrival  at  the  court  to  which  he  is  commissioned  he 
is  expected  to  produce  his  letter  of  credence — which  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  one  of  recommendation — and  his 
/»///>oirrr,  which  indicates  the  subjects  on  which  he  is  au- 
thorized to  treat  and  the  amount  of  j)ower  with  which  ho  is 
invested.  According  to  their  rank,  somo  envoys  are  ac- 
credited directly  to  the  sovereign  of  the  country,  and  somo 
to  the  minister  or  secretary  for  foreign  affairs.     AVhcn  his 


mission,  for  any  cause  not  involving  personal  or  natiooal 
misunderstanding,  is  terminated,  according  to  general  usage 
the  ambassador  presents  a  letter  of  reuall,  and  requests 
audience  in  order  to  take  leave.  Also  when  hii»  rank  is 
changed  without  his  retiring  from  his  mission  he  presents 
a  letter  of  credence.  As  for  the  relative  rank  of  ambassa- 
dors, the  rules  laid  down  by  the  i>lenipoteutiaries  of  the 
eiglit  leading  powers  concerned  in  the  Congress  at  Vienna 
are  generally  followed,  together  with  the  supplementary 
rule  od<»pted  at  Aix-la-Chapellc  in  1818.  The  ranks  are— 
(I)  ambassadors,  legates,  or  nuncios;  (2)  envoys,  minis- 
ters, or  others  accredited  to  sovereigns;  (li)  resident  minis- 
ters; (4)  charges  d'affaires  accredited  to  ministers  of  foreign 
affairs  or  secretaries  of  state.  In  each  class  or  rank  the 
diplomatic  employes  take  ])recedence  annmg  themselves 
according  to  the  date  of  the  official  notification  of  their  ar- 
rival. When  the  ministers  of  several  powers  sign  acts  or 
treaties  in  common  the  order  of  signature  is  determined  by 
lot.  These  rules  cut  off  some  of  the  quarrels  between  am- 
bassadors of  different  nations  in  regard  to  rank  and 
national  honor,  which  were  not  infrequent  in  earlier  times. 
B.  Consuh. — These  are  agents  clothed  with  no  diplo- 
matic or  political  power,  residing  in  a  certain  district  in 
order  to  protect  the  interests,  chiefly  commercial,  of  the 
country  which  commissions  thera.  Their  special  duties 
are  determined  by  their  own  government,  and  they  receive 
a  permission  to  perform  their  duties  from  the  foreign  au- 
thorities. This  is  called  an  exequatur,  and  may  be  with- 
drawn for  reasons  judged  sufficient  by  the  same  autliorities. 
Consuls  have  no  exterritoriality  unless  by  special  treaty, 
but  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country  where  they  reside. 
A  gross  insult  to  the  consular  flag  would  be  a  ground  of 
complaint,  and  so  an  insult  to  the  consul's  person  might 
be  resented  as  an  insult  to  his  country,  but  in  general,  and 
where  his  representative  character  is  not  attacked,  he  is 
like  other  men  in  his  privileges.  In  Mohammedan  lands, 
however,  where  f<>r  a  long  time  diplomatic  intercourse  fell 
into  consuls'  hands,  they  liave  nearly  the  same  rights  as  am- 
bassadors. The  duties  imposed  by  the  U.  S.  on  their  con- 
suls are  principally  to  receive  the  protests  and  other  papers 
of  masters  of  vessels,  to  aid  destitute  seamen  and  reclaim 
deserters,  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  owners  of  stranded  vessels, 
and  administer  upon  the  ])roperty  of  persons  who  have  died 
within  their  consular  province.  The  office  of  consul  bears 
some  analogy  to  that  of  ihc proj^f-nitM  in  (I reck  states,  whose 
business  it  was  to  aid  the  citizens  anil  pay  attention  to  the 
envoys  of  the  city  wliich  apjwintcd  them.  They  were, 
however,  always  citizens  of  t!ie  place  where  they  acted 
as  pmxeni,  and  tlie  office,  which  was  an  extension  of  the 
relation  between  host  and  guest,  remained  in  the  same 
family.  But  the  true  origin  of  the  consul,  in  the  modern 
acceptation  of  the  word,  is  to  be  traced  to  the  times  when 
commerce  began  to  be  active  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
merchants  of  the  cities  on  the  Mediterranean  had  already 
officers  who  were  called  by  this  name,  and  who  settled  dis- 
putes that  arose  in  the  course  of  business.  It  was  a  short 
step,  when  bodies  of  merchants  from  the  same  place  went 
for  business  purposes  to  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, that  a  consul  should  go  out  with  them  or  should  he 
sent  to  live  among  them,  invested  with  similar  powers.  We 
have  spoken  in  another  place  of  the  office  of  consuls  in  the 
East,  which  much  resembles  this  institution  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

5.   Treaties. — There  could  bo  no  intercourse  between  na- 
tions without  some  understanding  in  the  form  of  a  contract 
or  treaty,  and  a  confidence  that  it  would  bo  observed.     The 
main  work  of  foreign  ministers  is  to  make  arrangements 
of  this  kind,  either  temporary  or  permanent.     The  history 
of  international  law   is   in   great  meiisure  to  be  gathered 
from  such  arrangements  between  nations.     The  subject  of 
treaties  is  one  attended,  in  its  general  principle,  with  little 
difficulty,  and  the  interpretation  of  them  follows  substan- 
tially the  rules  wliieh  settle  the  meaning  of  other  written  con- 
I  tracts.     We  pass  over  these  ])oints  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on 
'  one  or  two  which  need  some  explanation,     (a)  The  treaty- 
j   making  power  is  determined  by  the  constitution  of  each  sepa- 
I  rate  state.     In  the  U.  S.  treaties  made  by  the  executive  and 
submitted  to  the  Senate  need  two-thirds  of  the  votes  of 
I   that  body  for  their  ratification,  and  if  the  payment  of  a  sum 
1  of  money  forms  one  of  the  conditions  of  a  treaty  a  majority 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  must  concur.     In  this  way 
I  it   would    be   possible,  in  certain  cases,  to  defeat  the  ac- 
I   tion  of  the  Senate;  hut  to  do  this,  except  in  extreme  cases, 
,   would  oppose  the  spirit  of  the  Constitution,  which  evidently 
j  intended  to  invest  the  President  and  Senate  finally  and  ab- 
1  solutely  with  the  treaty-making  power.     A  similar  conflict 
might  take  jjlace  when  in  (Jrcat  Britain  the  king's   minis- 
ters had  made  similar  agreements  with  foreign  powers,  for, 
as  money  is  voted  for  particular  p\irposes  and  not  in  a  lump, 
the  Parliament  might  refuse  to  sanction  a  payment  to  which 
the  treaty  had  pledged  the  country.     A  question   has  been 


INTKRXATIONAL  LAW. 


l-24!» 


discussed  as  to  the  extent  of  power  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
the  President  and  Senate  liy  oiirCouslitutiou.  as  it  respects 
the  cession  bv  treatv  of  land  bclon-ini;  to  a  State.     Very 
hi"h  authorities  on  constitutional  law  have  taken  ground 
whi.h   would  sanction   the    idea  that    the  treaty-making 
iiowcr  is  practically  omnipotent.      But  surely  uo  treaty 
could  alter  Ihe  relations  of  the  general  government  to  the 
.States,  and  as  to  cessions  of  land,  the  better  opinion  seems 
to  be  'that  nhilo  treaty  can  determine  boundaries  and  so 
take  away  from  a  Slato  what  was  supposed  to  ho  its  terri- 
tory   it  cannot  dispose  of  territory  admitted  to  belong  to  a 
8ta"te  without  ils  consent,  unless  in  the  extreme  c«se  of 
connuest,  when   treaty  simply   admits  the   fact  of  actual 
transfer  of  territory  to  the  jurisdiction  of  another  pr.wer,  j 
and  declares  this  to  be  inevitable,     (h)  The  legitimate  au- 
thorities of  a  nation  may  weakly  or  wickedly  make  a  treaty 
greatly  to  ils  disadvantage.     What  is  to  be  said  ot   this 
ease,  ind  of  treaties  obtained  by  force?     The  true  answer 
is  that,  as  in  Ihe  case  of  agencies,  where  both  parties  ought   I 
to  be  supposed  to  know  the  extent  of  the  agent's  power  and 
the  nature  of  a  contract,  so  here,  where  a  State's  repre- 
sentative really  transcends  his  power  or  acts  under  com-  | 
pulsion,  the  agreement  is  void.     It  is  implied  in  all  agree- 
ments that  the  parties  are  acting  freely  :  to  which  we  may 
adil,  and  not  under  deception  lor  which  one  of  the  parties  i 
is  responsible.     Hut  the  jdea  of  compulsion  must  not  be  j 
used   to  coyer  very  wrong  motives,  such  as  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  acted  on  Francis  I.  ot  France,  when,  to  efl'cct  I 
liis    liberation  from   captivity  in  Spain,  he  made  a  treaty 
which  he  renounced  alter  he  had  procured  his  Irecdoni.  For 
it  was  not  necessary  for  the  French  nation  that  he  should 
be  set  free,  nor  was  force,  in  the  pioiier  sense  of  the  word, 
used  upon  him.     Sometimes  a  subordinate  authority,  as  a 
general,  makes  an  agreement  without  having  the  requisite 
authority.      .\  noted  case  of  this   kind,  often   referred  to, 
was  the" »/>""•'■"•  so  called,  of  the  consul  Postumius  (n.  c. 
3211.   when   ho  delivered   his   army   from   captivity  by  a 
peace,  which  the  senate  of  Komc  afterwards  declared  null. 
This   declaration    was   constitutional,    but    in    good    faith 
the  whole  army  should  have  been  given  over  to  the  Sam- 
nites  as  prisoners  of  war.     (c)  It  is  needless  to  say  that, 
as  an   agreement  to  do  a  wrong  thing  can   never  make 
it  right.'a  treaty  for  iniquilims  purposes  is  invalid.     (<l) 
The  "term   lrciil<i   includes   various    transactions,    such    as 
treaties  of  peace  or  of  alliance,  truces,  conventions.    Trea- 
ties may  bo  for  political  or  for  commercial  purposes,  in 
which  latter  form  they  are  usually  temporary.     In  short, 
all  the  relations  into  which  states  enter  between  themselves 
take  this  form.     Among  the  forms  of  treaty  we  mention 
only  treaties  of  >,ii,ir(inl,/.  in  which  a  third  parly  becomes 
a  pledge  for  the  'g"od  faith  of  one  of  the  contracting  (low- 
ers.    This  kind  of  security  for  the  faith  of  treaties  was 
once  much  more  common  llian  it  is  now.    The  party  giving 
this  security  is  not  considered  as  engaging  to  jiay  a  sum 
of  money,  iii  case  of  the  failure  of  tho  contracting  parly  to 
discharge  his  obligation,  nor  as  engaging  to  compel  liiin 
to  do  this,  unless  one  or  the  other  of  these  acts  were  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  but  as  using  his  best  endeavors  to  efl'cct 
this  end  by  urgent  persuasion.     He  must  in  general  induce 
the  other  parly  to  perform  his  stipulated  duly,  but  is  not 
rciiuired  to  perform  it  himself,     (iuarantics  therefore  may 
mean  comparatively  little.     They  .arc  a  way  of  interesting 
the  honorable  sentiment  of  another  state  in  tho  lullilinciil 
of  an  agreement,  and  possibly  tho  non-fulfilment  may  be 
a  ground  for  unfriendly  relations  or  even  for  force.     This 
last  is  true  wh-n  a  strong  power  guaranties  the  indc|)end- 
ence  of  another.     We  can  say  as  much,  at  least,  as  this— 
that  an  attempt  to  ilcstroy  tho  independence  thus  stipu- 
lated gives  ground  for  interference.     (<•!  Treaties  go  into 
efTcct  when  they  are  signed,  unless  they  contain  .«omo  other 
specification  of  th<'  lime  when  tlicy  begin  to  be  operative. 
In  treaties  of  peace  and  of  truce  (to  which  we  shall  return 
when  treating  of  war)  it  is  customary,  where  tho  operations 
of  war  are  scattered  over  a  wide  space,  to  fix  on  separate 
dates  at  which  tho  treaty  shall  come  into  elfect  in  diflcrent 
quarters.     ( /" )  A  treaty  becomes  valid  when  the  constitu- 
tional treaty-making  power  gives  its  consent.    Here  we  may 
touch  on  tiio  question  whether,  in  forms  of  government 
where  the  executive  is  authorized  to  conclude  a  treaty,  ho 
is  bound  by  the  action  of  his  negotiator,  provided  the  latter 
proceeds  according  to  instructions.     It  was  formerly  held 
that,  if  the  agent  who  made  the  treaty  proceecUd  according 
to  his  /'nil  piiirri-  but  not  acconling  to  secret  instructions, 
tho  princiiial  was  bound  by  his  action,  since  the  full  power, 
being  known  to  the  other  party,  was  tho  motive  in  consid- 
eration  of  which  he  consented  to   treat.     Hut  at  present 
it  is  hel.l  by  the  best  authorities  that  the  principal  may 
withhcdd  his  ratification,  in    certain  circumstances,   even 
when  the  negotiator  lias  followed  his  private  inslnietions. 
The  refusal  is  justified  in  eases  like  these  (see  Whealon,  iii. 
oh.  ii.,  ilii  2o6-2«3):  (1)  "On  tho  ground  of  tho  impossi- 
Vcli..  II.— Til 


bility,  physical  or  moral,  of  fulfilling  the  stipulations;" 
(2)  "on  tho  groun<l  of  mutual  error  in  the  parties  respect- 
ing a  matter  of  fact,  which,  if  it  had  been  known  in  its 
true  circumstances,  would  have  prevented  the  conclusion 
of  the  treaty  ;"  (:*.)  on  the  ground  of  "  a  change  of  circum- 
stances on  which  the  validity  of  the  treaty  is  made  to  de- 
pend, either  by  an  express  stipulation  or  by  the  nature  of 
the  treaty  itself."  To  wliiidi  may  be  added  the  case  where 
the  treaty  would  involve  injury  to  a  third  party. 

II.  In'tenuiliiiuiil  Rclnlwiti  tin  Ajf'eclcil  hi/  H'or. — Almost 
all  the  important  questions  and  discussions  of  international 
law  are  connected  with  a  state  of  war  between  two  or  more 
nations.  War,  of  course,  must  interrupt  intercourse  between 
the  belligerents,  and  it  may  also  prevent  neutrals  from  pur- 
suing the  same  kindof  comineice  with  either  of  the  bellige- 
rents as  before.  It  is  thus  an  act  or  a  state  of  relation  of 
two  nations  by  which  other  nations  also  may  be  seriously 
alTected.  Hence,  we  have  to  consider  war  first  as  if  tho 
belligerents  were  alone  affected  by  it,  and  then  what  other 
nations  must  consent  to  endure,  and  what  they  have  a. 
right  to  do.  Thus,  the  rights  of  war  in  the  limited  sense, 
tlie  rights  and  duties  of  neutrals,  and  how  far  the  bel- 
ligerents may  wage  war  to  the  prejudice  of  neutrals,  aro 
the  principal  subjects  of  consideration  in  this  part  of  in- 
ternational law. 

Wiir  itself  is  armed  contention  between  two  organized 
communities,  and  a  jnsl  war  is  such  a  contention  for  tho 
purpose  of  obtaining  justice  which  has  been  denied.  The 
power  of  waging  it,  and  the  decision  when  to  wage  it,  must 
he  left  by  the  nature  of  the  case  to  each  of  the  independent 
cominunitics  of  the  world.  If  a  state  can  wrong  another 
and  refuses  to  redress  the  wrong,  the  injured  party,  having 
no  superior,  must  decide  for  itself  wh.at  it  will  do.  It  may 
decide  to  take  no  steps  to  recover  its  rights,  but  to  waive 
them  as  being  trilling  in  the  particular  case  or  as  not  worth 
tho  cost  of  prosecuting  them  ;  or  it  may  ask  others,  its 
equals,  to  interpose  by  way  of  mediation,  or,  if  the  other 
state  will  consent,  of  arbitration  ;  or  it  may  make  use  of 
armed  force.  The  choice  belongs  to  the  injured  party,  just 
as,  in  disputes  between  man  and  man,  if  appeal  to  tho 
courts  and  single  combat  were  allowed,  the  olTeniiing  party 
might  emiiloy  cither  of  the  alternative  methods  he  thought 
best.  No  one  therefore  can  interfere  in  a  just  war,  other- 
wise every  war  might  become  universal.  But,  as  was  said 
in  the  ease  of  interference,  so  we  must  say  here— that  in 
wars  judged  by  third  parties  to  be  unjust  there  may  be 
armed  interference  in  oxtreiuo  cases  oo  tho  part  of  tho 
injured. 

Tho  particular  causes  of  war  are  as  many  as  the  rights 
of  an  organized  conimunity  or  of  tho  individuals  under 
its  protection  which  have  been  invaded;  and  to  these  must 
bo  added  that  an  apprehension  of  intended  injury  may  bo 
so  great  as  to  justify  the  jiarty  concerned  in  striking  the 
fust  blow.  But  war"  can  never  be  right,  although  it  may 
bo  undertaken  to  vindicate  just  claims,  unless  nieasuies 
have  been  taken  to  obtain  reparation  in  a  ]icaccahle  way. 
I  This,  of  course,  applies  to  the  active  party,  as  the  passive 
or  defensive  party  accepts  a  fact  and  wards  olT  attempted 
I  harm.  Wlien  two  parties  are  in  an  alliance  involving  mu- 
tual protection  or  rlefence,  each  must  judge  whether  tho 
casHu  l\v(lcrig  has  occurred— that  is,  whether  the  assistalico 
is  called  for  by  the  other  in  order  to  prevent  a  wrong  which 
tho  alliance  contemplated.  All  these  rules,  however,  aro 
I  violated,  especially  by  strong  nations;  and  the  most  friv 
olous  pretexts  for  w'ar,  for  joining  others  in  war,  for  re- 
fusing to  abide  by  treaty-obligation,  and  in  this  way  or 
by  some  other  wrong  bringing  on  war,  have  been  employed 
niany  times  over  in  the  history  of  nations. 

When  nations  have  complaints  against  one  another,  thoro 
ore  several  summary  |irocesscs  by  which  justice  has  boon 
sought  without  recourse  to  actual  war.  These  are  hotiiU 
rmhnrqocii,  rrprlmiln,  pncljic  hlockailcH.  (>i)  Wo  aay  lin,- 
lilr  einbargoes,  because  there  aro  what  may  be  called 
peaceful  or  civil  embargoes.  An  embargo  being  a  stop- 
page or  prevention  of  a  vessel's  quitting  u  port,  there  may 
bo  occasions  where  such  a  measure  can  be  adopted  in  order 
to  prevent  war  by  keeping  the  vessels  of  a  country  safe 
from  collision  witii  the  rules  of  belligerent  powers.  In  this 
cnso  the  complete  non-intercourse  does  not  generally  begin 
until  vessels,  especially  of  foreign  powers,  have  liberty  to 
leave  the  ports,  ladeii  or  in  ballast.  This  was  formerly 
thought  to  be  an  unexceptionnblo  measure,  but  it  is  not 
much  in  use.  and  apparently  will  go  out  of  use,  for  it  puts 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  comnierco  which  all  friendly  stales 
foci  and  must  complain  of.  Tho  /i<i»^'/c  cmbarg.i  here  con- 
temiilatcd  is  a  detention  of  the  vessels  of  a  (larticular  na- 
tion which  may  hajipin  to  he  in  tho  ports  of  the  injured 
country.  These  are  detained  by  way  of  olTset  for  a  wrong 
done  by  Iho  olher  country,  in  Ihe  hope  that  this  attach- 
ment of  tho  property  of  its  subjects  may  lead  to  a  peaceful 
eeltlcment  and  prevent  actual  war.     (b)  This  is  a  form  of 


1250 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


reprisals— a  word  which,  taken  in  its  large  sense,  denotes 
any  seifaire  and  detention  of  property  for  the  same  pur- 
nose  for  which  ships  of  a  foreign  power  would  be  detained 
in  the  case  already  mentioned.     Reprisals  imply  an  at- 
tempt to  obtain  justice  without  having  recourse  to  war, 
while  ,-elors!o„  or  retnliativn  is  not  an  attempt  to  obtain 
iusticc  hut  rather  to  express  wounded  feeling  by  uninendly 
treatment  similar  to  that  which  has  been  received  Irom  tlie 
other  nartv.     Keprisals  have  often  been  made  the  subject 
of  treatv.'and  in  many  instances  it  has  been  agreed  that  a 
nation  will  not  resort  to  them  until  several  months— lour 
months  are   named  in  a   number  of  treaties-shall  have 
elapsed  after  the  threat  to  make  use  ot  them.     The  evil  ot 
embargo  and  reprisals  consists  in  this-lhat  an  innoeen 
subject  or  citizen  suffers  loss  for  the  wrong  or  pretended 
wrong  of  his  government.     This  evil  can  be  prevente^d  or 
compensated  for  only  by  distributing  the  harm  which  he 
«uflers  over  the  whole  political  body,  and  making  him  a 
compensation,  (c)  Padfic  blockaden  are  an  invention  of  one 
or  two  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  present  age,  the  object 
of  which  has  been  to  prevent  neutral  vessels  from  entering  or 
issuin"  from  certain  ports  of  an  offending  state  just  as  in 
war  with  the  same  rules  of  proclamation  and  arrest  tor 
violation  of  the  rules  as  in  war,  while  yet  war  ,s  declared 
not  to  ccist.     The  examples  of  the  application  of  such  a 
pretended  rule  all  occurred  between  1827  and  1S3S  :  that  is 
to  sav,  two  of  them  continued  for  some  time  in  or  after  the 
year  last  mentioned,  but  none  began  before  or  since  the 
period  mentioned.     They  may  be  said  to  have  become  ob- 
solete alreadv.     Of  the  writers  on  international  law  who 
mention  them  at  all,  most  do  this  to  condemn  them  as  an 
experiment  unjust  to  neutrals.     This  appears  to  us  to  be 
evidently  the  correct  opinion,  because  if  any  measure  im- 
plies a  state  of  war,  blockade  does  so  most  decidedly  ;  and  no 
such  new  measure  can  be  introduced  into  the  law  of  nations 
without  the  consent  of  all.    Neutrals,  therefore,  would  have 
the  ri'^ht  of  making  complaints  against  such  a  principle, 
which  affects  their  commerce.     In  fact,  when  a  Brazilian 
vessel  was  condemned  in  a  lower  French  court  for  breaking 
.uch  a  blockade-France  and  England  being  nearly  alone 
in  this  new  experiment— on  the  ground  of  attempting  to 
take  contraband  of  war  into  a  blockaded  port,  the  higher 
court  decided  that  as  there  was  no  war  there  was  no  contra- 
hand  of  war,  and  restored  the  article  thus  condemned.    11a 
«tate  of  war  did  not  exist,  there  was  as  much  obligation  to 
allow  the  vessel  to  go  into  her  port  as  there  was  to  restore 
the  eoods  condemned  on  this  ground  afterward.        _ 

Besides  these  measures  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  an- 
other state  to  act  justly,  taken  by  the  injured  state  itself 
there  are  others  attempted  by  one  of  the  states,  or  through 
friends  of  both  parties,  the  object  of  which  is  to  commit 
the  difference  complained  of  to  some  impartial  counsellor 
or  iud^e.     These  measures  are  mediation  and  arbitration. 
lW.-n(°V,a  is  the  intervention  of  a  friend  volunteering  to 
nacifv  the  minds  of  his  friends,  and  offering  them  his  ad- 
^k-e  towards  a  settlement  of  their  difficulties       Wh™  'wo 
nations  want  a  pretext  for  avoiding  a  war  to  which  they 
are  tending,  this  is  a  way  of  getting  them  out  of  their  un- 
pleasant position  and  yet  saving  their  honor.     But  media- 
ion  binds  no  one:  it  is  mere  advice,  without  any  pledge 
on  either  part  of  listening  to  it     Such  a  course  woY^T; 
mended  in  the  protocol  of  the  Congress  at  Paris,  Apr.  14, 
"™  in  these  words,  which  might  include  arbitration  as 
well  ■  "  The  plenipotentiaries  do  not  hesitate  to  express  in 
the  name  of  their  governments  the  wish  that  states,  between 
which  a  serious  disagreement  might  arise,  should,  before 
rppealingto  arms,  have  recourse,  as  far  as  circiimstances 
should  permit,  to  the  good  offices  of  some  friendly  power. 
ITlu-ation,  to  which  in  the  introduction   to  this  article 
Tefe  once  has  been  made,  is  of  two  kinds-that  oy  mean 
of  a  permanent  international  court,  and  that  by  ">e^P<-"al 
action  of  the  states  which  are  at  variance.     The  fir^t  is  a 
cumbrous,  unwieldy  thing  in  the  present  state  of   he  wor  d 
and  would  hardly  work  very  well   if  a  few  of  the  statts 
governed,  by  Christian  international  law  should  hold  aloof. 
The  other  is  simple,  easy  in  its  operations,  and  has  often 
been  tried  with  success.    The  parties  agree  on  "'<;;»";' jj 
arbitrators,  on  the  points  to  he  submitted,  on  the  place 
time,  etc.,  on.  the  law  which  is  to  govern  the  decision,  and 
pledge  themselves  to  abide  by  the  result ;  it  being  under- 
stood that  the  decision  does  not  go  beyond  or  aside  troiu 
the  points  submitted,  and  that  the  arbitrators  arc  honest 
and  impartial.     The  success  of  the  late  arbitration  a    Ge- 
neva between  Great  Britain  and  the  V.  S.  has  brought  this 
kind  of  arbitration,  by  compromise  as  it  is  called,  int.. 
greater  notice,  and  inspired  many  with  the  hope   hat  war. 
^m  be  more  frequently  avoided  hereafter  in  that  method. 
The  Parliament  of  Italy,  on  motion  of  one  of  the  deputies. 
Prof.  Maneini,  a  distinguished  P"W«;^M^f  <^f 'i'"/".!'"": 
ing  resolution  in  their  session  of  Nov,   24,  l*'^-      /"^ 
ehlmber  c.vpresses  the  wish  that  the  king's  government,  in 


its  foreign  relations,  may  endeavor  to  render  arbitration  an 
accepted  and  frequent  means  of  settling,  according  to  jus- 
tice, international  controversies  in  matters  susceptible  of 
arbitration ;  that  it  may  propose  on  fit  occasions  to  intro- 
duce into  the  stipulations  of  treaties  the  condition  of  sub- 
mitting' to  arbitrators  such  questions  as  may  arise  in  the 
interpretation  and  execution  of  the  same ;  and  may  consent 
to  persevere  in  the  praiseworthy  initiative  which  it  adopted 
a  number  of  years  since  of  promoting  between  Italy  and 
the  other  civilized  nations  conventions  for  the  purpose  of 
makin.'  uniform  and  obligatory,  in  the  interests  ot  tho  re- 
spective peoples,  the  essential  rules  of  international  private 
law  ■'  The  unanimous  acceptance  of  this  resolution,  ac- 
companied by  the  advocacy  of  it  by  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  the  vote  of  the  British  House  of  Commons,  to  he 
same  effect  substantially,  in  the  summer  of  1!m3,  and  the 
Earnest  wish  still  more  recently  expressed  of  vast  num- 
bers, that  arbitration  may  at  length  be  an  efficient  and 
formally  adopted  wav  of  terminating  disputes  between  na- 
tions, make  us  hope  that  a  better  time  is  coming,  when 
wars  shall  be  less  frequent. 

AVar  is  an  „pc,i,p»bUc,  not  a  secret,  covert,  way  of  at- 
tempting to  obtain  justice.     Not  only  must  a  demand  have 
been  made  beforehand,  which  the  complaining  party  con- 
ceives to  be  just,  and  a  denial  of  justice,  as  he  eonceivcs 
it  to  be,  have  come  from  the  other  party,  but  there  must  be 
an  open  withdrawal  from  intercourse,  an  open  commenee- 
ment  of  hostile  relations.     The  way  of  doing  this  is  called 
a  declaroiwn  of  war.     In  the  old  times  no  war  was  thought 
to  be  ri.'htfuUy  commenced  without  such  a  declaration  lui 
the  pari  of  the  assailing  state.     The  Greeks  made  their 
declaration  by  a  herald  or  by  an  ambassador  and  a  herald. 
The  Romans"  in  their  early  times  had  a  formal  and  cere- 
monial way  of  making  complaint  and  declaring  war  through 
a  college  of  fetiaU>.     The  notice  here  seems  to  hav  e  been 
..iven  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  time  forreaect.on  to  the 
enemy.     In  the  Middle  Ages  the  declaration,  accompanied, 
it  might  be,  by  challenge  to  combat,  seemed  intended  to 
remove  all  suspicion  of  cowardly,  underhanded  conduct.  A 
true  knight,  according  to  the  ideal  rule  of  knightly  feudal 
honor,  cSuld  take  no  advantage  of  his  enemy.     Open  dec- 
larations continued  until  long  after  the  practice  of  having 
resident  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts  came  to  be  the  rule 
but  in  modern  times  such  declarations,  formally  made  to 
the  enemy,  have  ceased  to  be  accounted  necessary^  although 
they  have  not  always  ceased  to  be  desirable.     Diplomatic 
correspondence  and  the  increased  publicity  of  political  re- 
lations make  nations  aware  of  each  other  s  intentions  ;  and 
when  two  states  are  at  variance,  and  military  prepo.rations 
are  going  on  in  one  of  them,  the  other  is  apt  to  demand 
the  reason  through  its  ambassador;  it  is  thus  possible    o 
have  earlier  information  of  hostile  intentions  than  could 
be  obtained  by  simple  declarations,  and  often  the  fin.i 
breach   is  indicated  by  tho  ambassador  s  demand  of  his 


passports.     Still,  a  war  begun  on  slight  grounds  and  pre- 
cipitated upon  the  other  party,  like  that  of  Napoleon  III. 
in  1870,  shows  an  intention  to  get  the  start  ol  an  enemy 
and  attack  him  when  he  is  unprepared.     But,  although 
declarations  of  war  to  an  enemy  are  not  now  thought  to  be 
required  by  honor  between  nations,  it  is  a  very  frequent 
practice  to'issue  to  other  courts,  or  in  some  more  directly 
public  way,  a  justification  of  the  determination  to  declare 
war      It  is  also  common  to  give  notice  to  one  s  own  sub- 
jects in  different  parts  of  the  world,  so  that  they  may  pro- 
tect their  commercial  interests  against  the  loe,  and  make 
ready  for  a  change  of  affairs.     In  our  country,  as  war  >s  in 
the  hands  of  Congress,  a  resolution  of  the  national  legisla- 
ture is  all  that  is  needed.  .-a  j 
The  commencement  of  foreign  wars  is  now  often  notified 
by  a  neutral  government  to  its  own  subjects  in  documents, 
to  wldch  the  name  of  proclamatiom  of  uculrah,)/  has  been 
gi,"n      These  papers  make  known  the  fact  of  the  foreign 
war,  recite  or  refer  to  the  laws  of  the  nation  made  for  t lie 
purpose  of  preserving  its  own  neutrality,  and  warn  its   ub 
iect«  of  the  penalties  which  they  may  incur  by  unneutra 
act     and  sometimes  give  notice  to  belligerent  powers  what 
wVll'be  allowed  and  what  forbidden  in  neutral  wafers.     By 
these  proclamations  a  nation  screens  its  subjects  from  tho 
,enalt?es  for"iracy  in  case  they  should  be  ^^n^^onUari 
,f  a  belligerent  vessel  engaged  m  the  work  »t  ""•     ^'^  f 
takes  from  itself  the  power  of  «»'"P''''°'"S    ''.f  V'JXl 
and  goods  are  visited  with  the  ordinary  effects  of  lawlu 
war.  as  the  declaration  of  the  fact  of  war  is  good  aga  nst 
u"e  f      Puch  announcements  are  of  little  use  eomparatn  cly 
when  two  states,  already  long  known  as  ""•''I '"j^rf  «f 
international  law,  begin  to  carry  on  war  against  one  an- 
other  bit  thev  are  of  great  use  when  organizations  calling 
thtn  elv  s  stites  rise  up  suddenly  hy  a  revolutionary  pro- 
cess, because  in  this  case  there  is  generally  no  definite  com- 
mencement of  war,  no  point  of  time  when  what  seemed  a 
sedition  blossoms  into  rebellion,  and  generally  no  willing- 


IXTEKNATIONAL  LAW. 


1251 


nc68  on  the  part  of  the  old  state,  against  whieh  the  revolu- 
lionary  proceedings  are  directed,  to  acknowledge  that  war 
exists.  Proclamations  of  neutrality  have  not  heen  long  in 
use.  nor  do  thcv  carry  with  them  any  especial  authority. 
They  niav.  however,  in  the  case  last  supposed,  bo  galling  to 
a  slate  a'tleniptiiig  to  quell  a  revolt,  because,  according  to 
the  rule  now  usually  adi>ptcd  by  nations— but  adopted 
without  necessity,  as  we  think— the  Hag  of  the  revolution- 
ary organization  meets  with  the  same  reception  in  the  ports 
..f'the  nations  as  any  other  (lug.  On  the  whole,  although 
such  proclamations  iiiav  be  issued  too  soon,  and  so  may 
encourage  a  revolt  that' would  otherwise  be  crushed,  they 
do  much  more  gooil  than  evil. 

The  effects  of  a  stale  of  war  next  demand  our  notice. 
The  first  of  these  isniiii-itilercmiriic  between  the  individuals 
belonging  to  the  two  belligerents.     That  is,  all  relations 
of  comineree.  all  rights  to  reside  in  a  country  conceded  by 
irenty—unless   in  express  terras  perpetual— every  means 
of   communication   by  direct   channels   belwccD   the  snb- 
jecls  of  the  opposing  parties,  come  to  an  end.     It  follows 
that  in  strictness  houses  of  business,  in  which  one  of  the 
partners    is  a   belligerent  enemy's  subject,  must  be    sus-  j 
pendcd  or  dissolved,  and  that  the  portion  of  profits  due  j 
to  him.  or  in  general   debts  duo  to  a  person  pertaining 
to  a  hostile   country,  cannot  be   paid    over.     Sometimes 
slight  exceptions  arc  made  by  the  government  of  a  bellig- 
erelit  to  this  total  non-intercourse  by  granting  licenses  to 
trade,  which,  however,  do  not   make  such  trade  interna- 
tionally  lawful,  nor    protect  it    against   capture   without 
the  other  hostile  parly's  consent.     There  arc  abso  permis- 
sions, often  given  and  sometimes  conceded  in  treaties,  that 
an  enemy's  subjects  may  reside  during  the  war  under  pro- 
tection of  the  other  hostile  government  if  conducting  them- 
selves peaceably:  and  generally  time  is  given  to  them,  on 
the  outbreak  of"a  war.  to  remove  with  their  effects  from  the 
country.     liut  this  is  a  concession  indicating  the  progress 
of  hunifinily.  and  not  a  strict  right.     The  strict  rule  would 
be  that  foreign  residents,  as  soon  as  their  hostile  character 
began,  were  bnble  to  be  detained  or  deprived  of  their  liberty, 
and  their  property  exposed  to  confiscation.     The  Supreme 
Court  of  the  V.  P.  decided,  in  accordance  with  the  prev- 
alent opinion  of  text-writers,  that  the  property  of  enemy's 
subjects  and  debts  due  to  them  are  confiscable,  but  added 
that  an  act  of  Congress  was    necessary  to  carry  such  a 
measure  into  effect.     And  the  treaty  of  171I4  (ratified  in 
17!ij)  with  (ireat  Britain  ])rovides  that  •'neither  the  debts 
due  from  individuals  of  the  one  nation  to  indiviiluals  of  the 
other,  nor  shares  nor  moneys  which  they  may  have  in  the 
public  funds  or  in  the  |.ublic  or  private  banks,  shall  ever, 
in  any  event  of  war  or  national  difference,  be  sequestered 
or  confiscated;  it  being  unjust  and   impolitic  that  debts 
and   engagements   contracted    and    made  by   individuals, 
having  confidence  in   each  other  and  in  their  respective 
governments,  shoubl    ever  bo  destroyed  or  im))aired  liy 
national  authority  on  account  of  national  differences  and 
ilisconlcnts."     Tliis  is  a  permanent  article  of  the  treaty,  and 
important  as  a  declaration  of  what  the  U.  S.  regarded  to  be 
just.  Many  similar  stipulations  are  contained  in  the  treaties 
of  other  nations,  and  no  example  of  confiscation  of  debts 
occurred  for  a  century  and  a  half  before  the  French  Uevo- 
hition,  with  the  exception  of  the  Silesian  loan  in  I75:i.    No 
exiimple.  we  believe,  has  ever  been  known  of  ;,ii///rc  ilihl, 
whi'lherduc  to  the  other  belligerent  or  to  his  sulijeets,  hav- 
ing been  confiscated.     As  for  the  persons  of  the  subjects 
of  one  enemy  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  other,  the  treaty 
just  now  cited  expresses  itself  to  the  effect  that  in  case  of  a 
rupture  merchants  and  ollicrs.  sulyccts  of  the  enemy,  may 
remain  and  continue  their  trade  so   long  as  they  behave 
peaceably:  and  in  case  their  conduct  should  render  them 
suspected,  and  the  respective    goyernments   should  think 
•  to  remove  them,  the  term  of  twelvo  moiilbs  frinn  the 


pro| 


»;.' 


ubiicalion  of  the  order  should  be  nllowed  for  that  purpose. 


'fhis  provision,  however,  unlike  the  other  before  cited,  is 
limited  in  its  operation  to  twelvo  years.  A  multitude  of 
similar  provisions  can  be  found  in  the  treaties  of  other 
powers.  It  maybe  said.  then,  that  at  present— ( 1  )  debts 
and  other  items'of  property  belonging  to  an  enemy's  sub- 
jecis  before  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  remain  intact; 
but  (2)  the  owner  has  no  power,  while  the  war  continues, 
of  getting  at  his  own  by  nny  process  of  law  or  in  any  way 
perinitled  by  law.  unless  sjiecinl  treaties  grant  him  the  lib- 
erty: and  tiiat  (Hi  at  the  end  of  the  war  the  power  is  re- 
stored  to  him  of  prosecuting  all  claims  for  property  held  by 
him  before  its  commencement.  Also(l),  that  I  he  enemy's  sub- 
jects are  generally  nllowed  to  remain  in  the  other  enemy's 
country  if  there  resident  before  the  war  ;  and  (:>).  if  Ihought 
necess:'iry  to  require  their  removal,  that  ample  time  be  given 
to  them  "to  withdraw,  taking  their  effects  with  them. 

The  effect  of  a  war  on  previous  treaties  between  the  two 
helligercnt  powers  deserves  notice.  Provisions  of  treaties, 
it  is  clear,  which  relate  to  the  rules  of  war  to  be  observed 


betireen  the  parties,  cannot  be  suspended  by  the  fact  of 
war,  since  only  then  can  they  eome  into  operation.     It  is 
also  clear  that  certain  arrangements  in  their  very  nature 
are  perpetual,  and  so  do  not  terminate  at  the  eommencc- 
ment  of  a  war.     Thus,  the  recognition  of  a  slate  like  the 
U.S.,  made  by  Great  liritain  in  178:!,  or  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican republics  by  .'^pain,  would  not  need  to  bo  renewed  after 
the  war  was  over,  on  the  ground  that  such  a  transaction  is 
in  itself  final,  and  that  such  a  state  has  become  an  inter- 
national entity,  unless,  indeed,  conquest  or  some  act  of  such 
a  stale  as  itself  jiuts  an  cud  to  its  international  character. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  boundary-lines  and  of  rights 
named  iu  a  treaty  deducildc  from  the  existence  of  a  state 
as  such.     But  when  we  depart  from  these  clear  cases,  we 
find  some  diversity  of  opinion.     Kent  says  that  "as  a  gen- 
eral rule  the  obligations  of  treaties  are  dissipated  by  hos- 
tilities."    Ilalleck  says,  inter  alio,  that  "treaties  of  com- 
merce and  navigation  are  generally  either  suspended  or 
extinguished  by  a  war  between  the  parties"  to  them.     Of 
course  they  must  be  suspended  at  least,  or  war  could  not 
exist.     Calvo  says  that  "  as  for  postal  and  custom-house 
arrangements. conventions  relating  to  navigation  and  com- 
merce, agreements  relative  to  private  interests,  they  arc 
generally  reg.ardcd  as  suspended  until  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities."    As  commercial,  postal,  and  similar  conventions 
are  yery  often   limited  in  time  by  their  express  terms,  it 
seems  safe  to  say  that  such  orrangement.«,  and  others,  like 
them,  liable  to  be  changed  in  these  particulars  in  a  few 
years  of  peace,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  broken  off  by  war. 
which  brings  with  it  new  feelings  and  interests.     W  e  adil 
from  Calvo  that  opinions  agree  "in  favor  of  admitting  the 
tlcfiiiitire  riijjiure  of  conventional  obligations  entered  into 
expressly  in  view  of  a  state  of  peace,  of  such  as  have  it  for 
their  special  object  to  favor  the  relations  of  good  harmony 
between  nation  and  nation,  such  as  treaties  of  friendship, 
of  alliance,  and  other  acts  of  the  same  nature,  having  a 
political  character."     A  distinction  was  made  by  some  of 
the  older  writers  between  the  efl'ects  of  a  new  war  arising 
from  a  cause  independent  <pf  a  treaty,  which  they  thought 
would  not  affect  the  provisions  of  a  treaty,  and  a  war  grow- 
ing out  of  the  breach  of  a  treaty  by  which  its  provisions 
would  be  annulled.     Hence,  in  a  given  treaty,  if  one  of  the 
articles  had  been  broken,  and  a  war  arose  out  of  the  breach, 
the  rest  of  the  treaty  would  be  unaffected.     It  is  easy  to 
see  that  this  distinction  would  complicate  affairs  between 
parties  wishing  to  make  peace.     The  practical  rule  sug- 
gested by  these  doubts  is,  that  as  silence  may  be  misinter- 
preted, it  is  best  always  to  make  mention  of  the  old  treaties 
by  way  of  renewing  and  confirming  them.     It  is  said  by 
Dr.  Twiss  that  Great  Britain  "in  practice  admits  of  no  ex- 
ception to  the  rule  that  all  treaties,  as  such,  arc  put  an  end 
to  by  a  subsequent  war  between  the  eoutcnding  parties." 
In  conformity  wilh  this  rule,  orto  prevent  doubt,  the  I'cace 
of  Westphalia  and  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  were  renewed  a 
number  of  times  over  when  the  parties  to  them  after  war 
made  new  treaties  with  one  another.     It  may  be  added  to 
what  has  been    said,  that  private  rights,  resulting  from 
rules  of  admitted  justice,  are  not  extinguished  by  a  war; 
and  so  a  debt  due  bv  one  nation  to  another,  where  the  same 
rules  of  right   prevail   as  are  acknowledged  in  municipal 
law,  survives  a  war.     An  interesling  discussion  arose  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  V.  S.  aftertlie  warof  1M2-Ia 
whether  the  colonies,  after  the  recognition  of  their  inde- 
pendence, retained  the  rights  of  fishery  on   British  coasts, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  which  they  bad   had  while  depend- 
encies of  Great  Britain.    Mr.  .lohutjuiney  Adams  and  others 
contended  that  they  retained  these  rights,  and  in  the  d.s- 
cussion  the  question  of  the  effect  of  war  on  treaties  came 
up       To  us  it  seems  that  the   British  side  of  the  question 
had  the  .soundest  arguments  in  its  favor.     We  jilaced  our- 
selves on  the  footing  of  an  in.lependeni  nation  and  had  no 
more  rights  than  others:  nay,  even  if  we  had  been  obliged 
to  submit  again  to  the  Brili.sh  crown,  this  right  of  fishery 
might  have  been  taken  away. 

A  very  important  distinction,  not  always  ohserycd,  but 
founded'  both  in  justice  and  in  humanity,  is  that  between 
active  and  passive  enemies,  or  those  who  prosecute  the  war 
either  as  the  responsible  government  of  a  country  or  as 
combatants,  and  those  who  obey  the  laws  of  the  land  in 
relation  to  a  stale  of  hostilities  without  any  active  pnrloi- 
iiation  in  them.  The  latter  being  by  far  the  most  iiiiiner- 
ous  class,  and  making  no  resistance  to  the  enemy,  can  bo 
saiil  to  be  in  a  slate  of  non-intercourse  only,  and  are  really 
not  enemies.  They  suffer  the  ills  of  war  so  far  as  the 
unity  of  interests  and  .lesliuies  in  a  p<ililieal  body  makes 
this  necessary,  but  they  are  not  in  modern  warfare  even 
expected  to  annoy  an  invader,  and  arc  secure  against  de- 
vastation,  and  for  the  most  part  against  requisition,  while 
they  remain  in  that  )mssive  slate.  The  interests  of  human- 
ity'thus  reipiire  that  on  the  land,  the  Ireatment  of  non- 
combatants  should  be  such  as  lo  interfere,  as  little  as  the 


1252 


INTERNATIONAL   LAW. 


necessary  meosures  for  prosecuting  war  will  allow,  with  the 
occupations  of  peaceful  industry  and  with  the  quiet  of  do- 
mestic life.  On  the  sea,  however,  the  rules  of  war  have 
been  much  more  free:  the  peaceful  use  of  the  sea  l>y 
enemies'  vessels  has  never  yet  been  permitted,  .'^liiiis  and 
their  cargoes  have  been  lawful  plunder  until  nniv.  although 
to  despoil  an  unoffending  householder  of  his  goods  and  to 
burn  his  house  would  be  considered  barbarous.  This  dif- 
ference is  .iue  partly  to  the  greater  suffering  of  families 
produced  by  carrying  the  rigor  of  war  to  an  extreme,  and 
partly  in  this— that  capture  of  vessels  and  goods  weakens 
the  capacity  of  an  enemv  to  sustain  a  war.  Not  a  few  voices 
have  been  "lifted  up  in  favor  of  removing  innocent  traffic 
on  the  sea,  whether  belonging  to  friends  or  enemies,  from 
liability  to  capture.  So  many  steps  have  been  taken  in 
this  direction,  that  capture  of  enemies'  vessels  engaged  in 
innocent  trade  on  the  sea  will  henceforth  be  hardly  worth 
the  expense  of  employing  cruisers  for  this  purpose,  and 
must  ere  long  come  to  an  end. 

The  t'i>rce»  lawfully  employed  on  the  land  and  on  the  sea 
in  times  past  have  been  somewhat  alike,  with  important 
differences.     On  land  they  are  national  or  standing  armies, 
and  a  militia,  as  well  as'  volunteers:  which  latter  bodies 
arc  often  commanded  by  officers  of  the  regular  army.     On 
the  sea  Ihey  are  national  vessels  and  privateers.     The  cit- 
izen soldier  and  the  privateer  armed  vessel  arc  as  legiti- 
mate forces  of  war  as  national  armies  and  navies.    In  fact, 
privateers  date  from  a  time  in  Europe  when  there  were  few 
or  no  navies,  except  such  as  were  improvised  out  of  mer- 
chant vessels.     These  vessels,  with  their  crews,  might  be 
hired  by  the  governments,  or  impressed  into  the  sovereign's 
service,  whether  owned  by  natives  or  by  foreigners — that 
which   was  called  the  jus   mtynriif  or   droit  (Vnngnrlc — or 
thoy  might  be  vessels  owned  and  manned  by  private  per- 
sons, but  kept  up  at  the  public  expense;  or  public  vessels 
with  a  crew  and  outfit  provided  for  by.private  persons;  or, 
finally,  private  vessels   officered    and  sent  to  sea  at  the 
charges  and  risk  of  private  persons  under  a  government's 
commission.     Of  these  four  ways  of  sending  vessels  out  to 
sea,  the  latter  only  has  been  in  vogue  in  the  most  recent 
times.     In  commercial  states  this  has  been  a  favorite  way 
of  employing  sailors  and  merchant  ships  when  trade  was 
crippled  by  war,  and  to  a  nation,  with  a  small  navy  but 
with  a  large  seafaring  class,  offered  the  prospect  of  some- 
thing like  equality  on  the  sea  with  a  nation  possessing  a 
good-sized  fleet.     The  plan  was  for  the  government  to  put 
the  owners  and  captains  of  such  privateers  under  bonds.   A 
letter  of  marque  is  given,  which  alone  entitles  a  vessel  to 
any  share  in  a  capture  made  from  the  enemy,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  which  cxpo.ses  a  vessel  calling  itself  a  privateer, 
with  its  crew,  to  harsh  treatment,  as  almost  having  a  pirat- 
ical character.     Any  great  irregularity  or  lawlessness  will 
involve  forfeiture  of  vessels  and  other  penalties.     But,  in 
truth,  lawlessness  and  harsh  treatment  of  the  enemy  could 
never  he  prevented.     The  motive  of  the  expedition  being 
plunder,  the  captain  and  officers  having  no  professional 
honor,  the  crews  being  often  a  motley  collection  of  .adven- 
turers, privateering  was  long  felt  to  be  a  great  evil,  and 
earnest  voices  were  raised  against  it,  especially  by  enlight- 
ened men  belr>nging  to  our  own  country.     At  length,  in 
1856,  the  parties  to  the  Declaration  of  Paris  brought  about 
a  new  era  in  international  law  by  the  four  rules  relating  to 
warfare  on  the  sea,  one  of  which  was  that  "privateering  is 
and  remains  abolished."     Other  nations  were   invited  to 
give  their  assent  to  these  rules  on  the  condition  of  accept- 
ing all  or  none,  and  nearly  all  Christian  states  accepted 
them.     Several  of  them  were  such  as  the  V.  P.  had  always 
contended  for,  but  our  government  refused  to  give  in  its 
adhesion,  on  the  ground  that  wo  should  have  no  adequate 
force,  if  we  abandoned  privateering,  to  cope  with  nations 
possessing  a  large  navy,  as  our  own  policy  was  to  have  a 
small  one.     The  offer,  however,  was  m.ade— but  without  ef- 
fect—to  adopt  the  rules,  provided  that  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Paris  would  go  further  and  exempt  all  inno- 
cent traffic  of  enemies  on  the  sea  from  capture.     In  1S6I, 
Mr.  Seward,  being  secretary  of  state,  made  offer  to  two  of 
the  principal  European  powers,  on  the  part  of  the  li.  ,*., 
to  come  under  the  operation  of  the  four  rules:  but  as  it 
was  understood  that  the  stipulation  would  bo  for  the  entire 
republic— for  the  Confederate  States,  as  well  as  for  theloyal 
ones- and  as  thus  these  powers  would  be  parties  in  impos- 
ingarulo  of  warfare  on  the  Confederate  States,  as,  in  short, 
it  was  a  scheme  to  prevent  them  from  using  privateers  by 
the  aid  of  international  law,  the  offer  was  declined. 

The  abandonment  of  the  use  of  jirivateers  by  so  large  a 
number  of  states,  together  wilh  the  .safety  of  enemies' 
goods  on  neutral  vessels  provided  for  in  the  same  document, 
puts  a  new  face  on  maritime  warfare.  At  the  outbreak  of 
a  war,  if  the  risk  of  capture  is  great  enough,  neutral  ves- 
sels henceforth  will  take  the  place  of  belligerent  ones  for 
commercial  purposes,  and  the  motive  of  capture  is  greatly 


diminished  for  public  cruisers,  the  only  ones  now  remaining. 
Thus,  it  can  be  no  very  great  concession  that  belligerents 
mav  safelv  use  their  own  merchant  ships,  unless  neutrals 
regard  it  of  importance  for  ihem  to  get  the  business  of 
times  of  contest  into  their  hands.  Wo  add  to  this,  as  a 
hint  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  four  rules,  that  tho 
parties  to  them  may  still  legitimately  employ  privateers 
against  the  V.  S.  and  other  non-signers  of  the  rules,  the 
obligation  to  observe  them  being  only  a  reciprocal  one  be- 
tween the  signers. 

The  General  Umyet  of  ^yar,especiallt|  on  Laiirf,  although 
somewhat  vague,  and  dependent  upon  the  temper  of  the 
be]li<'creuts.  or  still  more  upon  the  character  ol^  the  com- 
manding officer,  deserve  our  consideration.     We  have  no 
space  to  compare  the  present  manner  of  conducting  war 
with  that  of  past  ages,  and  to  illustrate  thereby  the  in- 
creased humanity  that  has  taken  possession  of  the  Chris- 
tian world.     The  principles  of  a  humane  and  yet  efficient 
war-code  are  principally  these:  that  war  is  a  way  of  ob- 
taining justice  when  other  means  have  failed  :  that  it  is 
waged  between  governments;  that  quiet  inhabitants  of  a 
eoiuitry  are  to  ho  treated  with  humanity  and  with  as  little 
severity  as  will  allow  of  the  effective  prosecution  of  the 
conflict;  that,  as  soon  as  justice  can  be  secured,  armed  con- 
test ought  to  cease  ;  and  that  retaliation,  if  necessary  on 
accounrof  the  inhuman  or  deceitful  conduct  of  an  adver- 
sary, cannot  go  to  the  extreme  of  justifying  that  which  is 
morally  wrong.    The  cinises  which  have  brought  on  a  more 
humane  mode  of  warfare  are  various,  such  as  the  increased 
sway  of  the  Christian  spirit:  the  professional  feeling  in 
standing   armies,   coming  down    from   the   officers,   which 
looks  on  the  military  forces  of  the  foe  rather  as  servants 
of  the  state  than  as  enemies:  the  general  practice  of  carry- 
ing supplies  for  troops  on  the  march,  and  the  system  of 
commissaries  and  quartermasters,  which  prevents  recourse 
to  plunder  in  a  great  degree  :  and  the  use  of  weapons  which 
do  their  work  at  a  distance  without  exciting  a  feeling  of 
rage  between  man  and  man.     The  rules  of  warfare  have 
been  codified  in  our  country  in  Inslmctinns for  the  Gmrm- 
menl  of  the  V.  S.  in  the  Field— -i  manual  prepared  by  the 
late  Dr.  Lieber,  and  which,  we  believe,  is  the  first  war-code, 
properly  speaking,  that  has  ever  been  prepared.    AVhat  we 
aim  at  here  is  nothing  more  than  to  give  a  brief  summary 
of  tho  leading  provisions  for  preventing  the  excesses  to 
which  war  is  liable:  lor)  One  of  these  relates  to  the  weap- 
ons to  be  employed,  as  well  as  the  other  means  for  injuring 
the  enemy.     Here  much  is  vague.     On  the  sea  a  greater 
license  is  "allowed  than  on  the  land.     Torpedoes  were  used 
extensively  in  the  late  war  between   France  and   Prussia 
to  protect  the  harbors  of  North  tlcrmany.      On  the  land, 
weapons  are  to  be  condemned  which  merely  give  a  ghastly 
wound  without  otherwise  adding  to  the  efficiency  of  war. 
(h)  The  troops  employed  in  war  must  be  such  only  as  can  be 
under  military  disci)Iline.    Hence,  to  employ  savages,  like 
our  .\mericanlndians  or  like  the  Turcos  used  by  the  French, 
is.  to  say  the  least,  questionable;  and  it  increases  the  gen- 
eral ferocity  of  war,  as  the  opposite  parly  will  return  to 
regular  soldiers  the  brutalities  inflicted  on  them  by  this 
part  of  the  foe's  army,  (c)  Perfidy  and  solicitations  to  com- 
mit crime  are  not   allowable.     Military   necessity,  as  our 
war-rules  express  il,  admits  "  of  such  deception  as  does  not 
involve  the  breaking  of  good  faith,  either  positively  pledged 
regarding  agreements  entered  into  during  the  war,  or  sup- 
posed by  modern  law  of  war  to  exist.     Men  who  take  up 
arms  against  one  another  in  public  war  do  not  cease  on  this 
account  to  be  moral  beings,  responsible  to  one  another  and 
to  God"  (iSi.  l.''l.    And,  again  ((*  i.  Ifil,  "  military  necessity 
does  not  admit  of  cruelty.— that  is,  the  infliction  of  suffering 
for  the  sake  of  suffering  or  for  revenge— nor  of  maiming  or 
wounding  except  in  tight,  nor  of  torlure  to  extort  confes- 
sions.    It  does  not  admit  of  the  use  of  poison  in  any  way, 
nor  of  the  wanton  devastation  of  a  district.     It  admits 
of  deception,  but  disclaims  acts  of  perfidy."     (rf)  When 
prisoners  of  war  arc  made,  they  must  be  humanely  treated 
as  it  respects  food  and  quarters.     It  is  customary  to  allow 
officers  their  libertv,  on  parole  of  honor  not  to  serve  again 
until   exchanged.  "  Deserters,  found  among    the  prisoners 
taken  from  the  enemv,  may  be  dealt  with  as  having  com- 
mitted a  high  crime.     Escaped  prisoners  have  committed 
no  crime  in  seeking  to  regain  their  liberty,  but  wl'en  re- 
taken may  be  subjected  to  more  rigorous  confinement.    The 
treatment",  however,  of  irregular  troops,  especially  of  guer- 
rilla-parties and  of  "  bushwhackers,"  who  lay  aside  the  sol- 
dier's character  or  put  it  on  at  pleasure,  is  much  more  se- 
vere than  that  of  regular  troops.     (<■)  Of  the  trealmeut  ol 
non-combatants   and   of  their  property   we  have   already 
spoken  in  part.     We  add  here,  on  this  most  important  of 
all  the  points  rebating  to  the  conduct  of  war,  that  nothing 
1  but  military  necessity  can  justify  the  seizure  of  private 
'  property,  that  domestic  privacy  is  lo  be  respected,  and  that 
I  the  persons  of  unoffending  individuals  are  to  be  considered 


INTERXATIONAL  LAW. 


1253 


sacred.  The  code  before  referred  to  speaks  thus  of  private 
property  :  "  I'niess  forfeited  by  crimes  or  by  offences  of  the 
owner,  it  can  be  gtized  only  by  the  way  of  military  neces- 
sity for  tlie  support  or  other  benefit  of  the  army  or  of  the 
U.  vS.  If  the  owner  has  not  fled,  the  cominauding  officer 
will  cause  receipts  to  be  given,  which  may  serve  the  spoli- 
ated owner  to  ohtain  indemuity.**  {/)  As  fur  property  not 
private,  hospitals,  even  thuse  for  military  purposes,  and 
other  humane  or  relii;ious  institution!?,  arc  to  be  respected. 
Public  buildings  and  works  of  art  are  not  to  be  wantonly 
destroyed,  nor  the  latter  scattered  or  given  away  by  the 
coptor.  Booty  taken  on  the  field  of  battle  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  property  of  the  conc|uering  army  ;  but  prisoners, 
aoconling  to  our  code,  are  not  to  be  desp<»iled  of  valuables 
found  on  their  persons  or  ot  extra  clothing.  It  is,  however, 
added  that  large  sums  found  on  the  persons  or  in  the  pos- 
session of  prisoners  may  be  taken  from  them  after  leaving 
enough  for  their  support.  (*/)  In  storming  fortified  towns 
the  practice,  even  under  humane  commanders,  has  been  to 
put  little  restraint  on  their  troops.  lint  nowhere  is  greater 
humanity  needed,  since  the  inhabitants  are  liable  to  a 
triple  curse — to  the  horrors  of  bombardment,  to  the  suf- 
ferings and  discomforts  arising  from  a  nuiltitudo  of  troops 
cooped  up  within  the  same  walls,  and  to  tlic  final  storm.  The 
forces  of  war  can  and  ought  to  protect  houses  and  persons 
from  plunder  at  such  a  season.  (A)  The  rules  of  war  allow 
of  certain  communications  between  hostile  countries  or  hos- 
tile armies,  such  as  those  by  flags  of  truce,  heralds,  cartels 
for  the  exchange  of  prisoners.  These  persons,  if  admitted 
within  the  enecny's  lines,  have  a  sacred  character,  but  it 
may  bo  inexpedient  to  receive  them,  and  of  this  the  party 
visited  must  judge. 

A  few  remarks  need  to  be  added  here  in  respect  to  cer- 
tain kinds  of  war,  on  account  of  something  peculiar  in  one 
of  the  parties.  One  of  these  is  war  with  Hnvaffen.  where 
the  simple  rule  of  humanity  is  all  that  can  be  required  of 
the  civilized  combatant.  The  parties  being  uuequnl.  and 
one  of  thcro  ignorant,  distrustful,  and  perfidious,  there  can 
be  no  law  of  nations  to  govern  their  intercourse.  Another 
is  war  with  pirattn.  A  pirate  is  a  sea-rover  who  jireys  on 
the  vessels  and  goods  of  any  nation  that  ho  falls  in  with, 
or  makes  descents  on  the  land  for  a  similar  purpose  of 
plunder.  A  privateer  exceeding  its  commission  might  not 
be  accounted  as  a  piratical  vessel,  but  one  with  a  commis- 
sion from  the  tico  opprmitf  belligerents  would  be  obnoxious 
to  this  character,  since  the  only  motive  for  such  a  double 
commission  is  plunder  of  both  parties  and  of  vessels  bound 
to  the  ports  of  cither.  The  vessel  of  a  part  of  a  stnte,  or- 
ganized for  rebellion  and  independence,  has  been  held  to  bo 
)>iratical,  because,  although  it  may  have  received  a  com- 
mission from  the  rebel  government,  it  carries  a  flag  un- 
known to  international  law,  and  commits  treason  against 
its  legitimate  country.  But  the  better  opinion  is  that  as 
such  a  vessel  docs  not  scour  tho  sea  for  tho  purpose  of 
pluhtler,  and  wages  war  with  but  one  nation,  it  wauls  two 
important  characteristics  of  piracy.  Piracy,  in  tho  inter- 
national sense  of  tho  word,  is  a  crime  against  all  nations, 
but  each  nation  in  its  own  criminal  code  may  class  other 
crimes  under  this  heai! :  thus,  tho  V.  S.  made  the  slave- 
trade  (o  be  piracy  for  all  citizens  on  any  ship,  and  for  per- 
sons not  citizens  on  our  vessels  ;  yet,  for  all  that,  the  slave- 
trade,  though  it  might  be  made  criminal  by  the  laws  of 
all  civilized  nati<Mis,  is  not  piratic:il  in  an  international 
sense.  A  slave-trading  vessel  from  this  country  could  not 
bo  captured  by  the  cruisers  of  any  other  country  without 
special  treaty  to  that  efl'ect ;  but  an  act  of  strict  piracy 
could  be  tried  everywhere,  for  a  piratical  ship,  as  being  at 
war  with  the  world,  could  be  captured  by  tho  vessel  of  any 
nation.  Still  a  third  kind  of  war  with  marked  peculiar- 
ities is  that  bctirtfii  ft  nifitfirr-ciiuitht/  nm/  a  rrvultrd  rtttntn/, 
or  a  state  and  the  people  of  a  seceding  territory.  Jlere  Iho 
first  question  is.  Does  war  exist?  for  the  commencement 
of  such  a  war  is  often  diflicult  to  bo  determined.  It  may 
bo  a  sell  it  ion  or  an  insurrection  ;  it  may  need  only  the  civil 
jiower  to  quell  it  or  a  slight  military  movement.  Itut  or- 
ganization under  a  new  government,  njiparent  determina- 
tion (o  make  the  secession  complete,  laws  and  practical  ef- 
forts for  creating  an  army  or  a  navy,  positive  acts  of  war 
following  all  this,  can  give  such  an  aspect  to  the  move- 
ment that  other  nations  will  have  a  right  to  regnrd  tho  fact 
of  war  as  manifest.  For,  be  it  obsr-rved.  other  nations 
have  the  sumc  right  ((f  judging  wlictlur  civil  war  or  re- 
bellion exists,  as  tliey  have  of  judging  when  it  has  ceased 
to  exist,  and  when  the  in<iependence  of  the  rebels  ought  to 
be  practically  acknowlcdgeil.  And  this  judgment  of  theirs 
is  Iho  more  justifiaMe,  if  the  mother  country  sanctions  it  by 
belligerent  acts,  such  us  proclnmiilions  of  bloekiide  or  levies 
of  troops.  When,  now.  such  a  kind  of  war  exists,  the  re- 
lation between  tho  parties  to  it  is  peculiar  in  this — that 
every  rebel  is  technically  a  traitor,  waging  war  against 
his  own  lawful  government,  giving  aid  and  comfort  to  its 


eneiaics.  Those,  therefore,  who  are  not  killed  in  war  may 
be  hanged  by  sentence  military  or  civil.  But  in  general, 
at  the  present  day,  when  so  many  revolutions  are  attempted, 
such  severity  would  only  awaken  the  spirit  of  retaliation 
or  of  revenge;  and  so  also  to  act  on  tho  principle  that 
rebel  cruisers  are  piratical  would  only  embitter  the  feelings 
of  the  rebels,  shock  foreigners,  and  provoke  remonstrance, 
if  not  interference.  The  true  policy  is  to  treat  such  rebels 
as  jituli  hasten  on  land  and  on  the  sea,  entitled  to  the  same 
rules  of  war  as  other  belligerents.  A  nation  can  employ 
also  against  its  rebels  the  same  means  of  war  as  if  they 
had  been  foreigners  from  the  beginning — can  obstruct  tho 
avenues  of  trade  with  them,  and,  after  due  notice,  seize  ou 
foreign  vessels  attempting  such  trade.  All  this  being  in- 
cident to  an  international  war,  foreigners  are  bound  to  re- 
spect such  proceedings.  Further  than  this,  What  is  the  rela- 
tion of  foreigners  to  the  two  contestants  ?  One  of  these  is  an 
acknowledged  stiitc :  the  otherhas  no  (ji^f^rnn/jotia/cxistcnce, 
and  so  towards  the  latter  foreigners  have  no  hitcnuitt'onai 
obligations  whatever.  If  they  give  it  aid,  this  is  a  cause 
of  war  for  the  jiarent  state:  if  they  recognize  it,  and  so 
concede  to  it  an  international  stitfus,  this  too  is  a  cause  of 
war;  but,  on  the  otlier  hand,  they  may  help  in  its  subju- 
gation if  they  please,  thus  rendering  service  to  a  friend; 
they  may  refuse  its  ships  admittance  into  their  harbors; 
they  may  decline  to  acknowledge  title  gained  by  sales  made 
of  captured  vessels  under  its  authority.  All  that  they  are 
bound  to  do  is  to  exercise  towards  its  troops  or  ships  the  same 
spirit  of  humanity  with  which  they  would  treat  refugees 
from  a  battle  or  from  a  storm  at  sea.  Tho  common  practice, 
however,  as  far  as  there  is  any.  is  to  take  a  neutral  atti- 
tude;  to  acknowledge  the  revoltcrs'  vessels  as  engaged  ia 
regular  war;  to  give  both  parties  the  same  privileges  that 
are  conceded  to  belligerents  in  any  other  contest.  That  such 
concessions  must  tend  to  encourage  revolutionary  govern- 
ments, to  give  them  the  feeling  of  having  reached  the  dig- 
nity of  a  world-power,  is  manifest. 

War,  whoever  the  parties  to  it  are,  contemplates  capture 
and  conquest.  These  are  so  far  morally  justifiable  in  a 
just  war  as  they  have  it  for  their  object  to  procure  tho 
means  of  compensation  for  wrong  ])reviously  inflicted,  to 
pay  the  exjienses  of  obtaining  justice,  and  to  provide  some 
security  fur  the  future.  But  as  both  belligerents  generally 
claim  to  have  the  right  on  their  side,  and  as  there  is  no  ar- 
biter between  nations,  the  facts  an<l  results  of  war  are  ac- 
quiesced in,  unless  outrages  are  committed,  or  wrong  done 
which  excites  in  a  high  degree  the  moral  sense  of  the  worhl. 
As  for  capture,  which  has  been  a  tide  of  the  law  of  natitnis 
discussed  and  shaped  by  the  courts  more  than  any  other  in 
times  past,  its  inijxirtance  will  be  much  less  in  times  to 
come,  since  now  neutral  ships  may  carry  enemies'  goods 
with  impunity,  and  therefore  to  a  greater  extent  than  here- 
tofore will  be  used  for  that  purpose.  The  motives  of  gov- 
ernments in  sending  cruisers  out  upon  the  sea  for  purposes 
of  capture  are  to  distress  and  uniioy  the  enemy — to  pro- 
duce such  derangements  in  the  commerce  of  his  subjects  as 
to  make  him  willing  to  come  to  equitable  terms  of  peace. 
No  one,  as  we  have  seen,  can  make  captures  unless  under 
authority  from  a  government.  When  a  capture  is  made,  a 
question  may  arise  as  to  its  validity,  and  then  no  property 
can  be  passed  by  sale  with  a  good  title,  unless  tho  pr<incr 
court  of  the  country  to  which  the  captor  and  his  vessel  bo- 
lting, gives  a  title  after  examination  of  the  facts.  The  ship 
and  goods  taken,  however,  belong  presumptively  to  tho 
government  or  country  in  tho  interval  between  capture  and 
such  judicial  decision.  Ilenee,  if  for  any  reason  it  is  in- 
convenient for  a  captor  to  carry  or  send  his  prize  into  port, 
a  very  barbarous  usage  allows  him  to  burn  it.  A  great 
deal  of  destruction  of  ships  and  goods  took  place  in  con- 
formity with  this  usage  in  our  late  war  of  secession,  as  the 

j  Confederates  hat!  no  ports  into  which  they  could  take  their 
prizes.  It  has  been  sanctioned  by  the  Knglish  courts  under 
the  condition,  however,  of  responsibility  of  the  captor  or  his 
government,  and  was  prnctised  by  us  in  the  Uevolutionary 
war,  anil  by  Franco  in  the  wars  of  the  first  part  of  this 
century.  It  is  a  dangerous  jiraclice  if  a  neutral  vessel  is 
80  treated.     A  better  way  of  treating  prizes,  which  it  is 

!  verv  inconvenient  to  convey  into  port,  is  to  allow  them  to 

'  proceed  on  their  voyage  under  what  is  called  a  ransom 
contract.     That  is.  as  a  prisoner  of  war  or  his  friends  for- 

j  mcrlv  paid  a  sum  of  money  for  his  Hberatiiin.  or  bargained 
BO  to  do,  so  a  captured  vessel  could  be  redeemed  from  cap- 
tivity <>»  similar  conditions.  The  validity  of  such  aeon- 
tract  is  recognized  by  the  law  of  nations,  but  may  bo 
against  the  laws  of  particular  nations,  whose  cruisers,  tliere- 

I  fore,  are  under  especial  temptation  to  burn  their  prizes. 

!  The  ransom-contract  secures  the  captured  ship  against  fur- 
ther ea]ituro  from  tho  vessels  of  the  captor's  country  or  of 
its  allies,  provided  it  goes  on  a  specified  course,  so  far  as 
violence  of  the  weatlier  does  not  prevent.  To  secure  tho 
payment  of  tho  contract  a  hostage  is  sometimes  delivered 


1254 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


over  to  the  captor.    Tho  contract  is  forfeited  if  the  cap-  ] 
turin"  cruiser  is  itself  taken  with  that  Jccuraent  or  the  ' 
hostage  on  l>oard.     The  various  questions  relating  to  ran- 
som which  may  come  lieforc  courts  must  be  left  to  larger 
treatises,  cspcciallv  to  sueh  as  Wildman's  Inalitidcn,  written  | 
especially  for  lawyers  practising  in  pri/.e-eourts.    Nor  have 
wc  any  space  for  the  doctrine  of  salvage  or  tlie  reward 
paid  for  saving  a  vessel,  which,  altliough  it  comes  within 
the  province  of  international  law,  is  lor  the  most  part  de- 
termined by  the  law  of  each  particular  country,  and  has 
little  more  to  do  with  war  than  with  peace. 

Recapture,  or  the  recovery  of  a  captured  vessel  by  a 
cruiser  of  the  same  country  or  of  its  ally,  has  been  treated  of 
by  most  text-writers  under  tho  form  of  the  Koman  doctrine 
of  postliminy.  As,  however,  the  principles  of  recapture 
differ  almost' as  much  from  those  of  postliminy  as  they 
resemble  them,  we  must  refer  the  reader  for  the  meaning  of 
that  term  to  the  article  on  it  in  this  C'l/rlojvrdiit.  and  content 
ourselves  with  giving  the  briefest  explanation  possible  of  rc- 
turc.     If  a  vessel,  having  been  talicn,  is  carried  m/ra 


captu 


vherc  by  international  law  a 


prasltlui — that  is,  to  a  place  w 

capture  cannot  be  made— and  is  condemned  as  lawful  prize 
of  war,  its  former  owner's  right  of  property  ceases.  II  cap- 
tured again  after  this,  it  is  like  any  other  property  t.aken 
from  a  hostile  owner.     Recapture,  then,  holds  good  only 
when  a  prize  is  on  tho  way  to  a  place  of  security;  if  it  is 
effecteil  within  these  limits,  the  property    reverts    to    the 
original  owner,  subject  to  the  payment  of  such  salvage  as 
the" law  of  tho  land  prescribes.     If  men  arc   recaptured, 
there  is  no  salvage  or  ransom-money,  as  far   as  we  arc 
aware,  that  can  bo  demanded  for  them  according  to  inter- 
national usage.     If  prisoners  of  war  in  a  port  of  a  neutral 
escape  to  the  shore,  they  cannot  lawfully  be  surrendered; 
and  this  is  a  point  where  Roman  and  modern  law  agrees. 
There  is  also  a  case  bearing  analogy  to  recapture  on  a  large 
scale  where  after  conquest  a  government  is  set  up  and  the 
country  is  again  recovered  by  its  own  troops  or  those  of 
its  ally.  The°point  of  difficulty  here  is,  What  are  the  rights 
of  the  restored  government,  and  what  respect  is  due  to  the 
ordinances  of  the  conqueror  during  his  temporary  sway  ? 
It  is  easily  seen  that  some  very  perplexing  political  ques- 
tions may  arise  in  such  a  state  of  things  :  we  may  refer  the 
reader  to  Phillimore  for  the  extended  consideration  of  some 
of  them.     Supposing  the  conqueror  to  have  not  only  occu- 
pied, but  also  politically  organized,  the  land  before  being 
driven  out,  we  may  say,  in  general,  (1)  that  whatever  in 
this  interim  he  does  by  virtue  of  his  political  power,  legit- 
imately exercised,  is  valid.     Taxes  paid  to  his  collectors 
cannot  be  recovered  from  them  on  the  ground  of  the  unlaw- 
fulness of  the  government.     Legal  acts,  done  by  officials  or 
subordinates  of  his  during  his  supremacy,  are  justifiable  on 
their  part.    If  he  sells  state  property  or  borrows  money  on 
the  credit  of  the  state,  this  too  is  valid  if  done  for  ordinary 
state  purposes,  and  not  with  a  manifestly  flagitious  object 
in  view.     Thus,  the  acts  of  Napoleon  as  head  tie  ftirtn  of 
France  between  his  arrival  at  Paris  in  Mar.,  1S15,  and  his 
surrender  to  Capt.  Maitland  in  July,  had  validity  :  taxes 
already  imposed,  but  collected  by  his  officials,  were  legally 
collected,  and  new  taxes,  if  collected  in  this  interval  and 
paid  over,  could  not  be  recovered  by  private  persons.    But 
(2)  none  of  bis  changes  in  the  eonstituti.m  or  law  have  any 
claim  to  pennanonee;  and  (31  the  restored  or  legitimate 
government  has  not  the  authority  of  going  back  of  its  res- 
toration and  claiming  whatever  services  or  dues  it  could 
have  claimed  during  the  intermission.     It  is  manifest  that 
some  such  rules  are  necessary  to  avoid  the  perplexity  of 
private  persons  in  regard  to  obedience,  and  to  mitigate  tho 
sway  of  a  tyr.annical  conqueror. 

The  hist  point  relating  to  war,  as  considered  in  relation 
only  t»  the  belligerents,  is  its  suspension  and  termination. 
(1)  There  are  suspensions  of  war  with  a  special  and  par- 
ticular iitiject  in  view,  or  having  elTeet  only  so  far  as  cer- 
tain individuals  are  concerned.  Here  belong  licenses  to 
trade,  which  need  no  explanation,  except  tho  remark  that 
they  arc  of  strict  interpretation,  which  is  true  also  of  pass- 
ports and  safe-conducts  or  permissions  to  enter  a  hostile 
territory  for  certain  specific  and  temporary  purposes.  Hero 
we  may  mention  also  conventions  relating  to  the  war.  such 
03  a  commander  is  allowed  to  make,  or  makes  under  neces- 
sity, arrangements  respecting  the  manner  of  carrying  on 
war,  cartels  and  ransom-contracts  (before  mentioned),  ca- 
pitulations, conventions  relating  to  exchange  of  prisoners  or 
to  requisitions.  (2)  Tni<-r. — This  is  a  suspension  either  of 
all  the  operations  of  war,  or  of  those  in  a  particular  quarter 
or  before  a  particular  place,  .''uch  agreements  arc  made  by 
o  sovereign,  or  by  a  military  commander  so  far  as  he  has 
authority  for  such  a  purpose.  They  commence  and  termi- 
nate at  a  certain  day,  and  need  no  notice  of  their  expiration. 
Or,  if  the  truce  is  general,  different  days  may  be  appointed 
fir  the  beginning  and  end  in  different  quarters  of  the  world. 
Truce    allows   generally    a  return  to  peaceful    (or   rather 


to  non-warlike)  relations  for  a  definite  period,  but  does  not 
involve  withdrawal  of  armies  from  before  a  fortress  or  from 
a  special  theatre  of  war.  A  question  on  which  considerable 
difl'erenco  of  opinion  prevails  is.  What  can  be  done  during 
a  truce,  and  especially  whether  a  besieged  place  may  repair 
its  walls  and  construct  new  works  in  such  an  interval?  An 
answer  which  would  perhaps  fail  of  removing  all  difficulty 
might  be,  that  anything  might  be  done  wbieh  would  have 
liecn  directly  prevented  by  war,  or  which  is  not  in  itself  a 
directly  hostile  movement.  Thus,  a  besieging  army  cannot 
lawfully  add  to  its  works  of  siege,  and  a  fortress  cannot  be 
repaired — at  least  in  places  wliieh  would  have  been  com- 
manded by  the  guns  of  the  enemy.  {'■')  TrcalicH  of  Pence. 
— The  only  rational  object  of  war  is  to  secure  a  state  of 
justice  involving  reparation  and  security  for  the  future. 
Treaties  of  peace,  being  appeals  to  force,  do  not  always 
bring  the  adversaries  to  just  terms,  but,  whatever  their  re- 
sult, they  are  tho  most  im]iortant  acts  of  treaty-making 
powers  ;  they  often  form  epochs  in  national  or  in  continental 
history.  To  n;iine  only  one  or  two:  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia, those  of  Nimcguen,  Ryswick,  and  Utrccht-Badcn, 
the  Treaties  of  Paris  and  of  llubertsbcrg  in  ITIi.'i,  the  Peace 
of  Paris  and  that  of  Versailles  in  I7s:i,  the  two  treaties  of 
Paris  in  1814  and  IS15  respectively,  the  Peace  of  Zurich 
in  1859  and  of  Prague  in  IStili.  and  the  Peace  of  Paris  in 
1856  (on  account  especially  of  its  international  character), 
indicate  memorable  changes  of  relative  strength,  or  mark  a 
new  policy,  or  bring  in  a  new  dynasty,  or  are  in  some  way 
the  eras  of  some  kind  of  progress.  They  arc  the  hands  of  a 
clock,  but  the  war  was  the  moving  force. 

Treaties  of  peace  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  of  in- 
terpretation with  others  made  by  the  constitutional  power 
in  tho  state,  etc. — Wc  have  already  considered  the  effect  of 
war  on  previous  treaties,  and  on  particular  arrangements 
of  those  treaties.  Only  two  additional  points  remain  to 
be  considered  :  (<i)  When  do  treaties  go  into  effect  ?  Tlicy 
bind  the  parties,  as  wc  have  seen,  when  they  arc  signed  or 
when  they  are  ratified.  They  bind  individuals  when  they 
receive  news  that  such  treaties  have  been  made.  In  the 
interval  between  ratification  and  knowledge  of  the  peace 
by  military  officers  or  by  cruisers,  injuries  must  be  made 
good  by  the  country  to  which  the  party  committing  the  in- 
jury belongs.  Captures  made  after  a  peace,  but  without 
knowledge  of  it.  have  been  held  to  subject  tho  capturing 
officer  to  civil  damages,  for  which  he  would  have  a  right  to 
demand  compensation  from  his  government.  Captures, 
again,  made  before  the  time  for  the  termination  of  hostili- 
ties, but  with  knowledge  that  peace  has  been  concluded, 
are  held  to  be  invalid  and  subject  to  restoration.  (6)  Tho 
effect  of  peace  is  to  put  an  end  not  only  to  a  war,  but  also  to 
all  complainls  relating  to  the  subject  for  which  war  was 
undertaken.  It  is  an  oblivion  or  amnesty  of  all  past  difli- 
cultics.  A  new  war  can  be  undertaken  for  similar  causes 
of  comjilaint.  but  not  for  the  same.  They  are  forgotten 
and  forgiven,  whether  menlioncd  in  the  treaty  or  passed 
over  in  silence.  In  regard  to  the  state  in  which  the  war 
leaves  the  parties,  if  the  treaty  makes  no  mention  of  this 
point,  the  principle  of  ii(i  jmsniihlls  is  admitted.  Terri- 
torv  stays  in  the  actual  occupant's  hands  unless  passed 
over  by  express  agreement,  and  a  strong  place  must  be  re- 
storedwithout  injury  to  its  works.  When  a  part  of  a  coun- 
try is  yiehled  up  at  ])eaco  to  the  enemy,  the  former  sov- 
ereign is  neither  bound  to  make  compensation  to  those  who 
suffer  by  the  change  of  jurisdiction,  nor  to  secure  the  new 
sovereign  ag.ainst  resistance  from  the  inhabitants  to  liis  au- 
thority. All  he  does  is  to  renounce  his  own  sovereignty 
and  jurisdiction. 

Tivo  topics  remain  to  be  considered,  both  of  which  are 
of  jirimc  importance — the  rliihla  nuil  oJiUiitUirmH  <>/  netilnd 
nnliinm,  and  the  liabililien  atirl  riijhlii  of  uculra/  tratle.  In 
m.idern  times  neutral  interests  have  become  of  such  mo- 
ment that  a  war  between  any  two  slates  under  our  modern 
international  law  produces  wide-swceiiing  effects  such  as 
ancient  history  never  knew.  All  industry  and  finance  is 
filled  with  apprehension;  the  neutral  asks  what  he  can  do 
to  avert  the  effects  of  war  from  his  borders  by  changing 
the  course  of  trade,  or  how  he  can  interfere  by  influence  to 
prevent  or  abridge  war.  And  i<  may  ere  long  become  a 
serious  question  whether,  considering  the  increased  amount 
of  disaster  that  war  brings  on  tho  world  in  modern  times, 
the  nations  should  have  unlimited  power  to  declare  war— 
whether  neutrals  ought  not  to  have  a  voice  in  the  matter 
— whether,  in  short,  as  civilized  nations  are  brought  by 
their  closeness  of  interest  into  something  like  a  confederacy, 
they  ought  not  to  have  something  like  tho  political  authority 
of  a  confederacy,  so  as  to  have  a  deciding  infiuencc,  at 
least,  in  all  external  wars. 

A  neutral  is  a  state  which  is  a  friend  to  both  the  bellig- 
erents and  takes  no  part  in  the  war.    Sometimes,  according 
to  an  earlier  treaty,  a  power  of  Europe  has  been  bound,  on 
1  tho  breaking  out  of  war,  to  furnish  troops  to  one  of  the 


INTERNATIONAL   LAW. 


1255 


llanil  in  IS-IO. 
tances 


belligerents :  but  it  is  plnin  that  the  other  may  regard  this 
as  llic  act  of  an  ally  if  be  chooses.  There  is  also  a  neu- 
trality or  ii«-ii(r<i/i.:<i(iV.ii  now  known  to  jmblic  law.  by  which 
a  certain  territory  and  its  inhabitants  have  put  on  the  cha- 
racter of  permanent  neutrality,  so  that  no  armies  can  cross 
the  boundaries  of  such  a  st.ite.  and  it  can  itself  engage  in 
no  war.  .«ui-h.  since  the  vear  ISli.bas  been  the  condition 
of  Swilzerlan.l  and  of  I>art  of  Savoy— which  last-mentioned 
country,  so  far  a.s  it  was  placed  in  this  condition,  continues 
in  it  since  its  cession  to  Franco  in  lf<GO  :  such  also  that  of 
Belgium  became,  after  its  disruption  from  Holland  in 
And,  again,  the  northern  powers  of  Kuropc  in  two  iiist; 
(in  17S0  ami  in  ISOO)  formed  what  was  called  armnl  iicii- 
(ro/i'v  for  the  iiurpose  of  maintaining  certain  alleged  mari- 
time rights  against  both  the  belligerents  j  but  a  league  like 
this  ni^ght  turn  into  a  secondary  war.  A  neutral  state 
must  be  impartial  in  rendering  the  same  favors  to  both  bel- 
ligerents, hut  this  is  far  from  being  enough.  It  must  stand 
nIo<.f.  and  keep  its  territory  and  its  subjects  aloof  from 
the  war  as  far  as  possible.  Impartiality  may,  in  fact,  bo 
a  great  privilege  and  assistance  to  one  of  the  parties, 
but  none  at  all  to  the  other.  For  this  reason  especially 
the  modern  idea  of  neutrality  is  stricter  than  that  of  a  ecn- 
t'lry  or  of  two  centuries  ago.  While  the  neutral  slate  thus 
stands  aloof,  it  must  be  humane  to  both  parties,  receiving 
their  vessels  into  its  ports  when  driven  in  by  stress  of 
weather  or,  as  it  would  receive  fugitive  troops  on  the  land, 
admitting  them  into  its  waters  when  escaping  from  the 
enemy  ;  yet  in  such  sort  that  on  the  land  the  troops  are 
disarmed,  while  the  vessels  can  do  nothing  more  than  make 
the  necessary  repairs  and  procure  provisions.  The  neu- 
tral is  not  bound  to  allow  cruisers  to  enter  its  ports  with 
prizes  unless  obligated  by  treaty  ;  and  the  safest,  most 
neutral  course,  is  not  to  iiUow  this.  Much  less  can  ves- 
sels of  war  of  the  enemy  procure  military  stores.  Coal 
is  an  article  of  use  in  both  war  and  peace;  by  modern  ; 
practice— and  there  is  no  other— vessels  of  war  are  fur-  1 
nished  with  enough  to  take  them  to  the  nearest  port  of 
their  own  country;  but  war  steamers  arc  too  modern  for  j 
any  well-understood  rule  to  have  grown  up  in  this  respect. 
It  "was  formcrlv  not  thought  to  be  unneutral  to  allow  tran- 
sit to  foreign 'armies  in  a  time  of  war;  and  Switzerland 
supplied  by  treaty  more  than  one  state  of  Europe  with 
mercenaries,  but  the  age  of  such  concessions  has  passed. 

It  has  become  of  far  more  importance  in  the  present  age 
than  it  over  was  before  to  decide  what  ncutr.als  may  not  do 
and  may  allow  to  bo  done  within  their  territories  that  may 
have  a  bearing  on  the  fortunes  of  a  war.     Looking  first  at 
the  second  point,  what  neutrals  may  allow  or  suffer,  wo  re- 
mark that  a  distinction  is  to  bo  made  between  those  private 
transactions  and  those  ordinary  proceedings  of  trade  which 
cannot  bo  prevented  without  consiilerablc  »itrviill<ince,  and 
those  acts  of  individuals  which  arc  open  to  inspection.    If 
a  neutnirs  subject  lends  money  or  goes  abroad  privately  to 
serve  as  a  soldier.  <ir  exports  articles  to  a  blockaded  |iort, 
or  such  as  are  contraband  of  war  to  any  belligerent  port,  he 
does  these  things  without  sanction  oflaw;  and  thecourls  both 
in  (Ircat  liritaiu  and  in  the  V.  S.  will  refuse  to  help  him  to 
recover  money  lent  to  a  belligerent,  on  the  ground  tliat  tlic 
transaction  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations.  (Sec  I'hillimorc, 
iii.  J   l.'il.)     liut  hitherto,  neutrals,  whilst  forbidding  or 
warning  against  most  of  these  things,  do  not  make  them 
punishable.    It  is  otherwise  with  more  public  acts,  such  as 
building  war-vessels  for  a  belligerent  or  enlisting  men  for 
his  service.    Even  hero  commercial  ciipi.lity  and  the  tricks 
of  foreign  agents  can  often  prevent  the  purpose  which  they 
ore  attempting  to  accomplish   from  coining  to  light.     A 
neutral,  however,  if  it  he  bis  duty  to  prevent  his  territory 
from    becoming   tho   starting-place    for  carrying   on    war 
against  friends,  can  make  effectual  laws  and  maintain  an 
active  police.     It  is  not  the  office  of  foreign  ambassadors 
and  consuls,  but  of  the  home  government,  to  look  into  such 
trespasses,  and  tho  more,  because  they  otherwise  expose 
themselves   to   complaints   from    tho    injured   belligerent. 
On   the  other  hand,  the  conduct   of  neutral  governments 
themselves  is  tolerably  clear.     They  cannot  lend  money  or 
troops  to  either  belligerent,  or  open  their  ports  for  hostile 
purposes,  or  permit  their  courts  to  be  used  for  deciding 
nucstions  of  prize  whore  cither  of  the  belligerents  is  con- 
cerned.    To  secure  the  neutral  conduct  of  their  subjects, 
neutrality  laws  arc  enacted  by  several  nations,  perhaps  by 
all  who  arc  under  the  Christian  law  of  nations.     Thus,  tho 
l'.  S.  passed  one  in  1S17  which  is  still  in  force,  and  (ircat 
Britain  one  (M)  (leo.  III.  oh.  (>'.>)  which  continueil  in  force 
until  1S70,  when  a  new  act  was  passeil,  entitled,  like  tho 
first,  a  "  foreign  enlisllnent  act."  but  far  more  stringent  and 
conceding  far  more  power  to  the  administration.     Vndcr 
the  nril   Ilritish  act   vessels  destined  to  prey  on  tho  com- 
merce  of   the    V.  S.  in  tho   interest  of   the  Confederates 
slipped  out  from  British  port.s  and  did  their  work  effect- 
ually.     (ircat  complaints  arose  on  our  side,  until   in  May, 


1871,  the  Treaty  of  Washington  was  effected,  containing 
three  rules  which  the  parties  agreed  to  have  applied  in 
deciding  their  past  difficulties,  to  observe  for  the  future  be- 
tween themselves,  and  to  urge  on  the  acceptance  of  other 
nations.  These  rules  arc — that  "a  neutral  government  is 
bound, ./ir«(,  to  use  duo  diligence  to  prevent  tho  fitting  out, 
arming,  or  equipping,  within  its  jurisdiction,  of  any  vessel 
which  it  has  reasonable  ground  to  bclicyo  is  intended  to 
cruise  or  to  carry  on  war  against  a  power  with  which  it  is 
at  peace;  and  also  to  use  like  diligence  to  prevent  the  de- 
parture from  its  jurisdiction  of  any  vessel  intended  to 
cruise  or  carry  on  war  as  above,  such  vessel  having  been 
specially  adapted,  in  whole  or  in  part,  within  such  juris- 
diction to  warlike  use;  nccoiirf/i/.  not  to  permit  or  suffer 
either  belligerent  to  make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters  as  tho 
base  of  naval  operations  against  the  other,  or  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  the  renewal  or  augmentation  of  military  supjilics 
or  arms,  or  tho  recruitment  of  men  ;  ihirilly,  to  exercise  due 
diligence  in  its  own  ports  and  waters,  and  as  to  all  persons 
within  its  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the  fore- 
going obligations  and  duties."  In  regard  to  the  meaning 
of  these  rules,  we  observe  that  -'due  diligence."  as  well  as 
"reasonable  grounds  of  belief,"  is  necessarily  indefinite; 
only  the  facts  of  the  case  can  determine  whether  one  neu- 
tral has  reason  to  complain  of  the  other  as  to  these  points. 
A  most  important  question  of  interpretation  is  whetlier  "  to 
prevent  the  departure  from  its  jurisdiction  "  relates  only  to 
the  original  departure,  when  the  vessel  is  ready  for  sea,  or 
to  any  future  departure,  if  it  should  enter  the  ports  of  tho 
same  neutral.  Wo  have  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
commissioners  of  the  U.  S.  understood  the  words  in  tho 
latter  sense,  and  so  also  did  the  judges,  or  the  majority  of 
the  judges,  at  the  tribunal  of  (iencva.  In  other  words,  the 
crime  rests  on  the  vessel,  and  the  flag  which  it  floats  does 
not  protect  it:  which  is  thus  true  of  tho  vessel  of  uiiii  ch- 
Uihliihrd  government,  but  much  mme  of  a  vessel  belonging 
to  an  organized  revolutionary  body,  which  has  no  rights  or 
status  under  the  law  of  nations. 

Neutrals,   on    the    other   hand,   have   important    rights 
against  belligerents,  the  principal  one  of    which   is  that 
their  territory  or  tho  sea  withiu  their  jurisdiction  shall  not 
be  touched  by  operations  of  war.     Accordingly,  a  capture 
made  within  neutral   waters,  even   if   in  hot  pursuit  and 
flight  the  contending  vessels  pass  out  of  the  open  sea,  is 
vitiated;  and  the  same  is  to  be  said  of  captures  following 
a  contest  in  neutral  waters  which  is  completed  on  the  high 
seas.     The  neutral  has  a  right  to  demand  from  the  bellig- 
erent captor  satisfaction  for  such  invasion  of  his  rights,  to 
seize  the  prize  if  brought  within  its  waters,  and  perhaps  to 
chase  and  arrest  the  captor  on  his  way  from  tho  scene  of 
,  the  offence.     So  any  attempt  to  conipromiso  tho  neutral's 
:  position  by  enlisting  men  to  servo  in  war.  or  by  inducing 
I  them  to  go  aboard  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting,  is  an   in- 
fraction of  tho  law  of  nations,  connivance  at    which    on 
the  part  of  the  British  ambassador  in  180G  led  the  U.  S.  to 
demand  his  removal.— Tho    subject  of   arresting   neutral 
yessels  on  the  high  seas  will  bo  considered  under  tho  head 
i  of  Scfirih  iiutl  Viaitdliiiii. 

'       Thr  /.inbililif'n  itml  Riuhta  <,/  Xeuliul  Trn(lc.—(a)  Here, 
I  when  we  8]ieak  of  neutral  owners  and  neutral  (iroperty,  tho 
!  word  nrulral  is  taken  in  a  qualified  sense.     He  is  a  neutral 
owner  who  is  resident  in  a  neutral  country,  and  that  is 
neutral  properly  which  is  owned  by  a  neutral  and  is  tho 
pro.luct  of  iiculnil  soil.     That,  on  tho  contrary,  is  hostile 
:  property  which  belongs  to  a  person  resident  in  a  hostile 
country,  and  hostile  property  is  liis  properly  or  the  produc- 
1  lion  of  hostile  soil.     It  may  happen  that  one  partner  is 
i  hostile  and  one  neutral ;  if  capture  takes  place,  their  rc- 
speelivo  intcrcsls  in  the  concern  will  decide  how  much  is 
exempt  from,  and  how  much  is  liable  to,  tho  laws  of  cap- 
ture     If  a  person  resident  in  a  neutral  country  has  n  place 
of    business  and  cajiital  in  a  hostile  one,  ho  has  so   far 
1  forth  a  hostile  character:  but  the  English  courts  have  ruled 
'  that  a  person  domiciled  in  a  hostile  country,  but  having  a 
commercial  liouse  in  a  neutral  one.  is  not  neutral,  but  lios- 
tile.     To   these  particulars  we  add   that  a  hostile  flag  or 
license  to  trado  makes  a  ship  hostile:  that  papers  relating 
to  the  nationality  of  a  vessel  cannot  bo  changed  .luring  a 
voyage  williout  strong  evidence  of  fraud  :  and  that  proiluoc 
ofsoil  whicli  a  neutral  owns  in  a  hostile  country  follows 
the  character  of  the  soil. 

(H  A  subject  of  a  neutral  may  identify  himself  with  one 
of  tho  belligerents  in  several  ways:  ho  may  carry  contra- 
band of  war.  or  try  to  break  blockade,  or  lake  out  a  trad- 
ing license,  nhethe'r  between  the  belligerent  mother-country 
and  a  colcmy  or  between  ports  along  the  belligerent's  coast. 
Most  of  these  actions  would  bo  regarded  us  oriminal.  and 
\  OS  exposing  a  vessel  to  pains  and  penalties.  But  the  ques- 
tions arise.  What  may  a  neutral  vessel  do?  what  may  it 
noldo?  That  it  can  do  unneutral  acts  is  uuiloubtcd  ;  that 
the  belligcrcnla  ought  not  to  stop  neutral  trade,  unless  iu 


1256 


INTEENATIONAL   LAW. 


self-defence,  will  bo  gcDcrally  admitted.  The  great  diffi- 
culty always  was.  until  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  to  decide 
whose  goods  the  neutral  trader  might  take  on  board  of  his 
vessel.  Numberless  were  the  contentious,  the  diverse  ar- 
rangements by  treaty,  on  that  subject.  The  second  and 
third  rules  of  that  Declaration  laid  the  basis  for  uniformity 
of  practice  among  the  signers  :  and  as  they  are  such  as  the 
U.  S.  always  strove  to  have  come  into  operation,  they  may 
be  said  to  be  all  but  universal,  although  we  have  never 
given  our  adhesion  to  tlicm.  They  arc,  that  the  "neutral 
tlag  covers  the  enemy's  goods  with  the  exception  of  con- 
traband of  war,"  and  that  "  neutral  goods,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under 
an  enemy's  flag."  Enemies'  goods  on  enemies'  vessels  arc 
still  liable  to  capture,  whatever  be  their  quality  ;  hut  as  the 
cautious  trader,  to  avoid  risk,  would  employ  a  neutral  ves- 
sel, the  amount  of  property  on  the  open  sea  exposed  to  the 
vessels  of  the  other  enemy  will  be  very  small;  the  number 
of  captures  hereafter  may  be  expected  to  be  very  t;mall ; 
and  as  privateers  will  cease  to  be  employed  as  an  auxiliary 
to  national  vessels,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  ere  long  no  goods 
or  shijjs  will  be  exposed  to  capture  but  such  as  directly  aid 
in  war.  The  law  of  the  future,  in  short,  will  provide  that 
there  shall  be  no  difference  between  neutrals  and  enemies 
in  regard  to  the  right  of  undisturbed  passage  over  the 
sea. 

(c)  The  history  of  past  rules  and  opinions  touching  lia- 
bility to  capture  is  too  large  a  subject,  and  withal  too  anti- 
quated, for  us  to  enter  into  in  an  article  like  this.  We  will 
only  add  on  that  point  one  or  two  sentences  which  may 
serve  to  aid  in  xmderstanding  former  practice  and  histori- 
cal allusions  to  it.  Two  rules,  then,  may  be  said  to  have 
been  in  contlict  heretofore — one  making  capture  to  depend 
on  the  tintiimrtlittf  o/  prnpcrfi/  convei/ed  over  the  sea;  the 
other,  on  the  natiunaUtif  of  the  coiiveyiiiff  vessel.  By  the 
first  rule  the  neutral's  goods  were  aa/e  on  any  vessel,  the 
belligerent's  intsit/e  on  any  vessel.  By  the  second,  the 
neutral's  sliip  protected  the  goods,  the  belligerent's  exposed 
them  to  capture:  or,  to  put  this  into  another  form,  free 
ships  made  free  goods,  enemies'  ships  made  goods  hostile. 
As  for  the  last  part  of  this  rule,  it  was  of  slight  importance 
wh.it  usage  should  prevail  in  regard  to  enemies'  ships  car- 
rying neutrals'  goods,  for  in  war  the  neutral  would  naturally 
do  more  of  his  own  carrying  than  before.  But  it  was  of 
great  importance  to  the  belligerent  that  the  neutral  flag 
should  not  protect  his  enemy's  goods,  while  it  was  of  great 
importance  to  the  neutral  that  a  rich  carrying-trade  should 
be  opened  to  him  in  time  of  war.  In  this  conflict  of  pr.ic- 
ticc  the  belligerent  interests,  especially  those  of  a  nation, 
like  Great  Britain,  with  a  naval  force  strong  enough  to 
protect  itself  antl  annoy  its  foe,  prevailed;  and  so,  on  the 
whole,  the  first  of  these  twi>  rules  had  the  most  vogue 
when  treaty  did  not  intervene — the  rule,  namely,  that  the 
property  of  a  neutral  is  safe  under  any  flag,  ami  that  of  an 
enemy  unsafe  under  any  flag.  This  rule  exposed  the  neu- 
tral to  great  annoyance,  as  his  cargo  might  be  mainly  hos- 
tile :  but  we  must  regard  it.  after  all,  as  most  just  that  not 
the  vehicle  but  the  j)roperty  should  determine  liability  to 
capture.  For  the  reason  for  capture  is — apart  from  cases 
of  blockade  and  contraband — that  the  thing  in  question 
belongs  to  an  enemy;  and  a  neutral  certainly  has  a  right 
to  lake  his  friend's  goods  on  his  vessels,  and  to  use  his 
friend's  vessel  for  the  same  purpose.  The  war-right  of  his 
friend's  enemy  may  subject  him  to  inconvenience,  but 
neither  his  property  nor  his  right  of  payment  for  freight 
(Might  to  be  taken  from  him.  The  present  rules — that  is, 
the  rules  of  ISofi — are  not  more  just,  but  they  are  more  hu- 
mane, than  those  which  iJrcat  Britain  and  our  Supremo 
Court  held  to  be  the  true  law  of  nations.  (See  fntroduc- 
tion  to  /iifernalional  Laic,  by  the  author  of  this  article,  §g 
lO'J  A— 171.) 

{d)  When,  under  the  old  rules  of  capture,  a  neutral  ship 
was  found  with  an  enemy's  goods  on  board,  freight  was 
paid  by  the  captor  fc»r  the  voyage,  capture  being  considered 
equivalent  to  delivery  :  but  when  a  hostile  vessel  was  cap- 
tured with  neutral  goods  on  board,  if  the  captor  conveyed 
them  to  their  original  destination,  ho  was  allowed  to  charge 
freight,  otherwise  no  freight  was  duo, 

(e)  When  a  neutral  used  an  armed  vessel  of  the  enemy 
for  conveying  his  goods,  he  exposed  them  to  capture,  ac- 
cording to  British  doctrine,  as  thereby  showing  an  intention 
to  resist  the  inconveniences  of  search  and  capture.  But 
our  courts  held  a  different  language,  for  why  would  the 
neutral  run  the  risk  of  (he  total  destruction  of  his  goods  in 
consequence  of  an  engagement,  as  ho  was  safe  already  from 
capture?  A  rule  for  this  case  is  now  of  no  great  import- 
ance, whichever  way  it  be  decided,  since  privateering  has 
ceased  in  great  measure,  and  ships  of  war  arc  not  much  in 
the  practice  of  carrying  the  goods  of  private  persons. 

( /*)  Cnntrahnnd  »>/  War. — The  word  "  contraband,"  orig- 
inally signifying  that  which  it  was  against  a  ban,  edict,  or 


I  proclamation  to  export  or  to  import,  now  denotes  those  arti- 
I  eles  which  a  neutral  cannot  send  to  a  country  in  a  state  of 
I  war  consistently  with  the  neutral  character  or  without  vio- 
'  lating  the  law  of  nations.  These  are  articles  which  directly 
j  aid  the  operations  of  war,  and  to  send  these  to  an  enemy 
I  identifies  the  neutral  with  him.  I  may  assist  in  \var  as 
I  eff'ectually  by  sending  arms  or  gunpowder  as  by  getting 
!  men  to  enlist  in  a  belligerent's  service.  What  these  arti- 
cles are  is,  for  the  most  part,  pretty  generally  admitted, 
although  there  is  a  dispute  about  several  of  the  more  im- 
portant ones.  The  U.  .S.  have  a  formula  whieh  has  been 
inserted  into  a  number  of  treaties  with  South  American 
republics.  This  list  includes — "(I)  cannons,  mortars,  how- 
itzers, swivels,  blunderbusses,  muskets,  fusees,  rifles,  car- 
bines, pistols,  pikes,  swords,  sabres,  lances,  spears,  halbcrts, 
hand-grenades,  bombs,  powder,  matches,  balls,  and  all 
other  things  belonging  to  the  use  of  these  arms;  (2)  buck- 
lers, helmets,  breastplates,  coats-of-mail,  infantry  belts, 
and  clothes  made  up  in  a  military  form  and  for  a  military 
use;  (3)  cavalry  belts  and  horses,  with  their  furniture ;  (4) 
and  generally,  all  kinds  of  arms  and  instruments  of  iron, 
steel,  brass,  and  copper,  or  of  any  other  material,  manu- 
factured, prepared,  and  formed  to  make  war  by  sea  or 
land."  Besides  these,  on  which  there  would  be  a  very 
general  agreement,  naval  stores  and  materials  for  ship- 
building are  mentioned  in  a  number  of  treaties  as  haviug 
this  character,  and  provisions  may  assume  it,  according  to 
some  authorities,  when  there  is  a  prospect  of  reducing  an 
enemy  by  famine.  Ships  made  ready  for  war  are  not  found 
in  some  lists,  but  would  probably  be  regarded  as  contraband 
ptir  cmtneitce.  So  the  nmchinery  for  steam-ships,  an  arti- 
cle of  modern  times,  might  be  classed  in  the  same  list. 
Whatever  article  is  of  contraband  character,  thus  much 
may  be  said — that  belligerents  have  no  right  to  add  to  the 
list,  nor  neutrals  to  take  away  from  it.  To  restrict  the 
trade  of  neutrals,  especially  by  an  arbitrary  act,  is  not  a 
thing  to  be  endured  in  the  present  age.  AVe  are  thus  jire- 
pared  to  condemn  the  doctrine  of  occasimial  contraband, 
— which  has  not  received  the  assent,  nor  been  sanctioned  by 
the  practice,  of  all  nations, — according  to  which  naval  stores, 
and  provisions  especially,  are  declared  contraband  by  a  bel- 
ligerent when  the  circumstances  seem  to  require  it.  The 
fluctuating  character  of  such  a  doctrine  is  shown  by  the 
rules  of  the  English  judges  in  the  early  part  of  this  cen- 
tury, as  that  such  articles  were  viewed  with  greater  indul- 
gence if  they  were  the  produce  of  the  country  from  which 
they  were  exported,  or  if  unmanufactured  or  destined  to  a 
commercial  port,  than  if  shipped  from  a  country  where 
they  were  not  grown,  or  in  a  manufactured  state  or  destined 
to  a  naval  station.  Afterwards  the  English  judge.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Scott  (subsequently  Lord  Stowell).  withdrew  this  in- 
dulgence as  to  the  commercial  jtart.  on  the  ground  that  the 
articles  might  there  be  used  to  fit  out  privateers.  (See  the 
author's  Introd.,  ^  ISO.)  The  complaints  of  neutrals  led  to 
a  new  modification  of  the  harsh  practice  in  regard  to  pro- 
visions and  navul  stores.  Their  whole  trade  might  consist 
in  such  articles,  and  the  belligerent  doctrine  be  ruinous  to 
them.  The  rule  of  pre-emption,  %vhieh  had  some  sujiport 
from  ancient  precedents  not  strictly  applicable,  was  now 
applied  by  way  of  relaxation  of  the  rule,  and  consisted  in 
this — that  a  cruiser  at  sea  was  allowed  to  detain  vessels 
laden  with  provisions  or  naval  stores,  and  bound  for  the 
enemy's  ports,  and  to  take  them  into  a  port  of  his  own 
country.  The  articles  thus  intercepted  were  paid  for  at 
the  market-price,  and  with  a  fair  profit  added,  but  not  at 
the  ]>rice  which  the  neutral  expected  to  obtain  in  the  coun- 
try to  which  he  was  conveying  them.  The  U.  S.  in  one 
treaty,  that  of  1794,  sanctioned  this  principle.  AVhen  a 
vessel  is  taken  with  contraband  articles  on  board,  the  mod- 
ern very  mild  rule  is  to  confiscate  such  .articles,  and  let  the 
vessel  with  the  other  goods  go  free,  unless  both  or  either 
of  them  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  contraband,  in  which 
ease,  or  where  false  papers  show  privity  in  carrying  them, 
the  guilt  passes  over  to  the  remainder  of  the  property  of  the 
same  owner,  or  also  to  the  owner  of  the  vessel. 

Special  eases  of  contraband  trade  are  the  conveyance  of 
ships  of  war  or  of  transports  with  their  crews,  of  persons 
in  the  military  service,  and  of  despatches.  All  but  the  last 
would  have  been  considered  by  older  writers  and  by  courts 
as  highly  criminal.  Despatches  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
sj>oken  of  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
The  doctrine,  first  brought  out  in  the  English  courts,  but 
now  pretty  generally  accepted,  is  that  a  shipmaster  who 
knowingly  conveys  hostile  despatches  exposes  his  vessel 
and  the  cargo,  if  he  is  the  agent  of  it,  to  confiscation.  But 
what  are  hostile  despatches?  They  are  in  substance  de- 
fined to  be  "official  communications  of  official  persons  re- 
specting the  public  affairs  of  government.''  Such  despatches 
as  keep  up  the  intercourse  between  a  belligerent  and  a 
neutral  country  are  not  hostile  despatches,  nor  ha^*  the  oth*  r 
belligerent  the  right  to  obstruct  it.     It  seems  likely  that 


IXTKRNATIOXAL  LAW. 


1257 


vessels  carrying  the  public  mails,  especially  if  on  a  certain 
staled  course,  would  not  be  exposed  to  suffer  from  the  oper- 
ation of  this  rule. 

According  to  received  doctrine,  neutral  governments  are 
under  no  responsibility  to  restrict  private  pcrsuns  from 
conveying  any  kind  of  contraband  to  either  or  both  of  the 
belligerents.  The  articles  are  not  contraband  until  they 
have  left  the  neutral  limits,  it  has  been  said,  and  the  neu- 
tral is  not  obliged  to  maintain  an  expensive  police  of  the 
sea.  If  two  nations  choose  to  fight,  they  must  guard  their 
own  coasts:  the  world  suffers  enough  from  their  contests 
without  aiding  them  in  any  respect.  But  there  is  another 
side  to  the  doctrine  of  the  responsibility  of  neutnils.  They 
thrive  by  the  rpiarrels  -tf  their  friends;  they  supply  the 
materials  for  death  :  and  in  so  doing  they  demoralize  society 
almost  as  much  as  if  they  entered  upon  tho  slave-trade. 
Furthermore,  tho  articles  that  arc  contraband  arc  in  some 
cases  almost  indistinguishable  from  those  which  could  not 
bo  sent  abrojid  without  exposing  the  nation  itself  to  charges 
of  unneutral  conduct.  A  ship  of  war  made  to  bo  sold  in 
the  ports  of  a  belligerent,  if  without  a  crew,  is  contraband, 
but  a  ship  made  by  contract  for  the  belligerent  government 
is  more — it  is  something  which  neutrals  must  not  allow  to 
slip  ont  from  their  harbors.  The  difference  between  the 
two  cases  is  almost  annihilated  if  the  neutral  merchant  has 
a  secret  understanding  with  tlie  belligerent  to  make  the 
ship  for  him  while  acting  as  the  owner  himself.  Add  to 
this,  that  nations  rush  tho  more  readily  into  war  if  tboy 
know  that  a  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition  will  be  on 
hand  when  they  wunt  it.  For  these  reasons  we  think  that 
not  only  what  Dr.  Phillimore  contends  for — the  making  it 
unlawful  for  belligerent  private  vessels  to  get  materials  of 
war — should  come  to  be  a  rule  of  international  law.  but 
also  that  no  neutral  ve.'fsel  should  be  allowed  to  export  such 
articles  to  either  of  tho  belligerents.  This  might  bo  effected 
by  requiring  sufficient  bonds  from  all  vessels  before  sailing 
that  they  have  no  contraband  on  board,  and  imposing  a 
penalty  besides  in  case  of  transgression.  Let  all  merchant 
ships  of  every  nation  be  freo  to  carry  innocent  articles  to 
tho  theiiii-r  of  war  ;  let  no  ships  of  any  kind  bo  allowed  to 
carry  articles  contraband  of  war. 

(7)  There  was  formerly  a  special  pndiibition  against  a 
certain  kind  of  tnirle.  called  tho  rule  of  IT-'iO,  which  Eng- 
land insijited  and  acted  upon,  but  which  never  fully  passed 
into  international  law.  and  has  now  become  of  no  signifi- 
cance. It  related  to  trade  closed  in  peace,  but  open  in  war. 
Such  tra<lo  might  be  cofintiuf/  or  cohniiai,  the  first  of  wliich 
nati'ms  generally  do  not  open  to  foreigners,  while  it  was 
for  a  long  time  a  principle  to  confine  tho  other  to  native- 
born  sufjjects  or  open  it  only  under  limitations.  .Such  trade 
at  first  was  allowed,  we  believe,  in  all  cases,  only  to  foreign 
vessels  that  had  obtained  a  license.  There  was  reason 
enough  to  regard  a  licensed  vessel  as  identified  with  tho 
belligerent's  interests,  and  so  far  the  rule  was  not  harsh; 
but  when  tho  trade  was  opent-d  to  all  neutral  vessels,  the 
same  rule  was  urged  with  somewhat  less  of  justice  ;  tho 
neutral  saverl  a  slate  from  some  of  the  embarrassments  intu 
which  it  might  bo  brought  by  its  enemy.  Our  government 
contended  against  tho  rule  in  its  apjdioation  both  to  coast- 
ing and  to  cfilonial  trade,  but  some  of  our  publicists  were 
willing  to  let  the  rule  have  fnrre  in  regar<l  to  coasting  trade 
whifh  has  an  especially  nati<mal  character.  Since  tho 
Declaration  of  Paris  of  ISofi,  by  which  the  neutral  ship 
has  a  right  to  take  enemies'  goods,  this  rule  has  necessarily 
expired. 

(A)  /tf'irkmlr. — This  word  might  be  usetl  of  nil  obstruc- 
tions put  in  tho  way  of  approach  either  to  a  besieged  town 
on  the  land  or  to  a  besieged  piece  of  water;  but,  as  facility 
of  approach  is  confined  ehiefiy  to  water,  all  the  questions 
under  this  titlo  r'-latc  t»»  that  element  and  to  iHMitral  vessels 
upon  it.  Tho  riglit  of  blockade  is  admitted  on  .all  sides  ; 
the  true  ground  Utr  ilefending  it  is  the  same  that  would 
make  it  dangerous  to  bring  supplies  to  a  besieged  place  in 
Ihn  interior.  If  F  allow  neutrals  tu  ai'l  my  enemy  by  pro- 
visions and  military  st'ires.  I  can  never  terminate  a  war. 
Ifo  assists  his  friend  to  my  injury,  and  this,  if  there  be  any 
rights  in  war,  I  ought  to  have  a  right  to  prevent.  Only 
harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers,  and  perhaps  passages  through 
straits,  can  bo  blockaded.  A  stretch  of  const  does  nota'Imit 
of  this  nnlcs  the  nutnber  of  vesf;els  is  augmented  in  pro- 
portion to  tho  local  limits  of  tho  blockade.  Mouths  of 
rivers  cannot  bo  so  blockaded  as  to  obstruct  the  commerce 
of  the  riparian  states  that  are  neutral.  A  blockinle  is  a  fact 
or  event  that  may  begin  or  end,  and  ther<'("i>re  there  must 
bo  Hoin/r  nftlifh-iitinn  «/  1'/  to  traders,  to  neutral  governments, 
or  to  both.  The  French  rule  is  to  give  two  notifications — 
the  diplmnatin  imo,  an'l  that  eonimunicnted  to  the  ves«cl  at 
the  mouth  of  the  harbor — and  at  no  stage  of  the  operation 
to  nogleet  tho  bitter.  .M.  MoK-,  nnnister  of  foreign  affairs, 
writes  in  I  M.'tS  to  another  Frerieh  minister  of  stale  :  "  \  will 
not  recall  here  tho  rea.-ons  why,  independently  of  tho  offi- 


cial and  diplomatic  notice  of  a  blockade,  every  ship  show- 
ing itself  before  the  blockaded  port  ought  to  receive  the 
warning  from  tho  ci)mmanding  squadron."  Tho  French, 
however,  hold,  if  we  are  not  mistaken,  that  at  the  outset  of  a 
war,  before  notice  has  had  time  to  travel  over  the  commer- 
cial world,  a  simple  warning  to  a  sliip  is  sufllcicnt,  and  that 
an  attempt  to  break  through  into  the  port  after  this  would 
expose  tho  vessel  to  seizure  and  trial.  Tho  English  and  our 
own  rule  does  not  require  the  double  notice.  It  is  enough 
to  send  the  diplomatic  notice  to  all  neutrals,  and  only  at 
tho  very  commencement  of  a  war,  especially  before  notice 
has  had  time  to  rty  abroad,  to  warn  off  any  approaching 
vessel.  If,  meanwhile,  a  vessel  should  seek  to  enter  tho 
blockaded  harbor  under  the  plea  of  ignorance,  the  length 
of  its  voyage  and  other  circumstances  must  decide  whether 
the  plea  is  just.  The  diplomatic  notice  must  be  sent  every- 
where, and  if  only  common  fame  has  carried  it  to  a  partic- 
ular country,  that  is  not  sufficient  to  involve  in  guilt  a  ves- 
sel of  that  country,  when  seeking  the  blockaded  port.  If  wo 
compare  tho  two  rules,  we  shall  give  the  preference  to  the 
Englisli.  The  diplomatic  notice  is  intended  to  prevent 
voyages,  which  may  be  useless  or  losing,  to  places  in  an 
actual  condition  of  siege.  Should  a  vessel  now  appear  at 
the  harbor's  mouth  with  the  claim  of  not  knowing  tho 
state  of  facts,  tho  presumption  is  against  the  story,  and 
she  must  prove  her  words  a3  she  can.  But  why  give  a  new 
warning  here,  any  more  than  to  a  burglar  at  your  door? 
It  is  highly  criminal  to  break  bluekade  ;  the  purpose  to  do 
it  is  a  hostile  purpose,  and  no  indulgence  is  called  for  by 
such  traffic. 

T/ie  amount  of  force  necessary  to  make  blockade  legal 
and  effective  is  somewhat  indefinite.  Tho  fourth  rule  of 
the  Declaration  of  iSfiO  is  that  "blockades,  in  oriler  to  be 
binding,  must  be  effective  :  that  is  to  say,  maintained  by  a 
force  sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  the  coast  of  the 
enemy."  It  may  be  asked  what  '*  sufficient  to  prevent  ac- 
cess "  means.  Suppose  a  number  of  trim,  swift  blockade- 
runners  slip  through  a  cordon  of  ships,  does  this  destroy 
the  effectiveness  of  the  measure?  Certainly  not.  Appar- 
ently, as  far  as  its  afiirmativo  meaning  is  concerned,  this 
rule  loft  things  as  they  were  before.  If  there  is  real  danger 
of  capture,  and  a  force  is  stationed  before  the  harbor  in- 
tended to  create  such  danger,  tho  blockade  would  be  con- 
sidered effective.  On  the  other  hand,  ail  paper  blockades, 
like  those  of  the  Berlin  Decrees,  the  two  liritisli  Orders  in 
Council,  andthejMilan  Decrees,  all  of  1S07,  by  which  whole 
coasts  for  hundreds  of  leagues  were  put  under  a  blockade- 
ban — tho  two  parties  concerned,  Na]toleon  and  the  British 
government,  in  turn  going  beyond  each  other  in  their 
(iiplomatic  war — arc  entirely  forbidden. 

A  blockaile.  being  a  fact,  luHtn  ouhf  ho  long  as  tho  vessels 
are  on  hand  to  make  it  such,  unless,  indeed,  a  temporary 
storm  drives  them  frtun  their  posts,  to  which  they  return  as 
soon  as  possible.  When  they  are  driven  off  by  the  aupcrior 
poKcr  of  the  enemy,  or  iHscontiuur  their  operations  by 
orders  of  the  government  or  commander  of  the  squadron, 
the  blockade  ceases,  and  needs  the  same  fonnatitics  for  its 
renewal  as  for  its  commencement. 

When  a  vessel  in  tnkeu,  and  foiiml  by  the  proper  court 
f/nilti/  of  attempting  to  enter  or  (put  the  blockaded  port 
during  the  blockade,  tho  jienalty  is  confiscation  of  the  ves- 
sel, and  tho  cargo  shares  tho  same  fate,  unless  some  proof 
can  be  given  that  the  breach  was  against  its  owner's  will. 
The  liiibility  to  bo  tried  and  condemned  rests  on  the  vessel, 
according  to  English  decisions,  until  the  end  of  the  retitrn 
voj/a;/r. 

On  the  doctrine  of  blockade  and  of  contraband  has  horn 
engrafted  that  of  contintiouH  voi/iti/i:fi.  The  English  courts, 
in  order  to  prevent  neutral  captains  froui  evading  the  rule 
of  1"6C  in  regard  to  colonial  trade  by  stopping  at  a  neutral 
port,  there  landing  and  rclading  cargoes,  and  getting  a  new 
clearance,  made  tho  decision  that  if  nn  original  intention 
could  bo  proved  of  carrying  the  goods  from  the  colony  to 
tho  nuilher-country,  the  proceedings  at  the  neutral  port 
were  to  be  regardeil  as  a  mere  sham,  and  the  ullinnxle  des- 
tination was  to  deeiile  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  trade. 
In  our  late  war  with  the  Confederates  many  vessels  brought 
contraband  of  war  or  other  articles  to  a  port  in  tho  West 
Indies,  espi'cially  to  the  port  tif  Nassau,  and  eilher  took  a 
new  start  from  tliere  or  put  the  goods  on  blixkade-runners 
better  fitle<I  to  semi  hy  a  squadron  that  might  be  upon  tho 
lookout.  To  avoid  the  mischiefs  growing  out  of  these  pro- 
ceedings (nir  government  applied  the  English  doctrine  just 
now  mi'iitioned  to  ihip*  elastt  of  eases.  Consignment  to  some 
one  at  Nassau,  or  any  papers  making  that  the  destination 
of  the  vessel,  would  not  screen  it  if  an  original  destination 
could  be  estaldished  of  sending  the  goods  ultimalely  to  a 
bloekaded  port,  or,  in  the  oaso  of  contraband  of  war,  of  a 
drfltination  for  tho  hostile  coast.  Such  intention  would 
subject  them  to  capture  from  the  time  <»f  setting  sail.  Still 
more  stringent  was  tho  application  of  the  rulo  to  goods 


12.36 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


bound  up  tbo  Rio  Grande  for  Matamoraa  on  the  Mexican 
side  of  the  river,  if,  when  tliey  were  intercepted,  it  could  be 
made  to  appear  that  there  «as  an  intention  alter  laiidms 
them  to  earrv  them  overland  into  territory  ol  the  U  .S. 
(Comp.  note  27  in  the  author's  work,  before  cited,  p.  4bb, 

"  I  i)  Search  —To  carry  out  the  rules  of  nations  respecting 
contraband  goods,  blockade,  and  enemies'  goods  on  enemies 
vessels,  search  is  necessary  :  that  is,  the  process  by  which 
it  is  ascertained  in  war  what  is  the  nationality  of  the  ves- 
sel and  the  nature  of  her  freight.  This  right  is  essential 
to  the  others,  so  tliat  if  certain  writers,  as  Ilubner  (1 ,39), 
could  have  made  it  out  that  a  ship  on  the  open  sea  is  under 
the  same  law  as  territorv.  a  great  part  ol  the  effectiveness 
of  war  on  the  sea  would  have  ceased.  Being,  however,  an 
acknowledged  right,  it  must  be  submitted  to,  and  resist- 
.ance  would  authorise  force  on  the  part  of  the  eriiiser:  the 
search,  however,  must  not  be  made  annoying.  II  me  ves- 
sel is  on  an  innocent,  lawful  voyage,  she  is  to  pursue  her 
way  •  if  otherwise,  she  may  bo  seized  and  taken  into  a  port 
for'thc  purpose  of  adjudication.  Search  being  a  very  irri- 
tating' process  for  the  neutral,  the  northern  states  of  Europe 
around  the  Baltic  attempcd  to  introduce  the  so-called  right 
of  c.oiioi/.  by  which  a  public  vessel,  escorting  merchant 
vessels  and  liaving  their  papers  on  board,  could  be  a  secur- 
ity for  their  being  engaged  in  a  commerce  permitted  to 
neutrals,  aud  thus  might  free  them  from  the  necessity  of 
bein"  vi=ited.  This  was  a  rule  which  the  armed  neutrality 
of  1800  endeavored  without  success  to  establish  It  has 
hitherto  been  unable  to  find  a  place  in  the  law  of  nations, 
although  a  large  number  of  treaties  have  provided  for  it. 
It  is  attended  with  the  practical  difficulty  that  a  fleet  ol 
merchant  vessels  under  escort  may  often  got  separated 
from  the  convoying  ship  of  war,  and  thus  a  bel  igerent 
cruiser  may  mc'ct  one  of  the  merchant  ships  at  a  distance 
from  such  convoying  ship.  .  ,     .     u 

The  ri<'ht  of  search  is  properly  a  war-nght,  to  be  exer- 
cised in  the  case  of  merchant  ships  only.     It  is  still  a  war- 
rit-ht   whenever  vessels  smjieclcd  of  piraci/  are  required  to 
Ii?to'aad  submit  to  examination,  because  pirates  are  ene- 
mies of  the  human  race.     It  may  happen  that  such  suspi- 
cion uniustlv  attaches  to  a  particular  vessel.     This  is  like 
the  arri-t  of  an  innocent  person  at  night  under  suspicious 
circumstances  by  the  police.      He  is  bound  not  to  resist 
and  to  give  an  account  of  himself  for  the  sake  of  the  peace 
of  societv     So  the  vessel  is  bound  to  satisfy  those  who  are 
enf  a^ed'  in  the  search,  because  it  is  for  the  good  of  the 
wodd;  aud  if  the  detention  can  be  shown  to  be  unreason- 
able, or  to  have  been  made  annoying  without  reason,  tho 
commander  has  a  right  to  complain.     In  one  case  a  small 
Spanish  government  ship  was  stopped  in  order  to  ascertain 
whether  she  were  or  were  not  a  pirate,  and  the  court  ot  the 
U    S.,  in  speaking  of  this,  says  that  ships  of  war  acting 
nnder  the  authority  to  arrest  pirates  or  other  offenders, 
•'may  approach  any  vessels  descried  at  sea  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the^r  real  character."     There  is  likewise  a 
permissible  search  on  tho  high  seas  in  peace  when  frauds 
kre  suspected  against  the  revem.e.     This  may  take  efiect  , 
when  a  vessel  that  has  committed  an  oftenee  within  the  , 
waters  of  a  country  flees  from  justice,  in  which  case    ho 
public  ship  may  chase  her  into  the  high  sea  and  arrest  her 
there      An  English  ordinance  prohibits  the  transshiiwnent 
of  foreign  goods  within  four  leagues  of  the  coast  without 
paying  diUies,  and  a  law  of  Congress  of   1799  contains  | 
iimiUir  regulations,     "  The  exercise  of  jurisdiction  to  that  , 
distance  for  the  safety  and  protection  of  the  revenue  laws 
was  declared  by  tho  Supreme  Court  to  be  conformable  to 
the  laws    and   usages  of  nations."    (kent  s    (uiii.,  i.   ^I, 

'^\n"lhe  early  part  of  this  century  England  claimed  tho 
right  of  detaining  and  visiting  neutral  vessels  in  war,  in 
order  to  ascertain  whether  any  of  her  subjects  were  on 
board,  and,  if  so,  of  taking  them  out,  that  they  might  ren- 
der military  or  naval  service  to  the  British  sovereign.  Ihis 
claim  was"founded  on  the  doctrine  that  an  Englishman 
owed  perpetual  and  indissoluble  allegiance  to  his  country. 
The  evils  of  such  a  summary  process  bore  hardest  on  tho 
V  S  as  many  emigrants  or  residents  in  England  were 
ainon'g  our  sailors.  This  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  war 
of  l.'<12.  The  claim  was  distinctly  stated  by  Lord  Ashbur- 
ton  at  tho  Treaty  of  Washington  in  1S42,  but  since  then 
the  supply  of  seamen  for  the  navy  by  the  impressment  ot 
persons  on  British  soil  has  gone  into  disuse.  As  for  the 
rirrht  involved,  it  must  be  most  emphatically  denied.  A 
seaman,  or  even  a  criminal,  can  no  more  be  forcibly  <^n"ied 
off  from  a  neutral  vessel  than  a  similar  iicrson  could  be 
taken  by  force  from  a  neutral  territory.  The  fact  of  war, 
al^o  had  properly  nothing  to  do  with  tho  case.  The  ncu- 
iral'was  not  violating  a  war-right,  but  had  hired  a  roan  to 
be  a  sailor  on  his  vessel.  The  rights  to  require  indefeasible  al- 
legiance and  military  duty  are  as  truly  such  in  peaoe  as  in 


war,  so  that  the  picas  for  their  exercise  would  apply  to  a  state 
of  peace  as  well.  But  it  is  not  probable  that  tho  English 
principle  in  regard  to  allegiance  would  be  equally  rigid 
now,  since  a  treaty  of  1S70  with  the  U.  S.  allows  renoun- 
cing allegiance  and  resuming  it,  and  since  an  act  ot  tho 
BriTish  Parliament,  passed  in  1S44.  gives  authority  to  one 
of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state  to  grant  to  an  alien, 
on  his  petition,  nearly  all  the  rights  and  capacities  of  tho 
native-born  subject.  .Moreover,  as  far  as  taking  a  person 
out  of  a  neutral  vessel  on  the  sea  is  concerncil,  in  the  case 
of  the  Trent  the  British  government  committed  itself  to 
the  principle,  that  it  is  illegal  to  detain  a  neutral  vessel  and 
take  from  her  even  persons  at  war  with  their  country  and 
liable  to  the  penalties  of  treason. 

A  right  of  search,  on  suspicion  that  a  vessel  was  engaged 
in  the  slave-trade,  was  mutuallv  conceded  by  (ireat  Britain 
and  the  U.  S.  in  181)2.     Tlie  treaty  confined  the  right  to 
certain  tracts  of  the  sea  near  Africa  and  Cuba  ;  it  was  care- 
fully "uarded  ;  it  granted  damages  for  losses  incurred  by 
the  wrongful  detention  of  vessels  ;  and  could  be  terminated 
after  ten  years.     Before  this  there  had  been  several  discus- 
sions between   the   governments,  the  British   government 
claiming  that  there  is  a  distinction  between  ii«i'(  and  «c«i-<-A, 
of  which  the  first  relates  merely  to  the  nationality  of  the 
vessel,  the  other  to  the  character  of  the  cargo  and  what- 
ever else  needs  to  be  found  out.    It  was  said  that  a  British 
police-vessel  on  the  coast  of  Africa  could  uol  have  control 
over  slave-traders  breaking  the  laws  of  England  if  the  fly- 
ing of  tho  American  flag  was  a  security  against  visiting 
any  ship  that  might  hoist  it.    On  the  American  side  it  was 
contended  that  no  distinction  was  made,  in  text-writers  on 
international  law  or  elsewhere,  between  visit  and  search, 
and  that  a  ship  of  war  stopping  a  reputed  slave-trader  ot 
another  nation.ality  must  do  so  at  its  peril.     In  a  certain 
sense  both  views  can  be  justified.     An  innocent  vessel  de- 
tained on  the  high  seas  has  a  claim  for  any  damages  aris- 
ing out  of  the  detention,  and  its  government,  on  complaint, 
would  naturally  inquire  into  the  matter.    But  the  flag  that 
is  hoisted  is  no"  good  evidence  of  the  nationality  of  the  ves- 
sel or  crew.    There  is,  then,  a  real  distinction,  and  a  neces- 
sary one,  between  visit  and  search  ;  or,  in  other  words,  there 
is  a  kind  of  search,  call  it  what  you  will,  which  does  its 
work   when  the  nationality  of  the  vessel   is  ascertained. 
(Jrcat    Britain    had    treaties    with    Portugal,    Spain,    the 
Netherlands,  and  Sweden  concerning  the  uuitua    right  ol 
searching  vessels  suspected  of  slave-trading,     Ilow  cou  d 
a  Spanish  ship  be  searched  if  the  hoisting  of  our  flag  could 
prevent  it?    Then,  again,  a  nation  has  a  right  to  search  its 
own  merchant  vessels  on  the  seas  in  time  of  peace.     Sup- 
pose an  English  ship  should  grossly  break  the  law  just  be- 
fore sailing  with  the  intent  to  go  out  on  an  illegal  expedi- 
tion     The  nation  must  have  the  right  of  sending  out  a 
cruiser  in  pursuit  of  it.  and  a  vessel  supposed  to  be  tho 
offendin"  one  could  bo  made  to  lie  to  until  the  fact  could 
be  ascertained,  or  else  all  police  over  vessels  is  nugatory. 
Suppose,  again  (see  the  author's  Inlrod.,  ?  201 ),  two  nations 
mutually  to  give  up  the  right  of  search  in  war.     W  ould  it 
not  stili  he  necessary  for  the  cruisers  of  one  of  them,  if 
war  should  break  out  with  a  third  party,  to  ascertain  the 
nationality  of  the  merchant  ships  fallen  in  with,  in  order  to 
give  to  the  vessels  of  the  other  the  s.de  benefit  of  tho  provis- 
ions of  the  treaty?     Otherwise,  such  nati.uis  would  have 
to  abandon  the  right  altogetber,  as  everything  afloat  won  .1 
wear  tho  protected  flag.     We  conclude,  then,  that  search, 
so  far  as  to  discover  the  nationality  of  the  vessel  carrying 
a  certain  fla<',  is  oftentimes  necessary,  and  is  just,  but  that 
for  mistakes  in  carrying  out  this  right  the  government  of 
the  cruisers  making  such  a  search  are  responsible. 

We  have  given  a  brief  account  of  the  principal  rules  ol 
international  law,  and  wo  close  with  one  or  two  brief  re- 
marks- (1)  International  law  is  f.uiudcd  on  justice,  and 
contains  the  noble  idea  that  universal,  world-wide  justice 
can  be  realized.  (2)  Its  principal  division  is  that  respect- 
in.'  a  state  of  war,  hut  its  whole  spirit  is  to  avoid  war, 
b.iTh  l.v  having  fixed  rules  and  by  the  possibility  of  arbi- 
tration thr.uigh  the  help  of  some  im).arlial  pc.wer  or  court. 
(3)  Its  progress  is  greatly  encouraging.  It  has  grown  lu 
detiniteness,  in  humanity,  in  justice,  in  tho  extent  of  its 
sphere  of  operation.  (4)  It  is,  however,  .lestined  to  be- 
come less  important  with  the  increasing  humanity  ol  the 
world.  As  laws  and  courts  would  sink  in  tlicir  importance 
if  all  men  became  thoroughly  just  and  unselfish ;  as  law, 
according  to  the  apostle.  •'  is  not  made  for  the  righteous 
man,  but  for  the  lawless  and  disobedient :  —since  the  love 
in  the  righteous  man's  heart  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law,- 
".,  a  day  may  come  when  men  shall  wonder  at  the  mass  ol 
controversies  between  nations,  at  the  numberless  trealiscs 
r,n  international  law— above  all.  at  the  prominence  given 
to  tbo  laws  and  usages  of  war,  because  in  their  belter  age 
tbev  will  look  abroad  on  universal  peace  and  righteousness. 

TUEODOBl!  1).    "OOLSEY. 


INTKKNATIOXAL   PRIVATE  LAW. 


12.39 


Interna'tionnI  Private  Law  is  the  branch  of 
jurisprudence  which  regulates  the  reciprocal  relations  of 
8ul)jecls  (transienll>-  or  otherwise)  of  different  states.  The 
notion  of  such  a  community  of  law  was  foreign  to  the 
ancients.  To  su|iply  its  felt  need  the  Roman  jurists  and 
their  successors  fashioned  congeries  of  precepts  concerning 
the  conflict  of  laws,  whence  the  maxims  ami  nomeuelature 
now  in  use  have  been  largely  drawn.  Much  is  indeed  still 
lacking  and  doubtful  in  the  science,  but  there  is  so  marked 
a  tendency  toward  a  unity  of  civil  and  commercial  legis- 
lation that  certain  publicists  look  for  the  recognition  by  all 
civiliied  states  of  a  common  system,  affording  all  men 
cvervwherc  liberty  and  security  in  private  transactions. 
To  this  three  conditions  seem  necessary:  1st,  every  one 
should  be  assured  of  the  enjoyment  of  his  civil  rights 
abroad  as  well  as  at  home ;  2d,  every  one  should  be  able  to 
foresee,  with  tolerable  certainty,  what  laws  will  govern  the 
rights  attaching  his  person,  his  property,  and  his  acts;  Sd, 
the  basis  of  international  regulations  shouM  be  conform- 
able to  right,  reason,  and  the  nature  of  things,  so  as  to 
ensure  permanence  to  the  rules  themselves,  and  the  rights 
acfjuired  under  them. 

The  first  and  most  general  maxim  of  international  private 
law  results  directly  from  the  independence  of  states,  and 
is — Kach  state  has"  an  exclusive  sovereignty  and  jurisdic- 
tion wilhiu  its  own  territory.  Consequently,  the  la\ys  of 
every  state  govern  all  persons  and  all  properly  within  its 
limits.  The  second  general  principle  is  the  converse  of 
the  former,  and — Xo  state  can  by  its  laws  bind  persons  or 
objects  outside  its  own  territory.  An  important  conse- 
quence of  these  two  general  principles,  or  converse  sides 
of  the  same  principle,  is  that  all  deference  paid  to  foreign 
laws  depends  upon  domestic  regulations — upon  the  consent, 
express  or  implied,  of  the  state  where  the  foreign  laws  are 
applied.  International  private  law  rests,  then,  for  its  sanc- 
tion upon  considerations  of  utility  and  reciprocal  conve- 
nience or  comity.  "  It  is  not  a  question  of  the  comity  of 
courts,  but  of  states,  in  that  the  legislature  decrees  what 
effect  shall  be  given  to  foreign  laws,  and  leaves  the  courts 
nothing  to  do  but  to  carry  out  the  directions  of  the  statutes." 
When  the  legislature  has  supplied  a  law  for  the  case,  the 
applicability  of  a  foreign  statute  cannot  come  in  question. 
Its  pertinence  can  only  be  assumed  by  a  judge  in  the  ab- 
sence of  express  provision,  and  when  conformable  to  estab- 
lished custom  or  tho  analogy  of  his  own  jurisprudence. 

The  applicability  of  a  particular  law  to  a  given  case 
mainly  dcpen<ls  upon  the  connection  of  tho  person  con- 
cerned with  a  certain  legal  territory.  To  determine  this 
two  rrilcria  arc  contended  for — nationality  or  domicile. 

NnlinnnUly  is  the  quality  attaching  by  birth  in,  or  for- 
mal adoption  into,  a  particular  community.  It  has  of  late 
lost  so  much  of  its  significance  (by  the  adoption  of  the  Ro- 
man principle  that  children  follow  tho  condition  of  their 
parents,  and  that  adults  are  free  to  choose  their  own  coun- 
try) as  to  be  considered  by  some  solely  of  political  moment. 
Nationality,  however,  remains  of  importance  concerning 
rights  not  political;  <•.  7.  claims  under  treaty  stipulations 
securing  special  rights  to  citizens,  and  tho  whole  category 
of  the  disabilities  of  aliens.  Tho  character  impressed  by 
birth  is  so  indelible  that  it,  upon  a  duo  change  of  residence 
and  intention,  easily  effaces  the  8U]iervcning  character  of 
domicile.  It  has  also  the  advantage  of  being  directly  as- 
certainable, while  domiciles  are  divided  by  very  indistinct 
lines. 

Domicile  may  be  dofinod  as  "a  residence  at  a  particular 
place,  accompanied  by  positive  or  presumptive  proof  of 
continuing  there  for  an  unlimited  time."  Thus,  it  answers 
very  much  to  the  common  meaning  of  the  wonl  Immc. 
Where  it  may  be  said  of  a  person  having  two  residences 
that  he  makes  one  his  home,  that  is  to  be  taken  as  his 
domicile.  Intent,  the  element  which  determines  the  ques- 
tion of  domicile,  may  be  evidenced  in  various  ways.  If 
such  intent  be  proved,  the  fact  of  residince  lor  the  briefest 
time  will  suffice.  A  person  may  elect  to  regard  his  place 
of  business  as  his  domicile,  and  he  may  even  have  differ- 
ent domiciles  for  difl'erent  specific  pnr|ioses,  but  he  can  only 
have  one  principal  domicile.  This  is  the  accepted  test  of 
the  general  national  character  of  his  business  relations, 
and  impresses  itself  upon  his  affairs  and  property. 

Minor  children,  if  legitimate,  lake  ami  follow  the  dorai- 
cilo  of  their  father  until  competent  to  choose  one  for  them- 
selves. Illegitimate  children  generally  follow  the  domicile 
of  the  mother.  It  is  usually  held  on  the  continent  of  Ku- 
rope  that  the  death  of  the  father  fixes  the  domicile  of  a 
legitimate  child,  so  as  not  to  be  changed  by  tho  mother  or 
guardian  without  net  of  law.  The  domicile  of  a  wife  gen- 
erally merges  in  that  of  her  husband,  unless  he  sufl'er  for  a 
crime  or  be  under  restraint  for  lunacy  or  like  incapacity. 
Knvoys,  consuls,  prisoners,  lunatics,  exiles,  students,  and, 
in  general,  officers,  acquire  no  new  domicile. 
SlalM  is  tho  sum  of  special  rights  and  duties  belonging 


to  a  person,  over  and  above  tho  general  rights  and  duties 
which  he  shares  with  all  the  members  of  the  community. 
To  determine  the  status  of  a  person  outside  of  the  country 
of  his  domicile  many  theories  have  been  proposed.  Tlie 
one  most  accepted  is.  that  status  is  determined  by  domi- 
cile, with  the  qualification  that  in  case  of  doubt  laws 
favoring  cajiacity  are  favored,  and  the  contrary  disfavored. 
Laws  abridging  capacity  for  rights — r.  tj.  concerning  sla- 
very— have  admittedly  no  extra-territorial  force.  Natural 
incapacity,  such  as  lunacy,  accompanies  the  person  every- 
where. In  other  respects,  the  general  tendency  is  to  respect 
the  law  of  the  place  of  tho  transaction,  as  that  imposes  the 
least  burden  upon  business. 

Oicnership  and  Propi:rtij. — Whether  any  particular  thing 
bo  an  object  of  ownership  is  admittedly  delenniucd  by  the 
law  of  the  place  of  controversy.  The  capacity  of  a  person 
to  ai-quirc  and  dispose  of  property  generally  depends  upon 
tho  law  of  his  domicile.  A  distinction  which  reconciles 
many  embarrassing  contradictions  in  tho  books  is  into  a 
capacity  to  act  and  a  capacity  for  rights.  The  former, 
proceeding  from  the  personal  status,  depends  upon  the 
law  of  tho  domicile;  the  latter,  upon  the  law  of  the  situ- 
ation :  c.  g.  the  inability  of  aliens  in  New  York  to  transmit 
projierty  resulLs  from  a  local  incapacity  for  rights.  Tho 
elder  jurists  sharply  distinguished  immovables  from  mov- 
ables and  other  means  of  estate.  The  former,  including 
not  only  land,  hut  also  all  dismemberments  of  the  prop- 
erty in  land  and  the  rights  to  their  enjoyment,  are  admitted 
to  be  under  the  domination  of  tlio  law  of  their  situ.ation, 
except  when  massed  for  purposes  of  succession  and  tho 
like.  By  the  tremendous  fiction  that  movables  cleave  to 
tho  person,  all  personal  property,  however  ponderous  and 
permanent  it  might  be,  was  subjected  to  the  law  of  tho 
domicile  of  the  owner.  The  increase  of  ]iersonal  projierty 
in  comparative  value  and  importance,  with  other  consider- 
ations, has.  however,  led  to  a  rejection  of  this  distinction, 
so  that  outside  of  England  and  the  1".  .S.  the  now  prevail- 
ing rule  is  that  "  movables,  when  not  massed  for  the  pur- 
poses of  succession  or  marriage-transfer,  and  when  not  in  , 
transit  or  following  the  owner's  person,  are  governed  by 
tho  law  of  the  situation,  except  so  far  as  the  parties  inter- 
ostcd  may  select  some  other  law."  Like  considerations, 
particularly  those  of  public  interest,  arc  tending  to  incor- 
porate the  "same  rule  into  .^nglo- American  jurisprudence. 

Itttil  /liijliin,  or  claims  upon  things  obtaining  against  all 
persons,  are,  for  the  most  part,  governed  by  the  law  of  the 

{ilace  where  the  subservient  property,  movable  or  immova- 
)lc,  exists.  Implied  real  rights  are  not  favored  inter- 
nationally, and  are  not  upheld  unless  recognized  by  tho 
laws  of  both  places.  Thus,  tho  hypothecation  of  an  ob- 
ligor's entire  estate,  implied  by  certain  contracts  in  certain 
countries,  is  not  recognized  in  others  where  such  conslruc- 
tivecovenants  are  not  known,  although  such  a  claim  might 
support  an  equitable  action  to  compel  the  obligor  to  ex- 
ecute a  formal  hypothecation.  Liens  on  movables  arc 
extinguished  by  removal,  though  eminent  jurists  have 
maintained  that  real  rights  should  not  be  so  defeated.  It  is 
also  admitted  that  a  lien  unknown  at  the  place  of  contract 
cannot  bo  croatcil  by  a  mere  removal  of  a  chattel.  Whether 
it  may  be  asserted  by  special  proceedings  dejicnds  upon 
whether  the  lien  be  regnnled  as  a  jiart  of  the  contract,  or 
as  extraneous  to  it,  anil  simply  a  matter  of  procedure. 
The  priority  of  liens  "depends  upon  tho  place  where  the 
property  lies,  and  where  the  court  sits." 

Ineniimriul  Cli'itlcli—cj.  letters  patent,  copyrights,  and 
trademarks— are  the  creatures  of  local  laws  and  clearly 
have  no  validity  beyond  the  territory  of  the  authority  con- 
ferring them,  unless  extended  by  treaty  stipulations.  Thus, 
it  has  been  held  in  France  by  the  court  of  last  resort  that 
a  Frenchman  may  stani]i  the  unprotected  trademark  of  a 
foreign  nianufaetiirer  upon  his  wares  with  impunity. 

Ohlii/iiii'iiiii,  in  the  sense  of  international  jurisprudence, 
include  all  legally  coercible  duties,  whether  arising  by 
act  or  accident,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  conformably 
to  good  morals  or  tho  reverse.  A  normal  or  unilateral  ob- 
ligation restricts  tho  liberty  of  one  party,  debtor,  obligor, 
and  enlarges  tho  rights  of  the  otbor,  creditor,  obligee. 
While  tho  essential  properties  of  obligations  are,  from 
motives  of  public  policy,  held  beyond  the  interference  of 
parties  making  engagements,  no  small  freedom  is  allowed 
in  the  determination  id'  their  natural  properties.  Among 
the  latter  is  the  law  by  which  the  obligation  is  to  be  gov- 
erned, and  which,  under  certain  restrictions,  is  left  to  the 
choice  of  the  parties  themselves.  Whenever,  therefore,  it 
may  be  assumed  or  shown  that  the  parties  have  chosen  a 
particular  territorial  law,  their  obligations  are  to  bo  deter- 
mined by  that,  so  t'ar  as  they  are  at  liberty  so  to  elect, 
and  have  their  will  respeete*!  at  the  place  of  suit.  Two 
palpable  facts  are  distinguisbablo  in  every  obligation — in- 
oe]itinn  and  fulfilment,  'fhe  law  cd"  tho  place  of  inception 
uniler  most  circumstances  regulates,  according  to  very  geu- 


1200 


INTEKNATIOXAL   PRIVATE  LAW. 


oral  agreement,  the  formal  conditions  of  a  transaction.  It 
is  commonly  said,  therefore,  that  an  obligation  valid  at  the 
place  of  its  origin  is  valid  everywhere.  The  eonver.se,  that 
a  transaction  invalid  at  the  place  of  origin  is  invalid  every- 
where, is  also  asserted,  though  subject  to  more  e.\cc|)tions, 
in  that  courts  are  disposed  to  recognize  engagements  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  own  laws,  even  if  formally  defective 
under  the  law  where  actually  entered  into.  The  law  of  the 
place  of  performance  governs,  according  to  most  jurists, 
the  obligation  itself.  I'lausible  and  ingenious  arguments 
are  put  forward  for  other  rules,  particularly  that  of  the 
debtor's  domicile,  but  it  is  urged  in  opposition  and  with 
re:ison  that  tlie  parties  presumably  purpose,  uuless  stipu- 
lating otherwise,  to  be  governed  by  the  law  of  the  place 
where  a  specific  act  is  to  bo  done  or  thing  delivered. 
Where  other  indications  of  an  intended  submission  to  a 
particular  law  arc  at  hand,  these  are  to  be  respected:  thus, 
the  obligations  arising  out  of  a  continuous  course  of  busi- 
ness are  to  be  determined  by  the  law  obtaining  at  the 
permanent  seat  of  that  business;  e.g.  liabilities  under  a 
foreign  ])olicy  of  insurance  arc  subject  to  tho  law  of  the 
place  of  the  permanent  seat  or  principal  office  of  the  com- 
pany whence  it  is  issued,  tliougb  the  obligation  to  pay  the 
premium  is  subject  to  the  law  of  the  domicile  of  the  in- 
sured. So,  again,  an  obligation  arising  under  circum- 
stances warranting  tho  ex}>ectation  tiiat  it  will  be  dis- 
charged at  the  same  place  is  governed  by  the  local  law ; 
e.  (J.  that  of  a  guest  to  pay  his  hotel-bill.  In  other  cases 
the  applicatory  law  is  that  of  the  debtor's  domicile  at  the 
time  of  contracting  the  obligation. 

Obligations  arising  from  delicts  or  torts — wrongful  acta 
as  connected  with  private  redress — cannot,  of  course,  be 
considered  subject  to  a  certain  law  because  the  same 
has  been  chosen  by  the  obligor  {wrongdoer,  tnrt/cagcr). 
The  principle  of  many  of  tlic  foregoing  conclusions  is 
therefore  inapplicable  to  them.  Wherever  a  wrong  is 
done,  there  the  perpetrator  of  it,  whether  a  transient  pas- 
senf'er  or  a  domiciled  subject,  is  justiciable,  and  must 
answer  for  the  consequences.  The  law  of  the  place  of  com- 
mission of  an  admittedly  wrongful  act  determines  the  mea- 
sure of  damages.  It  has  been  judicially  intimated  that  an 
act  unnoticed  by  the  law  of  the  place  of  perpetration,  but 
treatecl  as  tortious  by  tho  English  law,  would  sustain  a 
suit  for  damages  in  England.  The  more  approved  doctrine 
is,  that  what  is  legally  innocent  where  it  occurs  cannot  be 
made  a  delict  elsewhere.  English  and  American  courts 
have  assumed  jurisdiction  over  torts  committed  abroad, 
even  where  the  suitors  were  non-resident  foreigners.  There 
is  a  growing  inclination  to  disfavor  such  suits. 

The  consideration  of  every  valid  obligation  should  be 
meritorious.  To  vitiate  an  engagement  on  its  account  the 
moving  cause  must  offentl  against  universally  accepted 
views  of  public  morals  and  public  safety,  and  not  be  illegal 
only  by  reason  of  special  statutes.  Thus,  claims  arising 
from  sales  of  lottery-tickets  in  Kentucky  arc  enforced  in 
New  York,  where  such  sales  are  contrary  to  law.  Still 
further,  a  foreigner,  unless  he  be  an  accomplice,  can  re- 
cover in  England  the  |)rice  of  goods  sold  with  the  explicit 
understanding  that  they  were  to  be  smuggled  into  the  lat- 
ter country.  What  is  intrinsically  contrary  to  )iublie 
morals  is  far  from  well  settled.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
a  polygannuis  promise  would  be  disregarded  throughout 
Christendom,  but  a  learned  and  respected  judge  has  said 
from  the  bench  that  the  proclivities  of  a  Turk  would  be 
protected  in  North  Carolina.  Tho  belief  as  to  the  best 
means  to  attain  tho  same  end  is  as  varied  as  nationality. 
In  this  wise  the  consideration  of  illicit  cohabitation  is  so 
variously  treated  that  it  has  given  rise  to  more  conflicts 
than  any  other.  In  France  and  some  other  countries  re- 
gard for  decency  and  morality  interdicts  all  inquest  con- 
cerning paternity;  in  others,  as  Scotland,  obligations  aris- 
ing therefrom  arc  considered  but  "  (ibedicntial  and  natural." 
In  actual  practice  the  application  of  recognized  legal 
principles  is  embarrassed  by  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  ob- 
ligations are  not  simple  or  unilateral,  but  reciprocal  or  bi- 
lateral. However  involved  the  process,  the  separation  of 
the  latter  into  the  several  unilateral  obligations  of  which 
they  are  composed  will  often  prove  the  most  convenient  if 
not  the  sole  solution  of  the  problem.  Thus,  each  party  to 
eommorcinl  paper  is  liable  according  to  the  law  governing 
his  particular  engagement ;  so  again,  as  has  been  intimated 
already,  prcuiium  for  insurance  may  be  collectible  by  a 
very  different  law  from  that  deciding  claims  under  tho 
policy — often  a  vital  distinction  in  states  forbidding  inen- 
ranco  by  foreign  companies. 

Mnrriarje  is  60  hedged  about,  from  reasons  of  moral  and 
religious  ])olicy.  by  p<isitive  eoereitive  statutes  as  to  lose 
much  of  the  nature  of  a  contract,  and  become  an  institu- 
tion differing  widely  in  different  states.  Admittedly,  it 
must  be  a  conjugal  union  between  competent  parties  for 
life.     Tho  conditions — or,  as  they  are  commonly  discussed, 


the  impediments — to  it  depend,  according  to  the  Anglo- 
American  and  elder  doctrine,  upon  the  capacity  of  the 
spouses  under  the  laws  of  their  respective  domiciles.  On  tho 
ground  that  the  bride  submits  herself  to  the  bridegroom's 
domicile,  this  is  regarded  by  the  later  (icrman  opinion  as 
controlling  both,  excepting  where  her  domicile  cannot  be 
changed  by  her  own  act.  The  formal  conclusion  of  mar- 
riage is  reguhiteil  by  the  law  of  the  jilace  of  celebration. 
The  true  seat  of  the  relation  (wherever  contracted)  is  the 
domicile  of  the  recognized  head  of  the  family,  the  husband. 
Mutual  rights  of  property  are  fixed  by  the  man's  domicile 
at  the  consummatKin  of  the  marriage,  for  it  could  not  be 
endured  that  the  husband  should  bo  able  to  change  the 
rights  of  his  wife  over  her  own  property  by  a  change  of 
residence.  Laws  restricting  liberality  during  marriage 
depend  upon  the  domicile  at  the  time  of  the  act ;  being 
intended  for  the  protection  of  moral  purity,  they  arc  de- 
signed to  control  all  persons  in  the  territory.  Intestate 
succession  between  the  spouses  is  regulated  by  the  last 
domicile  of  the  deceased. 

Dhnrce  is  governed  by  the  law  of  the  country  where  it 
is  sought,  in  that  the  law.  resting  upon  the  moral  nature 
of  the  union,  is  strictly  positive  and  compulsory  upon  the 
court,  which,  too,  must  be  that  of  the  actual  domicile,  as  it 
alone  can  have  jurisdiction. 

Paternal  power  over  legitimate  children  depends  upon 
the  law  of  the  domicile  of  the  father  at  the  time  of  the 
birth;  over  children  legitimated  by  subsequent  marriage, 
upon  the  domicile  of  the  father  at  the  time  of  filiation. 

(/nnrdiaiiship  is  to  be  instituted  under  the  law  of  the 
ward's  domicile.  There  is  a  strong  presumption  in  favor 
of  tho  competency  of  an  administering  court. 

Succession,  testamentary  and  intestate,  to  immovables  is 
governed  by  the  law  of  their  situation.  Movables  com- 
monly pass  by  tho  law  of  the  decedent's  last  domicile.  But 
tho  disposition  of  personalty  in  a  will  validly  executed  un- 
der the  law  of  a  former  domicile  is  respected  in  Europe ;  it 
is  otherwise  in  most  of  the  U.  S. 

Ciril  jurisilietion  is  called  contentious  or  voluntary  ac- 
cording as  it  is  exercised  in  litigated  causes  and  the  exe- 
cution of  decisions,  or  in  affording  public  authentication  to 
matters  not  in  controversy.  Of  the  voluntary  jurisdiction 
of  magistrates  and  oflicials  the  foreigner  may  commonly 
avail  himself  equally  with  tho  native,  and  a  compliance 
with  formalities  required  by  local  law  is  accepted  every 
other  where  as  sufiicient.  In  most  countries,  and  saving 
such  restrictions  as  giving  security  for  costs,  an  alien  can 
ordinarily  contend  in  the  courts  on  the  same  footing  as  a 
subject.  In  France,  however,  non-domiciled  foreigners 
can  sue  their  fellows  only  for  certain  causes  of  action ;  e.g. 
commercial  obligations.  Subjection  to  a  certain  jurisdic- 
tion is  a  question  of  territory.  Nothing,  movable  or  im- 
movable, can  be  judicially  disposed  of  unles.s  it  lie  within 
the  purview  of  tho  court.  Power  to  pass  upon  property 
abroad  has  been  asserted  in  England  and  in  some  States  of 
tho  American  Union,  but  such  decrees  are  of  no  foreign 
force.  Judicial  power  over  persons  can  be  had  only 
through  personal  service  and  domiciliation  in  the  country  ; 
domicile  in  tho  lesser  sense  of  commorancy  will  suffice.  By 
English  law  English  courts  assume  jurisdiction  over  causes 
of  action  arising  iu  England,  although  the  assumption  is 
disregarded  elsewhere.  Procedure  is  regulated  solely  by 
the  place  of  suit:  if  a  particular  remedy  be  essential  to 
the  enforcement  of  a  right,  resort  must  be  had  to  a  court 
administering  the  remedy.  Evidcneo  is  admissible  or  in- 
admissible according  to  tho  law  of  tho  country  of  the  court, 
albeit  tribunals  are  prono  to  admit  foreign  modes  of  proof 
when  indispensable  to  tho  judicial  establishment  of  facts. 
Foreign  judgments  have  no  effect  unless  sanctioned  by 
domestic  authority.  If  the  competency  of  the  court  pro- 
nouncing them  be  unimpoiichable,  they  may,  as  conclusive 
upon  the  merits,  be  enforced  by  new  judgments  of  the  same 
tenor  or  made  directly  executory. 

Vrimiiial  jnristliclion  depends  upon  the  relatiim  of  the 
government  to  the  place  of  the  oftcnce  and  to  the  person 
of  the  offender.  The  former  consideration  has  been  mag- 
nified in  lireat  Britain  and  the  U.  S.— the  latter  upon  the 
European  continent.  To  meet  modern  exigencies,  both 
systems  have  been  modified,  by  statute  and  interpretation, 
iiito  a  vcrv  general  approach  to  the  rule  that  courts  of  the 
country  of  arrest  have  jurisdiction  over  all  offences  com- 
mitted'within  its  territory,  ond  also  over  those  perpetrated 
abroad  distinctively  against  its  sovereignty.  Independent 
slates  administer  only  their  own  penal  laws.  Tlicy  assist 
the  enforcement  of  others  by  surrendering  foreigners  upon 
presumptive  proof  of  crimes  not  political.  That  the  ob- 
ligation so  to  do  does  not  arise  purely  from  treaty  provis- 
ions was  aptly  set  forth  when  an  eminent  Frenchman  said, 
"Le  prineipe  de  Vextrndition  est  Ic  principe  de.  la  loliilarite, 
de  la  t&reti  riciproque  .   .   .   contre  I'uliiqnilf  du  mat." 

Charles  F.  MacLe.\n. 


INTERNATIONAL   WORKINGMEN'S  ASSOCIATION— INTERPLEADER. 


1261 


International     Workin^men^s     Association, 
The,  was  fouu<l-(l  Sept.  1*S.  Is(;4,  at  a  large  meeting  of 
workingnien   from  nearly   all    European   countrie;",   in   St. 
Martin's  Hall,  London,  at  which  the  manifesto  an4l  statutes,  [ 
as  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Carl  Marx,  were  adopted  tor  puhlica-  i 
tion,  and  a  provisory  administration  established.     It  is  an  ! 
association  of  trades'  unions,  intended  for  the  defence  of 
the  interests  of  workingmcn  against  the  encroachments  of   ; 
the  power  of  capital,  and  aiming  ultimately  at  the  aboli-  ] 
tion  of  all  labor  paid  with  wages  as  a  form  of  slave-labor,  i 
and  the  establishment  of  ai-soeiatcd    labor  ou   a  national  ' 
scale.     The  statutes  of  the  association  were  not  finally  cs-  ! 
tablished.  however,  until  sanctioned   by  the  first  general  ' 
congress,  held  at  ttencva  Sept.  :^-7,  lS(i6.     Here  the  pro-  j 
grammes  of  Mazzini  and  Bakunin  were  rejected,  and  that  i 
of  Marx  adopted.     As  reason?  for  the  formation  of  such 
an  association  it  was  proehiimcd  that  the  emancipation  of 
the  working  classes  must  be  conquered  by  the  working 
classes  themselves  ;  that  the  struggle  for  the  emancipation 
of  the  working  classes  means  not  a  struggle  for  class  priv- 
ileges and  monopolies,  but  for  equal  rights  and  duties  and 
the  abolition  of  all  class  rule;  that  the  economicnl  sub- 
jection of  the  mass  of  labor  to   the   monopolizer  of   the 
means  of   labor — that  is.   the  sources   of  lite — lies  at  the 
bottom  of  servitude  in  all  its  forms,  of  ail  social  misery,   [ 
mental  degradation,   and    political  dependence;    that   the 
economical  emancipation  of  the  working  classes  is  there-  , 
fore  the  great  eml  to  which  every  political  movement  ought 
to  be  subordinated  as  a  means ;  that  all  efforts  aiming  at  i 
that  great  end  have  hitherto  failed  from  want  of  solidarity  | 
between  the  manifold  divisions  of  labor  in  each  country, 
and  from  the  absence  of  a  fraternal  bond  of  union  between  I 
the  working  classes  of  different  countries:  that  the  eman-  i 
cipation   of  labor  is   neither  a  local  n<»r  a  national,  but  a 
social  problem,  embracing  all  countries  in  which  modern 
society  exists,  and  depending  for  its  solutii)n  on  the  con- 
currence, practical  and  theoretical,  of  the  most  advanced 
countries  ;    and   that  the   present   revival   of  the  working 
classes  in  the  most  industrious  countries  of  Europe,  while 
it  raises  a  new  hope,  gives  solemn  warning  against  a  re- 
lapse into  the  old  errors,  and  calls  for  the  immediate  com- 
bination of  the  still  disconnected  movements.     A  constitu- 
tion  was  then  adopted,  and  the  association   was  actually 
started.     It  held  its  next  general  congress  at  Lausanne, 
Sept.,  1S67;  the  third  in  Brnsstls,  Sept.,  IHfiS;  the  fourth 
in  Bile,  Sept..  18fi9  ;  but  the  fifth,  destined  to  take  place 
in   Paris,  Sept.,  1H70,  was  prevented  from  meeting  by  the 
Franco-Prussian  war.    Meanwhile,  its  intluenec  was  widely 
fell.     The  strikes  of  the  brouze-workers  in  Paris  in    18G7, 
and  of  the  builders  in  Geneva  in  iSfiS,  were  suppr)rted  and 
carried  through  by  English  money,  and  in  England,  where 
trades'  unions  and  strikes  were  institutions  of  older  stand- 
ing, they  were  made  much  more  effective,  as  the  association 
pr<diibited  cheap  labor  from  being  imported  from   France, 
Belgium,  and  (lermany.     In  different  countries,  especially 
in  France  and  Austria,  the  government  began  to  interfere, 
but  this  only  made  the  association  more  popular  among 
the   workingmcn.      It   received    a  severe  cheek   from  the 
Franco-Prussian  war.     No  general  congress  hns  been  held 
since.     Many  members  of  the  Paris  Commune  belonged  to 
the  association,  and  the  excesses  of  the  Commune    were 
defended  by  tho  association,  both  in  a  pamphlet  written 
bv  -Marx  and  published  by  tho  general  council  in  London, 
and  in  other  ways.      Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  tho  less  con- 
spicuous part  which  the  association  has  played  in  public 
life  during  the  last  four  year^.  its  importance  can   hardly 
be  said  to  have  decreased.     The  number  of  its  members  is 
inen-asing,  and  in  most  countries  it  has  established  organs 
of  its  own  for  the  diffusion  of  its  ideas.        C  Pktkhskn. 

Intrrpleatrer,  in  law,  is  tho  right  which  a  person  who 
hobls  a  fund,  or  has  possession  of  any  item  of  property,  or 
owes  a  duty  or  <d)ligation,  has,  when  there  arc  rival  claim- 
ants to  the  fund,  etc.,  and  he  cannot  determine  to  whom 
it  belongs,  to  require  them  to  settle  in  court  their  conflict- 
ing claims  as  between  themselves,  and  to  be  allowed  on 
his  part  to  make  over  the  |)ropcrty,  etc.  to  the  court,  to 
abide  the  events  of  the  litigation  or  to  hold  it  under  its  di- 
rection. The  jurisdiction  of  courts  of  law  over  this  sub- 
ject is  very  limited  nnd  imperfect,  and  this  branch  of  ju- 
risprudence may  now,  in  practice,  in  the  absence  of  stat- 
utes, bo  said  to  be  exclusively  administ<Ted  in  courts  of 
equity.  Tho  method  in  which  relief  is  obtained  is  by  bill 
in  equity.  (See  Bin,  iv  EgriTY.)  These  bills  arc  of  two 
kinds — strict  interpleader,  nnd  bills  in  tho  nature  of  aD 
interpleader. 

(1 )  ,1  Stn'rt  nut  of  Intrrptrndrr. — The  function  of  8Uch 
a  bill  can  be  most  clearly  slateil  by  putting  the  proposi- 
tions ajipertaining  to  it  in  the  form  of  rubs.  ItnU  I. 
There  must  be  two  or  more  persons  claiming  from  tho 
plaintiff  the  same  debt,  duty,  or  thing.  This  rule  is  of 
easy  application  when  an  item  of  property  is  in  dispute. 


It  is,  however,  quite  difficult  in  some  cases  to  ascertain 
whether  the  same  debt  or  duty  is  claimed.  An  illustration 
may  be  found  in  the  case  where  a  tenaut  under  a  lease  is 
called  upon  by  his  lessor  for  rent,  and  at  the  same  limo 
a  third  person  asserts  that  he  is  tho  owner,  and  that  the 
amount  of  the  rent  should  bo  paid  to  him.  This  woulcl  nut 
be  a  proper  case  for  a  bill  of  interpleader,  since  the  lessor 
claims  under  a  contract,  while  the  stranger  asserts  that  tho 
tenant  is  in  possession  by  wrong.  Some  other  method  must 
accordingly  he  resorted  to  in  order  to  determine  the  rights 
of  the  parties.  On  tlie  other  hand,  if  a  piTson  is  taxeil  in 
two  different  towns  for  the  same  projierty  when  he  is  only 
liable  to  be  taxed  in  one.  and  it  is  doubtful  to  which  town 
the  right  to  tax  belongs,  he  moy  file  a  bill  of  interpleader  to 
compel  the  tax-collectors  or  towns  to  settle  the  rights  as 
between  themselves.  In  this  case  the  del>t  or  duty  is  the 
same.  Jlufr  J.  As  a  general  rule,  a  bill  of  internleailer  will 
not  lie  when  tho  holder  of  a  fund  stands  in  confidential  rela- 
tions towards  one  of  the  claimants,  and  the  other  is  a 
mere  stranger,  claiming  by  an  independent  and  para- 
mount title.  Thus,  if  an  agent,  consignee,  or  bailee  have 
goods  committed  to  his  care,  in  legal  phrase  there  is  a 
"privity  of  contract"  created,  which  will  prevent  him 
while  ho  retains  possession  from  disputing  the  title  of  the 
person  for  whom  he  acts.  The  agent  or  bailee  must 
defend  himself  from  conflicting  claims  as  well  as  he  may. 
Ilufe  S.  The  second  rule  must  be  confined  to  the  case  where 
the  agent,  consignee,  etc.  seeks  to  dispute  or  test  the  orif/- 
inal  title  of  his  principal  or  consignor.  It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  after  such  a  contract  relation  has  been  created 
the  title  by  subsequent  acts  of  the  principal  or  employer 
becomes  complicated.  lie  might,  for  example,  make  con- 
flicting assignments  of  doubtful  validity  to  different  per- 
sons. So  his  assignee  in  bankruptcy  might  claim  the  goods 
as  against  one  to  whom  it  was  insisted  that  the  owner  had 
made  a  transfer  in  fraud  of  the  bankruptcy  act.  In  such 
cases  as  these  the  holder  of  the  goods  might  demand  an 
interpleader.  It  is  manifest  that  he  in  no  respect  contro- 
verts or  denies  the  fiduciary  relation,  but,  while  he  admits 
its  existence,  asserts  that  tho  acts  of  his  principal  have 
9inrc  itH  creation  so  complicated  their  relations  that  he  is 
uncertain  how  to  proceed.  Jitiic  4-  I"  cases  where  both 
claimants  assert  wholly  distinct  ond  independent  titles,  ac- 
cording to  the  weight  of  authorities  no  interpleader  will 
lie.  The  ground  of  this  rule  apjicars  to  be  that  there  is  an 
objection  to  the  interference  of  a  court  of  equity  in  trying 
legal  titles  upon  a  dispute  between  parties  where  there  is 
no  privity  of  contract.  It  has  been  held  (hat  a  sheriff 
who  seizes  property  on  an  execution  cannot  bring  an  action 
of  interpleader  upon  account  of  an  adverse  claim  existing 
to  the  property  seized  by  him ;  for  as  to  one  of  the  claim- 
ants he  necessarily  arlmits  himself  to  l>e  a  wrongdoer. 
This  rule  appears  to  be  highly  technical,  and  tho  narrow 
construction  put  upon  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is  much 
to  bo  regretted.  This  action  is  plainly  a  beneficial  one, 
and  should  have  been  encouraged  rather  than  discounte- 
nanced. There  is  certainly  room  for  legislation  whereby  the 
power  of  courts  to  allow  an  interpleader  may  be  jihiced 
upon  a  more  satisfactory  foundation.  litiir  5.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  claims  of  the  respective  parties  should 
be  both  legal  in  the  sense  of  being  recognized  in  courts  of 
law.  Ono  may  be  legal,  and  the  other  equitalde,  or  both 
may  bo  equitable.  Huff  0.  Tho  rights  of  the  respective 
claimants  must  bo  doubtful.  If  the  ease  shows  no  claim 
of  right  in  one  of  tho  co-defendants,  there  is  no  ground  for 
an  interpleader.  liuh  ?.  The  holder  of  tho  fund,  etc.  may 
commence  an  action,  although  he  has  not  yet  been  molested 
by  either  of  the  claimants.  It  is  enough  that  he  is  in 
danger  of  sustaining  injury  from  conflicting  rights.  lie 
may,  however,  wait  until  an  action  is  brought  against  him 
bv  ono  of  tho  claimants,  and  then  in  turn  commence  his 
action  of  interpleader,  making  all  of  tho  rival  claimants 
parties.  Jlnle  8.  A  matter  of  iletail  should  bo  referred  to 
in  this  connection.  There  should  be  in  tho  bill  an  aflidavit 
that  there  is  no  collusion  between  the  plaintiff  ond  any  of 
thu  other  parties;  an<l  in  tho  case  of  money  it  should  be 
brought  into  court,  or  there  should  be  at  least  an  ofler  to 
bring  it  in.  (Further  details  may  be  found  in  the  books  on 
equity  or  chancery  practice.  See  DnnielTa  Chtinccn/  Pntc- 
j  tirr:   Barbtuir's  do.) 

(2)   /{iff  in  tfif  Aatiirc  of  an  Tnterplcadrt: — A  suit  of  this 
I  kind  may  be  instituted  by  ono  who  is  not  strictly  a  stake- 
holder.    It  may  ho  brought  by  a  person  who  is  interested 
'  in  a  fund  to  ascertain  his  own  rights. and  at  the  same  time 
to  settle  tho  conflicting  rights  of  third  jiersons.     An  illus- 
j  tration  is  supplied  by  the  case  of  a  mortgagor  who  desires 
to  pay  off  a  mortgage,  while  different  )>arties  lay  claim  to 
the  mortgage-money.    It  is  plain  that  he  would  naturally 
siek  to  neeomplish  a  double  result — to  redeem  his  property 
from  the  lien  of  the  mortgage. and  at  tho  same  time  to  pay 
,  tho  money  to  tho  party  who  was  really  entitled  to  it.     An 


1262 


INTERPOLATIOX— INTERPRETATION. 


important  instance  of  a  bill  in  the  nature  of  an  interpleader 
is  one  filed  by  an  executor  or  trustee  to  obtain  the  eon- 
structioQ  of  a  will  when  there  is  a  doubt  or  uncertainty  as 
to  the  meaning:  of  its  provisions.  In  this  case  the  pro- 
visions of  the  will  are  set  forth,  and  the  confiictinj;  claims 
of  the  parties  interested,  accompanied  by  the  statement 
that  the  executor  cannot  safely  proceed  in  the  matter  with- 
out the  direction  and  judgment  of  the  court.  In  these 
cases  the  duty  of  the  executor  is  said  to  be  performed  when 
ho  has  brought  the  parties  in  interest  before  the  court,  and 
thev  may  ajtpear  by  counsel,  who  represent  their  respective 
claims  under  the  will.  As  a  general  rule,  in  a  strict  bill 
of  interpleader,  the  stakeholder  is  entitled  to  bo  paid  his 
costs  from  the  fund  in  controversy  as  a  matter  of  right; 
costs  in  a  bill  of  the  nature  of  an  interpleader  are  discre- 
tionary. 

IJy  recent  legislation  tn  England  the  courts  of  law  have 
jurisdiction  to  a  certain  extent  in  matters  of  interpleader. 
(f=ec  23  and  24  Vict.  ch.  12G,  ^12.)  So,  under  the  New 
York  Code  of  Procedure,  and  that  of  other  States  resem- 
bling it,  a  defendant  against  whom  an  action  is  pending 
upon  contract  or  for  specific  property  may  at  any  time  before 
answer,  upon  affidavit,  that  a  person  not  a  party  to  the 
action,  and  without  collusion  with  him.  makes  against  him 
a  demand  for  the  same  debt  or  property,  upon  notice  to 
such  person  and  to  the  adverse  party  to  the  action,  apply 
to  the  court  for  an  order  to  substitute  such  person  in  his 
place  and  discharge  him  from  liability  on  his  depositing 
with  the  court  the  amount  of  the  debt,  etc.  This  statute 
does  not  supersede  the  regular  jurisdiction  in  equity,  but 
is  an  additional  remedy  given  to  a  stakeholder  who  has 
been  actually  sued,  by  allowing  him  to  assert  his  rights  in 
an  antwer,  and  byway  of  defence,  instead  of  instituting 
an  action.  The  rules  applied  are  substantially  the  same  as 
in  the  bill  of  interpleader.  T.  SV.  Dwight. 

Interpola'tion  [Lat.  nt^erpo^*],  the  operation  of  insert- 
ing a  term  bL'tween  two  consecutive  terms  of  a  tabulated 
function  that  shall  conform  to  the  law  of  the  function.  A 
table  of  tho  kind  referred  to  is  generally  computed  from  a 
formula  containing  two  variables — one  of  which  is  the 
ftijicti'on,  and  the  other  the  independent  variable,  or,  as  it 
is  usually  called,  the  an/umeut.  The  table  is  formed  by 
f iving  successive  equidifferent  values  to  the  argument, 
computing  the  corresponding  v.alucs  of  the  function,  and 
then  \vriting  tho  results  in  a  table  ;  this  operation  is  called 
tubiifdti'itg  the  function.  Thus,  to  compute  a  table  of  log- 
arithms, we  assume  some  convenient  formula  expressing 
the  relation  between  any  number  and  the  corresponding 
logarithm;  in  this  case,  the  quantity  that  represents  the 
number  is  the  argument,  and  the  quantity  that  represents 
the  logarithm  is  i)iQ  function.  We  next  make  the  argument 
equal  to  all  the  successive  natural  numbers  from  1  up  to  the 
limits  of  tho  table,  and  compute  the  corresponding  values 
of  the  function  ;  these  results,  when  properly  arranged,  con- 
stitute a  tnhh  <>/  logarithms,  from  which  we  may.  by  simple 
inspection,  take  out  the  logarithm  of  any  whole  number 
within  the  limits  of  the  table.  We  may  find  the  logarithm 
of  a  mixed  number,  as  2^.  by  the  method  of  interp«)lati'm. 
The  oliject  to  be  obtained  may  be  illustrated  graphically: 
let  .1  A' be  the  logarithmic 
curve  whose  equation  is 
?/  =  log  J-,  and  let  B  K,  C  i, 
I)  M,  etc.  be  ordinates  cor- 
responding to  the  abscis- 
sas 2,  3,  4,  etc.  Knowing 
these  ordinates.  we  have 
the  points  A",  L,  .If,  etc.  of 
the  curve;  it  is  then  re- 
quired to  find  an  ordinate, 
St,  whose  abscissa  is  2g. 
This  ordinate  might  be  computed  from  the  formula  used  in 
computing  the  tables,  but  this  would,  in  most  cases,  bo  en- 
tirely too  tedious.  What  we  actually  do  is  to  pass  a  ])arabola 
through  a  sufficient  number  of  the  points  A",  Ly  M,  etc.,  and 
then  compute  the  ordinate  of  this  parabola  corresponding 
to  the  given  abscissa.  This  ordinate  will  approximate  the 
more  closely  to  the  required  ordinate  the  greater  the  num- 
ber of  points  taken.  If  we  take  two  points,  A' and  L,  the 
parabola  is  of  the  first  order — that  is,  it  is  a  straight  line, 
whose  equation  is  of  the  form  if  =t p  -:-  i^x;  if  we  take  three 
point*,  the  parabola  is  of  the  second  order,  whose  equation 
is  of  the  form  j/=^ p  H-  f/x  +  rx*;  if  we  take  four  points,  the 
parabola  is  of  the  third  order,  whose  equation  is  of  the 
form  t/=  p  +  '/-r  +  rx  +  sj^,  and  so  on.  By  taking  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  points,  as  m  +  I,  we  have  a  parabola  of  tho 
mth  order,  which  may  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  curve 
of  the  given  function  to  any  degree  of  approximation  in 
the  neighborhood  of  tho  required  ordinate.  In  most  cases 
a  parabola  of  the  third  or  fourth  order  is  amply  sufficient. 
We  can  find  the  equation  of  the  auxiliary  parabola  by  the 
method  of  finite  differences  r\s  follows:  Let  the  successive 


ordinates,  jB  AT,  C L,  etc.,  be  denoted  by  a,  b,  c,  etc.;  then 
let  each  be  subtracted  from  the  one  following;  the  remain- 
ders thus  found  form  a  new  series  called  tho  first  order  of 
differences.  Now.  let  each  term  of  the  new  series  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  following  one;  the  remainders  will  form  a 
series  called  the  second  order  of  differences  ;  and  so  on,  as 
indicated  below: 

rt,  b,  c,  d,  etc., 

6  —  CI,         c  —  b,         (/  —  c,  etc., 

c—  26  +  a,     rf  —  2r  -f  b,     etc., 
d_3c-f  3i  — a,  etc. 
etc. 
If  we  denote  the  first  terras  of  each  of  the  orders  of  differ- 
ences by  d\y  d^y  dzt  etc.,  we  shall  have 

rfi  =  6  —  a,  whence,  6  =  a  -f  rfi ; 

rf2  =  c  —  26  -f  a,  whence,  c  =  o  -f  2d\  +  rfj ; 

rfa  =  (/  —  3c  -f  36  -  a.  whence,  rf  =  a  -h  3rfi  +  3^2  +  ^3, 
and  so  on.     If  we  denote  the  ordinate  which  has  «  ordinates 
before  it  by  y,  we  have,  by  continuing  the  above  process, 

„{n-l)  ,       „("-!)(»« -2)  ^ 
y  =  a  +  «rfi+    '^g    Vg-f 'Yz <'s  +  ,ctc. 

If  we  now  regard  n  as  a  variable  abscissa,  this  will  be 
the  equation  of  a  parabola  of  the  7)th  order,  passing  through 
the  extremities  of  h  -i-  1  of  the  consecutive  ordinates  a,  h,  c, 
etc.  In  this  case  the  origin  of  co-ordinates  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  first  ordinate,  and  ii  is  expressed  in  terms  of  the  dis- 
tance between  two  consecutive  ordinates  taken  as  a  unit. 
By  giving  a  suitable  value  to  n,  we  may  interpolate  an  or- 
dinate between  the  first  and  second,  or  between  any  two 
consecutive  ordinates  of  the  series  a,  b,  r,  etc.  The  result 
will  usually  be  more  accurate  if  we  take  the  values  of  o,  6,  c, 
etc.,  so  that  the  interpolated  term  shall  fall  about  midway 
between  the  extremes.  As  an  illustration  of  this  mode  of 
nsing  the  formula,  let  it  be  required  to  find  the  right  as- 
cension of  Venus  at  midnight  between  the  2d  and  3d  days 
of  Nov.,  1S75,  knowing  her  right  ascensions  at  noon  on  the 
1st,  2d,  3d,  and  4th  of  November,  as  follows : 

1st  difTs.  2d  difTs.    3d  diff. 

Nov.  1 15A.  5m.  47.27».       r       «  ,o 

"      2 15   10       47.40  T   ^A''      '^S*.    nn 

"      3 15  15      48.76  ?       *'^^         1.23       ""*• 

"      4 15  20       51.35         ^      ^-^-^ 

Finding  the  successive  orders  of  differences  as  already  ex- 
plained, we  have  d\  =  bm.  0.13«..  di  =  1.23«..  and  rfs  =  0.0«. ; 
since  the  first  right  ascension  corresponds  to  noon  of  Nov. 
1,  the  value  of  n  is  lA;  the  value  of  a  is  loA.  5m.  47.27«. 
Substituting  in  the  formula,  we  have  if  =  ISh.  bm.  47.27*.  -f 
1.5  X  5'".  0.13(r.  -f-  .75  X  1-23*.  =  15A.  ISm.  18.39*. ;  which  is 
the  required  right  ascension. 

Other  formulas  for  interpolation  have  been  deduced,  but 
tho  one  just  explained  is,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  the  one 
most  readily  applied.  W.  G.  Peck. 

Interpreta'tion  [Lat.],  in  law,  is  the  application  of 
legal  rules  to  the  ascertainment  of  the  meaning  of  language 
or  other  signs  of  thought.  In  its  ordinary  signification  it  is 
confined  to  the  meaning  of  written  language;  in  its  legal 
aspect  it  is  but  a  branch  of  a  larger  subject,  since  the  same 
general  principles  must  bo  adopted  in  every  department  of 
literature  and  science  to  discover  an  author's  meaning. 
The  subject  may  be  considered  under  two  general  divis- 
ions: I.  The  principles  of  interpretation;  II.  Their  appli- 
cation to  particular  cases,  e.  </.,  statutes,  contracts,  wills,  etc. 

I.  The  great  object  of  interpretation  is  to  ascertain  the 
meaning  of  a  writing,  or,  in  technical  phrase,  of  a  "  text." 
This  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  conjecture,  but  only  by  tho 
application  of  settled  rules.  A  distinction  has  been  drawn 
between  interpretation  and  construction.  The  former  word 
has  been  taken  to  mean  the  sense  of  the  writer  as  included 
within  his  language.  Construction,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  embrace  the  inquiry  whether  topics  that  were  not 
expressed  in  the  writing  wero  not  included  within  the  gen- 
eral intent  of  the  author,  or,  as  is  sometimes  said,  within 
"the  spirit"  of  the  text.  So,  in  some  instances,  the  law 
forbids  the  e.xact  accomplishment  of  the  author's  intent. 
It  then  becomes  important  to  know  whether  the  intent 
shall  be  carried  out,  though  not  precisely,  yet  as  nearly  as 
the  law  will  permit.  There  is  an  important  branch  of  law 
depending  upon  this  distinction,  known  as  the  doctrine  of 
cy  pres.  or  of  approximation.  It  is  frequently  resorted  to 
in  tho  construction  of  wills  or  of  statutes.  Thus,  if  a  per- 
son should  be  prohibited  by  law  from  creating  a  trust  in 
property  for  a  child  whereby  the  income  of  a  fund  should 
be  converted  into  principal  beyond  the  attainment  by  the 
child  of  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  the  parent  should  di- 
rect the  accumulation  of  the  profits  until  the  child  reached 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  the  last  four  years  might  be  dis- 
carded by  the  courts,  and  the  direction  be  sustained  until 
the  age  of  twenty-one.  This  doctrine  requires  that  the 
illegal  direction  should  be  in  its  nature  capable  of  separa- 
tifiQ  from  that  which  is  legal.     Otherwise,  the  entire  pro- 


INTERPRETATION. 


1263 


vision  will  be  void.  This  doctrine  has  had  in  England  a 
Inrgo  application  in  the  construction  of  wills  endowing 
i-hiiritablc  institutions  or  creating  charitable  trusts,  c.  j., 
for  Ihe  support  of  colleges,  hospitals,  schools,  etc.  (See 
Tiii'STS.)  The  intention  of  a  donor,  instead  of  bcina:  car- 
ried out,  has  frequently  been  perverted  by  the  court  ;  yet 
when  properly  applied,  the  doctrine  is  both  rational  and 
useful.  Having  pointed  out  the  distinction  between  intcr- 
prelalion  and  constrnction  as  made  by  some  authors,  no 
further  use  will  be  made  of  it  in  this  article.  Text-writers 
upon  this  ."ubjcct  enter  into  various  nice  and  minute  dis- 
tinctions. They  speak  of  interpretation  as  being  either 
close,  or  extensive,  or  free,  or  limited,  or  predestined,  or 
extravagant.  These  terms  arc  used  to  point  out  the  gen- 
eral tlilterence  bet^vcen  correct  and  erroneous  principles. 
Interpretation  cannot  properly  be  "  jiredestined"  or  ''ex- 
travagant." In  the  one  case,  the  supposed  interpreter  has 
preconceived  views  and  is  laboring  under  a  strong  bias, 
and  thus  make.'  the  writing  subservient  to  his  wishes.  In 
an  extravagant  interpretation  one  ceases  to  follow  rules, 
and,  in  fact,  docs  not  iitlrrprct,  but  guesses  or  conjectures. 
The  distinction,  however,  between  a  close  and  an  extensive 
interpretation  is  founded  in  reason.  There  are  cases  in 
which  it  is  proper  that  words  shotild  be  taken  in  their  nar- 
rowest meaning,  while  in  others  a  broader  and  moro  com- 
prehensive signification  should  be  adopted. 

The  leading  rules  of  interpretation  will  now  bo  referred 
to.     Hiilf  t.  The  meaning  of  a  writer  is  to  be  ascertained 
not  merely  from  what  he  states,  but  also  from  all  that  is 
implied  by  usage  or  otherwise.     It  would  be  intolerable  if 
every  subordinate  pro])osition  included  within  the  written 
statement  were  required  to  be  expressed.     Tliis  distinction 
frequently  becomes  of  political  consequence.     A  striking 
illustration  is  found  in  the  diflerenee  betiveen  the  powers 
conferred  upon  Congress  by  the  old  "Articles  of  Confeder- 
ation" and  the  present  Constitution.    In  the  former  instru- 
ment it  was  provided  that  each  State  retained  every  power, 
pirisdiction,  etc.  which  was  not  esprettfh]  delegated  to  the 
V.  ,S.  in  Congress  assembled.     In  the  present  Constitution 
(Art.  X.  of  Ainenilmcnls)  the  word  "expressly"  was  de- 
signedly omitted  from  the  corresponding  clause,  thus  leav- 
ing open   to  the  powers  expressly  conceded  the  doctrines 
of  ini|.lication.  In  this  way  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S., 
as  the  final  interpreter  of  the  Constitution,  has  frequently 
been  called  upon  to  decide  as  to  the  implications  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  words  used  in   that  instrument,     link  If. 
The  whole  of  the  writing  bearing  upon  the  subject  in  hand 
must  be  taken  into  account.     In  other  words,  the  inter- 
preter must  have  rcganl  to  the  context.     It  will  not  do  to 
wrench  a  particular  sentence  from  its  connections.    In  this 
way  an  author's  meaning  may  bo  wholly  perverted.     This 
rule,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  is  of  gnat  consequence  in 
the  interpretation  of  statutes.     IlnUIII.  Only  the  writing 
and  its  implications  arc  to  bo  eonsidercil.     It  will  not  do 
for  the  interpreter  to  go  beyond  the  writing  in  search  of  a 
supposed  sense.     The  true  view  is  that  it  is  of  no  eonse- 
ql>ence  what  the  intent  was,  so  long  as  it  is  not  expressed 
or  reasonably  to  be  implied  from  the  words  used.    This  rule 
is  applied  with  great  inflexibility  in  courts  of  law.     There 
is  a  well-known  rule  to  the  effect  that  oral  evidence  is  not 
to  bo  resorted  to  in  order  to  add  to  or  to  vary  the  terms  of 
a  written  instrument.    .Accordingly,  the  courts  cannot  sup- 
ply by  interpretation  an  unexpressed  intent  of  tlic  legisla- 
ture or  of  a  testator.    This  rule  does  not  prevent  the  courts 
in  certain  cases  from  correcting  mistakes;   that  is,  from 
supplying  or  omitting  words  that  wero  inadvertently  in- 
Bortcii  or  omitted.    Hide  IV,  Wliero  there  is  nothing  in  the 
writing  or  its  surroundings  to  lead  to  the  contrary,  the  gen- 
eral rule  is  that  words  are  to  be  taken  in  their  ordinary  and 
popular  sense.     On  the  other  hand,  if  the  subject  of  the 
writing  is  a  matter  of  art  or  of  scieuco  or  other  technical 
nature,  the  prcsum]ition  is  that  the  words   are  used  in  a 
special  and  technical  sense.     Itutr.  V.  tJood  faith  is  to  bo 
observed  and  sound  sense  exercised  by  an  interpreter.    The 
great  object  is  to  ascertain  the  intent  and  to  carry  it,  if 
proper,  into  effect.     Out  of  this  principle  spring  a  number 
of  subordinate  rules;  such  as,  that  where  two  senses  arc 
possible,  one  of  which  is  agreeaiilo  to  law  and  the  other 
opposed  to  it,  Ihe  former  is  to  be  preferred.     So  inadver- 
tent  omissions   are    to    bo    overlookcrl ;    apparent   repug- 
nancies, if  possible,  are  to  bo  reconciled;   words  inconsist- 
ent with  the  main  intention  arc  to  bo  rejected:  stress  is 
not  to  be  laid  on  aeeurato  grammar  or  orthography.     It  is 
a  further  rule  that  the  situation  of  the  writi-r  and  the  eir- 
cunistancos  surrounding  him  may  be  presented  so  as  to  put 
the  interpreter  in  the  position  of  the  author.    For  example, 
if  a  testator  should  ilircct  his  property  to  be  divided  equal- 
ly "among  his  children,"  it  would  be  impossible  for  a  court 
to  carry  out  his  direction  without  tiseertaining  from  extra- 
neous evidence  the  number  of  his  children  antl  identifying 
them.     It  is  plain  that  this  testimony  would  not  alter  the 


instrument,  but  would  enable  the  court  to  regard  the  sub- 
ject from  the  testator's  point  of  view.  It  should  be  added 
that  in  ordinary  eases  the  meaning  of  a  written  instrument 
is  a  matter  of  law  for  the  court  rather  than  the  jury.  In 
this  way  fixed  rules  are  established  and  an  erroneous  in- 
terpretation by  a  lower  court  becomes  the  subject  of  review 
by  an  appellate  tribunal.  "Where  the  words  are  technical, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  ascertain  their  meaning  through  the 
testimony  of  experts,  and  to  submit  the  matter  to  the  jury 
as  a  question  of  fact. 

II.   Application  of  the  Rules  of  Interpretation  to  Special 
Casen. — The  leading  cases  in  which  the  subject  is  presented 
to  courts  of  justice  arc  treaties,  political  constitutions,  leg- 
islative acts,  contracts,  and  wills.     It  will  not  bo  possible 
to  consider  the  special  rules  governing  all  of  these  cases. 
A  few  will  be  referred  to  in  connection  with  the  last  three 
of  tho  instances  mentioned.     (1)  Statitten, — The  intention 
of  a  legislature  in  passing  a  statute  is  to  be  ascertained  by 
tho  application  of  tho  general  rules  already  stated,  together 
with  others  of  a  special  or  subordinate  nature.     {«)  It  is  a 
general  rule  that  (be  words  of  a  statute  are  to  bo  taken  in 
their  ordinary  and  |iopular  sense.    This  is  just,  as  they  are 
intended  to  govern  tho  action  of  tho  public,  who  would  nat- 
urally give  them  such  a  signification.     Still,  if  tho  statute 
wero  intended  to  govern  the  action  of  a  special  class  of  per- 
sons, another  rule  might  prevail.    For  example,  a  commer- 
cial tariff  law,  enacted  by  Congress  to  prescribe  duties  to 
bo  paid  upon  imports,  would  be  in  the  main  intended  to 
govern  the  conduct  of  importing  merch.ants,  and  technical 
words  would  bo  used,  requiring  a  corresponding  interpre- 
tation.    (It)  It  frequently  happens  that  a  scries  of  statutes 
is  enacted  to  govern  a  particular  subject.     These  may  be 
called  into  existence  from  time  to  time  during  a  long  period 
of  years.     Such  statutes  are  said  to  bo  I'lt  pari  materia — 
upon  the  same  general  subject.     The  ascertainment  of  the 
meaning  of  the  latest  in  the  series  may  require  the  exam- 
ination of  all.     ('■)  The  rule  that  the  meaning  must  be 
found  in  the  text  to  be  interpreted  has  its  full  application 
in  tho  case  of  statutes.     Tho  courts  cannot  ascertain  the 
legislative  will  by  conjecture.     If  not  cxpresseil  or  implied 
from  tho  words  used,  tho  supposed  meaning  must  be  dis- 
carded.   The  technical  expression  is,  voluit  aid  non  dixit — 
the  legislature  may  have  had  an  intention,  but  it  remains 
uncxiiressed.     Where,  however,  words  that  are  obscure  are 
used,  it  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  a  particular  sig- 
nification (if  that  is  possible)  that,  unless  it  be  adopted, 
there  will  be  no  rational  meaning,     (d)  In  the  inter|ircta- 
tion  of  a  statute  it  is  often  essential  for  the  court  to  know 
the  circumstances  existing  at  the  time  of  its  enactment,  or. 
in  other  words,  to  becomo  familiar  with  contem)iorary  his- 
tory, to  understand  existing  defects  in  the  law,  ami  to  as- 
certain what  evils  the  legislature  designed  to  remedy.    This 
rule  is  well   illustrated  by  the   interpretation  of  the  recent 
suffrage  law  in  England,  where  the  question  was.  nhclher 
tho  word  "  man  "  as  used  in  tho  act  included  "  woman,"  so 
as  to  give  her  tho  right  to  vote.     The  court,  in  deciding  Ihe 
case,  had  much  recourse  to  the  general  history  of  the  right 
of  suffrage  in  England  as  tending  to  show  the  legislative 
intent.     Tho  words  in  a  statute,  though  of  a  general  cha- 
racter, must  bo  confined  in  their  application  to  the  defects 
to  be  remedied.     One  branch  of  this  rule  is  referred  to  by 
law  writers  in  the  technical  expression  that  regard  must  bo 
paid  to  the  "old   law,  tho  miscliiel.  and  the  renuily."     .\ 
single  illustration   may  be  useful.     Suppose  that  a  former 
law  permits  Ihe  bishop  of  an  established  church  to  lease 
church  lands  for  any  length  of  time  and  any  rent  that  ho 
may  see  lit.     The  "mischief"  of  this  rule  may  ho  that  ho 
may  lease  them  for  a  very  long  term  and  at  a  low  rent,  and 
thus  impiiverinh  hin  Kuceennnrii  in  the  bisho])ric,  whoso  in- 
come may  bo  reduced  to  a  minimum.     A  statute  is  passed 
preventing  a  bishop  from  making  a  lease  for  more  than 
twenty-one  years.     After  this  a  lease  is  made  for  Ihe  bish- 
op's own  liie.  which   may,  of  course,  exceed   t«eiity-ono 
years.      This  lease   is  not  within   the  "mischief"  of  the 
statute,  as  it  does  not  tend  to  "  impoverish  his  successors." 
It  is  thus  necessary   in  many  instances  to  go  beyond  tho 
letter  of  tho  slatute'and  to  discern  its  true  intent  and  spirit. 
Thus,  if  a  law  should    prescribe  Hint   when  two  vehieles 
were  passing  along  an  orilinary  highway  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, each  shouM  turn  to  the  right  with  a  view  to  avoid  col- 
lision, it  coulil  have  no  applicaticm  to  the  case  of  an  oniiii- 
hns  and  a  street-car,  as  there  could  be  no  danger  of  collis- 
ion bv  the  non-observance  of  tho  rule.     Accordingly.  Ihe 
omnibus  might  pass  either  to  the  right  or  to  Ihe  left  of  the 
car.    (••)  I'enal  statutes  ( i.  r.  those  which  inflict  jiunishment) 
arc  to  be  interpreted  with  much  strictness.     This  rule  was 
formerly  carried  to  absurd  lengths,  but  in  n  rational  sense 
still  prevails.     It  is  founded  in  reason,  since  punishments 
should  not  be  inflicted  unless  Uie  transgressor  of  llie  law 
was  able  clearly  to  know  its  meaning  and  to  ascertain  the 
;  legal  cuusequcucca  of  his  acts.     (/)  Statutes  to  prevent 


1264 


INTERPRKTATION. 


frauds  are,  on  the  other  hand,  interpreted  liberallj', 
in  order  to  relieve  the  injured  party  from  the  conse- 
quences of  the  fraud.  The  same  statute  may  have  a  double 
aspect,  or  bo  both  remedial  and  penal,  when  the  applica- 
tion of  thc-'-e  ilistiuet  rules  may  lead  to  opposite  conclu- 
sions derived  from  the  same  phraseology.  For  example, 
if  a  statute  should  provide  that  if  one  of  two  gamesters 
should  win  from  the  other  more  than  fifty  dollars  at  *'onc 
Bitting,"  he  should  not  only  restore  the  money  won,  but 
should  forfeit  three  times  the  amount,  and  afterwards  a 
game  should  take  place  which  was  interrupted  by  an  ad- 
journment for  dinner,  and  subsequently  continued,  the  two 
periods  might  be  reganled  as  "  one  sitting  "  for  the  purpose 
<ff  returning  the  money,  as  that  would  be  remedial,  while 
it  w()uld  Dot  bo  so  considered  in  reference  to  the  for- 
feiture, (rj)  It  is  a  cardinal  rule  of  interpretation  that  a 
statute  shall  in  general  be  construed  to  operate  as  a  rule 
for  the  future,  and  thus  not  have  a  retrospective  operation. 
The  rule  is  particularly  strong  when  the  retrospective  opera- 
tion would  destroy  vested  rights.  In  that  case  the  words 
giving  a  retrospective  operation  t()  the  act  must  be  ex- 
tremely clear.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  words  are  used 
to  confirm  existing  rights  defective  in  form  or  to  add  to 
the  means  of  enforcing  existing  obligations,  a  retrospec- 
tive effect  will  readily  be  allowed.  Under  American  law, 
if  the  words  are  plainly  retrospective  and  attect  vested 
rights,  another  question  may  arise.  They  may  be  repug- 
nant to  some  provision  of  the  U.  S.  or  State  constitution, 
and  for  that  reason  be  inoperative,  (h)  Another  instance 
of  the  desire  of  the  courts  to  protect  vested  rights  is  found 
in  tho  rule  that  all  statutes  in  derogation  of  private  rights 
must  be  strictly  construed  and  their  provisions  closely  fol- 
lowed. This  rule  finds  much  practical  illustration  in  the 
sale,  under  statutory  pro  visions, of  land  for  the  non-payment 
of  taxes.  Where  the  authority  is  not  strictly  pursued  the 
sale  is  void.  This  rule  has  been  carried  to  such  extreme 
lengths  in  some  instances  as  almost  to  embarrass  the 
operations  of  guvernmcnt.  (Sec  Blackwell  on  Trtj-  Titles.) 
There  is  a  tendency  in  some  parts  of  tho  country,  e.g., 
New  York,  so  to  frame  the  tax  laws  as  to  give  less  practical 
oi)eration  to  this  rule  than  formerly.  (/)  A  distinction  of 
some  importance  is  taken  between  words  that  are  simply 
directory  and  such  as  are  mandatory.  The  former  class 
are  not  obligatory  in  the  same  sense  as  tho  latter.  Thus, 
if  an  act  is  directed  to  be  performed  on  a  given  day,  it 
may,  in  general,  bo  performed  on  some  other  day :  the 
words  are  ''directory."  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  in- 
terests of  the  public  are  concerned  or  the  rights  of  indi- 
viduals are  involved,  even  permissive  words  may  be  re- 
garded as  obligatory  or '•  mandatory  :"  tho  word**  may" 
will  perhaps  be  construed  to  mean  "must."  ij)  If  an  un- 
lawful act  be  committed  fur  which  there  is,  in  behalf  of  tho 
public,  an  existing  remedy,  and  a  new  mode  of  redress  be 
given  by  statute,  the  former  one  will  not  in  general  bo  dis- 
placed. The  remedies  become  cumulative,  and  resort  may 
be  had  to  either.  This  would  not  be  the  case  if  tho  new 
provision  wore  inconsistent  with  the  former  law,  for  the 
latter  would  then  he  repealed  by  implication.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  act  be  made  unlawful  by  tho  statute,  and  a 
specific  mode  of  redress  be  provided,  tliat  must  be  resorted 
to.  {k)  Where  a  statute  prescribes  a  penalty  for  the  com- 
mission of  an  act,  it  is  thereby  made  unlawful,  and  a  con- 
tract to  perform  tho  act  in  question  will  be  declared  void. 
A  penalty  implies  a  prohibition.  (/)  It  is  a  general  remark 
that  tho  courts  strive  as  far  as  possible  to  effectuate  tho 
legislative  will :  discordant  clauses  or  statutes  will,  if  pos- 
sible, be  reconciled.  Where  there  is  a  plain  repugnancy, 
the  later  statute,  so  far  as  it  is  inconsistent  with  an  earlier 
one.  displaces  or  repeals  it.  The  same  rule  is  applied  even 
to  inconsistent  clauses  or  sections  in  the  same  statute.  So 
a  saving  clause  repugnant  to  the  general  scope  of  the  act 
is  void.  A  repealing  statute  of  course  does  away  with  that 
which  it  repeals.  Where  a  repealing  statute  is  itself  re- 
pealed, tho  former  law  revives  without  express  words  of 
revival.  It  may  be  adtlcd  that  in  arriving  at  conclusions 
by  way  of  interpretation,  the  general  opinion  of  the  legal 
profession  is  considered  as  of  importance.  (See  also  Dwar- 
ris  on  Stntntcs.) 

(2)  In  tho  case  of  Wriftcn  CoutrnctJt.  the  court  seeks  to 
ascertain  the  intention  of  tho  parties,  and.  having  found  it, 
to  carry  it  into  effect  if  tho  rules  of  law  and  public  policy 
will  permit.  The  intention,  however,  must  be  found  in  the 
wrilintf  itHfJfhy  the  application  of  rules  of  interpretation. 
If  it  is  claimed  that  the  intention  was  really  different  from 
that  which  the  words  indicate,  it  is  not  a  case  of  interpre- 
tation, but  rather  of  a  mistake,  which,  if  material,  must 
cither  bo  corrected  or  must  vitiate  tho  contract.  If  the 
mistake  he  material,  a  court  of  equity  will  "reform"  or 
correct  the  instrument  by  supplying  or  omitting  words,  so 
a^  to  make  it  express  the  real  intention  of  the  parties.  If 
the  minds   of  the  parties  did  not  concur  in  the  writing,  it 


will  be  a  case  of  no  contract  either  through  fraud  or  mis- 
take. Assuming  that  there  is  no  question  of  this  kind,  but 
that  the  writing  contains  what  was  intended,  the  court  re- 
sorts to  fixed  rules  in  ascertaining  the  intent.  These  rules 
are  numerous  and  complex  in  their  operation,  and  cannot 
be  fully  stated  in  an  article  such  as  the  present.  A  few 
of  them  will  bo  indicated.  {<i)  Words  are,  according  to 
the  general  rule,  to  be  taken  in  their  ordinary  and  pop- 
ular sense.  In  many  cases  the  contract  concerns  a  par- 
ticular trade  or  calling,  when  the  meaning  is  ascertained 
through  the  testimony  of  merchants  who  are  skilled  in  it. 
(6)  If  the  contract  cannot  be  carried  into  effect  precisely 
as  the  p.arties  intended,  the  eourt  will  strive  to  uphold  it  on 
some  other  theory  which  will  render  substantial  justice  to 
the  parties.  This  rule  becomes  of  much  importance  in  tho 
construction  of  instruments  of  a  t(  chnical  character,  such  as 
deeds.  These  instruments  frequently  assume  a  special  form, 
known  as  a  "  bargain  and  sale."  or  a  *'  release,"  or  a  "  con- 
firmation." etc.  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  a  well-settled 
rule  that  if  the  parties  should  erroneously  resort  to  one  of 
these  instruments  when  they  should  have  adopted  another, 
the  courts  will  effectuate  tho  intent  hy  construing  the  in- 
strument wrongly  selected  as  practically  amounting  to  the 
one  which  should  have  been  adopted  :  as,  for  example,  con- 
struing a  deed  of  bargain  and  sale  to  be  equivalent  to  a 
release.  This  rule  is  one  most  beneficent  in  its  operation 
and  is  highly  favored,  and  tends  practically  to  obliterate, 
or  at  least  to  make  harmless,  useless  legal  distinctions,  (c) 
It  is  frequently  necessary  to  determine  whether  an  instru- 
ment is  executed  or  executory;  as,  for  examjile,  whether 
it  is  a  lease  or  an  agreement  for  a  lease,  a  deed  or  aeon- 
tract  for  a  deed.  This  is  ascertained  not  so  much  by  inter- 
preting particular  words  us  by  a  view  of  the  entire  instru- 
ment and  of  the  main  intention  of  the  parties,  {d)  An 
instrument  is  in  some  cases  of  doubt  to  be  taken  most 
strongly  against  the  party  who  executes  it  {contra  profe- 
rentem). Not  so  much  use  of  this  rule  is  made  as  formerly. 
Many  instruments  arc  of  such  a  mutual  character  that  it  is 
inapplicable.  Still,  in  special  cases  it  may  be  resorteii  to. 
It  has  never  been  applied  to  grants  by  the  sovereign  power. 
Whatever  is  not  contained  in  tho  words  of  such  a  grant  is 
not  conceded  by  the  grantor.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed 
by  some  jurists  that  if  a  grant  was  ma<lc  by  the  sovereign 
power  of  the  right  to  have  a  public  ferry  or  a  bridge,  there 
was  an  implied  contract  on  its  part  that  it  v/ould  make  no 
grant  of  another  right  of  a  similar  kind  that  would  inter- 
fere with  the  franchise  conferred.  (See  FuANraiSE.)  This 
doctrine  is  now  exploded,  and  no  exclusive  right  can  be 
claimed  unless  it  is  shown  by  a  fair  construction  of  the 
words  of  the  grant  itself,  (t)  Instruments  are  sometimes 
partly  printed  and  partly  written.  If  there  is  a  conflict 
between  the  two,  the  written  are  to  be  preferred,  as  being 
more  clearly  indicative  of  the  intention  of  the  parties,  the 
printed  words  being  regarded  as  a  general  formula,  while 
those  which  are  written  are  specially  employed  for  the  oc- 
casion in  hand.  {/)  Usage  is  of  much  importance  in  the 
interpretation  of  written  contracts.  Where  a  contract  co'n- 
ccrns  a  matter  in  any  trade  or  business  in  which  there  arc 
known  and  well-defined  usages,  there  is  a  presumption  of 
la\v  that  the  contract  was  made  in  reference  to  the  usage. 
This  doctrine  has  been  in  some  instances  carried  very  far; 
its  exact  limits  have  not  yet  been  fixed  by  tho  courts.  A 
well-known  Knglish  case  illustrates  the  diflieulty.  There 
being  a  written  contract  for  the  sale  of  rabbits  at  a  fixed 
price  per  thousand,  the  court  allowed  eviilence  of  a  custom 
in  the  trade  that  "thousand"  meant  "twelve  hundred." 
This  decision  has  not  met  with  universal  acceptance.  There 
is  a  disposition  in  some  courts  to  hobl  that  such  evidence 
is  inadmissible  to  cimtradict  the  plain  and  ordinary  mean- 
ing of  written  words,  e.  </.,  words  of  niiniber.  Rules  are 
laiil  down  by  tho  courts  to  test  the  validity  of  a  custom; 
such  as,  that  it  must  bo  certain,  reasonable,  rstaldished,  and 
undisputed.  There  is  only  a  presumption  that  parties  in- 
tend to  follow  tho  custom,  an<l  it  may  accordingly  bo  ex- 
cluded by  sufficient  evidence  of  their  intent.  The  words 
*' usage  "  and  "custom"  are  often  used  indiscriminately, 
but  in  accurate  language  the  former  is  rather  evidence  of 
the  latter.  (7)  There  arc  other  presumi»tions  or  implica- 
tions acknowledged  by  law  ;  such  as,  that  a  contract  binds 
the  representatives  of  the  parties  as  well  as  the  parties  them- 
selves, or  that  a  contract  made  by  two  ]>crsons  is  joint 
rather  than  several,  or  if  no  time  is  mentioned  for  perform- 
ance that  it  must  take  place  within  a  reasonable  time. 
Pome  of  the  rules  above  stated,  as  is  manifest,  apply  to 
unwritten  as  well  as  to  written  contracts,  (h)  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  a  rule  of  law  that  extrinsic  evi- 
dence of  the  intent  of  tho  parties  is  not  to  be  allowed  to 
alter  the  terms  of  a  written  instrument.  This  rule  means 
that  the  parties  arc  to  be  conclusively  supposed  to  have 
merged  all  their  stipulations  and  propositions  anterior  to 
the  contract  in  tho  instrument  itself.    That  is  the  final  and 


I.^■TERPR^:TA'rIOK 


1205 


111 


HOle  repository  of  their  intentinn?.  This  rule  is  of  great 
consequence  both  in  tlie  interprctsilion  of  contracts  and  of 
will?.  While,  in  its  correct  furm,  it  is  inflcxiMy  applied^ 
there  arc  j<oine  qualifications  or  apparent  exceptions  to  it 
which  should  he  stateiJ.  It  does  nut  include  evidence  by 
Wiiy  of  explanation  of  obscure  or  technical  terms  in  the  con- 
tract. It  allows  all  cunteuiporaneuus  writing;  to  which  the 
contract  refers  to  be  introduced.  It  docs  not  bear  upon 
clauses  which  arc  iDtentiunally  left  incomplete.  It  permits 
evidence  of  the  circum^itances  surrounding  llie  parties  when 
the  eonlrjiet  wai*  execnfcd.  t^o  that  the  court  cnn  stand  in 
their  poi^ition  and  see  with  their  eyes.  Under  it  there  may 
be  evidence  olfcred  to  show  that  the  supposed  contract  is 
wholly  void  for  fraud  or  other  legal  ground,  for  then  there 
is  no  contract.  Nor  docs  the  rule  interfere  with  tlic  correc- 
tion of  mistakes,  such  as  the  insertion  of  clauses  acciden- 
tally omitted.  "What  is  really  meant  is,  that  one  of  the  par- 
ties shall  not  be  allowed  as  against  the  other  to  introduce 
any  evidence  by  wny  of  interpretation,  where  a  written 
contract  is  in  its  exterior  form  complete,  of  clauses  which 
were  not  iuteoded  to  bo  inserted,  but  to  be  left  to  oral  un- 
derstanding. If  thnt  were  allowed,  the  certainty  and  pre- 
cision which  a  written  contract  was  intended  to  secure 
would  be  wholly  lost.  The  rule  con,  however,  be  pressed 
no  further  than  its  circumstances  will  warrant.  Accord- 
iD;;:ly,  it  cannot  exclude  or.il  evidence  of  avt^cquent  modi- 
fications of  or  additions  to  the  contract,  as  these  could  not 
po.-'sibly  have  been  included  in  the  contract  when  it  was 
executed.  There  is  an  important  inquiry  applicable  both  | 
to  contracts  and  wills  concerning  the  exphinntion  of  am-  j 
biguitics  and  uncertain  clauses  which  enn  be  more  conve-  ; 
niently  considvred  under  the  next  head  (  Willv).  (i)  Subject 
to  the  rules  already  stated,  there  is  a  strong  disposition  l 
to  effectuate  the  will  of  the  parties  so  far  as  that  accords  ! 
with  the  rules  of  law.  Incorrect  grammar  and  spelling  are  j 
hut  of  littlo  importance  if  the  sense  is  not  obgcurc.  Clauses 
niny  be  transp<iscd  in  construction,  if  necessary,  and  the  ' 
intent  so!i;^ht  an  to  the  most  solemn  instruments,  without  [ 
reference  to  regularity  of  form.  Still,  it  is  unwise  to  draw 
important  instruments  in  an  inartificial  manner,  as  it  may 
lend  to  obscurity  or  perversion  of  the  meaning.  The  courts 
will  prefer  a  construction  that  will  make  the  instrument 
Icg.il  rather  than  illegnl,  a'?  they  will  ono  that  will  uphold 
and  effectuate  it  rather  than  one  that  will  destroy  it. 

(.1)  W'iiln. — This  is  a  very  important  subject  for  inter- 
pretation, and  specinl  rules  prevail.  In  executing  these 
instrumi-nlfl  the  testator  is  frequently  without  legal  advice, 
and  the  courts  seek  to  give  Feopc  to  his  intention,  however 
inariificiaily  it  may  be  expressed.  Still,  it  remains  true 
that  the  intention  must  he  found  in  the  instrument.  Con- 
jecturf,  no  matter  how  plausible,  cannot  be  resorted  to. 
The  rule  alrendy  referred  to  in  the  expression  vo/m't  unl 
noil  iitj-lt  hiis  full  application.  The  following  among  other 
rules  may  he  laid  down  n<!  proper  t'>  ho  followed  :  liulc  I, 
Tcchnicnl  words  arc  not  necessary  to  give  cdcct  to  any  dis- 
osilion  in  a  will.  Still,  if  the  testator  n^^es  those  words, 
lie  will  be  presumed  to  employ  them  in  that  sense,  unless 
there  is  evidence  from  the  context  to  the  contrary.  Rulf: 
If.  Words  are  in  general  to  be  tnken  in  their  ordinary  and 
grammatical  sense,  unless  an  intention  can  be  shown  to  the 
contrary.  This  rule,  where  langnacje  is  unambiguous,  is 
Dot  to  he  d'partr-d  from,  though  it  should  result  in  incon- 
venience or  absurdity,  or  in  consequences  which  the  testa- 
tor did  not  foresee.  Still,  where  the  intention  is  obscure, 
it  is  to  be  sought  in  a  rntional  and  consistent  rather  than 
in  an  irrational  and  inconsistent  purpose.  Ru(e  Ilf,  All 
the  parts  of  n  will  are  to  be  e<mstrued  in  relation  to  each 
other,  and  so  as,  if  possible,  to  form  one  ctmsistont  whole. 
Word-*  nnd  limitations  may  ho  transposed,  supplied,  or  re- 
jected where  that  course  is  warranted  by  the  context  or  the 
general  schemo  of  the  will.  Words  obviously  miswritten 
may  be  corrected.  So  the  word  *'or"  has  been  mndo  in 
many  eases  to  read  *'nnd."  and  conversely.  Where  the  in-  I 
tention  cannot  operate  to  its  full  extent,  it  must  bo  mafic  to 
operate  as  far  as  it  can.  While  a  construction  is  not  to  bo  ! 
strained  to  bring  a  devise  within  the  rule  of  law,  if  two  ' 
con*<truelions  are  admissible,  one  of  which  will  render  it 
vfiid  nnd  the  other  valid,  that  is  to  ho  preferred  which  will  ! 
mnke  it  valid.  Huh'  IV.  I'ndcr  tho  siime  general  view  as  ] 
prevails  in  Hulc  III.,  the-  following  special  statements  mny  i 
ne  matle.  Words  occurring  more  thnn  once  in  a  will  ns  (o  j 
the  same  subject  aro  presumed  to  be  used  in  the  same  sense  ' 
unless  there  is  something  to  show  the  contrary.  Express 
and  positive  devises  aro  not  to  be  eontrollecl  by  the  reasons 
assii^ned,  nor  is  a  plain  devise  to  be  nffeclefl  by  a  subse- 
quent innecurate  reference  to  its  contents.  I>evises  not 
grammatically  connected  or  united  by  the  expression  of  a 
eommon  purpose  must  he  construed  sepiirately  and  with- 
out relation  to  en''h  other,  unlen»i  there  is  a  manifi'st  inten- 
tion to  connect  them.  Huh  I*.  An  heir  is  not  to  b*>  disin- 
herited without  nn  express  devise  or  necessary  impllcatioQ. 
Vol..  ir.— 80 


Nor  can  ho  be  disinherited  by  an  expression  of  an  inten- 
tion that  he  should  take  nothing;  the  estate  must  bo  given 
to  some  other  person.  Rule  VI.  A  will  of  real  estate,  wher- 
ever made,  must  ho  construed  according  to  tho  law  of  tho 
place  where  the  land  is  situated ;  one  of  personal  property, 
according  to  the  law  of  the  testator's  domicile,  liulc  YII. 
A  will  speaks  for  some  purposes  from  tho  time  of  its  execu- 
tion, but  does  not  take  effect  until  the  testator's  death. 
Rule  VIII.  Extrinsic  evidence  is  not  to  be  resorted  to  for  tho 
purpose  of  adding  to  or  altering  the  terms  of  a  will,  though 
tho  court  mny  receive  it  to  show  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  was  made ;  such  ns,  the  state  of  the  testator's  pnip- 
crty,  his  family,  and  the  like.  This  branch  of  the  law  was 
first  reduced  to  symmetrical  form  by  Vice-Chancellor  Wi- 
gram  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  AihniFf^ion  of  Extrinsic 
Evideurein  Aid  of  the  luterpretntiou  of  Wlflt.  The  princi- 
ples are  in  a  masterly  form  reduced  to  a  number  of  leading 
rules.  Without  stating  them  at  length,  the  substaneeof  them 
is  that  where  words  in  a  will  have  two  senses,  a  primary  nnd 
a  secondary  sense,  ihcy  arc  presumed  in  general  to  ho  used 
in  the  primary  sense,  unless  there  is  some  evidence  in  tho 
context  to  the  contrary.  If  there  is  no  such  context,  and 
the  testator's  words  arc  aruiiblc  tcith  reference  to  ertrimtic 
circvmfitnnceg,  the  rule  is  inflexible  that  no  evidence  will 
be  allowed  to  show  that  the  words  arc  used  in  a  secondary 
sense.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  words  aro  not  sensible  in 
reference  to  extrinsic  circumstances,  it  may  bo  made  to  ap- 
pear that  the  wonls  arc  used  in  a  secondary  signification. 
A  single  illustration  will  show  the  bearing  of  these  propo- 
sitions: If  a  tesfator  should  direct  his  property  to  be  di- 
vided among  his  "children,"  tho  primary  scnso  would  be 
intended.  If  the  fact  were  shown  that  ho  had  legitimate 
children,  it  would  ho  impossible  to  introduce  any  extrinsic 
evidence,  no  matter  hov/  strong,  that  he  intended  illegiti- 
mate children.  On  the  other  hand,  if  ho  had  none  that  were 
legitimate,  it  might  be  shown  that  the  illegitimate  were  in- 
tended. While  it  is  proper,  and  sometimes  ncecssarj',  to 
introduce  evidence  relating  to  the  person  claiming  to  he  in- 
terestecl  under  the  will,  as  well  as  to  the  cireurastances  of  tho 
testator  nnd  bis  affairs,  yet  if  after  this  it  is  uncertain  who 
was  intended  (except  in  special  eases,  to  be  hereafter  no- 
ticed), no  evidence  of  intent  ion  will  bo  allowed,  and  the  will  is 
void  for  imcertainty.  Tho  special  cases  in  which  the  evi- 
dence of  intention  is  allowed  aro  whcro  tho  object  of  the 
testator's  bounty  or  the  thing  intended  to  bo  bestowed  is 
described  in  words  which  are  equally  applicable  to  more 
than  one  person  or  thing.  This  last  proposition  leads  to 
tho  long-recognized  dir'tinetion  between  latent  and  patent 
ambiguities,  on  which  much  stress  is  laid  by  Lord  IJacon. 
The  charaetcristic  distinction,  as  bo  understood  it,  between 
tho  two  is  that  the  one  appears  on  the  face  of  the  instru- 
ment and  the  other  does  not.  Thu;--,  if  a  testator  should 
give  his  property  to  William  Gonlon  of  New  York,  and  ex- 
trinsic evidence  should  show  that  there  were  two  persons 
of  that  name,  there  would  be  a  latent  umhiguity  not  ap- 
pearing on  the  instrument.  If  the  will  itself  should  show 
by  its  different  provisions  that  there  were  two  such  William 
Oordotis,  it  wouhl  be  patrut.  Such  a  distinction  is  plainly 
useless  and  unfruitful.  Bacon  would  bold  that  extrinsic  evi- 
dence of  tho  person  intended  offered  in  the  first  ease,  and 
not  in  the  last.  No  such  distinction  is  maintainable  in 
reason,  nnd  it  is  just  ns  proper  to  idmtiftfhy  extrinsic  evi- 
deneo  the  person  really  intended  in  the  one  case  ns  in  tho 
other.  Tho  real  distinction  is  between  nn  omhiijuStti  ns 
here  used  and  an  unerrtuinttf  appearing  on  the  face  of  the 
will.  This  last  admits  of  no  correction.  A  bequest  of  a 
sword  to  ''the  bravest  general  in  tho  American  army" 
would  be  incurably  void,  unles'^  the  testator  on  the  face  of 
the  will  supplied  the  mode  of  determination. 

Under  these  rules  the  courts  of  equity  cannot  supply  an 
omission  in  a  will  ns  they  can  in  a  contract.  This  juris- 
diction has  never  been  assumed,  ns  a  will  is  a  mere  bounty, 
and  tho  beneficiary  has  no  claim  as  a  party  to  a  contract 
would  have.  It  is  thi-refore  nn  important  practical  remark, 
applicable  to  drau'.;htsun'n  of  wills,  that  the  greatest  earo 
should  bo  taken  to  include  all  the  provisions  intended  by 
tho  testator. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  ns  a  general  rule  Applicable  to  nil 
branches  of  the  law,  that  tho  rules  of  interpretation  are  tho 
snmo  both  in  courts  of  law  antl  equity.  While  the  latter 
courts  assume  a  special  power  to  correct  mistakes,  when 
they  are  simply  engaged  in  ascertaining  the  meaning  of 
words  nse<i  they  adopt  the  same  rules  ns  courts  of  Inw. 
(In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned  in  the  course 
of  this  article,  see  Liidjer's  Irfjnt  nnd  l*<ditirnl  llrnurwu- 
ticB  ;  Se<lgwiek  on  the  Con»trurtii>n  ff  Stntufm,  ete.  ;  ,^mith, 
Stntiitr  and  Oni^litntional  Line  ;  and  Chitly  or  Parsons  or 
Addiscm  on  Cuutrnet»,  nnd  Jarman  or  Uedfield  on  With, 
ete.  ete.  Uef'-rencc  should  also  he  mad<*  to  approved  di- 
gests and  volumes  of  law  reports  for  the  application  of 
principles  to  adjudged  cases.)  T.  W.  l)w»:nT. 


1266 


INTERRUPTED— INTERVAL. 


Intcrrupt'ed.  Certain  musical  cadences  are  called  in- 
terr"p"  Vtn  .hey  terminate  in  a  manner  foreign  to  that 
n.turillv  fi.-L'o:^tcd  hv  the  previous  hannonv  In  the  tol- 
"owin?  example  seethe  perfect  cadence  at  1,  and  several  in- 
terrupted  cadences  at  2,  3,  and  4: 

Es.l.-l  2  3  ,  * 

a I 1  ■■    I  .    '      ■ 


Fourths. 


Fifths. 


SI.XTHS. 


Perfect.  Dim.  Aug.  Perf.  Dim.  Aug.    Maj.  Min.  Dim.  Aug. 

-■■ -  .^^       -<SK      go-      5(&- 


^^^^^^^i^^ 


The  cadences  called  dfceptire  differ  little  from  the  inter- 
rupted. They  are  often  found  succeeding  each  o  her  in  a 
flowing  movement,  an.l  .urprisiug  the  hearer  by  the  unes- 
pccted  turns  assumed  by  the  harmony.  See  i..x.  *,  at  J,  A 
and  3: 
Ex"  '  2  3 


William  Staistox. 

In'tcrval,  in  music,  the  distance  or  difference  between 
anv  two  s.uinds  in  respect  to  gravity  or  aeutcness.  or  of 
anV  two  notes  as  measured  on  the  degrees  of  the  d.atonio 
scale,  both  extremes  being  counted.  Thus  from  A  to  13 
above  is  a  second :  from  A  to  C.  a  third ;  from  A  to  D,  a 
fourth,  and  so  on.  Intervals  are  either  s„«p!r  or  ro„,po,o<d, 
the  former  being  tliose  which  are  comprised  wUli.n  the 
limits  of  an  octave,  as  the  second,  third,  lourth,  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth;  and  the  latter  those  which  CNtend 
more  or  less  into  the  region  of  a  second  octave,  as  the  ninth, 
tenth,  eleventh,  etc.,  as  in  Ex.  1  : 
Ex  1  Simple  InUn-ah.  Cnrnpoimd  Inlm-als. 

'  'unison.  2d.  3d.  4th.  5th.  6th.  7th.  SIh.     9th.  10th.  11th.  12th. 


^Tr~r  r  r  r  r  r 


r  r  r 


In  another  sense  the  term  "  simple  interval  is  applied  to 
a  .<■„„■(„,..,  because  this  interval  is  practically  indivisible  n 
the  modern  svstem  of  music,  and  Mr  tones,  ns  thirds, 
fourths  etc.,  are  said  to  be  "compound,'  because  they  com- 
prise two  or  more  semitones.  Of  semitones  also  there  are 
wo  denominations-viz.  the  rfm(„,..V  and  the  chro,„af,c 
called  also  „.«;or  and  minor.  When4he  semitone  includes 
an  advance  from  one  degree  of  the  scale  to  another  (as  from 
('  to  nw  or  VS  to  r».  it  is  diatonic,  but  when  the  degree  on 
the  scalels  unaltered  (as  from  C  to  CS  or  Eb  to  Bfl,  it  is 

"'""inThTclassification  of  intervals  they  are  regarded  as 
per,W,,  Impcrfcrt.  Mminishcd.  or  au^,,,.<„cd:  to  '^hich  some 
"d,i  the  <touUc  (or  .^tr.mc)  dimuMr,!.  In  Ex.  2  the  na- 
ture of  most  of  these  distinctions  will  be  perceived  '>y  reck- 
oning the  number  of  tones  or  semitones  comprised  in  the 
vario'us  thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  etc.: 


Intervals  larger  than  these,  as  tenths,  elevenths,  etc.,  are 
(except  in  a  few  peculiar  eases)  regarded  and  treated  as 
merely  octaves  of  the  third,  fourth,  etc.  The  m„„m,  though 
not  strietlv  an  interval,  being  merely  the  concurrence  of 
two  similaV  sounds,  or  of  two  notes  on  the  same  grade  ot 
the  scale,  is  nevertheless  treated  in  harmony  ns  an  interval, 
because  it  frequently  happens  that  two  parts  or  ymces  meet 
on  the  same  degree,  and  such  eases  are  subject  to  certain 
rules  regulating  their  progression.     By  a  close  analysis  ol 
Ex  3  it  will  be  found  that  several  of  the  intervals  are  iden- 
tical in  the  nunilicr  of  tones  and  semitones  which  they 
comprise,  though  named  and  treated  as  of  different  mag- 
nitude.    Thus.^the  augmented  ,rr,n„l  and  the  minor  tiirrf, 
or  the  augmented  fourth   and   the  diminished  J,_/ih,  arc 
struck  upon  the  same  keys  on  the  organ  or  pianotorte.  and 
appear  thus  to  be  identical.     But  they  are  not  so  in  reality 
because  thev  belong  to  the  scales  of  different  keys,  and 
take  their  designations  from  such  scales.     For  the  same 
reason  each  particular  finger-key  on  the  organ,  etc.  is  used 
for  several    distiuct   notes,  according   as  the  music  per- 
formed is  in  one  key  or  another.     Thus   the  finger  key  for 
F  is  used  also  for  E  sharp,  and  a  D  key  may  become  C 
double-sharp  or  E  double-flat.     In  Ex.  4  the  very  same 
keys  are  stnick  for  each  of  the  chords,  and  yet  different 
intervals  are  made,  as  is  evident  to  the  eye : 

Ex.4. 

To  aid  stin  further  in  the  analysis  of  Ex.  3,  we  give  in  the 
following  table  the  contents  of  the  principal  >"'">■''  ^'° 
tones  and  semitones.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  he 
diatonic  scale,  whether  major  or  minor,  contains  in  the 
octave  five  lone:,  and  (iro  sem!lonr>.  Consequently,  any 
^ther  interval  and  its  inversion,  when  added  together,  will 
make  up  the  same  amount  ns  the  octave,  because  such  in- 
terval is  a  portio,,  <,f  the  octave,  and  its  inversion  is  the 
remaining  portion  or  complement: 


Ex.5 


Semi-  a     ri     — 
tones. 
Tines.  =■     ■=     " 


Ex.  2. 


3     ■= 


•S      .5      -S-     :S      S 


5    3  2  -S 

-v      m  u  ^ 

.  £  o 

Sf   a  ■  - 


.S    '5"   .-     =«     S     3    -     5    a    ,5    s    .s    .a 


J 1 L 


I J       ,       I 1 1 1 '—a 


Of  each  of  these  intervals,  except  the  augmented  fourth 
and  the  diminished  fiflh,  the  scale  furnishes  several  in- 
stances Tlius,  e.  ff.,  the  perfect  fifth  is  made  not  only  by 
C-G,  hut  also  by'  D— A,  E— B,  F— C,  and  in  two  other 

"^^  A  more  full  and  accurate  view  of  intervals,  as  now  recog- 
niied  bv  all  ompnscrs  and  schools  of  music,  we  proceed  to 
give  in'Ex.  3  (in  which  abbreviations  arc  used  for  the  terms 
major,  minor,  diminished,  and  augmented): 
Ex.3.     I'sisoss.  Seconds.  Thirds. 


Perfect.    Dim.    Aug.       Maj.    Min.    Aug.    Maj.  Min.  Dim. 


^         ^-        i^         -^        ^ 

fH      pC      iiei      *^      A 

A  perfect  or  major  interval  becomes  auymenled  by  the  ad- 
dllion  of  a  semitone,  and  a  perfect  or  minor  interval  be- 
comes diminMed  when  rednred  one  semitone. 

The  next  distinction  of  intervals  is  into  conmnant  and 
dhsonant.     The  Car  immediately   recognizes  a  difference 
lietwecn  one  interval  and  another  in  regard  to  their  con- 
nection and  relation.     Some  are  pleasing,  sat.sfactor, .  and 
eonelnsive  in   themselves:    while  "'^■■■■'\"',"fv.T  /I 
pleasing,  are  so  indefinite  as  to  create  a  kind  of  yearning 
for  something  further,  or  rather  for  a  line  of  progression 
n  a  partieulSr  direetinu,  forming  what  is  called  their  r«o- 
/„/,-o,'.     Those  intervals,  then,  which  are  more  or  less  con- 
clusive or  independent  are  said  to  be  co„«,,m..cc.,  while 
the  others  are  known  as  dismnanre,.     There  is  also  a  dis- 
tinction of  consonances  themselves  into  per/ce    and  t.n- 
TU-I,  as  alreadv  noticed.     The  former  arc    he  perfect 
unison,  fourth,  fifth,  and  octave,  which  cannot  «'l""'  "f 
change  without  converting  them  into  dissouanees.     The 
latter,  or  imperfect,  arc  the  minor  and  major  third  and    he 
maior  and  niinor  sixth.     Among  consonances  also  are  the 
fiflh  in  the  diminished  triad,  and  lis  inversions.     The  dis- 
sonanecs  are  the  remaining  intervals-v.7..  "'».""■  ""d  mi- 
nor seconds,  major  and  minor  sevenths,  ninths,  elevenths. 


INTESTACY— INTRENCI I  ED  C.V  M  PS. 


120 


and  (ill  (Itininished  and  augmeoted  intervals.  By  some 
theorists,  fourths  of  nil  kinds  arc  ranked  among  the  disso- 
nances, while  hy  others  the  pcr/rct  fourth  ifl  treated  as  a 
pcrfeet  consonance. 

Intervals  nre  also  either  /iindamental  {i.  c.  when  tho 
lower  tortn  is  the  prime  or  root)  or  hivertrtl  (when  tho  prime, 
on  which  the  harmony  depends,  is  moved  so  far  upward  as 
to  become  the  hijrher  term).  The  rundamentiil  iutervala 
are  four  in  number — viz.  tlie  unison,  fifth,  third,  and  sev- 
enth. When  inverted,  their  corresponding  intervals  will 
be  the  octave,  fourth,  sixth,  and  second. 

E»h<frmtn\i<-  intervals,  or  those  which  are  less  than  a 
semitone,  are  not  practically  in  use,  except  in  the  case  of 
organs  like  those  of  the  Tenijdc  church,  London,  and  St. 
John's,  Ciilcutta,  which  instruments  are  specially  con- 
structed to  express  fpiarter  tones,  or  even  smaller  divisions 
of  the  scale.  Tii  point  of  fact,  there  is  a  real  difTcrenco 
between  rj  and  Dfy,  (J  t  and  A  b.  etc.,  but  by  tlio  modern 
system  of  temperament  a  mi<Mle  sound  (in  the  way  of  a 
compromise)  is  adopted  and  used  as  representative  of  both 
those  elements,  though  it  is  really  neither  C5  nor  Dtj,  etc. 
Theoretically,  and  in  musical  composition,  the  distinction 
is  still  observed,  as,  r.  (f.,  in  cases  of  enharmonic  changes, 
where  one  and  the  same  chord  for  component  of  a  chord) 
is  taken  in  two  difTcrcnt  relations,  thereby  serving  to  effect 
a  transition  into  some  unexpected  key.  Thus,  in  Ex.  fi  Hie 
seventh  on  the  dominant  at  «  is  assumed  to  be  tlie  txtreme 
nhfirp  Hi'.rth  on  Eb  (which  it  exactly  resembles  in  sound), 
and  the  harmony  is  then  suddenly  thrown  into  tho  key  of 
a  major.  In  this  case,  the  I)(y  at  a  is  supposed,  whilo 
sounding,  to  change  into  CJI,  as  explained  at  b  : 

Ex.  C.  a  b 

J — T\,„  I- 


(i^^^^^jj^^^g^il 


William  Stauntom. 

Intostary.  Pee  AnMiNismATioN  and  ExKcrroR,  by 
Prior.  T.  W.  DwifiiiT.  LL.D. 

Intes'tinal  Jiiioo,  the  mucous  secretion  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal.  It  contains  granulutt  d  cells  and  cell-nuclei, 
and  usually  fat  ami  epithelium.  When  filtered  it  is  a  tol- 
erably clear,  mucous,  alkaline  liquid,  which  does  not  co- 
agulate \*v  boat.  Its  constituents  arc  the  same  as  those  of 
mucus.  In  1000  parts  of  the  juice  from  a  dog  were  found 
— water,  on.'). fi ;  solids,  'M.7  ;  pancreatic  and  intestinal  fer- 
ments, with  insoluble  salts,  9.(5:  biliary  matters,  10. (1:  tan- 
nin, a.'.i ;  fat,  0.7,  etc.  Intestinal  juice  converts  starch  into 
pugar,  and  digests  albuminous  substances,  flesh,  etc.,  though 
much  more  slowly  than  gastric  juice.  (See   U'^/rtV  Diet.) 

V.   F.   CHANhLKR. 

Intcs'tine  [Lat.  t»r^Wi'/i»«,  "that  which  is  within"]. 
that  portion  of  (he  alimentary  canal  wliich  extends  from 
the  stomach  to  the  anus.  It  consists  of  two  distinct  por- 
tions, the  email  and  the  large  intestine.  The  former  passes 
from  tho  pyloric  orifice  of  the  stomach  to  the  ileo-cwcal 
fold.  The  intestine  consists  itf  tliree  layers:  fl)  an  outer, 
pcrous  layer,  continuous  with  the  jieritoneum  by  means  of 
the  mesentery,  a  fold  of  serous  membrane  which  connects 
the  bowel  to  the  spinal  column;  (2)  a  muscular  coat  of 
pale,  non-striated,  involuntary  muscle-fibre,  whoso  contrac- 
tions give  the  small  intestine  a  peculiar  movement  called 
"vermicular  motion;"  (3)  an  inner  or  mucous  coat,  having 
(n)  folils  called  vdlnt/iv  ronnifriitt:n;  (h)  the  glands  called 
glands  of  Itrunn  ;  (c)  tho  follicles  of  Lieberkubn  :  (d)  the 
solitary  glands;  (r)  the  agminated  glamls  called  *'  Peyer's 
palehcs;"  and  (/)  tho  intestinal  villi.  The  small  intestine 
is  divided  into  the  duodenum,  the  jejunnin,  ami  the  ileum  ; 
tho  large,  into  the  eiecuni,tbo  colon,  and  the  rectum.  The 
total  length  in  man  is  not  far  from  10  feel,  three-fifths  of 
which  length  pertains  to  the  small  inti-stinc.  The  more  im- 
portant of  the  above-mentioned  divisions  arc  described 
under  their  alphabetical  heads. 

Iiitoiia'tion.  A  musical  term  denoting,  in  a  general 
scii-^c.  the  utterance  or  delivery  <*f  any  series  of  sounds 
formed  on  the  scale.  This,  when  correct  in  time,  accurate 
in  pitch,  and  refined  in  taste  and  expressiim,  is  said  to  bo 
/<((<•<■.  The  contrary,  but  more  especially  a  failure  in  cor- 
rectness of  pitch,  is  called  /"(r/w  intonation^  In  church 
music  the  name  of  •'  inttmation  "  is  given  to  certain  intro- 
ductory notes  in  (Jregorian  chants  which  arc  sung  to  each 
Torso  of  a  psalm  or  canticlo  on  festivals,  but  only  to  tho 
first  verso  on  other  days. 

Intone'.  This  word  is  popularly  used  for  tho  recital 
of  prayers,  psalms,  vi-rsiele-*,  etc.  in  monotone,  with  or 
without  inllcctions.     Properly,  it  refers  only  to  tho  recital 


of  a  fow  notes  called  the  "  intonation  "  standing  at  tho  bo- 
ginning  of  a  chant. 

Intoxication  [Lat.  i*n,  and  foxiciim,  *' poison"],  the 
cumulative  efi"cct  of  an  acro-narcotic  poison  on  the  nervous 
centres.  The  term  is  most  commonly  used  to  designate  tlic 
condition  of  a  person  who  has  been  brought  nmlcr  tlie  in- 
fluence of  tifrnhol  by  successive  imbibitions  during  a  short 
space  of  time,  but  should  not  bo  confined  exclusively  to 
the  poisoning  by  alcohol;  opium,  stramonium,  cannabis 
indica,  and  all  the  poisons  belonging  to  Ihe  above-mentioned 
class,  will  produce  intoxication  when  taken  in  sufficient 
quantity. 

Intoxication  may  bo  divided  into  tho  acute,  sub-acute, 
and  chronic  varieties.  Acute  intoxication  is  a  disease  very 
rarely  seen,  even  by  tho  physician.  It  is  produced  by 
drinking  a  large  quantity  of  some  spirituous  liquor  in  a 
very  short  space  of  time.  This  is  followed  soon  afterwards 
by  sudden  coma  (loss  of  sense,  sensation,  and  voluntary 
motion  (Afouzn  Cfnrk,  ^F.  I).)),  wliich  may  be  com])lcte  or 
incomplete.  Wo  have  present  here  the  symptoms  of  eonia 
— viz.  stertorous  respiration,  deviation  of  pujiils.  frothing 
at  the  mouth,  etc.  l^nless  assistance  speedily  arrives  these 
symptoms  generally  terminate  in  death  in  from  half  an  hour 
to  five  or  six  hours.  Every  endeavor  should  be  made  to 
arouse  the  patient  from  his  lethargic  condition.  An  active 
emetic,  as  sulphate  of  zinc,  may  be  administered,  or,  better 
still,  the  stomach-pump  should  bo  used  to  evacuate  tho 
stomach.  Ammonia  may  be  given  as  an  antidote,  and  if 
the  patient  be  able  to  swallow  he  should  take  large  drauglits 
of  tea.  The  sub-acute  form  may  bo  seen  any  and  every 
day  in  the  week.  It  is  the  ordinary  form  of  intoxication 
indulged  in  by  persons  either  voluntarily,  for  the  pleasant 
and  exhilarating  effect  on  Ihe  senses  during  one  of  its 
stages,  or  in\oluntarily.  in  consequence  of  a  depraved  ap- 
petite growing  out  of  the  former  method.  We  see  some 
men — and,  unhapi)iiy,  women  also' — who  are  seldom  or 
never  in  a  sober  condition  ;  others  who  imbibe  a  little  at 
all  times,  and  get  intoxicated  whenever  they  are  under 
undue  excitement  or  depression  ;  and  still  others  who  "go 
on  a  l)urst  "  once  every  three,  six.  or  twelve  months,  and  in 
the  mean  time  totally  abstain  from  any  of  the  intoxicants. 
To  this  last  class  belong  those  individuals  who  inherit  the 
tendency  to  inebriation.  Alcohol,  taken  to  a  de^rree  to 
produce  sub-acute  intoxication,  excites  tho  vascular  and 
nervous  systems;  all  the  secrctiftns  are  at  first  arresteil,  and 
the  temperature  <»f  tho  body  is  lowered,  and  not.  as  has 
been  generally  believed,  increased.  If  taken  by  a  person 
who  is  not  accustomccl  to  it.  it  occasions  derangement  of 
the  stomach,  and  nausea  and  vomiting  are  the  result.  Tho 
prin<'ipal  effect,  however,  is  noticeable  iquiu  the  nervous 
system.  There  is  a  general  feeling  of  increased  physical 
power,  and  the  mental  faculties  are  exhilarated.  The 
patient  at  first  talks  rationally,  but  is  very  verboge  and 
grows  confidential.  Incoherence  follows  upon  this,  and 
then  delirium  and  sopor.  The  effect  is  also  seen  on  tho 
cerebellum  by  the  impairment  of  the  power  of  co-ordina- 
tion, causing  at  first  the  staggerintr  gait,  and  ending  in 
complete  loss  of  muscular  power.  When  this  stage  occurs 
the  individual  generally  falls  into  a  deeji  sleep,  from  which 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  waken  him.  When  consciousness 
is  restored  tlierc  is  a  feeling  of  depression,  which  the  patient 
seeks  to  relieve  by  a  resort  to  stimulants.  Little  can  be 
said  of  the  jialliativc  treatment  of  this  variety  of  intoxi- 
cation. With  the  exception  of  the  employment  of  emetics 
to  unload  the  stomach,  and  the  administration  of  ammonia 
and  tea  as  antidotes,  the  patient  should  be  allowed  to 
"sleep  it  off."  (Vuv  (he  chronic  eflect  of  iicro-narcotio 
poisons,  see  lNi:iiitii:TV.)  EnwAHi>  J.  liKioiiNcnAM. 

IntrenchrtI  Camps.  From  the  earliest  times  armies 
have  enveloped  by  inirenchmcnts  positions  which  they  dc- 
fen<l  or  which  they  temporarily  occupy.  Such  camps  or  sucli 
fortificcl  ])ositions.  of  which  tho  Romans  nmde  frequent  and 
remarkable  use,  do  not,  however,  constitute  what  are  known 
at  the  present  day  as  httrt  nvhril  rtinifii.  The  term  was  first 
applied  to  intrenched  areas  connecteil  with,  and  under  ]>ro- 
tcction  of.  fortified  places;  it  has  subsequently  been  ex- 
tended to  large  intrenched  areas  containing  in  llieir  ccMitrc 
a  fortified  nucleus.  An  intrenchc<l  position  without  nu- 
cleus, but  defended  by  permanent  W()rks,  as  that  of  Lint?, 
takes  likewise  Ihe  designation  of  nn  "  intrenched  camp." 
Taraps  whiidi,  though  intrenched,  arc  to.be  occupied  merely 
for  the  period  of  a  campaign,  or  which  serve  as  refuge 
for  II  few  days  only  to  an  inferior  army,  are  styled  "lines" 
*ir  "  temporary  positions."*  To  the  camp  of  Uuntzelwitr, 
nnd  the  "  lines  "  of  Torres  \'edras.  constructed  by  order  of 
Fp'derick  II.  and  of  Wellington,  these  designations  apply. 

Permanent  "intrenched  camps,"  destined   to    servo   as 

•  "  Camnmlf  xfi'our"  ou  "  de  passage;"  the  French  phroscology 
can  only  be  rendered  as  above.— Tr. 


1268 


INTKENCIIKD  CAMPS. 


pivots  of  operations  or  as  places  of  refuge  to  an  army  opc- 
ittting  in  the  Jield,  are  of  mudern  creation.  Not  the  gcriti 
even  is  to  be  fouuil  in  the  memoir  of  \'auban  (ICiUO)  upon 
Xt'»  cfinif/9  rttrnncln's.  In  tlii.s  memoir  t\u\  illu.siriuiis  au- 
thor advocates  small  provisional  camps  for  10,001)  or  12.000 
men,  connected  with  and  au.xiliary  to  fortresses.  More 
recent  writers,  as  Moutalcmbcrt,  D'Arfon,  IJonsmard,  Car- 
not,  Xoizet  de  St.  Paul,  Dufuur,  etc.,  recogniicd  only  in 
intrenched  camps  an  agency  for  prolonging  the  defence  of 
places,  and  of  giving  to  small  fortresses  properties  inliereut 
to  those  of  the  first  order.  Modern  strategy  has  singularly 
augmcntcrl  the  importance  of  intrenched  eani])s.  In  the 
time  of  Vanban  what  were  so  styled  were  merely  excres- 
cences, so  to  speak  {'*  fniiiexcn'')^  of  fortresses,  which  eon- 
8cquently  played  the  principal  part.  "  They  must,"  said 
Feuqni^rcs, "  be  protected  by  the  place  wliich  they  protect, 
and  their  flanks  must  be  .secured  by  the  artillery  of  the 
place  and  outworks,  and  under  the  lire  of  musketry  from 
the  'covered  way.'"  Such  is  exemplified  in  the  typical 
plan  of  Vauban  in  his  last  work,  Trrilif  tie  la  tli'/cuHt:  ilea 
places.  (See  Fig.  1.)  The  camps  of  this  epoch  served  to 
Fig.  1. 


augment  the  defensive  and  offensive  power  of  fortresses; 
and  Ihcy  were,  in  the  language  of  Vauban,  "the  surest  ex- 
pedient for  hiudering  the  siege  of  a  place." 

Modern  intrenched  camps,  on  the  other  hand,  have  for 
their  sole  object  the  augmentation  of  the  defensive  and 
olfensive  powers  of  unnicn  in  the  Jiclil :  and  in  them  the 
fortress,  instead  of  being  the  principal,  become  only  an  ac- 
cessory of  so  little  importance  even  that,  as  at  Lintz,  it  is 
sometimes  suppressed,  while  quite  recently  distinguished 
engineers  have  proposed  vast  intrenched  camps  irithuiil  a 
fortified  nucleus.  It  should  be  rcrnarkecl,  however,  that 
Vauban  took  a  larger  view  of  the  question,  and  that  in 
connection  with  the  defence  of  Paris  he  laid  down  princi- 
ples which  have  since  been  carried  into  effect  in  the  con- 
struction of  intrenched  camps  destined  to  serve  as  i>i\'ots 
of  manoeuvres  or  places  of  refuge  to  entire  armies.  These 
principles  are  set  forth  in  bis  remarkable  memoir  entitled 
A'  i'iinpoytanee  (Unit  I*iifis  c^t  n  In  Fninn ,  in  which  arc  ' 
found  the  fundamental  ideas  which  in  ISIO  received  the 
sanction  of  the  French  legislature  in  its  nrilonnuncen  con- 
cerning the  then  initiated  f.irlifications  of  Paris.  Vauban 
counted,  however,  on  having  for  the  defence  of  that  capital 
an  army  of  only  :!0,non  regular  troops  and  of  10,000  indif- 
ferently good  auxiliaries  raised  within  the  walls,  estimating 
that  this  force  would  suffice  to  render  Paris  (provisioned  im 
one  year!  iiirrpiitpiable  even  though  besieged  by  an  army  of 
2.'i0.noo  men.  Hut  in  l.'^IO  it  was  assumed  that  the  capital 
of  France  would  have,  in  such  an  emergency,  a  much  larger 
garrison  ;  hence  the  substitution  fur  Ihe  external  enceinte, 
pro])osed  by  Vauban.  of  a  girdle  of  large  forts  with  free 
intervals  of  1500  to  2o00  metres. 

The  first  engineer  to  set  forth  Ihe  properties  of  camps 
inlrenche<l  by  isolated  works  with  intervals  was  the  gen- 
eral Rogniilt  in  his  work  (';miitcrntiinia  xnr  I'ait  ilr  li, 
,7nciv<-.  published  in  ISlfi.  '•Intrenched  camps  should  he 
capable,"  he  says,  "of  containing,  at  need,  100,000  men, 
while  they  demand  but  few  Iroops  for  mere  defence;  thev 
should  allow  for  Ihe  army  that  takes  m(unenlary  refuge 
in  them  perfect  liberty  of  action  and  free  ilevclopment 
when  it  desires  to  resume  the  offensive.  These  conditions 
arc  Lest  fulfillc.l  by  establishing  four  forls  about  each  place 
(fovtressl,  forming  an  immense  square  of  which  the  place 
occupies    the    centre."       "These   forts,   wholly    enclosed, 


should  be  established  on  the  most  advantageous  sumiiiita 

or  commanding  points,  at  distances  of  about  12110  to  1600 
toisc5«  from  the  works  of  the  jilace.  and  of  200  to  ::00  toises 
from  e.ach  other."  "  The  interval  between  one  fort  and  the 
next  would  form  a  position  of  battle  for  an  army  of  from 
60,000  to  100,000  men.  i./i/c/,  mm/  he  considemi  aa  incjr. 
piti/iiiible."  "The  forts  armed  with  heavy  cannon  would 
give  perfect  support  lo  the  wings.  As  to  the  centre,  where, 
on  account  of  their  distance,  the  aid  of  the  forls  would  bo 
little  felt,  it  may  be  strengthened  by  field-works  thrown  up 
for  Ihe  emergency  and  supported  by  the  guns  of  the  place. 
Thus,  these  four  forts  would  conslilule  about  the  place  a 
vast  intrenched  camp  |ircsenting  four  diflVrcnt  positions  of 
baltie,  in  which  lo  confront  a  hostile  army  coming  from 
whichever  quarter."  The  ruling  idea  of  this  project  is  the 
creation  of  four  fields  (or  positions)  for  balllc  around  fort- 
resses, having  their  wings  sustained  by  forls  and  their 
front  by  field-works.  That  the  idea  should  be  realized,  it 
I  would  be  necessary  that  the  four  posilions  ccnslituting  the 

"intrcncheil  camp"  should  be  as  Ihcy  arc  aflirmed  tolic 

incj-piirjniihle  ;  which  is  far  from  being  the  ease.  Small 
forts  2000  to  :in0O  loises  apart  and  field-works  along  Ihc 
interval  woubl  doubllcss  furnish  eflicaeious  support  lo  Ihe 
centre  and  wings  of  Ihe  defensive  army,  without,  however, 
rendering  the  ])osilion  inexpugnable;  especially  if  the 
army  had  fallen  back  after  a  reverse,  disorganized  and 
shaken  in  mnrnle.  The  designers  of  the  fortifications  of 
Paris  of  1810  have  not  drawn  their  inspiration  from  the 
ideas  of  Itogniat;  they  have  preferred  rather  to  improve 
upon  the  project  of  Vauban  in  substiluling  a  line  of  forts 
for  the  external  enceinte  of  that  )iroject.  Better  advised 
than  the  author  of  the  ('nimiilerrilioiiasiir  I'lirl  lie  la  ijiierre, 
they  have  spaced  the  forts  1.S00  and  2500  mitres  apart,  in- 
stead of  2000  and  :;000  loises. giving  atlhesame  time  totho 
detached  works  more  development  and  delcnsive  strength. 
The  only  intrenched  camps  established  before  Ihe  publi- 
cation of  Rogniat,  and  realizing  in  some  degree  the  emn- 
binalions  now  received  as  essential  for  the  fortification  of 
great  strategic  pivots,  are  that  of  Ulm,  which  enabled 
Kr.ay  with  80,000  men  to  arrest  for  five  weeks  the  advance 
of  Morcau  (with  an  army  equal  in  numbers,  but  greatly 
superior  in  the  viorale  of  success)  upon  the  Danube;  and 
that  of  flenoa.f  in  which  Masscna  was  able  with  lo.OOO 
men  not  only  to  bold  his  own  for  two  months  against  quad- 
ruple forces,  but  to  harass  tbeni  incessantly,  to  ]iursuo 
them  to  considerable  distances,  killing  or  making  prisoners 
in  his  different  sorties  18,000  Austrians.  These  camps, 
more  especially  those  of  Genoa,  approximated  more  lo 
modern  intrenched  camps  than  that  of  JJunlzelwitz  con- 
structed by  Frederick  II.  upon  nn  eminence  two  miles  dis- 
tant from  the  fortress  of  Schweidnitz;  more  also  than  that 
of  Torres  Vedras,  constructed  by  Wellington  from  the 
Tagus  to  the  ocean,  covering  Lisbon. 

The  camp  of  liuntzcUvitz  was  composed  of  a  line  of  tem- 
porary works  skirting  the  crest  of  the  plateau  on  which 
the  Prussian  army  had  taken  iiosition,  making  a  rectangle 
of  about  3000  metres  base  and  5000  metres  depth.  Large 
intervals  were  reserved  in  Ibis  line  to  facilitate  the  exit  and 
entree  of  the  troops.  In  advance  of  all.  and  upon  eom- 
m.anding  ))oints,  there  were  lunettes  and  redoubts  fcr  takiuL- 
in  reverse  all  practicable  approaches.  This  camp,  defended 
by  400  guns,  enabled  Frederick  with  fill,nil0  men  to  arrest 
the  march  of  KIO.OOO  Austrians,  and  finally  to  compel  tin  ir 
retreat  (1701).  It  was,  however,  rather  a /(ronWoimie  amp, 
like  those  of  the  Romans,  than  a  i/real  strategic pici,t  ;d  the 
modern  acceptation. 

The  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  approximate  more  nearly  this 
last  type,  not  only  by  the  disposition  of  their  works,  b.il  by 
the  part  they  played.  They  were  composed  of  two  lircs 
of  redoubts.  The  first  had  a  length  of  9J  leagues,^  an  1  the 
second.  12  kilometres  in  rear,  a  length  of  Sleiigues.  .Vt  25 
kilometres  in  rear  of  the  second  line  was  another  inlrencli- 
ment  enveloping  the  Fort  St.  Julien,  destined  to  cover,  if 
necessary.  Ihc  re-embarkation  of  the  Iroops.  When  M.tp- 
sfna  arrived  before  these  lines  in  ISIO,  Ihey  comprised  12(1 
closed  works,  defended  by  2!l,"51  men  and  217  canm  n.  In 
1812.  when  entirely  finisheel.  there  were  152  feirfs.  aruied 
with  b?,~  cannon  and  dcfcnilcd  by  :il,I25men.  The  works 
of  St.  .Julien  had  an  armament  of  91  guns  and  a  garrison 
of  5.150  men. 

We  have  deemed  it  necessary  to  give  a  sketch  of  tbese 
camps,  all  prior  in  date  to  the  pretjcci  e)f  (Icn.  KogninI,  to 
show  thai  the  last  is  far  from  ce)nstituting  a  progressive 
step,  and  that,  though  its  author  may  have  been  instru- 
mental in  bringing  to  notice  the  tactical  properties  of  in- 
trenched camps,  it  is  the  essay  of  Vauban  on  the  defence 


*  The  French  Inise  exceeels  sHslitly  f.  English  feel.— Tr. 

t  A  chain  of  forts  liad  been  e-onstructeel  around  Genoa  in  17-17 
to  prevent  the  close  investment  of  the  place;  thus  was  consti- 
lote'il  the  inlrrrtr/ieit  camp. 

X  The  French  league  (/i>mc)  is  about  2!  English  miles. 


INTKKNCIIKD  CAMPS. 


12tiy 


of  Paris  which  more  than  any  olher  writing  haa  established  j 
tho  principles  applied  to  the  construction  of  modern  in- 
tremhcd  camp?.  The  triumph  of  these  principles  was  the 
risult  i>(  Ion?  and  arduous  discussions,  in  which  tho  most  I 
distinguished  engineers  of  Europe  have  taken  part,  and  by  j 
which  tho  arguments  adduced  in  favorof  a  f.vstcm  of  which 
the  works  should  consist  of  a  single  enceinte  have  been  j 
dfmonstratcd  to  he  untenable.  At  tho  present  day.  when 
the  armies  of  occupation,  instead  of  consisting  of  50,000, 
as  Vauban  contemplated,  rcnch  three  or  four  times  that 
number,  and  when  mortars  of  2:-00  or  oOOO  metres  range  are 
replaced  bv  ritled  ca-inon  of  SOflO  metres  range,  the  last- 
named  system  is  totally  out  uf  tho  question,  owing  to  tho 
enormous  development' required  for  the  enceinte.  It  has 
become  now  indispensable  to  constitute  intrenched  camps 
of  del  ached  works  established  at  distances  sufficiently  great 
lo  shelter  tho  place  which  they  environ  from  bombardment. 
"  Hetached  works  with  large  intervals,  can  alone  prevent 
blockade,  prevent  olTensive  returns,  and  oblige  the  enemy 
to  abaii.lon  the  position."  On  this  there  is  no  longer  ques- 
tion, but  not  so  as  to  other  conditions  to  be  fulfilled.  The 
questions  in  confrovcrsv  are:  1st.  Ought  intrenched  camps 
to  be  constituted  bv  a  line  of  forts  only,  or  by  a  line  of 
forts  n«'l  an  enceinte?  2d.  AVhat  should  be  the  character 
of  the  enceinte?  .Id.  And  what  that  of  tho  intrenched 
camp?  We  will  examine  in  succession  these  questions, 
whijh  subdivide  into  several  others. 

I,  Concerning  ihefiml.  Since  the  timcof  Vauban  to  the 
present  tho  most  distinguished  generals  and  cnsineers  have, 
with  rare  exceptions,  pronounced  in  favorof  the  combina- 
lio^i  of  a  line  of  detached  forts  nnd  a  continuous  enceinte. 
Nevertheless,  the  recent  investments  of  Metz  and  Paris 
have  given  rise  to  indications  ofopinion,suniciently  marked, 
in  favorof  the  suppression  of  tho  enceinte.  Wo  must,  there- 
fore, ilis-uss  thoqueslion  from  the  standpoint  of  governing 
principles.  When  there  is  on^/ a  line  efforts,  or  when  there 
is  on?v  an  enceinte,  the  decisive  battle  will  be  waged  (after 
tho  fall  of  one  or  two  of  the  forts  or  after  the  assault  of  the 
enceinte)  in  tho  interior  of  tho  place,  and  always  under  un- 
favorable conditions  for  tho  defence.  To  avoid  this,  Vauban 
provided  his  grand  enceinte  with  a  fortified  nucleus,  whicli 
would  allDW  tho  defensive  army  to  dc-liver  battle  outside 
of  tho  place  upon  ground  well  adapted  to  the  action  of  the 
three  arms.  The  ireat  utility  of  enceintes  was  clearly  ex- 
hibited in  1S70  at  .Met/,  and  at  Paris.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  if  these  two  intrenched  camps  had  been  destitute  of  a 
fortified  nucleus,  tho  Prussians  might,  aficr  the  liattlo  of 
Oravclotle  and  the  combat  of  Chatillon.  have  at  once  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  two  cities,  and  forced  the  beaten 
armies  to  capitulate  or  to  evacu.ate  their  positions.  Tiio 
inlrenchcrl  camp  of  Liniz  (now  condemned  and  partially 
demolished )  is  the  only  one  wliicli  lias  not  a  fortified  nucleus. 
In  the  work  (by  iho  writer)  published  in  ISCJ.  iViirfe* 
trir  la  <lr/'inii'-  ilm'  l^iiiln,  etc.,  we  suggested,  in  addition  to 
argum'-nts  already  furnished  by  (Icn.  .Toinini  and  others, 
tho  following  consideration,  which  alono  would  decide  for 
the  system  of  Paris  in  preference  to  tliatof  Lint/,:  '-After  a 
falalclisaster,  such  as  those  of  Ulm,  Jena,  Leipsic,  or 
Waterloo,  it  may  happen  that  tho  defensive  army  falls 
back,  precipilaleiv  and  in  disorder,  on  one  of  the  places  of 
refuge  or  on  the  fortified  capital.  In  such  a  case  it  is  by  no 
means  impossible  that  an  energetic  pursuit  may  enable  the 
victor  to  penetrate  into  the  intrenched  camp  before  the 
beaten  army  can  olfcr  effectual  resistance.  Tho  wider  the 
in'crvals  between  tho  firls  tlio  greater  this  danger.  A  new 
battle  must  be  nec-pter|  therefore  in  rear  of  the  defensive 
envelope,  and  as  the  defensive  army  must  necessarily  be, 
physically  and  mor.ally,  inferior  to  that  of  its  enemy,  it  can- 
not bo  f  xpected  that  its  .advantages  of  position  will  counter- 
poise this  double  inferiority.  SufT-ring  nnollicr  defeat — 
'this  time  without  placeof  refuge — it  cannot  fail  to  become 
—  men,  material,  everything — the  prey  of  tho  victor.  An 
intrenched  camp  witliout  nucleus  is  oidy  a  line  of  defence 
rc'uming  into  itself:  now,  every  line  onee  forced  is  irrc- 
tri-vably  lost.  Hence,  the  duUe  of  V.'ellineton  took  the 
precaution  to  construct  behind  his  first  lino  of  Torres  Vedras 
a  lecond  line,  ami  in  rear  of  Ibis  last  the  eontinnous  in- 
trr-ncbments  of  St,  Julien,  destined  to  cover  a  forced  re- 
embarka*i'3n." 

In  writing  these  lines  it  could  not  be  foreseen  that  the 
disasters  of  the  French  army  in  1^70  would  furnish  such 
vivid  illustration  of  tho  correctu'ss  of  the  ideas  expressed. 
If  Metz  and  P.iris  had  been  fortified  only  by  a  lino  of  de- 
tnehcil  forts,  the  first  of  the  places  would  not  for  two  and 
a  half  months,  the  so"ond  for  four  months,  have  held  at 
bay  (ho  victorious  Ormnn  armies.  These  armies,  after 
Oravelotto  and  rhalilbm,  must  have  penetrated  within  tho 
lino  of  tho  forts,  clo«ely  pursuing  the  defeated  forces,  nnd 
would  have  compelled  them  to  lay  down  llieir  arm",  or  to 
continu'^  their  reireni  in  abiindnning  to  their  lute  the  groat 
df'pftt  nnd  capital  which  these  intrenched  camps  enclosed. 


The  existence  of  an  interior  enceinte,  armed  with  cannon 
aud  proof  agaiust  assault,  sufficed  to  render  impossible  this 
prompt  solution. 

II.  We  have  now  to  consider  the  character  which  should 
be  given  to  this  enceinte  or  nucleus.  This  enceinte  to  an 
intrenched  camp,  destined  to  serve  .as  a  pivot  of  manoeuvre 
or  place  of  refuge  for  the  army  of  a  great  military  power, 
will  fulfil  all  necessary  conditions  if  it  be  proof  agaiust  as- 
sault ("a«of/iic  </-•  rtir  force").  Such  was  tho  opinion  of 
Vauban.  of  the  generals  Bernard,  .'Schneider,  I'aixhans,  and 

Rogniat of  Marshal  Soull  and  of  the  various  "  couiuiis- 

sions  "  which  since  ISIS  have  been  named  in  France  for 
tho  study  of  the  defence  of  Paris.  The  nttutil  enceinte  of 
that  capital  is  on  a  greater  scale  ("  a  plnn  d'lmporlunce  ") 
than  necessary.  This  is  duo  to  the  necessity  of  enlisting 
in  support  of  the  project  of  the  government  tho  advocates 
of  an  cnecinic  alnnc  made  strong  enough  for  protracted  de- 
fence. That  government  mi.ght  have  contented  itself  with 
a  much  simpler  and  (hence)  less  costly  enceinte.  The  type 
which  it  adoptcil  is  not  only  heavy  and  costly  (,"  onfmi:r"). 
but  at  the  same  time  very  defective.  In  fact,  it  presents 
high  scarps  exposed  to  plunging  fires,  flanks  subject  to 
ricochet,  uncovered  guns  ("a  cicl  oiii'crt"),  ramparts  with- 
out Irtiverscs  or  sheltering  masses  ("a4ri'«"),  and  an  in- 
terior {'■  corps  (h  place")  destitute  of  casemates  and  bomb- 
proof quarters.  As  a  mere  enceinte  of  support  it  would 
have  accomplished  its  purpose  at  half  the  expense  if  it  hud 
been  composed  of  rectilineal  fronts,  each  of  about  a  kilo- 
metre in  length,  flanked  by  sm.all  eaponnicrcs,  and  secured 
against  escalade  by  a  detached  scarp. 

An  exception  to  the  principle  just  laid  down  for  the  con- 
stitution of  tho  enceinte  may  bo  made  in  the  ease  of  in- 
trenched camps  destined  as  tho  place  of  refuge  for  the 
troops,  in  field,  of  small  states,  and  especially  when  these 
camps  arc  near  the  frontiers.  Surprised  by  a  sudden  inva- 
sion in  the  midst  of  preparations  for  hostilities,  the  sole 
army  may  be  defeated  or  cut  ofi"  from  its  pivot.  In  this 
case  an  enceinte  is  desirable  which  can  be  held  by  the  usual 
r/arrlson  alone  till  tho  succor  of  friendly  powers  be  re- 
ceived. Such  are  the  reasons  which  have  induced  the  Bel- 
gian engineers  to  provide  tho  intrenelicd  camp  of  Antwerp 
with  an  enceinte  capable  of  sustaining  a  siege. 

III.  We  have  now  to  consider  the  manner  of  constituting 
tho  perimeter  of  the  intrenched  camp.  This  problem  has 
received  different  solutions.  At  limes  a  system  of  small 
forts,  reciprocally  flanking  and  defending  each  other,  has 
been  advocated:  at  others,  a  system  of  forts  each  self-de- 
fensive. Tho  lowers  of  Lintz,  connected  by  a  palissaded 
covered  way,  and  the  little  forts  of  (icn.  I'aixhans  con- 
nected by  epaulments,  belong  to  the  first  system.  The 
forts  of  Paris,  of  Verona,  Cracow,  and  Antwerp  belong  to 
the  second.  The  best  intrenched  camji  being  that  which 
offers  the  greatest  resistance  to  an  assault  {"dllaque  tir  rirr 
force")  preceded  by  a  hot  cannonade,  the  system  of  large 
forts,  self-flanking,  is  preferable  to  that  of  little  forts,  re- 
ciprocally flanking.  This  last  mode  of  flanking  fails  to 
give  coniidcncc  to  the  defenders,  because  it  is  more  disliint, 
more  uncertain,  nnd  sometimes  wholly  inefl"cctual,  as  at 
night  aud  in  time  of  fog  or  snow.  The  garrison  of  a  little 
fort  will  never  have  a  high  >iio/-n(c,  depending  as  it  does  on 
tho  ability  and  vigilance  of  Iho  commanders  of  the  neigh- 
boring forts,  and  being  necessarily  weak  in  its  own  num- 
bers. '  For  such  and  other  rcasnns  it  is  now  conceded  that 
intrenched  camps  should  bo  constilulcd  of  a  line  of  forls 
of  sufiieient  magnitude  to  be  scU-dcfcnsive;  but  Ihcre  is 
yet  room  to  discuss — Isl.  the  dimensions  of  the  forls.  Iheir 
trac6,  anil  their  internal  organization  :  2d,  the  intervals 
between  Ibcm  ;  .Id.  their  distances  from  the  eneeinle. 

A  fort  will  possess  its  maximum  value  when,  while  oc- 
cupying a  favorable  position,  tho  neighboring  forts  cross 
their  fires  before  its  fronts  of  attack.  The  iii(ciia/«  of  the 
forls  must  therefore  be  regulated  by  the  cfiective  range  of 
artillery;  lliis  finds  a  limit  in  the  difiieully  of  clearly  dis- 
tinguishing troops  nnd  works  of  attack  at  more  than  liOOO 
metres.  Hence,  Iho  intervals  from  fort  to  fort  will  be  taken 
at  about  2Jno  mi^tres,iu  order  to  secure  a  thorough  mutual 
protection;  but  rref|uenlly  the  nature  of  the  site  and  the 
too  great  multiplication  of  works  justifies  a  deparlure  from 
this  rule.  In  this  eiise  the  following  rule  is  obligatory: 
Tlic  forlt  onrfht  nut  to  he  '<>  far  trparatrd  that  the  iinnn  uf 
the  lateral  fronts  cannot  rljlraci'omli)  sipccp  the  intermit.  Un- 
der this  rule  Iho  forls  may  have  about  .lOOO  mitres  distance 
between  their  axes.  In  determining  the  dimensions  of  the 
forts  and  Iheir  internal  organization  it  must  siitricc  here  to 
state  in  general  terms  that  the  greater  Iho  distance  of  a 
fort  from  its  neighboring  works  ami  from  the  plncc  (or 
nucleus),  the  grenier  tho  strength  (or  power  of  resistance) 
it  should  have.  In  virtue  of  this  principle,  to  the  fori  of 
JIr.nl  Vab'rien — the  nuisl  remote  and  the  most  isolated 
work  of  the  inirenebed  enmp  of  Paris — has  been  given 
dimensions  greatly  cxeeeding  those  of  the  other  forts.  The 


1270 


INTRENCHED  CAMPS. 


distance  from  the  forts  to  the  enceinte  must  be  sufiicicnt  to 
place  the  cnclosetl  area  of  the  enceinte  out  of  reach  of 
bombarilment.  lieforc  Paris  it  proved  that  the  h>ng  rifliMl 
gun  of  15  continietrcs  (0  inches)  calibre  of  the  Prussian 
gystom  has  a  ran<j:e  of  75U0  nit^tres  (8250  yards),  and  more 
recent  experimental  firings  have  indicated  that  still  greater 
ranges  must  bo  guarded  against.  Ilencc,  our  intrenched 
camps  should  have  a  deptli  of  7000  metres  (from  enceinte 
to  line  of  forts),  by  which  there  will  be  about  HOOO  metres 
distance  between  the  enceinte  and  the  enemy's  batteries, 
which  cannot  bo  established  under  favorable  conditions 
nearer  than  2000  metres  from  the  line  of  forts.- 

Si)  far  as  tiiere  may  be  choice,  the  more  remote  points 
f'lr  locations  of  forts  should  be  prefcrrccl,  tn  give  more  area 
and  to  allow  of  the  troops  being  encam])ed  out  of  range  of 
shells;  but  this  choice  will  be  especially  determined  by  the 
necessity  of  sweeping  with  fire  all  the  ground  in  advance 
of  the  line  to  a  distance  of  2000  or  ;iO(lO  metres.  The  more 
perfectly  this  external  zone  is  exposed  the  greater  will  be 
the  difiieult}'  of  investment  or  of  regular  attacks  (siege). 
Hence,  sites  in  rear  of  ground  furrowed  by  ravines  or 
wooded  should  be  avoided.  To  .sweep  jiortions  of  the  ground 
whieh  may  esc.ijje  the  action  of  the  guns  of  the  fi)rts,  tem- 
porary batteries  may  be  thrown  i\\)  in  the  intervals,  or 
perm'itient  Ixittcrirs,  according  as  they  may  or  may  n<tt  be 
near  enough  to  cfiectually  protect  them.  The  enormous 
depth  now  required  for  intrenched  camps  has  this  advan- 
tage, that  it  renders  more  difiicult  the  investment;  but  it 
has  also  the  disadvantage  of  increasing  the  number  of  the 
forts,  and  of  exacting  for  their  ordinary  garrison  too  great 
a  proportion  of  the  defensive  army. 

To  the  end  of  diminishing  the  cost  of  construction,  the 
armament,  and  the  ordinary  garrison,  it  has  been  proposed 
to  substitute  for  the  (jraud  permanent  fnrtu  little  forts  des- 
tined to  servo  as  rtdintx  to  tfrnnd  ficfd  (or  provisional) 
forts,  to  bo  thrown  up  at  the  outbreak  of  war.  But  this 
solution,  so  seductive  in  appearance,  is  inadmissible,  be- 
cause the  time  is,  in  most  cases,  not  allowed  for  their  con- 
struction. The  experience  of  erecting  such  works  at 
Florisdorf.  at  Dresden,  and  at  Paris  in  ISOfi  and  lf^70  jiroves 
that  to  construct  works  of  the  character  required  {"  hoiinc 
fortification  mijcte")  six  to  nine  weeks  arc  necessary  :  now, 
modern  wars  run  their  course  so  rapidly  that  it  would  bo 
rash  to  count  upon  being  allowed  such  a  period  of  time. 
Besides,  temporary  works  are  ill  suited  to  resisting  a  reg- 
ular attack  {*' pied  d  pittV),  or  even  a  prolonged  cannon- 
ade. Their  parapets  of  fresh  earth  offer  less  resistance  to 
projectiles  than  those  of  permanent  works  ;  their  gun-plat- 
foruis  have  less  stability,  their  batteries  less  command 
above  the  natural  ground,  their  ditches  less  depth,  their 
scarps  and  fianking  batteries  less  resistance  against  plung- 
ing fires;  finally,  their  traverses,  covering  masses,  maga- 
zines, and  barraeks  arc  weak  against  the  action  of  rifled 
irojectiles,  so  formiilable  for  blindages  and  new  masonry. 
Moreover,  the  weaker  a  work  is  in  i)rotile  and  internal 
organization,  the  greater  number  of  troops  and  guns  it 
needs  for  its  defence.  The  resort  to  temporary  works  is 
therefore  not  an  effectual  means  of  diminishing  the  pecu- 
niary expenditure  for  intrenched  camps,  nor  the  number 
of  troo])S  for  their  ordinary  garrisons.  It  will,  tlicn,  be 
proper  to  construct  beforehand  the  forts  of  the  intrenehed 
camp,  and  to  reserve  for  the  moment  of  war  only  the  bat- 
teries and  intrenchments  necessary  to  complete  the  defences 
of  the  intervals.  With  \vhatever  care  the  forts  be  con- 
structed, there  will  always  he  some  external  area  which 
their  batteries  will  not  see  or  will  but  imperfectly  sweep. 
It  will,  hence,  generally  bo  necessary  to  throw  up  epaul- 
ments  between  the  forts,  not  only  for  this  reason,  but  also 
in  order  to  divide  the  fire  of  the  attacking  batteries,  which 
otherwise  will  be  concentrated  on  ihf  batteries  of  tlie  forts, 
which  they  will  promptly  silence.  The  experience  of  the 
siege  of  Paris  has  proved  tluit  it  is  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance ;  it  has  also  proved  that  these  low  batteries,  thrown 
up  during  the  siege,  the  trace  and  internal  organization  of 
which  are  unknown  to  the  enemy,  are  more  difiicult  to  de- 
stroy than  the  elevated  batteries  of  the  forts. 

We  now  consider  the  principles  which  determine  the 
disposition  of  the  works,  or,  in  other  words,  the  form  of 
intrcnclied  camps. f  The  application  of  the  foregoing 
statement  of  principles  leads  to  the  circ»?(ir,  or  approxi- 
mately circular,  form  of  these  camps.  Such  are  the  in- 
trenched camps  of  Paris,  Verona,  Cracow,    Mctz,  Ports- 

•  Peculiar  circumstances  rendered  it  practicable  to  establish 
the  batteries  much  nearer  at  Paris,  but  such  will  not  present 
tiiem^clves  in  future. 

tWe  ni-eessarilyomil  hero  all  that  concerns  tlie  tracf,  internal 
or;janizatic)u,  dimensions,  profiles,  llie  arranuement  of  the  ram- 
parts and  of  flankini;  batteries,  and  the  computation  of  garri- 
sons, etc.,  as  belonttiuK  to  h  more  teehnieal  treatment  of  the 
subject,  and  also  to  that  of  permanent  fortification.  (See  FORT- 
IFICATION.) 


I 


mouth,  and  Antwerp  ;  such  are  likewise  to  be  those  which 
the  (xcrmans  have,  since  1S70,  decided  to  construct.  The 
writings  recently  published  in  France  and  England  upon 
the  defence  of  Paris  and  of  London  are  all  based  on  the 
same  notions.  The  project  of  the  commandant  Ferron, 
who  proposes  to  surround  Paris  with  a  girdle  of  37  forts 
on  a  perimeter  of  ?>'2  leagues;  that  of  Oen.  Tripicr,  who 
proposes  for  the  same  capital,  with  a  tardcaf  h'ue  of  de/'t  nrc 
(a  girdle  of  forts  to  protect  from  bombardment)  and  a 
fttrntcgical  line  nf  defence  (a  line  of  150  kilometres,  or  .*iO 
leagues  development),  serving  as  base  of  operations  to  the 
defensive  army  when  it  moves  outside  of  the  intrenched 
camp  (properly  .'^o  called);  that  of  ('<d.  Jervois,  for  the 
defence  of  London  (oO  forts  on  a  circumference  of  4  leagues 
radius);  that  of  Maj.  Paliser  of  31  forts  on  an  elliptic 
perimeter  (of  20  and  10  leagues,  major  and  minor  axes  re- 
spectively), are  all  illustrations.  The  authors  of  these 
projects  have  removed  the  forts  farther  than  mere  security 
of  the  enceinte  against  bombardment  alisolutely  demands. 
This  is  to  be  commended;  where  it  concerns  the  defence 
of  a  great  strategical  pivot  (the  political  or  military  cap- 
ital of  a  nation),  thecaptureof  which  marks  the  termination 
of  national  resistance,  an  excess  of  precautions  can  hardly 
be  taken  to  retard  the  fall  or  to  render  the  attack  imprac- 
ticable. Now,  the  events  of  the  recent  war  (Franco-Ger- 
man) have  proved  that  the  principal  if  not  the  only  danger 
to  which  intrenched  camps  are  exposed  is  that  of  invest- 
ment {''  hlovus")'.  an  operation  of  which  the  ditfieulties  are 
proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the  zone  of  investment.  To 
successfully  defend  an  investing  line  against  the  sorties  of 
an  energetic  garrison  requires,  generally  stated,  four  men 
to  every  metre  of  development.  That  of  the  Prussian  line 
before  Paris  had  S;J  kilometres,  and  the  numerical  force  of 
the  investing  army  did  not  exceed  230,000  men,  or  2^ 
men  per  metre.  At  Mctz  the  line  of  investment  was  aiiout 
50  kilometres  in  development,  and  the  besieging  army  had 
a  maximum  eff'ective  strength  of  200,000  men.  or  4  men  per 
metre.  Doubtless,  increment  of  perimeter  for  the  intrenched 
camp  entails  increased  numbers  of  inactive  troops  (for 
garrisons),  but  these  dis.advautages  arc  largely  compensated 
by  the  obligation  imposed  on  the  enemy  to  increase  the 
numerical  strength  of  his  army  by  4000  men  for  every  ad- 
ditional kilometre  of  line  of  investment. 

Admitting  the  great  depth  of  intrenched  camps  as  on  im- 
perious necessity,  and  accepting  as  a  consequence  the  obli- 
gation of  separating  the  forts  by  intervals  of  4000  to  5000 
metres,  the  question  has  occurred  to  us  whether  a  better 
arrangement  might  not  be  made  than  to  dispose  the  forts 
on  a  line  enveloping  the  capital  to  lie  fortified.  Such  aline 
has  the  disadvantage  of  oiVering  the  enemy  a  large  gap  as 
soon  as  he  has  gained  possession  of  one  or  more  of  the  forts. 
To  remedy  that,  we  ]>roposed  asearly  as  1803  J  to  construct, 
in  rear  of  the  forts,  transversal  lines  of  defence,  dividing 
the  intrenched  camp  into  several  sectors.  These  lines 
were  composed  of  a  donhlc  epaulment,  forming  a  kind  of 
caponniere,  the  anterior  extremity  of  whieh  was  covered  by 
a  fort,  and  the  rear  extremity  was  within  range  of  small- 
arms  of  the  enceinte.  That  this  line  (which  would  some- 
times be  3000  or  4000  metres  long)  sliould  be  defensible 
throughout  {pied  d  picd)^  it  could  be  interrupted  at  inter- 
vals by  redoubts  destined  to  serve  as  traverses  to  the  double 
caponniere  and  to  flank  the  epaulments  of  which  it  is  con- 
structed. At  the  epoch  when  we  wrote  it  was  not  admis- 
sible to  remove  the  forts  more  than  3000  or  4000  metres 
from  the  enceinte.  At  the  present  day,  when  double,  triple, 
and  even  quadruple  these  distances  arc  allowed,  the  palli- 
ative offered  by  these  lines  of  double  defence  can  no  longer 
be  entertained.  For  this  reason,  in  generalizing  the  idea 
we  advanced  in  lS6i),  to  defend  London  by  means  of  an  in- 
trenched camp  at  Croydon,  and  three  dr)uble  tiffs-dr-pont 
on  the  Thames  at  Gravesend.  Wo(dwieli,  and  Kingston, 
wo  recently  ji  proposed  to  fortify  great  capitals  by  means  of 
two  or  three  intrenched  camps,  disposed  as  indicated  by 
Fig.  2  (abstraction  made  of  topographical  features  of  the 
ground,  whieh  must  necessarily  influence  the  form  and  loca- 
tion of  the  camps).  The  three  camps  would  be  established 
with  approximate  symmetry  at  such  a  distance  that  be- 
tween the  interior  forts  and  the  place  there  would  be  a  zone 
of  -SflOO  or  SMttlO  metres  (extreme  range  of  the  cannons  of  the 
jdace)  of  width.  The  movable  troops  would  be  encamped 
or  placed  in  cantonments  in  this  zone,  in  rear  of  the  camps, 
or  preferably  in  their  intervals.  A  triple  railway  and  two 
or  three  paved  roads  would  unite  all  these  camps.  By  aid 
of  such  dispositions  one  of  the  three  fractions  of  the  defen- 
sive army  could,  in  a  siufjle  night,  be  reinforced  by  the 
other  two,  even  without  recourse  to  the  encircling  railways. 

The  form  of  these  camps,  the  number,  location,  and  cha- 
racter of  the  forts,  will  be  regulated  by  the  following  con- 


t  Slude  sur  la  df-fenxe  dex  Eyats,  etc. 

§  ^ude  sur  la  fortification  rfe*  QjpUaU  (1873). 


IXTKKXCHED  CAMPS. 


1271 


siderntions:  A.  Each  camp  will  have  Tour  sides.  The  most 
important,  f:\cing  the  encmv,  will  be  called  the  ejcterior 
side;  the  opposite  odc,  facing  the  place,  the  i/orjre;  the  two 


others,  facing  the  intervals  between  the  camps,  htteral  siilcs. 
B.  The  exterior  side  will  be  longer  than  the  others,  and  the 
forts  which  constitute  it  will  be  the  most  important ;  the 


Fig.  2. 


,--1»^    ZONE  or   <NVes^ 
.--p-  of      OUTPOSTS  ^    "■- 


TS    tj 


"vH, 


iNQ 


■-.3s 


5-.Le_A_G_UES  _D_EV!!:?-' 


intervals  will  ho  about  5000  m&tres.  If  for  local  causes 
greater  intervals  be  given,  one  or  two  permanent  butteries, 
proof  n^^ninst  assault,  will  be  interpolated.  C.  Besides 
these  batteries,  there  will  bo  provided,  in  all  the  intervals 
of  Ihrpatfncil  attack,  epaulnicnts  for  siege  and  light  guns 
to  be  thrown  up  simultaneously  wilh  other  preparations  for 
immediate  defence  ('(ii  uwmrnt  dc  la  mini:  m  /tut  dtt  <h'- 
/fime).  \Vg  recommend  likewise  the  use  of  low  batteries 
established  on  each  side  of  the  forts,  at  the  foot  of  the 
glacis  of  the  lateral  fronts  in  the  proloui^ation  of  the  gorge 
front.  D.  The  forts  of  the  gorge  will  be  arranged  to  serve 
as  d^pAts  of  provisions,  arms,  ammunition,  and  s^upplics 
of  all  kinds.  On  account  of  this  destination,  and  so  that 
there  may  bo  in  each  camp  a  zone  exempt,  by  distance, 
from  the  fires  of  the  attiieU,  theno  forts  will  be  placed  at 
more  than  cannun  range  froni  the  line  of  the  exterior  forts. 
To  these  forts  of  the  gorge  will  be  given  simjdy  that  degree 
of  resistance  to  exempt  them  from  being  carried  by  coupde 
tiKtiii.  They  may  be  placed  7000  to  sunfl  kilometres  apart. 
liCt  us  assume  that  the  capital  city  has  a  radius  of  6  Kilo- 
metres, and  the  central  zone  i)  kilometres  of  depili.  The 
circumference  which  defines  the  position  of  the  "gorges" 
of  tho  camps  will  have  a  development  of  about  Ht  kilo- 
mMrcs.  (living  to  these  gorges  a  length  of  11  kiloniMres, 
oecujiied  by  three  forts,  nnd  to  the  exterior  sides  a  length 
of  I'U  kilometres,  occupied  by  live  forts,  fln<l  supposing  that 
the  mean  <listancc  between  the  sides  be  '.>  kilr»s.,  wc  shall 
have  the  arrangement  shown  \*y  Fig.  2.  The  lateral  sides 
are  broken  intervals,  so  that  tho  forts  x,  x  are  thrown  for- 
ward into  the  intervals,  the  better  to  sustain  the  contiguous 
forts  //,  t/.  Tho  troops  of  the  defence  nre  divided  into  three 
armies  of  two  corps  each.  One  of  each  of  the  two  corps  is 
employed,  alternately,  on  the  external  line  {"  vordon  dc 
nnrvfillatice")',  tho  other  is  established  in  close  ennton- 
mcnts,  or  in  barracks  constructed  either  in  rear  of  the 
camps  (rt,  h,  c,  Fig.  2l,  or  in  rear  of  tho  intervals  («',  h',c'). 
E.   If  the  zone  of  investment  has  "JOO  metres  of  depth,  and 


if  ii  is  2500  metres  beyond  tho  exterior  forts,  tho  axis  of 
this  zone  will  have  about  35  leagues  of  development.  Suf- 
fice it  to  gay,  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  tho  largest 
army  in  the  world,  and  even  to  an  aggregate  of  several 
allied  armies,  to  invest  a  place  like  Paris,  London,  IJerlin, 
or  Vienna  to  which  has  been  applied  the  model  plan  hero 
sketched. 

This  plan  would  doubtless  require  a  greater  number  of 
forts  than  that  for  a  single  camp  constituted  by  a  girdle  of 
forts,  and  therefore  more  expensive,  m<)re  guns,  more  troops 
for  garrison  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  afford  much 
greater  certainty  to  the  defence.  In  the  one  ease  the  be- 
sieging army  after  having  carried  two  or  three  of  the  forts 
of  the  single  camp,  may  crush  the  army  within,  and  com- 
mence his  approaches  upon  the  interior  enceinte  if  there  bo 
one,  or  if  not,  penetrate  at  once  into  the  city.  lu  the  other, 
these  operations  would  be  impossible  on  the  hypothesis  of  a 
triple  intrenched  eamp  :  for  if  the  enemy,  after  taking  two 
or  three  forts,  should  seek  to  penetrate  into  one  of  theso 
camps,  ho  would  be  taken  in  flank  by  the  forts  of  the  hit- 
enil  sides  an.l  confronted  by  the  forts  of  the  gorge.  Tho 
defending  army  may  decline  battle  by  withdrawing  into 
tho  other  camps,  without  detriment  to  its  own  safety  or 
that  of  the  place  ('*  ricn  tit'itiort  nc  nrrail  conipromis").  Tho 
besiegers  must  obtain  possession  of  the  lateral  forts  and  of 
the  forts  of  the  gorge  in  order  to  niuke  themselves  nia.-'ters 
of  the  evacuated  eamp;  then  recomnicnec  the  same  oper- 
ations against  the  other  camps.  Such  a  succession  of 
efftirls  and  of  sacrifices  would  exhaust  tho  most  powerful 
army. 

To  givo  tho  same  properties  to  an  intrenched  camp  con- 
stituted by  a  gifdle  of  forts,  it  would  bo  necessary — 1st,  to 
provide  tho  capital  with  a  safety-enceinto  {"  tucciutr  de 
nurrff");  2d,  to  construct  several  rndiatiiitf  time  of  forts 
from  tho  enceinte  to  the  line  of  forts,  enabling  the  defen- 
sive army  to  withdraw  laterally  in  order  to  continue  tho 
struggle.     These   radiating   lines,  by  dividing   tho  single 


1272 


INTROIT— INUNDATIONS,   MARITIME. 


camp  into  several  intrenched  and  juxtaposed  camps,  would 
realize  indeed,  though  in  an  incomplete  and  defective  man- 
ner, the  germinal  idea  of  our  model  plan.  One  great  ad- 
vantage uf  this  latter  plan  is  the  exemption  of  the  defen- 
sive army  from  the  dangerous  agitations  of  the  population, 
and  to  make  its  existence  independent  of  the  seditions 
whieli  sometimes  break  out  in  the  populace  before  or  dur- 
ing the  siege:  for  if  there  be  three  camps  the  capital  is  not 
included  in  any  one  of  them  ;  whereas  if  there  be  but  one 
it  occupies  the  centre  of  that  single  camp.  Finally,  when 
there  is  only  a  girdle  of  forts,  the  great  depots  of  supplies 
and  arms  arc  exposed  to  the  attacks  (coups  <lc  main)  of  the 
enemy  as  soon  as  the  lino  is  pierced  by  the  capture  of  two 
or  throe  forts,  and  X6  the  enterprises  of  a  populace  desirous 
of  hastening  the  surrender  by  obstructing  the  defence.  On 
the  hypothesis  of  three  isolated  camps  tliis  double  danger 
is  not  to  be  feared,  because  the  d6p<1ts  comprised  in  the 
forts  of  their  gorges  are  secured  against  such  enterprises 
{cniips  tie  main). 

While  the  armies  are  operating  in  open  field  the  garrison 
of  this  great  central  camp  ('' pirot  crnind")  will  be  made 
up  of  (he  troops  essential  to  the  guard  of  the  forts,  and  of 
a  reserve  of  three  divisions.  These  divisions  will  estab- 
lish themselves  in  the  intervals  of  the  intrenched  camps 
(rt,  by  r,  Fig.  2),  so  that  they  can  be  promptly  united  to  con- 
front and  repulse  hostile  corps  which  miglit  seek  to  pen- 
etrate the  capital  to  lay  contributions  or  to  produce  a  moral 
effect  by  a  bold  dash.  The  possibility  of  invading  the  city 
after  beating  tlio  central  reserve  seems  to  afford  a  power- 
ful argument  for  a  safety-enceiute ;  but  there  arc  so  many 
chances  against  such  an  enterprise — which,  besides,  if  suc- 
cessful, is  so  little  tiecisivc — that  this  possibility  need  not 
be  dwelt  upon.  It  may,  too,  be  guarded  against  by  throw- 
ing up  intrenchments  in  time  of  war  covering  the  most  ex- 
posed portions  of  the  perimeter,  as  a  substitute  for  a  safcty- 
enceintc.  A.  Bnr.VLMONT. 

[Trtinslated  from  the  French  MS.  of  Gen.  Brialmokt 
by  J.  G.  Barnard.] 

Intromit,  in  .-^acred  music,  a  composition  for  voices  to  be 
sung  nr  chanted  while  the  officiating  minister  is  entering 
within  the  railing  of  the  chancel. 

Intussusception.     See  Ileus. 

In'ulin  (("(jHioOs).  a  substance  isomeric  with  and  similar 
to  starch.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  ])Iant5,  occurring 
especially  in  tlie  roots  of  elecampane,  dandelion,  chicory, 
feverfew,  meadow  saffron  ;  in  the  tubers  of  the  potato,  the 
dahlia,  and  the  Jerusalem  artichoke:  in  Scrp  manna,  in 
certain  lichens,  and  probably  in  the  seeds  of  the  sunflower 
and  of  mustard,  etc.  It  is  jirepared  by  washing  the  rasped 
root  on  a  sieve,  and  allowing  the  inulin  to  settle  from  tho 
liquid,  or  by  boiling  the  sliced  root  with  water  and  filter- 
ing while  hot;  the  inulin  separates  on  cooling.  The  juice 
of  dahlia-tubers  pressed  in  the  winter  becomes  semi-solid 
on  stanrling  from  the  s:>paration  of  inuHn.  Inulin  is  a 
soft,  white,  tasteless,  odorless  powder,  resembling  starch, 
whicli  it  appears  to  replace  in  plants.  TTnlike  starch,  it 
exists  in  plants  in  a  solution  whicli  has  the  consistence  of 
a  thin  oil.  If  a  slice  of  tho  plant  is  soaked  in  alcohol,  the 
inulin  separates  in  spherical  granules  which  can  be  recog- 
nized by  the  microscope.  It  is  very  hydroscopic,  and  ad- 
heres to  the  teeth  and  to  moist  paper.  It  is  but  slightly 
soluble  in  cold  water,  freely  in  boiling  water,  from  which  it 
goparates,  on  cooling,  witliout  forming  a  jelly.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol,  which  precipitates  it  from  its  solution 
in  water.  Heated  with  water,  it  is  changed  slowly  to 
liovulosc  (grape-sugar).  Dilute  acids  change  it  to  sugar 
even  in  the  cold.  Inulin  is  not  altercil  by  diastase  nor  by 
other  ferments.  It  is  colored  brown  by  iodine,  is  soluble 
in  cuprainmonia  and  in  nickclammonia,  and  it  reduces 
salts  of  lead,  coppL-r,  and  silver.  C.  F.  Ciiandlkr. 

InundaHionSf  Mar'itime.  The  sea.,  not  content  with 
the  sncritiL-es  which  it  exacts  from  those  v/ho  voluntarily 
throw  thcrasolves  upon  its  mercy,  often  wages  battle  with 
man  on  his  own  domain.  So  terrible  have  been  the  dis- 
asters caused  by  tlie  unforeseen  ovc;-no\7  of  the  ocean  waters 
that  even  races  of  men  otherwise  most  destitute  of  histor- 
ical records  date  their  origin  from  some  great  flood.  Tho 
mythic  narratives  which  tell  of  sucli  show  often  so  curious 
a  conformity  to  those  of  the  biblical  deluge  that  theolog- 
ians do  not  hesitate  to  receive  them  as  concurrent  evidences 
of  the  same  event.  The  most  noted  of  these  are  the  floods  of 
XvsYTiinus.OfiYCES.andDErrcALioN  (for  which  consult  those 
titles).  Of  the  revolutions  which  have  caused  the  formation 
of  great  islands  and  large  seas  we  know  nothing.  The  evi- 
dence adduced  in  proof  nf  the  recurrence  of  what  is  called  the 
Cimbric  flood  (that  which  is  said  to  have  insulated  England, 
and  to  have  considerably  changed  the  condition  of  the  low- 
lan<ls  of  Holland)  amounts  only  to  a  vague  statement  by 
Isphorns  (B.  r.  n')0)  and  Clitarehus.  that  the  rimbrians  were 
driven  from  their  scats  by  a  cataclysm  of  this  kind.    As  Ar- 


istotle mentions  that  the  Celts  opposed  the  floods  with  arms, 
and  as  several  ancient  historians  record  the  continual  en- 
croachments of  the  sea,  this  mythic  Cimbric  flood  must  be 
presumed  to  have  been  made  up  of  several  (»f  greater  or  lesser 
magnitude  occurring  in  pre-historic  times,  by  which  Eng- 
land was  at  length  severed  from  France  and  a  communica- 
tion was  opened  between  the  ocean  and  the  North  Sea. 
This  channel  once  established,  the  tidal  currents  tended  to 
increase  its  breadth  till  natural  barriers  arrested  the  pro- 
cess. The  Netherlands,  presenting  no  such  barriers,  would 
have  been  totally  swallowed  up  but  for  the  forming  of 
"  downs  "^'  from  the  sand  cast  by  the  waves  upon  the  sliore. 
These  downs,  however,  furnish  only  a  partial  and  temjiorary 
protection.  The  sands,  chased  by  the  sea-winds,  encroach 
farther  and  farlher  upon  the  fertile  plains,  forming  new 
lines  of  downs,  and  the  sea  advances  in  their  rear.  Two 
centuries  ago  foundations  of  villages  and  of  Roman  castles, 
laid  bare  at  a  time  of  extreme  low  water,  furnished  visible 
evidence  of  the  magnitude  of  such  encroachments  even 
within  the  historic  period. 

Since  tho  coasts  of  the  Netherlands  are  the  most  exposed 
of  the  Northern  lowlands  to  the  predominating  north- 
western winds,  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  have  suffered 
most  from  inundations,  or  that  many  of  these  have  effected 
extraordinary  changes  in  the  face  of  this  country,  while 
others,  more  numerous,  though  less  destructive,  have 
plunged  the  inhabitants  for  the  time  being  into  inexpres- 
sible wretchedness.  It  is  to  geology,  and  not  to  history, 
that  wc  must  look  for  information  as  to  the  earlier  and  more 
formidable  of  these  catastrophes.  The  map  of  the  Nether- 
lands shows  the  coast  to  be  sheltered  by  a  line  of  downs, 
which  also  extends  along  the  seaward  shores  of  the  islands 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Zuyder-Zee.  This  Zuyder-Zee  in  pre- 
historic ages  was  much  larger  than  at  present,  but  its  mouth 
became  gradually  obstructed.  The  existing  belt  of  islands 
are  the  remnants  of  what  was  then  continuous  coast  j  tho 
Zuyder-Zee  subsided  into  a  lake,  of  which  the  area  was 
rapidly  reilured  by  the  deposits  of  the  Rhine,  which  ])rob- 
ably  discharged  into  it  the  greater  part  of  its  waters  through 
the  Yssel,  and  perhaps  some  other  branch  (of  which  only 
dubious  vestiges  remain).  Thus,  this  lake,  then  called  Flevo, 
dwindled  rapidly,  and  would  have  totally  disajipeared  but 
for  the  storms  of  the  tenth  and  twelfth  centuries,  which  bat- 
tered large  breaches  in  the  line  of  downs,  submerged  the 
greater  part  of  the  newly-formed  land,  and,  gradually  re- 
opening the  channels  between  the  islands,  caused  the  Lake 
of  Flevo  to  expand  again  into  the  Zuyder-Zee.  For  though 
the  inhabitjinls,  now  considerably  advance*!  in  civilization, 
did  their  utmost  to  restrain  the  waters,  they  found  their  toil 
and  skill  alike  ineffectual,  and  many  towns,  villages,  and 
monasteries  were  swallowed  up  for  ever. 

At  what  period  dikes  were  invented  as  a  protection 
against  floods  is  not  certainly  known  ;  the  Romans  may 
possibly  have  learned  their  use  from  Egypt ;  they  certainly 
employed  ihcm  ns  causeways  over  martliy  lands.  Tacitus 
informs  us  that  Nero's  lieutenant.  I'ompcius.  constructed  a 
dike  to  prevent  the  overflow  of  tlie  Rhine,  and  the  aborig'- 
ines  of  Germany  sometimes  flooded  the  country  by  bar- 
ring the  rivers  in  order  to  prevent  invasion.  It  appears 
that  the  province  of  Fricsland  was  diked  in  the  seventh 
century  by  King  Adgillus;  the  province  of  Zeeland  was 
diked  by  the  Danes  and  Goths  in  the  eighth  century;  while 
Oldenburg  was  enclosed  about  ttS4  by  Count  Ofho.  Ear- 
lier, the  natives  lived  on  small  hills  or  elevations  called 
"terpen."  Such  a  '"tcrp"  offered  a  place  of  security  for 
men  and  cattle,  and  such  exist  still  in  some  parts  of  this 
country,  where  recently  a  certain  number  have  been  erected 
by  order  of  the  government  to  serve  as  temporary  refuges 
in  case  of  the  failure  of  the  dikes. 

Of  the  storms  which  have  caused  notable  revolutions,  tho 
first  recorded  in  authentic  history  is  that  of  SnO.  which 
carried  away  a  great  jmrt  of  the  western  coast  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  gave  a  more  southern  direction  to  that 
branch  of  the  Rhine  wliich  formerly  discharged  its  waters 
near  Catwyk.  On  St.  Michael's  Day.  KHI,  a  great  part 
of  England  and  of  tho  Netherlands  was  flood-'d.  In  1134 
a  part  of  Flanders  was  s^vallowed  up.  Of  the  coasts  of 
Fricsland  (which  then  consisted  of  the  Dutch  provinces  of 
North  Ilolliind.  the  Zuyder-Zee,  (Jroningen.  Fricsland.  part 
of  Hanover,  and  Oldenburg),  a  certain  part  disappeared 
during  the  St.  Juliana's  flood  of  lIGI.and  nil  the  lowlands 
of  the  Elbe  and  the  M'cser  were  submerged.  Still  more 
disastrous  was  the  All  Saints*  flood  of  1170,  tho  first  of 
that  name.  The  formatinn  of  the  Zuyder-Zcc  and  tho 
separation  of  Texel  and  AVieringen  are  erroneously  attrib- 
uted to  this  calamity,  for  the  Zuyder-Zcc  had  been  already 
formed  by  more  ancient  floods,  and  the  islands  were  more 
recently  severed. 

In  continuing  this  enumeration  only  the  more  important 


•  Dutch  dairvt,  Fr.  dunea. 


INUNDATIONS  AND  FLOODS  OF  RIVERS. 


1273 


of  the  almost  ntimlicrlcas  floods  mentioned  in  tlio  anuals 
will  reciivc  aiiiulion.  In  1'21S»  occurfL-d  the  M;ircellus 
nood,  which  was  imly  "f  temporary  charactir:  luit  in  lliT? 
the  gnlf  of  the  Oiillart  at  Ilic  mouth  of  the  Kerns  was 
formed,  while  in  I:tfi2  the  Mandruiikc's  flood  (the  "  men- 
drovvnin'^"  flood)  snatched  away  more  than  'M  villages  on 
the  coasTs  of  Sleswiek  (Xordstrand).  The  gulf  of  Dicr- 
vlicl  in  Dnteh  Flanders,  then  much  wider  and  deeper  than 
at  present,  was  formed  in  i:!77.  But  the  most  disastrous 
flood  hv  which  in  later  times  the  .Southern  Netherlands 
have  hcen  visited  was  the  (second)  St.  Eli/.alieth  flood. 
which  formed  the  Uiesbosch,  submersed  Tli  villages, 
changed  totally  the  lower  course  of  the  Rhine  and  Maas, 
and  altered  s')  profoundly  the  conditions  of  these  rivers 
that  its  influence  is  slill'felt,  though  modified,  and  in  a 
meifture  controlled,  hv  costly  engineering  works  constructed 
in  later  years.  This  disaster  resulted  from  the  combination 
of  a  maritime  and  a  fluvial  inundation.  The  branch  of 
the  Khine  cilled  Waal  previously  to  that  event  discharged 
its  waters  near  the  town  of  Bridle,  and  formed  with  the 
other  branch,  called  LeU,  the  outlet  of  the  Maas.  It  now  i 
took  the  much  shorter  direction  of  tho  outlets  of  Brouwer- 
shaven  nn.l  II  ■llevoe'sluis,  wJicre,  moreover,  the  tide-range 
is  greater  famounting  to  2"':i,  while  at  Bridle  it  is  only  i 
l»-s).  Th?  fall  per  mile  of  the  Waal  being  thus  superior 
to  that  of  the  I.ek,  the  llhine  was  drained  by  the  former, 
while  the  latter  grew  shallow.  On  this  account  the  wide 
outlet  of  the  -Maas  gradually  filled,  an. I  tho  communication 
of  Rotterdam  with  the  s;>a  became  seriously  im|iaired.  In 
mil  a  flood  occurred  which  formed  in  the  Zuyder-Zco 
a  practicable  channel  for  vessels  of  heavy  drauglit  be- 
tween Enkhuizen  and  .Amsterdam,  and  thus  gave  to  the 
latter  town  its  commerce  and  its  importance.  Till  then, 
the  southern  part  of  that  sea  hid  been  too  shallow  to  allow 
more  than  a  limited  Iraflic.  whieh  was  eonfined  to  the  then 
flourishing  cities  of  lloorn,  .Medcmblik,  and  Enkhuizen. 

From  this  time  onward,  though  tho  floods  increase  in 
number,  their  violence  diminishes  and  their  effects  arc  less 
disastrous.  Thus,  the  flood  of  All  Saints'  Day.  li'O, 
though  only  surpassed  in  magnitude  by  that  which  oc- 
curre^l  in  MTU  oa  the  same  day,  destroyed  no  land,  though 
it  submerge  1  llruges,  .Antwerp,  almost  all  tho  islands  which 
form  the  province  of  Zceland,  Dordrecht,  Rolterdam.  Am- 
sterdam, part  of  the  provinces  of  Friesland  and  (ironingcn, 
the  coast  of  Oldenburg,  Bremen,  and  tho  city  of  Hamburg, 
and  drowned  at  the  lowest  estimate  IIO.OOII  inhabitants. 
Before  the  breaches  of  the  dikes  could  bo  stopped  new 
storms  flooded  tho  country,  .and  within  tho  eight  years  en- 
suing the  unfortunate  provinces  of  (Ironingen  and  Friesland 
wore  not  less  than  six  times  partially  submerged.  These 
oontinunlly  recurring  disasters  must  bo  attributed  in  great 
measure  to  the  bad  state  of  repair  in  which  the  dikes  wero 
kept.  Notwithstanding  its  importance,  this  matter  had 
never  been  well  regulated.  Every  village  being  independ- 
ent, Ihero  existed  no  authority  competent  to  coerce  the 
delinquent,  and  so  the  negligence  of  some  proved  the  ruin 
of  all.  Later,  the  Dutch  republic  was  impotent  to  estab- 
lish proper  no-opera'ion,  and  in  such  a  state  of  afi'airs  tho 
iron  hand  of  a  Napoleon  was  nccde<l  to  reduce  the  petty 
magistracies  into  obedience  to  a  common  superior.  Tho 
new  regulations  established  by  him  produced  results  so  sat- 
isfactory as  to  ensure  their  ]iermanenco;  ami,  though  there 
still  arise  frequent  disputes  concerning  this  vital  point  of 
Dutch  economy,  tho  state  usually  succoods  in  accomplish- 
ing the  projects  of  improvement  which  it  proposes. 

The  .•^punish  douii:iaticm,  though  generally  so  disastrous 
In  this  country,  |. roved  in  1.J7.S  of  singular  benefit  to  tho 
Frisians;  for  the  Spanish  governor  of  Friesland,  tho  emi- 
nent engineer  Caspar  do  Rubles,  lord  of  Billy,  addressed 
liimself  witli  great  energy  to  the  repair  of  the  dikes,  cm- 
ploying  hi.s  soldiers  in  the  work,  ami  forcing  the  Frisians 
to  posTpone  their  dilTeriMures  and  ply  the  spaile.  Many 
farmers  and  landowners  (ileaded  exemption,  sujiporting 
their  claims  by  ancient  titles  and  patents.  Ilobles  took 
these  deeds  and  cast  them  into  the  crevasse,  saying.  "  There 
they  go:  if  thev  slop  the  gap.  'lis  well;  if  they  don't,  you 
shall."  Kobles  further  inereas.'d  the  r-trength  of  thi'  dikes 
by  giving  them  a  height  of  12  feel,  and  a  lireadih  at  sum- 
mit of  0  feel,  with  slopes  of  1  :  1  on  the  sea-side,  and  of 
21  :  I  on  the  biinl-side.  As  much  greater  dimensions  than 
(hose  are  giv.n  at  the  present  ilay — viz.  :  a  total  height  of 
16  feet,  Willi  slopes  of  li  :  1  and  2*  ;  1  respectively,  the 
dikes  being  also  strongly  protected  nt  the  sca-sido  by  pal- 
isades and  breakwaters — we  can  easily  account  for  the  eom- 
|.arative  immunity  from  disastrous  floods  enjoyed  by  these 
enunlries  in  recent  years. 

In  Itl07  the  eoiiniy  of  .'omerset  (England)  was  partially 
flooded,  but  a  inueh  more  serious  enlamily  befel  the  Danish 
diiinains  in  ir>:'.t.  Part  of  the  const,  called  Nordhind  and 
its  villages,  which,  though  often  destroyed,  had  as  often, 
with  undaunted  resolution,  been  again  rebuilt,  was  swept 


away,  together  with  tho  greater  part  of  the  population 
( I  I.IWS  people  and  00,;iS7  cattle).  Hamburg.  Bremen,  and 
the  coast  of  Oldeni>urg  were  also  much  injured.  More 
than  10,S2S  human  beings  and  yu,IIOO  cattle  were  drowned. 
In  the  great  Christinas  flood  of  1717,  which  covered  the 
whole  northern  coast,  and  even  some  parts  of  England, 
5000  dwellings  were  totally  and  :i^00  partially  ruined. 
Owing  to  the  prevalent  neglect  of  repairs  already  men- 
tioned, the  years  171^,  17111.  and  (specially  1720.  saw  these 
countries  flooded  again.  The  most  recent  inundation  of 
importance  was  that  of  IS2o,  in  which  the  waieis  reached 
a  height  which  was  not  asccriained.  This  flood  in  several 
respects  dilfeied  from  any  recently  observed  before;  and  on 


that  account  it  lias  been  ascribed,  with  a  semblance  of  proba- 
bility, to  a  submarine  earlhciuake.  Similar  parliculurs  had 
been  recorded  in  ancient  chronieles,  but  as  no  modern  ob- 
servation had  confirmed  lliem,  th.-y  had  jiaseed  into  dis- 
credit. The  sea-water  was  very  muddy,  and  seemed  as  if 
boiling;  the  waves  wero  not  high,  but  short  and  eddying; 
the  wind,  W.  N.  AV.,  was  not  violent;  and  finally  the  posi- 
tion of  the  moon  was  not  such  as  to  favor  an  extraordinary 
tide.  .Some  days  before  the  event  certain  springs  dried  up, 
and  others  became  muddy,  yellow,  and  brackish.  Largo 
fragments  of  amber  were  also  east  up  on  the  const  of  Jut- 
land. Facts  corresponding  to  these  had  been  observed 
during  the  floods  of  IBllO  and  lOfij,  during  the  Christinas 
flood  of  1717.  and  finally  in  175.)  during  the  famous  earth- 
quake of  Lisbon.  The 'principal  ell'eel  of  this  most  recent 
flood  was  the  insulation  of  the  iiorihern  part  oi'  Julland. 

Tho  floods  thus  far  noticed  arc  such  as  have  been  caused 
by  storms  ami  high  tides,  accompanied  usually  by  wido  de- 
struction, in  which  niulliiuiies  perished  and  other  multitudes 
escaped  only  with  their  bare  lives,  the  inundations  ordinarily 
occurring  during  the  night.  But,  besides  these,  there  aro 
others  which,  though  local,  aro  not  unattended  with  dan- 
ger, and  which  deserve  a  moment's  attention.  These  aro 
the  inundations  which  threaten  especially  the  coasts  of  the 
tidal  rivers.  The  powerful  streams  which  separate  tho 
islands  of  Zceland  and  of  part  of  South  Holland,  being 
connected  with  the  Scheldt,  the  Khine,  and  the  Maas,  form 
largo  estuaries,  which  at  flood-tide  aie  filled  with  tho  water 
of  fho  North  Sea,  and  during  ebb  discharge  Ihc  flood-water 
along  with  the  drainage,  the  tble-water  varying  between  3 
and  +  mi'-tres.  Strong  currents,  especially  during  ebb, 
accordingly  prevail  in  these  streams,  undermining  tho 
southern  shores  of  the  islands.  By  observing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  ebb  from  N.  K.  to  S.  W.,  while  that  of  the  flood 
is  opposite,  we  are  enabled  to  account  for  the  fact  that  all 
tho  islands  arc  attacked  in  the  same  way  and  exllibit 
the  same  form— viz.  a  concave  S.  and  a  convex  N.  coast, 
tho  latter  augmenting  by  the  undisturbed  deposit  of  tho 
rivers  and  the  detritus  of  the  southern  shores.  The  W. 
coast  of  the  province  of  Holland  is  attacked  in  a  similar 
manner,  though  with  less  force,  the  sea-cnrrents  not  being 
confined  within  narrow  ehaniiels.  The  system  of  eoast- 
defencc  of  the  Nelherlamls  must  therefore  embrace  two 
distinct  objects  —  defenco  against  currents,  and  derenco 
against  high  seas  and  storms.  The  coasts  of  Fneshiiid, 
(ir.mingen,  and  tho  Zuyder-Zec  need  only  iiroteetions  ot 
the  latter  class,  while  the  dikes  and  downs  of  the  W.  coast 
of  Holland  and  those  defending  llie  islands  must  be  con- 
sidered from  both  points  of  view.  This  portion  ot  our 
subject  is  reserved  to  be  treated  under  the  head  ol  Lkvkes 
(which  see).  1'.  Cai.ani.. 

Iniintlntioiis  niid  Floods  of  Kivors.  These  two 
terms  are  often  used  as  svnonymous,  but  they  are  conveni- 
ently distinguishable,  thus:  an  iiiiinrlailnn  is  the  stale  of  a 
river  when  its  waters  rise  to  such  a  height  as  to  spread  be- 
yond its  normal  channel,  overflow  its  banks,  and  cover  the 
low  grounils  along  llieni  :  a  llmnl  is  Ihc  ciuiditnm  ol  a  river 
when  its  current,  though  rising  above  its  mean  level  and 
filling  the  canal  which  il  has  excavated  for  itsell,  slill  re- 
mains within  its  banks,  or,  in  other  word,s,  is  '-without 
o'erflowing,  full."  Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  we  can 
make  to  iirecision  of  distinction  is  to  say  that  a  flood  be- 
eoin.s  an  inundation  when  the  stream  rises  seuMbly  above 
its  mean  high-water  level,  and  spreads  in  considerable  vol- 
ume beyond  the  limits  of  its  natural  channel  as  bouiub.lby 
the  growth  of  spcmlaneous  perennial  land  planls.  It  is, 
however,  impossible  to  draw  any  sharp  line  i>(  diseriniina- 
tion  between  floods  and  inundations  as  applicable  to  the 
whole  course  of  rivers,  because  a  river  may  be  eonfined  by 
high  banks  at  one  point,  bordered  by  low  flats  at  another, 
and  these  riparian  conditions  may  be  nltirnated  many 
limes  in  the  same  stream;  and  hence  il  may  be  siinply  at 
1  flood  in  eerlnin  ]iarls  of  its  channel,  in  inumlalion  at 
othiTs.  I'sing  the  words  in  the  general  sense  we  have  as- 
cribed In  them,  a  flood  is  ordinarily  a  beneficial  state  of  a 
river,  heeause  iis  supply  of  water  for  meehanieal  power,  for 
feeding  canals  and  aqiiednets,  and  for  navigation  is  then 
ample,  and  yet  not  in  excess.     The  nugmented  volume  and 


1274 


INUNDATIONS  AND   FLOODS  OF  RIVERS. 


velocity  of  the  water  are,  espeoially  in  new  ooontriea,  a 
considerable  advantage  to  navigation,  because  they  par- 
ticularly favor  the  downward  trade,  which  i?  ordiuarilv 
the  heaviest,  if  not  the  mo^^t  valuable,  and  they  not  unfre- 
qucntly  render  a  further  useful  service  by  preventing  the 
closing  of  the  stream  by  ice.  Hence,  measures  hs.ve  oft?n 
been  proposed,  and  sometimes  adopted,  for  keeping  rivers 
permiUK'Utly  at  flood  by  introducing  into  them  additional 
supplies  of  water  from  lakes  or  artiticial  reservoirs,  or  by 
the  diversion  of  other  water-courses  into  their  bed.  Thus, 
the  Illinois  Canal,  when  enlarged,  will  furnish  the  means 
of  maintaining  at  all  dcs^irablc  seasons  a  fluod-Ievcl  in  the 
Illinois,  and  even  pcriiaps  in  the  Mississippi;  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  a  judicious  husbandry  of  the  natural  sources  of 
supply  of  the  Hudson  and  of  the  waters  of  some  of  the  Ad- 
irondack lakes  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  greatly  to 
improve  the  navigation  of  the  upper  portion  of  that  im- 
portant river. 

Inundations  of  great  rivers,  when  they  are  of  regular 
character  both  in  volume  and  in  peritjdic  rccnrrcncc.  are 
often  not  merely  highly  advantageous  to  human  interests, 
but  even  essential  to  the  permanent  occupation  of  their 
banks  by  man.  Of  such  rivers  the  Nile  is  the  type.  The 
seasons  and  the  height  of  its  rise  are  approximately  con- 
stant, and  therefore  readily  foreseen  ;  the  inundation  satu- 
rates with  moisture  the  alluvial  plains  along  its  banks,  and 
it  deposits  on  them  a  supply  of  organic  and  mineral  sedi- 
ment abundant  enough  and  fertilizing  enough  to  render 
the  artificial  application  of  manures  in  general  su]ierfluous. 
But  even  here  nature  must  be  aided  by  human  art,  and 
from  thv  earliest  ages  the  Egyptians  have  employed  dikes 
and  canals  for  retaining  and  distributing  the  waters  of  the 
inundation.  (See  Nile.)  The  more  irregular  inundations 
of  smaller  rivers  sometimes  render  similar  service  to  man, 
but  with  few  exceptions  river  inundations  are  a  highly  de- 
struetive  agency:  and  it  is  principally  in  this  light  that 
we  shall  consider  them.  The  river-inundations  of  modern 
times,  in  both  America  and  the  Old  World,  even  if  not  more 
frequent  or  more  violent  than  those  of  earlier  ages,  have 
been  more  disastrous,  because  in  many  eases  the  beds  of  the 
streams  have  been  elevated  by  sedimentary  deposits  faster 
than  their  banks,  and  because  greatly  augmented  and  more 
diversified  moral  and  material  interests  are  aflFected  by  them. 
Larger  towns,  vaster  mechanical  establishments,  as  well  jis 
agricultural  and  commercial  arrangements,  great  networks  I 
of  canal,  railway,  and  telegraphic  communication,  more 
numerous  common  roads  and  bridges,  arc  now  exposed  to  i 
their  ravages,  and  of  course  the  social  interests  endangered 
by  them  arc  immensely  multiplied.  AVhilc.  then,  floods  \ 
are  to  be  promoted,  inundations  are  to  be  controlled  and  as 
far  as  possible  prevented.  The  best  method  of  eftecting 
this  is  a  very  complicated  problem,  and  for  various  rea- 
sons— among  which  the  fact  that  the  sources  of  consid- 
erable streams  are  often  in  one  State  or  Territory,  their 
middle  and  lower  courses  in  another,  is  the  most  familiar — 
the  contrivance  of  systems  applicable  to  the  entire  flow  of 
rivers  has  but  recently  engaged  the  attention  of  engineers, 
and  it  is  not  yet  even  theoretically  completely  solved. 

The  moans  of  defence  against  river-inundations  are  di- 
visible into  two  classes — the  preventive  and  the  remedial, 
the  former  being  designed  to  operate  against  their  causes, 
the  latter  to  protect  valuable  interests  against  their  efi'ects. 
The  immediate  cause  of  river-inundations  is  the  discharge 
of  water  into  river-channels  faster  than  those  channels  can 
carry  it  off.  The  insufficiency  of  tlie  channel  for  this  func- 
tion may  be  occasioned — {n)  by  excess  of  supply;  {/»)  by 
obstructions  in  its  bed;  or(c)  by  the  reduction  of  its  inclina- 
tion. («)  The  excess  of  supply  may  bo  due  to  abnormal 
and  exceptional  causes,  such  as  the  bursting  of  the  barriers 
of  natural  or  artiflcial  accumulations  of  water,  lakes,  reser- 
voirs, or  mill-ponds,  but  it  is  usually  derived  from  rains 
and  melting  suows ;  and  as  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said 
that  it  does  not  proceed  from  the  down-fall  in  the  great  ; 
valleys  which  border  the  middle  course  of  the  stream,  but 
from  winter  snows  or  equinoctial  rains  in  the  smaller  I 
basins  of  the  upland  tributaries,  whose  inclination  is  more  j 
rapid,  whose  fan-like  expansion  embraces  a  wider  surface  , 
than  that  of  the  main  valley  of  the  general  recipient  of 
them  all.  and  which,  moreover,  often  lie  in  elevated  regions 
where  the  precipitation  is  greater  than  on  the  plains.  The 
flow  from  the  uplantl?  is  probably  in  the  largest  pniportion 
superficial,  but  it  is  now  known  that  great  quantities  of 
mountain-water  sink  to  a  moderate  depth  into  the  earth, 
and  then  descend,  by  infiltration  or  other  underground 
conduction,  to  lower  points  in  the  basins,  and  are  there 
discharged  into  the  river-<:hannels.  High  water  rarely 
occurs  at  the  same  time  in  all  the  tributaries  of  large  rivers, 
but  there  are  instances,  as  the  Seine  and  the  Po,  where  the  i 
floods  of  the  nfiluenls  are  usually  contemporaneous,  not 
successive,  and  inundations  of  rivers  are  generally  destruc-  , 
tiro  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  coinoidonce  in  the  floods  I 


of  their  tributaries.  (6)  Obstructions  which  reduce  the 
capacity  of  delivery  of  water-courses  may  be  artificial,  as 
the  piers  of  bridges,  dams,  weirs,  riparian  spurs  or  wing- 
walls,  the  waste  from  mines  and  metallurgical  establish- 
ments, or  they  may  arise  from  the  natural  deposit  of  ter- 
restrial sediment  in  the  channel,  from  the  caviug-in  of  Ihc 
banks,  from  the  accumulation  of  trunks  of  trees  and  other 
floating  matter  lodged  on  shoals,  from  the  growth  of  aquatic 
vegetation,  or  from  ice,  which  sometimes  forms  almost  com- 
plete though  temporary  barriers  in  both  European  and 
American  rivers,  (r)  The  inclination  of  the  bed  of  a  river 
may  be  reduced  by  geological  upheaval  of  its  outlet  or  its 
lower  course,  by  the  lilling-up  of  its  estuary  by  its  own  de- 
posits or  by  sand  washed  in  by  the  sea.  and  sometimes  by 
the  elevation  of  parts  of  its  bottom  from  sand  or  earth  let 
fall  in  consequence  of  the  cheeking  of  the  velocity  of  its 
current  from  changes  in  the  course  of  the  channel,  or  as  a 
result  of  artificial  processes  of  improvement. 

A  prcveutire  system  applicable  to  the  whole  course  of  a 
stream  wouldcommcnceits  operations  at  or  near  the  sources 
of  the  tributaries,  and  its  general  aim  in  this  division  of 
the  work  would  be  first  to  check  the  discharge  of  surface- 
water  into  those  tributaries  by  planting  the  declivities  of 
the  valleys  with  trees  or  shrubs,  terracing  their  hillsides, 
running  low  embankments  across  sloping  grounds,  collect- 
ing the  water  in  snmll  reservoirs,  and  in  short  by  any 
measures  which  tend  to  detain  the  water  of  precipitation 
a  certain  time  upon  the  surface.  In  agricultural  and  pop- 
ulous districts  the  adoption  of  this  part  of  the  .«ystem  can- 
not be  general,  because  it  would  conflict  with  many  indis- 
pensable arrangements  of  improved  rural  economy  and 
civilized  life.  Agriculture  requires  a  general  grading  or 
smoothing  of  the  ground  by  filling  up  small  dejiressious  of 
the  soil,  and  the  removal  of  stumps,  clumps  of  shrubs, 
rocks,  little  ridges,  and  other  impeiliments  to  the  plough, 
and  it  must  be  drained  by  superficial  or  underground  con- 
duits: railways  and  common  roads  must  be  provided  with 
ditches;  streets  must  be  j^aved  or  otherwise  made  imper- 
vious to  water:  and  habitations  and  other  buildings  must 
be  covered  with  roofs,  which  shed  all  the  precipitation  that 
falls  upon  them.  All  these  artificial  contrivances  tend 
powerfully  to  promote  the  flow  of  surface  and  ground  water 
into  the  natural  channels  of  discharge  ;  and  in  the  opinion 
of  some  able  inquirers  they  arc  the  most  active  of  all  causes 
of  inundations  in  highly  improved  countries.  Hence,  in 
such  countries  there  is  great  difficulty  in  reconciling  the 
adoption  of  the  measures  we  speak  of  with  interests  not  less 
important  than  those  they  are  designed  to  protect;  and  in 
most  cases  we  are  reduced  to  a  question  of  choice  of  evils. 
Some  of  them,  nevertheless,  such  as  clothing  hillsides  too 
steep  for  cultivation  with  trees  or  shrubs,  circling/  or  ter- 
racing rapid  declivities,  and  the  temporary  flooding  of 
fields  by  means  of  low  ridges  or  embankments,  are  widely 
applicable  not  only  without  injury,  but  with  positive  bene- 
fit to  agriculture.  The  next  step  slmuld  be  to  retard  the 
flow  of  the  current  in  the  lesser  affluents  by  dams,  barriers 
or  traverses,  heaps  of  rocks,  and  impediments  of  every  de- 
scription. Such  measures  are  of  course  applicable  chiefly 
to  the  smaller  rivulets  in  u]tland  districts,  an<l  at  points 
where,  from  the  character  of  the  channel  and  other  circum- 
stances, no  evil  consequences  are  to  be  apprehended  from 
their  adoption. 

Thus  far,  (he  immediate  aim  is  to  retain  the  water  on  the 
surface  or  in  the  beds  of  small  affluents,  but  when  we  come 
to  larger  tributaries  bordered  by  fiehls.  t(iwns.  and  indus- 
trial establishments,  and  especially  to  the  main  trunk,  the 
direct  object  is  reversed,  and  increased  velocity,  and  of 
course  delivery,  quite  down  to  the  point  of  ultimate  dis- 
charge, is  sought  to  be  promoted.  This  is  efl"ected  by  the 
removal  of  rock,  sedimentary  deposit,  and,  so  far  as  prac- 
ticable, all  other  obstructions  in  the  bed,  by  confining  the 
channel  to  narrower  limits  at  convenient  points,  and  by 
excavating  a  deeper  canal  within  it,  and  especially  by 
cutting  off  loops  and  bends  in  its  course,  and  thus  at  once 
diminishing  the  length  and  increasing  the  inclination  of 
its  bed.  (See  Rivkrs,  Rkgi'lation  op.)  Although  meas- 
ures are  in  progress  in  France  and  elsewhere  for  the  appli- 
cation of  these  and  other  subsidiary  processes  to  the  entire 
flow  of  rivers,  and  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  violence 
of  inundations  might  be  greatly  mitigated,  if  not  wholly 
prevented  by  such  means,  yet  thus  far  we  do  not  know  that 
the  system  has  been  applied  to  the  whole  course  of  any 
great  river;  and  in  general, effort  is  directed,  not  to  the 
prevention  of  inun<lations,  but  to  the  confinement  of  their 
spread  within  certain  limits.  Various  plans  have  been 
sn^gcstcd  for  this  purpose,  among  which  the  creation  of 
great  reservoirs  for  receiving  the  overflowing  waters  is  one 
of  the  most  specious,  because  it  is  an  imitation  of  the  econ- 
omy of  Xature,  who  so  often  hollows  out  great  lakes  on  the 
upper  courses  of  rivers,  and  sometimes  accumulates  with- 
in them  flood-water  enough  to  drown  the  whole  country 


INVALIDES,   HOTEL   DES— INVARIABLE  PLANE,   THE. 


1-J70 


below,  but  for  tbe  cbcck  they  oppose  to  its  too  rapid  dis- 
charge. 

liemfflinf  Mennurfn. — For  rcnsons  which  cannot  ho  given 
here,  the  nietho'l  of  reservoirs  la  capable  ofoiily  exceptional 
application,  and  in  tbe  present  state  of  our  knowledge  and 
our  means  wc  must,  in  moft  cases,  content  ourselves  with 
snob  palliatives  as  are  affor<led  by  dikes  or  cm)>ankTnents 
high  enough  ami  solid  enough  to  protect  the  grounds  they 
enclose,  or  rather  front,  against  oneroaebmcnt  l>y  high 
water.  Emhankments  have  been  employed  from  time  im- 
memorial in  the  East,  and  the  recently  constructed  dikes 
or  levees  of  the  Mississippi  are  among  the  grandest  mnilern 
works  of  hydraulic  improvement.  liul  the  nri/iui,  or  em- 
baukmcnts  <d'  the  I*o,  are  perhap-^  the  oldest  wiili  which  we 
arc  thoroughly  ac<]uainted,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of 
emhanking  as  a  defence  against  river-inundatinns  have 
been  more  exhaustively  considered  and  more  skilfully  ap- 
plied in  Lomhanly  than  elsewhere,  though  in  the  classic 
studies  of  Ilumjdireys  and  Abbot  on  the  Mississippi  wo 
have  now  a  work  not  surpassed  in  the  whole  compass  of 
potamulogical  literature.  The  embankments  of  the  Po  are 
suhstantially  parallel  to  each  other  and  to  the  axis  of  the 
river,  hut  they  do  not  follow  all  its  windings,  an^l  for  the 
sake  of  pursuing  a  shorter  course,  and  at  the  same  time 
allowing  greater  space  for  the  swelling  waters,  they  some- 
times diverge  so  far  from  the  channel  as  to  leave  a  space 
of  three  or  four  miles,  often  including  valuable  cultivated 
land,  between  them.  Their  height  ami  thickness  are  regu- 
lated by  the  varying  level  of  the  ground  and  the  force  of  the 
current  as  known  by  experience;  but  they  arc  designed  to 
be  everywhere  sufficiently  elevated  and  sufheiently  solid  to 
confine  the  waters  wittiin  the  limits  which  they  enclose  at  the 
highest  level  to  which  the  river  ever  rises.  They  are  com- 
posed of  earth,  and  with  rare  exceptions  not  rerftrd  or 
faced  with  stone  or  protected  by  sheet  piling,  but  simply 
turfed  or  planted  with  willows.  In  general,  they  serve  as 
an  efficient  protection  to  the  land  hchind  them,  hut  there 
have  been  numerous  cases  of  breach  orercvasse  followed  by 
disajitrous  inundations.  (See  Po.)  This  method  of  defence 
against  inundations  is  objectionable  chiefly  on  those 
grounds  :  The  construction  and  maintenance  of  embank- 
ments involve  a  great  original  and  annual  expenditure; 
by  con  lining  the  current  they  increase  its  volo'Mty  and 
transporting  power,  and  hence  it  conveys  to  the  lower 
course  and  outlet  of  the  rivera  larger  quantity  of  sediment- 
ary material,  which  tends  to  fill  up  its  estuary  and  raise 
the  level  of  its  hed  ;  for  the  same  reason,  the  grounds  which 
Mkirt  the  river  are  di-prived  of  the  fertilizing  nuitler  which 
the  inundations  would  spread  over  it,  and  which  would  at 
the  same  time  raise  their  surface  in  jirojinrtiori  to  the  rise 
of  the  river-bed;  they  interfere  with  roads  and  the  con- 
venience of  navigation;  ancl,  in  spite  of  every  precaution, 
they  will  occasionally  burst,  and  in  such  case  inflict  far 
greater  injury  on  the  adjacent  country  than  would  be  caused 
by  any  natural  inundation. 

Many  engineers  are  now  of  opinion  that  the  system  of 
high  ciMitinuous  emhankments  ought  to  be  abandoned,  and 
low  dikes,  barely  suflicient  to  keep  the  current  from  over- 
flowing at  every  slight  elevation  of  its  level,  suhstitulcd. 
In  great  inundalion!<,  then,  all  the  huvlanils  along  (he  bunks 
would  be  overllnwed,  and  hoth  enriched  and  gradually 
raised  by  the  sediment  deposited  by  the  water.  This  plan 
is  recommended  hy  powerful  reasons,  and  where  high  dikes 
have  not  alr4'ftdy  heen  constructed  and  rural  arrangements 
accommodated  to  them,  ought,  no  doubt,  in  very  many 
cases  to  be  adnpted. 

Lomliardini,  the  highest  authority  on  this  subject,  lays 
down  the  fnllowing  propositions  on  the  subject  of  river- 
embankments  :  The  immediate  en"ecl  of  embanking  a  river 
'\*  generally  an  increase  in  the  height  of  its  floods  or  inun- 
dations, but  at  the  same  time  a  depression  t}{  IIfi  bed  ;  the 
current,  hy  reason  of  the  incrcasecl  vtdocity  resulting  from 
its  confinement,  transports  coarse  material  farther;  the 
emhanknient  of  the  upper  trihutaries  of  a  river  increases 
tlicir  velocity  anil  dtlivery,  and  therefore  augments  the 
height  of  the  inundations  in  the  middle  and  lower  course  ; 
embankments,  before  the  beti  of  a  river  becomes  established 
and  constant,  ullimalely  tend  to  raise  its  level;  the  ein- 
l>ankiiient  of  the  lower  course  of  a  river  causes  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  bed.  holh  as  a  direct  effect  of  ineren!>ed  deposit 
ami  because  the  deposit  at  and  near  the  point  of  ilischargo 
into  the  sea  prolongs  the  course,  onri  eoiiser]uently  dimin- 
ishes the  inclination  of  the  becj  and  the  transporting  powor 
of  the  current. 

The  literature  of  this  subject  is  very  I'oluminons.     Spe- 
cially deserving  of  notice  are  the  nmny  hyrlrologieal  essays 
of  the  eminent  Milanese  engineer  Elia  Ijomhurdini,  among 
which   wo  particularize — /niportanzit  dttfH  Sfmlf  ^u/ta  Stn-  I 
titilictt  ilfi  Fiiimi;  I)i  i  f^iiiifi'tttnriiticniHaf/ifinrifiir  V ittrttulirti   \ 
cnuflizionrtft  /  Pti  ;  Siitf*'  Iii'nit/itzitnti  arvenufr  nt  Iht  Fnttifin ;   i 
Dfir  On'ifhii  f  lir/  f*,-"frrH>>n  tlrlht  Sri*-iizfi  /(Iniiih'rii  in  Italia;   \ 


Guida  alio  Studio  deW  fdroloff in ;  Champion,  Les  Inondatinnn 
en  Francp  (Paris,  1S5S-64,  6  vols.  Svo)  ;  the  very  valuable 
Report  of  Humphreys  and  Ahbot  On  the  Phtfuics  aud  Hy- 
draulics o/'  thv  MinniMMippi  Jiivcr  (1S61,  foiio)  ;  and  T/,' 
Enrth  as  M'tdtjtfd  hi/  Human  Action,  by  the  present  writer 
(New  York,  1874,  Svo);  in  enumerating  which  works  we 
refer  also  to  the  numerous  authorities  cited  in  them.  (On 
the  whole  suhjcct  see  UiVKits.  KKnn.ATioN  of;  for  his- 
torical notices  of  memorable  river-inundations,  the  articles 
on  the  rivers  where  they  have  occurred  ;  and  on  inunda- 
tions by  the  sea,  and  defences  against  them,  see  Ini;nda- 

TIONS,  MAItlTIME.)  GeoKCK  P.  MaHSH. 

Iiivali(U>s%  liutcl  des,  at  Paris,  was  founded  in  If.Tl 
by  Louis  XIV.,  and  served  until  1775  both  as  an  asylum 
for  maimed  and  wounded  oflieers  and  8(ddiers,  and  as  a 
refuge  for  the  old  servants  of  the  courtiers.  At  present 
it  affords  quarters  for  some  thousands  of  disabled  soldiers. 
It  is  a  stately  building  and  contains  the  tomb  of  Napoleon 
I.,  whose  remains  were  jilaccd  here  in  ISIO. 

Inva'riable  Plane,  The,  a  term  of  theoretical  dy- 
namics, used  pre-eminently  in  regard  to  the  solar  system. 
There  is  in  mathematical  relation  with  every  s^'stem  of  ma- 
terial particles,  subject  only  to  their  mutual  actions  and  to 
forces  directed  towards  a  fixed  point,  or  a  point  in  uniform 
rcctilineor  motion,  a  certain  plane  passing  through  the 
p<iint  which  preserves  a  fixed  direction  in  space,  remaining 
ahsolutely  fixed  if  the  point  remain  fixed,  and  moving 
parallel  to  itself  if  the  point  move;  and  which  Laplace, 
who  made  it  the  subject  of  a  memoir,  named  the  invariable 
plane  of  the  system.  To  obtain  an  idea  of  the  characteristic 
property  of  this  plane  by  which  it  is  determined,  su])pose 
lines  (called  radii  ^cctorcs)  drawn  from  the  point  in  ques- 
tion to  each  of  the  difi'crcnt  particles  of  the  system,  and 
then  projected  orthogonally  upon  any  plane  passing 
through  the  point.  These  several  projections  will  vary  in 
length  as  the  direction  of  the  plane  on  wliich  they  nrc 
made  varies,  and  the  areas  descrihed  hy  them  on  the  piano 
during  any  given  time,  in  virtue  of  the  motions  of  the  par- 
ticles abruit  the  point,  will  therefore  also  vaiy.  Now,  at- 
tributing proper  signs  to  these  areas,  according  to  the 
directions  in  wliieli  the  lines  describing  them  move  about 
the  point,  there  is,  among  the  infinite  number  of  planes 
passing  through  the  point,  ntir  for  which  t!ie  algebraic  sum 
of  the  products  fornn-d  by  multiplying  the  area  described 
by  the  projection  of  the  radius  vector  of  each  particle  by 
its  mass,  is  greater  than  for  any  other,  or  a  innximum. 
This  is  the  invariable  plane  of  the  system.  On  account 
of  the  property  just  stated  it  is  often  called  the  plunr  of 
7»aximum  fircas.  Knowing  the  masses  and  motions  of  the 
particles,  the  ])osition  of  the  invariable  piano  relative  to 
assumed  planes  of  reference  passing  through  tlie  origin  of 
radii  vcctorcs  can  be  determined  at  any  time  by  the  appro- 
]»riate  mathematical  forniuhr.  If  there  are  no  extraneous 
torees  acting  on  the  system,  any  jcnnt  in  sjiacc  may  be  as- 
sumed as  an  origin,  and  an  in\ariable  plane  be  determined 
for  the  system  relative  to  it,  in  the  same  manner.  The 
different  planes  which  may  thus  ho  determined  for  the 
same  system  with  reference  to  difierent  assumed  points 
are  all  parallel.  The  existence  of  the  invariable  plane, 
it  will  be  observed,  is  independent  of  the  law  of  action 
between  the  particles  and  of  the  law  of  tho  extraneous 
forces,  and  it  preserves  its  constantly  of  direction  whatever 
changes  take  place  in  the  system  under  the  action  of  tho 
specified  forces.  Theoretically,  the  particles  of  tho  system 
may  be  isolated  or  aggregated,  and,  if  aggregated,  in  any 
mannor.  In  a  system  of  natural  bodies  tho  rigorous  deter- 
mination of  the  invariable  plane  depends  upon  (ho  figures 
of  tho  bodies,  and  tlie  biws  according  to  which  their  dcn- 
sitv  varies  in  (heir  interior,  ns  well  as  upon  their  masses. 

Tin-  fnntrlnh/r  I'/nu.-  of  thr  Sofnr  Si/tlr,„.  —  'Yho  theory 
of  the  invariable  plane  derives  its  chief  interest  from  the 
application  Liiplaee  nnidc  of  it  to  the  sohir  system.  The 
fundamentiil  planes  to  which  astronomers  refer  the  posi- 
tions and  iiiofions  of  tin-  henvenly  bodies  are  subject  to 
slow  seeuliir  changes;  and  even  the  stars,  which  we  ordi- 
narily call  fixed,  and  which  would  seem  to  furnish  ns  with 
natural  jioints  to  which  to  refer  (hese  changes,  have  them- 
selves been  found  to  have  small  "proper  motions."  Con- 
sidering these  eirciimstanees,  and  tbe  eniharrasstnent  he 
anticipated  astronomers  woulil  one  day  experience  in  enn- 
sequeneo  of  them  in  comparing  observations  made  in 
widely  separated  ages,  Laplace  suggested  (hat  tho  invaria- 
ble ]>bino  of  the  solar  system,  determined  relative  to  the 
contro  iff  the  sun,  might  ho  u-ied  as  one  of  reference  in  as- 
certaining these  changes,  and  enleulated  its  position  with 
referen(!e  to  (ho  ooliptic  at  ilifferent  epochs.  It  is  implied, 
in  speaking  of  Ibis  invariable  plane,  that  Laptaco  consid- 
ered the  sidar  system  in  his  eiilculation  an  independent 
one.  pubject  only  t<i  the  mutual  a'-tion  of  its  memhers;  or, 
in  other  words,  that  the  action  of  tho  stars  upon  it  is  in- 


127G 


INVARIAMT— INVERNESS. 


sensible.  He  also  neglected  the  comets,  whose  masses  nre 
unknown,  but  which  he  had  good  reason  to  believe  very 
small.  Lastly,  he  supposed  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  the 
planets  ciincentiated  at  their  respective  centres  of  gravity — 
the  satellites,  with  their  primaries.  This  last  supposition, 
though  not  in  strict  accordance  with  the  rigorous  theory  of 
the  invariable  i)lanc  given  above,  obviated  an  insuperable 
diflicHlly  in  applying  immediately  the  latter  to  the  case  in 
question,  arising  from  our  ignorance  of  the  laws  according 
to  which  the  densities  of  the  bodies  of  the  system  change 
from  their  surfaces  inward,  and  was  regarded  by  Liiplaco 
as  furnishing  an  adequate  npproxinuilion.  The  result  of 
his  calculation  upon  liiese  suppositions  places  the  invaria- 
ble plane  with  reference  to  the  ecliptic  at  the  beginning  of 
1700  as  follows : 

Inclination  of  the  invariable  plane  to  the  eclip- 
tic al  this  epoch 1°  3.V  31" 

Longitude  of  its  ascending  node 102^  .17' ir," 

The  results  of  his  calculation  for  tho  epoch  of  1950  agree 
very  closely  with  the  foregoing. 

Since  the  time  of  Laplace  the  planet  Neptune  has  been 
discovered,  and  a  multitude  of  asteroids.  Different  masses 
have  also  been  assigned  to  the  planets  from  those  be  used. 
S'ocUwoll  in  his  memoir  on  the  secular  variations  of  the  or- 
bits of  the  eight  principal  planets,  recently  ]iublishcd  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  adopting  masses  received  at  pres- 
ent, including  that  of  Neptune,  and  using  the  formula!  of 
Laplace,  makes  the  position  of  the  invariable  plane  with 
reference  to  the  ecliptic  at  the  beginning  of  1860  to  be  as 
follows; 

Inclination 1°  ^V  ^9"A 

Longiludc  of  ascending  node 10li°  14'  06" 

StockwcU's  calculation,  it  may  be  added,  does  not  include 
the  asteroids,  whose  masses  ore  unknown,  but  believed  to 
be  in  tho  aggregate  small. 

The  eminent  geometer  Poinsot  made  the  formula;  of 
Laplace  the  subject  of  considerable  criticism,  maintaining 
that  in  treating  the  sun  and  planets  as  massive  points,  and 
in  thus  neglecting  the  areas  proceeding  from  the  rotations 
of  these  bodies  upon  their  axes,  and  from  the  revolution 
of  the  satellites  about  their  primaries,  ho  had  not  only 
failed  to  determine  a  truly  invariable  ))lane,  but  one  even 
whose  variations  could  be  neglected  in  comparison  with 
those  which  it  should  make  known.  Poisson  and  Ponl6- 
coulant,  on  tho  other  h:iud.  hold  that  the  analysis  of  La- 
place nevertheless  detcrjnines  a  plane  practically  invariable, 
which  was  all  he  had  in  mind  to  do.  It  would  require 
some  space  to  give  a  just  view  of  this  difl'crence  of  opinion; 
here,  we  can  only  refer  to  it. 

Poinsot  gives  a  rigorous  rule  for  determining  tho  truly 
invariable  plane,  if  there  be  one,  which  he  proposes  to  call 
the  equator  of  the  solar  system.  But  the  unknown  laws 
of  density  previously  referred  to  entering  it  in  the  form 
of  the  moments  of  inertia  of  the  bodies  of  the  system, 
it  does  not  furnish  tho  means  of  an  iuimeiliate  cleterinina- 
tion.  Poinsot  suggests,  however,  that  by  forming,  at  dif- 
ferent epochs  sufficiently  scp.araled.  certain  equations  in 
which  the  masses  and  moments  of  inertia  of  the  bodies 
considered  appear  as  unknown  quantities  with  coetTicicnts 
furnished  by  observation,  these  unknown  quantities  may 
ultimately  be  found,  and  thus  the  data  obtained  for  the  de- 
termination desired.  This  method,  if  actually  applied  suc- 
cessfullv.  woubl,  as  Poinsot  obser\'os,  furnish  us  the  masses 
of  the  bodies  of  our  system  independently  of  the  New- 
tonian law  of  gravitation,  from  which  we  derive  our  present 
knowledge  regarding  them.  Repealed  dclerininations  of 
the  invariable  plane  maile  in  this  way  with  precision  would 
show  by  the  accordance  or  iliscordance  of  their  results 
whether  we  were  right  in  our  original  assumptions  regard- 
ing the  system,  or  whether  we  had  neglected  actions  which 
for  long  periods  ought  not  to  be  disregarded. 

But  if  a  truly  invariable  plane  were  exactly  found  for 
our  system,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  would 
after  all  be  of  limited  utility  for  the  purpose  for  which  it 
was  proposed.  For,  su]>posing  it  actually  located  in  the 
heavens,  it  coubl  (tf  itself  only  serve  to  verify  and  deter- 
mine motions  perpendicular  to  it,  or,  as  we  may  say, 
'  changes  of  tniittith.  To  determine  moti<ins  parallel  to  it. 
or,  as  we  may  again  say,  changes  of  lontfittiffr.  we  should 
further  need  to  know  a  right  line  of  invariable  direction  iu 
tho  invariahle  plane  whence  to  estimate  the  angular  value 
of  such  motions.  To  make  it  truly  useful,  we  should  also 
bo  able  to  determine  precisely  the  position  at  any  time  with 
reference  to  it  of  the  present  natural  planes  of  reference, 
such  as  the  equator  and  the  ecliptic,  so  that  positions  re- 
ferred to  these  might  lie  rodueed  to  it  when  desirable. 
Now.  to  d<»  this  we  should  equally  need  the  direction  of  the 
fixed  line  named.  To  determine,  for  instance,  the  position 
of  tho  ecliptic  with  reference  to  the  invariable  piano,  wc 
should  not  only' require  its  inclination — which  we  may  sup- 
pose found  by  tho  methods  previously  spoken  of — but  also 


the  line  of  intersection  of  the  two  planes;  and  to  locate 
this  we  should  again  need  the  fixed  line  on  the  invariable 
]dane  to  measure  from.  Poisson  has  suggested  that  if  it 
were  sufficiently  well  determined,  we  might  use  the  projec- 
tion on  the  invariable  plane  of  the  line  which  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  solar  system  tlescribes  in  space,  which,  upon 
tho  supposition  implied  in  speaking  of  the  invariable 
plane,  that  the  system  is  uninfluenced  by  the  action  of  the 
stars,  is  straight.  But  while  we  have  an  approximate 
knowledge  of  the  points  in  the  heavens  towards  which  this 
line  appears  to  be  directed,  thev  arc  by  no  means  deter- 
mined with  sufficient  certainty  and  precision  for  so  delicate 
a  use  as  the  one  in  question,  and  it  may  be  doubted  if  they 
ever  will  be.  There  is  no  other  line  in  the  invariable  plane 
which  we  can  imagine  it  possible  to  determine  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  plane,  then,  is  likely  to  remain  in  tho  future, 
as  it  has  hitherto  been,  chiefly  a  matter  of  theoretical  in- 
terest, rather  than  one  of  much  practical  utility.  For- 
tunately, the  means  of  astronomical  observation  are  now 
so  excellent,  and  the  heavens  are  so  faithfully,  skilfully, 
and  widely  observed,  and  the  resources  of  astronomical 
theory  already  so  higldy  developed,  that  in  all  pnd)ability 
the  astronomer  of  the  remote  future  will  be  able  to  compare 
the  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies  with  those  they  occupy 
now,  despite  the  clianges  of  his  fundamental  planes,  with 
a  precision  fully  commensurate  with  all  the  needs  of  his 
time,  unless,  inijccd,  these  shall  augment  beyond  our  pres- 
ent power  to  conceive. 

flc/'crcticcs. — Laplace,  in  the  Journal  dc  VEcnh:  Poll/- 
technique,  tome.  ii. ;  Laplace,  Mfniuiqiic  Cfhvie,  liv.i.ch.  5; 
liv.  ii.  eh.  7;  liv.  vi.  eh.  17:  Poisson.  Mfeanlque,  cd.  18.33, 
liv.  iv.  eh.  9:  Poinsot,  M^mnire  .ff/r  /a  Thforic  et  la  Deter- 
mhuitlon  tie  VEijUfttrur  (In  Si/Hleiiie  Sitlnire,  appended  to 
the  later  editions  of  the  autllor's  JilemcntH  de  Stnliqne  ; 
PonlccoulanI,  TUeorie  Anuhjtiiine  dn  Synlemc  dn  Monde, 
2d  cd..  liv.  i.  ch.  4;  liv.  ii.  ch.  8,  and  note  vi.  at  end  of 
tome  i.  John  E.  Ci.AnK. 

Iliva'riatit.  .-V  ra,tional  algebraic  expression  of  any 
degree  in  two  or  more  variables  is  said  to  be  linearly  trans- 
formed when  for  each  variable,  .r.  ;/.  :.  linear  functions  of 
new  variables,  such  as  Ai.V-t-  m  >'+  viX  for  .r  ;  Ai.\  -t-  (<2l 
■f  viZ,  for//,  etc.,  are  substituted.  If  the  expression  be  hom- 
ogeneous in  the  variables,  any  function  of  its  coefficients 
is  called  an  iiivaridtil,  if,  after  such  transformation,  the 
same  function  of  the  iieio  coefficients  is  equal  to  the  old 
function  multiplied  by  some  power  of  the  mudulnt  of  tranv- 
fornitttion  (which  is  afunction  of  the  enejfieientn  v/ trane/or- 
matlon,  only,  A|  m  v\  :  Aj.  n2,  etc.).  It  is  an  til/nohile  in- 
rnriinil  when,  the  value  of  this  power  being  unity,  the 
function  is  absolutely  unaltered  hy  transformation.  The 
invarianee  of  discriminants®  was  first  pointed  out  by  Dr. 
Boole  (Ciiinbi-idfie  Moth.  Jour..  Nov.,  1841) :  and  "  modern 
algebra"  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  this  dis- 
coverv.  Mr.  Cayley  took  up  the  more  general  problem, 
ic/io(  functions  possessed  this  property  of  invarianee,  and 
brought  to  light  many  others  (some  of  which  involving  the 
variables)  which  arc' unaffected  by  linear  transformation. 
Those  containing  the  variables  are  called  eo-rnrionts,  or 
eontrn-vnn'ants,  according  as  the  substitution  is  direct  (as 
above)  or  i'iii-cr«e  (a  distinction  which  cannot  here  be  ex- 
plainedV  The  important  uses  of  these  functions  can  only 
be  briefly  illustrated.  If.  for  example,  the  equations  of 
two  conic  sections  are,  by  transformation,  brought  to  their 
simplest  (or  "cnnonicai")  forms,  and  their  invariants 
( which  for  these  forms  are  comparatively  simple)  calculated, 
any  homogeneous  relation  found  to  exist  between  them 
may  be  predicted  for  them,  no  matter  to  what  axes  the 
equations  are  referred.  By  this  means  we  can  with  facility 
obtain  i/eneral  solutions  for— e. . 7.  the  condition  that  two 
conies  shall  touch  each  other:  that  a  triangle  inscribed  in 
one  shall  circumscribe  the  other:  the  equations  of  tangents 
to  a  conic  at  its  intersection  with  any  right  line  :  the  equa- 
tions of  the  four  common  tangents  to  any  two  conies,  etc. 
etc.  The  first-named  condition — or.  more  generally,  the 
condition  that  any  two  curves  should  (one/,— is  expressed 
by  the  vanishing  of  an  invariant  function  of  the  coefficients 
of  the  curve-equations,  called  the  tHci-inrarfanl. 

J.  G.  BAHNAnD. 

In'vcr  GrovP,  tp.  of  D,akota  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  971. 

Inverness',  town  of  Scotland,  the  capital  of  Inverness- 
shire,  on  the  Ness,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Jloray  Frith. 
It  has  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  hemp  stuUs 
and  extensive  shipbuilding  docks.     Pop.  14,463. 


•If  a  liomoffcncous  function  in  1-  variables  be  differenliaied 
wirli  respect  to  each,  1  he  resultant  expression  nrlsine  rroui  the 
.liMMuation  of  the  variables  from  the  t- differentials  is  c:>l  ed 
the  ill.frrimintml  of  the  function  ;  as  it  is  also  t1ieWimin^«r  ol  the 
it-  expressions,  arisini  frcmi  the  dilTerentiation  It  nuiy  he 
written  BS  a  Petkrminant  (which  see\  of  whuh  each  row  is 
formed  of  the  coetBeients  of  one  of  the  *  differentials. 


INVERNESS— IXVEKTKBKATA. 


1277 


Inverness*  the  westerDinnsi  co.  of  Cape  Breton  Islnnd* 
belonging  to  Nova  Suotia.  It  has  u  fertile  soil  and  beds 
of  froofl  coal.  Cattle,  produce,  and  fish  arc  exported.  Cap. 
Port  Hood.     Pop.  2:j,41u. 

Inverness,  post-v.,cap.  of  Megantic  co.,  Quohcc,  Can- 
a'la.  it  has  a  largo  trade,  a  tanner^',  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pup.  of  sub-district,  2741. 

InvcrnosSy  tp.  of  Cheboygan  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  S.  side 
of  Mackinaw  Straits.     Pop.  V2'JZ. 

Inverncss'-shirc,  county  of  Scotland,  bounded  N.  and 
W.  by  Ilo-s  shire  an"i  the  Atlantic,  and  S.  and  E.  by  the 
counties  of  Perth,  Aberdeen,  and  Nairn.  Some  of  the 
Western  Islands,  among  which  arc  Skyc  and  Harris,  be- 
long to  it.  Area,  4200  square  miles.  'Pop.  S7,IS0.  The 
western  part  is  wibl,  rug'j;ed,  but  well- wooded  mountain- 
land:  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest  peak  in  Great  Britain,  is 
•i  106  feet  high.  In  the  eastern  part  arc  extensive  tracts  of 
heath,  yet  about  43.000  acres  Arc  under  a  regular  rotation 
of  crops,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  and  the  county  contains 
excellent  pastures,  especially  for  sheep,  of  wliich  it  pos- 
sessed 4j2,79'>  in  1S.VJ.  Wool  and  oats  arc  its  chief  ex- 
pr)rts.     The  tiaelic  language  predominates  in  this  county. 

Inverse' [Lat.  iuverto].  If  two  mathematical  operations 
arc  exactly  contrary  to  each  other,  either  is  said  to  be  tlio 
inverse  of  the  other.  Thus,  addition  an<l  subtraction,  mul- 
tiplication and  division,  diiTcrcntiation  and  integration,  arc 
inverse  oper.ations.  If  two  varying  quantities  are  so  con- 
nected that  either  is  a  funetion  of  tlio  other,  and  if  one  is 
called  the  ttircrt  function,  the  other  is  called  the  iuvasc 
function.  Thus,  if  wc  regard  a  sine  as  a  direct  function  of 
the  cnrrespoading  arc,  the  fire  is  an  inverse  function  of  the 
sine;  this  relation  is  syuibolizcd  by  the  expressions  ;/  -^t  sin  jr, 
and  .*•  ^  sin  "*y.  If  wc  denote  the  form  of  any  direct  func- 
tion by  Ihc  symbol  »>,  and  the  form  of  the  corresponding 
inverse  function  by  >^~',  there  may  be  two  cases:  (I)  when 
both  of  (ho  equations,  «>[«^  i(j*)]=ar,  and  0-'[«^(j-)]  =ar, 
are  satisfied;  and  (2)  when  botli  these  equations  arc  not 
satisfied.  In  the  former  case  the  direct  and  inverse  aro 
said  to  be  convertible;  in  the  latter  case  thoy  aro  said  to  bo 
iHcuuvcrtiblc.  Every  direct  function  has  one  convertible 
invcrxe.  and  in  addition  may  have  one  or  more  that  arc  in- 
convertible.    Thus,  if  wc  liave  the  relation 

.V-x2._2x,  (1) 

and  regard  y  as  the  direct  function,  wo  have,  by  solution, 

j-=  1  +  l/l  ^-I/   and   x^\-  V \  +  y.  (2) 

Both  these  values  of  x,  when   substitutec!   in  equation  (!) 

verify  it,  but  the  value  of  //  taken  from  (I)  does  not  verify 

both  of  equations  (2)  ;   hence,  both  values  of  a  arc  inverse 

functions  of  j-'-  —  2x,  but  both  nrc  not  convertible.     Let  us 

replace  if  in  tlie  second  member  of  equations  (2) ;  we  have 

I  4-  j/ 1  4."(j:f-2.r)  =  1  -f-  (x  -  1)  =  a:,  and 

\  ~V\-\-{x^-2x)  =  \  ~{x-\)==2-x. 

The  first  result  shows  that  the  Hrst  value  of  x  is  convertible, 

and  the  t^ccond  result  shows  that  the  second  value  of  x  is 

inconvertible.     There  is  a  class  of  functions  each  of  which 

is  its  own  inverse,  as  1  —  a*,  — ,  V I  —  x"^.       W,  G.  Peck. 

X 

Inver'sion,  in  music,  a  term  of  frequent  use  to  denote 
cerlain  i-hangts  in  meh)dies,  chords,  or  harmonics,  hy  which 
(  1 )  the  motion  of  an  air  is  rt'versed,  or  (2)  an  intereliangc 
\9  mad*!  between  the  upper  and  lower  terms  of  single  chords, 
or  of  voices  in  a  composition  conjjisting  iif  two  or  more  pari?. 
A  iiieinf/if  is  said  to  bo  invrrled  when  its  motitDi  upward  or 
downward  is  reversed,  as  if  it  were  turned  upside  down. 
This  is  also  called  rerertiiim.  A  flmrd  is  inverted  wlien  the 
lower  note  is  not  the  root  or  fundamental  bass,  but  is  the 
original  third,  fifth,  or  seventh,  elc. ;  just  ns,  in  an  arrange- 
ment i»f  tho  figures  I,  ?,,  [>,  we  might  *'  invert"  them  thus, 
^,  1, .'»,  or  .0,  3,  I .  A  hfirmouizrd  themr  or  Fuhjcct  is  inverted 
when  any  two  or  more  of  its  parts  change  places,  (ho  higher 
bceontiiig  the  lower,  and  tho  lower  the  higher. 

1.  The  invrrsinn  of  a  m/7of/r/  affects  nothing  but  the  up- 
warcl  or  <lnwuward  motion  in  its  progre??.  I'^aeh  vpivnrd 
step  is  answered  in  the  inversion  by  a  dotrntrttnl  step  cor- 
responding to  it,  interval  for  interval.  Of  such  inversions 
(or  reversions)  of  melody  there  aro  two  kinds — viz.  tho 
nimfilr  and  the  atrirt.  In  "  simple  "  inversion  it  is  suflieient 
tliiif  the  same  motion  from  dt-grce  to  degree  on  th<'  scale 
siioiild  be  preserved,  even  though  a  step  of  a  wliole  tone  in 
the  theme  may  often  become  a  semitone  in  the  reply,  and 
vice  r*T«/(.  In  **  strict  "  inversion  the  reply  is  the  rxrift  cou- 
trary  of  the  theme.  Tho  wbolr  tones  are  aiiswend  liy  whole 
tones,  and  semitones  by  semitones,  so  that  the  intervals 
mntle  from  note  to  note  in  the  progress  of  the  invrrsioii  aro 
precisely  like  those  of  tho  original  theme. or  sulijeot. 

2.  Invfrnittn  uf  i^hurdn. — The  normal  or  natural  position 
of  a  chord  is  that  in  which  tho  lowest  note  is  its  funda- 
mental liass,  prime,  or  root,  the  other  several  elements 
(third,  fifOi,  etc.)  heing  built  upon  this,  and  deriving  from 


it  their  names,  uses,  and  relations.  So  long  as  the  nctutil 
bass  of  a  chord  is  the  prime  or  root,  such  chord  retains  its 
fundamental  form,  whatever  may  be  the  "changes  of  posi- 
tion" assumed  liy  the  upper  parts.  But  when  a  new  form 
is  given  to  Ilie  chord  by  placing  its  original  third,  fifth,  etc. 
in  the  bass,  and  putting  the  fundamental  note  among  tho 
higher  parts,  the  chord  is  said  to  be  imcrlcd. 

3.  Tho  inversion  of  a  harmonized  snljcrt  consisting  of 
two  or  more  parts  or  voices  is  when  a  higher  and  a  lower 
part  change  places — r.'j.  when  the  bass  is  so  elevated  as  to 
become  the  Irclile,  and  the  treble  so  lowered  as  to  become 
the  buss.  Inversions  of  this  nature  constitute  what  is  called 
"double  counterpoint,"  and  the  simplest  kind  is  that  in 
which  one  of  the  parts  is  removed  an  orUtvf:  towards  tho 
other.  Of  course,  in  this  process  all  the  intervals  are  re- 
versed, a  third  becoming  a  sixth,  a  fourth  a  third,  and  so 
on.  By  such  inversions  major  intervals  become  minor,  and 
minor  become  major;  diminished  intervals  are  changed 
into  augmented,  and  r.ice  versa. 

Anotiier  species  of  inversion  is  that  called  retroffrndc, 
in  which  a  composition  is  so  ingeniously  constructed  as 
to  be  read,  first,  in  tho  usual  manner,  and  second,  in  a 
backward  direction.  Reverse  rctrntpode  is  that  in  wliich 
the  parts  arc  not  only  to  be  read  backward,  but  are  also 

inverted. 

There  is  also  a  donhle  reverse  retrograde,  in  which  tho 
construction  is  siicli  that  the  copy  may  be  turned  njisidc 
down,  rend  then  played  with  good  effect.  Under  such  a 
process  it  is  evident  that  not  only  are  the  notes  read  back- 
ward, but  the  upper  and  the  lower  parts  change  places,  tho 
order  of  letters  on  the  stave  is  changed,  the  clefs  are  al- 
tered, and  the  rhythmical  movement  of  the  notes  exactly 
reversed.  William  ^^tatnton. 

Invertebra'ta,  a  term  in  zoology  applied  collectively 
to  the  various  subdivisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  that 
differ  from  thcVcrfebrata  in  wanting  all  trace  of  an  osseous 
(or  cartilaginous)  spinal  column,  or  back-bone,  made  up  of 
numerous  distinct  bones  termed  vertebra?.  Aristotle,  .TIC 
years  before  our  era,  recognized  this  distinction  in  the 
animal  kingdom  where  he  says  ;  "  All  sanguineous  animals 
have  either  a  bony  or  a  spinous  column;"  but  it  was  not 
until  the  time  of  Cuvier  thai  the  terms  vertebrate  and  in- 
vertebrate came  into  use  amongst  naturalists.  Cuvicr  and 
Lamarck,  after  introrUieing  those  terms,  speedily  a[iprc- 
hcndcd  that  the  divisions  thus  designated  were  by  no  means 
of  equal  value,  and  that  the  Invcrtcbratn,  as  a  group,  con- 
tained animals  construct eil  on  Severn  1  widely  diiVercnt 
types,  any  one  of  which  presented  distinctive  characters 
equal  in  importance  to  those  of  the  Vertebrafn.  Linntcus 
had  constructed  four  of  his  six  great  clas.^es  out  of  what 
Cuvier  now  unificM  as  Ihc  vertebrates,  the  remaining  two, 
/nsecta  ami  \'enneii,  including  the  heterogeneous  inverte- 
brates. Cuvier,  regarding  tho  former  as  a  single  sub-king- 
dom, subdivided  the  laltcr  into  thre*^  other  suh-kingdoms, 
which  he  respectively  termed  from  the  arrangenienls  of 
their  parts  Jiodinta,  Articuialfi,iUid  Mnlhf<-a.  This  triplo 
division  of  the  invertebrates  was  for  a  time  universally 
accepted,  and  is  even  now,  with  one  modification,  very 
generally  received.  It  was  soon  noticed  that  Cu\'ier'3 
Uadiata  contained  forms  that  could  not  he  niiturally  asso- 
ciated together  hy  structural  clmraeters  :  in  fact,  in  many 
cases  the  organization  was  so  undefined  that  the  creatures 
could  not  reasonnhlv  he  assigned  to  any  of  the  sub-king- 
doms ;  a  new  sub-kingdom  was  therefore  established,  to 
whieh  these  lowest  of  animals  were  relegated.  This  lifth 
suh-kingdom  was  named  Protitzoa.^' 

But  tho  rapid  inercaso  of  zoological  knowledge,  and  (ho 
desire  to  arrive  at  a  natural  classification,  havo  from  time 
to  time  suggested  the  necessity  of  further  essential  modifi- 
cations of  the  Cuvierian  groups.  Classes,  or  groups  of 
classes,  have  been  elevated  to  the  rank  of  suh-kingdoma 
(or  hranchcHy  as  they  arc  now  termed  by  some  authors) ;  and 
in  tho  course  of  those  changes  tho  Hacliafa  havo  been 
broken  up  au'l  the  name  expunged  altogether  from  Ihc  list 
of  primary  divisions.  As  yet,  no  one  of  (he  new  ehissifi- 
eations  has  been  found  allogether  satisfactory,  hut.  beiui; 
founded  on  etahorate  investigations  on  tho  embryology  nntl 
lifo-history  of  tho  various  forms,  they  are  each  and  all  slcjis 
in  the  right  direction,  since  it  is  only  by  applying  our 
knowh'clge  i.f  the  laws  of  development  that  we  can  Impe  to 
attain  to  classifications  that  shall  express  the  true  relation- 
ships of  living  heings.  To  enable  tho  inquirer  to  realize 
tho  changes  that  havo  been  proposed  in  the  classifienlion 
of  Ihe  Inverlehrata.  aiul  to  eorrelnte  the  different  arrange- 
ments, we  apjMMid  the  ehissillealion  ]irop»uiTnled  hy  Prof. 
Huxley  in  lii.s  Introdxrtinn  to  the  Cfiianijiruti^n  uf  Animah, 
and  that  given  by  Prof.  Rolloston  in  hiH  Furm»  of  Animal 

•  Simio  authors,  n«  Brown,  have  snb!4iitiile<l  the  terms  Am- 
nrphiizott  for  I'rolo/oa;  Actinozoa  for  Kiidiala ;  MaUicuzoa  for 
Mnlhisca;  /■^ntvinozoa  for  Arlicutata;  and  Spomlt/lozoa  for  Verte- 
l)r;ita. 


1278 


INVESTITURE— INVOLUTE. 


Liff,  founded  upon  the  sub-kingdoms  of  Gcgenbaur.     The 
former  will  serve  to  show  the  differences  between  the  mod- 
ern and  tiie  Cuvierian   systems,  whilst  the  latter  will  indi- 
cate by  means  of  the  connecting  linesthc  affinities  that  may 
be  supposed  to  exist  between  the  various  sub-kingdoms; 
Tabh  of  the  Primary  Grnupn  of  the  fiiixrtebrata,  after 
Huxley. 
II.  Mollusea.  IV.  Annulosa. 

III.  JloUuseoidea.  V.  Annuloida. 

VI.  Cielcnterata.  VII.  Infusoria. 

VIII.  Protozoa. 

Trihle  of  the  Claitees  of  the  hivertehrntrt,  after  Huxley. 
("The  limits  of  the  Cuvierian  sub-kini,'<h>ms  are  indicated  by 
dottrf  lines  1  of  Huxley's  primary  groups  by  brackets  with 
numbers.) 

.  MrilliLWa,  Cuv.  Artiailata,  CVr.  . 

I    [II.  repbalopoda.  |  (IV.  Insectif.  > 

I  PtfTopoda.  I  Myriapoda.  | 

I  Pulinocasteropoda.  '  Araclinida.  i 

I  Itraiicliiocasteropoda.      1  Crustacea.  ' 

I  Lamellibranchiala.]        •  Annelida.  | 

'  Chietognatha.]         . 

I  [III.  Ascidioida.  1 ' 

I           Braehiopoda.  i  I 
I             [V.  Scoleeida. 


I. 


Polyzoa.] 


I  fVI.  Actinozoa. 
I  Hydrozoa.] 


Echinoderraata.] 
Ha'imta,  Cuv.    [^^I.  lafusoria.] 


I. 


fVIII.  Gregarinidte. 

Rhizopoda. 
Radinlaria. 
Spongidffi.] 


Tabular  View  of  the   Cfastifirnflon   of  the  Tnvcrtehratn   (as 
adopted  by  Prof.  RoUeston  ;  the  arraugemcnt  of  sub-king- 
doms after  Gegcnbaur) : 
In  sent  a, 
Aracbnida.    Myriapodft. 
Arthropod  A. 
Crustacea. 

IIolotluiToidpa.    Echinoidea. 

ECHINODERSIATA. 

Crinoidea.    Astcroidca. 

Cephalopoda 
Pteropoda. 

Gasteropoda. 
MOLLCSCA.  Lamcilibranchiata. 

Tunicata. 
Braehiopoda. 
Polyzoa. 


Gephyrea.    Annulata.— 
Rotifcra. 

Vermes. 
Neniatelmintlies. 
Piatyelminthes. 


Infusoria.    Spon^adse.^ 
Protozoa.'' 
Rhizopoda. 
Gregarinte. 


Ctenophora. 
C<eli:nterata. 
Anthozoa. 

Hydrozoa. 


Edward  0.  11.  Day. 


Inves'titure  [Lat.  inr«f("o,  to  "clothe**],  as  a  feudal 
custom,  was  the  open  delivery  of  possession  ("the  livery 
of  seisin  ")  of  a  fief  by  the  lord  to  his  vassal.  This,  in  an 
age  when  writing  was  rare,  was  etT'eeted  by  means  of  some 
visible  ceremonial  and  symbol,  such  as  giving  the  branch 
of  a  tree  or  some  material  object  that  would  evidence  the 
convcyauco  to  public  knowledge  and  permanent  remem- 
brance. In  the  Church,  after  the  analogy  of  feudal  cus- 
tom, investiture  was  an  open  confirmation  in  ecclesiastical 
office  by  some  symbolical  act  or  emblem,  such  as  the  be- 
stownient  of  the'palHum  or  crosier  and  ring,  as  ensigns  of 
official  honor  or  of  pastoral  charge  and  spiritual  espousals. 
The  claim  of  the  prerogative  of  such  investiture  of  an  ec- 
clesiastic by  the  political  ruler  was  for  centuries  matter  of 
controversy  between  the  hierarchy  and  the  monarchy — a 
controversy  which  interests  not  only  as  an  important  factor 
in  the  history  of  mcditeval  Europe,  but  as  a  reflex  of  its 
condition  and  ideas  as  respects  the  relations  between  the 
secular  and  spiritual  powers.  This  right  of  investiture  was 
claimed  in  behalf  of  secular  power  as  an  appanage  of  the 
monarchy  inherited  from  the  old  Roman  empire,  and  also 
on  the  ground  that  the  episcopal  office,  with  the  temporal- 
ities attaching  in  the  feudal  ages  of  manorial  estates,  priv- 
ileges, honors,  and  cniolumenls,  was  to  be  regarded  in  the 
nature  of  a  fief,  and  to  be  bestowed  with  a  like  ceremonial 
by  the  lord  paramount.  The  claim  was  resisted  on  the  al- 
legation that  laymen  could  not  bestow  the  authority  for 
priestly  functions,  a.**  was  tokened  by  the  ring  and  the  cro- 
sier, and  that  the  degradation  and  corruption  of  the  Church 
sprang  from  this  usurpation  and  the  simoniacal  practices 


and  oppressive  exactions  inevitably  attendant  on  lay  in- 
vestiture. 

In  the  early  Church,  Constantino  and  the  Christian  em- 
perors, as  iiiheriturs  of  the  ]>ontifieal  rights  of  their  pagan 
predecessors,  undoulitedly  exercised  the  prerogative  of  con- 
firmation after  episci>pal  elections.     After  the  fall  of  tho 
empire  of  the  West  the  Gothic  and  Lombard  kings  claimed 
the  same  power  as  successors  to  the  prerogatives  of  the  Ro- 
man empire.     After  them  this  claim  was  exercised  by  tho 
Frank   monarchy — by  the  Merovingians,  the  prerogative 
of  even  direct  episcopal  nomination  :  by  the  Carlovingians, 
that  of  the  investiture  of  the  pope  himself.    It  was  the  aim 
of  Charlemagne  to  establish  a  theocratic  monarchy,  in  which 
the  emperor  was  to  bo  supreme  lord  so  far  as  earthly  or- 
ganization or  administration  was  rcfiuired.    The  successors 
of  Charlemagne  claimed,   and   often  exercised,  the   same 
rights  of  suzerainty  over  the  Church.     This  claim,  how- 
ever, was  contesteil,  resisted,  or  eluded  on  every  opportu- 
nity ;  and  such  opportunity  constantly  offered  during  tho 
dissensions  of  the  descendants  of  Charlemagne,  which  often 
led  them  to  seek  the  aid  of  tho  clergy  and  to  appeal  to  tho 
Church  and  the  pope  as  arbiters  in  their  controversies  with 
each  other.     So  for  centuries  tlie  prerogative  of  investiture 
was  asserted  and  exercised,  denied  antl  resisted,  according 
to  the  character  and  position  of  individual  monarchs  and 
popes.     In  876,  Charles  tho  Raid  formally  renounced  his 
claims  as  superior  of  the  states  of  the  Church  and  all  con- 
trol of  elections  to  the  papacy,  and  aceeptdl  a  papal  viear 
as  priraate  for  all   Germany.      In   OS.'i,  Otlio  I.  made  tho 
Romans  swear  on  the  relics  of  St.  Peter  they  would  never 
afterwards  elect  or  consecrate  a  pope  without  the  permis- 
sion ami  approbation  of  the  emperor.     Sylvester  II.  (999- 
100.3).  on  the  other  hand,  directly  assailed  lay  investiture 
as  the  source  of  simony  and  the  cancer  of  the  Church,  and 
himself  sent  the  crosier  and  the  ring  directly  to  Arnulf, 
elected  as  archbishop  of  Rheims.     Again,  Henry  HI.  in 
1047  received  of  tho  Romans  the  admission  of  his  perpet- 
ual right  of  choosing  the  pope,  and  their  oath  that  they 
would  never  consecrate  a  pope  without  the  emperor's  con- 
sent.     This    controversy   was    brought    to   a   crisis   when 
Hildebrand,   as  prime-mover  of  the   papacy,   or  as   pop© 
(Gregory  VII..   1073-So).   developed    his    policy  of   mak- 
ing the   Church    independent    of   all    secular    power,  and 
ultimately   supreme  amid  the  governments  of  the   worhl. 
Under  his  instigation,  Alexander  II.   (lOCl-72)  issued  a 
decree  against  all  lay  investiture.    Tn  the  Lateran  Council, 
held  by  himself  as  Gregory  VII.  (1075),  it  was  again  de- 
nounced, and  every  bishop  or  abbot  accepting  it  was  ile- 
posed  and  those  bestowing  it  were  excommunicated.    These 
decrees  brought   the  papal  and  imperial  power  at  direct 
issue,  and  the  factions  that  arose  therefrom,  the  Guelphs 
ami  the  Gbibellines — the  former  the  party  of  the  pope,  tho 
latter  that  of  the  emperor — distracted  Germany  and  con- 
vulsed and  wasted  Italy  for  a  long  period  with  eivil  dis- 
cord   and   war.       The   fortunes   of  tins   controversy   were 
various.     Tn   its  course  Henry  IV.  was  reduced  (1077)  to 
tho  humiliation  of  .standing  in  a  cold  winter  from  the  25th 
to  the  27th  of  January,  barefoot  and  in  the  garb  of  a  peni- 
tent, fasting  the  whole  day,  in  the  open  court   of  the  castle 
of  Canossa,  before  the  pope  would  accept  his  repentance 
and  submission  and  give  him  absolution.      Presently,  tho 
strife  was  renewed  still  more  fiercely,  and  the  pope  died  in 
ejile.      The  dispute  was  continued  under  his  successors, 
until,  under  Henry  A',  aud  Calixtus  II.,  it  was  settled   by 
the  enncordat  of  Worms  (112;J)  that  henceforth  all  episco- 
pal elections   should  be    conducted    by  the    laws   of    the 
Church,    but  in  the  presence  of    the  emperor,  and    that 
spiritual  investiture  by  the  crosier  aud  the  riug  should  bo 
bestowed  by  the  pope,  but  for  temporalities,  enfeoffment 
should  be  by  the  emperor  with  the  sceptre.    In  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe  the  controversy  respecting  lay  investiture 
had  like  fortunes  and  results.     In  France  investiture  by 
the  ring  and  crosier  was  relinquished  by  the  monarchs, 
and  episcopal  benefices  were  bestowed  through  written  in- 
struments or  orally.      In    England.  Gregory  VII..  during 
the  controversy  with  Germany  on   his  hands,  forebore  to 
press  the  question  to  an  open  breach  with  the  iron  will  of 
William  the  Conqueror.     It  came  to  open  quarrel  between 
William   Rufus    and   .Anselm,  archbishop  of    Canterbury. 
and    pope   Paschal    II..   but   was   finally   adjusted    by   an 
agreement  that  for  investiture  with   the  crosier  and  ring 
should   bo  substituted  the  simple  oath   of    fealty.      Thus 
everywhere,  in  the  issue,  the  symbols  of  strictly  priestly 
investiture  were  relinquished  by  the  secular  authority,  but 
the  feudal  obligation   was  asserted  for  temporalities    at- 
tached to  ecclesiastical  benefices.  T.  iSl.  Post. 

In'volllte  [Lat.  i  it  vol  nt  to].  If  we  wrap  a  string  around 
a  given  curve,  and  then  unwrap  it,  keeping  the  string 
stretched,  each  pctint  of  the  string  will  generate  a  curve 
called  an  involute  of  the  given  curve.     This  mode  of  gene- 


INYO-IODOFORM. 


1279 


ration  implies  that  the  given  curve  is  represented  by  a 
pattern  cut  out  of  some  r'l^ul  material,  as  wood  or  metal. 
Thus,  to  draw  au  involute  of  a  circle,  we  cut  out  a  circular 
pattern,  around  which  we  wrap  a  strinj;:  we  then  lay  the 
pattorn  on  a  plane  surface,  attach  a  pt-nril  or  tracing-point 
at  some  point  of  the  string,  and  unwrap  the  string;  the 
pencil  or  point  will  trace  out  the  rt'(|uired  involute.  It 
IS  obvious  that  the  same  curve  may  have  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  involutes;  hence,  to  find  any  particular  involute 
we  must  know  one  of  its  points.  To  find  the  erjuation  of 
an  involute,  let  the  equation  of  the  given  cvolutc  be 

.V=/(«./3).         .  ..(1) 

anil  nssiimc  (he  second  and  tliird  equations  of  coDdition  for 
an  osculatory  circle,  whicb  arc 

,-3  =  -^^,  (2) 

'  —  =  -%(!l-^).  (3) 

in  which  a  and  3  arc  the  co-ordinates  of  the  centre  of  any 
circle  that  is  o^L-ulatnry  to  the  required  involute.  Com- 
bining (1),  (2}f  and  (.T),  so  as  to  eliminate  a  and  p.  we  have 
a  differential  equation  of  the  second  order,  which  is  com- 
mon to  the  whole  class  of  involutes.  Integrating  this 
equation  twice,  and  determining  the  values  of  the  con- 
stants, so  as  to  conform  to  the  given  conditions,  we  find  the 
equation  of  the  requirecl  involute.  W.  G.  Peck. 

In'yo,  county  of  California,  lying  mostly  E.  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  Nevada, 
Area,  1725  square  miles.  It  is  a  great  basin  whoso  waters 
do  not  flow  into  the  sea.  Owen's  Lake  is  ihe  largest  body 
of  water.  The  valleys  contain  much  fertile  land.  Gold- 
boaring  quartz  is  niine<l  and  milled.     Salt  is  found  in  some 

farts.  Wool,  grain,  and  p<jrk  are  staple  products.  Cap. 
nJcpendence.  Pop.  Htj)>. 
I'o,  in  Grecian  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Tnaehus, 
bnt  was  transformed  into  a  beautiful  white  cow  by  Zeus, 
who  was  enamored  of  her.  and  wished  to  conceal  the  affair 
from  his  jealous  wife.  Here,  however,  became  suspicious, 
anil  set  -Vrgos  with  the  humlred  eyes  to  watch  her;  and 
when  Hermes  slew  Argos,  she  sent  a  gad-fly,  which  pur- 
sued lo  from  place  to  ])lace  all  over  the  earth,  until  at  last 
she  found  rest  in  Egypt.  She  appears  in  Prnmrthrui  an»i 
The  SnppiiftntH  by  i-Eschylus.  By  the  synil)olioal  school 
of  modern  inythologists  she  is  identified  with  the  moon,  as 
Argos  with  the  starry  sky  and  Hermes  with  the  morning. 

I'odine  [Gr.  twiri?,  ''violet-like,"  from  lov,  **a  violet," 
and  fl6o«,  ''form  "I  (atomic  weight,  127;  symbol  I),  an 
element  discovered  by  M.  Court<»i3  of  Paris  in  l>^12  in  the 
mother-liquor  from  the  kelp  or  ash  of  seaweed  which  had 
been  burned  in  order  to  obtain  sodium  carbonate.  It  has 
since  been  found  in  many  mineral  waters,  in  sea-water,  in 
seaweeds,  especially  Laminari:e  and  Fucoids — in  sponges, 
oysters,  and  other  forms  of  marine  life.  Cod-liver  oil  con- 
tains from  fl.f);J  to  0.0 1  per  cent,  of  ioclinc'  It  is  found  also 
in  many  land-plants,  as  toltaceo  and  water-cresses,  nn<l 
even  in  potatoes,  beans,  barley,  and  oats,  f'ertain  min- 
erals also  contain  it,  though  those  containing  it  as  an  essen- 
tial constituent  are  comparatively  rare.  Such  are  iodyritc, 
or  silver  iorlide,  found  among  silver  deposits  in  Mexico, 
Chili,  and  Spain,  and  coccinite,  or  mercury  iodide,  found 
in  Mexico,  Iodine  also  oecurs  as  an  accidental  constitu- 
ent in  some  dolomites,  where  it  is  combined  with  calcium 
and  magnesium:  in  several  deposits  of  alkaline  salts,  as 
Chili  saltpetre  and  rock-salt.  In  some  cases  it  has  been 
found  in  tho  products  from  gasworks,  as  the  ammonia- 
liquor.  Chalin  claimed  to  have  found  it  in  tlie  waters  of 
several  rivers,  and  in  the  rain-water,  and  even  the  atmo- 
sphere, of  certain  localities.  It  has  been  claimed,  however, 
that  tho  reagents  used  by  him  themselves  contained  minute 
traces  of  iodine. 

iWpnraiitin  <»/  fodi'ne. — Tho  sources  from  which  tho 
iodine  of  commerce  is  derived  are  kelp  and  Chili  saltpetre. 
The  former  contains  0.1G2  to  0.17j  per  cent.  Tho  carboni- 
zation of  the  seaweed  is  usually  conducted  in  closed  ves- 
sels, in  order  to  prevent  loss  by  volatilization.  Tho  kelp 
i^  lixivialc'l,  ami  the  liquors  arc  concentrated  and  cooled, 
in  order  to  crystallize  out  tho  sulphates,  ehloricles.  and  car- 
bonates of  potassium  and  sodium:  and  frrun  the  niorhcr- 
liquor  tho  iodine  is  extractcil  either  liy  heating  with  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid',  with  or  without  nmnganese  di- 
oxide, or  by  precipitation  as  copper  subiodide  by  iron  and 
a  salt  of  copper ;  i^rom  which  product  the  imline  is  expelled 
by  treatment  with  sulphuric  nr-id  and  manganese  dioxide. 
The  use  of  sulphuric  acid  without  the  manganese  com- 
pound is  not  advantageous,  ns  sulphurous  acid  forms,  which 
reacts  upon  the  iodine  and  cau.ses  a  loss  of  iodine.  Chlorine 
is  also  somctinies  used  to  precipitate  the  io.Iine  from  the 
mother-liqui»rs.  An  excess  of  chlorine  must  be  carefully 
avoided,  since  that  would  cause  the  iodine  to  go  into  solu- 


tion again  as  iodine  chloride.  Washing  and  a  second  sub- 
limation of  the  iodine  is  usually  resorted  to  in  order  to 
purify  tho  product  for  market.  Glasgow  is  the  chief  port 
for  tho  manufacture  and  export  of  iodine  from  kelp.  Tho 
process  of  extraction  of  iodine  from  the  Chili  saltpetre  is 
essentially  the  same  as  that  pursued  with  the  kelp. 

Propcrtien. — Commercial  iodine,  especially  when  obtained 
from  kelp,  often  contains  cyanogen  iodide,  sometimes  to 
the  extent  of  1  per  cent ;  it  also  may  contain  up  to  15  or 
20  per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
coal,  charcoal,  plnnibago,  or  manganese  dioxide.  Iodine 
ie  a  dark  crystalline  solid,  with  a  color  and  lustre  resem- 
bling plumbago.  Its  odor  is  like  that  of  chlorine.  It 
fuses  at  107°  C.  (=22^.fi°  F.),  and  boils  between  17j**  and 
180°  C.  (.347-:t6G°  F.).  It  is  volatile  At  ordinary  temper- 
atures, tho  vapor  having  a  fine  violet  color,  whence  the 
name  is  derived  (Gr.  iuiiij?,  "violet-colored").  In  a  state 
of  vapor  it  is  one  of  the  heaviest  vapors  known,  its 
gravity  referred  to  air  being  S.7I6.  It  dissolves  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and.  carbon  disulphide,  also  in  water  contjiining 
soluble  iodides  or  aminoniuni  chloride  or  nitrate.  In  pure 
water  it  dissolves  only  in  the  proportion  of  I  part  in  llHUl. 
AVifh  starch  it  forms  an  intensely  blue  compound,  and  this 
is  one  of  tho  most  delicate  tests  used  for  the  detection  of 
its  presence,  as  the  color  is  app.arent  when  but  1  part  of 
incline  is  present  in  450.000  of  water.  It  is  displaced  from 
its  compounds  by  chlorine  and  bromine.  It  destro^'s  vege- 
table colors  but  slowly;  its  action  on  organized  tissue  is 
more  rapid.  Taken  into  the  stomach  in  large  quantity,  it 
produces  ulceration  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  death. 
Starch  or  starchy  substances  are  the  usual  antidotes. 

Conipounrlt. — Iodine  combines  with  hydrogen,  forming 
hydriodic  acid,  which  has  very  similar ])roperties  to  hydro- 
chloric (muriatic)  acid.  It  also  combines  directly  with  met- 
als, forming  iodides.  The  principal  compounds  with  oxy- 
gen and  the  metals  are  the  iodntes  and  pcriodates.  The 
oxides  corresponding  to  these  salts  arc  I2O5  and  I-jO;, 
These  comi>ounds  decompose  reaiUly.  giving  up  their  oxy- 
gen, and  some  explode  violently  on  being  struck  or  heated. 
With  ammonia,  iodine  forms  a  compound,  NI3.  which  when 
dry  explodes  violently  with  tho  slightest  friction.  Cad- 
mium iodide  is  used  in  ])hotograi)l)y.  usually  in  conjunction 
with  iodide  of  potassium,  for  sensitizing  collodion.  (See 
PnoTocJKAi'UV.)  One  of  tho  most  important  ap]>lication3 
of  iodine  is  in  tho  manufacture  of  some  of  tho  aniline 
colors.  (See  Anili.ve  Colors.)  E.  Waller. 

Iodine,  Medicinal  Uses  of.  Iodine  is  used  in  medi- 
cine in  simple  schuioii  in  alcohol  or  dissolved  in  water  by 
the  aid  of  potassium  io{lido  {Lugol's  solution).  Locally, 
iodine  is  a  powerfal  irritant,  and  its  S(»lutions  stain  the  skin 
yellowish  brown.  Inhaled,  its  vapor  is  irritant  to  the 
mouth,  throat,  and  air-passages,  causing  coryza,  cough, 
watering  of  the  eyes,  and  headache.  Internally,  in  single 
(lose,  tho  effects  vary  according  to  the  quantity  swallowed, 
from  mere  uneasiness  in  the  stomach  to  severe  gastric  pain, 
with  vomiting  and  purging,  headache,  giildiness,  and, 
though  rarely,  even  general  prostration  and  death.  In 
eontinue<l  administration  of  considerable  doses  a  form  of 
chronic  poisoning  called  itxIiHin  occurs.  In  mild  cases  tho 
effects  arc  more  or  less  gas-trie  disturbance  with  increase  of 
tho  secretions,  irritation  of  the  mucous  racmhrano  of  tho 
eyes,  nose,  iind  throat,  with  frontal  heaiiache,  and  sometimes 
on  eruption  on  tho  face  around  tho  eyes  and  about  the  nose 
and  chin.  In  severe  types  there  may  be  also  a  general 
febrile  condition,  vomiting  and  purging  with  abdominal 
pain,  various  nervous  disturbances,  and,  according  to  some 
of  the  continental  observers,  a  tendency  to  absorption  of 
some  of  tho  tissues  of  the  body,  shown  by  emaciation  and 
wasting  of  certain  glands.  This  latter  effect,  however, 
must  ho  very  exceittiona!,  as  it  is  seblom  seen.  Iodine  is 
rapidlv  eliminated  from  the  body,  and  tho  poisonous  effects 
just  described  speedily  cease  on  discontinuance  of  the  drug. 
Preparations  of  iodine  are  used  locally  ns  counter-irritants, 
and  internally  they  have  smne  unknown  influence  over  nu- 
trition, pniving  useful  in  goitre,  certain  forms  of  scrofulous 
disease,  affections  of  the  iilir<t«s  and  muscular  tissues,  etc. 
For  internal  ailniinistratioii.  however,  the  alkaline  iodiiles. 
especially  potassium  ioiliile,  are  now  far  more  frequently 
used  than  solutions  of  ioiline.  These  salts  are  free  from 
tho  irritant  local  effect  of  iodine,  but  in  continued  ilosc  may 
cause  some  of  the  milder  symptoms  of  iodism  describcil 
above.  Medieiiniliy.  tliey  are  used  in  the  conditions  ju«t 
mentioned  untler  iodine  and  in  tertiary  syphilis,  chronic 
mercury  and  lead  poisoning,  and  indeed  in  a  great  variety 
of  diseases.  They  are  often  given  in  \k\t\  large  quantities 
and  with  perfect  safety.  EnwAnn  Ci'RTIs. 

lod'oform,  amethenylethcr,  CHI.i,  formed  by  the  mix- 
ing of  alcoholic  solutions  of  jiotassa  and  iodine.  It  is  in 
the  torm  of  small  glittering,  scaly,  yellow  crystals  of  a 
sweet  taste,  and  strong,  peculiar,  very  persistent  saffron- 


12.^0 


lOLA— IONIC  ORDER. 


like  odor.  It  is  slowly  volatile,  nearly  insoluble  in  water, 
hut  soluble  in  alcoliol,  ether,  and  uils.  It  i;*  deoomposed 
by  :iikalies  and  by  a  heat  of  2 JU°.  Iodoform  is  a  valuai>lo 
medicine,  being  anicsthetic  like  chloroform.  Unlike  the 
latter,  however,  it  is  totally  uuirritating,  even  to  nuicous 
mombraiics  or  abraded  surfaces.  On  account  of  its  solid 
form  it  cannot  be  employed  as  a  general  ana-sthctic  by  in- 
habit ion,  but  it  is  exceedingly  useful  as  a  local  application 
to  rt'liove  pain,  as  in  painful  ulcers,  sores,  irritated  or  in- 
flamed mucous  membranes.  It  seems  also  in  many  such 
cases  to  directly  promote  healing.  EowAnn  CntTis. 

lo'la,  post-v..  cap.  of  Allen  co.,  Kan.,  on  the  Lcavcn- 
WMiih  I-riwrcnee  nnd  Galveston  R.  R.,  78  miles  by  rail  S. 
of  Lawrence.  It  is  in  a  fine  agricultural  region:  has  a 
bank.  .">  churches,  and  manufactures  of  furniture  and  other 
goorb.  The  Neosho  furnishes  water-power,  and  there  is 
ail  unfailing  artesian  well  which  affords  a  mineral  water 
useful  in  a  wide  range  uf  disease,  and  which  also  supplies 
iiillainmable  gas  enough  to  afford  light  and  fuel  lor  a  large 
town.     It  has  I  weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  of  tp.  Ka'J. 

L.  Walker.  En.  "  Xnosno  Vallky  Register." 
lola,  ]iost-tp.  of  Waupacca  co.,  M' is.  Pop.  729. 
lola'us  [(Jr.  'I<iAao«],  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  cha- 
rioteer and  companion  of  Hercules,  to  whom  ho  was  the 
first  to  pay  divine  honors  after  his  death.  He  was  said  to 
have  been  the  first  victor  at  the  Olympian  chariot-r.ices, 
and  to  haveconriucred  and  civilized  the  island  ol' Sardinia, 
where  he  died  and  was  worshipped  as  a  hero. 

I'olitCf  a  mineral  crystallizing  in  the  triraetric  system, 
and  being  essentially  a  silicate  of  alumina,  magnesia,  and 
protoxide  of  iron.  Its  hardness  is  from  7.0  to  7.5;  specific 
gravity.  2. (J ;  in  color  it  occurs  of  various  shades  of  blue, 
and  exhibits  in  a  marked  manner  the  property  of  dichroism, 
or  of  presenting,  when  viewed  in  different  directions,  dif- 
ferent colors,  llcnce,  one  of  its  synonyms  is  dichroite. 
It  is  soinetinies  used  as  a  gem,  being  the  sapphire  d'cau  of 
jewellers,  obtained  from  Ceylon. 

I'on,  in  iirecian  mythology,  was  a  son  of  Apollo  and 
Crcusa.  the  daughter  of  King  Ercchtheus  of  Athens,  and 
was  brought  by  Hermes  to  his  father's  temple  at  Delphi, 
where  he  was  edaeatcd.  AVhen  Crcusa  married  Xulhos, 
but  bore  him  no  children,  a  false  oraclo  made  Xiithos  be- 
lieve that  Ion  was  his  son,  and  he  took  the  youth  into  his 
house.  Crcusa.  not  recognizing  him,  tried  to  poison  him, 
and  lied  to  Delphi,  where  a  priestess  told  her  that  Ion  was 
her  own  son.  This  myth  has  been  treated  by  Euripides  in 
his  tragedy  Ion. 

Ion,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Chios,  ranked  as  one  of 
the  five  jirineipal  tragic  poets  of  the  Atbeni.iii  canon,  and 
was  alsii  a  composer  of  other  kinds  of  poetry.  He  was 
contemporary  with  yEs;;hylus,  Sophocles,  and  Pericles,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Cimon.  and  on  one  occasion  carried 
off  bnth  the  ditliynunbic  and  the  tragic  prizes.  The  num- 
ber of  hi.^  tragedies  is  variously  stated  at  twelve,  thirty, 
and  forty.  A  few  fragments  of  eleven  remain,  also  some 
passages  of  other  poems  and  prose-writings,  preserved 
ehielly  in  Atheniuus.  Nieberding  (IS.'iG)  and  Kopkc(lS3G) 
liave  eilited  the  fragments  of  Ion,  with  notices  of  hid  life. 
lo'na,  or  IcolmUiir,  the  most  famous  island  of  the 
Hebridi-s,  W  miles  long  by  \\  broad,  was  colonized  in  udW 
by  St.  Coluiiiba  of  Ireland  with  twelve  disciples,  it  having 
been  grantecl  him  liy  the  kings  both  of  the  Scots  and  of 
tlic  Picts.  He  built  there  the  celebrated  monastery,  whit^h 
was  regarded  by  (he  Picts  as  their  mother  church,  and  from 
wliich  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Scotland  and  tlio 
N.  c)f  England.  lona  was  ravaged  l>y  the  Norsemen  in 
7'.>,'),  S02.  SDO,  825,  and  S'JO,  on  three  of  which  occasions 
most  of  the  monks  wore  martyred.  In  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  monastery  xvas  repaired  by  Queen  Margaret  the 
Saint,  and  in  10U7  a  pilgrimage  was  made  to  it  by  King 
Magnus  of  Norway.  For  two  centuries  thereafter  the 
jurisdiction  was  disputed  between  the  bishoprics  of  Scot 
land,  Ireland,  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  At  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  became  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of  the 
Sc(»ttish  isles,  and  was  repeopled  with  monks  from  Chiny. 
Many  kings  of  the  isles,  some  of  Northumbria,  and  even 
of  Norway,  were  buried  on  this  sacred  island,  which  has 
been  long  nearly  deserted,  the  present  population  being 
less  than  'iOO.  Of  late  it  has  become  a  resort  of  tourists. 
The  oldest  buildings  uf  which  ruins  exist  appear  to  be  (tf 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  (See  Dr.  Jolmson's 
interesting  account  of  his  pilgrimage  to  lona  in  the  Tour 
to  (fir  I/'hridcs.) 

lona  Island,  in  the  Hudson  River,  47  miles  N.  of 
New  York.  It  belongs  to  Cornwall  tp.,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  has 
o.\tensivc  vineyards,  and  is  a  favorite  point  for  picnics  and 
excursions  from  New  York. 

lo'nc,  Ip.  of  Amador  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  1779. 

lone,  tp.  of  Nye  co.,  Ncv.     Pop.  52. 


lone  Valley,  post-v.  of  Amador  co.,  Cal.,  40  miles 
S.  E.  of  Sacramento,  on  Sutter  Creek.  It  has  copper-mines, 
lo'nia^  the  ancient  name  of  a  portion  of  the  western 
sca-eoast  of  Asia  Minor,  upon  the  ^^gcan  Sea.  It  derived 
its  name  from  its  inliabitants,  the  supposed  descendants 
of  a  mythic  hero.  Ion,  son  of  Apollo.  Ionia  extended 
from  the  river  Hermus  to  the  Ma^indcr,  and  was  the  seat 
of  the  Ionian  league  of  tnvelvc  cities,  chief  of  wliich  were 
Ephosus,  Smyrna,  Clazonieuiij.  Eryfhra;,  Colophon,  and 
Miletus.  According  to  tradition,  Ionia  was  colonized 
about  Ul.'iO  B.  r.  by  settlers  from  Attica;  hut  Dr.  E.  Cur- 
tius  in  his  Illstori/  o/"  (irrrrc  has  shown  reasons  for  believ- 
ing that  the  loiiiansliad  resided  therefrom  time  immcmoria!. 
Ionia,  county  of  W.  Central  Michigan.  Area,  570 
square  miles.  It  is  a  well-timbered,  fertile,  undulating 
region.  Cattle,  gr.ain,  and  wool  arc  staple  products.  Lum- 
ber, castings,  carriages,  and  farming  implements  arc  lead- 
ing articles  of  manufacture.  The  county  is  traversed  by 
the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee  and  the  Detroit  Lansing  and 
Lake  Michigan  R.  Rs.     Cap.  Ionia.     Pop.  27,681. 

Ionia,  post-v.  of  Chickasaw  co.,  la.,  on  the  Iowa  and 
Dakota  division  of  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  R. 

Ionia,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Ionia  co.,  Mich.,  on  Grand 
River  and  on  the  Detroit  aud  Milwaukee  and  the  Detr*>it 
Lansing  and  Lake  Michigan  R.  Us.,  and  on  the  Stanton 
branch  of  the  last-named  road:  has  2  national  banks,  rail- 
road repair-shops,  over  15  other  manufactories  and  mills,  8 
churches,  2  newspapers,  a  public  park,  free  reading-room, 
good  schools,  etc.  Agriculture  aud  the  lumber  busiuess  are 
leading  interests.     Pop.  2500  ;  of  tp.  4158. 

Ci.ARiv  Tavlor,  Ed. '•  Sfntixel." 
Ionia,  post-tp.  of  Dixon  co.,  Neb.  Pop.  o34. 
lo'nian,  in  music,  the  name  of  one  of  the  ancient  ec- 
clesiastical modes.  The  Ionian  scalcisnsually  understood  to 
be  that  which  resembles  in  form  the  modern  scale  of  C  major. 
Ionian  Islands,  a  chain  of  islands  extending  al<u)g  the 
western  and  soulhcrn  coast  of  Greece,  of  which  the  largest 
are  Corfu,  Paxo,  Santa  !Maura,  Theaki.  Cephalonia,  Zanle, 
and  Cerigo.  Area.  10-11  square  miles.  Pop.  251.712.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  fifteentli  century  to  1797  they 
belonged  to  Venetia.  From  1797  to  J  815  they  changed 
masters  five  times,  but  were  then  formed  into  a  republic 
under  English  protection.  In  1804  they  xvcre  annexed  to 
Greece,  the  inhabitants  being  (Jrecks.  They  are  fertile 
and  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  vines  and  olive  trees. 
Currants  and  oiivo  oil  arc  their  main  exports. 

lo'nians  [Gr.'Iwfc?,  sometimes  lengthened  into'Iaoi'cc], 
a  ra^'o  of  Greek  descent  who  resided  chiefly  in  Asia  Minor 
and  the  adjacent  islands,  but  spread  themselves  to  all  parts 
of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  to  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  and 
to  India  as  far  as  Orissa.     According  to  the  prevailing  le- 
gend, their  ancestor  was  Ion  ['Iwc].  the  son  of  Apollo  and 
Crcusa,  who  may  perhaps  be  identified  with  the  Javan  of 
the  Mosaic  table  of  the  founders  of  nations.     The  Greek 
legends  speak  of  the  loniaus  as  migrating  from  Attica  about 
the  eleventh  century  it.  c,  and  settling  in  Asia  Minor,  in- 
corporating with  themselves  some  of  the  original  inhabit- 
ants and  driving  out  the  others.    The  lonians  were  always 
I  a  maritime  race,  and  some  recent  writers  urge  with  much 
I   plausibility  that  they  came  to  Attica  from  the   East,  and 
j   that  their  migration  to  the  shores  of  .A-^ia  I\Iinor  was  a  re- 
migration  to  their  original  abode;  and  indeed  the  Egyp- 
i   tian  monuments  of  the  fifteenth  century  d.  c.  contain  the 
I  same  group  of  liieroglyphics  by  which  the  Greeks  were 
designated  in  the  time  of  tlic  Ptolemies.     The  ancient  San- 
1   skrit  books  speak  of  the  Y'avanas,  who  are  supposed  to  be 
lonians  v/ho  penetrated  India  from  the  region  of  the  I'iU- 
phrates,  by  way  of  Cashmere.     The  Greeks  who  were  left 
behind  by  Alexander  the  Great  to  hold   his  fortress  on  the 
banks   of    tlic    Indus   were   also   called   Yavunas;    and   in 
Nurthern    India    all    Mohammedans   are  thus   designated. 
It  would    thus   seem  that  the  Sanskrit   term   came   to   bo 
applied   in  time  to  all  foreign  races,  of  whom  the  lonians 
were  tlic  earliest,  who  reached  India  from  the  West,  just 
as  throughout  the  Orient  all  Europeans  are  designated  as 
Franks. 

Ionian  Sea  is  the  name  of  that  part  of  the  >Icditerra- 
neau  which  lies  between  Italy  and  Sicily  to  the  \V.  and 
European  Turkey  and  Greece  to  the  E.  It  forms  the  gulfs 
of  Taranto  and  "Patras,  and  comnftjnicatcs  with  the  Adri- 
atic by  the  Strait  of  Otrauto. 

lon'ic  Order,  in  Greek  architecture,  is  regarded  as  of 
Asiatic  origin.  It  is  now  conceded  that  its  use  was  as  old 
as  (or  even  older  than)  that  of  the  Doric.  Its  principal 
seat  was  in  Asia  Minor.  The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
that  of  Apollo  at  Miletus,  the  temple  of  Wingless  Victory 
an-l  the  Erechfhfutn  at  .Athens,  and  the  temples  at  Tens, 
Priene,  and  Sardis,  were  .among  the  most  famous  examples 
of  this  stylo.     Its  rude  beginnings  are  diseerniblo  in  As- 


IOXII-:   INDIANS— IOWA. 


lliSl 


jyrian  and  Por?tnn  niin"  ?MI!  cTi^ting.    In  its  perfect  form 
thel'in.i-       :    :;       :    -      i'  :    nlnv  ■limii' !■  i  e.  a  h;isc  of 


^^ 


lle 


M 


\cr.  v.iiMil  form,  twenty-four  flutes  on  the  shaft,  sepa- 
rjlL'l  by  lilk'ls,  nmi  a  capital  formed  by  volutes. 

lo'nie  In'Uians,  a  tribe  of  the  Texas  cuiifcdoration, 
allied  by  ra'c  with  the  Caddoes.  They  removed  early 
from  the  Hot  Spring  region  of  Arkansas  to  Texas,  and 
their  descenihinis  (S5  in  number  in  1872)  reside  on  the 
Washita  Uiver,  Indian  Territory.  They  are  self  support- 
inj;.  and  have  always  been  a  peaceable  and  friendly  race. 

I'OS  [■!<«.  iVi'<],  an  inland  of  the  -■Egean,  now,  but  not 
anciently,  reckoned  as  one  of  the  Cyclades.  It  lies  N.  of 
Thora  and  S.  W.  of  N'axos,  and  is  1 1  miles  long  and  6 
broad.  Area,  20  square  miles.  It  is  rough,  but  quite  pro- 
duL'tive,  and  has  a  fine  harbor  and  some  -lUUU  inha)>itant8. 

los'co»  county  of  Michigan,  bounded  on  the  K.  by  Lake 
llitron.  Area,  ^60  square  miles.  It  has  largo  forests  of 
jiiiic,  and  is  generally  level.  Agriculture  is  not  much  cor- 
rietl  on.  Lumbering  is  the  principal  industry.  It  is  be- 
coming a  resort  of  anglers,  on  account  of  the  prescneo  of 
the  grayling  in  its  streams.    Cap.  Tawas  City.    Pop.  3163. 

Iosco,  tp.  of  Livingston  co.,  .Mich.     Pop.  904. 

I0SCO9  tp.  of  Waseca  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  913. 

I'owa,  a  central  State  of  tlie  upper  Mississippi  Valley, 


.'v.al  of 

Ivlng  between  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers,  between 
Vol.  n.— SI 


the  parallels  of  40°  36'  and  43°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  between 
the  meridians  of  S3°  5'  and  96°  31'  W.  Ion.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  X.  by  Minnesota;  on  the  E.  by  the  .Missi8sip|ii 
Kiver.  which  separates  it  from  Wisconsin  and  Illinois;  on 
the  S.  by  Missouri,  the  Dcs  Moines  River  being  the  bound- 
ary-line for  a  short  distance;  on  the  W.  the  Missouri  River 
is  its  boundary,  dividing  it  from  Nebraska  as  far  as  Sioux 
City  and  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Sioux  River,  which  then  be- 
comes its  western  limit,  and  separates  it  from  Dakota  Ter- 
ritory as  far  N.  as  the  line  of  43°  30'  N.  lat.  The  form  of 
the  State  is  irregularly  trapcz.oidal.  Its  area  is  stated  at 
.')5,045  square  miles,  or  35,22S,SflO  acres.  Its  greatest  lenglli 
from  N.  to  |S.  is  208  miles ;  its  greatest  width  from  E.  to  W. 
a  little  more  than  300  miles. 

Face  of  the  Conntiy. — Iowa  may  be  described  in  general 
as  very  level ;  there  are  no  mountains  and  no  considerable 
hills  in  the  State.  Its  average  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  is  between  SOO  and  'JOO  feet.  Yet  within  the  Stale 
is  the  great  watershed  dividing  the  streams  flowing  into  the 
Mississippi  from  those  discharging  their  waters  into  the 
Missouri.  This  watershed  passes  through  the  N.  N.  W.  por- 
tion of  the  Slate  in  a  direction  nearly  S.  by  E.,  through 
Dickinson,  Clay,  Buena  Vista,  Sac,  Carroll,  Audubon,  (i  utli- 
ric,  and  Adair  cos.,  turning  in  the  latter  county  sharply  to 
the  S.  E.  through  Miulison.  Union,  Clarke,  Lucas,  aud  Ap- 
panoose COS.  to  the  Jlissouri  line.  A  secondary  watershed, 
somewhat  higher  at  points  than  this,  continues  S.  from 
Adair  co.  through  Union  and  Ringgold  eos.  There  is  there- 
fore not  only  a  gradual  slope  of  the  whole  State  from  the 
N.  to  tho  S.,  but  eastern  and  western  drainage-slopes  from 
thli  great  watershed  toward  tho  Mississippi  and  Jlisfouri 
rivers.  Tho  rivers  have  worn  valleys  sometimes  through 
tho  earthy  material,  and  sometimes  through  some  of  the 
underlying  rocky  strata  beneath:  these  valleys  have  in 
many  plr-ecs  abrupt  and  rocky  blnfis  along  the  river-banks, 
tlius  giving  an  appearance  of  hills,  which,  strictly  speak- 
ing, do  not  exist,  as  these  steep  banks  are  rather  valley- 
sides  than  hillsides,  being  in  all  cases  depressions  below 
the  general  level.  The  ])lain  or  plateau  of  which  Iowa 
forms  a  largo  portion  is  at  all  points  considcraldy  elevated 
above  tho  level  of  the  sea.  Tho  surface  of  the  Mississi]ipi 
at  low  water  at  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  State  is  441  fict 
above  the  sea,  at  tho  N.  E.  corner  of  the  State  it  is  660 
feet,  showing  a  descent  in  the  river  of  210  feet,  or  about 
one  foot  to  a  mile.  The  surface  of  tho  Missouri  at  low 
water  at  tho  S,  W.  corner  of  tlic  State  is  954  feet;  of  the 
Big  Sioux  at  low  water  at  tho  N.  W.  corner  of  the  State, 
1344  feet;  the  surface  of  the  great  watershed  at  the  north- 
ern State  boundary,  near  Spirit  Lake  in  Dickinson  Co..  is 
1694  feet,  aud  at  tiie  southern  State  boundary,  in  Ringgold 
CO.,  about  1220  feet.  Tho  descent  from  the  highest  point  in 
tho  State  (near  Spirit  Lake)  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  S.  E. 
corner  of  the  State  does  not  exceed  5  feet  7  inches  per  mile, 
and  in  most  directions  it  is  not  more  than  from  2  to  4  feet 
per  mile.  The  whole  country  is  therefore  eminently  adapted 
for  tho  construction  of  good  roads  and  railroads,  aud,  as  wo 
shall  see,  the  State,  young  ns  it  is.  is  traversed  in  all  direc- 
tions by  railways.  Most  of  the  Slate  wa.'  originally  what 
tho  settlers  call  "rolling  prairie" — j*.  e.  it  had  long  wave- 
like  depressions  and  elevations,  resulting  from  the  drain- 
ago  of  tho  surface-water  into  the  upper  branches  of  tho 
rivers.  It  is  now  losing  mncli  of  its  prairie  character,  tho 
prevention  of  tho  annual  lire*  buvingeaused  tlio  forest  trees 
to  encroach  npon  the  prairies,  and  tho  settlers  also  having 
planted  many  trees. 

Rivers.  L'fl.ri;  rie. — All  the  rivers  and  slrettins  of  tho 
.Stato  arc  aflluenls  of  either  the  Mississippi  or  tho  Mis- 
souri; the  former,  draining  the  widest  territory  in  the 
State,  has  tributaries  of  greater  length  and  larger  volume 
than  tho  latter.  Among  the  streams  flowing  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi within  the  State  are  the  I'pper  Iowa,  a  stream  of 
considerable  rapidity,  and  having  a  deep  valley  which  has 
eroded  tho  rocky  strata  to  a  considerable  depth  throughout 
its  entire  eour.se;  Turkey  Uivcr,  which  has  also  high  onrl 
rooky  bluffs  along  its  banks;  Maquoketa  and  Wapsipini- 
con  rivers:  tho  Iowa  River,  a  large  and  navigable  streani : 
the  Cedar  River,  which  has  rapiils  and  falls  in  a  part  of  ils 
course;  tho  Cheeauqua  or  Skunk  River,  a  broad  but  not 
very  deep  river;  and  tho  Des  Moines,  a  large  and  navigablo 
river  which  enters  the  Mississippi  at  the  S.  E.  corner  of 
the  Slate.  The  rivers  of  \\w  western  drainage-slope,  fall- 
ing into  the  Missouri,  are  generjilly  small.  .Several  ftf  them, 
as  the  Chariton,  (irand,  Platte,  the  Nodaway  lurks,  and 
Nishnabatona  rivers,  rise  in  Iowa,  but  flow  southward  into 
Missouri,  and  enter  the  Missouri  River  in  that  Stale;  the 
Little  Sioux  ami  I'loyd  are  streams  of  moderate  siie  and 
with  broad  fertile  valleys,  with  few  or  no  rocks  or  boulders 
in  their  course,  Thi'  Ilig  Sioux,  which  rises  in  D;ikota  and 
forms  a  considcraltlp  portion  of  tho  western  boundary  of 
Iowa,  is  a  large  stream,  with  high  and  steep  bluffs  along  a 
portion  of  its  course,  but  without  rocks.    It  is  navigable  to 


1282 


IOWA. 


a  poitit  a  little  above  the  N.  line  of  Iowa,  where  thero  is  a 
series  of  rapids  by  which  it  descends  60  feet  in  the  course 
of  h:ilf  a  mile.  The  Mississippi  has  two  stretches  of 
rapids  opposite  Iowa — the  lower,  called  the  I)es  Moines 
Rapids,  from  Keokuk  to  Montrose,  12  miles  in  Icnjfth  and 
with  a  total  descent  of  25  feet  ;  and  the  upper,  from  Daven- 
port to  he  Clairo.  about  15  miles  in  icni^th,  and  having  a 
total  cioscent  of  26  feet.  Tlie  lakes  are  mostly  small,  and 
in  lhi>  Kastcrn  States  would  be  called  ponils;  the  jirincipal 
are  Spirit  Lake,  in  Dickinson  co.,  about  4  miles  hmg,  and 
of  the  same  width.  It  contains  between  10  and  12  square 
miles.  It  was  the  place  of  a  terril)Ie  tujissacrc  of  whites  by 
Indians  in  1Sj7.  Okoboji  Lake  in  the  same  county  is  of 
horseshoe  form,  and  drains  S[>irit  Lake.  It  is  narrow,  but 
the  outside  of  the  horseshoe  is  about  lii  miles  in  length. 
Clear  Lake  in  Cerro  (rordo  co.  is  -i  miles  long  and  2  wide. 
Storm  Lake  in  Buena  Vista  co.  is  still  smaller,  having  only 
0  square  miles,  but  of  great  beauty.  There  are  also  two  or 
three  yet  smaller  lakes  in  Wright  and  Sac  cos.,  which  have 
barriers  of  boulders,  sand,  and  peat  which  have  given  them 
the  name  of  Walled  Lakes. 

Geoloffif. — With  the  exception  of  the  rivcr-vallcys  and 
some  small  tracts,  the  surface  of  the  State  is  covered  to  a 
greater  or  less  depth  with  diluvial  or  drift  deposits,  and 
these  again  in  some  sections,  as  in  the  river-bottoms  of  the 
great  rivers,  with  alluvium  or  loam.  But  an  examination 
of  the  bluffs  and  rocky  strata  of  the  river-channels  indi- 
cates that  there  are  accessible  at  least  twenty  different 
geological  formations,  all  of  them,  except  a  small  outcrop 
of  Azoic  rocks — Siou.x  quartzite  (in  the  extreme  N.  W.  cor- 
ner of  the  State) — occurring  in  regular  succession  from  the 
N.  E.  to  the  S.  W.  portion  of  the  State,  and  being  inclined  at 
such  an  angle  or  dip  that  each  formation  laps  over  the  one 
next  below  it  in  very  regular  order.  In  the  N.  E.  there  is 
a  tract  extending  from  the  sources  of  the  Turkey  River  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Maquoketa  which  belongs  wholly  to  the 
Lower  Silurian  system;  all  the  formations  of  this  system 
dip  toward  the  S.  W.  at  such  an  angle  that  the  Upper  Si- 
lurian laps  over  them  just  S.  of  the  Turkey  River.  The 
groups  of  Lower  Silurian  here  developed  are  the  Primor- 
dial, represented  successively  by  the  Potsdam  sandstone, 
Lower  Magnesian  limestone,  and  St.  Peter's  sandstone; 
the  Trenton  group,  represented  by  the  Trenton  limestone 
and  the  Galena  limestone;  and  the  Cincinnati  group,  of 
which  only  the  Maquoketa  shales  are  recognizable  here. 
Tlie  Upper  Siluri.an  system,  which  follows  immediately 
and  overlaps  the  Lower  Silurian,  extends  on  the  Missis- 
sippi from  just  above  the  mouth  of  the  Maquoketa  River 
to  Davenport,  but,  though  covering  a  breadth  of  two  or 
three  counties  near  the  river,  narrows  as  it  approaches  tho 
upper  lino  of  tho  State  into  a  strip  of  not  more  than  6  or 
8  miles  in  breadth.  Hut  one  group  and  one  formation  of 
this  system  is  represented — viz.  the  Niagara  limestone.  A 
broader  band,  and  one  of  pretty  uniform  width,  extending 
on  the  Mississippi  from  Davenport  to  Muscatine,  and  run- 
ning diagonally  to  tho  northern  boundary  of  the  State,  con- 
sists of  the  Hamilton  limestrjnc  and  shales,  tho  representa- 
tive rocks  of  the  Hamilton  group  of  the  Devonian  system. 
This,  in  turn,  is  overlapped  by  the  Sub-carboniferous 
group,  represented  here  successively  by  the  Kinderhook 
beds,  tho  Burlington,  the  Keokuk,  and  the  St.  Louis  lime- 
stone. This  extends  from  Muscatine  to  the  Des  Moines 
River,  and,  following  the  Skunk  River  valley  to  the  source 
of  that  stream,  stretches  westward  from  Clear  Lake  in  Cerro 
Gordo  CO.  through  Butler.  Franklin,  Wright,  and  Humboldt 
cos.  Tho  Lower  and  Middle  Coal-measures,  which  come 
next,  occupy  a  broad  belt  in  the  niidillc  of  the  State,  being 
divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions  by  tho  Des  Moines 
River.  They  yield  large  quantities  of  bituminous  coal  of 
good  quality.  The  Upper  Coal-measures  occupy  tho  whole 
S.  W.  portion  of  the  State  except  a  tract  in  Montgomery 
and  Cass  cos.,  where  there  is  an  outcrop  of  the  Nishna- 
batona  sandstone,  the  lowest  member  of  the  Earlier  Creta- 
ceous group.  In  Woodbury  and  Plymouth  cos.  thero  is 
also  an  outcrop  of  Cretaceous  rocks,  consisting  of  the  Wood- 
bury sandstone  and  shales;  and  in  <Iuthricand  Greene  cos. 
there  arc  two  others,  in  which  the  chalky  beds  arc  very 
prominent.  Tho  remainder  of  the  State,  comprising  the 
whole  N.  W.,  and  inchiding  tho  greater  part  of  twenty-six 
counties,  is  covered  so  deeply  with  the  overlying  drift  to  a 
thickness  of  from  loO  to  200'fcet  that  it  may' fairly  be  con- 
sidered as  behmging  to  the  Post-tertiary  group.  The 
Sioux  quartzite,  a  very  bard  brick-red  rock  belonging  to 
the  Azoic  system,  is  found  only  in  ledges  on  the  banks  of 
the  Big  Sioux,  just  before  it  crosses  the  boundary.  In 
Dakota  and  Minnesota  this  rock  is  abundant,  and  some 
strata  of  it  are  used  by  the  Indians  for  making  redstoDc 
pipes. 

Minrrnfntfif. — The  Iowa  coal-field  contains  at  least  7000 
square  miles,  and  on  its  S.  AV.  border  dips  down  at  a  very 
sm-ill  au^lc  under  the  upper  or  unproductive  Coal-measures, 


and  may  be  mined  in  the  section  covered  by  these.  A  very 
large  number  of  coal-mines  have  been  opened,  mostly  by 
dri/titnj  from  the  valley-side,  though  in  some  instances 
shafts  are  sunk.  The  coal  is  bituminous  ;  canncl  coal  has 
occasionally  been  found,  but  is  too  impure  to  be  of  any 
value.  Lead,  the  argentiferous  galena  ore,  found  in  the 
galena  limestone,  is  mined  in  great  quantities  at  Dubuque 
and  its  vicinity,  and  smelted  at  the  mines.  There  is 
lead  also  in  the  Lower  Magnesian  limestone  on  the  T'ppcr 
Iowa  River,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  mining 
profitable.  There  are  few  other  metals  in  Iowa.  The  iron  oro 
met  with  in  various  parts  of  the  State  is  of  good  quality,  but 
the  quantity  is  small  and  the  mining  unprofitable.  Gyp- 
sum is  found  in  very  great  quantities  at  Fort  Dodge  and  its 
vicinity  in  the  condition  of  stratified  rock,  and  quarried 
like  ordinary  limestone.  It  is  largely  exported.  Building- 
stone  of  fair  quality  is  found  E.  of  the  Des  Jloines  River. 
The  Hamilton  limestone,  the  sandstone  of  the  Kinderhook 
beds  at  Burlington,  the  Keokuk  limestone,  and  the  gray  St. 
Louis  limcstoue.  all  furnish  very  good  building-material. 
Gypsum  is  also  used  for  this  purpose  as  it  comes  from  the 
quarries.  Lime  is  manufactured  largely  from  the  lime- 
stones and  from  the  chalky  beds.  Brick-clay,  potters'  clay, 
ami  good  building-sand  are  plentiful. 

Vft/rtatiini. — The  State  contains  a  greater  proportion  of 
tillable  and  fertile  soil  than  almost  any  other  in  the  Union. 
With  the  exception  of  the  small  portion  occupied  by  rivers, 
lakes,  ponds,  and  rocky  bluffs,  the  whole  surface  is  arable 
and  yields  everywhere  libera!    crops.     The  surface    is    so 
nearly  level  that  agricultural  machinery  can  be  used  every- 
where, and  the  labor  of  planting  and  gathering  crops  is 
thereby  much  facilitated.     There  are  three  descriptions  of 
soil  in  the  State,  all  fertile,  yet  differing  somewhat  in  their 
characteristics:  (1)  The  drift  soil,  formed  of  the  surface 
portion  of  the  drift  or  diluvial  deposit,  consists  of  a  dark 
loam  from  one  to  three  feet  deep,  and  is  found  mostly  on 
the  prairies.     There  are  no  stumps  and  very  seldom  any 
stones  in   it,  and  it  is  very  easily  ploughed  and  cultivated 
by  machinery.     It  is  so  fertile  that  in  many  places,  after 
twenty   years'  cultivation  without  manure,  it  still   vields 
abundant  crops  ;  it  contains  considerable  clay,  and  is  there- 
fore classed  as  a  moderately  stiff  soil.     (2)  The  bluff  soil  is 
the  surface  portion  of  the  bluff  deposit ;  it  is  very  fine,  con- 
tains less  clay  than  the  drift  soil,  and  no  stones  or  boulders. 
It  can  be  ploughed  earlier  than  the  drift,  being  drier,  and 
is  fully  as  fertile,  while  it  is  deeper.     (3)  The  alluvial  soil, 
found  in  the  river-bottoms,  consisting  of  the  soil  and  de- 
composed vegetable  and  animal  matters  brought  down  by 
the  floods,  is  the  richest  and  most  productive  and  durable 
soil  in  the  world.     The  area  occupied  by  forests  and  wood- 
land in  Iowa  is  stated  by  the  agricultural  department  to  be 
4.98J,G6S  acres,  or  about  one-eighth  of  the  entire  surface 
of  the  State.    The  breadth  of  the  State  being  but  about  200 
miles  from  N.  to  S.,  and  the  variations  in  its  elevation  so 
trifling,  there  is  very  little  climatic  difference  in  the  vege- 
tation of  the  State.     The  persimmon  and  pawpaw  do  not 
rijien  their  fruit  N.  of  the  parallel  of  Burlington,  but  there 
are  few  other  instances  in  which  trees  or  plants   do    not 
flourish  equally  well  in  all  parts  of  the  State,     The  most 
common  forest  trees  arc  four  or  five  kinds  of  oak,  the  com- 
mon elm.  Cottonwood,  black  walnut,  hickory,  sugar-maple, 
soft   maple,  and  linden.     The  buckeye,  asjien.  water-birch, 
wild-::hcrry,  ash,  box-elder,  white  walnut  or  butternut,  syc- 
amore, and  slippery  elm,  though  occasionally  found,  are 
less  abundant.    There  arc  a  few  pine  trees  in  Ea.stern  Iowa 
on  the  sandstone  bluffs,  and  some  red  cedar  in  similar  sit- 
uations.  The  chestnut,  beech,  and  tulip  tree  arc  not  natives 
of   Iowa.     The  principal    native   fruits    are   wild    grapes, 
plums,    crab-apples,    cherries,    blackberries,    raspberries, 
gooseberries,  and  strawberries,   and    among  the    nuts  are 
hickory  and  hazel  nuts,  black  walnuts,  butternuts,  and  a 
few  pecan  nuts  in  the  S.  E.  counties.     The  prairie-grass, 
which  is  of  fair  quality,  is  used  not  only  for  pasturage,  but 
to  a  largo  extent  for  ha^*,  and  is  distinguished  from  that 
obtained  from  tho  cultivated  grasses  by  the  name  of  wifd 
hai/.   Thero  is  also  a  wild  rice,  of  sonic  value  for  nutriment, 
and  which  is  in  great  demand  by  aquatic  and  otlu'r  birds, 
which  grows  in  the  shallow  ponds  of  Northern  Iowa.    The 
cultivated  crops  are,  among  the  grains,  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  and  buckwheat.     Of  the  first  four  the  State  ex- 
ports  very   large  quantities    annually.     Hay.    ]»rincipally 
timothy  and  red  clover,  is  extensively  made  and  exported, 
and  blue  grass  and  white  clover  aro  cultivated  for  lawns 
and  pasturage.     Flax.  hemp,  and  hops  are  crops  of  cou- 
sid'^rablo  importance.  Sorghum  is  not  so  largely  cultivated 
as  formerly.     Potatoes  are  raised  in  great  quantities  both 
for  home  consumption    and    export.     Sweet   potatoes  are 
grown  successfully  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.     Gar- 
den vegetables  of  all  kinds  grow  well  in  all  parts      Among 
cultivated  f-uits.  appl*-?  are  very  abundant  and  of  excellent 
quality.     Three  dozen  varieties  are  recommended  by  the 


IOWA. 


ris;] 


ngricultural  society,  and  largely  raised  throughout  the 
State.  IVars  grow  well,  and  nre  becoming  plcutit'iiU  but 
peach  trees  are  liable  tw  be  killed  by  the  jievore  winters. 
Grapes  are  grown  snecessfully  in  all  parts  of  tlie  State,  the 
Catawba  and  t'oneofl  bein-j;  the  most  common  varieties. 
Plums  succeed  wpM  where  the  eurculio  docs  not  dc^^troy  the 
fruit.  The  small  fruits,  gooseberries,  raspberries,  currants, 
and  strawberries,  are  cultivated  with  great  success.  Much 
attention  is  paid  to  tree-culture,  ami  many  foreign  trees 
have  been  introduced  with  excellent  result.  The  Osngc 
orange  is  much  used  for  hedges  in  Southern  Iowa,  but  docs 
not  succeed  so  well  in  the  nortliern  counties. 

Zooloffy. — The  rapicl  settlement  of  the  State  has  driven 
out  most  of  the  larger  wild  animals;  the  buffalo  nnd  elk, 
both  formerly  abundant  in  Iowa,  have  now  disapjiearcd, 
thouijh  at  long  intervals  a  .«tray  elk  from  l)akota  appears 
in  the  X.  W.  of  the  State.  Doer  are  occasionally  found  in 
the  wooded  districts,  but  they  arc  not  plentiful.  The  blaek 
liear  was  never  very  abundant  in  tlic  State,  and  both  lie 
and  the  panther  liave  long  since  disapi)cared.  The  large 
gray  wolf  and  the  wild-cat  are  very  rare,  and  the  mischiev- 
ous coyote  or  prairie  wolf  is  fast  disappearing.  There  are 
a  very  few  beavers  and  otters  in  some  of  the  rivers,  and 
tnuskrats,  minks,  raccoons,  foxes,  and  opo^^sunis  are  not 
very  rare.  The  bir<ls  common  in  all  the  Northern  States 
arc  plentiful  in  Iowa,  and  there  arc  a  few  which  ;ire  rare 
in  other  States.  Havens  arc  occasionally  seen  in  tlie  nortli- 
ern counties,  the  yellow-headed  blackhinl  in  the  north- 
western ])art  of  the  State,  and  paroquets  in  the  southern 
tier  of  counties:  among  the  game  hinls,  wild-turkeys  and 
partridges  or  ruffed  grouse  are  often  found  in  the  wooded 
districts,  and  prairie-hens  in  great  number  in  the  prairies 
which  are  as  yet  unreclaimed.  Quails,  snipe,  and  wood- 
cock are  plentiful  in  their  season,  and  some  curlews  are 
found,  (rfcse.  swans,  and  ducks  visit  the  ponds  and  rivers 
of  the  State  in  spring  and  autumn  in  great  numbers.  The 
rivers  of  the  .State  yieM  great  quantities  of  excellent  fisli, 
among  which  are  found  the  salmon,  the  lake-trout,  white- 
fish,  brook-trout,  troutlct,  brown  and  commoa  catfish, 
perch,  roach,  etc. 

nimntt. — The  very  slight  differcnee  of  elevation  in  tho 
surface  of  the  State  causi-s  the  climate  to  be  very  uniform, 
tho  variety  being  only  that  of  the  diffcrenco  in  latitude  and 
the  small  variation  in  altitude.  The  growing  season  of  vege- 
tation commences  about  ten  days  carlicron  the  southern  than 
on  the  northern  boundary.  The  average  amount  of  rainfall 
docs  not  vnry  so  much  as  has  been  supposed  from  that  on 
tho  Atlantic  coast.  Observations  continued  for  thirty-two 
years  make  tho  mean  annual  rainfall  fincluding  the  rciluc- 
tion  of  the  snow  to  water)  12  inches  for  Iowa,  while  that 
of  the  same  latitude  on  tho  Atlantic  coast  is  about  4^)  inches. 
Less  snow  falls  in  Towa  than  upon  tin;  Atlantic  coast,  but 
there  is  sufficient  for  several  weeks'  sleighing  every  winter. 
Both  tho  Mississippi  and  Missouri  generally  freeze  over 
opposite  Iowa,  and  remain  closed  for  two  or  three  months 
in  the  winter.  There  have  been  but  two  winters  in  the  past 
thirty-two  in  whieh  they  rliil  not  freeze  over  entirely,  and 
in  both  these  they  remained  open  only  below  Davenport. 
All  the  small  rivers  freeze  over  solidly  every  winter.  Ob- 
servations of  temperature  continued  from  IS.'iS  to  1870  at 
Muscatine  and  Iowa  City,  both  on  nearly  tlie  same  parallel, 
give  the  following  results  :  The  maximum  of  summrr  heat 
occurred  in  July.  1870,  when  it  reached  100°  F.,  and  the 
greatest  winter  cold  in  Jan.,  1857,  when  the  mercury  in  tlic 
thermometer  stood  at  —'10°  F.  The  mean  average  tempera- 
ture for  each  month  of  theyear  for  the  whole  thirty -two  years 
was  as  follows:  Jan.,  I'oo  F. :  Feb.,  1.':*°  ;  Miir.,*  ."ij^ ;  Apr., 
-19°;  Mav,  .Vjo  ;  June.  r.fi°  ;  July.  7:1°:  Aug.,  71°;  Sept.. 
6rt°;  Oct.,  .^0°;  Nov..  20°  ;  Dec,  24°.  The  average  annual 
temjierattirc  for  the  whole  thirty-two  years  was  47°  57'  F. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  spring  wns  47°  41'  ;  of  the 
summer.  70°  IS"'  ;  of  autunin,  44°  It'l'  ;  and  of  winter  2;'.° 
"^'i'.  Tho  following  items  in  regard  to  the  temperature  of 
Keokuk,  in  tho  extreme  S.  K.  corner  of  tlio  State,  are  for 
the  year  from  Oct.,  1872,  to  Oct..  187.*{,  and  are  from  the 
chief  stgnal-oflicer'a  report  :  Monthly  rnngo  of  the  ther- 
mometer, Oct..  58°  ;  Nov.,  fi;t°  :  Dec,  71°;  .Ian.,  7.^°  ;  Feb., 
r>0°:  Mar..  74°:  Apr.,  51°;  May,  4:!°  ;  June.  47°  ;  Julv, 
40°;  Aug..  4fi°;  Sept..  49°.  Mean  monthly  temperature, 
0?t..  5.x5°;  Nov..  :U.ft°  ;  Dec.  20.5°;  Jan..  17.fi°;  Feb.. 
20.1°:  Mar.,:!S.7°;  Apr., 48.5°:  May. 01.5°;  Junc.77.9°: 
July,  70.:i°;  Aug..  78.7°  ;  Sept..  0.1.9°.  Monthly  rainfall. 
0-t.,  0.42;  Nov.,  0.74;  Dec,  0.50;  Jan.,  .l.:tl  :  Feb.,  0..W  ; 
Mar.,  0.51;  Apr.,  5.05  :  May,  :{ri2  ;  June,  1. 21:  July,  8.77; 
Aug.,  0.54;  Sept..  It. ^7 — anniml  rainfall,  28.97.  Iowa  is 
witliin  the  zone  of  variable  winds.  In  the  thirly-l  wo  years 
referred  to  the  wind  blew  on  an  average  70  days  from  the 
N.  X.  E.  :  70  from  the  K.  S.  IC.  ;  105  from  the  S.  S.  W.  ; 
II  t  from  the  AV.  nnd  \.  X.  W..  making  219  <lay«  of  west- 
erly winds  and  1  10  of  easterly  winds.  The  avt-rajre  time 
of  the  first  flowering  of  ajqile  trees  at  Muscatine  is  May  0; 


at  Dubuque,  about  a  degree  N.,  May  12.    Iowa  ranks  high 
among  the  healthiest  States  of  the  I'nion. 

Af/riciiitiintl  Products. — The  amount  of  land  in  farms  in 
1870,  according  to  the  census,  was  15,541,79.'!  acres.  Of 
this,  9. .'590,467,  or  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  area 
of  tlie  State,  were  improved,  and  G,I45,.'J20acres  unimproved 
land.  The  average  size  of  farms  was  i.'i4  acres.  The  value 
of  farms  was  $:!92.fifi2,441.  and  of  farming  implements  and 
machinery,  ?20, 509,582.  The  value  of  all  farm  productions 
was  $114,380,441  ;  of  animals  slaughtered  and  sold  for 
slaughter,  $25,781,22.3;  of  home  manufactures,  $521,404; 
of  forest  products,  $1,200. 4(58;  of  market-garden  products, 
$244,903;  of  orchard  products.  $1,075,109;  amount  of 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  $9,377,878.  Towa  was  in  1870 
the  largest  wheat-growing  State  in  the  Vnion  except  Illi- 
nois, her  wheat  crop  that  j'ear  amounting  to  28.708,312 
bushels  of  spring  wheat  and  727,380  bushels  of  winter 
wheat.  The  rye  crop  amounted  to  505,807  bushels  :  that 
of  lu'lian  corn  to  68,935,005  bushels,  being  second  only  to 
Illinois  in  this  crop;  the  oat  crop  was  21,005,142  bushels; 
the  barley  crop,  1,900,779  bushels;  nnd  the  buckwlieat, 
109,432  bushels.  In  1872  the  production  of  wheat  had 
fallen  off  somewhat,  and  Iowa  occupied  tlie  fifth  place,  her 
wheat  product  being  in  round  numliers  22.080.01)1)  liushcls. 
Her  Indinn  corn  prtiduct  iiad  increased,  but  that  of  other 
Stat?s  h;id  increased  in  a  still  greater  ratio,  and  she  ranked 
third  in  that  crop,  producing  101,989.000  bushels.  Of  rye 
the  crop  of  1872  was  533,000  bushels;  of  oats.  19.934,000 
bushels,  a  falling  off  of  over  1,000,000  bushels  :  of  harlev, 
2,104,000  bushels;  of  buckwheat.  102,000  bushels;  the  po- 
tato crop,  which  in  1870  was  5.914,020  bushels,  had  in- 
creased in  1872  to  0,031,000  bushels,  aside  from  about 
50,000  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes  raised  in  Southern  Iowa. 
The  hay  crop,  whieh  in  1870  was  1.777,339  tons,  in  1S72 
had  fallen  oft'  to  1,001,000  tons.  The  value  of  these  prod- 
ucts in  1872  was  estimated  (prolialily  an  untlercsti- 
matc)  at  $53,158,530,  Of  other  agrieullural  products  we 
have  no  statistics  later  than  those  of  the  census  of  1S70. 
when  tho  State  produced  095,518  pounds  of  flax,  2,907,043 
pounds  of  wool,  171.113  pounds  i>f  hops,  71.792  pounds  of 
tobacco,  15  hogsheads  of  sorghum-sugar,  140.490  pounds  of 
maple-sugar,  1.218,630  ga lion sofsorghum -molasses  ( the  crop 
of  sorghum-molasses  in  1872  was  reported  aj  3,500,500  gal- 
lons), 9315  gallons  of  maple-mtilasses.  42,313  bushels  of 
peas  and  beans,  2225  pounds  of  beeswax,  853.213  pounds 
of  honey,  37,518  gallons  of  domestic  wine,  2475  bushels  of 
clover-sced,  88.021  bushels  of  flaxseed.  53,432  bushels  of 
grass-seed.  The  value  of  all  live-stock  in  tlie  State  in  1870 
was  reported  as  $82,987,133;  the  number  of  horses  as 
433.042;  of  mules  and  asses,  25.485;  of  milch  cows  as 
369.811;  of  working  oxen.  22,058;  of  other  cattle,  014,300  ; 
of  siiccp.  855,493  ;  of  swine,  1,353,908.  In  1873.  according 
to  the  report  of  tho  Iowa  State  Agricultural  Society,  tho 
following  were  the  numbers  and  aggregate  value  of  the 
live-stock:  horses,  634,400,  valued  at  $(0,506,440;  mules 
and  asses,  36,400,  valued  at  $2,054,052;  oxen  and  other 
cattle.  820,000,  worth  $19,196,200;  niileh  cows.  537,300, 
valued  at  $15,130,368;  sheep.  1.708,000,  worth  $1,278,500; 
swine,  3,817,700,  valued  at  $17,199,219;  making  the  entire 
valuation  of  live-stock  in  Jan..  1873,  of  $98,984,439.  The 
dairy  products  of  Iowa  in  1870  were  27.512,179  jjounds  of 
butter,  1.087,741  pounds  of  cheese,  088.800  gallons  of  milk 
sold.  These  have  been  very  largely  increased  within  tho 
past  four  years. 

Afftnu/dt'titrhiff  Indni^try. — The  increase  in  manufacturcB 
in  Iowa  has  been  very  rapid.  The  very  imperfeet  returns 
of  manufactures  in  the  census  of  1870  give  the  State  0566 
manufacturing  estaldishments,  driven  by  899  steam-engines 
of  25.298  horse-[)ower.  anrl  720  water  wheels  of  14.240 
horse-po\vcr,  employiuf;  in  all  25,0;t2  operatives,  of  whom 
23,395  were  men.  951  women,  and  080  children,  using  cap- 
ital estimated  (very  mueh  bebiw  the  Irulb)  at  $22.120, 1S3, 
paying  for  wages $6,893,292.  using  raw  material  to  the  value 
of* $27,682,096.  and  producing  K*»"ds  worth  $16,534,322. 
The  prohal)iIity  is  that  the  annual  product  of  the  man- 
ufaetoriesof  the  State  is  now  not  less  than  $100,000.1)00. ' 
Of  ihese  products,  the  first  in  rank  nre  flour  and  flour- 
ing-mill  products  :  in  1870  tlui'C  were  300  flouring-njills, 
employin;;  1298  hands  and  $4,351,233  ciipital,  using 
$9,385,363  of  raw  material,  and  producing  $1  2.298,882  of 
flour  and  meol.  Xext  in  importance  was  the  manufacture 
of  lumber,  whieh  was  eonducteil  in  339  milts,  emidoying 
3128  hands,  auii  a  capital  estimated  at  $3,711,031.  u'sin;,' 
raw  materiiil  valued  at  $3,803,405,  and  jiroducint;  luinl-er 
valued  at  $6,237,415.  (^arriages  ami  wagons  were  rep-irted 
matio  in  419  establishments,  by  1602  emplny6s,  of  the  an- 
nual value  of  $1,952,143;  woollen  goods,  in  68  mills,  by 
1038  hands,  to  the  value  of  $1,501,341.  Cut  meats  were 
paeked  in  10  eslal)lishments.  by  328  hands,  to  the  value  nf 
$1.19O.4H0;  sadiUery  and  harness  in  325  establishments,  bv 
879  hands,  to  tho  value  of  $1.1 10,852  ;  clothing,  190  cstal- 


1284 


IOWA. 


lishmcnts,  to  the  value  of  $1,003,732;  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  machinery  iu  56  establishments,  by  562  hands, 
to  the  value  of  $SL*y,y05  ;  malt  liquors  in  101  breweries,  to 
the  value  of  $992,818  ;  furniture  in  223  establishments,  by 
959  hands,  to  the  amount  of  $981,091 ;  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  in  231  shops,  employing  609  hands,  to  the 
amount  of  $758,011  ;  printinf;^  and  publishing  in  07  offices, 
to  the  amount  of  $618,752;  20  machine-shops,  etnploying 
500  hands,  jiroduced  steam-engines,  etc.  to  tiie  value  of 
$017,113:  iron  eastings,  to  the  amount  of  $532,789;  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  31  factories,  producing  $467,586  ;  coop- 
erage, 136  shops,  producing  $452,388;  brick,  110  kilns, 
making  bricks  to  the  value  of  $425,919  ;  and  53  boot  and 
shoe  shops,  producing  goods  to  the  value  of  $423,283.  The 
only  other  considerable  industries  were  ihe  bakeries,  58  in 
number,  whicli  produced  gooils  to  the  value  of  $315,530, 
and  tobacco  and  cigar  factories,  of  which  there  were  71, 
producing  cigars,  etc.  to  the  amount  of  $377,773. 

Minhifj  /m/iistrt/. — Iowa  has  a  considerable  mining  and 
quarrying  interest,  conilnod  almost  exclusively  to  coal,  lead, 
and  gypsum.  In  1870  there  were  131  of  these  mining  es- 
tablishments, employing  1028  hands  and  an  estimated  cap- 
ital of  $756,224,  paying  wages  to  the  amount  of  .$656,714, 
and  producing  the  articles  mined  or  quarried  to  the  value 
of  $1,063,484. 

Rnilrutuls. — .\t  the  close  of  the  year  1873  there  were 
3800  miles  of  completed  railroad  in  the  State,  409  miles 
having  been  added  since  Jan.,  1872.     The  principal  rail- 


roads are  summarized  in  the  following — the  Chicago  Rock 
Island    and  Pacific,  connecting    iJavenport  with    Council 
Bluffs.  300  miles;  the  Burlingt<in  Cedar  Rapids  and  Min- 
nesota, connecting  Burlington   with  Plymouth,  229  miles, 
and  Plymouth  with  Austin,  32  miles;  the  Burlington  and 
Missouri  River,  349  miles  ;  the  Cedar  Falls  and  Minnesota, 
running  from  Waterloo  to  the  Minnesota  t-tate  line,  75.5 
miles  :  the  Cedar  Rapids  and  Missouri,  connecting  Cedar 
Rapids  with  Omaha.  \cb.,  271.5  miles,  and  Clinton  with 
Lyons,  2.5  miles;    the   Central    Iowa,   running   from    the 
northern  to  the  southern  State  line,  and  forming  a  portion 
of  the  line  connecting  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  with  St.  Louis,  203 
miles  ;  the  Chicago  Iowa  and  JJebraska,  connecting  Clinton 
with  Cedar  Rapids,  81.5  miles;  the   Chicago  and  South- 
western,   from    Washingtnn    to    Leavenworth.    Kan..   271 
miles  ;  the  Dos  Moines  Valley,  from  Keokuk  to  Des  Moines, 
248.5  miles;  the  Dubuque  and  Siiiu.v  City.  143  miles;  the 
Dubuque  .and  South-western,  from  Farley  to  Cedar  Rapids, 
54.75  miles;   the  Iowa  Falls  and  Sioux  City,  184  miles; 
'  and  the  .Sioux  City  and   Pacific,  from  Sioux  City  to  Fre- 
mont, Neb.,  107  miles.     Besides  these  there  are  numerous 
I  short  connecting  lines.     With  these  great  highways  trav- 
j  ersing  every  part  of  the  State,  and  her  eastern  and  western 
I  boundaries  washed  by  two  great  rivers,  Iowa  has  excol- 
]  lent  commercial  facilities.     The  following  table,  compiled 
from  Poor's  Unilrund  ^^^nnal  far  1S74-75,  gives  the  condi- 
tion of  the  railroads  of  Iowa  about  the  beginning  of  Jan., 
I  1874 :'« 


NAum  OF 

Bailkoads. 


Mnia  All 

and     I    otber 

braocb.    tracks. 


BurlingtoQ  Cedar  Rapids 
aod  MianesciU 

Burlingtoti  and  South- 
western 

Cednr  Falls  and  MIddc- 
sola 

Cednr  Rapids  and  Mis- 
suuri  River 

Central  (of  Iowa) 

Chicago  Clinton  and  Du- 
btiquc I 

Chicago  Dubuque  aud 
Minnesota 

Cliicago  Iowa  and  Ne- 
braska   

Davvnporl  and  St.  Paul 

Des  Moiaea  and  Port, 
Dodge ! 

De3  Moines  Valley  f  . . . . ' 

Dubuque  and  iSioux  City 

Dubuque  South -western 

Iowa    Fall.t    and    Sioux 

City 

Iowa  Midland 

Keokuk  and  Dei  Moines 
Missouri   Iowa  and  Ne- 
braska   

Sioux  City  and  PaciBc. 
ToWl.   


Milea. 

389.73 

1 16.60 

73.60 

274.00 
189.00 

60.00 

ISi.OO 

81.80 
156.00 


147.90 
55.  UO 

IB4.00 
71.40 
161.50 


Miles. 

14.00 
40.00 
3.00 

10.00 

15.00 

2.50 

11.00 

17.90 
10.00 


14.60 

3.70 


6.60 
14.00 


3.373.55  '   'J01.50 


OBMBRAL  LtABILtTISS. 


2,000,000 
1,587,000 
7,6:90.000 


960.000 
3.500.000 
3,916,200 

4.000,000 

6,000.000 
1,180.805 

4.625,000 

3.9^4,666 

1. 500.000 
2,Oeft.5O0 


882,000  5.882.000 

5-i8,500  I  1.709,305 

2.960.000  7.585.000 

1. 314.000  I  1.311.000 

2.153.720  1  6,078,320 


2,000.000 
1.628.000  I 


3.500.000 
3.696,500 


43.292.010  '84.174.115 


2.000.000 
3,6%,500 


87,941 
33,316 
61,360 


300.000 

40,000 


1SJ,I«8 

si.oei 

114,942 


400.000 
133,000 


30,013 
9!.020 


300,000 
50,000 


2;i,199 
41,31'i 


146,318 
30,000 


Gboss  Ear-mnqs. 

From 
freight. 

S 

All 
other. 

ToUI 
amouDt. 

S 

S 

700,000 

59,809 

1,059,809 

69,135 



109,135 

85,074 

129,750 

1,250.000 
441,000 

.■,1.773 
41,053 

1.701,773 
615,053 

65,103 

4,16S 

108,172 

1011,9.18 

22,901 

313,859 

700,000 
130,000 

5«,-'92 
9,369 

1,056, '292 
189.369 

551.000 

751.000 

800.287 
73,120 

'fts-a 

1,071.486 

122,961 

262.250 
50.000 

'V.rei 

408.568 
84.781 

169,507 

8,962 

261,930 

2.790,279 

145,422 

7,983,988 

Earningg 

le<* 
opcraling 
expenses. 


% 

414,415 

112,000 
559,555 

31.312 
153,802 
396,110 

149.413 


142.999 

1.980 


Fimtnces. — In  1870  the  assessed  valuation  of  real  and 
personal  estate  was  $.302, .51.5, 418,  and  the  estimated  true 
valuation,  $717,644,750.  The  taxation  for  all  ]iur|ioses, 
8tate,  county,  city,  town,  etc.,  was  $9, OS,'!, 014.  of  which  the 
State  received  only  $8.32,918,  the  counties,  $3,0:>2,y:il.  and 
the  towns,  cities,  etc.,  $.0,169,703.  The  .State  had  no  debt, 
but  the  debts  of  the  counties  were  $.3,732,929,  and  of  the 
towns,  cities,  etc.,  $3,775,706.  The  fiscal  reports  of  the 
treasurer  and  auditor  are  made  up  biennially.  The  latest 
is  that  of  Nov.  15,  1873.  The  treasurer  had  received  dur- 
ing the  two  years  ending  with  that  date,  including  a  bal- 
ance of  $81,740.84  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  bien- 
nial period,  $2,211,318.35,  and  had  disbursed  in  the  same 
time  $2,180,100.69,  leaving  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  a 
balance  of  $31,217.60.  The  estimated  receipts  for  the  next 
two  years  were  $1,973,800,  and  the  expenditures  provided 
for  by  law  amounted  to  $1,474,000,  leaving  $499,800  to  be 
applied  for  sgieeial  purposes.  The  amount  of  taxation  for 
all  purposes  under  Ihe  levy  of  1872  was  $10,711,925.49,  or 
2.94  per  cent,  of  the  valuation.  This  valuation  amounted 
to  $3G9.S49.503.9I,  which  would  make  the  true  valuation 
about  $863,11110, out).  The  amount  of  the  permanent  school 
fund  is  $3,294,742.83,  an  increase  of  $133,249.82  since  1871. 
There  were  patented  in  1871-73.  48,817.08  acres  of  achool 
lands,  2320  acres  of  university  lands,  and  1 1,013.43  acres  of 
swamp-lands.  The  selection  of  swamp-lands  made  in  the 
several  counties  under  the  act  of  Congress  of  1872  amount- 
ed to  865,770.46  acres.  The  entire  grants  made  within  the 
State  for  railroads  and  other  internal  improvements  now 
amount  to  4,898,608.88  acres. 

Commerrt, — The  .State  has  a  port  of  entry  at  Dubuque, 
with  a  fine  custom-house  built  by  the  l".  .S.  government. 
Its  internal  and  inter-.State  commerce  has  been  estimated 
on  good  authority  to  exceed  $500,000,000  annually. 

Bauki,  Savings  ]ia»f:8   lusurancc  CompcinieSf  c/c— There 


are  80  national  banks  in  operation  in  Iowa.  They  had,  Nov. 
1,  1874.  $6,261,480  capital  paid  in.  $0,095,000  bonds  on 
deposit,  $7,984,805  circulation  issued,  of  which  $5,002,869 
was  outstanding.  There  were  also  20  .State  banks,  having 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,200,000,  and  deposits  amount- 
ing to  $2,898,954.58.  There  were  IS  savings  banks,  with 
capital  and  deposits  of  $1,247,600.  There  were  also  163 
private  banking-houses.  There  were  8  fire  insurance  com- 
panies in  the  State  in  July.  1873,  2  of  them  mutual;  the 
capital  of  the  0  stock  companies  was  $.335,025.  and  the 
assets  of  all  about  $908,000.  During  the  year  ending 
May  15,  1873.  the  amount  of  premiums  received  by  these 
companies  was  $362,026.15,  the  amount  of  losses  paid, 
$90,016.95.  The  aggregate  expenditures  were  $273,978.09, 
the  aggregate  income  from  all  sources,  $425,943.74.  Fifty 
companies  from  other  States  received  during  the  same  year 
$1,029,102.94  in  premiums,  and  paid  for  losses  $386,378.14. 
There  is  but  one  life  insurance  ei)mpany  in  the  ,^tate,  organ- 
ized in  1807  with  $100,000  cai)ilal,  which  had  $180,650  as- 
sets in  .Tuly,  1873.  In  the  year  precc<ling  it  had  issued  282 
new  policies  and  received  $45,813.29  in  premiums,  covering 
insurances  to  the  amount  of  $425,021.  Forty-one  life  in- 
surance companies  of  other  .States  did  business  in  Iowa,  re- 
ceiving $1,037,622.34  in  premiums  and  paying  $231,531.09 
in  losses. 

Populnlitm. — Iowa  has  but  a  brief  history,  and  its  record 
of  population  dates  back  but  about  forty  years.  The 
whites  were  first  permitted  to  settle  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  State  in  .lune,  1833,  and  very  few  actual  set- 
tlements were  made  before  1834.   In  1840  there  were  43,112 


•In  the  year  1R74  the  railroads  had  increased  till  their  mileage 
in  Jan..  IR75,  was  4314.4:),  and  the  cost  of  roads,  equipment,  etc., 
$142,:n9,729. 

t  Operated  by  the  Burlington  and  South-western  It.  R. 


IOWA. 


12S.3 


iobabitanU;  in  184G^  when  it  was  admitted  ns  a  State, 
97,588;  in  I860  the  number  of  inhabitiints  was  192.214; 
iu  1860.  671,913;  in  1870,  1,194,020;  in  IS7;J,  by  State 
census,  I,2Jl,.'i:;.'J.  The  immij^ration,  except  in  the  new 
counties,  is  very  nearly  balanced  by  the  emitrrntinu  to  Mis- 
souri and  the  States  and  Territories  farther  \V.  The  density 
of  the  population  to  the  square  mile  was  in  1830,  3,49  :  in 
1860,  12.26  ;  in  1870,  21.69  ;  iu  1873,  22.73.  The  number 
of  families  in  1S50  was  33,517,  areragin;;  5.73  persons  to 
a  family;  in  i860.  124,098  families,  averaging  5.44  to  a 
family  :  in  1870.  222.430  families,  averaging  5.37  to  a  fam- 
ily. Of  the  1.194.020  inhabitants  of  the  Slate  in  1870, 
939,323  were  natives  of  the  U.  S.,  and  204,692  of  foreign 
birth.  Of  those  born  in  the  U.  S..  410,139  were  partially 
or  wholly  of  foreign  parentage,  and  360,971  h:id  both 
fatlier  and  mother  of  foreign  birth.  Of  tluigc  who  were 
natives  of  the  U.  S.,  428,620  were  born  in  the  State,  126,285 
in  Ohio,  79,143  in  New  York,  73,435  in  Pennsylvania, 
65,391  in  Illinois,  64,083  in  Indiana,  24.309  in  Wisconsin, 
19,563  in  Virginia,  14.|Sfi  jn  Kentmtky,  13,831  in  Misi^uuri. 
12,204  in  Vermont,  8929  in  Massachusetts,  8918  in  Michi- 
ffan,  5185  in  Connecticut,  5688  in  New  Jersey,  5090  in 
North  Carolina,  5060  in  New  Hampshire,  5943  in  Maine, 
5972  in  Maryland,  and  less  than  11)1)0  in  any  other  State. 
Of  the  204,692  persons  of  foreign  birth  in  the  State,  66,102 
were  from  the  different  German  states,  65,442  from  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  (of  whom  40,124  were  from  Ireland, 
17,907  from  British  America,  mostly  from  Canada),  17,556 
from  Norway,  10,796  from  Sweden,  2827  from  Denmark, 
6766  from  Bohemia.  4513  from  Holland,  3937  from  Switz- 
erland, 3130  from  France.  2691  from  Austria,  1314  from 
Luxemburg,  050  from  Belgium,  and  598  from  all  other 
countries.  There  wore  5762  colored  persons  (3099  males 
and  2663  females)  in  the  State,  Of  the  white  population, 
which  numbered  1,188,207,  622.786  were  males  and  565,421 
females.  Of  the  native  population,  510,864  were  males  and 
478,464  females;  of  the  foreign-born,  115,053  were  males 
and  89,630  females.  There  were  but  48  Indians  in  the 
State,  of  whom  29  were  males  and  19  females.  Of  the 
625,917  males  in  Iowa,  210,769  were  of  military  age  (be- 
tween 18  and  45  years);  of  these,  173,060  were  of  native 
and  67,709  of  foreign  birth;  1425  were  colored;  290,717 
were  of  the  age  of  citizenship  (21  years  old  and  upward), 
and  of  these,  255,802  were  citizens.  There  were  394,696 
persons  of  school  ago  (5  to  18  years),  of  whom  201,531 
were  males  and  193,165  females.  According  to  the  State 
census  of  1873.  there  were  at  that  time  491,344  persons  of 
school  age  in  the  Sdite.  but  the  school  age  prescribed  by 
the  State  is  between  5  and  21  years. 

Educntiun. — In  1S70  there  were,  according  to  the  census, 
306.353  persons  who  attended  the  schools  of  the  State,  pub- 
lic and  private,  during  some  portion  of  the  year.  Of  these, 
13,000  were  of  foreign  birth.  There  were  160.269  while 
male  and  1 15.121  white  female  scholars;  and  661  colored, 
of  whom  346  were  males  and  315  females;  there  were  also 
2  Indiiin  j)itpils.  The  number  of  inhabitants  of  all  races, 
10  years  old  and  over,  unable  to  read  and  write  wiis  45.671, 
of  whom  20.092  were  of  foreign  birth  and  44,145  were 
whites ;  of  these,  5858  (3401  males  and  2-157  females)  were 
from  10  to  15  years  of  ago:  3680  (2014  males  and  1636 
females)  were  from  15  to  21  years  of  age ;  and  34,007 
(11,782  males  imd  I9,S25  females)  were  over  21  years  of 
age.  Of  the  1524  colored  illiterates,  70  (32  males  and  38 
females)  were  from  10  to  15  years  of  age;  146  (71  males 
and  75  females)  were  from  15  to  21  years  of  age,  and  1308 
(635  males  and  673  females )  were  over  21  years.  The  wholo 
n  urn  her  of  educational  institutions  in  1870  was  7496,  having 
9319  teachers  (3650  males  and  5663  females)  and  217.654 
pupils  (105,665  males  and  I1I.9S9  females).  The  total  in- 
come of  these  was  $3,570,093,  of  whirdi  $63,150  was  derived 
from  endowment,  $3,347,029  fr«:n  taxation  and  public 
funds,  ami  $159,314  from  tuition  and  other  sources.  Thoro 
were  7322  public  schools,  with  8S66  teachers  (of  whom 
3381  were  males  and  5|S5  females),  and  205,923  pupils 
(100,308  males  and  105.615  females).  The  total  income  of 
these  public  Schools  was  $3,245,352.  of  which  $3100  was 
derived  from  end<»wment,  $3,241,752  from  taxation  and 
public  funds,  and  $500  from  tuition  ami  other  sources. 
According  to  the  census,  there  were  21  colleges,  with  139 
teacher.'?  (109  males  and  30  females)  and  3061  students 
(1685  nmles  and  1376  females).  The  tniul  income  of  thcso 
colleges  was  $101,950,  of  which  $54,000  was  derived  from 
endowment,  $10,000  from  taxation  and  public  funds,  and 
$37,950  from  tuition  and  other  source;'.  There  wore  34 
acailcmies.  with  10;[  teachers  (  40  nuiles  and  57  females)  and 
2333  pupils  (1019  males  and  1314  females),  and  an  income 
of  $55,880,  derived  from  tuition  nnd  other  sources.  There 
were  also  100  hoarding  and  day  schools  (private  schools), 
having  136  teachers  (61  males  and  72  femalefjand  4872 
pupils  (1741  males  ami  3131  females),  and  an  income  of 
$38,550,  derived  from  tuition  and  other  sources.     The  pub- 


lic-school statistics  to  the  beginning  of  the  year  1873  were  : 
number  of  ungraded  schools,  8163  ;  of  graded  schools.  400  ; 
of  persons  between  5  and  21  years  of  age,  474,350  (males 
243.522,  females  230.828) ;  scholars  enrolled  in  Iho  schools, 
349,633  ;  average  attendance,  21S.13I  :  average  time  schools 
are  taught.  6  months  and  14  days;  number  of  teachers, 
15,193  (males  5888,  females  9305);  average  compensation 
of  male  teachers,  $36  per  month  ;  of  female  teachers,  $29.32 


per  month  :  average  cost  of  tuition  per  week  for  each  pupi 
5>0.42 ;  number  of  school-houses,  8235  ;  total  value  of  school 
houses,  $7,460,3SI,I9.  By  the  State  census  of  1873  the 
number  of  persons  of  school  ago  in  the  State  was  reported 
as  491.344,  and  there  was  an  increase  of  932  school  districts. 
The  total  amount  expended  in  1S73-74  for  school  purposes 
was  $1,229,455.  There  is  a  State  university  at  Iowa  City, 
which  has  32  professors,  263  .sturlents,  besides  the  normal 
class,  and  4  departments — collegiate,  normal,  law.  and  med- 
ical. Its  assets  are  $232,221.50.  and  its  income  for  the  two 
years  ending  June  3,  1873,  $122,041.29.  Its  expenses  from 
June21,lS7I,to(>et.I,  1873,  were$103,4 15.93.  There  is  to  bo 
a  department  of  dental  medicine  established  iu  connection 
with  it.  It  still  holds  7810  acres  of  its  land-grant,  which 
are  valued  at  nearly  $30,000.  The  agricultural  college  at 
Ames  was  organized  iu  1869.  It  ha?  12  professors,  220 
students,  and  has  good  buildings  and  the  avails  of  240,000 
acres  of  government  lands,  of  which,  however,  22,765  are 
not  yet  leased  or  sold.  It  has  received  considerable  appro- 
priations from  the  State.  There  are  16  universities  and 
colleges  (only  3  of  them,  however,  having  post-graduate 
or  professional  schools — viz.  Iowa  AVcsleyan  University, 
Cornell  College,  and  (Iriswold  College)  which  are  not  Stato 
institutions.  Of  these,  4  are  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  3  under  that  of  the  Bajitists, 
%  Lutheran,  2  Congregational,  I  Friends,  1  Episcopal,  1 
Christian,  and  I  undenominational.  Iowa  College,  the 
oldest,  dates  back  to  1848;  the  others  range  between  1854 
and  1870.  Thc!-c  colleges  have  about  130  professors,  and 
about  1850  students,  and  libraries  containing  over  40,000 
volumes.  There  is  a  scientific  department  to  Cornell  Col- 
lego;  theological  departments  to  (iriswold  College  and 
Iowa  Wcsleyan  I'niversity,  the  Wartburg  Lutheran  Thcti- 
logical  Seminary  at  Casstown,  and  the  German  Hcfurrncd 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  Norlh-wcst  at  I>uliuquc  ;  law 
departments  to  Iowa  State  and  to  Iowa  Weslcyau  univer- 
sities ;  a  medical  department  of  Iowa  State  University  at 
Iowa  City  ;  a  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  at  Keokuk  ; 
an<l  a  department  of  pharmacy  of  the  I<»wa  Wcsleyan  Uni- 
versity at  Mount  Pleasant.  There  are  5  or  6  academies  of 
high  grade  at  Davenport,  Duhuquc,  Denmark,  and  Irving. 
Of  training  or  normal  schools,  there  are  dejiurtmenis  at- 
tached to  tile  State  University,  to  Iowa  College  at  (irinnell, 
and  to  M'hittier  College  nt  Salem.  In  theto  in  1872  there 
wore  225  students.  Of  special  schools  of  education,  there 
is  the  Iowa  college  for  the  blind  at  Vinton,  with  112  stu- 
dents and  32  teachers  and  empIoy«^s,  property  of  the  es- 
timated value  of  $250,000,  and  an  annual  inconie  Uiwix  the 
State  of  $24,000  :  the  institution  for  the  deaf  ami  dumb  at 
Council  Bluffs,  with  6  instructors  and  119  pupils,  juuperty 
valued  at  $179,000,  and  an  income  of  $25,000  from  the 
State;  the  soldiers'  orjdian  homes,  three  in  number,  at 
Daven]i(nt,  Cedar  Ealls,  and  Glenwood,  with  508  children 
in  their  care  and  nn  annual  expense  of  $146,050;  n  State 
reform  school  for  boys  at  Eldora.  on  a  farm  of  44  0  acres, 
the  buildings  costing  $90,000.  and  having  145  boys  in 
charge;  a  girls*  reform  school  near  Salem  In  Lee  eo.,  on  a 
small  farm,  with  II  Inmates.  The  State  prison  at  Fort 
Madison  has  276  prisoners  ;  a  new  one  has  been  established 
at  Anamosa.  where  there  arc  25  prisoners.  There  are  2  in- 
sane hospitals  in  the  Slate;  that  at  Mt.  Pleasant  had  in 
Nov.,  1873,  495  patients,  and  its  expenses  for  the  two  years 
preceding  had  hecn  $229,441.25.  The  new  hospital  at  In- 
dependence is  not  yet  completed,  but  at  the  close  of  1873 
had  152  patients. 

StatiKtirit  of  Cn'mc. — The  whido  number  of  convicts  in 
prison  during  the  year  ending  June  1.  1870.  is  stated  to 
have  been  615,  of  whom  397 — 287  natives  (273  white  and 
14  colored)  and  110  persons  of  foreign  birth — remained  in 
prison  .luno  1,  1870.  This  can  only  refer  to  the  Stato  pen- 
itentiaries, for  in  these,  as  we  have  seen,  there  were  in  1873 
over  300  prisoners,  or  if  the  reform  schools  are  included, 
457  prisoners.  The  99  county  jails  and  the  several  city 
penitentiaries  and  police  prisons  can  hardly  have  been 
without  inmates. 

Lihiuiri>». —  In  lS70thero  wore  3540  libraries, public  and 
private,  containing  653,600  vidumes,  of  which  1153  were 
puldie  lihraries,  containing  377,851  volumes.  Of  these,  the 
State  library  at  Des  Moines  has  11,000  volumes;  23  town 
and  city  libraries,  22. SOS  volumes;  II  court  and  law  llbra- 
rie^i,  I'll  volumes;  15  school  and  collego  libraries,  18,747 
I  volumes;  10S4  church  and  Sunday  school  libraries,  with 
I  303,835  volumes;  1  literary  society,  with  150  volumes;  IS 


1286 


IOWA. 


circulating  libraries,  with  20,3C7  volumes.     The  2.'iS7  pri- 
vate libraries  ba.l  au  aggregate  of  295,749  volumes. 

Ncw<,><n)rr8.—Xa  I S70  there  were  2:j:i  newspapers  ot  all 
clas'^es  in  the  Stale,  issuing  annually  1 6,403,380  copies,  anJ 
bavin"  an  aggregate  circulation  of  219,090.  The  number 
in  1874  exceeds  300,  and  the  circulation  has  increased  eor- 
rcsnondinglv.  Of  those  published  in  1S70,  22  were  dailies, 
with  an  a""grcgate  circulation  of  19,800;  3  tri-weeklies, 
with  a  circulation  of  IfiiO;  1  scmi-weckly,  with  a  eircula- 
tion  of  1000;  19G  weeklies,  with  a  circulation  ol  1S,,N4II; 
.1  semi-monthlies,  with  3400  circulation  :  ,')  monthlies,  with 
3950  circulation;  2  bi-monthlies,  with  750  circulation  ;  and 
1  quarterly,  with  700  circulation. 

rinirchc— In  1S70  there  were  reported  by  the  census 
27R3  churches,  with  1446  church  edifices.  431,709  sittings, 
and  $5,730,3.52  of  church  property.     Of  these,  the  Baptists 
had    352   churches,    165   church    edifices,  50,690   sittings, 
$668,900  of  church  property.     In   1S73,  according  to  the 
Hnpt!,t  Ycv  Uoolc  for  1875,  the  regular  Baptists  had  3,  J 
churches,  252  ordained    ministers,   20,734    niembcrs,  2o4 
Sundav  schools,  20,541   teachers  and  scholars,  20,o4()  vol- 
umes in  Sundav  school  libraries,  and  ?1 26,025  of  benevo- 
lent contributions,  aside  from  church  expenses.     There  arc 
a  considerable  number  of  churches  of  the  minor  Ba.ptist 
denominations,  as  Mennonites,  Tunkers,  "  Church  of  t.od. 
etc    in  the  State,  enumerated  with  Baptists  m  the  census, 
but  not  in  the  Yeur  Iio„k  statistics.     The  Christian  Con- 
nection had,  including  also  the  "  Disciples,    m   ISiO,  ac- 
cording to  the  census.  113   churches,  48  church  ediltces, 
15,750  sittings,  and  $124,450  of  church  property.     The 
Concre^ationalists  had  187  churches,  125  church  edifices 
33,925  sittings,  and  $529,570  of  church  property.     In  18,4 
they  had.  according  to  the  CM,fircr,„l,o,ml  Qnaricr(y,^-i 
churches,  19S  ministers,  and  12,803  communicants.      I  he 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church   in  1870  had  58  parishes,  36 
church  edifices,  9584  sittings,  and  $192,862  of  church  prop- 
erty      In   1874,  according  to  the    Cliurrh  Almannc,  there 
were  57  parishes,  45  clergymen,  2991  communicants,  3220 
Sunday  school  teachers  and  scholars,  and  $7o,643  of  be- 
nevolent contributions,  aside  from  church  and  parish  ex- 
penses     The  Evangelical  .Association  (.Mbrighfs)  had  in 
1870   32  churches,  11  church  edilicos.  2400  sittings,  and 
$22,800  of  church  property;  in  1873  they  had  51  itinerant 
and   53  local  preachers.  70  churches,  and   4717  communi- 
cants     In  1870  the  Friends  had  S2  meetings,  00  meeting- 
houses,   17,075  sittings,   and   $125,800  of    meeting-house 
nroiierty.     The   Lutherans  in   1870  had  79  churches,  4d 
church  edifices,  12,285   sittings,  and  $113,950   of  church 
property.     As  neariv  as  can  bo  ascertained,  m  18,3  they 
had  122  churches,  79  ministers,  and  about  15,000  commu- 
nicants. The  Methodist  Church,  in  1870,  had  982  churches, 
492  church  edifices,   142,655  sittings,   and  $1,490,220  ot 
church  property.     In  1 873  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
had  4  conferences  within  the    State,  627  church  cdihees, 
531  itinerant  and  868  local  preachers,  52,026  members,  be- 
sides  probationers,  $1,839,892    of  church    properly,   103d 
Sunday  schools,  and  73,433    Sunday  school  tcacheis  and 
scholars.     There  were  also  a  large  number  of  churches  ad- 
hering' to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  and  many 
belon"in"  to  the  difi'crent  minor  Methodist  dcnonuuafions. 
The    Prc'sbyterian    Church    (including    the  Northern  and 
Southern  and  United  Presbyterian  Churches)  in  1870  had 
375    churches,   222    church   edifices,  64,890    sittings,    and 
$962  325  of  church  property.     In   1873   the  Presbyterian 
Church,   North,  had   2   synods,   10  presbyteries,   222    or- 
dained ministers,  348  churches,  and  16,991  members.    The 
United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1873  had  5  presbyteries, 
W  ministers,  91  churches,  and  5396  members.     Tbo  Cum- 
berland  Presbvterian  Church  in  1872  had  4  presbyteries, 
20  ministers,  about  30  churches,  and  nearly  4000  members. 
The  Reformed  Church  (late  Dutch)  in  1870,  had  4  churches, 
4  church  edifices,  1500  sittings,  and  $25,000  of  church  prop- 
erty. The  Reformed  Church  (late  German)  had  13  churches, 
13"church  edifices,   3950   sittings,  and  $46,000  of  church 
propertv.  Owing  to  the  arrangement  of  synods  and  classes, 
the  statistics  of  neither  of  these  churches  for  the  State  can 
be  separated.     The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1870  had 
216  congregations,  165  church  edifices,  57,280  sittings,  and 
$1,216,150  of  church  property.     According  to  the  Cnllioh'c 
y.^iVccMi-i/,  in  I  874  they  had  13.5  priests.250  churches,  chapels, 
and  stations,  but  only  108  church  edifices,  and  an  adherent 
population  of  about  70,000.     In  1870  there  were  28  Second 
Advent   churches,  with   10  church  edifices,  2950  sittings, 
and  $13,050  of  church  property.     There  were  3  UnUariiin 
congregations,  2  church  edifices,  715  sittings,  and  $19,000 
of  church  property.     The  United  Brethren  in  Christ  (Ger- 
man Methodists)  in  1870  had  188  churches,  28  church  edi- 
fices, 10,445  sittings,  and  $69,250  of  church  property.     In 
1874  they  had  4  conferences.  327  churches,  171  ministers, 
and  7449  niembcrs.     The  Univcrsalists  in  1S70  had  35  con- 
gregations or  parishes,  15  church  edifices,  4465  sittings. 


and  $99,525  of  church  property.  In  1S73  they  had  39 
parishes,  24  organized  churches,  1100  adherent  families, 
and  782  members.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of 
churches  of  the  minor  denominations,  such  as  Chriftiaa 
Union,  Christadelphians,  New  Jerusalem  Church,  etc., and 
a  body  of  4000  or  more  Mormons,  not  included  in  the 
above  statement,  but  there  are  not  suflicient  data  for  giving 
any  accurate  statistics  concerning  them. 

'('oimlilutioii,  CourtK,  Mep'-cseiilalireB  iii  Congress,  eic. — 
When  Iowa  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  her 
people  had  adopted  a  constitution  which  remained  the  su- 
preme law  of  the  State  until  1857,  when  a  new  constitution 
was  prepared  by  a  convention  called  for  the  purpose,  and 
adopted  by  the  people.  This  constitution  remains  in  force 
to  the  ]ircscnt  time,  except  that  in  the  2d  article,  on  the 
ricrht  of  suffrage,  the  word  "white"  was  stricken  out,  by 
vote  of  the  people  in  1 808,  thus  giving  to  colored  persons 
the  same  privileges  and  responsibilities  as  were  before 
granted  to  whites  only.  That  section  now  provides  that 
"  every  male  citizen  of  the  U.  S.,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,"who  shall  have  been  a  resident  of  this  State  si.x 
months  next  preceding  the  election,  and  of  the  county  in 
which  ho  claims  his  vote  sixty  days,  shall  be  entitled  to 
vote  at  all  elections  which  are  now  or  hereafter  may  bo 
authorized  by  law.  All  elections  by  the  peo)ilo  shall  be  by 
ballot."  The  legislature  consists  of  a  senate  of  fifty  mem- 
bers elected  for  four  years   in  senatorial  districts   ""■<   " 


.  and 


house  of  representatives  of  100  members  elected  for  two 
years  in  representative  districts.  Senators  must  be  citi- 
zens and  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age;  representatives 
must  bo  citizens  and  not  under  twenty-one  years  of  age. 
The  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  biennial.  The  execu- 
tive officers  of  the  State— the  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
secretary  of  state,  auditor,  treasurer,  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  register  of  the  state  land-oflice— are 
elected  by  the  people  of  the  State  at  the  general  election 
for  the  term  of  two  years.  The  judicial  department  com- 
prises a  supreme  court,  district  court,  and  circuit  court. 
The  supreme  court  consists  of  four  judges,  who  arc  elected 
by  the  people  and  serve  for  six  years,  but  are  so  classified 
that  their  terms  of  office  close  at  different  dates.  Each 
judo-o  in  succession  becomes  chief-justice  before  his  term 
exph-cs.  The  supreme  court  is  both  a  court  of  errors  and  a 
court  of  appeal.  The  attorney-general  is  elected  for  two 
vcars,  and  the  reporter  and  clerk  of  the  supreme  court  for 
'four  years  each.  The  State  is  divided  into  fourteen  judi- 
cial districts,  and  every  four  years  the  people  of  each  dis- 
trict elect  one  judge  of  the  district  court,  one  judge  ot  the 
circuit  court,  and  one  district  attorney,  who  serve  for  lour 
years  each.  There  arc  no  county  courts,  but  both  the  dis- 
trict and  circuit  courts  are  held  successively,  but  at  difi'er- 
ent  times,  in  each  county  of  the  district.  Under  the  appor- 
tionment of  IS72  Iowa  has  nine  members  of  Congress. 

Coi,i,(,'c«.— There  are  99  counties  in  the  State,  aad  the 
following  table  gives  their  population  by  sexes  in  1870,  and 
total  population  in  1860  and  1850; 


Hales, 

1870. 


Total  pop 
ISIO. 


!  2,178 

I  2,470 

1  9.319 

I  8,498 

;  11,846 

Black  Hawk '  11.3S1 


Adair 

Adams 

Allamakee . 
Appanoose .. 
Audubon.... 
Benton. 


7,57' 
6.647 
8,869 

907 
5,268 

834 

l,a32 

2,923 

10,297 

Ccrro  Gordo !       2,634 


Boone.. 

Bremer 

Buchanan 

Buena  Vista.., 

Butler 

Calhoun 

Carroll 

Cass 

Cedar . 


1,1.56 

5,228 

4,473 

8GS 

14.4.5.5 

18,694 

1,387 

6,392 

7,898 

6,197 

8,998 

14,191 

745 

Dubuque '      20,013 


!  Cherokee. 
Ctiiekasaw.... 

(larke 

Clav  

Clayton  

Clinton  

Crawford 

Dallas 

Davis 

Decatur 

Delaware  .... 
Des  Moines.. 
Dickinson.. 


Total  pop.  Total  pop. 


Kmmet . 
Favette... 

Floyd 

Franklin.. 
Fremont.. 

Greene 

Grundy ... 
Guthrie... 


757 
8,744 
5,705 
2.560 
5,980 
2,462 
.3,472 
3,753 


1,804 

2,144 

8,549 

7,9.58 

553 

10,608 

10,325 

7,007 

6,8S1 

8,165 

678 

4,683 

768 

1,119 

2,.541 

9,434 

2,088 

811 

4,952 

4,262 

655 

13.316 

16,663 

1,143 

5,627 

7,667 

5,821 

S,4:i4 

13,065 

644 

18,9.56 

6.35 

8,229 

5.063 

2,178 

5.194 

2.165 

2.927 

3,303 


3,982 

4,614 

17,868 

16,456 

1,212 

22,4.54 

21,706 

14,584 

12,528 

17,034 

1,.585 

9,951 

1,602 

2,451 

5,464 

19,731 

4,722 

1.967 

10,180 

8,735 

1,.523 

27,771 

a5,357 

2,.530 

12,019 

15,5115 

12,018 

17,432 

27,256 

I. .389 

38.969 

1..S92 

16,973 

1U,768 

4,738 

11.174 

4.627 

6,399 

7,061 


1860. 


984 

1,.533 

12,237 

11,931 

454 

8,496 

8,244 

4,232 

4,915 

7,906 

57 

3,724 

147 

281 

1,612 

12,919 

940 

58 

4,336 

5,427 

62 

20,728 

18,938 

383 

6,244 

13,764 

8,677 

11,024 

19,611 

180 

31,161 

105 

12073 

3,744 

1,309 

6,074 

1,374 

793 

3,058 


777 
3,131 

672 
135 
735 


3,941 


3,873 
2,822 

854 

7,264 

965 

1.759 

12,988 

10,841 

825 

1,244 


IOWA. 


1287 


Mites, 

ItlTO. 


Hamilton 3,20S 


524 
7,360 
4,"S9 
10,9G4 
3,399 
1,408 
124 
8,671 
11,088 
11,601 
9,248 


Pentales, 
1H70. 


Il:ilic(ick 
llnnlin  — 
llnrrinon.. 

Ilt-nry 

Howard. ... 
IltiinbnUU 

IJ« 

Iowa 

.lacksoii... 

Jasper  

.Ifllerson.. 

.T<ilin30n 12,889 

.loiics 10,273 

Keokuk 10.079 

Kossuth I      1,824 

il^e '    19,2c-'; 

Linn ;    16.23:! 

l.,ouisa 6,743 

Lucas !      5.368 

Lvon !        131 

>faaUon 1      7,32.'! 

Maliaska 11,490 

Marlon '     12.579 

9,387 
4,8(J8 
.5,068 
1,995 
6,671 
3,3.i6 
11,175 
404 


Toul  pop.  I  [Total  pop. 


Total  pop. 
IISJO. 


Marshall 

Mills 

Mitchell 

Monona 

I  Monroe 

I  Montgomery 

'Mitscalino 

O'lirien 

i)»ccola  (new  co.) 

Paie 

I'alo  Alio 

Plymouth 

I  Pocahontas 

Polk 

IPottawntiatnle.... 

ip<)we9hick  - 

'Ringgold 

LSac 

.Scott 

Shelby 

Isioux 

Istory 

Tama 

Taylor _ 

'L'nion 

I  Van  Buren 

!' Wapt'llo - 
Warren 
Wxihin);ton 
Wavne » 
,\Vcl)si..r 

Winiii/ltago 

i  Winneshiek 
Woodl)tiry 
Worth 
Wright 
Total 


5,292 

7.56 

1,245 

785 

14,-527 

9,I«9 

8,4.56 

2,947 

775 

20,1.57 
1,358 
320 
6,088 
8,-595 
3,1)35 
3,199 
9,0.59 

11.669 
9.2S6 
9.7(16 
5,8.53 
5,.598 
820 

12.424 
3,477 
1,518 
1,275 

625,917 


2,852 
475 
6,624 
4,172 
10,499 
2,88:! 
1,188 

102  1 

7,973  I 

10,931 

10,515 

8,.591  I 

11,999 

9,458 

9,:t35 

1,.527 

17, .5^5 

14,847 

6,134 

5,020 

90 

6,559 

11,018 

11,857 

8,195 

3,910 

4,514 

1,659 

6,053 

2..578 

10,513 

311 

4,683 

580 

954 

661 

13,:i30 

7,704 

7,125 

2,744 

636 

18,442 

1,IS2 

256 

5,.5G3 

7..5:i6 

3,;i.>t 

2,787 
8,613 

10,677 
8,694 
9,1W 
B,4:S4 
4,886 
742 

11,146 
2,695 
1,:!74 
1,117 


6,0.5.5  1 

1,699 

999! 

179 

13,6841 

5,410 

8,931 ! 

3,621 

21.403, 

18,701 

8,707 

6,282! 

3,168 

2,596 

332 

226 

43 

16,644 

8,029 

822 

22,619 

18,493 

7,210 

22,116 

9,883 

1,280 

17,8:!9 

15.0:i8  ' 

9,904 

24,898 

17,57:) 

4,472 

19,731 

l:!.300 

3,007 

19,434 

13,271 

4,822 

3,a51 

410 

37,210 

29,2:!2 

18,861 

:!1,080 

18,947 

5,-141 

12,877 

10,370 

4,9:i9 

10,388 

5,766 

471 

221 

13,884 

7,339 

1.179 

22,.508 

14,816 

5,989 

24,4:16 

16,813 

6,482 

17,576 

6,015 

338 

8-718 

4,481 

9,-582 

3,409 

;!,r,54 

8:i2 

12,724 

8,612 

2,884 

0,9:i4 

1,256 

21,688 

16,444 

5,731 

715 

8 

9,975 

4,419 

551 

1,3:!C 

132 

2,199 

148 

1,446 

103 

27,857 

11,625 

4,513 

li>,S9:i 

4,968 

7,828 

15.,581 

5,668 

615 

6,691 

2,923 

1,411 

246 

38,599 

25,9.59 

^986 

2,.540 

818 

576 

10 

11,051 

4,051 

16,131 

5,285 

8 

6,989 

.•!,.590 

204 

5,980 

2,012 

17,672 

17,081 

12,270 

22,;i46 

14,518 

8,471 

17,980 

10,281 

961 

18,952 

14,2:)5 

4,957 

11,287 

6.409 

340 

10,4W 

2,504 

1,.562 

168 

23,570 

13,942 

546 

6.172 

1,119 

2,892 

756 

2,392 

1           653 

,194,020 

,    074,913 

i   192,214 

non,  Cedar  Falls,  Sioux  City,  Oskaloosa.nndMarshalllown 
have  from  40UO  to  OllUO  each. 

fll>i„r</.— The  whole  region  lyinp;  between  the  Missis- 
sippi  an<l   Missouri  rivers  in   the   North-west,  as  well  as 
much  of  the  country  S.  of  the  Missouri,  was  claimed  hy 
the  French  on   the  ground  of  Marquette's  discoveries  in 
1671!,  and  was  transferred  to  ,<pain  hy  treaty  in  17li:i.     In 
1800-01,  Spain  ceded  it  back  to  I'rance,  and  it  was  sold  as 
part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  to  the  U,  S.  in   1S03.     In 
1804  the  Louisiana  district,  wliich  included  what  is  now  the 
State  of  Iowa,  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Indiana 
Territory,  but  the  ne.\t  year  it  was  organized  as  a  distinct 
Territory  with  a  uovernraent  of  its  own.    In  1S12  thenamo 
was  changed  to  Missouri  Territory.     In  1834  all  that  part 
of  Missouri  Territory  N.  of  the  State  of  Missouri  and  W. 
of  the  Mississippi  was  placed   under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Michigan   Territory.      In   l.s:ifi.  Wisconsin   Territory  was 
organized,  and  Iowa  made  a  district  of  it.  with  the  scat  of 
government  for  the  wliolc  Territory  fi.ved  at   liurlington. 
In    IS.'.S,  Iowa  Territory  was  organized,  and  in    LSliU  the 
capital  of  the  Territorv  removed  from  Burlington  to  Iowa 
City.     The  Territorv  was  admitted  into  the  I  iiion  as  a 
Sla"te   with  the  boundaries  described  at  the  beginning  of 
this   article,  Dec.  2S,  1846.      In   1857.  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  the  new  con.stitution,  the  capital  was  removed 
from  Iowa  City  to  Des  Moinrs,  where  it  now  remains,    fho 
present  Territory  of  the  State  was  for  many  years  in  pos- 
session  of  the  Siou-i,  Sac,  Fo.\,nnd  Iowa  tribes  of  Indians, 
but  by  repeated  treaties  with  the  Indians  their  lille  to  the 
land  was  extinguished,  and  they  all  removed  westward, 
until  in  1870  there  were  but  48  Indians  in  the  State.     A 
few  Frenchmen  had  Jettled  at  Montrose  and  Dubuque  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  some  French  pioneers 
and  Ameriean  hunters  had  long  lived  among  the  Indians, 
but  the  first  settlements  of  whiles  permillcd  by  the  1  .  S. 
govcrnincut  within  the  present  limits  of  Iowa  were  made  in 
18o:i-34  at  Fort  Madison,  Burlington,  and  Dubuque.     The 
first  counties  organized  were  Dts  Widncs  and   Dubuque. 
The  first  train  of  cars  run  in  Iowa  started  from  Davcnijort 
in  1SJ5  over  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  road.     Since  its 
admission  to  the  Union  tlic  growth  of  Iowa  has  been  rapid 
and  uninterniptod.  an.l  its  prosperily  steady.     At  the  eoni- 
mcncenieiit  ot  the  late  civil  war  the  State,  under  Ihc  man- 
a.'ement  of  the  patriotic  governor,  Kirkwood,  made  great 
exertions,  and  during  the   war  sent  Sli.OOO  men.  Us  lull 
quota,  into  the  field.     During  that  period  the  wives,  sis- 
ters, and  daugliters  of  its  s.ddiers,  by  ihe  aid  ot  agricultu- 
ral machiuerv.  planted,  gathered,  and  harvested  Us  crops, 
and  kept  tlieStalc  up  to  its  full  niensnreol  iiroductivencss, 
and  when  peace  returned  ils  prosperily 
found  to  bo  very  slightly  impaired, 
Goveruora  of  the  ,S'(a(c. — 
Territohy. 

Rolierl  Lucas 1838-41 


Principal  Tiiicm. — Davenport  and  Dubuque  arc  the  only 
cities  of  from  20,000  to  2:>,000  inhabitants  ;  Burlington, 
Keokuk,  and  Des  .Moines  ( the  cajiital  i  have  from  1,5,000  to 
20,0110;  Council  Blnfla  is  the  only  cily  having  between 
lo[nOO  and  I.>,»00  inhaKitanIs;  .Muscatine,  Clinton,  Iowa 
Cily,  Cedar  Rapids,  ami  (Itlumwa  have  from  8000  to  8000  ; 
Lyons,  Waterloo,  Fort  Madinon,  Fort  Dodge,  Mount  Vor- 


■  aud  resources  were 


John  (liaulbers 1841-40 

James  Clark 1846-46 

State. 

Ansel  Uriggs 1846-50 

Slephen  Hempstead..  .18.50-.54 


James  W.  Grimes 1854-.5S 

Ralph  V.  Ixiwe 1858-60 

Samuel  J.  Kirkwood. .  .1860-61 

William  M.  Stone 1.SG4-CS 

Samuel  Merrill 186S-72 

Cyrus  ('.  Carpenter....  1872-16 
Samuel  J.  Kirkwood. .  .1876- 


Elcctoral  ami  r,.pul<,r  Vote  at  Prc«,<le«lwl  /i^•.•0o>„.-- 
lowa  was  not  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  ,«ta  e  until  l.vu., 
ond  her  first  Presidential  voto  was  at  the  election  ol  1848. 


•J  .•'  I 
8.8 


Condldatct  who  rveotrod  tho 
electoral  Tot*. 


1348  Lewis  Cass  P 

I  W.I).  Hullcr  V.-P 

l.'<.")2  KrauUlin  Pierce  P 

(Williaui  U.  KlnK  V.-P 
1S.)G  Jobu  C.  Kreuioiit  P.... 

iW.  L.  Daylon  V.-P 


18G0'Al)raliain  Lincoln  P.. 
|H.  Ilaiulln  V.-P 


Pop. 
roto. 


I8S4  Abraham  Lincoln  P.... 

A.  Johnson  V.-P , 

laos'l'.  S.  ('.rant  P 

Schuyler  Colfax  V.-P.. 
1872  U.S.  (iraut  P 

Henry  Wilson  V.-P.... 


Oaofltdatct. 


,,  .„„    Zach.  Taylor  P I 

12,093    J,   ,,.i|,„„„.^  v.-l- t 

,,.,,,,  IWiiilield  Scott  P I 

17,, 03    yf   A,(;rahaui  V,-P I 

.lames  llueluinan  P I 

J.  C.  i!reckenridj!0  V.-P.  J 


Pop. 
veto. 


43,934 

70,409 

89,075 
120,399 
131,-566 


S.  A.  DouRlas  P 

II.  V.  Johnson  V.- 


n.  B.  McClellan  P 

II.  11.  Pendleton  V.-P... 

Honitio  Sevuiour  P 

l'-.  P.  Blair  V.-P 

Horace  tireelev  P 

;1)-  Grati  Brown  V.-P.... 


CaDdldolcs. 


11,084 
15,856 
36,170 

55,111 

49,-590 
74,040 1 
71,190 


Martin  Van  Buren  P 

C  V.  Adams  V.-P 

J.  P,  Hale  P 

C.  W.  Julian  V.-P 

M.  Fillmore  P 

A.  J.  Dnnelson  V.-P. 

J.  Bell  P 

F-.  Kverelt  V.-P 

J.(V  Hieekenridue  P t 

Joseph  Lane  V.-P. J 


Pop. 
voto. 


1,126 
1,604 
9,180 
1,763 
1,048 


co-Conor  P |  2,«> 


Wo  acknowledge  our  obligations  for  many  focts  relfttivo 
to  the  phvsical  and  political  gcogra|diy  and  history  of  Iowa, 
to  Prof.  C.  A.  White's  Mainml  „f  the  rhji>ical  UcogfaphiJ 
and  Inntituliimt  of  lotca,  published  in  1874. 

L.  P.  BuncKKTT. 

Town,  a  river  in  the  Slate  of  Ihc  same  name,  rises  in 
llaneoL-k  e.)..  near  the  .Miunesola  line,  flows  S.  E.  for  300 
miles  passin-  by  Iowa  City,  the  former  capital  of  (he  Stale, 
aud  enters  the  Mississippi  Vo  miles  N.  of  Burlington.  It 
is  navigable  for  small  steamers  to  Iowa  Cily,  SO  miles  from 
the  mouth. 


Iowa,  county  ofS.B.  Central  lown.  It  is  rolling  and  fer- 
tile  ;  cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  prodncLs.  Area  j,  !■ 
square  mil.  s,  II  is  on  Ihe  Iowa  It.veraud  the  (  hieago  Itoek 
Island  and  Pacific  K.  U.     Cap.  .Mareng...     Pop.  U.,01 1. 

lown,  county  of  tho  S.  W.  of  Wisconsin.  Area,  about 
7;,0  square  mile's.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  W  l^conslll 
River.  The  surface  is  somewhat  broken,  'limber  is  no 
abundant.  Tho  soil  is  very  fertile.  Cattle,  gram,  an- 
wocd  are  staple  products.  Lead  is  extensively  mined,  an.l 
copper  and  zine  aro  found.  Carriages  und  wagons  aro 
leading  manufactures.     Cap.  Dodgcville.     Pop.  24,j44. 


1288 


IOWA— IPHIGENIA. 


Iowa,  tp.  of  Allamakee  co.,  la.     Pop.  .'U7, 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Benton  co.,  la.     Pop.  20.19. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Cellar  co.,  la.     Pop.  1168. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Dubuque  co.,  la.     Pop.  S78. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  la.     Pop.  125, 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Iowa  co.,  la.     Pop.  962. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  la.     Pop.  1209. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Marshall  co.,  la.     Pop.  112;i. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  la.     Pop.  1062. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Winnebago  Co.,  la.     Pop.  436. 

Iowa,  tp.  of  Wrifrht  co.,  la.     Pop.  204. 

Ii>wa*  tp.  of  Doniphan  co..  Kan.     Pop.  3531. 

Iowa  Agricultural  College.     See  Appendix. 

Iowa  Centre,  post-v.  of  Indian  Creek  tp..  Story  co., 
la.,  8  miles  frnin  Nevada,  a  station  on  the  Chicago  and 
North-western  R.  U.     Pop.  24S. 

Iowa  C'ity,  city,  cap.  of  Johnson  co.,  la.,  at  the  head 

of  iiavii^atimi  of  the  Iowa  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  Hock 
Island  and  Pacific  R.  R..  i:iO  miles  E.  of  Des  Moines.  It 
was  (1839-55)  the  capital  of  Iowa  Territory  and  State,  and 
the  buildings  an<l  grounds  of  what  was  formerly  the  eapitol 
are  now  occupied  by  the  State  University.  There  are  4 
flouring-mills,  and  manufactures  of  WDollen?.  flax,  oil,  etc., 
1  monthly,  i  semi-monthly,  1  daily,  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers. 15  churches,  2  national  banks,  good  schools,  public 
and  private,  fine  county  and  other  public  buildings,  hos- 
pit.al,  etc.  The  city  has  a  hirge  local  trade.  Pop.  of  tp. 
outside  of  city,  2180  ;  of  city,  5914,  increased  since  census. 
N.  II.  IJnAixrRD,  En.  "Iowa  Guy  Republican-."       ] 

Iowa  Collejje,  the  oldest  college  in  Iowa,  was  founded 
in  18 K  by  an  assuciation  of  Congrcgationalisls  and  Pres- 
byterians, and  established  at  Davenport.     The  bitter  with-  I 
drew  in  1852.     Like  early   New   England   colleges,   it   is 
under  no  ecclesiastical  control,  and  no  sectarian  influence  ' 
is  exerted.     A  freshman  class  was  formed  in  ISoO;  ladies  I 
admitted  1857 ;  a  four  years' scientific  course  established  | 
1867.     It   has  graduated   58    young    men   and   61    young  ! 
ladies :  of  the  latter.  56  graduated  from  the  Ladies*  course  < 
(three  years),  and  5  from  the  college  classical  course.     The  j 
SL-icntific  course  contains  some  studies  usually  deemed  post-  ' 
graduate.     Preparation  for  it  includes  the  same  Latin  and 
iJreck  as  preparation   for  the  classical  course.     Civil  on- 
gineering  and  surveying  are  taught   with  practice;   also 
chemistry   and  physics   in    both    courses,  recitations   and 
laboratory-work    occupying   alternate   weeks.     English  is  ' 
taught  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  sources  on  the  thorough  plan 
of  Prof.   F.   A.  March.   LL.D..   in   Lafayette  College.   Pa. 
Norma!  instruction,  a  year's  course,  is  contemplated,  the   | 
spci;ial  training  in  metho<ls  being  open  to  students  in  all 
the  courses,  and  the  English  department  becoming  a  model 
or  practice  school:  normal  students  to  teach  in  its  classes 
one  hour  a  day.     Classes  in  the  ladies'  course  recite  with 
college  classes  to  the  college  professors.     There  is  a  classi- 
cal academy  preparing  for  both  courses.     The  aim  of  the 
founders  has  been  not  to  compete  in  mere  numbers,  but  to 
surpass  in  standard  of  scholarship,  thoroughness,  an^l  dis- 
cipline ordinary  Western  institutions.     The  professors  aro 
eagerly  sought  lor  their  superior  qualifications  by  older 
Eastern  institutions,  and  the  progress  of  the  college  has 
been  crippled  thereby,  as  well  as  by  losses  by  fire.     It  is 
supplied  with  chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus.     The 
now  Central  College,  erected  1872,  is  the  most  beautiful  and 
convenient  college-building  in  Iowa.     The  annual  number 
of  students  is  250. 

In  1860  the  college  was  removed  from  Davenport  to 
Piiwesbiek  co.,  in  the  centre  of  the  State,  where  Hon.  .7.  B. 
(Jrinnell  bad  founded  a  colony-town  bearing  his  name, 
composed  of  Eastern  people  entirely,  in  which  no  intoxi- 
cating liquor  is  sold,  and  there  are  no  lager-beer  saloons, 
billiard  rooms,  or  other  places  of  lounging  and  dissipa- 
tion. The  largest  Protestant  church  W.  of  Chicago  is  here 
— a  Congregational  church  of  over  530  members.  The  re- 
ligious influences  of  the  college  have  alw.ays  been  very 
strong,  though  unsectarian.  Nearly  half  of  its  male  grad- 
uates have  chosen  the  Christian  ministry  :  some  are  foreign 
missionaries.  Its  endowment  is  less  than  $100,000.  and  its 
two  largest  benefactions  have  been — S30.000.  for  the  en- 
dowment of  the  presidency,  by  Hon.  Samuel  Willisfon  of 
Easlhampton,  Mass.,  and  $20,000.  for  the  Latin  professor- 
ship, by  the  late  Aaron  Benedict,  Esq..  of  Waterbury.  Conn. 
It  holdi  the  most  central  position  in  the  State,  :it  the  ernss- 
ing  of  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  R.  R.  and  Cen- 
tral R.  R.  of  Iowa,  connecting  every  section  of  the  State. 

Geo.  F.  .Magoi'n. 

Iowa  Falls,  city  of  Hardin  eo.,  Ta..  on  the  Illinois 
Central  R.  R.,  and  143  miles  W.  of  Dubuque,  on  the  Iowa 
River,  which  hero  has  a  succession  of  rapids  which  give 


name  to  the  town.  The  scenery  hero  is  remarkably  fine, 
and  the  city  itself  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  in  the  State. 
It  was  founded  in  18ol),and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1870. 
It  has  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  fine  graded  school,  and  sev- 
eral churches.  0.  W.  Gaurison,  Eu.  "Sentinel." 

Iowa  Intlians,  a  tribe  of  aborigines  of  the  Dakota 
stock,  formerly  inhabiting  Iowa  and  Northern  Missouri. 
They  were  closely  allied,  not  by  race,  but  by  association, 
to  the  Sac  (Sauk)  and  Fox  Indians.  They  at  present  num- 
ber 225  souls.  They  ocL'Upy  16,000  acres  of  the  (Jreat 
Nemaha  reservation  :  the  rest  belong  to  a  band  of  Sacs  and 
Foxes.  The  lowas  are  superior  in  industry  and  intelli- 
gence to  most  Indians.  They  receive  a  handsome  annuity 
from  the  government,  and  sustain  an  orphan  asylum. 

Iowa  Point,  post-v.  of  Iowa  tp.,  Doniphan  co.,  Kan., 
on  the  Missouri  River  and  the  Atchison  and  Nebraska 
R.  R.     Pop.  212. 

IpaH'a,  post-v.  of  Fulton  co..  111.,  in  Pleasant  tp.,  on 
the  Chicago  Burlington  and  Quiney  R.  R.  (Buda  and  Rush- 
villo  division).     It  has  I  weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  4SS. 

Ip'ecac,  an  important  drug,  the  dried  root  of  CcphaeliB 
Ipccacuaiihri,  a  small  shrubby  perennial  ])lant,  natural  or- 
der Rubiaceo>.  growing  in  damp,  shady  forests  in  Brazil. 
The  root  is  slender,  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and 
marked  with  annular  ridges.  The  stem  is  also  slender,  and 
rises  but  a  few  inches  from  the  ground.  The  plant  bears  sel- 
dom more  th:in  six  leaves:  the  flowers  arc  white  and  very 
Somali,  and  collected  into  a  closely  packed  grotip  surmount- 
ing a  round  axillary  footstalk.  The  root  is  gathered  by 
the  natives,  cleaned,  dried,  and  exported  in  large  bags  or 
bales.  It  yields  a  fawn-colored  j)Owdcr  of  peculiar  smelt  and 
acrid  bitter  taste.  Its  active  jirinciple  is  an  alkaloid,  <//i*-/rn, 
which,  when  pure,  is  a  white  uncrystallizabic  jiowder,  diffi- 
cultly soluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol.  The  common 
impure  article  of  the  shops  is  in  transparent  brownish-red 
scales,  delitjuescent,  and  very  soluble  in  w.itcr  and  alcohol. 
Ipecac,  locally,  is  mildly  irritant,  but  some  persons  are  fo 
susceptible  that  merely  opening  a  bottle  of  the  powder  will 
cause  sneezing,  and  even  an  asthmatic  seizure.  Taken 
internally  in  minute  doses,  as  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  of  a 
grain,  ipecac,  like  other  irritants,  tends  to  increase  the  ap- 
petite and  promote  digestive  vigor.  In  somewhat  larger 
quantities  it  disturbs  the  stomach,  and  causes  relaxation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  air- 
passages,  with  accompanying  increase  of  their  secretions. 
In  large  dose  it  causes  speedy  vomit inir  and  nausea,  and 
a  still  greater  etfect  on  the  mucous  membranes  just  men- 
tioned. Ipecac  is  accordingly  used  in  small  dose  as  a 
stomachic  tonic,  in  somewhat  larger  as  a  relaxer  of  the  dry 
and  stiff"ened  condition  of  the  respiratory  mucous  mem- 
brane in  the  first  stage  of  a  catarrh,  and  in  still  larger  doses 
as  an  emetic.  With  certain  precautions  the  emetic  efl"ect 
even  of  a  largo  dose  may  be  avoided,  and  thus  given  ipecac 
is  a  valuable  remedy  in  dysentery.  Powdered  ipecac  and 
opium,  1  part  each,  and  potassium  sulphate,  8  parts,  form 
the  well  known  "compound  ipecac  powder"  or  **  Dover's 
powder."  Ehwahd  Cnnris. 

Ipliic'rates,  b.  about  419  u.  r.,  was  an  Athenian  gen- 
eral, and  distinguished  himself  greatly  in  the  Corinthian 
war(;J!J5-oS7  u.  r.)  by  organizing  a  force  of  light  troops,  pel- 
taatir,  with  which  he  routed  the  Lacediemonian  army  near 
Corinth  in  IVJ2  b.  r.  After  the  peace  of  Antalcidaa  he  went 
to  Thrace,  where  he  fought  in  the  service  tA'  Cotys,  whoso 
daughter  he  married,  and  where  he  founded  the  city  of 
Drys.  In  ;t77  he  commanded  the  Cireck  auxiliaries  who 
followed  Pharnabazus,  the  Persian  satrap,  on  his  campaign 
against  Egypt.  A  disagreement  arose  bet\veen  the  tireek 
and  the  Persian  commanders,  and  Iphicrates  fled  to  Athens, 
where  Pharnabazus  tried  to  arraign  him  for  treachery,  but 
failed.  In  the  social  war  Iphicrates  once  more  commanded 
the  Athenians,  but  though  successful,  was  again  accused 
and  acquitted.  D.  about  :150  u.  c.  Cornelius  Ncpos  has 
given  a  short  sketch  of  his  life. 

Iphigeni'a,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clylcm- 
nestra.  When  the  (Jreck  fleet  lay  bound  by  a  dead  calm 
in  the  port  of  .Aulis.  the  soer  Calchas  declared  tluit  the 
wrath  of  Dian.a  was  the  cause  of  the  calamity.  Agamem- 
non had  ofifondcd  the  goddess  in  former  <hiys  by  killing  a 
stag  in  her  grove,  and  in  order  to  propitiate  her  he  had 
vowed  to  sacrifice  the  most  beautiful  born  to  him  within  a 
year,  but  as  this  hiippened  to  be  Iphijjeiiia.  he  had  not  ful- 
filled the  vow.  Iphi'jenia  was  now  brought  to  Aulis,  but 
when  carried  to  the  nitar  to  be  sacrificed,  Diana  herself 
took  her  away  and  brought  her  to  Tauris,  where  she  oflici- 
ated  as  priestess  to  the  heaven-fallen  image  of  the  goddess. 
In  after  years  Orestes,  her  broiher.camc  to  Tauris  with  the 
purpose  of  carrying  away  this  image,  but  was  captured 
and  brought  to  the  priestess  to  suller  death  in  atonement 
for  his  intended  crime.     The  brother  and  sister  recognized 


IPOMCEA— IRELA  N  D. 


128S 


Cftch  other,  and  flcJ  with  tho  divine  ima<;e.  This  subject 
has  been  used  by  Kuripide:*,  Hncine,  and  (ioethc  for  trage- 
dies, ami  by  Gluck  for  an  opera. 

Ipomira.     Peo  Jalap. 

Ipsambiil.     .•^ce  Aur  Sasibi'l. 

Ip'sara^  or  Psara,  a  small  itiland  in  tho  Grecian 
Archipelago,  W.  of  .Seio,  belongs  to  Turkey.  Jt  is  rocky 
and  barren,  but  was  densely  peopled  and  very  jirosperous 
befiirc  the  Greek  revolution;  but  having  been  takeu  by  tho 
Turks  in  isiil,  its  conirncree  was  destroyed,  its  agriculture 
fell  into  decay,  and  its  population  decreased  very  much. 
At  present  its  inhabitauts  live  mostly  by  fishing. 

Ip'sus  [Gr. 'Ii^ous  or  "Ii^o?],  small  town  of  Phrygia,  .Asia 
Minor,  celebrated  for  the  ;^reat  battle  fought  there  { u.  r.  ;I01) 
between  King  Antigonus  and  his  son,  l>cmetrius  Polior- 
cetes.  and  the  combined  forces  of  Cassander,  LvsntAcnis, 
pTui.KMY,  and  Sklkitis  (see  these  names),  in  which  An- 
tigonus was  slain  and  his  dominions  conquered.  In  tho 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  A.  D.  Ipsus  was  the  seat  of 
a  Christian  bishopric.  It  has  been  idcntiticd  with  tho 
modern  ffj/iiU  Jlt'etiar. 

Ips'wich,  town  of  England,  the  capital  of  Suffolk,  on 
the  Orwell,  which  is  navigable  here  for  vessels  of  200  tons 
burden.  It  has  many  good  educational  institutions,  among 
which  are  a  grammar  school,  founded  by  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
who  was  born  here,  a  mechanics'  institution,  and  a  work- 
ingmen's  college:  large  iron  and  soap  factories  and  exten- 
sive shipbuilding  docks.     Pop.  43,130. 

Ips  wich)  town  of  Queensland,  Australia,  on  tho  Bremer, 
was  incorporated  into  a  municipality  in  ISGO,  and  is  a  grow- 
ing and  jirosperous  place.     Pop.  0092. 

Ipswich,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Essc.t  co.,  Mass.,  27  miles 
N.  K.  of  Boston,  on  the  Eastern  R,  B.  and  on  Ipswich 
llivcr,  3  miles  from  the  sea,  has  manufactures  of  shoes, 
soap,  boxes,  hosiery,  isinglass,  2  woollen,  2  planing,  3  saw, 
and  2  gri^t  mills,  a  weekly  new?papcr,  a  public  library, 
a  ladies'  seminary,  savings  bank,  0  churches,  an  insane 
asylum,  and  a  house  of  correction.  The  taking  of  clams 
employs  some  200  men.     Pop.  3720. 

E.  L.  Davknpout,  Ed.  "Cnnoxicr-E." 

Tra,  tp.  of  St.  Clair  CO.,  Mich.     Pop.  1580. 

Ira»  post-tp  of  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.  It  contains  3  villages 
and  1  churches.     Pop.  2014. 

Ira,  post-tp.  of  Rutland  CO.,  XL,  ^y  miles  S.  W.  of  West 
Rutland.     It  has  manufactures  of  lime.     Pop.  413, 

Irak'«/\j'enice^  the  central  province  of  Persia,  trav- 
ersed by  ranges  of  naked  an<I  barren  mountains,  which 
from  the  high  Klbo()rz  in  the  W.  by  degrees  lower  down 
into  a  desert  table-land  in  the  E.  The  valleys  along  tho 
rivers,  some  of  which  lose  themselves  in  the  desert,  arc  fer- 
tile, and  the  province  contains  several  of  tho  largest  cities 
of  the  empire,  such  as  Teheran,  I.-^pahan,  and  Koom. 

Irak'-Ar'abee,  province  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  between 
tho  Tigris  und  Eujthrates,  and  westward  from  the  Euphrates 
to  tho  de?ert.  It  contains  tlio  ruins  of  lIai>ylon,  Solencia, 
and  Clesiphon,  and  is  inliabitcd  by  nomadic  Arabs.  Cap, 
Bassora  or  Basra. 

Iran.     See  Pkrsia, 

Iran'ians  [from  Iran,  the  native  name  of  Persia],  a 
branch  i»f  Iho  ,\ryan  or  Indo-European  family,  now  com- 
prising the  Persians,  Armenians.  Afghans.  Kurds,  and  sev- 
eral isolated  tribes  in  Beloochistan  and  In»Iia,  the  river 
Indus  properly  forming  their  eastern  boundary,  although 
tho  Parsocsfso  called  from  their  Persian  origin)  are  nu- 
merous in  Bombay.  Their  original  seat  appears  to  have 
been  near  the  sources  of  the  Oxus,  whence  they  spread  in 
various  directions,  especially  occupying  the  great  plateau 
of  Persia  and  the  mountainous  region  of  Armenia;  they 
also  penetrated  .\sia  Minor,  and  during  the  flourishing  pe- 
riod of  the  Persian  empire  dwelt  as  far  \.  as  the  Caucasus 
and  established  colonies  in  the  Crimea.  They  intermin- 
gled with  kindred  tribes,  and  tho  modern  Persians  have 
a  largo  infusion  of  (Georgian  and  Circassian  blood,  so  that 
their  complexion  is  fairer  and  their  features  more  regular 
than  are  foiin<l  among  the  Afghans,  who  are  probably  (he 
host  type  of  the  purely  Iranic  race,  of  whiclt  in  ancient 
times  the  Mcdes  and  Persians  were  the  mostnolaiile  repre- 
sentatives. The  Modes  are  Iho  first  franie  race  specially 
mentioned  in  hist()ry.  Aceording'to  Berosun.  they  wore  a 
powerful  pciiple  as  early  as  2100  n.  c,  when  a  .Median  dy- 
nasty ruhMl  in  Babylonia:  but  at  a  later  peri'nl  this  waa 
expelled,  and  the  Medes  became,  at  least  notniually,  sub- 
ject to  the  great  Assyrian  empire,  froiu  which  Ihey  were 
tho  first  uf  the  subject  tribes  to  revolt;  and  with  this  revolt 
Herodotus  begins  his  history  of  the  .Meilinn  empire,  whoio 
limits  do  not  uppeiir  to  have  been  very  ncenrafcly  defined. 
In  general,  it  may  bo  said  to  have  extended  on  tho  N.  to 


the  mountains  near  Atropatene,  on  tho  S.  to  Susiana,  on 
the  E.  to  tho  Caspian,  and  on  tho  W.  to  the  river  Zagros, 
which  separated  it  from  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  The  an- 
cient Persians  were  essentially  identical  with  tho  Modes, 
though  somewhat  ruder:  botli  were  divided  into  varittus 
tribes  and  clans,  the  names  of  which,  and  littlo  more,  have 
been  preserved  by  Herodotus.  For  the  partial  recovery  of 
the  ancient  Iranic  language  we  arc  mainly  indebted  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  Sanskrit.  Its  oldest  phases  lie  buried 
in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsces  and  in  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions of  the  time  of  Cyrus,  Darius,  ami  Xerxes.  Tho 
name  Zeixl  has  been  improperly  applied  to  thit!  language; 
this  properly  belongs  to  a  translation  into  tho  Pehlevi  of 
tho  sacred  book  of  the  Zend-Arcsta;  recent  German  plii- 
lologists  style  the  language  the  Old  Bactrian.  The  first 
attempt  at  a  grammar  of  this  language  was  made  by  Tlatig 
in  his  Eesin/a  on  the  Sncrcd  Latif/uaffc,  Writing,  and  lirliff- 
{on  of  the  Parnrca  (Uomhiiyf  1802} ;  in  ISfU,  Justi  published 
a  Hnndbuch  d^r  Znidttpyriohr,  in  which  he  gave  a  lexicon 
of  the  Olil  Bactrian.  to  which  valuable  additions  were  made 
by  Lagarde  in  iiis  /iritrdrfc  -^ttr  bnktrinrhm  Lr.ricirfrfrphie 
(ISOH);  in  l.sOi  appeared  Spiegel's  dvammatik  der  Ait- 
baktrinchen  Spracht'.  The  Pehlevi  is  Iranic,  and  was  prob- 
ably used  as  a  literary  language  from  about  the  third  cen- 
tury ;  it  is  known  through  inscriptions,  coins,  and  gems, 
and  the  translation  of  the  AvcHtn  and  a  few  other  religious 
books;  it  maintained  itself  until  the  development  of  tho 
moiiern  Persian,  which  is  Iranic  in  its  granimatic  struc- 
ture, but  contains  a  large  number  of  Arabic  words.  E.  of 
the  territory  of  modern  Persia  are  tho  more  jturely  Iranic 
dialects  of  tho  Afghans  and  Beloochees,  and  W.  of  these 
those  of  Ossetes,  Kurds,  and  Armenians.  The  Iranians 
may  be  considered  as  the  connecting  link  between  the  In- 
do-Europeans  of  Asia  and  Europe.  A  few  of  them  are- 
nomadic,  but  the  majority  are  agriculturists,  craftsmen, 
and  traders.  (Sec  Spiegel's  Er&nische  Alterthnmekundef 
Leipsic.  1871-73.) 

I'rasbiirg,  tp.  and  post-v.,  county-scat  of  Orleans  co., 
Vt.  It  has  a  national  bank,  manufactures  of  lumber,  and 
the  county  buildings.  It  is  42  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Montpclicr. 
Pop.  lOSJ. 

Irbit'9  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Perm,  at 
the  confluence  of  tho  Irbit  and  the  Nisa.  It  is  famous  fur 
its  annual  fair,  held  in  the  montlis  of  February  and  March, 
and  attendeil  by  a  great  number  of  European  and  Asiatic 
merchants.  It  is  the  largest  fair  in  Russia,  next  to  that 
of  Nishni-Novgorod,  and  good.s  from  China,  India,  Per- 
sia, and  Europe  to  the  value  of  $25,000,000  arc  brought 
I  together  and  disposed  of.      Pop.  3100. 

I       Iro'dcll,  county  in  the  W.  of  North  Carolina.     Area. 

I  600   square   miles.     It  is   hilly,  fertile,  and   well  watered 

I  and  timbered.    Gold  is  found  in  some  parts.    Cattle,  grain. 

I  tobacco,   and   wool  are  staple  products.      The  county   is 

i  traversed  by  the  Western  R.  R.  of  North  Carolina.     Cap. 

I  Statesvillc. "  Pop.  10,931. 

I  Ircdoll  f.lAMKs),  b.  at  Lewes.  Sussex  co.,  England,  Oct. 
5, 17.")  1. 11  ud  settled  in  North  Carolina  in  17G8;  was  admitted 
to  the  bur  in  1770,  took  an  active  part  in  tho  cause  of  inde- 
pendence, was  elevated  to  the  judicial  bench  in  North  Caro- 
lina in  1777,  and  in  1700  was  ap])ointed  <ine  of  the  associate 
justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  tho  U.  S.  He  was  a  man 
of  extensive  learning  and  great  ability.  Ho  published  in 
1790  tho  Lmr.H  0/ AV/r/A  Car<dina  17-1590,  D.  at  Edenton, 
N.  C,  Oct.  20,  1799.  A.  II.  Stei'iikss. 

Iredell  (.Iamks.  Ju.),  son  of  .Tames  Iredell,  b.  in  North 
Carolina  Nov.  2.  I7S8.  at  Edenton;  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton ;  was  a  member  of  the  State  legislature  for  a  number 
of  years,  and  Speaker  of  the  House  part  of  the  time.  In  tho 
war  of  1.SI2  he  commanded  a  company  of  volunteers  who 
wont  to  repel  a  threatened  British  invasion  at  Norfolk.  Va. 
In  IS19  he  was  appointed  to  the  circuit  court  bench  of  his 
State.  In  1S27  he  was  elected  governor  of  North  Candina, 
and  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  that  State  1828-31.  Aftcrthis 
ho  was  a  reporter  of  the  decisions  of  Iho  State  Buprcmo 
court,  publishing  thirteen  volumes  of  law  and  eight  of 
equity  reports.     D.  at  Raleigh,  N,  C,  Apr.  13.  is:.3. 


Aiir.  13.  IS..3. 
A.  H.  Sn;i'iiKNS. 


Ire'land  [lir.  'lourpWa, 'I^pi/ij ;  Lat.  Uibernia,  Iheruin, 
•  Ivrrntt,  .hivnm  ;  Celtic  or  Erse,  irrnc^  AViri],  tho  second 
I  largest  of  the  British  isles  (see  (iukat  Biutain).  lies  be- 
I  tween  lat.  61^  2H'  and  :>5°  23'  N..  and  Ion.  5**  20'  and  Hi° 
I  20'  W.  of  Greenwich.  It  is  washed  on  throe  sides  by  tho 
I  open  Atlantic,  and  separated  from  Great  Britain  by  the 
I  Irish  Channel  or  Sea.  Its  greatest  length  is  ."03  miles,  its 
I  greatest  breadth  177,  and  it  has  an  area  of  32,2Sri  squaro 
I  miles,  exclusive  of  that  of  190  smaller  islands  belonging  to 
I  it,  who.'io  area  is  210  square  niiles. 

[       lirlir/. —  By  far  the  greater  ])orti'Mi  of  tho  island  consists 
1  of  a  level  or  undulating  plain,  filling  up  nearly  tho  wholo 


1290 


IRELAND. 


centre  from  sea  to  sea.  and  consisting  to  a  great  extent  of 
bo'S,   wliicli  are    incapable  of  cultivation    and  impart  a 
dreary  aspect  to  the  country.     The  most  extensive  of  these 
bo»s  is  tliat  of  Allen.     The  hills  generally  rise  in  isolated 
groups  near  the  sea.     If  we  assume  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
to  rise  to  the  extent  of  only  500  feet,  tlicy  would  cover  77 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface,  and  the  bills  would  rise 
above  them  in  the  shape  of  more  than  100  islands,  encir- 
cling a  shallow  central  sea.     The  most  elevated  of  these 
mou'ntains  are  in  .=;oath-\vestcrn  Ireland,  where  the  Carn  1 
Tiial  rises  to  a  height  of  3401  feet.     The  Wicklow  Moun- 
tains near  the  E.  coast  culminate  in  the  Lugnariuilla  (.'iO.TJ 
feet ).     In  Mavo  the  mountains  attain  a  height  of  2038  feet; 
in  the  N.  of  Ireland  they  rise  to  2228  feet  (Mount  Sawel), 
an.l  in  the  county  of  Antrim  to  1S02  feet  (Mount  Trostan). 
H,,,lror/raphj.^T)ic  rivers  of  Ireland  flow  for  the  greater 
part'through  plains,  enlarging  sometimes  into  lakes,  and 
navigable  in  several  instances  almost  to  their  source.     Tlic 
Shaiuion  is  the  most  important  amongst  them.     It  rises  in 
the  county  of  Caviin   at  an   elevation  of   345  feet  above 
the  sea,  .and  enters  the  sea  below  the  city  of  Limerick.     It 
forms  several  lakes,  amongst  which   Loughs   Allen,  Rec, 
and  Dorg  are  the  most  important,  and  is  navigable  .as  high 
up  as  the  former,  a  small  portion  above  Limerick  excepted, 
where  navigation  is  obstructed  by  the  rapids  of  Doonass. 
It  frequently  inundates  the  surrounding  country,  in  spite 
of  expensive  engineering  works   erected    to   regulate  its 
course.     The  Lee  is  only  a  small  river,  but  forms  the  im- 
portant harbor  of   Cork'.      The  Barrow  enters  the  sea  at 
Waterford,  and  is  navigable  as  far  as  Athy,  whence  there  is 
a  canal  to  Dublin.     ThoLiffoy  is  remarkable  solely  because 
it  enters  Dublin  Bay.     The  Boyne  is  the  most  important 
river  on  the  E.  coast  of  Ireland.     It  is  celebrated  on  ac- 
count of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  (1090),  but  navigable  only 
for  20  miles  above  its  mouth.    Tho  Bann  rises  in  the  Mourne 
Mountains,  and  after  a  course  of  40  miles  it  enters  Lough 
Neao-h.     It  loaves  that  lake  at  the  north-western  corner, 
and'enters  the  sea  below  Coleraine.     Owing  to  its  rapid 
course  it  is  navigaljle  only  in  parts.     The  Foyle  flows  into 
a  bay  on  the  N.  coast  of  Ireland,  6  miles  below  London- 
derry.    The  Erne  forms  several  important  lakes,  and  is 
navigable  almost  throughout  its  entire  length.     The  Cor- 
rib  forms  the  discharge  of  Lough  Corrilj,  and  enters  the 
sea  at  Galway,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland.    A  subterranean 
rivor,  5  milcs'in  length,  connects  Lough  Corrib  with  Lough 
Mask.     Ireland  abounds  in   lakes.     The  most  important 
amongst  them  are  Lough  Neagh  (158  square  miles),  in  the 
north-eastern  part  of  the  country  ;  the  lower  Lough  Erue 
(43  square  miles);  Lough   Mask  (34  square  miles);  and 
Lough  Corrib  (08  square  miles) ;  Loughs  Derg  (30  square 
mild)  and  Ree  (50  square  miles). 

Climate. — The  temperature  of  the  central  part  of  the 
country  has  been  estim-ated  at  50°  F.,  that  of  tho  S.  at  51.5°. 
and  of"  the  extreme  N.  at  48.5°,  the  difference  between  N. 
and  S.  thus  only  amounting  to  3°.  The  mean  temperature 
in  winter  is  4l".5°,  in  spring  47°,  in  summer  60°,  and  in 
autumn  51°  F.  The  temperature  is  thus  even  more  equa- 
ble than  that  of  the  British  Isle,  a  feature  to  be  traced  to 
the  influence  of  the  Atlantic,  which  is  likewise  answerable 
for  the  greater  amount  of  rain  which  falls  throughout  Ire- 
land, and  for  the  greater  moisture  of  the  air.  These  cir- 
cumstances are  most  conducive  to  a  luxuriant  vegetation, 
and  the  name  "  Emerald  Isle"  is  perfectly  apiiropriate ; 
but  they  interfere  to  some  extent  with  agricultural  opera- 
tions. The  average  rainfall  throughout  Ireland  may  be  esti- 
mated at  40  inches  annually  ;  in  the  W.  and  S.,  and  particu- 
larly in  tho  hills  of  Kerry,  it  is  greatly  in  excess  of  this,  but 
on  a  portion  of  the  eastern  coast  it  hardly  exceeds  25  inches. 
tfrii(or0.— Ireland  may  be  divided  geologically  into  three 
regions— viz.  tho  great  central  plain.  Northern  Ireland, 
ami  .Southern  Ireland.     The  whole  of  tho  former  is  occu- 


inhabitivnts.  In  1811  this  population  had  increased  to 
5,937,856,  and  it  continued  to  increase  until  1841,  when  it 
numbered  8,175.124  souls.  But  then  came  apotalb  famine  ; 
thousands  died  of  starvation,  and  an  immense  impulse  was 
given  to  emigration.  In  1851  there  were  only  6,552,385 
inhabitants;  in  1861,  5,792,055;  in  1871,  5,412,.377.  The 
decrease  is  still  going  on  atthepresent  time,  though  at  a  less 
rapid  rale  than  formerly.  It  was  due,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  famine,  but  is  now  brought  about  entirely  by  emigration. 
Irish  emigrants  not  only  cross  the  ocean  in  search  of  a  new 
home,  but  they  have  likewise  invaded  Great  Britain,  much 
to  the  annoyance  of  the  native  working  population,  upon 
whose  w.age3  this  immense  influx  of  unskilled  labor  has 
exercised  a  considerable  iiiftucuec.  (.See  Gueat  BiuT.viN.) 
Between  1851  and  1861,  1,149,118  persons  emigrated  from 
Ireland;  between  1861  .andl871,  708,859  persons,  exclusive 
of  those  who  merely  crossed  over  to  the  sister  island.  The 
population  of  thocountics  of  Ireland  in  1871  was  as  follows  : 


County.  in  acres. 

Carlow 221,-i43 

Dublin - 22G,8nD 

Kildare  418.497 

Kilkenny 509.732 

King's  county 493,98.5 

Lonsford 2B9.409 

Louth 202,124 

Meath •. 0'9.8t.l 

Queen's  county 424.8.'>4 

Westmeath 453,468 

Wexford 576,.WS 

Wicklow 500.11° 

Leinster 4,876,984 

Clare  827,994 

Cork  ■.'.'.'.■.■.■.■..'. 1,849,085 

Kerry  l,18.i,918 

Limerick 080.842 

Tipperary 1,061, <31 

Waterford 461.5.:)2 

Munster 6,067,722 


Antrim 76-3,749 

Armagh 328.086 

Cavan  477,394 

Donegal 1,197,154 

Down 010,740 

Fermanagh 457.369 

Londonderry 522,315 

Monaghan 319,742 

Tyrone 806,657 

Ulster 5,483,206 

Galway ^i?^ 

Leitriin 392,.j(;3 

Mavo *'?i;.','o-c 

Koscommon ""'''S-', 

Sligo 4bl.7j3 

Connaught 4,392.041 

All  Ireland 20,819.903 


1,339,448 


1,393,485 

420.170 
179,260 
140.738 
218,334 
277,294 
92.794 
173,906 
114.969 
21.5.766 

1,833,231 


84(^213 
5.412.877 


The  following  were  the  towns  having  more  than  10,000 
inhabitants-In  Leinster:  Dublin,  254,808;  Drogheda, 
14  740;  Kilkenny.  12,174;  Wexford,  111,734;  Dundalk, 
10  4''8  In  Munster:  Cork,  78.642;  Limerick,  39,3.')3 ; 
Waterford,  23,349;  Clonmel,  10,112;  Queenstown,  10,334. 
In  Ulster:  Belfast;  174,412:  Londonderry,  25.242 :  Newry, 
li364-  Lurgan,  10,632.  In  Connaught:  .Shgo.  10,0,0; 
Galway,  15,597.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  ol  Ire- 
land are  of  Celtic  race,  and  the  earlier  English  immigrants 
have  completely  amalgamated  themselves  with  them.  In 
tho  N  E  of  Ireland,  however,  there  are  numerous  linglisli 
and  .Scotch  settlers,  who.  being  Protestant,  exhibit  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  antagonism  to  the  remainder  ot  the  popu- 
lation. It  is  amongst  these  Irish  Protestants  that  Orange 
lodt-es  recruit  their  members,  though  of  late  years,  and 
much  to  tho  credit  of  tho  people,  religious  animosities  ap- 
be  dying  out.     The  English  language  is  spoken 


Cretaceous,  and  Triassic  rocks  likewise  occur  in  that  part 
of  the  country,  the  latter  near  Belfast  containing  beds  of 
gypsum  and"  rock-salt.  South-eastern  Ireland  consists 
mainly  of  Cambrian  rocks,  equivalent  to  those  of  South 
Wales,  upon  which  tho  lower  .Silurian  strata  (flags  and 
slates)  rest  uneonforniably.  In  Kerry  ami  Cork  the  sand- 
stones and  slates  of  the  Devonian  age  are  most  prominently 
represented.  , 

PopuUiiwn.—ln  no  country  of  Europe  has  there  been 
exhibited  within  a  recent  epoch  so  vast  an  increase  in  the 
population,  succeeded  by  an  even  vaster  decrease,  than  in 
Ireland.     In  1750,  Ireland  had  a  population  of  2,372,634 


agricultural  schools  have  been  established  since  18.  s  ii 
parts  of  the  country.  The  Irish  generally  refer  their  in- 
feriority in  these  respects  to  .absentee  landlords  and  the 
uncertainty  of  tenure;  ^nd  although  due  weight  should  be 
given  to  tiiese  causes,  there  is  no  doubt  that  local  causes, 
such  as  the  excess  of  small  buildings  as  well  as  <  •IT''r™c= 
of  race,  have  had  some  effect.  In  "'<;?V=^1'"  ^'^^,'"jS 
land  act,  one  of  the  measures  for  the  relief  of  Ireland  passed 
recently  by  the  British  Parliament,  should  bo  productive 
of  much  good.  It  places  the  Irish  cultivator  in  a  far  better 
position  than  the'  Scotch  and  English  farmers,  secures 
fixity  of  tenure,  provides  compensation  for  inexhausted 


IRELAND. 


1291 


12,745 

1,171,837 

318,091 

K2.0G0 

44,302 

40,033 

128,144 

1,594.480 

0,907,970 

30.295 


Horses, 
Caltie.. 
SlK'ep.. 
I'i 


1863. 

1870. 

1»74. 

,548 
3.198 
3;C94 
1,305 

533 
3,800 
4,337 
1,101 

526 
4,113 
4,i:)8 
1,0U« 

improvements,  and  even  facilitates  the  conversion  of  lease- 
holds  into  freeholds.  Tho  following  are  the  agricultural 
statistics  for  IStiO  and  1873 :  ^^  ^^^^ 

Acre*.  Acre*. 

,,,l,o„t  409,042  108,435 

n\,7  1,901,;!S4  1,510,089 

itariLj.... 1>>K*» 

Here  and  rye ii,o— 

IkMHS  and  ]icas 

riilat">L'S 

Turnips -■ 

llict  and  mangold 

Cabbage,  etc 

Vetches  and  rape 

I-las  

Mi<adow  and  clover 

Total  under  crops 

FilU'W •■■• 

WoikIs  aiiii  plantations 319,009 

IVr.nan.Mit  pa-slure ?/I?X''J2?         TSt'w' 

«<»■'  ind  waste 3,;j1-V!2^  4,rj/,o&- 

Wa"l?r  .....". _i94.199  494,199 

Total'area 20,819,892         20,819,892 

Thcro  can  bo  no  doubt  that  the  cultivated  land  has  de- 
creased since  ISCO,  but  not  in  the  same  rate  as  the  popula- 
tion, whilst  not  much  weight  can  be  placed  upon  the  differ- 
ent areas  given  for  pastures  and  waste  lanils.  as  those  are 
elastic  terms.  The  live-stock  of  Ireland  (in  thousands) 
was  as  follows : 

18C0. 

021 

3,599 

3,-538 

1,209 

Thcse'figurcs  snCncicntly  attest  tlio  gouoral  and  increasing 
pro-iierity  of  the  country. 

/•Wicr/c".— The  Irish  tishorics  were  far  moro  important 
formerly  than  they  arc  now.  In  18fil  they  employed  12,n:!:j 
boats,  manned  by  48,000  men  and  boys:  in  lS7:i  only  SloU 
boats.  The  dec'rca.se  is  duo  to  emigration  and  tho  great 
demand  for  seamen.  Tho  Irish  rivers  swarm  with  salmon, 
and  tho  surrounding  coasts  with  cod,  ling,  bake,  herrings, 
pilchards,  clc,  yet  Irish  markets  arc  bein.g  supplied  with 
cnrcil  fish  from  .Scotland  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 

;Wiiiiiiy.— The  mining  industry  of  Ireland  is  of  very 
subordinate  importance.  In  1S71  there  were  only  28i2 
miners,  eng.igcd  in  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  copper  mines,  and 
in  the  salt-works  near  Belfast.  Other  metals,  including 
gold  and  silver,  occur. 

.l/.i;iii/V«'(urc«.— Ireland  is  not  a  mnnufuctunng  country, 
as  may  clearly  bo  perceived  on  referring  to  tho  slatomonts 
given  under  I'ireat  Britain.  The  only  munuliicture  of  any 
extent  is  that  of  linen,  of  which  liellast  is  tho  centre.  The 
wh<do  of  the  textile  industry  of  the  country  is  carried  on 
in  2  Ci  factories,  having  1,002,70  J  spindles  and  I  S,l):)0  power- 
looms,  and  employing  01,812  hands  (according  to  tho  cen- 
sus tho  textile  inciustrics  em)doy  17l,o2C  hands). 

r,Vi)i«ic)-fr.— Inland  in  187  I  had  a  mercanlile  marine  of 
17r.l  scn-giiing  ve.s.scls,  of  a  capacity  of  21  1,:!02  tons.  The 
direet  trade  with  foreign  ccuintrics  is  comparatively  trifling, 
us  ibc  greater  part  of  the  tr.ade  is  carried  on  through  Kng- 
llsh  and  Scotch  ports.  The  direct  imports  of  foreign  and 
colonial  merchandise  have  a  value  of  about  £  12,000,000  ; 
the  direct  exports  of  Irish  produce  do  not  cxccoil  £1X0,000. 
The  principal  seaports  arc  l.)ublin,  Cork,  liolfast,  Water- 
ford,  and  Limerick.  There  is  no  satisfactory  record  of  the 
trade  with  Hugland,  but  the  principal  exiiorts  consist  of 
cattle,  sheep,  horses,  butter,  bacon,  and  other  agricultural 
produce,  porter,  whisky,  and  linen  goods. 

/trdi/iun  and  /'rovitiiin  I'lir  tin  Siip/mrl. — According  to 
tho  census  of  1S71,  there  wJre  4.i;iO.S(!7  Catholics  (7«.7  per 
cent.),  007,9'J8  Protestant  ICpiscopalians  (12.1  percent.), 
4U7,(ilS  Presbyterians  (11.2  per  cent.),  4:1,411  Methodists, 
4S,218  other  dissenters,  :iS14  Quakers,  28j  Jews,  and  lOfi 
deists,  etc.  Tho  bulk  of  the  population  is  therefore  Catho- 
lic, and  tho  existence  of  an  established  Protestant  Church 
in  connection  with  that  of  Kngland  has  always  been  looked 
upon  as  a  grievance.  In  I8(iU  this  I'hurch  was  disestab- 
lished and  disendowed,  but  annuities  ami  compensations 
have  been  granted  on  so  liberal  a  sealo  thatonl.va  coin- 
parali\ely  trifling  sum  will  reiiniin  after  all  liabilities  have 
been  met.  After  a  payment  of  i.'iOd.ollll  to  the  disestab- 
lished I'hurch  in  lieu  of  its  private  endowment,  £;i72,:i:l2 
to  tho  Catholic  Maynooth  College,  ami  £90,000  to  noncon- 
formist bodies,  there  remained,  on  .Ian.  1,  187.).  property 
valued  at  £ll!,7.)»,000  and  producing  £0211,022  a  year. 
Liabilities  (annuities,  etc.)  arc  estimated  to  swallow  up 
£11, .100, OIK)  of  this  amount,  and  there  will  thus  remain 
£j. 190,000,  which  are  to  bo  devoted  to  educational  and 
other  purposes. 

Kiluciilinit.—A  system  of  national  education  was  inaugu- 
rated  in  1845,  but  as  these  national  s. 'bo, .Is  are  not  ilenomi- 
national,  thoy  have  never  been  supijortcd  as  heartily  by  tho 


ministers  of  different  religious  bodies  as  they  ought  to 
have  been,  and  the  education  of  tho  people  has  suffered 
accordingly.  In  1878  no  less  than  976,096  children  at- 
tended these  schools,  but  only  ;!o.'),882  did  so  more  than  90 
times  during  tho  year.  The  Hainan  Catholic  i)upils  con- 
stituted 79.0  per  cent,  of  tho  whole  number.  There  were 
9S02  teachers  and  381  work-mistresses,  whose  united  sala- 
ries amounted  to  £501,004.  According  to  the  census_of 
1871,  there  were  9490  primary  schools,  attended  by  610,780 
pupils,  and  087  superior  scho(ds,  attended  by  20,050. 
Amongst  the  superior  schools  Trinity  College  at  Dublin 
and  the  Queen's  Colleges  at  Cork,  (ialway,  and  Belfast  are 
the  most  important.  These  institutions  are  open  to  all 
alike,  without  reference  to  religious  creed.  There  is  like- 
wise a  Roman  Catholic  university.  Maynooth  College  is 
the  principal  institution  tor  the  training  of  priests. 

y/(»toin.— ."iceording  to  tradition,  Ireland  was  inhabited 
ori-inally  hy  Firboigs  and  Danauns,  who  were  eventually 
sulHlued"by  Milesians  or  Gaels.    We  know  next  to  nothing 
respecting"  Ireland  for  any  period  antecedent  to  the  fourth 
century.  °M  that  time  tlio  inhabitants  of  tho  island  vicrB 
known  as  Scoti,  and  they  made  descents  upon  the  Roman 
province  of  Britannia  and  Scotland,  and  even  upon  tiaul. 
Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  course  of  the  filth  cen- 
tury   when'  St.  Patrick  was  the  chief  apostle  of  the  new 
faith,  and  in  the    sixth  century   missionaries  went   forth 
from'the  Irish  monasteries  to  convert  Great  Britain  and 
the   nations   of  Northern  Europe.      At  this  early  period 
Ireland    appears  to  have   been  divided  among  numerous 
clans,  who  owned  allegiance  to  four  kings,  and  to  an  ard- 
righ  or  monarcli,to  whom  the  central  district  called  Mcath 
was  'allotted.     The  incursions  of  the  Scandinavians,  which 
bean  in  tho  eighth  century  and  continued  for  300  years, 
cheeked  the  progress  of  civilization  of  Ireland.     They  cs- 
tal)lished    themselves  on  the  eastern   coast,   whence    they 
made  preilatory  incursions  into  the  interior  of  the  country, 
until  they  were  overthrown  at  the  battle  of  Clonlarl,  near 
Dublin  ("lOM),  by  Brian  Borumha,  the  "monarcb"  of  Ire- 
laml      From  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  century  Irish  scholars 
enjoyed  a  hi<'h  reputation  for  learning,  the  arts  were  culti- 
vated, and  the  round  towers  are  believed  to  bo  remains  of 
the  architecture  of  that  period.     In  1150,  Pope  Adrian  I\  . 
authorized  Henry  II.  of  England  to  take  possession  ol 
Ireland   on  condition    of  paying  an  annual    tribute.     In 
1172,  Henry  made  his  first  descent  upon  Ireland.     He  re- 
ceived the  "homage  of  a  number  of  chiefs,  and  authorized 
certain  Norman  adventurers  to  take  possession  of  the  en- 
tire island  in  his  behalf.     In  the  course  of  tho  thirteenth 
century    these    Norman    barons,    favored    by    dissensions 
amongst  the  natives,  had  succeeded  in  linnly  establishing 
their  power,  but  in   tho  course  of  time  their  descendants 
identified    themselves    with    the  natives,  even  to  the  ex- 
tent of  adopting  their  language.      At  length,  the  power 
of    En-'lniid    became   limited    to   a   few   coast-towns    ami 
to   the" districts    aroun.l    Dublin    and    Drogheda.    known 
as  the  "  Pale."     In  1541,  Henry  received  llie  title  of"  king 
of  Ireland"  from  the  Anglo-Irish  Parliament,  then  sitting 
at  Dublin,  and  several  of  the  native  i.rinces  aekuowlcdged 
him  as  tlicir  sovereign.     The  attempt  to  introduce  the  Re- 
formed faith  led  to  repeated  revolts,  which  were  suppres.«ed. 
and  the  lamis  of  the  rebellious  ehiefs  parcelled  out  amongst 
Protestant    .Seolch    an,l    English    seltlers.       I  he    so-called 
••Plantation  of  Ulster"  took  place  in  this  manner  under 
.lames  I       In  161 1  tlie  Irish  rose  in  rebellion  and  massacred 
the  Protestants,  but  they  were  most  severely  punished  by 
Cromwell,  who  overran  the  country  in  1649.     At  the  Kevo- 
lulion  the  native  Irish  generally  sided  wilh  .lames  II.,  the 
English   and  Scotch  •' colonists  "  wilh  «  illiam  and   Mary, 
and  the  war  was  not  terminated  until  16112.     Penal  statutes 
were  then  passed  against  the  Catholics,  and  the  general 
dissatisfaction  gave  rise  to  numerous  secret  soeielies  and  to 
a  rebellion  in  I  79S,  which  was  not  suppressed  till  Ist^O.     On 
Iho  Istof  .lanuarv  of  the  following  year  the  Irish  1  ar  lament 
was  suppressed  and  incorporated  with  that  of  G  real  Bril.iin. 
From  that  year  dates  the  existeuco  of  a  Lnited  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  E.  G.  Uavi:nsti:in. 

Irclnnd  (Wii.i.iam  IIknim),  b.  in  Lomlon  in  1777, 
son  of  Saiiim  I  In'land,  an  engraver  and  autllor,  who  pub- 
lished several  works  of  travel  and  tiixphiv  nhutr(ilin„>,  o/ 
llo;itiili  ( 179  l-9y>.  Ho  was  n]iprenlieed  to  a  conveyaneer, 
and  having  aeeompanied  his  father  u)ion  a  visit  to  Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon, he  forged  a  lease  containing  the  pretended 
signature  of  Shakspeare,  which  he  said  he  bad  diseoveied 
among  some  old  law-papers.  He  afterwards  executed  other 
similar  forgeries,  and  pro.lucod  Koi-to/eni,  a  tragedy  pur- 
porting to  have  been  written  by  Shakspeare.  which  was 
acted  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  Kemble  playing  the  pniiei- 
pal  part;  this,  wilh  //,ii,.i/  //..  another  forgery,  was  pub- 
lished ill  1799.  The  fraud  was  soon  exposed,  and  ho 
abandoned  bis  profession,  devoting  himself  to  literary 
pursuits,  writing  several  novels  and  The  Xcjlvclvd  Ociitui, 


1292 


IREN^US— IRIDOSMINE. 


a  poem  (1SI2).  His  Confcsnions  (1R05)  contain  a  full  ac- 
count of  his  various  forgeries  :  a  new  edition,  with  an  in- 
troduction by  Richard  Grant  White,  was  published  in  Kew 
York  in  IS74.     D.  Apr.  17,  1835. 

Irenir'us,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  early 
Church  Fathers,  b.  in  Asia  Minor  or  Syria  in  the  first  half 
of  the  second  century,  probably  between  120  nnd  1  10  A.  d., 
and  enjoyed  as  a  yonn;?  man  the  instruction  of  Polycnrp, 
the  disciple  of  John  and  bishop  of  Smyrna.  He  went  after- 
ward to  (Jaul,  and  was  a  presbyter  at  Lyons  in  176,  in  which 
yoar  he  vLsiited  Rome.  In  177,  Photinus,  bishop  of  Lyons, 
suflcrcd  martyrdom,  and  Irena^us  succeeded  him  in  tht- 
episcopal  ntlice.  Hi?  energy  and  zeal  in  liuilding  up  the 
Christian  Chur(;h  in  (Jaul  arc  highly  praised  bj-  his  con- 
temporaries, but  more  particular  events  of  his  life  arc  not 
recorded.  Some  have  supposed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
in  the  persecutions  under  Septimius  Sevcrus,  but  as  neither 
Tertullian  nor  Euscbius  mentions  any  such  event,  it  must 
be  considered  very  doubtful.  His  position  in  the  Church 
SclialT  defines  as  '*  the  leading  representative  of  the  Asiatic 
Johannean  school  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  century, 
tiie  champion  of  Catholic  orthodoxy  against  Gnostic  heresy, 
and  the  mi-di  a  tor  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 
Ue  united  a  learned  (Jreek  education  and  philosophical 
penetration  with  practical  wisdom  and  moderation,  and  a 
just  sense  of  the  simple  essentials  in  Christianity.'*  Of 
his  writings  only  the  Afhcrttns  Hivreaes  has  come  down  to 
us,  and  tliis  only  in  a  rather  uncouth  Latin  translation, 
but,  such  as  it  is,  it  is  of  great  importance  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  movements  in  the  early  Christian  Church. 
The  best  editions  of  the  book  are  that  by  Stiercn  (Leipsic, 
I83;i)  and  that  by  Harvey  (Cambridge,  1857). 

Irc'ne  [Gr.  Eip^i-Tj.  "peace"'],  an  empress  of  Constanti- 
nople, b.  at  Athens  about  752,  at  seventeen  became  wife  of 
Leo,  son  and  heir  of  Constantino  V.,  and  upon  his  death  in 
780  was  named  in  his  testament  as  ruler  during  the  minor- 
ity of  their  son,  Constantino  VI.,  then  nine  years  of  age. 
In  786  she  called  a  council  .at  Constantinople  to  restore  the 
images  which  had  been  l)anished  from  the  churches ;  but 
this  being  interrupted  by  the  soldiery,  she  in  the  following 
year  summoned  another  at  Nica;a  in  Bithynia,  at  which  the 
veneration  of  images  was  declared  to  be  consonant  with 
Scri])ture,  reason,  and  the  Fathers  and  councils.  Her  son 
was  induced  by  his  favorites  to  throw  off  the  maternal  yoke 
and  proclaim  himself  emperor.  Irene  was  secluded  in  one 
of  her  palaces,  but  conspiracies  were  formed  for  her  restor- 
ation. In  797  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Con- 
stantine.  but  he  escaped  to  Phrygia,  where  he  was  rejoined 
by  his  mother,  who  persuaded  him  to  return  to  Constanti- 
nople, whore  he  was  seized  by  the  emissaries  of  Irene  and 
his  eyes  pat  out.  She  then  ruled  rigorously  for  five  years, 
but  the  eunuch  Niccphorus,  her  grand  treasurer,  having 
been  secretly  invested  with  the  purple,  arrested  Irene,  seized 
all  her  treasures,  and  banished  her  to  the  ishmd  of  Lesbos 
(802),  where  she  gained  a  scanty  livelihood  by  spinning. 
D.  Aug.  !5,  SO.r 

Ire'ton  (Hesry),  b.  at  Attenton,  Xottinghanishire, 
England,  in  1010  ;  studied  law  at  Oxford,  and  took  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  great  civil  war,  becoming  one  of  Crom- 
well's generals.  In  IGIG  ho  married  Bridget,  daughter  of 
the  future  Protector.  Ircton  was  taken  prisoner  at  Nascby 
by  Prince  Rupert,  but  rescued  the  same  day:  he  signed 
the  death-warrant  of  Charles  I.,  and  accompanied  Crom- 
well to  Ireland  in  1649.  On  the  latter's  return  to  England 
in  1050  the  prosecution  of  the  conquest  of  Ireland  was  en- 
trusted to  Ireton.  and  prosecuted  with  vigor,  not  unmixed 
with  cruelty.  D.  of  the  plague  before  Limerick  Xov.  15, 
1651,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  .Vbbey,  whence  his 
remains  were  exhumed  at  the  Restoration  and  burned  at 
Tyburn.     Ue  left  one  son  and  four  daughters. 

Irida'ceie  [so  named  from  the  typical  genus,  /n*«],  an 
order  of  the  petaloideous  division  of  monoctyledonous  or 
endogenous  jdants,  distinguished  by  having  only  three 
stamens,  alternate  with  the  inner  divisions  of  the  a<lnate 
perianth  and  extrorse  anthers:  ami  the  leaves  are  almost 
always  equitant.  Some  have  tuberous  root-stalks,  others 
solid  bulbs  or  corms.  The  juice  in  all  is  acrid.  Tho  prin- 
cipal economical  products  of  the  order  are  orris-root,  from 
one  or  more  species  of  /ri«,  and  Safkhon  (which  see),  the 
deep  orange-colored  stigmas  of  CrocuM  Hutirns.  The  order 
is  mainly  notable  for  the  ornamental  flowers  it  furnishes, 
such  as  those  of  /;■(>,  Glttdiohtu,  Tign'fh'a  (or  tiger-flower), 
and  rV«»ci(«.  Irises  arc  dispersed  over  the  northern  tem- 
perate zone,  crocuses  belong  to  the  Obi  World,  but  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  order,  especially  those  with  solid  bulbs, 
belongs  to  tho  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Asa  Gray. 

IricVilim  [Lat.  iVr"».  irt'iiin.  the  "rainbow"],  one  of  the 
rare  metals  of  the  phitinnm  group,  was  recognized  as  a  dis-  ! 
tinct  element  by  Tcnnnnf  in  1801.     It  takes  its  name  from   ; 
tho  iridescence  of  its  solutions.     It  has  not  been  found  in  a  | 


pure  state,  but  is  usually  combined  with  osmium,  forming 
the  mineral  species  known  as  iridosmine,  and  with  platinum 
giving  the  species  platiniridiuiii.  also  in  small  (quantity  with 
palladium  and  with  native  platinum.  It  occurs  with  these 
metals  in  varying,  apparently  indefinite,  proportions,  it 
is  regarded  as  isomorjilious  with  ot^mium,  the  jiercentage 
varying  from  4.'J  to  77,  an<i  in  the  platinum  alloy  to  range 
from  20  to  77  per  cent.  It  is  difficult  of  separation  in  a 
pure  state  from  these  metals,  and  processes  for  its  extrac- 
tion, especially  from  osmium,  have  engaged  tho  attention 
of  many  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists.  Persoz  {Ann. 
<ir  CItimie  et  dc  P/it/MUfiK,  Iv,  210)  convert?  the  metals  into 
sulphide  by  ignition  in  an  earthen  erucible  with  carbonate 
of  soda  and  sulphur.  Wiihler  recommends  (  Pof/f/.  Aunafm, 
xxi.  101)  the  ignition  to  redness  of  the  powdered  alloy  with 
common  salt  in  a  porcelain  or  glass  tube  through  which  a 
current  of  dry  chlorine  gas  is  passed  as  long  as  it  is  ab- 
sorbed. The  resulting  chlorides  are  dissolved  in  boiling 
water;  tho  soluti(m  is  concentrated  and  distilled  with  nitric 
acicl.  by  which  the  osmium  is  removed  as  osmic  acid,  leav- 
ing the  iridium  in  solution.  It  is  precipitated  by  chloride 
of  ammonium,  and  the  ignitiim  of  this  precipitate  yields 
metalHc  iridium.  Freniy  roasts  the  ore  in  a  current  of 
oxygen  at  a  red  heat,  by  which  the  osmium  is  partly  re- 
moved as  osmic  acid,  and  the  remainder,  after  fusion  with 
nitre,  is  distilled  with  nitric  acid.  {Comptea  iivndug,  xxxviii. 
1008.)  Clans  {licitriujr  ziir  Cbcmic  drr  Plalin-mttuHe, 
Dorpat.  1854)  fuses  1  part  of  the  ore  with  1  part  of  caustic 
potash  and  2  parts  of  saltpetre.  After  pouring  out  and 
cooling,  the  fused  mass  is  digested  for  twenty-four  hours  in 
cold  water.  Osmate  and  ruthenate  of  potash  are  dissolved, 
and  are  drawn  off  by  a  syphon.  The  portions  of  undecom- 
poscd  ore  are  subjected  to  a  second  fusion  after  separation 
by  washing  from  the  insoluble  black  powder,  which  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  oxides  of  iridium,  rhodium,  and  pla- 
tinum. Prof.  Wolcott  Gibbs,  who  has  made  extended  in- 
vestigations of  the  chemistry  of  the  platinum  metals  [Smith- 
Foui'an  Co}itriiiutiojt/t,  xii..  and  Am.  Juur.  Sri.,  xxix..  May, 
1860:  xxxi.  63;  xxxiv.  342;  xxxvii.  57),  employed  this 
method  with  several  essential  modifications.  He  first  fuses 
(ho  ore  with  three  times  its  weight  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
in  order  to  remove  the  silica  and  other  impurities.  He  re- 
duces the  osmate  of  p(>tash  obtained  by  the  fusion  with 
nitre  and  potash  to  osmite  by  boiling  it  in  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  water.  The  ruthenate  of  potash  is  completely 
decomposed.  The  undi?solved  portions  are  well  washed 
with  a  saturated  solution  of  chloride  of  jiotnssium.  The 
platinxtni  and  iridium  exist  in  the  mass  in  the  form  of 
bichlorides,  and  their  separation  is  eflected  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  alkaline  nitrates,  advantage  being  taken  also  of 
the  different  degrees  of  solubility  of  the  double  chlorides  of 
tho  platinum  and  alkaline  metals.  For  the  details  of  this 
and  of  the  other  methods  rd'erenee  is  made  to  the  memoirs 
cited.  In  all  these  operations  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  the  poisonous  vapors  of  osmium.  Devillo  and  De- 
bray  have  also  publishcfl  an  important  memoir  on  this  sub- 
ject. {Ann.  de  C/iiwic  it  dc  PhtfsiquCf  3d.  Ivi.  385.) 

Iridium  may  be  fused  in  the  flame  of  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe  or  by  the  voltaic  current,  giving  a  hard,  brittle. 
silvery-white  metal,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  21.15.  When 
pure  it  is  not  acted  on  by  acids  or  by  aqua-rcgia.  but  is 
readily  dissolved  by  the  latter  when  alloyed  with  platinum. 
In  its  powdered  state  it  is  the  best  material  for  giving  a 
pure  black  upon  jiorcelain,  anrl  is  largely  used  for  tliis  pur- 
pose. The  bl.ack  powder  known  as  •'  iridium-black  "  is  ob- 
tained by  decomposing  a  solution  of  iridic  sulphate  by  alco- 
hol. It  is  similar  to  platinum-black  in  its  action  upon 
gases,  and  will  ignite  alcohol,  .^n  artificial  alloy  is  formed 
by  fusing  iridium  with  platinum,  which  has  valuable  ]irop- 
erties  for  many  jiurposes  in  the  arts,  but  particularly  for 
bushing  the  vents  of  heavy  orrlnance.  It  is  both  hard, re- 
sisting wear,  and  indestructible  by  the  gases  of  the  powder. 
Specimens  of  this  alloy  in  ingots  three  inches  or  more  in 
length  were  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1807  by  Messrs.  Johnson, 
Matthey  »t  Co.  of  London,  known  as  "  Matthey's  alloy." 
One  vent  shown  had  fired  ;;000  rounds  from  a  Whitworth 
cannon  without  appreciable  wear.      William  P.  Bi.akk. 

Iridos'ininCf  a  native  alloy  of  iridium  and  osmium,  of 
great  hardness  and  weight.  It  is  usually  in  irregular 
flattened  grains  and  scales  rarely  broader  than  the  head  of 
a  pin.  and  has  a  tin-white  or  steel-gray  color  and  metallic 
lustre.  But  the  grains  vary  in  size  and  form  in  different 
localities,  and  even  from  tho  same  locality,  to  such  a  de- 
gree as  to  indicate  a  great  difference  in  the  chemical  com- 
position. It  is  also  obtained  as  a  heavy  gray  powder,  and 
some  samples  resemble  a  fine  gray  metallic  sand.  Hex- 
agonal crystals  have  been  observed.  It  is  as  hard  as  quartz, 
antl  its  gravity  ranges  from  19.3  to  21.12.  It  is  found  gen- 
erally with  native  jdatinum.  and  with  placer-gold,  but  usu- 
.nlly  in  small  quantity  eoniparetl  with  the  bulk  of  the  gold. 
Nearly  all  of  the  gold-regions  have  yielded  more  or  less  of 


IRIS-IRISII   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


1293 


this  mineral,  it  ImTiiig  been  obtained  in  the  Urals,  Cali- 
fornia. Australia.  Pouth  America  at  Choeo.  in  .Tapan.  and 
cNcivhcrc.  In  California  it  is  more  abundant  in  tlie  north- 
ern counties  than  in  the  midJlo  or  southern,  and  it  is  most 
abundant  in  the  beacb-sand  deposits  of  the  ncrthcrn  coast 
at  and  near  Port  Orford.  According  to  Ur.  Toricy.  for  a 
vear  or  two  after  the  establishment  of  the  V.  i^.  assay-ofhco 
in  .\ew  York  the  proportion  of  iridojiuiuc  in  the  (!oUl  from 
California  did  not  exceed  half  an  ounce  to  yl.UUO.OOO. 
The  quautitv  afterwards  increased  until  the  average  was 
seven  or  cit-'hl  ounces  to  the  million  of  gold,  but  it  after- 
wards fell  off.  showing  great  fluctuations,  dependent,  no 
doubt,  upon  the  opening  of  new  diggings.  In  melting 
lar^e  quantities  of  native  gold  this  heavy  mineral  settles 
to  tTie  bottoms  of  the  crucibles,  and  accumulates  there.  It 
was  the  practice  at  the  New  York  assay-offioe  to  separate 
it  from  the  gold  by  melting  the  gold  with  twice  its  weight 
of  silver,  allowing  the  iridosmino  to  settle,  then  pouring 
off  the  gold  allov.  A  mass  containing  nearly  all  of  tho 
mineral  remained,  and  was  separated  by  repeated  fusions 
with  silver  and  a  linal  ingestion  in  nitric  and  mtro-munatie 
aci.l  and  washing.  It  has  been  found  to  accumulate  simi- 
larly in  the  melting-pots  used  in  California,  and  it  is  com- 
mon to  obtain  it  in  tho  gold  recovered  from  old  crucibles 
and  sweepings.  It  has  been  announced  as  occurring  in  the 
same  wav  in  the  sweepings  of  tho  Japanese  mint.  It 
Bomctiine's,  however,  eludes  tho  caro  of  mint-ofliceis  and 
finds  its  wav  into  coin.  Its  presence  in  gold  used  by  jew- 
ellers or  in  the  arts  is  a  great  disadvantage,  for  it  cannot 
be  cut  by  a  file  or  steel  tools,  and  so  renders  the  gold  unfit 
for  working.  Such  gold  has  to  be  remeltcd.  The  superior 
gravity  of  the  grains  of  iridosmino  carries  them  to  the  bot- 
tom. "Analyses  show  that  the  perecntago  of  irulium  in 
samples  from  different  countries  varies  from  4:1  to  7",  and  of 
the  osmium  from  17  to  IS.  .Small  qu.antilies  of  platinum, 
rhodium,  ruthenium,  and  other  metals  are  usually  present. 
\  sample  of  tho  mi.\ed  metals  brought  from  Port  Orford, 
Cal..  separated  from  the  fine  scale-gold  by  amalgamation, 
was  found  to  contain  nearly  49  per  cent,  of  iridosmino  and 
4^^.h^  of  platinum. 

The  value  of  iridosmino  in  the  arts  is  chiefly  as  a  source 
of  iridium  and  for  tipj.ing  the  nibs  of  gold  pens,  for  which 
purpose  its  great  hardness,  .and  the  fact  that  it  can  be  at-  • 
tached  to  the  gold  by  soldering,  makes  it  peculiarly  suit- 
able. Grains  of  the  proper  form  and  hardness  are  much 
sought  for  bv  gold-pen  makers.  The  flat  scales  arc  not  so 
suitable  as  those  which  are  more  round  and  solid  and  of 
great  hardness.  They  differ  in  appearance,  as  doubtless  in 
eimiposition,  from  the  tabular  crystals,  and  in  the  Califor- 
nia mixtures  of  this  mineral  such  grains  do  not  usually  | 
constitute  more  than  one-tenth  of  tho  whole,  but  sometimes  ] 
the  amount  is  as  great  as  one-fifth.  The  pen-makers  care- 
fully select  such  grains.  Tliey  are  so  minute  that  from 
lO.tino  to  15,000  of  thein  do  not  weigh  more  than  an  ounce. 
A  cubio  inch  would  weigh  about  eleven  ounces,  and  at  the 
price  of  $230  per  ounce  would  be  worth  ?27.)0.  After  these 
grains  have  been  atta.;hed  to  the  tips  of  the  gold  pens  they 
are  ground  into  the  proper  shape  upon  emery-wheels,  and 
sometimes  with  great  difficulty  owing  to  their  extreme 
hardness.  William  P.  Blake. 

I'ris  [so  named  from  its  various  colors],  in  the  eye,  is  a 
thin  contractile  curtain,  nearly  circular  in  outline,  sus- 
pended in  the  aqueous  humor  between  tho  cornea  and  tho 
lens.  It  is  perforated  bv  an  aperture  called  tho  pupil,  cir- 
cular in  man  and  most  of  the  .Mammalia,  cbmgated  m  tho 
cat  tho  fox,  the  owl,  and  some  other  vertebrates.  Its  sub- 
stance is  partly  fibrous,  partly  cellular  (pigmentary),  and 
partly  muscular.  The  muscle-fibres  arc  involuntary,  some 
of  them  circular  and  sphinclerie,  and  some  radiating.  Tho 
former  contract,  the  latter  dilate,  the  pupil  under  the  vary- 
ing stimulus  of  light.  Opium  and  Calabar  bean  contract, 
while  belladonna  powerfully  dilates,  the  pupil.  In  the  fre- 
tal  state  the  pupil  is  closed  by  the  memliraua  pupillartt,  a 
temporary  structure. 

Iris  [Gr.'Ip.t],  in  classic  mythology,  tho  daughter  of 
Thaumas  and  Electra  and  sister  of  the  Harpies.  In  tho 
llomcrio  poems  she  appears  as  a  virgin  goddess,  who  aots 
OS  messenger  of  the  gods  among  themselves,  as  medium  of 
communication  between  gods  and  men,  and  as  conductor 
of  female  souls  to  tho  shades.  On  vases  and  bas-reliefs 
Iris  is  represented  as  a  youthful  winged  virgin,  dressed  in 
a  long  tunic,  with  a  herald's  staff  and  a  pitcher  in  her 
hands.  She  is  tho  personification  of  the  rainbow  as  tho 
messenger  of  peace;  the  name  maybe  cnnneeleil  with  .ipu, 
"to  join,"  and  with  .Ip^i-.,,  "  peace."  In  the  later  poets 
Iris  appears  as  wife  of  Ze]diyrus  and  mother  of  Kros. 

Iris  [named  for  the  goddess  or  the  rainbowl,  tho  flcur- 
de-lys  or  flower-de-luce,  tho  leading  genus  of  the  order 
luiiiACK.F.  (which  sec),  consists  of  numerous  species  of 
iiercnnial  herbs  dispcfsed  over  the  temperate  regions  of  Iho 


northern  hemisphere,  all  with  showy  flowers,  several  of  them 
familiar  and  ornamental  in  gardens.  They  spring  from 
root-stocks  or  tubers,  or  a  few  from  bulbs.  Their  leaves  are 
cquilant  and  sword-shaped,  and  the  flower  is  peculiar  in 
having  the  three  outer  divisions  recurved,  while  the  three 
inner  are  incurved  or  erect,  and  the  three  branches  of  tho 
style  are  largeand  petal-like,  overaiching  the  three  stamens, 
which  lie  hidden  underneath  them.  The  violet-scented 
orris-root,  used  in  jierfumery  and  tooth-powders,  is  from 
Ilia  Florculina,and  no  less  from  l.pallirln  and  f.Hcimanica, 
common  species  of  flower-de-luce.  All  three  arc  cultivated 
in  tho  neighborhood  of  Florence  for  this  purpose.  There 
are  several  indigenous  species  in  the  I'.  S.,  of  which  /.  vergi- 
ciilrtr,  the  common  blue  flag,  is  most  abundant  from  Canada 
to  Florida.  Asa  Gray. 

Iris  (now  Kitmhnak  or  Yekil  Irmali),  the  classical  name 
of  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Jlinor. 
I'rish  Cor'iier,  tp.  of  Greenbrier  co.,  W.  Va.  Pop.  810. 
Irish  Language  and  Liternturc.  The  Irish  or 
Gacdbilic  lun^'uage  is  spoken  in  Irchuul.  in  the  Hebrides 
and  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  It 
belongs  to  the  Celtic  group  of  the  Indo-European  tongues. 
Its  relation  to  English  is  not  greater  than  that  of  English 
to  Italian,  while  it  is  related  to  Welsh  in  about  the  same 
degree  th.at  English  is  rilaled  to  (Tcrmnn.  The  word  Erse 
is  applied  to  that  dialect  of  it  spoken  in  Scotland,  and  is 
merely  a  form  of  the  word  Eri/Khf  or  Injuh.  Those  who 
speak  Irish,  whether  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  or  .Man,  call 
themselves  the  Gaedhel  and  their  language  Gacdbilic.  A 
language  spoken  throughout  a  region  inclnding  so  many 
isolated  districts  has  probably  had  several  dialects  from 
remote  times,  but  these  are  of  small  literary  importance 
and  differ  in  no  considerable  degree.  Till  within  the  last 
;iOO  years  the  language  of  Gaedhilic  books,  wherever  writ- 
tcij,"was  almost  nniforni.  Thus,  Bishop  Carsuel's  prayer- 
book  printed  in  Scotlaml  in  l,'>r)7  does  not  dillcr  from  books 
written  at  the  same  age  in  Ireland.  At  the  present  day  tho 
most  distinct  from  pure  Irish  of  Gaedhilic  dialects  is  that 
of  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  Manx  has  a  curious  orthography, 
based  upon  Bishop  Wilson's  Bible,  printed  in  \'bi,  and  it 
contains  a  good  many  words  borrowed  from  the  Welsh  and 
from  the  Northmen."  The  Gaedhilic  of  tho  mainland  of 
Scotland  differs  from  that  of  the  isles,  and  the  isles  difl'er 
among  tbemselvos.  In  Ireland  the  dialect  of  the  southern 
half  differs  from  that  of  the  northern  ;  Connaugbt  differs 
slightly  from  Ulster ;  Kerry  from  tho  rest  of  Monster. 
Underlying  these  trivial  differences  is  a  common  gram- 
matical structure. 

Tho  alphabet  contains  eighteen  letters: 

I  To  these  from  an  uncertain  jieriod  names  taken  from  trees 
have  been  given.  Thus,  A  is  oi'/m,  the  fir;  G  is  ;/.i;(,  the 
ivy  ;  R,  rtds,  the  elder.  The  characters  in  which  these  let- 
ters are  usually  written  arc  old  forms  of  the  Hoinan  alpha- 
bet, and  are  fo'und  in  Early  Saxon  as  well  as  in  early  Irish 

I   MSS.     Tho  number  of  consonantal  sounds  is  increased  by 

I  aspiration,  a  process  which  may  be  a)iplied  to  all  tho  con- 
sonants but  I,  m.  r.  Thus,  (  aspirated  becomes  a  slight 
guttural,  and  c  aspirated  a  deep  gultiiral.  The  system 
of  aspiration,  combined  with  that  of  eclipsis  or  silence 
of  one  consonant  when  preceded  by  another  (as  In,  pro- 
nounced (),  affords  the  basis  of  the  system  of  inflection 

;  so  far  as  consonants  are  concerned.  The  vowels  a. 
o,  ti,  arc  ealleil  broad  —  '-,  ',  slen'ler.  The  alteration 
of  broad  syllables  to  slender  and  of  slcmler  to  broad  com- 
pletes tho  means  of  inflection  known  to  the  language.  Or- 
thography and  pronunciation  are  based  U|ion  a  familiar 
rule,  riiiiih  i'lnl  luii"  lialliiin  Ir  lcii(h(iii  (narrow  with  nar- 
row'anil  broail  with  bnuid).  This  means  that  in  the  same 
word  vowels  of  eciual  sound  must  be  on  opposite  sides  of 
a  consonant.  It  is  illu.-trated  when  English  proper  names 
are  put  into  an  Irish  form  ;  thus,  Cromwell  will  not  do.  be- 
cause o  is  broad  and  r  slender,  and  it  is  made  Cromaill. 
Irish  has  the  usual  parts  of  speech.  It  has  two  genders. 
There  is  one  article  on  (Ihel.  and  it  is  declinable  and  of 
two  genders.  Nouns  when  written  alono  aro  declined  with 
terminal  inflections.  When  preceded  by  tho  nrMcle  they 
have  also  initial  changes.  Grammarians  differ  as  to  llie 
number  of  declensions.  Five  are  well  establi'brd.  The 
first  is  marked  by  an  attenuation  of  the  final  syllable  in  the 


1294 


IKISH   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


eenitive,  as  h6yd  (poet),  Ren.  b&ird.   Most  of  the  masculine 
nouns  are  of  this  (leclcnsion.    Most  feminine  nouns  belong 
to  the  second,  which  forms  its  genitive  by  the  a.l.lition  ot 
a  slender  sylliible.  with  consequent  attenuation  of  the  prc- 
ceilin"  syllal>le,  as  ciUlcnrli   (hag),  gen.  milUijhe.      The 
thirJ 'declension  forms  its  genitive  by  a  broad  increase,  as 
cath  (battle),  gen.  cntha.     The  fourth  declension  has  a  pe- 
culiar plural,  but  shows  no  change  in  the  singular,  as  ciiKha 
(defect),  n.  pi.  mxhaidhc.      The  fifth  declension  forms   its 
genitive  by  addition  of  n,  as  mmnma  (mindl.  gen.  mrunmau. 
Adjectives  are  declined  as  nouns,  and  are  compared  by  use 
of  the  genitive  singular  feminine  and  a  prefix,  as  </<•«< 
(white),  nios  c,ile  (whiter).     The  pronouns  in  themselves 
have  no  peeu'liaritv,  but  their   compounds  w[th  prqiosi- 
tions  form  one  of  the  chief  idioms  of  the  langnngc.    These 
compounds  are  used  directly,  as  h  mnHh  nn  n,rc  a  ihvg  «, 
c//,H,'(  (compound  of  dn,  to,  and  /.i,  thou)— "It  was  good 
the  care  which  she  gave  to  you  "—i.  e.  "  she  took  good  care 
of  you."     To  express  pos.session,  as  Lvam  sa  nn  imbhar 
(?.,"with,  and  mf,  I)— "With  me  myself  the  book  "— i.  e. 
"the  book  is  mine;"  to  complete  a  verb,  as  Tii  dud  ar/nm 
an  {.HI.  at,  and  mf,  I)— "It  is  a  wish  at  me  in  if— i.  c.  "I 
wish  for  it;"  and  in  numerous  other  ways.     There  are  also 
rcular  possessive  and  relative  pronouns.     A'erhs  are  eon- 
uf-rated  on  one  main  plain.     Their  tenses  and  persons  are 
formed  by  terminal    and    initial    alterations  of  the  root. 
There  are  two  present  tenses  and  two  pasts.     The  second 
tense  in  each  case,  indicating  action  in  a  place,  is  called 
oonsuetudinal.      Thus,  root  glan-  (cleanse),   active   voice, 
prcs.  (1)  qlnnaim:  (2)  qlanam   mf;  past  (I)  ijhhtnas;  (2) 
qhlnnninn:  Mme.  glan/ad ;  infinitive,  do  tjhhtnadli :  passive 
Voice,  pres.  (1)  glanlar  me:  past  (1)  r/lauadh  vie';  past  (2) 
qlantaoi  m<-:  future,  qlanfur;   conditional,  ,jhlanfa!dhc  me; 
past  participle,  glanta:  inf.  do  bheith  glmla.    The  impera- 
tive active  is  the  root;  the  imperative  passive  is  the  same 
as  the  present  passive.     The  consuetudinal  present  has  a 
distinct  form  in  the  active  only.     There  are  several  irreg- 
ular or.  strictly,  compound  or  defective  verbs.     The  main 
principle  of  the  syntax  is  that  the  verb  begins  the  sentence, 
as  D'  fa  rl  Scnm'ui  ague  to  ghab  vf  Calhal  au  ri'ghcncht  i 
I.'  i,,i,d—"  Died  King  James,  and  took  King  Charles  the 
kin  'dom  in  his  stead  "— (.  c.  "  King  .lames  died,  and  King 
Ch.irles  reigned   in  his  stead."     The  subjcet  comes  next, 
and  then  the  rest  of  the  predicate.     The  adjective,  with  a 
few  exceptions  (as  scan  bhenn.  "old  woman"),  follows  the 
noun,  and  its  gender  is  marked  by  the  affection  of  its  in- 
itial, as  ("11,7  m/Kfr,  "great  ship"  (fern. ),/<■«)•  mtfr,  "great 
man."     Here  the  initial  of  the  adjective  is  aspirated  where 
the  noun  is  feminine.  . 

Irish  prosody  comprised  several  metres.     They  consist 
in  various  combinations  of  syllables  with  alliteration  and 
vowel-rhyme,  but,  except  accidentally,  they   do  not  show   I 
the   En^iish   syllnhie   rhyme.      The   following   example   13   j 
from  an' ancient  MS.,  and  is  the  original  of  a  well-known 

modern  melody  ; 

0  Thoralfjh  en  (Viviifina  cats 
Is  fail  oil-  aice  rr  a  hais 

1  tP  Bhrifiin  tanihhghil  nar  I'lm 
Do  iMmcJiil  aoinhhen  Erim. 

"  From  Tory  Island  to  rliodhna  the  pleasant, 
And  a  rins;  of  cold  with  her, 
In  the  time  of  Brian,  brichl-sided,  fearless, 
Went  around  Erin  a  solitary  woman." 
Irish  historians  mention  works  written  in  pagan  times  in 
Ireland,  and  of  these  the  most  famous  is  the  Saltair  of 
Pm-n  by  Cormno  Mac  Airt,  king  of  Ireland  from  A.  D.  227 
to  ''I'lG      It  is  stated  to  have  consisted  of  metrical  treatises 
on  Hie' laws  and  usages  of  Ireland.    Of  this  and  other  early 
works  no  more  than  the  titles  remain.    The  earliest  existing 
examples  of  Irish  are  glosses,  chieay  on  Latin  MSS.  of  tho  i 
Scriptures.     These  are  found  in  codices  of  the  eighth,  and  ; 
possibly  of  the  seventh  century.     The  libraries  of  Corpus 
and  St.'  .lohn's  Colleges  at  Cambridge,  of  Milan  and  of  St.  ' 
Oall.  contain  examples.     The  glosses  are  sometimes  of  iso- 
lated words,  but  they  arc  often  long'sentences,  so  that  they  ] 
illustrate  completely  the  grammar  of  the  Gaedhilic  tongue 
at  that  remote  period.     A  largo  collection  of  such  glosses 
i«  to  be  found  in  Zeuss,  Grammnlica  Ccliiea,  in  Nigra,  Mi- 
lan aiimcu.  and  in  Stokes,  GoidHha.    Tho  writings  of  this 
period  are  marked,  among  other  peculiarities,  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  rule  "broad  to  broad,"  etc.,  by  indications  of 
a  neuter  gender  and  of  a  dual  number,  and  the  language 
is  called  Old  Irish.     The  next  period  is  called  the  Middle 
Irish.     To  it  the  earliest  complete  works  now  existing  be- 
loni.     It  fades  gradually  into  the  modern  form  of  the  lan- 
guage, which  has  beenestabli-shed  without  material  change 
for  about  400  years.     It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
absence  of  works  altogether  in  the  oldest  Irish  is  shown 
not  to  bo  due  to  the  intellectual  torpor  of  its  age,  but  to 
the  fact  that  important  compositions  of  Irishmen  of  that 
day  remain  in  Latin.     Thus,  the  wonderful  life  of  St.  Co- 
lumb  Cille  by  St.  Adamnan  exists  in  MS.  dating  from  the 


period  of  its  composition,  tho  seventh  century.    The  oldi 
book  altogether  in  the  Irish  language  is  called  l.mb!i,ir 


The  oldest 
gether  in  the  Irish  language  is  called  J.mbhnr  na 
h-Uidhri.     The  original  composition  is  referred  by  histo- 
rians to  the  sixth  century,  and  to  St.  Ciaran,  abbot  of 
Cluain-mio-Nois,  but  the  MS.  now  preserved,  no  doubt  a 
copy  from  an  older  one,  was  written  about  tho  year  llflO 
by  Moclmuiri  m.ac  Ceileachair.     This  venerable  MS.  is  in 
fair  preservation,  and   may   be  seen   in   the  Koyal   Irish 
Academy,  Dublin.     It  is  a  collection  of  heroic  titles,  with 
a  few  pieces  of  other  character,  such  as  an  account  of  tho 
royal  buryiug-places  of  Erin,  a  sermon  on  the  Resurrection, 
and  one  on  the  day  of  judgment.    From  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury onwaril  MSS.  exist  in  large  numbers.     They  are  usu- 
ally collections  of  treatises  made  by  learned  individuals  or 
by'  communities.      Divinity,  law,  physic,  poetry,  history, 
romance  succeed  one  another,  with  no  further  sign  of  divis- 
sion  than  an  ornate  initial  where  each  subject  begins.    The 
Lcahhar  Brrac.  or  "  Speckled  Book."  written  by  the  M.ac 
Egans,  the  Book  of  Lciiisicr,  and  the  Jlool:  of  nalli/iiiole 
arc  examples.     In  each  case  the  book  is  a  body  of  tran- 
scription, tho  editors  being  merely  the  copiers  of  earlier 
MSS.     The  period  of  collections  of  this  kind  is  succeeded 
by  that  of  separate  works.     The  Annnta  Hioi/hnchta  Ei- 
r'rann.  commonly  called  the  "Annals  of  the  Four  Jlasters," 
Dr.  Keating's  Hittorii  of  Ireland,  and  the  several  works  of 
Mac  Firbis  are  examples  in  the  seventeenth  century.   Print- 
ing in  the  Irish  language  did  not  begin  till  the  third  quar- 
ter of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  earliest  specimen  is  a 
poem  preserved  in  the  library  of  Corpus  College,  Cambridge. 
After  that  time  numerous  books  were  printed  in  Irish  in 
Dublin  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.     All  the  earlier 
and  most  of  the  later  books  are  printed  in  the  Irish  cha- 
racter.    The  first  Irish  book  printed  in  English  type  is  a 
catechism  for  the  island  of  Rathlin,  published  about  17.10. 
At  the  present  day.  excepting   ancient   works   edited    by 
scholars,  the  production  of  books  in  Irish  is  limited  to  a 
few  translations,  prayer-books,  and  now  and  then  a  little 
verse.  . 

Turning  from  the  actual  MSS.  and  printed  books  to  their 

subject-matter,  Irish   literature   is   found  to   have   a  wide 

Most  works  on  divinity  were  written  in  Latin,  but 

old 


range. 


a  great  collection  of  sermons  and  of  hymns,  some  very  old 
and  curious,  and  innumerable  lives  of  saints,  exist.     In 
this  class  two  remarkable  examples  may  bo  mentioned^ 
the  Ainhra  Clinlulm  Clilll!  and  the  Fillre  of  Arngus.      The 
former  was  composed  in  the  sixth  century  by  Dalian  For- 
gaill,  chief  poet  of  Ulster,  and  is  a  poem  on  the  death  of 
St.  Columb  Cille.     The  latter  is  also  a  poem,  and   is  of 
great  length.      After  a  preface  explaining    its  origin,  it 
recounts    the    saints    of    Erin    and    some   of    the   greater 
saints  of  the  Church  at  large,  and  their  glories.     Its  in- 
trinsic merits  are  the  simplicity  of  its  thoughts,  the  purity 
of  its  devotion,  and  the  richness  of  its  imagery  :  and  it  is 
besides  viiluablo  from  its  numerous  allusions  to  historical 
and  topogr.ajihical  points.     The  old  MSS.  contain  a  large 
number  of  legal  treatises.     From  the  extreme  terseness  of 
their  style  and  their  frequent  use  of  obsolete  words  these 
works  lire  peculiarly  difficult  to  translate.     The  best  known 
are  tho  Scnrhun  MiW  and  the  liool:  of  Aicill.     These  are 
collections  of  legal  maxims,  of  illustrative  cases,  of  judg- 
ments and  of  principles  on  several  branches  of  law,  as  on 
land-tenure,  on  wrongs  and  their  remedies,  and  on  social 
relations.     The  committal  of  the  Scnelnm  Mor  to  writing 
is  referred  by  Irish  historians  lo  the  fifth  century.     From 
tho  Irish  word  brcilheamh  (a  judge)  these  treatises  arc  often 
called   lirehon   laws.     They   are  of  profound   interest,   as 
showing  the  growth  and  history  of  a  very  ancient  system 
of  jurisprudence,  influenced  in  no  important  particular  by 
the  Roman  code.     In  historical  romance  Iri^h  literature  is 
particularly  rich.     The  most  famous  of  the  old  tales  is  the 
Tain  lio  Cnnlliinr.     It  tells  of  a  war  originating  in  strife 
about  the  finest  white  bull  in  Ireland.     The  men  of  Con- 
naue'ht  invade  Ulster,  and  the  incidents  of  the  war  form  ft 
largo  part  of  the  talc,  and  especially  the  feats  of  the  great 
champion  of  Ulster  in  the  first  century,  Cuehulbiin.     The 
tale  ends  with  the  bull  rnshing  against  a  rock  and  dashing 
out  his  brains.     Many  talcs  recount  the  deeds  of  heroes 
and  saints,  tho  courtships  of  the  beauties  of  old  by  rival 
champions,   elopements,   wars,   travels.      The    Vni/agi:  oj 
Va-ldnin's  Corach  describes  an  early  voyage  and  discovery 
of  land   in   the   far  West,  which   some  late  writers  have 
thought  to  indicate  a  discovery  of  America.     Of  history 
one  "of  the  earliest  and   most  valuable  works  is   Cogadh 
Gaedhel   re    Gallaibli—thc   "war   of  the   Irish  with    the 
Danes."     This  was  probably  written  by  one  who  lived  in 
the  last  days  of  the  wars,  and  may  have  been  at  the  battle 
of  Clontarf  in    lf>U.      The  Annah  if  the   Four    \fatter»  is 
a  history  based  upon  ancient  records.     Michael  OTlcry 
was  its  'chief  editor,   but  several  other  Franciscans  took 
part  in  the  work.     It  extends  from   the  earliest  times  to 
1616,  and  is  a  vast  and,  for  the  most  part,  reliable  source 


IRISH   MOSS— IRON. 


1295 


"f  Information.  The  earliest  translations  into  Irish  are 
of  nieces  of  the  Scriptures.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
travels  of  Marco  Polo  and  numerous  works  on  medicine  ] 
were  translated  into  Irish,  and  later  the  English  version 
of  the  Bihlc.  the  !>,■  /mlmdmic  ChrliU,  and  other  devotional 
works,  while  in  this  century  some  of  Miss  Kdjreworth  s 
talcs  have  annearcd,  and  Dr.  MacIIalc  has  given  the  Il,.i<l 
and  several  of  Moore's  melodies.  In  the  hist  century  and 
the  one  hefore  a  great  many  songs  were  written,  and  a  few 
novels,  llardiman's  In.h  MinnirfU;/  contains  a  collection 
of  such  songs.  Some  arc  pleasant,  hut  many  have  niore 
merit  in  their  simple,  lovely  airs  than  in  their  words  I  ho 
Irish  lan-uage  has  for  centuries  been  systematically  at- 
tacked hy  the  English  rulers  of  Ireland,  and  these  efforts 
have  at  length  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  its  produc- 
tion of  literature.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  its  life  is  almost 
at  an  end.  and  that  in  two  centuries,  at  the  longest,  the  air 
of  Ireland  will  no  more  convey  (taedhilic  tones,  and  her 
peoide  no  longer  use  the  speech  which  for  3000  years  ex- 
pressed the  thoughts  of  their  ancestors. 

The  best  grammar  of  modern  Irish  is  that  of  0  Donovan  ; 
of  ancient  Irish.  Zeuss.  A  grammar  by  .lohn  O'NoUoy 
contains  an  excellent  account  of  the  differences  of  the 
provincial  dialects.  The  best  dictionaries  are  those  of 
O'lieillv.  O'Brien,  .ind  Macfurtin.  O'Cnrry  s  I.cclurcHon 
Ihc  MS.  ^ralrrmh  ,.f  hixh  Histor;!  is  a  useful  introduction 
to  the  literature.  '  On  the  ecclesiastical  literature.  Dr. 
Uecvc's  e.lition  of  .\d.amnan's  life  of  St.  Columb  Cille,  and 
the  somewhat  rare  works  of  Colgan,  should  he  consuUed. 
The  puhlications  of  the  English  reeord-oSiec.  of  the  Irish 
laws  commission,  of  the  Irish  Archicologieal  .Society,  of 
the  Ossianic  Societv.  of  the  Celtic  Society,  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  and  of  the  Royal  Areha?oIogieal  Associa- 
tion of  Ireland,  contain  numerous  important  works  in  the 
lan-uago.  translated  and  e.liled  by  competent  scho  ars. 
(FoT  the  best  account  of  early  Irish  (Brehon)  laws  and  in 
stilnlions  see    Sir    Henry  Sumner    Maine's  recent   ""''' 


of  n  mineral  acid  be  added,  with  slight  agitation,  the  irisito 
coa-ulates  and  totally  separates.  It  is  now  profoundly  al- 
tered, having  become  liiiolubic  in  all  its  former  solvents. 
No  analyses  of  pure  irisito  can  yet  be  reported.  Tlic  no 
less  singular  mineral,  nthrrlile,  from  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick,  was  found  by  the  writer  to  contain  n  liillr  iris- 
ito and  vi.'cosite.  The  grahamitc  is  claimed  by  some  to  be 
albcrtilc  ((iesner,  Maclarhine,  <-t  nl.),  but  C.  M.  Wethcrill 
found  for  albcrtite  the  following  composition — 

Carbon 8B.U 


work, 


Lrcdtrcn  on  the  Early  Uintory  of  lml!l,il!<mH.  1S74  ) 

NoEiMAS  Moohe. 

Irish  Moss.     See  C.vnnAGF.r.x. 

Irish  Sea,  The,  is  situated  between  Ireland  and  Great 
Britain,  and  eonneeted  with  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  St.  George's 
Chinnel  and  N.  by  the  North  Channel.  Its  greatest  width 
is  r'O  miles.  It  contains  the  Isle  of  Man  and  Anglesey, 
besides  some  smaller  islands.  The  principal  inlets  are  the 
estuaries  of  the  D.e.  Mersey,  an.l  Uibblo  in  England.  Sol- 
way  Frith  in  Scotland,  and  Duudrum,  Duudalk,  and  Dub- 
lin hays  in  Ireland. 

I'risite  (I-at.  irin,  "rainbow"].  «■ ''"?  singular  resinoid 
substance  wliieh  is  the  main  constituent  of  a  peculiar 
American  mineral,  originally  investigated  by  the  writer, 
and  called  by  him  ,,,'•'•'•'"•"■■  Grahamitc  occupies  ver- 
tical fissurcs"in  hori/.ontally-bedded  rocks,  so  far  as  yet 
known  only  in  Ritchie  co..  West  Va..  and  at  one  other  point 
—in  tho  centre  of  the  continent,  100  miles  W.  of  Denver, 
Col  A  sample  from  this  latter  locality,  in  the  possession 
of  Dr.  .1.  S.  Newberry,  has  been  identified  clieniically  by 
tho  writer  as  genuine  grahamite,  containing  about  tho 
same  proportion  (SO  per  cent.)  of  irisite,  the  remainder 
beini'  ViscnsiTE  (which  sect,  just  as  in  the  West  Virginia 
grnhamite.  [The  names  originally  assigned  to  tho  two  res- 
inoid constituents  of  grahamite  by  the  discoverer  wore  u;»- 
i„r  and  vhrn.ine.  Prof.  .1.  D.  Dana  has,  however,  cstab- 
li..l,cd  tho  terminology  in  He.  and  these  must  therefore  bo 
mollified  to  in.He  and  ,!.r„.;te.]  Tho  probability  is  great 
that  other  localities  will  be  found.  Tho  mean  of  analyses 
of  grahamite  by  two  analysts  is— 

Carbon 7«-!!2 

Hydrogen 

O.tygcn 


S..57 

.   12.77 

100.00 


,  of 


Hydrogen.. 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen ... 


f.06 

.     1.97 

.     2.93 

100^ 


Density  =  1.115. 
This  is  calculated  independently  of  the  2  or  .T  per  cent 

(irahamite  is  black  in  the  mass;  of  resinoid,  but  variable 
lustre  ;  trace,  dark  chocolate-brown  ;  very  soft,  fusible  under 
pressure,  by  reason  of  the  highly  fusible  viseosito  it  con- 
tains, to' a  tarry  and  frothy  mass;  is  cmhiently  tnliihle  in 
chloroform,  henV.ole.  bisulphide  of  carbon,  warm  oil  of  Inr- 
iientine,  and  some  other  liquids.  The  visi-osite  is  readily 
dissolved  <Mit  friiin  the  irisite  by  ether  or  light  petroleum- 
naphtha.  The  residual  irisito  may  he  obtained  pure  by 
sulution.  Illlralion.  and  evaporation.  Pure  irisite  is  black, 
lirilliani,  infusible  with(wit  decmposilion.  like  ulinino; 
which  last,  however,  is  wholly  insoluble.  This  eomhina- 
linn  of  absolute  infusibility  with  great  solubility  is  cha- 
racteristie  Its  iio.W  characteristic  properly  is  that  thin 
films  of  its  solutions  dry  on  polished  surfac.'S  to  gorgeous 
riiiubi.w  hues ;  whence  its  name.     If  lo  its  solutions  a  drop 


Density  =  1.09". 
—which  differs  irreconcilably  from  grahamitc.  Its  relations 
to  solvents  and  chemical  agents  generally  are  also  widely 
different.  The  trace  of  albcrtite  is  remarkably  lihtck,  sur- 
passing most  charcoal  in  this  respect,  and  nearly  equalling 
anthracite.  Both  these  minerals  are  believed  by  some 
writers  (Lesley,  Newberry,  Fontaine,  Macl'arhme.  Jenney, 
r(  al.)  to  be  derived  from  liquid  petroleum,  and  to  he  strict 
"  asph.alts."  formed  probably  in  sihi.  The  writer,  and  with 
him  Peckham,  believe  this  impossible,  both  geologically 
and  ehemicallv,  but  rather  that  they  have  been  injected 
into  their  fissures  in  heated  plastic  condition.  Dana  also 
admits  this  latter  view  in  his  later  editions.  In  1856  the 
writer  suggested  that  the  West  Virginia  grahamite  might 
be  employed  in  the  gas-manufacture.  Since  that,  over 
ISO. 000  tons  have  been  mined  and  used  by  gas  companies 
throughout  tlic  U.  S.  for  enriching  coal-gas.  (Under  Vis- 
coiiTE  some  further  information  will  bo  given  regarding 
grahamite.)  "■  Wi,-ktz. 

Irit'is,  a  frequent  and  formidable  disease  of  the  eye, 
characterized  by  innamraatioii  of  the  iris  and  the  contigu- 
ous serous  surfaces,  by  intolerance  of  light,  by  adhesions 
(^/ncchmala)  to  the  surrounding  parts,  and  by  consequent 
distortion  and  immobility  of  the  pupil.  The  color  ol  the 
iris  also  undergoes  peculiar  changes,  so  that  the  skilled 
diagnostician  can  usually  detect  its  presence  at  once. 
When  tho  iris  is  at  all  actively  inflamed,  it  also  becomes 
quite  insensible  to  the  action  of  atropia.  Iritis  may  bo 
traumatic  in  its  origin,  or  may  arise  from  overuse  of  the 
eve  or  from  working  in  too  intense  light.  It  is.  however, 
nsuallv  ot'  a  rlieuniatic  or  syphilitic  character.  It  is  often 
very  painful.  Local  bloodletting,  iodide  of  potassium, 
mercurials,  atropia,  and  finally  tonics,  such  as  iron,  quinia, 
and  strychnia,  are  employed  in  its  treatment. 

IrUlitsk',  goyernnient  of  East  Siberia,  bordered  by  (he 
governments  of  Yeniseisk  and  Yakutsk  and  the  Chinese 
empire.  Area,  207.555  square  miles.  Pop.  ;)72,833.  It 
comprises  tho  great  Baikal  Lake,  but  it  is  mostly  mnun- 
tainous,  traversed  by  the  Nerchinsk  Miniiilains  and  the 
.lahlomivy.  Large  tracts  arc  covered  with  pine  forests; 
rye  and  oats  are  the  common  crops;  rhubarb  is  much  cul- 
tivated Of  animals,  reindeer,  s.-ibles,  ermines,  and  foNcs 
abound,  and  excellent  fish,  especially  sturgeon  and  cod 
Gold  silver,  lead,  jasper,  topaz,  emerald,  rock-salt,  and  cal 
arc  found.  But  agriculture  and  the  transit  trade  between 
China  and  Russia  arc  the  chief  |uirsuits  of  Ihc  inhabitants. 
Irkutsk,  town  of  Siberia,  the  capital  of  the  above  gov- 
ernmenl.  at  Ihc  confluence  of  the  Irkut  and  the  Angara,  in 
lit  5''°  17'  N  and  Ion.  101°  Ifi'  E.  It  is  the  scat  of  tho 
covcrnor-gcneral  of  East  Siberia  and  of  a  Creek  arch- 
bishop and  has  many  educational  institutions.  Its  houses 
aro  mostly  built  of  wood,  and  its  manufactures  of  linen, 
leather,  glass,  and  soap  are  merely  local.  But  it  is  the 
principal  station  of  the  trading  route  lietwccn  China, 
Siberia,  and  Russia,  and  large  quantities  of  tea,  silk,  porce- 
lain, rhubarb,  and  furs  aro  hero  exchanged  lor  European 
goods.     Pop.  2.'i,S50. 

Irnc'riiis,  Wcrncrins,  or  Garnicr,  b.  at  Bologna, 
Italy  in  the  second  lialf  of  the  eleventh  century,  becaino 
professor  of  Itonian  law  at  the  university  of  that  city,  m 
which  capacity  he  discovered  and  expounded  the  /„«/i(i,tc« 
of  .Instinian,  and  other  eminent  ancient  jurists  Ihus  be- 
coming the  restorer  of  Roman  jurisprudence.  D.  at  Bo- 
logna between  1 120  and  1 12S. 

I'ron  ns  n  IMctnl.  Iron  is  the  most  important  metal 
at  Ihe  eommand  of  num.  and  the  use  of  it,  in  its  many  dif- 
ferent forms,  has  elevated  barbarism  into  civilized  society. 
It  may,  then,  seem  strange  to  say  that  iron  is  a  rare  metal, 
but  siich  is  the  fact ;  for  it  is  almost  unknown  in  a  state  of 
chemical  purity.  H  is  scarcely  possible  to  obtain  pure  iron, 
such  is  Iho  strength  of  its  combination  with  certain  ele- 
ments. The  metal  ordinarily  known  as  iron  is  virtuolly  n 
combination  of  the  elements  iron  and  carbon.  According 
to  the  amount  of  carbon  present  the  metal  is  called  irrmiuhl 
i'r.,n,  il'cl,  mtillcutilc  I'ruii,  and  runt  i,;.ii  or  ;ii''/  ('• 


,  begin- 


Vl'M 


IKON. 


ning  with  the  metal  containing  least  carbon.  Wrought  iron 
aiicT stool  have  been  known  from  the  earliest  times.  Iron 
was  used  by  the  Ejjyptinns.  it  is  supposed,  anterior  to  the 
time  of  Moses  ;  it  was  extensively  applied  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  Indian  steel  was  largely  imported  into  Persia  under 
the  name  of  Parthian  iron,  which  was  steel  in  its  rudest 
though  a  valuable  form.  The  first  steel  produced  in  Eu- 
rope'^was  maile  in  the  thirteenth  century  in  bars  in  small 
open  lire.^;.  while  cast  steel  was  invented  by  Huntsman  litde 
more  than  100  years  ago.  Cast  iron  was  unknown  till  the 
fnurteentli  century,  having  been  made  about  the  same  time 
in  England  and  in  Elsass  (.\Isace). 

The  itraprilicK  of  iron  claim  our  attention  in  the  first 
place.  They  arc  physical  and  chemical ;  the  physical  prop- 
erties include  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  metal,  and 
the  chemical  properties  include  its  combinations  with  va- 
rious element.-i  and  the  characteristics  of  its  salts. 

Physical  PiiOPKnTiES. — A./or.  —  Pure  iron  is  silvery 
while,  slightly  grayish,  with  a  mild  but  brilliant  lustre. 
The  color  of  the  various  forms  is  mainly  determined  by  the 
amount  of  carbon  present,  since  other  elements,  such  as 
manganese,  silicon,  phosphorus,  etc..  modify  the  lustre 
rather  than  the  color.  The  color  of  wrou;:bt  iron  is  gray, 
which  is  also  that  of  steel,  the  varieties  with  most  carbon 
being  lightest  in  shade;  in  steel  the  color  is  darkest  in  the 
unhardened  state,  and  when  hardened  the  metal  becomes 
whiter  in  proportion  to  its  content  of  carbon.  Cast  iron 
varies  from  deep  gray  to  white  as  the  amount  of  free  car- 
bon (irnphitc)  present  decreases. 

Fmcliirc. — Wrought  iron  has  a  fibrous  fracture,  the  fibres 
bcin"  longer  and  more  silky  the  purer  the  metal  is,  the  more 
it  has  been  worked,  and  the  more  gradually  like  a  tear  the 
fracture  has  occurred.  Steel  is  crystalline  when  broken  : 
when  hardened  the  crystalline  character  becomes  almost 
imperceptible  and  the  fracture  conchoidal.  Cast  iron  is 
also  crystalline,  white  iron  being  crystallized  in  large  plates, 
which  decrease  in  importance  as  the  graphite  increases,  till 
in  deep  gray  iron  the  crystals  are  indistinct,  so  far  as  iron 
is  concerned,  but  the  graphite  appears  in  scales  of  consider- 
able size. 

Specific  Grnviii/. — The  specific  gravity  of  electro-de- 
posited iron  is  S.l.'ig:  that  of  cast-steel  bars  and  plates 
averages  7.823;  that  of  tilted  and  hammered  iron  bars  and 
forgings  ranges  from  7. 70  to  7.798  ;  that  of  rolled  iron  plates 
and  bars  varies  between  7.7(1  and  7.54  :  while  that  of  un- 
wrought  puddled  bar  averages  7.40.  We  find  that  wrought  j 
iron  is  very  bad  when  its  sp.  gr.  is  less  than  7.oO.  The  sp. 
gr.  of  east  iron  ranges  from  6.85  to  7.35,  that  used  in  con- 
struction averaging  7.10. 

Cnnilticllou  vf  Heat  and  Elertricitij .-~T\\C  conductivity 
of  silver  being  100  in  each  case,  that  of  wrought  iron  for 
heat  is  11.9,  and  for  electricity  12  to  14. S. 

E.Tpausiini  bi/  Heal. — From  the  freezing  to  the  boiling 
point  of  -water  cast  iron  expands  in  bulk  0.00:13,  and 
wrought  iron  0.00.^f) ;  and  wrought  iron  has  a  linear  ex- 
pansion of  53^05  for  each  degree  between  212°  and  572°  F, 
Cast  iron  e.-iposed  to  continued  heat  becomes  pcimancnthj 
cxpanihd  to  the  extent  of  U  to  3  per  cent,  in  length,  so 
that  grate-bars,  for  instance,  should  have  4  per  cent,  play. 
In  cooling  from  a  melted  state  gray  east  iron  contracts  1 
per  cent.,  and  white  cast  iron  2  to  2J  per  cent.  In  a  stato 
of  fusion  the  behavior  of  east  iron  is  the  reverse  of  that  of 
leatcr,  for  the  hottest  iron  is  the  densest  and  sinks  to  the 
bottom.  This  property  enables  us  to  melt  it  in  a  rcverbera- 
tory  furnace  by  a  flame  applied  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
metal,  and  also  to  keep  it  hot  when  melted.  If  melted  iron 
acted  as  water  does,  it  would  be  practically  useless. 

t'nsiliilili/. — Pure  iron  is  doubtless  as  refractory  as  pla- 
tinum, but  its  fusibility  rapidly  increases  with  the  amount 
of  carbon  present.  Cast  steel  is  estimated  to  fuse  at  4000°  F., 
and  cast  iron  at  27^0°  F. 

Wclflini/. — Iron  difl"ers  from  almost  all  other  metals  in 
the  fact  tiiat.  though  nearly  infusible,  its  particles  agglu- 
tinate at  a  white  heat  into  a  nearly  homogeneous  mass.  All 
methods  of  producing  wrought  iron  depend  on  this  principle. 
Tcnaeili/. — In  this  quality  iron  vastly  excels  all  other 
metals.  The  statements  respecting  the  strength  of  .Amer- 
ican irons  have  been,  unfortunately,  overestimated  by  25 
to  30  per  cent.,  owing  to  a  defective  method  of  breaking 
the  test-piece  at  a  point  where  its  area  was  suddenly  re- 
duced. Calculated  for  the  original  area  of  the  test-bars, 
tho  following  arc  correct  statements  of  breaking  strains : 

PoundH  to  sq.  loch. 

Hard  east  steel 130,000 

Medium   "         110,000 

.Soft  "         ft'i.OOO 

f   72  000 

Rteel         ■)  **'^'  '''*'*  (homogeneous  metal) <   g.'i'ooo 

Pessemer  steel  (rails) 89.-')00 

Spring  steel 72.500 

Puddled  steel •[  f{l^ 


Wrought 
iron.... 


Cast  iron 


PoQDdn  to  ftq.  locb. 

Iron  wire SG.OOO 

Bar  iron CO.OOl) 

Plate  iron 60,000 

Unwrougbt  puddled  iron 30.000 

'  StrouKcast  iron 2.S,000 

<  Average     "       16,500 

\weak         "       13,400 


DiKlilili/. — Iron  possesses  this  quality  in  a  high  degree, 
being  excelled  in  it  only  by  gold,  silver,  and  platinum. 
The  tenacity  of  a  metal  has  a  greater  effect  in  producing 
ductility  than  has  the  malleability;  hence,  tho  purer  kinds 
of  wrought  iron  can  be  drawn  into  wire  of  excessive  fine- 
ness, even  down  to  a  diameter  of  0,01  inch  in  continuous 
coils  49,000  feet  long. 

Kesiataiiee  to  Compression. — Wrouglit  iron  under  pres- 
sure loses  shape  and  proportion  like  lead,  and  no  definite 
point  is  marked  at  which  ciim/iiii</ can  be  said  to  occur; 
yet  under  a  load  of  38.000  pounds  per  square  inch  the  metal 
is  too  much  distorted  for  practical  use.  Cast  iron,  on  the 
contrary,  can  be  crualicd  by  a  load  v,arying  from  44,500  to 
140,000',  the  mean  usually  assumed  being  9.),000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  or  about  six  times  the  mean  of  its  ten- 
sile strength.  Wrought  iron  resists  compression  with  a 
strength  about  two-thirds  that  with  which  it  resists  ex- 
tension. 

Hardness. — Iron  is  relatively  one  of  the  hardest  of  all 
metals,  but  there  are  among  the  various  kinds  many  de- 
grees of  hardness.  Hardened  steel  is  the  hardest  of  met- 
als, and  some  kinds  of  while  cast  iron  arc  nearly  as  hard, 
while  wrought  iron  and  homogeneous  metal  are  sometimes 
nearly  as  soft  as  copper. 

Stiffness  and  Elaeticili/. — Wrought   and   cast   iron    are 
elastic  under  a  strain  kejlt  within  certain  limits,  and  both 
are  safe  in  structures  so  long  as  the  strain  remains  wilhin 
the  elastic  limit.     There  are  two  limits  of  elasticity — one 
for  compression,  the  other  for  extension.     Under  compres- 
sion the  limit  of  elasticity  of  cast  iron  may  be  stated  as 
35,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  that  of  wrought  iron  about 
27,000  pounds,  and  that  of  steel   say  70,(100  pounds  per 
square  inch  for  hard  east  steel  and  3(!,000  for  soft  steel  of 
finest  quality.     Under  tensile  strain  the  limit  of  elasticity 
of  cast  iron  is  about  SOOO  pounds  per  square  inch,  that  of 
wrought  iron  about  2C.O00  pounds,  and  that  of  steel  varies 
between  one-half  and  two-thirds  of  the  breaking  strains  of 
the  various  kinds.     Bessemer  steel,  containing  about  0.45 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  breaks  under  aniininmni  tensile  strain 
of  74,000  pounds,  and  will  bear  in  tension  as  well  as  in 
compression  a  ininlnmm  strain  of  3S. 000  ]iounds  per  square 
inch  without  exceeding  its  elaslic  limit.     It  is  a  curious 
fact  that  cast  iron  i/ields  at  first  to  a  given  compressing 
strain  twice  as  much  as  wrought  iron,  yet  it  will  bearwith- 
out  crushing  three  times  as  much  pressure.     Cast  iron  can 
he  exposed  under  extension  to  a  strain  only  one-third  to 
one-fourth   as   great  as  (bat  it  bears  under  compression. 
Wrought  iron  will  hear  within  elastic  limits  under  exten- 
sion three-fourths  of  the  force  it  hears  under  compression, 
but  in  practice  it  is  usually  taken  the  other  way,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  long  struts  of  wrought  iron  arc  very  liable  to 
fail  by  flexure.  The  limit  of  elaslicity.  or  the  working  strain 
of  steel,  seems  practically  equal  for  comprcs.sion  and  exten- 
sion. Steel  is  made  more  uniform  tbanwrought  iron,andwill 
therefore  gradually  supersede  wrouglit  iron  in  most  struc- 
tures, with   an    increase  of  safety  if  not  a  diminution  of 
weight.     The  pojjular  term  foii./Aiic««  means  a  combination 
of  tenacity,  ductility,  and  hardness  happily  joined  to  re- 
sist  concussions  and    irregular   strains.      In    judging    a 
metal,  tenacity  alone  would  be  a  false  guide,  for  hard,  brit- 
tle steel  .«how's   the  greatest  tensile  strength.      Therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  melal  stretches  consider- 
ably before   breaking:  that  is.  not  less  than  5  to  :!0  per 
cent,  for  good  qualities  of  the  different  grades  of  steel,  and 
from  30  to  60  per  cent,  for  the  different  grades  of  wrought 
iron. 

Puch  is  iron  as  we  all  of  us  know  il  in  its  various  forms 
and  evcrv-day  applications.  The  chemical  properlies  of 
the  metal  are  not  so  evident  as  the  tangible  physical 
ones,  vet  thcv  are  the  immediate  cau.ses  of  Ihe  great  va- 
riety of  characteristics  cxhibiled  by  the  various  forms  of 

iron. 

Chemical  PnopEnriES. — Iron  differs  from  all  olher  met- 
als in  the  fact  that  it  combines  at  a  high  teinpenilurc  with 
carbon  to  form  fusible  compounds :  the  fusibility  of  these 
compounds  decreases  as  the  carbon  decreases.  Iron  rep- 
resents a  most  important  group  of  metals,  distinguished  by 
their  capabililv  of  combining  with  oxygen,  chlorine,  etc. 
in  both  odd  and  ercn  proportions.  These  are  iron,  nickel, 
manganese,  cobalt,  chromium,  and  uranium.  The  first  five 
are  closely  allied,  have  Ihe  same  atomic  volume,  and  their 
specific  gravities  ami  atomic  weights  form  a  regular  .se- 
quence. The  following  is  a  list  of  iho  principal  salts  of 
iron,  Ihe  atomic  weight  of  iron  being  5() : 


IRON. 


1297 


FfTTic  Compoundi  (odd). 
Perehlorlde...(F02)'H:i,{Fe,Cl3). 
Sesnuioxiilp..(Fe2)'iO''j(FejO,). 
Hyarated  sosquioxide, 

H*'*"  ["".l2Fe20„3HO). 
Scsquisulphide....(Feo)«iS",(Fe, 
S,). 


ferrous  Compounds  (rren). 

Prntorh!oride Kc'TUf  FeCIl. 

Prntuxkle Ke"(>*'(KeO). 

Pnitosulphide -Fp"S"(F('S). 

Pnitosulpliate Fe"i^0"4/'-f 

7HjO"iFeOSOa-i-7HO). 
Protocarhoiirtto, 

Fe'VC*'0"3/',Fe«CO»). 

In  addition  to  these  we  have — 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron „Fe"(Fe2)»'0".(Fe3O4). 

MaRnetic  pvrileit Fe"jS"B(Fe,S,). 

Bisulphide  of  iron Fe"S'V FeSi). 

The  old  notation  with  atomic  woii:ht  28  is  enclosed  in 
brackctf".  Of  the  ahove  ?nlts.  the  protocarbonate  occurs  in 
nature  as  ?pathic  iron  oro.  and  the  protosulphate  as  cop- 
peras tMi-'Ianterite^.  The  salts  of  iron  possess  an  inky, 
astringent  taste,  but  the  two  classes  have  marked  charac- 
teristics by  which  they  can  readily  Vie  dislinpuishcd  from 
each  other  ami  from  the  salts  of  other  metals.  (1)  Fer- 
muH  SaftH. — These  salts  haven  pale  preen  color.  Alhali'ra 
throw  down  white  or  greenish-white  precipitates,  which 
qiiiikly  oxidize  and  turn  brown  on  exposure  to  air.  Po- 
taiHium  ferrirynuide  (red  prussiate  of  potash!  occasions  a 
bright-blue  precipitate  in  neutral  or  acid  solutions.  (2) 
Frrrir  Sufts. — In  solution  these  salts  exhibit  a  yellow  or 
yellowish-brown  color.  AfkafirH  throw  down  n  reddish- 
brown  precipitate,  insoluble  in  excess  of  alkali.  In  neutral 
or  acid  soUiti<)ns  pntnggtum  fcrrirffnuiiie  occasions  no  pre- 
ciiiitate.  menly  imparting  a  greenish  hue  to  the  solution. 
Solutions  of  ferric  salts,  to  which  an  alkali  has  been  added 
till  a  permanent  precipitate  begins  to  form,  are  completely 
decomposed  on  boiling,  the  iron  being  precipitated  as  an 
insoluble  sub-salt.  This  properly  enables  us  to  separate 
iron  from  manganese,  nickel,  and  colialt,  which  do  not  pos- 
sess it.  Further,  we  find  thai  the  protoxide  of  iron  and 
the  ferrous  salts  are  magnetic,  whilst  the  peroxide  and  fer- 
ric salts  are  not. 

The  salts  and  compounds  of  iron  are  highly  useful  in  the 
arts.  Coppenis  or  green  vitriol  is  a  valuable  disinfectant 
and  a  most  imp»»rlant  morilant  in  dyeing.  The  various 
sulphides  of  iron,  in  their  natural  state  as  pyriti-s,  furnish 
most  of  the  sulphuric  acid  of  commerce.  Iron  unites  with 
cyanogen  and  liydrogen  to  form  acids,  which  in  turn  com- 
bine with  iron,  making  ferro-  and  ferri-cyanides  of  iron, 
both  of  them  brilliant  blues,  and  the  latter  known  as  Prus- 
sian blue.  A  neutral  solution  of  a  ferric  salt  treated  with 
tincture  of  galls  yields  a  bluish-black  precipitate  possess- 
ing the  peculiar  property  of  remaining  in  a  state  of 
partial  solution,  as  writing  ink.  In  medicine,  iron  is  an 
invaluable  l(mic.  ferric  chloride  especially,  while  the  dried 
persulphate  is  a  most  efficient  agent  in  stanching  the  flow 
of  blood  from  wounds. 

The  mrtftflui-f/irnt  rfienn'ntrtf  of  iron  can  bo  most  clearly 
explained  uncler  the  following  heads: 

Iron  ami  0.ri/f/rn. — Iron  in  a  cttmpact  slate  suffers  no 
change  in  dry  air  or  oxygen  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
in  a  spongy  state  burns  readily  in  air.  In  pure  water  iron 
remains  unchanged,  Viut  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  causes 
a  rapid  oxidati(»n.  which  is  counteracted  by  the  presence 
of  the  alkalies  and  of  lime,  and  by  a  coating  of  zinc.  Sea- 
water  dissolves  the  iron  of  east  iron  completely  in  the  course 
of  time,  leaving  the  carb(^n.  At  a  high  temperature  iron 
burns  vividly  in  air,  and  ilecomposes  steam  nt  a  red  heat, 
in  each  case  forming  magnetic  oxide  of  iron.  Welsh  nail- 
makers  keep  llieir  nails  hot  during  forginc  by  throwing  a 
little  Mast  uf  air  upon  them.  In  the  puddling  furnace  iron 
burns  with  great  readiness.  J'ittt<tri*lc  of  iviu  is  a  power- 
ful base,  and  plays  an  impitrtant  part  in  metallurgical  opera- 
tions. It  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  oxygen,  nncl  the  power 
of  decomposing  water.  I'emsitir  itf  iron  i»  infusible  ex- 
cept at  high  tcmpcTatures,  when  it  is  converted  into  mag- 
netic oxide.  It  has  little  or  no  alhnity  for  silica,  but  is 
caftily  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  carbon,  even  without 
intimate  contact,  Mnijurtic  oxidr  uf  iron  is  an  important 
prodiiet  and  ni/mt  in  metallurgy,  particularly  in  piififffim/. 
In  the  course  of  the  oxidation  of  iron  various  oxiilcs  are 
formed  containing  less  oxygen  than  magnetic  oxide,  the 
most  important  being  hummrr  or  Hmith  Hntfe. 

fron  find  Ciirhon. — When  metallic  iron  is  heated  in  eon- 
tact  with  carbon,  the  result  is  wrought  iron,  steel,  or  cast 
iron,  necnrding  to  the  degree  of  heat  :ippli<-d  au<l  the  length 
of  time.  The  induence  of  carbon  in  modifying  the  prop- 
erties of  ir<tn  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  phenomena 
of  metallurgy,  and  the  variations  caused  are  so  great  that 
the  compounds  nre,  practically,  distinct  mi'tnts.  While  there 
are  no  characteristic  properties  which  <lislinguish  one  me- 
tallic compound  from  the  others,  and  (he  tliflerence  consists 
mainly  in  tln^  degree  in  which  particular  chnraelers  are  pre- 
sented, yet  in  prnefiee  the  separation  of  the  eompotinils  is 
fixed  by  two  striking  phenomena  —  vir..  the  tael  that  at  a 
crtftin  point  graphite  ceases  to  separate  from  ra»l  iron 
slowly  cooled,  and  the  fact  that  ateel  hardens  on  being 
Vol..  Tl.  — S2 


plunged  at  n  red  heat  into  water.  The  greatest  total  amount 
of  carbon  pig  iron  will  contain  is  about  5.9  per  cent,,  but 
this  is  only  when  manganese  is  present,  the  ordinary  amount 
being  :i.2  to  4.7  per  cent.  Wlien  the  percentage  of  carbon 
falls  to  2.2o.  thecfit?  i*  oh  refuses  to  ])art  with  graphite  even 
when  slowly  cooled  for  days.  Iron  with  2  per  cent,  of  car- 
bon is  not  malleable  nor  weldable.  but  falls  to  pieces  on 
heating.  When  tiic  percentage  of  carbon  is  about  1.75,  the 
metal  can  iiarely  be  welded,  but  with  1..'j  to  1,4  percent. 
of  carbon  the  peculiar  properties  of  ntcef  are  all  clearly 
developed  —  viz.  fusiiiility,  combined  with  capability  of 
hardening  and  weldability.  As  the  carbon  diminishes  the 
two  first  qualities  decrease  and  the  third  increases.  With 
0.4  per  cent,  of  carbon  steel  con  Ijarely  lu-  hardened  enough 
to  give  sparks  with  flint,  and  below  this  percentage  the 
compound  is  designated  irroinjht  irou,  hut  is  calleil  Htecfy 
iron  or  ]>uddled  steel  till  the  carbon  falls  to  about  0.25  per 
cent.  Bessemer  steel,  as  now  usually  made,  is  a  true  steel. 
Soft  wrought  iron  seldom  or  never  contains  less  than  O.OS 
percent,  of  carbon.  Ordinary  wrought  iron  is  not  homo- 
geneous in  composition,  but  is  made  up  of  fibres  or  masses 
varying  greatly  in  their  percentage  of  carbon.  The  presence 
of  other  elements,  such  as  silicon,  phosphorus,  etc.,  modifies 
the  above  boundaries,  but  not  materially. 

Carbon  exists  in  cast  iron  in  two  states — cnmhinffd  curhon 
and  qrnphite.  The  proof  of  chemical  combination  is  given 
by  the  fact  that  infusible  carbon  heated  with  nearly  infu- 
sible pure  iron  forms  a  fusible  compound  (cast  iron),  out  of 
which,  when  very  highly  heated,  part  of  the  carbon  sepa- 
rates as  graphite.  Iron  containing  much  graphite  is  called 
firujf  iron  ;  when,  on  the  contrary,  it  contains  much  com- 
bined carbon,  it  is  called  ichite  iron,  the  total  amount  of 
carbon  being  in  ordinary  pig  irons  substantially  constant. 
The  two  kinds  pass  into  each  other  by  insensible  gradations, 
and  at  a  certain  stage  are  both  visible  in  the  same  jtiece, 
which  is  then  called  mottfrd  iron.  The  varieties  are  often 
graded  by  numfrals  into  eight  classes,  but  in  this  country 
usually  into  five,  as  follows  :  No.  1  foundry.  No.  2  foundry. 
No.  H  or  gray  forge  iron,  mottled  iron,  white  iron.  The 
last  two  grades  are  often  called  forge  irons.  White  iron, 
containing  manganese,  is  called  Spiegel  iron. 

Iron  (Cariton)  tniil  Mnnffftncnc — In  cast  iron  manganese 
increases  the  amount  of  combined  carbon  an<l  diminishes 
the  amount  of  silicon.  It  is  chiefly  beneficial  as  a  flux  in 
removing  sulphur,  etc.  In  cast-  and  in  Bessemer  steel  it  is 
present  in  various  proportitins,  O.l  to  1.0  per  cent.,  and  im- 
proves the  working  of  the  steel.  It  is  seldom  found  in 
wrought  iron. 

Iron  (Carbon)  and  S!idphiir. — Iron  combines  freely  with 
sulphur,  the  effect  of  whieli  on  east  iron  is  to  diminish  the 
amount  of  carbon  and  hinder  the  sejiaration  of  graphite. 
In  small  quantity  it  is  advantageous  foreastings  like  runnon, 
as  it  makes  cast  iron  stronger.  In  steel  and  wrought  iron 
the  effect  of  sul(d»iir  i?  to  make  both  weak  ami  ragged  when 
worked  below  n  >/t/l"ir  heat,  hence  the  term  rrd-kfiortnriiii. 
Steel  resists  better  than  wrought  iron,  but  0.1  is  suflicicnt 
to  injure  either.  Copper  acts  similarly,  but  less  strongly, 
than  sulphur,  and  dimini^^hes  the  weldalulity  of  the  metal, 
//■oil  (C'lrlxin)  nud  /'fionphortiM.  —  Iron  is  seldom  free 
from  phosphorus.  In  east  iron  this  element  increases  the 
hardness,  and  makes  the  metal  more  fluid  when  melted, 
but  weakens  it  when  cold.  Pig  iron  contains  from  0.5  to 
2.25  per  cent,  of  phosphorus.  It  makes  wrought  iron  easy 
to  work  while  hot.  thus  counteracting  sulphur,  but  brittle 
when  cold,  and  renders  steel  more  britllr  ilum  iron.  The 
presence  of  0.25  per  cent,  in  iron  and  of  Cl  in  steel  is 
disadvantageous. 

Iron  ( Curhon )  and  Sih'con. — Silicon  exists  in  all  varieties 
of  iron,  and  in  gray  cast  iron  in  greatest  quantity,  because 
the  heat  causing  grnyness  in  the  iron  also  aids  reduction 
of  silica,  and  because  silicon  aids  separation  of  graphite. 
i  White  east  iron  seldom  has  more  than  1.0  per  cent.,  but 
gray  iron  sometimes  c(uitain8  as  much  as  5  per  cent,  of 
silicon.  Ordinarily,  it  does  not  injure  pig  iron,  but  is  bene- 
ficial when  it  is  converted  into  Bessemer  steel.  But  the 
effect  of  silicon  rtn  wrcmirhl  iron  is  to  make  it  brittle,  rotten 
when  heated,  and  less  ready  to  weld.  On  steel  the  effect  is 
the  same,  and  an  annuMit  less  than  0.1  percent,  is  decidedly 
noticeable  for  the  worse. 

/foil  (nnd  Ctnitnu)  also  combine  with  tiintftiten,  titanium, 
rhromiiini,  anrl  tin.  They  all  impart  greater  hardness,  if 
not  brittleness,  displace,  except  tin,  carbon  in  cast  iron, 
and  reduce  the  weldability  of  wrought  iron.  Tungsten 
combines  with  irreat  iliflieulty.  and  titanium  scarcely  at  all; 
both  are  probably  useful  in  mnkinir  the  grain  of  steel  finer 
and  inereiising  ilsslrenglh  and  hardness.  Chromium  com- 
bines readily  with  iron,  is  said  in  some  respects  to  he  use- 
ful, and  seems  to  render  steel  less  liable  to  injury  from 
overhenlincr.  Tin  renders  wrouuht  iron  utterly  worthless, 
oven  when  only  0.2  per  cent,  is  present. 

InoN  Alloys. — All  the  above  compounds  arc  sometimes 


1298 


IKON. 


incorrectly  called  alloy,,  but  that  term  denotes  the  mechan- 
ical  mixturo  of  two   or    more  metals,  either   as  such   or 
(rarely)  holJing  in  admixture  a  chemical  eomlmiation  ot 
the  metals  with  each  other.     The  term  cannot  api.tv  to  tho 
comljinations  of  iron  with  metalloids,  nor  to  the  combina- 
tion of  metals  with  cnrhon   and  iron.     The  abuse  of  tho 
term  alhy  doubtless  arises  from  indehnite  use  of  the  term 
irm,.     Our  knowledge  of  the  alloys  of  pure  iron  is  excecd- 
inolv  seanlv.     Iron  alloys  with  cojiiier,  nickel,  and  colialt 
in'various  nroportions ;  with  zinc  also,  but  only  when  zinc 
is  the  principal  ingredient,  the  iron  not  exceeding  11  per 
cent      The  process  ot  riahnnizimj  or  coating  iron  with  zinc 
was  first  practised  at  Kouen  about  17S6.     Iron  alloys  with 
copper,  zinc,  and  tin  to   form  tierro-mrlnl.  a  close-grained 
alloy  of  great  strength,  suitable  for  hydraulic-iiress  cylin- 
ders and'for  cannon,  but  the  iron  present  does  not  exceed 
■'  per  cent.      White  brnns  is  an  alloy  of  ^0  zme.  10  copper 
iuid  10  iron:  it  has  the  appearance  of  zinc,  but  is  much 
harder,  ycry  tenacious,  and  specially  ad.npted  for  journal 
castings,     iron  alloys  also  with  tin  in  yarious  proportions 
up  to  SO  per  cent.,  making  highly  brittle  crystalline  alloys 
of  little  use.     When  clean   wrought  iron   is    dipped   into, 
melted  tin  it  becomes  firmlv  coaled  with  tin  (('"  pM"), 
and  thereby  protected  from  rusting.     Iron  alloys  '"th  alu- 
minium in'all  proportions,  producing  bright  and  hard  but 
forgeablo  alloys  when  the  aluminium  does  not  exceed  1^ 
per  cent      Aluminium  is  supposed  to  cause  the  dixmnr.l:  ot 
Indian  steel  wrought  at  Damascus  into  swords.     Iron  alloys 
with  other   metals,  but  the  alloys   haee  no  practical   im- 
portance.    Fi-rro-mangnneif.  a  combination  of  manganese 
iron  and  carbon,  which  contains  »0  to  60  per  cent,  man- 
ganese and  as  little  carbon  as  possible,  is  yaluablo  in  steel- 
making. 

Iron,  Ores  of.  The  ores  of  iron  consist  of  the  metal  in 
an  oxidized  state,  more  or  less  mixed  with  clayey  or  siliceous 
impurities.  I'sually  the  more  iron  the  ore  contains  the 
.rrcater  its  value,  but  frequently  ores  of  one  class  are  val- 
uable in  facilitating  the  smelting  of  ores  of  another  class, 
and  sometimes  the  presence  of  other  oxides— manganese 
for  instance,  in  ores  for  spiegelcisen— or  the  presence  of  coal 
(in  black-band  ore),  is  most  desirable.  Nothing  which 
contains  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  iron  can  be  considered  an 
iron  ore. 

OreB  of  J  von. 

Name.  Couiposilion. 

Magnetic  iron  ore Iron  and  oxygen. 

Red  hematite  (specu- 
lar)  Iron  ana  oxygen. 

Brown  hematite. 
Spathic  iron  ore. 


.70. 


Iron,  oxygen,  and  water  Glj";,  (water  12). 
Iron,  oxygen,  and  car-      ^ 

bonic  acid 48j^. 

Argillaceous  iron  orc.Iron.   oxygen,   carbonic 

acid,  and  einy Average  33. 

Rlnrt.liinrt  Iron,    oxygen,  carljonic 

Black-hana a..j(j,  diy.  and  carbon- Variable,  20  to  M 

aceous  matter  (coalj. 


eoalj. 


(10  to 
1  XniivF  /;o,i.— This  is  a  curiosity,  but  not  an  iron  ore. 
It  occurs  in  minule  particles  in  basaltic  rocks,  and  in  situ- 
ations where  it  has  been  reduced  from  ore  by  organic  ma  - 
ter  It  is  found  also  in  meteorites,  which  are  malleable 
and  consist  mainly  of  iron,  with  from  (i  to  14.0  per  cent. 

of  nickel.  „  .      .  ,        c  •         ee 

"  M„ni,fl!e  Trnu  Ore  (FcsOi).— Sesquioxide  of  iron  69, 
protoxide  of  iron  .11  =  100.  This  ore  is  named  from  Mag- 
nesia in  Lydia,  where  its  attractive  powers  were  hrst  ob- 
served It  is  iron  black  in  color,  with  a  specilic  gravity 
of  4  9  to  b  2  and  leaves  a  black  streak  when  rubbed  on 
un.'lazed  porcelain.  It  is  often  strongly  magnetic,  somc- 
tiines  possessing  polarity,  when  it  becomes  the  loadstone 
{t.;,d>louc)  of  yore.  It  is  found  massive,  in  sharp  crystal- 
line grains  as  sand,  and  ochieous  as  an  earth.  It  is  not 
ehan.'cd  by  exposure  to  air.  an,l  is  broken  up  but  not  oxi- 
dized" by  roasting.  It  occurs  mostly  in  jinmary  crystalline 
rocks,  and  most  abundantly  in  metamorphic  rocks,  in  which 
it  is  found  in  vast  beds.  It  abounds  in  Sweden.  Norway, 
Kussia  and  North  America,  and  is  almost  wanting  in  hng- 
land  :  as  sand  it  is  found  in  North  America.  New  Zealand, 
and  India,  but  in  this  state  is  apt  to  be  made  relractory 
by  the  titanic  acid  it  contains.  Its  principal  impurities 
are  iron  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  and  phosphate  ot  lime 
(/1/K.(i7ei:"  where  the  two  former  or  sulphurous  impurities 
abound,  the  latter  is  usually  absent. 

3.  Spccilnr  Iron  Ore.  nr  Rrd  Hematite  (FcjOs).— Iron 
70,  oxygen  :iO  =  100.  Anhydrous  sesquioxide  of  iron. 
Specular  ore  is  dark  steel-gray  in  color,  very  thin  pieces 
being  blood-red  by  transmitted  light,  while  the  earthy  va_ 
rieties  (red  hemniite)  are  red  :  both  varieties  leave  a  red 
streak.  The  specular  variety  is  named  from 
lustre  (»pecii;Mni,  "mirror"),  and  occurs  massive  and 
shining  scales  {micaceniia  iron  ore) 


named  from  its  dark-red  color  (al^a.  "blood").  It  occurs 
massive,  sometimes  highly  librous,  as  an  ochre,  and  in  an 
argillaceous  form.  As  an  argillaceous  ore  it  sometimes  re- 
sembles jasper,  and  in  the  fibrous  form  it  is  very  beautiful, 
on  account  of  the  striking  internal  structure  and  the  high 
polish  of  the  outside  of  its  rounded  masses.  Red  hematite 
occurs  all  over  the  world  in  rcmar1<able  abumlanee,  being 
especially  noted  at  I.avoulte  in  France,  Cumberland  and 
Lancashire  in  England,  liilbao  in  Spain,  Marquette,  Pilot 
Knob,  Iron  Mountain  and  other  localities  in  this  country, 
and  also  in  Algeria.  This  ore  occurs  in  rocks  of  all  geo- 
logical ages,  and  at  volcanoes  as  a  result  ot  igneous  ac- 
tion, but  is  especially  abundant  in  metamorphic  rocks.  It 
has  no  characteristic  impurities,  but  quartz  nearly  always 
accompanies  it ;  it  contains  usually  very  little  sulphur  and 
little  phosphorus.  ■       j       r    r 

4.  Ilroirn  Jlcnuilile,  or  Htjdrntcd  Sraqmoxide  of  Iron 
(Fc-.03.:!I|.;l->).— Sesquioxide  of  iron  tv.fi.  water  14.4  = 
100.'  The'variety  Giithite  is  rather  a  mineral  than  an  ore, 
but  brown  hematite  or  limonitc  (from  Aeifioii'.  •' meadow  ")  is 
one  of  the  most  important  ores  of  iron.  It  is  found  mas- 
sive [pipe  ore,  etc.)  and  earthy,  also  containing  lossils  (one 
kind  of  fuMilifcroiu  iron  ore):  when  loose  or  porous  it  is 
called  bog  ore.'  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.6  to  4,  and  it  leaves 
a  yellowish-brown  streak.  It  is  extensively  worked  all 
over  tho  world  in  secondary  or  more  recent  geological 
formations,  and  is  so  widely  distributed  that  no  special 
locality  need  be  mentioned.  Beds  of  it  in  the  comimct 
state  have  been  worked  for  IJO  years  at  Salisbury  and 
Kent  in  Connecticut,  which  are  celebrated  for  the  quality 
of  their  iron.  This  ore  is  the  result  of  alteration  of  other 
ores  and  minerals  by  air.  water,  etc..  is  still  being  formed, 
and  derives  its  peculiar  character  from  this  origin.  It  la 
mixed  with  clay,  sand,  wood.  etc.  Its  impurities  arc, 
naturally,  phosphate  of  iron,  organic  matter,  and  seldom 
either  siilphates  or  sulphur:  it  also  contains  manganese. 
Interesting  instances  of  its  modern  formation  arc  the  "lake 
ores  "  of  Sweden  and  the  ponds  of  Eastern  Massachusetts. 

i  S/mlhic  Iron  Ore  ( FeCOs).— Protoxide  of  iron  62.1, 
carbonic  acid  :!7.U  =  100;  specific  gravity  3.7  to  3.9. 
Color  li'-ht  yellow,  turning  to  brown  when  the  ore  is  ex- 
posed to" the  weather  :  before  exposure  its  streak  is  white. 
It  is  found  pure,  massive,  crystallized  in  veins  and  vast  beds, 
also  in  gloliular  masses,  and  in  an  earthy  slate  with  clay 
or  sand.  Part  of  the  iron  is  usually  replaced  by  manga- 
nese, which  often  renders  the  ore  valuable  for  making  white 
iron  containing  mangjinese  [HpiegeleiHen).  In  its  impure 
varieties,  mixed  with  clay  or  sand.it  forms  the  greater  part 
of  the  o(.-i/  ironMone  ores.  Spathic  ore  proper  is  found  in 
vast  conlormable  deposits  in  the  clay-state  lormations  of 
Stvria  and  Carinthia,  in  Westphalia  and  Nassau  in  nume- 
rous sm-all  veins  (mostly  owned  by  Krupp  of  Essen),  and 

in  Cornwall.  ,        ^         r.i       ■ 

6.  t^loy  Ironstone,  or  Arrjillaeeoiin  Iron  Ore.— Clay  iron- 
stone is  the  mincrs's  name,  denoting  a  distinct  class  of  ores, 
which  singly  have  little  in  common  except  their  mixture 
with  clav  aiid  sand.  We  find  troir.i  clay  ironstone  in  com- 
pact masses  and  nodules,  leaving  a  yellow-brown  streak  : 
arv.V/ncroiM  hematite,  a  hard,  heavy  ore,  reddish-brown  to 
dark-red  in  color,  sometimes  oolitic  in  structure,  when  it  is 
called  fossillferons  iron  ore  or  lenticular  iron  ore:  and 
Lastly,  'spathic  clay  ironstone,  an  earthy  or  siliceous  impure 
carbonate  of  iron,  which  is  often  called  simply  earbonalc 
ore.  The  first  two  kinds  are  of  local  occurrence,  but  spa- 
thic clav  ironstone  is  found  in  all  countries,  more  particu- 
larly in'tho  coal  formations,  of  which  it  is  the  characteristic 
ore.  In  these  formations  it  is  sometimes  found  in  coiilin- 
uous  strata,  sometimes  in  irregular  masses  imbedded  in 
and  under  the  shales  and  limestone  rocks  (uodnhr  and 
hnhrsl.me  „«).  and  aaain  found  loose  in  clays  (Tertiary 
formations  in  Maryland,  etc.).  It  often  occurs  in  the  eoa 
measures,  in  beds  alternating  with  limestone  and  coal,  and 
is  always  more  or  less  calcareous.  In  these  cases  it  is  par- 
ticularlV  adapted  for  smelting.  Its  color  varies  from  gray 
to  brown,  and  its  weight  is  less  than  that  ot  other  iron 
ores  :  hence,  at  first  sight,  some  varieties  do  not  appear  to 
be  iron  ores,  and  were  till  recently  thrown  away  (Vales, 
Westphalial.  This  ore  is  much  more  unilorm  in  composi- 
tion than  might  be  expected,  its  percentage  ranging  be- 
twecn  30  and  40.  with   an   average  ot  33.      file  iinpurily 


its  brilliant 


It  is  found  in  Kussia, 


Brazil,  and  in  vast  abundance  in  Elba,  where  it  has 
b^on   mined  for  2000  years.     The  red  hematite  variety  is 


>pain 


varies,  however:  in  England  clay  pre.lomina tes,  but  in 
America  sand,  especially  in  the  anthracite  coal-measures 
The  Pennsylvania  carbonate  ore  contains  an  average  ot 
34  per  cent,  of  iron.  .        „„„,, 

7  «Mefr-fcn„(/.  — When  clay  ironstone  contains  coaly 
matter  in  excess  of  10  per  cent,  it  becomes  dark-brown  or 
black  in  color  and  often  shaly,  resembling  cannol  or  slaty 
coal  The  clav  ironstone  often  occurs  along  with  ■•.an" 
the  Scotch  miners  call  one  layer  eiay-band.  the  other  blaeh- 
bnnd.  It  occurs  in  all  coal-measures  more  or  less— in  \V  est- 
phalia  and  in  Ohio,  for  instance— but  is  especially  devel- 


IRON. 


1-299 


oped  in  Scotland.  It  is  a.  %-aluabIe  ore,  for  its  coal  suffices 
to  roast  [bum)  it,  and  it  is  enriched  by  burning  to  OU  or  lO 
per  cent,  of  iron.  ,    .    <•. 

8  /'r<in/.7iiii'(e.— This  is  strictly  an  ore  of  7,ino,  liut  alter 
Iho  extraction  of  the  linc  the  risiiluc  is  smclteil  to  prorluce 
•tiicolci^cn.  a  peculiar  white  iron  valuable  in  sted-uiaking 
froiirils  high  percentage  of  manganese  (10  to  24  per  cent 
and  carbon  (4  to  j.3  per  cent.i.  It  is  found  only  in  Ne 
■  I  Silurian  linicstone.       *  " " 


) 

New 

It  is  iron- 


.lerjev  in  compact  veins 

black"  in  color  and  leaves  a  brown  streak :  its  specific  grav- 
ilv  is  5  1  It  is  composed  of  peroxides  of  iron  68.99.  man- 
ginesc  8.:i2  ;  and  of  protoxides  of  iron  7.58,  of  manganese 
;i.74.  of  line  2I.:i7«100.  ,         ,.  ■. 

/ron  />./,■./<•.  can  scarcely  he  called  an  iron  ore,  though  i 
certainlv  is  a  most  persistent  impurity  of  all  iron  ores,  and 
i«  the  chief  source,  rather  than  coal,  of  the  sulphur  in  cast 
and  wrou.'ht  iron.  By  itself  it  is  useful  in  furnishing,  when 
burnt,  sulphurous  gases  for  sulphuric  acid  manufacture:  but 
the  attempts  to  utiliie  its  ash  have  not  succeeded,  though 
it  is  rich  in  iron.  .       .    <• 

All  ores  of  iron  seem  to  be  benefited  by  roasting  before 
use  in  the  blast  furnace,  hut  it  is  necessary  to  roast  tho  car- 
lumates  and  all  sulphurous  ores.  Roasting  is  beneficial  m 
removing  water  and  carbonic  acid  and  cracking  tho  lumps, 
thus  enriching  the  ore  and  rendering  its  reduction  easy, 
and  also  in  removing  sulphur  somewhat,  thus  rendering 
the  pi"  iron  purer  and  grayer  with  a  given  amount  of  fuel. 
The  lo"ss  in  roasting  varied  from  10  to  :t.')  per  cent.,  the  car- 
bonates losing  most.  When  tho  ore  contains  no  carbona- 
ceous matter  the  coal  reiiuired  for  roasting  is  1  to  10  down 
to  1  to  20  of  ore,  but  coal-slack  and  waste  are  used  for  the 
sake  of  cheapness.  . 

DisTRiBiTioN  OF  Iron  Ores.— The  brown  hematites  and 
carbonate  ores  are  worked  in  all  countries  in  widely  dis- 
tributed localities,  while  the  magnetic  and  red  hematite  ores 
occupy  a  more  limited  range.  Tho  brown  hematites  lio 
sometimes  in  rock,  bat  mostly  in  very  accessible  positions 
on  or  near  the  surface  in  clay,  and  are  dug  and  extracted 
bv  wa-hing  away  the  elav ;  the  other  ores  lio  wi  place  in 
rock,  and 'must  generallv  bo  regularly  inincil.  Tho  red 
hematite,  magnetic,  and  spathic  ores,  proper,  occur  by 
themselves,  and  bear  the  whole  expense  of  mining,  but 
some  clay  ironstones  and  the  black-band  occur  so  near  the 
coal  that'lhev  arc  mined  along  with  it.  Since  the  ores  ex- 
cept brown  hematite  OL'cur  in  distinct  geological  formations 
which  are  hii-hly  developed  in  some  countries,  while  almost 
absent  from  others,  it  is  evident  there  will  bo  great  diversity 
in  the  ores  worked  in  <lifl'erent  countries.  In  ItuMin  tho  most 
iron  is  made  from  magnetic  ores, which  occur  in  great  ])rofu- 
sion  in  the  Ural  .Mountains,  while  in  .SVc./ci  anrl  \„ncn;j iho 
magnetic  ores  are  substantially  the  only  ones,  the  liraonite 
lake  ores  being  very  liinile  1  in  quantity.  ylii«(rm  possesses 
vast  and  extensivejy  worked  dejiosits  of  magnetic  ore  in  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  in  Hungary,  and  in  the  Hanat;  tho 
earthy  red  hematites  are  the  principal  ores  mined  in  Bohe- 
mia, with  the  exception  of  a  remarkable  deposit  of  brown 
clav  ironstone;   in  Carinthia,  in  the  Eastern   Alps,  there 

Iieniatite,  18  to  lOO 


are  most  extensive  dep^isits  of  brown  heniiitite, 
feet  thick  in  rock,  while  a  short  distance  northward,  in 
Slvria  at  Eiseneri,  lies  the  greatest  known  deposit  of  spathic 
iron  ore.  the  stratum  of  ore  being  200  to  OOO  feet  thick  and 
eont.aining  BO  to  XM  feet  of  pure  ore.  Pruiiln  (German  em- 
pire): In^Silesia  the  brown  hematites,  spathic  clay  iron- 
stone! and  black-band  form  the  principal  ores.  In  Prussia 
proper  bog  ore  is  the  only  ore  worked.  In  Westphalia, 
black-band  and  carbonate  clay  ironstone  are  mostly  mixed 
with  brown  hematite  in  inconsi.lcrahle  amount,  while  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  Siegen,  and  Nassau  spathic  oro  proper 
is  the  ore  of  the  country,  with  some  specular  ores.  This 
district  furnishes  the  iron  used  in  tho  great  (Icrman  steel- 
works, and  also  most  of  the  spiegoleisen  used.  W.  of  the 
Rhine  the  principal  ores  are  the  eoal-mensure  ironstones. 
Sninnif  contains  principally  magnctio  ore  and  specular  ore, 
apt  lobe  siliceous,  but  some  little  bog  oro  is  mined  for  spe- 
cial purposes.  Friince  is  not  rich  in  iron  ores,  earthy  brown 
hema'ites  being  the  main  ores  smelted:  at  l.avoulle.  how- 
ever, an  extensive  deposit  of  earthy  red  hemiitile  occurs. 
Fraiiee  imports  oro  from  Klbn.  Spain,  and  Algeria,  lifl- 
iiiiim:  The  orcschieflv  smelted  are  earthy  brown  hematite 
and  oolitic  red  hematites.  All  are  lean  i:in  per  cent.)  ores, 
hence  a  grea'  deal  of  ore  is   imported.      /m/i/ •    In  general 


The  principal  deposits  occur  near  Bilbao,  and  arc  mined  for 
English  use.     They  are  mainly  compact  red  hematites  in 
deposits  of  unusual  thickness  and  accessibility,  and  contain 
a  good  deal  of  calcareous  .«par,  while  quite  free  from  hurt- 
fu?  impurities,    flrmt  lliiiniii :  The  argillaceous  carbonates 
are  by  far  the  most  important  ores,  fully  two-thirds  of  the 
entire  product  of  the  United  Kingdom  being  made  from 
them.     Thev  are  largely  mined  in  all  the  coal-fields  cither 
as  clay-band  or  as  black-bund,  and  are  worked  on  a  vast 
!  scale   in  Yorkshire,  as  the  Cleveland   ironstone.      Brown 
I  hematite  is  extensively  worked  in  the  Forest  of  Dean  and 
in  Cornwall,  and  a  sandy  oolitic  variety  in  Xorthnmptoii- 
shire:  and  in  Cornwall,  at  Perran.  a  great  vein  of  spathic 
ore  has  recently  been  opened.     In  Lancashire  and  Cumher- 
I  land  there  exist  very  rich  deposits  of  red  hematite  of  great 
purity,  which  supply  much  of  the  English  iron  for  Besse- 
mer steel,  and  have  been  long  celebrated  for  their  quality. 
r<i)m</(i:  The  principal  ore  worked  in  Canada  is  magnetio 
ore,  and  in  Nova  Scotia  the  principal  ore  is  red  hematite; 
some  brown  hematite  is  also  mined.    I'liited  Sintea:  In  Ibis 
country  largo  deposits  exist  of  every  variety  of  ore.  many 
of  them  of  surprising  extent  and  purity.    It  is  hard  to  say 
which  is  the  principal  ore.  but  it  is  probable  that  the  mag- 
netic ores  supplv  fully  one-third  the  total  product  of  pig 
iron  ;  tho  specular  ores  are  next  in  rank,  with  nearly  as 
much:  brown  hematites  and  the  clay  ironstones  being  a? 
yet  comparatively  unimportant.  The  principal  deposits  of 
ma''netic  ores  are  on  Lake  Chamidain,  in  New  Jersey,  and 
on  Lake  Superior.     The  principal  dejiosits  of  specular  oro 
are  on  Lake  Superior,  where  beds  150  feet  thick  are  quar- 
ried at  the  .lackson  and  Superior  mines,  and  in  Missouri 
at  tho  Iron  Mountain  of  massive  ore,  and  Pilot  Knob  of 
slaty  iron  ore  like  that  on  Lake  Superior.      Eastern  Penn- 
sylvania is  rich  in  brown  hematite  in  clay,  but  the  greatest 
deposits  of  this  ore  occur  in  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Ala- 
bama, vast  in  extent  and  in  close  proximity  to  coal.     Ex- 
tensive veins  of  fossil  ore  (red  hematite)  occur  in  Western 
New  York  and  in  Michigan.     Bog  ore  is  but  little  worked, 
and existsprineipally along theeastern coast.  Theearbonalo 
ores  amount  to  nothing  in  our  anthracite  measures,  and  in 
the  bituminous  coal-fields  are  unreliable  in  thickness,  except 
in  Ohio.     A  carlionate  ore  (Triassic)  occurs  in  loose  masses 
in  clay  along  the  W.  const  of  Chesapeake  Bay.     Spathic 
ore  has  been  mined  in  small  quantities  in  Connecticut,  Ver- 
mont, and  Tennessee. 

PiRiTV  OF  Iron  Ores.— They  may  be  impure  either  in 
having  too  much  earthy  or  siliceous  admixture,  or  in  hav- 
ing in  themselves  elements  which  are  difficult  to  remove 
and  which  injure  the  quality  of  the  iron  made  from  thcni. 
All  iron  ores  are  more  or  less  impure  in  the  first  sense;  tho 
furliacc-nian  thinks  of  them  as  nniiUncenn,  orcn,  mUccou, 
arm  and  cilctiremm  o)-M,  and  mixes  them  accordingly  with 
each  other  and  with  limestone  in  the  proper  proportions  to 
promote  fusion.  It  is  seldom  that  ores  yield  un  average 
over  50  per  cent.,  nm\  probably  the  general  average  of  all 
ores  worked  will  not  exceed  42.  The  lowest  limit  of  eco- 
nomical extraction  is  25  per  cent,  when  the  ore  contains 
limo  or  can  be  enriched  by  roasting.  American  furnaces 
cannot  afford  to  work  an  average  under  V-i  per  cent,  of  iron. 
In  regard  t..  the  other  class  of  impurities,  the  following 
general  facts  miiv  be  stated  :  The  brown  hematites  and  einy 
ironstones,  when  used  alone,  make  the  worst  iron— viz.  cold- 
short iron— on  account  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  ores.  Scotch 
pig  iron  contiiins  so  much  phosphorus  that  it  has  special 
value  as  a  foundry  ir.>n  IVom  its  Huidity.  Magnetic  and 
specular  ores  make  the  purest  iron,  with  a  tendency  to  red- 
shortness  from  the  sulphur  in  the  ores.  S|.athie  ores  iisun  ly 
make  pure  pig  iron,  neither  cold  nor  red  short,  ns  do  also 
some  of  the  best  kinds  of  the  others.  The  ores  are  used  to 
neutralize  each  other  a.'cor.ling  to  the  qualities  desired  in 
the  pig  iron.  The  purity  <d'  an  ore  can  he  generally  pred- 
icated OS  above,  but  there  are  so  many  variations  that  each 
individual  stratum  even  of  Iho  same  mine  should  he  sepa- 
rately examined. 

AssAViN-fi  —The  richness  of  an  iron  ore  can  he  readily 
nseertained  by  powdering  it  and  mixing  it  with  chnn-.,a| 
to  reduce,  ami  a  fiux  to  coyer  the  iron  when  melted,  llie 
whole  is  put  into  a  small  crueihle  lined  with  charcoal.  !Mi  1 
subjected  for  some  time  to  a  while  heal.  On  breaking  the 
crueihle  the  iron  is  found  at  th.'  bottom  in  a  clean  bullcm, 
and  the  percentage  can  be  ascertained  by  weighing  it.    Tins 


/;  its  results  are  somewhat  too  high,  for  tho 


,he  country  ha,  little  iron  or.  but  remark,.ble,b.positsexi;,t      l^^;;;^;-^^^„^_     The  ,c,,  „..„,  give,  more  accurate 

The  ore  is  disscdved,  and  all  the  iron  carefully 


at  Travers'ella  in  the  Alp,  and  on  Elba.  That  nt  Traversella 
is  an  irregular  muss  of  magnetic  ore  O.'p  to  InO  feet  thick, 
worked  from  time  immemorial.  On  the  islanrl  of  Elba  hills 
of  the  purest  specular  ore  have  been  worked  equally  long, 
hut  without  energy,  pro.liieing  yearly  100.11110  tons,  three- 
fifth,  of  which  is  exported.  //-rnVi;  In  the  eastern  part 
of  the  province  of  Constantino  great  vein,  of  red  hematite 
of  hi-h  purity  occur  :  they  cover  a  large  extent  of  country, 
but  are  worked  mainly  to  supply  tho  French  demand.  Spam  : 


result? - 

reduced  to  tho  ferrous  state,  and  an  oxidizing  solution  ot 
known  strength,  usually  bichromate  of  potash,  is  slowly 
a.ldiil  till  the  iron  is  shown  by  potassium  ferricyanido 
(rc.l  prussiali')  to  bo  entirely  converted  into  the  ferric  stale. 
By  measuring  the  oxidizing  solution  used  the  percentage  of 
iron  is  directly  ascertained. 

Iron,    Mnnufnctnre   of.     Wo   shall    describe    how 


1300 


IRON. 


wrought  iron  is  made  from  ore  and  from  pig  iron.  VVl  en 
wroueht  iron  is  made  from  ore  the  process  is  called  the 
direct  proee,,,  iu  contrast  with  the  indirect  prvctm,  m 
^Yhich  Din  iron  is  first  made  aud  afterward  converted  into 
wrought  iron.  (For  manufacture  of  pig  iron,  see  Blast 
Fuhv^e;  for  manufacture  of  steel,  see  bTEEL ;  for  appa- 
ratus and  machinery,  see  Fi'Bnaoe,  Kolling-Mill,  and 

^"vrou"ht'i'ron 'was  first  made  directly  from  the  ore,  and 
is  still  sS  made  in  localities  where  the  ore  is  rich  and  qual- 
ity is  the  principal  object.  The  fires  used  are  called  bo,,„,- 
cnj  fires  o'r  CatMun  forge:  when  the  iron  was  r'^-b™  "^  ° 
a  similar  firo  this  was  called  a  cl„.Jcr,j  (hre)  but  the 
roc-ular  reverberatory  furnace  has  long  since  taken  its 
place  e.Kcept  in  making  iron  for  tin  plate,  when  a  W  ,„<. 
lire  of  partially  coked  coal  is  used.  When  cast  iron  is  the 
raw  material,  the  fire  is  called  a  forge  (fire),  or  in  Lag- 
land  always  finer}/,  . 

The  ,/,Ve<-(  «™«-»»e.  are  wasteful,  but  produce  superior 
iron,  partly  because,  the  heat  being  low,  impurities  are  car- 
ried off  in'the  slag,  partly  because  the  product  is  usually  a 
low  steel.     It  requires  great  care  to  make  soft  iron  d.rcc 
from  the  ore  by  the  bloomery  processes      The  ores  best 
adapted  to  the  bloomery  are  the  compact  brown  hematites, 
easily  disintegrated  by  heat ;  all  other  ores  should  be  burnt, 
and  "the  impurities  removed  by  leaching  (sulphur)  or  by 
mechanical  separation  (quartz.,  etc.).     The  first  bloomeries 
in  Asia  and  India  were  simply  holes  in  the  ground  or  in  a 
ma«3  of  clay,  in  which  charcoal  was  burnt  by  a  weak  blast 
from  a  goatskin  bellows,  ore  being  added  at  intervals  in 
small  quantities.     Similar  fires  are  yet  used  in  India  and 
Africa,  and  the  lumps  of  iron  are  e.vtracted  by  breaking 
away  part  of  the  clay.     The  lumps  weigh  from  a  to  30,  or 
even  100  pounds,  and  200  pounds  may  be  made  in  si.\teeu 
hours      These  old  bloomeries  were  improved  in  Catalonia, 
a  province  of  Spain  (whence  our  name  "  Catalan  forge    ), 
and  in  Ariege  in  France.     The  original  form   used  in  the 
Pyrenees  since  A.  D.  1293,  was  about  2  feet  high,  with  a 
small  cylindrical  hearth  about  11  inches  deep,  liaring  out 
conically  at  the  top.     Two  tuyeres  were  used,  which  were 
set  about  10  inches  above  the  bottom.     The  lumps  of  iron 
weighed  some  35  pounds,  about  UO  pounds  being  made  in 
five  hour*.    At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  hearth 
wi«  20  inches  deep,  proportionately  larger,  and  the  product 
had  increased  to  300  pounds  in  five  hours.     This  increase 
was  duo  to  the  stronger  blast  produced  by  the  trowpe  or 
water-jet  blowing  apj.aratus  invented  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.     The  form  of  hearth  still  used  in  the  Pyre- 
nees is  rectangular,  one  side  at  least  being  a  heavy  cast-iron 
plate     One  tuyere  only  is  now  used,  and  from  it  to  the  op- 
posite side  the  hearth  measures  24  inches  by  26  inches  tho 
other  way,  in  which  direction,  at  the  freest  end,  is  the  iron 
side  thrJugh  which,  near  the  bottom,  a  "  tappmg-hole     is 
made.     The  tuyere  is  set  20  inches  above  tho  bottom ;  it 
Fig.  1. 


filled  with  charcoal,  and  on  the  side  opposite  the  tuyere 
coar.e  ore  is  placed,  filling  not  quite  halt  the  hearth,  char- 
coal filling  the  remaining  space.    The  blast  is  started  at 


Catalan  forge:  A,  coarse  ore;  It,  coarse  .harcoal;  C,  nuisse.  or 
loop  of  iron  being  forioed;  1).  slas  or  cinder;  h,  covering  con- 
sisting  of  charcoal-.lust  and  line  ore. 
inclines  at  an  angle  of  40°,  and  projects  about  8  inches  into 
the  fire  In  this  hearth  a  bottom,  made  of  slag  and  char- 
coal  is  glared  over  at  a  high  heat.     The  hearth  is  half 


View  of  a  bloomery.  shoiviiin  the  mode  of  raising  the  lump  of 
reduced  iron,  or  masse. 

3-pound  pressure  :  in  the  course  of  six  hours  it  is  gradually 
raised  toU  pounds,  while  the  whole  fire,  except  a  small 
part  of  the'ore,  is  closely  covered  with  fine  ore  and  char- 
coal-dust, thus  forcing  the  gases  (carbonic  oxide    to  pass 
out  through  the  ore  and  reduce  it.    The  ore  gradually  sinks 
down,  and  the  slag  is  let  off  (Inpped)  every  hour.     At  the 
end  of  the  operation  a  lump  of  iron  weighing  about  o50 
pounds  is  pried  out  of  the  fire,  hammered  under  a  1400- 
pound  helve-hammer,  and  cut  up  into  three  pieces      These 
are  reheated  during  the  next  operation,  and  torged  out  into 
bars,  making  about  330  pounds.     Four  operations  or  Afot, 
are  made  per  day.     The  slag  is  kept  very  rich  ■■;  "-"xlo  "f 
iron,  and  the  blast  is  turned  sharply  down  on  the  metal, 
which  thus  becomes  urou;,l,t  iron;  the  softness  (low  per- 
centage of  carbon)  depends  on  the  skill  of  the  forgeman. 
In  thS  Cataku,  process  3  tons  of  ore  yield  1  ton  of  bar  iron, 
for  which  23  to  3  tons  of  charcoal  are  required.     In  the 
Oe„ne,c  forge,  another  variety  of  the  Ca  alan,  the  waste  heat 
of  the  fire  is  used  to  roast  the  ore  beforehand,  and  scrap  iron 
is  charged  along  with  the  ore,  thus  shortening  the  tune  re- 
quired for  a  he,  and  increasing  the  yield  of  iron.     Sepa- 
rate fires   are  used  to  reheat   the  lumps  for  forging.     By 
these  means  five  heats  are  daily  made  ins  ead  o    four,  with 
a  consumption  of  30  per  cent,  less  charcoal  than  the  amount 
required   by  the  Catalan   process:  the  weekly  product  is 
about  4i  tons  of  b>,r  iron.     The  Catalan  processes  required 
that  the  whole  fire  be  remade  each  time  iron  was  got  out 
The   (iermans   (Alsace)   therefore   went  back   to    the   old 
method  of  putting  the  ore  in  a  fine  state  :n  la!,rr>  in  the 
charcoal.     This  plan  ,.ermits  a  fire  to  be  worked  without 
any  other  interri'iptioi!  than  the  withdrawal  o    the  lumps 
as  they  are  formed.    The  details  are  substantially  the  same 
cxcepi  that  larger  fires  can  be  used,  and  a  greater  product 
made  by  this  method;   so  that  the  Germans  increased  the 
si^e  and  product  of  their  bloomeries  at  an  early  date.    The 
means  of  regulating  the  quality  of  the  iron  made  >>  l''""" - 
eries  are  very  imperfect.    They  consist  in  varying  the  angle 
a   which  the  tuyire  is  directed  on  the  iron,  and  the  ainoui, 
and  kind  of  shig  kept  in  the  bottom  to  cover  the  soft  metal 
L  course  of  reduction.     The  metal  in  the  Catalan  forge  is 
a°so  protected  by  the  charcoal.    For  the  sake  o    distinction 
the  bloomeries  just  described  are  usually  called  Ocryn 
TllTrie.,  and  have  reached  their  highest  •l"elopmen    in 
America.     It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  earliest  bloom- 
er's were  probably  Catalan  forges,  which  changed  into 
German  bloomeries!  and  it  is  equally  interesting  that  in 
Pennsylvania  practically  all  the  bloonienes  b--»«    "f^^ 
(fineries)  using  pig  iron  as  early  as  1,40.     The  Ca  alan 
proce  s  made  good  iron,  but  involved  too  much  waste  of 
Le  and  "o  mudi  loss  of  time.    There  are  still  a  great  num- 
ber of  bloomeries  in  oper.ation  in  this  country,  about  37 
works  in  all;  of  these  2S,  with  147  fires,  are  in  the  State 
Tncw  York'.     These  American  bloomeries  have  one  fca 
lure  peculiar  to  themselves-yiz.  the  use  (since  1844)  of 
Ihe  waste  heat  to  make  a  hot  Idast  (,^i50O),  thus  saving  20 
per  cent,  of  charcoal  and  increasing  the  f'codn<:i. 

The  hearths  of  the  American  bloomeries  aveiage  al«ut 

3"  iches  square  by  13  inches  deep.    The  sides  and  bottom 

,;e  cast-  roYplatos  2  or  3  inches  thick;  the  fire  is  open  at 

Z   ront  but  is  walled  in  at  the  sides  and  back  ;    be  tuyere 

1     s  a    the  side,  and  the  oven  which  heats  the  blast  is  placed 


IRON. 


1:^01 


over  the  fire.  The  ore  is  (brown  on  tho  charcoal,  bocoincs 
roduccil,  and  with  thi-  mcltcil  ulag  goes  to  tho  liottom  of  the 
fire:  thenco  thf  r-Iag  ir*  run  out  more  or  hss  frequently  ac- 
cording ti»  the  desired  qual- 
ity of  the  iron.  Tho  iron 
bolls  up  into  a  "/ou/j," which 
19  ''dug  up"  or  taken  out 
every  tliree  hours,  and  fliin- 
glcd  under  hclve-hauiuicra 
weighing  1',  tu  2  tons.  In 
one  day  eight  heats  and 
2400  pounds  of  hlooius  arc 
made  per  fire.  When  hiiiftg 
arc  made,  tlio  loop  is  re- 
heated and  forged  out,  but 
Bf(ths  for  boiler  jdatoare  fin- 
ish'.-d  without  reheating.  X<» 
bar  iron  is  made,  but  the 
billets  aro  toIUmI  <lown  into 
bars  and  wire  and  convertcl 
into  east  Btccl.  Tho  New 
York  blooms  or  billets  are 
usually  low  steel,  r 
and  showing  a  fino-g 
fracture.  Ono  ton  of  hloom 
requires  IJ  tons  of  dressed 
ore,  or  from  2  to  4i  tons  of 
raw  ore,  and  about  27'* 
bushels  (or  say  2-^  tons)  of 
charcoal. 

Tho  idea  of  making  irnu 
direct  from  ore  in  a  single 
operation, without  tho  blast- 
furnace, has  always  been  a 
favorite  one.  as   is  evident 
from  tho    list    of  processes 
given    below.       All    execpi 
tho    recent   plans    of   lilair  Vcrtlcnl  sd 
and  Siemens  have  failed  on      heartli  o\y 
account  of  excessive  cost  of      pip"'  from  the  Ik-IIows  ;  C,  hot-air 
reduction,  great  loss  of  iron     ?PP»';i;ti's  ;  K.  eliimney  f.ir  lead- 

I  -  »  .1      ■  inn  oil  waste  heal;  D,  tuyere. 

ID  working  up.  and  the  in-         **  '     '  *"^^*^- 

tcrmitlent  character  of  the  work — in  other  words,  email 
product.  Chtuot  (France,  lf*31),  rich  ores  mixeil  with 
charcoal  treated  in  a  vertical  tuboexternally  htated  to  red- 
ness, then  passed  into  an  air-tight  cooling  chamber.  Tho 
cool  sponge  treated  liko  puddled  iron.  Improved  by  in- 
ternally heating  and  aho  reducing  the  ore  by  a  current  of 
hot  carl>onic  oxido  gns. 

r/«y  (England,  1^37,  18-I0),  same  method,  hut  reduced 
iron  put  directly,  while  still  hot,  into  a  puddling  furnace. 
Also,  a  mixture  of  ore,  coal  slack,  and  salt  reduced  with 
pig  iron  in  a  puddling  furnace. 

/Irntuti  (U.  S..  l-*^.')!),  a  Bpungo  reduced,  from  mixture  of 
25  parts  ore  and  73  parts  coal,  in  a  vertieiil  retort,  ivnd  dis- 
charged direct  into  a  furnace  to  bo  welded  into  blooms. 
JJofcetf  substituted  inclined  soapstonc  trays  for  tho  retort. 

Gitrit  (Pruffsin,  1S37).  used  Clienot's  im])roved  plan,  but 
mixed  air  with  the  carbonic  oxide,  thus  raising  tho  lieat; 
gave  the  gas.  at  will,  a  carbonizing  action  in  order  to  com- 
bine carbon  with  the  reduced  iron,  and  make  steel  or  cast 
iron  by  melting  tho  product  in  a  furnace  placed  under  tho 
retort. 

G.  JLntd  Smith  {V.  S.,  ISi.-i),  plan  like  that  of  (iurlt. 
characterized  by  the  substitution  id' a  putldling  fiirnare  fur 
a  vertical  retort,  and  tho  use  of  petruleuin  or  cual-tar  gas 
to  carbonize  the  iron  sponge. 

W hrffilttj  ami  Storer,  V.  S.,  apply  pulverized  fuel  to  tho 
mixture  of  ore  and  coal  on  hearth  id'  a  puddling  furnace. 

H'ttjtr*  (Kngland,  ISG2),  reduced  the  mixture  of  oro  and 
coat  in  a  rotary  furnace  placed  over  a  puddling  furniMc, 
iind  heated  by  tho  flamo  from  the  latter. 

Ih\  JJiiptii/  (U.  S.,  IH7().  proposes  to  reduce  a  mixture 
of  oro  and  charcoal  in  a  casing  of  thin  sheet  iron,  which 
shall  protect  tho  sponge  from  subsequent  oxiflation. 

SirmriiH  (Knghuid.  IH"*!),  Combined  the  plans  of  Clay 
and  K(»gerswith  his  open-hearth  melting  furnace,  in  which, 
as  in  C'lay's,  the  sponge  is  melted  in  a  bath  of  pig  iron. 
This  process  is  in  successful  operation  at  Iiundore,  Wales, 
where  it  is  also  carried  out  in  a  rotary  puddling  furnace. 

/y^nV  (  r.  S.,  1872),  has  improved  Cheiiot's  process,  es- 
pecially as  to  cooling  the  sponge:  this  he  compn^sses  cold 
by  hydraulic  power  into  blooms,  which  can  be  welded  in  a 
heating  furnace  or  melted  into  soft  steel.  This  method  is 
iu  successful  operation  near  Pittsburg. 

IMair  ct)ndiiets  his  pr<ieess  in  a  circular  retort  ."ifl  feet  high 
and  14  feel  ill  diameter.  In  the  upper  10  feet  hangs  a 
metal  pipe  Hi  feet  in  diameter,  so  ihiil  tho  ore  and  charcoal 
pass  down  an  annular  space  about  -1^  inches  across.  Heat 
is  applied  outside  the  retort  ami  inside  the  tube,  and 
tho   reduced   ore  rcmaiaa  iu  the  bottom  of  the  tubo   till 


I  oool.     Ono  retort  gives  about  2  tons  of  spongo  in  twcnty- 
j  four  hours,  which  is  compressed  and  melted  with  half  as 
much  pig  iron  iu  a  Siemens  open-hearth  furnace.     Loss, 
I   about  KO  per  cent. 

As  early  as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  found 
better  to  make  cast  iron  first  in  a  blast  furnace,  and  then 
convert  it   into  wniught   iron    in  forges.     A  vastly  greater 
amount  of  ore  can  be  smelted  in  this  way  in  a  given  time 
than   by  the  bloomery  process,  which  also  requires  very 
I   pure  and  rich  ores,     Tho  bloomeries  exist  to  this  day,  how- 
'  ever,  in  localities  whore  charcoal  is  as  cheap  as  coal,  be- 
cause the  total  amount  of  fuel  required  to  convert  ore  into 
bars  is  about  the  same  as  by  tho  indirect  processes,  and  the 
I   quality  of    the  bloomery  product  is  superior.     When  pig 
'   iron  is    tho  raw  matrrittl,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  none 
grayer  than  Xo.  ?>,  for  in  general  the  less  carbon  the  easier 
the  conversion.     Tho  removal  of  carbon  is  efTcctod  in  two 
ways — cither,  first,  by  the  action  <if  air  direct  in  a  blast,  or, 
second,  by  the  indirect  action  of  the  air  through  the  me- 
dium of  melted  cinder  or  ore.parting  freely  withoxygrn  and 
•  taking  it  again  from  the  air.     The  operations  of  the  first 
class  are  tho  forge  or  finery,  tho  refinery,  and  the  liessemer 
process  (for  latter  sec  Sttim.)  :  tho  pmldling  process  is  tho 
representative  of  the  second  class.     It  is  evident  that  the 
burning  out  of  tho  carbon   can   bo  stopped  at  any  point; 
hence  steel  is  actually  made  by  all  these  processes. 

The  operation  of  making  wrought  iron  is  the  same,  but 
the  nicthud  by  which  it  is  made  in  the  bloomery  is  the  re- 
verso  of  that  u.-^cd  in  the  forge.  In  the  former  carbon 
(charcoal)  burns  out  the  oxygen  of  tho  oro;  in  the  latter,  air 
burns  out  the  carbon  of  tho  pig  iron.  Tho  hearths  arc 
substantially  alike,  but  tho  forge  hearth  is  shallower  below 
ilie  tuyeres — i,  c.  8  inches  deep.  Ono  or  two  tuyeres  arc 
used,  according  to  the  size  of  the  hearth,  and  the  blast  is 
sometimes  hot,  but  usually  cold.  There  were  recently  four- 
teen distinct  methods  of  making  wrought  iron,  and  five  of 
making  steel  in  forgo  fires,  depending  on  tho  kind  of  pig 
iron  used,  the  different  ways  of  working  it  during  the  re- 
fining, and  the  ways  in  which  the  blooms  were  made  into 
bars.  Swedish  iron  for  conversion  into  stool  is  nearly  all 
made  in  forges  by  the  Lancashire  or  Walloon  process. 
Since  1840  little  or  no  bar  iron  has  been  made  in  America 
by  means  of  forges,  which  now  make  principally  slaby  for 
test  boiler  plate;  the  description  is  therefore  simplified. 
Fig.  4. 


Vertical  section  of  a  Corman  forije-firo:  T.  tuyere;  N,  nozTile, 
made  of  |ii;ht  sheet  iron  attached  to  a  leather  bag,  and  by  that 
to  blast-pipe. 
Tho  process  consists  in  carefully  nulling  down   about  230 
pounds  of  pig  iron  at  a  time,  and  when  melted  in  keeping 
it  constantly    exposed   to   the   blast,   both   by   turning  the 
tuyeres  down  upon  it,  and   l>y  stirring   it  up  with  an   iron 
bar,  till   tho  carbon   is  nearly  burnt  out   and  the  mass  be- 
comes jjosly.     The  fire  is  then  driven,  tho  heat  raised,  and 
the  metal  worked  and  squeezed  with  a  bar,  so   as   to  e<dUct 
the  whole  into  a  ball  or  lonp,  as  free  from  cinder  as  possi- 
ble.    The  cind<-r  should  be  riidi  in  iron,  and  should  bi^  fre- 
quently let  oft'  when  wrought  iron   is  desired;  for  steel  the 
I  cintler  is  left  over  the  metal,  and  the  blast  is  lessened  and 
less  sharply  directed  on  tlie  metal,  so  that  its  action  may  bo 
loss   violent.     The  buin  is  raised  and   welded  and  forced 
nntler  a  heijvy  (2-ton)  hannner  into  billets  or  slabs.     Tho 
I   bloom  is  seldom  reheated  in  the  same  fire.     Forges  in  Penn- 
I   sylvania  nsualiy   work   only  thirteen   hours  per  day,  and 
I  make  in  that  time  six   loups.  weighing  about  half  a  ton; 
!  thn  product  of  a  fire  in  therefore  about  3  tons  per  week. 
I   When  the  cast  iron  is  refined,  as  it  usually  is.  a  tire  makes 
1  I  ton  doily.     A  ton  of  billots  requires  about  ^  ton  of  char- 


1302 


IRON. 


coal  and  24  cwt.  of  cast  iron.  There  are  now  4fi  forge- 
works  in  the  U.  S.,  of  which  31  lie  in  Peunsylvauia  with 
y^  fi  ros. 

It  is  therefore  advantageous  to  refine  the  iron,  since  the 
product  is  increased,  but  refining  also  lessens  tlic  waste  of 
iron,  by  rcmuviog  silicon,  and  also  makes  it  possible  to  use 

Tin.  5. 


poorer  and  more  impure  ores  in  the  blast  furnace.  Pig  iron 
is  refined  in  the  rcjincri/  ur  run -nut  fire.  It  is  probable  that 
the  idea  originated  in  the  Kifel  Mountains  at  Eisorfey, 
^vhcre  for  three  centuries  the  pig  iron  in  the  hearth  of  a 
charcoal  blast  furnace  has  been  refined  previous  to  being 
let  out,  by  turning  the  tuyeres  right  down,  and  blowing 
eharjdy  into  the  iron.  The  modern  refinery  is  a  rectangu- 
lar box  42  inelies  wide  by  GC  ini-hcs  long  and  12  to  18  inches 
"deep — that  is,  large  enough  to  liold  1^  to  2  tons  of  pig  iron 
and  some  slag.  The  sides  and  one  end  are  of  iron  blocks, 
cooled  with  water,  while  the  bottom  and  the  other  end,  out 
of  which  the  iron  is  tapped,  are  made  of  refractory  sand. 
Four  to  six  tuyeres  are  used,  their  points  being  protected  by 

Fig.  6.' 


Refinery,  Bromford  Iron-works,  lUrnimghaui,  Ens^. :  vertical 
cross-section  through  two  opposite  tuyeres  on  the  line  E,  F,  G, 
II,  I,  Fig.  6. 


Refinery,  Bromford  Iron-works.  Birmingham,  Eng. ; 
vertical  section. 


Figs. 
5  &  IJ, 

5  A  6, 


SAG, 


47,  a,  hollow  sides  of  cask  iron. 

b,  hollow  back  of  cast  iron. 

r,  front  or  dani-platc  of  cast  iron, 

containing  the  tap-hole. 
(/,  flat   bottom    of  sand,   which    is 

continued    beyond    the    lap -hole 

plate,  from  which  it  slopes  down- 

wanl. 
e,  f,  plate  of  cast    iron  screwed  on 
/,    through   which    the    tuyeres 
pass. 


5Afi. 
.'i  &  6, 

5. 


/,/,  cast-iron  plate. 

9*0,9,  water-tuyeres, 

h,  ?i,  blast-pipes. 

t,  i,  leather conneetin^-pipes  between 
the  blast-pipes  and  the  blast-main. 

k,k,  Ihrottle-valvesfor  regulating  the 
blast. 

/, /,  water-troughs  of  cast  iron  to  re- 
ceive the  water  from  the  tuyeres. 

m,  m,  tanks  of  cast  iron  for  water 
to  supply  the  sides  and  back  of 


Figs. 

the  hearth  and  the  tuyeres  with 

water. 
5&6,  n,n,  n,  long  ca&t-iron  or  running-out 

bed,  to  receive  the  molten  metal 

from  the  hearth. 
5,       0,0,  cast-iron  box.  forming  a  ehnn- 

nel,  ^>, over  which  the  ruuning-out 

bed  IS  sup|>orled. 
5  i&  6,  j>,  channel  under  the  running-oiit 

bed,  throiii^h  which  water  is  kipt 

in  circulation  for  refrigeration. 


tratfr-tiii/crea.  The  iron  is  sometimes  (for  tin  plate)  melted 
in  the  refinery,  but  is  usually  run  info  it  melted,  as  it  issues 
from  the  blast  furnace.  The  iron  i.s  then  covered  with  coke 
and  the  blast  kept,  on  it,  burning  away  carbon,  silicon,  and 
some  iron,  while  the  metal  boils  from  evolution  of  gas,  till 
the  desired  point  of  purity  and  whiteness  (low  per  cent,  of 
carbon)  is  reached.  The  refined  iron  is  then  let  out  into  a 
long  cast-iron  trough,  in  which  it  cools  in  thin  plates,  which 
arc  broken  up  for  subsequent  conversion  ;  hence  refined 
iron  is  often  called  plate  iron.  One  refinery  can  refine  lOD 
to  ll>0  tons  of  pig  iron  per  week,  with  10  per  cent,  total 
loss,  most  of  which  can  be  recovered  from  the  cinder  made, 
and  requires  about  4  cwt.  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron  when  the 
iron  is  run  in  melted. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wrought  iron  used  is  made  by 
Puiidlinff  ;  but  before  describing  the  process  it  is  proper  to 
mention  the  Kller.^hausen  process,  a  method  of  rcjhu'itt/  in- 
tended to  displaee  puddling.  Pure  magnetic  or  specul.ar 
ore  is  pow<lered  and  mixed  with  the  molten  pig  inm  as  it 
flows  from  the  blast  furnace.  The  heated  ore  parts  with  its 
oxygen,  which  burns  out,  more  or  less  conipletely,  the  car- 
bon and  impurities  in  the  pig  iron.  The  balls  or  **/>'";/ 
hloomn*'  thus  made  consist  of  a  mixture  of  wnrnght  iron 
and  oxide  of  iron,  and  must  he  subjected  for  an  hour  or 
more  to  a  high  heat  in  a  ]>ucldling  furnace  to  separate  the 
superfluous  ore  before  they  can  be  rolled  into  bars.  The 
process  has  not  met  the  expectations  entertained. 

f'ort  was  the  first  to  puddle  iron  successfully.  The  re- 
verhcratory  furnace  used  by  him  had  a  bottom  of  siliceous 
sand,  which  could  not  resist  the  action  of  cinder,  and 
either  mottled  pig  iron  or  refined  iron  was  us<id  alone,  the 
conversion  being  effected  mainly  by  the  action  of  the  flame. 
His  process  is  therefore  called  t/rv  piifidttiiff,  or  simply  pud- 
dling. The  waste  of  iron  was  fully  7  to  10  per  cent.,  and 
the  quality  poor.  The  pig  iron  laitl  on  the  furnace  bottom 
crnmbled,  as  it  became  hot,  into  .a  sandy  mass,  which  grad- 
ually melted.     By  the  combined  action  of  unburned  air  in 


the  flame  and  of  silica  in  the  bottom,  enough  cinder  was 
formed  to  convert  the   mixture  of  iron  and  cinder  into  a 
pasty  ma!-s  easily  acted    on   by  the  flame,     (iray  iron   re- 
mains too  liquiil  after  melting  for  use  in  this  method,  but 
refined   iron   becomes  pasty  almost  immediately.     Hence 
with    ordinary   ores    refining   is    quite   necessary.     S.    B. 
Rogers  reconstructed  the  furnace  with  an  iron  bottom  cooled 
by  air,  and  thus  increasccl  the  weekly  product  of  one  fur- 
nace from  S  tons  to  20  or  24  tons  per  week.     Hal!  then  in- 
troduce*!  the  process  of  jcft  puddltng,  usually  called  fnn'liug. 
Here  cinder  rich  in  iron  and  oxygen  is  charged  with  the 
pig  iron,  xvbich   is  then,  as  it  were,  melted  and  worked  tret 
in  a  liquid  bath  of  cinder,  by  the  agency  of  which  the  car- 
bon, etc.  in  the  iron  is  burnt  out.     The  boiling  process  does 
not  require  refined  iron,  and  involves  no  loss  of  iron,  but 
rather  a  gain,  for  the  sides  of  the  furnace  bed  arc  protected 
by  a  thick  coating  of  ore.  which  is  partially  reduced.     The 
cinder  is  a  silicate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  which  reailily  dis- 
'  solves  the  ore.  forming  a  new  combination  containing  mag- 
netic oxide:  this  is  constantly  reduced   by  the  carbon  and 
silicon  in  the  iron,  and  by  the  iron  itself,  but  is  rcoxidizcd 
by  the  flame  till  all  the  pig  iron  has  been  converted.     The 
lorm  of  the  furnace  used  is  such  as  to  furnish  a  chamber 
about  fiO  inches  long  by  -IS  inches  wide,  and  20  to  24  inches 
I  Iiigh  in  extreme  dimensions.     The  superficial  area  of  the 
'  bed  is  about  20  square  feel,  and  the  grate  usually  has  about 
I  one-third  this  area — more  or  less,  however,  according  to 
i  quality  of  coal.      The  bed  and  grate  are  covered  by  an 
arched  roof,  highest  over  the  grate  and  sloping  down  to  the 
other  end  of  the  chamber,  so  as   to  rererbemtr   the  flame 
strongly  down  on  the  bed  of  the  furnace  before  reaching 
;  the  exit  flue:  this  is  placed  low,  and  its  area  roust  not  ex- 
'  ceed  one-fifth  that  of  the  grate.     The  stack  is  20  inches 
I  square  inside,  and  about  40  feet  high  ;  it  can  be  closed  at 
the  top  by  a  damper  to  regulate  the  heat,  but  the  blast  from 
I  a  fan  Idown  underneath  the  grate  is  now  generally  substi- 
I  tutcd  for  natural  draft.     The  grate  and  puddling  chamber 


IRON. 


1303 


or  bed  arc  separated  by  a  brick  wall,  the  firebridge.  An 
iron  frame  about  U  inches  high  rests  «n  the  iron  bottom 
Ulate  and  forms  the  sides  of  the  bed  ;  .t  .s  holinw,  and 
cooled  by  water  circulating  through  it  or  with  a.r.  while 
the  bottom  .s  c«<.le.l  by  the  circulation  of  air.  The  iron 
bottom  consists  ..f  plutcs  :i  inches  thick  ;  when  used  it  .8 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  nearly  infusible  cinder  and 
orecarefullv  smoothed  and  consolidated  at  a  high  heat  Xhe 
sides  are  covered  with  lumps  of  ore  or  a  lliick  mass  of  ore 
and  roasted  cinder:  this  lining  is  intended  to  waste  and  be 
renewed,  .\ccess  to  the  bed  is  had  through  a  hole  about  20 
nches  square  closed  by  a  door,  lined  w.t  1.  firebrick  and 
Moving  vertically.  The  door  has  at  ■•%'>"";'"V\,  "'"o 
hole,  the  .t„,,pcr-h„U.  for  the  insertion  of  a  long  bar  or 
ra66/e,  as  the  intense  heat  must  not  bo  lowered  by  opening 
Fig.  7.    Sixou:  Piddliso  Flrsace. 


but  with  white  iron  (one-half  the  charge  refined)  seven 
heats  of  541)  pounds  are  made  in  the  same  time.  On  an 
average  24:ir.  pounds  of  pig  and  2648  pounds  of  rchned 
iron  make  224U  of  puddled  bars,  wasting,  say,  9  to  1-  I^r 
cent.,  with  a  consumption  of  i  to  \\  tons  of  coal.  Ibo 
largest  production  per  furnace  is  made  in  Wales;  there  a 
8in"lc  furnace  averages  eight  heats  in  twelve  hours,  or  IS 
tons  weekly,  and  a  double  furnace  3fi  tons.  Pndillinij  re- 
quires 2.I06  to  2400  of  refined  metal  to  2240  of  bars.  A 
single  furnace  using  only  refined  iron  averages  in  W  ales 
about  23  tons  jicr  week,  and  burns  per  ton  J  to  J  <""  °' 
coal.  These  productions  are  all  those  of  a  low  grade  of 
iron  :  where  quality  is  aimed  at,  the  product  per  furnace 
averages  10  to  12  tons  per  week. 

For  ordinary  iron  Burden's  squeezer  is  almost  exclusively 
used  in  this  countrv.  and  the  hammer,  as  a  rule,  for  higher 
grades  The  Burden  squeezer  is  a  rotary  machine,  the  best 
form  of  which  consists  of  a  serrated  wheel,  with  a  vertical 
axis  or  shaft  placed  eccentrically  inside  a  fixed  ring,  the 
inner  surface  of  which  is  also  serrated.  The  wheel  is  driven 
by  gearing,  and  its  eccentricity  is  so  gauged  that  the  open- 
in  At  the  starting-point  is  15  inches,  but  diminishes  grad- 
uaTlv  through  neailv  the  whole  circumference  to  about  J 
inches.  The  external  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  5  feet  .and 
the  internal  diameter  of  the  ring  is  7  feet.  The  puddle-ball 
l"l(l.  8. 


Fig  <i,  longitudinal  section  on  C,  D,  Fig.  b. 


FlK.  f.  cros.*-9ecllon  on  K,  1 
Flg.o. 


Double  puddline  furnace,  cross- 
section. 


the  door.     The  essence  of  puddling,  as  distinguished  from 
other  operations,  is  the  refining  |.ig  iron  on  the  bed  of  a 
reverbcratorv  furnace  by  means  of  heat  applied  by  f^ame. 
We  have  described  the  pnddUnj  process,  and  shall  now 
de.cribo  that  of  /?o.7,\,.     A  charge  of  500  to  1,00  pounds 
of  forge  iron  is  laid  on  the  bed  of  the  furnace,  often  with 
as  much  as  100  pounds  of  cinder  and  seal..       rlie  whole  is 
then  quickly  melted  at  a  high  heat ;  "Ih"  fluid,  fresh  mill- 
scale  or  water  is  thrown  in  to  partially  ehill  the  cinder  and 
iron,  so  that  they  may  be  thoroughly  intermixed.     Tho 
heat  is  then  raised  again,  when  the  oxides  ot  iron  in  the 
cinder  react  on  the  carbon  and  silicon  of  the  iron  wi  h  such 
effect  as  to  keep   the   mass  frothing   in  a  slate  of  lively 
ebullition.     During  Ibis  part  of  tho  process  the  ore  lining 
furnishes  oxide  of  iron  to  keep  the  cinder  rich,  and  the 
yield  of  iron  is  increased  by  the  redu.-lion  of  this  oxide, 
usually  the  magnetic  oxi.Ie.     The  boiling  gradually  ceases 
bright  white  spots  of  iron  appear,  the  cinder  seems  to  sink 
to  the  bottom,  and  tho  whole  soon  comes  into  a  spongy  state, 
or  is  hr..w,ht  10  <,;lnre.     This  spongo  is  well   worked  to- 
eether  by' moans  of  the  rabble,  and  broken  loose  from  all 
parts  of  the  furnace,  the  heat  meanwhile  being  kept  high. 
The  iniddler  (boiler)  now  separates  the  whole  mass  into  six 
or  more  balls,  palling  and  squeezing  them,  with  the  rabb  e, 
into  shape  an.l  firmness.     All  this  is  .lone  under  a  smoky 
or  redJ:„.j  jU,mr  to  avoid   burning   the   iron       The  balls 
when  ma.le  are  put  into  the  hottest  part  of  .he  furnace  ne„r 
tho  bridge,  receive  a  very  strong  final  welding  heal,  and 
are  ,lrawn  out  separately  with  tongs.     They  are  then  ear- 
rini  t?.  a  ../u-.-'-r  or  to  a  hammer,  in  order  that  tho  cinder 
may  he  expelled  and  the  iron  welded  together. 

Both  processes  of  puddling  are  slill  in  ordinary  use,  that 

of  nudd  ing.  however,  for  inferior  iron.     In  -"•';";/..»  «"• 

3  ir  11  is  isuallvused  in  America,  but  in  Kngland  it  isous- 

oma  y  to  use  refined  iron  largely.     With  gray  forge  iron 

sirheats  of  480  pounds  each  arc  boiled  in  twelve  hours, 


No.  3. 


^■^-ry^Ai 


"-T^V,,,^ 



- 



^ 

-r^ 

1        1       1 

,...,-,     ^ 

T 

^4. 


3" 


No.  4. 


Uail  piles. 
No.  B. 


-t;:^-^- 


Piles  for  beams, 
several  kinds  are  oflen  used  in  llie  same  pil.-.  I  l.i 
peeiallv  Ihe  case  in  rail  piles,  win  re 
also  desired  in  the  different  parls. 


Uotary  »,,ucey.er,  l,.ni/.ol,tal  s,rti,.n  :  ...slronK  cylindrical  cust- 

iron  frame  ;  6,  strong  cast-iron  wheel, 
is  Dut  into  the  squeezer  in  a  roughly  round  shape,  and  is 
sl-i^zei  rotated,  forcibly  compressed,  formed  i.Uo  a  eyhnder 
and  delivered  at  the  point  of  entrance  still  hot  en..ugh  fm 
rolling.  (For  the  trains  of  rolls  and  mechanical  "rpl"  ""• 
for  rolling  puddle-balls  into  bars,  etc.  see  Uo.,i..N«-.Mi..  1..) 
The  middle' or  mill  burs  are  usually  about  3 J  inches  wide, 
and     re  cut  up  into  pieces  4  to  5  feet  long.     Ihey  ..anno  , 
Tke  I  forge  or  bloomiry  billet,  be  directly  worked  ...to  bus, 
for  tlic  •  are  too  rouglwiiid  imperfect      They  an-    here  ., 
Dile.l  one  on  another  into  a  ••p'l''.    '•<'''«'a'«'l.  '«»  '»l'  "«"' 
ng  iK'at  in  a  heating  furnace,  and  rolled  "K-»  ''"-■;^;>;','^  « 
or  round  bar  for  ordinary  iron,  or  into  a  flat  bar  for  lurlher 

working      The  ni..re  iron  is  rk.d,  either  by  hammering 

or  ro  lUng  the  more  fibrous  and  homogeneous  ..becomes 

1  , ■,"".!  e  best  iron  is  often  rolled  three  or  even  l.mr  times 

beforcVeceiving  final  shape.     In  order  to  economize  work 

Fio.  9. 

No.l.  No.  2. 


...■ing  ei- 
lifi'erenl  qiinlilifs  nro 


Nos.  1. 


I  are  rail- 


1304 


IRON. 


piles  ;  the  first  is  a  good  American  pile,  the  top  layer  being  '  made  from  it,  so  as  to  ensure  soundness.     The  waste  in  each 


three  times  rolled,  the  rest  twiee;  the  second  is  avera* 
American,  the  t<jp  and  bottom  layers  being  twice  rolled 
iron — the  second  layers,  for  toj)  and  bottom,  old  mils,  the 
rest  puddled  bar;  the  third  is  unusually  good  English,  the 
top  layer  being  hammered  iron,  the  bottom  ( hatched )  ht^'ers 
t\Tiee-rollcd  iron,  the  rest  puddled  bar.  The  average  re- 
duction in  size  from  the  pile  to  the  rail  is  about  III  to  I, 
the  finished  rail  being  shown  in  the  centre  of  pilciNo.  1. 
The  economy  of  rail-making  depends  on  these  arrange- 
ments, and  the  engineer  wants  good  iron  in  the  head  and 
ilange,  but  allows  comparatively  poor  iron  in  the  rest  or 
stem  of  the  rail.  The  piles  for  girder  beams  like  No.  .^, 
Xo:?.  4  and  fi.  are  similarly  made  up  as  to  quality  of  iron, 
and  exhibit  expedients  to  avoid  waste  of  metal  (No.  4),  and 
to  secure  strength  { Xo.  6),  the  latter  pile  being  also  formed 
a?  it  is  because  a  large  bca[n  is  to  be  rolled  from  it.  Kound 
bars  if  large  are  often  rolled  from  round  piles,  and  the  size 
of  a  pile  for  a  square  bar  is  proportioned  to  the  bar  to  be 


heating  is  3  to  5  per  cent.,  and  the  coal  required  is  about 
1  ton  per  ton  of  iron.  Bars  are  rolled  from  30  to  7U  feet 
long,  rails  usually  25  to  'Mi  feet,  but  sometimes  double  these 
lengths,  and  other  forms  as  long  as  their  weight  allows. 
The  ends  of  rails,  etc.  must  be  cut  off  to  produce  a  solid 
end,  the  waste  from  this  source  being  8  to  12  percent., 
which  is  not  lost,  but  must  be  reworked. 

^'arious  machines  have  been  invented  to  lighten  the  labor 
of  hand-puddling.  These  are  of  two  kinds  :  ^firgt.  mechan- 
ical arrangements  to  move  the  rabble  as  is  done  by  hand; 
jtrcourf,  to  rotate  the  furnace  itself,  and  thus  cause  the 
whole  charge  to  work  itself  by  the  action  of  gravity.  The 
arrangements  of  Eastwood.  Whillmni,  and  Dunieny  and 
Lemut  are  those  most  used  :  they  lighten  labor,  but  scarcely 
increase  product,  nor  do  they  much  diminish  wages  ;  hence 
they  can  hardly  be  considered  as  permanent  improvements. 
But  machines  of  the  second  class,  like  those  of  Mene- 
laus,  Uanks,  and  Danks  improved  by  Jones,  may  Le  le- 

FiG.  10. 


Ill  I ^^ 


Danks'  rotary  puddling  machine,  seetioual  elevation. 


gardcd  as  solving  the  problem.  This  furnace  has  a  fan 
blast  under  the  grate,  and  also  j>ls  of  blast  over  the  fire. 
The  workmen  can  thus  suit  the  heat  to  the  requirements 
of  the  charge.  The  ash-pit  and  fire-hole  are  closed  by 
<Ujors,  the  fire-hole  casting  being  cooled  by  circulation  of 
water  in  a  coil  of  pipe  cast  in  it.  The  bridge-plate  Is  also 
cooled  with  water,  and  has  a  lining  of  firebrick  next  the 
tire  and  fettling  next  the  charge.  Fastened  to  the  brldge- 
phitc  i.s  a  ring  cooled  by  water,  against  which  the  revolv- 
ing chamber  rubs  closely.  The  revolving  chamber  has  two 
end-pieces  hooped  with  iron  and  resting  on  carrying  roll- 
ers :  these  ends  are  connected  by  a  series  of  stave-plates  to 
form  a  cylinder.  The  stave-plates  have  hollow  ribs  to  hold 
the  lining  fast  and  keep  it  cool.  A  movable  headpiece 
connects  the  revolving  chamber  with  the  chimney,  and  acts 
both  as  door  and  flue.  When  it  is  removed  balls  of  great 
weight  can  readily  bo  taken  out;  it  is  cooled  with  water 
and  provided  with  a  stopper-hole  for  observation.  The 
vessel  is  revolved  by  a  toothed  wheel  fixed  on  it  and  geared 
to  a  suitable  engine,  so  that  the  rotation  may  be  regulated. 
The  chamber  is  first  lined  with  a  thick  paste  of  powdered 
iron  ore  and  pure  lime,  which  sets  hard  and  abcuit  an  inch 
over  the  ribs.  The  fettling  is  then  made  by  throwing  in 
])ulvenzed  ore  and  melting  it,  thus  gla/.ing  the  lining  and 
leaving  a  paste  of  melted  ore  to  hold  lumps  thrown  in  all 
over  the  surface.  For  fettling  a  "OO-pound  rotary  furnace 
2  to  2A  tons  of  ore  are  required.  In  working,  more  scale 
or  cinder  than  usual  is  used,  and  the  iron  is  melted  in  30 
to  35  minutes,  when  the  furnace  is  rotated  fori  or  10  min- 
utes to  produce  a  thorough  action  of  the  cinder.  Water  is 
injected  through  the  stopper-hole,  and  a  portion  of  the 
cinder  solidified,  which  carried  down  into  the  molten  iron 
combines  with  the  impurities.  The  heat  is  then  raised, 
and  the  cinder  liquefied  so  as  to  float  on  the  iron,  and  it  is 


then  tapped  off.  The  heat  is  again  raised,  and  the  furnace 
rotated  six  to  eight  times  per  minute.  The  charge  is  thus 
dashed  violently  about,  and  the  particles  of  iron  soon  be- 
gin to  adhere;  the  velocity  is  now  lowered  to  two  or  three 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  b.all  sj>eedily  forms.  Loose 
pieces  are  moved  to  the  side  of  the  ball,  which  is  made  to 
fall  on  them.  The  movable  head-piece  is  then  removed,  a 
large  fork  suspended  from  a  crane  is  shoved  into  the  cham- 
ber, and  the  ball  is  rolled  on  to  the  fork  by  a  turn  of  the 
furnace  and  removed. 

The  dijirnltic9  of  the  rotary  mechanical  furnaces  are 
the  wear  of  the  fettling  and  frequent  break-downs.  When, 
however,  the  fettling  is  suited  tolhenutal  used  and  the 
iron  is  refined,  no  difiiculty  is  experienced  on  that  i^core, 
and  Mr.  Jones  has  overcome  the  mechanical  objections. 
lie  constructs  the  Danks  furnace  with  a  dvnhh  mniutj  and 
a  water-jacket,  so  that  all  parts  are  kept  perfectly  cool 
('.10°)  and  work  easily.  This  furnace  works  day  and  night, 
while  the  single  cased  furn.ices  usually  work  only  by  day. 
Mr.  Jones  uses  iron  in  a  melted  state,  and  charges  1550 
pounds  of  refined  metal,  which  is  puddled  in  .'J5  minutes 
into  a  single  ball  4  feet  long  by  15  inches  in  diameter.  This 
ball  is  cut  up  while  hot,  reheated  and  rolled  into  bars  (Mr. 
Heath  rolls  direct  into  bars).  Each  furnace  makes  six  heats 
in  eight  hours,  averaging  50  tons  per  week,  with  a  con- 
sumption of  about  1000  pounds  of  coal  for  puddling  (less 
than  a  ton,  including  reheating),  1000  pounds  of  fettling 
per  ton,  and  no  loss  of  iron.  Charges  of  a  ton  can  be 
puddled  in  40  minutes,  and  thus  a  furnace  can  make  ^b 
tons  per  week. 

The  rotary  furnaces  of  Crampton  are  successful  at  Wool- 
wich. Sir  John  Alleyne  is  working  well  with  i\laudsla\'s 
soup-plate  machine,  consisting  of  a  rotary  horizontal  bed 
and  a  mechanical  arrangement  to  move  a  rabble  in  one  di- 


IRON. 


1:50.3 


rectioD.    He  makes  five  heats  per  day,  each  of  B75  pounds.  I 
M.  Pernot  uses  the  orij^inal   Maudslay  rotary  bed  with  in- 
clined axif,  so  as  tu  work  the  charge  by  gravity,  and  mounts 
the  bed  on  wheels  to  lacilitate  repairs.      He  puddles   1-ton  i 
heats  of  white  iron,  makiog  18  cwt.  of  bars  with  14  cwt.  j 
of  slack  coal  and  2^  cwt.  of  fettling  to  the  ton  of  bars. 
Siemens  also  has  in  use  at  Landore  a  rotary  furnace  like  j 
that  of  Sellers   i  see  Ki  rnack ),  but  with  the  Siemens  re-  I 
generative  system.  This  furnace  is  also  working  the  dirtct  ! 
process,  as  mentioned  above. 

Iron,  History  of.  The  iScripturcs  ascribe  the  discovery 
of  working  iron  to  Tubal  Cain,  while  Kgyptian  tradition 
made  Isis  and  0?iris  the  patrons  of  mctiillurgy,  but  credited 
the  actual  discovery  to  Hephic.-'tu?.  the  king  preceding  Osiris, 
who  in  date  would  coincide  with  Tubal  Cain  and  is  proba-  I 
biy  identical  with  him,  Canaan  is  deseribed  in  Deut.viii. 
ly  as  '■  a  land  whose  stones  are  iron."  The  books  of  Moses,  ! 
written  before  14Jl  B.  r.,  mention  iron  frequently;  the 
Arundel  Marbles  fix  a  date  before  lltTO  u.  c,  and  about  1000  I 
B.  r.  wo  find  the  use  of  iron  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  for 
tools,  arms,  and  cooking  utensils  (Dcut.  xxvii.  5:  xix.  5;  | 
1  Chron.  xxii.  3;  Lev.  vii.  'J),  The  Philistines  on  con- 
quering the  Jews  (about  10  JO  b.  c.  )  prohibited  any  *' smith 
in  Israel"  (1  Sam.  xiii.  20).  The  Kgyptians  made  iron  in 
the  district  between  the  \ilc  and  the  Ked  Sea,  but  imported 
mo^t  of  their  iron  from  Assyria.  The  Assyrians  used  iron 
very  freely,  and  before  SSO  b.  c.  used  it  as  a  core  to  save 
brass  in  articles  cast  in  brass;  Layard  found  at  Nineveh 
Assyrian  helmets  and  chain-armor.  Herodotus  { i.  'Ih) 
mentions  the  vase  of  Alyattes  at  Delphi,  inlaid  with  iron 
by  Glaucus  of  Chios,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  discovery 
of  tcettling.  Pliny  (vii.  ,'i7)  credits  the  Dactyli  of  Mount 
Ida  in  Crete  with  the  discovery  of  the  nuvjuetic  propftti's 
of  iron,  and  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  blacksmith's 
forge  to  the  Cyclopes.  Lycurj^us  of  Sparta  use<l  iron  as 
money  (about  SoO  B.  r.).  The  Hebrews  were  doubtless  fa- 
miliar with  steel,  as  Jeremiah  (xv.  12)  says:  "Shall  iron 
break  the  northern  iron  and  steel?"  meaning  probably  iho 
material  derived  from  the  Chalybes  of  Pontus,  the  black- 
Finith.s  of  the  ancient  world,  who  hardened  iron  instruments 
for  cutting,  and  first  used  coal.  Their  iron  was  made,  ao- 
C'trding  to  Aristotle  f'J22  n.  c. ),  fr<»ra  sand  ore  dug  from 
river  banks,  washed,  and  put  into  the  furnace  along  with 
the  ttinie  fnfriinacfnt9  (jirc- maker) — that  is,  coal.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  supply  few  facts  of  intere:;t.  Plutarch 
(a.  d.  1 10)  mention.-i  that  the  Celtiberiuii.^t  "  bury  iron  roils 
till  tho  rust  cats  out  the  weaker  parts  of  the  metal,"  and 
make  their  excellent  swords  out  of  metal  so  prepared. 
Strabo  (a.  D.  2j)  mentions  the  exhaustion  of  the  produc- 
tive iron  ore  mines  of  Chalcis  and  Kubom,  and  states  that 
Great  Itritain  furnished  iron  to  the  Romans.  The  Ro- 
mans, however,  derived  their  chief  supply  of  iron  and  steel 
from  Noricum,  now  Slyria.  Strabo  iklso  ascribes  the  in- 
Iruductiou  of  iron-making  in  Great  Britain  to  Odin,  pcr- 
h:ips  with  reason. 

The  later  history  of  iron  may  be  sketched  aa  follows 
from  authentic  data: 

A.  D. 

"00.  Iron-mines  opened  on  island  of  Elba. 

712.  Siyrian  inm-niines  reopened.    Ilt?de  mentions  iron  as  an 

luiiMrtant  manuraeture  in  iireat  Britain. 
950-1000.  lligh-hluomeries  (tiluckofen)  Kcucral  in  EUass  and 

Hur|i;und>'. 
UfiO.  Imii-works  recorded  a(  Kimherworlh,  Yorkshire. 
J."W5.  Mloomeries  first  UHf<l  tn  Silesia. 
J:t70.  First  foundries  in  KuKlaiid. 
I4S8.  Mines  of  I>atinemora  opened. 
1190.  First  fouiniri*'s  and  first  stove  cast  in  Ftsa.ss. 
1543.  Cannon  first  cast  in  England  by  Ralph  Huge,  at  Buckstccd, 

Siis>ex. 
1516.  Af;rlcola  records  three  kinds  of  furnnces:  H)  Catalan  for^e  ; 

(2)  (ternian  bloomerits,  ;(  fed  hiuli;  f'\)  b1oom<-ri'-s  .^  lol> 

feel  biKh,  the  product  of  wliieli  was  remelted  before 

shin^liiii;. 
1  )W.  WiHjden  bt'llows  invented  by  Hans  Kobsinger,  Nuremberg. 
lVi4.  Si'vere  leRishilion  (o  protect  ICtivflish  forcnts. 
IGOO  {cirrn\    HIast  furiinee  'Jl  feet  liii^h  constructcfl  In  Han: 

Mountain:*  with  H-fo'it  bnsbis. 
1GI2.  Sturtevant  ohtaine<l  pn(t-nt  for  .smelling  Iron  with  pltcoul, 

asal.Hodid  It<iven/on  In  l(ii:t. 
\*'AX  Heating  furnace  (revcrheratory)  lnvenl«*d  by  Rovenzon. 
1G14.  Regular  bla.1t  furnace  introduced  by  (iermans  into  .Sweden, 

at  the  Instance  of  (iuMavus  Adn'lphus. 
1619.  Dud  Dudley  made  pig  Iron  with  pit  coal  (coke);  3  tons  a 

week. 
ir.il.  Wootlcn  bellows  improved  and  largely  made  in  the  Harz. 
lti'J-_».   I'ir^l  bar  Iron  madi-  in  Aiiierican  inliinifs. 
1040.  Tr«mipes  (wnler-suetion  blowin^'-niaehlncs)  first  used  In 

Italy. 
1042.  Klrnt  bla.st  furnace  built  In  American  colonies. 
Ii;."i0,  ('(ml  first  used  In  force  fires  for  reheating;. 
ir(.'>8.  IVut  used  by  the  iMilch  for  iron-maklnc. 
Itl74.  EnKliHh  blast  furnaccH  (charcoal)  make  H  ton.*  In  six  days. 
1C81.  Tin-plnie  making  introduced  Into  England  from  Bohemia 

by  Viirrliiirlon. 
1701.  Peter  the  (;reaL,  throuch  Demldon*.  cfltnblishoa  charcoal 

blast  furnaei's  4-'i  feel  high  In  the  I'ral. 
1720   (ciVcii).  Rolling  plate  Iron  invented  by  John  Harbury. 


1722.  Steel-maktng  by  cementation  described  by  Reaumur. 

ll'.iH.  Coal  coked  by  Darby  and  !<ucccs.sfully  used"  in  bla-^t  furnace. 

1700.  Cast-iron  blast  cvlinders  made  t>y  Smeaton. 

1760  (cifCii).  Cast  steel  invented  by  Huntsman. 

17G9.  Watt's  sinele-aciinf;  engine  usi'd  for  blowing-engines. 

17S;I.  (irooved  rolls  fi»r  bars  inventt-d  liy  Cort. 

17S4.  Puddling  invented  by  Onions,  who  used  fan-blast  with 

clc»s>-d  ash-pit. 
17S4,  Puddlint:  made  successful  by  Cort. 

17S0   (circa).  Homfray  originated'  modern  process  of  refining. 
1791.  Cast  steel  made  direct  from  ore  in  a  crucible  bv  Lucas. 
1790.  Charcoal  furnaces  substantially  abnndiuied  in  England. 
1814.  Waste  pas  of  blast  furnaces  applied  by  Aubcrtot. 
1R2S.  Hot  blast  invented  by  Nielson. 
I.s:i0.  Water-tuyere  invented  by  Condie. 
18.15.  Puddled  steel  first  n^ade  at  Frantsebach  in  Carinthia. 
18;W.  Anthracite  first  used  by  Crane  in  Wales. 

1838.  Anthracite  first  used  in  U.  K.  at  Mauch  Chunk  by  Baugh- 

niun,  Giteau  &  ('o. 
1S39.  Fin-t  three-months  blast  with  anthracite  at  Pottsvllle.  by 
Lyman. 

1839.  Heath  invented  theuscofmanganesein  steel  manufacture. 

1840.  Burden  invented  the  rotary  squeezer. 

1842.  Nismyth  invented  the  modern  steam-hammer. 

1850.  Puddled  steel  first  successfully  made  by  Riepe.  > 

1855.  Bessemer  decarbonized  iron  without  fuel  by  Mowing  air 

throush  it;  Kelly  invented  same  process  in  U.  S. 

1856.  Mushel  made  Uessemer  process  suceessfid  V»y  Inventing 

use  of  Spiegel  iron  as  a  recarbonizing  agent. 
1856.  Siemens  invented  the  regenerative  system  of  using  gas- 
eous fuel. 

We  sec  above  that  tlicrc  have  been  few  inventions  origi- 
nating systems,  but  that  from  time  immemorial  one  thing 
has  slowly  developeil  into  another.  The  Catalan  forge 
grew  into  tho  German  Idoomery  (English,  air-hlonmrrif)^ 
that  into  the  high-hloomery  ( Englisli,  fifust-bhomcn/),  that 
into  the  low  blast  furnace  with  cold  weak  blast;  then  camo 
stronger  Itlo^ving-engines,  and  then  the  blast  was  heated, 
when  it  was  found  that  the  furnace  could  be  enlarged  to  its 
present  height  and  pize.  Here  are  seven  stejis  to  reach  one 
moilern  result.  But  it  is  remarkable  that  a  process  once 
perfected  is  sacredly  retained,  and  all  the  early  steps  are 
still  in  daily  use.  We  find,  however,  that  the  history  of  the 
trade  resolves  itself  into  various  ejtochs:  (I)  The  perfec- 
tion of  mechanical  art  to  enable  blast  furnaces  to  lie  used  — 
l.')SO  to  1C2I.  (2|  The  general  use  of  cc)ke  as  fuel— 17H;'>- 
50;  and  the  use  of  cast-iron  blast  cylinder? — 1760.  (3) 
Application  of  steam-engine  in  iron-works  first  to  blow- 
ing-engines— 1700.  (4  )  Inventions  of  rolling  and  puddling 
by  Cort— 1783-84.  CO  Use  of  liot  blast  and  application 
of  waste  gases — 182R-3C.  (C>)  Economy  of  fuel  by  im- 
proved apparatus  and  processes,  and  perfection  of  works, 
engineering — 1Sj(»  to  present  time:  extended  use  of  Steel. 

The  history  of  the  art  in  Great  Britain  and  America 
runs  as  follows:  Tlie  Pha'nicians  seem  to  have  made  iron 
in  tho  Briti:-h  Isles  very  soon  after  they  discovered  them 
(500  n.  ('.).  A  hundred  years  before  Civ.'^ar's  invasion  (55 
B.  c.)  tho  Britons  exported  iron  to  the  Continent  ((Jaul)  in 
their  o\vn  ships.  Ciesar  found,  to  his  cost,  plenty  of  iron 
in  England,  both  as  money  and  weapons  of  war.  W'hen 
the  Romans  secured  possession  (a.  p.  01),  they  established 
iron-works:  Adrian  built  (1201  a  great  military  forge  at 
Bath,  and  supplied  it  with  iron  from  the  Forest  of  Hcan, 
where  immense  cinder-heaps  still  exist.  The  Romans  en- 
couraged iron-making  till  409,  when  they  abamloncd  tJreat 
Britain.  Then  all  arts  were  thrust  aside,  by  Saxon  and 
Danish  conquest  and  civil  war,  till  the  reign  of  Alfred  the 
Great.  No  record  is  mailc  of  iron  till  the  Doomsday  Book 
mentions  tliat  William  the  Conqueror  ( lOCfi)  demanded  iron 
bars  as  tribute  from  the  city  of  Gloucester.  After  tlie  Con- 
quest iron  and  steel  were  mostly  imported  from  Germany. 
Little  was  made  in  the  X.  of  England.  U>t  raiding  Scots  in 
1317  could  find  none  till  they  reached  Furiiess.  where  (hey 
seized  all  they  found.  In  1355,  Edward  III.  forbade  the 
export  of  iron  from  England.  During  tho  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  Germany  and  Spain  supplied  iron  and 
steel  largely,  till  the  importation  of  articles  whiclj  could  bo 
made  in  England  was  f(»rbidden  in  1 183.  In  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  (1588)  severe  laws  were  enacted  to  prevent  tho 
general  destruction  of  the  forests  by  iron-works;  these 
laws  were  in  force  till  1750.  Charles  I.  np|ioii)tcd  inspect- 
ors in  1039  to  stamp  bar  iron  according  to  quality,  and  see 
that  no  woods  were  cut  down  contrary  to  law. 

The  .scarcity  of  timber  and  charcoal  caused  numerous 
futile  attempts  to  use  coal:  finally,  I>ud  Dudley  .suceceded 
in  lOIH.  He  gave  in  his  Mrtatlitm  Mnrtii  a  sad  history  of 
the  efl'ects  of  the  envy  of  importers  and  fellow  niannfa<'- 
turers.  He  built  five  works,  was  tricked  out  of  three,  one 
was  destroyeil  by  riot,  and  one  by  flood.  He  was  u  roy- 
alist, and  iMajor  \Vililman,  with  Cromwell  as  partner, 
bought  hij"  estate  to  wring  his  secret  from  him,  but  they 
failed.  Vcrnat,  Wildmnn,  Copley,  Buck  and  Blewstono 
nil  failed  to  make  iron  with  coal,  though  others  used  coal 
in  forges  instead  of  charcoal.  Dudley  kept  his  secret,  and 
left  it  to  his  relatives;  it  lav  in  hi.4  skill  in  making  bel- 
lows and  in  cn/cinj  coal.     Toward  tho  end  of  the  seven- 


loUtJ 


IRON. 


teenth  century  Dr.  Plot  stated  as  the  general  opinion  that 
"  coke  was  fit  for  most  uses  Init  for  melting,  fining  and  re- 
finin<'  iron,  which  it  canuot   be  brought  to  do."     Jlcan- 
tiraL>°earlv  in  the  eighteenth  century,  wood  grew  excccd- 
in^ly  scaicc,  and  aljout  1740  large  importations  of  iron, 
mostly  pi",  came  in  from  Russia  and  Sweden  ;  American 
exports  wire  encouraged.     England  had  only  hO  furnaces, 
with  a  product  of  17,3o0  tons,  and  depended  on  loicign 
countries  for  pig  iron  for  her  fineries.     Some  English  eom- 
iiauies  had  their  furnaces  in  America  and  their  forges  in 
England.     Darby,  however,  had  experimented  with  coke 
since  171.1,  and  bv  17:15  was  able  to  use  it  regularly,  while 
Rmeaton  erected  "in  1760,  at  f:arron,  a  powerful  blowiug- 
en-ine  consisting  of  four  single-acting  cast-iron  blowiug- 
cvriiulers  driven  bv  a  water-wheel  in  the  rotation  required 
for  a  uniform  blast.     Smealon  applied  the  cylinder,  hut 
Wilkinson,  who   invented   a   correct   boring-machme  lor 
Watt,  was  the  first    to   apply  the    stcara-engmc  to  blow 
furnaces.     After  1740  iron-iu.aking  throve  with  surprising 
vi'^or  and  .i:)  coke  furnaces  were  built  before  1788.     The 
ch'^rcoal  furnaces  averaged  294  tons  yearly  in   1740  and 
545  tons  in  17S8,  but  in  that  year  the  coke  furnaces  made 
an  average  of  909  tons.     The  use  of  coke  and  blowing- 
engines  quadrupled  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  fifty  years. 
Bar  iron,  however,  was  still  made  in  charcoal  lorges;  the 
British  forests  were  exhausted,  and   Sweden   and  Russia 
rapidlv  advanced  the  price  of  bar  iron.    Great  Britain  then 
laid  a' heavy  duty  on  bar  iron,  beginning  with  £2  IGs. 
and  rising  continuouslv,  till  1825,  to  £6  10..  in  English  and 
£7  18».  Gd.  in  foreign  ships.     In  1797,  Pitt  abandoned  his 
intention  of  taxing  English  iron  20».  per  ton,  though  he 
had  exhausted  his  last  resources  of  taxation  to  carry  on  the 
war  against  Napoleon.     In  17S.'!  and  1784  Henry  Cort  of 
Gospo'rt  obtained  patents  for  puddling  iron  and  rolling  it 
into  bars  (plate-rolling  having  been  invented  by  Harbury). 
At  this  time  the  forge-hammers  could  make  no  size  less 
than  I  inch  square,  and  all  smaller  sizes,  for  nail-rods,  etc., 
were  cut  in  a  slitting-mill.     The  hammers  made  1  ton  of 
bars  in  twelve  hours,  while  Corfs  rolls  made  lo  tons,  and  5 
tons  of  the  smallest  sizes.     His  puddling  furnaces  made 
less  than  5  tons  a  week.     The  original  processes  worked 
well   but  were  never  fairlv  developed  by  Cort,  though  they 
came  immediately  into  general  use.     Homfray  first  refined 
iron  to  prepare  it  for  Corfs  puddling.     The  only  remuner- 
ation Cort  ever  got  was  a  pension  of  £1(50  for  six  years, 
and  £100  to  his  widow,  renewed  by  Lord  Palmerston  to  his 
children.     The  capital  used  by  Cort  came  from  .Jellicoc  a 
pavmaster  who  defaulted ;  Cort's  patents  were  then  confis- 
cated and  locked  up  by  Trotter  and  Lord   Melville,  both 
rascals.     The  latter  a  few  days  after  Corfs  death  got  from 
the  House  of  Lords  a  release  to  himself  of  £2;),n00,  on  tho 
score  of  the  great  ami  imcoiilested  merk  -./  C."-f«  invenhon:, . 
From   this    ]ioint   British   iron    manufacture   steadily  in- 
creased, the  charcoal  furnaces  disappeared,  and  Gibbons 
and  others  largelv  increased  the  product  of  blast  furnaces  by 
alterations  of  forin.  The  hot  blast  was  discovered  by  Neilson 
in  l^'^O.  the  opinion  being  general  that  the  cVr/er  the  blast 
was  the  better.     It  was   successful  at  the   Clyde   works, 
bcin"  essentially  aided  by  Coudie's  water-tuyere,  without 
which  hot  blast  could  not  be  used.     At  the  Clyde,  1  ton  of 
iron  required  8J  tons  of  coal  coked,  but  in  1S:U  hot  blast 
was  used,  raw  coal  was  substituted,  and  only  2^^  tons  of 
coal  were  needed  to  the  ton  of  iron.     JIushct  discovered 
bla.-kband  in  1801,  and  in  1825  used  it  alone,  with  a  saving 
of  one-quarter  the  coal  and  one-third  the  limestone  before 
required.    The  great  production  of  Scottish  iron  dates  from 
this  time.     In  1844  tho  wild  railroad  mania  stimulated  all 


production,  particularly  that  of  Ssotland,  and  gave  rise  to 
speculation  on  warrants  drawn  against  pig  iron  '"  store :  ; 
the  stock  then  held  at  Glasgow  often  reached  4:10,000  tons. 
In  18:51.  Perdonnet  in  France  discovered  that  anthracite 
could  be  used  with  cold  blast  by  excessive  care  and  in  mix- 
ture with  coke.  In  18:'.7,Mr.  CraneofYnescodwin  found  that 
with  hot  blast  he  could  successfully  use  anthracite  coal  alone. 
Since  1840  wages  have  gradually  increased  and  improve- 
ments made  to  save  Labor.    The  puddling  furnace  has  been 
the  suliject  of  constant  attention  in  a  mechanical  direction, 
with  the  results  described  above.     Iron  was  applied  to  a 
great  variety  of  uses,  especially  to  iron  ships  in  1834.    For 
these,  forgings  up   to  :i5   tons  weight   were  required  for 
shafts,  which  were  forged  under  Masmyth  (1842)  or  Condie 
(ISi;i)  hammers.     Great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
rolling-mills,  both  in  strength  and  design  ;  the  rolls  were 
reversed,  to   save  labor,  and   Ramsbottom  adopted  Xas- 
myth's  suggestion  to  reverse  the  engine  itself.     These  sys- 
tems  are  now  used  in  every  English  works.    The  enormous 
consumption  of  fuel  at  iron-works  led  Siemens  (185fi)  and 
others  to  seek  economical  systems,  that  of  Siemens  being 
now  in  general  use  for  almost  every  purpose,  with  a  saving 
of  40  to  60  per  cent.     The  hot-blast  stoves  have  been  im- 
proved by  Whitwell  and  Cowpcr  on  the  Siemens  principle, 


and  the  ordinary  cast-iron  stoves  by  Player,  Ford,  triers, 
and  many  others.  The  temperature  of  the  blast  has  been 
raised  to"l300°,at  which  a  ton  of  iron  has  been  made  with 
a  ton  of  coke.  In  a  business  point  of  view,  England  has 
found  since  1840  that  joint-stock  companies  for  iron-mak- 
ing were  anvthing  but  a  success. 

The  period  just  described  is  marked  by  the  struggle  for 
economy  in  all  aspects  of  the  trade,  but  after  1850  inven- 
tion proper  took  a  new  course— viz.  in  the  direction  ol 
steel.     Steel  had  been  made  in  bloouieries  up  to  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was  found  that  bar  iron 
could  be  converted  into  steel  by  heating  it  in  large  closed 
chests  with  charcoal,  and  the  converted  bars  when  sorted, 
piled,  welded,  and  forged,  made  excellent  aheur  steel  for 
cutlery.     But  for  finer  purposes  shear  steel  was  defective 
in  temper  and  on  account  of  scams.     Then  Huntsman,  a 
manufacturer  of  watch-springs,  discovered  in  1740  that  the 
converted  or  blister  steel  from  the  best  bars,  when  sorted 
and  melted  in  crucibles  with  bottle-glass,  made  a  faultless 
material.     He  built  works  at  Sheflicld  in  1770,  controlled 
the  market,  and  kept  his  process  secret  for  many  years. 
Something  c7ifn;)crwas  needed,  and  in  1800  Mushet  melted 
bar  iron  direct  with  carbon  to  make  steel.     Lucas  in  1804 
tried  to  decarbonize  pig  iron  by  cementing  with  oxidizing 
substances,  as  ore  (thcoriginof  mn//fn?.(o  iion),  hut  withoat 
success.     Then  Heath  in  1S3G  found  that  the  use  of  1  to  Z 
per  cent,  of  a  carburet  of  manganese,  or  materials  pro- 
ducing it,  made  sound  cast  steel  out  of  blister  steel  from 
cheap  British  bar,  thus  saving  at  least  40  per  cent,  of  the 
cost      This  discovcrv  is  the  basis  of  modern  steel  processes. 
Heath  was  betrayed" by  his  agent  I'nwin,  and,  as  the  (*irrf 
in  our  list,  got  nothing  for  an  invention  which  established 
the  Sheffield  steel  trade.    By  the  use  of  manganese  lo  make 
a  thin  slag,  and  also  of  Spiegel  iron  added  near  the  end  of 
the  puddling  process,  Wistphalian  and  English  firms  made 
good  puddled  steel  under  Riepe's  patent  (1850).     1^  ant  of 
uniformity  has  prevented  anv  general  use  of  puddled  steel, 
Cchatius'made  steel  in  1855  by  reducing  ore  in  crucibles 
with  coal ;  Parrv  (1855)  attempted  to  make  steel  hy  direct 
acliim  of  air  in"  a  puddling  furnace,  Kelly  (1856)  in  the 
hearth  of  a  blast  furnace,  and  Bessemer  (lSo6)  in  a  close 
vessel.     Bessemer  finallv  made  a  peculiar  metal  by  blowing 
the  air  in  nNmfioiis/iic"jft»  (Martin )  through  the  iron,  but 
did   not  make  a  reliable   material  till  he    used   Mushcfs 
"triple   compound   of  iron,  carbon,  and  manganese."  or 
spicel  iron  (1856,  date  of  discovery)  to  make  the  steel  mnl- 
leablr.      The   Kellv  and   Bessemer  patents  are  united  in 
America,  and  Mushet  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  allow  his 
important  one  to  lapse.     It  is  now  possible  to  attain  in  the 
Siemens  and  Eckmann  furnaces  a  heat  high  enough  to  melt 
wrought  iron  with  enough  cast  iron  to  convert  it  into  steel 
(Martin,  France,  1866).    By  the  use  of  these  processes  steel 
is  now  rapidly  approximating  iron  in  cost,  and  is  supplant- 
ing the  best  i'ron  for  engineering  purposes. 

We  have  seen  above  the  development  of  the  art  in  Eng- 
land;  we  shall  see  in  American  history  the  course  of  its 
application.  The  Indians  had  no  knowledge  of  iron.  The 
fir«t  iron  made  in  America  was  forged  at  a  blooinery  of  the 
Virginia  Companv  by  John  Berkeley  in  1622,  on  the  James 
River,  12  miles  below  the  present  site  of  Richmond.  The 
Indians  destroyed  the  forge,  and,  owing  to  the  lucrative 
tobaceo-trade,  lio  more  iron  was  made  in  Virginia  till  1724. 
Meanwhile,  the  people  of  Massachusetts  Bay  had  built  one 
"  iron-mill  "  at  Lvnn  in  1631,  and  a  London  company,  rep- 
resented bv  John  Winthrop,  Jr..  built  in  1644  a  blast  fur- 
nace at  Hammersmith  and  works  at  Braintrec  in  1646, and 
Ravnham  (Taunton)  in  1652,  agreeing  to  erect  "an  iron 
fnriiaee  and  forge,  and  not  a  hloomcry  only,"  and  to  sell 
bar  iron  under  £20  per  ton.  They  east  .V.-i.  pni,,  etc.  in 
1016  under  the  direction  of  Joseph  Jenks,  who  made  our 
first  «..»•«  in  1652.  Thev  exceeded  the  fixed  price  for  iron,  and 
would  not  trade  in  kind,  so  that  com]daints  of  damage,  ras- 
ealitv  andwant  of  monevon  Ihepartof  thcpeople  brought 
these  works  to  an  end  in  1670,  during  King  Philip's  war. 
But  the  increasing  price  of  iron  in  England  gave  profitable 
occupation  lo  ourfurnaces  after  1702,when  the  era  of  regular 
iron-making  in  the  colonics  began.  In  Plymouth  ( Mass.)  a 
furnace  was  built  in  1 702  by  Despard  and  the  Barker  family, 
and  was  succeeded  hy  many  others,  working  2d  per  cent. 
pond  ore  (limonite),  mixed  with  35  per  cent,  bog  ore  from 
Egg  Harbor,  N.  J.  Pv  1S04  they  had  seriously  injured  the 
forests  in  that  part  of  "the  State.and  emigration  had  taken 
place  for  want  of  occupation.  They  all  made  e''«';"fl;  (""' 
nig  iron)  direct  from  the  furnace,  at  a  cost  of  M9.m  per 
ton  in  1804.  Xew  England  exported  no  iron,  hut  obtaincl 
l,i<'  for  her  forces  from  Pennsvlvania.  Massaehusetis  bar 
iron  cost  in  1727.  £12  5..  to  £12  10«.  per  ton  In  Virginm, 
Col  Snotswood  built  the  first  furnace  in  1724,  and  made 
casiinJ'S  out  of  an  air  furnace  in  1732.  There  were  four 
furnaces  in  1732  between  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock, 
I  each  making  20  tons  of  pig  iron  per  week,  or  800  tons  a 


IRON. 


lo()7 


year,  which  sold  for  £6  in  Englnnd.  and  netted  the  pro- 
ducer a.i  to  Hi  per  ton.     In  Maryland,  Mr.  England  and 
Augustine  Washiiix'un  (fatlicr  of  Ucn.  Washington)  built 
a  for '0  in  1717  at  Princijiio,  where  they  made  exciMent  iron, 
which  suld  in  Kn-land  u|.  to  1770  for  £10  to  £!ti  per  ton. 
Maryland  and  Vir^'inia  exported  their  entire  product  to 
Fngiand.aiid  Col.  Spotswaod  remarked,  that  Pennsylvania 
would  do  .«o  too  had  she  ships.  Init  failing  these  must  manu- 
facture it  herself.     John  Wiulhrop,  Jr..  built   iron-works 
at    Pcnuot  (New   I.ondonl   in    Hill,  and    in    liiJ7  a  blast 
furnaeo  at  Now   Haven,  whieli,  singularly  enough,  ran  on 
EwiUih  ore.    No  great  activity  was  afterwards  inaiiifestcd, 
thou.'h  in  16J.5  the  colony  granted  privileges  to  John  Tuck- 
er of"Southold,  L.  I.,  for  steel-making,  and  in  1727,  Joseph 
Hi-'ljy  made  good  steel,  and  exhibited  samples  of  it ;  both 
the"e'were  probablv  blister  steels.     George  Eliot  made  steel 
in  a  blooniery  from  magnetic  ironsand  in   1701,  and  also 
had  ft  cemeiilhig  furnace,  built  before  1750.     In  Ncwlork 
the  .'Stirling  furnace  and  works  were  built  in  17.'il.  and  tho 
Anorain  works,  built  in  1740  to  use   .'Salisbury  ore.  made 
•ni3  tons  12  cwt.  of  jiig  iron  and  i:i02  tons  of  bar  iron  in 
tho    years    between     17J0   and    17.iG.       Tho   great _chain 
weighing  ISO  tons  stretched  across  the  Hudson  in  1773  was 
forged  at  these  works  in  six  weeks.    In  ISOl  tho  first  forges 
were  built  in  Essex  co..  at  Willsboro'  Falls  on  tho  Boquet. 
In  New  Jersey  the  earliest  works  were  hloomeries.      Col. 
Morris  built  works  in  Monmouth  eo.  in  1GS5;  tho  Pctcrs- 
hur"  hloomery,  Morris  co.,  was  built  in  1725,  and  tho  O.-:- 
for.f  furnace,  in  AVarren  co.,  in   1745:    the  latter  is  still 
rnnning.      The  principal  impetus  to  iron-making  in  tho 
State  was  given  by  the  London  Company,  Baron  Ilascn- 
clever  an.l  others,  who  built  the  Ringwood  furnace  in  17G2, 
and  other  works  sjon  after,  utili/.ing  the  ponds  of  tbo  region 
to  great  advantage  as  a  source  of  power.     The  last  mana- 
ger of  tho  original  Ringwood  works  was  llobcrt  Erskine, 
afterwards  chief  of  staff  and  engineer  of  tho  Continental 
armv.     In  Pennsylvania  the  first  forges  were  built  by  Hall, 
Nuti,  and  Uutter"in  1717  on  the  Sdiuylkill,  while  tho  first 
furnace  was  built  on  the  Christina  River,  near  New  Castle, 
now  Delaware,  bv  Sir  William   Keith  in   1720.     Tho  Dur- 
ham furnace  was' built  in  I72S,  and  other  furnaces  built  by 
the  families  of  Potts  and  Nutt  from  I7:U  to  1737,  and  by 
(■rubb  in  1742  at  Cornwall,  followeil  in  rapid  succession; 
in  furnaces  and  9  /iiicry/oiv/fs  in  all  were  built  before  1730. 
The  furnaces  made  20  to  2.5  tons  a  week,  running  about  10 
weeks  at  a  blast,  and  the  forges  made  about  CO  tons  of  iron 
yearly  ;  both  stopped  in  summer.     Pennsylvania  exported 
iron  ((irubbs's)  to  England,  tbo  West  Indies  and  New  Eug- 
land.   Pig  iron  sold  at  the  furnace  in  17:U  for  £5  10».  in  Penn- 
sylvania currency ;  in  175!1,  for  £:i  G».  »d.  to  £.".  1 0».  sterling. 
In  Ibo  latter  year  bar  iron  sold  for  £15.    Philadelpbians  be- 
lieved in  1750  that  when  labor  became  cheaper  they  could 
undersell  English  iron  ;  and  this  feeling  was  general  in 
Englanil.     When  tho  colonies  began  to  export  bar  iron  m 
1717,  an  agitation  sprang  up  which  ended  in  1750with  tho 
nhnuhitv  priihiljitioii,  (in  u  ciimmnn  iiiiiHanrr,  of  tho  produc- 
tion of  bar  iron  (nail  plate)  and  steel  in  America.     Tho 
colonies  continued  to  export  pig  iron  largely.     Between 
1717  and  1770  a  total  ([uantity  of  about  150,000  tons  pig 
and  bar  iron  was  exported  to  England.     The  Revolution 
gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  trade;  new  works  were  erected; 
all  were  occupied  on  war  material.     Congress  reopened  llio 
steel-works  of    Philadelphia,  and  took  possession  of  the 
Andover  iron-works  to  provide  them  with  pig  iron.     On 
the  return  of  peace  in  \7M  the  iron-trade  was  nearly  dc- 
slroycil.  The  Stales  became  independent  sovereignties,  with 
customs  regulations  often  mutually  hostile  ;  the  machinery 
of  the  works  had  not  improved,  as  might  have  been  cx- 
pecte.l  from  the  familiarity  of   Robert  (Jrace  and  others 
with   lirilisb  work.      Tho    olil  wooden    blowing-tubs   fur- 
nished blast  for  charcoal  furnaces,  and  bellows  blew  the 
forges,  while  all  works  operated  on  a  small  scale.     Mean- 
while, coke  bad  come  into  general  use  in  England,  and  tbo 
processes  of   iiud.Uing    and    rolling    had   superfcrled    Ihc 
forges  in  lireat  Britain.     That  country  shiplied  iron  hither 
duty  free,  whilo  she  herself  levied  a  duty  of  £:'•   lO".  per 
ton,  and  in   I7«5  prohibited   tbo  export  of  any  tools,  en- 
gines, models,  or  plans  of  machinery  "«<■''  •>'   mukliiii  iron 
under  n   penalty  of   one  year's   imprisonment,  £200  fine, 
and  coiiflscalioii  of  the  articles  shipped  or  rnlniilnl  to  bo 
shippetl.     This  Rtivto  of  things  led  to  Hamilton's  report  in 
17!lll,  which  caused  tho  adoption  of  the  protective  jiolicy 
to  encourage  tho  natural  products  of  our  country. 

The  system  of  internal  improvements  inaugurated  be- 
tween 1S25  and  lx:tll  by  many  Slates  marks  the  real  enm- 
mencenient  of  iron  mannfaeture  in  this  country,  for  it  made 
tho  use  of  coal  possible  and  faeililaled  large  operations. 
Previous  t,,  1S25  tho  Atlantic  coast  depended  on  English 
mines  f,,r  fuel.  Coke  was  first  used  in  the  blast  furnaeo  hy 
V.  II.  Olipbant  of  Kavettoco.,  Pa.,  in  lS3fi,nnd  anthracite 
C()al  first  at  Mauch  Chunk  by  Baughman,  Oiteau  A  Co.  in 


1838,  though  Mr.  Lyman  at  Pottsville  received  $5000  of- 
fered  by  Nicholas  Riddle  and  other  citizens  of  Pennsylvania 
for  the  _/ir«(  vontinii:, itn  I,I.,hI  „/  ihrrc  muii(/i»,  which  was  com- 
lilcted  ill  Jan.,  I.'i40.  David  Thomas  came  hither  in  IS.'i'J 
at  tho  instance  of  Erskine  Hazard  of  tho  Lehigh  Naviga- 
tion Co.,  built  the  first  furnace  of  tho  Crane  Iron  Co.  in 
one  year,  and  started  it  on  July  4.  1840.  The  Messrs. 
Reeves  built  a  furnace  in  1S:;7,  and  Burd  Patterson  &  Co., 
Biddlc,  Chambers  &  Co.,  and  George  Patterson  built  in 
IS.'IS;  all  started  before  July  2,  1840.  Before  1S40  the 
forges  of  Pennsylvania  had  practically  censed  to  make  bar 

iron though  Gen.  Philip  Benner  made  his  '■  Juniata  iron  " 

celebrated  all  over  the  West — and  confined  themselves  to 
slabs  for  boiler  plate;  the  puddling  furnace  took  their  place 
in  making  bar  iron  and  common  boiler  plate:  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  Martin  furnace  or  Bessemer  converter 
will  soon  do  so  for  best  boilerplate.  Raw  bituminous  coal 
was  first  used  bv  tho  Mahoning  (now  Ada)  furnace  in  Ii'46 
by  Wilkcson  &  Co.  The  refinery  has  been  neglected  in  this 
country,  and  the  yield  of  puddling  furnaces  consequently 
remains  small.  The  quality  of  our  iron  has,  however,  been 
kept  at  tho  highest  point.  Tho  design  of  the  machinery 
used  at  American  works  steadily  improved,  blowing-engines 
were  made  powerful  enough,  and  rolling-mill  engines  were 
soon  made  sufliciently  strong  for  rolling  rails,  which  were 
probably  first  made  at  the  Mount  Savage  works  in  1840 
and  at  tho  Great  Western  Works  (Brady's  Bend)  in  1841. 
Since  th.at  timo  a  great  deal  distinctively  .\merican  has 
been  done  in  mechanical  improvements  of  all  kinds,  such 
as  Thomas's  blast  furnaces,  Burden's  squeezer,  Lautb's 
plate-rolls,  Fritz's  hanging  guides  and  feeding  tables  for 
rolls,  Ilolley's  improved  Bessemer  plant.  Kent's  hot-blast 
stove,  Pearsc's  cupola;  in  engines  the  Corliss  and  that  of 
Mooro  have  been  prominent.  Danks.  by  his  improvements 
in  tho  lining  of  rotary  puddling  furnaces,  has  made  them 
suecCEsful,  and  Kelly  divides  with  Bessemer  the  credit 
of  perfecting  tho  process  of  making  steel  by  blowing  air 
through  iron,  having,  it  is  said,  succeeded  in  doing  so  in 
1S51.  The  vigor  and  ability  displayed  in  the  inventions 
by  which  our  iron-trade  has  been  supported,  and  in  the 
Bessemer  trade,  at  least,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  world, 
deserve  tho  highest  praise  ;  in  fact,  tho  mechanical  has 
overshadowed  tho  metallurgical  side  of  the  art.  Attention 
must  now  bo  directed  to  improvement  of  processes  by  tho 
universal  application  of  chemistry  with  a  view  to  economy. 
Iron,  Statistics  of.  We  find  the  present  annual  prod- 
uct of  pig  iron  in  the  world  to  be  as  follows  : 

Years.      Gross  tons,  Tcor<.    Gross  loin. 

C,.''.r.C,451 
2,.-G0,9C'2 
1,GG4,602  1 
l,r,SI,000  I 
052,665 


IKT.-i  ... 

IfiT:!  ... 

It71  ... 

1C73  ... 

1872  ... 


Croat  Britain.. 
Initeil  States., 

Cermany 

France 

r.elgiiim 

Aiistri;i,    ypitl 

Hungary 1871 

Russia 1871 

Sweden 1872 

Luxembourg ..  1872 
Canada 


424,con 

354,000 

322,000 

300,000 

10,000 


Italy 1872 

Siiain 187U 

..      73,709 

..      54,007 

Norway 

..      20,000 

South  America 

and  Mexico 

..      15,000 

Japan 1871 

9,370 

Switzerland 1872 

7,500 

Asia 

...      40,000 

Africa 

...      20,000 

Australia 

...      10,000 

H,485,<)72 

Gruncr  estimates  approximately  the  production  of  wrought 
iron  and  steel  in  lt;72  as  follows,  in  gross  tons  : 

WroiiRlil  iron.  Rlo«.l. 

Great  Britain 

Cnited  S-lates 

Gcrinauy . 


3,.500,000  500,000 

1,005,922  H.'.,000 

1,1.50,000  200.000 


IsXium 502,000  15.284 

"''"^'"      ;....... 300.000  49,'2.50 


Belgi 

Austria 

Sweden  and  Norway  „,,„„„ 

nus;sia 24''."00 

Spain  ■^■'•''™ 

Italy 

Canada,  India,  etc 


191,K00  I'WOO 

7,204 

250 

24,000 


70,0IH)  

8,8015,722  tons.     i,0Gf,,988  tons. 
The  product  of  Great  Britain  may  be  summed  up  as  fol 
""*»  vcnrs  : 

Pig  Iron, 


lows  for  1.''.5  years  : 


Clinroool. 


1740 

1788 
179G 
ISOG 
IB'2.1 

isrm 

1839 
1817 
\nr>2 
la.'.! 

1873 


17,360 

14,600; 


r,800 


800 


A 


85,200 

125,079 

250,400 

442,003 

078,417 

1.0-11.021 

493  1.459,040 

nil  2.020.000 

fiOR  2.073,234 

..I '■•504  '2,741,447 

1  lca.70n  l•.^57  5.572.751 


54 

130 
144 
l.'iO 

i«1'24i 
l«I23l 


190,900 

rcm.nos 

77".,000 
79''.,OOl 
918,000 
993,000 


Tolul, 

gro*r.  lou4. 


17,350 
69,700 
125  079 

2.58,20G 
442,000 
078,417 
1,217,961 

1,',I'.!'.',I>0.S 
2,8111.000 

;t..i(;o,«:is 
3.0';o,447 
0.500,451 


•  '■  In  blast;"  previous  figures  mennlni;  "  total  furnaces. 


1308 


IKON. 


Great  Britain  produced  the  following  amounts  of  bar  iron 
and  steel  iu 

1869 4,73-1.145  Kro.ss  tons.  |   1871 5,566,175  gross  tons. 

and  e.x|)orted  iron,  steel,  and  manufactures  thereof — 

1871 3,169,219  gross  tons.   |   1872 8,388,622  gross  tons. 

Pricet  of  Etujlinh  Har  Iron  at  Liverpool. 


Ye>r.  £       «. 

1806 17      0 

1807 16      0 

1808, 
1809 
1810 
1811 

1812 13  10 

1813. 

1814 13  18 

1815 13  13 

1816. 
1817. 
1818. 
1819. 
1820. 
1821. 

1822 8   1 

1823 8   0 

1824 8  19 

1825 12  14 

1826 9  15 

1827 9   7 

1828 7 

1829 6 

1830 6 

1831 5 

1832. 5 

1833 6 

1834. 6 

1833 6 

183G. 


14  10 

,  13  0 

.  14  10 

.  14  0 


12 

10  12 

12  1 

12  5 

10  13 

8  18 


18 
IS 
3 
13 
13 

12  11 
18 
10 


Year. 

18;J7 9  1 

1838 9  4 

1S;!9 9  15 

1840 8  7 

IMl 7  6 

1842 6  17 

1843 5  2 

1844 6  2 

1845 9  5 

184G 9  13 

1847 9  13 

1S48 6  12 

lfH9 5  17 

1851 6  0 

18.53 11  0 

1834 10  0 

18.55 11  0 

1S36 9  0 

1858 8  0 

1859 7  10 

1862 7  0 

1884 «  10 

1865 8  10 

18G7 7  10 

18S9 7  0 

1870 8  0 

1871 8  10 

1872 14  0 

1873 14  0 

1874 12  14 


0 
10  12   6 

In  the  U.  S.  the  statistics  of  iron  manufacture  arc  as  fol- 
loiTS,  in  gross  tons: 

In  ISIO. 

153  charcoal  furnaces 53,908  tons  pig  iron. 

330  bloomeries  and  l"(,rf;es 24.541     '*     bar    " 

34  rolllDg  and  slitting  mills 6,500     "     nails,  rods,  etc. 

In  18S0. 

202  charcoal  furnaces 183.^3  tons  pig  iron. 

Bar  iron  made  (including  5853 

tons  "  bloomed  "  from  ore) 112,866    "  *' 

14  steel-works 1,600    "    steel,all  kinds. 

In  IS40. 
450  fiirnacesCav. product, 772tonsea.).  ,347,700  tons  pig  iron, 
797    bloonieries,  forges,  and  rolling- 
mills 197,233    "     har,  rod,  etc. 

In  IS45. 

523  charcoal  furnaces 441.000  tons  pig  iron. 

17  anthracite    "        45,000    "  " 

954  bloonieries,  forges,  rolling  and  >    291,600    "     har.  plate,  etc. 

slittingmills )     30,000    "     blooms. 

In  3S49. 

303  charcoal  furnaces 379,624  tons  pig  iron. 

57  anthracite    "        151,331    •'  " 

7  raw  coal       "       7,800    "  *' 

10  coke  "       (estimated) 2,5,000    "  " 

552  bloomeries,  forges,  and  rolling-mills...,  278,044    "    bar  iron. 


Detailed  Statialict  bi/  Slatei  in  1S56  and  1S7S. 


isje. 


Itlnst 
furnaces. 


u 


Ine 

New  Uampshlre*. 
ViTraout 

»aobu«ctts 

Rhode  [Kland 

('"liDi-ellcut i   14 

-■  York j    29 

.\cw  Jersey I     6 

Priiiivlvauln 143 

Delaware ,.-. 

Harvlaod {   21 

■VlrKlol. -- 

\lv.t  Vlrfjliila.- 
NiTth  Carolina. 
South  t'arollDa. 

tlrorKla 

Alabama 

T,'Utict»e« 

Kentucttjr 

tmio 

Indlaoa 

IllinoU 

Mk'hlsan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Mlxouri 

On'Kon 

Kansas 


fuh  Territory.. 
CaUforula 


f     S     i 


1873. 


171  se 
IS 
so  149 


B    C"l   a 
II'" 


416   12I'I9»   aw   189  TO9  10    2S7   V(W'lfi7  3"   47 


•  New  Hampshire  ceased  in  ISfifi  to  make  pig  iron, 
t  The  figures  for  t  he  ot  her  States  arc  wanting. 


1856. 

1873. 

St*tSs. 

Pljt  Iron.  ' 
•II  klndi- 

WrosiEibt 
Iron  and 

steel, 
all  kinds. 

Pis  Iron. 
aU  klala. 

Wrought 

iron.  Inelud- 

IDg  ateei 

ralla. 
all  kinds. 

21,210 

800 

6.788 

118,669 

11,662 

11,409 

186,835 

77,688 

a58.946 

11.617 

58.025 

15.603 

51,796 

110 

10,624 

500 

16,.561 

39.060 

272,066 
36.006 

143,017 

8,542 

39,495 

23,055 

7,420 

Maine 

2,100 

4,500 
600 

2,150 
57,142 

4.473 

7.709 

75,242 

3:i.561 

27.3,211 

2,211 
15.292 
29,350 

780 

New  Hampshire.... 
Vermont 

2.420 
13,007 

3.100 
21,136 

Massachusetts 

12,876 

69,031 

28,217 

451,490 

26.977 

2116.818 

102.341 

1,389,573 

New  York 

Pennsylvania 

41.718 
14,828 

.55.986 

26.475 

23.056 

1,432 

7,-501 
22,283 
43.134 
69,889 

406,029 
32,486 
65,796 

123.506 

74,148 

«5,.552 

280 

AVcst  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

450 

1.-506 

2.807 

1.495 

28.476 

36,.563 

87,011 

1,800 

1.900 

3,678 

2,500 

10,138 

1,397 
1,850 
940 
252 
10,097 
21,370 
30,980 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Illinois 

2,298 

5,325 

Texas 

814,017 

1587,238 

2.868,278  i  2,029,009  | 

Of  the  iron  made  in  1873,  890,077  net  tons  were  rails; 
of  these  129,015  were  Bessemer  steel,  and  2fi,.377  steel- 
headed  rails.  Besides  these  there  were  imported  159,571 
tons  steel  and  99.202  tons  iron  rail.«,  making  a  total  con- 
sumption of  1.14S,850  tons  of  rails  in  IST."?.  There  were 
875,13;i  tons  of  angle,  bar,  etc.,  iron.  201.2.'J5  tons  of  cut 
nails  and  spikes,  and  only  .32,80,3  tons  of  blooms  from  ore, 
and  29.701  from  pig  iron.  The  manufacture  of  blooms  has 
remained  stationary  for  many  years. 

The  production  of  Bessemer  steel  in  the  U.  S.  has  been, 
in  net  tons,  as  follows: 
Year.  Tons.  Av.  price  per  (tross  ton. 

1807 3,000 S160-00  currency. 

1858 8.500 15S..50 

1809 12.000 1.32.25 

1870 40,000 106.75 

1871 4.5,000 102..50 

1872 111.000 112.00 

1873 1.57,000 I20..50 

1874 175,000  (est.) 94.25 

The  production  of  cast  steel  of  all  kinds  has  been  as 
follows : 


1870 35,000  net  tons. 

1871 37,000   " 

1872 38.000    "        " 

1873 50,000    " 


IR65 15,262  net  tons. 

1866 18,973    " 

1S67 19,000    " 

1868 21.500    " 

1869 23,000    "        " 

The  consumption  of  pig  iron  in  the  I'.  S.,  gauged  by  the 
population  of  the  country,  has  risen  as  follows: 

In  1810  the  consumption  was  16  pounds  per  head. 
1829  "  "     25         "  " 

]^(2  "  "     47         "  " 

1846  "  "    100  "  " 

18-55  "  "117 

1873  "  "    103 

The  production  per  head  in  the  U.  S.  constantly  rises  :  in 
1855  it  was  84  pounds,  and  in  IS7.'>  it  was  143  pounds.  The 
growth  of  some  districts  is  so  rapid  that  we  may  soon  ex- 
pect production  to  equal  consumption  in  ordinary  times.  AVe 
find,  for  instance,  that  Pittsburg,  whidi  in  1828  rolled  3291 
ton.<  of  iron,  now  makes  nearly  one-si.\lh  the  entire  amoont 
produced  in  the  country. 

Iu  connection  with  the  statistics  of  iron,  two  very  strik- 
ing facts  appear.  First :  that  the  cost  of  iron  consists  al- 
most entirely  of  wages  paid  for  labor.  A  ton  of  pig  iron 
rcciuires  10  to  13  days'  labor  of  one  man.  Second;  that 
the  quantities  of  raw  materials  used  are  so  great  that  the 
iron  trade  requires  more  transportation  than  any  other  in- 
dustry. It  is  estimated  that  in  1874  the  iron-trade  freight 
of  this  country  amounted  lo  about  37*  out  of  a  total  of  175 
million  tons  moved  over  all  our  railroads,  or  more  than  2U 
percent.  More  than  onc-lhird  of  all  coal  mined  in  the 
t.  S.  is  required  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association 
for  recent  statistics;  the  earlier  ones  relating  to  America  I 
have  extracted  from  reports  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury 
and  lldziird's  Hei/iKlrr,  while  those  relating  to  Great  Britain 
I  have  compiled  from  several  old  authorities. 

John  B.  Pearse. 

J  Of  this  total,  7280  tons  were  steel. 


IKON.  MKDK'INAL   USES  OF— IKON    I'LATINti    l-OR   KoKTlFUATIoNS. 


loO'J 


Iron,  Medicinal  Vses  of.  Iron  is  an  important  in- 
fCrcdiunt  of  the  subi'tancc  of  the  red-blood  corpuscles,  and 
its  iidmini?trfttion  in  some  unknown  way  Jirtotly  induces 
an  increased  formation  of  thci^c  bodies.  In  heultli  this 
effect  takis  place  only  to  a  limited  extent,  but  in  the  mor- 
bid condition  knouu  as  aiitpmia,  where  from  any  cause  the 
blood  is  unnaturally  jioor  in  red  corpui^cles,  this  lu-tion  of 
iron  is  far  more  striking,  and  the  nornnil  ])r'«p(.rtion  of 
these  elements  is  often  rapidly  restored  by  its  intluence. 
On  account  of  this  peculiar  property,  iron  is  commonly 
called  a  blood-tonic,  and  its  preparations  tlius  have  a 
unique  medicinal  use  in  curing  aniumia.  To  a  full-blooded 
individual,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  injurious.  I,ocaIly, 
the  preparations  of  iron  differ  greatly  in  action.  Some  arc 
powerfully  astringent  and  styptic,  and  have  thus  special 
uses  by  virtue  of  this  property  ;  others  arc  nearly  destitute 
of  this  action.  The  astringent  group  are  also  fxcitc-rs  of 
the  digestive  faculty,  and  for"  some  unknown  reas<m  also 
euro  anaomia,  in  some  cases  more  promptly  than  the  bland 
preparations.  Almost  all  chalybcatcs  tend  to  cause  con- 
stipation, and  tho  astringents  again  more  than  the  others. 
The  **  muriated  tincture,"  the  mo.>t  used  of  the  astringent 
group,  has,  moreover,  a  great  reputation  in  some  special 
diseases,  notably  in  erysipelas  and  diphtheria.  The  prepa- 
rations of  iron  used  in  medicine  are  very  numerous — in- 
deed, unnecessarily  so.  They  embrace  both  soluble  and 
insoluble  forms,  but  as  the  latter  are  readily  dissolved  by 
the  aid  of  the  gaf-tric  juice,  they  are  as  active  ns  the 
former.  Tho  non-astringent  preparations  are  reduced  iron 
(/errinn  ret/artum),  known  also  as  "iron  by  liydrogen  "  or 
"Quovenne's  iron."  consisting  of  the  pure  metal  in  a  state 
of  fine  powder;  pills  of  the  carbonate  (*' Vallet's  ferrugi- 
nous pills*'):  tho  so-called  sub-carbonate  or  *' saffron  of 
Mars,"  consisting  of  the  hydratcd  sesquioxidc  with  a  little 
undecomposed  carbonate:  and  numerous  salts,  embracing 
the  jdiosphate,  pyrophosphate,  oxalate,  citrate,  ammonio- 
citrato,  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine,  and  of  iron  and  strych- 
nine, and  the  ammonio-  and  potassio-tartrates.  Tho  as- 
tringent preparations  arc  ferric  chloride,  principally  used 
in  alcoholic  solution  under  the  name  of  •'  muriated  tincture 
of  iron  ;"  ferrous  sulphate  or  *'  green  vitriol  :"  ferric  nitrate 
in  solution;  lactate,  a  feebly  astringent  salt;  and  the  so- 
called  solution  of  tho  subsulphatc,  or  "  Monsel's  solution," 
chiefly  used  as  a  powerful  styptic  to  stop  bleeding.  Fer- 
rous iodide  is  used  to  combine  tho  medicinal  effe(;ts  of  iron 
and  iodine;  tho  hypophospliite,  to  coinl)inc  those  of  iron 
and  hypophosphorous  acid;  iron  alum,  as  a  simple  astrin- 
gent; and  tho  hydratcd  sesquioxidc,  in  tho  moist  state, 
when  freshly  precipitated,  as  an  antidote  in  arsenical  poi- 
soning. Kdwaui)  CiriTis. 

Iron,  coun|y  in  the  S.  E.  of  Missouri.  Area,  /iOO  square 
miles.  It  abounds  in  tho  best  of  iron  ores,  and  contains 
lead,  gold,  and  other  metals.  It  is  mountainous  and  heavily 
timbered.  Pilot  Knob  and  Iron  Mountain  aro  near  its 
N.  E.  extremity.  Wool  and  grain  are  staple  products.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Iron  Mountain  U.  U.  Cap.  Ironton. 
Pop.  tl278. 

Iron,  county  of  tho  S.  of  Utah,  extending  from  E.  to  W. 
across  the  .State.  Area,  about  7001)  sfjuare  miles.  It  is 
largely  unexplored.  Tho  Colorado  intersects  tho  E.  por- 
tion. The  western  part  is  in  a  basin  which  has  no  water 
flowing  into  (he  sea.  The  staple  ]irodnct  is  wool.  Tho 
C'Minty  is  believed  to  possess  great  mineral  wealth.  Cap. 
Parowan.     Pop.  2277. 

Iroiif  tp.  of  Iron  co„  Mo.     Pop.  1118. 

Iron,  tp.  of  St.  Francpis  co.,  Mo.  (See  Iron'  Muintain.) 
Pop.  2.>;>.). 

Irnnolads.     Sco   Ships,  Iron-clad  on  AitMoitF.h,  by 

ISAAI-   NhWTUX. 

Iron  Crown^  the  ancient  diadem  of  the  Lombard 
kings,  is  a  j<-weUed  circlet  of  gold,  containing  a  fillet  of 
iron  said  to  have  been  made  of  one  of  the  nails  of  tho  true 
cross,  presented  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  to  Theodelinda,  wife 
of  King  Antharic.  in  hMl).  In  691  it  was  used  at  tho  coro- 
nation of  Agilulphus  :  in  77-1.  at  that  of  Chjirlerriagne  ;  and 
by  Ibirty-lour  other  sovereigns.  Ifenry  \'II.  of  (Jermony 
was  crowned  with  it  in  I:;i2:  Frederick  IX.  in  \\b2; 
Charles  V.  in  1.'»:10;  Napoleon  I.  in  1H0.>.  In  iHfifi  it  wiu* 
given  at  tho  doso  of  the  Italo- Prussian  war  by  tho  em- 
peror of  Austria  to  tho  king  of  Italy,  Victor  Emmanuel. 

I^ondnlcs  post-v.  of  Washington  co.,  M(».,  on  the  St. 
L.uis  and  Iri)n  Mountain  U.  U.,  0  miles  X.  of  Iron  Moun- 
tain. 

Irondnle,  post-v.  of  Snlino  tp.,  Jefferson  co.,0.. on  tho 
Cleveland  and  Pittsburg  It.  II.,  8  miles  from  Wellsville. 
Pop.  751. 

Iron'deqiioit,  posfip.  of  Monroe  co..  N.  Y.,  having 
Lake  Ontario  on  the  \.  and  Irondcquoit  Bav  on  tho  E. 
Pop.  :;tl'.iO.     It  is  very  iVrfib-. 


Iron  Mask,  The  Man  with  the,  a  mysterious  pris- 
oner of  state  who  was  in  1679  confined  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment at  Pi'^nerol  in  Savoy;  was  removed  in  1081  to 
Exilles ;  in  llisr,  to  tlie  island  Ste.  Marguerite  in  tho  Medi- 
terranean ;  in  IGUS,  to  the  Bastile,  in  which  he  d.  Nov.  lil, 
ITO.'i.  lie  always  wore  a  mask  of  black  velvet.  Much  has 
been  written  with  a  view  of  determining  this  unfortunate 
man's  i<lentity.  lie  has  been  in  turn  held  to  have  been  the 
duko  of  Vermandois,  the  duke  of  Beaufort,  the  duke  of 
Monmouth,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  queen,  and  a  twin- 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.:  but  it  is  now  generally  hebl  that 
he  was  in  reality  the  count  Mattbioli.  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary of  the  duke  of  Mantua  to  France,  unlawfully  held  a 
5)risoner  by  the  French  court,  or  jierhaps  a  chevalier  do 
viffenbach,  confined  for  plotting  against  the  king's  life. 

Iron  iMountaiu,  or  Iron  Mount,  post  v.  of  Iron 
tp.,  iSt,  Fran^fois  co.,  Mo.,  on  the  St.  Louis  and  Iron  Moun- 
tain It.  R.,  81  miles  S.  W.  from  St.  Louis.  Here  is  the  famous 
Iron  Mountain,  22S  feet  high  and  covering  iJOU  acres.  It 
is  of  mammillary  shape,  and  consists  chiefly  of  an  iron  ore 
which  yields  55  or  GO  jier  cent,  of  execllent  iron.  The  oro 
is  softer  and  less  siliceous  than  that  of  Pilot  Knob  (which 
see).  It  is  very  rich  and  uniform,  nearly  free  tVoin  sul- 
phur, and  carrying  only  0.12  per  cent,  of  phosphorus.  It 
is  magnetic,  with  distinct  polarity,  ami  acting  in  several 
]uirt8  very  strongly  on  the  needle.  The  amount  of  oro  in 
Iron  Mountain  seems  to  be  immense,  f  lie  main  body  having 
a  thickness  of  50  feet,  and  continuing  indefinitely  in  depth  ; 
202,177  tons  of  ore  were  shipped  in  1H7I  ;  ,371,474  in  L^72. 
Tho  whole  deposit  has  been  described  by  I>r.  Litton  in  the 
second  annual  report  of  the  geological  survev  of  Missouri 
(1.S55),  and  by  Prof.  Kaphael  Pumpelly  and  Dr.  Adoljih 
Schmidt  in  the  volume  on  Jron  Ovinaitil  i'oal-Firfiin  of  tho 
now  geological  survey  (1873).  The  village  of  Iron  Moun- 
tain has  several  blast  furnaces  and  other  manufactories. 
Pop.  20 IS. 

Iron  Plating  for  Fortifications.  It  was  an  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  engineer,  tho  late  Gen.  .1.  (i.  Totten.  who 
earliest  realized  the  need  and  predicterl  the  introduction  of 
guns  of  greatly  increased  calibres  into  our  sea-coast  de- 
fences, jvsserting  tho  desirableness  and  practicability  of  a 
20-inch  gun  as  early  as  1844.  It  is  to  the  same  distin- 
guished officer  to  wlioin  is  due  the  first  introduction  of 
iron  pfittimj  in  the  surroundings  of  the  "embrasure"  (or 
port)  of  our  masonry  casemates.  (See  "  Report  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  War,"  IS57,  Prof.  Papers  Corps  uj  Emjlncrja,  No. 
G.)  But  tho  10-inch  smooth-bore  represented  at  that  date 
the  limit  of  gun  development.  The  system  he  skilfully 
devised, .and  during  the  ensuing  three  or  four  years  caused 
to  be  extensively  applied  to  the  cascmated  works  then  in 
construction,  provecl  inadequate,  simply  because  this  was 
precisely  the  era  of  the  commencement  of  the  great  changes 
which  have  substituted  immense  caiil»rcs  and  rilled  bores 
for  small  calibres  and  smooth-bores  in  artillery,  and  which 
havo  introduced  the  "  armored  "  ship  and  made  it  an  es- 
sential and  most  formidable  agent  of  naval  warfare.  It 
was  nearly  tho  era.  too,  when  a  great  maritime  nation, 
England,  unclertook  a  revision  and  reconstruction  of  her 
sea-coast  fortifications.  At  a  time  when  "  tlie  (is  pounder 
was  tho  heaviest  gun  contemplated,"  and  when  tlie  intro- 
duction of  rifled  artillery  of  more  than  ono  calibre  (tho 
110 -pounder  .Vrmstrong)  was  not  anticipated,  evidently  it 
was  not  expected  that  attacking  vessels  would  bear  heavier 
ordnauco  or  be  clad  in  mail  jterfectly  proof  against  such 
guns.  Before  much  advance  had  been  uuide  by  the  Eng- 
lish tlio  necessity  of  a  partial  sultstitution  of  iron  for  ma- 
sonry in  the  exjiosed  fronts  of  masonry  casemates  became 
apparent,  though  neither  the  jirccise  degree  of  resistance 
ultimately  to  be  offered,  nor  the  seieiititic  means  by  which 
iron  c<jiild  best  be  nuide  {if  at  nU)  to  yield  that  measure, 
were  understofMl.  Hence,  nearly  all  the  works  wliieb  had 
been  designed  us  masonry  casemaled  batteries  after  thecdd 
models  were  modified  by  making,  in  the  casemato  fronts, 
openings  of  12  teet  horizontal  dimension,  by  8  feet  vertical, 
to  be  subseijucntly  lilletl  up  by  an  iron  "shield."  the  inter- 
vening mastuiry  piers  and  front  wall  being  uhit  niodifieil  so 
as  to  furni.-h  solid  masses  or  *•  merlons  "  of  about  15  feet 
thickness.  In  adapting  and  executing  this  masonry  const  ruc- 
tion the4|uestion  as  to  tho  precise  character  uf  tho  iron  shield 
was  left  an  open  one.  Experiments  to  determine  tlie  con- 
struction comnieiieed  as  early  as  1SG2,  and  are  fully  de- 
scribed in  vuriou.s  English  publications,  (I'm/.  l*iip,rH 
Hoifitt  Eiujinrrrt,  vcds.  xili.,  xiv.,  xvi.,  xvii.,  xviii.,  xix.; 
firport  of  the  Sprritil  CitmmxtU'f  on  thf  Oihniltur  ,Sfi{iifin  ; 
/trport  of  /run  Phitr  Cummitlrr,  vtc.)  The  failure  of  tho 
••  Gibraltar  "  shields  (/.  <■.  shields  which  bad  been  prepared 
for  the  new  works  at  Gibraltar  and  Malta)  umbr  the  ex- 
perimental firings  (Oct.  anti  Dec,  ISG7,  and  .Ian.,  1868), 
to  give  tho  resistiinoe  ex|iepted,  and  the  not  altogether  sat- 
isfactory triala  of  tho  '*  Plymouth  breakwater  "   oxperi- 


i:UO 


IRON   RIDGE— IRONS. 


mental  construction  (June,  1868),  appear  to  have  tempor- 
arily arrested  proffrcss  in  the  application  of  iron  to  the 
otherwise  nearly  completed  works.  Renewed  experiments 
finally  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  shield  construction  (see  Fig. 
1  tor  section  of  shield  as  fixed  in  tho  casemate),  described 
as  follows : 

Fig.  1. 


as  so  satisfactory  that  were  new  works  to  be  built  but  a 
very  slight  modification  would  be  made  in  the  arrangement 
of  masonry  and  iron.  An  additional  iron  pluic  may  bo 
added  whenever  greater  thickness  may  be  judged  neces- 
sary. 

For  points  of  peculiar  character  and  very  great  import- 
ance, the  artificial  or  otherwise  contracted  sites  of  whieh 
require  the  greatest  possilde  concentration  of  guns,  and 
which  may  be  closely  npproaehed  and  enveloped  by  hostile 
fire,  a  type  of  works  like  the  "  Plymouth  breakwater  fort" 
has  been  adopted;  the  eharacteristie  being  a  rantiiiuoua 
envelope  n/  irun  arnuiid  that  part  of  the  icork  oecnpied  hy 
gun  caaematei.  Fig.  2  gives  a  ground-plan  of  a  casemalo 
Fig.  2. 


0-- 


*•  The  armor  consists  of  three  ii-ineh  plates,  made  to  the 
full  size  of  the  shield  by  a  process  recently  adopted  in  the 
fortification  t)ranch,  with  intervals  of  5  inches  between 
them,  in  which  a  concrete  composed  of  iron  turnings  and 
tar  mixed  hot,  and  weighing  about  240  pounds  per  foot 
cube,  is  introduced.  The  front  plate  is  bolted  to  the  second 
by  means  of  ten  :'.-inch  armor  bolts  with  plus  threads  (5J 
threads  to  the  inch)  and  spherical  nuts  at  each  end,  seated 
in  corresponding  holes  in  the  armor  plates.  The  second 
and  thiril  armor  plates  arc  held  back  to  the  supports  by 
eight  bolts  of  similar  pattern.  These  bolts,  however,  are 
secured  to  the  skin  of  tho  supports  by  means  of  spherical 
nuts  in  coiled  washers  of  special  construction,  similar  to 
those  used  in  the  two  small  targets  above  referred  to.  Tho 
fastenings  are  so  laid  out  that  in  no  case  does  an  armor 
bolt  appear  at  the  back  of  tho  shiehl.  The  port  opening 
in  the  front  armor  measures  4  feet  hi;;h,  and  2  feet  5  inches 
wide,  and  admits  of  tho  Ill-inch  IS-ton  gun  training  Tll°, 
elevating  10°.  and  depressing  5°.  Tho  12-ineh  and  2."i-ton 
gun  would  train  fiO°  behind  tho  shield,  elevate  8°,  and  de- 
press 5°.  The  supporting  structure  is  composed  of  1-inch 
Iilate,  and  IJ-ineh  by  (1-iuch  by  1-inch  angle-irons,  built  in 
the  form  of  a  case,  to  cover  iho  whole  of  the  back  of  the 
armor  except  in  the  central  space  required  for  the  working 
of  the  gun.  The  depth  or  thickness  of  this  case  is  2  feet 
fi  inches.  It  stands  ujion  a  1  J-inch  base-plate,  the  ends  of 
which  pass  nniler  the  piers  of  tho  masonry  structure  in 
which  the  shield  is  fixed.  The  whole  of  the  case  is  filled 
with  iron  concrete.  The  shield  is  held  down  by  means  of 
2-ineh  bolts  to  a  :i-inch  plate,  bcdiled  in  the  foundation  at 
a  depth  of  about  2  feet  below  the  floor  level. 

'•  It  will  be  observed  that  this  shield  presents  some  im- 
portant points  of  difference  from  any  that  had  preceded  it: 
FIrKl.  Each  of  the  three  5-ineh  thicknesses  was  one  timjle 
plate.  Tho  joints,  which  had  been  such  a  source  of  weak- 
ness in  former  shields,  no  longer  existed.  Second.  Tho 
three  plates,  instead  of  being  in  immediate  contact,  were 
separated  by  intervals  of  5  inches,  filled  with  the  mixture 
<.r  concrete  of  iron  filings  and  tar.  Third.  The  three  plates 
are  not  c(mnccted  by  bolts  running  through  the  whole 
structure.  The  front  and  second  plates  are  held  together 
by  ten  3-inch  holts,  with  plus  threads  and  spherical  nuts 
at  each  end,  seated  in  corresponding  holes  in  the  armor 
plates.  The  second  and  third  ]>lates  are  held  back  to  the 
su)iports  by  eight  bolts  of  similar  patterns.  The  fasten- 
ings are  so  arrangecl  that  in  no  case  does  an  armor-bolt 
appear  at  the  back  of  the  shield.  Fourth.  Tho  bolts  used 
are  peculiar." 

AVith  some  improvement  of  details  tho  shield  described 
has  been  aj^plied  to  tho  English  casemated  w<irks  and  to 
open  batteries,  and  it  is  regarded  by  the  English  engineers 


of  the  work  at  Plymouth  breakwater.  The  iron  envelope 
is,  like  the  shields,  made  u))  of  three  thicknesses  of  .5-iueh 
plates.  In  more  recent  iuter-aqucous  constructions  at 
Spithead  both  the  intervals  between  the  three  thicknesses 
are  made  five  inches  and  filled  with  concrete  or  brickwork, 
as  described  for  the  shields.  Fig.  ;!  shows  one  of  these 
works  as  first  designed.  In  actual  construction  the  turrets 
have  been  omitted. 

Fig.  3. 


Barbette  batteries — that  is,  of  guns  firing  orer  a  parapet 
without  front  protection — are  seldom  xiseil  by  the  English, 
but  unless  in  very  high  positions  ( lilt)  feet  or  more)  these 
open  batteries  are  protected  with  iron  shields  almost  iden- 
tical with  those  described  for  the  casemates. 

The  history  of  the  subject  would  contain  a  great  variety 
of  designs  for  the  combination  and  arrangement  of  iron 
plates,  beams,  rails  (or  channel-irons),  timber,  rubber,  etc., 
etc.,  as  "shields  "  or  protecting  walls  for  sea-coast  guns — 
some  few  of  which  have  indeed,  in  Europe,*  been  renliied 
in  construction — but  tho  English  system  described  is  the 
only  one  which  has  been  tho  outcome  of  long  protracted 
and  logically  connected  experiments,  and  which  too,  has 
been,  on  a  grand  scale,  carried  into  actual  execution.  In 
this  country,  though  the  subject  has  been  miu-h  studied 
(see  "  Report  on  Fabrication  of  Iron  for  Defensive  Pur- 
poses," Prnf.  J'apcra  Cnrpt  of  Enifrt,  No.  21,  and  Supple- 
ment), and  many  experiments  maile,  yet,  on  account  of  the 
costliness,  and  on  account  of  the  as  yet  unsettled  relations 
between  gun-development  and  shield-resistance,  no  iron 
construction  for  fortifications  has  been  ventured  upon. 

J.  G.  Baii.vard. 

Iron  Ridge,  post-v.  of  Dodge  eo..  Wis.,  on  the  Chi- 
cago Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  U.  (northern  division),  47 
miTes  X.  W.  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  abundant  iron  ores  of 
good  quality  and  extensive  iron-works. 

I'roiis  ( Wll.l.l  \M  .loslAU),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Iloddesden,  Herts, 
Eng.,  Sept.  12,  1812:  graduated  at  Queen's,  Oxf<.rd,  in 
18.13  :  became  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  in  ISfiO  ;  was  liamp- 
ton  lecturer  in  l."'70,  and  became  rector  of  Wadinghaui  and 
rural  dean.  Author  of  several  volumes  of  ."."rmons.  lec- 
tures, etc.,  and  many  controversial  and  other  pamphlets. 

*Thus  among  the  numerous  recent  additions  to  the  mari- 
time defences  of  Cronstadt  is  a  battery  having  six  iron  revolv- 
ing turreU. 


IRONTOX— IRRIGATION. 


1:111 


His  trADslation  of  the  Die9  Ira  is  considered  the  best  in 
the  language. 

IVoiiton,  post-v.  of  Arcadia  tp.,  cap.  of  Iron  cu.,  Mo. 
It  lias  -  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  673. 

Irouton,  tp.  of  Lincoln  cc,  N.  C.     Pop.  2162. 

IrontOIi,city,cap.of  Lawrence  CO.,  0..  on  the  Ohio  River, 
1  10  miles  ahove  Cincinnati,  at  the  tirniiiius  ot'  the  Iron 
It.  U..  1.1  miK-s  in  length.  It  is  the  centre  of  thu  "  Hang- 
ing Iron  region,"  and  is  the  ht'ad-quarlcrs  of  business  for 
a  large  number  of  iron  furnaces:  has  a  large  nail-mill,  2 
rolling  mills,  a  stove-foundry.  2  macbine-shops.  and  boilcr- 
yartls,  2  pinning-mills,  S  English  and  2  German  ncws- 
paptTs,  2  national  banks,  1  private  bank,  15  churches,  gas 
and  water  works  ;  does  an  annual  business  in  pig  iron  of 
$2.oni).000;  of  nails,  SfiOO.OOO ;  bar  iron,  $750,000,  etc. 
Capital  invested  in  iron  business,  $:},500,000.  Pop.  5680. 
E.  S.  Wilson,  Ed.  ''^Register." 

Ironton,  tp,  and  post-v.  of  Sauk  co.,  Wis..  22  miles  W. 
of  Uaraboo.  It  has  iron-works  and  a  machine-shop. 
Pop.  1215. 

I'ron-wood,  a  name  given  in  the  U.  S.  to  the  two 
species  of  II'iunbi'am  (which  sec).  The  iron-wood  of  com- 
raercc  is  from  Mctrosideroi*  vera,  a  myrtle  of  Eastern  Asia. 
Menitn  ferrea  and  spectona  of  India  (Guttifera;),  Vcpris 
uudulata  ('Diosmacea*).  and  Olca  InurifoUa  (Oleaccic),  the 
last  two  from  South  Africa,  and  Sidfrndcndrum  trijlorum 
(Cinchonacea').  are  all  callc<l  iron-woods,  and  all  have  ex- 
ceedingly bard  timber.  To  tbcso  we  may  add  Sidrroxjflon 
(Sapotaeeae),  of  which  the  IT.  S.  have  one  species,  S.paHida, 
a  tree  of  Florida.  S.  inernic,  of  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  is 
a  valuable  timber  tree. 

Ir'oqnois,  the  name  of  a  confederation  of  Indian  tribes 
which  formerly  inhabited  the  ct-ntral  and  western  jiart  of 
the  Statn  of  New  York.  The  cnnfedcration  consisted  origi- 
nally only  of  five  tribes — the  Mohawks.  Oneidas.  Ononda- 
gap,  Cayugas,  and  Senccas — but  in  1712  the  Tuscaroras 
were  admitted  to  the  league,  which  now  adopted  the  name 
of  the  ''Six  Nations."  The  total  number  of  members  was 
about  15,000.  They  lived  in  villages  and  pursued  agri- 
culture. Each  tribe  was  governed  by  ?acbem?,  but  affairs 
concerning  the  whole  confederation  were  decided  upon  by 
general  assemblies.  On  the  whole,  the  Iroquois  were  of  all 
the  Inrlian  tribes  of  Xorth  America  not  only  the  most 
powerful,  but  also  the  highest  clevelopcd,  and  some  of  their 
leaders — as,  for  instance,  Red  Jacket  of  the  Seneca  tribe 
and  Brant  of  the  Mohawk — were  men  of  valor,  understand- 
ing, and  elor)uenee.  In  the  Revolutionary  war  they  sided 
with  the  En::;lish.  and  in  177S.  Rrant  attaeked  and  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  and  sword  the  settlements  of  Cobleskill, 
Andrewstown.  and  (ternian  Flats.  But  in  the  ne\t  year 
the  Americans  retaliated,  an<l  Gen.  Sullivan  nearly  broke 
the  power  of  the  confederation.  The  Iroquoi;*  present 
a  remarkable  exception  to  the  supposed  genera!  law  of  de- 
crease among  the  American  Indians,  they  having  increased 
at  every  enumeration  since  the  war  of  1812,  when  they 
rea''heil  their  lowest  point  in  numbers.  Nearly  one-half 
of  the  Iroquois  have  rem<»ve<l  from  New  York  to  jioints 
farther  W.  The  largest  reservation  is  that  of  the  Mohawks, 
on  the  Grand  River  in  Ontario.  150  miles  W.  of  Niagara. 
This  was  given  to  the  Mohawks  by  the  British  govi-rnment 
in  consideration  of  their  serviees  in  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  the  celebrated  ehief  Joseph  Brant  resided  there  until 
hi^  ileath.  The  Mohawks  of  Grand  River  number  nearly 
2000;  with  them  are  some  hunrlreds  of  Tuscaroras  and  a 
few  individuals  of  other  tribes.  Five-sixths  of  the  Oneidas, 
or  about  1200,  live  on  a  reservation  on  (ireen  Bay,  Wis., 
and  some  400  Senecas  reside  in  the  Indian  Territory.  The 
Cayugas  are  the  least  numerous  of  the  Six  Nations.  Hav- 
ing long  since  sold  all  their  own  lands  in  New  York,  they 
are  scattered  among  the  sister-tribes,  with  whom  they  have 
intermarried.  Tlu'ir  language  is  consequently  nearly  ex- 
tinct, there  being  now  less  than  a  score  who  speak  it.  The 
greatest  collective  number  of  Cayugas  at  one  place  is  55, 
now  living  at  the  Cuttaraugus  (Seneca)  reservation  in  Erie 
CO.,  20  miles  S.  of  Buffalo.  All  the  Six  Nations  have  enjoyed 
tb)'  benefits  of  missions  from  an  early  peritKl  in  the  century, 
and  for  twenty  years  past  their  schoi>Is  have  been  supported 
by  the  Slate,  the  teachers  being  mainly  natives.  A  teachers' 
institute  was  organized  in  1^71  atuong  (he  Seneea  teachers, 
numbering  15,  An  annual  agrieultuml  fair  has  for  several 
years  existed  among  the  same  Indians,  and  a  republican 
form  of  government  was  established  in  1H50,  A  president 
and  IS  couneillors,  with  other  ofTieers.  are  annually  elected 
by  ballot.  The  languages  of  the  Six  Natitms  are  considered 
as  distinct;  they  are  closely  related  to  raeh  oIIht  in  gram- 
mar, and  but  little  less  in  voeabulary,  belonging  to  the  same 
linguistic  grou]>  with  the  llurons  and  Wyandots.  Some 
resemblances  to  the  Cherokee  language  have  been  dis- 
covoied.      Special    works    ou    their   history    are — Coldcn, 


Hintory  of  the  Five  Nation*  (1727);  Cusick,  an  Indian  of 
the  Tusearora  tribe,  SlelchcH  0/  the  Ancient  HiKtorif  of  the 
Six  Xations  (1820);  Schoolcraft.  Xntes  on  the  ftoquoii 
(IS-IG) ;  Morgau,  Lcuffuc  of  the  frof/uois  (\iib\).  A  gram- 
mar and  dictionary  of  the  Mohawk  language  was  published 
by  the  Jesuit  Bruyas  in  New  York  {1SG2). 

Iroquois,  port  of  entry  of  Dundas  co.,  Ont.,  Canada, 
on  the  N,  shore  of  the  St,  Lawrence,  9U  miles  above  Mon- 
treal, ou  the  (irand  Trunk  Railway  and  at  the  fool  of  the 
Iroquois  Canal.  It  has  large  factories  and  mills.  Pop.  of 
sub-district,  781. 

Iroquois,  county  of  Illinois,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  In- 
diana. Area,  1100  square  miles.  It  is  a  fertile  prairie, 
traversed  by  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago  Danville 
and  Vineennes,  and  the  Toledo  Peoria  and  War.saw  R.  Rs. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  The  S.  part 
of  the  county  is  believed  to  contain  beds  of  coal.  Cap. 
Watseka.     Pop.  25,782. 

Iroquois,  tp.  and  post-v.  (CovroRn  Station)  of  Iro- 
quois CO..  111.,  on  the  Cincinnati  Lafayette  and  Chicago 
R.  R.     Pop.  079. 

Iroquois,  tp.  of  Newton  co.,  Ind,     Pop.  G19. 

Irrawad^di,  a  river  of  Farther  India,  rises  in  Thibet, 
and  tlows,  after  a  course  of  about  1200  miles,  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  in  lat.  1G°  N.  and  Ion.  01°  E.  In  lat.  17°  N.  it 
separates,  and  between  its  easternmost  branch,  the  Ran- 
goon, and  its  westernmost  brancli,  the  Bassain,  it  forms  a 
delta  intersected  in  all  directions  by  its  minor  branches, 
comprising  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles  and  covered 
with  teak  forests  and  inextricable  jungles.  It  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  200  tons  burclen  as  far  as  Ava.  40O  miles  from 
the  sea,  even  at  low  tide,  and  canoes  ascend  safely  180  miles 
farther  up  tbo  river. 

Irrel'ative,  in  music,  a  term  applied  to  such  chords  or 
keys  as  have  no  elements  in  cuninmn  tt)  produce  relation 
or  connection.  Thus,  the  triads  of  C  minor  and  of  i't  nia- 
jor  are  irrelative ;  and  a  transition  from  the  key  of  C  major 
into  th.at  of  F}  minor  would  be  into  an  irrelative  key. 

Irriija'tion  [Lat.  irrii/otio].  In  the  broadest  sense  of 
the  term,  irrigation  embraces  all  artificial  modes  of  using 
water  for  agricultural  purposes.  We  shall  consider  the 
eom])lex  effects  of  irrigation  according  to  the  several  me- 
dia in  which  they  are  manifested. 

Soif. — The  immediate  effect  of  irrigation  upon  the  mn- 
HiHtcnce  of  the  soil  is  to  soften  it  and  render  it  more  easily 

fenetrablo  by  the  plough  and  by  the  roots  of  phuils. 
lence,  in  dry  climates  water  is  frequently  applied,  before 
ploughing,  at  the  rate  of  about  400  or  50O  cubic  yards  to 
the  acre,  or  barely  enough  to  loosen  the  earth  to  the  drpth 
of  a  foot  without  dreiudiing  it.  But  it  is  most  important 
to  observe  that  the  ultimate  effect  of  long-continued  irriga- 
tion is  to  condense  and  harden  the  surface  to  a  very  incon- 
venient degree.  Irrigation  affects  the  qunh'ti/  of  the  soil  by 
introducing  into  it  common  air  and  other  gases,  nn<l  vege- 
table and  mineral  matter  iield  in  suspension  or  solution  by 
the  water.  In  most  eases  the  substances  so  introduced  are 
beneficial  to  vegetation,  but  in  some  they  are  highly  nox- 
ious. Even  the  water  of  large  rivers  sometimes,  as  lias 
licen  observed  in  India,  deposits  on  the  surface,  or  intro- 
duces into  the  texture  of  the  soil,  salts  whieh  in  the  course 
of  time  remler  it  wholly  sterile.  Irrigation  also  acts  upon 
arable  soil  by  facilitating  the  decomposition  of  soluble  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  matter  contained  in  it,  and  carrying 
off  such  matter  from  it.  The  extent  of  this  latter  action  is 
disputed,  but  it  must  be  considerable,  for  constituents  of 
vegetable  growth  have  been  found  in  underdrain  water 
from  cultivated  fiebls,  and  largo  tracts  of  ground,  inipreg- 
nated  with  salts  to  sueh  a  degree  as  to  nnike  them  incapa- 
ble of  cultivation,  have  been  rendered  fertile  by  washing 
with  fri'sh  water.  (See  I)ui>oneliel.  I/t/ilnmlit/iir  Ar/ricnlr.) 
Irrigation  often  injuriously  affects  the  Hiifmnil  by  charging 
it  with  water,  whieh  stagnates  in  it  and  renders  it  cold  and 
four,  as  sometimes  expressed,  lo  the  roots  of  plants  whieh 
descend  into  it.  In  countries  where  irrigation  has  been  im- 
memorially  practisetl  this  effect  has  not  attracted  niu(d» 
attention,  but  in  the  British  Indian  provinces  watered  by 
the  new  canals  construofed  l>y  the  government,  and  else- 
where when  irrigation  is  first  introduced,  it  is  very  observ- 
able. It  also  exereises  an  imp«irtant  infiuenee  on  the  tnittr- 
utippfif  of  lantls  lying  at  a  lower  level,  by  diverting  from 
their  natural  channels  streams  which  originally  llowed 
through  such  lands;  an<l  on  the  other  hand  liy  diseharging 
upon  their  surface  surplus  water  from  irrigated  fiebis.  or 
by  saturating  theni  with  water  conveyed  to  them  from  such 
fiebls  by  subterranean  infiltration.  These  effects  are  seen 
not  only  in  the  soil  itself,  but  in  the  diminished  or  aug- 
mented volume  of  spring  and  well  water.  Irrigation  mod- 
ifies the  trnipprntiirc  of  the  soil  benefieially  or  injuriously 
by  communicating  or  abstracting  heat,  and  by  promoting 


i;!i2 


IKKIGATIOX. 


brins  til  it,  a  supply  of  iitraospheric  moisture  so  rapidly  as 
to  re'iidcr  the  determination  of  the  local  effect  of  irrigation 
in  this  respect  very  difficult  if  not  impossible.  But  the  at- 
mospheric temperature  of  artificially  watered  districts  is,  at 
certain  times,  sensibW  lower  than  that  in  unwatered  regions, 
while  at  other  times  the  vapor  thrown  off  from  an  irrigated 
surface  may  check  radiation  from  the  soil,  and  thus  pre- 
vent or  compensate  the  lowering  of  the  temperature  by 
evaporation.  Irrigation  has  also  a  certain  influence  on  the 
chcmU-al  ronsli'iHllon  of  the  atmosphere,  by  depositing  on 
or  in  the  soil  organic  or  inorganic  decomposable  substances, 
and  promoting  the  decomposition  of  such  foreign  matter  on 
or  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  thus  disen- 
gaging gases  which  may  diffuse  themselves  through  the  air. 
Stinitnn/  EffeclH.—llnmUlMy,  temperature,  and  the  com- 
position of  the  .air  we  breathe  are  terms  in  the  equation  of 
health.  All  these  elements  are  subject  to  modification  by 
ai-ricultural  irrigation,  and  hence  it  is  evident  that  water 
cannot  be  applied,  in  considerable  quantities,  to  the  soil  or 
to  the  leaves  of  plants  without  e.\erting  some  influence  on 
the  sanitary  conditions  of  climate.  It  has  been  observed 
that  pure  water  moving  freely  over  the  surface  or  through 
the  texture  of  the  soil' is  not  generally  sensibly  injurious 


plants  are,  in  a  sense,  artificial  machines,  and  we  rear  them 
not  for  the  sake  of  regular,  but  for  nhiwimnt  products,  for 
the  growth  of  which  we  can  afford  to  sacrifice  the  rest  of 
the  plant.  This  subject  needs  to  be  specially  studied  with 
reference  to  seasons  and  quantities  in  irrigation.  The 
problem  of  compensation  of  inferiority  in  quality  by  in- 
crease in  quantity  is  complicated  by  the  antagonism  be- 
tween the  interests  of  the  producer  and  those  of  the  con- 
sumer. It  is  hard  to  persuade  the  producer  of  a  crop  which 
he  grows  for  sale,  not  for  his  own  consumption,  that  he 
ought  not  to  aim  exclusively  at  increase  of  quantity,  and 
consumers  of  few  agricultural  products  arc  supplied  with 
sure  tests  by  which  they  can  readily  detect  inferiority  in 
quality.  Comparative  weight  is  perhajis  the  most  gene- 
rally accepted  standard  in  this  respect,  but  this  is  not  of 
universal  applicability.  The  heaviest  potatoes,  for  exam- 
ple, are  not  the  best.  "The  relative  quality  of  watered  and 
unwatered  crops  is  now  exciting  much  attention  in  Europe, 
hut  popular  opinion  on  questions  of  rural  economy  is  eon- 
trolled  by  apparent  results,  and  at  present  the  tendency  is 
strongly  towards  the  extension  of  a  system  which  offers 
such  Tempting  visible  advantages.  The  importance  of  ir- 
rigation as  a  means  of  destroying  noxious  insects  and  small 


already  alluded  to,  superficial  or  underground  drainage  is 
an  imperious  necessity  in  all  irrig-'-^  '""''"  ~'">-  "•>*■■"•» 


to  health       Butwhen  it  stagnates  on  "or  in  the  ground  it  }  rodents  in  and  upon  the  soil  must  not  be  fo'-go"e"; 

on  becomes  a  dangerous  and  often  very  destructive  source  .  The  growth  of  large  forests  may  be  P™-"  "^  ^  '  ^S - 
of  disease  Hence  for  sanitary  as  well  as  other  reasons  tion.  The  grounds  which  it  is  most  impoitant  to  clou  0 
of  disease.     Hence,  J    ^^^^     ^^_,^^  drainage  is    with  wood  as   a  conservative  influence,  and  which    also 

ated  lands  where  nature  !  can  best  bo  spared  from   agricultura    use   are   steep  h.ll- 
h-is  not  nrovided    either  in  the  configuration  of  the  surface  \  sides.     But  the  performance  of  all  the  ofliees  of  the  for- 


Innately  of  weeds,  and  water  is  in  and  of  itself  a  neces- 
sary element  of  vegetable  growth.     Besides  this,  it  is  never 
quite  free  from  extraneous  matter,  and  it  always  contains, 
in   solution  or  in  suspension,  foreign  substances  useful  or 
injurious  to  vegetation.     Hence,  in  climates  and  on  soils 
where  the  natural  supply  of  water  is  insuflioient  for  the 
normal  growth  of  plants,  remunerative  agriculture  is  im- 
possible without  artificial  arrangements  for  procuring  and 
administering  it.     And  even  where  agricultural  industry 
yields  fair  returns  without  irrigation,  it  is  generally,  it  not 
"universally,  true  that  the  .application  of  water  according  to 
the  common  methods  increases  the  i,nnnt!ty,  or  at  least  the 
nlumc.  of  leaf,  flower,  bark,  ligneous  tissue,  root,  bulb,  edi- 
ble grain  and  other  seeds,  fruits,  oleaginous  and  watery 
fluids,  coloring-matter,  aromatic  and  medicinal  substances, 
produced  on  a  given  area  of  ground.     Until  lately,  this 
augmented  product  has  been  too  generally  regarded  as  a 
positive  advantage  directly  proportional  to  the  increase; 
and  this  opinion  has  done  much  to  promote  the  extension 
of  the  practice  of  irrigation.     But  agricultural  chemistry 
and  more  careful  observation  have  shown  that  in  many 
eases  the  increase  in  quantity  is  more  than  eounterbalanced 
by  a  deterioration  in  the  qnaUin  of  the  product;  and.  fur- 
ther, that  on  ground  of   loose  and  light  texture,  rich   in 
humus  or  other  partially  decomposed  organic  matter,  the 
hygroscopicity  of  the  soil  is  often  such  that  it  absorbs  from 
the  atmosphere,  even  in  dry  weather,  moisture  enough  to 
supply  the  vegetation  upon  it,  and  consequently  even  the 
bulk  of  the  crop  is  little  or  not  at  all  increased  by  irriga- 
tion     The  present  opinion  seems  to  be  that  all  the  mmmil 
products  of  irrigated  vegetables,  including  even  the  leaves, 
are  inferior  in   nutritive  properties,  in  flavor,  and   in   all 
other  valuable  qualities,  except  mere  bulk,  to  those  of  un- 
watered plants.     It  appears  to  bo  well  settled,  however 
that  the  wnnJ  of  limber  trees  is  not  only  much  quickened 
in  growth,  but  improved  in  quality  by  judicious  irrigation  ; 
for.  as  between   trees  of   the  same  species,  those    whoso 
grain  shows  the  largest  yearly  increment  usually  furnish  the 
best  timber.     But.  though  the  annual  products  of  watered 
plants  are  generally  comparatively  inferior  in  quality,  and 
in  some  rare  instances— as  is  said  to  he  the  ease  with  the 
yield  of  olive-oil,  for  example— even  in  quantity,  there  is 
"reason  to  believe  that  if  cultivators  knew  enough  of  the  laws 
of  vegetable  physiology  to  be  able  to  apply  water  always  in 
just  quantity  and  at  the  right  time,  irrigation  might  he- 


favorable  for  irrigation,  as  well  as  for  manuring  and  eul 
tivating  the  tree.     But  even  without  so  expensive  a  pro- 
cess very  important  results  have  been  obtained  by  simply 
ditching  declivities.     "  In  order  to  hasten  the  growth  ot 
wood  on  the  flanks  of  a  mountain,  JI.  Eugene  Chcvaudier 
divided  the  slope  into   zones  forty  or  fifty  feet  wide,  by 
horizontal  ditches  closed  at  both  ends,  and  thereby  obt.ained. 
from  firs  of  different  ages,  shoots  double  the  dimensions  of 
those  which  grew  on  a  dry  soil  of  the  same  character  where 
the   water  was  allowed  "to  run  off  without  obstruction." 
(T)umont.  Dis    Trnvaux   Public,  etc.,  pp.   94-96.)      The 
ditches  were  about  two  feet  and  a  half  deep  and  three  feet 
and  a  half  wide,  and  they  cost  about  40  francs  the  hectare, 
or  $:i  the  acre.     This  extraordinary  growth  was  produced 
wholly  by  the  retentiim  of  the  rain-water  in  the  ditches, 
whence   it  filtered  through   the   whole  soil    and   supplied 
moisture  to  the    roots  of  the  trees.     It   may  bo   doubled 
whether  in  a  climate  cold  enough  to  freeze  the  entire  con- 
tents of  the  ditches  in  winter  it  would  not  be  expedient  to 
draw  off  the  water  in  the  autumn,  as  the  presence  of  so 
larf'e  a  quantity  of  ice  in  the  soil  might  prove  injurious 
to  frees  too  young  and  small  to  shelter  the  ground  effectu- 
ally against"  frost.     Chevandier  computes  that,  if  the  an- 
nual growth  of  the  pine  in  the  marshy  soil  of  the  Vosges 
be  represented  by  one,  it  will  equal  two  in  dry  ground,  four 
or  five  on  slopes'so  ditched  or  graded  as  to  retain  the  water 
fiowin"  upon  them  from  roads  or  sleep  declivities,  and  six 
where  "the  earth  is  kept   constantly  moist  by  infiltration 
from  running  brooks.  (C<,mplc,  linubia  «!  V Ara<l(<n,f  dc> 
Sciences,  t.  xix..  ,IuilIet-Dee.,  1844,  p.  If.r.)     The  effect  of 
accidental  irrigation  is  well  shown  in  the  growth  of  the 
trees  planted  along  the  canals  of  irrigation  which  traverse 
the  fields  in  many  parts  of  Italy.    They  flourish  most  luxu- 
riantly, in  spite  of  continual  lopping,  and  yield  a  very  im- 
portant contribution  to  the  stock  of  fuel  for  domestic  use  : 
while  trees  situated  so  far  from  canals  as  to  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  infiltration  from  them  are  of  much  slower  growth 
under  cireumstanccs  otherwise  equally  favorable.     In  other 
experiments  of  Ohevandier,  under   better  conditions,  the 
yield  of  wood  was  increased,  by  judicious  irrigation,  in  the 
"ratio  of  7  to  1,  the  profits  in  that  of  12  to  1.     At  the  Ex- 
position of  1855,  Chambrelent  exhibited  young  trees  which, 
in  four  years  from  the  seed,  had  grown  to  the  height  of 
sixteen  and  twenty  feet,  and  the  circumference  of  ten  and 
twelve    inches.      Chevandier    experimented    with    various 


IRRIGATION,  PRACTICAL. 


l:]13 


manures,  nnd  found  that  some  of  them  might  bo  profitably 
applied  to  younij.  but  not  to  o!d  trees,  the  quantity  required 
in  the  latter  case  being  too  great.  Wood-ashes  and  the 
refuse  of  soda-faotories  are  particularly  recommended.  I 
hare  seen  an  extraordinary  growth  produced  in  fir  trees  by 
theappIicEitinn  of  soapsuds.  According  to  Cnnernzzt  Vtirab. 
fli  Ayrn-oltiini,  uow  publishing — a  high  authority — irriga- 
tion of  trees  promotes  the  growth  of  foliage  and  wooil,  but 
deteriorates  the  quality  of  the  other  products,  whether 
fruits  or  juices.  Of  course  it  is  suited  for  shade  and  orna- 
mental trees  and  shrubs,  though  not  for  olive  trees,  vines, 
and  mulberries,  in  which  latter  the  leaf  becomes  abundant, 
but  less  nutritious.     Sec  Mi'I-berry. 

Otnt-rnl  Phi/iticnl  and  Sociaf  Efffftn. — Tho  diversion  of 
wa'er  from  its  original  channels  of  dischnrge.  which  is 
nlways  a  necessity  in  irrigation,  interferes  with  natural 
hydrology,  though  not  always  injuriously.  It?  effects  on 
springs  and  wells  at  lower  levels  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant, thout^h  habitually  least  noticed,  of  these  effects. 
Tho  reclamation  of  marshes  by  this  process  is  a  familiar 
example  of  beneficial  results.  The  reduction  of  the  supply 
iif  water  for  mechanical  power,  and  the  obstruction  of  free 
communication  over  the  surface  by  canals  of  derivation 
and  distribution,  arc  evils  too  obvious  to  need  to  be  dwelt 
upon.  The*  measurement  of  flowing  water,  and  its  appor- 
tionment between  different  persons  entitled  to  use  the  same 
source  of  supply,  are  very  difficult  in  practice,  and  when 
the  quantity  is  not  abundant  they  arc  occasions  of  endless 
contention  and  litigation.  The  effect  of  these  embarrass- 
ments is  to  discourage  landholding  in  moderate  parcels,  to 
oblige  small  proprietors  to  sell  their  grounds  and  become 
day-laborers,  and  of  course  t<»  diminish  the  numbers  of  rural 
homesteads  and  rural  inhabitants.  This  is  an  evil  much  to 
be  dreaded  in  countries  with  popular  institutions,  and  it 
ought  to  engage  the  earnest  attention  of  American  public 
economists. 

Eronomfcai  Comtuieratinnn. — The  partial  grading  of  tho 
surface  of  the  ground  for  tho  reception  of  water,  tho  con- 
struction of  reservoirs,  aqueducts,  canals,  and  siphons  for 
its  supply  and  distributi'm,  as  well  as  of  <irains  on  or  below 
tho  surface  for  its  discharge,  and  tho  care  and  labor  in- 
volved in  its  application,  are  all  expensive.  Irrigation 
ouffht  never  to  be  umlertaken  on  a  considerable  scale  with- 
out a  certainty  that  the  supply  of  water  is  adequate  in 
quantity,  and  that  it  if  of  such  chemical  composition  and 
such  temperature  as  to  bo  useful  to  vegetation  ;  and,  fur- 
ther, without  enough  of  preliminary  experimentation  to 
show  that  the  probable  increase  of  product  will  warrant 
the  expenditure.  The  importance  of  the  first  of  the  cau- 
tions bore  suggested  is  much  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 
habits  of  watered  plants  soon  become  so  modified  that  a 
f:tilure  of  (he  accustomed  supply  affects  them  more  severely 
than  almost  any  merely  natural  drought  does  unwatercd 
plants.  This  modifieutir)n  may  become  hereditary,  and 
therefore  it  is  prudent  to  take  it  into  account  in  employing 
imported  seeds.  On  most  of  these  points  we  may  observe 
that  European  experience,  though  not  to  be  neglected,  is 
not  by  any  means  altogether  a  safe  guide.  The  difference 
in  soil  and  climate,  in  the  usual  objects  of  cultivation,  and 
in  the  cost  of  labor,  is  so  great  between  the  two  continents 
that  wo  cannot  confidently  reason  from  one  to  (ho  other. 
Before  quit(ing  this  branch  of  our  subject  i(  is  well  to  no- 
tice that  in  many  localities,  rirc/itiff  or  horizontal  side-hill 
ploughing,  which  is  a  cheap  method  of  terracing  sloping 
surfaces,  answers  most  of  (ho  purposes  of  irrigation,  and 
that  water  enough  for  crops  may  often  be  found  by  means 
of  small  reservoirs  for  retaining  rain  and  snow  water, 
eommnn  wells,  cheap  artesian  borings,  or  short  tunnels  into 
hillsides,  which  intercept  subterranean  currents  and  bring 
them  to  the  surface  as  springs. 

With  respect  to  the  economicnl  aspects  of  great  systems 
of  irrigation,  it  ou(rht  to  be  observed  that  unquestionablo 
as  are  the  financial  advantages,  and  even  necessity,  of  tho 
practice  in  many  climates,  yet  in  regions  where  rural  hus- 
bandry is  possible  without  it  European  experience  shows 
that  in  most  cases  of  cosily  arrant^ements  for  this  purpose, 
as  indeed  in  very  many  inrhistrial  enterprises  of  other 
kinds,  the  original  capital  is  entirely  sunk,  and  a  pecuniary 
return  is  renped  only  by  those  who  acquire  the  works  at  a 
price  far  below  the  original  cost.  Tattaneo.  one  of  tho 
ablest  economists  of  this  eenturv.  maintains,  in  refereneo 
to  Lomliardy,  that  the  income  from  irrii;:ite<I  lands  is  not 
proportionate  (o  the  entire  expenditure  incurred  in  canals, 
the  grading  of  the  soil,  and  other  necessary  works,  and 
thinks  this  observation  applicable  to  Holland  and  other  coun- 
tries of  advaneed  ngriculture.  fPee  Tnttaneo.  Mrmnrif  di 
Ernnnniin  Puhh'rn,  Milano,  I '^fiO,  vol.  i.  pp.  xi.  246;  also 
Baird  Smith.  Ilnlinn  frn'fjntinti.  vol.  i.  p.  297.) 

Qtinutitifo/  Watrrnud  Mrihud  nf  Apphfhuj  H. — In  Europe 
the  quantity  of  water  supplied  during  the  season  to  ordi- 
nary plnuffhod  or  hucd  field  crops  varies  from  twenty  to 
v.. I..  II.— s.l 


I  forty  inches,  though  in  the  rice-fiolds,  the  moreife  or  water- 
1  meadows  of  Lorabardy,  and  many  other  grass-grounil.«, 
'  this  amount  is  vastly  exceeded.  Experience  alone  can  de- 
termine the  proper  quantity  and  seasons  on  our  soil  nnd 
under  our  sky.  The  modes  of  application  are  by  flowing 
with  running,  and  flooding  with  partially  stagnant, water  ; 
by  infiltration  from  superficial  ditches  or  furrows,  and 
more  rarely  from  underground  conduits  :  and  by  sprinkling 
with  scoops  or  other  light  hand-implements.  The  even- 
ing hours  are  considered  the  most  favorable  time,  but  this 
rule  is  by  no  means  universally  observed. 

LcffiHlatire  Actiou. — The  evils  we  have  referred  to  under 
various  heads  are  such  that  legislative  measures  ought  to 
be  taken  without  loss  of  time  to  obviate  them  as  far  as  pos- 
sible in  the  American  States.  We  have  space  here  to  in- 
dicate but  one  which  is  of  urgent  necessity  in  all  those 
parts  of  our  territory  where  irrigation  is  n<;ccssary  or  prob- 
ably highly  advantageous;  and  another  which  is  of  even 
greater  general  importance.  The  first  is  the  assumption  by 
government  of  the  absolute  title  to  all  natural  waters  of 
sufllicicnt  volume  to  possess  any  real  importance  as  sources 
of  supply,  and  the  enactment  of  codes  or  the  creation  of 
special  boards  to  control  the  construction  of  all  hydraulic 
works  and  the  distribution  of  water  from  them,  including, 
of  course,  proper  arrangements  for  disposing  of  the  surplus 
water  from  irrigated  himls.  The  second  is  the  adoption  of 
systems  of  forest  economy  which  shall  prevent  the  destruc- 
tion and  secure  the  permanence,  and  where  necessary  ex- 
tension, of  the  woods  around  the  sources  and  along  the 
upper  basins  of  the  rivers. 

Literature  nf  the  Stshjret. — The  theoretical  and  practical, 
Juridical  and  economical  literature  of  irrigation  is  im- 
mensely voluminous,  and,  cautiously  used,  of  very  great 
value.  We  have  no  space  for  critici^-m,  but  wo  recommend 
cither  as  easily  accessible  or  as  specially  important  to  tho 
American  public  the  following  works:  Romagnosi,  Trut- 
tato  della  liaffton  Civile  dcfle  Aeque  (Firenze,  183-t,  8vo); 
Komagnosi,  Vclfa  Condotta  deffe  Acfjtw  (Firenze,  \$?,3,  2 
vols.  8vo)  ;  Calandra.  Mtinuale  Idraufico-let/ale  (Savig- 
liauo.  1870,  12mo):  Negri.  Id^c  Ehmcnturi  per  una  Lefft/e 
in  Materia  delle  Arrpie  (Turin.  ISCJ,  pamphlet) ;  Kiel, 
L' Affriculture  den  EtatH  Sardes  (Turin,  l.S.'iG,  8vo)  ;  Vigan, 
Etude  8ur  les  Irrir/ationn  dee  Pi/rfn^et  Orientalea  (Paris, 
1807,  pamphlet);  Cuppari,  Mfmuufe  deW  Ayrieottore  (Fi- 
renze, 187*',  I2mo)  ;  BousPingaulI,  Eennomie  Hurafe  (Paris, 
18.'»1,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  llerv^-Mangon,  Ejrph-iencea  sitr  VKm- 
pfoi  den  Eaujc  dans  fe«  Irritfatione  {Paris,  1800,  Svo) ;  Cos- 
imo  Ridoin,  Lezioui  Orn/i  di  Arjraria  (Firenze,  I8G9,  2  vols. 
8vo) ;  Baird-Smith.  Italian  Irriyation  (London,  1835,  2 
vols.  Svo,  and  at  Ins) :  A.  Vignotti,  /)»»  Irriffafiona  du 
Pihnont  et  de  la  Lomhardie  (Paris,  lSn;i.  pamphlet) ;  G. 
Tagliasecchi,  Canafi  delV  AUa  L<tmhardia  (Milano,  1872, 
8vo)  ;  Duponchel,  Traits  d' IftfdranUque  ct  dc  (J^oloi/ie 
AgricoU»  (Paris,  1868,  Svo);  Millet,  Lcs  Mervcitlm  des 
Fleuveg  et  dca  RninHvaux.  (Paris,  1871,  12mo);  Denton, 
Water-Suppf)/  for  Farms  (London,  1865,  pamphlet)  ;  Du- 
mas, Art  Science  dfft  FontaincH  (Paris.  1857,  8vo)  ;  Mar.^h, 
Man  and  Xafure  (new  edition.  New  York.  1874,  8vo),  and 
Letter  to  Cttmmiasioner  of  Afjrirultnre  on  frritjation  (M'ash- 
ington,  1873,  pamphlet ) :  Beardmore,  Manual  of  Ifi/dml- 
offif  (London,  1862,  8vo);  Dumont,  Ihn  Travanr  Fublica 
dana  lenra  JlnpporfH  avrc  I' Affrictihurc  (Paris,  18-18,  Svo)  J 
Passy,  Etndt  Hiir  Ir  Service  Ififdrnulifpie  (Paris,  186S,  Svo)  j 
Jaubcrt  de  Passy,  Voyatje  en  Eitpaijne  (Paris,  1819);  Ay- 
mard,  Irritjationn  du  Midi  de  V Eitpatjne  (Paris,  18G4,  Svo, 
and  atlas)  ;  C,  R.  Markham,  On  Spauinh  fnii/ation  (Lon- 
don, Svo),  and  works  there  citccl.  The  works  of  Nadault 
de  Buffon  on  irrigation  and  general  agriculture  are  all  of 
great  value,  and  the  numerous  papers  on  this  subject  by 
the  eminent  Italian  engineer  Lombardini,  ehiefly  published 
in  scientific  periodicals,  are  indispi-nsable  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  hydraulic  system  of  I'pper  Italy,  wliitdi  is  unrivalled  iu 
scientific  merit  and  practical  value.     Uehrgk  P.  Maksh. 

Irriention,  Prnrticnl.  Irrigating  canals  arc  ustmlly 
derived  from  rivers.  The  water  is  raised  to  the  required 
level  by  a  weir  or  dam  thrown  across  the  river,  and  the 
head  ol^  the  canal  is  placed  above  the  dtim.  In  the  deltas 
of  rivers,  where  the  ground  to  be  irrigated  is  little  if  at  all 
above  the  level  of  the  water  iu  adjacent  portions  of  the 
rivers,  the  problem  is  solved  much  more  simply,  nnd  at  a 
much  lesseneil  expense,  than  in  the  general  case  where  the 
river  flows  along  the  lowest  line  of  the  valley,  and  where 
the  a<ljacent  lands  rise  from  the  river-bnnks  on  either  siile. 
In  this  latter  case  it  is  necessary  to  fix  the  head  of  tho 
cnnal  at  a  considerable  distance  above  the  land  to  be  irri- 
gated, and  consequently  a  line  of  canal  more  or  less  in 
leniith,  often  making  many  miles,  must  be  made  to  bring 
the  water  out  on  the  level  of  tho  ground.  For  illustration, 
let  us  suppose  that  the  water  in  the  river  at  the  head  of 
the  canal  is  raised  by  a  dam  to  a  level  10  feet  below  the 
banks.     Give  a  slope  to  the  bed  of  the  canal  of  1  foot  per 


1314 


IRRIGATION,  PRACTICAL. 


mile^  and  assume  that  the  country  slopes  along  the  line  at 
a  rate  of  5  feet  per  mile  ;  then  for  each  mile  the  canal-water 
will  gain  a  relative  elevation  of  four  feet,  and  it  follows 
that  the  water-level  in  the  canal  will  enier<:;e  from  the  ex- 
cavation at  a  distance  of  2^  miles  from  the  head.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  deltas  the  j^round  falls  from  the  banks  on 
cither  side,  and  a  command  of  the  land  is  quickly  gained. 
If  this  upper  and.  so  to  speak,  unprofitahk-  section  of  the 
canal  passes  through  a  broken  country,  the  difficulty  and 
expense  of  construction  are  largely  increased.  In  India 
we  find  illustrations  of  both  systems.  In  the  Madras  prov- 
inces the  deltas  of  the  Cauvery,  Godavery,  and  Kistnah 
rivers  afford  instances  of  the  most  successful  irrigation  at  a 
small  outlay,  while  the  flanges  and  other  large  canals  in 
the  uplands  of  Northern  India  abundantly  prove  the  greater 
difficulties  in  their  several  cases. 

In  the  projection  of  an  irrigating  canal  intended  to  water 
a  given  area,  the  first  point  which  presents  itself  is  this—  i 
namely,  How  much  water  will  be  required  per  acre?     The  , 
answer  to  this  question   results   from  a  conslderiitioii  of  a  i 
number  of  circumstances.    It  will  dei)end  upon  the  amount 
of  rainfall  in  the  irrigated  district,  and  upon  its  distribu-  | 
tion.both  as  to  quantity  and  as  to  time;  upon  the  tempera-  I 
tare  in  the  growing  season  :  tlie  kind  of  cultivation,  whether  | 
of  rice,  cotton,  sugar,  cereals,  or  of  vegetables  :  and  finally  j 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  whether  retentive  of  mois-  ; 
ture  or  sandy  and  easily  drained.     Again,  if  the  climate  1 
permits  cultiVation   throughout  the  year,  and   the  water-  > 
supply  is  perennial,  irrigation  may  bo  continuous,  and  a  I 
part  of  the  land  may  be  devoted  to  one  kind  of  cultivation  ; 
in  the  winter,  and  the  remainder  to  a  different  cultivation 
in   the  summer.     One  cubic  foot  of  water  supplied  each 
second  for  twenty-four  hours  will  cover  4  acres  with  a  trifle 
Icps  than  C  inches  of  water,  and  supplied  for  100  days,  it 
will  cover  400  acres  with  0  inches,  or  200  acres  with   12 
inches  of  water.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second  through- 
out  the   season   is   sufficient  to   mature  rice  in  quantities 
varying  from  30  acres  to  as  much  as  90  acres:  this  last 
case  existing  in  districts  of  India  exposed  to  heavy  falls  of 
rain.     In  Northern   India,  where  the  rivers  are  fed  from 
the  snow-reservoirs,  and  where  there  is  a  heavy  fall   of 
rain,  with  a  winter  and  a  summer  cultivation,  the  average 
area  irrigated  in  some  cases  rises  to  400  acres  per  cubic 
foot  a  second.     In  most  cases,  however,  it  does  not  much 
exceed  200  acres  per  foot.     This  is  for  other  cultivatron 
than  rice,  and  principally  relates  to  cereals.     In  California 
12  inches  of  rain,  with  timely  application,  suflSce  to  ensure 
a  crop  of  cereals. 

In  pro|>ortioning  the  water-supply  to  the  irrigable  area. 
it«is  usual  to  make  a  large  allowance  for  the  ground  which 
in  a  particular  season  will  lie  fallow,  and  for  that  which  will 
1)0  taken  up  by  roads,  fences,  forests,  and  buildings.  Hav- 
ing determined,  after  full  consideration,  the  capacity  of  the 
canal,  which  should  exceed  by  15  or  20  per  cent,  the  esti- 
mate for  irrigation,  in  order  to  make  up  for  loss  by  absorp- 
tion, evaporation,  and  wa^te,  we  may  proceed  to  (Ictermine 
1(9  dimensions  and  the  slope  of  its  bed.  Many  irrigating 
canals  are  arranged  for  navigation.  New  conditions,  more 
or  less  incompatible  with  those  pertaining  to  mere  irrigat- 
ing canals,  are  thereby  introduced.  The  ideal  canal  for 
irrigation  transports  the  water  at  the  highest  velocity  which 
is  admissible,  for  the  reason  that  its  section  is  thereby  re- 
duced. The  mere  navigation  canal  should  have  no  velocity, 
as  by  absence  thereof  transportation  is  facilitated.  The 
eanai  which  shall  subserve  both  ends  must  carry  its  water 
at  a  low  velocity  to  permit  navigation,  and  it  must  have 
an  increased  section  to  enable  it  to  transport  the  required 
volume  of  water  for  irrigation.  There  are  cases  where  the 
>'l<)pc  of  the  country  compels  a  low  grade  for  the  bed  of  the 
canal,  and  there  are  soils  which  will  not  maintain  them- 
selves under  any  but  a  very  low  velocity.  In  sucli  par- 
ticular cases  the  conflicting  conditions  of  irrigation  and 
of  navigation  are  measurably  harmonized.  The  relations 
existing  between  the  slope  of  the  bed,  the  mean  velocity, 
and  the  section  are  conveniently  expressed  in  this  formula, 
which  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 

applied:  v=  '|/vn  ^2t/»,  in  which  v  is  the  mean  velocity 

in  feet  per  second;  «  is  the  slope  of  the  bed  in  feet  per 
mile;  tl  is  variously  termed  the  ''hydraulic  radius"  or 
"  the  hydraulic  mean  depth."'  and  it  is  obtained  by  divid- 
ing the  area  of  the  section  of  the  water-wny.  expressed  in 
square  feet,  by  the  wetted  perimeter  expressed  in  linear 
feet.  The  velocity  of  the  water  ought  not  to  be  so  great  as 
to  cause  erosion  of  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  canal,  and  it 
ought  to  bo  great  enough  to  prevent  the  growth  of  water- 
plants,  which  interfere  with  the  service  of  the  canal.  A 
stiff  clay  soil  will  stand  under  a  mean  velocity  of  as  much 
as  4  feet  per  second,  and  where  the  bed  is  of  shingle,  a 
higher  velocity  may  be  permitted  with  safety.     In  a  light 


sandy  soil  3  feet  per  second  is  a  maximum  velocity,  and  in 
some  particular  soils  disturbance  of  the  bed  and  banks 
takes  place  with  a  considerable  hnver  velocity.  In  a  hot 
climate  a  velocity  of  2  feet  per  second  is  necessary  to  ])rc- 
vcnt  the  growth  of  plants  in  the  water-way.  If  the  water 
derived  from  the  river  is  laden  with  earthy  particles  in  sus- 
jicnsion,  as  is  often  the  case,  deposits  will  occur  unless  the 
initial  velocity  is  maintained.  If  the  silt  is  of  a  fertilizing 
character,  it  is  desirable  that  it  be  transported  to  the  culti- 
vated fields  in  order  to  sustain  their  productiveness.  AVhen 
it  is  deposited  along  the  line  of  the  canal,  periodical  clos- 
ures become  necessary  to  effect  clearance,  which  is?  attended 
in  many  cases  with  great  expense.  In  order  to  carry  the 
silt  to  the  fields,  it  will  be  necessary  to  increase  the  fall  of 
the  ditches  as  their  section  is  diminished.  Something  is 
gained  by  transporting  the  matter  beyond  the  main  chan- 
nel to  the  minor  ditches,  where  its  clearance  will  not  re- 
quire the  canal  to  be  closed,  and  from  which  it  can  be  re- 
moved at  a  lessened  expense.  In  some  cases  the  vehjcity 
near  the  head  is  slackened  by  diminishing  the  slope  or  by 
enlarging  the  section,  so  that  the  deposits  may  be  en- 
couraged at  this  particular  section,  where  the  clearance  can 
be  more  conveniently  etfected  than  it  would  be  if  the  silt 
is  deposited  along  a  larger  line. 

The  English  engineers  in  India  have  adopted  a  rule 
which  governs  the  proportion  of  width  and  depth  of  the 
canals,  the  width  bnng  made  to  vary  from  thirteen  to 
fifteen  times  the  depth.  The  slope  of  the  bed  is  variable, 
depending  on  the  fall  of  the  country  and  on  the  character 
of  the  soil.  Tlie  ruling  gradient  on  the  Gauges  Canal  is 
15  inches  to  the  mile  ;  in  many  canals  it  is  less.  For  illus- 
tration, it  may  be  stated  that  by  the  formula  a  fall  of  1 
foot  per  mile  will  give  in  a  canal  90  feet  wide  at  bottom, 
6  feet  deep,  with  side-slopes  of  2  base  to  1  altitude,  a  mean 
velocity  of  3  feet  per  second.  If  the  slope  of  the  bed  is 
less  than  the  fall  of  the  country,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
provide  a  series  of  falls,  which  may  be  arranged  with  dams 
giving  a  direct  fall,  or  by  rapids.  The  slope  of  the  bed 
and  the  dimensions  of  the  canal  will  generally  be  deter- 
mined, so  as  to  conform  to  the  fall  and  character  of  the 
land  traversed,  by  assuming  the  quantities  which  cuter  the 
formula  in  a  succession  of  trial-cases.  In  this  way  a  close 
approximation  may  be  made.  The  alignment  of  the  canal 
will  be  most  favorable  when  it  can  be  placed  on  the  water- 
shed or  divide.  Such  a  position  gives  command  of  the  land 
on  either  side,  and  avoids  the  passage  of  (he  drainage-lines 
of  the  country.  This  advantage,  however,  is  one  which  can 
seldom  be  fully  secured.  It  is  generally  necessary  to  cross 
some  of  these  lines,  and  certain  arrangements  result  wliieh 
vary  with  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  If  the  level  of 
the  canal  at  the  point  of  crossing  is  higher  than  the  stream, 
an  aqueduct  will  be  required  to  carry  the  canal-water,  and 
in  special  cases  of  low  lands  adjoining  the  stream  the  canal 
must  be  embanked  at  one  or  at  both  ends  of  the  aqueduct. 
Where  the  canal-level  is  below  that  of  the  stream,  the  latter 
may  be  carried  over  by  an  aqueduct,  or  the  canal  may  be 
carried  under  the  stream  through  a  tunnel  or  a  siphon. 
If  a  small  stream  crosses  the  line  of  the  canal  at  a  suitable 
level,  it  may  be  admitted  into  the  canal :  but  if  the  stream 
is  torrential  in  character,  it  may  not  be  safe  to  admit  its 
water  into  the  canal.  Regulating  sluices  will  be  necessary 
in  this  case  to  exclude  the  torrent  from  the  canal,  and  a 
dam  will  be  required  to  maintain  the  proper  level  at  times 
when  the  stream  is  not  full. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  these  several  works 
may  be  very  expensive  in  construction.  The  irrigation- 
works  of  Italy  and  India  afford  many  instances  in  illustra- 
tion of  this  statement.  The  Solani  aqueduct  is  1120  feet  in 
length,  and  it  carries  the  Ganges  Canal  in  two  channels, 
each  85  feet  in  width  and  10  feet  deep.  After  crossing  the 
stream  the  canal  is  carried  in  an  earthen  embankment  of 
IC  feet  in  depth  for  three-fourths  of  a  mile  across  the  low 
lands.  At  or  near  the  head  of  the  canal  a  system  of  sluices 
or  gates  admits  the  water  from  the  river  in  suitable  quan- 
tities, and  defends  the  canal  from  the  attacks  of  the  river 
when  it  is  in  flood.  In  the  older  canals  these  construc- 
tions are  of  masonry  and  of  the  most  substantial  character. 
It  is  also  true  that  there  are  canals  which  have  no  head- 
works.  In  such  instances  the  canal  embankments  arc  ex- 
posed to  great  dangers,  and  there  are  without  these  works 
no  means  of  regulating  the  sujiply  of  water.  The  position 
of  the  head  of  the  canal  is  a  point  of  great  importance. 
The  banks  of  the  river  should  at  this  point  be  of  a  perma- 
nent character,  and  the  regimen  of  the  stream  should  bo 
well  established  and  not  liable  to  change.  If  the  stream 
brings  down  sand  or  gravel,  the  bed  will  in  time  he  filled 
to  the  level  of  the  crest  of  the  dam.  In  such  cases  it  is 
usual  to  provide  scourlng-sluiccs  in  the  part  of  the  dam 
adjoining  the  canal,  which  may  serve  to  keep  a  free  water- 
way at  the  head-works.  It  is  desirable  to  provide  rejru- 
lating  bridges  at  intervals  of  a  few  miles,  arranged  witli 


IKKIGATION,   PRACTICAL. 


l:n.3 


sluices,  so  that  tho  water  may  be  shut  off  from  the  canal 
in  gcclions  for  purposes  of  repairs  and  for  otlier  purposes. 
At  the  same  intt-rvals  escapes  shouM  l»o  arrangeil,  hy  whit'h 
an  excess  of  water  occurring  at  any  time  may  be  thrown 
into  the  natural  drainage-lines  of  the  country. 

The  reproach  of  irrigation  is  defective  drainage.  The 
natural  drainage  of  the  country  should  remain  unimpaired. 
Even  when  this  much  is  accomplished,  stagnant  water  is 
very  liable  to  result  from  irrigating  operations.  The  waste 
water  at  the  end  of  tho  caual  or  iu  the  minor  channels 
should  have  free  passage  into  the  natural  drain?,  or  if  nono 
such  f\i.-t.  ;iiiiliri,il   .iniui;iL'''  >ii"uM    hr  |.r'.\  hi.-i|.      Wli 


the  canal  is  carried  in  embankments  there  is  great  danger 
of  percolation,  and  hence  stagnant  pools  may  result.  Tho 
cultivation  of  rico  requires  pools  of  water,  aud  its  unhcalth- 
fulness  is  everywhere  recognized. 

For  economy  of  construction  the  canal  should  be  partly 
within  and  partly  above  the  soil,  aud  for  facility  of  irriga- 
tion this  arrangement  is  equally  desirable. 

This  sketch  of  tho  principles  which  must  govern  in  the 
projection  and  construction  of  an  irrigating  canal  brings 
us  to  the  actual  operations  of  spreading  the  water  over  tho 
land.  The  diagram  exhibits  tho  system  pursued  in  irrigating 
Ihf  plains  of  llu-  >aii  Jnaipnn  \allfy  in  i  alitoruia.     Il  will 


Irrigating  system  for  grain,  as  laid  out  by  the  San  Joaquin  and  King's  River  Irrigation  Co.,  C'al. 


be  seen  that  the  water  passes  from  the  main  canal  into 
jiriniiiry  ditches,  from  which  it  is  delivered  into  scc- 
omhiry  ditches,  which  in  turn  pass  it  into  irrigating  fur- 
pjHH,  which  are  its  immt-diale  dispensers  to  the  land; 
and  finally,  having  done  its  duty,  it  is  conveyed  away 
by  a  drain  to  irrigate  again  below,  or  else  it  escapes  into 
the  natural  drainage-lines.  The  main  canal  has  a  fall 
of  1  foot  to  the  mile,  while  the  fall  of  tho  primary  ditches 
is  B  feet,  anil  of  the  secondary  ditches  from  3  to  5  feet  to 
the  mile.  The  contour-lines  of  1  foot  difference  of  level 
are  shown,  and  they  inclicato  a  surface  nearly  plane  and 
extremely  favorable  for  irrigation.  Tho  primary  ditclies 
in  this  case  are  one  mile  apart,  and  tho  secondary  ditches 
arc  one-fourth  of  a  mile  apart.  Tho  irrigating  furrows 
in  the  grain-fiehl  are  parallel  to  tho  primary  ditches,  and 
tho  "checks"  are  represented  by  lines  parallel  to  the  sec- 
ondary ditches.  These  checks  are  50  yards  apart,  meas- 
ured parallel  to  the  primary  ditclies.  Tho  irrigating  fur- 
rows arc  40  yards  apart.  The  primary  ditches,  when  full, 
will  carry  50  feet  per  second,  and  one  primary  ditch  will 
supply  three  secondary  ditches.  The  water  passes  from 
the  secondary  ditche.«  to  the  furrows  by  boxes  6x10  inches 
which  pass  through  tho  bank.  Kaeh  box  will  didiver  1^ 
cul)ic  feet  ]>er  second,  and  each  secondary  will  supply  10 
boxes.  Each  secondary  dilch  waters  SO  acres,  within  which 
area  there  are  about  5  miles  of  furrows  and  4  miles  of 
checks.  There  is  a  gate  at  tho  junction  of  each  primary 
with  the  main  canal,  and  one  in  ca'-h  primary  for  every 
three  secondaries,  and  one  in  the  middle  of  each  secondary  ; 
and  each  box  is  fitted  with  its  little  gate. 

With  this  description  we  are  prepared  to  trace  thoconrso 
of  nn  irrigation.  A  C  D  K  contains  SO  acres,  sown  in  grain. 
The  gate  in  the  secondary  cliteh  at  11  being  closed,  and  that 
at  A  iicing  open,  the  first  half  of  tho  secondary  diteh  will 
begin  to  be  filled  with  water,  which  will  run  into  tho  irri- 
gating furrows  0  to  0,  inclusive,  and  will  (low  until  it  en- 
counters the  dam  made  by  the  check  Im,  when  it  will  rise 
and  overflow  the  strip  of  lam)  lying  between  the  secondary 
diteh  and  tho  cheek  I  m.  When  this  strip  is  sufliciontly 
watered,  the  cultivator  opens  with  a  hoe  a  jmssage  through 
the  check  Im  for  each  furrow,  and  permits  the  water  to 
flow  in  parallel  courses  until  it  is  again  cheeked  at  the  lino 
«  n  for  a  time  sulficient  to  water  the  "(trip  lying  between  tho 
checks  Im  and  ii  n\  and  this  process  is  continued  until  tho 
•10  acres  lying  next  the  primary  ditch  aro  completely  irri- 
gated. This  flone,  tho  little  gates  0  to  K  arc  cloapri,  the 
gate  at  H  is  opened,  and  the  sanio  steps  are  pursued  in  irri- 
gating tho  other  half  of  tho  tract.  In  tnc  alfalfa  field 
the  furrows  are  multiplied,  to  ensure  a  more  equal  difTusinn 
of  (he  water.  In  this  ease  the  ground  falls  S  ici-t  to  the 
mile,  and  as  the  checks  ore  50  yards  apart,  the  fall  for  this 
distance  is  1.^0'''^  inches.     When  the  water  is  Just  even 


with  the  upper  line  of  one  of  these  strips  between  two  con- 
secutive checks,  it  will  bo  2^Qths  inches  in  depth  along  the 
lowest  line  of  tho  strip.  In  this  way  a  secondary  ditch 
with  a  fall  of  five  feet  to  tho  mile,  and  running  full,  will 
spi;ead  more  than  4  inches  of  water  over  80  acres  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

It  is  plain  that  the  successful  irrigator  must  use  a  level 
to  lay  out  his  ditches,  and  it  will  bo  rare  when  so  favorable 
afield  for  irrigation  will  be  found  as  the  one  just  illustrated. 
Tho  ditches  will  rarely  present  so  symmetrical  an  ajvpear- 
ance.  In  the  general  case  the  system  will  prove  to  be  much 
more  complicated.  Tho  primaries,  for  instance,  will  follow 
the  minor  divides  of  the  plain,  and  they  will  seldom  bo 
parallel  or  even  rectilinear  ;  and  having  to  supply  variable 
areas,  tho  cross-sections  will  vary  in  each  case.  Tho  vari- 
ableness of  fall  to  tho  ditches,  and  their  varying  dinien- 
f^ions  in  a  le?s  favorable  field,  add  so  many  complications 
that  tho  work  of  an  irrigator  demands  the  acquirements 
of  nn  engineer.  An  irrigation  of  grain  usually  consists 
of  two  or  three  inches  of  water,  wliich  is  repeated  as  often 
as  tho  needs  of  the  croj)  require. 

Irrigation  has  been  little  practised  in  the  U.  S.,  but  it 
has  had  more  development  in  the  sections  of  America  which 
were  once  under  the  dominion  of  Spain.  Italy  and  Spain 
in  Kurope,  Egypt  and  India,  present  extensive  operatiuns 
of  this  nature.  The  English  have  been  extemling  irriga- 
ting facilities  in  India  for  the  past  few  years  on  a  grand 
scale.  Tho  arrangements  of  the  native  inhabitants,  which 
have  existed  for  centuries,  are  also  extensive.'^  They  prac- 
tised irrigation  by  natural  flow  of  water,  but  ihey  supple- 
mented their  supply  of  water  by  raising  it  from  wells  by 
means  of  various  appliances.  They  made  extensive  use 
of  reservoirs  to  colh-ct  the  water  when  abundant.  an<l  to 
hold  it  until  the  season  for  its  appHcatittn  to  tho  land.  The 
Madras  provinces  are  doited  over  with  reservoirs  in  such 
numbers  (hat  the  face  of  the  country  may  bo  likened  to  tho 
face  of  a  person  badly  marked  by  smallpox.  These  reser- 
voirs are  found  of  all  areas,  from  that  of  nmny  miles  to 
that  of  one  or  of  a  few  acres.  Each  inequality  of  tho 
grouml  which  aff'irded  any  facility  for  storage  was  utilized, 
antl  it  was  surrounded  liy  an  earthen  embankment.  The 
water-supply  was  afforded  from  tho  natural  drainage  of 
the  little  basin,  or,  if  this  was  insufficient,  a  channel  was 
cut  to  conduct  tho  flood-waters  of  tho  rivers  to  the  store- 
houses. In  the  northern  provinces  of  India  the  reservoirs 
are  the  fields  of  snow  on  the  Himalayas. 

It  is  claimed,  with  a  show  of  reason,  that  the  water  de- 
rived from  rivers  is  superior  for  irrigation  to  that  afforded 
by  tanks  or  reservoirs.     When  the  water  is  stored  in  rcscr- 


•For  brief  neenunl  of  wlileh  see  Sngincrrinf;,  vol.  xvW  ,  and 
Van  XostrarnTs  En<j.  Mat;.,  .July,  1874. 


1316 


IRRITANTS— IRVING. 


roirs  it  deposits  the  fertilizing  particles  which  it  has  car- 
ried in  su!«pcnsion.  while  the  flowing  water  bears  them,  in 
part  at  least,  to  the  fiohls.  where  they  renc\v  tho  produc- 
tiveness of  the  soil.  Water  is  generally  sold  in  terms  of  the 
area  irrigated  and  the  kind  of  cultivation.  There  are 
many  objections  to  this  method.  It  is  unequal,  and  it  is 
wasteful.  It  pays  a  premium  for  careless  irrigation.  The 
absorptive  capacity  of  the  soil  is  not  considered.  The  true 
plan  is  to  dispose  of  water  by  the  cubic  foot.  This  plan 
is  followed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Italy.  It  requires 
special  arrangements  for  measurement,  and  those  that  have 
been  hitherto  used  are  not  entirely  satisfaetory.  The 
Kalian  module  or  measuring  apparatus  keeps  the  head 
always  the  same  by  passing  the  water  through  a  sluice- 
gate into  an  interior  basin,  from  which  it  ])roeeeds  to  the 
irrigating  channels.  The  gate  being  capable  of  adjustment, 
the  water  in  the  basin  can  always  be  kept  at  a  constant 
level,  no  matter  how  the  level  in  the  channel  from  which  it 
is  derived  may  vary.  As  the  Icvtd  of  the  canal  falls,  the 
ajierturc  of  the  gateway  may  be  enlarged,  and  conversely 
a  contraction  of  the  orifice  ought  to  follow  an  increase  of 
head  in  the  canal. 

The  increase  of  production  which  results  from  irrigation 
in  warm  climates,  where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  to  pro- 
duce a  crop,  is  quite  sufficient  to  justify  the  large  expendi- 
ture which  is  required  to  put  the  system  into  operation.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  canals  and  primary  ditches,  including 
dams,  head-works,  and  all  necessary  arrangements,  except- 
ing the  secondary  and  other  minor  ditches,  can  be  con- 
structed on  the  plains  of  California  for  an  expenditure 
which  may  vary  from  $10  to  $20  per  acre.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  features  of  the  country 
are  in  general  extremely  favorable,  and  that  the  gates, 
head-works,  and  other  constructions  are  made  of  wood,  and 
that  they  must  be  replaced  from  time  to  time.  The  minor 
ditches,  it  is  estimated,  may  cost  from  $6  to  $10  per  acre, 
which  makes  the  total  probable  outlay  to  vary  between  $15 
and  $-10  per  acre.  The  simplicity  of  the  irrigating  system 
which  is  practicable  on  the  plains  of  California  is  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  intricacies  which  have  been  developed  in 
Italy;  but  space  is  wanting  for  the  development  of  these, 
and  its  practical  value  in  our  own  country  is  doubtful. 
Reference  is  made  to  the  list  of  authorities  appended  to  the 
article  which  precedes  this.  G.  H.  Mendell. 

Ir'ritants.  Tn  medicine  all  such  agents  are  called  )>?'t'- 
(rtii(  as  by  coatact  with  the  animal  tissues  cause  one  or 
more  of  the  following  effects  :  pain,  increased  ilow  of  blood 
to  the  part,  inflammation,  or  active  excitation  of  function, 
as  increase  of  secretion  by  a  gland,  involuntary  muscular 
contraction,  etc.  Such  are,  in  general,  mineral  astringents  ; 
all  substances  chemically  disorganizing  to  the  tissues,  as 
strong  acids,  alkalies,  and  caustic  salts,  like  corrosive  sub- 
limate or  silver  nitrate,  and  certain  vegetable  substances, 
containing  generally  either  an  acrid  resin  or  volatile  oil, 
such  as  mustard,  jalap,  croton  oil,  oil  of  turpentine,  squills, 
etc.  Agents  which  excite  the  "irritability"  of  nerve- 
centres,  like  strychnine,  are  also  sometimes  called  irritant. 
Irritants  do  not  thus  form  a  natural  group  of  medicines, 
but  the  word  '*  irritant  "  expresses  a  certain  general  prop- 
ertv  belonging  in  different  modes  to  many  distinct  classes 
of  medicinal  agents.  Edwaro  Ctrtis. 

Ir'tish,  a  river  of  Northern  Asia,  rises  in  the  Altai 
Mountains,  in  lat.  47°  N.,  Ion.  89°  E.,  flows  in  a  north- 
western direction  through  the  Chinese  province  of  Songaria 
and  the  Russian  governments  of  Tomsk  and  Tobolsk  till  it 
joins  the  Obi.  after  a  course  of  about  1700  miles,  180  N. 
of  the  city  of  Tobolsk.  Its  upper  course  flows  through  the 
best  agricultural  districts  of  Siberia,  but  its  navigation  is 
much  impeded  by  shoals  and  shifting  sandbars.  It  abounds 
in  fish,  both  salmon  and  sturgeon. 

Ir'vin,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1.T16. 

Ir'vine^  town  of  Sc(ttland.  in  Ayrshire,  on  both  sides  of 
the  Irvine,  near  its  entrance  in  the  Frith  of  Clyde.  It  has 
several  educational  institutions  of  high  reputation,  large 
ehipbuilding  docks,  and  some  manufactures.     Pop.  6S66. 

Irvine,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Estill  co.,  Ky..  70  miles  S.  E. 
of  Frankfort,  and  on  the  Kentucky  River.  It  has  1  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  224. 

Irvine  (  Wim.iam),  b.  at  Fermagh.  Ireland,  Nov.  .3, 1741  : 
studied  at  Dublin  University,  and  became  surgeon  of  a 
Rritish  ship  of  war  during  the  French  war.  after  which  ho 
came  to  America,  and  settled  at  Carlisle.  Pa.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  provincial  convention  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1774:  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  fith  battalion  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line  in  Jan.,  177G:  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Three  Rivers,  Canada,  in  June  of  that  year,  and  paroled, 
but  not  exchanged  until  May.  1778.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  court-martial  for  the  trial  of  Cien.  t^harles  Lee  in 
July,  1778,-    appointed  brigadier-general   in   May,  1779j 


served  in  New  Jersey  and  at  the  battle  of  Bull's  Ferry  un- 
der Wayne.  In  17^1  be  took  command  of  the  defences  of 
the  N.  W.  frontier,  witti  head-quarters  at  Fort  Pitt  ;  was 
State  eomuiissioner  for  the  distribution  of  public  lands  to 
the  soldiers  1785;  member  of  old  Congress  17S6-SS.  and 
of  Federal  Congress  170o-0.j;  took  part  in  the  campaign 
against  the  insurgents  in  the  *' Whiskey  Insurrection  "  in 
1704:  superintendent  of  military  stores  at  Philadelphia 
ISOl,  and  president  of  the  State  Society  of  the  Cincinnati 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Philadelphia 
July  2i),  1S04. 

Ir'vineton  (Irvine  P.  0.).  post-v.  of  Brokenstraw  ^p., 
Warren  co..  Pa.,  on  the  Allegheny  River,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Dunkirk  Allegheny  Valley  and  Pittsburg,  the  Oil 
Creek  and  Allegheny  River,  and  the  Philadelphia  aiirl 
Erie  R.  Rs..  51  miles  from  Oil  City.  The  Brokenstraw 
Creek  affords  fine  water-power.  There  is  a  foundry,  a 
woollen-faetory,  an  oil-refinery,  and  other  manufacturing 
enterprises,  and  an  excellent  sulphur  spring. 

Ir'vingf  post-v,  and  tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  111.,  on  the 
Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.,  72  miles  N.  E.  of  St. 
Louis.     Pop.  751  ;  of  tp.  1591. 

Irving',  post-v.  of  Marshall  eo.,  Kan.,  on  the  Central 
branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  R.  R.,  90  miles  AV.  of  Atchison. 
It  is  finely  situated,  and  is  the  scat  of  AVetmore  Institute 
(Presbyterian). 

Irving,  tp.  of  Barry  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  124S. 

Irving,  tp.  of  Monongalia  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  276. 

Irving,  post-v.  of  Hanover  tp..  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  Lake  Shore  R.  R.,  29  miles  S.  W.  of  Buffalo,  and  on 
Cattaraugus  Creek  near  Lake  Erie.  The  raouth  of  the 
creek  constitutes  its  harbor.     Pop.  ."Jjd. 

Irving,  post-tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  828. 

Irving  (Edwaro).     See  Irvixgites. 

Irving  (Pkti;h),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Now  York  City  Oct.  ^0, 
1771;  studied  medicine,  but  never  practised;  founded  in 
1802  the  Mornintj  (Itronich,  a  Democratic  paper  which  ad- 
vocated the  presidential  candidacy  of  Aaron  Burr;  trav- 
elled in  Europe  180C-08;  aided  bis  brother  Washington  in 
the  earliest  ]iart  of  the  Kiiickrvhocktr  ;  resided  in  Europe 
iSOO-Hfi  ;  published  a  novel,  Gi'nrnuni  Sfioifnrro  (New  York, 
1820).  and  d.  at  New  York  Juno  27,  IS.'JS. 

Irving  (Rev.  TnEonoRK),  LL.D.,  nephew  of  Washing- 
ton Irving,  b.  in  New  York  in  1809,  and  graduated  at  Co- 
lumbia College  18:^7 :  studied  law  and  literature  in  Europe; 
was  professor  of  liistory  and  belles  lettres  in  Geneva  Col- 
lege lS.";G-r?9.  and  afterwards  held  a  similar  professorship 
in  the  New  York  Free  Academy;  in  1854  took  orders  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  Author  of  Tfie  Conquest 
of  Florida  (1835)  and  The  Fountain  of  Living  WiiierB 
(1851). 

Irving  (AVashington),  LL.D.,  b.  in  New  York  City  Apr. 
3,  1783.  was  the  youngest  son  of  AVilliam  Irving,  merchant, 
a  native  of  Scotland,  who  had  married  an  English  lady  and 
emigrated  to  America  some  twenty  years  before.  His  tddcr 
brothers,  William  and  Peter,  were  partially  occupied  with 
literary  pursuits,  which  naturally  inclined  him  to  follow 
their  example.  His  school  education  was  not  protracted 
beyond  his  sixteenth  year,  when  he  began  to  s^tudy  law.  but 
his  literary  training  was  acquired  by  the  diligent  perusal 
at  home  of  the  older  English  writers,  his  favorites  being 
Chaucer  and  Spenser.  In  1S02,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he 
made  his  first  literary  venture  by  printing  in  the  columns 
of  the  Mnniiiiff  Vhrrmich,  then  edited  by  his  brother.  Dr. 
Peter  Irving,  a  series  of  local  sketches  under  the  in>m-(lc- 
plume  of  ••  Jonathan  Oldstyle."  In  1804,  being  threatened 
with  consumption,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  landed  at  Bor- 
deaux, and  travelled  through  France,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Holland,  and  England,  laying  up  a  rich  store  of  materials 
for  future  use.  Returning  to  New  York  in  Mar.,  1806,  he 
quickly  completed  his  legal  studies,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practised  the  profession.  Early  in  1S07 
bo  commenced,  in  connection  with  his  brother  AA'iUiam  and 
.Tames  K.  PauMing,  the  amusing  serial  SitlmHijundi.  which 
had  an  immediate  success,  and  not  only  decided  his  future 
career,  but  long  determined  the  character  of  his  writings. 
In  1808.  with  some  assistance  from  his  brother  Peter,  he 
wrote  A'nicK-erhnckcr's  JUston/  »/  Xtw  York,  a  serio-comic 
narrative,  and  in  1810  a  biography  of  the  poet  Campbell, 
prefixed  to  an  American  edition  of  bis  works.  His  attention 
was  much  absorbed  at  this  time  by  the  interests  of  a  mer- 
cantile business  in  which  he  engaged  with  two  of  his  bro- 
thers. It  was  not  until  18i:i-14  that  he  reappeared  in  lit- 
erature as  editor  of  the  Analcvtic  yfuqnzinc,  published  at 
Philadelphia,  for  which  bis  o\vn  contribution  was  a  series 
of  biographical  sketches  of  the  naval  heroes  of  the  then 
existing  war  with  Great  Britain.  Tn  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  aide-de-camp  and  military  secretary  of    Gov. 


IKVING— IKVINGITKS. 


1317 


TompkiDs,  with  the  rank  of  colonel — a  title,  however,  which 
he  never  used.  Eurly  in  ISl  j.  upon  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  with  (ireat  I'ritain.  "  Colonel "  Irvins;  hastened  to 
make  another  tour  in  Enghind.  Wale.*;,  and  Scotland,  cx- 
pectinc;  also  to  visit  the  Continent ;  the  anticipated  plea- 
Bure-trip  proved  to  be  an  absence  of  seventeen  years  from 
America.  For  two  or  three  years  Irvinp  wiis  cn<rapcd  in 
ramblini;  thr<»uph  the  I'uited  Kingdom,  without  other  ol)- 
jcct  than  pleasure,  making,  however,  many  literary  friends, 
and  accumulating  that  minute  acquaintanco  witli  Kn$;lish 
life  which  he  afterwards  turned  to  so  pood  aceount.  About 
the  close  of  1S17  the  commercial  house  in  which  Irving 
was  a  partner  failed,  and  ho  was  thrown  upon  his  pen  for 
a  subsistence.  Ho  sent  the  essays  comiiosing  the  S/.-ctcJi- 
Boitk  to  New  York,  where  they  were  printed  in  pamphlets 
in  ISIS,  over  the  signature  of  ''GeoflVey  Crayon."  Some 
of  them  were  reprinted  by  Jerdan  in  the  /.itrmr}/  Gnzettc 
of  Lonilon.  an<l  were  so  cordially  received  that,  aidcfl  by 
the  recommendation  of  Sir  Walter  Pcott,  the  publisher 
Murray  brought  out  the  work  in  good  style  in  1820.  The 
Skctch-Iiook  laid  the  foundation  of  the  fortune  and  the  per- 
manent fame  of  Irving:  the  Ict^cmls  of  .Shtpif  I/otloirtiniX  Jiip 
Von  U7»/.7f  at  once  took  rank  as  modern  classics,  while  the 
pictures  of  En<rlish  life  and  customs  were  so  genial,  ar- 
tistic, and  withal  so  faithful,  that  they  fairly  took  the  reading 
worM  by  storm.  A  new  phenomenon  had  appeared  in  the 
world  of  letters — the  first  American  author  had  gained  an 
honorable  name  in  Albemarle  street  and  Paternoster  Row. 
Ueneeforth  the  path  of  Irving  was  smooth,  and  his  subse- 
quent writings  appeared  with  rapidity.  Uracebn'df/r  JTaU 
was  published  in  1^=22;  though  rapidly  written,  and  deci- 
dedly unequal  to  the  standard  of  the  Shctch-BonK;  it  was 
well  received,  and  brought  the  author  £1000.  The  Tahit 
uf  a  Trovcffft;  published  in  1^21.  brought  him  Xl^OO. 
Irving  had  spent  three  winters  on  the  Continent,  chiefly  at 
Paris  and  I>rc-den,  when  in  1S2.0  his  attention  was  called 
by  his  friend  Alexander  II.  Kverett.  American  minister  to 
Spain,  to  Xavarrete's  collection  of  documents  upon  Colum- 
bus and  the  early  explorers  of  America,  then  appearing  at 
Madrid.  lie  |)r<»ceeded  to  that  ea])it:il,  intending  to  make 
a  translation  of  the  work  of  Xavarretc,  but  finding  it  to  be 
rather  a  rich  mine  of  materials  than  a  readable  book,  he 
fortunately  changed  his  plan  and  produced  his  ffi'ston/  of 
thr  lAfr.  find  ViiiffUfcn  of  (lirintrtphcr  Cnhimhua  (1^25*),  to 
which  was  addetl  (IS.'Il)  its  continuation,  the  Cotnpanione 
of  Ctthtmhun.  The  former  work  is  Irving's  masterpiece  in 
historical  composition  ;  though  not  exhaustive  in  its  use  of 
the  materials  at  hand,  nor  characterized  by  any  acuto  ap- 
preciation of  the  mental,  moral,  and  political  worM  in 
whieh  Columbus  was  reared,  tlie  work  has  all  the  charm  of 
a  romance  combined  with  tlic  fidelity  of  a  chronicle.  Its 
reception  in  England  may  be  inferred  fmni  the  facts  that 
Murray  paid  £;tOflO  guineas  for  the  copyright,  and  a  gold 
medal  of  fifty  guineas  was  award<'d  him  as  a  prize  given  by 
Kin^  Ceorge  IV.  for  excellence  in  hislorienl  composition.  In 
1S2S-29  Irving  travelled  through  the  S.  nf  Spain,  and  spent 
three  months  in  the  ruined  Moorish  palace  of  the  Alham- 
bra  at  Granada.  In  the  latter  year  ho  published  the  Con- 
qurHt  <f  flrnunila,  and  in  1>*."2  Thr  Alhainhra,  neither  of 
which  was  quite  as  successful  as  his  former  works.  Irving 
returned  in  July,  1S29,  to  London,  having  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  secretary  of  legation  in  England.  In  1831 
the  University  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  degree 
of  IjL.D.  In  is;t2,  after  seventeen  years'  absence,  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  land,  where  all  his  books  had  of  course 
been  republisherl,  and  where  to  his  Eurr)peiin  fame  was 
added  the  American  element  of  pridr-  in  nn  author  who  had 
done  honor  to  his  native  land.  Irving  was  now  fifty  years 
of  aje.  but  he  plunged  at  once  into  a  new  series  of  travels 
and  studies  with  all  the  eagerness  of  youth.  The  same 
year  he  aceompaiiied  Commissioner  EIIswr>rlb  in  his  journey 
for  removing  the  Indian  tribes  to  the  W.  of  the  Mi^sis- 
pip|ii,  and  narrated  his  observations  in  his  Ti>ur  on  thr 
PruirUn  fl8.'{j),  published  in  the  series  called  the  Crayon 
Mitirrflttui/;  to  which  were  added  in  another  volume  Ah- 
hotMfttrtl  and  Xrimtrad  Ahhn/,  In  iS.'irt  ho  published  Am- 
tnn'tt.  a  narrative  of  the  exploration  of  Oregon  by  American 
fur-traders;  in  IS.I",  the  Adiriituni  tf  C<tptfiin  FionnrrUlr; 
and  in  IS.IK-II  contributed  to  the  Knirkcrhnrktr  Mnrjazinc 
a  series  of  nrticles  afterwards  published  ns,'>.'))  in  the  vol- 
ume tntillcil  \V<dfrvt'n  linnnt.  In  1SI2,  Irvinir  rreeived  the 
np|inintntent  of  minister  ti>  Spain,  a  jiost  which  he  filled 
for  four  years,  during  which  he  discontinued  authorship, 
and  it  was  not  unfil  1H19  that  he  reprinted  with  large 
achlitions  a  biography  of  Oliver  Ooldsmith,  furnished  some 
years  before  to  a  Paris  edition  of  that  aulhor*s  writings.  In 
lS5ft  lie  published  .lA'A-m'-/  n>,d  In'*  Surrr»H-,rii  {'1  vols.). 
He  was  thenceforth  occupied  throughout  his  life  in  his 
ftintjuum  o^M/r,  the  L iff  of  W'oiifihif/tnii,  uf  which  the  fimt 
volume  ap]ieared  in  If^.'i.'i.  and  the  fifth,  concluding  the 
work,  in  Aug.,  18^9.     In  1848,  at  the  instance  of  the  en- 


terprising publisher,  Mr.  G.  P.  Putnam,  Irving  had  com- 
menced the  reissue  of  his  works,  with  his  final  corrections, 
the  edition  being  conijdetcd  in  I8.7O  in  fifteen  volumes. 
The  success  of  this  undertaking  was  instantaneous,  and  it 
gave  Irving  a  new  lease  of  literary  existence,  not  less  than 
250.000  volumes  of  the  republication  having  been  sold  dur- 
ing Irving's  life.  Xo  one  was  more  surprised  at  this  mar- 
vellous renewal  of  uld-time  popularity  than  the  author 
himself,  who  had  become  in  a  measure  his  own  literary 
descendant  and  the  contemporary  of  a  second  generation 
of  writers.  Irving  resided  during  the  closing  years  of  his 
life  at  Sunnyside  (Tarrytown)  on  the  Hudson,  a  quaint 
pre-Revolutionary  edifice,  whieli  has  become  one  r)f  the 
shrines  of  American  pilgrimage ;  here,  surrounded  by 
friends,  and  enjoying  the  society  of  a  brother,  of  nephews, 
and  nieces,  he  passed  an  active  and  honored  age  until  his 
death,  Nov.  28.  ISjO.  Washington  Irving  was  never  mar- 
ried; an  early  bereavement  was  mourned  by  him  through 
life,  and  the  memory  of  his  betrothed  was  present  on  his 
deathbed.  Of  the  characteristic  excellences  of  style  which 
made  Washington  Irving  the  most  popular  of  American 
authors  it  would  bo  superfluous  licre  to  speak.  Though 
his  literary  activity  was  exercised  rather  in  England  than 
in  America,  and  many  of  his  subjects  were  European,  his 
dcservecl  success  is  a  matter  of  pride  to  his  countrymen, 
who  will  not  allow  his  graceful  productions  to  fall  into  ob- 
livion. Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Irving  (William),  b.  in  New  York  City  Aug.  15.  17G6, 
was  brother  of  Washington  Irving;  became  au  Indian 
trader,  residing  at  .lolinstown  and  Caughnawaga  on  the 
Mohawk  from  17S7  to  1701.  In  179'I  ho  married  a  sister 
of  .Tames  K.  Paulding,  and  settled  in  New  York  as  a  mer- 
chant, where  his  extensive  observation  of  the  world,  com- 
bined with  geniality  and  wit,  made  his  house  a  centre  for 
tho  best  literary  circle  of  the  metropolis.  His  poetical  and 
other  contributions  to  Su/inaffnndi  would,  if  separately 
published,  haveglven  him  adisfinetplaee  among  American 
humorous  writers,  but  he  seemed  entirely  unambitioirs  of 
literary  fame.  lie  was  a  member  of  Congress  1813-19, 
when  ho  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health.  D.  at  New 
York  Nov,  0,  1821. 

Ir'vingites,  members  of  tho  communion  which  is  called 
by  its  adherents  tho  Catholic  A])ost(die  Chundi.  The  name 
**  Irvingitcs "  was  first  given  in  ISIU  to  those  who  shared 
tho  opini<ms  of  tho  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  who  was  b.  at 
Annan,  Dunifricss-shiro.  Aug. 4,1792.  and  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh University  for  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  ministry. 
Iloobtained  no  ehurcli  employnient  until  IS]'.),  when  he  was 
chosen  assistant  by  the  cilehrated  Dr.  Chalmers.  Three 
years  later  ho  accepted  a  call  from  a  Presbyterian  congre- 
gation in  London,  where  his  eloquence,  modelled  on  the 
writings  of  Hooker,  Paeon,  and  Jeremy  Taylor,  attracted 
crowds  of  bearers.  At  that  time  there  was  a  general  relig- 
ious revival,  a  remarkable  reaction  from  the  religious  apathy 
into  which  Christendom  had  gradually  lullen  after  the  ex- 
citement of  tho  Reformation  had  died  out.  Most  of  the 
great  missionary  societies  were  then  founded  ;  ministers  of 
alt  se:!ts  spoke  with  new  earnestness;  the  Bible  was  more 
eagerly  read,  special  attention  being  given  to  its  propheti- 
cal passages.  Among  students  of  prophecy  Edward  Irving 
was  distinguished.  In  1825  ho  published  /ioln/lon  aud  Jn- 
fldplitif  Forrdoowed,  and  in  tho  following  year  his  transla- 
tion from  the  Spanish  of  The  Coming  <>/  thr  ^fftt'*iah  in 
Gfoty  and  MnjcHttj.  written  by  Manuel  Laeuu/.a  under  tho 
pseudonym  of  Ren  Ezra.  In  1828.  Irving  began  to  preach 
the  entire  humanity  of  Christ.  Our  Lord,  he  declared, 
took  upon  himself  the  body  of  man  as  it  became  after  tho 
fall — mortal,  corruptible,  cajtalde  of  sin.  from  which  he  was 
kept  only  by  the  power  of  the  Mu\y  Spirit  dwelling  in  him. 
This  assertion,  wliich  Irving  himself  regarded  not  ns  a  new 
thing,  but  as  the  ancient  and  natural  belief  of  all  Chris- 
tians, ])rovoked  miiny  answers  nufl  refutations,  and  caused 
some  stir  in  tho  Presl)yterian  Church.  In  18.30.  Mary 
Campbell,  a  young  Scotchwoman  who  had  been  earnestly 
praying  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Cihost.  began  to  prophesy 
and  to  speak  with  fervor  in  an  "unknown  tongue."  Tho 
same  phenomenon  beeaino  numilVst  in  other  persons,  aud 
in  1831  appeared  in  some  members  of  Irving's  congrega- 
tion. Irving,  at  first  doubtful  as  to  the  origin  of  the?o 
"gifts,"  soon  owned  theni  to  be  from  (Jod.  allowed  their 
exercise  in  his  church,  and  wrote  and  spoke  in  their  de- 
fence. The  projiheeits,  which  trt  us  who  now  dispassion- 
ately rend  Iheni  appear  nowise  remarkable,  were  in  Eng- 
lish. Tho  "  tonpue."  which  those  who  uttered  it  supposed 
for  a  while  to  be  the  living  speech  of  some  fur-off  country, 
wiM  pronounced  by  philolocists  to  be  totally  unliki'  any 
known  language.  That  opinion  was  speedily  ndnpted  even 
by  believers,  who  came  to  regard  the  "  tongue  '*  as  a  super- 
natural sign  of  divine  power,  known  in  the  primitive 
Church ;  and  spoken  of  by  Paul  in  his  First  Epistio  to  the 


1318 


IRVINGTON— ISABELLA. 


Coriuthians  (xiv.  2).  In  1832,  Irving,  being  accused  of 
heresy,  was  tried  by  the  presbytery  of  tlic  Scottish  Church 
in  Loudon,  dechircd  unfit  for  the  ministry,  aud  dismissed 
from  the  charge  of  his  congregation.  But  some  of  its 
members  still  adhered  tu  him,  aud  with  them  he  removed 
to  Newman  street,  where  a  room,  formerly  the  studio  of 
Benjamin  West,  was  fitted  up  as  a  chapel.  There  a  new 
ritual  was  gradually  arranged  and  a  new  ministry  was 
formed.  In  lS;i;{,  Irving  was  again  tried,  this  time  by  the 
Scottish  presbytery  at  Annan,  aud  was  finally  east  out  from 
the  Presbyterian  t'hurcti.  Shortly  afterwards  the  apostles 
of  tlie  Newman  street  congregation  rcordainod  him  as  angel 
or  pastor  of  that  church,  and  there  he  ofliciated  until  a 
little  while  before  his  death  at  Glasgow  Dee.  i>,  1S34,  He 
WHS  buried  in  Glafsgow  cathedral. 

The  new  community  continued  to  prosper.  In  London 
alone  it  soon  numbered  seven  congregations,  among  which 
were  many  persons  of  wealth  aud  position,  and  in  1853  the 
magnificent  church  in  Gordon  Square  was  opened  with 
much  religious  ccrcraouy.  The  CatlioHc  Apostolic  Church 
rejects  the  name  '•  Irvingite,"  and  denies  that  Irving  was 
its  founder,  declaring  also  that  it  is  wrong  to  call  a  church 
after  any  leader,  however  excellent.  Its  special  mission, 
says  one  of  its  pastors  with  whom  the  writer  has  corre- 
sponded on  this  suhject,  is  "  the  gathering  ."ind  perfecting 
in  one  in  Christ,  the  whole  body  of  God's  election,  living 
and  dead,  out  of  all  nations,  to  reign  with  Christ  in  the 
world  to  come."  It  has  a  fourfold  ministry — apostles, 
prophets,  evangelists,  and  angels  or  pastors.  The  apostles, 
twelve  in  number,  form  the  chief  ruling  power,  and  are 
appointed  to  no  sjjecial  churches,  but  watch  over  all.  They 
ordain  persons  called  to  the  ministry,  aud  lay  their  bauds 
on  the  people  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  the  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Gho.st.  Through  the  prophets  God  is  believed  to  de- 
clare his  will  to  the  Church.  The  evangelists,  as  the  name 
implies,  preach  the  liospel  of  Christ  and  declare  his  speedy 
coming.  An  angel  or  pastor  is  set  over  each  church,  aud 
with  him  are  associated  ciders,  prophets,  and  evangelists, 
who  aid  him  in  governing  and  ministering  to  the  congre- 
gation. There  are  also  dc:ic'ins,  sub-deacons,  and  deacon- 
esses, chosen  by  the  people.  The  communion  is  adminis- 
tered every  Lord's  day,  and  also  during  the  week.  In  large 
congregations  the  first  and  last  hours  of  each  day  (count- 
ing from  0  A.  M.  to  G  r.  m.)  are  set  apart  for  public  wor- 
ship, and  at  these  services  a  liturgy  is  uscil,  taken  from  the 
(Jreek,  Roman,  and  Anglican  rituals.  But  there  arc  also 
frequent  meetings  for  extempore  prayer,  when  women,  and 
even  chihiren,  are  allowed  to  speak,  ('oiifession,  as  a  means 
of  relieving  the  mind,  is  encouraged,  but  is  not  obligatory. 
Sick  persons  arc  anointed  with  oil  (.lames  v.  \i),  but  the 
motive  of  this  ceremony  is  entirely  different  from  that  of 
'*  extreme  unction,"  with  which  some  writers  have  identi- 
fied it.  A  lamp,  regarded  as  symbolical  of  the  Divine 
Presence,  is  kept  always  burning  before  the  altar.  Incense, 
candles,  and  ricli  vestments  are  useil,  also  with  a  symbol- 
ical meaning.  Kach  member  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church  devotes  to  it  one-tenth  of  his  income,  besides  occa- 
sional gifts.  It  has  in  London  seven  churches,  with  sev- 
eral thousand  communicants,  and  others  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  also  in  many  European  countries, 
the  British  colonies. and  the  U.  S.  The  writer  has  applied 
to  the  head  of  a  Catholic  Apostolic  congregatitm  in  London 
for  exact  information  as  to  the  aggregate  number  of  com- 
municants, but  from  his  reply  it  appears  that  no  general 
statistics  have  been  published,  though  "each  angel  knows 
the  number  of  his  own  flock,  and  the  apostles  have  full  in- 
formnti'm  of  evervtliing."  (See  The.  Lift: of  Edfcnnl  Inhuf, 
by  Alr.^  01iphant'(2  vols.,  London,  lSG2,'8vo):  Th^  Ori'ff- 
imi/  t'ouMtitution  of  the  Chnrrh,  and  tta  Jiestoration,  hyliov. 
Jubal  ilodges  (London,  18fi4.  8vo) ;  The  Catholic  Apos- 
tofic  Church,  by  Ilev.  W.  AV.  .\ndrews  (London,  ISfi",  Svo) ; 
Eihrard  Irviu'j  tird  the  Cathnfic  Apoittolic  Chnrrh,  by  Rev. 

.1.  S.  Davenport  (New  York).  Janet  Tickkv. 

Ir'viiigton,  post-tp.  of  Kossuth  co.,  la.  Pop.  605, 
Irvin^ton,  post-v.  of  Clinton  tp.,  Essex  co.,  N.  J.,  on 

the  Passaic  Valley  and  Poapack  R.  R.,  3  miles  W.  by  S.  of 

Newark. 

Irviii^tnn,  post-v.  of  Grccnburg  tp.,  Westchester  co., 
N.  Y..  on  (he  lltids-m  River  and  the  Hudson  River  R.  R., 
22  miles  N.  of  New  York,  and  neiirly  opposite  Piermont. 
The  re8i<Ience  of  the  late  Washington  Irving  waa  in  the 
immc<liato  vicinity. 

Ir'win,  county  of  S.  Central  Georgia.  Area.  700  square 
miles.  It  is  level  and  sandy,  ami  chiefly  covered  with  pine 
forests.  Some  wool  and  grain  are  produced,  but  only  a 
very  small  port  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation.  Cap, 
Irwinville.     Pop.  1S37. 

Irwin,  tp.  of  Brown  eo..  Kan,     Pop.  2^00. 

IrwiOf  Ip.  of  Venango  co..  Pa.     Pop.  H89. 


Irwin,  a  b.  of  Westmoreland  co.,  Pa.,  in  North  Hunt- 
ington tp.,  on  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  (Iuwin's  Station 
P.  0.).     Pop.  833. 

Irwin  (JAitEP),  b.  in  Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C,  in  17o0; 
moved  with  his  parents  when  a  boy  to  Burke  co.,  Ga. ;  took 
an  active  part  in  the  cause  of  independence  during  the 
Revolutionary  war;  was  a  member  of  the  first  legislature 
of  Georgia  after  independence  was  achieved;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  c<)nvention  which  ratified  the  Constitution 
of  the  U.  S.  of  17^7;  was  governor  of  the  State  1790-1)8, 
and  again  180G-HU.  He  was  president  of  the  State  con- 
vention that  formed  the  constitution  of  179S.  It  was  his 
honor  as  governor  in  1700  to  sign  the  act  abrogating  the 
famous  Y'azoo  fraud,  which  had  been  perpetrated  by  a  pre- 
vious corrupt  legislature.  D.  at  Tniiui  Kill,  Washington 
CO.,  Ga.,  Mar.  1,  1818.  A  monument  to  his  memory  stands 
in  the  court-house  square  at  Sandcrsville,  Ga. 

A.  li.  Stephens. 

IrAVin  (John),  U.  S.  N.,  b.  Apr.  15.  18:i2.  in  Pennsyl- 
vania; entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Sept.  9,  1S47; 
became  a  passed  midsliipman  in  ISjo,  a  lieutenant  in  1855, 
[  a  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  a  commander  in  18fi6. 
Served  in  the  U.  S.  frigate  Wabash  at  the  battle  of  Port 
Royal,  and  with  a  detachment  of  officers  and  seamen  of 
that  vessel  took  port  in  the  bombardment  and  capture 
of  Fort  Pul.nski.  Highly  commended  for  "earnestness  aud 
bravery.'  Foxhall  A.  Pahker. 

Ir'winton,  po5;t-v.,  cap.  of  Wilkinson  co.,  Ga.,  3  miles 
from  Mclntyrc,  a  station  on  the  Central  R.  R.     Pop.  211. 

Ir'winville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Irwin  co,,  Ga.,  35  miles 
S.  W,  from  Chaunccy  (or  Eastmon),  a  station  on  the  Macon 
and  Brunswick  R.  R, 

Is  [Gr.  'U,  now  Flit],  an  important  city  of  ancient  Baby- 
lonia, eight  days*  journey  N.  of  Babylon,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Euphrates.  The  name  signifies  hiluincu.  and  that 
material  was  carried  thence  to  Cabylon  for  building  pur- 
poses. The  site  has  been  identified  by  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions. 

I'saac  [Heb.,  ''laughter"],  the  only  son  of  the  Hebrew 
patriarch  Abraham  by  Sarah  his  wife,  b.  (2U6;J  b.  c.)  in  the 
extreme  old  age  of  both  his  parents,  in  fulfilment  of  the  divine 
promise.  For  his  sake  I>hmacl,  his  half-brother,  was  thrust 
out  into  the  wilderness  with  Hngar,  his  mother,  a  bond- 
woman or  slave.  Later,  the  lad  Isaac  was  ofi"ered  by  bis 
father  as  a  sacrifice  on  Mount  Moriah,  in  ohedicncc  to  the 
divine  command,  but  Isaac's  life  was  spared  in  consequence 
of  a  heavenly  interposition.  When  forty  years  of  age  Isaac 
married  Itcbekah,  his  kinswoman  (202.'i  n.  c),  who  bore 
him  twin  sons,  Ksau  (or  Kdoin)  and  Jacob  (afterwards 
called  Israel).  The  former  was  the  first-born  and  the  fa- 
vorite of  his  father,  but  Jacob,  by  the  aid  of  his  mother, 
obtained  the  birthright.  Isaac  d.  at  Hebron  (1883  n.  c), 
aged  180  years.  lie  was  a  man  of  gentle  nature,  a  nomadic 
herdsman  of  devout  and  bhimclcss  life. 

Isaac  1*9  Comuenus,  a  Byzantine  emperor,  descended 
from  the  family  of  Comnenus.  but  was  educated  by  tlie  em- 
peror Basil  11.,  and  raised  to  the  throne  in  1057  by  a  con- 
spiracy. Being  prostrated  by  a  violent  fever,  he  abdicated 
in  10.>9,  retired  to  a  monastery,  and  d.  there  in  1001. 

Isaac  II.4  .4.nejelus,  a  Byzantine  emperor,  descended 
from  the  family  of  Ciunncnu*.  and  was  raised  to  the  throne 
by  a  revolution  in  lis:».  In  119a  his  brother,  Alexis  III., 
compelled  him  to  abdicate  and  deprived  him  of  his  sight, 
but  in  12U;i  the  crusaders  once  more  pbiced  him  on  the  im- 
perial throne,  whence  he  again  was  driven  in  1204  by  Alexis 
Dneas.  \vho  put  him  to  death. 

I'saac  (Daxiki.),  b.  at  Caythorpe.  Lincolnshire,  Eng., 
July  7,  1778;  joined  the  Wesleyan  conference  in  1800,  and 
d.  Mar.  .".1.  1834.  He  was  noted  as  a  controversialist,  be- 
ing called  "  the  polemic  Daniel,"  and  published  many  vol- 
umes, chiefly  on  theology.  His  collected  works  were  issued 
in  London  in  3  vols.,  1828. 

I'saac  I^rvi'la^  b.  nt  AVetzlar,  Germany,  in  1515;  be- 
came one  of  the  most  celebrated  Jewish  rabbis  of  his  time, 
but  with  his  son  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1646  ; 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Chnldeo  at  Louvain,  and 
in  15.'il  took  the  corresponding  chair  at  Cologne.  Author 
of  Dr/rntit,  Vcritntis  ffrhrfr/r  Sncrnntnt  Srripfnntrum  ( i  559), 
fntrodurtion  to  the  Ifchrrw  (irammnr  (1553),  Meditntioues 
firhroirrr  in  artrm  ffrauimftticnm  (1558),  and  other  excel- 
lent grammatical  and  philologienl  works,  besides  transla- 
tions, etc.  After  conversiim  be  took  the  name  of  John 
Isnac  Levi.     T!io  time  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Is'abel,  tp.  of  Fulton  co..  III.      Pop.  715. 

1<«aberin,  port  on  the  N.  coast  of  Santo  Pomingo,  3C 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Santiago.  It  was  so  called  by  Colum- 
bus, who  in  1493  established  hero  tho  first  Europea-i  set- 
tlement in  the  New  World,  some  ruins  of  which  are  etiU 
visible. 


ISABELLA— ISAIAH. 


1:J10 


Isabel'la,  county  of  the  N.  central  portion  of  the 
suutbcru  pi'uiusulu  of  Michigan.  Aruri,  57(>  S(|uare  miles. 
It  is  generally  level  and  well  timbered.  Grain  uml  pota- 
toes are  stapio  products.     Cap.  Mt.  IMcasant.    Pup.  ilVi. 

Isabella^  post-v.,  cap.  of  Worth  co..  Oa.,  on  the  Bruns- 
wick and  Alljany  U.  U.,  IS  miles  E.  of  Albany.     Pop.  64. 

Isabella,  tp.  of  Isabella  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  i>0. 

Isabella  I.y  tdk  Catholic  [Sp.  /j»«ir?].  b.  at  Madrigal, 
Old  Castile,  Apr.  22,  llol,  daughter  of  John  II.,  king  of 
Castile,  by  his  second  queen,  Isabella  of  Portugal,  and 
sister  to  Henry  IV..  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  ll.Vt, 
when  she  was  but  three  years  of  age.  She  was  brought  up 
by  lier  niother  in  the  obscure  village  of  Arevalo,  receiving 
an  education  largely  tinged  with  the  ascetic  bigotry  of  the 
age.  The  insurrection  which  broke  out  in  1101  against 
Henry,  alleging  the  illegitimacy  of  his  infant  daughter 
Juana  (called  "la  Ueltraneja,''  from  the  name  of  her  sup- 
posed father),  and  raising  to  the  throne  (IIG5)  his  brotiicr 
Alfonso,  first  gave  political  importance  to  the  person  of 
Isabella  as  a  not  improbable  heir  to  both  her  rival  brothers. 
On  the  death  of  Alfonso  in  1468,  Henry  regained  the  throne, 
but  experienced  armed  resistance  from  the  former  partisans 
of  Alfonso,  who  offered  to  proclaim  F^abclla  queen.  She 
refused  the  proposal,  but  consented  to  allege  her  claims  to 
the  succession  against  those  of  the  infant  princess,  and  the 
civil  war  was  terminated,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Cortex, 
by  Henry's  promise  to  repudiate  his  queen  and  her  off- 
spring, and  recognition  of  Isabella  as  immediate  heir. 
During  this  troubled  interval  intrigues  had  been  rife  for 
the  <lisposal  of  Isabella's  hand,  which  had  first  of  nil  been 
unsuccessfully  sought  for  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  her  des- 
tined husband.  At  the  age  of  eleven  she  had  been  betrothed 
to  Prince  Carlos  of  Aragon  (brother  of  Kcrdinand},  who 
soon  died  by  poison,  and  two  years  later  Henry  ha'l  prom- 
ised her  hand  to  Alfonso  of  Portugal.  Isabella  having 
enorgetically  refused  to  sanction  this  agreement,  Henry 
next  endeavored  to  compel  her  to  marry  the  marquis  of 
Villcna  (who  d.  in  llfiS),  and  after  the  peace  of  I4G8  re- 
turned to  his  earlier  project  in  behalf  of  the  Portuguese 
iirince.  While  these  intrigues  were  going  on  overtures  had 
been  made  directly  to  Isabella  herself  by  her  cousin  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragon,  which  she  accepted  in  spite  of  her 
brother's  threats  of  imprisonment.  The  articles  of  settle- 
ment were  signed  at  Cervcra  (.Tan.  7,  14G9),  guarantying 
to  Isabella  the  exercise  of  her  sovereign  rights  in  Castile. 
Henry  endeavored  to  seize  upon  his  sister's  person,  but  she 
took  refuge  in  Valladolid,  under  the  protection  of  her 
staunch  and  powerful  partisans,  tho  admiral  of  Castile  and 
the  archbishop  of  Toledo,  primate  of  Castile.  This  prelate, 
in  order  to  expedite  the  union,  produced  a  papal  dispensa- 
tion from  the  impedimentof  consanguinity  (which  ultimate- 
ly proved  to  have  been  fabricated  by  him),  and  Ferdinand, 
traversing  Northern  Castile  in  disguise,  was  married  to 
Isabella  at  Valladolid  Ocrt.  19,  \WJ.  Henry,  enraged  at 
this  resistance  to  his  mandates,  declared  that  by  marrying 
against  his  consent  Isabella  had  forfeited  her  rights,  again 
proclaimed  his  infant  daughter  heir  to  tiie  throne,  taking, 
along  with  tho  queen,  an  oath  to  her  legitimacy,  and  be- 
trothed the  iit/<tiitft  to  a  Frennh  prince,  the  duke  cif  Gui- 
eniie,  brother  of  Ijouis  Xf.  The  partisans  of  Isabella  in 
Northern  Castile  stoutly  maintained  her  claims,  and  in 
lll'.i,  Henry  again  fouu't  himself  obliged,  for  his  own 
security,  to  negotiate  with  his  sister.  They  were  publicly 
reconciled  at  Segovia  amid  great  rejoicings,  and  Henry 
dying  soon  after,  Isabella  was  proelaim»M|  queen  of  Ciistile 
Dec.  l.'i,  1 17  1.  Most  of  the  noliility  at  once  recognized  her, 
but  a  few,  aided  by  Alfonso  of  Portugal,  asscrte<l  by  arnjs  tho 
claims  of  the  tn/nnta  Juana,  now  betrothed  to  that  prince. 
Isabella  took  an  active  part  in  this  war,  encouraging  her 
troops  by  her  ]>resenee  anrl  by  an  unwearied  attention  to 
their  nectls  ;  it  was  not  until  147'J  (hat  this  source  of  dis- 
quietude was  removed  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  accordance 
with  which  .Tuana,  then  seventeen  years  of  age,  who  had 
retired  to  Portugal,  took  tho  veil  at  Coimbra,  where  she 
Burvivc'l  until  I.VU).  Meanwhile  (he  prince-consort,  who 
had  received  the  honorary  title  of  king  <d'  Castile,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Aragon  as  Ferdinand  V.  in  Jan.,  1479, 
thus  effecting  a  virtual  union  between  the  two  principal 
states  of  tho  Iberian  peninsula,  which  was  consolidated  in 
the  succeeding  reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  moilern  Spanish  history.  One  rif  ilu-  earliest  acts  of  (he 
reign  of  Isabella  was  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition 
in  Caslile  (.Tan.  2, 1481 )  ;  in  the  same  year  commenced  that 
final  warfare  with  the  Moors  of  (Irnnada  which  only 
ended  ten  years  later  by  (he  extinetion  of  (heir  sovereignty 
in  1  102.  On  this  (tcension  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  received 
from  the  pope  tho  title  of  **  Catholic  sovercignH."  by  which 
they  arc  distinctively  known  in  history.  The  honors  of 
tho  Moorish  war  belonged  of  right  chiefly  (o  I-^abetla,  who 
had  personally  directed  tho  operations,  submitting  for  years 


to  all  the  inconveniences  of  campaign  life.  Besides  tho 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition,  another  dark  stain  re>fs 
upon  the  memory  of  Isabella — the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Castile:  both  acts  may  be  palliated,  but  not  justified, 
by  tho  prevailing  bigotry  of  the  times  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  papal  court.  Isabella's  chief  title  to  fame 
rests  upou  the  well-known  part  she  took  in  promoting 
the  great  project  of  Columbus,  and  in  the  New  World,  at 
least,  her  memory  will  be  immortal.  She  was  beautiful  in 
person,  of  pleasing  manners  and  kindly  heart,  though  of 
inflexible  will;  ambitious  and  pron<i,  though  devout;  had 
considerable  learning  and  political  ability;  was  a  loving 
wife,  and  is  justly  revered  by  Spaniards  as  the  purest  glory 
of  their  royal  annals.  She  d.  Nov.  20,  l.'>04,  at  Medina  del 
Campo,  and  at  her  own  desire  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan 
monastery  at  Granada.  She  had  five  children — Isabella, 
who  married  Prince  Emanuel  of  Portugal;  John  (Juan), 
who  d.  in  141.17,  aged  20 ;  Juana,  afterwards  called  Ln  Loca, 
or  *' the  Mad,"  who  married  Philip  of  Austria  and  was 
the  mother  of  Charles  V. ;  Maria,  who  married  Kmanuel  of 
Portugal  after  her  sister's  death:  and  Catharine  (t.'ataiina^ 
known  in  English  history  as  the  unfortunate  queen  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  nuithcr  of  Mary  Tudor.  (For  the  volumi- 
nous literature  relating  to  the  reign  of  Isabella,  see  Pres- 
cott's  masterly  I/htori/  nf'  the  Rfigu  of  /''erdluattd  aud  I»a- 
hdla  the  CntholiCf  in  which  copious  bibliographical  refer- 
ences may  be  found.)  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Isabella  II.,  Luisa,  of  Spain,  b.  at  Madrid  Oct.  10, 
18."0.  succeeded  her  father  Fenlinand  VII.  in  ISIiil,  under 
the  guardianship  of  her  mother;  but  war  at  once  broke 
out,  the  followers  of  Don  Carlos  asserting  that  the  Salic 
law,  which  had  been  the  rule  of  succession  in  the  Bourbon 
family  in  France,  also  held  good  for  Spain.  The  first  Car- 
list  war  lasted  till  1S40  with  varying  fortunes.  In  1843 
she  was  declared  of  age  :  married  her  cousin,  Don  Fran- 
cisco, in  1?40.  and  after  a  reign  disturbed  by  many  violent 
revolutions  she  was  deposed  in  18G8,andin  1870  abdicated 
in  favor  of  her  son,  who  in  1S75  succeeded  as  Alfonso  XII., 
the  short  reign  of  Amadeus  and  the  attempted  republic 
having  intervened.     Isabella  was  very  unpopular  in  Spain. 

Is'abey  (Eug?..n'k  I.oiis  GAimiKi-j.  b.  in  Paris  July  22, 
1S04,  son  of  Jean  Baptiste  Isabey.  He  has  painted  The 
Ilurricanr  hfjore  Jfirppv,  The  Purt  of  Duuhcy/ce,  The  But- 
tle of  the  Texel,  View  nf  lioulofjiie.  The  Alchemittt,  Cere- 
mony in  the  Church  at  Ih'f/t,  The  Ihtrning  of  the  Stenmcr 
Austria  (1RJ9),  The  Teniptation  of  St.  Anthony.  He  has 
received  three  first  medals,  the  decoration  of  tho  Legion 
of  Honor,  anil  was  elected  an  officer  Jan.  22.  18o2. 

0.  B.  FnoTiiiN(;HAM. 

Isabey  (Jean  Baptiste),  b.  at  Nancy  Apr.  11. 17(»7  ;  d. 
Apr.  18,  1865;  studied  under  David,  but  made  the  paint- 
ing of  ytortraits  a  profession  :  was  a  favorite  of  Napoleon 
I.  and  court-painter.  The  marshals,  princes,  and  dignita- 
ries of  the  First  Empire,  with  the  chief  personages  of  Eu- 
rope, sat  to  him.  At  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander he  visited  tho  Kussian  court.  His  pictures  had  great 
celebrity.  The  pieces  in  wbieli  nmny  personages  are 
groujK'il  together,  as  in  the  Tnhlcuu  den  Mareehtaur  and 
tho  Coufcrcuee  at  Vienna,  almost  rise  to  the  dignity  of  his- 
torical painting.  0.  B.  FitoTHiNUHAM. 

Istr'lis,  b.  at  Chalcis  in  Greece,  flourished  in  the  first 
half  of  tho  fourth  century  «.  c. ;  went  to  Athens  while 
young,  composed  orations,  nnd  founded  a  school  of  rheto- 
ric, in  which  Demosthenes  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil. 
Hu  was  one  of  the  so-called  ten  Attic  <trators  ;  C4  orations 
were  ascribed  to  him,  of  which  11  are  extant,  all  relating 
to  disputed  inheritances;  they  arc  given  in  the  Oiatorca 
Attivi  of  Bikker  and  others,  and  separately  by  Schomann 
(Greifswald,  18;J1),  and  have  been  translated  into  English 
by  Sir  William  Jones  (London,  1794). 

Isai'ah  [Heb.  »«Am/«A,  "  saved  by  the  Lord "],  the 
Esaias  of  tho  Now  Testament,  one  of  (he  principal  or 
greater  prophets  of  the  Hebrews.  According  to  ch.  vi.  1. 
Isaiah  received  his  prophetical  calling  in  the  year  in  which 
King  C/.ziah  died  (7.'»'.M.  He  lived  at  least  until  after  the 
invasion  of  Judah  bv  Sennacherib.  This  event  took  plaee, 
according  to  the  ordinary  chronology,  in  714,  but  Assyrian 
investigations  show  that  it  took  niaeo  in  "01-00.  (See 
Lenormant's  Ilintory  of  the  Enut,  Lug.  cd.,  i.  .'199.)  Thus, 
his  aelivity  extencied  over  sixty  years.  Tradition  even 
asserted  that  he  was  sawn  asunder  in  the  persecutions 
under  Munasseh  (ef.  Heb.  ii.  ;t7).  He  was  married  and 
had  children.  During  his  lifetime  ho  pronounced  the  word 
of  Jehovah  on  every  important  occasion.  Ho  was  the 
grcattsf  of  all  the  prophets  for  the  vigor  of  his  eloquence 
lunl  the  str<-ngth  of  his  faith.  His  divine  oriieles  being 
(h'Spised,  he  reduced  them  to  writing,  as  probably  Hosca, 
Joel,  and  Amos  had  already  done.  Primarily,  tliey  were 
tliseourses  adapted  for  immediate  nnd  popular  effect.  Pre- 
diction appears  in  them  only  as  a  warning  of  consequences, 


1320 


ISAMBERT— ISIS. 


a  promise  of  the  favor  of  God  and  a  secure  and  happy  fu- 
ture if,  or  when,  the  true  kingdom  of  righteousness  should 
be  established  in  Israel  (Messianic  prophecies).  A  ques- 
tion first  raised  by  Koppe  about  100  years  ago,  respecting 
the  unity  and  integrity  of  the  book,  is  still  in  dispute 
among  biblical  critics,  many  affirming  the  oneness  of  au- 
thorship of  the  whole  book,  and  many  claiming  that  chaps. 
xl.-lxvi.  must  have  been  written  by  another  person  than 
penned  the  preceding  ehajiters.  The  unauimotix  testimony 
of  Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  affirms  the  former  view. 
Po  also  does  the  use  apparently  made  of  the  later  chapters 
of  the  book  by  .Teremiah  (x.  1-HJ ;  v.  26:  xxv.  :>I),  Eze- 
kicl  (xxiii.  40,  41),  and  Zephaniah  (ii.  15  ;  iii.  10).  The 
decree  of  Cyrus  in  Ezra  i.  2-4  is  plainly  founded  upon  Isa. 
(xliv.  2S;  xlv.  1,  13),  and  accredits  Joscphus's  statement 
(.4*1/.,  xi.  1,2)  that  the  Jews  showed  Cyrus  Isaiah *s  predic- 
tions of  him.  The  New  Testament  also  quotes  prophecies 
found  in  the  latter  part  of  the  book,  and  attaches  to  them 
Isaiah's  name.  J.  II.  Seki-ve. 

Isambert'  (FnAxgois  .4iNDnK).  b.  at  Aunay,  France, 
Nov.  ;>0,  17'J2:  after  brilliant  classical  and  legal  studies  at 
the  College  de  France,  became  one  of  the  king's  counsel  in 
iSlS,  and  gained  a  great  reputation  at  the  barns  the  chief 
defender  of  the  rights  of  the  free  people  of  color  of  the 
French  AVest  Indies;  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
deputies  1S.'J0-I8;  was  one  nf  the  founders  of  the  French 
Geographical  Society  and  of  the  Society  for  the  Abolition 
of  Slavery,  of  which  latter  he  was  long  the  secretary  ;  ed- 
ited 1S20-27  the  annual  volume  of  modern  laws;  published 
(with  other  writers)  the  vast  collection  of  ancient  French 
legislation  (1822  seq.,  29  vols.),  a  M'tnunl  for  the  Publicist  . 
and  Statesman  (4  vols.,  182G) ;  Tlie  Ht-fif/ious  Condition  of 
France  and  Europe  (IS44),  a  Historif  of  Justinian  (1866)  ; 
translated  the  complete  works  of  Flavins  Josephus  and  the 
J-Jrr/>sin.sficnl  HiAtor)/  of  Euscbius  :  and  wrote  a  large  work 
ou  the  History  '*/'  the  Origin  of  Christianitt/,  besides  con- 
tributing to  many  periodicals  and  writing  numerous  articles 
for  Bidot's  \ouvelle  Bioyraphie  Generate.  D.  at  Paris 
Apr.  13,  1S57. 

Isan'ti)  county  in  the  E.  of  Minnesota.  Area,  about 
430  square  miles.  The  surface  is  diversified.  Grain  and 
potatoes  are  the  staple  products.    Cap.  Oxford.    Pop.  2036. 

Isanti,  post-tp.  of  Isanti  eo.,  Minn.,  12  miles  from 
North  Branch,  on  the  Lake  Superior  and  Minnesota  R.  R. 
Pop.  468. 

I'sar,  or  I'ser,  a  river  of  Germany,  rises  in  Tyrol, 
enters  liavaria.  and  flows  after  a  course  of  106  miles  into 
the  Danube.     Munich  is  situated  on  its  bank. 

I'satin  [Gr.  ItrdTi^,  "  woad"].  (Chn5N02),  an  interesting 
body  formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  or  chromic  acid  on  in- 
digo. Several  other  bodies  are  obtained  from  isatin  by  the 
action  of  ammonia,  potassic  hydrate,  etc. 

Isau'ria,  district  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  between 
Phrygia,  Lycaonia.  Cilioia.  and  Pisidia,  was  in  ancient 
times  in  ill  repute  for  the  fierceness  and  daring  rapacity  of 
its  inhahitiints.  In  78  b.  i_\  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
but  when  in  the  fourth  century  A.  i>.  the  Isaurians  united 
with  the  Cilicians,  they  became  a  formidable  enemy  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  ancl  two  of  their  race  oceupicd  the  Hyz- 
antiiio  throne — Zeno  from  474  to  4Ul,  and  Leu  III.  from 
717  to  741. 

Is'chia  [Gr.  Pithecnsa  :  Lat.  ^iiarfa],  a  mountainous 
island  of  igneous  origin,  about  24  square  miles  in  extent, 
and  situated  in  the  Mediterranean,  near  Naples.  This 
island,  originally  peopled  from  Asia  Minor,  is  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  the 
variety  and  excellence  of  its  fruits.  Monte  Epomeo,  the 
highest  point  of  Tschia,  about  2600  feet  above  the  sea,  is  a 
volcano  surrounded,  like  Etna,  with  small  craters,  and  its 
eruptions  have  often  caused  great  damage.  The  island  has 
also  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes.  The  mineral 
waters  of  Is.diia  are  very  cclebrate<l,  and  the  perfection  of 
the  climate  is  an  additional  advantage  for  invalids  suffer- 
ing from  rheumatism  and  other  similar  affections.  Pop. 
in  1874,  24,000. 

I'schI,  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Upper  Aus- 
tria, at  the  confluence  of  the  Isehl  and  the  Traun.  It  is  a 
small  town,  with  only  3000  inhabitants,  but  its  charming 
situation,  its  saline  and  sulphur  springs,  and  the  presence 
during  several  weeks  each  summer  of  the  Austrian  court 
and  a  great  number  of  tlie  Austrian  nobility,  have  made  it 
one  of  the  most  elegant  and  aristocratic  bathing-places  in 
Europe. 

Ischu'a,  post-tp.  of  Cattaraugus  co..  N.  Y.  It  has  valu- 
able quarries  of  building-stone.     Pop.  872. 

I'seghcm,  town  of  Belgium,  province  of  West  Flan- 
ders, 7  miles  X.  N.  W,  of  Courtrai,  has  a  large  trade  in 
cattle,  manufactures  of  cotton,  linen,  bats,  thread,  ribbons, 
etc.,  breweries  and  tanneries.     Pop,  7966. 


Ise'o  Lake,  in  Northern  Itajy,  16  miles  long,  2\  miles 
broad,  is  celebrated  for  its  picturesque  surroundings.  It 
sends  its  waters  to  the  Po  through  the  Oglio. 

Isere,  department  of  South-eastern  France,  on  the 
Rhone  and  its  affluent,  the  Iserc.  Area,  3163  square 
miles.  Pop.  676,784.  The  northern  and  western  parts 
are  level,  but  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  are  covered 
with  majestic  mountains,  of  which  Mount  Olan  is  12.004 
feet  high.  The  department  is  rich  in  minerals.  Copper, 
lead,  iron,  and  coal  arc  mined;  gold  and  silver  are  found. 
The  wine  of  these  regions  is  superior.     Cap.  Grenoble. 

I'serlohn,  town  of  Prussia,  in  Westphalia,  on  the 
Kalle.  It  has  large  manufactures,  especially  of  iron  and 
bronze  ware.     Pop.  16,763. 

Iser'nia,  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Campobasso.  It  was  a  Samnitc  city,  and  remains  of  the 
polygonal  walls,  as  well  as  of  very  ancient  tcuiples,  sepul- 
chres, etc.,  still  exist.  The  old  aqueduct,  hewn  for  the  dis- 
tance of  a  mile  through  solid  rock,  still  supplies  the  town 
with  water  and  with  water-power.  Iseruia  occupies  a 
commanding  position  on  a  mountainous  ridge  about  24 
miles  W.  of  the  town  of  Campoba?^so,  and  the  pop\ilation 
(9006  in  1874)  is  chiefly  occupied  in  the  manufacture  of 
hemp,  linen,  paper,  earthenware,  etc.,  aud  in  dressing 
parchment  and  other  leathers. 

Ish'im,  or  Ischim,  a  large  river  of  Siberia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Tobolsk,  flows  N.  700  miles  through  a  sterile 
region,  and  enters  the  Irtish  120  miles  S.  E.  of  Tobolsk. 
On  its  banks  arc  the  important  towns  of  Ishim  and  Petro- 
paulovsk. 

Ish'niaelf  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar.  the  Egyp- 
tian handmaid  of  Sarah,  was  expelled,  together  with  his 
mother,  from  his  home  when  Sarah  gave  birth  to  Isaac. 
The  Bedouin  tribes  of  Northern  Arabia,  occupying  the  re- 
gion between  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  the  Persian  Gulf, 
are  said  to  descend  from  Ishmael,  and  possess  many  Ish- 
maelitic  traditions. 

Ishpcm'ins:,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Marquette  co.,  Mich. 
It  has  a  national  bank,  and  extensive  iron-mines,  or  rather 
iron-quarries,  whoso  ore  is  of  the  very  best  quality.  The 
inhabitants  are  mostly  Scandinavians.  The  town  is  on  the 
Marquette  Houghton  and  Ontonagon  R.  R.,  10  miles  W.  of 
Marquette.     Pop.  0103. 

Is'idore  of  Charax,  a  native  of  Charax  on  the  Tigris, 
near  the  Persiau  Gulf,  was  a  distinguished  geographer  of 
the  first  century  A.  d.  His  Parthian  Itinerary/,  portions 
of  which  are  extant,  is  an  important  source  of  information 
upon  Asiatic  geography  ;  it  was  printed  by  Hiischel  (1000), 
Hudson  (1703),  and  Miller  (  Paris,  1839)  in  their  collections 
of  the  minor  Greek  geographers. 

Isidore  of  Seville,  or  Isidorus  Ilispalensis, 
b.  at  Cartagena  between  600  and  670  ;  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Seville  about  GOO;  and  d.  Apr.  4,  036.  By  establishing 
schools,  and  by  harmonizing  the  moral  and  doctrinal  sys- 
tem of  Christianity  with  the  habits  and  institutions  of  the 
various  races  which  at  that  time  composed  the  Hispano- 
Gothic  kingdom,  he  became  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments 
of  the  Church  of  Spain:  and  his  fame  aud  authority  were 
not  confined  to  Spain  alone.  lie  presided  over  the  second 
Council  of  Seville  (619),  and  over  the  Council  of  Toledo 
(633).  His  works,  which  form  an  encyclopicdia  of  the  know- 
ledge of  his  time,  were  collected  and  edited  by  Perez  and 
Grial  (Madrid.  177S).  bv  Arevalo(  Rome,  1797-1S03),  and 
by  the  AbbC-  Mi^nc  (  Paris.  1802,  8  vols.). 

Isidorian  Decretals.     See  Decrktai.s,  False. 

I'siii^lass,  a  Gki.atink  (which  see)  prepared  from  the 
swim-bladder  of  various  sturgeons  (Acipenscr)  and  other 
fish,  such  as  the  cod.  the  weak-fish  (Otolithus  rrtjalis),  and 
the  hake  (Gadus  merliiccins).  It  is  used  in  preparing  jel- 
lies, confections,  blanc-mange,  gum-drops,  etc. ;  in  fining 
wines  and  liquors:  as  a  test  for  tannic  acid  ;  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  court-plaster;  us  a  size  for  delicate  fabrics,  etc. 
The  coarser  kinds  (fish-glues)  are  used  in  various  cements. 
"Japanese  isinglass"  is  prepared  from  a  seaweed.  Com- 
mercial isinglass  comes  from  Russia,  Brazil,  the  U.  S.,  and 
other  countries. 

I'sis,  an  Egyptian  goddess  named  lies,  daughter  of  Seb 
or  Cronos,  and  Nut  or  Rhea,  sister  and  wife  of  Osiris,  and 
locally  one  of  the  tetrad  of  Abydos,  which  consisted  of 
Osiris,  Isis,  her  sister  Nephthys,  and  Horus.  Her  wor- 
ship is  not  mentioned  at  the  earliest  period,  but  became 
universal  at  the  time  of  the  eii;hternth  and  later  dynasties. 
Her  name  is  expressed  in  hieroglyphics  by  a  scat  or  throne, 
and  in  her  terrestrial  type  she  is  represented  with  this  or- 
nament on  her  head.  She  is  styled  in  the  inscriptions  the 
mother-goddess,  or  great  mother,  mistress  of  heaven,  re- 
gent of  the  gods,  and  queen  of  the  upper  and  lower  coun- 
try.    In  her  celestial  character  she  wears  on  her  head  the 


ISIS— ISLES   OF   SHOALS. 


l:;21 


disk  und  horna  and  the  modius  or  cylindrical  hcad-attirc 
surrounded  by  Iwulve  serpents,  cmbleui^  of  the  twelve  hours 
of  the  day  ami  ui;;ht.  lu  the  niunuiiients  A\e  is  the  con- 
stant c'impunion  of  Osiris,  standing  behin*!  him,  support- 
ing him,  or  hmiuuting  at  bis  bier,  or  else  as  mother  of 
HarpakhrHt,  or  "  the  youthful  Horus."  nursing  and  suck- 
ling that  god  on  her  lap.  Isis  is  rarely  if  ever  seen  alone, 
except  in  votive  figure,  and  if  at  a  later  jtcriud  she  is  rep- 
resented winged,  such  a  type  appears  to  have  been  intro- 
duced from  Asiatic  sources.  The  legend  of  Isis  is  partly 
confirmed  by  the  accounts  of  the  monuments  and  papyri. 
l>uring  the  absence  of  Osirlg  from  his  kingdom  it  is  stated 
that  she  ruleJ  over  the  state,  and  her  name  appears  in  a 
cartouche  as  one  of  the  gods  of  the  second  dynasty  who 
ruled  Egypt.  After  the  murder  of  Osiris  by  Typhon  on 
the  ITih  of  the  month  Athor,  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of 
bis  reign,  Isis  was  informed  of  the  death  of  Osiris,  and  cut 
off  one  of  the  locks  of  lier  hair.  Slie  also  searched  for 
Anubis,  the  god  of  embalming,  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Neph- 
thys.  The  chest  In  wliich  the  corpse  of  Osiris  was  enclosed 
was  carried  to  Byblos,  and  lodged  in  the  branches  of  a 
tamarisk  tree,  in  which  perched  the  ph<enix  (bftniu),  the 
soul  of  Osiris.  The  king  of  IJyblos  liad  made  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  into  a  pillar  of  bis  house.  Ingratiating  herself 
with  the  queen's  women,  whose  hair  she  plaited,  and  sub- 
sequently engaged  by  the  queen  as  wet-nurse  for  tlio  king's 
son,  she  suckled  tlie  boy  witli  her  finger,  and  laid  him  on 
burning  coals  to  make  him  immortal,  while  she  herself. 
transformed  into  a  swallow,  hovered  rouu'l  the  pillar,  and 
when  her  proceedings  were  discovered,  obtained  it  by  re- 
quest from  the  monarch.  Opening  the  trunk,  she  took  it 
with  her  into  the  desert,  and  opening  the  lid,  threw  herself 
in  grief  on  the  dead  body  of  her  husband:  and  when  the 
king's  son  approaclied  her  she  turned  rountl  an<l  killed  him 
with  a  glance.  Ucturning  to  her  son  Ilorus.  she  left  the 
chest  at  the  city  of  IJutus  in  an  unfrequented  place,  where, 
however,  it  was  discovered  by  Typhon  in  the  moonlight, 
who  tore  the  body  into  fourteen  or  twenty-six  pieces,  and 
scattered  (hern  about,  apparently  in  the  river.  These  Isis 
collected,  apparently  irmu  (he  river,  ujhui  which  she  went 
for  the  purpose,  and  found  all  except  tinej»icee,  which  had 
been  devoured  by  the  oxyrhynchus  fish.  In  the  war  which 
ensued  between  Horus  and  Typhon  at  Kar  for  the  Egyp- 
tian Babylon)  on  the  fitb  of  the  month  Thoth.  and  which 
endured  for  three  clays  and  nights,  the  gods  changing  dur- 
ing the  battle  from  the  human  to  animal  forms.  Isis  chained 
both  combatants.  Subsequently  she  liberated  Set  or  Ty- 
phon from  his  chains,  and  Ilorus,  enraged  at  this  act,  cut 
off  the  head  of  Isis,  which  Thoth  subsequently  replaced 
by  the  head  of  a  cow.  Another  account  places  this  action 
at  Ateh  in  the  oxyrhynchitc  nome.  on  the  7th  of  the  month 
Tybi,  wlien  the  boat  of  the  Sun  was  moored  at  I*akhera. 
A  second  battle  supervened  at  Anrutef  at  a  later  period. 
She  ifl  said  (o  have  founded  sepulchres  of  Osiris  wherever 
she  foun<I  portions  ot'  (he  boriy.  She  appears  as  godilcss 
of  the  lower  world,  for  Rbampsinitus  ( Uameses  III.)  de- 
flccnde'l  to  Hades  and  played  at  draughts  with  her.  winning 
a  goblen  napkin,  wilh  which  he  returned  to  earth.  One 
of  the  epagomena*  or  intercalary  days  was  sacred  to  her. 
She  was  identified  with  other  deities,  as  Urhck.  Hast.  Athor. 
and  even  Nephthys.  and  one  of  the  sacred  books  was  enti- 
tler!  her  sighs  or  respirations.  Her  worship  was  introduced 
into  Asia  Minor  and  tirecce  about  n.  r.  IVM),  and  into  the 
Roman  empire  in  the  time  of  Svlla.  and  although  attenipt- 
cil  to  be  banished  at  different  intervals  fii.  r.  Ki.'I-IUy)  by 
different  act«  of  the  senate,  and  repelled  by  Angusttis,  was 
finally  c-'tablislwil  with  the  worship  of  Serapis  at  Home, 
and  only  dij^appeared  with  the  fall  of  paganism,  which 
took  place  A.  ii.  S'.M  at  Alexanclria.  Isis  was  supposed  to 
represent  nature,  the  moon,  earth,  Demcler,  and  other  ele- 
ments or  powers.  S.  Biiiri?. 

I'his,  the  classical  Latin  name  for  the  river  Thames  in 
England  (Tham-r«i'<f  = '■  the  broad  Isis"),  still  often  em- 
ployed in  the  same  sense  in  English  poetry  and  belles-let- 
tres.    The  principal  tributary  of  the  Thames  which  passes 

by  Oxf'ird  is  also  called  Isis. 

lsKnn<l<Tooii\  Kcnndoroon,  or  .\loxnn(lreUa, 

seapitrt  town  of  Northern  Syria,  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  bay 
of  the  same  name,  anciently  the  Hay  of  Issns.  It  is  the 
principal  rtutlet  of  Central  .Vsialic  Turkey,  bi'iiig  Ibe  port 
of  .Meppo.  and  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  Syrian  const. 
Formerly  unhealthy  and  almost  desolate,  it  has  by  im- 
proved drainage  beeome  salubrious,  and  is  destinrd  In  ac- 
quire grcal  iiuportancf  whenever  a  railroad  to  the  Euphra- 
tes shall  attract  to  this  route  a  portion  of  the  overland 
Indian  traffic.   Several  hundred  vessels  touch  hero  annually. 

Pop.  I'ono. 

Is'ltrlib,  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Asia  Minor,  near 
the  M'-ditiTranean,  has  about  DOOU  inhabitants,  all  of  whom 
arc  Mohammedans.     Christians  aro  not  allowed  to  resido 


there  with  their  families;  they  can  only  stop  at  the  khans 
for  a  limited  time. 

Is'la^  de  (Jose  Fkancisco),  b.  at  Segovia  in  1703,  en- 
tered the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  was  expelled  with  them  in 
17fi7,  and  d,  at  Bologna  in  17S1.  His  sermons  attracted 
attention  as  early  as  1729.  but  his  fame  he  principally 
obtained  by  his  satirical  romance,  Hintoria  del  fnmoHu 
prc(f traitor  Fray  Gcrnntiio  dc  Vampazaa.  The  first  vol- 
ume of  this  work  was  published  in  1758  without  the  know- 
ledgo  of  the  author,  l>ut  in  I7G0  its  sale  was  forbid<ien. 
The  second  volume  did  not  apjicar  until  1771',  in  London 
and  in  English,  and  then  in  Spanish  at  Hayonnc  shortly 
after.  The  whole  work  was  jiublisbed  in  Madrid  in  1813. 
He  also  wrote  Cicero,  a  satirical  poem,  of  which  the  man- 
uscript is  found  in  the  library  of  Boston,  its  publication  in 
Spain  having  been  forbidden. 

Is''la  dc  Ijeon',  an  island  on  the  S.  coast  of  Spain,  in 
the  Atlantic,  10  miles  long  by  2  broad,  on  which  is  the  city 
and  port  of  tlic  same  name  (also  called  San  Fernando), 
which  was  in  ISIO  the  ciipital  of  Spain  under  the  regency, 
and  was  the  scene  of  the  first  constitutional  movement  of 
IS20.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  has  two  hospitals,  several 
convents,  and  an  excellent  observatory.     Pop.  10,000. 

Is'la  de  Nc'gros,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  in  Ma- 
lay Archipelago.     Area.  ."JSOO  square  miles.     Pop.  oj,000. 

Islam.     Sec  Mohammedanism. 

Islnin;ibad%  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency 
of  Bengal,  tlie  capital  of  the  district  of  Chittagong.  is  in 
lat.  22°  20'  N.,  Ion.  IU°  b%'  E.,  on  the  Kurramfuli,  7  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  has  important  shipbuilding  and  a 
largo  trade  in  rice,  salt,  cocoanuts,  and  tortoise-shell. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Isl'aiidy  county  of  Washington  Territory,  consisting 
of  isiunds  lying  in  Puget  Sound,  of  which  the  largest  is 
AVhidby  Island.     Cap.  Coveland.      Pop.  020. 

Isl:iiuL  tp.  of  Desha  CO.,  Ark.     Pop.  400. 

IsIjuhI  t'reek,  tp.  of  Duplin  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  14J9. 

Island  Creek,  post-tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  0.,  7i  miles 
from  Steubcnville.     Pop.  1G2G. 

Island  Falls  Plantation,  tp.  of  Aroostook  co.,  Me. 
Pop.  I8;s. 

Island  Grove,  tp.  of  Sangamon  co.,  111.     Pop.  lOfiO. 

Island  Pond,  ])ost  v.  of  Brighton  tp..  Essex  co..  V(.. 
an  important  station  on  the  (I  rand  Trunk  Railway,  149 
miles  N.  W.  of  Portland,  Me.,  and  1 13  mihs  S.  E.  of  Mon- 
treal, Canada.  It  has  a  custom-house  and  several  manu- 
facturing establishments. 

Islands,  tp.  of  Accomac  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1122. 

Is'lay,  an  island  of  the  Inner  Hobride?,  belonging  to 
the  county  of  Argylc,  Scotland,  Area,  220  square  miles. 
Pop.  10,:i.*i2.  The  northern  and  eastern  parts  are  hilly, 
traversed  by  a  ridgo  which  at  some  places  rises  to  the 
height  of  1  '>00  feet ;  the  rest  is  level.  Good  crops  of  rye  are 
raised,  and  a  considerable  distilling  industry  is  carried  on. 

Islay,  maritime  town  of  Peru,  in  the  ^irovinco  of  Arc- 
quipa,  distant. *jO  miles  from  that  city,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  railroa<i  recently  constructed.  The  jx'pulalion 
is  insignificant,  but  it  derives  imjxtrtancc  from  being  the 
seaport  of  Arequipa  and  of  much  of  Southern  Peru. 

Isle'boro',  ])ost-tp.  of  Waldo  co..  Me.,  consists  of  a 
narrow  island  of  (lOlii)  acres,  calleil  Long  Island,  in  Pcnob- 
Bcot  Hay,  10  miles  E.  of  Belfast.  Many  of  its  inhabitants  aro 
engaged  in  maritime  pursuits.    It  has  .'5  churches.   Pop.  i2:i0. 

Isle  In  Motte,  an  island  in  Lake  Champlain.  consti- 
tuting the  post-township  of  Jsle  hi  Motte.  iJrand  Isle  eo,, 
Vt.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Vineyard."  It  is  6  miles 
long.     Pop.  197. 

Isle  of  Tranoe.     Sec  Mai-ritius. 

Isle  of  I>lnn.     Sec  Man.  Islk  of. 

Isle  of  Pines.     Sec  PiNi:s.  Ist.E  ok. 

Isle  of  Wight.     See  \Vn;nT.  Isi.e  op. 

Isle  of  Wipht,  county  in  thi-  S.  E.  of  Virginia,  bounded 
on  the  .V.  E.  by  the  James  River,  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
Blaokwater.  Area.  2^0  square  miles.  It  contains  consider- 
able pine  forest,  and  is  generally  level.  Grain,  potatoes. 
and  pork  are  (staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  Atbintio 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  U.  R.     Cap.  Smithficld.     Pop.  8;i20. 

Islo  Koyale,  county  of  Michigan,  comprising  Islo 
Koyalc  and  adjacent  islands  in  Lake  Superior.  Isle  Koy- 
ale is  -IJ  niib's  long.  12  miles  broad.  an<l  abounds  in  copper 
and  other  minerals,  ami  has  nniny  lakes,  one  of  the  largest 
of  wbi(di.  Siskowit  Lake,  has  no  outlet.  Siskowit  Hay  Is 
the  principal  settlement.     It  was  formed  in  1S7j. 

Isles  of  Shoals,  a  group  of  eight  small  islands  in  the 
Atlantic,  about  In  miles  S.  E.  of  Portsmouth,  X.  H.  They 
aro  barren  and  almost  without  vegetation.     The  90  iuhab- 


13-22 


ISLIP— ISOMERISM,   ETC. 


itanta  live  mostly  by  fishing.      On  White  Island  is  a  light-  I 
hou'^e,  and  on  Appk-dcre  and  Star  I.'laud  Iheie  are  large 
hotel  accommodations  for  the  great  nuniberol  tourists  who  , 
visit  the  islands  each  summer  to  enjoy  the  sea  air. 

Is'lip,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Suffolk  co..  N.  Y.,  40  miles 
E    of  New  York  City,  on   tJreat   .South  Bay   and  on  the 
South  Shore  R.  R.  of  Long  Island,  has  :!  churches,  2  acad- 
emies, 1  weekly  newspaper,  planing,  paper,  and  flour  mills 
a  marine  railwkvand  shipyard,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of 
.several  sporting  clubs.     Fi.shing  is  a  leading  pursuit,  and 
the  rearin"  of  trout  and  the  putting  up  of  canned  goods 
are  imi.ortant  interests.     The  township  c.mtains  a  number 
of  other  villages,  and  has  U.  churches.     Pop.  of  tp.  4.).)i ._ 
W.  L.  Cook,  Kd.  "  Long  Island  Heiiald. 
Ismaeeliah.     Sec  Assassins  and  Ismaii-is. 
Ismail',  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  principality 
of  Moldavia,  on  the  Kilia.  a  branch  of  the  IJanul.e,     It  is 
a  stron"  fortress,  has  important  leather  manufactures,  and 
carries  °on  an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  wool,  tallow,  etc. 
Pop.  20.SG9. 

Ismail  Pasha,  or  Ismail  I.,  b.  at  Cairo  in  18:10,  son 
of  Ibrahim  Pasha  bv  a  Circassian  woman.     He  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris;    returned    to  Egypt,    and   soon   after    Uis 
father's  death   (Nov.  ii;   1S43)    strongly  opposed  the  new 
viceroy,   Abbas  Pasha,  who  died  the  next  year,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Said  Pasha,  who  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
the  administration  while  he  himself  was  on  a  visit  to  Eu- 
rope and  in  1S62  made  him  commander  of  the  army.    Said 
d   Jan    18,  1863.  and  was  suc'ceeded  by  Ismail  as  btth  vice- 
roy of  l'>ypt.  lie  acquired  great  wealth  liy  the  cultivation 
of  eottoii'dnring  the  American  civil  war,  and  was  a  zealous 
promoter  of  the  Suez  Canal  project.     In  1SG6  the  sultan 
niade  the  succession  direct  in  his  line,  in  return  for  which 
Ismail  increased  his  tribute  and  ai.led  the  sultan  with  a 
large  army  in  the  Cretan  insurrection.  In  1SC.7  he  received 
the   titles' of  highness  and  khedive,  with    important   ad- 
ditions to  his  authority  ;  but  he  demanded  still  more,  and 
threatened,  in  case  his  demands  were  refused,  to  seize  the 
island  of  Crete.     Foreign  powers,  however,  interposed,  and 
compelled  him  to  abate  his  demands.     In  1868-69  he  ex- 
tended his  sway  over  the  Upper  and  White  Nile,  increased 
his  armv.  proposed  the  neutralization  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
and  eon'diieted  himself  as  an  independent  monarch.      The 
sultan  thereupon  ordered  him  to  reduce  his  .army  to  30,001 
men    recall  his  orders  fur  the  construction  of  iron-clads  and 
the  purchase  of  breech  loaders  and  the  contraction  of  loans 
in  Europe.     The  khedive.  not  succeeding  in  gaining  the 
support  of  Russia,  yielded  for  a  time  to  the  demands  of 
the  sultan,  but  bv  bribery  in  June.  1ST3.  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining' concessions  from  the  Sublime  Porte  which  rendered 
him  vii-tually  independent,  the  main  restrictions  relating 
to  his  intercourse  with  foreign  powers.     Early  in  1S74  he 
gained  a  decided  victory  over  the  sultan  of  Harfur.  and  is 
now  busily  engaged  in  extending  his  authority  over  the 
barbarous"  tribes   Iviug  around  him.      He  is  the   absolute 
owner  of  all  the  lai'i.l  in  Egypt,  which  his  subjects  cultivate 
on  terms  prescribed  bv  him.     He  is  also  largely  engaged 
in  manufacturing  enterprises,  the   whole   industry  of  the 
counlrv  being  under  his  control,  the  common  people  being 
practically  his  slaves.     He  has.  in  an  arclntectuial  point 
of  view,  considerably  improved  Alexandria,  .almost  rebuilt 
Cairo,  and  has  constructed  immense  public  works  through- 
out his  kingdom. 

Ismail'in,  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  N.  shoro  of  | 
Like  Tim-ah.  on  the  railroad  leading  from  Alexandria  and 
Cairo  to  Suez,  and  on  the  Suez  Canal.  It  was  founded  in 
1S«3  to  serve  as  the  central  point  for  the  construction  of 
the  canal,  and  was  named  after  the  khedive.  Ismail  Pasha. 
Its  situation  gives  promise  of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance.    Pop.  about  4000. 

I$mail'is,a  former  sect  of  Mohammedan  free-thinkers. 
Thev  were  originally  Sbiites,  but  their  doctrine  spread 
throughout  hl<im.  the  M.ihammedan  world.  Their  outward 
practice  was  very  devout,  but  their  esoteric  doctrines  con- 
sisted of  various  degrees  of  instruction,  finally  leailing  to 
universal  negation,  atheism,  and  indifl'erenlism.  Resides 
this,  their  morality  was  of  the  worst,  though  cloaked  with 
pious  words  ami  acts.  They  originated  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  especially  honored  .Mohammed  ben  Ismail,  the 
seventh  of  their  imams  or  caliphs.  There  are  oven  now 
relies  of  this  old  sect  in  existence. 

iKmicl',  or  Iskimid  (the  ancient  ^'icnmc<li'l).  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Asia  Minor,  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
i.i'lat.  40°  47'"N..  Ion.  20°  53'  E.  Of  the  brilliant  old  city 
very  little  is  left,  and  the  present  town  is  a  dirty,  miserable 
pbicc,  with  some  manulaoturcB  of  silk  and  earthwarc.  Pop. 
3000.' 

Isnard'  (Maximin),  b.  Feb.  IB.  1751,  at  Orassc,  in  Prov- 
ence- entered  the  National  Assembly  in  Sept.,  1791,  as  a 


deputy  for  the  department  of  Var.     He  joined  the  t,irond- 
ists,   though   his  ideas  were   more    advanced   than  theirs, 
and  became  conspicuous  for  his  passionate,  sometimes  even 
inspired,  eloquence.     When  arrested  in  .June,  1793,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping,  and  concealed  himself  until  the  fa  1  of 
Robespierre.      He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of    live 
Hundred,  but  exercised  no  iuBuenee,  and  during  the  Em- 
pire and  the  Restoration  he  lived  in  retirement,  oecupied 
with  literary  pursuits,  in  his  native  city,  where  he  d.  in  IbJU. 
Isochcimal  Lines.     Sec  Meteouolocv. 
Isoc'ratos,  the  son  of  Tlieodorns,  a  native  of  Athens, 
wash.  B.C.  4."6,  and  d.  of  voluntary  starvation  B.C.  .338.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Socrates  and  Theramenes    and    subse- 
quently attained  considerable  popularity  as  the  founder  of 
a  school  of  rhetoric  at  Athens.     Cicero  declared  him  to  be 
the  first  to  perfect  the  melody  of  Greek  prose.     The  Ale.x- 
andrian  critics  assign  him  the  fourth  place  in  the  canon  of 
Greek    oratory.      His   style    is    ostentatious    and    elegant, 
rather  than  graceful  and  pleasing.     The  extant  orations 
are  given  in  the  Omtores  AllicI  of  Bekker  and  of  Baiter 
and'Sauppe,  and  separately  by  Lange  (Halle,  180.!),  by 
'  Baiter  and  Sauppe  (Zurich,  1839),  by  B";!^'^'"  (Lop^C 
1851):  select  orations  bv  Rauchenstein  (Berlin.  18o5),  The 
PuiifVi/'-oMS  was  edited  by  Prof.  Fclton  ( Cambridge). 
Isocrymal   Lines.     Sec  Meteokolocv. 
Isola  Bella.     Sec  Borromean  Islands, 


I'sola  del'la  Sca'la,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Verona,  about  16  miles  E,  of  the  city  of  Verona.  This 
town  has  a  large  Gothic  church  and  o'her  good  buildings, 
^Tlth  an  active  and  laborious  populalion  of  (in  18(4)  a^So. 

I'sola  del  Li'ri,  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Ca-'ert-i  The  immense  water-power  furnished  by  the  Liri 
and  the  Fibreno  is  here  utilized  for  manufacturing  on  a 
large  scale,  paper,  linen,  woollens,  etc.,  and  also  lor  work- 
ius  metals,  including  the  manufacture  of  chemical  prod- 
ucts. The  town  is  charmingly  situated,  and  the  troiit^of 
the  Liri  ore  as  famous  as  in  the  days  of  Martial  and  Ap- 
pian.      Pop.  in  1874,  5o82, 

I'som  (Thomas  Didi.ev),  M.  D..  b.  in  Maury  eo.,  Tenn 
Sent    5    1816  •  graduatcdinJe«fersonMedicalCollegelS39, 
and  began  practice  at  Oxford,  Miss.  He  was  made  surgeon 
dnrin-rthe  war.  and  assigned  to  the  medical  board  of  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston's  army;  is  ( 1875)  a  successfiilpractitioner 

in  Oxford,  Miss.,  and  is  a  trustee  of  the  umversi^v  of  that 
State.  IAIL*.E\E. 

Isom'erism,  Pol ymerism.  Allotropism.  Amor- 
nhism,  Uimorphism  and  Polymorphism,  -lleta- 
merism,  Kcnomerism.  These  words  belong,  and 
are  necessary,  to  the  language  of  chemical  science,  being 
of  highly  convenient,  indeed  indispensable,  application  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  vast  accumulating  masses  of  com- 
pounds into  groups,  and  in  exhibiting  their  relations 
among  each  other;  thus  facilitating  their  study  and  inves- 
tigation in  a  surprising  manner.  These  terms  do  not,  how- 
ever all  convey  actual  natural  principles, or  generalizations; 
many  of  the  groupings  designated  by  them  being  in  a  great 
degree  artificial,  or  founded  on  principles  rather  of  a  iie'/ti- 
tire  kind;  though  others  of  them  are  unquestionably  nat- 
ural The  term  I'sowc-i'.m  is  generally  considered  as  in- 
cluding, broadly  speaking,  all  the  others;  and  isomerio 
croups,  or  groups  of  isomeres,  may  be  dehned  broad  y  as 
such  groups  as  /k</>/.™  to  have  the  same  proportional  ele- 
mentary composition,  while  specifically  quite  distinct; 
each  nreinber  of  such  a  group  being  distinguishable  from 
the  rest  by  some  one  or  more  specific  chemical  or  physical 
characteror  relation  to  other  substances,  ,,     ,     ,  ,,  „ 

Oemral  f:^a,„i.U..- Diamond  and  j/'V'"'.  '"•  K^t  the 
hardest  and  most  limpid  known  substance,  the  las  one  of 
the  softest  and  most  opaque  ;  both  being  chemical  y  pure 
i  carbon.  Chile  and  aya.jonile,  differing  fundamentally  in 
•  crystalline  form  (the  first  being  hexagonal  and  the  ast 
right  rhombic),  as  well  as  in  hardness  and  density,  while 
both  are  simply  lime-carbonate,  CaCOj.  Qnarl:,  ru)y- 
rnilr.  and  .olAlc  «.7,Vr,.  Olefianl  .jn.  (C.H,)  and  Mra«n,- 
;cM.(C.,„H,e).cach  of  which  contains  in  imi  parts  b.v  weight 
exactly  42.S57  of  carbon  and  57.143  of  hydrogen;  tlie  la  t, 
instead  of  being  a  permanent  gis  lighter  than  air,  like  the 
first,  is  a  liquid  whose  boiling-point  is  higher  than  that  of 
mercury,  and  whose  vapor  is  ten  times  as  heavy  "'  o'';?''"* 
gas,  or  half  as  heavy  again  as  mercurial  vaj-or  itself.  Lorn- 
moil  nM,ol  and  mrihjUe  ether,  a  liquid  and  a  gas,  each 
having  the  empirical  formula  WW,  and  the  same  cen- 
tesimal composition  : 

52.174 

1,1.043 

!"'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.','.','.'.'.'.'.'.'.!!'. ."M.TM 

lOO.OOO 


Carfion 

Hydrogen.. 
Oxygen 


!  Dexlro.e.  or   grape-sugar,  and  l^,-nh,e.  or  honey-sugar 
'  both  CHitOe,  but    having    precisely  opposite  actions  on 


ISOMKKIS.M,    KTC. 


1  '~»0''> 


ll 


olariicd  light:  the  first  being  also  a  solid  and  the  last  a  | 
iqiiid. 

1.  Igomercf,  in  the  restricted  sense  (Gr.  iiTOM«P<t,  adj.,  i 
"of  equal  parts"  or  "equally  divided").  Recent  writers  j 
nronose  to  anplv  llie  term  Immmiim  narrowly  and  speci- 
ally to  such  grdiips  As  really  appear  to  be  more  or  less 
nainral  ones :  that  is,  such  as  not  only  have  the  same  com- 
position,but  similarorigin.wilh  identical  molecular  weights 
and  volumes;  which  are  usually  quite  similar  in  their  re- 
lation to  heat  and  chemical  agents,  and  furnish  similar 
products  of  decomposition  or  trausfonuatiou  by  like  agents. 
Such  groups  are  found,  so  far.  only  among  the  immediate 
products  of  vegetable  and  animal  life;  and  while  among  the 
commonest  substances,  still  remain,  as  to  their  molecular 
constitution,  among  the  least  s.rutable;  no  very  satistac- 
tory  explanations,  except  of  a  liypothelical  kind,  having 
yet  been  presented  for  these  kinds  of  isomerisms. 

Examplfn.—A  large,  familiar,  and  interesting  group  of 
natural  isomeresis  that  known  as  the  (ci/jeiies,  including  the 
volatile  oils  of  turpentine,  lemon,  orange-peel,  bergamot, 
ueroli,  Borneo  camphor,  juniper,  copaiba,  nutmeg,  and  a 
multitude  of  others.  These  are  all  hydrocarbons  of  the 
formula  Tiollis.  which,  while  dilTcring  so  greatly  in  odor, 
and  in  some  cases  in  their  actions  on  polarized  light,  and 
even,  within  small  limits,  in  densities  and  boiling-points, 
yet  are  notably  similar  in  their  general  chemical  relations 

much  more  so  than  is  usual  among  the  groups  of  pol;/- 

merrn  and  wi-inmefta  referred  to  below.  It  seems  certain, 
however,  that  in  the  course  of  investigation  the  true  consti- 
tution and  molecular  derivation  of  these  terpenes  will  he 
arrived  at  with  precision,  in  which  case  they  will  at  once 
take  rank  but  as  inctameres,  and  lose  in  great  part  their 
present  mysterious  interest.  Two  of  the  most  common, 
terebeiithtiic,  from  turpentine-oil,  and  n'tii-ne.  from  lemon- 
oil,  arc  now  under  active  investigation  by  skilful  chemists, 
and  the  results  seem  to  point  to  the  constitution  of  the 
former  being  nearly  or  exactly  fHhi/ilnirct  of  Unprnpyttn- 
liK-iie  (<r//)/i'i-eymcn"e).  and  to  that  id"  the  latter  as  compris- 
ing the  same  molecular  groups,  with  different  arrangement 
among  each  other. 

Other  important  groups  of  natural  isomeres  occur  among 
the  proximate  constituents  or  products  of  living  tissues, 
both  vegetaldc  and  animal.  The  inniiin'te  group  (CelluOG), 
comprising  three  or  more  isomeres — mnntiilc  (manna  or 
seaweed-sugar),  dulcoso  or  iliilrile  (a  sugar  from  on  un- 
known plant  of  .Madagascar),  and  itoilulciie,  an  artificial 
sugar.  Tlic  thi'orotical  views  commonly  accepted  regard- 
ing the  con  titution  of  the  sugars  generally,  and  hence  of 
a  very  wide  and  highly  imporlniit  range  of  organic  prod- 
ucts, rest  upon  the  views  held  regarding  mannite.  {Pee 
below.)  The  <;/ii'',«c  group  f t'oIIijOn).  including  common 
qrapi-.fii'irir.  which  is  a  product  both  of  vegetable  and  (as 
diabetic  sugar)  of  animal  life. /jr™/'-»e.  in'j«i>  (flesh-sugar), 
tfilrifinnc,  niirbi'l)-,  ami  several  artificial  sugars  of  the  same 
formula.  These  isomeres  are  regarded  as  nW(7i.i/f/c».  eoire- 
sp'miling  to  certain  isomerio  (bexnlomic)  alcohols,  of  which 
mannito  is  one  representative.  Thus,  just  as  ordinary 
alcohol  may  yield  orriinary  aldehyde  by  oxidatioii  in  con- 
tact with  platinum-black,  mannite  yieldsan  artificial  sugar 
isomeric  with  glucose,  called  tiiniini(o»c. 

C^IInO     -fO     =    CjIIjO    +11.0;  and 

CfllluOo -f  0     =    ColIijOo  +  lIjO. 

MnimlU'.  Mnonluxc. 

Also,  it  is  stated  that  glucose,  by  reduction  with  nascent 
hydrogen  (as  with  sodium-ainalgam),  will  yield  conversely 
genuine  mannite.  A  further  support  for  this  view  is  de- 
rived from  the  fact  that  the  action  of  hydriodie  acid  on 
mannite  produces  the  hydrocarbon  hcxyleiic.  Ci-.U,:.  The 
«,irro«<-,  or  cane-sugar  group  ( ('i2ll-n"ll  >•  wbieli  coiupnscs 
a  largo  class  of  isomeres,  such  as  wlilux-  (eucaly|itu8- 
sugar),  iiu'-lrtilane  (larch-sugar),  trclialiM  (Turkish  manna), 
wi/coiir  (ergot-sugar),  /(k/o.c  or  milk-sugar  (as  a  hydrate 
nalurallv),  and  doubtless  a  great  multitude  of  oilier  iso- 
meres. To  these  is  to  be  added  unihuir.  the  character- 
istic constituent  of  gum  anibic.  These  isomeres  are  formed 
from  the  glucoses  by  the  elimination  of  one  equivalent  of 
water  from  a  coupled  molecule  of  the  latter  group  : 

[>'''■"« -1I..0  =  01,11250,,. 
I  bIIijOo 

Tliev  are  therefore  designated  as  (/iV//iiro»iV  nlmhoU. 

Little  progress  has  been  made  as  yet  in  penetrating  the 
nature  of  the  relations  which  exist  between  Iho  several 
members  of  the  aliove  groups  of  sugar-isonieres  respect- 
ively, and  no  satisfactory  reason  can  be  suggested  irlii/  they 
are  isomeres.  The  same  remark  applies  to  another  no  less 
important  group,  eompriiing  rrlliilnte.  the  ulnnhcn,  initllue, 
7/i/co</rN  (animal  starch,  from  livers  and  fn>tuses).  etc..  which 
are  isomeres  of  the  general  formula  rir«II,(iOs.  closely  re- 
lated to  tlie  sugars.  Two  other  isomeric  sugars,  of  another 
mode  of  grouping,  may  also  bo  montionod.  Those  are  />i'ni(« 


and  qnercilc  (California  pine-sugar  and  acorn-sugar),  which 
aro  both  CoHuOs,  and  have  been  rated  as  probably  alcohols 
of  pctitfitfttnic  constitution. 

Tlir  Tnrtiirif  Ariil  Ui-oup. — This  seems  a  well-character- 
i/.ed  group  of  natural  isomeres,  not  to  bo  classed,  so  far  as 
known,  with  polyiuercs  or  metamcres ;  comprising  ordinary 
or  dej-tro-tartaric  acid,  hri'n-tartaric  acid,  raceniic  acid,  anil 
iii<ic(i'cc((ir((tri'c  acid;  the  last  three  discovered  by  Pasteur. 
Action  on  polarized  light  and  variation  of  crystalline  form 
are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  these :  raccmic  acid 
being  a  compound  of  dextro-  and  Itevo-tartaric  acids,  and 
therefore  inactive.     Their  common  formula  is  V,Ucflr,- 

Still  another  great  and  important  griuip  of  pi'ihiible 
isomeres  occurs  in  nature,  distributed  very  widely  both  in 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  These  are  the  proteine  group, 
or ;)ro(ciV/«,  also  called  nlbiimiiwidn  {for  a  special  account 
of  which  see  the  articles  Albvmks  and  .Vi.in  MtxoiDS.  by 
Prof.  0.  F.  CnAXDi,t:K:  also  the  article  .'Vi.ai'MiNiiKiA). 
The  considertition  of  the  question  as  to  whether  this 
familiar  thougli  mysterious  group  of  substances  consists 
really  of  isomeres,  or  will  ultimately  be  found  to  have  some 
other  connection,  cannot  be  entered  into  here.  The  whole 
chemical  nature  of  the  protcids  rests  still  in  obscurity,  and 
the  designation  of  them  here  as  one  of  the  groups  of  nat- 
ural isomeres  must  be  admitted  as  p4ssibly  only  conjectural. 
The  narrow  acceptation  of  the  term  iaamcre,  which  has 
been  adopted  above,  can  only  be  regarded  as  provisional, 
and  likely  to  be  ephemeral.  In  the  duo  course  of  chemical 
research  it  seems  inevitable  that  the  true  molecular  struc- 
ture of  .-ill  these  groups  will  sooner  or  later  be  evolved,  and 
thev  will  then,  ot' course — while  still  remaining  isomeres  in 
the" broad  and  general  sense — either  fall  into  one  or  other 
of  the  groups  below,  or  become  appropriate  subjects  for 
new  and  specific  terms,  in  newer  classifications,  which  will 
more  closely  approximate  to  the  true  scheme  of  nature. 

2.  Pnfi/mrreH  (Or.  i7oA./|itpi)5.  "of  many  parts"). — These 
have  also  been  called  iwmeridcn,  from  i<ro(up>is.  and  iSea, 
"form  or  aspect,"  signifying  that  they  simulate  in  form  or 
formula  the  isomeres  above.''  Polymeres  constitute  groups 
which  owe  their  similar  centesimal  composition  to  the  fact 
that  their  compound  molecules  contain  the  same  elemental 
molecules,  condensed  or  combined  in  double,  triple,  or  other 
multiple  weights  in  the  same,  or  in  multiple  volumes. 

2  \.  Oriiiniic  Polfimi-reM. — Of  these,  which  are  best  known, 
the  case  above,  of  olrfnint  ijim  and  trlrnm;/!riir.  will  serve 
as  an  excellent  example;  and  it  will  be  useful  indeed  to 
cito  here  tho  whole  beautiful  group  of  hydrocarbon  polym- 
eres to  which  these  two  belong.    (See  talilo  on  next  page.) 

A  peculiar  tlieoretieal  interest  attaches  to  this  group,  in 
consequence  of  the  fact  that  it  constitutes  not  only  a  group 
of  polymeres,  but  also  a  scries  of  horaologues.  being  )iroba- 
bly  tho  only  extended  series  of  compounds  capable  of  hold- 
ing among  each  other  simultaneously  these  two  relations. 
(.See  article  lIoMOi.onv.J  It  is  doubtless  rather  by  virtue  of 
their  being  homologues,  and  not  as  polymeres,  that  they 
constitute  a  distinct  natural  family,  being  frequently  coex- 
istent or  congeneric  as  products  of  chemical  change,  ami 
as  a  series  being  distinctly  ;)ro'/rc«»i'i.'c  in  their  jiliysieal  and 
chemical  characters  and  "relations.  The  modes  of  deriva- 
tion of  some  of  these  polymeres  from  others  arc  interesting. 
Amyleno  is  converted  into  diamylene.  from  f'..,ll|oto  finite, 
or  twice  Iho  number  "f  molecules  condensed  into  the  same 
volume  of  vapor,  by  simiily  dissolving  in  oil  of  vitriol.  The 
diamylene  soon  separates  from  this  sedation  as  an  oily 
layer".  Triamvleno  and  tctrauiyleno  also,  in  which  a  sim- 
ilar condensation  to  the  Sivme  vapor-volume  of  three  and 
four  tiini'S  the  weight  of  matter,  are  formed  by  simply 
heating  nmylene  with  chloride  of  zinc,  which  latter  takes 
no  part  in  the  change. 

There  is  another  small  but  highly  interesting  group  of 
hydrocarbon  polymeres,  consisting  of  tho  following  mem- 
bers; ^ 

Acetylene,  or  ethinc 'iHj 

Benzene,  or  benzole f'nlla 

Cinnamene,  or  styrole t'sHs 

The  first  of  these  is  a  gas,  tho  other  two— which  are  per- 
fectly entitle.l  to  the  names  triacetylene  and  lelrnectylcno 

arc  lic|iiids ;  .and  ciiinainene  occurs  also  as  a  solid  iso- 

merc,  ealle.l  ni'laciiinmnciir,  formed  by  simply  superheating 
the  liquid  fium  under  pressure.  Cinnamene  is  found  also 
in  nature  as  a  eonstituoni  of  »t„rii.r.  Benzene  and  cinna- 
mene maybe  formed  by  direct  synthesis  from  acclylene,  by 
passing  the  latter  through  an  incandescent  tube.  Tliesc 
bodies'ill  occur  abundantly  in  the  products  of  the  coal-gas 
retort,  and  bear  the  moat  intimate  relations  to  many  others 

•There  is,  however,  some  confusion  of  laneiiage  here— some 
writers  applvlnit  the  term  iiomi-rMfs  Indiscriminately  to  polyin- 
ercs  and  inctameres.  The  terms  imhimrridr  and  mrlnmmile 
Invc  also  been  emploveil.  sinipiv  as  svnonyms  of  iiolyuicrc  and 
metnmere— a  complication  of  terras  which  seems  wholly  un- 
necessary. 


i:J24 


ISOMERISM,   ETC. 


of  its  products  not  polymeric  with  them.    Thus,  if  diphenyl  I  tube,  both  benzene  and  cinnamcnc  result :  CijHio  +  C2H<  = 

(Ci2Hio).ahoilyfouuda88ocinted  withanthracenoincuiil-tar,      ('cHe  +  CgHg.    Nnplitiialcne  (("loUg),  another  most  import- 
is  passed  in  vapor  form,  with  olcliant  gas,  tlirough  a  red-hot  '  ant  constituent  of  coal-tar,  and  toluene  (C'TlIa),  still  another. 

The  Known  Poti/meric  Olejinea,  Cnlisn. 


Carbon- 

equivaleots, 

C=  12. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

7 

8 

9 
10 
15 
16 
20 
27 
00 


Methene  Ainknown) 

Etheue,  ethylene,  elayl,  or  oletiant  gas 

Propeac,  or' propylene 

Butene,  or  butyiene 

Quinlene,  or  amylene 

Sextene,  or  lu'xylene 

Si'ptene,  or  licptylene 

Octene,  or  uctylene 

Nonene,  or  nonyleno 

Decene,  decalyle'ne,  dianiylene  (or  "  paramylene  "  of  Balard) 

Quindecene,  or  trianiyleiie 

Sexdecene,  ceteno,  or  cetylene 

Vigintene,  tetramyleno  (or  "metamylene"  of  Balard) 

Septemvigintene,  or  cerotene 

Trigintene,  or  melenc 


CH, 

C2H4 

C3U, 

CiH, 

C5H1Q 

C.ojLo 
Ci.H,2 

l,20''40 


Centlerado 
points  or 
fuBioD. 


57° 
62° 


CcDtl  grade 
poinlH  or 
ebulIitioD. 


—  110° 

—  17.8° 
-(-      3° 

35° 
69° 
9.5° 
119° 
140° 
165° 
248° 
275° 
395° 

•t 
375°? 


0.97 
1.45 
1.94 
2.42 
2.91 
3.39 
3.87 
4.36 
4.84 
7.60 
7.75 
9.70 
13.09 
11.80? 


arc  also  most  intimately  related  to  benzene  and  anthracene. 
Thus,  vapor  of  toluene  in  the  red-hot  tube  may  be  meta- 
morphosed as  follows : . 

BenzcDC.        Naphthalene. 

4C7H8  =  SCellc  +  C'loHs  +  3H2;  and 

Aulhraccne. 

2C7ll8  =  CuHio  +  3H2. 

The  consideration  of  these,  with  a  great  many  other  similar 
transfi)rniation3  among  these  hyJrocarbon.'^.  produced  by 
simple  contact  with  incandescent  surfaces,  which  have  been 
observed  by  Berthelot  and  others,  throw  great  light  upon 
the  processes  that  occur  within  the  gas-retort. 

Connected  with  the  great  isomeric  group  of  the  terpenes^ 
which  have  been  referred  to  above,  there  are  believed  to  bo 
probably  some  polymeres,  among  which  arc  the  essential 
oils  of  cubebs  and  copaiba,  C-ioIl32.  The  two  important 
substances  caoutchouc  and  (jntta  pcrcha  have  also  been  held 
to  bo  terpenc-poly  meres,  but  Bert  helot's  investigations 
have  cast  doubt  upon  this  view.  Cyanogen,  in  its  com- 
pounds, appears  to  have  a  peculiar  tendency  to  form  poly- 
meric groups.    The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  as  follows  : 

Cyanic  acid CIINO. 

Fulminic  acid C2U2N2O2. 

Cyan  uric  acid CsUsNsOa. 

Fulminuric  acid CallaNyOs. 

Of  these  the  last,  however,  is  doubtless  a  metamere  of 
cyanuric  acid,  as  it  is  bibasic,  while  the  latter  is  tribasie. 
From  the  three  strictly  polymeric  acids  above  formulated 
it  will  be  readily  understood  that  there  may  arise  a  great 
number  of  polymeric  groups  of  salts.  Thus,  the  silver- 
saUs  arc  constituted  as  follows  : 

Argentic  cyanatc CX.\gO. 

Argentic  fulminate C2N2Ag20a. 

Argentic  cyanurate CsNsAgaOa. 

The  second  of  these  is  the  celebrated /«/wni.i//H/;-«i7rcr 
compound.  Other  polymeric  cyanogen  compounds  are  the 
two  chlorides : 

Gaseous  chloride  of  cyanogen CNCl, 

Solid  chloride  of  cyanogen.., C3N3CI3. 

The  first  of  those,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  may  bo  con- 
verted into  a  !i(T[uid  by  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres,  and 
when  then  scaled  up  passes  gradually  into  the  solid  com- 
pound. 

The  nUlehytle  polymercs  are  highly  interesting  illustra- 
tions. Strong  sulphuric  acid,  gaseous  muriatic  acid,  chlo- 
ride of  zinc,  and  other  agents,  by  their  mere  presence, 
transform  oniinary  aldphyde,  according  to  the  temperature, 
into  one  or  the  other  of  two  solid  fiolymeres,  ;>rtr«/f/r/((/f/<' 
for  el'i/ifr/nf,f,),  and  tuftn/ii>h>/'h\  The  hitter,  being  very 
unstable  and  passing  readily  hack  to  the  form  of  ordinary 
aldehyde,  is  not  much  known,  but  the  other  two  have  the 
following  properties  and  composition  : 

a„   „.  RoniiiR-         Vapor- 

"P-  «'^'  point*.       dcQsltie* 

Aldehyde 0.790  22*^         1.525 

Paraldehyde...0.998         121°         4.516 
There  is  still  another  polymere  of  aldehyde,  a  liquid  called 
altfof,  which  is  considered  as  containing  two  molecules  of 
the  former  condensed  into  one,  but  is  somewhat  unstable, 
and   hence   not   so  well   known.       Anhyilrous    chhn-ol  {C-j, 
HCI5O),  which  may  Vie  considered  as  a  chlorinated  deriva- 
tive of  aldehyde,  changes  spontaneously  from  a  liquid  into  j  cations  of 
an   insohiblc   solid   substance,  most  probalily  a  polymere.  [  tliniorphism, 
One  more  interesting  case  of  probable  polymerism  may  be        -    ■ 
noticed,  oeeurring  in  the  ease  of   another  familiar  body, 
oleic  acid,  which,  by  the  mere  presi-ncc  of  nitrous  acid,  is 
changed  from  a  liquid  into  a  solid  isomcre  called  etaiiiic 
acid. 


Formulre. 

C3II4O. 
C6H12O3. 


2  B.  Inorganic  Poli/mercs. — There  are  a  few  cases  known, 
among  compounds  of  strictly  mineral  origin,  in  which  well- 
marked  polymerism  is  recognized.  Some  of  these  are  as 
follows  :  Peroxide  of  nitrnr/eu,  or  nitrogen  tetro.vidc,  which 
is  held  by  some  investigators  to  be  at  low  temperatures  a 
solid  or  colorless  liquid  compound  (N2O4),  which  by  heat 
is  resolved  or  dissociated  into  two  moU-cules  of  a  deep-red 
gas  (NO2).  having  twice  the  vapor-v{>lume  for  the  same 
weight.  This,  however,  has  been  deemed  unsettled  by  some 
other  chemists.  Mctaphosphntc  of  Soda. — When  the  amor- 
phous glassy  metaphosphatc  obtained  by  fusing  microcos- 
mic  salt  is  cooled  slowly,  another  modification  is  crystal- 
lized out  of  it;  and  a  third  isomere  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  on  sodic  sulphate. 
It  has  been  considered  that  these  arc  three  polymercs: 

NaP03, 

Na2P-.0c, 
and  NasPaOg. 
Autimoitic  aud  Mctantimoiiic  Acidsf  aud  their  Salts. — Two 
modifications  of  antimonie  oxide  (SbjOs)  are  formed  by 
the  action  of  water  on  antimonie  ]>entaehloride  (SbC'Ut  and 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  metallic  antimony  ;  the  last 
being  monobasic  antimonie  acid,  and  the  first  bibasic  met- 
antimonie  acid.  The  normal  antiraonates  and  acid  motan- 
timonates  have  assigned  to  tliem  the  following  general 
formula^,  which  make  them  polymercs: 

2M2O,  RbaOs.  and 

2M2O,  2Sb205. 
The  crystalline  mineral  vtibuitc,  lead-gray,  with  high  me- 
tallic lustre,  and  in  ])owdcr  grayish-black,  and  the  artifi- 
cial briek-red  antimonious  sulpliide,  formerly  called  hcrmca 
inincral,  arc  isomeric,  both  being  empirically  Sb2S3,  and 
arc  readily  convertible.  The  difference  of  their  densities 
is  sufficient  (-1.15  for  the  artificial  and  4,57  for  the  natural 
compound)  to  suggest  polymerism.  The  differences  in 
density  between  the  three  crystallized  mineral  forms  of  ti- 
tanic acid,  octahcilritf,  hrool-itr,  and  riitifc,  justifies  a  belief 
that  they  may  be  polymercs  as  well  as  polymorphs.  Their 
densities  and  hardnesses  range  as  follows : 

niirdiicts.  DcD.'tity. 

Octahedrite  (Arkansito) 5.5  to  C  3.8.S 

Brookite 5.5  to  C  4.06 

Ilutilo 6     to  6.5         4.22 

Sfnunic  and  vtetaatanuic  acids  are  well-established  poly- 
nieros : 

Stannic  acid SnO^.lI-.'O. 

Metastannic  acid 8n.-,Oio,51laO- 

The  first  is  formed  by  precipitating  a  soluble  stannatowith 
an  acid  ;  the  second  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  me- 
tallic tin.  Their  salts  are,  however,  not  polymeric,  being 
constituted  as  follows  : 

Rtannatcs MjO.SnOs. 

Metastannates MjO.lHaO.tSnsOio. 

The  two  mineral  crystallized  v.inc-sulphides.  t'phafrrite,  or 
blende,  and  uurtzitCf  have  been  supposed  to  bo  jiojymeres, 
ZnS  and  ZnaSs,  as  well  as  dimorphs.  They  do  not.  how- 
over,  differ  much  in  their  densities,  these  being  4.05  and 
3.98.  Among  mercury  compounds  there  are  two  cases  of 
probable  polymerism — that  of  the  red  feinnabarl  and  black 
forms  of  mercuric  sulphide,  and  the  re<l  and  yellow  modifi- 
-uric  iodide.  The  latter  is  also  a  ense  of 
One  more  ease  that  may  be  mentioned  is  that 
of  the' two  mineral  crystallized  forms  of  ferric  bi-iulphide, 
mnrcositc  and  pi/rite — right  rhombic  and  cubical  in  erys- 
tallization,  and  therefore  dimorphous — and  having  differ- 
ing densities,  4.7(1  and  5.1.  Berzelius  pointed  out  that  a 
great  range  of  substances  undergo,  at  a  certain  temperature 


ISOMERISM,   ETC. 


Vi-ir, 


Approaching  ignition,  a  profound  change  of  state,  the  point  | 
being  indicated  by  a  sudden  evolution  of  heiU  j.rodueing  n 
sudden  incandescent  glow  that  runs  over  the  mass,  and 
changes  being  produced  in  density,  hardness,  color,  and 
siilubility  in  acids.  Among  these  substances  are  lirconia, 
lilnnir,  ami  lanlalic  acids,  chromic  oxide,  ferric  oxide, 
pyrnphntphiilc  of  m<i</ne«m,  and  a  great  many  others.  The 
great  changes  in  properties  that  occur  during  this  glow 
would  seem  to  indicate  molecular  condensations;  in  other 
words,  polvmerisni.  , 

3.  .IWof,"..;,!.;,!  ( Or.  aAA.dTpoiros. adj.,  "changeable    ).  This 
term  was  initially  applied  by  Berzelius  to  cases  in  which 
an  e^emen^nr^  body  exhibits  two  or  more  forms,  distinct  in 
physical  ami  ofteii  in  chemical  characters.     As,  however, 
according  to  our  accepted  views  of  the  molecular  constitu- 
tion of  bodies,  no  rational  explanation  of  these  cases  can 
be  assigned  except  polymeric  association  of  two  or  more 
elemental  molecules,  it  follows  that  this  division   of  our 
subject  is  intimately  connected  with  the  preceding  ilivision. 
It  will  bo  convenient,  however,  for  purposes  of  classifica- 
tion to  retain  the  term  of  Berzelius.     Some  seven  or  more 
of  the  elcmcnlsare  known  to  assume  these  allotropic  states. 
Oxi/yen,   ttilphur,   phoiphnrim,   carbon,   silicnii.   boron,    and 
riVconiiiM  are  accepted  cases,  and  to  these  wc  believe  might 
bo  rcasonablv  ad<k-d   iron    and    nlKminum.     Oxi/r/en    and 
n:nne  are  familiar  allotropcs.     The  density  of  ozone,  as 
now  known  I'rom  the  determinations  of  different  chemists 
m:i'le  by  different  methods,  shows  that  it  is  formed  liy  the 
condensation  of   three  volumes  of  ordinary  oxygen   gas 
into  two  volumes.     The  remarkable  and  suggestive  fact 
seems  also  to  have  been  made  out  by  a  recent  investigator, 
Ilollmann,  that  during  this  condensation  heat  disappears  to 
the  amount  of  at  least  35oJ  thermal  units  for  weight.    Our 
American  chemist,  Oscar  Loew,  has  also  shown  thiit  the 
products  of  ordinary  free  flame,  as  of  coal-gas  in  air,  ex- 
hibitozonc  reactions.    Whenever  a  thorough  discussion  and 
generalization  shall  be  made  by  some  competent  chemist 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  these  two  allo- 
tropcs to  each  other  and  to  other  bodies,  we  may  expect  some 
important  new  glimpses  into  the  secret  system  of  nature. 
•      .'Sulphur  assumes  at  least  five—some  believe   six— allo- 
tropic forms,   two  of  which  are  crystalline,  crystallizing 
in   different  systems,  and  being  therefore  diniorphs,  and 
four  of  which  are  amor/j/ioii/i,  or  belong  also  to  the  next 
division  of  our  subject.     Three  of  the  six  forms  are  soluble 
in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  the  other  three  arc  insoluble. 
The  soluble  forms  arc  the  right  rhombic  octahedrons  of 
native  sulphur  (which  crystallize  out  again   in   the  same 
form  from  the  solution),  and  the  monoclinic  sulphur  formed 
by  solidification   from   fusion;  the  third  soluble   sulphur 
being  the  substance  precipitated  as  milk  of  snlphur  by  an 
acid,"from  alkaline  solutions  of  sulphur.     This  last  is  prob- 
ably the  amorph  corresponding  to  the  native  crystalline 
allotrope,  as  it  passes  in  time  into  small  octahedrons.     Wo 
find  in  tlio  two  crystalline  snlphur-allotropes  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  view  thrown  out  above,  that  elemental  allotropcs 
may  be  essentially  polyinercs:  for  the  densities  of  the  two 
are  perceptibly  apart,"lhat  of  prismatic  crystals  from  fu- 
sion being  abo'ut  1.9S,  while  the  native  transparent  crystals 
arc  2.(172.  nearly  .')  per  cent,  greater.     '■  Flowers"  of  sul- 
phur fsublimed)  consist  chiefly  of  the  amorphous  soluble 
modification,  passing  slowly  of  course  into  the  crystalline 
condition. 

None  of  the  insoluble  modifications  arc  known  in  crys- 
talline form.  One  is  produceil  by  suilden  cooling  of  melted 
sulphur,  an.l  is  traiispannt.  reddish-brown,  soft,  flexible, 
anil  somewhat  elastic.  In  Ibis  condili'in  it  has  a  density 
of  l.'.Ki,  about  Iho  same  as  the  monoclinic  soluble  crystals, 
of  which  it  is  the  amoriih,  and  into  which  it  soon  passes. 
Another  is  formed  by  the  action  of  water  on  the  chloride 
of  sulphur,  SjCI^:  a  third  by  the  actii.n  of  ferric  solutions 
on  sulphurette.l  hvdrogen  when  passed  through  Iho  same. 

Another  broail  and  highly  import.ant  natural  ilislinction 
bolwecn  the  sulphur-allotro'pes  was  discovered  by  the  great 
chemist  Uertlielot.  lie  found  that  when  eleetrolyzed,  basylio 
compounds  of  sulphur,  or  those  with  the  elcclro-positivo 
elements  I  including  hydrogen),  give  lolMe  sulphur  at  the 
ano.lr,  while  acidic  compounds,  or  those  with  electro-nega- 
tive elements,  yield  intoluble  sulphur  at  the  cathode ;  tho 
soluble  allotropcs  being  therefore  the  acidic  or  electro-neg- 
alive  sulphurs,  and  the  insoluble  allotropcs  tho  basylio  or 
cleetrn-pimitire  sulphurs. 

Pliotphorui  forms  three  beautifully  defined  known  allo- 
tropcs, almost  aa  well  characterized  as  those  of  carbon,  de- 
scribed below.  (a)  Ilraudl'ii  I'lfitphorun.  the  common 
commercial  form— soft,  wax-like,  yellowish,  and  translu- 
cent; mclls  at  41"  C,  and  boils  at  2S0°.  Oy.-tallizcs  in 
regular  dodecahedrons.     Kindles  in  air— but  not  in  oxygen 

into  spontaneous,  slow,  luminous  combustion.     Is  one  of 

the  deadliest  known  poisons.     Is  soluble  in  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  and  to  some  extent  in  petroleums  and  fatly  oils. 


When  purified  by  sublimation  may  assume  the  form  of 
transparent,  colorless  cubes  of  adamantine  lustre  (Blond- 
lot).  ib\  Sell  roller  a  I'hoaphoriu.  the  red  amoi7)/ioii«  allo- 
trope.— Brown-red.  opaipie,  brittle,  infusible;  does  not 
shine  or  change  appreciably  in  air  under  200°  C.  (300°  F.). 
Insoluble  in  everything,  and  not  poisonous,  (c)  Hilior/'t 
Pliotphonm.  the  meiolloidut  allotrope. — Violet-black  rhom- 
bohcdral  crystals,  translucent;  conducts  electricity  feebly. 
The  densities  of  these  three  allotropcs  are  as  follows: 

Common  phosphorus about  1.80  or  1.90 

Schrotler's      ''  "      2.10 

Hittorfs         "  "      2.30 

They  must  be  admitted  as  most  probably  elementary  pobj- 
mercs. 

Carbon. — Of  this  clement  there  are  two  crystalline  di- 
morphous allotropcs — diamond  and  ijrapliitc — both  of  which 
are  too  familiar  to  need  special  description.  Formerly,  it 
was  supposed  that  there  was  still  a  third  amorplionx  form, 
exemplified  in  charcoal,  anthracite,  gas-carbon,  etc. ;  but  it 
is  now  known  that  these  all  contain  hydrogen,  and  are  in 
reality  composed  of  hydrocarbons  of  highly  condensed 
molecules.  The  densities  of  graphite  and  diamond  arc 
about  2.16  and  3.54,  and  they  arc  doubtless  polymeric. 
Some  have  rated  the  massive  or  amorphous  graphites,  like 
those  of  Borrowdale,  Wuusiedcl.  etc.,  as  a  third  modifica- 
tion, but  there  is  no  specific  difference  in  density,  and  tho 
point  is  still  uncertain. 

Silicon. — This  element  is  believed  to  assume  three  alio, 
tropic  forms — two  crystalline  and  one  amorphous.  One  of 
the  crystalline  forms  seems  to  correspond  to  the  diamond 
form  of  carbon,  the  other  to  the  grajihite  form.  The  for- 
mer is  fusible  at  a  high  heat,  the  other  infusible. 

Boron  has  but  twoknown  forms— one  crystalline,  closely 
approaching  diamond  in  hardness,  lustre,  transparency, 
and  refractive  power,  while  in  the  other  form  it  is  a  dull, 
greenish-brown  powder. 

Zirconium. — This  element  is  parallel  to  silicon  in  its  allo- 
tropic forms,  which  are  three  in  number — adainantoid, 
graphitoid.  and  amorphous.  The  ndamantoid  form  has 
the  color  and  lustre  of  antimony,  but  is  very  hard,  like 
diamond. 

Iron. — Some  consider  the  so-ealled  aclire  and  pnstire 
states  of  iron  in  reference  to  solvents  as  indicating  two 
allotropic  states. 

yUiimiiiKm.— This  metal,  which  is  ordinarily  highly  in- 
different to  oxygen,  either  of  air  or  water,  is  so  profbun.lly 
modified  in  its  attitude  thereto  by  mere  couiact  wiili  mrr- 
cnry.  that  it  oxidizes  spontaneously  in  the  air.  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity  to  develop  strong  bent,  with  a  rapid  efilores- 
ceneo  of  hydrate  of  alumina.  This  was  first  observed  by 
the  present  writer  in  isi;".  It  is  believed  by  him  to  indi- 
cate an  allotropic  modification  of  aluminum. 

4.  Amnrphi'm    (Or.   o,    privative,   and    iiopijiii,    "form," 
meaning  "  without  crystalline  form  or  structure  ").   Vri/pio. 
cr'/ntallizution  ((ir.  Kpuitrdt,  "hidden,"  and  «pii<TT<iAAo5 )  is 
also  a  term  often  used  in  this  same  conneclion,  nicaning  a 
crystalline  internal  structure  on  a  scale  so  infiiiifesimaf  or 
so'  confused,  or  both,  as  to  be  beyond  the  power  of  our 
microscopes.       Masaive   is    another   term    often    ajiiiliid, 
particularly   to   mineral    species   when  erypto-crystallino. 
Those  inor</oiiiV  bodies  arc  called  amnrphom  which  luno 
never  been  found  to  assume  geometrical  forms  externally 
or  to  exhibit  internal  crystalline  cleavage.    As  the  evidence 
of  amorphism  is  usually  merely  ne-jotirc  evidence,  there  is 
often  much   doubt   of   its  reality,  and  as  to  whelher  the 
amorphous  state  is  not  sometimes  due  to  erypto-criiniollinc 
structure.     Internal  cleavage  is  very  far  from  being  a  con- 
stant occurrence  in  bodies  having  external  crystal  forms, 
and  its  absence  is  fhcrcforo  cquatly  far  from   being  i)roof 
of  absence  of  the  crystalline  eomlition.     It  is  also  kii..wn 
that  in  numerous  cases  of  bodies  which  lend  to  crystallize 
with  eiisc,  the  mere  jircscnce  of  some  other  matter  in  small 
proportion  may  so  interfere  as  to  cause  an  apparent  amor- 
phism, which,  in  siunc  of  these  eases,  maybe  easily  proved 
ro  be  due  only  to  crypto-crystallizalion.     It  is  easy  to  un- 
derstand that  two  or  more  bodies  dissolved  together  in  the 
same  menstruum,  or  dissolved  in  each  other,  may  possess 
crystalline  forces  or  tendencies  so  inlrrfering  with,  or  in- 
deed altogether  antagonizing,  each  other,  as  to  confuse  or 
ttltogetlier  neutralize  thai  p<jlaric  disposition  of  the  uoili-- 
eulcs  which  conslitutes  the  crystalline  structure.     Anuilu  r 
range  of  facts  having  a  bearing  here  is  prcsenteil  by  bodies 
o(  arilreouH  and  rr«iio>i(«  kind— like  ordinary  glass,  for  ex- 
ample  which  were  early  assumed  lo  present  a  ii/piral  awor- 

phiam.  but  in  a  great  many  <if  which  crystalline  slroclure 
has  been  since  developed,  by  slow  superficial  solution  or 
corrosion,  and  many  id  which  have  also  been  found  to  be- 
come crystalline  when  kept  for  sufficiently  long  periods  at 
temperatures  near  fusion. 

These  considerations,  with  others,  have  inflneneed  some 
students  of  nature  to  deny  the  existence  of  any  really 


i;]20 


ISOMETRICAL. 


amorphous  solid  state   of  matter,  and  to  maintain   that  < 

solidity  13  essentially  iiu  effect  of  crystallization;  and  hence 
that  all  solid  matter  must  he  erystallint'.  A  question  is 
here  involved  of  grt-ut  and  fundamental  importance  to 
science,  whoso  investigation  has  been  much  nej^lected. 
Among  the  main  products  of  organic  life  arc  many  bodies 
a)>parently  soluble  iu  water — starch,  jfriatitte,  f/tti>i,  and  al- 
hiimeii  are  familiar  examples — which  have  never  been  ob- 
tained in  crystalline  forms.  Among  bodies  entirely  inor- 
ganic there  are  a  few  similar  examples  now.  known,  of 
which  thc'most  familiar  is  soluble  amorphous  hitica.  The 
great  chemist  Graham  discovered  that  these  bodies  do  not 
really  fr>rm  true  solutions  in  water,  but  that  they  could  be 
sfparated  from  tlie  water  and  from  other  substances  really 
dissolved  therein  by  straining  or  diffusion  through  mem- 
branous diaphragms.  Graham  therefore  projjosed  a  new 
natural  classification  of  all  bodies  into  coUoifh  and  cryB- 
ttiUoifiif.  vSo  far  as  we  yet  know,  the  colloid  bodies  of 
Graham,  if  no  others,  would  ajipear  to  be  true  amorphs ; 
and  until  these  can  be  made  to  assume  crystalline  structure, 
the  ancient  theory  of  amorphism,  and  the  ancient  classifi- 
cation of  solids  into  crystals  and  amorphs.  must  still  hold  ; 
and  we  must  allow  that  solidity  is  not  solely  a  couscquenco 
of  cryi^talline  cohesion  or  concretion — that  is,  of  polariza-  . 
tion  of  the  molecules — but  that  there  exist  other  cohesive  ' 
solidifying  forces  in  nature  not  yet  well  defined  by  science  : 
— forces,  or  modes  of  force,  which,  when  we  consider  that  ' 
all  orifdnic  bodies  are  substautially  based  upon  colloid  or 
amorphous  compounds,  would  appear  to  be  in  the  most  in- 
timate relations  to  life,  and  therefore  to  call  for  the  most 
anxious  and  concentrated  study.  (See  further  under  the 
head  of  Somatology.)  ' 

Some  special  cases  of  amorphism  are  as  follows: 
{(i)  Ehmcntnrif  Amorphft. —  Under  the  head  of  nf/ofmpJKin 
most  if  not  all  of  these  have  already  lieen  referred  to.  Wo 
have,  in  forms  probably,  or  at  least  possibly,  amorphous, 
the  elements  sutphur,  phosphorus,  ftHicou,  boron,  and  zir- 
conium. Carbon,  as  amorphous  graphite,  is  doubtful.  Some 
chemists  have  held  the  view  that  the  known  pyrophoric 
forms  that  some  raetals  are  capable  of  assuming,  such  as 
irou,  uir/.-cf,  cabalt,  lend,  au'l  others,  are  amorphous  forms; 
also  that  plfttinvm-blnrk  and  r/old  in  the  black,  impalpable 
form,  are  amorphs.  These  views,  however,  are  not  yet  es- 
tablished. 

(6)  Compound  Inorganic  Amorphs. — Of  these,  the  opaline 
or  amorphous  state  of  silica  has  already  been  mentioned, 
hut  there  are  other  forms  of  this  compound  which  should 
be  here  referred  to.  Silica  assumes  two  crystalline  forms, 
which,  though  seemingly  of  the  same  crystalline  system, 
are  not  the  same  thing,  being  doubtless  polymeres.  as  the 
common  form,  r/iinrtz,  has  a  density  of  2.0(13.  or  over  IB  per 
cent,  higher  than  tridi/mitr.  which  is  but  2.25,  like  opal. 
Now,  there  is  still  another  form  of  amorphous  and  soluble 
silica,  which  appears  to  exist,  in  admixture  with  quartz,  in 
flint,  chalcedony,  etc..  and  which  has  the  higlier  density  of 
quartz.  Prof.  Dana  has  suggested  to  call  this  form  jenz- 
schite.  after  Jenzsnh,  the  mineralogist  who  first  pointed  it 
out.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  we  must  now  admit  four 
distinct  forms  of  silica — quartz,  with  its  amorph  jenzschite, 
and  tridymite,  a  polymere  as  well  as  an  isomorph  of  quartz, 
with  it»  amorph,  which  is  common  opaline  silica.  Another 
inorganic  compound — whose  amorph  is  known  to  be  ditfuj^i- 
b!o  throughout  water  as  a  perfect  transparent  colloid  or 
quasi-solution,  similar  to  those  of  starch,  gelatine,  etc. — is 
the  ferric  hydrate.  Probably  chromic  and  aluminic  hy- 
drates might  admit  of  being  handled  in  the  same  w.ay. 
The  hydrates  of  ferric  oxide  and  alumina  are  moreover 
found  native  as  minerals  which  possess  crystalline  struc- 
ture. Arsenious  add,  when  fused,  has  been  supposed  to 
solidify  to  an  amorphous  mass  which  is  transparent  and 
glassy.  It  passes  spontaneously  into  an  opaque  crystalline 
form,  more  soluble  in  w.ater,  similar  to  the  crystals  which 
condense  on  sublimation.  Fused  borax  and  boracic  acid 
and  photphnric  add  have  all  been  claimed  as  amorphs. 
Many  crystalline  anhydrous  mineral  silicates  which  are' 
unacted  upon  by  acids  pass  when  fused,  often  even  when 
only  ignitfil,  with  change  of  density,  into  what  have  been 
supposed  to  be  amorphous  states,  becoming  easily  soluble 
in  or  decomposable  by  acids.  Among  thcs*-  are  some  fjar- 
nets,  vcMiiriaiittc,  axinitc,  rpidotes,  piedmoutite,  zoiaite,  dan- 
burilc,  icpiiiofite,  tonrntalines,  and  others. 

(c.)  Ortfanie  Amorphs. — These,  as  already  intimated,  are 
numerous.  Excluding  the  bony  portions  of  animal  bodies, 
with  their  muscular  juices,  and  certain  constituents  of  the 
sap  of  some  plants,  it  may  be  said  that  almost  the  whole 
bulk  of  both  these  kingdoms  of  nature  is  built  up  of  amor- 
phous or  colloid  compounds.  In  the  case  of  plants,  even 
the  mineral  matter,  silica,  which  seems  in  many  cases  to  be 
the  nnalogue  of  the  animal  skeleton,  is  an  amorphous 
hofly.  The  crystalline  suffam — sucmnp,  g/ucosr,  etc. — pass 
when  fused  into  amorphous  forms.     Other  common  organic 


amorphs  are  most  revius,  caoutchoucs,  gallotannic  add.  cel- 
lulose, the  proteids  generally,  vntdiie,  pepsine,  kcratine, 
hitirubiuc,  and  bifivirdinc,  vlmic  and  hiimic  substances, 
coaly  matters,  etc.  etc.  Great  numbers  have  not  been  in- 
vestigated or  isolated,  because  they  are  amorphous,  and 
hence  cannot  be  purified  by  crystallization. 

5.  Polymorphism  (including  Dimorphinm  and  Trimorph- 
/»ih),  ((Jr.  TroAuMop»i»o?,  "  having  many  forms").  When  an 
element  or  comj)ound  forms  crystals  which  belong  to  two 
different  systems  of  crystallization  {on  which  subject  see 
Crvstam-ouraphy)  it  is  called  dimorphous  ;  when  to  three 
diScrent  .systems,  trimorphoua.  The  only  reasonable  ex- 
planation of  polymorphism  is  polymerism,  and  several  of 
the  known  cases  have  been  referred  to,  therefore,  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs  under  that  head.  The  elementary 
bodies  known  or  believed  to  be  dimorphous  are  carbon, 
sulphur,  selcuium,  phosphorus,  boron,  giUcon,  zirconium, 
iridium,  palladium,  had,  tin,  copper,  arsenic,  fintimouy,  and 
bismuth.  Among  compounds  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
cases  known  of  dimorphism  and  trimorphism  may  be  cited 
as  examples:  Uinttirph". — Arsenious  acid  and  antimoniotts 
oxide  {A52O3  and  SbzOs)  both  crystallize  in  the  regular 
and  trimetric  systems,  and  are  therefore  isodimftrphoua. 
Stannic  acid  (SnOa)  is  said  by  I>ana  to  crystallize  in  two 
of  the  three  forms  of  titanic  add  (TiOs),  and  therefore  to 
be  isodimorphous  with  the  latter.  Mercuric  iodide  (referred 
to  above).  Sulphide  0/  zinc,  as  the  minerals  blende  and 
XDurtzite  (referred  to  above).  Pyrite  and  marcasitv,  yellow 
and  white  iron-bisulphide,  monouietric  and  orthorhombic. 
tSalfpftre  (KNO3),  hexagonal  and  trimetric.  Lead  pro- 
toxide (PbO),  monometric  and  ortliovhombic  (Mitscherlich). 
Trimorphs. — The  three  forms  of  titanic  add  have  been 
explained.  Besides  the  hexagonal  and  trimetric  forms  of 
calcic  carbonate,  calcitc  and  aragonite,  Dana  considers 
that  the  monoelinic  form  of  baryto-calcite.  composed  of 
equal  equivalents  of  calcic  and  baric  carbonates,  indicates 
further  a  case  of  trimorphism.  Moreover,  as  baryto-calcite 
is  itself  dimorphous,  having  a  trimetric  form  in  bromlite, 
like  witherife,  this  view  is  thus  strengthened.  Crystallized 
nickel-sulphate  ( NiU.SOa.TIhO)  is  stated  to  crystallize  in 
three  systems — dimetric,  trimetric,  and  monoelinic. 

(j.  Metamerism. — (This  important  branch  of  the  subject 
will  be  discussed  under  a  separate  head.  See,  therefore, 
the  word  Metamkrism.)  Hr.nkv  Wi'ktz. 

Isomet'rical  [Gr.  io-o?.  "equal,"  and  fifxpoi*,  "meas- 
ure"']. Isometrieal  projection  is  a  species  of  orthographic 
Projection  in  which  but  cme  plane  of  projection  is  employed. 
t  is  used  by  engineers  and  architects  in  delineating  struc- 
tures whose  principal  lines  are  parallel  to  three  rectangular 
axes.  The  plane  of  projection  is  taken  so  as  to  make 
equal  angles  with  these  axes;  consequently,  the  projection 
of  any  line  parallel  to  either  axis  bears  a  constant  ratio  to 
the  line  itself.  The  three  axes  are  called  co-ordinate  axes, 
and  the  planes  of  these  axes,  taken  two  and  two,  arc  called 
co-ordinate  planes  ;  one  of  the  three  planes  is  usually  taken 
horizontal,  and  that  one  is  called  the  horizontal  plane  ;  a 
second  is  taken  in  front  of  the  point  from  which  the  object 
is  viewed,  and  that  is  called  the  frontal  jtlane  ;  and  the 
third  is  taken  to  the  left  of  the  point  of  view,  and  that  is 
called  the  lateral  plane.  The  plane  of  projection  is  sup- 
posed to  pass  through  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  three 
axes,  which  point  is  then  called  the  centre  of  projection. 
The  projections  of  the  co-ordinate  axes  pass  through  the 
centre  of  projection,  and  make  equal  angles — that  is,  angles 
of  120° — with  each  other:  these  projections  arc  called  the 
directing  lines  of  the  jirojection.  If  we  construct  a  scale 
of  equal  parts  on  either  axis,  its  ]»rojection  on  the  corre- 
sponding directing  line  will  beaseale  of  eqnal  parts,  which 
is  called  the  scale  of  that  directing  line;  the  scales  of  all 
the  directing  lines  arc  the  same,  and  may  be  assumed  at 
pleasure. 

To  explain  the  method  of  projecting  points  isometrically, 
let  A  be  the  centre  of  pro- 
jection, Ax,  Ay,  and  Az  the 
directing  lines,  and  suppose 
Az\yt  he  vertical.     Then,  to 
constructthe  jirojeetion  ofa 
point  whose  distance  from 
the  frontal  plane  is  2,  whose 
distance   from    the    lateral 
plane  is  4,  antl  whoso  dis- 
tance  from  the  horizontal 
plane  is  5,  lay  off  Ay  equal 
to  2  from  the  assumed  scale 
of  the  directing  line  ;  from 
7/  draw  yx  parallel   to  Ax, 
and  aw  it  lay  off  yx,  equal 
from  X  draw  xz  parallel  to  Az,  and  make  it  equal 
then    will   z   bo  the   required   projection.       In    like 
manner,  any  point   may   be  projected  when   we  know  its 
distances  from  the  co-ordinate  planes.     To  project  a  line 


to  4; 
to    5 


ISOMORPHISM,   ETC. 


1327 


which  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  axes,  construct  the  pro;ection 
of  one  of  it:*  extremities  as  just  explained:  then  from  the 
point  thus  determinLMi  draw  a  line  panilkl  to  the  corrc- 
fipondin^  directiii-;  liuf,  and  on  it  hiy  off,  from  llit'  sealc,  the 
length  of  the  ^iveu  line.  To  project  a  line  that  is  not  par- 
allel to  any  axis,  pnycct  its  extremitie?.  and  join  the  pro- 
jections hy  a  straight  line.  To  project  a  curve,  pruject  a 
sufficient  number  of  points,  and  through  their  projections 
draw  a  curved  line.  These  principles  are  sulhi'ient  to  make 
an  isometrical  projection  of  any  structure  whatever. 

In  drawings  of  machinery  it  is  often  desirable  to  project 
circles  whose  planes  are  parallel  to  one  of  the  planes  of 
projection.       Such    pro-  ^ 

jeclions  may  be  made  as 
follows :  construct  the 
centre.^  of  theprojection 
in  accordance  with  the 
rule  given  for  construct- 
ing the  projection  of  a 
given  point,  and  suppose 
the  plane  of  the  given 
circle  to  be  parallel  to  the 
frontal  plane:  through  C 
draw  CE  parallel  to  Ax, 
and  make  it  equal  to  the 
radiu:j  of  the  given  circle 
to  the  scale  of  the  direct- 
ing lines;  also  draw  CD 
parallel  to  Az,  and  make  it  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
given  circle  :  on  ('£,'and  CD,  as  equal  eemi-conjugato  diam- 
eter.", construct  au  ellipse,  and  it  will  be  the  projection  of 
the  given  circle.  W.  (J.  Peck. 

Isomorph'ism,  Hom(romorphi8m«  Isosterism 
and  Piiraliclosterisin,  Isotoniv,  Polymeric  Iso- 
morphism, Allomerism,  Ilc'tcromorphism,  He- 
niimor|>liism.  Thc-^e  terms  are  all  so  intimaicly  re- 
lated to  each  other  in  the  language  of  chemistry  that  they 
should  be  explained  in  connection  with  each  other. 

/nomorphism  (Or.  iaos,  "equal,"  and  fioptt>tj,  "form"). 
I«omorphs.  or  isomorphous  bodies,  are  bodies  which  crys- 
tallize in  forms  belonging  to  the  same  system  of  crystalli- 
zation, and  having  crystalline  axes  that  bear  the  same  pro- 
portions to  each  other.  (See  article  on  CnvsTALLOGRAi'iiv, 
by  PROK.  Thomas  Eglestox.)  The  Abbe  Haiiy,  the  father 
of  crystallography,  imagined  that  every  distinct  chem- 
ical body  had  a  distinct  crystal  form,  specific  to  itself. 
Nearly  a  century  since,  however,  Werner  began  to  throw 
doubt  on  this,  by  demonstrating  the  precise  similarity  be- 
tween the  hexagonal  prisms  of  the  two  native  phosphates 
of  lime  and  lead.  Leblanc,  Vauquclin,  Borthicr,  WoUaston, 
and  Gay-Lussac  followed  up  the  direction  thus  indicated, 
until  at  length  Mitscherlich  announced,  in  ISl'O,  as  a  grand 
generalization,  that  correspondence  of  crystalline  form 
shows  parallelism  in  chemical  nature  or  correspondence  in 
chemical  structure,  and  conversely.  The  stuily  and  devel- 
opment of  this  prineiplo  or  general  law,  and  of  the  per- 
turbations to  which  it  is  subject  through  many  influences, 
has  contributed  wonderfully  to  our  insight  into  nature.  It 
may,  for  example,  he  said  to  be  the  corner-stone  of  miner- 
niotfif  as  a  branch  of  chemical  science,  and  without  it  chem- 
ical science  in  general  would  bo  far  behind  its  present  po- 
sition. 

Isomorphism,  in  the  narrow  sense  of  the  term,  as  signi- 
fying exfirt  equality  of  form,  is  found,  strictly  speaking, 
only  in  bodies  which  cr^'stallize  in  the  regular  or  isoraetrio 
system.  The  term  homtpamorphiam  {(ir.  ofiotoc,  "  similar," 
and  M^o/xfrij)  is  much  preferable,  as  a  word  of  more  general 
application.  Among  the  most  familiar  illustrations  of  the 
principle  are  those  constiintly  occurring  cases  in  which  n 
complex  molecular  group  has  one  or  several  of  its  elemental 
molecules  substituted,  either  wholly  or  partially,  by  other 
clenients.  In  this  case  there  will  be  usually  fiKind  in  all 
the  anisoraetric  systems,  or  those  having  unequtil  axes,  that 
variations  will  follow  in  the  relative  lengths  or  inclinations 
of  the  axes,  leading  to  variations  of  the  angles  of  the  crys- 
tal ;  while  in  regular  crystal!'  such  variation  of  equality  of 
axes  or  of  angles,  which  would  be,  in  reality,  a  passage  to 
another  system,  can  never,  in  the  nature  of  things,  occur. 

It  has  been  inevitable  that  in  the  past  the  study  of  the 
relations  of  crystalline  form  and  chemical  composition,  in- 
eluding  homo?omorphisiii,  has  been  ehietly  among  crys- 
tals found  in  nature,  of  which  viiitrrdh  furnish  abnost  all 
the  examples.  The  generalizations,  therefore,  of  the  earlier 
students  of  this  branch  of  science  were  unquestionably  far 
too  narrow;  and  even  as  early  as  IH;J2,  \  on  Kobell  pre- 
sented broader  views.  Not  to  enter  into  the  history  of  the 
subject,  which  would  require  great  space,  its  ])rescnt  con- 
dition may  bo  summed  up  by  saying  thtit  as  a  result  of 
uniting  the  modern  views,  generalized  chiefly  from  the  dis- 
coveries in  organic  chemistry,  autl  known  as  the  theory  of 
equivalence  (sco  article  on  CnESiiSTKY,  by  Prtor.  Oko.  F. 


Barkkr),  with  the  facts  of  homoeomorphisra  in  the  min- 
eral kingdom,  our  famous  American  philosopher,  James  I). 
Dana  of  New  llavcn.  has  recently  adopted  theoretical 
views  which  appear  to  reconcile  and  to  cover  most  of 
the  facts  known,  and  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  classili- 
cation  of  chemical  compounds  in  accordance  with  both 
chemical  composition  and  mineral  homoeomorphism.  Prof. 
Dana's  generalization  may  be  expressed  thus:  7'fic  ircifjhts 
of  the  metals  or  other  clemente  ichich  comhiiie  with  equal  and 
equivalent  tovttfhtn  of  oxygen,  ttulpkur,  or  other  electro-nerja- 
tivc  or  chlorous  efemcnt,  arc  those  ichich  replace  each  other 
isomorphousft/  or  homocomorphousli/.  While  the  ordinary 
modern  views  of  equivalence  and  classification  arc  founded 
on  a  comparison  of,  or  reduction  to,  the  types  of  hydroijcn- 
compounds,  such  as  fratcr,  ammonia,  and  marsh-gas,  the 
wider  and  more  comprehensive  scheme  used  by  Dana  may 
properly  bo  considered  as  a  theory  of  physico-chemical 
correlation  of  the  metallic  or  basylous  elements  with  oxy- 
gen and  other  acidic  elements.  Whether  the  two  schemes 
can  be  reconciled  and  made  consistent  with  each  other,  re- 
mains to  bo  seen.  Homteomorphism  among  carbo-hydro- 
gen  compounds  has  been  studied  as  yet  comparatively  little, 
and  wo  cannot  know  how  it  may  yet  modify  the  views  of 
organic  chemists. 

In  reference  to  this  question,  it  may  indeed  be  very  sug- 
gestively pointed  out  that  our  present  prevailing  theories 
of  molecular  relations  in  organic  chemistry,  and  the  sys- 
tems of  nomenclature,  notation,  and  classification  that  they 
have,  in  a  manner, /orfCf^  on  tlic  chemical  world — arising, 
as  they  did  originally,  from  the  illustrious  Laurent's  idea 
in  KSIG  of  the  reduction  of  alcohols  and  ethers  to  the 
"  water-type,"  followed  up  by  our  great  American  chemist, 
Sterry  Hunt,  in  1S48,  by  the  reduction  of  all  oxygen-acids 
theoretically  to  the  same  type — are  generalized  and  rea- 
soned c.r(7»«fr»7//  fr<»m  the  phenomena  and  relations  of 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  to  each  other  and  to  other  elements 
while  in  one  special  condition — Ihc  yascous  condition — of 
matter;  a  contlition  of  matter  as  widely  separated  as  pos- 
sible from  the  crystal  condition;  in  which  latter  certain 
modes  of  f(jrce  must  act.  that  in  gases  are  wholly  neutral- 
ized or  latent.  Hence,  the  belief  can  scarcely  be  resisted 
that  the  generalizations  of  the  organic  chemists  can  be  but 
partial  and  imperfect  ones,  and  that  they  must  yet  be  sub- 
jected to  the  test  of  comparison  with  the  relations  which 
will  be  found  among  the  rrystahoi  organic  compounds. 

From  Dana's  view  it  follows — or,  rather,  one  of  the  promi- 
nent facts  on  which  the  view  is  based  is — that  different 
oxides,  chlorides,  and  sulphides  of  the  same  metal  may  all 
be  isomorphs  or  honKr-oinorphs.  For  exani])le :  Fe203, 
FesO^,  and  FeSa  arc  all  found  in  the  regular  system.  Dana 
formulates  these,  hypothetically,  as  follows:  Fe^O,  Fe^o, 
and  Fe^^R  ;  the  weights  Fc;.,  Fca,  and  Fci  being  isomor- 
phous,  or  actxially  of  the  same  form  in  crystals.  He  ex- 
presscs-the  law  nearly  thus:  7'/(c  replacing  rahie  in  rrysiah 
equals  the  Cinnbining  pinrcv  (with  a  chlorous  element).  lie- 
sides  these,  iron  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  other  pro- 
portions, FeO  and  FeOs ;  and  there  are  therefore  five 
weights  of  iron,  which  are  equivalent  to  each  other  in  crys- 
talline form,  and  should  repliice  caidi  other  with(mt  change 
of  crystalline  system — namely,  Fe,  Fe-..  Fct,  Fci,  Fcj.  Dana 
calls  these  (crystallogcnically)  the  statet*  of  iron,  and  desig- 
nates them  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  Fe  being 
«/y»Afi-iron,  Fe^  tctn-iron,  Fci  gamma-\xou,  an  interme- 
diate state  (not  known  in  ease  of  iron)  M'>  being  the  me- 
tallic (/e/^r-state,  Fei  r;Mi7on-iron,  and  so  on.  Any  metallic 
oxide  of  one  of  these  crystal-states  should  replace  any  oxido 
of  any  other  crystal-state  of  the  same  metal,  or  even  of  any 
other  cryslnl-slate  of  any  other  metal,  homwomorphously. 
So  of  sulphitles  or  of  chlorides.  The  enormous  breadth 
thus  given  to  our  views  of  homoMimorphism  may  probably 
be  somewhat  restricted  and  moditicd  by  future  investiga- 
tions, but  known  cases  appear  to  justify  the  above  state- 
ment quite  to  its  fullest  extent.  In  the  further  extension 
of  these  views  to  the  clefming  of  the  basic  and  acidic  rela- 
tions of  oxides,  etc..  we  cannot  here  follow  Prof.  Dana.  Imt 
must  refer  to  his  magnitieent  System  of  Mineralogy  (ed.  of 
18CU),  and  to  his  published  papers  in  the  American  J^urual 
of  Science.  It  should,  however,  be  pointed  out  that  such 
replacements  follow  the  simple  law  that  the  amountof  both 
basic  and  acidic  o.rygin,  Hufphur,  etc.  remains  always  the 
same,  in  such  replacements  without  change  of  crystal-sys- 
tom  ;  and  the  principle  is  thus  made  manifest  that  it  is  the 
ehctro-negative  elements  of  a  molecular  group  that  uiniiily 
govern  the  crystalline  or  molecular  structure  assumed. 
Hydrogen,  whose  combining  weight  or  volume  is  now  matlo 
the  basis  of  all  classification  and  speculation  in  organic 
chemistry,  is  on  a  par  with  any  other  Electro-positive  or 
basylous  element  in  the  illimitable  field  of  inorganic  or 
azote  chemistry — so  far,  at  least,  as  the  eminently  specific 


1328 


ISOPERIMETRY— ISOSTERISM,   ETC. 


charactcrof  crystal-form  is  concerned — and  may  be  replaced 
or  displaced,  niulecularly  or  crystallogenically,  hy  iron,  for 
example,  in  three  or  four  diflereut  proportions  or  "states." 

EfeiiifiiUil  Isomorphs. — The  followiuj^,  among  the  ele- 
ments, have  been  observed  to  crystallize  in  regular  or 
monouietric  forms,  and  as  such  their  molecules  arc  there- 
fore absolute  isomorphs  :  Carbon  (as  diamond).  phoHphnms, 
gold,  plathium^  pnlhidiuniy  iridium,  sifrer,  copper,  fttid,  tin, 
zinc,  cadmium,  tilaniitm,  pntfissinm,  nodium.  Probably  many 
more,  if  not  all,  will  be  obtained  as  monouietric  crystals  :  as 
is  readily  inferable  from  many  cases  of  isomorphism  of 
their  compounds. 

Other  Elemental  Homccomorphs.—lu  the  hexagonal  or 
rhombohedral  system  we  have  c«r/^o«  (as  graphite),  pAos- 
phorus  (Hittorfs  allotrope),  palfndiinn,  iridium,  osmium, 
ur>tcuic,  aittimoni/,  bi»mnt/i,  and  tcHnriitm.  The  first  four 
of  these,  being  also  mouometric,  are  dimorphous.  In  the 
trimotric  system  there  arc  two  elemental  homo?omorphs, 
iodine  and  snfphnr  (in  one  of  its  forms). 

Compound  Rcfjtdnr  homorphs. — Very  nearly  all  the  known 
oxidei,  chlorides,  bromidct,  iodides,  fluorides,  sulphides, 
Belenides,  andry«»("(/e«aro  isomorphs  of  Dana's  «/;-)A«-state; 
also  most  three-four  oxides,  considered  by  Dana  as  com- 
pounds of  n^/>A«  and  ic(a-oxides,  such  as  spinels,  magnetite, 
chromite,  franklinitc,  uraninite,  linnmite,  etc.;  also  two 
heta-i)\'n\QS,  arsenious  Vi^ndi.  autimonious  acids;  X\\*i  gamma - 
sulphides.  l''cS2,MnS2,CoS2,Co(S,As)2,Ki(S,As)2;  onee^si- 
/o»i-arseniet,  CoAss;  the  alums,  the  garuets,  etc.  etc. 

Compound  Hnmcromorphi*. — Of  these  there  are  multitudes 
of  groujis.  A  few  examples  may  be  cited :  Hexagonal 
bcta-oxulcs,  ohimiua,  hematite,  chromic  oxide,  ilmenite 
(FeTi)-203,  pero/skite  (CaTi)203.  tefradt/mitc,  Bi2(TeS)3; 
also  one  three-four  compound,  Bi3(TeSSe)4.  Hexagonal 
n/pha-ox\dcs,  sulphides,  etc.,  or  polymeres  (?),  ice,  zinc- 
ox  idc,  the  zinc -sulphide  imrtzite,  IMS,  argentic  iodide 
(these  are  by  some,  with  good  reason,  believed  to  be  po^^- 
meres  in  crystal-form,  thus,  IlgOaZnaOs.  Zng^s,  and  so  on); 
(PbI2PbO),  cinnabar,  ligSe,  >;iS,  ]U(TeS),  NiAs,  MnAs, 
NiSb  ;  with  one  ^amma-sulphidc  moli/bdeiiite,  and  one  gani- 
ma-oxide,  quartz  SiOs.  Orthorhombic  oxides,  chlorides,  sul- 
phides, and  fluorides  :  here  we  have  mendipite  (Pbt'],2PbO), 
cotunnite  probably  PbsCls,  chiysoberi/l  lieOAl-jOs,  cryolite 
(3NaF.Al2K3),  A.^^^^,  Sh2^=3,  Bi2p3.  AgS,  AgTe,  brookite 
Ti02,Mn(>2.  and  marmsitc  Ve^2  (the  dimorph  of  pyrite). 
Tetragonal,  Sn02.Ti02,  as  ritfi/e  and  f'r^f/(«f//-(>t?(Pb('l.PbO), 
and  one  three-four  oxide  minium,     Trimetrie,  As^O^.^ii^Os. 

Among  more  eomjilex  com])ounds  there  are,  of  the  licx- 
agoual  forms,  many  carhnnatcs,  soda  and  potash  nitres, 
tribanic  phosphates,  several  hi/posulphatcs;  of  the  dimetric, 
Ni  and  Zn  sulphates  and  selenafes  with  TH^O,  the  arseniles 
and  phosphites,  ammonia-silver  sulphate  selenate  and  chro- 
mate,  etc. ;  of  the  trimetrie,  the  aragouite  group  of  carbon- 
ates, plumbic  baric  jmd  etroittie  sulphates, jiotiissie  sulphate 
selenate  chromate  antl  manganate,  Alg  Zn  and  Ki  sulphates 
and  selcnates;  of  the  monoclinic,  Jig  Zn  Co  Ni  and  Fe 
sulphates  and  selcnates  with  7II2O,  and  another  group  of 
the  same  with  611:0;  a  great  group  of  double  suiphatcs 
with  (UI^O:  a  group  of  sufphates  eelenatea  and  ehromates 
with  mll-j*^,  etc. ;  of  the  triclinic,  a  gnmj)  of  sulphates  and 
eehuates  of  Mn  Zn  and  Co  with  4II2O,  and  another  group 
with  0H2O. 

Honuromorphic  Replacements  among  Mineral  Silicates. — 
This  is  a  branch  of  the  subject  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  mineralogy  and  mineral  analysis.  (Its  discussion  will 
be  found  in  the  article  Silicates,  Chemistry  and  Classi- 
fication OF.) 

iHostcrism,  hotomy,  and  Parallclosterism  (see  under  sepa- 
rate heading  of  Isosteuism)  ;  Polymeric  Isomorphism  and 
Allomerism  (see  under  separate  heading  of  Polymeric 
IsOMonPHiSM) ;  Ilcteromorphism  [Gr.  erepo?.  *'  different,"  and 
(LLop<fti)].  Heteromorphous  bodies  are  those  which,  while 
having  similar  or  symmetrical  ehemieal  formuhe  —  ex- 
cept that  they  may  contain  different  basic  or  acidic  ele- 
ments— and  even  sometimes  possessing  so-called  isosteric 
relations,  yet  crystallize  in  distinct  systems.  The  term  is 
convenient  for  classifying  apart  these  exceptional  cases. 

Henry  Wirtz. 

Isoperim'etry  [Or.  T^o?,"  equal,"  ntpi.  **  around,"  and 
fi.«Tpov,  "  measure"],  a  branch  of  mathematics  that  treats 
of  the  properties  and  relations  of  isoperlmetrieal  figures — 
that  Lg,  of  surfaces  having  equal  perimeters,  and  volumes 
bounded  by  equal  surfaces.  It  may  be  shown  by  element- 
ary geometry  that  the  greatest  plane  area  having  a  given 
perimeter  is  a  circle,  and  that  the  greatest  volume  bounded 
by  a  given  surface  is  a  sphere.  Of  all  triangles  having  a 
given  perimeter,  the  equilateral  triangle  has  the  greatest 
area,  and  in  gcnernl  of  nil  polygons  with  a  given  number 
of  sides  and  a  given  perimeter,  that  has  the  greatest  area 
whoso  sides  are  equal.  The  principles  of  isoporimetry  are 
best  developed  bv  means  of  the  calculus  of  variations. 

\V.  G.  Peck. 


Is'opods  [Gr.  laos,  "  equal,"  wow?,  "  foot "],  an  order  of 

tctradecapod  crustaceans,  characterized  especially  by  the 
presence  of  branehiie  to  the  abdominal  segments  (although 
these  may  be  functionally  atrophied),  and  their  absence 
from  the  Imscs  of  the  legs,  and  typically  by  the  approximate 
conformity  in  size  and  functions  of  their  seven  pairs  of  legs. 
The  group  embraces  numerous  small  crustaceans,  mostly 
inhabiting  salt  waters,  and  is  also  represented  by  fresh- 
water and  terrestrial  forms,  the  sow-bugs  (Oniscus)  and 
pill-bugs  (Porcellio  and  Armadillo)  being  well-known  ex- 
amples of  the  latter. 

Isos'terism,  Ilomffiosterism,  I'aralleloster- 
ism,  Isotomy.  These  are  terms  which  denote  that 
branch  of  chemi-i)hysieal  science  which  investigates  bodies 
in  relation  to  their  iwdrrular  or  <h'  micnf  t,piicalent  volumes. 
Isosterism  is  derived  from  the  (Jr.  lo-oy,  "  equal,"  and  oTcppos 
or  arepco?,  "  solid,  impenetrable  ;"  isotomy  from  lao?  and 
oTOjiio?,  "  indivisible."  The  molecular  or  equivalent  vol- 
ume of  a  body  is  obtained  by  simple  division  of  the  mole- 
cule or  equivalent  by  the  specific  gravity.  Isosteres  arc 
simply  bodies  which  give,  in  this  way,  closely  equal  num- 
bers. Parallclosterism  is  applied  to  certain  cases  in  which 
pairs  or  series  of  compounds,  which  are  homoeomorphous 
or  analogous,  show  equal  differencs  of  equivalent  volumes. 
Equivalent  volumes  are  necessarily  of  three  kinds,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  three  conditions  of  matter — solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous;  and  as  the  equivalent  is  a  constant  factor — sub- 
ject only  to  those  multiple  variations  dependent  on  poly- 
merism — and  the  density  varies  usually  with  the  condition, 
it  is  necessary  to  complete  knowledge  to  search  for  numer- 
ical relations  throughout  all  three  conditions.  The  simple 
laws,  however,  which  govern  gaseous  equivalent  volumes 
have  already  been  explained  under  the  heading  Chemistry, 
by  Prof.  G.  F.  Barker.  The  term  isosterism,  in  ordinary 
usage,  is  not  so  applied  as  to  include  gaseous,  but  only 
solid  and  liquid  conditions,  though  in  the  widest  sense  it 
would  cover  all.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  study 
of  isosterism  are  very  considerable,  chiefly  from  the  fact 
that  the  ea^es  in  which  the  variable  factor,  the  density,  is 
determinable  with  certainty  and  accuracy,  and  without  in- 
terfering causes,  in  liquid  and  solid  bodies,  are  rather  ex- 
ceptional than  otherwise.  This  drawback  is  more  appli- 
cable to  solids  than  to  liquids,  as  in  the  former  case  abso- 
lute surety  is  only  bad  when  the  solid  is  both  chemically 
pure  and  homogeneously  crystallized.  Of  real  cr^'stalHc 
and  chemical  homogeneity  there  can  seldom  be  certainty, 
for  isomeres,  polymeres.  and  metameres,  and  even  allo- 
tropcs,  may  often  be.  and  in  some  eases  are  already  known 
to  be.  also  isomorphs  ;  and  still  oftencr,  and  with  far  greater 
likelihood, homajomorjihs.  (Seearticle  Isomorphism.)  Such 
will  usually  crystallize  together  in  the  same  crystal,  even 
when  differing  materially  in  density  :  and  in  numerous 
such  cases  a  knowledge  even  of  the  fact  of  such  cryptic 
heterogeneity  will  arrive  as  the  result  only  of  a  great  ac- 
cumulation of  observations,  such  as  exists  yet  in  but  few 
eases.  In  the  case  of  liquids,  also,  metameres,  of  differing 
densities,  may  not  be  separable,  by  reason  of  approxima- 
tion of  their  boiling-points. 

Density  being  variable  with  temperature,  equivalent  vol- 
ume is  therefore  a  function  of  the  temperature;  and  the 
question  arises  whether  there  is  anj-  uniform  temperature  at 
which  all  bodies  should  be  taken  in  order  to  discover  isos- 
terism ?  If  not,  as  is  almost  obvious,  could  any  relative  tem- 
peratures— for  example,  points  equidistant  from  the  fusing- 
pointur  boiling-point  in  each  case — be  adopted  ?  This  latter 
is  yet  without  proof.  It  would  appear  as  if  proportional  re- 
lations might  be  sought  for  between  the  coefficients  of  ex- 
pansion of  bodies  by  heat — rather  than  between  the  volumes 
at  any  given  temperature — and  the  equivalent  weights. 
This,  however,  does  not  belong  to  our  present  subject. 

Though  the  study  of  molecular  volumes  is  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy, the  literature  of  the  subject  is  nevertheless  very 
voluminous,  while  at  the  same  time  scallered  through  very 
numerous  scientific  journals.  In  Europe  the  principal 
authors  and  investigators  have  been  H.  Kopp,  Sehroeder, 
Tsehcrmak,  Liiwig,  Filhol.  H.  Sehiff,  Sufarik,  .lungfleisch, 
Playfair  and  Joule  :  in  America,  Slerry  Hunt,  F.  ^V.  Clarke, 
Isidor  Walz.  and.  above  all.  .lames  D.  Dana. 

The  remark  made  under  IsOMoKi'nisH,  that  (outside  of 
the  regular  system)  strict  crystallic  equality  does  not  exist, 
we  find  still  more  applicable  to  this  closely-related  study 
of  volume-equivalents;  and.  as  in  the  former  case,  a  term 
expressing  approximation  only  seems  preferable — indeed, 
here  almost  indispensable.  tSuch  a  term  is  hnmreostcrism. 
In  tabulating  and  classifying  equivalent  volumes,  there  are 
several  important  reasons  in  favor  of  adopting,  as  the  unit 
for  comparison,  that  of  the  crystal  oi^  diamond.  Diamond 
has  the  smallest  huarn  equivalent  volume,  and  its  true 
specific  gravity  is  probably  known  with  greater  certainty, 
in  the  eheraieally  pure  crystalline  state,  than  almost  any 
other  elementary  body. 


I.SOT1IEKMAL  LINES— ISPAHAN. 


1329 


Elemental  Hnmtrmli-rti. — In  a  tabulalioft  of  tlie  elements, 
in  the  order  of  their  equivalent  volumes,  eoniineMiinj;  with 
iliiimond  ns  llie  lowest,  nml  cnlcuhiled  to  the  diamond  seale, 
we  almost  at  onee  encounter  a  rcmarkahle  proup  of  eight 
elemental  homa'osteres — Xos.  5  to  12  inclusive,  in  the  sec- 
ond column  below  ; 


Equlr. 
vol».» 

1.  Piamond 1. 

2.  Boron 1.21 

3.  Graphite 1..51 

4.  Ulucinum(equlT.  =  9.3)  1.303 


KqulV. 

5.  Uranium 1.92 

G.  Glucinuin  (equiv. 

==  13,93) 1.9.53 

7.  Cobalt 2.012 

8.  Kickel 2.03 

9.  Co|i|)er 2.117 

10.  rhromium 2.1  IS 

11.  Iron 2.119 

12.  Manganese 2.16 

These  eight  metals  form  a  stronglj-inarkcd  nuinral  group. 
Immediately  followiug  them  cornea  another,  larger  series 
of  homceostercd : 

13.  Palladium 2.083  21.  Gold 2.98 

H.  Iridium  2.BC  22.  Indium 3. 

!■..  iihixlium 2.71  23.  Silver  (crystalli/.ed; 3.018 

111.  I'latinum.. 2.73  24.  Tungsten 3.075 

IT.  7Anc 2.735  2.?.  Aluminum 3.123 

IS.  Kuthenium 2.74  2«.  Magnesium  (?) S.l.'i 

19.  INmium 2.74  27.  Molylidenum 3.291 

20.  Vauadium 2.743  ,  2S.  Silver  (fu.sed)...- 3.45 

The  position  of  magnesium  here  is  founded  on  density- 
determinations  of  Playfair  and  .loule,  which  exceed  the 
mean  of  other  chemists  by  about  :10  percent.  These  others 
bring  its  equivalent  volume  up  to  4.1.  This  series  includes 
all  the  so-called  "noble  metals,"  bringing  in  some,  such  as 
V,  hi,  W,  .\1.  and  Mo.  which  other  classifications  separate 
widely  therefrom  :  though  all  these  clearly  have  claims  to 
the  title.  Zn  and  Mg,  however,  have  no  such  claims.  One 
other  example  may  be  cited,  among  those  elements  (and 
elementoidsl,  which  havo  the  most  voluminous  equiva- 
lents, of  a  small  series  of  homa_'OSteres :  fl'/ni'i  rhlnriuf, 
7.85;  /I'ffniU  irvmine,  7.9  ;  eolid  iodint',  8.5;  liijuirl  ri/aii- 
offeitj  8.7tf. 

Cnmpnund  Hnm<toiitere», — The  new  view  above  propound- 
ed, that  there  is  really  no  true  isosterism.  but  only  a  pro- 
gressive homo'opterism,  is  more  remarliably  exemplilicd 
and  demonstrated  by  aeries  of  corresponding  compounde 
than  of  elements.  Some  oxides  of  the  form  M2O  give  us 
the  following : 

DoniUlc.  Dlamond.^ale. 

volumc-cquiv. 

Water HjO  l.Oo  53 

Ice  (mean  of  29  determinations) 0.9191  S.7G3 

Sodic  oxide Na,0  2.805  6.21 

Cuprous  oxide Cuo'O  6.897  7.13 

Argentous  '•    Ae",0  7.18  9.5 

Menuroua  "    WiCM  10.09  11.44 

Pota^sic       "    K„(')  2.0.10  IL.M 

PluMibous   "    PG.,.0  9.772  12.94 

The  oxides  of  the  form  MO,  of  the  first  scries  of  elemental 
hoimeosteres,  tabulated  above,  so  far  as  the  densities  are 
known,  give  us — 


rrnnous  oxide 

f'(tl)alt<nis     "    

EqulvalcDU. 

13C 

75 

DcnultlcK.          DlBinond- 

...  lO.lS     3.941 

...    fl.ft74  3R88 

N'irklous      "    

75     

...     6  315             .  Wmw 

79.5  

...    6.25     .      .  ..  3  741 

GJ*.r> 

72 

Mangauous  "    

71 

...    4.909  4.2S4 

This  scries  furnishes  an  illustration  of  the  cxtromo  im- 
perfection of  mimy  of  our  data,  ns  vet,  for  such  calcula- 
tions. The  liensitits  of  nearly  all  tho!"**  most  iinportiint 
oxides  arc  imperfectly  known,  and  those  on  record  vary 
much.  F(»r  instance,  seven  fij^ures  ^jiven  for  NiO  vary 
from  5.6  to  0.8.  The  one  adopted  above  is  the  mean  of  tho 
seven. 

Sonic  netquioxidet  giro  tho  following  progressive  aories 
of  votumcs : 

Clnrlna  (considered  as  BOjOj) 7.3 

Alumina 7.7 

t'hromic  oxide 8.944 

CobaUic        '•     9.11 

TuTrif  "     9.14 

Vnnndtc       "     9.;W2 

Mantitinic    *'     10.07 

Nieklie         "    ;. 10.11 

A  numher  of  other  proj^rossive  series  arc  readily  innde  out 
among  oxides  of  other  forms.  An  analogy  is  strongly  sug- 
t;rsted  in  this  relation  with  the  homoloffum  of  organic 
ohcmi?try  (.sen  nrtielo  IIoMnr.ofiv,  hy  Piiop.  II.  WriiTz),  in 
which  there  is  found  u  similar  progressive  inoremont  of 

•Tho  molecular  or  oquivnlent  Tohimrs  nrlven  In  thin  and  sub- 
•icflMiiil  iirtfrlcH  hftvi'  nil  ln'cn  enlcninli-fl  imew,  spi-fjiilly  fftr  this 
wi.rk.  witli  thr  aid  of  t  lie  invnliial>)r  Stiilttinonian  Tatil'-?"  of  Den- 
silirftl.y  Prof.  F.  W.CIarkcofrinrlnnRtl.  ThcefiulvnW'nt^  imed 
are  ilinne  ndopttnl  liv  Trof.  Barker  in  his  article  on  Ciikmistry. 
V(.i,.  ir.— S4 


equivalent  volume.  Also  among  chlorides  and  nnlphuhn 
there  arc  similar  serial  relations.  Of  tho  first  clcmentnl 
homoeosteric  series  the  following  monoaulph ides  arc  present- 
able : 


CoS  ... 
Ni.S  ... 
FeS ... 
MnS. 
CuS.. 


4.9 

5.21 

.  .0.41 

fi.lO 

6.1.2 


There  arc  apparently  no  indication.s  of  similarity  in  the 
order  of  progression  in  tho  several  coses  of  tho  elcmculs, 
oxides,  sulphides,  and  chlorides  ;  but  the  densities  of  many 
of  the  compounds  are  still  so  uncertain  that  \vc  cannot  de- 
cide that  such  dissimilarity  is  general. 

The  most  obvious  and  .^trikinsreon.'iequenceof  arranging 
the  elements  in  tho  order  of  their  equivalent  volumes  is 
that  in  very  numerous  cases  individual  elements,  and 
groups  of  such,  arc  thus  brought  into  contiguity  or  prox- 
imity, whicli  are  known  to  be  allied  to  each  other,  but 
which,  in  any  other  mode  of  eIas.sifit'!itioii,  fall  far  n]>iirt. 
This  will  be  further  treated  of  under  the  head  of  .Mulko 

ULAU  VOUMKS. 

In  chemical  textbooks  much  stress  is  often  laid  on  cases 
in  which  supposed  isostercs  are  also  iftmiorjihn,  generally 
because  found  to  be  alike  inoinrtrtr.  Almost  all  the  ele- 
ments may,  however,  be  able  to  assume  isometric  forms, 
and  such  corres])ondcnces  therefore  do  not  seem  to  carry 
much  weight.  Attempts,  moreover,  are  made  to  show  nu- 
merical relations  of  equivalent  volumes  in  '•  sim|ik-  multiple 
proportions."  (  See  Watts's  IHclitmnry.  "Isomorphism,"  vol. 
iii.  p.  4.T1.)  Closer  calculation-^,  with  better  data,  are  far 
from  bearing  out  any  of  these  assumed  multiple  propor- 
tions:  and  indeed  it  is  difficult  to  sec  why  simple  multiple 
ratios  of  vvhimc  should  inhere  in  any  ease;  a  gcnmetrivul 
ratio,  as  that  of  the  cube-roots^if  there  be  any  relation, 
which  is  yet  to  be  determined — being  more  in  nccordnnco 
with  the  nature  of  the  case.  It  has  been  held  by  high  au- 
thority tiiat  jjerlVct  and  absolute  isomorphism  must  imply 
isosterism,  or  iiioftniii/,  as  some  term  it.  No  «  ;jrio/-i' reason 
is  apparent  for  this,  and  facts  do  not  bear  it  out.  JMnO  and 
Mn203  are  mutually  replaceable,  fur  instance,  in  crystals, 
in  proporti(uis  representing  ei|ual  amounts  of  oxygen  ;  that 
is,  MnO  and  Mn->0  :  of  which  the  equivalent  volumes  are 

respectively  4.2r)4  and  It.JiC.  So  also  CoO  and  C02OS  or  C-0, 
have  the  respective  equivalent  volumes,  replacing  each 
other  crystallogenically,  of  :i.8SS  and  2. 978. 

(For  some  account  of  important  investigations  of  Prof. 
James  D.  Dana  upon  this  subject,  see  article  on  Sii.uatks, 
Chemistuv  anu  Classification  or  ;  for  others  of  Prof.  F.  C, 
Clarke,  see  AA'atkr  of  Cuvstalli/.ation  ;  and  of  Dr.  Isidor 
Walz.  sec  .Sum  TiuN  and  .Soluuilitv.         IIenhv  WruTz. 

Isothcral  Lines.     See  MKTEonoi.or.v. 

Isothrnual  Lines.  See  Climate,  by  Phof.  A.  tirvoT, 
Ph.D..  LL.D. 

Isotrop'ic  [Tao9,  "equal,"  and  rpon-^,  "turning"].  A 
homogeneous  snlid  is  said  to  hv  imilinjiic  whtti  any  equal  or 
similar  (in  form)  portions  cut  from  «»//  relativi^  pi>sitions 
in  tho  body  arc  indistinguishable  from  one  another,  or 
when  a  spherical  portion  exhibits  uniformity  of  quality 
along  all  its  diameters.  Cn/strif/inc  substances,  Htnttifivd 
substances,  fihronH  substances,  etc.  etc.  are  not  isotropic, 
inasmuch  as  their  elasticity,  tenacity,  etc.  dilVer  for  dilVer- 
cnt  directions;  and  such  are  called  nfntropic.  If  we  have 
reference  not  only  to  vu-clmuirul  but  to  afl  physical  prop- 
erties (r.  (/.  absorption  and  transmission  of  light,  of  heat, 
etc.),  a  body  may  be  isotropic  iu  one  quality  or  class  of  quali- 
ties, and  adotropic  in  others.  .1.  (J.  Baksaud. 

Tspahnn%  city  of  Persia,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Irak-Ajemi,  on  tllo  Zendarud.  iu  Iat.:t2°:i9'  N.  and  lon.filQ 
44'  K.  From  the  fourteenth  Ii>  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  was  a  flourishing  and  steadily  increasing 
city,  and  when,  in  the  seveulemth  century,  .Shnh  Abbas 
made  it  his  resitliiue  and  the  capital  of  Persia,  it  ra])idly 
rose  still  higher,  and  became  one  of  the  most  magiiitieeut 
citieaof  Asia.  Put  in  1722  it  was  taken  and  sacked  hv  the 
Afghans,  and  although  it  was  retaken  in  172!)  I»y  Nadir 
Shah,  yet  Triieran  becamo  the  capital  of  Pcr.-iia.  and  J.<pa- 
han  fell  into  decay.  Among  its  most  .opiendid  monntiu-uls 
arc  the  briilgi-  over  tin-  /.cndarud,  1000  feet  long,  resting  on 
'M  arches  and  bearing  arched  galleries  ;  tho  palace  of  Cliehel 
Sittou  ("forty  colunius"),  whoso  front  is  formed  by  a 
dnublo  rangi"  of  rolumns  10  fcpt  high  each,  and  with  a 
base  fornu'd  of  the  united  backs  of  four  lions  in  white 
marble  ;  the  mosijuc  of  Me«jid  Shah,  whose  vast  dome  rises 
among  a  forest  of  spires,  towers,  minarets,  and  open  gal- 
leries. But  these  and  many  other  wonderful  monuments  are 
rapidly  ilfi-ayiug.  and  they  are  snrrounclcd  by  ruins.  Miles 
of  streets  liavi' no  inhabitants.  Tin-  population  is  rslimntcd 
at  between  00,000  and  100.000.  There  are  signs,  however, 
which  indicate  that  Ispahan   may  rise  once  more.     Its 


1330 


ISRAEL-ITALIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


manufachircs  of  gold,  silver,  silk,  velvet,  glass,  weapons, 
and  earthenware  have  maintained  their  high  reputation, 
and,  its  artisans  are  esteemed  the  best  in  Persia.  Its  situ- 
ation on  the  main  commercial  route  between  India  and 
Europe  is  the  same  as  in  olden  times,  and  its  surroundings 
arc  still  exceedingly  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 

Is'rael  [Heb.  Yhrarf,  "a  prince  with  (lod  *'],  the  name 
bestowed  upon  Jacob  (which  see)  when  hv.  wrestled  with  an 
angel  at  Peniel  (Gen.  x-Kxii.  28),  afterward  the  distinctive 
name  of  his  descendants,  and  particularly  of  the  northern 
kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes. 

Israel,  tp.  of  Preble  co.,  0.     Pop.  1751. 

Israelites,     See  Jews,  by  Prof.  Ff.lix  Ani.EU. 

Issaque'na,  county  of  Mississippi,  having  the  Missis- 
sippi River  on  the  W.  and  the  navigable  Yazoo  and  Sun- 
flower rivers  on  the  E.  Area,  about  720  square  miles.  It 
is  partly  swampy  and  covered  with  dense  woods.  It  is 
generally  level  and  very  fertile.  Cotton  is  the  staple  prod- 
uct.    Cap.  Mayersville.     Pop.  6887. 

Issoire',  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Puy  de 
Dome,  on  the  Crouse.  It  has  several  distilleries.  Pop. 
6159. 

Issoiidnn',  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Indre, 
on  the  Theols.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  woollen 
and  linen  stuffs.     Pop.  14,482. 

Is'siie,  in  the  law  of  pleading.  This  arises  when  a 
propnsitinn  of  fact  or  a  conclusion  of  law  is  directly  af- 
firmed by  one  party  to  the  suit  and  controverted  by  the 
other.  It  is  the  point  in  dispute  which  is  presented  for 
decision  to  the  court  or  jury.  Issues  are  of  two  kinds — 
of  law  and  of  faet.  The  former  arises  upon  demurrer,  and 
presents  a  question  of  law,  which  is  adjudieated  by  the 
court  sitting  without  a  jury  (see  Demurrer)  :  the  latter 
arises  upon  a  traverse  or  answer  to  the  allegations  of  the 
opposite  party,  and  presents  a  question  of  fact,  which  in  a 
common-law  action  is  determined  by  a  jury,  and  in  an 
equity  case  by  n  judge.  In  some  of  the  States  both  classes 
of  issues  may  by  consent  of  parties  be  tried  by  a  referee. 
It  is  the  object  of  various  rules  of  pleading  that  the  issue 
shall  be  upon  a  point  material  to  the  controversy,  shall  be 
free  from  uncertainty  or  ambiguity,  and  shall  present  but 
a  single  question  for  <lecision  tipon  each  separate  subject 
of  litigation.  (See  Pi,eai>ing.)  There  is  a  f()rm  of  issue 
termed  technically  a  "feigned  issue,"  from  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  it  originates.  Such  issues  occur  in  tho 
progress  of  a  cause  before  a  tribunal  sitting  without  a  jury, 
when  some  question  of  fact  arises  upon  whicli  the  decision 
of  a  jury  is  desired.  A  fictitious  suit  is  framed  involving 
the  point  to  be  determined,  and  is  brought  to  trial  before  a 
jury,  and  carried  on  to  verdict  in  the  usual  way.  The  ver- 
dict rendered  is  then  returned  to  the  court  in  which  the 
cause  first  arose  for  its  further  action.  The  application  of 
the  term  "feigned"  to  the  issue  is  not  appropriate,  since 
the  fiction  is  not  in  the  issue,  but  in  tho  action  which  is 
framed  and  in  the  state  of  facts  upon  which  it  is  founded. 
Feigned  issties  almost  invariably  arise  in  the  progress  of 
suits  in  courts  of  equity,  and  are  ordered  by  the  court  to 
be  heard  before  some  tribunal  proceeding  according  to  the 
forms  of  common  la\v  with  a  jury.  Sometimes,  however. 
they  arise  in  courts  of  law.  Feigned  issues  are  abolished 
in  New  York,  and  it  is  only  necessary  that  an  order  be 
made  by  the  court  for  the  trial  before  a  jury  of  the  point  to 
be  decided,  and  such  order  is  the  only  authority  necessary 
for  the  trial.  (For  Oenerai,  Issue  see  that  topic.) 

Georce  Chase.    Revised  by  T.  W.  Pwicht. 

Is'sns  ['Iffffd?],  an  ancient  city  of  Cilicia,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  at  the  head  of  what 
is  now  the  Gulf  of  Scandcroon.  In  Xenophon's  time  it 
was  great  and  prosperous.  Here  Alexander  {.^.■i.'{  b.  c.) 
gained  a  great  victory  over  Darius,  whose  family  was  cap- 
tured. No  remains  of  the  (own  are  believed  to  exist,  and 
it  is  probable  that  its  site  is  covered  by  the  sea. 

Issy',  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine,  on 
tho  Seine.      It  has  extensive    bleaching -grounds.     Pop. 

Isthmian  Games.  Seo  Grecian  Games,  bv  Prof. 
H.  r.  Srn«inT,  S.  T.  D. 

Is'tip,  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  tho  eyalet  of 
Tskiup,  on  the  Istip.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a  large 
industry  and  extensive  bazaars.     Pop.  18.000. 

Is'tria^  countv  of  the  Austrian  province  of  tho  coast 
districts  (Kitstonland).  consists  of  a  mountainous  penin- 
sula projecting  into  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  is  bounded  by  the  territory  of  the  city  of  Trieste  and 
the  county  of  Gorg.     Poji.  240,000.     Cap.  Pissino. 

Italian  Architecture.  See  Renaissance,  by  C. 
Peteicsen. 


Itarian  Laneriiage  and  Literature*  The  vernac- 
ular speech  of  the  Italian  jjcople  embraces  a  great  number 
of  provincial  dialects,  widely  differing  from  each  other  in 
articulation,  but  descended  chiefly  from  a  common  stock, 
or.  to  speak  more  precisely,  from  a  cognate  linguistic  group 
comprising  Latin,  Fmbrian.  Oscan.  and  perhaps  Etruscan, 
as  well  as  other  less-known  ancient  branches  of  the  Italic 
family  of  tongues.  They  all  contain  more  or  fewer  words 
of  Germanic  origin,  besides  many  technical  as  well  as 
purely  local  terms  derived  from  other  sources ;  but  tho 
proportion  of  the  Italic  or  indigenous  element  is  every- 
where overwhelming,  and  it  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  the  vocabulary  of  the  Italian  language,  in  all  its 
provincial  varieties,  is  homogeneous.  These  dialects,  ex- 
ce])t  as  spoken  by  the  lowest  classes  in  large  cities,  are  not 
corrupt  pnt'iin  confined  to  the  ignorant  and  the  vulgnr.  but 
many  of  them  are  rich,  expressive,  and  refined,  and  they 
are  habitually  used  in  familiar  intercourse,  not  only  by  the 
middle  and  inferior  ranks,  but  by  jiersons  of  social  and  lit- 
erary culture,  to  a  very  much  greater  extent  than  is  the 
case  with  the  provincial  dialects  of  most  other  European 
langu.ages.  Their  diversities  of  pronunciation,  of  form, 
of  idiomatic  expression,  and  even  of  syntactical  combina- 
tion, are  such  that  a  stranger  who  has  acquired  only  Tus- 
can, or  the  language  of  literature  and  of  general  Italian 
society,  finds  all  the  vernaculars,  inclurrmg  the  humble 
street  and  household  dialect — or  what  may  be  called  the 
cocJcnejf — of  Rome,  and  even  of  Florence  itself,  almost 
wholly  unintelligible.  Even  the  native  inhabitants  of  dif- 
ferent Italian  provinces  cannot  freely  communieate  with 
each  other  without  resorting  to  Tuscan,  which  is  known  by 
all  Italians  of  the  slightest  pretensions  to  education,  and 
is  therefore  properly  characterized  as  the  thitjun  comunr,  or 
"common  tongue."  of  the  whole  kingdom.  This  dialect, 
though  the  common  property  of  the  whole  Italian  people, 
is  tho  peculiar  fireside,  field,  and  market,  as  well  as  liter- 
ary, language  of  Tuscany  and  parts  of  the  adjacent  prov- 
inces;  but  even  within  these  limits  there  are  in  popular 
use  considerable  discrepancies  both  in  accent  and  in  vocab- 
ulary. The  better  class  of  the  peasantry  in  the  mountain 
territory  of  Pistoja,  in  the  u]>per  Val  d'Arno,  and  in  some 
other  localities,  speak  Tuscan  with  a  beauty  of  arti<-uIalion 
— or,  more  accurately,  of  delivery — an  elcgnnce  of  phrase, 
and  a  picturesqueness  of  vocabulary  which  can  hardly  bo 
paralleled  by  the  popular  discourse,  not  merely  of  other 
parts  of  Italy,  but  of  any  other  European  country.  It  is 
in  this  perennial  "well  of  language  undefiled."  not  in 
French  or  in  classical  Latin,  that  Italian  literature  ought 
to  seek  the  enrichment  and  variety  of  diction,  the  flexibil- 
ity and  versatility  of  construction,  which  the  fhifftta  comune 
needs  before  it  can  become  truly  an  all-pervading  vital  me- 
dium of  national  thought  and  expression. 

But  though  Tuscan  may  fairly  claim  to  be  the  solo  na- 
tional medium  of  exchange  of  thought,  and  though  the 
pronunciation  of  all  the  provinces  tends  to  assimilate,  yet 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  kingdom  there  is  a  wide  range 
of  local  variation  in  oral  articulation  in  good  social  circles, 
and  of  literary  diction  in  the  dialect  of  public  discussion 
and  of  books.  The  speech  of  every  provincial  "  bewray- 
cth  "  him.  not  only  by  his  shibboleth,  but  by  his  idioms 
and  the  general  choice  and  arrangement  of  his  words;  and 
in  Parliament  the  jmme  of  every  orator  is  at  once  recog- 
nizee! by  both  his  accent  and  his  phraseology.  The  writ- 
ings of  all  non-Tuscans  are  criticised  as  marked  by  sole- 
cisms, if  not  by  positive  fifjrnninintirnfurr,  Manzoni,  a 
Lombard  by  birth  and  early  training,  thought  it  necessary, 
after  the  first  publication  of  his  PnnufMHi  Spimi,  to  reform 
his  style  by  most  minute  and  careful  study  of  Tuscan  mod- 
els, or,  as  he,  with  more  force  titan  good  taste  or  grace  of 
expression,  phrased  it,**  to  rinse  out  his  rags  in  the  Arno;"* 
and  when  that  deservedly  renowned  story  had  been  fifteen 
years  before  the  world  he  reissued  it  in  an  almost  entirely 
rewritten  form.  Compare,  for  example,  this  paragraph  as 
given  in  the  editions  of  1825  and  1840  (/  Pronifssi  Sponi, 
cap.  xxxiv.) : 


Venuto  appi^  del  ponte, 
volt<i  Fcnza  esitare.  a  sinis- 
tra, nella  rin  (frffti  fn  strada 
a  San  Marco,  come  a  qucIJa 
che  gli  parve  dover  menaro 
verso  rintcrno  della  citti. 
E  procedendo,  cercava  cogli 
ocrhi  intorno,  sc  potessi  sco- 
prire  qualchc  creatur.a  uma- 
na;  ma  altra  non  ne  vide 
che    uno   sformato  cadavcre 


"  Arn'rnto  o/  ponle.  volt&, 
senza  esitare  a  sinistra,  nel- 
la Kfroda  fli  San  Marco,  pa- 
midotfh',  a  raffionv,  che  do- 
V'SKr  rnndnrrr  verso  rinterno 
della  citta.  E  audando avnn- 
ti,  f/itordnra  in  gun  e  in  tii, 
per  veder  se  potevu  scoprire 
qualchc  crcaturaumana;  ma 
non  ne  vide  altra  che  uno 
sformato  cadavcre   nel  pic- 


*  Riseiaequare  i  suoi  cenei  in  Arno.  Our  translation  does  not 
give  the  precise  t^ftaci  of  the  ortcinal.  for  though  names  of  riv- 
ers usually  take  the  definite  article  in  Ttalian.  the  Tuscans  make 
their  river  an  exception,  and  personify  it.  An}o  is  the  name  of 
a  being,  not  of  a  thing. 


ITALIAN    l.AN(;rA(;K   AND   LITEKATUKK. 


1331 


nel  fossatello  chc  corro  f ra    col  fotnn  che  corre  tra  quelle 

quelle  poche  case  (die  ;illora     poche  ease  (chc  allora  erano 


anchc  meno)  e  u»  pfzzo  lUlla 
ntrnda.  Passato  quel  przzn, 
tentigridare:  *  o  <jttrlf  'uontn/' 
c  gunrdnndo  dii  quclla  parte. 
vidf  poco  lontano.  a  un  ter~ 
yrtzziiio  d'nttn  ctiniircUt  iso- 
lata,  una  povera  d'lnna,  con 
una  iiidiattt  di  Intnihini  inlnr- 
nn;  la  quale,  nrjvilniidnln  a 
chinmar':  pli  frr/'  ceNNo  an- 
cke  con  la  uiauo." 


erano  anchc  menu*  e  hi  via, 
per  un  tratto  di  es^a.  Pas- 
sato  quel  tratto,  rnii  ccrto 
griiia,comr  chinmnte  cSe  pa- 
r^tvin  /Vi/fff  (t  /tti;  c,  Volto  lo 
Bjuardo  in  5U  a  quella  parte 
doiide  venii-ft  it  «i(ono, scorse, 
poco  lontano,  a  un  halcone 
d'una  casnpola  i^olata,  una 
povera  donna,  eon  un  firup- 
pctto  di  f'lineiulli  dattorno, 
la  quale,  chiamando,  tutta- 
via.  gll  accennara  pur  colla 
m.lno  rhf  Ki   facennr  cicnio,^' 

And  yet.  after  all  this  painstaUinjj,  Tuscan  purists  find 
Lombardisins  in  the  style  of  Maiizoni.  Some  eminent  na- 
tive critics  think  it  impossible,  and  even  undesinilile.  for 
the  whole  Italian  people  to  conform  to  the  Tuscan  or  to 
any  other  universal  standard  of  diction,  and  they  advise 
provincial  writers  and  speakers  to  adopt  the  regular  prnm- 
matioal  inflexions  of  the  /inf/im  comiine,  but  to  conliuue  to 
employ  every  one  his  own  native  vocabulary  and  idiomatic 
phraseology.  These  locnl  expressions,  they  snv.  almost 
universally  belong  to  the  Italic  word-stock,  and  would  ac- 
cordingly he  intelligible  even  where  not  habitually  used. 
By  this  method,  as  they  suppose,  the  provincial  would  en- 
joy as  much  freedom  of  movement  as  in  the  use  of  his  ver- 
nacular, and  would  at  the  same  time  be  eveti  better  under- 
stood anil  appreciated  than  when  under  the  constraint  of 
employing  words  and  constructions  not  familiar  to  him. 

Most  of  the  Italian  provincial  dialects  have  been  reduced 
to  writing;  some  of  them,  Venetian  and  .Sicilian,  for  ex- 
ample, were  somewhat  largely  employeit  in  literature  and 
in  official  communication  before,  and  c\'en  for  some  time 
after,  the  supremacy  of  Tuscan  was  generally  recognized  ; 
there  still  exists  among  the  peasantry  a  large  stock  of  old 
unwritten  dialectic  prose  and  verse,  which  is  orally  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation  by  popular  reciters 
and  story-tellers  ;  new  dramatic  pieces,  generally  comic,  are 
constantly  represented  in  dinltitit  in  all  the  great  cities,  and 
every  year  gives  birth  to  a  considerable  amount  of  popu- 
lar, humorous,  and  satirical  poetry  in  the  more  important 
provincial  speeches.  But  the  language  employed  in  serious 
literary  eotnposilion.  in  religious  teaching,  in  parliamen- 
tary ami  forensic  proceedings,  in  all  branches  of  the  public 
administration,  in  journalism,  in  commercial  and  private 
corresponrlence,  and  in  general  social  circles  is  exclusively 
Tuscan.  The  early  predominance  of  Tuscan  is  probably 
due  rather  to  the  political  importance  of  the  Florentine  re- 
public, and  especially  to  the  relations  of  the  old  Tuscan 
capital  to  the  internal  commerce  and  the  finnnciarinterests 
of  the  Peninsula,  than  to  greater  antiquity  or  to  any  special 
inherent  fitness  for  literary  purposes;  for  the  original  in- 
trinsic su|ieriorily  of  Tuscan  to  some  of  the  other  Italian 
dialects  is  by  no  means  clear.  It  has  now.  however,  re- 
ceived a  culture  which  has  given  it  a  very  decided  advan- 
tage over  all  its  rivals,  anil  the  political  unification  of  Italy 
has  sirengthcned  its  position  as  the  national  tongue,  and 
secured  to  it  a  eons'anlly  widening  sphere  of  living  energy 
as  a  popular  speech.  Hence,  it  is  no  longer  as  true  as  it 
was  in  Byron's  time,  that  "Few  Italians  speak  the  right 
Etruscan;"  and.  unfortunately,  the  Florentine  pronuncia- 
tion, which  is  characterized  by  nn  enfeebled — or,  to  bor- 
row an  expressive  term  from  a  great  philologist,  a  hizy — 
articulation  itf  what  arc  elsewhere  more  nvksculine  and 
energetic  consonantal  sounds,  is  fast  spreading.  This  tend- 
ency is  aggravated  by  the  predilection  of  fashionable 
Italian  circles  for  the  habitual  use  of  French,  and  threat- 
ens to  become  universal. 

The  critical  study  of  the  It.alinn  dialects  has  until  lately 
been  much  neglected  ;  and.  in  fact,  the  materials  for  its 
scientific  treatment  have  hardly  yet  been  brought  together. 
But  it  possesses  great  linguistic  interest,  and  it  is  now  zeal-  ' 
ously  prosecuted  by  able  foreign   and   native  philologists. 
From   their  researches  we  may  expect   im|iortant  results, 
hut  at  present  we  know  little  of  the  history  and  eimdition 
of  these  dialects  at  any  period  previous  to  the  thirteenth 
century.    The  recorded  literature  of  modern  Italy  is  of  later 
birth  than  that  of  Provence  and  of  Northern  France.    Many 
of  the  earliest  Italian  poets  wrote  in   Provencal,  much  of   i 
the  most  ancient  literature  of  moliipval   Italy  was  trans-  ' 
loted  from   French,  and  importuni  prose  works  by  Italian 
onthors— the  7V»r»o  of  Brunetto  Latini,  the  ('lirnnlrU  of   \ 
Cnnale,  and  the  TrtirrU  o/*  .Warro  Palo,  for  instance — were 
composed  in  that  language  as  late  as  the  latter  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century.     l)own  to  that  period,  with  these  and 
other  exceptions  to  be  noticed   hereafter,   Latin  was  the 
only  tnit/rn  tongue  employed  in  Italy,  but  there  is  satis- 
factory evidcDoo  that  not  only  at  that  epoch,  but  through 


the  whole  historical  era,  there  have  been  great  diversities 
of  uptei-li  in  the  Italian  territory.     Even  after  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  entire  Peninsula  to  Rome,  Orcek,  Celtic,  and 
Etruscan,  as  well  as  Oscan,  Uinbrian,  and  other  now  for- 
gotten languages,  were  long  employed  in  provincial  dis- 
tricts.    Centuries  must  have  elapsed  before  the  mother- 
tongues  of  the  conquered  tribes  could  be  stamped  out  by 
the  iron  heel  of  Roman  despotism,  and  Latin  substituted, 
by  the  combined   influence  of  civil   government  and   re- 
ligion, as  the  only  recognized  medium  of  soci.al  intercourse. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  authoritative   introduction  of   the 
Latin  speech   into  the  domain  of  these  other  peninsular 
languages,  and   the  influx   of  barbarisms  brnnght  in  by 
colonized    veterans    nnd    other    foreigners,  could    not    but 
have  produced  the  same  effects  that  like  causes  have  occa- 
sioned elsewhere.     Even  where  the  triumph  of  Latin  was 
most  complete,  the   hereditary  orthoepicnl    habits  of  the 
population    could  never  have  been  altogether  extirpated, 
and  the  provincial  articulation  of  Latin  must  have  been 
modified  everywhere   by   local  influences,  as   English  has 
been  by  the  Celtic  element  and  other  circumstances  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland.     Diez.  indeed — and  there  is  no  higher 
authority — aflirms  that  Italian  shows  no  trace  of  the  vOcal 
system  of  the  Oscan,  the  most  important  of  the  Lower  Italic 
dialects.     But  we  may  be  jiardoned   for  doubting  whether 
our  knowledge  of  the  ))i>wer  of  the  letters  of  the  (Jscan  al- 
phabet is  such  as  to  authorize  so  absolute  a  statement ;  and 
the    great  philologist  himself  admits    a    considerable   in- 
fluence of  other  ancient  dialects  upon  the  pronunciation, 
the  idiom,  nnd  the  vocabulary  of  the  modern  speech.     The 
devclo|imcnt  of  the  modern  Italian  dialects  is  not  a  paral- 
lel case  to  the  formation  of  the  Spanisii.    The  old  Ilispano- 
Latin,  the  parent  of  modern  Spanish,  grew  u]j  in  the  pres- 
ence of  an  indigenous  speech  of  a  totally  different  linguistic 
stock,  too  alien,  in  every  characteristic,  to  admit  of  much 
amalgamation  between  the  native  and  the  intruding  ingre- 
dient.    In  its  Inter  development  it  encountered  the  Arabic, 
I   also  a  wholly  unrelated  tongue,  which,  though  the  language 
of  a  conqnering  race,  nnd  possessed  of  much  culture,  did 
not  sensibly  affect  the  structure  of  the  Spanish,  though  it 
enriched  its  vocabulary  with  a  few  words.     On  the  other 
hand.  Celtic  and  the  (iiithic  languages  with  which  the-  Ro- 
mans cnine  in  contact  in  their  Northern  conquests,  though 
remote  from   Latin,  were  .still   Indo-European,  nnd  there- 
fore at  least  distantly  allied  speeches.     Hence,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  their  influence  should  be  clearly  traceable 
both  in  French  and  in   the  modern  dialects  of  Northern 
Italy  or    Cisalpine   (iaul.      The   old    Italic  dialects  were 
much  more  closely  cognate  with  Latin,  and  consequently 
still  more  rearlily  becatne  fupcil.  or  rather  confused,  with  it 
in   vernacular  provincial  forms,  determined  by  local  con- 
ditions of  which  we  are  almost  wholly  ignorant.     The  in- 
fluence of  these  dialects,  then,  on  the  spoken  Latin  of  the 
provinces  is  a  question  merely  of  degree,  nnd  at  present 
we  are  quite  unable  lo  analyze  it  quantitatively.     But  wo 
are  authorized  to  conclude  that  Latin  was  spoken  with  great 
provincial  diversity,  and  there  is  no  evidi-nce  to  prove,  no 
reason   to  suppose,  that  classical   Latin   ever  becatne  the 
general  language  of  ancient  Italy  in  any  higher  sense  or 
lo  a  greater  extent  than  Tuscan  is  the  universal  tongue  of 
the  Italy  of  modern   times.     The  Roman  writers  often  al- 
lude to  the  tiHffiia  ytiMfirn,  or  dialect  of  the  j>rovinees.  as 
distinct  both  from  the  classical  language  of  Rome  nnd  from 
the  vulgar  or  jilebeian  speech  of  the  city  nnd  its  environs; 
nnd  because  they  employ  the  singular  form,  nnd  do  not 
distinguish  the  speech  of  different  provinces,  it  has  been 
hastily  assumed  that  but  one  Ihiifua  rtintirn  existed.*     But 
the  Romans  were  a  people  of  dull  ear  and  of  obtuse  lin- 
guistic perceptions,  at  least  in  the  appreciatioti  of  strange 
and  foreign  sounds  nnd  idioms.     Hence,  they  w(»uld  cer- 
tainly  not   have    diseriminati-d    between    Latinized    Italic 
dialects  sensibly  differetit  from  the  Rotuan,  e\rn  if  widely 
discordant  from  each  other;  and  there  is  nothing  to  con- 
trol the  general  presumption  that  every  ethnological,  if  not 
every    geographical    and    every    municipal,   district    must 
have  developed  its  own  peculiar  local  speech.     These  local 
speeches,  we   believe,  "still    live."  with    more   or  less   vita! 
energy,  and   in  more  or  less  modified  forms,  in  the  modern 
provincial  dialects,  which  arc  consequently  lo  be  regarded 
as  descended    not   from  clussicnl  Latin,  but  from  the  old 
rustic  jargons  which  grew  out  of  the  clash  of  more  or  less 
conflieling  elements.    It  is  proper  to  (diserve  here  that  when 
the  primitive  Italic  tongues  censed  to  exist  as  independent 
Inngunges,  and   consequently   as  disturbing   forces   in  the 
development  of  the  new  Latinized  dialects,  the  language 
of  giivernmcnt    and    religion    would    naturally  acquire   a 

•  The  Uomnns  apf>ear  lo  have  used  ttntjttn  nfxffrti  precisely  as 
illalr/la  is  employed  al  the  present  day.  '  .\n  Italian,  returning 
from  a  theatre  at  Milan  or  Reruamo,  does  not  sav,  definitely, 
that  he  saw  a  iilay  ml  ditttcUu  Milanae,  or  Bergamasco,  but  sim- 
ply a  pl>7  (n  dialiUo. 


1332 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


stronger  influence  over  popular  forms  of  speech,  and  these 
latter  woulil  of  course  recover  soma  indigenous  linguistic  i 
trails  which  they  may  have  lost  in  the  struggle  between  | 
the  aboriginal  and  the  invading  elements.  These  consider- 
ations, we  think,  authorize  us  to  say  that  neither  the  lingua 
comiiiK-  or  Tuscan,  nor  any  other  provincial  dialect  of  mod- 
ern Italy,  can  be  correctly  described  as  legitimately  and 
exclusively  descended  from  the  majestic  speech  of  Latium. 
At  the  same  time,  Latin  remained  always  the  language  of 
the  Church,  and  has  continued  to  be  more  or  less  employed 
by  profane  writers,  in  public  inscriptions,  and  for  other 
special  purposes,  down  to  our  own  times.  There  exists 
everywhere  in  Italy  a  traditional  knowledge  of  Latin  as, 
in  a  degree,  a  living  tongue;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  this  general  familiarity  with  the  forms  and  vocabulary 
of  the  classical  dialect  has  been  a  constantly  acting  force 
on  the  spoken,  and  especially  on  the  written,  language  of 
the  country.  Many  locutions  in  the  various  dialects  which 
have  been  explained  as  ancient  corruptions  or  modifications 
of  the  speech  of  Rome  are  merely  comparatively  recent 
draughts  from  that  perennial  fountain  :  and  if  Tuscan  is 
the  nearest  representative  of  the  classical  tongue  of  Rome, 
it  is  because,  in  the  long  course  of  its  literary  culture,  it 
has,  in  the  largest  measure,  borrowed  and  appropriated, 
rather  than  inherited,  the  voice  and  accent  of  the  ancient 
mistress  of  the  world. 

The  fact  that  the  liiigim  comiine  is  not  the  general  ver- 
nacular of  Italy,  and  the  almost  universal  familiarity  of 
Italian  writers  with  Latin  models — for  almost  every  read- 
ing Italian  knows  and  reads  Latin  as  an  ancient  and  ven- 
erable form  of  his  mother-tongue — have  protected  literary 
Tuscan  from  the  revojutions,  the  corruptions,  and  the  de- 
basement which  popular  use.  in  the  fervent  and  energetic 
national  life  of  our  democratic  age,  tends  to  introduce  into 
language.      No  one  of    the  great   European   tongues  has 
changed   so   little  within  the  last   six  centuries   as    Ital- 
ian.    The  old  translations  of  the  romances  of  chivalry  and 
other  prose  tales  are  intelligible  to  all.     The  Renli  di  Fran- 
cift,  flescribed  by  a  late  learned  editor  as  at  this  day  the 
most  popular  book  in  the  language,  is  read  from  the  Alps 
to  Sicily  in  a  version  somewhat  modernized  in  orthogra- 
phy, but  otherwise  almost  a  century  older  than  Chaucer. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  very  eiroumstauce  that  to  a  vast 
projjortion  of  the  people  Tuscan  has  always  been  a  sort  of 
sacred  dialect,  set  apart  for  elevated  and  formal  uses,  com- 
bined with  the  pedantic  conservatism  of  the  Delia  Crusca 
scIkjoI,  has  prevented  the  enrichment  of  the  vocabulary 
except  in  branches  in  which  certain  special  classes  have 
been  interested.     As  a  general  rule,  agricultural  operations, 
industrial  art.  and  the  practical  applications  of  science,  de- 
scriptive geography,  natural  history,  and   physics,  com- 
merce, internal  improvements,  mining,  the   machinery  of 
representative  government,  popular  institutions,  and  judi- 
cial proceedings  have  but  lately  entered  deeply  into  the 
life  and  habitual  thought  of  educated  Italians,  and  have 
scarcely  yet  exerted  a  sensible  influence  on  the  diction  of 
literature.     The  literary  dialect  of  Italy,  consequently,  has 
not  received  the  breadth  of  culture  and  the  various  wealth 
of  vocabulary  xvhich  characterize  the  modern  h^/lff-ftttrcs 
productions  of  the  Northern  countries  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica.    The  nomenclatures  of  many  of  the  arts  and  know- 
ledges we  have  enumerated — agriculture  and   hydraulics, 
for  example — indeed  exist  in  the  mouths  of  the  peasantry 
and  of  engineers,  but  they  have  not  been  taken  up  into  the 
language  of  literature  and  of  retined  society  by  any  means 
as  fully  as  elsewhere.     Hcnee.  the  dialect  of  books  and  of 
elegant  conversation  is  unpicturesque,  or  at  least  unde- 
P'-riptivc.     Italian  translations  of  such  poems  as  Keats's 
Kiiili/miun,  or  Crabbe's    Tulct,  or  Mrs.  Browning's   I'lVpioii 
o/"  i'oei),  or  Voss's  f'Ji/h,  or  of  prose  pictures  of  rural  and 
village  life  in  England,  .\merica,  and  Germany,  would  not 
be  practicable  without  the  em])loyment  of  a  diction  not  yet 
recognized  as  classical.     A  foreigner,  listening  to  a  discus- 
sion between  educated  Italians  on  subjects  of  homely,  ma- 
terial interest,  hears  generic  terms  where  an  Englishman 
would  use  specific  words ;  and  if  he  has  enjoyed  only  such 
opportunities   as  arc    usually    accessible  to  strangers    in 
Italy,  he  finds  it  excessively  difficult — as  did  the  old  Roman 
in  the  poverty  of  his  native  Latin,  and  as  does  bis  Italian 
descendant  of  to-day — to  learn  propria  cnmmmiia  ilirfre, 
and  he  is  constantly  embarrassed  for  want  of  equivalents 
for  expressions  of  thought  and  fact  which  in  his  own  coun- 
try make  up  much  of  the  staple  of  discourse  in  cultivated 
circles. 

The  beneficent  political — and,  above  all,  moral — revolu- 
tions of  which  Italy  has  been  the  theatre  during  the  last 
fivc-and-twenty  years  have  brought  new  and  more  diversi- 
fied influences  to  bear  upon  her  language,  and  have  made 
greatly  enlarged  demands  upon  its  capabilities  of  expres- 
sion. Hence,  the  Ihifiun  romitnr  is  luiturally.  and  without 
any  conscious,  organized  general  effort  for  that  purpose, 


undergoing  changes  visible  even  to  a  foreigner.     To  tho 
improvement  of  tho  language  from  these  causes  there  arc 
various  hindrances.     Resides  the  hostility  of  the  clergy  to 
all  ameliorations  in  the  fields  of  both  mind  and  matter,  we 
may  mention  two  leading  obstacles.     The  one  is  inveterate 
and  slow  to  yield.     The  removal  of  the  other,  which  is  ac- 
cidental, is  more  hopeful.     We  refer  first  to  the  fact  that 
the  Italians  are  a  bilingual  people— a  people  whose  spoken 
tongue  differs  essentially   from  the   written :  an  evil  the 
iuagnitu4le  of  which  only  experience  or  long  observation 
can   make  apparent.     Eminent  provincial  or  non-Tuscan 
writers  have  often  lamented  the  necessity  of  thinking  in 
one  ilialect  antl  giving  their  thoughts  an  outward  expres- 
sion l)y  a  mental  translation  into  another.     We  have  space 
only  to  allude  to  Ibis  difficulty,  and  to  illustrate  it  in  ]>ass- 
ing  by  comparing  it  to  the  embarrassment  and  constraint 
we  all  feel  in  using  a  foreign  tongue,  however  well  under- 
stood :  and  we  pass  to  the  other  obstacle,  which  is  analo- 
gous in  character,  but.  as  we  have  said,  accidental,  and 
therefore  not  invincible.     We  mean   a  predilection  for  a 
foreign  language  and  a  foreign  literature,  which  interferes, 
to  a  deplorable  extent,  with  the  cultivation  and  improve- 
ment of  the  national  speech  aud  the  national  letters,  as  well 
as  with  native  originality  and  independence  of  thought  in 
Italy.     French  is  far  too  generally  the  habitual  language 
of  fashionable  Italian  society,  even   in  intercourse  among 
natives ;  ami  when  a  foreigner  addresses  an  Italian  in  what, 
if  the  compliments  of  his  teacher  are  sincere,  is  the  choi- 
cest Tuscan,  his  interlocutor,  pitying  his  ignorance  of  Ital- 
ian, will  almost  certainly  answer  him  in  French,  which  he 
fancies  to  be  a  universal  medium.     AVe  arc  not  here  ob- 
jecting to  the  disproportionate  importance  given  in  Italy 
to  the  language  and  literature  in  question  because  they  are 
French,  but  because  they  are  foreign,  alien  to  the  national 
heart,  and  disturbing  to  the  movement  of  the  national  intel- 
lect. The  causes  which  have  given  this  undue  predominance 
to  French  in  the  education  and  social  training  of  the  higher 
classes  in  Italy  cannot  here  be  specified;  and  it  must  be 
admitted   that    the   tongue   and   letters   of    France    have 
stronger  claims  on  the  attention  of  the  Italians  than  those 
of  any  other  foreign  country.     In  our  times,  unhappily, 
not  merely  the  closet  study,  but  the  far  more  distracting 
practical  use,  of  foreign  modes  of  thought  and  speech,  is 
an  indispensable  element  in  comprehensive  culture.     Rut, 
though  a  necessary  discipline,  or  rather  instrument,  it  is  a 
necessary  evil.     AVith  rare  exceptions  no  man  can  freely 
use  more  than  one  language  as  a  medium  of  intellectual  or 
oral  discourse,  aud  what  we  gain  in  power  over  a  foreign 
tongue  is  compensated  by  a  corresponding  loss  in  the  mas- 
tership of  our  own.     The  mighty  intellect  of  Greece  was 
weakened  by  no   dispersion   of  linguistic  culture,  for  her 
strongest  sons  knew  no  language  but  (ireek;  and  thimgh 
the  study  of  the  ijcemphuiu  (liRcn  by  the  Romans  may  for  a 
time  have  improved  their  taste,  it  did  not  help  their  La- 
tinity,  and  in  the  end  it  crushed  their  originality  in  both 
literature  and  art.     In  one  respect,  indeed.  Italians,  as  well 
as  ourselves  and  the  (iermans,  may  derive  great  advantage 
from  the  study  and  critical  analysis  of   the  best  French 
literary  models.      We  refer  to  the  surpassing  excellence  of 
French  writers  in  rhetorical  even  more  conspicuously  than 
in  scientific  method — in  the  art.  that  is,  of  beginning  at  the 
beginning,  going  straight  to  the  mark,  and  leaving  off  at 
the  end.  thus  avoiding  the  wordy  involution  of  thought 
and  ex])ression  which  is  the  banc  of  Italian  perhaps  even 
more  emphatically  than  of  other  coutomporaneous  litera- 
tures. 

.As  we  have  said,  every  province  has  still  its  popular 
literature,  oral  and  recorded.  Rut  there  is  no  provincial 
Dante,  or  Petrarch,  or  Ariosto,  or  Tasso,  or  Villani.  or 
Varchi,  or  Macehiavclli,  and  the  tongue  through  which  the 
Italian  states  have  acted  on  each  other,  and  Italy  on  the 
world,  is  exclusively  the  lingua  cnmiinr.  or  Tuscan,  which 
alone  reflects  and  represents  the  mind  and  voice  of  Italy 
in  the  European  republic  of  letters.  The  provincial  lite- 
ratures of  Italy  are  not,  like  those  of  ancient  Greece,  com- 
jioncnt  parts  of  a  national  whole.  They  are  specialized 
manifestations  of  intellect  and  of  speech,  and  therefore  in 
general  have  only  a  provincial  interest.  Their  peculiar 
characteristics  cannot  be  noticed  in  a  brief  comprehensive 
view  of  Italian  literature.  AVc  must  confine  our  sketch  to 
that  which  has  been  accepted  by  the  Italian  people  and 
]>rcsentcd  to  the  world  as  the  aulhori/.cd  expression  of  tho 
mind  and  heart  of  the  nation  ;  and  the  following  remarks 
must  be  understood  as  referring  only  to  writings  in  the 
Tuscan  or  lingua  rommio,  unless  otherwise  expressed.  The 
early  history  of  Ibis  literature  is  obscure,  for,  though  there 
were  Italian  bards  and  raiila»tnri<:  or  saga-men,  early  in 
Ihe  Ihirteenth,  and  doubtless  in  the  twelfth  centurv,  yet 
Ibeir  works  are  known  to  us  only  as  disfigured  by  copyists 
of  later  ages,  and  we  can  rarely  speak  with  confidence  as 
to  their  dates,  their  dialects,  or  even  their  original  literary 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


1333 


furins.     In  mauy  ca^us,  03  we  have  seen,  they  certainly  I 
wrote  in  French  or  Provencal,  and  in  go  close  conformity 
to  French  an<i   I'rovengal  nioilels  that  tliey  are  entitled  to  ' 
no  place  in  Italian  literary  history.     In  other  instances,  pri-  I 
vatc  letters  and  ot her  docaments  written  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury are  suspected  to  have  been  first  composed  in  Latin  and  ; 
translated  at  a  later  period;  an<l  in  several  most  important  ' 
cases  it  is  matter  of  grave  douht  whether  the  reputed  works  ' 
of  historical  authors  of  the  thirteenth  and  even  the  four- 
teenth century  are  not  coinparativuly  modern  fabrications. 
Intofiuestionsof  this  delicate  nature,  which  native  tribunals 
alone  are  competent  to  adjudicate,  wc  cannot  enter.     We  ' 
shall  accordingly  give  only  the  commonly  received  accounts  ' 
of  the  literature  of  the  thirteenth  century,  subject  to  allow-  , 
ance  for  all  the  causes  of  uncertainty  to  which  wc  have  al- 
luded;  and  it  is  only  from  the  epoch  fixed  by  Dante  as  the  I 
date  of  his  great  poem,  the  assumed  '*  middle  point  "  of  his  > 
life,  or  the  year  l.'IOO,  that  we  feel  ourselves  to  be  treading 
on  safer  ground.     There  is  no  doubt  that  ballad  or  narra-  , 
tive  poetry  existed  in  Italy  in  an  oral  and  traditional  form   , 
before  any  of  the  modern  dialects  were  reduced  to  writing,  ! 
bnt  the  earliest  Italian  poems  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
even  in  a  modernized  shape,  are  amatory  or  religious.     In    | 
some  cases  it  Is  difficult  to  say  to  which  of  these  two  classes  ' 
they  belong,  for  it  is  not  always  clear  whether  the  lady  cele-  ; 
brated  in  them  was  a  real  person  or  only  a  personification 
of  a  Christian  idea.     Wc  know,  from  the  testimony  of  Danto 
and  from  abunilant  other  evidence,  that  many  of  the  poets 
usually  believed  to  have  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century  did 
certainly  flourish  in  that  age,  and  wc  have  many  of  their 
works  in  copies  not  very  much  later  than  the  time  of  their 
writers.     But  wc  can   rarely  fix  the  preclsi;  date  of  these 
production?,  and  we  can  seMom  be  sutfieicntly  sure  of  the 
strict  conformity  of  such  copies  with  their  originals  to  au- 
thorize us  to  regard  them  as  positively  genuine  exempli- 
fications of  the  grammatical   structure  of  the  dialect  in 
which  they  were  coraposcrl,  or  even  of  the  rhetorical  com- 
binations and  metrical  forms  employed  by  their  authors. 
There  arc  als{)  extant  certain  prose  compositions  of  the 
same  century,  and  in  some  few  instances  either  originals 
or  at  least   contemporaneous  copies  of  these  productions 
still  exist.    Even  where  we  possess  only  transcripts  of  such 
writings  of  somewhat  more  recent  date,  we  may  rely  upon 
their  accuracy  as  copies  with  more  confidence  than  in  the 
case  of  poetical  compositions,  because,  th<nigh  poetic  forms, 
once  established,  arc  more  enduring  than  those  of  prose,  j'ct 
the  diction  of  verse  modelled  almost  wholly  after  foreign 
types,  as  were  the  first  Italian  rhymes  of  whieh  wc  have 
any  knowledge,  could  not  so  soon  have  acquired  a  fixed 
and  settled  expression.    The  earliest  prose,  on  the  contrary, 
consisted  simply  in  reducing  to  writing  popular  modes  of 
vernacular  speech,  and  there  was  no  external  influenee,  no 
motive  of  taste,  whieh  could  lead  to  any  rapid  change  in 
the  stvio  of  ordinary   written  eomniunication.     Upon  the 
whole,  in  the  fewpoetic^al  and  the  eoniparativcly  numerous 
prose  manuscripts  of  the  thirteenth  century  yet  remaining, 
insignifieant  as  they  are  in  bulk,  wc  have  sufficient  means 
of  pronouneing,  with  approximate  certjiinty,  upon  the  gen- 
eral grammatical  and  lexical  character  of  the  Tuseitn  dia- 
h'nt  in  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.     Tlie  real 
importance  of  this  century  in  Italian  literary  history  is  not 
in  the  merit  of  its  produetiens,  or  in  any  influence  exerted 
by  them  on  the  intellc:rtual  culture  and  products  of  the 
age,  but  in  the  fact  that  they  prove  the  existence  of  the 
liiiffint  rnmiiiif  as  a  wrilti-n  tongue  at  that  perio<I.  and  fur- 
nish evidence  also  that  the  literary  supremacy  of  that  dia- 
lect was — not    universally,   inileed,    but   very   generally — 
recognized  in  Italy  before  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.      Pante,  indeed,  in  his  He   Vuhftri  El'tqututitt^iXc. 
nie?,  with   great  acerbity  of  tone,  the  identity  of  Tuscan 
with  the  li'nffim  cnnninf  or  VHhjnre  iffnntrc,  cnrdinnle,  anti-   | 
cum,  el  rni-inlr;  and  there  arc  not  wanting  later  critics  who 
maintain  that  Tuscany  di<l  not  originate,  but  only  adopted, 
the  fiti'/iifi  rtiiiniiif,  which,  in  some  way  not  yet  explained 
nor  easily  ctmceivablc  according  to  the  general  laws  of  lan- 
guage, arose  and  dovelopeil   itself  imlepcndently  of  loeal 
influences.     Dante  defines  the  hrntin  ruhjin-h,  which,  he 
nays,  forms  the  subject  of  his  treatise,  as  that  whiidi  is  I 
Icarneil,  without  rule,  by  imitating  the  spee(!h  of  the  nurse, 
and  in  the  dedication  of  the  I'onn/ino  to  Tiin  Oramle  della 
Scala  he  describes  the  diction  of  the  iJiriun  Cummrdia  ns  \ 

rrminmia  rt  humifia  iu  qiuc  rt  muh'erciifir  vininniiynninf.    This* 
/ticiitio  rti/;f'tri»  lie  declares  to  be  more  ncble  llnin  the  Imi- 
guagc  taught  in  the  schools,  and  he  aflirniH  Ibai  it  was  not  i 
used  by  Guittonc  dWre/.zo  or  nrunetto  I>alini,but  was  em-  i 
ployed  byduido  Cavaloanti,  I>aiio  (Gianni,  Tino  dn  Pistojn,  { 
and  "one  other."  meaning,  no  doubt,  himself.     What  pre-  j 
cise  distinction  Dante  would  hnvo  dr:iwn  bcfweon  the  ml.  • 
tfttre  illiiHtrf,  ttntirum.  ft  rttrinfr  and  the  language  of  Catc- 
rina  da  Siena  and  other  illustrious  writers  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  which  is  unequivocally  Tuscan,  it  is  hard  to  see. 


In  fact,  Dante's  observations  on  the  provincial  dialects  of 
his  time  are  to  Italian  as  well  as  to  foreign  scholars  an 
enigma  which  has  not  found  its  OMipus;  and  until  further 
research  shall  reveal  to  us  in-ich  more  than  we  now  know 
of  the  actual  history  of  the  language  of  modern  Italy,  wc 
must  content  ourselves  with  the  f^:ict  that  what  is  now 
both  the  Tuscan  local  and  the  Italian  common  speech  did 
substantially  exist  and  acquire  its  primacy  as  a  literary 
tongue  before  the  year  KiOO.  Dante  has  been  said  to  have 
been  the  cunning  artisan  who  forged  this  new  literary  in- 
strument. But  poets  are  the  conservators,  not  the  creators, 
of  language.  Dante,  therefore,  did  not  invent  his  diction. 
lie  was  neither  a  coiner  nor  a  borrower  of  words.  He  took 
and  wisely  used  what  be  found — not  always,  indeed,  in 
books,  but  oflener  in  popular  speech.  As  Giuliani  and 
Tommaseo  have  well  cdisrrvcd,  many  expressions  (jf  Dante's, 
for  which  even  his  authority  couid  not  secure  admission 
into  the  general  vocabulary,  are  still  current  in  the  mouths 
of  the  Tuscan  peasantry,  where  Dante  found  them,  and  the 
discourse  of  this  humble  class  serves  to  explain  more  than 
one  passage  in  the  l)!rinn  Coiniiicilin  which  is  otherwise 
unintelligible.  In  point  of  antiquity,  the  first  place  among 
the  Tuscan  ])oets  is  usually  ascribed  to  Folcacchicro  dei 
Folcacchieri,  alleged  to  have  been  born  at  Siena  about  the 
year  1150,  and  many  critics  have  claimed  the  poems  of 
CiuUo  d'Alcamo,  the  emperor  Frederick  11.  and  his  sous, 
Enzo,  Enrico,  and  Manfrcdi,  I'ier  dellc  Vigne,  Kanieri, 
Ruggerone,  and  Inghilfredi  da  Palermo,  Guido  dclle  Co- 
lonne  (author  of  several  Italian  canzoni.  and  more  famous 
as  the  compiler  of  a  Latin  history  of  the  Trojan  war  founded 
on  the  works  of  Dares  and  Diefys),  .lacopu  <la  Lentini,  and 
other  Sicilian  versifiers  of  the  thirteenth  century,  as  jiropcrly 
belonging  to  the  literature  of  the  h'ntjua  comiiiif,  though  the 
diction  of  all  of  them  is  strongly  marked  by  Sicilian  pro- 
vincialisms. The  Bolognese  Guido  Guinieelli  (called  by 
Nannucci  *' il  padre  dclla  Italica  letteratura  ")  and  Onepto 
Bolognese  are  also  ranked  with  Tuscan  writers,  though  not 
Tuscan  by  birth.  (Juittone  d'Arczzo,  Guido  Cavalcanti, 
Dino  Frcscobaldi,  Dino  (.'(unpagni,  arc  Tuscan  poets  of 
merit.  Jacoponc  of  Todi,  in  the  pontifical  territory,  wrote 
much  in  Tuscan  verse,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  author, 
or  perhaps  only  improver,  of  the  world-renowned  Latin 
Church  hymn.  Stuhnf  Mutrv  d»ti>roHn, 

The  most  important  Italian  prose  works  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  admitting  their  authenticity,  which  has  been  dis- 
puted, are  the  chronicles  of  Mattco  Siiinello,  of  the  province 
of  Bar!,  and  of  Kieonlano  and  Giaeotto  Malispini,  the  first 
Tuscan  annalists.  The  M»nil  Treatises  of  Albertano  da 
Brescia,  the  original  of  Chaucer's  l\rno}n:'H  Tufv.  written 
in  Latin  about  I2j0,  were  translated  into  Italian  by  Andrea 
da  Grosseto  in  120^,  and  less  than  ten  years  later  by  Sof- 
fredi  del  (Jrazia  of  Pistfija.  The  former  of  these  trnnsla- 
tions,  published  in  the  f^ifleztmic  rli  Oprre  Tncdttr  in  1873, 
from  a  manust^ript  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  pr<»nounccd 
l»y  the  editor  to  be,  "in  respect  to  antiquity,  the  most  im- 
portant document  of  the  language  in  literary  prose."  The 
otlicr,  printed  in  1S.*12.  was  considered  by  Ciampi  as  an 
authentic  specimen  of  tne  language  of  Tuscany  as  p()pu- 
larly  spoken  at  its  date.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
neither  edition  is  taken  from  the  origiiuil  miinuscript,  or 
even  from  a  contemjiorary  copy.  The  Xm-tffi'no,  or  C'lnto 
Norvllc  aiitichc.  is  oelicvcd  to  belong,  in  a  considerable 
proportion,  to  the  tliirteenth  century,  though  we  have  the 
work  only  in  later  copies.  The  t'aiiti  ifi  Aufi'fti  ntntficrt 
is  iiffirmed  to  exist  in  a  manuserii»t  of  tiie  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Lihrn  di  f^uto,  the  Ft'orc  di  /ictt-trictt  of  (lui- 
dotto  da  Bologna,  the  letters  of  (tuitttme  d'Arez70.  trans- 
lations of  the  romance  of  the  Ilnund  Table  and  of  Iho 
treatise  of  Egidio  (%)!onna,  0>f  (tnvrmnuH  utn  dri  Prxucipif 
Bono  Giambuni's  translations  of  the  Tmnru  of  Brunetto 
Latini  and  of  other  mediivval  Latin  works,  and  various 
moral  treatises  and  legemis  of  saints,  are  ascribed  to  the 
same  period.  Theri'  are  alsn  und<iubt*'d  municipal  statutes, 
records,  and  other  ducnrncnls.  :is  well  us  smne  private  let- 
ters, dated  about  the  niid'Ile  of  the  century,  ami  of  course 
as  old  ns  xrhat  some  maintain  to  be  the  earliest  finecimeu 
of  English,  the  famous  proclamation  of  Henry  III.  issued 
in  I2.^S. 

We  come  now  to  what  the  Italians  with  just  pride  call 
the  g<dden  age  of  their  literature,  the  uumt  trcccut,,,  or,  in 
our  chronological  notation,  the  fourteenth  century — -the  ago 
of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio.  It  was  in  the  course 
of  this  century  that  elassieiil  literature,  though  not  then 
first  known  to  Iljiliiins,  gnidually  superseded  the  inllueiieo 
of  Proven^-iil  jin«l  French  as  an  informing  element,  and 
fiirnishcil  un  ineilemenl  to  all.  models  to  many,  for  literary 
effort.  The  Italian  poetry  of  the  fourteenth  century,  ex- 
alted OS  it  is  in  genius  and  in  literary  merit,  is  far  from 
being  copious  in  amount,  while  the  iMnileniporauetujs  propo 
lilernturo  is  voluminous,  and,  in  point  of  stylo  at  least,  of 
almost  unsurpassed  perfection,     la  neither  form  of  compo- 


1334 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


sition  were  the  Latin  classics  of  real  value,  except  as  a 
stimulus  and  a  means  of  culture.  Both  in  form  and  in 
substance  whatever  is  excellent  in  the  productions  of  the 
aureo  trccnito  is,  in  the  highest  degree,  original  and  inde- 
pendent. Dante,  indeed,  ascribes  to  the  study  of  Virgil 
"  Lo  bollo  stile  cho  mi  ha  fatto  onore ;"  hut  if  in  this  ex- 
pression he  referred  to  the  form  or  diction  of  his  poems. 
and  not  to  the  Latinity  of  his  prose  writings,  he  confounded 
the  primiim  innbilr,  the  first  impulse,  with  the  character  and 
direction  of  the  movement,  which  were  controlled  and  cle- 
termined  by  far  other  agencies.  If  we  removp  from  the 
D'n'hm  Cnwmrfiin  all  that  can  fairly  be  traced  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  works  of  Virgil,  we  shall  deprive  it  of  none  of 
its  leading  characteristics,  nothing  of  its  real  inspiration. 
The  Muses  of  I>ante  are  not  to  be  found  among  the  heathen 
Nine.  His  highest  flights,  like  Milton's,  were  proni])ted 
and  sustained  by  the  spirit  of  Christian  theology  as  inter- 
preted and  understood  in  his  time,  and  his  passion  was 
unhappily  in  fur  too  great  a  degree  colored  by  the  partiali- 
ties, rancors,  and  resentntcnts  of  his  political  and  civil  life. 
The  saving  moral  influence  in  Dante's  mind  was  his  early 
love,  and  when  he  employs,  instead  of  fierce  invective,  a 
tone  of  mihb'r  deprecation,  a  manner  ''  affettuosamente  bat- 
tagliera."  it  is  because  the  spirit  of  Beatrice  is  pleading  for 
the  offender.  The  Latin  works  of  Petrarch,  from  which  he 
expected  immortality,  are  deservedly  forgotten,  and  the 
classic  idioms  and  constructions  which  Boccaccio  thought 
the  chief  ornaments  of  his  prose  style  are  not  only  its 
greatest  defects,  but  have  exerted  a  very  pernicious  influ- 
ence on  the  diction  and  manner  of  later  Italian  writers. 
In  all  incipient  literatures,  at  least,  the  true  bard  '' singet 
wie  der  Vogcl  singt."  Dante's  great  poem,  like  all  works 
of  high  and  original  genius,  shaped  itself  as  it  grew,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  his  nature,  rather  than  in  con- 
formity to  principles  of  conscious  art.  Its  real  character 
and  spirit  would  never  be  inferred  from  his  own  statement 
of  its  import  in  the  dedication  of  the  Pararfifto  to  Can 
Grande  della  Scala.  He  regarded  it  as  a  system  of  relig- 
ious philosophy,  the  motive  of  which,  ''literally  consid- 
ered," was  *■  the  state  of  souls  after  death,"  the  "  allegorical 
subject,"  "man,  as,  by  good  or  evil  desert  in  the  exercise 
of  free  will,  he  is  amenable  to  retributive  justice  in  the  way 
of  reward  or  punisliment."  In  the  whole  text  of  ihe  dedi- 
cation there  is  not  the  remotest  trace  of  the  most  promi- 
nent features  of  the  poem  itself — the  inspiring  passions  of 
life,  his  pure  and  ardent  love  for  Beatrice,  and  his  bitter 
resentment  ag.ainst  his  political  opponents,  though  he  ilid 
not  disguise  this  latter  feeling  in  tlie  address  of  the  ej)istle. 
where  he  styles  himself  '•  Florcntinus  natione  non  moribus." 
The  knowledge  of  Dante  was  vast  and  various  for  the  pe- 
riod, and  his  influence  on  the  intellect  of  his  age.  when  he 
was  constantly  appealed  to  as  the  universal  arbiter,  the 
tribunal  of  last  resort  on  every  possible  subject,  can  scarcely 
be  overrated.  The  prose  works  of  Dante  are  valuable 
chiefly  as  indirectly  a  commentary  on  the  Divina  C'niune- 
rfm,  and  are  not  otherwise  of  sufiicient  interest  or  import- 
ance to  require  special  notice  in  this  jdacc,  Dante  has 
been  made  accessible  to  Kngiish«,nd  American  readers  by 
Mr.  Longfellow  in  what  is  undoubtedly  the  best  existing 
translation  of  his  great  poem,  and  it  is  only  in  his  works, 
not  in  critical  treatises,  that  he  can  be  studied  advantage- 
ously. The  canzoni  <)f  Petrarch  are  too  widely  known  by 
translations  and  imitations,  and  the  poems  of  Boccaccio  by 
the  use  which  Chaucer  has  made  of  them,  to  need  to  be 
more  than  mentioned  in  what  can  he  little  but  a  list  of  lit- 
erary titles.  The  Di'ttdinondn  of  Fazio  degli  Ulx-rti,  a  sort 
of  rhyming  chronicle,  geography,  and  natural  history,  is 
interesting  as  a  summary  of  the  knowledge  uT  his  times, 
and  not  altogether  without  literary  merit.  Other  poets  of 
the  fourteenth  century  are  Ccceo  d'Ascoli,  Francesco  da 
Barbcrino,  Cino  da  Pistoja,  and  Antonio  Pueci.  Tho 
prose  literature  of  this  century  deserves  a  higher  repu- 
tation than  foreign  scholars  have  generally  conceded  to 
it.  Benvenuto  da  Imola  and  other  early  commentators  on 
Dante  have  not  only  furnished  explanations  and  historical 
illustrations  of  obscure  passages  in  his  works,  but  they 
have  frequently  shown  a  critical  ability  rare  in  that  age. 
The  chronicles  of  Giovanni  Villani  and  his  continuators, 
and  the  history  of  Dino  Campagni,  possibly  a  later  fabri- 
cation, are  valuable  repositories  of  fact,  and  important  as 
good  specimens  of  the  caijabilities  of  Tuscan  for  literary 
purposes,  though  as  histories  not  on  a  level  with  the 
French,  Icelandic,  and  Catalan  chronicles  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  or  with  Froissart,  who  flourished  at  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth.  The  saintly  legends  and  romances  of 
chivalry  of  this  period  are  generally  conspicuous  for  purity 
and  beauty  of  style.  Many  of  them  are  included  in  the 
CnUczione  di  Oprrr  htfUte  o  finr/-,  of  which  more  than  30 
octavo  volumes  have  already  apjieared.  and  tho  Scrfta  tU 
Cnrionit'^  L€tt*rn7-if.  in  Ubno.  now  extending  to  140  vol- 
umes.    Two  works  of  this  century,  not  embraced  in  these 


collections,  deserve  special  mention — tho  novels  of  Sacchetti, 
which  are  believed  to  contain  very  faithful  pictures  of  the 
manners  of  the  age,  and  tho  letters  of  St.  Catharino  of 
Siena,  of  which  the  manner  and  style  would  of  themselves 
justify  the  epithet  that  Ttulian  critics  so  often  attach  to 
that  age.  In  jjoint  r)f  style,  tlie  L'tirrs  of  Catharine  of  Plena 
are  not  surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  any  other  European  prose 
compositions  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  writer  owed 
nothing  directly  to  classic  culture,  for  it  is  doubtful  whether 
her '•  small  Latin  "  sufliccd  even  for  rca<ling  the  Vulgate, 
with  which  she  shows  great  familiarity,  but  which  she  is 
supposed  to  have  known  only  through  the  quotations  of 
preaching  friars  or  oral  translations  by  other  ecclesiastics. 
It  is  remarkable  that  in  an  age  when  the  I>iviiin  Cnmmedia 
was  a  theme  of  public  exposition,  atid  even  of  juilpit  dis- 
cussion, the  works  of  St.  Catharine  neither  mention  Danto 
nor  quote  his  poem.  Perhaps  she  found  his  sombre  tone 
and  severe  invective  too  repulsive  for  her  kimlly  temper; 
and  Tommaseo  is  hardly  extravagant  in  saying  that  though 
there  are  resemblances  of  thought  and  diction  in  their 
works,  *'the  likeness  is  that  of  a  fair  and  gentle  woman  to 
a  proudly  austere  and  snllen  man,  whose  brow  is  wrinkled 
by  wrath,  not  hy  years."  The  writings  of  St.  Catharine 
are  of  great  importance,  as  incontestably  proving  that  in 
her  day  the  liurjua  eomune  existed  in  its  most  perfect  form 
as  tho  common  vernacular  of  Tuscany,  for  she  probably 
knew,  and  certainly  thought,  in  no  other  tongue.  M'erc 
other  testimony  in  support  of  our  proposition  wanting, 
confirmatory  evidence  might  be  found  in  the  Fioiettt  di 
Sun  Fi'ftncpHcn,  which  comjietent  judges  believe  to  be  the 
truest  possible  expression  of  the  simple  beauty  of  the  Tus- 
can familiar  speech  of  the  period  we  are  considering.  The 
increasing  cultivation  of  classical  literature  in  the  fifteenth 
century  produced  much  the  same  eflect  as  in  England  a 
hundred  years  later.  It  absorbed  the  intellectual  activity 
of  the  age,  and  left  comparatively  little  time  or  taste  for 
original  production.  In  Italy  the  study  of  (Jreck  and  Latin 
was  general  among  the  better  classes,  in  all  ranks  and 
both  sexes,  to  a  degree  not  paralleled  even  by  the  learning 
of  modern  Germany.  "Women  who  were  educated  at  all 
were  taught  Greek  and  Latin,  and  Italian  ladies  filled  pro- 
fessorships in  both  native  and  foreign  universities.  To 
Italy  belongs  the  honor  of  having  first  acknowledged — 
what  she  has  since  too  often  forgotten — the  intellectual 
equality,  and  therefore  the  equality  in  rights  as  well  as  in 
duties,  of  the  sexes.  She  thus  anticipated  by  four  cen- 
turies the  revelation  of  a  truth  which  has  suddenly  dawned 
again  upon  the  civilization  of  this  generation  as  a  princi- 
ple, the  general  acceptance  of  which  constitutes  the  most 
beneficent  moral  revolution  that  humanity  has  seen  since 
the  promulgation  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  this  century 
Italy  ae(|uired  an  intellectual — unhappily  not  a  moral — cul- 
tuie  anil  refinement  which  gave  her  an  immense,  a  wiile- 
sprcad,  and  a  long-enduring  influence  over  the  mind  t>f  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Traces  of  this  influence  are  abundantly 
visible  in  tho  literature  and  history  of  every  European 
state,  but  it  was  scarcely  fully  appreciated  or  clearly  ex- 
pounded before  the  publication  of  Burckhardt's  remarkable 
Cu/tiir  der  lirnntHdaurr,  which  we  earnestly  recommend  to 
the  reader.  Still,  this  century  produced  great  Italian 
writers  in  both  poetry  and  prose,  as  well  as  great  geniuses 
in  politics  and  art.  The  most  conspicuous  poetical  works  of 
the  age  were  the  Mtinfnnte  Muf/f/iore  of  Luigi  Pulci,  the  Or- 
laudo  Innamoratn  of  Bojardo,  Ihe  Fanda  d'Or/ro,  a  drama, 
and  other  small  works  of  Poliziano.  lyrical  compositions 
by  Gasparo  Visconti,  Aceolti,  and  others.  In  prose  are  tlio 
chronicles  of  Collcnnuceio  Corio  and  numerous  other  val- 
uable sources  of  historical  information,  many  of  which, 
like  tho  writings  of  Sabellico  and  Pius  If.  (.Eneas  Silvius 
IMccolominil,  are  in  Latin;  others  exist  only  in  manuscript 
or  in  the  voluminous  collections  of  Muratori  an<l  other  vast 
repositories  of  meditcval  lore.  To  tho  fifteenth  century, 
too.  belong  the  works  of  Leon  Battista  Alberti  on  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  and  jiainting.  and  most  of  the  writings  of 
Leonardo  da  A'inci.  Many  of  these  latter  unfortunately 
remain  unpublished,  but.  not  less  than  his  material  works, 
they  are  unequivocally  productions  of  a  genius  which  in 
universality,  versatility,  and  power  has  had  no  superior 
among  men.  In  this  age,  too,  lived  two  of  the  granrlcst 
characters  and  sublimest  geniuses  in  the  rcconls  of  human 
history — Columbus  and  Savonarola — both  Italians  and  both 
martyrs.  The  intellect  of  neither  is  adequately  represented 
by  his  literary  productions,  hut,  though  Ihe  life  of  Colum- 
bus remains  to  be  written,  Savonarola  has  found  a  worthy 
biographer  in  Villari,  whose  life  of  tins  remarkable  man  is 
one  of  the  noi)lest  historical  works  of  our  time. 

From  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  tho 
overthrow  of  the  lil>crties  of  Florence  in  15.10  by  tho  un- 
liolv  league  between  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  Popo 
Clement  VII..  Florence  was  the  city  of  the  world  most  con- 
spicuous for  intellectual  and  physical  achievement.     Let- 


ITALIAN   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATlRi:. 


133.5 


tor?,  art,  industrr,  and  commerco  altbo  were  pursued  with 
a  genius  in  conception,  a  feverish  euergy  in  execution,  and 
a  splendor  ol'  result  probably  unexampled  in  ancient  or 
in  modern  limes.    In  particular  branches  of  art  and  litera- 
ture she  may  have  been  excelled  by  .Vlhens  and  by  Kome, 
but  in  the  combined  exercise  of  the  highest  faculties,  men- 
tal and  material,  in  every  field  of  human  cflTort.  no  three 
centuries  of  .\thenian  or  of  Kotnan  annuls  can  be  paral- 
leled with   those  of  Klorcn'-'e  during  the  period  we  liave 
mentioneil.     Most  of  the  great  names  we  have  hitherto 
cited  arc  those  of  Tuscans,  hut  the  political  and  the  intel- 
lectual ascendency  of  Florence  fell  together,  and  with  some 
brilliant  exceptions  her  genius  was  clouded,  if  not  quenched, 
by  the  final  extinction  of  her  liberties.     In  narrative  and 
in  lyric  poetry  the  most  celebrated  Italian  writers  of  the 
sixteenth  century  arc  Trissino,   Luigi  Alamanni,  Ariosto 
(whose  ftf/ntidn  Fitrioiin  excels  all  other  romantic  poems), 
Tasso  (whi>8e  (rt^ntiifitcmme  Lificrtita,  of  nU  mo<lern  poetical  ' 
compositions,  comes  nearest  to  the  idea  of  the  classic  epic),  j 
B2rni   (the   rcversiflcr  of   Bojardo's  Orlnmlo  Jnn-uiinralo, 
and  who  gave  his  name  to  a  peculiar  class  of  light  satirical 
verse),   Fireniuola,   Uucccllai,   Tansillo.  Davanzati.  Pietro 
Aretino,  licnibo.  Annibale  Caro.  Michelangelo   liuonarroti, 
VittoriaColonna.and  Folengo.  the  writer  of  macaronic  verse. 
It  was  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  the  drama  first  acquired 
a  status  in  Italian  literature.     Many  plays  were  written  in 
I^atin,  many  of  a  popular  character  were  sketched  in  out- 
line and  more  or  less  filled  up  by  improvisation  by  the  ac- 
tors— an  art  in  which  the   Italians  still  show  great  talent. 
These,  of  course,  are  lost  to  us,  and  few  if  any  of  the  more 
elaborate  dramas  of  that  period  still  hold  their  place  on 
the  stage.     The  principal  comedies  are  those  of  Ariosto, 
Dovizio  da  Bibbicna.   Macchiavelli,  P.  Aretino,  Grazzini 
Firenzuola,  Cecchi,  .Salviati,  ami  Francesco  d'Ambra.   \ic- 
colo  r'orreggio   Visconli   produced   a  pastoral  drama,  and 
the   Panlfir  Fill')  of  (iuarini  still  has  a   high   reputation. 
The  foundation  of  the  musical  drama  was  laid  in  this  cen- 
tury by  i;milii>  did  t^avalieri,  and  Rinuecini  is  regarded  as 
the  first  author  of  a  regular  opera.     liecehi  is  said  to  have 
produced  the  earliest  opera  bulfa.  Tragedies  were  produced 
by  Del  Carretto,  Trissino,  Uucccllai,  Andrea  dell   Anguil- 
lara.  and  Pietro  .-Vretino.     Numerous  novels  and  romances 
appeared  in  this  age.     The  collection  of  Bandello  is  well 
known.     Firenzuola,   Paraboseo,  lliraldi,   Orazzini,  Mac- 
chiavelli, and  Do  Porta  distinguished  llieni.sclves  in  ficti- 
tious narrative.     The  didactic  dialogue  of  Baldassare  Cas- 
tiglione,  //  C'lrtir/iaiin,  was  translated  into  most  European 
languages  before  the  year  ICOn,  and  is  still  not  forgotten. 
The  political  and  historical  literature  of  this  ago  is  vo- 
luminous and  highly  celebrateil.     Macchiavclli's  fame  is 
universal.     Parnta,    tluicciardini,   Varchi,    .Segni,    Caval- 
canti,  Bonfadio,  Foglietii,  and  Pietro  Bembo  acquired  great 
distinction.      Vasari's  Livm  nf  Ihe  Ailiiln,   though  often 
Erroneous,  and  the  works  of  Borghini  and  Cellini,  are  in- 
dispensable sources  of  information  respecting  the  history 
of  Italian  art.     In  philosophy  the  greatest  names  are  Cai-- 
dano,  and  especially  Oiordano  Bruno,  both  of  whom,  how- 
ever, wrolo  in  Latiu. 

The  ni'ist  eminent  Italian  poets  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury are  lioccalini.  .Marini,  Francesco  Redi,  (irnziani,  Chi- 
abrcra  (whoso  odes  are  specimens  of  great  elevation  of 
thought  and  iliction),  Forteguerri,  Tassoni  (the  author  of 
the  mock  hemic).  La  .Scochia  Rapita,  Bracciolini.  Lorenzo 
I.ippi,  and  Filieaja  (who  is  best  remembered  by  his  patri- 
otic sonnets).  But  this  century  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
ifs  successful  cultivutiiin  of  [ibysieal  science.  The  great 
names  are  those  of  tjalileo  (who  was  compelled  bv  an  ec- 
clesiastical tribunal  to  retract  his  astronomical  theories,  if 
not  by  actual  torture,  at  least,  indubitably,  by  the  threat 
of  torture),  Torricelli,  Borelli,  I'assini,  Viviani,  Castelli, 
Riccioli,  and  lirimaldi.  I'ampanella,  who  wrote  chiefly  in 
Latin,  was  distinguished  as  a  philosopher.  The  nio.it  im- 
portant historical  works  of  this  century  aro  Paolo  ."^arpi's 
I(:-i.,r;i  ni'ihr  I'l.Hnril  „/  Ti:,ii  and  Palfavicini's  refutation  I 
of  that  history,  and  the  historical  writings  of  the  .lesuit 
Bart'di.  Tlu:  Civil  Wiim  in  h'riinrr-  of  Davila  and  Benti-  , 
voglio's  ir<rr»  m  f'lanilrrii  had  a  considerable  reputation, 
but  have  been  superseded  by  the  researches  of  later  inqui-  i 
rers.  Nanui  wrote  a  Jlinlori/  o/  Venice,  and  Capecolatro 
of  Naples. 

Afier  the  recovery  of  the  Thurch  from  the  first  stunning 
effects  of  the  Keformation.  followed  the  t'utholic  reaction 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  inllu- 
enco  of  Kome  has  ever  since  been  steadily  hostile  to  all 
progress,  intellectual,  moral,  and  material.  This  is  plainly 
seen  in  the  lulht-lcllrrit  literature  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  though  in  other  fields  of  intellectual 
effort  there  was  in  the  eighteenth  century  a  revived  activity, 
which  at  least  partially  restorer!  to  Italy  her  old  position 
as  a  power  in  ICiiropean  letters.  In  poetry  and  the  drama 
the   most    eminent    writers   were   t_Jozzi,    Pnrini.    (}ohloni, 


I  Maffei,  Casti,  Mctastasio,  and  Alfleri.     The  founder  of  the 
modern  science  of  historical  criticism,  (iiambattista  Vico. 
!  the  ])hilo.sophical  jurists,  Filangieri  and  Beccaria,  and  the 
j  |)hysicists   and    naturalists,  Volta,    (Jalvani,    Scarpa,  and 
Spallanzani,  have  acquired  and  deserved  the  greatest  eele- 
1  brity.     The  historical  writings  of  Dcnina  and  Tiraboschi 
should  also  be  mentioned.     As  a  means  of  general  culture 
the    Italian  literature  of  the  present  century  has  not.  for 
.Americans  and  Englishmen,  the  iuiporlance"which  special 
circumstances  have  given  to  the  contemporaneous  produc- 
I  tions  of  (Jerman  and  French  intellect,  but  its  deserts  are 
greater  than  its  European  reputation.   The  Italians  do  not  do 
themselves  justice  in  this  as  well  as  in  many  other  respects ; 
and  if  they  have  not  received  justice  at  foreign  hands,  it  is 
partly  because  they  have  been  too  modest  in  claiming  it. 
Another  reason  why  Italian  literature  is  little  knownand 
appreciated  abroad  is  that,  contrary  to  the  general  belief, 
the  literary  language,  from  its  great  wealth  of  vocabulary 
and  combination  in  some  fields,  its  poverty  in  others,  is 
extremely  difficult  for  foreigners.     Manzoni,  as   we  have 
seen,  found  it  so  even  for  a  native.     Few  strangers  ever 
acquire  more  than  the  merest  smattering  of   Italian,  or 
learn  enough  of  it  to  know  how  ignorant  they  remain  of 
its  real  character  and  capabilities.     Our  narrow  limits  of 
space  permit  us  to  give  but  a  few  names  in  the  literature 
of  this  century,  and  in  selecting  these  we  must  be  guiiled 
not  by  the  actual  merit  of  the  writers,  or  even  by  their 
popularity  in  Italy,  but  solely  by  our  view  of  the  interest 
they  may  probably  possess  for  those  into  whose  hands  this 
article  may  fall.     Since  the  year  1800  the  Italian  press  has 
been  fertile  in  products  of  perhaps  higher  average  merit 
than  the  works  of  preceding  centuries,  though  in  Italy,  as 
elsewhere,  comparatively  few  have  risen  to  such  a  dcciiled 
superiority  over  their  contcmjioraries  as  to  warrant  us  in 
predicting   for  them   a  lasting   place   in    literary    history. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  writers  best  known  abroad  have 
owed  their  foreign   reputation   as  well  as  their  domestic 
popularity  to  the  political  tendency  of  their  writings,  and 
to  the  courage  they  have  shown  in  the  avowal  of  truths 
unpalatable  to  their  rulers,  not  less  than  to  the  genius  by 
which  many  of  their  productions  have  been  distinguished. 
It  is  too  soon  to  separate  the  inherent  from  the  accidental 
elements  of  their  success,  and  to  assign  to  them  their  rela- 
tive rank  as  exponents  of  the  national  mind  and  as  influ- 
ential causes  in  the  develojiment  of  the  national  conscious- 
ness, and  consequently  as  agencies  in  effecting  the  aston- 
ishing revolutions  through  which  Italy  passed  in  the  half 
century  between  the  years  1820  and  1870.     Still,  there  aro 
unequivocally  great  names — names  which   It.ily  and   the 
world  will  not  •■  willingly  let  die  " — in  the  Italian  literature 
of  the  nineteenth  century;  and  there  is  abundant  room  for 
the  hope  of  continued  and  oven  greater  literary  achieve- 
ment by  the  generation  which  is  now  coming  upon  the  stan'o 
of  life  and  of  lalx.r.     The  Italian  writers  of  this  century, 
in  poetry  and  the  drama,  best  known  abroad  are  Monti  (the 
author  of  the  llantrllllniin),  Pindcmonte,  Ugo  F'oscolo  (/ 
Sepolcri),  Silvio   Pellico  (  FranreMca  da    /{liiiiiii),  Niccolini 
(Fillppo  Slrozzi and  Arntttfio  du  Urrsrltt),  Leopardi  (Cuuti, 
poems  of  true  genius).  Manzoni  ( '^miledi  Ctinnai/nota,  Adel- 
rlii,  Iiiui  Sncrl,  and  the  famous  lyric  fl  cinr/ue  Miii/ijio), 
Berchet  (lyrics),  Grossi  (/  l.nmhardl  nlln  prliii'i  Cmcl'iila), 
Tigri  (io  .SV/ie),  Spolverini  (La  Itiiritle).  Ariel  (An  /',(«fo- 
iij:iVi),<!iu8ti,  the  genial  satirist.  Ofniore  purely  national  rep- 
utation, though  not  always  by  any  means  of  inferior  merit, 
are  the  iioems  of  Rieci,  Sestini,  Bagnoli,  Mameli,  Aleardi, 
Prati,    Mamiani,    Montanclli,    t'osenza.    ]Mesdaines   Savio- 
Hossi,  roloiiibiiii.  and  Fu:\-Fusinato,  and  the  imprnvvlKntori 
Hegaldi  and  .Miss  Giannina  Milli.     Acting  plays  have  been 
very  numerous,  but  they  have  met  a  discouraging  compe- 
tition   in    translations    from    the  modern   French   drama. 
Nota's  comedies,   though  of  little  power,  continue  to   bo 
represented    occasionally.       Ferrari    and     Ghcrardi    dclla 
Testa  have  met  with  merited  success,  and  at  tlio  present 
day  the  plays  of  I>c  Kcnzis  are  deservedly  very  iiopular, 
and  give  promise  of  much  future  excellence,     lipon  the 
whole,  the  Italian  prose  literature  of  this  century  is  enti- 
tled to  rank  relatively  higher  than  its  poetry  or  its  stage 
plays.      Foremost  in  narrative  fiction  stands  the  Pmmrati 
Spitni  of  .Manzoni.      Kipsini  (  Lit  Munnen  di  Mnmn),  Gross! 
{Mam,    Vitcnil),  Azeglio  {Ellarr  Fieramniica  and  XicrnIA 
dri  l.api).   (iiierrnzzi  (.l«»'(/o)  di  Flniizr),  are  successful 
authors  of  historical  novels  of  the  same  school,  all  which, 
as  well   as   Ilolta's  .S'Mn'n    drila  liiirna   dill'  /iidrpeiidrnza 
de,/ll  Slaii  I'liiii,  and  •SVoiiVi  d' Italia;  the  historical  works 
of  Cesare  Bnlbo ;   CoUelta's  Sinria  del   lirami-  di  Xapidi  ; 
Fariui's    I.n   Slain  Human,,   dal   ISl.lal    IS.W ;    Broffirio's 
Sl„rla  del  l'i,,nnnlr;    Giobcrli's   I'riinal,,  ,1  Italia,  Del  Itln- 
n„ramrnt„    I'irilr    d' Italia,    ami    other    works;      Alnari's    / 
Vrupri  .SVciViaui',-  Oicognari's  St„iia  drlla  S'inllnra,  and  the 
archicological   works  of  Micali,   Inghirami,  Canina,    and 
Fabretti— are  well  known  abroad.     The  Italian  prose  work 


I'Sdij 


ITALY. 


of  this  century  which  has  had  the  widest  circulation  in 
Europe  is  te  Mir.  Pn'^/ioni  of  Silvio  Pellico,  and  we  l>e- 
lievc  that  in  moclern  times  no  single  volume  has  produced 
a  more  prot'unnd  impression  in  Europu  or  occasioned  more 
important  ninral  and  political  rt'sults  than  this.  It  secured 
for  Italy  tin-  sympathies  of  the  civilized  world  ;  and,  thuugh 
vears  of  misgovernment  were  still  to  be  endured,  tlmugh 
the  concurreneo  of  many  other  causes  was  necessary  to 
effect  the  linal  liberation  of  the  I'eniusula  from  foreign 
sway,  yet  it  was  the  PrinotiH  of  Pellico  which  gave  to  Aus- 
trian domination  the  mortal  blow.  In  polities  and  pdlitical 
economy  Minghctti's  (ifmitvidi  Lcttcrari,  especially  his  re- 
markable Lrtterson  RiliyioHH  Ltbcrti/.  To  this  period  also 
belong  the  works  of  Giordani,  criticism  and  correspond- 
ence; Biitta,  history  of  Italy  and  of  the  American  Uevolu- 
lutioa  ;  Micali,  ancient  history  of  Italy;  Laura  Mancini 
and  Madame  Fcrrucci,  in  jioetry  ;  Mamiani,  in  pliiioso])hy  ; 
Pietro  Thouat,  education  and  talcs;  Litta,  family  history; 
Balbo,  history  and  political  economy  ;  Aleardo  Aleardi, 
poetry;  Montanelli,  memoirs;  Emiliano  Giudici,  literary 
history  ;  Ranalli.  lesthetics  and  criticism  ;  Vanniicci,  his- 
tory ;  Bianciardi.  Lozzi.  Bon  Compagni,  political  literature; 
Ausonio  Franehi,  Spaventa,  Scialoja,  in  philosophy;  De 
Sanctis,  Settembrini.Pitre,  Comparetti,Salvatico.l>e  Guber- 
natis,  in  criticism;  Boccardo,  Maestri,  Errera,  political 
economy:  Temistocle,  Gradi,  tales.  The  works  of  Roma- 
gnosi  and  of  Gioja,  all  of  which  appeared  before  the  great 
revolution  of  1869-00,  are  entitled  to  special  notice.  This 
auspicious  event  released  the  Italian  intellect  and  the 
Italian  press,  except  in  the  jiontifical  states,  from  shackles 
which  had  fettered  them  for  many  centuries,  and  there  is 
now  great  activity  in  every  department  of  literature.  The 
most  fertile  and  voluminous,  as  well  as  popular,  historical 
writer  of  the  present  era  is  Cesare  Cantil.  Ricotti,  La 
Lumia,  Amari  {Storia  dei  MusuIukiiii  in  Stcilia),  Giudici, 
Azeglio  (liicordi  e  Com'spondeitza),  A'annueci  (I  Martiri 
(f'ff'i  Liberta),  Buu  Compagni  iChif:Ha  e  Stato),  Bianciardi 
{Stort'a  dci  hi  pi  and  Prior  Liicn),  Zini  {Storia  d'Jtnlia), 
Cibrario  {Storia  defla  Schiavitit).  Zamboni  {(Jli  Ezzclini  e 
tffi  Schiavi),  Poraponio  Leto  (a  fictitious  name,  Tl  Concilio 
Vaficano),  uTo  writers  of  interest  and  importance.  We 
must  here  notice  the  Spafjna  of  Do  Amicio.  a  volume  of 
travels  remarkable  for  a  degree  of  descriptive  talent  and 
easy  liveliness  of  style  rare  in  Italian  prose.  In  political 
economy  the  works  of  Cattaneo.  De  Rossi  (in  French), 
Minghetti  (  Economia  I\ditica ), Cibrario  (  Economic  Politica 
d'l  Medio  Era),  Celestino  Bianchi  {Storin  Dipiumatica 
d' Italia),  Boccardo,  Lozzi  (  Ozio  in  flafia),  Sclopis  ( lIiHtory 
of  Italian  Lcijialation),  Brofferio  (Storia  dtl  /'arliuiucuto 
Subalpitta)^  and  Mazzini  are  conspicuous.  In  physical, 
mathematical,  and  natural  science,  Malloui,  Phma,  Mat- 
teucci,  Secchi.  Sehiaparelli,  Donati,  Menabrea,  Sella.  Boc- 
cardo, Lioy,  Parlatore.  Dclpino,  Sto]>i)ani,  Gastaldi.  Cap- 
pellini,  Negri,  are  distinguished  names,  though  their  labors 
do  not  belong  wholly  to  the  present  generation.  In  theo- 
retical as  well  as  practical  engineering,  and  especially  in 
hydrology,  the  Italians  have  long  been  very  eminent,  and 
Europe  lias  had  no  abler  writers  in  this  department  than 
Mangotti,  Paleocapa,  ami  Lombardini.  In  prose  fiction 
Suner,  Bcrsezio,  Barrili,  and  Caterini  Percoto  are  distin- 
guished. Linguistic  science,  new  everywhere,  and  emphat- 
ically so  in  Italy,  is  ably  represented  by  Peyron.  Gorresio, 
Orcurti,  Fabretti  Amari.  De  Gubernatis,  Arcoli.  Flecchia, 
Teza,  Lignani,  Caix.  Intellectual  and  moral  philosophy 
has  found  an  able  cultivator  in  Mamiani. 

Many  of  the  ablest  Italian  writers  of  the  present  day — 
wo  will  mention  Bonghi  and  Messednglia  as  conspicuous 
examples — are  known  chiefly  through  es-says  in  periodicals, 
occasional  academical  discourses,  and  parliamentary  re- 
ports. The  periodical  literature  of  Italy  has  long  been 
very  highly  respectable,  and  the  Autolofjia,  established  by 
Vieusseux,  rose  even  to  the  rank  of  a  political  power,  or 
at  least  influence,  in  Italy.  The  publication  has  been  re- 
fiumed,  and  it  is  ably  supportetl.  The  Ptditecnico,  long 
under  the  direction  of  Cattaneo,  has  always  been  a  very 
important  scientific  periodical.  The  Hivistn  Europra  is 
also  excellent.  A  vast  amount  of  most  important  Italian 
literary  and  historical  material  is  accessible  only  in  large 
miscellaneous  collections,  such  as  the  Arrhtrio  Storico,  (he 
Prlatioiia  of  the  Venetiim  A mhanffadom,  a.nd  others  to  which 
wo  have  already  alluded.  An  encyclopa'dic  work,  histor- 
ical, descriptive,  and  typognvphical,  is  now  publishing 
under  the  title  L' fta/ia,  urnl  will  extend  to  twenty  or  more 
large  octavos.  But  no  thtirough  knowledge  of  Italy,  an- 
cient, or  modern,  can  be  attained  without  a  constant  re- 
sort to  the  labors  of  foreign  scholars.  The  principal  Eng- 
lish contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  It.aly  are  by  Roscoe, 
Napier,  Rawdon  Browne,  and  TroUnpo.  The  German 
works  of  Nichuhr,  Mnmnisen,  Ihne.  and,  for  the  Middle 
Ages  especially,  Burckhardt  and  Gregorovius  [Gcnchichte 
drr  Stadt  Pom),  are  indispensable.    Recent  works  useful  to 


foreigners  are  the  literary  histories  of  De  Sanctis  and  Sct- 
tembrini.   Marc   Mounier  (L'italiti    e»t    cKc   la    Terre    dea 
Mortn),  and  Ame<lee    Rtiux.      For   Sicilian   literature   the 
writings  and  collections  (jf  Pitre  and  Di  Giovanni  arc  in- 
dispensable.    There  is  thus  far  no  grammar  or  dictionary 
of  the  Italian  language  which  at  all  satisfies  the  require- 
ments of  modern  jibilological  science.     Many  dictionaries 
are  now  in  course  of  publication,  among  which  wo  notice 
a  series  of  special  vocabularies  in  preparation  under  gov- 
ernment patronage.      That  of   Canevazzi,  embracing  the 
nomenclature  of  agriculture  and  the  subsidiary  knowledges, 
is  published  as  far  as  the  letter  C,  and  is  truly  excellent. 
The  amount  of  controver!^ial  discussion  on  the  Italian  lan- 
guage, and  especially  on  the  relations  of  the  Tuscan  dia- 
1   lect  to  the  present  and  prospective  liiirpia  comum-  of  Italy, 
I   is  very  great.     We  have  space  to  notice  only  the  labors  of 
!   Tommaseo,  Gif»rdani,  (iradi,  Fanfani.  tiiuliani  {Liiiffnnytfio 
Vivcnte  delta  Tovraua),  and  especially  Manzoni  and  Bon- 
I   ghi.     A  work  by  the  latter  (Pcrc/iti  la  Lcttcrattira  Italiana 
'   nofi  sia  popolare  in  Italia)  is  particularly  instructive. 
I  Georgc  P.  Marsh. 

I       It'aly^  the   central  of  the  three  great   peninsulas   of 
Southern  Europe,  lies  between  3o°  30'  and  47°  0'  N,  lat. 
!  and  between  fi°  uS'  and  1S°  32'  E.  Ion.,  projecting  into  the 
1  Mediterranean,  between  the  Tyrrhene  and  Adriatic  seas, 
from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  and  united  to  the  continent  by  the 
basin  of  the  Po,  lying  between  the  northern  extremities  of 
;  these  two  seas  an<l  the  vast  semicircle  of  the  Alps.     Its 
ffcoffraphicftf    boundaries,   which   do    not  always   coincide 
'   with  its  political  limits,  arc — on  the  N.,  the  Central  Alps, 
i  which  divide  it  from  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Valais,  II ri,  and 
I  the  Grisons,  as  well  as  from  the  Austrian  Tyrol;  on  the 
I  E.,  first,  the  Oriental  Alps,  which  separate  it  from  the  Aus- 
trian provinces  of  Carinthia,  Carni(»b,  and  Croatia,  then 
j  the  river  Arsa  in  Istria.  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  and  finally 
I  the  Adriatic  Sea;  on  the  S..  the  Ionian  Sea;  on  the  ^V..  the 
i   T^'rrhene  and   Ligurian   seas,  tlie  Var,  and   the  Western 
j  Alps,  the  latter  of  which,  together  with  the  lower  course 
of  the  Var,  separate  it  from  France.    PoUticallif,  the  west- 
ern boundary  is  not  the  Var,  but  the  Roja.      The  northern, 
the  precise  outline  of  which   should  be  indicated   by  the 
crest  of  the  Alps,  falls  much  lower  on  their  southern  slope 
I   at  the  point  where  the  canton  Ticino  and  a  j)art  of  the  Gri- 
I  sons  (Swiss)  form  the  frontier  for  a  distance  of  about  296 
I   miles,  and  the  Tyrol  and  the  Trentino  (.Austrian)  for  250 
:   miles;  to  the  E.  a  line  of  310  miles  separates   Italy  from 
I   Goritz,  Trieste,  and  Istria,  which  also   belong  to  Austria. 
Geographical  Italy  is  divided  into  three  great  sections:  (1) 
I    Northern  Italy,  which  includes  all  the  strictly  continental 
j   portion — that  is,  Venice.  Lombardy,  Piedmont,  and   Ligu- 
ria,  with  no  islands  except  the  small  ^'ene^ian  group  in  the 
'   Adriatic;  (2)  Central  Italy,  including  about  one-half  the 
I    Peninsula  ])roperly  so  called,  with  the  ancient  Etruscan. Ura- 
brian,  and  Latin  territories,  with  the  island  of  Corsica  (po- 
i    litically  French),  and  with  the  Tuscan  and  Circean  archipel- 
t   agoes  (Elba,  Caprarn,  (lorgona,  Giglio.  Ponza,\*entotena); 
(.3)  Southern  Italy,  or  the  remaining  portion  of  the  Penin- 
sula, ineludiiig  the  Samnite,  ApuHan,  anci  Calabrian   dis- 
tricts,  the  large   islands  of  Sardinia  anfl  Sicily,  and  the 
smaller,  which  compose  (he  Parthcnopean  and  Eolian  areh- 
ijiclagocs  in  the  Tyrrhene  (Ischia,  Procida,  Cajiri,  Ijipari, 
Vulcano,  Stromboli,  etc.),  the  Calipsean  .Archipelago  in  the 
African  Sea  (Malta,  Gozo.  etc.),  and  the  Diomedean  Archi- 
pelago in  the  .Adriatic.    The  length  of  the  Peninsula  is  8^1 
miles;  its  mean  breadth  Lis  miles.     The  total  superficies 
of  geographical  Italy  is  129,570,  that  of  political  Italy, 
about  111,300  square   miles.     The  extreme  ])oints  of  the 
Peninsula,  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.,  are — Mont  Blanc  in  the  Pennine  Alps,  and  Cape 
Spartivento  in  Calabria;  in  the  properly  continental  part, 
from  W.  to  E.,  the  Cottian  and  the  Julian  Alps;  and.  fol- 
lowing the  curve  of  the  Alpine  chain.  Monte  dello  Schiavo 
on  the  Mediterr.anean,  and  the  Biltoray  on  the  Adriatic; 
and.  finally,  in  the  peninsular  porli<m.  the  greatest  breadth 
is  between  Monte  Argentaro  on  the  Tyrrhene  and  the  prom- 
ontory of  Ancona  upon  the  Adriatic. 

Internal  Dirittions,  their  Area  and  Population. — The  tcT- 
ritoTiea  yeoi/ruphicalti/  Italian  are — 

Surracc  io  itquaro  miles.     Population. 

The  kincdom  of  Italy 114.200.85  26,h01,l.')4 

Trieste,  Istria,  Goritz 3.29t.  541,758 

Cisalpine  Tvrol G,007.  518,059 

Cisalpine  Switzerland l,.ir)2.  131,256 

Nice 1.0fi5.  m.3fi2 

Corsica 3,377.  259.861 

Malta 144.  136.3-19 

Monaco 8.88  7,0S0 

San  Marino 24.59^  7,OS0 

Total 129,570.32  28,525,496 

I  The  kingdom  of  Italy  is  divided  into  69  provinces,  sub- 
;  divided  into  111"  circuits  {ctreondari),  and  97  districts  (in 
j  Venetia),  which  together   comprehend  S35i2  commwuM  or 


ITALY. 


1337 


toWDsbips^  distributed  over  tho  following  natural^  otbno- 
grapbioa),  aud  bisturiual  sections:  (1)  In  Nortbeni  Italy — 
Lumbardy,  betu-eeu  tbo  Ticiuu,  (ho  Miuciu,  the  Po,  and  tho 
Alps;  \'fiiotiii,  lying  K.  of  Lomburdy,  between  the  Miucio 
and  the  Adriatic,  thu  Alps,  and  the  Po;  Piedmunt.on  tho  W., 
between  iho  Ticino,  the  Alps,  and  the  Apennines;  Liguria, 
between  tho  Ajiennincs  and  (he  sen  ;  Emilia  no'l  Ilotiiagua, 
on  iho  ri.  of  the  Po,  between  Picdmimt  on  the  W.,  the  Ad- 
riatic on  the  K.  and  the  Apennines  on  tho  S.  (2)  in  Central 
Italy — Tuscany,  between  Iho  Apennines  nnd  tho  Tyrrhene 
Sea;  Latiuin,  1^.  of  Tnscuny,  in  tho  middle  and  lower  basin 
of  the  Tiber;  Uinbria  nnd  tho  Marches,  tho  fir.-^t  in  tho 
upper  basin  of  tho  Tiber,  tho  second  between  tho  Ajiennines 
and  tho  Adriatic,  {'.i)  In  Southern  Italy,  tho  ex-  Neapolitan 
states,  which  comprise  all  tho  region  tS.  of  tho  Tronto  on 
tho  eastern  coast,  and  S.  of  Terracina  on  the  western.  The 
Oy  provinces  are  grouped  into  10  compartments,  of  which 
tho  following  tablo  shows  tho  population  (according  to  the 
two  latest  censuse?)  and  the  aupcrlicics : 


Compart  in?iil9. 


■.-.s 


Piedmont 1487 

Liguria 317 

Lombanly .19d5) 

Venetia "95 

Erailia I  •'2^ 

LTmbria '  173' 

Marches i  240 

Tuscany i  2781 

Latium 227 

Abruzzi  and  Mo-, 

lise ;  456 

Campania 614 

Apulia I  23G 

Basilicata 124 

Calabria !  410 

Sicily 350 

SanUnla 368 


Superflelpa 

Sfl 

la 

75  • 

aq.  mites. 

f' 

S^ 

Il,300.(i4 

2.16 

2,053.07 

110 

9,U8:i.70 

:wu 

9.IB9.34 

291 

7,920..S7 

2G6 

3,819.17 

140 

3,746..'".9 

24.5 

9,28G.83 

22S 

4,601.20 

IGO 

G,G75.71 
6,941.30 
8,539.78 
4,121.99 
6,GG2.97 
11,290.05 
9,393.46 


192 
399 
167 
123 
181 
217 
67 


Kingiiomof  Italy  |8382  25,023,810  25,801,154    7.10  114,304.59  234 


The  following  is  a  tabic  of  tho  population  according  to  the 
la?<t  two  censuses  (IS(n-71),  of  the  superficies,  and  of  the 
number  of  inhabitants  to  the  PijU-ire  mile  in  the  single 
provinces,  with  the  number  of  townships  comprised  in 
each,  and  with  the  proportionate  increase  of  the  populatioa 
ID  ten  3'car9 : 


Province*  nnd  co 
partmvou. 


r.i 


PopulatloD. 


iwi.        vm. 


Alexandria 344 

Cuneo I  263 

jNovara i  438; 

Turin [jl42| 

Piedmont... 


645,607 

597,279 

579,385 

_        941,992 

1187  i7li4,2ti3  2i899,.'>G4 


683,.3G1 
618,232 
624,98.". 
972,986 


So-; 


.■5.85 
3.51 
7.87 
3.29 

4.89 


Genoa \  210 

Port  Maiirizio 107 

Liguria I  317 

Bcrxarao '  306 

Brescia '  28.'5l 

Oirao 518 

Ocmona |  1351 

Mantua 67| 

Milan 313| 

Pavia I  20;! 

i  7Sl 


650,143 
121,330 


71G,7.VJ    10.25 
127.053     4.72 


771,473'    813,812'    9.38 


347,23")  1 
434,219' 
4.i7,434' 
28.5,148, 
202,819 


■■t(iii,\r,2 

4.TG.023 
477,642 
300,.'i95 
2S8,942 


948.320  1,009,794 


Sondrlo 

Lombardy  ,.. 

ndluno 

Padua  

Rovlt^o 

Trevlso 

Udinc 

Venice 

Verona 

VlcpnKa 

Venetia 

Roloitna 

Ferrara 

Forll 

Mrwlena 

Parma 

Piact-nra 

Ravenna 

Reggio-Kmilia. 

Umilia 

Perugia 

Ancona  

Ascoli-Pleeno. 

Mneerata 

Pesaro  and  Urbino 

Marches, 


419,783 
100,040 


448,4;«; 
111,2411 


6,02 
5.02 
4.42 
5.41 
9.94 
6.48 
0.82 
4.90 


■si 

H 


1,951.70 
2,7.55.07 
2,520.33 
4,0«7.,52 

ll;i00..52 

467.08 

"2.0S,5ji6 

l,087..5'3 
1,043.85 
1,0.50.12 
031.16 
950.93 
1,125..5S 
1,292.74 
1,261,02 


11965  3,201,000  3,10(1,824     0.13      9,043.53 


107,229 
.304,702 
180,047 
30H,48.) 
440,.542| 
294,4.501 
310,493 
327,074 


17.5,282 
3>V4,4:iO 
200,835 
3.52,538 
481,5801 
;U7,.5:i8] 
307,437 
303,101  ' 


4.82 
19„58 
11.18 
11.28 

9.32 
14.63 
10.10 
in.".'. 


1,270.95 
754.00 
G50.23 
941.15 

2,515.:)3 
848.G6 

1,060.60 

1. '110.36 


795  2,:H0,280l  2,042,807 


ProviDoea  Bod  com- 

I'^irlmuiiU. 


Arc^^o  

Florcncu 

(Irosscto 

Leghorn 

Lucca 

Massa-Carrara 

Pisa 

Siena 


.33 


350 
222 
247 
237 

250 

451 
271 


329 
277 
455 
183 
112 
890 
340 
88 

Jm 

137 
482 
308 
.374   I 
191 

:«;8  I 

346 

;k7 


Tuscany.... 

Latium 

Aquila 

Campobasso.. 

Chieti 

Teramu 


Population. 


£3 


219,959 
690,214 

loo.cii; 

110,sii 
236.101 
140,733! 
243,028 
193,933 

278  1,907,067 


227 

T27 
134 
121 
74 


7.50,413 

~:i09,451 
346,007 
327,31i; 
230,001 


AbruizlAMolisci  J56, 1,212,833 

Avelino 

Beneveuto 

Cascrta 

Naples 

Salerno 


Campania 

Bar! 

Koggia 

Lecce  

Apulia 

Potcnza 

Catauzaro 

Cosenza 

Eeggio,  Calabria.. 
Calabria 

Caltaulsetta 

Catania  

Girgcnti 

Messina 

Palermo 

Syracuse 

Trapani 


rasiliari 

Sassari 

Sardinia.. 


28     335,021 
73|    220,500 
053,404 
807,983 


159     528,250 

61412^23^0 

.53  ",5.54,402 
531  312.885 
130     447,982 


234,045! 

70G,S24 
107,437 
118,.-i.51 
280,399 
101,914 
205,9.59 
206,4461 


2,142,-525 

830,704 

.332,784 
304,208 
339,9.86 
243,004 


^9  a 


6,87 
10,11 
0.79 
1.75 
9.46 
15.07 
9.44 
6.45 

~8.92" 


12 


1,277.60    183 

2,307.50    .323 

1,080.78    005 

108..56'1085 


576.52 

G87.22 

1,179.95 

1,465.04 


9,349.23,  J29 
11.50  r'4,601.10  lie 


7.54 
5.26 
3.87 
6.93 


2,609.05  132 

1,777.56  203 

1,114.80  305 

1,283.08  192 


1,2K2,!ISL'     3.78  I  0,685,69 1   192 


373,091 
232,008 
097.403 
907,752 
541,738 
2,7.54,592 

0(M..546 
322,738 
493,394 


230 1 1,313,269  1,420.892 


492,939 

~384,1,59 
431,922 
324,546 

1,140,627 

223,17S, 
4.50,400 
2C3,8S0: 
394,701 
584,929! 
•2.59,013, 
214,981 1 


510,543 

'4l2;226 
440,488 
363,008 


1,200,302 

^230,060 
493,413 
2S9,018 
420,019 
017.07S 
294,S,<3 
230,388 


3.01   1,408.7 


6.72 
4.38 
2.,55 


9.04 
3.16 
10.18 


7.31 
1.98 
8.93 


5.76 

^3.09" 
9.9S 
9..53 
0..5G 
5.00 

13..59 
9.90 


360, 2,391 ,802 1 2,384,099:  8,04 


2.58!  372,097 1  393,2081  5.67   5,2.56.90 
110!  215,9371  24.3,452  12.73   4.141..55 

368 1  588,004 '  ~636,660 '  ~8.26  '  '9,398.46 


200 
092.22  343 

2,206.80'  310 
4(11.41  22G1 

2,130.84  2.54 

6,840.10' ~4()2 


2,292.24  203 

2.9.53.04  1(19 

3,293.33  149 

8,538.62 


J.1^21.89 

T,306r98 
2,840.93 
1,514.95 

"6;062.8(! 


1,4,55.13  1,58 

1,909.93  231 

1,491.01'  193 

1.707.931  238 

1.904.071  814 
1,427.15 
1,214.48 


11,290.04 


581 
10 1 

45 

so! 

481 
21 ' 

r. 


407,4521 
199,158 
224,403 
200,.591 
2.56,029 
218,.569 
2(K).51>i' 


439,2:;: 
2l3.:w.'.i 
2;ii,o'.io, 

273,231 

26i,;isi| 

225,773! 
221.115 


H.ll 

4. 29 

4.80 
3,27 
3..10 


l,!M0.33| 
719,06 
905.82 

1,2.50,00' 
905.80 

712'.: 


.;l2i  292 

.03I  315 
213 
325 
282 
211 
234 
297 


',».,;:: : 

. 

1.907 

-tl 

2.095 

■cyifli 

7.7:16 

Ji:t,(i72 

2.964 

91,5,366 

9.703 

:i.71'*  ir 


N7 

7:^*..4i,  ;w« 

SI0.2-.    2.*iO 

i,n.w.rtil  223 

1,114.241   IfK) 
YJliM  I  "246 


Physical  GEOORAPnv. — A.  Seas  and  Conatn  of  Italy. — 
That  part  of  the  Mediterranean  which  washes  Italy  and 
her  islands  is  divided  into  five  principal  arms:  (IJ  The 
Tyrrhene  or  Lower  Sea.  embraced  between  the  Peninsula 
and  tho  islands  of  Corsica.  Sardinia,  and  Sieily.  This  is 
the  greatest  expanse  of  Italian  seji,  and  may  nitnosf  bo 
regarded  as  a  vast  lake  nearly  everywhere  surrounded  by 
Italian  soil;  (2)  The  Ailrintic  or  Upper  Sea,  Itetween  Italy 
and  tho  territory  of  the  Slaves  (lllyria,  ]>almatia,  Al- 
bania); ('i)  The  lonijin  Sen,  between  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
(ireoce:  (t)  The  African  or  Libyan  Sea,  between  Sardinia, 
Sicily,  and  Africa  :  (."))  The  Ligurian  Sea.  between  Liguria, 
Corsica,  Sardinia,  France,  and  Spain.  The  greatest  depth 
of  the  wefitern  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  is  10,600  feet, 
between  Sicily  and  Africa.  The  eastern  basin  is  of  much 
greater  depth;  according  to  Capt.  Spratt.  la.O'.t^  feet  be- 
tween I^falta  and  Crete.  The  bottom  of  the  Adriatic  is  a 
great  plain  sloping  downward  from  Italy  towards  tho 
Illyrian,  Ibilmntian,  an<l  Islrian  coasts,  but  the  degree  of 
inclination  vnrirs  greatly,  being  very  slight,  almost  insen- 
sible, near  the  outlet  of  the  Po,  becoming  gradtmlly  more 
rapifl  towards  tho  S.  The  great  Mediterranean  current, 
which  carries  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  from  W.  to  K., 
creates  two  minor  currents  properly  Italian  :  one  enters  tho 
Adriatic,  follows  along  tl-e  coasts  of  Ibilniatia  and  Istria 
as  far  as  Trieste,  then  d«inbling  it  sweeps  along  the  Italian 
coast  from  Venice  to  .Apulia,  and  so  returns  into  the  great 
basin  from  whence  it  set  out:  tho  other,  entering  through 
the  Straits  c»r  .Mes.-^ina.  Mows  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  washes 
the  western  shore  of  the  Peninsula  till  it  reaches  the  \.\- 
gtirian  (lulf,  then  turns  towards  Provence  ami  Spain  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  great  current  of  immission 
from  tho  A I  Ian  tic  Itt  the  Mediterranean.  Besides  tluse 
two  principal  currents,  other  secondary  ones  exist  in  the 
Italian  yvwn:  that  which,  fbiwinr;^  from  N.  to  S.,  touelMs 
Iho  we!<Iern  eojints  of  the  same  islands,  and  finally  en* 
counters  that  before  mentioned  in  the  Strait  of  Honifacio, 
which  for  this  reason  is  dangerous  to  navigation:  that 
which  arises  from  the  ehanRe  of  direction  undergone  in 
the  African  Sea  by  the  general  current,  wliicli  ,-lionId  lend 
eastward,  but,  first  bndien  by  the  Kj^ades,  then  divided  by 
the  western  angle  of  Sicily,  separates  into  two  arms,  tho 
one  directing  itself  into  the  channel  of  Malta  ;  the  other, 
coastini;  alon;;  the  prunmntory  ot    Pncbino  and  the  western 


1338 


ITALY. 


shore  of  Sicily,  finally  unites  with  the  so-calleil  Ionian  cur- 
rent, which  enters  iato  the  Channel  of  Faro  :  the  other  arm 
of  the  Sicilian  current  diverges  from  the  northern  line  of 
the  island,  barely  touching  its  many  gulfs,  then  l)ondiug 
toward  the  K..  strikes  the  Eolian  l-shmd^.  to  lose  itself  iu 
the  Tyrrhene  shore-current.  With  regard  to  the  velocity 
of  the  Italian  currents  tlicro  arc  as  yet  no  very  positive 
data.  Mnutanari  calculates  it  at  O.IG  of  a  foot  per  second. 
Cialdi  estimates  it  at  a  mean  of  half  a  mile  per  hour. 
Minard  says  that  the  great  Mediterranean  current  on  the 
coast  of  Algeria  was  found  to  have  a  velocity  of  0.9;'*  foot 
per  second,  and  in  some  places  even  of  1.0-1  feet  per  second, 
but  that  it  diminishes  in  swiftness  during  its  vast  course, 
and  that  on  the  coast  of  Franco  it  is  not  more  than  0.25 
foot  per  second.  Marmocchi  gives  to  the  proper  Italian  cur- 
rents only  a  velocity  from  4  to  G  miles  in  twenty-four 
hours;  but  ho  observes  that  in  the  channels  and  around 
the  capes  it  is  much  greater.  In  the  Ligurian  Sea,  accord- 
ing to  my  observations,  it  is  never  found  to  exceed  from 
1.00  to  2  inches  per  second;  but  all  the  ])orts  on  the  Tyr- 
rhene coast  whicli  open  towards  the  E.  have  a  tendency  to 
shoal  up.  The  number  of  degrees  of  longitude  included  in 
the  Mediterranean  is  too  small  to  allow  this  sea  to  have 
great  tides.  They  are  more  sensible  in  the  Straits  of  Mes- 
sina ( where  the  flow  rises  to  2G.10  inches),  in  the  Neapolitan 
waters  (from  G  to  S  inches),  and  in  the  Venetian  gulf  (o. 40 
feet).  The  water  of  the  Mediterranean  is  reputed  to  be  more 
salt  than  that  of  the  .Atlantic  :  the  observations  of  Borrillon 
la  Grange  give  it  double  the  quantity  of  saline  matter.  But 
near  the  shore  the  saltness  is,  in  many  places,  diminished 
either  by  the  action  of  rivers  and  torrents,  or  by  that  of 
fountainsor  springs  of  fresh  water  which  are  thrown  up  from 
the  bed  of  the  sea  by  natural  siphons;  and  upon  the  whole 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  proportion  of  saline  matter 
in  the  waters  of  this  sea  with  any  ])reeision.  The  most 
r.  lebrated  of  these  submarine  springs  is  that  which  wells 
up  in  the  Gulf  of  Spc/.ia  about  a  mile  from  the  shore,  and 
with  such  force  tliat  the  fresh  water  rises  several  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  and  forms  a  convex  swell 
about  20  feet  in  diameter.  With  regard  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  Italian  seas,  Marsiglia  has  observed  that  the 
mean  for  the  mcmths  of  De*-*ember.  January,  February, 
March,  and  April  is  between  ."iO*^  and  52°  F.,  while  in  June 
it  does  not  exceed  44. G°.  Thus,  the  Mediterranean  is  a 
powerful  eontpensatory  agent  in  tempering  the  severity 
of  winter  and  the  heats  of  summer.  The  Italian  seas  have 
always  been  renowned  for  their  a/ure  color,  and  for  a 
transparency  which  reflects  as  iu  a  limpid  mirror  the  beau- 
tiful hues  of  the  sky.  The  phosphorescence  of  the  water  is 
remarkable,  and  according  to  an  ingenious  suggestion  of 
Mr.  (jr.  P.  Marsh,  may  have  increased  during  the  historic 
period,  since  the  greater  destruction  of  cetaceans  and  prc- 
daceous  fish  in  tnodern  times  favors  the  multiplication  of 
the  lower  marine  organisms  upon  which  the  former  feed, 
and  whose  bodies  produce,  in  part  at  least,  this  phenome- 
non. The  coast  of  the  Italian  Peninsula  has  a  linear  ex- 
tension of  ;i2.">7  miles — UGO  in  the  Adriatic,  1030  in  the 
Ionian  and  Libyan  seas.  750  in  the  Tyrrhene,  and  495  in 
the  Ligurian.  The  ci>ast-line  of  the  larger  i^slands  meas- 
ures 92S  miles.  Setting  out  from  the  extreme  W.  bound- 
ary, vve  come  first  to  the  port  of  Nice  (no  longer  Italian), 
a  small  harbor  excavated  by  Chark-s  Kmanucl  III.  and 
Victor  .Amadeus.  About  a  mile  to  the  K.  follow  the  gulfs 
of  Villafranca  and,  of  Sant'  Ospizio.  then  the  little  port  of 
Monaco,  between  which  and  the  town  of  Mentone  rises 
Cape  San  Martino.  Still  continuing  eastward.  Capes  IJor- 
dighcra  and  IJurghetto  follow  successively,  then  the  gulf  of 
the  Ospitaietti,  the  road  of  San  Remo,  the  beaches  of  Ccrvo 
and  of  Diana,  the  bays  of  San  Stefano  and  of  San  Lorenzo, 
the  landing  of  Porto  Maurizio,  the  port  of  Oneglia,  the 
Gulf  of  Diano  Marina.  Between  Cape  delle  Mele  and  the 
little  island  of  Albcnga  arc  the  shores  of  Alassio  and  Lan- 
gueglia,  which  afford  good  anchorage.  A  vast  gulf,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  lies  Albenga,  extends  from  the  island  of 
Galliuara  to  Cape  Noli ;  then  comes  the  open  bay  of  Finale 
Marina.  To  this  succeed  the  excellent  roadstead  of  Vado, 
the  little  port  of  Savona,  and  from  thence  to  (Jenoa  a  line 
of  coast  winch  the  industry  of  tlie  inhabitants  has  converted 
into  a  continuous  shipyard  in  which  hundreds  of  ships  are 
frequently  on  the  stocks  at  the  same  time.  The  spacious 
artificial  harbor  of  Genoa  (about  Ii20  acres,  or  one-half  a 
square  mile  of  xvater-surfacc)  has  to  the  E.  a  coast-line 
which,  as  far  as  the  promontory  of  l*urtofino,  affords  neither 
roadstead  nor  anchorage  except  the  lamling  of  Cauiogli. 
The  (iulf  of  Rapallo,  the  little  bay  of  Portofino.  that  of 
Carlo  Alberto,  the  not  easily  accessible  landing  of  Chiavari, 
the  coast  of  Sestri  Levante.  Cape  Manara.  Cape  Ilospo,  the 
landing  of  Framura.  the  Cape  of  M<tntcross(i,  the  Bay  of 
Bonassol,  the  beach  of  Levanto,  Cape  Mesco,  the  landing 
of  Montcro^isu,  the  rugged  r<»eks  <>t  Verna/.za,  Corniglia, 
Manarola,  Riomaggiore,  are  the  principal  features   until 


we  reach  the  magnificent  Gulf  of  Spezia,  the  great  naval 
arsenal  of  Italy.  To  this  succeed  the  Tuscan  coasts,  with 
the  little  port  of  Viareggio,  with  the  shoals  caused  by  the 
deposits  of  the  Arno,  the  shallow  roadstead  of  Leghorn,  op- 
posite which  on  a  rock  rises  the  historic  tower  of  the  Mehiria. 
We  shall  further  notice  Cape  Cavallo,  the  mouth  of  the 
Cccina,  Port  Baratto,  the  promontory  of  Popolonia,  the 
harbor  of  Piomi»ino,  the  large  basin  of  Grosseto,  the  marshy 
coast  of  Plan  d'Alma.  the  (Julf  of  Casligliouc  della  Peseaja, 
the  headland  of  Talamone,  the  fifty-mile  basin  of  Orbetello, 
the  three  picturesque  rockscalled  the  "Ants  "  (  /.<•  Fitnnicht:) 
of  Gropseto,  the  promontory  of  Argcntaro,  with  the  harbors 
of  Santo  Stefano  and  Port"  Ercole.  Following  a  monotonous 
and  somewhat  treacherous  line  of  coast,  we  como  upon  the 
harbor  of  Civita  Veechia,  then  the  headlanil  of  the  Jlari- 
nella  or  Cape  Linaro,  then  Fiumirino  and  the  well-known 
Roman  sea-coast  formed  by  the  ailuviuni  <d' the  Tiber,  the 
Cape  of  Anzo,  the  harbor  of  Neptune,  the  little  promontory 
of  Astura,  Mt.  Cireello  (which,  rising  from  a  low  isthmus, 
looks  like  an  island  when  seen  at  a  distance).  From  Tcr- 
racina  the  Neaj)oiitan  coast  coninicnces  with  the  Gulf  of 
Gaeta.  Cape  della  Rocca,  and  25  miles  farther  to  the  S.  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  the  islands  of  Ischia  and  Capri,  Capes 
Mesa  and  Miscno.  the  Gulf  of  Baia,  the  port  of  Pozzuoli, 
the  rocky  headland  of  Algalone,  that  of  Posilipo,  the  rock 
of  CasteJ  del  I'tivo,  the  harbor  of  Naples,  Castellamare.  and 
Cape  Canipanella,  where  the  Neapolitan  gulf  terminates 
and  that  of  Salerno  begins,  itself  ending  at  Cape  Licosa. 
Next  at  the  S.  E.  we  meet  Capo  Palinoro,  the  promontory 
of  Falconara,  the  Gulf  of  Policastro,  which  terminates  at 
Cape  Servero ;  passing  this,  we  enter  the  Gulf  of  Santa 
Eufcmia.  in  form  a  horseshoe,  the  other  extremity  of  which 
is  Cape  Vaticano.  Then  follows  the  (iulf  of  Gioia,  to  the 
W.  of  which  lie  the  Li])ari  or  Eolian  Islands.  This  gulf, 
measured  from  Cajjc  Vaticano  to  the  promontory  of  Bag- 
nara,  has  an  opening  of  33  miles.  The  part  of  the  Cala- 
brian  coast  most  nearly  approaching  Sicily  is  the  Torre 
del  Cavallo.  Crossing  the  strait,  we  find  ourselves  in  tho 
Ionian  Sea,  having  first  passed  the  famous  rocks  of  Scylla 
and  Charybdis.  Then  coasting  along  Reggio,  wo  round 
the  promontory  of  Pallaro,  Cape  dell'  Armi,  and  Capo 
Spartivento  ;  the  latter  being  passed,  the  shore  curves  cast- 
ward,  forming  the  Gulf  of  Squillace,  which  terminates  at 
Cape  Rizzuto.  With  Cape  dcllc  CoIoniTc  opens  the  vast 
Gulf  of  Taranto,  tcrminatud  by  Cape  Santa  Maria  di  Luca, 
to  the  E.  of  which  we  enter  the  Adriatic.  In  this  sea,  after 
passing  the  deep  inland  harbor  of  Otranto,  the  beautiful 
Bay  of  Brindisi  opens,  and.  fartiier  on,  the  roadstead  of 
Bark'tta  and  the  great  promontory  of  Gargano,  which 
forms  the  spur  of  the  Italian  boot :  then  the  Gulf  of  Man- 
fredonia,  the  port  of  Viesti,  tho  landing  of  Santa  Croce, 
the  rocks  of  Coechiara,  the  mouths  of  the  Pescara  untl  the 
Tronto;  then  the  harbors  of  Ancona,  of  Sinigaglia,  Fani>, 
Pesaro,  Rimini,  Cesenatico.  Cervia,  Ravenna,  Rimaro — all 
small  and  shoaled.  The  valleys  of  Comaeehio,  between  tho 
mouths  of  the  Po  and  the  territory  of  Ravenna,  form  an 
immense  pool.  1G4  miles  in  circuit  and  from  3  to  G  feet  in 
depth,  in  whicli  the  famous  liigoon  fii^hcries  are  carried  on. 
Having  passed  the  many  mouths  of  the  numerous  arms  of 
the  Po,  and  afterwards  of  the  .Adige,  we  reach  the  port  of 
Brondolo,  the  low  shore  of  Chif)ggia,  the  dunes  of  Pales- 
trina,  the  island  and  the  port  of  Malamocco,  and  then  sev- 
eral other  tiinall  harbors,  before  coming  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tagliamcnto.  From  this  point,  as  far  as  Port  Primaro, 
tho  coast-line  skirts  the  morasses  of  Aquileja  and  of  Grado. 
The  inlet  of  Idoba  is  the  mouth  of  the  Isonzo,  N.  of  which 
is  the  port  of  Albcroni,  and  S.  E.  of  this  lies  the  city  of 
Trieste.  The  extreme  southern  point  of  Istria,  Cape  Pro- 
montore. directs  us  into  the  (lulf  of  (^uarnero  and  to  t lie  town 
of  Fiume.  To  coniplete  this  rapid  circumnavigation  of  the 
Italian  coast  shouhl  be  added  the  most  noteworthy  pecu- 
liarities of  the  coasts  of  the  three  principal  islands:  (1st). 
Sict'/tf.  The  three  angles  of  the  Sicilian  triangle  are  termi- 
nated by  the  same  number  of  capes— that  is,  on  the  W.  by 
Cape  Boco  or  Lilibco:  on  the  S.  by  Cape  Passero  or  Pa- 
chino  :  on  the  E.  by  Cape  Faro  or  Pcloro.  The  most  im- 
portant gulfs  are  those  of  Milazzo,  Tindaro,  Termini,  Pa- 
lermo, Castellamare.  Agosta,  and  Catania.  (2d).  Sardinia. 
Capes  St.  Elias,  Pula,  Tavolaro,  Argentara,  Asiuara  are 
noticeable;  the  gulfs  are  those  of  Cagliari,  Palmas,  Oristano, 
Alghero,  the  Aranci ;  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio  separates  it 
from  Corsica.  (3d).  Corsica.  Capes  Corso,  Cannella,  Gar- 
bo  or  Calvi,  Sanguinara  or  Ajaccio,  Negro,  Chizza,  and 
BrogoHno  :  the  gulfs  of  Calvi  and  Ajaccio. 

B  and  C.  Mfniufninn.  Voihifn,  and  Plains. — The  moun- 
tains of  Italy  are  co-ordinated  into  three  distinct  systems: 
I.  The  SffHtem  of  thr  Afp».  This  forms,  beginning  near 
Nice  on  the  Ligurian  Sea,  and  terminating  at  Fiume  on  tho 
Quarnero.  an  uninterrupted  lino  of  about  760  geographical 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  three  main  groups  and  nine  sec- 
tions.    1st  Group  :  the  Western  Alps,  from   S.  to  N.  and 


ITALY. 


13:^1) 


N.  to  Em  from  the  Col  di  Tenda  to  Moot  Blanc,  and  com- 
priainj;  (Sec.  Isl)  the  Marititnc  Alps,  which,  beginning  near 
the  sources  of  the  Tanaro.  extenil,  in  u  course  of  about  94 
miles,  to  Moute  Viso  (12.667  feet).  The  pass  of  the  Col  di 
Tenda  is  SSUO  feet.  Sec.  2d,  (he  Cottiun  Alps,  which  ex- 
tend for  a  line  of  S2  miles  to  Mont  Cenis  |  11,-157  feet ).  The 
Col  of  Monginevra  is  fil  III  feet.  Sec.  3d,  the  Uraian  or 
(jrecian  Alps,  for  a  length  of  62  miles  to  the  Col  du  Bon 
Homme  on  the  Litllo  St.  Bernard  (7ItS5  feet);  the  pass  of 
Munt  Crnis  is  (1772  feet.  The  triangular  knot  of  lofty 
peaks  known  as  the  Grand  Panidis  group,  or  the  Cogne 
Mountain^!.  Iving  between  the  valley  of  the  Oreo,  the  Val 
8avarcinehe,  and  the  pass  of  the  Col  dclhi  Kunva,  may  bo 
regarded  as  an  ofTi^hoot  from  the  tlraian  Alps.  It  con- 
tains the  two  highest  summits  lying  wholly  in  Italy — the 
tirand  Paradis  (  1.1, ."iOO  feet)  and  the  Grivolii  or  Come  de 
Cogne  (  I.'t,02S  feet),  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  beau- 
tiful peaks  in  the  whole  range  of  the  Alps.  2d  Group  :  the 
Central  Alps,  from  the  pass  of  the  Bon  Ilomme  to  the  jieak 
of  the  Tre  Signori  or  Drei-JIerren-Ppitze :  they  conijirise 
(Sec.  4th)  the  Pennine  Alps,  which  include  the  loftiest  sum- 
mits in  Europe,  Mont  Blano  (15,798  feet^.  Monte  Kosn, 
(15,210  feet),  Mont  Cervin,  or  the  Matterhorn  {14.8:t;i). 
Along  their  course  of  62  miles  open  the  passes  of  the  Great 
St.  Bernard  (SI69  feet)  and  the  Siinplnn  {C,:}7b  feet).  Sec. 
5th,  the  Helvetian  or  Lepontinc  Alps,  cxtemling  from  Monte 
Rosa,  for  a  distance  of  55  miles,  to  the  8t.  Bernardino, 
with  the  pass  of  the  same  name  (701 1  feet) :  that  of  the  St. 
Gothard  (6804  feet);  that  of  the  Spliigeu  (6912  feet):  and 
the  Maloja,  overhung  by  a  peak,  11,476  feet  in  heiglit. 
Sec.  6th.  the  Uhetico-Trentino  Alps,  which  from  the  St. 
Bernardino  run  to  the  Picco  dei  Tro  Signori  (10,118  feet), 
to  the  E.  of  the  valley  of  the  Adige,  through  a  course  of 
about  IS7  miles,  including  the  ])asses  of  the  Brenner  (4659 
feet)  and  of  the  Slelvio  (90St5  feel ).  3d  Group  :  the  Eastern 
Alps,  comprising  (Sec.  7th)  the  Noricnn  Alps,  which  extend 
for  35  miles  from  the  Drei-Hcrren-Spitzo  tu  the  Gross- 
(ilockner  (12.769  feet),  but  separating  from  the  first  of 
these  mountains  they  turn  towards  Austria  and  Hungary, 
and  no  longer  belong  to  Italy:  the  pass  of  the  Sominering 
is  4287  feet.  Sec.  8th,  the  Carnican  Alps,  about  7U  miles 
in  length,  beginning  E.  of  Trent  and  terminating  at  the  Col 
di  Tarvi.-,  Sec.  9lh,  the  .Julian  Alps,  for  a  course  of  about 
105  miles,  terminating  at  Fiume.  The  declivities  of  the 
Alps,  while  they  descend  gently  on  the  X.  side,  arc  rocky 
and  precipitous  towards  Ii;ily.  fo  that  while  the  Rhone  has 
a  fall  of  ."(250  feet  in  a  course  of  92  miles,  the  Po  makes  an 
c((ual  descent  in  22  miles.  From  Mont  Blanc  to  the  Tyrol 
400  glaciers  are  counted,  and  the  whole  of  the  vast  chain 
abounds  in  them.  There  are  eorno  not  less  than  from  6  to 
15  miles  in  length  and  from  M  miles  to  2\  miles  in  width, 
with  a  mass  of  iee  16  Ml  feet  dei  p.  The  valleys  of  Aosta 
and  the  Valtelline  only  have  a  longitudinal  direction.  All 
the  other  Italian  Alpine  valleys  are  normal  to  tho  chain. 
There  are  36  of  these  valleys,  through  which  flow  primary 
rivera  or  their  afilueuts.  li.  Thr  Siiufcm  of  tin-  Ap'  mtiucft. 
This  system  separates  itself  from  the  Maritime  Alps  at  tho 
pass  of  Cadiliona:  then,  after  following  a  lino  from  W.  to 
E.,  turns  S.  and  S.  E.,  dividing  the  Peninsula  into  two 
great  slopes,  the  eastern  and  the  western.  The  Apennines 
are  com]ioscil  of  three  groups:  1st,  the  Northern  Apen- 
nines, 182  miles  in  length,  which,  beginning  at  Cadibona, 
skirt  the  Gulf  of  tJenoa,  describing  an  are:  they  are  steep 
and  rocky  towards  tho  sea,  but  decline  gently  towards  the 
N.  on  the  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Po.  au'l  extend  as  far  as 
Mont  Cimone.  Between  tlieseaand  tho  Tuscan  Ajicnniues. 
and  between  the  Magra  and  tho  Serehio,  N.  of  the  Arno, 
rises  an  isolated  groifp  of  mountains,  higher  than  the  prin- 
cipal chain,  which  are  called  tho  Ajiuan  or  Panian  Alps. 
The  loftiest  crests  of  this  section  are  Monte  Corsaglia  (6930 
feet),  and  Monte  i'lmone  (6H90  feet).  2il.  the  Central  Ap- 
ennines. These  begin  at  the  Cimone  and  end  at  the  Velino, 
dividing  Tuscany  from  tho  Emilia,  and  crossing  Cnibria, 
tho  Abruzzi,  and  tho  Samnile  territory,  with  a  preeiftilouB 
descent  towards  tho  Adriatic,  but  a  gentio  iuclinatitm 
towanls  the  Tyrrhene,  and  throwing  out  two  sub-Apen- 
nino  !«purs.  the  Tuscan  and  the  Uonian.  The  highest  peaks 
are  the  (iran  Sasso  (I'ltalta.  or  Monte  Corno,  the  loftiest 
of  the  Apennines  (9;U2  feet).  Mont  Amaro  or  Majella 
(9131  feet),  Monte  Velino  (81S0  feet).  3d.  the  Southern 
Apennines,  which  extend  from  Monte  Velino  to  tho  ex- 
tremity of  Italy,  dividing  ibeuiSelvcfi  into  two  branches,  tho 
western  and  the  eastern.  Their  highest  summits  are  Monte 
Meta  (7S35  feel).  Monte  Pollino  (7070  feet)  These  moun- 
tains are  prolongcti  through  ."^ieily  to  Capes  Lilibco,  Pas- 
scro,  and  Pcloro.  HI.  Thr  S'lrdu-Cnr^irtin  Si/Hem. — This 
chain,  parallel  with  the  Apennines,  culminates  in  the  island 
of  Sardinia  at  Monte  Brunia  di  Spina  (6190  feet),  and  in 
Corsica  at  Monte  Cinio  lOL'IO  feel).  Italy  has  but  a  single 
great  plain,  enclnsed  within  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps 
and  tho  northern  slope  of  tbo  Apounincs,  and  detormiDed 


by  the  course  of  the  Po  and  of  tho  other  rivers  which  flow 
into  the  Adriatic.  In  fertility  of  soil,  in  facility  of  com- 
munication, in  wealth,  in  civilization,  and  in  density  of 
]>opulatiun  this  plain  has  no  rival  in  the  world.  The  tcc- 
on<iary  plains  of  the  Peninsula  are  tho  Tuscan,  the  Konian. 
the  Campauian  (Terra  di  Lavuroj,  and  tho  Tavolicrc  of 
Apulia. 

D.  Lukes. — Tho  lakes  are  divided  into  two  groups — the 
Alpine  and  tho  Apenninc  lakes:  I.  The  Alpine  hnkca. — 
Sujipiied  l)v  the  perpetual  snmvs.  the  glaciers,  and  the  tor- 
rents or  ri^■ers  of  the  great  chain  of  the  Alps,  these  long 
and  tortuous  basins,  if  they  have  not  the  grandiose  and 
Solemn  character  of  the  Swiss  and  Scotch  lakes,  ]iresent  a 
degree  of  beauty  and  grace  which  is  not  to  bo  met  with 
elsewhere.  They  are — 1st,  Lake  Verbano  or  Lake  Mag- 
giorc,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the  Tosa.  of  the  Lake 
of  Orta,  of  the  Maggia,  of  the  Ticino,  of  the  Tresa  (which 
issues  from  Lakes  Ceresio  and  Lugano),  and  the  small 
streams  of  I'artlesio  and  Acquanegra.  which  are  the  outlets 
of  the  lakes  of  Varese.  etc.  It  is  36  miles  in  knglh  and 
of  variable  width,  being  in  many  places  7  or  8  miles  broad. 
Its  greatest  known  depth  is  2624  feet,  and  as  its  surface  is 
640  feet  above  the  sea-level,  its  bed  is  1984  feet  below  that 
level.  Its  abundant  waters  find  their  outlet  through  the 
Tieino,  the  richest  tributary  of  the  Po.  The  famous  IJor- 
romean  Islan<ls  are  in  this  hike.  2d.  Lake  Lario  or  Lake 
Como:  this  lake  receives  through  the  Adcla  the  waters  of 
the  Valtelline,  together  with  (hose  of  the  Mesa  and  of  the 
Liro,  collected  in  the  little  Lake  of  iMczzola,  which  once 
formed  a  J'art  of  the  Lario  until  separated  from  it  by  tho 
deposits  of  tlic  Adda.  It  has  the  form  i»f  a  Y,  with  the 
tail  turned  toward  the  Alps:  its  length  is  30  miles,  with  a 
maximum  width  of  3\  miles.  .Id,  Tho  Benaco  or  Lake  di 
Garda:  this  laUo  receives  (ho  waters  of  (he  Sarca  and  other 
small  streams;  is  45  miles  long  and  froni4\  to  16  broad. 
The  Miucio  flows  out  of  it.  4tli,  Tho  smaller  lakes:  the 
Margozzo  and  the  Lake  of  Orta,  those  of  St.  Bernard  and 
of  Cenis,  that  of  Varese,  the  lakelets  of  Biandrone,  Mo- 
nate,  and  Comabbio :  the  Sebino  or  Lako  of  Iseo,  that  of 
Idro,  etc.  II.  Thr  Apcnnine  Lnkce. — These  arc  almost  all 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  nniy  be  subdivided  into, 
1st,  tho  upper  or  central  Italian  lakes,  which  arc  those  of 
Massaciuceoli,  Bieutina,  Chiusi,  Montepulciano.  and  tho 
larger  ones  of  Trasimeno  or  Perugia,  of  Bolsena,  and  of 
Braeciano.  2d.  tho  lower  or  southern  Italian  lakes.  These 
are  the  Lako  of  Fondi  in  tho  Terra  di  Lavoro.  of  Celano  or 
Fucino  in  the  Abruzzi  (which  Prince  Torlonia  is  now 
draining),  Verauo  or  Lesina,  Luorino,  Aguano,  Averuo, 
Fusaro,  etc. 

E.  RiverH. — The  rivers  of  continental  Italy  are  divided 
into  throe  distinct  groups:  I.  Tributun'cn  of  the  Adriatic. 
— In  tho  upper  basin  of  this  sea  we  find  the  Lvonzo,  which 
marks  tho  extreme  E.  boundary  between  Upper  Italy  and 
Islria;  tho  Corno  (a  name  common  also  to  several  rivers 
flowing  from  tho  Carnican  Alps,  and  emptying  between  tho 
Isonzo  and  tho  Tagliamentol,  which,  i>suing  from  Monte 
Piettino,  Hows  seaward  from  X.  to  S. :  the  Lcinene  aii'l  the 
Livenza,  small  streams  between  the  Tagiiamcnto  and  the 
Piave,  the  latter  of  which  also  rises  in  tho  Carnican  Alps; 
the  Brenia  and  tho  Bucchiglione,  which  rise  in  the  Tren- 
tin<i  and  traverse  tlio  Venetian  lagoons;  the  Adige.  forme<! 
by  the  uuion  of  the  emissaries  of  three  snmll  lakes  at  the 
pass  of  Finisterro  (Ueschen).  and  of  many  rivulets  which 
descend  from  tho  Khetian,  Norican,  and  Carnican  Alps. 
Tho  Tyrolese  call  it  the  Ktsch.  and  it  lioes  not  take  its 
Italian  name  until  below  Botzen,  after  its  confluence  with 
the  Isargo  (  Eisoch  ).  The  Adigo  has  a  course  of  about  2."iO 
miles.  The  Po  (  Padus  or  Eridanus)  is  tho  chief  of  the 
Italian  rivers:  its  length  in  a  straight  line  from  its  source 
to  its  mouth  is  262  miles,  and,  including  its  windings.  330 
miles.  It  takes  its  rise  on  Mon(e  Viso  at  a  height  of  6560 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  it  crosses  Piedmont,  divides 
Lombardy  from  Parnitt.  Moilenn,  and  Ferrara,  then  enters 
Venetia;  at  Serravalle  it  divides  into  two  branches:  the 
principal  arm  (  Po  Maestro)  falls  into  the  Adriatic  28  miles 
S;  of  Venice:  the  <»lber  (Po  <!»  (!oro)  enters  the  sea  15  miles 
farther  to  the  S.  .'^.  W .  The  two  arms  are  about  20  niiles 
in  length,  forming  a  lielta  furrowed  by  secondary  channels 
(Po  della  ToUe,  Po  I>un/ella.  etc.).  By  moans  of  some  of 
these  streams  the  Pu  communicates  on  the  N.  with  tho 
Canal  Bianco,  which  in  its  northern  part  lakes  the  niune 
of  Po  di  Leviint<',  and  to  tho  S.  with  (he  Po  di  \'oInn"'  mid 
with  (ho  po  di  I'riinaro.  At  Turin  the  Pu  is  still  inlerior 
in  size  (o  several  of  i(s  lower  aflluents,  but  after  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Bora  Baltcn.  which  brings  to  it  the  waters 
of  Mont  Blanc,  tt  assumes  imposing  dimensions.  Having 
reeeivi'd  the  .*^e!»ia,  which  brings  with  it  the  waters  of  Monte 
Kofin,  the  Po  begins  to  Hpreiid  itself  over  i(s  own  alluvium, 
branching  out  between  many  islands;  above  Valenra  it 
unites  again   in   a  single  wiiwling  bed,  but  only  to  ramify 

I  ftoew  and  to  form  now  islands  after  roceiviog  the  tribute 


i;}4() 


ITALY. 


of  the  Tanaro;  it  atjiiiu  collects  itself  near  the  mouth  of 
tbo  Tieino  ;  from  tlit-  confluence  of  the  Titlone  till  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Adda  it  once  more  divides  into  separate  chan- 
nels; below  the  Oojlio  its  waters  are  re-collected  within 
narrower  limit«,  and  thus  it  continues  its  course  to  tho  sea. 
Under  ordinary  contiitions.  between  the  Dora  and  the  Ti- 
eino tho  inclination  is  from  19  to  IV2  inches  per  mile;  be- 
tween the  Tieino  and  tho  Adda,  from  16  to  I'J  inches;  be- 
t\vcen  the  Adda  and  tho  OgHo,  from  10  to  Ifi  inches.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Panaro  it  is  rerluced  to  7  inches,  and  in 
its  extreme  lower  course  from  7  to  '^\  inches  per  mile.  At 
its  highest  flood  the  water  rises  near  tho  mouth  of  the  Ti- 
eino 24  feet  above  extreme  low-water  mark  :  near  Piacenza, 
25  feet:  at  Cremona,  I'ft  feet:  at  Casal  Massriore,  21  feet; 
at  Dosolo.  27  feet  :  at  <)sti{;lia.  31  feet;  at  Pnnte  Lai;os- 
curo,  28  feet:  and  at  Polesella.  27*  feet.  The  width  of  tho 
Po  between  the  confluence  of  the  Tieino  and  the  O^Iio  is, 
at  extreme  low  water,  from  'S2S  to  656  feet;  in  the  ordi- 
nary state  of  the  water,  from  6ofl  to  1.300  feet;  at  the 
highest  flood,  from  2600  feet  to  9850  feet.  Tn  its  lower 
course  the  width,  at  low  water,  is  from  32R  to  656  feet;  in 
the  ordinary  ?tato  of  the  water,  from  656  to  084  feet;  at 
the  highest'flood.  from  9>;4  to  4920  feet.  Between  tho  Ti- 
eino and  tho  Oglio  the  Po  is  never  fordablc.  the  depth  of 
the  principal  currr*nt  hein^,  at  low  water,  little  less  than  5 
feet.  Below  tlie  Oj^lio  the  depth  of  tho  main  current,  even 
at  extreme  low  water,  is  never  less  than  5  feet  10  inches. 
From  Turin  to  T'asale  the  river  is  navigable  for  boats  of  8 
metric  quintals  burden  ;  from  Casalo  to  the  Tieino.  for  those 
of  20  quintals:  from  the  Tieino  to  Quatrelle  (160  miles). 
for  vessels  of  1300  quintals;  from  Quatrello  to  the  sea  (64 
miles),  for  vessels  of  900  quintals.  The  waters  of  the  Po 
are  always  turbid  from  the  great  quantity  of  earth,  which 
they  transport — an  effect  especially  due  to  the  (dcanng  of 
the  forests  and  the  brcakin;^  up  of  the  soil.  This  earth 
forms  -g^T^th  of  the  flowin.^  mass.  The  quantity  of  allu- 
vial depo.-*it  at  its  mouth  is  an  annual  volume  of  55,00l»,ll()0 
cubic  metres,  extcndinj";  the  delta  at  a  mean  of  230  feet,  and 
forming  a  flat  which,  iu  tho  progress  of  centuries,  will  fill 
up  th.at  part  of  tlie  sea.  The  tributaries  of  the  Po  are,  on 
the  left,  in  Piedmont — tho  Ohiandono.  Rivosecco.  Chisone, 
Chisola,  Sangone.  Dora  Riparia.  Stura,  Oreo,  Dora  Baltea, 
Scsia,  Agogna :  in  Lombardy — the  Tieino,  Olona,  Larabro, 
Adda,  Oglio,  Mincio;  on  the  right,  in  Piedmont — the 
Bronda,  Rivotorto,  Vraita,  Macra,  Stellone,  Tanaro,  Scri- 
via,  Carone,  Stafl'ora;  in  the  Parmesan  territory — the 
Tidone,  Trcbbia.  Nure.  Arda.  Ongina.  Taro,  Parma,  and 
Enza:  in  the  Modenese — tho  Crostolo,  Secchia,  Panaro;  in 
the  ex-pontifical  provinces — the  Reno.  Idice,  Sillaro,  Lan- 
ternio,  Senio.  Other  smaller  tributaries  of  the  Adriatic 
are — the  Laraonc,  Montone,  Ronco.  8avio.  Rnbiconc,  Ma- 
recchia,  Marauo,  f'onea,  Foglia.  Metauro,  Cesano,  Misa. 
Esino,  Musone,  Potenza,  Chionti.  Tena,  Tesino,  Tronto, 
Vomano,  Pcscara,  Sangro,  Bifermo,  Fortore,  Ofanto.  11. 
Trifmturiei  of  the  Ltuinn  fi^ea. — These  arc  the  small  streams 
of  the  aneient  Lucania,  tho  Bradano,  the  Vascnte,  tho  Sa- 
landrella.  the  Agri,  and  tho  Sinno :  and  of  Calabria,  tho 
Crati  and  the  Neto.  III.  Tn'butarirs  o/thr  Mrditcrranran. 
— Beginning  from  the  W..  the  Var  (swollen  by  the  Tinea 
and  by  the  Vcsubia),  the  PagUoue,  tho  Roja,  tho  Norvia, 
the  Tag^ia,  the  Impero.  the  An<lora,  the  Letimbro,  tho 
Polcpvera,  the  Bisagno,  the  Kntella,  tho  Magra.  the  Ser- 
chio,  the  Arno  (swollen  by  tho  Chiana,  by  the  Sieve,  by 
the  (trcve,  by  the  Orabrono  of  Pistoja,  by  the  Xievale,  by 
the  Pcsa,  by  the  Elsa.  and  by  tho  Era),  tho  Cecina,  the 
Ombrone  of  Siena,  the  Tiber,  the  Liri  or  (^ariffliano,  the 
Volturno,  and  other  smaller  ones.  The  rivers  of  tho  islands 
are — in  Sicily,  tho  Alcantara,  Oiaretta.  Palso.  Platani, 
Beliei,  Termini,  Fiumegrande.  PoUina:  in  Sardinia — the 
Tirso,  Coshinas.  Flumcndosa,  Mannu :  in  Corsica — tho 
Golo,  Tavignano,  Lamone,  (Jravono,  Valinco. 

Grnfnjif  and  Mhtrraifitj//. — ^Few  countries  in  tho  world 
pre!*ent  such  interest  and  variety  to  tho  student  of  geology 
as  Italy.  The  centre  of  tho  Alpino  reirion  is  generally  of 
granite  rock,  often  intermixed  with  schi?to-micaceous.  tal- 
cose,  and  ampliibological  formations,  or  with  calcareous 
formation*!,  most  frequently  saccharoidal.  with  Btra^vs  or 
flakes  of  mica.  The  slopes  are  covered  with  Tertiary 
strata.  The  Apennines,  as  far  as  Calabria,  arc  a  huge 
mass  of  calcareous  and  serpentine  rock  and  of  graywackc, 
upon  which  lie  deposits,  of  considerable  thickness,  from 
the  Jurassic  period,  composed  of  gypsum,  with  beds  of 
sulphur.  Farther  from  the  central  axis  of  the  chain,  upon 
tho  opposite  slopes,  rest  vast  Tertiary  deposits  containing 
many  fossil  shells,  somo  nf  which  arc  identical  or  similar 
to  those  now  living  in  the  Italian  seas.  The  more  southern 
of  the  Apennines  are  composed  of  granite  rock,  covered 
with  secondary  deposits.  The  most  noteworthy  geological 
f''ature  of  Italy  is  its  volcanic  system.  In  the  eastern  part 
of  tho  plain  of  the  Po,  between  the  Adije  and  the  Brentn, 
rises  the  group  of  tho  Euganeau   hills  which,  at  Monte 


Berici,  reunites  itself  to  one  of  the  principal  spurs  of  tho 
Aljis ;  its  highest  peak  is  Monte  Venda,  1920  tVct.  In  tho 
S.  of  Tuscany  is  the  group  of  Santa  Fiora  ;  then  that  of 
Viterbo  and  of  Rome  :  afterwards  those  of  Sant'  Agata,  of 
Rocca  Morfina.  and  of  Naples.  Here  towers  Vesuvius  with 
its  Campi  Flegrei  (  Phlegra'ian  Fields),  tb.e  only  active  vol- 
cano on  tho  European  continent.  But  the  giant  of  the 
Italian  volcanoes  is  Etna  in  Sicily,  lO.S.TO  feet  in  height, 
with  a  base  112  miles  in  circumference.  The  Lipari  or 
Eolian  Islands  .arc  also  volcanic:  among  these  Strombnii 
is  in  perpetual  cru])tion,  intermitting  once  in  fifteen  min- 
utes. Ancient  craters  are  found  throughout  the  whole 
chain  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  territories  of  Arezzo,  Peru- 
gia. Spoleto.  etc.  form  one  of  the  most  notable  examples 
of  broken  surface  which  volcanic  action  ha^  impressed  upon 
the  face  of  our  planet.  Gaseous,  saline,  ami  limous  erup- 
tions also  abound  in  Italy,  as  well  as  thermal  springs.  The 
calcareous  and  metaraorphic  rocks  of  the  Alps  and  Apen- 
nines furnish  the  most  beautiful  marbles;  among  these  we 
may  mention  those  of  the  Viccntino.  (he  sea-green  of  the 
Bocchetta,  the  gold-veined  of  Porfo  Vcnere,  the  statuary 
marble  of  Carrara,  the  jasper  of  Barga,  the  green  marbles 
of  Tuscany,  the  black  of  Pistoja,  the  lajiis-lazuli  and  the 
giallo  of  Siena,  nnd  the  broccatello  of  Piombino.  Wc 
should  notice  also  the  alabaster  of  Volterra.  the  porphyries 
and  rock-crystals  of  Aosta.  the  agates  and  chalcedonies  of 
Tuscany,  the  lavas  and  basalts  of  tho  volcanic  districts, 
tho  sulphur  and  tlie  alum.  Unfortunately,  tho  best  quali- 
ties of  fossil  combustibles  arc  wanting,  but  lignite  and  peat 
are  abundant.  Pozzolaua  ig  foun<l  in  great  quantities  near 
Rome  and  Naples:  iron  also  in  many  places,  and  especially 
in  the  island  of  Elba;  lead  and  galena  in  Sardinia:  fossil 
salt  in  various  places;  also  thin  veins  of  gold,  silver,  mer- 
cury, zinc,  antimony,  etc. 

Climnte. — Local  conditions  with  regard  to  altitude,  posi- 
tion, and  proximity  to  the  sea  have  more  influence  than 
latitude  in  determining  the  annual  isothermal  lines  and 
the  range  of  the  monthly  means  of  temperature  in  Italy. 
In  gener.al.  the  coldest  month  is  January — tho  thermometer 
sometimes  falling  to  .3.2°  above  zero  of  Fahrenheit  at  Mon- 
calieri  near  Turin,  and  to  zero  F.  at  that  city,  to  14°  above 
zero  atUrbino,  to  15. s*'  at  Perugia,  to  26.6°  at  Catanzaro — 
and  the  warmest  month  is  July,  tho  thermometer  rising  to 
97°  F.  at  Lugano,  to  90°  at  Moncalicri,  to  92°  at  Urbino, 
and  to  93°  at  Catanzaro.  In  Northern  Italy  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  month  of  April  is  a  little  above  the  an- 
nual mean,  and  in  October  a  little  below,  while  in  Central 
and  Southern  Italy  tho  case  is  reversed — that  is,  the  mean 
of  October  is  a  little  above,  and  the  mean  of  April  a  little 
below,  the  annual  mean.  If  wc  compare  certain  extreme 
points,  we  shall  find  at  Udino  (lat.  46°  3')  the  annual 
mean  is  about  56°  F. :  at  Syracuse  (hit.  39°  3'1,  about 
65°.  Observing  certain  middle  stations,  wo  find  at  Genoa 
(lat.  44°  25'),  as  annual  mean,  61°:  at  Florence  (lat.  43° 
16'),  annual  mean,  59^°;  at  Bologna  (lat.  44°  30'),  annual 
mean,  d'A^.  At  intermediate  stations  between  the  means 
and  tho  extremes  we  have,  at  Milan  (lat.  45°  28'),  an 
annual  mean  of  56.6°;  at  Venice  (lat.  45°  25').  an  an- 
nual mean  of  56°:  at  Rome  (lat.  41°  53').  annual  mean, 
60°:  at  Naples  (hit.  40°  52'),  annual  mean,  61.5°.  Tho 
isochimenal  lines  of  those  stations  which,  like  Alexandria, 
Turin,  Pavia,  Milan,  (luastalla,  and  Modena.  are  situated 
near  tho  longitudinal  axis,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
of  the  po.  are  mueli  more  depressed  than  the  more  northern 
but  better  sheltered  positions  of  Aosta,  Biella,  Lugano,  and 
Udiue.  Although  (liffcring  widely  in  latitude,  there  is  a 
close  approximation  in  the  mean  winter  temperature  be- 
tween Chiogiria  and  Urbino,  betweert  Rome  and  Leghorn, 
(icnoa  and  Naples,  San  Remo  and  Catanzaro.  The  iso- 
thermal lines  of  the  above-mentioned  places,  lying  along 
the  axis  of  tho  valley  of  the  Po,  are  more  elevated  than 
thoso  of  the  maritime  districts  of  Liguria  and  Tuscany; 
Genoa  has  the  summer  mean  of  Naples,  Palermo  that  of 
Anc(ma.  The  barometric  pressure  is  in  direct  ratio  with 
the  latitude.  It  is  at  its  maximum  in  winter,  at  its  mini- 
mum in  tho  spring,  being  in  summer  a  little  below  the  an- 
nual mean,  and  in  the  autumn  above  it.  The  maximum 
of  tho  raean  monthly  pressure  falls  in  February,  and  tho 
minimum  suddenly  follows  in  March.  Except  in  cases  of 
violent  perturbations  tho  prespuro  continues  to  diminish 
from  nine  in  the  morning  till  three  in  tho  afternoon:  tho 
difference  is  less  in  winter  than  in  summer,  less  in  the  N. 
than  in  the  S.,  less  near  the  sea  than  inland.  The  quantity 
of  water  falling  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow  is  greatest 
iu  the  Priralpine  districts — Biclla,  41.11  inches;  Lugano. 
63.2  inches:  Udine.  50.78  inches.  At  tho  more  elevated 
stations — Urbino,  39.8  inches;  Pcrutjia.  39  inches;  Mon- 
dovi,  34.9  inches:  and  in  some  of  the  bays  formed  by  tho 
lofty  chains,  where  the  sea-winds  meet  and  discharge  them- 
selves of  their  vapiprs — Genoa,  52.8;  Florence,  49.2;  at 
Naples,  34.7.     The  most  rainy  season  is  the  autumn,  espc- 


ITALY. 


1341 


cially  October.     The  driest  months  are,  in  winter,  January 
and  February;  in  summer,  Jtilv.     In  the  X.  nnd  in  tlic  in- 
terior it  niius  more  in  tlie  jfumnier  than  in  the  winter:  the 
reverse  is  true  on  the  sea-coa^;t  and  in  the  S.    In  the  moun- 
tainous regions  during  October  and  Noven)i)cr  heavy  ruins 
sometimes   fall    in    the  course  of   a  tew  days,  producinij 
disastrous  inundations.     In  Oct.,  1S72.  there  was  a  rainfall 
at  Domodossola  of  .^4.2  inches:  at  liiella,  of  2J.5  inches  ; 
at  Genoa,  2s  inches;  at  I'lorence.  10  inclies.     In  January, 
and  in  the  winter  ;;pnerully.  the  sky  is  stunewhat  more  cov- 
ered than  in  the  other  months,  especially  in  the  valley  of 
the  Po  nnd  in  most  of  tlie  .Apennine  valleys.     'I'lie  jircvail- 
ing  direction  of  the  wind,  although  very  varialile.  is  from 
the  seashores   toward  the  interior  of  the   Peninsula.     In 
July,  and  in  the  summer  generally,  the  sky  is  clearer  than 
during  the  rest  of  the  year;  the  prevailing  winds,  always 
changeable,  blow  from  inland  toward  the  sea-coasts.     In 
April  the  clearness  of  the  sky  is  somewhat  less  than  the 
annual  mean,  and  is  still  less  in  the  month  of  October,  es- 
jieeially  in  the  great   valley  of  the  Po.     The  direction  of 
the  wind  is  most  variable  in  the  spring  and  in  the  autumn. 
Pi'Bi.ic  E(>iNi»MV.    A.  Affrirultiirc. — There  are  three  great 
distinctive  agricultural  districts  in  Italy:  (1)  The   plain 
of  (he  Po — very  fertile,  with  regular  au'l  systematic  culti- 
vation ;  (2)  the  declivities  and  valleys  of  the  .Aponnines, 
on  the  two  slopes  of  the  Peninsula — tho  region  of  the  olive  ; 
(;t)  the  pasture-lands,  which,  in  their  turn,  arc  subdivided 
into  alpine  pastures  and  the  pastures  of  tho  plains;  in  the 
latter  the  grass-binds  are  often  interspersed  with  rice-fields 
an<i    marshes,  tho    malaria    from    which    depopuhifes    tho 
country.     This  is  especially  true  of  the  rich  lands  of  Lom- 
hardy,  of  the  Roman  Campagnn.  the  Pimtino  Marshes,  and 
of  Sardinia.     The  productivity  of  the  soil  might  be  greatly 
increased  if  the  agricultural  methods  and  tools  em])loyed 
were  less  antiquated,  aixl  if  the  whole  country  would  keep 
pace  with  the  |)rogrcss  already  made   in    l,oml)ardy  and 
Piedmont.     Of  tho  ri,(j:)0,OUO  acres  which  form  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  .19,280,000  are  classed  as  productive,  the  rest 
as  barren.     Two-fifths,  or  27,170,0(10  acres,  consist  of  arable 
land,  with  or  without  the  vine;  o,40f<,000  of  natural   or 
arlilicial  meadow;  420, 000  of  rice-lands;  l,2:i.'i,000  of  thp 
olivo;  1.2:i.0,OnO  of  the  chestnut;  12,350,000  of  forest ;  and 
more  than  1 2, 3.>O,O0O  of  pasture-ground.     The  annual  pro- 
duce of    cereals    is    about    21O,Ui0,OO0    bushels  —  wheat, 
lon.7S4,0O0:  maize.  ■10,700.000;  rye.  7,052,000  ;  barley  and 
oats,  23,004,000  ;  rice,  4,144.000, '  In  abundant  year's  tho 
supply  exceeds  the  consumption,  in   average  years  it  is 
hardly  equal  to  it,  and  in  years  of  scarcity  falls  short  by  aliout 
one  tenth.     To  this,  however,  should  be  adilcd    15,:i,'iC,000 
bushels  of  chestnuts,  27,224,000  bufbels  of  potatoes,  and 
1  l,92S,0O0  bushels  of  vegetables.     The  products  which  have 
the  most  commercial  importance  arc — silk,  valued  at  aliout 
.$i!l!,000,000 ;  wine,  amounting  to  about    7SO,noo,000   gal- 
lons (in  .'^icily  to  20.s,000,000  ;  in  Emilia,  i:iO,IIOO,000  ;  in 
Piedmont,  130,000,000;  in  Venice,  52,000,000;   in  I'mliria, 
.■.2,000,000;  in  .\aplcs,  52,000,000:  in  Lombardv  and  tho 
Marches.  05,000,000;  in  Tuscany,  ,",0,000,0110  ;  i|,  the  Ilo- 
magna,  20,000,000;  in  Sardinia,'2O,OOO,0O0) ;  oil  amount- 
ing to  more  than  :;0,50O,nO0  gallons  (12.224,000  in  S,  con- 
tinental Italy:  in  Sicily,  0,112,000;  in  Ligurin,  5,34R,000 ; 
in  Tuscany,  3.050,000;    in  tho    Kmilia  and  tho  Marches, 
1,52S,000;  in  I.ombar.ly,  1,1  10,000;  in  .Sardinia,  1, 140,000]. 
Tho  hemp  produced  amounts  to  about  50,000  tons.     Dur- 
ing the  .\merican  war  of  secession  the  high  price  of  cotton 
led  to  its  cultivation,  and   about   325,000  metric  quintals 
were  annually  produced,  but  it   proved    an    unsuccessful 
speculation,     T<»bacco,  cultivated  in   .Sardinia,  Sicily,  tho 
.Marches,  and  in  tho  neigbburhooil  of  Vieen/.a,  yields  about 
150,000    metric    quintals.     Oranges,   lemons,  citrons,   and 
other  fruits,  both  dried  nncl  fresh,  arc  exported.     Among 
tho  animal  products,  besides  tho  Bilkvvurm,  the  butter  and 
cheese  arc  valueil  at  not  less  than  S15.0»0,000.     Caitlo  do 
not  abouncl  in   Italy.     The  sh<;ep  and  goats  are  rcek.mcd 
at  12,000,000;  tho  I'dack  cattle  or  oxen  at  3,700.000  ;  horses, 
mules,  etc.,  at  1,400,000  ;  and  tho  swine  at  4,000,000. 

B.  Mtitiii/ticiiirrt, — ^Tn  Northern  Italy  noteworthy  prog- 
ress has  been  mnd<'  ill  mtiliufacttircs  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years.  The  great  imluslries  are — (I)  silk,  which  rep- 
resents a  production  of  $20,000,000  lor  spun  silk  alone,  in- 
dependently of  tissues,  among  which  velvet  Is  conspicuous, 
that  of  (ienoa  being  very  celebrated:  (2|  woolUn  manu- 
factures, of  which  lliero  are  important  establishments  in 
Piedmont  (.'specially  at  liiellai  nii.l  in  Venetian  I.oinbardy 
(ohiefly  at  .Scliio)  to  an  annual  amount  of  $13,200,000;  (3) 
cotton  maniifacttires,  very  nourishing  in  Liguria,  Piedmont, 
I.oinbardy,  an. I  Friuli,  producing  spun  cotton  t.i  the  amount 
of  $7, 000,000.  andcotlimeloth  to  thoamount  of  $10,000,000, 
The  straw  industry  (chietly  straw  hats)  is  very  prosperous 
in  Tuscany.  The  agricultural  manufactures,  tho  wines 
above  all,  admit  of  much  further  improvoinent,  Tho  artistic 
or  losthotic  manufactures  arc  thosofor  irbich  Italy  is  espe- 


cially distinguished  abroad— the  filigree  of  Genoa,  the 
glass  and  beads  of  Venice,  the  coral  of  Naples  and  of  Leg- 
horn, the  wrought  marbles  of  Carrara  andof  Lucca,  the  per- 
fumery of  Tuscany,  paper,  h:its,  gloves,  etc.  One  of  the 
most  nourishing  indusiries  is  that  of  uaval  constructiciii, 
particularly  in  Liguria.  where  the  traditional  skill  of  Ilie 
fhipbuihlers  is  now  aided  and  improved  by  gooil  special 
schools,  and  above  all  by  the  Technical  and  Nauticol  In- 
stitute of  Genoa  and  the  excellent  high  school  of  the  same 
city.  Tho  number  of  ships  launched  in  1800  was  198;  in 
1870,  803;  in  1S72.  724;  and  the  average  tonnage,  which 
was  99  in  ISGO,  rose  to  142  in  1S72.  There  are  now  (1874 
-75)  in  process  of  construction  at  15  shijiyards  in  Liguria 
103  large  vessels — .some  for  English,  French,  nnd  Nor- 
wegian traders — of  a  total  tonnage  of  107,900,  the  average 
per  ship  being  ltl57  tons, 

C,  Cnmmcrce  tiiid  Knviiiation.—lhc  balance  of  trade  in 
Italy,  though  improving,  is  not  yet  what  it  may  and  ought 
to  be.  With  an  importation  of  $187,200.1100  in  1809.  the 
exportation  was  only  $174,800,000.  Increasing  gradually, 
the  exports  in  1872  (the  date  of  the  latest  official  statistics) 
had  risen  to  $281,220,223,  but  the  iniportatiim  amounted 
to  $237,802,205.  Tho  commercial  marine  in  ISOS  consisted 
of  17,845  sailing  vessels  of  all  dimensions,  with  a  tonnage 
of  859,387;  101  steamboats  of  23,437  tonnage— total  ton- 
nage, 884,814,  of  which  onc-h;ilf  was  the  property  of  Li- 
guria, Now  (1874-75)  Italy  numbers  4220  sailing  vessels, 
averaging  more  than  50  tons  each,  with  a  total  of  1.120,032 
tons,  and  occupying  in  this  respect  the  fourth  rank,  being 
surpassed  only  by  England,  the  U,  S,,  and  Norway,  and 
being  superior  to  France,  who.so  sailing  tonnngo  is  only 
868,659,  Italy  has  at  present  103  steamers  (85,045  tons), 
occupying  the  sixth  rank. 

D.  Ciinah  and  Rnadn. — Tho  canals  of  Italy,  navigable 
as  well  as  for  irrigation,  have  been  her  boast  from  ancient 
times.  Tho  [.rincijial  of  these  are  in  tho  valley  of  the  Po. 
Tho  total  length  ot  the  navigable  canals  is  435  miles,  Tho 
most  important  are — the  Canal  Cavour,  in  Piedmont,  which, 
supplied  from  tho  Po,  begins  at  Chivasso  and  terminates 
at  Turbiga,  a  distance  of  52  miles  ;  in  Lombardy,  the  Grand 
Canal,  supplied  from  tho  Tic-ino  near  Tornavento,  and 
passing  through  Abbiategrasso;  tho  canal  of  Pavia.  also 
supplied  from  tho  Ticino.  nnd  passing  through  liiiiasco; 
the  canal  of  Martcsana,  which,  from  Milan  through  Gor- 
gonzola,  leads  to  Cassano  on  the  Adda.  The  province  of 
Polesina  in  Venice,  and  that  of  Padua,  have  an  excellent 
canal  system.  The  Emilia,  too,  is  well  eupjilicd  wiili  tbcni. 
The  canal  of  Pesein,  that  of  Pisa,  ami  tho  canal  of  Ombrono 
arc  in  Tuscany.  In  Southern  Italy  the  emissary,  executed 
by  Prince  Torlonia,  for  draining  the  Lake  Fucino  or  Cc- 
Inno,  and  thus  restoring  to  cultivation  42,000  acres  of  land, 
is  most  noteworthy.  (See  article  Fl  cixn.)  The  coinmuiial 
high-roads  have  a  total  length  of  01.221  miles:  the  pro- 
vincial roads,  12,373  miles;  the  national  roads,  3970  miles. 
The  t.dul  length  is  77,590  miles. 

Jtriilwitijs. —  In  1873  there  wcro  in  operation  4154  miles 
of  railroad,  thus  divided: 

Piedmont.  Liguria,  Lombardy,  and  Venice 15.">n miles. 

Tuscany,  Emilia,  the  Marches,  I'lnbria,  and  the  Ro- 

nmn  jirovinces i3n:{     " 

Neapolitan  provinces 903     " 

Sicilv 206      " 

Sardinia 82     •< 

In  tho  year  1874  tho  number  of  miles  of  railway  ha.l  in- 
creased to  4372. 

Pont-Officcf  nnd  Ttlci/raplia. — Postal  activity,  a  convin- 
cing ovirlenco  of  advance  in  public  instruction,  is  constantly 
on  tho  increase.  It  has  more  than  doublcii  in  ten  years.  In 
I8G2  the  corrcspon.l.'nco  whi.di  circulated  in  the  country 
amounteil  to  111,733,319  Icttirs;  in  1872,  to  232,242.072, 
an  increase  of  120,509,.I58.  In  the  lirst  nine  months  of  tho 
year  1874  tho  tclcgraphio  despatches  numbered  14,005,000, 

GoiH-rnriicnt  find  /*nf>fio  /nititufinni*. — Till'  government  of 
Italy  is  a  const  ititti.inal  monarchy,  with  a  senate  iijipoiiited 
for  life,  nn.l  a  chamber  of  508  deputies,  elcctiil  by  a  free 
anil  bniail  siilTrage.  Tho  most  entire  freedom  of  tiic  press 
and  the  right  of  association  is  secured.  The  prefects  or 
governors  of  the  |>rovinces.  and  the  syn.lics  or  mayors  of 
tho  towns,  are  goviriiiiicnt  appointees:  otherwise  the  ebct- 
ive  system  generally  prevails  in  all  the  institutions  of  the 
adlninistrativo  hiernrehy.  commiiiinl  ns  well  as  provincial, 
Tlio  only  hiiideranco  to  the  perfect  working  of  the  political 
organisation  has  been,  thus  far.  the  linniieial  dclleit  pro- 
duced by  the  vicissitudes  of  the  revolution,  bv  military  ex- 
penses, and  by  the  construction  of  tho  railways,  "liut, 
thanks  to  the  praiseworthy  cITorls  of  tho  government  and 
tho  country,  even  this  evil  is  in  tho  way  of  a  speedy  cure, 
and  the  deficit,  which  had  already  amounted  to  mot-c  than 
$92,000,000,  is  reduced  in  tho  balance  for  1875  to  about 
$0,000,000. 

AJmimtlralion  of  Jiittiee At  tho  foot  of  tho  Italian 


1342 


ITALY. 


magistracy  stand  the  conciliatory  judf^es,  who  perform  the 
double  office  ol"  conciliating  litigants  and  of  deciding  small 
disputes  involving  an  nmount  not  exceeding  ?6.  In  l'^72 
thoy  settled  more  than  700,0(10  controvcreies.  The  prwtor?, 
1811  in  nuiu'ier.  have  jurisdiction  of  offences  pnnishahle 
with  imprisonment  not  exceeding  three  months  imd  l>y 
fines  not  exceeding  $nO.  In  1872  tht-y  tried  29iMM2  in- 
dividuals. The  priotors  also  decide  civil  questions  not 
involving  more  than  $;J00,  and  in  1S72  they  gave  IfiO.fiHt 
judgments  of  this  kind.  The  tribunals  take  cognizance, 
on  appeal,  of  questions  civil,  commercial,  and  penal  dc- 
ciilod  by  the  prajtors,  and  they  have  original  juris<liftion 
of  all  matters  not  belonging  to  the  conciliatory  judges  and 
to  (he  prwtors  (they  have,  however,  no  authority  in  com- 
mercial questions  in  those  towns  where  there  is  a  proper 
tribunal  of  commerce),  and  they  also  decide  questions  of 
C'lrrectional  police.  There  are  lfi2  tribunals,  which  in 
1S72  pronotiniMMi  2U*>  judgments.  From  the  sentence  of 
the  tribunals  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  courts  of  appeal. 
and  from  these,  when  it  is  a  question  of  law,  to  the  courts 
of  cassation.  The  system  of  juries  before  the  courts  of 
assize  has  not  thus  far  given  satisfactory  results. 

E'/iirntiun  nnfi  fnttnicfjnn. — The  ministry  of  public  in- 
struction appropriates,  for  the  expenses  of  the  central  ad- 
ministration, for  university  education,  for  secondary,  clas- 
sical, and  technical  instruction,  for  normal  schools,  and  as 
subsidy  for  the  elementary  instruction  about  S.".,r)00,flOO ; 
the  communes  provide  for  the  primary  teachin-jr,  the  min- 
istry of  agriculture  ami  commerce  for  the  higher  technical 
instruction,  and  the  various  bureaux  for  special  instruction. 
The  municipal  elomcntarv  day  schools  aro  .3-^,2! II  in  num- 
ber (18.24:i  for  boys,  12,7:^2  for  girls,  3238  mixed).  Add- 
ing 91  fi7  private  schools,  we  have  a  total  of  43,380,  or  of  one 
school  to  020  inhabitants.  But  though  that  is  the  general 
mean,  the  distribution  of  the  schools  is  very  unequal,  they 
being  much  more  numerous  in  the  N.  than  in  the  S.  Thus, 
in  the  province  of  Turin  there  is  one  school  for  every  Zbo 
inhabitants;  in  Calabria,  only  one  for  1400.  Elementary 
instruction  is  obliiratorv  and  gratuitous.  The  pupils  in- 
scribed were— in  is61-62,  1,008,074;  1SG3-64.  1,178,743; 
ISfi.S-riG.  1.217,870;  1807-08.1.329,307:  1800-70,1.577,654; 
1871-72,  1,745,467,  or  0.00  per  100  inhabitants.  To  these 
numbers  should  be  added  375,917  attou'lants  on  the  night 
schools,  and  153,522  on  holidays.  The  proportion  of  the 
population,  without  distinction  of  age.  who  could  not  read, 
was  in  ISGl,  7!*.29  ;  at  the  last  census  (1S71)  the  proportion 
was  73.20.  The  normal  schools  train,  in  a  course  of  three 
years,  the  masters  and  mistresses;  they  aro  frequented  by 
more  than  0(H)0  pupils.  The  largo  towns  have  female  high 
schools,  not  gratuitous,  for  the  superior  education  of  girls. 
National  lioanling  c<tlleges,  several  female  conservatories, 
many  private,  and  not  a  few  clerical  establishments,  receive 
boarding  pupils.  The  preparatory  classical  instruction  is 
given  in  gymnasiums  and  lyceuras.  There  are  HU  national 
gymnasiums,  with  8208  students;  79  royal  lyceums,  with 
3773  students  :  besides  various  communal  and  private  gym- 
nasiums. The  government  technical  schools,  in  which  pre- 
paratory professional  instruction  is  given,  arc  G3.  with  6188 
pupils.  Technical  instruction  of  the  second  grade  is  ac- 
quired in  72  technical  institutes,  with  1 171  pupils.  In  these, 
after  a  biennial  course  of  general  culture,  there  are  f(uir  sec- 
tions^thc  physico-mathematical,  the  commercial,  the  agro- 
nomical, and  t!ie  industrial.  There  arc  also  schools  for  the 
arts  and  trades  (designed  for  the  operatives  ancl  overseers 
in  manufactories),  10  royal  mercantile  marine  institutes  (in 
which  ship-captains,  naval  const  mentors,  and  steam -en - 
ginccra  are  trained),  and  14  nautical  schools.  Five  high 
schools — a  naval  school  at  (Jcnoa,  very  flourishing;  a  com- 
mercial schocd  at  Venice ;  an  industrial  school  at  Turin  ; 
and  two  agricultural  schools,  one  at  ]\Iilan  and  one  at  Por- 
tici — complete  the  technical  instruction.  There  ore  17  uni- 
versities (not  including  three  free  universities),  with  6423 
students;  3  superior  practical  institutions  for  engineers, 
and  2  for  other  branches  of  literary  and  scientific  etilture. 
Besides  many  town  collections,  theri'  are  33  public  libraries, 
the  most  valuable  of  which  is  the  Magliabccchiana  at  Flor- 
ence, with  280,000  printed  volumes  and  1  1,000  manuscripts. 
We  have  not  space  to  speak  of  the  archives,  of  the  musical 
institutes,  of  the  academies  and  galleries  of  art,  so  justly 
cclcbraled  throughout  the  world. 

Chnri(nUr  f»xti(>,tiui,>i.^Thorc  arc  in  Italy  20.123  char- 
itable institutions,  representing  a  total  annual  expenditure 
of  $17,175,088.  Among  these  are  055  hospitals,  which  re- 
ceive 199,000  persons,  at  an  annual  expense  of  $5,054,169. 
The  other  charitable  institutions  are — -asylums  and  ponr- 
hous^s,  expending  $5,762,945  :  loaning  institutions,  advan- 
cing $831,655  ;  other  modes  of  relief  require  an  annual  out- 
lay of  $2,804,882.  For  religious  worship,  etc.,  .*1, 822,037, 
Armi/  and  Xavi/. — The  Italian  army,  according  to  the 
nPRcial  tables,  is  composed  of  670,877  men,  and  is  thus 
divided ; 


(1)  The  standing  armv: 

Line  infantry .". 199,886 

District  militia 18S.774 

Bcrsaglieri 30,758 

Cavalry 24.:i5.5 

Artillery 49fifi7 

Engineers 6.280 

Carabinieri 20,071 

Special  corps  and  organizations 9,484 

Officers  in  active  service 11.488 

"         stationary    " 2,080 

"         waitintr  orders  or  retired 419 — .543,432 

(2)  Provincial  militia: 

District  militia 131,121 

Rersaglicvi 3,5.tI 

Emrineers 1,033 

Officers 740—130.44.5 

Total 679.877 

The  navy  is  in  process  of  transformation,  and  the  present 
able  minister,  Saint  Bon,  has  made  a  proposal  to  Parlia- 
ment (which  will  be  probably  acceded  to)  to  sell  a  large 
number  of  ships  of  war  now  become  unserviceable.  The 
navy  at  present  consists  of  14  iron-clads,  8  of  which 
aro  small  vessels,  altogether  of  200  guns  and  5700  horse- 
power; 22  screw  steamers;  25  side-whoel  steamers;  8  sail- 
ing ships  and  other  smaller  vessels  ;  the  total  number  being 
91,  with  an  armament  of  1139  guns.  According  to  the  new 
plan,  the  naval  force  will  be  regulated  as  follows  : 
Ships  j'12  large  iron-clads  to  serve  to  form  squadrons; 

of     •<     6  iron-clad  steamers  for  coast  defence; 
war.    i  12  screw  gunboats. 
Vessels  for  the  protec-  (  10  station  corvettes  (also  screw) ; 

tion  of  trade  and       <  4  cruising  vessels; 

other  services.  (    S  smaller  vessels. 

(    7  lookout  and  despatch  steamers; 
Accessories.  ■<     6  transport-steamers  ; 
[    8  tugs. 

IfiSTonY. — Of  all  histories,  that  of  Italy  is  perhaps  the 
most  difficult  to  compress,  every  city  having  its  own  special 
and  illustrious  story,  and  the  histories  of  all  the  nations  of 
Europe  converging  into  that  of  this  peninsula.  It  may  be 
divided  into  four  great  periods  :  I.  Cojiqitfut  anrf  F*nda/i8ni. 
— The  barbarians,  having  passed  the  confines  of  the  empire, 
had  entered  into  Italy:  under  Alaric  they  had  sacked 
Bomc :  under  Attila  they  had  destroyed  Aquilcia.  the  fugi- 
tives from  which  founded  Venice  ;  under  Odoacer  they  had 
put  an  end  to  the  empire  (476),  but  Theodorie,  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  came  from  the  Danube  (489),  vanquished  Odo- 
acer in  thelsonzo,  then  at  ^Vrona.  slew  him  at  Ravenna, 
and  founded  (493)  a  glorious  monarchy,  although  it  was 
stained  by  the  blood  of  Boctius  and  Pymmnchus.  and  soon 
broken  up  by  the  Orccks  umlcr  Beiisarius  and  Xarsetes 
(553).  I'nder  Alboin  the  Lombards  descendecl  from  Pan- 
nonia  (Hungary),  and  established  the  most  lasting  govern- 
ment which  had  existed  in  Italy  (568-774).  But  coming 
in  contact  with  papal  pride,  they  in  vain  sought  to  appease 
it  by  concession  an<l  largess.  Piiinmoncd  first  by  Gregory 
in.,  then  by  Ptcphen  II..  the  French  came  intfi  Italy  under 
Pepin,  who  founded  the  State  of  the  Church  (754)  ;  then, 
invited  by  Adrian  I.,  Charlemagne  made  war  upon  the 
Tiombnrds  under  Desiderius,  and  put  an  end  to  their  king- 
rbimf771l.  In  800.  Charlemagne  was  elected  emjieror  of 
thn  Bonians  and  crowned  by  the  pope.  But  this  restoration 
of  the  Roman  empire  was  only  apparent,  as  the  vitality  of 
the  new  Civsarism  was  not  Roman,  but  Oerman  and  theo- 
cratic, and,  to  use  the  expression  of  (iregorovius.  the  Church 
was  tho  real  "kingdom  of  God  upon  earth'* — tlic  cmi'irc 
was  but  the  civil  form;  that  was  the  soul,  this  but  the 
Catholic  body.  It  was  no  longer  Roman  laws,  but  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  Church,  which  formed  the  solid  structure 
and  the  bond  of  union  between  the  Western  nutiuns.  and 
which  constituted  them  into  so  many  Christian  communi- 
ties, at  tho  bcatl  of  which  there  was  one  mind — that  of  a 
single  pope  ;  and  one  sword — that  of  a  single  emperor. 
Tho  idea  could  not  be  realized,  because  the  two  elements 
which  were  to  carry  it  out  soon  fell  into  discord.  Charle- 
magne being  dead  (814).  his  weak  successors  were  unable 
to  restrain  the  nobles  and  the  clcriry.  and  the  feudal  system 
was  allowed  to  develop  itself.  Italy  was  first  under  the 
rule  of  Rernnrd.  nephew  of  the  great  emperor,  then  of 
I.nuis.  then  of  Lothair,  then  of  Louis  II..  then  of  Charles 
11.  the  Bald,  then  of  Carlomnn.  and  finally  of  Charles  the 
Fat  f  870-888).  On  the  dethronement  of  this  last  sovereign 
five  or  six  Italian  feudal  lords  laid  claim  to  the  power,  but 
Berengarius  I.,  marquis  of  Friuli.  prevailed  over  the  rest 
(894),  Under  bis  reign,  that  of  Hugh,  duke  of  Provence 
(926),  and  that  of  Berengarius  TI..  bud  of  Ivrea,  Italy 
passed  through  one  of  the  most  unhappy  periods  of  her 
history,  being  desolated  by  civil  wars,  by  invasions  from 
Tlnngary  and  from  the  Saracens,  by  corruption,  and  by 
barbarism.  II.  Thr  CnvimuveH  nnd  the  lirpuUim. — Otho  I. 
came  to  the  throne  (962)  with  three  great  ideas,  all  favor- 
able to  Italy:  to  reduce  the  number  and  the  authority  of 


ITALY. 


1343 


the  vassal   nobles;  (o  favor  tho  growth  of  tho  ciiies,  the 
towns,  and  the  municipnl  mitliority  :  to  diminish  the  papal 
power — not,  imleej  (n».  unhappily,  the  later  I, dinhnrtls  had 
done),  by  usurpiii;^  the  territory,  but   by  underniiuin^^  its 
moral  influence,  and  by  taking  part  biniself  in  the  pontif- 
ical cleetions.     The  conininncs  profited  by  this  disposition. 
and  first  of  all  (he  maritime  towns  (Amalli.  Pisa.  Genoa, 
Venice),  to  or^janize  a  free  government.     The  liitter  con- 
flicts between  the  ])apaey  anti  the  empire  having  reached 
their  height  under  (Jregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV.  (107^5-85), 
broii'^ht  upon  Italy  the  curse  of  the  (fuelph  and  (Thibellino 
faetitins.  the  White  and  the  iJIaek,  ote. ;  as  a  last  conse- 
quence, however,  they  proved  favorable  to  the  development 
of  that  republican  spirit  which  tlie  two  principal    rivals 
couM  not  suc'-eed  in  dominatin;;.     Among  other  po^verful 
causes  of  tho  aggrandizement  of  tho  free  communes  were 
the  Crusades,  which,  unsucce>^sful  as  religious  an<l  political 
enterprises,  excited  immense  maritime  and  commercial  ac- 
tivity.   Representing  the  imperial  principle  against  repub- 
licanism, Frederick  Barbarossa descended  into  Italy  (1  ITjI). 
besieged  and  took  Tortona,  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  in 
Pavia,  assisted  Pope  Adrian  to  eru-^h  Arnobl  of  lirescia, 
received  in  reward  the  imperial  erown,  and  rcturiifl  into 
Germany.     Itut  tho  pope  soon  broke  away  t'rom   the  im- 
perial alliance,  and  Frederick  crossed  the  Alps  again  ( 1 158), 
took  Brescia,  besieged  Milan  for  the  first  time,  established 
his  authority  under  tho  name  of  pofictil  in  every  province, 
treated   Crema   with    great   severity,  and    besieged   Milan 
anew  and  razed  it  to  the  ground  (\ic>2).     Against  this  bar- 
barity the  (luelph  cities  solemnly  eonclnded,  at  Pontida, 
the    Lombar'l    League.      Frederick,    returning,    assaulted 
Alexandria,  and  met  the  confederates  at   Tiignano,  where 
tho  Italians  (chiefly   through  the   valor  of  tlie   Milanese, 
hearlcd  by  their  carrorn'o,  or  great  war-chariot)  defeated 
the  imperial  host  in  a  great  battle.  The  peace  of  Constance 
(June  25,  Ils^t)  confirmed  the  triumph  of  the  free  cities, 
which  were  thereafter  governed  by  two  consuls,  who  were  to 
receive  (heir  investiture  fr')m  the  emperor,  and  render  him 
feudal  hnmage.   But  in  Southern  Italy  the  republican  spirit 
was  overshailowed.  first  by  the  Xorman  luonarcliy  founded 
by  tho  brave  Roger,  and  then  by  the  Pwabian.   An  illustrious 
and  heroic  desr-endant  of  this  latter  house.  Frederick  II., 
with  the  help  of  !*opo  Innoc-nt  III.,  wrenehrd  the  imperial 
crown  from  Otho  IV. :  but  tho  ambitious  pontilT.  the  fcninder 
of  the    Holy    Inquisition,  soon  nft'-r  turneil   a^rainst  him. 
At  CarloDova,  Frederick  defeated  thoneiv  I-ombard  Lea-ruo 
formed  against  him  at  the  instigation  of  the  pope  (12rJ!)). 
Fred«*rick  dying  in  12.j0,  the  papal  hatred  followed  liisracc, 
nnd  was  never  appeasncl  until  Charles  of  Anjou,  at  the  in- 
vitation of  Pope  i'rban  IV.,  by  the  battles  of  Benevento 
and   Tagliacoz.za,  and   by   the   death   of  Manfn-d   nnd  of 
Conra  line,  put  an  end  to  the  Swabian  dominion  in  Italy 
fl2C(i-fi.S).     The  new   Freneh   rule,  luiwever,  was  of  short 
duration,  and   was  overthrown  partly  by  an  insurrection 
headed  by  .Tobn  of  Proeida,  ami  y<'t  more  by  tho  insolence 
of  the  soldiers  of  Charles,  who  ]irovoI:r(l  nt  Palermo  the 
revolution  of  tho  Si<'ilian  Vespers  ( I2:J2).     Meanwhile,  in- 
ternal discords  were  bringing  ruin  upon  tho  republics  in 
other  parts  of  Italy:  and  the  houses  of  tho  Delia  Torre. 
and   afterwards  of  the  Visconti  of  Milan,  of  the   Kzzelini 
at  Padua,  of  lh  '■  Sealigeri  nt  Verona,  of  the  Pallavieini  in 
other  parts  of  Lombardy,  Imd  aerinired  great  power.     At 
Florence,  the  Buondelmonti  and  the  Auiedei.  at   B(dogna 
Ihi'  (lerernei   and   the  Lambertnzzi.  at  (ienoa  the  (Irimaldi 
and  the  Fiesebi  on  one  si'Je,  the  I»oria  and  tin-  ."^pinola  on 
the  other,    w*rc  in  continual  quarrels,  and   rivalled  each 
Other  in  their  efforls  to  destroy  tho  liberty  of  their  fellow- 
oitizenji.     The  maritime  towns,  in  their  disputes  for  tho 
dominion  of  the  f<ea  and  fur  commercial  superiority,  ruined 
each  other  by  turns.      Pisa  wasted  Ainalfi.  and  in  barium, 
after  the  battle  rjf  Meh)ria  (  I2SM,  wa-s  crushed  by  Genoa; 
but  Genoa  atoned  for  it  by  her  long  struggle  with  Venice, 
until  the  war  of  Chiotrgia  (l.'itUI-S")  left  tho  two  republics 
completely  exhausted.     Florence,  always  torn  by  factions. 
was  imperilled  by  the  revolution  of  the  Ciompi,  headed  by 
the  wool-comber  Michael  di  Lando,  the  precursor  of  mod- 
ern Socialism  (l.tTH).     Everything,  in  short,  wiis  on   the  | 
decline  in   Italy;  the  papacy,   which  had   transferred  its 
seat   from   Rome  to  Avignon  ( 1307),  the  lihibelline  party, 
henrled  at  first  by  Matfeo  Vise.mti,  and  tlien  by  Castrucrio 
Ciistra<'ani,  wa*  loMinj;  its  power.      Scourged,  now  by  the  ' 
tniops  of  Philip  tho  Fair,  now  by   those  of  Louis   of  Ba-   ' 
varin,  Italy  had   become  the   Itatlle-ficld   in  which  foreign  I 
ambition   cxi'reised   its  worst  passions.     In   vain   Coin  da  ! 
Ricnzi  struggled  fr>r  a  momi'nt  (  l-'M?  )  to  rekindle  the  spirit 
of  a  dying  civilization.     HI.    Tfi-  Ih-failmrr. — The  eause 
and  at  the  same  time  (he  consequtMiee  of  the  civil  debase-  I 
ment  of  Italy  was  the  lack  of  a  military  syririt  in  her  peo- 
ple, so  that  she  was  completely  at  the  mercy  i>f  domestic 
and  forciKn  ambition.      Hence  the  origin  of  the  companies  ! 
which  overran  and  plundered  tho  country  with   impunity 


under  the  banners  of  Ladrisio  Visconti,  of  Fra  Morialc.  of 
Raimondo  da  Cordova,  of  Sir  John  Hawkwood,  of  Ani- 
chino  Baumgarten.  of  Braccio  da  Montone.  of  Giovanni 
d'OIeggio,  of  Carmaijnola,  of  I'ieciuino.  of  Sforza,  etc. 
The  house  of  Savoy  alone,  in  tho  midst  of  all  this  corrup- 
tion, maintained  itself  nncontaininated,  and  by  the  valor- 
ous enterprises  of  Amadeus  VI.  (il  Conte  Verde)  and  by 
those  of  Amadeus  VIII.  foreshadowed  the  glorious  days 
of  Emmanuel  Philiberto  ami  the  three  glorious  Charles 
Emmanuels,  worthy  preeursors  of  tinit  monarchy  which  in 
our  day  has  redeemed  Italy.  It  was  also  a  great  misfor- 
tune that  while  the  Western  and  Northern  nations  were 
shaking  off  the  yoke  of  the  Il(uni.--h  (Muireh  by  a  great 
reformation,  Italy  being  not  yet  prepared,  suffrred  tlie 
great  movement  of  Savonarola  and  tliat  of  Burlaniaehi 
to  fail,  thus  postponing  for  three  centuries  that  moral  re- 
generation which  is  the  basis  of  political  progress.  Tho 
most  cultivatetl  people  in  Italy,  the  Florentines,  preferred 
the  splendor  of  the  court  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  to 
the  austere  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  and  tliey  allowed 
tho  merchant-monarchy  of  the  Mcdicis — vainly  threatened 
for  a  moment  by  the  eonspiraey  of  the  Pazzi — to  take  root 
anrl  thrive  until  it  extinguished  in  their  souls  even  the  very 
desire  of  liberty.  The  old  Cosimo  nssumed  the  title  of 
"  father  of  his  country  "  (1429).  In  the  mean  time,  the  power 
of  the  Turks  was  increasing  in  the  East,  to  tho  injury  not 
only  of  Italy,  but  of  the  civilization  of  all  Europe.  Ain- 
urat  I.  threatened  Constnntinople  (13fi0):  Biija/.et  would 
have  taken  it  had  be  not  iiccn  arrested  by  the  wild  meteor 
Tamerlane  and  bis  army  (1102).  But  Amurat  II..  and 
then  Mahomet  If.,  returned  with  renewed  energy  to  tho 
enterprise,  and  (ho  fall  of  Byzantium  (l-15.'l)  sealed  the  ruin 
of  the  colonial  power  of  the  Italians.  Not  long  after,  tho 
discovery  of  tho  New  World,  made  by  the  Genoese  Colum- 
bus (1  Ii52'l.  and  that  of  the  East  India  passage  round  tho 
Capo  of  Good  Hope  by  the  Portuguese  Vasco  da  (iama 
(1107),  then  tho  conquests  of  Corfez.  Pizarro,  Almagro, 
Vasco,  Nunez  de  Balboa,  of  Cabot,  Verazzani,  ami  of  \'es- 
puei'i  in  America,  together  with  those  of  Almeyda  and  of 
Albuquerque  in  India,  diverted  commerce  from  its  old 
channels,  depriving  Italinn  navigators  of  the  palm,  and 
bestowing  it  upon  more  Western  nations.  Nothing  now 
remained  to  Italy  but  tlie  glory  of  letters,  of  arts,  and  of 
scionce,  but  in  these  she  shone  without  a  rival.  Mean- 
while, the  crooked  ])olicy  of  Ludovico  il  Moro  again 
brought  a  foreign  power  into  Italy.  Charles  VIII..  king  of 
France,  overran  tiic  Peninsula  from  one  end  to  the  other 
(MO.'i).  Tho  French  under  Louis  XII.,  and  the  Sjianish 
under  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  disputed  the  dominion  of 
Italy,  The  pn])al  throne  was  made  infamous  by  Alexancler 
VI.,  and  (^lesar  Borgia,  his  son.ua.s  tho  complete  personi- 
fication of  that  base  policy  which  i\Iaechiavelli  systematized 
in  II  Principe,  .\lmo3t  all  Europe  uniterl  in  the  League 
of  Cambray  against  the  repiiblie  of  Venice  (l.'iOS),  whoso 
forces  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Ghiara  d'Adda  (1500), 
and  Julius  II.,  who  bad  been  the  aoul  of  the  League, 
turned  against  tho  foreigners  with  tho  cry,  I'nnri  i  itur- 
bnri !  and  formed  tho  Holy  League  in  order  to  drive  out 
tho  French  f  1.^11),  who,  in  spite  of  the  prowess  and  the 
ferocity  of  Gaston  de  Foix  and  tho  valor  of  bis  Bayards, 
La  Tremouille  and  Trivulzi,  were  obliged  to  abandon  Italy. 
But  soon  after  Francis  I.  descended  the  .\lps,  was  victor- 
ious at  Marignano(I5L"i),  was  defeated  and  taken  nrisimer 
at  Pavia  f  1  *>2.'i).  Then  folio werl  the  great  conflicts  between 
this  king  and  Charles  V..  of  which  Italy  unfortunately  was 
the  principal  theatre;  the  pontifi(;atcs  of  Leo  X.  and  of  Clem- 
ent VII.,  the  siege  of  Florence,  the  valorous  enterprises  nf 
Giovanni  dalle  Bando  Nere.  the  exploits  and  the  death 
of  I'VanccHco  Ferruccio,  the  siege  and  sack  of  Rome  by  the 
imperialists  under  the  constable  de  Bourbon,  who  there 
lost  his  life  ( l.'^i27) ;  the  expedition  against  Algeria,  con- 
ducted by  Andrea  Doria;  the  Peace  of  Crcspy  (ir>Il); 
then  that  of  Cateau  Cambresis,  which  established  despot- 
ism rather  than  jieaco  in  Itnly  and  in  all  Europe  (I.k'jO); 
the  glorious  enterprise  of  I%mmanuel  Philiberl  ;  the  bat- 
tle of  Lepanto  (Ij7I1,  in  which  tin'  Italian  navy  shone 
brilliantly  for  the  last  time,  and  by  whi(di  the  final  bh)W 
wa«  given  to  Turkish  prtwer.  During  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, while  all  tlif  aneient  states  of  Italy  were  fallen  to  the 
lowest  point,  the  boiHe  of  Sji^'oy  arose  with  new  splendor 
through  the  dieds  of  lii-r  three  Charles  Emmanuels  and 
of  Victor  Amadeus.  IV.  Thv  /{fynirmlion. — To  llieso 
crowned  hemes,  as  well  as  to  the  popular  heroes  Pietro 
Micca  and  Picasso  (called  Balliria).  who  in  tho  wars  of 
succession.  an<l  especially  in  thiit  of  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion, sustained  nobly  the  honor  of  Italy,  belongs  the  boast 
of  having  given  the  signal  f<fr  the  uprising  of  a  nation 
which  so  many  centuries  of  misfortune  had  made  abject. 
But  a  long  and  stormy  period  was  still  to  be  pa-s^ed  through 
—the  wiirs  of  the  republic  and  of  (be  first  Fr-neh  empire 
Uhe   battle  of  Montenotte  (  17'.M'.),  the  Treaty  of  Cherasio, 


1344 


ITALY— ITURBIDE,   DE. 


the  battlis  of  Caldicra  and  of  Arcolc.  the  Treaty  of  To- 
lentino,  the  fall  of  Venice  (1797),  the  battle  of  Xovi,  the 
block:ule  of  (icuoa,  thi-  battle  of  JIarengu  (l.sl)O),  etc.). 
anil  then  Iho  Peaccof  Vienna  ( ISlo).  which  sacrificed  Italy 
to  the  Holy  Alliance.  Frequent  insurrections,  and  espe- 
cially those  of  1S21  and  of  ls:!l,  were  the  forerunners  of 
that  j;nat  and  happy  revolntion  which,  begun  in  1S4S, 
when  King  Charles  Albert  granted  the  constitulicin,  was 
(Mimph-ted  in  1870,  when  united  Italy  made  Rome  the  cap- 
ital of  the  kingdom.  G.  BoccARUO. 
Italy,  tp.  "fVatosco.,  N.y.  It  has  6  churches.  P.1.341. 
Itamarati'  ^Brazilian,  "white  rock"],  a  celebrated 
casi-adi'  near  Metropolis,  the  summer  capital  of  Brazil, 
about  .'lO  miles  N.  W.  from  Rio  Janeiro.  Its  height  is  va- 
riously calculated,  but  is  not  less  than  250  feet,  nearly  per- 
])endicular. 

Hard'  (Jean  Marie  Gaspard),  b.  at  Oraison  in  the  S. 
of  France  in  1775;  after  studying  at  Riez  and  iMarseilles 
entered  a  banking-house  in  the  latter  place,  where  he  re- 
mained until  179:!,  when  he  eluded  the  requisition  for  mil- 
itary service  iiy  representing  himself  as  a  medical  student, 
though  in  fact  he  had  never  given  the  least  attention  to 
medicine.  Nevertheless,  ho  was  assigned  by  the  revolu- 
tionary eominittee  to  a  military  hospital  as  assistant  sur- 
geon, and  by  dint  of  careful  observation  and  study  soon 
became  so  skilful  an  operator  that  he  obtained  an  ap|>oint- 
mcnt  by  competitive  examination  in  the  ^'al-de-(irace  Hos- 
pital at  Paris.  Three  years  later  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  deaf-mutes'  institution,  where  he  umdo  a  spe- 
cialty of  diseases  aifecting  the  organs  of  hearing,  in  which 
department  he  speedily  acquired  a  European  reputation. 
His  experiments  in  the  education  of  "  the  wild  man  of 
.'Vveyron,"  a  boy  twelve  years  old  captured  in  the  woods, 
were  described  by  him  in  two  works  published  in  1S07, 
which  excited  great  interest.  Itard  wrote  an  imiiortant 
work  on  Disfnttcs  nf  the  Ear  and  the  Oi-ijann  of  lleariwj 
(1S21).  D,.at  l'aris.july  0,1838,  leaving  largo  bequests  to  the 
institution  fur  deaf  mutes  and  the  Academy  of  Medicine. 

Itas'ca,  an  unorganized  county  of  Slinnesota,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Rainy  Lake  and  Rainy  L.ake  River,  which 
separate  it  from  C'anad.a.  Area,  about  52(111  square  miles. 
It  is  in  part  reserved  for  the  Indians.  It  contains  much 
pine  and  larch  timber,  and  many  lakes  and  marshes,  pro- 
ducing wild  rice  (Zlzanla  aqiintica),  the  seed  of  which 
is  employed  as  food  by  the  Indians.     Pop.  AG. 

Itasca  Lake,  in  Beltrami  and  Cass  cos..  Minn.,  is 
regarded  as  the  source  of  the  Mississi]ipi.  It  receives, 
however,  several  streams,  one  of  which  is  several  miles  in 
length.  Its  elevation  is  1575  feet.  It  is  surrounded  with 
pine-clad  hills  some  lOn  feet  higher  than  the  lake,  which  is 
very  beautiful.  The  Mississippi  leaves  the  lake  with  a 
breadth  of  some  12  feet,  and  is  ordinarily  less  than  2  feet 
deep  at  this  ]ioint. 

Itauam'ba,  county  of  N.  E.  Mississippi,  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  Alabama.  .\rea.  about  500  square  miles.  It  is  a 
level  liliiestone  region,  with  a  rich  soil,  and  not  much  tim- 
ber. Torn  and  cotton  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Fulton. 
Pop.  7S12. 

Itch.  See  SrABiES,  by  E.  Darwix  Hudson-,  Jr.,  M.  D. 
KkVISKO  by  WiLLAIUl  Paiiker,  M.I). 

Itli'aca,  or  Thca'ki,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
Ionian  Islands.  Area,  11  square  miles.  Pop.  11,940.  It 
is  mountainous,  but  fertile,  producing  olive  oil,  wine,  and 
currants  of  a  superior  !--ind.  It  is  famous  as  the  dominion 
and  home  of  Ulysses,  and  contains  some  cyelopean  ruins, 
which  still  arc  called  the  ea.stle  of  Ulysses.  The  principal 
town  is  Vathi,  with  a  good  harbor  and  2500  inhabitants. 

Ithaca,  post-v.,  cap.  of  (Jratiot  co.,  Mich.,  handsomely 
situated  at  the  geographical  centre  of  the  county,  in  a 
fine  agricultural  region  ;  has  a  foundry,  furniture-factory, 
saw-mill,  planing-mill,  a  weekly  newspaper,  4  churches,  2 
hotels,  etc.     Prineijjal  business,  farming. 

Robert  .Smith,  Ed.  ''  Gratiot  Co.  Journal." 
Ithaca,  tp.  and  post-v.,  cap.  of  Toni)ikins  co.,  N.  V., 
near  I  lie  head  of  Cayuga  Lake,  on  the  Delaware  Lacka- 
wanna and  Western,  the  Ithaca  and  Athens,  the  Ithaca  and 
Cortland,  the  Ithaca  and  (Jcneva,  and  the  Cayuga  Lake 
R.  Rs.  It  is  an  important  centre  of  the  Pennsylvania  an- 
thracite coal-trade:  has  9  churches.  I  daily  and  ,'l  weekly 
newspapers,  2  national  ancl  1  savings  bank  (aggregate  cap- 
ital and  deposits,  $750,000),  and  large  manufacturing  in- 
terests. Calendar  clocks,  horse-rakes,  spokes  and  hahs, 
paper,  glass,  leather,  and  machinery  are  manufactured. 
Ithaca  is  the  seat  of  Corseli.  Univeksitv  (  which  see)  and 
of  Sago  College  for  ladies.  Ithaca  has  gas  and  water 
works,  and  a  public  library  costing,  with  its  building, 
$li(;,Oon,  the  gift  of  -Mr.  Ezra  Cornell.  The  scenery  hero  is 
very  fine.     Pop.  S4G2  ;  of  tp.  10,107. 

J.  II.  Selkreo,  Ed.  •' Ithaca  Journal." 


Ithaca,  post-v.  of  Twin  t]>.,  Darke  co.,  O.,  3  miles 
from  Gordon,  a  station  on  the  Dayton  and  Union  R.  R. 
Pop.  150. 

Ith'ica,  post-tp.  of  Richland  co..  Wis.     Pop.  I2nC. 

Itho'me,  a  mountain-fortress  in  Messenia,  raemorablo 
for  the  defence  there  made  for  many  years  against  the 
Spartans  in  the  first  Mcssenian  war.  It  was  afterward  Iho 
citadel  of  Messeno  when  that  city  was  founded  by  Epam- 
inondas. — There  is  another  town  of  Ithome  in  HistiaMitis, 
Thcssaly,  described  by  Homer  as  the  "  rocky  Ithome,"  and 
placed  by  Strabo  within  a  quadrangle  formed  by  the  four 
cities  of  Tricea',  Metropolis,  Pelinnieuin.  and  tiomphi.  It 
jirobably  occupied  the  site  of  the  castle  which  stands  on 
the  summit  above  Fanari. 

It'ius  Por'tus,  the  port  on  the  present  French  coast, 
nearly  op]iositc  Dover,  from  which  Ca?sar  sailed  on  his 
second  exjiedition  to  Britain.  Its  position  has  been  a  mat- 
ter of  much  controversy  ;  the  majority  of  geographers, 
however,  identify  it  with  Wissant. 

I'tri,town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Caserin, 
near  Gaeta.  Very  interesting  antiquities  abound  in  tho 
neighborhood.  A  modern  sanctuary  on  a  high  ]joint  com- 
mands a  superb  view  of  the  sea.      Pop.  in   1874,  l»5.S2. 

Itti'ri,  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Sas- 
sari.     Pop.  in  1874,  5055. 

Itu.     Sec  IIvtu. 

Iturx'a  [Gr.  'iToupaia],  a  small  district  in  the  N.  E.  of 
Palestine,  which  in  tlic  time  of  Christ  formed,  along  with 
Trachonitis,  the  tetrarchy  or  government  of  Philip,  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  and  brother  of  Ilerod,  tetrarch  of  Gal- 
ilee (Luke  iii.  1).  Tho  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  .Jctur,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael.  It  was  N. 
of  Bashan,  and  ailjoined  Auranitis,  tho  modern  Ilauran, 
with  which  it  has  often  been  confounded.  It  is  now  called 
Jedur,  and  eontaius  38  towns  and  villages.  (See  Porter's 
Five  Ycara  in  Damaecus  and  Robinson's  Jiiblical  Jie- 
eearehex.) 

Iturbi'de,  de  (Agcstin),  b.  at  Valladolid  (now  Mor- 
elia),  Mexico.  Sept.  27,  178.3:  took  a  dislingui.shed  part  as 
an  officer  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  war  against  the  Mex- 
ican revolutionists  of  ISIO  and  subsequent  years,  rising  to 
the  rank  of  colonel:  but  in  1820,  in  consequence  of  the 
constitutional  revolution  which  took  place  in  Spain  in  that 
year,  he  decided  to  make  an  attempt  for  the  indepemlenco 
of  Mexico  under  a  monarchy.  Obtaining  command  of  the 
Spanish  forces  in  the  S.  of  the  province  of  Mexico,  he  pro- 
mulgated Feb.  24,  1821,  the  "  Plan  of  Iguala"  at  the  town 
of  the  same  name.  The  essential  features  of  this  celebrated 
plan  were  known  as  the  **  three  guaranties" — i.  e.  the 
maintenance  of  tho  Catholic  religion:  union  of  Mexicans 
and  Spaniards  :  independence  with  a  monarchy  under  a 
prince  of  the  Spanish  Bourbon  dynasty.  The  plan  of  Iguala 
liad  immediate  success  :  it  was  aceejited  with  enthusiasm 
not  only  by  the  native  Mexicans,  but  by  the  greater  part  of 
the  Spivnish  forces  in  the  country.  After  several  months 
of  nominal  hostilities.  Iturbide  concluded  a  treaty  at  C6r- 
doba  (.\ug.  24.  1821)  with  the  new  Spanish  viceroy, 
O'Dcmoju.  by  which  his  "plan"  was  virtually  accepted, 
and  he  thereupon  made  a  triumphal  entry  -nto  the  city  of 
Mexico  Sept.  27  of  the  same  year.  A  fttnta  of  fjarmiment, 
and  afterwards  a  regency,  was  established  under  the  pres- 
idency of  Iturbide,  a  constituent  assembly  was  chosen,  and 
negotiations  were  at  once  begun  .with  Spain  for  obtaining 
a  prince  who  should  be  crowned  emperor  of  .Mexico. 
Through  tho  fatuity  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  the  treaty  of  C<ir- 
doba  was  rejected  by  the  Spanish  government,  and  the 
successful  movement  for  independence  was  treated  as  re- 
bellion. .\ftcr  some  vacillation  ami  quarrels  with  the  con- 
stituent assembly  he  had  convoked,  Iturbide,  favored  by 
his  army,  was  proclaimed  emperor  May  18,  1822,  and  was 
reluctantly  recognized  by  the  assembly.  He  was  crowned 
July  21,  but  experienced  great  opposition,  being  eompellcd 
sor,n  after  to  dissolve  the  assembly  and  imprison  fifteen  of 
the  deputies.  In  Decemhcr>-<'eii.  iSaaja  Aii"a,-Uieil  a  YCCJf. 
young  man,  and  lately  a  warm  parti.san  of  Iturbide,  pro- 
claimed the  republic  in  Vera  Cruz,  and  by  Apr.,  182,3,  the 
situation  had  become  so  hopeless  that  Iturbide  resigned 
the  crown  and  made  terms  with  the  restored  assembly,  by 
which  he  was  .allowed  to  embark  for  Europe  and  enjoy  a 
pension  of  S25.000.  He  sailed  for  Italy  .May  11,  resided 
several  months  in  Leghorn,  thence  went  to  England,  and 
in  May,  1824,  chartered  a  vessel  in  which  he  returned  to 
Mexico,  ostensibly  to  tender  his  services  as  general  against 
an  anticipated  invasion  by  Spanish  forces,  but  doubtless 
with  the  expectation  of  recovering  his  throne.  Meanwhile, 
a  republican  j^vernment  had  been  formed  in  Mexico, 
which,  thrown  into  alarm  by  a  rumor  of  Iturbide's  intend- 
ed return,  issued  a  decree  that  he  should  be  treated  as  an 
outlaw  should  he  set  foot  within  the  territory  of  the  re- 


ITZA    INDIANS— IV(^J;V. 


i;u5 


public.  If^Dorant  of  this  decree,  Iturbide  secretly  landed 
at  Soto  la  MurinaJuIy  H,  was  recognized  iiud  taken  befurc 
the  statu  legislature,  by  whoso  orders  he  wiis  shot  at  I*a- 
dilla,  Tamaulipa.-',  July  19,  1824.  Jlis  family  estuhlishcd 
itsi'If  at  PhiladelphiH,  where  the  ex-empress  d.  Mar.  2., 
IS61.  Several  *>i'  the  suns  of  Iturbide  wero  afierwards 
honored  with  dijilomatic  or  military  posts  by  the  Mexican 
government,  und  during  the  ephcmerni  empire  of  Maxi- 
milian the  survivors  were  reeognized  as  princes.  The 
elder,  Angel  dc  Iturbide,  d.  in  the  city  of  Mexico  July  21, 
1S72;  the  younger.  .Agustin,  d.  in  Purls  in  May,  1S73. 
Prince  Agustin.  son  of  Angel,  recognized  by  Maximilian 
as  heir-presumptive,  was  b-  inl.'^C  I,  J»nd  now(IS7.'v)  re- 
Bidc^i  with  his  mother,  an  American  lady,  at  (leorgelown, 
D.  ('.  PouTiiR  C.  Bliss. 

Itza'  Indians  of  Central  America  are  of  undoubted 
Maya  stoek.  and  by  their  own  traditions  must  have  loft 
Yucatan  in  the  firteenth  century.  They  were  visited  in 
1.^25  by  Cortez,  whom  they  treated  kinrlly.  They  valiantly 
maintained  their  indepon<lence  until  IfifS.  They  had  pre- 
viously attained  pome  degree  of  civilizatiou.  They  are 
chiefly  found  in  the  vicinity  and  on  tlie  islands  of  Lake 
I'7.i,  on  the  boundary  between  Guatemala  and  Mexico. 
They  arc  in  name,  at  least,  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

It'zchoe,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  duchy  of  Ilolstein, 
on  the  Stor.  It  has  distilleries,  sugar-refineries,  manufac- 
tures of  chicory  luid  tobacco,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
general  trade.      Pop.  9111. 

lu'ka^  post-v.,  cap.  of  Tishomingo  CO.,  Miss.,  on  the  Mem- 
phis and  Charleston  IX.  R.,  II  j  miles  from  Memphis,  Tenn., 
and  S  miles  from  Tennessee  River;  has  a  female  institute, 
a  male  academy,  a  planing-mill.  a  weekly  newspaper,  and 
valuable  mineral  springs.     .T.  S.  Davis,  Ed.  *'  IIf.rald." 

Ivan'  the  Terrible,  the  fourth  grand  duke  of  Russia 
having  tlie  name  Ivan  (John),  and  the  first  czar  of  that 
country  (though  reckoned  as  Ivan  IV.),  b.  in  I.>2y;  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Rasil  in  \y.y.\;  put  to  death  in  1.j4^  the 
triumvirate  of  regents,  an<l  soon  after  assumed  the  title  of 
czar;  published  a  new  code  IJjO;  carried  on  wars  with  the 
Tartar?,  eapturing  Astrakhnn,  Kasan.and  parts  of  Siberia, 
but  io  I.JfiS  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  .Tediguer  tbo 
Tartar;  carried  on  long  and  undecisive  wars  with  the  Poles 
and  Swedes;  introduced  civilization  and  the  art  of  print- 
ing in  Russin.  but  ruled  with  great  cruelty  and  harshness. 
D.  Mar.  I'J,  U8I. 

Ivano'vo,  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Vladi- 
mir, has  important  eolton  spinning  and  weaving  factories 
and  manufactures  of  chemicals.  Its  cotton  manufactures 
cmii'.oy  a  con-iiderable  part  of  tho  population  of  tho  vi- 
cinity and  are  steadily  increasing.     Pop.  SOOO. 

I'verMon  fAi.FnKD),  b.  in  Burke  co..  Go,.,  Dec.  3,  1798; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1^20;  was  admitted  to  tho  bar 
and  attained  tlistinction  in  his  profcs^irtn  ;  was  three  years 
mem'ior  of  the  House  in  the  St:ite  legislature,  and  one  year 
of  the  Senate;  was  elevated  to  tho  bench  of  his  judicial 
circuit,  which  he  fille<l  for  seven  years:  was  one  of  the 
electors  at  largo  for  the  .'^tate  on  the  Democratic  ticket  io 
the  Presidential  election  in  ISit;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
press  1817-19,  nnd  V.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia  18.^)5-01. 
This  position  he  resigned  on  the  passage  of  tho  ordinance 
of  secession  by  the  State  convention  in  Jan.,  IRllI,  which 
measure  he  ardently  ndvoeated.  He  raiserl  a  regiment  for 
the  Confederat-?  army,  and  became  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general.  D.  in  Macon,  Oa.,  Mar.  1, 1873.     A.  II.Stkimiens. 

Ives  (DwifiHT).  D.  D.,  b.  at  Ilolyoke,  Mass..  Sent.  20, 
ISO."!;  graduated  at  Brown  University  18.15;  was  ordained 
to  the  Baptist  niini?<try  in  1830,  and  preached  in  Lower 
Al'on,  III. ;  .su|tposed  to  have  been  the  first  Baptist  preacher 
in  llic  Srato  who  gave  his  entire  services  to  one  church,  re- 
ceiving from  them  a  salary  competent  for  support.  Ho  was 
settleil  also  at  Suftield,  Conn.,  being  both  secretary  and 
president  of  the  boaril  of  trustees  in  the  Connecticut  Lit- 
erary Institution  (Baptist)  in  that  place.  D.  Dec.  22,  I87.'i. 
Ivcs  (Ei.i),  .M.  I).,  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  7, 
1779;  graduated  at  Yale  1799;  studied  medicine  with  his 
father.  Dr.  Levi  Ives;  and  with  Prof.  B.  Silliman  founded 
in  1813  the  medieiil  department  of  Vale  College,  in  which 
ho  was  professor  of  materia  meilica  until  1H29,  and  then 
until  18:):s  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  merlieine. 
Ho  was  at  one  time  president  of  the  National  Medienl  ,\s- 
pocia'ion  ;  was  an  advocate  of  temperance,  education,  and 
the  abolition  of  slavery.     P.  at  New  Haven  Oet.  8,  1801, 

Ives  (Rt.  Rev.  Lrvi  Sii.i.iman),  D.  D..  LL.l)..  b.  at 
M'.'riden,  Conn..  Sept.  Irt.  1797;  worked  on  his  father's 
farm  at  Turin,  N.  Y. ;  served  a  year  in  the  war  with  Oreat 
Britain  1*^12-1.^.  ami  was  eilucated  at  Lowville  Academy 
nnd  Hamilton  Ccdb-ge.  Ho  was  at  first  a  Presbyterian. 
In  I  '^?.?-  he  received  dcnenn's  orders  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal  Church,  nnd  in  182.')  married  a  daughter  of  Bishop 
Vol,.  II.— 8.-) 


Hobart.  Ho  held  pastoral  charges  in  Philadelphia,  in  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  and  in  New  York,  and  in  1831  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  North  ('ardlina.  In  bis  diocese  he  labored  much 
for  the  good  of  the  ^Iaves  nn<l  for  the  cause  of  education. 
In  1852,  his  diocese  being  alienated  from  him  on  account 
of  differing  views  in  regard  to  questions  of  doctrine  nnd 
church  polity,  he  visited  Rome,  where  he  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Tie  was  al'teiwards  professor  In  the  theo- 
ftywTcal  ycmhinry  at  Fordham.  N.  V.  He  afterwards  de- 
voted much  attention  to  the  founding  of  an  asvlum  for  des- 
titute children  at  Manhattanville.  New  York  Citv,  wliere  he 
d.  Oct.  13. 18G7.  He  wrote  Triah  of  a  Mind  in  itti PnnjrcHH  fo 
Oitkuliviam  { 1854),  and  several  devotional  and  other  works. 

Ivi'za,  or  Ivi'ca,  the  smallest  and  westernmost  of  the 
Balearic  Islands,  in  the  Medilerrancnn.  and  belonging  to 
Spain.  It  is  23  miles  long.  12  miles  broad.  an<l  has  1 1,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  mountainous,  but  has  several  fertile  val- 
leys producing  good  wine  and  olive  oil.  Timber  and  salt 
are  the  main  exports.  The  principal  towns  arc  Iviza  nnd 
San  Antonio. 

I'vory  [Old  Eng.  imric,  from  the  French  ivoirc  ;  I\Iid- 
dle  Lat.  f:hor  ;  Lat.  ehnr].  The  derivation  of  the  Latin 
from  barruH,  an  elephant,  so-called  from  ^apir?,  '■  heavy," 
on  account  of  its  great  weight,  is  very  doubtful,  since  there 
is  in  Sanscrit  iblio,  in  Coptic  ohhc,  a  "tooth,"  and  in  an- 
cient Egyptian  fhon.  Perhaps,  says  Lamusse,  this  latter 
had  a  eommon  origin  with  the  Semitic  halihiw.  Ivory  has 
generally  been  defined  as  simply  the  tooth  of  the  ele|tiiunt, 
but  it  is  in  reality  a  substance  between  bone  and  horn 
from  the  teeth  or  tusks  of  many  animals.  Its  chemical 
composition  is — 

Phosphate  of  lime GI.OO 

Organic  matter 24.00 

Water 11.1.5 

Carbonate  of  lime 0.10 

Ivory  is  for  the  most  part,  however,  the  material  of  the 
tusks  of  tho  elephant.  The  teeth  of  tlio  hippopotamus  give 
a  finer  and  harder  variety,  but  owing  to  iheir  hollowncss 
they  can  only  be  employed  for  small  objects.  The  largo 
marine  animals,  such  as  the  walrus,  narwhal,  and  sper- 
maceti whale,  also  yield  varieties  of  ivory.  That  of  the  wal- 
rus was  formerly  much  used  by  the  old  Norsemen  for  mak- 
ing pieces  for  the  game  of  draughts  ;  several  of  these,  beau- 
tifully carved,  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  material 
is  extremely  hard,  of  a  dead  pearly  white,  which  becomes 
black,  not  yellow,  with  age.  The  fossil  ivory  of  Siberia, 
dug  from  the  ground,  consists  of  the  tusks  of  mammoths 
and  elepbant.s  of  extinct  species.  It  is  found  in  the  Laieho- 
vian  Isles  and  by  the  Frozen  Sea.  The  elephant  ivory  of 
the  present  time  comes  from  Africa  and  Asia:  the  latter 
being,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  tusks  from  Ceylon, 
mucli  inferior  to  the  former,  its  faults  being  a  tendency  to 
split,  an  inferior  color,  and  the  more  rapid  deterioration 
towards  yellow.  Ivory  is  difficult  to  cut.  requiring  ex- 
tremely sharp  and  very  hard  tools,  but  yields  readily  to 
the  saw,  lathe,  and  rasping  tools  or  files,  a  great  variety  of 
which  are  used  to  reduce  the  block  to  form.  Owing  to  tho 
value  of  ivory — which  is  so  rapidly  increasing  that  it  now 
ranks  as  a  precious  substance — the  greatest  care  is  taken 
to  avoid  waste,  the  division  into  pieces  or  veneers  being 
effected  with  thin  saws.  AVIien  finished  it  is  jtolisbed  with 
different  powders.  Its  natural  whiteness  is  ex(|uisitely  deli- 
cate, bearing  a  great  rescmblanco  to  tho  brightest  tint  of 
the  human  skin,  which  latter  presents  the  most  beautiful 
hue  in  nature.  But  it  soon  assumes  a  yellow  tone.  Spangler, 
a  celebrated  wnrkman  in  ivory  at  Copenhagen,  discovered 
that  ivory  kept  from  the  air.  but  not  trom  the  light,  under 
a  glass,  will  retain  its  whiteness  for  an  intlelinite  time.  The 
yellow  tint  of  old  ivory  may  be  removed  with  finely  levi- 
gated pumice-stone.  It  should  then  be  put  while  wet  under 
a  glass  and  exposed  every  day  to  the  sun.  Ivory  is  used 
for  piano-keys,  knife-handles,  billiard-balls,  book-covers, 
combs,  and  for  an  indefinite  variety  of  ornaments  nnd  works 
of  art.  its  "  fashif)nableness  "  and  the  variety  of  Its  appli- 
cation having  increased  of  late  years  with  its  vulue.  The 
drying  uji  and  crumbling  of  ivory  is  (»wing  to  Ihe  ex- 
haustion of  its  gelatine.  When  the  works  of  ivory  dug  by 
Mr.  Layard  from  Nineveh  were  brought  to  Engbind.  and 
found  to  be  in  a  state  of  rapid  flecomposilion.  Prof.  Owen 
suggested  that  they  should  lie  boiled  in  a  s<dution  of  gela- 
tine. I'nder  this  process  they  bccamo  hard  and  firm. 
Elephant  ivory  in  plates  presents  delicate  lines  resembling 
wh:it  is  called  in  ilrawing  eross-hatehing  or  cancellation; 
and  this,  which  disqualifies  it  for  making  artificial  teeth, 
adapts  it  for  miniature  painting,  and  in  fact  increases  the 
beauty  of  its  tone  in  all  works  uf  art. 

Ivory  was  extensively  used  by  Egyptian!",  Assyrians, 
nnd  ancient  Greeks.  Solomon  had  a  llirone  of  ivory  inlaid 
with  gold,  and  the  throne  of  Penelope  is  described  as  of 
ivory  and  silver.     The  later  Greeks  carried  this  work  in 


1346 


IVORY— IXMIQUILPAN. 


goUi  and  ivory  to  a  degree  of  splendor  which  seems  in- 
credible. From  their  extended  traffic  with  Persia  and 
Egypt  they  obtained  immense  quantities  of  both  Asiatic 
and  African  ivory.  l>iopcne  and  Seillis.  Cretan  artists 
established  at  Sieyone,  wen-  the  first  to  makr.'  statues  of  gold 
and  ivory.  The  temple  of  Juno  at  Olympia  contained, 
amonj;  many  great  works  in  ivory,  the  cofl'cr  of  Cyitselus, 
the  taMo  of  ivory  and  gold  of  the  Olym])ic  games,  the  bed 
of  Ilippodamia,  the  discus  of  Ipiiitus.  and  statues  of  Juno, 
till'  Hours,  the  llesperides,  and  Minervn.  Under  the  in- 
Ihu-ncc  <if  I'hidias  the  toreutic  or  <-hn/srirfihnuthir,  or  gold- 
and-i\<>ry  sculpture,  became,  as  befitted  its  name,  colossal. 
The  Minerva  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  Olympic  Jupiter 
evidently  surpassed  any  works  of  the  kinrl  known  to  the 
ninderns,  as  may  be  inferred  from  this,  (hat  the  Minerva 
bore  in  her  hand  a  Victory  2  metres  in  hciirht.  The  scholars 
of  Phidias  made  a  great  number  of  these  giganlie  images, 
in  which  the  nude  portions  of  tiie  human  figure  were  in 
ivory  and  the  drapery  of  gold.  But  the  quantity  of  ivory 
used  in  Home  was  prodigious.  The  gates  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  built  by  Augustus  as  a  votive  ofiering  for  the  vic- 
tory of  Actium,  were  of  this  costly  material.  It  is  said 
that  the  Romans  knew  how  to  soften  ivory  and  mould  it 
as  horn  is  now  miinipulati'd.  According  to  Dioscorides, 
this  was  cficeted  by  boiling  in  the  juice  of  mandragora- 
roots ;  according  to  Plutarch,  in  fermented  barley.  This 
is  now  done  by  immersing  articles  of  ivory  in  a  solution  of 
pure  phosphoric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1.1.10,  and  leaving 
them  there  till  they  lose  their  opacity.  Byzanlinc  art. 
however,  went  even  beyond  Roman  in  the  profuse  use  of 
ivory,  and  there  is  not  a  museum  of  Europe  which  does  not 
contain  diptychs  and  triptychs  (f(dding  tablets  with  relig- 
ious images),  cups,  reliquaries,  crucifixes,  and  arms  of  this 
era.  Magnificent  coffers,  many  of  great  size,  also  abounded. 
Charlemagne  had  two  fftttcs  in  ivory  of  Byzantine  execu- 
tion. The  episcopal  chair  of  St.  Vitalis,  a  work  of  the  sixth 
century,  now  in  Ravenna,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  this  style. 
Ivory  becoming  very  scarce  in  the  twelfth  century,  caskets 
were  made  of  segments  of  bone,  carved.  During  the  3Iid- 
dlo  Ages  it  became  again  plentiful,  and  with  the  Re- 
naissance the  art  of  carving  it  reached  perfection.  Florence 
at  first,  and  subsequently  Flanders  ami  (Jermany,  were 
the  great  centres  of  the  manufacture.  Bcnvenulo  Cellini, 
Michael  Angelo,  Diirer,  John  of  Bologna,  and  Algardi  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  work.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  the  most  eminent  ivm-intft  were  Cope,  Zcller.  A«- 
germaycr,  Du<|U(snoy.  Van  Obsfal.  Kcm  of  Nuremberg, 
Faidherbc  of  Mechlin,  Bossint,  Zich,  Berger  of  Norway, 
and  Troj'er.  Many  others,  however,  had  as  great  a  repu- 
tation. Monks  in  cloisters  not  unfrequently  devoted  a  life 
to  carving  a  crucifix:  one  of  the  best  of  these  is  now  pre- 
served at  Avignon.  Ivory  was  extensively  used  in  the 
preparation  of  arms.  Picppo  is  regarded  at  the  present 
day  as  the  most  extensive  ivory-factory  in  Europe,  but 
work  quite  as  artistic  as  any  produced  in  this  city  is  made 
in  Germany,  not  a  little  of  it  consisting  of  imitations 
of  old  goblets,  oliphants  {or  bunting-horns),  etc..  which 
are  sold  as  antique.  Ivory  is  imitated  by  eoml)inations 
of  gelatine  and  baryta,  and  it  is  stated  that  billiard- 
balls  arc  made  of  paper-pulp  and  gclalino  which  ex- 
actly resemble  the  ordinary  kind,  and  which  may  be  used 
to  play  with.  Plaster  of  Paris  in  powder,  combined 
with  chrome,  cast  and  boiled  in  milk,  stearine,  oil,  or  wax, 
will  in  time,  if  occasionally  polished,  exactly  resemble 
yellowish  ivory.  The  artificial  meerschaum,  matlc  of  egg- 
shell and  gypsum,  with  probably  some  intermixture  of 
magnesia,  bears  at  times  a  great  resemblance  to  ivory,  hut 
is  brittle.  Considering  the  near  approach  which  has  been 
made  by  art  to  imitating  ivory,  it  does  not  seem  incredible 
that  at  some  future  day  it  may  supply  a  comparatively  per- 
fect substitute  for  what  we  arc  now  indebted  to  nature.  In 
a  few  years  the  African  supply,  and  in  fact  all  others,  will 
be  exhausted,  as  every  traveller  in  the  country  bears  wit- 
ness that  the  elephants  arc  constantly  disappearing  before 
the  hunter.  It  is  supposed  that  at  present  at  least  20,000 
cwt.  of  ivory  of  different  kinds  are  made  up  annually  iu 
Europe.     (Sec  Vix.nTABLK  Ivouv.)      Ciias.  G.  Lkland. 

Ivory  (  Jamfr),  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  in  176.') ; 
cdiicatcii  at  the  University  of  St*.  Andrew's,  along  with  Sir 
John  Leslie.  For  many  years  ho  superintended  a  flax- 
spinning  factory,  and  in  ISflt  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military  College  of  Marlow  (now 
at  Sandhurst),  lie  was  a  self-taught  mathematician,  and 
spent  much  of  his  time  in  retirement,  fathoming  the  pro- 
foundest  writings  of  the  most  learned  continental  mathe- 
maticians, and  adding  to  their  value  by  original  analytical 
contributions.  His  most  celebrated  paper,  in  which  he 
eoinpletoly  and  definitively  resolved  (he  problem  of  attrac- 
tion for  everv  c!na«  of  ellipsoidal  bodies,  was  published  in 
the  Ph;iu>i:pl,!rn!  rr«i(*-.rri\.»«  for  1 SOO.  Resides  this  paper. 
Mr.  Ivory  contributed  many  others  ou  the  subject  of  the 


attraction  of  spheroids  and  the  theory  of  the  figure  of  the 
earth,  during  a  period  of  nearly  thirty  years;  one  of  the 
last  subjects  which  occupiecl  his  attention  wa«  the  possible 
equilibrium  of  a  spheroid  with  three  unequal  axe*,  which 
Jaeobi  had  discovered.  Next  to  the  theory  of  attractions, 
that  of  atmospheric  refractiun  most  seriously  engaged  his 
attention,  its  great  importance  in  astronomy,  and  tiie  curi- 
ous mathematical  diUiculties  which  it  presents,  rendering 
it  of  great  interest  to  analysts.     D.  Sept.  21,  1842. 

Ivory  Black.  See  Bone  Black,  by  Pkoi*.  C,  F.  Chamd- 
LEH,  Pn.  D..  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Ivory  Coast,  a  part  of  the  const  of  Upper  Gninea, 
"West  Africa,  between  the  so-called  Grain  Coast  and  Gold 
Coast.  It  extends  from  Cape  Palmas  to  the  river  Assinie, 
and  has  several  towns  along  the  coast,  which  traffic  in  ivory, 
gold-dust,  and  palm  oil. 

Ivre'a,  town  of  N.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Turin,  pic- 
turesquely situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  beautiful  valley  of 
Aoata,  on  the  right  bank  of  tlio  Dora  Baltca.  It  was  a 
Roman  possession  as  early  as  'JO  b.  v.,  and  many  vestiges 
of  that  period,  such  as  foundations  of  theatres  Hiid  portions 
of  aqueducts,  still  exist.  Ivrca  played  no  inconsiderable 
part  in  the  Dicdifcval  history  of  Northern  Italy,  and  a  ras- 
tle  of  the  thirteenth  century  is  nov.'  used  as  a  penitentiary. 
TbeCarnival  festivitiesof  Ivrca  still  eommemorate  a  popu- 
lar uprising  of  the  city  against  the  marquis  of  Monferrato 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  cathedral  is  reported  to 
have  been  an  ancient  tenip!c  of  Apollo,  consecrated  for 
Christian  worship  early  in  the  fifth  century.  This  (own 
has  soniG  luanufactorics.  but  the  great  water-power  of  (he 
Dora  Baltca  is  but  partially  employed.    Pep.  in  IST'l, 1)123. 

Ivry'^,  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine  sur- 
Seine,  4\  miles  from  Paris.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron 
and  glass,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wine.     Pop.  71156. 

Ivry'-la-Bataille',  a  v.  of  France,  40  miles  W.  of 
Paris,  on  the  river  Euro.  Pop.  about  1-00.  It  is  nottd  for 
the  decisive  victory  gained  hero  by  Iltnry  IV.  of  Navarre 
(Mar.  1-1,  1000)  against  the  forces  of  the  League  under  the 
duke  of  Mayenne.  An  obelisk  to  eommemorate  this  victory 
was  removed  during  the  French  Revolution,  but  renewed 
by  Napoleon  in  1S09. 

I'vy  [A.  S.  ///'/]•  *^^  Hcdera  helix,  a  climbing,  shrubby 
Old-World  plant,  sparingly  cultivated  in  the  I'.  S.,  wliere 
it  nowhere  thrives  as  in  Europe,  being  impatient  of  the 
cold  of  winter  and  the  dryness  and  heat  uf  summer.  It 
succeeds  best  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  It  belongs  to 
the  order  Araliacea).  It  abounds  in  Europe,  growing  upon 
bouses,  churches,  walls,  castles,  and  trees.  There  aie  sev- 
eral varieties.  The  so-called  "German  ivy."  coninion  in 
house  cultiu'c,  is  not  an  ivy  at  all.  but  a  Scnccio  frem  Sc.ulh 
Africa.     ( For  the  '■  poison  ivy  "  of  the  U.  S.  Bco  RuL'S.) 

Iwakara  Toinomi.     Sco  Appkndix. 

I\caqilix''tla9  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  ftafc 
of  Puebla,  Mexico,  U{\  miles  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Pucbla. 
Pop.  about  5000.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Pnpoloca  or 
Chuehon  Indians,  who  occujiy  the  table -land  between 
Tept^ji  do  la  Seda  and  the  frontier  of  Oaxaca,  an  indige- 
nous race  which  formerly  extended  over  much  of  Southcro 
Mexico,  but  was  conquered  and  driven  into  fastnesses,  first 
by  the  Mixtceas,  and  afterwards  by  the  Aztecs,  remnants 
of  them  being  found  under  distinct  names  in  the  states  of 
Guerrero,  Oaxaca,  and  Vera  Cruz,  as  well  as  in  Guatemala. 
Ixcaquixtla  is  noted  in  Mexican  history  as  the  scene  of 
a  sharp  battle  fought  Jan.  1.  1817,  between  iMexican  in- 
surgents under  Gen.  Mier  of  Teran  and  Spanish  troops 
under  Ba  Madrid.  AVilhin  a  space  of  two  or  (luce  leagues 
around  Ixcaquixtla  there  still  exist  hundreds  of  artificial 
mounds,  mosdy  of  earth,  but  some  of  small  squared  stones, 
the  latter  of  pyramidal  form:  they  are  still  used  by  (he 
Indians,  though  nominally  Christians,  as  altars  on  which 
offerings  are  jilaced  to  the  deified  Montezuma. 

I\i'on,  a  mythical  character,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
Thessalian  prince  and  king  of  the  Lapilha^.  He  wascsi»oused 
to  Dia,  daughter  of  llesioncus  (or  Deioncus).  but  on  his 
1  bridal  day  treacherously  murdered  his  father-in- Taw,  in 
j  order  to  avoid  the  performance  of  his  contract.  Jupiter 
'  (or  Zeus),  however,  magnanimously  forgave  him,  but  Ixion 
I  rewarded  his  clemency  by  attempting  (o  seduce  Here  for 
'  .Tun(0,  which  attempt  was  frustrated  by  Jupitrr's  substi- 
tution of  a  phantom  resembling  her.  and  resulted  in  Ixion 
becoming  the  father  of  the  Centaurs.  He  was  ultimately 
condemned,  as  a  punishment  for  his  treachery,  to  be  chained 
to  a  fiery  wheel  pi-rpetually  revolving  and  consisting  of 

!  four  spokes  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

I  ' 

I  Ixiniqiiil'pan^    town    and    district   in   the    state    of 

'  Ilidal'^o.  J^Iexieo,  about  80  miles  N.  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 

1  on  the  river  Montezuma.     Pop.  about  10,000.     In   its  vi- 

'  cinity   arc  several   silver-mines,  owned    by    English  com- 

I  panics.     It  was  for  some  mouths  in  ISfil  the  head-quarters 


IXONJA— IZUCAB. 


1347 


of  Gen.  Zulgaga,  wbo  claimed  to  b«  President  uf  the  re- 
public; he  hud  with  hitu  two  or  tbree  cabinet  ofiicers  aud 
some  of  the  ordinary  machiucry  of  a  government.  Tho 
people  of  tho  di:jtrict  are  mostly  Indians  of  the  Otomi  race. 

Ixo'niay  posr-(p.  of  JifTcrson  co.,  Wis,,  on  tho  Milwau- 
kee iiiid  St.  P;iui  U.  R.,  'sj7  miles  W.  of  Aliluuukeo.    P.  1777. 

Ixtacci'huatI  [Moxiran.  »>/"<',  '•  whitr,"  and  c("Au«//, 
'*  woHKiii  '■],  ;i  iiiountaiD  in  Mexico,  once  a  volcano,  1j,70j 
feet  hij^h,  adjoining  that  of  Popocatepetl,  from  which  its 
summit  is  distant  al>out  16  miles  K.  It  forms  part  of  tho 
miiunlain-ran;^  gcpaniting  tlic  valleys  of  Mexico  and 
PucUla,  from  both  of  which  cities  it  is  visible.  It  is  cov- 
erri  with  perpetual  snnw,  and  derives  its  D:imo  from  tho 
re3cml)laucQ  of  its  summit  to  tho  reclining  figure  of  a 
woraiin. 

Ixtapala'pa,  town  in  Mexico,  10  miles  S.  E.  of  tho 
cajtital,  witbiu  the  federal  district.  Pop.  about  6000.  At 
the  time  of  the  comjuost  of  Mexico  it  was  a  largo  city  on 
the  cnnal  between  lakes  Texcocu  and  Cbalco,  cekbratcdfor 
it«  splendid  garden',  which  belonged  to  tho  Aztec  eui- 
pcrors.  It  was  the  resideuee  of  a  powerful  va^^'al  chieftain, 
a  brother  of  Montezuma,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  of  tho 
important  incidents  of  tho  siege  of  tho  capital.  Few  traces 
of  its  former  impnrtanco  now  remain.  A  faill  adjoining  Ix- 
tapalapa  to  tho  S.  W.,  called  the  Cerro  dc  la  Ertrclfay  or 
Star  Hill,  was  the  most  sacred  spot  known  to  tho  Aztec* 
religion.  At  the  expiration  of  each  century  of  52  years  a'l 
the  fires  througliout  tho  empire  were  extinguished,  and  the 
now  lire  was  n')t;i.incd  by  the  chief  priest  by  friction  of 
pieces  of  wood  over  tho  body  of  a  bniiian  victim  placed 
Bpoa  tho  altar  on  the  summit  of  this  hill.  All  the  Aztec 
priests  and  magnates  set  out  from  Tenochtitlan  (Mexico) 
at  midnight,  going  in  procession  to  tho  sacred  hill,  whicli 
thoT  reached  before  daybreak,  and  tho  now  fire  was  carried 
in  every  direction  (hrnughout  the  empire  by  hun<lrcds  of 
awifl  messengers.  Some  remnins  of  tho  ancient  altar  and 
temple  may  still  bo  traced  on  tho  summit  of  the  hi!l. 

Ponxtii  C.  Bliss. 

Ixtlahna'ca,  town  and  district  in  Mexico,  near  the 
N.  \V.  extremity  of  tho  state  of  tho  same  name,  CO  miles 
from  the  federal  capital.  There  aro  in  tho  district  several 
silver-mines,  most  of  which,  however,  have  been  abandoned 
in  con^wqueneo  of  revolutions  or  lack  of  capital  to  introduce 
proper  machinery  f'jr  reducing  the  ores.  This  region  was 
that  inhabited  by  the  Mazahua  race  of  Indians,  once  so 
numerous  as  to  have  had  grammars  and  catechisms  printed 
in  their  language  in  (ho  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. The  laagiiage  is  now  fa=t  expiring,  but  is  sliil 
spoken  in  a  few  villages  of  tho  district. 

Ixtlaiif  town  and  district  in  Afcxico,  etato  of  Oaxaca, 
40  miles  N,  E.  o(  tho  state  capital.  It  is  rich  in  silver- 
mines  ;  tho  inhabitants  are  Indians  of  the  Zapoteoo  race. 
One  mile  from  Ixtlan  i?  tho  villa'^o  of  San  Pablo  Guelatno, 
memorable  »-(  the  birthplace  of  Benito  Juarez,  President 
of  M>'xieo  fpiui  1  -^.'tS  to  his  dealh  in  ls72. 

Ixtlilxo'chitI  (Fp.RHANno  dp,  Alva),  b.  in  Mexico  or 
Texcocu  abi>ut  IJ(iS,  waa  a  lineal  descemlunt  of  tho  an- 
cient emperor.'*  of  Toxeoco,  and  devoted  himself  to  tho  col- 
lection and  translation  of  hieroglyphical  records  concerning 
bis  ance^turii.  Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  personal 
history,  except  that  ho  was  interpreter  to  several  viceroys, 
and  in  1002  received  from  the  Spanish  king  a  grant  of 
lanils  as  ropre.-entativo  of  tho  former  Aztec  dynasty,  lie 
left  numerous  writings,  whieh  arc  preserved  in  the  national 
archives  in  Mexico,  only  a  portion  of  which  have  been 
printed,  though  copies  wore  usetl  by  Mr.  Prescott  in  V\* 
HUtnrjf  nf  Mrrim.  His  /fiitnrtf  n/  the  Cfnehimecit  wa.H 
published  by  Lord  Kingsborough  iu  his  Mexican  Antiqui- 
titm.  vol.  ii.'    I),  in  IGI8. 

IzabaS'f  ascaportof  Ouatcmala.  on  the  Oolf>  T>olc?,  12fl 
mib'9  N.  N.  K.  from  tho  capital.     It  is  t!i<3  only  Atlantic 

rinrt  of  that  republie,  and  is  accessible  only  to  vessels  of 
ight  draught,  fur  whieh  reason  largo  vessels  unlade  at 
Ttalizo  and  ship  their  cargo  to  Izabal  by  coasting-vessels. 
I*op.  about  lOOO. 

l/aTco,  1<ia1co,  or  Vfiaico,  town  of  Central  America, 
stale  uf  San  Salvador,  aud  situate  about  10  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  tho  city  of  that  name,  nnd  ot  the  base  of  tho  celebrated 
volcano  fmni  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  chiefly  inhab- 
ited by  In<1ian«,  tho  population  numbering  between  ^000 
and  .")()00;  is  possessed  of  a  fertile  and  plentifully  watered 
soil,  but  since  tho  earthquake  of  IS.'jft  ha^t  mnterinlly  di- 
mini:Hh"d  in  eominereini  importance  nnd  proKperity. 

Izaico,  Monnt,  ealh-d  the  "liehthouse  of  San  Sal- 
vador," a  \oIeano  whiih  bur^t  forth  I-'eb.  2.T.  1770.  in  what 
is  now  the  republic  of  San  Salvador,  (""entral  Anteriea.  It 
stands  very  near  a  lari;e  group  of  exf  inel  volciinoi-j.  and  has 
an  eruption  every  sixteen  minutes.  It  burst  out  iti  the  midst 
of  a  eattle-esta!e  during  a  great  earthquake,  and  Las  since 


grown  to  a  height  exceeding  4000  feet.  Its  light  is  visible 
far  at  sea.     It  is  near  lat.  l.t"  la'  N.,  Ion,  89°  44'  W. 

IzamalScity  in  Yucatan.  Mexico,  40  miles  E.of  M€rida, 
notable  for  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  which  are  fullv 
described  by  Stephens  in  his  Travtla  in  Yucatan.  The 
celebrated  bishop  of  Yucatan,  Fray  Diego  de  Landa,  built 
a  church  and  a  vast  convent  in  ljj3  upon  the  summit  of 
an  artificial  pyramid  on  which  was  an  idol  temple;  an 
imago  of  tho  Virgin  Mother  was  brought  from  Guatemala, 
and  for  its  miracles  acquired  a  great  oclcbrity  throughout 
Y'ucatan,  which  it  still  retains. 

Iz'ard,  county  of  the  N.  of  Arkansas.  Area.  864  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  White  River.  It  is  partly 
mountainous,  but  is  in  general  fertile  and  well  timbered. 
Tobacco,  cotton,  and  live-stock  are  staple  products.  Lead 
and  other  minerals  are  found.  Cap.  Mount  Olive.  Pop.  CSOG. 

Izard  (trEoRGK).  b.  in  South  Carolina  in  1777;  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  of  engineers  June  2,  1794;  visited  Eu- 
rope and  was  lieutenant  in  the  French  engineers  1796-97; 
in  charge  of  fortifications  in  Charleston  harbor  1798:  pro- 
moted to  be  captain  1799, and  t^ervcd  as  aide  to  Gen.  Ham- 
ilton :  resigned  1803;  on  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Great 
Britain  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  artillery;  brigadier- 
general  1813,  and  major-general  1814;  disbanded  1815.  In 
182.>  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Arkansas  territory, 
which  position  he  held  till  his  death,  Nov.  22,  1828. 

Izard  (Ralph),  b.near  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1742.  and 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  Eng.  He  was 
a  wealthy  planter,and  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
was  appointed  by  Congress  as  commissioner  to  Tuscany, 
but  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Paris,  where  he  opposed  the 
policy  of  Franklin  and  Silas  Dean  nnd  favored  tbat  of 
Arthur  Lee.  Ho  pledged  his  estate  to  purchase  ships  of 
war;  was  delegate  to  Congress  1781-S3,  and  U.  S.  Senator 
1789-95.     V>.  May  30.  1SU4. 

IzcoatI,  fourth  king  of  Mexico,  and  by  his  superior 
military  and  political  talents  substantially  the  founder  of 
the  Aztcean  empire.  A  natural  brother  of  his  predecessor, 
he  reigned  from  1425  to  143**1,  during  which  he  conquered 
many  neighboring  states  and  embellished  and  fortified  the 
cnpital.  It  was  he  who  built  the  temple  to  the  g()d  iluit- 
zilupochtli  and  the  goddess  CihnacoatI  :  he  also  framed  a 
constitution  that  materially  changed  and  improved  the 
political  system.  Thomas  Jouhas. 

Izdubar'f  a  mythical  or  semi-mythical  king  and  hero 
of  tho  earliest  Babylonian  annals,  who  is  placed  nearly 
upon  the  division-line  which  separates  the  age  of  ro- 
mance from  the  historical  period.  His  name  has  become 
widLly  known  and  celebrated  since  the  discovery,  made  in 
1872  by  Mr.  George  Smith  of  the  British  Museum,  of  some 
fragments  of  the  Chalda'an  traditional  account  of  the  Del- 
uge, embodied  in  one  of  a  scries  of  twelve  "Legends  of 
Izdubar,"  So-called  from  the  hero  who  plays  the  principal 
part  in  them  all.  By  Sir  Henry  Rawlinsun,  and  the  nu- 
merous school  of  conj^iarative  mythologists  who  take  their 
cue  from  Prof.  Max  Muller  and  Mr.  G.  \V.  Cox,  the  Izdu- 
bar  legends  were  at  once  set  down  as  a  magnificent  t^peci- 
mcn  of  tho  solar  myths — as  being,  in  fact,  the  prototype 
of  tho  twelve  labors  of  Hercules.  Mr.  G.  Smith,  the  tlis- 
coverer  and  chief  interpreter  of  these  legends,  strongly  ob- 
jects to  this  view,  and  argues  for  the  historical  existeneo 
of  Izdubar  as  a  Chaldtean  monarch  (whom  he  identifies 
with  tho  biblical  Kimrodl.  bis  best  evidence  being  the  oc- 
currence of  the  name  in  a  fragmentary  canon  of  the  early 
Babylonian  kings,  whieh  he  believes  to  be  a  copy  of  one  of 
tho  original  authorities  used  by  Berosus.  Izdubar  appeais 
in  tho  cycle  of  legends  as  a  giant  residing  in  the  country 
of  Accad,  a  subduer  of  great  aninmis  in  the  times  after  the 
P-'lugc,  n  mighty  conqueror  who  acquired  the  sovereignly, 
which  ho  exercised  in  the  city  of  Erech  or  I'ruk,  the  earli- 
est capital  of  Babylonia.  lie  was  deified  after  his  death, 
as  is  shown  by  the  existence  in  one  of  the  tablets  of  a  form 
of  prayer  nddrcfscd  to  him:  and  in  an«)ther,  relating  to 
witchcraft,  he  appears  ns  a  guardian  who  watches  over  the 
country.  (Pee  articles  NiHunn,  Noah,  and  CtspiionM  In- 
ficniPTmss:  ami  for  the  text  nnd  translations  of  the  Izdu- 
bar legends,  fl.  I'^milh's  A'fifrirtn  ni'vn-rriet  (1875)  ami 
Trnmtnrf'nji^    ff'tfir    .SWi'rfy   n/  DihUcaf    Airhtrttfutfif,    vol. 

iii..  TiOndon,  l>'7f.)  Poiirrn  C.  Bi.is.s. 

Izu'car,  or  Matamo'ros  Izucar,  city  antl  district 
of  the  state  of  Pu'dila.  Mexico,  about  90  miles  S.  E.  of  tho 
federal  capital.  It  is  situated  nearly  at  the  base  of  the 
volcano  of  Popoeiiitpetl,  nnd  is  tbeci-nfre  of  ft  rich  sugar- 
region  extemling  along  tho  valley  of  the  river  Me'-eida. 
It  is  a  well-l>ullt  and  pronperous  eily  of  about  12,0ii0  iu- 
habijnnts.  an*i  is  the  soufhrrn  terminus  of  a  railrond  now 
(1875^  being  onnstrucled  whieh  will  unite  it  with  Puebla. 
It  derive*  it«  olTirial  name  from  G^n.  Manuel  Matamnrn«i, 
one  of  the  heroen  of  Mexican  indepm-'cnee.  who  gained 
here  (Feb.  24,  ]X\'l)  a  great  vietorv  over  the  Spaniards. 


1348 


J— JACKSON. 


J. 


J,  a  consonant,  another  form  of  /,  with  nbich  it  was  onco 
intiTchangcablo.  /,  originally  and  pi0])crly  a  vowel, camo 
in  time  to  stand  sometimes  for  the  hall'  vuwel,  half-conso- 
nant S(mnd  of  initial  >',  as  now  in  German.  Afterwards 
it  aeqnired  the  zli  sound  it  possesses  in  French,  and  event- 
ually the  power  it  ordinarily  ]iossesses  in  English.  In 
S|ianish  it  is  a  gnttural  aspirate,  interchangeable  with  X. 
Jaafar,  one  of  the  liAinrRriDKS  (which  see),  grandson 
of  the  vizier  Khaled,  son  of  Ihc  vizier  Y.ihya.  and  himself  a 
favorite  of  tho  caliph  llaroun-al-Raschid.  who  gave  him 
his  sister  Abbasa  in  marriage,  on  condition  that  the  con- 
nection should  be  merely  nominal.  Abbasa  having  borne 
a  son  to  .laafar,  the  caliph  put  both  him  and  bis  father  to 
death,  about  A.  n.  Sn2.  It  is  probable  that  this  account  is 
derived  rather  from  poetry  than  authentic  history. 

Jabirn  [Brazilian],  the  name  of  several  birds  of  the 
stork  family,  and  of  the  genus 
Mifcteria,  found  in  Australia,  Af- 
rica, and  South  America.  The  spe- 
cies are  few.  .1/.  Anetrnfin  is  the 
best  known.  These  birds,  unlike 
the  storks,  have  an  upturned  bill, 
and  one  species  found  in  South 
America  lias  the  head  and  neck 
bare;  those  of  the  Old  World  have 
these  parts  of  tho  body  clothed 
with  feathers. 

Jablon'ski  (Daniel  Enxsr), 
D.  D.,  b.  near  Dantzic  Nov.  26, 
IGCO ;  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  in 
philosophy,  theology,  and  Oriental 

languages.  In  IBSO  he  visited  the  universities  and  libra- 
ries of  Holland  and  England,  remaining  a  year  or  two  at 
Oxford.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  soon  liecame  famous 
as  a  pulpit-orator,  and  was  ultimately  appointed  court- 
preacher — at  first  at  Klinigsberg,  and  afterwards  at  Ber- 
lin. By  request  of  King  Frederick  I.  he  labored  earnestly 
for  a  union  of  all  tho  Protestant  churches.  Dr.  Jablon- 
ski  became  a  bishop  among  the  Moravians  in  16'J8.  In 
17:'.:)  he  was  elected  ]iresident  of  the  Koyal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin.  Among  his  numerous  literary  labors 
he  translated  into  Latin  some  of  tho  English  works  of  U. 
Bentlcy,  and  published  editions  of  the  Talmud  and  of  the 
Ilclircw  Bible  (  inyo),  tho  latter  being  especially  valuable 
for  its  critical  apparatus.     I),  at  Berlin  May  25,  1741. 

Jablonski  (  P.\ul  Ernst),  son  of  tho  above,  b.  at 
Berlin  in  16y.i.  He  was  still  more  distinguished  than  his 
lather  for  his  knowledge  of  Oriental  languages,  in  which 
he  surpassed  all  the  German  scholars  of  his  time,  his  nu- 
merous philological  works  being  still  quoted  with  respect. 
In  Oriental  history,  mythology,  and  antiquities  his  writings 
are  equally  esteemed,  especially  the  treatises  on  tho  gods 
Ki-mphon  (17:i;>)  and  Memnon  (176:!).  The  two  most  val- 
uable of  Jablonski's  writings  are  undoubtedly  an  Egyptian 
glossary,  not  printed  until  the  present  century  (Leyden, 
1804),  and  the  I'aiillirm,  ^Ei/i/ptiurum  aire  lie  dii»  enrum 
commeiitariua,elc.  (Berlin,  17JU-52,  :i  vols.).  The  complete 
works  of  Jablonski  number  about  fifty.  He  was  long  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  tho  University  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder,  at  which  place  he  d.  in  Sept.  (or  Dec),  1757. 

Jaborantli'  [Brazilian  Guarani],  a  drug  recently  intro- 
duced into  medicinal  use,  consists  of  tho  leaves  and  twigs 
of  I'H'icarput  i>uinuliia,  a  tree  (?)  of  Brazil,  and  of  the  order 
Kutaccic.  Four  or  live  grammes  of  tho  bruised  drug  arc 
infused  in  boiling  water.  Soon  after  this  is  swallowed, 
whether  warm  or  cold,  a  most  powerful  sialagoguc  and 
diaphoretic  effect  is  produced.  Streams  of  perspiration 
flow  from  the  patient,  and  so  much  saliva  anil  mucus  are 
produced  in  the  intmtb  and  air-passages  that  speech  is 
ditTicult.  It  is  reported  to  bo  useful  iu  tho  treatment  of 
several  diseases. 

Ja'ca,  or  Xaca,  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Aragon,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley, 
is  strongly  fortitied,  and  contains  a  cathedral,  a  castle,  and 
several  convents.  Tho  inhabitants  are  eini)loyed  in  agri- 
culture and  woollen  weaving;  tho  soil  is  highly  productive 
of  grain,  but  too  cold  for  tho  fruits  peculiar  to  Southern 
Europe.  During  the  Unman  empire  Jaea  was  a  placo  of 
some  importance,  capital  of  tho  ri-f/io  Jucnhniia.  P.  3500. 
Jacainar'    [Braz.  jacamaricH],  a  name  applied  to  a 


number  of  South  American  and  West  Indian  birds, 
of  the  genera  Onthiifa,  Jacanuirntci/on,  and  Jacamcropn, 
and  approximating  the  character  of  the  trogons  and  the 
bee-eaters.  They  are  small,  and  mostly  of  bright  and 
quaint  but  not  very  handsome  plumage.  The  red-tailed 
jacamar  (Galbtila  rujicnudis)  is  i'ouiul  in  Trinidad,  AV.  I. 

Jacanu,  the  Pan-a  Jucaua,  an  abundant  South  Amer- 
ican bird  of  the  rail  family,  is  remarkable  for  its  very  long 
toes,  which  enable  it  to  walk  with  ease  upon  floating  water- 
plants.  Other  species  are  found  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

Jacar^^  a  genus  of  South  American  loricate  reptiles, 
resemliling  the  alligator  and  cayman.  The  Jamr^  Btlcrojtit 
(spectacled  cayman,  common  jacare)  is  one  of  the  largest 
of  .Vmerican  L'rocodilida;,  but  though  very  voracious  ho 
rarely  attacks  man.  Four  or  hvc  other  s])ccies  are  reported. 
Jach'mann  (Em  ard  Kari.  Emakm;ki,),  h.  at  Dantzic 
JIar.  2,  1S22.  He  made  hia  first  trip  as  cabin-boy  and 
sailor  1839-14  ;  served  four  years  on  boaid  the  corvette 
Amazone  ;  was  created  a  marine  lieutenant  in  1845;  ap- 
pointed commander  of  a  gunbcat  squadron  in  18-19, •  made 
in  1853-54,  as  first  lieutenant  on  board  the  Gefion,  a  trip  to 
the  West  Indies,  South  and  North  America;  was  for  three 
years  director  of  the  wharves  of  Dantzic;  became  captain 
in  1855,  and  made  in  1850-G2  an  important  expedition,  as 
commander  of  the  frigate  Thetis,  to  Eastern  Asia  and 
China,  in  order  to  establish  commercial  connections  between 
Germany  and  those  regions.  On  his  return  received  tho 
command  of  tlie  Prussian  fleet  in  tho  Baltic,  fought,  in  tho 
war  with  Denmark,  off  the  island  of  Riigcn  Mar.  17,  18ti-J, 
and  was  created  rear-ailmiral  tho  next  day.  In  1864-f»7 
was  chief  of  the  naval  station  of  Kiel.  In  1867  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  naval  department,  and  in  U6S 
was  made  vice-admiral.  In  the  war  with  France  was 
commander-in-chief  of  tho  whole  naval  force.  Asjiresidcnt 
of  the  naval  department  he  has  accomjilishcd  much,  and 
in  many  directions,  for  the  development  of  the  tierman 
navy.  Retired  from  this  office  in  1872.  AtrousT  Niemann. 

Jacitara'  Palm  [Brazilian],  a  South  American  rattan- 
pului  of  tho  lower  Amazon  Valley,  Vtmnoticug  nurcracaiillnt-^, 
a  slender  climber,  armed  with  strong  thorns.  It  is  used  to 
some  extent  as  tho  true  rattans  are  used.  It  is  often  seventy 
feet  long. 

Jack,  county  of  N.  Texas.  Area,  870  square  miles.  It 
is  heavily  timbered,  and  contains  a  great  variety  of  land, 
chiefly  adapted  to  pasturage.  The  valleys  are  very  fertile. 
Cap.  Jaeksborough.     Pop.  694. 

Jack^al  [Sp.  chacnf;  Pcrs.  shnca!].  the  Cam's  aiirciw,  a 
wild  dog  of  Asia,  South-eastern  Europe,  and  Africa,  which 
hunts  in  troops,  is  a  carrion-eater,  and  is  easily  domesli- 
cated.  It  is  regarded  l\v  some  authorities  as  specifically 
identical  with  tho  dog  and  the  wolf.  It  may  not  improb- 
ably be  one  of  the  originals  wbenci'  the  domestic  dog  has 
sprung,  as  the  two  breed  freely  together. 
Jackdaw.    Sec  Dmv. 

Jack'mnntown  Plantation,  tp.  of  Somerset  oo., 
Mo.     Pop.  65. 

Jack's,  tp.  of  Laurens  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  2720. 
Jacks'boroHgh,  posl-v..  county-seat  of  Campbell  co., 
Tcnn.,  a  miles  E.  of  Carcvvillc  Station  on  tho  Knoxvillo 
and  Ohio  R.  K.     Pop.  178. 

Jaeksborough,  post-v-.  county-seat  of  Jackco.,  Te.^., 
85  miles  W.  N.  W.  ot  Dallas. 
Jack's  Creek,  tp.  of  Yancy  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  946. 
Jack'screw,  an  apparatus  for  raising  heavy  buildings 
and  other  great  weights  by  means  of  the  screw.  The  name 
is,  however,  sometimes  applied  to  devices  for  the  same  pur- 
pose which  contain  no  screw.  The  principle  of  the  hy- 
draulic press  is  sometimes  employed.  There  arc  numer- 
ous machines  of  this  character. 

Jack'son,  county  of  N.  E.  Alabama,  bounded  on  the  N, 
by  Tennessee,  and  for  a  short  distance  on  the  E.  by  Georgia. 
.\rea,  1150  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Tennessee 
River  and  the  .Memphis  and  Charleston  R.  R.  The  surface 
is  broken  by  low  mountains.  Tho  soil  is  fertile.  Cattle, 
tiibacco,  wool,  corn,  and  cotton  aro  staple  products.  Cap. 
Scottsborough.     Pop.  19,410. 

Jackson,  county  of  N.  E.  .\rknnsas.  Area,  61 2  square 
miles.     It  is  traversed  by  While  River  and  the  Cairo  and 


JACKSON. 


lo4!J 


Fultnn  R.  R.  It  is  vorT  level,  except  in  the  N.,  and  is 
fertile  and  well  limbired.  Cotton,  corn,  hav,  fruit,  and 
timber  arc  (ho  chief  products.  Cap.  Jacksonport.  I'op. 
72BS. 

Jackson,  connlv  of  Florida,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ala- 
bama, and  on  the  K.  principally  by  Georgia.  Area.  'JOO 
square  miles.  The  navigable  Chattahoochee  River  flows 
along  the  E.  side,  and  the  Chipola  intersects  the  county. 
The  cnnntv  is  a  heavily  limbereil  limestone  region,  one  of 
the  best  agricultural  sections  of  Ihe  Slate.  Tobacco,  cotton, 
sugar  cane.  rice,  and  corn  are  largely  produced.  There  are 
several  caves  and  other  natural  curiosities.  Cap.  Marlanna. 
Pop.  9528. 

Jackson,  county  of  N.  E.  Georgia.  Area,  about  4.S0 
niuare  miles.  The  surface  is  broiicn.  The  county  abounds 
in  mineral  wealth,  as  yet  undeveloped.  Tobacco,  cotton, 
and  corn  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Jefferson.  Pop.  ll,li<l. 
Jnckson,  county  of  S.  Illinois,  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  .Misiissippi  River.  Area,  .'JTG  square  miles.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Rig  .MuilJy  River  aud  the  Illinois  Central 
and  the  (Vrand  Tower  and  Carbondale  R.  Rs.  Excellent 
coal  is  mined.  There  are  productive  salt-wells.  A  part  of 
the  county  has  a  hillv  surface,  and  is  known  as  the  fruit- 
region  of  .^cuilliLMn  Illinois.  The  soil  is  very  fertile.  Cattle, 
■grain,  fruit,  tobacco,  limber,  and  wn<d  are  staple  products. 
Cap.  Murpliysborough.     I'op.  19,lili4. 

Jackson,  county  of  S.  Indiana.  .\rca,  544  square 
miles.  It  is  traver.^ed  by  the  Driftwood  fork  of  AVhitc 
River  and  by  the  Ohio  anil  .Mississippi  R.  R.  The  surface 
is  varied,  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Iron  ore  is  found. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Lumber  and 
carriages  arc  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  Cap.  Browns- 
town.     Pop.  1S,974. 

Jackson,  county  of  Iowa,  bounded  on  tho  N.  E.  by  the 
Mississippi  River.  Area,  0:iO  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  broken,  the  soil  fertile.  Lead  and  iron  ores  are  found. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Carriages, 
cooperage,  lumber,  saddlery,  etc.  arc  among  the  leading 
articles  of  manufacture.  The  county  is  traversed  by  Maquo- 
keta  River  and  the  Sabula  Ackley  and  Dakota  R.  R.  Cap. 
Andrew.     Pop.  22,019. 

Jackson,  county  of  N.  E.  Kansas.  Area,  6S4  square 
miles.  It  is  I'erlilo  and  diversified.  I^oal  has  been  found. 
Live-stock  and  grain  arc  staple  products.  The  eouuly  is 
traversed  by  the  Kansas  Central  R.  R.  Cap.  Ilollon.  I'op. 
605:".. 

Jackson,  county  of  E.  Central  Kentucky.  Area,  42.0 
square  miles.  It  is  broken  by  mounlain-rangcs,  but  has 
fertile  valleys,  and  is  bclievecl  to  contain  much  coal.  Corn 
is  the  staple  product.     Cap.  McKce.     Pop.  4547. 

Jackson,  parish  of  N.  Louisiana.  Area,  about  780 
square  miles.  Cotton,  pork,  an'l  corn  are  staple  products. 
It  is  mostly  undulating  and  fertile  land.  Cap.  Vernon. 
P.ip.  764fi. 

Jackson,  county  of  S.  Michigan.  .\rea,  720  sqimro 
miles.  It  is  a  rich,  level  region,  having  limestone,  sand- 
stone, and  some  coal  and  iron  ore.  Cattle,  wool,  butter, 
and  grain  arc  staple  products.  Bricks,  carriages,  and  (lour 
are  leading  articles  of  munufaeture.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  numerous  railroads,  centring  at  Jackson,  tho  cap- 
ital.    Pop.  :!t'>,ll47. 

Jackson,  county  of  i^.  W.  Minnesota,  bounded  on  tho 
S.  by  Iowa.  Area,  "20  square  miles.  It  is  unrlulatiug, 
fertile,  and  abounds  in  small  lakes.  It  is  traversed  by  iho 
Des  .Moines  River.  Grain  is  the  staple  product.  Cap. 
Jackson.     Pop.  1S25. 

Jackson,  county  of  S.  E.  Mississippi.  Area,  about 
1050  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  tlie  navigable  Pas- 
cagoula  River,  and  bounded  on  tho  E.  by  .Vlabamn.and  on 
the  R.  by  tho  (lulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  level,  and  is  a  part  of 
tho  great  pine-region.  Rice  is  a  staple  product,  and  large 
quantities  of  lumber  arc  exported  to  New  Orleans.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  New  Orleans  Mobile  and  Te.\a8  R.  U. 
Cap.  Scranton.     Pop.  4:!02. 

Jackson,  edunly  of  .Missouri,  bounded  on  tho  W.  by 
Kansas  and  on  Iho  N.  by  Iho  Missouri  River.  Area.  580 
square  miles.  It  is  a  very  fertile,  rolling  country,  with  a 
limestone  soil.  Callle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  w«)oI  are  staple 
])rot|ucts.  The  raauufaetures  include  mel.'illic  wares,  ear- 
riag''S.  clothing,  saddlery,  furniture,  (lour,  cigars,  etc.  It  is 
traversed  by  tho  Atlantic  and  Pacific  H.  R.  ('ap.  Inde- 
pendence.    Pop.  55,041. 

Jackson,  a  former  county  of  Nebraska,  abolished  since 
the  census  of  ISTO.      Pop.  in  1M70,  9. 

Jackson,  county  of  W.  North  Carolina.  .\rea,  about 
700  s«(uare  miles.  It  is  very  niounlainous.  but  has  a  fer- 
tile soil,  beautiful  ami  sublime  scenery,  ami  great  mineral 
wealth.     Iron,  gold,  and  niarblc  arc  known  to  exist.     Cat- 


tle, corn,  tobacco,  and   wool    aro  staple   products.     Cap. 
Webster.     I'op.  G6S.J. 

Jackson,  county  in  S.  Ohio.  Area,  :i~S  square  miles. 
It  is  somewhat  hilly,  very  fertile,  and  abounds  in  coal,  salt, 
iron,  and  marble.  Cattle,  wool,  and  grain  arc  staple  prod- 
ucts. Pig  iron  is  a  leading  article  of  manufacture.  The 
countv  is  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Marietta  and  Cin- 
cinnati R.  R.     Cap.  Jackson.     Pop.  21,759. 

Jackson,  county  of  Oregon,  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Cal- 
ifornia. Area,  estimated  at  11.000  square  miles.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  oilier  ranges. 
Tho  soil  and  climate  arc  varied.  The  W.  part  is  in  the 
Rogue  River  Valley,  tho  middle  in  Klamath  Valley,  the 
E.  in  a  basin  wliich  does  not  communieale  with  Ihe  sea. 
Gold,  iron,  and  lignite  are  found.  Cap.  Jacksonville.  Pop. 
477S. 

Jackson,  county  of  Tennessee,  traversed  by  the  Cum- 
berland River.  Area,  about  180  square  miles.  II  has  a 
diversitied  surface  and  a  productive  soil.  Tobacco,  cattle, 
corn,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Gaiucsborough. 
Pop.  (in  K170),  12,583,  since  which  time  its  area  has  been 
much  reduced. 

Jackson,  county  of  Texas,  traversed  by  Lavacca  River 
and  its  lirauchcs,  and  on  the  S.  \V.  touching  Matugiuda 
Bay.  Area,  Sfl2  square  miles.  It  is  mostly  a  rolling 
prairie,  with  stiff  clay  soil,  but  very  productive.  Cattle, 
corn,  and  cotton  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Tcxana.  Pop. 
227S. 

Jackson,  county  of  West  Virginia,  bounded  on  the  W. 
by  Ibc  Ohio  River.  -Area.  405  square  miles.  It  is  gen- 
erally hilly  and  rolling,  with  a  rich  soil  and  abundant  pas- 
turage. Cattle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are  staiilo  prod- 
ucts.    Cap.  Ripley.     Pop.  10.:iOO. 

Jackson,  county  of  W.  Central  Wisconsin.  Area,  030 
square  miles.  It  has  a  diversified  surface  and  is  heavily 
timlK-red.  The  soil  is  good.  (Jrain  is  tho  staple  crop. 
Lumber  is  extensively  manufactured.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  West  Wisconsin  R.  R.  Cap.  Black  River  Falls.  Pop. 
7GS7. 

Jackson,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Clarke  co.,  Ala.,  on  the 
Tombigbcc  River.     Po]).  13G0. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Boone  eo.,  Ark.     Pop.  .320. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co..  Ark.     Pop.  .SOS. 

Jackson,  t\>.  of  Crittenden  co..  Ark.     Pop.  .116. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Dallas  eo..  Ark.     Pop.  6S7. 

Jackson,  I  p.  of  Little  River  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  820. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Monroe  eo..  Ark.     Pop.  784. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Newton  co..  Ark.     Pop.  850. 

Jackson,  (p.  of  Ouachita  co..  Ark.     Pop.  580. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Sharpe  co..  Ark.     Pop.  275. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Inion  co..  Ark.     Pop.  814. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  White  co..  Ark.     I'op.  .355. 

Jackson,  post-v..  cap.  of  Amador  co.,  Cal.,  at  iho 
junction  of  Ihe  N..  Middle,  and  .S.  forks  of  Jackson  Creek, 
55  miles  S.  E.  of  Sacramento;  has  2  weekly  newspapers, 
large  qiiiirlz-mills,  2  churches,  2  hotels,  etc.  I'armiug, 
gardining,  fruit-culture,  aii.l  quartz  and  placer  mining  aro 
carried  on.      Pop.  of  Ip.  2408. 

R.  .M.  linincs.  En.  "AjiAnon  Weeki.v  LEnoF.n." 

Jackson,  posl-v.,  county-sent  of  Butts  co.,  Ga.,  18 
miles  K.  Inim  (iriflin. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Efriugham  eo..  III.     Pop.  1028. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Will  eu..  111.     Pop.  MS... 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Allen  co..  Ind.     Pop.  202. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Bartholomew  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  618. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Blackford  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1.399. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Boone  co„  Ind.     Pop.  2453. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Brown  eo.,  Ind.     Pup.  1750. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Carroll  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1.301. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Cass  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1519. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Clay  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  1711. 

Jackson,  l]>.  of  Clinton  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  39.32. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Dearborn  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1.306.. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Decninr  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1740. 

Jackson,  Ip.  "f  I)c  Kalb  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  1141. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Elkhart  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1289. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Faycllc  eo..  Ind.     Pop.  10.37. 

JiK'kson,  tp.  of  Fountain  eo.,  Ind.     Poi).  1.321. 

.la<'kson,  Ip.  of  Greene  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1909. 

JiK'ksoii,  Ip.  of  Hamilton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  :t72l. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Hancock  co..  Ind.     Pop.  1849. 


ISoO 


JACKSON. 


Jackson,  tp.  of  Harrison  oo.,  lad.     Pop.  1400, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Howanl  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  1000. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Huutiugton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2257. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1137. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Jay  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  9S9. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Kosciusko  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1043. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Madison  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1344. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  ^liami  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1G45. 

Jaclison,  tp.  of  Morgan  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1723. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Newton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  VCG. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Orange  co.,  lud.     Pop.  1148. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Owen  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  757. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Parke  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1377. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Porter  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1072. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Putnam  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  149S. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Randolph  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1349. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Ripley  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1401. 

Jackson,  Iji.  of  Rush  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  770. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1305. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Spencer  co..  Ind.     Pop.  920. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Starke  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  125. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Steuben  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1122. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1732. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Tippecanoe  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  lOSl. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  779. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  4949. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Wells  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1140. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  White  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  135S. 

Jackson,  post-tp.  of  Adair  co.,  la.     Pop.  339. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Benton  co.,  la.     Pop.  963. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Boone  co.,  la.     Pop.  798. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Bremer  co.,  la.     Pop.  1131. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Butler  co.,  la.     Pop.  5G9. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  la.     Pop.  367. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Clarke  co.,  la.     Pop.  798. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  la.     Pop.  246. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Des  Moines  co.,  la.     Pop.  103. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Guthrie  co.,  la.     Pop.  875. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Hardin  co.,  la.     Pop.  867. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Harrison  co.,  la.     Fop.  20C. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Henry  co.,  la.     Pop.  1202. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  la.     Pop.  862. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Jones  co.,  la.     Pop.  899. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Keokuk  co.,  la.     Pop.  1528. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Leo  co.,  la.     Pop.  1460, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Linn  co.,  la.     Pop.  99G. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Lucas  co.,  la.     Pop.  460. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Madison  co.,  la.     Pop.  5,34. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  la.     Pop.  942. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  la.     Pop.  1109. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Poweshiek  co.,  la.     Pop.  1629. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Sac  co..  la.     Pop.  469. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  la.     Pop.  4S6. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Taylor  co.,  la.     Pop.  351. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Van  Burcn  co.,  la.     Pop.  1292. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  la.     Pop.  639. 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Washington  CO.,  la.     Pop.  879, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Wayne  co,,  la.     Pop,  356. 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Webster  co.,  la.     Pop.  380. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Winneshiek  co.,  la.     Pop.  6G8. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Anderson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  539. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Lyon  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  1079. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Riley  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  1249. 

Jackson,  post-v,,  county-seat  of  Breathitt  co.,  Ky.,  on 
ILe  Kentucky  River,  55  miles  E.  by  S,  from  Richmond,  Ky. 
Pop.  54. 

Jackson,  a  v,  of  East  Feliciana  parish,  La,  It  has  1 
weekly  ncnjpapcr.     Pop.  934, 

Jackson,  post-tp.  of  Waldo  co,,  Me.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  lumber,  and  is  8  miles  N.  of  Brooks  Station  on  the 
Maine  Central  R.  R.     Pop.  707. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Frederick  co,,  Md,     Pop,  1699, 

Jackson,  city,  cap.of  .Fack.«on  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Mich- 
igan Central  R.  R.  (main  line),  7G  miles  W,  of  Detroit,  at 
the  junction  of  a  branch  of  the  Michigan  Southern  R,  K,, 


the  Fort  Wayne  Jackson  and  Saginaw,  and  the  Grand 
River  Valley  R.  Rs„  and  the  air-lino  division  of  the  tirst- 
namcd  road;  has  productive  coal-mines,  large  manufac- 
tures of  sai-.'*oda,  the  main  shops  of  the  Central  R.  R.,  ex- 
tensive foundries,  engine-works,  flouring  and  j>lauing  mills, 
fire-clay  works,  and  other  important  manufacturing  in- 
terests. It  has  extensive  commercial  interests,  and  is  in  a 
prosperous  farming  region.  The  city  (incorporated  1857) 
has  5  banks,  13  churches,  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspa- 
pers, a  fine  system  of  pulilic  schools,  Holly  water-works,  a 
trotting  park,  omnibus  lines,  a  tine  passenger  depOt,  good 
water-power,  and  is  the  site  of  the  Michigan  State  prison,  a 
large  establishment,  carrying  on  extensive  manufactures. 
Pop.  1 1,447.     Caulto.v  *fe  V'a.n  ANxWErtr,  Kns.  *•  Patriot." 

Jackson,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jackson  co.,  Minn,,  at  tlie 
prospective  junction  of  the  Southern  Minnesota  and  the 
Dcs  Moines  Valley  R,  Rs,,  not  yet  finished  to  this  point. 
It  is  on  the  Des  Moines  River,  8  miles  N.  of  the  Iowa  line, 
in  a  fertile  and  well-timbered  region  :  has  large  grist-mills, 
great  water-power,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  church,  2  hotels, 
a  fine  court-house,  and  other  public  buildings.  It  is  rap- 
idly growing.  H.  M.  Avery,  Kd.  '■  Repi'blic," 

Jack'son,  city,  cap.  of  Mississippi,  and  shire-town  of 
Hinds  CO.,  on  the  New  Orleans  .lackson  and  (ireat  North- 
ern R.  R.,  183  miles  N.  of  New  Orleans,  on  the  Vicksbnrg 
and  ^leridian  R.  R.,  45  miles  E.  of  Vieksburg,  and  on  the 
W.  side  of  Pearl  River,  Among  its  public  buildings  are 
the  State  capitol  and  State  penitentiary,  while  within  the 
city  limits  are  institutions  for  the  blind  and  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb;  and  one  mile  to  the  N,  stands  the  lunatic  asy- 
lum. Other  institutions  are  2  large  public  schools,  a  boys' 
high  school,  a  young  ladies'  institute,  and  various  other 
private  schools;  a  large  State  library,  1  monthly,  1  daily, 
and  3  weekly  newspapers,  10  churches  (3  for  the  colored 
citizens),  2  foundries,  2  sasb,  door,  and  blind  factories,  3 
banking-houses,  2  hotels,  a  city-hall,  a  street  railroad,  and 
an  efficient  fire  department  with  steam  and  hand  engines. 
During  the  late  war  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed, 
but  it  has  been  rebuilt  in  a  sulistnntial  manner.  Jackson 
is  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  V.  S.  courts  and  of  the  circuit 
and  chancery  courts  for  a  portion  of  the  county  ;  and  the 
•State  supreme  court  sits  here  about  nine  months  of  the 
year.  Jackson  has  a  good  trade  in  cotton  and  other  com- 
modities. Its  population  is  now  ( 1^74)  about  one-half  col- 
ored. It  is  a  pleasant  and  well-built  town.  Pop,  4234. 
J,  L,  Power,  Asso.  Ptb.  "  Clarios." 

Jackson,  tp.  of  .\ndrow  co,.  Mo.     Pop.  2401. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Buchanan  co..  Mo.     Pop.  890. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Camden  co.,  Mo.     Pop,  810. 

Jackson,  post-v,,  cap.  of  Cape  Girardeau  co..  Mo.,  10 
miles  N,  W.  of  Cape  Girardeau,  has  a  high  school,  public 
s,;hool,  seminary,  weekly  newspaper,  6  churches,  2  hotels, 
a  flouring-mill,  and  6  dry-goofls  stores.     Pop.  459. 

Mai,i>\e  it  JoH.v'soN',  Eds.  "Cash-Book," 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Carter  co..  Mo.     Pop.  095, 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Clarke  co,.  Mo,     Pop.  1472. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Clinton  co,.  Mo.     Pop.  1752. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Dallas  co..  Mo,     Pop,  1432. 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Daviess  co,.  Mo.     Pop.  1059. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Douglas  co..  Mo.     Pop.  ,330, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Gentry  co,.  Mo.     Pop,  1037. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  Greene  co,.  Mo.     Pop.  1759, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Jasper  co..  Mo.     Pop,  1238. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Johnson  co..  Mo,     Pop.  2200. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Linn  co..  Mo.     Pop.  948. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Livingston  co..  Mo.     Pop.  2603. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Macon  co..  Mo,     Pop.  1755. 

Jackson,  Ip.  of  .Maries  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1419. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Monroe  co..  Mo.     Pop.  4367. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Nodaway  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  895. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Osage  co.,  Mo,     Pop,  1104, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Ozark  co..  Mo.     Pop,  353. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Polk  co,.  Mo,     Pop,  1483, 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Putnam  co..  Mo.     Pop.  799. 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Randolph  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1175. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Reynolds  co..  Mo.     Pop.  ,327. 

Jackson,  tp,  of  Shannon  co,.  Mo,     Pop.  370. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Shelby  co..  Mo,     Pop,  1416. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  St.  Clair  co..  Mo.     Pop,  411, 

Jackson,  tp.  of  St.  Genevieve  co.,  Mo.     Pop,  1112. 

Jackson,  tp.  of  Sullivan  co,.  Mo,     Pop.  902. 

Jackson,  l|i.  of  Texas  co,.  Mo.     Pop,  537, 

Jackson,  post-tp.  of  Dakota  co,,  Neb,     Pop,  668. 


JACKSON. 


l.J.)l 


Jackson,  post-lp.  of  Carroll  co.,  N.  H.,  90  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Concord,  among  the  Wbito  Mountaius.     Pop.  474. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Ocean  co.,  N.  J.     Pop.  17  J5. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Wn?liin!»ton  co..  N.  Y.,  alroumling  in 
Btft-p  mountains,  licnutifiil  lakce,  and  forests  and  >ycll-cul- 
tivatcd  farms.     Pop.  1GG2. 

Jackson,   pnst-v,,   county-scat  of  Northampton   co., 
N.  ('.,  S  miles  from  Seahoard  "ptation,  on  tho  Seaboard  and 
Eoanokc  R.  11.     Pop.  181 ;  of  tp.  523. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Union  oo.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1010. 
Jauksun,  tp.  of  Allen  co.,<0.     Pop.  ISOl. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Ashland  co.,  0.     Pop.  1409. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  AngIai7.o  co.,  0.     Pop.  1502. 
Jackson,  tp,  of  Crown  co.,  0.     Pop.  995. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Chamjiaign  co.,  0.     Pop.  1S31. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Clermont  co.,  0.     Pop.  1GJ8. 
Jackson,  Ip.  of  Coshocton  co.,  0.     Pop.  1767. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  0.     Pop.  4021. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Darko  co.,  0.     Pop.  20SS. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  0.     Pop.  192.0. 
Jackson,  Ip.  of  Guernsey  co.,  0.     Pop.  SO". 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Ilaucoeli  co.,  0.     Pop.  1209. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Hardin  co.,  0.     Pop.  1412. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Highland  co.,  0.     Pop.  905. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  0.     Pop.  1532. 
Jackson,  or  Jackson  Court-house,  post-v.,  cap. 
of  .lacksou  CO.,  0.,  on  the  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  11.  K., 
Portsmouth  l>raneli,  7  miles  fiom  ll.auden  Junction.     It 
has  6  churches,  a  largo  school  building,  2  weekly  news- 
papers, and  6  pig-iion  furnaces;  has  important  coal-mines, 
and  a  largo  trade  in  coal  and  iron,  both  of  fine  quality. 
Tho  town  is  rapidly  inercasing  in  population.     Pop.  21J16. 
Davis  Maiki.lv,  Prop.  "Jackson  Standaiid." 
Jncksun,  tp.  of  Knox  co.,  0.     Pop.  818. 
Jackson  (Jacksomtowx  P.  O.),  a  v.  of  Licking  tp.. 
Licking  CO.,  0.,  on  tbo  Newark  Somerset  and  Siraitsvillo 
11.  11.     Pop.  438. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Mahoning  Co.,  0.     Pop.  909. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Monroe  CO.,  0.     Pop.  1354. 
Jackson,  Ip.  of  Montgomery  co.,  0.     Pop.  2170. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  JIuskingum  co.,  0.     Pop.  1174. 
Jackson,  a  v.  of  AVashington  tp.,  Muskingum  co.,  0., 
5  miles  from  Zauesville.     Pop.  5(5. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Noble  co.,  0.     Pop.  1190. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Paulding  co.,  0.     Pop.  55C. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Perry  co.,  0.     Pop.  1539. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Pickaway  co.,  0.     Pop.  1202. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Pike  eo.,  0.     Pop.  1840. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Preblo  co.,  0.     Pop.  1430. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Putnam  co.,  0.     Pop.  737. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Uichland  CO.,  0.     Pop.  931. 
Jncksiin,  tp.  of  Sandusky  co.,  0.     Pop.  1350. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Seneca  co.,  0.     Pop.  1131. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  0.     Pop.  1101. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Stark  co.,  0.     Pop.  lOlfl. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  0.     Pop.  035. 
Jiii-kson,  Ip.  of  Van  Wert  eo.,  0.     Pop.  249. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Vinlon  co.,  0.     Pop.  1294. 
Jiii'ksou,  Ip.  of  Wood  CO.,  0.     Pop.  .347. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Wyandot  cc,  0.     Pop.  771. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Butler  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1137. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Cambria  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  90S. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Columbia  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  565, 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Dauphin  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1030. 
Jiirkson,  tp.  of  (Ireenc  eo.,  Pa.     Pop.  9111. 
Jiickson,  l|i.  of  Huntingdon  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1662. 
Jiick'<on,  Ip.  of  Lebanon  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  3437. 
.lacUson,  Ip.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pn.     Pop.  624. 
.laokson,  tp.  of  Lycoming  co.,  Pn.     Pop.  512, 
.lackson,  tp.  of  Mercer  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  752. 
Jackson,  tp  of  Monroe  co..  Pa.     Pop.  851. 
.lackson,  ip.  of  Northumberland  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  8SC. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Perry  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1103. 
.lackson,  tp.  t>f  Poller  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  49. 
Jiicksnn,  tp.  of  Snyiler  co..  Pa.     Pop.  712. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Susquehanna  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1175. 


Jackson,  tp.  of  Tioga  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1531. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Venango  co..  Pa.     Pop.  "20. 
Jackson,  ip.  of  York  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1499. 
Jackson,  eily.  cap.  of  Madison  co.,  Tenn.,  is  near  tho 
centre  of  West  Tennessee,  at  the  junction  of  the  Mississippi 
Central  and  tho  Mobile  and  Ohio  U.  Rs.,  72  miles  N.  K.  of 
Memphis:  has  125  business-houses.  2  banks,  5  hotels,  3 
halls,  11  churches,  2  daily  and  5  weekly  newspapers.  2  rail- 
road machine-shops,  3  planing  and  3  flouring  mills,  1  foun- 
dry, 2  carriage  manufactories,  besides  many  small  manu- 
facturing interests  of  various  kinds.     It  has  a  very  im- 
portant cntton-lrade,  is  the  seat  of  West  Tennessee  Col- 
Ice,  and  has  2  ladies'  seminaries  and  other  schools.    Pop. 
4119,  much  increased  since  the  census. 

D.  M.  WisiwM  &  Co.,  Props.  "  Wiiio  Axn  TiuBt.XE." 
Jackson,  ip.  of  Amelia  eo.,  Va.     Pop.  2S27. 
Jackson,  post-tp.  of  Louisa  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1525. 
Jackson,  Ip.  of  RappahanoeU  co.,  Vn.     Pop.  15C8. 
Jackson,  tp.  of  Adams  eo..  Wis.     Pop.  4S1. 
Jackson,  post-tp.  of  Washington  co..  Wis.    Pop.  1978. 
Jackson  (Ansr.n),  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  about  1811 ;  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in   1837;  was 
appointed  tutor  there,  and  afterwards  professor  of  ethics 
and  metaphysics.     In  1S58  he  became  president  of  Hobart 
College,  and   in   1S07  president  of  Trinity  College.     D.  at 
Harliord,  Conn.,  Apr.  19,  1S74. 

Jackson  (.AnnAnAM  Reeves),  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia June  17,  1827;  educated  in  the  public  sehools  of 
Philadelphia,  and  graduated  in  the  spring  of  1811)  at  tho 
Philadelphia  Central  High  School,  from  which  institution 
he  subsequently  received  the  degree  of  master  of  arts;  studied 
medicine  under  Prof.  John  Wiltbank,  and  received  I  be  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  from  the  medical  department  of  Penn- 
sylvania Medical  College  at  Philadeli)hia  in  1S4S;  prac- 
tised his  profession  at  Stroudsbnrg,  Pa.,  until  May.  1870, 
when  he  removed  to  Chicago.  111.;  founded  the  Woman's 
Hospital  of  the  Slate  of  Illinois,  of  which  he  became  sur- 
geon-inehief.  In  the  winter  of  1872  he  was  elecled  to  the 
chair  of  diseases  of  women  by  the  faculty  of  Rush  iMidieal 
College,  who,  in  the  following  spring,  conferred  upon  bim 
the  honorary  degree  of  M.  D. ;  in  the  spring  of  1874  elected 
editor  of  the  Chii-niio  Mcdicnl  IbijiKt'-r  by  tho  Chicago 
Medico-Historical  Society;  member  of  Illinois  State  Medi- 
cal Society,  Academy  of  Science,  Chicago,  Chicago  Medical 
Society,  Chicago  Society  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  Chi- 
cago Medico-lIistoricarSociety  ;  corresponding  member  of 
tho  Oynreeologieal  Society  of  Hoston.  Author  of  papers— 
llcmn'valuf  I.tirije  Urelhro-rcniriil  CnlniliiK  (\ii:)fi).  A,'j-«cc(l'on 
of  Entire  Flbilia,  etc.  (1858),  Obnlhiiilr  llirmorrhnfie  from 
the  Frrcnim  Lin;inir(\Sad),  On  the  Kjjlicnctinf  Cold  Affiininn 
in  Narcnlhm  (1859).  Ifi/droccle  of  tlir  Sirl;  nnil  /(»  '/'retit- 
menl  hij  Ercisian  (1801 ),  Snrrrnnfut  linnitrnl  of  both  ()i-arira 
(1866),  Uterine  Fibroid  of  Pfinterior  W'liH  Siicrrmfnili/  llr- 
tnoved  (1870),  FibrouK  Tnmnr  of  Ulitddcr  .S'iiccr«»/'n//i/  lie- 
moved  (1870),  A'oii-orarHin  Menslniotion.  etc.  (1870),  Some 
/{emnrtt  tipon  CuKm  of  Obntrnrtion  of  the  Itoirela,  etc. 
(1871).  Veiico-vitriimd  Fistnln,  etc.  (1871),  Hemoial  of  Fi- 
hroiin  Tumor  of  I'tcrns  (1872),  Unnnecemfnl  Attempt  to  Re- 
move Fibront  fnmor  of  Womb  (1873),  Treatment  of  Uterine 
Fibroidn  loj  the  Use  of  Ertjotine  (1874). 

Jackson  (Andiiew),  LL.D.,  tho  seventh  President  of 
the  U.  S.,  b.  at  the  Waxhaw  Settlemcnl,  Union  eo.,  N.  C._(at 
that  time  supposed  to  be  in  South  Carolina),  Mar.  15, 1767, 
His  parents  were  Scotch-Irish,  natives  of  Carriekfergns, 
who  came  to  America  in  1705  and  settled  on  Twelve  Milo 
Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Catawba.  His  fallier,  who  was  a 
poor  farm-laborer,  died  shortly  before  Andrew's  birth,  when 
his  mother  removed  to  Waxliaw,  where  some  relatives  re- 
sided. Few  jinrtieulars  of  the  ehiblhood  of  JaeUson  have 
been  prescrveil ;  his  e  lueation  was  of  the  mo«l  limited  kind, 
and  ho  showed  no  fondness  for  books.  In  1780,  at  the  ago 
of  thirteen,  he  with  his  brother  Robert  volunteered  to  servo 
in  tho  Revidutinnary  forces  under  C.en.  Sumter,  and  was  a 
witness  of  the  hitter's  defeat  nt  Hanging  Hock.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  Iho  brothers  were  made  prisoners,  and  eoiifined 
at  Camden,  e.vperiencing  brutal  treatment  from  their  cap- 
tors, and  being  speelnlors  of  Cien.  Greene's  defeat  at  Iloli- 
kirk's  Hill.  Through  Iheir  mother's  exertions  the  bfiys 
were  exchanged  while  suHering  from  small|iox.  Robert 
soon  dieil  at  Waxbaw,  anil  Mrs.  Jackson  died  not  long 
after  at  Charleston  of  ship  fever,  contracted  in  attending 
tho  .Aiiierienn  prisoners.  Young  Jackson,  left  destitute, 
worked  for  some  time  in  a  saddler's  shop,  afterwards  taught 
school,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  eomnnneed  the  study  of 
law  at  Salisbury,  N.  C.  In  1786  he  was  admitled  to  Iho 
bar,  and  removed  in  1788  to  Nashville,  in  what  was  then 
tho  western  district  of  North  Carolina,  with  the  appoint- 
ment of  tollciior  or  public  prosecutor.     Two  years  later 


1352 


JACKSON. 


Tennessee  became  a  Territory,  ami  Jackson  was  appointed 
by  Pres.  Washington  I'.  8.  attorney  for  the  new  tiistrict. 
In  1701  be  married  Mrs.  Kachel  Kobards  (daughter  of  Col. 
John  Duuulson),  whom  hv  supposed  to  have  been  divorced 
in  that  year  by  an  ad  uf  tlic  ii-gislature  of  A'irgiuia.  It 
afterwards  appeared  that  the  divorce  liad  not  become  legal 
until  K'.'.'l,  whrn  it  was  formally  granted  l>y  ajury  in  Mer- 
cer CO..  Ky..  al  the  application  of  the  husband,  who  was  a 
resident  of  that  State,  and  it  was  not  until  Jan.,  171'4,  that 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jacks<in  were  legally  married  by  a  second 
ceremony  at  Xushville.  I'ndcr  the  circumstances  it  was 
not  unnatural  that  the  factn  of  the  case  were  so  misrepre- 
sented by  opponents  in  the  political  campaigns  a  quarter 
of  a  century  hiter  as  to  become  the  basis  of  serious  charges 
against  Jackson's  morality  ;  which,  however,  has  been  sat- 
isfactorily attested  by  abundant  evidence.  Jackson  was 
untiring  in  the  exercise  of  his  duties  as  U.  S.  attorney, 
which  demanded  frequent  journeys  through  the  wilderness 
ancl  exposure  to  Indian  hostilities;  he  acquired  consider- 
able property  in  land,  and  obtained  such  influence  as  to  be 
chosen  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the  con- 
stitution of  the  new  State  of  Tennessee  (1796),  and  was 
elected  in  that  year  its  first  representative  in  Congress. 
The  following  year  (1797)  he  was  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Sen- 
ate, but  resigned  in  1798  to  accept  a  seat  on  the  bench  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee,  which  he  held  till  1804. 
He  was  elected  a  major-general  of  the  State  militia  in 
1801,  and  on  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  (l^tKi)  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  appointment  as  governor 
of  the  new  Territory.  In  1804  he  withdrew  from  poli- 
tics, settled  on  the  plantation  which  he  called  the  ••  Her- 
mitage" near  Nashville,  set  up  a  cotton-gin,  formed  a 
partnership,  and  traded  to  New  Orleans,  making  the  voy- 
ages on  flatboats.  Through  his  hot  temper  Jackson  was 
involved  in  several  quarrels  and  ''affairs  of  honor"  during 
this  period,  in  one  of  which  ( 1806)  he  was  severely  wounded, 
but  had  the  misfortune  to  kill  his  opponent,  Mr.  Charles 
Dickinson.  In  1805,  Aaron  Burr  had  visited  Nashville 
and  been  a  guest  of  Jackson,  with  whom  he  corresponded 
on  the  subject  of  a  war  with  Spain,  which  w.is  anticipated 
and  desired  by  them,  as  well  as  by  the  people  of  the  South- 
west generally.  Burr  repeated  his  visit  in  Sept.,  1806, 
when  he  engaged  in  the  celebrated  combinations  which  led 
to  his  trial  for  treason;  he  was  warmly  received  by  Jack- 
son, at  whose  instance  a  public  ball  was  given  in  his  honor 
at  Nashville,  and  contracted  with  the  latter  for  boats  and 
provisions.  Earh'  in  1807,  when  Burr  had  been  proclaimed 
a  traitor  by  l*res.  Jefferson,  volunteer  forces  for  the  Federal 
service  were  organized  at  Nashville  under  Jackson's  com- 
mand, but  his  energy  and  activity  did  not  shield  him  from 
suspicions  of  connivance  in  the  supposed  treason.  Ho  was 
summoned  to  Richmond  as  a  witness  in  Burr's  trial,  but 
was  not  called  to  the  stand,  probaldy  because  he  was  out- 
spoken in  his  partisausliip.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Great  Britain  in  ISI2,  Jackson  tendered  his  services,  and  in 
Jan.,  IHI.'i,  embarked  for  New  Orleans  at  the  head  of  the 
Tennessee  contingent.  In  March  ho  received  an  order  to 
disband  his  forces,  but  in  September  he  again  took  the  field 
in  the  Creek  war.  and  in  conjunction  with  his  former  part- 
ner, Col.  Coffee,  inflit-ted  upon  the  Indians  the  memorable 
defeats  at  Talladega.  I'^muckfaw,  and  Tallapoosa.  In  May, 
1814,  Jackson,  who  had  now  acquired  a  national  reputation, 
was  appointed  a  major-genera!  of  the  U.  S.  army,  and 
commenced  a  campaign  against  the  British  in  Florida,  con- 
ducted the  defence  of  Mobile  (Sept.  15),  seized  upon  Pen- 
sacola  (Nov.  6),  and  immediately  transported  the  bulk  of 
his  troops  to  New  Orleans,  then  threatened  by  a  powerful 
naval  force.  Martial  law  was  declared  in  Louisiana,  the 
State  militia  was  called  to  arms,  engagements  with  tho 
British  were  fought  Dec.  So  and  28,  and  after  reinforcements 
had  been  received  on  both  sides  the  famous  victory  of 
Jan.  8,  1815,  crowned  Jackson's  fame  as  a  soldier,  and 
made  him  the  typical  American  hero  of  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1S17-1S  he  conducted  the 
first  war  against  the  Seminoles  of  Florida,  during  which 
he  seized  upon  Pensacola  and  executed  by  court-martial 
two  British  subjects  (Arbuthnot  and  AmVjrietcr) — acts 
which  might  easily  have  involved  the  IT.  S.  in  war  both 
with  Spain  and  Great  Britain.  Fortunately,  the  peril  was 
averted  (1819)  by  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  V.  S..  and 
Jackson,  who  had  escaped  a  trial  for  the  irregularity  of 
bis  conduct  only  through  a  division  of  opinion  in  Monroe's 
cabinet,  was  appointed  (1821)  governor  of  the  new  Terri- 
tory. Soon  afterward  he  deeiined  the  appointment  of 
minister  to  Mexico.  In  182r>.  Jackson  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate,  and  nominated  by  the  Tennessee  legislature 
for  tho  Presidency.  This  candidacy,  though  at  first  a 
matter  of  surprise,  and  even  merriment,  speedily  became 
popular,  and  in  1824  the  hero  of  New  Orleons  received  the 
largest  popular  vote  among  tho  four  candidates,  though 
J.  Q.  Adams  was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives 


through  the  iufluenoe  of  Henry  Clay.  lu  1828,  Jackeon 
was  triumphantly  elected  President  over  Adams  after  a 
campaign  of  unequalled  bitterness,  which  may  be  considered 
the  point  ot"  departure  of  the  modern  Democratic  parfy.  In- 
augurated on  ^Iar.  4.  1S29,  he  at  once  removed  from  office 
all  the  incumbents  Vtelonging  to  the  opposite  party — a  pro- 
cedure new  to  American  politics,  but  which  naturally  be- 
came a  precedent.  The  first  term  of  Jackson  was  cha- 
racterized by  quarrels  between  the  Vice-President,  Cal- 
houn, and  the  secretary  of  state,  Van  Buren,  attended  by 
a  cabinet  crisis  originating  in  scandals  connected  with  the 
name  of  Mrs.  General  Eaton  (wife  of  the  secretary  of  war) ; 
by  the  beginning  of  his  war  upon  the  U.  S.  Bank,  and  by 
his  vigorous  action  against  the  partisans  of  Calhoun,  who 
in  South  Carolina  (T8;i2)  threatened  to  nullify  the  acts  of 
Congress  establishing  a  protective  tariff.  In  tho  Presidential 
campaign  of  I 8;j2,  Jackson  received  219  out  of  2SS  electoral 
votes,  his  competitor  being  Jlr.  Chiy,  while  Mr.  Wirt,  on 
an  '•  Anti-Masonic  "  platform,  received  the  vote  of  Vermont 
alone.  In  I83.'i,  President  Jackson  removed  the  govern- 
ment deposits  from  tho  V.  S.  Bank,  thereby  incurring  a 
vote  of  censure  from  the  Senate,  which  was,  however,  ex- 
punged ftnir  years  later.  During  (his  second  term  of 
office  the  Cherokces,  Choctaws,  and  Creeks  were  remov- 
ed, not  without  difhculty,  from  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi  to  the  Indian  Territory;  the  national  debt 
was  extinguished.  Arkansas  and  Michigan  were  admitted 
as  States  into  the  I'nion,  the  Seminole  war  was  renewed, 
the  anti-slavery  agitation  first  acquired  importance,  the 
Mormon  dcUision,  which  had  originated  in  1829,  attained 
considerable  proportions  in  Ohio  and  Missouri,  and  the 
country  experienced  (18.17)  its  greatest  pecuniary  panic. 
Railroads  with  locomotive  propulsion  were  introduced  into 
America  during  Jackson's  first  term  ( 1829),  and  had  become 
an  important  element  of  national  life  before  the  close  of 
his  second  term.  For  many  reasons,  therefore,  the  admin- 
istration of  Pre?.  Jackson  formed  an  era  in  American  his- 
tory, political,  social,  and  industrial.  He  succeeded  in  ef- 
fecting the  election  of  his  friend  Van  iJuren  as  his  successor, 
retired  from  the  Presidency  Mar.  4,  lS."i7,  and  led  a  tranquil 
life  at  the  Hermitage  until  his  death,  June  8, 1845.  During 
his  closing  years  he  was  a  professed  Christian  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Presbyterian  (.'hurch.  No  American  of  this  cen- 
tury has  been  the  subject  of  such  opposite  judgments  ;  he 
was  loved  and  hated  with  equal  vehemence  during  his  life, 
but  at  the  present  (1875)  distance  of  time  from  his  career, 
while  opinions  still  vary  as  to  the  merits  of  most  of  his 
jiuldic  acts,  few  of  his  countrymen  will  question  that  he 
was  a  warm-hearted,  brave,  patriotic,  honest,  and  sincere 
man.  If  his  distinguishing  qualities  were  not  such  as  con- 
stitute statesmanship  in  the  highest  sense,  he  at  least  never 
pretended  to  other  merits  than  such  as  were  written  to  his 
credit  on  the  page  of  American  history — not  attempting  to 
disguise  the  demerits,  which  were  equally  legible.  Tho 
m.ijority  of  his  countrymen  accepted  and  honored  him  in 
spite  of  all  that  calumny  as  well  as  truth  could  allege 
against  him.  His  faults  may  therefore  be  truly  said  to 
have  been  those  of  his  time;  his  magnificent  virtues  may 
al;:o,  with  the  same  justice,  be  considered  as  typical  of  a 
state  of  society  which  has  nearly  passed  away.  Jackson's 
life  has  been  many  times  written:  bv  Eaton  (1824),  "Wil- 
liam Cobbcft(lS;U),  Amos  Kendall  (1844),  Jenkins  (1850), 
Headley  (I852j.  and  with  great  fulness  and  completeness 
by  .lames  Parlon  (New  York,  3  vols..  1859  »(■</.),  Sec  also 
Thomas  H.  Benton's  Thirty  Years'  Vuir  (1854)  for  tho  po- 
litical history  of  his  administration.      Porti^r  C.  Bliss. 

Jackson  (CiiAnLr.s).  LL.D.,b.at  Ncwburyport,  Mass., 
Mav  .*il.  1775,  son  of  Hon.  Jonathan  .Jackson:  graduated 
at  ILirvard  College  in  I79;i:  studied  law  in  the  office  of 
Chief- Justice  Parsons,  ami,  removing  to  Boston  in  iSO^.soctn 
attained  an  eminent  position  at  the  bar;  was  judge  of  the 
Massachusetts  supremo  court  18111-24.  member  of  the  con- 
stitutional convention  in  1820.  and  chairman  of  a  com  mission 
to  codify  tho  State  laws  in  IS.tS.  Thr-jugh  his  labors  sev- 
eral important  reforms  were  introduceil  into  Massachusetts 
legislation,  especially  in  reference  to  debit  and  credit.  He 
published  a  treatise  on  PUfniitvjH  ami  Prurtivf  in  liml  Ac- 
tioun  (1828),  which  is  a  recognized  authority  upon  the  law 
of  property.     D.  at  Boston  Dec.  13,  1855. 

Jackson  (CuAni.rs  Davis).  D.  D.,  b.  in  Salem,  Mass.. 
Dec.  15,  1811;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  18.1.3,  and  at 
Andover  in  18.18;  was  for  a  time  professor  in  Lane  Semi- 
nary and  a  teacher  in  Petersburg,  Va.,  and  afterwards  in 
Flushing,  N.  Y.  :  in  1842  took  priest's  orders  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  ;  has  since  held  the  rectorships  of 
St.  Stephen's,  N.  Y.,  St.  Luke's,  Staten  Island,  and  St. 
Peter's,  Westchester,  N.  Y.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
volumes  of  sermons  and  of  works  on  education.  D.  at 
Westchester,  N.  Y.,  June  28,  1871. 

Jackson  (Charles  Thomas),  M.  D.,  b,  at  Plymouth, 


JACKSON. 


1353 


Mass.,  June  21,  ISOo:  studied  medicine  in  Boston;  took 
part  in  1S27-29  with  Francis  Al;jer  in  the  geological  sur- 
vey of  Nova  Scotia ;  studied  medicine  and  geoIo;ry  in  Ku- 
ropc  1S29-32,  assisting  in  more  than  200  nutupsics  of 
cholera  victim.-*  in  Vienna;  in  IS36  became  Stfito  geologist 
of  Maine  (published  three  annual  reports);  in  Is;;*  had  a 
controversy  with  Prof.  Morse  regarding  the  invention  of 
the  telegraph,  to  which  he  had  some  claims;  in  18.'J0  State 
geologist  of  Rhode  Inland  (I  vol.  of  reports) :  in  ISIO  Plate 
geologist  of  New  Hampshire  (1  report  1S44):  was  1^17- 
4i)  IT.  .S.  surveyor  of  mineral  lands  in  Michigan  (report 
1850).  He  has  also  received  numerous  honors  ns  the  dis- 
coverer of  anaesthetics — a  ilistinction  which  has  found  sev- 
eral other  claimants,  lie  has  published  various  chemical 
reports  for  the  U.  S.  patent-office  and  a  Manual  of  Etkeri' 
zalion  (1861). 

Jackson  (Ci.AiBonvK  F.),  b.  in  Fleming  co.,  Ky.,  Apr. 
4,  ISOT:  removed  in  IS22  to  Missouri;  was  a  captain  in 
the  Black  Hawk  war,  and  was  one  year  Speaker  of  the 
House  in  Missouri.  In  1861  ho  was  chosen  governor,  but 
was  deposed  by  the  State  convention  in  the  same  year.  Ho 
became  a  Confederate  general,  and  d.  at  Little  Rock,  Ark., 
Dec.  6,  1862. 

Jackson  fCoNRAn  Feger),  b.  in  Pennsylvania;  pre- 
vious to  ISOl  was  engaged  in  railroad  business  with  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  R.  R. ;  appointed  colonel  9th 
Pennsylvania  Volunteers  at  the  outi>reak  of  the  civil  war, 
and  served  in  McCall's  division  of  Pennsylvania  Reserves 
at  Dranesville,  Va.,  and  throughout  the  Va.  Peninsula 
campaign  18(12;  appointed  brigadier-genera!  of  volunteers 
July,  1862,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  South  Mountain, 
Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg,  where  he  was  killed,  Dec. 
13,  18G2.  G.  C.  SiMsiovs. 

Jackson  f  IIe\rv).  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  in  Moreton-IIemp- 
stead.  Devonshire.  Kngland.  .Tuly  7,  1778;  brought  to  this 
country  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  age  by  his  brother,  Gov. 
.Tames  Jackson  of  (Jeorgia;  thoroughly  educated  at  the 
Pennsylvania  University  in  Philadelphia,  where  ho  first 
look  the  degree  of  M.  D.,  and  commenced  the  practice  of 
medicine  in  association  with  Dr.  (Irimes  of  that  city,  then 
one  of  the  most  eminent  physieians  in  the  U.  S.  From 
this  lucrative  pursuit  he  was  called  to  the  professorship  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1811. 
Having  more  taste  for  acience  than  desire  for  the  acquisi- 
tion nf  fortune,  he  accepted  the  tendered  position.  When 
AVilliam  II.  Crawford  was  sent  minister  to  France  in  18H, 
Dr.  Jackson  accompanied  him  as  secretary  of  legation. 
This  position  he  aecepted,  partly  with  a  view  of  recruiting 
his  health,  but  mainly  with  the  view  of  extending  the  circle 
of  Ilia  knowledge.  When  Mr.  Crawford  returned  ho  re- 
mained at  Paris  as  .\merican  cknn/r  d'aff'nirc*  until  1818. 
On  his  return  he  resumed  the  duties  of  his  professorship 
with  renewed  energy  and  power  of  usefulness,  but  from 
duraestic  affliction  was  compelled  to  resign  in  1827.  D. 
near  Athens,  Ga.,  in  1840.  A.  H.  Stki-he-VS. 

Jackson  (Hknrv  R.).  b.  in  Athens,  Ga.,  June  24,  1820; 
was  educated  partly  at  Princeton  and  partly  at  Vale  Col- 
lege. He  entered  the  latter  in  18:jj,  aud  graduated  there 
in  is'AQ  with  the  first  honor  of  his  class:  studied  law,  and 
wa:^  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Georgia  in  1840;  first  opened 
an  office  in  Columbus,  but  finally  located  in  Savannah  ;  was 
appointed  U.S.  district  attorney  for  the  State  in  1K43; 
served  as  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war  in  iHK'i;  after  that 
war  (in  whieh  he  gained  distinction  )  he  was  elevated  to  the 
circuit  court  bench  of  the  State,  whieh  ]>0!-ilion  he  held 
I8l9-5;i,  when  he  resigned  it  to  acc.'pt  tlio  appointment  of 
chargi  iVaffnirm  to  Au!«tria.  This  mission  was  raised  to 
the  grade  of  minister  resident  in  |8.i4,  and  he  was  con- 
tinned  in  it  until  !8j8.  It  was  while  he  held  this  position 
the  interesting  'ptttni  imbroglio  took  place  between  the  Aus- 
trian empire  and  the  U.  S.,  growing  out  of  the  then  late 
Hungarian  war  and  the  Khosta  affair.  His  contluct  in  all 
thcHc  matters  received  the  warmest  approval  by  the  au- 
thr)riiiefl  ai  Washington.  He,  however,  resigneil  tlie  posi- 
tion in  1868,  and  resumed  the  praetieo  of  law  in  Sa\  nnnah. 
In  1859  ho  was  employed  by  the  Federal  government  au- 
thorities to  prosecute  the  Wanderer,  a  celebrated  slave- 
ship  which  had  recently  landed  on  the  eoa'^t  nf  (leorgia  a 
careo  of  Africans.  This  high  duty  he  performed  with 
unflinching  fidelity  and  distinguished  ability.  In  the 
winter  of  I8.'»0  ho  was  unanimously  chosen  chancellor 
of  the  Stale  University,  but  declined  to  accept  it,  ex- 
cept on  certain  conditions  which  were  not  complied  with. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  famous  Democratic  Presidential 
convention  at  Tharleston  in  186)1,  and  though  he  opposed 
the  extreme  views  of  Mr.  Yancey,  yet  when  the  delei^ulions 
from  all  the  other  cotttm  States  withdrew,  he  also  with- 
drew, Vielieving  a  division  of  the  South  under  the  circum- 
stances wouhl  be  the  greater  of  two  evils.  He  was  after- 
wards one  of  the  Presidential  electors  at  large  for  the  State 


on  the  Breckenridge  and  Lane  ticket  put  forth  in  Baltimore 
after  the  rupture  at  Charleston.  Soon  after  the  passage  of 
the  ordinance  of  secession  by  Georgia  the  governor  was 
authorized  to  appoint  two  major-generals  to  command  the 
military  forces  of  the  State.  The  senior  position  of  theso 
commands  was  conferred  on  Col.  Jackson,  and  accepted 
by  him,  but  was  soon  after  resigned  by  him,  with  a  rn<i»est 
that  it  should  be  conferred  upon  William  Henry  Walker, 
a  gallant  and  distinguished  officer  of  the  Federal  army 
who  had  resigned  his  position  in  that  army  with  a  deter- 
mination to  cast  his  fortunes  with  the  people  of  his  native 
State  (Georgia),  and  who  was  at  the  time  out  of  service. 
Col,  Jackson's  request  was  complied  with.  Upon  the  or- 
ganization of  the  provisional  government  at  Montgomery 
for  the  Confederate  States  (1861)  be  was  tendered  the  office 
of  Confederate  judge  for  the  State  of  Georgia.  This  posi- 
tion at  first  he  declined,  but  afterward,  by  earnest  entreaties 
from  all  quarters,  was  iutlueed  to  accept.  He,  however, 
held  it  for  a  few  months  only,  when  he  entered  the  pro- 
visional army  cf  the  Confederate  States  as  brigadier-gene- 
ral, and  was  ordered  to  report  to  Gen.  Garnett,  then  in 
North-western  Virginia.  Before  reaching  his  appointed 
destination  the  news  of  the  disaster  whieh  had  befallen 
that  commander  met  him,  with  a  portion  of  Garnett's 
army  in  rapid  retreat.  By  order  of  Gen.  Lee  he  assumed 
the  command  of  the  shattered  forces  at  Monterey.  With 
these  and  his  own  two  regiments  he  organized  a  force  that 
prevented  any  further  advance  of  the  Federals  from  that 
quarter.  On  Oct.  3  he  was  attacked  by  Gen.  Reynolds  on 
Greenbrier  River,  but  heM  his  position.  For  winter-quarters 
betook  position  on  the  Alleghany.  He  was  again  appointed 
by  Gov.  Brown  of  (reorgia  major-general,  to  coinnninil  a 
division  of  State  troops  called  to  the  field  for  the  defence 
of  the  Georgia  coast.  This  position  he  accepted,  but  in 
doing  it  was  compelled  to  resign  his  commission  in  the 
Confederate  army,  and  after  the  passage  of  the  Confederate 
conscript  law  in  1862  he  resigned  his  commission  as  major- 
general  of  State  forces,  as  by  that  law  most  of  his  forces 
were  transferred  to  other  branches  of  the  service.  He  was 
again  appointetl  Itrigadier-general  in  the  Ctmfederate  army, 
and  assigned  to  duty  in  t!ie  West.  He  was  under  Hood  in 
his  famous  expedition  to  Tennessee  in  the  fall  of  isiu,  and 
acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battles  of  Franklin  and 
Nashville;  in  the  latter,  his  entire  command,  thinned  in 
its  ranks  to  only  a  few  hundred,  was  surrounded  and  cap- 
tured on  the  field.  As  a  prisoner  of  war  he  was  first  taken 
to  Johnson's  Island,  then  transferred  to  Fort  Warren,  where 
ho  remained  till  the  clo«c  of  the  terrible  conllict  of  arms. 
The  subject  of  this  sketch,  amidst  all  his  various  vocations. 
h.as  ever  had  a  fondness  for  letters.  Early  in  life  he  was 
a  valued  contributor  to  the  Orion,  the  Ai*<iuiitti  Mln-nr,  the 
Sniithr.ni  Quarterly  Rrrieir,  xind  other  iieriodieal  publications 
of  like  character.  A  volume  of  his  poetic  writings  wa?  pub- 
lished in  18.j0.  It  was  entitled  Ttitfufah,  and  nther  PoanH^ 
which  met  with  general  popular  favrtr.  Since  the  war  ho 
has  taken  no  active  part  in  public  affairs,  but  has  confined 
himself  closely  to  thepracticc  of  his  profession  in  Savannah, 
and  is  also  at  this  time  (May,  lS75j  president  of  the  Geor- 
gia Historical  Society.  A.  H.  Sticphens. 

Jackson  (Isaac  W.),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Cornwall,  Orange 
CO.,  .\.  v.,  in  1804  ;  graduated  at  Albany  Academy  in  1824, 
and  from  Union  College  in  1826;  was  nppointei)  tutor  ia 
mathematics  at  Union  College  in  the  same  year,  and  short- 
ly after  professor.  D.  at  Schenectady  July  28,  1877.  Ho 
was  a  very  sueeesuful  teacher,  and  his  mathematical  schuul- 
bo^iks  are  widely  used. 

Jackson  (.Iamks),  b.  in  Moreton-Hempstcad,  Devon- 
shire, Kngland,  in  I7J8,  and  migrated  to  Georgia  in  1772; 
took  an  active  and  zealous  part  in  the  war  for  independ- 
ence; was  made  brigade-uiajor  in  1778,  and  in  1781  eoni- 
manded  the  legionary  corps  of  the  State  of  tieorgia.  Upon 
the  cvaeuatioii  of  Savannah  by  the  British  (-luly  12,  1782) 
ho  received  the  keys.  In  consideration  of  his  many  gal- 
lant and  valuable  sorviees  during  the  war.  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  State  purchased  and  ]>resented  him  with  a 
commodious  house  ami  lot  in  the  city  of  Savannah.  After 
the  war  was  over  ho  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law,  nnd 
pursueil  it  with  success.  Ho  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
first  Congress  of  the  U.  .S.,  whieh  assembled  under  the  new 
Constitution  in  1780.  Ho  was  .-toon  after  chosen  one  of  ihe 
Senators  from  Gorgia.  whieh  position  ho  held  until  I70j, 
anil  then  resigned  upi»n  the  passage  of  the  famous  Yazoo 
bill,  as  it  was  ealleil,  by  Iho  legislature  of  his  Slate;  which 
bill  he  succeeded  in  getting  omdenined  and  finally  repeal- 
ed. In  1708  ho  was  elected  govern<ir  of  the  State,  which 
position  he  held  until  18i)I,  when  he  \vi\^  again  returned 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  D.  Mar.  10,  18(16,  in  the  zenith  of  his 
power  and  influence.  In  politics  he  was  of  the  .leflersoninn 
scliJul,  and  ho  made  an  impress  upon  the  popular  mind  in 
Georgia  of  his  principles  unequalled  by  any  man  of  his  day 
and  limes.  A.  U.  STKPiir.NS. 


1354 


JACK80N. 


Jackson  (  Jamks),  b.  in  Jefferson  co.,  Gft.,  1819  ;  grad- 
uateil  ut  the  State  Uuivcrsity  in  18;17  ;  studied  law.  aud  ad- 
naittcd  to  tho  bar  in  1840:  was  elected  seoretary  of  the 
State  senate  in  1H42,  and  was  a  member  of  tbo  State  legis- 
lature lS-15-47;  l.S4y-j7  was  on  the  circuit  court  bench  of 
the  State.  This  position  ho  resigned  to  become  a  member 
of  the  .'ijth  Congress.  IIo  was  again  elected  to  the  3Gth 
Congress,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  House  when  (leorgia 
pastscd  her  ordinance  of  secession  in  18G1.  Since  the  war 
he  has  taken  no  active  part  in  politics,  but  confined  him- 
self to  the  practice  of  law  at  JNIacon,  Ga.  For  many  years 
he  has  been  a  trustee  of  tho  university  of  tho  State. 

A.  II.  Stephens. 

Jackson  (James).  M.  D.,  LL.T)..  b.  at  Ncwburyport, 
Mass.,  Oct.  ?>,  1777;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  179(i;'stud- 
ied  medicine  in  Europe,  and  began  practice  in  But=fon  in 
ISOfl.  He  was  tho  first  physician  of  tho  Massachusetts 
General  Hospital,  in  ISIO  became  a  professor  of  clinical 
molioine  in  tho  Ma.^snchnsetts  Medical  School,  and  in  1S12 
professor  of  theory  and  practice.  Ho  wrote  On  the  Dru- 
«ont*art  Syatf-ni  (1SU9),  0>i  the  Effects  of  Dcntitioyi  (1S12), 
Syllahai  of  Lccturcn  (ISIG),  Letters  to  a  Touny  Phy.tician 
(1855),  and  several  other  works.  D.  at  Boston,  Mass., 
Aug.  27^  1SC7. 

Jackson  (James  S.),  b.  in  Madison  co.,  Ky. ;  educated 

at  Ceatre  College;  studied  and  practised  lawj  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  he  served  with  a  regiment  of  Kcntuchy  vol- 
unteers, returned  to  his  native  State  at  its  close,  and  re- 
sumed his  profession;  elected  to  tho  37th  Congress,  he  re- 
signed his  scat  in  ISGl,  organized  the  3d  Kentucky  Cavalry 
(Union),  of  which  ho  became  colonel,  and  with  which  he  was 
actively  engaged  during  the  winter  and  spring  of  1SG1-C2; 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  July,  1SG2, 
and  commanded  a  division  at  tho  battle  of  Porryville, 
where,  while  endeavoring  to  rally  a  wavering  body  of  his 
command,  he  was  killed,  Oct.  8,  isC2.        G.  C.  Simmons. 

Jackson  (John),  b.  at  Lcnscy.  Yorkshire,  in  168G;  was 
educatL'd  at  CambridG;o;  became  rector  of  Rossington,  and 
in  1729  master  of  Wigton  Hospital.  His  success  in  ob- 
taining rank  and  dignity  in  tho  English  Church  was  seri- 
ously impeded  by  tho  Unitarian  (then  called  Arian)  prin- 
ciples which  ho  set  forth  in  many  treatises,  and  defended 
against  such  antagonists  as  Warburton,  Whiston.  and  Mid- 
dlcton.  ile  was  also  distinguished  for  his  writings  against 
the  deists  Collins  and  Tindal,  and  produced  a  valuable 
work  on  biblical  chronology  (1762).     1).  in  17G3. 

Jackson  (John),  D.  D.,  b.  at  London  Feb.  22,  1811; 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  College.  Oxford,  graduating  in 
IS3.'1  with  first-class  honors.  In  is;;6  he  became  head-mas- 
ter of  the  proprietary  grammar  school  at  Islington;  in 
1846  rector  of  St.  James's,  Piccadilly;  in  1847  chapl.iin  to 
the  queen  ;  in  1$32  canon  of  Bristol;  and  in  1853  bishop 
of  Lincoln.  Dr.  Jackson  was  a  select  preacher  before  the 
University  of  Oxford  in  1845,  1850,  1862,  and  18GG,  and 
delivered  the  Buyle  Lectures  in  1853.  He  was  promoted  in 
1869  to  the  bishopric  of  London. 

Jackson  (Jor?j  Dwif.s),  A.  M..  M.  D,,  b.  at  Danville, 
Ky.,  Dec.  12,  1834;  graduated  from  Centre  CuUege  in  1854; 
received  his  medical  degree  from  tho  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 1857  ;  and  settled  to  practise  in  his  native  place. 
In  the  war  between  tho  States  ho  served  as  a  surgeon  in 
the  Confederate  army.  His  contributions  to  medical  liter- 
ature are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  tho  leading  medical  jour- 
nals and  in  translations — An  Operative  Manual,  Li<jatlon 
o/' Arten'ef^hy  Dr.  L.  H.  Farabeuf  (1874),  Tnchiniafis  in  tho 
Jnurnal  of  A.  Af.  Sc'rnce  (18G9).  The  Bfaek  Arts  in  Medi- 
cine.  Medical  Office  Pupilarje,  Floaling  Cartilnffe  in  Knee- 
joint,  (7unithot   \yound<i  m  /itadder,  etc.  J.  M.  To.VEIi. 

Jackson  (Jonathan),  b.  at  Boston  June  4, 1743;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  17G1  ;  and  became  a  wealthy 
merchant  at  Xcwburyport.  He  served  as  a  member  of  tho 
Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  1775,  as  a  repre- 
sentative in  1777,  a  member  of  Congress  in  1782.  and  State 
senator  in  17S9.  He  was  tho  author  of  Thoufhtu  upon  the 
Political  Situation  of  the  U.S.  (1788).  Three  of  his  sons 
became  men  of  distinction — Charlks  (Dr.).  James,  and 
Patiuck  T.  (which  see).     D.  at  Boston  Mar.  5,  1810. 

Jackson  (Xatoaniel  J.),  b.  at  Ncwlmryport,  Mass.; 
took  part  in  the  American  civil  war  as  colonel  of  tho  1st 
and  Jth  regiments  Maine  volunteers;  appointed  brigadier- 
general  volunteers  Sept.  24.  1>*G2:  eomman.lcd  a  brigade 
in  tho  12th  army  corps  during  the  McCIcIIan  and  Pope 
campaigns  in  Virffinia;  was  wounded  at  Gaines's  Mill; 
commanded  l:*t  divisiaa  20th  corps  in  Sherman's  march  to 
the  sea.  and  wa^  made  brevet  major-general  of  volunteers 

Jackson  (PAxmrK  Tracv),  a  brother  of  Dr.  James 
Jaekson,  b.  at  Newburyport.  Maps..  Aug.  14.  17S0  :  early 
acquired  a  largo  fortune  in  the  East  India  trade,  nnd  with 
F.  C.  LowcU,  hia  brother-in-law,  engaged  in   tho  cotton  | 


manufacture,  building  their  first  mill  in  1813  at  Waltham, 
Mass.  In  1S21  thty  establisheil  what  jtroved  to  be  the 
germ  of  the  city  of  Lowell.  In  L'^37,  alter  severe  pecuniary 
losses,  he  removed  to  Lowell,  aud  afterwards  to  Somcrs- 
worth,  N.  H.,  and  was  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  in 
zealous  and  successful  labors  for  the  mora!  and  intellectual 
good  of  his  operatives.  D.  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  Sept.  12, 
1847. 

Jackson  (PiObeut  M.  S.  l.  a  native  of  Pennsylvania, 
distinguished  for  a  knowledge  of  natural  science,  rendered 
great  service  to  tho  Pcunsylvauia  geological  commission, 
aud  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  tho  aspects  of  na- 
ture in  tho  Alleghanicp,  having  published  a  remarkable 
work  called  The  Mountain,  in  which  ho  enunciated  bold  but 
reverent  ideas  in  natural  theology.  Ho  served  in  the 
civil  war  as  medical  inspector  of  the  2nd  army  corps  and 
acting  medical  director  of  the  department  of  tho  Ohio.  D. 
at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  Jan.  28,  1SG5. 

Jackson  (Samuel).  M.  D.,  b.  in  Philadelphia  Mar.  22, 
1787;  received  his  degree  from  Rutgers  College  in  1812  j 
was  18;35-63  professor  of  tho  institutes  of  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  enjoyed  a  wide  reputa- 
tion as  a  physician,  lecturer,  and  medical  writer.  lUc.  chief 
work  was  the  Principles  of  Medicine  (1832).  D.  at  Phila- 
delphia Apr.  5, 1872. 

Jackson  (Thomas),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Willowing,  Durham, 
England,  in  1579;  was  educated  at  Oxford;  became  presi- 
dent of  Corpus  Christi  College  in  IGCO, prebendary  of  Win- 
chester in  1G35,  and  dean  of  Pelerboroi^^h  in  lGo8.  Dean 
Jackson  was  a  voluminous  and  learned  writer  upon  Angli- 
can theology,  and  ranks  high  in  the  roll  of  the  famous  di- 
vines of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  Commentari/  on  the 
Apostles'  Creed  is  still  highly  valued,  and  his  whole  works 
were  republished  at  Oxford  in  1S44  (12  vols.).    D.  in  1640. 

Jackson   (Tmomas),  D.  D..  b.  at   Sancton,  Yorkshire, 

Dec.  12,  17t^3;    was   editor   of    The    JVcslcf/an  Maf/azine   for 

twenty  years;  then  theological  tutor  in  the  Wesley  an  col- 
lege at  Richmond,  being  twice  the  president  of  the  Wes- 
Icyan  conference.  His  works  are  standard  among  Meth- 
odists, The  Institutiouit  of  Christianiti/  (3  vols.).  Life  of 
Charles  Wesley,  aud  Tho  Ccutcnary  of  Methodism  being 
among  them.     D.  at  Richmond  Mar.  11,  1873. 

Jackson  (Thomas),  M.  A.,  b.  at  Preston,  England,  in 
1S12;  graduated  at  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  in  \i^:U;  took 
holy  orders,  and  after  holding  several  parochial  appoint- 
incnts  became  principal  of  the  Normal  College  at  Bnttersea 
nnd  can(m  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1819  ho  was  appointed  bishop 
of  New  Zealand,  and  went  thither,  but  returned  without 
having  been  consecrated,  in  consequence  of  diftieulties  with 
Bishop  Schvyn.  Being  preferred  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Mary, 
Stoke  Newington  (a  district  of  London),  he  has  built  up 
there  ono  of  the  most  splendid  churches  in  the  British  me- 
tropolis. His  educational  publications  have  been  numerous 
and  valuable. 

Jackson  (Thomas  JoyATHAN).  ("Stonewall"),  b.  at 
Clarksburg,  Harrison  co.,  West  Va..  Jan.  21,  1824.  At- 
tracted toward  tho  profession  of  arms,  young  Jackson 
walked  from  tho  mountains  of  Virginia  to  Washington, 
invoked  the  aid  of  his  Congressman,  and  got  the  appoint- 
ment of  cadet  at  tho  U.  S.  iMilitary  Academy  at  West 
Point,  where  ho  was  entered  in  the  summer  of  1842.  and 
was  graduated  in  LSIG.  Attached  to  the  army  as  brevet 
second  lieutenant  of  tho  1st  Artillery,  his  first  service  was 
as  a  subaltern  with  Mngruder's  battery  of  light  artillery. 
Prei^ent  at  the  reduction  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  noticed  for  gal- 
lantry in  the  battles  of  <?orro  (iordo,  Contreras,  Molino  del 
Rey.  Chapultepec,  and  the  assault  and  capture  of  the  city 
of  Mexico,  ho  received  tho  brevets  of  captain  for  conduct 
at  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  and  of  major  for  the  storra- 
iTig  of  Chapultepec.  Meanwhile,  ho  had  been  advanced  by 
regular  promotion  to  be  first  lieutenant  on  tho  20th  of  Aug., 
1847.  After  (ho  war,  on  the  29th  of  Feb..  1852,  he  resigned 
from  tho  regular  army,  having  been  previously  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy  and  ar- 
tillery instructor  at  the  Virginia  Stale  Military  Institute  at 
Lcxinfl;fon,  Rockbridge  co..  Va.,  a  position  which  he  still 
fill-^dfApr.  17,  18G1)  when  Virginia  declared  for  secession, 
and  in  which  he  was  chiefly  notable  for  intense  religious  sen- 
timent, coupled  with  personal  eccentricities.  But  Letcher, 
governor  of  Virginia,  a  resident  of  Lexington,  had  no- 
ticed somewhat  of  the  merits  of  the  eccentric  professor, 
and  making  him  colonel  placed  him  in  command  of  a  force 
sent  to  seize  and  occupy  the  U.  S.  arsenal  at  Harper's  Fer- 
ry— which  Jnekson  accomplished  on  May  3,  ISGI.  Relieved 
by  (Jen.  J.  E.Johnston  { iMay  2.'t),  he  fell  in  command  of  tho 
briga<lo  of  Valley  Virginians,  whom  he  moulded  into  that 
redotibtable  corps,  baptized  at  the  first  Manassas,  and  ever 
nf^er  famous,  as  tho  "Stonewall  hrigade."  In  bis  very 
first  detached  service  the  martial  character  of  the  man  be- 


JACKSOX— JACKSON  BUKG 


1355 


cime  apparent  in  the  affair  at  Falling  Waters.     The  June-  1  Here  he  TTa»  detached  for  a  special  operation  ''f""'^      " 

ioTonL  force,  of  Johnston  and  Beauregard  having  taken  hi,  hal.itual  .nanner   so  that  he  l'^l'°°^^XX^frZn 

place  in  the  rear  of  Bull  Run.  Jackson,  previously  made  a  ;  to  Ins  super.or  that  the  f»'  ■«'^^J  P7J^^"°  "   '/"'ouO  ,«en  "n 

brigadier-general,  came  prominently  into  public  view  with  had  been  surrendered  into  h,s  hand.,     "''>'    '•''"0  '^^■.     ' 

The  battle  of  Manassas  where  he  acquired  the  sobriquet  of  equal  number  of  small-arms,  , .,  pieces  of  art  Uerj ,  and  -IHJ 

"      a.   "Made  a  n^^^^^                 (.^ep.ember.'lsfil ,,  ,vl.gons,"  wi.h  large  stores  of  camp  and  g»--«l'^q;','  -f^ 

he  was  foonplaced  in  command  of  the  Confederate  forces  i   But  this  success  was  dearly  gamed,  for  it  enlaikd  the  ,n- 


in  the  lower  Shenandoah  Vnllev,  then  menaced  with  occu- 
pation bv  a  Federal  army.     Some  apparently  profitless,  if 
not  cccenlric,  marches  and  movements  in  that  quarter  dur- 
ing the  next  five  months  brought  no  malerial  military  re- 
sults, but  severelv  testing  the  mettle  of  his  troops,  some- 
what   impaired    his    popularity   with   them.      Confronted 
finallv.  early  in  March,  at  Winchester,  with  a  largely  su- 
perior Union  force,  Jackson  fell  back  with  his  small  corps 
(,1400  men  of  all  arms,  with  18  gunsl  towards  Staunton, 
pursued  as  far  as  Strasburg.    As  his  adversary  retrograded 
in  turn,  the  Confederate  general  swiftly  took  the  oflensive 
and  fought  the  battle  of    Kernstown    (Mar.  2:5,  l.sr.2)  in 
characteristic  fashion,  after  a  forced  march  the  same  day  of 
from  14  to  2J  miles.     Wor.-ted.  however,  in  this  action,  he 
was  forced  to  retire  up  the  Valley  again  to  a  position  of 
observation  near  Swift  Run  Gap  in  the  Blue  Ridge,  on  the 
S   fork  of  the  Shenandoah  River,  about  the  9lh  of  April. 
Meanwhile,  a  fresh  adversary.  Gen.  Milroy,  was  marching 
across  the  mountains  from  the  West  to  unite  with  Banks, 
then  at  Harrisonburg,  and  Jackson's  situation  was  critical. 
Kcinforccments,  however,  under  Ewcll,  were  approaching,, 
and  another  Confederate  force  under  Gen.  Edward  Johnson 
was  at  liulTalo  Gap,  just  W.  of  .Staunton.    Giving  orders  to 
Ewell  to  hold  Banks  in  cheek  while  he,  forming  a  junction 
with  Johnson,  should  take  the  offensive  against  Milroy, 
Jackson  encountered  and  defeated  that  officer  in  a  severe 
action  of  four  hours  at  McUowell   (.May  8,  1802),  forcing 
him  to  retreat  with  heavy  loss  in  supplies.    This  achieved, 
J,ackson,    retracing    his    steps,    effected    a  junction    with 
Ewell,  and  throwing  himself  into  the  Luray  Valley,  by  a 
forced  march  day  and    night   stole   upon   the  flank   and 
rear  of  Gen.  Banks,  capturing  detached  bodies  of  Lnion 
troops,  artillcrv.  and  wagon-trains  at  Winchester,  where 
some  sharp  fighting  ensued,  with  the  result  that  Banks  re- 
treated precipitately  across  the  Potomac  into  Maryland. 
This  brought  the  immediate  concentration  of  several  strong 
Federal  columns  from  different  quarters  in  the  upper  She- 
nandoah Valley  upon  Jackson's  rear  for  his  destruction. 
Thus  mcnaced.'delaching  Kwell  to  meet  Fremont  iipproach- 
in*  from  the  N.  E.,  with  his  own  division  Jackson  took  po- 
sitlcm  about  the  1st  of  June  to  observe  lien.  Shields's  force, 
diverted  from  McDowell's  corps  at  Fredericksburg,  and  then 
in  the  Luray  Vallev.  Encumbered  at  the  time  with  2.'100  pris- 
oners and  more  than  90U0  stands  of  captured  arms,  with 
other  valuable  stores,  but  never  embarrassed  by  obstacles 
nor  losing  opportunities  for  strokes,  he  promptly  threaded 
the  Luray  Valley  to  the  White  House,  burned  the  bridge 
there,  crossed  over  to  the  main  valley,  and  passing  around 
Shields  took  position  near  Ewell  at  Port  Republic,  equidis- 
tant between  Shields  and  Banks.  On  the  Sth  of  June,  Ewell 
became  engaged  with  and  beat  the  latter  at  Cross  Keys, 
and  on  the  «th.  Shields  having  advanced  to  Port  Repub- 
lic, Jackson,  after  a  sharp,  well-contested  action,  defeated 
hiin,  inflicting  the  loss  of  seven  guns  with  other  casual- 
ties.     In    this    campaign    was    made   manifest   his    high 
rare  talent  for  the  business  of  war.     Here  he  gave. to  a 
comparativelv  petty  force  that  astonishing  mobility  which 
enabled  him' to  deliver  so   many  opportune    blows,  with 
the  effect  to  neutralize  an  aggregate  of  nearly  "0,000  Fed- 
eral  soldiers,  with  a  highly  adverse  influence  upon  Mc- 
Clellan'a  general  plan  of  campaign,  added  to  the  gravest  ap- 
prehension excited  at  Washingi.m  and  throughout  the  whole 
Union  for  the  safety  of  the  national  eiipilal.     Fresh  from 
such  successes,  Jackson  was  now  called  to  add  bis  corps  to 
the  main  Confederate  army  at  the  moment  crowded  back 
upnn  Richmond.     Then  was  made  that  notable  flank  movc- 
nitnt  which  ended  in  the  decisive  stroke  upim  McClellan's 
right  at  Cold  Harhor(Junc2",  !sr.2).a  movement  executed 
under  orders,  but  in  its  manner  Jackson's  own.     (ien.  Pope 
having  been  called  from  the  West  and  placed  in  command  of 
a  large  force. which  he  pushed  along  the  Piedmont  region  to 
the   Rapiilan,  while  .MeClellan  still  threatened    Richmond 


opportune  absence  of  two-thirds  of  Lee's  best  troops  so  much 
longer  than  was  anticipated,  that,  thrown  meanwhile  upon 
thellefcnsive,  his  offensive  plan  of  campaign  was  virtually 
foiled,  while    his  adversary  was  enabled  to  assemble  his 
strength,  and  force  battle  at  Antietam  with  the  Confi'de- 
rates^unready,  and  therefore  unable  to  push  lo  a  decisive 
close  the  advantage  which  they  had  gaincil  at  the  end  of  that 
day,  and  their  subsequent  enforced  retreat  before  their  re- 
inf^o'rced  enemv.    In  that  action,  however.  Jackson  was  pres- 
ent with  two  of  his  divisions,  and  his  part  of  the  field,  the 
Confederate  left  near  the  Dunkers'  church,  was  deeply  im- 
pressed with  his  peculiar  gift  to  develop  the  utmost  fighting 
power  of  men.  both  ofl"ensively  and  defensively.     In  Barn- 
side's  attack  on  Lee  at  Fredericksburg  (Dec.  11,  lSfi2),  Jack- 
son held  the  Confederate  right,  with  no  marked  opportu- 
nity for  the  display  of  his  always  ripening  cnp.acity  lor  war. 
Wlien.  on  the  eve  of  the  operations  that  ended  at  Chancel- 
lorsville.   Gen.   Hooker    made  the   strong  feint   (Apr.    2S, 
180.3)  of  passing  the  Rappahannock  below  Fredericksburg, 
the  movement  was  confronted  by  Jackson,  but  as  there 
was  no  prompt  advance,  Lee,  forecasting   Hookers    real 
plan,  detached  Jackson  the  next  night  with  three  divis- 
ions in  the  direction  of   Chancellorsvillc.     In  movement 
by  midnight  he  found  Hooker  in  a  strongly  fortified  po- 
si'tion.    At  Jackson's  own  suggestion,  he  was  now  entrusted 
with  his  last  flank  operation— a  swift  march  around,  and 
descent  upon,  the  Thiion  right   and  rear.     Executing  the 
operation  in  his  habitual  m.anner,  he  fell  suddenly  upon  the 
11  th  Federal  corps  on  the  afternoon  of  May  2,  and  completely 
routed  it.     Pressing  the  advantage  as  fast  as  the  nature  of 
the  densely  wooded  country  would  admit,  in  his  martial 
ardor  he  was  carried  far  in  advsince  of  his  men.  until  urged 
hy  his  staff  to  return.     Doing  so,  after  nightfall,  he  and  his 
suite,  mistaken  for  Federal  cavalry,  received   the  fire   of 
several  Confederate  regiments,  and  Jackson  fell  with  three 
wounds,  one  ball  having  shattered  his  left  arm  two  inches 
below  the  shoulder,  another  passing  through  the  same  arm 
below  the  elbow,  and   the  other  entering  the  palm  of  Ins 
right  hand;  several  of  his  suite  were  killed  outright,  ami 
several  wounded.     These  volleys  drew  an  immediate  an- 
swer from  a  Federal  force  in  the  vicinity,  and  a  sharp  con- 
flict was  engaged,  in  the  course  of  which  the  hitter  charged 
over  the  very  body  of  the   Confederate  leader.     Jackson 
recovered,  however,  in   a  countercharge,  was  carried  off 
the  field  on  a  litter  under  a  terrible  fire,  from  which  one  of 
the  litter-bearers  was  slain,  and  by  the  fall  of   the  litter 
Jackson  was  grievously  contused.     Meanwhile,  his  charge 
to  the  surgeon  in  attendance  was.  "  Do  not  tell  the  troops 
I  am  wounded."     The  doubly  wounded  arm  having  been 
amputated,  he  was  left  serene,  cheerful,  and  hopeful,  talk- 
ing freely  of  the  battles,  of  the  bravery  and  deserts  of  his 
subordinates,  and  of  his  old  "  St..newall    brigade."      But 
pneumonia  supervened,  and  in  his  wenUened  state  from 
great  loss  of  blood.  Jackson  died  (May  10,  180:1).     An  in- 
comparable lieutenant,  sure  to  execute  any  operation  en- 
trusted to   him   with  marvellous  precision,  judgment,  and 
eonrace.  all  his  individual  campaigns  and  combats  bore  the 
stamp  of  a  masleily  capacity  for  war.     The  more  h.s  ope- 
rations in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  the  spring,  summer, 
and  fall  of  I.s62are  studied,  the  more  striking  must  the 
merits  of  this  almost  uniformly  successful  soldier  appear, 
with  all  his  intense  perception  of  the  value  as  well  as  right 
method  of  the  nclive  ,lr/rm!vr.  of  which  Jackson  may  in- 
deed bo  rightly  regarded  as  the  very  incarnation 

TnoMAS  JonnAN. 

Jackson  (William),  b.  in  Cumherland  co.,  Eng..  Mar. 
!)  17.-,!l-  ciiuic  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  boyhood:  was  liber- 
ally educated,  an.l  served  creditably  in  the  Revolution,  at- 
taining the  rank  of  major  as  aide-de-camp  to  Washington. 
In  1781  he  was  secretary  to  Laurens  in  Ins  mission_to 
France;  in  1782-83  assistant  secretary  of  war;  in  1787 
secretary  to  the   U.S.  constitutional  convention;  private 


from  James  River.  Jackson  was  detached  by  Lee  to  confront  i  secretary  to  Washington  during  h.s  first  presidency;  sur^ 
the  fresh  menace  with  three  divisions.    Always  bent  on  the  I  v„v„r  of  tbo  nort  of  Pbila.lclpbia  I7!lti-lS(ll.  and  secretary 
offensive.  Jackson  immediately  resolved  upon  attack,  and 
encountered  Pope's  advance  corps  on  the  afternoon  of  Aug. 


vevor  of  tho  port  of  Pbila.lclpbia  I7!lli-1 
of   the  Society  of   Cincinnati  from    180 


U,  within  0  or  s'milcsof  Culpeper  Court-house.  In  this  ac- 
tion of  Cedar  Run  he  was  victor  at  all  points.  Gen  Lee 
dceidiu"  to  take  the  oflensive  in  the  same  direction,  Jack- 
son was^charged  with  the  lead  in  the  operation,  which,  im- 
pressed with  bis  genius,  resulted  in  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant feats  of  the  war,  an.l  he  was  the  conspicuous  figure 
1  the  actions  of  Aug.  2'.»-:i0.   1802.     In   the  invasion  of 


Maryland  that  followed,  his  troops  led  the  van  to  Frederick.      Pop.  lUU. 


00   until  his  death, 
which  occurred  at   Philadelphia  Dec.   17.  1828.     HM'™- 
nouneed  the  funeral  oration  upon  Washington  at  Philadcl- 
lin,  where  in  1801  be  started  one  of  the  first  daily  papers 
.\merica,  7'//'-  /'■•lilicnl  tiii-l  Cfimmricial  Hf'/iKltr. 
Jnrksnn   Hrook   PlaiHnCion,  tp.  of   Washington 

.,  Me.       Pop.  200. 

Jiirk'sonburg,  post-v.  of  Jackson  tp.,  Wayne  co.,  Ind. 


I'l 


1356 


JACKSONBURG— JACOB. 


Jacksonburgr,  post-v.  of  Wayne  tp.,  Butler  co.,  0. 
Pop.  127. 

Jackson  Centre,  post-v.  of  Jackson  tp.,  Shelbv  co., 
0.     I»op.  Oil. 

Jackson  Conrt-house,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jackson  co.. 
V>'.  Va.  It  is  oallrd  Ripi.f.v  also,  and  is  IG  miles  from 
Uiploy  Landing  on  the  Ohio  River. 

Jackson  Creek,  tp.  of  Clarke  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  393. 

Jack'souport,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jackson  co..  Ark..  80 
miles  N.  E.  of  Litllo  Kock,  at  the  junction  of  White  and 
IJlack  rivers,  and  within  2  miles  of  the  Cairo  and  Fulton 
R.  R.  It  has  a  nfw?paper,  5  churche?,  free  and  sehct 
pchools.  Knights  of  Pythias,  Knights  of  the  Silver  Rin;:, 
Odd  Fellows,  and  Masonio  lodges,  and  a  $40,000  court- 
house. CottoQ  is  extensively  shipped  from  this  point. 
Pop.  7fi9.  John  P.  Fagin,  Ed.  *' Statesman." 

Jacksonport^  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Door  co.,  Wis.,  on 
Lake  Michigan.      Pop.  139. 

Jacksou^s  Hill,  post-tp.  of  D.ividson  co..  N.  C.  P.  637. 

Jackson  Springs,  tp.  of  Moore  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  537. 

Jaek'sonville,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Calhoun  co., 
Ala.,  on  the  Selma  Rome  and  Dalton  R.  R.  It  contains  1 
newspaper,  a  male  college,  a  female  school,  fine  waterworks. 
1  mill,  an  extensive  tannery,  2  hotels,  a  livery  stable,  a 
namber  of  stores,  etc.  It  has  a  good  trade  with  the  sur- 
rounding valleys,  beautiful  mountain  sccnerv,  and  a  de- 
lightful climate*.     Pop.  of  v.  9:>S;  of  tp.  1840'. 

I.  F.  &  L.  W.  Graxt,  Eds.  "  Republicax." 

Jacksonville,  city.  cnp.  of  Duval  co..  Fla.,  on  the 
river  St.  Johns,  25  miles  from  its  mouth  ;  is  the  eastern 
terminus  of  the  Jacksonville  Pcnsacola  and  Mobile  R.  R. 
It  ships  annually  some  fjO.OOO.OOO  feet  of  lumber,  besides 
naval  stores,  cotton,  and  other  eommoditicp.  and  is  the  cen- 
tre of  business  and  travel  for  this  section  of  the  State, 
many  thousands  of  tourists  and  others  arriving  here  yearly 
by  rail  and  river.  It  has  a  savings  bank,  2  private  bank- 
ing-houses, 1  semiweekly,  1  triweekly,  and  2  weekly  news- 
papers, good  graded  schools,  a  hospital,  10  churches,  a 
Roman  Catholic  academy  for  ladies,  etc.  It  is  well  laid 
out,  and  is  a  very  popular  resort  for  invalids  and  pleasure- 
seekers.  Pop.  C912,  very  largely  increased  since  the  XJ.  S. 
census.  N.  K.  Sawver,  En.  *'  Union." 

Jacksonville,  post-v.  of  Telfair  co.,  Ga.^  IS  miles 
from  McVillc,  a  station  on  tho  Hacou  and  Brunswick  R.  R. 
Pop.  40. 

Jacksonville,  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Morgan  co.,  III., 
is  favorably  situatc-d  in  Central  Illinois  in  tho  midrtof  a 
fertile  prairie,  near  Mauvaiseterre  Creek,  an  affluent  of  tho 
Illinois  River,  30  miles  W.  of  Springfield,  and  at  tho  inter- 
section of  tho  Jacksonville  division  of  the  Chicago  and 
Alton  with  the  Toledo  Wabash  an<l  Western,  tho  Peoria 
Pekin  and  .laeksonville.  and  the  Jacksonville  Norlh-west- 
ern  and  South-eastern  R.  Rs.  The  streets  are  wide  and 
adorned  with  shade  trees,  cars  run  on  the  principal  ave- 
nues, and  tho  city  is  provided  with  gas  and  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  waterworks  and  sewerage,  all  the  city  improvements 
being  nf  a  substantial  character.  It  has  a  fine  court-house, 
opera-house,  2  national  banks,  2  private  banks,  a  savings 
bank,  3  hotels,  and  22  churches,  the  architecture  of  which 
is  generally  rich.  It  is  known  as  "the  Athens  of  the 
M''est,"  and  well  sustains  tho  title,  having  State  institutions 
for  the  insane,  deaf  and  dumb,  feeble-minded  children,  and 
the  blind;  of  incorporated  institutions,  the  Illinois  Col- 
lege (Congregational),  Illinois  Fcmalo  College  (Jlethodist), 
Jacksonville  Female  Academy,  Voung  Ladies'  Athenoeum, 
Illinois  Conservatory  of  i^Iusic,  and  acombined  academy  and 
business  college;  of  private  institutions,  tho  Lutheran  or- 
phan asylum,  a  retreat  for  the  insane,  and  a  surgical  in- 
firmary; and  1  high  school,  7  public  schools,  1  Roman 
Catholic  parochial  school,  a  free  reading-room,  and  public 
library  of  IGOO  volumes,  all  in  separate,  well-appointed 
buildings.  Its  manufacturing  interests  aro  rapidly  devel- 
oping, there  licing  4  flour-mills,  woollen-factory,  carworks, 
several  foundries  and  machine-shops,  carriage-faetories, 
planing-mills,  soap-faetorics,  and  gasworks.  It  has  1  d;:ily 
and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  of  city,  9203;  of  tp.  3?96. 
L.  B.  Glover,  Ed.  *' Daily  JorRNAL." 

Jacksonville,  post-tp.  of  Chickasaw  co.,  la.    Pon.  82S. 

Jacksonville,  jiost-v.  (P.  O.  name  of  Onslow  Court- 
iMi  sKt  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Onslow  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  of  v.  (jO; 

of  tp.  ih',0. 

Jacksonville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jackson  co..  Dr..  on 
Rogue  River,  in  a  good  agricultural  and  mining  region, 
has  i  bank,  2  churches,  2  hotels,  a  public  school,  2  news- 
papers. H.  Kellv.  Ei>.  •■Oregon  Sentinel." 

Jacksonville^  a  v.  of  Young  tp.,  Indiana  co.,  Pa. 
Pop.  14L 


I       Jacksonville,  post-v.  of  Cherokee  co.,  Tex.,  on  the 
Tntcrnatiouat  and  Great  Northern  R.  R.,  28  miles  N.  E.  of 
Palestine.     It  has  1  weekly  newspaper. 
Jacksonville,  post-v.  of  Whilingham  tp.,  Windham 

I  CO.,  Vt.,  25  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Brattloboro',  has  manufactures 
of  leather,  etc. 

I  Jacksonville,  or  Floyd  Court-House,  post-v., 
cap.  of  Floyd  co..  Va..  22  miks  S.  of  the  Virginia  and  Ten- 
I  nessee  R.  R.,  has  2  churches,  fi  stores.  3  hotels.  1  foundry, 
j  1  weekly  newspaper,  and  a  graded  school.  Pop.  321  :  of 
I  tp.  2773.  John  Sower,  Ed.  "Floyd  Reporter." 

Jack's  Springs,  tp.  of  Escambia  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  196. 

Jack's  Valley,  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Nov.     Pop.  140. 

Jack  Tree,  tho  Artocnrpus  iutpijrt/oh'n,  a  tree  which 
ori'^inatcd  in  the  East  Indies,  and  is  now  naturalized 
throughout  a  large  part  of  the  tropical  world.  It  produces 
abundantly  a  fruit  resembling,  but  much  larger  than,  the 
bread-fruit,  to  which  it  is  very  nearly  related.  Though 
its  taste  is  far  from  being  pleasant,  thousands  of  the  lower 
classes  of  India  eat  it  as  food.  Its  wood  is  excellent  for 
many  uses,  and  is  extensively  employed  in  Europe  for  in- 
laying, carving,  and  fancy  joinery.    (See  Artocarpace.e.) 

Jacme  (Jayme  or  Jaumel  En  I.,  king  of  Aragon 
and  count  of  Barcelona,  b.  in  1207  or  1208  at  Montpcllier, 
then  belonging  to  the  counts  of  Barcelona,  and  d.  at  Xa- 
tiva  in  127G.  To  his  inherited  states  he  added  by  conquest 
the  Moorish  kingdoms  of  Majorca,  Valencia,  and  Murcia, 
and  he  imposed  tribute  on  those  of  Grenada.  Tunis,  and 
TIemcen.  Hence  he  is  generally  styled  fhc  Conqueror. 
The  title  en  corresponds  in  signification  to  the  more  mod- 
ern don,  and  though  its  origin  is  not  clear,  it  is  probably 
derived  from  the  Latin  sr.yiof,  as  in  the  Castilian  srftor. 
The  life  and  exploits  of  En  Jacme  are  recorded  in  the  cu- 
rious Lihre  dels  Fcyts  esdcveiifjtrfs  en  la  vidtt  del  maft  alt 
Senior  Ucif  En  Jacme  lo  cnnqxicridor.  This  work  is  pro- 
fessedly autobiographic,  though  its  aulhentieity  is  dis- 
puted ;  but  there  exists  a  manuscript  copy  of  it  of  the  year 
13  !3,  and  it  is  probably  as  trustworthy  as  any  of  the  me- 
diaeval annals.  It  is,  both  historically  and  jihilologically, 
among  the  most  valuable  and  attractive  of  the  old  Hispanic 
chronicles.  The  portion  of  it  which  describes  tho  conquest 
of  Valencia  was  printed  in  1515  in  the  Aurrum  oput  Pn'vi- 
Icfjtorum  licjni  Vnleufi'a,  and  the  entire  work  in  1557.  A 
beautiful  edition  is  now  in  course  of  publication  at  Barce- 
lona in  tho  BihUoteca  Catalana.  A  Castilian  translation 
by  Flotato  and  Bofarull  appeared  at  Barcelona  in  1S48, 
(See  article  Catalan  Langlage  and  Literatlre,  in  Ap- 
pendix.) George  P.  Marsh. 

Jacme  (or  Jayme)  II.,  called  the  Ji-st,  king  of  .Ara- 
gon and  count  of  Barcelona,  b.  about  1259.  was  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  and  second  son  of  Pedro  III.,  on  whose 
death,  in  Nov.,  1285,  ho  became  king  of  Sicily,  and  on  tho 
death  of  his  brother,  Alfonso  III.,  in  June.  1291,  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne  of  Aragon.  leaving  the  government  of 
Sicily  to  his  brother  Frederic.  lie  maintained  wars  with 
Naples,  Genoa,  and  Pisa  fconqnering  the  islands  of  Sardinia 
and  Corsica),  as  well  as  with  the  Moors  of  Granada  and 
Tripoli:  f(mndrd  the  University  of  L^rida  ;  expelled  the 
Knights  Templar  from  the  kingdom:  and  d.  at  Barcelona 
in  1327,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Alfonso  IV. 

Jac'mel,  or  Jacquomel,  a  port  and  city  of  Ilayti, 
on  thtf  S.  coast,  30  miles  S.  W.  of  Port-au-Prince,  at  the 
head  of  a  bay  of  tho  samo  name.  The  city  is  ill  built  and 
unhealthy,  but  tho  harbor  is  deep  and  commodious.  Com- 
merce with  the  V.  S.  has  been  carried  on  for  some  years, 
and  it  is  a  port  of  call  for  mail-steamers.    Pop.  about  6000. 

Ja'cob,  or  Israel,  in  biblical  history  the  immediate 
ancestor  of  tho  Hebrew  nation,  being  the  son  of  Is.iie. 
grandson  of  Abraham,  and  father  of  the  twelve  patriarchs 
from  whom  tho  tribes  of  Israel  deduced  their  origin.  The 
place  of  Jacob's  birth  cannot  bo  ascertained  from  the  nar- 
rative in  Gon.  xxv..  except  that  it  was  in  the  Netjeh  or 
"south  country"  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  probably  near  the 
Well  Lahai-roi  (verse  11),  which  site  has  not  been  identi- 
fied by  modern  travellers.  In  consequence  of  a  quarrel 
vith  his  twin-brother  Esau  about  the  supremacy  in  the 
household,  Jacob  was  sent  in  his  early  manhood  by  his 
parents  to  his  uncle  Laban,  at  Haran  in  Padan  aram  (a 
region  variously  located  by  some  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, by  others  in  the  vicinity  of  Damascus),  where 
he  married  his  cousins  Leah  and  Rachel,  and  resided  twenty 
years,  becoming  wealthv  in  flocks  and  herds.  Jacob  then 
returned  to  Canaan  with  his  family  and  his  riches,  not 
without  a  serious  controversy  with  Laban.  Arriving  near 
home,  he  became  reconciled  with  his  brother  Esau  in  a 
dramatic  personal  interview.  Both  on  his  journey  to  Haran 
and  on  his  return  .Jacob  had  had  visions  (Gen.  xxviii.  and 
xxxii.)  in  which  the  greatness  of  his  des^-cndants  was  di- 
vinely announced  to  him,  and  tho  later  sanctuaries  at 


JACOB— JACOBI. 


1357 


nothcl  and  Peniiol  commemorated  the?c  events.  Jacob's  | 
old  a;.;c  was  emWitlercil  by  tlie  conduct  of  his  ?on?,  who  I 
sold  liis  favorite,  .Iose|ib.  as  a  slave  to  the  Mitiinniti  s.  who 
took  him  to  K^'vpt.  Many  years  later,  when  .Io?().li  bad 
become  viceroy  of  Egypt  (tJen.  xli.).  tho  whole  family  of 
Jacob,  after  a  wonderfn!  series  of  events,  recorded  in  the 
last  ten  eliajiters  of  tiencsis,  was  established  in  Kgypt, 
where  the  patriarch  died  seventeen  years  later  at  tho  a);o 
of  1 17  years.  On  his  deathbed  ho  pronounced  a  blessing 
npon  each  of  his  sons  (Ocn.  .ilix.),  and  commande<l  them 
to  bury  him  with  his  fathers  in  tho  cave  of  Macbpelah  in 
the  land  of  C";inann,  which  was  accordingly  done.  The 
locality  of  this  cave  has  been  much  disputed  ;■  the 
present  te.xl  of  (Jcnesis  assigns  it  to  Hebron,  in  Southern 
Canaan,  but  as  this  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  route 
taken  bv  the  funeral  procession  in  crossing  the  Jordan 
ftien.  l.Ul  and  with  the  express  languago  of  the  martyr 
Sle|ihen  (.\cts  vii.  lOt,  placing  the  tomb  of  the  patriarchs 
at  •■Jhccbem  or  .'^ychem.  it  has  been  concluded  by  some  ex- 
positors that  llrlrnn  is  a  gloss  which  has  erroneously  crept 
into  the  te\t  of  Genesis.  The  chronology  of  Jacob's  life 
is  ono  of  the  most  perple.xing  problems  of  biblical  criti- 
cism. Kitto  and  others  date  his  birth  about  B.C.  I'.ISa,  and 
hi9>death  D.  <•.  l!<J7.  (See  Ewald's  Ifttlon/  of  hi-nil,  trans- 
lated by  Martincau,  vol.  i.,  and  Dean  Stanley 's./<:i(i<i/i  CInin-h, 
vol.  i.)  PoKTEn  C.  Bliss. 

Jncub  (Ilil>lio))liilc).  See  Lachoi.v  (Pai'i,). 
Jacub  (JoiiS).  (iKXEKAL,  b.  at  AVoolavington,  near 
liridgcwater,  Knglaurl,  in  Jan.,  1812;  was  distinguished 
for  his  gallantry  in  India  as  commander  of  the  Scindo 
cavalry,  for  the  influence  he  acquired  over  tho  natives  of 
the  X.  W .  frontier,  whom  he  |irevented  from  joining  the 
mutiny  of  1SJ7,  ami  for  the  invention  of  the  Jacob  rille,  a 
very  popular  cavalry  arm  in  India,  where  it  is  the  rival  of 
the  Knficld.  I),  at  .lacobabad,  a  town  founded  by  him  in 
Scinde,  Dee.  J,  1S,")S.  His  Vinm  and  Opinions  on  Indian 
subjects  were  published  after  his  death. 

Jacob  de  Vorasine,  b.  at  Viraggio.  near  Genoa,  in 
l'.':;il;  was  arehl>ishop  of  Genoa  in  1292.  and  d,  there  in 
12U.'<.  lie  was  the  author  of  the  very  famous  Legenda 
Aurcu,  or  Gulden  Lrijenil,  a  collection  of  fanciful  and  fab- 
ulous lives  of  saints,  widely  read  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Jacob  of  Kdessa,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Syrian 
theologians,  flourishe<l  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. About  ll.'il  A.  I),  he  became  bishop  of  Edessa,  and 
devoted  him.sclf  to  sacred  and  classical  studies.  Ills  an- 
notations u])on  the  .Syriac  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
of  which  some  fragments  are  extant,  are  considered  valu- 
able, while  his  translations  of  Greek  works  into  Syriac  pro- 
cured him  the  honorable  title  of  '•  interpreter  of  the  books." 
L).  June  :>,  70.S. 

Jacob  of  IIiingaTy,  called  rnt!  MAsrisn.was  a  relig- 
ious fanatic  who  played  an  important  part  in  French  his- 
tory in  the  time  of  the  seventh  f'rusadc.  In  his  youth  ho 
was  reported  to  have  been  a  Tistcrcian  friar,  to  have  learned 
magical  arts  from  the  Spanish  Moors,  and  even  to  have 
embraced  Islamism ;  these  statements,  however,  are  of 
diMibtful  authority.  When  the  news  of  the  surrender  of 
St.  Louis  to  the  .Mussulmans  of  Kgypt  became  known  in 
Europe,  the  "  Master  of  Hungary  "  went  through  the  prov- 
inces of  France  preaching  a  crusade  for  the  liberation  of 
the  king.  He  laid  claim  loilivino  inspiration,  and,  appeal- 
ing only  to  the  poor  and  lowly,  soon  gathered  about  him  in 
Flanders  some  Hfl.llOII  shepherds  and  peasants,  eallcil  /'<i«- 
totirfU  or  I'tmlinirrnnr,  at  whose  head  he  started  for  Paris. 
At  Amiens  the  mob  obtained  arms  and  recruits,  and  it 
numbered  1110, OOO  wln-n  it  presented  itself  before  the  walls 
of  Paris.  The  Pastourels  when  admitted  into  Paris  began 
to  commit  depredatiims  ami  to  murder  monks,  while  Jacob 
assumed  priestly  faculties  ancl  officiated  publicly  in  tho 
church  of  St.  Eustache.  He  divide  d  his  followers  into 
several  bands,  and  sent  them  by  different  routes  towards 
the  Holy  I, ami.  .\t  OrK-ans  they  niasiacred  the  priests,  at 
Itourges  the  .lews.  These?  excesses  caused  the  Sfn fJit^nU, 
who  ha(|  at  first  been  favored  by  the  queen  and  the  magis- 
trates, to  be  excommunicated,  and  Jacob  their  leader  was 
killed  by  the  ipiecn's  order  while  preaching  in  the  midst  of 
his  followers,  who  were  then  easily  annibilatetl  or  dis- 
persed. iSeetbe  r/iioiiiV/.«  cd'  Mailbew  Paris  and  Matthew 
of  Westminster,  and  .Milman's  f.nlin  Chrinlianlli/.) 

Jacob  of  Vilry,  b.  at  Vitry,  in  France,  in  tho  scoond 
half  of  the  twelfth  century;  was  first  a  parish  priest  at 
Argenleuil,  then  became  a  /.enlous  apostle  of  Maria  of 
Oignies.  a  woman  who  was  supposed  to  possess  supernatu- 
ral gifts.  Led  by  his  enlbiisiasm,  he  undertook  to  preach 
a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and  finally  devoted  him- 
self  to  the  interests  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  ,Ierusalein, 
travelling  through  France  to  collect  alms.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Popo  Honoriua  III.  021?)  biibop  of  Aoro  in 


Palestine,  where  ho  effected  great  conversions  of  Saracen 
children.  He  resigned  that  bishopric  in  122.5;  was  ap- 
pointed by  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  122'.!,  cardinal-bishop  of 
Tusculnm,  and  papal  legate  of  France,  Brabant,  and  tho 
Holy  Land,  and  d.  at  Koine  Apr.  .11)  (or  May  I).  12.",n.  He 
was  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of  the  time,  but  his  famo 
now  rests  upon  his  Hinlorin  Oricntall«,  generally  called 
/Union/  of  J'-runaUm,  which  is  a  valuable  source  of  infor- 
mation upon  the  Crusades,  He  also  wrote  a  IliHtoria  Ovci- 
dentniift,  a  Lifr  of  the  iilesHed  Mary  of  Oiijnies,  and  left  an 
interesting  collection  of  letters. 

Jacobtr'an  Lil'y  ( Aman/llift  formoHlmtimn)^  a  beauti- 
ful South  American  flower  which  has  been  acclimated  in 
the  U.S.  its  bulb  is  large,  dark-colored,  and  long-neeked, 
protruding  above  tho  surface  of  the  ground:  the  flowers, 
which  appear  before  the  leaves,  arc  large,  irregular,  and  of 
a  brilliant  crimson  color.     (See  Lily.) 

Jaco'bi  (AauAnAJt),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Ilartuni,  in  West- 
phalia. ;\Iay  t>.  1>*;^1I :  graduated  at  Bonn  in  IS.'il.  and  came 
to  thv,  {'.  S.  in  ISj.'J  in  consequence  of  political  persecu- 
tions in  Gerniany.  Br.  Jncobi  has  become  a  leading  au- 
thority among  the  medical  profession  of  .America  npon  tho 
subjects  of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  women  and  ehililron. 
having  been  professor  of  these  branches  at  tlie  New  York 
Medical  College  (ISCO-fiit)  and  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons.  lie  has  published  Dniiltion  mid  iln  Itr- 
rangemcnte  (1862)  and  other  works,  and  edited  18C8-7I  the 
American  Journal  of  Obstetrica  and  Uiscaeet  of  Women 
and  Children. 

Jacobi  (FniEDniCH  HeinrichI,  b.  at  Diisseldorf  Jan. 
25,  174.'),  and  received  a  commercial  education  at  Frankfort 
and  Geneva,  in  which  latter  city  he  .^pcnt  three  years.  In 
1763  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  paternal  firm,  and 
conducted  the  business  of  the  house  for  seven  years  with 
great  conscientiousness  and  with  success.  In  1770  he  re- 
tired from  niorcantilc  afl'airs.  having  been  appointed  a 
councillor  of  finance  f<ir  the  duchies  of  .lulich  and  Berg. 
This  office  gave  him  leisure  and  a  superior  social  position  ; 
he  was  possessed  of  a  largo  fortune,  and  had  married  a 
spirited  and  intelligent  woman,  and  soon  his  literary  taste, 
his  philosophical  spirit,  his  talents,  and  his  studies  bronght 
him  into  intimate  connection  with  many  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Gorman  civilization — Goethe,  WielamI,  Lavater,  Haniann, 
etc.  His  country-seat.  Pcm])elfort,  near  Diisseblorf,  was  fur 
several  years  a  centre  of  literary  life  in  Germany.  In  17!>1, 
on  the  "invasion  of  the  French,  he  removed  to  Norlhern 
Germany,  and  lived  for  ten  years  mostly  in  Kuliu.  In  lSfl4 
ho  was  called  to  Munich  as  a  member  of  the  ncwiy-crectcd 
Academy  of  Science,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1807. 
In  I81.f  he  resigned  this  position,  and  d.  Mar.  10,  1SI9. 
His  talent  as  a  writer  was  half  poetical,  half  philosophical, 
and  as  such  it  was  eminently  well  suited  to  the  standpoint 
which  ho  occupied,  and  from  which  he  exercised  no  small 
influenco  on  the  course  of  German  civilization.  His  two 
romances,  Edimrd  Allwill  (1702)  and  H'.-Wcmor  (I7Hfl),  arc 
now  out  of  date;  the  exquisite  dclicatencss  of  Wcddcniar's 
feelings  is  aff'ected,  and  the  subtle  analysi.s  to  which  they  arc 
subjected  is  a  mental  disease.  But  in  an  age  whose  task 
was  to  break  through  o  jictrifieil  intellectuality  and  vindi- 
cate the  right  of  the  imagination  and  feeling  in  human  life, 
the  book  was  of  great  importance  and  very  beneficial.  Of 
more  lasting  interest  ore  his  I'rhrr  die  I.rhre  dcit  Spi- 
tioza  (1785),  Darld  Hume  Vtbrr  den  Olnnhen  (1787).  ifend- 
nehrciben  an  Fiehle  (179y),  l'""  den  rfiilllirhen  Dinyen  il»d 
Hirer  Offenbarmi'i  (1811).  Reason,  the  vital  eenlrc  of  the 
human  mind,  is  with  Jacobi  the  source  of  imiueiliale  know- 
ledge, of  an  instinctive  intuitiiin,  of  a  kind  of  revelation 
divinclv  safe;  while  the  knowledge  with  which  the  under- 
standing furni.shes  us.  and  which  is  derived  from  the  senses 
by  a  train  <pf  reasoning,  always  is  more  or  less  exposed  to 
mistakes  and  errors.  Furllo  rmore.  the  organ  of  this  eenlrti 
of  the  mind,  the  foundation  on  Mhieb  the  reason  rests,  is 
with  Jacobi  the  feelings  ;  the  fi'clinga  stand  in  the  same  re- 
lation to  reason  as  the  senses  to  tho  understanding,  only 
they  err  not.  This  standnoint,  the  jihilosophy  of  feel- 
ings, is  not  and  could  hardly  be  ))resenled  in  systematic 
form.  It  is  developed  polemically  against  Spinozii,  Ilunw, 
Kant.  Fichtc.  and  Sebelling.  and  in  an  aphoristic  manner. 
But  tile  criticism  is  often  very  acute  and  the  positive  rep- 
resentation always  clear  and  eloquent.  His  collected  lti.r*» 
appeared  in  «  vols.,  1812-24;  heiiem,  2  vols.,  182.')-27  ; 
Corret.  leilh  (Inellie,  1846.  (SoO  Kuhn.  JaeuUi  »nd  die  I'ki- 
loHO/dlle  „einer  Zril,  18:14.)  Cl.EMENS  PlMMllSEV. 

Jiicobi  (Kaiii.  Gt  stav  Jakor),  b.  at  Potsdam  Deo.  10, 
1804  ;  studied  maibeinaties  and  philosophy  in  Berlin  ;  was 
appointed  adjunct  in  182.^,  auti  jirofessor  in  1827  in  math- 
ematics at  Krinigsberg;  travelled  in  1S4S  in  Italy  for  his 
heallli.  and  lived  in  Berlin,  wbero  ho  d.  Feb.  18,  IS51.  His 
principal  works  are  Fnndttmenht  m»eo  tli'^iritr  fmtchoHuni 
ttliptiaarum  (1S29),  Cunon  Arilhmtlicut  (IS'M). 


1358 


JACOB!— JACOTOT. 


Jacobi  (MoRiTR  Hermann),  brother  of  the  preceding, 
b.  at  Potsdam  Sept.  21,  1801;  became  professor  in  rivll 
engineering  at  the  University  of  Dorpnt  in  I8;i,>,  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Science  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1847,  and  re- 
ceived the  title  of  councillor  of  state.  D.  iu  St.  Petersluirg 
Mar.  10.  1S74.  Ue  i.-*  the  inventor  of  the  galvaiioplastic 
art,  on  which  he  wrote  an  essay  in  1S40.  Die  Ualvanopfastik. 

Jac'obins  [Lat.  Jacohux,  *•. Tames"],  members  of  a  po- 
litical society  founded  1789  by  some  deputies  from  Brittany 
during  the  session  of  the  States  General  at  Versailles.  This 
society  was  at  first  called  the  "  Breton  Club,"  which  name. 
being  regarded  as  too  exclusive,  was  soon  changed  to 
*'SocJ6t6  des  amis  de  la  Constitution."  The  king  and  the 
Assembly  went  to  Paris  Oct.,  1789;  the  club  followed,  and 
established  itself  in  an  old  Dominican  monastery  in  the 
Ruo  St.  Honorfi.  The  French  Dominicans  were  com- 
monly called  Jacobins,  from  the  fact  that  a  church  dcdi- 
oated  to  St.  James  bad  been  given  to  them  shortly  after 
their  settlement  in  Paris  in  the  thirteenth  century:  and 
bcforo  long  the  name  was  adopted  by  the  new  club.  Many 
distinguished  persons  were  among  its  members ;  for  instance, 
Lft  Fayette,  Talleyrand.  .Mirabeau,  Robespierre,  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  the  poet  Chenier.  the  actor  Talma.  Its  power 
increased  rapidly.  Its  opinions  were  disseminated  by  the 
Journal  rfe«  amis  de  la  Consfitittiou,  which  was  industri- 
ously circulated  through  the  whole  country.  As  its  in- 
fluence spread,  its  principles  became  more  democratic,  so 
that  in  Apr,  1790,  Talleyrand,  La  Fayette,  and  many  other 
moderate  members  withdrew  nnd  founded  the  *•  Club  of 
1789,"  afterward:?  styled  '*  les  Feuillauts."  Revolutionary 
Bocieties  on  the  Ja:-obin  model  were  established  in  nearly 
every  town  and  village  of  France,  and  affiliated  to  the  orig- 
inal club,  whose  orders  they  implicitly  obeyed.  The  Jaco- 
bins dictated  every  government  measure.  '*  They  are'  Lords 
of  the  Articles,' "  says  Carlyle,  '•  they  originate  debates  for 
the  legislative;  discuss  peace  and  war;  settle  beforehand 
what  the  legislative  is  to  do."  Robespierre  was  their  most 
influential  member;  through  him  they  ruled  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror,  and  after  his  downfall  in  1704  they  also 
were  overthrown.  In  Oct.,  1794,  the  affiliation  of  societies 
was  forbidden  by  the  Convention;  in  November,  the  Jaco- 
bin club  was  suspended,  and  the  hall  where  it  had  met  was 
clos:;d.  Some  of  its  members  joined  the  Electoral  Club; 
others,  the  section  "des  Quinze-Vingts,"  in  the  Faubourg 
St.  Antoine.  Soon  afterwards  the  monastery  was  destroyed, 
and  upon  its  site  was  built  the  '*  Mnrche  St.  Honort^." 

Much  Jacobin  and  anti-.Tacobin  literature  exists  in  the 
form  of  plays,  poems,  and  pamphlets,  mofft  of  which  are 
rather  curious  than  edifying;  for  example.  Lc  Srcrct  des 
Jiirohins,  La  Jacobnuadc.  Lv8  Crimes  dpM  Jnfohins,  pub- 
lished in  Paris  between  1790  and  179.">.  The  poetry  of  the 
Anft-Jarotiin.  a  journal  edited  by  George  Canning,  is,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  best  works  of  humor  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. In  this  collection  are  to  be  found  the  well-known 
"  Knife-grinder,"  and  the  burlesque  of  the  "Rovers,"  in 
which  occurs  the  song  of  the  "  University  of  Gottingen." 
The  term  Jnrobin  is  still  sometimes  applied  to  persons  of 
extreme  revolutionary  principles.  Jaxkt  Tuckey. 

Jac'obites.  I.  An  Oriental  Christian  sect,  mono- 
physitic  in  doctrine,  deriving  their  name  from  Jacob  Bara- 
dai.  "  the  ragged."  originally  a  monk  an<l  presbyter  near 
Ni.'^ibia  in  Mesopotamia,  who  became  bishop  of  Kdessa  541 
A.  D.,  aud  d.  578.  He  took  upon  himself  the  general  super- 
intendence of  Monophysites  in  the  East,  and  brought  their 
number  up  to  about  100,000,  mninly  in  Mesopotamia  and 
Syria.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  XtIL  (1572-85)  they  num- 
bered only  50,000  in  Syria.  Mesopotamia,  and  IJabylonia. 
They  are  now  still  more  reduced.  In  Syria  thev  are  a 
mere  handful  in  a  few  villages,  and  very  poor.  They  are 
under  a  patriarch  who  resides  in  a  monastery  near  Mardin. 
In  public  worship  use  is  made  of  the  ancient  Syriac  lan- 
guasje,  which  the  people  do  not  understand.  There  are 
said  to  be  200,000  Jaeobites  in  India  (Malabar  and  Trav- 
ancore).  Of  the  United  or  Roman  Catholic  Jacobites  in 
Syria  we  have  no  statistics.  Attemi)ts  were  made  to  Ro- 
manize tbein  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century,  but  with 
no  considerable  success  till  the  seventeenth.  About  90.000 
Roman  Catholic  Jacobites  are  claimed  in  Imlia. — II.  In 
Great  Britain,  partisans  of  King  .lame^*  H..  dethroned  in 
1688.  They  were  strongest  in  Scotland,  rebelling  twice 
(in  1715  :ind  in  1745),  and  were  not  wholly  extinct  us  a 
party  till  after  the  death  of  Charles  Edward,  the  Pretender, 
in  17S8.  R^  D^  IIiTcnrocK. 

Ja'cobs  (MirnAEi.).  T>.  P.,onenf  the  founders  of  Penn- 
sylvania Collecre  at  Gettyehurjr,  professor  of  mnlhematics 
nnd  of  the  phvsienl  and  natural  sciences  in  it:  b.  near 
Waynesboro',  Franklin  co..  Pa.,  Jan.  18,  ISOS.  In  early 
boyhood  h»'  was  left  an  orphan:  entered  the  preparatory 
depnrtment  of  .Tefferson  College.  Canonsbiir^.  Pee.,  1824; 
graduated  with  the  valedictory  1S28;  taught  for  five  months 


in  a  Presbyterian  school  at  Belle-Air,  Md. ;  came  to  Get- 
tysburg to  assist  his  brother.  Rev.  D,  J.acobs,  Apr.,  1820;  was 
professor  1832-71;  was  licensed  by  the  West  Pennsylvania 
synod  at  Hanover  Oct,  11.  18;;2  ;  ordained  at  Sonnnset  1S.34; 
president  of  synod  IS  19-51  :  secretary  of  general  synod  1S45; 
i  received  the  title  of  D.  D.  simultaneously  from  Jefferson  and 
Wittenberg  colleges  1S59.  D.  July  22,  1871.  His  very  val- 
uable .Vote*  on  the  Rrb*.l  Inia»ifni,  quoted  by  Everett  as  (he 
best  sketch  of  the  buttle:  some  eight  articles  in  the  AV. 
Review,  two  in  IJ.  S.  Sen-ice  Mtit/nziue,  and  a  number  in 
Linumtn  Record  and  Journal  (of  whieb  he  was  for  two 
years  editor),  comprise  all  his  publications.  Among  the 
most.important  manuscripts  left  by  him  are  his  Lecturefton 
Mrteoroloffjf.  In  this  department  he  was  one  of  the  closest 
and  most  reliable  observers  of  bis  day.  His  qualities  as  a 
man  and  an  instrnctor  were  of  a  very  hij^h  order.  His 
ehar.acter  was  of  transparent  Christian  purity,  his  min*! 
clear,  his  scholarship  accurate,  and  his  modesty  great, 
almost  to  a  fault.  C.  P.  KnAurn. 

Jacobs  (Pai'I,  Emh,),  b.  at  Gotha  in  1802;  studied  at 
the  Ai-ademy  of  Munich  1818-25.  and  in  Rorno  1825-28; 
lived  in  St.  Petersburg  18^0-^4:  settled  in  ISIO  in  his  na- 
tive city,  where  he  d.  Jan.  fi.  ISfiG.  Several  of  his  pietures. 
such  fys  Adam  and  Eve,  Judith  and  Holof ernes,  Samson  irttd 
Delilah,  became  very  popular. 

Ja'cobsburg,  post-v.  of  Smith  tp.,  Belmoct  co.,  0. 
Pop.  89. 

Jacob's  Fork,  post-tp.,  Catawba  co.,  N.  C.    Pop.  1 1 OG. 

Ja'cobson  (John  Ciihistian).  b.  about  1785.  a  bishop 
of  the  I^Ioraviun  Church.  After  a  ministerial  service  of 
over  fifty  years  he  d.  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Nov.  24,  1870. 

Jacobson  (Wn.i.iAM\  D.  I>..  b.  in  Norfolk  in  ISO.*?; 
graduated  at  Lincoln  Cullct^e.  Oxford,  in  1827,  with  hif;h 
honors;  obtained  a  fellowship  at  Exeter  College  in  1829; 
was  vice-principal  of  Magdalen  Hall  from  18:J2-I8.  when 
he  became  regius  professor  of  divinity.  In  18()5,  Dr.  .Ta- 
cobson  was  appointed  bishop  of  Chester.  While  at  Oxfr)rd 
he  edited  for  the  University  press  the  Remaius  of  the  Apos- 
toh'c  Fathers  (2  vols.,  1840),  Nowell's  Catechiim' {1S44),  the 
Odlecfcd  Worhfi  of  Bishop  Sanderson  (6  vols.,  1854),  and 
other  works,  besides  publishing  two  volumes  of  bis  own 
sermons  (1840-40). 

Jaco'bus  (Melan'cthon  Williams),  D.  D..  LL.I).,  b. 
at  Newark.  N.  J.,  Sept.  10.  ISlfi  :  graduated  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  1834,  and  in  18.38  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  where  he  was  assistant  teacher  in  Hebrew  ISH8 
-39.  In  18.^9  he  was  settled  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. :  in  1850 
-51  traveUed  in  Europe  and  the  East:  and  in  1851  \ras 
made  professor  of  Oriental  and  biblical  litfraturo  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Allegheny,  Pa.,  which  offiee  he 
still  held  in  1875.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from 
Jefferson  College  in  1S52.  nnd  of  LL.D.  from  tho  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  18r)7.  In  1809  he  was  modoratur  of  the 
General  Assembly.  He  published  Xotcs  on  the  Xcw  Tcstn- 
uicnt—}fatthvw  i'lSiS),  Mark  and  Luke  {\So'^),  Ji>hn  (1850), 
Acts  (1859);  also  two  volumes  ou  OcHctfin  (18C1-C5).  1>. 
Oct.  28,  1876.  R.  D.  Hitcocock. 

Jaco'by  (Johann),  b.  at  Kdnigsberg  May  1,  1805; 
studieil  medicine  at  Berlin  and  Heidelherg,  and  settled  in 
1830  in  his  native  city  as  a  physician.  It  was  his  political 
activity,  however,  whieh  made  bim  famous.  Four  times  ho 
was  accused  of  high  treason — in  1841,  on  account  of  his 
I'i'er  Fraffen;  in  1845,  on  account  of  his  />«»  l-'finif/h'eJie 
Wort  Fritdrich  WUhelm  /If.;  in  1849  and  in  1866.  Tho 
three  first  times  he  was  acquitted,  but  the  last  time  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment.  Hu  was  a  member  of  the  (lor- 
ntan  Parliament  in  184S,  and  at  difTerent  periotls  of  tho 
Prussian  Diet.  Ho  also  wrote  Die  GrundsUtze  tier  preus- 
'  »ieh  Demol-vatik  {lSb9).     D.  Mar,  7.  1877. 

Jacoby  (Lcnwir.  Sir.rsMrst)),  D.  D..  b.  at  Alt  Strolitz, 
Mecklenburg,  Oct.  21,  18]  1,  of  Jewish  parents.     Converted 
to  Christianity  when   about  twenty-one  years  of  age.  he 
came  to  America  some  years  later  and  joincil  the  Methodist 
'   Episcopal  Church,  in   which  he  became  a  preacher  about 
I   1840.     After  being  for  several  years  presiding  elder  of  (»cr- 
raan  districts  in  the  Western   Slates,  he  returned  to  Ger- 
many in   1849   to   introduce   Melhodis^m   in   that  country. 
Through   his   labors   missions    were   established    in    many 
places,  ns  well    as   a  publishing-house   and  a  theological 
seminary  at  Bremen  under  his  own  superintendence.     In 
!  1S72  he  returned  to  America,  and  is  now  (1875)  pastor  of  a 
church  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.     Among  his  writings  are  a  C'at- 
I  enrdance  of  the  Bible  and  a  History  of  Methodism  in  the 

Whole  World  doicn  to  1SG9. 
\      Jacotot'  (Jkan  Joskph),  b.  at  Dijon,  France.  Mar.  4, 
I   1770;  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  Oreek  litera- 
ture at  his    native    jilnee  when  barely  nineteen  years   td 
age:  entereil  the  army  in  1792,  becoming  captain  of  arlil- 
I  lery  in  the  invasion  of  Belgium,  and  assisted  tho  celebrated 


JACQUARD-JADE. 


1359 


boanl  established  nt  Paris  for  the  mnnufactnrc  of  gun- 
powder by  extraordinary  methods  at  a  time  when  the  sup- 
ply of  ini;redients  seemed  exhausted.  Jacotot  soon  after- 
ward'* was  maiie  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  P-colc 
Normale:  then  of  Roman  law;  a  director  of  the  Polytech- 
nic, and  filled  at  Dijon  the  ehair  of  scientific  nH-thod.  in 
whii'h  he  introduei'd  an  original  system  of  instruftion  with 
which  his  name  has  become  identified.  Exiled  in  ISlii  for 
having  supported  Xapolcon  in  the  Chamber  of  l>eputies 
during  the  "  Hundred  Days,"  J.acotot  retired  to  IJi'lgium. 
where  he  became  professor  of  French  at  (be  University  of 
Louvain  and  director  of  the  military  school,  introducing 
and  popularising  his  new  ?ystera,  which  exercised  a  great 
inBuenco  upon  education  throughout  Europe,  it  being  the 
precursor  of  the  methods  of  Hamilton  and  Ollendorff.  Jaco- 
tot returned  to  Franco  in  IS.'iO,  and  d.  at  Paris  July  30, 
ISiO. 

Jacquard'  f  Joseph  Martk),  b.  in  Lyons.  France,  July 
7.  17.V2.  of  poor  parents,  by  whom  lie  was  first  brought  up 
as  a  weaver,  and  successively  apprenticed  to  a  bookbinder, 
a  cutler,  and  a  typefounder.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  in- 
herited from  his  father  a  worksboji  containing  two  weavers' 
looms,  but  was  obliged  to  sell  all  his  pr()perly  to  meet  the 
expenses  he  contracted  in  experiments  for  improving  looms. 
After  a  long  period  of  poverty  and  obscuritj',  during  which 
he  participated  in  some  of  the  canipsiigns  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, he  succeeded  iu  inventing  the  Loom  (which  see)  wbieli 
has  made  bis  name  a  household  word  in  both  continents. 
He  experienced  an  ill-fortune  not  unusuni  in  the  history 
of  inventors  in  being  mobbed  by  the  operatives  of  Lyons 
in  isn  i,  acting  under  the  erroneous  belief  tliat  the  new  loom 
would  be  ruinous  to  their  cbiss.  Tins  eircumstnnee  led  to 
the  purchase  of  the  invention  by  the  imperial  government, 
and  Nnpoleon,  by  a  decree  dated  at  IJeilin  Oct.  27,  LSOft, 
declared  it  public  property.  As  a  result,  the  subsequent 
prosperity  of  Lyons  was  largely  attributable  to  the  genius 
of  Ja:^quard.  who  received  during  his  lifetime  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  since  his  death  bis  statue  has 
been  erected  MHIO)  in  his  native  city.  D.  Aug.  7, 1S;^4,  at 
OuUins.  a  vilhi^e  near  Lyons. 
Jacqiiard  Loom*  See  Loow.  by  W.  E.  A.  Axov. 
Jacqueline'  of  Ravaria,  b.  in  MOO,  was  the  only 
dnu'^hter  and  heir  of  William  VL  of  Bavaria,  count  of 
Holland  nnd  H:iinault.  :ind  of  his  wife.  Margaret  of  Bur- 
gundy. In  ehildbood  she  was  betrothed  to  Prince  John 
of  France,  who.  however,  d.  by  poison  in  1417,  in  which 
year  Jacqueline  succeeded  to  her  father's  estates.  The 
hand  of  the  iieiress  was  n  prize  destined  to  bo  fiercely  dis- 
puted by  (he  princes  of  (hat  rude  age.  After  refusing  to 
marry  the  duke  of  Bedford,  brother  of  Henry  V.  of  Eng- 
land. Jacqueline  wedded  her  eousin,  .Tobn  IV„  duke  of 
Brabant,  but  soon  abandoned  bim,  and  in  M20  went  to 
Eu'^Iand,  where  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  another 
brother  of  the  king,  soughi  her  hanrj.  treating  her  former 
marriage  a«  null.  After  the  death  of  Henry,  the  antipope. 
Benedict  XIII.  annulled  Jacqueline's  first  marriage,  and 
in  1123  Gloucester  obtained  the  coveted  prize.  He  there- 
upon sailed  for  Hainault  with  5000  troops  to  reconquer  his 
wife'^  estates,  whieh  had  been  seized  by  the  dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy nnd  Bra'iant.  After  many  vieissitn<les  of  fortune, 
.Tncqtieline  was  imprisoned  at  Ghent,  escaped  to  Holland, 
repudiated  her  husband,  made  war  on  her  own  account, 
and  finally  ee  led  her  estates  to  the  duke  of  Burgundv  to 
purchase  the  liberation  of  her  new  husband,  Francis  of 
Bjrselen.     D.  in  1  T'.fi,  witlinut  issue. 

Jacqiicmnrt'  (At-ni-nx),  b.  at  Paris  in  180fl;  filled  im- 
porlant  financial  post^  under  the  Freneh  government,  nnd 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  Universal  Kxpoyition  of  1807. 
ebiefly  in  regard  to  the  processes  of  the  arts  applied  to  in- 
dustry— a  subject  wbieh  be  illustrated  in  bis  learned  works, 
Jfintoiff  nntifjHf  iutht^tritHe  rt  cnntmrrrinlfi  df  la  pi»rrrhtiur. 
(Lvons.  1S0L.02).  Mmriffr^  ifr  iff  rrni„n'(f„r  (ISr.r,).  an<l 
IliMlinrr  tie  lit  (Vrnnntfiir  (IS72^.  the  latter  of  which  has 
npprared  in  English  uu'ier  the  title  of  /fiMlortf  nf  Crrnmic 
Art,  translated  by  Mrs.  Bury  Palliscr,  with  1000  illustra- 
tions (London.  1S7:J). 

Jncqiiemont'  (Virrnn),  b.  in  Paris  Aug.  8,  1801; 
studied  hotany  under  Adricn  de  Jussieu,  nnd  after  visit- 
ing the  U.  S.  aufl  the  Weal  Indies  was  appointed  by  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris  to  c<mduet  a  scien- 
tific expcilition  In  Eastern  Asia.  He  arrived  at  Calcutta 
in  I«2i),  travelled  in  Briti-h  India,  studying  the  native 
languages,  crossed  the  Hinmtayns  into  Thibet,  nnd  reached 
rbineso  Tarlary,  returning  by  liahore,  where  Ruiij*'et  Singh 
showed  him  great  favor.  .laequeinont  «L  preuiaturoly  at 
Bombay  Dec.  7,  isr,2.  His  correspondence  and  travela 
have  been  publishc<I.  nnd  are  very  entertainint;,  as  well  as 
valuable  for  their  wenllb  of  seientifie  observation. 

Jnrqneric%  liisiirrortion  of  the^  a  war  of  the 
Freneh  peasantry  again:*t  the  nobles  which  broke  out  iMay 


12,  l.TSS,  during  the  imprisonment  of  John  II.  the  Good 
in  England.  The  oppressions  of  Charles  the  Bad  of  Na- 
varre and  the  long  and  grinding  tyranny  of  the  nobles 
were  the  causes.  For  some  three  weeks  the  peasants  were 
rapidly  successful,  nnd  were  guilty  of  every  enormity.  But 
on  June  9  the  count  de  Foix  nnd  Captal  de  Buch  gave 
them  a  terrible  and  final  ovcrilirow  at  Mcaux.  The  name 
"Jacquerie"  signifies  the  **  Jacks"  or  clowns. 

Jacques  f  Amkukk  Fi.onnNx),  b.  at  Paris  July  1,  T.S13, 
studied  at  the  College  de  Bourbon,  and  entered  the  Ecolo 
Normale  in  1S32.  After  teaching  j)hiIosnphy  at  the  col- 
leges of  Douay,  Amiens,  Versailles,  and  that  of  Louis-lc- 
Grand  at  Paris,  1\I.  Jacques  became  in  ISI2  professor  of  his 
favorite  branch  of  study  at  the  fieolc  Normale.  Brought 
inti>  intimate  association  with  Mieliclet,  Quinot,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  "  Young  France  "  of  that  jieriotl,  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  and  the  chief  editor  of  Ln  Lihcrt/'  tic  Pcnser, 
the  organ  of  the  philosophers.  He  conducted  this  publi- 
cation through  the  stormy  years  of  the  Second  Repub!ic 
(1S4S-51),  contributing  many  remarkable  arti<;les  to  its 
columns,  until  the  ouji  d'vtat  of  Napoleon  III.  silenced 
free  thought  in  Fiance,  when  he  was  ejected  from  his  pro- 
fessorship. He  had  published  in  1847,  along  with  liis  col- 
leagues, Saissct  and  Jules  Simon,  a  Mnuttcl  d*:  Philonn-pliief 
edited  the  works  of  Fenelon  and  Leibnitz,  and  contributed 
to  the  Dictionudirc  den  .SViV-HefJ!  Philostiphiqufi*.  In  LS;')2, 
M.  Jacques  went  to  Montevideo  in  the  republic  of  Uru- 
guay, bearing  the  reeoinnundation  of  Alexander  Humboldt, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  government  to  preside  over  a 
projected  university.  But  political  disturbances  nnd  the 
limited  resources  of  that  state  interfered  with  the  success 
of  the  project,  and  M.  .Taeques  was  then  engaged  to  direct 
the  government  land-surveys.  After  some  years,  during 
which  be  made  numerous  scientific  explorations.  M.  Jacques 
removecl  to  Buenos  Ayrcs,  where  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
management  of  one  of  the  national  colleges,  in  which  ca- 
pacity he  rendered  eminent  services  (o  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion, being  universally  esteemed  for  his  profound  attain- 
ments and  his  readiness  to  promote  every  scientific  object. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  leading  learned  societies  of  Franco 
and  of  South  America.     D,  at  Buenos  .Ayrcs  in  ISfi.'i, 

PORTFR    C.   Bl,(J-'S. 

Jacqties-Cartier',  county  of  Queliec,  Canada,  inchid- 
inir  the  W.  part  of  the  island  of  Montreal.  Cap.  Poinlo 
Claire.     Pop.  11.179. 

Jacqiiin%  von  fNrcoi.AS  Joseph),  Barox,  b.  at  Ley- 
den,  Holland,  Feb.  Hi,  1727;  studied  botany  under  Jussieu 
at  Paris,  and  settled  at  Vienna,  where  in  17i>.*i  he  was  en- 
gaged to  sujterintend  the  planting  of  the  garden  at  Schfin- 
brunn.  Soon  aflei  wards  he  undertook  a  voyage  of  several 
j'cars' duration  in  tro[)ical  .America,  collecting  r:ire  species 
of  plants,  in  whieh  he  was  so  fortunate  as  to  discover  about 
fifty  new  genera.  Returning  to  Europe.  (lie  remainder  of 
his  long  life  was  devoted  to  the  publication  of  Ins  numerous 
researches,  and  in  lecturing  iijion  botany  and  chemistry  iit 
the  University  of  Vienna,  at  which  place  be  d.  Oct.  24, 
1817.  His  son,  Josejdi  Franz,  succeeded  him  iu  his  pro- 
fessional posts;  b.  17(>7,  d.  1839. 

Jade^  a  hard  green  stone,  highly  prized  in  the  East 
and  bv  ancient  races  for  ornaments.  (See  Ni:rMiitiTC,  by 
Pnoi-.W.  P.  Bi.AKi:.  A.  M..  Pit.  B.) 

Ja'do,  or  .falide,  a  small  river  and  als:o  a  bay  in  Ger- 
many S.  W.  of  the  month  of  the  AVeser.  It  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  hut  was  purchased 
by  Prussia  in  1S.VI,  ft)r  the  purpose  ol'  forming  a  war-port 
on  tlio  German  Ocean.  The  Bay  of  .lade  covers  an  area 
of  71  square  miles,  wbieh  was  formerly  dry  land,  but  in- 
undated in  IJII.     {See  iNi'snATioNs,  JIakitimk.) 

Jado^  a  fortified  seaport  of  Germany,  on  the  N<trtb  Sea, 
was  formed  since  185)3,  At  that  tiruf  Prussia  bought  the 
coast  district  from  Oldenburg  for  500. mm  thalern,  ami  it 
has  since  spent  much  labor  and  great  expense  in  order  to 
transform  tiie  Bay  of  Jade  into  a  good  naval  harbor.  Since 
18C9  the  place  is  called  Wilbelnishavcn.  Basins,  of  whieh 
the  largest  is  120  metres  long  and  200  mCtrcs  broad,  have 
been  dug  in  the  muddy  ground  of  Iho  marsh.  These 
basins  were  then  separated  from  the  Bay  of  Jade  by  a  dam, 
nnd  in  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  France  the  dam  wiis 
finished  and  (bo  barlior  taken  into  use  by  the  navy.  On 
the  western  side  of  the  principal  basin  lliree  parallel  dry 
docks,  100  nu'trcs  long,  are  situated,  nnd  the  dotdis  as  well 
a8  the  basin  are  walled  with  granite.  Besides  the  docks 
are  (bo  wharves.  To  (he  E.  this  basin  is  connected  witli 
tbo  Bay  of  Jade  by  a  caiml  walled  wifli  crrnnite  nnd  ]>ro- 
vided  with  sluices.  Besides  tlio  naval  hnrI)or  is  the  coru- 
meroial  hnrltor,  wliicb,  however,  is  rather  insii;nifieaiit  :  it 
is  not  walled,  has  no  sliiieed  cnnal,  and  is  separated  fmm 
the  bay  only  by  an  eartlion  dam.  Tho  whole  hnrlior  is 
surrounded  with  forlifirii(ir)ns,  slrons^est  where  tliey  face 
tbo  Kca.  and  provided  with  ordnances  of  the  heaviest  cnl- 


13G0 


JAEX-JAHX. 


ibre  in  order  to  prevent  any  hostile  vessel  from  approach- 
injf.  Since  the  French  war  ininicnsc  sums  have  been  spent 
on  the  building  of  these  lortitications.  The  town  of  \Vil- 
helnijihiiven  has  grown  up  here  since  the  harbor  has  been 
built:  it  is  chiefly  a  military  colony,  and  has  excellent 
barracks.  ArcrsT  Niemann. 

Jacu'f  in  the  times  of  the  Moors,  was  an  independent 
kingdom,  hut  in  12.'U  it  was  conquered  by  Ferdinand  III. 
and  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Castile.  Now  it  forms  a 
separate  province  of  Spain.  Area,  51 84  srjuare  miles. 
Pop.  392,100.     It  is  rich  in  metals  and  fertile,  but  thinly 

Jiieilf  town  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Jaen.  on  the  Jaen,  a  tributary  of  the  (luadaUjuivir.  Its 
walls,  surmounted  by  turrets  and  pinnacles,  and  its  eastle, 
which  still  is  used  as  a  fortress,  were  built  hy  the  Jloors. 
It  has  two  cathedrals  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  beauti- 
ful promenades,  but  its  silk  manufactures,  which  once  made 
it  famous,  are  now  entirely  lost.      Pop.  22.933. 

JaTfa,  Yal'a,  or  Joppa,  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in 
the  province  of  Syria,  on  the  Mediterranean,  33  miles 
N.  W,  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  times  of  David  and  Solomon 
it  was  the  port  of  .Teru^alcm,  and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon 
of  which  the  temple  was  built  were  brought  from  Tyre  to 
its  harbor.  During  the  Crusades  it  was  the  hindiug-place 
of  the  Christian  armies.  Now  its  harbor  is  nearly  sanded 
up.     Pop.  5000. 

Jairiinpatam',  town  of  Ceylon,  situated  on  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  island.  It  was  originally  a  Dutch 
settlement,  but  most  of  the  Dutch  inhabitants  have  now 
left  for  Batavia.     Pop.  8000. 

JaTfrey,  post-tp.  of  Cheshire  co.,  N.  H.,  4G  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Concord.  It  has  two  principal  post-villages, 
JaiTrcy  and  East  Jaffrey.  The  latter  is  on  the  Monadnock 
K.  K.,  has  a  national  bank  and  a  savings  bank,  and  manu- 
factures of  cotton  drillings,  shoes,  wooden  ware,  boxes, 
etc.  Jaffrey  Village  has  a  high  school  and  manufactures 
of  chairs,  leather,  etc.  The  town  has  4  churches  and  con- 
tains the  Grand  Monadnock  Mountains.     Pop.  1256. 

Jaffrey  (tir:oiiGEi,  h.  at  New  Castle.  N.  II.,  Nov.  22, 
16S2;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1702:  became  suc- 
cessively couni;illor,  judge,  treasurer,  and  chief-justico  of 
New  Hampshire.     D.  at  Portsmouth  May  8,  174'J. 

Jas;anatha.     Sec  Jaggernalt. 

Ja^eTIons,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  which  reigned  from 
the  fourteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century  in  Poland,  and 
during  much  of  the  time  in  Lithuania.  Hungary,  and  Bo- 
hemia. The  founder  of  the  family  was  Jagellon  or  Jagi- 
ello,  h.  about  I35t,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  was  a 
pagan  until  his  marriage  (Feb.  17,  13S6)  with  Hedwig, 
daughter  of  Louis  the  Great,  king  of  Poland  and  Hungary. 
To  this  alliance  Jagellon  owed  his  election  to  the  throne 
of  Poland  as  successor  tu  his  father-in-law,  under  the  name 
of  Ladislas  II.  (Uladislas  or  Wladislas).  The  sovereigns 
of  this  dynasty  were  the  most  illustrious  of  Polish  rulers. 
Sigismund  Augustus,  who  d.  in  1572,  was  the  last  Jagellon 
king  of  P<)lnnd  in  direct  succession,  but  through  the  female 
line  the  family  retained  the  throne  until  the  abdication  of 
John  Casimir  in  10G8.  Most  of  the  existing  royal  houses 
of  Europe  (1875)  are  descended  from  the  Jngollous. 

JU'ger  (GrsTAv),  b.  at  Leipsic  July  12,  1S08;  studied 
at  Dresden,  jMuiiich,and  Home;  settled  in  1837  at  Alunich, 
but  removed  in  1847.  as  director  of  the  academy,  to  Leipsic, 
where  he  d.  Apr.  29,  I87I.  His  fresco  paintings  in  Munich 
and  Weimar  are  his  principal  works. 

Jtk'grrndorffy  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia.     It  has  four  well-frequented  cattle-fairs.     P.  OfilS. 

Jag'gar  (Thomas  Aifiisirs),  D.  D.,  b.  in  New  York 
City  June  2,  LS3il  ;  was  eriucated  hy  a  private  tutor;  grad- 
uated at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church:  was  ordained  doncon  in  18fi0  and  presbyter  in 
18t>3:  became  rector  of  Trinity,  Bergen  Point,  in  1862,  of 
Anthon  .Memorial  chureh.  New  York,  in  18ri4,  of  St.  John's, 
Yonkers.  in  18t'.8  (founding  there  the  St.  John's  Riverside 
Hospital),  and  of  Holy  Trinity  in  Philadelphia  in  1870. 
He  was  made  a  doctor  of  divinity  hy  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1874:  was  cloetcd  bishop  of  Southern 
Ohio  Jan.  14,  IH7o,  and  was  consecrated  to  that  office  in 
May.  1875. 

Jas?crnaut%  or  Piiri,  town  of  Oris.-fa.on  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  in   lat.   10°  45'  N.  and   Ion.  85°  54'  E.      It  is  nn  l 
ngroeablc  and  healthy  place,  as  the  air  is  kept  fresh  by  the 
south-western   monsoon.      Its   name  is  a  corruption  of  the  ' 
Sanskrit  word  J-i.j.ni.tthn,  -Mting  of  the  w..rltl."  which  it 
received  from  an  idol  of  Krislina.the  lord  of  the  universe, 
which  it  possesses — a  wooden   block  in  the  shape  of  a  eu-  ] 
cumber,  whose  upper  extremity  represents  a  human  face 
of  utter  bidcousDcss.     Around  this  idol  has  been  erected  a 


most  magnificent  temple,  or  rather  a  city  of  temples,  and 
hundreds  of  thousandi  of  pilgrims  visit  the  place  every 
year.  On  great  days  of  festival  the  idol  is  placed  on  a 
huge  chariot,  to  which  the  faithful  harness  themselves  in 
order  to  draw  the  id(»l  from  one  place  to  another,  and  in 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment  —we  arc  told — they  some- 
times throw  themselves  under  the  wheels  of  the  chariot. 
The  gorgeousness  and  the  peculiar  beauty  of  this  templo 
of  Jaganatha  are  described  as  something  uni((ue,  and,  to 
increase  the  wonderfulness  of  the  place,  all  columns,  pin- 
nacles, turrets,  and  other  architectural  ornaments  are  made 
of  the  most  costl}'  materials  and  have  required  centuries  of 
labor  to  be  worked  out.     Pop.  19,825. 

Jast'gery  [Hind.y«/.'r/;  Prakrit,  gakkttrn;  Lat.  eaccaha- 
riitii  ;  Eng.  Mf'/fi/],  the  sugar  obtained  in  Inrlia  from  va- 
rious palm  trees,  notably  the  cocoanut  palm  {Cnnts  ntici- 
J'crn),  the  toddy  palm  {P/i(cnix  sy/rrgtris},  and  the  jaggery 
palm  {Cart/Ota  iireng).  The  tapping  of  the  trees  and  the 
boiling  of  the  sap  are  carried  on  by  a  special  caste.  The 
quality  of  the  sugar  is  very  poor,  but  its  quantity  is  be- 
coming very  great,  and  it  is  now  exported  to  England,  and 
there  refined  more  easily  and  ehenply  than  ordinary  sugar. 
After  reiining  the  sugar  is  identical  with  cane  and  beet- 
root sugar.  The  Aijnt  /niticixuii  is  another  valuable  sugar- 
palm. 

Ja'guar  [Braz.jVf^'/"^'""]*  the  largest  of  the  cat  family 
of  America,  found  Irom  Texas  to  Patagonia,  generally  in- 
habiting forests  by  preference,  and  being  quite  arboreal  in 
its  habits.  It  is  exceeded  in  size  by  the  lion  and  tiger.  Its 
hide  is  often  of  a  rich  yellow,  spotted  and  ringed  with 
black.  The  skins  are  of  considerable  conmiereial  value. 
The  animal  is  lierce,  and  can  conquer  all  the  beasts  of  its 
native  wilds  except  the  great  boas  of  the  Brazilian  selvn. 

Jahn  (FniEPRicH  Lrnwio),  generally  known  under 
the  name  of  Tururater  Jahn^  b.  Aug.  11,  1778,  at  Lanz,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Brandenburg;  studied  theology 
at  Halle  and  Gottingen  :  lived  for  some  time  as  tutor  in  a 
private  family  at  Greifswald,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  E.  M.  Arndt ;  went  in  1805  to  Jena  to  continue  his 
studies,  but  preferred  to  enlist  in  the  Prussian  army  as  a 
soldier.  After  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  which  he  did  nivt  par- 
take, however,  he  fled  to  LUbeck,  but  returned  in  1809  to 
Berlin,  where  ho  became  teacher  in  a  gymnasium  in  ISIO, 
published  his  />««  Deutsche  Volksthum.  and  opened  the  first 
turn-establishment  in  1811.  His  ideas  of  preparing  a  tre- 
mendous uprising  of  the  German  nation  by  a  return  to  tho 
old,  genuine  German  civilization  of  the  times  of  Hermann, 
and  by  a  perfect  physical  training,  were  utterly  fantastic, 
and  his  language,  cojlume.  and  general  behavior  ludicrous- 
ly eccentric.  But  his  '*  turn-art  "  was.  nevertheless,  a  good 
thing.  It  formed  immediately  numerous  centres  around 
which  the  German  patriotism  gathered  and  developed, and 
later  it  exercised  a  salutary  influence  on  the  whole  system 
of  education.  In  the  war  of  1814  he  commnnded  a  corps  of 
volunteers,  at  the  head  of  wliich  ho  entered  Paris,  and  in  tho 
same  year  he  published  his  RunenhliHtcr.  But  after  tho 
war  the  "  turn-places  "  became  the  field  of  demagogical  ma- 
chinations an<l  riots,  and  in  1818  Jahn  was  seized  by  the 
Prussian  government  and  imprisoned.  In  1825  he  was 
liberated,  but  not  allowed  to  reside  in  any  university  town. 
He  settled  in  Freiburg;  became  more  and  more  fantastic 
and  eccentric:  wxoXfi  Nene  HuncuhVdttcr  (1828),  and  A/«r- 
ktn  zum  DciitHchen  Vttfksthiim  (1833)  ;  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  assembly  of  1K4S.  but  his  appearance 
here  was  only  a  great  disappointment  to  himself  and  to  bis 
former  turn-pupils,  who  loved  him  passionately.  D.  at 
Freiburg  Oct.  15, 1852,  In  ISlC  he  published,  together  with 
Eiselen,  Die  Dnituch^  Tiirnkunst.  A  biography  of  him  was 
written  in  1S55  by  Priihlc.  Clemens  Petersen. 

Jahn  (JoHANN),  b.  at  Taswitz,  Moravia,  June  18,1750;  . 
studied  at  Znaim  and  at  Olmutz,  and  in  1772  entered  a 
convent  at  Bruek,  where  he  soon  became  profissor  of 
Oriental  languages  and  of  biblical  criticism.  Wlien  (in 
1784)  this  convent  was  suppressed,  Jahn  obtained  a  pro- 
fessorship first  at  Olmutz.  and  afterward  at  Vienna,  where 
he  also  ga^  c  instruction  in  dogmatic  theology.  Jahn  was 
tho  most  distinguished  representative  in  his  time  of  Roman 
Catholic  learning  and  criticism,  and  his  numerous  works 
enjoyed  a  well-merited  rejuitution.  He  nevertheless  in- 
curred the  disfavor  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  for  tho 
boldness  of  some  of  his  opinions.  an<l  in  1803  was  separated 
from  his  professorial  chair  under  pretext  of  a  promotion 
to  a  canonry  of  St.  Stephen's.  Jahn  published  grammars, 
lexicons,  and  elementary  works  on  the  Hebrew,  Syriae, 
Chaldaic,  and  Arabic  languages,  an  Introdurtiou  tn  ihe  Old 
T'st.tment  i\792\,  BiUlrn/  Arch}>'ofofj>/  (5  vols..  1797-1805), 
a  Mnnufil  of  Grutrul  Hfirmeufuticx  (1812),  an  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  (180fi),  and  other  works.  His  Arclm- 
ofofjif  has  hccn  translated  into  English  and  reprinted  in 
America.     D.  at  Vienna  Aug.  16,  1816. 


JAIIN— JAINAS. 


i:un 


Jahn  (Otto),  b.  at  Kiel  June  16.  1S13;  studied  in  his 
native  city,  at  Leipsic.  Berlin,  and  Copenhagen  ;  travelled 
with  a  stipend  from  the  Oanish  governnicut  in  France  and 
Italv  ;  hceame  prolV^yor  of  archreolugy  at  (Jrcifswiild  in 
HI2,  and  at  Leipsic  in  1S47.  On  account  of  his  ])artieipa- 
tion  in  the  revolntionary  movements  of  1S4S  and  l.S4'J  he 
was  dismissed  in  ISJU,  but  received  in  ISJj  a  chair  in  an- 
cient literature  and  archaeology  at  Bonn.  1).  .Sept.  It,  18G9. 
Besides  his  e  litions  of  Latin  authors,  a  numhcr  of  essays 
on  variou''  philolo;;ical  and  archieoloKical  subjects,  especi- 
ally on  anlifjuc  vases,  lie  wrote  a  popular  hiuj^raphy  of  Mo- 
zart ( t  vols.,  18jG)  and  other  papers  relating  to  music. 

Jail.  The  words  /fr»7  and  priann  arc  employed  in  com- 
mon ii!^a.;;e  with  hut  little  if  any  distinction  of  mcauing, 
and  even  as  applied  in  law  arc  not  infrequently  used  as 
synonyntous  terms.  But  jnil  had  originally  a  somewhat 
dilTerent  sense  from  ;>ft«oii  in  legal  usage,  and  is  sometimes 
employed  technically  at  the  present  day  with  the  same  dis- 
tinctive interpretation.  In  this  special  meaning  it  is  a 
place  for  the  confinement  of  persons  arrested  for  debt  or  for 
the  commission  of  minor  offences  and  in  the  custody  of  the 
sheriflT,  or  for  the  temporary  confinement  of  witnesses  or 
persons  awaiting  trial.  A  prison  is.  on  the  other  hand. 
a  place  of  permanent  confinement  and  of  punishment  for 
crime.  A  jailer  is  at  common  law  the  servant  or  deputy  of 
the  sheriff  of  the  county,  ami  for  any  wrongful  arts  which 
the  jailercommits  in  thejicrformancoof  his  rUity  the  sheriff 
is  responsible  on  orciinary  princi[)lfs  of  agency.  Thus,  if  a 
person  in  custody  bo  suffered  to  escape,  the  sheriff  will  ho 
liable,  (i^eo  Escape.)  (For  the  regulation  of  jails  and  tho 
methods  of  prison  management  see  Piiisov,  Prison  Ois- 
ciPi.iNK.)     (ir.oiioi:  CuAsn.     Ukvisf.d  bv  T.  W.  Dwifinr. 

Jail  Delivery,  Commission  of.     See  Courts. 

Jail  Fever,  a  form  of  Tvpnrs  (which  see). 

Jai^nas,  a  Hindu  religious  sect.  Thcro  aro  not  at  tho 
present  time  many  Iliiuhis  professing  the  Jaina  faith,  as 
compared  with  those  professing  such  creeds  as  tho  Vaish- 
nuva  and  Saiva,  but  tlio  Jainas  now  in  India  aro  remark- 
able for  their  respectability,  influence,  and  o[nilcnco  as  a 
class.  They  aro  chiefly  to  be  met  with  in  tho  N.  and  W. 
of  the  peninsula,  although  even  in  the  S.  groups  of  Jaina 
families  are  not  uncommon.  AVhilst  the  characteristics  of 
the  Jaina  religion  aro  thoroughly  well  known,  tho  dalo  of 
the  origin  of  the  pcct  and  the  causes  which  led  Xo  its  rise 
are  hotly  cnntrovcrtcrl  points.  The  writer  believes  tho  true 
cx])lanation  to  be  as  follows:  It  is  generally*  allowed  that 
Gfttama  Buddha  (S;ikyamuni)  died  at  Gya  in  Southern 
Behar  in  .>I3  n.  c.  After  this  Buddhism  quickly  sprang  up, 
and  overran  Hindustan.  Brahminism  itself  was  eru^^hcd 
and  kept  under  for  ten  centuries  by  that  ghastly  religion 
of  atheism,  nihilism,  and  despair.  But  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury after  Christ  tho  old  Vodic  creed  began  to  revive 
and  Bn^ldhism  to  fail.  Ardent  Buddhists  noticed  the 
change  in  the  tide  of  Hindu  opinion,  and  began  to  tremble 
at  the  consequences  of  a  loss  of  prestige.  Tlio  Bralimins 
were  still  numerous  in  the  land,  and  the  old  reverence  for 
their  priestly  character  was  regaining  ground  rapidly  in 
tho  minds  of  tho  multitude.  Caste,  too,  ignored  as  a  re- 
ligious institution  by  Buddhism,  was  beginning  more  and 
more  to  l)e  regarded  under  its  old  aspect  of  an  absolutely 
ni'C('S.*ary  institution  Ibr  Hindus.  So  some  of  tho  shrewdest 
of  the  Buddhists  detcnnined  on  a  compromise.  They  re- 
solve) to  invent  a  religion  which  would  unite  in  it  several 
of  the  most  important  elements  of  Buddhism  and  of  Brah- 
minism. Thu-*,  aliout  tho  beginning  of  tho  sixth  century 
A.  !>.  Jaina  doctrines  began  to  bo  actively  and  successfully 
promulgated.  Such,  the  writer  believes,  is  tUo  true  history 
in  brief  of  the  origin  of  Jainisni  in  India.  Tho  Jainas 
rcvcreneed  certain  holy  mortals  who  had.  they  held,  ac- 
quired by  practices  of  self-denial  ancl  mnrtificatiim  a  sta- 
tion superior  even  to  (he  gods  worshipped  by  tin;  Brahmins  ; 
and  thus  they  conciliated  the  Buddhists,  iiotama  Buddha 
him-tetf  finds  a  place  in  Jaina  mythology.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Jainas  wore  extremely  strict  in  avoiding  the  de- 
struction of  any  animal  life  whatsoever,  and  lli'-y  recog- 
nized caste ;  and  thus  they  c<mciliated  the  Brahmins.  In 
the  matter  of  tho  Vedas,  the  Jainas  tried  to  steer  a  mifldle 
course.  Parts  they  rejected  and  parts  they  accepted  as 
auiiiority.  For  in»tance,  those  parts  of  (he  Verlas  in  which 
animal  sacrifice  is  enjoined  they  treated  wiihout  respect, 
and  tlioy  refused  to  celebrate  the  hnmn,  or  burnt -offering, 
lest  insects  crawling  amongst  Ihe  fuel,  bred  by  the  fer- 
mented hutter,  or  falling  into  the  fire,  might  be  accident- 
ally destroyed.  But  to  tho  parts  of  ihe  Vedas  which  could 
in  any  way  he  regarded  as  favorahle  to  Budiihif*tic  tenets  tho 
Jainas  paid  tho  greatest  reverence,  and  frequently  (jiioted 
in  their  discourses  and  writings.  Beside«.  the  .Tainas, 
whilst  doing  homage  to  Buddhas.  employed  Brahmin 
priests  in  their  service  as  the  solo  ministrants  in  their  tem- 
ples or  ptmAlun. 

V,,,..  ii._sr, 


The  term  Jaina  is  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  Jina.  signi- 
fying '*  one  who  is  a  victor."  The  saints  worshipped  by 
(he  Jainas  were  Jinas — those  who  had  conquere<I  all  hu- 
man passions,  desires,  aspirations,  and  infirmities,  and 
had  attained  to  a  state  of  perfect  apathy.  Such  a  saint 
was  regarded  as  Jaf/nt  pratfm,  "lord  of  the  world;"  .Var- 
vftjna,  "all  wise;"  Kflntia  lea  runt,  "one  to  whom  ceremo- 
nial acts  were  not  requisite ;"  Aff/ii>ihv(ira,  "  supreme  lord  ;" 
and  Dcr&dhiileva,  "god  of  gods."  He  was  one  who  had 
crossed  the  ocean  of  births  (  Tirthahftra),  be  was  the  pos- 
sessor of  a  spiritual  nature  {Kcvali),  and  he  was  venerable 
and  worthy  of  ail  homage  {Arhnf).  'J'hc  Buddhists,  though 
they  iiad  innumerable  earthly  Buddhas,  confined  their 
homage  practically  to  seven  ;  the  Jainas  venerated  seventy- 
two  saints.  Twenty-four  were  of  a  past  age.  twenty-tour 
of  a  present,  and  twenty-four  were  to  come.  The  worship, 
however,  of  the  last  two  of  the  "  present "'  era.  PdrHvnnuth 
and  Mnhdririij  eclipsed  tho  veneration  paid  to  all  other 
Jinas  in  Hindustan.  As  a  whole,  the  Jinas  appear  to  have 
posseted  wonderful  attributes.  They  were  all  beautiful  of 
form;  their  bodies  were  all  fragrant:  their  hair,  always 
the  same,  curled  gracefully;  and  their  blood  ran  white  in 
all  their  veins.  They  knew  no  hunger  or  thirst,  no  in- 
firmity or  deeay.  "He  can  collect  around  him."  tays  Wil- 
son, describing  the  perfect  Jina,  *■  millions  of  beings — 
gods,  men.  and  animals — in  a  comparatively  small  space; 
his  voice  is  audible  to  a  great  distance:  and  his  language, 
which  is  Arddhn  .Vaf/adhi,  is  intelligible  to  animals,  men, 
and  gods;  the  back  of  his  head  is  surrounded  with  a  halo 
of  light  brighter  than  the  disk  of  the  sun  :  and  of  an  im- 
mense interval  around  him,  wherever  he  moves,  there  is 
neither  sickness  nor  enmity,  storm  nor  dearth,  neither 
plague-portents  nor  war."  (H.  TI.  Wilson,  WorL->i,  vol.  i. 
p.  289.)  But  in  some  points  Jinas  differed  from  each 
other — namely  in  color,  size,  and  longevity.  For  exam])Ie, 
some  were  represented  as  white,  some  red,  some  blue,  some 
black,  and  a  largo  number  saffron.  Then,  as  to  the  height 
and  longevity  of  the  Jinas,  the  first  of  the  "present"  era, 
Hiskaba,  was"  500  poles  tall,  and  lived  S,  UIO.OOO  years  ;  the 
last  of  that  era  had  only  the  height  of  a  man,  and  lived  no 
longer  than  40  years.  From  this  fact  the  great  Oriental 
scholar  Colobrooke  considered  that  probably  of  tho  Jinas 
the  last  two  only  were  historical  personages.  Jaina  le- 
gends, with  reference  to  the  decreasing  longevity  and  stature 
of  saints,  are  extremely  similar  to  Buddhist  accounts  of 
their  Buddhas.  For  instance,  Gotania  Buddha  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  only  100  years,  whilst  his  predecessor  lived 
20.000  years. 

The  Jainas  were  divided  into  laymen  and  clerics — viz. 
Srnvakas  and  Yatin.  The  Yatis  received  alms  from  the 
Sravakas,  who  assembled  in  tho  .Taina  temples  to  worsliip 
the  Tirtha  Kitnis,  or  perfected  Jinan.  It  Wiis  the  duty  oi* 
Sravakas  to  be  gentle,  pious,  honest,  chaste,  liheral,  and, 
as  far  as  tbey  were  able,  to  practise  penitential  acts,  espe- 
cially such  as  fasting  at  stated  times  from  particular  Iu.\- 
uries.  In  tho  temples  tbey  were  enjoined  to  walk  nrnnnd 
the  images,  repeating  certain  humlilc  salutations  to  all  tho 
saints,  and  especially  to  the  saint  whose  image  lliey  were 
encircling.  They  were  also  oxhorled  to  observe  several 
stated  festivals.  Tiio  Yatis  never  actually  oflicialcd  as 
priests.  That  was  left  to  the  Brahmins,  whom  dainns  nck- 
nowledged  to  be  the  orthodox  jtricstly  caste;  thereby  con- 
ciliating Hindus.  But  the  Yati«  cither  congrcgatcil  to- 
gether in  semi-conventual  establishments  or  engaged  in 
several  money-making  pursuits.  For  instance,  all  over 
India,  even  at  tho  present  time,  they  enjoy  the  re])utalion 
of  being  capital  jugglers,  necromancers,  piilnijtrophets, 
and  magicians.  Many  of  them  are  arrant  kimves,  and 
earn  their  livelihood  by  selling  quack  medicines  and  dab- 
bling in  alchemy.  Others  deal  in  merchandise,  ami  many  have 
been  known  to  amass  a  good  deal  of  wealth.  But  one  and  all, 
with  verv  few  exceptions,  pride  themselves  on  their  extreme 
sanctity,  ami  espeeially  evince  their  holiness  outwardly  by 
the  absurd  length  to  which  they  iistcntatiously  carry  their 
regard  for  life  in  all  its  phases.  Wilson,  Ihe  great  authority 
on  the  subject  of  the  Hindu  seels,  thus  speaks  of  the  .laina 
Yatis:  "  According  to  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  sanctity 
to  which  they  jiretend  are  their  seeming  purity  and  out- 
ward precision,  shown  especially  in  Iheireare  of  aninml  life  ; 
they  carry  a  brush  to  swceji  the  ground  before  they  tread 
upon  it  :  never  cut  nor  tlrink  in  tlie  dark,  lest  they  shoubl 
inadvertently  swallow  an  insect;  and  sometimes  wear  a 
thin  eloth  over  their  mouths,  lest  their  breath  should  de- 
molish some  of  the  atomic  ephemera  that  frolic  in  the  sun- 
beams ;  they  wear  their  hair  cut  short — strictly  they  should 
pluck  it  out  by  the  ro()ts  :  they  profess  continence  and  pov- 
erty, and  pretend  to  observe  frequent  fasts  and  excrciso 
profound  abstraction." 

There  arc  two  chief  divisions  of  .Tainas — namely,  tho 
Dujamharan  and  the  Sirrtamharan.  The  I>igambaras  appear 
to  bo  the  larger  as  well  as  the  uiorc  ancient  division  of  the 


13G2 


JAKUTSK— JALISCO. 


two.  Their  name  signifies  "  sky-clad  " — that  is,  naked.  At 
the  present  time,  however,  they  do  not  go  about  naked,  but 
merely  cast  oil"  their  clothes  during  tlieir  meal-tiines.  The 
Swetanibaras  arc  those  who  arc  "  clad  iu  white."  Not  only 
in  matter?  of  dress  do  these  two  divisions  of  Jainas  differ, 
but  also  in  seven  hundred  points  of  doctrine  and  ceremonial 
observance,  eighty-four  of  wliicli  are  re;^ardcd  as  of  para- 
mount importance.  For  instance,  Swetambaras  adorn  their 
im;ii;cs  of  "saints  with  earrings,  necklets,  armlets,  and  tiaras 
of  gold  and  precious  stones — a  practice  which  the  Digam- 
baras  set  their  faces  against.  Swctambaras  aver  that  there 
are  twelve  heavens  nndcr  the  rule  of  i^ixty-four  Indras  :  the 
Di;;ambarns  assert  tliat  there  are  sixteen  iK-avcus  and  one 
hundred  Indras.  Swctambaras  allow  their  Yatis  to  eat  out 
of  vessels  ;  Digarabaras  use  only  the  hand.  Swctambaras 
make  their  ascetics  carry  about,  with  them  brushes,  watcr- 
pofs,  etc.  as  essential  tHsj'yHm  of  their  vocation  :  butDigam- 
baras  do  not.  Digambaras  assert  that  no  woman  can  enter 
]\'is-rdna  i  the  more  gnllant  SwctamViaras,  however,  hold 
the  doctrine  whieh,  as  Wilson  humorously  puts  it,  *'  admits 
the  fair  sex  to  the  enjoyment  of  iinal  annihilation."  Be- 
sides these  twogrcatdivisions  of  Jainas.  there  exist  several 
minor  schisms,  sonic  of  which  date  back  to  the  very  davrn 
of  the  faith.  These  are  the  sects  of  Jama  I  i  and  of  Ooanla. 
The  Drnvida  or  southern  sect  of  Jainas  sprang  up  in  all 
probability  about  the  seventh  century  after  Christ.  There 
is  the  MnkfintHilha  sect  and  the  Lamjiaka  ;  whicl^  latter 
discard  the  use  of  images.  The  Mula  Saufjis  dress  in  red, 
and  use  brushes  of  peacock's  feathers,  while  the  Kaahta 
Snu'i's  use  yak-tail  brushes  and  venerate  wooden  images. 
There  are  also  the  Tcrah  Pauthis,  "followers  of  thirteen,"' 
and  (he  His  Panthts,  "followers  of  twenty."  It  may  here 
he  remarked  that  the  influence  of  the  Digambaras  seems  to 
have  been  very  powerful  over  Jaina  art,  as  the  majority 
of  Jaina  Buddhas  are  represented  as  gtark  naked.  Buddh- 
ist Buddhas  are  nearly  always  well  clothed.  The  po~ 
sdtiiH,  or  mathsj  of  Jainas  are  frequently  of  considerable 
architectural  beauty.  The  humblest  are  so  constructed  as 
to  be  as  roomy  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  votaries,  if 
numerous,  may  not  be  unnecessarily  inconvenienced. 

Jaina  doctrines  arrange  themselves  under  nine  Tattwas — 
namely,  first  principles,  or  necessary  verities  of  the  faith. 
Briefiy  they  are — (!)  Jtvftj  life:  (2)  Ajha,  lifeless;  (3) 
Pnniffi,  good,  or  merit;  (4)  Pdpa,  ill,  or  demerit;  (6)  Aa- 
riivri,  source  of  acts;  (fi)  Samrtttm,  that  by  which  acts  are 
collected  or  impeded;  (7)  Nirjnrn,  sin-destroying  religious 
practice;  (8)  finudak,  association  of  life  with  acts;  and 
(•J)  Muhnka,  final  spiritual  liberation  from  the  bonds  of 
action,  exemption  from  the  incidents  of  existence,  and 
freedom  from  the  necessity  of  being  born  again.  We 
cannot  in  a  brief  space  discuss  the  very  vexed  question  as 
to  the  precise  opinion  held  by  the  Jainas  as  to  this  state 
of  Moksha.  Was  simple  liberation,  ceaseless  and  boundless 
apathy,  or  utter  annihilation  the  final  goal  of  Jaina  belief? 
Jainas  seem  to  have  believed  in  the  reality  of  elementary 
matter;  in  gods,  demons,  heaven,  and  hell  ;  and,  whatever 
else,  at  least  in  the  final  release  of  the  vital  sentient  prin- 
ciple in  man  from  all  suffering.  As  time  passed  on,  Jainism 
became,  especially  in  parts  of  India,  grossly  corrupted, 
chiefly  because  probably  of  the  influence  the  Brahmin 
priests  must  have  gradually  acquired  over  those  for  whom 
they  ministered.  Forexample,  in  Northern  India  the  most 
vuli^ar  and  repulsive  Saivism  became  gradually  mixed  up 
with  the  observances  of  Jaina  worship.  The  Jainas  then 
he;i;an  to  worship  Devi  and  Saraswati,  and  to  erect  the 
images  of  the  BhairovaH  and  lihaimriK,  the  cruel  attend- 
ants of  Siva  and  Kuli,  in  their  temples. 

In  conclusion,  a  word  or  two  may  he  said  of  Jaina  liter- 
ature. It  consists  of  Pitrdnaa,  histories,  legends,  books  of 
prayer  and  ritual,  and  treatises  on  medicine,  astronomy, 
arithmetic,  anti  grammar.  The  chief  Pitrdmis  were  prob- 
ably composed  by  .lina  Sena  Acharya  tn  the  tenth  century 
after  Christ.  One  of  the  greatest  .Jaina  writers  wasHcnm- 
chamlra,  who  may  have  fliurishod  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  about  which  time  the  Ktdpn  Sutra  is  believed  to 
have  been  written.  The  earliest  Jaina  writing  of  any  nolo 
cannot  probably  be  assigned  an  earlier  date  than  the  begin- 
nin;;  of  the  tenth  century  a.  d.  R.  C.  Caldwell. 

Jakutsk.     Sec  Yakutsk. 

Jal  (ArfitSTR),  b.  at  Lyons.  France,  Apr.  12.  1795, 
studied  at  the  marine  scliool  at  Brest,  and  formed  at  Lyons 
in  Mar.,  ISl.'i,  a  company  of  cadets  who  hastened  to  the 
defence  of  Paris  against  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Klba. 
lie  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  literary  and  artistic  crit- 
icism, accompanied  as  newspaper  correspondent  the  army 
which  in  ISilO  conquered  .\lgoria,  and  on  his  return  was 
plat'orl  in  charge  of  the  archives  of  tl>e  ministry  of  marine. 
M.  Ja!  made  several  journeys  for  discovering  manuscripts 
in  Italy,  (ircecc,  and  Turkey,  and  wrote  numerous  works 
of  art-criticism,  oaval  and  general    history,  avcbseotogy 


(efip.  Archeototfic  NftvaU^  Paris.  1840,  2  vols.),  and  biog- 
raphy, of  which  the  most  important  was  the  DU-tuiunaire 
Vi-iti<iu€  de  JJini/riiphie  f.t  d'HUUnrc,  a  vast  repertory  of 
documents  and  bio;^raphical  materials  intended  to  rectify 
and  supplement  all  previous  works  of  tho  kind.    D.  lS7;i. 

Jalabert^  (CnAiii,i:s  Francois),  b.  at  Nimes  in  1819; 
studied  under  Delarochc  and  in  Italy,  and  exhibited  in  IS  17 
Virtjll  readiuff  his  (Jcun/ia  to  Mrccenan,  which  is  now  in  the 
Luxemburg.  Among  his  other  pictures,  Romeo  and  Juliet 
and  liiiphacl  painting  the  Madonna  di  San  Siato  have  be- 
come very  popular. 

Jarap  [Sp.  Jafapa,  from  a  city  of  that  name,  or  Xn- 
lapa.  whence  first  imported  in  1010],  a  cathartic  drug,  the 
dried  root  of  Sxofjonium  purtja  { Ipomacn  Jainpa  of  llaync), 
natural  order  Convolvulacea;.  This  is  a  climbing  plant  with 
large  lilac-purple  flowers,  growing  in  the  mountains  above 
the  city  of  Jalapa,  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico.  The  root  is 
turnip-shaped  or  radish-shaped,  blackish  without,  gray 
within,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  a 
good-sized  pear.  It  dries  into  a  hard  brittle  mass,  and  is 
exported  from  Vera  Cru/,  in  large  bags,  either  whole  or  cut 
into  slices  or  pieces.  Its  active  principle  is  a  resin,  con- 
sisting of  a  hard  and  a  soft  portion,  both  upparently 
equally  effective  medicinally.  The  percentage  amount  of 
the  resin  varies  in  different  specimens,  and  since  the  worms 
that  arc  apt  to  attack  jalap  do  not  touch  this  ingredient, 
worm-eaten  roots  contain  more  of  it  in  proportion  than 
tho  sound.  Jalap  is  one  of  the  milder  of  the  drastic  or 
actively  irritating  cathartics.  It  produces  watery  dis- 
charges, gripes,  and  in  overdose  may  cause  dangerous  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels.  It  is  one  of  the  most  frequently 
used  of  this  class  of  purgatives,  but,  like  other  drastics,  is 
generally  given  in  combination  to  reduce  its  harshness. 
The  "compound  jalap  powder"  is  a  mixture  of  jalap  and 
cream  of  tartar.  Jalap  is  an  ingredient  of  the  "compound 
cathartic  pill"  of  the  Pharmacopceia.     Edwarr  Ctrtis. 

Jala'pa^  city  of  Mexico,  one  of  tho  two  capitals  of  the 
state  of  Vera  Cruz,  is  situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordil- 
leras at  a  height  of  I  jOO  feet  above  the  sea,  00  miles  N.  W. 
of  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz  and  140  E.  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
Situated  within  a  few  miles  of  the  snow-capped  Orizaba 
and  the  peak  of  Perote,  halfway  between  the  tJen-a  caltmte 
of  the  sea-coast  and  the  tirrra  tcntpl(i(fa  of  the  central  table- 
land, Jalapa  enjoys  one  of  the  finest  clirautcs  in  the  world. 
It  is  the  residence  of  the  wealthiest  merchants,  native  and 
foreign,  of  Vera  Cruz,  with  which  city  it  will  shortly  be 
connected  by  a  railway,  now  (1875)  nearly  completed.  Ja- 
lapa is  celebrated  for  the  culture  of  its  inhabitants  an<l  the 
beauty  of  its  females;  it  is  the  native  place  of  Presidents 
Santa  Anna  and  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  and  has  played  a  prom- 
inent part  in  Mexican  polities.  It  was  founded  in  the  time 
of  Cortes,  who  had  extensive  estates  in  the  vicinity,  and 
was  occupied  in  1817-48  by  American  troops,  at  which 
time  a  newspaper  in  English  was  printed  there.  The 
moislness  of  the  climate  is  favorable  to  a  superabundant 
vegetation  :  few  spots  in  the  world  can  more  truly  be  called 
the  botanist's  paradise.  Sugar-cane  and  tobacco  are  cul- 
tivated with  great  success,  the  silkworm  is  reared,  wild 
honey,  vanilla  beans,  and  the  jalap  root  arc  found  in 
abundance  in  the  forests.  There  arc  several  cotton  and 
cigar  factories,  tanneries  and  potteries,  government  build- 
ings and  fine  educational  institutions,  with  a  bishopric  and 
:i  newspapers.  It  is  gradually  becoming  known  as  a  de- 
lightful winter  residence  for  American  visitors.  Pop.  about 
lo.OllO.  (Sec  Rivera's  Historia  drjafapa,  5  Vids.,  1870-71.) 

Jaley'(LEOS  Louis  Nicolas),  b.  at  Paris  Jan.  27,  1802, 
being  the  son  of  an  engraver  of  medals,  by  who m^  he  was 
guided  in  the  study  of  sculpture.  Entering  the  Kcole  dcs 
Beaux  Arts  in  1820,  he  twice  gained  prizes  for  statuary. 
Returning  in  1833  from  a  long  sojourn  in  Home,  his  works, 
exhibited  in  successive  annual  expositions,  were  much  ad- 
mired, and  ho  was  employed  to  execute  commissions  for 
the  Museum  of  Luxembourg,  the  (hambcr  of  Peers,  tho 
Opera  Comique,  the  Museum  of  Versailles,  ami  the  Palace 
of  Justice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
and  of  the  Institute.      \).  in  I8GC. 

Jalis'co,  the  most  populous  stale  of  Mexico,  is  bounded 
by  Sinaloa,  Durango,  Zacatecas,  ami  Aguas  Calientes  on 
the  N.,  (luanajuato  and  Michoaenn  on  the  E.,  Colima  on 
the  S..  and  the  Pacific  on  tho  S.  W.  Area,  about  60,000 
square  miles.  Pop.  1,000,000.  Jalisi-o  was  known  as  the 
kingdom  of  Xueva  Galicia  during  the  period  of  Spanish 
dominion,  and  was  governed  by  the  audiencia  of  Guadala- 
jara as  a  province  <lis(inct  from  New  Spain  or  Mexico.  It 
was  settled  soon  after  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Nuno  de 
(luzman,  and  was  explored  by  Cortes  and  Alvarado.  Il  is 
traversed  by  the  large  river  fololotlan  or  Santiago,  and  in- 
cludes the  picturesque  lake  of  Chapala  and  the  volcano  of 
Colima.  12,000  feet  high.  The  surface  is  diversified  by 
rugged   mountains,  with  vast  ravines   or   banancaa,   the 


JALXA— JAMES. 


i:;g;] 


river-beds  sometimes  lyin^  between  perpendicular  walls 
of  nearly  1000  feet  in  hti^^ht.  The  climate  varies  accord- 
ing^ to  situatiun.  but  is  adapted  tu  the  cultivatiou  of  mo5:t 
tropical  product*,  especially  the  sugar-cane.  The  harbors 
are  not  commodious.  Chief  towns.  Guadalajara,  Lagos, 
Zapotlan  el  Grande,  and  Tepic.  Precious  metals  nrc  abun- 
dant, but  are  mined  upon  a  comparatively  j^mall  scale. 
The  inhabitants  arc  in  great  part  Indians  of  several  dis- 
tinct tribes. 

Ja1na%  town  of  Hindostan,  in  tbe  dominion  of  tbe 
nizani.  has  a  strongly  built  fort  and  some  manufactures  of 
silk,  anrl  produces  large  quantities  of  excellent  vegetables. 
Pop.  10.000. 

Jainni'ca,  an  island  of  the  West  Indies,  one  of  the 
Cn-.a  Antilles,  belonging  to  England,  and  lying  off  the 
IJav  of  Honduras,  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  between  lat.  17°  40'  and  1S°  ."iC  X.,  and  be- 
tween Ion.  76°  \y  and  7S°  25'  E..  'JO  miles  S.  of  Cuba. 
Area.  -UT.t  square  miles.  Pop.  .'>no,l'ol.  of  whom  l.S.lOl 
arc  white,  101,346  mulattoes.  and  .".91.707  black.  The  island 
is  traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by  the  Blue  Mountains,  from 
7000  to  8000  feet  high,  which  to  the  N.  slope  quite  gently 
down  towards  the  coast,  while  to  the  S.  they  present  a 
range  of  wild  and  precipitous  cliffs  along  the  shore:  they 
send  a  great  number  of  small,  rapid  rivers  down  both  sides, 
of  which  only  one.  the  Black  River,  is  navigable.  The 
scenery  is  everywhere  beautiful,  the  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains being  covered  with  pimento  groves  or  immense  for- 
ests. The  south-eastern  part  of  the  island  is  lower  and 
more  level,  and  here  arc  the  principal  plains,  which  are 
mostly  occupied  with  sugar-plantations.  Tbe  climate  of 
Jamaica  is  hot  and  unbi-allhy  along  the  shores  and  in  the 
depths  of  the  valleys;  yellow  fever  visits  these  regions 
every  year.  The  rainy  seasons  occur  in  April  and  May, 
anrl  in  Septemlier.  October,  and  Novcmlier.  They  are 
generally  preceded  by  a  stagnation  of  the  atmosphere 
which  is  very  oppressive,  and  thon  ushered  in  by  heavy 
thtmderstorms  and  hurricanes.  Karlhquakcs  are  also  fre- 
quent, and  have  sometimes  been  very  destructive,  as,  for 
instance,  in  1692  and  17S0.  But  at  an  elevation  of  1500 
feet  the  climate  is  healthfid  and  very  agreeable.  It  is  so 
mild  that  coffee  can  be  cultivated  at  an  elevation  of  5000 
feet,  and  sugar,  indigo,  and  other  tropical  jdaiits  flour- 
ish in  the  valleys.  The  forests  are  rich  in  bread-fruit 
trees,  mahogany,  and  cedar;  the  principal  palms  are  the 
cabbage-palm  and  the  coconnut  tree.  Of  wild  animals 
only  the  agoutis,  iguanas,  some  species  of  monkeys,  and 
alligators  are  numerous.  Hut  the  domesticated  animals 
of  Europe,  which  have  been  introduced,  thrive  well.  Since 
the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  the  productiveness  of  Ja- 
maica has  docreased,  and  it  will  probably  take  many  years 
before  the  rich  resources  of  (his  island  become  fully  de- 
veloped. The  following  table  sliows  the  development  of 
Ihc  productiveness  of  the  island,  and  tbe  influence  which 
the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  exercised  on  it  in  1833  : 

CofTec, 


1797.. 

180.x. 
1.<11«.. 

18,32.. 

IftW G9.613.. 

IRU MAM.. 

IH-V :io,-ir,o.. 


Sagnr.  Ram, 

bogvheKdii.  punchcona. 

...  S-i.lM 2«,746 

...|">0,3.->2 53,950 

..121.7.%8 

..n9r>6« .'50,827 

9V'8G :W,68.^ 


tba. 
..  7.809,133 
..24,i:{7,393 
..2.^..329.4.'iG 
..1f>,S19.7«i 
..19,8I.''i,010 
..i:iA".1.79.5 
..  7,I»«.775 

..  7.09*>,(i2;i 


...11.631 

...l.'i,992 

While  tho  exportation  decreases,  the  importation,  par- 
ticularly of  food,  increases.  In  1870  tho  value  of  ex- 
ports was  £I,2S3,000.  and  the  value  of  imports  £1,340,000. 
Jamaica  was  dis^covered  by  Cidumbus  May  3,  1494,  and 
the  first  Spanish  settlement  was  made  there  in  1509.  In 
16.'>5  it  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  retained  it  by  the 
treaty  of  Madrid  in  Ifi7if.  In  ISO"  the  slave-trade  was 
abolished,  and  in  1833  the  slaves  were  emancipated.  Tho 
immecliatc  results  of  this  act  were  not  good:  several 
hundred  sugar  and  coffee  plantations  were  left  without 
labor,  and  went  to  ruin,  and  in  course  of  time  the  gen- 
eral agitation  threatened  a  serious  revolt  in  I  S6.'i,  wliieh 
was  suh'lucd  with  severity.  Immediately  after  the  eman- 
oipiition  was  completed  (Aug.  I.  1S3S)  the  planters  asso- 
i-iatrd  antl  put  down  the  wages  to  the  very  lowest,  while 
they  increiised  the  rent  which  the  negroes  had  to  pay  for 
their  huts  as  much  as  possible.  Tbe  result  was  that  the 
nei^roes  dcHcrteii  the  plantations  and  setlb'd  in  the  moun- 
tains. Chinese  workmen  were  (hen  imported,  but  without 
success.  In  iSIC  tho  principles  of  free  trade  became  vic- 
torious in  tho  Tnilod  Kingdom,  and  in  the  English  sugar 
and  coffee  market  tree  Inhor  from  .lamaiea  had  to  compete 
with  slave  labor  from  Cuba  and  Brazil.  At  last  a  series 
of  bad  harvests  briMighl  the  miseries  of  the  ifbiud  to  their 
culmination,  and  a  wild  race-war  began,  which  was  put 
down  by  the  English  governor  with  great  cruelty.  Kovcr- 
theless,  since  the  emancipation  the  various  missions,  for- 


merly annoyed  by  the  planters,  have  had  free  scope  for 
their  activity,  and  their  exertions  have  been  crowned  with 
great  success.  Between  the  old  slaves  and  masters  grows 
up  a  new  population  of  free  citizens,  through  the  agency 
of  the  missions  and  their  schools.  The  island  is  divided 
into  three  counties;  its  capital  is  Kingston.  It  is  governed 
by  a  captain-general,  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  an  as- 
sembly of  47  members,  elected  by  the  people. 

Ci.nMENs  Petersen. 

Jamaica,  post-v,  of  Queen's  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Long 
Island.  South  Side,  and  Brooklyn  Central  R.  Rs.,  10  miles 
E.  of  New  York.  It  has  extensive  farming  and  market- 
gardening  interests,  and  manufactures  of  carriages  and 
small  wares.  Many  of  its  citizens  do  business  in  Now  York 
and  Brooklyn.  It  has  0  churehcs.  an  academy  and  good 
public  and  private  schools,  gasworks,  a  public  library,  a 
savings  bank,  4  weekly  newspapers,  a  firo  department,  and 
fine  public  buildings.  The  township  contains  several  other 
villages,  has  S  churches,  and  considerable  manufactures. 
Pop.  3791  ;  of  tp.  7745. 

John  O'Donneij,,  En.  "Jamaica  Stanoaiid." 

Jamaica,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Windham  co..  Vt..  is  miles 
E.  of  Manchester,  has  a  national  bank  and  manufactures 
of  leather,  boots,  shoes,  chairs,  etc.      Pop.  1223. 

Jamaica,  post-tp.  of  Middlesex  co.,  Va.     Pop,  1298. 

Jamaica  Plain,  post-v.,  formerly  in  the  town  of  West 
Ro.\I>ury,  Nurf»ilk  co.,  Mass..  but  now,  with  the  rest  of  that 
town,  included  in  the  17th  ward  of  Boston.  It  is  on  the 
Boston  and  Providence  R.  R..3  miles  frjini  the  city  proper,  to 
which  it  w:is  united  Jan.  I.  IS7).  Tho  ward  has  1 1  churches, 
a  savings  bank,  public  library,  a  weekly  newspaper,  2 
rubber-mills,  2  carriage-factories,  a  paid  firo  department, 
fire-alarm  telegraph,  and  is  connected  by  horse  raiIroa(l 
with  the  city  proper.  Mo^t  (tf  the  inhiibitants  do  business  in 
Boston.    C.A.J.  Fakrar,  Ed.  "  Wi:st  Koxbiuy  Gazkttc.'* 

Jamalti'ca,  an  ancient  city  of  Honduras,  20  miles  N. 

of  Comayaguii.  now  consisting  of  ruins  simihir  in  character 
to  those  of  Copan.  Many  rectangular  mounds,  like  the 
Mexican  teocaitis,  arc  surmounted  by  the  remains  of  edi- 
fices, and  throughout  the  adjacent  valley  fragments  of 
sculj>turo  and  well-painted  vases  are  found. 

James,  count  V  of  Nebraska,  organized  since  the  census 
of  1870. 

James,  county  of  East  Tennessee,  having  the  Tennessee 
River  on  the  N.  W.  and  Georgia  on  the  S.  Area,  about  200 
square  miles.  It  has  a  fertile  soil,  well  adapted  to  grain. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  East  Tennessee  \'irginia  and  Georgia 
R.  R.  Cap.  Ooltcwah.  It  has  been  organized  since  tho 
census  of  1S70. 

James,  (p.  of  Bibb  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  859. 

James,  tp.  of  Pottawattamie  co.,  la.     Pop.  .109, 

James,  tp.  of  Stone  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  447. 

James,  tlic  son  of  Zel)cdce  [Lut.  Jacobus:  Gr.  *Io»cu^^o?], 
called  THK  GitEATi;i{,oneof  the  twelve  apostles,  and  brotlier 
of  John.  He  was  a  fisherman  on  tho  Lake  of  Galilee  when 
called  to  follow  Jesus,  and  with  Peter  and  John  formed  a 
group  distinguished  from  the  other  apostles  by  being  tho 
chosen  witnesses  of  several  of  tho  chief  ineidi-nis  in  tho 
ministry  of  Christ.  Such  wore  (ho  transfiguration,  the  re- 
storation to  life  of  .Tairus's  daughter,  and  the  agony  at 
Gothsemane.  Jnmcs  and  J<din,  with  their  mother  Salome, 
appear  at  one  time  to  have  oiilortaincd  false  views  of  tho 
nature  of  Christ's  kingdom,  and  to  have  aspired  to  a  sort 
of  primacy,  which  was  rebuked  by  Jesus;  who  on  another 
occasion  gave  the  brothers  the  appellation  of  Boanerges 
("s(!ns  of  thunder"),  perhaps  at  the  time  when  (hey  raslilv 
invoked  fire  from  heaven  upon  a  Samaritan  \illnge  (Mark 
iii.  17:  see  also  Luke  ix.  .'>'_*).  ,?amcs  was  the  tir>t  martyr 
among  tho  twelve,  having  been  killed  by  (he  sword  of  King 
Herorl  Agrippa,  A.  n.  44  (Acts  xii.  1 ).  He  is  commemorated 
in  the  calendar  of  saints  by  the  Roiniin  Catholic  Church  on 
tho  2.'ith  of  July,  and  by  the  Eastern  Church  rm  the  2.".d  of 
October.  Cnder  the  name  of  Santiago  (St.  Jago)  m-;  Com- 
posTEi.i.A  he  was  venerated  from  an  early  day  iu  Spain 
as  the  patron  of  tho  kingdom. 

James,  tho  son  of  AlphaMis,  called  rni:  Less,  one  of  tho 
twelve  iiposlles.  His  mother's  name  was  Mary  (Matt,  xxvii. 
.'»6;  .Murk  xv.  10),  who  is  called  (John  xix.  2.'»)  •■  tho  wife  of 
Cleoidias."aud  is  referred  to  in  (ho  same  verso  as  a  "  sister" 
of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus.  Whether  this  Janios  is  the 
same  as  "  James  the  Lord's  brother  '*  .spoken  of  by  Piiul  in 
Gal.  i.  19,  has  been  much  discussed,  but  the  title  of  npnuth' 
given  to  him  in  tho  passage  in  question  seems  decisive. 
N'everiheless,  this  view  involves  grave  difficulties,  and  I>r. 
Neandor  (quoted  in  Mct^linlock  &  Strong's  Ci/rfoptrdin,  vol. 
iv.  7.VI)  pronounces  this  question  to  be  "  the  most  diflicult 
in  the  apostolic  history."  Assuming  the  affirmative  answer, 
the  must  consistent  solution  of  the  apparent  discrepancies 


1364 


JAMES,   EPISTLE  OF-JAMES  II.  OF  SCOTLAND. 


in  the  New  Testament  references  seems  to  be  that  advocated 
in  a.  learned  article  in  the  Ci/rlopmilia  quoted  above— namely, 
that  the  two  Marvs.  the  mothers  of  Jesus  and  of  .lames,  are 
called  «,«(.'■»  in  John  xix.  2.'>  by  virtue  of  their  marriage 
with  t%yo  l.rnf  lu-rs.  Jos.|.h  and  Cleopbas.  If.  then,  Cleopbas 
(otherwise  Alpba-us)  had  died  without  issue,  it  became  the 
dutv  of  Joseph  (according  to  the  law  found  in  Deut.  xxv. 
5)  to  marry  his  brother's  widow,  and  the  eldest  son  by  such 
marriage  would  be  the  legal  representative  of  fleophas  or 
Alphwus,  whose  name  he  would  bear.  James  the  Less  he- 
eame  the  head  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  and  (according 
to  the  above  Iheorv)  wrote  the  Epistle  known  by  his  name. 
Early  Christian  writers  (as  Hegesippus)  give  hiin  the  name 
of  James  Ihe  Jmi.  and  a  well-known  passage  ol  Joscphus 
(  lMf/./iii'(i.«,  XN.  !l.  1 )  describes  his  martyrdom,  to  which  he 
attributes  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  power;  but  most 
critics  reject  this  account  as  an  interpolation,  ^otblng, 
therefore,  can  be  anirmed  of  the  life  of  James  posterior  to 
the  scriptural  references.  Several  apocryphal  writings 
have  been  attributed  to  James,  of  which  one  only,  the 
Pioleriiiiiii/iiiiii,  derives  some  importance  from  having  been 
early  known  in  the  t'hurch.  It  is  a  mere  parody  of  the 
first  two  chapters  of  Luke,  transferring,  however,  the  events 
to  the  nalivily  of  Mary.  From  this  source  the  modern 
doctrine  of  the  immacuiate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
appears  to  have  been  ultimately  derived. 

Ja:iiCS,  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  tho 
New  Tcslamcnt,  the  first  of  the  so-called  catholic  Epistles. 
It  is  ascribed  to  ■■James,  the  Lord's  brother,"  who  is  gen- 
erally identified  with  James  tiik  Lf.ss  (which  sec),  though 
many  commentators  contend  that  he  was  distinct  Ironi  both 
the  apostles  bearing  the  same  name.  The  Epistle  is  be- 
lieved by  the  majority  of  critics  to  have  been  written  sev- 
eral Tears  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  head 
of  tlic  Jewish  Church,  and  addressed  to  the  Christians  of 
-isia  .Minor.  The  style  is  elegant,  and  the  Greek  better 
than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the  New  Testament.  Tho 
"  doelrine  of  works,"  which  forms  its  chief  topic,  has  occa- 
sioned more  contniversv  upon  this  Epistle  than  upon  almost 
any  other  book  of  the  canon,  it  being  regarded  by  soino  as 
irreconcilable  with  Paul's  doctrine  of  faith.  Though  T.utlier 
and  his  immediate  followers  rejected  this  Epistle,  modern 
Protest  ants  think  it  represents  faithfully  the  practical  teach- 
in"  of  Christ,  and  find  many  analogies  with  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount.  The  distinctive  doctrines  of  Christianity  arc 
not  alluded  to,  except  by  implication.  The  literature  of 
tho  subject,  which  is  very  extensive,  is  reviewed  by  Prof. 
Borsohlag  in  SluUten  nnd  Krilikcn,  Jan.,  1S74. 


James   I.  of  Croat   Britain  (VI.   of  Scotland),  h.  at 
Edinbur-h  Castle  Juno  1',),  1  JOfl,  was  the  only  son  of  Mary, 
queen  of'Scots,  bv  her  second  husband,  Henry  Stuart,  Lord 
Dirnley.     In  tho"  following  year,  soon  after  Darnley  was 
assassinated  (Feb.  10),  Mary  was  abducted  by  Bothwell, 
whom  she  married  May  15;  was  imprisoned  at  Lochleyen 
Castle  in  June  bv  her  insurgent  nobles,  and  forced  to  resign 
the  crown  (July  '24)  to  the  infant  James,  who  was  accordingly 
crowned  at  Stirling  on  July  20.     During  the  stormy  years 
of  James's  ehildhocnl,  passed  at  Stirling  Castle,  the  regency 
was  suecessivciv  in  the  hands  of  the  powerful  nobles  the 
earls  of  Murray,  Lennox,  Mar,  and  Morton,  until,  on  the 
overthrow  of  tlie  latter  in  1577,  James  nominally  took  the 
government  into  his  own  hands,  which  was  confirmed  by 
Parliament  in  I.^7S.     His  early  education  had  been  care- 
fully directed  by  the  famous  historian  and  classical  schol- 
ar Georgo  Buciianan,  from  whom  he  jirobably  derived  a 
taste  for   learning   which    degenerated    into    a   ridiculous 
pedantry.     Earl  Morton  regained  power  for  a  short  time, 
but  wns  beheaded  in  l.iSI  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  tho 
murder  of  Dariilev,  after  which  Arran  and  tho  French  fa- 
vorite whom  James  had  created  duke  of  Lennox  ruled  until 
Aug.,  1 J82,  when  a  party  of  the  nobles  sei-/.ed  the  king  at 
Uu7hven  Castle,  imprisoned  Lennox,  and  banished  Arran. 
Tho  civil  war  and  court  intrigues  went  on  with  a  wearying 
iteration  of  similar  events  for  several  years,  during  which 
James  made  a  treaty  with  Elizabeth,  receiving  from  her  a 
pension  (1585),  unsuccessfully  interceded  for  his  mothers 
life   (15X7).   co-operated   with    England    in    preparations 
against  the  Spanish   Armada  llJSS),  went   to   Denmark, 
where  he  married  the  princess  Anne  (Nov.  24.  loSfl).  car- 
ried on  war  with  varying  success  against  several  Catholic 
lords  from  1590  to  1597.  and  bv  the  death  of  Eli/.abeth  in 
ir,0:i  succeeded  to  Ihe  throne  of  England,  being  proclaimed 
Mar.  2 1  and  crowned  at  Westminster  July  25.    lie  presided 
at  the  Hampton  Court  Conferences  in  Jan.,  1G04:  exiled 
Jesuits  and  seminary  priests;  assumed  the  title  of  "king 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland"  Oct.  24,  1004;  dis- 
covered tho  "  Gunpowder  Plot"  Nov.  5,  1R05;  instituted 
tb»  order  of  baronets  in  Kill  ;  and  lavisheil  honors  upon 
tho  unworthy  favorites  by  whom  he  was  directed,  such  .as 
Carr  made  carl  of  Somerset  io  161:!,  and  Villiers,  raised  I 


through  all  the  stages  of  tho  peerage,  from  baron  in  lGlf> 
to  duke  of  Buckingham  in  162:!.  His  son  Henry,  prince 
of  Wales,  died  in  Uil2  :  his  daughter  Eliiabeth.  lium  whom 
the  house  of  Hanover  descended,  was  married  in  161.1  to 
the  elector  p'alatine,  who  became  king  of  Bohemia,  but  lost 
bis  estates  in  1620,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  through  the  failure  of  James  to  render  his  promised 
assistance.  Great  efi'orts  were  made  by  James  to  obtain 
the  alliance  of  Spain  through  the  marriage  of  Prince 
Charles  with  a  Spanish  princess,  and  on  the  failure  of 
negotiations  in  1624,  declared  war  against  that  power,  but 
d.  shortly  after  at  the  palace  of  Theobalds  -Mar.  27,  1625. 
The  reign  of  .lames  in  England  was  distinguished  by  many 
memorable  events;  it  witnessed  the  literary  and  political 
careers  of  Bacon  and  Raleigh,  the  disgrace  of  both,  and 
execution  of  the  latter;  the  dramatic  activity  of  Shak- 
speare  and  Ben  Jonson  :  the  iranslation  of  the  English 
Bible;  the  colonization  of  Virginia  and  New  England:  tho 
formation  of  two  well-defined  schools  of  English  Prot- 
estantism; and  the  genesis  of  the  struggle  between  king 
nnd  commons  which  brought  the  head  of  his  successor  to 
the  block.  James  was  despicable  in  his  personal  iiualitics; 
was  weak,  cowardly,  passionate,  vindiclivc,  cruel,  super- 
stitious, fanatical,  and  prone  to  fall  under  the  influence  of 
worthless  favorites.  His  learning  was  varied,  though  not 
scholarly  ;  he  published  several  books,  which  were  niiic.h 
praised  by  his  fl.atterers,  but  have  now  only  an  historical  in- 
terest;  Essnya  of  n  'Prentice  in  the  Dirine  Art  of  Pite^j 
(15S4)  ATm'oilo/oi/i'c(1597),  Trnr  Line  of  Free  Mmmrchics 
(1598),  naailihon  Dnrcm  (1599),  Trtj.liei  N.,(ln  Triplex  Cn- 
nem  (1605),  Remonstrance  for  the  liicjUt  of  KimjH  (1615), 
and  CmmterblMt  to  Tobacco  (1G16).  (See  S.  K.  Gardiner's 
able  histories  of  this  reign,  1875.)  Poutkr  C.  Bliss. 

James  II.  of  Great  Britain,  a  son  of  Charles  I.,  b.  in 
London  Oct.  15,  li;:;:',;  becaino  duke  of  York;  escaped  in 
1648  from  tho  Parliamentarians  and  fle.l  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries; served  with  distinction  under  Tuiennc  and  Cond6 ; 
was  appointed  bv  Mazarin  captain-general  in  Italy  1656, 
in  which  year  he  entered  the  Spanish  service  and  fought 
an-ainst  Turenne:  was  appointed  in  1600  Ion!  high  admiral 
of  England  and  lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports;  married 
Anne  Hyde,  daugliter  of  Lord  Clarendon,  1660;  command- 
ed.against  the  Dutch  1605-72;  avowe.l  himself  a  Roman 
Catliolio  1669;  married  Mary  of  Este  167:i ;  retired  to  tho 
Low  Countries  during  the  unsuccessful  agitation  for  ex- 
cluding him  from  the  throne;  as  lord  high  commissioner 
for  S-otland  iiersecuted  tho  Covenanters  1679,  and  suc- 
ceeded Charles  II.  16S5.  The  great  events  of  his  reign 
wore  the  insurrections  of  Argylo  and  Monmonlh  (16S.i) ; 
tho  persistent  attempts  of  tho  king  to  overthrow  constitu- 
tional government  and  to  establish  arbitrary  royal  jiowcr 
and  tho  Roman  Catholic  religion;  tho  declaration  of  free- 
dom of  eonscicnce  as  a  moans  to  that  end;  the  violation 
of  the  privileges  of  tho  universities:  the  imprisonment  of 
tho  bishops  for  potilioiiiug  to  be  excused  Iroiu  reading  a 
royal  iiroclamntioii :  Ihe  establishment  of  new  an.l  illegal 
tribunals;  and  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army  with- 
out leoal  warrant.  The  whole  nation  became  aroused; 
William,  prince  of  Orange,  a  cousin  of  the  king,  and  Mary, 
iirineess  of  Orange,  the  king's  eldest  daughter,  were  called 
by  common  consent  to  tho  throne;  James  abdicated  Dec. 
11,  16SS,  and  Hcd  to  France,  but  iii  1689  invaded  Ireland, 
bc'«ie.'ed  Londonderry  without  success,  and  July  1, 1600,  was 
defeated  at  the  Boync;  retired  to  France,  and  qienl  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  futile  schemes  for  restoration  to  the  throne. 
D.  at  St.  Germain's  Sept.  16,  1701. 

James  I.  of  Scotland,  son  of  Robert  III.,  b.  in  1394  at 
Dunfermline;  was  captured  by  the  English  while  on  liis 
way  to  France  1406,  and  imprisoned  in  Ihe  Tower  and  in 
Windsor  Castle,  and  wrote  the  Kin,f«  Quhoir  and  other 
poems  while  in  confinement;  went  in  1417  to  France  with 
Ilenry  V.;  married  Joanna  Beaulort,  granddaughter  ol 
John"of  Gaunt,  1424  ;  was  liberated,  proclaimed  king,  and 
crowned  at  Scone  1424;  restored  order  to  Scotland,  and 
used  so  much  rigor  towards  tho  turbulent  nobles  that  he 
was  murdered  by  their  emissaries  at  Perth  leb.  21,  )4.i7. 
James  was  celebrated  for  his  courtly  graces,  his  literary 
aceomplishmcnts,  and  his  excellence  in  athletic  exercises. 

Jamcf  II.  of  Scotland,  son  of  James  I.  and  Queen  Jo- 
anna Beaufort,  b.  in  14:10,  was  crowned  at  Edinburgh  when 
but  six  years  of  ago  ( 14:!7).  During  his  minority  the  king- 
dom was  distracted  by  struggles  for  power  between  his  tu- 
tors  Criehton  and  Livingston  and  the  ■■  bouse  of  Douglas, 
represented  by  three  successive  earls  of  that  title.  James 
assumed  the  government  in  1444  :  made  war  w.tli  England 
144S;  married  Mary  of  Giieblres  1449:  murdered  William 
eighth  earl  of  Douglas,  with  his  own  band  1452:  defeated 
anowerful  insurrection  headed  by  the  ninth  earl;  made  a 
treaty  with  Henry  VI.  of  England  in  14.^0,  by  w  i.ch  be 
acquired  tho  counties  of  Durham  and  Northumberland,  in 


JAMES   III.  OF  SCOTLAND— JAMES. 


13G5 


considcratiou  of  supporttn;;  the  ho\i?c  of  Lanrasler  in  tho 
"war  of  ihi'  Ro?<s."  nnj  wns  killed  by  the  bursting  of  a 
gun  at  the  n'w^c  of  Koxburgh,  Aug.  3,  1460. 

James  III.  of  Seodund,  son  of  James  IT.  and  Queen 
Mary  of  rjuehlrc?.  1>.  June  1,  1452.  was  crowned  at  KoNo 
monastery  on  hi?  father's  death  fllOOl.  The  government. 
after  the  death  of  the  queen  mother  (IIO.T)  and  of  Risliop 
Kennedy  (1  Ififi).  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Boyd  family, 
one  of  whom  married  the  king's  sister  in  1  Ifw.  and  was  at 
the  same  time  created  earl  of  Arran.  Henry  VT.  of  Eng- 
land had  taken  refuge  in  Scotland  in  llfil,  and  involved 
the  Scolrli  in  the  war  of  the  Roses,  which  led  to  a  league 
between  Kdwnrd  IV..  the  new  Yorkist  kini:.  and  the  carls 
of  Douglas  and  Ross  and  the  Lord  of  tl»o  Isles  for  the  par- 
tition of  Setdland,  but  the  plan  proved  abortive,  and  in 
1464  n  fifteen  years'  truce  was  con-duded.  James  married 
the  princess  Margaret  of  Denmark  in  MG'J.  thereby  acquir- 
ing the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  dismissed  the  Royds 
from  power  Ihe  same  year,  and  came  under  the  influence 
of  the  Hamiltnns:  experienced  several  insurrections;  im- 
prisoned on  ft  charffc  of  witchcraft  his  brother,  tho  earl  of 
Slar.  who  soon  died  (14Sn) ;  maintained  a  war  with  another 
brother,  Ihe  earl  of  Albany,  who  lai<l  claim  to  the  crown 
and  was  supported  by  Kdward  IV.;  was  besieged  in  Kdin- 
burgh  Cattle,  and  reconciled  to  his  brother  (14S2);  had  to 
waso  another  war  against  the  nobles,  who  had  pl.iced  at 
their  head  his  son.  Prince  James  (1487),  and  was  cither 
killeil  in  battle  or  murdered  thereafter  at  Sanchie,  near 
Banoockliurn,  in  June,  148S, 

James  IV.  of  Scotland,  son  of  .Tames  TIT.  and  Mar- 
garet of  Ocnmark,  b.  Mnr.  17.  1472;  joined  the  rebel- 
lious nobles  against  his  father  in  14^7;  was  crowned  at 
Scono  in  June,  14SS;  suppressed  an  insurrection  headed  by 
Lords  Forbes  and  Lyio  IISO;  favored  the  impostor  Perkin 
Warbeck,  whom  lie  received  at  his  court  as  king  of  Encrlaml 
(1102).  on  whose  l)ehalf  be  made  war  upon  England  (1406- 
071.  but  finally  concluded  a  truce  for  seven  vcars,  and  in 
l.')Oll  married  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  English  king, 
ILnry  VII.  In  151:'.  he  took  offence  at  a  supposed  insult 
from  his  brother-in-law,  Ilonry  VIII.,  invadcrl  England, 
and  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Flodden  Field.  Sept.  0,  L'iKJ. 

Jnmcs  V.  of  Scotland,  son  of  James  IV,  and  Mar- 
garet of  England,  h.  at,  Linlithgow  Apr.  10. 1512  ;  succeeded 
to  (ho  throno  under  his  mother's  regency  Sept.  fl,  151^  ;  as- 
sumed the  government  ir)28:  married  Mndideine  of  France 
ir>,''.7,  and  on  her  death  Mury  of  Lorraine,  dau^htrr  of  tho 
duko  of  Guise,  15:jS ;  met  with  sienal  defeat  from  the  Eng- 
lish at  Solway  Moss  Nov.  25.  1542;  d.  at  Falkland  Pnlaco 
Dec.  14,  1542,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  infant  daughter, 
Mary,  qu'-cn  of  Scots. 

Jamps  (Cn.\ni.ns  T.),  A.  M..  b.  at  West  flreenwich, 
R.  I.,  in  I'^OI  :  stiulii'd  mechanics  while  working  as  a  car- 
penter, an<l  became  an  expert  constructor  of  machinery  for 
cotton  mills,  of  whifh  ho  erectr-d  many  in  New  England 
ami  (he  Middle  and  Southern  States.  Ho  was  XJ.  S.  Sen- 
ator fr(uu  Rhrtde  I-Iaml  1851-57,  after  which  time  he  devoted 
him^i'df  (o  invenlint:  firearms,  and  wa-^  killed  at  Sag  Har- 
bor. L.  I..  Oct.  17.  ISC2,  by  the  bursting  of  a  shell. 

James  Francis  Edward  Stuart, b.  in  London  Juno 
1ft,  I68S.  being  the  son  of  King  James  IT.  by  Queen  Mary 
of  Modena,  and  nutiiral  heir  to  tho  throne.  In  thn  year  of 
his  birth  James  II.  was  driven  from  power,  and  the  rights 
of  (he  infant  prince  were  ignored  by  liis  sif^ters  Mary  and 
Anne,  who  successively  occupied  tho  throne.  Tho  exiled 
family  fnind  hoipitablo  asylum  at  tho  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
wlio.  (in  tho  death  of  (he  ex-kin'.r.  immediately  recognized 
the  prince  as  king  of  Oreat  Rritnin  under  the  title  of  James 
Til.  In  1708,  Prince  James  sailed  from  Dunkirk  in  a  French 
flret,  intruding  to  effect  a  landing  in  Scotland,  but  did  not 
execute  that  intenti<in.  Under  the  ttoni-dr-ffiirrrc  of  tho 
rhevalier  of  St.  fJcorpc  Ihe  youthful  "Pretender  "  fashc  wa8 
called  in  England)  timk  part  in  tho  French  campaigns  of 
17ft8-0fl  aifainsi  (he  Enijlish  in  Flanders,  for  which  reason 
Parliament  set  a  price  of  100.000  crowns  upon  Ins  head. 
The  prince's  sister.  Anne,  designed  to  restore  hini  to  th'^ 
order  of  succrpsiou.  ami  niimorous  statesmen  of  England, 
among  whom  were  Bolinghroko  nncl  Rishop  Atterhury,  fa- 
vored Itis  cause,  hut  his  refusal  to  renounce  ratholicism 
was  fatal  to  his  profpeets.  In  1715  (he  Prftcndor  wa-*  in- 
vite I  to  Scotlan'l  by  th"  earl  of  Mar,  landrd  at  Peterhead 
in  l>eceuO)er,  passeil  (hroutih  Aberdeen,  made  a  public  en- 
try into  Dundee,  au'l  occupied  (ho  royal  palace  at  Seone. 
The  enterprise,  however,  failed  ignominiously.  and  the  next 
month  (be  Pretender  retreafetl  (o  Franee,  The  rrminurler 
of  his  life  wa-<  pa«^ed  chiefly  in  Italy,  he  haviut;  married 
in  1710  a  princesf«  Sobieski  of  Pobmd.  by  whom  he  bad  a 
son,  Charles  Edward,  h.  1720.  tho  "Young  Pretender"  of 
174.'>.  Prince  Jame?.  after  \\'\n  second  fnihire,  declined  to 
make  nny  further  armed  attempt  upon  tho  throne  of  Rrit- 
ftin,  ceding  his  rights  to  his  son  when  tho  latter  reached 


maturity :  he  passed  his  closing  years  in  pious  retirement^ 
at  Rome,  where  he  d.  Jan.  2,  1706. 

James  ((ikorgf,  Pavnk  RAiNSF0Rn),b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1801,  became  in  early  life,  partly  through  the  ad- 
vice of  Washington  Irving,  a  writer  of  romances  ;  was  his- 
toriograjdier  of  England  under  William  I  \\  ;  became  Brit- 
ish consul  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  in  1S52;  Rritif-h  consul  for  the 
Austrian  ports  1850;  d.  at  Venice  isfifl.  Of  his  many  nov- 
els and  other  works,  which  once  had  great  popularity,  the 
best  arc  liirhrficu  (1825),  Daruhif  (LSItO),  MtDinint  of  Great 
Commnndern  (18:i2),  life  oud  Times  of  Louift  A'/K'(  18^8). 

James  (Sir  Hkvry).  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Rose-in-Vale.  near 
St.  ,'\gncs,  Cornwall,  in  180.1:  was  educated  at  tho  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich  ;  entered  the  army  as  lieu- 
tenant of  engineers;  became  colonel  in  1857,  and  major- 
general  in  ]8fiS.  After  directing  the  geological  survey  of 
Ireland  (1844).  and  the  admiralty  engineering  works  at 
Portsmouth  (1840^.  he  was  appointed  in  1852  superinten- 
dent of  the  ordnance  survev  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
in  1857  chief  of  the  topogra])lncal  and  statistical  depart- 
ments of  the  war  office.  He  was  knighted  in  18G0.  Sir 
Henry  is  principally  known  for  his  successful  efforts  to  in- 
troduce various  applications  of  photograjdiy  into  ihe  ser- 
vice of  the  exact  sciences.  As  early  as  1855  he  reduced 
the  ordnance  maps  h.v  photography:  in  1800  he  availed 
himself  of  (he  experiments  of  M.  Poitevin,  of  Mr.  J.  W. 
Osborne  of  Melbourne,  and  of  Mr.  Asscr  of  Amsterdam 
for  applying  the  new  processes  of  PnoTOi.iTiiofjitAPiiY  (see 
(hat  article)  to  the  reproduction  of  impntved  ordnance  sur- 
veys. Oen.  James  has  Fince  invented  a  modification  of  this 
process,  known  as  photozincograjdiy.  and  by  its  means  has 
made  a  complete  fac-simile  in  32  volumes  of  tlie  celebrated 
Domesday  /inolr,  as  well  as  of  other  rare  and  ancient  manu- 
.eeripts.  The  principal  writings  of  Gen.  James  have  been 
On  the  Firjnrc,  Dimeuniont^  and  }frau  Sprrifir  Gravity  of 
the  Earth,  ns  drrivfd  from  the  Ordiiaiirr  Tn'f/onomctricnl 
Sarrri/  of  Great  Britain  (in  Phihm.  Trans.,  1  850) :  Ordvanrr 
Survrt/  ]'n  Ireland  (1855),  in  Seoffatid  (1801).  in  Encf/aiid 
and  WaicH  (1801);  On  Photoziurorjrapht/  and  other  Photo- 
qraphic  ProreHftfH  (1802)  :  ^cco»n/  (f  the  Principal  Trian- 
qulation  of  the  United  Kinrfdom  (1864);  and  Record  of  the 
Ejrpedition  to  Abi/isinia  (1870). 

James  (IlnNRv),  b.  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  June  3,  1811. 
When  twelve  years  of  ago  he  suffered  amputation  of  a  leg 
in  consequence  of  an  accident.  lie  studied  in  T'nion  Tol- 
legc  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  ;  went  to  Euro])e, 
where  he  acquired  Sandcmanian  and  afterwards  Swcden- 
bor^ian  views.  He  resides  a(  Tambridfre,  Mass.,  and  has 
published  What  in  thr  State?  (1845),  Irft^r  to  a  Snrdeji- 
borriian  (1847),  Moralism  and  Chrihtianiti/  (1852).  Lreturet* 
ami  MiHcenanies  (\^h1\  The  Chnrrh  of  Christ  (1854).  The 
Nature  of  Evil  (1855).  Christianity  the  I.ofjic  of  Creation 
(1857),  Snhntance  and  Shadow  {\^<Si),  The  Secret  of  Sweden- 
horff  (1809),  and  other  works. 

James  (IIouAcr).  A.  M.,  b.  at  Medford.  Mass.,  May  0. 
1818;  graduated  at  Yale  1840;  studied  divinity  at  New 
Haven;  held  pastorates  (Congregational)  in  M'reutham 
and  Worcester,  Mass.,  1843-0:t ;  chaplain  25th  Massa- 
chusetts Infantry  1801-04  :  captain  and  A.  Q.  M.  and  com- 
missioner of  froedmen  in  North  Carolina  1804-00;  luistor  of 
First  church,  Lowell,  Mass.,  1807-711 :  Second  churcn.tircen- 
wieh,  Conn.,  1871  ;  also,  since  18(i7,  one  of  the  proprietors 
and  editors  of  tho  ContjreijationaliHt.     D.  June  0,  1875. 

James  (Jons  Angem.).  h.  at  Rlandford,  Dorset,  Eng- 
land, Juno  0,  1785.  was  educated  at  (iosporl  College,  en- 
tered tho  ministry  when  seventeen  years  old,  and  was 
(1805-50)  pastor  of  the  Congregational  cliapel,  Carr's  lane, 
Birmingham  :  was  an  able  preacher  and  writer,  and  exer- 
cised a  wide  influence  in  Europe  and  America  by  hi.-:  nu- 
merous religions  works,  of  which  (he  best  known  are  The 
Anxioun  Inqninr  (I8:i4).  Chrintian  Frltoirnhip.  and  Chriit- 
tian  PrnfrsHur.     D.  at  Birmingham  Oct.  1,  1859. 

James  (Rorhrt).  M.  D..b.  at  Kinvor.«<ton.  Staffordshire. 
England,  in  170:1;  was  educated  at  Oxford;  practised  as  a 
physician  at  Sheffield,  Lichfield.  Rirmingham.  and  Lomlon  : 
published,  with  tho  aid  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  a  Mrdiral 
Dirtiou'fry  (J!  vols.  fo|..  London,  174:i-L'«),  an<l  invented 
tho  cebd>rated  fever-powder  known  by  his  name,  now  called 
antimonial  powder,  composed  of  o.xido  of  antimony  and 
phosphate  of  lime.  "James's  powder"  xvas  ono  of  the 
earliest  and  mo«t  successful  prototypes  of  tho  so-called 
patent  medirineM  which  have  since  acquired  80  great  vogue. 
D.  1770. 

Jnmrs  (Thomas),  an  English  navicntoi*  who  in  lOHl  was 
f-wi  by  a  companv  of  merchants  of  Bristol  to  search  for  a 
X.W.  passage.  Me  explored  Hudson's  Ray.  and  from  him 
(he  sou(hern  portion  is  still  called  James's  Ray.  Capt. 
James  reachod  lat.  05°  .10'  N.,  when  his  further  progresi 
being  stopped  by  ice,  ho  returned  to  England.     In  1CC3  be 


13G6 


JAMES— JAMES  KIVER  AXD   KANAWHA   CANAL. 


>  published  a  quarto  voliimp  entitled  The  Strnniic  and  Oun- 
i/ei-oui  Vfn/ftf/c  of  Cttpt.  TlttimtiH  JamcH  for  the  J)Ucovcrif 
of  a  Xoflh-irest  Pa9»(tije  to  tht  South  tSVrt. 

James  (Thomas  Chai.ki.ey),  b.  at  PbiladclphiainlTefi; 
sluiliol  iiHMlieine  at  the  llniversity  of  Pennsylvania.  After 
taking  a  trip  lu  the  ('ape  of  l!ooJ  Hope  as  surgeon,  he 
stuilieil  at  Edinburgh  anil  London  from  IT'.Ml-'j:;.  and 
founded  after  his  return  a  sehool  of  uiidwifery  in  Philadel- 
phia; was  physician  at  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  for 
tiventy-five  years,  and  professor  of  midwifery  at  tlic  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  from  ISll  to  1S:W.  He  enjoyed  a 
great  rejiulation  both  as  practitioner  and  as  teacher.     D. 

July  2:>,  \m:,. 

James  Bayou,po8t-tp.  of  Mississippi  CO.,  Mo.  P.fiGl. 

James  City,  county  of  the  peninsula  of  Virginia,  hav- 
ing James  Kiver  on  the  S.,  York  River  on  the  N.,  and  the 
Chiekahominy  on  the  .S.  W.  It  is  unduhiting,  and  has  a 
soil  adapted  to  raising  grain  and  garden  products.  Area, 
1S4  square  miles.     Cap.  Williamsburg.      Pop.  4426. 

James  Creek,  post-v.  of  Huntingdon  co..  Pa.,  on  the 
Huntingdon  .Tn<l  liroad  To|i  K.  R..  12  miles  S.  of  Hunting- 
don. It  derives  its  |irineipal  support  from  the  mining  of 
iron  ore.      H.  R.  RiujiBAiGH,  Ed.  "Weekly  Pilcrim." 

James  Island,  one  of  the  s;a  islands  of  Charleston 
CO.,  S.  C,  having  Charleston  harbor  and  .\shley  River  on 
the  X.  The  battle  of  Seeessionvillc  (June  11,  ISfi:!)  and 
several  other  spirited  engagements  occurred  upon  this 
islanil  during  the  late  civil  war.     Pop.  ISOS. 

Jame'son  (.Vwa).  h.  at  Dublin  Jlay  19,  1797,  was  the 
daughter  of  Mr.  Murphy,  an  artist  of  merit;  was  married 
in  1823  to  Robert  Jameson,  a  barrister,  from  whom  she 
soon  separated.  Her  writings  upon  Christian  art  and  ar- 
cha;oIogy  are  of  a  high  order.  D.  Mar.  17.  ISGO.  Her 
principal  works  are  Dian/  of  an  EnniufCe  (1S20),  Lovch  of 
the  Pods  (i»29),  Lives  of  Female  Sovereigns  (ISiil),  Chnrae- 
teristivs  of  Women  (1S32|,  Beauties  of  the  Cnnrt  of  Charles 
II.  (18:i:i),  Visits  and  SIcetehes  (IS.'U),  Tales  and  Miscel- 
lanies (1S3S),  Studies  and  Ilambles  in  Canada  (IR.jS),  Pic- 
Inres  of  Social  Life  in  llermani/  (1S40),  a  translation  of 
Waagen's  Unbent  (1840),  Handbook  to  the  Public  Galleries 
of  Art  (l.'<42).  Conijuinlon  to  Priialc  Galleries  (1844),  Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters  (184S).  Memoirs  and  Es- 
says (184()),  S'li-rcd  and  Ler/cndari/  Art  (1818).  Leijends  of 
the  Monastic  Orders  (ISoO),  Lerjcnils  of  the  Madonna  (1852), 
Commonplace  Ilool;  ( 18r)4),  Sisters  of  Chariti/.  Catholic  and 
Protestant  (18jj),  The  Communion  of  Labor  (1S6G). 

Jameson  (Charles  Davis),  b.  at  Gorham,  Me.,  Feb. 
24,  1827;  removed  to  Oldtown  at  an  early  age,  where  he 
subsequently  engaged  in  the  lumber  business,  which  he 
largely  extended,  and  in  ISfil  was  one  of  the  most  largely 
interested  dealers  in  the  .State.  A  Democrat  in  polities, 
and  a  Douglas  delegate  to  the  Cliarleston  convention  in 
1860,  he  volunteered  bis  services  in  support  of  the  national 
governuunt  on  the  outbreak  of  civil  war,  and  was  ap- 
pointeil  colonel  of  the  2d  Maine  Vols.,  the  first  to  leave  the 
Slate,  which  he  commanded  at  the  first  battle  of  Dull  Run 
with  distinction,  leading  to  his  appointment  in  September 
as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  In  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign in  Virginia.  1802,  he  commanded  a  brigade  with 
great  ability,  where  he  contracted  the  disease  which  ter- 
minated his  life  at  Oldtown,  Me.,  Nov.  C,  1SG2. 

0.  C.  Simmons. 

Jameson  (Jonx  Alexander),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Irasburg, 
Vt.,  Jan.  2j,  1S24;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
in  1840;  was  tutor  there  1850-5.!,  after  which  he  removed 
to  Illinois;  practised  law,  and  became  in  18G5  judge  of  su- 
perior court  in  Chicago.  He  has  published  several  legal 
works. 

Jameson  (Robert),  b.  at  Leith  .July  11,  1774;  was 
educated  for  the  medical  profession  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  but,  devoting  himself  entirely  to  natural  his- 
tory, explored  the  Scottish  islands  as  a  mineralogist,  and 
published  his  discoveries  in  two  volumes  in  1798  and  ISDO. 
Dr.  Jameson  then  studied  for  two  years  at  Freiberg,  under 
the  celeluated  Werner,  whose  geological  theories  he  warmly 
espoused,  and  taught  for  many  years  from  the  chair  of  nat- 
ural history  in  Edinburgh  University,  to  wiiich  ho  was 
elected  in  ISO  I,  having  even  founded  a  Wernerian  .Society. 
Later  in  life  he  abandoned  his  favorite  dogmas  as  untena- 
ble, and  adopted  instead  those  of  Hutton.  He  wrote  a 
Siislem  <f  Mlncralof/i/  (.1  vols.,  1804-08),  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions  ;  n  Manual  of  Mincralot/)/  (1821); 
numerous  paper?  published  by  the  scientific  societies  to 
which  he  belonged  ;  edited  the  geological  department  of  the 
Encijclopirdin  llrilannica  (4th  ed..  1819  seq.)  ;  founded  in 
1819,  anil  conducted  through  life,  the  Edinburgh  AVir  Phil- 
osophicaljonrnal;  and  assisted  Sir  1).  Brewster  anil  Hugh 
Murray  in  the  preparation  of  many  scientific  treatises  of  a 
popul.ir  character.     D.  at  Edinburgh  Apr.  19,  1864. 


Jame'sone  (George),  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in 
]58fi;  went  to  Antwerp  in  1G16,  and  studied  painting  un- 
der Rubens.  Vandyek  was  his  lellow-pujol.  and  .lamesono 
has  been  called  the  "Vandyek  of  Scotland"  from  the  deli- 
cacy, softness,  and  clearness  of  his  coloring,  though  some- 
what dclicient  in  vigor.  Charles  I.  sat  to  .lamesone  in  Ifi.'iH^ 
and  he  was  largely  patronized  by  the  Scotch  nobility,  of 
whom  numerous  portraits  by  this  artist  arc  preserved.  D. 
at  Edinburgh  in  1CI4. 

James'port,  post-v.  of  Riverhead  Ip.,  Suffolk  co., 
N.  Y.,on  the  Tiong  Island  R.  R.,  78  miles  E.  of  Kew  York, 
and  on  Great  Peconic  Bay.     Pop.  o23. 

James  River  of  Virginia,  one  of  the  noblest  of  Ameri- 
enn  rivers,  is  formed  in  Alleghany  co.,  by  the  union  of  the 
Jackson  and  Cowpasturc  rivers.  It  passes  through  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  jmrsucs  a  devious  course  as  far  as  Scotts- 
ville,  whence  its  direction  is  about  E.  S.  E.  At  Richmond 
it  falls  100  feet  in  fi  miles.  afl"ording  a  grand  water-power. 
Above  this  point  the  James  River  and  Kanawiia  Caxal 
(which  see)  extemls,  following  the  course  of  the  river,  and 
embracing  extensive  reaches  of  wbit-h  as  slack-water  navi- 
gation to  Buchanan.  190  miles.  The  tide  comes  up  to  the 
Roeketts,  just  below  Richmond.  This  is  the  head  of  navi- 
g.ation  for  steamboats  and  schooners  of  130  tons.  Shipping 
of  the  first  class  comes  up  to  City  Point,  40  miles  below, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  Below  City  Point  the 
river  is  a  broad,  deep,  ami  never-failing  tidal  estuary,  06 
miles  long,  and  inferior  to  the  lower  Columbia  and  the  Po- 
tomac only  among  the  rivers  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  majesty  of 
its  flow.  The  James  River,  with  the  Elizabeth  and  the 
Nansemond,  flows  into  Chesapeake  Bay  through  Hampton 
Roads,  the  grandest  harbor  upon  our  Atlantic  coast.  The 
entire  length  from  Covington,  Va.,  to  Old  Point  Comfort  is 
some  450  miles. 
James  River,  tp.  of  Buckingham  eo.,  Va.  Pop.  303.1. 
James  River  and  KanaAvha  Canal.  This  route 
is  a  project  contemplating,  besides  the  existing  canal,  a 
continuous  line  of  water-communication  from  the  waters 
of  the  Ohio  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kanawha  River, 
Vi'.  Va.,  to  the  w.aters  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  at  the  mouth  of  the  .lamrs  River.  The  idea 
of  a  water-communication  between  the  valley  of  the  Ohio 
River  and  the  valley  of  the  .Tames  River  has  for  its  author 
no  less  a  distinguished  person  than  George  Washington 
himself,  though  it  is  popularly  supposed  to  have  originated 
with  Gen.  Spotswood.  when  on  -Aug.  20,  I  716,  he  set  out 
from  Williamsburg  on  bis  expedition  over  the  Blue  Ridge. 
Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  Gen.  Wash- 
ington was  so  impressed  with  the  importance  of  a  water- 
line  across  the  .Mleglianics  that  during  the  year  1784  he 
made  a  personal  exploration  of  the  country,  travelling  for 
that  ]nirpose  many  hundreds  of  miles.  It  was  largely  ow- 
ing to  his  influence  and  instrumentality  that  the  legisla- 
ture of  \"irginia.  on  Jan.  5,  17S5,  passed  "  an  act  for  clear- 
ing and  improving  the  navigation  of  the  .lames  River." 
By  this  act  the  first  or  old  .Tames  River  Company  was  in- 
corporated. This  company  was  organized  Aug.  25.  1785. 
ami  on  the  next  day  Gen.  Washington  was  elected  its  first 
president,  which  position  he  held  for  some  years.  Several 
amendatory  acts  have  since  been  passed  ;  and  the  present 
company  was  incorporated  in  May,  1832,  and  organized  in 
1S35.  This  company  commenced  the  eonslruction  of  the 
present  canal  from  Richmond  to  Lynchburg  in  1S3G,  and 
the  work  was  completed  about  Dec.  I,  1840.  The  part 
known  as  the  second  division  of  the  canal,  extending  from 
Lynchburg  to  Buchanan,  was  commenced  in  the  mean 
time,  and  completed  in  Nov..  1851.  An  extension  of  47 
miles  to  Covington  on  Jackson  River,  a  few  miles  above  the 
junction  of  Coivpasture  River,  was  commenced  in  1853.  but 
I  remains  yet  incomplete.  As  the  "central  water-line  "  this 
routceomes  prominently  before  the  public  as  one  of  the  four 
or  five  great  lines  of  transportation  by  which  the  products 
of  the  great  West  may  reach  the  sea.  This,  indeed,  was 
a  fundamental  idea  from  the  beginning,  and  as  early  as 
1S2C-2S,  Capl.  McNeil  of  the  U.  S.  engineers  surveyed  pas- 
sages of  the  Alleghanies  and  the  western  extreme  rlH  the 
tlreenbrier.  New.  and  Great  Kanawha  rivers,  and  found  a 
location  by  which  the  siinimit  was  surmounted  at  a  level 
1916  feet  above  tide  by  a  tunnel  2.0  miles  long.  In  1868. 
.Mr.  E.  Lorraine,  then  the  engineer  of  the  company,  advised 
the  adoption  of  a  iicir  location,  which  was  about  the  same 
as  Capt.  McNeil's,  except  that  it  pierced  the  mountains  by 
a  tunnel  about  (estimated)  9  milesdn  length,  and  rrducd 
the  elevation  of  the  summit-level  to  1700  feel,  thereby 
saving  34  miles  in  actual  length  of  canal,  and  2flJ  of  equated 
I  length,  considering  the  saving  of  time  in  lockages  and  cost 
i  of  working  and  repairs.  The  creation  by  this  route  of  a 
central  water-line  involved,  besides  the  mere  connection 
I  with  the  great  fluvial  navigation-system  of  the  Mississippi 
I  Valley,  an  enlargement  of  the  actually  constructed  portions 


JAMKS'S  BAY— JANKSVILLK. 


laiiT 


of  Ihia  line.  Ifcncc  tho  project  involves  —  1st,  the  en- 
larj^omcnt  of  the  existing  ciinal  from  Richmtintl  to  Bu- 
chanan :  lid.  the  construction  of  tho  projected  and  defi- 
nitely-located portion  nf  the  canal  frorn  Buchanan  to  tho 
mouth  of  Fork  Uuu  ;  3d,  the  construction  of  t!ie  canal  up 
Fork  Run  to  the  summit-level,  1700  feet  above  tide,  under 
tho  Tuckahoe  and  Katis  mountains,  hy  a  tunnel  7.  miles 
Ions,  and  thence  down  the  valley  of  Howard's  Creek  to  the 
Oreenhrior  Hivcr;  4th.  tho  slack-water  improvement  of 
tho  (irconhricr.  New,  and  Kanawha  rivers  to  Paint  Crock 
Shuals  (with  occasional  short  can.ils  to  avoid  expensive 
location  nf  dams)  :  ;»th.  the  open  slniccdam  improvement 
of  the  Kanawha  Hivcr  from  the  Paint  Creek  Shoals  to  its 
junc^tion  with  the  Ohio  River. 

This  project  was  suhinilted  Jan.,  1874.  by  tho  secretary 
of  war  to  a  hoard  of  engineers  consisting  of  ]\Ir.  B.  II. 
Latroho,  civil  engineer,  and  J.  G.  Darnard.  Q.  A.  (iillmore, 
W.  P.  Craishill,  it.  Wcitzel,  officers  of  U.  S.  engineers,  who 
reported  favorahly  as  to  practicability.  Further  surveys 
were  sugjif^sted,  however,  heforo  the  definite  location  of  the 
tunnel  and  the  (ixing  of  the  plans  of  utilizing  the  Green- 
brier and  New  rivers  as  parts  of  the  line.  It  Is  probable 
that  those  surveys  will,  besides  determining  an  improved 
location  of  the  groiit  tunnel,  result  In  showing  that  an  '*  in- 
dependent canal,"  instead  of  a  *' lock-and-dam  "  naviga- 
tion, must  he  resorted  to  along  the  (Trccnbrier  and  New 
rivers.  The  hoard  estimated  the  cost  at  $50,000,000.  (Sec 
E-r.  One.  S19.  H.  II.  1st  scss.  4:ld  Cong.;  also  Annual  Re- 
port of  fliief  ftf  Entjineers  for  1S74.)         J.  G.  BAiiNARn. 

James's  llay^  the  southern  part  of  Hudson's  Bay.  lat. 
b\°-U:>°  N.,  Ion.  79°-82°  'MV  W.  It  was  named  fn.m'Capt. 
Thomas. lames,  who  wintereil  here  in  10:!I-;V2  while  attempt- 
ing to  liuil  the  N.  \V.  passage  It  abounds  in  shoals  and 
islands.     On  its  S.  shores  there  are  extensive  marshy  plains. 

Jamos's  Creek,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  IS.*!. 

Jamcs'town,  post-v.  of  Clinton  co.,  III.     Pop.  120. 

Jamestown,  post-v.  of  Boono  co.,  Ind..  on  the  Indi- 
anapolis Bloomiugton  and  \Vcstern  R.  R.,  23  miles  N.  W. 
of  ludinnapolis,  lias  -1  churches,  an  academy,  0  benevolent 
societies  and  Iodge«j,  22  stores,  2  flouring-mills,  4  manufac- 
torii's,  ami  a  weekly  newspaper.  It  is  in  a  fertile  grain- 
regtfm.    Pop.  00:1.     Francis  B.  Rask,  En.  "  Commkucial." 

Jamestown,  tp.  of  Steuben  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  779. 

Jamestown,  ip.  of  Howard  co.,  la.     Pop.  312. 

Jamestown,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Russell  co.,  Ky.,  ,0  miles 
from  Horseshoe  Bottom,  on  Cumberland  River.     Pop.  1.18. 

Jamestown,  post  tp.  of  Ottawa  co.,  Mich.   Pop.  1CI2. 

Jamestown,  tp.  of  Blue  Earth  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  2114. 

Jamestown,  post-v.  of  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  tho 
Atlantic  and  Groat  Western  R.  R.,  2A  miles  from  the  Dun- 
kirk Allegheny  Valley  and  Pittsburg  R.  R.  It  is  on  the 
outlet  of  ("hatitauqua  Lake,  ou  wlilch  three  steamboats  ply 
houi-e  to  May  ville  The  outlet  affords  constant  an<l  exten- 
sive water-]iower,  which  is  well  utilized.  It  has  lOciiurclies, 
2  werkly  and  2  daily  newspapers,  .1  national  banks,  a  union 
school  with  a  fine  building  and  a  colle;;iato  department. 
extensive  manufactories  of  alpaca  goods  and  woollens,  .'i 
of  chairs  and  ;t  of  furniture,  1  saw  and  2  grist  mills,:!  fur- 
naces, .'>  largo  hotels,  besides  many  smaller  manufactories 
and  numerous  stores.  Manufacturing  is  the  chief  pursuit, 
anrl  flalrv  business  Is  cxtcnsivciv  carried  on  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  .■>:i:!'fi.  D.  H.  Waiti:,  En.  "  JoritNAi.." 

Jamestown,  post-(p.  of  (luilford  CO..  N.C.    Pop.  1539. 

Jamestown,  tp.  of  McDowell  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  412. 

Jamestown,  post-v.  (»f  Silver  Crock  tp.,  Grecno  co., 
0..  10  inile.^  tVota  Xenia.     Pop.  :)32. 

Jamestown,  post-b.  of  Mercer  co,.  Pa.,  at  (ho  junction 
of  the  Eric  and  Pittsburg  with  tho  .Vshtubula  and  Oil  City 
branch  of  the  Lake  .^horo  U.  R.,  30  miles  from  Lake  Erie, 
has  2  banking-houses,  a  seminary,  2  hotels,  u  newspaper, 
j  elmrches,  1  foundry,  1  machine-shop.  1  (louring  and  2 
planing  milli-,  shops,  largo  stores,  etc.      Piip.  .'i72. 

D.  L.  Cai-kins,  En.  "SeN." 

Jamestown,  post-tp.  of  Newport  eo.,  R.  I.,  consisting 
of  the  island  of  Cano.vicut  (which  seo),  in  NurragansoU 
Bay.     Pop.  378. 

Jamestown,  post-v..  cap.  of  Fentress  eo.,  Tonn..  on 
(he  Cmnlterlaud  Mountain.  4:'.  mlh-s  \\ .  of  Clinton,  a  station 
on  the  Knowilleand  Kentucky  It.  K. 

Jamestown,  tp.  of  .Tamos  City  eo..  Va.  ft  was  tho 
first  permau'Mit  English  sotilemeni  within  the  limits  of  tho 
V.  S. :  was  founded  in  1007  on  a  peninsula  32  miles  from 
tho  mouth  of  .Tames  River.  Va.  ;  it  has  now  brcome  nn 
inland  by  the  action  of  (ho  current,  wliich  has  oiirried  away 
a  pttrtion  of  tlu-  site  of  tho  ancient  town.  Only  the  ruins 
of  the  church,  (ho  fort,  and  of  two  or  three  houses  mark  the 
spot  which  was  first  occupied  by  tho  cclebvatcd  band  of  107 


colonists  under  Wingfield,  Ciiristopher  Newport,  and  Bar- 
tholomew Gosnold.  Entering  the  Chesapeake  wiih  three 
vessels  Apr.  20,  they  sailed  up  the  river,  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  and  on  May  13  began 
to  build  tho  town,  which  also  bore  his  name.  Great  priva- 
tions were  suflorcd  during  tho  first  season,  and  the  settlers 
were  largely  intlebtcd  lor  their  preservation  to  the  energy 
and  talents  of  the  famous  Capt.  John  Smith,  who  explored 
the  neighboring  country,  was  captured  by  tiie  Indians,  and 
saved  by  the  intervention  of  Pocahtnitas.  conciliated  tho 
savage  cliicftains,  ami  obtained  from  ihem  supplies  of  pro- 
visions. (See  Smith,  .Tons'.)  A  second  company  of  colonists 
arrived  in  IfiOS,  a  still  larger  number  under  Sir  Tliomas 
Gates  and  Sir  Gcf)rgc  Somers  iu  1G09,  tho  charter  governor, 
Lord  Delaware,  arrived  with  reinforcements  in  1010,  Sir 
Thomas  Dale  brought  300  settlers  and  some  cattle  in  the 
same  year,  and  in  1011,  Sir  Thomas  Gates  brought  still  an- 
other company  of  3;')0.  By  this  time  other  settlemonts  be- 
gan to  bo  aiade.  Jamestown  soon  became  the  capital  of  an 
extensive  colony,  and  in  lOllt  (.Tune  21))  a  house  of  bur- 
gesses, the  first  legislative  assembly  ever  convened  in  lirit- 
ish  America,  met  iiere.  In  tho  same  year  1200  uott  settlers 
arrived,  and  a  Dutch  trading-vessel  brought  to  Jamestown 
20  negroes,  who  were  sold  as  slaves.  After  the  scat  of  gov- 
ernment was  removed  to  Williamsburg,  Jamestown  began 
to  decline;  it  was  burned  by  Nathaniel  Bacon  during  tho 
rebellion  of  1070,  and  never  rebuilt.  It  was  the  scene  of  an 
engagement  between  the  forces  of  AVaync  and  those  of  Lord 
Cornwailis  in  1781.  Pop.  of  tp.  1088. 

Jamestown,  post-tp.  of  Grant  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1114. 

Jamcs'viIle,]K)st-v.  of  Dewitt  tp.,  Onondaga  co.,N.  Y., 
on  the  Syracuse  IJinghamton  and  New  York  R.  R.,  has  3 
churches  and  a  number  of  manufactories.     Pop.  402. 

Jamcsville  (Minni.F.  Grovk  P.  0.1,  a  v.  of  (Jrcoufield 
tp.,  Saratoga  eo..  N.  Y.  It  has  2  paper-mills,  and  is  U 
miles  from  Ballston. 

Jamesville,  post-v.  of  Martin  co.,  N.  C,  on  the  Roan- 
oke River.     Pop.  IJO;  of  tp.  2530. 

Ja'mi  (ADDnnnAiniAN-BKN-.AnMnn),  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Persian  poets,  b.  early  in  the  fifteenth 
century  at  Jami  in  Khorussan,  from  wliich  place  he  derived 
the  name  by  wliich  he  is  best  known.  Jami  belonged  to 
the  mystical  school  of  poetry,  was  a  favorite  with  two  or 
three  of  (he  sultans  of  Herat,  where  he  resided  and  taught, 
and  wrote  a  large  num.ber  of  learned  works  in  prose  and 
verse,  some  of  which  have  been  so  IVn'Innato  as  to  be  trans- 
lated orcdited  by  recent  European  scholars.    D.  about  Ml'2. 

Ja'mieson  (John),  D.  D.,b.  in  Glasgow  Mar.  3,  17ol'; 
was  cilucated  at  the  university  of  that  city  ;  became  a  min- 
ister (»f  the  Secession  Church  in  Forfar,  and  was  called  to 
Edinburgh  in  1707.  Besides  many  theological  treatises 
and  several  poems,  he  published  a  valuable  Etj/inotiifflvnt 
Dictionttrif  of  tfir  Srotfi»h  Ltnif/xof/f'  (1808-09,  2  vols.)  and 
Siip/ifrtut:nt  (  tft2;>),  and  other  smaller  works  of  philology 
and  belles-lettres.  The  doctorate  of  divinity  was  conferred 
upon  him  bv  Princeton  College,  N.  J.  D.  in  Edinburgh 
July  12.  18.38. 

Jananscliek'  (Fanny),  b.  in  Prague.  Bohemia,  .Tuly 
20,  1830;  was  brought  up  to  the  stage,  and  from  an  early 
age  began  to  show  a  taleut  for  tragic  rOles,  which  she  un- 
dertook, first  at  Cologne,  then  for  many  years  (18(8-00)  at 
Frankfort,  and  later  at  Dresden  and  (he  principal  theatres 
of  Germany.  i^Illc.  Januuschek  eanie  to  the  U.  .'^.  iu  1807, 
and  acquired  great  popularity,  though  perfurniing  in  Ger- 
man only.  Returning  ti»  (Jerrnany  in  IS71,sho  devoted 
herself  to  tho  study  of  English,  and  iu  IS73  captivated  tho 
American  public  i)y  successfully  representing  in  English 
tho  mo^t  di(rieult  rflles  of  Shnkspearian  tragedy. 

Jane   Lew,  post-tp.  of  Lewis  co.,  W.  Va.     Pop,  2171. 

Janes  (KnMiNU  Smnrn),  b,  in  Sheffield,  Mass..  ,\pr.27, 
1^07.  His  family  early  removed  with  him  to  Salisbury.  Conn. 
Having  received  the  usiml  common -school  education  of 
Connecticut,  he  spent  about  six  years  (1S21-30)  in  teach- 
ing. Mo  studied  law  during  three  of  tlieso  years,  and  was 
about  to  begin  Its  practice  wln-n  his  fiilher  died — nu  ev<Mit 
which  led  to  a  change  of  his  whole  life.  He  joined  tho 
Methodist  itinerant  ministry,  taking  his  first  ap)>ointmont 
in  the  Philadelphia  conference  in  1830.  Ho  rose  rapidly 
in  his  new  work,  and  occupied  important  ptitpits  iu  the 
Philadelphia  auil  Now  York  conferences  till  IS  10.  when  ho 
was  elected  financial  secretary  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety. In  which  oftioo  he  distinguished  himself  by  extra- 
ordinary energy  and  success.  In  IS  It  ho  was  elected 
bishop  of  tho  Mothoilisi  Episcopsil  (Miurch.  He  has  l>een 
pro-eminent  for  his  episcopal  labors  and  travels,  and  has 
eontributeil  much  to  tho  renuirkublo  success  of  his  den<un- 
ina(ion  during  the  period  of  his  episcopate.  He  resided 
(187:))  in  New  York.     D.  in  New  York  City  Sept.  IS,  1870. 

Janes'ville,   post  tp.   of  Lassen  co.,   Cnl.,   iu    Honey 


i:368 


JANESVILLE— JANSENISM. 


Liikc  Valley,  12  miles  from  Susanville,  the  county-scat. 

Pop.  -J  11. 

Janesvilley  tp.  of  Greenwood  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  259. 

JaiiesvillC,  post-v.  of  Waseca  co.,  Minn.,  on  the  AVin- 
ona  iiii'l  St.  Peter  U.  K.,  lliJ  miles  W.  nf  AVinona,  in  tlie 
'*  iJig  Woods;''  has  2  flour  and  '.I  siiw  mills,  1  clmir  nnd  2 
steam  stave  factorie.s,  .'i  hotel?,  3  churches,  ji  weekly  news- 
paper, and  a  graded  school.  It  is  in  a  fine  wheat-region. 
Pop.  lit  Ip.  y47,  C.  E.  GitAHAM.  En.  •*  Aufiis." 

.Inncsville,  city,  cap.  of  Rock  co..  Wis.,  on  both  sides 
of  I'.iM-k  Uivcr.  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North-western  and 
the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  Rw.,  70  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Milwaukee;  has  a  daily,  a  monthly,  a  semi-weekly,  and  3 
weekly  periodicals,  7  churches,  a  very  large  reaper-factory, 
machine-shops,  fine  public  schools,  and  a  very  large  water- 
power,  utilized  to  a  great  degree.  Boots,  shoes,  carriages, 
etc.  arc  among  the  manufactures.  The  town,  which  is  well 
built,  is  the  seat  of  the  State  institute  for  the  blind,  and  has 
excellent  musical  schools,  2  national  and  1  savings  bank, 
and  fine  hotels.  The  I>reeding  and  dealing  in  horses  is  an 
important  interest.  Pop.  S7S9  ;  of  tp.,  excluding  part,  of 
the  city,  1)2G.  A.  H.  Seymour,  "  (iAZETTE." 

Jauet-Lansre'  f  Antoixr  Lons),  b.  in  Paris  Nov.  19, 
l.**18;  studied  painting  under  Collin,  Ingres,  and  Horace 
Vernet,  adopting  the  style  of  the  latter,  with  whom  he  was 
associated  in  producing  a  series  of  designs  illustrating  the 
history  of  Xapolcon  I.  He  was  from  about  1816  the  ar- 
tistic editor  of  1/  ffhistration  Frnnrfn'se,  and  successfully 
executed  many  battle-pieces.     D.  nt  Paris  Nov.  23,  1872. 

JaneJ'  (PAir.).  b.  in  Paris  Apr.  30,  1823;  was  educated 
at  the  Kcole  Normalc,  graduating  as  doctor  in  letters  in 
1818;  taught  philosophy  at  Bourges  and  Strasburg;  was 
appointctl  profes-;or  of  logic  in  1S57  at  the  lyccum  of  Louis- 
le-<!rand,  nf  history  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1S64; 
and  was  chosen  member  of  the  Institute  in  the  same  year. 
M.  Janet  is  a  leading  representative  of  modern  French 
philosophy,  his  doctrine  being  a  reconciliation  of  the  offi- 
cial system  of  Cousin  with  that  entire  liberty  of  research 
demanded  by  the  most  recent  scientific  school  of  psychol- 
ogy.    His  writings  are  numerous  and  learned. 

Jane'way  (JAron  J,),  D.  D.,  b.  in  New  York  City  in 
1770:  graduated  at  Cidumbia  College  in  17U4;  was  or- 
dained a  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1799;  was  for  some  time  president  of  the  Western 
Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny  City  ;  afterwards  set- 
tled at  New  Brunswick,  N.  .).,  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  church  and  vice-president  of  Rutgers  College,  Dr. 
.Taneway  was  one  of  the  early  promoters  of  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  for  forty  years  a 
director.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  theological  works, 
among  which  are  the  ApoHtodc  Age^  E.rpottitlim  of  the  Ada 
nnd  of  the  Epistlcit  to  the  Romnun  and  the  Hebrewa,  In- 
t'-nml  Eridfnce  of  the  Bible,  and  The  Abrahamic  Covenant, 
D.  at  New  Brunswick  June  27,  1858. 

Janin'  (Jltles  Gabriel),  b.  at  St.  Kticnne,  Loire, 
France,  Dec.  21,  1S04;  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
Louis-lc  (Jrand,  Paris;  became  a  private  tutor  in  fhcQuar- 
tier  Latin,  and  finally  became  a  journalist,  feuilletonist, 
editor,  novelist,  and  critic.  He  was  at  one  time  connected 
with  Fifjni'n,  and  afterwards  with  the  Quotiflfcune ;  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Remits  de  Paris  and  the  Jour- 
nal rh'H  ICnfantH.      D.  June  20,  1874. 

Ja'liiiin^  or  Joriiinina^  town  of  European  Turkey, 
capital  of  the  eyalet  of  the  same  name  (the  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Epirus).  It  has  important  manufactures  of  mo- 
rocco, leather,  silk  gooils,  and  gold-lace.  On  the  opposite 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Janina,  whieh  has  received  its  name 
from  the  town,  lay  the  ancient  Dodonn  with  its  famous 
temple.     Pop.  25.000.  mi>stly  Greeks  and  Jews. 

Jan'izaries  [Turk.,  ''new  troops"],  a  former  corps  of 
Turkish  foot-soldiers,  first  organized  in  1329  by  Orkhan 
from  young  Christian  captives,  wlio  were  compelled  to  em- 
brace Mohammedanism.  For  more  than  three  centuries 
the  corps  was  forcibly  recruited  from  Christian  subjects, 
though  many  Turks  voluntarily  joined  it  on  account  of  the 
privileges  it  enjoyed.  The  Janizaries  at  first  numbered 
1000;  in  1362,  Amurath  I.  increased  them  to  10.000,  and 
in  the  seventeenth  century  there  were  about  100.000  of 
them  serving  in  the  line,  besides  nearly  400.000  Jamaks. 
or  irregular  troops,  attached  to  the  corps.  Tlie  number  of 
regular  Janizaries  was  afterwards  much  reduced.  Endowed 
by  Amurath  I.  with  remarkable  privileges,  they  beeamo  at 
one  timt:  virtual  masters  of  the  empire.  In  1;''12  thfv  de- 
jMised  Bajazet  II.;  thev  procured  the  death  of  Amurath 
III.  in  1595,  of  Osman  II.  in  1022.  of  Mustapha  T.  in  ir.23, 
<«f  Ibrahim  in  1019;  deposed  Mustapha  II.  in  1703,  Ach- 
met  III.  in  1720;  slew  Scllm  III.  in  ISOT;  deposed  Mus- 
tapha  IV.  in  1808.  In  1820,  Mahm-uid  II.,  displaying  the 
banner  of  the  Prophet,  led  the  rest  of  his  army  to  the  attack 


of  the  Janizaries.  The  latter  were  defeated,  8000  of  them 
were  burned  in  their  barracks,  and  some  15,000  were  killed 
in  the  streets.  Their  defence  was  brave,  but  fruitless. 
Over  20.000  were  banished  during  the  next  few  months, 
and  the  force  was  formally  dissolved.  This  force.  long  the 
terror  of  Europe,  and  under  Solynmn  the  i^Iaguifiecnt  the 
best  infantry  in  the  world,  had  so  changci]  as  to  bo  terrible 
only  to  its  own  m.asters  and  to  society  at  home,  and  its  final 
overthrow  was  a  blessing  to  Turkey-. 

Jankovacz',  town  of  Austria,  in  the  Temesvar  banat, 
has  lu,070  inhabitants,  mostly  engaged  in  agriculture. 
Much  wheat,  oats,  and  wine  is  produced. 

Jan  May'en's  Land,  an  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
situated  between  Iceland  and  Spit/.bergen,  in  lat.  70°  29' 
N.  and  Ion.  7°  31'  W.  It  is  voI<;anic.  Both  its  two  high- 
est points,  Bcerenberg,  0040  feet  high,  and  Esk,  1500  feet 
high,  are  occasionally  active.  It  was  discovered  in  1611 
by  a  Dutch  navigator,  after  whom  it  is  named. 

Jan'ney  (Sami'el  M.).  a  philanthropist  nnd  Hicksite 
Friend,  b.  in  Loudon  co..  Va.,  Jan.  1 1, 1801.  He  has  pub- 
lished The  Conntrif  Schoolhnnne  (poem.lS25),  Conrersatioiis 
on  RelitfioHd  Snhjectn  (1835),  fliatoriml  Slcrtch  nf  the  Chria^ 
tian  Churrh  { 1 817).  L ifc  of  Pcnn  ( 1 852),  Lift-  of  Fox  ( 1 855), 
Hiatori/  of  the  Friends  {4  vols.,  ISO"),  and  other  works, 
both  in  prose  and  verse.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  superintendents  of  Indian  affairs  by  Pres.  Grant. 

Jan'sen,  or  Janseniiis  (Corvei.us),  b.  at  Aequoi, 

near  Leerdam,  Holland.  Oct.  28,  1585,  of  liumble  parent- 
age; received  a  classical  education  at  the  University  of 
Utrecht;  studied  Catholic  theology  at  Louvain  in  Flan- 
ders; went  to  Paris  in  1004  or  1005,  where  he  formed  a 
close  intimacy  with  Jean  Duvergier  de  Ilauranne,  after- 
wards abbot  of  St.  Cyran,  whom  ho  accompanied  to  Bay- 
onne,  becoming  the  head  of  a  college  recently  founded 
there.  In  1617,  Jansen  returned  to  Louvain:  was  made 
principal  of  a  college,  and  subsequently,  in  1030.  professor 
of  scriptural  interpretation.  At  Louvain.  Junsen  speedily 
became  (1021)  the  chief  exponent  of  a  system  of  doctrine 
which  after  his  death  received  the  name  of  Jansmnism 
(which  sec),  and  became  famous  in  the  religious  annals  of 
Christendom;  but  during  his  life  he  was  chiefly  remarkable 
for  polemics  and  contests,  not  altogether  devoid  of  worldly 
rivalry,  with  the  Jesuits,  whom  lie  succeeiled  in  expelling 
from  their  position  as  teachers  of  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity. In  connection  with  this  quarrel  Jansen  twice 
went  to  Spain  (in  1024  and  1625),  where  he  obtained  the 
favor  of  the  Spanish  monarch,  then  the  sovereign  of  Flan- 
ders. In  1035  he  published  a  work  entitled  .l/«»«  <!<tlllru», 
in  defence  of  the  rights  of  Spain  against  France  in  the  then 
impeniling  war,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  bishopric  of 
Ypres.  at  which  place  he  d.  of  the  plague.  May  6,  1038. 
The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  to  posterity — 
an  exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  upon  grace, 
free-will,  and  predestination — whieh  was  published  at  Lou- 
vain as  a  posthumous  production  in  1040  under  the  title 
AnquHtinns,  ffu  Doitriita  AuffUNtinl  de  Uiimnnte  Xaturie 
Snnitnfr,  j-EijritndinP  rt  yfrdicinn,  nd versus  Pflnffiniintt  ft 
.\faiifiilir,>Kra,  and  was  reprinted  at  Paris  (10-11)  and  at 
Rouen  (1043).  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Jan'scnisin,  the   name   of  a    school    in    the    French 

Church,  so  called  from  Cornelius  Jansen,  who  flourished  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  represents  a 
cfmtroversy  the  most  important  occurring  in  the  Romish 
Chureh  since  the  Reformation — a  controversy  whit-li  began 
not  with  Jansen.  but  whieh.  existing  in  its  elements  and 
showing  tokens  of  itself  at  intervals  from  the  time  of 
Augustine,  broke  out  more  openly  near  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  centurv,  and  continued  for  a  century  and  a  half 
to  agitate  the  Romish  Church  ;  arraying  the  Augastinians, 
Dominicans,  and  the  liberals  of  the  (lallicaii  Churcli  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  nnd  Ultramontanes 
on  the  other.  It  arose  from  the  diflieulty  of  harmonizing 
Augustine's  doctrine  of  grace  with  Ihc  Romish  and  monkish 
scheme  of  work-righteousness,  and  had  manift-sted  itself 
even  in  the  times  of  the  ancient  Church.  But  in  1507  a 
defence  of  Augustine  by  Micliael  Baius,  professor  at  Lou- 
vain, was  assailed  by  the  Franciscans  and  Jesuits,  and 
through  their  instigation  seventy-six  propositions  gathered 
from  it  were  condemned  by  Pius  V.  as  heretical,  and  Baius 
was  compelle.l  to  abjure.'  In  1583  the  agitation  was  re- 
newed by  Louis  Midiua,  a  Jesuit  in  Portugal,  who  published 
Semi-Pidagian  views  on  the  doctrines  in  controversy,  for 
which  he  was  assailed  by  the  Dominicans,  but  defended  by 
tlje  whole  Jesuit  ordf-r".  In  the  following  century  this 
eontroversy  culniitmted  in  the  school  of  Jansen.  A  lecturer 
on  Seripture.  devout  with  a  tinge  of  mysticism,  addicted 
to  patristic  literature,  and  especially  to  iho  study  of  Au- 
gustine, he  wrote  a  work,  which  was  published  after  his 


JANSSENS— JANVIER. 


i:;(;y 


death,  distinctly  setting  forth  the  doctrines  of  Augus- 
tine nod  Pclagiu.<4  from  their  own  writingiii,  by  which  it  np- 
pearcd  that  certain  honored  scholastic  writersi  and  popes 
approuched  nearer  the  heretic  than  the  saint.  The  Jesuits, 
oiurtneil.  iinineiiiately  a^suik-d  the  work,  and  t^ccured  its 
prohibition  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  (1040)-  It  founti,  how- 
ever, many  deicuders,  amnn<;  whvu,  distinguished  for  learn- 
ing and  piety,  werv  Jean  Duvergicr  Ilauranne,  abbot  of 
the  IJenedietine  monastery  of  .St.  Cyran,  and  Anthony  Ar- 
naiild.an  able  teacher  in  the  Surbonne.  The  bitter  soon  be- 
came involved  in  an  open  controversy  witti  the  Jet-uil.f,  who 
Ecrsuaded  Innocent  X.  to  condemn  five  Jansenisl  theses  as 
eretical  and  dangerous.  The  defenders  of  Jansenism  did 
not  assail  the  pope's  decision,  but  denied  that  the  theses 
condemned  were  found  in  bis  book  in  the  sense  in  which 
they  were  condemned.  Arnauld  was  now  e.vpellud  from  the 
Sorbonne  at  the  in>tigation  of  the  priests,  and  took  refugo 
with  his  sister  Angelica,  abbess  of  the  Cistercian  nunnery 
of  Port  Uoyal,  near  Paris,  a  gifted  and  attractive  woman, 
of  gentle  spirit  antl  earnest  and  spirilnul  piety,  and  do- 
voted  to  the  monastic  life.  Through  her  inllucnce  Port 
Koyal  became  eminently  a  centre  of  religious  life  and 
thouglit  for  France,  and  gathered  at  this  time  around  itself 
a  corps- — living  something  in  the  manner  of  the  old  an- 
chorites— of  talented  and  devout  young  men,  who  admired 
Augustine,  detested  the  lax  morals  of  the  Jesuits,  and  were 
enthusiastically  devoted  to  tho  liberties  of  the  Gallican 
Church.  Id  sympathy  with  these  men  the  profound,  witty, 
and  brilliant  Blaise  Pascal  published  in  106(>  his  celebrated 
Pioihirial  Lettern,  In  ivhich,  with  authentic  proofs  and  with 
equal  earnestness,  logic,  and  wit,  he  exposed  the  pernicious 
moral  casuistries  and  thcologic  sophisms  and  infamous  con- 
fessional of  the  Jesuits,  to  tho  derision  and  abhorrence  of 
the  French  public,  Thry  avenged  themselves  by  procuring 
a  papal  bull  declaring  that  the  propositions  condemned  were 
found  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  condemned  in  the 
book  of  Janscnius.  The  Jansenists  contended  in  reply  that 
the  pope,  hotvever  rightly  authoritative  in  matters  of  doc- 
trine, was  not  infallible  in  decisions  of  questions  of  fact. 
But  Louis  XJV.  an4l  ihc  pope  insisted  that  all  ecclesiastics, 
monks,  and  nuns  should  take  the  oalh  of  acknowledgment 
of  tho  bull  and  of  condemnation  of  the  Janscnist  heresy 
(IGCJ).  Those  refusing  were  banished,  and  though  sub- 
sequently n  milder  subscription  was  allowed,  the  vengeance 
of  I  ho  Jesuits  pursued  Port  Royal  till  in  1701)  the  institu- 
tion was  abolishoil,  its  edifices  demolished,  and  its  very 
graves  rifled.  Meantime,  tho  Jansenisls.  though  in  the 
Augii::tinian  doctrines  of  grace  in  Calvinistic  theology 
ami  in  earnest  spiritual  piety,  manifesting  an  afhnity  with 
the  Protestant  reform,  were  ever  the  more  strenuous  in  re- 
pelling all  suspicion  of  union  with  Protestants,  denouncing 
them  for  persecution,  and  asserting  their  own  loyalty  to 
the  Catholic  Church. 

A  new  measuro  of  violence  proceeding  from  tho  papal 
court,  hut  instigated  by  French  influence  and  the;  Jesu- 
its, renewed  the  Jansenist  controversy  in  l/I^i.  This  meas- 
ure was  iliretrtcd  against  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
publishvd  by  Paschasius  t^uesnel,  a  man  of  learning  and 
piety,  and  accompanying  it  with  evangelical  comment — a 
work  much  beloved  by  the  people  and  approved  by  many 
bishops;  among  them  commended  by  Cardinal  Noailles, 
archbishop  of  Paris,  v%ith  the  approbation  of  Hossuct.  The 
Jesuits,  haling  alike  the  Jansenisl  book  and  its  commender, 
contriveil  to  obtain,  through  the  Jesuit  confetisor  of  the 
king,  P(>re  la  Chaise,  a  bull  from  Clement  XI. — the  so- 
calh'd  constitution  "  L'nigenitus" — condemning  as  heretical 
101  propositions  from  Quesuf-l's  brtok.  The  issuing  of  this 
bull,  by  which  Augustine  was  virtually  made  a  heretic, 
divided  the  French  Church  into  two  parts — tho*'Accept- 
anta."  or  receivers  of  this  "constitution,"  and  tho  "  Appel- 
lan's."  who  appealed  from  it  to  a  general  council.  Louis 
an'i  tin-  pope  deleriniued  on  its  enforcement  and  the  4rxter- 
niination  of  the  Janscnists  ;  but  Louis  died  in  the  midst  of 
the  attempt.  Tho  <h'ath  of  Loni?  and  the  inililTereuee  of 
the  regi'Ut.  the  prolligatc  and  brilliantly  gifted  duke  of 
Orleans,  gave  the  Appellants  free  scope  for  tho  time,  and 
the  bull  of  cxcouiUKinication  issued  against  thrm  in  1718 
was  without  effect.  Subsequently,  however,  tho  duke, 
under  the  influence  of  tho  infamous  I>n>iois,  who  sought  a 
cardinarn  lint,  and  afterwards  Louis  XV.,  under  tho  insti- 
gattou  of  his  teacher.  Cardinal  Fleury,  were  led  to  perse- 
cute the  Appellants  and  in  every  way  to  oppress  thorn. 
Noaittis  w.u*  compelled  to  submit,  and  in  17.10  the  "consti- 
tution "  was  registered  by  Parliament  as  a  law  of  the  nation. 
Under  these  persistent  perseculionM  a  fanatical  tendency 
manifested  ifself  among  Iho  Jansenisls.  A  young  Jansenist 
clergyman,  Francis,  an  abli^-  of  Paris,  died  in  17-7,  a  vic- 
tim of  volunlnry  penance,  hoMing  "  appellation  "  doou- 
ments  in  bin  bund.  He  was  boni»retl  by  his  I'ojlowers  as  a 
saint,  and  numer(»ns  miracles  were  reported  lo  be  effected 
at  his  tomb  in  tho  graveyard  of  Medardus  near  Paris,  which 


became  in  consequence  the  resort  of  a  multitudo  of  pil- 
grims. These  were  wrought  to  a  wild  fanaticism,  mani- 
festing itself  in  convulsions  and  contortions  of  the  body 
and  in  raving  prophecies  against  the  Church  and  State. 
The  contagion  seized  on  even  the  frivolous  and  unbeliev- 
ing. In  vain  the  govcrnn»ent  in  17;>2  walled  up  the  church- 
yard; the  earth  stolen  from  (he  grave  of  the  saint  still 
wrought  miracles  and  convulsions.  Thousands  of  coinul- 
aioiinatrcs  were  then  thrown  into  prison,  and  the  sacra- 
ments were  refused  to  the  dying  who  were  not  *•  accept  ants" 
of  the  constitution.  Vnder  these  severities  Jansenism, 
which  had  passed  from  a  thcologic  system  to  a  popular 
fanaticism,  gradually  declined.  The  controversy  meantime 
broke  out  atVesh  when  the  archbishop  of  Paris  refused  the 
sacrament  to  the  dying  regent  as  a  non-acceptant ;  but 
peace  was  finally  mediated  by  a  mild  letter  of  Benedict 
XIV.  (17o6). 

Since  then  Jansenism  has  disappeared  as  a  distinct 
school  or  sect  in  France,  though  it  ha<l  many  adherents 
down  to  the  Revolution,  and  has  left  jicrmanent  results  in 
the  French  mind,  which  it  has  largely  imbued.  It  has 
propagated  itself  in  a  peculiar  ecclesiastic  organization  in 
tho  Netherlands  in  tho  archbishopric  of  Utreclit,  which 
embraces  some  Iweti(y-five  congregations,  and  has  lately 
coalesced  with  the  "Old  Catholic"  movement  in  Kurope. 
The  element  of  earnest  spirituality  in  Jansenism  has  ex- 
tended widely  through  various  mystical  writers  and  schools, 
and  its  freer  ecclesiastic  ami  thcologic  spirit  has  diffused 
ftself  as  a  liberalizing  influence  through  the  clergy  of 
Italy,  Germany,  and  the  (lallican  Church.     T.  M.  Post. 

Jans'sens  fABR\nAM).  b.  at  Antwerp  in  1567  or  15^9; 
was  a  pupil  of  the  painter  Jan  Snellinck;  studied  in  Italy, 
anil  enjoyed  eonsideralile  reputation  at  Antwerp  for  his 
skill  as  a  eolorist,  in  which  he  rivalled  Rubens.  Many  of 
Jansscns*  works  arc  to  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  Flanders 
and  the  galleries  of  Antwcr|)  and  Vienna.  The  torchlight 
scenes  arc  especially  famous.     D.  about  1631. 

Janun'rius,  Saint,  b.  at  Naples  or  Bcncvento  Apr.  21^ 
272  ;  was  made  bishop  of  Bcncvento  about  .103,  and  during 
the  jierscciition  by  Diocletian  was  beheaded  as  a  martyr  at 
Pozzuoli  Sept.  I'J,  ,305.  Two  phials  filled  with  his  blood 
were  preserved,  and  tho  body  was  ultimately  brought  to 
Naples,  whore  these  relics  arc  stiU  shown  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Cbiara.  St.  Januarius  is  the  patron  saint  of  Naples. 
On  his  anniversary  (Sept.  19J  tho  relics  are  brought  out, 
when  the  blood  in  the  phials  suddenly  becomes  litjuid  and 
bubbles  up.  This  is  of  course  esteemed  a  miracle  by  the 
populace,  and  cUiimcd  as  such  by  tho  clergy,  though  it  has 
never  been  formally  sanctioned  by  tho  Church.  I^Iuch 
speculation  has  been  exorcised  in  devising  scientific  hy- 
potheses to  account  for  the  phenomena  in  question. 

Jan'uary  [Lat.  Januayius,  from  Jaum,  tho  god  who 
presided  over  the  origin  of  things],  tho  firsi  month  of  tho 
year  in  the  tircgorian  calendar;  according  to  lir)man  tra- 
dition, first  added  to  the  calendar  by  Numa,  along  with 
February.  It  had  originally  21)  days,  to  which  two  more 
were  added  by  Julius  Ciesar  when  he  refornicil  tho  conipu- 
tation  of  time.  It  corresponded  in  the  (IrceU  calendar  to 
the  latter  half  of  Poscideon  and  the  first  half  of  (lamelion  ; 
was  known  by  the  Scandinavians  as  the  month  of  Thor, 
and  in  tho  French  Revolutionary  calendar  it  formed  part 
of  A7ro«c  and  Plun'osc.  In  England.  January  was  mado 
the  first  month  of  tho  year  by  act  of  Parlianitnt  of  1751. 

Ja'nus  [for  Ditinun,  from  '/iV".  "day  '*].  and  Ja'na  [for 
/)iVrji«*].  two  gods  of  ancient  Rome,  were  originally  per- 
sonifications of  Iho  sun  ami  moon.  The  nnnie./ntMr  is  sel- 
dom seen,  tho  form  J)inun  being  much  more  common. 
Janus  was  early  identified  with  tho  Ktrusean  two-faced 
god.  Hence  Jtiints  ffi/roii»,  "  the  two-faced  Janus,"  which 
Nicbuhr  thinks  at  first  symbolized  the  union  of  the  Ro- 
mans and  Sabines.  Janus  presided  over  the  beginninir  of 
all  things,  and  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Ro- 
man divinities.  There  was  a  famous  gateway  containing 
a  statue  of  Janus  Rifrons,  and  leading  from  the  Palatine 
to  iho  Quirinal  Hill.  This  passage  was  closed  only  in 
limes  when  Rome  was  at  peace  with  all  nations.  This 
closure  occurred,  wo  arc  tohl,  but  four  times  in  all  the  Ro- 
man history.  First  it  was  closed  in  Numa's  titne;  next, 
at  the  end  of  the  First  Punic  war:  again  in  the  days  of 
Augustus  C«?snr;  and  lastly  under  Vespasian. 

Janvier'  (Lkvi),  I>.  D..  b.  at  Pillsgrove.  N.  J..  Apr.  25, 
Islii;  was  educated  at  Laliiyetlennd  Princeton  colleges  and 
Princeton  The<ilogieal  Seminary;  went  to  India  as  a  mis- 
sionary <»f  the  Presbyterian  Hoanl  in  l^^ll  :  sellled  in  Lo- 
<liana  in  Northern  India  :  soon  acquired  tho  Trdu  language, 
ami  translated  books  and  (racis  into  it.  With  I'r.  Newton 
he  eoinpilo<l   a  Panjauhi   dictionary,  printed   in    ISJI.and 

Imrsueil  a  career  of  eminent  activity  and  usefulness  until 
10  was  assassiuatod,  Mar.  25,  18G4,  by  a  fanatic  Sikh. 


1370 


JAPAN. 


Japan.  As  the  marvellous  story  of  the  empire  of 
Japan  mav  be  traceJ  thioHgh  more  than  twenty-five  cen- 
turies, all  that  can  be  done  in  a  single  article  is  to  toneh 
upon  the  more  iniporlant  points  of  its  geography  and  his- 
tory WhiHt  »e  look  with  amazement  upon  tiio  recent 
developm.'nts  in  thai  highly  favored  land  of  the  Orient,  wc 
shall  ilso  find  that  there  has  always  been  something  allied 
to"  the  wonderful  in  its  career,  whether  we  consider  its 
physical  characteristics,  its  people,  or  its  government. 

This  empire  lies  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  1  aciho 
Ocean,  and  consists  of  four  large  i.slands  ami  a  gnat  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones.  It  is  separated  on  the  \\  .  from  f  orea 
by  a  strait  which  is  about  100  miles  wide:  at  its  iiorth- 
wV^tern  e.Nlremitv  is  the  island  of  Tisima.  or  "the  Thou- 
sand Mauds:"  ind  at  the  N.  is  the  island  of  krafto  or 
Si^halien,  which  has  long  been  held  jointly  by  the  Japan- 
e^e^and  Russian  governments,  but  now.  according  to  a  re- 
cent agreement,  is  held  by  Russia  alone.  The  UrtfQSt  o{ 
the  islands  which  compose  the  empire  is  commonly  called 
A'/«m.  or  X/)/-.-.!— which  name  in  reality  belongs  to  the 
whole  country— and  contains  about  ;).'..nOO  square  miles. 
The  second  is  rc«..o.  with  about  SO.OOO  square  miles;  the 
third  K!ii«hi,  with  16,000  square  miles;  and  the  fourth  is 
S:/.-',!.:  with  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles.  The  total 
length  of  the  empire  is  1000  English  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  a  little  more  than  L'OO.  the  number  of  islands  .38.)0, 
and  the  entire  area  is  estimated  at  about  130.000  square 
miles— all  these  figures  being  gathered  from  the  latest  of- 
ficial statistics.  The  sea-coasts  are  generally  bold  and 
rocky,  and  indented  with  very  numerous  bays  forming  spa- 
cious and  secure  harbors.  The  poetical  title  by  which  the 
.Tapan^se  designate  their  country  is  "The  Land  of  the 
Risin"  Sun."  which  well  describes  its  location  as  the  most 
eastern  of  all  the  Asiatic  empires,  and  their  national  cm- 

Tho  theory 


blem 
th 


em  represents  the  sun  rising  out  of  the  sea.  The  theory 
at  .America  was  originally  peopled  by  .J.apanesc.  who 
were  driven  by  stress  of  weather  across  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
is  not  only  interesting,  but  ehiimed  by  many  to  bo  sus- 
tained by  historical  facts  and  traditions.  That  much  of 
what  parses  as  authentic  history  among  the  Japanese  is 
mythical  cannot  be  questioned,  but  there  seems  to  be  no 
reason  to  question  the  truthfulness  of  the  statements  which, 
with  the  help  of  Japanese  scholars,  the  present  writer  has 
been  able  to  cull  from  their  history. 

The  empire  is  partitioned  into  five  ki'cs,  or  departments, 
which  surround  the  imperial  capital,  and  eight *;»  orlarge 
divisions.  The  names  of  the  former  are  Vtimnmo,  )  ninn- 
to,  KawK-h!.  Miiiiir.  and  Scll«i,  :  while  the  latter,  with  the 
five  kies,  comprise  i*l  provinces,  and  the  names  of  the  dos 
are  Tohuiln.  w\lh  15  provinces:  ro.niir/o,  with  13;  Ho- 
hnnrnl-iU,.  with  7;  Siuiiixln,  with  S:  SiuiifofU.  with  8; 
jV,iii/,n/./o,  with  fi;  S,i:i:„:dn.  v\t\\  9;  and  //.,/.-., Wo.  with 
11  provinces.  In  the  vicinity  of  Saikaido  are  also  two 
islands,  each  of  which  constitutes  a  province.  The  divis- 
ions which  in  this  country  are  called  counties  number  Kilo. 
In  ISrtS  the  empire  was  divided  into  3  political  departments, 
the  first  of  which  enibraccd  three /"os— viz.  Saikeo,  or  the 
wes'ern  capital :  Tokci  or  Yedo,  the  eastern  capital,  and 
Oi-xVa.:  the  second  consisted  of  38  kem  ;  and  the  third  of 
350  hiiiif. 

Extending  from  one  extremity  of  Japan  to  the  other, 
across  all  its  prominent  islands,  are  mountains,  many  of 
them  of  volcanic  origin  and  of  great  elevation.  The  highest 
of  these,  called  Fusiyama,  is  about  SO  miles  from  >edo, 
is  1 1,170  feet  high,  and  has  a  summit  covered  with  perpet- 
ual snow.     It  is  an  extinct  volcano,  the  last  eruption  hav- 
in"  taken   place  in  1707.     There  are  also  thirteen    other 
lofiy  peaks,  bearing  the  n.ames  of  Tookiyama.  or  "  Moon 
Mountains;"  O.laki :  Xicquozan.  or"  .Sunbeam  Mountain  ;" 
Online,  or  "  Crcat  Peak;"  Sirayama.  or  "White   .Moun- 
tain;" Totevaina,  or  "Standing  Mountain;"  Kirisima,  or 
"Fog  Island;"  .\so7.an ;    Taukooh.ayama;    Onsendaki,  or 
"Hoi  Spring:"  Asaw.ayama  :  Tourimiyamn:  and  Iwakc- 
yama.     The  most  extensive  range,  known  as  the  Ilaknni, 
attains  an  elcva'.ion  of  OOOO  feet,  and  traverses  the  island 
of    Nipon   from    E.    to  W.     There    are    many    volcanoes, 
and  earthquakes  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  but  chielly  in 
the  uorlh-easfcrn  parts.     The  mountains  of  Ycsso  rise  to  a 
height  of  SOOO  feet,  and  a  large  part  of  the  country  is  un- 
explored and  covered  with  forests.     The  rivers  of  Japan 
arc    numerous,  but    short,  on    account   of  the   mountains 
which  send  the  waters  in  different  directions.     They  arc 
generally  shallow,  subject  to  great  freshets  during  the  rainy 
season,  and  their  mouths  are  frequently  obstructed  by  sand- 
bars.    The  three  largest  are  Torregawa,  Sinanogawa,  and 
Kisogawn;  and  next  to  these  come  Oypegawa,  Fouzigawa, 
.-^akagawa,  and  Okumagawa.     The  only  fresh-water  lake  in 
the  empire  of  any  size  or  importance  is  near  the  city  of 
Miako.   It  is  10  geographical  miles  wide  and  ^5  miles  long, 
and  is  called  liiwako  or  Lake  Omi.     Small  lakes  or  ponds 
abound,  and  hot  springs  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of 


the  island  of  Nipon.     The  cities  of  Japan  are  numefons 
Two  of  them  have  become  famous  because  selected  as  cap- 
itals— Miako  or  Saikio.  the  western   capital,  and    Tokei, 
commonly  called  Yedo,  the  eastern  capital.  The  first,  which 
has  never  been  open  to  foreigners,  lies  in  lat.  iii"  05'  N. 
and  Ion.  1°  10'  W..  and  was  the  ancient  seat  of  govern- 
ment, dating  its  origin  from  A.  n.  7»4.     It  stands  on  a 
plain,  is  surrounded  with  mountains,  and  directly  through 
the  centre  runs  the  river  Kano,  noted  for  the  purity  of  its 
water.     It  contains  :17J.000  inhabitants,  and.  though  small 
when  compared  with  the  modern  capital,  is  a  place  of  great 
interest.     It  is  entered  by  six  principal  roads.     Its  streets 
are  clean,  its  temples,  which  may  be  counted  by  the  hun- 
dred, arc  beautiful,  and  its  silk-factories  have  a  wide  repu- 
tation.    The  city  of  Tokei  lies  in  lat.  ".5°  36'  N,  and  Ion. 
1.19°  40'  E.,  and  in   nuignitude  ranks  next  to   Pekin  in 
China.     In  ISOl  it  claimed  to  have  about  1.500,000  inhab- 
itants, but  the  population  is  now  considerably  less.    While 
it  has  decreased  in  numbers,  it  has  increased  in  commerce. 
Its  "ardens  and  open  spaces  are  numerous,  and  give  it  an 
air  of  comfort  and  freedom  which  is  unusual.     It  is  inter- 
sected   by    many  canals,   and  its    bridges   are   nnmerous. 
.•\s  the  present  capital  and  residence  of  the  imperial  court, 
it  is  the  meeting-place  of  the  national  legislature,  called  a 
Parliament :  it  also  has  a  well-endowed  college,  a  governor 
and  police  force  of  3000,  is  supplied  with  hospitals  and 
asylums  for  infants  and  paupers,  and  by  means  of  railroads 
and  telegraph-lines  is  daily  facilitating  its  communication 
with  the'cnlire  country.     It  became  an  open  port  in  1SB9. 
The  second  largest  city  in  Japan  is  Osaca,  on  the  island  of 
Nipon.   It  is  both  an  open  port  and  the  one  through  which 
Miako  communicates  with  the  ocean,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
tant "3  miles.     Its  canals  and  bridges  arc  very  nnmerous, 
the  latter  often  very  handsome.     It  has  an  extensive  trade 
and  is  well  fortified.     The  next  city  in  size  is  Yokohama, 
and  is  the  successful  rival  of  an  older  place  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  known  as  Kanagawa.     It  is  on  the  Ray  of 
Y'edo.  20  miics  from  the  capital,  and  within  the  last  few 
years'  has  become  the  most  important  seaport  in  the  em- 
pire.    The  harbor  is  spacious  and  secure.  an4  is  supplied 
with  commodious  piers,  the  accommodations  being  exten- 
sive, and  the  prevailing  modes  of  living  and  of  business 
giving  to  it  the  aspect  of  a  port  of  the  Western  World.   The 
next  city  of  importance  is  Nagasaki,  located  on  the  island 
of  Kiusiu.      Its  harbor  is  very  large  and  perfectly  secure. 
This  was  the  first  port  ever  opened  to  foreigners  in  Japan, 
and  a  large  trade  has  been  carried  on  there  by  the  mer- 
chants of  China  and  of  Holland,  where  they  have  for  a 
long  time  been  permitted  to  locate  factories.     The  other 
principal  cities  of  Japan  are  Ncigata.  nn  open  port,  on  the 
N.  E.  coast  of  Nipon  ;  Kobe,  also  an  open  port,  near  Osnca  ; 
HokodaiC'.  the  open  port  of  the  island  of  Yesso :  and  .^taki, 
formerly  a  pl.acc  of  importance  and  open  to  foreigners,  hut 
now  holding  no  commercial  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world. 

The  climate  of  Jap.an  is  unequal,  but  as  a  general  rule 
the  central  and  most  densely  populated  portion  is  mild  and 
agreeable.  In  the  extreme  S..  however,  the  heat  is  often  op- 
pressive, while  in  the  island  of  Ycsso  the  mercury  occasion- 
ally sinks  far  below  zero,  and  snow  falls  to  a  great  depth 
on'the  mountains  and  in  the  valleys.  The  sun  during  the 
hottest  days  is  much  less  debilitating  than  on  the  coast  of 
China  or  in  India,  and  as  to  the  general  conditions  of  salu- 
brity, the  empire  is  highly  favored.  The  autumn  is  a  kind 
of  second  summer,  the  months  of  October  and  November 
bein"  the  most  pleasant  and  genial  of  the  entire  year,  and 
ampfy  compensating  for  the  heat  and  frequent  rains  of 
May  and  June.  A  marked  difTercnee  is  said  to  exist  be- 
tween the  climates  of  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of 
Nipon.  the  latter  being  much  colder,  and  receiving  a  greater 
fall  of  snow,  than  the  former;  and  this  is  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  on  the  E.  there  is  a  broad  belt  of  warm  water  flowing 
constantly  to  the  N.  E.,  while  the  Japan  Sea  has  a  cold 
current  constantly  setting  towards  the  S.  W.  from  the  Sea 
of  Okhotsk.  The  month  of  September  usually  brings  with 
it  rouHi  weather  and  those  fearful  hurricanes,  called  ty- 
phoons, which  do  the  greatest  damage  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  empire;  and.  as  Japan  is  a  land  of  earth- 
quakes,  it  is  said  that  they  have  had  a  palpable  influence 
on  the  climate  of  the  empire. 

The  most  ancient  name  by  which  the  empire  was  known 
was  Y„m,ti't7Amn.  meaning  "east  of  the  mountains."  Its 
present  name  is  a  corruption  of  Jipunquo.  which  is  of 
Chinese  origin,  an.l  means,  as  we  have  already  stated  the 
"  Country  at  the  Root  of  the  Sun."  or  the  "  Land  of  the 
because,  when   so  named,  it   was  the   most 

used   in 


Sun,' 


Rising  ,    ^^. 

eastern  in  the  known  world;  and  Nipon.  now 
Oriental  countries,  is  the  Chinese  pronunciation  ol  the 
samo  name.  The  true  origin  of  its  people  i«  h.sl  in  tradi- 
tion or  fable— it  is  claimed  that  prior  to  the  first  emperor 
it  had  existed  2479  years— but  it  dates  its  chronological 


JAPAN. 


i:J71 


history  back  to  (ho  year  667  before  tho  Christian  era.  The 
first  man  of  note  connected  with  the  empire  of  whom  any- 
thing; is  actually  known  was  Zinmii,  who^  after  a  career  of 
conquest,  estuUlislRnl  himself  at  the  foot  of  the  vulcanic 
niounLain  called  Kercsomi  in  the  province  of  Fui;a.  From 
that  point  he  extende«l  his  explorations  and  sway  through 
the  entire  lent^th  of  tho  Japanese  territory,  and  is  repre- 
sented as  civilizin';  the  nation  and  reforming  the  existing 
laws  and  povcrnnu-nt.  The  credit  is  also  awarded  to  him 
of  having  divided  time  into  months  and  years,  and  in  his 

SersoD  WHS  vested  the  office  of  high  priest,  representative  of 
[enven.  and  emperor  or  mikado,  lie  established  his  cap- 
ital at  Kasiwabara  in  Yaraato,  but  tho  location  of  the  cap- 
ital was  frequently  changed  by  (he  succeeding  emperors  (o 
the  various  provinces  of  Vamato.  Omi,  Setten,  Nagato.  and 
Kawadi,  and  after  NiU  years  from  the  time  of  Zinmu  it 
was  fixed  at  Saikio,  or  Miako,  in  tho  province  of  Yamaciro; 
but  after  the  revolution  of  1867  it  was  located  at  Tokei  or 
Vcdo.  The  total  numl»cr  of  emperors  who  have  reigned 
over  Japan  in  an  nniiroken  line  is  124.  From  tho  earliest 
times  down  to  the  present  they  were  called  mikados,  al- 
though for  about  600  years  the  men  who  actually  admin- 
istered the  government  were  culled  shiogoons  or  tycoons; 
and  it  was  in  the  year  IS6r  that  tho  mikado  or  tenno  re- 
sumed his  ancient  privileges.  To  give  a  minute  account  of 
all  the  emperors  and  shiogoons  of  Japan,  and  of  tho  deeds 
which  charaeterizcd  their  several  reigns,  is  quite  impossi- 
ble; all  that  can  be  done  in  these  pages  is  to  present  a 
Bumnmry  of  the  most  distinguished  persons  of  tho  empire, 
together  with  a  passing  notice  of  tho  more  important  events 
with  which  their  names  are  associated.  One  fact  which 
the  reader  should  bear  in  mind  is  this — that  tho  position 
of  emperor  of  Japan  has  always  been  hereditary  and  his 
persjQ  venerated,  and  while  many  sovereigns  may  have 
been  comparatively  powerless,  the  lino  of  descent  has  been 
unbroken.  In  tho  person  of  the  mikado  Zinmu,  tho  founder 
of  the  line,  vested  the  oflieo  of  high  priest,  representative 
of  Heaven,  and  ouiperor,  and  hence  (ho  modern  idea  of 
calling  him  the  spiritual  head  of  the  nation.  Another  im- 
portant fact  to  bo  remembered  has  reference  to  the  title  of 
shiogoon  or  tycoon.  The  possessors  of  this  dignity  were 
merely  military  chieftains  who  by  intrigue  or  personal 
prowess  acquired  sway  over  the  people.  Tliey  belonged  to 
various  families,  and  tho  rivalries  which  naturally  existed 
among  them  were  the  cause  of  tho  bitter  wars  which  pre- 
vailed in  Japan  for  Iiundrcds  of  years.  They  never  failed, 
with  the  jteople,  to  respect  the  ofiice  or  position  of  tho 
hcreilitary  monarch,  but  while  they  wielded  power  they  in- 
spired fear  rather  than  veneration.  From  the  earliest 
period  in  the  history  of  tho  empire  mention  is  mado  of 
three  things  which  necessarily  appertained  to  the  person 
who  sat  upon  the  throne — viz.  a  sword,  a  mirror,  and  a 
ball  of  crystal.  These  are  known  by  tho  nauio  of  Saiijioo 
•»"  )'"]'*  "■"*!  considered  as  symbols  of  the  imperial  power. 
Tho  emperor  Su-jin-tenno,  who  lived  in  b.  r.  97,  was  the 
la:*t  ruler  of  Japan  prior  to  the  commencement  of  tho 
Christian  era.  He  built  a  Sinlu  temple  in  Isse,  establicshed 
an  army  over  which  ho  placed  four  generalissimos,  ordered 
tho  first  census  of  Nipon  and  Kiusiu.  levied  taxes  for  the 

fmrposo  nf  building  hirge  ships,  ordered  tho  draining  of 
ftkcs  for  irrigation,  and  was  tho  first  ruler  to  open  iuter- 
courso  with  Corca.  His  successor  was  Sui-nin-tenno.  who 
aacended  tho  throne  in  A.  n.  6.  Hn  acquired  distinction  by 
aboltsliing  tho  barhnntus  custom  wliich  required  that  on  the 
death  of  tho  emperor  the  empress  and  all  her  court  should 
commit  suicide  by  hara-kiri.  Although  tho  empress  of 
Sui-nin  cnme  to  a  natural  death,  the  highest  of  tier  lady 
attendants  killed  Iheuiselvefl  by  cutting  their  throats,  and 
then  tho  emperor  decreed  that  this  cuHfom  should  also  bo 
abolished.  This  ruler  devoted  his  attention  to  agii'mlture, 
and  during  his  reign  SOO  canals  and  ponds  were  built  in 
difTerent  parts  of  Japan  for  irrigation.  Tho  next  nmn  of 
note  was  Keko-tenno,  who  reigned  between  the  years  71 
and  IwO  A.  D.  After  quelling  obstinate  rebellions  in  Kiusiu 
an<l  the  northern  part  nf  N'ipon,  ho  caused  (be  arable  lands 
of  the  empire  to  be  surveyed,  and,  with  a  view  of  guarding 
against  famine,  caused  tho  estublishmcnt  «if  granaries  in 
all  the  larger  towns  of  the  empire.  The  emperor  Senmu- 
tenno  reigned  from  A.  D.  l.'U  to  litO,  creating  the  ofiico  of 
daijin.  the  second  position  of  honor  and  power  in  the 
realm  ;  and  the  first  dignitary  of  that  rank  who  ever  left 
Japan  na  an  ambassador  was  Tomomi  IwaUura.  who  visited 
America  anrl  Europe  in  the  year  IS72.  Among  the  men  who 
distinguished  themselves  during  tlm  reign  of  .Senmu  was 
Yamato  l>aki :  he  held  the  offieeot  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army,  and  wns  called  the"  prince  of  warriors. "  H in  conquests 
extended  as  far  as  tho  island  of  Yesso;  and  beeauBO  his 
wife  Adzuma  threw  hertn-lf  into  tho  sea  to  appease  a  terri- 
ble storm,  her  natiie  wns  given  (o  tho  region  of  country 
which  her  iiusl>nnd  had  subriued.  Chinai-tenno,  who  was 
tho  son  of  Yamato  Daki,  reigned  for  eight  years,  from  A.  d. 


192  to  200,  and  tho  principal  fact  recorded  of  him  was  that 
he  died  from  disappointment  caused  by  being  defeated  in 
an  expedition  conducted  by  himself  in  person  against  the 
rebellion  of  a  tributary  prince  of  i he  empire  named  Kuniaoso 
of  Kiusiu.  The  next  ruler  of  Japan  was  an  empress,  Jingu 
Kogu,  the  wile  of  Chinai-tenno.  She  accompanied  Iier 
husband  in  his  unsuccessful  expedition,  and  after  his  death 
assumed  tho  reins  of  power.  She  distinguished  herself  by 
leading  an  inva<ling  army  against  the  kingdom  of  Corca, 
compelling  the  inhabi(ants  lo  give  up  their  treasures  and 
to  promise  an  annual  tribute  to  Japan.  81ie  had  several 
children,  one  of  whom  became  a  very  distinguished  em- 
peror. Ilcr  various  conquests  gave  her  a  fame  which  sur- 
passed all  her  predecessors,  and  her  life  and  deeds  of 
heroism  are  widely  commemorated  by  the  painters  of  Japan 
and  in  the  jjopular  literature  of  the  country.  Osin-(enno, 
tho  son  of  Jingu  Kogu,  ascended  tho  throne  in  a.  d.  270, 
and  reigned  about  forty-three  years.  Although  not  born 
when  his  mother  conquered  (~'orea,  the  honor  of  that  con- 
quest has  been  given  to  him.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign 
the  islands  of  Y'esso  and  Saghalien  voluntarily  submitted 
to  his  rule,  and  tiiree  of  the  kingdoms  of  Corca  continued 
to  pay  him  an  annual  tribute.  In  2$'^  he  brought  a  woman 
from  Corca  to  teach  his  jicople  the  art  of  working  in  silk  ; 
in  284  an  improved  breed  of  Itorses  was  also  introduced 
from  the  same  country;  in  2S;j  a  philosopher  from  Cliina, 
named  Wonin,  introduced  Chinese  letters  info  Japan,  from 
which  time  (he  works  of  Confucius  became  generally  known  ; 
and  in  300  from  (he  wood  of  an  old  war-vessel  a  musical 
ins(rument  called  the  koto  was  made,  and  has  been  in  use 
down  to  tlie  present  time.  In  .*i06.  Osin  sent  an  embassy 
to  China  for  (he  purpose  of  obtaining  further  information 
in  regard  (o  the  pioduction  and  the  manufacture  of  silk. 
It  is  related  of  this  emperor  (hat,  having  been  advised  by 
tho  brother  of  his  prime  minister  (ha(  (he  latter  was  con- 
spiring against  tho  (brone^  he  caused  them  both  (o  plunge 
their  arms  into  boiling  water,  when,  tho  ordeal  proving 
favorable  to  (ho  minister,  (he  informer  was  executed.  After 
his  death  tho  largest  temples  were  erected  lo  his  memory, 
and  he  received  the  title  of  Iiatchiviavf/,  or  tho  **  god  of 
war."  and  his  reign  has  always  been  looked  upon  with  na- 
tional ]>rido  by  tlie  Japanese.  Tho  next  man  of  nitte  was 
Jin(oku-(enno.  During  his  reign  (.11  H-^VjO)  extensive  in- 
Tindations  led  (o  tho  construetion  of  dikes  along  the  river?, 
and  rice-houses  and  mills  for  cleaning  rice  were  for  the  first 
tim*'  built.  lie  also  sent  iin  expedition  to  put  down  a  re- 
bellion in  tho  island  of  Yesso.  Liehu-tenno  came  to  tho 
throne  in  4110,  and  was  the  first  lo  provide  for  (he  writing 
of  a  history  of  the  empire,  for  which  duty  ho  appointed  two 
scholars  ;  and  under  the  jtatronage  of  Yuriyaku-tenno  (471)) 
mulberry  trees  were  planted  throughout  the  empire,  and 
special  attention  was  first  given  to  (he  manufacture  of  silk. 
Altoutthis  time  also  skilful  carpenters  were  induced  to  im- 
migrate from  Corea,  and  an  embassy  was  sent  to  that  coun- 
try lo  make  certain  collections  of  Chinese  literature.  Tho 
first  event  of  importance  connected  with  (be  era  beginning 
with  (he  year  .'iOll  was  (he  iritrodue(ion  of  (he  Eooddhis(  re- 
ligion in(o  Japan,  which  wns  des(ined  (o  fake  (he  place,  to 
a  grea(  extent,  of  the  Sintu  religion  and  the  moral  instruc- 
tions of  Confucius.  This  occurred  in  552,  whvu  an  embassy 
wns  sent  over  from  Corea,  and  presented  (o  the  Japanese 
emperor  a  collection  of  books  accompanied  by  an  image  of 
Booddha  Sakya,  tho  leading  idea  of  tiie  boolts  being  that 
a  pure  life  was  desirable,  and  that  it  could  only  be  secured 
through  self-denial.  One  of  the  most  active  converts  to  the 
new  religion  was  Mouniaya-do-no-wosi,  s<in  of  the  emperor 
Kakatomi :  he  was  a  gentle  character  and  devoted  to  the  new 
faith,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  there  were  46  Hooddh- 
isl  temples,  HI6  priests,  and  ;'>69  rrliijii-usrH  in  the  empire. 
The  introduction  of  Booddhism  through  China  and  Cnrea 
brought  with  it  some  of  the  customs  of  tluise  countries — the 
use  of  tho  iirufjn,  or  year-name,  for  marking  events  and 
dates,  and  also  abdication  by  (lie  eujperors  af(er  very  short 
reigns,  which  was  followed  by  the  elevation  of  mere  chil- 
dren, when-by  the  sovereignty  was  U>r  a  time  reduced  to  a 
name  and  (bo  power  of  tho  nation  given  into  the  hands  of 
the  ministers.  Among  these  child-rulers  wore  the  empros 
Seiwa,  wlio  began  her  reign  a(  the  age  nf  nine;  the  i  nipe- 
rors  Ynrei.  at  eight ;  Oaigo.  at  thir(een  :  Hci/an.  a(  eighteen  ; 
Yenwoii,  at  eleven;  tloitsi,  at  nine:  Konve,  at  three:  and 
Uokusio,  at  two  years  of  age.  About  tins  time  a  man  named 
Nakat omi- Kama tnri-ko  obtaineil  great  influence,  and  is  still 
remembered  as  tho  founder  nf  the  laws  of  Japan.  In  the 
miiMIe  of  the  seventh  century  Ten-si.  a  re;il  emperor,  as- 
cended the  throne,  an<l  dtstinguisheil  himself  in  warlike 
exploits  against  Corea  and  Tartary.  and  then  it  was  (hat 
Yesso  was  cubingoted.  Tn  70  t,  the  general  government  hav- 
ing been  divided  into  eight  boards  after  tho  manner  of  tho 
(Miinese.  the  central  power  nf  the  ernpirr  was  lixed  at  Mia- 
ko; and  about  this  time  was  published  the  fiitn  ftf'ti,  a  codo 
of  laws  which  are  partly  in  force  at  tho  present  time.     An- 


1:^72 


JAPAN. 


other  notable  event  of  this  period  was  the  introduction  of 
an  alphiibct.  called  the  Ilirii  Kana.  to  facilitate  the  reading 
of  Chinese,  the  naineof  the  scholar  and  venerated  man  who 
'orought  about  this  change  being  Kobo-dai-si.  IL  now  be- 
came a  custom  with  the  emperors,  on  abdicating  the  throne, 
to  adopt  the  garb  and  religious  life  of  the  Booddhist  priests. 
wl»i;-h  did  much  to  perpetuate  the  prevailing  religion.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  the  emperor  Itsisio  {0S7-1U12)  two  terrible 
plagues  visited  the  empire.  His  successor,  Oo-ri-sen,  be- 
came famous  for  his  heroism  in  putting  down  a  rebellion 
in  the  northern  part  of  Nipon. 

The  500  years  which  follow  a.  d.  1000.  and  now  come 
under  consideration,  are  of  greater  importance  than  the 
preceding  era,  and  may  bo  written  in  the  eueeessivo  riso 
to  power  of  individuals  connected  with  the  peerage  of  the 
re:iim,  and  c'.<pcei.ally  the  families  of  Fusiwara,  Sungawara, 
Minnamoto.  Tatchibanna,  and  other  names  regarded  as  il- 
lustrious and  held  in  veneration  to  the  present  day.  Among 
tlicse  may  ho  mentioned  Ten-mang,  the  greatest  literary 
cliaracter  of  his  country  and  an  ablo  man,  who  through  a 
rival  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Kiusiu,  where  he  was 
starved  to  death,  and  to  whose  memory  many  splendid 
temples  were  subsequently  erected  in  Miako  and  Ycdo. 
Another  f.imoiis  personage  was  Yoshi-iyc-,  who,  as  com- 
manilcr-in-ehief.  subdued  thn  rebellious  provinces  of  Mootz 
and  Kwauto,  and  because  of  his  bravery  and  other  qualifi- 
cations was  called  ''the  cldcrt  son  of  the  god  of  war,*'*  and 
still  another  celebrity  was  Kio  Mori,  descended  from  the 
emperor  Kwan-mu,  who  was  a  prominent  actor  in  the  af- 
fairs of  the  nation,  and  is  remembered  as  the  ablest  and 
mo^t  unscrupulous  minister  of  his  time,  when  tho  whole 
empire  was  devastated  by  war,  but  who  at  tho  age  of  fifty- 
one  shaved  iiis  head  and  nominally  became  a  priest.  One 
of  his  daughters  became  an  empress,  and  a  grandson  an 
emperor.  The  opening  of  tlic  twelfth  century  was  marhcd 
by  many  deeds  of  rare  valor  atid  of  cruelty,  and  tho  conflicts 
between  rival  families  were  contiuuous  and  desperate.  In 
1 1 IH  the  cx-emperor  Sho-toku  was  banished  to  the  province 
of  Sanuki,  where  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  rcigniug  emperor 
on  a  piece  of  his  shirt  with  his  blood,  and  thou  died  of 
starvation.  In  1170,  Tame-tomo  bc:;amo  famous  for  bis 
power  in  drawing  the  bow  and  as  a  rover  on  tho  South  seas, 
ami,  because  ho  was  tho  ori  rinal  occupier  of  the  Liookioo 
Inlands,  came  to  be  considered  as  a  sacred  personage.  The 
m!ist  famous  emperor  who  rei^-ned  during  this  e.\ciling  pe- 
riml  was  Uozira-kawa,  who  died  in  1102  at  the  agoof  sixty- 
scvcn.  lie  had  taken  an  active  part  in  tho  working  of  tho 
government  for  forty  years,  and  after  abdicating  the  throno 
witnessed  a  part  of  tho  reigns  of  five  emperors,  his  eons  and 
grandsons,  and  finally  died  in  tranquillity.  Two  men  who 
are  generally  regarded  as  among  the  greatest  of  their  era 
were  Yoritomo  and  Yoshitzun^.  They  were  brothers,  both 
attained  the  position  of  shiogoon,  and  were  desperate  jn 
their  rivalry  of  each  other.  The  first  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  greatest  hero  in  Japanese  history,  and  the  first  shio- 
goon of  the  dynasty  which  ended  in  ICG?.  Ho  died  in  1109, 
at  the  age  of  fifty-three,  from  tho  eficcts  of  a  fall  from  his 
horse.  The  second  man  just  named  is  looked  upon  as  tho 
mirror  of  chivalry,  and  his  conduct  is  held  up  for  tho  imi- 
tation of  the  youth  of  his  country.  Tho  former  conspired 
to  take  the  life  of  the  latter,  and  when  reduced  to  an 
extremity  destroyed  himself  after  killing  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren. During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  em- 
pire of  Japan  was  almost  continually  engaged  in  intestine 
wars:  severe  contests  occurred  between  the  shiogoous  of 
the  Xorth  and  South:  and  among  tho  families  which  now 
rose  to  power  were  Hojio,  Ashikanga,  Nitta,  Ilossokawa, 
and  others  who  occupied  prominent  positions,  and  it  was 
during  the  period  in  which  thcv  lived  that  the  following 
events  occurred:  In  1260  tho  Nitsiren  sect  of  Booddliists 
was  introduced,  and  it  was  one  of  the  saints  connected  with 
this  order,  named  Sayslio-gosama,  who  subsequently  be- 
came famous  as  a  persecutor  of  Christians.  In  127fi.  Corea 
became  tributary  to  Japan,  and  an  embassy  was  sent  from 
China  to  obtain  tribute-money  from  the  Chinese.  In  1281 
the  Chinese  despatehed  a  naval  expedition,  with  amhas- 
sailors,  to  Japan,  xvhen  liO.OOO  of  the  invaders  were  taken 
prisoners  and  killed,  and  one  of  the  ambassadors  was  ho- 
hcadeiL  In  l;i21  the  office  known  as  the  h'ind'ush**.  or 
"  recorder  of  facts,"  was  established  at  Miako,  and  twenty 
years  afterwards  an  influential  minister  published  a  work 
ealled  The  lied  Hook  of  the  Court  of  Afiako.  About  the 
year  I3G7  there  was  an  extensive  war  on  the  island  of  Kiu- 
siu, when  the  Satsuma  family  largely  increased  its  power  at 
the  expense  of  Kikootchi.  In  that  year  also  Ashikanga, 
when  ten  years  of  ago,  was  appointed  shiogoon  ;  he  died  in 
1  108.  He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  influence,  was 
styled  by  the  Chinese  Nippon-wo,  or  king  of  Japan,  and 
from  the  reigning  emperor  received  the  title  of  kubnsama. 
having  been  the  first  person  thus  honored.  Tho  ofiiee  of 
shiogoon  became  hereditary  in  bis  family,  and  the  seat  of 


their  power  was  Karaakura.  In  1415  an  arbitrary  law  was 
passed  by  whieh  all  mercantile  engagements  were  at  once 
ended  and  all  debts  cancelled,  which  was  tho  cause  of 
much  trouble  and  anxiety  among  the  people.  In  MHO  com- 
menced the  war  known  in  history  as  the  *'Onin."  which 
lasted  more  than  ten  years,  and  was  followed  by  a  famine 
in  1 172,  and  an  earthquake  in  1476  destroyed  a  large  ])art 
of  the  city  of  Osaka.  A  severe  drought  oceurred  in  l-lPfi, 
which  was  succeeded  by  another  famine  and  a  destructive 
disease  among  the  forest  trees. 

From  this  time  forward  the  leading  events  in  Japanese 
history  multiplied  with  increased  rapidity,  and  hence,  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  wo  shall  divide  the  remainder  of 
our  chronological  record  into  centuries.  The  si.\teenth 
century  brought  no  cessation  from  intestine  war  and  assas- 
sination. The  year  lolO  was  signalized  by  the  fact  that 
Nango,  a  servant  and  relative  of  the  minister  at  Kama- 
kura,  Ooyay  Poongi,  rebelled  against  his  master,  and  took 
possession  of  his  casflo  and  territory  in  the  province  of 
Etsingo,  and  became  a  man  of  great  power.  In  1.^21,  for 
the  first  time  iu  many  years,  tho  emperor  made  his  appear- 
ance in  public,  and  his  court  became  impoverished.  This 
condition  of  affairs  lasted  for  at  least  fifteen  years,  when 
the  emperor  Go  Tsutchi  died  in  such  po\  crty  that  his  body 
lay  unburied  for  several  days  for  want  of  money.  Two 
years  afterwards  an  attempt  was  made  to  trade  with  China, 
but  it  was  unsuccessful,  because  the  Chinese  coasts  were 
infested  with  Japanese  pirates.  In  Nov.,  1533,  there  was 
observed  an  extraordinary  number  of  falling  stars,  and  in 
the  following  year  tho  country  was  visited  by  a  fatal  epi- 
demic. Three  years  afterwards  there  was  a  bitter  quarrel 
between  difTcrcnt  sects  of  the  Booddhist  priests,  one  of  tho 
results  of  which  was  the  burning  of  one-half  of  the  city 
of  Miako.  In  1541,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  An- 
tony Mora,  Francis  Zaimor,  and  Anthony  Pexot,  three  Por- 
tuguese merchants,  in  their  voyage  from  Siam  to  China,  were 
wrecked  upon  the  coast  of  Kiusiu,  and  the  firearms  which 
they  had  with  them  caused  a  profound  sensation  through- 
out the  empire,  and  the  fact  was  noted  In  the  national  cal- 
endars. In  1j  13  the  Portuguese  merchants  came  baek  again, 
briniing  with  them  Jesuit  missionaries,  and  from  that  time 
the  history  of  the  empire  was  chronicled  in  the  literature 
of  Europe.  Francis  Xavicr  visited  the  country  in  1540, 
and  after  remaining  there  two  years  left  it.  disheartened 
with  tho  realities  of  missiona^y-^vork.  About  1557  tho 
military  chieftain  named  Nobu  Nauga  made  his  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  of  public  afiairs.  and  for  more  than 
twenty  years  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  empire,  wielding 
the  power  of  a  shiogoon.  He  was  descended  from  Kio- 
Mori,  andbis  rule  was  quite  as  grasping  and  severe  as  that 
of  any  of  his  predecessors.  In  1557  he  put  to  death,  for 
private  reasons,  his  youngest  brother,  and  .^even  years  af- 
terwards he  killed  his  father-in-law.  the  lord  «f  Mino,  nnd 
took  all  his  possessions.  He  began  in  1569  a  crusade 
against  the  Booddhists,  and  in  a  few  years  succeeded  in 
destroying  a  largo  number  of  their  temples  and  massacred 
many  of  their  priests;  at  the  same  time,  for  selfish  pur- 
poses, ho  encouraged  the  Jesuits.  In  1572  he  had  n  diffi- 
culty with  tho  shiogoon,  Yosbi-aki,  whom  ho  arrested  and 
put  in  prison,  thus  bringing  to  an  end  the  real  power  of 
the  Ashikanga  family.  Ho  had  many  able  generals  in 
league  with  him,  the  three  most  famous  of  whom  were 
llideyoshi,  Akitchi-mitsu-hide.  and  lyeyas.  Under  his 
encouragement  the  Jesuits  rose  to  favor  and  power  at 
court,  and  in  1581  they  claimed  to  have  in  Japan  200 
churches  and  not  less  than  150,000  Christians.  lie  wa? 
reputed  a  brave,  ambitiou.*!,  and  able  man.  and  not  without 
many  moral  virtues,  and  he  laughed  at  the  worship  of  tho 
gods  and  considered  tho  bonzes  as  impostors.  In  1582  ho 
was  gradually  overrunning  all  .Tapan.  and  was  liberal  in 
giving  to  his  kindred  the  property  he  had  acquired  by  con- 
quest. Ho  built  a  temple  in  whieh  he  eollceted  idols  of  all 
the  gods  of  Japan,  and  placing  in  the  midst  of  it  a  statue 
of  himself  called  Xantbi.or  "  supreme  ruler."  he  issued  an 
edict  commanding  all  men  to  worship  that  image  and  no 
other.  The  first  to  obey  this  order  was  his  oldest  son.  and 
the  example  was  followed  by  the  gentry  and  people  in  their 
course.  His  end  was  in  keeping  with  Ins  life;  after  being 
surrounded  in  his  castle  at  Miako.  he  was  woumled  with  an 
arrow,  and  then  consumed  in  the  buihiing  where  he  was 
sheltered,  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of  his  nsc.  When  he 
died  tho  tide  of  prosperily'turncil  and  ebbed  until  it  grad- 
ually swoiit  the  whole  Jesuit  priesthood  from  the  shores  of 
Japan.  The  immense  treasures  \Thich  he  had  accumulated 
in  the  course  of  many  years  in  the  city  of  Azutchi-yaina 
were  given  away  and  sf|uandered  in  three  days  by  his  late 
confederate,  Akitchi-milsu-hide.  After  the  death  of  Nobu 
Nanga,  the  man  who  had  once  been  his  servant,  and  after- 
wards his  chief  military  assistant,  and  who  had  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  a  leader,  became  the  military  ruler  or 
shiogoon.     His  name,  which  was  originally  Hideyoshi,  was 


JAPAN. 


1 37:5 


ohaDgcd  a  number  of  times  until  ho  becftme  known  as  Tai- 
kosama.  He  was  of  low  origin  and  insigniricunt  in  ap- 
pearance. !Ii3  chief  castle  was  at  O^aku,  which  he  did 
much  to  improve  hy  digging  canals  ami  porrcctin^  its  ibr- 
tificatioiis.  He  hail  six  wives.  In  158.'!,  with  hi»  perniiB- 
sion,  the  Jesuit  fathers  induced  four  young  nohlcuien  to 
visit  the  pope  in  Homo,  whioli  expedition  lasted  for  eight 
years.  In  I.'is.'i  he  nveived  from  the  emperor  the  family 
name  of  Toyotomi.  Al)out  that  time  ho  beeamc  an  earnest 
supporter  of  the  Jesuits,  although  he  would  not  accept 
their  religion  for  himself;  but  when  his  ])lnns  had  ripcne<J, 
and  the  Jesuits  were  confident  of  increasing  success,  he 
gu'idcnly  gave  them  notice  to  quit  the  country  within 
twenty  days,  forbidding  tliera  to  preacli  their  religion  on 
pain  of  (ieath.  In  1586  ho  took  forcible  possession  of 
Nagasaki,  and  made  it  a  government  port  and  propcrtj*, 
declaring  it  to  ho  the  only  place  whore  foreign  trade  should 
bo  permitted.  The  threat  made  by  Taikosama  was  not 
carrio'l  out,  and  the  Jesuits  continued  in  the  country,  and 
ho  was  charged  with  changing  his  policy  because  he  de- 
sired to  use  their  ships  in  a  project  to  invade  Corca.  Ho 
Icil  an  army  of  .'100. 000  men  against  that  country,  one-half 
of  \Thom  were  destroyed,  when  ambassadors  were  gent  to 
Japan  and  the  folluwing  demands  were  made:  (I)  That 
eight  provinces  ot  Corca  be  handed  over  to  Ja])an;  (2) 
that  the  emperor  of  China  give  one  of  his  daughters  to 
Taikosnma;  (3)  that  there  should  be  free  trade  between 
the  two  countries;  and  Ml  that  China  and  Corca  should 
pay  Japan  a  yearly  tribute.  In  l.')l»2  and  the  following 
year  two  envoys  from  .Manila  and  the  Philippines  were  re- 
ceived byTaikosama.  (ho  first  of  which  brought  with  them 
four  Kecollot?  of  St.  Francis  to  enter  the  missionary  ser- 
vice. Among  their  presents  was  a  Spanish  horse,  whoso 
blood  has  proliably  atrccted  the  breed  now  known  in  Japan. 
About  this  tiino  events  occurred  which  led  Taiko  to  belicvo 
that  his  nephew  intended  to  usurp  hit»  place,  whereupon, 
after  many  intrigues,  ho  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death,  as 
well  as  thirty-one  women  and  cliildren,  ail  members  of  his 
family.  In  loVMia  comet  was  visible  in  the  empire,  and  on 
its  disappearance  a  lorriblo  eariiiquako  occurred,  which 
seemed  to  prognosticate  the  death  of  the  shiogoon.  While 
winking  at  the  stealthy  operatirins  of  tho  .Jesuits,  ho  caused 
twenty-five  of  them  to  ho  puni-ihod  by  the  death  of  tho 
cross.  This  act,  as  if  in  self-d<rfence,  ho  followed  up  with 
an  order  that  all  the  Roman  Catholics  residing  in  Naga- 
saki should  b**  at  once  sent  home  in  their  ships,  ilut  not- 
withstamling  this  hostility,  when  he  became  sick  in  1.5'JS 
he  admitted  a  Romish  priest  to  his  bedside,  and  then  died, 
all  his  nobility,  accoriling  to  tin:  Fathers,  "being  much 
belter  pleased  to  see  him  on  tlic  list  of  dead  gods  than  in 
the  land  of  living  men."  In  (he  annals  of  Japan  the  year 
l.i'JK  is  given  as  that  in  which  tho  English  and  Dutch  ships 
visited  the  country,  and  they  are  said  to  have  come  to  tho 
town  c)f  Saccai,  near  Osaka.  Dutch  pilots  hacl  already  for 
apvcral  years  been  navigating  the  surrounding  seas,  and 
William  Adatns,  the  English  pilot  of  the  Dutch  fleet  of 
five  sail  which  left  Toxcl  in  June,  15i)S,  rlid  not  reach 
Itoongo  until  Apr.,  IfiOO,  when  his  crew  was  found  to  be  re- 
duced to  nine  or  ten  men. 

Tho  groat  event  which  characterized  tiio  beginning  of 
tho  seventeenth  century  was  the  accression  to  power  of 
lyoyas  iMikawa-no-kami.  He  was  born  of  a  good  family, 
but  had  sueeerdod  as  a  military  man  by  depending  upon 
hiin'*elf.  At  this  (leriod  the  emperor  was  a  mere  boy,  and 
although  the  grandson  by  marriage  of  lyeyas,  that  man 
claimed,  and  for  a  long  time  wicldet],  tho  sceptre  of  power. 
As  tho  friend  of  the  regont-emperor  quite  a  number  of  the 
provincial  governors  formed  a  league  against  him  ;  ami  in 
Oct.,  lt)00,  ne.ar  Lake  t)womi,  a  battle  was  fought  which 
has  ever  been  considered  one  of  tho  most  important  and 
decisive  connected  with  Japanese  history,  and  lyeyas  was 
tho  victor.  His  opponents  were  scattered  am)  he  became 
at  once  master  of  public  atTdirs.  The  most  important  of 
his  many  captives  in  the  late  battle  was  a  noted  chieftain 
named  Konishi  Setsu,  who  had  hiMm  viceroy  of  Kiusiuand 
commandcr-in-rdtief  both  of  (he  naval  and  military  forces 
in  tho  Corean  \Tar,  who  was  beheaded.  Hut,  notwithstand- 
ing this  act  of  severity,  lyeyas  treated  his  late  enemies 
with  kindness  and  granted  a  general  amnesty.  He  ac- 
quired great  power,  one  secret  of  which  seenis  to  have  been 
that  wheti  he  once  made  a  jiromise  he  never  broke  it,  the 
most  perfi'ct  reliance  being  therefore  placed  upon  his  word. 
The  portion  of  .Tapan  which  held  nut  the  longest  against 
the  new  conqueror  was  the  island  of  Kiusiu,  btil  its  prin- 
cipal ruler,  Sat-^uina,  was  obliged  to  yield.  Prior  to  the 
crowning  military  achievement  of  lyeyas  the  imperial,  co- 
elesiastieal,  and  commercial  capitals  of  the  empire  had  been 
Miako,  Narra,  and  Osaka;  but  he  removed  tin*  government 
In  Ycdo,  which  at  that  time  was  an  insignificant  place, 
with  only  one  street,  known  then  and  now  as  Koji  Matchi. 
He  was  reputed  a  true  lover  of  his  country,  and  was  never 


I  accused  of  being  personally  ambitiouB.     Ho  was  a  friend 
to  all  kinds  of  internal  improvements,  ruled  with  wisdom 
!  and  discretion,  and  was  honored  with  the  title  of  Sc-i-tfni- 
j  Shiof/oon,  or  "  tranquillizer  of  barbarians  an<i  ctmimander- 
in-chief,"     The  most  important  event  of  his  reign  was  the 
I  promulgation  of  a  code  of  laws,  100  in  number,  which  he 
■  oequeaf  herl  to  his  descendants  in  power  as  a  guide  to  them 
!  in  the  oflice  he  hoped  would  be  hereditary  in  his   family. 
I  These  laws  have  had  a  paramount  influence  with  the  rulers 
:  of  Japan  ever  since  the  death  of  lyeyas,  and  to  a  very 
!  great  extent  his  ambitious  hopes  have  been  realized  by  the 
I  subsequent  fame  ami  power  of  his  immediate  family.     Bc- 
I  twcen  these  laws  and  the  writings  of  Confucius  and  Men- 
cius  the  similarity  is  manifest.     Whatever  their  intrinsio 
i  merits,  it  is  certain  that  their  efl'cct  upon  the  nation  was 
most  salutary,  for  it  was  blessed  with   an   uninterrupted 
'  peace  for  more  than  200  years  after  the  death  of  lyeyas. 
So  impressed  with  this  fact  were  the  notdes  and  the  people 
,  of  Japan  at  a  later  day  that  in  l^OGthey  inaugurated  a 
I  national  festival   for  the  sole  purpose  of  conimcmornting 
this  unprecedented  fact.     For  about  twenty  years  prior  to 
tlic  year  lfil4  the  Jesuits  bad  obtained  such  a  footing  in 
Japan  that  they  claimed  to  have  visited  the  whole  empire, 
and  to  have  made  more  than  100,000  converts.     Allhongh 
they  entered  the  country  as  missionaries,  they  were  subse- 
quently denounced  ns  preachers  of  sedition  and  organizers 
of  rebellion.     Tho  opposition  which  they  called  forth  soon 
became  so   bitter  that   in    ]()'ACt  the  government  issued  an 
order  that  the  image  of  the  Saviour  as  it  appeared  on  the 
copper  mc'lals  should  be  periodically  desecrnfcd  by  being 
tramjtled  under  foot  ;  an(I  those  orders  remained  in  force 
until  the  conclusion  of  treaties  with  Christinn   nations  in 
recent    times.      After    such    demonstrations   it  cannot    ho 
thought  strange  that  when  the  time  enmo  for  driving  the 
Jesuits  out  of  the  country  the  cxjinI.«ion  should   have  been 
attended  with   many  acts  of  cruelty.     The  fust  decree  of 
banishment  was  issued  by  lyeyas  in  !  Oil.  but  some  fifteen 
years  elapsed  before  the  movement  was  in  any  degree  suc- 
cessful.    A  new  edict  against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
was  issued  in  IfiOO,  and  two  years  afterwards  an  order  was 
promulgated  prohibiting  the  erection  of  Booddhist  temples, 
which  has  remained  in  force  to  the  present  time.     In  1720 
the  Booddhist  priesthood  held  a  festival  throughout  the  em- 
pire, by  which  (hey  commemorated  the  eleventh  centenary 
of  tho  evtablishment  of  their  rcliginn. 

Tn  1H;!'J  the  Portuguese  and  Spnnish  were  finally  ex- 
pelled, but  a  single  Dutch  factory  was  permitted  to  remain 
at  the  island  llirado.  In  1700  another  attempt  was  made 
to  regain  .Tapan  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  it  was  unsuc- 
cessful. Various  attempts,  at  long  intervals,  were  made 
by  diff"ercnt  foreign  nations  to  reopen  a  trade  with  tho 
country.  The  Dutch,  as  well  as  the  Japanese,  bitterly  op- 
poscrl  all  su'-h  measures — the  former  from  cupidity,  and 
the  latter  from  a  motive  of  self-defence.  According  to  the 
native  annals,  tho  coast  of  ,Tiij>an  wns  visited  bv  foreign 
vessels  in  K'.:'.",  IfiT.'J,  1768.  1701.  1703,  1790,  ISO:^,  IROS, 
181.^,  and  1820.  American  ships  first  arrived  at  Nagasaki 
in  ISKJ  under  Com.  Biddle,  and  Com.  M.C.  Perry  made  his 
visit  in  18 J.I,  made  memorable  by  resulting  in  a  treaty  with 
the  U.  ^.  In  is;>  (,  .Sir  .lames  Stirling,  an  English  admiral, 
visited  Nagasaki,  and  also  concluded  a  treaty  with.Tnpan; 
and  in  lf*58  it  was  proclaimed  by  tho  .Japanese  that  they 
ha<l  concluded  treaties  with  the  American,  English,  Dutch, 
Russian,  and  Portuguese  nations.  The  last  of  the  shio- 
goons  wlio  really  held  tho  reins  of  power  was  lyay- 
mutchi;  ho  reigned  from  IS'iO  to  ISfiO,  when  he  died,  hav- 
ing been  the  leading  figure  in  the  late  rebellion,  which  re- 
sulted in  dissolving  the  dual  government  which  had  existed 
for  fiOO  years,  ond  in  restoring  to  his  proper  jiosition  tho 
true  emperor  of  Japan.  Tn  1S07  an  eflTort  was  nmdo  by 
Yoshi-hisa  to  be  recognized  as  th<'  legitimate  successor  of 
Shiogoon  lyaymntchi.  but  it  was  unsuccessful;  and  before 
(he  close  of  that  year  the  spiritual  emperor,  who  hud  just 
found  himself  rceived  as  tho  (rue  and  only  ruler  of  the 
empire,  died  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  h-ft 
upon  (he  (hrone  his  sou,  a  boy  of  fifteen  years,  who  is  the 
jircsent  emperi>r  of  .Tapan. 

As  to  (be  events  which  have  taken  place  in  that  empire 
during  tho  last  twenty  years,  they  resemble  the  stories  of 
romnnco  and  are  among  the  marvels  of  the  age.  Into  that 
subject  we  cannot  fully  enter  nt  present,  but  the  following 
particulars  may  he  mmtioncil  for  purposes  of  reference, 
and  those  who  may  desire  more  elaborate  inforumtion  will 
fiml  it  admirably  set  forth  in  a  volume  entitled  jXrw  Jupnu, 
from  tho  pen  of  an  English  diplomat.  Samuel  :Mossman. 
The  treaty  with  Com.  Perry  was  ratified  in  ISfil  at  Kana- 
gawa.  and  (he  ports  of  llakodadi  and  Simoda  were  opened 
to  fr)reign  eoiumeree ;  in  lS;'i5  the  Russian  government, 
through  Admiral  Poutiatine.  visited  Simoda  and  secured 
the  ratification  of  a  treaty,  which  fact  was  strangely  com- 
memorated by  the  destruction  of  Simoda  by  an  earthquake  ; 


lo74 


JAPAN. 


in  1S5S  treaties  were  also  concluded  by  England  and 
France,  and  the  porrs  opened  lo  them  were  Kanagawa, 
Nasasaki,  Hakodadi,  lliogo,  Osaka,  and  Neigata;  in 
1S59,  British  and  American  legations  were  cstaWished  at 
Yedo;  in  IStiO,  Dutch  and  Prussian  treaties  were  signed 
at  Yedo,  and  several  assassinations  occurred  in  that  .year, 
as  well  as  in  the  {ireceding  and  succeeding  .years;  in  18G2 
a  diplomatic  mission  of  about  thirty-five  members  was  sent 
to  Europe  by  way  of  America,  having  sailed  in  an  English 
frigate  called  thc'Odin.and  the  envoy  was  Takeno  Votschio 
Shemodje  ;  in  ISflli  the  British  and  American  legation  build- 
ings were  destroyed  at  Yedo,  and  a  retrograde  policy  was 
inaugurated  by  the  Japanese  officials,  one  of  the  results  of 
whos'c  hostile  action  was  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  to 
America  and  the  leading  powers  of  Europe:  in  ISOo  the 
allied  envoys  received  the  consent  of  the  mikado  to  the 
treaties;  in"  ISfiC  and  1SC7,  as  already  intimated,  the  im- 
perial government  was  changed  from  the  old  to  the  new 
form  ;  in  ISfiS  was  commenced  the  civil  war  in  .Japan,  and 
the  mikado  became  the  sole  monarch:  in  1S70  the  Japan- 
ese government  resumed  with  great  ardor  its  work  ot  re- 
form", the  promineut  ideas  being  the  education  of  Japanese 
students  in  foreign  countries  and  the  establishment  of  dip- 
lomatic relations  wifh  .\mcrica,  England,  Russia,  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  France;  and  in  1S72  the  great  embassy, 
headed  bv  Tomomi  Iwakura,  visited  the  U.  S.  and  Europe, 
the  calendar  of  the  Western  nations  was  substituted  for 
that  of  old  Japan,  and  the  empire  found  itself  r.apidly  be- 
coming an  important  member  of  the  family  of  nations. 

And  now  for  a  few  remarks  respecting  the  people  of 
Japan  as  they  existed  just  prior  to  their  new  birth.  They 
are  divided  into  eight  classes,  as  follows:  the  Koongays. 
or  Mikado  nobility;  the  Daimios.  or  Yedo  nobility;  the 
Hattamotos.  or  lower  daimios;  the  Hiakshos.  or  farmers 
without  rank  or  title  ;  the  Shokonoris,  who  arc  artisans  ;  the 
Akindos,  or  merchants;  the  Kivciamonos,  or  actors  and 
beggars;  and  the  Y.aytas,  who  arc  turners,  shoemakers, 
and  manufacturers  or  dealers  in  leather.  In  the  island  of 
Yesso  are  to  be  found  a  people  called  Ainos,  who  closely  re- 
semble the  Iniliansof  North  America.  The  religions  of  the 
empire  are  two.  Sintuism  and  Booddhism,  while  the  higher 
classes  seem  to  be  partial  to  the  moral  teachings  of  Confu- 
cius. The  Japanese  language  is  one  of  letters,  and  not  of 
characters  like  the  Chinese,  but  because  of  the  very  fre- 
quent use  of  the  latter  by  people  in  every  sphere  a  great 
many  difficuUies  arise  both  in  speaking  and  writing.  The 
literature  of  the  country  is  quite  extensive,  cheap  books  and 
instructive  art-productions  are  always  in  great  demand, 
and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  people  are  able  to  read 
and  write,  and  a  love  of  drawing  and  painting  is  very  com- 
mon. The  food  upon  which  they  subsist  is  rice,  the  chief 
production  fish  and  a  great  variety  of  vegetables;  and 
among  their  leading  productions  may  be  mentioned  silk, 
tea,  cotton,  hemp,  salt,  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  coal,  and 
lead.  Opium,  which  is  the  banc  of  China,  they  do  not  use, 
but  they  substitute  for  it  a  good  quality  of  tobacco,  which 
tlicy  grow  and  manufacture  in  largo  quantities.  Their 
fruits  arc  numerous,  and  their  knowledge  of  horticulture 
and  the  secrets  of  the  soil  is  so  extensive  that  many  of  the 
Japanese  in  this  country  have  looked  upon  the  agricultural 
mission  of  Mr.  Horace  Capron,  who  was  invited  to  teach 
them  the  science  of  agriculture,  as  a  most  useless  enterprise. 
Their  skill  in  manufacturing  is  of  the  highest  order,  and 
when  they  shall  have  learned  the  importance  of  increasing 
the  number  of  useful  articles  in  every  department  of  labor 
under  the  influence  of  nu)ilern  improvements,  it  is  likely 
they  will  liardly  be  equalled  by  any  of  the  nations  of  the 
world.  It  has  already  passed  into  history  that  their  dis- 
play at  the  great  Vienna  I-jxposition  was  wonderful,  and 
superior  to  th.at  of  any  of  the  Asiatic  nations.  One  of  Ihe 
most  striking  illustrations  of  intellcclual  activity  among 
the  Japanese  is  found  in  the  use  they  arc  making  of  the 

?ress ;  books  and  newspapers,  both  in  the  Japanese  and 
Inglish  languages,  are  multiplying  every  day,  and  are  uni- 
versally becoming  modelled  upon  Ihe  literary  plans  of  the 
Western  nations.  In  speaking  of  the  jiress  of  .Japan,  one 
of  Iho  Yokohama  papers  lately  made  this  remark  :  "  It  is 
now  but  three  or  four  years  since  the  press  sprang  into  ex- 
istence in  Japan,  yet  it  is  already  being  used  for  the  seri- 
ous discussion  of  weighty  questions,  and  certainly  by  its 
vigor  and  earnestness,  its  candor,  fearlessness,  and  cour- 
tesy, puts  to  shame  a  large  section  of  the  local  European 
press,  which  seems  only  to  exist  to  prove  how  litlJc  salt  is 
worth  which  has  lost  its  savor."  In  literature  and  religion, 
in  commerce  and  education,  very  great  changes  have  taken 
ydaee  within  the  last  four  years  ;  and  from  a  chart  of  Japan, 
recently  published  by  authority,  we  gather  the  following 
items  of  information  :  The  total  number  of  temples  in  the 
empire  devoted  to  the  Sintu  religion  was  97.  of  which  3.5 
were  supported  by  the  general  government,  and  the  rest  by 
the  provincial  authorities  j  the  Booddliist  temples  numbered 


296,900,  to  which  were  attached  lCS,fio4  priests,  divided 
into  eleven  sects  ;  but  all  this  religious  machinery  has  since 
been  abolished  by  im]ierial  decree;  the  population  of  the 
metropolis  of  Yedo  had  been  rcdu<:ed  to  l.J94,:iyO;  thetwo 
colleges  in  that  city  contained  5lj3  pupils,  but  have  greatly 
increased  since  1872;  there  were  also  thirteen  hospitals 
and  almshouses;  the  imperial  army  consisted  of  seven  bat- 
talions of  infantry,  four  of  artillery,  and  two  companies  of 
cavalry;  regular  army,  twenty  battalions  of  infantry;  ca- 
dets in  military  schools.  72fi ;  ships  of  war,  Hi,  including 
one  iron  clad,  officered  by  l:)07  men;  steamships,  69,  in- 
cluding 22  iron  ships,  and  the  large  sailing  vessels  nnm- 
bcred  18;  lighthouses,  IG;  dockyards,  2 — at  Yokohama 
and  Nagasaki ;  mines  worked  by  government,  'i  ;  it  was 
also  stated  that  manufacturing  es(abli.«hnieiits  were  on  Ihe 
increase  in  Yedo,  Yokohama,  and  lliogo.  and  two  railroads, 
between  Yedo  and  Yokcdiama.  and  between  Osaka  and 
Kobi.  were  both  in  partial  operation.  The  working  gov- 
crnmenfof  Japan,  as  now  organized  under  the  supreme 
control  of  the  emperor,  is  divided  into  ten  departments — 
executive,  with  237  officials  ;  public  works,  375  ;  dejiartment 
of  religion,  138;  judicial  department.  Ifi9;  foreign  affairs, 
116;  treasury  department,  .039  ;  agricultural  department, 
192;  war  and  navy  departments,  891  ;  educational  depart- 
ment, 221 :  and  the  imperial  court  consists  of  210  officials. 
The  name  of  the  reigning  emperor  or  mikado  is  Mutsuhito, 
born  in  1852,  and  recognized  as  heir  in  1800.  and  he  came 
to  the  throne  in  1867.  He  is  married,  the  empress  being 
his  senior  by  two  years.  His  six  uncles  and  great-uncles 
(one  of  whom  was' recently  in  Prussia  and  another  in  Eng- 
land), and  sister  in  Yedo,'aIso  three  brothers  (one  of  whom 
has  been  a  student  at  Annapolis),  with  an  aunt  in  Yedo, 
constitute  the  royal  family  of  Japan. 

The  thinking  men  of  Japan  now  claim— and  the  facts 
support  them  in  their  views — that  the  revolution  now  going 
on  is  needed,  stands  upon  a  firm  foundation,  and  will  be 
triumphant.  All  the  officials  and  the  higher  classes,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  masses,  are  anxious  lo  throw 
aside'evcry  impediment  calculated  to  retard  their  progress 
in  the  career  upon  which  Ihey  have  entered.  They  would 
be  loyal  to  the  mikado  and  the  empire,  but  they  want  more 
civil  "if  not  religious  liberty  than  they  have  hitherto  en- 
joyed, protection  in  their  commercial  interests,  and  all  Ihe 
advantages  resulting  from  a  high  order  of  education. 
That  thev  are  thoroughly  in  earnest  is  proven  mo.>t  conclu- 
sively by  Ihe  truly  wonderful  changes  that  Ihey  themselves 
have  carried  out  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  bar- 
riers of  exclusiveness  have  been  removed,  and  many  sea- 
ports, as  already  stated,  opened  to  the  trade  of  foreign 
countries;  the  imperial  ruler  has  thrown  aside  all  the  mys- 
tery and  seclusion  which  have  been  held  sacred  for  1000 
years,  and  with  his  dynasty  has  entered  the  comity  of  na- 
tions; Ihe  feudal  system  has  given  place  lo  a  government 
allied  in  character  to  the  enlighlened  nations  of  the  earth, 
and  the  daimios  have  given  up  their  estates  for  the  benefit 
of  the  whole  country  ;  foreigners,  who  were  (rented  as  ene- 
are  now  welcomed  as  friends  ;  customs  like  those  of 
words  and  commilling  enforced  suicide  have 
been  abolished  :  money  has  been  liberally  expended  by  the 
central  government  in  sending  its  youlh  to  be  educated  in 
foreign  lands;  schools,  seminaries  of  learning,  scientific 
and  benevolent  institutions,  all  founded  upon  the  models 
of  the  Western  nations,  have  been  established,  and  are  daily 
becoming  grounded  in  the  elements  of  prosperity  ;  a  free 
press,  as  we  have  seen,  has  been  established  and  is  respect- 
ed; also  a  new  postal  system  ;  the  sea  and  land  forces  have 
been  reorganized,  and  placed  upon  a  basis  of  such  stability 
as  lo  mtike  Japan  the  most  invulnerable  nation  in  the  Ori- 
ent; all  the  modern  helps  to  a  safe  navigation  of  the  ex- 
tensive coasts  of  the  empire  have  been  introduced  ;  the  old 
Japanese  calendar  has  been  superseded  by  that  of  the  West- 
ern nations  excepting  Russia  ;  talented  men  in  literature  and 
science  and  diplomacy  have  been  invited  lo  take  office  in 
the  empire  for  Ihe  benefit  of  their  experience;  a  gold  and 
silver  currency  similar  to  that  of  Ihe  U.  S.  has  been  estab- 
lished ;  a  system  of  railroads  has  been  organized  and  partly 
completed,  which  has  already  added  wonderful  facilities  to 
travel  and  commerce;  and  by  a  line  of  telegraph  news  may 
now  be  transmitted  from  Yedo  to  London  in  less  than  fifty 
hours.  Puch  are  some  of  the  marvels  Ihal  have  actually 
been  accomplished,  and  they  surely  prove  that  the  Japan- 
ese are  not  only  in  earnest  in  all  thai  they  are  doing,  but 
that  their  genius  for  going  ahead  is  allied  to  that  of  the 
"universal  Yankee  nation."  What  they  have  accomplished 
in  less  than  one  generation  has  not  in  any  part  of  Europe 
been  secured  in  less  than  a  century. 

But  there  is  another  wonder  connected  with  this  great 
Japanese  revolution;  which  is.  that  the  nation  is  marching 
upward  and  onward  without  casting  a  thought  upon  what 
Ihe  great  empires  of  India  and  China  may  think  or  desire. 
The  nation,  like  the  individuals  who  have  come  to  the 


mies. 
wearing  two  i 


JAPAN. 


i:J7o 


front,  is  fearless,  proud,  delicately  strung,  nnrl  in<Ippendcnt. 
Where  can  be  fuuiid  a  lietter  illustration  of  loOv  courage 
than  was  presented  hy  Japan  in  her  recent  diftioulty  with 
China  about  Kormosa  ?  Shu  felt  that  she  hfid  justice  on 
her  side,  and  looking  upon  the  .'t5, 000,(100  of  her  united 
and  loval  pt-nplc  with  perfect  contidcnoe,  she  said,  **  The 
500.00(1.0011  of  Chitia  "hall  not  fri^^htcn  us  from  the  path 
of  duty  and  ri;;lit."  China  did  thr  proper  thiiif^  in  submit- 
ting, and  ought  to  be  applauded  for  iier  course;  but  when 
the  fubjcct  of  indemnity  came  up,  Japan  ^unlike  certain 
so-called  civilized  nations),  true  to  her  lofty  instinct?,  asked 
only  tiiat  the  necessary  expenses  should  bcpaiil.  and  scorned 
to  manifest  a  grasping  love  of  gain.  The  only  great  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  jirospcrity  of  Japan  which  arc 
not  yet  settled  arc  those  having  reference  to  taxation  and 
revenue,  and  the  opening  of  the  entire  country  to  foreign- 
ers and  to  religion.  Thediflicultiesattendingeach  of  them 
cannot  be  fully  understood  by  people  in  other  countries; 
and  yet  there  is  nothing  singular  about  them,  if  we  re- 
member that  even  in  the  V.  S.  we  have  never  been  fi^cc 
from  pome  sort  of  excitement  growing  out  of  thcj^o  identi- 
cal questions.  (Jood  men  and  true  are  to-day  working 
hnnl  in  Jniinn  to  perfect  a  system  of  taxation  and  revenue 
which  will  nelp  the  public  purse  an<l  make  the  financial  re- 
sources of  the  empire  equal  to  its  natural  jtrogrcss ;  when 
the  European  powers,  headed  by  England,  shall  stop  their 
domineering  demands  to  have  the  empire  thrown  open  at 
all  hazards,  then  perhaps  the  imperial  government  may 
listen  to  reasonable  appeals;  and  when  the  Japanese  arc 
convinced  that  religious  fiinaticism  is  a  blessing,  even  in 
such  countries  as  Kngland  and  America,  and  that  by  giving 
the  largest  liberty  they  will  not  he  made  wretched  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  Romish  Church,  then  they  may  consider 
the  jioliey  of  opening  wide  the  gates  to  all  dcnominaticms 
of  Christians.  With  regard  to  the  question  of  allowing 
foreigners  to  trade  in  all  parts  of  the  interior  of  Japan,  a 
leading  Japanese  newspaper  of  Yedo  recently  made  tliis 
remark:  "The  ehief  reasons  why  this  measure  cannot  bo 
carried  out  to-day  are — firstly,  that  we  cannot  make  for- 
eigners submit  to  our  laws;  secondly,  that  the  Japanese 
government  is  unable  to  alter  the  tariff  by  its  sole  nuthor- 
ity  ;  and,  thirdly,  that  we  cannot  make  them  obey  the  reg- 
ulations agreed  to  by  the  localities."  Of  the  signboards 
proscribing  Christianity  which  were  formerly  seen  in  Yedo, 
there  if)  not  one  remaining  at  this  day.  But  the  fact  is, 
that  in  Yedo  and  other  large  towns  there  are  ministers  of 
the  gospel  representing  a  number  of  sects  who  hold  re- 
ligious meetings  regularly,  antl  whose  teachings  are  thatik- 
fully  received  by  many  of  the  native  inhabitants.  The 
prevailing  sentiment  towards  the  missionaries  seems  to  bo 
— "  Wo  have  no  objection  to  your  instructing  those  who 
come  to  you  for  information,  but  we  must  not  have  any 
compulsory  appeals;"  and  so  wc  perceive  that  (he  hostil- 
ity to  the  Christinn  religion  is  not  by  any  means  as  active 
as  it  was  in  former  years.  Indeed,  there  is  much  lalk 
among  the  Japanese  about  organizing  a ''new  religion," 
which  would  of  course  be  a  long  step  towards  recognizing 
Christianity  in  all  its  borders. 

And  now  for  a  frw  words  upon  the  prominent  character- 
istiefl  i>f  the  JapiinrBc.  They  do  not  bestow  the  same  honor 
upon  women  that  is  theoretically  shown  by  the  Western 
nations,  but  in  that  particular  they  are  in  advance  of  tho 
other  Asiatic  nations.  As  already  stated,  several  of  their 
rulers  have  been  females — 8  out  of  124.  and  one  of  them 
was  the  conqueror  of  Corea— and  to-day  let  any  woiiiiin 
manifest  a  superior  mind  and  she  will  command  the  highest 
respect  of  her  associates.  Much  has  already  been  done  to 
emancipate  woman  from  her  former  degraded  condition, 
and  the  last  two  ministers  accreditol  to  this  country  harl 
the  manliness  and  gooii  sense  to  bring  their  wives  with 
(hem.  The  .Fapanese,  like  human  beings  generally,  may 
be  fi)nd  of  indulging  their  appetites,  but  drunkenness  is 
not  as  common  as  it  is  in  this  country,  and  against  the  use 
of  opium  the  most  rigid  regulations  have  been  established. 
Although  wi'dded  to  all  kinds  of  aristocratic  notions,  they 
admire  ami  foster  intellect  wherever  found,  and  in  their 
public  offices  always  cmleavor  to  find  the  best  man  for 
every  position  to  bo  filled.  They  are  aiso  remarkable  for 
their  unsordid  idens  of  life  and  duty.  They  are  an  intel- 
lectiiiil  r.K-e,  and  their  native  education  is  wellnigh  uni- 
versal; the  commonest  people,  wc  repeat,  can  read  and 
write  the  Japanese  language,  nnd  all  who  make  any  pre- 
tension to  culture  are  well  ft>unde'l  in  (he  Chinese  lan- 
guage, which  to  them  is  like  Littln  to  tin-  Kni^liMh  scholar. 
All  (ht^  writers  who  hnvc  associatt-d  with  the  Jiipancfe  in 
their  own  country,  or  while  sojourning  in  Ameri<'a  or  Ku- 
ropo,  coincide  in  the  opinion  that  they  are  n-markable  for 
their  amiable  ami  agreeable  manners ;  and  in  this  respect 
the  great  Iwnkura  embassy  was  most  conspicuous— to  such 
an  extent,  indeed,  as  to  have  bfcn  frequently  conimetilcd 
upon  both  in  this  ec>untry  iin<l    England.     The  porcelain, 


lacquer-work,  paper  and  silk,  and  the  bronzes  of  Japan 
have  never  been  surpassed,  and  in  some  particulars  n(d 
equalled,  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  ;  and  with  regard 
to  their  pictorial  art,  their  genius  has  been  misapprehended. 
Contrary  to  thecnmmon  ojiiuiou.  they  understand  and  prac- 
tise the  rules  ctf  jicrspcctivc.  and  foreiiners  have  made  a 
mistake  in  judging  of  their  skill  as  artists  by  the  pictures 
which  in  Yedo  arc  sold  by  the  million  for  the  tenth  part 
of  a  penny.  A  large  proportion  of  the  books  arc  regularly 
illustrated,  and  tho  writer  uf  this  ]inper  has  in  his  posses- 
sion many  pictures  whieh  disphiy  abilities  of  the  highest 
order  for  correctness  and  freedom  of  hamlling. 

The  relations  existing  between  Japan  and  the  U.  S.  have 
been,  and  are  now.  of  the  most  friendly  character.  There 
is  not  a  bone  of  contention  between  them,  but  there  is  one 
great  fact  on  the  side  of  the  latter  which  is  humiliating  to 
our  national  honor  and  pride.  We  nlludc  to  wh.-it  is  called 
the  indemnity  fund.  In  ISG4  a  noted  <lniniio,  who  hated 
the  new  order  of  things  in  Japan,  fired  up(m  a  foreign 
vessel  in  the  employ  of  iinother  daimio.  The  allied  powers 
thought  themselves  insulted,  and  brought  the  matter  to  the 
attention  of  the  imperial  gnvrrnment.  which  disclaimed  all 
intention  of  doing  wrong,  and  confessed  that  it  could  not 
control  the  rebel  daimlo.  The  powers  in  (j  nest  ion.  the 
British,  Dutch,  French,  and  Americnns.  then  formed  a 
little  fleet,  and  inflicted  severe  punishment  on  the  oflcnd- 
ing  daimio.  That  done,  a  convention  was  called,  and 
Japan  wns  mode  to  promise  liiut  she  would  pay  an  indem- 
nity of  $rj,000,(lO(i.  The  sum-totnl  of  that  indemnity  pay- 
able to  the  U.  S.  is  nearly  $1,200,000.  When  more  than 
one-half  of  the  amount  due  the  U.  S.  had  been  paid,  and 
which  our  government  was  ashamecl  to  put  In  the  treasury, 
Prof.  Joseph  Plenry  took  the  lead  and  suggested  to  Con- 
gress that  it  should  be  appropriated  to  educational  pur- 
poses in  Japan.  The  President  was  in  favor  of  the  prop- 
osition, but  Congress  did  not  act;  and  so  the  question 
rested  for  a  while.  In  the  mean  time,  the  interested  Eu- 
ropean powers  were  trying  to  force  the  mikado  to  open  his 
empire  to  the  trade  of  all  nations.  Ilis  Mjtj(  sty  objected. 
'•  Then,"  said  the  powers,  "you  must  pay  us  the  money  you 
owe."  The  Japanese  government  paid  the  balance  of  their 
debt  to  the  three  Eurojiean  powers,  an'l  there  was  another 
pause.  It  was  soon  found,  however,  not  to  be  diplomatic  for 
the  U.  S.  to  refuse  the  unpaid  balance  dm*  our  government. 
Tho  arguments  were  successful,  and  the  American  minister 
bad  to  go  up  and  present  bis  bill,  whieh  was  instantly  paid. 
For  a  moment  the  friendly  feelings  of  the  .Japanese  towards 
Ameriea  weio  slightly  abated,  but  when  they  saw  the  diplo- 
matic necessity,  and  thought  of  what  Prof.  Henry  and  tho 
President  had  tried  to  do.  the  former  kindly  feelings  were 
restored.  And  now  there  is  a  great — and  in  sonic  par- 
ticulars a  disgraeeful — squabble  g'ting  on  in  the  V.  S.  over 
this  pile  of  ill-gotten  gain.  One  of  two  things  on  this  sub- 
ject is  true — either  that  it  wns  right  for  the  V.  S.  to  take 
that  money  from  a  country  like  .r:ipan  when  in  a  state  of 
revolution,  or  that  it  was  not.  If  tiie  U.  S.  have  no  rigiit 
to  tho  money  in  question,  then  every  dollar  of  it  should  bo 
returned  without  any  conditions.  If.  however,  there  is  a 
bill  for  actual  expenses,  that  amount  (perhaps  less  than 
§20,000)  ought  to  be  paid,  and  the  very  large  balance  should 
bo  rcturneil.  But  what  do  we  see  now  going  on  in  the  way 
of  schemes  for  handling  this  money  ?  ( 1 )  The  very  pro]»cr 
an<l  most  wise  idea  of  Prof.  Henry,  to  appropriate  tho 
money  for  educational  purposes  in  Japan  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Japanese  themselves  ;  (2t  a  proposition  to  divide 
the  money  among  the  American  olTicers  and  sailors  who  on 
ono  steamer  did  such  wonderful  work  at  Simonoseki;  {'.'>) 
tlio  foun<ling  of  a  college  in  Japan,  to  be  wholly  officered 
and  controlled  by  Americans;  (I)  to  build  an  American 
legiition  in  Yedo  ;  and  (;'))  to  educate  a  few  dozen  boy?  in  tho 
Japanese  language  for  service  at  the  American  consulates 
in  that  country.  Indeed,  the  prcpostcrouR  proposltiiins 
may  be  counted  by  the  do/en,  and  tho  public  will  he  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  there  wiis  once  a  scheme  suggested  for 
taking  this  .Inpjinesc  ninney  to  build  a  new  slate  depart- 
ment in  Wa.'-liinglon.  What  will  finally  be  ilone  is  doubt- 
ful, and  wc  cannot  but  enrnrstly  hnjie  that  the  rcputntion 
of  tho  V.  S.  for  liberality  and  fair  play  will  not  he  tarnished 
by  the  selfishness  and  cupidity  of  educational  leaders  or 
Congres--ii»nal  demagogues. 

And  now,  by  way  of  being  a  liltlo  more  explicit  on  some 
of  the  points  to  which  wo  have  heretofore  alluded,  wo 
submit  under  appropriate  headings  tho  subjoined  infor- 
mation. 

Coiitnirrrf.  n/  Jnpnn. — The  latest  complete  ncoounts  that 
have  been  received  in  tho  U.  S.  respecting  tho  trade  of  Ja- 
pan are  for  (ho  year  1873.  The  total  amount  of  trade 
was  50.:{22.f.39  yens  (/.  c.  fMtnr»);  exports.  21,2I7,-18| 
yens;  imports,  2l^.I0.^,0.'^7  yens;  and  tho  business  of  tho 
several  ports  open  to  foreign  trade  was  as  follows,  in 
vens: 


1370 


JAPAN. 


Exports.  ImporW. 

Yokohama 15,:m,2-19  20,742,994 

Kobe 2,459,8G9  6,030,988 

Osaka 92^71  402,19;i 

Natiasaki 2,3^17.Sir>  1.888.862 

Hakodate 447.G10  82.819 

Nei^ata 565.000  7,200 

The  total  amount  of  duties  collected  was  l.T-'iS^Slo  yens, 
of  which  1,223.021  yens  were  paid  at  Yokoliania.  and  the 
hnlance  at  the  five  other  ports.  The  imports  of  gold  and 
silver  for  the  year  lS7-t  amounted  to  1, 020. Oil.'i  yens ;  ex- 
ports of  the  same,  Kl, 3^2,702  yens.  Imports  of  corn  for 
same  period.  .'^;>,120  yens  ;  and  exports,  412, si<).  Amount 
of  total  imports,  22,811.166  yens  ;  amount  of  total  exports,- 
ISj.lfiT.So'J.  Duties  collected,  1,584.870  vens.  Exports  to 
U.  S.,  7.461.S43  yens:  China,  a.^JfLOlO  :  tJrcjit  Britain. 
3,2.12.r.r)5 ;  France,  2.7Ji»,40();  Italy.  04:.r.J7;  Germany, 
62.718  ;  andother countries.  131.774.  Imports  from  China, 
8.3ri0,.154vens;GreatBritain,ll).149.8SS;Franco.l,()83,7r>3; 
l^  S..  1.010,359;  Germany,  703,074;  Indies,  28,753;  and 
othor  countries.  180,742.2110. 

Kxpnftri  <tud  Imports  t'n  ISTS. — SiUc. — Thcmostimportant 
export  staple  of  Japan  is  raw  .=iilk.  and  for  several  years," 
in-decd  since  1865,  a  large  business  has  been  done  in  sup- 
plying Frant^eand  Italy  with  silkworms*  eggs  to  regenerate 
the  diseased  breeds  of  those  countries.  Tiie  etfnct  of  this 
latter  trade  has  been  to  injure  the  quality  of-  Japanese 
silk,  and  measures  have  been  taken  to  stop  the  trade;  but 
these  are  likely  to  be  futile,  for  a  short  timo  at  least,  on 
account  of  existing  treaties.  It  is  claimed  that  the  remedy 
is  in  reality  with  the  people  of  Japan.  In  Jnn..  1875,  the 
prices  of  silk  in  Yokohama  ranged  from  $420  to  8570  per 
piciif,  or  120  pounds.  Tiie  siik  exports  for  1873  amounted 
to  nearly  11,000,000  yens,  yc.i.— With  regard  to  tlio  tea- 
trade,  it  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  U.  S.,  and 
has  been  wonderfully  developed  within  the  last  four  years,' 
and  there  is  a  prospect  of  greater  extension  in  tlie  imme- 
diate future.  Of  course.  Japan  has  an  imposing  rival  in 
China,  but  the  former  empire,  with  jts  popular  brands  and 
reasonable  prices,  is  likely  to  bo  eminently  suceespful.  The 
tea  exports  for  1873  amounted  to  about  3,400,000  yens. 
By  way  of  giving  an  insight  into  the  character  of  Japanese 
productions  wo  append  the  following  items:  The  exports 
of  tobacco  amounted  to  62,000  yens ;  of  seaweed  to 
175,000  yens;  mushrooms,  33.284  yens;  euttlc-lish.  10,000 
yens;  laekerwarc,  126,270  yens;  earthenware,  48,000  yens; 
bronze  and  copper  ware,  82,000  yens ;  copper  in  ore, 
slabs,  and  wire,  200.000  yens;  ginseng,  63,611  yens;  sun- 
shades :tnd  fans,  2;i.000  yens;  screens,  31O0  yens;  silk 
clothing,  0000  yens:  and  chona-root,  3433  yens.  The  im- 
ports from  for'^ign  countries  have  hitherto  far  excelled  the 
exports,  and  the  articles  are  too  numerous  to  mention  in 
this  place,  but  the  more  imjiortant  articles  have  recently 
been  as  follows:  Wuollen  cloths,  cotton  satins.de  laines, 
blankets,  woollen  and  cotton  mixtures,  cotton  fabrics,  linens, 
manufactures  of  iron,  sapan-wood.  window-glass,  cordage, 
sugars,  cigars,  paint,  oils,  steam-engines,  printing-machines, 
maehinery,  glassware,  ironware,  copper  roofing  and 
sheathing,  drugs,  dye-powders,  tapestry,  carpets,  tortoise- 
shells,  boots  and  shoes,  watches,  clocks,  soaps,  furniture, 
stationery,  wine,  beer  ami  brandy,  mirrors,  beans,  coal, 
matches,  coral,  and  coal  oil.  During  the  lato  difficulties 
with  China  the  exportation  of  rice,  the  most  vital  com- 
modity of  .Japan,  was  prohibited  by  the  government,  but 
that  prohibition  was  removed  early  in  1875. 

LitfJifliniiftcf). — As  a  matter  of  interest  to  the  commercial 
world,  (he  following  list  of  lighthouses,  lightships,  etc.  is 
submitted  :  Li'jhthtutHes. — Sinagawa,  Yedo  anchorage  ;  Yo- 
kohama Ilatoba;  Kanonsaki,  entrance  to  Gulf  of  Yedo; 
Tsurugi-saki,  do. ;  Nosima-saki,  province  of  Awn  ;  Tnu- 
boy-e-saki.  province  of  .Simosa;  lokasinm,  province  of 
Sagnmi :  Mikomoto,  province  of  Idsu :  Tro-o-gaki,  do. ; 
Omaisaki,  Suruga  Gulf;  Toha,  Toba  Harbor;  Matoya, 
Southern  Head;  Kashinosaka.  province  of  Kii  ;  Siworni- 
saki,  do. ;  Tomangnisima,  Isumi  Strait ;  Temposan,  Osaka; 
Wada-no-misaki,  Kobe  anchorage  :  Yesaki,  entrance  to  the 
Inland  Sea:  Nabacsima,  Inland  Sua;  Tsurisima,  Inland 
Sea;  Isaki.  entrance  to  Simonoseki  Straits:  Rokuren, 
do.;  Iwosiraa,  Nagasaki  Harbor:  Satanomisaki.  island  of 
Kiusiu  ;  Awomori.  province  of  Mutsn;  Isbinomaki.  prov- 
ince of  Uikuzen  ;  Noshiaf-saki,  island  of  Yesso  ;  Nonicro. 
island  of  Yesso — numbering  in  all  20.  The  Li.jhfHhipH  are 
two— in  Yokohama  Bay  and  the  harbor  of  Hakodate  ;  and 
the  great  buoys  and  be.acons  number  U.  All  the  light- 
houses here  mentioned  are  built  and  conducted  according 
to  the  most  approved  ideas  of  modern  times.  Notwith- 
standing the  necessarily  heavy  cost  of  maintenance  of  the 
lighthouse  establishment,  no  dues  are  levied  on  vessels 
visiting  the  ports  of  the  empire. 

Imprrial  Afi'nt. — Tile  coinaire  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
founded  on  the  plan  of  the  V.  S.,  was  commenced  in  1871, 
since  which  time  the  old  and  various  styles  of  Japanese 


money  have  gone  out  of  existence.  The  coin  called  a  yen 
is  equivalent  to  the  American  dollar,  and  is  made  of  both 
gold  and  silver  ;  the  sen  is  equal  to  the  American  cent ;  and 
the  rt'»i  is  the  same  as  the  American  mill.  The  gold  yens 
are  divided  into  the  following  denominations:  twenty,  ten, 
five,  two,  and  one;  the  silver  coins  are  f'.r  one  yen,  fifty 
sen,  twenty  sen,  ten  sen,  and  five  sen:  and  the  copper 
money  is  for  two  sen,  one  sen.  half  sen,  and  one  rin.  Down 
to  Feb.,  1875,  the  number  of  ])ieees  coined  at  the  imperial 
mint  amounted  to  136.n85.541.  and  their  value  in  yens  was 
61,421,744,  or  of  gold  40.502.1'.12.  silver  14.110.411,  and 
co])per  400,841.  In  Mar..  1S75.  it  was  stated  in  the  public 
prints  of  Yedo  that  coin  to  the  value  of  20.000.000  yens  had 
been  exported  from  Japan.  In  their  general  cliaractcristica 
the  coins  of  Japan  are  quite  equal  to  those  of  the  U.S.  Tho 
Japanese  historians  claim  thai  copper  was  melted  in  Japan 
as  far  back  as  a.  n.  698  in  the  province  of  Suwo,  whilst 
ten  years  later — in  708 — they  coined  their  first  copper 
money.  It  was  called  wa-do-kai-zeni,  and  was  cast  in  the 
province  of  Musashi.  Prior  to  that  period,  however,  there 
bad  been  a  silver  coin  in  use,  which  was  prohibited  on  the 
appearance  of  tho  copper  coin  ;  and  the  first  gold  used  as 
money  was  coined  about  twenty  years  after  the  appearanco 
of  the  copper  coin. 

Minerals. — The  Pulijoined  items  of  information  will  illus- 
trate the  fact  tiiat  the  mineral  wealth  of  Jajian  has  liittierto 
been  very  extensive,  and  will  naturally  suggest  the  idea 
that  the  future  dcyelopments,  conducted  by  modern  inven- 
tions connected  with  mining,  are  likely  greatly  to  increase 
the  wealth  of  that  empire.  Copper  has  been  found  and 
smelted  in  not  less  than  forty  provinces.  Copper,  silver, 
and  gold  have  been  exported  on  a  large  scale  ever  since 
1545.  There  is  no  mention  in  any  of  the  .Japanese  records 
that  any  of  these  minerals  had  ever  been  impctrted,  but 
they  do  state  that  williin  the  space  of  240  years  the  copper 
exported,  chiefly  through  the  Dutch  merchants,  amounted 
to  4,209,500  piculs.  Of  this  copper  there  are  many  kinds, 
but  bar  copper  is  tho  most  valuu!)le.  The  gold  and  silver 
ex|)orted  by  the  Portuguese  bet%veen  the  years  1550  and 
1639  (89  years)  amounted  in  value  to  £59,500.000  sterling. 
In  1671  the  exportation  of  silver  was  prohibited  for  a 
time.  The  Dutch  were  also  large  exporters  of  the  same 
minerals.  Pri.ir  and  subsequent  to  the  year  1830.  from 
50,000  to  60,000  piculs  were  exported  annually  ;  since  then 
the  exportation  has  reached  a  total  of  40.000,000  piculs. 
Silver  ore  was  discovered  in  667.  and  in  that  century  the  first 
gold  was  coined;  silver  mcfal  hist  ]>roduced  in  671.  Between 
the  years  1-100  and  IfiOO  much  larger  amounts  of  the  precious 
metals  were  smclled  tlian  in  modern  times.  Lead  ores  are 
abundant,  but  that  mineral  has  never  been  popular  among 
the  Japanese.  Iron  ores  of  many  kinds  are  also  found  in 
large  quantities  ;  also  superi<ir  varieties  of  coal ;  and  wiliiin 
the  last  few  years  special  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
development  of  these  important  sources  of  wealth.  Hitherto, 
the  metallurgy  of  Japan  has  not  been  fully  described  by 
any  author.  The  work  of  Yon  Siebold,  Nipun  Arcfu'r,  was 
never  finished,  and  its  informatif>n  is  meagre,  and  the  work 
of  Ka^mpfer  is  not  considered  authentic.  The  leading 
works  on  this  subject  by  Japanese  authors  are  as  follows  : 
(1)  Sini'fcai-mei-(lzH-kuicat\  in  5  vols.;  (2)  Ifint-zo-l-o- 
Moku'Kri-mo,  1  large  vol.;  (3)  Ko-do-Shu-ruku,  a  manual 
for  the  metallurgy  of  copper,  a  small  volume. 

Popnlntion. — The  last  census  of  Jajjan  was  taken  in  1872, 
or  the  fifth  year  of  Meiji,  the  2532il  year  from  (he  accession 
of  Jimmu  Tenno.  The  number  of  colonies  is  I  ;  organized 
cities,  3;  kens,  73;  provinces.  ^C);  koris  or  departments, 
717:  kus  or  city  parishes.  6862;  muras  or  rural  parishes, 
70.413:  towns.  12,535;  Sintu  shrines.  128.123;  Booddhist 
temples,  08,914  ;  and  houses,  7,107,841.  Total  ])opulation, 
33,110,825:  males,  16,796,158;  females,  10,314,667. 

Acps.  Mfilo*.  Fomalc«i. 

14  and  under 4..'".90.91.^  4,4tV),39.'J 

15-21    2.030.0.11)  Rrtaari 

21-40   r),005.747r  6.G38.0G3 

GO-SO    1,4.T,'5,.^(I7  }  5,091,070 

80  and  above "S.-I-IO  I1S,24S 

Age  unknown 1,844  1.K90 

16,796,158  16^^14,687 

Number  of  maimed,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb:  males,  63,759; 
females,  37,828.  Criminals  in  prison:  males.  2311;  fe- 
males. 119;  in  penal  settlements,  males,  962;  females,  26; 
criminals  at  hard  labor,  males,  272G  ;  females.  320.  Tntdca 
and  Cla»9rH. — Farmers,  14.870.426;  artisans.  701,416;  mer- 
chants, 1,300.191;  miscellaneous  occupations,  2,129.522; 
total.  10,010,555.  Princes  and  princesses.  29  :  nobles,  2666  ; 
shizoku  (armed  class,  upper  grade),  1.282.167  ;  sotsu  (armed 
class,  lower  grade),  650,074;  chishi  (still  lower  grade), 
5316;  priests,  211.846;  Sintu  officials,  102.477:  nuns, 
9621  ;  common  people.  30.857,271  ;  in  Saghalien.  2358, 

Letfiffativ*  In  farm  nt  inn. — National  or  provincial  legisla- 
tures, according  to  the  acceptc<l  plan  of  the  AVestern  na- 


JAPAN. 


1377 


tions,  are  not  known  in  Japan.  What  has  hitherto  been 
called  a  parliauient  was  di-liberative  in  its  character,  but 
its  mciiibcra  were  appuiuted  by  Iho  government,  and  not 
elected  by  the  people.  The  native  press  of  Jiipiui,  however, 
has  lately  been  discussing  the  propriety  of  h;iving  a  na- 
tional deliberative  assembly,  whose  uiemliers  should  ac- 
tually represent  the  people  :  and,  :i?  a  promising  beginning 
in  this  direction,  it  was  announced  in  ^lar.,  ISTo,  that  sub- 
ordinate assemblies  had  already  been  established  in  the 
kens  of  Yamaguchi  and  lliogo — that  they  had  been  unex- 
pectedly successful,  and  mot  with  the  cordial  npjirobation 
of  the  people.  It  was  also  announced  that  the  members 
of  the  council  of  state  had  taken  a  friendly  interest  in 
these  assemblies,  and  that  the  prospect  was  really  encourag- 
ing that  it  would  not  be  long  before  Japan  would  have  what 
the  natives  designate  a  great  house  of  assembly.  Indeed, 
just  as  this  paper  is  going  to  press  intelligeneo  has  been 
received  that  a  regular  parliament,  founded  on  the  model 
of  the  British  Parliament,  has  been  partially  decided  upon 
by  the  imperial  governnionf,  and  that  the  propfc  of  Japan 
are  likidy  to  be  heard  in  a  house  of  commons. 

Japftnrne  Literature. — The  subjoined  summary  of  tho 
literature  of  Japan  is  compiled  from  a  native  author,  and 
is  reliable.  The  Japanese  possess  a  copious  literature,  have 
a  fondness  for  reading,  and  indulge  themselves  in  study  to 
a  remarkable  degree.  Their  catalogues  of  published  works 
are  numerous  and  voluminous,  and  the  native  books  are 
divided  into  three  general  classes,  as  follows :  Kantfahu,  or 
Chinese  classical  literature  and  works  on  tho  subject.  In 
this  class  may  bo  included  works  on  iJooildhism,  written  in 
Chinese,  as  well  as  the  commentaries  on  these,  and  the  form 
of  verse  known  as  Shi  by  native  authors;  Wa-gakUf  or 
native  books  upon  exclusively  Japanese  subjects,  such  as 
history,  geography,  books  upon  subjects  of  local  interest, 
art,  and  ancient  legends  written  in  verse;  an»l  Krufthn,  or 
novels,  tales,  and  historical  events  worked  up  into  romances. 
Of  this  class  they  possess  an  immense  variety,  and  many 
of  the  circulating  libraries  are  chiefly  composed  of  these 
productions.  Among  tho  more  noted  of  the  older  writers 
may  bo  mentioned  Kiosan,  Kioden,  SekUu,  Samba,  and 
II  ikuba,  who:<c  productions  range  from  romantic  history 
to  very  romantic  fiction.  Some  of  tho  more  popular  writers 
of  later  limes  are  Bakkin,  whose  tales  embodicl  real  names 
and  des  Tiptions;  Tanehiko,  who  described  his  own  times, 
just  before  tho  advent  of  Europeans:  Tnmcnaga,  a  very 
popular  novelist;  Rei  Sanyow,  noted  for  his  histories; 
Scigan,  a  poet,  writing  in  Chinese;  Motoori,  a  writer  on 
language;  Atstane,  an  essayist;  Oguni  Takamasa,  a  poet; 
and  Nakamura  and  Fiikugawa,  both  of  whom  are  English 
scholars,  but  stand  at  tho  head  of  tho  moro  useful  writers 
of  the  present  day,  and  who  have  translated  into  their 
language  selections  from  tho  writings  of  very  many  of  tho 
modern  writers  of  America  and  Europe.  The  writers  of 
!ogon<ls,  travels,  antl  romantic  tales  swell  the  list  <>f  modern 
Japanese  authors  to  a  large  number.  Unhappily,  many 
of  tho  books  of  Japan  do  but  little  to  edify  or  improve  the 
morals  of  tho  people. 

With  regard  to  poetry  tho  Japanese  are  by  no  means  de- 
ficient in  tho  true  sentiment,  but  their  ideas  of  metro  and 
melody  are  peculiar.  What  is  called  long  poetry  is  formed 
of  sentences  of  seven  and  five  syllables  alternately.  Short 
poetry  consists  of  thirty-one  syllables  only — the  first  sen- 
tence comprising  fivo,  the  second  seven,  the  third  five,  and 
the  fourth  and  fifth  seven  syllables  each.  These  poems 
are  generally  written  on  long  and  narrow  strips  of  orna- 
mcntod  cardboard,  measuring  fourteen  by  about  thrco 
inches,  which  arc  called  Tnnz'ihu.  In  tho  Il'niha  poetry 
tho  syllables  follow  in  the  same  order,  but  are  read  differ- 
ently. Tho  Znotohn  has  tho  same  number  of  syllables, 
but  so  formed  as  to  demand  a.  poetical  reply  of  the  same 
order.  Si-i'l'tolcu  possesses  a  similar  syllabic  order  and  for- 
mati  in,  but  tho  beginning  and  ending  consist  of  words  or 
characters  of  like  meaning.  The  Kioka  is  tho  ordinary 
poem  of  thirty  syllables  in  tho  same  order.  The  Omit- 
ijntjnnhi  is  similar  to  the  X>mtokn,  with  tho  exception  that 
the  two  verses,  question  and  rciily,  have  only  one  of  tho 
thirty  one  syllables  different.  In  the  change  of  this  the 
mr-rit  of  the  performance  consists.  The  (iriku  is  an  acrostic 
of  thirty-one  syllables,  divided  into  lines  of  five  and  seven 
syllables,  twice  alternating  in  one  of  seven  syllables.  Tho 
first  syllable  or  character  of  each  lino  is  given  arbitrarily. 
Tho  ffttiktiikn  is  of  tho  same  number  and  order  of  sylla- 
bles, but  is  simply  a  poetical  play  on  wordn  <ir  a  proverb. 
Th"*  Ilriifjn  is  the  linminnku  or  verse  of  five,  seven,  and  five 
syllables,  answered  by  the  Sftimnuokn,  of  seven  and  seven 
syllables,  the  whole  forming  a  poem  of  thirly-one.  Tho 
/fm'kfii  is  similar  to  the  fieut/n,  though  commonly  employed 
upon  moro  trivial  subjects.  Both  are  called  Tznkrni  or 
"joining."  The  Hokku  is  the  five,  seven,  and  five,  or  poem 
of  seventeen  syllables.  The.S'fiir/ii  has  five,  seven,  and  fivo 
syllables,  and  is  a  jeu-de-mota.  It  only  remains  to  bo  add- 
Voi..  II.— S7 


ed  that  a  people  who  have  such  a  variety  of  styles  in  ex- 
pressing their  thoughts  cannot  but  be  gifted  in  the  utter- 
ance of  the  most  noble  and  beautiful  and  inspiring  of  sen- 
timents and  poetical  reflections. 

7'he  Japaucne  Lnnffutuje. — Without  going  into  a  learned 
disquisition  on  this  subject,  the  subjoined  general  state- 
ments may  be  accepted  as  correct.  Prior  to  tho  period, 
nearly  1200  years  ago,  when  the  Japanese  imbibed  certain 
ideas  from  the  Chinese  in  regard  to  languairc,  their  own 
tongue  does  not  appear  to  have  been  reducecl  to  writing. 
In  the  earliest  known  writings,  in  prose  as  well  as  poetry, 
the  square  and  unabbreviated  form  of  the  Chinese  charac- 
ters is  used  ])honeticalIy  to  represent  the  sounds  of  the 
Japanese  syllables.  These  characters  were  called  Karinay 
or  borrowed  names,  and  subsequently  contracted  into  what 
is  now  called  the  Knua,  which  is  syllabary,  and  consists 
of  forty-eight  letters  ;  and  when  more  or  less  abbreviated 
and  simplified  in  form  these  characters  arc  called  Hirn- 
kana,  or  plain  letters,  and  aro  at  the  present  time  the  com- 
mon symbols  used  in  writing  the  native  Japanese.  An- 
other class  of  characters  is  called  A'tita-kntm,  or  side  let- 
ters, which  arc  also  derived  from  tho  Chinese,  but  in  which 
only  a  part  of  tho  character  is  used.  These  are  more  an- 
cient than  tho  I/ira-kaua.  and  aro  commonly  only  used  by 
scholars  or  in  dictionaries.  Another  form  of  the  h'awi  was 
invented  by  a  Booddhist  priest  about  1000  years  ago,  for 
the  purpose  of  assimilating  it  to  the  letters  used  in  the  sa- 
cred books  of  tho  Booddhists  throughout  the  great  countries 
of  Asia.  Tho  syllables  of  the  Japanese  language  ntimbcr  72, 
and  from  tho  fact  that  the  greatest  care  has  to  ho  taken  not 
to  writo  them  indiscriminately,  and  thereby  infringe  upon 
ancient  usage,  the  difiiculties  of  uttering  and  writing  them 
are  very  great,  and  not  often  fully  surmounted  by  English- 
speaking  people.  In  its  sound  tho  Japanese  language  is 
soft,  and  allieil  to  tho  Italian.  The  books  that  have  latterly 
been  published  upon  it  are  not  numerous,  but  by  far  tho 
most  important  and  valuable  is  the  JnpaurKc  and  English 
Dirtionarif,  prepared  in  1SC7  by  J.  C.  Hepburn,  and  in 
which  that  indefatigable  scholar  has  defined  not  less  than 
20,000  words.  The  only  works  of  this  character,  and  of 
special  value,  which  preceded  that  of  Dr.  Hepburn,  were 
published  by  W.  II.  Mcdhurst  in  Batavia  in  1S30,  and  by 
the  Jesuit  missionaries  to  .Japan  in  1(^0^!.  In  writing,  the 
Japanese  begin  on  tho  right  side  of  the  page,  prccccd 
in  vertical  columns,  and  make  free  use  of  diacritic  and 
punctuating  signs. 

As  no  adequate  idea  of  tho  sound  of  Japanese  words  can 
be  obtained  without  first  understanding  tho  alphabet,  we 
submit  it  to  tho  reader,  as  follows:  i-,  ro-,  ha-,  ni'-,  ho-, 
he-,  to-,  chi-,  ri~,  ntt-f  ru-,  wo-,  wa-,  ka-j  yo-,  ta-,  re-,  no-, 
tar.-,  UC-,  na-,  ra-,  ?»?/-,  u-,  i-,  no-,  o-,  kii-,  J/a-,  ma-,  kc-, 
_/*«-,  ko-,  yc-,  tc-,  a-,  sa-,  kt-,  ffi-,  7»c-,  »i('  ,  ahi-,  ye-,  hi-, 
HIO-,  He-,  ez-,  and  n- ;  in  all.  forty-eight  syllabary  letters. 
Tho  characters  represented  by  tho  above  are  written  in 
two  ways,  and  occasional!}'  an  extra  meaning  is  given  by 
tho  addition  of  marks  and  signs.  In  expressing  the  si>uncl 
of  tho  Japanese  vowels  tho  continental  pronunciation  has 
been  followed,  because  of  its  being  more  dcnnite  than  the 
English  ;  tho  .lapanese  have  been  accustomerl  to  it  for  two 
or  moro  centuries,  and  in  all  the  books  written  by  Europeans 
it  has  been  regularly  adopt<'d. 

Dialectic  variations  aro  numerous  anrl  depend  chicfiy  on 
modifications  of  sound.  In  the  Japanese  grannnar  there 
is  no  gender,  the  nutle  sex  being  indicate*!  by  ro  and  tho 
female  by  mr;  substantives  aro  nearly  allied  to  adjectives; 
there  is  no  ])ro])er  article;  cases  aro  indicated  by  Fufiixes; 
tho  plural  is  formed  by  suflixes,  which  signify  all,  innvh, 
many:  the  genitive  precedes;  the  numerals  aro  various;  of 
figures  there  are  thrco  sets  of  numbers;  of  pronouns,  those 
of  tho  first  and  second  person  have  been  lost  in  the  words 
of  etif|uctte;  demonstratives  are  numerous;  relatives  are 
wanting:  verbs  are  jierfect ;  certain  particles  denote  tho 
moods;  tho  participles  are  of  extensive  application;  ad- 
verbs are  similar  to  adjectives;  tho  syntax  adheres  to  a 
strict  order;  compounds  and  derivatives  arc  easy  and  fre- 
quent; and  many  simple  w(»rds  have  significations  which 
are  discriminated  by  sinograms. 

By  way  of  giving  the  reatler  an  idea  of  .Tapancso  when 
spoken,  wo  submit  the  following  specimens  from  a  standard 
vocabulary:  (^od,  Kami,  Shin,  Kntitkr;  man,  h'to,  uin,  in'n- 
grn  otoko;  woman,  ouiia,  fujio,  jo:  husband,  ntto  Irishn, 
tntik't,  tHzma,  tonnijn;  wife,  tazma,  kanai  niynhn,  nai'ji  ka- 
minnn,  okniantn,  »ni*;  world,  nrkai,  rhikin,  trurhi  trnka,  «r- 
/rcti,  yo  nrj'i,  nrji;  country,  kuui,  kokn,  tnchi,  inaka,  zaitjn, 
knkka;  rice,  momi:  silk,  kinit,  tto;  porcelain,  neinmono; 
enemy,  tcki,  kafnki  ada;  friend,  tomodnrhi,  hi'yn,  h'-hai, 
miknta,  yoruhr  taynri:  and  religion,  onhiyr,  nitrhi  ho  li't. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  are  often  many  ways  of  ex- 
pressing tho  same  idea,  and  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  tho  natives  of  one  province  of  the  Jnpaneso  empire 
aro  often  unable  to  understand  those  of  another. 


1378 


JAPAN  CLOVEBr-JAPANNING. 


Japan,,.  Slnde«t,  in  Foreion  £<,«rf,.--Among  the  many 
remarUaWc  events  which  marked  the  advent  to  power  ot 
the  present  emperor  of  Japan  was  that  of  sendmg  prom.s- 
in"  young  men  to  foreign  countries  to  be  educated.     Jhu- 
was  done  at  the  expense  of  the  general  government   n,,d 
the  idea  was,  that  the  persons  thus  honored  ehould  even- 
„"llv  give  their  services  to  their  country.     The  larges 
proportion  of   these  students  were  sent  '"America,  but 
manv  of  them  went  to  England,  France,  and  Germany    The 
"otal'nuraV.er  who  came  to  the  U.  S.  was  about  600.    Many 
of  them,  after  their  return  to  Japan,  entered  the  pub  ic  de- 
partments, and  all  the  men  who  are  in  1875  m  ofiicial  posi- 
tions in  the  II.  S.  were  formerly  government  ^tudcnts.     In 
lS73the  Japanese  government,  for  reasons  that  have  not 
been  publicly  explained,  recalled  nearly  all  the  students,    o 
that  those  who  are  now  studying  in  forcgn  lands  arc,  with 
few  exceptions,  receiving  their  foreign  education  as  private 
individuals.     Among  the  Japanese  students  sent  abroad 
have  been  manv  who  displayed  very  remarkable  ab.lit.es, 
and  some  of  their  writings,  published  in  18,2,  were  highly 
praised  both  in   the  U.  S.  and  in  England.     Among  the 
Students  who  cumc  to  America  in  18T1  were  five   young 
ladies,  and  as  thev  were  the  first  who  ever  left  the  emp.re 
of  Japan  for  purposes  of  foreign  study,  we  append  their 
names,  as  follows:  Rio  Yoshimas,  aged  fifteen  years ;  Tei 
AVooveda,  aged  fifteen;  Stematz  Yamagawa.  aged  twelve; 
Shin-e  Na-ai,  aged  ten:  and  Ume  Tsuda,  between  s<3ven 
and  ci-ht  years  of  age.'    The  first  two,  for  consider.ations 
of  a  personal  nature,  were  oliliged  to  return  to  Japan  m 
187''   but  the  three  others  are  still  in  the  U.  S.,  and  all  ot 
them  prosecuting  their  studies  in  a  manner  that  is  consid- 
ered quite  remarkable,  even  the  youngest  of  them  being 
now   able  to  write  a  correct  and  handsome  letter  m  the 
En.'lish  language.     The  Japan  Mail  in  an  article  on  the 
Japanese  students  made  the  following  observations  :  '  The 
Japanese  students  abroad  were  so  earnest,  diligent,  polite, 
Quick,  and  eager  to  learn  that  they  won  plaudits  even  from 
those  unused  to  praise.     The  president  of  a  Massachusetts 
coUe.'c  said  he  wished  to  have  a  .Tapanese  in  every  college 
in    A°merica  to  teach  the  undergraduates   good  manners. 
The  principal  of  a  Connecticut  high  school  saul  publicly 
that  a  body  of  young  men  of  such  powers  of  observation 
as  the  Japanese  students  exhibited  could  not  be  found  in 
America.     The  journals  of  England  and  Germany,  as  well 
as  of  America,  stinted  no  praise  of  the  graceful  Orientals 
in    their  schools.     Several  of  the   .Japanese  students  won 
distinctions  at  English,  German,  and  French  un.versit.es 
and  at  American  colleges,  and  others  would  have  assuredly 
done  so  hiid  not  the  grave  come  between  them   and  the 
goal      All  these  things  tended  to  produce  the  opinion  held 
by  some  that  the  average  Japanese  is  even  superior  to  the 
average  American  or  European  student."  _ 

School  SlathHcs.—Tha  following  figures   arc  given   to 
represent  the  educational  interests  in  Japan  in  1874:  gov- 
ernment schools,  7;  teachers,  95;  Japanese  teachers,  51  ; 
forci-n  teachers,  45  ;    public  and  private  schools  in  the 
vario°i9    fus    and   kens,    0261;    teachers,    5856 ;    studen  s, 
47''  017.     To   these   should   be   added  3  normal    schools. 
The=e  were  all  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  educa- 
tional department,  the  head  of  which  is  the  vice-minister 
of  public  instruction— a  most  earnest  and  competent  gen- 
tleman—Tanaka  Fujmaro.    In  1872  a  law  was  promulgated 
by  the  imperial  government  which  decreed  the  establish- 
ment of  53,760  schools  in  Japan,  and  while  some  progress 
has  been  made,  it  will  be  years,  probably,  before  it  can  bo 
fully  consummated.     Some  of  the  provisions  of  the  afore- 
said law  are  as  follows :  Eventually  the  people  will  pay  all 
expenses,  but  for  the  present  the  government  will  as^s.st  by 
paving  salaries  and  expenses  of  foreign  teachers,  the  cost 
of 'building  high  schools,  and  providing  books  and  instru- 
ments and  allowances  to  foreign  students       The  annua 
appropriation  for  these  objects  has  thus  far  been  about 
$300,000.     The  educational  eslablishmcnts  which  are  now 
in  sueccssful  operation  in  Yedo  are  as  follows :  The  Dai 
Gakko,  or  universitv,  which  includes  several  separate  col- 
leges for  the  study  of  medicine,  jurisprudence,  philosophy, 
and  mining,  as  also  a  polvtechnio  college.    The  veterinary, 
commercial,  and  agricultural  colleges,  as  likewise  the  col- 
logo  of  arts,  hare  not  as  yet  been  opened.     The  Go  Oakko, 
a  school  for  instruction  in  foreign  languages;  several  pri- 
vate schools,  designed  likewise  for  imparting  instruction 
in   foreign  languages;    the   Shi    Han    Gakko,  or   normal 
school  for  the  instruction  of  Japanese  teachers ;  a  princi- 
pal female  school;  several  preparatory  schools;  and  cer- 
tain establishments  in  connection  with  some  of  the  public 
departments,  which  arc  designed  for  imparting  knowledge 
of  special  subjects.     The  most  competent  observers  agree 
in  the  opinion  that  Japan  is  in  no  sense  an  illiterate  na- 
tion.    The  number  of  persons  who  cannot  read  and  write 
is  a'  small  minority.     Even  the  more  common  classes  can 
read  the  ordinary  Kana.  Charles  Lanman. 


Japan  Clover  (Lcspedeza  atriala),  a  plant  introduced 
in  some  unknown  manner  into  the  Southern  States  of  the 
tJ  S  before  1845  from  Eastern  Asia,  and  which  has  spread 
Avith  wonderful  rapidity.  It  is  a  low  annual,  growing  to 
the  height  of  little  over  a  foot  on  the  poorest  soils,  is 
readily  eaten  by  cattle,  and  has  become  popular  with 
stock-raisers. 

Japan'ning.     The  art  of  applying  a  peculiarly  dura- 
ble and    beautiful  varnish  as  practised    in    Japan,  from 
which  countrv  the  name  is  derived.     The  original  process 
in  its  hi'^hcst  form  is  very  difficult  and  complicated.     It 
applied  to  wood,  great  care  is  taken  to  prepare  the  latter, 
it  being  baked  for  many  days  and  tested  to  ensure  it  Irom 
cracking.     The  varnish  itself  is  the  resinous  product  of 
a  bush  called  the    onrosi  no  ?.■!,  or  varnish-plant    (Ehut 
re-mi  r)      The  Chinese  make  it,  but  of  inferior  quality,  from 
theiimia  Sinensis  or  the  tsirlwn  and  tsaU-hon  ((:aiiton  dia- 
lect)     According  to  Fisscher  and  Tomlinson,  the  lacker  is 
obtained  by  incision.     It  ia  at  first  ercam-like,  but  becomes 
black  by  exposure.      A  fine  powder  of  charred  wood  i8 
added  after  it  has  become  black,  and  this  being  very  evenly 
applied,  it  is  dried  in  the  sun,  the  charred  wood  giving  " 
a  peculiar  body  and  preparing  it  for  polishing.     The  re- 
duction of  the  varnish  and  tho  mixing  with  the  powder 
are  very  carefully  executed  by  very  tedious  processes,    iivc 
coats  of  varnish  are   applied,  each  being  dried  with    ho 
greatest  care.    It  becomes  glass-like  in  its  hardness,  and  .9 
extremely  tough,  so  as  to  resist  the  action  of  boiling  water. 
It  is  then  polished  with  a  smooth  stone  and  water  (accord- 
ing to  Fisscher,  with  reeds  or  a  bamboo,  as  De  Jancigry 
understands  him,  hut  Fisscher  probably  means  with  f^u.j- 
elwn  or  Dutch  rush).    When  applied  to  pap.er-machS  boxes 
or  cups  the  varnish  forms  a  bindin;,  like  an  enamel,  and  la 
no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  object.     Figures  are  painted 
on  the  polished  surface  with  turpentine,  or  gilding  is  np- 
nlied    lifter  which  the  whole  is   finished  with  another  coat 
of  varnish.      Mother-of-pearl  is  often  set  in  the  varn.sh 
Different  methods  of  priming  the  objects  to  be  varni.-hed 
are  followed;  a  common  one  is  to  apply  rotten-stone  and 
ox-gall      Of  course  the   excellence  of  the  coating  is  im- 
proved by  multiplying  the  coats,  and  in  some  eases  twenty 
or  more  are  applied.     This  is  the  true  .lapanningof  the 
East      In  Europe  and  America  tho  so-called  japanning  so 
frequently  seen  on  a.tieles  of  sheet  metal,  and  which  has  a 
rich  and'peculiar  lustre,  generally  of  a  warm  semi-trans- 
parent  kind,  is  efi-ectcd  by  applying  different   varnishes 
eopal    or    anime,  by  the  agency  of  heat.     The  varnish  is 
colored    or    qualified  with    lampblack,  asphaltum,  white, 
green,  or  any  other  color  required.     Gold  and  silver  or 
bronze  arc  also  applied  with  size  and  powder,  and  subse- 
quently varnished  and  polished  by  a  variety  of  processes. 
In  general,  the  color  is  laid  on  first,  and  the  japanning  is 
effected  by  laving  on  several  coats  of  varnish,  the  lustre 
and  quality  o'f  which  are  increased  by  their  being  made 
without  drving-matter.     When  only  a  single  coat  of  var- 
nish  is  used,  tho  object  being  rather  to  imitate  japanning 
in  its  best  form,  tho  process  liecomcs  lackering  (see  J-AC- 
keb)  •  while  on  tho  other  hand  lackering,  when  very  fine 
varnish  is  used,  and  heat  ia  applied,  is  inferior  japanning. 
Ovens  of  different  patterns  arc  specially  constructed  lor 
drving  in  japanning.     Japanned  or  patent  leather  is  made 
in' the  greatest  perfection  in  Japan,  and  next  in  I- ranee. 
It  is  effected  bv  applying  to  good,  dry,  thin  leather  a  com- 
position of  linseed  oil  and  turpentine  colored  with  burnt 
umber  and  ivory  or  lampblack.     Several  coats  arc  laid  on, 
and  each  thoroughly  dried,  the  outer  or  last  coats  being  made 
quite  black.     The  thinner  the  eont  applied  and  the  more 
thoroughly  it  is  dried,  tho  more  pliable  will  the  leather  be, 
and  thS  m'ore  dnrable  the  coating.     The  varn..4i  ,s  made 
with  Prussian  blue,  or  any  color  deemed  suitable  to  g.ye 
the  tone  required,  and  oil.     It  is  reduced  or  rendered  fluid 
with  turpentine.     After  several  coats  are  appliedand  dried, 
it  is  scraped  and  polished  with  pumico-stonc.     (.rca  pains 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  dust  from  falling  on  the  leather 

during  the  process.  ,•    ,        .  „„i„  »„ 

The  term  japanning  is  improperly  applied  not  only  to 
simple  lackering  and  varnishing,  but  also  to  difierent  kinds 
of  mineral  and  glass  or  porcelain  glazing,  or  in  fae  to  vit- 
rification. True  japanning  consists  of  the  application  ol 
several  coats  of  varLisb.  andof  drying  and  polishing  these 
so  as  to  ensure  the  peculiar  durability  and  gloss  character- 
istic of  the  Oriental  processes,  and  not  in  a  ^"Vl^f'''"-]'"}; 
itation  of  it,  much  less  in  effecting  results  of  »"  J«  ''.y 
different  nature,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  glazing  and  Mtri- 
fieation,  have  already  received  much  better  and  far  more 
charaet;ristic  names.  It  is  to  be  des  red  that  writers  on 
technology  should  be  more  careful  in  this  as  in  many  other 
oaserand  not  adopt  the  errors  of  merely  practical  men. 
We  inav  observe  with  Tomlinson  that  in  japanning  every 
workman  has  his  own  favorite  method  of  preparation  and 
of  mHing  his  varnishes,  since  the  differences  of  climate. 


JAPHETH— JASHEE,  BOOK  OF. 


1379 


temperature,  and  maCerialfl  in  dtffereot  countries  will  inev- 
itably compel  tbo  iululligcnt  wurkman  to  depart  raoro  or 
Ie?a  from  auy  csta.l)iishcil  formula.  Japauniug  as  applied 
to  many  fancy  articles  is  a  truly  elegant  art,  ami  so  far 
from  being  merely  mechanical  that  there  is  perhaps  none 
in  which  the  results  arc  more  indicative  of  individual  skill 
and  intelligence.  Ciiaiiles  G.  Leland. 

Ja'pheth  [Heb.  r\D\  Yc'pheth,  "  widesprcading"  or 
"fair'*],  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Xoah,  mentioned  last  in 
order,  but  held  by  critics  (see  Gen.  x.  21)  to  have  been 
tho  eldest — one  of  the  eight  persons  preserved  in  the  ark, 
and  the  progenitor  to  whom  is  ascribed  (Gen.  i.)  the  peo- 
pling of  tho  northern  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  and  perhaps 
Thrace.  Most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  are  usually  de- 
duced from  Japheth.  who  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
the  (ireek  lapctos.  tho  father  of  Prometheus.  The  only 
specific  act  of  Japheth  recorded  in  the  Bible  is  one  of  filial 
piety  to  his  fjither  when  drunken  (Gen.  ix.  20-27),  which 
obtained  for  him  the  prophecy,  *'  God  shall  enlarge  Japheth, 
and  he  shall  dwell  in  the  tents  ofShem;  and  Canaan  sliall 
be  his  servant."  Japheth  seems  to  have  been  born  100 
years  before  the  Flood  (Gen.  v.  32) :  the  length  of  his  life 
is  not  mentioned,  but  his  brother  Shem  lived  502  years 
after  the  Flood  (Gen.  xi.  11 ).  which  may  be  conjectured  to 
have  been  (he  averatre  period  allotted  to  the  sons  of  Xoah. 
It  is  noticeable  that  tho  Greek  mythology  makes  lapetos 
the  ancestor  of  the  human  race.  Nothiug  is  known  as  to 
the  locality  inhabited  I>y  Japheth  after  the  Flood,  but  gene- 
alogical reasons  would  favor  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Mount  Ararat. 

Japa'ra,  Ilyapnra,  or  Caqiict'a,  a  river  of  South 
America,  risfs  in  the  Andes  of  Kcuador,  in  lat.  1°  20'  N. 
and  Ion.  76**  JO'  \\'.,  runs  first  between  Ecuador  and  New 
Granada,  then  through  Brazil,  and  enters  the  Amazon  at 
lat.  1°  20'  S.  and  Ion,  72°  20'  W.,  after  a  course  of  about 
1000  miles.  It«  navigation  is  much  impeded  by  rapids  and 
cataracts. 

Japy'eiay  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  Apclia 
(which  see). 
Jarclin  (Kakel  or).  See  DnjAnnix. 
Jar'dine  (Gkorgk),  h.  at  Wandal,  Lanarkshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1742;  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University;  be- 
came a  licentiate  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  1774 
professor  of  logic  an'l  rhetoric.  In  this  chair  he  was  an 
able  exponent  of  the  characteristic  doctrines  of  tho  "  Scotch 
philosophy,"  distinguishing  himself  by  his  successful  efforts 
to  popularize  that  stu<ly,  and  publishing  in  1818  his  Ont- 
UntM  of  Phitonuphical  Education,  Ulitstrated  by  the  Method 
of  Tenchivfj  the  Loffic  CtnuH  in  the  Unt'rersittf  of  Glangow. 
Prof.  Jardine's  efforts  were  mainly  directed  to  the  encour- 
agement of  accurate  investigation  upon  any  given  tojuc, 
drawing  abundant  inferences  from  seemingly  isolated  facts. 
He  retired  from  his  post  in  1824.  and  d.  in  1S27. 

Jardinc  (?ir  Wim.iam),  Bart.,  b.  at  Applegarth.  Dum- 
friess-shire,  Scotland,  Feb.  2.3,  1800;  succeeded  to  the  baron- 
etcy in  I32I ;  gave  his  attention  chiefly  to  ornithology, 
though  a  voluminous  writer  upon  nil  the  vertebrate  ani- 
mals. Ho  edited  White's  Xaturftf  f /ifttory  of  Scl home  thvco 
times;  established  the  \fngnzine  of  Zoohxjif  and  /totmn/; 
assisted  in  conducting  the  Aiinn/«  of  Xatitral  Ifintortf  and 
the  Philonophirn!  Jouniai,  besides  publishing  a  Calendar 
of  Ornithohujjf  (1S40).     D.  in  1S74. 

Jaruac'«  town  of  France,  in  tho  department  of  Cha- 
rente,  16  miles  X.  W.  from  Angouleme.  Pop.  in  1806,  4241?. 
A  battle  was  fmight  hero  Mar.  1'*.,  l.*>69,  between  tho  IIu- 
guonols  under  the  prince  of  Conde  and  the  Catholics  under 
tho  duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III.,  in  which  tho 
former  were  defeated  and  Cond6  lost  his  life.  Jarnno  has 
given  the  title  of  barim  or  count  to  several  celebrated  per- 
sons, one  of  whom  died  in  the  current  year  (1875)  as  French 
minister  to  I^ngland.  It  popsesscs  a  suspension  bridge,  and 
enjoys  an  active  trade  in  wine  and  brandy,  being  only  11 
kilonit^tres  from  Cognac,  where  tho  finest  quality  of  tho 
latter  article  is  produecd. 
JaroNlav.     See  Yaroslav. 

Jar'row,  or  VarrOW,  town  of  Kngland.  in  the  county 
of  Durham,  is  situated  on  tho  Tynr.  and  has  extensive 
shipbuilding  yards,  manufactures  of  <'heniienls.  antl.  in  the 
ncighborhooil,  large  collieries.  In  (he  church  of  St.  Paul 
is  an  oaken  chair  which  is  said  to  havo  belonged  to  the 
Venerable  Hede.  whtt  wan  horn  in  tho  parish  and  buried  in 
this  churcli.     Pop.  18,170. 

Jar'ves  (Jamps  JArKRnN),b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  20, 
1818.  Weakness  of  the  eyes  compelling  him  to  desist  from 
study,  ho  travelled  extensively  on  this  continent,  visiting 
California,  Mcxiert,  anrl  Central  America,  and  resided  for 
some  years  at  Honolulu,  where  he  published  the  Pidi/ne- 
aianf  tbo  flrst  newspaper  printed  there.     Soon  after  his  re- 


turn from  these  journcyings  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he 
has  since  made  his  chief  residence,  mostly  in  Paris  and 
Florence,  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  art  and  to  the 
collection  of  a  giLJlcry  of  pictures  illustrating  tho  difi'crent 
schools  of  painting.  The  collection,  a  large  and  interest- 
ing one,  was  exhibited  in  New  York,  and  after  various  for- 
tunes (the  owner  being  unable  to  dispose  of  it  at  what  he 
considered  a  fair  valuation)  it  found  temporary  refuge  in 
the  Fine-Art  Gallery  of  Yale  College  at  New  Haven,  Conn. 
It  is  not,  however,  what  it  was,  many  of  the  best  pieces 
having  been  sold  to  private  purchasers.  Mr.  Jarves  has 
written  several  books:  A  History  of  the  Saudirich  hlandit. 
Scenes  and  Scenery  of  the  Satidtrtch  hland»,  Sccnen  and 
Scenery  in  Cnlifornin — all  in  1843-44.  Since  residing  in 
Europe  he  has  written  mainly  on  European  and  art  themes 
— Parisian  Sif/hts  and  French  Principles  (ISitb-bG),  Italian 
Sifjhts  and  Papal  Principles,  Confessions  of  an  Inquirer 
(18j7),  Art  Hints,  Art  Studies,  The  Art  Idea,  Art  ThonfjhtH 
(1S70) — works  of  a  blended  historical,  biographical,  crit- 
ical, and  philosophical  character. showing  a  cultivated  and 
thoughtful  mind.  Mr.  Jarves  is  well  known  in  Itaiy  as  a 
connoisseur,  is  an  honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  in  Florence,  and  has  received  other  similar  marks 
of  respect.  0.  B.  Frothixgham. 

Jar'vis  (.\braham),  B.  D.,  b.  at  Norwalk.  Conn.,  May 
5,  173'J:  graduated  at  Yalo  College  in  1761 ;  was  ordnineil 
deacon  and  priest  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
London  in  17G4,  in  which  year  ho  became  rector  of  Christ 
church,  Middletown.  In  i7*.'7  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Connecticut  to  succeed  Scabury.  and  settled  (1803)  at 
New  Haven,  where  he  d.  Maj'  3,  1813. 

Jarvis  (Edward).  A.  B.,  A.  M..  M.  D.,  b.  Jan.  0, 1803,  at 
Concord,  Mass.;  graduated  in  182G  from  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, and  from  the  med.  college  of  same  institution  in  1830; 
practised  in  Nnrthfield  nnd  Concord,  Mass.,  Louisville,  Ky., 
and  thirty-two  years  in  Dorchester,  Mass. :  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  vital  statistics,  the  laws  of  life  and  health, 
insanity,  etc.,  to  which  branches  of  science  he  has  made 
many  and  important  contributions.  His  principal  writings 
arc — Physitilof/y  and  Health,  Elementary  Physiology,  Re- 
port on  the  Nnmlier  and  Condition  if  the  Insane  and  Idiots 
of  Massnchnsetfs,  Report  on  the  Mortality  of  the  U.  S.  in  the 
Ctnnus  of  1S70,  besides  essays  in  journals  and  magazines, 
among  which  many  attracted  great  attention,  such  ns  The 
Increase  of  Human  Life,  Infant  Mortality,  Effect  of  Mmili- 
rectcd  Education  in  the  Production  of  Insanity,  Political 
Economy  of  Health.  Since  1852,  Dr.  Jarvis  has  been  pres- 
ident of  the  American  Statistical  Association. 

Jarvis  (Jons  Wesley),  b.  at  South  Shields,  on  tho 
Tyne,  England.  1780:  passed  his  infancy  with  his  uncle, 
the  celebrated  John  AVeslcy ;  came  to  America  at  the  age 
of  five  ;  his  father,  a  seafaring  man,  left  the  lad  in  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  obtained  such  instruction  as  he  could. 
Stuart  discouraged,  but  Malbone  eneouraged  him  ;  he  came 
to  New  York  as  an  engraver:  exeeuted  profiles  on  glass  in 
black  and  gold  leaf:  painted  miniatures,  but  soon  under- 
took portraits  in  oil,  and  rapidly  rose  to  eminence  by  the 
felicity  of  his  likenesses,  the  strength  of  his  drawing,  and 
the  truth  of  his  color.  His  rapi'lity  of  work  was  remark- 
able, but  it  was  based  on  study  and  observation.  Jarvis 
painted  admirable  portraits  of  the  heroes  of  (he  war  of 
1812.  His  portraits  of  Hull,  Perry,  Bainbridge,  Swift, 
Brown,  and  McDonough  iire  in  the  City  Hall.  New  York  ; 
those  of  John  Randolph,  Robert  Morris,  Daniel  Tompkins, 
ond  Egbert  Benson  are  in  the  gallery  of  tho  New  York 
Historical  Society.  Jarvis  painted  with  success  in  Balti- 
more, Charleston.  Richmond,  and  New  Orleans,  where  some 
of  his  best  work  is  to  he  seen.  His  genius  was  recognized 
bv  men  like  Henry  Clay,  but  he  would  havo  d(uie  better 
things  had  he  been  less  addicted  to  social  entertainment. 
D.  Jan.  12,  1840.  0.  B.  FuoTUiNOnAM. 

Jarvis  (Samfel  Farmer),  D.  D..  LL.D..  b.  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  .Fan.  20,1780.  being  a  son  of  Rishop  Abraham 
Jarvis.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1803;  entered  the 
Episcopalian  ministry  in  ISIO;  was  professor  of  biblical 
criticism  (18I'.t)  in  tho  General  Theological  Seminary; 
rector  of  St.  Paul's.  Boston,  1820-26,  when  he  went  lo  Eu- 
rope, and  remained  there  ten  years,  six  of  whieh  were 
spent  in  Italy.  Returning  to  America  in  1835,  Dr.  Jarvis 
became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  in  Trinity  College 
at  Hartford,  and  in  I8:iS  was  appointed  historiographer  to 
tho  Americnn  Episcopal  Church.  In  Ibis  capacity  he  pub- 
lished in  1844  a  Chronnlofjical  Introduction  to  the  Hintm-y 
of  the  Church.  Other  works  were — A  Discnurse  on  the  Rr- 
lifjion  of  the  Indian  Trihes  of  Xnrth  America  (1820).  Ser- 
mons on  Prophecy  (1843),  Xo  Union  \eitU  Rome  (1843),  and 
The  Church  of  the  Redeemed  (1850).  D.  at  Middletown 
Mar.  26,  1851! 

Ja'uherf  Book  of*  a  Hebrew  vork  twice  cited  in  the 


1380 


JASMIN -JASPER. 


Old  Testament  (Josh.  x.  13  nnd  2  Sam.  1. 18),  but  no  onger 
oxtaot  The  former  citation  is  the  well-known  apostrophe 
of  Joihua  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  latter  the  bcnutilul 
ele^v  of  David  upon  Saul  and  Jonathan.  The  nature  and 
conTonts  of  the  hook  of  Jashcr  have  been  a  frequent  topic 
for  the  in-'cnuilv  of  biblical  commentators,  (iesenius  con- 
ieetured  That  it  was  a  poetical  anthology  formed  or  c.wn- 
nleted  in  the  time  of  David  or  Solomon,  and  containing 
the  favorite  national  songs,  especially  those  conimemorating 
the  e-cploits  of  renowned  heroes.  The  Hebrew  name,  .S-p/ier 
H.„lJh„r.  is  interpreted  to  mean  "  Book  of  the  Ji.st  Many 
for-eries  have  been  produced  purporting  to  be  the  los  book 
of  Jasher,  the  most  notable  of  which  was  one  brought  out 
in  Hebrew  in  Italy  and  Poland,  and  also  in  Gerninn.  during 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  was  published  in  Knglisfa  by 
M  M  Noah  (Xew  York,  1810).  Dr.  J.  W.  Donaldson,  an 
eminent  English  classical  scholar,  made  an  elaborate  at- 
tempt lo  reconstruct  the  bonk  of  Jashcr  from  the  IVntateiich 
(  /.,./,.!/•  frrqmeiita  ArckHi/pn  C-_,r,ni<iHm  Hchrnirornm.Hc, 
lfi)4)  but  his  results  were  received  with  general  incredulity. 
(Sec  an  essay  on  Jashcr  in  E.  Deutsch's  lUmiun^,  ISi*-) 

Jasmin'"  (Jac«ites),  b.  at  Agon,  in  Southern  France, 
Mar  0  17'.)S,  was  the  son  of  a  tailor,  and  brought  up  in 
utter  poverty  until  his  twclflh  year,  when  he  was  admitted 
into  a  priests'  seminary  ;  but  being  expelled  two  or  three 
years  later  for  some  misconduct,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
barber  in  his  native  town.  At  the  ago  of  eighteen  he 
married  and  comincuced  business  as  a  barber  and  hair- 
dresser hut  nevertheless  allowed  his  literary  instincts 
such  development  that  he  soon  became  widely  famous  as  a 
troubadour.  His  earliest  poem  was  printed  lu  1826,  his 
masterpiece  (translated  by  Longfellow  as  the  Bhud  Girl 
„/■  C„.,icl  CuilU)  appeared  in  1S:!G,  and  set  the  seal  to  his 
popularity.  He  was  now  patronized  by  king  and  nobles. 
but  retained  his  simple  mode  of  life  until  his  death.  Oct. 
4  1861  Jasmin  received  a  pompous  funeral,  and  his  auto- 
biographical sketches  have  been  frequently  reprinted. 

j'as'mine.  Yellow,  an  indigenous  twining  plant 
iGrheiiaum  scmpervln-n,,  natural  order  Loganiacea.0  gioiy- 
in-  in  rich  damp  soil  in  the  coast-distriets  from  \  irginia 
to'thc  Ouir  It  is  a  beautiful  plant,  with  large,  deep-yellow, 
sweet-smellin''  flowers,  and  climbs  trees  in  the  Southern 
forests  The  root  is  used  in  medicine  under  the  name  ycY- 
scminm,  and  contains  as  its  active  principle  an  alkaloid, 
mhrmi.i.  It  is  a  nerve-poison,  causing  motor  and  sensory 
paralysis,  and  may  bo  fatal  in  overdose  through  paralysis 
[{  respiration.  Edwaud  Curtis. 

Ja'son  [Or.  limoi..  "healer"  or  "atoner"],  a  fabulous 
hero  of  the  earliest  (irecian  mythology,  whose  exploits  in 
the  expedition  of  the  ship  Argo  (see  AncoNAtiT.f:)  to  Col- 
chis for  the  recovery  of  the  Golden  Fleece  were  recounted 
at  great  length  and  with  infinite  variety  of  advenlure  by 
the  Greek  cvelio  poets,  and  by  some  of  their  Latin  imi- 
tator' .Modern  inquirers  into  the  origin  of  this  myth  have 
been  led  to  class  it  as  one  of  the  numerous  solar  myths. 
(See  Cox's  Miillioln>j!l  "/  the  An/nn  A'allom,  ISf,'.).) 

Ja«on,  a  tyrant  of  Pheraj  in  Thessaly,  probably  the  son 
of  Lycophron,  came  into  power  about  B.  0.  395,  and  undcr- 
took'to  reduce  all  Thessaly  under  his  dominion.  In  u.  r  .!,  S 
he  had  succeeded  in  conquering  all  the  cities  except  1  har- 
salus,  which  was  supported  by  Sparta.  Soon  afterwards 
he  was  chosen  dictator  of  Thessaly,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  wars  between  the  states  of  Greece,  and  would  prob- 
ably have  anticipated  the  carecT  of  Philip  of  Macedon  had 
he  not  been  assassinated,  B.  c.  .".70. 

Jas'pcr  [(;r.:a<7^«l.  a  mineral,  of  the  quartz  f»'";'y;  "«- 
cu.rin-  in  abundance  in  veins  and  large  masses,  imbedded 
in  rocks,  sometimes  as  a  rock  itself,  and  ollen  in  the  shape 
of  pebbles.  It  is  characterized  by  opacity  an.l  by  numer- 
ous colors— red,  yellow,  green,  white,  blue,  black,  or  brown-- 

generallv  arranged  in  stripes  and  spots,  apparently  due  o 
iron  oxides.  It  is  exceedingly  hard,  takes  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  in  request  for  ornamental  objects,  such  as  cameos, 
rin^s.  and  seals.  Among  the  varieties  are  A>//j(..ni  ,n»;>rr, 
vellow  mixed  with  brown  ;  rihhnn  jaipcr.  so  called  trom  the 
distinclness  of  the  stripes:  pnml„m  >.»/)er,  full  of  small 
holes  and  much  cracke.l ;  L,,rli»„  tlour,  flinty  and  black, 
used  as  a  test  of  the  purity  of  the  alloys  of  gold  ;  and  hl.mil- 
tlonr  or  hrlloirnpr.  deep-green  with  blood-red  spots  J  he 
lar-'cst  mines  of  jasper  arc  those  of  the  upper  Ural  in 
Siberia,  especially  the  Korgon  gorge,  where  this  stone  is  cut 
out  in  enormous  blocks.  Jasper  was  highly  prized  by  the 
ancients.  It  was  the  twelfth  stone  inserted  in  the  breast- 
plate of  the  Jewish  high  priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  20).  and  the 
first  of  the  twelve  used  in  the  fonn.lation  of  the  New  ■leru- 
saleni;  it  was  also  the  material  of  the' wall  (Rev.  xxii.  18, 
19),  and  the  glory  of  the  Divine  Being  is  described  (Rev. 
iv.  S)  by  comparison  with  a  jasper.  (Smith,  Diet,  of  Bible.) 
Jasper,  county  of  N.  Central  Georgia.  Area,  !it>& 
square  miles.     It  is  hilly,  but  fertile,  producing  cotton,  to- 


bacco, and  corn.     It  contains  iron,  gold,  and  other  mineral 
wealth.     Cap.  Monticello.     Pop.  10,439. 

Jasper,  county  of  S.  E.  Illinoia.  Area,  4S4  sq.  m.  It 
is  a  level  and  very  fertile  region.  Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and 
tobacco  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Newton.  Pop.  11,2.M. 
Jasper,  county  of  N.  W.  Indiana.  Area,  550  square 
miles.  Its  surface  is  mostly  prairie,  and  a  part  is  marsh- 
land. Much  of  its  surface  afl'ords  excellent  pasturage. 
Live-stock,  grain,  and  wool  are  largely  produced.  Cap. 
Rensselaer.      Pop.  0:!j4. 

Jasper,  eonnty  of  Central  Iowa.  Area,  720  square  miles. 
It  is  largely  prairie-land,  is  very  fertile,  and  yields  abun- 
dance of  coal.  Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  butter  are  staple 
products.  Carriages,  wagons,  and  harnesses  are  leading 
articles  of  manufacture.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Des  Moines  Valley  and  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  1  a- 
cific  R.  Rs.     Cap!  Newton.     Pop.  22,116. 

Jasper,  county  of  S.  E.  Central  Mississippi.  Area, 
650  square  miles.  It  is  n  fertile  and  undulating  region. 
Cotton,  pork,  and  corn  arc  staple  products.  Cap.  Paul- 
dim'.     Pop.  10,884. 

Jasper,  county  of  S.  W.  Missouri,  hounded  on  the  W. 
by  Kansas.  Area,  COO  square  miles.  It  is  diversified  and 
fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are  staple  prod- 
ucts '  It  is  traversed  by  the  Memphis  Carthage  and  North- 
western R.  R.     Cap.  Carthage.     Pop.  14,928. 

Jasper,  county  of  E.  Texas.  Area,  918  square  miles. 
It  is  heavily  timbered,  and  has  coal,  iron  ore,  petroleum, 
and  valuable  salt-wells.  The  soil  is  productive.  Cotton, 
corn  tobacco,  pork,  rice,  and  lumber  are  produced  the 
latter  very  extensively.  The  navigable  Ncehes  River  flows 
along  tho"W.  border.     Cap.  Jasper.     Pop.  4218. 

Jasper,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Walker  eo.,  Ala.,  50  miles  N.  E. 
of  Tuscaloosa,  in  a  fertile  and  healthful  region  abounding 
in  coal      It  was  twice  burned  during  the  war ;  has  a  good 
court-house,  jail,  church.  Masonic  hall,  and  a  high  school 
capable  of  accommodating  HOO  pupils.    It  has  6  dry-goods 
and  4  grocery  stores,  etc.,  and  is  steadily  growing,    bix  miles 
N   lies  the  new  city  of  S.  Lowell.     It  has  1  weekly  paper. 
Antmonv  &  Sox,  Eds.  "  Mointain  Eagle. 
Jasper,  tp.  of  Crawford  eo..  Ark.     Pop.  688. 
Jasper,  tp.  of  Crittenden  eo.,  Ark.     Pop.  1416. 
Jasper,  post-v.,  cap.   of  Newton   CO.,  Ark.,  70  miles 
N.  N.  \V.  of  Little  Rock.     Pop.  72. 

Jasper,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Ilamillon  co.,  Fla.,  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  R.  R.,  100  miles  by  rail  from  Jaeksonvillo 
and  from  TalLahassee.     Pop.  1.18. 

Jasper,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Piekens  co..  Ga.,  30  miles  from 
Rcsaca,  on  the  Atlantic  and  'Western  R.  R. 
Jasper,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  111.     Pop.  1016. 
Jasper,  post-v.,  cap    of  Dubois  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Patoka 
River,  at  the  junction  of  the   Mt.  Vernon  and   Rockport 
divisions  of  the  Cincinnati  and   South-western  R.  R.,  in 
'  the  centre  of   an  important  block-coal  region.     It  has  I 
churches,  a  weekly  newspaper,  5  hotels,  3  lumber  and  2 
flour  mills,  manufaclures  of  carriages,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, etc.     The  lumber,  coal,  and  tobacco  trade,  and  the 
manufaclures  above   indicated,   are  the  leading  ]>ursuit8. 

Pnp.  :,  17.  Cl.KMF.XT  DOANE,   En.  "  CotRIEK. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  la.     Pop.  438. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  la.     Pop.  157. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Midland  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  139. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Camden  co..  Mo.     Pop.  292. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Dallas  co..  Mo.     Pop.  933. 

Jasper,  post-tp.  of  Jasper  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  758. 

Jasper,  Ip.  of  Ozark  co..  Mo.     Pop.  CIS. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Ralls  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1391. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Shannon  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  93. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Taney  eo..  Mo.     Pop.  615. 

Jasper,  post-tp.  of  Steuben  eo.,  N.  Y.,  has  6  churches 
and  some  manufactures.     Pop.  1CS3. 

Jasper,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  0.     Pop.  1992. 

Jasper,  post-v.  of  Newton  tp.,  Pike  co.,  0.,  25  iniles 
from  Portsmouth,  on  the  Ohio  Canal  and  tho  Scioto  River. 
Pop.  181. 

Jasper,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Marion  eo..  Tenn.,  the  N.  ter- 
minus of  the  Jasper  branch  of  the  Nashville  Chattanooga 
and  St  Louis  R.  R..  in  the  fertile  Sequatchie  Valley,  which 
is  well  watered,  linclv  timbered,  and  abounds  in  water- 
power  coal,  iron  ore,  limestone,  and  sandstone.  The  town 
has  2  weekly  newspapers,  3  churches,  good  .schools,  stores, 
etc.     Pop.  375.  A.  L.  GuiiFiTH,  En.  "rxio.x. 

Jasper,  posl-v.,  cap.  of  Jasper  co..  Tex.,  on  a  creek 
near  the  Neches  River,  has  2  churches.  3  day  and  2  Sunday 
schools,  3  weekly  newspapers,  and  3  hotels,  and  is  an  im- 


JASPER— JAVA. 


];;m 


portant  buBioees-ocntro  for  Soutb-cactero  Texas.  Agricul- 
tard  aud  racrcantilo  busiDcss  are  the  chief  pursuits.  It  has 
joarly  couuty  fair:*.     T.  J.  Carrawav,  Ed.  "  NKwsiiov." 

Jasper  (W**'i-'AH),  b.  io  South  Caruliua  about  1750; 
enlisted  in  tho  2d  South  Caroliua  regimeut  at  the  oom- 
nienccmcnt  uf  tho  Ucvulutiou  ;  became  a  scrgcuiit,  and  dis- 
tiDgui<<hcd  himself  in  the  attack  upun  Kurt  .Muultrie  by  a 
British  fleet,  Juuo  28,  1770,  by  leaping  through  an  em- 
brasure under  a  galling  cannunade  to  recover  the  flag  of 
the  Stale,  just  ghot  off.  In  recognition  of  this  act  or"  heroism 
Gov.  Rutledge  ga\-e  Sergeant  Jasper  his  own  suord,  offered 
bim  a  cunimib'siun  as  lieutenant,  which  he  declined,  and 
employed  him  thereafter  upon  oulpo^t  and  picket  duty,  in 
which  he  frequently  distinguished  himself  by  deeds  of 
eccentric  daring.  In  the  assault  upon  Savannah  (Oct.  9, 
177'**)  Sergeant  Jasper  accompanied  D'Estaing  and  Lincoln 
in  their  attack  upon  the  Spring  Ilill  redoubt,  and  was 
killed  while  attempting  to  fasten  to  the  parapet  the  colors  of 
his  regiment,  presented  by  Mrs.  Elliott.  A  square  in  the 
city  of  Savannah  aud  :i  county  in  Georgia  bear  his  name. 

Jasper  Four-Corners  (P.  O.Jasper),  a  v.  of  Jasper 
tp.,  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.  It  has  'S  churches  and  manufac- 
tures of  lumber.     Pop.  200. 

Jas'sy,  tho  capital  of  Moldavia,  which  since  1  SGI  forms 
a  part  of  Uoumania,  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Pruth. 
It  is  a  largo  but  poorly  built  aud  dirty  city,  in  which  fino 
ecclesiastical  buildings  and  splendid  palaces  belonging  to 
the  nobility  alternate  with  the  miserable  huts  of  tho  .Jews 
and  tho  lower  population.  It  has  important  trade  in  grain. 
Pop.  90,ono. 

JasZ"Bcrcny',  town  of  Western  Hungary,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Jazygiu.  *jn  bnth  sides  of  liic  Zagyva.  It  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  and  wine.  In  tho  middle 
of  the  city  stands  a  monument  said  to  indicate  the  tomb  of 

Atiiia.    Pop.  17,:.;;-*. 

Ja'Uva,  or  San  Fcli'pe  de  Ja'tiva,  tho  ancient 
Sct'tftig,  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  uf  Valencia.  It  is 
a  handsome  and  well-built  town,  with  several  monuments 
from  the  ttmts  of  the  Moors.     Pop.  15,Cm1. 

Jats,  or  Jauts,  a  singular  race  inliabitingXorth-west- 
crn  India  between  tho  Indus  and  tho  upper  waters  of  the 
Ganges,  variously  considered  by  ethnologists  as  descend- 
ants of  (leta»,  Dacians,  Iluns.  Avars,  or  other  ancient  races. 
They  have  also  been  treated  as  the  aucestors  of  the  gypsies. 
The  Jats  arc  tall,  well-formed  men,  addicted  to  war,  but 
good  agriculturists,  and  are  divided  in  religion  between 
Mohammedanism,  Brahmanisra,  aud  tho  Sikh  doctrines. 

Jaubert'  (CnKVAi.inn  Pn:RRF.  Amtdek),  b.  ot  Aix,  in 
Provence.  Southern  France,  Juno  3, 1779;  studied  Oriental 
Inngunges  under  Sylvestre  do  Sacy,  and  at  tho  age  of  nine- 
teen accompanied  the  French  expedition  to  Egypt  as  in- 
terpreter, in  which  capa-ity  he  rendered  great  services  to 
and  gained  the  friendship  of  Napoleon.  Employed  in  vari- 
ous ofTicial  posts  in  the  East,  Jaubert  was  sent  to  Persia  in 
IMOi.  WHS  imprisoned  several  months  by  the  pasha  of  Ba- 
jazid,  and  became  in  1815  charrjfi  d'nff<iirt:8  at  Constnnti- 
nonlp.  In  IS|S,  Jnuliort  travelled  to  India  with  tho  object 
of  bringing  to  France  a  herd  of  Cashmere  or  Thibetan  goats, 
of  which  bo  sueceeded  in  intmducing  '100.  After  this  ho 
became  a  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  tho  Collego  of 
France,  member  of  tho  .Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  18110, 
peer  of  Frnn'-e  and  councillor  of  state  in  IHU.  Jaubert 
puhlt»(hed  his  travels  in  Armenia  and  Persia  (1821),  a 
Turkish  grammar  f  |S2^),  a  Berber  grammar  and  diction- 
ary (lS4-n,  and  ii  French  translation  of  the  famous  Arabinn 
geogrnphcr  Edrisi  (2  vols.,  18:jC-40).  D.  at  Paris  Jan,  28, 
1817. 

Jaa'CTy  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia,  on 
the  N'eidse.  It  has  large  miiuufucturcs  of  liuen  and  gloves, 
and  carries  on  a  very  active  trade  in  corn.     Pop.  7887, 

Janja,  town  of  Peru,  department  of  Juuin,  108  miles  N.E. 
from  Lima.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  one  of  tho  streams 
tributary  Io  the  Apuriuiac.  was  the  firsc  eiipilal  of  Peru 
under  tho  viceroyalty  until  lj;Ji>,  and  its  ninno  has  become 
a  synonym  in  Spanish  America  for  "Arcadia"  or*'  Utopia." 
Pop.  about  1.0,000. 

Jaiin'dice*  This  is  a  greenish-yellow  colorof  the  skin 
whieh  is  produced  by  the  preneneo  of  the  culuriiig-matter 
of  the  bile  iu  the  blood.  It  i^i  not  a  specific  diseiiMe,  as  is 
generally  supposed  by  the  laity,  but  a  symptom  which, 
taken  in  connection  with  other  symptoms,  points  to  the 
affection  which  gives  rise  to  it.  We  might  as  well  dpeak  of 
vomiting,  heudaehe,  olc.  as  disetLSes  :  they  are  not.  but 
merely  prominent  symptoms  of  many  varied  morbid  pro- 
cesses. If  jaundice  occurs  in  any  great  abuudauce.  or  per- 
sists for  a  length  of  linn-,  wo  find  all  the  secretions  tinged 
with  the  bile,  the  urine  becomes  saffron-cidorcd.  nnd  the 
stools,  being  deprived  of  their  coloring-matter,  are  whitisli. 

We  iii!H-   I':'  V  j|i)..,!i,...  |.r..Hi!.<<-|   i;,   f  ,,<,  ,r;t  •  -  -  ^.i;  her  fl<iin 


suppression  or  retention  of  bile;  the  former  is  due  tu  some 
disease  of  tho  liver  which  incapacitates  it  for  performing 
its  function;  therefore  the  bile,  which  iu  the  healthy  state 
of  tho  organ  is  constantly  being  hitered  from  tho  blood, 
accumulates  in  it.  Jauudicu  from  retention  uf  bile  is  pro- 
duced in  this  way;  The  bile,  having  been  already  formed, 
is  jirevented  from  making  its  way  iuto  the  intestines  by 
some  obstruction  in  the  bile-ducts:  it  is  therefore  reabsorbed, 
and  again  makes  its  appearance  in  the  blood.  The  ob- 
struction to  the  ducts  may  bo  either  external  or  interual. 
E.xtcrnally,  we  may  have  tumors  of  various  kinds  pressing 
on  the  ducts,  as  cancer  of  the  ]>yloric  end  of  the  stomach, 
of  tho  duodenum  or  the  end  of  Ihepancrcas.or  a  colon  im- 
pacted with  ficccs.  Internally  the  gall-duct  may  be  plugged 
up  by  mucus,  or,  what  is  far  more  common,  by  a  biliary 
calculus  passing  through  it;  this  is  accompanied  by  a  great 
deal  of  pain  ;  indeed,  it  is  said  to  be  the  most  severe  pain 
that  could  be  felt.  Some  idea  of  it  may  be  had  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  common  bile-duct  is  very 
seldom  larger  than  a  goose-quill,  and  the  stones  which  pass 
through  it  are  seldom  smaller  in  diameter — sometimes  at- 
taining the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  Accompanying  the 
jaundice  and  pain  in  these  eases  wo  have  nausea,  vomiting, 
hiccough,  flatulence,  aud  in  the  intervals  between  the  in- 
tensity of  tho  pain  the  patient  is  exhausted  and  drowsy. 
There  is  generally  much  more  pain  felt  by  the  passage  of 
a  calculus  for  the  first  time  than  subsequently,  as  the  duets 
arc  generally  left  dit^tended  for  its  successors.  Besides  the 
above  forms  of  jaundice  there  is  also  a  malignant  form, 
which  is  analogous  to  typhoid,  yellow,  or  remittent  fever, 
and  is  marked  by  typho:dsymptoms  from  the  beginning  of 
tho  attack,  and  is  accompanied  by  hemorrhages  from  the 
mucous  membranes  and  skin.  It  almost  always  ends  fatally. 
In  jaundice  from  suppression  tho  urine  only  contains  those 
ingredients  of  tho  bile  which  pre-exist  in  the  blood — viz. 
tho  bile  coloring-matter  and  cholesterine ;  in  that  from  re- 
tention we  also  have  the  bile-salts  which  have  been  formed 
in  tho  liver,  and  ai"rerwards  absorbed  and  eliminated  by  the 
kidneys.  To  determine  the  former,  nitric  aci<l  is  generally 
added;  it  produces  a  bright  grass-green  color  with  the 
coloring-matter  of  tho  bile.  The  bile-salts,  however,  can 
only  bo  detected  by  Pettenkofcr's  test,  which  is  as  follows  : 
To  tho  suspected  liquid  add  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of 
cane-sugar,  and  then  slowly,  drop  by  droji,  sulphuric  acid  ; 
at  first  a  red  color  will  be  produced,  which  will  afterwards 
change  to  a  lake,  and  then  to  a  deep  jiurplc. 

The  technical  name  of  jaundice  is  ictcruH,  from  the  Greek 
name  of  tho  golden  thrush,  which,  according  to  Pliny, 
when  seen  by  a  jaundiced  person  would  die  and  the  patient 
recover.  \ow,  however,  wo  treat  the  affection  lutjre  scien- 
tifically, looking  to  its  origin.  Where  it  is  due  to  suppres- 
sion little  can  bo  done  except  in  cases  of  acute  inflamma- 
tion of  tho  liver,  but  in  those  cases  due  to  obstruction  there 
is  more  success  with  it.  The  indications  are  to  improve  the 
patient's  general  condition  by  a  ])roper  and  nutritious  diet. 
Fata  of  all  kinds  should  be  avoided,  as  they  cannot  be  di- 
gested without  tho  assistance  of  the  bile.  Next,  we  should 
attend  to  tho  constipation  from  which  these  patients  almost 
invariably  suffer;  for  this  rhubarb,  scnnn.and  aloes  are  the 
favorites.  Opium  should  be  given  to  relieve  the  intense 
pain.  After  the  removal  of  tho  obstruction  we  may  hasten 
the  disappearance  of  tho  jaundice,  and  the  annoying  itch- 
ing which  accompanies  it,  by  8te::ni  and  alkaline  baths. 
Er)WARi)  J.  Bi:hmingiiam. 

Ja'va^  an  island  in  tho  Malay  Archipelago,  the  third 
largest  of  the  Sunda  group,  belonging  to  the  Netherlands, 
and  bounded  N.  by  the  Sea  of  Java.  E.  by  the  Strait  of 
Bali,  S.  by  tho  Indian  Ocean,  and  W.  by  the  Strait  of 
Sunda,  which  separates  it  from  (ho  island  of  Sumatra, 
Area,  49,7.'{0  square  miles.  Iu  tho  northern  part  of  the 
island  lie  some  tracts  of  low,  level  land,  mostly  cunstsling 
of  mangrovc-stvanips.  aud  presenting  a  et>ast  uuMite  for 
navigation,  and  containing  very  few  landlocked  harbors, 
such  as  those  of  Batavia  aud  Surabaya,  though  atlbrding 
several  good  ruarl^teads,  wliere  ships  nnty  anchor  with 
safety,  as  the  waters  of  the  Java  Sea  are  calm,  hurricanes 
unknown,  and  storms  rare  except  ot  tlie  change  of  the 
monsoons.  Otherwise,  tho  whulo  island  is  mountainous, 
traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by  several  ranges  of  mountains, 
of  which  the  southernmost  forms  a  rough  and  broken  coast- 
line, washed  by  a  heavy  surf.  The  highest  jtoints  are 
Semiru,  I2.2.'»0  i'l^ct,  and  Slamat,  ll,:{20  feel.  Tiieso  ranges 
are  in  geological  respects  of  vulcanic  formation;  active 
vuleanocs  and  violent  eruptions  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
especially  in  the  south-onsteni  diHtriets.  Ilere  the  volcano 
Papandavangcovered  in  one  night  in  I  772  an  nn-a  of  7  miles 
radius  with  a  layer  of  ashofl.^0  feet  (liiek;  and  in  ISL'L',  (Jab 
unggongcauBi'd  still  greater  destruction  hy  a  sin l'I«' eruption  : 
20,UII0  pcrflons  are  said  to  have  been  killed.  The  mountains 
are  generally  clad  Io  their  very  tops  with  splendid  forests. 
and  eneloso  beautiful,  exceedingly  fertile,  and  well-watered 


1382 


JAVA— JAY. 


valleys,  numcrons  rivers  flowing  down  to  the  sea  from  both 
sides  gcnerallv  rapid  and  shallow,  but  sometimes  navigable  ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  Solo,  Kediri,  and  Tjimanock.    Although 
gold-dust  is  found  in  several  rivers  and  coal  and  rock-salt 
in  =ome  mountain-tracts,  and  although  mineral  springs  of 
different  kinds  abound  all  over  the  island,  yet  the  .Javanese 
mountains  arc  devoid  of  minerals  suitable  for  mining.    The 
volcanoes,  however,  are  remarkable  for  the  amount  of  sul- 
phur and  .sulphurous  ga.ses  they  discharge.    In  a  lake  near 
the  crater  of  Taschem,  at  the  E.  end  of  the  island,  the 
water  is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphuric  acid  that 
fish  cannot  live  in  the  sea  near  the  mouth  of  the  stream 
which  issues  from  it;  and  near  Batar,  in  the  \  ale  of  Poi- 
son, the  exhalations  of  carbonic  acid   gas  are  so  strong 
that  birds  drop  down  from  the  air.  killed  by  them   and  the 
ground  is  strewed  with  carcasses  of  .animals  which  entered 
the  vale  unaware  of  the  diinger.     The  climate  of  Java  is 
unhealthv  in  the  northern  marshes,  but  at  a  little  elevation 
it  is  not  only  healthful,  but  agreeable.    The  wet  season,  with 
its  westerly  winds,  lasts  from  October  to  March,  but  even 
durin"  this  time  dry  periods  with  fair  weather  occur.     At 
the  enuinoxes  the  wcaihcr  is  generally  very  changeable, 
with  heavy  gusts  of  wind  and  thunderstorms.     But  the 
temperature  is  remarkably  equable:    in  the  lowlands ^the 
thermometer  seldom  rises  above  90°  or  falls  below   ,0  . 
Ve-'ctalile  life  is  developed  to  an  astonishing  degree.    Kice 
is  The  principal  cereal,  and  in  places  where  irrigi^ion  can 
be  effected  it  is  raised  in  two  crops  annually.     Coffee  is  the 
staple  product  of  the  country,  and  is  cultivated  under  the 
supervision  of  the  government  in  plantations  situated  at  an 
elevation  of  2000  feet.  Sugar  and  spices  of  superior  quality 
are  rais-d  without  diflicultv.     In  1ST2  the  value  of  the  ex- 
ports of  coffee  was  38.-^24,000  florins;  of  sugar,  4.3,893,000 
florins  :  and  of  spices  1,029,000  florins.   Cotton  is  also  grown, 
from   which   a  coarse   fabric  is   made.     The   largest  part 
of  the  island  is  covered  with  vast  forests  of  the  most  val- 
uable trees  —the  fig  tree,  the  dammar  pine,  and,  first  among 
all,  the  teak  tree,   which   yields   the   best  timber  known. 
Equally  abundant  is  animal  life.     Bufi'aloes  are  generally 
used  in  agricultural  labor,  and  are  more  numerous  than 
oxen  and  horses.    The  wild  ox  and  two  kinds  of  wild  hogs 
are  common  ;  also  the  royal  tiger,  the  one-horned  rhino- 
ceros,   numerous   kinds  of   apes,   immense  bats    D>-e    feet 
across  the  wings,  the  peacock,  and  a  great  variety  of  fish. 
The  inhabitants  number  17,298,200,  of  whom  28,926  are 
Europeans,  185, VoS  Chinese,  22,032  Arabs,  and  the   rest 
natives;  the  island  is  thus  one  of  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated countries   in  the  world.     The  natives  belong  to  the 
iMalayan  race,  but  in  capacity  for  civilization  they  surpass 
all  other  branches  of  this  family.     They  arc  small,  yellow, 
and  not  very  energetic,  but  patient,  cheerful,  and  endowed 
with  fine  sensibilities.    They  are  good  agriculturists,  prob- 
ably surpassing  all  other  Asiatic  peoples  in  this  branch  of 
industry.     They  are  also  skilled  in  the  manufacture  of  dif- 
ferent articles  o'f  metal,  such  as  their  national  weapons  and 
their  national  musical  instruments,  being  very  fond  of  music. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  they  embraced  Mohammedanism; 
before  that  time  Booddhism  was  their  religion,  and  many 
Booddhist  temples  are  found  in  the  island,  as,  for  instance, 
the  Bono  BunnoR  (which  see).    In  1511  the  Portuguese  first 
visited  Java,  and  in  IhOb  the  Dutch  made  the  first  settle- 
ments here.     In  lfi77   the  whole  island  became  a  Dutch 
colony,  and  since  1830  it  has  been  governed  as  a  province 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.     At  the  head  of  the 
government  is  a  governor-general,  residing  at  Batavia  and 
rulino'  all  the  Dutch  colonics   in  the  East   Indies.     The 


a,  post-tp.  of  Wyoming  co.,  N.  Y.,  has  5  churches, 
aills,  and  quarries  of  fine  building-stone.    Pop.  ISafi. 


ch,  how- 


ruling  all  the    

island  is  divided  into  24  residencies,  two  of  wli 

ever.  Jokjnkerta  and  Surakerta,  have  been  allowed  to  retain 

their  native  princes,  though  under  Dutch  supremacy.    The 

revenues  of  this  island  bring  annually  a  surplus  of  $.5,000,000 

into    the    treasury  of    the    Netherlands.      The    language 

spoken 


I  in  the  largest  part  of  Java  and  on  some  adjacent 
islands  (the  Javanese)  belongs  to  the  Malayo-Polynesian 


group  of  languages,  but  it  is  distinguished  from  the  Malay 
proper  and  from  the  Sundese,  spoken  in  the  western  part 
of  the  island.  It  consists  of  20  consonant  and  6  vowel 
sounds,  of  which  latter  the  o  is  predominant.  Its  numer- 
ous foreign  elements,  Arabic,  Sanskrit,  and  others,  are  very 
freely  modified.  Its  development  is  rich,  but  one-sided. 
It  possesses  numerous  and  fine  distinctions  for  real  objects, 
processes,  and  phenomena,  but  it  has  no  significations  for 
general  or  abstract  ideas.  It  has  different  sets  of  words, 
forms,  and  phrases  when  used  by  a  superior  to  an  inferior, 
or  by  an  inferior  to  a  superior,  but  it  has  no  difference  of 
tone  in  prose  and  in  poetry.  The  literature  consists  of 
chronicles,  religious  works,  and  remodellings  of  Hindoo 
poetical  creations,  but  it  belongs  mostly  to  a  much  earlier 
period,  and  can  be  traced  back  to  the  first  centuries  of  our 
era.  (See  W.  von  Humboldt,  Trier  die  Knin'^pmi-he,  Sir 
Stamford  Raflles,  Hittonj  of  Java,  and  R.  Wallace,  The 
Malay  ArehipelnjoA  Clemens  Petersen. 


Java 

some  mills,  and  quarries 

Jav'elin  [Pr.  jai-cliiie],  a  short,  heavy  spear  used  for 
throwing  with  the  hand  at  an  enemy.  The  Roman  plliim 
was  essentially  a  javelin,  and  was  the  most  formidable  of- 
fensive weapon  of  those  times. 

Jaw'orow,  town  of  Austria,  in  G.alicia,  on  the  Kra- 
howska,  has  large  paper-mills,  valuable  fisheries,  and  in 
the  vicinity  some  mineral  springs  which  are  much  resorted 
to  for  their  medicinal  powers.     Pop.  7209. 

Jaxar'tes,  or  Sir  Uarya,  a  river  of  Toorkistan,  rises 
in  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains,  flows  through  the  valley  of 
Khokan  and  the  Khirgheez  dominions,  and  divides  at 
Otrar  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  northern  and  largest, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Russia  and  Tuorkjstan.  falls 
into  the  Sea  of  Aral,  while  the  southern  loses  itself  in  some 
small  lakes  in  the  steppes. 

Jay,  a  name  given  to  many  birds  of  the  family  Corvidx, 
sub-family  Garrulinffi.  The  typical  species  is  the  Garndm 
qlmdarius,  or  common  jay  of  Europe.  The  blue  jay  of 
the  Eastern  U.  S.  (Cijnmira  crhlala)  is  a  beautiful  bird, 
whose  harsh  screaming  voice  is  well  known.  The  U.  S. 
have  m.any  species  representing  the  genera  Gi/miiocilla, 
Ct/aimcilta.  Xaiithiirti,  Pcrisoiem,  Paitorrhinus,  etc.  Many 
of  them  are  very  beautiful  birds. 

Jay,  county  in  E.  Indiana,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Ohio. 
Area,  370  square  miles.  The  surface  is  somewhat  varied, 
the  soil  productive,  but  in  part  rather  heavy.  Cattle,  grain 
wool,  and  maple-sugar  are  leading  products.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Cincinnati  Richmond  and  Fort  Wayne  R.  K.  Cap. 
Portland.     Pop.  15,000. 

Jay,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co..  Me.,  on  the  Androscoggin 
R.  R.,  15  miles  N.  of  Auburn.  It  has  4  churches,  2  free 
libraries,  and  some  manufactures.     Pop.  1490. 

Jay,  post-tp.  of  Essex  CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  the  Adirondack 
region.  It  has  many  loflv  mountains,  large  beds  of  iron 
ore  and  small  ones  of  graphite.  Iron,  nails,  and  lumber 
are  extensively  manufactured.  Pop.  249G. 
Jay,  tp.  of  Elk  co..  Pa.  Pop.  534. 
Jay,  post-tp.  of  Orleans  co.,  Vt.,  on  the  Canada  line,  55 
miles  N.  of  Montpciior.  It  has  3  churches  and  manufac- 
tures of  lumber,  leather,  etc.     Pop.  553. 

Jay  (John),  LL.D..  b.  in  New  York  City  Dec.  12,  1V45, 
of  Huguenot  stock;  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
Collei^e  in  1764;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1768;  became 
law-partnerwith  Robert  R.  Livingston,  and  married  (17741 
a  daughter  of  William  Livingston.  In  the  agitations  caused 
by  the  successive  encroachments  of  the  British  cabinet  upon 
A'merican  liberty,  J.ay  fir.st  became  conspicuous  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  "com'niittee  of  correspondence"  appointed  May 
16,  1774,  by  the  citizens  of  New  York  to  represent  their 
views  upon  the  questions  growing  out  of  the  Boston  Port 
bill;  was  the  supposed  author  of  Ihc  suggestion  emanating 
from  that  committee  for  the  convocation  of  a  Continental 
Congress :  was  elected  a  member  of  that  body,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  its  proceedings.     He  was  the  author  of 
the  address  to  thepeople  of  Great  Britain  adopted  by  the  first 
Con<'ress  (Oct.,  1774),  and  of  that  to  the  people  of  Canada 
adopted  by  the  second  Congress  ( May,  1775 ) ;  was  a  member 
of  the  committee  of  correspondence  "  with  European  friends 
of  American  liberty,"  in  which  capacity  he  became  the  chan- 
nel of  secret  negotiations  with  France;  was  commissioned 
colonel  of  the  2d  regiment  raised  in  New  York  City,  and  in 
Apr.,  1776.  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress 
of  New  York,  retiring  from  the  Continental  Congress  in 
order  to  lend  his  counsels  to  his  native  State  in  that  crit- 
ical juncture.     Jay  was  the  leading  member  of  the  New 
York  Congress;  was  author  of  its  chief  public  documents, 
including- "the  constitution  of  1777;  and  on  its  dissolution 
was  appointed  chief-justice,  which  office  was  confirmed  to 
him  by  the  new  State  legislature.     In  1778  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  Continental  Congress,  became  president  of 
that  body  (Dec.  10),  and  was  appointed  in  the  following 
year  minister  to  Spain,  where  he  arrived  in  1780.     He  re- 
mained at  Madrid  two  years,  obtaining  from  the  Spanish 
government  some  material  and  moral  aid  for  American  in- 
dependence; was  a  colleague  with  Franklin  and  Adams  in 
the  commission  which  negotiated  peace  with  Great ^Brilam 
(Nov.  30,  1782),  and  on  returning  to  America  in  1784  was 
chosen   by  Congress   secretary  for  foreign  affairs— a  post 
which  he' held  for  five  years,  until  the  establishment  of  the 
Federal  government  under  the  Constitution  (17S9).     .Tiiy 
was  one  of  the  writers  in  the  FMhrahSt  in  defence  of  the 
Constitution,  took  a  loading  part  in  the  New  -J  ork   State 
convention,  which,  after  much  opposition,  gave  its  adhesion 
to  the  Constitution  (1788),  and  was  appointed   hv   "  »sh- 


ington  (1789)  the  first  chief-jusliee  of  the  V.  S.     In  1792 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Federalists  for  governor  of 


JAY— JKKFERS. 


1383 


Kew  York;  was  sent  as  minister  to  England  in  1704,  and 
Bignetl  {Nov.  19)  the  instrument  known  iis  ".Tn_v'?  treaty." 
By  its  provisions  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine  ^vasdeter- 
Diined,  American  citizens  recovered  above  $10.0110. 1)00  for 
illegal  captures  by  British  cruisers,  and  the  western  posts 
held  by  British  garrisons  were  surrendered:  but  in  con- 
sequence of  the  exclusion  of  American  vessels  from  Can- 
adian ports,  the  restriction  placed  upon  the  West  India 
trade,  and  the  rcf;ulations  upon  neutrality  as  between  Eng- 
lish and  French  privateers,  an  unprecedented  a;;itation 
ensued,  and  the  treaty  wns  violently  denounced,  but  was 
ratified  by  Washin;;ton,  with  the  approval  of  the  Sen- 
ate, Aug.  14,  179o.  During  his  absence  in  England, 
Jay  was  elected  governor  of  New  York — an  ofTu-e  which 
he  held  for  six  years — and  in  isOl  withdrew  from  pub- 
lic life,  declining  a  second  appointment  as  chief-justico 
of  tho  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  for  which  he  was  nomi- 
nated by  Pres.  Ailanis  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  For 
the  remainder  of  his  life,  which  extended  over  more  than  a 
q-nrterof  the  proseiit  century.  Jay  resided  upon  his  an- 
cestral estate  at  Bciford,  Westchester  co.,  holding  aloof 
from  political  contests,  but  taking  a  lively  interest  in  re- 
ligious and  philanthropic  movements.  As  early  as  1785  ho 
had  been  president  of  a  society  in  XcwYork  for  promoting 
tho  emancipation  of  slaves,  and  it  was  un<ler  hi:*  auspices 
that  slavery  was  abolished  in  Xcw  York  in  171*9.  lie  was 
a  member  of  tho  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  widely  re- 
nowned for  strict  moral  purity,  a  vigorous  and  logical  in- 
tellect, a  lofty  sense  of  justice  and  humanity,  disinterested 
patriotism,  and  unyielding  integrity.  D.  at  Bedford,  N.  Y., 
May  17,  1829.  (See  his  Li/e^  by  his  son,  William  Jay, 
1333.)  PoKTER  C.  Bliss. 

Jay  (Jons),  a  son  of  William  Jay,  b.  in  New  York  City 
Juno  23,  1817;  graduated  in  18i;G  at  Columbia  (.'ollege ; 
became  a  lawyer  in  IS;*»9.  Ho  is  a  prominent  member  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  tho  Union  League,  and 
various  historical  and  other  learned  societies.  Author  of 
many  anti-slavery,  legal,  jtolilical,  ecclesiastical,  and  other 
pamphlets  and  reports.  In  ISGll  ho  was  appointed  U.  S. 
minister  to  Austria.     Beturncd  in  l$7i>. 

Jay  (WiLMAM),  b.  at  Tisbury,  England,  May  S,  1709. 
Willi  slight  previous  education  ho  c^imracnceil  preaching 
at  tho  age  of  sixteen,  and  before  attaining  liis  majority 
had  delivered  more  than  1000  sermons.  When  twenty- 
two  years  old  he  bei^amc  minister  of  Argylc  cha])el,  Bath, 
and  hold  that  position  sixty-one  years,  until  the  year  of 
his  death.  Mr.  .lay  was  a  wonderfully  eloquent  pulpit- 
orator.  His  voluminous  writings  have  been  eolK-cted  in 
12  vols.  {Bath,  1M12-Ui.  and  reprinted  in  America  in  3 
vols.  Of  these,  the  Monihttj  and  Ercniwj  E.rf:rciH<:»  have 
enjoyed  a  wide  popularity.  He  left  an  Aiifohiu'jraphif^ 
published  since  his  di-ath,  which  occurred  at  Bath  Dec.  27, 
18J3.  (See  Wilson's  Mcmuir  of  Jaif,  ISJI.) 

Jay  {William),  LL.D.,  a  son  of  John  Jay  (1745-1829), 
b.  in  New  York  City  June  10,  1781);  graduated  at  Yale 
in  IM07,  and  studied  law,  which  he  never  actively  practised. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  temperance,  anti-slavery,  peace, 
and  Bible  societies  ;  beeumcin  iSI8  a  judge  of  tho  common 
pleas,  and  was  lS20-(2  first  judge  of  Wo^tchcstcrco.,  N.  Y., 
but  lost  tho  place  because  of  his  anti-slavery  views.  Ho 
published  a  Lt/c  of  John  Jujf  (2  vols.,  1833),  An  Inqitiri/ 
into  the  Chnrurtrr  of  the  Amrrican  Cotvnizntion  and  And' 
Hinrrry  SorifJirn  (IS3.'>),  n.  Virw  of  the  Action  uf  the  Fed- 
eral Ooverninent  tn  Itfhnlf  uf  Slavery  ( 1S:J8),  a  licvicto  of  the 
CatmeM,  etc.  of  the  Mexican  War  (1819),  B'rir  and  Peace 
(1818),  nnd  numerous  minor  publicatious.  D.  at  Bedford, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  U,  1858. 
JnyiK'!,  an  unorganized  county  of  Dakota. 

JayiirK'vino,  post-v.  of  Bremer  co.,  la.,  on  tho  Cedar 
Falls  and  Minnesota  U.  K. 

Jeallrrson  (Joiis  Coanv),  b.  at  Fralingham,  Suffolk, 
England,  in  IS.'M  ;  graduati'd  at  Oxford;  entered  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  I8.'>2  as  a  law-student,  and  was  admitted  to  tho  bar 
in  IS59.  Beside*  a  number  of  novels,  he  wrote  A  fiuok 
ahnut  Dortoni  (1800).  .4  ttu;k  about  /,«irycr«  (1806),  and 
A   Ii"i'k  about  the  Clenrj  (IS70), 

Irnniicrclt',  post-v.  of  Iberia  parish,  La.,  on  tho 
Buvm   Tecln-,  12  miles  from  New  Iberia. 

Jraiiiiill'  (Pir:nni:K  b.  at  Autun.  France,  in  1510  ;  stud- 
ied liiw  nndiT  ("ujas  :  was  counsellor  under  Charles  IX,  and 
Henry  1 1  f..  prejsidrnt  of  (he  Parliament  uf  Burgundy  in 
l.')7'.',  nnd  of  that  of  Paris  nnd<'r  ILnry  I\'.  ;  was  the  nego- 
tiator of  the  treatv  of  1009,  which  assured  the  independ- 
ence of  Holland,    "p.  in  1022. 

J«*nnron'  (  Piimippk  Aimm  ste).  b.  at  Boulogno  May  10, 
ISOO;  studied  painting  almost  without  any  guiilance ;  ob- 
tained a  medal  in  is;;;t;  altraeted  groat  attention  by  his 
half-tuuobing,  half-humorous  gonro  pictures  of  low  lifo; 


and  was  mado  director  of  the  national  museums  in  1848. 
Though  he  held  this  office  only  ono  year,  ho  mado  great 
improvements  in  the  arrangements  of  tho  museum  of  the 
Louvre.  Of  his  later  works  is  The  Abandoned  Port  of 
Ambfctctme,  now  in  tho  Luxembourg.    D.  Apr.  23,  1877. 

Jcans'villc,  po^t-v.  of  Hazel  tp.,  Luzerne  co..  Pa.,  on 
the  Lehigh  Valley  R.  R.     Has  mines  of  anthracite  coal. 

JebaiTfUr  Jiibeil,  tho  modern  name  of  Gcbal  or  Byb- 
los,  ono  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Plicenicia,  noted  in  my- 
thology for  the  birth  of  Adonis,  and  in  biblical  history  for 
having  furnished  the  artiflecrs  (Uiblites)  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple. Uobal  is  thought  to  have  been  tho  metropolis  of  tho 
Phooniciana  before  the  rise  of  Sidon.to  have  taken  an  im- 
portant part  in  tho  earliest  operations  of  shipbuilding, 
navigation,  and  colonization,  having  founded  commercial 
and  mining  settlements  throughout  the  /Tlgean  Islands  and 
the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  as  also  to  have  introduced  into 
Grcceo  a  knowled-^o  of  tho  alphabet.  Tho  Greek  name 
PjhloH  is  derived  from  tho  E^;yptian  word  for  papyrus,  and 
perhaps  alludes  to  tho  earliest  cultivation  of  writing.  Tho 
Egyptian  myths  of  Ii^is,  Osiris,  and  Typhon  were  partially 
of  Pliccnician  (»rigin.  and  pome  of  tho  incidents  arc  located 
at  Byblos.  Jcbail  is  now  a  small  village  of  000  inhabit- 
ants, on  the  sea-coast  20  miles  N.  of  Bcyroot ;  it  contains 
a  castle  which  was  noted  in  the  annals  of  tho  Crusades. 

Jebb  (John),  b.  at  Droghcda,  Ireland,  Sept.  27,  1775; 
studied  at  Dublin  University;  entered  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  became  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1S23.  Residing 
in  a  district  ciiiefly  inhabited  by  Catholics,  liishop  Jebb 
was  noted  for  his  liberal  spirit  towards  them  nnd  his  main- 
tenance of  their  rights.  Ho  wroto  several  works  on  doc- 
trinal theology,  but  is  now  remembered  chiefly  by  his  .S'a- 
cred  Ltierfttiire  (1820).  in  which  he  combated  some  of  the 
views  of  Dr.  Lowth  about  Hebrew  poetry,  and  elucidated 
many  obscure  or  difficult  biblical  topics.  D.  at  Limerick 
Dec.  7,  1833. 

Jebb  (Sir  Joshta),  R.  E.,  K.  C.  B.,  b.  in  England  about 
1793;  entered  tiie  British  army  at  an  early  age.  and  was 
brought  into  public  notice  when  serving  with  his  regiment 
in  Australia  through  being  employed  to  superintenil  some 
of  Captain  McConochie's  celebrated  experiments  for  tho 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  convicts,  by  offering  them 
a  shortening  of  their  terms  of  sentence  as  a  premium  upon 
good  behavior.  Jebb  was  so  reliable  aiul'  eflJcicnt  in  tho 
cxceulittn  of  this  delicate  commission  that  he  was  requested 
to  prepare  plans  fur  the  construction  and  management  of 
convict  prisons  which  might  obviato  the  practical  difficul- 
ties encountered  under  the  then  existing  system.  In  1810 
the  Pentonvillc  prison  was  built  according  to  the  plans  of 
Col.  Jebb,  thus  inaugurating  in  England  tho  Hulifnr}/  or 
tfeparatc  system  of  imprisonment.  As  inspeeior-gcneral  of 
prisons,  enjoying  the  rank  of  major-general  and  the  honor 
of  knighthood.  Sir  .losbua  Jebb  devoted  the  remainder  of 
his  life  to  devising  im])roveinonts  in  pciml  law  and  prison 
disci])line,  and  tl.  in  London  June  20.  1S03. 

Jebb  (Samukl),  M.  D..  b.  at  Nottingham,  England,  in 
1(590;  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  practised  medicine  at 
Stratford.  Ho  published  an  edition  of  .lustin  Martyr 
(1719),  a  Latin  collection  of  writings  on  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots  (1725).  edited  tho  Ojiuh  Majnii  ol'  Roger  Bacon  (1727), 
and. founded  the  IHbllothera  Litcraria  (1722-2^),  a  learned 
niaga7.ino  to  which  many  eminent  classical  scholars  con- 
tributed.    1>.  in  1772. 

JeU'biir^h,  town  of  Scotland,  in  Roxburghshire,  on 
tho  Jed,  contains  sonic  very  interesting  ruins  of  a  magnifi- 
cent abbey  erected  in  tho  twelfth  century  and  destroyed  ia 
tho  sixteenth,  and  of  a  castle  which  was  onco  tho  residence 
of  the  Scottish  kings.     Pop,  about  40U0. 

Jeddo.     See  Ykiw). 

Jed'do,  tp.  of  Knox  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1134. 

JoddOy  post-v.  of  Orleans  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  124. 

Jeddo,  jtosi  V.  of  Foster  tp.,  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.,  on  a 
branch  of  tho  Lehigh  Yulley  R.  R.  It  has  splendid  beds 
of  anthracite  coal. 

Jerfers  (William  N.),  IT.  S.  N.,  b.  in  Now  Jersey  Oct. 
n,  1821;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipinau  Sejit.  2.0,  1810 ; 
became  a  pasr-ed  miil-^hipman  in  IS  10,  a  lieutenant  in  lSj6, 
a  lientenant-eommaiider  in  isiii^,  a  comuuuidor  in  ISO^),  a 
captain  in  1S70;  served  (ni  tho  E.  coast  of  Mexieo  during 
our  war  with  that  (Country,  and  parlicipalcil  in  the  capture 
of  Vera  Qrwi.,  Aharado,  Tu\pan,  and  Tampieo ;  eoin- 
mandc'l  tho  I'nderwritcr  during  the  brilliant  operations  in 
the  so'iiids  of  North  (*aroliiiu  in  Jan.  ami  Feb.,  1802.  and 
tho  Monitor  in  the  atition  with  Fort  Darling  on  May  lA  of 
that  year.  Early  in  IH73  ho  received  the  appointment  of 
chief  of  tho  bureau  of  ordnance — an  appointment,  it  may 
be  Maid,  sealed  with  tho  njiprobation  of  the  whole  navy, 
wbioh  had  long  rooognizcd  his  marked  ability  in  every 


1384 


JEFFERSON. 


branch  of  his  profession,  and  particularly  in  ordnance 
matters,  to  which  Jcffers  had  given,  for  many  .years,  espe- 
cial alteutiun.  I'oxiiALL  A.  Paukku. 

JerfcrsOlI,  county  of  N.  Central  Alabama.  Area,  ySO 
square  miles.  It  is  in  the  lilack  Warrior  coal-tield,  and 
will  probably  become  a  very  important  coal  and  iron  re- 
gion, for  excellent  hematite  ores  abound.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  rough,  with  fertile  valleys.  Cattle,  corn,  cotton, 
and  wool  are  staple  products.  Iron  is  manufactured.  The 
eountv  is  traversed  by  the  Alabama  and  Chattanooga  R.  R. 
Cap.  Klyton.     Pop.  12,345. 

JelTerson,  county  of  S.  E.  Central  Arkansns.  Area, 
900  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Arkansns  River. 
It  is  a  level  and  very  fertile  alluvial  plain,  well  timbered. 
Live-stock,  corn,  and  cotton  arc  staple  products.  Cap. 
Pine  Bluff.     Pop.  15,733. 

JcfTerson,  county  of  N.  Central  Colorado,  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Area,  about  SOO  square 
miles.  It  ha?  excellent  farm  and  grazing  land,  but  needs 
irrigation.  Good  lignitic  coal,  bog  iron,  and  fire-clay 
abound.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Colorado  Central  and 
other  railroad--!.     C;ip.  (jolden.     Pop.  I.*3y0. 

Jeflerson,  county  of  Florida,  extending  from  the 
Georgia  line  on  the  N.  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Area,  470 
square  miles.  It  is  well  timbered,  and  has  a  generous, 
though  varied,  soil.  Cotton,  sugar-c:uic.  corn,  rice,  and 
fruit  are  staple  products.  The  Jacksonville  PcnFacola  and 
Mobile  R.  R.  intersects  the  county.  Cap.  Monticello. 
Pop.  I3.;iys. 

Jetferson,  county  of  E.  Georgia.  Area,  634  square 
miles.  It  is  level  and  fertile,  and  is  traversed  by  the  river 
Ogecchee  and  the  Central  R.  R.  of  Georgia.  Corn  and 
cottun  are  staple  products.     Cap.  Louisville.     Pop.  12,11)0. 

Jefferson,  county  of  S.  Illinois.  Area,  570  square 
miles.  It  is  partly  prairie  and  partly  forest.  The  soil  is 
productive.  Live  stock,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  aro  sta- 
ple products.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Louis 
and  South-eastern  R,  R.     Cap.  Mt.  Vernon.     Pop.  I7,S64. 

Jefferson^  county  of  S.  E.  Indiana.  Area,  362  pquaro 
miles.  It  has  the  Ohio  River  on  the  S.  The  country  near 
the  river  is  broken  by  bluffs,  but  the  remainder  is  quite 
level.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc  sta- 
ple products.  Tlie  manufactures  include  cooperage,  car- 
riages, flour,  etc.  The  Madison  and  Indianapolis  R.  R. 
traverses  the  county.     Cap.  Madison.     Pop.  29,74^1. 

Jefferson,  county  of  S.  E.  Iowa.  Area,  432  square 
miles.  It  has  a  very  fertile  soil,  is  undulating,  and  abounds 
in  coal  and  timber.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple 
products.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Chieago  Roek  Island  and 
Pacific  and  the  IJurlington  and  Missouri  River  R.  Rs. 
Cap.  Fairfield.     Pop.  17,839. 

Jefferson,  county  of  X.  E.  Kansas.  Area,  5j0  square 
miles.  It  is  a  very  fertile,  high-rolling  prairie  region,  with 
considerable  timlxT,  abundance  of  limestone,  and  some 
coal.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  aro  staple  products.  The 
Atchison  Topcka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Kansas  Central,  and 
other  railroads  intersect  the  county.  Cap.  Oskaloosa.  l*op. 
12.:»2fi. 

Jefferson^  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  on  the  N.  W. 
by  the  Ohio  River.  Area,  OdU  square  miles.  It  has  a  va- 
ried surface  and  a  fertile  and  biglily  cultivated  soil.  Cattle, 
grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  The  manufactures 
and  commerce  of  Louisville,  the  principal  city  of  this  county 
and  State,  are  very  extensive.  They  are  treated  of  under 
the  head  of  Loi:isvii,i.K  (which  see).  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  various  railroads  centring  at  Louisville,  the  cap- 
ital.    Pop.  llS,yi3. 

Jefferson,  parish  of  Louisiana,  extending  from  Lake 
Pontchartraiu,  near  New  Orleans,  southward  to  Barataria 
Uay.  Area,  ab(mt  2J0  square  miles.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Mississippi  Uiver,  and  contain.'*  numerous  lakes,  bayous, 
and  swamps.  Rice,  corn,  and  sugar-cane  are  the  staple 
products.  It  is  traversed  by  Morgan's  Louisiana  and 
Texas  R.  R.     (^ap.  Carrollton.     Pop.  17,767. 

Jefferson,  county  of  Mississipjd,  having  the  Missi?- 
sip]>i  River  for  a  part  of  its  western  boundary,  separating 
it  from  Louisiana.  Area,  500  square  miles.  It  ha?  a  fer- 
tile soil.  Cotton  and  corn  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Fa- 
yette.    Pop.  13.848. 

Jefferson,  county  of  Missouri,  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  Mississippi  River.  Area.  504  square  miles.  It  is  very 
fertile,  excepting  some  tracts  in  the  western  part.  It 
abounds  in  metallic  wealth.  Lead  is  found  here  exten- 
sively. Cattle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are  staple  prod- 
ucts. The  county  is  traversed  hy  the  St.  Louis  and  Iron 
Mountain  R.  R.     Cap.  Hillsborough.     Pop,  15,330, 

Jefferson,  county  in  Montana,  W.  of  the  Missouri 
River.    Area,  2720  square  miles.    It  contains  rich  agrioul- 


tural  and  pastoral  resources,  and  gold-mines  arc  fouud  on 
the  tributaries  of  the  Missouri  and  Jetferson  rivers.  Cattle, 
grain,  butter,  and  lumber  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Ra- 
dcrsburg.     Pop.  1531, 

Jefferson,  county  of  Nebraska,  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
Kansas.  Area,  570  square  miles.  The  county  is  partly 
flat  and  partly  high  rolling  prairie.  The  soil  ie  fertile,  es- 
pecially along  the  stre.ims.  It  is  well  mlaptcd  to  wheat 
and  to  pasturage.  Iron  ore  is  found.  Timber  is  not  abun- 
dant. The  county  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Joseph  and  Denver 
City  R.  R.     Cap'.  Fairbury.     Poj).  2440. 

Jefferson,  county  of  New  Y»trk,  having  Lake  Ontario 
on  the  W.  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  on  the  N,  W.  It  in- 
cludes a  part  of  the  Thousand  Islands  in  that  stream. 
Area,  1808  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  quite  level  nejir 
the  lake  and  river,  but  much  higher  in  the  eastern  part. 
Much  of  its  diversified  surface  is  very  fertile.  Cattle,  wool, 
hay,  grain,  and  dairy  products  are  the  great  staples.  Iron 
ore  abounds.  Tbc  manufactures  include  iron,  machinery, 
castings,  agricultural  and  olhcr  tools,  leather,  paper,  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  Hour,  lumber,  malt,  cooperage,  and  many 
other  articles.  The  fisheries  arc  imjtortant.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  Rome  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg.  the 
Utica  and  Black  River,  and  other  railroads.  Cap.  AVater- 
town.     Poj).  05,415. 

Jefferson,  county  of  Ohio,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the 
Ohio  River,  which  sej)arates  it  from  AVest  Virginia.  Area, 
350  square  miles.  It  is  a  pleasant,  hilly,  and  very  fertile 
region,  abounding  in  coal.  Cattle,  wool,  and  grain  arc 
staple  products.  Carriages,  wagons,  clothing,  and  a  great 
variety  of  other  goods  are  manufactured.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  Pittsburg  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  R.  R. 
Cap.  Steubenville.     Pop.  20,188. 

Jefferson,  county  of  W.  Central  Pennsylvania.  Area, 
500  square  miles.  It  is  quite  rough  and  hilly,  and  abounds 
in  bituminous  coal  and  iron  ores.  The  soil  is  fertile,  espe- 
cially in  the  valleys.  Timber  is  abundant.  Cattle,  grain, 
and  wool  arc  staple  products.  Lumber  and  leather  arc  ex- 
tensively manufactured.     Caji.  Urookville.     Pop.  21,656. 

Jefferson,  county  of  E.  Tennessee,  having  the  IIol- 
ston  River  on  the  N.  W.  Area,  about  225  square  miles. 
It  is  traversed  by  French  Broad  River  and  the  Virginia 
and  East  Tennessee  R.  R.  Iron  ore  abounds.  It  is  moun- 
tainous, with  fertile  valleys  and  picturesque  scenery.  Cat- 
tle, grain,  wool,  and  toliacco  are  staple  products.  Cap. 
Bandridge.  Pop.  19,476  in  1870,  since  which  time  its 
area  has  been  reduced. 

Jefferson,  county  of  S.  E.  Texas,  having  Sabine  Lake 
and  river  ou  the  E.  and  N.  E.,  and  the  Gulf  of  Jlexico  on 
the  S.  Area,  'JOO  square  miles.  The  surface  near  the  coast 
is  open  prairie,  atl'ording  fine  pasturage.  The  rest  of  the 
county  is  in  the  main  heavily  timbered.  Live-stock,  cot- 
ton, rice,  lumber,  and  some  tobacco  are  exported.  Tbo 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Texas  and  New  Orleans  R.  R. 
Caj).  Beaumont.     Poj).  I'JOO. 

Jefferson,  county  of  N.  AV.  Washington  Territory,  hav- 
ing the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  W.  and  Hood's  Canal  and 
Puget  Sound  on  the  E.  Area,  some  1500  square  miles.  It 
is  partly  mountainous,  and  is  covered  with  enormous  trees. 
Lignitic  coal  is  found.  Mount  Olympus  is  8138  feet  high. 
Much  of  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  Lunibering  and  limbing 
are  at  present  the  chief  interests.  Cap.  Port  Towuscud. 
Pop.  1 208. 

Jefferson,  county  of  E.  West  Virginia,  having  the 
Potomac  River  on  the  N.  E.,  and  bounded  on  the  S.  E. 
and  S.  W.  by  Virginia.  Area,  200  square  miles.  It  is  a 
part  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  is  a  fertile,  rolling 
limestone  region.  Cattle,  grain,  aufi  wool  are  staple  prod- 
ucts. The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
and  the  Winchester  and  Strasburg  R.  Rs.  Cap.  Shephcrds- 
towu.     Pop.  13,219. 

Jefferson,  county  of  S.  E.  Wisconsin.  Area,  576  square 
miles.  It  has  a  fertile  limestone  soil.  Cattle,  grain,  wool, 
and  tobacco  arc  staple  products.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude carriages,  cooperage,  flour,  malt  liquors,  furniture, 
lumber,  saddlery,  etc.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Chi- 
cago and  North-western  and  the  La  Crosse  aud  Milwaukee 
R.  Rs.     Cap.  Jefferson.     Pop.  34,040. 

Jeffersony  a  v.  and  tp.  of  Marengo  co.,  Ala.,  S  miles 
N.  W.  of  Linden.     Pop.  233;  of  tp.  2445. 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Boone  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  1649. 

Jcllerson,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co..  Ark.     Pop.  194, 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Desha  co..  Ark.     Pop.  773. 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Independence  co..  Ark.     Pop.  777. 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  1976. 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Newton  oo..  Ark.     Pop.  3.^4. 

JcffersoUf  tp.  of  Ouachita  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  782. 


JEFFERSON. 


1385 


Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Salino  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  169. 
Jcirerson,  tp.  of  Sevior  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  317. 
Jellorson,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Jackson  co.,  Cia.,  IS  miles 
N.  W.  of  Alliens. 

Jeflerson,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Cook  CO.,  III..  7  miles  ] 
N.  W.  of  C'liicaRo,  on  the  Chicago  and  Norlh-weslern  U.  R. 
Pop.  of  Ip.  ISlli.  1 

jefTcrson,  tp.  of  Stephenson  co.,  III.     Pop.  546.  I 

Jcfl'crsiin,  Ip.  of  Adams  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  194. 
Jctlersun,  tp.  of  Allen  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1445. 
Jcirerson,  tp.  of  Boone  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1675. 
Jeirerson,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  947. 
JcliiTson,  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1285. 
JctTcr.sun,  post-v.  of  Clinton  co.,  Ind.  (Washington 
tp.).     Pop.  25.!. 
JctTerson,  tp.  of  Elkhart  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  982. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Grant  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  l:;98. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1348. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Henry  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1234. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Huntington  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  1227. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Jay  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1640. 
Jcirerson,  tp.  of  Kosciusko  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  711. 
JelFcrsou,  tp.  of  Miami  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1370. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  iMorgan  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  1081. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Newton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1600. 
Jeflerson,  fp.  of  Noble  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1293. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Owen  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2018. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Pike  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  2188. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Pulaski  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  171. 
Jefferson,  Ip.  of  Putnam  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  990. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1251. 
Jellersun,  Ip.  of  Switzerland  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  3208. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Tipton  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  1738. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Washington  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  1532. 
Jellorson,  Ip.  of  Wayne  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1785. 
Jefferson,  Ip.  of  Wells  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1773. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Whitley  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1203. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  .\dair  co.,  la.     Pop.  362. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Allamakee  eo.,  la.     Pop.  1015. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Bremer  co.,  la.     Pop.  760. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Buchanan  co.,  la.     Pop.  918. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Butler  co.,  la.     Pop.  613. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Clayton  co.,  la.     Pop.  2245. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Dubuque  co.,  la.     Pop.  1550. 
Jefferson,  Ip.  of  Fayette  co..  la.     Pop.  039. 
Jeirersoii,  fiont-v.  atid  tp.,  cap.  of  tlrcene  co.,  la.,  50 
mib'.'i   N.  W.  of  l>e3  Moines,  on  the  Coon   Kivor  and  tlio 
Norlh-western  R.  R. ;  has  a  bank,  22' stores,  4  ehurehes,  a 
fine  court-house,  a  g<Kiil  graded  seliool,  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  of  v.  779;  of  tp.  1S2S. 

SwAi.M  &  RiioAD!).  Ens.  "Bee." 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Harrison  co.,  la.     Pop.  694. 

Jeflerson,  t|i.  of  Henry  co.,  la.     Pop.  1438. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  Johnson  co.,  la.     Pop.  900, 

Jelferson,  ip.  of  Leo  co.,  la.     Pop.  1059. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  Louisa  co..  In.     Pop.  840. 

Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Madison  co.,  la.     Pop.  055. 

Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Mahaska  co.,  la.     Pop.  1174. 

Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Mnr^^hall  co.,  la.     Pop.  001. 

Jelferson,  ip.  of  P..lk  co.,  la.     Pop.  832. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  Poweshiek  co.,  la.     Pop.  000. 

Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Ringgold  co.,  la.     Pop.  527. 

Jefferson,  Ip.  of  Taylor  co.,  la.     Pop.  542. 

Jeflerson,  tp.  of  AVarren  co.,  la.     Pop.  1012. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  I».     Pop.  704. 

Jelferson,  ip.  of  Jackson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  1542. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  JefTcrson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  IflSO. 

Jellerson,  post-tp.  of  Lincoln  co.,  Mc.,  18  miles  N.  N. 
i:.  i.r  Wis.asscl.     Pop.  isai. 

Jelferson,  post  v.  and  tp.  of  Frederick  co.,  Md..  8  miles 
S.  W.  of  Frederick  ('ity.     Pop.  of  v.  257  ;  of  tp.  1491. 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1047. 

Jelferson,  post.lp.  of  Hillsdale  Co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1973. 

Jellerson,  ip.  of  Houston  co.,  .Minn.     Pop.  372. 

Jelferson,  tp.  of  Winona  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  640. 

Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Andrew  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1605. 


Jefferson,  tp.  of  Cedar  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1040. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Clarke  eo..  Mo.     Pop.  843. 
Jelferson,  ip.  of  Colo  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1839. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Diiviess  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1059. 
Jelferson,  tp,  of  Grundy  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  874. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Linn  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1810. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Maries  eo..  Mo.     Pop.  1123. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Monroe  co..  Mo.     Pop.  2147. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Osage  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1390. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Polk  co..  Mo.     Pop.  480. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Saline  co..  Mo.     Pop.  3002. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Scotland  co..  Mo.     Pop.  3297. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  867. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  AVayne  co..  Mo.     Pop.  371. 
Jefferson,  post-tp.  of  Coos  co.,  N.  H..  in  the  White 
Mountain  region.     It  has  e.\tensive  inanufaclures  of  lum- 
ber and  slareh.     It  is  a  place  of  summer  resort.    Pop.  826. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Morris  co.,  N.  J.     Pop.  1430. 
Jefferson,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  .Schoharie  co..  N.  Y.,  5 
miles  N.  of  Stamford,  the  nearest  railroail  station.     Tho 
town  of  Jefferson  is  hilly,  has  2  churches,  a  weekly  news- 
paper, various  stores,  and  manufactures  of  shoes,  cabinet- 
wares,  etc.  Principiil  business,  farming  and  dairying.  Pop. 
1712.  A.  W.  Clark,  En.  " Ji:FiKiisoNrAN." 

Jefferson,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Ashe  co.,  N.  C,  near 
New  River,  45  miles  S.  of  Marion,  Va.  Chief  business, 
agriculture  and  mining.  It  has  1  hotel,  2  academies  (male 
and  female),  a  weekly  newspaper,  stores,  shops,  etc.  Pop. 
1228.  R.  M.  DicKKV.  En.  •■  Moixtaix  Mkssesgeb." 

Jefferson,  tp.  of  Guilford  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  1045. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  0.  Pop.  2268. 
Jefferson,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Ashtabula  co..  0., 
13  miles  S.  of  Lake  Erie,  on  the  Oil  City  branch  of  tho 
Lake  Shore  R.  R.,  in  a  rich  grazing  and  dairy  country  ; 
has  2  banks,  16  stores,  2  foundries,  various  shops,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  6  public  schools,  and  2  hotels;  was  the  homo 
of  J.  R.  Giddings,  and  is  (1874)  that  of  B.  F.  AVade.  Pop. 
of  V.  809;  of  tp.  1712. 

W.  C.  HowELi.s,  En.  ".■\siiTABtI,A  Sentinei.." 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  O.     Pop.  1267. 
Jeflerson,  ip.  of  Clinton  co.,  0.     Pop.  1445. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Coshocton  co.,  0.     Pop.  1059. 
Jefferson,  v.  of  Neave  tp.,  Parke  co.,  0.     Pop.  107. 
Jefferson,  v.  of  Bloom  tp.,  Fairfield  CO.,  0.     Pop.  TO. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  0.     Pop.  2532. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Franklin  co..  0.     Pop.  1405. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  0.     Pop.  1277. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Guernsey  co.,  0.     Pop.  904. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  .Tackson  co.,  0.     Pop.  3002. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Kuo.x  co.,  0.     Pop.  1308. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Logan  co.,  0.     Pop.  1634. 
Jefferson,  a  v.  and  Ip.  ( W.  JnFFEnsos  P.  0.)  of  Mad- 
ison CO.,  I).,  on  tho  Little  Miami   R.  R.     Pop.  577  ;  of  tp. 
IS-S,"*. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Mercer  co.,  0.     Pop.  1557. 
Jefferson,  Ip.  of  Montgomery  co.,  0.     Pop.  3350. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Noble  co.,  0.     Pop.  1278. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Preble  co.,  0.     Pop.  1953. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Richland  oo.,  0.     Pop.  2251. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Ross  co.,  0.     Pop.  1013. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Scioto  co.,  0.     Pop.  659. 
Jelferson,  tp.  of  Tuscarawas  CO.,  0.     Pop.  1058. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Williams  co.,  0.     Pop.  1504. 
Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Allegheny  eo.,  Pa.     Pop.  2006. 
Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Berks  co.,  Pn.     Pop.  1133. 
Jellerson,  Ip.  of  Butler  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1234. 
Jelferson,  Ip.  of  Iiaiiphiii  co..  Pa.     Pop.  .<!43. 
Jellerson,  1]).  of  Fayette  eo.,  Pn.     Pop.  13S1. 
Jellerson,  post-lp.  of  Greene  oo.,  Pn.     Pop.  1322. 
Ji'lferson,  tp.  of  Luzerne  co..  Pa.     Pop.  770. 
Jelferson,  Ip.  of  .Mercer  Co.,  Pa,     Pop,  1292. 
.lelferson,  Ip.  of  Sonierset  eo..  Pa.     Pop.  706. 
JelliTson,  Ip.  of  Washington  co..  Pa.     Pop.  889. 
Jelferson,  a  b.  of  Soulli  Codorus  tp.  (Conoiiis  P.  0.), 
York  CO.,  Pa.,  i  a  mile  .^.  of  .lelTerson  Station,  a  post-v.  on 
the  Hanover  branch  of  the  Northern  Central  U.  R.    P.  •'!27. 
Jelferson,  post-tp.  of  Che.tcrficld  co.,  S.  C.   Pop.  IIOI. 
Jelferson,  city.  cap.  of  Marion  eo.,  Tejc.,  situated  at 


1386 


JEFFERSON. 


the  head  of  navij^ation  on  the  Big  Cypress  Bajou,  which 
connects  with  Rt-d  River,  on  a  section  of  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  R.  R.,  which  also  forms  part  of  the  direct  line  of 
the  Intfrnational  R.  R.,wiiich  was  completed  in  1.S74  from 
Cairo,  III.,  to  Iloarne  in  Central  Texas.     Jefferson  is  the 
largest  town  in  Xorth-eastcrn  Tcxa?,  bcinsr  the  centre  of  a 
river  commerce  which  has  acquired  conpiderahle  import- 
ance since  the  civil   war.     It  now  sends   to  New  Orleans 
273,000  bales  of  cotton  annually,  bcsifies  large  quantities 
of  hides,  cattle,  beef  in  barrels,  tallow,  wnol,  and  bois  d'arc 
seed.     Twenty  thousand  waijons  annually  arrive  at  Jeffer- 
son from  the  interior  counties,  with  which  the  commerce 
amounts  to  more  than  $10,000,000.     Vast  beds  of  iron  and 
coal  are  found  in  the  vicinity.     Jefferson  was  settled  in 
lS4o.     It  has  7  churches,  ."►  newspnpers.  1  national  bank, 
and    numerous   manufactories.      Pop.   411)0   (1870),  since 
largely  iucrcased. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Alexandria  co.,  Vn.     Pop.  125G. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Loudon  co.,  Va.     Pop.  3355. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Kanawha  co.,  West  Va.     Pop.  1635. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Lincoln  co.,  West  Va.     Pop.  508. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Nicholas  co.,  West  Vn.     Pop.  649. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Pleasants  co.,  West  Va.     Pop.  407. 
Jeflerson,  tp.  of  Green  co..  Wis.     Pop.  1673. 
Jefferson,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Jefferson  co..  Wis., 
on  the  Ciiica'j;o  and   North-western   R.  R.,  Wisconsin  di- 
vision, 26  miles  X.  N.  E.  of  Janesville,  at  the  junction  of 
Rock  and  Crawfish  rivers.     It  has   1    manvifactory  of  fur- 
niture, 3  of  brick,  1  of  woollens,  and  1  of  flour;    1  weekly 
newspaper,   2  graded-school   houses,  4  hotels,  a  national 
bank,  a  savings  bank,  a  fire  department  with  steam  fire- 
engine,  and  is  the  seat  of  Jefferson  Liberal  Institute.    The 
town  is  mainly  built  of  cream  brick,  made  here.     It  is  in 
a  very  fertile  region.     Pop.  2176;  of  tp.  4408. 

A.  Savborn,  Pub.  ^'Baxneh." 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Monroe  co..  Wis.     Pop.  764. 
Jefferson,  tp.  of  Vernon  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  IIOS. 
Jefferson  (JosErn).  b.  at  Philadelphia  Feb.  20,  1829, 
descended  from  several  generations  of  actors;  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  his  boyhood  iu  comic  parts :  has  acted  in  Eng- 
land and  Australia  with  great  success.     Jefferson  produced 
at  the  Ad"lphi   Theatre.  London,   in   1865,  his  celebrated 
play  of  Rip  Van  Wiulh,  which  has  kept  the  stage  ever 
since,  and  procured  him  a  wide  reputation. 

Jefferson  (Thomas),  LL.D..  third  President  of  the  U.S., 
h.  in  Albemarle  co.,  Va.,  Apr.  13  (n.  s.),  1743.  His  family, 
of  Weli'h  extraction,  was  settled  iu  Virginia  before  1610, 
iu  whie,h  year  his  ancestor  was  a  member  of  the  assembly, 
the  fir.-*t  legislative  body  ever  convened  in  America.  His 
father,  Peter  Jefferson,  a  surveyor  and  planter,  was  a  man 
of  extraordinary  jihysical  strength,  and  sound  intelligence, 
a  publiir  spirited  citizen  and  valuable  man.  who  served 
his  covmty  as  public  surveyor,  as  colonel,  and  as  a  member 
of  the  legislature.  Peter  .lefferson  married,  in  1738,  Jane, 
daughter  of  Isham  Ran<b>lph,  and  granddaughter  of  the 
founder  of  the  Virginia  Randolphs,  by  whom  he  had  nine 
children,  Thomas  being  hia  third  child  and  eldest  son.  Iu 
1757.  Peter  ilied,  leaving  a  widow  and  eight  children,  the 
oldest  seventeen  years,  the  youngest  twenty-two  months, 
Thomas  being  a  schoolboy  of  fourteen.  The  family  inher- 
ited 1000  acres  and  30  slaves.  fr<)m  the  product  of  which 
Thomas  was  enabled  to  attend  AVilliam  and  Mary  College 
and  study  law,  thus  fulfilling  the  fondest  wish  of  his  father 
and  obeying  one  of  his  last  injunctions.  lie  loved  to  think 
that  this  was  his  father's  dying  eommaml.  an<i  he  used  to 
say  in  his  old  age  that  if  he  had  had  to  choose  between  the 
estate  or  the  education  his  father  had  given  him,  ho  would 
have  chosen  the  education.  He  entered  college  in  17^0. 
remiiined  two  years,  began  the  study  of  the  law  at  Wil- 
liamsburg under  George  AVytho  in  1763,  and  in  1767,  being 
twenty-four  years  of  age.  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  As 
a  student  he  was  industrious,  resolute,  moral,  and  intelli- 
gent, lie  was  fortunate  in  his  mathematical  ]>rofessor, 
Small,  a  friend  of  Erasmus  Darwin:  also  in  the  learned 
George  Wylhe.  who  directed  the  legal  studies  of  Chief- 
Justice  Marshall  and  Henry  Clay.  Tudcr  the  influence 
of  these  liberal  minds  he  investigated  the  sources  of  law, 
the  origin  of  liberty,  and  the  gradual  establishment  of 
equal  rights,  extending  his  resenrehcs  into  remote  an- 
tiquity, iind  becoming  one  of  the  most  accomplished  young 
men  of  his  time.  Ho  actiuired  skill  upon  the  violin,  some- 
times practising  three  hours  a  day.  and  was  a  close 
observer  and  student  of  nature.  He  obtained  at  once  a 
large  and  profitable  practice  at  the  bar,  which  he  held  for 
eight  years,  until  he  wax  drawn  into  public  life  by  the 
conflict  between  the  colonies  and  (ireat  Britain.  From 
6S  cases  in  his  first  year,  he  was  employed  in  430  cases 
in  his   fourth,  and  his  incomo  at  tbo   bar  is  estimated 


at  £500  sterling  per  annum,  by  which  he  increased  his 

estate  to  5000  acres  of  land.  He  married,  Jan.  1,  1772, 
Martha  Skelton.  a  young,  beautiful,  and  childless  widow, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  a  leading  lawyer  of  Virginia,  John 
Wayles,  whose  death  the  next  year  doubled  Jefferson's  es- 
tate. Elected  a  member  of  the  house  of  burgesses  in  1769, 
he  served  iu  that  boily  til!  the  Revolution,  a  firm  supporter 
of  liberal  measures,  and  noted  for  his  disapproval  of  slavery. 
With  Patrick  Henry  and  the  Lees  he  was  a  leader  of  the 
party  in  opposition  to  the  British  king,  though  strongly 
attached  to  the  mother-countr}'.  He  took  his  scat  as  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  June  21,  177.'>,  the  day 
on  which  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Iiitl  reached 
Philadelphia  and  AVashinglon  left  that  city  to  take  com- 
mand ot'  the  army  at  (.'ambridge.  Seldom  joining  in  de- 
bate, for  he  wns  no  orator,  he  acquired  great  influence  by 
his  courtesy,  his  readiness  in  composition,  his  knowledge 
of  law  and  usage,  his  general  information,  his  moderation 
of  tone,  and  his  warm  devotion  to  the  country's  cause. 
After  serving  on  several  leading  c(»nnniftees  and  drawing 
important  papers,  he  was  chosen  to  ilraft  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  which,  after  three  days'  debate  and  ex- 
tensive amendment,  was  adopted  and  signed  on  Thursday 
afternoon,  July  4,  1770.  In  September  of  the  same  year 
he  resumed  his  sent  in  the  Virginia  legislature,  where,  in 
conjunction  with  George  Wythe  and  James  Madisnn,  he 
spent  three  years  in  adapting  the  laws  of  A'irginia  to  the 
new  order  of  things,  and  in  other  patriotic  labors.  He 
effected  the  abolition  of  entail  and  primogeniture,  and 
drew  the  law — the  first  ever  passed  by  a  legislature  or 
adopted  by  a  government — which  secured  perfect  religious 
freedom.  His  scheme  for  the  establishment  of  common 
schools  and  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  though  warmly 
supported  by  the  liberal  members,  failed.  June  1,  1779, 
he  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  as  governor  of  Virginia,  an 
ofnee  whicli  he  resigned  after  holding  it  two  years,  dur- 
ing which  he  ably  co-operated  with  AVashington  in  de- 
fending the  country.  One  of  his  own  estates  was  rav- 
aged and  plundered  by  Cornwallis,  and  his  house  at  Mon- 
ticello  was  held  for  some  days  by  Tarleton's  cavalry.  Jeffer- 
son himself  narrowly  escaping  capture.  Sejit.  6, 1782,  his  wife 
died,  leaving  three  children  of  six  to  which  she  had  given 
birth.  Distracted  with  grief,  he  now  accepted  an  apjioint- 
ment  as  plenipotentiary  to  France,  which  he  had  declined 
in  1776.  Before  sailing  he  served  for  some  weeks  in  Con- 
gress at  Annapolis,  where  he  succeeded  in  carrying  a  bill 
establishing  our  jiresent  system  of  decimal  currency — one 
of  the  most  useful  of  his  public  services.  Reaching  Paris 
in  June.  1784,  ho  remained  until  October,  1789.  "  Vou 
replace  Dr.  Franklin,"  said  the  Count  dc  Vcrgennes  to  the 
new  minister.  ''  I  /tucrcd,"  was  Mr.  .Tefferson's  reply  ; 
"no  one  can  replace  him."  He  was  filled  with  horror  at 
the  .condition  of  France,  and  declared  that  a  government 
of  nobles  and  priests  was  a  government  of  wolves  over 
sheep.  The  most  miserable  person  in  the  U.  S.  be  thought 
bapjtier  than  nineteen  out  of  twenty  Frenchmen,  and  he 
attributed  the  general  misery  chiefly  to  the  bad  govern- 
ment. 

He  was  an  active  and  vigilant  minister.  Besides  per- 
forming the  usual  duties  of  his  place,  he  published  his 
\»itrn  on  Virf/iiiia,  sent  to  the  U.  S.  seeds,  jilants,  and 
shrubs,  enriched  Buffon's  collection  with  American  speci- 
mens, forwarded  literary  and  scientific  news,  and  gave  use- 
ful advice  to  La  Fayette  and  the  other  revolutionary  lead- 
ers. Nov.  18.  1789.  he  landed  in  Virginia,  having  obtained 
a  six  months' leave  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  his  dnushtcra 
home,  one  of  whom  was  engaged  to  be  married  to  Thomas 
Mann  Randolph,  afterwards  governor  of  Virginia.  Jeffer- 
son was  met  soon  after  his  arrival  by  a  letter  from  Pres. 
Washington  appointing  him  secretary  of  state.  He  ac- 
cepted the  place,  and  entered  u])on  its  duties  at  New  York 
in  Mar.,  1791.  residing  at  .')7  Maiden  lune,  and  held  the 
office  until  Jan.  1,  1794,  when  he  resigned.  During  his 
tenure  of  this  office  the  two  political  parties  became  sharply 
defined,  and  Jefferson,  who  was  in  the  warmest  sympathy 
with  the  French  revolution  and  strongly  democnitie  in  his 
feelings,  was  recognized  as  the  leailer  and  candidate  of  the 
Republican  party.  His  colleague.  Alexander  Hamilton, 
beeame  his  decided  and  aggressive  political  opponent. 
"  We  were  pitted  against  each  other,"  Jefferson  once  wrote, 
"every  day  in  the  cabinet  like  two  fighting-eoeks."  In 
1706  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  V.  S.,  and  was 
sworn  in  Mar.  4.  1797.  In  18110  he  was  elected  to  the 
Presidency,  and  bcinir  inaugurated  Mar.  4.  ISOl,  he  entered 
upon  a  part  of  his  career  whieh  will  ever  he  regarded  with 
interest  by  republieans  of  every  land.  He  selected  an  able 
and  aeeoinplished  cabinet:  .Tames  Madison  of  A'irginia, 
state;  Albert  Gallatin  of  Pennsylvania,  treasury:  Henry 
Dearborn  of  Maine,  war;  Robert  Smith  of  Maryland, 
navy;  Gideon  Granger  of  New  York,  post-office.  Admin- 
istering the  government  in  unbroken  harmony  with   bis 


JEFFERSON   BARRACKS— JEHOVAH. 


1387 


mioistcrs.  he  grinlually  won  to  his  support  n  majority  of 
the  people  so  groat  that  he  deemed  the  opposition  scarcely 
strong  enough  to  adequately  criticise  and  admonish  the 
party  in  power.  He  wagod  a  sucecssfal  war  agiiinst  the 
piratical  Algcrincs,  in  which  the  navy  of  the  V.  S.  won 
gruat  dibitinciion  and  formed  the  gallant  officers  ^Those  ex- 
ploits in  the  war  of  1^12  were  so  remarkable;  Louisiana 
was  purchased  of  Xapoleon ;  the  puhlic  debt  was  greatly 
reduced:  the  wesfern  country  was  explored  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  and  by  Pike:  the  system  of  precedence  was  abol- 
i«hecl,  and  a  rational  etiquette  substituted.  He  attempted 
by  the  embargo  to  introduce  a  better  method  than  that  of 
war  to  enforce  the  national  rights.  Having  dcrlined  urg- 
ent solicitations  to  accept  a  nomination  fur  a  third  term, 
he  retired  to  private  life  Mar.  4,  ISOlt,  and  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  at  his  beautiful  seat.  Monlicollo. 
cheered  by  the  soc-iety  of  hia  eldest  daughter  and  a  large 
number  of  affectionate  grandchildren.  Many  of  his  later 
years  were  employed  in  fuundiug  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, now  an  important  institution.  He  died  on  the  fif- 
tieth anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  a 
few  hours  before  his  contemporary  and  friend,  John  Adams. 
Mr.  JffTerson  was  tall,  well-formed,  straight,  and  uncom- 
monly strong.  He  had  sandy  hair,  a  ruddy  cumplexion, 
and  a  tranquil,  benevolent  expression  of  countenance.  His 
temper  was  perfect;  his  manners  were  natural  and  easy. 
He  loved  his  country  and  his  kind,  and  spent  a  long  life  in 
honorable  and  useful  labors,  public  and  private,  beloved 
by  all  who  knew  him  as  ho  was.  He  was  one  of  the  best- 
informed  men  of  his  day,  and  all  his  habits  an<l  instincts 
were  those  of  a  student  and  observer.  (For  fuller  infor- 
mation, sec  his  W'orl.-^,  9  vols.  Svo ;  MfnuoSts  and  CtnTf;- 
*f)'HKlcncc,  by  his  grandson,  T.  J.  Randolph,  4  vols.,  1S29; 
UitHjrnphivH  Ity  (ieorge  Tucker,  2  vols.,  IS.'JT,  by  H.  (1. 
Randall,  .1  vols.  Svo.  ISiS,  by  his  granddaughter,  Sarah 
N.  Randolph,  1  vol.,  1871,  and  by  James  Parton,  1  vol., 
1S7I.)  James  Pauton. 

JcfTorson  Barracks,  post-r.  of  St.  Louis  co.,  Mo., 
on  the  Mississippi  River.  U  miles  below  St.  Louis,  and  on 
the  St.  Louis  and  Iron  Mountain  R.  R.,  is  the  site  of  ex- 
tensive l*^.  S.  barracks. 

Jefferson  City,  cap.  of  Missouri  and  seat  of  justice 
of  (*f»le  cf>..  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  .Missouri  River,  125  miles 
^V^  of  St.  Louis,  and  near  the  geographical  centre  of  the 
State.  It  is  on  the  Missouri  Paeiiic  U.  R..  and  by  ferry 
transfer  with  Cedar  City,  on  tlie  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
it  is  the  S.  W.  terminus  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton  R.  R. 
Its  site  is  elevated  and  pleasant,  and  the  town  is  well  built. 
Am'ing  the  public  buildings  are  the  State  capitol,  the  ex- 
ecutive mansion,  State  armory,  penitentiary,  8  churches.  2 
public-school  building-",  Lincoln  Institute,  a  normal  school 
for  colored  youth,  and  a  female  seminary.  There  aro  2 
large  flouring-mills,  manufaetory  of  farm-implements,  a 
foun<lrv,  and  many  minor  industrial  interests,  1  State  and 
2  national  banks,  weekly  newspaper,  and  a  State  library. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Jefl"er>on  City  College  (Protestant  Episco- 
pal). It  is  in  a  healthful  region,  which  has  great  mineral 
and  agricultural  wealth,  coal,  iron,  and  ghisssand  abound- 
ing. Pop,  4420,  much  increased  since  the  U.  S.  census. 
P.  T.  Mii.LKR,  En.  "  Pkoim.k's  Tkibit.vk." 

JpflTerson  CoUegc.  See  Wasuisgton  a.nd  JiiFFEiisoN 
Goi,i,K«;i:. 

Jctrcrso'nin  (J.  diphjflln),  a  vernal  plant  of  the  order 
Bcrberidaceip,  popularly  known  as  twin-loaf,  from  its  two- 
parted  leaves,  which  rise  in  a  tuft  from  the  roots.  The 
tlowers  aro  white,  resemble  those  of  blood-root,  and  appear 
in  early  spring.  Thc./'7?>r«oji/ri  is  indigenous  to  the  North- 
ern Central  .*^ta(c8  of  the  U.  S..  but  is  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land. The  root  has  been  reeommendcd  as  a  specific  for 
rheumatism,  but  the  medicinal  quality  is  somewhat  doubtful. 

Jerfersonton,  post-v.  and  ip.  of  Culpcper  co.,  Va., 
lO.i  miles  .\.  W.  ol"  Richmond,  on  the  HajtpahanDook. 
I'np.  4110;  of  Ip.  2'JJ.t. 

JcPforsonville,  post-v.,  cop.  of  Twigga  co.,  Go.,  15 
miles  S.  from  <iordon. 

JofTersonvillc,  post-v.  of  Lamard  tp.,  Wayne  co.,  III., 
on  the  Springfield  and  Illinois  South-eastern  R.  R.,  G  niiles 
N.  by  W.  of  Fairfield  ;  founded  1H.'.2  in  the  fertile  Lii  Mard 
Prairie;  has  2  churches,  a  park,  a  weekly  neuspnper,  2 
hotels,  flour  and  saw  mtMs,  etc. 

R.  A.  Moss,  Ei).  "  Watne  Co.  Ckntral." 

JcfTcrsonville,  city  nn<l  tp.  of  Clnrke  eo..  Ind.,  on  tho 
Oliio  River,  opposite  Ijonissille,  Ky..  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  fine  rnilroa^l  bridge.  It  \»  (he  terminus  of  the 
Jefferson  Madison  and  Indinniipolis  R.  R..  and  is  on  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  R.  R.,  I^ouisville  divittion;  a  branch 
of  the  former  road  extemU  thence  to  New  Albany.  The 
falU  of  the  Ohio  hfr<'  afi'ord  a  noble  water  power.  Tho 
town   has  good  shipping  facilities,  2  largo  shipyards,   II 


churches,  locomotive  and  car  works,  and  the  machine-5hops 
of  the  first-mentioned  railroad.  It  contains  tho  Southern 
State  penitentiary,  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  government 
d^pOt  of  supplies  which  cost  $200,000,  has  2  national  banks, 
2  largo  flour-mills,  a  fine  high-school  building,  a  weekly 
and  a  daily  newspaper.  Pop.  of  city,  7254;  of  tp.  outside 
city  limits,  .'^042.   R.  Daily,  En.  "News  and  Deuwrat." 

Jettersouvillc,  N.  Y.     See  Callicoo.v. 

Jctfer^oitvillef  post-v.  of  Jefferson  tp.,  Fayette  co., 
0.     Pop.  212. 

JefTersonville,  or  Tazewell  Court-lionse,  a  v. 
and  tp.,  cop.  of  Tazewell  co.,  Va.,  in  a  mountain-region, 
28  miles  N.  of  Marion,  has  3  churches,  a  high  school,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  2  hotels;  is  in  a  fine  blue-gnif;s  region. 
Chief  business,  cattle-raising  and  farming.  Pop.  ;^6.S2. 
J.  C.  NirTTV,  En.  "News." 

Jerfrey  (Frascis),  Lori>,  b.  at  Edinburgh  Oct.  2.3, 
177.'J;  was  educated  at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Oxford, 
and  in  1704  was  passed  an  advocate  at  Edinburgh,  but  his 
literary  tastes  and  Whig  principles  rendered  his  progress 
in  his  profession  slow.  In  isn2  he  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Edhihurijh  licvitw,  of  which  he  became  the  leading 
spirit,  and  w.is  for  twenty-six  years  the  principal  editor; 
in  IS13  visited  New  York  and  mrirricd  Miss  Charlotte 
^Vilkes,  his  second  wife;  won  wide  fame  by  the  ability  and 
severity  with  which  he  opposed  the  new  schools  of  poetry 
which  sprang  up  in  Great  Britain.  Acquiring  a  brilliant 
though  tardy  reputation  at  the  bar,  he  was  made  dean  of 
tho  Faculty  of  Advocates  1829;  lonl  advocnte,  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Jeffrey,  1830;  sat  in  Parliament  for  Perth 
IS.'tO,  for  Mallon  1831,  for  Edinburgh  1832.  Regarding 
Jeffrey's  work  as  a  critic,  the  sentence  of  time  has  been 
adverse;  for,  though  his  abilities  were  undeniable,  his 
judgment  was  often  overmnstered  by  prejudice;  but  a£  a 
jurist  he  was  just  and  able ;  us  a  man  ho  was  beloved  even 
by  his  literar}'  adversaries.    D.  at  Craigcrook  Jan.  26, 1850. 

Jeffreys,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  2005. 

Jeffreys  (George),  Bahox,  b.  at  Aeton,  Denbigh, 
Wales,  in  161S;  studied  law  in  the  Middle  Temple;  was 
culled  to  the  bar  in  IGfiO;  and  practised  chiefly  at  the  Old 
Bailey,  where  he  acquired  the  ferocious  brutality  which  (hen 
distinguished  that  court,  and  which  characterized  him 
through  life;  was  common  sergeant  of  London  1G7I;  af- 
fected Puritanism,  but  was  knighted  in  1(»77  and  made 
solicitor  to  the  duke  of  York;  recorder  of  London  IfiTS- 
80;  king's  sergeant  and  chief-justice  of  Chester  IC80;  bar- 
onet 1G8I ;  was  crown  counsel  against  Lord  Russell,  and 
became  chief-justice  of  the  king's  bench  1683;  sentenced 
Algernon  Sidney  1083;  tried  Baxter  and  Titus  Gates  1CS5; 
received  a  peerage  1C85.  in  which  year  he  held  the  Blootly 
Assize  for  the  trial  of  Monmouth's  adherents,  of  whom  ho 
caused  320  to  be  hung  and  841  to  be  solJ  into  slavery  in 
tho  colonies,  for  which  service  he  was.  made  lord  chnn- 
cellor;  was  a  party  in  nearly  all  the  misdeeds  of  James 
II. ;  was  seized  bv  a  mob  and  confined  in  the  Tower  1688, 
audd.  there  Apr.'l8,  1689. 

Jeffries  (John),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  5, 
1744;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1763;  studied  medicine  at 
London  and  Aberdeen;  returned  to  Boston  to  practise  his 
profes.sion  ;  and.  aeconipun.viT)g  the  Briiish  forces  on  their 
withilrawal  to  Halifax  in  177'i,  he  was  iippointcd  surgeon- 
general  by  Gen.  Howe.  In  1779,  Dr.  Jeffries  became  sur- 
geon-major to  all  the  British  forces  in  America,  but  goon 
retired  to  EnglnncI,  where  ho  devoted  much  attention  to 
scientific  experiment,  especially  upon  atmospheric  phe- 
nomena. In  178J  he  crossed  the  Channel  from  Dover  into 
France  in  a  balloon,  a  feat  which  attracted  much  attention 
from  the  learned  societies  of  Paris.  In  17S9,  Dr.  Jefirics 
returned  to  Boston,  where  he  resided  until  his  death,  Sept. 
16,  1SH»,  Dr.  Jeffries  delivered  in  1789  tho  first  public- 
anatomical  lecture  ever  given  in  New  England,  but  a  great 
popular  sentiment  existing  against  dissections,  he  was  enni- 
pelled  by  mob  violcouo  to  discontinue  bis  course  of  in- 
struction. 

Jehosli'nphnt,  tho  fourth  king  of  Judnh,  was  the  snn 
of  Asa,  wboMi  be  siieeeedc'l  in  912  n.  c.  and  reigned  (o  S<7 
n.  r.  .'Mlhoiigb  he  was  utterly  di  fenled  by  the  Syrians  in 
the  battle  of  Ranioth-gllend.  and  although  his  first  expe- 
dition to  Ophir  v(\i»  foiU'd  by  the  wreck  of  his  whole  fl«et, 
his  reign  was  ne\  ertlnless  generally  very  fortunate.  Ho 
workcil  encrcetieally  ami  sueee-isfnjly  to  extirpate  idolatry, 
he  kept  the  ntttionit  on  the  borders  in  awe,  nnd  HgrieuUuro 
and  commerce  prospered  under  his  rule.  The  name  of  Jc- 
hoshnphat  meann  "Jehovah's  judgment;"  hence  the  flgn- 
ralivo  expression  of  tho  prophet  Joel,  'Mho  valley  of  Jo- 
hoshaphat." 

Jetio'vah  [Heh.]  occurs  only  fonr  times  in  the  Autho- 
rized Version  of  the  Bible,  but  the  Hebrew  word  (71171') 
for  which  it  stands  is  used  hundreds  of  times,  being  usu- 


1388 


JEHU— JENKINS. 


ally  represented  in  our  Bible  by  "Lord,"  or  "the  Lohd." 
priatc'l  in  small  capitals,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  words 
similarly  translated.  This  singular  jihenomcnon  arises  from 
the  fact  (hat  while  the  consonants  of  the  name  (the  Hebrew 
alphabet  having  originally  had  no  signs  for  vowels)  have 
been  faitlifully  preserved  by  transcription,  the  Jews  for 
ages  have  refrained  from  prononncinrj  the  name  on  account 
of  its  sacredncss;  so  that  the  original  pronunciation  has 
been  lost.  Whenever  the  word  occurs  they  suhstilute  for 
it,  in  reading,  ^31X  (.4(Mo»«(*) ;  and  to  indicate  this  the 
Masoretic  puncfators  connected  with  the  conttonnuts  TWTV 
the  rmvch  of  ''31X.  But  when  these  two  words  are  found 
together,  71171^  is  punctuated  with  the  vowel-points  of 
DTi^X  (God).  This  practice  must  be  one  of  long  standing, 
inasmuch  as  wo  find  in  the  Septuagint  (the  Greek  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  dating  from  the  second  or  tliird 
century  b.  c).  «vpto?  uniformly  put  for  niiT.  Tins  example 
ha3  been  followed  in  most  of  the  versions.  There  are  now 
no  rcspcctablo  si;hoIars  who  suppose  that  the  form  TV^TV^ 
(*' Jehovah")  represents  the  original  sound  of  the  name. 
From  Exodus  lii.  H,  lu,  where  ri'.nsi,  the  first  person  im- 
perfect of  rrri.  **to  be,"  is  identified  with  nilT' ;  from  the 
form  which  the  word  assumes  in  proper  names  compounded 
with  it  (especially  ^iTV  at  the  end  of  such  names) ;  and  from 
ancient  testimony  respecting  the  pronunciation,  it  is  now 
generally  conceded  by  scholars  that  jirobably  the  verb  had 
originally  1  (vav)  instead  of  **  (yodh)  for  its  second  radical, 
and  that  the  third  person  singular  imperfect  was  T\)7\\ 
(Yahveh  or  Yahweh),  and  that  this  is  the  proper  form  of 
the  sacred  name.  As  to  its  significance,  since  it  expresses 
existence  emphatically  as  the  characteristic  of  God,  we  may 
say  that  it  denotes  iha  perfection  of  exintcnec.  Hence,  eter- 
nity, self-existenee,  sovereignt}',  unchangeablcness,  and  es- 
pecially personality,  are  conceptions  fairly  to  be  inferred 
as  cmboclied  in  the  name.  In  the  Old  Testament  generally 
mn'  is  the  term  used  when  God's  personal  relation  to  his 
people  is  emphasized.  Jehovah,  rather  than  Elohim,  is 
God  as  rcrpa?/?!'/ himself,  as  a  lairgiier,  as  inspiring  ^)ro^>/i- 
ccy/^  as  i\\(s  faithful  one,  as  the  object  of  xrorship,  as  the 
liriiiff  God,  as  the  rcwanlcr  of  good  and  punishcr  of  evil. 
In  general.  Elohim  may  bo  called  the  God  of  nature,  and 
Jehovah  (Yahveh)  the  God  of  revelation.  (On  this  subject 
the  principal  writers  are  Hongstenborg,  Anthcnticitif  of  the 
Pcntntcurh  ;  Reinkc,  PhiloHophisch-historischc  Abluindlumj 
fiber  tlcn  Gattcimumcn  Jchova  :  Tholuck,  in  the  LiternrtKchc 
Anzeitjcr  {l^'il)  x  Ucland's  collection  of  essays  entitled /^crns 
Exrrrittitionum  Philfilof/irnnim  de  vera  Proniinciatione  uom- 
inia  Jchova  ;  E.  Ballantine,  on  the  Import  of  the  name  Jc- 
Iiorahj  in  the  Biblical  Pepositori/,  vol.  iii.)     C.  M.  Mead. 

Je'hu  [Heb.   Ychti;  meaning  uncertain],  the  eleventh 
king  ol  Israel,  and  founder  of  tlie  fourth  dynasty  in  the 
northern  kingdom;  reigned  28  years,  from  B.  <\  8S.*t  to  8.'),'). 
In  his  youth,  .Iciiu  was  one  of  the  guards  of  Ahab,  and  in 
the  reigns  of  Ahaziah  and  Jchoram  had  become  one  of  the  j 
chief  military  leaders.     In  the  account  of  the  vision  which  1 
appeared  to  Elijah   at   Horcb  in  the  time  of  Ahab,  that 
prophet  was  commanded  to  anoint  Jeliu  king  of  Israel   as  | 
instrument  of  the  divine  vengeance  upon  idolatrous  Israel  I 
(I  Kings  xix.  11),  17).     This  commaml  was  disobeyed,  and  [ 
.Tehudidnot  corae  to  the  throne  until  nearly  or  quite  twenty  , 
years  later,  when  he  was  anointed  by  one  of  the  prophets  i 
under  EUsha's  directions,  and  proceeded  to  the  massacre  I 
of  King  Joram,  his  mother  Jezebel,  his  guest  Ahaziah, 
Icing   of    Judah,    seventy    brothers    of    Joram,    forty-two 
brothers  of  Ahaziah,  and,  in  general,  of  all  the  prophets, 
priest:*,  and  worshippers  of  Baal.     The  reign  of  .Ichu  was  | 
not  marked  by  any  further  remarkable  events,  so  far  as  can   j 
be  learned  from  the  biblical  record,  hut  the  name  occurs  on 
the  black  obelisk  from  Xinevch,  now  in  the  British  Museum,   ' 
as  one  of  the  tributaries  to  the  Assyrian  empire.      Thetly- 
uasty  of  Jehu  occupied  the  throne  of  Samaria  for  four  gen-  , 
cration?. 

Jeisk,  or  Eisk,  town  of  Russia,  in  the  territory  of  the  . 
Kuban  Cossacks,  on  the  Sea  of  Azof,  was  founded  in  18J8 
as  a  port  for  the  rich  produce  of  the  surrounding  country,  i 
aud  has  grown  very  rapidly  since.     Pop.  10.747. 

Jcjpeblioy'  (Sir  Jamsktjke),  Baiit,.  b.  at  Bombay.  In- 
dia, July  l."»,  178;!,  belonged  to  that  Parsee  race  which  is  j 
the  present  representative  of  the  ancient  Zoronstrians  and 
Firc-worsliippers  of  Persia,    He  commenced  life  in  poverty,  I 
made  several  eommcreini  voyages  to  Cliina,  and  succeeded  I 
60  well  as  to  be  able  in  1S22  to  release  all  the  di'l)tors  held  | 
in  prison  in   Bombay  by  paying  their  debts.     In  recogni- 
tion of  his  princely  benefactions  he  was  knighted  by  Queen 
A^ietoria  in  1842,  and  made  a  baronet  in  1857.     In  ISofi  a 
statue  was  voted  tn  him  by  the  citizens  of  Bombay.     Sir 
Jamsetjoo  d.  at  that  phi'-o  Apr.  14,  ISJ9,  au'l  on   Aug.   1 
after  his  death  the   statue  was  placed   in  the  town-hall. 


His  estate  was  valued  at  $4,000,000;  his  charitable  foun- 
dations, widely  distributed  through  Western  India,  were 
estimated  to  have   cost  $1,500,000,  most  of   them  set  in 
operation  during  his  life. 
Jeknterinbiirg.     See  Yekaterindoorg. 
Jekaterinodar.     Sec  Yekaterinodar. 
Jeknterinoslav.    See  YEKAXEniNosLAv. 
JclaUibad'f  town  of  Afghanistan,  is  situated  near  the 
Cabool,  on  a  fertile  plain  2200  feet  above  the  sea,  in  lat. 
.^4°  2o'  N.     It  is  poorly  built ;  its  trade  is  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Hindoos;  its  population  varies  according  to 
the  season  from  .'iOOO  to  10.000.     A  single  English  brigade 
under  Sir  Robert  Sale  defeated  here  a  large  Afghan  force 
in  Mar..  18-12. 

Jelatma,  or  Jelatom.     Sec  Yelatom. 

Jcletz.     Sec  Yelktz. 

Jel'lachich  von  Buzim  (Count  Josi-pn).  b.  at  Peter- 
waradin,on  the  so-called  military  frontier  of  Ilunirarv.  Oct. 
10,  1801,  was  a  son  of  Baron  Franz  .lellachirli,  a  field-mnr- 
shal  in  the  Napoleonic  wars:  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age;  spent  many  years  on  the  Turkish  border  in  military 
service;  became  in  1842  colonel  of  the  first  Banat  border 
regiment,  and  when  the  Magyar  revolution  broke  out  in 
1848  threw  his  great  influence  with  the  Slavic  popul.Ttions 
into  the  scale  in  favor  of  the  Austrian  empire.  At  the  re- 
quest of  a  Slavic  committee.  Jellaehich  was  app(»infeil  to 
the  chief  coniman<l  of  the  southern  districts  of  the  emj)ire, 
under  the  mfdianal  title  of  ban  of  Croatia.  Slavonia.  and 
Dalmatia.  Tliis  title  theoretically  gave  him  an  almost  in- 
dependent sovereignty,  which  he  hastened  to  use  by  assem- 
bling a  Slavic  diet,  being  consecrated  in  the  hanatt-  by  the 
bishop,  and  organizing  the  southern  Slavonians  against  the 
Hungarians.  The  emperor  became  alarmed  at  his  proceed- 
ings, and  at  the  instance  of  the  Hungarian  cabinet,  which 
he  was  still  trying  to  propitiate,  issued  a  decree  depriving 
Jellaehich  of  his  new  rank,  and  summoning  him  to  answer 
for  his  conduct.  But  the  sagacious  ban  of  Croatia  under- 
stood the  situation  ;  he  not  only  disregarded  all  inconve- 
nient orders  from  Vienna,  but  after  a  personal  visit  to  the 
imperial  family  invaded  Hungary  in  September,  effected  a 
junction  with  Windi^chgrUtz,  aided  in  the  reconquest  of 
Vienna,  and  participated  in  the  important  campaigns  of 
the  ensuing  year.  (See  Hungary  and  Kossith.)  Jella- 
ehich gave  no  proof  of  great  tactical  ability,  but  the 
weighty  influence  he  exerted  upon  the  events  of  the  time 
was  rather  political  than  military.  He  was  well  educated, 
aud  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  tendencies  and  aspi- 
rations of  the  heterogeneous  mass  of  nationalities  compos- 
ing the  Austrian  emjiire.  In  18J0.  .Teilaehich  published  a 
volume  of  jiocms  ;  commanded  in  18.').'i  an  army  of  obser- 
vation on  the  Bosnian  frontier;  received  the  rank  of  count 
in  185j;  and  d.  ot  Agram  May  20,  ISJS. 

JoHy-Fish.     See  Acaleph.*;. 

Jemappes',  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Hai- 
naut.  Here  the  raw  levies  of  the  first  French  republic 
under  Bumouriez  won  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrian 
army,  Nov.  G,  1702.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  and 
large  coal-mines  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  Il,lfi4. 

Jcm'ison  (Robert,  Jr.).  a  son  of  M'illiam  Jemison,  a 
wealtliy  planter,  b.  and  bred  in  Georgia  ;  in  early  life  re- 
moved to  Alabama,  where  lie  was  long  a  prominent  M''hi^ 
member  of  the  legislature.  He  was  made  president  of  the 
State  senate  in  1803,  and  soon  after  entered  the  Confed- 
erate Senate,  though  a  strong  anti-secessionist  ;  was  the 
founder  of  the  financial  system  of  Alabama  (1817),  of  the 
State  insane  asylum,  and  of  the  Alabama  and  Chattanooga 
R.  R. ;  resided  in  Tuscaloosa,  and  d.  Oct.  16,  IS71. 

Jc^na^  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duehy  of  Saxc- 
Wi'imar-Eisenaeh,  on  the  Saale.  Its  university,  founded 
in  1558,  was  1787-1800  the  most  celebrated  scientific  insti- 
tution of  Germany.  Schiller,  Schlcgel,  Oken,  Schelling, 
and  Fichto  were  professors  here,  and  more  than  lOUO  stu- 
dents heard  their  lectures.  On  Oct.  14,  1806,  Napoleon 
totally  defeated  the  Prussian  army  on  the  height?  outside 
of  Jena,  which  battle  for  many  years  decided  the  fate  of. 
Northern  Germany.     Pop.  69S4. 

Jengis  Khan*    See  Genghis  Khan. 

Jonisoi.     See  Yenisei. 

JeirUins,  tp.  of  Mitchell  co.,  la.     Pop.  587. 

Jenkins^  tp.  of  Jefferson  co..  Neb.     Pop.  442. 

.InikinSy  tp.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.  It  has  mines  of  an- 
thracite coal.     Pop.  2505. 

Jenkins  (Albert  G.),  b.  in  Cabell  co.,  Va.,  Nov.  10, 
18:50;  educated  at  Jefferson  College.  Pa.,  and  at  the  Law 
Scho(»l.  Cambridge,  but  without  entering  upon  (he  jiraetice 
of  his  profession  direeU-rl  his  attention  to  agriculture  :  mem- 
ber of  Ciacinnati  national  convention  1S56,  and  member 


JENKINS— JENNINGS. 


13S9 


of  the  35th  and  36th  Congresses :  nppt.inlcd  lingadior- 
Kcncral  in  the  Confclcratc  army  in  IfOl.  ho  fervid  with 
The  division  of  A.  P.  Hill;  sul.Fequcnily  in  cominnnd 
of  cavnirv  bricadc  in  tho  Gctlvs-burg  cainim.pn.  in  the 
Shenandoah  Vallev.  and  West  Virginia;  in  the  campaign 
of  1804  was  killed"  at  Dublio,  Va.,  iMay  7.  I.Mi4. 

G.  C.  Simmons. 

Jenkins  (Chaih-ES  J.),  b-  '■>  the  district  (now  county) 
of  Beaufort,  P.  C,  Jan.  fi,  1S05.     Uis  father  moved  to  Jef- 
ferson CO     Ga.,  ISI6,  and  Cliarles,  the   son,  was    educated 
partly  at  the  Georgia  University  and  partly  at  I  ni""  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  where   ho    graduated  in    1821; 
studied  law,  and  opened  an  office  in  the  city  of  Augusta, 
Ga      In   is:i0  was  elected  to  the  legislature;  in   18.,1  was 
elected  ntlorney-general  of  the  State,  which  position  ho  re- 
signed before  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  and  was 
a"-iin  returned  to  the  legislature  in  ls:'.ti.  which  position  ho 
continuously  held  from  IS.lfi  to  ISoO,  ranking  amongst  the 
ablest  and  most  eloquent  of  the  House  during  all  that  pe- 
riod  and  being  Speaker  thereof  whenever  his  parly  was  in 
tho  inaioritT.     In  politics  he  was  reared  in  the  Jeffersoman 
State's  Rights  school,  but  supported  Harrison  for  President 
in  1840,  and  Clav  in  1S44.     lie  was  a  member  of  the  Union 
convention  of  the  Slate  in  ISoO.  and  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  resolutions  was  tho  author  of  the  celebrated 
Georgia  platform  adopted  by  that  body.     In  ISCO  ho  was 
appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  tho 
Slate  to  fill  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  tho  resignation  of 
Hon.  Linton  Stephens.     This  position  he  held   until  the 
close  of  tho  war.     He  was  a  member  of  the  constitutional 
convention  of  the  State  called  under  the  proclamation  of 
Pros  Johnson  in  18G5.  in  which  body  be  acted  a  prominent 
part,  and  in  the  same  Tear  was  elected  governor  of  tho 
State  without   opposition    under  tho  new  constitution   so 
formed.     This  position  he  held  until  he  was  superseded  by 
Gen   Thos.  11.  Kuger  of  tho  U.  S.  army,  who  was  appointed 
provisional  governor  of  Georgia  in  IStiS  under  the  recon- 
struction acts  of  Congress.     Ue  also  has  been  one  of  the 
most  active  and  inftucntial  members  of  the  board  of  trus- 
tees of  the  State  University  since  IS.'.U.     A.  11.  Stephens. 
Jenkins  iThokston  A.),  U.  S.  X.,  b.  Dee   11,  1811   in 
Virginia;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  ^ov.  1,  IWb; 
became  a  passed  midshipman  in  IS.U,  a  lieutenant  in  18u9, 
and  was  employed  in  the  office  of  the  Coast  Survey  from 
Oct     1834,  to  Apr.,  1842;  promoted  to  be  commander  in 
ISo'd,  a  captain  in  18C2,  a  commodore  in  18G6,  and  rear- 
admiral  in  IS-0;  retired  from  active  service  Dec.  11,  18.  J. 
Served  at  sea  in  the  Mediterranean,  N.  and  S.  Atlantic, 
and  eoaatof  Africa  lS42-4o;  sent  to  Europe  m  I84o,  under 
instructions  of  tho  secretary  of  tho  treasury,  to  examine 
the  systems  of  lighthouse    illumination,  and  the  general 
management  of  the  aids  to  navigation  service  in  the  dif- 
ferent commercial    nations  of   Europe;  returned    in  184G 
and  submitted  an  elaborate  report ;  served  on  the  L.  coast 
of  Me.tico  during  our  war  with  that  country 


and   took    iiart    in  the    capture  of  Tuspau  and 
hydrogrnpbical  party  of  tho    Co 


to   its  end, 
Tabasco. 
Commanding  a  hyrtrograpbical  party  oi    me    Coast  Sur- 
vey 184H-JI,  ho  framed  the  organic  law  which  was  nassed 
in  1852  under  which  the  present  lighlliuuac  establishment 
has    been  created  and   is  now  administered;  Sejit.,   lSi8, 
commanded    tho    sloop-of-war    Preble    in   our   expedition 
against    Paraguay,    and    subsequently    (ISS'J-fiU)    on    the 
coasts  of  Central  America   and  the  fc.  coast  of  Mexico; 
commanded   eloop-of-war  Wnchusett   in    James   and    I  o- 
tomac  rivers  1862;    sloop-of-war   OnL..da  and  8«nn'J  <!>- 
vision   of  Admiral    Farrnguts   fleet  off  Mobile    18fi2-nJ; 
fleet-captain  and  chief  of  staff  to  Admiral  I arragut  1803- 
64  ;  commanded.  temporarily,8loop-of-war  Richmond  under 
the  gunsof  Port  Hudson,  and  senior  naval  officer  in  command 
at  tho  surrender  of  tli:it  place  to  Mio  army  and  navy  July, 
1863;  wounded  on  board  the  sloop-of-war  Monongahela  in 
action  with  the  enemy's  land  forces  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mississippi   at  College  Point,  below  Fort  D.mclson  ;   com- 
manded the  sloop  of-war  Kichmond  and  the  second  division 
of  Admiral  Farragufs  fleet  blockading  Mobile   18f,.,-Ca  ; 
from   l'<fio  to  1869  clii-f  of  the  bureau  of  navigation  ;  in 
1S50-58  lS6l)-fi2,  and  IMl'J-Tl.  naval  secretary  of  the  light- 
house board;  from   IS7I  to  the  date  of  his  retirement  in 
command  of  our  fleet  in  the  East  Indies.     The  eharaeter 
and  services  of  this  eminent  officer  are  best  shown  by  the 
following  extract  from  Rear-admiral  Farragufs  oflieial  re- 
port  of  the   battle  of  Mobile   Pay,  dated   Aug.  12,  1^04  : 
"  lieforc  closing  this  report  there  is  one  other  ofhi'cr  of  my 
squadron  of  whom  I  feel  bound  to  speak,  Capt    T   A   Jen- 
kins of  the  Richmond,  who  was  formerly  my  chief  of  staff, 
not  because  of  his  having  held  that  position,  but  because 
he  never  f  .rgets  to  do   his  duty  to  the  government,  and 
takes  now  tho  same  interest  in  tho  fleet  as  when  he  stood 
in  that  relation  to  me.     He  is  also  the  comm:.nding  officer 
of  the  second  division  of  my  squadron   and  as  siieh  has 
shown  ability  and  tho  most  untiring  real.     He  carries  out 


the  spirit  of  one  of  Lord  Collingivood's  best  sayings  :  '  ^ot 
to  be  afraid  of  doing  too  much;  those  who  arc,  seldom  do 
as  much  as  they  ought.'"  Foxiiall  A.  PAiiKEit. 

Jenks,  tp.  of  Forest  CO.,  Pa.  Pop.  118. 
Jenks  (Joseph),  b.  at  Haminersniilh,  near  London, 
came  to  Lynn,  Mass.,  about  104 J;  was  the  first  founder 
who  worked  in  brass  and  iron  in  America,  and  probably 
the  first  inventor.  He  received  from  the  Mussaehusctis 
general  court,  May  6,  1646,  a  patent  "  for  the  making  of 
engines  for  mills  to  go  by  water,"  and  for  making  scythes 
and  other  edged  tools,  with  a  new-invented  saw-mill,  of 
which  latter  process  he  patented  an  improvement  in  May, 
1655.  Jenks  is  said  to  have  made  the  dies  for  the  silver 
coinage  of  the  colony  in  1052;  he  contracted  in  1654  wilh 
the  selectmen  of  lioston  -  for  an  engine  to  carry  water  in 
caseof  firo;"  and  in  1667  asked  the  general  court  for  aid  in 
wire-drawing.  Jcnks's  works  were  on  the  river  Saugus  at 
Lynn,  where  he  d.  in  16S3. 

Jenks  (William),  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Newton.  Mass., 
Nov.  25,  1778,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1797.  and  became 
a  teacher:  was  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Bath, 
Me    1805-23;  professor  of  English  and  Oriental  literature 
in  Bowdoin  College  1815-18;    and  afterwards  became    a 
teacher  in  Boston,  where  he  founded  the  Seamen  s  Betlicl ; 
was  pastor  of  the  Green  Street  church,  Boston,  1826-4o. 
D  Nov   13,1866.     Ue  was  a  member  of  many  learned  and 
benevolent   societies,  and   the   author   of    several   works, 
among  which  is  a  Comprehauhe  Commentary,  once  highly 
popular. 
Jen'ner,  tp.  of  Somerset  co..  Pa.    Pop.  1703. 
Jen'ner  (Edward),  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Berkeley, 
Gloucester,  Eng.,  May  17, 1749,  the  son  of  a  vicar ;  studied 
surgery  at  Sudbury  and  London,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of 
John  Hunter,  1771-73;  acquired  the  friendship  of  Sir  Jo- 
sejdi  Banks,  who  procuretl  him  the  appointment  of  natu- 
ralist on  Cook's  second  expedition  ;  but  he  retired  to  his 
native  town  in  177.3,  and  became  a  surgeon-npotliecary : 
received  in  1792  his  degree  from  St.  Andrew's.  Scotland; 
sent  to  the  Royal  Society  a  paper  on  the  euckoo,  which 
gained  him  a  fellowship  in  the  society.     In  1796  ho  made 
his  first  successful  arm-to-arm  inoculation  with  the  virus 
of  cowpox  as  a  preventive  to  infection  with  smallpox.    The 
first  idea  of  this  measure  had  been  conceived  by  biin  some 
twenty  years  before,  when  he  learned  ihat  the  Gloucester- 
shirc  peasants  considered  accidental  cowpox  (acquired  in 
milking  cows)    a  preventive   of    smallpox.      Observation 
having  convinced  him  of  the  truth  of  the  popular  belief, 
in  1770  he  communicated  his  opinion  to  Hunter,  who  ad- 
vised  him   to  continue  his  observations.     In  1798  he  an- 
nounced his  discovery,  now  established  by  abundant  obser- 
vations, but  was  almost  universally  denounced  by  physi- 
cians and  clergy,  often  in  the  severest  language.     He  pub- 
lished a  series' of  Inqidrh,  (1798.  1799,   ISOO)  upon  the 
subject.     The  importance  of  his  discovery  was  finally  con- 
ceded, and  he  received  in  all  some  £37,000  in  grants  from 
Parliament  and  other  sources  as  testimonials  to  the  value 
of  his  labors.     Personally,  he  was  kindly,  unselfish,  and 
philanthropic.     D.  at  Berkeley  Jan.  20,  1823. 

Jen'ner  (Sir  William),  Baiit.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Chatham 
in  IHId;  was  educated  at  llniversity  College,  London,  in 
which  he  became  in  1848  professorof  pathological  anatomy, 
and  in  1857  of  chemical  medicine.  In  ISOI.  I>r.  .  enner 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  queen,  and  attended  1  rince 
Albert  in  his  last  illness.  He  is  a  member  of  mimerous 
scientific  societies,  has  contributed  largely  to  medica  lit- 
erature,  and  was  the  first  to  establish  the  difference  in  kind 
between  typhus  and  typhoi.l  fevers.  He  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1868,  and  a  knight  commander  of  the  Bath  in 
1K72,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  the  prince  of  Wales 
during  a  dangerous  illness. 

Jen'ninK«,  county  of  S.  E.  Indiana.  Area,  375  square 
miles.  It  is  hilly  and  well  timbered,  but  has  a  produeluo 
soil  Cattle  grain,  wool,  and  lumber  are  staple  products. 
The  county 'is  traversed  by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  tho 
Madison  and  Indianapolis,  and  other  railroads.  Cap.  ^  er- 
non.     Pnp.  16,218. 

Jennings,  Ip.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2081. 
Jennings,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  836. 
Jennings,  tp-  of  Owen  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  801. 
Jennings,  tp.  of  Scott  oo.,  Ind.     Pop.  127S. 
Jennings,  tp.  of  Putnam  co.,  0.     Pop.  1059. 
Jennings,  tp.  of  Van  Wert  eo.,  0.     Pop.  914. 
Jennings  (Thomas  Rrrn),  M.  D.,  h.  in  Stcubenvillc.  0., 
1805;  graduated  at  Washington  College,  Pa.,  and  in  med- 
icine in  Baltimore.     Ho  came  to  Tennessee  in  1828   where, 
during  the  invasion  of  Asiatic  cholera  in  1S33.  he  obtained 
a  largo  practice,  which  ho  retained  till  the  late  war.     Ho 
opened  dissecting-rooms    in    Nashville   I S3S,  and  was  tho 


1390 


JENNY— JERICHO,  ROSE  OF. 


0rst  who  t:iu<;ht  anatomy  in  Tennessee.  For  three  years 
he  was  a  senator  in  the  legislature  of  Tennessee,  and  de- 
olioed  a  nomination  to  Congress.  In  lS5-t  he  was  elected 
professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  and  clinical  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Nushville,  and  in  1^66  filled  the  chair 
of  anatomy.  The  chiss  then  increased  from  220  to  419, 
and  in  1S.>9  reached  to  -IJC.  being  the  largest  class  ever  as- 
somhled  W.  of  tho  mountains.  D.  suddenly  at  \arragan- 
sett,  R.  I.,  July  7,  1S74.  Dr.  Jenninj^s  possessed  a  fine 
taste  for  literature;  yet  ho  was  devoted  to  his  profession, 
in  which  few  succeeded  better.  Coming  to  Nashville  a  poor 
boy,  he  not  only  kept  iip  an  elegant  establishment  and 
liberally  assisted  his  immediate  relatives,  but  accumulated 
a  lar;;Q  fortune  by  his  practice.  As  a  physician  he  had  no 
Euporior  in  Tennessee.  Paul  F.  Eve. 

Jen'ny,  post-tp.  of  Marathon  co.,  "SVis.     Pop.  215. 

Jen'yns  (Soamf.),  b.  in  London  in  1704  j  was  educated 
at  Cambridge;  entered  Parliament  for  Cambridgeshire  in 
1742,  and  was  appointed  in  1755  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  board  of  trade  and  plantations.  Jenyns  was  a  poet, 
a  wit,  and  a  politician,  but  is  now  chiefly  remembered  for 
his  work  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity^  published  in 
1776.  which  has  been  often  reprinted,  has  elicited  an  un- 
usual amount  of  criticism,  and  exerted  a  considerable  in- 
fluence. Thou2;h  now  obsolete,  Jenyns's  little  work  was 
long  reputed  tho  best  argumentativs  presentation  of  tho 
Christian  evidences.     D.  at  London  Dec.  IS,  I7S7. 

Jeph'thah,  the  ninth  judge  of  the  Israelites,  -was  a  na- 
tural son  of  Gilcad  of  tho  tribe  of  Manassch.  After  the 
dca*h  of  his  father  he  was  expelled  from  his  home  by  his 
brothers  on  account  of  his  illegitimate  birth,  and  ho  with- 
drew to  the  land  of  Tob,  where  ho  became  the  chief  of  a 
band  of  brigands.  Later  on,  when  the  tribes  beyond  the 
Jordan  resolved  to  oppose  the  Ammonite?,  they  invited 
Jephthah  to  become  their  commander,  and  ho  received  the 
invitation  on  tho  condition  that  he  should  remain  their 
ruler  if  he  defeated  the  Ammonites.  The  victory  over  the 
Ammonites  was  complete,  and  hence  ho  ruled  tho  country 
for  the  rest  of  his  life — from  1256  to  1250  B.C.  But  a  great 
sorrow  came  over  his  house.  When  setting  forth  against 
the  enemy  he  made  a  solemn  vow  to  the  Lord  that  if  he  re- 
turned home  victorious  he  would  ofl"er  up  for  a  burnt-offer- 
ing whatsoever  first  "came  forth  from  the  doors  of  his 
house*'  to  meet  him.  On  his  return  his  daughter,  an  only 
child,  "came  first  out  of  the  doors  of  his  house"  with  her 
companions  to  greet  him  with  timbrels  and  dances.  At 
this  sight  he  rent  his  robes  and  cried  out  loudly  in  despair, 
but  his  daughter,  when  she  heard  about  his  vow.  encour- 
aged him  "to  do  with  her  according  to  this  vow,"  and  so 
he  did.  Up  to  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era  it  was  uni- 
versally understood,  both  by  Jewish  and  Christian  com- 
mentators, that  Jephthah  actually  sacrificed  his  daughter, 
and  there  was  among  all  readers  only  one  feeling  of  admi- 
ration for  the  daughter  and  of  horror  at  the  conduct  of  the 
father.  But  since  tho  twelfth  century  several  commenta- 
tors have  attem]>ted  to  mitigate  the  tragical  impression  of 
the  narrative  by  proving  that  Jephthah  only  condemned 
his  daughter  to  celibacy  and  perpetual  service  at  tho  taber- 
nacle of  Shiloh.  Thus  interpreted,  however,  the  narrative 
does  not  read  quite  naturally. 

Jequitinhon'ha»ariver  of  Brazil,  rises  in  the  province 
of  Minas  Geracs,  enters  tho  province  of  Bahia.  and  falls 
after  a  course  of  about  750  miles,  first  northern,  then  north- 
eastern, into  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  15°  60'  S.,  near  the  town 
of  Belmonte.  Its  upper  course  runs  through  a  mountain- 
ous region,  and  its  rocky  bed  is  here  embarrassed  by  rapids 
and  catara-'ts,  of  which  that  called  Salto  Grande,  on  tho 
boundary  of  Minas  Geraes  and  Bahia,  is  one  of  tho  most 
magnificent  falls  of  Brazil.  Its  lower  course  is  broad  and 
smooth,  but  rather  shallow,  and  its  mouth  is  obstructed  by 
sandbars.  Xovcrtholess.  as  the  whole  lower  course  from 
the  mouth  to  Salto  Grande  is  navigable  for  small  steamers, 
and  as  one  of  its  arms,  the  Poassu,  commuuicates  by  a 
navigable  channel  with  the  river  Pardo,  the  Jcquitinhonha 
will  probably  become  of  great  importance  for  tho  exporta- 
tion of  the  rich  products  of  Minas  Geraes, 

Jer'boa  [Arab.],  a  name  of  numerous  small  rodent 
mammaU  of  the  rat  family  (by  many  referred  to  a  smaller 
family,  the  Dipodidic).  aud  remarkable  for  their  progres- 
sion, which  is  accomplished  by  long  leaps  in  tho  air,  after 
tho  manner  of  kangaroos.  They  are  all  Old-World  species, 
and  some  of  them  are  very  destructive  to  crops.  Tho 
Egyptian  jerboa  {Dlpun  mngitta)  is  the  typical  species. 

Jer'dan  {Wiu.iam).  F.  S.  A.,  b.  at  Kelso.  Scotland,  in 
1782;  studied  law,  eame  to  London  in  1S04,  and  became  a 
writer  for  the  ^fon}i»ff  Post  and  other  newspapers.  On 
May  11, 1812.  he  was  instrumental  ip  arresting  Rellingham, 
the  murderer  of  the  prime  minister  Spencer  Percival.  In 
1S17   he  became  editor  of  the  Litcvarif   Gazette,  and  re- 


mained in  charge  of  that  intiuential  journal  for  thirty-four 
years.  In  1S21  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature.  On  his  retirement  from  editorship 
a  pension  of  £100  was  granted  him.  aud  a  flattering  testi- 
monial was  signed  by  many  of  the  leading  public  men  of 
the  day.     Mr.  Jerdau  wrote  four  volumes  of  biographical 

sketches  ior  Eitihcr' a  A'attondf  Portrait  GaUcry  of  Eminent 
Personngca  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  wrote  for  the  annuals, 
reviews,  and  magazines,  published  his  Antofnorjraphy  (4 
vols.)  in  lS52-5o,  and  a  supplement  entitled  Men  S  have 
Knoivn  in  18C6.  A  judicious  selection  from  his  memoirs 
was  edited  by  Mr,  R.  S.  Stoddard  in  the  Bric'd-brac  Se- 
ries (New  York,  1874).  D.  at  Bushey  Heath,  Hertford- 
shire, July  11,  1S69. 

Jeremi'ah  [Ilcb.,  "raised  up  by  the  Lord"],  the  sec- 
ond of  the  greater  prophets  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  began 
his  work  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  King  Josiah  (eh.  i.  2); 
{.  e.  about  628  B.C.  He  survived  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (5S8), 
so  that  his  work  lasted  for  over  forty  years.  He  was  b.  at 
Anathoth  in  Benjamin  fch.  i.  1 ;  xxix.  27).  His  father  was 
a  priest.  During  Josiah'a  reign  occurred  the  invasion  of 
the  Scyths  (Herod,  i.  10:;-10G;  see  Jer.  v.  6.  8,  9).  This 
prophet's  life,  therefore,  covered  the  catastrophe  of  the  his- 
tory of  Judah.  He  had  to  contend  against  bigotry,  obsti- 
nacy, and  dogmatism,  and  to  cnduro  persecution.  He  was 
iziprisoned  for  speaking  words  of  warning  and  opposition 
to  the  prevailing  policy.  Ilis  warnings  fell  on  ears  deaf- 
ened by  fanaticism,  and  when  all  was  lost,  even  the  hope 
of  retaining  some  native  authority,  though  under  Chaldean 
supremacy,  he  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  died.  The  version 
of  his  book  which  appears  in  the  Scptuagint  differs  very 
much  from  tho  Masorctic  text.  The  Hebrew  contains  one- 
eighth  more  than  tho  Greek,  and  tho  order  of  the  chapters 
varies.  This  fact  has  excited  the  interest  of  biblical 
scholars,  but  no  explanation  has  yet  been  suggested. 
Jeremiah  also  wrote  the  book  of  Lauextations  (which  see). 

Jer'emie  (James  Amiraux),D.  D.,b.  in  1800  in  Eng- 
land; graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1S24, 
having  obtained  tho  Norrisian,  the  Hulsean,  and  the  Mem- 
bers'prizes;  became  a  fellow  of  Trinity  ;  took  holy  orders 
in  ISoO,  and  was  soon  appointed  professor  of  classical  lit- 
erature in  the  East  India  College  at  Haileybury,  holding 
that  post  twenty  years.  In  IS.l;)  he  was  chosen  Christian 
advocate  for  the  University  of  Cambridge,  in  1849  regius 
professor  of  divinity,  and  in  1864  dean  of  Lincoln.  Dr. 
Jcremie  was  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  learned  di- 
vines of  his  time.  Ho  published  a  History  of  Rome  fr on 
Constantine  to  the  Death  of  Julian,  and  a  History  of  the 
Cliureh  in  the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,  both  in  the  En- 
et/elopiedia  Metropoltfana/  Christianity  in  the  ^fiddle  Ancs 
(1857),  and  many  other  occasional  productions,  besides 
editing  the  sermons  of  tho  Rev.  Prof.  \Viiliam  Archer  But- 
ler (lt;55).  Dr.  Jcremie  preached  Latin  sermons  in  St. 
Paul's  in  1852  and  1863  before  tho  convocation  of  tho 
province  of  Canterbury;  also  in  French  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1862,  during  the  Exposition  of  that  year.  Ho 
resigned  his  professorship  in  L'^70,  and  in  the  same  year 
gave  £1000  to  tho  University  of  Cambridge  to  found  two 
annual  prizes  for  the  study  of  biblical  Greek. 

Jerez'  dc  la  Fronte'ra,  generally  called  simply 
Jerez  or  Xercs,  is  a  large,  rich,  and  elegant  town  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz,  on  the  Guadalete.  The 
plain  in  which  it  stands  is  hilly,  extremely  fertile,  densely 
pco))led,  and  very  carefully  cultiv.atcd;  it  produces  the 
celebrated  Xcres  wine  (sherry).  Tho  town  itself  is  old 
and  surrounded  with  walls,  but  its  streets  arc  wide  and 
lined  with  handsome  houses;  its  public  buildings  are  ele- 
gant, and  it  contains  many  educational  and  bcncvolcn'  in- 
stitutions. Its  trade  in  wheat  and  wine  is  very  important, 
about  16.000  quarters  of  wheat  and  2.000.000  gallon?  of 
wine  being  exported  annually.     Pop.  .^8,898. 

Jcrfalcon*    See  Gyrfalcon. 

Jer'icho,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of  ancient 
Palestine,  was  situated  a  few  miles  N.  E.  of  Jerusalem. 
Its  capture  and  destruction  by  the  Israelites  on  their  con- 
quest of  Canaan  is  related  in  Joshua  vi..  and  its  rebuilding 
and  rapid  progress  in  1  Kings  xvi,  .'i4  and  2  Kings  ji.  4.  At 
the  time  of  Christ  it  was  a  splendid  city,  the  residence  of 
Herod  the  Great,  but  during  the  Crusades  it  was  completely 
destroyed,  and  it  was  never  rebuilt.  Its  site  is  now  occupied 
by  a  small  and  miserable  village. 

Jericho,  post-tp.  of  Chittenden  co..  Vt.,  26  miles  N.  W. 
of  Montpelier,  It  has  5  churches,  and  manufactures  of 
pumps,  boxes,  castings,  agricultural  tools,  and  other  goods. 
Pop.  1757. 

Jericho,  Rose  of  {Annstatica  Hierocltuntina),  a  pros- 
trate, branching  annual,  of  tho  cruciferous  family,  inhahit- 
iuc  the  deserts  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  After  death  tho 
softer  green  parts  disappear,  leaving  the  ligneous  frame- 


JERKED  BEEF— JERSEY. 


1391 


work;  this  rolls  up  into  a  ball  in  drying,  is  uprooted  by 
the  nin^ls,  and  roll?  away.  Wben  welled  the  branches  ex- 
pand hygronictric;ilIy,  so  that  Iho  plant  seems  to  revive  j 
ncDco  its  name,  derived  from  the  Greek  ava(rra<jii,  "  resur- 
rection." 

Jerked  Beef  [Chilian,  charqui],  a  form  of  dried  beef 
prepare"!  quite  extensively  in  the  pastoral  regions  of  North 
and  South  America  and  Australia.  The  flesh  of  the  ox  is 
taken  off  in  thin  strips  and  dried,  either  with  or  without 
ealt.  It  will  keep,  when  well  prepared,  for  a  very  great 
length  of  time,  and  if  well  cooked  is  very  palatable.  Cuba 
is  the  principiii  market  for  jerked  beef  or  tnanjo, 

Jerobo'am,  the  name  of  two  kinga  of  Israel.  Jrno- 
noAM  !.»  the  fiiunder  of  the  kingdom,  was  a  son  of  Nebat. 
By  Solomon  he  was  made  superintendent  of  public  works, 
but  having  been  informed  by  the  prophet  Ahijali  that  ac- 
cordinj;  to  divine  appointment  ho  should  become  king  over 
the  ten  tribes,  ho  entered  into  conspiracies,  and  was  compelled 
to  floe  to  Kgypt  {9S0  n.  r.)*  When  Solomon  died  (97li  b.  c.) 
he  returned  and  headed  the  deputation  apjtcaring  before 
Kchoboara  :  and  when  the  <lemaiids  of  the  deputation  were 
refused  tho  ten  tribes  separated  from  Judah  and  Tlenjamin 
nnd  chose  him  for  their  king,  lie  took  up  his  rei^idenecat 
Shochem,  and  the  most  prominent  tendency  of  his  govcru- 
mcnt  was  to  mako  the  breach  between  the  two  kingdoms  as 
wide  and  deep  as  possible.  For  this  reason  ho  forbade  his 
subicots  to  resort  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  cstah- 
lishc  1  shrines  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  where  "golden  calves" 
were  set  up  as  symbols  of  Jehovah.  I).  9.')l  n.  c. — Ji:iio- 
BOAX  II.  was  the  fourteenth  king  of  Israel,  (ho  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Jchonsh,  and  reigned  823-782  u.  v.  He  carried 
on  successful  war  against  the  Syrians,  from  wliom  ho  took 
the  cities  of  Damascus  and  Ilamatli  ;  Atnmon  :md  Moab 
were  also  conquered.  But  ho  kept  up  the  idolatry  of  the 
golilen  calves. 

Jerome',  tp.  of  Midland  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  ooS. 

Jerome,  post-tp.  of  Union  co.,  0.     Pop.  MC2. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  b.  about  1375,  was  descended 
frum  a  noble  Bohemian  family  of  the  name  of  F.VLLPiscn; 
studieil  in  his  native  city,  in  I'aris,  Cologne,  Heidelberg, 
and  Oxfurd,  and  attracted  everywhere  great  attention  by 
his  learning  and  brilliant  gifts.  While  at  Oxford  hebecamo 
acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  nnd  he  espoused 
iho  ideas  of  the  English  Ueformer  with  his  whole  heart. 
On  his  return  to  Prague  he  found  that  these  ideas  were  well 
known  thcre,^and  be  immediately  allic<l  himself  to  the  Bo- 
hemian reform  party  under  the  leadership  of  lh"ss  (whieli 
foe).  In  learning  and  eloquence  he  surpassed  Ihiss,  but  ho 
lacked  his  wisd<im  :  he  was  violent,  and  even  rude.  Tlio 
relics  he  threw  down  to  the  ground  and  trod  on  them,  and 
in  a  dispute  with  a  monk  hoonco  threw  his  adversary  into 
(ho  Moldau.  When  ho  heard  that  IIuss  had  been  impris- 
oned in  Constance  he  immediately  hastened  to  the  rescu<! 
of  his  friend.  But  having  failed  in  procuring  a  safeguard, 
and  finding  himself  unable  (o  (lo  anything  to  aid  Huss,  bo 
determineii  to  return  home,  when  (Apr.  25,  1  M.'i)  ho  was 
seizerl  at  Ilirschau  in  Suabia.  put  in  chains,  nnd  delivered 
over  to  the  council.  The  great  indignation  which  the  ex- 
ecution of  Huss  (.luly  C,  1115)  excited  made  the  council 
hesitate  in  the  case  of  Jerome.  Ho  was  kept  in  a  mean 
dungeon,  ami  received  for  a  long  time  no  other  food  than 
bread  and  water.  Thua,  worn  out  both  in  body  and  mind, 
he  recanted  his  opinions  on  the  doctrine  of  transubstanti- 
ation  (Sc'pt.  11,  M15);  hut  this  did  not  satisfy  tho  council. 
Ho  was  subjected  to  new  examinations  on  still  moro  serious 
accusations,  and  he  declared  himself  ready  to  answer  any 
questions  on  the  condition  that  the  hearing  should  beputi- 
lic.  On  May  23  and  20,  1110,  tho  examination  toidt  place, 
and  be  cndecl  by  rlisclniming  in  a  most  passionate  manner 
his  former  recantation,  dc'jlaring  it  (ho  greatest  sin  ho  had 
committed  in  his  life.  His  condemnation  was  now  sure  (o 
follow.  On  May  30  ho  was  sentenced  and  burned  at  the 
sta!{e.  and  his  ashes  were  strewn  on  the  Rhine.  (See  Krum- 
mf\,  (ifKrhif-hlr  (ti'r  linl^mtHrhen  Rr/ttrmnfion  (1807);  and 
Czerwenka,  Gcncltichtc  der  Kvaiigei lacfien  Kirrhe  in  liohmen 

(isr.'n.) 

Jerome,  Saint  (SonnnoNius  EtsEnirs  niFnoNVMrs), 
b.  about  315  at  Stridon,  a  town  on  tho  confines  of  Dalmatia 
and  Pannonia  ;  received  a  very  eareful  education  ;  (ravelled 
in  Gaul ;  was  baptized,  nnd  lived  for  somo  yoarfl  at  Treves 
and  Aouiloia;  went  in  373  (o  the  East,  where  ho  visited 
Antincliia,  and  retired  in  371  to  the  desert  of  Chnlcis,  where 
ho  snent  four  years  in  nsceticpraot  ices  nnd  studies,  especially 
of  llio  Hebrew  language.  Having  been  ordained  a  pros- 
hytcr  by  Bishop  Paulinus  of  .Andoeh,  he  repnired  to  Con- 
stanlinoplo  in  '.\70  to  hear  (he  celebrated  (iregnry  Nar.lanzen, 
and  while  here  ho  translated  into  La(in  the  elironie'e  of 
Eusobius  and  Iho  homilies  of  Origen  on  Jeremiah  nnd  Kt.c- 
kiel.  In  3S2  ho  returned  (o  Home,  wliere  he  lived  in  in- 
timato  connection  with  Bishop  Damusus  until   Damasus's 


death  in  38-1.  In  Rome  he  made  a  great  impression  by  bis 
passionate  praise  of  asceticism  and  monastic  life.  Many 
became  his  enemies,  but  many  others,  especially  among 
the  rich  and  noble  ladies,  became  his  firm  adherents;  and 
one  of  these,  Paula,  followed  him  in  381  to  Bcihlthcm, 
where  she  built  four  convents — three  for  nuns  and  one  for 
monks,  over  which  latter  she  placed  St.  Jerome;  he  d.herc 
about  420.  During  his  residence  in  Rome  he  commenced, 
at  the  instigation  of  Damasus.  a  critical  revision  of  (ho 
Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  (lie  Vulgate;  and  this  work, 
which  he  finished  in  Bethlehem,  is  his  chief  work  nnd  tho 
foundation  of  his  great  fame.  But  besides  he  wrote  a  great 
number  of  controversial  papers  against  Helvidlus,  Jovi- 
niauus,  Vigilantius,  Rufinus,  and  the  Pelagians,  and  several 
exegctieal  relating  to  the  Old  Testament.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  that  by  Vallarsi  (11  vols.,  Verona,  1731—12). 
(See  Ziiekler,  f/itrouymuti,  dcih  Lehai  itnd  Wirkcn,  ISdb.) 

Jerome  nuoiiiiparte.     See  Bonapakte  (Jkuome). 

Jerome'ville,  post-v.  of  Mohican  tp.,  Ashland  co.,  0. 
Pop.  328. 

Jer'rold  (Dorni-As  Wii.mam),  b,  in  London  .Tan.  3, 
1803,  (he  Ron  of  (ho  manager  of  a  theatre  ;  became  midship- 
man in  the  navy  1813-15.  and  was  apprenticed  in  ISIO  (o 
a  printer.  His  first  \>\ay.  More  Fn'yfitened  thttn  //«//(lS!S), 
after  some  years  of  neglect,  was  very  successful.  Ho  wroto 
lyrics  and  criticisms  for  (he  journals  which  attracted  much 
attention.  Tho  eomedy  Jilav/:-Ki/cd  Sttgnn  (1822)  e.stab- 
lisbed  his  reputation.  Jimt  Dny  (1830),  Meu  uf  Cfmractp.r 
(a  collection  of  republished  talcs.  1838), /?»/>/>//«  o/"  Me  Day 
(18-12,  a  comedy).  Thuc  irorkn  Wimfhrs  (ISIJ).  The  Candle 
Lcctnrea  (first  publisherl  in  Ptmrli,  with  which  he  became 
connected  in  18(1),  and  numerous  other  plays,  sketches, 
and  tales,  widely  extended  his  fame  as  a  humorist  and  a 
powerful  delineator  of  character.  He  twice  failed  as  a  pub- 
lisher of  newspapers,  and  once  as  a  theatrical  manager,  but 
his  connection  (1852-57)  with  Lloyjd'fi  Wet /.-/>/  was  very 
successful.  Mr.  .Tcrrold  was  a  man  of  great  kindliness  and 
generosity,  but  y)0SFessed  a  gift  of  repartee  which  often  be- 
came terribly  caustic.     D.  iu  London  June  8,  IS57. 

Jerrold  (William  Blanciiard),  eldest  son  of  Douglas 
Jcrrold,  b.  in  London,  England,  in  1820;  studied  for  an 
artist,  and  illustrated  some  of  bis  father's  articles,  but  later 
gave  his  attention  (o  literature.  In  1S19  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Laman  Blanehard ;  has  long  been  prominently 
connected  with  the  London  press.  Among  his  works  arc 
several  comedies  and  farces,  T/ic  Difif/rtice  of  the  Famihf 
(1817,  a  novel),  Swedish  Sketches  (1852),  fmpcn'al  Pan's 
(1855),  Life  of  Doufjlaa  Jerrnld  (1858),  At  Home  in  Paris 
(1804),  the  CoeknyneB  (1871),  and  other  works.  Also 
London  (1872),  illustrated  by  Dore,  and  Life  of  Napoleon 
III.  (1874-75).  He  bus  given  special  attention  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  poor  in  Paris  and  iiondon. 

Jerry  (Rev.  John  L.),b.  in  North  Carolina  May  11, 1793, 
the  son  of  a  Revolutionary  scdrlicr  who  served  under  La 
Fayette,  and  imbiljed  his  father's  spirit.  When  a  mission- 
ary in  St.  Augustine,  a  priest  thrcatcnecl  him  with  punish- 
ment if  ho  di(l  not  desist  preaching;  pointing  to  tiie  Ameri- 
can flag,  \\i-  said,  "  Xo  Inquisition  where  lliat  flag  waves!'* 
At  one  lime,  when  he  had  no  nmney  to  pay  his  fiire.  he  re- 
tired for  jirayer,  and  (m  returning  to  mount  his  horse  and 
pursue  bis  journey,  ho  found  a  doubloon,  which  kept  him 
going  till  he  obtained  relief.  Ho  entered  the  South  Caro- 
lina conference  in  1818,  and  was  a  revered  member  of  (ho 
Florida  conferenoo  at  the  timo  of  death,  July  1 1.  1859. 

T.  0.  SrMMKits. 

Jer'sey,  tho  largest  of  tho  Channel  Islands,  si(uated  ia 
the  English  Channel.  13  miles  W.  of  the  coast  of  Franco 
and  35  miles  S.  of  tho  coast  of  England.  Area.  30.580 
acres,  of  which  25,000  acres  arc  umhr  eullivulion.  Pop. 
50.078,  of  whom  13,000  are  English  and  200U  French;  tho 
natives  speak  a  kind  of  Norman  French,  as  the  island 
originally  belonged  to  tho  French  province  of  Normandy, 
Tho  ground  is  high  nnd  n»cky.  but  presents  many  fertile 
vallevs,  which  on  acetuint  of  the  fine,  mild,  and  cfpiablo 
climate  are  well  adapted  for  (ho  cultivation  of  fruits.  I^argo 
quantities  of  peaches,  apricots,  apples,  pears,  grapes,  and 
melons  are  annually  exported  to  London.  The  oyster  fish- 
erica  form  another  extensive  branch  of  industry.  Ship- 
building is  nls'i  important.  The  island,  on  m-count  of  its 
climate,  is  a  great  resort  for  people  of  delicate  health. 
Principal  towns,  St.  Helier  nnd  St.  Aubin. 

Jersey,  county  of  S.  W.  Illinois,  having  the  Mississippi 
River  on  tho  S.  and  tho  Illinois  on  tho  W.  Area.  350 
square  miles.  It  is  partly  timbered  antl  partly  prairie; 
cnnl  is  mined.  The  soil  is  fertile;  cattle,  grain,  and  wool 
are  staple  produeto.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Chica- 
go and  Alton  R.  R.     Cap.  Jerseyville.     Poj).  15.051. 

Jersey,  po^t-v.  and  tp.  of  Licking  co,,  0,  Pop.  of  v. 
101 ;  of  tp.  1253. 


1392 


JERSEY  CITY— JERUSALEM. 


Jersey  City,  cap.  of  Hudson  oc,  N.  J.,  on  the  right 
or  W.   bank  of  the  Hudson   River,  at  its   entrance   into 
New  York  li;i.v,  and  opposite  the  sonthern  portion  of  New 
York  Citv,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  six  ferries.     Jer- 
sey City  is  the  terminus  of  thirteen  railroads— the  Eric,  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Central  of  Now  .Jersey,  etc.     The  Mor- 
ris Canal  connects  it  with  Eastern  Pennsylvania.     It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  Cardiff  steamship 
lines,  and  the  seat  of  considerable  foreip;n  commerce,  but 
owin);  to  its  being  a  part  of  the  New  York  customs  dis- 
trict, no  separate  returns  are  obtainable.     At  .Jersey  City 
arc  located  largo  stockyards  and  sl.xughter-liouscs  for  the 
daily  supply  of  tlic  New  Y'ork  City  market;  this  business, 
formerly  at  Communipaw,  is  now  carried  on  in  the  N.  part 
of  the  city,  near  the  river  front,  where  a  very  extensive 
abattoir  was  rejently  built,  and  opened  in  JS7t;   it  is  sup- 
plied by  branches  from  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Eiie  rail- 
roads. "  Manufacturing  establishments  are  very  numerous, 
the   most  important  being  the  Jjorillards'  tobacco-works, 
U.  S.  Watch  Co.,  glass,  crucible,  graphite  pencils,  iron, 
steel,  zinc,  tin,  and  copper,  and  boiler  works,  foundries, 
machine-shops,  and  locomotive-works,  potteries,   oakum, 
and  a  large  business  in  soap  and  candles  and  refining  mo- 
lasses and  syrup.     The  city  is  well  supplied  with  water 
from  tho  Passaic  River  at  Rellevillc.      There  are  2  gas 
companies,  3  national  banks,  2  State  and  8  savings  banks, 
4   insurance    companies,    7    newspapers    (2    tierman),    44 
schools,  about  fiO  churches,  and  a  fair  nuuibcr  of  religious 
and  benevolent  societies  and  institutions.     Jersey  City  is 
in  reality  a  suburb  of  New  Y'ork  City,  its  population  eon- 
sistin"  largely  of  tho  overflow  from  that  vast  metropolis. 
At  the  bcgTniiing  of  tho  century  there  was  no  settlement 
on  Paulus^IIook,  as  the  locality  was  then  called.     A  com- 
pany was  chartered  in  IS04  which  laid  out  tho  grounds  of 
Paulus  Hook  into  streets  and  squares,  but  the  growth  of 
the  place  was  insignificant  until  half  a  century  later.     It 
was  but  a  village  in  IS20,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  the 
'•  City  of  Jersey,"  and  it  was  still  only  a  village  when  it 
was  reincorporated  in  ISliS  as  "  Jersey  City  "  and  provided 
with  the  machinery  of  a  mayor  and  common  council.    Even 
in  1850  the  popuhvtion  wasbut  6856.     By  the  annexation 
of  the  township  of  Van  Vorst  (18511,  of  the  cities  of  Hud- 
son and  Bergen   (1870),  and  of  the  village  of  Greenville 
(1872),  the  growth  of  Jersey  City  during  the  third  quarter 
of  the  centurv  (1850-75)  was  largely  assisted.    Pop.  in  IShO, 
29.227;  in  1870.  82..i4S. 
Z.  K.  P.\SGBORs.  Ed.  "Jersey  City  Evening  Joi'unal. 

Jersey  Shore,  post-b.  of  Lycoming  co.,  Pa.,  beauti- 
fully situated  on  tho  left  bank  of  the  W.  branch  of  tho 
Susquehanna,  near  tho  Philadelphia  and  Erie  R.  R.  It 
has  sceucry  of  great  attractiveness,  is  in  a  fertile  region, 
has  5  churches,  graded  public  schools,  a  high  school,  bank, 
and  weekly  newspaper.  Chief  industries,  farming,  lumber- 
trade,  and  tobacco  business.     Pop.  1394. 

S.  S.  Seeley,  Ed.  "HERALn." 
Jer'seyville,  city,  cap.  of  Jersey  en..  111.,  on  the  Chi- 
caw  anil  Alton  R.  R.,  J.acksonville  branch,  50  miles  N.  of 
Slf  I.ouis.  It  has  4  large  flour-mills  running  day  and 
niWit,  2  foundries,  2  hotels,  a  large  manufactory  of  ploughs 
and  reapers,  besides  manufactures  of  carriages  and  other 
goods,  8  churches,  and  a  fine  public-school  building.  The 
citv  stands  on  elevated  ground,  is  handsomely  built,  and 
has  wide  and  finely  shaded  streets.  It  has  much  cnter- 
briso.     It  has  2  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  257fi. 

W.  H.  Edgah,  En.  "  Repiiiiuc.\n." 
Jeru'snlem.  I.  The  Name.— The  name  Jrrmalfm*  is 
the  r.rcck  form  ClepoucraA^^),  as  found  in  the  Septuagint, 
of  tho  Chaldee  Jn-uah'lem.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
written  both  as  in  the  Septuagint  and  also  Jernimli/ma 
(•I,po(jdAvM<i),  the  evangelists,  with  tho  exception  of  Luke, 
using  almost  exclusively  this  latter  form,  while  in  Luke 
(including  the  Acts)  and  in  the  Epistles  the  former  form 
is  generally  preferred.  The  Hebrew  name  is  h-niKhdhiim, 
Ycriisli'ihiini,  or  Yeriuhalai/im  (the  full  form  is  a'7C''T). 
The  dual  termination  seems  to  indicate  some  ancient  twofold 
division  of  tho  city,  and,  from  the  difiiculty  in  determining 
any  Hebrew  root  for  the  word,  we  may  sup]io.se  that  the 
name  was  Canaanilish,  or  even  belonging  to  a  race  ante- 
rior to  the  Canaanites,  to  which  the  Hebrews  added  the 
dual  eniliug  for  topographical  reasons.  Wc  may  otherwise 
conjecture  that  the  dual  ending  is  an  accident,  brought 


for  verses  18,  19,  20  seem  to  be  a  poetic  insertion  between 
verses  17  and  21.  This  poetic  use  of  the  word  can  be  no 
argument  for  the  word  Salem  or  "  peace"  as  belonging  to 
the  original  name,  any  more  than  the  fact  of  the  (Jreek 
word  itpdt  being  found"  in  its  Greek  translations  is  an  ar- 
gument for  the  later  idea  that  Hierosolyma  meant  tho  "  holy 
Solvnia." 

II.  The  HisTonv.- Fii!''  Period  (b.  r.  1450-b.  c.  104>-). 

The  first  appearance  of  the  place  in  history  (if  we  leave 

out  the  Salem  of  Mclcbizedek)  is  in  Joshua  xv.  R,  where  it 
is  called  the  "shoulder"  (hclhrph)  of  tho  Jebusites  (as  in 
ch.  xviii.  Kil,  an  adniir;ible  description   of  the  projection 
of  Mount  Zion.  as  it  appears  from  the  boundary-line  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  there  described  as  runningalong  the 
S.  side  of  the  city.     The  Jebusites  held  it  as  their  special 
stronMiold.  and  hence  the  name  Jcbus  (/.  f.  the  Jebusite 
city)i3  given  it  in  Judges  xix.lO,  II, and  1  Chron.  xi.  4,  j. 
The  Jebusites  seem  to  have  been  territorially  one  of  tho 
smallest  of  the  Canaanitish  nations,  hut  from  their  position 
one  of  tho  strongest.     Tbeir  king,  Adcmizcdek,  was  slain 
bv  Joshua  at  Makkeduh  after  the  battle  of  Belh-horon 
(josh.  X  ).     After  Joshua's  death  the  Israelites  made  their 
first  assault  upon  the  citv.     The  tribes  of  Ju<lah  and  Sim- 
eon succeeded  in  taking  it  and  setting  it  on  fire  (Judges  i. 
8)  when  on  their  way  to  complete  the  settlement  of  their 
lot      This  capture  of  the  city  must  have  been  but  iiartial 
(as  Josephus  says),  for  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  which  it 
was  assigned,  left  the  Jebusites  in  quiet  possession  of  a. 
part  of  the  city,  the    upper   city  (i,  ita^Oirtpde^)  on  /.ion 
(Judg  i  21)     For  nearly  four  centuries  the  citadel  of  Jeru- 
salem'remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Jebusites,  during 
which  time  wc  may  well  believe  that  its  Canaanitish  in- 
habitants  thoroughly   fortified   it,   adding  to   its  natural 
stren-'th  all  that  the  art  of  that  day  could  suggest.     Dur- 
ing those  centuries  we  cannot  suppose  a  state  of  war  to 
have  continued  between  the  Jebusites  and  the  Israelites, 
but  that  some  sort  of  peaceful  intercourse  was  maintained, 
in  which  Jerusalem,  or  the  chief  part  of  it,  was  hicitly  un- 
derstood to  belong  to  the  Canaanitish  tribe      During  all 
this  long  period  the  central  capital  was  at  Sliiloh   except, 
as  in  SauVs  reign,  Gibeah,  his  residence,  may  chura  tho 
nreeedcncc.    It  may  be  that  the  fact  of  Saul  s  capital,  (.ib- 
lah,  being  only  4  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem  was  one  induce- 
ment to  David  to  seek  to  set  up  his  throne  in  the  Jebusite 
slron-rhold.     It  would  be  more  central  than  Hebron,  where 
he  bad  begun  his  reign,  and  it  would  also  be  m  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  which  had  under  Saul  been  the  roy-a    tr.be, 
while  its  strength  w..uld  make  it  far  more  desirable  than 
Gibeah  or  than  Shiluh.     Indeed,  the  latter  city  was  prob- 
ably already  destroyed  by  the  Philistine  invasion.    (See 
Jcr  vii.  12.)     Whatever  the  motive  may  have  been,  David 
in  the  eighth  year  of  bis  reign  organized  an  attack  upon 
.Jerus;vlem  when  the  enthusiastic  adhesion  of  all  I^r^icl  to 
his  ■'overnment  rendered  success  most  probable.     The  di- 
version in  the  direction  of  tho  house  of  Saul  would  have 
seriously  interfered  with  such  a  project  earlier  in   Davids 
rei.'n.     Joab.  David's  chief  captain,  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  siego  (1  Chron.  xi.  fi).  which  was  inarkeil  by 
self-confidence  on   the  part  of  the  Jebusites  an.l  daring 
valor  on  the  part  of  Israel.     The  strong  citadel  was  taken, 
and  called  afterward  "  the  city  of  David."    We  may  be  very 
sure  that  this  citadel  was  Zion.  and  that  "  .Millo     was  its 
bluff  front  on  the  valhy  of  the  Son  of  llinnom.     From  Da- 
vid's conquest  of  Jerusalem  dales  its  fame.     Before  that 
time  wc  have  no  reason  to  suppose  it  of  any  more  conse- 
quence than  any  well-placed  stronghold,  hut  now  the  con- 
eentrated  royalty  of  the  twelve  tribes  mad;  it  the  seat  of 
power  and  glory,  and  for  400  years,  until  Iscbuchadne7.7.ar 
destroyed  it,  it  stood  for'' 
tals  of  the  world,  vying 
Nineveh,  Babylon.  Tyre,  and  Thebes. 

Seco,,d  /"cnWdOlS  B.C.  to  58B  B.  cV-Divvid  imrae- 
diatcly  turned  his  attention  to  the  reconstruction  and 
strengthening  of  his  new  city,  and  when  this  work  was 
accomplished  had  the  ark  of  God,  which  l^^d'-een  fo  a 
century  at  Kirjath-jearim  (ever  since  the  great  Phil.sne 
invasion  of  Eli's  time  and  most  probably  the  de.«truct,on 
of  Shiloh),  conducted  with  great  pomp  and  ,,ubilation  0 
the  roval  city  an.l  placed  in  a  new  tabernacle  especially 
epared  for  it,  the  'id  Shiloh  tabernace  being  at  G.beon 
5  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  i.  ?.,  41.  David  may 
have  already  had  in  his  mind  the  construction  of  a  grand 


it  stood  forth  as  one  of  the  conspicuous  capi- 
at one  time,  in  some  respects,  with 


old  tabernacle,  and  therefore  have 

"  '    re 

Id 


about  by  the  resemblance  of  the  original  word  to  a  Hebrew      tomide  in  place  of  the ^ ,  e,,,,,rr- 

dual,  or  that  the  old  language  had  a  dual  like  the  Hebrew,  j  preferred  to  bring  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  w-I.ere^  t^hc^^n.turc 
That  the  name  should  be  changed  to  Sluth-m  (Salem  in 
poetry,  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2)  is  in  accordance  with  the  Hebrew  love 
of  paronomasia.     If  Salem  in  Gen.  xiv.  18  be  Jerusalem, 


we  may  account  for  the  word  Salem  there  in  the  same  way. 


•  The  ,7 represents  the  Greek  aspirated  /.    It  might  be  repre- 
sented by  Hi;  e.  g.  merusalem,  Ilierosolijma. 


structure  would  he  re;,'ied,  rather  than  carry  it  '»  ""l  '' 
tabernacle  at  Gibcon.  The  rest  of  the  tabernacle  lurniturc 
was  doubtless  at  Gibeon.  The  bra.en  altar,  we  are  ex^ 
pressly  told,  was  there.  This  position  of  the  ark  on  the 
farge  citadel-hill  (Zionl  continued  for  forty  years,  making 
the  name  Zion  a  favvite  name  for  the  city,  espec.ally  when 
viewed  as  a  holy  city,  a  centre  of  worship.     Ihe 


consoli- 


JERUSALEM. 


1393 


dation  and  t>trcn^theninf;  of  the  whulo  Israelitish  common- 
wealth in  David  attracted  the  attention  of  hi;^  powerful 
nei<^hbor,  the  king  of  Tyre,  who  did  him  the  lii^h  honor 
of  building  the  royal  palace  in  Jerusalem  with  material 
and  workmen  from  the  Phu?nician  kin<;d(>in  (2  Sam.  v.  1 1 ). 
Ouvid's  conquests  over  the  Syrians,  Moabite^,  AmmoDitcs, 
Philistines,  Amalckitcs,  and  Edomitcs  extended  the  terri- 
tory of  his  empire  to  the  Euphrates  on  the  X.  E.  and  to 
the  Red  Se.i  and  Mediterranean  on  the  S.  and  W.,  making 
his  dominion  the  most  conspicuous  of  tlio  world  at  a  time 
when  the  Assyrian  empire  iiad  fallen  into  feebleness  be- 
tween its  exaltation  under  the  first  Tij^lath-pileser  and  its 
renewed  plory  under  Asshur-izir-pal.  During  this  period 
of  David  and  Solomon,  Egypt,  the  other  preat  monarchy, 
gccms  to  have  been  in  a  like  low  plight  with  Assyria,  pre- 
vious to  the  accession  of  the  new  and  powerful  dynasty  of 
Shi«hak.  From  Hiram's  conduct  wc  may  readily  see  that 
the  Israeliti*h  kingdom  out-topped  Tyre,  so  that  the  throne 
of  David  and  Solomon  must  have  represented  the  grandest 
empire  then  existing  on  the  earth.  Of  this  empire  Jeru- 
salem was  the  central  scat,  which  naturally,  under  such 
influences,  began  to  assume  an  extent  and  grandeur  corre- 
sponding with  its  important  positiun.  Especially  under 
Solomon,  in  his  peaceful  reign,  did  the  city  grow  into  mag- 
nificence. What  war  had  before  done,  commerce  now  ac- 
complished, and  Jerusalem  received  a  vast  stream  of  wealth 
from  its  active  relations  with  many  rich  and  distant  coun- 
tries. Egypt,  Arabia,  Tyre,  Opliir  (India?),  and  perhaps 
Tarshish  (Spain?),  are  especially  spoken  of  as  connected 
with  Jerusalem  by  important  commercial  lies  at  this  time, 
by  which  this  capital  l»ecamo  an  entrepot  of  trade  for  nil 
the  subject  kingdoms  of  Syria  (1  Kings  x.  29).  AVith  the 
enormous  wealth  thus  acquired,  and  that  laid  up  by  )iis 
father,  Solomon  erected  the  temple  on  the  rocky  height 
opposite  Zion,  which  David  had  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
having  purchased  tho  site  from  Araunah  the  Jebusite.* 
The  sharp  ridgo  of  tho  bright  was  taken  off  and  the  sur- 
face levelled,  vast  vaults  being  erected  to  support  exten- 
sions of  tho  level,  and  on  this  grand,  conspicuous  area  of 
nearly  1000  feet  square  one  of  tho  most  costly  shrines  the 
world  has  ever  seen  was  erected  by  tho  magnificent  mon- 
nr.'h.  With  both  men  and  materials  from  Tyre  (tho  centre 
of  meohanical  art)  he  raised  tho  massive  structure  (whose 
wall-stones,  still  bearing  tho  Tyrian  marks,  astonish  the 
exjdorcr),  completing  the  work  in  seven  years.  He  also 
erected  a  palace  of  corresptmding  grandeur  for  himself, 
which  oocupied  thirteen  years  in  its  Cftnstructiou.  Another 
superb  edifice,  erected  for  state  occasions  and  called  tho 
House  of  tho  Forest  of  licbanon  (perhaps  because  of  its 
many  cedar  pillars),  wns  constructed  at  tho  same  time. 
The  walls  of  the  city  also  received  his  attention.  These 
were  extended  around  suburbs,  increased  in  height, 
ptrcngthened  with  towers,  and  probably  increased  into 
fortressf's  at  such  points  as  Millo  and  Ophcl,  where  al- 
reudy  fortrennes  existed.  A  palace  was  built  for  SoUtmon's 
queen,  tho  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  and  doubt- 
less his  thousand  wives  and  concubines  called  for  an  enor- 
mous outlay  in  architecture.  Tho  whole  apparatus  of  tho 
Solomonian  court  was  on  a  style  of  unparalleled  exlrava- 
gtin  'P  and  spk-nilor.  This  praudi-ur  of  Ji>ruHalem  seems  to 
have  been  in  atreordanco  with  man's  wish,  and  not  (Jod's 
appointment,  except  as  Ood  yielded  to  man.  It  was  man 
who  insisted  on  the  monarchy  instead  of  a  theocratic  rc- 
puMie,  and  it  was  man  whr)  conceived  tho  idea  of  tho  gor- 
gcniis  tem(»le.  (loil  ftn-miitrtl  both,  but  they  sediiced  Is- 
rael from  its  sim|dicity  and  destroyed  its  separalenoss  from 
the  nations,  so  important  for  its  great  spiritual  mission. 
Commercial  intercourse  with  tho  nations,  by  which  tho 
wealth  was  S'-ciired,  and  royal  pomp  which  sought  the 
wealth,  brought  into  the  country  the  irlolatry  and  immor- 
ality of  oth<T  lands,  with  all  the  recklessness  and  oppres- 
sion that  follow  human  aggrandi'/oraent,  so  that  just  when 
the  nation  Boomed  to  be  most  exalted  it  was  preparing  its 
ruin.  Ft  is  remarkable  that  (in  aecordance  with  tho  pro- 
]dietio  deelaration.  that  the  Babylonian  captivity  should 
ia^t  lung  enough  for  the  land  to  make  up  its  lost  sabbatical 
years — Lev.  xxvi.  .34.  eompareil  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  21), 
if  wo  count  backward  from  the  year  n.  c  .Olft  (tho  end  of 
th"  seventy  years),  tho  seventy  sabbatical  years,  or  (00 
years,  we  reach  It.  c.  IrtO«,  tho  period  of  Solomon's  top  of 
glory.  Hero  we  see  that  in  the  worldliness  of  this  magnif- 
icent reign  tho  keeping  of  tho  sabbatical  year  began  to 
he  disregarded.  Solomon  was  succeeded  by  Ilehoboam,  a" 
foolinh  fKH-jt/itfrtijimitini,  who  sonn  bi-gan  (o  experience  tho 
evil  results  of  his  father's  extrnvagnnt  policy.  Tho  king- 
dom was  divided.     Jeroboam,  returning  from  Egypt,  where 

*  He  was  probably  tho  Ti»rf  .Tebnslfr  king  whom  DavUI  had 
rnnf|uer('d  thirty  years  liefnre.  The  llr>>ri-w  word-*  of  '2  S«iu. 
xxW.  2:^.  literally  translated,  arc,  "  Araunah  the  kln^  gave  the 
whole  to  the  kini;." 

Vol..  II.-SH 


ho  had  been  an  oxilo  protected  by  Sblshak,  the  Pharaoh 
during  tho  later  years  of  Solomon,  became  king  of  tho 
northern  realm,  and  Jerusalem  was  left  tho  metropolis  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  only,  and  of  the  subject 
countries  at  the  S.  and  E.  This  fearful  schism  in  the  na- 
tion and  the  tempting  treasures  of  Jerusalem  brought  Shi- 
shak  (perhaps  through  Jeroboam's  infiuence)  from  Egypt 
against  the  Holy  City.  This  enterprising  and  illustrious 
monarch  made  his  attack  upon  the  kingdom  of  Judah  in 
the  fifth  year  of  Rehoboam  with  an  enormous  host  of 
Egyptians  and  foreign  auxiliaries.  The  gl(»ry  of  Jerusa- 
lem had  for  two  generations  eclipsed  that  of  Egypt ;  Egypt 
would  now  have  its  revenge.  The  fortified  cities  of  the 
,Iud:ean  kingdom  fell  one  after  another.  Although  they 
are  not  specified,  we  may  readily  suppose  that  Oath,  Mare- 
shah,  Lachish.and  Bethlehem,  among  those  places  which 
Uehoboara  had  lately  fortified  against  Egyptian  attack  (2 
Chron.  xi.  fi-lOi.  were  overcome  by  Sliishak  to  clear  his 
way  to  Jerusalem.  In  the  city  had  assembled  all  the  dig- 
nitaries of  the  realm,  who,  at  the  word  of  the  prophet  She- 
mainh,  humbled  themselves  with  the  king  before  (jiod,  and  so 
averted  the  evil.  The  Egyptian  seems  not  to  have  entered 
tho  eity.f  but  a  treaty  was  made,  most  humiliating  to  .Tudah, 
by  which  the  kingdom  became  tributary  to  Egypt,  and  tho 
treasure  accumulated  in  tho  (emple  and  royal  palace  was 
delivered  up  to  Sliishak,  who  also  carried  off  the  600  shields 
overlaid  with  gold  which  Solomon  had  placed  as  ornaments 
in  his  stately  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon.  The  gold 
of  these  shields  alone  represented  a  sum  of  $720.000 — a 
sura  of  vast  magnitude  in  those  days.  Abijali,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Kehoboam,  by  his  great  victory  over  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  helped  Jerusalem  to  recover  from  this  blow,  but 
it  was  not  till  the  year  n.c.  1)1 1,  more  than  thirty  years 
after  Shishuk's  disastrous  raid,  that  Jerusalem  regained 
her  independence  and  dignity  by  tho  complete  overthrow 
of  the  Ethiopian  Zcrah  (supposed  to  be  Pharaoh  Usarken 
I.)  at  the  battle  of  Mareshah.  as  far  as  which  point  he  had 
penetrated,  with  an  array  like  that  of  Shishuk's.  against 
Asa,  Bchoboani'a  grandson.  This  great  victory  filled  the 
kingdora  with  joy,  restored  treasure  to  Jerusalem,  drew 
many  Israelites  of  the  northern  kingdom  t<t  the  city,  anci 
caused  a  reform  in  the  religious  condition  of  the  peojile. 
\vh<»  had  been  U*<1  astray  from  Soiom(m's  day.  It  is  sad  to 
see  how  soon  afterward  Asa  took  tlic  new  treasure,  which 
ho  had  placed  in  tho  teraplo  in  lieu  of  that  which  Sliishak 
had  seized,  and  gave  it  as  a  bribe  to  Benhadad,  king  of 
Syria,  that  ho  might  attack  Baasha,  king  of  Israel.  The 
prosperity  which  Asa  brought  to  Jerusalem  continued  for 
fifty  years — a  period  of  national  power  and  dignity  that 
was  to  be  followed  by  tho  evils  of  a  close  alliance  with 
idolatrous  Israel  in  tho  union  of  Jehoshapliat's  family 
with  the  corrupt  family  of  Aluih  and  tho  Tyrian  Jezebel. 
Jchoram,  Jehoshaphat's  stm  and  Asa's  grandson,  married 
Athaliah.  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  Through  her  tho 
abominations  of  idolatry  again  filled  the  royal  eily.  Je- 
horam  began  his  reign  by  murdering  his  six  brothers.  Ho 
ended  it  with  the  successful  revolt  of  Judah's  dependencies, 
and  a  fearful  onslaught  of  tho  Philistines  and  Arabians 
upon  Judah  itself,  in  which  the  enemy  carrieil  off  many  of 
tho  king's  wives  ond  all  his  sons  but  one.  with  all  the  treas- 
ure which  they  found  in  imii'  <if  his  country  palaces. |  When 
Jehoram  harl  died,  and  his  son  Ahaziuli  hud  been  slain  by 
Jehu,  Athaliah  immediately  slew  her  grandchildren  (one 
only.  Joash,  escaping  the  masKaere),  and  for  six  years 
wielded  her  usurped  authority.  Thus,  for  fifteen  years  the 
prevalence  of  Baal-worship  in  Jerusalem  caused  the  temple 
to  fall  into  decay,  rndeed,  Athaliah's  family  had  even  do- 
faced  tho  holy  shrine  and  carried  ofi'  the  sacred  vessels  for 
use  in  the  service  of  Baal's  temples.  Tin-  piety  and  patri- 
otism of  Jihoia<hi,  who  had  ]ireser\  ed  the  itilaiit  prince 
Joash,  put  an  end  to  the^^e  enormilios  by  slaying  the  guilty 
queen  and  tho  priests  of  Baal,  and  restiiring  the  worship 
of  Jehovah.  But  when  the  old  Jehoiuda  died  at  the  re- 
markable ago  of  130  years,  and  was  honored  by  a  burial 
amimg  the  kings,  a  state  poliry  led  King  Jua>Ii  to  restore 
idolatry  and  toslay  Jehoiada's  sons(among  them  Ziehariah, 
the  high  priest)  in  the  very  court  of  the  temple  while  they 
were  protesting  against  this  fearful  apostasy.  This  event 
shows  how  deeply  seated  in  the  public  regard  was  tho 
idolatry  nhieh  fir><t  Sidoinon  and  then  Jehoram  had  fos- 
tered, and  whieh  the  people  doubtless  connected  with 
their  grandeur  before  the  nations.  Not  long  after,  Hnzael, 
the  energelio  king  of  Syria,  besieged  and  took  (lalh, 
and    then    turned  toward    Jerusalem,   defeating    tho   Ju- 

t  Joiephu*  ways  thai  Shfshak  enterH  the  e(tv  without  n  bat- 
tle, but  If  Ibt^'lmd  been  the  ease  we  should  have  ex[ni'ied  a 
more  thorout;))  ruin  of  the  city.  Where  .Tosenbus  enlarges  on 
the  snered  narrative  lie  h  ofi.-u  nsluij  hU  imairinallnn. 

tNo  mention  Is  ma<le  nf  their  enlerinc  .T.Tii'*alem  (2f"brnn, 
Txf.  }~).  Hence,  WC  may  suppose  the  royal  family  were  sojourn- 
ing cliewherc. 


1894 


JERUSALEM. 


d»an  army  on  the  way  and  making  havoc  everywhere, 
when  .loash  purchased  deliverance  for  the  royal  city  only 
by  giving  up  to  Hazael  all  the  sacred  vessels  which  had 
been  accumulated  since  Asa's  day.   100  years  before,  to- 
gether with  all  the  ecclesiastical  and  royal  treasure  in  the 
city.     Although  this   invasion   of  Judah  was  most  disas- 
trous to  the  country,  involving  immense  loss  of  treasure 
and  the  de:i,th  of  alHho  prominent  nobles  who  attempted 
to  stop  the  progress  of  the  .Syrian  king,  yet  the  record  gives 
no  countenance  to  the  idea  that  Jerusalem  was  captured 
either  by  him,  by  the  Philistines  in  Jehoram's  day.  or  by 
Shishak'in  Rehoboam's  day.     Its  capture  from  the  Jebus- 
ites  by  King  David  was  thus  far  the  only  seizure  of  the 
famous  stronghold.      The  first  actual  capture  of  the  city 
after  David's  conquest  was  made  by  the  Israelltish  mon- 
arch Joash,  who  had  been  provoked  to  wiir  by  Amaziah. 
king  of  Judah,  son  of  the  Jerusalem  Joash.     The  king  of 
Israel,  after  defeating  Amaziah  at  Bethshemesh,  appeared 
before  Jerusalem,  and  probably  through  the  Jewish  king, 
whom  he  held  as  prisoner,  obtained  entrance  into  the  city, 
which  he  plundered,  and  400  cubits  length  of  whoso  wall 
he  levelled.     This  was  about  the  year  826  B.  c,  more  than 
two  centuries  after  David's  conquest  of  the  Jebusito  strong- 
hold.    Uzziah,  Amaziah's  successor,  in  his  long  and  pros- 
perous reign  repaired  the  injury  done  to  the  walls  of  the 
city  and  added  to  its  fortifications.     It  was  in  this  reign 
that  the  great  earthquake  occurred  which  is  referred  to  as 
a  memorable  epoch  by  the  prophets  Amos  (i.  1)  and  Zeoha- 
riah  (xiv.  5),  and  which  is  by  Josephus  connected  with  the 
king's  sacrilege  (Ant.,  9.  10.  4).     If  we  disregard  the  state- 
ment  of  Josephus,  we  may   believe   that   this    extensive 
building  of  the  walls  and  fortifications   may  have  been 
suggested  by  the  ruin  caused  through  this  grievous  visita- 
tio1i!     In  the  reign   of  Jotham,  Uzziah's  son,  the  "  high 
gate"  of  the  temple  was  built  (perhaps  the  predecessor  of 
the  "beautiful  gate"  of  Herod),  and  the  wall  of  Ophel  was 
erected.      If  Ophel  was  the  southern  spur  of   Moriah,  as 
seems  quite  proven,  it  is  hardly  possible  that  it  was  not 
fortified  to  some    extent  from  Solomon's    day.      Jotham 
probably  added  to  its  fortifications  or  rebuilt  those  that 
had  been  destroyed.     This  enterprising  king  also  erected 
fortresses  throughout  the  kingdom.     Ahaz,  Jotham's  son, 
sustained  fearful  defeats  from  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and 
Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  so  that  he  called  upon  Tiglath-pile- 
ser,  king  of  Assyria,  to  come  to  his  aid.     This  alliance  was 
purchas'ed  by  despoiling  the  temple  and  royal  palace  in  a 
far  more  wholesale  manner  than  it  had  been  done  by  Reho- 
hoam,  Asa,  or  Joash.      Ahaz.  in  his  infatuation  with  the 
Assyrian  alliance,  removed  the  brazen  altar,  built  a  new 
one'of  heathen  pattern  in  its  place,  and  defiled  the  temple 
itself   with    idolatrous    rites.      Hezekiah,   succeeding    his 
father  Ahaz,  immediately  restored  everything  to  its  original 
service,  purified  the  temple,  and  celebrated  the  Passover 
with  unusual  solemnity.     During  Ilezekiah's  reign  occurred 
the  formidable  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
against  which  Hezekiah  prepared  the  city  with  wonderful 
industry  and  in  the  most  thorough  manner.     Although  the 
kingdom  was  devastated,  the  city  was  saved,  yet  with  a. 
new'stripping  of  temple  and  palace  as  a  tribute  to  the 
great  conqueror.     (See  Sennacherib's  own  account  in  the 
Nineveh  records.)     This  was  the  sixth  time  within  three 
centuries  that  the  treasures  of  Jerusalem  had  been  seized. 
Maiiassch,  Hezekiah's  son,  had  a  long  and  eventful  reign. 
Ho  brought  back  all  the  idolatries  which  his  father  had 
romovedreven  putting  an   image  of   Baal  in  the   temple 
itself.       Esar-haddon,   king  of    .\ssyria,   who    reigned    in 
Babylon,  subjected  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  as  his  father 
Senoacherib  had  done,  and  managed  to  seize  the  person  of 
Manasseh  and  carry  him  captive  to  Babylon.     On   hum- 
bling himself  before  God,  he  was  released  from  his  captiv- 
ity, returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  added  to  the  fortifications 
of  the  city  on  the  X.  W.  and  S.  E.     But  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  josiah,  Manasseh's  grandson,  that  the  idolatrous 
objects  in  and  around  Jerusalem  were  thoroughly  removed. 
Under  an  impulse  caused  by  the  di.scovery  of  a  copy  of  the 
.Mosaic  Law  (a  discovery  which  shows  the  lamentable  con- 
dition of  the  nation  during  the  preceding  reigns),  Josiah 
not  only  purified  the  temple  precincts,  which  were  filled 
with  vessels  consecrated  to  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  and  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and   where  houses  of   al)omination   had 
been   erected,  but  he  also  defiled  Tophet  in  the  valley  of 
the  Son  of  Ilinnoiu,  where  the  Moloch-worship  had  been 
held,  destroyed  the  altars  which   had   been  erected  in   the 
royal  quarters,  and  made  utter  havoc  of  all  the  idolatrous 
shrines  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  which  Solomon  had 
erected,  and  which  had  been  allowed  to  stand  for  400  years, 
perhaps  because  of  their  architectural  beauty.     At  the  end 
of  a  thirty-one  years'  reign  the  body  of  Josiah  was  brought 
from  the  fatal  battle-field  of  Megiddo  (where  the  king  had 
foolishly  met  Pharaoh-nccho  in  his  march  against  the  Ori- 
ental empire),  and  buried  in  Jerusalem  amid  the  lamenta- 


tions of  all  the  nation.     Then  followed  the  sad  reigns  of 
Josiah's  three  sons  and  one  grandson.     Jehoahaz,  the  first 
(though  not  the  oldest),  succeeded  his  father,  taking  prece- 
dence of  Jehoiakim,  perhaps  because  of  the  latler's  incli- 
nation to  an  Egyptian  alliance.     In  three  months  the  vic- 
torious Necho  dethroned  him  and  carried  him  captive  to 
Egypt,  putting  Eliakim  or  Jehoiakim  in  his  place.     A  few 
years  after,  the  Oriental  empire  of  Nebuchadnezzar  asserted 
its  supremacy  over  Egypt,  and  Jehoiakim  was  obliged  to 
become  a  vassal  to  that  distinguished  monarch.      Three 
years  later  he  rebelled  against  the  Babylonian,  and  brought 
iipon  him  the  full  force  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  fury.     The 
conqueror  seems  to  have  seized  the  person  of  the  king  to 
carry  him  to  Babylon,  and  then  to  have  permitted  him  to 
ransom  himself  by  the  delivery  of  much  of  the  treasure  of 
the  temple.     -\t  j'ehoiakim's  death  a  new  siege  of  the  city 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  occurred,  and  the  city  was  saved  only 
by  the  delivery  to  Nebuchadnezzar  of  the  young  king,  Je- 
hoiachin,  Jchoiakim's  son.   with  his  mother,  wives,  and 
court,  and  all  the  treasure  that  could  be  gleaned  from  the 
temple  and  the  palace.     At  this  time  also  the  Babylonian 
monarch  made  a  vast  deportation  of  the  higher  classes,  as 
well  as  the  craftsmen,  to  Babylon.     The  manner  m  which 
this  is  narrated  in  the  sacred  story  seems  to  show  that  the 
city  was  not  entered  by  the  victorious  monarch.      Nebu- 
chadnezzar placed  Mattaniah,  Josiah's  youngest  son. on  the 
throne,  changing  his  name  to  Zedekiah.     This  weak  and 
foolish  king,  trusting  in  an   Egyptian   alliance,  dared  to 
rebel  against  Babylon,  and  brought  upon  Jerusalem   its 
destruction  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  year  B.  c.  586.    After 
a  sice  of  eighteen  months,  famine  and  superior  numbers 
conquered  the  holy  citv.     The  walls  were  levelled,  the  tem- 
ple and  royal  palace  and  the  whole  city  were  burned,  and 
everything"  worth  carrying  off  became  plunder  to  the  exas- 
pera'ted  Nebuchadnezzar.  Zedekiah's  sons  were  slain  before 
his  face  at  Riblah  on  the  Orontes,  and  then  his  own  eyes 
were  put  out,  and  he  was  carried  away  to  Babylon  to  adorn 
the  monarch's  triumph.     Another  deportation  marked  this 
epoch,  so  that  only  some  of  the  poor  of  the  land  were  left 
to  be  vine-dressers  and  husbandmen. 

Third  Prriod  (586  B.  C.-70  A.  D.).— Jerusalem  lay  waste 
until  the  Persian  monarchy  absorbed  the  Babylonian,  and 
the  Persian  hostility  to  idolatry  produced  a  friendship  be- 
tween the  new  empire  and  the  monotheistic  Jews.     One  of 
Cyrus's  first  acts  was  to  send  back  all  the  Jews  who  wished 
to  Jerusalem  with  riches  and  honor.     Less  than  50,000  re- 
turned, however,  an  exile  of  from  fifty  to  seventy  years 
from   Palestine  having  rooted  the  vast  majority  to  their 
Oriental    homes.      This    return,  under    Zerubbabel  of  the 
royal  house  (but  not  as  king)  and  Jeshua  the  high  priest, 
occurred  probably  in  the  year  B.  o.  536.  and  had  largely  a 
religious  character.     The  rebuilding  of  the  temple  was  the 
first  object  sought,  and  the  work   weut  on   whilst  Cyrus 
reigned.     But  during  the  reigns  of  Cambyses  and  Smerdis 
the  enemies  of  the  jews  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  royal 
veto  on  their  enterprise.    Darius  Hvstaspis,  in  his  vigorous 
restoration  of  the  policy  of  Cyrus  throughout  the  empire, 
permitted  the  Jews  to  fini.sh  their  temple,  and  in  the  sixth 
year  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  516)  the  new  structure  was  com- 
pleted and  dedicated.*     It  was  the  Holy  City  once  more. 
The  new  temple,  somewhat  smaller  than  its  predecessor, 
was  also  inferior  in  costly  adorning  to  the  structure  of 
Solomon,  but  still  it  was  a  rallyingpoint  for  the  scattered 
Jews      We  may  suppose  that  many  found  their  way  from 
year  to  year  from  their  distant  places  of  exile  to  dwell 
'again  by'the  hallowed  precinct,  themselves  and  their  city 
now  for"ever  purged  from  idolatry.     In  the  year  B.  c.  4.,7, 
Ezra  the  priest  brought  a  train  of  5000  Jews  (nearly  2000 
males)   from  the  land  of  exile  to  Jerusalem,  and  acted  as 
guide  and  teacher  to  the  feeble  restoration      In  B.  c.  443 
Nehcmiah  visited  Jerusalem  and  aroused  the  despondent 
people  to  build  the  walls  of  the  city,  which  had  been  pros- 
trate for  140  years.     With  wonderful  enthusiasm  and  ra- 
pidity, in  the  face  of  threats  from  the  neighboring  hostile 
tribes,  the  people  went  to  work,  and  in  fifty-two  d.iys  fin- 
ished   the   great   undertaking.      Nehemiah    acted    as   the 
Persian  governor,  and  by  his  earnest  piety  and  fearless  con- 
duct did  much  to  establish  the  purity  of  the  Jewish  com- 
monwcalth.t    The  first  Persian  interference  with  the  Jewish 
province  (for  such  it  now  «ns)  arose  from  the  murder  of 
.Joshua  by  his  brother  Johanan,   the  high  priest,  m  the 
temple,  in  the  year  b.  c.  366.     These  two  were  grandsons 


♦Josephus  makes  a  second  return  from  Babylon  under  Par  us 
Hvstaspis  with  Zerubbabel  as  leader.  This  return  (he  sa) ») 
numboml  4,677,890  souls.  He  of  course  considers  the  Sheshbaz- 
zar  of  Ezra  1.  11  as  a  dilTereiit  man  from  Zerubbabel. 

+  Josephus  pots  both  Kzra  and  Nehemiah  in  Xerxes    tin  e 

(n  f  4.S.il    Bui  the  Artaxerxesof  E^rra  and  Nehenuah  eon  d 

mit  havrbeen  the  Xnrxes  of  history,  for  Xer.xes  reiened  only 

wenty  years,  but  in  Neli.  v.  14  we  find  ..irtaxerxes'thirty-second 

ylar  mentioned.    Artaxerxes  Longimauus  reigned  forty  years. 


JERUSALEM. 


1395 


of  Eliashib,  the  high  priest,  whom  Nchemiah  wng  obliged 
to  rebuke  (Xeh.  xiii.  7),  and  .lohanan."'  the  murJerer, 
was  son-in-law  of  Sanhullat,  the  Samaritan  pnvcrnor  (Neh. 
xiii.  2S).  Biigoses  (Baj^oas),  the  Persian  gi*ncral.  by  rea- 
son of  this  tearful  niurJer  dcfilt'd  the  temple  by  entering 
it,  and  laid  a  tax  for  Jobanan's  lifottme  (which  proved  to 
be  seven  years  longer)  of  fifty  drachmas  for  each  hnnb  used 
in  tho  daily  sacrifice.  Johanan's  two  jions,  .Taddua  and 
Manasseh,  held  jointly  the  high  priesthood  alter  their 
father's  death,  until  Manassch  was  tempted  to  go  off  to  the 
Samaritans,  who,  under  Alexander's  sanction,  ereetcd  their 
own  temple  on  Mount  (ierizim,  and  made  Munasseh  their 
high  priest.  I>uring  Jaddua's  high  priesthood  Alexander 
overthrew  the  Persian  monarchy.  His  remarkable  recep- 
tion at  Jerusalem  by  the  high  priest,  his  entrance  into  the 
tempio  to  attend  the  offering  of  sacrifices,  his  delight  at 
finding  the  record  of  Daniel  predicting  the  overthrow  of 
Persia  by  the  (freeks.  and  his  conlirmation  of  the  Jews  in 
their  own  peculiar  laws,  are  all  graphically  recited  by 
Josophus.  Alexander's  visit  was  in  B.  c.  332.  and  the  Sc- 
leucian  empire  dates  from  b.  c.  312.  The  period  between 
Alexander's  death  and  the  settlement  of  the  empires  of 
Syria  and  Egypt  was  a  chaotic  and  stormy  one.  Plolemy 
Lagi  acquired  possession  of  Jerusalem  by  a  trick,  and  en- 
phived  many  tliousands  of  the  .Tews,  carrying  them  into 
Egypt.  For  more  than  a  century  Judiua  was  a  tributary 
province  of  Egypt  under  tho  high  priesthood  of  Onias. 
Simon  the  Just  (who  extensively  repaired  and  enlarged 
the  tempio  and  tho  walls).  Eleazar,  Manassch,  Onias 
III.  and  Simon  II.  In  the  time  of  Siraon  tho  Just  large 
donations  were  bestowed  upon  the  temple  by  Ptcdemy 
Philadclphus,  in  whose  reign  and  by  whoso  order  (accord- 
ing to  the  received  story)  tho  Greek  (Septuagint)  trans- 
lation of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  was  made  for  tho  Alex- 
andrian library.  After  the  battle  of  RaphJa  (n.  r.  217). 
Ptolemy  Philopator,  who  had  there  defeated  Antiocbus  the 
Great,  attempted  to  enter  tho  imon  of  the  temple,  but 
was  opposed  by  Simon  IF.,  the  high  priest ;  eighteen  years 
after  which  Antiocbus  wrested  Jerusalem  from  the  Egyp- 
tian empire.  With  a  brief  exception  of  a  year,  in  which 
th«  Egyptians  again  held  tho  city,  Jerusalem  remained  a 
province  of  Syria  until  tho  Maccabeau  revolt.  During 
these  thirty-five  years  Sinmn  H.  (who  was  grandson  of 
Simon  the  Just)  died,  and  Onias  III.  became  high-priest, 
in  whoso  administration  the  city  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
the  quarrels  of  the  Josephine  family,  a  priestly  family  that 
had  become  rich  through  political  favors  received  from 
Egypt.  In  B.  c.  175,  Antiocbus  IV.  (Epiphanes)  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Syria,  and  began  deliberately  to  plan  tho 
extinguishment  of  all  the  jieculiarities  of  the  .lewlsh  peo- 
ple. He  was  <Ieterinine<l  to  make  Jerusalem  a  Greek  town. 
On  tho  death  of  Onias  ho  put  Onias's  brother,  Joshua,  into 
tho  high  priest  boo. I,  changed  his  name  to  tho  Greek 
'•  .Jason,"  introduced  (ireek  gamcM,  put  tlio  tenijdo  pervice 
into  relation  with  that  of  iilolatrous  shrines,  and  in  every 
way  undermined  the  integrity  of  the  Jewisli  character  and 
religion.  At  length  a  younger  brother,  also  named  Onias, 
changed  in  his  turn  his  name  to  "Menelaus,"  and  per- 
suaded Antiocbus  (who  was  ready  to  sow  dissensions)  to 
make  him  high  priest  in  place  of  Jason.  Dissensions  con- 
tinued between  tne  two  Hcllouizing  brothers  till  Jason  died. 
Antiocbus  now  came  to  the  city  and  stripped  it  of  all  its 
treasures  and  carried  away  a  multitude  of  captives.  In 
D.  r.  1  (>H  he  followerl  this  by  sending  an  army  to  Jeru- 
salem, which  entered  on  tho  sabbath  ('.ay.  made  havoc  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  levelled  the  city  walls.  Tin*  temple 
was  dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter,  swine's  flesh  was 
ollVred  upon  tho  altar,  an<l  the  dotilement  of  the  temple 
made  complete.  All  tlie.Tewi'*h  ritual  was  forbidden,  and 
fearful  punijthments  were  vii^ited  on  those  who  dared  to  up- 
bold  their  ancient  faith.  This  extreme  policy  of  tho  Syrian 
monarch  served  to  defeat  its  object.  T'ndi-r  the  guidance 
of  the  Asmonean  family  (so  called  from  tho  priest  Chash- 
inon,  an  ancestor)  the  .Tews  organized  a  general  revolt.  In 
B.  r.  Irt.i  they  entered  Jcru»<alem  and  dedicatecl  the  temple 
anew,  tho  citadel  being  still  held  by  the  Syrians.  The  next 
year  tho  monster  Antiocbus  died  <if  a  loathsome  disease. 
Under  his  successor  fortune  wavered  bolwet-n  the  Jews  and 
the  Syrians  (ill  the  death  of  Jiidas  called  Maeeahirus  (the 
"  Hammer")  in  b.  r.  MU.  Alcimu:».  high  priest,  was  a  tool 
of  the  Grivfo-Syrian  monareh.  ami  strengthened  himself  in 
tho  citadrl  of  Jerusalem  until  bis  death.  JoMatban  and 
Simon,  brother"  of  Juclas.  were  nr>w  the  Iradcm  of  the  re- 
volt, and,  taking  advantage  of  a  disputed  sueee»o«ion  to  the 
Syrian  throne  on  tho  part  of  Drrnetrius  nml  Alexander 
lialafl,  Jonathan   becamo  high  priest  by  Alexander's  ap- 

•  JonephusRnys  Ihnt  .T<)hftnnn'ii  non.  Maniwsi'li.  wniSnnbnllnt'ii 
Ron-tn-law.  tint  tltU  Ih  liliftily  tiniir<ilm)>))>.  Ih-  iiNo  ninkc*  Snn- 
ballat  to  }»•  llvintt  at  Alexander's  Invasion,  IVi  year-*  after  he 
0|)|)ii><ed  Nelirniiiib  ! 


pointment,  and  then  received  for  Jerusalem  extraordinary 
gifts  and  privileges,  including  its  thorough  fortification. 
After  Jonathan's  death  Simon  became  high  priest,  and  cap- 
tured the  citadel  (B.  c.  142).  which  had  held  out  against 
the  Jews  for  more  than  twenty  years.  Tho  citadel  was 
razed  and  its  hill  lowered,  and  a  new  fortress,  the  Baris, 
built  to  command  its  site.  Tho  enterprising  Asmonean 
then  entered  into  alliance  with  the  spreading  power  of 
tho  Romans,  which  bad  already  overwhelmed  Macedonia. 
John  Hyrcauus  succeeded  bis  father  Simon  in  the  high 
priesthood,  and  successfully  resisted  an  elaborate  siege  of 
tho  city  by  Antiocbus  Sidetcs.  who  was  compelled  to  grant 
him  honorable  terms  and  withdraw  his  army.  Hyrcanus 
afterward  accompanied  Antiocbus  in  his  war  with  the  Par- 
thians.  In  b.  c.  107,  Hyrcanus  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Aristobulus,  who  assumed  tho  title  of  king.  Tho 
history  now  becomes  a  series  of  fierce  and  bUiody  strifes. 
Aristobulus  kills  his  brother.  Another  brother.  Alexander 
Jannanis.  who  succeeds  .Aristobulus.  is  a  cruel  tyrant,  and 
reigns  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  engaged  equally  in  fight- 
ing the  Syrians  and  destroying  the  Jews  of  the  Pbarisean 
party.  His  two  sons  quarrel  for  the  throne,  and  this  quar- 
rel brings  Pompoy,  tho  R<unan  general,  into  the  Jewish 
history.  Ho  takes  the  part  of  Hyrcanus  against  Aristobu- 
lus. The  latter  holds  the  temple,  and  Pctinpey  besieges  it, 
capturing  it  at  last  by  assault  and  the  slaughter  of  12.000 
Jews.  The  R()man  victor  made  Hyrcanus  high  priest  (but 
no  longer  was  the  title  <if  king  alhiwed),  destroyed  the  city 
walls,  and  carried  off  Aristobulus  to  Rome.  This  occurred 
in  tho  year  B.  r.  fi3.  Antipater,  an  Idumiean,  became  the 
chief  adviser  of  Hyrcanus.  and  this  crafty  foreigner  made 
such  interest  with  .lulius  Ciesar  that  ho  received  tho  pro- 
curatorsbip  of  Judioa,  while  Hyrcanus  was  allowed  to  as- 
sume tho  title  of  ethnarch.  In  ii.  r.  43,  Antipater  was  mur- 
dered, and  great  disturbances  arose.  Antigonus,  son  of 
Aristobulus  and  nephew  of  Hyrcanus.  came  to  .Jerusa- 
lem with  a  Parthian  force,  and  by  stratagem  brought  the 
Parthians  into  tho  city,  seized  Hyrcanus.  cut  off  his  ears 
that  ho  might  be  no  longer  high  priest,  and  imprisoned 
Pbnsaelns,  Aniipaler's  son.  who  couimitted  suicide  in  bis 
prison.  Herod,  anotlier  son  of  Antipater,  who  hatl  en- 
deavored to  resist  the  attack  of  Antigonus,  escaped,  and 
soon  organized  a  Roman  attack  ujion  the  usurper.  At  this 
time  Herod  married  Mariamne.  Hyrcanus's  granddaughter. 
Herod's  siogo  of  .Jerusalem  lasted  five  months,  when  the  city 
was  stormed  and  a  fearful  slaughter  followed  :  Antigonus 
was  slain.  Herod  now  determined  to  hold  all  power  in 
his  own  hands,  his  marriage  with  Mariatnno  furnishing  a 
slim  claim  to  tho  Asmonean  succession.  He  ])ut  out  of  tho 
way  all  Asmoneans  who  might  be  claimants  of  the  throne, 
his  own  wife  Mariamne  and  her  old  grandtather  falling 
victims  at  length  to  his  cruelty;  he  cultivated  the  friend- 
ship of  tho  Romans,  enlarged  the  Baris  into  the  grand  for- 
tress of  Antoiiia.  construoteil  a  niagnitieent  palace,  built  a 
theatre,  ami  instituted  games  in  hr>nor  of  Civsar.  He  then 
sought  to  win  tho  esteem  of  tho  Jews  themselves  by  build- 
ing a  new  temple,  rivalling  tho  original  edifice  of  Solomon 
in  its  richness  and  grandeur.  For  thirty-two  years  this 
extraordinary  despot,  plausible  and  jiolitic,  though  ro- 
morsclcssly  cruel,  held  firm  sway  over  JudaMi  as  king, 
beautifying  the  city  and  restoring  its  imjxirtance — loved 
by  none,  feared  by  all — maintaining  peace  ami  thrift  in  his 
kingdom,  and  showing  a  boldness  an<l  strength  in  his  ad- 
ministration sebiom  e<|U»llcd.  In  the  year  B.  r.  4  of  tho 
common  reckoning  Herod  died,  a  few  months  after  tho 
Itirth  of  our  Lor<l  in  Hethlehcni.  Ten  years  later  his  son 
and  successor,  Arcbelaus,  was  deposed  and  .Tiidioa  maile  a 
Roman  province.  Pontius  Pilate  was  the  fifth  Roman  pro- 
curator of  the  province,  undrr  whose  administration  our 
liord  was  crucified.  The  Roman  government  of  Judn'awas 
strong,  and  on  tho  whole  peaceful,  for  many  years,  except 
as  the  Jewish  horror  of  Gentile  defilement  of  the  temple 
and  Holy  Tily  produi-t'd  from  time  to  time  collisions  be- 
tween the  citizens  and  soldiers.  These  troubles  were  gen- 
erally end'-d  by  a  prudent  yii-lding  on  the  part  of  the  Ro- 
mans, until  in  A.  n.  41.  Herod  Agrippa.  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  wiib  made  king  of  all  Palestine  by  the  einprri'r 
riaudius.  This  last  Jewish  nn march  I  built  a  strong  wall 
to  enclose  the  suburbt  on  the  N.  of  Jerusalem,  thus  moro 
than  doubling  th«>  size  of  tho  city.  On  bis  death  at  (Vsarea 
(a  visitation  for  bin  blasphemy  1.  Rome  again  made  Judiea 
a  provini-e.  and  a  list  of  reckless  procurators  f(dlow<'d  till 
the  final  tall  uf  the  Holy  City.  Cumanus.  Felix,  Albinns, 
and  FloruH  were  eont«picuous  for  their  utter  disregard  of 
Jewish  customs  and  prejudices.  Indignant  outbursts,  de- 
veloping into  riots  and  insurrections,  occurred  constantly, 
the  nation  meanwhile  becoming  thoroughly  demoralized, 

+  m«  son  Agrippa.  although  made  king  of  Chalels  and  the 
O'  rlhern  tetrnrcbles.  nod  thouirh  exercfMlnir  Influenee  in  Jeru- 
Halom,  seems  never  to  have  used  royal  power  In  Judica. 


139G 


JKRUSALEM. 


uutilrin  the  year  6G.  Cestius  Gallus,  the  prefect  of  Syria, 
was  obliged  to  interfere  and  attempt,  with  the  aid  of  the 
high  priest  and  a  peace  party,  to  juit  dowu  the  insurj^euts. 
Gallus  was  severely  beateu,  and  Home  now  began  tlie  war 
in  earnest.  First,  \'espasiau,  and  afterwards  his  son 
Titus  (both  becoming  emperors  at  length),  conducted  the 
war.  The  terrible  dissensions  among  the  Jews,  the  un- 
speakable sufferings  of  the  besieged,  the  agony  of  the  na- 
tion shut  up  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  the  destruction 
of  more  than  1,000,000  Jews  (including  all  the  sick  and 
old),  the  enslaving  of  all  the  j-outh.  the  entire  demolition 
of  the  city,  so  as  to  leave  no  sign  of  its  former  occupancy, — 
all  this  forms  one  of  the  gloomiest  pages  in  the  annals  of 
man. 

Fourth  Period  (70  A.  D.  to  this  time). — In  Hadrian's 
reign  (a.  d.  11S-13S)  we  next  hear  of  Judtea  in  an  attempt 
of  formidable  dimensions  to  rebuild  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
and  establi^^h  the  Jewish  polity.  Of  this  attempt  liar 
Cuchba  was  the  enterprising  leader,  who  for  three  years 
kept  the  power  of  Rome  at  bay,  until  the  insurrection  was 
entirely  quenched  in  the  blood  of  hundreds  of  thousands. 
Hadrian's  exasperation  at  this  event  made  him  first  raze 
everything  he  eould  find  on  the  site  of  Jerusalem,  and  then 
build  a  new  city  on  the  spot,  which  he  peopled  with  Ro- 
mans and  called  /Elia  Capitolina.  On  the  old  temple  site 
he  erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter  CapitoUnus,  and  placed  his 
own  statue  on  the  site  of  the  holy  of  holies.  Ko  Jew  was 
allowed  to  enter  the  new  city,  and  this  prohibition  con- 
tinued in  effect  till  the  empire  became  Christian,  when  per- 
mission was  given  them  to  weep  by  the  W.  tempk'-wall 
(where  probably,  in  spite  of  the  frequent  and  wholesale  de- 
structions, some  few  stones  occupied  their  old  place) — a  cus- 
tom continued  until  this  very  day.  Constantiue  restored 
the  old  name.  Jtrmahm,  although  the  liadrianic  name  of 
MWn  is  found  in  use  for  centuries  afterward.  His  mother, 
Helena,  devoted  herself  to  recovering  the  lost  sites  of  Chris- 
tian importance  in  Jerusalem  and  elsewhere  in  the  Holy 
Land,  and  erected  costly  churches  on  these  supposed  sites. 


I  Julian  (a.  d.  36>'i)  attempted  to  rebuild  the  Jewish  templo 
and  restore  the  Jewish  worship   as  a  part  of  his  design 
'  against  Christianity,  but  the  work  was  hindered  and  stop- 
jtcd  by  subterraneous  fires  breaking  out  among  the  work- 
j  men,  as  Ammiauus,  an  unprejudiced  witness,  asserts.     For 
the  first  Christian  centuries  of  the  empire  Jerusalem  occu- 
j  pied  the  position  of  a  venerable  and  sacred  relic,  to  which 
j  pilgrims  constantly   found  th«.-ir   way.      Bishops   presided 
over  the  Church  there,  and   emperors   from   time  to  time 
built  or  repaired  the  holy  edifices.     The  first  disturbance 
of  this  peaceful  condition  was  when  the  Persian  monarch, 
Chosroes  II.,  took  the  city  by  storm  in  614,  destroyed  the 
churches,  and  slew  the  ecclesiastics.     Fourteen  years  aftcr- 
.  ward  the  Greek  emperor  Heraclius,  victorious  over  the  Per- 
I  sians,  restored  the  churches  and  re-established  the  Chris- 
I  tian  dominion  in  Jerusalem.     But  it  was  only  for  a  short 
;  period.     In  GOT,  Oraar  made  Jerusalem  the  first  grand  con- 
I  quest  of  the  rising  Mobammedau  power.     From  that  day 
to  this  Jerusalem  has  been   a  Mohammedan  city,  except 
during  the  brief  interval  in  which  the  crusaders  held  it. 
Ommiades,  Abbassides,  and  Fatimites  took  their  turns  in 
ruling  it  from  Damascu?,  Bagdad,  and  Cairo  as  their  cap- 
itals; Christians  were  more  or  less  persecuted  from  time  to 
time,  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  repeatedly 
destroyed  and  rebuilt ;  but  Christian  pilgrims  continued  to 
visit  the  Holy  City,  paying  tribute  to  the  Moslem  rulers 
for  the  privilege.     In  1090,  after  a  Turkish  tribe  had  had 
a  brief  possession  of  the  city,  and  had  shown  unusual  se- 
verity to  the  Christians,  but  had  now  been  supplanted  by 
the  Egyptian  khalif,  the  crusaders  appeared  before  Jeru- 
salem.    In  six  weeks  the  city  was  in  their  hands  and  God- 
frey of  Bouillon  elected  its  king.     It  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  Christians  till  Salah-ed-din  (Saladin),  the  sultan  of 
Egypt,  reconquered  it  in  1187.     Thrice  afterward  the  city 
was  for  a  short  time  in  Christian  hands.     In  1617  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Selim,  the  Turkish  conqueror  of  Egypt, 
and  remains  in  possession  of  his  successor,  the  sultan,  to 
this  dav. 


III.  Toi'uiinAi'HY. — From  thchistory  of  Jerusalem,  brietly 
given  above,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  its  internal  topog- 
raphy cannot  be  very  accurately  determined.  Especially 
were  the  demolitions  by  Titus  and  Hadrian  so  complete 
that  all  traces  of  detail,  even  in  the  general  surface  of  the 
ground,  must  be  well  nigh  impossible.  Hills  were  lowered 
and  valleys  filled  up.  ancl  buildings  reared  upon  ruins  and 
of  material  afiurded  by  other  ruins.  This,  with  the  ordinary 
changes  and  decays  of  iiOOO  years,  must  make  the  internal 
topography  of  the  city  a  puzzling  problem.  With  the  outer 
topograjihy  of  the  city  the  conditions  are  different.  The 
eastern,  southern,  and  western  limits  are  accurately  defined 
by  the  deep  ravines  of  the  Kedr4in  and  the  Bene-Hinnom, 
and  beyond  these  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  Hill  of  Evil 
Council,  and  the  western  heights  remain  as  David  must 
have  seen  them,  so  far  as  their  natural  features  go.  On  the 
X.  there  are  no  such  marked  topographical  features.  From 
Scopus  the  descent  to  the  city  is  gradual,  and  it  was  in  this 


direction  that  the  suburb  existed  which  Herod  Agrippa  en- 
closed with  a  wall.  The  modern  city  walls,  built  only  ilOO 
years  ago  by  Suleiman  (Sol^vman  the  Magnificent),  prob- 
ably enclose  the  area  of  the  ancient  city  of  David's  day, 
with  the  exception  of  the  southern  jiortion  of  Zum  and 
Ophel.  which  arc  now  without  the  walls.  The  positions  of 
Zion  and  Moriah  (of  which  latter  Ophel  is  the  southern  ex- 
tension) seem  to  be  thoroughly  determined.  Mr.  Fergus- 
son's  startling  and  ingenious  theory  that  the  ancient  Zion 
was  the  temple  hill,  where  the  temple,  the  city  of  David, 
liaris,  Aera,  and  Antonia  stood,  has  too  much  to  contend 
with  it  in  uniform  tradition,  in  spite  of  the  few  problems 
that  this  theory  solves.*     Joscphus tells  us  {Ant.,  13.  6.  7) 

*  The  name  Zion  carae  in  use  as  the  sacred  name  of  Jerusalem 
in  David's  day,  when  tlv  ark  was  und<T  a  lent  on  Mount  Zion, 
making  it  the  "holy  hill,"  before  Moriah  received  the  temple 
and  the  title. 


JERUSALEM. 


l:!i)7 


that  Simon  the  Asmoncan  destroyed  the  citadel  {-ntv  uKpav) 
to  (ho  fuuudutiou.  and  then  lowered  the  hill  on  which  it  liad 
stood,  so  that  the  ti>in|>U>  could  be  higher  th:in  it  ;  niut  this 
work,  he  tells  u,-'.  occupied  three  years.  As  the  hill  gener- 
ally known  as  Zion  is  nigher  than  the  temple  liill.  this  fact 
recorded  by  Joscjihus  doe.-'  nnt  prove  thattbo  modern  Zion 
is  not  the  ancient  Zion.  but  that  Iho  axpa  of  Simon  was  not 
upon  Zion.  The  citadel,  and  indeed  the  main  city,  when 
David  conquercfl  Jerusalem,  was  certainly  the  modern 
Zion.  In  later  days  a  new  citadel  was  formed  on  the  north- 
ern hill  or  lower  city  f.Aora),  then  much  higher  than  now, 
which  was  afterwards  superseded  (when  Simon  had  reduced 
its  hill)  by  the  Barip,  f>nd  afterwards  Antonia,  nearer  to 
the  temple.  Josephus  calls  the  new  part  of  the  city  enclosed 
by  A:;jrippa's  wall  "  Hezelha"  r<Vi  x«piw«  5-^  rKKrjSrf  Bc^t fli  rb 
vtoKTiiTTov  fitpiK),  and  yet  speak?  of  it  as  aA6<,!)0T  (crest).  As 
a  Ao^o?  we  should  suppose  the  bill  N.  of  tho  temple  bill  was 
intended — a  bill  which  is  liigh  and  well  defined  ;  but  from 
tho  other  words  of  Josephus,  and  the  meaning  of  tho  word 
Bezetha  (now  town),  we  should  suppose  all  that  was  en- 
circled by  Agrippa's  wall  from  Hippicus  to  tho  ICedron  ^Ya9 
meant.  Probably  tho  name  Bezctha  wa*?  given  to  the  whole, 
and  the  hill,  as  being  contained  within  it,  was  also  known 
by  (he  name. 

Such  is  our  best  arrangement  of  tho  general  divisions  of 
tho  city.  Let  us  now  follow  the  ancient  walls.  Wo  may 
suppose  that  Xebeiniah,  iu  restoring  tho  walls,  followed  tho 
old  foundations  and  rowalled  the  same  area  which  consti- 
tuted the  city  in  David's  day.  In  tho  rebuilding,  as  re- 
corded by  Xchemiah  (chap,  iii.),  Kliasliih  tho  high  priest 
is  first  mentioned  as  leading  tho  workers  at  tho  shccp-gate, 
and  at  the  wall  as  far  as  tho  Tower  of  tho  Hundred  (Ha 
Mcah)  and  the  Tower  of  ilananecl.  These  places  wo  must, 
of  course,  find  in  tho  temple  region,  for  there  the  high  priest 
would  be  set.  Moreover,  tho  passage  in  Jeremiah  (xxxi. 
:i8-4M)  seems  to  bo  a  reference  to  the  temple  precincts  rather 
than  to  tho  whole  city,  and  tho  Tower  of  llananeel  is  there 
prominent.  The  description  in  Nohcraiah  f«»llows  the  wall 
from  tho  centre  of  th^  E.  side  of  tho  city,  northward.  The 
sheep-gate  must  have  been  in  the  centre  of  the  teiiiplc-pro- 
einct  wall,  and  perhaps  derived  its  name  from  tho  sheep 
brought  in  by  that  gate  for  sacrifice.  If  the  irpo^aTi<»7  of 
John  V.  2  be  the  sheep-gate,  and  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  bo 
the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  with  its  intermittent  flow,  then 
wo  should  sup(iuao  tho  ^heep-gate  to  ho  farther  S.,  but  tho 
po<d  of  Bethes  la  may  have  boon  within  tho  temple-precinct, 
and  the  present  Fountain  of  (ho  Virgin  may  receive  to-day 
the  intertnittent  effects  which  in  former  times  showed  them- 
selves in  another  pool,  now  filled  up.  Wo  are  inclined  to 
think  that  this  "  sheep-gate"  is  the  same  as  theMishnehor 
"second  (gate)"  of  Zeph.  i.  10  and  the  "college"  of  2 
Kings  xxii.  14,  whoro  the  prophetess  lluldah  lived.  In  this 
case  the  *'  fish-gate  "  wouUI  be  Iho  first  gate  (see  Zeph,  I.  c), 
ami  would  repreHont  the  N.  E.  corner  of  tho  city,  opposite 
the  Mount  of  Olives.  Between  tho  *Mish-gato  "  and  the 
''sheep-gate"  would  stand  the  Tower  of  llananeel  and  tho 
Tower  of  .Meah  (or  the  II  ii  ml  red  i.  The  "  old  gate  "  would 
he  found  next,  as  we  follow  the  N.  wall  north-westward. 
The  course  would  be  along  tlio  "  second  wall  "  of  Josophus, 
for  the  first  or  old  wall  seems  to  have  been  the  northern 
fortification  of  Zion.  The  "  old  gato  "  may  bo  really  the 
"  .leshanah  gate"  (by  leaving  the  adjentivo  untranslated), 
and  may  bo  tho  gate  leading  to  .Ti-shanah  (2  ('hron.  xiii. 
lit,  and  Joseph.  Ant.,  U.  !;>.  12),  a  town  near  Bethel.  Tho 
"  gate  of  Ephraim  "  comes  next  in  Nehomiah  (not  in  his 
account  of  the  building,  but  in  his  record  of  tho  dedication 
xii.  311),  and  may  have  oocupied  the  site  of  tho  present 
Damascus  gate.  Then  follows  "  the  broad  wall  "  (somo 
local  peculiarities  of  (he  wall,  perhaps  for  defence'  9akc), 
and  then  we  reai^h  tho  "  tower  of  the  furnaces,"  which  may 
have  stood  over  (he  western  valley  as  tho  towers  of  Ha- 
naneel  and  the  Hundred  overlooked  tho  eastern.  The 
"  valley-gate  "  would  correspond  with  tho  present  Jaffa 
gale.  Near  this  was  the  dragon-well  (Nch.  ii.  I:)).  Tho 
**  dung-gate"  (if  our  snppr»si(ions  above  are  correct)  would 
he  a  thousanrl  cubitn  .'^.  of  the  ,Tiifra  gate  (Neb.  iii.  l.T)  ;  that 
is,  on  the  south-western  part  of  Zion  over  against  tho  Bir- 
ket-cs  Sultan.  The  "  fountain-gate  "  would  lie  on  tho  op- 
posite siile  of  Zion,  facing  the  Pool  of  .^iloam.  Tho  "stairs 
(hat  go  down  from  tho  city  of  Oavid  "  would  bo  found  be- 
tween the  fountnin-gttto  and  ibe.*^.  W.  temple-corner.  They 
were  probably  an  ascent  from  the  king's  cardenH  to  tho 
Davidian  palace  on  Zion.  The  "  sepulchres  of  David."  tho 
*'  uuhIc  pool  "  ("  king's  pool  "in  Xeb.  ii.  14),  and  (he  "  house 
of  tho  mighty  "  were  probably  at  the  corner  of  Zion  over 
against  the  S.  W.  temple-corner,  where  the  wall  crossed  Iho 
TyropiTon.  The  •*  armory  "  is  in  this  neighlmrhood,  at  tho 
very  corner  where  the  wall  turns  abru[ftty  southward  to  en- 
cirolo  Opliel,  The  "house  of  tho  high  priest*'  an'l  tho 
"house  of  Azariah  "  are  near  (his.  Al^er  turning  the  ox- 
trerae  corner  of  (Iphel  south\Tard  wo  reach"  tho  tower  which 


lioth  out  from  tho  king's  high  house,"  which  may  bo  the 
extra  tower  discovered  by  Capt.  Warren's  subterranean  ex- 
j)loratiou3  {/icrot-crt/  of  JcruHnlemy  p.  229),  as  ho  himself 
suggests.  It  nmy  have  been  built  out  in  order  to  guard  the 
"  Fountain  of  tho  Virgin."  Tho  "  water-gate  "  would  be  so 
called  in  relation  to  this  fountain.  By  this  water-gate  on 
Ophel  was  a  broad  street  or  square  where  assemblies  couhl 
be  held  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  templo  (Neh.  viii. 
I,  3,  Ifi).  Near  by  was  tho  "horse-gate."  famous  as  the 
spot  where  Athaliah  was  put  to  death.  This  gate  was  prob- 
ably at  this  division  between  tho  Solomonian  palace  (S.  E. 
of  the  temple)  and  the  precinct  of  the  temple  itself.  Tho 
gate  "  Miphkad"  may  mark  some  angle  of  the  walls  con- 
nected with  tho  division,  as  a  special  corner  is  hero  men- 
tioned (iii.  .12)  before  wc  reach  the  slieep-gatc  again. 

This  view  of  tho  walls  of  Nehemiah's  time  will  help  us 
in  our  survey  of  the  city  in  our  Lord's  day.  Between 
those  periods  there  had  been  much  demolition  and  rebuild- 
ing in  tho  city,  as  a  glance  at  the  brief  history  above  will 
indicate,  but  wo  may  believe  that  until  the  destruction  of 
tho  city  by  Titus  tha  general  outline  of  the  fortifications 
was  the  same.  It  will  be  seen  by  our  sketch  of  the  walls, 
as  described  by  Nehemiab,  that  we  find  no  difficulty  in 
liaving  tho  "  stairs  from  the  city  of  David  "  and  "  the  sep- 
ulchres of  David"  mentioned  after  "Siloani;"  an  order 
which  Mr.  Fergusson  thinks  quite  stag*!;ering  to  the  old 
hypothesis  of  Zion  and  tho  city  of  David.  The  diiliculty 
that  Mr,  Fergusson  finds  with  the  places  enumerated  in 
the  last  sixteen  verses  of  the  third  ehai»ter  of  Nchcniiah 
arises  from  his  ovcrlnokin;r  tho  wall  around  Ophel.  His 
own  explanation,  that  tho  fir.st  sixteen  verses  retVr  to  tlie 
city  of  Jerusalem,  and  tho  last  sixteen  to  the  city  of  David 
(his  Zion  or  the  temple-mount),  is  by  no  means  natural. 

The  late  researches  of  Tapt.  Wilson  and  ('apt.  Warren 
have  thrown  much  light  upon  tho  question  of  tlie  original 
temple-area.  Tho  discovery  by  tiic  latter  oflicer  of  im- 
mense stones  in  situ  at  tho  base  of  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the 
])resent  Harani  wall,  lying  in  tho  rocky  foundation  scarped 
to  receive  them,  80  feet  below  the  present  surface,  and 
marked  with  the  Phcenician  ((uarry -marks  in  paint,  de- 
stroys Mr.  Forgusson's  theory  that  the  temple-are.a  ex- 
tended from  the  present  S.  W.  corner  of  the  Haram  but 
(JOO  feet  E..  this  S.  E.  corner  being  llflO  feet  E.  The  vaults 
under  this  south-eastern  portion  of  the  area  seemed  to  him 
too  slight  to  have  supported  the  stoa,  and  Josopbus's  as- 
sertion that  tho  temple-urea  was  only  a  stade  square,  and 
thirdly  tho  apparently  unchanged  position  of  tho  stones  at 
the  south-western  corner,  confirmed  his  view.  But  Capts. 
Wilson  and  Warren  have  proved  that  the  south-eastern 
corner  is  unehanged,  while  the  south-western  has  undoubt- 
edly been  added,  as  the  real  bed  uf  the  Tyropn^on  valley 
lies  nearly  100  feet  E.  of  the  8.  W.  corner  ami  uniler  tho 
Harani,  whilo  a  new  bed  for  that  valley  has  been  cut  out 
of  the  rock,  to  prevent  the  moisture  passing  under  the 
temple-area.  This  doubtless  was  the  new  portion  enclosed 
by  Herod.  (Jos.  /?.  J.,  i.  21.  1.)  About  GOO  feet  N.  of  (ho 
S.  W.  corner  is  Wilson's  arch,  the  beginning  of  the  cause- 
way across  the  Tyropwim,  and  for  twenty-three  feet  S.  of 
this  Tapt.  Warren  found  the  old  Haram  wall  in  situ.  Tho 
inference  from  these  discoveries  is  that  (ho  S.  W.  angle  of 
the  Haram  wall  was  built  by  Herod  in  bis  reconstruction 
of  the  temple.  The  temple  of  Solomon,  therefore,  in  nil 
probability,  occupied  the  site  of  the  mosque  uf  <linar  (Kub- 
bet-cs-Sukhrah).  while  the  palace  of  Solomon  occupied  the 
south-eastern  portion  of  tho  Haram,  from  which  was  com- 
munication by  road  and  bridge  ( Robinson's  arch,  or  rather 
beneath  Robinson's  arch,  the  valley  having  been  filleil  uji 
with  rubbish  twenty  feet  deep  before  the  new  jiavcment  and 
Robinson's  arch  were  constructed  by  Herod)  to  (he  lower 
city  on  the  plateau  below  ond  E.  of  tho  upper  city.  The 
causcwav  over  Wilson's  arch  was  of  a  later  date,  but  iloubt- 
less  markeil  the  old  an«l  direct  coiumunicatii'n  between 
temple  and  city.  Herod's  Stoa  Basilica  ran  along  the 
southern  wall,  but  whether  it  extended  to  tho  S.  E.  corner 
of  the  Haram  is  uncertain.  Perhaps  Fergusson's  argu- 
ment is  correct  theic.  antl  the  vaults  beneath  could  not  have 
supjjorted  it  at  (hat  corner.  However,  as  ('apt.  \\'aneii 
shows,  all  the  vaults  known  as  Solomon's  stables  at  the  .'^.  E. 
of  the  Haram  are  of  moclern  construction,  and  there  may 
have  been  in  Herod's  day  a  substruction  quite  sufficient  for 
the  support  of  Herod's  stoa,  so  that  the  "pinnacle" 
(irrtpvyiot)  of  the  temple  may  have  been  exai'tly  at  the  S, 
E.  corner  overhanging  the  Kedrnn.  Beneath  tho  present 
Haram  surfaeo  are  tanks  and  subterranean  passages  and 
I  aqueducts  in  great  numbers  (see  ffrrorenf  of  Jrruitaffn}, 
I  ch.  vii,,  and  accompanying  plan  from  Wilson  and  Warren), 
which  at  least  seem  to  prove  that  the  present  areii  very 
largely  coincided  with   tho  oM   temple-area;'    but  a  eom- 

•The  fortress  of  BarU,  afterward  enlarged  to  Aulonia.  stood 
probalily  In  the  north-western  iwition  uf  tho  liarain,  oeeup\dnjf 
perhap!*  about  fjOO  feet  square. 


139» 


JERUSALEM. 


plele  survey  when  Moslem  fanaticism  shall  no  longer  be  a 
hindrance  will  be  necessary  for  any  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment of  details. 

The  next  point  of  special    interest  in  the   topography 
of  Jerusalem  is  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and   Cal- 
vary.    The  commonly  received    site   lies    about  400   feet 
N.  of  a  Hue  running  from  the  Jaffa  gate  to  the  mosque 
of  Omar  ( Kubbet-es-Sukhrah  or  "Dome  of  the  Rock"), 
and  about  SOO  feet  W.  of  the  street  leading  N.  to  the  Damas- 
cus gate.     That  this  site  is  the  same  selected  by  the  em- 
press Helena,  although  the  edifices  on  the  site  have  been 
many,  is  pretty  clear,  but  whether    Helena   selected  the 
true" site  three  centuries  after  the  crucifixion,  and    after 
Jerusalem  had  been   so  completely   reduced  to  chaos   by 
Tilus,  and  then   by  Hadrian,  is  by  no   means    so   clear. 
The  chief  objection  is,  that  the  site  must  have  been  withm 
the  walls  of  the  city  in  our  Lord's  d.ay.     The  controversy 
here  depends  greatly  on  fixing  the  position  of  the  gate 
ticnuath  in  the  first  wall  (which  ran  from  the  neighl)or- 
hood  of  the  Jaffa  gate  to  the  \V.  wall  of  the  temple),  from 
which  gate  the  second  wall  (the  main  city  wall)  took  its 
course  northward.     Now,  the  old  arch  near  the  S.  end  of 
the  bazaars,  which  has  been  called  the  gate  (ienuath,  is 
proved  to  be  a  comparatively  recent  structure,  and   the 
ruins  near  the  present  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which 
have  been  called  fragments  of  the  second  wall,  are  proved 
to  be  portions  of  a  church.  (See  Recovery  of  Jcrmalem,  pp. 
9.  213.)     If  the  Kasr  Jalnd,  which  stands  on  the  highest 
point  of  the  city,  and  is  built  of  huge  bevelled  stones,  like 
those  of  the  foundations  of  the  temple,  be  the  ancient  Hip- 
picus,  then  the  present  site  of  the  Holy  .Sepalchre  is  alto- 
gether wrongly  fixed.     But  the   Kasr  Jalud  may  he  Pse- 
phinus  in  the  Agrippa  wall,  built  after  our  Lord's  day  to 
include  the  northern  suburbs.     Another  argument  against  , 
the  common  theory  is  the  necessity  of  extending  the  area 
of  the  city  as  much  as  possible  to  give  it  the  size  of  so   ; 
renowned  a  capital.    Even  by  putting  the  Kasr  Jalud  in  the  i 
original  wall,  we  can  only  make  the  city  to  include  about 
200°  acres.     Its  circumference  would  be  only  2i  miles,  and  I 
the  population  of  ft  city  of  this  size  could  not  have  been 
more  than  25,000.  (Ferguason.)    The  great  suburb  included 
in  Agrippa's  wall  was  twice  the  area  of  the  old  city,  and 
if  we  crowd  that  as  much  as  the  old  city,  we  shall  have 
only  75,000  for  the  population  of  Jerusalem  at  its  destruc- 
tion by  Titus.     These  numbers  are  extreme  numbers,  and 
we  should  probably  reduce  them  largely  to  reach  the  truth. 
They  certainly  form  a  strong  argument  against  still  further 
contracting  the  "  second  watl  "  and  putting  the  present  site 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  outside  of  the  city.     And  yet  the 


Xrlyai 


Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  Kiui?  Herod.    (Sketch  showiuu  approx- 
imately the  lie  of  rock,  l     1,  Temple  of  Solomon  ;  2,  Palace  of 
Solomon  ;  :l,  Added  on  by  Herod;  4,  Exhedra  (the  tower  Bans 
or  Antooia);  5,  Antonla  (the  Caslle);  6,  Tlolsters  joininR  An- 
tonia  to  Temple  ;  7,  Xyslus;  8,  Agrippa's  Palace;  9,  Zion  and 
Acra;   10,  Lower  Pool  of  Ciihon.  or  .^mycdalon;   11,  Herod's 
Palace;  12,  Bethesda,or  .'^truthion  ;  13,  BridKC  built  by  Herod  ; 
14,  t he  lyower  City,  called  sometimes  Akre ;  15,  British  cemetery, 
a.'d.  1870. 
arcuments  are  far  from  conclusive.     If  we  knew  where  the 
gate  Genuath  was,  all  would  ho  known.     If  the  present 
site  is  erroneously  fixed,  where  are  we  to  find  the  true  site? 


An  ingenious  but  not  convincing  argument  has  been  put 
forth  by  the  late  Mr.  Fisher  Howe  of  Brooklyn  in  favor  of 
the  remarkable  hillock  over  the  grotto  of  Jeremiah,  N.  E.  of 
the  Damascus  gate.  The  probabilities  seem  to  point  to  sonic 
location  on  the  ledge  overhanging  the  Kedron,  outside  the 
St.  Stepheu's  gate,  for  this  has  always  been  a  place  of 
graves,  is  close  to  the  city  walls,  and  is  near  to  the  pra>to- 
rium  of  Pilate,  which  was  in  the  fortress  of  Antonia  at  the 
N.  of  the  temple.  We  have  to  leave  the  discussion  in  this 
state  of  incertitude. 

The  other  points  of  topographical  interest  are  Zion,  the 
Tyropoeou,  the  towers,  and  the  pools.     Zion  (i  ivm  ir6A«  of 
Josephus)  is  the  high  broad  hill  which  lifts  itself  by  an 
abrupt  front  400  feet  above  the  southern  valley,  its  plateau 
extending  from  this  brow  2400  feet  to  the  Jaffa  gate  road, 
where  a  valley  ran  eastward  from  the  gate  to  the  Tyropoeon. 
Along  this  northern  brow  the  ■'  first  wall  "  was  built.     The 
width  of  this  plateau  at   its  broadest   is  about  1600  feet 
from  the  western  valley  to  the  Tyropoi'on.     This  height 
embraced  nearly  one-half  of  the  ancient  city.     On  the  E. 
of  it,  beyond  the  Tyropoeon,  was  the  temple  mount,  100 
feet  lower,  and  on  the  X.  was  the  part  of  the  city  called 
Acra,  which  (some  think)  extended  to  the  N.  W.  as  far  as 
the  present  Kasr  Jalud.  where  the  ground  rises  to  a  height 
of  73  feet  above  the  top  of  Zion.     Although,  in  that  case, 
this  one  point  of  Acra  was  higher  than  any  other  point  in 
the  city,  yet  the  main  portion  of  Acra  was  lower  than  either 
Zion  or  the  temple  mount  (after  Simon   had   reduced   its 
height),  and  was  the  "lower  city"  of  ancient  times;  this 
latter  appellation  also  including  the  valley  of  the  Tyro- 
pcKon.      Zion   was  the  seat  of   the  citadel  which  David 
stormed,  and  its  broad,  elevated  summit  beeame  the  "city 
of  David."     Here  were  the  royal  palaces   and  tombs  of 
David's  line,  connected  by  a  bridge  with  the  Solomonian 
palace  (1  Kings  vii.  1)  and'the  temple  on  Moriah.    Here  also 
Herod  built  his  palace,  including  the  magnificent  buildings 
called  in  honor  of  his  friends  Ca-sar  and  Agrippa.     On  its 
north-eastern  corner  was  the  Xystus,  or  gynuiasium,  con- 
nected with  the  temple  by  another  bridge,  probably  where 
Wilson's  arch  now  is.  the  southern  bridge  being  now  mark- 
ed by  Robinson's  arch.    The  height  of  Zion  above  the  Mcil- 
iterranean  is  2537  feet.     The  Mount  of  Olives  rises  only 
200  feet  higher. 

The  Tyropoeon  ("  valley  of  the  cheesemongers  )  ran  be- 
tween Zion  and  Moriah  southward  into  (he  Hinnom  valley 
and  the  Kedron  valley  at  their  junction,  the  junction  ol  the 
three  forming  the  rich  soil  of  the  "king's  garden"  (Neh. 
iii.  15:  Joseph.,  Aj,!.,  7. 14.  4).  The  Tyropoeon  continued 
in  two  branches  northward,  one  toward  the  present  Da- 
mascus gate,  and  the  other  toward  the  Jaffa  gate.  The 
latter  seems  to  have  been  the  recognized  continuation  of 
the  Tyropoeon.  The  depth  of  the  valley  increased  rapidly 
as  it  reached  southward,  and  at  the  south-western  corner  of 
the  temple-area  the  bed  of  the  valley  was  UO  feet  below  the 
present  surface. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  objects  in  Jerusalem  is  the 
old  tower  in  the  midst  of  the  citadel  near  the  Jaffa  gate, 
56  feet  6  inches  on  one  face,  and  70  feet  3  inches  on  the 
other.  It  has  been  generally  supposed  to  be  Hippicus 
(Joseph.,  B.  J.,  5.  4.  3).  Whichever  one  of  the  Herodian 
towers  this  was.  its  style  of  building  tempts  us  to  believe 
that  Herod  only  rebuilt  an  ancient  tower,  and  that  we  may 
have  here  "the  tower  of  David  builded  for  an  armory" 
(Cant.  iv.  4).  If  this  be  Hippicus,  we  may  suppose  Pha- 
saelus  and  Mariamne  lay  to  the  E.,  and  that  the  Kasr  Jalud, 
1200  feet  to  the  N.,  is  Psephiuus. 

The  pools  (so  called)  in  and  by  Jerusalem  which  now 
attract  attention  arc  Birkct  Mamilla,  liirket  Sultan,  the 
Pool  of  Siloam,  and  the  Fountain  of  the  A  irgin  without 
the  walls,  and  Birkct  Israil  (or  Esi^erain )  and  the  Pool 
of  Hezckiah  within  the  walls.  The  Birket  Mamilla  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  "upper  pool"  (Isa.  vii.  3;  2  Kings  xviii. 
17).  It  lies  2000  feet  W.  of  the  Jaffa  gate.  The  Birket 
Sultan  is  a  section  of  the  great  western  valley  dammed  up 
for  more  than  600  feet.  The  Pool  of  Siloam  (Nch.  m.  15; 
John  ix.  7)  is  in  the  mouth  of  the  Tyropa-on  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Hinnom  and  Kedron.  It  was  probably  used 
to  irrigate  the  "  king's  garden."  It  is  connected  by  a  long, 
rude,  and  crooked  subterranean  passage  with  the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  on  the  other  side  of  Ophel,  from  which  the 
water  flows  "softly"  (Isa.  viii.  C).  This  subterraneous 
aqueduct  is  connected  with  extensive  rock-hewn  caverns, 
which  were  doubtless  part  of  the  fortifications  of  Ophel. 
(See  the  deeply  interesting  account  of  their  discovery  hy 
Capt.  Warren  in  his  litcurery  of  J,r,unhm,  pp.  iyo-lJ>. ) 
The  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  is  a  pool  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Ophel  rock,  to  which  is  a  descent  of  twenty-eight 
steps  The  pool  is  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
without,  and  is  excavated  deeply  within  the  rocky  wall. 
The  water  comes  into  it  from  the  direction  of  the  temple, 
but  has  never  been  traced.     It  has  a  periodic  and  sudden 


JERUSALEM— JESSE. 


13i)9 


rise  of  a  foot  in  height,  the  periods  varying  from  two  or 
three  times  a  day  to  once  in  two  or  three  days.  This  pe- 
riodic troubliug  of  the  water  seems  to  mark  the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  us  the  Pool  of  Ucthosda^  unices  we  may  the 
rather  suppose  u  jiool  further  up  on  the  tompio  mount 
formerly  re^Tivcd  this  intermittent  flow.  The  rt<juircments 
of  the  ijheep-gatc  (as  we  have  seen)  ^eem  to  put  Ijetliesda 
forthcr  N.  The  Birkct  li>rai),  just  inside  of  tho  St.  Steph- 
en's gate  and  N.  of  the  Haram  (supposed  hy  Dr.  Hobinson 
to  he  the  trench  of  Antonia),  is  the  damming  up  of  the  val- 
ley that  runs  E.  of  Uczetha  in  a  south-eastern  direction, 
originally  under  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  llaram^ 
into  the  Kedron.  It  is  '.\CtO  feet  long,  l.'JO  feet  broad,  and 
7 J  feet  deep.  The  I'ool  of  Uezekiiih  ( Ami/ffda/im  of  Jo- 
sephus)  is  N.  of  the  Jaffa  gate  street  and  to  the  S.  \V.  of 
the  rhurch  of  the  Holy  Sepulrhre.  It  is  supplied  by  an 
aqueduct  from  the  Birket  Mamilla.  It  lies  among  tlu- 
hou^i'S  of  the  Christian  quarter.  It  is  210  feet  long  and 
144  tect  wide.  It  seems  to  be  properly  designated.  (See 
2  Kings  XX.  20;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  'MK)  A  system  of  wells 
and  aqueducts  in  the  Kcdron  ravine  below  Jerusalem  (the 
£u-Rogel  of  antiquity)  presents  features  of  peculiar  inter- 
est. One  of  several  ancient  aqueducts  still  conducts  the 
water  from  Solomon's  Pools  beyond  Bethlehem  to  the  city. 

For  further  details  of  modern  discovery  in  the  topogra- 
phy of  the  city  wo  refer  to  the  reports  of  Capts.  Wilson 
and  AVarren,  which  have  settled  so  many  questions  and  so 
greatly  escitecl  public  interest  and  expectation. 

Jerusalem  is  in  hit.  :i\°  4tJ'  lio"  X.  and  Ion.  3i*=  18'  30" 
E.,  lying  on  the  very  summit  of  the  great  mouutaiu-ridgo 
Trhich  extends  from  the  plain  of  Ksdraelon  to  the  southern 
desert,  the  ridge  itself  being  higher  farther  S.  near  Hebron, 
where  it  reaches  an  elevation  of  .'iOOO  feet  above  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea.  At  Jerusalem  (Mount  of  OUvcs)  the  ele- 
vation is  2700  feet.  The  highest  part  of  the  city  itself  is 
2600  feet  (Kasr  Jalud).  From  the  Mount  of  Olives  the  de- 
scent is  rapid  to  the  Jordan  valley.  In  lU  miles  one  ilescends 
3700  feet.  Westward  the  descent  is  more  gradual  to  the 
plain  along  the  Mediterranean  coast,  about  2J00  feet  in  16 
miles.  Howard  Cnosar. 

Jernsalenif  tp.  of  Yates  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Keuka  or  Crooked 
I/nke.  It  contain?  ."i  churches  and  several  villages.  It  was 
first  settled  by  Jemima  Wilkinson  and  her  followers,  callecl 
Wilkinsonians,  or  Friends,  the  latter  name  being  eni])loycd 
by  tht'm?elves.     The  sect  is  now  extinct.     Pop.  2G12. 

JerU8alenif  post-tp.  of  Davie  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1544, 

Jerusalem,  post-r.  of  Malaga  tp.,  Monroe  co.,  0. 
Pop.  yi. 

Jerusalem,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Southampton  co.,  Va., 
75  miles  S.  S.  K.  of  Kichmond  and  7  miles  from  Newsom's 
D-'^pflt,  on  the  Seaboard  and  Uoanoko  K.  K.  It  is  on  the 
Nottoway  River.      Pop.  of  ip.  2061. 

JerUNalcm  Artichoke,  a  species  of  sunflower  ( /7e/»'- 
nnthmi  tuhrronnH  of  Linnieus,  order  Compos i tie),  which 
bears  subterranean  tubers  of  the  same  nature  us  potatoes. 
The  tubers  got  the  name  of  artichokes  from  a  resemblance 
in  taste  to  the  true  Artichokk  (which  see),  while  the  name 
"Jerusalem"  is  a  curious  English  corruption  of  yiritaoltt, 
Italian  for  "  sunflower."  The  plant  jirobably  reached 
England  by  way  of  Italy  or  Spain.  The  French  name  is 
tttpiunnihniir.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe  ever  since  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  doubtle^j^  carao 
from  America,  the  native  country  of  the  whole  sunflower 
geinn.  It  is  generally  said  to  be  of  Ura/ilian  origin,  but 
there  is  no  historical  evidence  of  it  ;  it  is  not  known  to 
occur  either  there  or  in  any  part  of  South  .America,  and  it 
has  all  the  characters  of  a  plant  of  a  warm  temperate 
climate.  Moreover,  it  is  so  much  like  a  species  of  ^lunflower 
{H.iloromcniilm)  indigenous  to  the  V;illey  of  the  .Mississippi, 
which  bears  long  and  narrow  tubers,  that  it  may  well  bo 
regarded  as  a  probable  variety  of  this  species,  altered  and 
fixed  by  cultivation.  The  tubers,  boiled  or  slewed,  are  of 
delicate  flavor  and  ore  much  esteemed  in  Europe.  In  the 
r.  S.  they  are  more  commonly  pickled  or  used  as  food  for 
swine.  \.  Ohay. 

JerUHali'in  Chrrry,  the  jxqtular  name  of  twoepecies 
of  Sofftiiiiin  .'ultivuteil  as  ornamental  house-plants  {pHPutln- 
ciipnicnm  and  ('iifmirtiHtrum),  first  introduced  into  England 
from  the  island  of  Madeira  about  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  may  be  propagated  either  from  seeds  or  cut- 
tings, grows  only  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  bears  berries 
about  the  sl/.c  of  cherries.  It  is  uncertain  how  it  came  by 
the  name  Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem  Plantation,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Mo. 
Pop.  :J2. 

Jer'vis  (Sir  John),  b.  at  Meaford,  England.  Jan.  9,  17.'M  ; 
entered  the  niivy  at  ten  years  of  ago :  became  ))ost-eaptain 
in  Kno.  renr-adiiiiriil   in  17^7,  an<t  admiral  of  the  blue  in 

17'.1').      11"  dislinguislif'd   bitiiself  in  several  niival  engngi'- 


ments,  chief  among  which  was  the  celebrated  action  in 
which  he  defeated  a  Spanish  squadron  of  twice  his  strength 
(Feb.  14,  1797)  off  Cape  St.  \  incent,  in  reward  of  which 
Jervis  was  created  earl  of  St.  Vincent  and  received  a  pen- 
sion of  £.'{000.  Ho  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  1801- 
04,  and  d.  Mar.  15,  1823. 

Jer'vois  (Col.  Sir  AVii.liam  F.  D.),  R.  E..  K.  C.  M.  G.. 
b.  in  IS21  ;  educated  at  the  Koyal  Military  Academy  at 
W'oohvich.  After  receiving  his  commission  in  the  royal 
engineers  in  1839,  ho  served  in  Africa  (lSH-48),  in  the 
Kaffer  war  (184(1—17),  receiving  from  Sir  Harry  Smith, 
governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  South  Africa,  his 
commendation  as  **ono  of  tlie  most  able,  energetic,  and 
2eal<)us  officers  lie  had  ever  exacted  more  than  his  share  of 
duty  from."  Made  captain  in  1S47,  he  received  the  brevet 
of  mnjor  in  1S54;  in  1S56  ho  was  appointed  assistant  in- 
spector-general of  fortifications,  and  subsequently  deputy 
director  of  fortifications.  In  this  capacity  lie  jirepared  in 
IS58,  by  direction  t)f  the  secretary  of  state  for  war,  a  me- 
moir relating  to  the  general  defence  of  the  country,  in 
which  a  system  of  fortifications  for  the  security  of  the  vital 
points  was  proposed  in  detail,  and  a  plan  for  the  defence 
of  London  was  suggested.  Tho  commission  appointccl  in 
1859,  of  which  Mnj.  Jervois  was  secretary,  adopted  tho 
arguments  nnd  principles  contained  in  tho  memorandum 
submitted  by  him  to  tho  secretary  of  state  for  war  in  the 
previous  year.  The  report  of  the  royal  eommissitm  re- 
ferred to,  and  approved  by.  tho  permanent  defence  com- 
mittee, has  since  been  carriccl  into  effect.  This  report,  tho 
first  formulated  expression  in  England  of  principles  gov- 
erning 8/-(t-ri>nst  il'/<ncc,  is  not  only  in  its  governing  prin- 
ciples and  details  of  application,  but  in  the  arguments  by 
which  they  are  sustained,  in  striking  harmony  with  the  re- 
ports of  our  own  board  of  engineers  which  inaugurated 
our  system  of  defence  against  maritime  invasion.  The 
English  discussion  was,  liowever,  coeval  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  rifled  ordnance,  tho  application  of  iron  for  defen- 
sive purposes  both  in  ships  and  fortifications,  and  the  sub- 
sequent advance  in  size  and  power  of  ortillcry.  The  event- 
ful combat  between  the  Monitor  ami  Merrimack  in  Hamp- 
ton Uoa<Is,  Mar.  8,  18(12,  shook  tho  public  confidence  in 
England,  and  the  royal  commission  was  renssembled  to  re- 
port on  the  defences  of  Spithead,  to  which  Parliament  had 
made  heavy  grants  of  money;  and  a  special  committee  on 
the  same  subject,  of  which  Muj.  Jervois  was  also  secre- 
tary, reported  in  18(54.  The  result  of  these  reports  was  the 
adhesion  of  tho  Itritisli  government  to  the  principles  con- 
taineil  in  the  first  report.  Promoted  to  be  lieutenant-col- 
onel in  1862,  he  became  a  full  colonel  in  lst)7.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  special  committee  on  tho  application  of  iron  to 
defensive  purposes  ( I8()I-C4 ),  be  has  taken  a  prominent 
part  in  these  important  questions,  and  has  been  active  in 
designing  and  superintending  the  execution  of  works  of 
fortification  botli  at  liome  and  al)roa<I.  In  l8(i.H  he  was 
nominated  a  eonti)aninii  of  the  Path,  and  appointed  knight 
commander  of  the  order  of  St.  Michael  ami  St.  tJeorge.  In 
1875  ho  succeeded  Sir  Andrew  Clarke,  Col.  H.  E.,  as  gov- 
ernor of  the  Straits  Settlements,  comprising  Singapore, 
Penang,  and  Malacca.  J.  G.  Bahnahd. 

Jesi,  a  town  of  Italy.     Sec  Iesi. 

JeN'samiiie,  the  common  English  name  for  species  9f 
Jiismiiiuiii.  a  genus  of  erect  or  climbing  shrubby  plants, 
natives  of  the  OU  World,  of  which  several  species  are  cul- 
tivate<l  for  ornament,  the  flowers  being  both  beautiful  and 
fragrant.  The  common  species  are  Jaitnii'niini  i>j}ic{intfr 
(white  jessamine)  and  ./.  nJ<,riifinH\mum  (yellow  jessamine), 
and  in  conservatories  ./.  Sniiilmr  of  tropical  India,  which 
exhales  a  powerful  fragrance  at  evening.  The  jessamine 
family  is  now  regarded  as  a  tribe  of  the  olive  family  (order 
Oleacea?),  and  is  ilistinguisljcd  from  the  other  regular  mono- 
polalous  flowers  by  having  stamens  fewer  than  the  lubes  of 
the  corolla.  Tho  so-called  jessamine  of  the  Southern  U.  S. 
is  of  another  order.    (See  Jasmink,  Yki.i.ow.)     A.  Urav. 

JesHnmine,  county  of  E.  Central  Kentucky.  Area, 
250  square  miles.  It  is  a  beautiful,  undulating  region, 
with  a  goorl  soil,  based  upon  cavernous  limestone,  (irain 
and  live-stock  are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Kentucky  Central   11.  K.      Cap.  Nicholasville.     Pop.  8tj;{s. 

Jes'se  (EnwARo),  b.  at  Hutton  Cranswiek.  Yorkshire, 
England,  Jan.  14,  17S0:  was  deputy  surveyor  of  the  royal 
parks  and  palaces  at  Windsor,  Kichmond,  and  Hampton 
Court.  His  fondness  for  outdoor  e,\ercisefl  and  for  aniniiil 
lifn  was  strongly  fostered  by  the  nature  of  his  occupations, 
and  eauf»ed  bim  to  observe  anci  record  many  curious  facts 
in  natural  history.  He  published  a  number  of  very  enter- 
taining and  popular  works,  among  which  were  (i/muingit 
IN  \ittttrnl  Hintfirif  (3  vols.,  1  8.H2-lt5).  Ati  Atiq/fr'it  litimhfeM 
(IHilfil,  Anrt-itnleti  nf  Dih/h  (184(>).  and  Lrctuirn  on  Xaturnl 
ll\Ht4,rti  [X^iVA).  lie  also  published  several  topographical 
handbooks   upon  Windsor  and   the  royal   palaces,  besides 


1400 


JESSE— JESUITS. 


editing  Izaak  Walton's  Angler  and  Gilbert  White's  Sel- 
borne.  Mr.  Je?se  removed  to  Bri^^htou  in  1S*)2,  where  he 
became  so  useful  a  citizen  that  his  bust  was  plnceil  in  tht; 
Pavilion  bv  popular  subscription  in  1SG5.  D.  at  Brighton 
Mar.  2S,  18fiS. 

Jesse  (John  Heneagk),  b.  in  England  about  1815,  was 
a  ?on  of  Edward,  noticed  above;  wrote  nuineroup  volumes 
of  memoirs  illustrating  English  history  during  the  eight- 
eenth century.     D.  in  July,  1874. 

Jesso.     Sec  Yesso. 

Jessore',  town  of  British  Indiu,  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal.  The 
district  comprises  3512  square  miles  of  the  centre  of  the 
(Jiinges  delta,  and  is  as  fertile  as  unhealthy.  Ita  capital 
is  situated  6(5  miles  N.  E.  of  Calcutta,  and  has  a  college 
in  which  botii  Entjiish  and  Hindoo  literature  are  taught. 
Top.  of  district.  400,0(10. 

Jes'son  Land,  tp.  ai  Sibley  co.,  Minn.    Pop.  7^9. 

Jcssulineer%  or  Jaysiilmir,  one  of  the  Kajpoot 
states  under  English  ]»rotci*tinn.  in  Western  Hindostan,  sit- 
uated between  2l'|0  and  2S°  X.  lat.  and  C9°  and  72°  E.  Ion. 
It  comprises  9700  square  miles  of  very  poor  soil,  and  has 
74,100  inhabitants.  lis  capital,  of  the  same  name,  is  a 
well-built  city  with  .'ki.OOO  inhabitants.  Water  is  very 
scarce  in  its  vicinity,  and  must  be  provided  for  by  immense 
tanks.  The  fortress  contains  the  palace,  G  temples,  8  wells, 
and  its  walls  are  ornamented  with  gilded  towers  and  pin- 
nacles. 

Jes'sup,  post-v.  of  Buchanan  co.,  In.,  on  the  Iowa  di- 
vision of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R. 

Jessup,  tp.  of  Susquehanna  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  804. 

Jessiip  (William),  LL.D.,  b.  in  Southampton,  SuflFolk 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  June  21,  1797;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1815  ;  re- 
moved to  Montrose,  Pa.,  in  181S  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1820;  was  strongly  interesteTl  in  the  missionary  and 
temperance  causes  and  in  popular  education ;  was  presid- 
ing judge  of  the  eleventh  judicial  district  of  Pennsylvania 
lSnS-51.     D.  at  Montrose,  Pa.,  Sept.  11, 18G8. 

Jessup  Lake,  in  Orange  co.,  Fla.,  12  miles  S.  of  En- 
terprise, communicates  with  St.  John's  River  by  a  naviga- 
ble outlet.  The  lake  is  clear,  has  a  sandy  bottom,  and 
abounds  in  fish  and  game  birds.  Tlie  shores  arc  high  bluffs. 
There  are  good  wharves  constructed  here.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Lake  Jessup  colony*.  The  surrounding  region  is  beau- 
tiful, well-timbered,  and  fertile.  There  are  several  medi- 
3inal  springs  in  the  neighborhood. 

Jes^uits,  or  The  Society  of  Jesus,  a  religious  or- 
der of  ttie  Roman  Catholic  (.'hurch,  which,  although  en- 
tirely destitute  of  any  original  religious  idea,  and  merely 
contining  itself  to  practical  ]>urposes — missionary,  educa- 
tional, political,  commercial,  always  of  a  subordinate,  often 
of  a  doubtful  nature — has  played  a  more  conspicuous  part 
in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  than  any  other  re- 
ligious order,  and  exercised  a  most  powerful,  though  only  in 
some  cases  a  beneficial,  influence.  It  was  founded  by  Iti- 
NATirs  Loyola  (which  see),  and  established  by  Pope  Paul 
III.  Sept.  27,  IJIO.  Its  organization  it  recei\ed  from  its 
founder  and  first  general,  but  its  true  character  from  his 
successor.  It  was  Loyola's  idea  to  form  a  monastic  order 
with  a  definite  practical  purpose.  To  the  vows,  common 
to  all  religious  orders,  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience, 
he  added  that  of  missionary  activity;  and  as  ho  was  a 
military  man  by  profession,  and  entirely  without  originality 
or  spontaneity,  he  conferred  ujjon  the  religious  order  he 
founded  his  military  ideas  of  organization,  of  training, 
subordination,  and  implicit  obedience.  But  under  its 
second  general,  James  Laynez  (1558-()5),  the  order  freed 
itself  to  a  great  extent  from  its  monkish  apparel.  Its  mis- 
sionary task  retreated  to  the  background,  aud  its  principal 
objeet  became  the  maintenance  of  the  absolute  dominion 
of  the  pope  against  Protestantism,  kingdoms,  universities, 
recumeuical  councils,  bishops,  or  anything  which  showed 
an  independent  tendency.  Its  position  was  most  cxeep- 
tional.  It  enjoyed  at  once  all  the  privileges  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders  and  the  secular  clergy.  It  held  its  property 
free  of  taxes  either  to  king  or  Church,  and  its  members 
were  independent  not  only  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  slate, 
but  also  of  that  of  the  bishops;  thoy  acknowledged  no  other 
authority  than  that  which  emanated  from  their  general. 
The  priestly  office  was  conferred  upon  them  in  full,  as  far 
as  regards  its  power,  but  not  with  all  its  duties  and  restric- 
tions. They  had  unlimited  power  of  dispensation  and  in- 
dulgence, and  they  eould  administer  the  sacraments  even 
in  a  period  of  interdict.  At  the  same  time,  they  were  not 
separated  very  conspicuously  from  the  world  either  in  dress 
or  manners.  They  ha<l  the  education  of  the  world,  and 
they  took  part  very  freely  in  the  enjoyments  of  the  world ; 
prayer  and  fasting  wore  not  the  most  striking  character- 
istics of  a  Jesuit.     With  this  most  favorable  position  with 


respect  to  the  outside  world,  the  society  oombiued  a  most 
rigorous  internal  organization.  The  authority  of  the  gen- 
era! was  absolute,  and  the  training  of  the  member?  such  as 
to  make  the  enforcement  of  this  authority  unfailing.  They 
were  divided  into  four  classes — novices,  scholastics,  coad- 
jutors, and  professed.  After  a  short  preparation  the  novice 
spends  two  years  in  spiritual  exercises,  in  prayers,  medita- 
tions, fasts,  and  ascetic  ])raclices,  in  serving  the  sick  and 
the  poor,  living  all  the  while  under  the  closest  supervision. 
If  after  the  lapse  of  these  two  years  he  finds  himself,  and 
is  found  by  the  elder  members  of  the  order,  capable  of  be- 
coming a  suitable  instrument — that  is,  capable  of  givin-; 
up  all  individuality  of  will  and  all  independence  of  intel- 
lect— ho  enters  the  class  of  scholastics,  where  ho  undergoes 
a  long  and  severe  training  in  theology,  ])hilosophy.  phi- 
lology, and  science.  Every  advancement  from  one  class  to 
another  is  exceedingly  ditficnlt.  Only  men  of  decided 
talents  and  rare  energy  are  able  to  reach  the  highest  class. 
that  of  professed,  whose  members  elect  the  general  among 
themselves.  But  even  with  the  humblest  and  least  gifted 
members  of  the  society  the  moral  training  is  perfect.  It 
is  in  some  respects  very  simple.  It  consists  in  nothing  but 
implicit  obedience  to  the  rules  of  the  order  and  the  au- 
thority of  the  general.  But  it  must  be  perfect  or  else  no 
membership  is  granted.  Every  passion,  every  sympathy, 
every  talent,  every  tendency,  which  possibly  coirid  come 
into  collision  with  the  purposes  of  the  society  is  crushed  or 
burnt  out  of  the  soul.  The  order  was  thus  able  to  work 
with  the  unfailing  certainty  of  a  machine,  and  in  a  loose 
and  rather  disorderly  state  of  society,  like  that  of  Europe 
in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries,  its 
power  could  not  but  bo  immense. 

At  the  death  of  Loyola  the  society  numbered  1000  mem- 
bers in  12  provinces;  at  the  celebration  of  its  first  centen- 
nial jubilee,  13.112  members  in  32  provinces;  at  the  time 
of  its  suppression,  one  century  later,  22,589  members,  24 
professed  houses,  (jfi9  colleges,  176  seminaries,  61  novitiates, 
335  residences,  and  275  missionary  stations  in  heathen  or 
Protestant  countries.  In  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Aus- 
tria the  order  took  root  immediately.  To  the  higher  classes 
of  society  the  Franciscans  had  become  offensive  by  their 
coarseness  and  vulgarity,  and  the  Dominicans  troublesome 
by  their  bluntness  and  rigorousness.  The  easy  and  elegant 
Jesuit  was  just  what  was  wanted.  His  eloquent  casuistry 
threw  a  veil  over  any  vice  or  crime,  and  very  soon  every 
monarch,  jirincc.  and  nobleman  had  a  Jesuit  for  confessor ; 
which  circumstance  gave  the  order  an  enormous  social  and 
political  influence.  In  the  Thirty  Years*  war  It  was  Father 
Lamormain,  the  confessor  of  Ferdinand  II.,  who  delValcd 
Wallcnstein,  and  it  was  the  Jesuits  who  kept  alive  the 
league  between  Austria  and  Bavaria.  To  the  middle  classes 
they  recommended  themselves  by  their  excellent  schools 
and  their  learning.  In  many  countries  they  actually  con- 
trolled all  education  ;  at  the  Roman  Catholic  universities 
of  (icrmany — Cologne,  Miinich,  Treves,  Augsburg,  etc. — ■ 
they  held  chairs  a  few  years  after  the  establishment  of  the 
order.  Still  more  decided  was  their  success  as  mission- 
aries to  the  pagans.  They  penetrated  into  Japan  in  1549, 
and  into  China  in  1584;  in  the  former  country  they  pos- 
sessed 3  colleges,  S  residences,  and  3  professed  houses  in 
1013,  and  in  1092  the  number  of  their  converts  in  the 
Chinese  jjrovince  of  Kiangsu  is  said  to  have  been  more 
than  100,000.  They  had  flourishing  stations  in  Cochin- 
China,  Tonquin,  Hindostan,  Ceylon,  Madagascar,  and  on 
the  coast  of  Africa.  In  Paraguay  they  christianized  the 
whole  nation,  and  formed  a  civilized  society  whose  pros- 
perity ami  rapid  progress  excited  general  admiration. 
Brazil,  Mexico,  and  North  America  are  also  in  debt  to 
them,  for  they  carried  civilixatiou  with  them  wherever 
they  went.  In  the  Protestant  countries,  however,  they 
never  got  a  foothold,  though  they  tried  very  hard  in  Enj;- 
laud  and  Sweden.  In  France  their  situation  was  generally 
precarious.  The  Sorbonne,  the  bishops,  and  even  the  Par- 
liament, were  opjiosed  to  them,  and  very  slow  in  admitting 
them.  After  the  attempt  of  Chatel,  a  former  pupil  of  theirs, 
on  the  life  of  Henry  IV.  in  1591,  they  were  even  expelled, 
though  only  for  a  short  time:  iu  1003  they  were  allowed  to 
return.  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  showed  them  considerable 
favor,  and  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  they  gradually 
grew  in  power.  But  just  at  this  time  they  met  with  their 
lirst  heavy  reverse  of  fortune.  In  their  contest  with  Jan- 
senius  they  were  the  losers  iu  spite  of  their  great  dexterity 
in  theological  dispute,  and  when,  in  1056,  Pascal  published 
his  Lcttrt'it  Provincialen,  a  blow  was  inflicted  ou  them  from 
which  they  never  recovered.  The  looseness  of  their  morals, 
the  egotism  of  their  aims,  the  falseness  of  their  actions, 
were  thoroughly  unmasked  hy  this  book.  They  bc-ame 
odious  and  subjects  of  general  suspicion.  Under  these  un- 
favorable circumstances,  and  while  driven  onward  in  an 
opposite  direction  by  their  own  antecedents,  they  clashed 
against  the  general  enlightenment  of  the  eighteenth  ccn- 


JESUITS'   BARK— JESUS  CHRIST. 


1401 


tory,  which  they  could  neither  adopt  nor  8up]ire9s  ;  and  this 
became  (heir  ruin.  An  insurrection  in  Paraf^uay  a<raiu9t 
Portugal,  ID  which  the  Jesuits  were  implicnteil.  ^ave  Potn- 
batanonportoDity  in  ITjSof  hringinfj  them  before  the  courts. 
While  tne  trial  was  r;oinr;  on  an  attempt  was  made  to  as^afl- 
sinate  the  king,  and  (Sept.  ^t,  ITJit)  a  royal  decree  t-xpelled 
the  pocicty  from  the  Portuguese  dominions  and  contiscated 
their  property.  In  France  not  only  public  opinion,  but  also 
the  court,  espceially  Madamo  do  Pompadour  and  the  prime 
minister,  rhoi-Jcul,  were  against  them,  and  a  scandalous  law- 
suit ID  which  they  became  entangled  caused  a  general  out- 
burst of  indignation.  They  had  a  missionary  and  com- 
mercial station  on  the  island  of  Martinique.  Thence  their 
procurator.  Father  Lavalctte.  consigned  two  vessels  to  a 
house  in  Marseilles.  The  vessels  were  captured  by  the 
Knglixh.  and  when  Father  Lavalette  was  unable  to  meet 
the  bills  which  he  had  draxvn  on  the  credit  of  the  delivery 
of  (he  costly  enrgo.  ft  cnsc  wa-?  brought  into  the  courts  uf 
Marseilles  against  the  order,  and  de<'ided  in  favor  of  the 
plaintiff.  The  order  tried  to  escape  from  paying  the  debt 
by  appealing  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  pleading  that 
Father  Lavaletie  hail  acted  without  orders  from  the  gene- 
ral antl  against  bis  instructions.  In  the  course  of  the  trial 
other  scandalous  aftairs  became  known,  and  in  1764  a  royal 
decree  expelled  the  society  from  Franco.  Apr.  2,  1767,  all 
the  Jesuits  in  Spain  nnd  in  the  Spanish  colonies  were  ar- 
rested at  the  same  hour  and  sent  to  the  papal  dominions: 
and  July  21,  177^.  a  papal  bull  dissolving  the  whole  order, 
on  the  re«|ue?t  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Parma.  Naples, 
and  Austria,  was  issued.  Its  property  was  confiscated, 
but  in  most  countries  its  members  recciveti  nnnuitics  and 
were  allowed  to  live  as  private  persons.  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  showed  them  much  kindness,  and  Catherine  II.  even 
permitted  them  to  exist  as  a  society  in  Russia  under  the 
head  of  a  vicar-general.  In  ISOl,  Pope  Pins  VII.  con- 
firmed this  branch  of  the  order,  and  immediately  after  the 
fall  of  N.ipoleon  (  Aug.  7,  11:514)  he  re-established  the  society 
in  its  old  form.  l)uring  the  exhaustion  and  reaction  which 
prevailed  throughout  Europe  between  IKI,)  and  184S  the 
.lepuits  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  all  countries,  with  or 
without  the  acknowledgment  of  the  governments;  but  the 
general  conditions  of  civilized  life  have  so  entirely  changed 
character  in  the  last  century  the  order  has  been  compelled 
to  alter  its  method  of  proceeding.  Science  was  once  its 
weapon — it  now  appeals  to  ignorance:  court  intrigue  was 
formerly  its  arena — it  now  mixes  in  political  party  machi- 
nations. But  although  the  means  are  changed,  tlio  aim  is 
still  the  same — to  stop  the  progress  of  civilization  and  en- 
slave mankind  under  the  sceptre  of  tho  pope;  and  the 
Syllabus  and  tho  dogma  of  infallibility  arc  among  its  latest 
achievements.  Clemens  Pkterse.n. 

Jesuits*  Bark.    See  Cinciioxa. 

Jes'up,  post-v.  and  cap.  of  Wayne  co.,  Ga.,  at  tho  in- 
tersection of  tho  Macon  and  Brunswick  and  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  R.  Rs.     Pop.  about  260.  W.  0.  McAdoo. 

Jcsop  (Mourns  Kktciii'M),  b.  at  Hartford,  Conn..  June 
21,  l^itO;  locating  ill  New  York  City,  became  member  of 
tho  Chamber  of  Cummcrco  in  Feb.,  Ibti.'S ;  |>rcEident  of  the 
Five  Points  House  of  Industry  since  1870;  was  president 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Ai^sociation  1871-76;  is  treas- 
urer of  the  university  and  o:io  of  its  council ;  vice-president 
and  treasurer  of  the  City  Mission,  and  uianager  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Hospital. 

Jesup  (Thomas  SroNKv),  b.  in  Virginia  in  1788  ;  entered 
the  army  in  I  SOS;  served  as  acting  adjutant-general  to 
Brig.-tien.  Hull  1812;  brevetted  colonel  for  gallantry  at 
Chippewa  and  Niagara,  rose  to  quartermaster-general,  with 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  May,  1S18;  took  command  of 
the  army  in  tho  (*reek  nation,  Ala.,  and  in  Florida  IHIIG; 
wounded  in  action  with  Scminoles  Jan.,  18;j8,  and  returned 
to  duty  in  his  department.      \).  June  10,  1860. 

Je'sus  Christ.  This  name  is  not  compound,  hut  con- 
sists of  the  proper  name  Jesus,  and  the  ofhcial  designation 
Christ — Jesus  the  Christ.  Je-ius  is  the  Greek  form  of  the 
Hebrew  Joshua  or  .lehoshua,  and  means  Jehovah  his  sal- 
vation, or  the  salvation  of  Jehovah.  Christ  is  equivalent 
to  tho  Hebrew  Messiah,  and  means  tho  Anointed.  The 
name  Jesus  is  applied  to  several  persons  in  the  Scriptures, 
and  was  probably  not  an  uneotnnioi)  one. 

Into  tho  tlieobtgicut  questions  connected  with  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ  wo  do  not  enter,  nor  do  wo  attempt  any  in- 
terpretations of  his  words,  nor  discuss  any  disputed  points 
in  reganl  to  the  relative  authority  of  the  several  Kvangelists. 
Those  seeking  information  on  these  points  are  referred  to 
tho  special  works  named  at  the  end  of  this  article.  There 
island  doubtless  will  continue  to  be.  much  differeneo  of 
opinion  among  harmonists  in  regard  to  the  chronological 
order  of  evenrs  in  his  life,  but  there  is  general  agreement 
as  to  tho  most  important  fatils.  Jesus  was  born  in  Itelhle- 
hein,  a  small  .lud;ean   town   already  famous  as   the   birth- 


place of  King  David,  and  about  6  miles  S.  of  Jerusalem. 
The  home  of  his  mother,  Mary,  was  Nazareth  in  Galilee, 
but  she  had  come  to  Bethlehem  with  her  husband,  Joseph, 
a  dcsL-endant  ot  David,  in  obedience  to  a  decree  of  enroll- 
ment and  taxation  which  seems  to  have  required  Joseph's 
presence  at  the  original  home  of  his  tamily.  Mary  is 
thought  to  have  been,  like  .Joseph,  descended  from  the 
royal  house  of  Judah.  The  date  of  the  Nativity  is  uncer- 
tain. (See  CniiiSTMAS.)  Jesus  was  born  miraculously  of 
a  virgin  mother  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  (ihost.  On  the 
eighth  day  after  his  birth  Ho  was  circumcised,  and  on  tho 
fortieth  day  ho  was  taken  to  the  temple,  when  tho  custom- 
ary offerings  of  purification  were  made  by  his  mother.  The 
visit  of  certain  "  wise  men,"  or  magians.  who  came  prob- 
ably from  Persia,  to  the  infant  at  Bethlehem  with  gifts 
proper  for  a  king,  and  the  inquiries  made  by  them  pre- 
viously at  Jerusalem  for  a  newly-born  king  of  the  Jews, 
excited  tho  jealousy  of  Herod,  then  ruling  over  Juda;a  and 
the  neighboring  territories  under  the  protection  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  he  issued  orders  for  a  massacre  of  young  chil- 
dren at  Bethlehem.  Jesus  was  taken  by  divine  direction  to 
Egypt  in  time  to  escape  the  destruction  which  threatened 
him,  and  the  holy  family  remained  out  of  Herod's  juris- 
diction until  his  death  a  short  time  after.  Joseph  seems 
to  have  intended  to  rear  tho  child  at  Belhk'hcm,as  ihe  city 
of  David,  but  another  warning  from  Heaven  caused  him  to 
return  to  Nazareth.  Twelve  years  later  .loscph  and  Mary 
took  Jesus  with  them  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Passover, 
and  he  then  showed  that  he  was  already  conscious  of  a  di- 
vine mission.  He  lived  at  Nazareth,  however,  for  eighteen 
years  longer,  and  probably  assisted  Joseph  at  his  trade, 
that  of  a  carpenter.  Joseph  is  not  mentioned  again  in  tho 
Gospels,  and  is  supposed  to  have  died  before  Christ  entered 
on  his  public  labors. 

When  Jesus  was  about  thirty  years  old  his  kinsman,  John, 
tho  son  of  Zacharias.  began  to  announce  the  near  approach 
of  the  kingdom  of  God.  and  to  call  bis  countrymen  to 
prepare  for  it  by  a  moral  reformation,  and  by  accepting 
baptism  at  his  bands  as  a  sign  of  the  remission  of  sin. 
•Tesus  appeared  among  the  throngs  which  gathered  about 
John  the  Baptist  at  tho  Jordan,  and  insisted  on  being  bap- 
tized by  him.  After  Jf)hn  bad  reluctantly  administered 
tho  rite  to  one  \vhom  he  felt  by  a  kind  (»f  prophetic  instinct, 
as  it  would  seem,  to  be  holier  than  hiinseU".  he  was  shown 
that  ,Iesu3  was  the  ^lessiab,  the  Son  ot  (Jod.  Ho  announced 
him  as  such  to  those  about  him,  among  whom  were  prob- 
ably some  representatives  of  tho  Sanhedrim,  or  ecclesiastical 
senate  of  the  Hebrews,  sent  from  Jerusalem  to  inquire  into 
John's  own  work  and  claims.  After  his  baptism  Jesus 
withdrew,  under  a  divine  impulse,  into  the  wilderness, 
where  ho  encountered  and  overcame  a  series  of  temptalions 
addressed  to  him  by  Satan.  A  few  of  John's  disciples  now 
attached  themselves  to  Jesus,  and  accompanied  liim  to  Gal- 
ilee. The  first  of  his  miracles  was  wrought  at  Cana.  a  few 
miles  from  Nazareth,  where  water  was  changed  into  wine. 
Soon  after  he  bt*gan  his  public  ministry,  in  the  proper  sense, 
in  Jerusalem,  at  tho  Passover.  Ho  announced  himself  to 
tho  heads  of  tho  nation  there  as  a  messenger  of  Heaven  by 
expelling  from  tho  temple-court  those  who  had  been  allowed 
to  carry  on  traflic  in  it  for  the  convonienco  of  worshippers. 
One  member  of  tho  Sanhedrim.  Nicodemus,  became  at  this 
time  a  secret  adherent  of  tho  new  prophet.  For  a  few 
months  Jesus  carried  on  a  work  in  Judaea  similar  to  that 
in  whicli  John  tho  Baptist  was  engageil.  and  seemed  to  bo 
co-operating  with  the  laller  in  the  effort  to  bring  about  a 
national  repenraiice.  Attempts  being  made  to  create  dis- 
sensions between  his  followers  and  those  of  John  he  retired 
to  (Jalileo.  It  is  probable  that  some  time  was  now  passed 
by  Christ  in  comparative  seclusion,  and  that  his  disciples 
were  for  a  while  dismissed.  The  hitter  an*  not  said  to  have 
been  with  bim  when  ho  next  presented  himself  at  Jerusalem, 
on  the  occafion  of  a  feast.  If,  ns  is  probable,  though  many 
think  otherwise,  this  feast  were  tho  Passover,  it  marked 
tho  close  of  tho  first  year  uf  Christ's  ministry,  during  wliirh 
ho  had  eonslanlly  in  view  an  impression  to  bo  made  on  tlo- 
men  of  infiucnco  and  authority  at  Jerusalem.  Al  this  visit 
Jesus  raised  an  is^uo  with  tho  Jewish  hierarchy  by  disre- 
garding tho  traditional  interpretation  of  tho  fourth  com- 
mamlment.  and  offended  them  still  more  by  the  way  in 
which  he  spoke  id'  his  own  n-|alion  to  tintl.  From  this 
time,  at  any  rale,  ho  had  a  body  of  powerful  nnd  implaca- 
ble enemies  in  Judnja,  who  never  ocnsod  to  watch  und  op- 
pose him. 

Near  the  time  of  this  second  Passover,  John  the  Baptist 
was  imprisoned  by  Ileiod  Antipas,  whtim  ho  had  rebahcd 
for  his  ndullerous  marriugo  with  his  brother's  wife  Hero<lias, 
and  John's  effort  to  bring  Israel  to  repentance  wiin  at  an 
end.  Jesus  now  entore<l  on  a  new  slago  of  his  work,  to  be 
carried  on  in  Galilee.  After  meeting  a  repulse  at  Nii7.a''cth, 
he  fixed  his  losidenee  at  <'apernauni,  on  the  Lako  oi  Ti- 
berias, and  from  that  point  innd"  a  series  of  einuit'i  lliruu"!! 


1402 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


Galilee.  His  old  followers  rejoined  him,  and  he  at  once 
began  to  add  to  their  number,  while  by  his  discourses  and 
miracles  he  speedily  attracted  crowds  of  more  or  less  ap- 
preciative hcjirers.  In  close  connection  with  the  uio^t 
famous  of  the  Galilean  discourses,  the  Sermon  ou  the  Mount, 
Jesus  chose  twelve  of  his  disciples  to  be,  under  the  name 
of  apostles,  his  constant  companions,  and  by  degrees  his 
associates  in  labor.  Proofs  were  multiplying  of  the  indis- 
posifion  of  Israel  as  a  whole  to  profit  by  the  mission  of 
Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Emissaries  of  the  Judiean  priesthood 
were  busy  iu  (Talilcc,  and  gradually  formed  a  hostile  party 
tliere.  Jewish  beliefs  and  prejudices  were  also  operative 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  were  attached  to  his  person. 
His  own  relatives  misapprehended  him,  aud  even  John  the 
liaptist  sent  a  message  from  his  prison  which  expressed 
his  perplexity  at  the  course  whic^h  Jesus  was  pursuing. 
Nevertheless,  the  cud  of  his  work  in  Galilee  was  practically 
secured.  He  had  a  body  of  faithful  adherents,  who  loved 
and  trusted  if  they  did  not  undiTStand  him,  and  whom  he 
was  educating  for  future  service. 

As  the  next  Passover  drew  near,  John  the  Baptist  was 
put  to  death  by  Herod  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife.  From 
this  time  Jesus  began  to  withdraw  as  much  as  possible  from 
public  notice  in  (Jalilee,  aud  to  devote  himself  to  the  in- 
struction of  the  twelve  apostles.  Entire  seclusion  was  out 
of  the  question,  and  some  great  miracles  were  wrought 
during  (bis  period.  In  th«  month  of  October,  or  about  si.x 
months  after  the  death  of  John  the  Baptist,  Jesus  began 
his  second  and  tiual  attempt  to  gain  a  hearing  from  the 
representatives  of  the  nation  at  Jerusalem.  He  appeared 
somewhat  suddenly  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  and  by 
miracles  and  discourses,  as  well  as  by  the  angry  opposition 
which  he  excited,  he  at  least  succeeded  in  awakening  new 
interest  in  his  movements,  and  in  lixing  the  attention  of 
the  nation  upon  himself  during  the  rest  of  his  career.  It 
may  bo  inferred  that  bo  then  returned  to  Galilee,  and  set 
about  arranging  what  had  in  some  sense  the  air  of  a  roya! 
progress  to  Jerusalem.  Seventy  disciples  were  sent,  two 
by  two,  to  the  various  towns  which  he  designed  to  visit,  and 
he  folluwed  them,  preaching  and  working  miracles,  as  he 
harl  l>een  accustomed  to  do  in  Galilee.  The  scene  of  these 
new  labors  must  have  been  Periea,  the  country  E.  of  the 
Ji»rdan,  through  which  lay  the  longer  but  safer  routo  from 
(Jalilee  to  Judica.  It  bordered  on  the  latter  province  for 
a  considerable  distance,  and  whatever  excited  general  in- 
terest in  Pernea  would  soon  be  known  across  the  river. 
That  intense  excitement  did  follow  Christ's  appearance  in 
a  region  which  hitherto,  so  far  as  we  know,  he  had  scarcely 
visiteii,  is  clearly  indicated  iu  the  Gospels.  In  December, 
at  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication,  Jesus  was  again  at  Jerusa- 
lem. He  was  met  by  questions  about  his  Messiahship, 
wliich  show  that  his  claims  were  undergoing  eager  discus- 
sion, but  his  answers  only  provoked  fresh  hostility,  and  he 
nurrowly  escaped  being  stoned  as  a  blasphemer.  His  homo 
during  these  visits  to  the  ecclesiastical  cajiital  was  probably 
the  house  of  Lazarus  at  Bethany,  2  miles  E.  of  the  city. 
Lazarus  and  his  sisters,  Mary  and  Martha,  must  before  this 
time  have  become  disciples  and  intimate  friends  of  Christ. 
On  his  return  to  Pera-a.  Ciirist,  instead  of  going  from  place 
to  place  as  before,  fixed  his  abode  at  liothabara  (or  Beth- 
any), near  the  scene  of  his  baptism.  Hence  ho  was  sum- 
moned to  Bethany  in  Judiua  by  the  dangerous  illness  of 
Lazarus,  and  arriving  after  the  latter  had  been  four  days 
dead,  he  wrought  the  greatest  of  his  recorded  miracles  by 
restoring  his  friend  to  life.  This  act  led  the  Jirbrew  coun- 
cil, or  such  of  them  as  were  under  the  influence  of  the  high 
priest  Caiaphas,  to  resolve  formally  and  finally  ou  tho  de- 
struction of  the  Galilean  prophet.  Whatever  ho  was,  ho 
could  not  bo  (he  Messiah,  and  he  might  bec<tmo  tho  occa- 
sion of  popular  tumults  which  would  draw  upon  the  nation 
tho  vengeance  of  their  Roman  masters.  Jesus  now  for  a 
time  concealed  himself,  taking  refuge  in  a  town  called 
Ej)hraim.  20  miles  N.  E.  of  Jerusalem. 

Another  Pas.-'ovcr  approached,  and  Jesus  prepared  to 
attend  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  terminate  his  royal  ]irogrcss 
royally.  He  seems  to  have  gone  northward  and  joined  one 
of  the  companies  of  Galilean  pilgrims  then  moving  east- 
wanl  near  the  Samaritan  border  in  order  to  go  to  the  feast 
by  the  (trdinary  I*eraMin  route.  The  suburbs  of  Jerusalem 
were  reached,  probably,  on  tho  evening  before  the  sabbalh. 
Christ  and  his  f(dlowcrs  stopped  at  Bethany,  where  more 
thnn  one  houso  was  open  to  them.  On  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  and  evidently  in  pursuance  of  arrangements  pre- 
viously made,  Jesus  entered  the  Holy  City,  riding  on  an 
ass  never  before  used,  and  surrounded  by  nn  intensely  ex- 
cited throng,  composed  largely,  no  doubt,  of  pilgrims  from 
tho  N.  and  E.  The  multitude  hiiilc-d  him  as  "  Son  of  Da- 
vid" nnd  "King  of  Israel."  and  he  distinctly  sanctioned 
their  acclamations.  On  tho  following  day  ho  went  to  the 
city  again,  and  repeated  the  act  by  which  he  had  an- 
nounced himself  and  his  mission  three  years  before — tho 


cleansing  of  the  temple.  The  third  day,  Tuesday,  was  also 
spent  in  the  temple,  but  was  devoted  to  teaching.  As  Jesus 
aud  his  apostles  returned  t-ach  evening  to  Bethany,  they 
may  be  supposed  to  have  paused  for  prayer  in  the  garden 
of  Gethsemane,  at  the  western  base  of  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
The  next  day  seems  to  have  been  passed  in  retirement. 
Meanwhile.  Christ's  enemies,  not  daring  publicly  to  arrest 
one  who  was  for  the  time  so  popular,  resolved  to  get  him 
into  their  power  in  some  clandestine  manner,  and  after  the 
feast  should  be  over.  An  apostle  prepared  the  way  for  the 
accomplishment  of  (heir  purpose.  Judas  Iscariot  bargained 
with  them  for  the  possession  of  his  Master's  person,  and 
watched  for  the  opportunity  to  c<unplete  his  treachery.  On 
the  evening  of  Thursday,  Jesns  kept  the  Passover  with  his 
disciples,  coming  onco  more  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose. 
While  they  were  at  the  table  he  indicated  to  Judas,  as  also 
to  .lohn  and  Peter,  his  knowledge  of  the  intended  betrayal, 
and  Judas  hastened  to  the  priests  to  bid  them  act  at  once. 
At  the  close  of  the  paschal  supper  Jesus  instituted  (he 
Christian  feast  of  bread  and  wine  commemorative  of  his 
own  impending  death,  and  the  company  set  out  on  their 
return  to  Bethany.  Ou  the  way  they  turned  aside  to  the 
garden  of  (iethsemane.  where  Jesus  passed  thrr)ugh  a  fear- 
ful inward  struggle  in  view  of  the  sorrows  before  him.  The 
struggle  was  scarcely  over  when  the  sorrows  began.  Judus 
entered  the  garden,  guiding  a  band  of  armed  men,  with 
some  members  of  the  council,  and  probably  a  crowd  of  mid- 
night revellers  from  the  streets  of  Jerusalem.  .Icsus  was 
arrested  and  led  back  to  tho  city  for  trial  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim. The  charge  was  blasphemy,  but  in  the  absence  of 
trustworthy  witnesses,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  haste  with 
which  the  proceedings  were  conducted,  no  evidence  was 
produced  on  which  the  party  of  the  high  priest,  themselves 
wholly  unscrupulous,  could  call  for  an  uutavorable  verdict 
from  the  majority  of  the  council.  The  prisoner  was  then 
virtually  put  under  oath  and  required  to  criminate  liimself. 
When  solemnly  appealed  to  by  the  high  priest,  he  not  only 
avowed  his  Messiahship.  but  tisserted  that  he  was  the  Son 
of  God  and  the  future  judge  of  the  world.  The  Sanhedrim 
then  unanimously  condemned  him  as  a  blasphemer,  (hough 
two  members  of  it,  at  any  rate,  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and 
Nicodemus,  were  no  doubt  absent.  After  the  formality  of  a 
fresh  trial  at  daybreak,  had  iu  order  to  make  the  proceed- 
ings legal,  the  priests  led  Jesus  to  the  Roman  procurator, 
Pontius  Pilate,  to  obtain  authority  for  the  execution.  Pi- 
late resided  at  Cagsarca,  the  political  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, but  was  now  at  Jerusalem  for  the  sake  of  maintaining 
order  at  the  feast.  The  procurator  made  several  efforts  to 
rescue  Jesus  without  exasperating  the  Jews,  but  he  was 
at  last  intimidated  by  the  danger  of  a  riot,  and  the  im- 
plied threat  of  accusing  him  to  the  emperor  as  in  disloyal 
sympathy  with  a  pretender  to  the  Hebrew  throne.  He  then 
gave  the  order  for  (he  death  of  .Jesus  by  crucifixion,  having 
previously  subjected  him  to  scourging.  The  sentence  was 
jiromptly  executcil.  and  for  six  hours,  or  from  about  nine 
in  the  morning  until  three  in  (he  afternoon.  Jesus  endured 
the  punishment  allotted  to  the  worst  and  basest  criminals, 
and  with  a  convicted  felon  on  either  side  of  him.  From 
(imo  to  time  he  s]iokc  briefly,  uttering  first  his  feelings  in 
behalf  of  others,  then  his  consciousness  of  his  own  bodily 
and  spiritual  anguish.  He  died  in  the  act  of  commending 
his  soul  to  God.  Tho  body  was  given  by  Pilate  to  .loseph 
of  Arimathea,  and,  aided  by  Nicodemus,  he  wrapped  it  in 
spices  and  laid  it  in  a  tomb  prepare<l  for  himself  in  a  gar- 
den which  he  owned  outside  the  walls. 

On  the  day  but  one  succeeding,  or  Sunday,  some  of  (he 
Galilean  women  went  to  Joseph's  garden  to  do  (heir  part 
in  honoring  tho  body  of  their  Master.  As  they  approached 
they  saw  that  the  tomb  had  been  (q>ened.  ami  one  of  them, 
ALary  Magdalene,  hurried  away  to  tell  .Tohu  and  Peter. 
These  two  ajiostles  had  probably  taken  lodgings  in  Jeru- 
salem, where  .lohn  had  friends.  In  the  mean  time,  tho 
other  women  saw  a  vision  of  angels,  who  told  them  that 
the  Lord  was  risen,  and  bade  them  instruct  his  friends  to 
meet  him  in  Galilee.  It  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  nu»st 
of  the  ajiostles  eoutinue<l  to  lodge  at  Bethany,  where  they 
would  feel  far  safer  than  in  .lerusalem.  While  the  mes.sage 
was  on  its  way  across  the  Mount  of  Olives,  Mary  came  with 
John  and  Peter.  They  carefully  examined  the  tomb,  and 
returned,  leaving  Mary  behind  them.  There  the  Lord 
"appeared  first"  to  her,  and  entrusted  her  with  a  message 
respecting  his  a.scension.  As  she  went  to  deliver  it,  her 
late  companions,  still  ou  their  way  to  the  place  where  the 
greater  part  of  the  Galilean  disciples  were  to  be  found,  saw 
their  Lord  coming  towards  them.  He  renewed  tho  charge 
which  the  angels  had  given  them.  Five  distinct  appear- 
ances are  recordeil  as  occurring  on  this  day.  .Jewish  theo- 
ries about  the  Messiah  had  mailo  no  provision  for  what  had 
actually  taken  place,  and  the  disciples  were  so  far  under  the 
influence  of  those  theories  as  to  be  hard  to  convince.  The 
unbelief  of  the  apostle  Thomas  delayed  for  a  week  their 


JET— JETTY. 


1403 


return  to  Galilee.  They  did  return  at  last,  and  there  saw 
their  Master  more  than  once.  His  principal  appearance, 
and  that  for  the  .«ake  of  which  he  had  summoned  them  to 
Galilee,  Is  suppusi-d  to  have  taken  place  iu  (lie  presence  of 
the  whole  burly  of  disciples,  more  than  60U  in  number. 
After  a  few  weeks  the  apostles  went  again  to  Jerusalem, 
and  on  the  fi)r(ieth  day  after  his  resurrection,  the  Lord 
Je:«us,  having  led  tlieni  forth,  as  if  for  another  visit  to 
Uethany,  left  them  fur  the  last  time,  not  vanishing,  as  be- 
fore, but  passing  visibly  upward  till  a  cloud  concealed  him 
from  their  sight.  While  they  looked  after  him,  two  angels 
brought  them  another  mc8:*agc — that  he  should  "so  come 
in  like  manner." 

Among  the  recent  works  on  the  life  of  Christ  accessible 
in  English,  are  those  of  Neander,  The  Li/e  of  Jemai  Chrint; 
Lange,  Life  of  Je»ti»:  Strauss,  Life  of  Jesus,  and  A  Xew 
Life  of  Jeaug;  Renan,  Life  of  Jenng  (all  translations,  and 
the  last  three  by  unbolieversl ;  Kllicntt,  //igtnrirn/  L'^^tur*- 
oti  the  Life  uf  unr  Lord  Jrmiii  Chrint;  llannn,  Lif'r  <tf  JtnuM; 
Farrar.  TA^ /,(/>  o/"  (^Atm/ (the  most  recent) ;  and(by  Amer- 
ican authors)  those  of  Crosby,  Life  of  Jemnti  ;  Eddy,  Im- 
vinuHri  ;  Beecher,  Ai7V  of'  Jemtg  the  Chrint,  vol.  i. ;  .Andrews. 
Life  nf  our  Lord.  In  the  las^t-named  work  will  be  found 
the  reasons  for  the  chronological  order  followed  in  the  fore- 
going article.  S.  J.  .Andrews. 

Jet*  a  perfectly  black  mineral,  capable  of  high  polish, 
is  sometimes  a  kind  of  pitch-coal  or  albertite,  and  some- 
times a  very  black  lignite.  It  comet*  from  various  getdog- 
ical  strata  in  the  Asturias,  Spain,  in  Aude,  France,  from 
Whitby,  Yorkshire,  from  the  Baltic  regions,  etc.  It  is  ex- 
tensively empl«iye<l  for  mourning  ornaments  for  ladies'  use. 

Je'ter  (  Jkremiah  Bell;,  D.  D.,  b.  in  Bedford  co.,  Va., 
July  18.  1802:  entered  the  ministry  in  \^2'1,  and  removed 
to  the  "northern  neck  "  of  Virginia  in  1827:  18;'6-4lt  was 
pnstor  of  the  First  Baptist  church  iu  Richmond.  Va. ;  in 
1SJ9  of  the  Second  Baptist  church  in  St.  Louis.  Mo.; 
1852-70  of  the  Grace  Street  Baptist  church  in  Richmond, 
Va.  Since  I^Oo  he  edited  the  licUtjiouit  J/rrntd  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.  He  publi-'-hed  \femoir  of  liev.  .V.  W.  Cloftouy 
Lit'  of  Mrs.  flritriettn  ShttcK;  CampbeHitm  Ejcumiiiedf  etc. 
I>.'  Feb.  IS,  ISSO. 

Jet'}* Am  [Fr.Jrter,  to  "throw"], goods  which  are  thrown 
into  the  sea  in  order  to  gave  a  vessel  and  the  residue  of  the 
cargo  from  wreck  or  loss  in  case  of  imminent  danger,  and 
which  sink  and  remain  under  water  without  coming  to  land. 
If  articles  thus  thrown  c)verboard  float  upon  the  surface  of 
the  sea.  they  arc  termed  flotsam.  (Sec  Flotsam.)  The 
owner  of  such  goods  does  not  lope  his  title  to  them,  and 
may  claim  them  if  they  are  subpcquently  found.  If  no 
owner  ever  appears  to  assert  his  right  to  the  property,  it 
belongs  by  the  English  common  law  to  the  Crown.  (Sec 
Li(;\N,  Jettison.) 

(JEotuJE  Chase.     Revisep  bv  T.  \V.  Dwight. 

Jet'tiAon  [Fr.j>/cr.  to  "throw"],  the  voluntary  throw- 
ing overboard  of  goods  belonging  to  the  cargo  of  a  vessel 
in  order  to  save  the  vessel  and  the  residue  of  the  cargo 
from  wreck,  capture,  or  loss  in  case  of  imminent  peril.  If 
by  reason  of  such  sacrifice  the  threatened  disaster  is  averted 
and  the  vessel  <iaved,  the  owner  of  the  goods  btst  by  jetti- 
son has  a  claim  against  the  owners  of  the  ship,  freight, 
and  cargo  for  conlributifm,  in  proportion  to  the  value  of 
their  respective  interests,  to  reimburse  him  for  the  loss  he 
has  sustained,  on  the  theory  of  general  average.  (See  Av- 
eua(jk.)  But  in  order  that  he  may  have  this  claim  the 
sacrifice  must  have  been  made  by  reason  of  extreme  emer- 
gency and  necessity.  If  tho  master  makes  a  jettison  in  a 
ease  of  false  alarm,  there  is  no  contribution.  It  is  not  ne- 
cessary, however,  that  the  anticipated  peril  should  always 
be  proveil  to  have  been  real.  It  rests  with  the  master  of 
the  vessel  to  determine  whether  there  is  a  necessity  for 
jettison  ;  and  though  it  should  afterwards  appear  that  the 
vessel  might  have  been  saved  without  incurring  such  loss, 
yet  if  he  acte»|  with  prudence  and  caution  in  the  exercise 
of  a  rea-onable  <liserrtion,  anrl  with  the  intention  of  per- 
forming hi-"  duty  faithfully,  the  same  results  will  follow  as 
if  there  hatl  been  an  actual  necessity  for  the  sacrifice,  and 
a  claim  for  contribution  by  tho  owner  of  the  goods  will  be 
stistainerl.  The  crew  have  no  authority  to  make  a  jettison 
of  tlie  cargo  without  the  order  of  the  master,  even  in  a  case 
of  actual  distress.  By  tho  law  of  England  and  the  V.  S. 
it  is  not  required  that  the  master  should  consult  with  the 
officers  of  the  vessel  or  tho  seamen  in  determining  whether 
a  necessity  for  jettison  actually  exists,  but  in  cases  of 
doubtful  emergency  proof  that  such  constiltation  occurred 
woubl  be  of  importance  as  indicating  that  the  nta«ter  acted 
with  careful  (leliberation.  The  laws  of  most  European 
nations  recjuire  that,  if  practicable,  the  officers  should  be 
consulted,  unless  the  vessel  is  unmistakably  in  a  situation 
of  great  peril.  In  making  the  jettison  those  goods  should 
first  be  mieritii'C'l  which  an*    the   leii"!    neecx^sirv.  the   mo«t 


bulky,  and  the  least  valuable,  if  sufficient  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  making  the  selection.  But  where  there  is  an 
immediate  necessity  for  lightening  the  vessel,  any  part  of 
the  cargo  may  be  thrown  overboard  as  may  be  nn'st  con- 
venient. If  goods  shipped  on  deck  be  taken  for  this  pur- 
pose, their  owner  must  bear  the  loss  without  contribution, 
unless  there  is  a  general  usage  to  carry  such  articles  on 
deck,  for  they  render  the  navigation  more  diflicult.  and 
arc  particularly  exposed  to  peril.  But  if  the  goods  were 
placed  on  deck  without  tho  consent  or  knowledge  of  the 
owner,  the  carrier  will  be  responsible  in  such  a  case  for  their 
value.  If  any  injury  be  done  to  tho  vessel  or  to  the  por- 
tion of  the  cargo  -which  is  saved  by  reason  of  the  jettison, 
as  if  the  deck  should  be  cut  open  to  get  out  the  goods 
which  are  sacrificed,  the  loss  thus  occasioned  will  also  be  a 
subject  of  general  average.  If  the  article  sacrificed  is  tho 
direct  cause  of  the  danger,  as  in  the  case  of  cotton  taking 
fire  by  spontaneous  combustion,  there  will  be  no  claim  for 
contribution  t<i  recover  its  value.  The  sacrifice  must  bo 
voluntary  in  order  that  it  may  be  a  case  of  jettison,  for  if 
goods  be  swept  away  by  the  violence  of  the  sea,  the  lo«s 
falls  upon  the  owner  or  his  insurer.  So  it  must  appear 
that  as  the  result  of  the  sacrifice  other  property  at  ri<k 
was  saved.  It  is  only  necessary  in  order  to  found  a  claim 
for  contributirm  upon  general  average  that  there  be  a  res- 
cue from  the  immediate  peril  in  which  the  jettison  occurred  : 
if  the  ship  is  subsecjuently  lost  in  another  disaster,  the 
property  saved  from  this  second  disaster  must  contribute  to 
the  original  loss.  (See  Parsons  on  Maritime  Late  :  Abbott 
on  Shippinff:   Kent's  Commcntariefi.) 

George  Chase.     Revised  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Jet'ty  [Fr.jrt^r,  from  Lat.  jarere,  to  "throw,"  and  im- 
plying "  projecting"  or  "jutting"],  a  dike,  pier,  or  embank- 
ment projecting  into  the  sea,  wbelhcr  constructed  of  tim- 
ber, earth,  fascines,  stone,  etc..  or  a  combination  thereof. 
The  roost  common  ajjpUcation  is  to  tho  mouths  of  rivers  or 
at  the  entrance  to  tidal  harbors,  whereby  to  narrow  the 
channel,  concentrate  the  current,  and  thus  increase  Ilic 
depth  over  the  entrance  bars.--  Most  of  the  IIaiibors  or 
Amerk'AN  Lakes  (see  that  head)  are  the  mouths  of  rivers 
or  "creeks"  thus  treated.  In  Great  Britain  the  mouths  iif 
tho  LiflTey,  Blyth  (Ireland),  Esk,  Wear,  Dee.  Slaney,  Ayr, 
arc  so  made,  and  the  tidal  harbors  of  Howth,  Kingston. 
Leith,  Donaghadee,  and  Ramsgate  so  improved.  Also  the 
tidal  harbors  of  Gravelini  s,  Dunkirk.  Calais,  Boulogne. 
Dieppe,  Fecamp,  etc.  (France),  of  Ostende  (Belgium),  and 
many  others  owe  their  existence  to  jetties.  To  the  (►der, 
the  Vistula,  and  many  river-mouths  of  the  Baltic,  jetties 
have  been  applied  with  more  or  less  success. f  The  nu'St 
noted  instance,  however,  is  the  Sulina  mouth  of  the  I>an- 
ube,  which,  a  permanent  depth  of  20  feet  having  been  at- 
tained where  was  but  an  average  of  9  feet,  instead  of 
being  the  worst  harbor,  at  once  took  rank  among  the  )>est 
harbors  in  the  Black  Sea.  Another  instance  of  signal  suc- 
cess is  tlie  improvement  of  ship-navigation  to  Rt)ttprdani 
by  making  a  new  mouth  to  the  Maas  through  the  Hook  of 
Holland,  and  prolonging  the  new  outlet  into  the  sea  by 
jetties.  (See  IIarboU;  also  f'rof.  Papers  Corpt  of  Eugi- 
ti'-rrs  U.  S.  A.^  No.  22.)  This  great  work  is  a  double  suc- 
cess, inasmuch  not  only  that  the  jettied  entrance  has  thus 
far  fulfilled  expectations,  but  that  the  uuthud  of  countrtir- 
tiou  of  fascines  and  stone,  for  the  first  time  npjdied  to  onen 
sea-exposures,  has  rcalizerl  all  anticipations  and  establisneil 
a  certain  and  economical  way  of  constructing  these  sea- 
works  on  sand-coasts.   (See  Harbor.) 

A  cross-section  of  one  of  these  jetties  is  given  in  Fig.  1. 
Tho  body  of  tho  structure  is  made  up  of  successirc  layers 


•In  this  application  the  term  "parallel  piers"  Is  commonly 
used  tu  IjiKliind  for  iellies. 

t  Mr.  .lames  It.  1-Jids  has  furnished,  as  compiled  from  authentic 
wiurces.  the  fo]luwiiti;  table  of  eighteen  rivers  in  KuniiK'  where 

jetties  have  been  elTeetive.  ,\t  some  of  the  rivers  named  the 
jelties,  IhouKh  not  yet  entirely  completed,  have  already  been 
of  great  benefit  to  navigation:  ' 

Ori|(lD«l        Prmrnt 
Namci  of  riven.  Coiintrjr.  dt'iiih.  dcpili. 

fct-l.  fivt, 

panulw Roumanln.  Turkev 7  to  11    20i  to  2U 

Maas Holland  (new  mouth)..    00  17    to  I« 

Trave Prusnio 7  18 

Oder '•       7  23  to  21 

AVarne  or  Warnow...        "       6  13 

Persante "       4  IS 

WIpp-r "       4  13 

Pn-cel "       12  20 

SloliH* "       4  14 

Nlemcn "       10  2^1  to  21 

Mbau Russia „ fi  IC 

Dwlna "     fl  18 

WIndftu "     4  9 

i»ernau "     3  12 

Nissa Sweden 5  12 

Konne "       6  9 

All  ran "       6  9 

<irenane Denniark fi  13 


1404 


JETTY, 


of  mattreasex  (Dutch,  Zink-stukken),  each  overspread  by  a 
layer  of  smatl  quarry-stone.  The  ground-plan  of  a  mat- 
tress is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  by  which  it  will  be  seen  to  be  made 

I-'IG.  1. 


a.50  MUW 


with  a  top  and  bottom  yn'llage  of  faacines,  the  interstices 

between  the  fascines  and  filling  (second  layer)  between  the 
grillages  being  bundles  or  layers  of  osier.     A  cross-section 


Cross-section. 

of  the  completed  mattress  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  On  the  top,  I  retained.  Full  details  of  this  kind  of  construction  are 
partitions  of  hurdle-work,  n,  a,  divide  the  surface  into  given  in  works  cited  ;  the  following  brief  notes  and  above 
square />(■»«,  so  that  the  stone  thrown  on  for  sinking  may  be  ■  diagrams  were  kindly  furnished  the  writer  by  the  dislin- 

Tic.  2. 
li-rnmn-mfTTTTff'TrrrTi^iTrrir^ 


Details  uf  a  Mattress. 


guished  engineer  (P.  Caland,  inspector  of  the  Waterstaat) 
under  whose  direction  the  work  at  the  Maas  entrance  has 
been  executed: 

Fio.  3. 


L  iub6-sc(.liuii  uT  a  Mattress, 

"The  thickness  of  a  mattress  varies  from  0.40"  to  0.50™ 
(lG-20  inches);  length  and  breadth  varying  according  to 
circumstances.  Their  breadth  is  limited  to  25  metres,  since 
otherwise  their  transportation,  .linking,  and  ballasting 
would  offer  too  great  difficulties.  Their  length  is  unlimited. 
However,  as  mattresses  destined  to  be  sunk  at  sea  must  be 
ballasted  with  great  speed,  too  great  lengtli  would  bo  un- 
advisablc.  The  largest  piece  sunk  at  the  jetties  of  the  new 
outlet  for  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  from  Rotter- 
dam to  the  sea  had  a  length  of  50  metres  and  a  breadth  of 
28  miitrcs,  or  a  superlicial  area  of  1 100  square  metres.  The 
courses  of  mattresses  must  overlaji  joints — i.e.  they  ought  to 
bo  sunk  so  that  the  joints  of  the  under  course  are  covered  by 
the  ujiper  cour.«5e.  The  mattress  is  made  on  the  sea-beach 
near  the  jetty,  between  high  and  low  water,  and  when  con- 
sfrueted  floated  to  the  sinking-place,  where  it  is  fastened 
by  anchors  and  ropes,  and  placed  as  exactly  as  possible 
above  the  chosen  spot.  Then  the  ballast-stone,  weighing 
onanaveragc  10  to  50  kilogrammes  (01)  to  112  pounds),  from 
boats  or  small  vessels  surrounding  the  mattress,  is  to  be 
laid  on,  first  chiefly  on  the  middle  and  then  also  propor- 
tionally divided  over  the  whole  surface,  till  the  mattress 
iinmerges.  The  sinking-lines  (with  which  the  mattress  is 
attached  to  the  vessels )  are  then  payed  nut,  at  last  detached, 
and  in  the  mean  time  still  more  ballast  is  cast  on  the  mat- 
tress: the  total  ([uantity  amounting  to  about  700  kilo- 
grammes (1600  pounds)  per  cubic  metre  (14  cubic  yards) 
of  total  volume.  When  the  fascine-work  of  the  jetty 
is    raised   above   low    water,    the    oak    piles    are    driven 


through,  as  inclioatcd  in  Fig.  1.  The  rows  of  oak  pilos 
rcaciiing  two  metres  above  the  water-line,  and  driven  into 
the  bottom,  consolidate  the  jetty.  I'nder  tlie  track  of  Iho 
rails.  laid  for  conveyance  of  stone  and  other  material, 
rows  of  piles  arc  dri\"en  through  all  the  layers  into  tho 
bottom  of  the  sea.  The  stakes  of  the  other  rows  are 
shorter,  and  only  serve  to  secure  the  stone  revetment. 
Between  the  rows  of  piles  around  the  jetty  forming  the 
fore-berni,  and  outside  this  berm,  heavier  stone  is  jilacod, 
weighing  on  an  average  500  kilogrammes  (1125  pounds). 

"From  low-water  line  to  the  t()])  line  the  jetty  is  formed 
of  osier,  laid  down  in  layers  of  0.25'"  thickness,  secured 
by  huriiles  placed  at  a  distance  of  O.GU'".  The  space  be- 
tween these  hurdles  is  filled  up  to  the  top  with  rubbish  or 
waste  stone;  the  entire  top  surface  of  the  jetty  mutt  be 
covered  with  stone  weighing  on  an  average  50  kilogrammes. 
In  order  to  get  well-eouncctcd  joints,  stones  of  a  nioro 
regular  appearance  are  employed  for  this  pavement.  As 
already  stated,  experience  has  proved  the  stability  of  this 
construction,  neither  heavy  storms  nor  strong  currents 
being  able  to  datuage  the  jetties.  Should  the  bottom  along 
the  head  and  the  edges  be  abraded,  those  parts  of  the  mat- 
tresses protruding  from  tho  jetties  will  by  their  flexibility 
conform  to  the  inequalities  thus  produced,  and  protect  tho 
work  from  undermining.  On  a  movable  bottom  the  fore- 
going method  of  construction  otl'crs  guaranties  of  solidity 
which  recommend  its  employment  wherever  tho  materials 
for  fascines  can  bo  readily  had." 

The  question  of  an  ndnfuutc  mivitfnhle  outfrt  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi Piriver  has  turned  attention  to  the  feasibility  of  an 
optn  river-month  by  the  use  of  jetties.  The  recent  board 
of  engineers  which  visited  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
vestigating tho  use  and  success  of  the  method,  recommend 
"parallel  dikes  or  jetties,  constructed  of  brush,  fasciiits, 
and  stone,  in  the  same  general  way  as  used  by  Mr.  ("alantl 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Maas,"  to  be  applied  to  tho  South  Pass 
of  the  Mississippi;  and  in  contormity  thereto  Cougres.s, 
iMar.  4,  1875,  authorized  "James  B.  Eads  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  with  such  others  as  may  bo  associated  with  him,  (j 
construct  such  permanent  and  sufficient  jetties,  and  such 
auxiliary  works  as  are  necessary  to  create  and  perm.inenily 


.lEVONS— JEWELKY:   ITS   MANUFACTURE  IX   AMERICA. 


1400 


mainlniD,  as  hereinafter  set  forth,  a  wide  aod  deep  channel  grant,  construction  must  be  '' substantially  commenced" 
between  tbo  South  Pass  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver  uud  the  within  eight  month:^,  a  navigable  depth  of  20  feel  secured 
Gnlf  of  Afoxico/*  etc.  etc.     Under  th&  stipulations  of  this  |  within  thirty  months,  from  the  approval  of  the  act  (Mar. 

Fio.  4. 


lutermediate  section  of  jetties. 


4,  IBTft).  Moreover,  an  additionnl  depth  of  two  feet  per 
annum  is  stipulated  for  until  a  total  depth  of  .10  feet  is  at- 
tained. Fig.  4  represents  a  medium  section  (a  mndificalion 
of  Mr.  Caland's,  Fig.  1 )  of  the  jetties  |>roposcd  by  the  board 
already  referred  to.  At  the  outer  ends,  where  the  water  is 
30  feet  deep,  the  section  attains  very  great  magiiiludc. 

Other  methods  of  jetty  construction  are  comprised  in 
what  has  been  said  under  the  other  heads.  (Sec  Hakbor, 
Hakdors  of  tub  American  Lakes,  and  Brkakwater.) 

J.  G.  Barnard. 

Jev'ons  (William  PtanlevK  b,  at  Liverpool,  England, 
in  I8;j.'».  is  a  grandson  of  William  Roscoe,  the  historian: 
was  educated  at  University  College.  London  ;  held  an  aj>- 
pointment  in  the  Australian  royal  mint  at  Sydney  I8o4-.V.l ; 
returned  to  England  vid  the  V.  S. ;  became  follow  of  his 
college  in  1864,  and  was  appointed  in  ISfdJ  professor  of 
logic,  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  and  Cobden  lecturer 
on  political  economy  in  Owens  College,  Manchester.  Ho 
has  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  Vnhte  o/ (Jofd  (I8(k'.). 
showing  the  depreciation  of  the  precious  metals;  Tfip  Cimt 
Qnegtion  (18tf;>),  showing  the  probable  impending  exhaus- 
tion of  the  English  coal-fields,  and  the  expediency  of 
liquidating  the  national  debt  in  lime;  Efftncntnrif  Lcshohh 
in  Lof/tc  i  I H70 ) :  Theortf  of  Pttftttrnt  Economy  ( IS"!  ).  and 
an  elaborate  treatise  on  Tlu^  Prinr-iplca  of  Science  (1874), 
in  which  numerous  original  ideas  concerning  processes  of 
reasoning  are  propounded. 

Jcw'el,  or  Jewell  (Jons),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Budcn,  Devon- 
shire. England,  May  2 J,  Io22:  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Eilivar<l  VI.  became  a  Protestant  min- 
ister. In  the  reign  of  Miiry  be  was  expelled  from  Oxforcl 
by  the  Uomanists ;  went  to  Strasburg  at  tbo  invitation  of 
Peter  Martyr,  and  engaged  in  teaching.  Returning  to 
England  after  the  accession  of  Elimbeth,  he  aided  in  all 
the  measures  for  the  ro-establislunent  of  Protestantism, 
was  made  bishop  of  Salisbury  in  I.ififl,  and  was  the  most 
eloquent  defender  both  in  the  pulpit  and  witli  the  pen  of 
the  accumplished  Reformation.  Resides  many  cc>ntrover- 
sial  pamphlets  against  the  Catholic  champion.  Dr.  Thomas 
Har  ling,  ho  wrote  in  Latin  his  famous  Apolofjin  EcrlcHiir 
AnijUninx  (1  j62),  ever  since  esteemeil  a  elaiisic  of  the  An- 
glican Church,  a  coriy  of  which  was  placed  by  order  of 
Kli/.abeth  in  every  English  church.  D,  at  Monkton-Far- 
leigh  Sept.  22,  1571. 

Jew'ellf  county  of  Kansas,  hounclcd  on  the  \.  by  Xe- 
braska.  Area,  'JUO  t<quare  miles.  It  is  a  high  rolling 
prairie  retina,  with  a  good  srdl,  especially  near  the  streams. 
It  alfords  good  pusturitge.     Cap.  Jewell  City,     Pop.  207. 

Jewell  (  Marshall),  b.  Oct.  20.  1825.  at  Winchester, 
X.  II.  ;  was  bred  a  tanner,  and  afferwanls  was  extensively 
cngageil  in  tilegrapli  const  ruction  in  the  Suuth- western 
•Slateit.  In  18.50  he  began  a  successful  business  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  where  ho  manufactured  leather  belting.  Ho 
supported  the  Union  vigorously  during  the  late  civil  war; 
was  chosen  governor  of  Cunneeticut  in  18(50,  IS7I,  and 
1872:  U.  S.  minister  to  Russia  ls7.'J-7  I ;  postmaster-gen- 
eral in  1^71. 

Jewell  Centre,  post-v,  of  Centre  tp.,  Jewell  co., 
Kan. 

Jewell  City  jJewkll  P.  0.),  a  v.  of  Buffalo  tp.,  cap. 
of  Jewell  CO.,  Kan.,  built  on  a  beautiful  plain  surrounded 
with  timber  :  has  a  weekly  newspaper,  large  .-ebool-house,  (1 
■•trres,  \  churches,  large  nurseries,  various  shops,  etc.  Coal 
is  t'otind  in  the  vicinity.        M.  Winsor,  Eh.  "Diamond." 

Jew'elry  and  Jewelfl,  terms  used  in  a  oonflncd  seniic 
for  pr<-einus  stones  sot  in  goM  or  silver  and  worn  as  per- 
sonal urnamenis,  but  more  generally  applied  to  ornaments 
made  only  of  the  precious  uioluls. 

Paris  is  in  tliis  branch  of  iniluslry  (he  great  factory  fur 
the  world,  and  sells  to  It  annually  jewelry  to  the  value  of 
nearly  tlO.IMtil.OOi)  francs,  of  wliich  about  one-half  is  for 
gnld-w(»rk,  the  other  for  precious  stones.  (Jreat  pains  aro 
taken  in  Paris  to  protect  purcbaxers  froni  boinj;  deceived  ! 
in  any  way.  Only  three  grades  of  gold  aro  allowed,  and  i 
these  aro  set  forth  by  olhciul  stamps  ip»int;oum).     In  every  | 


\  largo  French  city  there  is  a  so-called  bureau  of  guaranty, 
where  all  new  jewelry  is  chemically  tested  with  great  care. 
The  English  also  endeavor  to  secure  a  standard  nf  value  for 
their  jewelry,  but  recent  revelations  have  shown  that  the 
"Hall  mark"  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  the  evasion^ 
having  been  both  flagrant  and  extensive.  For  the  U.  S. 
the  only  rule  is  Cuvcnt  emptor — "  Let  the  purchaser  be- 
ware," or  look  out  for  himself.  Tliere  are  in  Paris  900 
manufacturing  jewellers  (masters),  S26  shops,  and  77  dia- 
mond and  gem  merchants.  In  London  there  are  512  jew- 
ellers, 4  wedding-ring  makers,  29  gold-chain  makers,  II 
j  gold  cutters,  2  mourning-ring  makers,  :i9  diamond  cutters 
and  setters,  109  diamond  merchants,  ^J  dealers  in  rough 
!  diamonds  only,  S  jewel  merchants,  25  pearl  merchants,  7 
I  dealers  in  jewellers'  requisites,  and  3.'i  jewelry-case  makers. 
I  The  boast,  however,  which  a  French  writer  makes  of  tho 
great  cheapnens  with  which  jewelry  is  now  made,  and  "the 
extraordinary  degree  to  which  an  immense  number  of  tools 
I  ingeniously  perfected  has  wonderfully  diminished  all  tho 
I  difficulty  of  workmanship,"  is  a  proof  that  in  France  it  has 
j  been  reduced  from  an  art  to  a  mere  manufacture. 
t  Silver  jewelry  has  become  of  late  years  a  very  exten- 
I  sive  branch  of  industry.  That  of  London  is  the  most 
I  elegant  in  the  world,  being  in  exquisite  taste,  simple,  and 
j  extremely  cheap.  There  are  only  ^o  manufacturers  spe- 
cially devoted  to  this  branch  (silversmiths  not  included), 
but  tho  quantity  which  they  produce  is  immense.  Moat 
of  their  work  is  in  strictly  antique  fashion.  Elegant  sil- 
ver jewelry  is  also  made  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Normandy; 
and  that  of  Russia  (inlaid  with  enamel  and  chased)  is 
of  remarkable  beauty.  There  aro  in  Paris  141  manufac- 
turers of  silver  ornaments,  of  whom  only  97  make  what  is 
strictly  jewelry.  Two  grades  of  silver  only  are  permitted. 
Steel  jewelry  is  extensively  made  both  in  France  and 
Germany.  For  this  soft  or  malleable  iron  is  at  first  em- 
])loyed,  tho  surface  of  whieh  is  ease-hardened — ('.  e.  tho 
object  is  worked  or  filed  while  red.  an<l  steeled  after  the 
form  is  given.  Many  piccfcs  aro  made  by  passing  soft  iron 
while  red  hot  between  steel  rollers  in  which  the  pattern  is 
cut  in  intoffUit.  Polishing  is  efiected  by  means  of  wheels 
of  wood  or  tin  with  emery  and  English  plate-powder  for 
tho  portions  in  relief,  and  with  brushes  for  the  in<lentalions. 
There  aro  in  Paris  over  100  manufacturers  of  steel  orna- 
ments, employing  1500  workmen.  Ivory  jewelry,  which 
was  almost  unknown  till  within  a  few  years,  is  now  made 
in  immense  quantities  in  France,  (Jcrmany,  and  England. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  the  raw  material  has  increased  in 
value;  the  demand  for  ornaments  made  from  it  has  also 
iiugmentcd.  There  aro  at  present  in  London  ItO  ivory- 
carvers,  nil  of  whom,  in  addition  to  other  ribjccts,  mako 
brooches  and  earrings.  Tortoise-shell  jewelry  is  gener- 
ally set  off  with  spots  and  small  plates  of  gold.  Thirty 
years  ago  tho  manufacture  was  eonlined  to  Rome  and  Na- 
ples, and  in  Lsri8  there  were  only  six  men  who  made  it  in 
Paris;  at  jiresent  Ihero  aro  in  that  city  12  establishments 
devoted  to  this  jewelry  alone.  A  singular  specialty  In 
personal  ornaments  is  the  so-eiilIe«l  mourning  jewelry,  some 
of  which  consists  of  gold  and  black  enamel,  the  greater 
part,  liiiwever,  being  mado  of  jet,  human  hair,  and  vulcan- 
ite— the  latter  an  .Vmeriean  invention.  There  an-  in  Paris 
60  manufiieturers  of  mourning  jewelry,  and  al>out  ItO  more 
who  nuinufaelure  hair  ornaments  only;  in  London  tliere 
or©  25  of  the  latter  and  Li  jet-workers.  Jet  is.  however, 
made  extensively  in  all  tho  cities  of  (ireal  Britain,  that  of 
Whitby  being  preferred.  This  kind  of  jewelry  was  verv 
well  made  in  Enghiiid  during  the  pre-historic  Stone  A^e, 
and  tbo  jet  of  England  was  priited  of  old  by  tlie  Romans. 
An  old  British  jet  neeklaoe  is  engraved  in  Wilson's  i'rc- 
hiatoric  Srotlumi.  Amber  hu*  of  late,  in  oommon  with 
jet,  become  a  fashionable  material  for  personal  ornaments. 
It  is  principally  nmnufaclured  in  (Jcrmany.  Old  aiiil)er 
beads  which  have  become  rich  deep  brown  in  color  bring 
a  very  high  priee.  Ciiarlkh  ti.  Lklanu. 

Jewelry:  ItN  Mauuftictiirc  in  Americii.  In  the 
cob>Mial  period  the  wearing  of  jewelry  was  at  fir.-t  discour- 
aged in  tho  New  Englan<l  colonies;  it  was  regarded  aa 
one  of  tho  "devices  of  Satan;"  and  aside  from  what  was 


140(3 


JEWETT. 


brought  over  hv  the  wealthier  immigrants  there  was  vtry 
Uttle^demand  for  it.  (ioU  beads  were  handed  f'"-  f  ™ 
mo  her  to  daughter  as  heirlooms,  and  as  the  colon.sts  be- 
came prosperous  an  order  was  occasionally  guen  to  the  no 
over-s'l^ilful  goldsmiths  of  the  time  to  make  up  some  o     he 


nVPr    ski    till    COHlSUlllilSWl    im.^    mn-    ."    . -I- 

carefullv  hoarded  guineas  or  doubloons  into  beads  or  mas- 
"ve  gold  rings  or  chains.     In  New  York,  Maryland,  and 
V  rginia  therf  was  a  greater  demand  for  gold  ornaments: 
gold  rings,  beads,  earrings,  watch-seals,  and  eha.ns  we  e 
^,ore  worn-not  that  the  colonists  possessed  '"o™  7™ 
than  those  of  New  England  or  of  Pennsylvan.a  "»;>•;" 
Jersey,  but  because  there  were  not  so  many  of  "  -^     "'  "^° 
or  ascetic  ideas  controlling  their  m.nds       Mo.t  of  •' «  J"  ; 
eiryused  in  these  colonies  was  imported,  the  fine  arts  being 
no   more   cultivated   there   than    in    New   England.     The 
•■watchmakers."  or  more  properly  the  dealers  m  and  re- 
pairers of  watches  (for  no  watches  were  made  in  the  colo- 
nies), were  also  importers  of  jewelry  to  a  limitcl  oxten 
"„d   ma,le  in  many  eases  the   simpler  articles  mentioned 
above  ;    but   there  is   good  reason   for  believing  earrings, 
Pins  bracelets,  watch-seals,  and  the  finer  qualities  of  neck- 
Le    and  chains  were  not  manufactured  in  this  country 
and  that  the  setting  of  the  precious  stones  for  ornamental 
pun-o  cs  was  not  attempted'before  the  Revolutionary  war 
Z?  indeed,  till  some  years  after  it.     The  country  wa    left 
°o  much  impoverished  by  the  war  that  there  was  very  little 
denTand  for  luxuries  for  some  years,  and  the  currency  was 
"n  «uch  a  deplorable  condition  that  its  purchasing     ower 
was  almost  e'n.irely  gone.     The  firs.  >nanufac  urer  o.  jew^ 
elry  of  whom  we  can  fin.l  any  account  was  Mr  Epaphras 
Hinsdale  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  a  man  of  great  mechanical  in- 
eenuity  and  remarkable  skill  as  a  workman.      He  estab- 
fished  a  manufactory  of  jewelry  in  that  town,  on  a  small 
cale.  somewhere  between  IVyO  and     79o,  ''"^  gradi  ally 
increk.ed  it.     Mr.  Hinsdale  died  in  ISIO.  but  a  Mr.  Taylor,  , 
wh"  had  been  one  of  his  employes,  and  perhaps  a  partner, 
succeeded  him  and  enlarged  the  business  greatly.    -Mr.  lay- 
or  w's  a  man  of  genius  in  the  mechanical  arts,  anJ  .uvent^ 
ed  numerous  machines  to  perfect  the  manutaeture.    Both 
Mr.  Hinsdale  and  Mr.  Taylor  made  earrings,  V'"^' '  ^^^T 
let.,,  chains,  and  necklaces,  all  of  hue  K""'- "^'"j^'  f '  '^^^^ 
time  gold  of  not  less  than  111  carats  fineness.     Their  work 
rs  111  solid,  in  distinction  from  the  filled  work  of  which 
ITsLn  speak  presently.     It  was  f '^"  ^^''^^  '^  f '^^l^; 
Mr   Hinsdale's  beginning  at  Newark,  but  not  after  1800 
fhat  two  or  ,hrce°  manufacturers  of  jewelry  commenced 
liisnoT,  in  Providence,  R.  I.      Vcr.V  ^oon,  and   perhaps 
from  the  first,  they  began  to  make  what  has  ever  since  been 
k™ovn  to  the  trade  as  "filled  work"-,',  e.  the  dj-sign  or 
paUern  of   the   jewel,  whether    earring,  pin,  or   bracelet, 
was  stamped  out  from  very  thin  ribbons  of  gold,  usually 
r    18  carets  fine,  and  this  shell  was  filled  with  a  solder  o 
pewter  or  lead  and  tin,  and  a  back  soldered  o°  <>    g°>^  "f 
inferior  quality.     The  thin  shell,  under  well-cut  dies,  took 
very  beautifufforms,  and  the  fineness  of  the  g.dd  caused 
t  to    eceive  a  high  polish  :  and  this  filled  jewelry    which 
couM  be  offered  a'  lo'ver  prices  than  the  solid.  f-n1  «;-"l° 
and  speedy  market.     The  business  has  expanded  until  it 
h"  '  n'ow  reached  an  immense  extent.     In  1812,  Mr.    .eorgo 
F    Downing  commenced  the  manufacture  of  watch-seals  at 
Newa  k"  to^hieh  he  subsequently  ad.led  other  articles  o 
iewelrv  and  removed  to  New  York  nty.n  1821       A  French 
iianufaiturer  named  I,a  (luerre  had  e^'ab  ished  in  New  1 
York  City  in   1S12  a  factory  for  the  production  of  filigree 
]  wclry  and  had  brought  over  several  J'-'-^n/'h  workmen  o 
remarkable  skill.     He  carried  on  the  business  for  many 
yc™rs.      Mr.  Downing,  who  is  still  living  at  the  nge^ot 
ciglt  --five  years,  thinks  that  at  the  time  he  came  to  New 
York-in  1821  <here  were  no  other  manubudij^rers  of  je„c^^^^ 
in  that  city  except  La  Guerre  an.l  hiii.self.    The  \  ankees  he 
says,  aooded  thl  whole  country  with  their    '  A''"'^  work. 
Very  soon  after  1820  other  manufacturers  entered  the  field 
and  from  ISliO  to  18:t7  the  demand  increased  beyond  the 
power  of  producers  to  supply  it.     Largo  amounts  of  jew- 
Tlry  were  Lported  at  that  time.      The  terrible   hnaucial 
disaster  of  18;',7  checked  for  some  years  the  progress  ot 
this  as  it  did  the  production  of  all  other  articles  of  luxury, 
but  with  the  return  of  prosperity  the  demand  was  renewed 
„„,!  constantly  increased  for  many  years   the  discovery  ot 
cold  in  California  and  .\uslralia  adding  largely  to  it.    1  He 
disasters  of  1857  and  the  severe  pressure  of  the  first  years 
of  the  war  .liminished  the  business  for  a  time,  but  the  great 
abundance  of  paper  money  which  followed   the  large  for- 
tunes acquired  by  contractors  and  in  the  shoddy  and  pe- 
troleum  speculations,  and    the    reckless   extravagance  ot 
those   who  had   sud.lenly  acquired  fortunes,  gave  to  the 
iewelry  trade  a  vastly  greater  impulse  than  it  had  ever  l.e- 
fore  received.     The  use  of  diamonds  as  jewelry,  previously 
confined  to  a  vcrv  few,  beoamo  common,  and,  though  un- 
aueslionably  many  spurioui  gems  were  sold  as  diamonds. 
the  demand  for  genuine  etones  became  so  great  that  a  class 


of  diamond-brokers  found  constant  employment,  and  the 
cutting  and  setting  of  these  precious  gems,  which  had  pre- 
viously been  carried  on  mostly  in  Holland,  became  a  rec- 
o..nized  branch  of  the  business  here.      Hut   this  almost 
insane  rage  for  jewelry  had  another  result ;  servants  and 
the  lower  classes  of    society  were  infected  by  it,  and  as 
their  means  were  insufficient  to  purchase  the  genuine  arti- 
cles, there  sprang  up  a  great  trade  in  gilt  and  imitation  gold 
icwelry-paltry  stufi-,  ma.le  often  in  fine  patterns,  of  brass 
iopperf  or'"  oroide  of  gold,"  and  covered  with  the  thiiines 
possible  film  of  gold  by  the  electro-platmg  process.   This 
ra,h  was  and  is  sold  to  the  poorer  classes,  at  an  enormous 
profit,  to  the  amount  of  millions  of  dollars,    /"regard  to 
he  originality  of  the  designs  of  jewelry  manufactured  here 
there  is  not  much  to  be  said  :  there  have  been  combinationp 
of  the  fragments  of  antique  designs,  good,  bad,  and  indif- 
ferent, occasionally  a  gleam  of  something  new  'ntermin- 
gling  with  the  old  :  but  for  the  most  part  the  rococo,  the  fi  - 
ierce,and  the  Etruscan  patterns  have  been  more  or  less 
slavishly  followed;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  jew- 
elry, as" in  furniture  and  architecture,  there  are  not  even 
1  the  germs  of  an  original  American  style.     The  Mexican 
1  and  the  ancient  Aztec  and  Toltec  ornaments  of  gold  ha  e 
Tore  claims  to  originality,  though  not  to  beauty,  the  gold 
ornaments  taken  from  the  graves  of  '^c  Chiriqui    ndians 
'  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  as  well  as  those  found  in  the 
pueblos  of  the  Moquis  and  other  remnants  of  those  races, 
being  far  from  elegant  or  even  graceful  in  form. 

The  following  statistics  will  show  the  progress  of  th.8 
manufacture  in^his  country  within  the  last  three  decades. 
?n   1850  the  manufacture  was  but  moderately  developed. 
The  entire  production  of  the  year  was  reported  as  only 
about  S2.750  000,  and  this  included  watch-eascs  hair  jew- 
elry! and  lapidaries'  work.     In  18C0  there  were  4b.i  estab- 
isLents  for  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  f "';  -'P';;^-;^ 
a  capital  of  SJ,180,T23,  using  raw  matenal  of  the  ^  alue  ot 
95,162,500,  employing  5947  persons  (.:!03  males  and  584 
females),  paying  wages  to  the  '^""X"".  »/.. ^2,W5,056,  and 
producing  goods  to  the  annual  value  of  5.10,41^.811.      llio 
Manufacture  of  hair  jewelry  was  conducted  m  8  establish- 
ments having  a  capital  of  S27,000.  and  using  raw  mater  al 
"the  amount  of  S15,.'!00;  it  employed  42  persons  U'  niales 
and  25  females),  the'wages  paid  were  $10,620,  and  the  an- 
nual product  ?45,C0O.     Lapidaries'  work  occupied  7  estab- 
H^hL'ents,  and  produced  $^6,850 annually.     The    ota   pro- 
duction of  jewJlry  under  these  three  heads  was  *1 0,498,  (.1. 
1  l"    870  inihe  manufacture  of  jewelry  alone  there  were  681 
e  tablUiments.  employing  10,091    hands  (8141   men,  lo45 
women,  405  children),  using  capital  to  the  estimated  amount 
;  Ts  1.787.956,  paying  for  wages  $4,4.1.'!,235,  iis.ng  raw  ma^ 
terial  -alued  at  '$9,187,364,  and  producing  goods  annually  to 
he  value  of  $22,104,032.     In  addition,  lapidary-work  was 
:  conducted  in  13  establishments,  employing  88  persons   to 
"he  annual  amount  of  $107,300.     Hair  jewelry  is  included 

under  the  general  heading  of  "  "----"f,' ' ->» '',%'',7,T2 
cannot  he  ascertained.    Theaggrega  c,  then,,s  $        11  332 


not  ne  asceriameu.    iii>- ogs.^i,. -,      -      ■    ^f  ,u. 

The  annual  product  of  some  of  the  great  centres  of  the 
trade  in  1870  may  he  added.  Providence  produced  ,n  ,4 
establ  hments  $3,086,846;  New  York  City  m  198  estab- 
lishments $9,595,700 ;  Philadelphia  in  53  establishment  , 
*1  ,8.3741:  Spnngfiel'l.  Boston,  and  Cincinnati  respect- 
ivdy,  $370  O00..$338,000,  and  $338,000;  Sau  Fra«"Sco  18 
establishments,  producing  $475,562;  Bristol  eo.,  Mass.(m- 
Hmling  AttleboLugh,  etc.),  33  establishment.  produc,„g 
$1,510,925.  ^-  ^'  B«<«^'"-TT- 

Jew'ctt,  post-T.  and  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  N.  Y.,  m  the 
Catskill  Mountains.     Pop.  1105. 

i„.....«i  (TinRiFS  CoFFisl,  b.  at  Lebanon,  Me.,  Aug. 
1.  f8  fi  gaXt  d'lt  Brown  Iniversity  in  1835;  was  for 
a'lime  student  and  librarian  of  the  Andover  Theological 
5e  inary  i  1843  catalogued  the  library  of  Brown!  n.ver- 
;u;  ^here  he  rcnained  as  ^;J^^^;^V^Z^ ^^^ 
Tnt'Sfrrof  he''Li!tnian  Institution  and  was 
iSssTs  superintendent  of  the  Boston  Public  Library.  1>. 
1  Br^hitre'^e.  Mass.,  Jan.  9,  18.j^.  He  «r..te  a  v  ,  ,„,, 
report  on  the  public  libraries  of  the  1  .  P.  18dO).  and  in 
[ho  sinne  year  brought  forward  an  improved  plan  of  cata- 
loguing books,  on  lao'- 
JPWPtt  (Uey.  Charles  Ratmokd),  b.  July  29,  182s  . 

^li^nTt^peraleM'':  e\erful,''.talous.  and  eminently 
fi  X  mrnlter.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  ■"odcl  presol^ 
uff  older  and  earnest,  bold,  eloquent,  as  a  preacher.  He 
-^^;^:„^erof  the  South  Georgia  con^eneei.,^.he  time 
of  his  death,  July  10.  18,..  ^  y^  „    0. 

Jewett  (L.THP.ni.  b.  at  Canterbury,  Conn.,  Pee.  24 
177^!^;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1795 ;  was  »  ph"';'»" 
li  Putney  and  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.;  member  of  Congress 


JKWKTT— JKWISII    LITERATURE. 


1407 


1816-17:  pastor  of  n  Congregational  church  at  Newbury, 
Vt.,  1821-2S;  publiBhcd  newiipnpcrs  at  Si.  Johnsburv, 
Vt.,  lH2S-.'i2:  and  d.  in  that  town  Mar.  8.  ISfiO. 

Jewett  (Mm.o  Pakkkr),  LI..I>.,  b.  at  St.  Johnsburv, 
Vl.,  ID  180S;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  182;^,  and  at 
AndoTcr  Theological  Seminary  in  1830;  was  a  professor 
in  Marietta  rollcge.  0.,  18:^5-3*8 :  left  the  Presbyterian  and 
joined  the  Da|itist  denomination.  an<(  bneame  president  of 
Vassar  TulK-ge,  Poughkccpsic,  N.  Y.  Uo  is  author  of  a 
work  on  ba]>ti?m. 

Jewett  City,  post-v.  of  Griswold  tp.,  New  London  co., 
Conn.,  un  the  Quinebaug  River  and  Norwich  and  Worces- 
ter H.  K.,  10  miles  N.  K.  of  Norwich.  It  has  cottou  man- 
ufactures and  several  churches. 

Jew^fish,  a  nuuie  given  to  several  fishes  of  the  family 
Serranidie,  attaining  a  weight  of  several  hundred  pounds; 
that  of  Florida  is  the  /^roiuirropM  i/iionn,  of  whieli  a  speci- 
men iu  the  Smithfionian  Institution  weiglied  700  pounds; 
that  of  California  is  StereolepU  ifiyns. 

Jewish  liiteraturc.  Wliilo  Europe  claims  pre-em- 
inence in  the  arts  and  sciences,  Asia  has  been  the  niotlier 
of  religions.  Among  all  the  religious  systems  of  Asia, 
that  which  originated  among  the  Hebrews  excels  in  purity 
and  loftiness.  In  them  the  profound  subjectivcness  of  the 
Semitic  character  found  its  noblest  expression.  Lacking 
that  calmness  of  spirit  which  led  the  (Jrceks  to  ol)servo 
nature  and  to  cultivate  the  plastic  arts,  they  looked  upon 
the  world  of  phenomena  with  a  human  interest,  and  re- 
garded it  solely  in  its  relations  to  their  own  consciousness. 
The  external  was  to  them  no  more  than  symbol.  This 
itlea  dominated  their  history  and  literature.  It  made 
them  a  people.  Being  in  solo  j)ossession  of  monotheism, 
they  became  at  once  united  among  themselves  and  exclu- 
sive toward  their  polytheistic  surroundings.  And  since  a 
religious  idea  was  at  the  very  root  of  their  existence  as 
a  nation,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  interest?  of  religion 
maintained  their  supremacy  during  the  whole  course  of 
their  history.  In  tlio  Middle  Ages,  indeed,  the  Jews,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Arabs,  hccamo  the  mediators  of  tho 
sciences.  Ilut  oven  then  those  of  their  productions  for 
which  originiilily  can  bo  claimed  were  more  or  less  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  discussion  of  religious  eultjccts. 

Tho  most  ancient  monuments  of  Hebrew  literature  aro 
contained  in  the  liible.     Much,  however,  that  would  now 
bo  considered   valuable  was  ncit  preserved   iu  tho  saere<l 
canon,  and  has  been  lost  in  consequence.     The  nature  of 
tho  biblical  writings  at  once  illustrates  the  above  remarks. 
Their  lii^torical  portions  arc  designed  to  show  tho  work- 
ings of  Divine  Providence  in  the  destinies  of  men  in  gen- 
eral, and  particularly  of  tlie  chosen  people.     Uhetoric  be- 
comes in  them  a  vehicle  of  inspiration.     Poetry  is  devoted 
to  the  glorification  of  (Jod,  with  the  exception  of  the  Song 
of  Songs,  perhaps,   and    is    chiefly  inteniled   to    bo    sung 
by    sacred    choirs.       Philosophy,    disregarding    tho    prob- 
lems    of    the    material    wnrld,   is    busy    nn    the    questions 
of   good    and  evil,   and   labors   to  reconcile    tho   ])rcsenco 
of    the    latter    with    the    goodness    of    tho    Creator,  os    in 
Job  and   Ecelesiastes.     The   influenco  of  Persinn  ideas  is 
Tisiblo  in  several  of  the  later  writings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.     To   it  has   been   ascribed   tho   introduction  of  the 
namei  of  angels  ami  the    doctrine  of   a   resurrection    in 
tho  body.     The  contact  of  tho  Hel)rew  and  ({reek   spirit  is 
of  pmfounder  interest.     It  took   place  both   in   Palestine 
and  in    Alexandria.     In    Alexandria   philo-<o]>hy  and  in- 
sptriition  joineil  forces  on  the  basis  of  a  modified  system 
of  Platonism.     A  rich  crop  of  apocryphal  works  in  proso 
and  poetry  sprang  up,  tho  words  of  the  Bible  were  inter-  ; 
preted  so  as  to  express  metaphysical  tenets,  and  those  an- 
thropomorpiiisms  whi4'h  it  cf»nluins,  and  which  hud  at  first  I 
sight    awakened    considerable    suspicion,   became,    in    tho  ! 
new  light  that  Philo  (tho  originator  of  the  theory  of  tho  i 
Logos)   anrl    others    shed     upon    them,   transparent    to    a  ' 
deeper  wisdom.     There,   also,  tho  first  translation  of  tho  ; 
Ililile  intn  (ireek,  known   a^  the  Septuagint,  was  efTeetetL  I 
Iu  Palestine  the  attitude  Judaism  nsHumed  against    Hel- 
lenism  was  hostile  to  tho  last  degree.     Tho  Hebrew  has  ' 
ever    found    it    a    com]iaralively   easy  matter    to    absorb 
the  philosophical  teachings  of  the  age  in  which  ho   lives, 
from    the  ai)senee  of   fixed  dognias    in    his  «)wn    religion, 
but    he    resists    to    the    utmost    any    attempt    to    interfere 
with    the    observance   of    those    practical    c'lmmandmenta  I 
of   his   faith    which    he    regarils    as    its  essential   feature.  | 
Such   an   attempt    was    macle    by   tho    degenerate  (Greeks 
who  ruled    in   Syria  in  the  time  of  .\nti<>chus   Kpiphanrs. 
Tho   consequence  was   that    Ju'laism   retired   upon    itself,  ^ 
that   tireek   culture  and  heterodoxy  came  to  bo   synony-   ' 
mous  terms,  that  the  authority  of  Scripture  was  more  than 
ever  secured   in  the   afiections  of  the  people.      From   that 
time  forth  it  hecame  the  centre  of  their  existence.     All  their 
energies  seem  to  proceed  from  it,  all  their  thoughts  return  | 


to  it.  None  the  less,  innovation  became  a  necessity.  All 
the  biblical  laws  were  no  longer  applicable  to  the  altered 
conditions  of  a  new  age.  I'navoiduble  changes  were  grad- 
ually introduced,  liut  such  was  the  reverence  now  paid  to 
tho  Holy  Writ  that  no  oriiinanco,  however  salutary,  could 
enforce  obedience  unless  it  had  previously  received  at  least 
the  nominal  sanction  of  tho  great  "  Hook."  Tho  teachers 
of  the  people  thus  becamo  doctors  of  the  law.  By  an  in- 
genious method,  which  left  them  tho  widest  latitude  of  in- 
terpretation, they  were  enabled  to  read  from  the  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  whatever  meaning  they  desired  to  read  into  it, 
and  to  fortify  their  own  injunctions  by  referring  thorn  to  a 
divine  origin.  The  inferences  they  drew,  the  analogies  thev 
insisted  upon, wore  in  a  philological  sense  absolutely  reckless. 
Every  letter  ond  word  that  seemed  superfluous,  every  un- 
usual form  of  construction,  was  tortured  into  some  unheard- 
of  signification  :  nay,  they  proceeded  in  defiance  of  all 
grammatical  construction.  Tho  principles  of  jurispru- 
dence, tho  ritual  and  ceremonial  laws,  even  the  rules  of 
decorum,  were  deduced  from  biblical  sentences.  Finally, 
j  the  liction  that  an  oral  law  was  revealed  to  Moses  on  Sinai, 
'  which  from  him  had  been  transmitted  to  succeeding  gen- 
I  orations,  aided  tliem  in  establishing  the  celestial  origin 
of  their  teachings  where  they  might  otherwise  have  been 
j  at  fault.  A  few  of  tho  leading  rabbins  were  llillel,  shortly 
'  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  .Tochanan  b.  Sakkai.  at  the  time 
'  of  tho  destruction  of  tho  temple,  Akiba,  in  the  days  of 
;  Hiulrian,  Juda  tho  Holy,  tho  compiler  of  the  Misbna.  R. 
Meir,  Aba  Areka.  called  Kab,  Raba.  Rabbah,  and  others. 
Of  tho  three  i^rcck  translations  undertaken  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries  of  our  era.  those  of  Aquila,  Theodotion, 
and  Symmachus.  tho  first  in  particular  shows  signs  of 
having  been  largely  influenced  by  the  rablijnical  mode  of 
exegesis.  The  elaboration  of  the  Talmud  continued  down 
to  tho  sixth  century.  J  For  nn  account  of  that  great  work 
SCO  the  article  TAi.Mrn.)  The  existing  stock  of  tradition 
was  classified  at  the  end  of  the  second  century  in  the  six 
divisions  of  the  Mishna.  The  bulky  commentaries  grounded 
on  them  aro  known  as  tho  Gcmaras  of  Palcstiuo  and 
Babylon. 

The  liturgical  compositions  of  tho  Jews  dcscrTo  at  least 
a  passing  notice.  Prayer,  as  distinguislied  from  mere  sup- 
plication, was  tho  only  adequate  form  of  worship  which  a 
monotheistic  religion  could  accept.  Tho  hoathon  gods,  being 
dependent  on  the  gifts  of  their  votaries,  demanded  sacrifice  ; 
tho  Ood  of  tho  prophets  was  exalted  a>)0ve  all  human  fail- 
ings anrl  needs.  There  was  nothing  which  nmn  could  do 
for  him.  To  8or\o  him  was  to  become  like  him.  ''  Holy 
shall  yo  bo,  for  I,  tho  Eternal,  your  God.  am  holy."  The 
desiro  to  imitate  (Jod,  therefore,  heoamo  tho  keynote  of 
Hebrew  worship.  In  onler  to  imitate,  it  is  in  the  first  place 
necessary  to  reganl  tho  object  to  bo  imitated  with  interest 
and  attention.  And  thus  an  endless  dwelling  on  tho 
attributes  of  tho  Deity  became  a  leading  characteristic  of 
Hebrew  prayer — a  ceaseless  heaping  of  epithets,  as  if  (lie 
soul  struggled  to  exhaust  an  infinite  theme.  It  has  been 
remarked  that"tl:o  Jews  pray  motapliysics."  The  cause 
of  this  peculiarity  is  thus  made  plain.  That  admiration 
of  tho  lHvine  Being  should  fincl  vent  in  praise  is  natural. 
Tho  All'iood  is  tho  dispenser  of  all  bounties,  and  has  or- 
dained oven  tiio  seeming  ills  of  life  for  a  wise  end.  Hence 
tho  countless  blessings  which  are  interspersed  in  tho  Hehrew 
service,  and  which  accompany  even  the  most  trivial  occur- 
rences of  daily  life.  Lastly,  a  comparison  between  human 
imperfection  and  the  grandeur  <d"  Him  whom  he  is  called 
upon  to  imitate  leads  the  mind  of  man  to  expect  only  from 
tho  mercy  of  (rod  that  jmwer  which  ho  lacks  to  become 
god-like,  and  be  implores  for  divine  assistance  :  "  I  flv  from 

Thee  to  Thee." 

When  the  Arabs  received,  through  Syrian  channels,  the 
treasures  of  ancient  Greek  thought,  a  new  spirit  of  intiuiry 
was  awakened  among  them,  and  wos  soon  oommunioafod 
to  tho  Jows.  As  early  as  tho  seventh  century  works  on 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  astrology  began  to  appear 
among  them.  Exegetical  studies  received  a  jiowerful  im- 
petus from  tho  new  soot  of  Ananites  or  Karaites,  founded 
about  7'»0  A.  n.  (see  Kahaitks),  who,  rejecting  the  oulhority 
of  tradition  as  represented  by  the  rabbins,  professed  to  re- 
turn to  the  letter  of  tho  Hebrew  Bible  as  the  sole  standard 
of  faith.  Thev  did  not.  it  is  true,  remain  faithful  to  lluir 
professions,  adopting  many  principles  anil  practict-a  of 
post-biblical  origin  ;  and  it  has  been  conjeetured  that  tlu'V 
ought  to  be  considered  the  successors  of  the  ancient  Sad- 
dueees.  .Anaii  himself,  Benjamin  Xahawemli,  and  Nissi  b. 
Noaoh  may  he  mentioneil  among  the  earliest  authors  of 
their  ("cet.  The  introdnction  of  vowel-signs  into  the  loxt 
of . Scripture  was  a  result  of  tho  inen-asod  attention  paifl  to 
philological  pursuits.  Two  systems  were  in\'onlcd.  The 
ono  originated  in  Pnbylonia,  the  other  in  Piilcstine.  The 
latter  in  the  one  in  common  u"e.  The  mysHenl  tendencies 
of  thii  period  found  expression,  notably,  in  tho  so-oalled 


1408 


JEWISH   LITERATURE. 


Book  of  Creation,  a  work  of  small  compass,  but  of  great 
influeiiee,  which  is  held  to  be  a  production  of  the  eighth  or 

ninth  century.  It  cniploya  the  method  of  the  Neo-l*yth;i- 
gorcans,  seeking  to  solve  the  problem  of  creation  with  the 
help  of  numbers  and  letters.  In  the  same  epoch  arose  the 
poutanic  school  of  writers,  with  Etasiir  b.  Kalir  at  their 
head.  Their  verses  wore  designed  for  use  in  the  synagogue. 
iJut  though  the  Pitifim  multiplied  excessively  during  the 
succeeding  centurie?,  there  arc  but  few  of  these  prayers  in 
rhyme  that  possess  any  real  poetic  value.  A  remarkable 
instance  is  on  record  of  the  liberal  spirit  fostered  I»y  the 
encouragement  critical  investigation  received  at  this  time. 
The  exphmation  of  miracles  proposed  by  a  Persian  scholar 
named  Chiwi,  certainly  reminds  one  strongly  ot"  Eich- 
horn  and  the  nationalists.  In  the  first  half  of  tlio  tenth 
century  arose  the  Gaon  (a  title  signifying  "  liis  Ex- 
cellency") Saadias.  born  in  Faium,  Egypt.  lie  engaged 
in  bitter  conflict  with  the  Karaites,  among  whom  Solomon 
b.  .Terucham  was  his  chief  adversary.  Saadias's  main  work 
is  a  philosophical  treatise  entitled  Emunoth  wc  Dcoth  — 
"Faith  and  Knowledge."  In  it  ho  seeks  to  reconcile  the 
commandments  of  the  Bible  and  the  injunctions  of  tradi- 
tion with  the  dictates  of  reason.  He  places  great  emphasis 
on  the  doctrine  of  free-wili  in  opposition  to  a  tendency  to- 
ward fatalism  which  had  been  encouraged  by  the  spread  of 
Islam.  He  was  also  the  authorof  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Arabic,  and  a  commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Creation,  above  mentioned,  is  said  to  be  from  his  pen.  An- 
other commentary  on  the  same  book  is  ascribed  to  his  con- 
temporary, the  celebrated  astronomer  and  writer  on  med- 
icine, Is:iac  Israeli  of  Cairoan.  Judab.  Coraish,  residing, 
like  Israeli,  in  the  N.  of  Africa,  is  distinguished  as  having 
been  the  first  to  introduce  a  comparative  study  of  tho  Chal- 
dican.  Hebrew,  and  Arabic  languages. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  tenth  century  the  supremacy 
which  the  high  schools  of  Babylonia  were  too  feeble  to 
maintain  longer  was  assumed  by  Spain.  Moses,  a  captive 
Talmudist,  having  been  sold  as  a  slave  to  Cordova,  was 
raiisomt-d  by  the  Jews  of  that  citv,  and  placed  at  the  head 
of  their  Talniudical  sclujol.  Under  the  patronage  of  Chasdai 
Shaprut,  the  trusted  adviser  of  Abderrahman  III.,  letters 
nourished.  Alcnahem  b.  Saruk  was  the  first  of  tiie  rab- 
binist  Jews  to  attempt  tho  preparation  of  a  Hebrew  lex- 
icon, and  his  work  shows  signs  of  considerable  learning 
and  freedom  from  prejudice.  Hi?^  opponent,  Dunash  b. 
Librat,  was  among  the  tirst  to  apply  the  metrical  forms 
current  Jimong  the  Arabs  to  Hebrew  poetry.  Chajug,  a 
pupil  of  iMenahem.  disctivered  the  system  of  triliteral  rad- 
icals which  forms  the  basis  of  ilebrcw  grammar,  while  his 
successor,  Abulwalid,  elaborated  a  complete  Hebrew  gram- 
mar and  a  lexicon,  which  is  now  ( ISTO)  being  puiilishcd  in 
the  original  Arabic.  The  eleventh  century  is  illustrated  by 
such  men  as  Bachia  h.  Joseph,  whose  noble  \Tork  on  the 
DiitifjH  of  the  Heart  exalts  the  claims  of  the  spiritual,  moral 
nature  of  man  at  the  expense  of  mere  outward  formalism; 
also  by  the  poetic  vezir  of  tiranada.  Samuel  haNagid  ('*  tho 
prince  ") ;  and,  above  all,  by  tfie  profound  ])hilosopher  and 
poet,  Solomon  tlabirol.  His  system  is  based  on  the  theory 
of  emanation,  and  is  tiie  i)roduct  rather  of  an  ardent  im- 
njjination,  thrilling  with  enthusiasm,  than  of  exact  study. 
His  muse  is  melancholy,  and  dwells  chieily  on  the  pain  and 
sorrow  of  existence.  Yet  his  verso  is  not  lacking  in  power 
and  grandeur  of  expression.  It  has  been  well  said  of  his 
compositions  that  the  5()irit  of  Faust  seenjs  to  pervade 
them.  (For  an  account  of  his  ])hilosophical  work,  /'oji« 
Vitie,  SCO  Munk's  McianycH  dc  Philomphie.  etc.)  While 
Hai,  the  last  of  tho  Gaons  whose  name  is  of  note  (d.  lO.'iS), 
assumed  an  attitude  hostile  to  all  liberal  culture,  the  Tal- 
niudists  of  Moorish  Spain  were  content  to  pursue  their 
path,  without  caring  to  molest  those  who  inclined  to  studies 
ditVering  from  their  own.  This  is  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
Isaac  Alfasi,  the  far-famed  bead  of  the  Academy  of  Lucena, 
whose  labors  to  extract  from  the  interminable  mass  of  dis- 
oussions  contained  in  the  Gemara  a  clear  statement  of  their 
tinal  results  have  secured  him  high  consideration  as  an  au- 
thority in  his  branch  down  to  modern  times.  In  Christian 
Spain  a  poet  arose  in  the  beginning  of  tho  twelfth  century 
(Jehuda  lia  Levi,  b.  in  Castile  1080  A.  n.),  whose  verse  in- 
deed is  tender,  sweet,  full  of  pathos,  but  whose  thoughts 
and  sympathies  are  far  narrower  than  those  of  (Jabirol. 
His  philosophical  work,  the  Cusari,  is  written  in  the  form 
of  a  dialogue  between  tho  king  of  the  Chazarcs  previous 
to  his  conversion  (tho  king  and  his  people  adopted  Juda- 
ism in  the  eighth  century)  and  tho  representatives  of  the 
three  groat  religions,  Christianity,  Islam,  and  Judaism. 
Tho  first  two  being  compi-Ued  to  own  that  their  religious 
records  arc  based  on  the  Hebrew  Bible,  tho  king  confines 
his»  conversation  to  the  Ji-w.  In  the  (-xposition  of  his  j)hilo- 
sophical  icleas  Jehmia  ha  Levi  makes  frequent  use  of  tho 
term  M*i/iif/afi.  which  ni.iy  b-?  rendered  "  herita-jo  of  tho 
Divine  Spirit."     Though  no  human  being  is  excluded  from 


tho  grace  of  God,  there  are  certain  men  and  places  that 
have  betn  gifted  from  the  beginning  with  the  faculty  of 
becoming  peculiar  vehicles  of  his  spirit.  Adam  trans- 
mitted this  gift  to  the  patriarchs,  thence  it  was  obtained 
by  Isr.ael,  and  among  them  was  accorded  in  its  highest 
potency  to  tho  prophets.  Tiic  places  so  selected  are  the 
cities  and  villages  of  the  Holy  Land.  In  accordance  with 
these  convictions  the  poems  of  Ila  Levi  are  inspired  by  an 
intense  yearning  for  Jerusalem  and  the  ruins  of  its  temple, 
and  tho  "songs  of  Zion  "  arc  the  most  eloquent  produc- 
tions of  his  Muse.  Geigcr,  in  his  lectures  on  Jewish  his- 
tory (ii.  p.  HS).  has  pointed  out  the  connection  between 
the  sentimentalism  of  Ha  Levi  and  the  direction  given  to 
men's  minds  by  the  prevailing  doctrines  of  the  Church  in 
his  native  country.  A  contemporary  of  the  above  was 
Abraham  Abeu  Esra,  born  in  Toledo  in  1093.  In  the 
course  of  his  restless  life  his  travels  led  him  to  Egypt, 
Italy,  the  S.  and  N.  of  France,  and  to  England.  He  d.  in 
Rome  in  1107.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, of  which  that  entitled  The  ScafcH  is  of  considerable 
historical  value.  His  great  renown  is  due  to  his  commen- 
taries on  the  books  of  the  Bible.  His  style  is  brilliant,  his 
observations  profound,  and  often  pointed  with  bitter,  cut- 
ting sarcasm.  In  his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  he 
refers  to  those  passages  which  appear  to  preclude  the  idea 
of  Mosaic  authorship;  in  that  on  Isaiah  he  anticipates 
modern  criticism  by  indicating  the  distinction  between  an 
earlier  and  later  prriphet  of  that  name.  He  believed  with  the 
astrologists  in  the  influence  of  the  stars  on  human  destinies, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  entertained  pantheistical  notions 
concerning  the  Deity.  But  he  loves  to  assume  the  mask 
of  simple  credulity,  and  is  fond  of  displaying  an  ostenta- 
tious deference  for  the  views  of  the  ancients,  so  tliat  it  is  a 
matter  of  no  little  difficulty  to  extract  his  true  opinions. 

The  high-water  mark  of  Jewish  literature  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  reached  in  the  writings  of  Maimonides,  born  in 
Cordova  in  ll-'io.  He  fled  with  his  father  from  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  Almohades.  and  at  last  found  protection  and 
security  in  Egypt  under  tiie  mild  sway  of  Saladin.  Among 
his  chief  works  we  mention  his  commentary  on  the  Mishua 
and  the  Miahnch  Thorah  ("Repetition  of  the  Law  "),  in 
which  it  is  his  purpose  to  present  a  complete  and  system- 
atic code  of  ral)binic  law,  and  by  this  summary  to  sup- 
plant the  Talmud  itself;  for  he  was  aware  that  (hat  work 
requires  a  life-study  to  master,  and  leaves  little  or  no 
room  for  the  pursuits  of  science.  The  More  Nchmhim 
{ Dhalalath  al  ffajirin  is  its  title  in  the  original  Arabic — 
''The  Guide  of  Those  that  are  Gone  Astray  ")  embodies 
the  philosophical  system  of  its  author.  In  it  Maimon- 
ides proposes  to  liarmoniae  the  principles  of  religion  as 
laid  down  in  the  Bible  with  those  metaj>hysical  con- 
ceptions which  the  age  inaccurately  ascribed  to  Aris- 
totle. Tho  anthropomorphic  expressions  of  Scripture 
arc  pregnant  with  a  deeper  meaning:  the  ceremonial  ob- 
servances which  it  enjoins  were  largely  instituted  as  a 
safeguard  against  heathen  practices.  The  Deity  him- 
self can  bo  described  by  none  but  negative  attributes. 
Revelation  is  a  union  of  the  individual  soul  with  the  Ac- 
tive Intellect.  The  reward  of  virtue  lies  in  the  high  spirit- 
ual development  which  it  leads  us  to  obtain.  The  tendency 
to  systematize  which  is  thus  apjjarent  in  the  works  of 
Maimonides  induced  him.  in  one  of  his  earlier  writings,  to 
set  up  thirteen  articles  of  faith,  a  step  which  was  equally 
unprecedented  and  dangerous.  The  free,  pure-minded  phi- 
tusopher  might  have  become  the  author  of  mental  slavery 
for  his  people  had  not  tho  spirit  of  Judaism  been  such 
from  the  beginning  as  to  resist  all  attempts  to  hamper  it 
with  dogma. 

.\moug  the  .Tewish  authorities  of  note  at  this  period  in 
Germany  nniy  be  mentioned  Gershom.  surnam».il  "the 
Light  of  the  Exile"  (end  of  the  tenth  and  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century).  He  eradicated  the  last  vestiges 
of  polygamy  among  the  Jews,  and  declared  the  consent  of 
the  wife  a  necessary  condition  of  divorce.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  eleventh  century  lived  in  Troyes  R.  Solomon 
b.  Isaac,  commonly  known  as  Rashi,  a  man  whose  name  is 
familiar  to  every  student  of  Hebrew  literature.  His  com- 
mentaries on  tho  Bible  may  still  be  read  with  interest  and 
advantage.  But  to  the  brief  exjflanatory  notes  with  which 
lie  has  elucidated  all  the  voluminous  works  of  the  Talmud 
we  owe  in  a  great  measure  the  possibility  of  still  compre- 
hending tho  intricate  discussions  of  that  difficult  work. 
Samuel  b.  Meir  (Rashbam)  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
llashi,  his  grandfather  and  teacher,  and  is  distinguished 
for  the  simplicity  and  straightforwardness  which  mark  his 
interpretation  of  Scriptures.  His  brother,  Jacob  Tliam, 
was  among  the  earliest  of  tho  so-called  Tossafists,  a  school 
of  casuists  who  exhanstecl  the  power  of  dialectics  in  fine- 
spun subtleties  of  little  real  value,  that  tended  only  to 
make  the  study  of  the  Talmud  still  more  complex  and  la- 
borious.    Simon  Darshan  deserves  mention  as  the  author 


JEWISH  LITERATURE. 


ijoy 


of  an  oft-quoted  coinpilatioD,  known  as  the  Jalkut,  In 
Italy.  Shabtbai  I>uiiulu  gained  distinction  a^  a  physician. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  new  commentary  on  the  Hook  of 
Creation.  At  tlie  end  of  the  eleventh  century  U.  Nathan 
b.  Jechiel  of  Ituiue  prepared  a  lexicon  of  the  Talmud,  Tar- 
gum,  and  MidraKh,  which  is  still  considered  a  valuable 
auxiliary  to  the  studies  it  was  designed  to  facilitntc.  In 
the  S.  of  France,  the  land  of  heresy  and  free  thought,  wo 
find  in  the  twelfth  century,  besides  a  number  of  distin- 
guished Talmudiats.  such  scholars  as  Abraham  b.  Chija, 
the  mathematician^  the  Kimchis,  and  Thibbons.  .Joseph 
Kimchl  introduced  the  current  classification  of  Hebrew 
vowels.  Of  his  suns,  David  Kiinchi  bears  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  grammarian,  lexicographer,  and  comnientntor  on 
the  Bible.  Juda  Thibbon  translated  intoilcbrtw  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  Saadias,  of  liechai.  and  of  Juda  ha  Levi. 
His  son  Samuel  is  the  translator  of  the  .\fore  Xrhurhim. 
The  devoted  industry  of  these  men  opened  the  rich  mine 
of  Arabico-.Iewish  literature  to  the  countries  of  Christian 
Europe.  Conversely,  the  Latin  works  of  scholastic  authors 
were  now  being  renilered  into  Hebrew,  and  new  channels 
for  the  exchange  of  thought  were  thus  opened.  In  the  tliir- 
tcenth  century  lluurished  the  poet  Charisi,  whose  spirited  im- 
itations of  the  Arabian  Hariri  are  justly  esteemcil.  Joseph 
Ibn  Aknin,  (ho  favorite  pupil  of  Maimonides,  did  not  exert 
that  wide  Jnlluenee  which  one  would  suppose  his  relations 
to  the  great  master  might  have  given  hin*.  At  this  time 
the  writings  of  Maimonides  became  tlio  apple  of  discord 
between  the  friends  of  liberal  culture  and  the  conservatives. 
The  opinions  of  this  philosopher  concerning  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  the  doubts  he  seemed  to  cast  on  the  *'  creation  out 
of  nothing,"  proved  peculiarly  objectionable.  Abraham  h. 
l>avid  of  PosquiC'res  and  Meir  ha  Lc^  i  of  Tulcilo  hiid 
already  raised  their  voices  against  the  new  opinirm  during 
the  lifelimo  of  its  author.  After  his  death  the  struggle 
broke  out  violently.  Solomon  of  Montpellier.  the  leader 
of  the  anti-philosophical  party,  went  so  far  as  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  the  Dominicans  to  crush  his  opponents.  The 
Spaniard  Juda  Alfachar  took  sides  with  the  Provencal 
rabbi,  though  urged  by  David  Kimchi  to  declare  in  favor 
of  Afaimonidcs.  Passions  ran  bi^h  in  either  camp.  A 
settlement  of  the  questions  under  discu.ssion  could  not, 
however,  be  reached.  The  tendency  to  rationalism  as 
exhibited  in  the  exegesis  of  the  period,  continued  to 
grow,  until  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  a 
new  outbreak  occurred.  The  learned,  pious,  and  polished 
Adereth,  the  stern  and  unbending  German  exile,  .lacob  h. 
A^her,  were  at  that  time  the  chief  rabbinical  authorities  of 
Spain.  The  authority  of  the  former  was  invoked  by  tho 
fanatics  of  Mr)ntppllier  to  anathematize  the  ]iarly  of  prog- 
ress, and,  after  offering  a  vain  resistance  for  some  time,  ho 
was  forced  to  yield  to  their  importunities.  IJut  the  right 
of  free  investigation  was  too  socred  a  tradition  within  tho 
pale  of  Judaism  to  give  way  before  the  decrees  of  orthodoxy. 
The  Milrhfimoth  A'lniifii  ("  liattlcs  of  tho  Lord")  by  (Jer- 
8onidi>s,  the  commentaries  of  Kaspi  and  Maestro  \'idal  on 
tho  .\fnre  Xrhiicftiin,  show  plainly  that  tho  spirit  of  phi- 
losophy would  not  Huccuml>  without  a  struggle.  Nay.  in  tho 
fearless  assertion  of  conviction  these  works  transcenfl  even 
the  speculations  of  Maimonides.  The  coeternity  of  matter 
with  (Jod  is  boldly  asserted,  tho  testimony  of  miracles  de- 
nied, etc.  For  all  that,  tho  decline  of  metaphysical  studies 
could  not  bo  arrested.  It  was  brought  on  not  by  the  machi- 
nations of  a  Jewish  priesthood — for  nothing  of  the  kinci 
exir-tefl — but  by  tho  force  fif  adversity  ami  perseculirjn. 
Philosophy  goes  out,  mysticism  steps  into  its  place.  Nach- 
manitles,  the  profound  thinker,  one  of  tho  most  esteemed 
oommcntators  of  tho  Bible,  contributed  largely  to  ensure  it 
a  favorable  reception.  It  was  crystallized  into  a  system  by 
Mose  r|o  Leon  in  thu  latter  half  of  tho  thirteenth  century. 
His  chief  book,  the  Suhnr  (*' Radiance "),  is  written  in 
Chablaic.  or  rather  Syriac,  and  has  remained  the  standard 
work  of  the  Mystics  down  to  (he  present  day.  Ho  nsoribes 
its  authorship  to  .^imon  b.  .Joebai.  tho  hero  of  many  Iegen<ls 
in  the  early  Talmudie  age,  Heneo  the  name  of  Cabbala, 
or  tradition,  which  is  falsely  applied  to  this  and  similar 
productions.  Though  tho  forgery  is  sufficienllv  palpable, 
it  escaped  detection.  Form  and  contents  of  tliis  strange 
composition  equally  attest  its  lute  origin.  The  doctrine 
it  inculcates  rests  on  the  theory  of  emanation.  (lod  is  tho 
Ennut',  the  Fndless.  From  him.  in  successive  gradation, 
tho  higher  antl  lower  worlds  have  come,  until  the  world  of 
matter  and  of  evil  appeared  os  the  last  modiri<'iLti<m  of  his 
Spirit.  The  sefiroth  (originall)*  "numbers,"  then  spheres, 
then  the  presiding  spirits  of  (he  sjiheres)  form  the  ehannels 
between  the  celestial  and  the  terrestrial.  By  skilful  manipu- 
lation of  the  words  of  Scripture,  espeeially  the  |et(ers  of 
tho  ineffable  name  of  (tod,  man  is  able  to  exert  a  macieal  in- 
fluence upon  (he  workings  of  (he  Divine.  The  prrnicious 
tc'idency  of  theye  iilens  did  not  become  widely  manifest 
nnlil  a  (Vw  centuries  after  the  S->hnr'ii  nppearunee. 
V..1..  11,  — S!( 


In  the  mean  time,  it  is  refreshing  to  olvservo  how  vigor- 
ously Jewish  writers  took  part  in  the  popular  literature  of 
the  different  countries  to  which  they  belonged  wherever  their 
oppressors  allowed  them  a  brief  repose.  We  refer  to  11. u 
Sahal.  whoso  erotic  poetry  wa.s  the  delight  of  the  Arabs :  to 
Santob  do  Carrion,  the  Castilian  ;  to  Siisskind  of  Trimberg, 
the  German  Minnesanger;  and  to  Manoello,  or  Immanuel, 
who  was  admitted  to  the  intimate  circle  of  Dante's  friends. 
In  the  vision  of  heaven  ancl  hell  contained  in  the  Ditnn 
of  Manoello,  a  marked  contrast  appears  between  him  and 
his  great  contemporary.  The  Jew  hails  the  great  and  good 
men  of  the  heathen  world,  regardless  of  their  belief  or  un- 
belief, among  tho  dwellers  of  paradise.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century  Chasdai  Crescas  wrote  a  philosophi- 
cal treatise  entitled  Or  Adomti  ('•  Light  of  God"),  in  which 
he  seeks  to  show  that  all  human  actions  arc  controlled  by 
law,  each  effect  being  conditioned  by  an  antecedent  cause. 
He  does  not,  however,  deny  the  freedom  of  the  will.  His 
pupil,  Joseph  Albo,  is  the  author  of  Jemrim  ("Funda- 
mental Principles").  In  this  work  tho  salvation  of  tho 
eoul  is  represented  as  tho  aim  of  human  existence,  and  the 
doctrine  of  Maimonides  that  wc  arc  to  regard  a  progressive 
advance  toward  ])erfection  as  tho  end  of  our  being,  ile- 
clared  insufficient.  Ibn  Sheintob's  views,  laid  down  in  his 
Kchod  Elohim  ("Glory  of  God"),  are  equally  worthy  of 
attention.  Among  tho  polemical  writers  of  (ho  Midcllo 
Ages.  Profiat  Duran.  called  liiodi,  takes  rank  with  tho 
highest.  Tho  atteni]^t  of  converted  Jews.  like  Paulus  de 
Santa  Maria,  Geronimo,  and  others,  to  destroy  the  faith 
of  their  brethren,  provoked  sharp  and  frequent  discussions. 
The  satirical  letter  of  Efodi,  addressed  to  a  former  friend 
and  coreligioni.s(.  is  a  model  of  its  kind.  His  most  pointed 
and  telling  arguments  are  wrapped  in  the  forms  of  conces- 
sion. Simon  Duran  met  the  doctors  of  the  Church  on  their 
own  ground,  and  endeavored  to  prove  from  passages  of  the 
New  Testament  that  Christ  himself  was  unwilling  to  be 
considered  more  than  man.  Toward  the  end  of  the  liftccnth 
century,  Abrabanel,  the  exiled  minister  of  King  Ferdinand 
of  Spain,  wrote  his  commentaries  on  tho  Pentateuch,  the 
books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Samuel,  which  contain  much 
valuable  information  of  interest  to  the  historian. 

Tho  pro{luctions  of  .Jewish  literature  were  at  this  time 
more  quickly  and  widely  disseminated  by  means  of  the  new 
art  of  printing.  The  Jew  Jerome  Si»ncino  is  prominent 
among  tho  early  Italian  printers  for  the  excellence  of  his 
Hebrew  and  classical  publications.  It  is  in  Italy,  indeed, 
that  the  interest  of  Jewish  literature  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury mainly  lies.  Tho  Cabbala,  it  is  true,  found  devotetl 
adherents  in  that  country,  but  rather  among  cardinal?  and 
princes  than  among  Hebrew  scholars.  The  two  counts  of 
Mirandola  are  instances  in  point.  It  is  well  known  that 
even  Keueblin,  the  defender  of  the  Talmud.  sutTered  him- 
self to  be  Iriekcil  by  cabbalistic  mummery.  (M'  Klias  Levita, 
on  the  other  hand,  wc  know  that  he  devoted  his  energies  to 
fioli'l  study  and  investigalion.  He  callecl  attention  to  tho 
fact  that  the  vowel-signs  of  the  Hebrew  Itiljle  were  added 
at  a  comparatively  modern  period,  and  that  we  are  free  to 
disregard  them  in  the  criticism  ot  the  text.  Again,  Asaria 
dci  Uossi  showed  that  the  current  chronology  of  the  Jews, 
dating  from  the  Creation,  is  utterly  untrustworthy  and 
contradicts  well-established  hi'itorical  facts.  He  was  also 
tho  first  to  avail  himself  of  the  Scptuagint  as  a  critical 
instrument.  In  other  European  countries  no  literary  work 
of  any  great  impi>r(anco  was  going  on.  In  Prague,  David 
(lans,  himself  an  nstronomer,  who  correspondeil  with 
Kepler  and  enjoyed  the  soeiety  of  Tycho  Brahe,  wrote  tho 
annals  of  Jewish  aruX  universal  history.  OiIkt  books  on 
history  aj)pcarcil  about  the  same  time.  In  the  middle  of 
tho  century  the  influence  of  the  Cabbala  nninng  tho  Jews 
was  revived  by  Isaac  Luria,  the  di\  ine  Kabbi  Imuic  (Ari), 
who  closed  bis  brief  life  in  .Jerusalem.  To  Palestine  we 
are  also  indebted  for  that  renowned  code  (compiled  by  Jos. 
Kara)  known  n«  (he  Shuhhmi  Artirh,  whieh,  entbracing  in 
its  provisions  the  entire  life,  public  and  private,  of  the 
Israelites,  has  maintained  an  infallible  authority  down 
almost  to  the  present  day. 

In  tho  Seventeenth  century  free  Holland  afforded  nn 
asylum  to  the  Jews.  But  the  literature  of  the  German  and 
Portuguese  settlers  that  soon  arrived  in  great  numbers,  so 
far  as  it  is  distinctively  Jewish,  is  not  ot  any  high  order 
of  merit.  The  wri(inK8  of  Mannssc  b.  I^rael,  his  Addrma 
to  thr  /^rotrrlitr,  lus  Enprrmtra  dc  fitrttef.  Ins  Viiidicattim 
Iff  t/ir  Jrtm,  aro  notieeal)lo  chiefly  for  (heir  practical  bear- 
ings. The  e(uigrega(ion  of  Anisterd;iin  was  infected  with 
the  spirit  of  the  lnqui^ition,  from  whieh  they  bad  suflVred 
so  cruelly  in  (heir  former  home.  They  had  become  narrow 
and  bignled.  and  the  best  men  (hat  arose  in  their  midst, 
Z'riel  <la  Costa,  Benedict  Spinrtza,  were  bi((erly  and  per- 
si-itendy  perseeu(e(|.  In  odicr  countries  the  interes(s  of 
cnhure  faretl  no  l»etter.  In  Poland  the  a((ention  of  schol- 
ars was  absorbed  in  fruitless  discussions  on  barren  themes, 


1410 


JEWISH  SECTS. 


and  high  intellectual  gifts  were  wasted  on  abstruse  ques- 
tions of  Tiilinudic:il  casuistry.  Germany  was  inundated 
with  Polish  rabbis,  and  seemed  to  have  lost  all  |irodiictivc 
power  of  its  own.  As  a  rttrn  ana  in  liv  day  may  be  men- 
tioned tlie  commentary  of  iJpman  Heller  on  the  Ali.^htia, 
which,  with  that  of  Ins  predecessor,  Obadiah  di  Bcrtinoru, 
is  curainonly  printed  alon^^sidc  of  the  text  in  the  standard 
editions.  Italy  alone  enntinucs  to  contrast  favorably  with 
the  j^eneral  gloom  that  had  settled  on  the  Jewish  world. 
There  we  find  the  forerunners  of  the  reform  movement  of 
our  own  time.  Leon  Modena  attacked  the  prcvailinj!;  sys- 
tem of  rabbinical  Jnd;iism,  called  for  a  purification  of 
public  worship,  and  demanded  the  abolition  of  the  cere- 
monial observances  wliich  the  Talmud  had  enjoined.  Jo- 
seph Delmedif^o,  a  man  of  profound  and  varied  Ie:irning, 
the  pupil  of  (iaiileo,  was  no  less  exalted  above  the  bigotry 
of  his  age.  The  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  was 
marked  by  the  great  Messianic  movement,  instituted  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Cabbala,  with  the  impostor  S.  Zewi.  as 
its  aeknowleilged  leader.  The  fever  spread  from  tlic  Kast  to 
the  West,  and  left  deep  traces  in  the  writings  of  the  time. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  young  poet  Ch.  T>.  Luzzato 
caught  the  prevailing  contagion,  and  ruined  a  promising 
career  by  his  devotion  to  mysticism.  Those  dreams  of  a 
great  glory  near  at  hand  not  only  tended  to  sow  discord  in 
the  congregations,  as  may  readily  be  seen  by  referring  to 
the  controversial  writings  of  Eibeschutz  and  Jacob  Emden 
(see  the  article  Jews),  but  they  niso  loosened  the  bonds  of 
social  order,  and,  especially  in  Poland,  where  they  were 
much  encouraged,  brought  about  the  complete  demoraliza- 
tion of  the  common  people.  The  evil  was  at  its  worst  when 
the  time  of  change  was  already  near.  Already,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century,  Jcchiel  Heilprln  had  written  his 
Sccle?-  ha  Doroth  (*'  Order  of  Generations  "),  which  showed 
an  awakening  desire  for  the  cultivation  of  historical  pur- 
suits. The  I'rotestant  Basnage  wrote  his  history  of  the 
Jews,  which  served  to  give  the  Christian  world  some, 
though  indeed  a  very  inaccurate,  knowledge  of  the  great 
theme  which  it  sought  to  illustrate.  Prof.  Wolf  of  Ham- 
burg undertook  to  do  for  Hebrew  bibiiograjihy  what  the 
Buxtorfs  had  done  for  Hebrew  lexicography.  At  last,  with 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  new  era  fairly  began.  A  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  corrupt  idiom  then  cur- 
rent among  the  Jews  liad  been  attempted  before  by  Jos. 
Witzenhausen.  Mendelssohn,  however,  was  the  first  to 
render  the  Pentateuch  into  pure  German,  and  thereby,  like 
Luther  in  his  day,  created  a  powerful  desire  for  change 
among  his  brethren.  Under  the  influence  of  his  disciples, 
the  "  Meas'fim  "  (so-called  from  the  Mcate/  or  *'  Gatherer," 
a  periodical  published  under  their  auspices,  and  of  N. 
Wessely  in  particular),  Hebrew  poetry  revived,  and  a  duo 
regard  for  grace  and  polish  of  form  was  inculcated. 

But  the  great  benclit  which  the  modern  reform  movement 
hns  conferred  on  Jewish  literature  lies  in  the  application 
of  scientific  methods  to  its  study.  Germany  has  in  our 
day  broken  its  long  silence,  and  the  labors  of  its  scholars 
have  brouglit  order  into  the  chaotic  mingling  of  confused 
elements  which  the  literature  of  the  Jews  presented  to  the 
scholar  fifty  years  ago.  The  true  succession  of  generations 
has  now  been,  to  a  great  extent,  restored,  many  works  that 
were  considered  lost  have  been  redeetncd.  and  the  past  is 
being  reconstructed  before  our  very  eyes.  Among  the 
illustrious  men  who  imvodone  this  work  we  mention  Zunz, 
the  pioneer,  .Tost,  Geiger.  Rappoport,  Munk.  .S.  1).  Luzzato, 
Steinschncider,  Derenburg,  Graetz.  Frankel.  As  it  was 
intended  in  the  above  summary  to  indicate  merely  tlio  di- 
rection of  the  great  current  of  .Jewish  literature,  many 
n:unes  nf  authors  otherwise  deserving  attention  have  not 
I'cen  noticed.  The  reader  is  referred  for  full  information 
to  the  works  quoted  in  the  article  on  .Tkwisii  Histouy,  and 
to  the  excellent  treatise  of  Dr.  Steinsehneider  first  pub- 
lished in  Krseh  and  (Jrubcr's  Alhjviu.  Knri/hf.,  iind  since 
translated  into  English  under  the  title  of  Jcwinh  Litera- 
tnre.  Fklix  Adler. 

Jewish  Sects.  Sttdtinreci  and  Phnrigees.  —  Until 
within  a  very  recent  period  the  character  of  these  sects  or 
parties,  which  divided  the  .Jewish  state  in  the  last  two  cen- 
turies preceding  its  downfall,  was  strangely  misconceived. 
The  Pharisees  were  represented  as  having  been  hypocrites 
—  the  Sadducees,  libertines.  We  are  chiefly  indebted  tt) 
the  brilliant  researches  of  Geiger  for  n  more  truthful,  if  not 
yet  complete,  understanding  of  their  principles  and  tend- 
encies. The  Syrian  king  having  attempted  to  introduce 
the  worship  of  images  in  Judjea  by  force  of  arms,  the 
Jews  heeamo  more  closely  attached  to  the  religion  of  their 
fathers,  and  the  »Scriptnre  in  which  it  was  hiicl  down,  by 
reason  of  the  long  struggle  through  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  pass  for  its  preservation.  Even  before  the  Mac- 
eabean  war  a  party  had  been  formed  among  them  who,  to 
ensure  a  stricter  observance  of  the  iMosaic  law,  withdrew 
from  th?  society  of  the  surrounding  j)coples  and  their  own 


less  scrupulous  brethren.     These  were  known  as  "Nibda- 

!im  "  (separatists),  or,  in  the  Aramaic  dialect.  Perishin, 
whence  Geiger  derives  the  name  Pharisees.  In  the  war  of 
independence  the  reigning  family  of  priests  had  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  nation  by  their  subserviency  to  the  in- 
vaders, and  a  new  dynasty,  that  of  the  Hasmoneons,  as- 
sumed the  tiara,  and  soon  alter  the  crown.  The  power  of 
the  jiriesthood,  however,  had  been  sadly  shaken.  It  was 
regarded  with  fear  and  suspicion.  The  Hasraoncans.  it 
is  true,  had  headed  the  war  against  Antiochus  and  his  suc- 
cessors. But  no  sooner  were  they  seated  on  the  throne 
than  they  allied  themselves  with  the  enemies  of  the  sep- 
aratist party,  and  incurred  its  tlispleasure.  This  party  had 
in  the  mean  time  identified  its  interests  with  those  of  the 
people,  and  in  opposition  to  the  class-rule  of  a  favored 
hier.archy  began  to  develop  strongly  dciuncmtic  tendencies. 
The  whole  i»eopIe  arc  priests,  they  said,  and  they  attempted 
to  extend  the  character  of  sanctify  to  every  member  of  the 
community.  In  this  undertaking  they  were  much  hampered 
by  that  book  which  they  regarded  as  the  very  foundation 
of  their  faith.  The  Pentateuch  distinctly  recognizes  the 
prerogatives  of  the  priesthood.  Powerless  to  abolish  them, 
therefore,  they  copied  the  peculiar  rites  and  ceremonies  of 
the  priests,  and  enjoined  their  observance  on  all.  They 
could  not  level  the  law  of  Moses;  they  built  up  new  ordi- 
nances of  their  own  of  equal  height.  Like  the  besiegers 
in  olden  times,  they  raised  wall  against  wall.  Thus,  if  the 
priests  were  commanded  to  perform  certain  ablutions  before 
an  ofl"ering,  every  Israelite  was  now  to  do  the  same  befttre 
sitting  down  to  his  meals;  the  laws  of  purity,  hitherto  in- 
cumbent on  the  servants  of  the  temple  only,  were  declared 
universally  obligatory.  The  blessing  over  the  wine  sancti- 
fied it  so  as  to  replace  the  libation  ;  even  a  substitute  for 
the  offering  of  frankincense  was  not  wanting.  The  repasts 
which  the  Pharisees  held  in  common  are  in  like  manner 
explained  as  imitations  of  the  customs  of  the  priestly  />«- 
trxa.  Every  house  was  designed  to  be  a  temple,  every  hearth 
an  altar.  The  religious  equality  of  all  was  the  watch- 
word of  the  Pharisaic  party.  This  would  aid  in  explaining 
the  origin  of  the  elaborate  code  of  cercnuinies  embodic<l  in 
the  Talmud.  In  the  course  of  time,  when  the  meaning 
which  had  inspired  them  at  their  inception  was  lost,  they 
became  a  heavy  burden.  We  may  observe,  in  passing,  that 
a  desire  to  do  .away  with  temple  and  sacrifice  is  distinctly 
expressed  in  the  later  proplietic  writings  of  the  Bible. 
Also,  a  friendly  spirit  toward  the  Gentile  world,  and  an 
effort  to  establish  more  intimate  relations  with  them,  which 
was,  however,  speedily  checked. 

In  the  priestly  party,  iu  opposition^o  which  Phariseeism 
arose,  Geiger  recognizes  the  Sadducees.  Their  name  he 
derives  from  Sadok,  a  distinguished  ])riest  of  the  first  tem- 
ple. Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  we  find  the  Zadokiles  in 
liigli  honor  later  on,  as  testified  by  Ezechiel  and  Nehemiah. 
The  Sadducees  an  aristocracy  ;  the  Pharisees  the  champions 
of  popular  rights:  the  former  the  party  of  conservatism. 
the  latter  that  of  religious  reform — this  is,  in  brief,  a 
statement  of  the  opinion  which  at  the  present  day 
largely  prevails  concerning  them.  That  the  leaders  of 
the  Pharisees  were  men  of  high  aims  and  noble  purposes 
no  one  can  reasonably  question,  though  the  means  by 
which  they  sought  to  attain  their  ends  were  not  always 
wisely  chosen.  Concerning  the  Sadducees  and  their  true 
character,  thero  will  still  be  much  discussion.  It  may 
bo  urged  that  the  well-known  conservative  spirit  of  (ho 
sect  is  cause  sufllicient  to  explain  the  peculiarities  of  their 
doctrines.  AVithout  denying  the  right  of  "  tradition  "  to 
amplify  the  provisions  of  the  Mosaic  code,  they  resisted 
all  far-reaching  innovation,  preferring  to  adhere  as  closely 
as  circumstances  would  permit  to  the  beaten  track.  The 
Pentateuch — and  this  is  of  great  importance — exalts  the 
descendants  of  Aaron  and  T^cvi  above  the  rest  of  Israel. 
A  desire  to  remain  loyal  to  its  evident  prescriptions  may 
have  been  the  sole  motive  which  impelled  them  to  lean 
toward  tlic  priesthood  and  watch  over  its  rights.  Wo 
need  not.  therefore,  charge  them  with  hierarehal  tend- 
encies. As  to  the  points  of  difference  between  Sadtlueces 
and  Pharisees,  the  information  wo  ]u»sse8S  is  scanty  and  in- 
sufticient.  M'c  know  that  the  Sadchieees  rejected  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  in  the  body.  This  will  hardly  sur- 
;  prise  us  when  we  recollect  that  the  books  of  Moses  contain 
no  allusion  to  any  such  doctrine.  It  was,  moreover,  a  for- 
;  cign  importation,  having  probably  been  carried  to  Juda'a 
from  Persia.  The  Sadducees  declare  that  holy  things  com- 
municate their  character  of  sanctity  l)y  contact ;  the  Phari- 
j  sees  assert  that  their  touch  makes  unclean — a  declaration 
I  which  was  designed  to  prevent  profane  handling.  If  this 
I  is  the  case,  say  the  Sadducees.  then  the  Bible  would  cause 
1  unclcanness,  wliilc  the  Homeric  poems  would  not.  False 
witnesses  are  to  be  punished,  according  to  the  Sadducees, 
only  when  they  have  caused  the  punishment  of  the  accused  : 
according  to  the  Pharisees,  as  soon  as  the  judge  has  pro- 


JEWS. 


1411 


nounccd  sentence.  The  former  seems  more  equitable.  The 
SadJucecs  arc  of  opinion  that  the  high  priest  i^hould  kindle 
the  frankincense  in  his  censer  before  entering;  the  Holy  of  Ho- 
lies ;  the  Pharii^C'L-s  command  him  to  desist  til!  he  hns  passed 
the  curtain.  The  exegesis  of  Lev.  xvi.  2,  on  which  the  dis- 
cussion hinges,  is,  if  anything,  favorable  to  the  former. 
(For  an  extended  account  of  the  differences  between  the 
two  sects,  see  Geigcr's  Urschri/t  and  Judinchc  Zeitschn/t 
fiir  ]\'i894rn/irhn/t  uud  Lchen,  1863.)  The  Pharisees  explain 
the  word  "  sabbath  "  in  Lev.  xxiii.  11  as  moaning,  in  this 
connection,  fea«t-'lay  in  general.  The  B(cthusinns,  whom 
Oeigcr  considers  a  subdivision  of  the  party  of  the  Sadducees, 
and  identifies  with  the  Ilerodians  of  the  New  Testament, 
retain  it  in  its  original  signification.  In  this  way, counting 
from  "the  day  after  the  sabbath,"  they  bring  it  about  that 
the  fiftieth  day,  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  shall  always  fall  on  a 
Sunday.  The  writer  of  this  article  has  elsewhere  attempted 
to  show  that  it  is  erroneous  to  attribute  such  an  opinion  to 
the  Bfethupians  or  Sadducecs.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
n:irae  Ba>lhusians  or  Sadducecs  is  frfquently  used  in  the 
Talmud  where  Christians  are  really  meant.  The  Sadducees 
had  no  motive  to  prefer  the  Sunday,  but  many  against  such 
firprerence.  On  tno  other  hand,  it  was  of  great  importance 
to  the  Christians  that  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  (he  Pentecost, 
the  close  of  the  rcsurreelion-perind,  should  fall  on  the  day 
of  the  resurrection.  AVe  have  before  us  here  a  conflict  not 
between  the  Pharisees  and  Sadduceos,  but  between  the 
Pharisaic  Synagogue  and  the  primitive  Church.  The  im- 
portant bearings  of  this  controversy  on  the  development 
of  early  Christianity  cannot  hero  be  shown.  (For  a  brief 
statement  of  th»  main  argument  in  support  of  the  above 
theory,  see  the  Proreedinff*  of  the  American  Oriental  Soci- 
ettf  foV  1874.) 

That  the  first  book  of  Maccabees  was  written  by  a  Sad- 
ducee.  the  second  by  a  Pliari?-ee.  is  one  of  the  many  in- 
ti-resting  points  which  Geiger  has  labored  to  prove  in  his 
VrMrkrf/t.  In  how  far  Jesus  himself  adopted  the  principles 
of  the  Pharisees,  made  use  of  their  mctbodf,  and  even  of 
their  very  words,  may  best  be  seen  by  studying  their  writ- 
ings. The  necessity  of  doing  this  in  order  to  penetrate  the 
obscurity  which  covers  the  first  century  of  Christian  his- 
tory, has  been  forcibly  urged  by  Ilausrath  in  the  Proteat- 
aniinehe  Kirchcnzf^itnng  (ISC'?,  No.  44). 

Enneneit. —  Little  is  known  of  this  mysterions  Feet  save  the 
few  stray  data  which  Joseplms  has  preserved.  They  lived 
in  communistic  societies,  led  a  quiet  and  secluded  life,  en- 
joined celibacy,  observed  moderation  in  speech  and  action, 
wore  garments  of  spotless  white.  They  shut  themselves 
off  from  the  society  of  the  world,  finding  it  impossible  to 
maintain  that  scrupulous  purity  which  they  aspired  to  in 
the  mirlst  of  social  influences  that  exposed  them  to  con- 
stant contamination.  They  have  been  considered  the  ex- 
treme right  wing  of  Phariseeism.  Popular  superstition 
clothed  them  with  magical  powers.  It  is  diflicult  to  ar- 
rive at  the  truth  concerning  them  at  the  present  day.  The 
Talmud  does  not  mention  them.  (For  an  account  of  the 
K  1R\ITPS  see  the  article  under  that  head.) 

The  Chnnidim,  a  modern  sect,  arose  in  the  last  century. 
It  has  numerous  adherents  among  the  tJews  of  Poland, 
Uussia,  and  Hungary  at  the  pre(«ent  day.  Their  religious 
practices  are  said  to  re-temble  those  of  tlie  Shakers.  The 
authority  of  their  rabbis  is  supreme,  the  honors  paid  them 
amounting  almost  to  worship.  They  delight  in  ecstasy 
and  vision:  an'l  my^'tieism,  as  is  everywhere  the  case,  not 
unfreqnently  leads  to  immorality.  This  sect  is  an  offspring 
of  the  Cabbala — a  sad  sign  of  the  utter  demoralization 
which  long  oppression  has  produced  in  the  countries  where 
it  prevails.  Ffei.ix  Ani.Jtii. 

•lews,  a  people  of  Semitic  origin,  known  also  as  He* 
lirrws  or  IsraoliU'S.  The  former  name  is  probably  do- 
rivrd  from  their  early  seats  bey<»n<I  the  Kuphrutes,  whenoo 
they  migrated  to  Palestine  (the  word  IChT,  whence  Ihrim  or 
/hhrricH,  meaning  "  beyond  ") ;  the  latter  is  taken  from  tho 
surname  of  (he  third  patriareh,  Jacob.  With  the  waning 
fortunes  of  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribeH  and  the  consum- 
mation of  it."  fate  Judali  became  the  centre  arounc]  which 
the  remnanlH  (»f  the  people  crystallized.  It  waH  the  found- 
ation on  which  the  polity  of  the  second  temple  was  raistid 
after  tho  exiles*  return  from  Habylon  ;  and  from  that  timo 
to  our  own  day  the  scattered  members  of  the  nation  havo 
been  knoivn  In  common  l>y  tho  name  of  .f udah  ( Jehu- 
dim,  JudiitHts,  .lews),  A  complete  history  ofth.'  .Fcwn  has 
not  yet  been  written,  and  tlie  bej-t  attempts  that  have  been 
rande  to  supply  this  deficiency  only  prove  by  their  failure  the 

ftrematureness  of  tho  undertaking.  Nor  is  it  likely  that  a 
tetter  result  will  soon  be  achieved.  The  variou«i  fortunes 
which  the  .lews  have  met  iTith  on  their  journey  of  ;tflOO 
years,  the  persecutions  they  have  undergone,  the  iiIl-ab«orb- 
ing  devotion  with  which  they  have  clung  to  thn  religiomi 
ideal  of  their  pa«t,  and  which  eouM  not  but  parjlyz*'  their 
interest  in  the  present — their  want  of  appreciation,  too,  of 


the  importanco  of  historical  research,  joined  to  the  wanton 
destruction  of  precious  relies  of  their  literature  by  the 
fanaticism  of  their  adversaries — have  conspired  to  m:ike 
their  annals  like  the  torsos  of  some  gigantic  group,  which 
the  genius  of  a  later  age  in  vain  exhausts  itself  to  recon- 
struct. It  is  with  good  reason  that  this  people  has  been 
termed  a  mystery  to  the  nations.  It  is  almost  an  enigma 
to  itself.  In  view  of  these  facts  we  shall  do  well  to  content 
ourselves  with  directing  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the 
main  events  of  Jewish  history  only,  which  can  be  estab- 
lished by  the  records. 

At  tho  very  outset  of  our  undertaking  we  arc  distressed 
by  the  almost  complete  want  of  contemporaneous  accounts. 
Setting  aside  for  tlie  moment  the  aid  which  Egyptologists 
proffer,  and  concerning  whose  value  prudence  warns  us 
to  suspend  our  judgment,  we  are  dependent  exclusively  on 
the  scriptural  narrative  for  the  source  of  our  information. 
For,  although  continued  research  in  Egyptian  tombs  and 
.^ssyrian  palaces  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  bring  to 
light  some  day  much  that  will  add  to  our  knowledge,  wo 
need  have  no  scruple  in  at  once  rejecting  the  fables  of 
Hecaticus  of  Abdera  and  his  like.  Concerning  the  manner 
in  which  the  biblical  account  itself  is  to  be  received,  the 
opinions  not  only  of  philosophers  and  historians,  but  even 
of  many  eminent  divines,  go  far  asunder.  To  us  it  .ceems 
that  of  all  the  views  that  have  been  advanced  on  this  sub- 
ject  there  arc  only  two  which  can  claim  the  merit  of  con- 
sistency. The  one  embraces  the  inspirational  theory,  and 
looks  upon  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews  ns  the  direct 
work  of  Gofl  through  his  instruments  the  prophets.  The 
other  simply  regards  them  ns  the  joint  product  of  many 
generations  of  ancient  Israel,  and,  while  asserting  for  them 
certain  distinctive  excellences  of  their  own.  throws  them 
entirely  into  the  chain  of  human  development,  and  aban- 
dons them,  no  less  than  the  hymns  of  the  Vedns,  the  books 
of  Homer,  or  the  narrations  of  Herodotus,  to  the  analysis 
of  the  critic.  We  think  it  wisest  in  what  follows  to  adhere 
ns  closely  as  may  be  to  the  very  words  of  Scripture,  nor 
shall  \vc  only  select  from  them  what,  measured  by  a  modern 
standard,  may  seem  more  or  less  adequate  to  the  demands 
of  reason.  The  narrowness  of  our  space  will  excuse  the 
briefness  of  the  sketch. 

The  Hebrews,  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  did  not  assert  the 
natural  claim  of  being  aboriginal.  They  were  tho  bearers 
of  tho  monotheistic  idea.  In  the  light  of  thut  idea  their 
history  began  with  the  Creation,  their  destiny  was  to  em- 
brace the  world.  They  were  not  to  seek  others;  their  duty 
was  to  remain  true  to  themselves.  In  good  lime  all  natitms 
would  gather  to  their  '"  holy  mountain."'  Their  roots 
reached  backward  into  ante<liluvian  soil ;  they  had  no 
need  of  coveting  the  doubtful  honor  of  having  sprung  from 
the  soil  of  Canaan.  Abraham  came  from  Ur,  in  Cbaldea, 
with  his  wife  a;id  nephew.  On  reaching  I'aicsline  he  trav- 
ersed tho  country  in  every  direction,  and.  what  is  worthy 
of  note,  erected  altars  on  those  spots  which  in  later  times 
became  the  principal  seats  of  cults  not  always  pure  or  re- 
garded with  favor  by  the  prophets.  (See  Hosea  on  Uethel.) 
A  famine  drove  him  to  Kgypt.  where  his  beautiful  wife, 
Sarah,  was  taken  into  the  royal  harem.  This  was  a  con- 
sequence  of  Abraham's  previfuis  agreement  with  her  that 
she  should  pass  as  his  sister,  he  fearing  that  the  lust  of 
Pharaoh  might  otherwise  endanger  his  life,  niicl  trusting 
that  I>i\  irie  Providence  would  allow  no  evil  to  result.  In- 
deed, ho  does  not  seem  to  have  explained  the  true  state 
of  things  oven  after  the  royal  order  had  been  executed. 
Put  his  confidence  was  justified.  Pharaoh  was  warned  by 
the  plague  of  his  misdeeds,  and  dismissed  the  jiious  prophet 
with  many  gifts.  Almost  the  very  same  traits  occur  in  the 
narrative  of  Abraham's  visit  to  Abimeleeh,  king  of  (Jernr, 
in  Phillstin.  and  again  in  the  account  of  Isaac's  sojourn  at 
the  same  court  :  he  likewise  introflucrd  lU-bccca  as  his 
sister  to  the  Philistine.  Abraham  on  his  return  to  Piiles- 
ti?ic  separale«l  from  his  nephew,  aihuving  him  to  take  tho 
richer  fields  near  Sodnm  for  his  share.  In  a  war  under- 
taken by  tho  Sodomites  against  Chedorlnortier  and  his  allies, 
Lot  was  ciiptnred,  and  boldly  reseue<l  by  Abrahiim.  In  a 
vision,  accompanied  by  fearful  signs.  Gnil  nssun-d  the  piilri 
arch  that  his  descendants  hliouM  possess  the  laud  in  whirli 
ho  dwelt,  and  these  visions  and  promises  were  frequently 
repealed,  the  whole  country  from  the  Nile  to  the  Kuphnites 
being  as-lirned  as  their  future  possession.  Rut  a«  yet 
Abraham  i-*  unble»se<|  with  offspring.  His  union  with 
Hagar  results  in  the  birth  of  Ishmnel.  Hef<tre  the  'diild 
has  seen  the  light  the  Egyptian  woman  is  driven  into  the 
dosort  by  Sarah.  There  nn  angel  finds  her  by  a  well,  fore- 
tells the  future  greatness  nf  lier  son,  and  commands  her  to 
return  to  h«r  mi»ilres».  The  cireumslances  of  Hagar's  flight 
are  relnted  without  reference  to  the  first  account,  and  with 
some  divergeneo  in  the  narrative,  in  Gen.  xxi.  To  avenge 
the  misdeeds  of  the  Sodomites,  God  descends  to  earth. 
Three  men  appear  to  Abraham  to  acquaint  him  with  tho 


1412 


JEWS. 


approaching  judgment,  and  at  the  same  time  wilh  the  ful- 
filment of  bis  own  darling  wish.  Sarah  will  bear  him  a 
child  who  shall  be  the  inheritor  of  his  fortune  and  his 
mission.  The  name  Isaac  is  variouslj'  explained  in  Gen. 
xvii.  17,  xviii.  11',  and  xxi.  6.  After  tJod  has  left  Abraham, 
and  the' touching  intercession  of  the  prophet  in  behalf  of 
the  doomed  city  has  proved  vain,  for  there  are  not  ten 
ri.'htcous  men  'in  its  midst,  the  direful  work  proceeds. 
From  the  ruins  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Lot  and  his  two 
daughters  are  saved.  To  one  interested  in  such  inquiries 
it  is"  instructive  to  compare  the  manner  in  which  an  event 
somewhat  similar  to  the  destruction  of  Sodom  is  treated  by 
pa^an  writers.  (See  Ovid's  Mdanwrpli.,  .\.,  "Baucis  and 
I'liTlemon.")  We  would  also  draw  the  attention  of  philol- 
o"ists  to  the  curious  coincidence  between  Gen.  xix.  4-9 
and  Judg.  xi.'i.  22-25.  In  the  one  hundredth  year  of  the 
patriarch  Isaac  is  born.  Being  commanded  to  sacrifice  his 
son,  the  father  complies  without  a  niurmur,  but  before  he 
can'  consummate  the  terrible  deed  a  voice  from  Heaven 
chcuks  his  hand,  and  announces  to  him  the  reward  of  God 
fi>r  the  steadfast  trust  which  he  has  exhibited.  On  the 
occasion  of  Sarah's  death  he  purchases  a  burying-place  for 
his  family,  and  thus  secures  the  right  of  possession  to  the 
land.  The  exquisite  story  of  Isaac's  wooing  through  his 
father's  faithful  servant,  the  meeting  of  the  gray-haired 
steward  and  the  bright  young  girl  at  the  well,  his  enter- 
tainmcnt  and  departure,  is  one  of  the  choicest  bits  of 
description  which  the  history  of  the  ancients  has  preserved 
to  us.  His  favorite  son  being  wedded  to  his  kinswoman, 
and  the  danger  of  intermarriage  with  idolaters  being 
warded  off,  Abraham  "  is  gathered  to  bis  people,"  having 
reached  the  good  old  ago  of  175  years. 

The  life  of  the  second  patriarch  is  less  erentful.     After 
his  departure  from  Gerar,  to  which  wo  have  already  re- 
ferred, Isaac  concludes  a  treaty  with  Abimclech,  on  which 
occasion  Beer-Sbebareceivesits  name.  (Compare  Gen.  xxvi. 
31  with  xxi.  31,  .32,  where  the  name  seems  to  be  referred 
now  to  the  word  shaba,  to  '-swear,"    now  to  eheba,  the 
numeral  7.)     The  birth  of  Jacob  and  Esau  introduces  a 
permanent  element   of  discord   into   the   family  of  their 
parents.     Their  strife  begins  even  in  their  mother's  womb, 
and,  increased  by  differences  of  temper  and  occupation,  con- 
tinues a  source  of  mutual  vexation  till  late  in  life.     Jacob, 
although  a  peaceful  shepherd,  seems  to  have  given  the  first 
occasion  of  their  quarrel.     It  is  he  who,  taking  undue  ad- 
vantage of  the  exhausted  hunter,  betrays  him  into  bartering 
away  his  birthright.    It  is  ho  who,  at  the  instigation  of  Re- 
becca, imposes  on  his  blind  old  father,  and  deprives  Esau 
of  the  blessing  which  was  intended  for  him.  The  fond  reliance 
with  which  the  decrepit  patriarch  leans  on  his  strong  elder 
son,  the  tender  filial  love  which  the  rude,  generous-hearted 
Esau  returns,  the  pains  he  takes  to  procure  his  father's  favor- 
ite delicacies,  the  eagerness  with  which  he  endeavors  to  make 
good  his  faults— above  all,  the  deep  pathos' of  the  meeting 
between  parent  and  son  when  they  find  that  they  have  both 
been  overreached  by  the  "man  of  wiles"— enlists  all  our 
sympathy  in  behalf  of  Israel's  disinherited  brother.     Jacob 
fl'ces  to  Mesopotamia,  finding  his  home  no  longer  a  safe 
place  to  dwell  in,  and  remains  for  twenty  years  in  the  em- 
ploy of  his  uncle   Laban.     Ho  marries  both  his   cousins, 
though  the  first  fourteen  years  of  his  service  were  devoted 
to  Rachel  alone,  and  then  continues  for  six  years  longer  to 
undertake  the  care  of  Baban's  herds.  The  manner  in  which 
he  gains  his  great  wealth  during  this  period  reminds  us  of 
his  earlier  dealings  in  his  father's  house  (Gen.  xxx.).     In 
the  mean  time,  his  family  having  largely  increased,  and 
his  relations  with  his  father-in-law  ceasing  to  bo  friendly, 
he  determines  secretly  to  depart.     Being  pursued  by  Laban, 
ho  ccmcludos  a  covenant  of  peace  with  him,  and  both  par- 
ties combine  in  erecting  a  stone  mound  as  a  memorial  ot  their 
league.     On  his  return  to  Palestine,  Jacob  wrestles  in  the 
night  with  a  divine  being  at  Penuel  (compare  Judg.  viii.  8 
and  1  Kings  xii.  25),  and  there  receives  the  surname  by 
which  his  descendants  prefer  to  be  known.     Fearing  the 
wrath  of  Esau,  he  now  prepares  to  conciliate  his  favor,  and 
with  every  token  of  submission  and  humility  approaches 
him.      Esau,  true   to  his    nature,  discards   the    proffered 
gifts,  embraces  and  kisses  the  brother  who  has  so  bitterly 
wronged  him,  and  forgetting  the  past  dismisses  him  on  his 
way  with  kind  words  and  offers  of  protection.     Wc  cannot 
sufficiently  admire  the  truthfulness  with  which  Scripture 
has  drawn  the  character  of  Esau,  and  the  unsparing  justice 
with  which  it  exposes  the  vices  of  him  who  is  cherished  as 
the  father  of  the  chosen  people.     As  Abraham  makes  the 
future  capital  of  the  prince  of  Judah  his  favorite  abode, 
and  acquires  landed  property  at  Hebron,  so  Israel  chooses 
the  future  residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  raises  an  altar, 
and  buys  land  at  Shechem.     On  reaching  Bethel,  w'.ierc  he 
had  previously  seen  the  vision  of  the  heavenly  ladder  on 
his  flight  to  Haran.  the  promises  then  made  are  repeated, 
and  the  name  Israel  is  a  second  time  bestowed  on  him. 


Removing  thence,  his  beloved  wife  Rachel  presents  him 
with  a  son,  Benjamin,  and  dies  by  the  wayside.  Jacob 
has  now  twelve  sons,  like  Isbiuacl,  and  one  daughter,  iJinah. 
On  account  of  an  indignity  offered  to  her,  the  two  brothers 
Simeon  and  Levi  take  fearful  vengeance  on  the  people  of 
Shechem,  killing  all  the  males,  leading  the  women  and 
children  away  captive,  and  jjlundering  the  town. 

Joseph,  the  eldest  son  of  Rachel,  was  the  favorite  of  his 
father,  who  presented  him  with  a  tunic  of  many  colors. 
This  and  the  boy's  ambitious  dreams  arouse  the  envy  of 
his  brothers,  and  they  determine  to  slay  him.  Saved  from 
death  through  the  intercession  of  Reuben,  he  is  sold  as  a 
slave  to  Egypt  by  the  advice  of  Judah.  There,  entering 
the  house  of  Poti'phar  (the  same  name  occurs  Gen.  xli.  45, 
where  he  is  called  a  priest  of  Heliopolis,  and  Joseph  mar- 
ries his  daughter),  and  exciting  the  passion  of  his  mistress, 
he  saves  his  virtue  at  the  expense  of  his  liberty.  After 
two  years  he  is  taken  from  prison,  and  his  skill  in  inter- 
preting the  dreams  of  Pharaoh  raises  him  to  the  dignity  of 
viceroy  of  Egypt.  His  prophecy  proves  true.  The  seven 
years  of  plenty  arc  devoured  by  seven  of  famine,  and  the 
wise  precautionary  measures  of  the  Hebrew  ruler  alone 
save  the  land  from  overwhelming  disaster.  Among  others 
who  come  up  at  this  time  from  the  surrounding  districts  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  rich  granaries  of  Pharaoh  are  (he 
sons  of  Jacob.  They  are  confronted  with  Joseph,  who  at 
once  recognizes  his  brothers,  and  exposes  them  to  a  long 
series  of  trials  to  test  their  honesty  and  mutual  affection. 
He  dismisses  them,  with  the  money  they  have  paid  him  se- 
cretly restored  to  their  sacks,  detains  Simeon,  and  commands 
that  their  youngest  brother  be  brought  before  him  ;  then 
on  their  return  so  contrives  that  Benjamin  appears  guilty 
of  theft,  and  claims  him  for  his  bondsman.  It  is  at  this 
juncture  that  Judah,  with  words  of  eloquent  tenderness, 
appeals  to  the  seeming  tyrant's  heart,  and  offers  himself  to 
slavery  in  his  brother's  stead.  Joseph  reveals  his  true 
character,  sends  messages  to  his  father  which  induce  him, 
though  already  far  advanced  in  years,  to  remove  his  family 
(about  seventy  souls)  to  the  district  of  Goshen,  which  the 
bounty  of  the"  king  has  provided  for  him  and  his. 

In  reviewing  the  lives  of  Jacob  and  his  sons  we  cannot 
but  note  how  the  fortunes  and  rival  claims  of  their  posterity 
are,  as  it  were,  yisibly  foreshadowed  in  the  acts,  and  even 
the  affections,  of  these  fathers  of  the  tribes.  While  the  birth- 
right incontestably  belongs  to  the  son  of  Leah,  the  love  of 
Is'rael  goes  out  to' Rachel,  and  her  eldest  born,  Joseph,  is 
called  the  "prince  of  his  brothers,"  a  character  which  he 
plainly  assumes  in  his  dreams  (Gen.  xxxvii.).  Wc  know 
that  later  on  the  tribes  that  sprang  from  Jose]ih  did.  indeed, 
assume  the  sovereignty  of  the  kingdom  of  the  north  in  op- 
position to  Judah  ;  and  if  it  was  the  latter,  the  fourth  of 
Leah's  sons,  who  reigned  in  the  person  of  David  and  his 
house,  we  find  the  prior  claims  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and 
Levi  already  disposed  of  in  the  days  of  their  father.  The 
rights  of  these  three  were  forfeited  by  their  passions.  The 
first  was  guilty  of  incest  with  one  of  Jacob's  concubines; 
the  other  two  were  bitterly  denounced  for  their  cruelty  to 
the  Shechemites  (Gen.  xlix.).  The  prophetic  lips  of  the 
dying  patriarch  here  curse  the  wrath  of  Levi,  which  proved 
so  valuable  in  the  time  of  Moses,  and  the  dispersion  of  that 
tribe,  which  is  elsewhere  characterized  as  a  divine  preroga- 
tive, is  here  foretold  as  the  punishment  of  their  guilt. 
We  may  also  call  to  mind  that  as  in  later  times  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  alone  became  permanently  attached  to  Judah, 
so  even  in  the  history  of  their  ancestors  we  find  Judah  at 
once  the  affectiouato  brother  and  the  bold  protector  of 
Israel's  youngest  son  in  Joseph's  presence. 

After  Jacob  had  passed  away,  and  with  the  death  of 
Joseph  the  guardian  of  their  interests  was  removed,  the 
sons  of  Israel,  who  had  largely  increased  in  the  mean  time, 
became  the  slaves  of  the  Egyptians.  Four  hundred  and 
thirty  years  they  served  their  pitiless  taskmasters  (accord- 
in"  to  Ex.  xii.  40  :  Gen.  xv.  13  gives  the  somewhat  lower 
csUmate  of  400  years,  while  from  Ex.  vi.  10  it  would  ap- 
pear that  only  three  generations,  Levi,  Kohath,  and  Am- 
ram,  the  father  of  Moses,  had  passed  between  the  first  set- 
tlement of  the  Israelites  in  Goshen  and  their  final  deliver- 
ance). At  length  the  period  of  their  bondage  drew  to  a 
close.  After  Egypt  had  been  visited  with  nine  plagues 
without  the  rigor  of  the  king  and  people  being  softened— for 
God  had  hardened  the  heart  of  Pharaoh,  that  his  great 
miracles  might  be  displayed  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians 

(Ex.  vii.  3) the  work  of  emancipation  was  consummated. 

The'children  of  Israel  prepared  the  Passover  sacrifice,  and 
in  the  night,  while  all  the  first-born  of  the  land  perished, 
they  marched  forth  laden  with  silver  and  gold,  and  under 
Moses'  guidance  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Pharaoh  followed,  but  was  overwhelmed  with  all  his  host 
in  the  floods  that  had  opened  to  let  Israel  pass.  Instead 
of  taking  the  shortest  road  to  Palestine,  by  way  of  Phil- 
istia.  Moses  now  led  the  people  about  in  the  desert  tor 


JEWS. 


141.3 


about  forty  years.  Concerning  tho  first  two  yenrs  of  this 
period  our  accounts  aro  tolerably  complete.  The  people 
were  weak  in  luith.  and  on  every  occasion  when  their  obe- 
dience was  tried,  failed  utterly  to  meet  the  emergency.  They 
cried  for  water — Moses  miraculously  procured  it  for  them; 
they  demanded  bread — the  heavens  rained  it  down  upon 
them.  The  scriptural  etymology  of  the  word  nianua  is 
peculiar.  Tho  dejicription  of  its  appearance  and  taste  re- 
mind u?f  of  the  virtues  of  tho  white  and  pearly  haoma  of 
the  Persian?.  Mnses  had  ample  reason  to  say  that  the  load 
was  too  heavy  for  him  to  bear.  The  crowning  event  of  tho 
Exodus  \va3  tho  revelation  of  tho  Law  on  Sinai.  There 
Jehovah  had  appeared  in  a  flaming  hush  to  the  fugitive 
shepherd  while  tenilinj?  the  flocks  of  the  Mi<iiiinite  priest, 
and  now  again.  luni'i  the  sublime  phenomena  of  tho  thun- 
derstorm, the  "  majesty  of  God  "  descended  in  fire  (  Ex.  six. 
IS)  to  the  pinnacle  of  the  pmoke-envcloped  cliff.  Concern- 
ing the  attending  circumstances  of  the  revelation,  the  scrip- 
tural account  seems  open  to  various  constructions.  From 
Ex.  xxiv.  2  it  would  appear  that  Moses  alone  was  to  ap- 
proach the  Divine  Presence;  in  xix.  24,  Aaron  is  command- 
ed to  a-'company  his  brother;  while  in  xxiv.  13  tho  person 
of  Joshua  is  substituted  for  that  of  the  high  priest.  And 
agnin,  while  in  Ex.  xxxiii.  20  we  learn  **  thou  canst  not  be- 
hold my  countenance  and  live,"  we  are  informed  in  xxiv. 
9,  in,  11,  ''and  Mosfs,  Aaron.  Narlab,  and  Abihu  ascended, 
and  they  saw  tho  Ood  of  Israel,  and  I>eneath  his  feet;  .  .  .  . 
and  they  saw  (iod,  and  they  ate  and  drank."  In  like  man- 
ner, Ex.  xxiv.  3,  7,  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  Moses 
himself  wrote  down  the  words  of  revelation  in  "a  book 
of  tho  covenant,"  while  in  xxxi.  18  two  tables  of  stone  are 
spoken  of,  "inscribed  by  tho  finger  of  (Jod."  Let  us  add 
that  in  Ex.  xx.  tho  fourth  commandment  of  tho  Decalogue 
is  referred  for  its  origin  to  tho  repose  which  the  Maker  of 
heaven  and  earth  instituted  on  the  sabbath  of  the  Creation, 
while  Dent.  v.  l/i  regards  it  as  a  memorial  of  Israel's  re- 
demption from  tho  p-'rvitudo  of  Egypt.  Tho  new  covenant 
into  which  they  had  entered  with  Jehovah  was  quickly 
broken  by  the  people.  In  Moses's  absence  they  worshipped 
a  golden  calf,  and  Aaron  himself  was  rebuked  by  the  in- 
dignant prophet  for  the  readiness  with  which  he  had  yielded 
to  (ho  popular  clamor.  Directions  were  now  given  for  tho 
construction  of  a  tabernacle  in  wliich  the  priests  and  Moses 
were  henceforth  to  receive  the  communings  of  God.  Tho 
details  of  thn  erection  of  tho  sacred  tent  are  twice  enumer- 
ated at  considerable  length  toward  the  end  of  the  second 
book  of  Moses.  There  aro  certain  differences  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  material  and  the  choice  of  language  in  the 
two  accounts.  (For  a  learned  diPcns?ion  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject tho  curious  reader  is  referred  to  the  excellent  treatise 
of  Dr.  Popper,  I*'>pprr'8  Sd/fithiittc,  Leipsic,  1S02.)  The 
sncrillces  and  feasts,  the  various  rites  and  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  tho  new  sanctuary  and  its  priesthood,  are  re- 
hearsed in  the  book  of  Leviticus.  Wo  may  claim  the  read- 
er's indulgence  if  we  forbear  to  discuss  them.  With  the 
elevation  of  Aaron's  family  to  the  ministry  of  the  taber- 
nacle the  contentious  spirit  of  the  people  found  new  cause 
for  discontent.  A  conspiracy  was  formed,  with  Korah,  a 
cousin  of  Moses,  at  its  head,  for  tho  purpose  of  resisting 
the  divine  cominmid  that  had  preferred  the  Auronites  to 
thi*  priesthood.  IJut  thi-ir  ambitious  designs  were  thwarted. 
The  earth  opmefl  and  swallowed  up  tho  whole  baml  of  con- 
spirators, Korah  au'l  his  friends,  their  wives  an<l  children, 
anrl  all  that  belonged  to  them  (Xum.  xvi.  27,  32).  With 
regard  to  tho  distinguished  honors  which  tho  descendants 
of  Korah  bore  in  the  service  of  tho  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
see  Xum.  xxvi.  II  :  "the  sons  of  Korah  did  not  perish." 

lLivingap[iroached  the  confines  of  Palestine,  Mosos  sends 
out  twelve  spies  to  tho  Promised  liand  to  report  upon  tho 
condition  of  tho  country  and  the  strenelh  of  its  defences. 
The  news  they  bring  so  alarms  (ho  fears  of  the  people  that 
they  dcire  to  bo  let!  back  (o  Egypt,  and  arc  in  consequence 
declared  unworthy  of  the  prize  they  had  scorncil,  and  uro 
doomed  to  perish  in  the  wilderness.  Tho  events  of  tho 
succeeding  thirty-eight  years  of  their  wanderings  arc 
wrapped  in  obscurity.  Wo  may  marvel  how  so  vast  a  con- 
course of  human  beings — r»(KI,(lOi)  fight int^-men  ahme,  be- 
sides tho  women  and  children — could  support  life  for  so 
loTi'^  a  period  in  the  barren  desert ;  wo  may  invent  plausi- 
ble theories  concerning  the  manner  in  which  they  spent  the 
dre:iry  days  of  that  joyless  interval ;  but  Scripture  gives  us 
no  clue  to  aid  our  aspiring  fancy.  AVhen  at  Inst  a  new 
generation  had  grown  up,  tho  Israelites  on'M^  nn»ro  direct 
their  march  towards  tho  Jordan.  With  Moses  as  their 
leader,  and  under  the  protection  of  their  (tod,  they  defeat 
the  armies  "f  Sihon  ond  Os.  subjugate  som^^  of  the  most 
fertile  pasture  lands  E.  of  the  river,  and  spread  far  and 
wi"le  the  terror  c)f  their  name.  Tho  king  of  Moab  (tho 
etymology  (»f  the  name  is  curious:  his  own  means  "light- 
ning," (hot  of  his  father,  "bird  "),  alarmed  by  the  advance 
of  so  formidable  a  foe,  calls  id  a  Borccror  from  (ho  East  to 


blight  the  fortunes  of  Israel.  (Those  who  are  fond  of 
drawing  parallels  may  compare  the  incident  of  Balaam  and 
the  ass  with  the  account  of  the  ass  who  startled  Dionysos 
when  he  fought  with  the  Titans,  of  the  ass  who  foretold  his 
imperial  honors  to  Augustus,  also  of  the  ass  in  the  story 
of  Priapus,  to  whom  St.  Jerome  has  likened  the  Baal-Pcor 
of  our  text.)  In  the  plains  of  Moab  the  assembled  people 
receive  the  parting  monitions  of  Moses.  The  penalties  of 
disobedience  are  painted  in  colors  so  vivid  as  to  seem  tho 
very  reflex  of  present  vision,  and  the  rewards  of  a  glo- 
rious future  arc  promised  if  they  will  be  true  to  the  law  of 
which  they  are  the  bearers.  That  law  is  familiarly  known, 
and  the  "  Book  of  books"  in  which  it  is  contained  is  easily 
accessible  to  all.  Its  provisions  are  mainly  laid  down  in 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy,  and  all  of  these  threo 
must  be  carefully  consulted  in  order  to  arrive  at  correct 
conclusions  concerning  the  intentions  of  the  lawgiver. 
This  is  not  always  so  easy  a  task  as  might  be  wished,  as 
serious  difficulties  are  apt  to  complicate  a  harmonious 
interpretation.  Lev.  xviii.  Ifi-Deut.  xxv.  5  may  be  men- 
tioned as  an  instance  in  point.  (The  difference  in  legisla- 
tion which  is  here  cited  has  been  ingeniously  referred  by 
Dr.  Geiger  to  the  discrepant  needs  and  interests  of  tho 
kingdomsof  Judah  and  Israel.  The  writings  of  this  distin- 
guished scholar  are  stored  with  erudition  and  masterly 
research  on  this  and  kindred  subjects.  His  Urschrift,  in 
particular,  should  be  in  the  bands  of  every  historian  who 
treats  of  tho  rise  and  development  of  the  monotheistic 
idea.)  In  passing,  we  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  a 
just  surprise  that  the  law  of  Moses  should  have  been 
charged  with  neglecting  the  sanctification  of  the  spirit,  and 
placing  the  religious  life  of  mnn  on  a  merely  legal  basis — a 
law  which  proclaimed  the  childhood  of  man  and  the  father- 
hood of  God  :  a  law  which  took  for  its  principle  the  sanc- 
tification of  all  the  peojilo  ;  which  devised  such  tender  meas- 
ures to  ensure  respect  for  the  feelings  of  the  poor;  which 
commanded  the  creditor  to  return  the  pledge  of  the  debtor 
before  nightfall ;  which  prevented  the  seducer,  in  an  ago 
when  tho  marriage  tie  was  but  loosely  knit,  from  divorcing 
the  victim  of  his  passion  !  As  Moses  was  not  to  enjoy  t!te 
fruition  of  his  work,  the  beginning  of  the  conquest  of  the 
Promised  Land  set  a  period  to  his  life.  From  afar  off  he 
was  permitted  to  view  the  future  home  of  the  tribes.  Then 
he  died.  Tho  circumstances  of  bis  life,  indeed,  are  calcu- 
lated to  awaken  an  interest  even  in  the  minds  of  the  skep- 
tical. Cradled  amid  tho  waters,  a  shepherd  serving  a  for- 
eign master,  a  man  of  miracles,  whoso  staff  changes  into  a 
serpent,  divides  the  sea,  cleaves  the  rock,  and  calls  forth  the 
living  water — the  favored  of  Heaven,  from  whose  counte- 
nance beams  of  light  are  shot  forth  that  dnzzle  the  beholder, 
tho  bright-eyed  prophetic  hero  who  sinks  to  rest  among  the 
mountain-peaks,  his  history  awakens  many  reminiscences 
in  the  minds  of  those  conversant  with  the  early  lore  of 
ancient  nations. 

Tho  work  which  Moses  had  left  unfinished  was  taken  up  by 
his  successor,  Joshua.  Ho  led  the  people  across  the  Jordan, 
and  erected  a  monument  of  twelve  stones  in  commemora- 
tion of  their  safe  passage.  {For  the  locality  which  was 
thus  distinguished  we  may  choose  between  Jr>sh.  iv.  K,  "  in 
tho  midst  of  the  Jordan,""  and  iv.  20,  "at  Gil.cal.'*)  The 
narrative  of  tiie  first  victories  of  the  new  leader  is  inter- 
spersed with  the  most  marvellous  events — tho  failing  of  (ho 
walls  of  Jericho,  tho  phenomena  at  Ajalon.  tho  atTair  of 
Achan.  In  some  points  we  notice  a  marked  resemblance 
between  tho  incidents  of  Joshua's  life  nnd  that  of  his  pro- 
doccssor  and  teacher.  (Compare,  c  .7.,  Ex.  iii.  b  and  Josh. 
v.  15.)  Before  his  <ica(h,  Jot^hua  distributed  the  conqutTcd 
and  unconquered  territory  among  the  tribes,  and  exhorted 
(he  people  to  choose  between  Jehovah  and  the  idols.  They 
willingly  declared  their  readiness  to  follow  the  pious  exam- 
ple of  their  cliief.  In  tho  succeeding  period,  however,  wo 
arc  surprised  to  find  no  trace  of  the  fullilment  of  so  fair  a 
promise.  Disorder  and  distrust  prevail.  Mutual  jealousies 
excite  fierce  conrtiets  among  related  clans  ;  almost  the  whole 
tribe  of  Benjamin  is  extirpated;  Abiinelech  kills  seventy 
princes  on  one  stone;  lust  nnd  treachery  run  riot.  Tho 
general  darkness  is  at  times  illumined  by  the  patriotism  of 
heroic  women  and  herculean  men.  but  (he  liglw  it  sprea<ls  is 
fitful  and  uncertain.  What  most  distresses  us  in  the  nceonnt 
wo  have  of  this  evil  time  is  the  conduct  of  those  whom  we 
are  taught  to  revere  as  (ho  chosen  messengers  of  Jcho\  nh. 
Gideon  after  his  victory  proceeds  to  make  a  goMen  idol, 
which  he  worships  (Judg.  viii.  27):  Jephtbah  sacrifices  his 
own  daughter  (Judg.  xi.  35)  ;  Samson  marries  a  heathen 
woman  (xiv.  1);  while  a  Levite,  contrary  to  both  (he  letter 
and  spirit  of  the  Law.  consents  to  become  the  priest  of  an 
indlviclual  and  to  superintend  the  worship  of  imnges  (Judg. 
xvii.  and  xviii.).  To  (be  question,  What  had  become  of 
the  rcmembrancQ  of  Moses  and  his  law  in  tho  mean  time? 
wo  look  in  vain  for  a  satrsfactriry  answer. 

Tho  last  of  the  judges  marks  an  important  cpooh  in  Is- 


1414 


JEWS. 


racl's  history.     Samuel  was  born  of  pious  parents,  and 
early  dedicated  to  the  service  of  God.     (The  etymology  of 
the  name,  given   in  1    Sam.  i.,  seems  to  belong  rather  to 
Saul.)     Eli  and  his  sons  were  at  that  time  in  charge  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Shiloh.     The  weakness  of  the  one,  the  wick- 
edness of  the  others,  brought  destruction  upon  themselves, 
defeat  upon  the  people.     The  Israelitish  army  was  routed 
by  the  Philistines,  and  the  ark  of  the  covenant  became  the 
spoil  of  the  victors.     It  proved  a  dangerous  possession, 
and  after  having  brought  plague  and  pestilence  in  its  train 
wherever  it  was  transported  it  was  finally  returned,  along 
with  certain   strange  ofTerings,  to  appease  "  the  God  of  Is- 
rael."    Samuel  now  became  the  acknowledged  loader  of  the 
people,  and  during  all  his  lifetime  is  said  to  h.ave  overawed 
the  Philistines  and  secured  the  peace  of  the  land  (1  Sam. 
vii.).     The  books  of  S.amuel,  however,  continue  to  recount 
renewed  conflicts  between  Israel  and  Philisti.a.     The  sons 
of  Samuel  were  unworthy  to  succeed  their  father,  and  the 
people  clamored  for  a  king.     The  political  tendencies  of 
monotheism  were  republican.     Samuel  resisted  their  per- 
sistent demands  to  the  utmost,  but  at  last  gave  way,  and 
anointed  Saul  of  Benj.amin.    (.\ccording  to  1  Sam.  viii., 
is.,  X.,  it  would  appear  that  the  elevation  of  Saul  was  due 
to  the  gener.al  desire  of  the  people  for  a  stronger  govern- 
ment.    Chapters  .ti.  and  xii.,  however,  speak  of  it  as  occa- 
sioned by  the  attack  of  the  Ammonites,  on  which  occasion 
Saul,  as  yet  a  simple  farmer's  lad,  is  suddenly  seized  by 
the  Divine  Spirit,  and  succeeds  in  effecting  the  rescue  of 
Jabesh-Gilead.)      The  connection  between  Saul  and  the 
prophets  gives  rise  to  a  popular  saying,  which  is  variously 
explained  in  1  Sam.  X.  11  and  1  Sam.  six.  24.     Saul's  hope 
of  founding  a  dynasty  of  kings  was  not  to  be  fullillcd.    He 
was  rejected  of  God  (1  Sam.  xiii.  13)  because  he  had  an- 
ticipated the  coming  of  Samuel  in  an  hour  of  great  need, 
and  himself  brought  the  sacriBce  before  b.attlo;  or  (1  Sam. 
XV.  26)  because  he  bad  failed  wholly  to  extirpate  the  hated 
race  of  Amalek.     A  new  king  was  now  to  be  chosen.    Sam- 
uel selected   a   shepherd-boy,   David,  the   son  of  Jishai. 
The  manner  of  the  future  ruler's  introduction  to  Saul  is 
related  in  1  Sam.  xvi.  2,'5  and  xvii.  57.     It  is  the  fame  of 
bis  skill  on  the  harp  which  brings  him  to  court,  in  the 
former  narrative,  to  soothe  the  gloomy  spirit  of  the  king ; 
in  the  latter,  the  attention  of  Saul  is  first  directed  to  the 
young  hero  after  he  has  slain  the  Philistine  giant  (in  2 
'Sam.°xxi.  19,  Elchanan  is  mentioned  as  the  vanquisher  of 
Goliath).    The  suspicions  of  Saul  were  soon  aroused  against 
David,  but  the  prowess  of  the  latter  repeatedly  defeated 
the  schemes  that  were  laid  for  his  destruction.     Saul  was 
even  compelled  to  give  him  his  daughter  in  marriage  and 
to  witness  the  close  alliance  subsisting  between  his  son  and 
his  hated  rival.     David  was  at  last  compelled  to  flee  the 
court,  and  theuceforth   led  the  roving   life  of  a  fugitive. 
The  jealousy  of  the  king  followed  him  wherever  he  went, 
and  the  repeated  proofs  which  he  gave  of  his  respect  for 
the  person  of  "  the  Lord's  anointed  "  served  only  to  secure 
an  occasional  interval  of  repose.     A  lasting  reconciliation 
was  not  brought  about.     The  records  of  that  dismal  age 
are  frequently  stained  with  deeds  of  bloodshed.     Eighty- 
five  of  the  priests  of  Nob  are  butchered  by  command  of  Saul, 
and  the  city  itself  utterly  destroyed.     D.avid,  to  save  his 
lil'e,  plays  the  fool  at  the  court  of  Achish  (1   Sam.  xxi.), 
enters  into  relations  of  close  intimacy   with  Ammonites 
and  Moabites— he  was  himself  the  descendant  of  Kuth,  a 
Moabitish  woman — and  serves  in  the  army  of  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  xxix.  2).     In  the  mean  time  the  incursions 
of  the  Philistine  forces  continue  to  endanger  the  political 
existence  of  Israel.     Saul  is  reduced  to  utter  despair.    The 
weird  scene  in  the  house  of  the  Witch  of  Endor.  described 
in  eh.  xxviii.,  whore  the  spirit  of  him  who  is  "shrouded 
in  a  mantle"  (comp.  xxviii.  11  with  ii.  19)  rises  out  of  the 
earth  to  announce  impending  doom  to  the  weary  king,  is  a 
filling  prelude  to  the  Irajic  close.     In  a  great  battle  the 
hosts^f  Israel  are  routed  by  the  Philistines,  Saul  falls  on 
his  sword,  and  his  sons  perish  with  him.     David  was  now 
recognized  asking,  at  first  by  his  own  tribe,  then,  after  Ish- 
bosheth's  death,  by  the  whole  people.    He  delivered  seven 
sons  of  Saul  into  the  hands  of  the  Gibeonites  that  they  might 
kill  them,  while  he  supported  the  son  of  his  friend  .Jonathan, 
a  poor  cripple  who  was  content  to  live  on  the  king's  bounty. 
The  peace  of  his  house,  however,  was  continually  disturbed 
by  the  misconduct  of  his  own  children.     The  incestuous 
passion  of  the  one.  the  boundless  ambition  of  the  other, 
distressed   the  father's  heart,     lie  was  forced  to  flee,  an 
exile,  from  Jerusalem,  the  city  which  he  had  himself  con- 
quered and  made  the  capital  of  the  country.     And  his  vic- 
tory over  the  insurgent  chief  was  but  n  new  source  of  grief, 
involving  as  it  did  the  destruction  of  his  beautiful  if  un- 
worthv  son.     His  victorious  arms  had,  indeed,  extended 
the  boundaries  of  the  lan<l   and  secured  its  safety.     But 
domestic  discord  and  the  rankling  consciousness  of  his  own 
deep  guilt  clouded  the  happiness  of  David's  declining  years. 


After  a  reign  of  forty  years  he  died.     Solomon,  the  son  of 
Bathsheba,  whose  husband  had  been  treacherously  slain  by 
David,  succeeded  to  the  throne.     He  executed  the  design 
which  his  father  had  formed,  but  had  not  been  permitted 
to  accomplish.     With  the  aid  of  his  ally,  the  Phoenician 
king,  he  reared  the  splendid  temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  and 
dcdTcated  it  with  imposing  ceremonies  to  the  service  of  the 
God  of  Israel  and  of  the  stranger.     Renowned  from  child- 
hood for  extraordinary  wisdom,  ho  illustrated  his  reign 
with  the  magnificence  of  regal  display  rather   than  the 
glory  of  victorious  arms.     Trade  flourished,  his  ships  re- 
turned laden  with  the  treasures  of  the  distant  East,  and 
Jerusalem  was  adorned  with  palaces.     But  the  people  wcro 
burdened  with  taxes,  the  royal  harem  was  enlarged  beyond 
all  precedent,  and  the  heart  of  the  uxorious  king  was  won 
for  foreign  gods  by  the  foreign  princesses  whom  ho  had  es- 
poused.    Hardly  had  Solomon  breathed  his  last  when  the 
people  rose  in  open  revolt.     His  son,  Kehoboam.  unwisely 
provoked  the  resentment  which  justice  and  policy  called 
upon  him  to  allay.     Ten  tribes  under  the  leadership  of 
Jeroboam  seceded  from  his  dominion ;  Josejjh  and  Judah 
were  thcne"forth  separated.     Jerusalem  remained  the  cap- 
ital of  Judah;  Shechem,  Tirzah,  Samaria  became  in  turn 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel.     To  prevent  a  return 
of  the  people  to  their  old  allegiance  Jeroboam  established 
new  seats  of  worship,  introduced  innovations  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  tho  festivals,  and  created  a  new  priesthood.     His 
rule  was  the  inauspicious   beginning  of  a  long  scries  of 
disastrous  reigns.     His  son  Nadab  was  slain  while  besicg- 
in"  Gibthon  of  the  Pliilistincs.     Baasha,  a  successful  con- 
spTrator,  aseondcd  the  throne,  and  ruled  twenty-four  years. 
Then  followed  his  son  Elah,  who  was  murdered  by  Zimri. 
This  seven-day  king  kindled  the  royal  palace  above  his 
head  when  be  learned  that  tho  army  around  Gibthon  (comp. 
1    Kings  XV.  27  with  xvi.  IJ)  had  raised  their  captain, 
Omri,  to  the  throne,  and  were  already  entering  the  gates 
of  Tirzah.     An  unholy  distinction  belongs  to  tho  reign  of 
Ahab,  Omri's  son.    HaVing  wedded  the  Phtenieian  princess 
Jezebel,  he  introduced  the  lascivious  worship  of  Baal  (tho 
cult  of  the  phallus)  into  Israel.     Tho  bonds  of  law  were 
loosened,  the  service  of  tho  Deity  was  degraded  to  sensual 
orgies,  and  the  example  of  the  court  corrupted  the  manners 
of  the  people.    The  better  and  purer  spirits  reacted  against 
the  inroads  of  a  foreign  worship  which  outraged  alike  their 
feelings  of  piety  and  of  patriotism.     A  more  profound  con- 
ception of  the   Divine  Being  was  gradually  evolved,  and 
the  inward  and  outward  struggles  of  infant  prophecy  may 
still  he  traced  in  the  lives  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  as  they  are 
transcribed  in  the   chronicles  of  the  Kings.     The  victory 
of  Ahab  over  the  Syrian  Benhadad  was  sullied  by  the  un- 
timely clemency  wliich  ho  extended  to  his  vanquished  foe. 
Soon  after,  in  a  war  undertaken  with  Jehoshapbat,  king 
of  Judah,  for  the  purpose  of  wresting  Ramoth-Gilead  from 
the  power  of  Aram,  Ahab  lost  his  life,  and,  as  Elijah  had 
prophesied,  his  blood  was  licked  by  dogs  in  the  vineyard 
of  Naboth,  the  stime  whom  he  had  treacherously  murdered. 
The  house  of  Ahab  was  utterly  rooted  out  by  command  of 
Jehu,  whom  Elisha  bad  anointed  king  over  Israel.     The 
70  sons  of  the  Baal  worshipper  were  slain,  and  bis  wife, 
Jezebel,  audacious  to  the  last,  was  cast  from  the  window  of 
her  palace  by  her  attendants.     The  successors  of  Jehu  con- 
tinued in  tho  evil  courses  of  their  predecessors.     Jehoash 
captured  Jerusalem  and  destroyed  part  of  its  wall.     Jero- 
boam II.  extended  the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom,  but  the 
lustre  of  bis  successors  was  but  the  last  glow  of  an  expiring 
flame.     A  new  and  warlike  dynasty  possessed  the  throne 
of  Assvria.     Menahem   bought  a  transient  peace  by  the 
pavmc'nt  of  a  heavy  tribute  to  the  Assyrian  king  Phul. 
In'ihe  rei^n  of  Pekah.  however,  the  whole  land  of  Naph- 
tali  was    o'verrun  by  Tiglatb-pilescr.  and  its  inhabitants 
carried  awav  into  captivity.     It  was  in  vain  that  the  king 
of  Israel  united  his  forces  with  those  of  his  old  enemy,  tho 
king  of  Syria,  for  mutual  protection  against  the  common 
danger  that  approached  from  beyond  the  Euphrates.     Tho 
finafblow  could  no  longer  be  averted.    Too  late  his  succes- 
sor   Hosea,   implored  the  aid   of  the  Egyptian  Pharaoh. 
The  army  of   Salmanasar  attacked  Samaria.     A  fruitless 
siecc  of  three  years  ended  in  the  capture  of  the  capital  and 
the°coniplete  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (a.  r.  721). 
Tho  ten  tribes  wore  settled  in  distant  districts  of  the  As- 
syrian empire,  and  soon  lost  among  its  inhabitants.     The 
once  mighty  people  of  the  N.  of  Palestine  left  a  lasting 
monument  if  its  greatness  in  the  inspired  writings  of  its 
noble  prophets,  but  of  the  subsequent  fortunes  of  the  scat- 
tered tribes  nothing  became  known,  save  to  the  idle  dream- 
ers of  a  later  age.  ,  .      ,        i,   j 
For  more  than  a  century  after  her  sister  kingdom  had 
been  swept  away  Judah  continued  to  brave  the  storms  that 
1  threatened  her  own  existence.     In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam, 
1  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  plundered  the  temple  and  palaco 
I  of  Jerusalem.  (Tho    biblical  account  is   corroborated   by 


JEWS. 


1415 


the  testimony  of  the  Ej^yptian  monuments.)  His  sucoes- 
purs  (comp.  1  Kinirs  xv.  2  and  lU)  proved  little  better 
tlian  the  neij;hboriii;;  rulers  of  Isnicl.  Eveu  the  more 
God-fearing  aiuun;;  tlieni  would  not  or  could  not  ubulish 
the  idotatroui?  custom  of  sacrilicing  on  hi<;h  places.  Jo- 
huf^hnphat  and  Ahaziah  furmed  au  alliance  with  the  house 
of  Aliab,  for  whirh  the  latter  paid  dearly  with  his  life. 
Athaliah,  a  daughter  uf  Omri.  tliuu  usurped  the  sovereign 
power,  and  comuianded  a  prouiiscuous  slaughter  uf  the 
royal  family  to  secure  her  throne.  Juash,  a  suckling  in- 
fant, alone  escaped.  In  the  seventh  year  of  her  rcicn 
Athaliah  fell  before  a  conspiracy  of  the  priests  and  cap- 
tains, with  JL'hoiada  at  its  head,  and  Joash  was  proclaimed 
king.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aniaziah,  who  de- 
feated Edom.  but  was  himself  severely  chastised  by  the 
king  of  Israel.  Azariah,  the  son  of  Amaziah,  was  aftlicted 
with  leprosy,  and  was  forced  to  leave  the  care  of  the  state 
in  [he  hands  <>f  his  son  Jothain.  .Jotliani,  in  turu,  was  fol- 
lowed by  Ahaz.  This  king  was  attacked  by  the  combined 
armies  of  Israel  and  Syria.  To  save  his  power  he  was 
compelled  to  call  in  the  doubtful  aid  of  the  Assyrian  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  and  purchased  his  security  at  the  expense  of 
his  independence.  His  son,  Hczckiah,  iscclebrated  in  his- 
tory as  a  prince  of  distinguished  ])iety,  whose  virtues  ar- 
rested for  a  time  the  down\vard  course  of  Judah's  fortunes. 
His  court  was  adorned  by  the  presence  of  the  most  mag- 
nillcent  of  the  prophets,  and  the  king  had  the  rare  fortune 
of  listening  to  the  counsels  of  Isaiah,  and  the  rare  merit 
of  deferring  to  his  monitions.  The  armies  of  Assyria,  which 
had  extingui-^hed  the  national  existence  of  Israel,  passed 
harmlessly  by  Jerusalem.  The  vast  host  of  Sennacherib 
was  struck  with  a  sudden  blight;  an  angel  of  Jehovah 
passed  through  tlto  camp,  and  in  the  morning  185,000 
corpses  covered  the  field.  After  the  death  of  Hczckiah, 
Manassch  and  ,\mon  brought  back  the  evil  practices  of 
former  days.  Then  camo  Josiah,  celebrated  as  the  restorer 
of  the  law.  In  his  day  Hilkiah,  tlio  high  priest,  found  a 
scroll  in  tho  temple  which  ho  sent  to  the  king  (this  scroll  is 
by  many  critics  supposed  to  have  been  tho  book  of  Deuter- 
onomy). Josiah,  terrified  by  tho  announcement  of  ap- 
proaching doom  contained  in  it,  projected  a  complete  re- 
form in  tho  religious  life  of  iho  people.  Ho  ordered  the 
temple  to  bo  purged  of  its  idols,  tho  Passover  to  bo  cele- 
brated, and  concluded  anew  tho  broken  covenant  with 
(lod.  Wheu  Pharaoh-nccho  advanced  against  Assyria, 
Josiah,  true  to  his  allegiance,  marched  out  against  him, 
but  was  slain  ut  Mi-giddo.  In  tho  reign  of  his  son  Joia- 
kim,  whom  Pharaoh  had  appointed  king  in  place  of  Joa- 
liash.  a  change  look  (itace  in  tho  complexion  of  the  po- 
litical world.  (Ireat  jsincveh  fell.  L'[)on  her  ruins  rose 
tho  empire  of  tho  Chaldicans,  and  as  Egypt's  strength  was 
paralyzed,  tho  armies  of  Babylon  nswcrtcd  her  undisputed 
sway  over  the  surrounding  nations  and  cities.  Bcf:)rothi3 
new  power  tho  kingdom  of  Judali  at  last  sucoumbed. 
Joiukin,  a  youth  of  eighteen  years,  who  succeeded  his 
father,  was  hardly  fitted  to  guido  tho  helm  of  statu  at  so 
critical  a  period.  Nebuchadnezzar  came  upon  Jerusalem. 
Tho  king  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  und  Zedekiah  ap- 
pointed in  his  stead.  Zedekiah  rebelled.  For  two  y(furs 
.Jerusalem  withstood  the  siegeof  the  Babylonians.  At  las!, 
driven  by  famine,  tho  besieged  endeavored  to  cut  through 
the  lines  of  tho  besiegers.  Zedekiah  was  overtaken,  brought 
before  Nebuchadnezzar,  his  children  slain  before  his  eyes, 
anri,  blinded,  ho  was  carried  in  chains  to  the  capital  of  tho 
coiii|Uoror.  Jerusalem  wa^  in  ash<-s,  its  temple  a  smoulder- 
ing ruin,  and  "  tlio  paths  of  Zion  were  in  mourning."  Tho 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  had  foretold  iho  calamity  which  ho 
was  powerless  to  avert:  his  Lamentations  sing  tho  dirge 
of  Judah's  fallen  greiitne.s.«.  A  remnant  of  the  pcopio  was 
left  in  Piili-stino  under  (Jedaliah  as  governor.  Asi^assiualion 
put  an  eml  to  his  brief  reign,  and  tho  others,  fearing  tho  ven- 
geance of  the  Chaldioans,  fled  to  Egypt,  with  Jeremiah  us 
their  unwilling  companion.  The  great  nnijority  of  the  peo- 
ple, however,  had  been  led  into  exile,  to  recall  *'  by  Babel's 
streams"  the  sad  memories  of  tlieir  native  land.  (It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  tho  mother's  namo  of  tho  ruling 
prince  is  invariably  mentioned  in  the  annals  of  the  Judiean 
Kings,  while  it  is  omitted  in  (hi)se  of  Israel.  Tho  high 
power  of  the  kitig's  mr>ther  is  also  attested  by  tho  sov- 
ereignty which  Athaliah  exercised  during  seven  years,  and 
by  2  KingH  xxiv.  12,  where  tho  inolhor  of  Joiukin  is  nion- 
tit>iu<d  as  the  most  eon"lderable  personage  of  his  court.) 

Babylonia  proved  for  the  Jews  tho  erucible  from  which 
they  came  forth  for  tho  first  time  wholly  aglow  with  tho 
spirit  of  monollieism.  In  the  year  .VIS,  Cyrus,  having 
overturned  the  empire  of  the  ChaldiranN,  permitted  them 
tn  return  to  their  country.  About  .')(>, 01)0.  wilh  .lefhua,  tho 
high  priest,  and  Zerubbabol,  of  Iho  seed  of  David,  tit  their 
heati,  availed  themselves  of  this  permisNion.  Spurred  on 
by  the  ehirpwnt  monitions  of  sueh  prophi-ts  as  llaggai  and 
Zcehariah,  they  proceeded   to   re-erect  tho   fallen   temple, 


though  frequently  interrupted  in  their  work  by  tho  en- 
mity or  jealousy  of  tho  surrounding  nations.  Prominent 
among  these  were  the  Samaritans,  with  Sanballat  their 
chief.  These  people  had  been  transplanted  by  the  As- 
syrian monarch  to  occupy  tho  vacant  seats  of  the  ten 
tribes,  and  had  adopted  the  religion  of  Israel.  But  being 
still  tainted  with  idolatry,  they  were  not  admitted  to  the 
share  they  claimed  in  the  new  sanctuary  of  Jehovah.  Their 
calumnies  at  the  Persian  court  for  a  time  caused  the  com- 
plete suspension  of  the  work.  In  the  year  il.'i  the  build- 
ing of  the  second  temple  was  finishccl.  The  religious  basis 
of  the  infant  state  was  fixed  by  the  scribe  Ezra,  **  the  sec- 
ond Mo.-^es,"  who,  coming  from  the  court  of  Artaxcrxcs 
armed  with  great  powers,  used  them  to  secure  the  general 
observance  of  tho  Law  and  to  purge  the  people  of  tho  hea- 
then elements  which  had  crept  into  their  midst.  His  mea- 
sures do  not  appear  to  have  been  <juite  as  effective  as  they 
were  stern.  Nehemiali,  the  cupbearer  of  Artaxerxes,  fol- 
lowed in  his  footsteps,  forbad":  the  desecration  of  the  sab- 
bath, rebuked  the  wealthy  for  their  greed  and  their  oppres- 
sion of  the  poor,  and  strengthened  the  defences  of  Jerusalem 
by  tho  erection  of  a  wall.  The  succeeding  period  until  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  (Jrcat  is  wra])ped  in  obscurity. 
Juda)a,  remaining  tributary  to  the  Persian  ruler,  had  no 
history,  and  may  therefore  be  supposed  to  have  been  happy. 
After  tho  death  of  tho  Macedonian  conqueror,  Ptolemy  Dagi 
captured  Jerusalem,  and  for  almost  a  century  Palestine  was 
held  in  subjection  by  the  Ptolemies,  whose  yoke  was  not,  at 
first,  a  heavy  one.  Many  of  the  Jews  had  settled  in  Al- 
exandria, where  their  industry,  enterprise,  and  wide  con- 
nections soon  raised  them  to  tho  position  of  merchant 
princes.  A  rich,  manifold,  and  widely  influential  literature 
arose  in  Iho  mi<lst  of  this  Egyptian  colony,  and  under  the 
fostering  care  of  scholarly  kings  a  new  philosophy  was 
cultivated,  destined  thereafter  in  Christijin  garb  to  spread 
over  tho  world.  Tho  Septuagint  f  the  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament)  was  composed,  and  a  temple,  built  after 
the  pattern  of  the  one  on  Moriah,  at  Heliopolis,  became  at 
once  a  source  of  pride  and  distrust  to  tho  patriots  of  Jeru- 
salem. With  tho  decline  of  Egypt's  power  and  the  grow- 
ing strength  of  the  Seleueidjc.  a  new  danger  threatened  the 
existeuco  of  the  Jewish  stale  and  religion.  In  tho  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century  ii.  c.  Judaea  had  transferred  its 
allegiance  to  Syria.  In  return,  Antiochus  Epiphancs  barely 
three  decades  after  conimande<i  them  to  abjure  their  relig- 
ion, defiled  their  sanctuary,  and  erected  tlie  statue  of  the 
Olympian  Jove,  to  which  they  were  ordered  to  pay  divine 
honors.  Thia  outrage  provoked  a  disastrous  ''  thirty  years' 
war."  Antioehus  was  aided  by  the  party  of  the  Hellenists, 
friends  of  tho  Greeks,  at  whose  head  stood  the  infamous 
priests  Jason  and  Menehius.  The  cause  of  the  people  was 
espoused  liy  tho  family  of  tho  Uasmoneans,  or  Maccabees, 
so  called  from  its  most  valiant  member,  Judah  the  Ham- 
mer (Maccab).  Tho  Maccabean  brothers  were  tho  main 
stay  of  tho  revolution.  Equally  great  in  defeat  and  suc- 
cess, they  achieved  victories  over  Syrian  armies  that  were 
superior  to  their  own  in  numbers,  equipments,  prestige,  in 
everything  but  devotion  to  their  cause,  while  they  never 
allowed  their  courage  to  sink  under  the  most  crushing  ad- 
versity. Tlieir  heroic  deeds  are  rclateil  in  the  works  of 
Josephus  and  tho  books  of  tho  Maccabees.  ( For  an  inge- 
nious argument  to  prove  the  Sadducean  origin  of  tho  first 
book,  tho  Plmriscan  of  tho  second,  seo  Geiger's  UrgrhH/t, 
p.  200.)  Tiio  Talmud,  strange  to  way,  almost  ignores  them. 
Judas  Maecabce  succeeded  in  cleansing  tho  temple.  Ho 
died  a  soldier's  ileath  in  a  decisive  battle  fought  witli  tho 
Syrian  general  Bacchides.  Jonathan,  his  brother,  profiting 
by  tho  disorders  that  had  broken  out  in  the  enemy's  coun- 
try, secured  his  recognition  as  high  jiricst  and  elhnarch  by 
the  posscs8i»rs  of  or  i)reten<lers  to  the  throne  of  Syria,  but 
was  finally  ensnared  by  the  wily  Tryplion,  and  treacher- 
ously slain.  Tho  commanct  notv  devolved  upon  Simon,  to 
wh<»sa  ]>rudent  counsels  tho  father  of  the  Alaccabees  had 
on  his  deathbed  referred  the  brothers  for  their  guidance. 
Ho  ended  Iho  long  war  suceescfully  in  the  year  li:J  n.  r., 
established  tho  indopendonco  of  Judira,  and  was  invented 
by  a  grateful  people  with  the  chief  nmgii^tracy.  It  in  pndj- 
ablo  tinit  in  his  day  the  Sanlu'drin,  the  highest  tribunal  of 
thestate.compoBcdof  eminent  doctors  of  I  he  I  aw.  first  entered 
upon  its  duties,  though  a  more  ancient  origin  is  ascribed 
to  it  by  some.  Simon  was  assassinateil  by  his  son-in-law 
Ptolemy,  who  betrayed  at  once  the  sacred  trust  of  hospital- 
ity and  the  eonlidenee  of  paternal  nffeelion.  His  son,  John 
Ilyrcanus,  sueeeedc*!  him.  This  prince  subjugated  tho 
Idunuenns,  and  forced  Ihem  to  accept  the  religion  of  Moses 
— a  fatal  step  for  liis  people  and  Ins  dynasty.  During  a 
reign  of  thirty  years  ( l-'if^-lO-'i),  which  was  signalized  by 
many  warlike  nehievemenls.  ho  incurred  the  hatred  of  tho 
ptipular  party  of  Iho  Pharisees  by  his  ill-concealed  prefer- 
enoo  for  their  Sadducean  opponent!*.  His  son,  Aristobulus, 
who  followed  him,  added  tho  kingly  purple  to  tho  high 


UltJ 


JEWS. 


priest's  robe.  The  brother  of  Aristobulus,  Alexander  Jan- 
nffius,  is  remarkable  for  the  rapid  succession  of  his  military 
exploits  and  the  general  bad  fortune  which  attended  them. 
On  one  occasion  he  was  only  saved  from  utter  destruction 
by  the  intervention  of  Cleopatra  and  the  Jewish  generals 
that  commanded  her  army.     In  his  lifetime  he   bitterly 

Sorsecutcd  the  Pharisees,  but  on  his  deathbed  he  advised 
is  wife,  Salome  Alexandra,  to  make  her  peace  with  a  party 
whoso  hostility  might  ensure  her  destruction.    The  bloody 
feud  which  began  to  rage  after  the  death  of  Jannajus  be- 
tween his  sons,  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  was  the  fatal 
beginning  of  a  loiig  struggle  that  ended  in  the  final  dis- 
me'inberment  of  the  Jewish  state.     The  friendship  of  the 
Romans  had  proved  valuable  in  the  war  of  independence. 
The  Roman  eagle  was  now  called  in,  like  the  fox  in  the 
fable,  to  judge  between  the  hostile  brothers.     Scaurus  at 
first  decided  in  favor  of  Aristobulus.  but  (60  B.C.)  Pompey 
reversed  his  decision.    The  temple  was  stormed,  Hyrcanus 
reinstated,  and  Aristobulus  with  his  sons  carried  captive 
to   Rome.     The  independence  of  Palestine  was  thus  for 
ever  lost.     A  native  prince  was.  indeed,  still  permitted  to 
assume  the  vain  shadow  of  authority,  but  the  policy  or 
caprice  of  the  Romans  thenceforth  appointed  or  dismissed 
the  rulers  of  the  Holy  Land.     The  counsels  of  the  feeble 
Hyrcanus  were  directed  by  Antipater,  a  statesman  of  un- 
usual sagacity,  an  Iduma;an  by  birth.     While  we  cannot 
but  abhor  their  treachery,  we  are  compelled  to  admire  the 
subtle  craft  by  which  this  Antipater  and  his  son  Herod 
contrived  to   .secure  the   favor   of   all  the  great  captains 
who  at  that  time  successively  swayed  the  destinies  of  the 
Roman  world.     When  the  star  of  Pompey  was  about  to 
decline,  Antipater  earned  the  gratitude  of  C«sar  by  the 
powerful  support  which  he  lent  him  in  the  conquest  of 
Egypt.     Herod,  ruling  in  Galilee,  strengthened  the  hands 
of°'Cassius  by  the  prompt  despatch  of  supplies  collected 
in    his  district.      He   enlisted    the    sympathies    of    Mark 
Antony    so    completely    in    his    behalf    that    his    cause 
was  introduced  into  the  Roman  senate  by  both  Antony 
and   his  colleague    Augustus.     Through   their  efforts  the 
usurper  was  proclaimed  king.     Meantime,  Antigonus,  the 
son  of  that  Aristobulus  whom  Pompey  had  sent  to  Rome, 
obtained  the  aid  of  the  Parthians  in  an  attempt  to  regain 
bis  throne.     Jerusalem  was  taken,  Hyrcanus  sent  captive 
to  Babylon,  and  Herod  forced  to  flee  to  Idumasa.     With 
the  help  of  his  Roman  friends,  however,  he  succeeded  in 
turning  the  fortunes  of  the  war.     After  a  most  sanguinary 
conflict  the  capital  was  retaken  (b.  c.  .37),  and  Antigonus, 
at  his  instigation,  shamefully  executed.    King  Herod  "did 
his  days  in  stone."     He  rebuilt  the  temple  on  a  scale  of 
great  magnificence,  erected  spacious  amphitheatres,  and  in- 
troduced the  games  of  the  arena.     But  this  outward  splen- 
dor could  not  conceal  the  real  misery  of  his  disastrous  reign. 
The  tyrant's  fierce  passions  were  quickly  roused,  and  ho 
possessed  the  fatal  power  of  fulfilling  his  desires.     Among 
those  whom  he  slew  may  be  named — Hyrcanus.  to  whom 
his  family  owed  its  elevation  ;  the  grandchild  of  the  former, 
his  own  beautiful  wife  Mariamne ;   her  brother,  the  young 
high  priest  Aristobulus;  two  husbands  of  his  sister  Salome  ; 
three  of  his  own  sous,  and  others  too  numerous  to  mention. 
After  his  death  the  kingdom  was  divided  among  his  sons, 
Archelaus,  Antipas,  and  Philippus.     By  the  favor  of  the 
emperor  Claudius  his  grandson.  Herod  Agrippa,  onco  more 
for  a  brief  time  united  the  divided  principalities  under  ono 
sceptre.     But  in  the  days  of  Agrippa  II.,  in  whose  reign 
the  destruction  of  the  state  was  accomplished,  the  power 
of  the  last  Jewish  dynasty  had  lost  all  substance.     The 
extortions  of  such  Roman  governors  as  Antonius   Felix 
and  Gessius  I'lorus  urged  the  people  to  the  very  verge  of 
despair.     A  republican  party  long  since  subsisted  among 
them,  as  appears  from  Josephus  (Antiq.,  xiv.  3),  and  the 
Zealots  under  the  leadership  of  Judah  of  Gaulonitis  were 
impatient  of  the  Roman  yoke.    Encouraged  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  army  of  Cest'ius  Uallus  {\.  n.  GO),  the  patriots 
at  last  dared  to  raise  their  head.    The  gauntlet  was  thrown 
down  to  Rome,  the  revolution  began,  and  Josephus,  the 
future  historian  of  the  war,  was  sent  to  organize  the  de- 
fence of  Galilee.    The  disciplined  legions,  advancing  under 
Vespasian,  the  ablest  general  of  the  age,  were  met  by  rude 
bands  of  guerillas,  and  the  arts  of  war  baffled  by  the  ob- 
stacles of  nature  and  tho  frantic  courage  of  despair.     The 
strong  fortress  of  Jotapata  successfully  resisted  every  effort 
of  the  besiegers,  until,  covered  by  the  mist  of  early  morn- 
ing and  led  on  by  a  traitor,  the  Romans  succeeded  in  sur- 
prising the  guards,  and  the  place  fell  into  their  hands. 
Josephus,  who  commanded  in  person,  was  taken  prisoner; 
40,000  men  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  tho  siege.     On  Ves- 
pasian's departure  the  completion  of  the  w.ar  was  entrusted 
to  his  son,  Titus.     In  the  spring  of  a.  d.  70,  Titus  opened 
his  works  against  Jerusalem.     The  city  was  torn  by  dis- 
sensions.    Famine  soon   made  its  appearance,  the  houses 
were  filled  with  the  dead  and  the  dying,  mothers  are  said 


to  have  devoured  their  own  children  in  the  frenzy  of  hunger. 
After  two  weeks  the  outworks  were  taken.  Upon  this  the 
attack  was  directed  against  the  strong  castle  Antonia, 
which  was  connected  by  cloisters  with  the  temple.  Not- 
withstanding the  repeated  sallies  of  the  besieged  under 
their  heroic  chief,  John  of  liiscala,  the  castle  was  captured. 
Then  began,  under  the  eye  of  the  Ca;sar,  the  last  desperate 
struggle  of  the  defenders  for  the  palladium  of  the  state, 
the  sanctuary  itself  Again  and  again  the  imperial  soldiers 
were  beaten  ofi'  and  dashed  from  the  walls.  At  last  a  Ro- 
man soldier,  rising  on  the  shoulder  of  his  fellow,  threw  a 
firebrand  through  an  open  casement  into  the  outer  halls  of 
the  temple.  The  woodwork  caiight,  the  temple  stood  in 
flames.  The  infuriated  troops  rushed  into  the  holy  places, 
murdering  and  pillaging,  and  the  arm  of  Titus  himself  was 
powerless  to  stay  the  carnage  or  save  the  great  edifice. 
Many  of  those  whom  the  sword  spared  were  carried  to 
distant  countries  as  slaves  or  saved  for  the  sports  of  the 
arena.  Jerusalem  was  an  utter  ruin ;  the  Jewish  state  had 
fallen  to  rise  no  more. 

With  the  loss  of  its  political  existence  the  integrity  of 
Judaism  as  a  religion  remained  unimpaired.     The  founda- 
tions for  a  new  order  of  things  had  already   been   laid. 
Prayer  took  the  place  of  sacrifice,  the  synagogues  replaced 
the  temple,  and  the  Beth-Din,  noiselessly  founded  by  Rabbi 
Jochanan  ben  Sakkai  in  Jamnia,  became  a  centre  of  au- 
thority to    reunite  the  scattered   people.     The    Beth-Din 
was  presided  over  by  a  nasi  (prince),  a  descendant  of  Hillcl, 
the  great  master  of  the  law,  and  two  other  oflicers  (ab-bcth- 
din  and  chaeham).     It  was  composed  in  the  first  place  of 
seventy  academic  members  ;  secondly,  of  such  as  had  been 
ordained  to  act  as  teachers:  and  of  their  disciples,  in  the 
third  place.     The  sittings  were  open   to  the  public.     Tlie 
questions  discussed  in  this  and  the  similar  academies  at 
Sepphoris,  Tiberias,  and  elsewhere  afi'ected  the  entire  re- 
ligious, political,  and  social  life  of  the  Jews.     Through  the 
agency  of  such  schools  the  work  of  extending  and  modify- 
ing   the   provisions    of  the   law   and   of  ancient   tradition 
(Cabbala)  to  suit  the  altered  eircumstanees  of  the  time  was 
successfully  carried  on.    The  political  position  of  the  Jewish 
citizens  of" the  Roman  empire  (they  had  been  admitted  to 
the  rights  of  citizenship   by  the  emperor  Claudius)  varied 
with  tiie  chiiracter  of  the  reigning  sovereign.     Vespasian 
seized  the  tax  which  the  Jews  had  hitherto  remitted  to  the 
temple  for  his  own  treasury,  and  thereby  set  an  example  to 
his  real  or  pretended  successors  down  almost  to  our  own 
day.   Domitian  displayed  his  animosity  chiefiy  by  the  severe 
treatment  of  proselytes.     The  mild  rule  of  Nerva  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  period  of  wild  disorder  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 
The  Jew's  of  Eivpt,  Cyrene,  and  the  isle  of  Cyprus  rose  in 
open  revolt.     The  barbarous  conflicts  that  ensued  have  left 
few  traces  in  history  save  in  the  increased  legacy  of  mutual 
hate  between  the  parties  engaged  in  them,  which  they  trans- 
mitted to  succeeding  generations.  .  At  this  time  the  great 
Proseuehc  of  Alexandria  was  destroyed.     The  last  powerful 
insurrection  of  Judsea  followed  in  the  days  of  Hadrian,  and 
was  quelled  by  Julius  Severus.     Their  Messianic  prince, 
Bar-Cochba,  led   the  insurgents  in  more  than  fifty  battles 
against  tho  Romans;  h.alf  a  million  of  Jews  are  reported 
to  have  fallen  in  them.     With  tlie  taking  of  Betar  the  war 
came  to  an  end.     Bar-Cochba  himself  is  said  to  have  been 
found  among  the  dead  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  a  serpent. 
Jerusalem  now  became  a  Roman  town,  under  the  name  of 
M\ia.  Capilolina,   in  honor  of  iElius  Hadrianus  and  the 
Capitoline  Jove;  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  enter  its  pre- 
cincts.    They  were,  moreover,  disturbed  in  the  practice  of 
their  religious  rites,  and  the  vital  point  of  their  faith  was 
attacked   when  tho  teaching  of  the  Law  was  interdicted. 
Tho  stubborn  resistance  of  the  people  must  have  impeded 
the  execution  of  these  commands,  and  (ho  more  obnoxious 
of  them  were  soon  after  abrogated   by  Antoninus  Pius. 
Tho  eloso  of   tho  second  century  is  rendered  memoriible 
by  the  compilation  of  the  Mishna  (.see  Talmud)  under  tho 
auspices  of  tho  patriarch  R.  Jcliuda,  who  is  called    Ha- 
Kadosh  ("the  saintly").   This  work  was  intended  tu  present 
in  au  authentic  and  codified  form  tho  decisions  of  the  Beth- 
Din,  which  ha.l  accumulated  during  several  centuries.    Its 
bulky  commentaries,  the  Gemaras  of  Babylon  and  Pales- 
tine," explain    or   amplify   its  provisions.     The  successful 
completion  of  so  diflicult  a  task  bears  witness  to  the  high 
authority  which  the  patriarch  or  nasi  must  have  wielded 
in  the  academy,  while  the  willingness  of  the  people  to  ac- 
cept the  code  which  tho  doctors  of  the  Law  recommended 
evinces  the  respect  in  which  these  chaberim  or  chaehamiin, 
this  "brotherhood  of  the  Learned."  were  held.     At   the 
same  time,  the  deposition  of  Gamaliel  shows  us  the  lirm 
determination  of  the  Beth-Din  to  resist  all  undue  exercise 
of  power  on  the  part  of  its  chief  officer.     The  members  of 
the  collco  themselves  never  aspired  to  other  prerogatives 
than  those  which  superior  wisdom  and  purity  might  justly 
claim        A  privileged  caste   could   not   arise   where  merit 


JEWS. 


I4i; 


was  the  solo  measure  of  worth.  The  Pharisaic  doctrine 
that  the  priesthood  hclon^a  to  all  the  people  was  rigorously 
tnaiDtaiucd,  and  hoth  iu  the  syuagoguc  and  without  it  the 
democratic  prineiplo  of  the  equality  of  all  was  religiously 
adhered  to.  This  state  of  things  was  largely  duo  to  the 
happy  example  set  by  the  rabbins  themselves.  Of  gomo 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  their  number  wo  know  that 
they  followed  some  humble  calliug  to  earu  their  bread, 
thinking  it  Hhameful  to  coin  their  teachings  into  gold,  A 
similar  sentiment  is  echoed  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Moses 
Maimonides.  In  paying  a  passing  tribute  to  the  singular 
disinterestedness  of  the  ancient  rabbins,  we  would  briefly 
advert  to  the  legends  with  which  the  stories  of  their  lives 
are  intertwined.  These  legends  are  not,  as  has  been  sup- 
posed, mere  fanciful  embellishment  or  exaggeration  of  his- 
torical fact.  In  the  accounts  of  Oni  Ha-Me'aggel.  the  man 
of  the  wheel  who  was  able  to  produce  rain,  of  Simon  b.  Joehai, 
whose  fiery  glance  spread  desolation  in  the  fields  when  he 
left  (ho  cave  where  ho  had  d^velt  concealed,  of  R.  Jochanan 
(the  fabled  compiler  of  the  Geinara  of  Palestine),  whose 
arm  emitted  a  wondrous  rosy  light,  we  recognize  distinct 
mvthologieal  tniits.  These  legends  are  contained  in  the 
liagada  (the  historical  and  poetical  part  of  the  Talmud  as 
distinguished  from  the  Ilalucha,  the  discussions  and  disqui- 
sitions on  points  of  religious  theory  and  jiractiee).  A  care- 
ful scrutiny  of  the  legends  of  the  Talmud  and  its  supple- 
mentary works  would,  we  doubt  not,  richly  repay  tho  labors 
of  the  student  of  comparative  mythology. 

In  the  reign  of  Diocletian  the  Jews  seem  to  have  been 
exempt  from  persecution.  Their  general  condition  in  the 
Roman  empire  at  this  time  was  at  least  tolerable.  Their 
peculiar  customs,  the  dietary  laws  which  prevented  them 
from  joining  in  tho  festivities  of  their  neighbors,  provoked 
the  ridicule  or  the  scorn  of  the  pagans.  But  their  legal 
status  was  not  thereby  affected.  All  this  changed  when 
Christianity  in  tho  jicrson  of  Constantino  ascended  the 
throne.  The  harsh  spirit  which  he  infused  into  the  legis- 
lation of  tho  empire  with  regard  to  the  theological  op- 
ponents of  tho  reigning  faith  was  still  further  developed 
by  his  successor,  Constantius.  whoso  measures  called  forth 
an  unsuccessful  revolt  in  Judu^a.  The  philosophic  Julian 
(;16I )  granted  them  the  full  blessings  of  his  favor,  but  they 
failed  to  second  his  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  the  temple. 
Thcodosius  I.  was  just  in  his  dealings  with  an  oppressed 
people,  in  dctiunco  of  tho  vehement  reproaches  of  Am- 
brosius,  the  bishop  of  Milan.  In  the  reign  of  Thcodosius 
II.,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  who  has  earned  an  unenviable 
fame  for  permitting  the  murder  of  the  noble  Hypatia,  ex- 
pelled the  Jews  fronj  that  city.  The  emperor  himself  de- 
prived them  of  valuable  rights,  such  as  the  rebuilding  of 
synagogues,  the  exercise  of  judicial  functions,  and  the  like. 
Tho  Jewish  patriarchate,  though  its  incumbent  had  but 
lately  been  numbered  among  the  **  lUustres,"  about  this 
time  (the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century)  expired.  In  tho 
following  century  the  code  of  Justinian  excluded  them  from 
all  honorable  offices,  imposing  upon  them  tho  duties  while 
depriving  them  of  the  privileges  of  tho  citizen.  Meantime, 
the  centre  of  authority  in  tvhat  concerned  the  internal  alVairs 
of  the  Jews  ha<l  been  gradually  transferred  from  Palestine 
to  Babylon,  and  tho  latter  ultimately  assumed  many  of 
tho  peculiar  prerogatives  of  tho  former.  About  the  time 
of  thi)  compilation  (»f  the  Mishna.  Abba  Arcka  (Rait)  and 
Mar  Samuel  removed  from  the  land  of  Israel,  and  founded 
schools  of  learning  on  the  banks  of  tho  Kuphrates  and  tho 
Tigris.  Tho  most  important  of  the  schools  that  flourished 
in  those  regions  were  t  hose  of  Xohardea,  Suna,  Pumbcditha, 
and  Miichuza.  In  them  the  (iemara  of  Babylon  (compiled 
about  .^Ofl)  was  elaborated.  The  politieal  represent:itivoof 
tho  Babylonish  .Jews  was  known  under  tho  name  of  "  prince 
of  the  Captivity  '*  (Resh  Oeluiha),  Ho  waa  accustomed  io 
livo  in  great  slate.  The  offiee  continued  to  bo  fille*|  until 
the  tenth  century.  When  in  the  third  century  tho  religion 
of  Zoroaster  celebrated  a  great  triumph  in  tlio  accession  of 
tho  house  of  Sassan  to  tho  throne  of  Persia,  tho  position  of 
the  Jews  remained,  on  tho  whole,  unaltered.  IVrsecutiona 
wore  indeed  more  frecpient  than  Ihoy  had  been,  but  tho 
yoke  of  tho  Magi  was  light  when  cimpared  with  that  of  tho 
priests  in  Christian  countries.  Shabur  11.  (-Tl^)  trans- 
plnnted  a  consiflerablo  number  of  the  Armenian  Jews  to 
Ispahan.  Jesdigerd  IT.  forbade  tho  observance  of  tho  Bab- 
bath  and  tho  public  reading  of  the  Phema  (tho  proclamation 
of  the  unity  of  (lofl)  -i-'.^-iOO.  Mis  -on  Firn7.  slaughtered 
many  of  the  Jewish  inhabitants  of  Ispahan,  and  further 
extended  tho  stringent  measures  of  his  father  (  171— tS^). 
About  this  timo  a  colony  of  Jews  is  said  to  have  landed  on 
the  coast  of  Malabar,  a  part  of  whom  nfterwiirdf  settled  In 
Cochin-China.  The  ripo  of  the  pect  nftho  y.onA'ic"  involved 
tho  Persian  .lews  in  the  general  disiisti-rs  tbiit  then  befel 
tho  renlm.  Horuiisdas  f  5H1 ),  discarding  the  example  of  the 
great  Chnsrn,  pursuetl  tho  cruel  policy  of  Kiruz  :  and  it  was 
but  natural  that  the  Jews  should  take  sides  with  his  enemy, 


the  usurper  Bahram,  in  tho  conflict  that  ensued  between  tho 
rival  aspirants  to  the  throne.  Under  Chosru  II.  they  joined 
the  Persian  troops  which  invaded  Palestine,  and  avenged 
tho  injuries  of  tlicir  brethren  by  expelling  the  Romans  from 
tho  land.  While  the  power  of  the  Sassauida}  visibly  de- 
clined in  the  country  which  wo  have  heretofore  designated 
by  tho  ancient  name  of  Babylon,  a  now  faith  rose  on  the 
Arabian  peninsula  whose  conquering  arms  were  soon  carried 
over  a  great  part  of  tbocivilized  world.  From  a  very  early 
timo  Jews  had  settled  in  Arabia,  and  had  assumed  tho  lan- 
guage and  manners  of  its  inhabitants,  differing  from  them 
only  in  their  religion.  Tho  Jewish  prince  Samoe!  b.  Adija 
is  still  celebrated  as  tho  greatest  of  all  the  poets  that  flour- 
ished before  the  coming  of  Mohammed;  while  the  Jewi^h 
king,  Jussuf  b.  Xowas,  became  a  byword  to  the  credulous 
superstition  of  a  later  age.  Powerful  Jewish  tribes,  settled 
in  tho  neighborhood  of  Yathrib  (Medina),  prepared  tho 
minds  of  tho  Arabs  to  receive  tho  doctrines  of  the  Prophet, 
and  to  Jewish  learning  be  owed  the  bctterpart  of  his  teach- 
ings. (Compare  Gcigcr's  prize-essay,  W'/irtt  f./i>l  Mohamnwd 
Borrow  from  Judaism  ?)  When  .^luhummed  found  tho 
Jews  as  stubborn  to  resist  his  own  pretensions  as  they  wero 
ready  to  aid  him  in  exposing  the  shams  of  idolatry,  the 
frieniUy  spirit  of  his  earlier  policy  toward  them  changed 
into  bitter  animosity.  Yet  he  ever  exempted  the  "scrip- 
tural people  "  from  the  edicts  of  proscription  with  which 
he  pursued  the  worshippers  of  images,  and  the  rule  of  tol- 
eration which  (he  founder  introduced  became  a  law  for  his 
successors.  Tho  Persian  empire  succumbed  before  Omar, 
the  second  of  the  caliphs.  To  him  are  ascribed  those  well- 
known  enactments  which  define  the  status  of  Jews  and 
Christians  in  countries  subject  to  Mohammedan  rule.  They 
may  be  compared  to  the  canonical  laws  of  the  Christian 
Church,  only  that  they  have  less  of  that  spirit  of  intoler- 
ance which  is  characteristic  of  tho  latter.  They  were, 
moreover,  less  frequently  and  less  stringently  enforced. 
By  them  it  is  provided  that  Jews  and  Christians  are  not  to 
build  new  houses  of  worship,  nor  repair  such  as  are  decayed; 
they  aro  to  prevent  no  one  from  conversion  to  Islam  ;  they 
are  not  to  sell  wino  nor  wear  their  liair  long;  they  arc  not 
to  bo  considered  eligible  for  ofllce.  A  Moslem  who  mal- 
treats an  ijfidcl  is  to  pay  a  fine,  etc.  etc.  The  political 
head  of  tho  Jews  was  treated  with  sufficient  respect  by  tho 
first  caliphs,  and  Bostanai,  the  *'  prince  of  the  t^aptivity," 
seems  to  have  been  the  recipient  of  the  highest  royal  favnrs. 
But  a  new  power,  that  of  tho  CJaons,  gradually  eclipsed  tho 
importance  of  these  so-called  princes.  The  Gaons  were  the 
presiding  ofticersof  the  learned  academies.  They  succeeded 
in  drawing  to  their  own  persons  the  umliviiled  attachment 
of  the  Jewish  community,  and  continued  during  several 
centuries  to  extend  their  influence  to  the  most  distant  con- 
gregations. Tho  revival  of  letters  that  followed  in  the  train 
of  Arabian  conquest  was  felt  and  hailed  with  eager  joy 
among  the  Jews.  The  critical  attention  of  scholars  was 
turned  to  tho  text  of  tho  Bible.  A  simpler  method  of  in- 
terpretation obtained.  A  new  sect  (see  Kauaitks)  was 
formed  under  the  leadership  of  Anan,  called  from  their 
closer  ndhcrenco  to  tho  letter  of  Scripture  (Mikra)  Karaites. 
Philosophy  found  an  eloquent  exponent  in  the  t»aon  Saadia 
(tenth  century) ;  and  toSherira  (Jaon  (d.  1000  a.  n.)  weowo 
a  document  of  the  very  highest  historical  value.  When  tho 
caliphate  of  Bagdad  succumbed  before  the  advaneing  Mon- 
gols, tho  Jews  shared  the  general  fate  of  their  countrymen. 
But  tho  religious  tolerance  or  imlifi'erenee  of  tho  conquerors 
protected  them  from  special  acts  of  hostility.  In  tho  year 
12'if^  a  Jewish  physician,  having  gained  the  jiarticular  favor 
of  thekluin  Argim,  was  nppointed  minister  of  finance  for  the 
whfde  Persian  empire.  Tlio  fanaticisnHU- jealousy  of  the  no- 
bility procured  his  assasf'ination,  and  bin  death  was  the  sig- 
nal of  persecution  for  his  brethren.  Tho  condition  of  tlio 
Jews  in  Asia  has  remained  with  little  variation  down  Io  tho 
present  day  one  of  utter  misery.  In  the  N.  of  Africa,  under 
tho  rule  of  the  Fatiniites.  their  position  was  on  the  whole 
hardly  more  favorable.  Turning  to  Kuropo.  wo  find,  on 
entering  tho  period  of  tho  Middle  Ages,  that  the  more  or 
less  friendly  relations  which  until  then  subsiste<l  between 
tho  .lews  nnd  (heir  neighbors  were  gradually  disturbed 
by  the  inerenved  bitterness  of  religious  hate.  In  Franee 
tho  attempted  conversion  by  CJrogory  of  Tours  of  King 
Chilperie's  jeweller,  tho  Jew  Priscus,  and  his  assassination 
by  a  renegade  r)f  his  own  nme,  give  eviflence  at  onee  of  the 
high  consi<leratiim  which  Israelites  still  enjoyc'l.  ami  the 
growing  ehnnge  for  the  worse  that  began  to  appear  in  tlnir 
fortunes  toward  tho  end  of  the  sixth  century.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  tho  seventh,  Dagohert  issued  an  edict  com- 
muinling  them  to  choose  between  biiptism  nnd  death.  In 
Spiiin.  under  ihn  rule  of  Arian  kings.  .lews  and  Christians 
nn-l  nmienbly  in  social  gatherings,  and  the  bond  of  friend- 
phip  between  them  wiis  strengthened  bv  frequent  inter- 
marringe.  But  when  Reeeared  embraced  Catholicism  this 
peaceful  stalo  of  things  camo  to  an  end.     Ho  was  a  con- 


1418 


JEWS. 


vert,  it  is  believed,  from  motives  of  policy,  and,  relying  on 
the  aid  of  the  clergy,  desired  to   invest  the   royal  office 
with  greater  power  than  the  constitution  of  the  Visigoths 
was  calculated  to  allow.     The  same  motive  may  have  im- 
pelled him  to  curry  favor  with  the  clergy  by  persecuting 
the  Jews.  (On  this  subject  see  the  admirable  article  on  Jew- 
ish history  by  Selig  Casscl,  in  Ersch  and  (iruber'a  Ath/em. 
Eiici/klupiidie.)    About  012,  .Sisebut  banished  the  Jews  from 
his  kintrdom.     In  the  ne.xt  reign,  however,  they  were  al- 
lowed to  return.     In  e:j:!  the  Council  of  Toledo  condemned 
the  system  of  enforcing  their  conversion  which  had  been 
lately  inaugurated  by  the  king.    Bui  its  decrees  were  very 
stringent  against  those  who  returned  to  Judaism  after  they 
had  been  nominally  received  into  the  Church.     An  extra- 
ordinary severity  toward  men  of  this  class  continued  to  be 
a  peculiar  feature  of  Spanish  legislation  in  later  times._  In 
fi:i8  the  Jews  were  again  driven  from  the  realm  by  King 
Chintila,  and  again  admitted  under  his  successor.     In  the 
reio-n  of  Keceswinth  and  of  Erwig  new  laws  were  enacted 
to  "ensure  their  humiliation.     They  were  entirely  deprived 
of  the  right  of  holding  office,  their  testimony  was  no  longer 
accepted^in  court,  while  those  who  had  made  the  outward 
profession  of  Christianity  were  placed  under  the  strict  sur- 
veillance of  the  priesthood  to  secure  their  allegiance.     The 
progressive  advance  of  intolerance  which  marks  the  seventh 
century  reached  its  climax  when  in  CU4  the  Jews  of  Spain 
were  deprived  of  the  liberty  of  person  and  declai-ed  slaves. 
Such  being  the  condition  to  which  Spanish  bigotry  had 
reduced  tliem.  it  is  not  surprising  that  Taric  on  his  ap- 
proach was  h.ailed  as  a  deliverer,  and  that  the  Jews  became 
the  friends  and  allies  of  the  Arabs  in  their  conquest  of 
Spain.     Under  the  benign  light  of  the   Crescent  they  en- 
tered upon  the  brightest  period  of  their  history  since  the 
destruction    of  Jerusalem.     While    Christian   Europe   was 
sunk  in  barbarism  they  joined  the  Moors  in  keeping  alivo 
the  Hame  of  science,  and  became  the  mediators  between 
ancient  and  modern  culture.     Philosophy,  poetry,  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  medicine,  received  their  attention,  and 
their  skill  in  the  arts  of  diplomacy  introduced  them  to  the 
favor  of  kings.    In  the  tenth  century,  Hasdai  Ibn  Shaprut 
became  the  trusted  agent  of  .\bderrahman  III.  at  Cordova. 
He  received  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  monarchs.     His 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  a  rare  accomplishment 
at  the  court  of  his  master,  proved  peculiarly  serviceable. 
It  is  reported  that  he  even  corresponded  with  the  chief  of 
the  Chazares,  an  independent  Jewish  prince,  whose  country 
could  only  be  roaohed  by  a  fifteen  days'  journey  from  Con- 
stantinople.   Jacob  Ibn  Gau  was  the  recipient  of  high  hon- 
ors at  the  hands  of  the  caliph  about  985.    (See  (Jractz,  Ge- 
Hchirhie  der  Jiulrn,  V.  39S.)    In  the  eleventh  century  Samuel 
(called  Ila  Nagid,  "  the  prince  ")  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  vczir.     His  calligraphieal  skill  paved  the  way  to  his 
greatness.     But,  far  from  being  a  mere  writer,  he  was  fully 
conversant  with  the  literature  of  tho  age,  and  himself  an 
author.     The  friend  of  the  poet  and  philosopher  Gebirol, 
he  showed  himself  tho  liberal  protector  of  art  and  science. 
Ilis  son  Joseph  succeeded  him  in  his  honors,  but  was  mur- 
dered in  a  furious  assault  of  the  mob  on  his  palace,  which 
had  been  instigated  by  his  enemies.     Contemporary  with 
S;unuel  ha  Nagid  at  Granada,  Ibn   Hassan  was  raised  to 
high  office  at  the  court  of  Saragossa,  and  again  in  Seville 
Ibn  Albaliawas  appointed  astrologer  to  tho  king.    But  the 
same  kindly  policy  which  guided  the  Arabs  in  their  con- 
duct toward  the  Jews  was  now  adopted  by  the  rulers  of 
Cliristian  Spain.     In  Castile  they  were  placed  on  iiuito  tho 
siiiue  level  with  the  nobility  and  the  clergy.     They  were 
devoted   to   their  country,   and  prepared  to  risk   lile  and 
fortune  in  its  defence.     Alfonso  VI.  employed  them  as  am- 
bassadors to  Moorish  princes,  and  they  served  with  equal 
distinction  in  his  army  and  at  his  court.     In  ICSo  he  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  Toledo,  but  soon  after  was  himself  totally 
routed  by  the  Moslems  under  the  leadership  of  the  Almo- 
ravidc  Jussuf.     The  success  of  the  latter  seemed  at  first 
likely  to  bring  ruin  on  tho  Jews  of  Moorish  Spain.    A  fab- 
ulous story  gained  credit  to  tho  effect  that  their  ancestors 
had  bound  themselves  to  embrace  Islam  if  at  the  end  of  the 
year  500  of  tho  Hodjr.ah  their  own  expected  Messiah  had  not 
yet  come.     Referring  to  this  legend,  Jussuf  called   upon 
them    to    fulfil    what   had    been    promised.     But   it    was 
not  until  tho  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  that  this  de- 
mand was  seriously  pressed.     The  Almohades,  conquering 
Northern  Africa,  crossed  over  into  Spain.     The  power  of 
the    Almoravides  was  broken,  and   Cordova  fell  into   the 
hands  of  the  victors.     The  Jews  of  Andalusia  were  forced 
to  follow  the  example  of  their  African  brethren,  and  cither 
fled  tho  country  or  acknowledged  with  the  lips  the  pro- 
phetic mission  of  Mohammed  and  the  inspiration  of  the 
Koran.     Toledo,  the  new  Christian  capital  of  Castile,  now 
became  a  refuge  to  large  numbers  of  the  fugitives.     Here 
they  increased  rapidly  in  wealth  and  power,  and  monuments 
of  both  are  still  extant.    Jews  occupied  high  positions  at  the 


court  of  Alfonso  VIII.     Alfonso  X.  (1252),  it  is  said,  en- 
trusted the  work  of  preparing  the  celebrated  astronomical 
tables  which  bear  his  name  to  a  certain  Don  Zag,  a  reader 
in  the  synjigoguc.     Nor  is  he  tho  only  Israelite  mentioned 
among  the  scientists  who  illustrated  Alfonso's  reign.     The 
harsh  restrictions  which  this  king  imposed  upon  the  inter- 
course between  Jews  and  Christians  were  not  fully  observed, 
even  by  himself     In  Aragon  the  influence  of  the  Domini- 
can Raymond  de  Ponjaforto  was  directed  to  the  conversion 
of  "the  lost  sheep."     But  the  famous  disputation  of  Bar- 
celona between  Pablo  Christiana  and  Nachmunides  (12fi;!), 
held  in  the  presence  of  James  I.  and  his  chief  dignitaries, 
did  not  serve  to  advance  the  project.     At  the  opening  of 
the  fourteenth  century  a  great  danger  threatened  the  Jews 
of  Castile  in  the  person  of  Gonzalo  Martinez,  the  all-pow- 
erful minister  of  Alfonso  XI.     He  succeeded  iu  bringing 
about  the  fall  of  two  of  their  number  who  had  hitherto 
enjoyed  tho  favor  of  the  monarch.     But  his  further  plans 
were  frustrated  in  time,  and  he  fell  a  victim  to  his  own 
treachery.     The  civil  war  between  the  adherents  of  Pedro 
and    Henry   entailed   bitter    sufl'erings    on    many   of    the 
largest  congregations  of  the  land.     The  Jews  took  the  part 
of  Pedro,  and  were  in  the  main  sure  of  his  protection  as 
far  as  be  had  the  power  to  extend  it.     But  even  the  victor- 
ious Henry  could  not  entirely  dispense  with  their  services. 
They  were  in  great  request  as  physicians,  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  finances  of  the  kingdom  continued  to  be  en- 
trusted to  their  care  down  to  the  time  of  their  final  banish- 
ment.    In  the  me.an  time,  the  seeds  of  hatred,  which  the 
Church  had  long   been    busily   disseminating,   took  root. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  outbreaks  of  fanaticism,  which  had 
hitherto  occurred  only  at  far  intervals,  became  alarmingly 
frequent.  The  Jews  were  henceforth  to  be  confined  to  narrow 
Judorias,  were  to  put  off  their  costly  robes  and  wear  none 
but  garments  of  the  coarsest  kind,  on  which  a  patch  of  red 
cloth  served  as  a  badge  of  degradation   to  mark  them  as 
fit  objects  for  insult.     This  latter  device  owed  its  origin  to 
the  inventive    genius  of   Mohammedan  despots,  and  was 
borrowed  from  them  at  second  hand  by  tho  popes.     A  mas- 
sacre of  peaceful  Jews  had  by  this  time  ceased  to  be  regarded 
as  an  event  of  extraordinary  interest  or  importance.     Tho 
great  disputation  of  Tortosa,  held  (I41S-14)  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  so-called  Pope  Benedict  XIII.,  tailed  entirely 
to  secure  its  avowed  object — the  conversion  of  the  Jews 
cii  mmw.  and  served  only  to  embitter  the  feelings  of  mu- 
tual dislike  that  were  already  sufficiently  strong.     The  sin- 
ister influence  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  of  such 
men  as  Vincente  Ferrer  and  Alfonso  de  Spina,  was  aided 
by  renegade  Jews  like  Paulus  de  Santa  Maria  and  Gcronimo 
de  Santa  Fe.     The  marriage-bells  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
rang  out  a  funeral  dirge  for  the  liberty  of  the  Jews  of  Spain- 
In  1480  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  was  established  at 
Seville.     Notwithstanding  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the 
people  in  many  districts,  its  power  increased  with  fearful 
rapidity.     Those  nominal  Christians  who  still  secretly  ad- 
hered to  Judaism  were  the  special  objects  of  its  pious  zeal, 
and  those  who  perished  in  the  flames  on  the  Quemadcro  of 
Seville  and  in  other  towns  were  soon  numbered  by  thou- 
sands.    In  148:'.,  Torquemada  was  appointed  grand  inquis- 
itor.    When  Granada  fell  into  the  hands  of  "  the  Catholic 
king"  the  doom  of  the  Spanish  Jews  was  sealed.     From 
the  palace  of  the  Alhambra  the  irrevocable  decree  of  their 
exile  went  forth.     On  Aug.  2,  1492,  they  left  the  inhospit- 
able land  which  yet  they  had  so  dearly  loved,  and  while  Co- 
lumbus sailed  westward  to  discover  a  new  home  of  freedom, 
they,  robbed   of   their  fortunes  and  east  adrift  upon   tho 
world,  knew  not  whither  to  turn  for  shcKer.     For  a  time, 
indeed,  many  of  them  found  refuge  in  Portugal.     There 
the  position  of  their  brethren  bad  bmg  been  exceptionally 
favorable.     Their  chief  rabbi  ( Rabbi  Mor)  received  his  ap- 
pointment directly  from  the  king,  and  their  affairs  pros- 
pered under  the  kindly  influence  of  long-continued  royal 
favor.     But  in  the  days  of  Joiio  II.  all  this  changed.     The 
brief  breathing-spell  which  the  exiles  enjoyed  in  his  domin- 
ions was  quickly  at  an  end.     He  broke  the  promises  he  had 
made  them,  and  many  of  them  were  sold  as  slaves.    His  suc- 
cessor, Mnnoel,  at  first  seemed  inclined  to  adopt  a  more  lib- 
eral policy,  but  the  influence  of  Spain  altered  his  purpose. 
Amid  heartrending  scenes  of  despair  Jewish  children  were 
torn  from  the  arms  of  their  parents  and  dragged  into  tho 
churches;  the  aid  of  tho  rack  was  called  in  to  enforce  the 
conversion  of  the  adults :  ami  with  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  last  remnant  of  the  ,Iews,  being  at  length  per- 
mitted' to  escape  their  oppressors,  had  disappeared  from  the 
soil  of  Portugal. 

The  comparative  quiet  which  the  Jews  of  France  and 
Germany  enjoyed  in  the  earlier  part  of  tho  Middle  Ages 
was  rudely  broken  in  upon  by  the  Crusades.  The  spirit 
of  absolute  intolerance  which  tho  Catholic  priesthood  in- 
culcated had  at  last  taken  firm  hold  of  men's  minds,  and 


JEWS. 


1419 


while  Id  tbis  period  we  frequently  see  the  princes  and  the 
higher  clajtscs — iiuy,  even  the  pupes  ihem8i.*Ive.s — anxious 
to  preserve  the  Juws  t"ntm  the  last  applicatiun  of  their  own 
previous  example  and  teachings,  it  is  the  frenzitd  populace 
which  with  prcater  consistency  now  hounds  them  with  re- 
lentless furj-  in  every  cily  and  village.  In  the  first  Cru- 
sade the  banks  of  the  Moselle  and  the  Uhine  were  the  chief 
theatres  of  persecution.  The  congregation  of  Treves  con- 
Gented  to  cmbraeo  Christianity  in  the  hope  of  warding  oflf 
the  calamities  that  threatened  them,  and  of  returning  to 
their  faith  when  the  danger  had  passed  off.  But  instances 
of  such  complacency  were  extremely  rare.  A  tumult  oc- 
curred in  Spires  in  which  a  considerable  number  of  the 
Jews  lost  their  lives.  In  Worms  many  of  them  perished 
by  their  own  hand.  In  Mayence  the  archbishop  harbored 
them  in  his  palace,  then  opened  tlte  gates  and  gave  them 
over  to  slaughter  at  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  The  citi- 
zens of  Cologne  facilitated  their  flight  from  that  city,  where 
the  rabble  bad  already  determined  on  their  destruction, 
but  they  escaped  only  to  perish  miserably  elsewhere.  The 
arm  of  the  emperor.  Henry  IV.,  was  powerless  to  protect 
them.  In  the  second  Crusade,  Peter  Vcnerabilis  in  Franco 
was  instrumental  in  causing  the  plundering,  and  in  some 
cases  the  massacre,  of  the  Jews.  In  Germany,  taught  by 
recent  experience,  they  acquired  the  protection  of  strongly- 
fortified  castles  by  the  payment  of  heavj-  sums.  Those  who 
were  not  fortunato  enough  to  gain  such  places  of  security 
in  timo  wore  exposed  as  before  to  the  fury  of  the  mob.  A 
certain  monk,  Rudolph,  kindled  the  popular  fanaticism  by 
his  intlammatory  speeches.  "You  go  to  Palestine,"  ho 
said,  *'  to  slay  the  unbelievers ;  why  not  begin  with  the  in- 
fidel Jews  in  your  own  midst?'*  After  incalculnblo  mis- 
chi'.^f  had  been  done,  Bernard  do  Clairvaux  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  silencing  the  dangerous  preacher.  The  third 
Crusade  proved  disastrous  to  tlio  Jews  of  England.  The 
coronation  of  Richard  Coeur  dc  Lion  was  the  occasion  of 
a  terrible  outbreak  against  them  in  London  and  other  large 
towns.  The  fate  of  the  Jews  of  York  was  of  a  peculiarly 
tragic  character.  (The  reader  will  fiinl  an  easily  acecssiblo 
account  of  this  mournful  occurrence  in  Disraeli's  Cun'ost' 
tifs  of  Literature,  ii.  p.  210.)  In  Italy  and  in  the  S.  of 
Franco  the  Jewish  congregations  prospered  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  an  undisturbed  tranquillity.  In  tho  N.  of  France 
Philip  .Augustus,  the  fcllow-crusr-dcr  of  Richard,  drovo 
them  from  his  dominions.  In  1103  he  reconsidered  his 
decree  au'l  sulTered  them  to  return.  To  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa,  tho  leader  of  tlio  German  forces  in  tho  third  Crusade, 
is  ascribed  the  institution  of  tho  Kammerhncchtechaft  of 
the  Jews  of  the  empire.  As  $crvi  camera:  they  were  sup- 
posed to  enjoy  tlie  inviolateeharactcrattaching  to  imperial 
property,  but  tho  protection  which  this  aflorded  them 
proved  sadly  inefficient  when  it  was  most  needed.  Tho 
sovereign  claimed,  on  the  other  hand,  tho  supremo  right  of 
disposing  of  their  persons  and  possessions.  A  threefold 
tax  of  the  most  oppressive  kind,  which  they  were  forced  to 
pay  into  his  treasury,  shows  how  the  right  was  used.  Tho 
German  emperors  delighted  in  the  double  attribute  of  the 
Holy  and  the  Roman.  As  tho  successors  of  the  R-jiuau 
impt-rator  they  referred  their  right  of  taxation  to  tho  ex- 
ample of  Vef^pasian,  who  appropriated  tho  tax  for  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  to  his  uwn  liseus.  As  thu  temi>oral 
representatives  of  the  Christian  faith  their  good  pleasure 
was  held  to  be  absolute  in  deciding  the  fate  of  their  Jewish 
subjects.  Tho  Jews  having  forfeited  the  right  of  existence 
in  Christian  states  by  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus — such  was 
tho  theory  propounded  by  tho  Church — could  find  noplace 
within  tho  pale  of  the  feudal  system.  As  foreigners  they 
9tood  in  direct  relationship  with  tho  head  of  that  system 
only,  and,  being  themselves  utterly  powerless,  his  will  waa 
their  law.  This  theory  continued  to  prevail  down  to  tho 
beginning  of  tho  present  century.  In  tho  thirteenth  cen- 
tury tho  war  of  exierininalion  waged  against  tho  Albi- 
gensi'S  brought  disaster  to  the  Jewish  congregations  of  tho 
Provence.  In  I2I3  the  fourth  Lateran  Council,  held  under 
Popo  Innocent  III.,  besides  repeating  former  provisionsof 
a  hostilo  character,  enacted  that  no  Jew  shouhl  appear  in 
public  without  a  conspicuous  bndgo  attached  to  his  gar- 
ments. From  that  timo  the  wearing  of  the  .lew's  badge 
was  generally  enforced  in  Christian  countries.  Kven  Fred- 
eriek  1 1.,  the  protector  of  science,  an  emperor  whoso  ortho- 
doxy was  more  than  doubtful,  did  not  hesitate  to  compel 
obedience  to  lljis  decree,  althongb  among  ttx'  scholars  who 
graced  his  court  the  names  of  Jew-*  aro  mentioned  with  dis- 
tinction. In  tho  reign  of  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis)  of  France, 
aflnr  a  great  disputation  held  under  royal  nuspiees,  it  was 
decided  that  tlie  Talmud  he  condemned  for  certain  blas- 
phemous expressions  against  the  author  of  Christianity 
which  it  was  supposed  tn  contain,  nnd  copie><  of  the  work 
were  publicly  burnt  by  cartloads.  St.  Louis  once  more  drove 
the  Jews  of  his  realm  into  exile,  but  their  banishment 
proved,  OS  heretofore,  tomporary.     In  tho  days  of  tho  em- 


peror Rudolph  of  Ilapsburg  the  Jews  of  Germany  found 
their  condition  become  so  intolerable  that  numbers  of  them 
determined  to  leave  the  Fatherland,  at  their  head  the  cele- 
brated rabbi,  Meir  of  Rothenburg.  Meir  was,  however, 
arrested,  and  ended  his  days  in  prison.  King  John  of 
England  employed  the  Jews  us  a  convenient  instrument  for 
replenishing  his  exhausted  treasury.  Stephen  Langton, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  insistcil  on  their  wearing  the 
badge.  Under  Henry  III.  a  chief  rabbi,  appointed  by  the 
king,  was  allowed  to  exercise  considerable  power  over  his 
people,  and  a  Jewish  parliament  was  convened  at  AVor- 
cester.  But  they  were  summoned  for  no  higher  purpose 
than  to  raise  funds  for  their  royal  master's  benefit. 
Tho  monks  of  the  Domiuiciin  order  %Tere  here,  as  every- 
where, active  in  fanning  the  flame  of  popular  prejudice. 
The  charge  of  counterfeiting  the  coinage  contributed  to 
increnso  the  suspicions  of  the  king  and  the  hatred  of  tho 
citizens,  and  at  last,  in  1290,  Edward  I.  banislicd  the  .Jews 
from  English  soil.  In  Germany  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  is  marked  by  a  bloody  persecution  of  the  Jews. 
One  Rindfleisch  and  his  followers  preferred  the  ridiculous 
charge  that  the  Jews  had  pierced  a  consecrated  wafer  until 
tho  blootl  of  Christ  flowed  forth;  100,000  of  them  arc  re- 
ported to  have  perished  in  consequence.  In  1306,  Philip 
the  Fair  decreed  the  exile  of  the  Jews  of  France.  In  13LMI, 
having  previously  returned  to  their  homes,  they  suffered 
from  the  fury  of  the  Pastoureux.  In  Italy  alone  they  still 
enjoyed  repose.  King  Robert  of  Naples  extended  his  favor 
to  tbein  for  their  devotion  to  science,  and  the  great  Danto 
received  the  poet  Immanuel  into  the  circle  of  his  friends. 
About  this  time  the  belief  had  become  general  that  the  Jews 
not  only  delighted  in  profaning  tho  sacraments  of  the  Church, 
but  were  commanded  by  their  religion  to  drink  tho  blood 
of  Christian  children,  in  order  properly  to  celebrate  tho 
festival  of  tlic  Passover.  Tho  ignorant  clergy  were  not 
aware  that  the  same  charge  of  bloodshed  in  connection 
with  the  observance  of  their  religious  rites  had  been  brought 
against  the  early  Christians — nay,  thnt  they  were  only  re- 
peating, almost  verbatim,  tho  legends  which  had  been  in- 
vented to  bring  their  own  faith  into  disrepute.  Yet  wo 
find  this  preposterous  accusation  again  and  again  repeated 
during  more  than  live  centuries,  and  it  never  failed  to 
bring  tlio  most  terrible  misfortunes  in  its  train.  In  Ll^fi, 
5000  peasants,  under  the  leadership  of  Armledcr,  began 
tho  sacred  work  of  destroying  'Mho  children  of  Satan" 
(the  Jews)  in  Alsaeo  and  along  the  Rhine.  In  1337  the 
town  of  Deckendorf  in  Bavaria  witnessed  the  massacre  of 
its  Jewish  inhabitants,  and  a  church  built  in  honor  of  tho 
event  may  still  be  seen  at  the  present  d:iy.  In  the  middle 
of  tho  fourteenth  century  the  Black  Death  traversed  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe;  25,000,000  of  its  inhabitants,  it  is  esti- 
mated by  Ilecker,  were  carried  off  by  the  plague.  In  addi- 
tion to  tho  sufferings  which  they  shared  with  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, a  new  anti  more  fearful  visitation  awaited  the  Jews. 
They  were  made  responsible  for  tho  ravages  of  the  scourge. 
From  Toledo,  it  was  said,  a  horrid  concoction  had  been 
distributed  among  them,  with  which  they  were  ordered  to 
poison  tho  wells  in  every  county  of  their  abode.  At  Chil- 
lon,  on  Lake  Geneva,  tJie  outrageous  persecutions  conse- 
quent on  this  cliarge  commenced,  and  soon  spread  to  Berne, 
Bale,  Freiburg,  Worms,  and  Straaburg.  The  bravery  of  the 
citizens  in  the  town  last  mentioned,  who  resisted  the  frantic 
mob,  only  served  to  secure  their  own  destruction.  It  was 
of  no  avail  that  the  pope  himself  refuted  the  cruel  and 
baseless  accusation.  Tho  fire  and  the  executioner'.s  axe 
could  no  longer  be  checked.  It  would  fill  pages  to  give  an 
account  of  all  they  endured.  In  1300  the  Jews  who  had  been 
expelled  liom  Franco  received  oflieial  permission  to  return. 
But  as  they  were  compelled  to  resort  to  usury  in  order  to 
satisfy  tho  avarice  of  their  rulers,  the  ponulaee  rose  against 
them  in  l.JSO.  Their  houses  were  plundered,  and  many  of 
them  killed.  On  Easter  Sunday,  1380,  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Wenzel.  the  Jews  of  Prague  and  the  neighboring 
places  were  butchered  by  thousands.  Two  children  had 
been  playing  in  the  Ghetto,  throwing  sand  at  each  other. 
I  A  few  grains  happening  to  strike  a  priest  who  was  passing 
I  by  a  tumult  ensued  with  the  usual  result.  In  1391  a  gen- 
,  eral  decree  of  banishment  was  once  more  issued  by  Charles 
I  VI.  against  the  French  Jews.  But  tlie  timo  had  now  passed 
!  by  when  they  could  hope  for  a  speedy  recall,  and  they  were 
'   no  more  ]iermitted  to  return. 

!        Whenever  Catholicism  was  forced  to  contend  against  tho 

rise  of  a  great  heresy  in  its  own  midst,  tho  Jews  were  made 

.   to  suffer  from  tho  religious  fervorwlnch  the  struggle  evoked. 

'   This  was  shown  in  tho  time  of  the  crusade  against  the  AI- 

bigenses.     We  find  it  again  illustrated  in  the  beginning  of 

the  filteenth  ceiiturv.  when  the  Church  mustered  her  forcofl 

I   to  meet  tho  arms  and  arguments  of  the  followers  of  lluss. 

I    In  IC-'O  the  Jews  of  Vienna  were  imprisoned  ;   in  the  next 

I  year  numbers  of  them  were  consigned  to  the  flames.     Tho 

I  wild  eloquence  of  the  Dominicans  did  not  fail  to  embroeo 


1420 


JEWS. 


the  infidel  Jews  in  its  denunciations  of  heretics.  The 
Franciscan  monk  Capistrano,  too,  was  no  less  active  in 
using  his  immense  influence  for  their  destruction.  In  1454 
llie  bishop  of  Wiirzburg  expelled  them  from  his  diocese. 
In  Brcslau  they  were  burnt  at  the  stake.  In  Poland,  Casi- 
mir  IV.  was  induced  to  revoke  the  humane  enactments 
whirh  he  had  but  lately  passed  in  their  favor.  Capistrano 
merited  the  name  which  his  admirers  bestowed  on  him,  "  the 
scourge  of  the  Hebrews."  In  Italy  the  bright  fortunes  of  the 
Israelites  had  not  yet  been  darkened.  There  were  too  many 
counter-currents  in  that  land  to  permit  the  monks  to  obtain 
the  same  absolute  power  which  they  did  not  scruple  to  assert 
in  other  countries.  How  wretchedly  did  the  position  of  the 
German  .Tews  contrast  with  that  of  their  Italian  brethren! 
In  147G  the  rabbi  of  the  oldest  congregation  in  German)', 
that  of  Rcgensburg.  was  accused  of  sacrificing  a  Christian 
child,  and  it  required  all  the  influence  of  the  emperor  and 
of  the  king  of  Bohemia  to  ward  off  from  his  brethren  in 
that  town  the  terrible  fate  with  which  they  were  long 
threatened.  In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  we 
find  the  Jews  of  Italy  an  influential  body  in  many  of  the 
lar^e  towns,  and  some  of  their  number  occupying  positions 
of  'trust,  especially  at  the  papal  court.  In  Germany  they 
were  expelled  from  Nuremberg  and  several  provinces  of 
Austri.a.  In  Greece  their  numbers  had  considerably  in- 
creased, and  they  appear  to  have  remained,  on  the  whole, 
unmolested.  It  was  in  Turkey,  however,  that  they  at  this 
time  enjoyed  to  the  full  that  liberty  and  security  which  the 
bigotry  of  the  Christian  nations  denied  them.  In  that 
country  many  of  the  exiles  of  Spain  and  Portugal  had  at 
last  found  an"  asylum  ;  they  quickly  increased  in  wealth  and 
power,  and  flourishing  congregations  grew  up  in  the  large 
cities  of  Constantinople  and  Salonichi.  In  the  reign  of 
Selim  II.,  Joseph  Nassi  was  .appointed  duke  of  Naxos,  and 
exercised  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over  Andros.  Pares,  and 
some  ten  other  islands.  His  influence  in  the  councils  of 
the  sultan  was  so  great  that  the  ambassadors  of  foreign 
powers  were  forced  to  conciliate  his  favor.  Nor  was  he  the 
only  one  of  his  coreligionists  in  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Turkey  whose  word  was  powerful  in  shaping  the  political 
affiiirs  of  Europe. 

The  main  interest  of  Jewish  history  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sixteenth  century  concentrates  upon  the  great 
Reuchlin-Pfeflerkorn  controversy  in  Germany.    John  Pfef- 
ferkorn,  a  converted  Jew.  a  willing  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dominicans  of  Cologne,  declared  the  Talmud  to  bo  the  main 
obstacle  to  the  general  conversion  of  the  Jews,  on  account 
of  the  blasphemous  utterances  contained  in  it  against  the 
Christian  religion  and  its  founder.     He  won  the  ear  of 
Kunigundc,  the  sister  of  the   emperor   Maximilian,  and 
through  her  that  of  the  emperor  himself  for  the  time  being. 
John  Reuchlin,  the  famous  and  universally  esteemed  scholar, 
was  called  upon  by  JIaximilian  to  examine  and  pronounce 
ujion  the  charges.     An  ardent  admirer  of  the  Hebrew  and 
of  .lewish  literature,  he  declared  the  accusations  groundless, 
and  severely  rebuked  the  accuser.    This  roused  the  fury  of 
Pfrfforkorn  and  his  supporters  against  him.    A  number  of 
inllammatorv  pamphlets, '•mirrors,"  denouncing  Reuchlin 
and    the   Jews   were    issued   under   Dominican    auspices. 
Reuchlin  answered  with  his  Auf/empiegel.    A  Urandspicgel 
followed  on  the  ])art  of  the  fanatical  monks  of  Cologne. 
They   desired    every    copy  of    the    Talmud    and    similar 
"heretical"    books"  to   be   confiscated    and    secured    with 
chains  in  the  great  libraries,  lest  the  Jews  should  steal 
them  back.     Even  the  Hebrew  Bible  was  threatened  with 
destruction  to  make  way  for  the  solo  supremacy  of  the  Vul- 
gate.    Dangers  thickened  around  the  bold  humanist  who 
had  taken  up  the  cause  of  learning  against  bigotry.     The 
emperor's  protection  was  not  to  be  relied  on,  and,  indeed, 
he  repeatedly  changed  sides  in  the  conflict  that  ensued. 
At  last,   Hochstralen,  the  inquisitor  of  Cologne,  ordered 
Keuohlin  to  appear  before  him  in   Mayence  for  trial,  or 
rather  for  condemnation.     The  plans  of  the.  Dominicans, 
deeply  laid  though  they  were,  were  foiled  at  the  very  last 
moment  by  the  sudden  intervention  of  Archbishop  Uriel. 
The  question  of  Reuchlin's  heresy  in  defending  the  Talmud 
was  next  referred  by  the  pope  to  a  commission  that  met  at 
Spires.     Their  verdict  was  in  favor  of  Reuchlin,  and  Hoeh- 
stratcn  was  condemned  to  pay  costs.     Its  effect  was  some- 
what weakened  by  the  adverse  decision  of  the  University  of 
Paris,  which  had  tried  the  case  of  its  own  accord,  witliout 
any  authority  from  the  pope.     A  new  tribunal,  created  in 
Home,  took  the  part  of  Reuchlin  with  such  decision  that  the 
monks  of  Cologne  were  forced  with  bad  grace  to  give  way. 
In  the  mean  time  the  Epintolir  OhHcummm  F'/rorr/m,  which 
appeared  in  two  series,  had  made  them  the  laughing-stock 
of  all  Gerraony.     The  interest  which  the  controversy  ex- 
cited in   Jewish  literature  proved  in  the  highest  degree 
beneficial  to  its  correct  preservation  and  culture.    In  1620, 
Daniel  Bomberg  began  the  publication  of  the  Talmud  in 
an  edition  which  for  accuracy  has  not  been  equalled.    Im- 


mense sums  were  expended  on  this  and  other  Hebrew  works. 

In  several  "[ironuneot  universities  profcs.sorships  for  the 
Hebrew  language  were  founded.    The  Reformation,  though 
largely  indebted  to  the  writings  of  Jews  for  its  weapons  of 
attack",  did  not  at  first  lighten  the  load  of  their  sufl'erings, 
and  the  intolerance  of  Protestants  did  not  prove  less  op- 
pressive than  that  of  Catholics.  With  the  loss  of  the  mind's 
creative  power  entailed  by  so  many  bitter  persecutions  a 
tendency  toward  centralization  became   apparent  among 
the  Jews.     In  156",  Joseph  Kara,  a  rabbi  of  Safet  in  Pal- 
estine, published  a  digest  of  the  rabbinical  laws,  which 
soon  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  supreme  authority  in  mat- 
ters of  religion.    The  same  tendency  appears  in  the  synods 
of  Poland  which  began  to  be  held  toward  the  end  of  this 
century,  and  it  is  further  illustrated  by  the  history  of  the 
great  congregations  of  Amsterdam  and  Hamburg  in  the 
next.     In  Spain  and  Portugal  many  of   the  more  faint- 
hearted of  the  Jews  had  assumed  the  mask  of  Christianity 
to  escape  the  necessity  of  leaving  their  country,  while  in 
secret  they  still  preserved  an  unfaltering  allegiance  to  their 
ancient  creed.     The  position  of  these  miserable  ones  was 
trulv  deplorable.    Frequently  discovered  in  the  exercise  of 
forbidden  rites,  they  fed  the  flames  of  the  Inquisition,  and, 
despairing  of  mortal  oid,  sought  refuge  in   the  illusory 
promises  of  mysticism  in  the  vain  hope  of  release.     Solo- 
mon Molcho,  a  youth  whose  fancy  was  fired  by  the  Cab- 
bala, which  for  several  centuries  had  slowly  been  increas- 
ing the  number  of  its  adherents,  created  a  great  commotion 
among  them  by  earnestly  predicting  the  near  approach  of 
the  Messianic  "age.     Hcwas  burnt  at  the  stake  in  Mantua 
(.15.12)  by  order  of  Charles  V.     The  successful  revolution 
of  the  Netherlands,  which  Spanish  bigotry  had  provoked, 
at  last  opened  to  them  a  haven  of  security.     Free  Holland 
invited  them  to  its  shores.     The  city  of  Amsterdam  availed 
itself  of  the  wealth  and  industry  of  the  "Judaizing"  Chris- 
tians of  Portugal,  and  to  their  efforts  the  rapid  extension 
of  the  city's  commerce  was  in  no  small  measure  due.     The 
Jewish  congregation  of  Amsterdam  soon  became  one  of  the 
most  influential  of  all  Europe.    They  cultivated  letters  and 
erected  an  institute  (T.almud  Tora)  for  the  instruction  of 
the  young  in  Hebrew  literature.    From  their  midst  Spinoza 
went  forth.    Elsewhere  their  brethren  were  not  so  fortunate. 
In  1614  the  guilds  of  Frankfort,  with  Vincent  Fettmilch 
at  their  head,  expelled  the  Jews  from  their  town.     In  the 
next  year  the  example  of  Frankfort  was  followed  by  Worms. 
Bothcities  were  compelled  by  the  emperor  to  receive  the 
fugitives  back  into  their  walls.     In  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  the  Jews  pf  Poland  were  visited  with  a 
calamity  from  which  they  have  never  recovered.    The  Cos- 
sacks, led  on  by  the  fierce  Chmielnicki,  succeeded  if  not  in  ex- 
terminating, as  they  intended,  yet  at  least  in  reducing  them 
to  a  condition  of  iittcr  and  abject  degradation.     Chmiel- 
nicki and  his  soUlicrv  are  reported  to  have  slain  between 
the  years  164S  and  16"5S  about  250,000  Polish  Jews.    Those 
that  were  spared  emigrated  in  great  numbers,  and  inundat- 
ed the  countries  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe.     They 
were  everywhere  kindly  received.     But  from  being  guests 
they  soon  rose  to  he  masters.     AVith  great  powers  of  intel- 
lect" they  united,  as  a  body,  certain   faults  of  character, 
whoso  influence  on  their  new  surroundings  proved  vicious 
in  tho  extreme.     In  England  the  Jews   were  readmitted 
after  having  been  banished  the  country  since  1290,  main- 
ly through  the  exertions  of  Manasseh  b.  Israel,  a  rabbi  of 
Amsterdam.     lu  1655,  Cromwell  invited  him  to  visit  Eng- 
land, and  ho  there  found  active  sympathy  among  many 
of  the  Puritan  leaders.     Their  love  for  the  Old  Testament 
inclined  them  to  look  favorably  upon  the  remnant  of  an- 
cient Israel.     Moreover,  were  not  these  the  people  from 
whom  Jesus  had  sprung? 

In  1065  a  strange  drama  was  enacted  in  Smyrna.  A 
native  of  that  town,  Sahbathai  Zewi.  was  solemnly  pro- 
claimed the  Messiah  of  the  Jews.  The  Cabbala  had  in- 
spired him— the  Cabbala  paved  the  way  for  his  astonish- 
ing success.  The  tidings  spread  from  the  Orumt  to  the 
Occident,  and  evervwherc  the  new  evangilc  found  ardent 
believers.  S.  Zewi  "taught  that  in  him  the  "  God  of  Israel, 
the  Third  Person  of  the  Godhead,  had  become  flesh  and 
blood  He  inculcated  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigratmn 
of  souls,  and,  like  all  mvsticism,  his  teachings  were  strongly 
colored  with  sensualism.  He  ended  his  Messmnie  career  by 
assuming  the  turban  in  Constantinople  for  fear  of  being  put 
to  death.  But  this  did  not  remove  the  evils  of  which  he 
had  been  the  occasion.  The  contagion  of  his  views  spread 
throughout  Europe,  and  while  the  outward  position  of  the 
Jews  was  now  very  slowly  improving,  their  mental  comii- 
tion  was  far  inferior  to  what  it  had  been  in  the  JUdille 
A"-es  The  great  elector  of  Brandenburg  received  a  nuni- 
he'r  of  those  Jewish  families  whom  the  emperor  Leopold 
had  driven  from  Vienna.  In  1700  the  Jews  succeeded  in 
causing  an  imperial  injunction  to  be  laid  on  the  publication 
of  Eisenmenger's  infamous  attack  on  their  religion  and 


JEWSBURY— JOACHIM. 


1421 


thooieelres.  In  ILimburg  a  coloDj  of  the  mother-coDgre- 
gation  of  AinNter<ltim  began  (o  rival  the  gloriea  of  its  pa- 
rent, notwitli!jtandiug  the  determined  resistanec  which  hud 
at  fir:*!  opposed  its  progress.  In  17J1  a  conlliot  arose  be- 
tween Juiiathan  Kibi'Schutz,  the  rabbi  of  Hamburg,  and 
Jacob  Emden.  in  which  the  former  was  char-fed  with  Cab- 
balistic practice",  especially  the  writing  of  tnaL^io  talismans 
in  the  name  of  the  Mesjijah,  Sabl)atliai  Zewi.  Soon  after 
the  sect  of  the  Frankists  arose  in  Poland.  Frank,  their 
leader,  pretended  to  be  the  successor  of  S.  Zewi,  and, 
like  his  mod**!,  ended  by  abjuring  his  religion.  The  soot 
of  the  Chasidim,  which  still  exists  at  the  present  day,  may 
bo  regarded  as  the  last  outgrowth  of  this  deplorable  move- 
ment. 

The  modern  epoch  is  marked  by  the  name  of  Mendels- 
sohn. His  Gorman  version  of  the  Pentateuch  became,  like 
Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  the  groundwork  of  reform. 
hvs»\n):;'e  Xatfiuu  thn  HV^r  rebuked  the  time-worn  prejudice 
of  the  Christian  world.  Dohm  laimrcd  to  secure  the  civil 
emancipation  of  the  Jews.  The  I'rench  Revolution  broke 
down  the  walls  of  their  ghettos.  On  Sept.  28,  1791,  tho 
National  Assembly  decreed  the  complete  enfranchisement 
of  the  Israelite  citizens  of  France.  In  the  hour  of  need, 
when  the  great  struggle  with  Xapoloon  was  impending, 
Frederick  William  HI.  ff^lt  himself  constrained  to  liberate 
the  Jews  of  Prussia.  Other  states  and  cities  slowly  fol- 
lowed. It  cost  many  a  bitter  struggle  until  civil  and  re- 
ligious freedom  was  finally  secured.  The  '*  Hep,  hep"  cry 
raii^od  in  (rermany  in  ISll),  the  bloody  persecution  in 
Damascus  some  thirty  years  ago,  in  which  French  diplo- 
macy was  seriously  implicated,  the  Mortara  affair  in  1858, 
and  recent  events  in  Itoumania,  have  shown  that  the  em- 
bers of  bigotry  have  not  yet  completely  died  out.  Tint  a 
general  conflagration  need  no  longer  be  feared.  Under  the 
benign  influence  of  liberty  the  Jews  have  everywhere 
shown  themselves  ready  and  able  to  advance  tlio  interests 
of  civilization.  Kot  only  has  their  own  literature  been 
opened  to  scicntiflc  study  by  such  men  as  Zunz,  Geiger, 
Munk,  Uapoport,  Luzzato,  and  others,  but  they  have 
rendered  signal  service  in  almost  every  department  of 
science  and  art.  I  mention  among  the  philosophers  M. 
Mendelssohn,  Maimon,  Herz  ;  in  political  economy,  Uicardo 
and  Lasallo ;  in  literature,  Hiime,  Ileino.  Aucrbach,  Grace 
Aguilar ;  in  music,  Mendelssohn- Rariholdy,  Meyerbeer, 
Halevy  ;  among  the  jtrominent  statesmen  of  the  day,  Dis- 
raeli, Lasker,  Cn'mieux.  In  this  country  the  Jewish  popu- 
lation has  largely  increased  during  the  last  three  decades. 
In  New  York  City  alone  it  is  now  estimated  at  between 
.Sn.OiiO  and  t;0,nno"souls.  For  2000  years  the  world  has  en- 
deavored to  crush  out  the  Jewish  race.  That  spirit  of  cx- 
chi^iveness  with  which  it  is  charged  was  but  the  natural 
result  of  such  relentless  hostility.  It  vanishes  wherever  con- 
fidence is  inspired  by  security.  The  majority  of  intelligent 
Israelites  in  the  present  have  long  since  abandoned  the 
w'lAx  of  building  up  an  indepenclcnt  national  existence  of 
their  own.  Their  patriotism  has  been  illustrated  on  all  iho 
great  battlefields  of  this  century.  The  achievement  of 
higher  conditions  of  human  life  they  are  disposed  to  regard 
as  the  fulfilment  nf  Messianic  jiropheey,  and  the  furthering 
this  end  in  intimate  union  with  their  fellow-men  as  the 
higliest  dictate  of  their  religion.  Fkmx  Adlkr, 

JeW8'bury(GKiiAi.niNF,  ENDSOR),b.  inManehester.Eng., 
in  1821,  sister  of  Maria  Jane,  wrote  a  numbcrof  novels  con- 
cerning society  life,  among  which  are  Zof^,  the  //iVon/  of 
Two  Lxvri,  (1815).  Thr  Ifuff-Shtem  (184S),  The  Sorrow*  of 
Grntifitif  f|8.'>fl),  and  also  minor  works  for  ehiblrcn. 

Jcwslmry  (Maria  Janr),  b.  in  Warwickshire,  Eng- 
land, about  1800  ;  resideil  in  Manchester  mr)St  of  her  life; 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  English  magazines  and 
to  the  London  Athrnirum.  Wordsworth  pronounced  her 
unsurpassed  by  any  writer  of  her  time  for  the  "  quickness 
of  tlie  motions  of  her  iniinl."  while  the  Alhrnn^um  parsed  a 
similar  eulogy  upon  her  play  of  imagination,  thirst  for 
knowledge,  and  elevated  purposes.  In  IH.*!;!,  Miss  Jews- 
bury  married  Hov.  William  Fletcher,  a  missionary  t<t  India, 
and  d.  at  Bombay  in  the  same  year.  Her  collected  works 
embrace  I*liiiutn<imatfor{ft,  IjvUrrn  in  thr  Yoinnf,  Kaifit  of 
Lrjtnrf  flnurn^  and  Thrrr  HiHturirn.  the  lii^t  of  which  wa0 
very  popular  and  has  been  frequently  reprinted. 

Jcypoor',  one  of  the  Uajpoot  states  utider  English  pro- 
tection in  Western  Ilindostan.  /\rea,  15,251  square  miles. 
Pop.  1,801,121.  Its  soil  is  in  most  places  poor,  often  bar- 
ren sand,  and  its  climate  is  intolerably  hot.  Its  capital  of 
the  same  name  is  situated  in  20'^  50'  N.  lat.  and  75*'  55'  E, 
Inn.,  nn<i  is  ci»nsidered  the  finest  city  the  Ilindni.s  ever  built. 
It  forms  a  ]iaraIIelogram  divided  by  straight  streetn  inter- 
secting each  other  at  right  angles.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  surmounted  by  towers,  and  contains  a  largo  and  mag- 
nificent palace. 

Jr/'ohol   [Heb.  hrhr^,  daughter  of  Ethbaal.  king  of 


Tyro  and  Sidon,  and  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  upon  her  husband,  leading  him  into 
idolatrous  worship  of  Baal,  a  Phoenician  deity,  long  a  for- 
midable rival,  especially  in  the  northern  kingdom,  to  the 
Jehovah-worshij)  established  at  Jerusalem.  Many  acts  of 
persecution  against  the  prophets  and  priests  of  Jehovah 
are  attributed  to  Jezebel,  and  were  so  successful  that  at  one 
time  there  were  but  70U0  persons  in  Israel  who  ha<l  not 
bowed  the  knee  to  Baal.  The  narrative  of  this  momentous 
controversy  is  found  at  length  in  I  Kings.  Jezebel  was 
murdered  by  Jehu  about  883  a.  c,  at  the  same  time  as  her 
son.  King  Jchnram.  Her  daughter,  Athaliah,  married  Jc- 
horam.  king  of  Judah. 

Jczi'rah  [lleb.  Srphrr  y<>tiiirnh'\,  or  Book  of  Cre- 
ation, one  of  the  two  chief  cabbalistic  works  of  the  Jews. 
Its  date  is  variously  assigned  to  the  first  and  tiie  eighth  or 
ninth  century.    It  was  printed  in  I5G2,  1642,  and  1830. 

Jez'reel,  town  in  Northern  Palestine,  which  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  under  several  reigns. 

Jhy'luuif  or  Behut,  river  of  Ilindostan,  the  western- 
most of  the  Punjaub.  It  rises  in  the  valley  of  Cashmere, 
and  after  emerging  from  the  Ilimalavas  it  joins  the  Chc- 
naub  and  forms  the  Trimah.     (See  Hvdasi'KS.) 

JidMah,  town  of  Arabia,  on  tlio  Red  Sea.  in  21°  28' 
N.  lat.  and  :\'.)°  13'  E.  Ion..  GO  miles  W.  of  Mecca.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  barren  desert,  so  destitute  of  water  that 
rain-water  must  be  gathered  and  carefully  preserved  in 
cisterns.  But  it  carries  on  a  most  important  trade,  pro- 
visions from  Egypt,  cofl'eo  from  Arabia,  and  manufactured 
goods  from  India  being  brought  in  largo  quantities  to  its 
warehouses  and  exchanged.  •  Thousands  of  pilgrims  visit 
yearly  the  town  on  their  way  to  Mecca.  A  curious  little 
building  within  the  walls  contains  a  monument  called  the 
tomb  of  Eve.  Pop.  variously  estimated  at  from  10,000  to 
20.000. 

Jika'daze^  or  Shikatzc,  town  of  Thibet,  the  capital 
of  tbo  district  of  Zang,  is  in  an  elevated  and  very  dry  plain, 
encircled  by  lofty  but  barren  mountains,  and  contains  an 
immense  palace  or  monastery,  in  which  reside  one  of  the 
chief  lan)as  and  Ins  suite,  consisting  of  above  4000  per- 
sons. It  consists  of  a  number  of  palaces,  temples,  and 
tombs  of  a  most  striking  architecture  and  profusely  orna- 
mented with  gold  and  precious  stones.     Pop.  100,000. 

Jime'^na,  town  of  Spain,  in  tho  province  of  Cadiz,  on 
the  .Jogergante.  has  0577  inhabitauts,  mostly  engaged  in 
agriculfnre  and  liorticulture. 

Jim  Henry,  tp.  of  Miller  co..  Mo.     Pop.  542. 

Jinn  [Arabic,  plural  of  Jinn! ,  tho  "  invisible,"  cognate 
with  the  Lat.  Gkmis  (which  see)],  among  Arabian  and 
other  Moliammedan  peoples  a  race  of  imaginary  beings 
made  out  of  fire  and  capable  of  assuming  any  form  at  will. 
Tiiey  inhabited  the  earth  long  before  man  was  created,  but 
for  rebellious  conduct  were  finally  expelled.  They  inhabit 
a  world  called  Jinnistan.  but  often  visit  the  earth  in  storms, 
tornadoes,  and  earthquakes.  Many  of  their  exploits  are 
narrated  in  the  Amhinn  Ait/htn.  The  good  jinn  are  called 
peri  (fairy).  Mohammed  came  to  instruct  and  redeem 
jinn  as  well  as  men.  Men  arc  superior  iu  dignity  to  jinn, 
but  far  less  powerful. 

Jiquili'tCy  the  native  indigo  of  Central  America,  ludi- 
ffo/rrn  (Itspeniiti,  which  produces  large  quantities  of  excel- 
lent indigo.    (Pen  iNimio.) 

Jitomir%  or  Zytomirrz,  town  of  Russia,  tho  capital 
of  tho  government  of  Voiliynia,  on  the  Kanirnka.  which 
here  joins  the  Teterev  and  tl'>ws  to  the  Dnieper.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  governor,  cd"  a  (Ireck  arid»bi>bop,  and  a  R'uniin 
Calholio  bishop.  It  has  some  inm  and  glass  works,  four 
annual  fairs,  and  a  considerable  trade.     Pop.  17,131. 

Jo'ab,  a  son  of  Zeruiah.  the  sister  of  David,  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  warrior  under  the  reign  of  Saul,  and 
was  made  commander  of  the  wb<de  Hebrew  army  by  David. 
He  was  a  valiant,  talented,  and  inlluential  man.  but  virdcnt 
and  unscrupulous.  When  David  tri<'d  to  rid  himself  of 
him  by  giving  the  command  to  Amasa.  Jnab  jdunged  his 
sword  into  Amasa's  heart  while  embracing  him.  He  took 
part  in  the  unsiicce^tsful  demonstration  in  favor  of  Adoni- 
jah.  and  altlniugh  he  fled  to  the  tabrrnacle  for  refuge,  Sol- 
omon seized  him  and  put  him  to  death. 

Jo'achim,  called  the  PnopiiKT,  b.  at  Celico,  in  Italy, 
about  1  115.  After  being  employed  at  the  court  of  Roger, 
king  of  Sicily.  an*i  maki?ig  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  he 
became  a  Cistercian  monk,  abbot  of  Corace  in  Calabria. 
and  finally  founder  of  Iho  monastery  of  Floris  near  Co- 
senzft,  where  he  d.  Mar.  30,  1202.  Ho  left  a  rejtutation  as 
a  saint  and  miracle-worker,  nnti  his  followers  made  an  un- 
Huecrssful  attempt  tn  cnnonize  him  in  13(0.  He  taught  a 
peculiar  mystic  doctrine,  of  which  the  chief  tenet  was  that 
the  Christian  era  would  close  A.  n.  1200.  afff^r  wbifh  n  ww 


1422 


JOACHIM— JOBERT   DE  LAMBALLE. 


providential  dispensation  would  begin.     This  doctrine  was 

emboflicd  in  his  treatise  called  the  Everlnstiuq  Gospel, 
which  was  corKlemned  by  the  Council  of  the  Latcran  in 
1'21  J,  and  by  that  of  Aries' in  12fi0.  lie  left  many  writings, 
chictly  commentaries,  and  prophesied  the  downfall  of  the 
piipacy.  Hi?  followers,  called  Joachimitca,  were  numerous 
iu  tlio  thirteenth  century. 

Joachim,  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1SG5. 

Jo'acliimsthal,  town  of  Bohemia,  near  the  frontier 
of  S.ixony,  is  situated  in  a  valley  in  the  Krzegebirge,  2:U>0 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  5Cn  inhabitants, 
mostly  engaged  in  the  working  of  the  neighboring  iron, 
silver,  lead,  and  tin  mines. 

Joaily  Pope,  a  fabulous  personage  who  was  long  be- 
lieved to  have  occupied  the  papal  chair  (So3-8o(>)  as  John 
VIII.,  succeeding  Leo  IV.  and  preceding  Benedict  III. 
The  report  was  that  Joan  was  born  in  Germany,  the 
daughter  of  an  English  priest;  falling  in  love  with  a 
monk,  she  entered  a  convent  in  male  attire  at  Fulda,  and 
then  went  with  her  paramour  to  Athens  and  Rome,  where 
slie  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and  learning,  and 
was  unanimously  chosen  popo  when  a  vacancy  occurred. 
One  day  in  the  street,  at  the  head  of  a  procession,  it  is 
said  that  the  pope  was  unexpectedly  delivered  of  a  child, 
soon  after  which  she  died.  There  has  been  much  specula- 
tion as  to  the  origin  of  this  fiction,  which  acquired  universal 
credence  in  the  Middle  Ages;  and  in  the  cathedral  of 
Siena  a  statue  of  Popo  Joan  was  for  a  long  time  to  be  seen. 
The  fable  still  occasionally  finds  a  literary  defender,  but  is 
utterly  lyithout  historical  foundation, its  fictitious  character 
having  been  first  conclusively  demonstrated  by  David 
Blomlel,  a  Protestant,  in  16i9. 

Joan  of  Arc  [Fr.  Jeanne  d'Arc,  or,  more  correctly, 
Durr],  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  b.  Jan.  0,  1412.  at  Domrcmy, 
in  Lorraine  (now  a  part  of  Germany),  of  parents  who, 
though  sprung  of  wealthy  and  ancient  stock,  were  reduced 
to  the  state  of  serfdom.  The  youthful  Joanne  was  distin- 
guished for  a  sweet  simplicity,  piety,  and  industry  in  child- 
hood. Her  patriotism  was  early  inflamed  by  the  fact  that 
Dnmremy  was  of  the  Armagnac  or  French  faction,  rather 
thm  of  the  Burgundian  party  of  those  times.  When  she 
wa?  thirteen  years  old  France  was  overrun  by  the  Anglo- 
Pieard  troops  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  regent  of  Henry  VI., 
and  by  the  forces  of  Burgundy.  Jeanne,  impressed  by  the 
distressed  state  of  France,  conceived  that  she  heard  voices 
from  Heaven  and  saw  visions  of  Sts.  Michael.  Margaret, 
and  Catharine,  calling  her  to  deliver  France.  Four  or  five 
years  later  (1428)  she  announced  her  vision  to  Baudricourt, 
governor  of  Vaucouleurs,  and  in  1429  gained  an  audience 
\vith  the  dauphin,  who  iu  April  gave  her  command  of  the 
French  troops,  who  by  this  time  were  fully  inspired  with 
belief  in  her  heavenly  mission.  She  assumed  male  attire, 
a  sword,  and  a  white  banner,  threw  herself  boldly  into  Or- 
leans, of  which  she  quickly  raised  the  siege  ;  beat  the  Eng- 
lish at  Meun,  Jergcau,  Beaugency,  and  Patay;  caused  the 
dauphin  to  be  crowned  at  Ilheinis  in  less  tlian  three  months 
after  she  took  the  field.  She  now  demanded  to  bo  released 
from  further  service,  the  heavenly  voices  having  ceased  to 
be  heard,  and  a  dread  foreboding  taking  their  place;  but 
the  king  would  not  consent.  In  the  subsequent  attack  on 
Paris  she  was  badly  wounded,  and  soon  after  she  and  her 
family  were  ennobled.  On  May  2.'i,  14o0,  after  having 
taken  part  in  nmny  successful  combats,  she  was  captured 
by  the  FJurgundians  while  heading  a  sortie  from  Compit^gne, 
and  was  sold  to  the  English  (who  feared  her  as  a  witch)  for 
l(j,i)Ott  francs.  The  University  of  Paris  having  pronounced 
her  guilty  of  witchcraft  after  a  protracted  and  most  unjust 
trial,  she  was  burned  at  the  stake  with  every  circumstance 
<if  indignity  and  cruelty.  May  .'JO,  1431.  It  may  be  added 
that  Delapierre  and  others  question,  with  some  show  of 
reason,  the  story  of  her  death,  and  state  that  she  married 
and  was  alive  in  1441,  some  other  woman  having,  us  it  is 
asserted,  been  tried. 

Joa'nes  (Viscknte).  b.  in  Spain  in  1523,  and  d.  in  1579. 
He  studied  in  Rome,  imitated  Raphael,  and  became  the 
fiiuntler  of  a  Spanish-Italian  school  of  painters,  whose  seat 
was  Valencia.  He  was  deeply  religious.  ]ire]iared  himself, 
before  he  commenced  a  ncvT  picture,  by  taking  the  sacra- 
ment, and  treated  exclusively  religious  subjects.  There  is 
a  charming  expression  of  innocence  and  sweetness  in  his 
pictures,  but  not  the  intellectuality  and  lofty  purity  which 
dislinguisli  Raphael. 

Joan'na  I.,  queen  of  Naples  from  1.343  to  1382,  b.  in 
]'V17.  a  daughter  of  Charles  and  granddaughter  of  Robert 
of  .\njou,  was  married  when  seven  years  oM  to  Andrew  of 
Hungary,  her  second  cousin.  The  idea  of  this  marriage 
was  to  ally  the  two  branches  of  the  family  of  Anjou  together. 
hut  the  purpose  failed,  and  the  contest  between  the  two 
political  parties  represented  by  the  two  branches  of  the 


royal  family  became  only  fiercer.     In  i;U5,  Joanna  had  her 

husband  strangled,  and  when  his  brother,  Louis  the  Great 
of  Hungary,  invaded  Na])lcs  to  avenge  him,  she  had  to  tiee. 
By  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  to  whom  she  gave  Avignon 
and  the  sum  of  SO, DUO  Horius,  she  returned  soon  after,  and 
married  successively  Louis  of  Taranto,  James  of  Aiagon, 
anil  Otho  of  Brunswick.  But  in  the  papal  schism  het^vecn 
Clement  VII.  and  Urban  VI.,  Joanna  sided  with  Clement, 
antl  at  the  instigation  of  Urban  VI.  a  rebellion  took  place 
in  Naples.  Joanna  was  seized,  imprisoned  in  Muro,  and 
delivered  over  to  the  king  of  Hungary,  who  immediately 
had  her  put  to  death. — Her  grand-niece,  Joanna  II.,  queen 
of  Naples  from  1414  to  I4;i5,  b.  in  lo7t\  was  married  first 
to  William  of  Austria,  and  after  his  death  to  .Taeques  do 
Bourbon.  She  was  notorious  for  her  dissolute  lilc.  and 
her  government  was  utterly  distracted  by  the  feuds  and 
intrigues  between  her  different  favorites. 

Jo^ash,  or  Jcho'ash  [Ileb.  Yonsh  or  Ychnash, 
"given  by  Jehovah"],  the  name  of  two  kings.  I.  A  king 
of  Jud-ah,  son  of  Ahaziah  by  Libnah  of  Bcersheba,  b. 
about  B.  c.  SS4.  His  father  having  died  iu  his  infancy,  all 
his  brothers  were  massacred  by  his  grandmother  Athaliah, 
who  usurped  the  throne,  but  Joash  was  secretly  saved  by 
his  aunt,  the  wife  of  the  high  priest  Jehoiada,  who  brought 
him  up  within  the  temple  until  his  eighth  year,  when  a 
successful  revolution  was  made.  Athaliah  was  killed,  and 
the  young  prince,  the  last  scion  of  the  house  of  David, 
was  placed  on  the  throne.  During  his  minority,  and  for 
many  years  thereafter,  his  government  was  approved  by 
the  biblical  writer,  but  at  length  he  fell  into  idolatry,  when 
his  kingdom  was  ravaged  by  IlazacI  of  Damascus,  and  he 
was  besieged  in  Jerusalem,  giving  up  the  treasures  of  the 
temple  to  tho  enemy.  He  was  murdered  in  his  bed  by  his 
servants  about  n.  r.  S.T7,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years.- — II.  A 
king  of  Israel,  son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  and  grand- 
son of  Jehu,  became  king  about  B.  c.  8r.8,  successfully  re- 
sisted the  Syrians,  and  defeated  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah. 
Joash  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  tho  kings  of  Israel. 
D.  after  sixteen  years'  reign,  about  B.  c.  823. 

Job,  The  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, narrating  tin:  story  of  Job,  a  wealthy  Arabian  sheik 
or  patriarch  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Uz.  and  a  man  of 
benevolent,  devout,  and  Idaraeless  life.  At  an  advanced 
age  ho  is  visited  with  loss  of  estate,  of  family,  and  of  health  ; 
his  wife  breaks  down  under  the  load  of  trials,  but  Job  re- 
mains true  to  God,  and  endures  all  without  a  sinful  word 
of  complaint,  to  tho  discomfiture  of  Satan,  his  accuser. 
And  at  last  his  faithfulness  receives  an  ample  reward.  Tho 
doctrine  of  retribution  held  a  prominent  place  in  Jewish 
theology.  As  a  popular  dogma  it  amounted  to  this — that 
God  balances  men's  sins  by  adversity  in  this  life  with  a 
perfect  and  inexorable  justice.  Thus,  affliction  and  adver- 
sity came  to  be  regarded  as  the  indices  of  sin.  Nothing 
less  than  this  dogma  is  at  stake  in  the  poem — or  tragedy, 
as  we  may  well  call  it,  from  the  intensity  of  the  interests 
and  feelings  involved.  Job's  wife  represents  the  evil  spirit 
of  rcbellioQ  against  God.  His  friends  represent  the  various 
shades  of  tho  popular  dogma.  They  insist  that  his  adver- 
sity is  proof  of  sin,  either  specifically  or  in  general,  and 
blandly  exhort  him  to  humility  and  submission.  Against 
them  ho  defends  bis  integrity,  and  it  seems  to  be  rather 
vexation  at  their  platitudes  than  the  actual  effect  of  Satan's 
machinations  which  drives  Job  from  his  patience  and  leads 
him  to  fail,  so  far  as  he  does  fail,  under  the  test.  Finally, 
this  vexation  passes  away.  He  turns  to  God  in  unaffected 
humility,  which  he  is  able  to  reach  without  doing  violence 
to  his  consciousness  of  his  own  integrity,  but  out  of  his 
spontaneous  and  loving  trust  in  God.  Then  he  wins  a  new 
revelation  of  (lod.  such  as  he  had  never  had  before.  He 
sees  that  man  cannot  pretend  to  fathom  or  compass  or  fol-  - 
low  the  plan  and  purpose  of  God.  Man's  mind  would  fail 
if  God  should  make  known  to  him  even  a  part  of  the  many 
i  things  which  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  divine  plan. 
He  cannot,  therefore,  know  Go.l's  purpose  in  sending  ad- 
versity on  this  man  or  on  that  :  and.  in  short,  nothing  can 
be  more  absurd  or  impious  than  for  man  to  frame  little 
dogmas  by  which  to  pretend  to  interpret  the  dispensations 
of  Providence. 

This  poem  is  a  wonderful  specimen  of  literary  art.  The 
characters  sustain  the  parts  allotted  to  them  perfectly.  The 
time  assigned  to  the  incident  is  that  of  Moses  and  Joshua, 
and  the '' historic  sense"  is  admirably  displayed.  Prol)- 
ably  a  historical  fact  lay  at  the  basis,  but  the  writer  has 
used  it  so  independently  that  it  has  disappeared.  The  lan- 
guage is  peculiar,  and  ]iresents  numerous  diflicultios.  and 
the  thought  is  so  subtle  as  to  tax  the  utmost  skill  of  tho 
interpreter.  It  is  almost  unanimously  assigned  to  a  very 
early  but  unknown  date. 

Jobe,  post-tp.  of  Oregon  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  R4.S. 
Joberl'Uc  LainbaUc' (Antoine  Joseph),  b.  at  Lam- 


JOB'S  CABIX— JOHN  THE  KVANGELIST. 


14-i:} 


bulle  in  1799;  studied  medicine  in  Paris  1819;  took  bis 
degree  in  1828:  and  becnnic  surgeon  at  the  lloiipital  of 
Pi.  Louis  in  18110 ;  yuriJieon  to  the  emperor  in  1^J4,  and 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1850.  llis  principal  writings 
arc — Traitf  thftriifue  it  pratique  dca  malatlirs  cfiirurgicatca 
(iu  cnnai  intestinttf  (1829),  TraitS  de  chirnryic  plnatiquc 
(1819),  Traitemcut  des  Jiatule9  veaicO'VaginalcH  (1852).  I>. 
Apr.  22,  IS67. 

Job's  Cabin,  tp.  of  Wilkes  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  60C. 

Job's  Tears  {Coix  tachr^ma), &  grass,  a  native  of  In- 
dia, where  it  often  grows  to  the  height  of  eight  feet;  it  re- 
sembles somewhat  maize  both  in  appearance  and  habits. 
Its  name  i.-*  derived  from  its  "geed:^,''or  rather  indurated 
biiskn,  which  are  bony,  shining,  bluish-white  globule?.  In 
India  the  seeds  are  used  as  an  article  of  food,  but  outside 
of  India  they  are  used  only  as  ornament?,  made  into  bracc- 
Icis  and  necklaces,  or  as  beads  for  rosaries. 

Job''to\vn«  former  village  of  Cass  CO.,  Ind.,  now  included 
in  the  city  of  Logansport.      Pop.  349. 

Jo  Da'vicss,  county  of  N.  W.  Illinois.  Area,  (150 
SfjUiire  miles.  It  has  Wisconsin  on  the  X.  and  tiic  Missis- 
sippi Hiver  on  the  S.  W.  It  has  mines  of  copper  and  lead, 
the  latter  especially  important.  Its  surface  is  varieil.  its 
soil  productive.  Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  tobacco  arc  staple 
products.  Carriages  and  saddlery  arc  among  the  leading 
articles  of  manufacture.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Illinois  Central  II.  R.     Cap.  Galena.     Pop.  27,820. 

Jo  Daviess,  tp.  of  Faribault  co.,  Ulinn.     Pop.  477. 

Joilelle'  (Kricx\t:).b.  at  Paris  in  15.12,  and  d.  there  in 
157;;.  He  took  part  very  successfully  In  that  movement  in 
the  French  literature  which  was  started  by  Ilonsard.  and 
by  which  imitation  of  the  classical  models  was  adopted  as 
an  artistic  principle.  The  common  tut/tttcrics  and  moralitUa 
he  supplanted  by  regular  tragedies,  and  his  Ctcopatre  and 
Didun  created  a  general  enthusiasm. 

Jo'el  [Hob.,  "The  Lord  is  his  God"],  one  of  the  minor 
Hebrew  prophet?,  concerning  whom  little  is  with  certainty 
known.  He  lived  at  Jerusalem,  and  his  prophecies  relate 
to  Judah.  The  date  of  his  life  is  very  uncertain.  He  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  prophets  whoso  works 
remain  to  us.  Ewald,  Hil7.ig,  and  Keil  think  that  he  lived 
before  800  a.  c.  One  of  the  visitations  of  locusts  which  oc- 
cur from  time  to  time  in  the  Orient  (see  Lepsius,  lin'f/c  ant 
yfi^'/y/jfc/i)  occurred  in  his  time,  and  proved  a  great  national 
calamity.  The  prophet  called  the  people  trt  penitence,  pub- 
lic fasting,  prayer,  and  righteousness,  and  turned  their  at- 
tention to  (iod's  great  day  of  visitation  and  judgment. 

Jo^^ues  (Isaac),  b.  at  Orleans,  France,  Jan.  10,  1607. 
became  a  Jesuit  at  Rouen  in  1021,  and  came  to  Canada  as 
a  missionary  in  1630.  After  preaching  to  the  llurons.  ho 
founded  in  1012  a  mission  among  the  Chippewas  in  Michi- 
gan. On  a  journey  to  Quebec  he  was  captured  by  the 
Mohawks  and  ma<le  a  slave,  but  escaped  to  the  Dutch  at 
Albany,  and  went  to  France,  whence  he  soon  returned  to 
t'anada.  In  May,  \i'y\i\,  he  concluded  a  treaty  between  the 
French  anci  the  Slohawks,  remained  among  them  as  a  mis- 
sionary, and  was  put  to  death  by  them  as  a  sorcerer  at 
(^au;;hnawaga  Oct.  IS  of  the  same  year.  His  Lrtters  were 
published  in  the  New  York  Historical  Society's  Collection, 
au'l  his  description  of  (he  New  Nefherlanrls  was  reprinted 
in  New  York  in  IS62,  with  a  memoir  bv  J.  G.  Shea.  (Sec 
hx*  Lif'-.  by  Rev.  Felix  Martin,  S.  J.,  Paris.  I8":t.) 

Jo'hann  (Nktomik  Maria  Joski-ii).  king  of  Saxony,  b. 
Dec.  12,  IHOI,  and  d.  Oct.  2l>,  187:t.  He  was  iin  erudite'and 
finely  educated  man,  whose  inclinations  turned  towards 
literary  and  scientific  uceupations,  but  who.  nevertheless, 
devoted  himself  with  conscientiousness  to  his  royal  duties. 
The  graver  qualities,  however,  of  a  ruler,  lie  waiifid.  and 
ho  never  became  very  popular.  His  youth  was  wh<illy  <le- 
voted  to  art  and  science,  cflpecially  to  the  study  of  Italian 
language  and  literature ;  from  I8:i9  to  IS49  he  published  at 
I.eipsic,  under  the  pseudonym  of  '  Philaletes,"  a  transla- 
tion of  Dante  with  critieal  and  historical  notes.  His  older 
brother  having  become  eo  regent  iu  IS.'iO,.  Prince  Johann 
t"'»k  part  very  actively  in  public  life  as  a  member  of  (ho 
privy  council,  as  president  of  the  council  of  finances,  in  the 
di<I.  in  military  matters,  and  acqnir4'd  thorough  knowledge 
of  all  branches  of  the  administratitm.  At  the  death  of  liis 
hrnther  he  became  king  of  Saxony,  Aug.  9,  1H5I.  He  was 
active  and  suceessful  in  measures  referring  to  the  internal 
development  of  his  country,  especially  in  the  introduction 
of  trade  frt'cdom,  in  the  extension  of  railway  lines,  and  in 
the  conclusion  of  commereinl  treaties  between  Germany  and 
other  countries.  Bu(  in  the  prea(  political  questi'ms  he  whs 
unfortunate.  Probably  ruled  by  ecclesiastical  and  Roman 
Catholic  influences,  he  showeil  himself  an  unconditional 
adherent  of  Austria  and  nn  adversary  of  the  Proteptant  and 
progressive  Prussia.  This  tendency  became  apparent  al- 
r-adv  'lurln::  the  ruiii].lic;i1inn'^  with  I)onn,ai!!  run'-eriMng 


Sleswick-Holstcin,  and  at  a  later  period  his  stubbornness 
all  but  cost  him  his  throne.  The  war  of  186G  between 
Austria  and  I'russia  was  brought  about,  at  least  to  some 
extent,  by  King  Johann  nn<l  his  minister,  Bcust.  The  idea 
was  (hat  by  a  decisive  participation  in  the  humiliation  of 
Prussia,  Saxony  should  further  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  extend  its  own  circumscribed  sphere  of  power.  Hut 
after  the  defeat  of  the  Auslriau-Saxon  army  the  sovereign- 
ty of  King  Jcjhann  was  saved  only  by  the  intervention 
of  Napoleon  III.  Nevortlieless,  having  concluded  peace 
with  Prussia  and  returned  to  his  country,  he  was  perfectly 
loyal,  and  showed  himself  capable  of  sacrificing  his  per- 
sonal feelings  to  his  political  insight.  In  the  ditlicult  time 
of  the  war  with  France,  Saxony  acteil  as  a  true  and  reliable 
member  of  the  North  German  Confederation.  King  Johann 
in  1822  married  Amalia,  a  daughter  of  King  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  who  bore  him  three  children.  His  son  Albert 
succeeded  him  as  king.  August  Niemann. 

Johanna.     Sec  Comoro  Islands. 

Johan'nes  Secun'dus,  whoi;e  true  name  was  Jas 
EvKUAiti),  1).  at  the  Hague  N<»v,  14,  l.'il  1  ;  acquired  a  great 
fame  for  learning  and  genius  by  his  Latin  poems;  accom- 
panied Charles  \ .  on  his  expedition  to  Tunis,  and  d.  at 
Utrecht  Sept.  24,  I  j;>G.  His  Opcru  Puetica  were  published 
by  his  brothers  in  \h\\  ;  some  of  them — as,  for  instance, 
Bn»!a — have  been  translated  into  nearly  all  European  lan- 
guages. 

Johan'nesberg,  post-v.  of  Washington  co..  III.  Pop. 
101. 

Johan'nisbergy  village  of  Germany,  in  the  duchy  of 
Nassau,  contains  a  beautifully  situated  castle,  which  in 
1814  was  given  to  Prince  Mettornich  by  the  allies.  The 
vineyards  of  this  estate  produce  the  best  of  all  Rhenish 
wines,  the  celebrated  Johannisberger. 

Johannot'  (CeiaulI'S  Hknui  Alfrko),  b.  at  Offenbach, 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Mar.  21,  1800;  removed  in  ISOG  to  Paris, 
where  he  received  his  education,  and  d.  there  Dec.  7,  18.'i7, 
He  attracted  greal.  attention  Jn  1821  by  his  engravings 
after  Schcffer  and  Gerard;  in  1827  by  his  illustrations  of 
Walter  Scott.  Cooper,  and  IJyron  ;  and  since  is;il  by  his 
pictures,  of  \vhich  the  two  most  celebrated,  Mndemniitcfte 
dfj  Mimtppmier  (1833)  and  Thr  liattlc  uf  Tinitt^lrn  (1837), 
are  at  Versailles. — Ilis  brother,  Toxv,  well  known  from  his 
illustrations  to  Moliere,  \Wrfher,  Lamiirtine,  and  others, 
was  b.  at  Offenbach  Nov.  9,  1803,  and  d.  at  Paris  Aug.  4, 
18;>2. 

John  the  Baptist  was  a  son  of  the  priest  Zacharias 
and  Elisabeth,  a  cousin  of  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  was 
born  six  months  before  him.  In  the  fifteenth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Tiberius  ho  began  to  preach  in  the  deserts  of 
Judiea,  announcing  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  admon- 
ishing to  repentance,  and  baptizing  as  a  symbol  of  purifica- 
tion from  sin.  Tho  wonderful  circumstances  accompany- 
ing his  birth  and  his  baptism  of  Jesus,  as  well  as  his  rela- 
tions to  Clirist  and  his  deatli,  are  recorded  in  the  Gospels, 
and  very  little  is  known  of  him  frnni  other  S(»urces.  Ho 
was  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  by  Herod  Aniipas,  but 
his  disciples  continued  to  form  a  separate  body  long  iifter 
the  rise  of  Christianity.  In  the  Christian  Church  the  21th 
of  June  is  celebrated  as  the  day  of  tho  commemoration  of 
his  birth. 

John  the  Evangelist.  Jesus  had  parents,  brothers, 
and  sisters,  disciples,  fellow-citizens,  but  to  St.  J<din  alone 
was  granted  the  privilege  of  being  his  ''friend." 

1.  Life. — .lohn  was  born  on  tho  shores  of  the  Lake  of 
Gennesaret,  in  (Jalilee,  and  probably  at  Bethsaida  (com- 
pare Mark  i.  Id.  IU  and  John  i.  44).  According  to  the  first 
text,  he  fulj.iwed  the  occupation  of  a  fisher,  tup-fher  with 
his  father  Zebedce.  his  brother  James,  and  his  (wo  friends 
and  associates  Simon  (Peter)  and  Andrew.  His  mother, 
whose  name  was  Salome  (according  to  Mott.  xxvii.  .'ifi, 
which  eom|)are  with  Mark  xv.  4t»).  must  have  been  n  pious 
woman,  ardent  iiiid  filled  with  the  Messianic  expectations, 
though  under  their  most  earthly  form  {Matt.  xx.  20  nrif.). 
She  no  doubt  poured  her  own  faith,  including  this  alloy, 
into  tho  hearts  of  her  sons.  As  soon  as  John  (he  Ba|>li:^t, 
the  new  prophet  who  announced  the  niiproach  of  the  king- 
dom of  (io<l,  callc'l  people  to  prepare  tlicmselves  by  repent- 
ance and  baptism,  John  ami  James  hastened  to  him  and 
remained  with  him  ns  his  disciples;  and  it  was  here  ihnt 
Jesus  first  met  with  them  on  his  return  from  the  temptalinn 
in  the  desert.  The  aclmirablo  picture  drawn  in  the  first  chap- 
ter of  the  4!ospel  Iiy  John  embodies  in  trnilH  full  of  fresti- 
ness  Ihe  remenibrance  of  this  meeting,  which  became  deci- 
sive for  the  life  of  John.  Having  found  his  first  disciples 
among  the  followers  of  his  Preciirs<ir,  Jesus  took  them 
back  with  him  to  (Jalilee;  and  as  ho  himself  hafl  not  yet 
separated  from  his  family  (John  ii.  1-12),  he  setit  them 
al^'i  b:i''k  to  fheir'^;  but  on  the  approach  of  the  next  Pass- 


1424 


JOHN  THE  EVANGELIST. 


over  feast  he  called  them  definitivclj  to  follow  him  perma- 
Dently  as  his  disciples,  and  repaired  with  them  to  Jerusa- 
lem, where  he  inaugurated  his  jmhlio  ministration  by  ex- 
pelling; the  venders  from  the  temple  (Mjitt.  iv.  IS  f^eq.;  John 
ii.  14  sc/.)*  I'rom  tliis  moment  Jchn  accompanied  him 
through  all  the  incidents  of  his  earthly  life,  which  he  has 
described  so  dramatically  in  his  tIos|)el.  Together  with 
Peter  and  James  he  formed  a  closer  circle  around  Jesus, 
and  he  was  present  af  the  most  st'cluded  scenes  of  his  life 
(the  resurrection  of  the  daughter  of  Jairus,  the  transfigurn- 
tion.  Gethseraane)  ;  but  of  the  three  he  was  the  friend  of 
the  heart  of  the  Lord.  It  is  indeed  impossible  to  doubt 
that  the  "  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,"  which  is  the  expreg- 
sion  used  in  the  fourth  (iospcl,  means  John  himself.  It  is 
the  phrase  which  he  substitutes  for  his  own  name,  embracing 
the  gentlest  remembrances  which  ever  thrilled  through  the 
heart  of  man.  Modern  criticism  has  raised  the  supposition 
that  either  Nathanael  or  Andrew  could  have  been  meant, 
or  even  a  purely  ideal  being  which  never  existed  in  reality. 
But  those  two  disciples  arc  designated  by  name  in  several 
passagesof  the  Gospel  (i.  40:  vi.S;  xit.22;  i.  45  aej.,*  xxi. 
2).  and  how  could  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  be  any 
other  than  one  of  the  three  intimates  with  whom  he  liked 
best  to  associate?  As  for  an  ideal  being,  how  could  the 
evangelist  place  him  among  the  twelve,  and  ascribe  to  him 
a  decisive  part  in  the  scene  which  brought  about  the  de- 
parture of  Judas  from  the  La?t  Supjtcr  (John  xiii.)  ?  How 
could  an  ideal  being  be  tlic  fiicnd  to  whom  Jesus  from  the 
cross  liequeathed  his  mother,  and  who  took  her  into  his 
home  from  that  moment  (John  xix.  29)?  Such  traits  can 
be  applied  only  to  a  being  of  flesh  and  bones.  Up  to  the 
time  of  the  death  of  Jesus.  John  lulled  himself  in  the  most 
glorious  earthly  expectations  (Mark  x.  35  «cq.),  but  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  then  opened  his  eyes,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  understood  the  whole  Scripture,  and  he  "  be- 
lieved'*  (John  XX.  8).  The  New  Testament  does  not  men- 
tion that  there  was  grnntcd  to  John,  like  Peter  and  James 
(Luke  xxiv.  34  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  5,  7),  anj'  appearance  of  the 
Lord  after  his  resurrection ;  but  if  those  appearances  of 
Jesus  which  are  recorded  were  fictitious,  the  very  first 
would  certainly  have  been  attributed  to  John.  Pentecost 
accomplished  the  work  commenced  by  the  resurrection. 
Jolin  makes  us  understand  what  took  place  within  him  on 
that  <lay,  recalling  with  predilection  in  his  Gospel  those 
promises  of  Jesus,  '*  When  the  Spirit  of  truth  is  come,  he 
shall  glorify  me;"  "At  that  day  yc  shall  know  that  I  am 
in  my  Father,  aud  yo  in  me,  and  I  in  you"  (John  xvi.  l.'J 
and  xiv.  20).  In  spite  of  the  very  particular  privilege  with 
which  he  had  been  honored,  John  performed  only  a  sec- 
ondary part  in  the  foundation  of  the  Church,  compared  with 
his  associates,  I*cter  and  James.  Peter  was  the  great  in- 
strument for  the  establishment  of  the  Church  ia  Israel 
(Acts  i.-v.).  James  died  in  44  as  the  first  martyr,  a  fact 
which  by  itself  proves  the  power  of  his  influence  on  the 
Jewish  people  (Acts  xii.  2).  Of  the  activity  of  John  we 
know  nothing  except  the  two  traits  of  little  importance  re- 
conled  in  Acts  iii.  1  aeq.  and  viii.  14;  and  we  should  have 
considered  his  influence  on  the  apostolic  Church  as  very 
small  but  for  the  words  of  St.  Paul  (Gal.  ii.  9),  who  ranks 
him  among  the  three  **  pillars  "  of  the  Church.  A  modern 
school  has  attempted  to  establish,  by  the  aid  of  this  and 
some  other  texts,  that  John  and  the  other  apostles  be- 
longed, even  after  Pentecost,  to  that  narrow  Jewish- 
Christian  party  which  would  impose  the  circumcision  and 
the  Mosaic  law  on  the  Gentiles  as  a  condition  of  their 
entering  the  Church.  ]Jut  the  above  text  proves  exactly  , 
the  opposite,  since  Paul  here  expressly  distinguishes  be-  j 
tween  the  representatives  of  the  apostolate,  James  (''the 
brother  of  the  Lord"),  Peter,  and  John,  who  would  not 
improve  the  law  (v.  9),  and  the  "  false  brethren  "  who  had  ; 
come  in  privity  into  the  Church  in  order  to  establish  the 
principle  of  the  law  (v.  4).  (1)  Compare  the  "But  of 
these*  (v.  6),  which  plainly  indicates  an  opposition.  John 
himself,  no  doubt,  observed  the  law,  as  did  his  associates, 
but  only  from  a  feeling  of  national  piety  and  Israelitish  , 
fellow-^hip  ;  he  would  not  impose  it  on  the  Gentiles  who  I 
believed,  for  if  so  he  could  not  have  given  "  the  right  hand  | 
of  fellowship  "  to  St.  Paul  (v.  9).  It  was  not  until  after  ! 
the  death  of  Peter  (about  04)  and  Paul  (about  CO),  and  I 
after  the  destruclion  of  Jerusalem,  that  the  activity  of  ] 
John  assumed  its  grand  proportions.  According  to  a  ! 
unanimous  tradition  in  the  churches  of  the  second  century,  ' 
he  went  to  Asia  Minor,  where  Paul  had  founded  a  mag- 
nificent circle  of  churches.  The  truth  of  this  tradition  has 
been  disputed,  however,  quite  recently.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  Church  fell  into  this  error  by  attributing  falsely 
the  Revelation  to  John  the  apostle,  and  then  inferring 
that  ho  lived  in  the  centre  of  the  .\siatic  churches  (Rev.  ' 
i.-iii.).  But  the  historical  testimonies  are  with  respect  to  ; 
this  fact  so  old  and  so  authoritative  that  to  deny  it  would 
be  to  overthniw  all  history.    In  his  great  work,  Ayainst  the 


Jfcretica  (about  185),  Iren^us,  who  in  his  youth  had  been 
a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  speaks  frequently  of  the  relations 
of  Polycarp  to  thu  apostle  during  the  sojourn  of  the  latter 
in  Asia.  He  refers  to  what  the  presbyters  of  Ephcsus  and 
Polycarp  have  heard  John  record  of  the  Lord;  aud  he 
adds,  "  There  are  people  who  have  heard  from  the  mouth 
of  Polycarp  how  John,  the  disciple  of  the  Lord,  once  went 
to  take  a  bath  in  Ephesus.  but  suddenly,  on  seeing  Cerin- 
thus,  left  the  house  without  taking  any  bath,  exclaiming, 
*  Let  us  flee  before  the  house  falls  down  on  us,  for  Ceriu- 
thus,  the  enemy  of  truth,  is  here.' "  In  a  celebrated  letter  ho 
refers  to  his  old  friend  Plorinus,  and  the  time  which  they, 
while  young  people,  spent  together  in  the  presence  of  Poly- 
carp, recalling  how  this  bishop  taught  people  and  told 
them  of  his  "  connections  with  John  and  others  who  had 
seen  the  Lord."  In  another  letter,  addressed  to  Victor, 
bishop  of  Rome,  he  reminds  him  of  his  predecessor,  Ani- 
eetus — how,  in  sjiite  of  certain  ritualistic  diff"erenees,  he  had 
celebrated  Easter  together  with  i*oIycarp,  and  how  this 
latter  had  defended  his  form  of  the  celebration  by  the  fact 
that  in  this  manner  he  had  always  commemorated  the  event 
witli  *' John,  the  disciple  of  our  Lord,  us  well  as  with  the 
other  apostles  with  whom  he  had  been  together."  Besides 
this  decisive  testimony  by  Irena'us  we  have  another  by 
ApoJlonius,  a  writerfrom  Asia  Minor,  living  about  175,  who 
attributes  to  John  the  resurrection  of  one  dead  at  Kphcsus  ; 
and  a  third  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  in  his  essay. 
Who  is  the  lHvh  that  shall  be  Snvcd  f  (par.  195),  records 
the  interesting  story  of  the  young  Christian  from  Asia  who 
had  become  the  chief  of  a  band  of  robbers,  but  was  re- 
claimed by  John,  on  which  occasion  he  represents  the 
apostle  as  visiting  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  for  the  pur- 
pose of  appointing  bishops  and  regulating  their  affairs. 
.\nd  last  wc  have  the  testimony  of  Polyeratus,  seventh 
bishop  of  Ephesus,  in  whose  family  this  oflice  had  been,  so 
to  speak,  hereditary  since  the  times  of  the  apostles,  and 
who  in  the  name  of  the  bishops  of  Asia  reminds  A'ictor  of 
the  incontestable  fact  that  among  the  fouuders  of  the 
Church  of  Ephesus  was  John,  the  disciple  **  who  had  leaned 
on  the  bosom  of  the  Lord,  and  that  he  was  buried  at  Ephe- 
sus." Before  such  testimonies  the  criticism  which  denies 
accuses  itself  of  partiality.  Jerome  represents  how  the  old 
apostle,  in  the  last  days  of  his  life,  was  carried  into  the  as- 
semblies of  the  Church,  but  confined  himself  to  the  repetition 
of  the  command,  *'  Little  children,  love  one  another;"  and 
how,  when  asked  "  Why  do  you  never  say  anything  more?" 
he  answered,  "  Because  when  this  is  done,  enough  is  done," 
Irenieus  states  that  .lohn  lived  in  Asia  in  the  time  of  Tra- 
jan {97-117),  and  Jerome  adds  that  he  died  in  extreme  old 
age  "  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  after  the  death  of  the  Lord  " 
(which,  if  Jesus  died  in  ;iO,  brings  us  down  to  9S).  aud  that 
he  was  "  buried  in  Ephesus."  These  authors  ignore  en- 
tirely a  strange  story  contained  in  a  newly  discovered  frag- 
ment of  a  chronicle  written  in  the  ninth  century  by  a  cer- 
tain Georgius  Haumartolos,  who  says  that  he  has  read  in 
a  work  of  Papias,  written  in  the  second  century,  but  now 
lost,  that  John  was  ''put  to  death  by  the  Jews."  This 
legend  has  been  used  as  an  argument  against  the  residence 
of  John  in  Asia,  as  if  there  had  been  no  Jews  in  Ephesus  I 
Even  this  very  day  those  who  visit  the  tomb  of  Polycarp 
at  Smyrna,  and  pass  through  the  Jewish  quarter,  know 
what  such  a  boldness  may  cost.  At  all  events,  we  attach  no 
importance  to  this  story,  since  it  has  never  been  mentioned 
by  Irenseus,  Eusebius,  and  the  many  others  who  were  pos- 
sessed of  the  work  of  Papias. 

2.  UViVim/s. — Of  the  twenty-seven  writings  of  the  New. 
Testament,  five  are  attributed  to  the  apostle  John  by  the 
more  or  less  unanimous  tradition  of  the  primitive  Church — 
the  fourth  Gospel,  one  large  aud  two  smaller  epistles,  and 
the  Revelation.  In  the  evangelical  colh-ction  the  fourth 
Gospel  shows  a  character  of  its  own.  It  is  a  work  com- 
posed in  one  train  of  inspiration,  and  not  a  redaction  of  a 
tradition  already  circulating  in  the  Church,  such  as  are  the 
three  others,  at  least  to  some  extent.  It  opens  with  an  in- 
troduction in  which  is  given  the  essence  of  the  history  that 
follows:  (1)  The  glory  of  the  creative  M'ord  ;  (2)  the  crime 
and  misery  of  the  Jews  who  have  rejected  it  in  its  humili- 
ation :  and  (3)  the  fortune  of  the  Church  which  has  received 
in  faith  the  incarnate  Son  of  God.  These  three  ideas  of 
the  introduction  are  also  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the 
whole  Gospel :  Jesus  makes  his  glory  manifest  by  his  words 
and  acts  ;  presently  the  world  is  divided,  some  taking  part 
against  him,  others  for  him.  Thus,  the  <jlorjf  o/Jtsun,  the 
unhflier',  and  the  faith  are  the  three  facts  on  which  the 
whole  narrative  rests.  (1)  Chs.  i.-iv.,  first  revelations  of 
Jesus,  and  first  impressions  of  unbelief  and  faith,  as  yet 
intermingled;  (2)  chs.  v.-xii.,  special  development  of  the 
constant  progress  of  unbelief,  both  with  the  chiefs  and  the 
mass  of  the  people,  as  each  appearance  of  Jesus  at  Jerusa- 
lem mi  the  festivals  is  the  signal  to  a  new  outburst  of  hatrcl  : 
{?>)  chs.  xiii.-xvii.,  special  devel'-pment  of  the  faith   wi;li 


JOHN. 


1425 


thr  <li?cipleB  during  the  last  times  preccdini;  tho  dciith  of 
Jes-us  ;  (I)  chs.  Jtviii.  iiinl  xix.,  the  exU'rniil  flcfciit  of  Jesus 
by  the  Jewi«jh  incredulity  (his  jiulj;inent  and  punishment)  ; 
(5)  chs.  XX.  and  xxi..  the  glorious  victory  of  Jej^ns  over 
death  hy  his  resurrection,  and  the  consuninintion  of  faith 
with  his  discipU-s  hy  his  appearances.  Such  is  the  pinn  of 
this  luarvcllons  work:  and  tljus  on  a  beautiful  day  in 
sprinjf,  when  the  sun  rises  radiant  and  sendinj;  his  warm 
rays  to  the  earth,  the  last  snow  melts,  life  awakens,  and 
nature  sets  to  work.  But  after  a  few  hours  the  vapors 
of  the  humid  soil  arise  and  form  <iense  clouds;  the  sun 
hides,  the  storm  threatens,  and  when  the  day  is  at  its 
highest  the  tempest  hursts  on  the  earth  and  nature  seems 
deiiverril  up  to  its  destructive  forces,  liavinj;  lofit  its  life- 
star.  Nevertheless,  when  eveninjj  comes  the  clouds  float 
away,  calm  reigns,  and,  more  resplendent  and  more  mag- 
nificent than  when  rising,  the  setling  sun  sends  a  last  happy 
smile  to  nature  before  disappearinfj.  Hut  who  has  com- 
po»cd  this  work,  this  unique  work  ?  The  f'hureh  has  never 
nesitated  in  answering,  ^o  other  name  than  that  <tf  .Tohn 
has  CTcr  been  inscribed  in  the  title  of  this  work.  It  bears 
a  formal  testimony  of  itself  in  the  last,  words  of  chapter 
xxi..  affixed  by  the  editors  of  the  !)ook,  according  to  which 
the  author  was  the  disciple  wh<im  .Jesus  loved,  and  who  was 
still  living  at  the  time  when  the  publication  took  place: 
"This  is  the  disciple  which  te-^tifieth  of  these  things  and 
wrote  lhe«othings'  (xxi.  241.  The  author  himself  declares 
that  he  ha?  been  an  eyewitness  of  the  events  ho  records 
(i.  11;  xix.  .''..')).  Moreover,  the  whole  narrative  has  an 
autobiographical  character.  If  does  not  commence  with  the 
hist»)ry  of  the  ministration  of  .lesus,  but  with  tlio  first  meet- 
ing between  Jesus  and  the  author — for  the  second  disciple 
(i.  '.'.i  urtf.)  must  be  the  author  himself:  the  anonymity 
guarded  with  respect  to  this  disciple,  and  the  picturesque- 
ness  of  the  narrative,  prove  it  sufiieicntly  ;  and  it  does  not 
extend  to  the  ascension,  but  ends  at  the  moment  when  tho 
author's  laith  becomes  fidl.  when  he  can  exclaim  from  tho 
depth  of  his  h<'art.  with  Tlmniai^  after  his  conviction,  ''  My 
Lord  and  my  (iod  !'*  This  hist  word  of  the  Gospel  corre- 
sponds with  its  first.  "  The  Word  was  C.mV  The  faith  of 
the  dii«ciplc8  has  at  last  reacherl  the  height  of  its  otiject. 

In  our  days  the  authenticity  of  this  liook  is  attacked  with 
particular  eagerness;  and  this  is  quite  natural.  If  tho 
divinity  of  th«  Lord  is  the  palladium  <tf  tlie  (Miurch.  tho 
Gospel  of  John  is  tho  palladium  of  this  truth.  Matthew 
has  demonstrated  the  Messianic  nffifr  of  .Tesus ;  Mark  has 
described  his  powerful  daily  artiritt/  ;  Luke  has  traced  the 
priigress  of  his  work  of  salvation  from  ncthlelicm  to  .L-ru- 
palem,  and  from  .lerusalem  to  Hume:  but  it  is  .John  who 
has  utivt'iled  the  eternal  divinity  of  his  person,  thus  otfer- 
ing  at  tlio  same  lime  to  the  Church  its  most  perfect  food 
and  to  unbelief  the  heaviest  stone  of  oflVnec.  Hut  to  whom 
could  such  a  \Tork  bo  attributed  if  it  were  not  written  by 
St.  -John  ?  A  great  unknown,  it  is  answered,  composed  it 
in  the  first  half  or  in  the  miildlo  of  the  secoiwl  century. 
But  we  ku'tw  tho  great  authors  of  the  second  century — 
Ignatius,  Papias.  Polycarp,  men  of  deep  ])iety  certainly, 
but  of  mediocre  talent.  And  this  superior  genius  who 
should  have  c<»mpr»sed  the  fourth  (iospel,  ami  who  surpasses 
all  the  known  aulhors.  be  should  have  remaineil  completely 
unknown  himself,  and  ](assed  llirough  the  Church  of  tho 
second  century  without  leaving  the  smallest  vestige  of  his 
personal  existence!  No;  hero  ui, belief  demands  too  much 
belief,  Ilenan  himself  acknowledges  that  it  is  not  possi- 
ble to  trat'c  a  probable  place  in  the  ministration  of  .Jesus 
without  the  dates  of  the  fourth  tJospel,  He  points  out  in 
this  honk  a  mullitutle  of  "precise"  traits  "which  necessarily 
indicate  an  eyewitness.  Creduer,  a  critic  who  by  no  means 
belongs  to  the  orthodox  sehoid,  ends  his  essay  on  the  fourth 
Gospel  by  saying,  "  If  we  had  no  hislnrical  dates  at  all  re- 
ferring to  the  author  of  the  fourth  (tospet,  .  .  .  the  nature 
of  the  language,  the  freshne.is  and  vividness  of  the  narra- 
tive, the  precision  of  the  dates,  .  .  ,  the  author's  love  and 
tenderness  towards  the  person  of  Jesus,  tho  irresistible 
charm  didused  throughout  the  whole  narrative.  .  .  .  would 
h'ad  us  to  infer  that  the  author  could  be  no  other  person 
than  a  tmfirf  uf  I'ufmthkr,  an  rifrtrifurHn,  an  apimflr,  one 
brfurrd  hif  ./muM — .fn/in,  indeed,  whom  the  Lord  had  per- 
sonally captivated  by  tho  celestial  charm  of  his  ten(;hing, 
.  .  .  and  who.  during  his  reAidence  in  a  city  like  that  of 
Kphesus,  had  become  able  to  vindicate  his  phice  among  tho 
Greeks,  so  difltinguislied  for  their  literary  culture."  (  Intro- 
durtivn  tit  tkr  Srw  Tmlummf,  ^  !l.t.)  It  seems,  indeed,  that 
John  wrote  the  Gospel  in  Ephesus,  nnd  between  80  and 
00.  This  is  suOiciently  pn.vid  by  the  only  contradic- 
tions worth  ?ueniioning.  Tin-  Alogiuns,  a  small  Phrygian 
set't  formed  towards  the  end  of  the  second  cr-ntury,  at- 
tributed this  Gospel  to  Cerinthus.  the  adversary  of  John  in 
Ephesns,  and  thus  they  testify  themselves  to  (he  great 
antiquity  and  to  the  birthplace  of  tlie  book. 

The  larger  Kpislle  bearing  tho  name  of  John  is  evidently 
Vol..  II.^'JO 


by  the  same  author  as  the  Gospel.  Here  too  ho  represents 
himself  as  an  eyewitness  to  the  life  of  Jesus  (i.  1  grtf.). 
From  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  it  has  been  useil 
by  Ignatius,  Papias.  and  Polycarp.  It  contains  the  celestial 
philosophy  which  the  author  has  drawn  from  the  teaching, 
the  labor,  ami  the  person  of  .Jesus.  This  he  opposes  to  tho 
heresy  already  breaking  in,  and  he  offers  it  to  the  Church 
as  tho  ideal  of  Christian  life:  not  that  he  considers  this 
ideal  as  perfection,  as  something  inaccessible;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  a  holiness  wliieh  the  presence  of  Jesus  in  the 
believing  soul  realizes  every  moment.  The  tw(i  small 
Epistles  seem  to  have  spread  very  slowly  in  the  Chnreb.  on 
account  of  their  smaller  importance.  This  explains  also 
why  they  have  not  as  many  testimonies  in  their  favor  ns 
the  two  preceding  writings,  to  which  they  form  a  beautiful 
contrast.  In  the  first.  .John  praises  the  firmness  of  a  Chris- 
tian lady  called  Ki/rt'n  in  breaking  with  the  preachers  of 
heresy  ;  in  the  seconcl  he  praises  the  charity  of  his  beloved 
Gaius,  whose  house  is  always  open  to  the  preachers  of  tho 
gospel.  It  is  on  the  one  pide  the  holy  excliisiveness,  on  tho 
other  the  generous  broadness,  of  the  Christian  faith.  Of  the 
Revelation  we  do  not  speak  here,  us  a  special  article  will  bo 
given  to  it. 

.1.  Charncfcr  nnd  Iiiftuence. — John  scems  not  to  have 
possessed  either  the  hold  initiative  of  Peter  or  the  pene- 
trating dialectical  power  of  Paul.  The  part,  little  con- 
spicuous, which  he  plays  before  and  after  Pentecost,  and 
up  to  his  residence  in  Asia  Minor,  indicates  a  character 
discreet,  reserved,  even  timid,  and  which  must  arrive  at  a 
sure  feeling  of  its  own  maturity  before  it  can  act  in  the  ex- 
ternal world.  But  this  trait  reveals  a  profound  nature, 
meditative,  well  balanced,  and  capable  of  receiving  much. 
Hy  giving  to  John  and  James  the  surname  of  "  Boanerges  " 
(that  is.  "  the  sons  of  thunder  ")  Jesus  has  unveiled  the 
mystery  of  their  characters.  AVe  understand  at  once  those 
rare  and  passionate  manifestations.  It  is  they  who  will 
command  fire  to  come  down  from  heaven  on  the  Samaritan 
village  which  did  not  receive  Jesus  (Luke  ix.  51'  neij.).  It 
is  also  J<phn  who  silences  the  disciple  who,  without  follow- 
ing  with  him.  casts  out  devils  in  the  name  of  Jesus  (Luke 
ix.  49).  Like  the  electric  cloud  which  gathers  silently  the 
lightning  within  its  bosom,  and  then  suddenly  lets  it  tln^h 
forth  with  a  crash,  the  sons  of  Zelie<lec  accompany  Jesus, 
deeply  touche<l,  but  generally  silent  and  composed;  bnt 
suddenlv  they  give  utterance  to  their  impressions  by  an 
explosion,  unforeseen  like  the  lightning  and  terrible  like 
the  thunderclap.  We  also  understand  how  the  John  of  the 
Gospel  can  be  the  John  of  the  Revelation.  Nothing  is 
falser,  indeed,  than  the  idea  which  is  generally  entertained 
of  the  sweet  tenderness  and  feminine  softness  of  John. 
Such  natures  generally  attach  themselves  passionately  to 
tho  object  of  their  love:  there  is  something  absolute  in 
their  feeling.  From  the  moment  St.  John  met  Jcpus  he  be- 
longed to  him  entirely.  Never  a  soul  more  longing  after 
the  ideal  met  with  an  object  more  capable  of  satisfying  it. 
The  first  glance  melted  tho  two  characters,  one  in  the  other. 
While  the  other  apostles  admired  the  miracles  of  Jesus,  and 
more  especially  retained  his  moral  precepts.  John  eontem- 
plateil  his  person,  and  pondered  in  his  heart  over  those 
mysterious  testimonies  emanating  from  the  consciousness 
of  Jesus  concerning  his  relation  to  (he  Father — testimonies 
which  escaped  all  tho  others.  Renan  has  said  that  tho 
Semite  proceeds  by  intuition,  not  by  deduction.  This  re- 
mark is  in  tho  highest  <legree  applicable  to  the  intellectual 
tendency  of  John.  He  does  not  dissect  tho  argument  of 
his  arlversarv.  as  docs  St.  Paul,  dissolving  it  with  bis  irre- 
sistible dialectical  power:  he  crushes  it  with  one  blow.  Ho 
sees  the  light  on  the  one  side,  and  on  tho  other  (he  dark- 
ness, and  when  be  has  given  each  of  them  its  true  name,  ho 
has  said  his  all.  The  upright  soul  cannot  hesitate,  accord- 
incT  to  him.  Having  seen  this  vision,  he  who  still  searches 
after  the  wav  is  lost.  Thus  constituted.  St.  John  was  not 
charged  either  with  the  foundation  of  the  Church  among 
tho  Jews  and  the  Gentiles,  such  as  were  the  missionary 
apostles,  or,  such  as  Paul,  with  the  emancipation  of  tho 
New  Testament  from  the  Old  through  a  ].rnfound  and 
penetrating  study.  His  mission  was  to  place  the  crown 
on  the  work  of  his  two  etdleagues.  He  gave  to  the  Church 
of  Asia  Minor  that  powerful  organization  which  enabled  it 
to  stand  against  the  floods  of  heresy  in  the  beginning  of 
the  scccmii  century,  and  made  this  Church  the  centre 
of  the  whole  ("hurch  iluring  this  epoch,  on  account  of  the 
power  of  its  spiritual  life.  By  his  writings,  more  espe- 
cially, bo  led  the  Church  to  a  perfect  understanding  of  tho 
palvation  which  is  in  Clirist.  developing  in  bis  (Jospel  tho 
idea  of  the  /I'dmnrr;  in  his  E|)istlc.  that  of  the  Chn'atinn; 
and  in  the  Revelation,  that  of  the  rimrrh.  In  him  tho 
Church  of  the  first  century  finished  its  cycle,  which  is  Iho 
type  of  the  history  of  the  whole  Church.   FnJ^;»Kiin  tloni:?. 

John  1.,  Saint,  Poi-f,  a  Tuscan,  was  chosen  pope  in  523, 
and  in  l'^:*  was  compelled  by  Theodoric  the  ftstrogoth  to 


1426 


JOHN  I.  OF  ABAGOX— JOHN  OF  EyGLAXD. 


visit  Constantinople  and  intercede  for  the  Arians.     On  hia 
return  he  was  imprifoued,  and  d.  at  Ravenna  May  26,  a.6. 

joHV  1 1.,  a  Homan,  was  chosen  pope  by  siiuoniacal  means 

in  5'i''  and  was  aclinowlcdged  bv  Justinian  as  the  head  of 
the  Church.     V.  May  20,  d.;5.— Joiix  III.,  a  Roman,  be- 
came pope  in  iOO,  and  d.  July  i:i.  5::;.— Jons  I\ ..  a  Dal- 
mitian,  became  pope  in  GUI,  was  distinguished  tor  seal  and 
do-trinal  strictness,  and  d.  Oct.  11,  6t2.— John  \ .,  a  l^yr- 
ian.  became  pope  in  0S5.     D.  Aug.  1,  6S7.— John  M.,  a  , 
Greek,  became  pope  in  701.  and  d.  Jan.  9.  ,  Oo.— .louN  \  U.,  j 
a  Greek,  became  pope  in  705;  d.  Oct.  18,  707.— .John  \  111., 
a  Roman,  became  pope  in  S72,  was  zealous  lor  the  papal 
■irimacy  and  the  CNtension  of  the  temporal  authority  of 
the  holy  sec.     His  reign  was  vexed  by  the  incursmns  ot 
the  Saracens  into  Italy.     Was  murdered  Dec.  15,  SS2.— 
John   IX.,  b.  at  Tibur,  became  a  Benedictine,   and  was 
chosen  pope  in  S98,  and  strove  for  the  reform  of  many 
aliuscs.     D.  Nov.  30,  900.— John  X.,  bishop  of  Bologna 
anil  archbishop  of   Ravenna,  became  pope   in   OU,   and 
though  reputed  a  man  of  impure  life,  was  an  able  prelate. 
Ho  led  in  person  the  armies  which  routed  the  Saracens  and 
c-;pcllcd  them  from  Italy,  but  was  imprisoned  by  the  in- 
famous Marosia,  and  d.  in  929.— John  XI.,  natural  son  of 
Marosia.  probably  by  Pope  Scrgius  III.,  was  made  pope 
in  9"!  by  his  mother,  and  is  supposed  to  have  d.  by  jioisoa 
in  Olifi.— Jons  XII.,  son  of  Albcric  and  grandson  of  Maro- 
sia became  pope  in  956  when  si.\teen  years  old.     His  name 
was  Oclavian.  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  first  pope  to  as- 
sume a  new  name  on  consecration.     He  was  a  man  of  ex- 
treme liccntiousnesi!,  and  was  condemned   by   a  council 
called  bv  Otho  I.  at  Rome  for  murder,  incest,  sacrilege, 
idolatry,'  and  witchcraft.     D.  May  U,  9G1.     The  most  im- 
portant event  of  his  reign  was  his  coronation  of  Otho  I., 
regarded  as  the  first  German  emperor.— John  XIII..  a 
Roman  bishop  of  Narni,  became  pope  in  965.  and  after 
a  disturbed  pontificate  d.  Sept.  5,972.— John  XIV.  {Pclcr, 
h\'hoT<  of  Pavia),  a  native  of  Pavia,  was  arch-chancellor  to 
Otho  II.,  who  made  him  pope  in  984  in  place  of  Boniface 
VII.,  who  returned  soon  after,  and  John  d.  in  prison,  prob- 
ably of  starvation.- John  XV.  became  pope  in  "^6,  and 
was  chiefly  remarkable  for  avarice  and  nepotism.    D.  Apr., 
9<);).— John  X\'1.  {miayatlim),  a.  Greek,  and  bishop  of 
Piacenza,  became  pope  in  997  in  opposition  to  Gregory  V., 
who  mutilated  and  killed  him.— Jons  XVIt.  {Sk-co),  b.  at 
/ti,,', . fa  II  i,  in  the  March  of  ."incona,  of  noble  family:  after 
a  pontificate  of  four  and  a  half  months  d.  June  9,  lOCi. 
juiiN  XVIII.  { I'linHuniiis)  became  pope  in  inilli.  and  aban- 
doned the  papal  chair  for  a  monk's  cell  in  May,  1009.-— 
John  XIX..  a  son  of  the  count  of  Tuscany,  succeeded  his 
brother,  Benedict  VIII.,  having  obtained  the  election  by 
force  and  bribes,  in  1021:  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  ava- 
ri'^e      D.  Nov.  8,  10:!8.— John  XX..  usually  omitted  from 
the  list  of  popes,  was  a  rival  of  Gregory  VI.,  Benedict 
IX.,  and  Sylvester  III.     There  were  at  one  time  (lO-lo) 
three  reigning  popes  at  Rome,  who  divided  the -revenues 
and  cxpended'them  in  excesses.— John  XXI.  ( f'cdm),  b.  at 
Lisbon,  stu.lied  at  Paris,  and  won  great  applause  by  his 
learnin".    He  became  cardinal-priest,  archbishop  of  Braga, 
and  fiist  phvsieian  to  Gregory  X.:  became  pope  in  127G. 
I)     Mav    lli,    1277,   at   Viterbo.  — John    XXII.   {Juiqiica 
ifEmc)   b.  at  Cahors  about  1244,  became  in  KJOO  bishop 
of  FrfOus,  archbishop  of  Avignon  l:!10.  in   l.-!12  cardinal- 
bishop,  and  in  1316  pope  at  Avignon.     He  was  learned  in 
the  canon  law,   and   was  remarkable   for  avarice. — John 
XXIII.  (/!<ililinzar  Cossa).  h.  at  Naples,  became  cardinal 
in   1402,  and  succeeded  Alexander  V.  in  1410;  convoked 
the  Council  of  Constance  1413;  was  deposed  in  1115,  and 
d.  Nov.  22,  1419.  Cn.inLKS  \\ .  Guei;xi:. 


John  I.  (Juan),  king  of  Aragon,  b.  Dec.  27,  ISaO; 
married  in  1384  Yolande.  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Ear, 
granddaughter  of  John  II.  the  Good  of  France:  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Peter  IV.,  Jan.  5, 
1387:  imprisoned  Sibylle,  his  wife's  mother,  on  the  charge 
of  having  poisoned  the  late  king,  and  seized  upon  her 
properly:  recognized  Clement  VII.  as  pope  at  .\vignon, 
and  d-jvoted  himself  to  literature  and  pleasure,  leaving  the 
cares  of  state  to  his  queen.  He  sent  a  formal  deputation 
to  France  to  enlist  the  most  famous  troubadours,  with 
whose  aid  he  founded  at  Barcelona  an  academy  of  poetry 
on  the  model  of  the  Floral  Games  of  Toulouse,  much  to  the 
disgust  of  the  rude  Aragonese.  He  successfully  repelled 
the  invasion  of  the  count  of  Armagnae.  a  pretender  to  the 
throne,  1390:  reconquered  the  island  of  Sardinia  1392: 
and  d.  May  19,  1395. 

John  II.  (Ji-anI.  king  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  b.  June 
29,  1397,  son  of  Ferdinand  the  Just:  married  in  1419 
Blanche,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  of  Xavarrc.  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  in  right  of  his  queen 
Sept.  1425;  took  an  active  ]»art  in  intrigues  at  the  court 
of  Castile  against  Alvaro  do  Luna;   in  1428  aided   hia 


brother,  Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon,  in  a  war  against  Castile, 
and  accompanied  him  in  an  expedition  against  Naples,  in 
which  both  kings  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Milanese  in 
the  celebrated  naval  battle  of  Ponza,  near  Gacta,  Aug.  5, 
1434.     Released  sbortlv  after,  he  administered  the  govern- 
ment of  Aragon  for  many  years  in  his  brother's  absence, 
and  renewed  his  attempts  to  obtain  supreme  influence  in 
C:vstile.     Queen  Blanche  having  died  Apr.  3,  1441,  Carlos, 
prince  of  Viana,  claimed   the   throne  of  Navarre  m  his 
mother's  right,  but  John  refused  to  surrender  it  to  his  son, 
thereby  giving  rise  to  a  long  and  lamentable  family  feud. 
John  invaded  Castile  in  1445,  and  was  defeated  atOlmedo; 
married  in  1447  Joanna  llenriquez,  daughter  of  the  ndiiii- 
ral  of  Castile  ;  suppressed  a  revolt  in    Navarre  in  14o2, 
taking  prisoner  hia  son,  Prince  Carlos;  disinherited  that 
prince  in  1455  on  account  of  a  second  rebellion,  and  de- 
feated him  at  F.stellain  1456  :  John  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Aragon  Julv  5,  1458:  declared  Sicily  and  Sardinia  an- 
nexed to  Aragon.  and  soon  had  new  troubles  with  Ins  son, 
whom  he  unwillingly  recognized  as  heir,  but  afterwarda 
threw  into  pri.«on  (1400),  and  whose  sudden  death  (1461), 
attributed  to  poison,  was  the  pretext  for  a  formidable  re- 
volt in  Catalonia,  lasting  eleven  years.     He  had  similar 
troubles  with  his  daughter  Blanche,  who  died  m  prison  at 
Orthes  Dec.  2,  14G4:  took  Barcelona  in   1472;  made  war 
in  Roussillon  against  Louis  XI.  of  France  in  1473;  and  d. 
at  Barcelona  Jan.  19,  1479.  being  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ferdinand,  known  as  the  Culholic.  (Sec  Prcscotts  lerdi- 

7iaiicl  and  hilhctUl.) 

John  I.  (Jf  AN),  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  b.  at  Epila 
Aug  20,  1358;  married  Leonora  of  Aragon  in  1375,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father.  Henry 
II.  {of  Trastamaral,  being  crowned  July  2a,  13i9.  Ho 
immediately  convoked  the  Cortes,  who  after  long  deliber- 
ation recognized  the  Avignon  claimant  to  the  papacy 
(Clement  VII.).  John  of  Gaint,  duke  of  Lancaster 
(which  see\  having  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Castile  m 
rin-ht  of  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  and  Fer- 
dinand of  Portugal  having  entered  into  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  English  duke.  John  attacked  Portugal  by  sea  and 
land,  obtaining  several  victories,  but  concluded  peace  by 
marrying  Beatrice,  then  aged  ten  years,  only  child  and 
heir  "of  the  Portuguese  monarch.  Ferdinand,  however, 
dyin"  in  1383.  John  of  Castile  had  to  wage  another  war 
in  smiport  of  the  rights  of  Beatrice  against  the  claim  of 
the  grand  master  of  Avis  fsee  John  I.  thf.  Great,  king  of. 
Portnt'al),  and  would  have  captured  Lisbon  (1384)  had 
not  the  yellow  fever  driven  him  away.  His  deleat  next 
year  at  Aljubarrota  was  fatal  to  the  claims  of  B.anehe. 
After  several  years'  delay  the  duke  of  Lancaster  invaded 
Castile  in  1386,  but  peace  was  made  the  following  year  by 
the  marriage  of  Prince  Henry  to  the  daughter  of  the  Eng- 
lish duke,  who  also  received  an  indemnity  in  money.  John 
created  his  son  prince  of  Asturias  (13SS),  convoked  Cortes, 
which  settled  many  important  constitutional  questions 
(1390).  and  d.  Oct.  9,  1390. 

John  II.  Mian),  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  b.  Mar.  6, 
1405,  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  III.,  in  Dec,  1406.  uri- 
der  the  regency  of  his  mother  and  his  uncle  Ferdinand, 
afterward  king  of  Arngon.  The  infant  monarch  was 
crowned  at  Segovia  Jan.  15,  1407:  married  his  cousin, 
Mary  of  Aragon,  in  1418  or  1420.  and  fell  under  the  mllu- 
encc  of  Ai.vARO  de  Lina  (which  see),  formerly  a  p.age, 
whom  in  1423  he  crctited  constable  of  Castile.  Prince 
Ilenrv  of  Vra-'on.  grand  master  of  Santiago,  brother  of 
the  queen,  endeavored  to  gain  possession  of  supreme  power 
(1420)  by  seizing  upon  the  persons  of  the  king  and  the 
fivoritc  After  many  alternations  of  fortune  in  o  struggle 
for  power  between  Luna  and  the  i»f^""'\"'  ■■^™.""°' .'"f.': 
in"  for  many  years,  the  former  was  beheaded  at\  alladolid 
'  lime  7  1453  John  meanwhile  had  made  two  wars  against 
the  Moors  (N.^l  and  1435).  and  several  against  the  intru- 
sive princes  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  who  were  constantly 
ineitin"  the  nobles  of  Castile  to  revolt.  John  was  a  feeble 
prince."but  possessed  some  literary  ability,  and  lus  reign 
was  a  notable  one  in  the  intellectual  history  of  Spain.  V. 
Julv  21,  1154. 

John,  king  of  England,  surnamed  Lackland  {Sam 
T,r,c)  either  as  a  younger  and  portionless  son,  or  on  ac- 
count of  bis  loss  of  a  large  part  of  his  French  pos3ess;ons 
iu  l'>03  b.  at  Oxford  Dec.  24,  1106,  the  son  of  Henry  U.; 
declared  lord  of  Ireland  by  papal  authority,  his  short-lived 
government  of  that  country  was  an  utter  failure;  ami  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  his  brother,  Richard  Lionhcart.  who  inado 
him  feudal  lord  of  almost  one-third  of  England,  he  was 
guilty  of  treason  and  ingratitude.  Nevertheless.  Richard 
annointed  him  his  successor,  ignoring  the  claims  of  hia 
nephew  Arthur,  the  rightful  heir.  John  became  king  in 
1199  and  an  expensive  war  with  Arthur  and  I  lulip  Au- 
gustus of  France  ensued,  in  which  John  lost  the  best  part 


JOHN  II.  OF  FRANCE— JOHX  OF  GAUNT. 


1427 


of  hi?  French  territories.     The  talc  of  the  kin-;'!"  rrucUies  ; 
to  Arthur  has  been  called  in  question.    Soon  nttcr  folloHecl 
the  controversy  cnnecrning  investitures  witli  Innocent  III.,  ' 
the  most  powerful  of  the  popes,  who  excommuuieated  and 
deposed  John,  laid  an  interdict  on  Englanil.  and  let  loose  I 
the  armies  of  Krancc  upon  the  kinj^,  who  retaliated,  we  are  ' 
told,  hy  an  alliance  with  the  Moors  of  Spain  ( IlilH),  prom- 
ising to  turn  Mussulman.     But  John,  not  sustained  by  his  ; 
own  people,  was  compelled  to  yield  and  become  the  vassal  I 
of  the  pope,  greatly  to  the  indignation  of  the  Enj;lish.    In  i 
Wales.  Scotland,  and  Ireland  his  arms  were  successful.     A  [ 
rising  of  his  barons  compelled  him  to  sign  Magna  Charta  ; 
(1216);  the  aid  of  the  pope  and  an  army  of  mercenaries 
enabled   him    to    repudiate  that   charter  and   make   head 
against  the  barons;  but  during  the  war  he  d.  at  Newark 
Oct.  Mt,  \'2\t).     John's  rapacity  and  cruelty  to  Jews  and 
Kngtishmcn  alike,  his  partiality  for  liis  Aquitauian  and 
Pi>itevin    subjects,    bis   punishments    by    mutilation    and  ; 
starvation,  his  cowardice  and  impiety,  rendered  his  name  i 
odious,  but  his  memory  has  found  recent  defenders,  and  it  j 
is  certain  that  nearly  all  our  knowledge  of  him  has  been  i 
derived  from  his  bitter  enemies. 

John  II.,  kingof  France,  snrnamed  the  ("!oon  fi.EBoN).  | 
b.  Apr.  -*>,  i;il9,  was  son  of  Philip  VI.,  the  founder  of  the  i 
Valois   line;    succeeded  to  the   throne  Aug.  22,  and   was  i 
crownol  at  Uheims  Sept.  26,  IojO.     The  chief  event  of  his  i 
reign  was  tlic  war  with  Kngland.in  which  he  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the   Black   Prince  at  Pciiliers,  Sept. 
PJ.  l.^JO.    Ills  captivity  in  Bordeaux  and  London  (l.'i.'jf>-('»0)  : 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  tl»c  humiliating  pence  of  Br6- 
tigny  (May,   HOO),  which  surrendered  several    provinces 
to  the  English,  in  addition  to  a  ransom  of  .S. 000. 000  crowns. 
His  son.  the  duke  of  Anjou.  was  left  in  Lundon  as  a  host- 
age for  the   fulfilment  of  tlio  treaty,  but  it  was  rejected  by   j 
the  Slates  (Jeneral.    The  prince  having  escaneil  from  Lon- 
don in  violation  of  his  parole.  John  rcturnetl  to  London  as  I 
a  prisoner  early  in  LiGI,  and  d.  there  Apr.  8  of  the  same  , 
yenr.  j 

John   II.,  Casimir,    king  of  Poland   from    IHIS  to  I 
KifpS.  b.  Mar.  21.  lOO'.t,  the  second  son  of  Sigismund  III.  i 
After  a  pomewlial  a<lventurous  life  ho  entered  in  10-10  the  i 
order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  soon  after. 
Nevertheless,  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Ladislas  | 
(Nov.  20,  1648),  he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  married  i 
his  widow,  Maria  Gonzaga.     His  reign  was  very  unhappy. 
To  Sweden  he  lost,  by  the  Peace  of  Oliva  (May  ^'>.  HWiO). 
Ksthonia  and  Livonia,  and  to  Russia,  by  the  Peace  of  An- 
drupBov  (Jan.  14,  1667),  White  and  Bed   Uussia.     In  the  I 
interior  his  government  was  utterly  distracted  by  the  fcurls  , 
and  intrigues  of  the  nobles:  and,  entirely  unable  to  master  I 
the  situation,  he  abdicated  Sept.  16,  IfiOS,  went  to  France,  I 
and  lived  in  rclirmient.      I>.  at  Nevers  I>cc.  16,  1672.  I 

John  III.,  Sohioski,  king  of  Poland  from  1074  to 
lO'.Mij   I).  .June  2,  1621,  at  Olesko  in  flalicia  ;  received  an   J 
excellent  education  at  home  and  in  foreign  countries,  and  ' 
distinguished  himself  so  much    in   the  wars  against  the  ! 
Swedes,  Russians,  and  Transylvanians  that  in  1667  he  was  ! 
made  commander-in  chief  of  the  whole  Piftish  army.     The  ! 
successor  of  Jolin   II.,Casirair,  Michael  Korybut,  having 
made  a  humiliating  treaty  with  the  Turks.  SoMcski  had  it 
rejected  by  the  Polish  diet,  hastened  at  the  head  of  his 
army  to  meet  the  Turks,  and  routed  them  completely  at 
Khotin  (Nov.  11,  167;i).     Shortly  aftrr  Mirhael   Korybut 
dierl,  and  Sobieski  was  unanimously  electee!  king  of  Poland 
(May  21,  1671).     In  1083  the  Turks  besieged  Vienna  with 
an  army  of  .100,000  men.     The  emperor  had  fled,  and  not 
only  was  Austria  on   the  very  verge  of  ruin,  but  Europe 
was  in  danger.     With  an  army  of  hanlly  .''»0,0(iO  men  So- 
bii'ski  attacked  the  Turks  Sept.  12,  168.1,  and  after  a  fright- 
ful contest  he  utterly  defeated  them  and  pursued  them  into 
Hungary.     As  a  ruler,  however,  Jolm  III.  was  much  |i-ss 
forlunate  than  as  a  general,  ami  the  latter  |)art  of  his  life 
wai  much  disturbed  by  civil  and  dumestio  troubles.     D. 
June  17,  1696. 

John  (Joam),  the  name  of  six  kings  of  Portugal,  four 
of  whom  require  mention. — John  I.  riir.  (ikkat,  b.  at  Lis- 
bon Apr.,  LiJ7,  was  a  natural  son  of  Peter  I.  and  brother 
of  Ferdinand,  at  whoso  death,  in  I.'IS.I,  ho  became  regent 
and  seized  upon  the  throne,  in  violation  of  Ihi'  rights  of  the 
infanta  Bialrice,  nmrried  to  John  I.  (»f  ('ai<tile.  The  war 
which  en-ued  was  decided  by  the  victory  of  Aljubarolta 
(.Aug.  M,  i;i8.'i)  in  fiivor  of  the  former.  He  nrnde  an  expe- 
dition into  Africa,  and  took  Centn  (1415)  from  the  Moors. 
Under  his  reign  the  islands  of  Madeira,  f'ape  Verde,  the 
Canaries,  and  .Azores  wero  discovered,  and  the  coasts  of 
Africa  explored  as  far  as  the  (tidf  of  Guinea.  P.  Aug.  14, 
143:i._,Toits  n.  TiiK  PFHFKrr.  b.  at  Lisbon  May  1,  lUtb; 
married  Leonora  of  Lancaster  in  1471  ;  took  part  in  nn  Af- 
rican campaign  the  same  year;  was  conspicuous  for  bravery 
at  the  battle  of  Toro  (1 176) ;  succeeded  his  father,  Alfonso 


v.,  Aug.  29,  14S1  ;  put  to  death  the  duke  of  Braganza  and 
his  own  brother-in-law.  the  <luko  of  Viseo,  for  conspiracy 
(1483-Si).  Under  his  auspices  a  series  of  great  navigators 
explored  the  coasts  of  Africa,  B.  Diaz  discovered  the  Capo 
of  Good  Hope,  and  Da  Gama  visited  India.  lie  was  un- 
wise enough  to  refuse  the  services  of  Columbus.  l)ut  after 
the  discovery  of  America  he  sent  a  fleet  thither  (  I40S).  The 
conflicting  claims  of  the  crowns  of  Porttrgal  and  Castile 
were  decided  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (149^^)  by  establish- 
ing the  famous  meridian  line.  D.  1496. — John  IV.,  b.  at 
Villaviciosa  Mar.  10,  1604,  was  duke  of  Braganza,  and  by 
a  successful  revolution  overthrew  the  Spanish  usurpation 
in  Portugal  (1640),  which  had  lasted  sixty  years,  placing 
himself  on  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  His  reign  of  four- 
teen years  was  entirely  passed  in  hostilities  with  Spain. 
D.  in  Lisbon  in  ICoG. — John  VI.,  b.  at  Lisbon  May  13, 
1767:  married  Ciiarlotte  (Carlota).  infanta  of  Spain  1785; 
was  named  prince  of  Brazil  17bS;  governed  the  kingdom 
in  consequence  of  bis  mother's  illness  1789;  assumed  the 
title  of  regent  1799,  and  after  a  scries  of  wars  with  Spain 
and  Franco  removed  with  bis  court  to  Brazil  in  Nov.,  1SU7. 
on  the  approach  of  the  French  army  of  occupation  ;  became 
king  on  the  death  of  his  mother,  Mar.  16,  1S16;  returned 
to  Portugal  1821;  modified  the  constitution  1S23;  recog- 
nized  the  independence  of  Brazil  1825,  and  d.  Mar.  10. 1826. 
John  of  Austria,  generally  known  under  the  name 
of  Dos  JiAN  DE  ArsTuiA.  was  a  son  of  Charles  V.  and  the 
beautiful  Barbara  Blomberg.  a  daughter  of  a  wealthy  citi- 
zen of  Ilatisbon,  where  he  was  b.  Feb.  2i,  1545,  but  was 
taken  to  Spain  soon  after  his  birth,  and  his  parentage  was 
kept  a  secret  for  many  years.  He  received  an  excellent 
education,  however,  in  the  iiousc  of  the  imperial  steward. 
Don  Luis  Jlendez  t^uixada.  and  after  the  death  of  Charles 
V.  in  1559,  Philip  II.  publicly  acknowledged  him  as  a 
brother,  and  established  a  princely  household  for  him.  first 
in  Valladolid  and  then  in  Madrid,  lie  was  a  brilliant  per- 
son, gifted  with  great  talents  both  as  a  general  and  as  a 
statesman,  beautiful,  commanding,  chivalrous,  and  mag- 
nanimous. In  1508  he  led  with  great  success  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  African  pirates.  In  15G9  he  subdued  the 
Moori.-'h  rebellion  in  Granada,  and  gave  striking  proofs 
not  only  of  personal  valor,  but  also  of  tactical  skill.  In 
1571  hocommaudtMl  the  magnificent  Spanish-Italian  arma- 
ment against  the  Turks,  and  routed  their  fleet  completely 
in  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (Oct.  7,  1571),  the  greatest  mili- 
tary exploit  of  the  century.  In  157;i  ho  conquered  Tunis, 
and  in  1576  he  was  made  viccregeut  in  the  Netherlands. 
Here  he  did  not  succeed  in  managing  the  prince  of  Orange, 
William  the  Silent.  Ho  was  foiled  by  him  in  liis  political 
measures,  but  when  it  came  to  an  open  rupture  he  defeated 
him  at  (Jemblours  (Jan.  ol,  157S).  In  spite  of  all  these 
brilliant  achievements,  the  final  result  of  his  life  was  nev- 
ertheless only  a  ntmantic  apparition,  a  poetical  dream.  Ho 
passed  through  iiistory  like  a  meteor.  UU  half-brother, 
Philip  II.,  loved  him,  but  was  too  despotic  to  allow  him 
an  independent  career.  He  used  him  very  freely,  but  was 
too  suspicious  to  place  full  confidence  in  him.  In  this 
ambiguity  his  own  character  seems  to  have  suffered.  His 
earlier  plans  of  founding  a  kingdom  in  Greece  or  in  Tunis 
wero  sensil)Ie,  but  were  opposed  by  Philip.  His  later  plans 
of  rescuing  Mary  Stuart  and  becoming  king  of  Scotland 
were  rather  fantastical,  and  the  pi>liey  which  he  purt^ued  in 
the  Netherlands  was  so  singularly  many-sided  that  his  sud- 
den death  in  his  camp  at  Naniur  (Oct.  I.  1578)  gave  rise 
to  a  quite  general  suspicion  of  his  having  been  poisoned 
hy  the  Spaniards.  Interesting  accounts  of  his  life  may  bo 
found  io  Knnke,  Fiiiaten  umi  VHihcr  nnx  StuZ-Europua  fit 
XVI.  uiul  XVU.  Jahthnndcrl,  and  in  Prcscott,  /'hliip  //. 

Cl.KMKNS  PKTKllSKN. 

John  (JPAN)  of  Aiistrinf  b.  at  Madrid  in  1629,  waa 
a  natural  son  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  became  a  distin- 
guished general,  having  command*  d  the  Spanish  army  in 
Naples  in  1618,  in  Catalonia  in  1652,  in  Flanders  in  1656, 
and  in  Portugal  in  1660.  He  was  defeated  by  Turenne  at 
the  Dunes.  June  14,  1658;  was  afterwards  viceroy  of  Ara- 
gon  and  minister  under  Charles  II.  D.  at  Madrid  Sept. 
17.  1679. 

Johnoff^nunt  (^Arn/).  duke  of  Lancaster  and  Aqui- 
taine,  and  titular  king  of  Castile,  was  the  fourth  son  of  I'M- 
ward  III.,  and  was  b.  at  (ihent  in  lliity;  married  Blaufhe. 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  1."'59;  became  duke  ot 
Lancaster  l.'!62:  served  with  honor  under  the  Black  Prifii'e. 
ftnd  in  1.170  married  the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel  of 
Castile;  served  with  distinction  in  various  wars  In  Scot- 
land and  France;  invaded  Castile  in  1.186  in  j)ursuancc  of 
his  rlaim  to  that  kingdom:  married  iii.s  <laughter  to  Henry 
of  Cn-ttilo  1.1SS:  was  the  frieml  ami  defen<ler  of  Wi<'kliffe. 
and  the  ancestor  of  the  Lancastrian  and  Tudor  families  of 
Knglish  kings.  His  mistress  and  third  wife,  Catharine 
Pwvnford,  was  the  ancestress  of  the  Bcauforts  and  Xudors. 
D.  Feb.  3,  1399. 


1428 


JOHN  OF  LEYDEN-JOHNSON. 


John   of  I-eyden,  whose  true  name  was  Jobans 

Bo.K  x"o"  b.  at  Loyden  in  1510.  was  a  ta.lor  by  profes-  | 
^o  ,    Wt  a  poet  and  actor  by  talon.,  and  b«.,ness.    Hav.ng 
come  in  contact  with  the  Anabaptists,  he  was  caugh    by 
Xious  fanaticism,  and  started  as  a  strolLnj;  preacher 
In  r.i3  he  camo  to  JUins.er,  and  so  preat  was  b.s  power 
iver  the  minds  of  people  that  in  liSl  he  .succeeded  ..,  ovcr- 
°h  ow  n"    he  con  tilution  of  the  city  and  e.  abhsh.ng  a 
new  onL"of  his  own  make.     Ho  was  crowned  as  k,ng  of 
zir  appointed  ministers,  coined  money,  ■ntvodnced  po- 
fVu'ny   married  lifteca  wives,  lived  in  royal  -pl<--";l°7"'' 
luxury  nn<l  for  more  than  a  year  the  city  was  the  stage  lor 
the  n^st  frightful  scenes  of  fanatical  cruelty  and  sensual 
d  ".i nation       In  15:13  it  was  conquered  by  the  neighboring 
nr    cc«   and  a-ain  reduced  lo  order.     John  was  tortured 
[o     eathb     hor,,incers,and  his  body  was  hung  .n  a  cage 
on    he  tower  of  St.  Latnberfs  church  ;  many  of  b,s  follow- 
ers    ere  als.  severely  punished.   John  of  Leyden  lurn.shc 
'he  h^^orical  subject  of  Meyerbeer's  well-known  opera  Lc 

^'Tohn  of  Walisbnry,  b.  at  Salisbury  about  1110  ;  went 

,„  France   in   u'f.;    studied  under  Abelard ;  returned  ,n 

IMbcae  secretary  to  Thomas  a  Becke.    and  was  ap- 

nointed  in   UTfi  bishop  of  Cbartres,  where  he  <!_  Oct    24, 

""is  theological   system  ho  developed  .n  h,s   /W.- 

:■     ,  nnd    \U„,l:nlr,„,  but  the  uiost  interesting  of  his 

-■'■':".•"•  ■""'  {:',',''    Jpumio  S.  Thorn,.,  and  his  letters, 

"wal.ia  and  a  grandson  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.     ^V  hen 

tie  enneror  (.May  1,  1^08)  at  \Vi:.disch  on  the  Rcuss  in 
"  iUeXnd,  and  murdered  him.  The  impression  winch 
0  erUe  produced  on  the  German  people  was  one  of  liorro 
ami  revenge.  The  conspirators  themselves  escaped,  but 
?h  r  fan  me  and  friends 'suftered  severely.  John  vanished, 
Ind  nothing  certain  is  known  of  his  Ufe  afterwards. 

lohn    I'restcr  C  Priest  .John  "),  a  semi-mythical  cha- 
ric.or  "b.    figured  largely  in  the  geographical  romances 
^'   lie  M   Idle  Ages,  whSse  true  country  and  perio.l  are  d.tfi- 
:  1  to  b     ised  with  certainty.    According  to  genera    be  lef 
there  was  somewhere  in  the  interior  ot  Asia  or  'Ur.ca  a 
kingdom  which  had  been  converted  <™"'  l^-;-  '^^h;- 
tianitv,  governed  by  a  priest-king  named  .lobn,  « "J  "as 
exceed  n--lv  anxious  to  open  friendly  intercourse  with  the 
Oliurch'd-  Rome.     Numerous  embassies  were  during  two 
een  uries  =ent  to  Central  Asia,  and  even  lo  Abyssinia  ( 1181- 
95^"   scare  1  of  the  lost  Thristian  nation,  but  the  search 
nrov  d    ruitlss.     The  origin  of  the  legend  appears    o  date 
From   the   Nestorian  missions  which   in  the  eleventh  and 
wf.h  centuries  penetrated  to  Karakorum  in  Toorkis   in 
and  converted  tb'-  kban  of  that  distne.    naine^d  r   ,. ,  who 
was  overthrown  and  killed  by  (lenghis  hhan  in  1202      Ho  j 
Zears  to  have  authorized  the  Ncstorians  '"■".^'^e  in  his 
^^ame  certain  reci«ests  of  the  pope,  and    o  ";-;  s'";'"! 

^r:":;d-:^::thSrw^;nn^e:^-Vi^- 
rts^^ttrKui!^;:^!^"r^^i:>""tng 

lf''7r.n  '^^),  in  se-eh  of  f'rester  .John,  penetrated  lo 

tIrS~    (See  his  interesling  narrative  .n   Purchas  s 
Pibjrimn. ) 

John  Scotiis.    See  Ebioena. 

John  the  Constant,  elector  of  «"""{•.''■ -l'""^"' 
14.57  :  sMcceeded  bis  brother,  Frederick  the  Wise,  in  May , 
152!.;  took  part  in  a  war  against  the  Hungarians,  and  lut 
an  end  to  the  Peasants'  war  in  his  own  ''"";;,"!""'•  /"'^ 
he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  landgrave,  >''"'  P/f,  '•^f.",^' 
„„d  with  other  slates  and  free  ci.ies,  in  support  «f  •'  <=       "- 
eiples  of  the  Uelormalion.  lately  inaugurated  b>   Luther    ^ 
He  protested  in  1529  ag.ainst  the  decision  of  the  Die    of 
Spires  mlver.se  to  the  Reformation,  and  was  influential  1 
causing  Ihe  proclamation  of  the  Augsburg  ronfession.Slil 
later,  he  helped  to  form  the  "  League  of  hchmalkald,    and 
d.  Aug.  1.1,  15;!2. 

John  Frederick,  the  Mnsnaniinons,  elector  ol 
Saxony  b.  at  Torgau  .Tune  30,  150;i,  son  of  John  the  Lon- 
stan!  on  whose  death,  in  15:i2,  be  became  administrator 
of  the  government  in  Ibc  joint  name  of  himself  and  his 
vonn-'er  brother,  John  Ernest ;  gave  official  sanction  to  the 
Reformation  throughout  his  states  1533;  was  recognized  as 
elector  bv  the  emperor  at  Vienna  in  1531,  and  in  1346  was 
at  the  he'ad  of  the  armies  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League  in 
the  contest  with  Charles  V.,  by  whom  he  was  put  under  the 


ban  of  the  empire  in  l.«7,  and  defeated  at  ^'f'^g  ^pr 
24  of  the  same  year,  being  taken  prisoner  ^"^  '•'"";» 
to  death  (May  W).  but  his  life  was  spared  on  condition  ot 
renom  ci  ilhis  claims  to  the  decorate.  He  was  liberated 
[ri5"'>thmi.'h  the  vigorous  interposition  of  his  cousin. 
Maurice  fkxonv,  who  had  formerly  been  his  rival  for 
The  ectoral  domains.  John  Frederick  ^»;ee«ded  'o  'ho 
full  title  by  the  death  of  his  brother,  John  Ernest,  .n  lo53, 
and  d.  at  Weimar  Mar.  3,  lo54.  r^■^<i^■ 

lohn  George  I.,  elector  of  Saxony,  b.  Mar.  5,  IoRd  ,  , 

s„ec".l"dM°n,.her  Christian  11..  in  UHl  ^.supported  .1.0 
e  nncr  r  Ferdinand  against  the  Bohemians  in     .-20,  a.  .he  ] 

oXtof  the  Thirty  Years' war;  formed  an  alliance  wlh 
Guslavus  Adolphns.  king  of  Sweden  ( 1631  ;  con  ributed 
0  the  victory  of  Leipsic.  and  took  Prague  (Nov.  U).  but 
^st  it  with'all  Bohemia,  to  Wallenstein  in  1632;  made 
peace  w  he  emperor  at  Prague  (May  10,  ]63o).  and  de- 
clared, ar  a..ains.  Sweden  ;  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes  at 
Tom  itVand'at  Wi.  stock  (16:!6) ;  aided  the  imperialists 
agaTst  Franco  in  the  battle  of  Dutlingen  (1643),  and  d. 

^1o'hi'(Jo..ANN  B.vPT.sT  .TosFPn  Fab.ajc  Sebast,an), 
archduke  of  Austria,  b.  at  Florence  J""'  ;«•,,' 'u'  and 
thirteenth  child  and  the  ninth  son  of  Leopold  II.  and 
Mai^  Louisa  of  Spain.  When  he  was  very  young  he  wa 
generally  bclieved'by  bis  family  to  be  possessed  of  gre.  t 
military  .alenls,  and  he  consequently  com.nanded  the  Au^- 
f  an  armies  in  ISOO.  1^03.  IS05.  and  1SI19.  Bu  he  was 
always  1  eaten  and  when  a,  the  battle  of  Wagram  he  failed 
for  reasons  not  well  understood,  to  bring  his  brother,  the 
eommander-in-cbief,  .he  proper  support,  he  resigned   his 

0  nmand  and  lived  dunn'g  '"V"''"'*"%"uh' which  he  wa^ 
ment  in  GiUtz.  The  ill  favor,  however,  with  wbah  h.  was 
eons  dered  by  .he  court  made  bim  very  popular,  and  m 
1S43  be  was  generally  believed  by  the  people  .0  be  possessed 
of  great  polftical  virtues.  He  was  chosen  R-chsverweser 
by  fhe  Parliament  of  Frankfort.  But  once  more  he  had 
the  misfortune  of  disappointing  his  admirers  He  was  a 
mos  o  stinate  defender  of  the  interests  of  the  houso  f 
Austria  and  as  these  did  not  always  coincide  with  the 
U  :'«";  of  -he  German  people,  he  resigned  his  Reiehsver- 
weserschaft  Dec.  29,  1S4U.     D.  Mar.  10,  lbo9. 

SSreom^rnth^^tiSrKa;:"/":!.^:;^ 

^  ehief  of  stall'  of  the  southern  army  under  Arch- 
1  ruellb      ht    »n'l  "oa-ed  a  lield-marshal-lieutenant  on 

John  became  fh.ef  of  his  s  ,  H.     A.  ^_^  ^^  .^  ^^^^^ 

-vv'THrfiri?--'^S;^ 

''^j\;h«Quincy';i:dams';tp..^V-reneo..Ind.Pop.809. 
Johns    . p.  of  Appanoose  eo.  la      Pop^  8«o.        ^^  ^^^^ 
lrthn<i  burs*  P"st-ip.  o>    warren  cu.,  it.  .  . 
ei^'^,Tthe"Adlr'ondae'k  R.  R. ;  is  very  mountainous;  has 
iron  orJs  and  several  tanneries.     Pop.  2jJJ. 

John's  Island,  one  of  the  sea  islands  of  Charleston 

"°'iohnson',''countv  of  N.  W.  Arkansas,  bounded  on  the 
S  by  "  kansas  River.  Area,  about  550  square  miles 
T'l  ■=  .  is  nartlv  hilly  and  partly  bollom-land.  It  is  well 
The  S..1I  IS  partly  "    'J  ^       T'     f  ,  ,         live  slock,  cotton, 

Johnson,  counly  of  E    Centr^   Oeor^a.  ^Area,  250 

,  :2;';:  are'st aple  piollrts!'  'cap.  Wrigb.sville.     Pop.  2964. 

corn  are -I.  1       1  f  o  Tlll^nU      Area  340  square  miles. 

1      Johnson,  •■7"' V  J;.?"'"  T^'i^t:  'g rain.^at.le.  and 

It  is  quite  level  ^"''  f"''''=- ./"J'^^^'ersed  1  v  the  Cairo 

wood  are  staple  products.     It    is  ira,Lrs.. 

rdVincennerR.'K      Cap.™      P"  '      --^      ^^^ 

,^r^   Ti:\.:dlti;:^'^very,.rtile.     Cattle, 


JOHNSON. 


1429 


^aio,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Lumber,  carriages, 
fluur.  and  brick  arc  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  The 
county  i.s  traversed  by  the  Jcffersonvillo  Ma<lisnn  and  In- 
dianapoli.H  and  tlie  Cincinnati  and  Martinsville  K.  Ks. 
Cap.  Franklin.     Pop.  18,.''.6e. 

Johnsoil«  county  of  S.  E.  Iowa.  Area.  BIR  square 
miles.  Its  surface  is  varied,  its  soil  rcinarkabh-  fertile. 
Cattle,  grain,  hay.  and  wool  are  staple  products.  The 
county  is  traversed  bv  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  ancl  Pacific 
and  the  Iowa  Central  R.  Rs.    Cap.  Iowa  City.     P.  24.S98. 

John§on,  county  of  Kans.as.  having  the  Kansas  River 
on  the  X.  and  Missouri  on  the  E.  Area.  472  square  miles. 
It  isivell  timbered,  and  has  coal  and  limestone  and  a  deep, 
fertile  soil.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  various  railroads  centring  at 
Olalhe.  the  capital.     Pop.  i.1,GSI. 

John<ion,  county  of  E.  Kentucky,  traversed  by  the  W. 
fork  of  liig  Sandy  River.  Area,  about  'i75  square  uiilcs. 
It  is  mountainous,  and  abounds  in  bituminous  coal.  The 
fertile  valleys  produce  live-stock,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool. 
Cap.  Paintvillc.     Pop.  749-1. 

Johnson^  county  of  W.  Missouri.  Area,  700  square 
miles.  It  is  partly  forest  and  partly  prairie,  having  a  good 
soil,  with  abundant  coal  and  water-power,  (^attlc,  grain, 
tobacco,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  • 
the  Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.  Cap.  Warrcnsburg.  Pop. 
24,048.  ! 

Johnson,  county  of  P.  E.  Nebraska.  Area,  378  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  thetireat  Xemaha  River  anfltho 
Atchison  and  Nebraska  R.  R.  It  has  an  e.xcellent  soil,  but 
is  deficient  in  timber  and  buildintj-stone.  AVhcat  and  corn 
are  staple  products.  Some  coal  is  found.  Cap.  Tecumsch. 
Pop.  .1429. 

Johnson,  county  of  N.  E.  Tennessee,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Virginia  and  on  the  S.  E.  by  North  Carolina.  Area, 
about  200  square  miles.  It  is  mountainous,  heavily  tim- 
bered, and  has  iron  and  other  mineral  wealth.  Cattle, 
wool,  and  tobacco  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Taylorsvillc. 
Pop.  .'.s.-.o. 

Johnson,  county  of  N.  Texas,  bounded  on  the  W. 
chiefly  by  Brazos  River.  Area.  594  square  miles.  The 
soil  is  excellent.  Live-stock,  cotton,  and  grain  arc  staple 
products.  Timber  and  limestone  arc  abundant.  Cap. 
Ckburn.     Pop.  492.'5. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  (58.3. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Little  River  co..  Ark.     Pop.  274. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  St.  Francis  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  788. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  1.309. 

Johnson,  a  v.  of  Henry  co.,  Ga.     Pop.  6C2. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Christian  co..  III.     Pop.  640. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Clark  co..  111.     Pop.  82.3. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  685. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Clinton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  I6G6. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  652. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Gibson  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2616. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Knox  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1543. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  I.a  Grange  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1.322. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  La  Porte  eo.,  Ind.     Pop.  170. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Ripley  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2409. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Scott  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1454. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Plymouth  co.,  la.     Pop.  80. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Webster  Co.,  la.     Pop.  402. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  .Maries  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1257. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Polk  co..  Mo.     Pop.  898. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Ripley  Co.,  Mo.     Pop.  280. 

Johnson,  tp.  of  Scotland  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1219. 

.lolinson,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  Mo.     Pop.  717. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Champaign  eo.,  0.     Pop.  2297. 

Johnson  (.ImissTows  P.  0.),  a  v.  of  Monroe  tp.,  Lick- 
ing CO..  '1.      Pop.  241. 

Johnson,  Ip.  of  Williamsburg  co.,  R.  C.     Pop.  I2I8. 

Johnson,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Lamoille  co.,  Vt.,32  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Montpclicr.  It  has  a  .*stato  normal  school,  4 
churches,  and  inanufaeturcfl  of  furniture,  lumber,  starch, 
and  wotillen  goods.     Pop.  1558. 

Johnson  (Alkxanhkii  IlnvAs),  b.  at  Gosport,  England, 
May  29.  17.^0;  came  to  the  V.  S.  in  1801.  ami  established 
himself  as  a  banker  at  I'tiea,  N.  Y.  lie  wrul*'  several 
works  on  political  economy,  language,  and  education,  which 
have  reci'ived  high  commendation,     li.  at  I'lica  in  1S57. 

Johnson  (Andrf.w),  LL.I).,  tho  seventeenth  president 
of  tbo  V.  S.,  b.  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  Dec.  29,  18U8.     Uis 


father  died  when  hewas  four  years  old,  and  in  his  eleventh 
year  ho  was  apprenticed  to  a  tailor.  He  never  attended 
school,  and  did  not  learn  to  read  until  late  in  his  appren- 
ticeship, when  ho  suddenly  acquired  a  passion  for  obtaining 
knowledge,  and  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  reading. 
After  working  two  years  as  a  journeyman  tailor  at  Laurens 
Court-house,  S.C., he  removed  in  1826  to  Grceneville.Tenn., 
where  ho  worked  at  his  trade  and  married.  Vnder  his 
wife's  instructions  he  made  rapid  progress  in  his  education, 
passing  from  writing  and  arithmetic  to  the  higher  branches, 
and  manifested  such  an  intelligent  interest  in  local  politics 
as  to  be  elected  as  "  workingmcn's  candidate"  alderman 
(1828-30)  and  mayor  (1830-a2),  being  twice  re-elected  to 
each  office.  During  this  period  ho  cultivated  his  talents 
OS  a  public  speaker  by  taking  part  in  a  debating-society 
consisting  largely  of  students  of  (Jreeneville  College.  In 
1835,  and  again  in  1839,  he  was  chosen  to  the  lower 
house  of  the  legislature  as  a  Democrat ;  was  a  canflidate 
for  elector  at  large  in  1840,  when  he  canvassed  tho 
Stale  for  Van  Buron  ;  was  elected  State  senator  in  1841, 
and  Rcpresenlalive  in  Congress  in  1843,  being  re-elected 
for  four  successive  periods  until  1853,  when  he  was  chosen 
governor  of  Tennessee.  In  Congress  he  supported  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Tyler  and  Polk  in  their  chief  measures, 
especially  the  annexation  of  Te.\as,  the  adjustment  of  tho 
Oregon  boun<lary.  the  Mexican  war,  and  the  tariff  of  1846. 
He  was  re-elected  governor  in  1855.  after  an  exciting  con- 
test with  the  combined  Whigs  and  "  Know-nothings,"  and 
in  1857  entered  the  I'.  S.  Senate,  where  he  was  conspicuous 
as  an  advocate  of  retrenchment  andof  tlie  llnmcslcad  bill. 
and  as  an  opponent  of  the  Pacific  R.  U.  Ho  was  s ujtportcd 
bv  the  Tennessee  delegation  to  the  Democratic  con  vent  ion  of 
1860  for  the  Presidential  nomination,  and  lent  his  influence 
to  the  Brcckenridge  wing  of  the  party.  When  the  election 
of  Lincoln  had  brought  about  the  first  attempts  at  seces- 
sion in  Dee..  1860,  Johnson  took  in  the  Senate  a  firm  atti- 
tude for  the  Union,  and  in  May.  1861.  on  returning  to  Ten- 
nessee, he  was  in  imminent  peril  of  suffering  from  po(nilar 
violence  for  his  loyally  to  the  "old  flag."  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  Loyalists'  Convention  of  East  Tennessee 
(.May  and  June),  and  was  very  active  during  the  following 
winter  in  organizing  relief  for  the  destitute  loyal  refugees 
from  that  region,  his  own  family  being  among  those  com- 
pelled to  leave.  By  his  course  in  this  crisis  .T<dinson  camo 
prominently  before  the  Northern  public,  and  when  in  Mar., 
1862.  ho  was  ap]>ointed  by  Prcs.  Lincoln  military  governor 
of  Tennessee,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  he  vastly 
increased  his  popularity  by  the  vigorous  and  successful 
manner  in  which  he  labored  to  restore  onler.  protect  Union 
men.  anri  punish  marauders.  On  the  api>roach  of  the 
Presidential  campaign  in  1864,  the  termination  of  the  war 
being  then  plainly  foreseen,  and  several  Southern  Slates 
being  partially  reconstructed,  it  was  felt  that  the  Vice- 
Presidency  should  properly  be  given  to  a  Southern  man  of 
conspicuous  loyalty.  For  no  candidate  could  a  jusler  title 
be  alleged  than  for  Gov.  Johnson,  who  was  accor<lingly 
elected  on  the  same  platform  and  ticket  with  Lincoln, 
and  on  his  assassination  succeeded  to  the  Presidency, 
Apr.  15,  1865.  That  Pres.  Johnson  should  very  soon  be  in- 
volved in  bitter  feud  with  the  Republican  majority  in  Con- 
gress was  certainly  a  surprising  and  deplorable  inci<lent; 
yet  in  reviewing  the  eireuinslances  after  a  lapse  of  ten 
years,  it  is  easy  to  find  ample  room  for  a  charitable  juilg- 
ment  of  both  the  parlies  to  the  heated  controversy,  since  it 
cannot  he  doubted  that  any  President,  even  Lincoln  himself 
had  he  lived,  must  have  "sacrificed  a  large  portion  of  his 
popularity  in  carrying  ont  any  possible  scheme  of  reecm- 
struction.  Pres.  .Tohnson  retained  the  cabinet  of  Lincoln, 
and  exhibited  considerable  severity  towards  "traitors"  in 
his  earlier  acts  and  speeches,  hut  soon  inaugurated  a  pol- 
icy of  reeonslruclion.  proclaiming  a  general  amnesty  to 
the  late  Confi'dcralcs.  and  successively  establishing  pro- 
visional governments  in  the  i^nulhern  Slates.  These  .States 
ace<irdingly  claimed  representation  in  Congress  in  the  fol- 
lowing December,  and  the  momentous  question  of  what 
should  be  the  policy  of  the  victorious  T'nioii  towards  its 
late  armed  opponents  was  forced  upon  thai  body.  Two 
considerations  impelled  the  Republican  majority  to  reject 
tho  policy  of  Pres.  .I»diuson  :  first,  an  ayiprehension,  cer- 
tainly exaggerated  but  sulfieienlly  plausible  at  the  time, 
that  tho  chief  magistrate  intended  to  undo  the  results  of 
the  war  in  regard  tn  slavery:  and  secnnd,  the  sullen  atti- 
tudo  of  the  .^outh.  which  seemed  to  bo  ]d<)lling  to  regain 
by  policy  what  arms  had  lost.  Tho  credentials  of  tho 
Southern  members-elect  were  laid  on  the  table,  a  civil 
rights  bill  and  a  l)ill  extending  the  sphere  of  the  Frced- 
inau's  lliireau  wero  passed  over  the  executive  velo.  and  tho 
two  highest  branches  of  the  government  were  soon  in  open 
antagonism.  Tho  notion  of  Congress  was  eharacteriRcd  by 
tho  President  in  a  popular  haranguo  (Fob.  22,  1866)  aa  a 
"  now  robollioD ;"  the  onbinet  was  rcoonstructcd  in  July, 


r 


1430 


JOHNSON. 


Messrs.  Ranilall.  Stanbcry,  and  Browning  taking  the  places 
of  Messrs.  Dcnison,  Speed,  and  Harlan,  and  an  unsueccss- 
fiil  attempt  was  made  by  means  of  a  general  convention  at 
Philadrlphia  (Aug.  14)  to  form  a  new  party  on  the  basis  of 
the  administration  policy.     In  an  excursion  to  Chicago  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  the  corner-stone  of  a  monument  to 
Pleiihen  A.  Douglas  (Aug.  28),  Pres.  Johnsou,  accompa- 
nied by  several  members  of  the  cabinet,  passed  through 
Pliiladelphia,  Now  York,  and  Albany,  in  each  of  which 
cities,  and  at  many  other  places  on  the  route,  ho  made 
speeches  justifying  and  explaining  his  own  policy  and  vio- 
lently denouncing  the  action  of  Congress.     In  the  ensuing 
winter  session  Congress  enacted  over  the  President's  veto  a 
series  of  measures  for  extending  the  right  of  suffrage  to 
the  frcedmen,  dividing  the  Southern  States  into  military 
districts,  and  excluding  them  from  self-government  until 
thev  should  have  ratified  the  late  amendments  to  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution    and  adopted  State  constitutions  in  ac- 
cordance therewith.     An  opinion  of  tho  attorney-general 
against  tho  validity  of  this  legislation  led  to  conflicts  be- 
tween the  military  commanders  and  the  now  State  govern- 
ments, and  to  ne-.T  acts  of  Congress  defining  the  powers  of   j 
the  former,  making  them  independent  of  the  President's  i 
authority.     On  Aug.  \2,  ISfi",  Pres.  Johnson  removed  tho 
secretary  of  war,  replacing  him  by  Gen.  Grant.     Secretary 
Stanton  retired  under  protest,  based  upon  the  Tenure-of- 
offiee  act,  which  had  been  passed  in  the  preceding  March,  j 
The  President  then  issued  a  proclamation  (.\ug.  20)  de- 
claring the  insurrection  at  an  end.  and  that  "peace,  order, 
tranquillity,  and  civil  authority  existed  in  and  throughout  [ 
the  whole  of  the  U.  S."     Another  proclamation  (Sept.  S)  | 
enjoined  obedience  to  the  Constitution  and  laws,  and  an 
amnesty  was  published  Sept.  7.  relieving  nearly  all  the 
participants  in   "the  late  rebellion  "  from  tho  disabilities 
iliereby  incurred,  on  condition  of  taking  an  oath  to  sup- 
port the  Constitution  and  laws.     In  December,  Congress 
refused  to  confirm  the  removal  of  Secretary  Stanton,  who 
thereupon  resumed  the  exercise  of  his  office,  but  on  Feb. 
21,  ISti8,  Pres.  .lohnson  again  attempted  to  remove  him, 
appointing  Gen.  Lorenzo  Thomas  in  his  place.     Stanton 
refused  to  vacate  his  post,  and  \yas  sustained  by  the  Sen- 
ate.    On  Pel).  24,  the  House  of  Representatives  voted  to 
impeach  the  President  for  "  high  crimes  and  misdemean- 
ors"  (yeas  12G,  nays  47,  not  voting  17).  and  presented 
(Mar.  o)  eleven  articles  of  impeachment,  on  the  ground  of 
ills  resistance  to  the  execution  of  the  acts  of  Congress,  al- 
Icfin*,   in   addition   to  the  offence  lately  committed,   his 
public  expressions  of  contempt  for  Congress  in  "certain 
intemperate,    inflammatory,    and    scandalous    harangues" 
pronounced  in   Ang.  and  Sept.,  l^lii'i.  and  thereafter,  de- 
claring that  tho  39th  Congress  of  the  U.  S.  was  not  a  com- 
petent legislative  body,  and  denying  its  power  to  propose 
constitutional  amendments.    The  impeachment  trial  began 
Mar.  2.1,  tho  President  appearing  by  counsel,  and  resulted 
in  acquittal  May  Ifiand  2t'>.  the  votes  on  the  two  leading  arti- 
cles standing  :i5  guilty  to  19  not  guilty,  thus  lacking  one  of 
the  two-thirds  required  for  conviction.    The  remainder  of 
Pres,  Johnson's  term  of  office  was  passed  without  any  such 
conflicts  as  might  have  been  anticipated.     Ho  failed  to  ob- 
tain a  nomination  for  re-election  by  the  Democratic  party, 
though  receiving  fiS  votes  on  the  first  ballot.     Now  procla- 
mations of  pardon  to  the  participants  in  the  rebellion  were 
issued  July  4  and  Dec.  2.7,  tmt  were  of  little  effect.    On  the 
afcession  of  Pres.  Grant.  Mar.  4,  1809,  Johnson   returned 
to  Grecneville,  Tenn.     Unsuccessful  in  1870  and  1.S72  as  a 
candidate  respectively  for  U.  S.  Senator  and   Representa- 
tive, he  was  finally  elected  to  the  Senate  in  lS7.i,  and  took 
his  seat  in  the  extra  session  of  March,  in  which  his  speeches 
were  comparatively  temperate.      D.  July  .''1,    l.s7.>,    and 
was  buried  at  Grecneville.     Several   biographies  of  Pres. 
Jcdinson  have  l)ecn  imblishcd,  generally  with  a  selection  of 
his  speeches,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Sav- 
age (ISO.i).  Frank  Moore  (ISCi),  and  Foster  (I.SCti),     (See 
also  the  official  record  of  Proceedings  in  the  Trial  nf  Andreie 
JohuKon,  Washington,  1868.)  PonxER  C.  Bliss. 

Johnson  (I.ady  Arbei.i.a),  daughter  of  Thomas,  four- 
teenth earl  of  Lincoln,  married  l&aac  Johnson,  one  of  tho 
principal  founders  of  New  England,  and  accompanied  him 
to  .Massachusetts,  In  her  honor  Winthrop  changed  the 
name  of  the  Eagle,  the  princijial  ship  of  the  emigrant 
squadron,  to  Arbella.     D.  at  Salem  about  Aug.  30,  1030, 

Johnson  (Brsiiaon  R.),b.in  Ohio  Sept.  6,1817;  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1840;  served  in  tho  Florida  and 
Mexican  wars;  resigned  in  1817,  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  was  professor  in  the  Nashville  Military  Uni- 
versity. He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army:  was  captured  at  Fort  Donclson,  but  soon  escaped ; 
was  severely  woundeii  at  Shiloh;  became  major-general  in 
1804,  and  commanded  a  division  under  Leo  at  the  time  of 
the  eurroader  at  Appomattox  Court-house. 


Johnson  (Cave),  b.  in  Robertson  co.,  Tenn.,  Jan.  11, 
1793;  became  a  lawyer  and  a  circuit  judge;  was  a  member 
of  Congress  1829-37  and  1839-45;  was  poslmaster-gcnernl 
during  Mr.  Polk's  Presidency:  president  of  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee  IS50-j9:  and  tluring  the  civil  war  was  elected 
to  tho  State  senate  as  a  Unionist,  but  on  account  of  feeble 
health  he  never  took  his  seat.  D.  at  Clarksville,  Tennes- 
see, Nov.  23,  ISOI). 

Johnson  (Ea.stmax),  b.  in  Lovell.  Me.,  July  29,  1824. 
Took  up  drawing  regularly  at  about  eighteen  ;  in  1845  went 
to  Washington,  had  a  room  in  the  Capitol,  and  made  many 
portraits  of  distingui.'heil  men.  In  184G  established  him- 
self in  Boston,  and  made  crayon  portraits  of  Longfellow 
and  his  family,  .^umner.  Felton.  Hawthorne,  and  Emerson. 
In  1849  went  to  Diisseldorf ;  studied  a  year  in  the  Royal 
,\eademy :  occupied  for  a  time  a  studio  with  Leutze.  In 
1851  spent  a  few  weeks  in  London;  thence  to  the  Hague  fo 
copy  a  head  by  Rembrandt :  stayed  there  four  years,  and 
sent  thence  his  first  pictures  of  consequence.  The  Cftrd- 
Playern  and  The  Savni/nrd.  Went  to  Paris,  but  Was  unex- 
peetedty  called  home,  after  six  years  of  absence.  Spent 
two  winters  in  Washington  and  two  summers  on  Lake  Su- 
perior among  the  Indians.  Came  to  New  York  in  the  fall 
of  1S5S,  with  his  picture  Thf  Old  Keiiliict,/  JInmr,  and 
still  resides  in  New  York.  Mr.  Johnson  is  a  painter  of 
f/enre  pictures,  but  in  a  broader  style  than  that  term  indi- 
cates. His  pieces  are  all  figure  pieces,  but  with  a  wide 
range  of  subject.  He  views  lit'c  on  the  pathetic,  humorous, 
tender,  heroic,  and  even  on  the  comic  side,  always  with 
keen  perception  and  honest  intent.  He  is  a  master  of 
drawing  and  color,  and  rarely  fails  to  convey  effectively 
his  whole  thought.  He  has  also  been  successful  in  por- 
traits. The  civil  war  furni.^'hed  him  subjects  for  his  best- 
known  works — The  Dnimmer-Iioi/,  The  Peiision  Cliiim- 
A'jent,  The  lini/hfmd  a/  Lincoln.  The  Old  Kcnluekif  Home 
depicts  the  South  as  it  was  before  the  abolition  of  slavcrv. 
The  Kilchai  nl  Ml.  Vernon  is  another  reminiscence  of  o!d 
times  in  America.  The  Statje-eoaeh,  S<irnt/nrd  Boy,  Drop 
on  Ihe  Sli/.  The  llllle  Sinreleeper,  The  Chlmncy-Bieeep,  The 
Chimnelj  Corner,  Posl-hoy.  Ori/nn-boy,  Lady  at  Prnijer, 
Mntinfi,  illustrate  the  variety  of  his  themes.  Mr.  Johnson 
belongs  to  no  school,  native  or  foreign.  His  works  are 
numerous,  and.  though  of  unequal  merit,  are  highly  prized. 
The  Old  Kenlnekti  Home  was  sent  to  the  Paris  Exhibition 
in  1867.  As  a  painter  of  human  life  as  it  is  before  him 
Mr.  Johnson  stands  foremost  among  American  arlists. 

0.  B.  Frothixkham. 
Johnson  (EnwARn),  b.  at  Heme  Hill.  Kent.  England, 
in  1599.  came  to  New  England  about  1030,  settled  at  Wo- 
burn,  and  for  many  years  represented  that  town  in  general 
court,  of  which  body  he  was  Speaker  in  1655.  He  is  chiefly 
known  as  the  author  of  the  curious  and  valuable  historical 
work,  Wonder-irorkimi  Providenee  of  Sion's  Sfiriour  in  .Vcw 
England,  printed  at  London  in  1654,  reprinted  by  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Historical  Society,  and  again  edited,  with  notes, 
by  W.  F.  Poole  in  1807.     D.  at  Woburn  Apr.  23,  1672. 

Johnson  (EnwARn).b.  in  Chesterfield  co.,  Va..  Apr.  16, 
1816;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1838, 
and  entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant;  brcvetted  cap- 
lain  in  1847  for  meritorious  services  in  Florida,  and  major 
in  1818  for  gallantry  at  Chapultepec  and  the  city  of 
^lexico  :  also  presented  with  swords  of  honor  by  his  native 
State  and  native  county;  commissioned  captain  in  1851  ; 
resigned  from  the  army  jnne,  1861,  to  join  the  Confederacy, 
and  was  at  once  appointed  colonel  of  the  12th  Georgia 
Vols.;  brigadier-general  1862,  and  miijor-general  the  fid- 
lowing  year;  commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  and  in 
the  Richmond  campaisn  of  1864  taken  prisoner,  with  his 
entire  division,  at  Spotlsylvania  Court-house,  May  12,  as 
also  subsequently  at  Nashville,  Dec..  1864;  retired  to  his 
farm  in  Chesterfield  co..  Va.,  at  tho  close  of  the  war.  D. 
at  Richmond,  Va..  Feb.  22.  1873.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Johnson  (Heuman  Merrills),  D.  D..  LL.D.,  b.  Nov. 
25,  1815.  at  Butternuts,  Otsego  co.,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at 
the  Wesleyan  University  in  1339;  was  18.39-42  professor 
of  ancient  languages  in  St.  Charles  College,  Mo.:  in  1842 
was  called  to  the  same  chair  in  .\ugusta  College,  Ky. ;  held 
the  professorship  of  ancient  languages  and  literature  in  tho 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University.  Delaware,  0.,  184 1-50,  and  was 
for  a  part  of  the  time  its  acting  president ;  in  1850  became 
professor  of  English  literature  in  Dickinson  College,  and 
was  its  president  1860-68.  D.  at  Carlisle  Apr.  5,  1868. 
Dr.  Johnson  was  an  able  scholar,  and  a  student  of  modern 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Anglo-Saxon,  Gaelic,  Irish,  Welsh,  Ethi- 
opic.  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  other  tongues.  He  was  an  in- 
structive preacher  and  a  careful  writer;  edited  Orirnlalia 
Anli'innrta  Uerodoil ;  also  an  edition  of  the  Clio  of  Herod- 
otus, with  notes  (  1850),  and  wrote  much  for  periodicals. 

Johnson  ( llEiisruEL  V.),  b.  in  Burke  co.,  Ga..  Sept.  IS, 
1812;  graduated  at  Ihe  State  University  1834;  adopted  tho 


JOHNSON'. 


1431 


profension  of  law,  and  in  1840  entered  the  political  arena  | 
as  the  advocate  of  the  principles  of  JctTcrsmiiHii  Ileinoc- 
raev;  was  a  Prc«idcntiiil  elcclor  on  the  Pinic  Democratic 
tir-ket  in  ISM,  and  was  appointed  in  1S18  lo  fill  a  vacancy  , 
in  the  I'.  S.  Pcnntc;  was  elected  to  the  bench  in  hisjudi-  [ 
cial  circuit  in  1S49;   in  Is.Vj  was  elected  poveruor  of  the  ; 
State,  and  reelected  to  the  fame  office  in  1850.     In  18G0  ; 
he  was  run  for  Vice-I'rc«idenl  of  the   V.  S.  on  the  ticket  | 
which  was  he;>dcd  by  .'^lephcn  A.  Douglas  for  the  Presi- 
dency ;  he  was  in  the  Stale  secession  convention  of  ISfil, 
and  took  an  active  and  prominent  part  against  the  policy 
adopted  by  that  body;  he  voteil  against  the  ordinance  of  ( 
secession,  Init  afterwards,  when  it  was  ]>asped  by  a  majority 
of  the  convention,  ho  resolved  to  go  with  his  Stale  and  ' 
sustain  her  in  the  course  she  had  in  her  sovereign  charac-  j 
ter  adopted.     Brought  up  in  the  State  Rights  school  in 
polities,  he  believed  his  ultimate  allegiance  was  due  to  his 
State.     In  IS6:S  he  was  elccteil  to  the  ronfederatc  States  i 
Senate,  where  he  took  and  held  a  high  position  until  the 
close  of  the  war.     He  was  president   of  the  constitutional 
convention  of  the  State  in  1. •<(').">.     After  the  removal  of  the 
disabilities  imposed  by  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  , 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  he  was  again,  in  ISV:'..  placed  on  i 
the  circuit  bench  for  a  term  of  eight  years.     In  the  mean 
lime  (that  is.  from  the  close  of  the  war  to  the  removal  of 
the  disabilities  referred  to)  he  had  resumed  the  practice  of 
law,  which  ho  prosecuted  with    great   success.     In  Jan.,  [ 
isfin,  on  the  restoration  of  the  State  to  the  Union  under 
the  proclamation  of  Pres.  .Johnson,  he  was  chosen  as  one 
of  the  two  U.  S.  Senators  to  which  (icorgia  was  entitled 
under  the  Constitution.     The  duties  of  this  office,  however, 
he  was  not  permitted  lo  enter  upon  ;  his  seat  was  denied 
him  by  the  reconstruction  a«ls  of  Congress.     As  an  orator, 
constitutional  lawyer,  and  jurist  Mr.  Johnson  has  few  supe- 
riors in  the  V.  S.  A.  II.  Steimikxs.       j 

Johnson  (IsaacI,  b.  at  Clipsham,  Rutlandshire,  Kng- 
land.  about  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  :  married  the 
Lady  Arliella.  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  and  asso- 
ciated himself  with  Winllirop  in  the  settlement  of  New 
En"land,  being  the  wealthiest  of  the  colonists  and  much 
respited.  He  is  consi<lcn-d  one  of  the  chief  founders  of 
Boston,  where  he  d.  Sept.  :W,  IG.'iO. 

Johnson  (James),  b.  in  Robinson  Co.,  N.  C,  in  ISll. 
His  father  moved  to  Georgia  and  settled  in  Macdonough 
when  lie  was  but  a  boy.  After  an  academic  course  in  this 
village  he  graduatcil  willi  high  honor  at  the  State  Univer- 
sity in  18^2,  taught  school  for  a  short  time,  and  then  com- 
menced the  practice  of  law  as  a  profession,  in  which  he 
soon  attained  high  eminence;  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  Ueorgia  from  18jl  to  ISJ.3.  lieing  a  strong  Union 
man,  and  opposed  to  secession,  though  he  went  with  liis 
Stale  during  the  war,  at  its  close,  in  180.'),  Pres.  Jolinson 
chose  and  appointed  him  as  provisional  governor  of  (icor- 
gia under  what  was  known  as  tl»>  President's  policy.  This 
position  Mr.  Jcdinsou  held,  and  discbnrgeil  the  duties  inci- 
dent to  it  to  the  general  satisfaction  of  the  ]icoplc,  until 
the  State  was  restored  to  the  Union  on  the  eondilioos  anil 
rc<|uircmcnts  then  prescribed.  In  180(1  he  was  appointed 
collector  of  the  customs  at  Savannah,  which  office  he  re- 
signed in  I86fl.  Soon  after  ho  was  placed  on  the  circuit 
court  bench  of  the  State,  which  position  he  still  (Apr.,  187i) 
holds.  A.  II.  Stki'IIkns. 

Johnson  (Sit"  Jons),  h.  in  1712,  was  a  son  of  Sir 
Williiim  Jolinson  ;  wa.s  knighted  in  ITO.^i,  and  siu'cecdod 
ill  IV7I  lo  bis  father's  great  estates  and  influence  in  the 
Mohawk  Valley.  In  1770  he  fled  to  Canada  with  7U0  fol- 
hiwers,  raised  two  battalions  called  the  Royal  (ireens,  was 
commissioned  a  colonel,  invested  Fort  Stanwix  in  .\ng., 
1777,  dofeated  lien.  llcrUimer,  and  ivas  himself  defeated 
in  Oct.,  1780.  His  property  was  conliscated  l>y  the  U.  S., 
but  llio  British  government  made  him  scvcrnl  grants  of 
lands  in  Canada,  where  he  became  a  membir  of  the  colo- 
nial  council  and  superintendent  of  Indian  nffnirs  until  his 
death  at  Montreal  Jan.   1.  18:(U. 

Johnson  (  J.iski'II).  M.  I'.,  b.  at  Charleston.  S.  C,  Juno 
.■>.  1770;  Btudieil  medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  practised  at  Charleston  with  Dr.  Elislia  Poin- 
sclt.  Krom  1818  to  ISIli  was  president  of  the  U.  S.  branch 
bank  at  Charleston,  was  active  in  literary,  professional, 
and  political  associations,  prcsiilcnt  of  the  South  Carolina 
M<'dieal  Society  from  18(17  for  many  years:  long  mayor  of 
Charleston,  coiiimissioner  of  S'-hools,  and  leader  of  llio 
Union  parly  in  the  nullilicalion  troubles.  He  published  in 
18.'>1  a  valuable  work,  TraUilitnm  ami  JCeminitccncet  i>f  the 
J!.,„l„li„n. 

Johnson  (Joskpii  Taber),  M.  D.,  h.  at  Lowell,  Mass., 
.Tunc  .'10,  I8l.i:  gradiyitei!  A.  M.  al  Coluinbiiin  University, 
D.  (',,  in  1801:  look  his  ilegree  at  Bellevne  Medical  College, 
N.  Y.,  in  1807.  and  compleled  his  medical  studies  in  Ku- 
ropo  in  1871;  was  professor  of  obatolrios  in  the  modioal 


department  of  Howard  University,  surgeon  to  tho  Frecd- 
men's  Hospital  and  St.  John's  Hospital,  and  in  1S74  be- 
came lecturer  on  midwifery  at  (be  medical  department  of 
the  University  of  tieurgetown,  D.  C. :  wrote  I'tcullitriiits 
of  Parturition  in  thr  Xetjro  Jittrr,  and  .'iliji/io  p€Ctori«f 
illustrated  by  the  case  of  Hon.  C.  Sumner. 

Johnson  (Masiel  Jons).  F.  R.  S.,  b.  in  England  in 
May,  180ri :  studied  at  .Addiscomlic  Military  School:  joined 
the  East  India  Company's  artillery  at  St.  Helena  in  1821, 
and  remained  there  eleven  years,  during  which  ho  culti- 
vated astronomy  and  prepared  a  catalogue  of  lil^O  stars  of 
the  southern  hemisphere  ;  returning  to  Englaml,  he  entered 
Magdalen  College,  O.xford,  at  the  mature  age  of  twenty- 
eight,  and  graduated  in  ISHO,  when  he  was  immediately 
appointed  Railclilfc  astronomer.  In  that  capacUy  he  greatly 
extended  the  lists  of  stars  by  his  annual  catalogues,  and 
introduced  improved  astronomical  instruments.  His  ob- 
servations of  double  stars  with  the  great  heliometcr.  and 
his  photographic  registration  of  stars,  were  especially  im- 
portant. Prof.  Johnson  was  president  of  the  Royal  As- 
tronomical Society  in  1S57  and  1858.  D.  at  Oxford  Feb. 
28,  1869. 

Johnson  (Mary  Axxe),  first  wife  of  Oliver  John- 
son, and  daughter  of  Rev.  nrr.ugbton  AVhite.  b.  in  West- 
moreland, N.  II..  Aug.  21,  181)8:  d.  in  New  "i'ork  June  8, 
1872.  For  three  years  ( IS44-t7!  she  was  associated  as  as- 
sistant matron  with  Mrs.  Eliza  W.  Farnham  in  the  mem- 
orable efl'nrt  to  reform  the  State  prison  for  females  at  Sing 
Sing.  She  subsequently  became  a  lecturer  to  her  own  sex 
upon  anatomy,  physiology,  and  the  laws  of  health,  travel- 
ling extensively  iii  the  pursuit  of  that  object  in  different 
parts  of  the  U.'S. 

Johnson  (Oliver),  b.  in  Pcacham,  Vt.,  Dec.  27,  1809: 
served  an  apprenticeship  to  the  printing  business  in  the 
ir(i('7i»inii  office.  Montpclier,  Vt. ;  Jan.  1,  ISHl,  became 
the  editor  of  a  new  paper,  the  Chriminn  Suhlicr,  and  was 
from  this  time,  and  up  to  the  year  of  180.'),  busily  engaged 
in  the  service  of  the  anti-slavery  cause  as  a  lecturer  and  as 
an  editor,  manager,  and  contributor  to  newspapers.  During 
the  next  five  years  and  a  half  he  was  the  managing  editor 
of  the  hiilrjKndcnl,  resigning  at  the  end  of  1870  to  become 
editor  of  the  WcMii  Trihiuir.  Alter  two  years'  service  at 
this  post  be  resigned  at  the  end  of  1872  to  become  man- 
aging cditt»r  of  the  Christian  Union, 

Johnson  (PEnnvAL  Norton),  F.  R.  S.,  h.  in  England 
about  I7'.i:i.  was  (be  son  of  a  London  assayi^r,  and  early  ac- 
quired great  skill  in  the  same  profession.  He  was  the  tirst 
to  determine  with  accuracy  the  exact  proportions  of  gold 
and  silver  in  bullion.  He' inlroiluced  into  England  from 
Germany  the  alloy  known  as  (iernian  silver.  cx(rac(cd  pal- 
ladium and  platinum  from  gold  bullion,  nnil  inanufaelured 
them  for  commercial  ]>urposes.  He  invented  seycralpot- 
tcrv  colors,  espceially  the  mncli-admired  "  rose-pink.  "  His 
services  were  in  great  request  as  a  consulting  metallurgist 
at  the  great  English  mines,  and  he  introduced  numerous 
improvements  into  the  machinery  of  the  Cornish  mines. 
He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  ISJO,  and 
d.  in  London  June  1,  1800. 

Johnson  (Ueverpv).  b.  at  Annapolis,  Md..  May  21, 
1790.  son  of  Chancellor  John  Johnson  of  that  Stale:  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College:  studied  law  in  bis  father's  office, 
and  adinitlcd  to  (be  bar  in  181.^;  removed  to  Baltimore  in 
1817,  anil  was  shortly  after  appointed  deputy  attorney-gen- 
eral of  .Marvland:  was  a  State  senator  1821-2:'),  resigning 
in  the  latter  yciir  to  attend  lo  the  increasing  duties  of  his 
profession,  in  which  he  gained  a  leading  position  in  his 
native  Slate,  as  well  as  at  the  bar  of  (he  Suineme  Court  of 
the  U.  S.  In  1815  he  was  elccteil  lo  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
Maryland,  and  in  1849,  Pres.  Taylor  appointed  him  at- 
torney-general of  (he  U.  S..  which  office  be  held  utitil  the 
death  of  Pns.  Taylor,  when  he  retired  and  resumed  tho 
practice  of  his  prdfession  :  was  member  of  the  pence  com- 
mission in  1801;  U.  S.  Senator  IS0:i-08;  succeeded  Mr. 
Charles  Francis  Adams  as  U.  S.  minister  lo  England  in 
1808,  anil  negotiated  a  treaty  for  tho  settlement  «l'  the 
Alabama  claims,  which  was  rejeeled.  however,  by  the  U.  S. 
Senate.    Reialled  in  1809.     I).  Feb.  9,   1870. 

Johnson  (RicHARn  Mi:vtoiO,  b.  in  Kentucky  Oct.  17, 
1780:   was  educated  at  Transylvania  University:   studied 
law  an.l  was  admitted   to  (he   bar;   in  182:t  was  elecled   (o 
the  bgisbilMre,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  1807-19:   in 
I    1812,   after   the   de.laration   of   war   by   Great   Britain,  bo 
I   raised  a  regiment  of  Kentucky  iiiounle.l  riflemen,  which  ho 
i  commanded  on  (be  Canadian  fronder  during  di.'  tall  of  that 
I   year.      Alter  the  ailjournment   of  Congress.  Mar..  181.'!,  ho 
I   raised  anolber  inounted  regiment  of  volunteers,  with  which 
]   he  guarded  the  Indian  frontier  during  the  summer  months, 
and   ioiniil  (Icn.  Harrison   in  (imo  to  render  brilliant   ser- 
vice in  tho  battle  of  the  Thames  on  Oct.  5.     It  was  by  his 
I  hand  the  celebrated  Indian  warrior  Tcoumsoh  is  reported 


1432 


JOHNSON. 


to  have  fallen.  lu  this  engagement  Col.  Johnson  was  des- 
perately wounjetl.  He  was,  however,  able  to  resume  his 
seat  in  Congress  in  February  ensuing ;  in  ISli)  was  elceted 
to  the  U.  t*.  Senate,  and  remained  a  member  of  that  body 
until  1829  :  after  this  he  was  again  a  member  of  tlio  House 
182y-37  ;  in  JS^iO  was  run  for  the  Vice-Presidency  of  the 
U.  S.  in  most  of  the  States,  on  the  same  ticket  which  sup- 
ported Mr.  Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency.  lie  received 
147  of  the  electoral  votes,  but  this  was  a  few  votes  short  of 
a  majority  of  the  whole,  though  largely  above  the  number 
received  by  any  other  one  of  the  candidates  voted  for.  In 
this  state  of  things  the  choice  for  Vice-President  devolved 
on  the  Senate  under  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  In  the 
discliargc  of  this  duty  the  Senate  in  Mar.,  1S;J7,  made 
clioicc  of  Col.  Johnson  fnr  the  office  of  Vice-President  for 
the  four  years  ensuing.  In  Mar.,  18(1.  lie  returned  to  his 
home  in  Kentucky,  after  having  devoted  thirty  years  of  his 
life  continuously  to  the  public  service.  Perfect  retirement, 
however,  was  not  allowed  him.  He  was  again  returned  a 
member  to  the  State  legislature,  and  while  holding  this 
positon  d.  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Nov.  19,  ISjO,  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  uf  a  little  over  eighty  jTars.  He  was  distin- 
guished throughout  his  life  for  kindliness  of  heart  and  ur- 
banity of  manners.  He  was  the  author  of  the  law  abolish- 
ing imprisonment  for  debt  in  Kentucky.    A.  H.  Stephens. 

Johnson  {Rkhard  W.).  A.  B.,  A.  M..  b.  in  Livingston 
CO.,  Ky.,  Feb.  7.  1827;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  in  ISJU.  and  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second 
lieutenant  of  infantry;  transferred  to  the  cavalry  1S55  as 
0rst  lieutenant:  promoted  to  be  captain  1S.t7,  major  1862; 
engaged  in  campaigns  against  Indians  in  Texas  1S49-6I ; 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Oct..  18G1,  and 
in  command  of  a  division  of  infantry  at  Stone  Ri\er,  Lib- 
erty Gap,  Chiekamauga,  Missionary  Ridge,  and  all  the  bat- 
tles on  the  line  of  march  from  Nashville  to  New  Hope 
church,  near  Atlanta,  Ga.,  where  he  was  severely  wounded  ; 
subsequently  commanded  a  division  of  cavalry  at  the  battle 
of  Nashville  and  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy  through  Tennes- 
see. Received  successive  brevets  from  lieutenant-colonel  to 
major-general  U.  S.  A.  for  gallant  conduct  ;  retired  on  the 
full  rank  of  major-genera!  Oct.,  1867,  on  account  of  wounds 
received  at  New  Hope  church  :  reduced  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  under  a  subsequent  law  of  Congress  re- 
tiring officers  on  rank  actually  held  at  the  time  when  dis- 
abled. Military  professor  in  the  Cniversity  of  Missouri 
1S68-G9,  University  of  Minnesota  1869-70.  G.C.Simmons. 

Johnson  (Robkrt  W.),  b.  in  Kentucky  in  1S14;  moved 
to  .Arkansas,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  that  State 
1847-53  ;  he  was  then  elected  to  the  V.  S.  Senate,  in  which 
body  he  was  an  active  and  distiuguisheil  member  until  Ar- 
kansas passed  her  ordinance  of  secession  in  18fil :  he  was 
then  elected  a  member  to  the  jirovisional  Congress  of  the 
Confederate  States:  in  1862  he  was  elected  Senator  from 
Arkansas  to  the  Confederate  States  Senate.  He  was  a  lead- 
ing member  of  that  body  to  the  close  of  the  war,  when  he 
pursue<l  the  practice  of  his  profession,  the  law,  in  the  city 
uf  Washington.     D.  July  26,  1879.         A.  H.  Stephens. 

Johnson  (SAMrEi,),  D.  D.,  b.  in  Guilford,  Conn..  Oct. 
1  (.  ItilH),  was  the  son  of  Samuel  and  Mary  (Sage)  Johnson. 
JIis  grandfather,  William  Johnson,  who  was  twelve  years 
old  when  the  family  emigrated  from  England  to  this  country, 
married.  July  2,  I6.")l,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  a  daughter 
of  Francis  Bushnell  of  Saybrook,  whose  sister.  Sarah  Rush- 
nell,  was  the  grandmother  of  Benjamin  Hoadlcy,  the  cele- 
brated bishop  of  Rangor  and  Winchester.  The  subject  of 
this  notice  was  in  early  ehildhoud  very  much  under  the 
training  of  his  grandfather  M'illiam,  a  leading  man  in  (iuil- 
ford,  who  held,  as  did  his  son  after  him.  the  office  of  dea- 
con in  the  Congregational  church.  He  taught  him  to  read,  j 
and  stimulated  his  desire  for  learning.  At  fourteen  young 
Samuel  joined  the  infant  college  at  Saybrook,  and  gradu- 
ated after  a  course  of  four  years.  He  subsequently  became 
a  tutor  in  the  institution,  and  was  connected  with  it  in  its 
transition  period,  and  a  chief  agent  in  securing  its  estal*- 
lishment  at  New  Haven  as  Yale  College.  He  resigned  his 
tutorship  in  1719,  and  was  ordained  the  next  year  as  jtastor  i 
of  the  Congregational  ehureh  at  West  Haven,  a  village  so  i 
near  the  college  that  he  continued  to  associate  intimately 
with  its  officers  and  to  avail  himself  of  a  free  use  of  the 
library.  Here  he  frequently  met  his  literary  friends,  among 
them  several  of  the  neighboring  ministers,  and  discussed 
and  examined  with  (hem  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the 
primitive  Church,  and  the  form  and  authority  of  their  own 
government  and  wnrship.  The  result  was  tliat  he  and  Rec- 
tor Cutler  and  Tutor  Rrown  declared  for  episcopacy,  and, 
relinquishing  their  positions,  sailed  from  Boston  Nov.  5. 
1722,  to  obtain  holy  orders  in  the  Church  of  England.  He 
returned  to  Connecticut  after  a  year's  absence,  and  was 
settled  at  Stratfnrtl  as  a  missionary  of  tlio  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.     For  a  long 


time  he  was  the  only  Episcopal  clergyman  in  the  colony, 
and  had  i^trong  adversaries  around  him  in  those  from  whose 
fellowship  he  had  withdrawn.  He  married,  Sej)t.  26,  1725, 
Mrs.  Charity  NicoU,  widow  of  Benjamin  Nicoll,  Esq.,  of 
Rrookhaven.  L.  I.,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  whose  pre- 
liminary education,  and  that  of  his  step-sous  as  well,  he 
personally  superintended.  His  inquiring  mind  led  him  to 
seek  the  society  of  scholars  and  to  read  all  the  philosophi- 
cal works  that  came  in  his  way.  The  residence  of  Dean 
Berkeley  at  Newport,  R.  I.  (1729-1!!),  was  an  interesting 
episode  in  his  life.  Before  that  dignitary  came  to  America 
he  had  read  his  Pi'tnriphs  of  Humiux  Knotchdifc,  and  was 
in  a  measure  a  convert  to  his  metaphysical  opinions.  Ho 
corresponded  with  him,  visited  him  at  his  Whitehall  palace, 
and  when  the  dean  was  about  to  return  to  England,  dis- 
heartened by  the  failure  of  his  great  scheme,  J(dinson  in- 
tcres^ted  him  in  American  education,  and  secured  from  him 
for  Yale  College  the  donation  of  many  valuable  books,  and  a 
deed  of  his  farm  atNciTport  for  the  founding  <tf  scholarships. 
He  maintained  a  steady  correspondence  with  Seeker  and 
other  bishops  and  divines  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  a  profound  philosopher  fur  his  day,  comjirehending 
Berkeley  and  going  deeply  into  Hutchinsonianism.  Ho 
wrote  numerous  controversial  pamj>hlets,  and  labored 
earnestly  to  secure  the  establishment  of  an  American  epis- 
copate. The  University  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  in 
1743  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  three  years  later  he  jiublishcd 
a  Si/-'itcm  of  Morality,  in  two  parts — one  treating  of  ethics 
in  a  speculative  aspect,  and  the  other  of  the  practical  duties 
that  result  from  established  truths.  This,  again,  appeared 
with  additions  under  the  title  of  Efemciita  Pliifosojthicn, 
which  was  dedicated  to  Berkeley  and  printed  by  Benjamin 
Franklin.  'When  the  project  was  entered  upon  to  found  a 
college  in  Philadelphia,  Franklin,  one  of  the  gentlemen 
most  interested  in  it,  urged  him  to  assume  the  presidency, 
but  he  finally  declined  it,  and  accepted  shortly  after  the 
oversight  of  King's  (now  Columbia)  College,  N.  Y.  Ho 
guided  this  institution  through  its  early  troubles,  and  gave 
shape  to  its  policy  and  course  of  study.  Subscriptions 
toward  the  endowment  were  obtained  at  home  and  aliroad 
through  his  instrumentality,  and  when  things  had  been 
well  settled  he  intimated  his  desire  for  retirement,  and  ap- 
plied to  Archbishop  Seeker  for  a  suitable  person  to  take 
his  office.  The  Rev.  Myles  Cooper,  an  Oxford  graduate, 
was  sent  over,  and.  sooner  than  he  himself  expected,  John- 
son, crushed  by  the  death  of  his  second  wife  from  smallpox 
— a  disease  which  had  been  the  great  bane  and  terror  of 
his  whole  life — resigned  the  presidency  of  the  college  Feb., 
176.1,  and  retired  to  Stratford.  Here  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days,  resuming  the  charge  of  his  old  parish, 
and  continuing  his  correspondence  upon  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  in  America.  It  was  in  this  retirement  that  he 
composed  an  English  and  Hebrew  grammar,  the  structure 
of  tlic  two  languages  bearing  in  his  view  a  close  resem- 
blance. A  second  and  revised  edition  of  the  work,  which 
was  first  jirinted  in  London,  was  riqiublished  there,  and  at- 
tracted tlio  altontion  of  several  Hebrew  scholars,  among 
them  Bishop  Lowth.  Dr.  Johnson  never  ceased  to  jilead 
that  one  or  more  bishops  might  be  sent  to  the  colonies,  but 
he  did  not  live  to  sec  his  desire  fulfilled.  He  had  expressed 
the  wish  that  his  death  might  resemble  that  of  his  good 
friend  Bishop  Berkeley,  and  Heaven  granted  it,  for  ho 
sank  to  rest  tranquillv,  sitting  in  his  ehair.  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Jan.  6,  1772.    *  E.  E.  Beardsley. 

Johnson  (SAMfEi.),  LL.D..  b.  at  Lichfield,  Eug.,  Sept. 
18,  Uti'.i,  the  son  of  a  bookseller  of  limited  means;  com- 
menced the  study  of  the  classics  at  the  age  of  ten  at  the 
Lichfield  free  school,  making  great  proficiency;  spent  a 
year  at  a  private  academy  at  Stourbridge,  and  two  years  in 
his  father's  shop,  during  which,  by  desultory  reading,  ho 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  immense  store  of  miscellaneous 
knowledge  for  which  he  was  distinguished.  His  father's 
poverty  seemed  to  forbid  all  hopes  of  a  university  education, 
but  when  nineteen  years  of  age  he  found  an  opportunity 
tn  enter  Pembroke  College,  Oxford  (1728),  supporting  him- 
self bv  assisting  the  studies  of  a  former  companion  at 
Lichfield  school.  He  became  noted  for  his  proficiency  in 
the  classics,  and  produced  a  Latin  translation  of  Pope's 
Afrtfiiah,  which  won  a  high  encomium  from  that  poet.  In 
]7;n.  after  three  years  of  assiduous  study,  he  was  compelled 
by  want  of  resources  to  leave  O.xford  ;  was  employed  for 
some  timeae  usher  in  a  school  at  Market  Bosworth.  Leices- 
tershire, and  afterwards  lived  some  time  at  Birmingham, 
writing  for  a  newspaper  and  publishing  one  or  two  books 
translated  from  the  Latin.  In  17.'H'>  he  improved  his  cir- 
cumstances by  marrying  a  widow  lady  nearly  double  his 
age  who  had  £81i0  in  the  funds,  and  opened  a  private 
academy  near  Lichfield.  After  a  brief  and  unsatisfactory 
experience  in  teaching,  Johnson  wcm  to  London  in  1737, 
accompanied  by  his  pupil  (jarrick,  and  thenceforward  de- 
voted  himself  to    literature   as   a   profession.      His   first 


JOHNSON. 


1433 


serious  employment  was  on  Cave's  GentUmann  Marjazine, 
for  which  he  continued  to  write  until  1731.  The  publica- 
tion of  London,  a  satire  iraitutcd  from  Juvenal  {  17 '•'>>•  K  and 
of  two  or  three  political  pamphlets,  brouj;ht  him  iuto  public 
notice,  and  procured  him  the  friendship  of  Pope.  Richard- 
son, and  other  leading  authors.  In  1740.  John.-'on  under- 
took to  report  the  debates  in  Parliament  for  the  Gtutlemana 
Matftizine,  and  acquired  considerable  celebrity  by  his  prac- 
tice of  inipro\  iiiff  upon  the  real  utterances  of  the  speaker!? ; 
ID  1744  appeared  his /.i/c  «/A'(ifrtf/c  ;  in  1749,  his  poem,  The. 
Yunity  of  Hiinmn  Winficn,  and  a  drama,  Irene  ;  aud  in  1750- 
52  he  wrote  the  Hnmhler,  a  semi-wcckly  series  of  literary 
essays  which  extended  to  208  numbers  and  had  great  si^- 
cess.  From  1747  to  17oj  he  was  chiefly  occupied  upon  his 
groat  work,  the  /Jivtionortf  of  the  Enr/fiiih  Lanffumje.  His 
wife  had  died  in  1752,  his  mother  in  I751»,  and  it  was  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  the  lattcr's  funeral  that  John^^on  wrote 
lifttMcl'ts  within  a  single  week.  The  fdUr.  an  imitation  of 
the  IlnniUer.  appeared  in  1758  to  ITHO.  It  was  not  until 
about  1702  that  Johnson  aequire«l  that  settled  position  in  the 
republic  of  letters  which  is  so  familiar  to  the  world  in  the 
pages  of  Boswcll — a  position  apparently  dating  from  the 
receipt  of  a  pension  of  £.'.00.  He  now  became  an  author- 
ity on  all  points  of  erudition,  and  his  wonderful  conversa- 
tional powers"  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  an  admiring 
circle,  which  in  I'tU  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  famous  Lit- 
erary Club.  It  was  in  1 703  that  he  first  met  his  future 
biographer,  James  Bo^well.  and  in  1705  that  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Thralc  family.  In  1773  ho  visited 
Scotland  and  the  Hebrides,  accompanied  by  Boswell,  pub- 
lishing in  1775  tlio  Jonrmtf  to  the  U'cw/tii  hiauds,  and  a 
pamphlet  against  the  American  rebellion,  entitled  Taxa- 
tion no  7)/ranni/.  His  last  literary  work  of  any  importance 
was  the  tivtt  of  the  Poetu  fl77!l-Sl  i.  I),  in  London  Dec. 
l;j,  17S4,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  character  and  career  of 
Dr.  Johnson  are,  or  may  be,  better  known  than  those  of  any 
otlier  author  that  over  lived  through  the  incomparable 
biography  in  which  Boswell  has  edited  his  conversations  [ 
for  a  scries  of  years.  The  only  complete  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  in  11  volumes  (Oxford,  1825).  Johnson's 
character  was  pure  and  devout,  but  his  mind  was  not  frco 
from  an  unhealthy  gloom  bre<l  of  poverty.  Ho  had  strange 
superstitions,  inlierited  from  infancy,  which  colored  his  life. 
He  was  a  man  of  vast  learning  and  of  masculine  grasp  of 
thought,  but  his  judgment  was  warped  by  prejudices.  In 
some  respects  his  taste  was  singularly  unrefined.  A  pleas- 
ing trait  in  his  character  was  kinduess  towards  the  poor 
and  suffering.  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Johnson  fSAMirKl.),  b.  at  v=!alem.  Mass..  Oct.  10,  1822  ; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1842  and  at  the  Divinity  School 
in  lS4:i;  became  in  185.1  pastor  of  a  "Free"  church  at 
Lynn.  A  deep  thinker,  brilliant  writer,  and  eloquent 
speaker,  Mr.  J.  has  written  much  on  subjects  of  philosophy, 
religion,  and  reform.  He  was  prominent  in  tho  anti- 
slavery  movement.  In  lS4fi  he  compiled,  in  connection 
with  Samuel  Longfellow,  A  Itoitk  of  Hifmns,  sorao  of  tho 
finest  of  which  were  his  own.  In  ISOS  he  published  The 
Worship  of  Jixnn.  Of  his  great  work,  Orieitinf  Religiontf 
only  the  first  volumo  has  appeared  (Boston,  1872). 

Johnson  (Samit.i,  WiiliahI.  A.  .M.,  b.  at  Kingsboro*, 
Fulion  CO.,  X.  v..  .luly  •\.  I>*;-0  :  studied  in  the  Yale  Sficniifio  ) 
School  and  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Munich.  In 
1850  he  became  professor  of  analytical  and  agricultural 
chemistry  in  the  Sheflield  Scientific  School  at  Yale  College, 
New  Haven.  Conn.  He  is  a  member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  and  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  and  has  published  HnmnfH  on  Mitnitrfs  (I85D), 
Peat  and  itn  Cntit  {\Si'tCt),  lluw  Critftn  Grow  (1808,  repub- 
lished in  England  in  ISO'J).  etc.,  besides  translating  Frese- 
nius's  Qnalitatirr  Chenn'cai  Annfi/nit,  and  tho  samc  author's 
Quantitative  Chemical  Analynit. 

Johnnon  (Rev.  Thomas),  b.  in  Virginia  July  11,  1802: 
began  his  ministry  in  Missuuri  in  |K25.  His  greatest  and 
most  successful  labors  were  perrorined  as  missionary  to  tho 
Indians,  by  whom  ho  was  much  beloved  and  revered.  He 
belonged  to  the  Si.  Louis  conference  of  the  Methodint 
Kpisconal  Church.  South,  at  the  time  of  his  dcatli.  He  was 
killed  by  men  who  hated  the  cause  ho  was  laboring  so 
aealously  to  promote,  .Ian.  3,  1805.  T.  0.  Si  mmkiis. 

Johnson  (  Wai.tku  BoriKits).  b.  at  Leominster,  Mass., 
June  21,  17VII;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  ISIU;  was  for 
many  years  a  teacher  in  Framingham  and  Salem.  Mass., 
and  in  German  town.  Pa.,  and  the  Philadelphia  High 
School:  was  l8?,9-4;i  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry 
in  the  I'niversity  of  Pennsylvania.  Ho  made  important 
researches  in  physics;  made  an  official  report  (1814)  to 
Congress  on  the  character  of  tho  varieties  of  coal ;  was  en- 
gaged (I!*45)  in  examining  the  proposed  sources  of  water- 
supply  for  Boston,  Mass.;  was   tho  first  secretary  of  the 


Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science;  became  in 
1848  connected  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  in 
1S51  with  the  World's  Fair,  London.  D.  Apr.  20.  1S52. 
His  principal  works  arc  Vne  of  Anthracite  {\>i\\),  Report 
on  Cuah  (1844).  Memoir  of  L.  I),  von  Schweinitz  (1835), 
Coal  Trade  of  British  America  (1850). 

Johnson  (Sir  William),  Baut.,  b.  at  Warrentown.  co. 
Down,  Ireland,  in  1715  ;  came  in  1738  to  America  to  manage 
some  landed  estates  belonging  to  his  uncle.  Admiral  Sir 
Peter  Warren,  and  settled  among  tlie  Mohawk  Indians, 
being  the  earliest  white  resident  of  that  immense  and  fer- 
tile region,  and  by  his  prudence  in  dealing  with  the  Indians 
acquired  their  confidence  and  esteem.  He  learned  the 
Mohawk  language,  and  was  made  an  honorary  chieftain 
of  that  tribe.  In  1743  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  for  the  province,  and  held  this  post  under 
different  titles  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  the  French 
war  of  1755.  .Tohnson  was  commissioned  a  major-general 
and  commander-in-ciiief  of  the  provincial  forces  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  Crown  Point,  in  which  he  defeated  Baron 
Dicskau  at  Lake  George  (so  named  by  him), and  destroyed 
his  army  in  Sept.,  1755.  Johnson  was  severely  wounded 
in  this  engagement,  which  was  considered  so  important  that 
it  procured  him  the  thanks  of  Parliament,  a  grant  of  £5000, 
and  a  baronetcy.  In  1750-57,  Sir  William  was  engaged 
in  tho  expeditions  for  the  relief  of  Oswego  and  Fort  Wil- 
liam Henry,  was  with  Abercrombie  at  Ticonderoga  in  1758, 
and  \vns  second  in  command  under  Gen.  Priileaux  in  tho 
expedition  against  Fort  Niagara  in  1759.  On  the  death 
of  Pridcaux.  who  was  killed  before  that  fort.  Sir  William 
prosecuted  the  siege  with  great  vigor,  aided  by  1000  Indian 
allies,  defeated  a  French  force  sent  to  relieve  the  fort,  and 
received  its  unconditional  surrender.  In  1700  he  partici- 
pated in  Amherst's  expedition  to  Montreal.  For  all  these 
services  Sir  William  received  from  the  king  a  grant  of 
lOO.OltO  acres  of  land  N.  of  the  Mohawk,  long  known  ns 
•'  Kingsland  "  or  the  *•  Royal  Grant,"  and  in  1704  he  built 
Johnson  Hall,  around  which  soon  sprang  up  the  village  of 
Johnstown,  the  capital  of  Tryon  eo.,  which  then  embraced 
ail  Central  and  Western  New  York.  Here  Sir  William 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  exercising  a  baronial  hos- 
pitality to  Indians  and  backwoodsmen,  giving  great  atten- 
tion to  improvements  in  agriculture,  and  introducing  tho 
first  sheep  and  blood-horses  into  the  Mohawk  Valley.  Ho 
made  the  Indian  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix  in  1708.  and  d. 
Julv  11,  1774.  (See  his  Z//V,  by  W.  L.  Stone,  2  vols., 
1805.) 

Johnson  (William),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Dec.  27.  1771,  was  brother  of  Joseph  ;  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1700:  stuclicd  law  at  Charleston  umlcr  0.  C.  Pinck- 
ncv  ;  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  for  three  terms,  being 
Speaker  the  last  term  :  was  elected  judge  of  circuit  courts, 
and  appointed  by  Jefferson  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
with  jurisdiction  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  He  edited 
for  the  family  of  that  officer  the  I.i/e  and  Corre»pondence 
of  Mnj.-Cfu! Saihoniel  Grrrue  (1S22),  with  copious  and 
learned  annotations.  Ho  inclined  to  support  tho  Federal 
government  in  the  nullification  question  (1832),  and  d.  in 
New  York  Aug.  4,  1S;J4. 

Johnson  (William  Samuel),  LL.D.,  tho  elder  son  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  b.  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  Oct. 
7,  1727;  graduated  at  Yale  College  with  great  distinction 
in  1710:  studied  law.  and  rose  at  once,  when  admitted  to 
the  bar.  (o  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession.  He  was  an 
eager  student  of  English  politics  and  English  literature, 
and  early  took  an  active  interest  in  the  relations  of  tho 
American  colonies  to  the  home  government.  In  1701  ho 
was  chosen  to  represent  the  town  of  Stratford  iu  the  lower 
house  of  the  general  assembly,  and  was  one  of  (he  council 
or  upper  house  when  he  was  selected  to  atteiiti  the  first 
Colonial  Congress,  that  met  at  New  York  in  1705  to  con- 
sider tho  Stamp  Act.  He  drew  up  the  petitions  and  re- 
monstrances which  were  sent  to  the  king  and  two  houses 
of  Parliament.  At  the  October  session  of  the  general  as- 
sembly of  Connecticut  in  1700.  Dr.  Johnson — for  by  this 
time  the  I'niversity  of  Oxford  had  honored  him  with  tho 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  —  was  appointed  to  proceed  to 
England  and  defend  in  a  cause  pending  ben)re  the  king  and 
lords  in  council  concerning  the  title  to  a  large  tract  of  land 
olitained  for  the  colony  from  the  Mohegaii  Indians:  and 
those  who  heard  him  speak  on  this  occasion  were  not  only 
astonished  but  charme<l  by  his  eloquence.  After  the  battle 
of  Lexington  he  and  another  gentleman  were  deputed  to 
wait  on  Gen.  Gage,  then  in  commaml  of  the  British  forces 
at  Boston,  with  a  letter  from  tho  governor  of  Connecticut, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  stay  hostile  prucccilings,  and 
inquire  if  means  could  not  be  adopted  to  secure  peace.  Tho 
embassy  was  unsuccessful,  tho  progress  of  events  hurrying 
on  tho  war.  Retiring  from  the  council  after  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  JohnsoQ  set  himself  quietly  down  to 


1434 


JOHNSON  CITY— JOHNSTON. 


his  studies  at  Stratford,  but  when  the  independence  of  the 
colonies  was  established  he  resumed  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  and  was  reinstated  in  his  old  office  as  a  member 
of  the  upper  house  of  the  general  assembly.  He  was  a 
delegate  from  Connecticut  to  the  convention  wliich  framed 
the  Federal  Constitution,  and  president  of  the  committee 
of  five  apjioiutcd  to  revise  the  style  of  the  instrument  and 
arrange  its  articles.  He  proposed  the  organization  of  the 
Senate  as  a  separate  body,  and  was  elected  the  lirst  Senator 
from  Connecticut,  and  in  concert  with  his  collcajjue.  Oliver 
Ellsworth,  drew  up  the  bill  to  organize  the  judiciary. 
After  King's  College,  N.  Y.,  became  Columbia  under  the 
new  organization  of  trustees  established  in  17^7,  he  was 
chosen  to  the  presidency — an  office  which  his  father  bad 
filled  under  the  royal  charter.  Afler  1800  he  lived  in  re- 
tirement at  Stratford,  and  d.  there  Xov.  11.  1819.    . 

E.  E.  Beardsley. 

Johnson  City,  post-v.  of  Washington  co.,  Tenn.,  on 
tiie  East  Tennessee  Virginia  and  ijeorgia  R.  II.,  25  miles 
S.  \y.  of  Bristol,  Tcnn. 

Johnson's,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  729. 

Johnson's  Creek,  post-v.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Wis.,  on 
Chicago  and  North-western  R.  R.,  8  m.  S.  of  AVatertown. 

John'sonville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Sunflower  co..  Miss. 

John'sonville,  post-v.  of  Pittstown  tp.,  Rensselaer 
CO.,  X.  Y.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Troy  and  Boston  and 
Johnsonville  and  Greenwich  R.  Rs.,  17  miles  N.  E.  of 
Troy.     Pop.  500. 

Johnsonville,  tp.  of  Harnett  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  483. 

Johnsonville,  post-v.  of  Humphreys  co.,  Tenn.,  on  the 
Tennessee  River  and  the  Nashville  and  North-western 
R.  R.,  78  miles  W.  of  Nashville. 

John's  River,  tp.  of  Caldwell  co.,  N.  C.     Pop,  SS3. 

John'ston  (formerly  Johnson),  county  of  E.  Central 
North  Carolina.  Area,  670  square  miles.  It  has  a  varied 
surface,  a  good  soil,  and  is  reported  to  contain  ores  of  iron, 
lead,  gold,  silver,  zinc,  etc.  Live-stock,  corn,  and  cotton 
are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  Xeuse  River  and 
the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina  R.  R.  Cap.  Smithfield. 
Pop.  t(vS97. 

Johnston,  tp.  of  Trumbull  co.,  O.     Pop.  893. 

Johnston,  tp.  of  Providence  co.,  R.  I,  It  contains 
several  manufacturing  villages.     Pop.  4192. 

Johnston,  tp.  of  Scott  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1S70. 

Johnston,  tp.  of  Shenandoah  co.,  Va.     Pop.  1889. 

Johnston  (Albert  Sidnevj.  b.  in  Kentucky  in  1803; 

graduated  at  the  U.  S.  .Military  Academy  July  I,"  ISIIG.  and 
entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  llth  Infantry;  after 
serving  in  the  Black  Hawk  war.  he  resigneil  from  the  army, 
and,  in  1836,  emigrated  to  Texas,  arriving  there  shortly  after 
the  battle  of  San  .lacinto.  Entering  the  Texan  army  as  a 
private,  he  was  soon  promoted  to  succeed  Gen.  Felix  Hous- 
ton in  chief  command,  in  consequence  of  whieh  a  duel  oe- 
cnrred  in  whicli  .lohnston  was  wounded.  Ho  held  the  ofliee 
of  senior  brigadier-general  till  IS.'JS,  when  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  of  Texas,  and  in  1839  organized  an  expe- 
dition against  the  Chcrokees,  who  were  totally  routed  in  an 
engagement  on  the  Ncches.  In  1810  he  retired  from  pub- 
lic life  and  settled  upon  a  plantation.  He  was  an  ardent 
advocate  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  U.  S.,  and  in 
1846,  at  the  request  of  Gen.  Tnylor,  he  took  the  field 
against  Mexico  as  commander  of  the  Texan  volunteer  rifle 
regiment.  Subsequently  he  served  as  inspeetor-gcuerul  on 
the  staff  of  Gen.  W.  0.  Butler,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  tlie  battle  of  Monterey.  In  1849.  IVesident  Taylor  re- 
appointed him  in  the  army  as  paymaster,  with  the  rank 
of  major,  in  whieh  capacity  he  served  until  18.}5,  when  he 
was  appointed  colonel  l.'d  l".  S.  Cavalry.  In  1857  he  com- 
manded the  U.  S.  forces  sent  to  coerce  the  Mormons  into 
obedience  to  Federal  authority,  conducting  the  expedition 
in  safety  to  Salt  Lake  City,  and  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  Utah.  For  energy,  zeal,  and  prudence  displnyed 
in  his  conduct  of  this  expedition  he  was  brevctted  brigadier- 
general.  In  l.^tJO  he  was  removed  to  the  command  of  the 
department  of  the  Pacific.  In  May,  1861,  he  resigned 
from  the  service  and  travelled  overla'nd  to  the  seat  of  the 
Confederate  government.  He  was  at  once  appointed  a 
general  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  assigned  to  an  im- 
portant cummaud  in  the  West.  "At  the  battle  of  Shiloh  he  i 
was  commander-in-chief,  and  on  the  first  dav  of  that  battle 
was  killed.  Apr.  0,  1862.  G.*C.  Simmons.       ] 

Johnston  (Ai.EXAxnEn  Kp.iTn),  b,  at  Kirkhill,  Scot-  ! 
land,  Dec.  28,  1804;  travelled  extensively,  and  studied  the  ■ 
principal  modern  languages  to  avail  himself  of  their  re-  I 
sources  in  peogrftphical  data,  and  ]»ublished  in  1843  a 
X'ltioiinf  Atlat,  which  gained  him  extensive  reputation.  \ 
His  Phjftical  Atlaa  of  Natural  Phenomena  (1847-49;  2d  ed. 


1854-56)  contained  important  contributions  from  Sir  R. 
Murchison,  Sir  David  Brewster,  Prof,  Rogers  of  Boston, 
and  other  eminent  scientists.  Mr.  .Johnston  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  eeograpiiieal  societies  of  Paris  and  Berlin, 
received  the  appointment  of  geographer  to  t!ie  queen  for 
Scotland,  and  issued  numerous  educational,  manual,  nnci 
special  atlases.  D.  at  Ben  Rhydding  July  9,  1871.  His 
son,  hearing  tho  same  name,  has  succeeded  him  la  his  geo- 
graphical  enterprises. 

Johnston  (Gabkiel),  b.  in  Scotland  about  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century  :  was  educated  at  the  I'^nivcrsity  of 
St.  .Vndrew's,  and  became  profcsi^or  of  Oriental  languages  in 
the  same  institution.  He  was  n])pointcd  governor  of 
North  Carolina  in  1734,  and  hchl  that  office  till  his  death 
in  Aug.,  1752.  He  was  esteemed  tho  ablest  of  the  colonial 
governors,  and  successfully  cultivated  literature.  He  gave 
the  narac  of  Wilmington  to  the  jdacc  of  that  name  in  North 
Carolina,  in  honor  of  his  chief  patron  at  court,  the  earl  of 
Wilmington. 

Johnston  (GronflEl.  b.  at  Simprin  in  1798;  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1S19,  after  serving  a 
medical  apprenticeship  with  Dr.  Abercrombie,  and  became 
a  physician  at  Bcrwick-on-Twecd.  He  j>ursued  the  study 
of  natural  history  with  great  enthusiasm  and  success,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ray  Society.  He  puhlished 
important  works  on  the  ffhtori/  of  Jirltish  Zoopfiiftts  ( 1838), 
Hiatorif  of  British  Sponga  and  Lithophi/tr/i  ( 1 842 J,  fntroduc- 
tion  to  Concliolofj}f  (1850).  and  Natural  Hiatory  of  the  East- 
ern Borders  (1854).     D.  July  3,  1855. 

Johnston  (James  F.  W.),  b.  at  Paisley,  Scotland, 
about  1790;  was  for  many  years  a  classical  and  scientific 
teacher  at  Glasgow  and  Durham  ;  went  to  Sweden  in  1830; 
studied  chemistry  under  Bcrzelius;  became  professor  of 
chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  the  University  of  Durham, 
and  prepared  numerous  treatises  on  agricultural  chemistry-, 
most  of  which  have  enjoyed  a  wide  circulation  in  America. 
Prof.  Johnston  visitod  the  U.  S.  about  1848.  Among  his 
works  are  Elements  of  At/ricultnral  Chemisln/  and  Geolof/y 
( 1842),  Catechinm  and  Lectnres  (1844)  on  the  same  sciences, 
Notesnn  North  America  (1849),  and  Chemistry  of  Common 
Lift-  (1854-55).     D.  at  Durham  Sept.  18,  1855. 

Johnston  (John).  LL.D..  b.  Aug.  22,  1806,  in  Bristol, 
Me.;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1832;  after  being 
principal  of  a  seminary  at  Cazcnnvia.  N.  Y.,  he  be<'ame 
connected  in  1835  with  the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  first  as  assistant,  and  subsequently  as  professor 
of  natural  science,  where  be  has  (1875)  since  remained.  Ho 
published  several  textbooks  on  chemistry  and  natural  phi- 
losophy, most  of  which  have  undergone  several  thorough 
revisions,  and  been  extensively  used  in  the  colleges  and 
schools  of  tho  country.  A  history  of  Bristol  (his  native 
town)  and  the  adjoining  town  of  Bremen,  from  his  pen. 
m.ade  its  appearance  in  1873.  This  work  is  the  result  of 
extended  and  thorough  research,  embracing  a  critical  in- 
vestigation of  several  important  (juestions  relating  to  the 
early  history  of  Maine;  and  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  valuable  contributions  that  have  been  made  to 
American  local  history.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
various  periodicals,  as  the  Amrrimn  Journal  of  Scienrt.  tho 
National  Miujaziufi^  Mftlunli^t  Qnnrterlif  Jicriar,  and  the 
AViF    Eufjland    Historical   and    O'anraloffiral    Itcf/iHt<r,   and 

was  a  member  of  the  historical  societies  of  several  of  the 
States  and  of  various  scientific  associations.  D.  ut  Clif- 
ton, Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  1879. 

Johnston  (John  TAVi.on'),  b.  in  New  York  City  Apr.  8, 
18'_M);  was  educated  partly  in  N^cw  Yoik  and  partly  in 
Ivlinburgh:  graduated  at  the  University  of  tlie  City  of 
New  York  in  1839  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843,  and 
became  interested  soon  after  in  the  control  of  railroads.  He 
was  electe<l  ]i resident  of  the  Central  Railroad  of  New 
Jersey  in  1848.  which  jiosition  he  now  holds.  He  is  pres- 
ident of  the  council  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  also  president  of  tho  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  in  the  same  city.  .1.  B.  Bisnop. 

Johnston  (Joseph  Em,EST0N>.  h.  in  Prince  Edward 
CO.,  Va.,  Feb.,  1807  :  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  entered 
the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July,  1829,  From 
the  date  of  gradiiation  until  1837  he  served  mainly  on  gar- 
rison duty,  being,  however,  actively  engaged  for  some  two 
years  in  Florida  against  Seminole  Indians,  a  portion  of 
which  time  on  the  staff"  of  Gen.  Winfield  Scott.  In  1837 
he  resigned  his  commission  to  follow  the  profession  of 
civil  engineer,  but  re-entered  the  service  on  July  7,  1838, 
as  first  lieutenant  of  topographical  engineers,  and  for 
former  gallantry  in  Florida  was  n<iw  brevctted  captain. 
From  this  time  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  ]\Iexico 
ho  was  engaged  upon  river  and  harbor  improvements, 
surveys  of  Texas  boundary-line  and  that  between  the  U.  S. 
and  tho  British  i>roviuccs,  etc.     At  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz 


.loil.NSTON— JOINDKR  OV  PAKTIKS  IX  LAW. 


14:i: 


(Mar.,  1847)  he  served  on  cnginoer  duty;  was  appointed 

Apr.  9  lieutenant-euloncl  of  voltigeurs.  and  at  Ocno  Gordo 
on  iho  12tli  rt'ccivc"!  severe  wouiuls  while  engafjcd  in  recon- 
noitring tho  enemy's  position,  nnd  breretted  iiuijor  and 
colonel.  In  the  suh^equeut  battles  of  Contreru^^,  Cliuru- 
busco,  Molino  del  Ue\\  Chapultepcc,  and  the  final  assault 
of  the  city  of  Mexico  he  participated,  and  was  wounded 
at  the  latter  as.'^ault.  I'pon  the  disbandment  of  the  volti- 
gcnr?<  in  1S48,  Johnston,  by  act  of  Congress  restorinj;  officers 
of  tho  old  army  to  their  former  positions,  returned  to  duty 
as  captain  of  topographical  engineers,  serving  as  such  until 
ISiD,  when  he  was  ajtpointed  lientenant-colouel  of  cavalry, 
and  was  engaged  in  frontier  duty  and  on  tho  Vtah  expe- 
dition as  inspector-general.  On  June  2^,  ISOO,  ho  was 
appointed  quartermaster-general  with  tho  rank  of  brig- 
adier-general, which  position  he  resigned  Apr.  22,  ISGl,  to 
follow  the  fortunes  of  his  native  State.  At  onoo  appointed 
major-general  in  tho  Tonfedorate  army,  be  eomniaii'led  the 
force  which  occupied  Harper's  Ferry.  May.  \S<\\,  and  which 
subsequently,  in  the  vicinity  of  Winchester,  held  in  cheek 
the  Union  force  under  Gen.  Robert  Patterson,  and  whieh 
still  later  reinforced  (ten.  Beauregard  in  his  p<)sition  about 
Manassas.  At  tho  battle  of  Bull  Run,  Gen.  Johnston  waived 
his  right  to  command  in  favor  of  Beauregard,  the  latter 
being  familiar  with  tho  ground  and  troops,  while  the  former 
was  not.  In  the  Peninsular  campaign  ho  was  in  command 
of  the  Confederate  army,  and  at  the  close  of  tho  first  day's 
fighting  at  Fair  Oaks  (May31,lSC2)  was  severely  wounded 
anj  disabled  for  several  months,  being  suocct-iled  by  (icn. 
K.  K.  Lee.  T'|>on  his  recovery  he  was  assigned  to  com- 
mand the  S.  W.  department,  with  tho  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  and  during  tho  eicgo  of  Vicksburg  made  several 
ineifectual  attempts  to  relievo  that  place,  being  finally  de- 
feated at  and  driven  beyond  Jackson,  Miss.  In  Dec, 
186,1,  Johnston,  now  a  general,  succeeded  Gon.  Bragg 
in  command  of  tho  Confederate  army  of  Tennessee:  but 
failing  to  prevent  tho  invasion  of  Georgia  the  following 
spring  by  the  Union  forces  of  Gen.  Sherman,  be  wassupcr- 
sedeil  (July  17,  18CI)  by  Gen.  J.  B.  Hood,  after  having  been 
forced  to  retire  from  the  strong  positions  at  l>altou.  Ilesaea, 
Kenesaw,  etc.,  and  beyond  tho  Chattahoochee.  In  1805 
Johnston  was  restored  to  command  in  the  Carolinas  to 
collect  and  command  an  army  to  oppose  the  advance  of 
Gon.  Sherman,  but  was  defeated  at  Fayctleville,  Bcnton- 
ville,  etc.,  and  upon  recci\ing  intclligeneo  of  tho  surrender 
of  Lee  entered  into  correspondence  with  Gen.  Sherman, 
which  led  to  the  surrender  of  his  army  at  Durham  Station, 
N.  C,  Apr.  26,  ISfij.  In  1874  he  published  a  Xarrative  of 
Militnrtf  OfH'ntlions.  G.  C.  SlMMoXS. 

JohnHton  ^Ricmaiid  M.),  b.  in  Hancock  co.,  fla.,  Mar. 
ft,  IS22;  graduated  at  ]\Iereer  University  with  tho  lirst 
honor  of  his  class  in  ISIl;  studiecl  law  and  was  ailmittcd 
to  the  bar, and  entered  upon  the  praclieo  atSpartain  18ilJ. 
The  presidency  of  Mercer  University  was  unanimously  ten- 
dered him  by  the  board  of  trustees  in  1SJ7;  this  ho  dc- 
clineil.  preferring  to  aecrpt  a  proi'essorsbip  of  brlfev-/ct(rtn  in 
the  State  Univert^ily  tendered  him  at  tho  same  time.  This 
position  ho  held  until  istU,  after  the  war  broke  out;  ho 
then  established  a  sclcot  classical  school  at  Roekby  in  his 
native  county,  which  became  famous  in  the  Southern  States; 
in  I8ft7,  after  the  ad'tption  of  the  reconstruction  poliey  by 
Congress,  he  moved  his  school  to  Cbcstniit  Hill,  2  miles  N. 
.  of  Raltimore,  M*l.,  where  it  is  now  known  as  Pen-Lucy 
Institute.  Hundreds  of  young  men  have  gone  forth  into 
active  useful  life  from  the  trainlngof  this  eminent  instructor. 
The  labors  of  Prof.  Johnston  have  not  been  confined  to 
teaching  only;  by  his  pen  he  has  ef>ntributed  extensively 
to  the  literature  of  tho  country,  liis  most  noted  works  of 
this  character  being  hts  EngliaK  CVa««iV«  (18.'>'.)),  nnd  tho 
J)iikr»t,nrottf/h  TidvH  (1872).  A.  II.  Stkimikns. 

Johnston  (Samiti,),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Dundee,  Scotland, 
Dec.  |j,  \~'.V.\,  nephew  of  (iov.  Gabriel  Johnston,  was 
brought  in  infancy  to  North  Carolina,  whern  his  father  be- 
conio  surveyor-general  nnd  acquired  largo  landed  estates. 
Samuel  was  admitte<l  to  the  bar,  wns  chosen  to  the  aHsnmbly 
in  1760,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  resistance  to  tho  British 
cabinet  ;  was  an  active  member  of  the  first  two  provincial 
Congresses,  and  presideil  over  the  third  nnd  fourth.  In 
I77i>  he  was  chairman  of  tho  provincial  council,  was  a 
member  of  the  Conlinenlnl  Congress  in  I78I-S2,  governor 
of  North  Cartdina  178S-S9,  presiding  over  the  Siato  con- 
vention which  a'lopled  the  Federal  Constitution;  was  XT.  S. 
Senator  178y-ii;i.  and  justice  of  tho  Supremo  Court  1800- 
03.     1).  near  Edenton,  N.  C,  Aug.  I«,  1816. 

Johnston  (Wh.i.iam  FnKAMr).  b.  at  Oreensburg,  West- 
moreland CO.,  Pa..  Nov,  2'.*.  18)IH,  of  Scotch- Irish  paternity. 
His  father  was  a  prominent  iron  manufaelurer  and  mer- 
chant. W.  F.  Johnston  became  a  siieeessfnl  lawyer  of 
Armstrong  eo..  Ph.,  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1S29.     la  the  State  legislature  bo  early  woo  distinetioQ  by 


bis  financial  ability.  In  1S47  be  became  president  of  the 
Senate.  On  July  9.  ISJS.  Gov.  Shunk  died,  Mr.  Johnston 
becoming  governor  €x-ojfit:io;  but  llie  statutes  and  the  State 
constitution  being  in  apjtarcnt  confiict,  he  ordered  a  new 
election,  and  was  himseli"  chosen  governor  for  tlirec  years. 
lie  afterwards  was  an  iron  and  salt  manufacturer  and  oil- 
refiner  of  Pittsburg,  and  was  for  a  time  collector  of  tho 
port  of  Philadelphia.     D.  at  Pittsburg  Oct,  25,  1872. 

John'stonet  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Ren- 
frew, has  large  manufactures  of  cotton  fabrics  and  of  arti- 
cles of  iron  and  brass.  The  vicinity  contains  rich  coal- 
mines,    pop.  6104. 

John'stown  for  Lanci  Rin).  post-tp.  of  Garrett  co., 
Md.  (formerly  in  Allegany  co.).     Pop.  673. 

Johnstown,  post-tp.  of  Barry  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1296. 

Johnstown,  post-v..  cap.  of  Fulton  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
Fonda  Johnstown  and  Gloversvillc  H.  K.,  4  miles  N.  of 
Fonda,  and  on  the  Cayadutta  Creek;  has  2  banking- 
houses,  10  churches,  3  weekly  newspapers,  an  academy, 
county  buildings,  good  hotels,  gasworks,  and  various  man- 
ufactures, ]»roniinent  among  which  is  that  of  gloves  nnd 
mittens.  The  township  of  Johnstown  includes  Glovcrsville 
and  other  vilhi-es.     Pop.  of  v.  ;i282  ;  of  tp.  12,27:i. 

W.   II.   ll<M  lU.KDAY,  FOR  Ed.  "FlLTON  Co.  DEMOfttAT." 

Johnstown,  post-b.  of  Cambria  co.,  Pa.,  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania Canal  and  R.  R.,  79  miles  E.  of  Pittsburg;  has  a 
rolling-mill  and  Bessemer  steel  works  (employing  6000 
men),  a  woollen-mill,  tannery,  meehanieal  works,  cement- 
works,  and  other  industries,  gas  and  water  supply,  1  daily 
and  b  weekly  newspapers,  n  national  and  a  savings  bank. 
The  surrounding  mountains  are  rich  in  iron,  bituminous 
coal,  limestone,  cement,  and  fireclay.  The  Concmaugh 
River  flows  on  the  N.  and  Stony  Creek  on  the  S.  of  tho 
town.     Pop.  G028,  greatly  increased  since  the  census. 

G.  T.  Swank,  En.  "  TrtiBi  .nk." 

Johnstown,  a  v.  of  Porter  tp.,  Schuylkill  co.,  Pa. 
Pop.  70. 

Johnstown,  post-tp.  of  Rock  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1299. 

John'sviMc,  post-v.  of  Frederick  co.,  Md.,  1.1  miles 
N.  E.  of  Frederick  City.     Pop.  of  tp.  1642. 

Johnsville,  v.  of  Ferry  tp.,  Morrow  co.,  0.     Pop.  159. 

John'ton,  po8t-v.  of  Marion  co.,  W.  Va.     Pop.  55. 

Joignoanx'  (PiEnnK),  b.  at  Varennes,  department  of 
Cfitc  d'Or,  France,  in  1815,  agronomist,  agrii'ulfural  writer, 
and  representative.  He  passed  through  the  Paris  Kcnic 
Centrale  des  Arts  ct  Manufactures,  nnd  launched  himself 
in  politics,  writing  for  t!io  opposition  papers.  He  was 
sentenced  to  jirison  under  tho  Louis  Philip])o  government, 
nnd  elected  in  18IS  representative  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly, where  ho  look  his  scat  on  the  extreme  Left.  After  tho 
roup  (Vtfatui  Dec,  1S.')1,  .Toigneaux  was  exiled  to  Belgium, 
from  whence  he  returned  after  the  proclamation  of  amnesty 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  his  former  agricultural 
writings.  He  publishecl  many  articles,  founded  agricul- 
tural journaN,  and  wrote  Thr  /*fa*ntntn  iiii'ler  lioifalty,  iJiC' 
tionnvy  o/'  i'rurtiofil  Ai/n'rit/ftir<^,  CoiiuHcfn  to  the  Yoittiff 
Fnrminff-womnn,  Cnlturr  aufl  Fabrirntinu  of  Wine  in  lid- 
ffiutn,  Tirfitise  of  the  Seetl»  of  the  Siiinfl  and  Larffe  Hu»- 
I'tnifri/,  etc.  Fkmx  ArCAlONE. 

Joipny',  town  of  Franco,  in  tho  department  of  Yonne, 
on  tho  Yonne,  noted  for  its  fine  claret  wines.     Pop.  5971. 

Join'tlcr  of  Actions  in  Law  is  the  union  of  two  or 
more  causes  of  action  in  tho  same  declaration  or  complaint. 
A  plaintilf  may  have  several  distinct  claims  against  tho 
same  defendant,  either  wholly  or  partly  arising  out  of  con- 
tract, or  wholly  or  partly  foumled  upon  tort,  and  in  such 
cases  it  becomes  an  important  qu»-lion  whether  he  can 
unite  all  these  claims  and  obtain  the  remedy  appropriate 
to  each  in  a  single  action,  or  whether  several  actions  must 
be  brought.  At  common  law  tho  rule  was  in  civil  cases 
that  when  the  same  plea  might  be  pleaded  and  the  same 
judgment  given  on  all  the  eiiunts  of  the  declaration,  or 
when  tho  counts  were  of  the  same  nature  and  the  same 
judgment  was  to  be  given  on  them  all,  several  causes  of  ac- 
tion might  bo  joineil.  Thus,  in  an  Action  on  contract,  a 
count  tor  debt  upon  a  bonil  might  he  united  with  a  count 
for  debt  up(»n  sintpio  eontract.  So  in  an  actiitn  of  tort  sev- 
eral claims  tor  trespasses  might  be  joined.  But  a  demand 
upon  contract  could  not  be  uniterl  with  a  claim  grounded 
in  tort.  The  subject  of  joinder  of  actions,  particularly  in 
civil  eases,  is  now  frequently  regulated  by  statute.  There 
are  also  special  rules  as  to  joinder  in  criminal  cases. 

Gkomor  CtiAsr.     RrvisFn  av  T.  W.  Dwionr. 

Joinilor  oT  Parties  in  Law.  By  this  expression 
is  meant  the  eollection  of  rules  requiring  that  persons  hav- 
ing a  common  intere-^t  or  subject  to  n  ennimon  liability 
shouhl  bt>  joined  together  in  an  action  at  law  or  other  legal 
proceeding.     The  details  of  this  subject,  being  of  a  tooh- 


1436 


JOINERY— JOINT  AND  SEVERAL. 


nical  character,  should  be  sought  in  the  books  of  legal 
practice.  The  subject  is  one  of  great  consequence  to  the 
legal  practilioner.  and  should  be  carefully  understood,  as  a 
failure  to  join  the  necessary  parties  is  frequently  fatal  in 
its  consequences. 

In  contrasting  the  rules  prevailing  in  courts  of  law  with 
tho«e  adopted  in  courts  of  equity  upon  this  subject,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  latter  are  much  the  more  liberal.  The 
former  arc  frequently  in  a  high  degree  technical :  the  latter, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  so  framed  as  to  make  it  proper  to 
bring  in  all  persona  whose  presence  is  necessary  to  a  com- 
plete determination  of  the  matter  in  controversy.  There  is 
alsoan  important  and  salutary  rale,  that  when  the  parties  are 
numerous,  and  it  is  impracticable  to  bring  them  all  before 
the  court,  one  or  more  may  sue  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole. 
An  illustration  of  it  is  found  in  the  case  where  an  admin- 
istrator is  called  upon  to  account  in  respect  to  the  assets 
of  an  estate  in  his  hands.  One  or  more  of  a  numerous 
body  of  creditors  may  sue.  not  only  for  himself,  but  also 
for  the  other  creditors.  Keeurring  to  the  rules  of  the  com- 
mon-law courts,  it  may  be  useful  to  state  that  the  question 
as  to  uniting  parties  arises  in  the  main  out  of  joint  con- 
tract, ownership,  or  wrong  (tort).  It  is  a  general  rule  that 
when  the  interest  in  a  contract  is  joint  the  cause  of  action 
is  of  the  same  nature,  and  all  the  parties  should  be  united. 
A  like  rule  prevails  in  the  case  of  a  joint  liability.  A  dis- 
tinction must  here  be  made  between  a  ''joint  "  liability  and 
one  that  is  "joint  and  several."  (See  Joint  and  Several.) 
This  rule  gives  way  when  one  of  two  joint  parties  dies. 
The  action  is  then  prosecuted  by  or  against  the  survivor. 
In  a  court  of  equity  the  representatives  of  the  deceased 
will  still  bo  liable  in  some  instances  to  the  survivor  for 
contribution.  {See  Contribition.)  In  the  case  of  wrongs 
it  is  not  necessary,  though  proper,  to  join  all  the  wrong- 
do_'r3.  a  wrong  being  regarded  in  its  nature  as  joint  and 
stncral.  Where  two  or  more  persons  are  jointly  injured, 
they  should  be  united  as  plaintiffs.  Special  rules  exist  in 
the  case  of  husband  and  wife,  growing  out  of  the  technical 
rule  that  the  legal  existence  of  the  wife  is  merged  in  that 
of  the  husband.  These  rules,  requiring  them  to  be  united 
a«  parties  to  actions,  give  way  when  one  of  them  dies, 
Tlic  fiction  of  a  merger  is  then  abandoned,  and  the  true 
owner  of  the  claim  or  the  author  of  the  wrong  is  recog- 
nized as  the  proper  person  to  sue  or  to  be  sued.  There  is 
a  tendency  in  modern  law  to  abandon  this  tiction  in  many 
respects.  Thus,  under  the  New  York  code  of  proctiduro 
the  wife  may  sue  alone  concerning  her  separate  property, 
and  by  other  statutes  to  recover  for  her  services  or  for  in- 
juries that  she  has  sustained,  or  for  her  profits  in  trade,  etc. 
A  siiuilar  rule  prevails  in  many  other  States.  A  like  tend- 
ency is  observable  in  England.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
common-law  rule  bos  been  wholly  abandoned,  but  only 
uiolified. 

The  penalty  in  the  common-law  courts  for  failure  to  make 
the  proper  i>ersons  ]jarties  is  very  severe.  Error  in  this  re- 
pppct  is  in  some  instances  fatal  in  every  stage  of  the  cause. 
By  modern  legislation  in  some  States  of  this  country  the 
general  course  of  the  action  is  unaffected  by  the  presence 
of  too  m.any  plaintiffs  or  defendants.  Thus,  in  Xe\v  York, 
wlicre  there  are  defendants  in  excess  the  question  can  only 
be  raised  by  them,  and  they  may  claim  that  as  far  as  they 
are  concerned  there  is  no  cause  of  action.  Oa  this  theory, 
the  cause  proceeds  against  those  who  are  properly  made 
defendants.  This,  it  can  scarcely  be  denied,  is  a  very  sal- 
utary reform.  AVhere  the  parties  are  too  few,  the  objection 
must  be  raised  at  an  early  stage  in  the  cause,  or  it  will  bo 
d  'cmod  to  be  abandoned.  So  now  in  England  errors  of 
this  kind  may  be  amended  before  or  at  the  trial  by  force 
of  the  "common  law  procedure  act"  of  is;»2  and  later 
statutes.  (Reference  may  he  made  for  further  information 
to  Dicey  on  PartUit;  Barbour  on  PnrtuH;  lirown,do. ;  Cal- 
vert, do.;  and  to  general  works  on  Practice.) 

T.  W.  DWIGRT. 

Join'ery  differs  from  Oarpestrt  (which  see)  in  the 
nicer  and  more  exact  \vorkmanship  required.  The  house- 
joiner  finishes  the  work  which  the  carpenter  and  builder 
have  left.  So  of  the  shipjoiner,  whose  work  is  sometimes 
almost  a  work  of  art  rather  than  one  of  artisanship.  The 
making  of  nice  wooden-wares,  ornamental  boxes,  and  the 
like  is  a  still  more  delicate  kind  of  joinery. 

Jointf  in  anatomy,  an  articulation,  or  the  connection 
existing  between  the  several  bones  of  the  skeleton.  The 
tissues  entering  into  its  formation  are  bones,  the  ends  of 
which  are  covered  by  cartilage,  and  bound  together  by  lig- 
aments; in  the  more  movable  a  membranous  sac  is  inter- 
posed, which  secretes  a  lubricating  fluid  called  synovia. 
The  constrnction  of  joints  differs  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  according  to  the  function  which  they  have  to  per- 
form ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  they  have  been  divided 
into  three  classes — viz.,  synarthrosis,  nmphiarthrosis,  and 
diarthrosie,  which  have  been  subdivided  as  follows  : 


I.  Synarthroitig,  an  immovable  articulation  :  (a)  Stituro, 
in  which  the  bones  are  dovetailed  into  each  other,  as  in  the 
skull,  (b)  Harmoiiin.  in  which  the  joints  are  but  slightly 
marked,  as  union  of  superior  raaxilhe.  (c)  GompkoaiM,  in 
which  a  conical  point  fits  into  a  socket,  as  the  teeth  into 
the  alveoli.  (</)  ^'chimit/icsis,  an  articulation  by  furrow- 
ing, as  it  were — vomer. 

II.  Aiifphinrthronia,  an  articulation  permitting  limited 
motion:  («)  .S[yiif/''*mo«f'*i,  the  articulation  of  two  or  more 
bones  by  means  of  ligaments,  as  radius  and  ulna,  (h)  Si/n- 
ckonfiroHtu,  the  articulation  of  bones  by  means  of  cartilage, 
as  that  of  the  ribs  with  the  sternum,  (c)  Si/iiiphysi»,  the 
union  of  bones  by  fibro-eartilage.  as  the  pubes. 

III.  Dinrthi'oais,  a  movable  articulation  :  (a)  Arthrodia, 
a  gliding  joint,  as  sterno-clavieular.  (A)  Enm'th rosin,  a 
ball-and-socket  joint,  as  the  shoulder  and  hip  joints,  (c) 
Giiit/(tfmm,  a  hinge-like  articulation,  as  at  the  elbow  and 
knee,     (d)  Diartfirosis  rutfitorimt,  as  the  atlo-axoid  joint. 

The  diseases  to  which  the  joints  arc  most  li.able  arc  Syno- 
vitis, Chondritis,  and  Osteitis.     EnwARn  .1.  Berminghah. 

Joint  and  Several,  a  legal  phrase  used  to  denote 
that  the  liability  of  two  or  more  debtors  is  of  such  a  kind 
that  they  may  be  sued  either  collectively  or  individually. 
If  any  one  of  them,  when  the  liability  rests  upon  con- 
tract, is  sued  and  compelled  to  discharge  the  entire  debt, 
he  has  a  claim  for  contribution  against  the  others  upon  an 
implied  contract,  and  may  re'_^over  from  them  such  a  por- 
tion of  the  whole  amount  as  they  ought  justly  to  pay. 
And  if  the  debt  be  a  valid  antl  subsisting  obligation,  a 
single  debtor  may  pay  it  in  full,  even  though  no  suit  is 
brought  against  him,  and  will  still  have  a  valid  claim  for 
contribution.  So,  if  the  ]>ayment  made  by  one  be  less  than 
the  entire  debt,  but  larger  than  his  own  proper  share,  he  will 
be  entitled  to  receive  from  the  others  a  proportionate  part 
of  the  excess  according  to  the  extent  of  their  respective 
liabilities  upon  the  contract.  If  one  or  more  of  the  other 
debtors  be  insolvent,  the  one  who  pays  the  whole,  or  more 
than  his  share,  can  recover  at  la\v  from  those  who  remain 
solvent  only  such  suras  as  they  would  be  obliged  to  pay  if 
all  were  solvent.  In  equity,  however,  those  who  remain 
solvent  must  contribute  equally  towards  the  discharge  of 
the  entire  indebtedness,  in  accordance  with  the  maxim  that 
"equality  is  equity."  A  joint  and  several  obligation  may 
bo  created  by  the  express  language  of  the  agreement,  or 
may  arise  by  implication  from  its  terms.  Usually,  the 
words  are  employed,  "We  jointly  and  severally  promise 
(or  covenant)."  but  a  contract  by  two  or  more  persons,  in 
which  they  agree  '*  for  ourselves  and  each  of  us  "  or  "  for 
ourselves  and  every  of  us,"  is  also  an  express  joint  and  sev- 
eral contract.  A  joint  and  several  liability  is  implied  when 
several  persons  sign  a  contract  in  the  obligatory  part  of 
which  the  pronoun  /  is  used  instead  of  tee.  Moreover,  a 
joint  and  several  obligation  may  sometimes  arise  by  reason 
of  the  legal  relatiuns  of  the  parties  by  whom  a  contract  is 
entered  into.  Thus.  Jn  England  the  liability  of  the  mem- 
bers of  an  ordinary  partnership  in  regard  to  the  debts  and 
engagements  of  the  firm  is  joint  and  several  in  courts  of 
equity  (though  not  in  courts  of  law),  except  under  special 
circumstances.  If  one  of  several  co-contractors  upon  a  joint 
and  several  agreement  dies,  the  action  may,  at  common 
law,  be  brought  either  against  his  personal  representative 
(executor  or  administrator)  or  against  the  survivors.  The 
rule  is  different,  however,  in  regard  to  parties  who  are 
jointly  liable;  and  if  one  of  them  dies  the  action  must 
be  brought  against  the  survivors.  When  the  joint  and  sev- 
eral contract  is  for  the  performance  of  a  single  act  or  duty, 
a  release  under  seal  to  one  will  operate  as  a  release  to  all. 
But  a  judgment  recovered  against  one.  if  not  satisded,  will 
be  no  bar  to  an  action  against  either  of  the  others.  A  joint 
and  several  obligation  cannot  be  treated  as  several  in  ref- 
erence to  some  of  the  obligors  and  jjiut  as  to  the  rest.  The 
creditor  must  proceed  either  jointly  against  all  or  severally 
against  each.  This  rule,  however,  has  in  some  of  the  States 
been  changed  by  statute.  The  phrase  '"joint  and  several" 
is  only  applied  "to  the  liability  of  debtors,  and  not  to  the 
claims  of  creditors.  There  can  be  no  form  of  contract  by 
which  the  obligees  arc  entitled  to  sue  either  collectively  or 
singly.  Their  claim  can  be  only  joint  or  only  several.  There 
may  also  be  a  joint  and  several  liability  in  cases  of  tort,  as 
well  as  in  cases  of  contract.  Thus,  if  two  or  more  persons 
unite  in  the  commission  of  a  tortious  offence,  one,  any,  or 
all  of  them  may  be  sued  by  the  party  suffering  the  injury. 
Full  damages  may  bo  recovered  from  the  party  sued,  and 
there  will  not,  in  general,  be  any  claim  for  contribution 
against  the  other  wrongdoers.  In  some  cases,  however, 
where  the  person  who  is  compelled  to  make  full  payment 
was  not  wilfully  nor  intentionally  a  participant  in  the 
wrong  committed,  he  will  be  entitled  to  recover  a  propor- 
tional amount  of  the  damages  from  the  others.  (For  an 
illustration  of  this  kind,  see  CoNTHiBrrroN.) 

George  Chase.     Rkviseh  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 


JOINT  FIRS— JOINT  OWNERSHIP. 


1437 


Joint  Firs  (Gnctaccip),  a  small  natural  order  of  exog- 
enous jjlanls  (cyninogens)  closely  allied  to  llic  Conifcraj. 
They  arc  small  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  genera  (liifium  and 
Ephcdrn,  found  in  tropical  and  warm  countries.  Their 
steins  arc  jointed,  their  juices  not  nsinous.  hut  very  wa- 
tery, or  sometimes  even  gummy.  Several  grow  in  the  far 
\Vc?t. 

Joint  Own'crship.  As  employed  in  a  comprehensive 
sense  in  law,  joint  ownership  denotes  the  ownership  of 
properlv,  whether  real  or  personal,  by  two  or  more  persons. 
But  it  is  more  appropriately  applied  to  personal  property, 
and  is,  by  this  restriction  of  meaning,  distinguished  from 
joint  tcnancv.  which  is  customarily  used  with  reference  to 
real  estate,  of  which  only  can  tenure  be  properly  predicated. 
Both  these  phrases  arc,  however,  sometimes  loosely  cm- 
ployed  as  avnonymous.  By  a  still  further  qualification  of 
meaning,  joint  ownership  is  distinguished  from  ownership 
in  comrnon,  and  joint  tenancy  from  tenancy  in  common,  in 
the  accurate  technical  application  of  these  various  terms, 
the  interest  of  a  number  of  owners  being  characterized 
strictly  as  joint  when  the  property,  whether  real  or  per- 
sonal, is  hold  by  them  with  a  unity  of  interest,  of  title,  of 
time,  and  of  possession,  and  with  a  right  of  survivorship  ; 
while  it  is  termed  common  when  the  only  unity  is  that  of 
possession,  and  there  is  no  survivorship.  In  this  article 
ownership  of  personal  property  will  only  be  considered  ; 
that  of  real  property  will  be  considered  under  the  topics 
Joist  Tenascv  and  Tknaniv  in  Common:  ownership  by 
several  persons  who  stand  in  the  relation  of  partners  will 
be  discussed  under  PARTNKnsnip.  (For  ownership  by  sev- 
eral who  form  the  members  of  a  corporation  see  Corpora- 
tion.) 

There  are  four  unities  which,  as  has  just  been  stated,  are 
necessary  to  constitute  joint  ownership.  By  unity  of  in- 
terest is  meant  that  the  interest  of  each  owner  in  the  prop- 
erty should  be,  by  its  original  limitation,  for  the  same  du- 
ration and  of  the  same  nature  and  quanlity.  Tnity  of  title 
exists  when  the  title  of  each  is  derived  from  the  same  in- 
strument or  from  the  same  act  of  transfer  of  interest.  That 
there  may  be  unity  of  time  the  interest  of  each  should  vest 
at  the  same  moment :  while  unity  of  possession  requires 
that  each  owner  should  be  entitled  to  the  possession  of  the 
whole  property  and  every  parcel,  and  that  it  should  not  bo 
divided  in  separate  portions  between  them.  There  is  an 
exception,  however,  to  the  rule  requiring  unity  of  time 
when  the  joint  ownership  is  created  by  will.  Thus,  if  a 
bequest  be  made  to  ,A  for  life,  and  after  his  death  to  tho 
children  of  B,  all  the  children  born  in  \'a  lifetime  will  be- 
come entitled  jointly,  Ihoui,'h  some  may  not  be  living  when 
the  interests  of  the  others  become  vested.  All  property 
held  in  joint  ownership  is  subject  to  the  right  of  survivor- 
ship. In  the  apjdication  of  this  doctrine,  whenever  one 
of  the  owners  dies,  the  survivors  take  the  entire  interest, 
to  the  ex(dusion  of  his  personal  representatives.  Joint 
ownership  always  arises  by  the  act  of  parties,  and  not  by 
the  operation  of  law.  Hence,  though  it  might  he  created 
by  a  transfer  of  property  by  deed  or  by  gift,  it  would  not 
(lubsist  in  relation  to  properly  which  pnsse.l  after  the  de- 
cease of  the  previous  owner  to  the  next  of  kin.  The  crea- 
tion of  a  joint  interest  in  personal  property  may  either  bo 
by  the  use  of  express  language  to  that  elTect  in  tho  instru- 
ment of  transfer,  or  it  may  result  from  necessary  imi)lica- 
tion,  as  where  chattels  are  given  to  two  or  more  persons 
without  the  use  of  any  words  indicating  a  severance  of  in- 
terest.  But  this  implication  »vill  not  be  made  in  relation 
to  stock  used  in  joint  undertakings  of  trade  or  agriculture. 
A  limitation  of  this  to  two  or  more  persons  will  be  held 
generally  to  create  a  tenancy  in  common.  This  excep- 
tion to  the  general  doctrine  bus  been  establishrd  on  account 
of  the  effect  of  the  rule  of  survivorship  in  interfering  with 
the  unrestricted  management  of  property,  and  with  the 
usual  mode  of  distribution  after  the  owner's  death.      In 


C'Hirts  of  cquil; 
except  in  the 


ept  in  the  case  of  property  given  in  trust,  and  will 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  held  to  exist  unless  that  bo  the  ex- 
pressed or  clearly  presumable  intention  of  the  parties.  In 
this  country,  also,  the  tendency  of  legislation  is  to  do  away 
with  the  incirlent  of  survivorship,  except  in  the  ease  of  lega- 
cies and  where  persona  are  appointed  co-exeeulnrs  or  eo- 
trustcca.  In  regard  to  legacies  limited  to  several  persons, 
it  is  a  general  rule  that  they  take  a  joint  interest.  When 
several  executors  or  trustees  are  appointed,  they  are  usually 


deemctl  to  holil  in  joint  ownership,  sine 


these  cases  it 
is  desirable  that  the  principle  of  survivorship  should  apply, 
and  that  the  property  should  pass  to  the  remaining  execu- 
tors or  trustees  to  be  managed  for  the  pui]\oscs  designated 
in  the  will  or  in  the  instrument  creating  the  tru^t,  rather 
than  that  others  should  interfere  with  its  disposition. 

Kvery  kind  of  personal  properly  may  be  held  in  joint 
ownership,  whether  it  be  property  in  possession  or  properly 
in  action.  (Seo  Chose   ix  Actios.)     Thus,  there  may  be 


joint  owners  of  stock,  of  a  legacy,  of  a  promissory  note, 
of  a  patent  right,  or  of  a  lease  for  years,  which  is  termed 
a  chattel  real,  as  well  as  of  a  horse,  furniture,  etc.     Tho 
interest  of  any  owner  cannot  be  disposed  of  by  will,  but 
will  pass  to  the  survivor  unaffected  by  the  bequest.     Joint 
ownership  in  chattels,  like  a  joint  tenancy  in  lands,  may 
be  terminated  by  destroying  any  one  of  the  four  requisite 
unities,  except  that  of  time,  and  may  thus  be  changed  into 
an  ownership  in  severalty  or  in  common.     Then  the  owners 
may,  by  mutual  agreement,  divide  the  property  among  them- 
selves,or  sell  it  and  divide  the  proceeds,  thus  becoming  in- 
dependent owners  of  distinct  shares.  Or  the  interest  of  any 
one  may  bo  assigned  or  transferred  to  a  third  person,  who 
will  thereupon  become  tenant  in  common  with  the  others. 
In  ownership  in  common  of  chattels,  as  in  tenancy  in 
common  of  real  property,  there  is  but  a  single  unity,  that 
of  possession,  and  there  is  no  right  of  survivorship.     Each 
owner  has  an  undivided  share,  and  u)>on  his  death  this 
passes  to  his  executor  or  administrator,  to  be  administered 
in  the  same  way  as  the  rest  of  his  personal  estate.     Owner- 
ship in  common  may  arise  by  a  gift  or  transfer  of  chattels, 
which  by  the  terms  of  the  limitation  are  to  be  held  in  com- 
mon ;  or,  as  has  been  already  seen,  it  may  result  from  the 
disposal  of  his  interest  to  a  third  person  by  one  of  several 
joint  owners.    By  common -law  rules,  however,  the  interest 
of  a  joint  owner  in  a  chose  in  action  cannot  be  transferred  so 
as  to  effect  an  ownership  in  common,  since  choscs  in  action  are 
not  assignable.     But  in  equity  a  difl'erent  rule  prevails,  and 
an  assignment  will  be  deemed  valid.    In  some  of  the  States, 
also.choses  in  action  have  been  made  assignable  by  statute, 
so  that  the  common-law  rules  would  no  longer  be  applicable. 
A  number  of  persons  may  also  become  owners  in  common 
by  an  innocent  admixture  of  their  chattels,  which  are  of 
such  a  kind  that  it  becomes  impofsible  to  distinguish  the 
particular  property  of  each,  as  where  quantities  of  grain 
belonging  to  different  persons  are  mingled  together  acci- 
dentally, or  arc  mixed   in  elevators  in  the  cour.sc  of  trans- 
portation ;  so  several  owners  may  agree  to  hold  their  prop- 
erty in  common.     This  form  of  ownership  may  arise  by 
operation  of  law  as  well  as  by  the  act  of  jMirties.    Thus,  tho 
next  of  kin  of  a  deceased  person,  among  whom  his  personal 
property  is  distributed,  may  be  said  to  stand  in  relation  to 
one  another  like  tenants  in  common  until  a  distribution  is 
made,  since  if  one  of  them  should  die  in  the  intervening 
time,  his  personal  representatives,  and  not  the  survivors, 
would  be  entitled  to  his  share.     An  owner  in  common  may 
dispose  of  his  interest  as  freely  as  an  owner  in  severalty. 
The  purchaser  becomes  an  owner  in  common  with  the  other 
owners.     Ownership  in  common   may  be  destroyed  by  a 
division  of  the  property  among  the  various  owners  accord- 
ing to  tho  extent  of  their  respective  shares. 

There  are  certain  principles  ap))licable  to  joint  and  to 
common  ownership  which  are  quite  similar,  and  may  there- 
fore be  considered  together.  Thus,  both  joint  and  common 
owners  have  a  right  to  dispose  of  their  own  interests,  but 
not  of  the  shares  of  their  I'ellowowners.  If  they  nttrmpt 
to  transfer  a  Inrirer  jiortion  of  the  ).ropcrly  than  they  arc 
rightfully  entitled  to,  the  transaction  will  only  be  valid  to 
tlio  extent  of  their  own  interests.  The  share  of  each  owner 
may  also  bo  sold  on  execution  against  him  by  the  sheriff. 
If  the  sheriff  sell  the  entire  chattel,  the  other  co-owners,  who 
arc  thereby  deprived  of  their  property,  may  sue  him  for 
conversion.  Kacli  joint  or  cominiui  owner  is  entilled  to  tho 
possession  of  the  property,  and  his  possession  is  deemed  to 
be  the  possession  of  all.  One  co-owner  in  actual  possession 
even  has  the  right  to  maintain  that  possession  against  tho 
others.  The  lei;al  remedy  of  the  other  co-owners  is  to  take 
tho  chattel  wherever  an 'opportunity  is  afforded,  but  they 
cannot  bring  an  action  for  conversion  simply  on  this 
ground.  As  a  general  rule,  joint  owners  and  owners  in 
common  must  unite  in  all  actions  foriiijuries  to  the  general 
property  by  third  persons,  as  in  actions  of  trespass  and 
trover.  In  .some  instances  one  co-owner  may  maintain  an 
action  against  another  for  a  misuse  of,  or  wrongful  inter- 
ference with,  the  joint  or  common  properly.  An  intentional 
destruction  or  spoliation  of  the  chattel  by  one  will  amount 
to  a  conversion,  for  which  he  will  be  responsible.  In  some 
Stales  it  is  held  that  a  sale  by  one  owner  of  more  than 
his  share  will  render  him  liable  to  an  action  of  trover.  In 
a  few  Slates,  also,  statutes  have  been  enacted  permitting  an 
action  to  be  brought  by  one  co-owner  against  another 
merely  for  the  exercise  of  an  exclusive  control  over  tho 
property.  .\  change  in  the  identity  of  the  article  which 
forms  the  general  |tro)>erty,  as  where  iron  owned  in  com- 
mon is  melted  together  and  manufactured  into  various 
utensils,  would  constitute  a  conversion.  A  partition  of  tho 
property  held  in  common  cannot  bo  obtained  by  any  form 
of  proceeding  at  law,  though  sometimes  courts  of  equity 
will  decree  that  a  division  be  made.  When  the  properly  is 
;  severable  in  its  nature,  and  of  tho  same  common  quality, 
I  any  owner  may  separate  a  portion  equal  to  his  share,  if  it 


1438 


JOINT-STOCK  COMPANY. 


can  be  ascertained  by  weight  or  measurement,  and  appro- 
priate it  to  himself.  Tiicre  is  no  necessity  of  obtainin<;  the 
consent  of  the  other  owners  \u  such  a  case  in  order  tliat  a 
eeveranoe  may  iic  made.  But  when  the  property  is  indi- 
visible, as  a  horse,  a  partition  can  only  be  made  at  law  by 
obtaining  the  consent  of  all  the  owners  to  a  sale  and  a  divis- 
ion of  the  proceeds.  (For  the  rules  of  law  relating  to  part 
ownership  of  vessels  see  Part  Owxkus.) 

Gkoucp.  Chask,     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Joint-Stock  Company,  an  association  of  individuals 
forinetl  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  some  mercantile,  in- 
dustrial, or  other  lawful  unclertaking,  and  havini;  a  capital 
divided  into  shares  which  are  transferable  by  the  respective 
shiueholdors  at  their  own  option,  and  the  ownership  of 
which  is  a  condition  of  membership.  As  formed  in  ac- 
cordance with  common-law  rules  governing  their  organiza- 
tion and  defining  their  powers,  such  associations  arc  unin- 
corpnrated  and  constitute  a  sjiecies  of  partnership.  In 
recent  times,  however,  it  has  been  the  tendency  of  legisla- 
tion to  invest  them  with  corporate  powers  which  they  did 
not  possess  at  common  law.  and  in  England  statutes  have 
been  enacted,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  render  them  actual 
corporations,  provided  certain  formalities  prescribed  by  the 
statute?  are  complied  with  in  the  mode  of  organization. 
The  term  joint-stock  company,  therefore,  as  frequently  em- 
ployed at  the  present  day.  particularly  in  English  practice, 
wouM  include  lioth  incorpor.atcd  and  imincorporated  asso- 
ciations. It  will  be  most  convenient,  however,  to  employ 
it  in  the  present  article  in  the  restricted  distinctive  sense 
prevailing  at  common  law.  irrespective  of  statutory  modi- 
fications of  its  extent  of  application,  except  when  the 
character  and  effect  of  such  statutes  are  specifically  con- 
sidered. In  this  view  a  joint-stock  company  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  partnership,  though  it  is  attended  with  different 
incidents  and  liabilities,  in  many  respects,  from  an  ordi- 
nary partnership.  In  the  early  history  of  the  common  law 
the  only  forms  of  association  of  individuals  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  any  object  by  a  combination  of  capital  and 
effort,  which  were  known,  were  partnerships  and  corpora- 
tions. Joint-stock  companies,  as  subsequently  introduced 
in  mercantile  communities  and  recognized  by  the  law,  were 
intermediate  between  these  modes  of  association,  which  had 
been  of  earlier  origin,  and  partook  to  a  considerable  extent 
of  the  peculiarities  of  both.  Like  common  partnerships, 
they  are  formed  solely  by  a  voluntary  union  of  individuals, 
who  combine  for  purposes  of  mutual  profit  and  benefit,  and 
are  not  created  by  legislative  authority,  nor  endowed  by 
legislative  act  with  the  powers  and  functions  which  they 
possess  and  exercise.  Po  a  joint-stock  company,  like  a 
partnership,  is  not  a  fictitious  person  capable  of  suing  and 
being  sued,  and  of  acting  generally  in  legal  transactions 
like  a  natural  person,  as  is  true  with  regard  to  a  corpora- 
tion, nor  is  it  regarded  as  having  any  distinct  legal  exist- 
ence independently  of  the  members  who  compose  it.  The 
members,  like  partners,  must  sue  and  be  sued  in  the  same 
way  as  all  individuals  who  liave  engaged  in  a  joint  enter- 
prise and  have  acquired  joint  rights  and  incurred  joint  lia- 
bilities. All  must  regularly  be  joined  as  plaintiffs  or  as  de- 
fendants, and  suit  cannot  be  brought  in  the  name  of  tho 
company.  One  or  more  members  of  tlie  company  may  rep- 
resent it  and  act  in  its  interests  if  they  are  specially  ap- 
pointed as  agents,  managers,  or  directors,  in  much  the  same 
way  as  one  or  more  partners  may  represent  the  firm;  but 
in  such  a  case  they  represent  (he  whole  body  of  the  mem- 
bers, not  as  forming  a  collective  whole  and  constituting  a 
legal  individuality,  but  merely  as  a  number  of  persons  hav- 
ing common  interests. 

A'^ain,  it  is  a  fundamental  peculiarity  of  a  partnership 
that  each  one  of  the  partners  is  responsible  individually 
for  the  full  amount  of  the  indebtedness  incurred  by  the 
firm  in  the  course  of  its  legitimate  business.  This  is  also 
true  of  a  joint-stock  company,  however  great  may  be  the 
number  of  its  members.  Even  though  it  be  stipulated  in 
the  articles  of  association  that  the  members  shall  only  be 
subject  to  a  limited  liability,  a  creditor  who  enters  into 
dealings  with  the  company  without  knowledge  of  the  stipu- 
lation may  enforce  the  payment  of  his  entire  claim  against 
any  one  of  the  associates,  leaving  him  to  reimburse  him- 
self by  contribution  from  the  others.  It  is,  however,  com- 
petent for  any  one  transacting  business  with  the  company, 
as  with  a  firm,  to  contract  not  to  hold  the  partners  to  an 
unlimited  extent  of  liability,  and  he  will  then  be  bound  by 
the  terms  of  his  contract. 

But  a  joint-stock  company  differs  from  an  ordinary  part- 
nership in  several  important  respects.  It  is  usually  com- 
posed of  a  much  larger  number  of  members,  though  this  is 
not  an  essential  diversity,  since  there  is  no  necessary  limit 
in  either  form  of  association  as  to  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals who  may  combine.  A  company  also,  as  a  general 
rule,  receives  some  specific  name  by  which  it  is  known,  and 
is  not,  like  a  partnership,  designated  merely  by  the  names 


of  the  members.  This  is,  however,  only  a  nominal  and  not 
a  substantial  difference,  since  a  company  cannot  sue  nor 
be  sued  nor  be  designated  in  legal  proceedings  involving 
its  interests  by  the  name  which  it  has  assumed,  but  must  in 
such  instances  btr  regarded  as  simply  a  partnership,  in  ref- 
erence to  which  proceedings  must  l)e  instituted  in  the  names 
of  all  the  partners.  The  important  principle  in  relation  to 
partnerships,  that  each  partner  is  the  agent  of  the  firm  as 
regards  transactions  with  third  persons,  and  can  bind  the 
firm  by  any  contracts  into  which  he  enters  appertaining  to 
the  partnership  business,  does  not  prevail  to  the  same 
extent  in  respect  to  companies.  If  each  shareholder  in 
such  large  associations,  into  which  new  members  arc  in- 
troduced not  by  the  consent  of  tho  others,  but  by  pur- 
chasing or  otherwise  acquiring  shares,  were  allowed  to 
bind  the  company  by  any  contracts  into  which  he  might 
enter  within  tho  scope  of  the  company's  business,  tho 
continued  existence  of  such  societies  would  be  hardly  prac- 
ticable. Men  would  hesitate  to  contribute  capital  to- 
wards the  support  of  such  organizations  when  it  might 
be  squandered  at  the  pleasure  of  any  shareholder.  It  is 
therefore  the  almost  invariable  practice  to  commit  the 
management  and  direction  of  tho  company's  business  to  a 
board  of  directors  or  agents  chosen  by  the  votes  of  the 
stockholders,  and  every  person  who  has  dealings  with  the 
company  is  presumed  to  know  that  the  managers  appointed 
alone  have  power  to  make  binding  contracts.  A  claim 
against  the  company  on  the  ground  of  dealings  with  an 
unauthorized  member  will  not  be  enforceable.  It  is  like 
the  case  of  a  partnership  in  which  a  stipulation  between 
the  partners  limiting  each  one's  capacity  to  bind  the  firm 
has  been  made  known  to  a  person,  who  transacts  business 
with  anyone  of  them  upon  that  understanding.  Moreover, 
in  the  modes  of  conducting  business  and  managing  the 
affairs  of  the  association  there  is  an  important  difference 
between  a  partnership  and  a  company.  Tho  stockholders,  as 
has  just  been  seen,  are  excluded  from  the  ordinary  man- 
agement of  business,  but  they  control  the  election  of  direc- 
tors, and  generally  regulate  and  define  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  powers  which  these  agents  are  permitted  to  ex- 
ercise by  the  adoption  of  by-laws  or  the  passage  of  resolu- 
tions. In  the  same  way  they  may  appoint  the  times  at 
which  meetings  shall  be  held,  determine  the  manner  in 
which  they  shall  be  conducted,  provide  for  the  investment 
of  the  profits  of  the  business  or  the  declaration  of  dividends, 
and  adopt  various  regulations  of  the  same  general  nature 
for  conducting  the  affairs  of  the  company,  provided  these 
aro  not  repugnant  to  general  principles  of  law.  Each  mem- 
ber is  entitled  to  as  many  votes  as  he  has  shares. 

The  general  nature  of  the  association  and  the  object  of 
its  formation,  together  with  many  provisions  for  its  man- 
agement, are,  however,  usually  stated  in  the  articles  of 
association  which  are  agreed  upon  at  the  time  the  com- 
pany is  organized.  These  correspond  with  the  articles  of 
copartnership  into  which  partners  enter,  and  contain  stip- 
ulations of  a  similar  character.  A  covenant  of  this  kind 
is  commonly  known  in  England  as  a  "  deed  of  settlement." 
The  articles  usually  define  the  amount  of  the  capital  stock, 
and  the  number  of  shares  into  which  it  Is  to  be  divided, 
state  the  number  of  directors  or  trustees  who  are  to  be  ap- 
pointed, regulate  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  assignment 
and  disposal  of  tho  shares,  provide  for  assessments  upon 
the  shareholders,  declare  sometimes  the  way  in  which  they 
shall  bo  sued  by  the  directors  upon  their  respective  obli- 
gations to  the  company,  and  provide  in  a  comprehensive 
way  for  the  general  direction  and  control  of  tho  interests 
of  tho  association.  Such  an  instrument  is  not  required  to 
bo  in  any  general  form,  and  may  contain  any  stipulations 
upon  wliieh  the  parties  may  agree,  jirovided  these  are  not 
in  contravention  of  established  legal  rules  determining  the 
capacity  and  liabilities  of  the  shareholders,  or  do  not  pro- 
vide for  the, prosecution  of  an  unlawful  enterprise.  But 
the  chief  diversity  between  a  partnership  and  a  joint-stock 
company,  and  the  one  upon  which  the  others  mainly  de- 
pend, lies  in  the  fact  that  the  capital  stock  of  a  company  is 
divicled  into  transferable  shares.  As  a  result  of  this,  the 
doctrine  oi  (irlcrtiifi  persona  rum  (Lat.,  *'  choice  of  persons"), 
which  prevails  in  regard  to  all  partnerships,  has  no  appli- 
cation to  a  stock  company.  No  partner  and  no  number  of 
partners  can  introduce  a  new  member  into  the  firm  without 
the  consent  of  the  others.  If  one  partner  sells  out  his  in- 
terest, the  purchaser  does  not  become  a  member  of  the  firm, 
but  the  partnership  is  immediately  dissolved.  But  in  a  com- 
pany the  purchase  of  shares  makes  a  person  a  member  ir- 
respective of  the  consent  of  the  previous  shareholders,  and 
tho  membership  may  be  constantly  changing  without  de- 
stroying the  existence  of  the  company  or  interrupting  the 
exercise  of  its  usual  functions.  Therefore,  while  a  partner- 
ship usually  consists  of  a  small  number  of  persons  familiarly 
known  to  one  another,  and  associated  in  business  relations 
on  account  of  mutual  trust  and  confidence,  and  taking  scv- 


JOINT  TENANCY. 


1439 


crallj  an  active  part  in  tho  manageinent  of  the  afTairs  of 
the  linn,  a  company  i^  generally  composed  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  individuiil?.  who  arc.  a-*  a  rule,  little  known  to  each 
other  or  entirely  unknown,  and  whose  business  connection 
depends  upon  tho  circumstance  that  they  have  become 
without  ai^roenient  owners  of  9tock  in  the  i^iiino  afsociatiou. 
In  an  ordinary  partnership  tho  death,  lunacy,  or  bank- 
ruptcy of  one  nf  the  partners,  or  an  assii^nment  or  transfer 
of  his  interest  to  anotlicr.  effects  a  dif-solution  of  tho  firm. 
If  the  rrmainin*;  partners  continue  their  busiucss  connec- 
tion, it  id  only  by  forniing  a  new  partnership,  liut  in  a 
stock  company  these  are  not  causes  of  dissolution.  The 
per.'ion  to  whom  tho  ownership  of  the  shares  passes  be- 
comes thereby  a  member  of  the  company,  whose  existence 
is  continued  as  l«<ng  as  the  stock  is  held  by  shareholders, 
unless  it  be  terminated  by  a  decree  of  tho  proper  court  for 
the  usurpation  of  illegal  powers  or  other  like  reasons,  or  by 
the  mutual  agreement  of  the  members.  A  joint-stock  com- 
pany therefore  possesses  the  attribute  of  perpetual  succes- 
sion by  reason  of  the  transferable  nature  of  its  shares,  and 
in  thi-f  respect  resembles  a  corporation.  The  other  features 
of  similarity  to  a  corporation  which  it  possesses  are  those 
already  mentioned — the  use  of  a  common  name  other  than 
the  names  of  the  members,  the  app()intment  of  directors  or 
m:inngers  to  whom  tho  business  affairs  of  the  company  are 
entrusted,  the  power  to  adopt  by-laws  and  resolutions,  the 
right  to  vote  upon  stock,  and  a  large  membership.  A  com- 
pany therefore  possesses  sonic  of  the  attributes  of  an  ordi- 
nary partnersliip  and  some  of  those  pertaining  to  corpora- 
tions. It  is  sonielimes  not  inappropriately  termed  a  (pittsi 
corporation.  (Sec  Coni'oitATioN.) 

Before  the  year  17011  the  formation  of  joint-stock  com- 
panies was  hardly  known  in  England,  liut  within  a  few 
yc:\rn  subscijuenl  to  1711,  when  the  .South  Sea  Company 
wns  formed,  iind  liirgely  as  a  result  of  its  speculative  enter- 
prises, a  feverish  spirit  of  sjieeulation  and  adventure  was 
widely  prevalent  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  gave  rise  to 
large  numbers  of  private  commercial  companies  for  the  pro- 
secution of  various  visionary  undertakings.  .Some  of  tlieso 
companies  were  founded  upon  obsolete  charters,  while  tho 
larger  number  were  organized  without  any  pretensions  of 
such  a  nature.  These  were  commonly  denominated  "  bub- 
bles," and  were  deemed  so  detrimental  to  the  public  wel- 
fare that  in  1720  an  act  of  Parliament  (known  as  tho 
"Bubble  Act")  was  passed  for  their  repression.  This  de- 
clared such  companies  illegal  and  voi<l,  and  to  be  public 
nuisances,  principally  on  the  following  grounds:  the  acting 
or  presuming  to  act  as  a  corporate  body;  tho  raising  or 
pretending  to  raise  transferable  stock  :  tho  transferring  or 
protending  to  transfer  or  assign  the  shares  in  such  stock 
without  legal  authority.  This  act  was  not  repealed  until 
lS2fi,  so  that  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  such  com- 
panies were  illegal  in  England.  J^ince  the  time  of  this  re- 
peal the  tendency  of  English  legislation  has  been  to  favor 
such  associations,  and  to  render  them  more  efficient  and 
beneficial  by  remedying  the  defects  in  their  organization 
at  common  law.  The  chief  legal  disadvantages  under 
which  those  companies  labored  were  the  necessity  that  in 
actions  at  law  all  tho  members  should  be  joined  "as  plain- 
tiffs or  defendants,  and  tho  responsibility  of  each  member 
for  the  entire  indebtctlness  of  the  association.  Tho  earliest 
modification  of  common-law  rules  was  by  the  enactment  of 
statutes  empowering  companies  of  a  specified  character  to 
(luc  an<l  be  sued  by  a  public  officer.  Subsequently,  tho 
forma*ion  of  companies  was  authorized  in  which  the  share- 
holders sliould  only  be  hebl  to  a  limited  liability,  and  fmiil- 
ly  many  pfirticular  kinds  of  conip:inies  were  actually  incor- 
porated, though  not  receiving  full  corporate  powers.  The 
Kngli-h  statutes  which  now  govern  this  subject  arc  the 
Companies'  act,  passed  in  1Mfi2  (2.')  and  20  Vict.,  cb.  89), 
with  the  amend;itory  acts,  30  ;ind  :U  Vi<t.,  ch.  29  (ISC7), 
and  ;i:i  and  .'U  Vict.,  eb.  Il)4  (IS70).  The  provisions  of 
these  acts  are  applicable  to  the  formation  and  incorporation 
nf  all  joint-slock  companies,  require  their  registration  in 
proper  offices,  and  permit  the  shareholders  to  agree  tluit 
their  liability  shall  tie  limited  either  to  the  amount  unpaid 
on  their  shares  or  tr)  such  amount  as  they  may  respectively 
undertake  to  contribute  to  the  assets  of  the  company  in  the 
event  of  it.^  being  wound  up.  Any  seven  or  more  persons 
associated  for  any  lawful  purpose  may  form  such  a  com- 
pany, and  arc  required  to  subseribe  a  memorandum  of  as- 
sociation stating  the  name  of  the  company,  (he  amount  of 
capital,  the  object  of  tho  association,  tho  place  of  business, 
and  the  limit  of  liability,  if  any  is  agreed  upon.  If  there 
is  no  declaration  that  the  liability  shall  bo  limited,  the 
com(tany  is  calleil  an  unlimited  one,  and  each  shareholder 
is  responsible  for  the  entire  debt  of  the  company,  as  at 
common  law.  There  are  also  provisions  in  the  act  relating 
to  the  management  and  administration  of  companies,  their 
inspection  by  boards  of  examiners,  and  Ilic  method  of 
winding  them  up.    The  effect  of  this  legislation  has  not 


been,  however,  to  confer  upon  companies  the  entire  powers 
which  corporations  regularly  possess,  since  there  i&  still 
retained  the  principle  of  ibe  individual  liability  of  the 
members*  even  though  this  may  be  limited  in  extent.  In 
a  true  corporation  legal  responsibility  does  not  attach  to 
the  individual  corporators  as  separate  persons,  but  only 
appertains  tu  the  tictitious  person  or  body  corporate  which 
they  have  united  to  form. 

In  some  of  the  V.  S.  joint-stock  companies  have  at  cer- 
tain periods  been  formed  in  accordance  with  common-law 
rules,  but  generally  at  the  present  day  their  organization 
is  governed  by  statutory  provisions.  Thus,  in  New  York 
it  is  enacted  that  such  associations  may  provide  by  their 
articles  of  association  that  the  death  of  any  stockholder  or 
the  assignment  of  his  stock  shall  not  work  a  dissolution 
of  the  association,  and  may  commit  to  any  three  or  more 
of  the  shareholders  the  solo  management  of  the  business; 
such  companies  are  not  to  be  dissolved  except  by  judgment 
of  a  court  for  fraud  or  other  good  cause.  They  may  pur- 
chase, hold,  and  convey  real  estate  for  certain  specified 
purposes.  If  the  association  consists  of  seven  or  more 
shareholders,  it  may  sue  or  be  sued  in  the  name  of  the 
president  or  treasurer  for  the  time  being.  If  judgment  be 
recovered  against  the  conipnny  upon  a  suit  thus  instituted, 
and  execution  thereon  shull  be  returned  unsatisfied,  suits 
may  bo  brouglit  against  any  or  all  of  the  shareholders  in- 
dividually, as  at  e4>mmon  law.  It  has  been  decided  that 
one  of  tho  shareholders  may,  in  certain  instances,  bring  an 
action  against  the  president  as  representing  the  company. 
But  such  companies  arc  not  incorporated,  and  possess  only 
tho  corporate  powers  specially  conferred.  They  are  still 
to  bo  considered  a  species  of  partnership.  In  a  number 
of  tho  States  there  are  no  such  associations  as  joint-stock 
companies  distinct  from  corporations.  Provision  has  been 
made  by  statute  for  the  formation  of  associations  of  a  simi- 
lar character  by  modifying  the  general  principles  relating  to 
corporations  in  regard  to  the  personal  liability  of  the  tncm- 
bers.  The  practice  has  been,  not  as  in  England  to  assimi- 
late partnerslii])s  to  corporations,  and  to  designate  the  new 
form  of  association  as  a  joint-stock  company,  but  to  assimi- 
late corporations  to  partnerships  by  making  the  associates 
personally  responsible  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  for  tho 
common  indebtedness,  while  the  associations  formed  in 
accordance  with  such  statutory  regulations  have  been  still 
designated  as  corporations.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
they  arc  in  important  respects  distinguishable  from  regular 
an»l  true  corporations,  anil  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  joint- 
stock  companies.  (See  Wordsworth  on  Joini-Sfock  Com- 
paniegy  and  tho  works  of  Lindlcy,  Collyer,  Parsons,  and 
Story  on  Partnership.) 

(Jr.oitGK  CiiAPE.    Revised  dy  T.  W.  Dwigiit. 

Joint  Teii'aiicy,  the  tenure  or  ownership  of  an  estate 
in  rciil  projx-rty  l>y  two  or  more  persons,  with  the  incidents 
of  unity  of  interest,  unity  of  time,  unity  of  title,  and  unity 
of  possession,  (See  these  unities  explained  in  the  article 
Joint  Owneushii'.)  Tho  estate  held  by  joint  tenants  may 
bo  eitlier  a  fee  simple,  an  estate  for  life,  for  years,  or  at 
will,  but  each  must  havo  the  same  quantity  of  interest. 
Ono  cannot  bo  tenant  for  life  and  the  other  tenant  for 
years.  This  rule,  however,  does  not  prevent  a  remainder 
from  being  limited  to  one  joint  tenant  to  be  vested  in  pos- 
session at  the  expiration  ot  his  joint  interest,  as  where  an 
estate  is  granted  to  two  persons  to  be  held  by  them  jointly 
for  life,  with  remaimler  to  one  of  them  in  fee.  To  tho  rulo 
requiring  unity  of  time  there  are  important  exceptions. 
Thus,  it  does  not  apply  to  estates  given  to  a  person's  use 
in  accordance  with  ihf  doctrine  of  uses  (see  l^'^^:s),  nor  to 
provisions  in  a  will  known  as  executory  devises.  An  es- 
tate granteil  to  the  use  of  a  man  and  such  wife  as  he  shall 
afterwards  marry,  for  the  term  of  Ihcir  lives,  has  been  held 
to  be  a  joint  estate.  The  estate  of  the  wife  is  in  abeyaneo 
until  (lie  marriage,  and  (hen  it  rrlates  back,  and  is  deemed 
to  take  cfTect  from  the  original  time  of  creation.  In  con- 
sequence of  tho  unity  of  interest  and  of  possession,  joint 
tenants  are  said  lo  be  seized  pri-  mif  ct  prr  tout — "by  the 
half  au'l  by  the  whole;"  t\  r.  each  of  them  is  regarded  as 
having  tho  possession  as  well  of  every  parcel  us  of  the  en- 
tiro  e.state.  By  this,  however,  it  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  oat^h  joint  tenant  owns  tho  wliolc  estate  for  every  pur- 
pose, lie  is  the  owner  of  tho  whole  for  purposes  of  tenure 
and  survivorship,  but  has  only  liis  own  particular  share  for 
the  purpose  of  alienation  or  partition.  This  share  to  wbiih 
each  co-(enant  is  speeifically  entitled  separately  from  his 
co-tenants  is  an  equal  undivided  portion  of  the  entire  es- 
tate. If,  therefore,  there  are  two  joint  tenants,  each  may 
convey  an  undivided  half— if  three,  an  undivided  third. 
From  the  doctrine  of  union  and  entirety  of  interest  and 
possession,  tlie  principle  of  survivorship,  which  is  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  joint  tenancy,  is  a  natural 
consequence.  As  one  of  two  joint  tenants  has  a  concur- 
rent intcrcat  in  the  whole  estate,  the  extinguishment  of  tho 


1440 


JOINTURE. 


co-existing  claim  of  the  other  tenant  by  the  death  of  the 
latter  must  necessarily  result  in  leaving  the  survivor  in 
undisputed  ownership  of  the  entire  premises  as  proprietor 
in  severalty,  merely  by  the  continuance  of  his  original  in- 
terest. So,  if  there  are  more  than  two  co-tenants,  upon 
the  death  of  each  in  succession  the  estate  will  pass  to  those 
who  remain  until  it  vests  in  the  hist  survivor  of  all.  I'pon 
his  ihatli  the  estate  would  pass,  like  any  estate  held  in  sev- 
eralty, to  his  heirs  or  personal  representatives.  It  is  an 
important  result  of  this  theory  of  survivorship  that  a  joint 
tenant  cannot  devise  his  interest  in  the  h»nd,  for  the  devise 
does  not  take  effect  until  after  the  death  of  the  devisor, 
while  the  interest  of  the  surviving  tenant  is  hut  a  coclin- 
uation  of  his  previous  ownership,  and  suffers  no  interrup- 
tion by  reason  of  the  death  of  his  co-tetiant.  The  estate 
passes  to 'the  survivor  exempt  from  all  charges  made  by 
tlie  deceased  co-tenant,  and  is  not  subject  to  any  claim  of  I 
courtesy  or  dower.  An  estate  in  joint  tenancy  can  only  be 
created  by  purchase  or  the  act  of  the  parties,  and  not  by 
descent  or  the  operation  of  law.  Thildren  of  a  deceased 
person  who  inherit  the  land  of  which  he  was  seized  in  fee 
are  tenants  in  common,  and  not  joint  tenants.  (See  Ten- 
ancy IN  Common.)  The  mode  of  creation  of  an  estate  in 
joint  tenancy  at  common  law  is  either  by  the  use  of  ex- 
press words  in  the  instrument  of  conveyance,  declaring 
that  the  grantees  or  devisees  are  to  hold  by  a  joint  title,  or 
simply  by  naming  two  or  more  persons  as  those  to  whom 
the  property  is  to  be  transferred.  In  the  latter  case  it  was 
a  presumption  of  law  that  the  parties  intended  to  create  a 
joint  tenancy:  and  this  construction  was  also  ])refcrred 
because  this  mode  of  tenure  was  favored  on  account  of  the 
right  of  survivorship.  This  was  a  result  of  the  feudal  doc- 
trine that  the  services  due  to  the  lord  should  be  kept  en- 
tire. But  in  this  country  it  has  been  the  policy  of  the  law 
to  convert  estates  which  in  England  would  by  construction 
of  law  be  deemed  joint  tenancies,  into  tenancies  in  com- 
mon. In  New  York  estates  granted  or  devised  to  two  or 
more  persons  were  as  early  as  17Sfi  declared  to  be  tenan- 
cies in  common,  except  when  limited  to  joint  trustees  or 
joint  executors,  unless  the  estate  was  expressly  declared, 
in  the  deed  or  will  creating  it,  to  be  in  joint  tenancy. 
Similar  legislation  exists  in  a  large  number  of  the  States. 
In  some  States  the  mode  resorted  to  has  been  to  abolish 
the  right  of  survivorship.  In  courts  of  equity  also  joint 
tenancies  are  not  favored  except  when  granted  to  co-trus- 
tees, and  a  limitation  to  two  or  more  will  sometimes  be  held 
to  create  a  tenancy  in  common.  Thus,  when  two  persons 
purchase  an  estate,  advancing  the  purchase-money  in  «ji- 
equnl  portions,  equity  regards  them  as  tenants  in  common. 
Such  is  not  the  case,  however,  when  the  money  is  advanced 
in  eqiinf  portions.  From  the  principle  of  identity  of  title 
and  interest  in  joint  tenants,  it  results  that  they  all  consti- 
tute a  single  owner  as  to  third  persons,  and  that  all  must 
be  united  as  parties  in  suits  by  or  against  them  in  respect 
to  their  joint  estate.  If  one  tenant  purchases  in  an  out- 
standing adverse  claim  to  the  projierty,  it  enures  to  the 
benefit  of  his  co-tenants  if  they  will  eontributo  towards 
discharging  the  expense  incurred.  For  tliis  and  other  pur- 
poses each  is  deemed  to  be  a  trustee  for  the  other.  Pos- 
session of  the  premises  by  one  tenant  is  deemed  the  pos- 
session of  all,  and  no  action  can  be  brought  against  him  by 
the  others  merely  on  tlie  ground  of  such  exclusive  posses- 
sion. One  tenant,  however,  may  by  express  and  \inequiv- 
ocal  acts  hold  adversely  to  the  other,  so  as  to  gain  a  title  in 
severalty  by  force  of  the  statute  of  limitations.  (See  I^imi- 
tations,  Statite  of.)  Flntry  by  one  joint  tenant  upon 
land  is  deemed  the  entry  of  all,  and  a  conveyance  to  one  is 
a  conveyance  to  all.  If  one  receive  the  rents  and  profits 
of  the  estate,  he  may  be  compelled  to  account  to  the  others, 
and  pay  to  them  their  proportionate  shares.  One  tenant  is 
responsible  to  the  others  for  the  c(nnmission  of  waste  upon 
the  estate.  If  he  will  not  join  with  them  in  making  neces- 
sary repairs  to  the  premises,  after  having  been  duly  re- 
quested to  contribute,  an  action  may  be  maintained  against 
him.  At  common  law  the  remedy  in  this  case  was  by  a  spe- 
cial writ,  <fe  repnratlone  /ariiiuin.  AH  persons  may  be 
made  joint  tenants  who  arc  qualified  severally  to  receive  a 
grant  of  lamls.  As  husband  and  wife,  however,  are  con- 
sidered in  law  as  a  single  person,  an  estate  limited  to  them 
is  not  a  joint  estate,  but  an  "estate  by  the  entirety,"  hav- 
ing peculiar  and  special  characteristics.  Two  corporations 
cannot  be  joint  tenants  with  each  other,  nor  can  an  in- 
dividual be  a  joint  tenant  with  n  corporation.  A  joint 
estate  may  be  terminated  or  dissevered  by  a  transfer  of  the 
property  to  one  tenant  by  the  application  of  the  doctrine 
of  survivorship  or  hy  release,  by  n,  destruction  of  any  one 
of  the  various  unities  (except  that  of  time)  which  are  in- 
cident to  such  a  tenure,  or  by  ]iariition.  If  one  of  two  co- 
tenants  conveys  his  undivided  share  to  a  third  person,  the 
grantee  will  become  a  tenant  in  common  with  the  other 
co-tenant.     If  there  bo  more  than  two  co-tenants,  the  pur- 


chaser would  be  tenant  in  common  as  to  the  share  which 
ho  had  acquired,  while  the  remaining  tenants  would  still 
hold  the  remaining  shares  in  joint  tenancy  as  between 
themselves.  In  transferring  his  interest  to  a  third  person 
a  joint  tenant  must  use  an  ordinary  conveyance,  but  when 
the  transfer  is  to  a  co-tenant  a  release  is  proper,  since  the 
grantee  is  already  seized  of  the  estate  as  a  wliole.  (For  the 
rules  of  pjirtition  see  the  topic  Pautition.  See  also  Es- 
tates.) (The  following  works  may  be  consulted:  Wash- 
burn on  /ftal  Prnpfrty;  Kent's  Commcntaneg;  Cruise's  /)»- 
ffest;  Hilliard  on  Jlenl  ICifatr.) 

George  Chase.  REVisEn  nv  T.  W.  Dwiciit. 
Joint'ure,  an  estate  or  property  settled  upon  a  wife  in 
lieu  or  satisfaction  of  dower,  to  be  enjoyefl  after  her  hus- 
band's death.  The  origin  of  the  modern  English  doctrine 
of  jointure  is  referable  to  a  statute,  known  as  the  Statute 
of  t^ses,  enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (27  Hen.  VIII. 
eh.  10).  Before  this  period  there  was  no  method  by  which 
a  wife's  right  of  dower  could  be  harred,  except  by  a  con- 
veyance of  the  husband's  lands  in  which  dower  might  be 
claimed  to  some  third  jtcrson,  to  be  lield  for  the  husband's 
use.  The  husband  in  such  a  case  would  retain  merely  a 
beneficial  interest  in  the  property,  and  this  was  a  species 
of  equitable  estate,  in  which,  by  the  law  of  uses,  neither 
courtesy  nor  dower  could  be  given.  (See  Uses.  Doweh.)  It 
had  therefore  become  a  common  practiee  for  hushands  wlio 
wished  to  remove  the  incumbrance  of  a  claim  of  dower 
from  their  estates,  to  convey  their  lands  to  be  held  to  their 
own  use;  and  the  result  had  been  that  most  of  the  lands 
in  the  kingdom  were  held  under  this  form  <»f  equitable 
ownership.  In  order,  however,  that  a  wife  might  not  be 
left  entirely  without  provision  for  her  support  after  her 
husband's  death,  it  became  customary  to  settle  lands  before 
marriage  to  the  u=e  of  the  husband  and  his  intended  wife 
for  the  term  of  their  lives  in  joint  tenancy.  If  the  wife 
outlived  the  husband,  the  entire  estate  would  be  vested  in 
her  for  life  by  the  right  of  survivorship.  (See  Joint  Ten- 
ancy.) Such  an  estate  was  termed  a  **jointnre,"  on  ac- 
count of  the  joint  nature  of  the  interest  created.  The 
statute  of  uses  had  the  effect  to  render  wives  dowablo  in 
lands  conveyed  to  uses  by  uniting  the  legal  and  the  bene- 
ficial ownership  in  the  same  person  :  but  in  order  that  some 
method  of  barring  dower  might  still  exist,  and  that  wives 
upon  whom  jointures  had  already  been  settled  might  not 
receive  both  dower  and  jointure,  it  furthermore  provided 
that  if  estates  had  been  or  should  be  conveyed  hy  way  of 
jointure,  the  right  to  demand  dower  should,  under  certain 
conditions,  he  extinguished.  In  pursuance  of  these  pro- 
visions, settlements  in  jointure  were  frequent  in  English 
j>ractiee  until  the  enactment  of  the  so-called  Dower  act  in 
1S;;.(,  which  introduced  other  methocls  of  barring  dower, 
which  are  now  more  commonly  resorted  to.  The  condi- 
tions or  requisites  which  must  be  observed  untler  the  statute 
of  uses  in  order  that  the  settlement  in  lieu  of  dower  may 
be  valid  arc  the  fcdlowing  :  (1)  The  estate  must  vest  in 
possession  immediately  after  the  death  of  the  huphnn<l ;  (2) 
it  must  be  for  the  life  of  the  wife  at  least,  though  it  may 
bo  a  greater  estate,  as  an  estate  in  fee;  (3)  it  must  be  given 
to  the  wife  herself,  and  not  to  another  in  trust  for  her;  (4) 
it  must  be  given  and  expressed  in  the  deed  to  he  in  full  sat- 
isfaction of  her  dower.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  estate 
should  be  limited  to  both  hushand  and  wife,  in  conformity 
to  the  mode  of  convevance  adopted  heforc  the  statute,  but 
it  may  be  given  to  the  wife  alone.  The  settlement  may  bo 
made  not  only  by  the  husband,  but  by  the  wife's  parents, 
relatives,  or  friends,  or  any  third  person.  The  provision 
must  always  be  an  estate  in  lands  in  order  to  be  a  valid 
legal  jointure,  and  not  a  chattel  interest  or  a  pecuniary 
gift.  If  the  settlement  be  made  before  marriage,  the  con- 
sent of  the  wife  to  accept  it  in  lieu  of  dower  need  not  be 
obtained,  and  whether  the  estate  be  of  great  or  little  value, 
the  right  to  demand  dower  will  be  extinguished.  Even 
though  the  wife  be  a  minor,  a  jointure  settled  upon  her 
before  marriage  will  be  an  absolute  bar  to  dower,  though 
neither  her  assent  be  given  nor  that  of  parents  or  guardian. 
It  was  said  by  Lord  Coke  that  "the  jointure  must  be  a 
competent  livelihood  of  freehold  for  the  wife,"  but  the  law 
provi<ies  no  test  of  competency,  nor  will  the  jointure  be 
invalid  even  though  it  be  insufiieient  for  the  wife's  support. 
If  the  jointure  be  settled  upon  (he  wife  after  marriage,  she 
has  a  right  of  election  after  the  husband's  death  between 
this  provision  and  her  (hnver,  and  may  accept  either  as  she 
may  prefer.  But  after  having  oneeniade  her  election  and 
])roperlv  signified  her  choice,  she  cannot  again  exercise  the 
privilege,  but  is  obliged  to  retain  the  estate  which  she  has 
determined  to  accept.  Iler  acceptance  of  the  jointure  might 
he  indicated  by  entry  upon  the  lands  given  by  the  settle- 
ment and  receipt  of  "the  rents.  Her  refusal  of  it  would  be 
.'^hown  hy  accepting;  the  lands  assigned  in  dower,  or  by 
bringing  an  action  to  have  them  assigned.  If,  however, 
after  an  acceptance  of  the  jointure,  the  widow  is  evicted 


JOINVILLE. 


1441 


from  the  whole  or  nny  portion  of  the  property,  she  will  be 
rcinitteil  to  liur  ri;;hl  of  dower  pro  tatito — i*.  e,  to  an  extent 
equivalent  to  (tic  lo5s  she  has  i^ustaincil.  No  act  answering 
to  assi^uaicnt  in  the  ca.«c  of  dower  (sec  Dowkr)  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  plaoe  the  widow  in  possession  of  the  joint- 
ure-land;! after  the  death  of  her  hu^hnnd.  but  she  may  enter 
upon  them  immediately.  I'nder  the  Kn;;litih  law.  aclultery 
causes  no  forfeiture  of  jointure,  though  it  is  a  bar  to 
dower. 

In  courts  of  law  there  is  a  strict  adherence  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  statute  of  uses,  and  gcttlcmcnt?  not  made 
in  accordance  with  its  requirements  will  not  be  valid  in 
cxtinsuif'hment  of  dower.  But  courts  of  equity  exercise 
an  independent  jurisdiction  not  derivcil  from  the  statute, 
and  apply  difTi-rent  rules  in  regard  to  Iht-  nature  of  the 
provision  which  may  be  made  and  (be  manner  in  which  it 
may  be  conferred  upon  the  wife.  A  distinction  is  there- 
fore made  l^ctween  legal  jointure  and  equitable  jointure. 
The  doctrines  of  equitable  jointure  arc  only  applicable 
when  the  ftirm?  of  legal  jointure  have  not  been  complied 
with,  and  a  court  of  equity  is  striving  to  effectuate  the  in- 
tent of  the  parties.  In  equity  it  is  not  necessary  that  an 
estate  or  provision  in  jointure  should  be  actually  ercated 
or  conferred  upon  the  wife,  but  an  executory  agreement  to 
make  such  a  setrlement  or  provision  will  be  sufficient,  an<l 
will  he  earrictl  into  cfTeet  according  to  i's  terms.  It  is  not 
requisite,  mnrcover,  that  the  provision  should  be  a  freehold 
estate  in  lands.  Any  inferior  estate,  as  an  estate  for  years 
or  at  will,  will  bo  sufficient,  or  even  an  interest  in  personal 
properly  or  a  pecuniary  provision.  The  provision  need 
not  be  conferred  directly  upon  the  wife,  but  may  bo  given 
to  another  in  trust  f<»r  her  hcnefit.  It  is  not  pos:«ible,  more- 
over, in  e(|uity  to  make  a  prinision  fur  the  wife  which  shall 
deprive  her  of  her  right  of  dower  without  her  own  consent. 
If  i*he  assents  to  a  provision  made  before  marriage,  this 
will  bar  h-*r  dower,  but  if  she  docs  not  assent,  she  will  have 
a  right  of  election  between  the  ]>rovision  and  dower,  unless 
the  requisites  necessary  to  constitute  u  legal  jointure  have 
been  complied  with.  If  the  settlement  is  made  after  mar- 
riage, sho  will  always  have  a  right  of  election.  If  the  wife 
be  an  infant,  the  rule  in  equity  is  that  the  consent  of  pa- 
rents or  guardian  must  be  obtained.  But  in  einiity,  as  at 
law,  the  intcntinn  (hat  the  provision  shall  be  in  lieu  of 
dower  must  be  clearly  expressed  in  making  the  settlement, 
or  it  must  appear  manifestly  inconsistent  with  the  inten- 
tion of  the  grantor  (bat  \h^  wife  should  have  both  jointure 
and  d'twer.  If  the  value  of  the  jirovision  be  wholly  or  par- 
tially destroyed,  the  right  of  dower  will  revive  so  far  as  is 
necessary  to  aflurd  compensation  for  the  loss  sho  has  sus- 
tained. 

In  this  country  the  English  law  in  regard  to  jointures  is 
substantially  in  furco  in  most  of  the  Slates,  though  it  has 
been  to  a  considerable  extent  modified  by  statute.  The 
tendency  of  legislation  has  been  to  ansimiiato  the  rules  in 
relation  lo  legal  jointure  to  those  prevailing  in  equity.  In 
some  of  the  States  the  distinction  between  legal  and  equi- 
table jrflnturc  has  been  entirely  abolished,  and  the  entire 
8ulij;'ct  is  regulated  hy  express  statutory  provisions.  Thus, 
in  Now  Vork  it  is  provided  that  cither  an  estate  in  lands 
or  a  pecuniary  provision  may  bo  given  in  lieu  of  dower, 
and  that  if  the  jointure  be  created  before  marriage  it  must 
be  cousi'nted  (o  by  the  intended  wile  in  order  trt  be  a  bar 
of  dower.  Ilor  cinsent  may  be  evidenced,  if  she  be  of  full 
age.  by  her  becoming  a  jiarty  to  the  conveyance  by  which 
the  jointure  shall  be  settled— if  she  is  a  minor,  by  her  join- 
ing with  her  father  or  guardian  in  such  conveyance.  If 
(he  settlement  bo  made  after  marriage,  she  will  have  her 
choice  between  j(»inture  and  dower.  The  election  is  to  be 
made  within  one  year  after  the  husband's  death,  or  sho 
will  be  deemed  to  have  accepted  the  jointure.  Jointure 
may,  it  is  also  provided,  bo  barred  by  the  same  causes  as 
dower. 

Another  mode  by  which  a  wife's  right  of  dower  is  some- 
times barred  is  by  a  tes(amen(nry  provision  in  the  bus- 
band's  will,  whicli  is  either  expressed  to  be  in  Hatisfac- 
(ion  or  lieu  of  (lower,  or  which  cannot,  consistently  with 
the  other  provisions  of  the  will,  bo  recrivcd  by  (he  wife  in 
addition  to  her  dower.  A  provision  of  this  kind  is  not 
properly  a  jointure,  but  is  governed  hy  substimtially  the 
sanu-  principles.  The  effect  of  such  provisions  is  usually 
regnliited  by  sfatute.  The  general  rule  is  that  the  inten- 
tion (o  bar  the  right  of  dower  must  be  rlejirly  ascertainable 
front  the  terms  of  (he  will,  or  the  widow  shall  receive  bolh 
the  devise  or  hequest  and  her  dower.  Anil  even  when  smdi 
intention  is  apparent,  (be  proviriion  does  not  bur  her  right 
of  dower  absdiutely  without  her  consent,  but  she  hufi  nn 
election  between  her  dower  and  (he  provision.  When  it  is 
expressly  declared  in  the  will  that  (he  provision  shall  be 
'*  in  lieu  of  dower."  an  election  will  un<|Uestionaldy  have 
to  bo  made.  Tnless  some  positive  expression  of  the  same 
purport  be  used,  the  inquiry  will  be  coocKsary  whether  tho 
V„r.  U— •»! 


receipt  of  both  dower  and  ^he  testamentary  provision  would 
be  inconsistent  with  a  reasonable  construction  of  the  entire 
will,  or  prevent  its  appropriate  and  complete  legal  eff"ect 
and  operation.  If  there  be  such  on  inconsistency,  an  elec- 
tion between  dower  and  the  provision  will  in  this  case  also 
be  requisite.  But  the  law  favors  (lower,  and  it  will  not  be 
readily  inferred  that  a  devise  is  intended  to  be  in  lieu  of 
dower  if  no  express  declaration  to  that  effect  irf  contained 
in  the  will.  It  has  been  held  that  if  a  provision  for  tho 
wife  is  embodied  in  the  will,  and  a  clause  is  also  inserted 
that  tho  residue  of  the  estate  shall  pass  to  a  residuary  dc- 
viscoor  legatee,  the  right  of  dower  will  not  be  extinguished, 
for  the  phrase  "  residue  of  the  estate  "  means  the  remainder 
of  tho  estate  subject  to  all  legal  claims  or  incumbrances, 
among  which  the  right  of  dower  would  be  inclutlcd.  If, 
however,  it  bo  declared  that  tho  property  shall  be  vested 
in  trustees  to  receive  the  rents  and  ])rofits  and  pay  a  cer- 
tain portion  over  to  the  wife,  she  will  not  be  entitled  to  re- 
ceive the  bequest  without  relinquishing  her  dower.  Iler 
possession  of  a  life  estate  by  her  right  of  dower  would  be 
inconsistent  with  the  control  and  management  of  the  entire 
property  by  the  trustees.  Any  kind  of  property  may  be 
given  to  tho  wife  by  will  in  lieu  of  dower.  In  many  of  the 
States  it  is  provided  that  the  wife  shall  signify  her  election 
between  a  devise  and  her  dower  within  a  certain  time.  If 
dower  be  not  claimed  within  that  period,  it  will  be  pre- 
sumed that  she  has  chosen  the  provision  in  the  will.  Tho 
statutes  of  the  several  States  must  be  specially  consulted 
on  this  subject.  (See  Washburn  on  Heal  Pmpcrtt/ ,-  Cruise's 
Digest.)       Geohge  Chase.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwicfit. 

Joinville'9  town  of  France,  in  tho  department  of  Ilaute- 

Murne.  In  its  vicinity  the  ancient  castle  of  the  dukes 
of  Guise  was  situated.  The  title  of  prince  of  .loinville  is 
derived  from  a  baronial  fief,  erected  into  a  principality  by 
Henri  II.,  of  which  .loinville  was  the  capital.  The  title 
is  now  hcM  by  the  third  son  of  tho  late  king.  Louis  Phi- 
lippe.    Pop.  about  4000.  ArctST  Niemann. 

Joinville  (FnANrois  pERDiNAsn  Phimppe  Loiis  Ma- 
tie  d'Ouleans),  Puixce  oe,  the  third  son  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, tho  last  king  of  the  French,  b.  at  Xcuilly  Oct.  1  t, 
ISIS.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  commenced  his  naval  ca- 
reer as  pupil  on  board  the  frigate  .'Xrleuiise  :  was  appointed 
a  lieutenant  in  18:;G.and  in  is:iH  comman<U'd  the  corvette 
La  Crf'olc  of  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Baudin  before  Vera  Cruz. 
In  the  attack  upon  Fort  San  .Tuan  dTIoa  and  the  city  of 
Vera  Cruz  ho  distinguished  himself  in  a  shore-expedition 
against  the  city,  in  which  in  a  hand-to-hand  combat  ho 
captured  the  Mexiean  general  Arista,  for  which  he  was 
made  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  mpitaiur  ffe 
vaisHran.  In  1S40  he.  in  command  of  the  frigate  La  Belle 
Poule,  was  charged  with  conveying  the  remains  of  Napo- 
leon from  St.  Helena  to  France.  Tn  tiie  same  frigate  he 
visited  America,  and  was  warmly  received  in  Philadelphia 
and  Boston.  In  184:1  he  married  the  princess  Franeesca  di 
Braganza,  daughter  of  Pedro  I.  and  sister  of  the  present 
emperor  of  lirazil.  Made  at  the  same  epoch  (ISIH)  co?i- 
tre-timirnl  (rear-admiral),  he  in  ISM  commanded  t!ie  fleet 
whicli  bombarded  Tangiers  and  seized  Mogador,  displaying 
on  the  hitter  occasion  conspicuous  personal  gallantry.  The 
rcvfdution  of  1818  found  tho  prince  still  commanding  tho 
fleet  ufT  Algiers,  near  his  brother,  the  due  d'Auinale.  gov- 
ernor of  the  Afririin  possessions  and  commander  of  the 
military  forces  in  Africa,  numbering  SO.OtlO  men.  Yielding 
to  what  purported  to  be  the  jiopular  will,  the  two  brothers 
nlinquishi'd  their  commands  (which  mi;/fit,  perhaps,  had 
the  word  been  said,  have  escorteil  them  to  Purist,  and  in 
company  embarked  for  Gibraltar.  For  tho  next  thirteen 
years  tho  ]>rince,  banished  from  France,  was  an  incessant 
traveller,  filling  the  intervals  of  time  with  the  occupations 
of  an  author  or  artist.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Ameri- 
can civil  war  in  IHfil,  he  embarked  for  New  York,  bringing 
with  him  his  son.  the  due  do  Penthievre  (who  entered  ns  a 
ea<lot  tho  U.  S.  Naval  School,  then  at  Newport),  nnd  ne- 
eompanied  by  his  nephews,  the  comte  de  I^iris  and  the  duo 
do  Chartres.  The  latter  received  military  commissions 
from  the  government,  and  were  nieiiibers  of  the  personal 
staff  (A.  I>.  C.I  of  tien.  McClellan  during  the  latter  j»art  of 
the  year,  and  during  what  is  known  ns  tho  Virginia  Pen- 
insular campaign  o«ainst  Iliehmond  (Apr..  May,  .Tune, 
lsr»2*,  showing  (Ml  various  occasions,  nnd  especially  at  the 
battle  of  (laines's  Mill,  great  efficiency  nnd  personal  gal- 
lantry. The  prince  himself  accompanied  (he  head-quar- 
ters of  Gen.  McClellan,  who  appreeiateil  nnd  gladly  availed 
himself  of  his  military  experience,  sound  judgment,  and 
statesnmnlike  qualities.  Immediately  on  his  return  to 
Franco  he  communicated  to  the  lirvur  tfr  I)i\i.r-M>fuiU», 
under  the  uum-th  -plnmr  of  "  A.  Trognon,"  an  able  sketch 
of  (he  events  of  the  campaign  under  the  litle  of  I.'Artn/r  tin 
Potoinnr,  etc.  Suitsequeotly  he  collected  and  published  in 
Iwo  volumes,  outilled  £inde»  tur  la  marine  et  rictU  tU 


1442 


JOINVILLE,  DE— JONAS. 


ffuerre,  his  various  contributions  to  that  periodical,  amon» 

which  may  be  uicntionctl  the  one  just  referred  to  and  Ln 
marine  en  Frrtnce  ef  atix  Efuta  Cni»  en  2i^(t5.  With  otlier 
inemhrrs  of  his  family  ho  made  ur;xent  hut  vain  appe:\l3 
to  the  French  govtrument  to  be  permitted  to  serve  France 
in  the  war  with  Germany  which  broke  out  in  1870.  When 
the  French  armies  had  been  almost  annibilated,  and  disas- 
ter overwhelmed  their  native  land,  the  ])riiice  and  his 
nephew,  the  due  de  Chartre^,  disuppeared  from  the  family 
reunion  at  Claremont  to  find  their  way  to  serve  their  coun- 
try. Repelled  by  the  f^ovcrnmcnt,  whieh  regarded  his 
presence  as  dangerous,  and  dcnieit  permission  to  serve  even 
under  a  i>orrowod  name,  he  was  finally  compelled  to  return 
to  Kngland,  where  he  remained  until  the  edict  of  banish- 
ment resting  upon  his  family  was  abrogated  by  decree  of 
the  French  assembly  (IsTI !.  By  hi^  marriage  with  the 
princess  of  Brazil  the  prince  de.Toinville  has  two  children — 
Pierre  Philippe  Jean  Mario  d'Orb'ans,  due  de  Penthi&vre 
(b.  Nov.  4.  lHl.'>).and  a  daughter.  Fran^oise  Mario  Am61ie 
{b.  Aug.  14,  1844),  who  married  (June  II.  1863)  her  cousin, 
the  due  de  Chartres.  J.  G.  Barnard. 

Joinville,  de  (Jean\  Pire.  b.  at  the  chsLteau  of  Join- 
ville  in  Champagne  about  1224;  was  at  an  early  age  at- 
tached as  seneschal  to  the  court  of  the  count  of  Champagne, 
and  afterwards  to  that  of  the  king  of  Navarre.  In  1248 
ho  took  part  with  St.  Louis,  king  of  France,  in  his  first 
crusade,  having  in  his  train  700  men-at-arms;  was  a  com- 
panion of  tlie  king  in  his  battles  and  his  captivity,  becom- 
ing his  intimate  friend  and  counsellor.  Returning  to 
France  in  12.')4.  he  was  for  many  years  employed  at  court, 
but  declined  to  take  part  in  the  second  crusade  (1270), 
which  was  directed  against  Tunis,  and  proved  fatal  to  that 
monarch.  Joinville  was  one  of  the  principal  witnesses  in 
behalf  of  the  sanctity  of  Louis  in  the  inquest  (Aug.,  12S2) 
preliminary  to  his  canonization,  and  his  closing  years  were 
employed,  at  the  request  of  Queen  Jeanne  of  Navarre 
(1309),  in  writing  his  celebrated  Mcmoires,  whieh  have  ever 
since  been  a  favorite  French  classic.  He  lived  to  a  great 
age,  and  d.  probably  in  1318.  The  best  edition  of  his 
Meinnircs  is  that  of  Natalis  de  Wailly  (Paris,  1S73). 

Jokjoker'ta,  the  name  of  a  former  kingdom  of  Java, 
now  a  Dutch  presidencv.  Its  capital,  Jokjokorta  or  Mata- 
rara,  situated  in  hit.  7^  47'  S.,  Ion.  10°  21'  E.,  has  50,000 
inhabitants,  many  European  settlers  and  European  insti- 
tutions, and  a  most  curious  palace  of  tha  sultan.  It  is 
built  on  a  terraecii  island  with  entrances  under  the  water, 
and  the  heavy  gilding  of  its  lowers  and  windows  shows 
that  it  was  once  a  gorgeous  building,  though  it  now  is  fall- 
ing rapidly  into  decay. 

Joliba.     See  Niger. 

Jo'lict^  city,  cap.  of  Will  co.,  Til.,  on  the  Aux  des  Plaines 
River,  and  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  ;i6  miles  S.  W. 
of  Chicago,  on  tho  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  and 
the  Chicago  and  Alton  R.  Rs..  at  the  terminus  of  the  Michi- 
gan Central  II.  R.  It  is  also  on  tlie  Chicago  and  Illinois 
River  R.  R.  The  town  i?  built  mainly  in  the  river-valley, 
but  partly  on  bluffs  on  either  side.  Very  fine  calcareous 
building-stone  underlies  the  whole  city  and  vicinity,  and 
is  extensively  quarried.  Cement,  gravel,  and  fireclay  are 
largely  obtained,  the  latter  being  found  in  a  great  mound. 
Firebrick  and  ilrain-tile  are  madr  from  it.  Near  the  city 
is  the  State  penitentiary,  built  of  stone.  Its  wall,  averaging 
;i5  feet  in  height,  encloses  16|  acres.  The  usual  number 
of  convicts  is  some  1;I00,  employed  in  making,  on  contract, 
boots,  shoes,  stone-work,  cooperage,  butts,  hinges,  harnesses, 
cigars,  etc.  It  has  been  pronounced  the  largest  and  best 
conducted  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  country.  Joliet 
has  a  manufactory  of  iron  and  steel,  built  at  on  estimated 
cost  of  $:i,000.00n  :  it  employs  from  2000  to  2500  men.  and 
turns  out  steel,  steel  and  iron  rails,  machinery,  castings, 
and  the  varied  products  of  the  blast  furnace,  converter, 
puddling-mill,  machine-shop,  and  foundry.  Joliet  has  12 
churches,  2  national  au<l  2  private  banks,  a  public  library. 
2  convents.  1  semi-weekly  and  4  weekly  newspapers,  a  paid 
fire  department,  Ifi  artesian  welJs,  ami  varied  minor  indus- 
tries. Its  water-power  and  the  proximity  of  the  Wilming- 
ton coal-fields  give  it  great  advantages  as  a  manufacturing 
centre.  Pop.  720.1:  of  tp.  2940,  greatly  increased  since 
the  census.  James  GivomPEKD,  En.  "  Rr;pi  bi.ican." 

Joliet  (CnARr,Ks),b.  at  Saint  Ilippolyte.  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Doubs,  Aug.  8.  ^H.^2  :  entered  literature  as  a  jour- 
nalist and  miscellaneous  writer,  and  attracted  great  atten- 
tion both  by  his  Lc  roman  de  denj-  jruncH  mnrUs  { 180C)  and 
MademniHrlh  Chrytddn  (1S70),  and  by  his  novels  treating 
of  subjects  from  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71. 

Joliet  (Loris),  b.  at  Quebec  in  10^5;  was  educated  in 
the  Jesuits'  college  in  that  town,  but  engaged  in  the  West- 
ern fur-(rade.  Commissioned  by  Frontenao  to  explore  the 
Mississippi  River,  he  started  in  1C73  up  the  Fos  River  and 


down  the  Wisconsin  and  Mississippi  rivers  to  a  point  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  returning  to  Green  Bay  n'cl  the 
Illinois  River.  Thence  he  proceeded  alone  to  i^Hiebec.  los- 
ing his  MSS.  on  the  way  :  but  he  ])rcpared  a  map  and  nar- 
rative of  the  expedition  from  memory.  He  was  appointed 
royal  hydrographcr.  and  received  tlie  island  of  Anlicosti, 
of  which  he  was  dispossessed  by  the  British.  In  K1H7  the 
seigniory  of  .Toilet  in  Canada  was  granted  to  him,    D.  1700. 

Jo'liette,  county  of  Quebec,  Canada,  extending  N.  W. 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  It  has  much  timber,  mines 
of  iron,  and  stone-quarries;  much  of  the  soil  is  very  fertile. 
It  is  intersected  bv  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Industry  Railway. 
Cap.  Joliette.     Pop.  23.075. 

Joliette,  a  large  town,  the  capital  of  Jollelte  co.,  Que- 
bec, Canada,  has  fine  water  power,  excellent  building-stone, 
large  manufactures  of  lumber.  leather,  and  castings.  It  has 
a  benevolent  society,  college,  hospital,  convent,  mechanics* 
institute,  court-house  and  jail,  and  1  semi-weekly  news- 
paper. It  has  an  important  trade,  and  is  the  N.  W.  ter- 
minus of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Industry  Railway.  Pop. 
of  sub-district,  3047. 

Jollivet'  (PiF.RRc  Jules),  b.  at  Paris  June  27,  1803; 

studied  first  architecture,  then  painting:  lived  1822-25  in 
Madrid;  and  gained  the  great  medal  in  1835.  lie  has 
painted  a  great  number  of  subjects  of  Spanish  life  and 
history:  Lam,  in  the  Luxemburg;  Battfe  of  Aicha,  at 
Versailles :  Lc  MasHneie  des  fniiocents,  at  KoucD.  The 
Time  o/  Pericles  Is  one  of  his  latest  works. 

Jol'ly  Boat  [J'dfi/  is  kindred  to  the  word  i/nirl],  a  small 
boat  carried  on  board  ships,  and  used  for  communicating 
with  shore  or  with  other  ships.  It  is  usually  propelled  by 
oars,  but  sometimes  a  mast  and  sail  arc  set  up.  The  jolly 
boat  is  often  short,  wide,  and  capacious,  and  is  particularly 
adapted  to  the  steward's  use. 

Jomard'  (Edme  ^Fran);ois),  b.  at  Versailles  Nov.  IT, 
1777  :  stuilied  in  the  Ecole  Polyteehnique,  and  accompanied 
the  expedition  to  Egypt  as  a  member  of  the  scientific  com- 
mittee. After  his  return  to  Paris  in  1802  he  was  employed 
for  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  redaction  and^  publica- 
tion of  the  celebrated  work.  Dcscri/tfion  de  VE'jifpte,  of 
which  he  wrote  6  volumes  himself.  In  1821  he  took  part 
in  the  f  lunding  of  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  and 
from  1S2S  he  held  a  position  in  the  geographical  depart- 
ment of  the  Royal  Library.  He  has  aided  in  the  publica- 
tion of  many  valuable  works  concerning  Egypt  and  Africa, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  minor  essays  on  different  geograph- 
ical, archcological,  and  educational  subjects,  D.  Sept,  22, 
18G2,  at  Paris.  }~i  ^^'  /  i 

Jomini' (Henri), Baron, b. at Pa'yernc, canton  of  Vnu-I. 
Switze.land,  Mar.  fi.  177'J  :  entered  the  French  army  in  I^Ot 
with  tho  rank  of  major;  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Mar- 
shal Ney  in  Germany  and  Spain;  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1808,  and  distinguished  himself  on  the  retreat 
from  Moscow  in  1812.  But  when  Napoleon,  instigated  by 
Berthier,  refused  to  promrite  him  after  the  victory  at  Baut- 
zen, Jomini  left  the  French  army  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  made  him  liis  aide-de-camp ; 
ho  took,  however,  no  part  in  the  campaign  against  France, 
and  the  rumor  that  he  had  revealed  the  French  plans  of 
operation  to  the  allies  was  denounced  by  Napoleon  himself. 
In  the  Russian  service  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  the  Turks  in  1828,  and  was  very  active  in  the 
foundation  of  tho  Military  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  wholly 
to  literary  pursuits.  D.  at  Passv.  near  Paris,  Mar.  24, 
1S(»0.  Ilis  principal  works  are — -Traiten  den  Granden  Ope- 
rations inilittiircH,  on  llistoire  critit/ne  den  Gnerrca  dc  Frf- 
deric  le.  Ornnd,  canipnr^e9  aii  Si/sti':mc  Moderns;  Hiitioire 
critique  ct  rnififftire  del  rompagneg  dc  In  Revolutinu  (5  vols., 
Paris.  180ft),  Vic  pnlititfue  et  tnifitaire  de  NuptdSim  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1827),  Pierin  dc  Vnrt  de  la  (/ttcrrc  (Paris,  I83S,  2 
vols.;  with  an  appendix,  Paris,  1849). 

Jo'nati  [Ilcb..  a  "dove"],  a  Hebrew  prophet,  b.  at 
Gath-hepher  in  the  tribe  of  Zebuluu.  He  was  no  doubt 
the  "Jonah,  son  of  Amittai,"  who  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings 
xiv.  25,  so  that  he  lived  about  800  b.  c.  The  book  whieh 
bears  his  name  does  not  contain  his  prophecies,  but  a  story 
about  him,  an  incident  from  his  career.  Some  assert  tliat 
the  story  is  purely  mythical,  others  that  it  has  a  histori- 
cal foundation,  but  has  undergone  the  influence  of  popular 
tradition;  others  that  it  is  a  poetical  invention  with  a  di- 
dactic purpose.  In  any  view  its  didaetie  j)urpose  is  evident. 
It  teaches  ih.at  man  cannot  escape  from  God  by  flight  ;  that 
man  has  only  to  do  what  he  is  called  to  do,  and  leave  re- 
sults to  God  :  and  that  Ciod  does  not.  when  he  employs  a 
human  agent  to  tlireaten  judgment,  bind  himself  not  to 
show  mercy  lest  he  should  bring  his  agent  to  shame. 

Jo'nas  (Ji'STfs),  b.  June  5,  1493.  at  Nordhausen,  in  the 
Prussian  provinso  of  Saxony;  studied  law,  and  was  pro- 


J  U.N  ATll  AN^JON  ES. 


1443 


fcssor  uT  jurispruilcncc,  first  at  Erfurt,  and  then  at  Wittcn- 
bcrj;,  wht're  in  1 J21  he  changed  his  chair  for  that  of  theol- 
og;y  :  hecaiiie  ecclesiastical  superintendent  at  Halle  in  I;HI, 
and  at  Coburg  in  1 J46;  and  d.  at  Eisfeld  Oct.  9.  I.jj5.  He 
Has  an  intimate  friend  of  Luther  and  Melanehthon,  and 
one  of  the  most  )injriiincnt  anion;;  the  (icrinan  Urformers. 
Ho  accomjianicil  Luther  to  Worms,  aided  him  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament,  and  conlriljuted  much  to  the 
furthering  of  the  Heformation  by  his  preaching  aud  by  his 
powerful  translations  into  German  of  the  Latin  writings 
of  Luther  and  Melanehthon. 

Jon'athan  [Ileb.  Ynnnihnn'],  a  son  of  Saul,  king  of 
Israel,  b.  near  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  B.  c. ;  be- 
came, on  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  a  conspicuous 
leader  in  the  war  against  the  I'hilistincs,  which  owed  its 
origin  to  his  daring  exploit  in  killing  a  Philistine  general 
at  Geha  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3,  4).  His  attachment  lo  David, 
whom  he  defended  against  the  jealousy  and  murderous  de- 
signs of  his  father,  is  the  best  known  feature  of  Jonathan's 
career,  and  has  made  his  name  a  synonym  for  disinterested 
frienilship.  .lonathan  was  killed  in  battle  against  the 
I'hilistincs  at  Mount  liilboa,  about  D.  c.  1053,  together 
with  his  father  and  two  brothers,  and  his  body  was  exposed 
upon  the  walls  of  Ueth-shan  until  it  was  secretly  carried 
away  and  buried  by  the  men  of  .labesh-Gilead,  and  his  re- 
mains were  ultimately  placed  in  the  family  sepulchre  at 
Zelah.  On  the  death  of  ,Jonathan,  David  penned  an  elegy 
(2  Sam.  i.  22  acq.)  which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pro- 
ductions of  its  kind. 

Jonathan  ben  Vzziel,  b.  in  Palestine  in  the  first 
century  d.  r. :  was  a  pupil  of  Ilillel.  and  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  expositors  of  the  books  of  the  (Jld  Testa- 
ment. He  was  the  author  of  a  t'hahlee  paraphrase  or  trans- 
lation of  the  prophets,  and  to  him  is  also  attributed  tho 
authonihip  of  a  Targuin  known  by  his  name,  and  another 
called  the  Fire  Mr^iiltnlh.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  was 
first  printed  at  \'eniec  in  151*0-91,  an<i  afterwards  at  Bi\lo 
(IrtOZI,  Ilanau  (1814),  Amsterdam  (KUO),  Prague  (IfilO), 
and  Vienna  (IS59),  A  Latin  translation  was  given  in  Wal- 
ton's Polyiil.t,  anil  an  Knglish  one  by  Rev.  J.  W.  Elheridge 
(London,  1802).  But  recent  criticism  has  decided  this  Tar- 
gum to  be  several  centuries  posterior  to  the  Christian  era, 
anil  the  genuine  works  of  .Jonathan  are  reduced  to  the  Par- 
nphrttre  on  thf  PropfirU  (embracing  also  ,Toghun,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings),  first  published  atA'enice  in  1491,  now 
found  in  all  rabbinic  Hibics,  also  in  Walton's  Pnlt/f/lnt  and 
liuxlorf's  Hebrew  Bible.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  its 
expositions  of  the  minor  prophets. 

Jonathan  Creek,  tp.  of  Moultrie  co.,  III.  Pop.  1001. 

Jonathan's  Creek,  Ip.,  Haywood  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  987. 

Jones,  county  of  Central  ticorgin.  Area,  .178  square 
miles.  The  Ocmulgee  washes  its  S.  W.  border.  It  is  hilly 
and  fertile.  Iron  ore  ami  granite  exist  here.  Cotton  and 
corn  arc  staple  crops.  The  .''.  part  is  traversed  by  tho 
Georgia  Central  R.  R.     Cap.  Clinton.     Pop.  9430. 

Jones,  county  of  the  E.  of  Iowa.  Area,  57fl  square 
miles.  It  is  partly  forest  and  partly  prairie.  It  is  well 
watered,  and  has  a  fertile  calcareous  soil.  Cattle,  grain,  wool, 
butter,  and  hay  are  extensively  produced.  Carriages,  wa- 
gons, and  briek  are  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  Tho 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Iowa  Miilland,  the  D.'ivenport 
and  .St.  Paul,  the  .Sabula  Aekloy  and  Dakota,  and  other 
railroads.     Cap.  .\nainosa.     Pop.  19,731. 

Jones,  county  of  (he  P.  R.  of  Mississippi,  drained  by 
the  head-streams  of  the  !*;uicagoula  River.  Area,  (»,'tO 
square  miles.  It  is  partly  light  pine-land,  anil  has  denso 
forests.  It  produces  some  rice,  corn,  and  sweet  potatoes. 
Cap.  Ellisville.     Pop.  3313. 

Jones,  cnunly  of  the  E.  of  North  Carolina,  trnversed 
by  the  river  Trent.  Area,  about  425  square  miles.  It  has 
much  pine  forest  and  swamp-land,  and  is  generally  level 
and  snndv.  Cotton  and  tobacco  are  staple  products.  Cap. 
Ticn:on.'   Pop.  .'iOII2. 

Jones,  an  unorganized  county  of  N.  Central  Texas. 
Area,  about  1200  square  miles.  It  is  drained  by  the  head- 
streams  of  Brazos  River,  and  is  generally  a  fertile  prairie- 
land  adapted  to  stock-rnising.  lis  principal  place  is  Anson. 
The  county  receives  its  name  from  Anson  .Tones,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  republic  when  Texas  was  admitted  to  the  I'niun. 

Jones,  Ip.  of  Winslon  co.,  .Ma.     Pop.  299. 

Jones,  Ip.  of  Union  co.,  la.     Pop.  810. 

Jones,  tp.  iif  Elk  co..  Pa.     Pup.  1091. 

Jones  (Anson),  h.  in  Mnssnchuselts  Jan.  20,  1798;  com- 
menced the  praclicc  of  medicine  in  1820.  Being  of  a  mi- 
gratory disposition,  he  subsequently  resided  for  a  while  in 
Philadelphia  and  New  Orleans :  he  then  visited  .'^oulh  Aincr 
ica.  and  finally  (in  1833)  settled  at  Braioria,  Tex,  When 
the  troubles  between  Texas  and  Mexico  broke  out  in  1835,  ho 


was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  independence  of  the  colony. 
In  the  war  that  ensued  he  acted  as  a  private  soldier  as 
well  as  a  surgeon  in  the  Texan  army.  After  independence 
was  achieved  he  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Congress.  In 
1838  he  was  minister  from  that  republic  to  the  U.  S.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  senator  in  the  Texas  Congress,  and  thru 
for  three  years  secretary  of  state.  In  Sept.,  1844,  be  was 
elected  president  of  Texas,  which  office  he  held  until  Texas 
became  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  and  varied  abilities,  and  left  his  impress  upon  the 
history  of  the  times.  His  death,  by  his  own  hand,  Jan.  7, 
1858,  was  deeply  lamented.  A.  H.  Stkphkxs. 

Jones  (CnAiiLES  Colcock),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Liberty  Hall, 
fia.,  Dec.  20,  1804  :  studied  at  Andover  and  Princeton  theo- 
logical seminaries:  was  ordained  in  1S30,  and  went  as  a 
missionary  to  the  negroes  in  his  native  county  in  (Tcorgia. 
From  1830  to  1838  and  from  IS  17  to  IS.-.O  he  was  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  seminary  at  Columbia.  S.  C,  hav- 
ing  in  the  interval  returned  to  his  labors  among  the  negroes. 
In  1850  he  rcmoveil  to  Philadelphia,  and  became  secretary 
of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Domestic  Missions:  retvirned 
in  1853  to  Georgia,  where  he  d.  Mar.  IG,  18(13.  He  pub- 
lished several  catechisms,  one  of  which,  on  Srriphirr  f)oc- 
liluc  anil  Praclicc,  was  translated  into  several  languages 
as  a  manual  for  tho  instruction  of  heathen  :  several  pamph- 
lets on  the  lirliijiuufi  lnntntctiiin  uf  the  Ncifrn,  and  a  Historif 
of  the  Church  of  God,  left  unfinished  at  his  death, 

Jones  (Charles  Coi-cock,  Jr.),  b.  in  Savannah.  Oa., 
Oct.  28,  1831.  His  early  education  was  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  private  tutors  at  Montevideo  and  Maybank  (plan- 
tation residences  of  his  father  in  Liberty  co.,  (la.):  his 
freshman  and  sophomore  years  were  spent  at  South  Caro- 
lina College,  Columbia,  where  his  father,  Ucv.  Charles  Col- 
cock  Jones,  Sr..  I).  D.  (a  man  of  great  eloquence),  was  then 
one  of  the  professors  in  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Sem- 
inary of  that  city.  The  junior  and  senior  years  of  his 
collegiate  course  were  passed  at  Nassau  ,Hall.  Princeton, 
N.  ,1.,  where  he  graduated  with  high  distinction  in  1852. 
After  this  he  studied  law  in  Philadelphia  one  year,  and 
th'  ■  went  to  Dane  Law  School,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass..  where  he  remained  two  years  more,  and  took 
the  regular  degree  in  the  law  department  of  that  institution 
in  1855.  Returning  to  his  native  State,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Savannah,  Oa.,  in  1856,  and  with  his  nalural 
ability  and  thorough  training  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank 
in  his  profession.  In  ISlUl  he  was  elecled  mayor  of  the 
citv — a  position  seldom  if  ever  before  conferred  on  one  so 
young  by  a  corporation  possessing  the  amount  of  wealth, 
population,  and  extent  of  commercial  and  navigating  in- 
terests that  the  city  of  Savannah  then  did.  Soon  after  the 
passage  by  (leorgia  of  her  ordinance  of  secession  in  18fil, 
and  the  beginning  of  the  late  war,  he  entered  the  Confed- 
erate States  military  service  and  became  lieutenant-colonel 
of  artillery.  This  position  he  held  until  the  end  of  tho 
war.  He  was  under  Gen.  .Toscpb  Y..  .lohnston  at  his  sur- 
render in  Apr.,  isfi5.  .After  the  war  Mr.  .lones  moved  lo 
tho  city  of  New  York,  where  he  resumed  the  practice  of 
law,  and  has  continued  to  prosecute  it  with  great  success, 
lie  has  not  permitted  tho  calls  of  his  profession,  however, 
to  absorb  all  his  lime  or  energy.  By  a  methodical  econ- 
fmy  in  the  arrangement  of  business  peculiar  to  himself, 
he  has,  even  under  the  greatest  pressure  of  oflicc  dulies, 
found  leisure  In  contribute  largely  lo  the  literature  as  well 
as  science  of  the  connlry  by  his  pen.  Several  works  of 
nniisiml  merit  have  been  published  by  him.  Among  Iheso 
mav  be  named— his  lli»lftrlr,it  Sketch  of  the  Clmtham  Ar- 
ti/fcri/  fhiriiif/  the  Conftilcrntr  Strtirff/fr  for  fiitfrpeiiffnice 
(1867),  Hintoricnl  Sketch  of  Tomochi-chi-mieo  of  the  Yum- 
ocinir«(IS68).  ,4iicr'eiif  Tumuli  on  the  Snraunah  Wi'ici(I8fi8), 
Aueieiil  Tumuli  lu  flcnniin  (1869),  Antiquities  of  the  South- 
ern lnilian»,particularht  of  the  Cfrorifia  Tribes  {X^l^).  Tho 
latter  is  a  work  of  great  interest,  and  exhibits  a  vast  amount 
of  menial  labor  and  historical  research.  His  published 
work",  already  ten  in  number,  place  him  in  style  and  mat- 
ter high  among  American  authors.  A.  II.  Stki'IIESS. 

Jones  (flEoniit^  W.),  b.  in  King  and  Queen  en.,  Va., 
Mar.  15.  1806;  was  a  member  of  the  legislafure  of  Tennes- 
see (in  the  bouse  or  senate)  from  1835  lo  1SI2,  and  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1843  lo  1861.  Though  a  Union 
man  of  the  .Jackson  school,  after  the  secession  of  Ten- 
nessee he  )Tent  with  his  State,  and  was  n  member  of 
the  Confederate  Congress.  Since  the  war  he  has  acted 
no  prominent  part  in  polities.  Mr.  .Jones  is  a  remark- 
able instance  of  a  self-made  man  under  American  free 
institutions.     A  poor  boy  with  scanty  education,  he  was 

\  brought  up  to  the  saddler's  trade,  but  by  dint  of  opplica- 

'  tion    and    study    be  acquired    extensive    knowledge,    and 
during  his  entire  Cotigressional  career  was  one  of  the  most 

,  marked  men  of  the  House.  \.  H.  Stkimiess. 

I      Jones  (Sir  llAimr  DAVin),  Q.  C.  B.,  b,  1792;  commis- 


1444 


JONES. 


sioned  second  lieutenant  royal  engineers  1808;  served  in 
the  expedition  to  Walcheren  ISOD;  in  the  Peninsula  cam- 
paigns 1810-14 ;  on  special  duty  in  /Vmerica  181  i  ;  engint'cr 
in  charge  of  iortifications  on  iMontmurtre  after  the  entrance 
of  the  British  troops  into  Paris  1815.  and  coiuinisaioner 
to  the  Prussian  army  of  occupation  181G;  brigadier-gen- 
eral .July,  1854,  and  conducted  the  giege  o|)erations  against 
Bomarsund;  promoted  to  bo  major-general  Dec.  1864;  ap- 
puinfcil  to  and  continued  in  command  of  the  royal  engineers 
in  Kastern  campaign  ( is.'i  j)  to  fall  of  Scbastopol :  lieutenant- 
general  July  0,  ISfJO,  and  colonel-commandant  of  royal  en- 
gineers Aug.  2,  1860.  In  1S66  he  succeeded  to  tlie  governor- 
ship of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Sandhurst,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  that  place  Aug. 
2,  1801).  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Jones  (IIenuv  Bencf;),  M.  D.,  F.  K.  S.,  an  English 
jdiysician,  b.  in  1SI4,  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
Coiloge,  Cambridge,  studied  medicine  in  London,  and  in 
1840  became  physician  of  St.  George's  Hospital.  London. 
Has  published  Gravrf,  OttlcnhtSj  and  (lont,  Animnl  Chcm- 
intri/,  Ain'inaf  Elrrtrii-lti/,  Life  of  Fararhnf  (1SC9),  The 
lioiful  fnetitution  (187  I),  and  many  scientific  papers;  was 
a  member  of  many  learned  societies.     B.  Apr.  20,  1873. 

Jones  fIsiGo),  b.  in  London  in  1572;  d.  there  July  21, 
1G.')2.  Of  humble  parentage  and  poor,  he  owed  to  tho  earl 
of  Pembroke,  who  was  attracted  by  his  taste  for  drawing, 
the  advantage  of  travel  and  study  in  Europe.  Ho  spent 
several  years  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  and  received 
his  chief  impulse  from  the  works  of  Palladio  in  Venice. 
In  1604  he  passed  a  year  in  Copenhagen,  under  the  patron- 
age of  King  Christian  IV.;  in  1605  returned  to  England, 
recommended  by  the  king  to  his  brother-in-lav.-,  James  I.; 
in  Ben  Jonson's  prime  as  poet-laureate  was  court  architect 
and  decorator ;  showed  a  talent  for  mechanical  invention 
and  the  production  of  scenic  effects;  became,  in  short,  a 
person  of  importance,  a  favorite  with  tho  court,  but  not 
equally  popular  with  artists  and  men  of  letters.  He  main- 
tained his  positi*on  under  Charles  I.;  was  made  superin- 
tendent of  the  royal  buildings,  designed  works  of  import- 
ance, and  held  a  high  rank  among  the  architects  of  his 
generation.  The  river  front  of  Somerset  House,  Shaftesbury 
House,  Ashburnham  House,  the  W.  front  of  old  St.  Paul's, 
and  Coveut  Garden,  were  admired  examples  of  his  skill. 
His  designs  fur  the  palace  of  Whitehall,  the  bauqueting- 
house  of  which  only  was  built,  are  regarded  as  his  master- 
pieces. Jones  owed  his  celebrity  less  to  his  genius  than  to 
the  style  of  building  that  he  introduced  into  England  from 
Italy.  When  that  style  became  obsolete  his  fame  passed 
away.  He  was  an  author  as  well  as  a  builder  and  designer, 
an  excellent  mathematician,  a  good  classical  scholar.  He 
wrote  an  essay  on  Stouchenffe,  ingenious,  but  of  no  value; 
notes  on  tho  architecture  of  Palladio,  essays  on  miscella- 
neous siilijects,  and  verses.  Volumes  of  his  architectural 
designs  were  publi:-hed  by  AYiJIiam  Kent  and  Isaac  Ware. 
His  biography  has  been  prepared  by  Peter  Cunningham 
(London.  1848).  The  fortunes  of  Inigo  Jones  were  impli- 
cated in  those  of  the  royal  family.  The  execution  of 
Charles  I.  crushed  him,  and  he  d.  j)')or  and  wretched. 

0.  B.  FRoTrMNanA,M. 
Jones  (Jacob),  b.  near  Smyrna.  Del.,  in  1770;  entered 
the  U.  S.  navy  as  midshipman  in  1709;  was  captured  in 
frigate  Philadelphia  in  180.{  near  Tripoli,  where  he  was  held 
a  prisoner  twenty  months;  commanded  the  U.  S.  sloop  of 
war  Wasp  in  1812.  in  its  celebrated  capture  of  the  British 
sloop  Frolic,  and  was  himself  captured  the  same  day  with 
both  those  vessels  by  the  British  ship  Poietiers  of  74  guns. 
Released  on  parole  at  Bermuda.  Jones  received  distin- 
guished honors  for  his  bravery,  was  voted  a  gold  medal  by 
Congress,  was  promoted  to  post-captain  in  the  squailron 
under  Com.  Decatur.  After  the  war  Com.  J<mes  commamled 
squadrons  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Pacific.  D.  at  Phila- 
delphia Aug.  3,  1S50. 

Jones  (Jamts).  M.  D„  b.  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.  1806; 
d.  in  187;'.  in  North  (-arolina,  of  paralysis.  Ho  received 
M.  D.  from  tho  University  of  l*ennsylvania,  and  beenino 
resident  physician  in  tho  Philadel]>hia  almshouse.  Was 
editor  of  (ho  N.  0.  Mt<f.  nud  Sut-fj.  Journal  in  1857;  pro- 
fessor of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  women  and  children  ;  and 
then  professor  of  practical  medicine  and  tlcan  of  tiie  faculty 
in  the  University  of  Louisiana  1857-60.       Pai  i.  F.  Eve. 

Jones  (JAMKsCnAMnniiLAiN),h.  in  Davidson  co..Tenn., 
Apr.  20.  ISOi) ;  was  elected  governor  of  the  State  over  James 
K.  Polk  in  1841  and  1843,  and  was  one  of  the  U.  S.  Sen- 
ators from  Tennessee  from  1851  to  1857.  D.  at  Memphis 
Oct.  211,  1859.  A.  H.  SrKrHKNS. 

Jones  (J.  Glancy),  h.  in  the  valley  of  the  Conestog.a. 
Pa.,  Oct.  7,  1811  ;  was  educated  for  the  ministry,  but  be- 
came a  suecessful  lawyer  ami  for  a  time  was  deputy  nttorncy- 
goner.il  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  three  times  smt  to  Con- 
gress between  1S50  and  IS^o;  w-.s  the  founder  of  tho  court 


of  claims,  and  for  a  time  chairman  of  tho  committee  of 
ways  and  means.  In  1858  he  became  U.S.  minister  to 
Austria.     D.  at  Heading,  Pa.,  Mar.  24,  1878. 

Jones  (JoRL),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Coventry.  Conn.,  Oct.  25, 
1795  ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1817  ;  was  a  lawyer  of  Easton, 
Pa.  In  l8.';j  he  became  judge,  and  afterwards  presiding 
judge,  of  the  Philadelphia  district  court.  Ho  was  (1847- 
49)  the  first  presitlent  of  Girard  College,  and  in  1849  was 
mayor  of  Philadelphia.  He  published  reports  of  the  re- 
vision of  the  civil  code  of  Pennsylvania,  I'lnnst/lrania 
Laud  Lfur,  and  Jvshh  nud  thr  Cinniufj  (ilnry,  a  work  in  favor 
of  tho  doctrine  of  the  speedy  second  advent  of  the  Lord. 
He  was  perfectly  familiar  with  several  living  and  dead  lan- 
guages, was  an  earnest  student  of  th('o]()gy,  and  wrote  much 
for  the  religious  press.     D.  in  Philadelphia  Feb.  3,  1860. 

Jones  (John),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  in  1729; 
studied  medicine  at  Rheims  ami  Leyden  ;  was  surgeon  to 
Sir  W^illiam  Johnson's  cxpcclition  against  Crown  Point  in 
1755,  and  attended  the  wounded  French  commander,  Baron 
Dieskau;  was  professor  of  surgery  at  tho  medical  school 
of  the  College  of  New  York  17G7;  published  J'lu'ni  Ufjimrks 
upon  H'oKjir/.?  n}}d  Fraptnrcit  in  177l>:  retired  from  New 
York  City  during  tho  British  occupation  ;  was  elected  to 
the  State  senate;  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  army  in  1780,  where  he  was  chosen  ])hysi- 
cian  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  and  in  1787  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Physicians.  He  was  the  friend  and 
family  physician  of  Franklin  and  Washington,  ami  stood 
at  tho  head  of  his  profession  in  America.  D.  at  Philadel- 
phia June  2:1,  1791.  A  volume  of  his  medical  writings  was 
published,  with  a  memoir,  by  his  pupil.  Dr.  Mease,  in  1795. 

Jones  (Jon\  B.),  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1810;  wrote 
a  number  of  descriptive  books  and  charncter  sketches, 
which  have  been  very  popular.  Wild  Weatcnt  Scenes 
(1849)  had  a  sale  of  50,000  co|)ies.  Mr.  Jones  established 
in  1857  at  Philadelphia  a  weekly  paper,  the  Southern  J/on- 
ttury  devoted  to  the  advocacy  of  Southern  interests. 

Jones  (John  M.').  b.  in  Virginia  in  1821  ;  graduated  at 
West  Point  1841,  and  entered  the  infantry  as  brevet  second 
lieutenant,  second  lieutenant  1845,  first  lieutenant  1847, 
and  captain  1855;  served  on  frontier  duty  until  ISftl,  and 
resigned  May  27,  1861,  to  join  the  cause  of  the  Coufed- 
eracy ;  was  appointed  colonel  of  Virginia  volunteers,  and 
advanced  to  the  grade  of  brigadier-general;  served  with 
Longstrect's  corps  in  Virginia;  wounded  nt  Malvern  Hill, 
and  severely  at  Gettysburg  ;  and  served  in  operations  about 
Knoxville,  Tenn. ;  in  the  Virginia  campaign  of  18C1  was 
killed  at  Spottsylvania,  May  10.  18ri4.       G.  C.  Simmons. 

Jones  (John  Pat  l),  whose  true  patronymic  was  John 
Paul,  b.  at  Arbigland  on  the  Firth  of  Sulway  July  fi,  1747. 
His  father  followed  the  peaceful  pursuit  of  a  gardener. 
Tho  youth  became  early  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  adven- 
ture and  desire  for  a  seafaring  life,  which  tho  scenes  of  his 
childhood  were  calculated  to  inspire.  Accordingly,  wcfind 
him  at  the  age  of  twelve  apprenticed  to  a  shipmaster  en- 
gag'd  in  the  American  trade.  His  first  voyage  took  him 
to  Virginia,  where  liis  brother  William  had  settled  and 
prospered,  and  under  whoso  care  our  hero  <liligently  im- 
proved his  leisure  moments,  particularly  in  the  study  of 
iiis  newly-adopted  profession.  The  failure  of  his  master 
liberating  him  from  his  indentures,  Paul  was  almost  at  once 
engaged  as  third  mate  of  a  slaver,  in  which  traffic  he  con- 
tinued until  his  own  sense  of  the  disgrace  attaching  to  such 
a  career  induced  him  to  abandon  it.  Taking  passage  from 
Jamaica  for  Kirkcudbright  in  1768,  the  death  of  both  mas- 
ter and  mate  occurred  on  the  passage,  and  Paul  was  forced 
to  assume  command  of  the  vessel,  bringing  lior  safely  to  her 
I  destination,  and  subsequently  becoming  her  master,  mak- 
:  in-;;  several  voyages  to  the  West  Indies.  In  1773  ho  camo 
to  Viri^inia  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  his  brother,  who  had 
died  childless  and  intestate.  Here  lie  adrled  the  name  of 
j  Jones  to  his  own,  and  apparently  determined  to  aliandon 
I  his  profession  and  devote  himself  to  agriculture.  The  out- 
break of  hostilities  in  1775,  however,  recalled  him  to  the 
sea,  and  his  offer  of  services  to  Congress  being  accepted,  he 
was  on  Dec.  22,  1775,  appointed  senior  lieutenant  in  the 
navy,  and  assigned  to  the  flagship  Alfred.  On  the  arrival 
of  tho  commanding  ofiicer  on  board,  Jones  witii  liis  own 
hands  hoisted  the  American  flag,  the  occasion  being  the  first 
nn  which  it  was  ever  displayed.  His  first  engagement  was 
wilh  the  Glasgow,  soon  :ift<'r  winch  action  he  stn'cee<led  lo 
the  command  of  the  sloop  Providence  (12).  in  which,  dur- 
ing a  cruise  of  little  more  than  six  weeks,  he  captured  six- 
teen prizes,  besides  doing  much  damage  to  tho  fishery  and 
shipping  at  Cnnso  and  Isle  Madam.  Appointed  to  com- 
mand the  Alfred  on  the  completion  of  this  successful  cruise, 
he  led  an  expediti(m,  which  sailed  Nov.  2.  1776.  to  break 
up  the  Cape  Breton  fishery  and  capture  tho  coal  fleet,  in 
which  he  was  partially  successful,  arriving  in  Boston  Dec. 
15  with  four  prizes,    lie  was  in  Jan.,  1777,  ordered  back  to 


J  ONES. 


144.) 


the  Providence.  Tbough  in  the  list  of  original  appoiutincnts 
in  the  colonial  navv  he  stood  sixth  from  the  head,  and  sub- 
sequently received  his  commission  as  captain,  dated  Aug. 
8,  1770,  a  resolution  of  Congress  was  passed  Oct.  10,  1776, 
declaring  the  order  in  which  captains  in  tlic  navy  should 
take  rank,  in  which  list  Jones's  name  was  the  eighteenth. 
This  supersedure  was  a  constant  source  of  annoyance  to 
Jones,  the  injustice  of  which  bo  continued  to  represent,  but 
without  efTect.     In  June.  1777,  Congress  appoiuted  Jones 
to  the  comnmnd  of  the  Hanger  (IS),  a  new  ship,  in  which 
he  sailed  from  Portsmouth  Nov.  I,  arriving  at  Nantes  Dec. 
2,  1777.    In  .^iir..  177.'*,  he  sailed  from  lircst  in  the  Uauger, 
and  ofler  burning  a  brig  off  Cape  Clear  made  a  daring  ile- 
sccnt  upon  the  town  and  shipping  of  Whitehaven,  in  which 
he  displayed  great  personal  ilnriug;  he  then  conceived  the 
idea  of  capturing  the  earl  of  Selkirk,  hoping  to  make  him 
the  instrument  of  obliging  England  to  agree  to  a  system 
of  exchanges.    The  absence  of  the  earl  from  his  estate  near 
Kirkcudbright  caused  the  scheme  to  fail.     A  quantity  of 
silver  plate  which  was  seized  on  this  occasion  was  subse- 
quently recovereii  and  returned  to  the  earl  at  Jones's  ex- 
pense.    During  this  cruise  he  fell  in  with  the  Drake,  a 
vessel  superior  in  crew  and  armament,  which  be  captured 
and  took  into  the  harbor  at  Brest.     The   Ranger  subse- 
quently returned  to  .\merica,  Jones  being  retained  in  France 
by  our  commissioners  at  the  request  of  the  French  minister 
of  the  marine,  who  made  several  very  gratifying  propositions 
to  hira,  all  of  which,  however,  failed  of  execution,  greatly  to 
the  disapi)Ointmenl  and  annoyance  of  Jones,  who  was  thus 
without  a  command  until  Feb.,  177'J,  when  by  his  urgent 
applications  the    French   minister  appointed   him  to    the 
command  of  the  Duras.  an  old  merchantman  converted  into 
a  war-vessel,  and  which  Jones  obtained  permission  to  name 
Bon  Ilommc  Richard  in  honor  of  Dr.  Franklin,  whom  ho 
greatly  res]>ected  and  by  whom  he  was  held  in  high  esteem. 
The  Richard  when  eomjiletcd  mounted  42  guns,  and  on  the 
1  Ith  of  Aug.,  177'J,  Jones  departed  from  Lorient  in  com- 
mand of  a  squadron  of  seven  vessels,  including  two  pri- 
vateers.   In  a  month's  time  they  had  captured  or  destroyed 
twenty-six  vessels,  this  intelligence  sprea<ling  consternation 
along  the  English  coast.     On  .Sept.  23  the  squadron,  con- 
sisting of  the  Kichard.  the  Alliance,  the  Pallas,  and  the 
Vengeance,  when  oiT  Flamborough  Head  sighted  a  fleet  of 
forty-one  s:iil.  which  proved  to  be  the  Baltic  fleet  under 
convoy  of  the  Serapis  ( jOJjind  the  Countess  of  Scarborough 
(*J0).     Chase  was  at  once  given  by  the  squadron,  the  Al- 
liance,  disregarding  signals  to  form  in  lino  of  battle,  at 
once  taking  the  lead,  but  after  approaching  near  to  Iho 
Scrapis,  stood  off  again   from  land.      About  TJ  i".  m.  the 
Kichard  came  up  ivilh  the  .Scrapis,  and  a  terrible  engage- 
ment, lasting  upwards  of  three  hours,  ensued,  during  all 
of  which  time  the  vessels  were  in   close  proximity,   and 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  fight  in  actual  contact.     At 
the  commencement  of  the  action  two  of  the  Richard's  guns 
burst,  disabling  their  crews  and  causing  the  abandonment 
of  the  battery.     The  Countess  of  Scarborough  surrendered 
to  the  Palliis  aller  a  short  nelioii,  and  Iho  Alliance  now  ap- 
proached the  scene  of  conflict  between  the   Richard  an<l 
t?erapi«,  hut,  instead  of  supporting  the  Richard,  her  com- 
mander, Caiit.   Landais,  an  envious  Frenchman,  actually 
opened  a  raking  fire  on  the  Hiebard.  which  was  continued 
too  long  to  admit  of  doubt  of  tlie   Frenchinan's  intention. 
Notwiihstaii'ling  this  discouraging  circumstance,  and  the 
fact  that  the  Richard  was  in  a  sinking  condition  and  sur- 
render counselled  by  many,  Jones  maintained  the  conflict 
until  shortly  after  II)  o'clock,  when  the  .Scrapis  struck.    The 
Kichard  being  on  fire  in  two  places  and  in  a  hopeless  con- 
dition, she  was  abandoned  after  removing  the  wounded, 
and  about  lU  A.  ».  of  the  '25tli  she  went  down,  bows  first. 
The  Serapis  was  taken  info  the  Texel,  and  Jones  was  re- 
ceived in   Paris  and  throughout   France  with  the  greatest 
honors,  the  king  bestowing  upon  him  an  elegant  sword  and 
the  cross  of  the  order  of  Military  .Merit,  which  latter  Con- 
gress permitted  him  to  accept,  and  with  which  he  was  dec- 
orated by  the  French  iiiinisier  al  Philadel|ihia,  where  Jones 
had  arrived  on  Feb.  l.s,  17H1.     Congress  also  gave  him  a 
vore  of  thanks,  and  by  resolution  Ihe  eommand  of  the  new 
frigate  America  (71) ;  but  as  this  fine  ship  was  subsequently 
pres.-nted  to  France  to  replace  the  Magnifique,  ,lones  never 
saw  active  service  at  sea  again.     Me    was   subsequently 
(I7'S:i)  sent  to  Paris  as  agent  to  recover  the  moneys  due  in 
Europe  fur  prizes  taken  under  his  eommand.    In  17^7,  Jones 
came  to  .America,  and  while  here  Congress  voted  him  a  gold 
medal.     He  soon  after  returned  to  Europe,  and  in  17SS  ac- 
cepted the  ajqutiutment  of  rear-admiral  in  the  service  of 
Russia,  and  reuilered  important  service  against  the  Turks. 
He  became  the  object  of  personal  enmity  among  favoriles 
at  court,  and  was  allowed  to  retire  on  a  pension,  which, 
however,  was  not  paid.     IIo  removed  to  Paris,  where  ho 
died  Jnly  IS,  I7'J2.  O.  C.  .«im«on9. 

Jones  (JoiiM  TxTLon),  D.  D.,  b.kt  New  Ipswich,  N.  H., 


July  16,  1802;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1825,  and  studied 
theology  at  Andover  and  Newton,  Mass. ;  became  a  Bap- 
tist in  1828  ;  went  in  1S30  as  a  missionary  to  Burmah :  was 
transferred  in  18;i3  to  .Siam.  where  be  was  a  successful  mis- 
sionary. He  published  a  Siamese  New  Testament  (1843) 
and  several  tracts.     D.  at  Bangkok  Sept.  13,  1851. 

Jones  (Joiis  W.).  b.  in  Montgomery  eo.,  Md.,  in  1806; 
studied  medicine,  took  his  degree  at  Jefferson  College, 
Philadelphia,  and  moved  to  (xeorgia,  where,  after  serving 
in  the  State  legislature,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  1847-49  ; 
subsequently  he  became  one  of  the  professors  in  the  medi- 
cal college  of  Atlanta.     D.  in  1872.         A.  H.  Stkphexs. 

Jones  (Joiiv  W.),  b.  in  Chesterfield,  Va. ;  graduated  at 
William  and  Mary  College  in  IKU.'i;  represented  Virginia 
in  Congress  1835-45,  and  was  Speaker  during  his  last  term. 
D.  Jan.  29,  1848.  A.  H.  Stkphi:.n3. 

Jones  (Jons  AVister),  F.  S.  A.,  b.  at  Lambeth,  Eng- 
land, early  in  the  present  century;  was  educated  at  St. 
Paul's  School ;  studied  law,  and  entered  the  civil  service  in 
1S.'57.  He  became  assistant  keeper  of  the  printed  books  at 
the  British  Museum  in  l.^SO,  keeper  in  IS.M'.,  anrl  principal 
librarian  on  the  retirement  of  Mr.  A.  Panizzi  in  IMiG.  .Mr. 
Jones  has  edited  for  the  llakluyt  Society  several  republi- 
cations of  rare  works  of  early  travels,  has  written  a  guide 
to  the  printed  books  in  the  (irenville  and  King's  Library, 
has  contributed  to  the  A'cic  liiogmpliirnt  lUcliuiiari/  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  and  to  the 
quarterly  reviews. 

Jones  (Joseph),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Liberty  co..  Ga.,  Sept.  G, 
is:;:',;  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  and  at  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
His  great-grandfaihcr  was  killed  in  storming  the  British 
works  at  Savannah  when  an  aide  to  lien.  Mcintosh,  Ort. 
9,  1779;  his  grandfather  served  through  the  war  of  I.''l2: 
and  his  father  was  the  distinguished  clergyman  and  pro- 
fessor, Charles  Colcock  Jones.  Joseph  Jones  was  profes^sor 
of  ehcmistry  in  the  Medical  College,  Savannah,  Ga., 
1S5S-59;  professor  natural  sciences  University  of  Georgia, 
Athens,  1858-59;  professor  in  the  Jledical  College,  Au- 
gusta, 1869-00 :  chemist  to  cotton-planters'  convention, 
Georgia.  ISCO;  surgeon  army  Confederate  Slates  1802-05; 
professor  chemistry  ami  clinical  medicine  Nashville  Uni- 
versity, Tenn.,  1808-69  :  and  at  present  professor  chemistry 
and  clinical  medicine  University  of  Louisiana,  and  visit- 
ing physician  to  its  charily  hospital.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  valuable  contributions  to  medical  science  and  its 
kindred  subjects.  Pali.  F.  Eve. 

Jones  (Noble  WiMBERi.Yl,  M.  D..b.near  London,  Eng., 
1724;  emigrated  to  Georgia;  a  mcniberof  the  colonial  leg- 
islature in  1701 ;  was  a  leading  revolutionist  in  1774,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  second  Congress  of  the  colonies  1775; 
afterwards  became  connected  with  the  army,  and  was  made 
prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Charleston  in  1780.  Afler  being 
exchanged  he  was  again  relumed  to  Congress.  He  prac- 
tised medicine  during  the  intervals  of  public  life;  was  pres- 
ident of  the  State  convention  of  (Jeorgia  by  which  the  con- 
stitution was  amended  iu  1795.  D.  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  Jan. 
y   lfl05.  A.  H.  Stepiie.vs. 

Jones  (Owes),  b.  in  Wales,  1809;  best  known  by  his 
studies  of  the  Alhambra  in  Granada,  to  which  he  devoted 
much  time  and  labor.  He  decorated  the  interior  of  the 
Exhibition  building  in  Hyde  Park  (ISJl)  and  of  the  Crys- 
tal Palace  at  Sydenham,  where  the  Egyptian,  Greek,  Ro- 
man, and  Alhambra  courts  were  of  his  design.  In  1852 
be  was  made  director  of  decorations  for  the  Crystal  Palace 
Companv.  SI.  James's  Hall.  Piccadilly,  was  erected  by 
him.  lie  was  the  author  of  Dciiiiim  fur  ,Vo»iiiV  <iii(/  '/'<««<■/- 
liileil  I'itremrnls  (1842).  /'/iiii«,  A7rr<i(i'oii»,  and  Scrlmnt  of 
llic  Alhiimbni  (1848),  An  AlUmpI  lo  tirfiiir  tht  J'rimiplet 
irlilcli  kIiuiiIiI  /Irr/iilnh  III'-  /Cmiilni/iiiriil  i,/  Cuhiit  ill  Dniiin- 
liic  ^/-M(I851),  Tlie  (Iriimmm-  uf  Oinomcilf  ( 1856).  He 
wrote  much  on  the  art  of  illumination,  and  dcsigne<l 
the  illuminations  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  To  il- 
lustrate his  doctrine  that  ancient  sculpture  was  commonly 
painted,  and  the  exterior  of  marble  buildings  embellisbed 
with  color,  Jlr.  Jones  toucl-.ed  wilh  color  statues  in  the 
Greek  Court  at  .Sydenham,  including  some  of  the  easts  from 
the  Elgin  marbles  there.  His  work  is  familiar  through  the 
ornamental  title-pages  of  illustrateil  books.     I).  Apr.   19, 

1(J7|.  0.   B.   FlIOTIIINdHAM. 

Jones  (Gen.  RorEnV  b.  in  Westmoreland  eo.,  Va.,  1789  ; 
appointed  second  lieulenaul  in  the  marine  corps  in  1809; 
transferred  lo  the  artillery  in  1812,  wilh  rank  of  captain  ; 
and  assistant  ndjulnntgenernl,  wilh  rank  of  major,  18i:t; 
served  with  dislinetiim  during  the  war  with  Great  llriliiin, 
winning  brevet  of  major  for  Chippewa  and  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  for  gallantry  at  sortie  from  Fort  Erie:  ajipointed 
adjntant-gencral.  rank  of  colonel,  Aug..  1818,  and  retained 
iu  the  nrtillory  io  1821.     In  1825  was  appointed  adjutant- 


1446 


JONES— JONKOPING. 


general  of  the  arrav.  which  position  he  held  until  ho  d.  at 
Washington,  D.  C./July  15,  1SJ2.  In  lS:t2  he  was  brc- 
vetted  brigadier-gcneralj  and  in  1S49  major-general. 

G.  C.  SlSIMONS. 

Jones  (Pamuei-),  LL-O.,  h.  iu  17r>0,  was  a  son  of  Chicf- 
Jaslicc  Samuel  Jones;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1700;  studied 
law  in  his  father's  office,  along  with  De  \Vitt  Clinton;  was 
a  member  of  the  New  York  assembly  1812-14;  recorder  of 
Kevv  York  City  182:5;  ciiaucellor  of  the  Slate  I82G;  chief- 
justice  of  the  superior  court  in  New  York  City  1S2S,  and 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State  lB-47-4y.  D.  at  Cold 
Spring,  L.  I.,  Aug.  S,  ISao. 

Jones  {Gen.  Samiel),  b.  in  Virginia  in  1S20;  graduated 
at  AVest  Point. July,  ISU,  and  ii|i]>ointed  brevet  second  lieu- 
tenant  of  artillery,  receiving  iiis  fall  commission  the  fol- 
lowing September;  promoted  to  bo  first  lieutenant  1847, 
and  captain  1853;  18H-45  was  on  frontier  duty  and  in 
garrison;  1845-51  at  West  Point  as  profoFsor  and  instruc- 
tor; again  on  garrison  and  frontier  duty  1S51~5S,  when  ho 
was  assigned  to  duty  in  AVashingtrm  as  assistant  to  the 
judgc-advoeate:  resigned  Apr.  27,  1861.  and  entered  the 
Confederate  service  as  eolonel,  rising  to  the  grade  of  major- 
general  1802,  aud  in  18G4  commanded  the  department  of 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.        G.  C.  Simmons. 

Jones  (Seaborn),  b.  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  17SS,  and  was 
sent  to  Princeton  College  for  education,  but  returned  before 
graduation  in  consec|uenee  of  the  failure  of  his  father  in 
mercantile  business;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  by  special  act  of  the  legislature  before  he  was  twenty- 
one  years  of  age;  was  solicitor-general  of  bis  judicial 
circuit  in  182;^;  was  a  member  of  Congress  IS^-'J-.To  and 
1845-47.  D.  in  Columbus.  Ga..  in  1874.  lie  was  a  lawyer 
of  great  distinction  in  the  State  for  half  a  century. 

A.  H.  Stephens. 

Jones  (TnOMAS  ap  Catfsbv),  b.  in  Virginia  in  17P0, 
was  a  brother  of  Gen.  Roger  Jones;  entered  the  U.  S. 
nnvy  in  1805;  was  from  ISOS  to  1812  in  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, engaged  iu  suppressing  piracy,  smuggling,  and  the 
slave-trade;  was  captured  with  his  flotilla  by  a  British  na- 
val expedition  against  New  Orleans  in  1814;  commanded 
the  Pacific  squadron  in  1842,  when  he  took  possession  of 
Monterey  in  California,  upon  erroneous  information  of  war 
existing  between  the  U.  S.  and  Mexico,  tor  which  he  was 
temporarily  suspended  from  the  service.  D.  at  Georgetown, 
0.  C,  May  30,  1858. 

Jones  (Thomas  Rymeu),  F.  R.  S.,  b.  about  1810;  ed- 
ucated at  London  and  Paris,  and  entered  on  his  profession 
as  a  surgeon  in  1833,  but  Ijy  reason  of  deafness  did  not 
long  practise;  became  in  1831  ])r(>fcssor  of  comparative  an- 
atomy in  King's  College,  London,  and  in  1840  Fullerian 
professor  of  physiology  in  the  Royal  Institution,  and  ac- 
quired fame  as  an  eloquent  lecturer.  .Author  of  .4  Gruerol 
Outline  of  the  Animal  Kiitffdum  0838),  of  napers  in  the 
Ct/clopscdiu  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology^  and  various  mon- 
ographs. 

Jones  (Thomas  Wharton).  F.  R.  S.,  F.  R.  C.  S..  b.  at 
St.  Andrew's,  Scotland,  in  18lt8;  was  educated  at  Kdin- 
burgh  :  became  in  1838  a  surgeon  of  London  ;  was  professor 
of  ophthalmic  medicine  and  >urgery  in  I'nivcrsity  College, 
London;  and  wrote  Ophthulmic  Medicine  and  Snrgcry, 
the  Astley-Cooper  prize  essay  on  Inftammntinn  (1S50),  the 
Actonian  prize  essay  of  1851,  /*hy»iolotfy  of  Body,  Sense, 
and  Mind,  Failnrc  of  Siyht  from  Railway  Accidents 
(1869),  etc. 

Jones  (Sir  William),  M.  A..  F.  R.  S.,  b.  in  London 
Sopt.  28,  1740;  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxfurd  ;  was 
tutor  to  Lord  Althorp  1705-70  ;  published  a  French  trans- 
lation of  the  (Persian)  Life  of  :Xadir  Shah  (1770),  a  Per- 
sian Grammar  (1771);  was  made  F.  R.  S.  1772;  in  1774 
was  called  to  the  bar  and  published  Commentarirn  on 
Asiatic  Poetry  ;  became  commis-;ioner  of  bankrupts  1776; 
translated  in  1780  the  ModllaK-ut,  from  the  Arabic,  and 
])ublishcd  some  legal  writings  ;  became  in  17S3  a  knight 
and  judge  of  the  auprcmc  court  of  judicature  of  Bengal; 
founded  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  at  Calcutta:  wrote 
largely  for  the  Aniatic  /Researches;  published  the  Enchanted 
/^■|if/,  a  poem,  translations  of  the  ^'^Z-miM^a  (17S9),  a  trans- 
lation of  the  hiHtitntes  of  Mann  (1704),  a  translation  of 
Isa^ua;  extracts  from  the  Vedas,  and  tales,  poems.  legal 
works,  etc.  from  the  Indian  languages,  A  devout  Christian, 
a  steady  friend  of  constitutional  liberty,  a  profound  jurist 
and  linguist,  an  elegant  poet,  Sir  William's  name  is  one 
of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  English  literary  history.  D. 
at  Calcutta  Apr.  27,  171*4.  (See  his  Life,  by  Lord  Tcign- 
uuiuth,  1804.) 

Jones  (William),  F.  R.  S.,  generally  called  of  Nav- 
LANn.  b.  at  Lowiok,  Frig..  .Tnly  30.  1726;  was  educated  at 
the  Charterhouse  and  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  eon- 
vert  to  the  liut^hlnsoniun   jiliilysoj^hy  (sec  IIuTcriiNSOs, 


I  John);  was  ordained  in  1749;  became  successively  curate 
!  of  Fiucdun,  vicar  of  Bethersden,  rector  of  Pluckley,  of 
Paston,  and  of  Hullingbourn,  and  perpetual  curate  of  Nay- 
land  in  Suffolk.  In  1780  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  For  many  years  he  labored  upon  a  general 
system  of  philosophy,  based  upon  the  works  of  llulcbin- 
son,  and  he  exercised  considerable  influence  by  his  writing?, 
being  endowed  with  great  learning,  piety-,  and  versatility, 
as  well  as- an  excellent  style.  D.  Feb.  fi,  1800.  lie  wrote, 
among  other  works.  The  (.'uthoHr  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
(1753),  Physiolofficnl  Disijnisitions  (1781),  Art  of  Mnnxe 
(1784),  Fi;ptrativc  Lanrfmiffc  of  Scriptnre  (1787),  Life  of 
Bishop  //o)-iie(l79J),  and  founded  the  British  Critic {\79Z), 

Jones  (William  Alfreo^.  b.  in  New  Y'ork  June  26, 
1817  ;  graduated  in  1830  at  Columbia  College,  of  wliich  he 
was  (1851-65)  librarian.  He  is  the  author  of  many  con- 
tributions to  periodical  literature,  and  has  published  The 
Aualyftt  (ISIO).  Literary  Studies  (1847),  Kn^nyK  (1849), 
Charactern  and  Criticisms  (2  vols.,  1857),  and  other  works. 

Jones's  Bluff,  post-v.  of  Sumter  oo.,  Ala.,  on  the  Ala- 
bama and  Chattanooga  R.  R.,  10  miles  from  Livingston. 
Pop.  of  tp.  2134. 

Joncs'boro',  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1087. 

Jonesboro',  post-v,  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Craighead  co.. 
Ark.,  49  miles  N.  W.  of  Memphis,  Tcnn.  Pop.  of  v.  155  ; 
of  tp.  21)9  4. 

Jonesboro',  post-v.,  cap.  of  Clayton  co.,  Ga.,  on  the 
Macon  and  Western  R.  R.,  20  miles  S.  of  Atlanta:  has 
manufactures  of  flour,  furniture,  etc.,  an  academy,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  2  churches,  sumo  35  business-houses,  2  hotels, 
and  considerable  cotton  trade.     Pop.  531. 

C.  P.  Vaighn  &.  Co.,  Pi'BS.  "News." 

Jonesboro^,  city,  cap.  of  Union  co..  III.,  on  the  Illi- 
nois Central  and  the  Cairo  and  St.  Louis  R.  Rs..  3G  miles 
N.  of  Cairo,  in  an  elevated,  well-timbered  and  watered  re- 
gion, abounding  in  good  building-stone,  and  celebrated  for 
its  excellent  and  abundant  fruit.  It  has  a  bank,  I  weekly 
newspaper,  3  churches,  2  hotels,  stores,  mills,  and  manufac- 
tories. Two  miles  to  the  N.  E.  there  is  a  State  insane  asy- 
lum.    Pop.  IIOS:  of  tp.  1577. 

T.  F.  BocTON,  En.  and  Prop.  "Gazette." 

Jonesboro',  post-v.  of  Grant  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Pitts- 
burg Chicago  and  St.  Louis  It.  R.,  5  miles  S.  E.  of  Marion, 
has  4  churches,  2  hotels,  a  newspaper,  etc.  thief  business, 
agriculture,  general  trade,  milling,  and  lumber-dealing. 
Pop.  581.  N.  W.  Wi:nniNCTox,  En.  "Herald." 

Jones'boroiigh,  post-tp.  of  Washington  co..  Me..  7 
miles  W.  of  Machias,  at  the  head  of  Englishman's  Bay. 
Pop.  522. 

Jonesborous^h^  po<:t-v..cop.  of  Washington  eo.,  Tcnn., 
the  oldest  town  in  the  State,  and  the  first  State  capital,  has 
5  churches,  a  fine  court-house,  2  hotels.  3  newspapers,  a 
female  college,  and  a  male  institute,  and  is  pleasantlv  sit- 
uated on  the  East  Tennessee  A'irginia  and  Georgia  R.  R. 
100  miles  E.  bv  N.  of  Knoxville. 

S.  A.  Brf:LL.  lou  Pens.  "  E.  Tkxn.  Echo." 

Jones'bur?,  post-v.  of  Montgomery  co.,  Mo.,  on  the 
North  Missouri  R.  U. 

Jones'port,  tp.  of  AVashington  co..  Me..  18  miles  S.  W. 
of  Matdiias.  on  the  W.  side  of  Englishman's  Bay.  It  has 
shipbuilding  and  lobster  fisheries.     Pop.  1305. 

Joncs'town,  post-b.  of  Swatara  tp.,  Lebanon  co.,  Pa., 
5  miles  N.  of  Lebanon. 

Joiios'villc,  a  V.  of  Mcintosh  co.,  Ga.     Pop.  99. 

Joncsville^  post-v.  of  Wayne  tp..  Bartholomew  co., 
Ind.,  oil  the  JetVersonvillo  Madison  and  Indianapolis  R.  R. 
Pop.  2Ul'>. 

Jonesville,  vostv.  of  Hillsdale  co..  Mich.,  on  the  Mich- 
igan Southern  R.  R.,  at  the  junclinn  of  the  Lansing  di- 
vision with  the  main  line,  and  on  the  Fort  Wayne  Jackson 
and  Saginaw  R.  R.  It  has  a  wei  kly  newspaper,  largo 
woollen  and  cotton  mills  in  successful  operation,  and  im- 
portant manufactures  of  carriages.  Its  mercantile  inter- 
ests arc  flourishing.  It  is  4i  miles  N.  W.  of  Hillsdale,  the 
county-seat.        Jamrs  I.  Dknnis,  Pro.  "  IxDEi'ENnnsT." 

Joncsville^  post-v.  of  Clifton  Park  tp..  Saratoga  co., 
N.  V.  It  is  the  sent  of  an  academy.  It  is  3  miles  from 
South  Ballston  Station  on  the  Saratoga  and  Schenectady 

R.  n. 

Joncsvillev  post-tp.  of  Union  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1809. 

Joncsville^  post-v.,  cap.  of  Leo  co.,  Va.,  28  miles  N, 
of  Rojcrsville,  Tcnn.,  has  a  flour-uiill,  steam  saw-mil'.  2 
churches,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  male  aead,emy,  2  ho'els. 
besides  stores  an<l  shops.  Chief  industry,  farming  and 
mercantile  pursuits.     Pop.  274:  of  tp.  3369. 

J.  B.  Wkst.  En.  "  hr.p.  Co.  SpxTiNrL." 

Jon'Koping,  town  of  Sweden,  beautifully  situated  at 


JONQUI L— J  OK  DA  X. 


1447 


the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Wetter,  and  surrounded  by 
pine-clad  hills.  It  hn8  large  manufocturcs  of  arms  and 
miiskots.     Pop.  II,7.>1. 

Jon'quil  [Vr.JunqiiiHe,  a  dim.  of  I,at.jiiiiriis,  a '•  rush  "], 
a  nami-  given  to  .Vii/<i«»in  Joii'/rnV/n  iiud  udunia  (order  .Vnia- 
rvllidatciiM.  jrarJ.n  |iluiils  klouniing  in  spring.  They  are 
natives  of  the  ?.  of  Europe.  The  Oowers  of  the  fragrant 
eorls  arc  emploved  in  perfumery. 

Jon'son  (Iti:xjA)iis1,  generally  known  as  Bkn  Joxson. 
b.  at  Wesltninster,  probably  Judo  II,  1571,  a  short  time 
after  the  dcalh  of  his  father.     The  details  of  his  life  before 
l.iSK!  are  uncertain,  but  ihoy  seem  to  have  t)ccn  very  varied, 
like  his  faculties,  and  somewhat  violent,  like  bis  passions. 
liis  mother  married  a  master  bricklayer,  and  for  some  time 
he  worked  with  his  stepfather  as  a  mason.     Later  on  ho 
enlisted  in  the  army,  and  made  a  cam)Kiifrn   in  the  Low 
Countries.     On  his  return  he  entered  St.  .lohn's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  studied  classical  lansuagcs  and  literature. 
In  his  twentieth  year  ho  went  upon  the  .-itngc,  and  tried  to 
become  an  actor."  At  last  hi,s  talent  found  its  proper  field. 
In   I J'Ji)  appeared  his  r.imc/i/  o/  J/iir/inrn,  and  in   IJUS  it 
was  recast,  and    brought  out   with   great   Success   in   tho 
Globe  Theatre  under  tho  title  Ei-rri/  Mnn  in  Am   tliimnr. 
Then   followed   in    1599  Eren/  Man  Out  nf  hit  Humor;  in 
lliOfl,  Ci/uthi'n'»  llrreh;  in  11102,  the  /'ur-limli-r.  which  in- 
volved him  in  a  very  sharp  controversy  with  Decker;  in 
1CU:I,  .V'jniiin,  a  tragedy  :  in  100 1,  y?'i«^crti(/  //.<c,  written 
in  connection   with  Chapman  and  Marston,  for  which  ho 
was  imprisoned  and  threatened  with  having  his  noso  and 
cars  cut  off;   in    IliOJ,  yol/mui::  in    1009,   Epiarne,  ur  ihe 
Siliut   Womnu;   in  1010,   Thi-   Alrlii/minl;   in  1011,  (yiiliue, 
a  tragedy:  in  1010.  77ic  Deiil  i«  <im  A";  in  1G2U.  A'cio  Inn, 
or  Ihe  l.i-jhi  Hmri;  but  the  last-mcnliimcd  comedy  belongs 
to  that  part  of  his  works  which  Dryden  called  his  dotages. 
After  his  appearance  in  literature  the  life  of  Ben  .lonson  is 
tolerably  well  known,  both  in  the  inns  and  at  court — his  tour- 
naments with  .'^hakspeare  and  tho  other  wits  of  his  ago  in 
tho  .Mermaid  Tavern  in  lircad  street,  where  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh had  founded  the  .Mermaid  Club;  his  throne  speeches 
on  literary  taste  delivered  at  Ihe  lircsiile  of  tho   Devil's 
Tavern  in  Fleet  street,  where  later  on  he  himself  founded 
tho  Apollo  Club ;  and  his  "  entertainments  "  or  "  masques," 
a  kind  of  dramatic  arrangement  interspersed  with  songs 
an^l   ballets  which  he  wrote    for  tho  court  festivals.     In 
Ifil'.l.  .James   I.  made  him  poct-huire.ate,  with  a  pension 
of  100  marks,  and  Charles  I.  increased  tho  pension  to  £100, 
and  added  a  tierce  of  canary.     The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  nevertheless   very  clouded.     IIo   was  poor — not  be- 
cause ho  had  less  than  he  needed,  but  because  ho  used 
more  than  he  had.     lie  became  bitter  in  spite  of  the  great 
•uccess  he  had  achieved.     He  felt  wretched.     IIo  d.  Aug. 
8,  18.17,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  his 
tombstone  bears  this  rather  queer  inscription, "  0  raro  Ben 
Jonson!"     The  S<nl  S^fphml,  a  jioem  which  he  left  unfin- 
ished, as  well  as  much  in  his  "  masriues,"  seems  to  inclicato 
that  in  its  foumlaiion  his  genius  was  not  so  very  difTerciit 
from  that  of  Shakspeare.     But  its  development  was  nii- 
otber,  and  thereby  it  assumed  almost  an  opposite  character. 
While  Shakspeare  was  a  man  with  sporadical  and  incidental 
knowledge,  but  with  wonderfully  large  and  striking  views, 
Ben  Jonson  appears  to  have  possessed  a  compact  mass  of 
systematic   knowledge,   which  led   him   to  rather   narrow 
views.     .Shaksneart-'s  taste  was  the  natural  result  of  his 
genius ;    Ben   .lonson's   was   tho  product  of  his   learning. 
llcnco   tho    difference   between    them.      It    is    singularly 
wrong  to  say  that  Krfrif  .l/oii  in  lih  llnmor  was  the  first 
regular    comedy    in    tho    Knglish    lileraluro  —  exactly    ns 
wrong  as  if  anybody  would  say  that  .SVyVimn  was  tho  first 
regular  trageily.     But  it  is  true  that  in  the   Knglisb  lite- 
rature Ben  .Jonson  was  the  first  wlio  a'lopted  tho  idi-als  of 
the  classical  literature  with  full  ronsciousncss  of  what  ho 
was  doing,  and  carried  tbein  llirough  with  adequato  talent. 
This  his  standpoint  procured  for  him  a  great  authority  in 
the  literary  lil'e  of  his  age,  but  it  made  bis  genius  declam- 
atory in  tragedy  and  satirical  in  comedy,  thereby  vastly 
diminishing  its  importance  for  coming  ages.     ,Soon  after 
his  death  his  works  ceased  to  bo  a  living  infiuence  ;  they 
became    literary  monuments,  historical    phenoineim,   and 
nothing  more.  Ci,i;mi;vs  I'ktkiishs. 

Jonsson  (I"ivv\  b.  at  llitnrdal.  Ieehind,,Jan.  10,  1701 ; 
stuilied  at  the  rui\ersily  of  Copenhagen,  and  was  appointed 
in  17.J1  bishop  of  Skalliolt,  where  he  d.  ,Iuly  L':l,  17S!I.  His 
liinlnrin  EfflmiuHlirn  fiilaiitlirn  (4  vols.,  ('openhagen,  1772- 
79)  is  a  principal  source  of  tho  history  of  tho  island, 

.lootlpoiir',  Jniitlpoiir,  or  .Unrwar,  a  tributary 
stale  r.r  India,  the  largest  of  It nipoiilana.  «iri(ated  in  the 
N.  W.  Provinces,  belwe.-n  hit.  21°  and  2S°  N.  and  Ion.  70° 
and  75°  E.  Area.  :'..'i.0"2  square  miles.  It  is  diviiled  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  the  river  Loonee,  which  flows  into  tho 
,         Great  Western  Run  of  Cutoh.    Tho  larger  portion  of  Jood- 


poor,  N.  W.  of  the  Lnonce,  is  chiefly  waste,  being  an  ex- 
tension of  tho  desert  of  Scinde ;  the  smaller  portion,  S.  E. 
of  that  river,  is  fertile,  well  irrigated  by  torrents  from  tho 
Mairwnr  Mountains,  and  produces  excellent  grain  and  cot- 
ton. Wild  beasts  and  serpents  abound:  iron,  salt,  and  mar- 
ble arc  plentiful.  The  natives,  mostly  of  the  .Iaixa  sect 
(which  see),  are  skillul  in  the  woollen  manufacture  and 
active  in  trade.  Joodpoor  is  under  the  government  of  a 
native  prince  called  ninftftyajah,  who  pays  a  coiisideraljle 
annual  tribute  to  the  British  government,  which  is  virtually 
tho  ruler  through  the  agent  residing  at  tho  court.  Tho 
population  is  about  I.SOO.OOt);  the  caiiilal,  also  called  .Tood- 
poor,  has  a  po|iuiation  variously  stated  at  from  .SO,(IUO  to 
150.000.  Pallcc,  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Jondpoor,  is  tho  com- 
mercial metropolis,  tho  seat  of  an  active  trade  in  opium. 
There  are  in  .Joodpoor  several  thousand  villages  of  from 
5U0  to  1000  houses  each. 

Jop'lillf  city  of  .Jasper  eo.,  j\ro.,  near  the  S.  W.  corner 
of  the  county,  has  2  banks.  2  weekly  iicwspaper.s,  graded 
schools,  20  smelting  furnaces,  :tMd  ]iroiluees  iibout 
15,000,000  poumls  of  pig  lead  and  10,000,000  pounds  of 
pig  7,inc  annually.  It  is  a  thriving  town  ;  esliiuatcd  pop., 
8500  in  1874.  G.  D.  Jackso.v,  I*i;b.  "Bullktin." 

Joppn.    See  Jaffa. 

Jor'daons  (Jacob'),  b.  at  /Vntwerp  May  19,  1594,  was  a 
pupil  of  Ailam  van  Oort.  His  style,  however,  he  formed 
]irincipally  alter  tho  Italians  Paul  Veronese  and  Caravag- 
gio,  though  he  never  visited  Italy,  and  after  Rubens,  with 
whom  he  is  often  compared.  He  liked  to  fill  a  large  can- 
vas with  mythological  and  bacchanalian  scenes,  but  his 
pictures  arc  always  less  powerful  in  conception,  less  vigor- 
ous in  design,  and  less  brilliant  in  coloring  than  those  of 
Rubens,  and  sometimes  they  arc  rather  trivial.  He  worked 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  and  .lebieved  a  great  fame  ;  be  is 
abundantly  represented  in  all  European  galleries.  D.  at 
Antwerp  (jt-t.  10,  1078. 

Jordan  [Ileb.  Varden:  Gr.  'lopSoi-iii ;  called  by  the  .Ara- 
bian geograjihers  E/~  Vrdnu,  and  more  commonly  Knh-nhe- 
riah — (".  c.  '*  the  watering-place  "].  Ihe  principal  river  of 
Palestine  and  the  most  celebrated  in  biblical  geography, 
takes  its  rise  from  the  snows  of  Mount  Hennon  at  the  N. 
extremity  of  the  Holy  Land,  ami  flows  nearly  due  S.  through 
tho  centre  of  that  country  to  the  Dead  Sea.  It  has  three 
jirineipal  sources:  I.  the  Lcddan,  e:illed  by  Jose])hus  tho 
Little  ,Iordan,  rising  from  a  great  fountain,  the  largest  in 
Syria,  at  the  base  of  the  hill  7'cll-rl-h'uili/,  on  which  are 
the  ruins  of  Ihe  ancient  city  Dan;  II.  the  //<iiim»i/,  rising 
at  Banias  (the  ancient  Cscsarea  Pliili))pi),  4  miles  E.  of 
Tell-cl-Kildy,  frcmi  a  vast  cave  now  coni-c;iIed  by  tho  ruins 
of  a  temiile  built  by  Herod:  III.  the  IIiikIjiui;/.  rising  at 
Ilasbeiya,  12  miles  N.  of  Tell-el-K.ldy,  from  a  pool  at  tho 
foot  of'  a  basalt  clill'.  The  latter  is  Ihe  smallest  of  tho 
streams,  but  is  Ihe  longest  ami  rises  from  tho  highest  per- 
ennial source,  1700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  while 
the  fountain  at  Banias  is  1147,  and  tbiil  at  Tell-el-Kady 
but  017  feet  above  that  level.  The  two  higher  tonenls 
burst  through  narrow  rocky  ravines,  and  unite  with  the 
Leddan  4  or  5  miles  below  its  source,  forming  the  Jordan 
proper,  wbiell,  0  miles  below,  falls  into  Lake  Huleb,  called 
in  the  Bible  the  ''waters  of  Merom."  From  Lake  Hulch 
tho  Jordan  descends  with  rapiility  and  violence  in  a  tortu- 
ous channel,  over  a  roeky  bed  with  many  cataracts,  and 
falling  nearly  800  feet  witliin  a  eom|uus  of  1 1  miles  of  lati- 
tude, enters  tho  Sen  of  Galilee,  otherwise  calleil  Genncs- 
aret  and  Tiberias,  now  Dnhr-cl-  Tiihuri;/rl,.  The  former 
lake  is  120  feet  almrr  the  level  of  the  sea!  Ihe  latter  050  feet 
hrliitr.  In  its  remaining  course  from  Ihe  Sea  of  Galilee  to 
the  Dead  Sea  the  Jordan  falls  nearly  700  feet  more — a 
strange  and  almost  incredible  fact  had  it  not  been  eslab- 
lished  by  careful  measurement,  the  explannliou  of  which 
is  to  bo  fiMind  in  the  extremely  tortuous  course  of  the  river, 
wbiell  within  00  miles  of  latitude  traverses  at  least  200  miles 
and  has  27  considerable  riipids.  The  whoh-  lower  stream, 
or  .lordan  proper,  then,  is  many  hundred  feet  below  tho 
sea-level,  which  fact  alone  woubl  make  this  region  unique 
ns  a  geograpbieal  and  ge<dogieal  phenotni'non.  The  val- 
ley, now  called  El-fHtnr,  is  about  0  miles  wiile  at  the  norlh- 
ern  end,  expnncling  to  12  miles  at  the  soiilhern,  is  generally 
level  an'l  shut  in  between  sleep  parallel  chains  of  niountains 
from  .1000  to  5000  feet  high.  Small  (mrtions  in  the  N.  are 
alone  eullivaled.  the  ri'Sl  is  desert,  ''in  spring  covered  wilh 
rank  grass  and  thistles,  hut  in  summer  parched  and  bare. 
The  southern  section,  known  as  the  Plain  of  ,Jerieho,  is 
covered  with  a  white  nitrous  crust,  like  hoar-frost,  through 
wbieh  not  H  blade  of  grass  nor  green  herb  springs."  In 
the  midst  of  this  )>laiu  the  .lordan  has  cut  Ihrough  Ihe 
chalky  strata  a  winding  ravine  varying  from  200  yarils  to 
half  II  mile  in  breadth  ami  from  40  to  150  itivi  in  depth. 
Fivo  miles  below  the  Sea  of  tialilee  it  receives  its  largest 
tributary,  tho  Skerial-tl-Mandhur  (Ilicrumax  of  tho  Qrcek 


1448 


JORDAN— JORTIN. 


geographers^  a  stream  from  the  E.  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
Jordan,  I'M)  feet  wide  at  its  mouth  ;  and  about  halfway  be- 
tween the  lakes  the  Jabhok  fWady  Zcrka)  enters  from  the 
mountains  <»f  (Jilead  "u  the  E.,  being  the  only  other  con- 
siderable tributary.  There  are  only  two  bridges  over  the 
Jordan  now  in  existence:  one.  2  miles  S.  of  Lake  Huleh, 
of  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  called  Jiar  Hcnnt  Yu/cub,  "  tho 
bridge  of  Jacob's  daughters,"  has  been  from  time  immemo- 
rial the  leading  pass  from  Western  Palestine  to  Damascus  ; 
the  other,  Jisr-el-MrJumia,  a  quaint  Saracenic  structure,  is 
2  miU's  below  the  mouth  of  the  llieromax,  and  formerly 
connected  the  great,  city  of  Pevthopolis  (Ilethshean,  now 
Jhinati)  with  the  Decaptdis.  The  ])rineipal  fords  above  tho 
Zerka  are  one  just  below  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  which  must 
have  been  traversed  by  Christ,  and  that  of  Suecoth,  13 
miles  below  the  lower  bridge.  The  latter  was  undoubtedly 
the  ford  by  which  Abraham  and  Jjvcob  crossed;  it  was  also 
probably  the  lUilnibnm  of  John's  bapti>-m  and  of  the  slaugh- 
ter of  the  Midianitcs  and  tho  Ephraimitos  (Judg.  vii.  and 
xii.).  Ten  miles  below  the  Zerka  is  a  noted  ford  on  the 
road  from  Xabhui?  (Sheehera)  to  Es-Salt,  and  there  aro  two 
others  near  the  "  pilgrims'  bathing-plaeo"  in  tho  Plain  of 
Jericho.  One  of  tho  latter  must  havo  been  the  scene  of  tho 
miraculous  crossing  of  the  Israelites  under  Joshua  and  of 
the  similar  miracles  recorded  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  (2  Kings 
ii.  S,  14),  and  tho  same  spot  is  traditionallv  regarded  as  the 
scene  of  Christ's  baptism.  At  its  montli  the  Jordan  is  540 
feet  wide  and  l;UO  icet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  val- 
ley of  tho  lower  .Jordan  abounds  in  slime-pils,  and  thermal 
springs  are  frequent,  with  many  other  indications  of  former 
volcanic  or  igneous  action.  Dark  basalt  is  the  principal 
rock  in  the  upper  region — trap,  limestone,  sandstone,  and 
conglomerate  in  the  lower.  Cane,  oleanders,  willows,  tam- 
arisks, hollyhocks,  and  thistles  form  tho  most  noticeable 
trees  nnd  plants;  ii<tns,  tigers,  and  wild-boars  formerly 
made  their  haunts  in  the  thickets  along  the  river's  edge. 
The  course  of  the  Jordan  was  in  1847  partially  explored  by 
Lieut.  Molyneux  of  the  British  navy  (Journal  itoi/.  Geoff. 
Sor.,  vol.  xviii.).  more  thoroughly  by  Lieut.  Lynch  of  the 
IT.  S.  navy  in  1S48  (sec  his  Official  lieport),  and  later  by 
MacGregor  (1868-60)  in  his  Rob  Roy  canoe.  (The  best 
sources  of  information  are  Robinson's  liihUntl  RcHcnrchea, 
the  geograjdiical  works  of  Von  Raumer.  Ritter.  and  Peter- 
mann,  Stanley's  Sluni  and  Palestine,  and  the  recent  publi- 
cations of  the  British  Palestine  Exploration  Society.  See 
also  able  articles  in  Kitto's,  Smith's,  and  MeClintock  and 
Strong's  liiblical  Ci^clopsEdiaa,  and  article  Pai.fstixe  in 
this  work.)  Poutcr  C.  Bliss. 

Jordan,  tp.  of  Whitcsides  co.,  III.     Pop.  1190. 
Jordfiil,  tp.  of  Jas])er  co.,  Ind.     Pop,  327. 
Jordan,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  448. 
Jordan,  tp.  uf  Fillmore  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  68.3. 
Jordan,  post-v.  of  Scott  co..  Minn.,  on  the  St.  Paul 
and  Sioux  City  R.  R.,  8  miles  S.  W.  of  Shakopce.     It  has 
1  weekly  newspaper. 

Jordan^  a  v.  of  Croghan  tp.,  Lewis  co.,  N.  V.,  on  Os- 
wegatchie  River;  has  manufactures  of  leather. 

Jordan,  incorporated  v.  of  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Erie  Canal  and  New  York  Central  R.  R.,  N.  branch,  17 
miU's  W.  of  Syracuse,  in  the  N.  W.  corner  of  the  town  of 
Elhridge ;  has  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  banking-house,  acad- 
emy, 4  churches,  13  stores,  flnuring-mill.  2  manufactories 
which  turn  out  yearly  30,(100  wheelbarrows  and  ]'),000 
hand-sleds,  a  straw-board  mill,  furnace,  machine-shop,  2 
cooper-shops,  pump-faL-tory.  2  wagon  manufactories,  fine 
water-power,  etc.     Pop.  1263. 

11.  P.  AViN'soR,  Ed.  "TnANScniPT." 
Jordan,  tp.  of  Clearfield  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  561. 
Jordan,  tp.  of  Lycoming  eo.,  Pa.     Pop.  47.1. 
Jordan,  tp.  of  Northumberland  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  924. 
Jordan,  post-tp.  of  Green  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1083. 
Jordan    (Camii.le),  b.  at    Lyons  Jan.   11,   1771.  and 
phiyed  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  French  politics  during 
the  Revolution  and  the  Restoration.     He  was  a  decided 
enemy  of  the    republican    government,    and    one   of   tho 
most  active  jiromotcrs  of  the  insurrection  of  Lyons.     After 
the  fall  of  that  city  (Oct.  9,  1793)  he  tied  to  Switzerlnnd, 
whence  he  went  to  London.     Having  returneil  to  Lyons  in 
1796.  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, but  had  to  flee  a  second  time  after  tlie  revolution  of 
Sept.  4,  1797.      He  went  to  (Jermany.  and  lived  in  Weim.ar. 
In  IfSOO  he  was  recalled,  and  showed  himself  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  measures  of  the  First  Cnnsiil.     But  Napoleon 
chose  not  to  notice  him,  and  during  the  Empire  he  lived  in 
retirement,  engaged  in  literary  pursuits.     After  the  resto- 
ration of  the   Bourbons  he  at  first  sided  with  the  govern- 
ment, but  when  in  1S20,  after  the  assassination  of  the  duke 
of  Berry,  au  attempt  was  mado  by  tho  ministry  to  suspend 


the  liberty  of  the  person,  to  suppress  the  freedom  of  the 
press,  and  to  change  the  elective  system,  Jordan  became 
the  parliamentary  leader  of  the  opposition.  He  died,  how- 
ever, soon  after  (May  19,  1;S2I).  His  writings  consist 
mostly  of  pamphlets  written  with  great  courat^c  and  elo- 
quence, and  illustrative  of  the  situation  uf  the  moment. 
(See  Saiut-Beuvc,  Camillc  Jordan  ct  Madame  Stafl,  1S6S.) 

Jordan  (Chaki-ks  Ktibxxe),  b.  at  Berlin  Aug. 27, 1700, 
of  a  French  family;  studied  at  Magdeburg  and  (icneva: 
was  appointed  minister  to  the  French  Reformed  church  of 
Potzlow  in  1725,  but  resigned  his  office  in  1732.  after  tho 
d"ath  of  his  wife  ;  made  a  literary  journey  in  Holland  and 
France;  accompanied  tho  Prussian  crown  prince  in  his 
exile  at  Rhciiisberg:  and  continued  from  that  time  to  his 
death  (May  14,  174."»)  to  be  the  friend  and  companion  of 
Frederick  II.  From  this  circumstance  his  J/iHtoiie  d'lin 
rnj/o/jc  Itftentire  and  his  Corrotpoiidanvc  avcc  Fridiric  II. 
derive  some  interest. 

Jordan  (Dora),  b.  near  Waterford,  Ireland. about  1762, 
was  an  act  re??  in  Lontlun  towards  the  clo.-c  of  the  eighlccnih 
century,  when  she  became  the  mistrci^s  of  the  duke  of  Clar- 
ence, afterwarils  King  William  IV.  By  hira  she  had  ten 
children,  but  tho  connection  ceased  some  time  before  hor 
death,  which  occurred  at  St.  Cloud.  France.  .Inly  3,  JS16. 
ller  Memoii'n  were  ]inblishcd  by  J.  Boiiden  in  1S3I.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  Mrs.  Jordan  did  not  die  in  France  at  the 
.above  date,  but  resided  for  several  years  under  an  assumed 
name  in  England. 

Jordan  (Ri'oorpn),  b.  at  Berlin  in  1810,  nnd  began  his 
artistic  studios  in  tliat  city,  but  received  his  stylo  in  tho 
school  of  Diisscldorf.  He  has  painted  scenes  from  tho 
coasts  of  Normandy,  the  Dutch  islantls.  Heligoland,  Riizen. 
etc.,  and  one  of  his  pictures.  Afarriof/c  Proposal  in  Hclitjo- 
land  (1S34),  has  become  widely  known. 

Jordan  (Thomas),  b.  in  tho  Luray  Valley,  Va.,  Sept. 
30,  1819;  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  entered  the  army 
as  brevet  sccoml  lieutenant  of  infantry  .July  1.  IS^O;  sec- 
ond lieutenant  Dee.,  IS40  ;  in  the  war  with  the  Seminoles 
(1842)  captured  their  leading  chief.  Tiger  Tail ;  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  engaged  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma ; 
appointed  captain  and  quartermaster  Mar.  3,  1S47,  serving 
as  such  on  the  Pneific  co.ist  lSo2-60.  Resigned  May,  1861. 
to  follow  the  fortunes  of  his  native  State,  entering  lier  ser- 
vice as  lieutenant-colonel,  and  at  once  assigned  as  adjutant- 
general  of  Confederate  forces  assembling  at  Manassas 
Junction.  As  chief  of  staff  accompanied  (Jon.  Beauregard 
to  Tennessee,  and  was  apjjointed  brigadier-general  from 
date  of  the  battle  of  Shiloh:  temporarily  on  stafT  of  (len. 
Bragg,  but  resumed  his  position  with  Beauregard  during 
the  defence  of  Charleston,  1862-64.  Immediately  after  the 
war  publislied  in  Harper's  Mnr/azlue  a  critical  review  of 
Confederate  operations  and  administration ;  subsequently 
(1S6G)  was  editor  of  the  Memphis  Appeal.  Invited  to  or- 
ganize the  military  resources  of  the  Cuban  revolution,  was 
made  chief  of  general  staff  of  that  army,  and  second  in 
command  (IS69),  succeeding  to  chief  command  Dec..  1869, 
and  fouglit  a  largely  sujicrior  force  .Tan.  1,  IS70,  inlHcting 
heavy  loss.  Seeing  ni>  proliability  of  being  able  to  organ- 
ize an  effective  force,  and  the  supply  of  arms  and  ammu- 
nition running  low,  he  resigned  Feb.,  1S70,  and  returned 
to  tho  IT.  S.,  where  he  is  mostly  engaged  in  literary  pur- 
suits.    Author  of  Cainpnif/na  of  Lieut, -Oeu.  Forrcut  (1867). 

Jordan  Ilivo**,  in  Utah,  flows  from  X'tah  Lnke,  some 
45  miles,  in  a  northward  course  into  the  (Jrent  Salt  Lake. 
It  is  small  and  not  navigable,  but  is  capable  of  irrigating 
a  largo  extent  of  country.  Its  waters  contain  numerous 
species  of  small  fish. 

Jordan's,  tp.  of  Coosn  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  568. 

Jornan\les,  or  Jordanes,  the  historiographer  of  the 
Goths,  was  himself  a  tioth  by  birth,  and  lived  in  the  mid- 
dleof  tho  sixth  century.  Having  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, ho  became  a  monk,  and  trailition  mnkcs  him  bi.=hop 
of  Crotona.  He  wrote  two  historical  wurks  which  have 
come  down  to  us — /A'  retfunnnn  ar  tntipnrtiin  ni(rrrgfiiouc,a.H 

outline  of  tlio  history  of  tho  world  to  the  time  of  Justinian  ; 
and  De  ffetaniin  sire  Ootlionim  orif/itie  ct  vchns  f/rntis,  a  his- 
tory of  tho  <"ioths  from  the  origin  of  t!ie  jieople  to  the  fall 
of  the  Oj*trogothic  empire  in  Italy.  The  former  is  of  very 
little  interest,  but  the  latter  is  invaluable.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal, nearly  the  only,  source  of  the  liistory  of  tho  Goths 
ond  of  the  great  migration  of  the  nations.  The  history  of 
the  (loths  had  been  written  before  by  Cassiodorus.  Ablavius, 
and  l>ion  Cassius,  but  these  works  are  lost,  and  we  know 
them  only  from  extracts  made  by  .lornandes.  The  best  crit- 
ical edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  Closs  (.Stuttgart,  1861). 
Jortin  (Jons),  D.  D..  b.  in  London  Oct.  23,  1698;  stud- 
ied at  the  Charter  house  and  at  Jesus  College.  Cambridge, 
of  which  ho  became  a  fellow  after  gradunling  in  1719, 
W'hilo  at  college  ho  made  extracts  from  EudLathius  for  the 


JORULLO-JOSEPHUS. 


1449 


use  of  I'ope  in  hi?  translation  of  Homor.  and  bccnmo  noted 
for  hi?  facilily  in  liiitin  verse,  of  which  lie  puhlishej  a  vol- 
ume i  LnnnH  i*.,rtir{,  1722).  Takin;?  onU-rs  in  the  Church 
of  Enf;Iand  he  was  presented  to  the  Mvin;;  of  Swavesey 
near  Cambridge  (1720),  hut  soon  after  removed  to  London, 
and  became  a  much-admirod  pulpit-orat(»r,  beinj;;  succes- 
sively rector  of  Eastwtll  (Kent),  of  St.  Dun.stan's-in-the-  j 
East,  domr-stic  chaplain  to  tlic  bishop  of  London  (1762),  j 
prebend  of  St.  Paul's,  rector  of  Kensington,  and  archdca-  | 
con  of  London  (1764).  IIo  was  author  of  numerous  learned 
phiIoIogii*;ib  critical,  and  theological  works  which  have 
niaintainnl  u  hiffh  reputation,  among  which  were  Truth  of 
the  ChrUtinn  J{,  luji'nn  (1746),  Li'/e  of  ErnHinuH  {175S-6()"). 
Srrmonn  (4  vol?..  1771),  Six  Itisstirtutious  tipon  Different 
Siihjfrtn  (1772),  Kemarktt  upon  Authors  Ancimt  nnd  Modern 
n7.'U-;i2),  firmnrkn  on  EcclrHinntivaf  Ifiilori/  (5  vols., 
1751-7.t),  and  Trad".  Philofoffico/,  Critical,  and  Miaceita- 
r.corit  (17y0).     I>.  at  Kensington  Sept.  o,  1770. 

Jorurio,a  volcanoof  Mexi(*.  in  the  state  of  Michoacan. 
in  lat.  19°  10' X.  and  Ion.  101°  1' \V.  From  a  plain  having 
an  elevation  of  2S90  feet  it  was  suddenly  lifted  to  a  height 
of  42B.>  feet  on  Sept.  28.  1759.  Several  of  its  cones  soon 
subsided,  however,  and  it  is  now  nearly  extinct,  discharg- 
ing only  a  little  vapor,  and  is  nearly  covered  with  forests. 

Jo'scph  [Heb.  Yoffph,  *' increascr  *'],  one  of  the  twelve 
patriarch.s.  the  elder  son  of  .Jacob  an<l  Hachel,  b.  at  Haran, 
ko  Syria  (Padan-Arain),  about  b.  c  1'J13;  was  the  favorite 
son  of  hi*  father,  and  envied  by  his  brethren  on  that  ac- 
count. Their  enmity  was  further  excited  by  two  dreams 
which  Joseph  related  when  about  seventeen  years  of  age,  in 
which  his  future  greatness  was  furesiiadowed,  and  this  led 
them  to  sell  him  as  a  slave  to  some  Midianite  traders,  by 
whom  he  was  carried  into  E[;ypt  antl  sold  to  Potiphar,  an 
officer  of  the  king.  He  acquired  the  confidence  of  his  mas- 
ter, who  set  him  as  overseer  over  all  his  property,  but  hav- 
ing repelled  dishonorable  proposals  made  to  him  by  his 
mistress,  she  accused  him  falsely  to  her  husband,  and  caused 
him  to  be  thrown  into  |)ri?un.  Here  he  interpreted  the 
dreams  of  two  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  the  chief  baker  and  1 
chief  bu'Ier  of  Pharaoh,  and  when  his  predictions  had  been 
justified  by  the  result,  he  was  summoned  by  King  Pharaoh, 
at  the  instance  of  the  butler,  to  interpret  (wo  <lreams  which 
portended  seven  years  of  prosperity  followed  by  seven  of  I 
famine.  The  king  was  so  much  struck  by  the  wisdom  of  i 
the  advice  given  by  the  young  Hebrew  that  he  adopted  all 
his  suggestions  for  making  preparations  for  the  time  of 
famine,  and  appointed  him  ruler  over  the  whole  land.  The 
measures  taken  by  .Foseph  as  vizier  or  viceroy  resulted  great- 
ly to  the  advantage  of  the  king  ami  of  his  people,  securing  an 
abundant  provision  for  the  time  of  famine.  This  calamity 
ext'-iiled  also  to  the  adjoining  countrie:^,  and  led  to  tho 
bretliren  of  Joseph  being  sent  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn. 
Joseph  rccognizc<l  his  unnatural  brethren,  and  after  a  scries 
of  stratagems,  by  which  he  reminded  themofand  punished 
them  for  their  crime,  the  whole  family  was  brought  into 
Etrypt  anil  eslabli-'heil  in  the  land  of  (loshen.  .Joseph  mar- 
ried a  claiighter  of  the  high  priest  of  On  ( Iloliopolis),  and 
ha»l  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim,  who  became  tho 
progenitors  of  tho  tribes  bearing  those  names,  tho  mn-t 
powerful  of  the  future  king«loin  of  Israel.  Joseph  pre- 
served his  authority  until  his  death,  which  occurred  n.  c. 
I?*fl2,  at  the  age  of  1  in.  His  body  was  embalmed,  and  at 
the  time  of  the  Kxodus  was  carried  to  Palestine  and  buried 
at  Shecliein,  where  his  tomb  is  still  shown. 

Josrphf  the  husband  of  Mary  and  reputed  or  legal 
fathr-r  of  .L'siis,  was  a  resident  of  Nazareth  in  Galilee, 
though  a  .icBcmdant  of  David,  and  eonncoted  by  his  im- 
meitiute  ancestry,  perhaps  by  birth,  with  Bethlehem  in 
Ju'lah.  His  gt-nealogy  is  given  both  by  Matthew  and  by 
liukc.  but  in  tho  former  (lospel  ho  is  called  tho  son  of 
Jacob,  nnd  in  tho  lattertheson  of  Heli,  Various  hypotheses 
have  been  proposed  to  re-oneile  this  dis;.'repancy.  the  most 
general  being  that  one  of  tho  genealogies  is  really  that  of 
Mary.  .Joseph  was  a  e:irpenter,  and  is  supposed  to  havo 
educated  Jesus  to  his  own  trade,  Jjittlecan  be  nterrtnincd 
«f  hid  eharacter  or  personal  history  beyou'l  the  well-known 
circumstances  of  tho  announcement  made  to  him  by  an 
angel  in  adr<"ain  of  tb^  miraculous  conception  of  the  Christ, 
his  jcmrney  to  Ib'thbdiem.  flight  into  Egypt,  and  return 
to  Nazare'h.  The  last  glimpse  of  Joseph  is  found  in  tho 
incident  (Luke  ii.  42-.^2|  of  .fesus  when  twelve  years  of  ago 
being  found  with  the  doctors  in  the  temple.  He  is  repre- 
sented by  early  trnditiim  lo  have  been  an  old  man  at  tho 
birth  of  .Tesu".  nnd  apparently  had  died  before  the  publio 
ministry  of  Christ  began, 

JoApphf  king  of  Naples  and  of  .Spain.  See  lioNAPARTE 
(JosKi-n  >. 

rfoseph  (FATnnnl.b.  in  Paris,  Frnncc,  Nov.  4.  If)77,  hit 
oricinat  name  being  FnAN^'Ois  liKci.KKc  ni'  THtnrni.A  V.  Ho 
belonged  to  a  distinguished  family,  travelled  much  in  his 


youth,  and  served  in  the  array  under  an  assumed  name, 
ofter  which  he  took  holy  orders  and  attained  a  high  posi- 
tion a?  a  Capuchin  friar.  Attracting  the  attention  of  Car- 
dinal Richelieu,  that  statesman  made  Ealhcr  Joseph  his 
secretary  and  confidential  adviser.  In  this  capacity  he 
wielded  immense  intluence  and  power  for  many  years.  He 
despatched  missionaries  to  Canada  and  the  East,  advocated 
in  a  Latin  poem  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  and  left  sev- 
eral volumes  of  memoirs,  which  arc  still  in  manuscript  in 
the  National  Library  of  Paris.  A  cardinal's  hat  was  soli- 
cited and  obtained  for  him  by  Richelieu,  Imf  before  it  was 
actually  conferred  he  d.  at  Rueil  Dec.  IS,  IG.'iS, 

Joseph  I.f  German  emperor,  b.  at  Vienna  July  26, 
167S;  was  crowned  king  of  Hungary  I6S7;  king  of  tho 
Romans  1690;  succeeded  to  his  father,  Leopold  I.,  1705. 
The  great  events  of  his  reign  were  the  putting  of  the  elec- 
tors of  Cologne  and  Bavaria  under  the  ban  (1706)  and  the 
seizure  of  their  states  :  the  conquest  of  Naples  under  I'ann, 
the  successful  revival  (1707-08)  of  the  imperial  claims  to 
the  great  fiefs  of  Italy,  and  the  victories  of  Marlhorongh 
and  Eugene  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  D.  Apr. 
17,  1711. 

Joseph  II.  of  Germany,  b.  Mar.  13,  1741,  was  the  son 
of  Francis  I.  and  ^laria  Theresa:  was  fond  of  learning, 
nnd  became  a  professed  philanthropist ;  succeeded  his 
father  in  1765;  took  part  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland 
1772;  succeeded  his  mother  in  Hungary  and  iJohcmia  1780  j 
attempted  the  wholesale  reformation  of  all  the  empire  and 
his  kingdom  by  edicts  abolishing  serfdom,  declaring  for 
religious  liberty,  the  reform  of  jurisprudence,  the  abolition 
of  monasteries,  etc.;  but  as  the  means  employed  were  vio- 
lent and  unusual,  and  the  changes  but  ill  adapted  to  the 
state  and  feelings  of  the  people,  nearly  all  classes,  led  by 
notiles  an<l  priests,  joined  in  the  opposition,  and  the  em- 
peror (who,  though  theoretically  a  friend  of  reform,  was 
not  a  just  man)  was  compelled  to  yield  (1700)  and  with- 
draw his  novel  measures.     D.  Feb.  20.  1790. 

Josephine', county  of  theS.  W.  of  Oregon,  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  Calitornia.  Area,  about  1100  square  miles.  Much 
of  its  surface  is  mountainous.  The  Rogue  River  Valley  is 
verv  fertile.  Gold,  iron,  and  copper  are  found.  Cap. 
Kerby.     Pop.  1204, 

Josephine^  empress,  first  wife  of  Napoleon  I.,  origin- 
ally named  .Makie  Joskpii  Rose  he  T-vsrwEn  de  la  Pa- 
CEiiii:.  b.  at  Trois  Islets,  in  Martinique,  West  Indies.  .June 
24,  176:t;  was  married  in  1770  in  France  to  the  Vieointe 
dc  Reauharniiis.  in  consequence  of  an  early  betrothal  by 
her  father.  The  union  wns  not  a  very  congenial  one.  8ho 
became  tlie  mother  of  Eufrene  IJeanharnais  and  of  Hor- 
tense,  the  mother  of  Napoleon  III.  The  vieomto  was  ex- 
ecuted by  the  Jacobins  in  171M.  and  Josephine's  life  was 
saved  with  some  difficulty  by  Madnmc  Tallien.  who  res- 
cued her  from  prison  in  1701.  In  17iH)  she  ninrricd  Gen. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  a  rising  officer,  afterwiirds  ap- 
]»ointcd  to  the  chief  coniman*!   in  Italy.     The  match   was 

{)rompted  by  mutual  love,  and  was  long  a  union  of  great 
lappincps  to  lioth.  In  ISQI  she  was  crowned  em]>ress,  and 
both  before  and  after  that  event  .Josephine's  wisdom  nnd 
talents,  and  the  nfVection  with  which  she  was  popularly  re- 
garded, did  much  to  strengthen  Napoleon's  position  in 
France.  But  tho  fact  that  the  union  was  childless  was 
likely  to  bo  fatal  to  Napoleon's  nmhition  to  lieenme  the 
founder  of  an  imperial  line;  and  in  ISOO  she  was  divorced, 
ami  retired  to  Mahnaison,  where  she  d.  May  20.  1814. 

Jose'phHS  (Fr.AVirs),  b.  at  Jerusalem  in  .'i7  a.  n..  of  a 
noble  and  wealthv  family:  after  passing  through  the  schools 
of  the  three  different  .Jewish  seels,  nnd  spending  three 
years  in  tho  desert  with  the  hermit  Bnnus,  he  adopted  the 
views  of  the  Pharisees  ns  most  congenial  to  his  shrewd, 
ambitious,  and  worldly  character,  nnd  he  soon  attained  n 
prominent  position  in  .Jewish  society.  In  fi.*!  A.  n.  ho  wns 
sent  to  Rome  on  a  diplonmtic  errond,  nnd  wns  introduced 
to  tho  empress  Poppiun,  who  favored  the  .lews,  by  n  Jew- 
ish actor  belonging  to  (he  troupe  of  Nero.  He  accomplished 
his  mission  with  success,  nnd  returned  with  great  honor  to 
.Jerusalem.  During  the  .Jewish  revolution  he  eommamled 
in  Galilee,  and  e>;eaped  the  massacre  lifter  the  capture  of 
.Jolapntn.  He  fell,  nevertheless,  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
mans, but  saved  himself  by  predicting  the  future  elevation 
of  Venpa-fian  to  the  imperial  throne.  He  was  present  in 
tho  Roman  army  at  the  destruction  of  .Jerusnlem.  and  nc- 
companied  Titus  to  Rome,  where  he  rcsiileil  for  the  re-it  of 
his  life.  As  long  ns  the  Flavian  family,  in  honor  of  which 
ho  a<lopled  the  name  of  Flavins,  occupied  the  throne,  ho 
lived  in  grent  splendor.  Of  his  life  after  the  denth  of  Do- 
mitian  (06  a,  n. )  very  little  is  known,  and  the  dale  of  his 
own  death  is  uncertain,  though  it  is  probable  that  he  was 
still  living  in  ^0'^  A.  n.  Of  his  works  the  following  have 
come  down  to  us:  TltpX  tow  'lovJSaiKoC  »roA«Moi',  a  history  of 
the  Jewish  war  from  170  u.  c.  to  tho  destruction  of  Jeru- 


1450 


JOSH  BELL— JOSIAH. 


saleni,  originally  written  in  Syro-ChaldEean,  which  version 
is  lost,  liiit  translateil  into  Greek  by  himself:  "lovSatKij 
'Ap\aio\oyia.  :i  history  of  (he  Jews  from  the  Creation  to  (IG 
A.  P.:  Bio5.  an  autobiography  ;  and  a  work  against  Apion. 
The  best  editions  arc  those  by  Dindorf  (Paris,  lS4o)  and 
llckkcr  (Leipsic.  ISo5).  and  of  the  Jewish  War  separately 
by  Ciir.lwell  {Oxford,  lS;i7).  Complete  translations  info 
En2li:?h  have  been  given  by  liodge  (1C02),  L'Estrangc 
(1702  i.Whiston  (17H7);audof  the  Jewish  H*«r  separately 
bv  Robert  Traill  (1817). 

•fosh  Dcllj  south-easternmost  county  of  Kentueky, 
having  Virginia  on  the  E.  and  Tennessee  on  ihe  S.  Area, 
about  ISO  square  miles.  It  is  a  rucged  mountain-region. 
The  valleys  proilucc  corn  and  tobacco.  The  county  is 
traveri-ed  by  the  Cumberland  River,  and  contains  coal  and 
iron.     Cap.  Pinevillc.     Pop.  37:51. 

Josh'ua  [Ileb.  Yehohhua,  "Jehovah  his  helper"],  orig- 
inally called  Honhcn.  :t  Hebrew  general,  the  successor  of 
Moses  in  the  leadership  of  the  chosen  people  and  the  con- 
queror and  ruler  of  Palestine.  He  was  the  son  of  Nun.  of 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  b.  in  Egvpt  not  far  from  B.  c.  Ui98, 
as  he  was  about  forty  yeurs  old  at  the  time  of  the  E.xodus. 
He  first  appears  in  the  biblical  record  as  commander  of  the 
Israeliirs  in  their  victorious  engagements  with  the  Amalek- 
ites  at  Rophidim  (b.  r.  IfijS).  In  the  account  of  iMoses' 
ascent  of  Sinai  for  the  tables  of  the  law.  Joshua  appears  as 
his  "servant  "or  "minister."  accompanying  him  in  apart  of 
the  ascent,  and  first  meeting  him  on  the  descent.  He  was 
one  of  the  twelve  "spies"  sent  to  explore  the  land  of  Canaan, 
and  one  of  the  two  (the  other  being  Caleb)  who  reported 
favorably  upon  the  country,  for  which  reason  tlu-y  alone  of 
all  the  adult  Israelites  were  spared  to  enter  the  Promised 
Land.  Mosi-s  was  divinely  ilireeted  shortly  before  his 
death  to  cooler  upon  Joshua  the  chief  authority  over  the 
people,  and  a  solemn  charge  from  Jehovah  was  addressed  to 
bim  from  the  lips  of  the  dying  founder  of  the  Hebrew  com- 
mon\7eaIth.  In  his  oighty-iifth  year  .Toshua  led  the  chosen 
people  dry-shod  through  Jordan  (Josh.  iii.  17)  ;  fortified  a 
camp  at  Gilgal,  where  he  set  up  twelve  stones  from  the 
midst  of  Jordan  as  a  memorial  of  miraculous  assistance; 
kept  a  solemn  Passover,  on  which  occasion  the  daily  fall 
of  manna  ceased  :  and  received  a  visit  (Josh.  v.  13)  from  a 
loysterious  personage  called  the  **  captain  of  the  host  of 
Ji*liov;ih,"  wlio  pronounced  the  ground  whereon  he  stood 
holy.  Who  was  this  "  captain  "  lias  been  greatly  disputed, 
the  most  orthodox  commentators  often  identifying  him  with 
the  second  person  of  the  Trinity.  Joshua  led  the  Israelites 
in  the  taking  of  Jericho  and  of  Ai.  miraculously  assisted  in 
both  cases,  as  he  was  some  time  later  in  the  celebrated  battle 
with  the  five  kings  of  the  .\moritcs.  \vhen,  in  the  language 
of  the  author  of  the  poetical  book  of  Jasher.  he  commandc<I, 
"  Sun.  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon.  and  thou.  Moon,  in  the 
valley  of  Ajalon."  an<l  was  obeyed,  giving  liim  time  to 
finish  the  destruction  of  his  enemies.  No  miracle  recorded 
in  the  Bible  has  occasioned  greater  iliversity  of  opinion  or 
has  been  rcci-ived  with  greater  ineredulity.  Many  modern 
orthodox  writers  conclude  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  suppose 
an  actual  stopping  of  the  sun's  course,  and  find  a  suftieient 
explanation  in  (he  fact  that  the  account  is  quoted  from  a 
poetical  work  not  now  preserved,  and  therefore  presumably 
neither  inspired  nor  infallible  in  matters  of  fact,  even  sup- 
posing the  intention  to  have  been  to  chronicle  an  actual 
occurrence.  Joshua  inscribed  the  Law  upon  Mount  Ebal; 
in  six  years  overran  Canaan  in  its  whole  length  from  S.  to 
N.,  destroying  thirty-one  kings,  but  leaving  many  isolated 
strongholds  in  the  hands  of  the  Canaaniles;  divided  the 
hind  among  the  tribes;  appointed  six  cities  of  refuge  and 
forty-eight  Lovitical cities:  set  up  the  tabornai.*le  at  Shiloh, 
and  dismissed  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  to  their  homes. 
He  fixed  his  own  residence  at  Timnath-Sorah  in  .Mount 
Ephraim,  and  after  judging  the  people  twentv-two  years 
convoked  an  assembly  of  the  elders  at  Shechem,  delivered 
two  solcnm  addresses,  and  caused  tlum  to  renew  their  cove- 
nant with  Jehovah,  after  which  he  d.  at  the  age  of  110 
years  (n.  r.  150.1),  and  was  buried  in  Tininnlh-Serah  f  Tih- 
uck),  where  M.  de  Saulcy  an<l  M.  de  (iut-rin  have,  as  Ihcy 
believe,  recently  discovered  his  tomb.  The  career  of  Joshua 
has  been  noticed  by  many  biblical  commentators  as  one  of 
the  few  recorded  in  some  detail  without  any  blemish  being 
imputed,  .Many  are  loath  to  justifv  his  wholesale  slaughter 
of  the  C.-inaanites.  but  if  they  believe  such  action  to  have 
been  commanded  by  Jehovah,  they  cannot  logically  con- 
demn him  for  the  execution  of  divine  vengeance.  Others, 
disbelieving  the  reality  of  such  command,  mny,  and  per- 
haps do.  upon  their  own  principles,  doubt  the  reality  of 
the  acts  of  extermination  imputeil  to  him.  The  name 
Joshua  is  in  Hebrew  the  same  as  J,n„n  in  Greek;  in  one 
passage  in  the  New  Testament  (  Heb.  iv.  S)  ho  is  alluded 
to  by  that  name,  and  evidently  regarded  as  a  type  of 
Christ.  PoKTEK  C.  Buss. 


Joshua,  tp.  of  Fulton  cc,  lU.     Pop.  1175. 

Joshua,  Book  of,  the  sixth  canonical  book  of  tho 
Old  Testa  in  tut.  immediately  following  Deuteronomy,  so 
called  because  it  is  devote<l  to  the  history  of  the  conquest 
j  and  division  of  Canaan  under  the  auspices  of  Joshua,  and 
closes  with  his  death.  It  may  be  divided  into  two  equal 
parts,  called  respectively  the  historical  and  the  geographi- 
cal— the  first  (chaps,  i.-xii.)  containing  the  record  of  tho 
conquest ;  the  second  (chaps,  xiii.-xxiv.)  the  division  of  tho 
land  among  the  tribes.  Tiie  second  part  has  been  com- 
pared to  the  Doomsday  Pook  of  England,  from  the  minute- 
ness of  the  boundaries  laid  down,  thus  affording  so  exact 
an  account  of  the  princi}tal  cities,  towns,  and  villages  of 
Canaan,  fifteen  centuries  b.  c,  that  the  researches  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Society,  now  (1875)  engaged  in  a  to- 
pographical survey  of  Palestine,  are  largely  and  success- 
fully dirccterl  to  the  verification  of  the  data  of  the  book  of 
Joshua.  The  authorship  and  date  of  the  book  cannot  bo 
considered  as  settled,  nor  is  it  probable  that  Ihey  can  ever 
be  accurately  ascertained.  Early  commentators,  patristic, 
Catholic,  and  Protestant,  usually  assigned  the  book  to 
Joshua  himself,  except  the  last  chapter,  which  records  his 
death,  but  apparently  for  no  better  reason  than  because  no 
other  authorcould  be  designated  by  name  and  date.  By  mod- 
ern orthodox  critics  it  is  generally  assigned  to  an  unknown 
writer  of  a  ])eriod  immediately  subsequent  to  the  death  of 
Joshua.  The  school  of  De  Wette  and  Ewald  is  much  di- 
vided upon  the  questions  affecting  the  unity  and  integrity 
of  the  book,  and  a  great  variety  of  opinions  is  still  main- 
tained :  roost  of  them,  however,  allege  passages  which  they 
reganl  as  contradictory,  or  at  least  as  betraying  diversity 
of  authorship.  The  chief  English  represent.ativc  of  this 
view  is  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson  in  h'm  Jutrodnrtion  to  f/ie  Of'i 
TeHtnmvnt.  who  assigns  the  chief  authorship  to  a  writer  of 
the  age  of  Saul.  The  commentaries  on  Joshua  are  numer- 
ous ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  name  as  of  special  value  for 
geograpliical  rlata  those  of  Keil  (1847,  Edinburgh  transla- 
tion 1857^  Knobcl  (ISOl).  and  Dr.  H.  Crosby  (New  York, 
1874)  in  Lange's  series,  edited  by  Dr.  Schaff.  There  is  a 
so-called  Samaritan  book  of  Joshua,  written  in  .Arabic  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  consisting  of  a  compilation  from  tho 
canonical  book,  interwoven  with  strange  legends  having 
Joshua  for  their  hero,  forming  part  of  a  chronicle  of  Sa- 
maritan history  down  to  the  Jewish  war  of  Adrian.  It 
was  edited  with  a  Latin  translation  from  Ihe  only  known 
manuscript  (which  once  belonged  to  Joseph  Scallgcr)  by 
G.  J.  Juynboll,  Liber  JtisitiF :  Cliroiiiviim  ASamnritnnum 
(Leyden.  18(8).  The  modern  Samaritans  are  entirely  ig- 
norant of  this  compilation,  though  it  was  evidently  written 
in  the  interest  of  their  religions  ceremonials  and  traditions 
as  opposed  to  those  of  tho  Jews. 

Josi'ah  [Heb.  yo«ft/'j/aA,  "healed  by  Jehovah"],  tho 
sixteenth  king  of  Judah  after  its  separation  from  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor  of  Anion.  He  began 
to  reign  at  the  ago  of  eight  years,  about  b.  c.  040,  and,  re- 
versing the  conduct  of  his  father,  "did  that  which  was 
right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord."  The  reign  of  Josiah  was 
at  a  critical  period  in  the  history  of  Judaea,  and  be  is  ex- 
pressly said  to  have  attained  a  higher  standard  of  religion 
than  any  of  his  predecessors  or  successors.  In  this  he  was 
aided  by  several  prophets,  who  exercised  great  influence 
upon  the  measures  of  his  government  during  his  minority. 
At  twenty  years  of  age  Josiah  began  to  take  vigorous 
measures  against  idolatry,  then  very  prevalent  in  the  land, 
breaking  down  altars,  temples,  and  images.  Especiiilly 
the  ancient  idolatrous  temple  at  llcth-EI,  in  t!ie  nnrthcrn 
kingdom,  was  thus  purified,  burning  upon  the  altar  the 
bones  of  the  recreant  priests  of  former  gc  ncrations  found 
there  in  tho  sepulchres,  in  accordance  with  a  prophecy  de- 
livered "4j  years  before  (1  Kings  xiii.  2).  How  Josiah 
came  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  the  northern  kingdom  at 
this  time  is  not  known;  it  has  been  thouglit  that  the  As- 
syrian king,  his  feudal  lord,  may  have  conferred  the  gov- 
ernment of  Samaria  upon  him.  Six  years  Inter,  Josiah 
undertook  the  repair  and  renovation  of  the  temple,  which 
had  been  so  long  neglected  that  ihe  holy  books  bad  fallen 
into  oblivion.  The  high  priest  Hilkiah  (according  to  some, 
the  father  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah)  found  in  the  sanctuary 
the  "  Book  of  the  Law  *' — j'.  e.  cither  the  whole  Pentateuch 
or  the  book  of  Deuteronomy — and  the  people  were  con- 
voked to  hear  it  read  in  the  temple,  after  which  the  ancient 
covenant  vows  were  renewed,  aiul  a  Passover  celebrated 
with  such  pomp  ami  precision  ns  had  not  been  seen  for 
centuries.  During  the  reign  of  Josiah  a  horde  of  Scyth- 
ians conquered  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  a  column  of 
their  forces  penetrated  through  Palestine  on  their  way  to 
Egypt.  In  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  no 
mention  is  made  of  this  circumstance,  but  the  prophecy  of 
Zephaniah  alludes  to  it.  and  Ewald  thinks  the  fifty-ninth 
Psalm  to  have  been  written  by  Josiah  during  a  siege  of  Je- 


JOSIKA— JOULK. 


i-;.3i 


riisaleni  by  Ihe  Sc.vtbians.  In  Iho  thirty-first  year  of  Jo- 
siah.  Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt,  liuulo*!  an  army  in 
Northern  Palestine  to  make  war  against  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire on  the  Euphrates.  Ju:^iuh  rashly  altacUeil  hiiii  at  >Me- 
gi<lilo,  was  dcrealed  with  great  slaughter.  au<l  wa^  liimself 
mortally  woiuulcJ.     1>.  at  Jerusalem  about  ii.  c.  llO'J. 

Jo'sikn  (MiKi-us)  was  b.  at  Torda,  Transylvania, 
Sept.  2S,  17yi>;  studied  law;  eervcd  ISll-lS  in  the  Aus- 
trian army;  lived  then  on  his  estates,  engaged  in  agricul- 
tural, political,  and  literary  pursuits;  took  part  very 
actively  lu  the  Hungarian  rising  in  IS-IS;  fled  in  1 850  to 
Brussels,  and  lived  afterwards  in  I>resden,  where  bo  d. 
Feb.  27,  ISfia.  Inspired  by  Walter  Seott,  he  wrote  a  great 
number  of  novels  treating  Hungarian  life  and  history, 
most  of  which  have  been  successfully  translated  into  Ger- 
man. Four  volumes  of  memoirs  appeared  at  Pcsth  shortly 
before  his  death. 

Josquin'  Uesprcz'  (.Tonocis  Pratenris).  b.  about 
1450;  serve<l  from  1471  to  1-4.S4  in  the  choir  of  Sixtus  IV. 
at  Rome  and  then  in  the  choir  of  Louis  XII.  at  Paris  ;  re- 
ceived a  benefice, and  d.  in  1  J'Jl  in  bis  n:i:ive  town,  Cond6. 
He  wrote  a  great  number  of  ma?scs,  motets,  and  songs, 
which  were  highly  appreciated,  not  only  at  the  court,  of 
Louis  XII.,  but  in  the  circles  of  Luther,  and  lie  is  gener- 
ally considered  as  the  greatest  composer  before  Palcstrina. 

Jos'sclyn  (John),  a  native  of  Kent,  England,  visited 
Xew  England  in  IGilS,  and  again  IfiOo,  remaining  there 
eight  years.  Ileturning  to  England  in  107 1,  he  published 
three  works  on  America:  X'lc  Eiif/iitiifi'n  litnitiet  Dixcuv- 
ered  {\iu2).  An  Accuunt  of  Tico  Vojfaf/cti  to  Ncic  Emjluml 
(1074),  and  a  Chroutttot/ical  Table  of  the  most  Rcmtifkdhfe 
PtiKiKi'iet  from  the  First  DiKCovcry  of  the  Contuicnt  of  America 
to  107S,  appende<l  to  the  above.  Tho  first  of  these  works 
gives  a  picture  of  Boston  in  ICfi.T  ;  it  was  reprinted  in  this 
country  in  ISCj,  with  notes  by  Edward  Tuckerman. 

Jost  (TsAAK  Markl's),  b.  at  Burnburg,  in  the  duchy  of 
Anbalt,  Feb.  22.  ITIKI,  of  Jewish  parentage;  studied  at 
Qiittingen  and  Berlin  ;  became  teacher  at  a  Jewish  school 
in  the  latter  town  in  1810.  and  removed  to  Frankfort  in 
18.15.  D.  Nov.  25,  ISGO.  He  translated  tho  Mi.bna  into 
German  {6  vols.,  18.'J2),  and  wrote  Oc>t»-hirht€  drr  hvarlitrn 
(9  vols.,  IS20),  besides  several  other  works  relating  to  tho 
history  of  the  Jews. 

Jo'tuns,  or  JfcttCDf  form  one  of  the  most  pcculiarbut 
also  one  of  the  most  interesting  elements  of  the  Scandi- 
navian mythology;  they  were  the  evil  principle.  Some  of 
the  traits  under  whieb  they  were  imagined  seem  to  have  a 
historical  origin,  and  refer  to  tho  oldest  inhabitants  of  tho 
Scandinavian  countries,  the  Finns  and  Lapps,  who  were 
driven  back  by  the  Teutonic  invaders  to  tho  norlberumost 
parts  of  Norway  and  Sweden.  In  other  respects  the  Jotuns 
appear  to  bo  mere  creations  uf  tho  imagination,  symboliz- 
ing in  a  vague,  general  way,  and  under  a  most  fantastic 
iuKigery,  the  dumb  powers  of  nature.  Tbcy  v;crc  giants, 
and  immensely  strong,  yet  they  could  bo  conquered  even 
by  men.  for  they  were  only  half  intelligent.  Their  intelli- 
gence arose  from  their  native  malignity,  and  assumed  gen- 
erally the  fonn  of  witchcraft.  From  Jotunhcim  or  Nid- 
hciui,  tho  home  of  darkness  and  dulness,  they  waged  per- 
petual war  against  the  .E-^ir,  the  brigbt  gods  of  Valhalla; 
and  although  they  always  were  defeated,  great  calamities 
to  the  human  race  ensued  from  this  warfare.  Their  part  is 
mo.^t  couspieuous.  however,  ut  the  opening  and  at  tho  close 
of  the  worMN  drauia.  0  lin  slew  Vmer,  the  first  Jotuu,  and 
built  the  world  from  his  body  —  the  mountains  and  roeksof 
his  bones,  the  earth  (d'lns  llesh,  the  OLrean  of  bis  blood,  tho 
hky  of  his  skull,  and  the. clouds  of  bis  brain.  At  tho  end 
of  time  Vmer's  odspring  will  take  revenge,  slay  all  tho 
.'Esir,  burn  Valhalla,  and  destroy  the  earth;  after  which 
event  the  Albfather  will  restore  the  universe  an<l  establish 
a  higher  and  nobler  rule.  Ci.kmkns  Pktkuskn. 

Joiibert'  (lUiiTHhi.i:MY-rATi!RRiM:),  b.  nt  Punt-de- 
V.Mix,  department  of  Ain.  in  17G'J;  signalized  himself  by 
his  republiean  eonvielion",  ami  was  considered  as  the  only 
man  nblo  to  eiiunleraet  Bonaparte's  anibititm,  and  to  be- 
come the  chief  of  a  definitely  oliibli^bed  republic  of  Franeo. 
But  he  WHS  killed  at  the  age  of  thirty,  at  tho  buttle  of  Nov), 
where  bis  army  was  defeated  by  Suuvarow.  Joubcrt  bad 
enlisted  in  17'.il  as  a  voluntier,  and  was  promoted  on  the 
batttetield,  in  17'.'5.  t<»  the  rank  of  geneial  <d  brigade.  When 
bo  bad  llie  command  in  chief  in  Northern  Italy  be  hastened 
to  proclaim  tho  revolution  in  Piedmont.  He  contributed 
largely  to  tho  succcs}<  of  Bonaparte  in  the  battles  of  .Montc- 
nulte.Mondori,  and  Uivoli.  FhUX  AmAiosK. 

Juiidpiir%  town  <d'  Biillsh  India,  the  capital  id'  a  dis- 
trict of  tho  samo  name,  in  the  provinee  of  Agra,  on  b'lth 
sides  of  the  (iumti,  whieh  here  is  crossed  by  a  tUnw  bridge 
resting  on  lifleen  arehes,  built  in  the  fifteenth  eeiitury,  nud 
remarkable  fur  its  strength.     Pop.  27,1'''". 


Jou'ett  (James  E.),  U.  S.  N.,  b.  in  1S26  in  Kentucky; 
entered  tho  navy  as  a  midshipman  Sept.  10,  1S41  ;  bccamo 
a  passed  mid^b)pu)an  in  1847,  a  lieutenant  in  1855,  a  licu- 
teuuut-eommandcr  in  lStj2,  a  eommantler  in  1800,  a  captain 
in  1874.  Un  the  night  of  Nov.  7,  1801,  Lieut.  Jouctt,  in 
command  of  the  first  and  second  launches  of  the  U.  S.  frig- 
otc  Santee,  carried,  by  boarding,  the  armed  schooner  Royal 
Yacht  in  the  harbor  of  Galveston,  Tex.,  after  a  very  obsti- 
nate light,  in  whieb  he  was  twice  severely  wounded.  At  Iho 
battle  of  Mobile  Bay  he  commanded  the  steamer  Meta- 
comet,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  coolness  and  in- 
trepidity. Rear-admiral  Farragut,  in  bis  oflicial  report  of 
tho  battle,  says:  "Our  little  consort,  the  Jlelacomet,  was 
also  under  my  immediate  eye  during  the  whole  action  up 
to  the  moment  T  ordered  her  to  cast  off  in  pursuit  of  the 
Sclina.  Tho  coolness  and  promptness  of  Lieut. -Com.  Jouctt 
throughout  merit  high  praise;  his  whole  conduct  was  worthy 
of  his  rei>utation."  Foxiiali.  A.  Parker. 

Jouffroy'  (TniroDOUK  Simon),  b.  at  Lcs  Pontots,  depart- 
ment of  Doubs,  France,  in  1790;  educated  at  the  Oollcgo 
of  Dij<m  ;  initiated  into  the  study  of  philosophy  by  Victor 
Cousin,  and  held  different  positions  as  teiieher  of  jdiilos- 
ophy  at  difVorcnt  educational  and  scientific  institutions  of 
Paris,  where  he  d.  Feb.  4,  1842.  He  translated  Dugald 
Stewart's  Outlines  of  Aforaf  Philosophy  and  all  the  writings 
of  Dr.  Reid  into  Froneh.  and  thereby  became  the  medium 
of  a  lively  intercoumiunieation  I>etwcen  the  Scotch  and  the 
French  philosophy.  Of  bis  own  numerous  works,  nil  of 
whieh  arc  without  any  striking  originality,  but  clear  and 
instructive,  the  CnurtKfr  droit  tiatiirel  and  some  essays  bavo 
been  translated  info  English. 

JoiilTroy  d'Arbans,  de  (CLAimK  FnANt^ors  Doro- 
Tiiti:),  MAityris,  b.  in  Franchc- Conit6,  France,  about 
1751;  was  in  his  early  luiinbood  (1772)  a  captain  of  in- 
fantry. Inuring  an  exile  of  two  years  in  Provence  he  stud- 
ied tho  navigation  of  sailing  vessels,  and  prepared  notes 
for  a  work  on  that  subject.  The  sight  of  Cliaillot's  fire- 
engine  (1775)  suggested  to  him  the  applieatictn  of  steam  to 
navigation.  He  developed  bis  idea  by  consultation  with 
Pcricr  and  other  men  of  science,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
a  village  coppersmith  made  a  small  steam-propeller,  which 
he  placed  on  tho  river  Doubs  in  June.  1776,  but  the  experi- 
ment had  only  partial  success.  Continuing  his  mechanical 
studies  in  Sjiito  of  ridicule.  Marquis  tloun'roy  rnustructed 
another  vessel,  whieb  had  better  success,  in  1780,  and  in 
178U  ho  had  so  far  perfected  the  invention  as  to  place  upon 
tho  river  Saonc  at  Lyons  a  small  steamboat  which  on  July 
15,  178;>,  stemmed  tho  current  of  the  river  in  (he  presence 
of  tho  members  of  the  Lyons  Academy,  f^till.  the  vessel 
was  loo  defective  to  be  available  for  purposes  of  actual 
navigation.  The  inventor  solieited  a  juileiit,  which  was 
refused  by  the  l-'rcnch  government  (Jan.  IJl,  1784),  in  eon- 
pcqucuco  of  an  adverse  rcjiort  made  by  tho  Academy  of 
Sciences  after  an  examination  of  Ihe  vessel.  At  ihc  out- 
break of  the  French  revolution  Jouffroy  emigrated  to  Kng- 
Inml,  served  in  the  army  of  Cond6,  and  took  part  in  polit- 
ical intrigues  in  favor  of  the  Bourbons.  Keturning  to 
Franco  under  the  Consulate,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Fulfon,  who  after  some  controversy  acknowledged  tho 
merits  of  the  experiments  made  in  17S:i,  claiming  for  him- 
self only  an  improvement  in  the  engine.  In  1  Sli>,  .ToufTroy 
obtained  a  patent,  formed  a  com|iany  under  the  auspices 
of  tlic  count  of  Artois,  publL^^hed  his  book,  Len  Imtenux-tk- 
vapciir,  and  addr*  sscd  a  memoir  to  the  .Airademy.  On  Aug. 
20  of  that  year  ho  hiunehed  on  tho  Seine  a  steamer,  the 
Charles  Philippe,  but  it  could  not  c<)mpete  witii  rival  enter- 
prises of  the  same  kind.  After  this  Ihe  marquis  passed. 
tho  remainder  of  his  life  in  complete  oblivicui.  dying  of 
cholera  at  tho  Hotel  des  Invalides,  Paris,  in  18:;2. —  His 
son  AcHii.M;.  b.  about  171)0.  was  a  voluminous  politieal  and 
historieal  writer  (d'  the  I'ltramontaue  school.  He  wrote  an 
aceount  of  bis  father's  inventions  ( 18:!!)),  and  devoted  liim- 
self to  cx]ieriments  on  steamboat  and  railway  propulsion, 
without  pnietical  sueces?. 

J01IS8,  Josps,  or  Ju^f;<i,  an  instrument  of  jtunish- 
ment  ftrnn-rly  employed  in  Scolbnid,  the  Nrtherbinds, 
etc.,  was  sim])ly  an  iron  collar  placed  around  the  culprit's 
neck  and  fasteneci  by  a  padlock.  A  short  chain  ran  from 
the  collar  to  a  staple  in  a  tree,  wall,  or  building — often  tho 
parish  church.  The  punishment  was  substantially  that  of 
the  pillory.     Tho  term  is  allied  to  the  word  ^oXe  and  tho 

Lnt.Jiofum. 

Joule  Mamfs  Prfscott),  P.  C.  L..  LL.n.,b.  nt  Sulford, 
England,  I»eo.  24.  1818,  tho  son  of  n  brewer,  and  was  as- 
soeiated  with  bis  father  in  business  until  1854.  His  seien- 
lilie  eilneation  was  entirely  conducted  by  himself  nt  homo, 
with  the  exception  of  a  eonrse  td  jirivate  lessons  in  physios 
bo  received  Ihricy  a  week  lor  three  or  four  years  from  l>r. 
John  Uallun,  tho  celebrated  author  nt  the  atomic  theory. 
Uo  bcoamo  ontbusiastioally  funUuf  original  rcsearoh,  and  at 


1452 


JOURDAN— JOL'KNAUSM. 


the  age  of  nineteen  had  manufactured  an  electromagnetic 
engine,  a  description  of  which  he  published  in  the  AmmlH 
of  Effvlfiriti/  for  Jan.,  ISSS.  Further  research  into  the 
phenomena  of  heat  evolved  by  electricity  showed  that  his 
engine  couUi  not  advantageously  replace  the  steam-engine 
ns  a  motor.  an<l  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  tlie  evo- 
lution of  heat  by  electric  currents,  the  relations  between 
hoat  and  chemical  uftinity.  and  tlie  meolianioal  nature  of 
the  origin  of  heat.  In  ISII  he  gave  in  a  lecture  at  Man- 
chester the  result?  of  the  important  experiments  made  by 
himself  and  Jacobi  of  St.  Petersburg  into  the  magnetic 
forces  as  a  motive-power.  These  experiments  were  con- 
tinued by  Joule  and  by  Mr.  Scoresby,  and  led  in  1843  to 
ascertaining  the  exact  proportion  between  the  mechanical 
powers  of  steam  and  electro-magnetism,  and  the  equiva- 
lency of  heat  with  mechanical  force,  ultimately  fixed  by 
him.  after  fiirlher  experiments  with  various  fluids,  at  772 
fijiit-jiounds  pt-r  unit  of  heat.  The  scientific  a}>pIieations 
of  this  principle  were  numerous,  and  Joule  soon  accumulated 
data  for  his  important  communication  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety Oil  the  Chuntjc  of  Tciujifrntiire  produced  hi/  the  Rare- 
faction  and  ('uiideusation  of  Air,  which  brought  him  into 
prominence  as  an  investigator,  and  led  to  his  association  in 
further  experiments  with  other  eminent  scientist?,  especi- 
ally Prof,  (now  Sir  William)  Thomson  of  Glasgow  and  Dr. 
Lyon  Playfnir.  With  thi-  former  he  commenced  in  1S52  a 
ecries  of  researches  upon  the  thermal  etfeets  of  fluids  in 
motion,  which  were  continued  for  many  years,  the  results 
of  v/hicli  were  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  four 
memoirs  (I85;i-G2)  printed  in  the  PhHo>n>}jhicai  Trnn»ac- 
tiotift.  With  Dr.  Playfair  he  made  a  careful  investigation 
of  the  volumes  of  space  occupied  by  the  same  bodies  in  a 
solid  and  in  a  liquid  state,  the  results  leading  to  important 
modifi'3atujns  of  the  theories  of  molecular  physics.  The 
discoveries  of  Dr.  Joule  have  been  intimately  related  to  the 
remarkable  theories  of  the  correlation  of  forces  developed 
by  Dr.  Meyer  and  Helmholtz  of  Germany,  Scguin  of  France, 
Faraday  and  Grove  of  England.  In  recognition  of  his 
important  services  to  science,  Dr.  Joule  received  the  royal 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1Sj2,  and  in  18Cl)  the  Copley 
medal,  besides  all  the  honors  which  could  be  conferred  by 
decrees  from  Oxford,  Dulilin,  and  Edinburgh  universities, 
membcrsliip  of  the  lustilnte  of  France  and  all  the  chief 
scientific  corporations  throughout  the  world,  ami  thcprcsi- 
dL'Ucy  of  the  iJritish  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  in  187;i.  His  miscellaneous  experiments  have  been 
very  numerous,  and  he  has  invented  many  scientific  pro- 
cesses and  instruments,  especially  in  relation  to  a  more  ac- 
curate measurement  of  forces. 

Jour'dan  (Jean  Battiste),  b.  at  Limoges  Apr.  20. 17fi2: 
after  the  death  of  his  father  was  ))laecd  in  his  uncle's  silk 
gture  in  Lyons.  In  177S  he  left  this  employment,  entered 
a  regiment  of  infantry,  and  fought  in  America  under 
D'Eslaing.  Having  returned  in  17H4,  he  settled  in  his  na- 
tive city,  married,  and  opened  a  milliner's  store,  but  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  became  captain  of  the  na- 
tional guard  of  Limoges,  and  thus  began  his  very  active 
and  even  brilliant  military  career.  As  chief  of  a  battalion 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Dumouriez;  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  1 7'.):t,  a  general  of  division  in  the  same 
year,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  North. 
Oct.  16,  17'.)."n  he  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Wattignies,  and 
June  21,  I7!U,  at  Fleurus,  driving  them  back  to  the  other 
side  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  campaigns  of  1795  and  1790  he 
was  less  successful.  On  Sept.  6.  1795,  he  crosscil  the  Rhine 
at  Diisseldorf,  hut  on  Oct.  1 1  he  was  defeated  at  Iliichst  by 
Clcrfayt.  In  June,  17'.Mi,  he  crossed  the  Rhine  a  second 
time,  and  jjcnetrated  with  n  victorious  and  wcll-eqnipped 
army  into  the  Upper  Palatinate;  but  having  been  defeat-  I 
cd  by  An-hduke  Charles  at  Wiirzburg,  Sept.  .^,  1791),  he 
resigned  bis  command.  Elected  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Five  Hundred,  he  was  twice  chosen  its  president, 
and  planned  and  cstablif-hed  the  .system  of  military  con- 
scription. Napoleon  ne\er  gave  him  an  active  independ- 
ent commanrl,  but  appointed  him  governor  of  Piedmont 
in  1800,  and  made  liim  a  marbhal  in  1801,  He  accom- 
panied Josi'ph  to  Naples  and  Spain,  and  was  a  fiitnd  of 
liis.  Louis  XVril.  made  him  a  count  in  1815,  chief  of 
the  seventh  military  division,  and  peer  of  France  in 
1819.  During  the  July  revolution  he  was  charged  with 
the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  but  only  for  a  very  short 
time.  D.  Nov.  2:!,  18;'..'!,  ns  governor  of  the  Hotel  des 
Invalidca.  He  published  OpSralioufi  dc  I'Anntc  dit  JJauitbe 
(17'Jif)  and  Mrmoireii  pour  sercir  a  VUtstoire  de  la  Cam- 
pmjuede  1796  {U\9). 

Jourdan  (  Matiiieu  Joi:vk1,  called  Coupr-TftTF.  (*' head- 
cutter  "),  b.  at  St.  Just,  near  Puy.  France,  in  1749,  and  was 
guillotineil  May  27.  1794.  by  the  order  of  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  and  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  as  throw- 
ing diflcredit  on  tho  RevohniuM  I'v  his  excesses.     Ho  was 


keeping  a  wine-shop  in  Paris  when  the  Bastilc  was  taken, 
and  he  pridcl  himself  as  having  killecl  the  governor  of  the 

prison.  On  Oct.  0,  1789,  he  murdered  the  two  body-guards 
accompanying  the  royal  family  iu  their  memorable  ride 
from  Versailles  to  Paris.  Jourdan  is  historically  known  as 
the  organizer  and  leader  of  the  massacre  perpetrated  in 
1793,  called  the  **  Massacre  of  La  Glacierc,''  at  Avignon. 

Femx  Aucaigsk. 

Jour'lialism  is  one  of  the  prime  necessities  of  modern 
civilized  life.  There  are  now  14,990  jieriodicals  printed  in 
the  world.  More  than  09UO  are  published  in  the  U.  S.,  and 
they  annually  circulate  over  1, 511(1, 999, 000  copies.  It  is  a 
close  approximation  to  the  truth  to  say  that  each  copy  is- 
sued averages  five  readers.  If  these  publications  annually 
circulate  l,500,(HtO,900  copies,  the  periodicals  of  the  Union 
are  read  7,599,(100,090  times.  Such  is  the  fact  in  the  U.  S., 
as  shown  by  tiie  census  returns;  and  it  is  perhaps  fair  to 
assume  an  equal  circulation  for  the  jieriodicals  of  the  rest 
of  the  world.  It  is  manifest,  thercft)rc,  that  journalism  is 
a  necessity  of  tho  age.  It  is  the  letter,  the  pamphlet,  the 
book  of  the  million.  Newspapers  are  read  when  nothing 
else  is  read  :  newspapers  are  sent  by  the  thousands  through 
the  mails  instead  of  letters,  and  they  are  with  many,  very 
many  in^lividuals.  the  only  medium  of  intercommunica- 
tion. Ideas  bj-  means  of  journalism  becomo  cosmopolitan. 
It  enables  all  nations  to  interchange  with  each  other  in  a 
free,  easy,  cheap,  and  intelligent  manner.  None  are  too 
poor  to  obtain  a  new>pai)er:  none  arc  too  poor  to  know 
each  morning  the  daily  occurrences  of  the  world.  News- 
papers of  to-day,  by  means  of  the  telegraph,  are  the  reflex 
of  tho  events  of  yesterday.  What  transpires  in  Paris  or 
New  York,  London  or  Washington.  St.  Petersburg  or  San 
Francisco.  Berlin  or  Boston,  Vienna  or  Philadelphia,  Liv- 
erpool or  New  Orleans,  Canton  or  Chicago,  is  known  within 
twenty-four  hours  to  millions  of  people  of  all  nations  and 
tongues  through  the  press.  Na]ioUon  is  overthrown  at 
Sedan,  and  the  startling  fact  is  the  talk  at  every  breakfiist- 
tablc  the  next  morning.  Some  imj)ortant  discovery  in 
science  or  art  is  made  to-day  iu  Boston  or  Berlin.  an<l  it  is 
practically  ajiplied  to  the  business  of  life  to-morrow  through 
the  same  channel  of  communication.  On  all  the  great  sub- 
jects that  agitate  the  public  miml  governments  are  advised 
of  tho  public  sentiment,  and  cabint  ts  are  guided  by  public 
opinion  expressed  in  the  public  journals.  Through  this 
source  the  vo.r  populi  has  become  the  voice  of  warning  and 
influence  in  the  councils  of  nations,  and  in  the  practical 
details  of  life  everywhere  the  newspaper  is  the  necessity. 
All  kinds  of  business,  all  inventions  and  improvements  in 
machinery,  all  changes  in  trad.e  and  finance,  all  facts  and 
movements  affecting  the  weal  or  wou  of  mankind,  are  daily 
spread  throughout  the  universe  by  means  of  juurtmlism. 
Whatever  is  to  be  bought  or  sold  is  advi-rtiscd  :  movrmenls 
of  railway-trains  and  steamships,  conveying  hither  and 
thither  the  inhabitants  and  annual  produce  of  the  world, 
are  chronicled.  Servants,  artisans,  the  emjtloyed  and  tho 
employers,  have  their  needs  made  jmblic  for  a  trifling  sura 
in  the  pages  of  the  daily  papers.  If  a  mechanic  or  a 
monarch  is  dead,  the  fact  is  announced  through  the  same 
ubiquitous  means.  Is  it  too  much  to  say,  therefore,  that 
society  is  regulated  by  this  great  ])Ower.  and  that  journal- 
ism is  one  of  the  prime  necessities  of  the  world?  Stop  all 
tho  presses  throughout  Christendom  for  one  week,  or  even 
for  one  day,  and  what  would  be  the  result  ? 

How  did  this  institution  originate?  When  and  where? 
AVhal  is  it  now  ? 

There  were  news-sheets  long  anterior  to  tho  discovery  of 
printing  in  Europe.  They  were  in  circulation  in  China 
and  Rome  and  Venice,  and  it  is  asserted  by  arehicologists 
that  those  in  China  were  printed  on  rude  wooden  type  sev- 
eral centuries  before  the  days  of  Gutenberg,  Cosier,  and 
Sehoffer;  but  in  Euro])e  tiie  earliest  news-sheets  were 
manuscript  papers  prepared  with  some  regularity,  and 
known  in  Rome  as  the  ^Icm  Diuimt  and  in  Venice  as  tho 
Gdzzctta.  These  sheets  arc  interesting  to  us  as  indicative 
of  the  fact  that  newspapers  were  indispensable  ages  before 
types  were  invented  in  Europe.  But  we  will  leave  the  ago 
of  manuscripts  and  begin  with  the  age  of  printed  news- 
papers. According  to  tradition,  the  first  printed  news- 
sheet  appeared  in  Nuremberg  in  1457,  and  was  called  tho 
Gazette.  We  have  no  knowledge  of  the  existence  in  any 
collection  of  a  copy  of  that  publication.  If  published,  not 
a  copy  has  been  preserved.  In  15;i4  a  newspai)cr  was 
printed  in  that  famous  city  of  which  there  is  a  record. 
There  was  a  copy  in  the  Libri  collection,  and  a  description 
of  it  appeared  in  the  catalogue  of  that  collection.  This 
sl:oet  was  entitled  the  AVue  Zeituuf)  miM  Hifpnuint  uud 
tttilieu.  When  we  consider  the  wonderful  enterprise  of  the 
inhabitants  of  that  town,  it  is  not  improljiible  that  the  lat- 
ter publication  was  a  continuation  of  the  former.  Wooden 
Ivpe  wore  invented  in  I4;>8— 19,  and  Peter  Sehoffer  first  oast 
metal  typo  in  1452.     It  is  therefore  within  tho   range  of 


JOURNALISM. 


1453 


probabiliry  that,  in  brinpin^^lhosc  type  intou.<:e,  it  was  easier 
to  print  iiK'iigre  news-sheets  th«n  books,  an<l  that  the  *in- 
zrttr  was  printed  in  the  very  infancy  of  typi)j;raphy.  But 
he  that  as  it  may,  it  is  pretty  well  ascertained  that  Ulric 
Zell  printeil  a  newspaper  in  Cologne  as  early  as  140',t. called 
the  Chroiiirtr  :  and  wc  abo  have  the  fnct  that  in  lol)S  the 
MrrcMriHii  (Jn/fo-fieftfituH  was  printed  there.  In  IClJ  Die 
Frankfurter  Oberpntttniufn  Zritunij,  believed  to  have  been 
the  first  daily  paper  in  the  world,  was  cstablisheil  by  Ege- 
noir  Knimi'l,  antl  Frankfort  claims  him  as  the  father  of 
jonrnalisni.  These  are  the  bc;;innin;;s.  and  to  (iernmny 
the  world  is  indebted  not  only  for  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, but  for  the  first  use  of  types  for  the  dissemination  of 
news  ainonj  the  people.  Now,  Germany  is  full  of  news- 
papers of  all  sorts  anil  shades,  and  many  are  of  a  superior 
order  and  ability;  and  some  of  those  in  existence  to-day 
have  been  continuously  ]>uhlished  100  and  200  years,  and 
one  even  fur  a  longer  period. 

Knglaud  followecl  Germany  in  journalism.  Nathaniel 
Butters  wa5  a  writer  of  news-circulars  in  London  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  is  mentioned 
as  early  as  161 1,  occasionally  printini;  a  news-slip,  and  in 
lfi2I  he  published  one  or  two  numbers  of  The  f'tntmnt  or 
Wefkfeif  X^trfnt  from  Forain  i'ltrtn ;  and  dnrinf^  this  in- 
teresting period  ho  was  in  the  employment  of  several  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry  as  a  gatherer  of  news,  whii^h  he  regu- 
larly despatched  in  written  cnmmnnieatinns  to  his  patrons 
in  the  country.  It  was  nut  till  l(i22  that  he  permanently 
resorted  to  the  printing-pre?:s.  With  Nicholas  Bourne  and 
throe  or  fnur  others,  probably  printers,  ho  issued  the  first 
regularly  printeti  newspaper— the  WeekUif  Nanen — in  the 
Knglish  laniruage.  It  made  its  appearance  in  London  on 
the  2;>d  of  May.  This  was  eighty  tour  years  afrer  the  dis- 
covery of  printing,  and  fifty-one  years  after  William  Cax- 
lon  had  established  the  first  printing-office  in  Westminster. 
Meanwhile,  tho  manuscrt]>t  news-circulars  ami  the  gossips 
at  the  eoff"cc-house3  sup)ilied  the  public  with  their  daily 
talk.  Strange  as  it  niiiy  appear  t^i  the  present  age,  tho 
playwrights  in  the  infancy  of  journalism  were  the  in- 
fluential writers  of  the  time,  the  men  who  largely  guided 
the  popular  mind,  the  censors  of  manners  and  morals. 
Fletcher  and  Ben  Jonson  and  .Shirley  made  fun  of  tho 
newspaper-men  on  the  stage  in  The  Fair  Mniif  of  thr  [nn, 
tho  tSi'tpte  uf  AV(p.«,  and  oilier  plays;  and  it  was  even 
deemed  a  piece  of  journalistic  enterprise  to  obtain  the  first 
playbill  and  other  intelMgcnco  of  theatrical  movements. 
All  this,  however,  has  since  been  changed,  and  in  Kngland 
f  hi-  present  examiner  of  plays  is  a  journalist  named  Pigott. 
Tiic  first  daily  paper  in  Fngland,  the  Dnihf  Conrant.  was 
issued  in  17t*2;  and  the  first  penny  or  one-cent  paper,  tho 
(Jmiiff}  PoHtnimt,  was  started  in  ITlli'.  Now,  there  are  15(10 
newspapers  and  periodicals  published  in  Great  Britain, 
with  such  papers  as  the  Timm,  the  Tefcfjrnph,  the  I/itintrateif 
AVjr*.  and  Funrh  as  re]jresentativo  papers.  The  newspajicr 
press  of  Kngland  has  long  been  considered  the  fourth  estate 
in  that  kingdom;  but  us  the  lea<ling  minds  of  the  nation 
for  the  last  200  years — Milton,  Johnson,  Do  Foe,  Swift, 
Coleridge,  Macaulay.  ralmerston,  Brougham.  Disraeli- 
have  written  for  the  jouritals.  and  as  the  daily  and  weekly 
papers  now  represent  in  various  ways  the  intellert  of  the 
•'ountry,  it  lakes  higher  rank  than  Hunt  in  his  modesty 
chose  to  assign  to  the  profession. 

Franco  followed  Enirland.  and  established  her  first  news- 
paper in  inill.  Th^'ophras'e  Kenaudot  issued  tho  Onzctir 
»U  Frnnor  on  the  .'tOth  of  May  of  that  year.  Official  bul- 
letins  of  the  military  oper.illons  of  Charles  VIII.  in  Italy 
in  1  lUI-DJ  were  printed,  uml  wero  tho  conception  of  /,*• 
.\fiiiiifrtir  Univrrtrl,  tile  oflTicial  organ  of  Franco  in  after 
years;  but  these  were  mere  bulletins  of  tho  army,  not  otten 
issuetl.  and  there  was  a  sheet  called  the  Mrrfiire  FrniirniH, 
j>rinte<l  in  Pariw  in  KiLI;  yet  Kenaudol  and  his  Gaxrttr  df 
Frnnrc  have  always  been  considered  tho  pioneers  of  tho 
newspaper  press  of  that  country.  The  tinxrttr,  with  nn  oe- 
easionai  interruption,  has  been  published  from  H\^}  to  the 
present  day.  and  is  one  of  the  two  oldest  papers  in  the 
world.  Itetiaudot  was  a  remarkable  man  and  a  remarkable 
journalist.  He  tvas  a  physician  and  n  gossip,  and  in  his 
intereourso  with  people  became  one  of  tho  best-informed 
men  of  his  tlay.  Like  Butters  in  Knijlnnd.  he  wrote  news- 
eireular-*  prior  to  the  establiithment  of  the  (inzrth-,  and.  like 
Butters,  he  sold  his  papers  in  the  streets  by  ne\Ts  boys  and 
news-women,  who  were  known  a«  "  hawkers  "and"  Mercury- 
women."  Such  men  as  Hiehelieu,  Mazarin.  ami  Louis  XII  \. 
wrote  for  the  fimrtir,  as  Guizot.  Thiers.  Lamartine,  and  Na- 
poleon have  since  written  for  the  modern  Frenidi  [>ress. 
The  pioneer  daily  paper  in  France,  the  .Aoinio/  */»■  Pnrin 
ini  PoHie  ntt  Sinr,  di<l  not  make  its  appearance  till  1777. 
The  Jniirnnl  lir  /n  Vitfr  t/f  Pnria  was  published  a  ^entnry 
earlier,  but  only  appeared  once  a  week,  with  the  daily  oc- 
i-urrenceB  recorded  in  the  stylo  of  a  diary  of  e\ents,  and 
heni-e  its  name.     Now,  Franco  con  boast  of  lOUiJ  periodi- 


cals, full  of  ability,  but  very  deficient  in  enterprise.  The 
French  journals  depend  largely  upon  their  able  editorial 
articles,  brilliant  reviews,  and  sensational  /citiliitoiia  for 
their  su]»port.  Their  advertisements  are  inserted  mostly 
like  handbills,  and  their  columns  for  business  notices  arc 
generally  farmed  our. 

Newspapers  continued  to  increase  in  Europe  after  these 
early  publications  had  opened  the  way.  The  i^mtvtrh 
[nriketi  Tidniuff  was  founded  in  1044  as  the  official  organ 
of  Swcilen.  The  Honrlcmm  Cournut  appeared  in  165fi. 
The  iSV.  I'etrrshnrff  f/fizetle  was  established  in  1701?,  and 
printed  under  tho  authority  of  Peter  tho  Great,  who  took 
an  nctivQ  interest  in  its  management.  Tiic  pioneer  paper 
of  Spain,  the  Gaceta  dc  Madrid,  made  its  appearance  in 
1704.  There  were  a  Onzcttc  and  also  a  Cnumut  in  Amster- 
dam in  170j.  Thetirst  paper  in  India  was  issued  in  1781, 
and  the  first  in  Turkey  was  printed  in  Smyrna  in  1S27  by 
M.  Blecque,  just  .a  century  at"ter  the  inf  rodui.'ti()n  of  jirinting 
in  tho  Ottoman  empire.  It  was  called  the  Sprcfritor  of  the 
ErtHt.  Now.  there  are  over  8000  newspapers  and  periodicals 
printed  in  Kurope.  Asia,  and  Africa.  Those  in  Australia 
are  as  large,  as  ably  conducted,  and  nearly  as  well  filled 
with  advertisements  as  those  in  London.  There  are  several 
papers  printed  in  FiUglish  in  the  seaports  of  China,  and 
our  journalists  have  frequently  been  indel>tecl  to  the  Chiun 
Mfiil  and  the  Chinn  licfftHter  for  news  from  the  interior  of 
the  Celestial  Empire,  and  entertained  with  the  repultlication 
of  the  vermilion  edicts  from  tho  /V/,/»7  (r'azelfe,  which  is 
claimed  to  be  the  oldest  government  organ  in  the  world. 
Annexed  arc  the  statistics  of  the  periodical  literature  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  which,  if  not  strictly  accurate, 
are  very  near  tho  actual  numbers  : 

yeictpnpcrfi  and  Pcriodicnh  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
in  1874. 

Great  Britain 14-'jfi 

France 1G68 

Prussia 809 

Austria  and  Hungary 1016 

Other  (iernian  states 4G7 

Russia :W7 

Italy 723  |  Asia. 

Spain 306  [Turkey 


Denmark 96 

Norway  and  Sweden 184 

Netherlands ,343 

Switzerland 394 

Kjiypt 7 

Africa 14 

30 
S3 

Il'-lcium 194  I  Elsewhere 150 

Portugal 26  |  __ 

Total 8253 

All  interests  and  clnspcs.  professions  and  trades,  literature 
and  art,  politics  and  religion,  are  represented  in  these  pub- 
lications— illustrated,  comic,  financial,  commercial,  marine, 
sporting,  dramatic,  scientific — a  variety  the  sight  of  which 
would  fairly  stagger  Butters  and  Renaudot  were  they  to 
reappear  on  earth  and  (Miter  into  the  office  of  the  London 
TinuH  or  tiiat  of  the  Printrrtt'  Hrffisfrr. 

There  are  several  newspapers  printed  in  Europe  which 
have  lived  a  great  many  years,  and  the  files  of  which,  not- 
withstanding the  restrictions  of  censors,  are  filled  with  in- 
tensely interesting  details  of  the  great  events  af  the  last 
two  centuries,  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires,  of  national 
changes  and  re\(tlritions  that  were  startling  to  mankind 
wlien  they  occurred.     Here  are  their  names: 

Numos.  When  c<tnltli-lied. 

Frankfort  Oazetto 1G1."> 

Cazcttede  France J''31 

L«'i|)sic  Gazette 1''6l) 

London  fiazelte 1(>6J5 

Stamford  (Euk.)  Mercury l'^it."> 

r/linlMiruh  Couranl I7n.'> 

Ri.stoek  r.azette 1710 

Newcastle  (Knir.l  Courant 1711 

Lecdi  (Enn)  Mercury 1718 

Bi-rlin  (iazptte 1722 

Lejeestt-r  (En if.)  .lournal 17 ">2 

I>ublin  Friruniau's  Journal IT.m 

All  the  governments  of  Europe  wero  early  represented 
by  newspaper  organs.  They  are  an  easy  moans  of  com- 
municating orders  in  council,  *;pecial  edicts,  prochimations, 
and  laws  to  the  people.  The  !,n»d<m  fttixrtfr  was  the  first 
of  these,  mid  wa-^  rstablished  in  KiOa,  and  is  still  published. 
It  was  originally  the  Oxford  Guzettr,  Lr  Mimitrnr  Fni- 
ver»ef,  Jottrnnt  Offidvl  de  V Empire  Frnnt:tn'ii,  was  slarteil 
in  I7SI1;  hut  Louis  Napoleon  aliandoned  the  paper  in  IsfMt, 
beenuse  it  was  owned  by  private  individuals,  ami  estahlivhcd 
another  with  the  simple  title  of  Journal  Offtvirt  dv  I' Em- 
pire Frtinrain,  Italy  is  represented  by  the  dazzrtti  Offi- 
cintr  ;  Spain,  by  tho  finrefa  dr  Madrid,  and  Russia  by  tlie 
Prnnitrlztnennii  Vtfulaik.  The  InvnUdr-  /^if«*rof  St.  Peters- 
burg was  the  organ  of  tho  Russian  government  for  many 
years.  It  was  establi'^hed  in  isl.'j  to  raise  a  fund  for  ;ho 
relief  of  woundeil  soldiers.  It  was  superseded  in  IS6S  by 
the  new  organ.  Russia  is  also  represented  in  Brussels  by 
I.p  Xord,  the  utteranees  of  which  are  semi-oflieial,  and  aro 
intended  to  explain  to  Europe  any  political  problem  in  which 
the  government  of  the  ezir  may  be  interested.     Austria  is 


officially  heard  through  tin 


..r  V. 


1454 


JOURNALISM. 


Of  nil  the  newspapers  now  printed  in  Europe,  the  London 
Timm  is  the  most  perfect.  It  is  ninety  years  old,  and  has 
been  owned  and  manajtcd  durinj;  that  time  liy  tliroc  gene- 
rations (if  one  family — the  Walters.  lis  intellectual  ability 
and  business  enterprise  have  been  remarkable  since  ISOU, 
when  it  became  the  property  of  John  Waller,  the  father  of 
the  present  proprietor.  He  conducted  (he  pajier  for  forty 
years,  and  it  has  a  great  power  in  the  land;  and  in  order  to 
be  entirely  independent  of  government  inlUience  the  second 
Waller  ran  his  own  special  expresses  with  the  news  of  the 
battles  of  Napoleon  I.,  often  anticipating  the  government 
couriers  and  olIici.Tl  despatches.  The  Times  was  the  first 
paper  prinlid  by  steam-power,  which  was  introduced  into 
its  ]ire?s-ronm  in  1S14, 

The  number  of  daily  papers  published  in  Great  Britain 
in  1S74  was  l.Tl,  of  which  'H  were  printed  in  London.  Of 
the  total  number,  23  are  represented  as  independent  in  poli- 
tic.;  M  as  liberal:  22  as  neutral:  26  as  conservative;  and 
1,  the  Mornin;/  Post,  the  organ  of  fashion,  as  High  Church. 
The  TimeH  is  'set  down  as  liberal.  The  prices  of  these  jour- 
nals range  from  one  farthing,  or  half  a  cent,  to  five  pence, 
or  ten  cents,  per  copy.  Tlic  London  S^nn  is  sold  for  a  far- 
thing, the  lowest-priced  paper  in  the  English  language,  and 
(he  Lonihin  Tiini-s  for  three  pence  for  each  copy.  The  price 
of  (he  hnniinn  Trhqrnph  is  one  penny,  or  (wo  ceu(s.  I(s 
circulation  is  said  to  be  160.000  copies  daily,  while  that  of 
the  Tiincf  is  about  40,000.  It  is  perhaps  only  necessary  to 
mention  three  or  four  of  (he  most  prominent  on  tlio  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  The  Gazelle  ile  Mosron,  edited  by  M.  de 
Kalhof.  is  one.  M.  Thiers,  in  speaking  of  the  press  in  the 
Corps  L^gislatif  in  1868,  said  that  to  have  an  e.iact  idea 
of  what  passes  in  Russia,  of  (he  movemen(s  and  tendencies 
of  that  great  power,  it  was  necessary  to  combine  (he  utter- 
ances of  the  government  with  (he  language  of  (he  Guzctle 
tic  Mnirou.  The  Aufisbnrij  Gnzetle  has  always  been  an 
authority  in  (iermany.  It  is  prinled  every  d.ay  in  the 
year,  like  the  New  York  Herald.  The  .lourntil  dca  Dchiils 
is  (irobably  the  ablest  paper  in  France,  and  has  always 
given  the  debates  of  (he  Corps  Lfigislalif  in  full,  as  (ho 
London  Timen  docs  (hose  of  Parlia(nen(.  Of  course  there 
are  o(hers,  like  Le  Nord  and  (he  Memoritd  Dlplomntiquey 
but  space  will  not  tolerate  a  complete  list  of  (hem. 

The  most  remarkable  field  for  newspaper  cnlerprise  and 
newspaper  litcra(urc  has  been  (he  U.  .S.  :  and  in  giving  a 
siictch  of  (he  journals  of  (his  country  it  will  be  necessary 
to  embrace  those  that  appeared  before  the  colonies  became 
independent  of  the  mother-country,  as  well  as  those  tliat 
appeared  subsequendy,  in  order  to  show  the  progress  of 
jijurnalism  on  this  continent.  In  a  country  where,  after 
ITb.t,  industry  and  intellect  became  (ho  most  ac(ivo  in  (ho 
world,  (he  increase  and  growlh  of  newspapers  have  been 
wonderfully  great,  surpassing  every  other  single  nation, 
and  where  the  aggrcga(e  number  of  journals  and  (beir  cir- 
eululion  havcatniost  reached  in  1874  the  number  and  circu- 
lation of  those  printed  in  all  oihcr  i)arls  of  the  worM. 
There  arc  eras  in  the  history  of  the  periodical  press  of  ] 
North  America  which  do  not  exist  in  the  history  of  (ho  j 
newspaper  press  in  other  par(s  of  the  world.  This  is  duo  j 
to  our  peculiar  pidi'lcal  status  as  a  people — first,  as  a  j 
colonial,  and,  secimil,  as  an  independent  government.  Our 
journals,  largely  entering  in(o  (ho  polideal  con(roversies 
of  (he  people,  passed  (hrough  the  changes  that  the  coun- 
try experienced  from  utter  subserviency  to  the  English 
monarchy  to  complete  independence,  and  then  through 
(he  changes  growing  out  of  the  marvellous  ])rogress  of  (ho 
nation.  These  eras  were  five  in  number — namely,  firs(, 
the  cobmial  press;  second,  the  Revolutionary  jiress ;  (bird, 
the  polilical  party  press;  fourth,  the  cheap  press;  fifth,  the 
indi'pcndcnt  ptrcss. 

The  roi.os[Ai.  Press  first  appeared  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
Ifi'.IO.  On  Sept.  25  of  that  year  Benjamin  Harris  published 
a  sheet  with  the  tide  of  f'libh'rk  Oemrrrnren  holh  Foreir/n 
and  Domrtilcle.  It  was  the  intention  of  (he  publisher  to 
issue  (his  paper  once  a  mon(h,and  the  annexed  prospectus 
gives,  in  the  quaintest  manner,  what  the  ]ii(»neer  journalist 
of  America  believed  to  be  the  duties  of  an  editor; 
PUBLICK  OCCURRENCE.'', 
Roth  X'oreign  and  I>omi:st(CK. 

Boston.  Thchsday.  .Srpr.  2.'i,  160O. 
II  is  designed  that  the  Coun(rey  shall  be  furnished  once  a 
month  (or  if  any  f;lu(  of  Occ\irrences  happen  oftcner)  with  an 
Account  of  such'  considerable  things  as  have  arrive*!  unto  our 
Nodce. 

In  order  here  unto,  Ihe  Publisher  will  (ake  what  pains  be  can 
(o  obtain  a  l-'aithful  Relation  of  all  such  tilings:  and  will  par- 
ticularly niakehiinsi'il'  beholden  to  such  I*ersonsin  Itoston  whom 
lie  knows  to  have  been  for  their  own  use  the  dili>,'ent  Observers 
of  such  matters. 

That  wliicli  is  herein  proposed,  is.  First,  That  Memorable  Oc- 
cur rents  of  Divine  Providence  may  not  be  ncclcctedor  forjiotten. 
as  they  too  often  are.  Sccoiully,  That  petiplc  everywhere  may 
betterunderstand  the  Circumstances  of  l*iibliquc  Affairs,  both 
abroad  and  at  home;  which  may  not  only  direct  their  Thoughts 


at  all  times,  but  at  some  times  also  to  assist  their  Business  and 

Necoccations. 

Thirdly  That  some  thing  mav  be  done  towards  the  Curing,  or 
at  least  the  Charming  of  that  Spirit  of  I.yina,  which  prevails 
among  us.  wbercforc  nothing  shall  he  entered,  bu(  wha(  we  have 
reason  to  believe  is  true,  repairing  to  the  best  fountains  for  our 
Information.  And  when  llicre  appears  any  material  mistake 
in  anvthiug  (ba(  is  collcclcd.  it  shall  be  correc(ed  in  (he  next. 

Moreover,  the  Publisher  of  these  Occurrences  is  willing  In 
eni.'agc,that  whereas,  (here  are  many  False  Repor(s,  maliciously 
made,  and  spread  among  us,  if  any  well  minded  person  will  be 
a(  (he  pains  to  trace  anv  such  false  IJeport.  so  far  as  to  find  out 
and  Convic(  the  First  ijaiscr  of  it,  be  will  in  this  Paper  (unless 
first  Advice  be  given  to  the  contrary't  expose  (lie  Name  of  such 
person,  as  A  malicious  Raiser  of  a  False  Report.  II  is  supposed 
that  none  will  dislike  (bis  Proposal,  but  such  as  intend  to  be 
guilty  of  so  villainous  a  Crime. 

On  (his  basis  of  trulh  and  justice  and  conscience  was 
issued  the  first  newspaper  on  (his  side  of  (he  Atlantic.  Its 
size  was  three  pages  of  a  folded  sheet,  leaving  one  p.ngc 
blank,  with  (wo  columns  (o  a  page,  and  each  page  was 
about  eleven  by  seven  inches.  lint  the  efl"ort  of  Benjamin 
Harris  failed,  in  consequence  of  (he  opposidon  of  the  pro- 
vincial authorities,  who  forbade  "any(hing  in  print  with- 
out license  first  oblained  from  those  appoin(ed  by  the  gov- 
crnmen(  (o  grant  (he  same;*'  and  as  (he  first  nnmlier  of 
Pnhlick  Occnrrenres  eonlained  '*  rcficcdons  of  a  very  high 
na(urc,''  a  second  number  did  not  appear.  Some  ha\e 
doubted  (he  exis(encc  of  (his  publicadon,  but  the  fact  (hat 
a  copy,  and  (he  only  one  ex(an(.  is  on  file  in  (he  stale 
paper  office  in  London  is  sufficienl  proof  that  such  a  pajier 
was  issued.  Harris's  news-sbcet  was  a  veritable  newspaper, 
but  there  was  a  reprint  of  the  London  Gazette  in  New  Yovk 
in  1696  which  gave  the  news  of  an  important  batdc  in 
Europe  leading  to  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  This  was  issued 
by  William  Bradford  by  order  of  Gov.  Fle(eher.  as  an  easy 
mode  of  reproducing  an  official  account  of  an  jiffairof  ranch 
moment  to  (he  colonics  for  (he  informadon  of  the  people. 
It  was  no(  iniended  as  a  regular  newspaper.  These  two 
publicadons  were  (he  only  a(temp(s  of  (he  kind  (ill  1704. 
Meanwhile,  the  colonists  relied  upon  a  few  London  papers, 
received  by  (be  few  vessels  arriving  from  England,  for 
news  from  Europe,  and  on  (he  gossips  a(  (he  cofl"ee-housPS 
for  local  inielligenee  ;  bu(  meanwhile,  also,  .John  Campbell, 
the  poslmasler  of  Boston,  became  a  news-galhcrer,  and  fur- 
nished (he  New  Englanil  governors  and  a  few  friends  with 
periodical  news-Ieders  or  cireuhirs.  Nine  of  (hese  letters. 
wri((en  (o  Uov.  l"i(z  John  Winibrop  of  Conneelieu(,  and 
bearing  dates  from  April  to  October,  1703,  now  belong  to 
the  Massachusetts  Historical  ,Socie(y.  These  circulars  led 
to  the  issue  of  a  newspaper  by  their  writer.  On  Apr.  21, 
1704,  John  Campbell  commenced  (he  publicadon  of  (he 
Xrirs-Lrftrr,  and  it  has  since  been  incorrectly  stated  that 
(his  was  (he  first  newspaper)irinted  in  America.  Campbell's 
prospecdis  was  a  brief  one.  Harris  promised  (o  issue  his 
paper  once  a  mon(h.  The  interim  ol^  four(cen  years  less- 
ened (he  dmc  (o  weekly  publication.  This  is  Campbell's 
prospeelus ; 

Advert(semint. 
This  News-T.e((cr  is  (o  be  con(inued  weekly  ;  and  all  persons 
wiio  liave  any  Houses.  Lands,  Tenements,  Farms,  Ships.  Vessels, 
Coods,  Wares  or  Merchandizes.  Ac.  to  be  sold  or  let ;  or  Servants 
liun-awav,  or  Ooods  Stole  or  Lost ;  may  have  (he  same  inser[ed 
at  a  Reasonable  Rate,  from  Twelve  Priice  to  Five  Shillings  and 
not  exceed;  Who  may  agree  with  John  Campbell  Post  Mas(er 
of  Ros(on.  , 

All  persons  in  Town  or  Counlv  may  have  said  Ncws-LeKer 
every  Week,  Yearly,  upon  reasonable  terms,  agreeing  willi  John 
Campbell,  Pos(-U]a's(er  for  the  same. 

Harris,  it  will  be  seen,  did  nol  ask  for  an  advertisement. 
His  adcndon  was  wholly  dircclcd  (o  in(elligence  and  the 
tru(h  of  public  rcporls.  Campbell,  on  (he  eon(rary,  was 
wholly  devoted  to  business,  and  calcubalcd  largely  on  nd- 
ver(isemcn(s.  He  docs  not  allude  to  news  in  any  way. 
But  very  few  business  notices  appeared  in  the  Xcim- Leiier. 
It  was  a  novel  enterprise,  and  the  merchants  and  meehanies 
of  Boston  did  not  fully  comprehend  (he  advantages  of  (his 
new  mode  of  making  (heir  business  known  (o  (he  public. 
The  Krics- Letter,  in  its  early  days,  was  someduies  printeii 
on  a  single  sheet,  foolscap  size,  but  oflener  on  a  half  sheet, 
with  two  columns  on  each  side.  I(  lived  for  .scvenly-two 
years,  and  went  out  of  existence  when  the  British  (roops 
evacuated  l!os(ou  in  I77G.  The  Xeies-Leitir  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  journalism  in  America  for  fifteen  years,  and 
yet  had  a  eireuladon  of  only  300  copies.  In  171il,  William 
Brookcr  was  appointed  postmaster  of  Boston  in  the  place 
of  Campbell,  and  in  consequence  of  some  diflieuKy  about 
(he  Xrien- Letter  and  (he  mails  (he  new  postmaster  (bought 
it  expedient  (o  establish  another  newspaper.  On  Dee.  21 
of  that  year  he  issued  the  «o«(on  Gazette.  The  appearance 
i  of  this  "sheet,  added  (o  (he  loss  of  office,  fired  the  indigna- 
tion of  Campbell,  and  (hereupon  commenced  the  "  war  of 
editors  "on  (his  condnent,  which  has  never  ceased.  In 
speaking  of  the  Gazette,  thi:  editor  of  (he  .\>ir«-i<(fpr  said, 
"I  pit/the  readers  of   the  new  paper;  its  sheets  smell 


JOURNALISM. 


1455 


8tron;;er  of  beer  than  nf  niidniglit  oil.  It  is  not  reading  fit 
for  tho  people  I  "  It  appears  that  Hiooker  was  not  inclined 
to  oarry  on  the  war  tt)  tUe  bitter  end.  for  in  n-ply  he  wislicd 
Campbell  "all  dcsinible  success  in  his  agreeable  Aeir9-Lft- 
tety  assuring  him"  that  he  had  "ni'ither  capacity  nor  in- 
clination to  answer  any  more  of  his  like  ndvertiseraents." 

On  Dec.  22,  I71H,  the  day  after  the  (Jnzfittc  appeared,  the 
ioilial  paper  In  Philadelphia,  the  American  U'cchfi/  Mcr- 
curt/,  was  issued  by  Andrew  Bradford,  a  son  of  the  iirst 
printer  in  Pennsylvania — a  paper  that  Benjamin  Franklin 
subsequently  characterized  ns  '*  a  paltry  thinj^.  wretchedly 
mana>;ed,  no  way  entertaining,  and  yet  was  profitable." 
Hut  tho  pa]>cr  that  attracted  the  most  attention  in  the 
cohjuies  at  that  early  period  was  the  A'ac  Eiufhtnd  Con- 
rant,  established  by  James  Franklin  Aug.  7,  1721.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  commenced  his  career  ns  a  printcr*s  ap- 
prentice on  this  paper.  It  is  stated  in  the  nufobiogrnphy 
of  the  hitter  that  the  Cournut  was  the  second  newspaper 
Started  in  America.  It  was  the  tittii.  But  tho  Ctntraut  cre- 
ated a  sensation  which  the  others  did  not  do.  and  its  pub- 
lisher was  soon  in  difficulty.  It  first  had  a  wurdy  war  with 
the  Xtipa-Lviter.  Then  .lames  Franklin  had  a  prcat  deal  of 
trouble  with  the  elergy.  especially  with  Cutton  and  Increaso 
Mather,  and  finally  the  j(>nrnalist  and  the  governnu-nt  offi- 
cials had  their  differences.  The  communications  in  xhcGazftfc 
produced  so  much  talk  and  scandal  in  the  quiet  town  of  Bos- 
ton that  its  publisher  ivas  forbidden  to  issue  his  paper  except 
untler  very  arbitrary  restrict  inns,  and  tor  iittt  ni]>tingto  cvado 
these  ho  was  thrown  into  prison.  On  Feb.  II,  1722.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  then  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  paper  as  its  editor  and  publisher,  and  ho 
remained  for  several  months  in  this  position.  There  con- 
tinued to  be  the  same  independent  spirit  in  tho  management 
of  the  paper,  and  its  troubles  finally  induce<l  James  Frank- 
lin to  abandon  its  publication.  He  went  to  Newport.  R.  I., 
where  ho  established  the  Gazette  in  1732,  aud  where  he 
dice!  three  years  later. 

The  next  paper  that  appeared  in  America  was  the  New 
Yitrk  Gazctt*',  th"  first  in  tlint  province.  It  was  published 
bv  William  Bradford,  and  the  first  number  was  issued  on 
Oct.  2:i,  1725.  In  1727  i\\(i  Nfiw  Ett'jlnnd  W'cc/chf  Joitrnnl 
was  published  by  .*^anuicl  Kneeland,  and  he  made  brilliant 
promises  to  his  readers.  On  Apr.  S,  1 728,  he  said  :  '*  There 
are  .Measures  concerting  for  ren<lering  this  Paper  yet  more 
universally  esteemed,  and  useful,  in  which  'tis  hop'd  tho 
Pnliliek  will  be  gratifi'd,  and  by  which  those  (icntleiuen 
who  desire  to  be  improv'd  in  History.  Philosophy.  Poetry, 
An.  will  be  greatly  advantaged.'*  The  Maryland  Gazttte 
also  appeari'cl  in  1727,  the  first  in  that  cobmy.  It  was  pub- 
lishetl  till  K^'l),  and  revived  in  17^1*.  In  172S.  Benjamin 
Franklin  made  his  reappearance  as  a  journalist.  Samuel 
Keimer  had  stiirted  a  paper  in  that  year  in  Philadelphia, 
which  he  named  the  Universal  Inntrurtor  in  all  the  Arts 
nutl  Srifnrrn,  and  Penn/it/frania  Onzrttr.  Franklin  had  con- 
teuiptated  sueh  an  enterprise,  and  had  confided  bis  iu- 
lention  to  n  fellow-printer,  who  treacherously  informed 
Keimer  of  the  plan,  and  the  Jnsfmctor  was  tho  result. 
Franklin,  in  order  to  prevent  the  success  of  Keimer's  jour- 
nal, immediately  commenced  writing  "several  amusing 
pieces  for  Brndf^ord's  piiper  [the  Mprrnri/'],  nn<ler  tho  title 
of  Busy  Itody."  In  loss  than  a  year  Keimer  sold  bis  paper 
with  it8  ninety  subsoirihers  to  Franklin,  who  condensed  its 
name  to  PninHiffrnnin  Gazette,  and  made  it  a  success.  In 
mentioning  this  circumstance  Franklin  said:  "Our  first 
papers  made  (juite  a  cliffercnt  appearance  from  any  before 
in  the  province  ;  a  belter  type,  au'l  b.'tter  printed  :  but  some 
remarks  of  my  writing,  on  the  dispute  then  going  on  be- 
tween (lovcrnor  Burnet  and  the  Massachusetts  Assembly, 
struck  the  principal  people,  occasioned  the  paper  and  tho 
manager  of  it  to  be  mu'.-li  talked  of,  and  in  ii  few  weeks 
brought  them  all  to  be  our  subscribers."  On  Jan.  H.  17.tl, 
tho  .SV*»//i  Carolina  G-tzrtte  was  issued,  the  first  in  that  prov- 
ince. It  was  prlnlid  in  Charleston,  and  lived  a  year,  but 
wa-*  revived  in  17^14. 

But  the  most  important  newspaper,  polilienlly,  in  early 
colonial  times  was  started  in  New  York  in  K^M.  On  Nov. 
.'»  of  that  year  Jolin  Peter  Zenger  issued  the  first  number 
of  the  AV»r  Y'nrlc  UVf/,7»/  Jonrnal.  It  was  a  rival  of  Brarl- 
f'ird'a  Gaz'fir  professionally  and  polili<'alIy,  and  Zenger 
was  a  fearless  journalist.  Tho  Journal  made  war  on  the 
administration  of  (iov.  Cosby,  and  in  M'.W  its  editor  was 
arrested  for  libel  on  the  government  and  thrown  intr»  ]irison, 
and  in  the  hope  of  crushing  the  paper  the  authorities  kept 
him  nine  months  in  confinement.  This  created  a  trreat  deal 
of  popular  sympalliy  for  the  newspaper,  and  neither  Zen- 
ger nor  bis  friends  were  to  be  put  down.  In  spite  of  the  im- 
prisonment of  its  editor,  the  Journal  con(inu'>d  to  appear 
regularly  ;  and  finally  the  case  was  brought  before  the  court 
for  trial.  It  was  the  first  action  for  newspaper  lihcl  (m  tho 
American  continent.  The  court  met  on  Aug.  '*.  I7'l.'>,  and 
Andrew  Hamilton  of  Philadelphia  appeared  for  Zenger. 


The  publication  of  the  alleged  libel  was  admitted,  and  Mr. 
Hamilton  olVcred  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  statements  made. 
This  the  court  relused  to  permit.  All  evidence  being  thus 
shut  out,  it  became  necessary  for  Mr.  Hamilton  to  midress 
the  jury,  which  he  ditl  witli  great  jiower.  Zenger  was  ac- 
quitted, and  the  verdict  was  greeted  wifh  the  utmost  i-n- 
Inusiasm  by  an  immense  audience.  Mr.  Hamilton  was  con- 
ducted in  triumph  to  a  splendid  entertainment,  a  salute  was 
fired  on  his  departure  for  Inune,  and  the  freedom  of  tho  oily 
was  prcscnteii  to  him  by  the  common  council  for  *'  the  re- 
markable service  done  by  him  to  the  city  and  colony  by  his 
learned  and  generous  dcfonco  of  the  rights  of  mankind  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press."  In  tho  opinion  of  Gouvcrneur 
Morris  the  resultol  this  case  was  *'  the  dawn  of  that  liberty 
which  afterwards  revnlulionize<i  America." 

Other  papers  made  their  apjicarancc  in  Boston  and  Phil- 
adelphia ;  tho  Virffiiiia  Gazrtte,  the  first  in  that  province, 
made  its  (/i-Vmi/  in  AVilliamsbnrg  in  17.".fi;  and  two  news- 
papers printdl  in  German,  tho  pioneers  in  any  foreign  lan- 
guage in  America,  appeared— one  in  (ierinantown,  l*a.,  in 
II'.jV^,  and  the  otlicr  in  Philadelphia  in  174:1. 

These  were  tho  beginnings  in   America.      Kevrspapers 
were  published  in  174.')  in  Boston.  Philadelphia.  New  York, 
Annapolis,  AVilliamsburg,  and  Cliarleslon.     Most  of  thcso 
colonial  papers  confined  themselves  strictly  to  the  merest 
mention  of  the  news  of  tho  day.     If  any  o])inion3  wero 
uttered,  they  wcro   subservient   to  tho  aiitbonlies.      Tho 
Franklins  and  Zenger  wcro  tho  exceptions,  and  tlicy  origi- 
nated and  practised  that  independent  spirit  whieli  was  in- 
fused in  a  new  class  of  papers  that  appeared  suliscquent  to 
1745.     This  new  class  was  the  KKVoi.rTioNAnv  Piikss,     It 
was  still  of  the  colonial  stamp,  because  tlio  country  was 
yet  composed  of  colonics,  with  governments  njipointed  to 
"rule  over  them  by  England,  but  the  people  and  tho  press 
had  become  revolutionary,  more  self-reliant,  and  more  in- 
dependent of  the  colonial  authorities.     The  pioneer  of  this 
class  of  journals  was  the  Inthprnilnit  ArfrrrliKcr,  issued  in 
Boston  on  Jan.  4.  1748,  unrh-r  the  inspiration  of  that  ardent 
patriot.  Samuel  Adams.     One  of  its  t-ontributors  was  Jona- 
than Maybcw.  who  preached  a  sermon  on  the  occasion  of 
an  election   strongly  advocating  the   republican  form   of 
government.    David  Fowle.  the  printer  (d'  the  paper,  having 
issued  n  pamphlet  which  severely  diiumneed  the  legislature 
for  certain  acts,  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.     On  his 
release  he  quitted  Boston  and  went  to  Portsmouth.  N.  II.. 
where  he  started  tho  A^cw  //'iin/>Hh{rr  Gastitr  in  I7.''il.  and 
the  young  ^latriots  of  the  A<lvrriii'rr  bad  to  bide  their  time. 
One  or  two  new  papers  appeared  in  Boston  and  New  York, 
and  pamphlets  were  issued  by  the  opponents  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  next  year;  but  tlie  real  organ  of  the  Kevoln- 
tionary  party  maclc  its  appearance  on  A])r.  7.  17;'';').     It  was 
published   by  Kdcs  &  Gill,  and  named  tho  lionton   Gazette 
aud  Conntrtf  Grntlcnian.     All  the  vigorous  writers  for  tho 
Jitdr/trndrnt  Adrerti>icv,  with  otliers  -  Samuel  Adams.  Jona- 
than  Mayliew.  John   Ailauis.  James  Otis,  Joseph   M'arren, 
Thomas   Cushing,  Samuel   Dexter,   Benjamin  Austin,  Jr., 
and   Samuel  Cooper  —  contributed  to  the  columns  of  tlio 
Gazette.     It  was  n  fearless  denunciator  of  the  wrongs  of 
the  government.     The  sjiirit  of  the  paper  was  indicated  in 
its  devices  on  its  title-page.     On  its  first  number  were  two 
eiits — one  representing  an  Indian  with  bow  and  arrow,  tho 
other  represented   Britannia  liberating  a  bird  confined  by 
a  cord  to  the  arms  of  France.     Five  years  later!  1700)  Ihero 
was  anew  device:  this  rejirescnted   Minerva,  in  jilaet^  of 
Britannia,  seated  at  a  pedestal  on  whii-b  was  a  cage,  bidd- 
ing a  spear  surmounted  with  the  cap  of  liberty  in  her  left 
hand.     With  her  right  hancl  she  opens  the  cage  and  lib- 
orates  a  bird,  which  is  depicted  flying  towards  the  tree  of 
liberty.    This  was  fifteen  years  before  llie  fight  at  Concord. 
Il  is  not  to  beexpected  that  in  an  artiide  as  cireumseribed 
as  this  must  be  all  the  newspapers  springing  into  life  from 
time  to  time  can  be  mentioned.    Only  those  that  made  their 
mark  on  the  age  or  were  representative  in  their  rhnraeter 
can  be  notieed.     All  others  will  hi-  inehnled  \\\  the  general 
statistics  of  journalism.      It    is   ne.-cssary   to  mention   the 
Nrtrpnrt  (K.  I.)  Mrrrnn/,  not  only  because  if   is  still  nub- 
lished.  but  beeause  it  enjoys  the  reputation  of  having  lieen 
started  on  its  career  by  Benjamin  Franklin.     He  had  noth- 
ing to  do  with  its  origin,      ft  was  <'Stablislii'd  mi  June  I'J, 
17.')8.  bv  James  Franklin,  a  nephew ;  and  all  Benjamin  bad 
to  ilo  with  the  paper  was  to   present   to  his   nephew,  after 
the  Merrnry  had  bi*en  some  time  in  existence,  a  font  of  new 
type,  "ns  ample  amends  "  to  his  brother  James  "  for  the 
service  he  had  tleprived  him  of  by  leaving  him  so  early  " — 
in  other  wnj-tls,  for  having  run  awav  before  bis  a]>prenlice- 
ship  bad  expired.  The  press  on  which  Ibetdder.faines  Frank- 
lin and  bis  lirotber  Benjamin  so  often  worked  in  Boston  re- 
mained  in  the  J/f-m/ri/ ofiieo  for   IIM)   years.      Il  was  then 
presented  to  the  Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanies'  As- 
sociation.     On    Feb.    Ifi,   I7.'>'.»,  the   (dd    Gazrttr   of  William 
Bradford    was  revived,  and    afterwards   immortalized    by 


Freneau.  On  Oct.  29.  1764,  the  Connecticut  Courant  was 
issuctl  in  Hartfonl.  and  is  still  published  there.  Its  paf^es 
have  been  of  jrcat  vahie  to  the  historian?  of  the  U.  S.  In- 
deed, all  the  old  papers  have  been  a  mine  of  wealth  to  these 
writers  ;ind  conipiiers. 

The  s;reat  event  which  alarmed  the  colonists,  aroused  the 
patriotic  indignation  of  the  journalists,  and  which  threw 
the  political  cluV>iJ  into  commotion,  nnd  did  more  to  precipi- 
tate lite  Revolution  th:in  any  other  single  act  of  the  home 
povernnient.  occnrred  in  the  following  year.  It  was  tlie 
Stamp  Act  of  ITfiJ,  which  required  that  all  instruments  in 
writing  be  executed  on  stamped  paper  to  be  purchased  of 
government  a^on;?  only,  and  all  olTences  against  the  act 
were  to  be  tried  in  any  royal  marine  or  admiralty  court  in 
any  pnrt  of  the  colonies,  no  matter  how  distant  from  the 
place  of  offenee  :  thus  intcrferins  with  the  right  of  trial  by 
jury.  The  colonists  were  at  once  arou.^ed  to  a  sense  of  the 
danger  impending  over  them.  In  May  the  subject  came 
up  in  the  house  of  burge>ises  in  Virginia,  of  which  Wash- 
ington was  a  member.  Patrick  Henry  introduced  his  cele- 
brated resolutions  that  the  assembly  of  that  province  had 
the  exclusive  right  and  power  to  lay  taxes  and  impositions 
upon  the  people  of  that  commonwealth,  and  whoever 
maintained  the  contrary  of  this  doctrine  was  an  enemy  of 
the  colony.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  exclaimed, 
*•  Caesir  had  his  Brutus.  Charles  his  Cromwell,  and  George 
III.  [cries  of  "  treason  !''  **  treason  I"]  may  profit  by  their 
example.  Sir"  (bowing  to  the  Speaker),  "if  this  be  trea- 
son, make  the  most  of  it  I"  The  resolutions,  with  some 
slight  modifications,  were  .adopted.  They  were  immediately 
published  in  the  ^fflr^/lan(i  (iitzettr^viith  an  article  strongly 
endorsing  them  written  by  Charles  Carroll.  They  were  also 
printed  in  tiro  Pviniiifh-nind  fiazette  and  the  Xetcport  ( R.  I.) 
Mereuri/,  and  the  number  of  the  latter  containing  them  was 
immediately  suppressed  as  a  traitorous  publication.  The 
Soirth  Carolina  Gazrttc,  the  American  General  Gazette,  and 
the  Gazeffe  and  Conutri/  Journal,  all  published  in  Charles- 
ton, printed  them.  They  were  endorsed  by  the  Sons  of 
Liberty  in  New  York  .and  Massachusetts,  and  were  pub- 
lished in  the  /lostoii  G'izettr  with  comments  by  John  Adams, 
which  were  subsequently  printed  in  pamphlet  form  in  Lon- 
don. They  were  deemed  traitorous  and  seditious  there, and 
an  unsuccessful  effort  made  in  Parliament  to  have  the 
pa-mphlct  suppressed.  The  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  in 
170t»,  but  the  effect  produced  on  the  minds  of  the  colonists 
by  these  few  newspapers  was  prodigious.  This  act,  which 
created  so  mvieh  enmity  to  the  mother-country,  was  origi- 
nally recommended  to  the  authorities  as  an  excellent  uiea- 
snrc  by  n  journalist,  Ellis  Huske.  postmaster  of  Boston, 
wlio  in  \7'M  s'arled  the  finitton  Werhlif  Post  /inif.  Several 
of  the  publishers  suspended  the  publication  of  their  papers 
in  consequence  of  this  act.  On  Oct.  31,  the  day  before  it 
was  to  take  effect,  the  pages  of  the  Peuntt/lvauia  Journul 
and  Wiehlif  /I (/cei/i'^rr,  published  by  a  grandson  of  Wil- 
liam Bradford,  were  enclosed  in  black  lines,  with  (he  pic- 
ture of  a  skull  and  cross-bones  over  the  title,  with  the  words. 
"Expiring:  In  Hoiies  of  a  Resurrection  to  Life  again." 
On  the  border  of  the  first  page  were  printed,  *"  Adieu,  ndien. 
to  the  Liberty  of  the  Press."  On  the  last  column  of  the 
third  page  were  the  words,  *'  Farewell,  Liberty."  On  the 
fourth  page  was  a  cut  of  a  coffin,  with  this  epitaph: 

"The  last  Remains  of 

The  Pennsvlvaiiia  .Inurnal. 

Which  depariv.i  this  Life,  the  Hist  of  October,  1765, 

Of  a  Stamp  in  her  Vitals, 

Aged  23  years." 

Such  was  the  spirit  of  journalism  in  America  ten  years 
before  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution.  Of  course 
the  government  had  its  organs.  Several  of  the  papers 
''printed  i>y  authority  "  endeavored  to  counteract  the  in- 
fluence of  the  patriotic  sheets,  but  where  these  made  any 
sign  others  were  established  in  the  interest  of  the  people. 
Such  was  the  case  in  Virginia.  In  ITOfi  a  second  Gazrtte 
I  appeared  in  Williamsburg,  printed  by  William   Kind.     In 

I  mentioning  this  paper.  Thomas  .Teflferson   said,  "  Till  the 

beginning  of  our  Revolutionary  disputes  we  had  hut  one 
press,  ami  that,  having  the  whole  business  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  no  competitor  for  public  favor,  nothing  dis- 
agreeable to  the  governor  could  lind  its  way  into  it.  We 
procured  Hin<l  to  come  from  M:iryland  to  "publish  a  free 
paper."  The  first  printed  statement  of  the  adoption  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  on  the  4th  of  .July,  1776, 
was  made  in  the  Oaztttr  on  the  lyih  of  ihat  month,  and 
the  document  in  full  appeared  in  the  same  paper  on  the 
2iith.  While  this  was  being  done  in  Virginia,  the  patriots 
in  other  provinces  were  doing  what  tbev  could  in  the  same 
direction.  On  May  29,  ITfiT,  the  Xdr  Vorl-  Journal,  or 
Gcueral  Adrertiter,  was  brought  out  under  the  inspiration 
of  t^eorge  Clinton  anil  Philip  Schuyler.  It  was  a  revival 
of  Zenger's  paper,  and  was  edited  by  Alexander  McOougall. 
Alexander  Hamilton,  when  only  sixteen  years  of  a^-e   \t.i5 


I  a  smart  contributor  to  it?  columns.  It  was  McDougall  who 
I  issued  a  pam])hlet  in  New  York  in  the  interest  of  the  Sons 
I  of  Liberty  in  1770,  charging  the  assembly  with  a  betrayal 

of  its  trust  in  its  favorable  action  on  the  Mutiny  Act  of 
1  I7(JS~fi9.  for  which  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  The  ns- 
!  sembly  voted  the  pamphlet  libellous,  and  the  proceedings 
I  were  printed  on  the  4oth  page  of  the  records  cf  that  body. 

"  I'orty-five "  thereupon   became   the   countersign  of  Iho 

Sons  of  Liberty.     McDougall  received  many  visitors  while 

in  jail,  and  in  connection  therewith  the  Joiinial  of  Feb.  16, 
j   1770.  gave  the  following  paragraph  :  "  Yesterday,  the  forty- 

fiftli  day  of  the  year,  furty-five  gentlemen,  real  enemies  to 
>  internal  taxation  by.  or  in  obedience  to,  external  authority, 
''  and  cordial  friends  to  Captain  McDougall  and  the  glorious 
I  cause  of  American  liberty,  went  in  decent  procession  to  the 

New  (*aol;  and  dined  with  him  on  forty-five  pounds  of 
I  beef  stakes,  cut  from  a  bullock  of  forty-five  months  old, 
I  and  with  a  number  of  other  friends,  who  joined  them  in 
1  the  afternoon,   drank   a   variety  of  toasts,  expressive  not 

only  of  the  most  undissembled  loyalty,  but  of  the  warmest 

attachment  to  Liberty,  its  renowned  advocates  in  Great 
i  Britain  and  America,  and  the  freedom  of  the  jtress.  Before 
!  the  evening  the  company,  who  conducted  themselves  with 
!  great  decency,  separated  in  the  most  cordial  manner,  but 

not  without  the  firmest  resolution  to  continue  united  in  the 

glorious  cause." 

Opposite  in  political  sentiment  to  these  patriot  journals 

was  the  Ixi'ifttl  Gttzftfnr,  which  was  estaltlished  in  New 
I  York  in  1762  by  James  Uivington.  The  leading  conthb- 
!  utors  to  the  Gazetteer  were  Attorney-general  Scabury, 
1  Myles  Cooper,  president  of  Columbia  College,  the  Rev. 
;  John  Vardill.  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Chandler.  Major  An- 
!  dre  also  wrote  for  the  paper,  and  his  well-known  satire,  the 
■  Vnic  C'Afwc,  appeared  in  the  Gazetteer  on  the  very  day  of 
'  his  capture: 

"And  now  I've  elos*d  my  epic  strain, 
I  tremble  as  I  show  it. 
Lest  this  same  warrior-drover  Wayne 
Should  ever  catch  the  poet." 

j  Tt  was  subsequently  called  Iiivinf/tou8  lioyal  Gazette,  with 

I  the  royal  arms  over  the  off.cedoor.     It  was  an  ably  con- 

I  ducted  newspaper.     Its  office  was  twice  mobbed  for  its  zeal 

I  for  the  Crown — once  by  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  once  by 

a  party  of  Connecticut  militia.     After  enjoying  royal  favor 

for  many  years.  Kivington  in  17S2,  who  then  saw  the  '*end 

of   things,'"   shaped    his   course   to    meet   coming   events. 

Several  years  previously  Freneau  predicted  this  in  some 

verses  which  he  published  in  a  Pliiladelphia  paper: 

I  "Says  Satan  to  Jemmy,  '  I  bold  you  a  bet, 

I  That  you  mean  to  abandon  our  Royal  Gazrtley* 

On  July  10.  17S2.  the  following  appeared  in  the  Gazette: 
1  **  The  publisher  of  this  paper,  sensible  that  his  zeal  for  the 
i  success  of  His  Majesty's  arms,  bis  sanguine  wishes  for  the 
good  of  his  country,  and  his  friendship  for  individual?, 
I  have  at  times  led  him  to  credit  and  circulate  paragraphs, 
I  without  investigating  the  facts  so  closely  as  his  duty  to  the 
I  pul>Iic  demanded,  trusting  to  their  feelings,  and  depending 
on  their  generosity,  he  begs  them  to  look  over  past  errors, 
I  and  depend  on   future  correctness.     From  henceforth  he 
will  neither  expect  nor  solicit  their  favours  longer  than  his 
endeavours  shall  stam]>  the  same  degree  of  authenticity 
and  credit  on  the  Pin/al  Gazcftruf  New  York,  as  all  Europe 
allow  to  the  Poi/ttl  Gazette  of  London."     The  title  Royal 
was  dropped,  and  the  paper  was  afterwards  known  as  Iliv- 
iiujtan'ti   Kcic    York   Gazette  and  diirrrsal   AdrertiHcr,  and 
the  ntyal  arms  were  removed  from  over  the  door  of  the  of- 
fice.    The  eirculatitm  of   the   Gazitte  reached,  in  its  best 
days,  the  large  number  of  .^000.     Another  organ  of  the 
Crown  was  started  in  Boston  in  17r>7.     It  was  the  Ckmui- 
c/e,  and  the  handsomest  journal,  typographically,  publii^hed 
in  the  colonies.     It  exhibited  great  pretensions  to  litera- 
ture.    John  Mcin.  one  of  its  publishers,  was  a  bookseller, 
and  would  sometimes  fill  a  page  of  the  Chronicle  with  ad- 
vertisements of  his  books  for  sale.     Mein,  assisted  by  a 
pre-Revolulionary  wit  of  Boston  named  Joseph  Green,  and 
a  few  others,  was  very  severe  on  the  Whigs  of  those  days. 
On  \ov.  b,  17n9.  in  a  public  procession,  among  the  effigies 
displayed  was  one  of  Mein,  to  which  was  attached  the  fol- 
lowing acrostic: 

'*I-nsulting  wretch,  we'll  him  expose— 
O-'er  the  whole  worM  bis  deeds  disclose; 
H-ell  now  trapes  wMe  to  take  bini  in; 
N-ow  he  is  ripe — *>  lump  of  Sin  ! 

M-can  is  the  man— ^fein  his  name; 

E-nonirb  hf'.s  spread  bis  hellish  fame; 

I-nfernal  fnrii-s  hurl  his  soul. 

N-ine  million  times,  from  jwle  to  polcl" 
So  inimical  to  Mein  had  the  popular  sentiment  become  thnt 
he  was  compelled  to  stop  the  publication  of  the  Chronicle 
and  leave  the  country. 

Tlic  Mc^iadiitHctr.-i  Spy,  "calculated  on  an  entire  new 


JOURNALISM. 


1457 


plan,"  was  the  next  influentinlly  patriotic  paper  started  in 
the  colonics.  lis  first  numhc'r  came  out  in  July,  1770.  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Isainh  Thomas,  the  author  of  the  His- 
tory of  Prinduff  in  the  Cnitrfi  Stntc^.  ^Vith  the  Gfizelte, 
the  Spy  was  a  power  with  tho  penple.  and  did  its  full  share 
ID  bringing  on  the  rupture  with  the  mother-country.  The 
office  of  the  paper  was  styled  "  the  sedition  foundry."  Early 
in  1771  it  urged  a  recourse  to  arms,  and  on  Oct.  S,  1772,  it 
closed  an  article  in  this  fearless  manner:  '*  Should  the  liberty 
of  thepre?9  he  once  destroyed,  farewell  the  remainder  of  our 
invaluable  rights  and  privileges !  AVc  may  next  expect  pad- 
locks on  our  lips,  fetters  on  our  legs,  and  only  our  hands 
left  at  liberty  to  slave  for  our  worse  than  Egyptian  task- 
masters, or — or — Fight  our  way  to  constitutional  Freedom." 
In  denouncing  (iov.  Hutchinson  as  '*an  usurper,"  and 
showing  I.ieut.-fiov.  Oliver  as  a  **  recorded  perjured  trai- 
tor," an  effort  was  made  by  Attorney-iJen.  Sewall  to  have 
Thomas  indicted  for  libel,  but  the  grand  jury  refused  to 
find  a  bill.  More  Briti^'h  trnnps  having  reached  liostou, 
/that  city  became  ton  warm  fnr  Thomas.  On  the  night  pre- 
ceding the  eventful  day  at  Coneord  the  material  of  the  -S'/^/y 
was  conveycii  across  the  Charles  River  and  earried  to  Wor- 
cester, where  the  paper  was  ever  afterwards  printed,  and 
where  it  is  now  known  as  the  }\'oiTeHtr:r  Sf)i/.  On  May  3, 
1775,  it  first  appeared  there  with  the  motto  in  largo  type: 
"Americans!  Liberty  or  Death  I  .Join  or  Die!"  Thomas  ! 
was  famous  fur  these  newspaper  laconics.  He  had  a  fresh  | 
one  for  every  new  phase  and  every  new  movement  in  the 
Revolutionary  conflict.  Tho  government,  to  stem  this 
Revolutionary  tide  after  the  suspension  of  the  Chronicle,  , 
resorted  to  the  (dd  XrirR-Ldtfr,  which  was  then  known  as  , 

tho    MnttttnchnHrttK    Gtizrttr    and     Wi'^khf  Nctrft-Lritrr.      All    ■ 

the  Tory  writers  of  note — Oliver.  Brattle.  Ijconard.  and 
Sewall — concentrated   their  power  on   this  paper.     There  , 
was  a  sharp  contest  between  Sewall  and  Leonard  as  **  Mas-  | 
Bnchusettensis "    in   the   MaHsnrfnisrtfH   Gazette,   and  John  I 
Adams  as  "Xovanglus"  in  the  fioufnn  Gnzrtfr. 

After  the  fight  at  the  Old  North  Bridge  in  Concord,  Mass.,  i 
Apr.  10,  177.i.  there  was  open  war  for  eight  years.     In  the  l 
first  year  of  the  Revolution  eight  newspapers  were  started  ; 
—four  in   Philadelphia,  where  Thomas  Paine  and   Philip  i 
Freneau  lived  and  wrote.     The  first    newspaper   in    New 
Jen^ey,  the  fiaz'  ttr.was  issued  on  Dee.  ?,,  1777;  the  first  in  i 
Mississippi  Territory  appeared  in  1770,  a  pioneer  among  I 
the  pioneers;   and  in  17S1    tho  first,   the  Guzetfp  or  Green  i 
Mountain  I'nnt  //oj/,  was  published  in  Vermont.  Forty-nine 
newspapers    were  established    in  the    colonies    from    IT-lo 
to  K^t-I,  the  Revolutionary  perioil  of  our  history,  but  of  all 
those  publications  not  one  was  really  a  journal — not  ono 
appeared  daily.     While  Now  York  was   occupied  by  the 
British  troops  four  papers  were  published  there,  and  an 
arrangement  was  made  in  their  days  of  publication  by  which 
the  fiublie  had  a  newspaper  caeh  day.  This  was  tho  nearest 
approach  to  this  luxury  in  that  period.     The  tirst  daily 
paper  in   America  was   not  is;^ucd   till    17S1.     It  was  tho 
American   IhtHtf  AffrrrtiMrr,  and  was  published  in   Phila- 
delphia by  Claypoole,  who  was  tho  first  to  introduce  report- 
ing on  the  continent. 

Tho  initial  newspapers  in  tho  colonics  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  following  chronological  order  : 

K»mA  Where  Wlicn 

^■'"'^"  publlibed.  published. 

1.  Publick  Occurrences Boston K.OO 

2.  NewR-l^'tUT Boston 1704 

3.  Anierlean  Mereury Philndelphia 1719 

4.  New  York  (iaz'-tte New  York ]"1'5 

fi.  Maryland  tliizetic Annnpoll't 1727 

fi.  South  Carolina  (iazclle Charlfston 17:U 

7.  Rhoile  Islanrl  Uazclte Newport 1732 

8.  VirKiniatJazette Williamsburg 17;m 

9.  North  Carolina  (iazxittc Ncwliernc 115^ 

10.  Nfw  Hampshire  Gazette rortsmoiith 17r>6 

11.  Summary N<*w  lx>ndon 1758 

12.  IHawarc  Couranl Wilmincton 1761 

l;f.  (ioor^rla  Cazi-tte Savannah 1763 

14.  Ni'W  Jersey  Cazette 1777 

15.  Vt-rmont  Gazelle Westminster 1781 

Of  Iho  fi.T  newspapers  which  had  been  started  in  America 
from  IfiOO  to  178;t,  only  A'\  were  in  existence  on  tho  conclu- 
sion of  peaco  with  (Jroal  Britain. 

Tlic  third  era  of  tin?  newspaper  in  America,  embracing 
the  PoMTic.u.  PiiiTV  Pi(f:ss,  began  in  17S.",.  On  tho  ac- 
knowli'dgnieut  of  the  indepemlence  of  (he  r.S.,  3,000,000  of 
people  found  it  necessary  to  organize  a  government  on  a 
now  basis.  All  sorts  of  opinions,  notions,  and  theories  pre- 
vailed as  to  the  best  mode  of  aceomplisliing  this  great  end. 
Ail  thoughts  wen-  naturally  turncil  to  Iho  sul-ject.  and  it 
was  very  soon  npjiarcnt  that  there  were  two  sides  to  every 
question,  even  in  a  nation  which  as  n  unity  had  just 
achieved  its  independence;  and  these  sides  became  great 
political  parties  in  (ho  V.  S.  Alexander  Hamilton  was  tho 
recognized  leader  of  ono  of  these  divisions,  tho  Feileral 
parly,  and  Thomas  Jefferson  tho  chief  of  tho  other,  tho  Ro- 
Vor..  II.— !t2 


publican  or  Democratic  party.  Without  any  exception  tho 
4'A  newppajiers  published  in  17S:t  arrayed  their  columns 
on  cither  side  in  the  momentous  political  contests  which 
followed  tho  conclusion  of  peace.  Of  this  number,  the 
MnKHftrhuHettH  Spy,  the  itfizriie,  and  Intlrpendent  ChronirU 
of  Boston,  the  Virf/iriin  GnzcUc,  the  Marylnnd  GoztKr,  ihc 
Jtnirnnf,  and  the  ParK-tt  of  New  York,  the  Seic  Hmnpshire 
Gazette,  the  Safeni  Gazette,  the  Connecticut  Co«roii(,  the 
Xeicport {li.  I.)  Mercury,  the  Pennnylvanin  Gazette,  and  the 
J*rnnmflrauin  Journal  were  the  most  prominent.  The  failure 
of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  as  a  perfect  system  of 
government  for  the  U.  8.  brought  on  the  first  great  political 
conflict;  and  when  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  in  Jan., 
17S(>,  proposed  a  convention  of  delegates  from  each  State 
for  tiie  purpose  (»f  revising  the  Fedeial  system,  tho  real 
contest  i)egan.  Out  of  this  convention,  which  finally  met 
in  Philadelphia  in  17S7,  came  the  Federal  Constitution  ; 
and  in  the  adoption  of  this  instrument  by  the  several  States 
tho  most  intense  excitement  prevailed  throughout  the  na- 
tion. In  the  great  controversy  the  newspapers  played  an 
important  part.  The  Parkrt  in  New  York  strongly  advo- 
cated the  adoption  of  the  Cons-titution,  in  opposition  to  the 
Jiiurna/.  Ih  Boston  the  ManaarhuxrtfH  Criitincl,  which  was 
started  in  17.S4,  and  edited  by  Major  Benjamin  Russell, 
was  the  leading  Federal  organ,  and  from  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  in  the  national  convention  till  its  accept- 
onco  by  the  State  conventions  the  (\utincl  kejtt  up  a  vig- 
orous fire  in  its  favor;  and  there  were  one  or  more  personal 
collisions,  growing  out  of  the  bitterness  of  Ihc  contest,  be- 
tween Major  Itussell  and  Benjamin  Austin,  a  writer  for  the 
Judepcndcut  C/ironicfe,  wliich  was  the  organ  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  The  Centinel  was  (uu'  of  tho  most  enterpris- 
ing journals  of  its  day.  It  did  not  eontinc  itself  wholly  to 
politics,  but  intelligently  gave  the  fullest  marine  and  com- 
mercial reports,  and  its  summary  of  foreign  news  was  al- 
ways excellent,  especially  during  the  wars  of  Napoleon. 
The  proceedings  of  the  constitutional  convention  in  Massa- 
chusetts were  reported  by  I^Iajor  Russell,  almost  the  first 
reporting  attempted  in  America,  and  he  thus  described  his 
labors  and  a  scene  iu  the  convention  :  *'  1  had  never  studied 
stenography,  nor  was  there  any  person  then  in  Boston  that 
understood  reporting.  The  presiding  officer  of  the  conven- 
tion sal  iu  the  deacon's  seat,  under  the  pulpit.  I  took  the 
pulpit  for  my  reporting-desk,  and  a  very  gooil  one  it  was. 
I  succeeded  well  enough  in  this  my  first  effort  to  give  a 
tolerably  fair  report  in  my  next  paper;  but  the  Puritanical 
notions  had  not  entirely  faded  away,  and  T  was  voted  out 
of  tlio  pulpit.  A  stand  was  fitted  up  f<U"  me  in  another 
place,  and  I  jirocccdcd  with  my  reports,  generally  to  the 
acceptance  of  tho  convention.  The  doubts  that  still  ex- 
isted as  to  whether  enough  of  the  .States  would  como  into 
tho  compact  as  to  make  the  Constitution  binding,  made  the 
pro('ee<|ings  of  tho  convention  intensely  interesting.  When 
the  news  arrived  of  the  acceptance  of  it  by  tho  State  of 
Virginia,  there  was  an  extraordinary  outbreak  of  rejoicing. 
It  seemed  as  if  the  meeting-house  would  burst  with  the 
acclamation."  On  the  final  adoption  of  the  Constitution 
there  were  celebrations  everywhere.  There  was  one  in  New 
York  in  178S,  made  up  of  ail  the  trades.  The  press-section 
was  bea<ied  by  two  marshals — Hugh  (Jaine  of  tho  Gazette 
and  Samuel  Loudon  of  tlie  P'ffiitrr.  In  the  procession  was 
a  stage  drawn  by  ftmrhorjSes.  On  this  stage  was  a  printing- 
oflicc — cases  and  other  typographical  implements,  with 
compositors  and  pressmen  at  work.  Many  hundred  copies 
of  a  song  and  an  ode  were  struek  off  and  distributed  along 
tho  route.  There  was  a  snuill  flag  on  top  of  the  jircss  bear- 
ing tho  inscription  of  '*  Publius  "  in  gold  letters.  John 
Loudon,  as  a  hcralil,  was  niounte<l  on  the  back  of  the  press, 
dressed  in  a  flowing  robe,  and  a  eaj)  on  whieh  were  written 
tho  words.  "The  Lilierty  of  the  Press."  He  earried  a 
trumpet  in  his  right  haml.  with  wliich  he  jiroelaimed,  "  Tho 
epocha  of  Liberty  and  .luslice."  In  the  lelt  hand  lie  held 
n  parchment  scroll  representing  the  new  Constitution.  M'ith 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  Federal  party  eon- 
sidered  itself  fully  anri  firmly  established;  and  of  ecuirso 
tho  Repul)liean  or  Demoeratic  party  was  also  established, 
although,  on  tho  inauguration  of  Washington  and  Adams, 
tho  /toMton  ('entinr/  formally  announced  the  death  of  tho 
lotler;  but  on  Mar.  4,  ISdI.  on  Ihe  inauguration  of  .leffcr- 
son  ami  Burr,  tho  Ciulin*  /  pul)Iislud  a  eliaraetcristie  monu- 
mental inscription,  the  first  part  of  which  was  as  follows  : 

Vcsferdny  Expired, 

Deeply  regretted  by  Millions  of  grateful  Americans, 

And  liy  nil  i;o(h1  nu-n, 

TiiF.  Fi:i>i:kai,  Ai»MiNisntATioN 

of  the 

Government  of  the  Cn|(,^  Stotes; 

AnlniHtecl  hv 

A  Washjiiiiton.  an  Adams,  a  llnmflton,  Knox, 

Pickering.  Wuleotl,  MeHenry,  Marshall, 

Sloddiirt.  and  Dexter. 

A'.l.  rj  years. 


1458 


JOUBNALISM. 


When  the  Constitution  went  into  °P"'''l»";°  "^'i^^"" 
were  printed  in  each  week,  in  the  Ij.  S..  ,0.438  ="P"^»  » 
newsL per.,  or  3.974,77r,  copies  during  the  year.f.l  ed  w. 
Z  .oi  iea  excitement  of  that  interestrng  period  ot  our 
ex^rnee  somewhat  of  the  spirit  which  annna.cd  M.jor 
Ru  e°l  of  the  /Won  Ca.lM.  Newspapers  continued  to 
rncrea-.e  Manv  foreign  wr.ters  of  ability  and  smartness 
were  emplovedbv  both  parties  on  the  press,  and  many  of 
The  pot^a[ chiefs  wrote  for  the  journals.  There  were  few 
or  no  regular  editorial  artieles-or  leaders,  as  they  are  now 
"Xd-hut  the  topics  of  the  day  were  warmly  ^;-'";^7<>  m 
communications  oler  all  sorts  of  signatures.  Most  of  the 
fore  gn  writers  were  political  exiles,  and  ihey  naturally  fell 
in  o  ?he  ranks  of  the  Democrats  and  wrote  for    he  pape. 

poet  of   he  Revolution,  and  accomplished  as  much  with  h 
?h   me  .as  with  his  prose.     In  regard  ^-^-'"^^^^t 
.    ■  1--       A  fi.-^t   ^^\   a  o-iliiuct   council    Wusnin^ion    re 

mattd    "  Tha   rascl  Freneau  sent  hi,n  three  copies  of  his 
nancrcVervlav.  as  if  he  thought  he  (Washington)  would 
Kme  the  distributer  of  them  ;  that  he  ™"  f_^-;;°;,'>- 
nothiu"  but  an  impudent  design  '«  >"^ '" '''     \     „"  ''^e 
Tn  a  hi"h  tone."     Jefferson  placed  a  high  estimate  on  the 
service"  o    Freneau  as  a  journalist.     On  another  occasion 
JetTerson  said,  in  speaking  of  Washington.  "He  adverted 
to  an^ece  in  Freneau's  paper  of  yesterday:  he  said  he  de- 
Bpised  their  attacks  on  hiin  personally,  but  that  there  had 
Tver  been  an  act  of  the  government,  not  meaning  in  the 
exeeui  e  Mne  onlv,  but  in  every  line,  which  that  paper 
hid  not  abused.     He  was  evidently  sore  and  warm,  and  I 
tool  his  intention  to  be  that  I  should  interpose  in  some  way 
with  Freneau,  perhaps  withdraw  his  appointment  as  traus- 
Jl.in  *,-Wk  in  mv  office.     But  I  shall  not  do  it.     His  paper 
hTsi-  d  our  "on^tTtu.ion.  which  was  galloping  fast  into 
mona^chv   and  has  been  checked  by  no  one  means  so  pow- 
"?u"  W  as'L.:  that  paper.     It  is  well  and  nn,vers.any  known 
that  i't  has  been  that  paper  which  has  "checked  the  career 
of  the  monocrats."     The  GazMe  was  published  till  1.  .M. 
In   mf  Freneau  started  the    Time   Piece  in  New  \ork 
which  was  afterwards  edited  by  Matthew  L,  »»''■'•  l^""! 
ub  cquentlv  by  ,Iohn  Daly  Burk.  one  of  the  Xn.ted    ri  h- 
men      Twoinfiuential  journals  were  established  in  1,1)3: 
Te   V-,'  K."/'"'"'  P-lMium  in  Boston,  and    ho  ,l/.a»r..a 
af.erwar.lsand  still  known  as  the  &mme,-e,,,(  .•l,/.'er(.«.j-) 
n  Xe     York      Noah  Webster,  the  lexicographer,  previously 
a  lawyer  iu  Hartford,  was  induce.!  to  migrate  t„  New  \ork 
^o  tTke  el  arc-e  of  the  Mi^errn.  and  thereby  strengthen  the 
Federal     arty.     William   L.  8tone  was  subsequently  an,l 
^,r  n  a  iv  vears  its  editor.     It  is  now,  as  the  <""'"<•;•"'; 

^^•""/-Qewv:;!k'^^.^c^"!::;^:"rrt;ge^-:i;t^:: 

"^Z^J^^t:^-  B^the  newspapers  that^attrac^djic 

^:^:;;a:^:Xdtl^n;r:F;^i;^^-".'£ 

Srl'^vSnt^^v-^^lir^ntl^del-t:^ 
Washington  for  Mount  Vernon  after  the  inauguration  of 
loh^    \,Hms      It  was  .lisowne.l  by  Bache.who  wa^  absent 
.John   \a.»ms.     ii  ^        written  by  a 

::XbUern:  ionary"  and  rdi'stinguished  member  of  the 

puiiue  luncuoiiaij'  Bachc  the  Aui-',ra 

"rd"rd\r''rh'';ditoriattrforWi.liamDua,,e,whohad 

Home"  ery  much  embittered  against  Kngland  in  eonse- 

'   :^:S'wi,;^r?:^r^^/e-ti:r:i::;i;:^.r3 

?emainc,l  for  nearly  thirty  years    and  "»VThe  la    er 7s 

William  l.c.'ett  and  William  Tullcn  Bryant :  the  latter  is 

MuXef  editor.     It  was  Demoeratic  i"  po    ..«    or  over 

forty  years,  and    is   now  independent    Republican       1  he 

'  AJrLn  Citizen  was  a  continuation  of  the  A  .m  >  .rk  ./,,,,- 

„a(  «..</. 4.'/"».    .Tames  Cheetham  became  Us  ed.  or  in    SOI. 

and  acted  with  that  portion  of  the  Demoeratic  party  of 

wh  eh  the  Clintons  weV  leaders.     Violent  altercations  be- 

rween  '»»>e  of  the  lea.lers  of  the  two  s«et;<.n^  "f  that  party 

S  place,  and  the  duelling  ground  '^t  ""twl   Dav™ 

the  scene  of  several  affairs  of  honor.     Matthew  L.  Davis, 

armed  Id  equipped,  went  forth  in  Wall  street  one  time  to 

Zot  Cheetham^at   sight.     The  bitterness  of  these  three 

,k\,V,iriournals  kept  up  the  political  excitement  in 

Tw  Yortto  a  high  pitih  aL  for  I  long  time.     Coleman 


Once  he  discharged  a  double  shot  at  his  opponents: 

"  Lie  on,  Diiane— lie  on  for  pay, 

And  iheethani.  lie  thou  loo; 

More  against  truth  you  cannot  say, 

Than  truth  can  say  "gainst  you. 

Another  Democratic  paperwas  issued  in  New  York  in  1S02 

U  Uie    riends  of  Aaron  Burr,  in  opposition  to  the  Cl.za^ 

It  was  the  itorninc,  Cl.rouiele,  an,l  edited  by  Dr.  Peter 

Iryrng.     Washington  Irving  made  his  first  appearane  as 

a  wrifer  in  the  droulcU.  over  the  signature  of  Jonathan 

Old    vie  °     Matthew  L.   Davis  was  a  eontr.lmtor  to  its 

noliticat  columns.     U  was  no  match  for  the  C,(,.™.  and 

ea  ed  to  e^^st  in  1805,  the  year  after  the  kill  ng  of  Ham- 

Utm,  by  Burr.    But  before  all  these  papcrsMiad  commen  ed 

leir  career  the  violence  of  several  of  the  organs  of    he 

Democratic  party,  edited  largely  by  f"-'?""^'   """J'^;,^" 

?h  '  Hb  :  vf  .":  prel;  and'of  speech,  especially  aroused 
he  Democrats,  and  caused  great  indignation  in  most  <.t  he 
newfpaper-offices,  and  the  journals  opposed  ""  -  f  n^^" 
i^tratiou  of  John  Adams  became  more  violent  than  e»er. 
The  eco°d  clause  of  this  act  stated  that  "if  any  person 
Jhonld  write  or  publish,  or  cause  to  he  written  or  publish  d 
any  libel  against  the  government  of  the  U.  i^.  or  eUlior 
house  of  Congress,  or  against  the  Pres'den.  he  siou  d 
be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  *X'    "oO  nane  s 

"^'^Zu^siT  i:'^h:''u:i  It  ti;::;7:me,tnd"fXj::r;; 

20  :r'wcre^ditcd  wholly  or  partly  by  aliens.     Near^ 
all  of  the'e  were  opposed  to  the  leading  measures  of  the 

iH';:c:iS-;i:mD^::^ri;^B:^!:^ 

W  nrcob-bctl  and  a,l  but  the  '^-ter  were  in  t   e  in  eres 
of  the  Demoeratic  party  and  encouraged  and  ^"^ta  ned  by 
lefferson  and  Madison,  especially  by  the  former,     tobbett 
1  edUed  the  /■..-■<■„,.,■..<■  in  Philadelphia.     There  were  many 
prosecutions  under  the  Sedition  law-of  natives  as  well  as 

iE;:;f-.^^i:^tv^^ii^Sc^n=fi^ 
tJ=^h:v^;:r:r^^i:s;^^7Th:^.r: 

£r^i=^:";e^^^;^^-^rF^^5^ 

vet  occurred.     Vpon  the   conviction  of  Cooper,  Stephen 

Thompson  Mason,  a  Senator  from  Virginia    shook  hands 

with  the  culprit  in  the  very  face  of  justice."     The  ^uro.n 

he  next  mo'rniug  contained  the  following  reply,  prepared 

by  t^en.  Mahlou  Dickinson  of  New  Jersey  t  U  is  to  be  borno 

in  mind  that  Judge  Chase  who  presided  at  the  trial  was  a 

ncrTon  of  otundity  and  of  a  florid  complexion ) :  "Mr.  Fenno 

[s  eve  more  committing  great  mistakes,  but  of  al  the  erroi-3 

nto  wMch  he  has  yet  fallen,  that  in  his  paper  of  yesterday 

s  the  g  eatcst.     He  states  that  Stephen  Thompson  Mason 

a  Senfto    from  Virginia,  shook  hands  with  the  eulprit    n 

Hie  yerv  face  of  justice,  mistaking  the  bacon-face  of  old 

Chase  for  the  fac'e  of  justice."     Col.  Mat. hew  Ly-'  l'^ 

renresented  Vermont  in  Congress  from  1,'.),  to  IS"',  '^"s 

pro  ecn"ed  for  letters  written  from  A\  ashington  to  Allen 

President  exhibited  a  fondness  for  "  ridiculous  potnp   idle 
l-rcsiaent  I X  avarice."    It  was  also  charged  that  Col. 

„/■  mine"   and  Dr.  James  Smith,  editors  of  the  ^ '"'"""'' 

■•    V  r  V^rk    were  also  arreste.i  under  this  law,  but  the 

:.':sf::yeV;'mr?rtrial!    Burk  left  the  country  for  a  t.me 

1  ,.,,  returned  -a  was  killed  in  ad u^^^^^^^  _^Charles 

;  in  ISOS    established  the  Columbian  in  >ew  York  as  the 


JOURNALISM. 


145» 


orgftD  of  the  Clintonians,  and  was  always  an  ardeat  sup- 
porter of  JtiS'orsoQ  and  Madison. 

These  were  sorao  of  the  troubles  of  the  journalists  in  the 
cariy  days  of  the  republic:  and  while  those  papers  and 
edilorij  were  having;  their  joys  and  sorrows  iu  the  cities  un 
the  Atlantic  coa.-^t,  the  tide  ol'cuiis;rati(in  was  setting  west- 
ward and  the  Xorth-west  Territory  loomed  up  before  the 
eyes  of  the  world.  With  tho  increase  of  population  in 
that  region,  tho  necessity  of  newspapers  became  evident, 
and  on  Nov.  9,  17'J.I,  tho  Ceiithul  tt/  the  \o/tli-tctHtcrn  Ttr- 
ritnnj  was  founded  in  Cincinnati  by  William  Maxwell,  tho 
first  newspaper  and  the  first  priiitiug-oilicd  beyond  tho 
Ohio.  Nathaniel  Willis,  an  old  Dustun  printer,  started 
the  Scioto  Gnzcfte  in  Chillicotho  in  171(0,  and  in  ITHy  the 
UVweri*  Spu  ami  IlnmUton  Gazette  was  issued.  So  the 
North-western  Territory,  as  it  was  called,  was  not  without 
its  journals  to  keep  its  hardy  people  posted  in  the  aifairs 
of  tiic  rest  of  the  world;  and  now  that  Territory  and  the 
entire  West  to  tho  Pacific  is  covered  witlwuimerous  States, 
OL'Cupied  by  millions  of  eutcrprisin};  men  and  women,  and 
supplied  with  thousands  of  first-chi5s  newspapers — such 
pupers  as  the  lirpnblican  and  Ocmocrttt  in  St.  Louis,  where 
the  first  paper,  the  licptiblivau,  \va8  established  in  hSUS, 
when  that  city  was  a  mere  trading-post  ;  as  the  Tribune, 
Time9,  Jourimf,  and  Pont,  lar<;e  flourishing  sheets  in  Chi- 
cago, where  the  first  journal  was  founded  as  lute  as  Nov., 
ls;(;i,  anil  in  a  Slate  where  the  tirst  newspaper  did  not  ap- 
pear till  ISI  1 ;  as  the  Afta  Ctifi/ornia,  Unllrdn,  and  Morn- 
imj  Cull  of  San  Francisco,  enjoying  cireulutions  from  GOOO 
to  25,000  daily,  where  tho  first  journal  was  issued  by  our 
soldiers  in  camp  in  IStfJ— 17  ;  and  as  tho  Unflrtin  and  Ifcr- 
al'i  in  Portland,  and  over  .'iO  other  papers  in  Oregon,  make 
money  and  fame  where  no  piipcr  existed  in  1840.  So.  too, 
in  the  South  as  far  as  Texas,  where  tho  CirHian,  TinlUtin, 
ami  SfWH  nourish  in  Galveston,  and  more  than  100  other 
newspapers  look  after  the  growth  of  that  great  border  State, 
deijtined  to  be  cut  up  into  half  a  dozen  smaller  States  as 
the  population  increases. 

Singular  as  it  may  seem,  journalism  made  its  appearance 
in  the  North-west  even  before  it  did  in  the  interior  of  New 
Vork.  The  Otsetjo  /femfd,  or  Wcntern  Advertiser  was  the 
first  newspaper  printed  in  Western  (now  known  as  Cen- 
tral) New  Vork.  _  It  appeared  ( IH  by  l!l  inches  in  size,  each 
of  tho  four  printed  pages  being  9  by  IjA  inches)  at  Coop- 
erstown  Apr.  3,  KD-J,  and  was  continued  until  1S21.  Elihu 
Phinney  was  its  tounder,  editor,  and  the  pioneer  journalist 
in  ihat  section  of  tlie  country.  In  announcing  his  enter- 
pri^e  he  lult  tho  "highest  satisfaction  in  being  honored  as 
the  conductor  of  the  first  public  paper  jirinted  in  the  rc- 
s-pectablo  county  of  Olscgo."  William  L.  Stone,  Thurlow 
Weed,  and  other  distin'juislied  journalists,  worked  at  the 
case  in  iiis  office. and  .1.  Keiiiuinre  Cooper  often  "  set  type" 
there  fur  amusotnent,  and  he  thus  described  tho  ]>rinting- 
establishinent  of  the  ficntld  in  its  days  of  infani-v,  in  his 
charming  novel,  T/ir  /'ioncrr*.  Speaking  of  the  laying  out 
of  the  vdlage,  aii'l  of  an  effort  of  the  early  settlers  to  stnrt 
an  academy,  he  said:  ".Meeting  after  meeting  was  held 
f'jr  this  purpose  year  after  year.  The  resolutions  of  thcso 
assemblages  appeared  in  the  most  conspicuous  columns  of 
a  little,  blue-looking  newspaper,  that  was  already  issued 
weekly  from  the  garret  of  a  dwelling-house  in  tho  village, 
nud  which  the  traveller  might  as  often  see  stuck  into  tho 
fissure  of  a  stake  that  hail  been  erected  at  tho  point  where 
tho  footpath  from  the  |>g  cabin  of  some  settler  entered  tho 
liii;hway,  as  a  post-otfice  for  an  imliviilual.  Sometimes  tho 
stake  Ftupported  a  small  box.  and  a  whole  neighborhood 
received  a  weekly  supply  f<)r  their  literary  wants  at  this 
point,  whore  tlie  man  who  *  riiles  post'  regularly  deposited 
a  bundle  of  the  precious  eonimodity."  This  description 
of  the  printing  otTii-e  and  tho  mode  of  delivery  of  the  Ol- 
iteifo  Herniil  in  I  7**.">  was  true  ()f  nearly  all  the  journals  of 
a  century  ago;  and  even  now  the  8mall  box  on  a  stake  is 
tieoii  at  some  cross-roads  in  tho  interior  of  Massachusetts, 
Vermont,  and  elsewhere. 

Itiit  to  return  to  <»ur  chronological  order.  Tho  Alien  and 
Sedition  laws  led  to  tho  famous  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
resolutions  of  1798-91).  Those  became  the  chief  plank  in 
the  Democratic  platform,  and  were  tlic  basis  of  many  of 
the  Democratic  jtiurnals  uhieh  were  subscrpiently  estab- 
lished :  and  those  in  exisleriee  sustained  (he  jtcinocrittic 
doctrine  thus  enunciated  by  Jefferson  and  Madison.  Tho 
Itichmond  Knqutrcr,  edited  for  forty  years  by  Thomas 
Ritchie,  started  on  May  9,  IHOt,  was  among  the  first  estab- 
lished on  this  platform,  an'l  became  a  leading  and  power- 
ful organ  of  public  opinion  for  half  a  century.  Among 
other  prominent  journals  that  appeared  at  that  time  was 
the  A/btttitf  /^effiMtrr,  established  in  IH03  or  IhOl,  an  influ- 
ential paper,  especially  under  tho  care  of  .Solomon  South- 
wiek,  who  was  its  chief  oilitcir  in  180S.  But,  like  all  po- 
litical journals,  it  had,  in  the  overthrow  of  fictions,  to 
sui'cumb  to  the  Afhmijf  Arr/it"*  which  was  started  in  1813, 


and  managed  with  great  ability  and  skill  by  Edwin  Cros- 
wcll  till  the  delcat  of  Martin  Van  Bureu  iu  1S40,  and 
even  maintained  much  of  its  power  till  the  election  of 
Abraham  Lincoln.  It  was  tho  mouthpiece  of  the  Albany 
Kcgency,  as  the  Enquirer  was  of  the  Kichmond  Junta. 
Another  paper  of  note  was  the  //udion  liniauce,  a  lead- 
ing Federal  paper  in  1804,  and  edited  by  Harry  Croswell. 
It  had  to  carry  on  the  contest  against  the  Democratic  or- 
gans with  tho  Conimcrciul  Advertiner  and  Eceniuff  J*o$t  of 
New  York.  The  liuhtme  was  made  famous  in  journalism 
by  a  libel  on  Thomas  Jefferson,  for  which  Croswell  was 
tried  and  convicted.  On  the  trial  the  editor  offered  to 
prove  the  truth  of  the  charges,  but  such  evidence  was 
ruled  out  as  inadmissible.  This  case  changed  the  law  of 
libel  in  New  Vork,  for  in  consequence  the  legislature  in 
ISOi  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  truth  to  be  given  in 
evidence  when  pulilislied  with  good  motives  and  for  jus- 
tifiable ends ;  and  this  principle  afterwards  became  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  land.  New  party  papers  contin- 
ued to  make  their  appearance,  and  were  at  tliat  time 
mostly  Democratic.  They  grew  out  of  the  troubles  and 
jealousies  of  the  party-leaders.  After  the  death  of  Cheet- 
ham,  the  Tammany  Hall  Democrats,  dissalislted  with  the 
course  of  the  Cu/mnbinn,  set  uji  a  paper  to  take  the  place 
of  the  Citizen.  This  journal  was  nnmed  the  yati<iHii/  Ad- 
vocate. Henry  Wheaton  was  its  editor  for  a  number  of 
years.  It  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mordecai  Manasseh 
Noah;  James  Gordon  Bennett  was  also  one  of  its  editors; 
Henry  Eckford,  the  famous  shipbuilder,  was  one  of  its 
principal  owners.  The  party  press  reached  its  greatest 
power  and  influence  with  tho  establishment  of  these  papers 
and  others,  such  as  the  Portland  (Me.)  Ar(jn«  in  18U3,  the 
New  Hampshire  Pxtriot  in  Concord  in  ISOS,  the  Hartford 
(Conn.)  TimeH  in  Isl",  the  Vharlevtou  {S.  C.)  Mcrcnri/  in 
1822,  tho  Globe  in  Washington,  and  the  Post  in  Boston  in 
18lii,  the  Nanlirille  (Tenn.)  Union,  and  the  Colmnbna  (0.) 
StatcHmtiu.  These  journals  wielded  the  destinies  of  tho 
iJcmoeratie  party  from  the  days  of  Jcfl'crsoii  to  the  inau- 
guration of  Lincoln.  They  gave  the  keynote  on  all  im- 
jiortant  public  questions  to  the  lesser  organs  scattered  over 
the  country.  The  newspapers  in  opposition  a  large  por- 
tion of  this  time,  although  some  of  these  were  originally 
Democratic,  were  the  Aational  Intf  flli/enrer^  issued  in 
Washington  in  1799-1800;  the  Prorid.Hre  {R.  I.)  Journal, 
established  in  1820;  the  Jioston  Courier,  started  by  Jo- 
seph Tinker  Buckingham  in  1824;  the  IHelnnond  (Va.) 
Whi'j,  in  1820;  the  New  York  Courier  and  Enquirfr,  in 
1827;  the  Albamj  Evcniiif/  ,A>Hnirf/,  originally  established 
by  Thurlow  Weed  as  an  Anti-Masonic  organ  in  I8;J0;  tho 
Louinvi/fc  (Ky.)  Journal,  first  issued  in  1831,  and  edited 
fur  thirty  years  by  George  D.  Prentice;  tho  lioaton  Atlat, 
started  by  John  H.  Eastburn  and  tho  Webster  Whigs  iu 
18:{2;  and  the  A>ic  Yorlc  E-r/trest,  set  up  by  the  Clay 
Whigs  in  183(1.  These  journals,  with  their  assistants  in 
tho  cities  and  towtis  of  the  I'nion,  represented  the  National 
Republican  and  Whig  parlies,  and  made  their  mark  on  tho 
pages  of  political  history.  But  these  journals  were  not 
confined  wholly  to  politics.  Willi  the  progress  of  the  coun- 
try, and  with  the  discussions  of  the  great  questions  that 
i  camo  up  before  tho  jieople,  they  expanded  their  usefulness 
and  showed  some  enterprise.  Especially  in  New  Vork,  in 
order  to  obtain  large  circulations,  efforts  were  made  to  ac- 
quire tho  earliest  news  in  advance  of  each  other.  This  led 
to  improvement  in  tho  columns  generally  of  tho  chief 
organs  of  public  opinion.  More  allcnticin  was  devoted  to 
commercial  and  foreign  inlelligeuce.  ami  they  became  largo 
advertising  mediums.  Other  papers  were  established  dur- 
ing this  long  period  which  were  not  strictly  party  papers, 
but  the  number  of  these  was  \cry  small  indeed.  One  of 
tho  most  valuable  of  these  publications  was  AV/.s'  W'tr/clij 
J{e(/i»ter.  which  was  brought  out  in  Baltimore  in  1811.  and 
continued  till  1848;  and  a  set  of  this  paper  contains  tho 
fullest  and  best  history  of  the  country  during  the  thirty- 
seven  years  of  its  existence.  • 

While  tho  parly  press  reigned  in  journalism,  a  class  of 
i  papers  existed  which  were  deemed,  till  quite  recently,  a 
necessity  of  tho  time  —  an  imperium  in  iniperio.  Theso 
were  the  organs  in  Washington.  The  first  of  this  class 
was  the  Xntlouitl  Intf  llit/rucrr  and  Wiif/iintftou  Adrrrtiiier. 
This  paper  had  been  removed  from  Philadelphia,  where  it 
was  known  as  the  ludrfuudvut  Gnzrtlrrr,m\  the  removal  of 
the  seat  of  government  from  that  city.  This  was  in  1799- 
ISOO.  The  intrllifjrucer,  then  owned  by  Samuel  Harrison 
Smith,  became  the  organ  of  Jefferson.  In  1810-12  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  (ialos  &  Seaton,  and  theso  journalists  in- 
troduced the  full  reports  of  the  debates  in  Congress.  On 
tho  advent  of  Jackson  on  Mar.  4,  1829,  tho  Intflligencrr 
ceased  to  bo  (he  organ  of  the  government,  and  became  that 
of  the  Whig  party,  aii>l  the  Vnitrd  Statnt  7'rlef/rafdi,  edited 
by  Duff  itreen,  was  accepted  as  the  organ  of  Jackson's  ad- 
ministration.    But  a  rupture  between   Pres.  Jackson  and 


1460 


JOURNALISM. 


Vice-Pres.  Calhoun  caused  the  establishment  (in  1S31)  of 
the  Glohr,  with  Francis  P.  Blair  and  Araos  Kendall  as  ed- 
itors, and  this  Journal  hccame  the  thundcrer  of  the  Demo- 
cratic partv.  It  continued  to  lie  the  organ  till  the  a'lvent 
of  Harrison  in  1S4I,  when  the  7ntc/fi«/fnrf:r  resumed  its  old 
position,  hut  the  early  death  of  Harrison,  thro\ving  the 
\vhig  party  into  confusion,  led  John  Tyler  to  select  the 
Maditonifin,  started  in  1841.  to  be  his  organ.  On  the  elec- 
tion of  James  K.  Polk  in  1S44,  the  Glob*:  did  not  return  to 
power  with  its  party,  hut  a  new  paper,  called  tlie  Cnion, 
was  established,  with  Thomas  Ritchie  as  editor,  and  that 
ionrnal  became  the  official  organ.  On  the  election  of  Gen. 
Taylor  in  181S.  a  new  pnper  was  starte<l  for  his  organ,  as 
the  lutrllhfruprr  favored  the  AVehster  wing  of  the  Whig 
party.  The  new  paper,  the  Hepuhhc,  was  edited  by  Alex- 
der  Bullitt  and  John  0.  8argeant.  The  Natiottof  Era  acted 
in  the  national  capital  for  the  Abolition  party  from  1847. 
When  Franklin  Pierce  came  into  power  in  1852-63,  the 
Vuioit  resumed  its  position  with  the  government,  hut  with 
fJen.  Robert  Armstrong  as  editor  and  Caleb  Cushing  and 
A.  0.  P.  Nicholson  as  contributors;  and  continued,  with 
John  Appleton  {previously  editor  of  the  Portlnud  Arffun) 
as  contluctor,  through  the  administration  of  James  Bu- 
chanan. The  Union  was  the  last  of  the  official  organs  at 
the  national  capital.  Neither  Pres.  Lincoln  nor  Johnson 
indulged  in  the  luxury  of  one,  and  Pres.  Grant  follows  in 
their  footsteps  in  having  no  special  journal  to  speak  for 
his  administration.  Several  newspapers  published  in  Wash- 
ington have  pretended  to  be  such,  but  have  not  been  offi- 
cially recognized. 

While  party  spirit  prevailed  in  journalism,  class-papers 
began  to  show  themselves.  The  pioneers  of  these  were  the 
religious  press,  and  the  first  appeared  in  1814-Ui.  The  Rev. 
John  Andrews  established  in  ChilUcothe.  0.,  the  first  relig- 
ious newspaper  in  America.  It  was  entitled  the  Recorder, 
and  the  initial  number  was  issued  in  1S14.  Nathaniel  Wil- 
lis thought  and  talked  of  such  an  enterprise  in  Portland, 
Me.,  in  1808,  but  did  not  receive  sufficient  encouragement 
to  carry  out  his  plans  till  1816.  On  Jan.  .3  of  that  year  he 
issued  the  first  number  of  the  Boston  Recorder:  and  now 
the  nation  is  full  of  religious  newspapers,  many  of  which 
are  very  ably  conducted  and  reach  larger  au<Hences  than 
sermons  from  pulpits  can  possibly  reach.  Three  or  four 
years  afterwards  another  important  class  of  newspapers 
was  initiated.  The  American  Fanner  was  the  first  of  the 
agricultural  press.  It  was  published  in  Baltimore  by  John 
S.  Skinner,  and  the  first  number  appeared  on  Apr.  2,  1S18. 
The  Pfouf)hbo}f,  managed  by  Solomon  Southwick,  followed 
in  1821,  and  was  published  in  Albany.  The  New  Enifland 
Farnur  next  appeared  in  Aug.,  1^22.  These  wore  the  pio- 
neers of  the  hundred  useful  and  valuable  publications  now 
in  circulation  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmer  and  stock-breeder. 
Other  class  newspapers  appeared.  Special  interests  are  rep- 
resented in  journalism.  The  commercial  classes  were  not 
overlooked.  Indeed,  as  far  back  as  179.i  the  fionton  Prices 
Cnrreiit  and  Marine  Intefh'fjencer  was  published,  but  in  a 
few  years  it  became  a  political  newspaper.  The  first  suc- 
cessful commercial  paper  was  the  Xew  Orleans  Prices  Cur- 
rent,  established  in  1822.  Every  city  has  now  one  or  nioro 
commercial  and  shipping  lists.  Besides  these,  all  trades, 
avocations,  interests,  occupations,  professions,  amusements, 
have  their  organs,  in  the  U.  S.  as  well  as  in  Europe.  The 
Nantieal  Gazette,  the  Paper-Trade  Circular,  the  Tobacco 
Lea/,  the  Cotton- Planter,  the  Telefjraplier,  the  Railroad 
.Ionrnal,  the  Medical  Tiinen,  the  Scientific  American,  are 
names  frequently  seen,  and  these  publications  arc  a  credit 
to  their  conductors  for  the  ability  and  research  shown  in 
their  management,  as  well  as  for  the  beauty  of  their  typo- 
graphical appearance.  Then,  there  arc  the  illustrated  pa- 
pers, such  as  Ifarpcr'ft  W'cf  l.di/.  Fr<inh  Lculic's  Illnstratcd 
Paper,  Harper  s  Razar,  the  Aldine,  and  Applftons'  Jonrnal, 
that  favorably  compare  with  anything  published  in  Eu- 
rope. And  comic  iournalism,  what  can  he  said  of  that  ?  Not 
much  for  the  U.  S.,  for  comic  papers  have  been  a  failure 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  They  are  a  great  success  in 
England.  France,  (Jermany.  Italy,  and  Spain,  and  are  full 
of  wit  and  humor,  but  here  not  one  attempt  has  been  suc- 
cessful. Why?  Because  there  is  not  a  paper  of  any  sort 
issued  in  the  U.S. — political,  religious,  commercial,  marine, 
scientific — but  what  has  its  joke.  Most  of  the  papers  in- 
dulge in  regular  departments  of  wit  and  fun.  There  is  a 
daily  effervescence  of  bonmntn  from  Canada  to  Mexico  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  U.  S.  are  a  Vesuvius 
of  wit  and  humor  in  a  constant  state  of  eruption,  and  the 
lava  is  in  perpetual  motion  down  the  sides  of  its  mountains. 
Hence  the  failure  of  the  two  or  three  dozen  or  more  publi- 
cations which  have  from  time  to  time  made  a  specialty  of 
the  comic  side  of  human  nature  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Wliilo  the  party  papers  of  the  old  school,  such  as  we  have 
brioflv  described,  covered  with  the  dust  of  battle,  of  the 
Federal  Constitution,  the  French  war,  the  war  of  1812,  the 


old  tariff,  the  U.  S.  Bank,  the  Mexican  war,  and  the  slavery 
question,  and  the  class  of  papers  with  their  specialties  were 
passing  on,  some  to  continued  prosperity  and  others  to  the 
grave,  a  more  vigorous  set  of  newspapers  was  coming  into 
existence— namely,  the  Chkap  Piti;ss.  Those  papers  were 
the  great  journalistic  event  in  America.  The  old  order  of 
journals  were  subscription  papers,  and,  considering  size 
and  amount  of  reading  matter  given,  they  were  high-priced. 
The  only  part  really  cheap  about  them  were  the  advertise- 
ments in  their  columns.  It  was  only  by  becoming  annual 
subscribers  that  copies  could  be  obtained  for  less  than  six 
cents  each;  none  were  sold  in  the  streets,  none  at  ne\vs- 
stands  or  news-agencies,  now  so  numerous,  and  very  few 
were  disposed  of  over  their  own  counters.  None  of  these 
journals  had  largo  circulations,  none  printed  as  late  even 
as  1835-40  circulatc'l  over  5000  copies,  and  very  few  over 
half  that  number.  With  all  the  entf-rprise  that  James  AVat- 
son  Webb  of  the  Conrier  and  A'nf/nirrr.  and  Hufe  and 
Hallock  of  the  Journal  of  Cotmnrrre  of  New  York,  and 
Richard  Houghton  of  the  Roston  Atlas,  displayed  between 
the  years  1S30  and  1840  in  news-schooners  and  pony  ex- 
presses, not  one  of  these  journals  could  boast  of  a  subscrip- 
tion-list of  over  5000  names.  But  with  the  establishment 
of  the  cheap  press  all  this  has  been  gradually  and  wonder- 
fully changed.  Newsboys  were  introduced  in  our  streets, 
news-agencies  started  in  all  the  cities  of  the  cotintry.  par- 
cels of  city  journals  were  daily  sent  along  the  railroad  and 
steamboat  routes  by  express,  and  the  modern  newspapers 
soon  had  circulations  ranging  from  10,000  to  100,000,  and 
now  as  high  as  125,000,  with  an  occasional  spurt  to  150,000 
copies.  The  penny  press  was  established  in  New  York  in 
1833.  The  Mttrninrf  Postwar  started  on  the  first  day  of 
that  year.  Horatio  David  Shepard  was  the  editor,  and 
Horace  Greeley  and  Francis  \.  Storey  the  printers.  It 
was  first  sold  for  two  cents,  and  then  for  one  cent.  In 
three  weeks  it  was  dead.  On  Sept.  3.  1833,  the  New  y'ork 
Sun  was  issued  by  Benjamin  Bay.  and  sold  at  one  cent  per 
copy.  Its  prospectus  was  as  follows:  "The  object  of  this 
paper  is  to  lay  before  the  public,  at  a  price  within  the 
means  of  every  one,  oil  the  news  of  the  day,  and  at  the 
same  time  aflord  an  advantageous  medium  for  advertising. 
The  sheet  will  be  enlarged  as  soon  as  the  increase  of  ailver- 
tisements  requires  it,  the  price  remaining  the  same.  Yearly 
advertisers  (without  tlie  paper\.  thirty  dollars  per  annum. 
Casual  advertising,  at  the  usual  prices  charged  by  the  city 
papers.  Subscriptions  will  be  received,  if  paid  in  advance, 
at  the  rate  of  three  dollars  per  annum." 

This  was  the  origin  of  the  cheap  press  in  America,  and  the 
Sun  is  still  published,  and  is  still  one  of  the  cheap  papers, 
although  not  a  penny  paper.  The  new  class  of  journals,  be- 
ginning thus  in  1  s;t3.  has  gradually  worked  a  complete  rev- 
olution in  the  profession.  Most  of  the  cheap  papers  wore 
established  independently  of  political  parties,  but  politicians 
were  not  disposed  to  lose  such  an  opportunity  for  publicity, 
and  while  the  Transcript  in  New  York,  the  /'iiblie  Ledt/er 
in  Philadelphia,  the  Sun  in  Baltimore,  and  the  Herald  and 
Mail  in  Boston  were  established  as  mere  local  news-sheets, 
and  owned  and  published  by  printers,  the  New  Era  and 
Tribune  in  New  York  were  started  in  the  interests  of  poli- 
tics— the  first  as  a  Democratic  organ,  ond  the  latter  as  a 
Whig  organ — and  the  increase  of  cheap  political  f^heets 
continued  for  several  years.  The  conductors  of  these  cheap 
]>apcrs  in  the  early  days  of  their  publication  confined 
themselves  to  local  news  only.  Their  means  were  limited, 
and  they  were  governed  by  circumstances.  They  did  not 
indulge  in  opinions.  But  in  1835  the  cheap  press  with 
opinions  was  inaugurated.  On  May  6  of  that  year  the 
Herald  was  established  in  New  York  by  James  Gordon 
Bennett  with  a  more  comprehensive  plan  in  view.  Its 
founder  had  been  ten  or  twelve  years  previously  actively 
engaged  as  a  reporter,  a  correspondent,  and  an  editorial 
writer  on  leading  political  journals,  and  he  therefore  entered 
on  iiis  new  duties  with  considerable  ability  and  experience 
as  a  journalist.  With  these  qualities  he  combined  that  of 
great  energy  and  enterprise,  and  he  started  on  his  new 
career  entirely  independent  of  party  affiliations.  The  re- 
sult is  known,  and  with  the  issue  of  the  first  number  of  the 
Hrrtild  the  Indki'KNDKNT  Pufs:s  had  its  origin.  With  the 
success  of  the  Sun,  Herald,  and  Public  Lrdijer  and  their 
contemporaries  of  the  cheap  ])ress,  the  old  class  of  papers 
began  to  pass  out  of  existence,  and  even  the  new  political 
journals  were  subsequently  established  on  the  new  plan  as 
more  etfectivo  with  the  masses  and  more  successful  in  a 
business  point  of  view.  On  Apr.  10.  1841.  Horace  Greeley 
started  the  Neto  York  Tribune,  and  by  his  ability,  indom- 
itable industry,  and  experience  as  a  printer  and  political 
writer,  as  had  been  illustrated  on  tht'JrJfersonian,  Lnr/  Cabin, 
and  A'*  IP  Yorker,  he  made  that  journal  the  chief  Whig  and 
liepublican  organ,  and  a  power  in  the  politics  of  the  T'nion. 
On  Sept.  18,  1851.  the  AVic  York  Times  was  founded  by 
Henry  J.  Raymond,  who  bad  graduated  in  the  offices  of 


JOIKXALISM. 


1461 


the  Tribitnt  and  Conrier  and  Enquirer.  It  was  organ- 
ized as  a  political  journal,  and  was  a  Republican  or;;an,  but 
Us  editor  was  under  the  control  ot"  no  party,  altbou^^h  he 
always  acted  with  the  Kcpublicans.  On, June  1,1>(»0,  the-Wjo 

York  ]VorlU  was  established  by  a  number  of  religious  gen- 
tlemen for  the  purpose  of  having  a  newspaper  in  the  me- 
tropolis without  the  prurient  police  reports  and  the  theat- 
rical advurtiscmeuts  and  notices  that  occupied  so  much 
space  in  the  other  city  journals.  After  spending  a  largo 
Bum  of  money   the   enterprise   was   abaudoued,  and    the 

Uor/f/  pas.-^ed  into  the  hands  of  more  setular  journalists. 
On  July  1,  ISI'il,  the  ll'urW  and  Courier  <tii(l  Eiiijiiircr  were 
united.  The  W'urtti  fur  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  has 
been  edited  as  an  independent  organ  of  the  Democracy. 

These  journals  are  thus  particularly  mentioned  because 
they  fully  represent  the  modern  class  of  papers  that  now 
come  under  the  head  of  the  independent  press.  Others  in 
other  cities  belong  to  the  same  category,  such  as  the  fJlulte, 
started  in  Ho.ston  in  Mar.,  1S72.  These  papers  are  quarto 
or  double-sheets  :  which  style  is  rapidly  taking  the  place 
of  the  old  folio  sheet.  Many  of  the  older  papers,  like  the 
/lu^tint  Transcript  and  .SV.  Louis  lirpitblicau,  have  adopted 
the  modern  plan,  and  are  now  eight-paged  instead  of  four- 
paged  journals. 

This  is  a  brief  sketch  of  journalism  in  the  IT.  S. 
progress  may  be  indicated  by  a  few  facts,  as  follows: 


Its 


Slaliilio  of  tie  Daily  and  Weekly  Neiotpapcrt  in  the  V.  S. 


First  printing-office  in  America 

First  news|)aper 

First  notitieal  newspaper 

First  libel  suit 


Fi^^t  (teruian  newspaper 

First  daily  newspaper 

First  relii;irtHs  newspaper , 

>'irsla'.;ricullural  newspaper... 

First  prices  current 

F'irsl  penny  newspaper 

First  independent  newspaper. 

First  illustrated  newspaper 

Firit  comic  newspaper 


A.  D.  11)39 

1G90 
ITS.'! 

IT.I.'i 

17.TJ 
i;S4 
18U 
I8I8 
1822 
IIB3 
ISM 
185:) 
1839 


But  statistics  will  exhibit  more  comprehensively,  perhaps, 
the  growth  of  journalism  on  this  side  of  the  .\tlantic,  and 
the  figures  develop  a  marvellous  result.  The  census  returns, 
a5  given  in  Journalism  in  the  United  States,  show  the  fol- 
lowing as  the 

NuuBER  OF  Pi:bi,icatioxs,  with  THEin  CrnciLATios  ASD 

An.mal  Issi:ii,  IX  THE  U.  S.  l.N  1S70. 

Periods  of  Issue. 


Daily 

Three  tiine-s  a  week.. 

Semi-weekly 

Weekly 

.S^'mi-nmntlily 

Monlhly 

Hi-monthly 


Quarterly . 
Total.. 


Number.     '^'"''IJ.*".^"*"^     Cireulalio.. 


574 

107 

11.5 

429.1 

93 

622 

13 

49 


S871 


806,479,.'i70 

24,l9ii,:i8n 

25,708,488 

550,921,438 

32,.'i95,G80 

67,810,110 

189,900 

84R,C80 


1,508,548,250 


20, 


,.547 
105 
.197 
,G13 
820 
843 
,6.50 
,li70 

1,473 


Classes  of  Publications. 


Adverdsinj; 

Aerlciiliural  and  hortieul 
lural 

B.-ni'volent  and  secret  so- 
cieties  

roniinercial  and  finaneiaf 

Illiislraled.  literary ,nnd  mis- 
eellaneiHiH  

Natinniility,  devoted  to 

I'.ililieal  

ItellKlons 

Sp<irtinK 

Technical  and  professioDal... 
Total 


Number.     '^"'^J.',*^.""''     Clreul.Uoo. 


4,689,800 

21,541,904 

n,518,.560 
31,120,600 

160,061.408 

4,671,000 

1,I34,7«9,0S2 

12.5.959,496 

.3.222,000 

15.974.400^ 

l,.5O8.548,2S0 


293,4.50 

770,752 

-237,080 
690,200 

4,422.2-%5 

45,1.50 

8,781,220 

4,761.358 

7.1,.50fl 

•M.hM 

20,812,475 


What  an  astounding  exhibition  !    Now  let  us  look  at  the 
comparative  results  since  1701: 

Newspaper  and  Periodical  Circnlatiou  in  the  U.  S. 


1840. 

1890.      1 

""■     1 

ie;o. 

SUtcs  aod  Territories. 

"a 

a 
3 

25 
9 

a 
6 

1 

53 
9 

a 
9 

if 

82 
36 

1 

12 
3 

1 
is 

75 
43 

162 

53 

13 

13 

11 

2 

23 

77 

378 

234 

201 

7 

55 

74 

80 

59 

93 

162 

152 

76 

211 

68 

8 

48 

24 

39 

12 

5 

81i 

535 

320 

26 

406 

17 

4 

7 

3 
34 

22 
14 

74 
33 

27 
17 
9 

I 
8 

'i'i 

26 
22 

18 

'"i'6 
5 
10 

6 
6 
19 
12 

20 
7 

1 
12 
1 
7 
4 

"21 

77 

33 

7 

49 

5 

4 

2 

31 

6 
11 

■"i'6 

29 
40 
73 

4 

'■■■5 

'  "5 
8 
9 

10 
13 

"16 
40 
88 
97 
27 

■""5 

'i'2 

23 

13 

9 

""3 
4 
4 
7 
6 

17 
8 
4 

15 
5 

9 
4 

17 
GO 
239 
160 
107 

'21 
62 
64 
43 
49 

109 

100 
44 

133 
63 

District  of  Columbia.... 

Dakota 

Florida • 

3 

"""5 
3 

Miilio 

5 

'I 

7 
10 

6 

33 
23 
33 
35 
81 
26 

9 
11 

4 

6 
22 

3 

45 
43 
44 
58 
141 
49 

6 
2 

29 
29 

5 

49 
SO 

27 


"27 

.  43 
"S5 

8 

53 
12 
18 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  Mexico - 

■"■■4 
34 
9 

■"32 
211 
114 

'"e 

1 

"i's 

68 
22 

2 
28 

5 

I 
3 

2 

65 

33G 

256 

12 

28.5 

12 

30 

61 

69 

New  York 

51     329 
26'  211 

Ohio        

2 
964 

12 
2 
3 
2 

175 
14 
14 
44 

24 

Uhdde  Island 

51     14 
7      32 
g!     38 

6? 

Tennessee 

14      73 
10     102 
1        2 
6      44 
14      79 

Texas 

34 

Utah    .   . 

2 
4 

28 
47 

"  "is 

r266 

li 

~254 

31 
67 

"39 
2048 

2 
15 

"l4 

I72 

28 
98 

128 
4 

2971 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

4 
14 

542 

46 

146 

14 

4425 

Washington 

Total 

l38 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  to  note  that  of  all  the  newspapers 
published  in  the  world  in  1874,  there  were  printed,  in  round 
numbers — 

In  the  English  language 7500 

In  all  other  languages 6600 

English  over  foreign  periodicals 900 

If  wo  make  an  cslimnle,  based  on  the  returns  since  1870, 
wo  find  the  relative  position  of  the  V.  S.  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  in  periodical  literature  in  1874,  to  he  us  follows: 

Periodicals  published  outside  of  the  U.  S 8250 

Periodicals  published  in  the  U.  S jGSOO 

Against  the  U.  S 1750 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  number  of  copies  annually  printed 
in  the  U.  S.  is  fully  equal  to  those  annually  issued  in  all 
the  other  nations  of  the  world.  The  highest  circulation  of 
any  daily  paper  in  London  is  IfiO.HOO,  which  is  that  of  the 
TiUi/rn/'ili.  The  hi^rhcst  ever  reached  in  .New  York  has 
been  ISIi.OOO.  which  number  has  been  printed  by  the 
Herald.  The  average  daily  circulation  of  tho  A'titi  York 
Snn  is  120.000  :  that  of  the  I'hitadilphiir  Ledijer,  8o,000  ;  of 
the  Ilosinn  .lourmil  and  «..»(..ii  Herald,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  60,000.  Some  of  the  leading  papers  in  Cliicngo  and  Cin- 
cinnati range  frnin  Id. 000  to  50,000.  The  price  of  the 
journals  affects  the  circnhilion  as  a  matter  of  course.  Tho 
Telegraph  in  London  sells  for  two  cents,  tho  Times  for  six 
cents  ;  the  Ihrald  in  New  York  sells  for  four  cents,  and 
the  .S'ldi  for  two  cents.  The  .\Vir«  in  New  York  is  now  tho 
"penny  paper"  of  the  American  metropolis,  which  is  as 
low  Rs  a  paper  can  be  conveniently  sold  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  while  in  London  the  *'iim  is  sold  for  half  a  cent,  or 
a  farthini;,  whicdi  is  as  low  as  a  paper  can  be  sold  in  the 
English  Tnelr.ipiilis.  If  the  old-lajhioned  half  cents  were 
now  in  circulation  in  the  I'.J^.,  no  doubt  a  paper  would  bo 
issued  for  tlnit  price,  although  of  course  it  could  not  com- 
pete with  tho  higher-priced  papers  in  news  and  other  read- 
ing matter. 

The  newspaper  press  of  tho  U.  S.  has  reached  as  great 
perfection  as  that  of  any  other  nation  ;  and  in  enterprise  it 
far  surpasses  tho  journalism  of  England  or  of  tlie  Old 
World.  There  is  very  little  enterprise  in  newspapers  on 
tho  continent  of  Europe.  There  is  almost  a  superabundance 
of  it  in  America,  and  especially  in  New  York.  There  is  no 
danger  too  great,  no  expedition  too  remote,  too  costly,  or 


1462 


JOUST— JUAN  Y  SANTACILTA. 


too  extensive,  no  undertaking  too  vast,  for  the  American 
journalist.  If  it  be  to  the  heart  of  Africa,  or  to  Khiva,  or 
to  the  North  Pole,  or  in  the  thickest  of  the  battle  in  the 
rebellion,  iu  Cuba,  in  Spain,  in  Asia,  or  in  Germany,  cor- 
respondents are  .sure  to  be  present  preparing  history  for  all 
time  to  come;  and  now  these  journalistic  deeds  of  daring 
are  rewarded  by  the  Iron  Cross  from  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, the  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
of  England,  the  order  of  St.  Stanislaus  from  the  czar  of 
Russia,  and  larger  checks  on  the  bankers  of  the  news- 
paper proprietors.  Frederic  IIitdson. 

Joust,  or  Just  [Fr.  joule,  jonsi,  Jiislc,  from  the  I.ato 
I.at.y.ij-f.iiv.  to  '-join"  in  a  fight],  in  the  knightly  e.vercises 
of  the  Middle  Ages  a  contest  with  arms,  especially  between 
two  single  combatants.  The  joust  was  cil-hor  on  foot  or 
horse;  the  pole-axe  and  sword,  but  more  commonly  the 
lance,  was  the  weapon  used.  The  joust,  as  a  rule,  was  a 
friendly  contest,  and  was  regulated  by  very  minute  and 
punctilious  rules.  When  more  than  two  engaged  in  such  a 
contest,  it  was  properly  a  tnnrni-ij. 

Joutel'  (Hesri),  the  author  of  Journal  hialorique  rfii 
tieiuier  rni/iifie  que  feu  .V.  de  la  Sale  Jit  dnut  le  gol/e  He 
Mfsique.  which  appeared  at  Paris  in  171.3.  He  accom- 
panied La  Salle  on  his  expedition  in  1684  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi :  was  left  in  command  of  the  fort  of  St. 
Louis  in  lOSa,  but  joined  La  Salle  again  in  IfiST,  and  was 
present  in  the  eamp  when  La  Salle  was  assassinated.  He 
returned  through  Canada  to  France  in  16SS.  and  lived  in  his 
native  city,  Rouen.  Very  little  is  known  about  him  before 
and  afler'his  participation  in  the  exploring  expedition  of 
La  S.alle. 

Jouy'  (Victor  Joseph  Etiense),  b.  in  1764  at  Jouy, 
near  Versailles;  entered  the  army  very  early,  fought  in 
South  America,  East  Indies,  and  the  campaigns  of  the 
Revolution,  but  gave  up  his  military  career  in  1797,  and 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literature.  He  wrote  novels, 
vaudevilles,  and  opora-texts,  of  which  La  Vetlitle,  com- 
posed by  Spontini  lls>ll").  ws  the  first,  and  GuHlaume  Tell, 
composed  bv  Rossini  (1S28),  the  last.  He  also  wrote  trag- 
edies—T-^/oo  S'lih  (1812)  and  Si,Ua  (1822);  and  in  1815 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy.  But  his  sketches 
attracted  most  attention  :  L'Hcnnite  de  la  Chaussee  d'Anlin 
(+  vols.,  I,'il2-14),  L'Hermile  en  Province  (U  vols.,  ISIS- 
27).  /-e«  Hermitcn  en  Piisnn  (2  vols..  182.3),  and  Lei  Her- 
miieo  en  LiberU  {\S2i).  They  were  written  in  a  liber.-vl 
spirit,  and  brought  him  for  a  short  time  to  prison,  a  fact 
which  increased  his  popularity.  Louis  Philippe  made  him 
librarian  at  the  Louvre.     D.  Sept.  4,  1S46. 

Jovolla'nos,  de  (  Gaspar  MEi.cnoR),  b.  at  Gijon,  Spain, 
Jan.  5, 1744,  of  noble  parentage  ;  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Oviedo  and  Alcal.'i,  and  became  distinguished  for  his 
researches  in  natural,  moral,  and  political  science,  .^fter 
acting  for  some  years  as  a  magistrate  at  Seville.  Jovellanos 
was  successively  appointed  to  several  high  posts  at  court, 
until  his  friendship  for  Cabarrus  incurred  for  him  the 
enmity  of  Godoy.  resulting  in  his  banishment  from  Madrid 
under  pretext  of  a  commission  to  explore  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  province  of  Asturias.  Ho  had  previously 
written  for  the  stage  a  comedy.  El  Detincuente  Hourado, 
and  a  tragedy.  Pelai/n.  both  of  which  were  successful  and 
made  hiiu  prominent  as  an  author,  and  had  published  an 
important  work  on  the  agricultural  condition  and  the 
property  laws  of  Spain.  In  1797  he  was  for  a  short  time 
minister  of  justice,  but.  again  incurring  the  displeasure  of 
Godoy,  was  imprisoned  in  Majorca  for  eight  years  (ISOl- 
OS),  only  recovering  his  liberty  in  consequence  of  the  French 
invasion  of  Spain,  lie  became  one  of  the  leading  members 
of  the  central  junta  which  organized  resistance  against  the 
French,  and  of  the  regency,  exercised  immense  influence  by 
his  writings  for  the  same  purpose,  and  d.  at  Vega  Nov.  II, 
ISU. 

Jovia'nus  (Flavips  CLArnirs),a  Roman  emperor,  son 
of  Varronianus.  a  distinguished  general.  Jovianus  was 
captain  of  the  life-guards  of  the  emperor  .Tulian  in  the  Per- 
sian campaign,  in  which  the  latter  was  killed  (.lone  2fi, 
A.  n.  363),  ami  was  proclaimed  as  his  successor  the  fallow- 
ing day  by  the  choice  of  the  generals.  He  declared  him- 
self a  Christian,  and  extricated  himself  from  a  position  of 
great  peril  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  country  by  surrender- 
ing to  the  Persian  king  Sapor  all  the  provinces  beyond  the 
Tigris.  During  his  slow  retreat  towards  Constantinople, 
Jovianus  promulgated  edicts  re-establishing  Christianity 
as  the  dominant  religion,  but  protecting  the  pagans.  Ho 
restored  Athanasius  to  the  see  of  Alexandria,  abandoned 
Nisibis  to  the  Persians,  and  admitted  his  infant  son  Var- 
ronianus as  a  colleague  in  the  imperial  rank.  During  his 
journey  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  at  Dadastana,  a  small 
village  in  Galatia.  Feb.  17,  364.  Whether  he  was  the  vic- 
tim of  poison  or  of  accidental  suffocation  by  the  fumes  of 
charcoal  is  disputed.     His  successor  was  Valentinianus  I. 


Jow'ett  (Besjamis).  D.  D..b.  at  Camherwell,  England, 
in  1817;  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  fellow 
in  1838,  while  still  an  undergraduate;  tutor  in  1842,  and 
rcgius  professor  of  Greek  in  18.i5.  He  was  ordained  in 
1S42;  became  in  1S49.  and  again  in  1  S."i3.  examiner  of  clas- 
sical schools,  and  in  lS.'i4  a  member  of  the  commission 
on  examinations  for  the  Imlian  civil  service,  along  with 
Macaulay  and  Lord  Ashburton.  Their  elaborate  report, 
published  in  1855.  was  written  by  him.  In  the  same  year 
Prof.  Jowett  published  a  commentary  on  Paul's  Epistles  to 
the  Thessnionians,  Galatians.  and  Romans,  and  in  ISCOho 
contributed  to  the  EnKajjs  and  Urvicim  an  article  On  the.  In- 
lerprrictiiin  of  Scripture,  for  which  ho  was  tried  and  ac- 
quitted before  the  chancellor's  court  of  the  University  of 
Oxford  on  a  charge  of  heresy.  His  most  important  work 
is  Tlie  Dinloques  of  Pinto  tranalatcd  into  Eufilinh,  leith 
Auuli/see  and  rnlrndueiinun  (4  vols.,  1871).  Prof.  Jowett 
became  master  of  Balliol  College  in  1870. 

Jowf,  or  Djowf,  province  of  Jebel  Shomer,  Arabia, 
is  situated  between  lal.  29°  aud  30°  N.  and  Ion.  39°  and 
41°  E.,  and  forms  a  deep  depression  iu  the  surrounding 
desert.  It  is  irrigated  by  running  streams,  very  fertile, 
and  has  a  temperate  climate.  The  date-palm  is  largely 
cultivated,  also  several  kinds  of  cereals  and  leguminous 
plants,  and  all  sorts  of  fine  fruit,  especially  peaches,  figs, 
grapes,  and  melons.  The  whole  oasis  is  about  70  miles 
long  and  10  to  12  miles  broad,  and  is  inhabited  by  about 
40,000  souls,  belonging  to  the  finest  Arabian  type,  and  ex- 
hibiting all  the  best  characteristics  of  the  race.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Jowf  and  SeUakab. 

Joy,  post-v.  of  Sodus  tp.,  Wayne  co.,  N.  Y.  Pop.  122. 
Joy  (Charles  A.).  Ph.  D..  b.  Oct.  8.  1823.  at  Ludlow- 
ville,  Tompkins  CO..  N.  Y. ;  eraduated  at  Union  College 
1S44:  received  the  degree  of  LL.B.  at  Harvard  University 
Law  School  1847;  appointed  in  1.847  on  the  first  govern- 
ment survev  of  the  copper-region  of  Lake  Superior;  at- 
tended the  University  of  Berlin  1849;  received  the  degree 
of  Ph.  I),  at  Gcitting'en  1852  :  attended  lectures  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  Paris.  1853:  appointed  same  year  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Union  College,  and  in  1857  to  the  same  chair 
in  Columbia  College.  New  York  City,  where  ho  still  re- 
mains. His  principal  contributions  to  chemistry  have 
been  analyses  of  minerals  and  meteoric  iron,  researches 
into  the  compounds  of  glucinum,  and  papers  on  the  com- 
bination of  alcohol  radicals  with  selenium.  He  has  con- 
tributed largely  (o  scientific  journals  and  newspapers, 
having  been  for  two  years  an  editor  of  the  Scientific 
AmerFcan  and  Jnurnnl  of  Applied  Cliemintrii,  and  the  edi- 
tor of  all  chemical  articles  in  Applelnua'  Xcir  American 
Ciicloprrdin.  Has  been  president  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural 
History  of  New  York  City,  president  of  the  American 
\  Photographic  Society,  and  chairman  of  the  Polytechnic 
'  Association  of  the  American  Institute. 
'  Joy  (James  F.I.  b.  in  Durham.  N.  H..  in  1810;  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1833;  moved  to  Detroit, 
Mich.,  in  1836;  was  an  industrious  and  very  successful 
lawver:  organized  the  Chicago  Burlington  and  Quincy 
R.  R.  about  1850;  became  president  of  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral and  its  connections  in  1866.  He  organized  the  com- 
pany which  constructed  the  St.  Mary's  Falls  ship-canal, 
and  has  been  a  verv  energetic  railroad  builder  and  manager 
in  the  Western  States.  W.  S.  Georue. 

Joy'fiPid,  post-tp.  of  Benzie  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  130. 
Joyncs'touii,  tp.  of  Wilson  co.,  N.  C.  Pop.  1271. 
Ju'ab,  county  of  Central  Utah.  Area,  about  650  square 
miles.  It  is  in  part  mountainous.  It  is  partly  iu  the 
Salt  Lake  Valley  and  partly  in  tho  Sevier  13asin.  Lig- 
nitio  coal  of  excellent  quality  is  found.  Cap.  Salt  Creek. 
Pop.  2034. 

Juan'Fcrnan'dez,  orMas-a-Tierra.an  island  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  33°  37'  S.  aud  Ion.  78°  53'  W..  400 
miles  oflr  the  coast  of  Chili,  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  18 
miles  long.  6  miles  broad,  mountainous,  with  steep  shores, 
but  fertile,  producing  samlal-wood  and  other  .sorts  of  tim- 
ber, figs,  grapes,  and  many  different  kinds  of  fruit.  It  is 
inhabited  hv  a  few  settlers  from  the  U.  S.  and  Tahiti.  The 
story  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  Scotch  sailor  who  was  at  his 
own  desire  put  ashore  on  this  island,  and  lived  there  four 
years  in  solitude,  is  supposed  to  have  suggested  the  idea  of 
De  Foe's  tale  of  Robinmn  Crunnc.  The  island  upon  which 
De  Foe  places  his  hero  is  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 

Juan'  y  Santaci'lia  Morok),  b.  at  Nobelda,  Spain, 
Jan.  5.  1713;  studied  at  Malta  and  at  the  marine  college 
of  Cadiz,  distiniruishing  himself  in  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy; in  1733  commanded  a  small  exploring  vessel 
sentto'the  coast  of  America,  and  in  1734  was  associated 
with  Don  Antonio  Ulloa  in  the  command  of  a  scientific 
corps  sent  to  South  America  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 


JUAREZ. 


1463 


meridian  at  the  equator  in  onlcr  to  dclcrmino  the  true  size 
nnil  figure  of  the  earth.  The  French  academicians  La 
Condaraino  and  BouRucr  participated  in  the  expedition, 
which  was  completely  successful.  Juan  and  Ulloa  remained 
in  Peru  several  years,  and  accumulated  a  vast  store  of  ob- 
servations in  geography  ami  physii-.«,  which  they  published 
in  174S  in  5  folio  vols.  The  work  has  since  becij  a  standard 
one  upon  that  portion  of  .America.  Juan  wrote  otherworks 
on  nautical  science;  was  an  efficient  officer  of  the  Spanish 
navy,  in  which  he  attained  the  rank  of  vice-aduiiral :  was 
elected  a  menihcr  of  the  chief  scientific  corporations  of  Eu- 
rope, and  .1.  at  Madrid  June  21,  ITT.'i. 

Jua'rcz  (Besito  Pabi.oK  b.  of  pure  Indian  parentage 
at  Ixtlan,  near  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  Mar.  21,  ISUG.     Left  an 
orphan  at  the  age  of  three  years,  he  received  no  early  in- 
struction, and  spoke  only  tli'e  Zapolcco  language  until  his 
twelfth  year,  when,  taking  refuge  in  Oaxaca  from  ill-treat- 
ment by  his  guardian,  the  lad  found  favor  with  a  Francis- 
can lay  brother,  who  taught  bim  to  read  and  write,  and 
afterward  placed  him  for  several  years  at  an  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  where  he  studied  Latin,  with  a  view  to  the  priest- 
hood.   But  there  had  been  founded  meanwhile  at  Oaxaca  an 
Institute  of  Arts  and  .Sciences,  which  .Juarez  was  attracted 
to  enter  in  1827.     Taking  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  laws,  ho 
also  became  the  professor  of  physics  of  the  school,  and  in 
IH'M  was  licensed  to  practise  law.     Having  espoused  libe- 
ralism, he  had  previously  (1S31 )  been  elected  a  member  of 
the  city  council   of  Oaxaca.  and  a  deputy  (1S?,2)  to   the 
slate  legislature.     Chiirged  with  revolutionary  affiliations, 
he  was  imprisoned  for  some  months  in   ISiiC,  but  in  IS42 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  civil  court  of  Oaxaca.    When 
bis  party  triumphed,  .luarcz  in   IS4.i  became  secretary  to 
the  governor,  but  soon   exchanged  the  place  for  that  of 
fiscal  (attorney-general)  of  the  superior  court,  as  the  gov- 
ernor's views  did  not  square  with  his  own  more  advanced 
ideas.     In  Aug..  lS4fi,  Oaxaca  resuming  its  sovereignty, 
the  legislature  delegnlcd  [be  executive  powers  to  a  trium- 
viraterof  which  .Juarez  was  Iho  most  relied  on.     But  his 
party  having  also  gained  possession  of  political  power  at 
Mexico,  be  was  soon  elected  a  deputy  to  the  federal  con- 
gress called  to  reorganize  the  government  under  the  con- 
stitution of  1824,  and  to  provide  ways  and  means  for  the 
war  with  the  V.  S.     He  earnestly  supported  the  measure 
of  fiomez    Farias   to  raise   $14.nnn,(100    by  sale    or   loan 
upon   the  Church   properly,   which,  though   carried,   was 
successfully  set  aside  by  tbc  aid  of  Santa  .'^nna.     Oaxaca 
!ig!iin  in  revolt.  .Juarez'  became  governor  for  several  years, 
milking  reputation  throughout  Mexico  for  administrative 
capacify.    By  another  turn  of  the  wheel  of  revolution  Santa 
Anna  rose  again  to  power,  an.l  .Juarez  was  arrested,  im- 
prisoned for  a  time,  and  banished.     From  New  Orleans, 
however,  he  soon  found  bis  way  by  Panama  to  Gen.  Al- 
varez, then  in  revolt  at  Acapuico  ;  and  when  .Alvarez  was 
proclaimeil  President  (Oct.,  ISSo),  .Juarez  wns  appointed 
minister  of  justice  antl  ecclesiastical  affairs.     His  sweeping 
measures   of    reform    diil    not   suit    Oen.   f'oinonfort.    the 
ruling  spirit  of  the  cabinet,  to  whom   the  aged   Alvarez 
soon  yielded  his  office;  therefore  .Juarez  preferred  to  re- 
turn   to    Oaxaca  as  governor  once  more.     Again   distin- 
guished forexecutivcaiiilily.by  his  influence  the  democratic 
principle  was  greatly  developed  in  the  state,  including  the 
direct  election  of  governor  by  the  people,  and  in  1857  ho 
was  the  first  governor  thus  chosen.     But  at  the  same  gen- 
eral election  he  was  also  elected  president  (chief-justice)  of 
the  federal  supreme  court,  and  in  Nov.,  1857,  was  appointed 
minister  of  gobernaeion.     His  presence  in  that  cabinet  led 
con"resa  to  invest  Comonfort  with  extraordinary  powers, 
which  were  speedily  abused  by  the  President's  complicity 
with  the  conspiracy  of  Ziiloaga.      Again  .Juarez  was  im- 
prisoned, but  as  Comonfort's  intrigues  fell  through,  he  bad 
the  grace  to  release  .Juarez  before  quitting  the  capital,  and 
the  latter  retired  at  onco  to  Oaxaca,  whence  he  was  soon 
summoned  to  (luanajuato  to    head  Iho  movement  of  the 
stales  against  the  military  i)arty.  nn^l  under  the  constitu- 
tion, as  president  judge,  was  proehiimed   President  .Jan., 
]s5ft.    For  lack  of  resources  be  bad  lo  retire  to  (luadalajara. 
There  the  garrison  was  divided  :  Lient.-col.  Landa,  with  a 
party  of  his  battalion,  pronouncing  for  reaction,  seized  and 
imprisoned  Juarez  and  bis  cabinet  in  the  palaie,  menacing 
them   with   death— a   throat   not  executed,  simply  because 
of  the  energy  with  which  anotlier  fiehl-officer  rallied  a  small 
force  of  regulars,  the  national  guards,  and  peiq)le,  invested 
their  prison,  and  forced  their  captors  to  surrender  them. 
Meanwhile  the  liberal  army  umler  (lens.  Parrodi  and  I)e- 
gollado,   defeated     at    Salamanca,    had    fallen    back    upon 
Ouailalujara.  and  Parrodi   was  made  minister  of  war  and 
general-in-chief.     Juarez  then  retire.l  with  the  government 
to  Colima.  leaving  Parrodi  toilelend  liuaduliijiira.  where  ho 
soon   capitulated.      Ueplacing   bim   by    Degolhi.lo.  .luarez 
now  iletermined  to  take  ])osition    at  Vera  Cruz,  which  he 
readied  (Mav  4,  1858)  bv  way  of  Manzauillo,  Panama,  ami 


Havana  at  an  extremely  critical  juncture,  when,  with  com- 
merce virtually  at  an  end,  the  whole  interior  was  domi- 
nated by  bis  adversaries.  But  Juarez  never  lost  heart.  Ably 
assisted  by  some  resolute  partisans  in  the  field,  he  pub- 
lished   (June,  1859)  plans   for   reform    which    gave    such 
strength  to  liberalism  in  the  country  that  the  conservatives 
invoked  foreign  aid  (France,  England,  and  Spain  1,  upon 
the  basis  of  a  government  which  should  secure  reform  with 
conservative  rule;  and  to  this  scheme  they  secured  the  as- 
sent of  Uegollado,  whose  army,  however,  repuiliated  his 
course.     Juarez,  resolutely  refusing  to  countenance  Euro- 
pean intervention,  called  a  general  election  for  President 
and  deputies  to  congress.     Then  came  the  successful  battle 
(Dec.  22,  ISCO),  near  Mexico,  of  Calpulalpam,  and  imme- 
diate entrance  of  the  liberal  army  into  that  city,  from  which 
Miramon   narrowly   escaped  at  night.     Juarez,  following 
thither  (Jan.  11,  1S61),  re-established  his  government,  and 
at  an  election  held  in  March  was  chosen  President  of  the 
republic.      Fifty-one  deputies  in   Congres.s,  however,  de- 
manded his  resignation  in  favor  of  Gonzales  Ortega,  who 
had  been  chosen  chief-justice  (May).     But,  supported  by 
the  state  legislatures,  the  governors,  and  a  majority  of  the 
press,  Juarez  continueil  in  the  executive  office.    At  his  sug- 
gestion, congress  having  (July  17)  suspended  payment  for 
two  years  of  all  (including  exterior)  public  obligations,  a 
pretext  was  given  for  the  tripartite  alliance,  under  which 
an  Anglo-l'"rench-Spanish  force  was  landed  (Dec.  8,  IS(il) 
at  Vera  Cruz.     Weakened  by  more  than  forty  years  of  civil 
war  and  an  impoverished  exchequer,  with  aught  less  than 
his  supreme  faith  and  constancy  of  purpose,  Juarez  must 
have  succumbed.     But  the  fortunate  early  withdrawal  of 
the  English  and  Spanish  forces  encouraged  the  states  to 
the  most  resolute  resistance  to  the  French,  who  were  re- 
pulsed (May  5,  1S()2)  in  their  first  attempt  upon   Puebla. 
With  tho  rich,  the  clergy,  and  the  remains  of  the  old  army 
in  sympathy  with  intervention,  however,  Puebla  was  taken 
in  May,  1803,  and  in  June  tho   French  entered   Mexico. 
Retiring  to  San  Luis  Potosi,  Juarez  found  himself  deserted 
by  many  who  bad  hitlierto  stood   steadfast;  he  therefore 
proceeded  to  Saltillo,  there  to  learn  that  Vidaurri,  governor 
of  Nuevo  Leon  and  Coahuila,  had  already  gone  over  to  tho 
French.     Deposing  him,  with  the  aid  of  tho  people  ho  soon 
forced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Mexico.     But  a  hostile  force 
under  Gen. (Juiroga  afterwards  made  him  retire  to  Chihuahua, 
where  the  people  gave  a  cordial  welcome,  and  ho  organized 
an    army  under   Gens.  Ortega,  and  Patoni,  which,   being 
poorly  equipped   and    unskilfully  commanded,  was    soon 
beaten.     With  other  forces,  raised  in  that  quarter  and  Du- 
rnngo,  however,  Negrete,  now  minister  of  war  and  geucral- 
in-chief,  recovering  Saltillo.  Monterey,  and  Parras  (spring 
of  1805),  an  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to  recover  Mata- 
nioros,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  counter-French  inva- 
sion of  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon,  and  even  Chihuahua,  beloro 
wllich  Juarez  was  forced  (.\ug.,  ]8()5|  to  recede  to  tho  very 
border  at  Paso  del  Norte.     It  was  now  that  Gen.  Ortega, 
ohief-justice  of  Mexico,  claimed  that  Juarez's  terin  of  office 
having  cx]iired,  the  executive  power  constitutionally  lapsed 
to   bim.      Juarez,  however,  determined  to  hold   over  until 
there  could  bo  a  general  election,  but  for  the  next  year  had 
to  remain  near  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico,  exercising 
little  aolual  influence  upon  tho  struggle  maintained  in  tho 
interior  by  military  chiefs  with  Maxiuiiliau  and  the  I'Vench. 
In  ,Ian.,  1807,  as  Iho  French  were  jireparing  to  quit  Mexico, 
ho  ]icoetrated  to  Zueatecas,  but  after  a  narrow  escape  from 
capture   by  Miiauion,  had  lo  retire.     But   Kscobedo,  ap- 
parently the  soul  of  the  military  resiBtanoe  to  JIaximiliau, 
attacked  Miniiuon  in  turn,  and  routed  him   in   several  ac- 
tions  (decisively  at  San  Jacinto),  and  Juarez   followed  to 
San  Luis  Potosi',  to  hear  there  of  the  capture  of  Maximilian 
at  (Juerelaro  (May  IV,  1807),  soon  after  which  lie  repaired 
to  the  capital.    Maximilian,  Miramon,  and  Mejiawcru  shot, 
after  a  protraeleil   trial  by  court-martial,  Juno   19,   1807, 
notwitbslamliug   all    the  efforts   of  their   able   counsel,  the 
friendly  intervention  of  the  V.  S.  government,  and  the  ap- 
peals of  many  personal  friends  of  Juarez,     A  general  elec- 
tion was  helil.  and  ccuigress  meeting  Aug.,  1807,  declared 
his  rc-eleelion  lo  the  Presidency.      He  set  about  the  eslab- 
lishmeut  of  iIm^  government,  but  was  enenunlered  by  vifd'-nt 
opposition  from  auibilious  or  dissalislicd  chieftains  of  his 
own   party,  who  excited   many  insurrections,  and    during 
this  whole  term  of  office  (1807-71)  he  was  able  to  retain 
power  merely  because  of  tho  utter  lack  of  hiiruiony  and 
concert  among  his  military  opponents.     Willi  cluiracterislio 
intlexibilily  ttf  purpose  he  pursued  bis  object  of  consolida- 
ting the  inslilulions   resulting  from  the  "  war  of  reform," 
iniliffereiit  alike  to  (lattery  ami  tonienaco.    One  of  tho  events 
of  bis  adminislralion  was  the  triiiuiphal  jirocession  made  by 
ex-Secretary  Sewanl  through  .Mexico  hite  in  1809.     At  tho 
general  election  cd'  1871,  again  a  eandidale,  ho  had  a  plu- 
rality, not  an  absolute  majority,  of  votes,  but  was  elected  by 
congress.     The  result  was  the  revolution  headed  by  Gens. 


1464 


JUARROS— JUDAS  ISCAKKVr. 


Diaz  and  Trevino.  by  whose  successes  the  central  power 
seemed  more  than  once  tottering  to  its  fall.  The  tide  was 
turned  in  favor  of  Juarez  by  the  victory  of  Gen.  Rocha  at 
Zacatccas  (Mar.  2).  but  the  northern  states  were  still  un- 
subdued when  he  d.  of  apoplexy.  July  IS.  1S72.  Pcrsun- 
allv,  Juarez  was  taciturn,  self-reliant,  and  hope! ui.  btit 
unexcitable,  confident  in  his  own  resources  nncl  of  the  ulti- 
mate triumph  of  his  plans.  Unquestionably,  ho^vever,  tho 
downfall  of  Maximilian  was  due  to  the  oppos^ition  made 
by  military  leaders  remote  from  Juarez,  and  to  the  immense 
moral  force  of  the  position  of  tho  V.  S.  government  at  the 
time,  rather  than  to  the  positive  influence  of  the  Indian 
statesman  upon  affairs.  Thomas  Jordan. 

Juar'ros  (  Domingo),  b.  in  Guatemala  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  an  ecclesiastic,  who  is  known 
only  as  the  author  of  a  learned  historical  work  upon  Cen- 
tral America,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  informa- 
tion upon  the  suhjeet — Comiycndio  <le  la  J/istnria  de  fn 
Cindnd  dr  Onnttmuln,  etc.  (2  vols.,  1809-18).  lie  is  said 
to  have  died  about  1820. 

Ju'baf  kiu;j  of  Numidia,  succeeded  his  father  Iliempsal 
after  02  u.  c.  The  tribune  Curio  having  proposed  to  make 
Numidia  a  Roman  province.  Pnmpey  opposed  the  plan,  and 
thus  secured  the  good-will  of  Juba.  In  40  B.  c,  Juba  de- 
feated and  killed  Curio  on  the  Bagradas,  took  part  in  the 
African  war  against  C;vsar  (47),  and  after  the  battle  of 
Tha])sus  took  his  own  life  (Feb.  4,  40  n.  c). — His  son, 
Ji'BA,  graced  Caesar's  triumph  at  Rome,  40  b.  c.  ;  was  well 
educated,  and  became  the  friend  of  Augustus,  who  gave 
him  in  marriage  a  daughter  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and 
restored  him  to  his  kingdom  .10  b.  c.  In  2o  he  exchanged 
Numidia  for  Mauritania,  and  the  former  became  a  Roman 
province.  Mauritania  under  his  tranquil  sway,  supported 
by  the  Roman  arms,  rose  to  great  prosperity.  He  wrote 
grammatical  works,  histories  of  Africa,  Arabia,  and  Rome, 
treatises  on  painting  and  the  theatre,  on  certain  plants, 
etc.  Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant,  but  only  as  cita- 
tions in  other  writers,  collected  in  JMUller's  Fragin.  Illsi. 
Gr^c.  (iii.  4GJ— 184j.     His  death  is  placed  about  a.  d.  IS. 

Ju'bilee  [Heb.  yoic^,  a  "  glad  sound:"  Lat.  /(/6t7o,  to 
"rejoice"],  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  in  Palestine,  the 
fiftieth  year,  the  year  succeeding  every  seventh  sabbatical 
year.  During  this  year  all  lands  lay  fallow,  all  Hebrew 
slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  and  all  lands  reverted  to  the  heirs 
of  the  original  owners,  to  wjiom  the  lands  had  been  par- 
celled out  in  Joshua's  time.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
Boniface  VIII. in  I.'IOO  established  a  jubileeto  beheld  once 
a  century  ;  Clement  VI.  (1.3  jO)  ordered  it  to  be  held  once 
in  fifty  years:  Urban  VI.  (in  13S9),  onco  in  thirty-fivo 
years ;  Sixtus  IV,  (in  1475J  fixed  the  interval  at  twenty-five 
years. 

Jubilee,  tp,  of  Peoria  co.,  HI,     Pop.  837. 

Jubilees,  Book  of,  an  important  pseudepigraphical 
book,  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  probably  beforo  (but 
not  very  long  before)  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  was  translated 
at  an  early  date  into  Greek,  was  prized  by  tho  early  Chris- 
tian Church,  but  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts  were  lost 
(except  fragments  of  earh)  before  the  thirteenth  century. 
In  1S44,  Dr.  Krapf  discovered  in  Abyssinia  an  Ethiopic 
version  from  the  Greek.  Of  this  Dillmann  published  a 
German  translation  (1849-51 )  and  the  Ethiopic  text  (1850). 
This  book  is  regarded  as  canonical  by  the  Abyssinian 
Church.  It  pretends  to  be  a  revelation  made  to  Moses.  It 
is  named  from  the  faet  that  it  treats  of  biblical  history  in 
j'nbiltjcH,  or  periods  of  fifty  years.  The  unknown  author's 
design  was  to  furnish  a  commentary  upon  Genesis  and 
Exodus.  He  has  borrowed  freely  from  the  Hagadah.  Tho 
critical  value  of  the  work  is  very  considerable.  It  may  bo 
regarded  as  a  part  of  the  Hagadah. 

Ju'da«  post-v.  of  Green  co.,  AVis.,  on  tho  Monroe  branch 
of  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  R. 

Judx'a,  or  Judea,  w.as  first  us^-d  in  ancient  geography 
as  tho  name  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  but  after  the  return  from  the 
Captivity,  and  up  to  the  times  of  (he  Romans,  it  denoted 
the  whole  of  Palestine.  The  Romans  used  it  partly  in  a 
general  sense,  signifying  the  land  of  the  Jews  ;  thus,  Herod 
was  styled  king  of  .Iuda?a,  though  ho  ruled  over  countries 
not  belonging  to  Palestine;  partly  in  a  restricted  sense. 
denoting  the  sonthernmost  province  of  Palestine,  bounded 
N.  by  Samarii.  K.  by  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  S.  by 
ldum:ea.  and  \V.  by  the  Mediterranean. 

Ju'dah  [  Heb.  Yehnd'ih,  "  celebrated  "1,  one  of  the  twelve 
patriarchs,  the  fourth  son  of  .laeob  by  Leah,  b.  at  Haran 
fPadan-Aram)  in  Syria,  about  b.  c.  lOlfi ;  was  esteemed 
the  progenitor  of  the  tribe  of  the  same  name,  which  became 
BO  yiredominant  in  Palestine  as  (o  give  its  name  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judaea,  and  ultimately  to  the  whole  race  of 
the  descendants  of  Abraham  (Jews).     Judah  appears  to 


have  exercised  a  kind  of  leadership  among  his  brothers; 
it  was  he  who  persuaded  them  not  to  kilt  Joseph,  but  to 
sell  him  to  the  Midianites,  and  on  the  journey  to  Egypt  to 
buy  corn  it  was  Judah  who  acted  as  spokesman  for  tho 
whole  company.  As  such,  he  otfered  himself  to  Joseph  as 
a  slave  to  ransom  his  half-brother  Benjamin.  He  had 
married  a  Canaanite  woman,  and  left  three  sons,  Shehih, 
Pharez,  and  Zerah,  from  the  second  of  whom  David,  and 
ultimately  Christ,  were  descended.  Of  the  life  of  .Tudah 
in  Egypt  nothing  is  known  except  that  he  was  still  living 
at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  and  received  that  splendid 
blessing  (Gen.  xlix.  8-12)  which  foretold  the  glory  of  his 
lineage. 

Judah  ben  Samuel,  called  H  \  Levi,  or  "  The  Lcvite," 
and  known  among  Arabic  writers  as  Abi'i,  Hassan,  b.  in 
Castile  about  lOSO.  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
mediaeval  Hebrew  writers.  He  excelled  as  a  physician, 
a  theologian,  and  a  poet,  his  Hebrew  sacred  songs  having 
been  several  times  translated  into  German  within  the  pres- 
ent century.  His  principal  work,  however,  was  in  Arabic, 
Kiizari,  being  discourses  on  religion  between  a  king  of  the 
Khazars,  a  race  of  the  Crimea,  and  a  .Jewish  rabbi.  It 
was  translated  into  Hebrew.  Latin  (by  liuxtorf),  Spanish, 
and  German.  Rabbi  Judah  made  a  pilgrimage  to  .ferusa- 
lem,  and,  according  to  tradition,  was  assassinated  by  a 
Mohammedan  in  the  Holy  Land  about  1140. 

Judah  fTlKNRY  Moses),  b.  at  Snow  Hill,  Md..  June  12, 
1821  ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  184.",  served  in  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  for  nine  years  in  Indian  campaigns  on  the 
Pacific  coast:  was  appointed  colonel  of  volunteers  in  ISCil, 
brigadier-general  in  1802,  and  inspector-general  of  Gen. 
Halieck's  army  of  the  Tennessee:  was  actively  engaged  in 
pursuit  of  Morgan  during  his  raid  into  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
and  commanded  a  division  under  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  in 
tho  Atlanta  campaign.  D.  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  14, 
186G. 

Ju'das  Iscar'iot  [Gr.  'lo-Kapiwrii?],  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  and  the  betrayer  of  his  Master,  was  a  son  of  Si- 
mon, who  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  Simon  Zelotes,  or  the 
Canaanite.  who  was  also  an  apostle.  The  surname  Iscariot 
has  given  rise  to  many  interpretations,  bnt  the  most  usual 
is  "man  of  Kerioth,"  a  village  in  Judiea.  He  was  the 
treasurer  of  the  apostles,  participated  with  the  others  in 
tho  missix)n  to  preach  the  gospel  and  in  receiving  power  to 
work  miracles,  was  a  witness  of  the  whole  career  of  Jesus 
up  to  the  Last  Supper,  in  which  he  took  part,  and  be- 
trayed Christ  to  the  chief  priests  for  thirty  pieces  of 
silver,  with  whieh  he  purchased  a  field,  but  shortly  after 
hanged  himself  in  remorse  for  his  crime.  Opinions  have 
diflfered  for  centuries  as  to  the  precise  nature  and  motives 
of  the  crime  of  .ludas.  It  is  evident  that  it  could  not  have 
consisted  simply  in  identifying  the  person  of  his  Master, 
whieh  was  well  known  in  Jerusalem  ;  the  better  opinion 
seems  to  bo  that  he  revealed,  or  perhaps  falsified,  some 
portion  of  the  teachings  of  Jesus  intended  only  for  the  im- 
mediate circle  of  the  disciples,  but  which  enabled  the  chief 
priests,  with  the  aid  of  hired  witnesses,  to  fasten  upon  him 
the  charge  of  blasphemy.  As  to  his  motives,  the  plain  in- 
ference from  the  language  of  (he  (Jospcls  and  the  Acts 
seems  to  be  that  he  was  actuated  by  avarice,  jealousy,  and 
perhaps  disappointed  ambition.  Yet  there  have  not  been 
wanting  theologians  who  have  attempted  some  defence  of, 
or  at  least  apology  for.  his  conduct.  An  early  Christian 
sect,  the  Cainites.  remarkable  fur  the  Antinomian  inver- 
sions of  Scripture  which  led  them  to  worship  Cain  and  the 
Serpent,  while  refusing  to  worship  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old 
Testament,  honored  Judas  as  the  only  true  apostle,  alleging 
that  he  alone  perceived  the  necessity  of  taking  steps  for  tho 
fulfilment  of  prophecy  and  the  salvation  of  mankind  by  the 
death  of  the  Messiah.  Modern  apologists,  without  going 
to  this  extreme,  argue  that  Judas's  object  was  to  place  his 
Master  in  sucdi  a  confiiet  with  the  authorities  as  would  lead 
him  to  exert  his  miraeulous  powers  and  establish  the  "  king- 
dom of  the  Messiah,"  in  whieh  he  of  course  looked  for  per- 
sonal advancement,  in  accordance  with  the  promise  that 
the  apostles  should  "sit  on  twelve  thrones,  judging  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Judah."  It  is  even  alleged  that  by  virtue 
of  name  and  descent  (being  the  only  apostle  not  a  Galilean), 
as  well  as  in  reward  of  his  political  sagacity,  he  expected 
a  kind  of  premiership  as  judge  over  the  royal  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah. On  this  theory  his  remorse  and  suicide  simply  imply 
that  the  result  of  his  action,  so  contrary  to  his  expectations, 
first  opened  his  eyes  to  the  enormity  of  his  ofTencc.  Arch- 
bishop Whately  has  presented  a  view  similar  to  this  in  one 
of  his  fJstiat/s  on  anme  of  the  Dnitt/firj*  tit  Cfifistinu  Fmth 
(1839).  But  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  view  is  difficult 
to  reconcile  with  the  text  of  the  biblical  narrative.  One 
of  the  numerous  npoeryi)hal  writings  of  the  second  century 
was  a  *•  Gospel  of  Judas,"  which  tho  Cainites  adduced  in 
support  of  their  opinions. 


JUDAS  MACCABiEUS-JUDGE  ADVOCATE. 


1465 


Judas  Maccaba^us*    See  Maccabees. 

Judas  Tree,  of  Europe  and  Asia,  is  the  Ccych  Siti- 
^unmtnitn,  a  ?iikiI1  tree  of  the  order  Lcguniinosir.  having 
rosc-colorcd  flowt-rs  and  handsome  wood  used  in  joinery. 
There  was  anciently  a  dispute  as  to  whether  Judas  Isoariot 
hanged  himself  on  this  or  on  the  elder  tree.  The  Judas 
tree  or  red  Itud  of  the  V.  S.  (Ct-rcia  Cunfttlcusis)  resembles 
the  above,  but  has  pointed  while  the  other  has  round  leaves. 
Its  abundant  flowers,  of  a  peach-blo^snin  color,  are  very 
beautiful  in  spring.  The  wood  is  soft  and  brittle,  but  hand- 
some. 

Judd  (0.  P.).  M.  D.,  b.  Apr.  23,  ISO.'J.  at  Paris,  Oneida 
CO.,  N.  Y. ;  studied  medicine,  and  went  in  1828  to  Hono- 
lulu as  physician  in  the  service  of  the  American  foreign 
xni.-'sion.  In  1842  he  dissolved  his  connection  wiih  the 
mission,  and  became  interpreter  to  the  p;overnmenl  of 
Kumchameha  Til.  In  1843  ho  organized  the  first  ministry 
which  had  ever  been  formed  in  the  state,  and  be  held  him- 
self the  office  as  minister  of  finance,  which  he  filled  with 
great  prudence  and  sagacity  till  his  deatb,  July  12,  1873. 

Judd  (XoRMAS  B.),  b.  at  Rome,  X.  Y.,  Jan.  10,  1815; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and  engaged  in  successful 

fractico  of  law  in  Chicago;  was  a  prominent  politician  of 
Uinois,  in  which  State  he  held  many  important  public 
oQiees.  lie  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Prussia  ISGl-fiJ,  mem- 
ber of  Congress  I8C7-71,  and  became  a  railroad  president. 
D.  at  Chi.ago,  III.,  Nov.  11,  187S. 

Jndd  (OuANOC),  b.  near  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y..  July  26, 
1822;  graduated  at  the  Wcsleyan  University.  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1S47;  was  for  some  years  successfully  engaged 
as  a  teacher  and  lecturer:  studied  chemistry  18J0-63  at 
Yale;  became  in  1853  editor  of  the  Ai'ifrican  Afjricid- 
/iiri«/,  which  under  his  supervision  has  become  one  of  the 
leading  agricultural  journals  of  the  U.  S.  In  1 860  be  be- 
came Bole  proprietor  of  the  same,  and  engaged  in  the  pub- 
lication of  books.  In  1869  the  firm-name  was  changed  to 
Orange  Judd  A  Co.  Mr.  Judd  has  also  been  a  railroad 
president,  and  was  1855-63  agricultural  editor  of  the  Sew 
Yurk  Ti/iirH.  lie  was  the  compiler  of  the  first  Alumni 
Urcord  of  his  ulmn  mater  (1S6S  aeq.),  and  for  a  time  was 
publisher  of  the  Hearth  aud  Ifomc,  a  periodical.  Ho  has 
been  a  liberal  benefactor  of  the  Wcslcyan  University. 

Judd  (Svi.vfstkr),  b.  in  Westhampton,  Mass..  July  23, 
18i:;  ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1836;  studied  at  the  Cambridge 
Divinity  School,  Mass.,  and  was  1840-5:;  pastor  of  a  Uni- 
tarian church  in  Augusta.  Me.,  where  he  d.  Jan.  20,  1853. 
Ho  is  best  known  by  his  powerful  romance  Marijftret  (1S45), 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  works  of  fiction  ever  written 
in  the  U.  S.  His  /Vii7«,  a  poem  (1850),  Jiichard  Effufif,  a 
romance  (1850),  and  a  volume  of  di.'^courses  on  The  Churrh 
(1854),  all  illustrate  the  strong  purposes  of  their  author's 
life.  He  was  a  hearty  opponent  of  war,  capital  pifiiisb- 
mcnt.  intemperance,  and  slavery.  He  left  a  MS.  <lrama, 
The  White  Hilh.  (See  his  Life,  by  Mrs.  A.  Hall,  1854.) 

JudCfOr  Judas  (with  the  surname  TiiAnn.Eis  or  Ur.B- 
n*:rs),  one  ftf  the  twelve  ap<isHes.  but  it  is  not  agreed 
whether  he  is  the  same  as  .Tudas,  the  brother  of  the  Lord, 
nor  whether  ho  is  the  author  of  the  Kpisllo  of  Jude.  one 
of  the  canonieal  books  of  the  New  Testament.  Of  bis  life 
nothing  is  known  with  certainty;  different  traditions  men- 
tion dilTerent  places  in  which  ho  is  said  to  have  preached 
and  died. 

Jude^  The  Kpistic  General  of  St.,  was  written 
by  Juda"  (Jiidali).  I'lilU-d  also  Lebba-us  and  Thaddieus, 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  It  is  directed  against  heretics 
and  false  teachers.  It  is  written  in  impassioned  language, 
recalling  that  of  St.  Peter's  second  Kpistle.  Its  date  is 
quite  uncertain.  The  authority  of  this  Epistle  was  con- 
tested in  the  early  times  of  the  Christian  Church,  because 
it  contains  citations  of  apocryphal  writings,  and  recent 
critics  have  doubted  its  genuineness.  Most  commentators, 
however,  maintain  that,  it  was  written  by  Judas  Thaddieus, 
ami  thai  Judas  Thuddunis  was  the  brother  of  the  Lord. 

Judge,  a  public  officer  who  is  invested  with  authority 
to  hear  and  determine  litigated  causes,  and  to  administer 
justice  between  parties  according  to  law.  The  term  /rir/yc 
is  sometimes  employed  to  designate  any  officer  or  person 
who  exercises  a  discretion  of  a  judicial  nature  in  the  per- 
formiince  of  his  official  dutirs,  as  a  juror,  an  arbitrator,  or 
a  public  inspector,  but  in  ordinary  legal  and  popular  ut^ago 
it  bears  the  sense  expressed  by  the  above  definition.  The 
judges  of  the  superior  courts  of  England  arc  rarely  desig- 
nated by  thi.s  name,  l.ut  receive  particular  titles  accc»rding 
to  the  court  in  which  they  sit.  Thus,  the  Judges  of  the 
court  of  exchequer  are  styled  Imrons,  and  the  principal  one 
is  known  as  chief  baron.  The  chief  judge  of  the  king's 
bench  is  calle<l  tlie  lord  ehiefjustice  of  Knglnuil.  while  the 
corresponding  judge  in  the  court  of  common  ]deiis  is  stylecl 
the  chief-justice  of  the  common  picas.    Tho  other  judges  of 


these  two  courts  are  termed  justices,  as,  e.  3.,  Mr.  Justice 
Blackslone.  The  highest  equity  judge  is  designated  lord 
chancellor.  In  the  U,  S.  it  is  usual  to  apply  the  epithet 
"judge  "  to  ail  officials  of  this  kind,  in  whatever  court  they 
may  sit.  But  the  highest  judge  among  the  Federal  ju- 
diciary is  kntiwn  us  the  chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
as  Chief-Justice  I^Iarshall,  Tho  methods  by  which  judges 
are  chosen,  their  tenure  of  oflice,  the  rules  of  law  relating 
to  tho  payment  of  their  salaries,  the  extent  of  their  legal 
responsibility,  etc.  are  fully  <M)nsidered  in  the  article  ju- 
niciAuv  (which  see).  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  refer 
hero  to  one  or  two  additional  i)oints.  It  is  a  maxim  of  the 
common  law  that  "  no  one  can  be  a  judge  in  his  own  cause.'* 
Impartiality  in  tho  administration  of  justice  requires  ne- 
cessarily that  the  judge  should  be  an  entirely  disinterested 
part}'.  This  disqualification  applies  not  only  in  regard  to 
cases  in  which  the  judge  is  a  party  of  record,  but  as  well 
to  causes  in  which  he  has  some  private  or  ])ecuniary  inter- 
est. For  instance,  a  judge  who  is  a  stoekliolder  in  a  cor- 
poration cannot  do  any  judicial  act  in  a  cause  in  wliich 
that  corporation  is  a  party.  A  judgment  or  decree  ren- 
dered in  a  suit  in  which  the  judge  was  interested  would  be 
voidable  without  any  proof  that  he  had  been  jircjudiced  or 
misled  by  considerations  of  his  own  advantage.  A  juilgo 
cannot  sit  under  such  circumstances,  even  with  the  consent 
of  all  the  parties.  In  some  of  the  States  statutes  have 
been  passed  embodying  this  common-law  prohibition,  and 
extending  the  same  principle  to  other  analogous  cases  in 
which  a  judge's  personal  interest  in  a  cause  is  likely  to  be 
aroused.  Thus,  in  New  York  it  is  provided  that  no  judge 
can  sit  as  such  in  any  cause  in  which  he  is  a  party,  or  in 
which  he  is  interested,  or  in  which  he  would  be  excluded 
from  being  a  juror  by  reason  of  consanguinity  or  affinity 
to  cither  of  the  parties  :  nor  can  any  judge  take  jiart  in 
the  decision  of  any  question  which  shall  have  been  argued 
in  tho  court  when  he  was  not  present  and  sitting  as  a 
judge.  Moreover,  it  is  declared  that  no  judge  shall  have 
any  partner  practising  in  his  ciuirt,  and  that  no  ju<lge  shall 
have  any  voice  in  the  decision  of  any  cause  in  which  ho 
has  been  counsel  or  attorney.  So  no  judge  of  an  appellate 
court  is  to  take  part  in  deciding  a  cause  determiucd  by 
him  in  the  court  from  which  the  a))peal  is  taken.  It  is 
further  provideil  that  no  judge  shall  act  as  a  counsellor, 
solicitor,  or  attorney  in  the  court  of  which  he  is  a  judge, 
except  in  those  suits  in  which  he  shall  be  a  ]iarty  or  in  tho 
suliject -matter  of  which  he  .ehall  be  interested.  There  is 
also  a  law  of  Congress  prohibiting  any  jutlge  of  the  U.  S, 
courts  from  engaging  in  the  practice  uf  the  law.  Any 
person  violating  this  prohibition  is  declared  to  be  guilty 
of  a  higli  misdemeanor. 

In  the  trial  of  a  cause  it  is  the  province  and  duty  of  tho 
judge  to  decide  upon  the  admissibility  of  evidence.  If 
his  rulings  arc  deemed  erroneous,  objection  may  be  made 
to  them  by  counsel,  and  exc<i)tions  taken,  upon  which  a 
motion  for  a  new  trial  or  an  appeal  may  subsequently  bo 
based.  Tho  credibility  of  the  testimony  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  jury.  So  the  judge  decides  upon  the  competency  of 
witnesses  offered  to  bo  sworn.  The  interpretation  and  con- 
struction of  written  instruments  is  also,  as  a  general  rule,  for 
tho  court,  and  not  for  the  jury.  A  judge  cannot  be  called 
as  a  witness  to  testify  as  to  what  took  place  before  him  in 
the  trial  of  another  cause,  tlinugh  he  may  testify  to  foreign 
and  collateral  matters  which  happened  in  his  presence 
while  the  trial  was  pending  or  alter  it  was  ended.  More- 
over, tho  samo  person  canind  be  both  w  itness  and  judge  in 
a  cause  which  is  on  trial  before  him,  whether  he  sits  alone 
or  with  associate  judges.  In  some  eases,  however,  when  a 
witness  who  testified  in  a  former  trial  has  since  died,  tho 
testimony  which  he  then  rendered  may  be  proved  in  a  sub- 
sequent suit  by  ihe  juclge's  notes  t)r  minutes  when  botli 
actions  are  tried  before  the  same  judge.  (See  KviUKNti:, 
CouiiT,)  There  are  some  forms  of  legal  busines.s  which 
maybe  transacted  only  before  a  court  acting  as  such,  while 
others  may  take  place  out  of  court,  anil  belore  an  ofticcr 
acting  as  a  judge.  A  disliuetion  is  that  ilrawn  between  a 
cnnrt  and  a  jM^/'/f,  the  latter  word  being  used  to  indicate 
that  business  before  the  officer  is  trausactcd  out  of  court. 

(Sec  ClIAMHKUS.) 

C.KoiiGK  Chase.    Revised  bv  T.  W.  Uwigiit. 

Judpe  (Col.  Thomas  J.),  a  native  of  Alabama,  entered 
public  life  in  1843  as  a  solicitor  in  a  Stale  circuit  court,  and 
afterwards  became  a  pr<uninent  lawyer  and  \\'hig  politician  ; 
in  1861  was  commissioner  from  Alabama  to  the  V.  S.  gov- 
ernment, but  was  not  received  as  such  by  Mr.  Buchanan  ; 
served  in  tho  civil  war  as  a  private,  then  as  colonel,  of  tho 
I4th  Alabama,  and  afterwards  as  judge  of  a  military  court 
1862-65:  was  ju.lge  of  the  StateSupreme  curt  1865-68, 
and  practised  law  at  tireenville,  Ala.     1>.  .Mar.  4,  1876. 

Jud^e  .Vdvocate,  as  the  name  is  most  frequently  used 
in  the  11.  S.,  designates  tho  person  ta  military  nflicor  save 


1406 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE-GENERAL— JUDGMENT. 


very  exceptional  cases)  who  prosecutes  before  a  general 
irt-martial  or  military  oomuiission  in  the  name  of  the 


in  V 

court-iu.^.  v.«.  .-.    - --.,    -  .    .    .1 

U.  S.  Ho  is  ilclailcd  liy  the  authority  which  appoints  the 
court.  Sonic  i>l'  liis  pri'ucipal  duties  arc  to  prepare  the  case 
for  trial,  summoning  the  necessary  witnesses;  to  sec  that 
the  accused  has  the  opportunity  to  exercise  his  ri^ht  ol 
challenge:  to  administer  to  the  members  of  the  court,  in 
the  presence  of  the  accused,  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  SUh 
Article  of  War;  himself  to  take  that  prescribed  by  the 
85th:  to  see  that  the  charges  are  technically  accurate;  to 
arrai-n  the  prisoner;  to  administer  the  oath  to  witnesses, 
and  to  present  the  evidence  for  the  prosecution;  to  con- 
sider himself  counsel  for  the  prisoner  so  far  as  to  object 
to  anv  leading  questions,  or  to  any  question  to  the  pris- 
oner 'the  answer  to  which  mi.sht  tend  to  crimniale  him- 
self (Art.  90) ;  to  give  legal  advice  to  the  court  when  called 
on;  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  proceedings,  and  to 
forward  the  same,  properly  authenticate.!,  to  the  convening 
authoritv.  The  judge  advocate  has  power  to  comjiel  wit- 
nesses to  appear  and  testify,  and  ho  may  employ  a  reporter 
to  record  the  proceedings  and  testimony. 

There  is  also,  in  the  U.  S.  army,  a  corps  of  judge  advo- 
cates (reiluced  to  four  in  number  by  act  ol  Congress  of 
Juno  2:!,  1S74).  They  hold  the  rank  of  miijor.  and  are  re- 
quired l»y  law  to  perform  their  duties  under  the  direction 
of  the  judge  advocate-general.  They  are,  however,  gene- 
rallv  stationed  at  department  head-quarters  as  legal  ad- 
visers to  the  department  commanders,  but  are  subject  to 
detail  bv  him  for  court-martial  duty. 

In  the  English  service  the  judge  advocate  has  not,  since 
182'J,  performed  the  duties  of  prosecutor.  These  devolve 
upon  a  staff  officer  ordered  to  perform  them,  or  upon  the 
prisoner's  commanding  otTieer.  or  at  minor  eourts-raartial 
upon  the  adjutant.  The  principal  duties  of  the  judge  ad- 
vocate under  the  English  system  are  those  of  the  judge  or 
assessor  called  in  (wlrocutiis)  to  advise  the  court,  and  that 
of  the  clerk  or  notary  who  takes  down  the  proceedings  in 
writing. 

Judge  .Vdvocate-Cieneral,  in  the  U.  S.  army  an 
officer  at  the  head  of  the  bureau  of  military  justice  at 
Washington,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  whose 
duties,  as  defined  bv  sec.  1199  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  are 
to  receive,  revise,  and  cause  to  be  recorded  the  proceedings 
of  all  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and  military  com- 
missions, and  such  other  duties  as  heretofore  performed 
by  that  onicer  in  the  U.  S.  army.  The  office  of  judge  ad- 
vocate-general has  existe.l  in  England  since  the  days  of 
the  Stuarts.  The  Articles  of  War  of  James  II.  prescribed 
that  in  all  criminal  causes  which  concerned  the  Crown, 
His  Majesty's  advocate-general  or  judge  advocate  of  the 
army  should  inform  the  court  and  prosecute  on  His  Maj- 
esty's behalf,  lie  is  now  the  legal  advisor  to  the  Crown 
in  all  cases  requiring  the  .sovereign's  action  as  eonfirmiug 
officer  of  the  proceedings  of  general  courts-martial.  He 
exercises  the  power  of  a  supreme  court  of  review  as  regards 
the  proceedings  of  inferior  courts.  Ho  is  the  supremo 
legal  authoritv  for  the  army,  except  as  to  questions  arising 
under  martial  law,  with  which  he  has  nothing  to  do.  He 
has  the  right  to  appoint  deputies,  and  is  responsiiilo  for 
them.  He  is  conservator  of  the  proceedings  of  military 
courts,  other  than  those  held  under  martial  law,  and  he  is 
a  subonlinate  member  of  the  administration,  and  quits 
office  with  it. 

Jud'ges,  The  Book  of  the,  a  historical  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  seventh  in  order  of  the  canonical 
books      It  derives  its  name  from  a  class  of  rulers  or  ehiels 
who   ruled  in   Israel  during  the  period  which   its  record 
covers.     The  twelve  tribes  after  entering  C;inaan  formed 
only  a  loose  confederation,  without  unity  or  natmnal  feel- 
in-  or  dignity.     They  had  no  lie:id.     They   were   at  the 
same  time  engaged  in  such  wars  as  all  conquerors  must 
maintain  with  those  whom  they  displace,  and  they  were 
also  harassed  by  foreign  foes.     In  emergencies  men  (or 
women)  of  talent  and  energy  took  the  Icail,  their  only  au- 
thoritv being  their  ability.    They  were  regarded  as  •' raised 
up  "  or  divinely  sent,     the  name  given  to  them  is  the  same 
which  we  mcctwith  in  the  Phoenician,  "  suffetcs."     When 
one  had  gained  authority  by  displaying  ability  in  a  crisis, 
ho  becanio  a  "judge"  in  our  forensic   use  ol  the  term. 
This  time  was  not  one  to  awaken  the  national  pride  out  of 
which  history  is  born,  or  to  produce  historical  records.    In 
some  oases,  ns  in   that  of   Samson,  the   judge  became  a 
popular  hero  and  the  subject  of  song  and  poetry.     Such 
records  of  this  tiino  as  remained  aro  collected  in  the  book 
of  Jude-es.     They   are   fragmentary   and   imperfeel,  as  is 
abundantlv  shown  by  the  lack  of  chronology.     The  book 
is  said,  in  the  Talmud,  to  have  been  written  by  Samuel, 
lie  certainly   was   not  the  original  author  of  any  of  the 
parts,  and  it  is  more  than  doubtful  if  he  was  the  collector. 
Some  writers  refer  the  authorship  to  Ezra. 


Jiidg'ineiit,  in  law,  a  determination  by  a  court  of  the 
rights  of  tlie  parties  in  an  action.     This  term  is  usually 
applied  to  the  decision  rendered  upon  a  question  in  litiga- 
tion in  a  common-law  action,  while  the  corresponding  term, 
"decree,"  is  ordinarily  employed  to  denote  the  decision 
civeu  in  a  court  (,(  equity.      Both   names  are,  however, 
sometimes  used  indistinguishably.     In  those  Slates  where 
the  distinctions  between  common-law  and  equitable  pro- 
cedure have  been  abolished,  the  term  "judgment"  is  alone 
generally  employed  for  every  form  of  decision  in  a  civil 
action,   "a  indgiiient  dilTcrs  from  an  or.ler  or  rule  in  being 
the  result  of  an  action,  while  an  order  or  rule  is  obtained 
by  an  a|q>lieation  to  the  court  in  the  nature  of  a  motion. 
Judgments  at  common  law  may  be  rendered  at  different 
stages  in  the  progress  of  the  cause,  and  arc  hence  distin- 
guished as  interlocutory  or  lin:d.     Interlocutory,  in  legal 
usage,  means  intermediate,  and  judgments  of  this  kind  aro 
those  which  arc  rendered  before  the  termination   of  the 
action  upon  some  issue  or  litigated  point  distinct  from  the 
principal  issue,  but  collateral  or  incidental  to  it,  and  which 
therefore  do  not  wholly  determine  or  complete  the  suit. 
Of  this  nature  are  judgments  for  the  plaintiff  given  upon 
pleas  in  abatement,  for  they  require  the  defendant  merely 
to  "answer  over" — i.  e.  to  furnish  a  better  |ilea  or  answer, 
free  from  certain  specified  objections,  and  further  j)roeecd- 
ings  are  necessary   before  the   final   determination  of  the 
cause.    (See  Abatement.)     But,  as    Blackstone  says,  the 
interlocutory  judgments  most  usually  spoken  of  are  those 
incomplete  judgments  whereby  the  right  of  the  plaintiff 
is  established  by  a  decision  upon  the  entire  cause,  and  not 
merely  upon  some  collateral  point,  hut  the  amount  of  dam- 
ages to  be  awarded  is  not  ascertained.    The  damages  payable 
arc  subsequently  determined  by  a  special  jury  of  twelve 
men  summoned  and  presided  over  by  the  sherifl,  and  there- 
fore termed  a  "  sheriff's  jury."    This  process  is  known  as  a 
"writ  of  inquiry,"  and  is  necessarily  resorted  to  because 
these  interlocutory  iudgmentsare  rendered  without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  jury.     Examples  of  such  judgments  will  be 
given  herealter.     A  final  judgment  is  one  rendered  upon 
the  princiiial  issue  or  entire  cause,  which  determines  finally 
and  completely  the  rights  of  the  parties  engaged  in  tho 
action,  as  where  judgment  is  entered  upon  the  verdict  of  a 
jury,  awarding  a  certain  amount  of  ilamagcs  to  the  plain- 
tiff'or  discharging  the  defendant.     Judgments  at  common 
law,  whether  interlocutory  or  final,  arc  of  different  forms, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  action,  the  plea,  the  issue, 
and  the   manner  and  result  of  the  decision.     Thus,  there 
may  be  a  judgment  upon  demurrer,  either  sustaining  or 
overrulin"  the  demurrer  (see  Demi-rreu):  or  a  judgment 
by  uU  dicit  ("he  says  nothing"),  which  is  given  against  a 
defendant  for  a  failure  to  plead  or  continue  his  pleading 
until  issue  is  joined;  or  a  judgment  by  confession,  which 
is  given   against  a  defendant  when  he  acknowledges  tho 
justice  of  tlie  plaintiff's  claim  and  agrees  to  comply  with 
his  demand,  as  bv  restoring  certain  property  or  by  jiaying 
a  certain    debt,  etc.      If  any  of  these   various  forms  of 
d.'uient   be   given   for  the  plaintiff,  and  the  action   be 


giv^ --    I 

brought  for  unliquidiitcd  (or  unascertained)  damages,  th^ 
judcnient  is  interlocutory,  since  the  cause  has  not  been  re- 
ferred to  a  jury,  and  a  writ  of  inquiry  is  necessary.  If  tho 
action  be  brought  for  a  specific  sum  of  money  which  is  due, 
as  a  particular  debt,  or  for  the  recovery  of  certain  chattels, 
the  judgment  is  final,  since  there  is  no  need  ol  ascertaining 
dama-«,  and  the  extent  of  the  plaintiff's  recovery  is  de- 
termined exactly  and  completely.  Particular  forms  ot 
iud"mcnt  at  common  law  against  the  plaintiff  aro  the 
■iudSment  of  .loa  ;>,-o»^7,„'t,.r  ("  he  docs  not  prosecute  ), 
whic'h  is  rendere.l  against  him  for  a  failure  to  plead  ;  Ibo 
judgment  „i  v.llc  ;,ro,r,„.'  ("unwilling  to  prosecute  ), 
given  when  he  avers  that  "  he  will  not  further  prosccuta 
his  suit  ■"  the  judgment  of  nonsuit,  which  is  rendered  when 
he  abandons  his  cause  or  fails  to  make  out  a  pnma  fane 
case  against  the  defendant.  Judgments  ren.lcrcd  in  lavor 
of  a  defendant  arc  always  final.  Judgments  entered  upon 
the  verdict  of  a  iurv  are  also  final,  since  the  jurj-,  at  the 
same  time  when  they  try  the  issue,  also  assess  tho  damages. 
A  judgment  rendered  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  exeep  upon 
a  dilatory  plea  (.see  Pleadinc).  is  in  the  form  ,,nnd  rcn,- 
„rr<-l  ("  that  he  do  recover")  certain  chattels,  or  a  certain 
debt  or  the  amount  of  his  damages.  A  judgment  tor  the  de- 
fendant (with  the  same  exception)  is.  in  general,  in  the  lorm 
,„l  r„,,,-o(("  that  the  pUintiff  take  nothing  ).  J"  '>""'« 
States  where  the  common-law  practice  has  been  ahol. shed 
by  codes  of  procedure,  these  various  forms  of  judgmen  no 
louKcr  exist,  but  forms  analogous  to  the  most  important  ol 
them  have  still  been  retained,  as.  e. ,,..  judgment  upon  con  es- 
sion,  upon  default,  or  by  way  of  nonsuit.  There  are  no  inter- 
locutorv  indgments  in  these  States,  but  only  final  judg- 
ments ■  Orders  take  the  place  of  interlocutory  judgments. 
i  Judgments  wer.^  ('..rinerly  pronounced  in  open  court,  and 
are  still  always  supposed  to  be  so,  but  tho  regular  eomn>on- 


JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PRIVY  COUNCIL— JUDICIARY. 


1467 


law  practice  has  been  for  a  long  period  for  tbe  party  enti- 
tled to  judgment  to  obtain  tbe  signature  or  allowance  of 
the  proper  officer  of  the  court,  expressing  geMerallv  that 
judgment  is  given  in  his  favor.  This  is  called  "signing 
judgment,"  and  stands  in  place  of  its  actual  delivery  by 
the  judges  themselves.  The  judgment  is  afterwards  entered 
on  record.  In  some  cases,  when  a  verdict  has  been  rcn<lercd 
bv  a  jury,  judgment  is  entered  in  (tpposition  to  it.  This  is 
called  a  judgment  nou  obstante  rerrtiirto  {••  notwithstanding 
the  verdict"),  and  may  be  obtained  by  tiie  phiintiff  upon 
motion,  when  it  appears  that  the  defendant,  for  whom  the 
verdict  was  given,  pleaded  in  confession  and  avoidance,  ! 
and  the  avoidance  is  bad  in  law,  though  sustained  by  the 
jury  in  point  of  fact.  The  confesgion  is  therefore  left  un- 
qualified, and  entitles  the  plaintiff  to  judgment.  After 
juilgment  has  been  entered,  proceedings  may  be  instituted 
in  an  appellate  court  for  its  reversal,  if  exceptions  have 
been  duly  taken  in  the  course  of  tho  trial,  by  an  appenl  or 
writ  of  error.  fSec  Ai-pf.al.)  If  this  bo  not  done,  and  the 
judgment  be  for  the  payment  of  money  or  the  recovery 
of  specific  real  or  personal  property,  it  will  bo  carried  into 
effect  by  exerution.  (See  Execition.) 

A  final  judgment  requiring  the  performance  of  a  specific 
act  or  the  payment  of  a  specific  sum  of  money  is  a  peculiar 
species  of  contract,  termed  a  contract  of  record.  (Sec  Cox- 
TRAtT. )  If  the  judgment  bo  not  satisfied  or  discharged,  it 
may  itself  be  made  the  foundation  of  a  subsequent  action 
in  the  same  way  as  a  claim  upon  simple  contract.  It  is, 
however,  sometimes  provided  by  statute  that  tlio  leave  of 
tho  court  in  which  tho  judgment  was  rendered,  must  bo  ob- 
tained before  action  can  be  brought  upon  it  between  the 
same  parties;  and  the  provisions  of  statutes  of  limitation 
applying  to  contracts  of  record  usually  specify  the  same 
limit  of  time  within  which  a^-tions  upon  such  contracts 
must  be  brought  as  with  reference  to  contracts  under  seal, 
such  as  bonds.  This  period  is  generally  twenty  years  as 
regards  the  judgments  of  the  higher  courts.  In  gome 
States,  however,  domestic  judgments  are  not  barred  by  tho 
statute.  Such  is  the  case  in  England,  but  actions  upon 
them  are  not  favored  there.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  a  con- 
tract of  rer'ord  that  if  it  bo  disputed,  its  existence  must  be 
tried  by  inspection  of  tho  record,  and  not  by  a  jury.  In 
order  that  a  judgment  may  bo  valid,  it  must  bo  rendered 
by  a  competent  court,  liaving  jurisdiction  of  the  particular 
cause  of  action  and  of  the  person  of  tho  defendant.  It 
matters  not  what  the  general  powers  and  jurisdiction  of  a 
court  may  be,  if  it  act  without  authority  in  tlio  particular 
instance,  its  judgments  and  orders  are  regarded  as  nul- 
lities, and  all  persons  concerned  in  executing  tbeni  are 
considered  in  law  a?  trespassers.  They  aro  not  voidable, 
but  entirely  void,  and  form  no  bar  to  a  recovery  sought 
(even  prior  to  a  reversal)  in  opposition  to  them.  The 
jurisdiction  of  any  court  exercising  authority  over  a  sub- 
ject may  be  inquired  into  in  every  court  wlicro  liio  pro- 
ceedings of  the  former  are  relied  on,  and  l>rougbt  bribro 
the  latter  by  tho  party  claiming  tho  benefit  of  such  pro- 
ceedings. There  is,  however,  a  difference  between  courts 
of  general  and  those  of  limit(*tl  jurisdiction — that  tho  juris- 
diction of  tho  former  is  jircsumed,  while  that  of  tho  latter 
must  bo  pro\ed.  But  tho  presumption  in  tho  former  case 
is  not  conclusive,  but  open  to  rebuttal.  But  where  a  court 
has  acquired  jurisdiction  of  a  cause  of  action,  it  has  au- 
thority to  render  judgment,  and  if  error  bo  committed,  or 
the  judgment  bo  frau'lulcnlly  obtained,  or  the  proper  and 
legal  forms  of  proccduro  be  disregarded,  tho  judgment  is 
voidable,  and  not  void,  and  will  bo  binding  until  vacated 
on  motion  to  tho  proper  court  or  reversed  on  appeal.  A 
juilgmcnt  rendered  by  a  competent  court,  and  not  reversed, 
operates  to  extinguish  tho  original  cause  of  action,  in  ac- 
cordance with  tho  doctrine  of  merger  (see  Mcrokr),  and 
is  absolutely  binding  upon  the  parlies  to  tho  action  and  all 
who  represent  them,  determining  their  mutual  rights  and 
obligations,  upon  tho  principle  of  estoppel.  A  caufc  once 
decided  issaitf  to  be  rtia  udjuflirtttn  (**ii  matter  adjuilieatcd 
or  determined  "),  and  cannot  therefore  bo  again  made  a 
subject  of  litigation.  (This  point  is  considered  more  fully 
under  tho  topics  Esioi-i-Kr  and  Kvini:x('»:.  The  rules  as  to  i 
estoppel  in  relation  to  I''oni:i<;N  Jt-nuMiiNTsaro  stated  under 
that  head.) 

Judgments  requiring  in  whole  or  in  part  tho  payment 
of  money  by  a  debtor  are  generally  at  tho  present  day 
made  to  constitute  a  li<'n  upon  the  debtor's  hnuls  by  the 
f(treo  of  express  statutoi",  which  prescribe  certain  penalties 
which  must  be  complied  with  in  order  that  the  lien  may 
attach  and  bo  enforcctl.  As  this  subject  is  wholly  statutory, 
tho  provisions  in  different  States  must  be  sought  in  their  [ 
various  statute-books.  In  New  York  the  judgment  must  be 
d'K'ketcd — i.  r.  registered  in  a  particular  b()ok  l>y  the  county 
clerk,  known  as  the  "  doeket-hook  " — and  it  then  becomes 
a  lien  upon  all  the  debtor's  real  property  situated  within 
thkl  county,  and  upon  all  that  ho  may  acquire  within  ten 


years  from  tho  time  of  docketing.  A  transcript  of  the 
judgment  may  be  tiled  in  the  clerk's  offices  of  other  coun- 
ties where  the  debtor  has  lands,  and  it  will  then  become  a 
lien  on  these  lands  also.  Judgments  obtained  by  several 
creditors  take  effect  according  to  the  time  of  docketing. 
The  lien  may  be  extinguished  by  a  payment  of  the  amount 
of  the  judgment.  After  tho  debtor's  personal  property  has 
been  exhausted  to  s.-itisfy  the  execution,  if  tho  judgment 
remains  unsatisfie<l,  his  lands  may  be  sold  by  the  sheriff  at 
any  time  while  the  lien  continues,  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain prescribed  forms.  (See  Likn.) 

An  interesting  question  has  come  before  the  courts  for 
adjudication  as  to  the  cfi'cct  of  a  judgment  for  the  plaintiff 
in  actions  of  trespass  or  trover  for  the  conversion  of  chat- 
tels, in  transferring  the  property  in  the  goods  to  the  de- 
fendant. Some  decisions  have  held  that  the  mere  render- 
ing of  the  judgment  has  this  effect,  but  the  generally 
prevalent  doctrine  now  is  that  the  property  docs  not  pass 
until  tho  judgment  is  satisfied. 

The  diflerencc  betw^een  judgments  in  rein  and  judgments 
in  perftonam  is  stated  under  the  topic  Ix  Rem.  Only  do- 
mestic judgments  have  been  considered  in  this  article,  and 
the  distinctions  between  these  and  foreign  judgments  will 
be  found  under  tho  title  FintKif;s  JrnoMrNT. 

GLOitci:  CnASK.     Ukvisim)  bv  T.  W,  Pwkiht. 

Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  C'ounciK 
See  Coi-RTS.  I.  5  (U). 

Judic'iary^  that  branch  of  government  or  collective 
body  of  public  officials  which  is  invested  with  the  power  of 
hearing  and  determining  litigated  causes,  of  administering 
justice,  and  of  interpreting  nn<l  enforcing  tbe  laws.  In  all 
civilized  countries  the  importance  of  securing  an  a>)le.  up- 
right, and  impartial  judiciary,  composed  of  men  learned  in 
the  law,  faithful  and  disinterested  in  the  performance  of 
duty,  and  under  no  subservience  to  governmental  authority 
by  which  tlieir  decisions  may  be  controlled  or  infiuenced, 
has  been  recognized;  and  for  the  attainment  of  these  ends 
the  judicial  dep.artmcnt  of  the  government  has  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  executive  and  legislative  departments,  each 
having  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  exclusive  powers  and  func- 
tions, and  its  mode  of  organization,  the  tenure  of  oflice  by 
the  judges,  tho  extent  of  their  authority,  and  their  legal 
rcsponsil)ility  have  been,  as  a  general  rule,  so  defined  and 
regulated  that  judicial  independence  and  integrity  may  ho 
cflcctually  promoted.  In  an  especial  sense  is  this  true  of 
England  and  the  V .  S.,  where  the  attainment  and  continued 
maintenance  of  civil  and  political  liberty,  in  which  these 
nations  have  made  tho  greatest  progress,  have  been  rec- 
ognized as  de])ending  fundamentally  upon  the  just  admin- 
istration of  tlie  laws,  of  which  the  independence  and  un- 
swerving rectitude  of  the  judiciary  alunc  aflord  a  sufficient 
guaranty.  "There  is  no  liberty,"  says  Montesquieu,  **  if 
the  judiciary  power  bo  not  separated  from  the  legislative 
and  executive.  Were  it  joined  with  tlie  legislative,  the  life 
and  liherty  of  tho  subject  would  bo  exposed  to  arbitrary 
control,  for  the  judge  would  then  bo  the  legislator.  Were 
it  joined  to  tho  executive  power,  tho  judge  might  behave 
with  violence  and  oppression."  {Spirit  of  Lnics,  hk.  11.  eh. 
0.)  Tn  England,  as  tho  liberty  of  the  citizen  increased, 
this  division  of  power  became  more  and  more  coui[tIete; 
and  in  tho  U.  S.,  whoso  political  system  was,  in  large  mea- 
sure, a  bcritago  from  England,  tho  judicial  department  of 
tho  Federal  government  was  organized  from  the  outset,  in 
pursuance  of  i)r<Jvi8ion3  expressly  embodied  for  this  pur- 
pose in  the  U.S.  Constitution,  with  entirely  distinct  powers 
from  any  other  branch  of  the  government.  The  judges 
cannot  occupy  any  other  ofiicial  position — have  no  share 
in  legislation  or  in  tho  execution  of  tho  laws.  Their  func- 
tions are  exclusively  judicial,  and  are  confined  entirely  to 
the  exercise  of  tiie  jurisdiction  conferred  upon  tho  Fed- 
eral courts  by  tho  Constitution  or  by  the  laws  of  Congress 
uutiiorized  by  tho  Constitution.  In  tho  several  States  also 
simitar  exclusive  functions  nro  conferred  upon  the  judiciary, 
though  with  a  different  extent  of  jurisdiction.  The  com- 
pleteness of  tho  separation  between  the  judicial  and  the 
other  branches  of  tho  government  which  has  been  effeetcd 
in  this  country  has  not  yet  been  attained  in  Engtan<l.  This 
diversity  is  attributable  to  tlie  peculiar  historical  origin 
and  dovehqiinent  of  the  ])resent  system  of  English  courts. 
In  tho  early  periods  of  .^axon  and  Norman  rule,  both  legis- 
lative antl  juilicial  powers  were  vested  in  the  same  pub- 
lic body  or  assemldy — under  tho  Saxons,  in  the  great  coun- 
cil or  parliament  of  tlie  kingilom  known  as  the  M''itena- 
gemoto  (Sax.,  "meeting  of  wise  men"),  und  under  tho 
Normans,  in  a  similar  assembly,  the  Aula  Regis,  or  "king's 
couneil,"  The  jiuliciat  powers  exercised  by  this  national 
assembly  were  eonferrecl  upon  the  various  courts  ns  they 
were  successively  formetl  in  later  Norman  reigns,  while  the 
council  itself  was  gradually  developed  into  (he  modern 
Parliament,  whose  powers  are  olmost  entirely  lecislative. 
But  judicial  prerogatives  have  never  been   wholly  trans- 


1468 


JUDICIARY. 


forrcd  from  the  legislature  to  tbe  courts,  and  the  highest 
appellate  tribunal  in  the  realm  at  the  present  day  is  the 
llouse  of  Lords,  which  is  also  the  highest  branch  of  Par- 
liament. It  has.  however,  been  provided  by  a  recent 
statute,  known  as  the  "Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act,'' 
which  is  to  go  into  effect  in  Nov.,  1875.  that  a  new  court 
shall  be  formed,  to  bo  designated  *'  Her  Majesty's  Court  of 
Appeal,"  in  which  the  highest  appellate  jurisdiction  shall 
be  vested,  and  that  no  appeal  shall  afterwards  be  taken 
to  the  House  of  Lords  except  from  Judgments  rendered 
prior  to  that  time.  The  separation  between  the  leg- 
islative and  judicial  departments  will  thus  bo  made  sub- 
stantially onin]>lete,  though  it  is  true  (hat  some  of  the 
judi^es  of  this  new  court  may  be  members  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  (The  provisions  of  the  judicature  act  are  stated  in 
the  article  Cohhts.)  A  union  of  judicial  and  administra- 
tive or  political  functions  also  jirevails  at  jircscnt  in  a  few 
other  instances.  Thus,  the  lord  chancellor,  who  is  the 
highest  judicial  officer  in  the  kingdom,  is  also  a  member  of 
the  ministry  in  office  for  the  time  being,  and  loses  his  posi- 
tion by  a  change  of  ministry.  He  is  the  prolocutor  (or 
Speaker)  of  the  House  of  Lords,  has  the  appointment  of 
all  justices  of  the  peace  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  exer- 
cises various  other  powers  more  distinctively  political  than 
judicial.  The  master  of  the  rolls,  also,  who  is  a  judge  in 
equity,  may  be  elected  to  represent  a  constituency  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  But  even  in  these  exceptional  in- 
stances the  union  of  judicial  with  other  diverse  functions 
is  but  meagre  in  extent.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  though  in  theory  vested  in  the  whole  body  of  peers 
collectively,  is  in  reality  exercised  by  a  small  number  of 
them,  who  are  designated  distinctively  the  "law  lords." 
The  administrative  functions  of  the  lord  chancellor  also 
appertain,  in  a  largo  measure,  to  the  performance  of  his 
judicial  duties.  As  a  result  of  the  division  of  power  among 
several  branches  of  government,  the  judiciary  occupy  a 
distinct  position,  are  entrusted  with  duties  of  a  dciinite 
and  uniform  character,  are  removed  to  a  great  degree  from 
political  infiuenccs  which  might  engender  a  partisan  spirit, 
and  the  entire  tendency  of  their  official  labors  is  to  produce 
a  habit  of  impartiality  in  the  administration  of  justice  and 
an  especial  capacity  for  judicial  investigation. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  establishment 
of  methods  of  court  organization,  and  the  deBning  and 
limitation  of  the  functions  and  responsibility  of  the  judi- 
ciary as  a  means  of  preserving  their  indejjcndence.  The 
moxt  important  constitutional  or  legislative  measures  of 
this  kind  have  reference  to  the  methods  of  choosing  judges, 
the  nature  and  duration  of  their  tenure  of  office,  the  pay- 
ment of  their  salary,  and  their  liability  for  judicial  or 
extra-judicial  acts.  In  England — and  in  the  U.  S.  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  Federal  courts — judges  receive  their  posi- 
tions by  appointment.  In  the  former  country  the  superior 
juilges  are  all  appointed  by  the  Crown,  while  certain  in- 
ferior magistrates  are  appointed  by  the  lord  chancellor  or 
other  high  officials.  In  the  latter,  the  Federal  judges  are 
ap])ointed  by  the  President  "by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate" — i'.  e.  the  Senate  may  confirm  or 
reject  his  nominations.  In  the  several  States  of  the  Union 
constitutional  provisions  of  a  similar  nature  were  adopted 
at  an  early  period,  and  it  was  declared  in  many  of  them 
that  the  appointment  should  be  made  by  the  governor, 
subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the  State  senate,  while  in 
others  power  was  given  to  the  legislature  to  elect  the 
judges.  But  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  a  largo 
number  of  the  States  have  m.ade  the  judges  elective  officers, 
chosen  directly  by  popular  suffrage,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
members  of  the  legislature  or  the  governor.  In  Missis- 
sippi this  change  was  made  in  is;t;{.  But  it  was  not  till  a 
similar  example  was  set  by  Xew  York,  which  adopted  a 
constitution  in  18(0  providing  for  the  election  of  judges, 
that  any  considerable  number  of  States  discarded  their  pre- 
vious practice  for  a  system  of  election.  An  elective  judi- 
ciary is  now  ?aid  to  exist  in  a  majority  of  the  States.  The 
tenure  of  office  of  the  English  judiciary  was  anciently  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  Crown,  but  in  the  time  of  Lord  Coke 
(about  IfiOO)  it  became  customary  to  insert  in  the  commis- 
sions of  the  common  law  judges  that  they  shoubl  h.dd  of- 
fice during  good  behavior.  It  lay.  however,  in  the  pleasure 
of  the  Crown  lo  determine  the  form  of  the  commissions  un- 
til the  Act  of  vSettkment  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 
(1701).  by  which  it  was  provided  that  (he  judiciary  should 
retain  their  positions  during  good  behavior,  though  the>y 
might  still  be  removed  on  the  address  of  both  houses  of 
Parliament.  By  an  act  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  TIT. 
(17SI)  they  continue  in  ofl^ce  notwithstanding  the  demise 
of  the  Crown.  These  laws  apply  to  all  the  superior  judges, 
except  the  lord  chancellor,  and  the  (enure  of  office  with  this 
exception  is  practically  for  life.  In  the  II.  S.  it  is  expressly 
deelared  in  the  Federal  Constitution  that  "the  judges  both 
of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts  are  to  hold  their  office 


during  good  behavior.**  Bat  by  a  receot  act  of  Congress 
any  judge  who  has  held  his  commission  for  at  least  ten 
years,  and  has  reached  the  age  of  seventy,  may  resign,  and 
his  salary  will  be  continued  as  a  retiring  pension  during 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  most  of  the  States  the  tenure 
of  office  was  originally  establisheil  as  continuing  during 
"life  or  good  behavior,"  or  until  the  attainment  of  a  cer- 
tain advanced  age,  as  sixty  or  seventy  years.  In  New 
York,  for  instance,  Chancellor  Kent  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  office  in  182^  on  reaching  the  age  of  sixty,  which  was 
the  constitutional  limit.  In  those  States,  however,  in  which 
an  elective  judiciary  has  been  established,  the  duration  of 
the  term  of  office  is  generally  limited  to  a  few  years.  Thus, 
in  New  York  it  was  declared  by  the  constitution  of  184C 
that  the  term  of  office  of  the  jirincipal  judges  should  be 
eight  years.  In  1SG9,  however,  it  was  extended  to  fourteen 
years,  with  the  qualification  that  the  term  should  terminate 
when  a  judge  reached  the  age  of  seventy.  This  funda- 
mental change  in  the  mode  of  selecting  the  judges  and  in 
the  length  of  their  terms  of  office  whicii  fans  taken  place  in 
so  many  of  the  States  has  given  rise  to  no  little  controversy 
between  the  advocates  of  the  old  and  those  of  the  new  sys- 
tem as  to  its  effect  in  impairing,  or  tending  to  impair,  the 
independence  of  the  judiciary.  The  natural  tendency  of 
the  system  of  appointment  and  a  tenure  of  office  during 
good  behavior  is  manifestly  to  relieve  the  judiciary  trom 
all  apprehension  of  losing  their  positions  by  failing  to  con- 
sult the  interests  or  favor  the  wishes  of  the  appointing  power 
or  by  reason  of  any  fluctuations  of  party  politics.  The  faith- 
ful performance  of  duty,  without  regani  to  ulterior  consider- 
ations of  future  advantage,  is  therefore  more  likely  to  be  se- 
cured. Pre-eminent  legal  ability  is  more  apt  (o  be  regarded 
thanpoliticalservicesorparty  fealty  as  the  cliief  qualification 
in  a  judge,  and  the  responsibility  of  a  bad  appointment  is 
readily  fixed  upon  the  appointing  power,  so  that  care  and 
deliberation  are  likely  to  characterize  the  selection  of  the 
judiciary.  The  temptation  to  court  popular  applause  and 
support,  even  by  a  sacrifice  of  judicial  fairness  and  integ- 
rity, the  influence  of  which  would  naturally  be  most  pow- 
erful where  an  elective  system  prevailed,  is  much  dimin- 
ished when  the  judges  feel  no  dependence  upon  the  people 
for  a  continuance  of  their  official  position.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  election  by  so  many  of 
the  States  of  this  country  is  but  a  further  extension  of 
democratic  principles  uj>on  which  the  structure  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  founded,  and  it  is  mainly  upon  this  ground  that 
its  advisability  as  a  matter  of  public  policy  has  been  based. 
It  is  urged,  moreover,  that  the  uprightness  and  independ- 
ence of  the  judges  will  be  promoted  by  making  them 
amenable  to  the  popular  will,  and  subject  to  public  dis- 
approbation and  a  forfeiture  of  their  positions  by  corrupt 
conduct.  But  whatever  mode  may  he  established  for  the 
selection  of  the  judiciary,  only  its  tendencies  can  be  spoken 
of  with  assurance,  and  not  its  necessary  results.  The  in- 
fluence of  a  healthy  public  opinion  demanding  integrity, 
ability,  and  a  true  judicial  spirit  upon  the  bench — a  public 
opinion  which  is  sure  to  prevail  in  the  long  run  in  this 
country — will  be  particularly  effective  in  counteracting  the 
evil  tendencies  which  may  exist  in  a  system  of  election. 
In  some  of  the  States,  moreover,  there  has  been  a  return,  in 
gome  measure,  to  the  former  practice  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  tenure  of  office,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  a  change 
of  this  kind  will  be  generally  adopted.  But  by  no  system 
of  appointment  or  election  can  the  absolute  purity  and  im- 
partiality of  the  judiciary  be  ensured.  The  remarks  of 
Jlallam  upon  this  point  in  regard  to  the  English  judges 
are  very  suggestive :  "  It  is  always  to  be  kept  in  mind  that 
they  are  still  accessible  to  the  hope  of  further  promotion, 
to  the  zeal  of  political  attachment,  to  the  flattery  of  princes 
and  ministers:  that  the  bias  of  their  prejudices,  as  elderly 
anil  peaceable  men.  will,  in  the  plurality  of  cases,  be  on 
the  side  of  power:  that  they  have  frequently  been  trained 
ns  advocates  to  vindicate  every  proceeding  of  the  Crown. 
From  all  which  wo  should  look  on  them  with  some  little 
vigilance,  and  not  come  hastily  to  the  conclusion  that  be- 
cause their  commissions  cannot  be  vacated  by  the  Crown's 
authority  they  are  wholly  out  of  the  reach  of  its  influence." 
{Connt.  7/iW.,"eh.  15.) 

The  subject  of  the  salaries  of  judges  is  generally  regu- 
lated by  constitutional  provisions,  in  order  that  they  may 
not  be  subject  to  coercion  or  wrongly  influenced  in  (heir 
discharge  of  duty  by  a  reduction  or  deprivation  of  their 
means  of  livelihood.  By  the  English  Act  of  Settlement  it 
was  declared  that  the  salaries  of  the  judges  should  be  as- 
certained and  established,  and  by  act  passed  in  the  reign 
of  George  III.  it  was  provided  that  their  salaries  should  be 
absolutely  secured  to  them  during  their  continuance  in  of- 
fice. The  Vi .  S.  Constitution  jirovides  that  the  judges  *'  are 
at  stated  times  to  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation 
which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  oontinuanoe  in 
office.*'     In  Eome  of  the  States  this  provision  is  copied, 


JUDICIUM  POPULI, 


1469 


while  in  others  fhcro  is  a  constitutionnl  rule  that  judicial 
salaries  shall  neither  bo  increased  nur  diuiinishoit  during  the 
term  of  office.  The  determination  of  the  amount  of  salary 
to  be  paid  bclonj^s  to  the  le;];islftture,  pubject  to  these  con- 
stitutional restriction?.  The  tluctuatiomt  in  the  value  of 
money  and  in  the  cost  of  living  render  it  inexpedient  to 
specify  a  fixed  salary  in  the  constitution.  The  American 
constitutional  provisions  are  more  efticiioinus  and  salutary 
in  relieving  the  jmiiciary  from  all  subordination  to  the 
legislature  than  the  laws  of  Enj^Iand  upon  the  subject,  since 
there  the  compensation  is  at  all  times  subject  to  alteration 
by  an  net  of  Parliament.  There  has.  moreover,  been  in 
recent  times  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  necessity  of  pro- 
viding for  the  judges  sufficiently  ample  salaries  to  enable 
the  state  to  secure  the  services  of  the  ablest  lawyers  and 
jurists  upon  the  bench.  In  many  of  the  V.  8.  the  salaries 
have  hitherto  been  so  meagre  that  the  tendency  has  been 
for  men  of  the  highest  legal  attainments  to  remain  in  their 
hicrative  practice  at  the  bar  rather  than  to  seek  or  to  ac- 
cept judicial  positions.  In  some  of  them,  as  in  New  York, 
the  amount  of  compensation  has  recently  been  made  more 
liberal  and  adecjuate.  An  ample  salary,  whose  amount  and 
time  of  payment  arc  not  liable  to  legislative  or  executive 
interference  or  control,  is  evidently  an  important  safeguard 
to  judicial  independence,  since  a  powerful  means  of  intimi- 
dation which  would  otherwise  be  afTordcd  is  rendered  un- 
available. 

The  fearlessness  and  independence  of  the  judiciary  are 
further  promoted  by  limiting  their  legal  responsibility.  It 
is  a  principle  which  has  been  said  to  have  a ''deep  root 
in  the  common  law "  that  judicial  officers  shall  never 
be  liable  to  a  civil  action  for  acts  done  in  the  perform- 
ance of  their  legal  duties  and  within  the  province  of 
their  legitimate  jurisdiction,  even  though  they  act  cor- 
ruptly and  opprossi^'ely.  Nor  are  they  liable,  under  sim- 
ilar circumstances,  to  a  criminal  prosecution.  The  im- 
partial administration  of  justice  requires  that  those  who 
dispense  it  should  not  bo  exposed  to  any  inlhienees  which 
would  make  them  timid,  hesitating,  and  over-cautious. 
"  It  is  better."  says  an  able  ilnglish  judge,  *'  that  an  indi- 
vidual should  occasionally  suffer  a  wrong  than  Miat  the 
course  of  justice  should  be  impeded  aud  fettered  by  con- 
stant restraints  and  apprehension  on  the  part  of  those  who 
are  to  administer  it."  The  regular  remedy  against  a  judge 
who  is  guilty  of  criminal  disregard  or  violation  of  duty  or 
perversion  of  justice  is  impeachment.  (See  Imi*i-:a('Hmi:nt.) 
As  this  is  an  inconvenient  mode  of  trial,  never  resorted  to 
except  in  the  case  of  grave  and  flagrant  oflfences.  the  judi- 
ciary are  in  a  very  exceptional  degree  freed  from  legal  ac- 
countability. The  constitutions  of  some  of  the  iSlates  pro- 
vide for  a  removal  of  judges  by  concurrent  resolution  of 
both  houses  of  the  legislature  passed  by  a  specified  vote, 
the  cause  being  entered  on  the  journals,  an<i  a  hearing  hav- 
ing been  accorded  to  the  party  coui]dained  of. 

There  are  various  other  important  ami  interesting  ques- 
tions in  regard  to  the  judiciary  whir-h  might  ije  considered 
in  this  conneclion,  but  these  have  been  treated  of  under 
other  topics.  Such,  for  example,  are  inquiries  relating  to 
the  position  wliiidi  a  judge  occupies  and  the  functions  lie 
perform;' in  different  civilized  countries  in  the  conduct  of  a 
trial  or  the  decision  of  causes  ;  to  the  extent  and  nature  of 
the  jurisdiction  which  is  conferred  upon  him  in  different 
courts;  to  the  diverse  character  of  the  proceerlings  which 
raav  come  before  him  for  adjudic^ation  ;  to  the  important 
jurisdiction  which  is  eonferrecl  upon  the  judiciary  in  this 
country  of  determining  the  constitutionality  of  legislative 
acts,  etc.  For  a  discussion  of  these  and  analogous  topics  see 
TorRTS,  JrnriF,  .IiTHmniiTKiN,  Law.  EgcuTv,  Admirai-ty, 
CoNsTiTrnoN,  TiiiAi-,  CiiAMFiKRS,  .A PPKAI/,  J tritisrRiinKNrE. 
(As  to  the  indepeiidenee  of  (he  judiciary,  see  Story  on  the 
ConHlitntion  ;  Kent's  Commentaries,  vol,  i.;  lAchcr's  Civil 
Librrti/.)       (ii:oR(;r,  ('mask.     Ukvisrh  nv  T.  W.  Owigiit. 

Jlltlic'ilim  l*0|>'llli  [Lat.,  "judgment  by  the  people  "], 
in  Roman  law,  an  early  form  of  submitting  to  the  decision 
of  a  popular  vote  the  ilifferences  between  high  functionaries, 
accusations  against  magistrates,  and  other  simiIar_concerns 
in  which  the  people  as  a  whole  was  conceived  not  merely 
to  be  deeply  interested,  but  to  have  a  right  to  pronounce 
its  sentence  after  due  formalities.  The  jmliria  pnhticn  of 
the  later  republican  period  are  considero<l  by  the  text- 
writers  to  bo  substitutes  for  the  Jtufirin  pnpuH,  and  indeed 
it  is  probable  (hat  among  all  the  Indo-Kuropean  nations 
the  powers  of  ju>lge?  and  courts  of  law  liave  been  derived 
from  an  earlier  jurisdiction  exercised  by  the  jieoplo  as 
judge,  by  the  gradual  elimination  of  those  who  were  less 
able  or  less  willing  to  net  in  such  capacity,  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  powers  of  a  supreme  court  of  appeals,  still 
nominally  vested  in  the  English  H'»use  of  Lords,  have  long 
been  practically  exercised  only  by  the  half  dozen  "law- 
lords."  who  owe  their  seats  in  that  house  to  previous  experi- 
ence on  the  Iiineh.    The  same  theory  will  probably  account 


for  the  formation  of  all  representative  legislative  bodies,  and, 
still  more  obviously,  for  the  origin  of  the  modern  jury, 
both  these  institutions  being  peculiar  to  the  Aryan  or  In- 
do-European family  of  mankind.  Indeed,  it  is  so  certain 
that  the  ]iowers  and  lacnities  of  early  Greek  and  Roman 
judges  differed  in  no  degree  from  those  which  might  bo 
exercised  by  a  popular  assembly,  that  when  for  convenience 
it  became  necessary  to  entrust  special  judicial  functions  to 
individuals,  the  latter  were  neither  elected  nor  otherwise 
designated  with  any  view  to  greater  individual  compe- 
tency, but  were  chosen  by  lot,  all  the  citizens  being  equatly 
liable  to  perform  this  service.  As  above  noticed,  it  is  prob- 
able  that  in  the  shadowy  oriijinca  of  Aryan  law  all  ques- 
tions affecting  either  pui)lic  interests  or  jirivate  rights  were 
equally  decided  by  tlic  pojmlar  assembly,  from  which  all 
forms  of  authority  excepting  tliosc  resting  upon  brute  force 
or  the  religious  sanction  have  been  gradually  evolved.  At 
the  earliest  period  of  which  any  clear  evidence  remains, 
actions  brought  by  individuals  in  defence  of  their  private 
rights  {JHilicia  pn'ratn),  and  resting  upon  special  laws 
{priritcf/ia),  had  been  discriminated  from  the judicia  popufi, 
and  were  determined  by  special  magistrates,  white  matters 
of  ])ublic  interest  { Judicia  pnhlii-a  or  popiilaria)  were  still 
decided  by  the  popular  asscml)ly.  The  tendency  of  all 
things  to  jirogress  from  tlie  general  to  the  particular  is 
well  illustrated  I)y  the  gradual  accumulation  of  statute  law, 
which  had  tt)  be  interpretcfJ  by  this  assembly,  leading  to 
the  withdrawal  to  private  tribunals  of  other  large  classes 
of  actions,  to  the  substitution  of  the  term  Judicia  pubiica 
for  Judicia  popufi,  and  the  final  extinction  under  the  em- 
pire of  this  ancient  tribunal.  In  the  mythical  times  of  the 
Roman  kings  it  is  alleged  that  those  monarehs  presided 
over  tho  assemblies  of  the  jicoplo  convened  as  a  tribunal. 
They  were  naturally  replaced  in  this  prerogative  by  tho 
consuls;  until  in  b.  c.  508  tho  Lex  X'aUria  de  Provocatione 
established  magistrates  called  quiesitorcs  or  qug:etorcii  rerum 
capiUilinm,  who  were  at  first  popularly  chosen  for  special 
occasions,  but  so<)n  exercised  a  more  lasting  authorily 
{ijuiEatorrs  pcrpvtui).  By  the  Lex  Cnlpurnia  de  J'eriniiia 
Jhpetnudia  fn.  c.  149)  tho  pnvtor  became  cj  officio  the 
president  of  tho  popular  assembly.  Other  praetors  were 
from  time  to  time  added,  until  in  tho  time  of  Sulla  they 
numbered  nine,  each  exercising  jurisdiction  over  a  distinct 
class  of  offences;  and  this  became  tho  origin  of  the  crimi- 
nal courts,  wliieh  existed  until  the  fall  of  the  empire.  In 
the  normal  judirium  popnli  any  citizen  might  act  as  an 
accuser,  while  tho  Jtidiccn  (judges)  were  chosen  by  lot 
from  among  the  people.  Roth  accuser  and  accused  had 
a  limited  right  of  challenging  the  judges  so  designated. 
Tho  prsotor  presided,  and,  as  he  was  not  necessarily  ac- 
quainted with  tlie  technicalities  of  law,  was  assisted  by  one 
or  more  assessors  or  jurisconsults.  \Vhcn  a  magistrate  was 
accused,  the  trial  could  not  take  place  until  his  term  of 
office  expired,  but  meanwhile  he  was  bound  to  give  security 
for  his  appearance.  The  verdict  was  given  by  ballots  in- 
scribed upon  tablets;  they  bore  the  tra<Iitional  name  of 
letjcH  (laws),  and  were  theoretically  binding  in  future  cases 
of  tho  same  kiml,  though  the  mobility  of  the  Roman  people, 
and  their  strongly  developed  fondness  for  jiublic  alViiirs, 
made  them  averse  to  surrender  any  real  power  to  the  force 
of  precedents.  ^Vllcn  at  length  tlie  jiowtM's  of  the  popular 
assembly  were  lodged  in  a  special  body  ofjiidicre,  the  name 
and  general  regulations  of  tho  earlier  assembly  were  re- 
tained, but  a  series  of  conflicts  arose  as  to  the  designation 
of  the  JudircH.  Ry  the  /.ex  (\i{purui>i  a  body  of  IIM)  per- 
sons was  inscribe<i  in  tablets  (afhum),  and  from  them  tho 
jiidicru  were  to  be  selected  by  lot  as  occasion  demanded. 
Before  this  time  they  were  generally  taken  from  the  sen- 
atorial class,  but  during  the  popular  struggle  the  senators 
gradually  h>st  their  prerogative,  and  were  excluded  by  (ho 
Lrx  Scmproiiia,  enacted  H.  t\  \2'.\,  (ui  motion  of  Cains  (irac- 
chus.  which  limited  tho  ehoico  to  the  class  of  ci/iiiten  or 
knights.  The  Lex  Sfrvi/ia  of  n.  r.  104  first  defined  with 
some  minutiMiess  the  personal  disqualifications  which  should 
i  exclude  a  citizen  from  the  exercise  of  the  judicial  funclion. 
No  one  who  had  ever  been  tril)Une,  qnirstor,  or  triumvir, 
no  senator  or  near  relative  of  a  senator,  no  non-resident 
in  tho  city  or  suburbs,  and  no  person  under  thirty  or  over 
sixty  years  of  age,  was  eligible.  The  prietor.  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  term,  was  to  choose  -(.'(O  Judicrt,  from 
whom  tho  judges  in  each  particular  case  were  taken  by 
lot.  There  were  many  subsequent  alternations  in  this  re- 
gard, and  tho  nature  of  some  of  the  changes  is  involved 
in  great  doubt.  \iy  tho  Lrx  f'/nulia  (n.  r.  S!))  the  judiees 
j  were  to  be  chosen  from  the  triltm  without  distinclimi  of 
!  class;  by  the  /,r.r  AurcHn  (u.  r.  70)  they  were  restricted  to 
tho  three  classes  (called  drrttritr)  of  senators,  equites,  and 
tribuni  irrarii :  another  dccuria  was  addeil  by  Augustus. 
At  this  time  the  whole  ntimbcr  registered  in  tho  Alhum 
Judiriim  was  near  4(HM».  and  the  ordinary  number  of  judges 
in  each  given  case  was  seventy.  PoRTEn  C.  Rljss. 


1470 


JUDITH— JUGGLING. 


Ju'ilith  [Hcb.  Yehndith,  feminine  form  of  "Judah"], 
the  heroine  ol'  one  of  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, in  whieh  phe  is  represented  as  inhabitinp;  Bethu- 
lia,  a  town  u\'  '-^aniiiria.  when  it  was  besieged  by  an  A?:*yr- 
ian  armv  under  Ilolofernej:,  and  as  having  by  slratagcni 
eutoff  the  head  of  that  general  and  thus  delivered  her  peo- 
ple from  destruction.  That  the  book  of  Judith  is  historical 
in  its  character  is  maintained  by  the  ('athollc  Cliureh.  it 
being  included  in  their  biblical  canon,  hut  has  been  denied 
by  most  Protestant  critics,  chiefly,  it  would  seem,  from  tlie 
difficulty  of  making  its  statements  harmonize  with  any 
sclieme  of  chronology.  The  Assyrian  king  called  Nebu- 
chadnezzar in  the  book  of  Judith  has  been  identified  in  turn 
with  almost  every  one  of  the  Persian  monarchs  from  Cam- 
bvses  to  Avtaxerxes  Ot-hus,  but  there  are  insuperable  objec- 
tions to  each  which  have  taxed  the  utmost  ingenuity  of  the 
historical  school  of  commentators.  On  the  alternative  hy- 
pothesis, that  the  book  is  a  kind  of  rcligio-patriotic  ro- 
mance, intended  to  raise  the  courage  of  the  chosen  people 
at  some  period  of  grievous  oppression  by  a  foreign  tyrant, 
there  are  two  leading  views — one,  represented  by  Luther  and 
Grotius.  looks  upon  tlie  Imok  as  an  allegorical  accouutof  the 
Jewish  sufferings  under  Antiochus  Epiphancs.  The  Tlibjn- 
f^en  school  of  criticism  and  other  recent  (Jerman  authorities 
(Volkmar.  IJaur.  Hitzig)  generally  regard  it  as  a  produc- 
tion of  the  second  century  A.  n.,  making  Nebuchadnezzar 
stand  for  Trajan,  Nineveh  for  Antioch.  Assyria  for  Syria, 
Arphaxad  for  the  Parthians.  Eebatana  for  Nisibis,  Holo- 
fernos  for  th**  Roman  general  Lucius  Quietus,  and  Judith 
for  Judiea.  The  occasion  is  assigned  to  1 17-118  a.  d.,  when 
the  Jews  antl  Parthians  obtained  a  victory  over  Quietus. 
The  book  of  Judith  is  not  a  part  of  the  Jewish  canon  of 
Scripture.  Lessons  from  it  are  read  in  the  service  of  the 
Church  of  England.  (See  Volkmar,  Dnn  Buck  Judith  (Tii- 
bingcn.  IS(iO)  :   Wolff,  same  title  {Leipsic,  1861).) 

Jiid'kins,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1432. 

Jud'son,  post-tp.  of  Blue  Earth  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  661. 

Jiidson  (Adoniram),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Maiden,  Mass.,  Aug. 
9.  1788;  graduated  at  Brown  University,  R.  L,  in  1807, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Mas§.,  in  1810. 
Teaching  a  private  school  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  he  pub- 
lislied  in  1808  and  1801*  his  Elements  of  En<j(ish  Grammar 
and  YotuKj  Ladies'  Arithmetic.  Feb.  6,  1812,  he  was  or- 
dained as  a  missionary  to  ISurniah.  under  the  auspices  of 
the  A.  B.  C.  F.  j\I.  He  married  Ann  HassLdtine,  teacher 
in  the  academy  at  Bradford,  Mass.,  and  with  her  sailed  for 
C.ilculta  Feb.  PJ,  lf>12.  On  the  voyage  his  views  regard- 
ing the  ordinance  of  baptism  underwent  a  change,  and 
reaching  Calcutta  he  identified  himself  with  the  Baptist 
d"nomination.  giving  reasons  for  his  action  in  Jndnon  on 
l{'}pti>im.  which  was  republished  in  the  U.  S.  This  led 
American  Baptists  to  interest  themselves  in  foreign  mis- 
sions, and  to  the  formation  of  the  society  now  known  as 
the  American  Baptist  iMissionary  Union.  L'nder  the  au- 
spices of  this  society  he  became  the  founder  in  Burmah  of 
one  of  the  most  successful  missionary  enterprises  of  modern 
times.  Settling  first  at  Rangoon,  Judson  labored  for  nearly 
forty  years  in  Burraali,  two  of  which  he  spent  in  pristm, 
manacled  and  daily  expecting  execution.  He  translated 
the  liible  into  Burmese,  and  at  his  death  had  nearly  com- 
pleted a  dictionary  of  that  language  in  two  volumes.  Be- 
fore his  death  he  was  surrounded  by  thousands  of  native 
converts  and  by  many  missionaries,  American  and  Bur- 
mese. Mrs.  Judson  d!  O.-t.  21,  1820,  and  in  Apr.,  1834,  he 
married  Mrs.  Sarah  H.  Boardman,  who  d.  Sept.  1,  184j. 
In  June,  1846,  he  married  Miss  Emily  Chubbuck.  who  d. 
June  1,  1854.  He  d.  at  sea  Apr.  12,  1S50.  .Memoirs  of 
Judson  were  published  by  W.  Hague(18.'>U.  by  J.  Clem- 
ent (1852).  by  K.  Wavland  (ISoii),  by  D.  T.  Middleditch 
(1854),  and  by  Mrs.  H.  C.  Conant  (1856).  (See  also  the 
Mf.moir  of  Ann  //.  Jiidson,  by  Prof.  J.  D.  Knowles — an  in- 
teresting sketch  of  an  able  and  devoted  woman,  which  in- 
cidentally illustrates,  pretty  fully,  the  origin  and  early 
growth  of  American  Baptist  missious  in  India;  the  Me- 
vioir  of  S'trah  //.  Jiidnoii,  by  Mrs.  Kmily  C.  Juils<m  ;  and 
the  Life  of  Emily  C.  Judson,'hy  Prof.  A.  C.  Kendrick.  D.  D. 
Of  these  three  gifted  women,  the  last  mentioned  (Emily 
Chubbuck  Jurlson — better  known  under  the  iio/n  de  plnmr 
of  "Funny  Forrester")  attained  to  considerable  literary 
reputation  by  a  two-volume  collection  of  essays  and 
gketches  bearing  the  name  of  Afderhrook,  by  a  volume  of 
domestic  poems  called  The  Olio,  and  by  a  volume  of  papers 
suggested  by  missionary-life,  entitled  The  Knthnjfau  Slave.) 

M.  B.  Anderson. 

Judso'niav  post-v.  of  White  co-  Ark.,  on  the  N.  bank 
of  Little  Red  River  and  on  the  Cairo  and  Fulton  R.  R.,  5;i 
miles  N.  E.  of  Little  Rock.  It  is  occupied  by  a  colony  of 
Baptists  from  the  Northern  States. 

Jn'el  (Niels),  b.  May  8.  1629;  entered  early  into  the 
Dutch  service,  and  commanded  on  several  occasions  under 


Tromp  and  Rnyter.  Having  been  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  Banish  navy,  he  gave  it  a  new  and  thorough  organiza- 
tion, and  by  his  brilliant  victories  over  the  Swedish  fleets 
in  1677  at  Kolbergheide  and  Kjoge,  and  by  his  conquest 
of  Gothland  in  1676  and  Riigen  in  1678,  made  the  Baltic  a 
Danish  water.  In  reward  fur  his  great  services  he  received 
the  island  of  Taasingc  as  a  lief.  D.  at  Copenhagen  Apr.  8, 
1697, 

Juggernaut.    See  JAGniciEs-AiT. 

Jiig'gling  and  Juff'gler  [from  the  Old  TT.^jonglPre; 

Middle  Lat.  (Ducangei,  J".'/'"''>''  or  joculntor,  literally,  a 
"jester:"  also,  j>>ijal<iur  ((.Miauccr).  jnrnhir  (J.  Leland, 
Collectana,  vol.  i.  p.  2.35).  But  it  is  probable  that  the 
word  owes  as  much  to  an  independent  Teutonic  source  as 
to  the  Latin  joeus,  as  may  he  seen  in  the  German  Gan- 
chcln-Jiicheln,  probably  from  ffe-irii/lian,  to  *'  beguile."  Ac- 
cording to  Larousse,  JontfUr  means,  accurately,  "to  throw 
in  the  air  objects  which  as  fast  as  caught  are  thrown 
again."  This  he  illustrates  by  quoting  from  Expilly : 
"The  African  Psylli  jonf/laieut  or  juggled  with  serpents." 
This  agrees  singularly  with  the  Sanskrit  j"n»yi(/i',  '*a  snake- 
catcher,  a  conjurer."  The  Teutonic  source  has  its  affinity 
at  least  in  the  Sanskrit  ya^^o/a,  "fraudulent,"  "knavish"]. 
Juggling,  which  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world  was,  under 
the  name  of  thaumaturgia  or  wonder-working,  the  princi- 
pal aid  to  priests  in  performing  their  false  miracles,  has  in 
modern  times  dejrenerated  into  a  source  of  mere  amuse- 
ment, or  one  which  only  provides  marvels  to  mislead  the 
superstitious  and  ignorant.  The  principal  art  in  juggling 
is  legerdemain  or  sleight-of-hand  and  substitution,  tech- 
nically called  among  its  professors  hanki-panKi,  from  two 
gypsy  words,  which  are  in  the  original  Ilindostani,  hokkn 
bazi,  pronounced  "  honky  bosee,"  meaning  precisely  the 
same  thing  (in  Persian,  7/o/.-o  haz).  As  tlic  gypsies  also 
call  theft  by  substitution  honhi-pokl  or  Uukkni-pokx,  it  is 
possible  that  we  have  in  this  the  origin  of  huviis-pocus. 
Many  distinguished  jugglers  have  been  gypsies,  and  the 
Nats  or  true  gypsies  of  India  are  all  jugglers,  acrobats,  or 
dancers.  The  juggler  among  the  Romans  was  called  jar/rs- 
tiffiator;  with  the  Greeks  he  was  a  thaumafopoios.  Athe- 
nfcus  in  his  Deipiiosophtfta'  describes  an  entertainment 
where  naked  girls  vomited  fire  and  jumped  or  rolled  among 
swords,  and  he  gives  the  names  of  the  most  celebrated  jug- 
glers of  his  time.  From  his  account  it  appears  that  among 
the  ancients,  as  at  the  present  day  in  Egypt,  drollery  and 
dramatic  art  formed  an  important  element  in  such  conjur- 
ing. The  writer  has  seen  in  and  near  Cairo  native  jug- 
glers who  by  acting  and  humorously  affecting  to  be  aided 
by  evil  spirits  very  much  enhanced  the  effect  of  their 
tricks.  Trickery  with  cups,  or  thimble-rig,  was  known  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  old-fashioned  thimble-rig,  so 
generally  practised  at  races,  wliieh  was  performed  by 
adroitly  taking  away  the  pea  witli  the  fingers  of  the  same 
hand  which  held  tlie  cup.  has  of  late  been  modified  by  an 
improved  style  of  French  thimble  of  vulcanite.  The  ordi- 
nary juggling  tricks  were  common  among  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons. Strutt  gives  an  interesting  chapter  on  the  joculator 
or  jimtjifhtwr  of  England  in  the  Middle  Ages.  From  ])as- 
sages  in  Chnucer,  Sir  John  Mundcvillc,  Froissart,  and  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini  it  is  evident  that  the  jugglers  of  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  were  familiar  with  the  magic 
lantern,  and  were  in  fact  far  in  advance  of  the  science  of 
the  learned  of  their  days.  "  Sometimes,"  says  Chaucer,  "  in 
a  large  hall  they  will  produce  water,  with  i)oats  rowed  up 
and  down  upon  it.  Sometimes  they  will  bring  in  the  sim- 
ilitude of  a  grim  lyon  or  make  flowers  spring  up  as  in  a 
meadow;  .sometimes  they  cause  a  vino  to  flourish  bearing 
red  and  white  grapes;  or  they  show  a  castle  built  with 
stone:  and  when  they  jdeasc  they  cause  the  whole  to  dis- 
appear." The  jugglers  of  old — whether  priests  or  treija- 
fonrn,  as  they  were  called  in  England,  or /oyr^onrs — formed 
a  very  close  corporation  and  kejit  their  secrets  well.  Even 
King  James  I.  believed  that  they  were  aided  by  the  devil. 
All  of  the  ordinary  miracles  related  of  ancient  wonder-work- 
ers, such  as  making  heads  speak,  showing  men  whom  no  ropes 
could  bind,  and  the  like,  are  now  performed  with  great  ease. 
Among  the  Babylonians  and  Aralis  it  was  usual  to  mako 
arrow.-;  leap  up  and  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  king 
should  advance  against  an  enemy.  "  For  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon stctod  at  the  jiarting  of  the  way,  at  the  head  of  the  two 
ways,  to  use  divination  ;  he  made  his  arrows  bright"  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21).  This  was  done  by  means  of  a  hair:  the  Japanese 
juggler  of  the  present  day  makes  a  butterfly  flit  around  him 
by  attaching  to  it  a  perfectly  invisible  silkworm's  thread. 
From  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present  day  the  world  has 
seen  pretenders  to  magic  power  or  to  intercourse  with 
spirits  performing  miracles  which  after  a  few  years  have 
been  retailed  by  jugglers.  The  great  basis  of  false  mir- 
acles, as  well  as  the  popularity  of  juggling  itself,  consists 
in  tho  truth  of  the  saying  :  "  J'opulua  vult  dtcipi  " — "  Peo- 


JDGDRTHA— JULIAN. 


1471 


pie  wish  to  be  deceived."    Not  many  years  ago  a  notorious  1 
thaiimaturgist  proposed  to  exhibit  before  a  certain  royal 
family  a  new  miracle — a  piiino  should  play  of  itself.     The  i 
royal  family  \vi*re  delighted  at  the  treat  in  prospect.     Un-  | 
fortunately,  a  tlay  or  two  before  the  proposed  miracle  was 
performed  a  celebrated  man  of  seience,  having  been  t«ld  j 
what  was  (o  he  done,  did  the  deed  himself  very  perfectly, 
and  expl. lined  the  process,  the  only  result  being  manifest 
disappointment  and  annoyance  on  the  part  of  the  distin- 
guished and  crctlulous  auditors.     There  is  less  novelty  in 
jugglers*  feats  than  is  supposed.     The  sphinx  is  a  very  old 
invention  ;   the  feat  of  the  rinffs.  which  in  IS;')*)  astonished 
New  York,  and   wliieh  was  supposed  to  be  entirely  new. 
had  been  explained  years  before  in  a  very  common  little 
handbook  of  legerdemain. 

A  great  principle  in  juggling  is  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  audience  by  some  trifling  movement,  and  thereby 
at  that  instant  dinfract  It  from  the  hanky-panky  or  adroit 
substitution  of  one  article  for  another.  In  India  a  unkcd 
juggler  will  produce  fr()m  a  cup  or  bag  several  objects. 
These  he  has  hidden  under  a  false  pkin,  his  own  having 
been  gradually  peeled  away,  and  then  laid  on  in  a  flap. 
By  snapping  bis  fingers  or  by  pointing  to  anything  the 
attention  even  of  those  forewarned  is  drawn  away.  A  very 
trifling  deviation  of  sight  suffices  for  this,  and  by  its  aid  an 
object  may  be  brought  out  and  then  concealed  before  the 
audience  perceives  it.  Cool  audacity  thus  effects  incredible 
marvels.  The  different  juggling  devices  by  which  the  face 
of  a  future  husband  is  shown  in  a  crystal  or  mirror,  in 
liquils.  as  an  apparition  or  in  other  ways,  the  manufacture 
of  spiritual  photographs,  and  all  miracles  performed  in  tho 
dark,  have  i»een  explained  many  times,  and  pi  rforraed  by 
professional  jugglers  without  apparently  making  Ihe  million 
much  wiser.  One  of  the  best  jugi:Iing  feats  is  that  of  tho 
go-called  second  sight,  popularized  by  the  late  Robert  Hou- 
din.  Tho  writer,  having  seen  him  play  it,  can  testify  to 
the  adroitness  with  which  it  was  done.  It  consists  in  one 
or  more  persons  bliudfoMed  or  isolated  telling  the  names 
of  manv  objects  supposed  to  bo  concealed  from  them,  or 
else  what  is  written  on  a  paper.  It  is  varied  in  many  ways, 
and  there  are  as  many  methods  of  performing  it,  the  best 
consisting  of  wires  with  a  galvanic  battery  and  plates,  by 
means  of  which  signals  are  transmitted  through  the  feet  of 
the  accomplices.  This  ingenious  device  is  also  used  in 
gambling-houses.  Many  persons  believe  that  gypsies  pos- 
sess secret  arts  and  can  leM  fortunes.  Among  themselves 
they  ridicule  the  idea  of  their  being  able  to  do  anything  of 
the  kind,  but  at  the  same  time  no  people  are  more  super- 
slifious  or  more  easily  imposed  upon  by  the  higher  class 
of  conjurers  who  employ  mechanical  tricks.  It  is  to  be 
desired  that  a  few  of  the  best  works  on  juggling  could  be 
read  by  every  one  as  a  means  of  dissipating  superstition, 
and  of  setting  people  on  their  guard  against  every  variety 
of  practical  trickery.  AVhen  Reginald  Scot  wrote  his 
celehrated  IHtrnvrrie  of  Witrhcraft,  :i  work  which  marks  an 
era  in  humanity,  he  found  it  necessary  to  explain  how  the 
juggling  tricks  were  done  by  which  so-called  diabolical 
deeds  were  effected.  Of  late  years  science  has  not  disilained 
to  assist  this  art,  and  many  of  the  illusions  now  shown  arc 
reallv  interesting,  both  as  to  skill  and  their  association 
with  tho  pretended  miracles  of  a  higher  class  of  wonder- 
workers. 

In  ancient  limes  a  number  of  philosophers  wrote  against 
the  thaumatnr'.:v  of  Ihe  pries'lhood.  and  exposed  their  jug- 
gling tricks.  I'nfortunatcly.  all  their  books  are  lost.  The 
principal  of  these  was  by  (Vlsus.  whose  work  against  the 
Magi  is  believed  to  have  been  a  very  able  exposure  of  all 
the  tricks  of  tho  ancient  conjurers.  Other  writers  of  this 
kiini  arc  mentioned  by  Diogenes  Ijaertius.  and  Suidas 
quotes  the  Mnifi/,"ii  of  Aniisthenes.  Among  Ihe  many 
modern  works  which  treat  of  juggling  and  wonder-working 
of  every  kind  ono  of  Ihe  best  is  Aa  Afntfie  bltiurlic  divoilte, 
mi  crpticatittn  (fm  7oin-«  Surprriinnt»,  f  fc,  par  M.  Decrcmps 
(Paris,  17SSK  This  was  followed  by  a  SupftUmfnt — tho 
Tritfimrnt  <Ip  Jvi'omr  Shnrp,  the  dxiirilr  tlr  .frronte  Sharp, 
and  // K.rpficfititni  (h-n  Toiin*  Extfaordinairrny  by  tho  same 
author.  Dccremps  was  a  gentleman,  a  scholar,  and  a  diplo- 
matist :  his  works  abound  in  quaint  quotations,  and  are 
well  written  in  a  pleasant  lively  style.     To  these  may  be 

atlded  Ihe  lii'ri-t'atinuH  inatfi/inatif/iir*  rt  phifMifpttn  t/'Oza- 
iinin  (4  vols.  Hvo,  Paris,  ITi!.'))  ;  A**"  JUrr/ntinuH  mnlhftiut- 
tiqiim  rt  phifHitfurit  *h  (iiif/nt  (It  vids.,  17!lO).  In  1S.')S  Prof, 
J,  N.  Ponsin  published  among  the  }fnntiah  of  Rorel  Afi 
Sorceifri'lr  iiiirifunr  rt  mtuhrur  rrpliqurr,  a  XQvy  excellent 
work,  contemporary  with  tho  Mmjir  Nuturrlh.  par  M. 
Vcrgniaucl,  the  !']nfitiqur  rivnt»ft>itr,  par  Julia  de  Fonlenelle 
and  Madame  Malepeyre,  and  Snrct'rrti,  ou  ht  Muffir  hftmrhr 
d/roil/^r  pftr  Iff  (h'ruHvrrtrn  dr  la  Ckimir,  dr  fn  Phi/HH/itr,  rt 
dr  III  Mrrfianiifitr,  par  MM.  Comte  et  ,rulia  de  Fontenelle. 
Reginald  Scot's  PiKvuvrrir  o/  Witrhrra/t  (London.  1.'>HI) 
may  also  bo  studied,  au-l  the  Lihrettn  dc  Srcnti  XnbilUshni 


(Milan,  168i>) ;  also  /irmfnw'H  Lnnt  Lrfptct/,  or  the  Mfifftcal 
Companion  (London,  17S4);  A'*rO/m/  Moffic,  by  Philip 
Astley,  riding-master  (1785) ;  Mn;,ic,  by  J.  S.  Halle  (Ber- 
lin, 17831:  NutHilirhe  Mn;/ic,  by  Funk:  K.  0.  Eckharts- 
hausen.  VrUrr  die  Znuber/crli/te  d*r  .Va/Mr  (  Munich.  1819)  : 
The  Fn»hi<'>i<ih/r  Sririicc  of  Parlor  Miiffir,  by  .7.  H.  Ander- 
son, a  clever  and  lively  work,  which,  in  addition  to  ex- 
posing the  secrets  of  gamblers,  is  accompanied  in  Ihe  later 
editions  by  a  supplement  on  the  magic  of  spirit-rapping, 
writing-mediums,  and  table-turning:  fIniil,->/-Patil-i/,  the 
fo(y((/'»w  (London,  IS.V.I):  Mnifir  and  Prrfrndcd  Miracles 
(London,  1S48) ;  and  the  t'oiiJiirrr'n  Guide  (Glasgow, 
1850).  CiiAiti.KS  (J.  Leland. 

Jugur'tha^kingof  Numidia,  was  an  illegitimate  grand- 
son of  Masinissa;  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  King  Micip- 
sa,  in  149  d.  c,  and  attracted  much  attention  from  the  peo- 
ple by  his  popular  qualities.  Sent  with  a  Kumidian  force 
into  the  Uiituan  service  (Li4).  lie  gained  fresh  distinctions, 
and  after  the  death  of  Micipsa  murdered  Hiempsal,  the  king's 
oldest  son,  and  put  Adhcrbai,  a  younger  son,  to  flight. 
Adherhal  appealed  to  tho  Roman  senate;  but  the  bribes 
of  .Tugurtlia  secured  (117)  for  him  the  larger  and  better 
part  of  the  kingdom.  In  11'-'  he  captured  Cirta  and  basely 
murdered  his  rival.  The  consul  ('al)iurnins  Bestia  was  sent 
to  attack  Jugurtba.  who  bribed  the  consul  to  grant  a  peace 
(111  B.  c).  Summoned  in  the  same  year  to  Rome  under  a 
safeguard,  he  there  murdered  Massiva.  his  enemy,  and  was 
expelled  from  Italy.  AVnr  with  Rome  followed;  in  llfl, 
Jugurtba  defeated  Auhis  Postumius  at  Suthul,  and  sent  his 
armv  under  tho  yoke:  in  lOD  was  badly  beaten  by  Ca'cilius 
Mctellus  :  was  again  defeated  by  Marius  in  107  ;  was  taken 
prisoner  by  tho  craft  of  Sulla  107  :  was  carried  to  Rome  to 
adnrn  the  triumjdi  of  Marius  (104),  where  ho  was  starved 
to  death  in  prison. 

Jll'jubo,  the  fruit  of  Zizfiphvn  rtilfjaria,  order  Rham- 
naceie,  a  small  tree  of  Southern  Europe  and  Africa.  Its 
fruit  was  formerly  used  for  making  "jujube  paste,"  a  pleas- 
ant confection,  but  the  jujube  paste  of  tho  shojis  is  now 
made  of  gum-arabic,  sugar,  water,  an<l  egg-albumen,  with- 
out jujubes.  Jujube  syrup  ami  dried  jujubes  have  useful 
pectoral  qualities,  and  make  a  pleasant  drink  for  Ihe  sick. 
Z.  uitida,  Z.  Jujuha,  Z.  LotoR,  and  Z.  Spittn-Chri/ifi  are 
among  the  species  of  this  genus  which  bear  pleasant  fruits. 
The  jujube  is  occasionally  grown  in  the  Southern  IT.  S. 

Jlljiiy',  town  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  South  America, 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  tho  same  name,  has  about  7000 
inhabitants,  who  are  mostly  engaged  in  agriculture  and  tho 
rearing  of  cattle. 

Jukes  (JosFiPii  Bretk),  F.  R.  S.,  b.  near  Birminghnm. 
England.  Oct.  10.  1811;  graduated  at  St.  .Tohn's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  18;10,  and  devoted  himself  to  geol- 
ogy. In  1830  he  was  appointed  geological  surveyor  of 
Newfoundland,  and  from  1S42  to  ISlfi  he  Avas  naturalist  on 
board  II.  M.  S.  Fly.  engagcil  in  the  survey  of  the  great 
liarrier-reef  along  the  K.  coast  of  Australia.  He  ])ublishcd 
volumes  giving  the  results  of  these  explorations.  Having 
joined  in  1S46  the  geological  survey  of  Great  Britain,  he 
wrote  for  it  im])ortant  memoirs  on  several  districts,  espe- 
cially one  on  Th.-  S<nilh  Staff', rdnhirr  (\ml-Field  (1853). 
In  1850.  Prof.  Jukes  became  director  of  the  geological  sur- 
vey of  Ireland,  and  he  was  for  many  years  professor  of 
geology  to  Ihe  Royal  Dublin  Society  and  Ihe  Royal  College 
of  Science  at  Dublin.  His  investigations  on  coral  reefs, 
the  distribution  of  m<dlusea,  and  the  formation  of  river- 
beds were  important  contributions  to  science.  He  wrote 
several  elementary  works  on  geology,  as  well  as  the  elabo- 
rate article  in  the  f^nrifrlitpinfia  firitainn'ca  (8th  ed.),  and 
contributed  Inrgelv  to  the  journals  of  learned  societies.  D. 
July  I'O.  180il. 

Jll'lin«  daughter  of  Augustus  by  his  second  wife,  Scn- 
bonia.  an«l  his  only  child,  b.  in  .10  D.  r.  She  was  distin- 
guished as  much  for  her  intelligence  as  for  her  beiuity.  ami 
was  married  to  Mareellus  in  25  b.  r.,  after  his  death  to 
Agrippa  in  22  n.  r..  and  after  his  death  to  Tiberius  in  12 
n.  r.  But  her  dissipation  and  profligacy  by  degrees  as- 
sumed such  a  character  and  siudi  a  ]>ublieily  that  her  mar- 
riase  was  dissolved,  ancl  she  was  banished  in  2  n.  <".,  first 
to  Pandataria.  an  island  near  Naples,  and  then  loRheginm. 
where  she  d.  in  14  a.  i>.  in  want.  It  is  probable  that  hev 
hard  fortuTic  was  due.  nt  Icft^t  in  some  degree,  to  the  hatred 
of  her  step-mother.  Livia.  who  strutdc  successively  every 
member  of  the  emperor's  family  in  order  t(»  make  room  for 
her  own  son.  Tiberius.  Of  the  five  children  whom  Julia 
bore  to  Agrippa,  only  Ihe  two  daughters  survived  her;  of 
Ihe  three  sons,  two  died  young,  and  tho  third  was  put 
to  death  by  Tiberius. 

Jii'liiin,  post-tp.of  San  Diego  co.,  Cal.,  37  miles  N.  E. 
of  Siiu  Diego.      Pop.  534. 

Jiiliilii,  Ip.  of  Dubuque  CO.,  la.     Pop.  1415. 


1472 


JULIAN— JUNE-BERRY. 


Julian  (GEonr.E  Washington),  b.  in  Centreville,  Ind., 
May  i>,  1817;  receivcil  a  coinnion-EichooI  education;  was 
several  years  a  teacher;  admitted  to  the  bar  ISIO  ;  elected 
to  the  legislature  in  1S45  ;  delegate  to  (he  Buflfulo  Free-Soil 
convention  of  1S4S;  Kepresentutivo  in  Congress  1S49-51. 
and  nominated  for  Vice-President  by  the  Pittsburg  ronven- 
tiun  of  "  Free  T)omo('rats  "  on  the  ticket  headed  by  .lohn  P. 
Hale.  ]Ie  wa?  in  IS.JO  prominent  as  a  founder  of  the  Re- 
publican party,  and  was  again  a  member  of  Congress  from 
ISGl  to  IStii),  being  during  the  last  two  terms  chairman  of 
the  committee  on  public  lands.  He  lias  been  one  of  the 
most  strenuous  supporters  of  female  suffrage. 

Julian  the  Apostate  (  Flavh  s  Ci,Arims.TrLiANrs), 
Roman  emperor,  b.  at  Constantinople  Nov.  17,  331  A.  !>., 
was  the  son  of  Julius  Constantiu?.  In  infancy  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  Constantius  IF.,  but  was  well  educated  and 
trained  in  the  Christian  faith  :  was  allowed  in  ."ijo  to  reside 
at  Athens  unconlined.  and  in  the  same  year  was  proclaimed 
Cxsar,  married  to  Helena,  daughter  of  Constantino  the 
Great,  and  was  sent  to  govern  Gaul,  where  he  showed  him- 
self a  just  and  wise  ruler,  an  able  general,  and  a  virtuous 
man.  In  360  his  troops  saluted  him  emperor  at  Paris:  and 
Constantius  beginning  to  interfere  unduly  in  the  atTairs  of 
Gaut,  Julian  marched  with  strong  armies  across  Kuropc  to- 
wards Constantinojde.  Constantius  d.  in  361,  and  Julian 
was  hailed  with  universal  joy  as  emperor,  and  soon  after 
this  avowed  himself  a  pagan.  He  did  not  persecute  Chris- 
tianity, but  tolerated  all  the  sects,  at  the  same  time  de- 
cidedly favoring  paganism  by  his  edicts  and  closing  the 
Christian  schools.  In  Mar.,  363,  he  set  out  upon  his  Per- 
sian expeilition.  ancl  after  defeating  the  enemy  in  many 
engagements  was  mortally  wounded  in  battle,  and  d.  June 
26,  363.  This  able  ruler  was  in  supreme  authority  only 
eighteen  months,  and  yet  his  reign  Avas  one  of  the  most 
memorable  of  antiquity.  Julian  was  a  writer  of  great 
talent,  and  left  many  writings  in  the  Greek  language,  in- 
cluding a  number  of  extant  letters  and  orations,  valuable 
to  the  historian;  a  satirical  work  of  decided  merit  called 
the  (\TS(irn  ;  .l/i'so/jo»/o»,  a  satire  u]>on  the  people  of  An- 
tiocli ;  some  unimportant  epigrams  ;  and  a  celebrated  work 
A'f'ttniit  the  Christinns  (Kara  Xpioriavoii'),  of  which  Theo- 
dosius  II.  destroyed  all  accessible  copies,  so  that  the  work  is 
lost,  excepting  some  fragments  preserved  by  Cyril  and  others. 

Jii'lichf  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  at  the  influx  of  the 
Ette  into  the  Roer,  has  some  manufactures  of  leather,  soap, 
and  vinegar.  Pop.  o'2  U.  The  districts  of  Jiilieh  formed 
an  independent  dukedom  in  the  lourtcenth  century,  which 
was  united  to  Berg  and  Cleves  in  1511.  In  16Ul>  the  ducal 
line  became  extiuL-t.  and  succession  disputes  began  between 
Brandenburg  and  Xeuburg,  which,  although  settled  in 
1666  by  a  division  of  the  country,  \vere  not  brouglit  to  a 
final  conclusion  until  1814,  when  the  whole  territory  was 
given  to  Prussia. 

Julien'  (Stanislas),  b.  at  Orleans,  France.  Sept.  20. 
170',) ;  studied  first  modern  European  languages,  Latin,  and 
Greek,  but  was  attracted  to  the  study  of  Chinese  by  the 
lectures  of  Abel  Reniusat,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1S;(2  as 
professor  in  Chinese  at  the  College  de  France  at  Paris. 
Besides  several  grammatical  works  on  Chinese,  destined  to 
aid  the  student  of  the  language,  he  has  translated  a  great 
number  of  Chinese  novels,  dramas,  historical,  philosophical, 
and  scientific  writings.     D.  Feb.  II,  1873. 

Ju'liiis  (Nikolais  Hkinrich),  b.  in  Altona.  Denmark, 
Oct.  3,  17S3:  studied  medicine,  and  jiractised  in  Hamburg. 
In  182  j  he  travelled  through  England,  in  1831-;;6  tlirough 
the  I'.  S..  and  later  on  through  Germany,  Poland,  Belgium, 
and  France,  to  study  the  conditions  and  management  of 
prisons,  on  which  subject  he  lectured  in  licrlin  in  1S27, 
jiublished  a  periodical,  Jahrbnvhvr  ilrr  •^froj-  tiiid  lirstc- 
riiinjHituHiaffcn  (Berlin,  1.S28-4S),  and  wrote  several  works: 
\  orlrnutiffcH  iiber  (jffii»tjti!nHknuUc  (1S2S),  Nurdnnirrikos 
sitdirhe.  XuHt'dnde  (1839),  ficitrnge  znv  bn'ttiitchen  Irrcnhcil- 
knude  (ISM),  etc.     D.  in  Hamburg  Aug.  20,  1862. 

Julius  I.f  Saint,  bishop  of  Rome,  was  consecrated  in 
337,  and  took  part  with  Athanasius  in  his  .struggle  for 
the  Alexandrian  bishopric.  D.  Apr.  12,  352.— J[:lm  s  II., 
PocE  {Giid'unio  delta  Jiorere),  b.  at  Albezzola  in  1441,  be- 
came a  cardinal  in  1471,  and  succeeiled  by  simoniaca! 
means  to  the  pontificate  in  1503.  His  career  henceforth 
was  chiefly  military,  his  principal  aim  being  to  drive  the 
foreigners  out  of  Italy  and  free  the  Holy  See  from  the 
domination  of  the  great  secular  powers.  The  ambitious 
pontiff  was  a  liberal  patron  of  Raphael.  :Mifhael  Angelo, 
and  thcother  great  artists  of  his  time,  and  laid  the  cnrner- 
stone  of  St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome.  I).  Feb.  21.  1513.— 
Ji'Lirs  III.  {Oiovanni  }faria  dvl  Afontf),  b.  at  ArezzoSept. 
10.  I4S7,  became  a  cardinal  in  iJiiG;  went  as  papal  legate 
to  the  Council  of  Trent  1545:  was  chosen  pope  1550,  and 
was  thenceforth  chiefly  remarkable  for  luxurious  habits. 
D.  Mar.  23,  1555. 


Jul'lunder,  town  of  the  Puniaub,  in  the  plain  between 
the  Sutlej  and  the  Beas.  in  lat.  31°  21'  N.  and  Ion.  75°  31' 
E.  It  w.as  formerly  the  capital  of  a  powerful  Afghan  prin- 
cipality, and  has  many  magnificent  monuments.  Pop. 
estim.ated  at  40.000, 

JuMus,  the  typical  genus  of  the  family  Julida:',  myria- 
potls  of  the  division  Chilognatha,  including  the  millipeds 
or  thousand-legs  and  many  other  organisms.  The  true 
Jid!  are  seldom  more  than  three  inches  long,  have  numer- 
ous small  feet,  inhabit  moist  and  d.ark  places,  such  as  holes 
in  rotten  wood,  and  arc  never,  like  the  centipedes,  truly 
venomous. 

July'  [Lat.  Juh'nx,  named  by  Mark  Antony  in  honor 
of  Julius  Ca?S!ir].  the  seventh  nmnth  of  the  Gregorian,  and 
the  fifth  of  the  old,  calendar.  The  ancient  Romans  called 
it  Qidiitilis — that  is,  the  fifth  month. 

Jumbuser%  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of 
Bengal.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  rice  and  cotton. 
Pop'.  10.100. 

Jumet%  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Halnant, 
has  extensive  breweries,  glass-works,  and  manufactures  of 
tiles  and  nails.     Pop.  14.244. 

Jumiria,  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia, 
carrying  on  important  manufactures  of  earthenware  and 
fireovens.     Pop.  9613. 

Jum^na,  a  riverof  Hindostan.and  the  principal  affluent 
of  the  Ganges,  rises  in  lat.  31°  N.  and  Ion.  7S°  :{2'  E..  at 
an  elevation  of  10.S49  feet.  It  flows  first  S.,  and  then  S.  E., 
and  after  a  course  of  680  miles  joins  the  Ganges  at  Allah- 
abad. It  is  shallow  and  unfit  for  navigation,  but  by  arti- 
ficial means  it  has  in  many  ways  been  made  available  both 
for  agriculture  and  commerce.  Delhi  and  Agra  are  situated 
on  its  banks. 

Jump'ing  Branch,  post-tp.  of  Mercer  co.,  W.  Va. 
Pop.  1441. 

JuncK'er  (Henry  Damian),  B.  D..b.  in  Lorraine  (then 
a  part  of  France)  1810  ;  came  in  youth  to  the  U.S. ;  studied 
at  Cincinnati,  and  in  1834  took  priest's  orders  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church;  served  chiefly  among  the  <Jerraan 
population  of  Ohio;  became  in  1S57  bishop  of  Alton,  111. 
D.  at  Alton  Oct.  2,  1868. 

Junc'tion,  post-v.  of  Carlton  co.,  Minn.,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Lake  Superior  and 
Mississippi  R.  R. 

Junction*  post-v.  of  Hunterdon  co.,  N.  J.,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Delaware  Lackawanna  and  Western  and  the 
Central  R.  R.  of  New  Jersey. 

Junction  t'ity,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Trinity  co.,  Cal.,  8 
miles  AV.  of  Weaverville,  the  count^'-scat.  Pop.  of  v.  440 ; 
of  tp.  570. 

Junction  City,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Davis  co., 
Kan.,  situated  <in  the  erown  of  a  low  bluff  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Smoky  Hill  and  Republican  rivers,  which  unite  to 
form  the  Kansas  River,  and  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  and  the 
Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  R.  Rs.  It  has  many  churches 
and  schools.  7  hotels,  1  national  and  1  savings  bank, 
2  flouring  mills,  manufactories  of  carriages,  agricultural 
implements,  etc.,  and  excellent  water-power.  There  are 
extensive  quarries  of  magnesian  limestone,  easily  worked 
and  largely  used  in  building.  Clark's  Creek,  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  town,  is  crossed  by  tlircc  Howe-truss  bridges. 
It  is  an  active  business-centre  for  (lie  surrounding  country, 
and  has  2  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  2778. 

Jnne  [Lat.  Juttitii,  for  Jtiuouhit,  because  it  was  sacred 
to  Juno],  the  sixth  month  in  the  Gregorian  year;  in  the 
old  style,  the  fourth  month.  During  this  month  the  sun 
reaches  the  northern  solstice,  which  is  marked  by  the  first 
point  of  the  sign  Cancer.  Hence  the  tropic  is  called  the 
tro])ic  of  Cancer. 

Juneau%  county  of  S.  Central  Wisconsin.  Area,  325 
square  miles.  The  Wisconsin  River  washes  its  E.  border, 
and  it  is  traversed  by  the  La  Crosse  and  Milwaukee  R.  R. 
It  has  an  undulating  surface,  a  very  fertile  soil,  with 
abundant  timber  and  water-power.  Cattle,  grain,  wool, 
and  lumber  are  st;iple  products.  Cap.  Mauston.  Pop. 
12  :j72. 

Juneau,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Dodge  co..  Wis.,  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  North-western  R.  R.,  145  miles  from  Chicago. 
It  lias  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  grain-drill  factory,  2  cheese- 
factories,  churches,  stores,  hotels,  etc.  It  was  founded  in 
1S15,  and  first  named  Victory,  and  then  Dodge  Centre. 
The  court-house  was  built  in  1848,  and  the  first  newspaper 
started  in  1852.     Pop.  300.  E.  B.  Boi.ess, 

En.  ano  Pkop.  "  Democrat  and  Granger." 

June'-berry  (Amcfanchier  Cnuadenitiv),  a  wild  shrub 
or  small  tree  found  throughout  the  V.  S.  and  in  runada, 
with  many  varieties,  oflferiug  considerable  differences.     It 


JUNG— JUNIUS. 


147;^ 


bears  a  considerable  resomblnDce  in  its  characteristics  to 
the  apple  and  pcur.  The  june-bcrry  has  been  cultivated 
on  a  small  scale  for  its  rriiir,  which  is  of  purplo  color.  «wcet, 
and  ahout  llie  size  of  the-  largest  currnuts.  The  size  of  the 
tree  differs  greatly  in  the  varieties,  from  thirty  feet  high 
{fintnfnpitiiu)  dovin  to  three  or  four.  Various  names  arc 
given  to  the  juiK'-bcrry  in  different  localities,  such  as  shad- 
bush,  service-berry,  and  niounlaiii  whorilcbrrry.  The  tlow- 
crs  are  white,  early,  and  abnudunt,  on  which  account  it  is 
valued  as  an  ornamental  tree. 

Jun^  (JoArimi),  b.  at  I/ubcck.  Germany.  Oct.  22, 15S7; 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Gicssen  IOO'J-14  ;  studied 
medicine  at  P.adua.  graflualing  in  1(118:  settled  at  Rostock 
as  a  physician,  becoming  a  professor  there  in  102-1,  and 
rector  of  the  .Tohanncuin  at  I!unil>urg  in  162U.  He  was  a 
very  distinguished  naturalist,  ranked  by  Leibnitz  in  the 
same  class  of  philosophers  with  Copernicus,  Galileo,  and 
Descartes,  His  researches  in  physical  science  incurred  for 
him  persecutions,  on  the  supposition  that  he  belonged  to 
tlie  Rosicrucian  fraternity.  I)r.  Jung  anticipated  Lin- 
nirus  in  proposing  a  binomial  nomenelature  for  plants,  and 
wrote  largely  on  philosophy,  mathematics,  mineralogy,  in- 
vertebrates, an<l  botany,  but  many  of  his  works  were  de- 
stroyed or  rendered  extremely  scarce  by  a  fire.  Those 
which  remained  were  edited  by  Albreelit  under  the  title 
Opnurufn  Phtf^irn  Bntuiiica  (Coburg,  1717).  Ilis  life  has 
been  written  by  Guhraucr  (Stuttgart,  1851)  and  by  Av6- 
Lallemant  ( Liibeck.  IS63). 

JiJli]?-Buns'lau,  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Iser,  has 
some  manufactures  of  woollens.     Pop.  StlDj. 

Jungcrinan'nia  [in  honor  of  Prof.  Ludwig  Junger- 
mann  (  1  J72-!r>.»;i ,.  a  German  botanist],  a  large  and  im- 
portant genua  of  LiVKRWoitTj;  (which  Pee).  It  gives  name  to 
the  important  sub-order  Jungermanniaecie  (scale-mosses), 
which  to  the  essential  characters  of  the  liverworts  (Hcpa- 
t)ca>)join  a  moss-liko  habit.  The  U.  S.  ha\e  numerous 
species, 

Jan(?Trau  [Ger.  '*  maiden"],  one  of  the  highest  peaks 
of  the  IJernese  AI[>s,  and.  on  act'onnt  of  the  beauty  of  its 
outline  and  the  rlazzlin^  brightness  of  the  everlasting  snow 
which  covers  its  top,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  moun- 
tains of  Switzerland.  Its  height  is  I3,fi70  feet.  Its  top 
has  been  reached  only  by  half  a  dozen  persons;  among 
them  by  Agassi/,  in  ISII. 

Jling'hnhn  (Fhan/  Wimiki.u),  b.  at  Mansfeld,  Prussian 
Saxony.  ()^;t.  2(t,  1812;  sfudiel  medicine  and  botany  at 
Halle  and  Uerlin  ;  served  as  a  physician  in  the  Prussian 
army,  then  in  the  French  army  in  Algeria,  and  since  1835 
in  the  Dutch  colonics  of  .lava.  Here  ho  made  very  exten- 
sive s'udies  of  tho  gcogrnpliical.  gcologieal.  botanical,  and 
ethnological  relations  of  the  country,  and  his  works  on 
these  subjects  attracted  great  attention.  In  IS  19  he  visited 
Europe,  but  returned  to  Ratavla  in  1S5.7,  and  d.  at  Lemberg 
Apr.  21,  1861.  His  chief  work  is.Airn,  ^/-mr  Gentnh^  FJfnn- 
sriidcrhf  Hitd  iiiiicrf  Bunnit  (IS.VJ)  ;  besides  this  ho  wroto 
Die  Fi'ittitfoiiiln'  in  Snniatrn  (1817),  Lantin'hti/tsnuslchtcn 
ron  Jam  (18511).  and  in  1851  was  commenced  a  description 
of  the  plants  and  fossils  of  Java,  entitled  /'ittut;e  Jiiny- 

finhiit'iiii^r. 

Jun'gic  [Sanskrit. yrtii'/«/al,  in  the  East  Indies,  a  name 
applied  to  those  tracts  of  land,  fre(iiienlly  very  extensive, 
where  the  vegetation  ii*  rank,an<l  olten  impenetrable.  The 
jungles  abuiind  in  tigers,  elephants,  monkeys,  serpents, 
deer,  boars,  wild  cattle,  and  other  creatures,  and  are  often 
very  unhealthy.  In  the  East  they  speak  of  "jungle-fowl," 
'*jun;;le  <'ows,"  "junglo  fevers,"  etc.  The  term  juuijU  is 
uvt'd  vvith  l:i(itiid<',  ami  nineli  country  which  is  sparsely 
.-■tllid,  but  by  no  means  a  wilderness,  is  thus  designated. 

JiiiiK'inniin  (.Io.hkp  J.\Kon),  b.  at  Hadlitz,  Itobomin, 
July  Hi,  177^1;  studied  at  the  University  of  Prague;  became 
teaclier  at  the  gymnasium  of  Leibmerilz  in  170'.).  anr|  pro- 
lessor  in  1815  at  Pruicue,  where  he  d.  Nov.  II,  IKIT.  In 
IS25  he  published  a  history  t.f  rhe  Holiemian  language  and 
literature,  and  iu  18;t5  a  complete  liohemlan-German  dic- 
tionary. 

Junc-Stiriin?  (Joiiasv  Hi^tNRicn).  b.  nt   Orund.  in 

He.-ise  Nassau.  Sept.  12,  1710.  of  a  poor  family,  had  to  fight 
his  way  onward  through  many  hardships.  He  was  succes- 
sively achareoal-burner,  srhoolmaster,  tailor,  private  tutor, 
ete.  A  Roman  Catholic  priest  gave  him  a  seeret  remedy  f«ir 
eertuin  eye-ili^ea'^es.  and  in  1771  he  sueceedeil  in  g"ing  to 
Strasbourg  to  study  medieine  and  get  a  diploma.  Here  he 
made  the  acquaintanee  of  Goethe,  who  has  given  a  charm- 
ing picture  of  him  in  Aun  mrinrin  Lrhru.  He  now  settled 
in  I^Mierfeld  as  an  eye-physician.  »  business  he  never  gave 
up  :  he  always  carrieil  bift  instruments  along  with  him,  and 
lie  undertook  more  than  2000  operations.  From  1787  to 
iSOTi  he  held  a  chair  in  political  economy  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  but  this  part  of  his  activ- 

Voi..  H.— y:i 


I  ity  wna  not  very  influential;  he  had  at  last  no  pupils  at 
I  all.  The  last  part  of  his  life  he  spent  at  Carlsrube,  at  the 
I  court  of  the  grand  duke  of  Itaden.  who  gave  him  a  pen- 
sion, and  thus  enabled  him  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
literature.  His  writings  have  all  a  mystic,  religious,  half- 
apocalyptic  character,  even  his  romances,  Geschivhtp  lieti 
fferni  nm  }forff(}ithnu  (2  vols..  1770),  Floreittiii  t-on  Fnfi- 
friidorii  {'.i  vols..  I7SH,  but  still  more  his  directly  religions 
writings,  Thf:i>h<ihi,  Dnn  H:imn-eh,  T/iron'v  der  Gciftfrrl-iindc 
(I8t)8),  etc.  The  most  interesting  of  his  works  is  his  au- 
tobiography, of  which  the  first  part,  ffiinn'rh  StiUiu>/ti 
Jntfcnd  (1777),  is  a  wonderful  book.  He  was  three  times 
married,  and  d.  ;\pr.  2.  ISI7.  His  collected  works  were 
published  in  Stuttgart  in  14  vols,  in  is;i8. 

Junia'ta,  county  of  S.  E.  Central  Pennsylvania.  Area, 
350  square  miles.  It  consists,  in  general,  of  a  long  vallev, 
subdivided  more  or  le?s  into  minor  valleys,  and  having  tho 
Blue  Ridge  on  the  N.  W.  and  Tuscarora  Mountain  on  tho 
S.  E.  It  is  crossed  by  t!ie  Juniata  River  and  the  Pennsvl- 
vania  R.  R.  It  contiiins  iron  and  limestone.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  especially  in  tiio  valleys.  Cattle,  grain,  and 
wool  are  stnjilc  produets.  Carriages,  wagons,  and  Ie:illicr 
are  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  Cap.  Miftlintown.  Pop. 
17,3!m. 

Jiiniala.  tp.  of  Tuscola  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1042. 

Juniata,  post-v..  cap.  of  Adams  co..  Neb.,  on  the  Bur- 
lington ami  iVIissouri  River  R.  R.,  24  miles  E.  of  Fort 
Kearney,  in  a  fine  agricultural  and  grazing  region;  has 
some  manufactures,  a  bank,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  fine 
high  school,  etc. 

C.  C.  A  R.  1>.  TUnroric,  Pubs.  *■' Adams  Co.  Gazette." 

Juniata,  tp.  of  Bedford  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1437. 

Juniata,  tp.  of  Blair  co..  Pa,     Pop.  G21. 

Juniata,  fp.  of  Huntingdon  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  393. 

Juniata,  ]iost-tp.  of  Perry  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  983. 

Juniata  River,  in  Pennsylvania,  rises  near  .Altoona, 
1155  feet  above  sea-level,  an<l  flows  some  150  miles  through 
the  parallel-ridged  mountains  of  Southern  Central  Pennsyl- 
vania, which  rise  from  SOO  to  1500  feet  above  the  valleys 
(the  latter  often  from  200  to  4011  feet  above  the  stream  ).  It 
flows  into  the  Sus:r|uehanna  at  Duneannon,  345  feet  above 
the  sea.  Its  principal  affluent,  the  Raystown  branch,  is  a 
beautiful  and  very  tortuous  stream. 

Ju'nipcr,  a  genus  of  Conifene,  sub-order  Cupressinea; 
(cypress  family),  characterized  by  having  its  small  cone 
transformer!  into  a  berry.  The  common  juniper  (./inn'^jcn/* 
commuuix)  is  a  small  evergreen  sbrub,  native  of  Europe 
and  the  C  S.,  where  it  grows  on  dry,  sterile,  hilly  ground 
from  New  Jersey  to  Maine  and  along  the  great  lakes.  It 
is  important  for  its  fruit,  which  is  used  in  medicine  and  in 
making  gin.  This  fruit  is  a  bluish-purple  berry  about  the 
sizo  of  a  ]>e:i,  of  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor  and  sweetish 
terebinthinate  taste,  due  lo  Ihc  presence  of  a  volatile  oil,  in 
which  also  reside  the  niedirinal  virtues.  Juniper  is  a  gen- 
tle irritant,  being  in  proper  dose  cordial  to  the  stomach, 
and  specially  exciting  to  the  function  of  the  kidneys.  It 
is  accordingly  user!  us  a  diuretic,  but  generally  only  to 
assist  tho  aetlon  of  more  potent  drugs  of  that  class.  In 
overdose  it  may  cause  great  irritation  of  the  urinary  or- 
gans, with  strangury  and  suppression  of  secretion.  Juni- 
per-bcrries  are  largely  used  in  the  mannfaeture  of  gin,  to 
which  spirit  they  give  the  peculiar  flavor  and  diuretic  ac- 
tion. .iiiuSfu-niH  Viif/iniaiift,  or  rcil  cedar,  is  an  indigenous 
and  im])ortant  evergr<?cn  tree  growing  on  dry  rocky  hills 
in  all  latitudes  of  the  V.  .S.  Edwaiid  Ci  ktis, 

Ju'niUfi.  From  the  middle  of  the  year  17fi7  to  the  mid- 
dle of  1772  the  British  public  was  delltjlitcd  or  exasperafeil 
by  a  series  of  letters  on  politieal  affairs  in  tho  Piildi'r  Ati- 
rrrtiirr  newspaper,  displaying  a  pungency,  a  vehemence, 
an  intrepidity,  and  a  power  of  Invcetive  sueh  as  had  never 
before  been  shown  by  any  English  politieal  writer.  Tho 
first  of  these  letters  (Apr.  2?^,  1707)  a(ipeared  under  the  sig- 
nature of  "  Poplirola."  *'  Memnon,"  "  liUeius."  "  .lunius," 
"  Philo  .Tunius."  "  Brutus."  and  other  sij;naturcs  were  sub- 
serjuently  res<»rted  to.  hut  the  celebrity  of  the  ccdiectlon  is 
concentrated  upon  the  name  of ''Junius,"  nftixed  to  tho 
most  remarkable  letters,  and  to  those  which  alone  (the  let- 
ters sii^ned  "  Pbilo  Junius  "  exeeplecl )  the  writer  auth-'ntl- 
eatrd  liy  himself  giving  them  to  the  world.  The  identity 
of  the  authorship  of  the  rest  is  in<b'ed  a  matter  of  infer- 
ence, though  of  inference  so  irresistible  as  to  be  now  not 
disputed  by  anyone.  In  1772  tho  correspondence  suddenly 
ceased. 

Sithjrct  of  thr  Juniun  f.rttfrt. — This  may  be  briefly  do- 
fined  as  the  vindication  of  tho  public  liberties.  ''The  sub- 
ml<>sion  of  a  free  people,"  so  Iiegins  tho  first  letter  pub- 
lished under  this  celebrated  signature,  "to  the  executivo 
authority  of  govornmont  is  no  more  than  a  compliance  with 


1474 


JUNIUS. 


laws  which  they  themselves  have  enacted."  This  strikes 
the  kcvnotc  of' the  whole.  Every  leading  political  occur- 
rence o'f  the  (lay  is  turned  to  a  vindication  ol  popular  lib- 
ertv  It  would"  be  impossible  in  our  space  lu  enumerate 
the  whole.  It  may  truly  be  said  that  the  British  constitu- 
tion never  had  a  bolder  champion  than  Junius,  nor  in  the 
inaioritv  of  cases  a  more  learned  or  discriminating  advo- 
cate the  amount  of  his  legal  and  constitutional  kuow- 
lcd<re  is  extraordinary,  especially  if,  as  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe,  he  was  not  a  lawyer.  The  characteristics  of  his 
stvlc  are  energy,  brevity,  impetuosity,  and  the  striking  t-in- 
nloymcnt  of  metaphor.  The  principal  drawback  to  the 
cnioyment  of  such  talents  applied  in  so  good  a  cause  is 
the  writer's  rancor  and  ferocity,  and  his  incessant  asper- 
sions on  private  character.  Yet  this  indignation,  if  exces- 
sive mav  still  have  been  honest.  This  question,  however, 
dcpends"partly  on  the  solution  of  another  enigma,  which 
more  even  than  their  literary  cNcellcnce,  has  contributed 
to  maintain  the  popularity  of  the  letters.  This  is  the  mys- 
tcrv  of  their  authorship.  c  ,      ,„     tii<, 

A„lh„rili!p.—3nnius  had  apparently  no  confidants.    His 
visor  is  never  raised.     He  preserves  throughout  the  same 
air   of    haughtv    superiority  and   profound,  impenetniljlo 
seerci-v      "  -Mv  secret."  he  savs,  "  shall  die  with  me.      The 
only   person   with    whom   ho   entered    into    anything    like 
confidential   relationship    was    Woodfall,    the    printer   of 
the   f'Mic  Ad,-erl!ser.     To   him   he  wrote    frequently    in 
amicable  and  condescending  terms,  but  always  in  the  same 
feigned  hand.     Woodfall  may  have  guessed  the  secret;  it 
■almost  certainly  was  not  entrusted  to  him.     According  to 
one  aeeount,  the    truth   eventually  became  known  to  the 
government.     "  We  know,"  George  III.  is  reputed  to  have 
said     "who   Junius   is.     He   will   write   no  more.       The 
anecdote,  however,  is  probably  apocryphal.     The  mystery 
naturally    excited    intense   curiosity   m   the  public    mind, 
and    .abundant  pains    have    from  that  time    to    this    been 
bestowed  on  unravelling  it.     The  letters  have  been  attrib- 
uted, among  others,  to  Burke.  Dunning,  W.  G.  Hamilton, 
Lord  Geor.'e  Sackville,   Dr.   Butler,  bishop    of  Hereford, 
AVilkcs    H.  M.   Bovd.    Philip  Rosenhagen,  Lord  Temple, 
and  Gen    Lee.     Out  of  the  whole  of  this  list,  Burke,  Dun- 
iiini'   Lord  Temple,  and  Wilkes  are  the  only  persons  that 
can''bc  credited  with  sufficient  intellectual  power  to  have 
produced  the  letters  of  Junius,  and  the  evidence  of  place 
and  circumstance,  of  sentiments  and  opinions,  of  political 
connections  and  of  handwriting,  seems    decisive    against 
thein  all.     It  is  now  generally    admitted    that  cither  the 
authorship   remains   an   impenetrable   enigma,  or    that  it 
bclont'S  to  one  whose  name  was  not  mentioned  m  connection 
with  It  for  forty  years  subsequently— Sir  Philip  Francis. 
Philip  Francis,  the  son  of  a  clergyman  and  schoolmaster 
of  some  literary  repute,  was  b.  in  Dublin  in  1740,  and  when 
the  publication  of  the  Junius  letters  commcneed  had  for 
some  years  been  a  clerk  in  the  war  office.  This  circumstance 
supplied  the  clue  to  the  discovery  originally  announced  by 
Mr  John  Tavlor  in  his  Jm"iii«  Wc.it//icrf,  publi.shed  in  1814, 
durin"  Francis's  lifetime,  and  never  contradicted  by  him. 
So  accurate  is  the  knowledge  of  war-office  business  betrayed 
bv  the  writer  that  the  conviction  of  his  having  been  con- 
cerned in  that  department  appears  irresistible;    nor  can 
any  other  person  in  a  similar  position  capable  of  having 
written  the  letters  of  Junius  be  iiointcd  out.     Many  of  the 
letters,  in  fact,  arc  written  on  war-office  paper.     The  hand, 
of  course,  is  feigned;  and  before  Francis's  claims  can  be 
unreservedly  admitted  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  whether 
the  simulated  hand  can  be  identified  with  his.    This  inves- 
ti.rati<m  has  been  made  in  the  most  painstaking  manner  by 
M"r   Chabot,  the  eminent  expert  in  handwriting,  who,  at 
the  instance  of  the  Hon.  Mr.  Twisleton,  has  compared  no 
merely  the  acknowledged  handwriting  of  Francis,  but  that 
of  every  other  claimant  of  mark,  with  the  hand  of  Junius. 
His  results,  with  cojiious  plates,  have  been  published  uy 
Mr.  Twisleton,  and  will  leave  little  doubt  that,  so  far  as  the 
evidence  of  handwriting  is  concerned,  the  identification  of 
Junius  with  Francis  is  tolerably  complete.     The  argument 
has  also  received  unexpected  strength  from  the  discovery 
that  a  letter  which  occurs  accompanying  a  copy  of  verses 
in   the  feigned  hand  of  Junius,  sent  to  a  young  lady  at 
Bath,  is  itself  in  the  hand  of  Francis's  cousin  and  intimate 
friend,  Tilghman,  with  whom  Francis  is  known  to  have 
been  staving  at  Bath  at  the  very  time. 

The  external  evidence  for  the  Franciscan  authorship  of 
Junius,  then,  appears  on  the  whole  as  strong  as  could  be 
reasonably  expected.  The  impression  left  by  the  whole  in- 
vestigation cannot  be  better  summed  up  than  in  the  words 
of  Mr.  Merivalc  :  "  .•Ml  the  lines  of  investigation  which  have 
been  followed  in  order  to  trace  the  authorship  of  this  or 
that  known  individual,  except  Francis,  fail  at  a  certain 
point.  They  end  in  impossibilities.  The  remaining  path, 
to  which  one  clue  only  leads  us,  becomes  plainer  and  plainer 
the  farther  the  investigation  is  conducted."    The  ingenuity 


of  most  formidable  opponents  has  been  exerted  to  discover 
some   demonstrable  incompalibility    between    the   circum- 
stances attending  the  production  of  the  letters  and  the 
authorship   of   Francis.      None   such  has   been    adduced. 
Francis,  as  was  said  of  Goilolphin,  is  never  in  the  way  and 
never  out  of  the  way.     The  one  argument  against  hiln  is 
derived  from  the  evidence  of  style.     But  the  distinction 
established  is  rather  one  of  degree  than  of  kind.     There  is 
no  such  incompatibility  between  the  style  of  his  acknow- 
ledged writings  and  that  of  the  Junius  letters  as  to  render 
it  morally  impossible  to  attribute  them  to  the  same  wriler. 
It  is  not  as  though  a  pamphlet  attributed  to  Swift  should 
bear  the  impress  of  Bolingbroke.     The  admitted  produc- 
tions of  Francis  might  pass  for  the  work  of  a  disciple  of 
Junius.     The  real  difficulty  is,  that  Francis  should  never 
I  have  equalled  himself.     This  certainly  is  a  difficulty,  and 
I  is  hardly  obviated  by  Lord  Macaulay's  sensible  but  sonic- 
■  what  superficial  replv,  that  every  work  of  the  same  author 
cannot  be  the  best.     It  can  hardly,  however,  be  held  to 
count  for  much  against  the  weight  of  external  testimony, 
especially  when  the  extraordinary  moral  resemblance  be- 
tween riancis  and  Junius  is  taken  into  account.     AVhocver 
Junius  was,  he  must  have  been  in  temperament  very  much 
such  a  man  as  Francis  is  known  to  have  been— vehement, 
combative,  opinionated,  disdainful,  sarcastic,  enthusiastic- 
ally and  disinterestedly  devoted  to  the  public  good  as  he 
conceived  it,  but  capable  of  the  most  unrelenting  and  un- 
scrupulous animosity  to  all  who  crossed  his  path.     To  ap- 
preciate these  characteristics  it  is  essential   to  follow  the 
next  episode  in  his  career.     Appointed  to  a  magnificent 
employment,  a  seat  at  the  council  of  the  governor-general 
of  India,  with  a  suddenness  which  certainly  suggests  the 
suspicion  that  his  secret  had  become    known,  he  quitted 
En-land  for  Calcutta  in  1774.     His  official  career  was  a 
eoifstant  series  of  disputes  with  the  governor-general,  War- 
ren  Hastings,  culminating  in   a  duel,   in   which    he    was 
seriously  wounded.     It  is  difficult  to  pronounce  positively 
as  to  the  merits  of  the  controversy.     Infinitely  inferior  to 
Hastin<'S  in  administrative  capacity,  Francis  does  appear 
to  have  possessed  more  enlightened  views  as  to  the  duties 
of  government,  and  to  have  wished  to  introduce  a  spirit  of 
equity  and  clemency  into    the    administration  of  Benga 
which  would  have  greatly  benefited  it.     Unable  to  contend 
with  the  genius  and  fortune  of  his  rival,  he  forsook  India 
in  disgust,  retiring,  however,  with  a  large  fortune,  said  to 
have  been  partly  Acquired  by  high  play.     On  the  return  of 
Hastings  he  became  the  life  and  soul  of  the  memorable  im- 
peachment directed  against  him.  his  whole  behavior  during 
which,  both  as  regards  his  unmitigated  virulence  and  his 
underhand  method  of  action,  tends  as  strongly  as  any  other 
proof  to  confirm  his  identity  with  Junius.     •V\  hen  in  his 
extreme  old  age  the  authorship  was  first  publicly  imputed 
to  him,  he  neither  denied  nor  admitted  it,  but  his  demeanor 
showed  that  he  wished  it  to  be  believed.     D.  in  1818. 

As  the  impersonality  of  Junius  added  much  to  his  celeb- 
rity so  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  moral  authority  of  his 
letters  is  impaired  by  their  association  with  Francis.  Much 
that  mi"-ht  otherwise  have  passed  for  honest  indignation  is 
thus  shown  to  have  been  prompted  by  personal  rancor. 
With  every  deduction  on  this  ground,  the  letters  remain 
substantially  the  work  of  a  patriot  entitled  to  the  gratitude 
of  his  countrymen  for  his  spirited  vindication  of  their 
liberties  and  haws.  Their  rank  as  a  British  classic  is  secure, 
although,  as  need  hardly  bo  said,  their  fame  is  in  a  great 
measure  duo  to  the  scarcity  of  good  political  writing  m  their 
day  With  a  multitude  of  similar  productions  now  forgotten 
thev  supplied  the  place  of  regular  leaders  in  the  news- 
p.apcrs,  and  would  excite  comparatively  little  attention  in 
ana.'e  like  ours,  when  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  literary 
abili'ty  of  the  day  is  absorbed  by  the  public  press. 

The  best  authorities  on  the  question  of  Junius  are  Mr. 
i  Taylor's  ./»i.;i.«Wei.t;/;«/;  Dr.  Mason  Good's  essay,  pre- 
fixed to  most  recent  editions :  Mr.  Twisleton  s  elaborate  in- 
vcsti.'ation  of  the  handwritings  of  the  various  candulatcs  ; 
and  the  excellent  l.i/c  of  Sir  Philip  Fr.incis  commenced 
by  Mr  Joseph  Parkes  and  completed  by  Mr.  Herman 
Merivalc  Mr.  Parkes  leaves  no  stone  unturned  to  establish 
Francis's  authorship,  but  attributes  to  his  hero  numerous 
letters  and  pamphlets  which  he  certainly  did  nut  write,  in- 
cluding one  pamphlet  signed  '•  Irenarch,"  which  was  in 
fact  written  by  a  connection  of  the  author  ol  this  notice. 
Sir  Alexander  Cockburn  is  understood  to  be  preparing  a 
work  on  the  subject.  (For  the  theory  which  idcntihes 
Junius  with  Lord  Lyttclton,  sec  Lvttelto.v  (liioMAS).) 

R.  G.MiM-.rT. 
Junius,  post-tp.  of  Seneca  co.,  N.  Y.  Pop.  1420. 
Junius  (Francis),  b.  at  Heidelberg  in  1589,  a  son  of 
Franeiseus  Junius,  went  to  England  iu  1620,  and  became 
librarian  to  the  earl  of  Arun.lel,  in  whose  house  he  lived 
for  thirty  years.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the 
Teutonic"  iud    Anglo-Sa.xon  dialects,  on  which   ho    wrote 


JUNIUS— JUPITER. 


1475 


learned  nod  valuable  works.  D.  at  AVindsor  Nov.  19, 1677. 
l[o  publii'hcd  an  edition  of  Vltilas'p  translation  of  the 
(fospcis  into  Guthic,  and  n  Glosnarinm  Gothiruin  in  five 
l:in;»uages,  of  which  the  Engli:»h  part  was  reprinted  at  Ox- 
f«irJ  in  174.t  with  the  title  Etymotngicum  AiiifhCaiiiim,  and 
wag  the  chief  authority  on  etymology  used  by  I>r.  Johnson 
in  his  dictionary.  Junius  was  an  uncle  of  Isaac  Vossius, 
and  bequeathed  his  MSS.  to  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Ox- 
ford. 

Junius  (FRANciscrs),  otherwise  called  Francois  Du 
Jus,  b.  at  Bourgcs,  France,  in  1545 ;  studied  classical 
philology  and  Protestant  theology  at  Geneva;  was  pastor 
uf  a  Walloon  congregation  nt  Antwerp,  and  became  in  liiCS 
cliaplain  to  the  prince  of  Orange.  In  1573  he  was  called 
to  Heidelberg  by  the  elector  to  aid  in  a  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament :  he  was  also  professor  of  theology  at  Heidel- 
berg, and  afterwards  at  I^eyden,  where  he  d.  in  1(>(>2.  His 
principal  work  was  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Latin  in  conjunction  with  Tremellius  (Frankfort,  5 
parts,  1575-79),  which  passed  through  twenty  editions,  the 
best  being  that  of  1724.  The  other  works  of  .Tunius  were 
collected  at  Geneva  in  16ir. —  Oprrn  Thm/orftrft,  with  an 
autobiography  written  in  1595.  (See  Haag.  La  I'rauce 
Protrgttintc,  and  Herzog,  Real-Enctfkl'tp.y  s.  v.) 

Junk,  a  sea-going  vessel,  such  as  is  built  in  Japan, 
China,  Corea,  Tonquin,  and  Siam.  It  has  three  masts,  a 
high  poop  and  forecastle,  a  wooden  anchor,  and  usually 
has  a  wooden  or  painted  eye  on  each  bow.  as  if  to  enable 
it  to  sec  its  way.  The  sails  arc  ordinarily  of  matting. 
Junks,  though  slow  and  clumsy,  are  often  surprisingly  sea- 
worthy. The  amount  of  commerce  carried  on  in  them  is 
very  great,  but  vessels  built  on  the  European  models  arc 
grailually  taking  their  places. 

Junk-Ceylon%  or  Salang,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  belonging  to  Siam,  in  lal.  7°  40'  X.,  Ion.  98*^  IS'  E. 
It  is  20  miles  long  and  10  miles  broad,  and  exports  tin, 
edible  birds'  nests  and  sapan-wood  to  the  British  settle- 
uicnts  in  ihe  Strait  of  Malacca. 

Jun'kin  (Georgk),  D.  D.,  LL.T).,  b.  near  Kingston,  Pa., 
Nov.  1,  17110;  graduated  at  Jefferson  College  in  1813; 
studied  theology  in  New  York  City,  anrl  was  for  niany 
years  pastor  of  churches  at  Milton  and  .McEwensville,  Pa.  ; 
was  president  of  Lafayette  College  18;i2-U.  and  again 
IS44-48;  of  Miami  University  1841-44,  anci  of  AVashington 
('ollege,  Lexington,  Va.,  1S4S-61,  leaving  the  latter  post 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  on  account  of  his  loyalty  to 
the  Union.  Dr.  Junkin  was  a  prominent  champion  of 
"Old  School"  Presbyteriauism.  and  wrote  several  theo- 
logical and  controversial  treatises,  D.  at  Philadelphia, 
May  20,  18C8. 

Ju'no,  the  third  in  order  of  discovery  of  the  asteroids. 
Tr  was  found  by  Harding  ntthc  Lilieuthal  observatory,  near 
Uri'incn,  Sipt.  1,  Isoi.  It  shines  as  a  star  of  the  eighth  or 
ninth  magnitude,  and  is  of  a  whitish  color,  and  .not  nebu- 
lous. Its  sidereal  revolution  is  performed  in  1592.00  mean 
sular  days.  Itp  orbit  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  \'i^  V  20". 
Its  diameter  and  magnitude  arc  not  well  known. 

Juno  [Lat.,  gen.  ./r/»ioNM],  in  the  Roman  mythology, 
(he  qui-en  of  heaven  and  the  wife  of  Jiipiirr,  identified  with 
tbo  Copra  of  the  Ktruscans,  and  lutor  with  the  Ilcra  of  the 
(Jret-ka.  She  presided  over  wom:»nhood,  the  ni;trriagi'.bcd, 
maternity,  and  chaste  wedlock,  and  over  new-born  children  ; 
and  in  public  affairs  she  guarded  the  finaDccs  and  public 
justice. 

Jnnot'  (Andothr),  duke  of  Abrantcs,  b.  at  Bussy-le- 
Grand  Oct.  23,  1771  ;  studied  first  law,  but  entered  in  1792 
a  battalion  of  volunteers  ;  distinguished  himself  at  the  siego 
of  Toulon  ;  accompanied  Napoleon  as  aide-de-camp  in  Italy 
and   Kgvpt,  and  was  made  general  of  division  and  com- 
miinder-gt'oeral  of  Paris  in  ISOO.     Somewhat  displeased  at 
the  proiligality  and   lack  of  discretion  which   he  (and  es- 
pecially his  wife)  showed,  the  emperor  sent  him  in  1805  as 
ambassador  to  Lisbon  ;   but  he  very  soon  left   his  post,  re- 
paired (o  the  army  in  Germany,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  h.attle  of   Austerlitz.      In    iSOi;   ho  was   oneo  more  I 
ni;ide  commander-general  of  Paris,  but   in  the  next   year 
Napoleon   was  compelled   to  send   him  and  hi-*  wife  awiiy 
a^iiin.      lie  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  small  army  corps  ! 
destined  to  invade  Portugal,  and  his  success  was  so  brilliant  j 
in    this   undertaking   that    Napoleon    made    him   duke  of 
Abrantes.    Having  been  defeated  nt  Vimeiro  by  Wellington, 
he  concluderl  the  convention  of  (^intra  with   (he   English, 
which  highly  displeasecl   Napoleon,  and   during  tlie  cam- 
paign of  1S12  he  was  mentioned  as  "wanting  energy"  in  1 
one  of  the  emperor's  reports.      In  1813  he  was  made  gov-  ] 
ernor  of  lllyria.  and  his  mental  derangement  now  bef-ame  ' 
apparent.      He  was  broucbt  to   France,  iind  at    Montbard  i 
he  threw  himself  out  of  a  window,  and  d.  a  few  days  after,  I 
July  22,  1813.  1 


Junot  (Lai'rf),  duchess  of  Abrantes,  b.  Nov.  6,  1784,  at 
Moutpcllier.  France,  of  a  rich  merchant  family  of  the  name 
of  Permon.  Having  married  Gen.  Junot  in  ISUO,  she  became 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  ladies  of  the  French  court.  She 
was  beautiful,  witty,  with  a  great  talent  for  intrigue,  and 
her  audacity  was  as  boundless  as  her  prodigality.  Napo- 
leon called  her  La  petite  pcate.  After  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band and  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  she  still  maintained  her 
social  position  in  Paris  and  Home,  and  made  in  1831  a 
great  sensation  by  her  MimitireH  gur  Sapohtm  (18  vols.), 
which  wore  followed  by  Mrmoivrn  «nr  Ut  licHtunration  (0 
vols.,  lS3fi)  and  Sonvcnirn  d'niic  AmbttHiinde  en  J*orturjaf  (2 
vols.,  1837).  But  she  was  now  poor  and  eick,  and  d.  in  a 
house  of  charity  in  Paris  June  7,  18.'i8. 

Jupati'  Palm,  the  curious  liaphia  trrrliffrm  of  the 
lower  Amazon  valley.  Its  trunk  is  barely  eight  to  ten  feet 
high,  but  it  puts  up  a  magnificent  crown  of  pinnatcly  com- 
pounil  leaves,  some  of  which  are  often  sixty  feet  long.  The 
dried  leaf-stalks  contain  a  \ni\\  which  is  used  instead  of 
cork,  and  the  hard  and  light  outer  crust  is  very  useful  in 
joinery. 

Ju'piter,  the  fifth  planet  in  order  of  distance  from  iho 
sun,  and  far  the  largest  and  most  massive  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  solar  system.  .lupiter  travels  at  a  mean  dis- 
tance from  the  sun  of  475.092,000  miles.  The  eccentricity 
of  his  orbit  is  0.048239.  so  that  the  distance  of  the  centre 
of  his  orbit  from  the  sun  is  equal  to  0.048239  X  475,092,000 
miles,  or  22,947.000  miles,  and  bis  greatest  and  least  dis- 
tances from  the  sun  are  respectively  498,639.000  miles  and 
452,745.000  miles.  The  longitude  "of  the  perihelion  is  11° 
55'.  so  that  the  centre  of  the  orbit  is  in  Ion.  191°  55';  and 
in  any  true  delineation  of  tlie  orbit  a  distance  correspond- 
ing to  22,947,000  miles,  on  the  scale  adopted,  must  be  set 
off  in  this  longitude,  and  a  circle  struck  with  this  point  as 
centre,  and  a  distance  corresponding  to  475.002,000  as  ra- 
dius will  represent  the  orbit  of  Jupiter  with  sutTieient  ap- 
proximation; for,  though  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  is 
considerable,  the  ellipticity  is  very  slight  indeed,  and  on 
any  ordinary  scale  for  drawing  the  orbits  may  be  left  out 
of  consideration.  (The  semi-minor  axis  is  less  than  the 
semi-major  axis  in  the  ratio  of  v/  1  —  (0.048230)^  to  \,  or 
approximately  as  V  1  —  0.0025  : 1,  or  about  99S8  to  10.000; 
feo  that  the  excess  of  tlie  semi-major  over  the  semi-minor 
axis  is  less  than  the  830th  part  of  either  semi-axis.)  It  is 
worth  noticing  that  the  earth's  mean  distance  from  the  sun 
being  91,430.000  miles,  its  fourth  part,  or  22.857.500  miles, 
differs  very  little  from  the  eccentricity  of  Jupiter's  orbit 
measured  in  miles.  The  plane  of  Jupiter's  path  is  inclined 
1°  IS'  40". 3  to  the  ecliptic,  tbo  rising  node  lying  in  Ion. 
98*^  55^'.  The  rea<ior  must  not  fall  into  the  mistiike.  how- 
ever, of  supposing  that  the  most  massive  planet  of  tho 
solar  system  moves  in  a  plane  inclined  even  at  this  small 
angle  (less  than  1^°)  to  Iho  medial  plane  of  tho  system; 
for  the  phme  of  the  ecli]itic  to  which  we  refer  the  others  is 
itself  inclined  to  tho  medial  or  invariable  plane.  As  tho 
rising  n<ide  of  the  invariable  plane  is  in  Ion.  102°  57A', 
less  than  5°  from  Jupiter's  rising  node,  ami  its  inclination 
\°  35i'.  <liffcriiig  less  than  17'  from  Jtipitcr's,  wo  see  that 
the  plane  of  Jupiter's  orbit  very  nearly  coincides  with  the 
invariable  plan  of  the  solar  system.  Jupiter  completes  tho 
circuit  of  his  orbit  in  a  mean  sidereal  period  of  4332.5848 
days,  or  1 1  years  (tropical)  314.02  days,  or  roughly  1 1  years 
10  months  9  days  (counting  304  days  for  the  month).  His 
mean  daily  motion  in  his  orbit  is  299". 120;  and  as  tho 
earth's  mean  daily  motion  is  3548". 193,  it  follows  that  his 
mean  daily  loss  in  heliocentric  longitude  as  compared  with 
tho  earth  amounts  to  3249". 004  ;  hence,  the  mean  interval 
between  successive  conjunctions  of  tho  earth  and  Jupiter 
fftmounting  to  as  many  days  as  this  arc  is  contained  in 
300°)  is  equal  to  39H.807  days — in  other  words,  this  is  Ju- 
piter's mean  synodieal  periocL  Jupiter's  mean  diameter 
=  85,000  miles :  his  greatest  about  ^V''  more;  his  least 
aboiit  ^^th  less:  his  polur  compression  being  about  ^t^. 
Thus,  his  equatorial  diameter  -  87.S00  miles  and  bis  polar 
diameter  -  82,200  miles.  His  volume  exceeds  the  earth's 
1233  ^imes,  but  the  mean  density  of  his  substance  being 
only  equal  to  about  one  fourth  the  earth's,  his  mass  dttes 
not  exceed  hers  more  Ihitn  301  times.  As  compared  with 
tho  sun's  mass  (regarded  as  unity),  .Jupiter's  has  thus  been 
estimated  by  various  astronomers:  by  L:iplace,  \^w:  by 
Nicobiy,  i^^:  by  Airy,  ynjcs^  ''V  Pantini,  yn*5o  =  *'>  ^*^^' 
*"■'•  loi?  fi  •  ^*y  Eriigcr,  m]*  3.  Taking  yo'ijt  as  a  fair  mean 
of  the  latest  anil  best  values,  we  see  that  .lupiter's  mass  is 
but  a  small  fraction  of  the  sun's.  Nevertheless,  as  com- 
pared with  all  tho  other  planets.  Jupiter  is  not  merely  first 
in  mass,  hut  he  more  than  outweighs  them  taken  all  together. 
This  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  representing  the 
masses  of  the  various  known  members  of  Iho  solar  system, 
the  earth's  mass  being  represented  as  1000 : 


1476 


JUrXTER-JURASSIC,  THE. 


Smaller  piftoots. 

Mercury 

Veiuis 

Earth 

Mars 

Asteroids  together 
less  than JO" 


Lurger  planeto. 

05    Jupiter 300,860 

8S5    iSalurn 89,092 

lOOU    Uranus 12.050 

118    Neptune ^l?.'*' 

Total ...  419,036 
2,108 


Sun's  ina-ss  on 
the  same  .scale 
=  315,000,000. 


Total 2108  Orandtotal.  4-22,103 

Jupiter's  mass.  3(10,800 
Mass  of  all  the  planets  except  Jupiter.  121,2-13 
Thus  wo  see  that  Jupiter's  mass  bears  to  the  mass  of  all  the 
other  planets  taken  together  a  ratio  of  nearly  ;)  to  2  :  and  in 
nas^inc  we  niav  notice  that  three-fourths  of  the  remaining 
mass,  after  Jupiter  is  removed,  uppcrtams  to  one  planet— 
viz.  to  .Saturn.  . 

Jupiter  is  surrounded  by  a  system  of  four  satellites. 
These  were  discovered  by  Galileo  in  the  year  l(>in.  Iheir 
distances  from  Jupiter's  centre  are  equnl.  respectively,  to 
6  05  9.62,  15.:i5,  and  20.99  radii  of  Jupiter,  and  their 
sidereal  periods  of  revolution  aro  ■■"l'«'^''^'^''y,  ' '''  ',f''- 
■'Om  .3(/.  n'l.  ■!,«.,  'd.  3i.  43m.,  and  ml.  16/i.  32m. 
Their  diameters  have  been  estimated  at  2:152,  2009,  .4.,r., 
and  ''9''6  t.akin;'  them  in  the  order  of  their  distance  from 
Juiiit'er":  so  thatlho  third  is  far  the  largest,  exceeding  even 
the  planet  Mercury  in  size.  But  in  mass  these  bodies  arc 
not  «o  great,  relatively,  as  we  should  judge  from  their  di- 
mensions, at  least  comparing  them  with  the  smaller  planets 
and  our  moon.  The  following  table  presents  their  masses 
and  densities.  (It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  values  given  in 
many  handbooks  of  astronomy  aro  incorrect) : 


The  motions  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  have  affordc-d  an 
interesting  subject  of  study  to  astronomers,  and  a  subject 
which  has  been  fruitful  of  instructive  results      ^V  hen  they 
were  first  discovered  it  was  supposed  that  by  observing  their 
eclipses  and  oceultations  astronomers  could  determine  the 
longitude,  and  it  was  even  hoped  that  the  difficult  problem 
of  determining  the  longitude  at  sea  might  thus  be  solved. 
This  hope,  however,  soon  pruved  to  be  unfounded,  since 
even  when  observed  on  land  an  eclipse  or  oceultatioii  is  not 
found  to  occur  (apparently)  at  precMscly  the  same  instant 
when  observed  with  telescopes  of  different  powers  ;  and  the 
determination  of  longitude  requires  that  the  exact  ilistant 
of  the  occurrence  of  a  celestial  phenomenon  should  be  as- 
certained.    But  before  long  a  discovery  of  great  importanco 
rewarded  the  observation  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter  s  satel- 
lites, origiuallv  carried  on  in  order  to  form  tables  of  the 
motions  of  these  bodies.     It  was  found  that  an  eclipse  or 
reappearance  occurred  sooner  than  the  predicted  time  when 
the  planet  was  in  opposition  or  nearly  so,  and  later  when 
the  planet  was  approaching  conjunction  with  the  sun,  or 
had  recently  reappeared  in  the  twilight  skies  alter  conjunc- 
tion     The'explanation  of  these  peculiarities  was  lirst  per- 
ceived by  Roemer,  who  showed  that  they  arc  due  to  the 
motion  of  li"ht  with  finite  velocity.      The  light  message 
convcyin"  tons  the  news  of  an  eclipse  or  occultation  or  re- 
appearance of  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites  thus  lakes  a  longer 
or  shorter  time  in  reaching  the  earth  according  as  Jupiter 
is   vt  a  srcatcr  or  less  distance.     It   was  thus  found  that 
licrht  travels  at  the  rate  of  about  192.000  miles  per  second. 
Another  interesting  fact  revealed  by  the  study  of  the  moons 
of  Jupiter  is  the  relation  between  the  motions  of  the  three 
inner  moons.     From  the  values  given  above  for  the  sidereal 
revolution  it  is  easily  calculated  that  the  sidereal  motions 
of  the  three  inner  satellites  respeclivcly   arc    8".4.^.06, 
4"2'':i9l7  and2".0905n7.  The  sidereal  motion  of  the  inner- 
most'is  not,  it  will  be  observed,  e.tactly  double  that  of  the 
second,  though  nearly  so  ;  nor  again  is  the  sidereal  motion  of 
the  second  exactly  double  that  of  the  first.    But  this  relation 
holds  erucih,:  the  sidereal  motion  of  the  first    added  to 
twice  the  sidereal  motion  of  the  third  is  equal  to  three  limes 
the  sidereal  motion  of  the  second:  or  thus: 

.4-8-00  a-  2  (2".09fi507)  =  12".r>ri840  =  3  (4".223947). 


Add  to  this  the  observed  fact  that  when  the  first  and  third 
satellites  are  in  conjunction,  the  second  is  in  opposition  to 
them,  and  we  perceive  that  I'm-  nil  lime  these  three  satellites 
circle  under  the  following  conditions  :  starting  from  the 
case  just  described,  we  have,  first.  I.  and  III.  in  conjunc- 
tion, II.  in  opposition  to  them  ;  when  I.  has  gained  three- 
quarters  of  a  revolution  on  III.,  we  have 
Sid,  mot.  of  I.  -^  2  sid.  mot,  of  III.  = 
Sid.  mot.  of  I.  -(-  2  (sid.  mot.  of  I.  -  y  )  = 


3  sid.  mot.  of  I.  -  3ir  =  3  sid.  mot.  of  II.  (because  of  the 

relation  stated  above). 
Hence,  sid.  mot.  of  I.  ^  sid.  mot.  of  II.  -^^^; 
,•  r   when  I.  has  gained  three-quarters  of  a  revolution  on 
III     it  has  gained  half  a  revolution  on  II. :  but  it  was  in 
opposition  to  II.  at  starting,  it  must  therefore  now  he  in 
conjunction  with   II.,  and  III.  is  in  quadrature  to   boih 
Proceeding  similarly,  wo  perceive  that  when  I.  has  gained 
three-fourths  of  a  rcvolulion  once  again  on   III.,  I.  is  in 
opposition  both  to  II.  and  III.     Another  of  these  intervals 
brings  I.  and  II.  iuto  conjunction,  nn.l  III.  in  quadrature 
to  both.     A   fourth  such  interval   brings  about  the  same 
arrangement  as  at  first— viz.  I.  and  III.  in  conjunction,  and 
II   in  opposition  to  both.     It  is  clear,  Iheretore,  that  1., 
II    and  ill   can  never  be  in  conjunction  at  the  same  time. 
The  telescopic  study  of  Jupiter  has  led  to  results  of  con- 
siderable interest.    It" has  been  found  that  his  globe  is  sur- 
rounded by  bells  variable  in  width  and  color.     I'sualy  the 
equatorial  region  is  occupied  by  a  yellowishwhile  belt,  the 
bands  bordering  this  belt  on  either  side  being  darker  and 
usually  tinged  with  brown.     Towards  the  polc-s  'he  IjcIis 
are  commonly  less  marked  in  cob.r,  and  slightly  tinged 
with  a  bluish  hue.     From  the  movements  of  spots  on  these 
belts  it  is  inferred  that  the  planet  rotates  on  an  axis  in- 
clined only  about  three  degrees  from  perpen.lieularity  to 
the  plane  of  Jupiter's  orbit,  and  that  his  rotation  period  is 
97,    o5m   ''0«.     But  the  marks  from  which  this  rotation  has 
been'in'fcrred  manifestly  do  not  belong  to  the  solid  fr.ame 
of  the  planet,  since  they  have  been  found  to  have  a  proper 
motion,  resembling  that  which  Carrington  discovered  in 
the  case  of  the  solar  spots.     The  great  dei.th  of  the  Jovian 
cloud-lavers,  their  variability  in  shape  and  color,  the  rapid 
motions'  implied  by  their  change  of  aspect,  an.l  the  smal 
density  of  Jupiter's  vast  orb,  all  suggest  the  belief  that  his 
condition  resembles  rather  that  of  the  sun  than  that  of  the 
earth      Apart  from  these  considerations,  it  seems  impos- 
sible to  believe  that  the  sun,  which  pours  but  one-twenty- 
seventh  part  of  the  heat  on  Jupiter  which  he  pours  on  the 
earth,  c;in  be  the  originating  cause  of  atmospheric  disturb- 
ance=  in  Jupiler,  which  manifestly  exceed  greally  in  inten- 
sity those  which  take  place  in  our  own  air.     Prof.  Benjamin 
Peirce  has  also  shown  that  on  the  nebular  hypothesis  bo  h 
the  planets  Jupiter  and  Saturn  must  still  be  in  an  intensely 
heated  condition,  .and  are  probably  in  large  part  sliU  va- 

R.  A.  PllOCTOR. 

porous. 

Jupiter,  Juppiter,  or  Diespiter  (gen  Jo>,-,),  in 
the  Italian  uivthology,  the  king  and  lather  ol  lie  gods  and 
the  iust  ruler  of  men  :  later  identified  with  that  far  less 
noble  conception,  the  (_ireek  Zens.  Jupiter  gave  the  rain, 
the  thunder  and  lightning,  the  storm  and  calm,  lie  w.as 
the  protector  of  public  justice  and  private  virtue,  the  eailer 
of  armies,  and  the  sender  of  instructive  portents.  He  was 
the  god  of  air  and  light,  and  the  especial  patron  of  Home 
;  and  her  ]>eople. 

Jupiter  .\ramon.     Sec  Ammon. 

Ju'ra,  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  belonging  to  the 
county  of  Argyle,  Scotland.  Area.  S4  square  miles.  Pop. 
844.  The  western  coast  is  rugged  and  precipitous:  the 
eastern,  sloping  and  pleasant.  Oats,  barl.y,  and  flax  aro 
raised  and  black  cattle  reared.  Between  Jura  and  Searva 
is  the  whirljiool  of  Corrievrekin. 

Jura,  a  department  of  France,  on  the  frontier  of  Switzer- 
land. .Vrea,  UM:(  square  miles.  Pop.  287,634  The  largest 
part  is  occupied  bv  the  Jura  Mountains,  wliieh  yield  excel- 
lent timber  and  extensive  pastures,  on  which  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised.  The  reuiaining  lowlands 
and  the  valleys  have  rich  soil,  well  adapted  to  agriculture 
and  the  eultivaiiou  of  vines.  Iron-mining  is  the  principal 
industry  of  the  department;  wine,  cheese,  and  timber  its 
main  products.  The  inhabitants  are  Ihrilty  and  well  edu- 
cated.    Cap.  Lonsle-Saulnier. 

Jura,  the  name  of  a  system  of  mountain-ranges,  gene- 
rally from  51100  to  0000  feet  high,  which  cover  parts  ol 
Fraiiec,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  They  consist  of  a 
peculiar  kind  of  limestone,  called  the  Jura  limes  one  and 
are  generally  covered  with  fine  pine  forests.  In  the  Swiss 
Jura  many  stalaetilic  grottoes  are  found,  and  eaves  abound- 
ing in  bones  of  extinct  animals.  In  several  places  largo 
rivers,  as  the  Orbe,  the  Doubs,  and  the  Oreuse,  are  lost  in 
the  ground  an.l  their  course  concealed  for  some  distance 
The  highest  peaks  are  Molesson,  0588  feet,  and  Reculet  de 
Toiry.  5lit3  feel 


Juras'sic,  The,  is  the  "  Period  "  in  the  earth's  history 
that  inlervems  between  the  Triassic  and  the  Cretaceous, 
and  thus  the  second  or  middle  division  of  the  Mesozoic 
Age.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  group  of  rocks  that 
were  formed  during  this  period,  and  is  derived  f^rom  the 
Jura  Mountains,  between  France  and  fewitzerland,  in 
which  an  extensive  series  of  these  rocks  occurs  and  has 


JLKIKN  DE  LA  GKAVIEKK— JUKISDICTIOX. 


147 


been  carefully  studied  by  many  distinguished  observers. 
Tho  term  Oolitic  iiltoy,  na  "  e^g."  and  MBo<;.  a  "stone,"  in 
allu>ion  to  certain  linicstoiies  that  in  texture  present  the 
appearuncc  uf  the  rue  of  a  fish)  is  8onictiuiee  used  as 
synonymous  with  Juras^^ic,  but  it  is  more  appropriately 
restricted  to  one  of  the  subordinate  epochs  of  the  period. 
Where  best  developed  the  rocks  of  the  .lurasisic  indicate  to 
lis  repeated  recurrences  of  similar  conilitioris  of  deposit, 
accompanied  by  closely  related  faunas.  Each  such  group 
of  rocks  \?ith  its  associated  fauna  forms  a  natural  *•  forma- 
tion," and  is  defined  above  and  below  by  a  "  break  "  in  the 
series,  the  break  being  evidenced  by  an  unconformable 
arrangement  uf  the  contiguous  strata  due  to  an  interval 
of  upheaval  and  denudation.  Such  a  formation  is  in  fact 
built  up  of  the  successive  deposits  of  one  sea  or  delta,  and 
th:  entire  series  represents  to  us  the  successive  movements 
of  ujiheaval  and  depression,  and  records  the  accompanying 
migrations  of  life  that  in  that  area  constituted  the  great 
geological  events  of  the  Jurassic  period.  In  the  accom- 
panying table  wo  give  the  classification  of  the  subdivisions 
of  tho  Jurassic  and  it.s  formations,  as  found  developed  in 
Western  Europe  and  (Jreat  Britain  : 

A  Tabic  of  the  Cfiiitifirrttiou  of  the  Subdivisions  and  For- 
mations of  the  Jurassic  Period.* 


Cbgtaceous. 


Fresh  water. 


Purbock  beds. 


^  Third  Oolitic  Sea.      Upper  Oolite. 


^  .Second  OoHlic  Sea. 


!  First  Oolitic  Sea. 


ISceoDd  LiassicSea. 


First  Liassic  Sea. 


Middle  Oolite. 


Lower  Oolite. 


Middle  and  Lower 
Lias. 


TBU88IC 


The  detailed  history  of  geological  progress  thus  recorded 
is,  hf»wever,  due  to  tho  [leeuJiar  geographical  conditic»n, 
during  that  period,  of  the  region  referred  to.  During 
times  of  upheaval  it  was  a  valley  bordering  the  widespread 
Jurassic  seaa,  and  iluring  intervals  of  de]ire8sion  it  became 
a  gulf  or  limited  marine  area,  overwhelmed  by  the  tem- 
porarily advancing  waters  of  the  ocean  and  peoplecl  by 
successive  faunas,  each  in  turn  derived  from  the  common 
source,  and  each  in  turn  more  or  less  completely  cut  off 
from  its  successor  bv  the  recurring  movements  of  upheaval. 
Outside  of  this  limited  area  the  conditions  of  the  general 
Jurassic  ocean  seem  not  to  have  been  notably  affected  by 
the  undulations  of  its  bcl,  and  eouscfiucntly  events  that 
were  strongly  marked  in  Western  Euntpc  were  not  clfo- 
where  recorded  by  alternations  of  Iho  strata  or  subdivisions 
of  Ihe  fauna.  Hence,  whilst  we  recognize  Jurassic  strata 
by  .lurnHsic  fosfils  in  Uus«;ia,  widely  spread  over  Asia  to 
Iii'i-a,  in  the  Uocky  Mountains  of  the  U.  S.,  in  the  Andes 
of  South  America,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  in  Australia, 
yet  we  can  hardly  expect  to  be  able  to  subdivide  the  rocks 
accurately  according  to  the  above  classification,  or  to  as- 
sign the  fo)<j»iN  with  any  certainty  to  the  Pubordinate<livis- 
iniis  of  the  period.  In  the  U.  S.,  in  addition  to  strata 
doubtfully  assigned  to  this  period  on  Iho  Atlantic  border, 
there  occur  "  true  Jurassic  strata  full  of  eharacleristic  fos- 
sils about  tho  Ulack  Hills  ami  the  Laramie  Mountains,  and 
also  at  the  base  of  other  ridges  in  the  Ilocky  Mountains." 
(/Mjt.i.) 

Tho  palioontology  of  the  .Turassio  is  of  exceeding  inter- 
est to  the  student,  who  hero  lin<ls  himself  on  a  border-land, 
with  tho  paIirr)/,oie  typos  of  fossils,  rapidly  ilisuppearing 
on  Ihe  one  haml,  and  on  the  other  forms  appearing  wliieh 
usher  in  existing  life,  and  amidst  all  a  fauna  thoroughly 
oharaoteristio  of  Mesozoic  times.     Every  great  group  of 

•As  recorded  In  Western  ICurope  auJ  Great  Britain. 


Portland  stone. 
Portland  sand. 
Kimmeridge  clay. 

Coral  rag  and  Cal- 
careous grit. 
Oxford  clay. 
Keiloway  rock. 

Cornbrash  and 
Forest  marble. 

Great  Oolite  and  . 
Stonesfield  slate. 

Fuller's  earth. 

Inferior  Oolite 
limestone. 

Upper  Lias  saml. 

TT  , .  lUpner  Lias  elav. 

Upper  L.as.         u|^|,g^  ^^j^  ,i,„^.. 

Stones. 

Marlstone. 

Middle  Lias  sands. 

Middle  and  bower 
Lias  marls. 

Lower  Lias  lime- 
stones. 

(Wldte  Lias  lime- 
stone)? 


the  animal  kingdom  is  represented — marsupials  (in  the 
Stonesfield  slate  and  Purbeck  IJeds) ;  birds  (krc/i;ro;j/cT^x 
from  iMidillo  doliii-i;  whilst  reptiles  at  this  time  attain  to 
their  maximum  development,  Deinosaurians  (^'c(YiV/o*rt»ri(« 
and  -V^f/nAMrtid-H**)  on  the  Jurassic  lands;  Enaliosaurians 
{ IrhthffnHnnrus,  PUsittsaitrns,  and  Pliosaurus),  with  croco- 
diles {  Tffcosatirus)  in  its  \vaters;  pterodaetyles  flitting 
through  the  air.  Fishes,  too,  are  abundantly  represente(i 
by  sharks  {//i/bodus,  Amtdtis,  and  Chiiufi-oidn),  sturgeons 
(Chondrosteiitf)  and  a  host  of  sauroiil  and  other  ganoid 
forms.  Amongst  Mollusen,  the  cephalopodous  Ammout'tcs 
and  iiclefniiifCH  are  most  abundant,  as  are  also  the  genera 
Trrehratulfi  and  /i/ii/nrhourifd  amongst  brachiopods.  Echi- 
noderms  abound.  Eneriuites  amongst  the  crinoids  have 
all  but  pnssed  away,  but  their  place  is  well  filled  by  multi- 
tudes of  Prntficrinitm,  and  in  certain  strata  corals  arc  well 
represented.  The  most  characteristic  forms  of  the  period 
are  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the  Ainmonitida',  litdenmilida?, 
and  Pentucrinites.  I'pon  the  whole,  the  Jurassic  fauna 
would  appear  to  have  its  nearest  existing  representative  in 
that  of  our  Australasian  lands  and  seas;  such  forms  as  the 
marsupials,  as  Ventrarion  and  CftlliirhifticitH,  as  Triffonia 
and  W'a/dhcinn'it.  etc.,  appearing  like  the  last  descendants 
of  Jurassic  prototypes.  EiiWAiin  C.  H.  Day. 

Jurien  ile  la  Gravi^re  (Jean  Uaptiste  EnsroNn),  b. 
in  France  Nov.  I'J,  islli;  entered  the  navy  in  1828;  be- 
came captain  of  a  corvette  in  1841;  was  engaged  in  the 
Chinese  war  in  command  of  the  Bayonnaise  ;  was  promoted 
to  a  full  captaincy  in  ISoO  :  served  in  the  IJlack  Sea  during 
the  Crimean  war ;  was  made  rear-admiral  Dec.  1,  1S55,  and 
placed  atthe  head  of  a  squadron  in  the  Adriatic.  In  Oct.. 
1861,  he  received  the  command  of  the  squadron  sent  against 
Mexico  in  pursuance  of  the  triple  alliance  between  France, 
Englaml,  and  Spain,  and  as  imperial  commissioner  adjusted 
with  the  government  of  President  Juarez  the  famous  treaty- 
of  Soledad,  which  was  repucliated  by  Napoleon  ILL  Ilo 
became  vice-admiral  in  1  S(il?.  and  has  written  several  works, 
tho  most  esteemed  of  which  is  the  Voymje  en  Chine  (1854). 

Jlirieu'{PiEimi;),b.  atMer,  in  Orleanais,  Dec.  24, 16;i7  ; 
studied  theology  at  Redan  :  visited  Holland  and  England, 
and  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed  church 
of  his  native  city.  In  1071  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Hebrew  and  theology  at  the  academy  of  Sedan,  but 
when  this  institution  was  broken  up  in  H)8I  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  ho  himself  put  uncler  persecution  for  his  Ln  Ptilltique 
dn  CUrifi'  de  France^  he  si)ught  refuge  in  Holland,  and  was 
elected  pastor  of  the  Walhton  chureli  in  Uotterdam,  where 
ho  d.  Jan.  II,  17i-t.  In  spite  of  his  restless  and  irritable 
spirit,  which  drove  him  from  one  controversy  into  another, 
ho  was  of  groat  aid  ami  ciimfort  to  the  Protestant  (?hurch 
in  France,  and  among  his  numerous  writings  there  arc 
many  of  great  value,  as,  for  instance,  liintnirv,  Crltiqut:  den 
Doifvim  rt  dm  Ciifita  {IHH)  and  Uintoirc  du  Culvinismc  et 
duPnpi^iiic  (iOSL'). 

JuriNdic'tion  [Lat.],  in  law,  is  tho  power  possessed  by 
a  person  or  body  of  men  to  dispose  of  a  cause  or  question 
judicially.  It  may  originate,  as  it  has  often  done  in  Eng- 
land, from  long  usage,  or  it  may  be  cimferred,  as  it  usually 
is  in  this  country,  by  statute  or  by  constitutional  provision. 
Jurisdiction  may  bo  either  convurmnt  or  crclit*iiie.  By  this 
distinction  is  meant  that  sometimes  two  or  more  courts,  in- 
difi'erently,  may  entertain  a  cause,  while  in  other  cases  it 
can  be  disposed  of  by  one  alone.  Thus,  an  inferior  court, 
c.  I/.,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  frecjuently  lias  concurrent  juris- 
diction with  a  superior  court  of  minor  causes.  The  action 
may  accordingly  be  c<iniuienced  in  either.  An  instance  of 
exclusive  jurisdiction  is  that  of  a  ]irobate  court  in  deter- 
mining the  existence  and  validity  of  a  will.  .lurisdietiun 
is  also  original  and  appellate.  It  is  iniginai  when  a  court 
entertains  Ihe  cause  in  the  tirst  instance,  appellate  when  it 
is  brought  from  another  court.  Again,  jurisdiction  may 
be  either  of  the  subjtct- matter  or  of  the  jierson.  The  court 
may,  for  example,  have  general  p<i«ei  tvcr  the  subject,  but 
it  nniy  not  bo  presented  in  such  a  way  Iliat  its  authority  can 
be  exercised.  Where  jurisdiction  does  n<d  exist  the  act  of 
passing  judgment  is  wholly  inoperative  and  void.  Thus, 
if  a  State  court  should  pass  upon  a  (juestion  which  is  re- 
served by  the  U.  S.  Constitiilion  exclusively  for  the  Fed- 
eral tribunals,  its  jmlgment  would  be  without  effect.  An 
instance  wonhl  be  the  assumption  of  the  functions  of  a 
court  rif  admiralty.  It  is  not  necessary,  where  there  is  a 
total  want  of  jurisdiction,  to  raise  the  question  by  an  ap- 
peal from  Ihe  decision.  It  may  be  shown  to  be  of  no  avail 
in  a  whrdly  independent  and  collateral  proceeding.  Thus, 
if  a  person  were  sentenced  for  a  criminal  offence  by  a  court 
having  no  jurisdiction,  ho  might  bo  discharged  on  a  writ 

of   hithniH  ctn'f»is. 

This  power  to  declare  tho  judgment  of  a  court  a  nullity  is 
one  of  great  delicnoy,  and  shouM  be  exercised  with  nuich 
caution.    Still,  in  a  clear  case  there  should  be  no  shrinking 


147^ 


JURISDICTION. 


from  ita  use,  as  otherwise  much  injustice  may  be  done.     A 

distinction  has  been  taken  aa  to  the  presumption  of  juris- 
diction between  au  inferior  and  a  sn])erior  eourt.  It  has 
been  hiid  down  as  a  rule  that  "nothing  shall  he  intended 
to  be  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  a  superior  court  except  that 
which  specially  appears  to  be  so;  on  the  other  hand,  noth- 
ing; shall  be  intended  to  bo  witliin  that  of  the  inferior  court 
unless  it  bo  expressly  so  alleged."  In  determining  to  which 
partieuhvr  class  a  court  belongs,  it  will  ho  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  statutes  and  usages  of  the  particular  State  in  which 
the  case  arises,  especially  as  to  such  courts  as  surrogates', 
general  sessions,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  A  court  may 
have  a  limited  jurisdiction,  such  as  the  circuit  or  district 
court  of  the  U.  S.,  and  not  be  an  *'  inferior"  court  within 
the  meaning  of  this  rule.  Eren  as  to  the  shperior  courts, 
the  presumption  of  jurisdiction  may  bo  rebutted  by  proof 
to  the  contrary,  unless,  having  jurisdiction  under  a  certain 
state  of  facts,  its  record  contains  a  recital  of  those  facts, 
in  which  case  the  record,  by  a  technical  rule  of  law.  is  not 
to  be  contradicted  by  extrinsic  evidence.  Wherever  the 
record  expressly  or  by  implication  shows  that  the  court 
proceeded  without  jurisdiction,  there  is  no  presumption  in 
its  favor,  and  its  acts  are  plainly  void.  The  rule  also  fails 
of  application  when  the  court  proceeds  in  the  exercise  of 
some  special  statutory  authority  ;  for  as  to  this,  it  is  deemed 
to  be  an  inferior  rather  than  a  superior  court.  When  the 
case  is  one  of  an  "  inferior  court,"  another  set  of  rules  pre- 
vails. Thecourt  cannot  obtain  jurisdiction  by  deciding  that 
the  conditions  precedent  to  the  rights  to  hear  and  determine 
the  matter  in  hand  exist,  when  in  fact  they  do  not.  The 
most  that  can  be  said  in  any  case  is  that  its  decision  is 
npjiarently  correct,  hut  tho  facts  may  be  disproved  by  ex- 
trinsic evidence.  Thus,  a  board  of  assessors  having  power 
to  tax  residents  of  a  town  could  not  gain  junsdietion  over 
a  non-resident  l.iy  deciding  that  he  was  a  resident,  when 
he  was  not  so  in  fact.  So,  in  any  case  where  the  record 
of  an  *'  inferior"  court  docs  not  show  upon  its  face  the  ex- 
istence of  the  facts  necessary  to  give  jurisdieti<m,  they  are 
presumed  not  to  have  existed,  though  extrinsic  evidence 
may  be  offered  to  the  contrary,  and  the  jurisdiction  thus 
be  upheld  under  these  rules.  If  a  court-martial  should 
a^isess  a  fine  without  giving  tho  accused  au  opportunity  to 
be  heard,  the  decision  will  be  wholly  void  :  the  court  would 
in  such  a  case  have  no  jurisdiction  over  the  person.  The 
same  rule  would  be  applied  to  a  magistrate  having  power 
by  statute  to  issue  a  warrant  or  an  attachment  under  spe- 
cial circumstances  that  were  not  complied  with.  Where  a 
judge  acts  wholly  without  jurisdiction,  his  decision  may 
not  only  be  disregarded  by  other  courts,  but  ho  may  render 
himself  liable  to  an  action  for  damages  at  tho  suit  of  the 
party  injured. 

This  question  of  want  of  jurisdiction  is  frequently  pre- 
sented where  an  attempt  is  made  to  enforce  in  the  courts 
of  one  State  the  ju<igment  or  de(;rec  of  tho  courts  of  an- 
other State.  The  U.  S.  Constitution  provides  (art.  iv.,  §  1) 
that  full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  jtroceodings  of  every  other 
State,  and  Congress  is  empowered  to  prescribe  the  manner 
in  which  such  acts  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved  and  tho 
effect  thereof.  Under  tiiis  provision  the  court  of  tho  one 
Slate  m.ay  inquire  into  the  jurisdiction  of  the  eourt  of  the 
other  State,  and  refuse  to  recognize  a  judgment  rendered 
without  jurisdiction.  The  Constitutional  eluuse  assumes 
that  there  ia  a  record  to  which  recognition  can  be  given  ; 
and  a  professed  judgment  rendered  without  jurisdiction  is  in 
fact  no  judgment.  There  must  be  jurisdiction  both  of  the 
subject  nuitter  and  of  tho  person.  Accordingly,  if  judgment 
was  obtained  against  a  defendant  in  one  State  without  notice, 
it  could  not  be  enforced  against  hiui  as  a  judgment  in  the 
courts  of  another  State,  as  the  court  acted  without  juris- 
diction over  his  person.  It  would  bo  immaterial  though 
the  courts  of  the  State  where  the  judgment  was  rendered 
deemed  it  valid.  A  judgment  of  this  kind  may  sometimes, 
by  force  of  statutory  provisions  providing  notice  by  means 
of  newspaper  publication  instead  of  that  which  is  personal, 
have  a  local  effect  when  it  is  wholly  discarded  in  other 
States  for  want  of  true  jurisdiction  over  the  person.  This 
question  frequently  arises  in  the  case  of  an  action  for  total 
divorce.  If  one  of  tho  parties,  having  become  domiciled 
in  one  State,  obtains  a  divorce  from  tho  other  in  his  ab- 
sence and  without  personal  notice,  the  judgment  maybe 
valid  by  the  local  law  of  the  State  where  it  is  rendered. 
and  yet  not  he  recognized  in  another  State,  on  the  ground 
of  want  of  jurisdiction.  If.  on  the  other  hand,  the  absent 
party  had  appeared  and  submitted  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court,  the  judgment  migbt  have  been  valid  in  both 
States.  A  like  question  may  arise  as  between  the  courts 
of  different  nations.  Thus,  the  Knglish  courts  will,  as  a 
general  rule,  recognize  as  conclusive  a  judgment  rendered 
in  the  courts  of  an  American  State  where  the  latter  has 
full  jurisdiction   over   tho   subjcot.      Assuming,    what   is 


doubtful,  that  this  rule  would  be  applied  there  to  an  action 

in  this  country  for  divorce  from  an  English  marriage,  still, 
if  an  Knglishnum,  dissatisfied  with  hi.-j  marriage  relations, 
should  leave  Kngland  and  acquire  a  domicile  in  one  of  our 
States,  tho  wife  still  remaining  in  England,  and  obtain  a 
divorce  valid  by  its  laws,  the  English  courts  would  not  rec- 
ognize its  existence  on  account  of  the  defect  of  jurisdiction. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  questions  of  jurisdiction 
thus  become  of  great  practical  moment  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  of  various  states  or  nations  under  the  rules 
of  private  international  law. 

Under  the  jurisprudence  of  the  U.  S.  government,  the 
judicial  power  is  prescribed  in  the  Constitution.  It  is.  for 
most  purposes,  left  to  Congress  to  determine  in  what  courts 
it  shall  bo  vested.  It  is,  however,  providecl  that  there 
shall  be  a  supreme  court,  and  that  it  shall  have  oriijiual 
jurisdiction  in  two  classes  of  cases — one  in  all  cases  affect- 
ing ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and 
the  other  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party.  In  all  other 
cases  the  court  shall  have  ap])ellate  jurisdiction,  with  such 
exceptions  and  under  such  regulatiims  as  Congress  shall 
make.  The  effect  of  this  provision  is  that  Congress  can- 
not confer  upon  the  supreme  court  "original  "'jurisdiction 
in  any  other  cases  than  those  tliat  arc  expressly  mentioned. 
This  is  an  instance  of  au  ap])iication  of  the  rule  that  tho 
expression  of  tho  power  in  one  case  is  an  exclusion  of  it  in 
all  other  eases.  '•  Original  "jurisdiction  in  all  other  cases 
to  which  the  judicial  power  of  the  U.  S.  extends  must  be 
exercised,  as  far  as  Federal  tribunals  are  concerned,  by 
some  of  tho  "inferior"  courts  referred  to  in  the  Constitu- 
tion as  within  tho  power  of  Congress  to  establish.  (See 
Constitution,  U.  S.)  It  cannot,  however,  be  claimed  that 
the  supreme  court  of  the  U.  S.  cannot  exercise  appellate 
jurisdiction  in  the  two  classes  of  cases  in  which  its  juris- 
diction is  original.  Thus,  a  State  may  be  a  party  in  a 
State  court  to  a  proceeding  in  which  the  validity  of  tho 
laws  of  Congress  may  be  involved,  and  the  case  mny  be 
appealable  on  thnt  ground.  The  fact  that  it  was  a  party 
would  be  no  hindrance  to  tho  appeal  to  the  supreme  eourt 
of  the  U.  S.  In  fact,  there  are  two  general  grounds  on 
wliieh  a  case  may  be  brought  before  a  U.  S.  couit,  one 
being  the  nature  of  the  case,  and  the  other  the  presence  of 
a  particular  party.  The  fact  that  the  presence  of  a  party 
makes  a  case  one  for  original  jurisdiction  does  not  prevent 
I  the  exercise  of  appellate  jurisdiction  where  that  depends 
!  on  the  nature  of  the  case. 

I  Tho  jurisdiction  of  a  State  court  may  or  may  not  be  prc- 
I  scribed  in  a  State  constitution.  Where  it  is.  an  act  of  the 
',  legislature  extending  or  abridging  its  jurisdiction  in  op- 
position to  the  coustituiional  provisions  will  be  void.  Where 
there  is  no  constitutional  direction,  the  whole  matter  is 
within  the  control  of  the  Stale  legislature,  which  may  in 
that  case  erect  and  abolish  courts  at  will,  and  parcel  out 
their  jurisdiction  according  to  its  pleasure.  Though  such  an 
abolition  of  a  court  shoulil  displace  judges  who  held  office  for 
a  specified  term,  no  legal  objection  would  stand  in  the  way, 
as  nocontntct  is  created  between  the  State  and  the  judges  en- 
suring their  continuance  in  office  for  the  designated  period. 
Somo  suggestions  may  be  useful  as  to  the  question  \vhether 
consent  of  parties  will  confer  jurisdiction.  It  is  manifest 
that  a  judicial  tribunal  cannot  be  created  by  consent.  If 
parties  should  in  the  most  solemn  form  agree  that  they 
would  submit  a  question  to  a  tribunal  created  by  them- 
selves, tho  most  that  their  unaided  act  would  amount  to 
would  be  to  appoint  an  arbitrator  and  to  give  him  author- 
ity to  make  an  award.  (See  Awakp.)  Under  the  same  gen- 
eral view  it  may  be  shown  that  it  is  impossible  by  consent 
to  extend  the  powers  of  an  existing  court  to  subjects  over 
which  the  law  gives  it  no  control.  While  these  jiositions 
are  true  as  to  jurisdiction  "over  the  subject-matter"  of  a 
cause,  they  cannot  be  applied  with  the  same  breadth  to 
juris<liction  "over  the  person."  It  is  frequcnllv  the  case 
that  general  power  to  decide  a  question  exists  if  the  par- 
ties are  properly  before  the  court,  and  the  law  jirescribes  a 
jiartieular  mode  of  bringing  them  there.  If  that  mode  is 
not  observed,  regularly  the  court  has  no  jurisdiction.  In 
such  a  case,  if  a  party  waives  an  observance  of  tlio  pro- 
scribed mode,  and  voluntarily  takes  part  in  the  action,  tho 
court  may,  upon  the  consent  thus  given,  entertain  the  case. 
This  view  could  not  bo  taken  of  a  case  where  tho  court 
could  not,  by  the  most  strict  adoption  of  regular  forms  of 
jirocedure,  acquire  jurisdiction.  An  illustration  is  found 
in  the  jurisdiction  of  a  State  court  over  a  foreign  consul. 
The  U.  S.  Constitution  for  public  reasons  withdraws  the 
consul  as  a  defendant  from  the  State  courts.  He  can- 
not, accordingly,  be  sued  there  by  his  consent.  There  is 
here  no  question  of  an  adoption  of  regular  forms.  Tho 
State  court  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  case,  anrl  can  no 
more  acquire  jurisdiction  over  the  person  of  the  consul  by 
his  consent  than  it  could  obtain  the  right  to  dispose  of  an 
admiralty  cause  in  tho  same  manner.         T.  W.  JDwight. 


JURISPRUDENCE. 


1479 


Jurisprn'dence  is  both  the  philosophy  and  the  gcience 
of  IttW.  Lttto.  as  the  subject-matter  of  jllrit^p^ude^ce,  is  the 
body  of  rules  reguliiting  the  rchitive  rights  and  duties  of 
meu  in  society,  declared  and  politically  enforced  by  public 
authority.  As  a  branch  of  pbUogophy,  jurisipnidmco  is 
coucfrned  with  the  origin  of  law,  its  nature,  and  its  con- 
nectiou  with  the  other  phenomena  which  make  np  the  uni- 
verse. As  a  science,  it  classiGes  into  system  the  body  of 
our  knowlcilgo  acquired  by  a  study  of  its  actual  develop- 
ment and  lii.slory,  aud  traces  the  principles  wliioli  eonnect 
its  various  results.  As  philonuphij,  it  teaches  the  theory  of 
all  p05!>ible  law  ;  as  science,  it  teaches  the  facts  and  priuci- 
p1e«i  nf  all  actual  law. 

Jurisprudence,  regarded  as  a  whole,  comprises  not  only 
a  stiidv  of  what  the  law  is  and  ha.-J  been,  but  of  what  it 
would  bo  if  the  principles  to  be  extracted  from  it  were 
correctly  worked  out.  It  permits  us  to  test  those  principles 
themselves  by  a  standard  external  to  them — by  our  abstract 
notions  of  what  is  right  and  reasonable,  by  our  observation 
of  what  is  useful,  by  the  visible  wants  and  tendencies  of 
society.  "  It  may  be  said  of  laws,  that  mankind  have  but 
one  iatCt  though  every  nation  has  had  its  otcn  si/st^in  of 
/film.  For  positive  law  is  not  essentially  a  simple  collec- 
tion of  isolated  rules  and  ordinances,  arbitrary  or  conven- 
tional in  thrir  nature,  but  it  is  a  system,  exhibiting,  nmid 
all  its  variations  in  time  and  jilaco,  invariable  aud  tixod 
principles  and  relations,  whicii  constitute  the  foundation 
or  identical  part  of  all  laws;  that  is  to  sav,  universal  or 
natural  law."  (2  Lmv  lin:  and  Mofj.  (Lon'd.),  N.  S.  ;VIK.) 
**  For  as  reason  and  reflection  arc  natural  to  man,  and  are 
as  important  parts  of  his  nature  as  the  highest  of  its  in- 
stincts, so  laws  fiiunded  on  the  right  exercise  of  that  rea- 
son are  natural  laws  in  the  best  aud  highest  sense  of  all." 
(l)uke  of  Argyle,  Ueif/n  of  Laic.) 

The  nature  of  man  as  a  rational  and  moral  creature 
points  out  the  ends  and  objects  of  his  existence  on  earth, 
and  the  means  furnished  by  external  nature  by  wbiidi,  in 
the  exercise  of  his  activities  in  society,  they  may  bo  at- 
tained, and  in  the  progressive  exercise  lof  these  activities 
establishes  the-  various  relations  which  bind  together  and 
olassifv  mankind  in  a  social  order.  Arising  out  of  the  na- 
ture of  men,  and  its  relation  to  the  phy,«ical  and  moral 
universe,  and  developed  in  history  in  the  progressive  cul- 
ture of  the  race,  jurisprudence  may  be  traced  and  studied 
both  ilefinrtirfilif  and  hiatoricnUy.  The  conclusions  reached 
by  this  double  analysis,  and  reconciled,  constitute  the  sci- 
ence. Law  and  government  ajipear  as  facts  in  human  his- 
tory simultaneously.  They  never  exist  apart,  and  from 
their  nature  cannot;  it  being  the  very  office  of  government 
to  declare  and  enforce  law,  aud  law, consisting  of  those  rules 
of  conduct  which  are  enforceable  and  actually  enforced  by 
that  puljlic  autliority  embodied  in  government.  Law  and 
goveriimont  are  therefore  correlates.  Each  inijilies  the 
other.  From  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex  political 
organizations — the  family,  the  tribe,  the  nation — as  society 
di'velops  historically,  law  in  always  present;  but  in  the 
logical  order  its  itlea  is  ])ri<)r,  for  governments  exist  in 
order  that  law  may  be  declared  and  enforced. 

The  study  of  human  nature  gives  rise  to  the  conception 
of  a  mornf  ordrr,  the  realization  of  which  constitutes  man's 
hi;;host  good,  and  the  pursuit  of  which  employs  all  his  ac- 
tivities. It  etmstitutes  the  flnnl  cnntr  of  niairs  existence, 
the  purpose  and  perfection  of  his  being,  his  end  and  des- 
tiny. Whatever  conforms  to  that  moral  order  is  rirfht  ; 
whatever  violates  it  is  tcrnnij.  .Subsidiary  to  that  concep- 
tion of  universal  moral  order,  and  forming  parts  of  it, 
through  the  me<lium  of  which  in  combination  it  is  to  be 
realized,  are  subordinate  conceptions  of  the  liuiium  reoson 
declaring  and  defining  the  relations  of  men  with  each  other 
in  society,  of  men  with  each  other  in  relation  to  external 
nature,  and  to  the  universe  of  things,  material,  intellectual, 
and  moral.  I4lus(rations  of  these  are  coneei>ti<tns  of  the 
family,  the  state,  of  property,  of  contract,  etc.  To  conform 
to  that  universal  moral  order — that  is,  to  do  whatever  is 
riijht  and  avoid  whatever  is  trrontf — the  nature  of  man 
recognizefl  as  his  t/ultf  :  which  at  the  same  time  ho  is  eon- 
seious,  by  virtue  nf  Ihe  /rrftltun  r,/  hit*  trill,  that  he  may 
choose  not  to  perform;  the  exercise  of  which,  in  that  way, 
however,  ho  feels  to  be  the  brea'di  of  an  uhfiffntinn.  The 
conception  of  this  moral  order  bin'Iing  him,  as  iv  rational 
free  agent,  to  its  observance.  i«  lh»;  idea  of  jnorah'hf,  the 
rule.-*  of  wbieh.  analyzed  and  clussified.  constitute  Ihe  sci- 
ence of  cfhim  ;  and  those  rule»i.  habitually  practised,  are 
named  rirtura,  their  hahitual  violations,  vicm.  Among 
virtues  we  find  that  of  yiMfiV*-,  which  is  <lefined  to  bo  thr 
htihifunl  itiiifuniifiitn  to  render  errrif  innn  hin  ilnr  ;  and  those 
claims,  whatever  they  may  be,  which  bebdic  to  man  as 
matters  of  justice  are  called  ritjhi».  The  dutic*  resting  on 
all  t(t  render  to  each  his  rights  are  called  nhfitjatiintu,  the 
violation  of  them,  irron//*  .-  the  relations  between  men  thus 
established  arc  distinguished  as  Jural. 


Rights  differ  from  other  moral  claitna  of  men  upon  each 
other  in  this — that  the  latter  are  duties,  depending  for  their 
fulfilment  altogether  upon  the  fjood- will  of  those  bound  by 
them;  the  former  carry  with  them  a  claim  to  be  en/m-icd 
In/  phi/itirfit  cntnpnhion.  But  as  the  mind  of  man  is  not  the 
suhject  of  physical  force,  the  ritjhtH  which  are  susceptible 
of  being  enforced  must  be  such  only  as  constitute  claims 
upon  the  rxtcrnaf  conduct  or  orcrt  ovts  of  others;  but  fur 
the  purpose  of  delcrmiuiug  the  vioml  (fua/iti/  of  these  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  investigate  the  inrntal  condi- 
tions of  the  agent  at  the  time  of  their  commission,  as  in 
questions  of  motive,  intention,  negligence,  sanity,  intoxica- 
tion, nonage,  etc.  And  the  phy.sJca!  Ibrce  required  for  Iheir 
enforcement  is  furnished  by  the  pnldir  authoriti/,  repre- 
senting the  rfttionnf  irifl  of  the  community  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  law.  That  puhlic  authorltf/.  organized  in  every 
separate,  indepemlent  community  constituting  a  slate  or 
nation,  is  its  ])0litical  and  civil  government;  and  to  it  is 
referred  the  determinati(tn,  from  time  to  time,  in  each  suc- 
cessive stage  of  its  hislorj",  of  the  question,  \Vhat  are  the 
juMt  and  natural  untral  claims  of  each  member  of  society 
upon  all  which  it  will  enforce  as  lc(/al  rights?  and  its  dec- 
larations to  that  effect  are  the  ponitivc  laws  of  that  fitatr. 
The  supreme  public  authority  inherent  in  every  inde- 
pendent state  or  nation,  whereby  it  organizes  its  political 
and  civil  government,  is  called  nortrei'/nti/;  aud  the  mode 
in  which  the  government  exercises  the  powers  of  sover- 
eignty is  its  constitution.  There  are  no  Icffnl  limitti  to 
sovereign  power,  for  it  declares  what  the  law  is  ;  it  is 
boun<I  only  by  moral  restraints,  but  the  constitution  of  a 
state  may  impose  Ifjal  limitatimiH  upon  the  government; 
and  this  gives  rise  to  public  or  constitutional  lair. 

There  is,  however,  a  supreme  law  which  binds  and  re- 
strains the  sovereignty  of  imlividual  Htatvx.  It  is  the  law 
of  natimis,  or  international  law.  It  consists  of  a  body  of 
rules  regulating  the  relative  rights  and  duties  of  inde- 
pendent nations  in  that  mutual  intercourse  denmnded  by 
the  progressive  advancement  of  human  society.  It  is  the 
application  of  the  right  reason  and  cultivated  conscience 
of  mankind  to  the  relations  of  men  orgiinized  into  sepa- 
rate and  inde])endent  communities  and  as  subjects  of  dis- 
tinct national  sovereignties.  It  is  developed  by  diplomatic 
discussions  and  state  pa]>ers;  by  the  decisions  of  judicial 
tribunals  in  private  controversies,  where  the  litigants  have 
no  common  municipal  sujicrior;  by  the  treatises  of  jihil- 
osophical  jurists;  aud  is  cmbodierl  in  a  traditionary  code 
of  international  usage  and  tlie  modifying  legislation  of 
treaties  and  conventions.  It  is  not,  as  has  sometimes  been 
said,  without  a  Honction;  for,  although  sovereign  nations 
recognize  no  common  superior  with  power  to  prescribe  the 
rules  of  their  conduct,  nevertheless  each  sovereign  is  a 
public  aulhorily  which  by  resort  to  the  ultima  ratio  of 
just  war,  is  entitled,  according  to  tl»o  public  oi)inion  of  the 
civilized  world,  to  enforce  the  commands  of  international 
law;  any  breach  of  which,  though  directly  injurious  to  but 
one,  is  also  an  offence  against  the  rights  and  pence  of  all. 

Kach  individual  meinlier  of  human  society  is  under  a 
moral  necrsHiti/ — that  is,  owes  the  duty  by  the  rational  ex- 
ercise of  his  wilt — to  conform  to  the  universal  moral  order 
Ijy  the  habitual  observance  of  all  the  rules  of  morality  and 
the  practice  of  those  virtues  which  constitute  the  ideal  ex- 
cellence of  life  and  character;  and  is  Iherefore  not  only 
entitled,  but  required  by  the  eonstittition  of  his  nature,  to 
employ  the  means  necessary  to  enable  him  to  perform  (hat 
duty.  The  means  to  this  end  are  furnisheil  by  the  organi- 
zation of  mankind  in  society,  and  the  materials  for  its  de- 
velopment providcil  by  the  material  universe  with  which 
he  is  placed  in  contact  or  connection.  IJut  both  duties — to 
attain  the  end  and  use  the  means — rest  cffualli/  on  all ;  and 
the  liberty  of  each  man's  will  in  the  pursuit  of  his  highest 
good  is  limited  by  the  j)roper  exercise  of  the  wills  of  all 
others.  The  harmony  of  this  coexistence  is  the  establish- 
ment of  civil  and  nacial  f»rder,  which  is  the  sphere  and 
scope  of  human  freedom,  personal,  civil,  and  political,  being 
tihrrti/  regulated  by  law,  the  principle  of  which  is  Cf/ualiti/ 
in  right. 

The  perfection  of  civil  order,  it  is  manifest,  therefore. 
consists  in  the  largest  liberty  of  iudiridual  action  compati- 
ble with  the  etinal  lilicrttf  of  all  others — that  is,  compatililo 
with  the  general  gnnd .■  and  the  question  requiring  solution 
in  every  case  as  it  arises  or  is  foreseen,  is.  To  what  extent  is 
the  ]>ubIio  authority  justified  in  ituposing  jibysical  restraint 
upon,  or  applying  physical  coercion  to,  individual  action? 
Il  has  been  fnuiid  impossible  hitherto  to  announce  any 
principle  which  will  theoretically  answer  that  question  for 
all  rases.  There  lias  been  found,  indeed,  as  yet,  no  com- 
mon agreement  asto  the  true  principle  on  which  the  publio 
authority  intervenes  forcibly  at  all.  Some  ground  it  on 
the  principle  o?  self'  difrncf,-  sonie,  on  the  pri'ser^  atioii  of 
the  Hiatus  </ui>:  some,  on  the  abstract  nature  and  quality  of 
rights  as  enforceable;    some,  by  the   application   of  the 


14.su 


JURISPRUDENCE,  MEDICAL. 


maxiiSr  "  Do  as  you  would  be  done  by ;"  others,  by  the 
principle  that  any  one  may  prevent  what  will  make  his 
physical  condition  less  comfortable  than  it  is  by  nature: 
but  the  opinion  most  Ecenerally  received  is.  that  the  proper 
limit  of  the  law,  as  the  applied  or  threatened  public  force, 
is  in  every  case  a  C)uestion  to  be  determined  by  the  viifti- 
vntcd  ycnson  and  cnlifjhtcned  conact'ence  of  mankind,  testing 
and  correcting  their  conclusions  hy  protfrcHsht  experience 
as  it  advances  in  civilization,  resorting  to  crpcdi^nct/  and 
utidtt/,  not  as  the  standard  and  measure  of  truth,  but  as  its 
evidence  and  confirmation,  seeking  the  perfection  of  man 
in  the  historical  realization  in  human  society  of  ideal  jus- 
tice. 

Consequently,   every  system  of  civilized  jurisprudence 
will  be  found  to  contain  two  elements — one  deduced  by  the 
public  reason  from  the  general  principles  of  natural  justice ; 
the  other  dogmatically  fixed  by  recognized  custom  or  by 
express   legislation,   and  affected  by  the   peculiarities    of 
national  character,  history,  and  situation.     The  latter  is 
arbitrary,  accidental,  and  positive  ;  the  former  is  its  rational 
element  and  unchangeable  foundation.  "  It  would  be  hard," 
say-*  Burke,  "  to  point  out  any  error  more  truly  subversive 
of  all  the  order  iintl  beauty,  of  all  the  peace  and  happiness, 
of  human  society  than  the  position  that  any  body  of  men 
have  a  right  to  make  what  laws  they  please,  or  that  laws 
can   derive  any  authority  whatever  from  their   institution 
mereli/,  and  independent  of  the  quality  of  their  subject- 
matter.    .    .    .    AN   human    laics  tire,  properly  spealdn;/,  oulif 
derltiratori/.     They  may  alter  the  mode  and  application, 
but  have  no  power  over  the  substance  of  original  justice." 
Jurinpi-mh^nee,  then,  is  distinguished  from  rthirs  as  a  part 
is  from  the  whole,  being  one  of  the  branches  of  that  larger 
and  more  comprehensive  department  of  human  knowledge. 
On  the  other  liand,  its  own  province  includes — l.Xatural 
Laic,  or  that  theory  of  human  relations,  and  the  rights  and 
obligations   implied   in    them,   deducibic   from   the  nature 
of  man  and  of  the  things  around   him,  and  of  which  his 
social   and   individual   advancement   require   the  enforce- 
ment, if  necessary,  by   physical  power.     2.   International 
Lair,  or  that  body  of  rules  deduciljle  from  the  relations  of 
man,  organized  into  separate  and  independent  communi- 
ties, and  which  are  applied  (1)  to  regulate  the  intercourse 
of  sovereign  states,  and  of  which  the  ultimate  sanction  is 
just  war;  (2)  to  determine  the  rights  and  obligations  aris- 
ing between  individuals  considered  as  subjects  of  separate 
sovereign  jurisdictions,   by  juiUcial  tribunals  acting  and 
deciding  on   private  controversies.     The    former  is  called 
public  international  law  ;  the  latter,  private  international 
law.     .3.   Public  or  Constitutional  Law,  or  that  body  of  cus- 
tomary or  enacted  rules  which  form  the  frame  of  jiolitical 
government  or  constitution  of  the    state,   prescribing  the 
divisions  of  political  power,  the  functions  of  public  author- 
ities, and  the  relative   rights  and  duties  of  the  national 
government  and  the  subjects  of  its  jurisdiction.    4.  ^fnnici~ 
pal  Law,  or  the  domestic  law  of  particular  states,  prescrib- 
ing the  relativerightsandobligationsof  all  persons  subject 
to  its  jurisiliction  as  members  of  that  separate  community. 
Examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  law,  con- 
spicuously called  the  ciril  law,  which  forms  the  base  of 
the  civil  rights  and  duties  of  a  large  number  of  modern 
states,  in  which  it  has  been  preserved  since  tlie  days  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  Roman  empire;  and  the  common  law  of 
ICu'ifaud,  which  consists  chiefly  in  a  body  of  principles 
applied  in  the  historical  development  of  the  Knglish  people, 
emhoilicri  in  traditional  customs,  deduceil  by  judicial  prac- 
tice aiul  decision,  by  the  application  of  reason  to  the  varied 
ami  multiplying  relations  of  men  and  things  in  a  commu- 
nity remarkable  for  vigorous  and  continuous  growth,  and 
from   time  to  time  supplemented    by  express  legislation. 
The  canon  law  also  constitutes  part  of  the  municipal  law 
of  those  states  where  it  is  or  has  been  recogniz-ed.  being 
originally  a  body  of  rules  established  by  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  Christian  Church,  acting  with  civil  power 
over  certain  matters  claimed  by  it  to  he,  hy  reason  of  their 
spiritual  nature,  exclusively  within  that  jurisdiction,  but 
since,  in  accordance  with  more  enlightened  views  as  to  the 
true  division  of  the  civil  and  spiritual  authority,  adopted 
by  the  civil  power  of  the  state  as  part  of  the  bodj'  of  its 
miinieipal  law.     Under  the  head  of  municipal  law  is  to  be 
found  the  whole  body  of  authoritative  rules  regulating  the 
prrHonal  status  <>(  the  individual  members  of  the  state,  and 
the  relations  annexed  to  and  growing  out  of  it,  with  the 
corresponding  rights  and  obligations,  such  as  husband  and 
wife,  parent  and  child,  etc. ;  also  the  relations  of  men  to 
one  another  as  constituted  by  contract,  property,  and  all 
those  civil  relatitms  which  arc  based  on  their  mutual  inter- 
course.    A  large  part  of  every  such  system  becomes  law  by 
the  unconscious  ()peratinn  of  social  instincts,  growing  into 
hahitual  observances,  thus  forming  what  is  known  as  cns- 
tnmarjf  law,  which   becomes  scientifically  developed  by  a 
long  series  of  judicial  decisions,  making  new  applications 


of  recognized  principles,  discovering  new  principles  hy  the 
analogy  of  reason,  and  supplied  as  necessity  or  convenience 
requires  by  the  express  aid  o^  letjislation.  When  the  mass 
and  body  of  municipal  law  thus  built  up  has  grown  enor- 
mous, confused,  and  unwieldy,  a  comprehensive  legisla- 
tion reduces  it  to  the  written  form  of  a  code,  such  as  those 
of  .Justinian  and  Napoleon,  on  which,  as  on  a  new  foun- 
dation, the  work  of  development  begins  again. 

Consult  Droit  Xaturcl,  Henri  Ahrens  (Lcipsic,  1868); 
Philosophic  dn  Droit,  Lcrminier  i  Paris.  185;i);  Political 
Ethics,  Fr.  Lieber;  luf/uiries.  Elementary  and  JUntorical,  in 
the  Science  of  Law,  Jas.  Reddie  (London.  IS47);  Princi- 
ples of  Jurisprudence,  I).  C.  Heron  (London,  1873);  Ele- 
ments of  Jun'iiprndence,C  J.  Foster  (London,  1863);  Sphere 
and  Duties  of  Government,  William  Humboldt,  Tr.  Jos. 
Coulthard  (London,  1854):  Inquirira  in  International  Law, 
Puhlic  and  Private,  Jas.  Reddie  (Edinburgh,  lS.jl)  ;  Prin- 
ciples and  Maxims  of  Jurisprudence,  J.  G.  I'hillimorc  (  Lon- 
don. 18J0);  Two  Treatises  on  Government,  John  Locke 
(London,  1821);  Universal  Jurisprudence,  J.  P.  Thomas 
(London,  1828)  ;  St/stem  of  fnirersal  Law,  neincceius.  tr. 
Turnbull  (London.  1703);  Doetrina  Juris  PhiloHophica, 
Warknnig  (18.30);  Phihsophia  Juris,  Warkiinig  (1855); 
Vocatif}nof  onr  Affc  f'or  Leytslation  and  Jurisprudence,  Sa- 
vigny,  tr.  llayward  (London,  1831) :  Lorimer's  Institutes 
of  Law  (Edinburgh,  1872);  Ancient  Law,  Sir  Henry  Sum- 
ner Maine;  Province  of  Jurisprudence,  etc.,  Austin;  Spirit 
of  Laws,  Mfuitesquieu  :  Jurisprudence,  H.  S.  M.  Phillips 
(London,  ISr>3);  Westlake's  Private  lutemafionul  Law; 
Phillimorc's  International  Law;  Lawrence's  Wheaton's  In- 
ternational Law.  Stanlky  Matthews. 

Jurisprudence,  Medical.  This  is  the  name  given 
to  a  science  of  comparativHy  recent  origin,  and  which 
forms  a  syncretism  of  law  with  medicine.  Its  boundaries 
in  the  physical  world  are  coextensive  with  the  whole  ficlil  of 
natural  history,  while  in  law,  although  more  largely  relat- 
ed to  the  domain  of  crime  or  public  hygiene,  its  assistance 
is  often  required  in  cases  involving  the  application  of  chem- 
istry to  the  mechanic  arts.  It  is  also  designated  unforensic, 
juridical,  or  state  medicine,  and  is  defined  as  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  application  of  the  laws  of  nature  to  the 
administration  tf  justice  and  the  preservation  of  the  public 
health.  Nearly  all  the  physical  sciences  contribute  to  the 
wants  of  this  new  sister,  while  with  an  equally  wide  range 
it  enters  into  the  myriad  channels  of  municipal  law,  and 
follows  human  relations  in  all  their  phases,  whether  per- 
sonal, domestic,  or  social.  The  apj)Iicntion  of  medical 
jurisprudence  to  the  admeasurement  of  physical  facts 
affecting  the  civil  or  criminal  responsibility  of  jiersons 
amounts  practically  to  this  only,  that  medicine  furnishes 
the  lights  of  her  experience,  and  law  applies  them  accord- 
ing to  the  established  rules  of  her  tribunals  and  under  the 
equities  of  each  particular  case.  Medicine  furnishes  the 
principle,  law  the  rule,  for  its  application  to  the  artificial 
relations  of  civil  life:  unci  thus,  without  collision  or  con- 
flict, each  science  treads  its  appointed  path  and  perforins 
its  required  part  in  human  government.  Some  idea  of  the 
range  over  which  experts  may  have  to  travel  in  order  to 
decide  problems  in  medical  jurisprudence  will  be  had  from 
enumerating  the  various  sciences  into  whose  (iehis  these 
inquiries  must  enter.  The  first  is  natural  philosophy  in  its 
restricted  sense,  and  involving  more  particularly  meteor- 
olof/y  fiin\  its  influences  upon  animal  or  vegetable  life  ;  next, 
physical  'jcoijraphy  and  elimatolo;fy  ;  following  these  in 
all  their  various  divisions  and  subdivisions  come  auatotny, 
pliysiolof/y,  patholotfy,  therapeutics,  surf/ery,  chemistry  in 
its  multiple  relations,  botany,  hyijiene,  and  mental  philoso- 
phy or  psychofotjy.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  no  one  can 
be  equally  proficient  in  all  these  sciences;  and  yet  without 
some  knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  each,  and  of 
their  nomenclature,  a  medieal  jurist  would  fail  at  the  very 
outset  to  know  in  which  of  all  these  fields  he  must  lo'di  for 
a  rational  solution  of  any  problem  committed  to  his  judg- 
ment. 

Although,  as  before  said,  medical  jurisprudence  as  a  sci- 
ence is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  one  of  its  depart- 
ments, that  of  public  health,  has  always  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  lawgivers  from  the  earliest  days  of  established 
governments.  Among  the  Hindoos,  and  more  lately  among 
the  Israelites,  we  have  the  best  evidence  from  their  religious 
coiles  of  the  important  part  which  it  occupied  in  their  cere- 
monial law.  The  frequent  lustrations  and  isolations  of 
the  person  enjoined  as  part  of  the  habitual  duty  of  all 
sectaries  converted  a  physiological  safeguanl  into  an  act  of 
worship,  and  thus  protected  the  health  of  the  community 
while  ensuring  that  of  the  individual.  For  so  urgent  is 
the  necessity  of  personal  purification  among  a  people  ])ro- 
vcrbially  unclean,  and  in  a  climate  disposing  to  pestih-nce, 
that  Mohammed  required  his  followers  to  cleanse  them- 
selves with  sand  wherever  water  could  not  bo  obtaineil. 
From  this  incorporation  of  sanitary  observances  into  the 


JURISPRUDENCE,  MEDICAL. 


14.S1 


reJijjion  of  a  country,  it  followed  that  priests  became  the 
earliest  oustodiaus  of  public  health,  and,  it  may  bo  truly 
said,  the  first  mediea)  jurists  on  record.  The  Jew?,  with 
all  their  traditional  re^pi-ct  for  the  teachings  of  llie  !*cnta- 
tcuch,  and  their  adherence  to  the  tabernack;  ritual  of  their 
reIi;*ion.  do  not  appear  to  have  followed  its  injunctions  as 
closely  in  their  domestic  life  as  consistency  would  demand. 
Much  that  was  cimmanded  by  Moses  is  now  practically 
ignored,  and  Leviticus  has  given  place  to  modern  science 
and  household  convenience.  In  striking  contrast  to  this 
is  the  still  enduring  imperative  of  Brahma,  for  even  at  this 
day  in  India  caste  is  forfeited  by  touching  articles  forbid- 
den in  the  religious  code,  and  the  priest  among  the  Hin- 
doos remains  in  many  senses  the  supreme  lawgiver,  as  in 
age?  past. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  conceive  that  a  people  a?  enlightened 
a?  the  ancient  Egyptians  must  have  had  canons  of  medical 
police  by  which  to  guide  their  civil  life.  According  to  He- 
rodotus, they  had  laws  regulating  marriage  and  the  relations 
of  the  sexes:  distinguishing  between  mortal  and  dangerous 
wounds  in  order  to  affix  penalties;  prescribing  modes  of 
eml)ahning  an'l  interring  the  dead  ;  and  in  other  respects 
maintaining  what  would  now  be  called  a  system  of  sanitary 
and  criminal  police.  Nor,  after  reading  the  ordinances  of 
Lycurgiis.  or  the  physical  rubrics  laid  down  by  Pythagoras 
and  Plato,  need  we  ask  whether  they  had  studied  the 
laws  of  our  bo»!iIy  life.  Both  these  philosophers  be- 
lieved anri  taught  that  medicine  was  a  branch  of  legisla- 
tion. Beyond  this,  however,  there  is  nothing  to  show  that 
anything  approaching  to  a  distinct  sictcnce  of  forensic  med- 
icine was  ever  conceiverl  by  them.  No  union  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  law  and  medicine  appears  in  the  jurisprudence 
of  Greece,  for,  except  in  questions  of  public  disease  or 
medical  police,  medical  men  were  not  oflen  consulted  by 
the  tribunals  of  that  country.  The  chief  concern  there 
was  to  secure  a  robust  population  capable  of  bearing  arms, 
and  in  their  prevalent  ideas  as  to  tlic  best  mode  of  per- 
fecting the  human  species  they  were  led  to  the  barbarous 
practice  of  abandoning  delicate  infants  and  rearing 
only  strong  ones.  Kveu  Plato  advises  that  children  with 
diseases  of  inheritance  should  be  left  to  chance  f<ir  their 
future  development.  To  perfect  this  dogma  of  their  polit- 
ical economy,  and  to  provide  for  the  health  of  cities  and 
camps,  formed  about  the  entire  scope  of  slate  medicine  in 
Greece.  The  opinions  of  Hippocrates  and  Aristotle  on  a 
few  s\ibjects  relating  to  the  sexes  and  to  wounds  express 
all  thai  was  practically  tised  at  that  day.  Nevertheless,  so 
much  is  there  in  the  authority  of  a  name  that  many  of  tho 
principles  of  the  canon  law,  as  formerly  recognizeil  in  the 
ccclesinstienl  courts  of  Kurope.  were  unf|nestionably  found- 
ed upon  the  teachings  of  Aristotle,  whose  Organon  was  the 
Bible  of  tho  schools  of  philosophy  dowD  to  the  time  of 
Bacon. 

In  passing  to  Rome  we  meet  at  once  a  superior  character 
of  legislation.  A  later  age  and  a  more  advanced  knowledge 
of  the  duties  ()f  munieif>al  government  to  its  citizens  placed 
medical  police  on  a  higher  plane  of  action  and  of  authority. 
As  early  as  the  rcien  of  Numa  Pompilins  a  law  was  enact- 
ed which  was  intendecl  to  proteet  the  life  of  an  heir  by  re- 
quiring mfdic*al  assistance  to  be  summoned  in  all  cases  of 
(iilhoiilt  labor,  and  forbidding  the  burial  of  a  pregnant 
woman  until  th«-'  fo'tus  should  first  have  been  extracted. 
And  such  was  the  eontrolling  influence  of  (ireek  philosophy 
in  legislation  that  in  the  Puntl*cU  of  Justinian,  whore  va- 
rious titles  are  arranged  referring  to  crimes,  physical  de- 
formities, anil  questions  of  legitimacy,  courts  were  instructed 
not  to  bo  guided  by  the  judgment  of  living  physicians,  but 
to  form  their  opinions  exclusively  '*  tipnn  thf  nuthon'ti/  of 
the  mont  frarn'rfi  //ipporrafm."  Yet  the  existence  of  nn 
nrrhinlfi-  or  stale  physician,  who  was  himself  both  physi-  j 
eian  to  the  court  and  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  nied-  ] 
ieal  profession,  must  have  imparterl  to  his  opinion  great  ■ 
weight  with  the  judges,  notwithstanding  the  institutional  i 
reverence  for  Hippocrates.  According  to  Tacitus,  the  bod- 
ies of  (lermanicufl  and  .Agricola  were  medically  examined, 
and  in  the  former  slight  traces  of  poison  were  found;  but 
as  the  specific  signs  thereof  arc  not  given,  we  are  left  to 
conJTture  how,  in  the  absence  of  chemical  knowledge  and 
familiarity  with  tho  characteristic  pathology  of  such  cases, 
any  rational  judgment  could  have  been  arrived  at  in  the 
premises.  N^r.  again,  are  xtc  informed  at  whose  command 
the  autopsy  was  made,  and  whether  the  samn  was  under- 
taken as  part  of  n  judicial  inquisition  info  the  euuso  of 
their  suilden  death.  Probably,  autopsies  upon  private  in- 
dividimls  were  not  infrequent  under  similar  cireumstanees 
of  death,  but  if  so.  we  have  no  sufficient  record  to  make  it 
the  basis  of  any  inference  of  their  judicial  eharai-li-r. 

In  the  wbirlwincl  of  savage  customs  which  ruleil  Kuropo 
during  the  Hark  Ages  legal  medicine  could  hope  for  no 
positive  recognition.  In  its  stead,  ordeals  by  fire,  water, 
or  the  judicial  combat  were  introduced  as  so  many  direct 


interrogations  of  the  Deity.  Human  responsibility  was 
judged,  even  before  courts  of  justice,  by  the  haphazard 
results  of  chance,  and  superstition  usurped  the  ]>laoo  of 
reason.  But  inai^much  as  it  is  easier  to  adopt  a  system  of 
laws  than  to  frame  one,  the  wiser  conquerors  of  Home  were 
not  slow  in  availing  themselves  of  the  rules  of  her  juris- 
prudence. They  drew  largely  froni  it.  nor  did  they  ever 
cease  paying  that  homage  to  her  laws  which  they  hail  so 
emphatically  deuied  to  her  empire.  It  would  not  be  dilTi- 
cuU  to  show  that  the  Roman  law  had  authorized  the  calling 
of  physicians  before  courts  in  cases  requiring  expert  testi- 
mony ;  and  finding  tho  same  rule  prevailing  in  the  juris- 
prudence of  the  O.«trogoths  in  Italy  ami  of  riiarlemagne 
in  France,  it  is  easy  to  conjecture  the  source  whence  the 
rule  was  derived.  This  rnay  be  said  to  include  the  whole 
aspect  of  legal  medicine  as  presented  to  us  in  the  laws  of 
antiquity,  nor  is  the  little  progress  shown  by  it  there  to  be 
wondercil  at  when  we  reflect,  that  most  of  the  jihysical  sci- 
ences upon  which  rest  its  foundations  had  scarcely  risen 
upon  the  horizon  of  human  thought.  No  Harvey  had  yet 
shown  that  blood,  in>;tead  of  air.  circulated  through  the  ar- 
teries; no  Vcsalius  had  established  a  system  of  rational 
anatomy;  no  Boerhaave  or  Van  Hclmont  had  yet  explored 
tho  mine  of  chemistry  through  which  Priestley  and  ha- 
voisier  were  destined  to  descend  into  the  very  storehouses 
of  nature. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  npplication  of  med- 
ical knowledge  to  jurisprudeuce,  and  the  practical  recog- 
nition of  a  science  of  forensic  medicine,  only  commenced 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  criminal 
code  of  tho  Germanic  empire,  originating  with  Charles  V., 
and  enacted  by  the  diet  held  at  Ratisbon  in  16.'!2,  is  tho 
first  public  recognition  an*!  the  first  legal  application  of  the 
scienoc  with  which  wc  meet  in  mo'lern  history.  This  cele- 
brated code  enacts  that  physicians  shnU  be  called  by  courts 
in  all  cases  where  death  has  been  occasioned  by  violent 
means,  whetiier  accidental  or  criminal.  One  of  the  first  and 
most  notable  fruits  of  this  new  authority  given  to  medicine 
to  enlighten  jurisprudence  was  the  speedy  overthrow  of 
many  dominant  superstitions,  which  had  formerly  fettered 
the  public  mind  arnl  cost  tho  lives  of  hundreds  of  innocent 
people.  The  literature  of  mcdijrval  Europe  on  the  subjects 
of  witchcraft  and  demonology  forms  an  instructive  chapter 
in  tlie  history  of  luiinau  opinion.  Those  who  are  curious 
to  inform  tbcniselves  in  this  department  will  find  no  richer 
mine  than  in  the  pages  of  Hallam  and  (^almeil.  Subsequent 
to  the  days  of  Charles  V.  the  ordinances  of  the  kings  of 
France  combined  in  the  form  of  codes  what  had  formerly  been 
only  customs,  thus  engrafting  the  common  law  of  locality 
upon  systems  of  positive  enactments.  In  IGUli,  Henry  IV. 
gave  letters  patent  to  his  chief  surgeon,  by  which  he  was 
authorized  to  appoint  two  physicians  in  each  town,  who,  in 
the  nature  of  coroners,  should  investigate  and  report  upon  all 
cases  of  accidental  death.  In  the  English  law  the  oflice  of 
coroner  was  not  originally  given  to  physicians,  this  officer 
being  the  adjunct  simply  to  the  sheriflT  in  the  government 
of  counties.  In  U)(17,  liouis  XIV'.  decreed  by  royal  ordi- 
nance that  in  all  criminal  matters  requiring  reports,  courts 
should  be  assisted  by  at  least  one  of  the  physicians  named 
Itv  his  chief  surgeon.  Of  such  binding  obligation  were  all 
these  ordinances  that  a  decree  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
in  lGfi2,  and  of  the  Parliament  of  Dijon  in  ICSO.  set  aside 
judgments  of  inferior  courts  because  they  had  been  ren- 
dered without  the  intervention  of  medical  experts. 

As  a  branch  of  instruction  and  a  special  science,  medical 
jurisprudence  is  but  a  new-comer  in  the  schools;  and  as 
its  first  teachers  were  physicians,  so  its  first  altars  were 
erected  in  medical  colleges.  Inasmuch  also  ns  its  first 
seeds  were  sown  in  the  bosom  of  the  old  civil  law,  so,  too, 
those  countries  first  cultivated  it  which  had  themselves 
derived  tho  foundations  of  their  juri.-iprudenco  from  the 
same  source.  Haller's  lectures  on  juridical  me<Iicine, 
published  in  17^2.  indicate  the  establishment  of  a  chair 
of  instruction  in  (Jeriuany  at  a  <lay  when  no  similar  in- 
struction was  probably  given  in  any  of  the  European 
schools.  In  I "'.12  the  first  ]irofcssorslups  of  the  seit-nco 
were  created  in  France,  and  in  l80;i  the  I'niversity  of 
Edinburgh  followed  the  example.  In  Englaml  it  would 
appear  that  no  similar  chair  was  established  in  any  college 
until  the  year  Is20.  although  in  the  t*.  S.  it  had  been  made 
the  subject  of  lectures  as  early  os  ISOJ.  So  far  a<  can  now 
be  ascertained,  the  first  lectures  on  medical  jurisprudence 
ever  deliverctl  in  this  ctumtry  were  given  to  the  students 
of  Columbia  College,  N.  V.,  by  Dr.  James  S.  Stringliam. 
then  professor  of  chemistry,  in  lStl4.  This  chair  he  filled 
until  iiis  death  in  1SI7.  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Ihe  late 
Dr.  .Itdin  \V.  I'rancis.  one  of  the  most  eminent  physicians 
which  our  country  has  ever  produced.  Dr.  I'raucis  held 
Ihe  chair  until  ISSfi.  While  Dr.  Stringhom  was  delivering 
his  lectures  ou  medical  jurisprmleuce  in  Columbia  College, 
Dr.  Charles  Caldwell  gavo  a  courso  upon  the  samo  aiibjcot 


14.S2 


JURISPRUDENCE,  MEDICAL. 


in  Philadelphia  during  the  winter  of  1812-13,  and  in  1S15 
Dr.  Beck  was  called  to  fill  a  similar  chair  in  the  Western 
Medical  Colle*;c.  Since  that  time,  aud  advanced  into 
prominence  by  Dr.  Beck's  encyclopaedic  work  npon  the 
subject,  foren.^ic  medicine  has  been  considered  as  part  of  a 
regular  course  of  medical  study,  and  many  schools  have 
accordingly  intntduced  it  into  their  scheme  of  lectures, 
though  generally  as  a  subordinate  branch  and  appendant 
to  some  established  chair.  At  last,  als-o,  the  law-schools 
have  recognized  it  in  many  instances,  and  adopted  it  as  an 
adjunct  science,  collateral  to,  and  not  in  the  main  line  of, 
required  studies.  Slowly  and  surely,  however,  it  is  work- 
ing its  way  to  that  eminent  position  which  belongs  to  it  in 
the  interna!  economy  of  government,  since  it  is  truly  a  part 
of  the  fiig  iif-iiiinm  or  ucrcHnnr}/  law  of  every  state,  whether 
in  its  capacity  of  medical  police  or  of  forensic  medicine. 

The  philosophy  of  medical  jurisprudence  is  founded  in 
the  necessity  of  frequently  applying  the  laws  of  nature  to 
the  aclministration  of  justice,  no  less  than  in  employing 
them  in  the  preservation  of  the  public  health.  In  a  large 
range  of  subjects  it  is  occu])ied,  therefore,  with  the  consid- 
eration of  topics  that  are,  strictly  sjieaking,  exclusively 
medical  in  character.  The  law  looks  to,  aud  in  fact  em- 
ploys, forensic  medicine  as,  in  every  sense,  an  tnniciis  ci/nV, 
and  as  a  counsellor  retained  not  in  the  interest  of  one  party, 
but  in  that  of  justice  generally:  and  the  philosophy  of  this 
science,  as  it  has  gradually  been  unfolded,  has  shown  the 
essentially  legal  necessities  upon  which  it  rests.  Its  duty, 
like  that  of  equity,  is  to  soften  the  rigors  of  the  law  wher- 
ever particular  instances  are  shown  to  merit  some  modifi- 
cation in  the  application  of  universal  principles  to  them, 
or  some  light  not  attainable  from  any  other  source  than 
nature  is  needed  to  determine  the  just  limits  of  human 
responsibility  whether  for  crime  or  private  wrong.  In 
this  way,  forensic  medicine  forms  an  auxiliary  branch  of 
municipal  law,  affording  both  circumstantial  evidence  and 
skilled  opinions  upon  the  inferences  to  be  judicially  drawn 
from  such  evidence.  M'hiie,  as  we  have  before  seen,  it 
treats  of  the  whole  realm  of  nature  so  far  as  it  applies  to 
man  in  society  and  to  govt-rnment  as  the  arbiter  of  human 
difTercnces.  it  is  usual  for  convenience*  sake  to  classify  its 
subjects  into  divisions  founded  upon  their  practical  appli- 
cations. The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  these  topics  in 
their  legal  aspects  and  under  the  complexion  they  assume 
before  courts.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  may  all  be  arranged 
into  distinct  groups,  belonging  either  to  Medirnl  Evid*:uce^ 
Mcdiml  Ptifice^  Leynl  Cfiemietrt/.  or  Pnycholorjif.  This 
differentiation  of  topics  implies  also  ihtit  rjenera I  medical 
knowledge  does  not  necessarily  furnish  the  special  jiro- 
ficiency  in  each  department  required  to  constitute  any 
physician  an  expert  in  it.  Spfti'tlinta  are  recognized  in 
all  departments  of  science,  and  to  them  exclusively  belongs 
the  right  of  testifying  as  ex|>erts  in  their  own  field.  Hence, 
even  an  eminent  physiciiin  may  be  no  expert  in  some 
branches  of  surgery,  nor  in  the  chemistry  of  poisons,  or 
the  arts,  or  in  psycliology ;  and  this  without  detriment  to 
his  general  professiimal  standing.  And  upon  these  reasons 
rests  the  necessity  of  grouping  the  subjects  with  which 
mcflical  jurisprudence  concerns  itself  into  such  classes  as 
may  render  them  distinct  specialties  before  courts,  with 
speoiul  witnesses  to  illuminate  the  tf)pics  mooted  in  issue. 

/VrKo»«/  [dfiififif. — This  is  the  birthright  mark  affixed 
by  nature  to  all  human  beings.  It  is  an  individual  pre- 
rogative which  can  neither  he  lost  nor  effaced.  Being  in- 
delible, it  is  ineradicaide.  The  philosophy  of  every  age 
has  recognized  this  as  a  jirimordial  fact.  Horace  tells  us 
that  wo  may  expel  Nature  with  a  pitchfork,  and  yet  she 
will  return  ;  and  Lord  Bacon  asserts  that  "  Nature  is  often 
hiclden.  sometimes  overcome,  seldom  extinguished."  The 
necessity  at  law  of  proving  personal  identity  is  of  such  a 
variable  character  as  to  render  it  im|>ossible  to  enumerate 
in  arlvanee  all  the  circumstances  under  which  it  may  be- 
come indispensable  to  establish  it.  In  homicide,  burglary, 
arsnn,  bigamy — in  fact,  in  every  variety  of  crime — the 
identity  both  of  the  perpetrator  and  the  victim  must  be 
proved.  In  heirship,  in  payments  of  cheeks,  and  in  scores 
of  similar  civil  transactions,  the  same  necessity  often  arises. 
The  sources  whence  proofs  of  personal  identity  are  obtained 
are  such  as  belong  partly  to  our  physical  and  partly  to  our 
montal  constitution.  They  consist  of  all  those  physical 
features,  whether  congenital  or  acquired,  which  can  distin- 
guish one  body  frt>m  another:  such  as  nrj-,  sfnhire,  t/m't, 
compfcj-tnti,  Offr,  (lfmrn)u>r,  voice.  n>t:ut«il  trails  and  cuft)ire, 
hnfiitx,  ^rars,  and  dr/ormilt€«.  Identification  of  the  drad 
as  well  as  the  living  is  often  necessary.  This  is  of  course 
more  iliffirult  in  pro])ortion  to  the  length  of  time  the  person 
has  been  drad.  But  even  skeletons  can  be  and  have  been 
iilentified  when  a  sufficient  amount  of  bones  can  he  found 
to  reconstruct  by  anatomical  theory  the  missing  parts. 
(Jreat  skill  is  of  course  required  for  such  an  investigation, 
and  in  cases  of  homicide  the  proof  of  the  cor^tw  delicti 


should  rest  upon  something  more  than  conjecture.  Unless 
an  expert  can  prove  the  identity  of  the  remains  against  all 
objections  made  thereto,  his  testimony  should  not  be  re- 
ceived as  conclusive,  since  it  cannot  amount  to  certainty. 

Abortion. — The  only  signiticanee  which  abortion  has  at 
law  is  derived  from  its  intent.  There  arc  occasions  when 
it  is  lawful  to  commit  it  as  a  medical  necessity,  to  save  the 
mother's  life  in  preference  to  tliat  of  the  foetus.  Of  this 
necessity  physicians  arc  the  only  proper  judges,  and  in 
order  to  purge  the  act  from  all  suspicion  it  should  bo  per- 
formed as  the  result  of  consultation  with  and  concurrent 
opinion  of  others.  But  whenever  it  is  done  without  any 
pro-existing  nu-dical  necessity,  and  solely  with  the  intent 
of  destroying  the  child,  it  is  a  crime  in  the  eye  of  the  law. 
In  some  States  no  indictment  for  abortion  will  lie  previous 
to  quickening,  but  abetter  knowledge  of  the  physiology  of 
ntero-gestation  is  undermining  these  dogmas  of  the  canon 
law  by  showing  that  a  child  is  just  as  much  a  living  being 
hr/ore  as  after  quickening  ;  and  if  the  common  law  regards 
an  infant  in  ntero  as  capable  of  inheriting  an  estate,  it  can- 
not in  consistency  refuse  to  regard  its  slaughter  as  the  kill- 
ing of  a  human  being.  Nt-t  only  is  abortion  when  crimi- 
nally accomplished  a  crime,  but  even  the  administration  of 
drugs  to  pregnant  women  with  intent  to  produce  it,  although 
unsuccessful,  is  a  high  misdemeanor. 

Infantieidr. — The  killing  of  a  new-born  child  is  at  law  a 
crime,  subject  to  the  same  rules  of  responsibility  as  belong 
to  any  other  form  of  homicide.  There  are  some  peculiar 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  obtaining  precise  evidence  of  live 
birth  as  a  sine  qua  nun  to  the  fact  in  issue.  But  when  this 
is  once  established,  and  it  is  proven  that  the  child  had  an 
independent  existence  of  its  own,  then  the  crime  can  be 
subjected  to  the  rules  of  ordinary  evidence.  Infanticide 
maybe  of  two  kinds — viz.  either  hy  omisninn  to  take  neces- 
sary precauti<ms  to  protect  the  child  against  exposure,  hun- 
ger, and  accidents,  or  by  comtnimiifni,  meaning  thereby  the 
direct  application  of  means  feloniously  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  its  life.  In  the  former  ease  the 
mother  may  herself  and  singly  accomplish  it :  in  the  latter, 
she  may  similarly  act  alone  or  with  or  through  an  accom- 
plice. It  has  also  been  held  that  it  a  child  upon  whom  an 
act  of  abortion  is  commenced  dies  subsequently  to  birth 
from  injuries  received  while  in  the  womb,  the  act  becomes 
a  homicide.  Live  birth  may  exist  at  law  without  the  child 
having  breathed  or  the  umbilical  cord  being  severed,  pro- 
vided only  it  be  completely  delivered  from  the  mother's 
body  and  have  an  independent  circulation  of  its  own. 

Rape. — This  crime  consists  in  the  carnal  knowledge  of  a 
female  forcibly  and  without  her  consent.  In  law,  certain 
persons  have  no  legal  capacity  to  assent  to  such  an  act,  and 
when  done  to  them  it  is  always  unlawful  in  the  perpetrator. 
Thus,  children  under  ten  years,  idiots,  and  the  insane  can 
have  no  assenting  minds,  and  assent  is  never  presumed,  not 
even  in  the  unchaste.  By  carnal  knowledge  is  meant  sex- 
ual bodily  connection.  Force  n)ay  be  either  exprea*  orim- 
pliid,  the  former  implying  any  ilirect  threats  or  personal 
violence;  the  latter,  duress,  either  by  moral  fear,  fraudulent 
imposition  of  person,  deceitful  representation  of  the  nature 
of  the  act,  magnetic  sleep,  anoesthesia,  or  narcotics.  Im- 
potence of  copula  is  a  good  plea  in  defence,  but  even  a 
eunuch  may  commit  this  crime.  So  a  husband  may  be  an 
accessary  to  a  rape  committed  upon  his  wife,  and  a  man 
may  be  indicted  for  rape  upon  his  own  concubine,  since 
at  any  time  she  may  withhold  her  assent.  But  whether  it 
is  rape  to  have  carnal  intercourse  with  a  demented  woman 
at  her  own  solicitation  has  been  doubted.  What  consti- 
tutes want  of  will  has  been  variously  interpreted.  It  is 
agreed  by  all  authorities  that  the  resistance  of  any  woman 
should  be,  so  far  as  her  condition  will  allow,  sincere  and 
continuous  throughout  the  act. 

Imputence  and  Lcijifimaci/. — Marriage  is  at  law  a  con- 
sensual contract  entered  into  by  two  cumjietcnt  jtarties  for 
the  purpose  of  procreating  children.  The  natural  basis  of 
this  contract  is  purely  physical.  Aside,  therefore,  from 
statutory  regulations  relating  to  evidence  of  such  a  contract 
having  been  entered  into,  each  party  is  presumed  to  guar- 
anty his  own  physical  compctcut-y  to  the  other,  and  the 
absence  of  this,  if  shown  to  have  existed  at  the  time  of  the 
marriage,  and  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  other,  consti- 
tutes/("»(/  to  that  extent.  As  fraud  vitiates  every  con- 
tract into  which  it  enters,  it  f(dlows  that  the  marriage  of 
an  impotent  person  is  voidable,  provided  no  laches  he 
shown  in  the  party  wronged.  But  inasmuch  as  impotence 
is  a  matter  of  experienre,  and  not  necessarily  one  of  infer- 
ence, the  law  requires  the  triennaiin  cnhahitntio  before  it 
will  entertain  any  suit  for  a  nullity  f<iundfd  upon  this  fact 
alone.  If  one  knowingly  marries  an  unfruitful  person,  he 
can  claim  no  remedy  at  law,  nor  can  a  party  plead  his  own 
impotence  as  a  ground  for  a  sentence  of  nullity.  The  in- 
curability of  the  impotence  must  also  be  determined  before 
any  suit  for  nullity  will  lie.     And  if  the  impotent  party 


J I'KLSI'IIUDEN'CE,  MEDICAL. 


1483 


refuses  surgical  treatment,  the  act  will  be  taken  as  pro  con- 
ft»*Q  (o  the  prayer  uf  the  pctUiouer. 

It  follows  from  the  necessary  consequences  of  marriage 
that  children  horn  in  wedlock  have  u  pre-sunied  character 
of  letfitimarif  which  distinf^uishcs  them  from  bastards,  who 
are  in  the  eye  of  the  law  the  children  of  no  one.  and  have 
no  inheritahlp  hlood.  And  so  far  is  this  doctrine  pushed 
at  common  law  that  every  child  born  in  wedlock,  no  matter 
how  sonn  after  the  marriagn  of  its  parents,  is  legitimate. 
But  this  presumption  may  bo  rebutlccl  by  showing  either 
the  impotence  of  the  husband  or  liis  continuous  absence 
from  the  country,  with  the  simultaneous  crim.  con.  of  the 
wife.  A  mere  probability  of  non-access  by  the  husband  is 
not  sufficient  to  repel  the  presumption  of  Ici^itimacy.  nor  is 
his  advanced  n»e.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  party  ob- 
jecting to  the  legitimacy  to  prove  that  access  was  inipos- 
ciblc,  for  if  tlie  evidence  places  it  beyond  all  reasonable 
dnubt,  it  will  he  suffi<'icnt  to  repel  the  presumption. 
Whether,  therefore,  a  child  was  begotten  iu  or  nuf  of  wed- 
lock where  the  marriage  precedes  the  birth,  the  presump- 
tion of  paternity  will  be  tiie  same,  and  the  like  evidence  is 
required  to  bastardize  the  issue.  Tliat  evidence  is  proof 
of  non-acrrHit  by  the  husband.  Parents  may  testify  to 
children  being  born  out  of  wedlock,  but  a  wife  is  not  a 
competent  witness  to  prove  non-access  of  her  husband  and 
to  bastardize  the  issue,  even  after  such  husband's  death. 

WoltniiM. — The  only  legal  aspect  under  which  wounds  can 
1)0  considered  is  that  whieh  connects  them  with  assaults 
terminating  in  maiming  or  homicide.  Under  tiie  Knglish 
Statutes  against  tcoiiutl hit/  some  very  nice  distinctions  have 
been  made  touching  the  constituents  of  the  offence,  but  these 
have  not  generally  been  ailopted  in  this  country,  our  courts 
giving  a  wifier  interpretation  to  the  meaning  of  the  terra, 
and  treating  the  subject  only  in  connection  with  such  as- 
saults as  are  or  have  been  fatal  to  life.  The  questions  there- 
fore considered  by  them  have  been  such  as  tended  to  show 
the  probable  criminal  connection  of  certain  wounds  with 
death.  To  Ktate  them  briefly,  thev  are  these:  IHd  death 
immediately  follow  the  wound?  AVas  the  wound  in  itself 
mortal?  Wjis  it  the  probable  cause  of  death?  What  was 
the  interval  of  time  between  the  two?  Did  any  disease  of 
a  mortal  character  meanwhile  intervene  and  destroy  the 
life  of  the  patient  ?  and  if  so,  was  it  induced  by  the  wound  ? 
Did  the  patient  refuse  medical  treatment?  or  was  the  med- 
ical treatment  unscientific  ?  and  did  it  cause  death  ?  What 
was  the  conilition  of  the  patient  previous  to  the  wound? 
All  the  authorities  agree  that  the  party  inflicting  the  wound 
is  responsible  for  its  immediate  consequences  :  and  even 
though  a  mortal  disease  was  present,  and  the  wound  only 
accelerated  thi;  death,  the  act  is  still  homicidal. 

PoigntiM. — Poisons,  in  legal  significance,  are  substances 
which  act  not  tjunntitativehf,  but  qunlitalirefif,  to  tile  destruc- 
tion of  health  or  life,  by  reason  of  their  inherent  deleterious 
properties.  They  are  naturally  noxious,  and  may  bo  classi- 
fied either  chemically  into  mineral,  vegetable,  or  aniumi,  or 
physiologically,  and  according  to  their  effects,  into  irritant, 
narcotic,  or  acrid-narcotic.  Restricting  ourselves  only  to 
their  legal  aspects,  the  questions  to  which  they  give  rise 
befttrc  courts  are.  like  wounds,  such  as  tend  to  show  their 
criminal  connection  with  a  person's  death.  The  evidence 
in  such  cases  is  largely  mecjieal.  although  extraneous  cir- 
cumstances may  throw  much  light  upon  the  problem  of  the 
alleged  perpetrator;  and  such  moral  evidence  is  allowed, 
accordingly,  its  due  weight.  To  constitute  the  offence  of 
administering  poison  some  portion  of  it  must  bo  taken  by, 
or  applied  to,  Iho  pers«>n  of  the  one  receiving  it,  but  it  need 
not  be  swallowed.  So  if  poison  intended  for  one  person  bo 
nccitlentally  taken  by  another,  it  is  still  murder  in  the  giver, 
for  the  intent  of  homicide  inheres.  Hence,  whether  the  sub- 
stance he  poisonous  or  nnt.  |)rovidcil  it  be  given  with  tbo 
intent  to  take  lif(^.  the  act  is  felonious.  And  where  death 
ensues  from  alleged  poisoning,  it  is  not  necessary  to  prove 
the  particular  substance  used,  nor  the  quantity  required  to 
destroy  lifr;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  prove  that  such  a  quan- 
tity was  found  in  the  body  after  death.  It  is  sufficient  if 
(he  jury  are  satisfied  from  all  the  ciroumstances,  and  be- 
yond a  reasonable  doubt,  that  death  was  caused  by  poison 
administered  by  the  prisoner. 

M<ifprnetirf.  —  It  \»  a  time-honored  principle  of  law  that 
every  professional  man  in  offering  his  servieos  as  such  to 
the  public  impliedly  covenants  to  bring  l(»  their  ilischarge 
the  ordinary  skill  of  his  vocation.  The  public  having  no 
means  of  ascertaining  this  in  advance  of  experiment,  they 
may  be  saiti  to  contide  in  him  of  necessity,  and  any  want 
of  due  qualification  on  his  part  is,  to  that  extent,  a  fraud 
upon  his  employers.  The  errors  committed  by  profi'snional 
men,  whether  due  to  trnnt  nf  mkiU  or  iiri/Htfenre,  are  termed 
mnf/irnctire,  au"!  for  such  they  are  amenable  in  damages  to 
any  person  who  has  been  injured  thereby.  From  the  diffi- 
culties inherent  to  the  treatment  of  disease,  mere  errors 
of  judgment  are  not  considered  malpractioe  in  themselves 


wherever  the  party  has  not  otherwise  offended  by  cither 
negligence  or  rash  experiments.  There  may  be.  thus,  mal- 
practice by  omissiim  as  well  as  rommisnioti,  but  hoiU  must 
be  proved,  for  they  cannot  be  inferred  from  acts  turning 
alone  upon  diversities  of  medical  practice.  The  law  knows 
no  difference  between  systems  of  medicine.  All  it  requires 
in  any  practitioner  is  ordinary  skill  and  a  faithful  discharge 
of  the  duties  of  such  a  ]icrson  when  employed  to  relieve  the 
sick,  for  it  does  not  consider  his  contract  in  general  as  one 
to  cure,  but  simply  to  do  all  that  his  professional  skill  can 
accomplish  towards  promoting  that  result. 

Mrdirnl  ICvidenre  or  Expert^. — In  law  there  arc  two  classes 
of  witnesses — viz.  ordinttnf  and  sklflrti.  The  former  testify 
to  what  they  know;  the  latter  give  opinions  upon  facts  in 
issue.  To  these  witnesses  the  term  expert  is  applied.  An 
expert  being,  legally,  one  instructed  by  experience,  it  fol- 
lows that  any  person  may  he  admitted  to  testify  as  such 
upon  matters  belonging  to  his  profession.  The  range  of 
scientific  investigation  being  so  vast  in  medicine,  there  has 
in  consequence  arisen  a  necessity  for  differentiating  experts, 
and  limiting  the  term  alone,  in  any  given  case,  to  those  who 
have  had  special  experience  in  the  department  of  practice 
under  review.  Hence,  there  are  vhewinif  experts,  snrgtcnl 
experts,  and  speciu/ists  in  medical  practice,  who  are  better 
informed  and  better  qualified  to  testify  as  such  than  gen- 
eral practitioners  of  medicine;  and  to  them  courts  will  give 
preference  as  experts.  It  is  of  course  at  times  extremely 
difficult  to  draw  the  lino  of  distinction,  but  wherever  it  can 
bo  it  should  be;  for  where  men  are  equally  proficient  tlicro 
will  be  less  opportunity  for  differences  of  opinion,  and  pos- 
itive contradictions  of  each  other  will  form  the  excrption 
rather  tlian  the  rule,  as  they  so  often  do  now.  Experts  may 
give  opinions  either  upon  direct  or  fufpi>thetictt/  facts,  but 
not  upon  conclusions  of  law.  They  may  refresh  their  minds 
from  memoranda,  but  cannot  use  them  as  substitutes  for 
memory,  nor  quote  from  professional  books,  nor  give  opin- 
ions upon  the  merits  of  any  case. 

Lift;  Insurance, — The  only  aspect  under  which  medical 
jurispruilence  considers  life  insurance  is  that  which  springs 
out  of  the  suicide  of  the  party  insured.  The  question 
there  being  whether  the  party  intended  to  fake  his  life  in 
fraud  of  his  contract  with  the  insurers,  and  was  a  legally 
responsible  being  at  the  time,  the  whole  problem  turns 
upon  the  fact  of  his  mental  condition.  If  sane,  then  the 
act  was  felonious  and  the  policy  should  be  avoided  :  but  if 
insane,  then  the  act  was  not  his  in  legal  contemplation,  but 
that  of  a  being  under  the  coercion  of  disease.  All  authori- 
ties agree  that  suicide  of  itself  docs  not  prove  insanity  in 
the  perpetrator.  Consequently,  we  must  look  outside  of 
the  act  and  to  the  whole  history  of  its  victim  to  determine 
the  probabilities  of  his  mental  state.  Decisions  have  V>ecn 
very  conflicting  in  the  conclusions  of  law  to  which  they  have 
arrived,  some  permitting  the  moral  responsibility  of  the 
suicide  to  weigh  in  the  balance  of  justice,  and  some,  again, 
ex(duding  it.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  current  of  de- 
cisions, both  in  this  country  ami  in  England,  has  been 
steadily  turning  towards  the  exclusion  of  the  element  of 
moral  responsibility,  and  narrowing  it  down  to  tlie  simple 
questions  of  whether  the  party  knew  what  he  was  doing, 
intcndeil  to  do  it.  and  was  not  impelled  thereto  by  diseaso 
— meaning  insanity. 

Sinfivorsliip. — Whore  two  persons  perish  in  a  common 
calamity,  it  is  often  imptirtant  to  be  able  to  determine  which 
died  first,  with  reference  to  the  rights  of  succession  to  an 
estate.  In  order  to  solve  su<*h  a  problem,  many  circum- 
stances of  a  purely  physical  character  must  be  taken  into 
account,  relating  to  sex.  age.  strength,  disease,  season, and 
temperature,  not  omitting  the  peculiar  form  of  death  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  Many  limes  it  is  impossible 
to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  conclusion,  and  courts  are 
ilriven  to  the  necessity  of  advising  a  comjiromise  between 
the  parties,  as  in  tlie  celebrated  case  of  (ten.  Stanwix, 
where  Lf»rd  Mansfield  said  that  ho  knew  of  no  prineiplo 
nf  Iho  common  law  by  which  the  issue  eonld  be  settled. 
The  English  law  ban  no  provisions  upon  this  subject,  and 
borrows  all  its  light  from  the  civil  law.  The  Coile  Napoleon 
has  devoted  three  sections  to  it,  and  given  us  all  the  modern 
statutory  law  wliich  is  possessed  by  any  of  Ihe  continental 
nations.  A  very  few  eases  only  have  been  adjudged  by 
our  courts  as  yet,  the  subject  being  (d'  infrequent  mention 
even  in  textbooks.  The  most  extensive  nomnients  upon  it 
are  to  bo  found  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Mr.  [{urge's  (\ifo- 
uifilnnd  Fnreitfu  A^mp,  and  to  it  we  arcordingly  refer  (hoso 
who  desire  more  information.  The  following  are  Ihe  two 
divisions  into  whiidi  all  questions  of  surviv<uship  may  bo 
included:  viz.  1st,  a»  to  the  survivorship  of  mother  and 
child  where  both  die  during  delivery:  2d,  as  to  the  sur- 
vivorship of  persons  of  different  ages  and  sexes  perishing 
by  a  common  accident. 

fnsiiuiti/. — This  topic,  under  all  its  various  legal  aspects, 
will  bo  found  treated  id  its  appropriate  alphabetical  place. 


14.S4 


JURY,  TRIAL  IIY. 


There  are  other  topics  bclonginj^  to  the  domain  of  medi- 
cal jurisprudence,  like  vinbifiti/./ti/jued  diseases,  the  Ctrtar- 
ia»  «^'  ti'H),  hrrmaphrodiHm,  deaths  bif  heat,  sunstrokr.  h'(/ht- 
niiiff,  Ntnrvatiou,  and  cold,  and  HpontauenuH  cnmbuHtion, 
which  have  few  if  any  special  legal  aspects,  and  wc  leave 
thcra  accordingly  to  he  discussed  under  their  more  appro- 
priate pliysical  complexion.  The  topics  we  have  reviewed 
in  a  Itrief  and  eomprclieiisive  way  are  those  upon  which 
courts  are  most  often  called  to  adjudicate,  and  whose  litera- 
ture is  adorned  by  authoritative  decisions  defining  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  parties  niising  issues  under  them.  These 
decisions  we  have  not  cifed,  because  out  of  place  in  a 
popular  encyclopaedia.  They  may  easily  be  fonnd  by  re- 
ferring to  digests  and  works  on  medical  jurisprudence. 

.Inn\  Ordronaux. 

Jn'ry,  Trial  by.  Jury  trial  in  its  modern  form  is  cer- 
tainly a  product  of  Knglish  soeial  and  political  forces. 
Although  the  new  codes  of  several  cuntinenta!  states  of 
Kuropu  have  professed  to  borrow  it.  they  have  materially 
modified  its  form,  ha^■o  confined  its  u^'o  to  certain  classes 
of  cases,  and  it  is  at  best  nn  unnatural  and  sickly  excres- 
cence upon  their  national  systems  of  jurisprudence.  In 
England  and  the  T^  S.  alone  docs  the  jury  flourish  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  fi<icial  organization — as  an  institution 
arounil  which  all  other  means  and  modes  of  administration 
are  grouped.  The  object  of  this  article  is  briefly  to  de- 
scribe the  origin  of  the  jury  trial,  to  state  the  nio?t  import- 
ant steps  in  its  course  of  devclojiment,  and  to  give  a  gen- 
eral SLimmary  of  the  rulea  which  regulate  its  use. 

The  jury  trial  in  its  present  matured  form  involves  two 
very  'lifferent  elements,  each  equally  importnnt,  but  having 
no  historical  or  tlicorctical  connection.  They  are  (1)  t!;o 
decision  of  the  facts  in  a  judicial  trial  by  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals distinct  and  separate  from  tlio  olTicial  judgo  or 
magistrate;  and  (2)  the  free  choice  of  these  individuals 
from  among  the  mass  of  ordinary  citizens.  The  Romans 
possessed  the  first  of  these  features  in  their  administration 
of  justice:  the  origin  of  the  second  is  to  be  found  in  f  ho  tribal 
customs  of  the  {Jcrman  peoples  who  overran  the  provinces 
of  the  Western  empire,  including  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
who  settled  in  Britain.  In  the  ''ordinary" jurisdiction  of 
the  Roman  magistrates  an  action  was  brought  before  the 
pr;etor,  the  pleadings  or  allegations  of  fact  were  put  in  ac- 
cording to  prescribed  forms,  the  issue  was  joined,  and  the 
rule  of  law  applicable  to  the  case  as  thus  presented  was 
announced  by  him.  With  this  proceeding  the  function  of 
the  court  or  magistrate  ended.  The  cause  was  at  that  sta^c 
referred  to  another  person — sometimes  called  Xha  judex  and 
sometimes  the  arbiter — who  heard  t!io  evidence,  passed 
upon  the  issues  of  fact,  and  rendered  a  decision  in  con- 
formity with  the  rule  of  law  announced  by  the  praetor.  lie 
was  not  an  official  magistrate.  A  limitccl  number  of  citi- 
zens seems  to  have  been  annually  chosen  in  some  manner 
to  perform  this  duty,  and  from  the  class  thus  constituted 
one  was  selected  for  eaeh  trial.  In  certain  spcciiicd  ac- 
tions sever.al  triers  of  the  facts  were  employed  instead  of 
tlie  single  judex,  who  were  termed  reeuperaforcf},  hut  in 
what  respect  their  functions  differed  from  those  of  the 
judex  is  not  known  with  any  accuracy  and  certainty. 
The  analogy  between  tlio  entire  course  of  proceeding  in  the 
"ordinary"  actions  of  the  Roman  law  and  tho  English 
common-law  forms  of  action  and  jury  trial  was  vcvy  strik- 
ing: there  was  the  same  separation  of  the  questions  of  fact 
from  those  of  law.  and  the  dceisian  of  the  one  by  an  official 
magistrate,  and  of  t lie  other  by  a  lay  tribunal  having  no  offi- 
cial forensic  status,  but  appointed  for  the  very  controversy 
submitted  to  it.  This  system  of  administering  justice  con- 
tinued in  existence  for  several  centuries,  but  the*'ordinary  " 
jurisdiction  of  the  magistrate  gradually  gave  place  to  the 
"extraordinary."  in  which,  like  tho  English  etiancellor,  ho 
decided  all  the  issues  of  fact  and  of  law  in  a  single  decree, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  other  assistant.  Finally. 
by  a  constitution  of  the  emperor  Diocletian,  the  "ordinary" 
jurisdiction  was  abolished,  and  the  trial  of  all  causes  was 
conducted  in  every  stage  tliereof  before  tho  praitor  or  other 
judicial  officer  constituting  the  court. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this  important  clement  of  the 
jury  trial— the  separation  of  tho  law  from  tho  facta,  and 
the  dual  tribunal  for  their  decision — was  not  borrowed 
from  the  Snxon  ancestors  of  the  English  nation.  On  the 
contrary,  tho  German  tribes  which  overran  tho  Western 
empire  and  settled  down  in  the  conquered  provinces,  had 
not  attained  to  the  conception  of  any  such  refinement  in 
the  administration  of  justice.  It  was  the  very  central  prin- 
ciple of  their  primitive  civil  polity  that  the  decision  of  all 
private  controversies,  as  well  as  the  onlering  of  everything 
whi-h  pertained  to  the  public  welfare,  was  committed  to 
the  collective  freemen  gathered  together  in  their  local  as- 
semblies. This  system  of  self-government  was  carried  to 
an  advanced  degree  of  development  by  tho  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land.    The   folk-courts  or  gemotes    of  Iho  "shire3"wero 


composed  of  the  assembled  freemen,  presided  over  by  the 
ealdormou  or  by  liis  deputy,  the  t/ere/a.  Here  they  deter- 
mined, according  to  their  rude  customs  which  had  the 
force  of  law,  the  disputes  between  man  and  man  concein 
ing  property  and  other  private  rights,  and  also  the  accusa- 
tions which  at  the  present  day  would  bo  regarded  as  crimi- 
nal and  punishalde  by  the  state.  The  courts  of  the  "hun- 
dreds "  were  gatherings  from  the  smaller  districts  into 
which  the  shire  was  diviiled,  but  with  :i  similar  organiza- 
tion and  the  same  functions.  In  this  institution  of  the  early 
Saxons  tho  modern  method  of  selecting  the  triers  from 
among  the  great  body  of  citizens  at  large  had  its  certain 
origin.  Although  the  whole  course  of  progress  from  these 
rude  folk-courts  to  the  completed  jury  cannot  be  traced 
with  absolute  precision,  yet  the  principal  steps  of  the  on- 
ward movement,  the  most  important  transitions  which 
marked  the  passage  from  one  epoch  to  another  may  be  de- 
scribed. 

The  first  of  these  progressive  steps  was  the  employment 
of  vnmpiirffators  or  cotijtiratnm,  who  by  their  oaths  estab- 
lished the  existence  or  not  of  tho  fact  in  dispute,  and  thus 
guiclcd  the  folk-court  to  its  decision.  A  juclicial  trial  of 
that  primitive  age  had  no  element  in  common  with  a  trial 
of  the  present  day.  There  were  no  written  allegations  of 
the  facts;  no  evidence  was  olTcrcd;  no  witnesses  de)iosed 
as  to  their  knowledge  of  tho  transaction.  A  charge  was 
orally  made  and  orally  denied.  In  the  place  of  a  trial  and 
of  witnesses,  each  party  was  accompanied  by  a  number  of 
relatives,  friends,  or  neighbors,  who,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembled  freemen,  joined  with  him  in  making  oath  that 
his  statement — the  charge  or  the  denial — was  true.  These 
were  his  compurrfators;  and  the  early  codes  of  (be  Germanic 
nations  contain  numerous  provisions  ]>rescribing  the  num- 
ber of  them  requisite  to  establish  or  to  rci)el  any  particular 
accus;ition  or  deuiand,  such  number  varying  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  party  and  the  gravity  of  the  off'encc  or  the 
value  of  the  property  in  controversy.  These  compurgators 
were  in  no  sense  witnesses,  for  they  might  be  wholly  ig- 
norant of  the  real  facts  in  dispute;  nor  were  they  a  jury, 
for  no  evidence  was  submitted  to  their  consideration.  They 
were  merely  friends  of  tho  party  who  summoned  them  ;  they 
knew  his  character,  and  by  their  united  oaths  they  at  once 
attested  that  eliaractcr  and  their  confidence  in  his  truthful- 
ness and  in  the  justice  of  his  cause. 

The  next  step  in  the  progress  was  a  movement  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  rude  contrivance  last  described.  Compurga- 
tors were  no  longer  used  ;  even  the  primitive  folk-court  had 
become  obsolete.  Tho  function  of  deciding  a  particular  case 
was  entrusted  to  a  limited  number  of  freemen  taken  from 
tho  di.^trict,  which  number  consisted  of  twelve  or  some  mul- 
tiple thereof.  This  delegated  body,  unlike  the  compurga- 
tors, acted  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  involved  in  the 
controversy,  but  sueh  knowledge  was  not  acquired  by  means 
of  any  evidence  laid  before  them.  They  were  carefully 
chosen  from  among  the  persons  familiar  wilh  all  the  circum- 
stances of  tho  case,  with  the  parties,  and  with  the  property. 
To  this  end  they  were  invariably  selected  from  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  "vicinage" — that  is.  the  district  of  territory 
immcdip.tely  surrounding  the  lauds  iu  question  or  the  resi- 
dence of  the  litigants.  On  being  appointed  they  examined 
no  witnesses,  but  rendered  their  venlict,  rere  div.tnm,  on 
oath  based  upon  their  personal  knowledge  previously  ob- 
tained cither  from  a  sight  of  the  occurrence  or  from  tho 
tradition  of  the  vicinage.  These  reroffni/urs,  as  they  arc 
called,  were  tho  undeveloped  jury — a  jury,  as  it  were,  of 
witnesses.  Tho  unwieldy  and  turbulent  assembly  of  free- 
men is  rcfilaeed  by  a  small  and  compact  tribunal;  a  de- 
cision upon  knowleclgo  has  been  substituted  for  the  mere 
numerical  preponderance  of  oatlis.  All  the  subsequrnl  mod- 
ifications consisted  of  measures  contrive<l  to  aid  this  body 
of  men  taken  from  tho  vicinage  by  the  testimony  of  other 
persons.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  the  practice  was  in- 
troduced of  joining  with  these  recognitors  others  who  wore 
actual  witnesses  of  tho  transaction,  but  still  all  united  in 
rendering  tiio  verdict.  During  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  a 
still  more  important  and  radical  change  was  effected.  Wit- 
nesses were  added  to  or  connected  with  the  recognitors, 
who  communicatetl  to  the  latter  their  knowledge  of  tho 
facts,  but  took  no  part  in  tlio  decision.  In  this  stage  of 
tho  progress  wo  find  for  the  first  time  the  feature  of  testi- 
mony communicaterl  to  the  triers  by  parties  who  do  not 
join  in  rendering  the  verdict.  Tho  innovation  once  made, 
the  ])rogres8  was  rapid  of  aiding  tho  recognitors  by  the  tes- 
timony of  outside  parties;  but  as  yet  great  irregularity 
prevailed  in  all  parts  of  the  proceeding.  There  were  no 
rules  of  evidence;  tho  witnesses  instructed  the  jurors  with- 
out any  oversight  by  the  court:  there  was  in  fact  no  or- 
derly, public  forensic  contest.  These  defects  were  reme- 
died in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  The  trial  was  from  that 
time  conducted  entirely  in  public  and  in  the  presence  of  a 
presiding  judge;  all  the  witnesses  were  sworn,  examined, 


JUS  GKNTIUM—Jl'STK 


14.^5 


and  testified  under  his  direction,  and  pursuant  to  the  re- 
quirements of  estaljlighcd  rules.  Thus  was  tinally  devel- 
opecl.  as  the  result  of  a  long  and  continuous  progress,  the 
jury  trial  suljslantially  as  it  exists  at  liie  present  day.  The 
ancient  requirement,  however,  still  reiuiiined  operative,  that 
the  jury  should  he  summoned  from  the  immediate  vicinage. 
As  the  original  reiison  for  this  rule  had  been  abandoned, 
the  rule  itself  became  an  anomaly,  and  a. hindrance  to  a 
fair  and  impartial  trial.  As  soon  as  the  sole  reliance  came 
to  bo  placed  upon  the  testimony  of  witnesses,  the  prior 
knowledge  of  the  triers  themselves  was  an  obstacle  rather 
than  a  h»_-lp  to  an  orderly  antl  legal  investigation  of  the 
fact*.  It  was  not.  however,  until  the  reigns  of  Anne  and 
of  tJcorge  II.  that  Parlinnient  interposed,  abolished  the 
old  rule  as  to  the  vicinage,  and  provided  that  jurors  should 
be  selected  from  the  body  of  the  county.  By  a  decision  of 
the  court  of  king's  bench,  made  a  short  time  subsequent  to 
these  last-named  statutes,  it  was  held  that  if  a  jury  ren- 
dered a  verdict  upon  their  own  private  Unowledge.  it  was 
ern>r — that  they  ought  to  have  informed  the  court,  so  that 
they  might  be  sworn  as  witnesses.  We  have  thus  traced 
the  jury  through  all  its  phases  and  modifications,  and  we 
find  that  since  its  introduction  it  has  undergone  a  complete 
change  from  the  jtrimitive  notion  both  in  form  anrl  in  prin- 
ciple. The  trier?  were  once  carefully  selected  from  among 
those  most  familiar  with  the  parties  and  the  facts,  and  they 
derided  the  controversy  upon  that  jirior  jiersonnl  know- 
ledge. Kqual  e:ire  is  now  taUen  to  ehoope  only  those  per- 
sons who  are  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  parlies  and  of  the 
facts,  and  who  come  to  the  hearing  with  their  minds  a 
complete  blank  in  respect  to  the  matters  in  dispute  which 
are  to  bo  settled  by  their  verdict. 

The  jury  trial  is  even  more  completely  wrought  into  the 
political  organization  of  the  U.  S.  than  into  that  of  Great 
Dritain.  It  is  expressly  protected  by  every  constitution, 
state  and  national.  The  most  common  forms  of  the  constitu- 
tional provision  are.  *'In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  ac- 
cused has  a  right  to  have  a  speedy  public  trial  by  an  im- 
partial jury,"  and  *'The  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  remain 
inviohite."  The  other  forms  of  the  guaranty,  \vhi<'h  may 
be  more  minute  and  detailed  than  these,  do  not  differ  from 
them  in  any  substantial  manner.  The  judicial  interpreta- 
tion put  upon  these  clauses  in  all  the  States  may  be  summed 
up  and  expressed  in  one  comprebensivo  and  fundamental 
principle — namely,  the  provisions  in  question  do  not  create, 
nor  enlarge,  nor  restrict  the  right  of  triiil  by  jury,  but  re- 
tain it  and  prcBcrve  it  inviolate  in  all  those  classes  of  eases, 
civil  anrl  criminal,  in  which  it  existed  by  the  common  law 
or  by  any  prior  leijislation  of  the  State  itself.  In  no  more 
emnhalic  manner  could  the  people  have  shown  their  at- 
taeliment  to  an  institution  which  secures  and  maintains  all 
their  other  civil  and  political  liberties  and  rights.  The 
jury  trial,  thus  guarantied  to  the  people  of  the  V.  S.  until 
they  voluntarily  disr-urd  it,  is  therefore  the  common-law 
trial  by  jury.  .Ml  the  fe:iturcs  and  elements  of  the  insti- 
tution itself  which  had  been  me  settled  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
m  in  law.  and  all  the  fundamental  rules  by  which  its  con- 
stitution was  preserved  and  its  use  was  controlled,  are  also 
iii';orporiited  into  the  organic  law  of  the  States  and  placed 
beyond  the  rcaeh  of  modifying  legislation.  These  essential 
and  unchangeable  elements  of  the  common-law  jury  trial 
are  the  following  :  ( 1 )  The  jury  itself  must  invariably  con- 
sist of  twelve  men.  It  is  useless  to  ask  a  reason  for  this 
requirement.  The  old  Oermanic  codes  constantly  show  the 
number  12  or  its  niulti[ileH  or  fractions;  the  recognitors 
\Tere  originally  12  or  some  multiple :  and  this  numbi-r  has 
been  ban 'led  down  to  our  day.  (2)  The  jury  must  bo  drawn 
from  the  body  of  the  county  in  which  the  trial  is  had — that 
is,  from  among  the  resident  freeholders  and  taxpayers  of 
the  county.  The  historical  and  statutory  oritrin  of  this 
requiri'inent  has  been  already  stated.  (11)  The  verdict 
must  bo  unanimous.  The  historical  origin  of  this  rule 
must  be  found  in  the  early  custom  of  compurgators  in  a 
prescribed  nutnber  agreeing  in  their  oaths,  and  of  recog- 
nifors  to  the  number  of  twelve  agreeing  in  their  decision. 
(4)  The  jury  must  be  itnpartial.  Thin  most  important 
requisite  involves  the  seb-ction  of  each  jury  in  some  ?unn- 
ner  by  lot  from  the  freeholders  of  the  county.  While  the 
principle  of  a  chance  selection  is  undoubtedly  presrrved 
inviolate  by  the  constitutions,  the  particular  mode  in  which 
that  principle  shall  be  made  operative,  may  be  regulaterl 
by  statute  according  to  the  diseretion  of  the  Ir-ginlature. 
There  is.  in  fact,  a  great  diversity  in  the  modes  of  drawing 
anil  sumtnoning  the  jurie<<  among  the  several  States,  and 
the  common-law  metliods  liavo  been  quite  generally  de- 
parted from.  A  lint  of  freeholders  ami  taxpayers  is  pre- 
pared at  stated  intervals  and  preserved  in  the  clerk's  office 
of  each  county.  From  this  Hit  certain  designated  offieinls 
choose  by  lot  the  names  of  those  who  are  to  serve  at  each 
court;  the  persons  thus  selected  are  summoned  and  must 
attend  unless  excused,  forming  what  is  termed  the  "  panel ;" 


finally,  from  this  panel  the  clerk  draws  by  lot  the  requisite 
twelve  *'  good  men  and  true  "  for  each  case  as  it  is  brought 
on  for  trial.  The  impartiality  of  the  jury  is  also  secured 
by  the  right  of  challenge  given  to  the  litigant  parties.  Tho 
various  classes  of  challenge  are  as  follows:  (1)  "  To  the 
array,"  by  which  the  party  objects  to  the  entire  panel  for 
some  error  of  the  oflicer  in  drawing  or  summoning  tlietn  ; 
(2)  '•  To  thr.  polh,"  by  which  the  l>arty  objects  to  nn  indi- 
vidual as  he  is  drawn  from  the  jianel.  The  challenges  of 
this  class  are  of  two  kinds — namely,  *'for  principal  caime,*' 
and  *' to  thr  j'nror:*'  *\f'or  priitripnl  caune  "  when  the  ob- 
jection if  it  exists  would  disqualify  the  person  as  a  matter 
of  law;  "to  the  faror"  when  the  objection  would  simply 
be  a  sufficient  ground  to  reject  the  juror  as  a  matter  of  fact. 
The  object  of  these  challenges  is  to  secure  persons  as  ju- 
rors who  possess  the  legal  qualifications,  who  are  not  in  any 
degree  related  to  the  parties,  and  who  have  not  formed  or 
expressed  an  opinion  uj)on  the  matters  at  if^sue.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  challenges,  in  which  reasons  therefor  must  bo 
assigned,  there  is  in  criminal  trials  another  species  termed 
"peremptory,"  by  which  a  juror  may  be  objected  to  and 
excluded  without  the  assignment  of  any  cnuse  or  ground 
for  the  objection.  The  number  of  such  challenges  permit- 
ted in  each  trial  varies  with  the  grade  of  the  ofTenee,  and 
differs  in  the  several  States,  These  pereni])tory  challenges 
are  in  some  instances  allowed  in  civil  cases  by  statute. 
Trial  by  jury,  as  above  described,  is  preserveil  by  the  con- 
stitutional provisions  already  referred  to  in  all  criminal 
prosecutions  which  are  cognizable  by  courts  of  general  ses- 
sions and  of  oyer  and  terminer,  or  by  courts  of  whatever 
name  corresponding  to  these  tribunnls.  The  only  offences 
that  can  be  punished  without  the  intervention  of  the  eom- 
inon-law  jury  are  those  minor  ofVenees  that  arc  cogni/ahle 
by  courts  of  special  sessions  an<l  by  police  magistrates 
possessing  the  jurisdiction  of  these  last-named  tribunals. 
It  is  also  preserved  in  all  civil  causes  of  a  legal  nature 
which  are  cognizable  by  common-law  courts  of  a  higher 
jurisdiction  than  that  of  justices  of  the  peace.  Some  of 
the  States  provide  a  mode  of  waiver  of  jury  trial  in  civil 
cases.  It  follows  that  all  civil  causes  of  an  equitable  natiir«>, 
or  which  arc  cognizable  in  courts  of  equity  or  of  adniiralty 
or  of  probate,  and  all  causes  of  a  legal  nature  which  re- 
quire an  accounting  for  their  decision  or  which  may  bo 
brought  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  may  be  tried  without 
a  jury.     (See  Grand  .Iritv.)        John'  Norton  Pomkiiuv. 

Jus  ^en'tium.  This  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  tho 
more  UKKloni  ]ihrase.yi/«  inter  (fcntcs,  or  "the  law  of  na- 
tions," "international  law."  By  tho  first  phrase  Gnius 
understood  those  rules  and  usages  of  justice  which  nil  na- 
tions use  alike,  as  opposed  to  jun  civile,  the  law  of  Rome 
itself,  so  far  as  it  was  peculiar.  Thdjim  f/futiinu  contained 
many  rules  of  an  international  coile.  siu-h  as  the  sanetify 
of  ambap?adors,  but  covered  quite  a  different  grounrl  from 
that  of  the  international  science.  T.  D.  Wooi,si:v. 

Jussicu%  de,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  of  French 
botanists  and  ])bysicians,  tho  most  noteworthy  of  whom 
were  the  following:  (1)  Antoisi:  ni:  Ji  ssiki-.  M.  D.,  b.  at 
Lyons  July  8,  ICSG,  d.  in  Paris  Ai>r.  22,  1768.— (2)  IJi:n- 
NARD,  b.  Aug.  17,  1G99,  d.  Nov.  C,  1777.— (:i)  Josi:i>n,  b. 
1701,  d.  Apr.  II,  1779, — (4)  Antoini:  Latrknt,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  botanical  science,  b.  at  Lyons  Apr.  12,  1718; 
studied  medicine  in  Paris,  where  he  was  an  academician 
and  botanical  professor.  Following  his  uncle  Bernard, 
who  haci  made  the  sketch,  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
natural  system  into  botany,  disp(»sing  all  known  genera  in 
defined  natural  orders.  His  mai/uuin  opiin  is  the  (i<iier<i 
Plantantni  (1789),  and  he  was  the  author  of  many  botan- 
ical papers  of  great  value.  I>.  Sept.  17,  iS.'lfi. — (5)  His 
son  AnuiTN.  b.  Dec.  2.''.,  1797,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1.S20  as  professor  at  the  museum;  became  professor  of 
organography  in  1815,  and  was  for  nuiny  years  a  bril- 
liant lecturer,  an  able  (scientific  writer,  and  one  of  the  first 
botanisis  of  his  time.    li.June  29.  !8j.t. 

Jiissiru  (liAinKNT  PiKruti:).  nephew  of  Antoinc  Lau- 
rent, h.  in  the  department  of  Isi^ro  Feb.  7,  1792;  was  a 
member  of  the  t'hamber  of  Deputies  18;i9-42,  an<l  wrote 
many  educational  and  popular  works  designed  for  the  ilif- 
fusion  of  useful  knowledge  among  the  masses.  One  of 
these,  Sntion  ifr  \ti)itua,  on  /«*  unwrhaud  f'ornin  (18IS^, 
passed  through  more  than  thirty  editions  and  was  (ranslateil 
into  eight  or  ten  languaires.  Ho  received  the  Montyon 
prire  for  the  similar  work,  (Eiirrm poMttimeH  itr  Simon  i/i  A'on- 
tun  ( lK29t.  an<l  for  many  years  edited  educational  journals. 

JllNtO  (TiiKonoRK).  b.  at  Brussels,  Belgium,  in  I81S;  is 
secretary  of  (be  Belgian  hoard  of  education,  and  a  very  pro- 
lific writer  on  Bt-lt;ian  and  French  hiflt<»ry.  The  most  promi- 
nent of  his  works  are — llintoirr  iti'inrntnirr  r/r  ht  Iirt,fi,pte 
(18:{S).  liiKtoirr  th  in  rrrnlution  Heh/e  dr  t700  (18I(i>.  Le 
noit/i^ventent  <lr  fn  /foUnufle  cu  2SJ.S,  c(  la  fondation  dn  roy- 
aumc  dc»  Payt'lian  (1871). 


14,SG 


JUSTICE— JUSTrCE   OF   THE   PEACE. 


Jus'tice*  Jupticc  is  an  attribute  of  a  man  in  his  inter- 
course with  hit"  fellow- men.  of  the  law  in  relation  to  those 
who  are  under  it.  of  the  state  toward  its  subjects  or  citizens 
as  far  as  their  political  position  and  rights  arc  coneerm-d,  i 
and  of  the  judf^e  in  his  office  of  deciding  between  the  I 
claims  of  two  private  parties  or  of  a  person  and  the  state.  | 
We  also  speak  of  primitive  justice,  and  of  just  and  unjust 
punishment,  in  which  case  the  slate  may  be  just  or  unjust 
in  its  penal  laws,  and  the  judge,  in  the  application  of  law 
or  evidence  which  he  makes  to  a  particular  case.  Justice 
also,  as  a  moral  quality,  denotes  a  certain  fairness  of  mind 
in  estimating  truth  or  in  weighing  the  claims  of  persons 
to  a  certain  sart  of  treatment  in  social  intercourse.  Final- 
ly. Ood  is  conceived  of,  and  is  represented  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, as  being  just,  as  when  he  is  said  to  have  no  respect 
ti)  persons,  to  have  a  day  of  righteous  justice  in  which  he 
will  rentier  to  every  man  according  to  his  deeds,  and  as 
being  faithful  and  just  to  forgive  sins,  because  be  has  con- 
ferred a  right  to  forgiveness  by  a  solemn  promise. 

Justice  (  JHtttita  in  hatin)  comes  from  jmtuti,  "just," 
which  is  connected  with  the  very  important  words  pihco, 
"hid,"  "order,"  "  ordain  :"  jV/t,  "  right,"  "the  system  of 
right  or  law;"  and/»f/e.r — i.  e.  jnridex.  "judge;"  and  also 
with  jttrn,  "  sweiir  :"  JuHjtirnudnm,  "oath  :"  and  jurffo  {jure 
ar/f>)',  "altercate,"  "  quarrel."  "  scold."  Perhaps  the  origi- 
nal sense  of  /n*  is  '*  law."  that  which  the  community  has 
ordered,  but  the  Romans  early  introduced  a  moral  element 
into  the  word.  There  was  justice  according  to  law.  and 
natural  justice.  Thus,  the  Roman  lawyers  speak  of  slavery 
as  being  contrary  to  jus  naturale,  although  allowed  by  ;"h* 
civ>/r.  The  words  jnut  and  ri'jhteous  coincide  in  part,  but 
ritjfitrottfttirss  has  the  general  moral  sense  of  conformity  to 
the  law  of  right  in  the  moral  dispositions  of  the  soul,  as 
well  as  in  outward  actions.  Justice  inclines  more  towards 
legality,  and  towards  that  which  is  external. 

(Jrcek  philoso])hy.  after  Socrates  began  to  teach,  occu- 
pied itself  much  with  discussions  touching  justice.  One  of 
Plato's  leading  definitions  of  it  is  that  a  person  should  "  do 
his  own  things" — i.  r.  mind  his  own  business,  keep  within 
bis  own  sjihere  of  action,  and  not  invade  the  sphere  of  an- 
other. In  this  definition  the  question  what  a  man's  "own 
things  "  arc — an  expression  nearly  identical  with  the  apostle 
Paul's  "  do  his  own  business"  (1  Thess.  iv.  11) — must  be 
determined  by  an  enlightened  conscience  or  by  an  outward 
rule:  and  Plato  would  determine  each  man's  sphere  by 
state  authority.  Aristotle  makes  a  distinction  between 
political  and  natural  justice.  The  .Stoics  carried  out  the 
thoughts  on  ethics  of  the  older  philosophers  in  one  direction 
beyond  tlieir  predecessors  :  in  their  hands  the  ethical  sys- 
tem of  classical  antiquity  bore  its  best  fruits,  and  their 
thinking  has  affected  the  forms  of  thought  or  morals  ever 
since.  They  conceived  of  virtue  as  consisting  in  a  life  ac- 
cording to  nature — meaning  by  nature  both  the  law  of 
general  or  divine  and  of  human  nature;  and  of  justice, 
after  a  definition  of  the  Platonic  school,  as  that  which  as- 
signs to  each  his  due  or  worth.  Cicero  folK)ws  them  in  call- 
ing justice  an  affection  of  mind,  snum  cuiqitr  trihuam  {He 
Fin.,  v.  ^  2^,  0.'>):  i.  e.  which  assigns  to  each  person  his 
own.  The  doctrine  of  a  law  of  nature,  or  a  jn»  uatnrale, 
having  principles  which  may  oppose  the  laws  of  the  state, 
was  borrowcil  by  the  Roman  lawyers  from  the  Stoics,  and 
produced  in  their  hancls  important  results:  in  theory,  for 
instance,  as  we  have  already  said,  slavery  became  contrary 
to  natural  right,  although  the  institution  in  the  empire 
could  not  be  shaken. 

The  modern  <l()ctrine  of  personal  or  subjective  rights  (for 
which  sec  the  article  RiniiT  and  RuiiiTsl  helps  us  to  a  clearer 
notion  of  what  justice  is.  If  each  person  is  a  centre  of 
power  according  to  natural  law  ancl  the  divine  will,  for  the 
purpose  of  developing  his  manhood,  he  and  his  acts  impose 
on  others  the  obligations  not  to  interfere  with  these  power? ; 
and  it  is  one  of  (he  offices  of  the  state  to  decide  what  the^e 
powers  or  rights  are.  A  just  man  is  one  who  fully  respects 
the  rights  of  others  or  fulfils  his  obligations  towards  them  ; 
a  just  state,  just  law.  and  judges  are  such  because  they  ren- 
der to  each  one  his  rights  :  and  in  the  case  of  the  judge  not 
only  the  rendering  to  each  one  of  his  rights,  but  such  a 
state  of  mind  as  involves  conformity  to  the  truth  of  law 
ami  of  evidence  enters  into  the  quality  of  justice. 

As  laws  are  expressed  in  general  terms,  it  may  be  that 
the  *'  letter  killeth  "  in  a  particular  case.  Here,  according 
to  the  rule,  niimmum  jus  est  ftiim7un  iujtiria,  equity  modifies 
the  decision  of  the  judge  in  accordance  with  the  circum- 
stances. This  is  really  a  justice  which  law  in  its  abstract 
form  cannot  rcRch.  Kquity  is  equality,  and  deciding  dif- 
ferent cases  by  the  same  rule  would  be  inequality,  which  is 
injustice. 

A  word  is  needed  in  relation  to  penal  justice  or  punish- 
ment. This  consists,  and  can  consist,  only  in  taking  away 
from  a  man  one  or  more  of  his  personal  rights,  as  life, 
freedom  of  motion,  property,  personal  honor,  or  of  his  rights 


granted  to  him  by  the  political  constitution.  Is  it  not 
strange  that  whereas  justice  has  been  found  to  be  the  ap- 
jiortionraent  to  each  one  of  his  rights,  here  justice  is  made 
to  consist  in  taking  away  from  a  person  his  life  or  some 
other  right?  Vet  there  is  a  reason  why  the  two  forms  of 
justice,  altliough  thus  differing,  should  be  called  by  the 
same  name.  Penal  justice  is  such  not  only  because  it  is 
according  to  Ia,w,  but  also  because  it  gives  to  the  trans- 
gressor his  due  according  to  the  law  of  righteousness.  Law 
would  be  unequal  if  it  did  not  recognize  the  radical  differ- 
ence between  the  just  man  and  the  unjust.  It  expresscB 
the  feeling  inherent  in  the  human  soul  that  the  wrongdoer 
ought  to  suffer,  and  punishes  him  in  the  only  way  open  to 
the  law — that  is.  by  depriving  him  of  his  prior  rights  or 
place  in  the  state.  T,  D.  Woolsev. 

Justice  of  the  Peace»  a  subordinate  magistrate  ap- 
pointed or  chosen  to  exercise  certain  judicial  and  admin- 
istrative functions  of  a  subordinate  character  within  the 
limits  of  a  county,  borough,  or  town.  The  office  of  justice 
of  the  peace  was  estaldished  at  a  very  early  period  in  tho 
history  of  the  English  law.  The  public  officials,  however, 
who  anciently  possessed  similar  powers  were  not  desig- 
nated by  this  particular  title,  but  were  styled  connrrvainrtn 
part's  ("conservators  or  preservers  of  the  ]ieaee").  The 
mode  in  which  they  derived  their  authority  was  also  differ- 
ent from  that  established  in  later  times.  Some  claimed 
their  power  by  prescription  ;  some  were  bound  to  exercise 
it  by  reason  of  the  tenure  of  their  lands;  while  the  larger 
number  were  elected  by  the  freeholders  of  the  county.  Rut 
at  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  (i;!27) 
the  system  of  election  was  discontinued,  and  it  was  or- 
dained by  Parliament  that  such  magistrates  should  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  or  under  the  king's  commission.  Rut 
still  they  were  called  conservators,  wardens,  or  keepers  of 
the  peace  until  l.'lfil,  when,  by  statute,  as  Blackstone  states, 
"they  acquired  the  more  honorable  appellation  of  jus- 
tices." They  are  now  appointed  by  the  lord  chancellor  by 
virtue  of  the  king's  special  commission  nnder  the  great 
seal.  The  form  of  the  commission  addressed  to  the  jus- 
tices was  determined  in  loOO.  This  is  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  and  directs  the  person  therein  appointed  to  "keep 

our  peace  in  our  county  of ,  and  to  keep  all  ordinances 

and  statutes  for  the  good  of  the  peace,  and  for  the  good 
rule  and  government  of  the  people,  and  to  chastise  and 
punish  all  persons  that  offend  against  the  said  ordinances." 
It  also  requires  them  to  inquire  of  and  determine  felonies 
and  other  misdemeanors.  It  was  the  former  practice  to 
specify  in  the  commission  the  names  of  a  few  justices  who 
were  men  of  greater  competency  or  distinction  than  their 
associates,  and  to  declnre  that  without  the  presence  of  at 
least  one  of  these  no  judicial  business  should  be  transacted. 
These  were  said  to  be  of  the  <funrnm,  a  term  derived  from 
the  first  word  of  the  clause  by  which  this  special  privilege 
was  conferred.  A  Latin  term  was  adopted  because  legal 
documents  were  thtn  expressed  In  that  language.  Rut  now 
all  or  nearly  all  of  the  justices  are  included  in  the  quorum 
clause,  and  it  is  no  longer  necessary,  as  it  was  formerly,  to 
specify  in  a  warrant  that  the  justice  who  issued  it  is  of  the 
quorum.  There  are  certain  property  qualifications  required 
at  the  present  day  in  oriler  that  a  person  may  be  appointed 
a  justice.  Thus,  he  must  have  in  jiossession,  for  his  own 
use  and  benefit,  an  estate  in  lands  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  £100  above  all  incumbrances,  or  he  must  be  entitled  to 
the  reversion  or  remainder  of  an  estate  of  the  yearly  rental 
value  of  £:!f)0.  The  person  appointed  is  obliged  to  take 
an  oath  that  he  is  properly  qualified  by  an  ownership  of 
the  requisite  estate,  and  if  he  is  not  so  qualified  he  forfeits 
£100  by  acting  as  a  justice.  Ai'  a  general  rule,  the  jus- 
tices serve  gratuitously,  but  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns 
there  are  certain  justices  appointed,  called  stipendiary 
magistrates,  who  receive  a  fixed  salary. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  institution  of  justices  of  the  peace  has 
been  adopted  from  England.  They  are  county  or  town 
officers,  and  are  in  some  States  elected  by  the  people,  in 
others  appointed  by  the  executive.  Their  terms  of  office 
arc  usually  of  short  duration,  rarely  continuing  longer  than 
three  or  four  years,  and  as  a  rule  tlieir  mode  of  compensa- 
tion is  defined  by  law.  The  rules  of  law  governing  their 
ajipointmcnt.  tenure  of  office,  powers,  and  responsibilities 
are  generally  defined  by  statute  with  great  fulness,  and  tho 
extent  of  their  authority  made  to  depend  entirely  upon 
statutory  provisions.  The  functions  of  justices  of  the 
peace  are  very  multifarious,  and  in  minor  details  differ 
considerably  in  different  States.  It  will  therefore  only  he 
rneticable  to  state  the  general  powers  which  they  possess 
)oth  in  England  and  in  this  country,  so  far  as  these  are 
substantially  similar.  These  powers  are  either  administra- 
tive or  judicial.  Important  administrative  functions  are 
those  which  justices  exercise  as  keepers  of  the  peace.  Tlius, 
they  may  arrest  without  a  warrant  any  person  committing 
a  felony  or  a  breach  of  tho  peace  in  their  presence,  and 


!:, 


JUSTICES,  LORDS— JUSTIFICATION. 


14.S7 


commit  him  to  prison.     They  may  issue  warrants  for  the 
nrnst  of  ttltcj^Ml  criminal  offenders  against  whom  a  charge 
hax  ln'cn  made  supported  l>y  an  affidavit,  or  search-warrants 
authorixiug  a  search  to  he  made  upon  a  person's  premises 
for  goods  which  ho  is  accused  hy  complaint  under  oath  of 
having  stolen  or  cmbez7,Icd,  when  there  appears  reasonable 
ground  for  snspiciftn   that  they  are   there  concealed.     A 
justice  may  also   bin'l  over  to  keep  the  peace  any  person 
who  engages  in  an  affray  in  his  presence  or  makes  threat- 
ening demonstrations  of  violence  against  others,  or  who  is 
brought  before  him  by  any  other  peace-officer,  as  a  con- 
stnble  or  a  sheriff,  after   being  arrested   for  a  breach   of 
the  peace,  or  who   is  charged  with   having  threatened  to 
commit  a  criminal  offenre  against  the  person  or  property 
of  another  by  a  complainant  who  maintains  his  charge  by 
a  sworn  nffidavit.  and  who  upon  examination  under  oath 
patisfics  the  justice  that  there  is  reasonable  ground  to  ap- 
prehend the  commission  of  the  offence  by  the  person  com- 
plained of.    In  determining  whether  such  rea^^onable  ground 
exists  the  justice  acts  judicially,  and  in  like  manner  many 
of  his  administrative  functions  are  incidental  to  the  exer- 
cise of  judicial  prerogatives  :  as,  for  example,  the  issuing 
of  subpa'nas  for  witnesses,  bin<ling  over  witnesses  to  tes- 
tify, examining  persons  accused  of  crime  and  committing 
or  discharging   them,   taking   recognizances,  committing 
pers<ms  for  contempt  of  court,  admitting  to  bail,  etc.     As 
a  general  rule,  also,  justices  have  power  to  take  affidavits 
and  acknowledgments  of  deeds.     In  some  States  they  have, 
besides,  a  right  to  celebrate  marriages.      In  the  exercise  of 
judicial  functions  justices  of  the  peace  have  either  a  civil 
or  a  criminal  jurisdiction.     In  criminal  cases  thcj-  have 
power  to  try  offenders  charged  with  offences  of  a  minor 
grade,  without  the  aid  of  a  jury,  by  what  is  known  as  a 
summary  proceeding.    8uch  offences  are  drunkenness,  idle- 
ness, vagrancy,  profane  swearing,  mendicancy,  keeping  dis- 
orderly houses,  gaming,  and  other  ,<imilar  practices.     Such 
proceedings  must,  however,  be  conducted  according  to  the 
course  of  the  common  law  in  trials  by  jury.    The  defendant 
must  be  <luly  summoned,  and  must  have  an  opportunity 
to  make  his  defence.     This  fnrm  of  proceeding  was  intro- 
duced into  the  lOnglish  law  by  various  acts  of  Parliament,  j 
and  was  generally  adopted  in  this  country  as  a  part  of  the 
common  law.   At  the  present  day,  however,  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  power  to  try  and  convict  by  summary  process 
arc  usually  <lelined  by  statute.    It  has  been  decided  that  such 
Icgisl.'vtion  is  not  in  contravention  of  the  common  provision 
in  State  constitutions  that  no  person  shall  be  deprived  of 
life,   liberty,  or  properly  except   by   the  judgment  of  his 
peers  or  of  the  law  of  the  land,  although  this  is  interpreted 
as  requiring  trial   by  jury  in  most  cai^es  of  criminal  prose- 
cution.    The  power  of  summary  conviction  existed   ]>re- 
viously  to  tho  ailoption  of  such  constitutions,  which  must 
be  construed  with  reference  to  the  previous  state  of  the  law. 
No  Icjislfttion  can,  however,  be  adopted  providing  for  trial 
without  a  jury  except   in   regard  to  offences  of  the  same 
grade  or  class  as  those  lo  which  tins  mode  of  proceeding 
was  fiirmorly  applicable.  Justices  also  have  power  to  make 
a  preliminary  examination  of  nil  persons  arrested  upon  a 
criminal  charge,  and  if  there  is  reasonable  ground  to  !>e- 
lieve  that  the  offence  alleged  has  been  perpetrated,  and  tliat 
tho  person  accused  is  guilty,  he  may  be  committed  to  prison, 
or,  in  a  proper  case,  adraittetl  to  bail.   If  the  offence  charged 
be  of  a  minor  graile,  it  may  also  be  tried  beff»re  justices  in 
a  special  criminal  court  wiih  a  jury,  but  if  it   be  a  grave 
au'i  serious  crime,  the  prisoner  will  bo  committed  for  trial 
before  a  higher  court.     All  States  do  not  agree   in   their 
legislation  as  to  the  various  offences  whieh  may  be  tried 
before  justices,  it  being  providerl    in   some  that   all    mis- 
demeanors may  bo  thus  tried,  while  in  others  this  is  only 
true  of  specified  classes  of  misdemeanors.     Tho   trial    of 
feh)niea  is  almost  invariably  veiled  in  the  higher  criminal 
courts,  as,  e.  ff.,  courts  of  oyer  and   terminer  where  such 
tribunals  exist.  (See  ('iiihk.\     In  Knglanil  there  are  four 
courts  composed  of  justices  of  the  peace — the  petty,  special, 
quarter,  and  general  sessions.     The  general  sessions  is  a 
court  of  record,  and  may  be  divided  into  tw)  branches  for 
the  despatch  of  business.     Ity  statute  it  must  be  held  four 
times  a  year  if  occasion  shall  require.     When  held  at  tho 
regular  period,  it  is  calleii  the  quarter  sessions;  otherwise, 
the  general  sessions.     The  petty  sessions  and  special  ses- 
sions are  courts  of  inferior  importance.     In  this  country 
siuiilnr  tribunals  sometimes  receive  corresponrling  names, 
as  the  courts  of  special  sessions  in  New  York  State.      In 
some  States,  however,  they   aro   termed   simply  justices' 
courts. 

In  many  of  the  States  of  this  country  justices'  courts 
have  received  by  special  legislation  jurisdiction  in  civil 
cases.  The  causes  declared  cognizable  in  such  courts  are 
those  which  involve  claims  to  properly  of  but  little  value  or 
demands  for  small  amounts  of  damages.  Thus,  in  New 
York  tho  larger  number  of  cases  which  are  declared  tri- 


able in  justices'  courts  are  those  in  which  the  sum  claimed 
does  not  exceed  $200.  Such  courts  generally  have  no  power 
to  try  causes  involving  the  title  to  land.  The  extent  of 
their  jurisdiction  must  be  ascertained  by  special  reference 
to  statutes. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  is  not  liable  to  a  civil  action  for  any 
injury  to  another  committed  in  the  exercise  of  his  judicial 
functions  if  be  had  jurisdiction  of  the  proceeding  or  cause 
of  action  in  connection  with  which  the  injury  occurs,  and 
acted  honestly  and  in  good  faith.  As  he.  however,  is  a 
magistrate  of  special  jurisdiction,  his  privilege  in  this  re- 
spect is  not  so  extensive  as  that  of  judges  of  superior  courts 
of  record.  (See  .hr>iriARY.)  If  a  justice  has  no  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  particular  case,  and  has  the  means  of  ascertaining 
his  want  of  jurisdiction,  he  will  be  responsible  to  any  per- 
son who  suffers  damage  from  his  unwarrantable  exercise  of 
judicial  power.  But  where  the  pleadings  and  allegations 
of  the  parties  apparently  give  jurisdicticm,  the  justice  will 
be  protected  in  an  honest  and  faithful  exercise  of  the  power 
to  which  he  believes  himself  entitled,  even  though  he  be 
chargeable  with  mistake  or  error,  lint  even  if  he  has  juris- 
diction, ho  will  be  liable  to  an  action  if  heads  maliciously, 
corruptly,  or  wit!)  wilful  intent  to  commit  wrong.  In  ease 
of  corruption  also  a  justice  may  be  sul>iected  to  a  criminal 
prosecution,  either  by  indictment  or  information.  (See  In- 
DirTMF.NT,  IsroitMATiON'.)  For  any  neglect  of  duty  or 
malfeasance  in  the  performance  of  ministerial  duties  he  is 
not  protected  by  his  juilicial  privilege,  and  is  liable  in 
damages  for  any  injury  which  others  may  sustain  by  reason 
of  such  neglect."  In  some  States  it  is  provided  that  justices 
may  be  removed  from  ofhee  in  a  specilieil  manner  for  a  vio- 
lation or  disregard  of  their  official  duty,  on  good  cause 
shown.  In  New  York  they  may  be  removed  by  the  supreme 
court,  after  due  notice  and  an  opportunity  of  being  heard, 
for  causes  to  be  assigned  in  the,order  of  removal. 

Gkorgf.  Cuase.  KnvisKn  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 
Justices,  Lords.  See  Coi'rts.  I.  (2). 
Justifiable  Homicide.  Sec  IIoMicinE. 
Justifica'tion.  I.  Tiieti^um  it  theolofjical — used  more 
prominently  at  the  Reformation  period  and  since.  From 
LOnO  to  l.'>41  the  Uomish  Church,  through  its  leaders,  was 
willing  to  admit  justiliention  to  bo  b}i  Chrint,  while  the 
Reformers  claimed  it  to  be  h/  Chrint  afmtr.  the  little  word 
"  only"  becoming  thu«  the  pivot  of  Protestantism.  Lu- 
ther's well-known  "  Articulus  stantis  vel  cadentis  ccclesia>" 
— ^justification  tfif;  arti'rff  of  a  n(rt»fliu<j  or  n  fnUiuij  Church 
— expresses  his  conviction  of  the  great  importance  of  the 
doctrine.  The  Westminster  Assembly,  in  their  elaborate 
Confessions,  followed  the  Reformers.  The  more  condensed 
statement,  in  the  Lanjvr  Catrch'iHin,  is  as  follows:  "Justi- 
fication is  an  act  of  God's  free  grace  unto  sinners,  in  which 
ho  pardoncth  all  their  sins,  accepteth  and  accounteth 
their  persons  righteous  in  his  sight;  not  f")r  anything 
wrought  in  them  or  done  by  them,  but  only  for  the  jierfcct 
obedience  and  satisfaction  of  Christ,  by  (Ind  imputed  to 
them  and  received  by  faith."     (Ans.  lo  Q.  70.) 

II.    Tin;   DOPTRINK    INVOLVES — 1.     Thfi  fftrt  that  JuMtiJirn- 

ti'nit  ia  mnrr  than  pnrdun.  The  latter  is,  indeed,  to  the  for- 
mer a  condition  n{ur  qua  hoii.  Rut  justification  has  special 
reference  to  iha  pr(Mrr\)>tSrr  part  of  the  law.  as  pard(ui  has 
to  its  penalty.  It  is  tho  official  announcement  that  tho 
subject  stands  acquitted  and  accepted  before  the  lawgiver 
or  iudge:  its  rraiH/r/icnf  sense  would  be,  (i'kVk  drrfnratinn 
of  the  tiinirr'n  ri'fht-iitiiin/iti;f  in  rmprrt  tit  hitr  /or  the  ftake 
of  fin  effin'rttfr}it  Hiihititntr  /or  pcrtititutf  rij/litmuituciiH.   *'  Who 

was  delivered  for  our  offences,  and  raised  again  for  our  jus- 
tification "  (Rom.  iv.  25). 

2.  Thr  Stfiml'ird  in  (jfiH^M  ftnmutnhU  f.nir,  trht'rh  Man 
ramtnt,  fnit  vhirh  Vhri>*t  dorn,  unit's/if.— "Sn  inherent  good- 
ness, n'lne  that  human  nature,  weakened  by  sin,  can  pre- 
sent, will  satisfy  the  law,  which  is  not  weak  in  resjiect  to 
the  sinner,  although  he  may  be  in  respect  lo  it.  That  it 
remits  none  of  its  original  claims  the  fact  of  a  conscious 
condemnation  bears  witness.  Hence,  inasmuch  ns  man's 
obedience  is  imperfect,  (Jod  must  either  pronounce  that 
perfect  which  is  not,  or  else  a  righteousness  which  is  per- 
fect, and  can  ho  declared  to  bo  so,  must  be  substituted  for 
it.  "There  is  the  very  same  need  of  Christ's  obeying  tho 
laiT  in  our  stead  in  onh'r  to  the  reward,  and  of  his  suffer- 
ing the  penalty  of  the  law  in  our  stead  :  and  the  same  rea- 
son why  ono  should  bo  accepted  on  our  account  as  tho 
other."   (  /''/irnrdn.) 

'].  JnHli/irnlinn  iit  not  an  fn/iiirfl  Riifhtmunnrnn,  iior  the 
namr  n#  S'lnrlijimtion. — Sanctifieatlon  is  the  development 
of  the  new  life  begun  in  regeneration,  and  is  progressive. 
Hciiig,  like  its  germ,  a  transformation  nf  ebaraclcr.  and 
wrought  within,  it  is,  in  Ibis  sense,  infused.  Rut  justifica- 
tion, though  indeed  instantaneous — in  which  it  is  /if:r  re- 
generation, and  uitlihr  sanctifieation — in  being  "  forensic" 
— i".  r.  for  the  itiiiiitr  bc/orc  ihr  I'ur — is  unlike  either,  indi- 


1488 


JUSTIN  I.~JUTE. 


catinj;  a  state  of  privilege  to  wbich  the  believing  sinner  is 
brouj;ht  by  virtue  of  what  Christ,  by  his  obedience,  has 
done  for  him.  Theologinns  speak  of  the  imputation  of 
Christ's  righteousness.  Thus,  Pres.  Edwards:  ''And  by 
that  riirhleimsness  being  imputed  to  ns  is  meant  no  other 
than  this,  that  the  righteousness  of  Christ  is  accepted  for 
us.  and  admitted  instead  of  that  perfect  inherent  righteous- 
ness which  we  ought  to  have  in  ourselves."  "Even  as 
David  ulsodoscribeth  the  blessedness  of  the  man  unto  wlioin 
God  imputcth  righteousness  without  works"  (Rom.  iv.  fi). 
4.  CniiiH  irith  Christ  reuders  such  a  Method  of  JuHtifiration 
PoH><ifile,  aiitl  Faith  in  Him  vin/res  it  Artiinl. — On  the  part 
of  him  who  undertakes  it  a  substitution  must  he  voluntary 
nn<l  gratuitous :  it  must  also  be  according  to  the  will  of  the 
lawgiver  and  judge,  so  that  it  can  still  be  said,  *'  It  is  God 
that  justifieth."  Furtherraore,  there  must  needs  be  a 
moral  union  in  which  the  transaction  can  be  effected.  This 
is  provided  for  in  the  lurantntion  of  the  iSon  of  (lod,  wliere- 
bv  he  becomes  "like  unto  his  brethren."  "Of  him  arc  ye 
ill  ChriMt  JettiiR,  who  of  God  is  made  unto  ns  wisdom  and 
righteousness  and  sanctifieation  and  redemption  "  {I  Cor. 
i.  30).  But  if  Christ's  obedience  is  the  pmcuritiff  and  ?»eri*- 
toriiius  cause  of  justification,  faith  is  its  tufitruuifntaf  cause, 
or  the  condition  of  receiving  it.  "Therefore,  being  justi- 
fied by  faith,  we  have  peace  with  God  through  our  Lord 
Jesus' Christ"  (Rom.  v.  1).  "But  to  him  that  worketh 
not,  but  believoth  on  Him  who  justifieth  the  ungodly,  his 
faith  is  counted  for  righteousness  "  (Rom.  iv.  5). 

III.      AniHTIONAL     R.^MARKS     AND      EXPLANATIONS. (1) 

Two  points  in  justification  were  emphasized  by  the  Re- 
formers:  (ft)  Chrint  «/o/ie,  excluding  human  merit.  "  AVe 
are  brought  into  peril  and  exposed  to  danger."  says  Mc- 
lanehthon,  "/or  this  one  onhf  rcasojf.  that  wc  believe  the 
favor  of  (rod  to  be  procured  for  us,  not  by  our  observances, 
but  for  the  sake  of  Christ  .alone.  If  the  exclusive  term 
oufi/  is  disliked,  let  them  erase  the  apostle's  corresponding 
termsyVce^/  and  without  works."  (A)  Faith  onli/,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  meritorious  works.  Thus  Lulher  (at  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg) :  "  Nor  can  I  embrace  Christ  otherwise  than 
by  faith  only.  Faith  nftmc,  before  works  and  without 
works,  appropriates  the  benefits  of  redemption,  which  is  ! 
no  other  than  justification,  or  deliverance  from  sin.  This  ' 
is  our  doctrine;  so  the  Holy  Ghost  teaches  and  the  whole  , 
Christian  Church.  In  this,  by  the  grace  of  God,  will  we  i 
standfast.  Amen."  (2)  *•  The  Fathers  "  are  often  quoted 
as  holding  the  same  doctrine.  For  example,  Justin  Mar- 
tvr.  who  says  :  "  In  whom  could  we  transgressors  and  un- 
godly be  justified,  but  only  in  the  Son  of  God?  0  sweet 
exchange!  0  unspeakable  contrivance  I  that  the  transgres- 
sions of  many  should  be  hidden  in  one  righteous  person, 
and  the  righteousness  of  one  should  justify  many  trans- 
gressors!" (;i)  When  justification  is  confounded  with  par- 
don, or  with  sanctifieation,  or  when  a  native  or  infused 
gootlness  is  made  the  grouml  of  justification,  or,  again, 
when  its  f'orrunic  sense  is  eliminated  from  the  word,  and  it 
is  interpreted  to  mean  hdiu/  made  righteous,  instead  of 
brinff  pronounced  so.  the  doctrine  then  held  or  tauglit  is 
other  than  the  justification  of  the  Reformation  and  the 
Reformed  churches.  (4)  .Justification,  though  of  Latin 
origin,  is  not  classic.  The  Greek  (Xew  Testament)  terms 
are  6(Kaio<  (adj.),  used  ordinarily  of  personal  character,  but 
foun«l  in  the  expression,  "the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith;" 
imatwMtt  and  6(«atw(n5  (of  which  justification  is  meant  to  be 
an  equivalent).  " 'f  juHtififinq  net:"  6iKaiO{rvi-T),  "righteous- 
ness" (but  according  to  Robinson's  Xew  Testament  (ireck 
Lexicon),  "the  righteousness  which  God  reckons  or  im- 
putes to  believers  because  of  their  faith  in  Christ"  (Rom. 
iii.  22:  Phil.  iii.  9\;  and  the  verb  autotow.  to  "hold  as 
righteous,"  to  "declare  righteous."  to  "justify:"  "God  is 
said  to  justify  a  person,  to  regard  or  treat  him  as  righteous, 
by  reckoning  or  imputing  to  faim  faith  as  righteousness." 

J.  R.  HERRirK. 

Jus'tin  I,  (JtSTiNHs),  an  emperor  at  Constantinople, 
by  birth  a  (»othic  shepherd  of  Tauresium  in  Mnesia,  b.  150 
A.  n. :  went  to  Constantinople  to  seek  his  fortune:  enlisted 
in  the  imperial  guard  :  acquired  fame  for  valor,  and  at  last 
became  commander  of  the  guard  :  by  craft  and  skilful  man- 
agement induced  the  army  to  salute  him  emperor  after  the 
death  of  Anastasins  (518  a.  n.).  The  emperor  couhl  not 
read  or  write,  but  under  the  advice  of  the  quaestor  Proclus 
his  reign  was  on  the  whole  a  just  one,  and  advantageous 
to  the  empire.  B.  Aug.  1,  527,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
ne[diew,  .Tustinian. 

Justin  II.  (Fr.Avrrs  Anicits  Jtstincs),  emperor  of  the 
E;ist,  succeeded  .Tuslininn  I.,  his  uncle,  in  565.  His  reign 
was  characterized  by  the  defection  and  death  of  Narses  and 
the  occupation  of  nearly  all  of  Italy  by  the  barbarians.  In 
the  North  the  Avars  gained  great  advantages,  and  in  the 
East  a  bloody  war  went  on  with  the  Persians.  The  em- 
peror d.  Oct.  5,  57S,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  excellent 
Tiberius  II. 


Jiifltin  (JiSTiNtrs),  the  author  of  a  compendium  of  Ro- 
man history,  extracted  from  a  vast  work  by  Trogus  Pom- 
peius,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  (Sec  Trocus.) 
It  seems  rather  to  be  a  collection  of  extracts  than  an 
abridgment,  and  in  it  much  important  information  has 
been  preserved  from  oblivion.  F^spccially  in  regard  to  the 
early  wars  with  the  Parthiaus  it  is  almost  the  only  source 
of  information.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  Justin,  who 
is  sometimes  called  Juslinus  Frontinus,  at  others  Junianus 
Justinus,  but  he  probably  lived  in  the  fourth  century  a.  d. 
The  first  edition  of  his  work,  ./»/'*//»(/  Hittoriarum  Phifippi- 
carnm  Liftri  XL IV.,  was  printecl  at  Venice  in  1471'  by 
Jenson  ;  best  Venetian  edition  1.^22  (Aldus) ;  most  complete 
by  Frotscher  (3  vols.,  Leipsic.  1S27J.  An  English  version  by 
Arthur  Goldinge  was  printed  in  15G4,and  five  other  trans- 
lations have  since  appeared. 

Jastin'ianthe  GreatfFr.AviisANirirsJiSTiNi.wrs), 
Roman  emperor  at  Constantinople,  b.  of  (iothic  peasant  an- 
cestry at  Tnuresium  in  M<Tesia.  probably  in  4fi3  A.  D. ;  went 
in  youth  to  (Constantinople,  where  his  uncle,  afterwards  the 
emperor  Justin  I.,  was  in  high  favor;  was  educated  by  the 
latter,  to  whom  Justinian  was  a  faithful  and  useful  servant 
after  the  uncle's  elevation  to  the  purple.  In  520  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Asiatic  armies,  and  in  521 
consul,  and  soon  after  married  Theodora,  an  actress  and 
courtesan,  to  whom  he  was  always  tenderly  attached.  Jus- 
tinian's celebrated  reign  seems  to  have  derived  little  of  its 
splenclor  from  the  ruler  himself,  whose  great  talent  lay  in 
the  selection  of  able  lieutenants.  His  generals.  Bclisarius, 
Narses,  and  Germanus,  carried  the  terrors  of  the  Roman 
arms  into  Africa,  where  the  Vandal  kingdom  was  over- 
thrown ;  into  Italy,  where,  after  long  years  of  warfare,  the 
Goths  and  Lombards  were  conquered:  into  Persia,  where, 
after  a  twenty  years'  struggle,  Persia  obtained  a  nominal 
triumph,  but  Constantinople  gained  the  real  victory.  Huns, 
Avars,  Arabs,  Gepido?,  were  repelled,  often  by  setting  tribe 
against  tribe,  oftener  by  the  direct  expenditure  of  gold. 
Constantinople  and  the  whole  empire  was  adorned  with 
splendid  buildings,  of  which  the  prx^sent  mosque  of  Santa 
Sophia  is  the  most  famous.  Silk-eulture  was  introduced, 
and  manufactures,  agriculture,  commerce,  notwithstanding 
the  fearful  burdens  of  incessant  wars,  appeared  to  prosper. 
The  greatest  monument  to  Justinian's  farao  is  the  Corpus 
Juris  Ciritiff.  the  work  of  Tribonian  and  his  assistants,  but 
one  which  Justinian  planned,  anil  in  which  he  took  a  pro- 
found interest.  Justinian  is  accused  of  vanity  and  avarice, 
and  his  treatment  of  Bclisarius  shows  that  he  was  capable 
of  meanness  and  ingratitude;  but  his  private  life  was  in 
the  main  correct.  In  his  later  years  he  was  a  Nestorian. 
He  persecuted  heathenism  and  certain  heretical  sects,  and 
d.  Nov.  14,  5G5,  leaving  no  legitimate  ofi'spring. 

Justinian  II. ♦  surnamed  Riiinotmftis,  b.  669,  suc- 
ceeded Cimstantine  IV.,  his  father,  in  CSa.  and  was  one  of 
the  worst  of  the  Eastern  emperors.  Notwithstanding  some 
splendid  successes  in  Syria.  Sicily,  and  among  the  Slavi, 
he  abandoned  the  fruits  of  his  victories;  in  695  was  seized, 
his  nose  cut  off,  and  he  was  banished  to  the  Crimea,  whence 
in  705  he  returned  and  took  fearful  vengeance  upon  all  ad- 
versaries. His  reign  is  a  record  of  shameful  excesses.  Dur- 
ing the  insurrection  of  Philippicus  Bardaues  the  emperor 
was  killed,  Pec,  711  a.  d. 

Justin  Martyr  (Flavics  Justinus),  b.  at  Flavia 
Neapolis,  the  ancient  Shechcm,  tho  modern  NublouH,  in 
Samaria,  about  105  a.  n. :  studied  philosophy  in  the  schools 
of  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Egypt.  None,  however,  of  the 
ditl'oreut  systems  satisfied  him,  and  about  Li2  he  turned 
away  altogether  from  pagan  philosophy  and  embraced 
Christianity,  of  which  he  became  an  able  and  zealous  de- 
fender. Of  his  personal  life  nothing  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty, but  it  .seems  probable  that  he  resided  at  Rome  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  suffered  martyrdom  here 
about  165.  Of  his  writings,  the  Liber  eontrn  omiitft  hrrrenea 
is  lost :  the  genuineness  of  the  Omtioad  Uracosnnd  Epistuln 
ad  Diofjnetum  is  contested;  but  \i\s  Apohufia  prima  and 
nrcunda  and  his  Dialoi/us  cum  Trtfphone  Judiio  are  among 
the  most  important  productions  which  the  Christian  litera- 
ture from  the  second  century  contains.  Tho  best  edition 
of  all  the  works  which  pass  under  his  name  is  that  by  Otto 
(:i  vols.,  .lenn.  1S42-46).  Translations  into  English  of  the 
Ap'doifia  by  William  Reeves  (1700),  and  of  the  Dinlofjua 
by  Henry  Brown  (1755). 

Jute  is  the   fibre  of  Corchorus  capsufaris  and  oh'torius 
(order  Tiliacero),  Indian  annuals  from  five  to  ten  feel  high, 
with  stalks  as  thick  as  a  finger.     The  name  is  taken  from 
the  Orissa  jhot,  which    is  derived  from  the  Sanskrit y/m/, 
to  "  be  entangled."     It  appears  to  flourish  best  in  a  hot, 
'   damp  atmosphere,  with  a  heavy  rainfall  and  rich  alluvial 
I  soil.     The  acreage  under  cultivation    in  1872  (an  excep- 
tionally productive  yean  was  921,000.     The  plant  is  util- 
,  izcd  in  a  variety  of   ways.     The  top?  serve  as  potherbs. 


JUTERBOGK— J  UVENILE  OFFENDERS. 


1489 


the  leaves  ns  manure,  the  stalk?  for  fences,  the  seed  for 
oil-cake,  the  root  for  paper,  and  the  inner  hark  for  tibro. 
Althoinj^h  India  is  the  ^reat  source  of  jute  supply,  the 
plants  yielding  it  have  long  been  cultivated  in  China  and 
the  Kftst,  Attempts  have  been  made  to  acclimatize  them 
on  the  lower  bank;*  of  the  Mississippi,  in  Enp^land.  and  in 
Algiers.  The  results  are  said  to  be  satisfactory.  The  har- 
vest is  in  July  and  August.  The  stalks,  cut  with  a  bill- 
hook, have  the  fibre  (which  constitutes  the  inner  bark) 
separated  by  maceration.  The  cultivation  is  carried  on 
chiefly  by  the  ryots  of  Ilen^al.  and  often  by  means  of  co- 
operative (Tuilds.  The  commission  which  has  recently  re- 
portctl  to  the  fndian  government  on  the  culture,  etc.  of 
the  jute  plant  complains  of  the  extreme  carelessness  of 
the  cultivators  in  the  stdection  of  the  seed. 

Until  Is:tO  it  was  praiHioally  unknown  to  Europe,  and 
was  only  used  in  the  native  manufactures  as  the  material 
for  the  gunny-ba^s  in  which  Indian  produce  was  exported. 
At  first  only  used  for  cordnffo  and  coarse  bagffinfr,  succes- 
sive improvements  in  its  treatment  have  made  it  also  avail- 
able for  other  and  more  profitable  purposes.  As  corda^^e 
it  is  too  easily  affected  by  moisture  to  be  considered  a  suc- 
cess. An  immense  quantity  is  used  in  makinj^  coarse  baj»- 
gin».  Not  only  Indian  products,  but  those  of  nearly  every 
other  nation,  are  transported  in  {junny-ba^s  of  this  material. 
Carpets  are  now  made  from  it,  and  it  is  mixed  with  cotton 
and  silk  for  dress-stuffs.  As  it  will  serve  for  every  kind 
of  coarse  textile  fabric,  it  is  manufactured  in  a  variety  of 
forms.  It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  hair,  and  can  be  made 
into  admirable  chi<;nons.  Bri;rhl-colored  stair-carpets  can 
be  gold  at  threepence  per  yard,  whilst  *'  carpet  bed-covers" 
are  produced  at  onc-thinl  the  cost  of  wool.  Jute  is  the 
most  important  export  from  Calcutta  after  cotton,  opium, 
and  rice.  In  1S2S  the  quantity  exported  was  only  ."iOl  cwts., 
valued  at  £02.  Cheap  Uussi:in  flax  for  a  time  kept  down 
the  Kn;;liflh  demand.  i>ut  the  Crimean  war  led  to  increased 
requirements,  and  the  Henffaleo  cultivators  seized  the 
favorable  moment.  From  IS.'iS  to  isn.*}  the  average  expor- 
tation was  itfi7.72t  cwts.  In  1872-7.'^  the  quantity  exported 
was  7.0'*0.*I12  cwts.,  worth  £1.112.547.  This  industry  has 
been  created  without  government  aid  or  encouragement. 
In  1S72  there  were  '.\,\K}:t,4b^  cwts.  imported  into  Great 
Britain  from  India,  and  fiO.OOO  cwts.  from  other  countries. 
Franee  took  1  iS.H7fi  cwts.  from  Calcutta  and  5on,.T00  from 
England:  Trieste  took  9000  cwts.  direct;  Holland,  .'i.157 
from  India,  and  S^.filO  from  England ;  Germany  had 
77.S:il  :  Belgium.  31,192:  Spain.  20.7'iS:  and  other" coun- 
tries 11.17*1  cwtH.  byre-exportation  from  England.  Fac- 
tories for  the  manufa"ture  of  jute  on  modern  principles  and 
uniler  European  management  arc  springing  up  in  India. 
Those  at  narnngpdr,  ne:ir  Calcutta,  employ  4700  natives, 
who  under  seventeen  European  overseers  work  up  yearly 
about  10,000  tons  of  jute.  The  success  has  been  great. 
The  importation  of  julc  (ra\v)  into  the  U.  S.  was  in  1871-72, 
■1I.S.J7  t<ms,  valued  at  $2.(;(J0.Si>'J ;  in  1872-73.  63,329  tons, 
at  $3,105,741:  in  1873-74.36.991  tons,  at  ?1.693.947:  in 
l874-7.>.  43.402  tons,  at  $2,013,391.  The  value  of  the  jute 
mnnufaeturo  in  the  U.  S.  is  estimated  to  bo  not  less  than 
$-1,500,000. 

Jute  is  easily  dyed,  but  the  beantifal  colors  it  so  readily 
takes  up  arc  fugitive  except  when  carefully  executed.  It 
is  readily  brought  to  a  rich  cream-color,  either  in  the  fibre, 
yarn,  or  clolh.  but  until  very  lately  it  was  considered  next 
to  impossiblo  to  bring  it  to  a  full  white  without  injuring 
the  fttren^th  of  the  fibre.  Dr.  Hodges,  in  a  paper  read  at 
the  nritisli  Assocjution  in  Au^.,  1871.  claims  that  it  has 
been  i-omjiletely  obviated  by  methods  patented  by  his  son 
and  then  in  practical  operation  at  Mile  Cross,  county  I>own. 
In  this  ease  the  worn-out  gunny-bags  should  furnish  plenty 
of  paper  material.  It  is  already  used  for  coarse  wrapping 
paper.  The  jtife  manufacture  has  its  chief  seat  at  Dundee, 
and  gives  employment  to  more  than  20,000  jtersons.  In 
]872  Iho  quantity  imported  into  that  port  direct  was 
1.82^.61  1  cwts.  Since  (he  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  the 
fibre  has  reached  Dundeo,  been  spun  and  woven,  the  goods 
shipped  back,  and  paid  for  within  six  months  of  (he  date 
of  the  bill  of  ladiuff.  It  has  led  to  the  revivjil  of  (be  whale 
fishery  in  Itaffm's  Hay.  The  bulk  of  the  whale  oil  is  used 
in  the  treatment  of  jute.  The  Dundee  chamber  of  com- 
merce has  represented  that  an  Arctic  expedition  is  desira- 
ble, that  new  haunts  of  (lil-hearini;  animals  niny  be  ex- 
plored.  Thus,  the  lubors  of  (he  scientific  discoverers  in 
the  frozen  North  will  bring  an  increase  of  prosperity  alike 
to  the  workman  of  Scotland  and  the  peasant  of  Bengal. 

AVii.i.iAM  E.  A.  Axon. 

Jii'torbogk,  town  of  Prus^sia.  in  the  province  of  Bran- 
denburg. It  hns  some  manufactures  of  woollen  and  linen 
stuffs,  i\nd  a  lively  trade  in  flax  anil  cattle.     Bop.  0093. 

Jllt'tnnil  [Dan.  Ji/fl>niff].  a  peninsula  between  the  Xorth 
Sea,  the  Skagerack,  and  the  Cattegat,  is  the  largest  province 
of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark.     Area,  0607  square  miles. 
Vol.  11—94 


Pop.  788,119.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  low  hills,  to  the 
W.  of  which  the  country  is  heath,  lined  with  a  range  of 
sandbanks  along  the  coast.  The  eastern  part  is  beautiful 
and  fertile,  hilly,  rich  in  forests  of  beech  and  oak,  indented 
by  numerous  fjords,  dotted  with  small  but  thriving  towns, 
and  cultivated  like  a  garden.  The  .Tutcs  formed  the  nucleus 
of  those  swarms  which  under  the  name  of  the  Northmen 
devastated  the  coast  of  Germany  and  France  and  conquered 
England,  and  they  have  still  retained  in  their  characters 
something  shrewd,  daring,  and  indomitable,  which  distin- 
guishes (hem  from  the  islanders,  who  arc  softer  and  livelier, 
but  weaker. 

Jovena'lis  (Df;ciMrsJrMrs)  wash,  probably  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  first  century  of  our  era  at  Aquinum  ;  studied 
rhetoric  and  declamation;  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Mar- 
tial, and  d.  in  Rome  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  agcj 
but  any  further  details  of  his  life  are  not  known.  Sixteen 
satires  written  in  heroic  hexameters  have  come  down  to  us 
under  his  name,  but  some  scholars  (M)nsider only  the  first  nine 
and  the  eleventh  to  be  by  Juvenalis,  and  even  these  seem 
to  have  been  much  interpolated.  There  is  a  certain  rhe- 
torical coldness  about  his  satires:  bo  lacks  the  humor  of 
Horace  and  the  elevated  moral  enthusiasm  of  Pcrsius.  But 
his  descriptions  of  life  and  characters  are  often  highly 
picturesque  or  cutting.  The  best  editions  are  by  Heinrich 
(Bonn,  1830)  and  0.  .Tahn  (Berlin,  ISr.l):  best  Encrlish 
editions  by  Mayor  (London,  2d  ed.  1875),  and  by  ^!ac- 
leano  (London.  1857).  (See  nlso  I)cr  cclitc  und  dcr  unechte 
Juvenal^  by  Ribbeck,  Berlin,  18C5.) 

Jn'vcnile  Offend'ers.  The  first  organized  movement 
for  the  reformation  of  juvenile  ofi'endcrs  seems  to  b.ivo  been 
made  in  London,  Eng.,  in  1817.  It  grew  out  of  the  efforts 
of  the  denomination  of  Friends  to  follow  up  effectually 
tho  work  of  .lohn  Howard  in  the  visitation  and  the  ameliora- 
tion of  tho  condition  of  prisoners  in  public  penitentiaries. 
Howard  died  in  1700.  In  the  early  years  of  the  present 
century,  Elizabeth  Gurney.  afterwards  tho  saintly  Elizabeth 
Fry,  commenced  her  remarkable  work  among  the  female 
inmates  of  Newgate  prison,  London.*  Her  brothers-in-law, 
Sir  T.  Fow<'ll  Buxton  and  Samuel  Hoare,  with  her  well- 
known  brother.  .lo^eph  .T.ihn  (iurney.and  several  of  her 
personal  friends,  about  tho  same  time  formed  a  society  for 
the  improvement  of  prison  discipline  and  the  reformation 
of  the  juvenile  depredators  who  then  "infested  London  in 
gangs."  They  became  particularly  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  'Making  from  the  streets  boys  who  were  umler 
no  parental  control,  exposed  to  every  temptation,  addicted 
to  every  vice,  ignorant  of  all  that  was  good,  and  trained 
by  their  associates  to  the  perpetration  of  every  crime." 
This  organization,  called  "The  London  Pliilantbropio  So- 
ciety."  soon  found,  in  their  ex  !i  mi  nation  (tf  the  prisons,  thnt 
nearly  every  youthful  inmate  was  efVectually  ruined,  and 
introduced  into  tho  permanent  criminal  class,  by  tho 
taint  of  the  jail.  To  prevent  this  inevitable  result  they 
provided  in  London  the  first  bouse  of  refuge,  to  receive, 
reform,  educate,  nnrl  train  \u  a  useful  trade  delinquent  chil- 
dren, over  eight  and  under  twelve  years  of  age  at  the  lime 
of  their  reception.  In  1819  this  institution,  which  had  ac- 
complished a  great  amount  of  gooil  in  the  city,  was  re- 
moved into  its  present  rural  quarters  at  RerJ  Hill,  Surrey. 
In  its  reconstruction  it  followeil  tlie  model  of  the  French 
agricultural  colony  at  Mettriiy  :  it  has  no  surnuinding  walls, 
and  is  broken  up  into  separate  fnmilies.  It  is  here,  as  it 
has  been  doing  for  tho  lust  fifty  years,  working  out  very 
successful  anrl  benign  results. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  German  and  Napoleonic 
wars  creating  so  many  orj>hans  and  engendering  so  mucli 
poverty  and  vice,  institutions  liad  bee?i  formed  previous  to 
the  Englisli  experiment  for  the  rescue  of  unprttteoted  and 
wretched  children  from  lives  of  crime.  In  ll>95.  August 
Herman  Francko  opened  his  institution  at  Ilalle.  Germanv, 
the  immense  quadrangle  of  buildings  which  he  ultimately 
ereetetl  still  renjainintr  as  a  mnnuinent  of  his  faith  and 
pie'y.  The  history  of  his  remarkable  success,  as  preserved 
in  his  biography,  is  fidl  of  encouraeement  to  those  cniraffed 
in  the  work  of  juvenile  reform.  .Tohn  I'alk  followed  him  : 
and  at  about  the  "ame  date  that  the  first  English  house  of 
refuse  was  established  be  organized  in  Weimar  "  The  So- 
ciety of  Frienrls  In  Ni'ed,"and  founded  an  institution  "for 
the  children  of  criminals  and  criminal  ehihlren."  His  ex- 
pressive coiit-of-arms  was  a  representation  of  a  band  of 
ehihlren  converting,  on  an  anvil,  (heir  chains  into  useful 
tools.  It  is  recoriled  of  the  su<'cess  of  his  refuse  tbnt  hun- 
dreds of  respectable  tradesmen,  clergymen,  lawyers,  and 
doctors,  schoolmasters,  merchants,  and  ortists.  dated  tho 
commencement  of  a  life  of  usefulness  ond  honor  fr<un  their 
entrance  into  the  reformatory  at  Weimar. 

About  the  siinie  date  (1818)  of  the  English  efforts  to  res- 
cue exposeil  children,  and  of  the  Ocrman  movement  under 
Falk,  a  corresponding  interest  was  awakened  in  the  U.  S., 


1490 


JUVENILE  OFFENDERS. 


chieflv.at  first,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  through  visits  and  correspond- 
ence\ith  their  English  fellow-Christians.  Such  men  as 
Tohn  Gri^c.n..  Thomas  Eddy.  Mayor  Cadwallader  Golden, 
Hon  Ilu-h  Maxwell,  and  James  W.  Gerard*  were  u  ti- 
matelv  led  to  unite  themselves  in  an  assoc.at.on  for  the 
"prevention  of  pauperism."  As  early  as  1.S03  Edward 
JvTn-slon,  the  f'ather  of  penitentiary  reform  .n  th.s  eoun- 
trv,  w^.ile  nn.Vor  of  New  York  City,  felt  the  necessity  for 
some  effectual  measures  to  redeem  young  cnmmals  upon 
heir  first  arrest  from  a  life  of  cnme,  and  made  ,n  h  s  an- 
nual messa-es  suggestions  which  afterwards  were  luUy  de- 
i  vcToped  ( 1821 )  in  the  well-known  code  wluch  he  prepared 

I  for  the  State  of  Louisiana.     In  this  a  house  ot  refuge  and 

ndustry  and  a  school  of  reform  have  c.msp.cuous  positions 
The  SoLty  for  the  Prevention  of  Pauperism  soon  found  ] 
that  the  rescue  of  children  from  a  life  of  crime  and  from  | 

e  noison  of  the  prison  was  one  of  the  most  important  and 
p  omi  n°  feaiure'i  of  its  work.  In  182H,  therefore,  the 
^oeidv  changed  its  name,  and  secured  an  act  o  iiicorpora- 
i„n  f  om  the  State  as  "The  Society  for  the  Keformafon 
of  .Juvenile  Delinquents."  Their  first  school  of  reform  was 
opened  in  the  old  government  arsenal,  on  what  is  now  Mad- 
°s'on  Square,  New  York,  and  has  grown  during  the  half 
centurv  to  the  immense  structures  that  now  raise  their  fine 
architectural  proportions  on  Randall's  Island.  The  early 
superintendents.  Curtis  and  Hart,  obtained  a  very  wide 
repu  i"ion  fur  the  successful  management  of  their  delicate 
2i  difficult  charge.  The  first  American  institutions  were 
patterned  after  this  model.  Many  changes  have  been  made 
n  the  modes  and  discipline  of  reformatories  ^""nS  'ho 
la«t  twentv  five  years,  but  it  has  always  been  found  that 
more  depends  upon  securing  reformatory  men  and  women 
of  the  right  character  than  upon  any  particular  system 

"' Boston' opened  her  school,  under  the  care  of  Rev   Mr. 
Wells    also  a  man  of  remarkable  reformatory  abdity,  in 
1R26V  Philadelphia  in  1828.     It  was  nearly  ten  years  be- 
fore the  next  institution,  a  farm-school,  purely  a  private 
charity,  was  opened  in  the  former  city,  and  ultimately  lo- 
cated." where  it  is  still  accomplishing  its  benign  work,  on 
Thompson's  Island  in  the  harbor.     Nearly  ten  years  later 
still  (1847)  a  fresh  impulse  was  given  to  juvenile  reform 
bv  the  very  generous  donation  of  Mr.  Theodore  Lyman, 
who  was  a  trustee  of  the  farm-school,  to  the  Mate  of  Mas- 
sachusetts of  a  large  sum  of  money  for  a  reform  school  for 
bovs      The  well-known  institution  at  W  estborough  was  the 
result.     This  was  the  first  purely  Slate  institution  estab- 
lished in  this  country  ;  heretofore  they  had  been  founded 
by  charitable  associations,  which  held  their  control,  while 
the  State,  in  most  instances,  granted  annual  supplies,    ihe 
CNpcriment  has  proved  that  the  latter  i"-'"""""""'  »^.  »; 
general  rule,  are  more  successful,  more  economical   better 
mana«d,  and  less  liable  to  frequent  and  disastrous  changes 
of  officers.     As  it  is  better  for  the  State  and  for  the  indi- 
viduals interested  to  develop  the  benevolence^and  piety  of 
lie  citizens,  the  policy  now  pursued  in  Great  Bntain  seems 
to  be  the  wisest  on  the  whole-by  a  general  law  a  reason- 
able sum  per  capita  is  allowed  by  the  government  to  all 
reformatoJv  institutions  for  clearly  specihed  J;<ve>»  e  S"b- 
iects  lawfully  committed  to  such  custody  m  establi  hments 
accepted  bv,"  and  open  to  the  supervision  of.  a  -''"t"    °- 
spcctor.     Smaller  schools,  other  things  being  equal,  give 
better  promise  of  reforming  their  inmates  than  those  ag- 
gregating large  numbers  of  delinquent  or  defective  youth. 
Tbesc  voluntary  schools  will  secure  not  only  better  super- 
vision over  their  subjects  in  the  institution,  but  a  more 
careful  oversight  after  their  discharge,  which  ,s  an  element 
of  reform  of  almost  equal  imporlnncc  with  the  former.    In 
IS'!.'!   Dr  .John  Henry  Wichern.  then  a  young  theological 
student  just  ordained    for  the  ministry,  and  engaged  in 
voluntary  city  missionary  services  in  the  city  of  Hamburg. 
Germany,  opi-ned  at  the  Horn,  a  short  distance  from  town 
in  a  memorable  old  cottage,  into  which  he  removed  wilh 
his  mother,  a  school  of  reform  for  the  worst  boys  ot  the 
city  streets.     The  cottage,  which  has  given  a  name  to  what 
is  now  a  village  of  plain  dwellings  in  the  midst  of  gardens, 
with  workshops,  chnpel,  and  schools,  was  called  very  sig- 
nificantly,  "The  Rauhe   Ilaus."     ■\Viclicrn    admitted  but 
twelve  boys,  who  became  members  of  his  family,  and  were 
in  every  respect  treated  as  his  children.     Afterwards  he 
successively  built  other  cottages,  each  for  the  same  num- 
ber of  boys  or  girls,  and  established  workshops,  calling 
to  his  aid'a  body  of  theological  students,  whom  he  trained, 
while  they  became  the  elder  brothers  and  tutors,  as  wel 
as    instructors    in   various    mechanical    and    agricultural 
industries,  of   his   remarkable    families   of  street   Arabs. 


*He  was  the  last  survivor  of  the  first  hoard  of  managers  of 
the  New  York  Homo  of  Eefuge,  dying  while  this  article  was  in 
preparation  (Feb.,  1874). ' 


These  elder  brothers  were  trained  for  the  "  inner  "  or  home 
missionary  work  of  Germany,  and  have  made  admirable 
supcrinteudents    of    reformatory    institutions    throughout 
Europe  and  in  this  country.     This  e.siierimcnt  proved  re- 
markably successful  in  its  reforming  influence  over  its  sub- 
jects,    in  1837,  M.  de  Metz,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  assize 
of  Paris,  visited  the  U.  S.  as  a  commissioner  to  examine 
and  report  upon  the  prison  system  of  this  country.    He  was 
strongly  impressed  with  the  good  work  done  for  juvenile 
on'ende"rs  in  the  houses  of  refuge  at  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, and  made  to  his  government  a  full  report  of  their 
discipline  and  efliciency.     Immediately  upon  his  return  ho 
commenced  what,  in  the  end,  proved  to  be  his  own  great 
life-work— the  organization  of  a  general  movement  for  the 
rescue  and  reform  of  young  criminals  in  France.  He  visited 
the  institution  of  Wichcrn  in  Hamburg,  and  finally  upon 
the  Loire,  just  out  of  the  city  of  Tours,  be  established  Iho 
great  model  French  reform  school,  which  bears  the  name 
of  tho  estate    upon    which   it  stands— the   "Agricultural 
Colony  of  Mettray."     It  combines  the  American  and  Ger- 
man systems.     It  forms  a  little  village  by  itself  of  small, 
thrce-"storv  dwellings,  each  one  capable  of  accommodating 
forty  boys"  wilh  their  instructors,  wilh  a  church,  workshops, 
and"  farm-buildings.     These   institutions    are   constructed 
without  walls  around  them  or  bars  upon  the  doors  to  re- 
tain the  ileirmis.     The  accounts  of  these  institutions,  pub- 
lished  in  this  country   by   Horace  Mann,  secretary  of  tho 
Massachusetts  board  of  education,  by  Dr.  Calvin  E.btowe, 
who  visited    and   carefully  examined   them,   and   by   l)r. 
Henry  Barnard,  secretary  of  the  Connecticut  board  ol  edu- 
cation, awakened  great  interest  among  philanthropic  men. 
A  scries  of  prize  essays  also,  three  of  which  were  published, 
on  tho  subject  of  juvenile  reform,  secured  by  an   ofl-er  of 
$100  for  tho  best  by  the  board  of  managers  of  the  Phi  adel- 
phia  house  of  refuge  (which  was  awarded  to  Rev.  Edward 
Everett  Hale  of  Massachusetts,  forty  having  been  sent  in), 
tended  to  add  to  the  growing  interest.     In  18oo,  Massa- 
chusetts established  her  Industrial  School  for  girls  at  Lan- 
caster, following  quite  closely  the  French  system  of  M.  de 
Mctz.  and  allotting  but  thirty  girls  to  a  separate  house, 
each  home  under  the  care  of  three  matrons.     Ohio  hut  a 
short  time  after  opened  her  farm-school  for  boys  on  the 
same  plan  in  a  town  of  the  same  name.     Since  this  time 
nearly  all  the  later  institutions,  which  have  been    qui  e 
rapidly  organized  throughout  the   country,  ehieQy  State 
establishments,  have  followed,  with  more  or  less  c  oseness, 
the  farm-school  system  as  distinguished  from  the     congre- 
gate" or  penitentiary  form  of  discipline. 

Many  private  and  voluntary  institutions,  meeting  the 
wants  of  special  classes,  have  been  established  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years  in  this  country  and  Great  Lrilain. 
The  most  efficient  of  these  is  the  Children  s  Aid  Society  of 
New  York  Citv,  of  which  Mr.  Charles  L.  Brace  is  tl"e  orig- 
inator and  cliief  manager.     It  was  incorporated  in  186.5. 
Its  object  is  to  save  the  vagrant  childrrn  of  the  street  from 
bccom'ing  even  juvenile  criminals.     By  inexpensive  nigh 
lodgings  for  little  street-merchants  and  for  girls  without 
homes,  by  encouraging  small  savings,  by  establi.«hing  in- 
dustrial schools  where  sewing  as  well  as  the  rudiments  ot 
knowledge  is  taught,  and  where  Sunday  services  for  re- 
ligious training  are  held,  and  chiefly  by  deporting  house- 
less  and  worse  than  homeless  childrrn  from  the  miserable 
haunts  of  poverty  and  vice  in  the  city  to  good  homes  m  the 
country,  an  inestimable  amount  of  good  is  done,  and  an 
efi-cctive  preventive  agency   against  crime   secured.      J  he 
State  of  Slassachusetis  has  connected  one  feature  of  tins 
plan  wilh  the  bureau  of  her  State  boanl  of  chanties.     An 
agency  under  it  assumes  tho  work  of  finding  l>on>cs  in  tl  c 
State  "for  unprotected  children.  Tho  multiplication  of   hese 
voluntary  and  State  preventive  agencies  in  many  portions 
of  the  country  has  perceptibly  reduced  the  amount  of  ,ue- 
nile  crime,  and  the  eflcct  would  also  soon  ^c  made    nai   - 
fest  in  the  decrease  of  adult  crimina  s    were  it  ««'/"■•»? 
large  importation  from  Europe  of  this  class.     Scve  al  of 
the  great  religious  sects,  particularly  the  Roman  Cathoc 
have  turned  their  attention  and  practical  energies  in  th, 
direct  on.     Tho  largest  portion  of  the  most  exposed  and 
V     OS  children  in  Sur  c'ities  has  ^f "  °f ./^'f ,  ["7,  " 
age,  and  by  birth  connected  with  the  Catholic  told.     The 
vfr;  vigor/us  estaldishment  in  later  years  of  reformatories 
industrial  schools,  and  ort.hanages  by  the  Catholic  clergy 
a    made  i-self  npparen.  in  most  beneficial  results  iii  son  o 
of  our  cities.     V  duntarv   religious   movements     like  the 
ragged  scWIs  instituted"by  .John  Pounds  in  Eng'-d  ;  h  a, 
(be  industrial  and  christianizing  scheme  of  P/- "^  "'^^■f' 
introduced  into  the  most  abandoned  par  s  "f    •'«  ^i  .y  o^ 
GIns-ow,  Scotland,  in  1820,  an,l  into  the  lowest  wjnds  ol 
E    nbiir^h  in  !Sl.=i ;  like  those  of  the  Melhodist  ladies  and 
Re      Mrf  Pease  in  the  Five  Points  of  Xew  Virk,  and  of 
the     successful  imitators  in  Philadelphia  and  Boston    lla^  e 
produced  marvellous  results.     The   inauguration  of  com- 


JUVENIS— JYNX. 


1491 


pulsory  education,  providing  for  puch  neglected  classes  as 
the  Toung  Ftrect-mcrclianls  and  children  employed  in 
factoric!*,  uu«i  the  vigorous  use  of  the  facilities  oflFercd  by 
the  puVilie  and  private  schools  of  reform,  promise  very  cer- 
tain and  ellicleut  results  in  the  direction  of  the  ])revention 
and  cure  of  Juvenile  offences.  Particular  interest  at  the 
present  hour  is  drann  to  the  niaturcr  class  of  young  crim- 
inals, from  sixteen  to  twenty  years  of  ago.  It  ^^  very  evi- 
dent that  they  should  not  be  trained  in  the  same  institu- 
tions with  ehildreu.  They  are  just  now  the  most  dangerous 
members  of  our  crimiua!  class,  our  most  violent  crimes  be- 
ing perpetrated  by  them:  but  they  are  still  amenable  to 
reformatory  influence?,  as  has  been  proved  by  an  interest- 
ing experiment  of  a  few  late  years  in  the  New  York  house 
of  refuge.  They  require  more  restraint  than  youths,  and  a 
broad(.T  dluealional  and  industrial  discijtliue.  They  need 
to  bo  taught  a  full  trade.  A  portion  of  their  earnings 
while  restrained  of  their  liberty  should  be  credited  to  them 
if  obedient  and  diligent.  They  should  be  discharged  before 
the  limitattou  of  their  sentence  if  there  is  a  good  promise 
of  reformation,  with  power  on  the  part  of  the  managers  of 
the  institution  with  which  they  have  been  connected,  in 
their  failure  upon  trial,  to  return  them  for  further  restraint 
until  they  show  themselves  capable  of  living  (and  ready  to 
do  so)  honest  and  industrious  lives  in  the  community.  The 
suspicion  that  all  persons  rest  under wiio  have  been  drtcnue 
renders  it  necessary  that  there  sliould  be  an  industrial 
refuge  for  them  when  work  cannot  be  elsewhere  obtained. 
This  was  really  the  problem — how  to  find  work  for  dis- 
charged young  criminals — that  first  arrested  the  attention 
of  Edward  Livingston,  and  turned  his  thoughts  in  the 
direction  of  the  causes  and  the  cure  of  crime. 

It  is  estimated  tliat  there  are  in  this  country  (1S75)  some 
40  schools  of  reform,  not  including  those  of  an  educational 
and  preventive  character.  These  institutions  have  an  an- 
nual average  of  about  11*. 000  children,  1000  of  whom  are 
girls.  This  estimate  is  rather  below  than  above  the  actual 
census.  The  smaller  and  purely  voluntary  institutions 
would  present  much  larger  statistics.  In  Great  Britain 
there  are  Co  ofTicially  recognized  schools  of  reform,  and  9o 
industrial  schools,  embracing  about  'lOOO  inmates.  lu  the 
Qcriiian-speaking  couutries  of  Europe  there  are  over  400 
establishmeuts  lor  the  succor  of  exposed  aud  criminal 
youths,  with  an  annual  average  of  12.000  inmates.  Be- 
tween 10  ond  50  have  been  organized  in  France.  Italy 
has  .l.'J,  of  which  22  are  for  boys — all  private  institutions. 

The  estimates  as  to  the  ref<trms  accomplished  in  these 
bouses  of  refuge  vary  from  (JO  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  wh(dc 
number  received.  Many  of  these  young  children  are  not 
vicious,  simply  homeless  and  exposed;  so  that  the  actual 
reformatory  power  of  an  iuf^titutioti  ciiunot  be  measured 
by  the  number  of  inmates  that  ultiniiittly  turn  out  well. 
In  several  instances,  however,  very  thorough  and  en- 
couraging inquiries  have  been  made,  extending  over  a  pe- 
riod of  ten  ami  twenty  years,  and  embraeing  some  of  the 
most  unpromising  subjects  wheu  received.  Without  doubt, 
every  year  the  class  that  now  enters  purely  reformatory 
institutions  becomes,  in  some  degree,  less  promising.  They 
are  now  the  residuum  of  the  streets  after  orphanages  and 
industrial  schools  have  selected  and  sifted  out  their  sub- 
jects. More  cure  and  thoroughness  of  discipline  will  be 
required  in  their  instance,  and  less  pronounced  results 
may  be  expected.  * 

As  disciplinary  ogcncies,  education,  the  cultivation  of 
industrial  habits,  the  h;arning  a  full  trade  if  possible,  the 
assimilating  and  transforming  power  of  a  strong,  loving, 
niagnetic  mind,  and  jiositive  religious  instruction  and 
training,  arc  relied  upon.  Small  institutions  bring  the 
children  nearer  to  their  officers.  It  will  be  seen  at  once 
that  both  the  heads  an(t  subordinates  <d' these  schools  must 
be  persons  of  peculiar  a<la]itation  ;  they  must  be  specially 
intelligent,  unselfish,  devoted,  fond  of  children,  ami  of  an 
earnest  religious  character.  These  institutions  must  train 
their  inmates  to  a  plain  form  nf  life  aud  lo  ordinary  ex- 
pet'tations.  Much  disappointment  and  failure  results  from 
inattention  to  this.  Hut  few  of  these  youths  will  be  received 
into  families  in  the  position  of  ehiblren:  they  arc  to  go  out 
into  life  to  earn  their  livelihood  by  the  sweat  of  their  brows. 
As  farm-labor  at  tiio  East  ufl"ers  such  limitecl  pecuniary 
rc'urns,  boys  in  these  schools,  as  far  as  jiossible,  should  be 
taught  trades,  and  placed  in  a  position  to  earn  their  living 
by  their  work  upon  their  diseharge.  It  is  not  wise  to  re- 
tain them  too  long  in  sehooN  of  reform  ;  all  instituiion-lifc 
is  unnatural,  irksome,  and  in  some  degree  unwholesome. 
They  sh<>uld  be  placed  in  homes  and  in  industrial  positions 
in  the  country  at  as  enrly  a  day  as  practicable.  It  is  better 
to  have  thorn  returned  often,  an<l  new  homes  found  for 
them,  than  to  keep  them  too  long  under  restraint.  The 
great  want  of  the  hour  is  a  body  of  well-trained  instructors 
and  oflieers.  The  best  systems  fail  for  lack  of  devoted  and 
intelligent  trainers.     The  irreligious  and  careless  tempers 


and  habits  of  subordinate  officers,  who,  after  all,  come 
nearest  to  the  children,  will  utterly  destroy  the  reformatory 
influence  of  the  school,  the  chapel,  and  an  admirable  super- 
intendent. European  institutions,  which  have  been  models 
of  success,  have  been  in  the  hands  of  the  most  devoted  and 
self-sacrificing  missionary  spirits,  men  aud  women  who 
have  made  the  rescue  of  childhood  a  life-work  of  faith  and 
love,  as  will  be  seen  in  reading  De  Liefde's  volumes. 

The  literature  of  this  question  has  become  very  exten- 
sive. In  aildition  to  the  c<dleeted  reports  of  the  older  in- 
stitutions, like  the  New  York.  Philadelphia,  Wcstboro'.  and 
Lancaster  schools,  and  the  Ohio  State  Farm,  we  mention 
Juvenile  />f^'»7itc»(»  (  Eng.),  by  Mary  Carpenter ;  The  Vhnr- 
iticH  of  Europe  (Eng.),  by  De  Liefde  ;  lieport  of  Mukk. 
State  Hoard  of  Chun'lien,  11  vols.,  very  valuable;  Half 
Centurif  trith  Juvenile  Delinquents^  by  B.  K.  Pcirce  :  Xa- 
tional  Education  in  Europe,  by  Henry  Barnard,  LL.D.; 
Jiefonnation  of  Juvenile  DelinqvcntH,  by  L.  Bonneville  de 
Marsangv,  1  vol.  Svo,  Paris  ;  J*uniKliment  and  Prevention, 
by  Alex.  Thomson,  1  vol.  12nio,  London;  Social  Evils, 
their  Cause  and  Cure,  by  the  same  author;  Prni/itit/  and 
Working,  by  Stevenson;  The  ('omjje.te  Worhs  of  Edirard 
Liviuffftton,  2  vols.,  new  cd.,  New  York,  1S73.  The  English 
Parliamentary  reports  upon  reformatory  institutions  arc 
very  full  and  of  great  value,  covering  every  detail  of  their 
management.  The  reports  of  Wichern's  Kauhe  Ilaus 
and  the  agricultural  colony  at  Metlray.  The  published 
ProeccdiufjH  of  the  National  Prison  Congress  held  at  Cin- 
cinnati in  1870,  and  of  the  International  Congress  held  in 
London  in  1S72,  contain  particularly  valuable  papers  upon 
preventive  and  reformatory  agencies.  B.  K.  Peiri'e. 

Juvenis  (Raymond),  b.  at  Gap,  the  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  llautes-Alpes,  France,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  held  some  subordinate  position  in  the 
civil  service  of  his  native  city,  and  d.  there  Jan.  7,  1705. 
His  leisure  hours  he  used  for  historical  researches,  and  from 
old  state  papers  and  ofiicial  documents  he  compiled  a  His- 
toirc  stctditre  et  eccleainstitjue  du  J)anphinv  et  de  sen  dt'jtend- 
anccs.  The  work  was  never  printed.  The  manuscript  was 
presented  to  the  library  of  Carpentras  in  the  department 
of  Vaucluse,  where  it  is  still  kept.  But  it  is  often  quoted 
on  account  of  the  curious  and  generally  reliable  information 
it  gives  concerning  life  and  characters  in  the  French  i)rov- 
inccs  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Juvcn'taSy  in  the  mythology  of  the  llomans,  the  god- 
dess of  youth,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Ilebc.  She  was 
worshipped  in  Home  at  a  very  early  period ;  her  chapel  on 
the  Capitol  was  built  before  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  .'\fter 
the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal,  in  207  n.  c.  the  consul,  M.  Livius, 
vowed  a  temple  to  Juventas,  wliieh  was  consecrated  iu  the 
Circus  Maximus  sixteen  years  afterward. 

Juvcn'tia  gens  in  ancient  Rome  was  a  plebeian  ffcns, 
which  came  from  Tusculum.  and  settled  in  Rome  iu  the 
fourth  century  B.  c.  The  families  belonging  to  this  geus 
were  the  Celsus,  Laterensis,  Pedo,  and  Tbalna. 

Juvcnti'nus  ATbiiiH  Ovid'iiis,  tlie  name  of  the  au- 
thor of  tbirly-five  Latin  distielis  ubieli  have  come  down  to 
us  under  the  title  of  A7<v/r((  de  Philomela,  and  which  contains 
a  collection  of  words  expressi\e  of  the  respective  sounds 
uttered  by  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  other  animals.  Of  the 
author  nothing  is  known,  but  the  distichs  themselves  have 
some  interest  as  a  curiosity. 

Jlix'on  (William),  I).  P..  b.  at  Chichester,  England,  in 
1582  ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  of  which 
bo  became  president  in  1021,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the 
university  in  lfi20.  He  was  made  dean  of  Worcester  in 
1C2S,  bishop  of  Hereford  in  It'ill.'t.  unci  of  London  iu  the 
same  year,  and  hi;;h  treasurer  of  England  in  ir.li5.  Bi.'liop 
Juxon  suffered  deprivation  during  tlie  great  rebellion  and 
the  Commonwealth,  but  remained  faithful  to  King  Charles, 
whom  he  attended  in  his  imprisonment,  at  his  trial,  and  on 
the  scaffold.  After  the  Restoration  ho  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Canterliury  (Sept.  20,  IGtJO),  aud  d.  at  Lambeth 
Pahice  June  -1,  IOO;t. 

Jyn'tenli,  the  name  of  a  district  of  British  India,  hc- 
vond  the  Brahmaputra,  belonging  to  the  presidency  of 
Bengal,  situated  between  hit.  25°  and  20*^  N.,  Ion.  1)2°  E., 
and  bounded  N,  by  Assam  and  S.  by  Sylhet,  with  which 
it  wos  incorporated  during  the  Burmese  war.  The  district 
is  mountainous,  and  rich  in  iron  aud  coal.     Cap.  Jynteah. 

.lynx 9  iu  Gr^'cian  mythology,  the  name  of  the  bird  which 
Aphrodite  gave  Jason  as  a  symbol  of  passionate  and  rest- 
loss  love,  and  by  which  ho  won  (he  love  of  Medea.  Accord- 
ing to  one  version  of  the  myth.  .lynx  was  the  daughter  of 
Peitho  an»l  Pan.  and  wns  transformed  into  a  bird  becnuee 
she  undertook,  by  means  of  magic,  to  make  Zeus  fall  in  love 
with  lo.  Accordini;  to  another,  she  was  a  dauirhter  of  Pierus, 
and  when  she  and  her  sisters  presumed  t<»  enter  into  a  musi- 
cal contest  with  the  J^Iuses,  she  was  changed  into  a  bird. 


1492 


K— KAFFIRS. 


K. 


K,  a  palatal  mute,  tho  eleventh  letter  in  our  alphabet. 
It  is  the  (Ireck  htp/ja  (K,  «).  but  is  very  seldom  seen  iu 
Latin,  C  takint;  it.<  place.  It  has  but  one  sniuul  in  Eng- 
lish, the  same  as  that  of  Chard.  As  an  abbreviation  it 
stands  for  king;  in  chemistry  it  is  the  symbol  of  potassium 
(kalium). 

Kaa'ba  [Arab.  i4/-A'an/m7(,  "square  house"],  an  ob- 
long stone  building  enclosed  in  tho  great  nios^que  at  Mecca. 
At  the  north-eastern  corner  of  (he  building,  four  or  five 
feet  from  tho  ground,  is  a  celebrated  black  stone,  of  an 
irregular  oval  shape,  about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  which 
received  idnlatrous  worsliip  from  the  Arabians  before  the 
time  of  Mohammed,  ancl  it  is  still  the  most  sacred  object 
of  veneration  to  his  followers.  The  8aba?ans  and  (lucbers 
also  worshipped  this  stone,  which  is  thought  to  be  of  me- 
teoric origin,  and  to  have  been  first  connected  with  the 
worship  of  Saturn.  Xonc  but  Mohammedans  are  now  ad- 
mitted within  tho  Kaaha.  but  Burckhardt  and  Burton  suc- 
ceeded in  entering  under  the  disguise  of  pilgrims.  Every 
follower  of  Islam  is  bound,  if  possible,  to  visit  this  sacred 
spot  at  least  once  during  his  life,  and  scores  of  thousands 
make  the  pilgrimage  each  year. 

Kaama.     Pee  IIarti:beest. 

Ka'ba,  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bihar,  has 
5631)  inhahitants,  who  arc  extensively  engaged  in  the  rear- 
ing of  bees. 

Kabbala.     Sec  Cadbala. 

Kabul.     See  Cabool. 

Kabyles.     See  ALOEniA. 

Ka'clesh  [Hcb..  "holy"],  or  Kadesh-barnea,  city 
an<l  encampment  of  the  Israelites  during  their  journeys  in 
the  wildcnu'ss,  at  the  S.  E.  border  of  Palestine,  near  Edom, 
To  this  point  they  had  penetrated  when  they  were  turned 
back  by  the  hostility  «f  the  Edomites,  and  compelled  to 
peek  the  circuitous  route  E.  of  Edom  and  Mnab.  By  some 
biblical  geographers  Kadesh  is  distinguished  from  Kadesh- 
barnea,  and  it  is  held  that  tho  people  of  Israel  were  twice 
turned  back,  once  from  each  place;  othcrsconsider  tho  two 
accounts  a  duplicate  narrative  of  the  same  event.  Dr. 
Rnliinst)n  in  his  fiihfirnl  A*tscarcAe«  identifies  Kadesh  with 
the  modern  Aiuef-  Wchtk. 

Ka<rinonitos  [Heb.  Kadmoni,  "eastern"],  the  name 
of  a  Canaanitc  tribe  which  in  the  time  of  Abraham  inhab- 
ited the  N.  E.  of  Palestine,  near  Mount  Ilcrmon.  The 
name  ia  thought  to  bo  a  general  one  for  the  dwellers  in 
Eajffern  countries,  and  that  they  are  identical  \vith  tho 
"chiMren  of  the  East,"  elsewhere  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  Genesis  and  Job. 

Kadom'^  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Tam- 
bov, on  the  Moksha,  has  7173  inhabitants  and  some  trade. 

Karfa)  or  KaTa^  country  of  Eastern  Africa,  S.  of 
Abyssinia,  consists  of  an  extensive  table-land  rising  about 
fjOOO  feet  above  the  sea  and  covered  with  immense  forests 
of  coffee  trees.  Coffee  is  indigenous  hero,  and  is  said  to 
have  received  its  name  from  this  country.  It  is  largely 
cultivated,  and  great  quantities  are  exported  to  Mocha. 
Tho  enitrffi.  a  plant  resembling  tho  banana,  furnishes  the 
chief  article  of  food.  Cereals  arc  not  cultivated,  an<l 
"grain-eater"  is  used  as  an  expression  of  contempt.  Tho 
inhabitants  belong  to  the  Abyssinian  typo,  and  speak  a 
language  classified  under  the  Ilamitic  group.  They  profess 
to  be  Christians,  and  arc  governed  despotically  by  a  king. 
Bonga,  situated  iu  7°  12'  ."JO"  N.  lat..  3C®  41'  E.  Ion.,  on  the 
Gojob.  is  the  principal  town,  but  is  a  poor  place,  consisting 
of  straggling  hut.-',  and  comprising  only  between  6000  and 
7000  inhabitants*. 

Kaffa,  or  Foodo'sia,town  of  Kupsia,  in  the  gorcrn- 
ment  of  Taurida.  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  tho  Crimean  peninsula;  it  has  a  good  fortified 
harbor,  and  was.  while  in  tho  possession  of  Genoa,  a  com- 
inercial  port  of  conseqnence,  but  lost  its  importance  under 
Turkish  dominion.  It  is  now  rising  again,  and  is  much 
visited  as  a  watering-](laoc.     Pop.  8435. 

Kariirs,  or  CaPfres  [Arab,  l-rfir,  "nnboliever"  or 
"heathen"],  first  apj>lird  by  the  Arab  slave-dealers  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa  to  all  the  natives.  In  after  years  the 
terra  was  limited  to  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  coust-country 
on  tho  E.  side  of  S.  E.  Africa,  and  recent  events  have  nar- 
rowed the  designation  in  a  popular  sense  as  applying  to  the 
tribes  living  in  the  country  between  the  Cape  Colony  and 


Natal.  TTie  Kaffirs  form  a  very  large  family  of  tho  human 
race,  extending  beyond  the  equator,  and  are  closely  allied 
to  a  great  part  of  the  Central  and  North  African  tribes. 
They  are  a  inofH/ied  negro,  being  distinct  from  the  negro 
proper,  the  Hottentot,  and  Buslnuan  ;  for.  though  their  hair 
is  woolly,  their  color  is  as  a  rule  deep  se[)ia-brown.  They 
are  often  intensely  black,  but  many,  on  the  other  hand,  arc 
coffee-colored,  so  that  those  are  merely  variations  from  the 
original  complexion.  Many  are  reddish,  like  the  American 
Indians.  In  their  own  language  they  call  themselves 
A-bntitu,  moaning  "people  "  or  "  men."  Their  features  are 
often  regular,  and  instances  occur  in  which  but  for  its  color 
the  countenance  might  ho  taken  for  that  of  a  European. 
Several  writers  describe  their  figures  as  admirable  and  their 
movements  as  graceful  and  dignified.  Their  skulls  are 
dolichocophalous  and  high,  or.  according  to  Welcker,  hyp- 
sistenocephalous.  Their  langunge  belongs  to  the  so-called 
prefix-pronominal.  The  Kaffirs  of  South  Africa  are  di- 
vided into  four  species — the  Katfir  proper,  the  Sichunna, 
Tageza,  and  Otjiherero.  The  first  speak  the  real  Kaffir 
language ;  the  second,  the  Se-rolong,  Se-suto,  and  Sc- 
tlapi ;  the  thinl.  the  Mancolosi.  Ma-tonga,  and  Ma-plocn- 
ga  dialects.  The  general  disposition  of  the  Zulu  races, 
called  Kaffirs  by  the  English,  is  fl)  the  tribes  N.  of  Natal, 
Amatahele.  Amazulu.  etc.,  and  the  Amaxoso  and  Aniara- 
pondo,  in  the  E.,  speaking  Zulu;  (2)  Makololo.  N..  and 
Bakuku.  N.  W.,  speaking  Sicbuana,  and  genornlly  known 
as  Bochuanas  or  Bctjuana:  and  (3)  the  Ovanipos  and  Otji- 
herero or  0-va-hcrero.  For  practical  study  G.  Fritsch  re- 
duces all  these  to  the  Ama-xosa,  tho  Ama-Zulu,  the  Bc- 
chuana.  and  the  0-va-horero. 

Tho  Kaffirs  were  first  made  known  in  1497,  when  Vasco 
da  Gama  was  wounded  by  them  in  Helena  Bay.  Succeed- 
ing notices  of  the  country  and  of  the  natives  occur  in  Santo's 
work  on  East  Africa  (loOC)  and  that  of  Lopez  (1591).  In 
1026  tho  traveller  Herbert  described  them.  From  1652, 
when  the  Cape  of  (lood  Hope  was  settled  by  the  Dutch, 
until  1705,  when  it  was  passed  to  the  English,  and  with 
little  intermission  almost  to  the  present  day.  tho  history 
of  the  Kaffirs  is  that  of  continual  savage  warfare  with 
tho  Europeans,  varied  hy  hloody  feuds  among  themsoh'os. 
Chaka  or  Tshaka,  "  the  Napoleon  of  South  Africa,"  b.  in 
1787.  killed  1S29,  founded  the  Zulu  dynasty.  When  his 
mother  died  this  king,  to  terrify  his  suhjects.  caused  7000 
of  them  to  bo  murdered  in  one  dav^  and  continued  these 
sacrifices  for  throe  months.  The  Kaffirs,  though  not  re- 
ligious, are  extremely  superstitious.  Much  has  been  writ- 
ten in  their  favor,  but  even  from  the  testimony  of  their  Eu- 
ropean friends  it  is  evirlent  that  they  arc  greedy,  cruel,  and 
expert  in  poisoning.  Owing  to  the  insecurity  of  life  and 
property  among  themselves,  ahout  .'iOO.OOO  Kaffirs,  or  one 
iialf  the  nation,  have  taken  refuge  in  the  British  colony. 
As  wives  are  the  most  profitable  of  their  possessions,  polyg- 
amy is  so  deeply  rooted  that  Christianity  makes  but  little 
progress  among  them.  Tho  f>ld.  the  poor,  and  the  sick  arc 
treated  with  incredible  barbarity.  When  a  chiefs  hair  turns 
gray  he  is  often  put  to  deatli,  and  Tshaka  once  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  English,  tho  secret  oltjcct  of  wliieh 
was  to  olitain  a  hottle  of  hair-dye.  The  language  of  the 
Kaflirs,  in  cimimon  with  those  of  the  Bechuanas,  Damaras 
of  tho  Plain,  the  people  of  Congo,  Suaheli,  and  many  other 
regions,  is  what  is  called  nlliteral.  as  contrasted  with  tho 
tongues  characterized  by  "clicks,"  such  as  aro  spoken  by 
the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen.  The  Knffirs  aro  ferocious 
and  passionately  fond  of  warfare,  but  unless  driven  to  de- 
spair are  only  to  be  dreaded  in  ambush  or  night-attacks. 
Among  tho  numerous  works  relating  to  tho  Kaffirs  may 
be  named  Thr  Knflirn  of  Nntni,  Hr.,  hy  Rev.  J.  Shooter 
(1S57):    Tfir  lUroril  Ifrf'nti'rr  fn  thf  Xntivfi   Tribm   nf  South 

A/ricn,  by  Lieut.  D.  Moodio  (Cape  Town.  1838):  7?c- 
pnitn,  etc.,  hy  Col.  R.  Collins  (ib.  1841);  Procerffhtt/ii  of 
the  Cnmmiftninn  Rflatirf  to  the  ICnJfirg,  etr.  (Piet.  Ma- 
ritzburg,  1852);  South  Afrirnu  Annah,  by  D.  Moodie  (ib. 
185,^)):  Narratire  of  th^  Kaffir  Warn/'  18.50-5?,  by  R.  God- 
lenton  (Graham's  Town,  1852):  Kaffir  Laim  and  Ctistom^, 
bv  M.aclcan  (Mount  Cope,  1858):  /'«W  and  Future  of  the 
Kaffir  Tn'hrM.  by  Rev.  W.  C.  Holdcn  (London.  1855);  The 
Oranrje  Rt'rrr,  by  C.  .1.  Anderson  ;  Lake  Xffatni,  by  the 
same  :  The  Zamhrxi,  etr..  by  I).  Livingstone  (London,  1865i ; 
J'ttirual  of  n  Refidfnrr  at  the  fape  of  Good  ffope,  by  ChaS. 
J.  F.  Bunbury  (London.  13(8) :  Trnreh,rtc.  in  South  Africa, 
by  (i.  Thompson  (London,  1872) :  Zidn  Lefjmdn.  etc.,  by 
Dr.  BIcek  (an  interesting  work,  indicating  great  imagina- 


KAFFKAKIA— KALAMA. 


1493 


tion  and  even  poetic  power  in  the  Kaffirs);  Rerpiard  the 
Fox  111  South  A/n'ca,  bv  the  same.  Sec  also  otlier  works 
by  Blcek.  The  titles  of  nearly  fifty  works  rcfcrriii);  to  the 
languages,  ethnography,  and  anatomy  of  the  Zulus  and 
other  South  African  tribes  are  given  in  Vic  Khir/rbureuen 
Snd-A/rikat,  by  Q.  Fritsch.  C.  G.  Lelaxd. 

Kaffra'ria  (Proper  or  fndrprndent),  the  name  of  the 
eastern  coast  region  of  South  Africa,  extending  N.  to  the 
river  Umzimkulu,  in  lat.  .lO"  215'  S.,  and  P.  to  the  Oreat 
Kei  or  Koiskammn,  which  separates  it  from  the  Cape  Col- 
ony, to  which  in  lSfi6  the  so-called  I'.ritish  K;ifTraria  was 
annexed.  The  distance  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  2j0  miles, 
and  from  E.  to  W. — that  is.  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the 
Kalambi  .Mountains— about  120  miles:  the  area  of  the 
whole  territory  about  20,000  square  miles.  Besides  the 
Great  Kei  and  the  I'mzimkulu,  many  other  rivers— as,  for 
instance,  the  I'mzimvubu,  the  Umlata.  and  the  Umbashco 
— flow  thr<iugh  these  regions,  rising  in  the  Kalambi  or 
Quathlamba  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  about  3000  feet. 
None  of  them  is  navigable,  however.  They  flow  in  deep 
beds,  and  their  shores  are,  like  the  coast,  rocky  and  irregu- 
lar. When  sufliciently  watered,  the  soil  is  very  productive. 
Cotton  has  been  grown  with  success  in  manyiilaces:  maize 
and  wheat  are  easily  raised  ;  large  trees  and  watermelons 
abound.  The  inhabitants,  whose  number  is  estimated  to 
be  about  .lOCflOO,  are  Kaflirs,  and  live  as  nomades  in  tribes 
which  bear  the  names  of  the  chiefs.  Their  religious  and 
moral  ideas  are  often  very  low  ;  one  Zulu  tribe  believes 
that  their  present  chief  has  created  the  world.  But  the 
Wcsleyan  Missionary  Society  has  had  great  success  among 
them,  and  the  whole  population  is  gradually  coming  under 
the  influence  of  the  Cape  Colony. 

Kafiristan',  a  country  of  Central  Asia,  between  Hi" 
anrl  .ill"  N.  lat.,  and  between  09°  20'  and  71°  20'  E.  Ion. 
It  received  its  name,  '*  the  hind  of  the  infidels,"  from  the 
surrounding  Mohammedan  people,  who  entertain  an  in- 
veterate hatred  against  its  inhabitants.  .\s  the  country  is 
an  isolated  alpine  tract  of  land,  on  the  declivity  of  llindu- 
Kush,  which  never  was  conquered,  though  often  invaded 
by  foreigners,  and  about  which  we  know  very  little,  the 
inhabitants  form  an  isolated  race,  entirely  (lifl"erent  from 
their  neighbors.  They  resemble  Europeans  in  their  fea- 
tures, and  have  blue  eyes  and  light-brown  hair:  in  their 
language,  which  is  of  Sanskrit  root,  and  in  many  of  their 
habits,  sitting  on  raised  seats.  They  are  said  to  bo  very- 
proud  of  this  resemblance  to  Europeans,  while  they  con- 
sider it  the  first  and  most  essential  part  of  a  man's  honor 
to  have  slain  a  Mussulman.  We  know,  however,  as  littlo 
of  the  inhabitants  as  nf  the  country. 

Kagoslii'ma,  or  Ka;;oNima,  town  of  .Tapan,  situ- 
ated on  tbo  south-western  coast  of  the  island  of  Kiusitl,  is 
the  (Capital  of  tlie  feudal  prince  Satsuma.  It  was  bombarded 
in  ISB.I  by  the  English,  who  thus  compelled  Satsiima  to  ex- 
ecute the  murderers  of  Mr.  lliehardson,  an  English  subject, 
and  to  pay  £25,000  in  indeiniiiftcation. 

Ka'haiit  or  Probosris  .Monkry,  the  ffrmnnpithrrun 
nnmtlin,  a  most  grotesque  and  hi<lcnus  tnonkey  of  Borneo. 
It  is  of  gregarious  habits,  and  is  extremely  active,  noisy, 
mischievous,  and  even  savage  in  character.  The  native 
name  is  derived  from  the  cry  of  the  beast.  Its  nose  is  six 
inches  long,  and  perfectly  black. 

Kah'lenbcr^,  the  last  outpost  of  the  Wicncrwald,  the 
northernmost  spur  of  the  Noric  .Mps,  rises  just  outside 
Vienna,  on  the  Banube.  From  its  southern  side  Sobieski 
attacked  in  It'iS.'J  the  Turks  besieging  Vienna.  On  its  top, 
which  rises  1100  feet  above  the  river,  are  some  places  of 
amusement,  much  visited  during  summer  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Vienna. 

Kai'etenr,  a  celebrated  watrrfall  in  British  Guiana, 
on  the  Polaro  River,  a  tributary  of  tlio  Essoquibo,  822  feet 
in  height.  The  river  is  hero  nearly  400  feet  wide,  and  is 
15  feet  deep. 

Kairwan',  town  of  Tunis.  Northern  Africa.  It  has 
several  magnificent  mosques  and  other  monuments  of  a 
pjilendor  which  has  gone.  It  stan<ls  on  a  snndy  plain,  has 
no  manufactures  and  no  trade.  Pop.  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  50.000. 

Kaisari'Jt'h,  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  in  lat.  3S° 
'12'  N.  and  Ion.  .'t5°  20'  E.,  and  not  to  he  confounded  with 
Kaisarijeh  in  the  province  of  Syria,  which  was  built  by 
Ilerod,  boro  the  name  of  Ciesarea  Palestiiue,  and  was  in 
the  first  century  one  of  the  most  Sftlendid  (Ireck  towns  in 
Asia,  but  which  now  is  wholly  in  ruins.  Kaisarijeh  in  Asia 
Minor  is  <li'eaying  too,  surrr>nndeil  on  ail  sides  by  ruins, 
but  it  has  still  10,000  inhalntcd  houses,  and  carries  on  a 
very  important  trade  in  European  and  Asiatic  produots. 

Kai'scr[from  Lat.  Cirttnr'\,  the  (lerman  wr,rd  for  emperor, 
which  has  been  ?f  extensively  known  anil  used  in  every  lan- 
guage since  the  year  1871,  when  William,  king  of  Prussia, 


was  crowned  at  Versailles,  France,  as  emperor  of  Germany. 
Thus  was  revived  the  old  Teutonic  appellation  of  kaiser, 
which  applied  formerly,  and  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
to  the  German  emperors,  wiio  iuberited  this  title  from  the 
Roman  Caesars,  themselves  succeeded  by  Charlemagne,  who 
is  considered  by  Germans  as  the  first  emperor  of  the  ^*atcr- 
land,  as  William  is  the  latest  one.  Fei.ix  ArcAiGNK. 

Kai'scrslautern,  town  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  on  the 
Lauter.  It  has  some  manufactures  of  iron,  cotton,  and  to- 
bacco, and  a  lively  trade  in  fruit.     Pop.  12,029. 

Kai'serswerth,  small  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
Rhine,  is  noted  for  the  school  of  evangelical  deaconesses 
which  was  founded  herein  IH.'i.'j  (see  Fl.n:lisr.l{),  and  which 
now  h;is  branches  in  most  Protestant  countries.    Pop.  222."i. 

Kak'odyle  (syn.  Cacodtlk,  which  see) ;  also  Kako- 
dylic  Oxide,  Correctly  speaking,  the  synonym  given  in 
the  former  note  under  CAronvi.r,  "  Fitinln;/  Li'iunr  of  Cn- 
ffrt"  belongs,  as  it  was  originally  applied  by  Bunsen,  the 
discoverer  of  this  baneful  series  of  bodies,  to  the  latter 
compound,  which  is  also  called  o/corni'iie  {arsenical  alcohol), 
though  it  is  now  known  that  the  liquor  of  Cadet  is  always 
mixed  with  kakodyle  itself.  Cadet's  liquor  is  obtained  liy 
distilling  together  white  arsenic  and  potassic  acetate.  The 
mixed  product  is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  which 
gives  kakodylic  chloride,  and  this,  treated  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  CO2,  with  metallic  Zn,  gives  pure  kakodyle.  The 
formula  C<IIcAs  also,  which  was  given  before,  becomes, 
in  tbo  p^e^■ailing  notation  adopted  in  this  Ctirlnpivdtnf 
CjIIij.Aso.  Under  the  view  that  it  is  arHnullmrihyle,  the 
rational  formula  attributed  to  kakodyle  by  Woiihlcr  is: 

(r-n  \  t    ;  »nd  to  kakodylic  oxide  (alcarsinc)  he  assigns 

(C  Jl^J'jAS 

the  formula  [(CIIajiAsl-jO.  The  latter  is  formed,  with  Unlc- 
oili/Hc  arid  (CII3  l-j.'Vs.OlI.  by  the  .slow  oxidation  of  kako- 
dyle. It  is  only  kakodyle  itself  which  fumes  and  inflames 
spontaneously  in  the  air,  and  it  confers  these  properties  on 
the  mixture  called  '*  liquor  of  Cadet." 

Humanity  revolts  from  the  use  of  this  agent,  kakodyle, 
in  human  warfare,  and  it  never  will  be  thus  employed,  as 
its  emi)loyers  would  place  themselves  without  the  pale  of 
humanity.  The  power  to  prepare  such  terrific  agents  has 
doubtless  been  conferred  upon  man  to  enable  him  to  cope 
successfully  with  beasts  of  prey  anil  deadly  reptiles  and 
serpents,  which  in  some  countries  prove  too  powerful  tor 
tlio  untaught  natives,  and  actually  have  been  known  to 
depopulate  large  districts  of  the  earth,  and  render  theiu 
impenetrable  by  civilized  man  under  ordinary  conditions. 

11.  WtltTZ. 

Kalnfat',  town  of  Roumania,  in  Little  AVallacliia,  in  a 
plain  on  llie  left  bank  of  llie  Diuuibc,  nearly  opposite  to 
Widin.  Partly  by  its  natural  position,  and  partly  by  its 
artificial  fortifications,  it  commands  entirely  the  approach 
to  the  Danube  here,  and  was  the  scene  of  very  severe  eon- 
tests  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks  in  1829  and  in 
ISJI.     Pop.  about  2600. 

Kalnkau'a  (Davih).  b.  at  Honolulu  Nor.  Ifi,  lS.'?(5.and 
desecddcd  from  an  ancient  king  of  the  islands  of  Hawaii. 
Together  with  Lunalilo  and  other  hereditary  chiefs,  he  was 
educated  in  the  royal  school  of  Honolulu,  a  thoroughly 
English  institution,  and  in  ISdO  he  visited  California. 
When  l.unalilo  died  (Feb.  X,  1S7I)  without  having  pro- 
claimed a  successor.  Kalakaua  was  eleeteil  king  (Feb.  12) 
by  the  legislature,  .'i9  votes  being  given  to  him,  and  only  (i 
to  the  queen-dowager,  Emma,  his  rival  to  the  throne.  A 
riot  took  place  in  favor  of  Emma,  but  was  speedily  put 
down  by  niil  from  the  British  and  American  ships  of  war 
present!  and  Kalakaua  was  installed  on  the  same  day  as 
the  seventh  king  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

KnI'aina,  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Cowlitz  CO.,  Wash.  Ter., 
on  the  right  liank  of  Columbia  River,  45  miles  from  Port- 
land, Or.,  and  fi5  miles  S.  E.  of  .\storia.  southern  terminus 
of  the  Pacific  division  of  the  Northern  Pacific  R.  It.,  now 
eomrileted  105  miles  northward  to  Tacoma.  Kalama  was 
first  laid  out  in  Feb.,  1871,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  the  same  vear,  in  consequence  of  its  selection  as  tbo 
head-quarters  of  the  above-mentioned  railroad  co.,  which 
erected  buildings  for  ofliccs,  car  and  machine  shops,  a  ware- 
house, and  a  wharf  700  feet  long.  It  has  several  large  ho- 
tels, 2  churches,  1  newspaper,  1  public-school  edifice,  a  jail, 
anil  a  fire  department:  and  is  the  highest  ]ioint  on  Colum- 
bia River  to  which  deep-sea  vessels  can  ascend  without 
lightering  cargo.  Within  a  few  miles  northward  are  exten- 
si\-e  coal-miiu's,  ami  on  every  side  are  forests  of  fine  tim- 
ber. Kalama  Creek,  rising  at  the  base  of  Mount  St.  Helen, 
supplies  unlimited  water-power,  .^almon  fishing,  in  the 
Columbia  River,  for  canning  and  export,  is  a  profitable  in- 
dustry. U.  »S.  mails  received  daily  from  Paget  Sound  by 
rail,  and  twice  a  day  by  steamers  connecting  with  overland 
mail  from  California. 

M.  H.  &  M.  L.  MosKV,  Eds.  "  Beacon." 


1494 


KALAMATA— KALMAR. 


Kalama'ta,  risiDg  tovrn  of  Greece,  at  the  hend  of  the 
Gulf  of  KuroD.  and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  oil^  figs,  and 
cocoons.     Pop.  6'JOO. 

Kalamazoo',  county  of  S,  W.  Michigan.  Area.  576 
square  miles.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  diversified  with  prai- 
ries, oak-openings,  and  forests.  It  is  traversed  by  numer- 
ous rivers,  and  by  five  lines  of  railroad.  Cattle,  grain, 
wool,  buiter,  and  bay  are  staple  |)roduets.  The  manufac- 
tures include  carriages,  wagons,  lumber,  cooperage,  flour, 
saddlery,  etc.     Cop.  Kalamazoo.     Pop.  ;J2,0j4. 

Kalamazoo,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Kalamazoo  co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Kalamazoo  division 
of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mirhigan  .Southern,  the  Grand 
Rapids  and  Indiana,  and  the  Kalamazoo  and  ,South  Haven 
R.  Rs.,  40  miles  from  Lake  Michigan  and  143  miles  from 
Detroit.  Situated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  with  a 
fine  location  and  splendid  water-power.  Kalamazoo  is  a 
beautiful  and  wealthy  place,  having  12  churches,  2  fine 
libraries  (one  of  5000  vols.),  a  gallery  of  art.  2  national  and 

1  savings  bank.  1  college.  2  female  seminaries,  a  fine  sys- 
tem of  public  schools,  and  several  private  schools,  1  daily, 

2  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals.  AVatcr  is  supplied 
on  the  Holly  system  by  10  miles  of  pipes  and  100  hydrants. 
There  is  an  effective  fire  department  with  a  fire-alarm  tele- 
graph ;  the  manufactures  are  extensive,  embracing  iron 
machinery,  steel  springs,  carriages,  pianos,  billiard-tables, 
elevators,  clothes-pins,  woodwork  of  Tarious  kinds,  and 
paper.  There  is  a  public  park,  and  a  driving-park  with  a 
superior  track.  The  Michigan  asylum  for  the  insane  is 
located  here,  accommodating  400  to  tJOO  patients.  Kala- 
mazoo is  the  fnurth  town  of  the  State  in  size.  Pop.  of  v. 
UlSl :  of  tp.  10,447.      Geo.  Torrey,  Fon  *•  Telegraph." 

Kalamazoo  College,  Mich.,  was  incorporated  as  a 
college  in  ISoo.  It  had  previously  been  a  branch  of  the 
University  of  Michigan.  Its  founders  were  Baptists,  and 
a  majority  of  its  board  of  trustees  are  of  the  same  body  of 
Christians.  But  other  denominations  have  always  been 
represented  in  its  board  of  trustees,  and  generally  in  its 
faculty.  It  admits  both  sexes  to  an  equal  share  in  its  in- 
struction and  to  the  same  courses  of  study.  The  buildings 
are  very  finely  situated,  and  the  campus  includes  about  25 
acres.  Rev.  Kenrlall  Brooks.  D.  D.,  has  been  since  1868 
the  presirlcnt  of  the  college,  whicli  embraces  f  1S72)  6  male, 
4  female  instructors:  1*8  male.  71  female  students. 

Kalamazoo  River  risi>s  in  Hillsdale  eo.,  Mich.,  flows 
gent-rally  W.  N*.  W.  to  Kalamazoo,  and  thence  X.  "VV.  to 
La^e  Michigan.  It  is  200  miles  long,  :i50  feet  wide  at  its 
mouth,  and  is  navig.ible  40  miles  for  boats.  It  flows 
through  a  level  and  fertile  region. 

Kal'amo,  post-tp.  of  Eaton  CO.,  Mich.     Pop.  1363. 

Kalb  MoiiN).  Barox  pe.     See  De  Kalb. 

KaTbe,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  on 
the  Saale.  It  has  considerable  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
paper.     Pop.  7386. 

Kalb'fleisch  (Martin),  b.  at  Flushing,  in  the  \etber- 
lands,  Feb.  8.  1804;  was  well  educated,  and  in  youth  paid 
special  attention  to  chemistry;  went  as  a  supercargo  (o 
Sumatra,  and  afterwartls  became  a  merchant  in  France; 
in  1826  came  to  the  V.  S.,  where  he  acquired  great 
wealth  as  a  manufacturer  of  colors  and  chemicals,  at  first 
at  Harlem.  X.  Y.,  and  later  in  Connecticut;  in  1841  es- 
tablished the  same  business  at  Green  Point,  L.  I.:  took 
a  prominent  place  as  a  Democratic  politician,  was  sent 
to  Congress  in  1862,  and  chosen  mayor  of  Brooklyn,  X.  Y., 
in  1867.  He  was  distinguished  for  mercantile  integrity. 
gor>d  judgment  in  business,  and  public  spirit.  D.  Feb.  12, 
1873. 

Kale,  a  variety  of  Bra^iica  oleraceay  the  species  of 
cruciferous  plant  to  which  the  cabbage,  turnip,  etc.  belong. 
There  are  many  sub-varieties — some  biennial,  others  with 
a  perennial  root.  Kale  is  grown  in  kitchen-gardens  for  its 
leaves,  which  are  boiled  as  potherbs.  The  plant  is  often 
called  borecole.  In  Great  Britain  the  sea-kale  ((^VfimA/" 
mnritimn),ix  |ilant  allied  to  the  above,  is  extensively  raised 
in  gardens.  Its  leaves  are  not  palatable  until  after  blanch- 
ing, when  they  are  highly  prized  as  food. 

Kalei'dosoope  TGr.  koAm.  "beautiful."  <T8o?,  "form." 
and  txKonttv,  to  •■  see  "],  an  instrument  invented  in  1817  by 
Brewster,  consists  of  a  tube  containing  two  or  more  longi- 
tudin.ll  stripes  of  glass  mirror,  whose  reflecting  surfaces 
are  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  oven-numbered  aliquot  part 
of  four  right  angles;  that  is.  ntfiO'^.  45°,  36°,  etc..  which  are 
respectively  one-sixth,  one-eighth,  and  one-tenth  of  a  circle. 
At  one  end  of  the  tube  is  an  eye-piece:  at  the  other,  two  plain 
glasses,  the  outer  one  ground.  Between  these  glasses  are 
bits  of  bright-eolored  glass,  dia^ihanous  beads,  and  the 
like.  The  reflection  of  these  ohjects  is  multiplied  by  the 
mirrors,  ami  constitutesasymmetrical  image  often  of  great 
beauty.     It  is  of  considerable  use  in  the  arts  as  an  aid  in 


devising  new  patterns  for  calico-printers  and  other  deco- 
rative purposes. 

Kaler'gris  (Demetriis).  b.  in  the  island  of  Candia  in 
1803,  and  educated  at  St.  Petersburg  by  an  uncle.  In  the  war 
of  independence  he  fought  with  great  valor,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Turks,  who  cut  off  one  of  his  ears.  Later 
on  he  partook  with  great  passion  in  all  p^ilitical  movements 
in  his  native  country,  and  from  1843  to  1.S45  held  the  oflico 
of  minister  of  war;  but  his  influence  was  nevertheless  not 
great,  as  he  was  suspected  of  receiving  pay  from  Russia. 
After  18-16  he  lived  partly  in  London,  where  he  became  in- 
timately acquainted  with  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  partly  in 
different  places  in  Greece,  until  he  was  sent  in  1861  as  am- 
bassador to  Paris.     D.  at  Athens  Apr.  24,  1867. 

Kalevala.     See  FiNNisn  Langitage  and  Literathre. 

Kalgan',  an  ill-built  but  large  and  populous  town  of 
China,  on  the  route  from  Peking  to  Kiakhta,  on  the  Yang- 
ho,  near  the  Great  Wall,  in  lat.  40°  50'  X.,  Ion.  115°  3', 
and  is  of  great  importance  for  the  overland  trade  between 
China  and  Russia. 

Kal^uev%  or  Kol^uev,  an  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 

belonging  to  the  government  of  Archangel.  Russia.  It  is 
inhabited  only  by  a  few  Simoyed  families,  but  visited  o.ich 
summer  by  a  great  number  of  fowlers  on  account  of  the 
multitude  of  eider-duck?,  swans,  and  geese  which  brood 
here,  and  whose  feathers  and  eggs  are  very  valuable. 

Kali'da,  post-v.,  Union  tp.,  Putnam  co.,  0.    Pop.  290. 

Kalida'sa^  an  Indian  poet,  author  of  the  drama  Sahun- 
tah'i,  translated  by  Sir  William  Jones  in  1789,  and  into 
German  by  Forster  in  1790.  Many  other  poems  are  attrib- 
uted to  him.  but  with  less  certainly.  The  date  assigned  to 
Kalidasa  by  different  scholars  ranges  from  the  first  to  the 
eleventh  century  a.  d. 

Kaliha'ri  Desert,  the  name  of  a  large  territory  of 
Southern  Africa,  of  undefined  boundaries,  but  mostly  ex- 
tending between  Ion.  20°  and  30°  E..  and  between  lat.  21° 
and  28°  S.  It  consists  of  an  almost  level  plain,  without 
springs  or  streams.  The  surface  is  mostly  covered  with 
fine  sand,  resting  on  a  bed  of  red  sandstone,  and  in  many 
places  presenting  a  striking  resemblance  to  Sahara,  Rain 
is  very  rare.  Grass-plains  and  groups  of  acacia  trees 
form  the  transition  from  the  desert  to  the  fertile  tracts. 
Ostriches,  giraffes,  and  antelopes  arc  met  with. 

KaMisch  (PArin).  b.  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Breslau 
Feb.  23,  1820;  lived,  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  first  in 
Paris,  then  in  Leipsic.  and  at  last  in  Berlin,  where  he 
founded  Kfiidiferadaturh  in  1848.  and  d.  Aug.  21,  1872.  He 
also  wrote  a  number  of  local  farces,  which  were  performed 
with  great  success  on  all  the  stages  of  Xorthern  Germany. 
The  songs  of  these  farces  and  from  KlaihhradaUvh  have 
been  collected  underthc  title  Bfrliner  Lcierkaaten. 

Ka'lispels,or  Pen<lsd'.Oreilles,atribe  of  Indians 
belonging  to  the  Sclish  group,  living  in  the  Territories  of 
Washington.  Idaho,  and  Montana,  and  ui  British  Colum- 
bia.    They  have  been  partially  civilized  by  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries.    The  MontaiHl  band   is  the  largest,  numbering 
'  1000;  that  in  Idaho  numbers  700.  and  that  in  Washington 
\  Territory,  400.    The  latter  inhabits  the  valley  of  Kalispcl, 
I  E.  of  Cascade  range,  which  gives  name  to  the  tribe. 
!       Ka'lisz,  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Warsaw, 
;  on  the  Prosna.     It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Poli.-'h  towns,  situ- 
ated in  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  region,  and  carrying 
on  quite  an  extensive  trade.     Pop.  11,778. 

Kalkas'ka,  county  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  Mich- 
igan. .Area.  540  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Manistee  River  and  co\*ered  by  dense  forests.     Pop.  424. 

Kalkaska^  post-v..  cap.  of  Kalkaska  co..  Mich.,  on  the 
Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  R.  R..  137  miles  X.  of  Grand 
Rapids  and  58  miles  S.  of  Little  Traverse  Bay.  in  the  midst 
of  a  vast  lumber-region;  has  1  newspaper  and  a  fair  pro- 
vision of  churches,  schools,  stores,  and  business  accommo- 
dations. The  streams  are  noted  for  a  plentiful  supply  of 
brook-trout.  The  county  was  recently  organized,  and  had 
but  424  inhabitants  in  1870,  since  which  time  the  village 
of  Kalkaska  has  sprung  up  with  a  present  (1874)  pop.  of 
about  1700.  C.  P.  Sweet.  Ed.  "  Kalkaskian." 

Kalm  (Peter),  a  Swedish  botanist,  b.  in  East  Bothnia 
in  1715:  was  educated  at  Abo  and  Tpsal ;  travelle<l  exten- 
sively in  Europe:  was  sent  by  the  Swedish  government,  at 
the  instance  of  his  friend  Linnaeus,  to  Xorth  America,  where 
he  travelled  1748-51  :  returned  to  Abo.  where  he  was 
botanical  professor,  and  published  (1753-61;  in  English 
1772)  an  account  of  his  .American  travels.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  large  number  of  works  on  natural  science  and  other 
subjects.     D.  Nov.  16.  1779. 

Kal'mar,  or  Calmar,  an  old  but  interesting  and  well- 
built  town  of  Sweden,  is  situated  on  an  island  in  Kalmar 


KALMIA— KAMEHAMEHA  V. 


1495 


Gounil,  and  cominuincates  with  its  suburb? on  the  maiDlnnd 
by  a  long  stone  l.riilgc  It  has  a  pood  harbor,  considerable 
trade,  and  i-oine  maniifuctures.  In  its  old  eastic,  now  de- 
cayed, the  treaty  was  jiijrncd  in  }'.i\)7  by  which  QncL-n  Mar- 
pretho  of  Doriniark  united  the  three  Scandinsiviun  king- 
doms, Sweden.  Xurway.  and  Denmark,  under  oiio  crown. 
The  instrument  was  [.oorly  digested,  making  minute  slip- 
ulations  for  petty  affairs,  and  no  provisions  for  great  events. 
Thus  it  became  a  source  of  calamities  to  all  the  three 
kingdoms.  In  ntodern  times,  however,  since  the  idea  of  a 
Scandinavian  union  has  taken  hold  once  more  of  the  minds 
of  the  Scandinavian  people,  the  failure  of  the  first  attempt 
has  been  forgotten,  and  the  old  city  where  it  took  place  has 
become  quite  an  object  of  enthusiasm.  Louis  X^■l^.  and 
Charles  X.  of  France  lived  here  during  their  exile.  P.  8S13. 

Karmia  [named  in  honor  of  Peter  Kalm].  a  genus  of 
shnihs  of  the  order  Krieaeeic,  evergreens  and  natives  of 
North  America.  The  V.  S,  have  at  least  six  species,  of 
which  the  mountain  laurel,  spoon-wood,  or  calico-bush  (A"". 
Intifnlin)  is  the  best  known.  It  is  a  large,  handsome  shrub, 
with  beautiful  flowers,  highly  ornamental  in  cultivation. 
The  leaves  of  K.  auffunti/t>lia  are  very  poisonous  when 
eaten  by  sheep.     They  have  been  employed  in  medicine. 

Kaloc'sa,  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Danube,  70  miles 
P.  of  Pc?th.     It  is  (he  see  of  an  archbishop.     In   its  im- 
mediate vicinity  is  Lake  Kolon,  famous  for  its  delicate  fish. 
Pup.  12, SOS. 
Kalon?.     See  Fi.visg  Fox. 

Kalil'j^a,  government  of  European  Kussia,  bounded  by 
Smolensk.  Moscow,  and  Tula.  .Vrea,  12,17'i  square  miles. 
Pop.  l)S4,2JJ.  The  ground  is  low,  the  surface  flat,  the  soil 
stony  and  not  very  fertile.  The  largest  part  of  (lie  country 
is  covered  with  forests.  Rye  and  oats  are  the  common 
crops  ;  flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cultivated  ;  distilling 
and  manufactures  of  linen  arc  the  chief  branches  of  in- 
dustry. 

Kaluga,  town  of  European  Russia,  the  capital  of  the 
government  of  Kaluga,  on  the  Oka.  It  has  very  important 
manufiiclures  of  sailebtih  and  leather,  and  an  extensive 
trade  in  corn.     Pop.  .'M'l.OSO. 

KalWf  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  the  Xagold,  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  lumber-trade  in  the  Black  Forest. 
Pop.  s:>^2. 

Ka'ma,  a  river  of  European  Russia,  rises  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Viatka,  and  flows  through  Perue,  Orenbourg, 
and  Kasan,  where,  after  a  course  of  1 100  miles,  it  joins  the 
Volga.  It  is  navigable  Ht  miles  from  its  sources,  and  forms 
a  very  important  line  of  traflic. 

Kamba'lia,  or  Seraia,  a  seaport  in  the  Gulf  of  Cutch, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  India,  opened  to  commerce  about  1S70, 
and  pronounced  by  the  Indian  coast  survey  to  bo  one  of 
the  safest  and  most  commodious  harbors  on  the  Malabar 
coast. 

Kambalu',  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Chinese  ompiro 
under  Kiiblai  Khan,  the  founder  of  the  Mongol  dynasty, 
was  visited  by  several  Europeans  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
who  have  described  its  inagnilieence.  The  ruins  of  Kam- 
balu  have  recently  been  found  a  few  miles  to  the  W.  of 
Peking. 

Kamre'la,  or  Kama'la,  a  drug  consisting  of  a  red- 
brown  powder  from  the  capsules  of  f(i>l((pru  tlnrton'tt,  a 
small  euphorbiaceous  tree  of  India,  China,  .id  Australia, 
It  is  iiseu  in  medicine  for  killing  the  tapeworm,  which  it 
usually  aecompli.-'hes  with  great  promptitude.  It  is  a  smart 
cathartic,  and  is  used  for  skin  diseases.  In  lu'lia  it  is  ex- 
tensively use«l  as  a  dyeslufl",  making  a  deep  red  color. 

Kainrha^moha  l.^  the  conqueror  and  first  king  of  the 
rn/fV'- grnup  of  (he  Hawaiian  (or  Sandwich)  Islanils.  at  the 
deal h  of  his  unele,  Kuhiniopu,  king  of  Hawaii,  in  1 7^1.  in- 
herited the  hend-chiefslii[p  of  a  part  of  that  island.  Of  un- 
common mental  and  physical  f|uickness.  strength,  and  cour- 
ng**,  ati'l  with  the  udvnrilage  iif  s"ine  foreiun-buiU  vessels 
and  (he  tiid  of  firearms  in  thr'  hnnds  of  a  few  Europeans,  ho 
soon  conquered  the  other  chiefs  of  that  island,  and  one 
ftfler  another  the  other  i.shinds  ft-ll  under  his  sway,  so  that 
in  isn  he  was  the  aekiinwiedgfd  sovereign  of  the  group, 
and  had  ai-quired  (he  f-nl»ri<|U<'t  of  "(he  Nap'deon  of  the 
Pacific."  As  a  ruler  be  was  vigilant  and  strict,  placing 
authority  only  in  trustworthy  hands,  and  keeping  near  his 
person  nnri  under  eonlml  those  eonquereil  and  rival  high 
chiefs  from  whom  he  hml  the  most  to  fear.  Hi>t  friends  and 
favorite  warriors  were  llberallv  rewarded,  and  his  enemies, 
If  Rpared.  eloxely  wntehfd.  He  valued  the  superior  know- 
ledge and  skill  of  while  men,  and  kept  several  employed  as 
mechanics,  etc.  On  Miiy  8,  1SI9.  n  few  months  before  the 
first  missionaries  nf  tb"  A.  P.  ''.  F.  M.  sailed  from  PoRton 
for  his  country,  he  died.  By  his  queen  of  higbrst  rank. 
Kenpuolani,  ho  left  (wo  sons  and  one  daughter.     The  oMest 


son,  Liholiho,  succeeded  bim   under  the   title  of   Kame- 
hameha  IT.  Charles  R.  Pisiior. 

Kainehnincha  II,  (Liiiomho)  did  not  inherit  the  best 
qualities  of  his  father.  He  was  intemperate  and  given  to 
pleasure;  but  by  abolishing  idolatry  and  the  more  oppres- 
sive tabus  ho  prepared  the  way  for  the  missionaries,  who 
received  permission  to  land  and  commenced  their  labors  in 
Mar.,  1S20.  Fearing  that  he  might  not  be  able  to  retain 
control  of  his  kingdom,  he  desired  to  secure  the  friendship 
and  protection  of  the  king  of  Great  Hritain.  In  Xov.,  IS2.'^, 
he  sailed  for  England  with  his  favorite  queen  (Kamanialu). 
a  few  chiefs,  and  servants.  They  were  well  received  ami 
kindly  treated  by  the  sovereign  and  people,  but.  taking  the 
measles  soon  after  their  arrival  in  London,  both  king  and 
queen  died  in  July,  1S21.  chiMless,  Their  renmins  and 
tneir  suite  were  returned  to  their  island-home  in  H.  B.  M. 
ship  Blonde,  under  command  of  Capf.  Lord  Byron. 

CiiAui.KS  R.  Bishop. 

Kamehameha  III.  (Kanikkavli.i).  brother  of  Li- 
holiho, b.  in  1814,  came  to  the  throne  in  ISit.T  (two 
of  the  queens  of  Kamehameha  II.,  Kaahumanu  and 
Kinau,  having  ruled  successively  as  regents  since  182^). 
He  was  educated  by  the  American  missionaries.  Bright, 
amiable,  wild,  and  dissipated  in  his  youth,  and  always 
careless  in  the  choice  of  his  associates,  he  yet  liptoned  to 
good  advice  in  affairs  of  state,  and  wisely  followed  it.  Tn 
18:i7  he  married  much  below  his  own  rank.  In  ISIO  he 
gave  his  people  a  written  constitution  and  a  simi)lc  code 
of  laws,  and  in  1852  a  new  and  very  liberal  constitution. 
The  independence  of  his  government  was  aeknowlcdged  by 
the  U.  S.  in  1842.  and  by  Great  Britain  and  France  in  18-1.1. 
With  the  concurrence  of  the  chiefs  he  gave  in  18-IS  Innfls 
in  fee  simple  to  llic  common  people,  so  that  nearly  all  heails 
of  families  were  laudhohlers.  Treaties  wore  made  with  Iho 
C.  S.und  with  several  European  countries,  and  great  prog- 
ress was  made  in  education,  civilizatiim,  agriculture,  and 
commerce.  The  king  adopted  as  his  heir  and  successor  his 
youngest  nephew,  Alexander  Liholiho.  On  Feb.  28,  1842, 
Lord  George  Paulct  forced  him  to  cede  the  islamls  to  Great 
Britain,  but  Admiral  Thomas,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
squadron,  restored  the  flag  and  sovereignty  July  HI,  ISVA. 
In  184G  a  new  eoiie,  establishing  a  more  systematic  gov- 
ernment, with  courts  of  various  grades,  was  promulgated. 
The  more  responsible  offices  were  filled  bv  foreigners,  of 
whom  Rev.  William  Richards.  Dr.  G.  P.  Judd.  R.  C.  Wyllie, 
William  L.  Lee,  and  Rev.  K.  Armstrong  were  the  mn?t 
prominent  and  useful.  This  king,  called  **  Kamehameha 
the  Good,"  deserved  the  love  and  gratitude  of  his  pecqile. 
D.Bee.  15,  1854,  at  the  age  of  forty  years,  childless,  ami  bis 
adopted  nephew  succeeded  him.         Chaiu.ks  R.  Bishop. 

Kamehameha  IV.  (Alk.xandbr  Liholiho),  b.  Feb. 
9,  ]8;J1,  succeeded  his  undo  in  Dec,  1854.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Young  Chief's  School  under  tlie  care  of  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Cooke.  In  1849-50  he  and  his  older  brother,  Lot 
Kamcbamehn,  visited  the  U.  S.,  Englaml.  and  France. 
Juno  2,  ISjIi,  he  married  Emma,  adopted  daughter  of  Dr. 
T.  C.  B.  Uookc.  and  May  20,  1S57,  a  son,  the  jtrince  of 
Hawaii,  was  born,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  whole  natirm. 
Kamehameha  IV.  was  a  brilliant  and  agreeable  gentleman. 
in  accomplishments  and  talents  8uperi(tr  to  any  other  of 
his  race  ;  hamlsome  in  form,  graceful,  fond  of  military  and 
civic  pnrade,  of  sports  and  society,  and  generous  to  a  fuilt. 
When  excited  with  wine  he  wns  piissionate  and  reckless. 
U'\»  love  for  his  country  and  people  was  intense:  his  pros- 
pects for  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  seemed  fair,  and 
through  his  son  he  hoped  for  the  perpetuity  of  his  dynasty  : 
hut  in  Aug..  1802.  the  young  prince  died  after  a  short  ill- 
ness. The  king  never  recovered  from  the  efl'eet  of  the  grief 
and  disappointment  caused  by  that  loss,  and  it  undoubtedly 
shortene<l  his  life.  He  took  an  active  interest  in  the  iutro- 
ducti<m  and  progress  of  the  "  Reformed  Catholic  Mission." 
The  l^ueen's  Hospital  in  Honolulu  was  established  in  ]^Ct(\ 
by  the  aid  of  subscriptions  solicited  by  him  in  person,  and 
ho  kept  up  a  deep  interest  in  it  to  tho  end  of  his  life.  Tlio 
rapid  and  constant  decrease  of  his  people  was  to  him.  as  it 
also  was  to  his  brother  and  successor,  a  depressing  and  dis- 
couraging fact.     D.Nov.  :J0,  18G;1.    CnAni,i:.s  R.  Bisnop. 

Kamehameha  V,  (Lor  Kamkiiamkha),  b.  Dec.  II. 
1S;;0,  sueceeiied  his  younger  brother  in  Nov.,  lSfi;L  He  hiid 
been  minister  of  the  interior  and  eommander-in-ehief  of  the 
forces.  Like  his  predecessor,  he.  too.  was  a  well-educated 
and  ogreeablo  gentleman,  though  less  aceonijdished  and 
more  retiring.  His  experience  in  public  nfl'airs,  high  rank, 
firmness,  and  comman*ling  presence  nimle  him  eminently 
litted  to  be  the  ruler  of  his  people,  and  al  bis  accession  ho 
was  even  more  popular  with  his  native  subjects  than  his 
brother  had  been.  While  prince  he  hacl  been  dissipated, 
but  before  ho  became  king  he  reformeil.  and  the  cdiange  was 
permanent.  On  coming  to  the  throne  h<'  declined  to  tako 
I   the  oath    to   tho   constitution  of  1852,  considering   it   not 


1496 


KAMEKE,  VON-KANAKIS. 


binding  upon  him  to  do  so,  and  that  the  constitution  was 
too  democratic  for  the  good  of  his  people.     In    lS6i  he 
called  a  convention  of  the  nobles  and  delegates  of  the  peo- 
ple to  make  a  new  constitution,  but  disagreeing  with  the 
third  estate,  and  believing  the  opposition  to  be  factious 
and  unreasonable,  he  dissolved  the  convention,  grantid  the 
present  constitution,  and  took  the  oath  to  support  it.    ^N  hile 
the  masses  seemed  to  be  quite  satisfied  with  the  change,  by 
many  he  was  severely  censured  for  this  step  ;  but  those  who 
knew  hira  the  best,  though  disapproving  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  change  was  made,  had,  and  now  have,  no  doubt 
that  patriotism  and  a  determination  to  promote  the  inter- 
ests of  his  government  and  people  controlled  his  action. 
He  was  too   proud  to  take    much   pains  to   disabuse  the 
minds  of  those  who  misjudged  and  blamed  him.     ^\  ant  ot 
sympathy  between  the  king  and  that  part  of  the  foreign 
community  who  were  of  radical,  democratic,  and  progres- 
sive tendencies  had  the  effect  to  make  him  suspicious  and 
exclusive,  and  to  strengthen  the  influence  of  those  who  lor 
various  reasons  took  more  pains  to  agree  with  and  please 
him— an  influence  not  always  wholesome  or  honorable.    IIis 
energy  and  his  disposition  to  engage  in  trade  and  specula- 
tion, for  which  he  had  not  been  trained,  did  not  increase 
his  estate,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  got  the  repu- 
tation of  being  avaricious  and  grasping.     His  character 
was  a  strange  one.     He  was  strong-minded,  fearless,  and 
firm,  and  yet  superstitious;  generous  even  to  wastefulness 
with  Fome,  and  with  others  close  even  to  injustice;  afl"ec- 
tionatc  and  confiding  towards  those  who  won  his  respect, 
and  suspicious  and  reticent  towards  others  equally  worthy. 
Partly  out  of  regard  for  the  memory  of  his  brother,  and 
also  from  a  real  interest  in  good  morals  and  education,  he 
gave  liberal  aid  to  the  Reformed  Catholic  Mission  and  its 
schools.     He  was  never  married,  and  left  no  heir  to  the 
throne.     On   his  deathbed   he  requested    his  kinswoman, 
Mrs.  Bernice  Panahi  Bishop,  to  become  his  successor,  but 
she  declined,  and  he  expired  soon  after  without  making 
any  appointment  according  to  law.     P.  Pec.  11.  lS72,that 
being  his  forty-second  birthday.         Cihri-es  P..  Bishop. 

Ka'meke,  von  (Gf.oro  Arnold  C.vri.I,  b.  June  14, 
1817:  entered  the  military  service  in  ls:j4;  in  ISjO  was 
made  a  captain  in  the  staff,  and  fromlSoG  to  If  58  was  mil- 
itary attache  to  the  Prussian  ambassador  at  Vienna.  He 
was" then  created  a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  appointed  chief 
of  the  engineering  department  of  the  ministry  of  war.  In 
ISCl  he  received  the  command  of  a  regiment  of  infantry, 
in  1863  became  chief  of  stafl'  of  the  8th  army  corps,  and  in 
1SG5  m.ijor-general  and  chief  of  stafl'  of  the  2d  array  corps. 
In  (his  position  he  took  part  in  the  war  of  18CC  against 
Austria,  and  received  the  decoration  pour  le  mi'rilc.  In 
ISfiT  he  was  made  inspector-general  of  the  engineering 
corps  and  the  fortresses,  and  in  18C8  lieutenant-general.  In 
the  war  of  1870-71  with  France  ho  first  commanded  the 
14th  infantry  division,  occasioned  tlio  battle  of  Saarbriickcn 
(.\ug.  6,  1870),  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Aug.  M,  IG, 
andls.  After  the  surrender  of  Metz  he  was  ordered  to  take 
Thiouville  and  lav  siege  to  Mezieres  and  Longwy.  Hence 
he  was  called  to  Paris  to  superintend  the  works  during  the 
siege.  After  tho  war  he  occupied  his  old  position  as  in- 
spe'ctor-general  of  the  fortresses  and  the  engineering  corps, 
and  in  1874,  when  Gen.  von  Roon  retired,  ho  was  made 
minister  of  war.  Ai  r.t  st  Niem.1xx. 

Kames  (Hkxrv  Home),  LoRn,b.  at  Kames.  Berwick- 
shire, in  IGOC  ;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and  passed  ad- 
vocate in  1724;  became  a  judge  of  tho  court  of  session, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Kames,  1752,  and  in  1703  became  a 
lord  of  justiciary.  He  published  several  legal  works,  chiefly 
volumes  of  decisions  and  the  like,  but  his  fame  mainly 
rests  upon  the  Prbiciphu  of  MoraUli/  'uid  Natural  Relig- 
ion (1751),  and  especially  on  tho  EInnaiti  of  CriUciem 
(1762),  a  >vork  which  once  had  a  wide  influence.  As  a 
jurist  he  was  just  and  able.     D.  Bee.  27,  1782. 

Kamin'etz  Podolsk,  town  of  Russia,  in  tho  govern- 
ment of  Podidia.  on  the  Smotritza,  near  the  Austrian  fron- 
tier. It  is  beautifully  situated,  fortified,  and  has  a  Gothic 
cathedral.     Pop.  17,109. 

Kamiscliin',  town  of  European  Russia^  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Saratov,  at  the  influx  of  the  Kaniischinka  in  the 
Volga.     It  has  some  manufactures.     Pop.  7651. 

Kamouras'ka,  county  of  Quebec,  Canada,  extending 
from  the  .St.  Lawrence  to  the  Plate  of  Maine.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway.     Pop.  21,254. 

Kamouraska,  post-v.  of  Kamouraska  co.,  Quebec, 
Canaila,  'JO  miles  below  Quebec,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  It  is  a  summer  resort,  and  has  a  nunnery  and 
academy.     Pop.  of  v.  797:  of  parish,  adilitional,  1484. 

Kam'pPn,  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
Overvssel,  on  the  Vssel,  near  its  outlet  in  tho  Zuyder-Zee. 
It  was  formerly  a  town  of  greater  importance,  but  has  still 


and 


considerable   manufactures   of    paper,   ropes,  bricks, 
spirits.     Pop.  13,902. 

Kampen,  van  (Nikolais  Godfried),  b.  at  Haarlem 
May  15,  IT"ti :  was  apprenticed  in  a  bookstore,  but  devoted 
him'self'  with  great  zeal  to  the  study  of  languages  and  his- 
tory, and  became  professor  at  the  University  of  Leyden  in 
the  butch  language,  literature,  and  history  in  1816.  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  his  principal  work  is  Ge- 
siliieihms'drr  Xcdirlanllni  luhen  Eiiropa  (Uaarlcm,  1831- 
33).     D.  at  Amsterdam  Mar.  14,  1839. 

Kamp'fcr  (ExcELBREcnT),  b.  Nov.  16, 1651,  at  Lemgo, 
in  the  principality  of  Lippe,  Germany  :  studied  medicine 
at  Kiinigsberg;  accompanied  in  lf.38  a  ■'Swedish  embassy 
to  Persia  as  secretary  :  wont  then  with  a  Dutch  fleet  as 
physician  to  the  East'lndics  and  Japan  ;  returned  in  1692, 
anil  d.  in  his  native  town  Nov.  2.  1716.  Of  his  voUiniinous 
writings  on  the  countries  he  visited,  the  [fliitori/  of  Japan 
and  S7nm  was  published  in  London  in  1727.  in  2  vols.,  but 
most  of  the  rest  remain  unpublished  iu  the  British  Museum. 
Kamptu'licon,  a  sort  of  floor-covering  composed  of 
eutta-pcrcha  and  caoutchouc  (or  linseed  oil),  mixed  with 
naphtha  and  powdered  cork,  and  rolled  into  sheets,  which 
arc  calendered,  dried,  and  painted  or  printed  in  imitation 
of  floor-cloths.  It  is  expensive,  but  warm,  noiseless,  and 
waterproof.     It  is,  however,  not  durable. 

Kamptz,  von  (Karl  Albert  Christoph  HEixnicn), 
b  at  Schwcrin  Sept.  16,  17G9 ;  studied  jurisprudence  at 
Gottin.'cn,  and  held  from  1790  to  1830  difl-erent  judicial 
positions  in  Mecklenburg  and  Prussia.  From  1830  to  LS42 
he  was  Prussian  minister  of  justice,  and  contributed  very 
much,  both  by  his  writings  and  by  his  practical  measures, 
to  harmonizo"  the  difi'crent  legislation  of  the  several  divis- 
ions  of  the  Prussian  state:  but  his  bearing  towards  the 
liberal  movements  of  his  time  was  arbitrary  and  odious; 
the  students  burnt  his  Codex  der  Gendarmerie  at  W  arlburg 
in  ISIJ.     D.  at  Berlin  Nov.  3,  1849. 

Kamtchat'ka,  a  large  peninsula  of  South-eastern  Si- 
beria, 850  miles  long,  and  at  its  greatest  width  250  miles 
broad,  extending  between  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka  and  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  terminating  in  a  long,  narrow  tongue 
forming  Cape  Lopatka.  It  is  traversed  from  N.  to  S.  by  a 
range  of  volcanic  mountains,  whose  craters  mostly  are  ex- 
tinct thouffh  Klintchewskaia.  16,152  feet  high,  was  seen  in 
full  activity  in  1829.  The  soil  is  generally  stony,  though 
there  arc  fertile  valleys,  especially  that  along  the  river 
Kamtchatka.  But  even  hero  the  land  is  unfit  for  agricul- 
ture on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate.  The  winter 
lasts  nine  months,  and  frost  is  not  rare  in  the  summer;  for- 
ests of  birch  and  pine  trees  grow.  The  inhabitants,  num- 
bering from  5000  to  6000,  are  nio.^lly  Kamtchadales.  who 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing.  Bears,  sable,  foxes,  otters, 
beavers,  seals,  and  salmon  abound.  The  only  domestic 
animal  is  the  dog,  a  peculiar  species,  large,  strongly  built, 
silver-n'ray  or  yellowish-brown.  These  dogs  do  not  bark 
or  hovTl,  and,  l"ike  the  wolves,  they  see  better  during  the 
ni-'ht  than  in  the  daylight.  They  arc  sagacious  and  docile  ; 
when  harnessed,  ten  or  twelve  couples,  to  a  sleigh,  they 
are  governed  bv  the  voice  and  tho  whip,  without  reins.  But 
thev  are  exceedingly  wild,  attacking  every  animal  they 
meet,  and  sometimes  even  children.  They  live  on  fish.  Tho 
principal  town  is  Petropaulovski,  on  the  E.  coast,  in  lat. 
53°  N. 

Kanabec',  county  of  E.  Minnesota.  Area,  540  square 
mi'es.  It  is  traversed  bv  Snake  River,  and  is  larpcly  cov- 
ered with  forests  of  pine  and  larch.  Tho  surfaco  is  uneven. 
Cap.  Brunswick.     Pop.  93. 

Kanaga'wa,  town  of  Japan,  on  tho  Bay  of  Teddo,  16 
miles  from  the  city  of  that  name.  In  1859,  Kanagawa 
was  opened  to  foreigners,  and  very  soon  it  developed  a 
considerable  trade. 

Ka'naris  (Coxstastise),  b.  in  the  island  of  Ipsara  in 
17911.  and  commanded  a  small  merchant  vessel  when  the 
war  uf  independence  broke  out.  But  his  exploits  soon 
made  his  name  known  to  the  whole  civilized  world.  June 
19, 1822,  he  burnt  a  Turkish  squadron  in  the  canal  ol  t  hios ; 
Nov.  22!  another  in  tho  harbor  of  Tenedos;  Aug.  17,  1n24, 
a  third  at  Cape  Trogilion.  In  1825  he  conceived  the  bold 
idea  of  burning  the  Egyptian  fleet,  which  lay  at  anchor  in 
the  harbor  of  Alexandria  ready  to  convey  the  troops  ol 
MehemetAli  to  Peloiionnesns.  The  attempt  failed,  how- 
ever On  Aug.  5  the  fire-ships  were  actually  launchcil.  but 
at  the  same  moment  the  wind  turned  and  drove  them  away 
from  the  Egyptian  vessels.  Kanaris  wished  to  make  a  new 
attempt  tho'foUowing  day.  but  for  some  unknown  reason 
the  plan  was  not  executed.  In  1826  he  commanded  llio 
fri''.-ite  Hellas,  and  in  1827  a  whole  squadron,  with  winch 
h.-'drove  the  Turkish  flag  out  of  the  (ireek  waters.  I  ndcr 
Kin^  Otho  and  King  Gorge  he  was  constantly  a  member 
of  tho  Greek  diet;  and  held  tho  oftico  of  minister  ol  war 


KANAWHA— KAKGAROO. 


1497 


scvornl  time?,  lhou;2;h  generally  only  for  a  short  time.  In 
1851.  Kin;;  Otho  iitlemptetl  to  buy  off  his  oiiposilion  by  a 
peiiHiiin  an'l  the  title  of  udmiral.  but  fiiilcd  :  the  en|»t!iin  de- 
clined both  offers.  In  IStij  he  was  appointed  ins^pector- 
gcnoral  of  the  tJrcek  navy.     D.  1S77, 

Knnn'whav  county  of  S.  W.  Central  West  Virginia. 
Area,  about  1 IJO  square  miles.  It  is  hilly  and  mountain- 
ous, but  fertile.  Iron,  coal,  and  salt  abound.  The  county 
is  traversed  by  the  fircat  Kanawha  River  and  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  R.  R.  Tobacco,  cattle,  grain,  nnd  wool 
are  the  chief  staples.  Lumber  and  coopernge  arc  manu- 
factured, and  salt  is  made  by  boiling  natural  brines.  Cap. 
Kanawha  Court-house,  or  Charleston,  which  is  also  capital 
of  the  State.     Pop.  22,349. 

Kanawha  Court-house,  once  the  P.  0.  name  of 
Chaulkston  (which  see),  the  capital  of  Kanawha  co.,  W. 
Va.,  and  former  capital  of  the  State. 

Kanawha  Hiver.    Sec  Great  and  Little  KAXAwnA. 
Kandahar.     See  Canoahar. 

Kantliyo'hi,  county  of  S,  W.  Central  Minnesota. 
Area.  S04  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Paul 
and  Pacific  R.  R.  It  contains  innumerable  small  lakes, 
has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  good  soil,  well  adapted  for 
wheat.  Caps.  Kamliyohi  Station  and  Lake  Klizabeth. 
Pop.  1760.  Since  the  census  of  1870,  >ronongalia  co.  has 
been  united  with  it.  so  that  the  total  pop.  in  1870  was  4921. 
Kandiyohi,  tp.  of  Kandiyohi  co..  Minn.  Pop.  558. 
Kandiyohi  Station,  a  post-v.,  one  of  the  county- 
8eat3  of  Kandiyohi  co.,  Minn.  It  is  on  the  St.  Paul  and 
Pacific  R.  R.,  9S  miles  from  St.  Paul. 

Kan'dy,  or  Candy,  town  of  Ceylon,  situated  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  island,  on  an  elevation  1G7C  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  government,  has  many  Chris- 
tian churches,  Rooddhist  temples,  and  Mohammedan 
mosques.  Close  by  is  a  beautiful  artificial  lake,  IJ  miles 
long  and  from  100  to  500  yards  broad.     Pop.  7000. 

Kane,  county  of  X.  E.  Illinois.  Area,  540  square  miles. 
It  is  a  rolling  [irairie  region,  with  abundant  limestone,  some 
timber,  and  a  very  fertile  soil.  It  is  traversed  by  Fox  River 
and  numerous  railroads.  Live-st<ick,  grain,  hay.  and  dairy 
products  are  (he  great  staples.  Flour,  cheese,  machinery. 
and  the  celebrated  Kigin  watches  (see  Elgin)  are  made  in 
this  county.     Cap.  Ge'neva.     Pop.  :i9.0!)l. 

Kane,  county  of  S.  E.  Utah,  extending  nearly  across 
the  Territory  from  E.  to  W.  Area,  estimated  at  7.>jn  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Colorado  River,  and  contains 
a  great  variety  of  lands  and  much  mineral  wealth.  Cap. 
Toquerville.     Pop.  1513. 

Kane,  post-v.  and  tp.,  Greene  co.,  111.,  situated  on  Jaek- 
8onville  division  of  the  Chicago  .Alton  antl  St.  Louis  R.  R., 
25  miles  N.  of  Alton,  and  8  miles  S.  of  the  county-seat. 
Carrollton.  It  has  I  bank.  2  newspapers,  several  business- 
houses  and  1  large  school-house,  nnd  is  surmuncled  by  a 
fine  farming  country.  Pop.  of  tp.  957.  En.  "  Kxi'ucss." 
Knne,  tp.  of  Ronton  co.,  la.  Pop.  763, 
Kane,  tp.  of  Pottawattamie  co.,  la.  Pop.  lOSrt. 
Kane,  post-v.  of  Wetmore  tp..  McKean  co..  Pa.,  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Erie  R.  R.,  19:!  miles  \V.  X.  W.  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  situated  on  the  '*  Big  Level,"  a  fertile  plain 
2000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  has  grand  forests  of  pino 
and  other  timber.  Here  are  the  repair-shops  and  round- 
houses of  the  railroad.  Kane  has  a  public  piirk  nf  fion  acres, 
besides  several  private  parks  and  a  number  of  schools  and 
churches. 

Kane  (Et.isnA  Kknt),  M.  I>.,  a  distinguished  explorer, 
b.  in  Philadelphia  Feb.  3,  1820,  was  Iho  son  of  Judge  J. 
K.  Kano  of  that  city.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania:  tr>c»k  his  medieul  degree  in 
1813  ;  entered  the  navy  ;  was  physician  to  tl»e  Chinese  em- 
bassy ;  travelled  in  .\Kia,  tho  l>evant.  and  Western  Africa; 
served  Id  tho  Mexican  war,  in  which  he  was  ceverely 
wounded;  sailed  in  lS50un<lcr  I>e  Haven  in  the  first  Grin- 
nell  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  ;  commanded 
the  second  (Irinnell  expedition  (185<'i-55),  and  discovered 
an  open  polar  sea.  For  this  expedition  he  received  sev- 
eral goM  Tuedals  and  other  distincticms.  (."^ce  art.  Poi.AR 
SKAitni.  by  Dr.  I.  I.  IlAVK<t.)  Hi.s  health,  always  delicate, 
was  much  impaired  by  the  terrible  sufferings  of  this  ex- 
pedition. He  published  a  narrative  of  his  first  polar  cx- 
f edition  (1853)  and  of  his  second  (2  vols.,  |s5n).  I),  at 
lavana  Feb.  IC,  ls57.  I)r.  Kane  was  a  man  of  active,  en- 
terprising, and  courageous  spirit,  and  of  most  generous  im- 
pulses. A  volume  of  his  personal  letters  was  published 
ny  his  wife.  Mnrgarctta  Fox.  (See  his  Li/f,  by  Dr.  W. 
Elder,  185S.) 

Kane  (Sir  RonKnTl.  M.  I>.,  LL.D..  F.  R.  S..  b.  at  Hub- 
lin  in  ISIO;  was  long  professor  of  chemistry  in  Apotheca- 


ries' Hall ;  was  founder  and  (1832-34)  editor  of  the  Dublin 
Juunial  of  Medical  ^'citiicc  ;  was  1844 — 17  professor  of  na- 
tural history  to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  ;  was  for  a 
time  president  of  Queen's  College,  Cork;  was  knighted  in 
1846.  Is  a  prominent  member  of  many  learned  societies, 
and  has  been  the  recipient  of  many  honors.  Is  widely 
known  as  the  author  of  the  Elements  of  Chemistri/  (1842) 
and  the  Indtistriul  JliHOurct-a  of  Ireland  (1845). 

Kane  (Thomas  L.),  b.  at  Philadelphia  Jan.  27,  1822, 
brother  of  Dr.  E.  K.  Kane,  noticed  above;  was  educated  in 
Paris,  where  be  was  intimate  with  Auguste  Comte  and 
the  democratic  leaders  of  the  day;  was  admitted  to  tho 
bar  at  Philadelphia  in  ISItJ,  but  abandoned  the  law  for 
civil  engineering;  visited  the  Mormon  settlements  in  1847, 
and  acquired  such  influence  among  them  that  ten  years 
later  (1858)  he  was  sent  to  Utah  by  tlie  l'.  S.  government 
ns  confidential  agent  to  prevent  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 
Returning  to  tho  profession  of  an  engineer  in  "Western 
Pennsylvania,  raised  and  commanded  in  Apr..  18fil,  tho 
famous  regiment  of  mou!itairiecrs  known  as  the  Ruck- 
tail  Rifles;  was  wounded  at  Dranesvillo  and  Harrison- 
burg, was  taken  prisoner  at  the  latter  engagement,  ex- 
changed in  Aug.,  18(i2,  and  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  September.     D.  1875. 

Kane  City,  post-v.  of  Complanter  tp.,  Venango  co., 
Pa.     It  has  numerous  oil-wells. 

Kane'ville,  i)ost-v.  and  tp.  of  Kane  co.,  111.    Pop.  999. 

Kangaroo',  a  name  given  to  numerous  species  of  mar- 


Kangaroo. 

supial  or  pouched  animals  living  exclusively  in  Australia, 
belonging  to  the  family  MAritoi'oiuDA:  (which  see),  but  more 
especially  to  the  large  species  of  tho  genus  MorropuM.  Kan- 
garoo is  a  native  name.  The  kangaroo  was  first  made  known 
to  the  world  by  Capt,  Cook,  who  on  lauding  at  New  South 
Wales  was  astonished  at  tho  sight  of  what  was  at  first  re- 
garded as  a  new  and  very  peculiar  species  of  greyhound. 
The  kangaroo  is  characterized  by  a  remarkable  di.^pmpor- 
tion  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities,  and 
particularly  l)y  the  presence  in  tho  region  of  the  abdomen 
of  a  curious  pouch,  within  whieh  are  the  mamma?.  Tho 
malo  is  without  this  development.  The  licad  is  small  and 
resembles  that  of  the  deei,  having  the  same  mild  ami 
placid  expre."si(m,  as  well  as  delicate  shape.  The  hind  feet 
are  proviiled  wilh  four  toes,  the  middle  <tne  being  much 
larger  than  the  others,  of  great  strength,  and  provided 
wilh  a  hoof-like  claw.  An  examination  of  these  stout  and 
extremely  long  hind  limbs  shows  how  well  adapted  they 
are  to  aid  the  creature  in  its  wonderful  leaps.  The  tail, 
which  is  also  very  stout  and  strong,  aicls  very  materially 
in  the  leap.  Tho  fore  legs  are  very  short,  and  are  proviiled 
with  bent  elaws  with  whiidi  they  hold  fooil  when  eating. 
Kangaroos  have  no  canine  teeth;  their  incisors  arc  six  in 
tho  upper  Jaw,  and  but  two  in  Iho  lower.  The  molars  aro 
ten  in  number  in  each  jaw,  and  aro  separated  fri>m  the  in- 
cisors by  a  long  space.  They  aro  exclunively  hcrliivorous 
in  diet,  associating  in  small  her<ls  under  the  guidance  of 
older  males.  They  vary  in  size  greatly,  some  species  being 
about  the  dimensions  of  a  rat.  while  others  are  known  to 
measure  eight  feet  tVoni  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  tlie  tail,  and 
to  weigh  over  200  pounds.  The  young  are  produced  in  a 
very  imperfect  state,  being  in  tho  largest  species  not  moro 
than  two  inches  bmg  at  birth.  Tho  newborn  creatures  are 
conveyed  by  the  mouth  to  tho  pouch,  where  they  attach 
themselves  to  the  teats,  which  they  do  not  Imvo  until  able 
to  walk.    Theso  animals  aro  easily  tamed,  and  aro  harmless 


1498 


KANGAROO  APPLE— KANSAS. 


and  timid,  though  when  brought  to  bay  in  the  wild  state 
they  arc  said  to  iifz;bt  with  great  power,  u^ing  their  tail  and 
hind  feet.  Tho  flesh  of  the  kani;aroo  is  cistcemed  a  deli- 
cacy in  regions  where  they  inlmbit.  J.  B.  Holder. 

Kangaroo  Apple,  the  Sofmutm  fnciniatum,  a  kind  of 
tomato  growing  in  South  America.  Australia,  and  some  of 
tho  Pacific  inlands.  It  is  useful  as  food,  but  not  until  per- 
fectly ripe.      The  green  fruit  has  sharply  acrid  properties. 

Ka'nizsa,  Gross-Kanizsa,  or  !Vagy-Kanizsa, 
town  of  Hungary,  inhabited  partly  by  (jcrnians,  partly  by 
Magyars,  manufactures  tiles  and  liqueurs,  and  carries  on 
an  import  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  and  wine.     Pop.  11,722. 

Kanka'kce,  county  of  N.  E.  Illinois.  Area,  590  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Indiana,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  flat  prairie.  Its  soil  is  productive.  Live-stock, 
grain,  wool,  dairy  products,  and  hay  are  tho  great  sta|)les. 
Carriages  and  wagons  are  leading  articles  of  manufacture. 
Tho  county  is  traversed  by  the  Illinois  Central  and  Chicago 
Danville  and  Vincennes  R.  Rs.  Cap.  Kankakee.  Pop. 
2i,;iJ2. 

Kankakee,  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Kankakee  co.,  Til., 
56  miles  directly  S.  of  Chicago,  on  the  Illinois  Central  and 
the  Cincinnati  Lafayette  and  Chicago  R.  Rs.,  on  tho  N. 
bank  of  Kankakee  River,  au  affluent  of  the  Illinois,  now 
being  improved  for  purposes  of  navigation  ;  is  situated  on 
rolling  prairie-land,  with  easy  communication  to  extensive 
coal-fields  and  beds  of  bog-iron  ore,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
farming  and  grazing  country.  Kankakee  contains  13 
churches,  a  public-school  building  costing  $60,000,  I  na- 
tional and  2  private  banks,  4  weekly  newspapers  (1  in 
French),  1  sock,  1  woollen,  and  2  button  factories,  several 
tanneries,  and  wagon  and  carriage  manufactories.  Two 
stone-quarries  furnish  fine  building  material,  so  that  Kan- 
kakee is  one  of  the  best  built  towns  of  the  State.  It  has 
excellent  water-power,  which  is  utilized  by  paper,  planing, 
oil,  and  flour  mills.  There  is  a  public  library  successfully 
managed  by  an  association  of  ladies.  Pop.  of  tp.  5189. 
Arthir  B.  Holt,  Local  Ed.  "  Gazette." 

Kankakee,  tp.  of  Jasper  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  215. 

Kankakee,  tp.  of  La  Porte  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1185. 

Kankakee  River  fluws  AV.  S.  W.  from  St.  Joseph's 
CO.,  Ind.,  through  Enfflish  Lake  and  through  a  flat  marshy 
region.  Joined  in  Kankakee  co.,  111.,  by  the  Iroquois  or 
r>es  I'laincs  River,  it  flows  N.  W.,  and  pours  its  sluggish 
waters  into  tho  Illinois. 

Kan'kari,  the  ancient  GaDf/m.  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  Asia  Minor,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Halys.  at  an  elevation 
of  2751  feet  above  tho  sea.  It  has  several  fine  mosques, 
khans,  bazaars,  and  public  baths,  and  an  important  trade 
in  salt.     Pop.  18,000. 

Kano%  town  of  the  empire  of  Sokoto,  in  Central  .Africa, 
situatecl  in  lat.  12*^  2'  N.  and  Ion.  S°  22'  E.  It  hns  largo 
manufactures  of  cotton  goods  and  an  extensive  and  grow- 
ing trade.     Pop.  :J0,000. 

Kano'na,  i)ost-v.  of  Bath  tp..  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
tho  Rochester  division  of  the  Eric  R.  R.     Pop.  1*J0. 

Kan'sas,  one  of  the  central  tier  of  Western  States,  and 
geographically  the  central  State  of  the  American  Union,  ly- 


Soal  of  Kansas, 
ing  between  tho  meridians  of  9  (°  38'  and  102°  of  W.  Ion., 
and  between  the  parallels  of  ;J7°  and  -10°  N.  lat.  It  is 
bounded  on  tho  X.  by  Nebraska,  the  40th  parallel  forming 
the  line  of  division  ;  E.  by  Missouri,  tho  Missouri  River 
firrming  tho  boundary  from  the  -luth  parallel  to  Kansas 
City,  and  the  meridian  of  94°  :iS'  the  remainder  of  tho  dis- 
tance;  on  tho  S.  by  the  Indian  Territory,  on  the  line  of  the 
37th  parallel  J  ou  tho  W.  by  Colorado,  tbo  102d  meridian 


forming  the  line  of  division.  Its  area  is  stated  by  the 
general  land-ofiice  as  81.318  square  miles,  or  52,04.'J.520 
acres.  The  form  of  the  State  is  a  nearly  perfect  parallelo- 
I  gram,  only  the  N.  E.  corner  being  clipjied,  in  consequenee 
I  of  following  the  course  of  the  Mi.-^^ouri  River  instead  of  the 
meridian  of  94°  38'.  Its  length  from  E.  to  \V.  ranges  from 
'  391  to  410  miles;  its  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  is  200  miles. 
Surface,  Etrration,  Mount  ft  Inn,  rtr. — The  whole  State 
slopes  gently  from  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
near  its  western  border  to  the  Missouri  River.  Along  its 
eastern  border,  from  Wyandotte  ai\d  Kani«as  City,  the  ele- 
vation above  the  sea  ranges  from  GI8  feet  to  707  feet;  at 
Lawrence  it  is  between  800  and  900  feet ;  at  Fort  Riley, 
1300  feet;  10  miles  W.  of  Fort  Riley.  1459  feet;  at  tho 
mouth  of  Saline  River,  1592  feet;  where  the  Arkansas 
River  crosses  the  southern  border  of  the  State,  about  1800 
feet:  near  Fort  Larncd,  2004  feet:  near  Fort  Dodge.  2330 
feet:  near  the  Arkansas  River,  at  the  W.  line  of  the  State, 
3047  feet;  at  Pond  Creek,  on  the  Kansas  Pacific,  3175  feet. 
The  State  has  no  mountains,  but,  though  there  are  exten- 
sive prairies,  it  is  very  far  from  being  a  monotonous  level. 
There  are  everywhere  low  hills  or  gen  tte  undulations  divided 
by  depressed  valleys  existing,  or  former  river-bottoms,  or 
in  some  instances  ravines  or  canons  which  tho  streams 
have  cut  through  the  yielding  soil. 

Hirers,  etc. — The  Missouri  River  forms  a  part  of  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  State,  but  receives  no  important 
tributaries  from  Kansas  above  tho  point  where  it  turns 
eastward  to  flow  through  Missouri.  At  th.at  point  it  is 
joined  by  the  Kansas  River,  one  of  its  largest  aflluenis, 
whieh.  rising  in  Colora<lo,  traverses  tho  State  almost  cen- 
trally from  W.  to  E.  The  pnncijml  branches  of  the  Kan- 
sas are — from  the  N..  Solomon's  Fork,  Republican  Fork, 
and  Big  and  Little  Blue  rivers;  from  the  S.  AV.,  Smoky 
Hill  and  Saline  Forks.  The  eastern  and  south-eastern 
portions  of  the  State  are  drained  by  the  Osage,  an  affluent 
of  the  Missouri  River,  and  the  Neosho,  Verdigris,  Little 
Verdigris,  and  Walnut  Creek,  tributaries  of  the  Arkansas 
River:  while  the  southern  and  south-western  portions  are 
watered  by  the  Arkansas  and  its  branches;  the  principal 
of  these  are  the  Cimarron  and  its  branches;  Bear  Creek; 
the  Little  Arkansas  and  its  affluents  ;  Chicaskia  Creek,  Ne- 
nc-scah  or  Good  River,  Turk  or  Salt  Creek,  and  Pawnee 
Fork.  The  State  is,  as  a  whole,  well  watered,  the  eastern 
and  middle  portions  better  than  tho  western,  though  tho 
streams  of  that  section  are  increasing  in  size  and  perma- 
nency with  the  progress  of  settlement  and  tree-jilantirg. 
There  are  some  marshes,  but,  we  bclie\e.  no  lakes  in  tho 
State  of  any  importance:  the  two  or  three  claiming  that 
name  being  only  deserted  river-beds. 

Geolofft/. — Eastern  Kansas  belongs  to  the  coal-measures, 
which  comprise  in  the  State,  in  one  body,  a  tract  2flS  miles 
in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  107  miles,  and  an 
area  of  22,256  square  miles.  These  arc  the  lowest  of  the 
geological  formations  of  the  State,  and  are  a  continuation 
of  the  coal-field  which  covers  North-eastern  Missouri  and 
Southern  and  South-western  Iowa,  and  extends  into  the 
Indian  Territory  and  North-western  Arkansas.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  strata  belonging  to  the  coal-measures  in  tho 
State  varies  from  403  feet  to  about  GOO  feet,  the  former 
being  its  extent  in  Leavenworth  co.,  and  gradually ,  in- 
creasing thence  southward.  These  strata  contain  two  beds 
of  bituminous  coal — one  of  13  feet  in  thickness,  about  300 
feet  below  the  surface:  the  other,  100  feet  lower,  of  9^  feet 
thickness.  Both  arc  of  good  quality,  but  the  lowest  is  tho 
best.  The  dip  of  the  coal-measures  is  very  slight.  There 
seems  to  be  an  anticlinal  axis  in  Wyandotte  co.,  the  dip 
of  the  strata  N.  of  it  being  to  the  N.  W.,  and  S.  of  it 
to  tho  S.  E.  The  Permian  formation  laps  over  tho  coal- 
measures  on  their  western  border,  and  in  the  valley  of  Blue 
River  is  said  by  Prof.  Swallow  to  be  507  feet  thick.  To 
this  succeed  the  Triassic.  and  probably  tho  Jurassic  forma- 
tions, covering  a  triangular  tract  of  territory,  the  apex  of 
the  triangle  being  at  Fort  Riley  on  tlie  Kansas  River, 
where  the  Republican  Fork  unites  with  it.  and  extending 
with  abroad  base  through  the  Indian  Territory  into  North- 
ern Texas.  In  Kansas  it  extends  from  the  point  where  the 
Arkansas  River  crosses  the  boundary  into  Indian  Territory 
to  the  lOIst  meridian.  It  is  not  apparently  rich  in  fossil.s, 
the  few  found  being  mostly  ornithicnites  and  belonging 
to  the  Lias.  The  Cretaceous  formation,  which  extends  over 
the  greater  part  of  Dakota,  South-western  Iowa,  and  East- 
ern Nebraska,  crosses  Kansas  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W  in  a  very 
irregular  tract,  pressed  upon  on  tho  N.  W.  and  on  the  S. 
by  the  Tertiary  (Drift  and  Loess).  It  joins  the  Carbon- 
iferous formation  at  the  N.  E.,  then  separates  from  it  by 
the  interposition  of  the  wedge-shaped  Triassic  rocks,  and 
about  tho  central  line  of  the  State  gives  place  to  the  Ter- 
tiary for  a  breadth  of  140  miles,  when  it  reappears  in  nar- 
row bells,  extending  southward  into  New  Mexico  and 
North-western  Texas.     South-western  and  North-western 


KANSAS. 


1499 


Kansas  belong  to  the  Drift  period,  the  larger  boulders  be- 
ing found  as  far  S.  as  MS"  30',  while  ihe  deposits  of  pebbles 
arc  mainly  confiued  to  South-western  Kansas.  There  arc 
nowhere  in  ihu  Estate  striated  or  grooved  rocks,  or  those 
which  show  uuirks  of  glaciiiL  action,  and  the  presumption 
is  that  the  drift  must  have  been  deposited  in  the  geologic 
periods  from  icebergs.  On  the  banks  of  the  Missouri,  and 
to  Slime  extent  of  the  Kansas  Kiver,  is  founcl  in  large 
quantities  the  Loess  or  lilufl"  deposit,  sometimes  100  feet 
in  thickness,  and  rich  in  the  later  fossils,  such  as  the  .l/a«- 
Mf/oii  and  the  Elephmt  gtrfanttuH,  The  river-bottoms  and 
the  hi;;h  prairies  in  Eastern  and  Middle  Kansas  are  cov- 
ered with  heavy  deposits  of  alluvium  in  thickness  varying 
from  3  to  50  feet. 

Kciittomir  Grnfofji/  and  Minerafn/ji/. — Kansas  contains,  so 
far  as  is  known  at  present,  no  valuable  mines  of  the  pre- 
cious metal:<,  an<l  from  itsgeologic  formations  it  can  hardly 
be  o.\pected  that  these  will  be  found.  But  it  has  an  ample 
supply  of  bituminous  coal  for  all  the  States  adjacent,  and 
this  of  several  qualities.  Lime  and  hydraulic  lime,  are 
abundant,  salt  springs  exist  in  great  numbers  in  diflerent 
sections  of  the  State,  and  salt  of  excellent  quality  is  made. 
There  are  also  many  surface-deposits  of  salt  of  two  or 
three  inches  in  depth,  the  result  of  the  evaporation  of  pools 
or  streams  flowing  from  salt  springs.  Marble  and  lime- 
stone suitable  for  buibling  and  ornamental  jiurposcs,  and 
freestone  or  sandstone  for  building  and  other  purposes, 
exist  in  the  coal-measures.  Gypsum  is  found  in  numerous 
places;  alum  and  native  sulphur,  and  alum  and  nitrate  of 
potassa,  occur  together  at  several  points.  Rrown  hematite 
and  other  iron  ores  are  found  in  considerable  deposits,  but 
have  not  been  much  worked,  the  Kansas  coal  near  the  sur- 
face not  being  well  adapted  to  smelting  purposes.  Some 
lead  is  found  in  connection  with  zinc  and  manganese,  but 
not  in  quantities  8ufli<'ient  to  make  its  working  profitable. 
Tin  is  reported,  but  its  existence  in  paying  quantities  is 
more  than  doubtful.  Petroleum  undoubtedly  exists,  but  at 
present  prices  its  production  would  be  unprolitabtc.  Kaolin 
or  porcelain  clay  and  fireclays  are  found  in  extensive  de- 
posits. Moss  agates,  pelcnite.  and  other  minerals  exist  in 
large  quantities  in  Western  Kansas.  Fossils  are  found  in 
the  .Turassic  formation,  in  the  Drift,  and  in  tho  Loess,  somo 
of  them  of  great  interest. 

Vcffrtution  ainl  /iot<tui/. — The  number  of  species  of  plants 
indigenous  to  Kansiis  is  stated  by  the  State  botanist  to  be 
ahuiit  1200.  About  (iOO  of  these  are  not  in  Gray's  Manual, 
antiare  probably  not  found  E.  of  tho  lower  Missouri  River. 
Kansas  is  not  a  State  of  largo  or  dense  forests,  and  much 
of  its  surface  is  jtrairie  or  plain.  Aceording  to  the  agri- 
cultural report  of  tho  Slate,  Uii  per  cent,  is  prairie  and  only 

Table  I.— Ti 


5  per  cent,  forest,  but  in  the  rivor-bottoms  of  the  eastern 
and  middle  sections  there  is  a  considerablu  dense  growth 
of  deciduous  trees,  of  the  same  class  as  are  found  in  most 
of  this  region — the  cottonwood,  red  and  white  elm,  black 
walnut,  some  species  of  oak,  sycamore,  box-elder,  hickory, 
and  ash,  hackborry,  red,  rock,  and  sugar  moplc,  pecan, 
mulberry,  coliee-bcan.  cherry,  basswood,  and  occasionally 
clumps  of  ceclar.  The  hooey-loeust,  buckeye,  and  ailanthus 
have  been  introduced,  and  in  some  sections  form  consider- 
able breadths  of  forest.  There  are  few  evergreens  in  the 
State  except  those  which  have  been  set  out  by  settlers.  In 
Western  Kansas  tree-planting  has  been  extensively  prac- 
tised, and  with  great  advantage.  The  Osage  orange  and 
osier  are  consiilerably  used  for  hedges  and  fences.  The 
rich  prairies  of  Eastern  Kansas  are  covered  with  tall  and 
nutritious  grasses,  and  in  I  heir  season  with  beautiful 
flowers.  In  the  W^.  the  grama  and  buffalo  grasses  abound  ; 
they  are  well  adapted  to  the  dry  but  fertile  soil,  and  furnish 
excellent  pasturage.  In  the  extreme  W.  the  SarcohutU 
(or  pulpy  thorn  of  Lewis  and  Clarke),  the  Artcminin  or 
wild  sage,  and  the  Obionr  or  grcascwood  grow  in  clumps. 

Zooloffy. — The  wild  animals  of  Kansas  are  such  as  arc 
common  to  the  region  knoxvn  as  •' the  Plains."  extending 
from  Dakota  to  Texas,  and  comprise  among  the  mammals 
the  black  and  brown  bear,  the  wolf,  possibly  Hie  lynx,  tho 
catamount  or  panther,  tlic  wild-cat.  the  ojjopsuin,  raccoon, 
prairie-wolf,  the  buffalo  in  countless  herds,  the  deer,  ante- 
lope, two  or  three  species  of  hare,  several  squirrels,  field- 
mice,  wood-rats,  etc.  The  prairie-dog  has  for  some  cause 
nearly  or  quite  disnppearcd  from  the  State.  Of  the  Reptilia, 
tho  number  is  not  large;  it  includes  tho  rattlesnake,  moc- 
casin, and  one  or  more  species  of  the  black  snake,  two  or 
three  adders,  and  ten  or  twelve  species  of  the  innocuous 
snakes:  and  among  batraehians,  the  horned  frog,  as  well 
as  several  other  species  of  frogs,  toads,  and  lizards.  The 
professor  of  natural  history  in  (ho  State  University  reports 
200  species  of  birds  belonging  to  Kansas  as  already  de- 
scribed, and  further  research  will  probably  increase  tho  list 
to  about  360.  The  rivers,  except  the  Missouri,  the  main 
streams  of  the  Kansas  and  Arkansas,  and  perhaps  the  Re- 
juibliean  Fork  of  the  former,  arc  shallow  and  partly  dry  in 
tho  long  hot  summers,  and  arc  not  in  consequence  so  largely 
stocked  with  many  varieties  of  fish  as  those  which  have  a 
more  perennial  flow.  There  are  generally  the  same  species 
of  fish  found  in  the  other  aflluents  of  the  Missouri  and 
Mississippi,  and  some  experiments  have  been  made  in  tho 
way  of  stocking  the  larger  streams  with  somo  of  tho  best 
fish  from  the  lakes  and  northern  waters. 

Cfiuinte. — The  climate  of  Kansas  is  temperate  and  salu- 
brious ;  the  cold,  though  sometimes  severe  in  winter,  is  not 

RMITRATURKS. 


PtACn  or  Omsbvation. 

|li 

Hi 
ill 

Dc«.  F. 

HONTIILV  MBAN  TBMPBHATUnBB. 

J.a. 

Fob. 

HBr. 

Apr. 

May. 

Juno. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sopt. 

Oct. 

Nor. 

Doc. 

Hti  rl  i  II  sam  c,  Osa);n  CO., ) 
lat    .•«=>  i',;  l.in.  95*  V 
45';  nll.'JOO  ft.             I 

Dog.  F. 

Dcg.  F. 

De(.  F. 

Dog.  F. 

DCS.  F. 

Dcg.  F. 

Dog.  F. 

Dog.  P. 

Dog.  F. 

Dog.  P. 

Dcg.  p. 

Dcg.  P. 

Dcg.  P. 

Dcg.  P. 

52.90 

100 

—6 

32.75 

33.08 

45.2-5 

49.12 

64.90 

72.45 

77.08 

74. 

66. 

63.73 

44.85 

20.95 

Miinliallan.lat,39°ir,') 

liin.9«'=:)9';  alt.  100<l  > 
Liavonworth,  lat.  M") 

•52.81 

98 

—12 

18.50 

27.70 

49.49 

46.60 

07.00 

74.30 

80.20 

71.10 

00.70 

53.10 

38.10 

25.30 

15',  Ion.  94°  .W;  all.  ^ 
S98  fl.                             ) 

61.0.) 

99 

—29 

19. 

.10. 

42.10 

48.60 

63. 

75.50 

77.50 

79.20 

66.40 

56.40 

35. 

21. 

Lawn-npp,  lat.  M°  SR'.) 

Ion.  9.5"  10';  alt.  8S1 J- 

a.                        J 

t54.20 

108 

—3 

28.01 

27.50 

39.50 

48.07 

69.76 

77.11 

83.62 

83.45 

67.03 

56.01 

38.70 

31.01 

Tablb  II. 


Fort  l>ooTraworlh.. 

OlalhP 

Mniihmtiio 

I.,»irri'nr4' 

Itaxtcr  Sjirinf*.,.. 
Ucao 


Fort  mii'T  ... 
F'Tt  llnrkor  . 
t'art  I.«rn(^  . 


FnrC  DixIrp  ... 
Fort  AtkliKon. 
Fort  WnUnce.. 
Fori  hyon  .... 
Utan... 


First,  or  Eastern  Belt. 


Lai. 

I,OD. 

Ml 

r 

s 

8 

f. 

B. 

i 

>• 

"^ 

< 

ai 

39"iir 

w:a' 

KM 

II) 

I.M 

I.IM 

2..1n    S.«7 

4.S" 

38  U 

Ul  61 

• 

l.il 

1M 

.1.06    4.61 

(1,7! 

-W  16 

WI  40 

iilKI, 

» 

0,.M 

l.iM 

I..18    .1.10 

3.:i; 

IK  68 

«6  13 

it 

i.;i4 

0,»7 

1M  I2.7J 

4.0H 

JT  01 

Dt  44 

\ 

n 

J.Tl 

111'. 

■.'.,'.1  \im 

,!.!•- 



....i 

1.96 

1.73 

3.01 

.1.15 

4.>'-- 

1 

i 

i 

1 

I 

B 

o 
VI 

i 

< 

6 

a 

1.39 

3.  in 

in 

a.HT 

».n 

11.67 

7.58 

1113 

.14„15 

1.(17 

.1.116 

■i.M 

■i.-ih 

14.B7 

33.45 

10.110 

6.011 

6.1.88 

1  •.'* 

1  ,j 

11.83 

13.38 

(l.5« 

3.31 

31P,«» 

.  1 

-HD 

13.07 

7.66 

4.18 

:i3.«8 

•  11 

n.m 

8.S0 

7.30 

37.™ 

{'.oil 

MM 

7.90 

4.93 

37.07 

Sfcond,  or  Mlildir  Bell. 


WW  9«°35'    1900     U    0.77   1.01  Ic)  7-,' I  Iilini 
.M  44     08  15     ....        »     1.87  I.VV. 
38  10    98  67     Iin3'      4   1o.44  in.ni 


100    3.33  1 3, no  1 1. SI    1.15   0.74  I 
>  --I    0.80  14.30  13.16   0.75    3.33 
I  ll.OI    3.11  |0.37  10.76   0.331 
III    l.;»    3.39  1I..VI  l0.ull.46l 


9.S0 
4.51 
6.08 


10.16 

8.06 
1.81) 

5.45 
8.18 
3.14 

S.63 
10.16 

1.61 

7.87 

6..13 

S.II9 

33,83 
30.87 
13.83 


nird,  or  Wmtrm  BrII. 


JTOWIflOOOO  .... 

37  47     IMl  1 1  3^10' 

38  61    '101  60l  .... 
38  08     103  60  4000 


a    0.87    0,811    0.17    1,17    0,3"' 1  > 
I    '0.04  '0.411  '0.II8    3,3M    ll.rti     ■ 
4    0,46  10,14    0,(11  13,00  !  2,(1" 
_l     0,33    0,13   0,1a  ,3.011  I4.I-I 
...  0.43,0.M!0U    1.17  !<.37    2,1 


'1,78  3,73  0.»  0,7Sll  I.«3  8.37 
1,8618,81  ll,3»ll,80l|  13.88  10,15 
1  M  0,78  0,14  0.07  4,08  0,18 
11,04  0.00.0.07  0,16  i_7,n8'  4..10 
l.79",3.57]o.45jO.«4;|    «.77|'  8.47 


4.71 
13,06 
3.41 
0.11 
4.83 


3,3(1 1'  13.90 
3,13  I  .18.01 
0.(M  13.114 
OA£f  i  13.00 
1.43  II  19.48 


*  Mean  of  23  jrcsrs. 


t  Mean  of  7  yoan,  93.14. 


1500 


KANSAS. 


protracted,  and  the  prevalent  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
renders  it  less  trying  than  it  would  otherwise  be;  the  heat 
of  summer,  though  at  times  very  great  at  midday,  is  al- 
ways tempered  by  cool  breezes  at  night.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  year  varies  with  the  altitude  and  the  de- 
gree of  raoiiiture,  which  is  greater  in  the  eastern  than  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  State.  The  winds  are  often 
high,  especially  in  the  winter,  the  southerly  winds  exceed- 
ing those  from  the  N.,  N.  W.,  or  N.  E.  in  the  proportion 
of  11  to  9.  The  preceding  tables  give  the  temperatures  at 
different  points  in  the  State,  and  the  rainfall  in  several 
localities  far  apart,  for  different  years  and  for  the  several 
seasons. 

The  rainfall  is  best  shown  by  statistics  from  the  three 
longituilinal  belts  in  Eastern,  Middle,  and  Western  Kansas, 
as  in  Table  TI. 

Soil  uiid  A;/n'rultitraf  Prnducttoim. — The  soil  of  Kansas, 
though  of  two  kinds — the  alluvium  of  the  river-bottoms 
and  lower  prairies,  and  the  upland  or  plains— is  all  of  it 
very  fertile.  Probably  no  State  in  the  Union  has  so  little 
waste  or  worthless  land.  The  rit^h  and  fertile  loam  of  the 
river-bottoms,  from  S  to  50  feet  deep,  at  tirst  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  settlers;  but  it  has  been  found  that  even 
the  lands  of  the  western  part  of  the  State,  forming  a  por- 
tion of  what  was  known  as  the  '*  Great  American  Desert," 
will  yield  with  moderate  irrigation,  or  without  it  where 
groves  of  trees  have  been  planted,  from  40  to  60  bushels 
of  wheat  to  the  acre.  Table  III.  gives  the  amount  of  the 
principal  crops  gathered  in  the  State  in  1S74,  according 
to  the  assessors'  returns  in  Dec,  187-4.  These,  being  pro- 
cured for  the  purpose  of  taxation,  are  generally  consider- 
ably below  the  truth.  It  will  be  remembered  that  1S74  was 
the  "locust  or  grasshopper"  year,  and  that  Indian  corn 
and  some  other  crops  were  greatly  diminished  by  these 
pests.  The  corn  crop  of  IS73  was  in  round  numbers  nearly 
39.000.000  bushels,  and  with  the  increased  acreage  that 
of  1874.  but  for  the  ''  grasshoppers."  would  have  amounted 
to  not  less  than  46,000,000  bushels  if  an  average  crop. 
There  are  to  be  added  to  this  table  several  other  items 
of  statistics,  which  are  most  conveniently  stated  in  a  dif- 
ferent form.  Of  dairy  products,  there  were  produced  in 
the  State  in  1S73,  151,172  pounds  of  cheese  made  in  cheese- 
factories,  and   14.'i,922  pounds  made  in  families;  in  1874 


Table  III, — Principal  Crops  ffrown  in  Kannua  in  2S?^,  trith 
the  Acreage  in  1S7S  and  2S74t  'Ac  Quantify  and  t/ic  Value 
of  the  Crops  of  1874t  according  to  the  Asaeeiiora'  Returna: 


Amount  or 

Valae  or 

Acreage  for 
IBH. 

Products. 

product  in 

product  ID 

cultitaled 

IBT*. 

Id  1871. 

Winter  wheat,  bushels. 

6,870,606 

8.5,794,008 

252.724 

438,179 

Rye,  bushels 

421,261 

289.117 

23.184 

30,.546 

Sprin;;  wheat,  bushels. 

3,010,777 

1,837,663 

145,566 

278.026 

Corn  on  sud,^ 
Corn  on  old  ^  bushels. 
land,           j 

15,099,078 

12,283,142 

f    112,2691    156,239 
\1,142,070T:)69,182 

Barley,  bushels 

414.188 

.S29.488 

22,7(M 

24,115 

Oats,  bushels 

7,700,.38G 

4.064,424 

277.729 

314.926 

Buckwheat,  bushels.... 

113,664 

170.499 

6,405 

7.86C 

Irish  potatoes,  bushels. 

1,072,260 

1.247.817 

41.6,53 

46.164 

Sweet  potatoes,  bush's. 

192,213 

249,511 

2,2:!7 

2,617 

Sorghum,  gallons 

912,12.') 

540,:«8 

9.908 

14,103 

Castor  beans,  bushels- 

123,637 

l.W.OOo 

2,915 

8,815 

Cotton,  pounds 

»9,6.W 

11.6.17 

810 

1,739 

Flax,  pounds 

174,698 

265,704 

6,462 

16,844 

Hemp,  pounds 

2,331,126 

116.560 

1,643 

3,136 

Tobacco,  pound.s 

293,828 

29,384 

3,116 

507 

Broom  corn,  pounds.... 

2,677,.M0 

123,317 



4.176 

483,312 
142,469 

19.910 

40.225 

Hungarian,  tons 

21.069 

12.6.i9 

1.5.101 

Timothv  meadow,  tons. 

:i4,067 

2.52.817 

21.616 

29.601 

Clover  ineadow,  tons... 

25.381 

215,756 

13,484 

13,967 

Prairie  meadow  under 

fence,  tons 

322,9M 

1,421,746 

433,190 

433.968 

Tim ot b  V  past  u  re,  ac r's. 

1,679 

,5,016 

Clover  pasture,  acres... 

2,948 

3,793 

Blue-qra»s       pasture, 

acres 

12,203 

13,776 

Prairie  pasture  under 

fence,  acres 



829,920,734 

46.5.793 
3,037,9.57 

.397.142 
3,669,769 

Total 

the  cheese-factories  had  increased  so  much  that  they  man- 
ufactured 2SU,401  pounds,  and  the  family  product  bad 
slightly  decreased,  being  141,448,  the  total  production  of 
cheese  in  the  State  in  1874  being  4;J0.841*  pounds  against 
2yj,094  jtounds  in  1873.  There  were  produced  in  1873, 
6.814,6U3  pounds  of  butter,  and  in  1874,7,457.110  pounds. 
The  number  and  value  of  farm  animals,  and  the  number 
and  product  of  hives  of  bees,  in  1873  and  1874,  were  re- 
spectively as  follows: 


No.  or     I  No.  of   I 

pounds  of     l^s.  of    I 

honi'jr        wiix  io  i 

in  1«73. 


Uulei  and  Asses. 
'Number. I    Value. 


nR.llil    SI0,:{!i.t,'t99    ''  17.S16 
,   20-2.9r>?      10.391,633  [I  22.0M 


Si.»S2.»7r 


Sheep.  Swioe. 

.Number. [  Value.     Number.'    Value. 


iNo.  of  bivps.       No.  of 
or  stauds  of      fitunds  of 
lltalianbees.  DStlve  bees. 


634.021    sia.:m,44i 

<19.»J9  1     13,124,273 


51. lee  i$iiy.728    380.70i    Sa.oss.soii 

M.KtS   I     168,676     366,916  i    2.673.174  < 


33,312 


1540 


The  number  of  acres  of  nurseries,  of  acres  and  products 
of  orchanls  and  vineyards  in  1S74,  was  as  follows:  acres 
of  nurseries,  5071.74:  acres  of  orchards,  100,839.61  ;  bush- 
els of  fruit  produced,  124,9.'i7.01  ;  acres  of  vineyards, 
5558.87;  gallons  of  wine  made  from  crop  of  1873, 13,561.42; 
pounds  of  grapes  protluced  in  1874,  2,345,318. 

Mnnnfurturiiuj  mid  Minin'j  Industries, — .\ceording  to  the 
census  of  1>*70.  Kansas  had  1177  manufacturiug  and  26 
mining  establishments,  employing  together  30.987  persons, 
of  whom  28,038  were  men,  1159  women,  and  1790  children. 
The  capital  employed  was  estimated  at  $29,450,939; 
the  wages  paid,  at  $9,572,624;  the  materials  used,  at 
$29,504,086;  and  the  annual  product,  at  $54,800,087. 
This  includes  blacksmiths'  shops  and  a  great  variety  of 
small  industries  not  requiring  much  machinery  or  power. 
The  returns  to  the  county  boards  of  assessors  include  none 
of  these,  nor  the  cigar  manufactories,  breweries,  or  machine- 
shops  of  the  different  railroads.  The  cigar-factories  and 
breweries  are,  however,  returned  for  internal  revenue  pur- 
poses. The  ounty  boards  report  for  1874,65  saw-mills 
(50  steam  and  15  water-power),  with  a  capital  of  $250,791 ; 
139  flour-mills  (80  water-power  and  59  steam),  with  a  cap- 
ita! of  $2,106,105;  27  saw  and  grist  mills  {13  water-power 
and  14  steam),  with  a  capital  of  $135,392:  13  furniture  and 
cabinet  factories,  with  a  capital  of  $157,820;  5  foundries 
and  rolling-mills,  with  $195,000  capital:  6  woollen-facto- 
ries, with  $111,600  capital,  and  50  miscellaneous  factories, 
embracing  oiI,checse,gyp«ura,  soap,  and  carriage  factories, 
having  a  capital  of  $567,910.  These  returns  are  obviously 
very  incomplete.  There  were  also  72  cigar  manufactories 
and  I  tobacco-factory  reported  to  the  assessors  of  internal 
revenue,  whose  annual  product  was  estimated  at  about 
$272,500  :  and  43  breweries,  having  an  annual  product  of 
$274,021.25.  The  centra!  position  of  Kansas,  it?  numerous 
railw.ays,  its  excellent  supply  of  coal,  and  it.-»  fine  water- 
power,  as  well  as  the  absenceof  any  great  mining  interests, 
indicate  that  it  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the  great 
manufacturing  States  of  the  Union. 

Railroad*. — The  entire  number  of  miles  of  main  track 
of  railways  completed  and  in  operation  on  Jan.  1,  1S74,  ac- 
cording to  the  assessors'  reports  for  1874,  was  1339  miles 


and  142  feet.  The  valuation  of  this  property  for  purposes 
of  taxation  was  $14,711,277.92.  which  was  probably  a  little 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  cost  of  road.  land,  and  equip- 
ment. On  Jan.  1,  1875,  according  to  Poor's  Railroad 
Mannal,  there  were  in  the  State  2480.88  miles  of  railway, 
and  the  cost  of  road.*,  equipment,  etc.  was  $74,61 7,856.  Two 
of  these  railways  traverse  the  whole  breadth  of  the  State 
from  E.  to  W. — viz.  the  Kansas  Pacific,  extending  from 
Kansas  City  on  the  Missouri  to  Denver  and  beyond,  a  dis- 
tance of  aljoul  672  mib's;  and  the  Atchison  Topeka  and 
Santa  F€.  extending  from  Atchison,  also  4m  the  Missouri, 
to  Granada  in  Colorado,  528  miles  with  its  branches,  and  des- 
tined to  be  speedily  completed  to  Santa  F6.  The  other  im- 
portant railways  are  the  Jlissouri  Kansas  and  Texas.  256 
miles  in  the  State,  including  brandies;  the  Leavenworth 
Lawrence  and  (ialveston.  207  miles,  including  branches; 
Missouri  River  Fort  Scott  and  Gulf,  159  miles;  St.  Joseph 
and  Denver  City.  136  miles  in  the  State;  Atchison  and  Ne- 
braska, about  40  miles  in  the  State;  central  branch  Union 
Pacific,  100  miles:  Kansas  City  St.  Joseph  and  Council 
IJluffs,  71  miles  in  the  State:  Kansas  Central  (  Leavenworth 
to  Hidton).  56  miles:  St.  Joseph  and  Topeka.  87  miles; 
Kansas  Midland  (Kansas  City  and  Topeka),  about  60 
miles:  St.  Louis  Lawrence  and  Western  (from  Pleasant 
Hill  to  Carbondale),  about  69  miles  in  the  State;  somo 
branches  of  the  Kansas  Pacific,  as  Leavenworth  branch, 
27  miles,  Junction  City  and  Clay  Centre  branch,  33  miles. 
The  rapid  building  and  completion  of  so  many  railways  in 
the  State  has  contributed  greatly  to  its  development  and 
increas^e  in  population.  The  ithffrnph  lines  of  the  Western 
Vnion  accompany  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  railways,  and  the 
Atlantio  and  Pacific  have  also  lines  to  most  of  the  towns. 

Finances. — The  receipts  into  the  State  treasury  from  all 
gources,  exclusive  of  balances,  during  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing Nov.  30,  1874.  were  $995,102.89.  and  the  expenditures, 
exclusive  of  transfers,  were  $970,805.82.  The  amount  re- 
ceived from  direct  taxes  only  was  $690,253.59;  from  alt 
other  sources,  $304,749.30.  Of  the  amount  received  from 
taxe?,  $461,095,59  was  for  general  revenue  purposes, 
$22,988.83  for  the  sinking  fund.  $91,715.79  for  payment  of 
interest  on  public  debt,  and  $114,453.38   for  the  annual 


KANSAS. 


1501 


school  fund.  Tho  receipts  from  other  sources  than  taxes 
were  credited,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  small  amount, 
to  the  permuDcnt  and  annual  school  funds.  Tbo  bonded 
indcbte<lne3s  of  the  State  was  $1,341,7"/),  but  of  this 
amount  $7";!.S-6  i:?  held  by  the  sinking  fund  and  other 
permanent  funds  in  the  Slate  treasury,  so  that  the  d<'l>t  of 
the  State,  except  to  its  own  funds,  is  only  $r>.*^7.y.")0.  There 
is  no  floatinfj  debt,  but  there  was  a  balance  in  the  treasury 
Nov.  30,  IS74.  of  $222,880.05.  The  permanent  school  fuu'd 
on  Nov.  30,  IS7I,  amounted  to  $1,12:),309.32.  The  valua- 
tion of  all  the  property  of  the  State,  as  fixed  for  taxable 
purposes  for  the  year  1S74,  was  Sl2S,yO(j,.'il9.S0,  an  increase 
of  $:t6,7S0,fi58.80  since  1S70.  The  true  valuation  in  1S70 
was  $IS8,S92,014,  and  would  now  be  ])robably  not  less  than 
$200,000,000.  The  State-tax  of  1874  for  nil  purposes  was 
six  mills  on  the  d«'Har.  There  were  in  the  State  10,990,740 
acres  of  taxable  lands,  of  which  3,009,709  acres  were  under 
cultivation,  an  iacreaso  of  633,000  acres  over  the  preceding 
year. 

Commerce. — As  an  interior  vState  with  no  large  navigable 
s^treaiu  except  the  ^[ispouri.  which  washes  its  X.  E.  border, 
Kansas  can  have  no  foreign  commerce  except  that  which  is 
conducted  through  the  ports  of  other  States.  But  her  in- 
ternal commerce,  transacted  mainly  by  means  of  her  rail- 
ways, is  very  large.  She  ships  castwarti  corn,  wlicat.  and 
other  cereals,  considerable  quantities  of  cotton,  cattle  in 
large  numbers,  driven  from  Texas  and  Colorado  to  her 
rich  and  abundant  pastures,   broom  corn,  and   moderate 


quantities  of  other  products.  Abilene,  Junction  City,  Sa- 
lina,  Ellsworth,  and  some  of  the  other  southern  towns  are 
the  centres  of  the  cattle-trade.  In  1872  her  internal 
commerce  had  reached  $114,000,000,  and  since  that  time, 
in  spite  of  drought  and  "grasshoppers,"  it  has  rapidly  in- 
creased. 

/tinilcy  fntturancc  Companies,  etc. — There  were  on  Nov, 
30,  1874,  20  national  banks  in  the  State,  having  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $1,983,0(10,  and  deposits  amounting  to 
$2,994..'!30.  There  were  at  the  sp.me  time  SO  banks  other 
than  national  (a  considerable  number  being  private  banks), 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $l,oSS,000,  and  deposits  to 
the  amount  of  $2,399,010:  making  an  aggregate  banking 
capital  of  $3..'i7I,00n,  and  of  deposits  of  $5;493.94r).  There 
are  in  the  State  2  life  insurance  companies — viz.  the  Jlis- 
souri  Valley  Life  Insurance  Co.,  incorporated  in  1807.  hav- 
ing a  capital  of  $209.4,52.70.  mostly  invested  in  bond  and 
mortgage,  and  the  Alliance  Mutual  Life  Association,  or- 
gani'/ed  in  1873,  with  a  capital  of  $105,506.25,  similarly  in- 
vested. The  former  reported  in  1873  assets  to  the  amount 
of  $S7 1.898.  Both  are  in  Leavenworth.  There  is  one  tiro 
insurance  company,  the  Kansas,  also  located  at  Leaven- 
worth, incorporated  in  1864,  and  reporting  in  1873  a  cap- 
ital of  $250.1100  and  assets  of  $258,900.  Both  capital  and 
assets  consist  in  part  of  notes. 

Population. — The  following  table  gives  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Kansas,  by  sexes,  races,  and  nativity,  in  1800, 1870, 
and  1874,  so  far  as  ascertained  : 


Yc«r. of 

CCQSUS. 

Tot»l 
t>o|)ula- 

tloD. 

107,200 
373,299 
530,307 

Mala. 

Females. 

While. 

Colored. 

iDdlSD. 

or  natlre 
binh. 

or  rorclim 
binb. 

12,691 
48,392 

or  Khool 
«gc, 
males. 

Of  school 

age. 
females. 

Otcr  21 

years, 
males. 

Bolwecn  18 

aad  45  years. 

males. 

27,976 
95,002 

i«i-,o 

\*~a 

lH74t 

.59,178 
202,224 
246,939 

4R,n28 
102.175 
228,875 

106,390 
316,377 

627 
17,108 

189« 
9,814 

94,515 
316,007 

18,623 
55,609 
101,872 

18.800 
63,041 
97,138 

31,037 
10.1,671 
120,087 

The  density  of  tho  population  of  Kansas  in  1870  was  4.48 
persons  to  the  square  mile  ;  in  1874,  7.37  to  the  square  mile. 
Tho  census  of  Is70  reported  12.3,852  persons  engaged  in  all 
occupations,  of  whom  73,228  were  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits,  being  50.13  per  cent,  of  tlic  whole;  20,730  in 
personal  an<l  professional  occupations  =  10.74  per  cent.; 
1 1,702,  or  9.5  per  cent.,  in  trade  and  transportation  ;  and 
IS, 120,  or  14.03  per  cent.,  in  manufacturing,  mechanical, 
or  mining  pursuits. 

Edncntion. — The  following  are  the  statistics  of  the  public 
schools  for  the  year  encling  Nov.  30.  1874  :  number  of  school 
di-triets,  4395:  total  number  of  persons  of  school  age  in 
the  State,  199.010;  total  number  of  persons  enrolled  in 
public  schools,  135,598  (08.978  males  an.l  00,620  females); 
average  daily  attendance  in  public  schools,  77,380  ;  aver- 
age length  of  time  school  is  taught.  5.5  months;  number 
of  male  teachers  in  public  schools,  2300;  of  female  teach- 
ers, 2033,  Average  nu)ntlily  wages  paid — male  teachers, 
$37.24  ;  average  monthly  wages  of  female  teachers,  $28.09; 
amount  paid  for  teachers'  wages  for  the  year,  $723,568.03 ; 
amount  expended  for  repairs  and  incidentals,  $51,203.70 ; 
amount  received  from  semi-annual  dividends  of  State 
school  money,  $201,952.02;  amount  raised  by  district  tax, 
$H95,093.H5  ;  total  amount  derived  from  various  sources  for 
public  schools,  $1,038,977.99.  Number  of  school-houses— 
log.  328;  frame.  2006;  brick,  139;  stone,  470;  total,  3543, 
of  which  399  were  built  during  the  year;  total  value  of 
school-bouses.  $.3,989,065.87;  total  value  of  apparatus, 
$10,697.00.  Tho  public-school  expenditure  per  head  of 
tbo  population  of  school  ago  (5  to  21  years)  is  $7.94,  and 


per  head  of  the  actual  population  of  school  age  (6  to  16 

years)  is  $11. 31.  Twenty-six  cities  and  towns  have  complete 
systems  of  graded  schools,  comprising  primary,  interme- 
diate, grammar,  and  high  schools.  In  these  schools  in 
1874.  232  teachers  were  employed.  10,700  children  were 
enrolled,  and  9018  in  daily  attendance.  Of  these,  1004 
were  pupils  in  the  high  scliools.  Tlicre  were  70  school 
buildings  occupied  by  these  graded  scliools.  many  of  ttiem 
costly  buildings,  ranging  from  $7000  to  $55,000  each.  There 
are  4  normal  schools  in  the  State — at  Emporia,  Leaven- 
worth, Concordia,  ond  Quindaro.  Tho  last  named  is  for 
the  training  of  colored  teachers.  The  school  at  Conconlia. 
Cloud  CO.,  in  the  N.  AV.  ])art  of  the  State,  was  o]>ened  in 
Sept.,  1871.  Emporia  had  2;'.0  pupils  enrolled,  191  of  them 
normal:  Tjeavenw(»rth,  235,  all  normal;  Concordia,  60,  all 
normal:  Quimlan),  about  55.  Teachers*  institutes  arc  held 
in  the  larger  counties.  Tho  other  State  institutions  of 
higher  education  arc  (1)  the  State  Agricultural  College 
near  Manhattan,  on  a  farm  of  415  acres,  having  an  endow- 
ment valued  at  $432,500.  In  1874  it  had  13  professors  and 
instructors,  ancl  112  male  and  58  female  students — 170  in 
all.  Tho  course  of  study  is  extensive,  but  thorough  and 
])ractical.  (2)  Tho  Cniversity  of  Kansas,  at  Lawrence,  par- 
tially endowed  with  university  lands  (about  46,000  acres), 
and  receiving  from  the  legislature  an  apprctpriation  vary- 
ing from  $23,0(10  to  $30,000  to  supplement  the  present  lack 
of  receipts  from  its  landed  endowment.  In  1874  il  had  10 
professors  anrl  instructors  and  173  students — 5S  in  the  col- 
legiate and  115  in  tho  preparatory  department.  Tho  follow- 
ing are  the  other  collegiate  institutions  in  the  State  in  1874: 


Name  ofioilltutJoD. 


Baker  University Baldwin  City. 

rollejje  of  .Sisters  of  Bethany..  Topeka  

.'^I.  llenedlcrs. I  Atchison 

St.  Mary's !.St.  Mary's 

Wasbhurn I  Topeka 

IIJKhland !Hlghland 

Lane 'Lccompton.... 


DfttPof 

organlia. 

Uoa. 


1857 
1870 
1808 
18G9 
1805 
1SA8 
1858 


DcDomlnatloD  controtlloK. 

1! 

? 

9 
» 

a 

2 

Studcots. 

In  prepar- 
atory 
dipt. 

Incollp. 
Il.lo 
depl. 

Metbodist  Kpiscopal.. 
Protestant  Kpiscopal. 

Roman  Tatholic 

Bonian  Calholle 

rongregalionallst 

82 
48 
95 

121 
24 

145 
70 

19 
27 
IS 

"6 
25 

United  Brethren 

11 

Rndowmcnt 

and 

properly. 


80.000 
6(1.000 

47.000 
i.'io.noo 

101.000 
6(I.UO0 
26,000 


1,000 
1,000 

2.nno 
i.wno 

5,000 

fi.ooo 

1,000 


Ottawa  University,  under  tho  control  of  tho  Baptists,  at 
Ottawa,  has  suspended  operations.  There  are  10  acad- 
emies or  collegiate  schools — 5  of  them  Catholic — and  a  con- 
pi<lerable  number  of  private  schools  of  niore  or  less  merit. 
The  institutions  of  special  instruction  in  the  Stato  are — 
tho  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  atOlathc,  incorporated  in  1866: 

•Onlv  Indians  not   in  tribal  relations  were  enumerat(Kl  In 
1800.    The  nniulHT  was  unnOiciully  staled  as  WMIO. 

+  The  enninrraliftn  t>f  IS74  is  tty  the  townslnp  assessors,  and  Is 
Iniiicrfeet,  0  counties  hein\{  omitted,  as  well  as  many  townsblpH  I 
and  all  the  settliTs  in  the  unornani/ed  counties.    It  fs  believed  j 
that  the  population  of  the  .Stale  is  nearly  OUO.OUO.  I 


it  had  in  1874.  6  instructors  and  about  70  pupils;  tho  in- 
stitution for  the  blind  at  Wyandotte,  incorporated  1866, 
and  having  0  instructors  and  2S  pupils  in  1874  :  2  orphan 
asylums,  bnrbat  Leavenworth — the  Kansas  with  28  orphans, 
and  the  St.  Vincent's  with  52. 

Of  charitable  institutions  the  State  has  a  State  insano 
asylum  at  Ossawatomie.  This  institution  is  still  untinished, 
but  had  under  treatment  during  the  year  172  patients,  with 
an  average  of  115,  and  on  Nov.  .30,  1874,  lit)  present,  of 
whom  5S  were  males  and  52  feniales  :  10  bsnl  tlied  during 
tho  year,  and  52  harl  been  discharged,  of  whom  live  were 
not  insane,   23  were   recovered,    13    improvcil,    ancl   9  un- 


1502 


KANSAS. 


improved,  while  2  eloped.  The  home  for  friendless  women 
at  Leavenworth  has  received  aid,  and  during  the  year  1S74 
ha<l  200  iuniiite^. 

'Jhc  principal  penal  institution  of  this  State  is  the  State 
penitentiary  at  hcavenworth,  which  in  1S74  had  40  oflieers 
and  employes,  and  an  average  of  ".02  ]>risonerti :  its  annual 
expenditure  wasSi;iO,6(l!l.sri,  and  the  total  earning»$2:i, 000; 
the  salaries  paid  to  ein])loy6s  and  oflieers  amounted  to 
$77,000.  There  is  as  yet  no  reformatory  school  in  the 
State,  thoufrh  preliminary  steps  have  been  taken  looking  to 
the  organization  of  rmo.  The  county  jails,  especially  in  the 
new  counties,  are  not  generally  well  managed. 

Churches. — We  are  indebted  to  the  Tliirtf  Aiiitital  liepnrt 
of  thp  Kannas  Stnte  Board  of  Afin'rulturr/or  the  Jfear  1874 
for  valuable  statistics  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the 
seven  principal  denominations  in  the  .State  for  that  year  (as 
well  as  forvcry  much  other  valuable  statistical  matter  rela- 
tive to  tbc  State).  The  following  are  their  aggregates: 
Presbyterians,  101  churches,  74  church  edifices,  ri(t04  mem- 
bers, value  of  church  property,  $294,856;  Congregation- 
alists,  113  churches,  4S  church  edifices,  .38,31  members, 
$2.3S,,')00  of  church  property  ;  Baptists,  229  churches,  i'i 
church  edifices,  97S9  members.  $220,000  of  church  property 
(the  /inptist  YvarJionk  ior  187o  gives  in  1874.242  churches 
antl  1(»2  ministers) :  the  United  Presbyterians  reported  .39 
churches,  14  church  edifices,  L31.3  members,  and  $49,200 
of  church  property  ;  the  Methodists  (this  probably  includes 
the  various  Jletbodist  bodies).  021  churches,  96  church 
edifices.  22,090  members,  and  $;i.39,400  of  church  property 
(the  Methodist  Episcopal  conference  reports  for  1S74  give 
IfiOJ  church  edifices,  valued  at  $;t9o,5j0,  and  parsonages 
worth  $19,900;  19,162  members,  of  whom,  however,  ,3458 
were  probationers;  108  travelling  and  147  local  preachers). 
Tile  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  is  reported  as  having 
34  parishes,  22  church  edifices,  11.36  communicants,  and 
$172,000  of  church  property.  The  Church  Almanac  for 
1875  claims  but  .30  p.arishes,  25  clergy,  and  1041  commu- 
nicants. The  Roman  Catholics  are  reported  as  having  191 
congregations,  72  church  edifices,  .32, .311  Catholic  popula- 
tion, and  church  property  worth  $415,200.  The  Cntholic 
Directory  iov  1S75  gives  the  church  edifices  {including  7 
building)  as  62;  the  number  of  congregations  as  180,  of 
which  117  are  very  small  missions,  in  most  cases  not  at- 
tended oftener  than  monthly  by  the  hard-working  clergy; 
the  whole  number  of  priests  (secular  and  of  the  religious 
orders)  was  but  48.  and  the  Catholic  population  was  roughly 
estimated  at  about  35,000.  These  statistics  include  also 
the  few  stations  of  the  Catholics  in  the  Indian  Territory. 
These  statistics  show  in  these  seven  denominations  1.388 
churches  or  congregations,  against  530  of  all  denominations 
reported  in  the  census ;  379  church  edifices,  against  301  for 
all  ilenominations;  and  a  valuation  of  church  property  of 
$1,730,055  for  the  seven  denominations,  against  $1,722,700 
for  all  denominations  in  1870.  We  find  further  that  the 
Christian  Connection,  a.s  reported  in  the  census,  had  in 
1870.35  churches,  16  church  eciificcs,  4550  sittings,  and 
$15,300  of  church  projierty;  the  Evangelical  Association 
(probably  included  in  the  Methodists  aliovel,  2  churches,  1 
church  edifice,  300  sittings,  $6000  of  church  property;  the 
Friends,  7  meetings,  7  meeting-houses,  1 600  si tting,s, $13,300 
of  church  property  :  the  Lutherans,  9  churches,  5  church  edi- 
fices, 1400  sittings,  $1 2,500  of  church  property  ;  the  German 
Reformed,  1  church,  1  church  edifice,  275  sittings,  $3000  of 
church  property  :  tiie  Unitarians,  2  congregations.  1  church 
edifice,  400  sit  tings,  $20, 000  of  church  property;  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  fptissibly  included  under  Methodists 
above)  in  1874  had  120  churches,  60  ministers,  2173  mem- 
bers, and  proltably  $60,000  in  church  ]iroperty :  the  Uni- 
versalists  had  9  congregations,  10  ministers,  146  members, 
and  probably  about  1600  regular  attendants.  There  were 
also  a  number  of  union  churches,  a  few  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian, and  a  few  Jewish  synagogues. 

Ncwupaprm. — There  were  in  1874,  13.3  newspapers  and 
periodicals  published  in  Kansas,  not  counting  the  weekly 
editions  of  the  daily  papers.  Of  these,  11  were  dailies, 
with  an  aggregate  circulaticm  of  about  28.000.  1  triweekly, 
US  weeklies,  and  3  ninnthlies.  The  circulation  of  the 
weeklies  was  a  little  more  than  100.000  ;  that  of  the  month- 
lies, about  8500.  Two  were  in  the  (lerman  language,  1 
was  medical,  1  educational,  2  religious,  8  agricultural,  and 
the  remainder  either  political,  literary,  or  miscellaneous. 

Cimnllcn. — The  fidlowing  table  shows  the  population  of 
the  74  organised  counties  of  the  State  in  1860,  1870,  and 
1874,  and  the  date  of  organization  of  the  counties.  The 
names  of  the  counties  are  as  they  appear  in  1874;  some 
have  been  changed  since  1860.  Besides  these,  there  are  30 
counties,  named,  but  not  yet  organized,  .several  of  which 
have  a  population  of  100  to  200,  of  which  no  account  has 
been  made  in  the  table.  The  names  of  these  unorganized 
counties  arc — Arapahoe,  Buffalo,  Clark,  Cheyenne,  Decatur, 
Footc,  Grant,  Graham,  Gove,  Greeley,  Hodgeman,  Ilamil- 


ton,  Kansas,  Kearney,  Kiowa,  Lane,  Meade.  Rush,  Raw- 
lins, Sequoyah,  Staflord,  Stanton,  Stevens,  Seward,  Sher- 
man, Sheridan,  Scott,  Thomas,  Trego,  and  Wichita : 


Allen 

Anderson 

Atchison 

Barbour  * 

Barton* 

Bourbon 

Brown 

Butler 

Comanche  t- 

Chase 

Cherokee 

Clay 

Cloud 

Coffey 

Cowley . 


Crawford 

Davis 

Dickinson  

Doniphan 

Douglas 

Edwards 

Ellis 

Ellsworth 

Ford 

Franklin 

Greenwood 

Harper  f 

Harvey* 

Howard 

Jackson  

Jefferson 

Jewell 

Johnson 

Kingman  t 

Labette 

Leavenworth  J.. 

Lincoln 

Linn 

Lyon  * 

Marion  

Marshall 

McPherson 

Miami 

Mitchell 

Montgomery  .... 

Morris 

Kemaba 

Neosho  

Ness  t 

Norton  

Osage  

Osliorne 

Ottawa  • 

Pawnee 

Phillips 

Pottawattamie.. 

Pr.att  t 

Reno 

Republic 

Rice. 


Riley 

Rooks 

Russell  • 

Saline* 

Sedgivlck 

Shawnee  *.... 

Smith 

Sumner 

Wabaunsee... 

Wallace* 

Washington  . 

Wilson 

Woodson 

Wvandi>tte  .. 


,953 
,213 
,2:J4 
G08 
860 
,231 
,418 
,07G 
2.J0 
,903 
,980 
,089 
,165 
,818 
,r,84 
,318 
,079 
,407 
,370 
,202 
632 
92.5 
,273 
3,'!3 
G46 
,339 
.300 
600 
872 
583 
49S 
,074 
,478 
300 
265 
,933 
,220 
,8,i9 
340 
06G 
122 
S:i7 
,:)70 
473 
;i4(i 
300 
,041 
,324 
200 
844 
,837 
,890 
,070 
10 
,409 
,054 
300 
,467 
,020 
,369 
5,737 
507 1 
8I5| 
'.742  j 
r,429t 
),9IG 
l,4ii0 
i,602l 
),C63' 
600; 
r,860 
J,.372l 
I.SCI  I 
I,.W1 


7,022 
fl.220 
15,50 

2 
15,076 
6,823 
3,035 

1,9: 

n.oiis 

•.',1142 
2,32:i 
6,2(11 
1,175 
8,160 
5,526 
3,04:t 
13,969 
20,592 


1,330 
1,185 
427 
10,385 
3,484 


2,794 
6,053 

12,526 
207 

13,684 


9,973 

32,444 

516 

12,174 

8,014 

768 

6,901 

738 

11,725 

485 

7..564 

2.225 

7.3:19 

10,200 

2 


7,648 

;f3 

2,127 
179 


7,848 


1,281 

S 

5,105 


I.5U 

4,240 

1,095 

13,121 

66 

22 

3.362 

5.38 

4,081 

6.094 

3,827 

10,015 


3,0821  1S.>5 
2,40(1 1  18.55 


6,101 

2,607 

437 


1872 
1855 
1.855 
1855 


1,077, 


1.046    1859 

L-lni    1SG6 

163'  1866 

I  1866 

2,842;  1859 
158    1870 

! 1867 

1,163  i  IS.55 

3781  1857 

8,08:i'  1855 

8,637,  1855 

1»74 

1867 

1867 

1873 

3,030  i  18.55 

1862 

1873 

i  1872 

19:  1870 
1,9361  1857 
4,4.59'  1855 

'  1S70 

4,364    1855 

1873 

I  1867 

12,606  1855 
1870 
1855 
1858 
181)5 
1855 
1870 
18.W 
1870 
1S69 
770!  1858 


6.336 

3,515 

74 

2,280 


4,980 


2,436 

88 


18,55 
1864 
1873 
1872 
]8i9 
1871 
186G 
1872 
1,S72 
1856 
i  1H73 
1872 
1868 
1871 
1855 
1872 
1872 
1859 
1870 
18,55 
1872 
1871 

\»m 

1868 
383  i  1860 


1,224 


3,513 


1,023 


27 
1.488 
2,609 


1865 
1855 
1859 


Principal  Towna. — Leavenworth  is  the  largest  town  and 
city  in  the  State,  having  a  population  in  1874  of  16,468 
Atchison  had  about  900(1  inhabitants ;  Topeka,  the  capital 
and  Lawrence,  about  8000  each;  Fort  Scott  and  AVyan 
dotte,  between  4000  and  6000  ;  Ottawa,  Emporia,  Wichi 
ta.  .Tunction  City,  and  Parsons,  between  2000  and  4000 
Olalhe,  Osage  Missiim,  Paola,  Hutchinson,  and  Manhattan 
between  1500  and  2000;  Troy,  Walluna,  Osage  City,  Bur 
lington,  Eldorado.  La  Cygnc,  ami  Humbcddl,  about  1200 
while  Baxter  .springs.  White  Cloud.  Grasshopper  Falls 
Pleasanton,  Oswego,  Independence,  Council  Grove,  SenC' 
ca,  .Salina,  and  Fredoiiia.  all  exceeded  1000  inhabitants 
.Marysville.  Newton,  Oskaloosa.  Chetopa,  liurlingame,  Ne^ 
odesha,  and  .\bilene  are  all  thriving  and  growing  towns, 
and  some  of  them  incorporated  as  cities. 

CountitHtinn^  Court'*,  Iirpre»eutntinn  in  ConffrfSH,  etc. — 
The  present  constitution  of  Kansas,  though  tlie  fourth  in 
its  history,  is  the  one  under  which  the  State  was  admitted 
into  the  L'nion  in  1861.  It  provides  that  male  citizens 
of  the  U.  S.,  or  persons  of  foreign  birth  who  have  declared 


•  Census  of  1873;  no  returns  for  1874. 
X  Estimated  by  county  clerk  at  30,714. 


t  Estimated. 


KANSAS— KANSAS  CITY. 


1603 


their  intention  to  become  citizen?,  are  entitled  to  %'ote  after 
having  resided  six  months  in  the  ^tate  and  thirty  days  in 
the  township.  No  person  under  guardianship,  uon  contpm 
nientin,  or  insane,  nor  any  person  convicted  of  treason  or 
felony,  unless  restored  to  civil  rights,  uor  any  soldier,  sea- 
man, or  marine  in  tin-  employ  of  tlie  general  government, 
is  allowed  to  vote.  The  executive  offiecrs  of  the  State  arc 
the  governor.  lieutenant-governor,  seeretary  of  state,  aud- 
itor, treasurer,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
attorney-general,  all  of  whom  are  chosen  by  the  jieople  for 
a  term  of  two  years.  The  general  election  is  held  on  the 
first  Wednesflay  in  November.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  senate  of  2.5  members,  elected  for  two  years,  and  a  house 
of  representatives  of  75  members,  chosen  annually.  The 
legislature  commences  its  session  annually  on  the  second 
Tuesday  in  January.  Efforts  have  recently  been  made  to 
change  the  constitution  so  as  to  make  the  sessions  biennial 
instead  of  annual.  The  judiciary  of  the  Slate  consists  of 
a  supremo  court  having  a  chief-justice  an<l  two  associate 
justices,  elected  by  the  people  for  six  years:  and  of  nine 
district  courts  (the  State  being  divided  into  nine  Judicial 
districts),  each  presided  over  l)y  a  single  judge.  The  dis- 
trict judges  are  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  Under 
the  apportionment  of  1872,  Kansas  is  entitled  to  three  Rep- 
resentatives in  Congress. 

Hilton/. — That  portion  of  Kansas  lying  E.  of  the  100th 
meridian  formed  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  of  ISOIl, 
and  was  inchidr^d  at  different  periods  in  Louisiana  Territory 
and  Missouri  Territory.  By  the  Missouri  Compromise  act 
of  IS-Jfl,  in  all  this  region  lying  N.  of  lat.  .36°  30',  except- 
ing only  such  part  thereof  as  was  included  within  the  limits 
of  the  State  of  Missouri,  shivery  and  involuntary  servitude, 
otherwise  than  in  the  punishment  of  crime  whereof  the  party 
should  have  been  duly  convictc<l,  was  for  ever  prohibited. 
As  a  result  of  the  Mexican  war  the  territory  of  the  U.  S. 
was  extemied  from  the  lOdih  meridian  westward  to  the  Pa- 
cific as  fiir  S.  as  :^'*^  'Mi'  N.  lat.  In  ISj.1  settlers  had  already 
entered  the  territory  in  such  numbers  that  Congress  was 
called  upon  to  protect  them  from  the  Indians.  It  soon  be- 
came evident  that  the  fertile  lands  of  Eastern  Kansas  were 
to  be  the  objeets  of  contention  between  the  friends  and  op- 
ponents of  slavery ;  the  latter  contending  that  by  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  this  region  was  to  be  exempt  from  slavery, 
while  the  former  claimed  it  on  the  grouml  of  the  partial 
repeal  of  thai  compromise  in  1850,  and  the  altered  circum- 
stances arising  from  tho  accession  of  new  territory  in  1848. 
Both  sides  were  terribly  in  earnest:  in  Massachusetts  an 
emigrants'  aid  society  was  chartered  with  ample  funds  in 
Mar.  or  Apr.,  1854.  to  assist  emigrants  to  remove  to  Kan- 
sas, and  to  furnish  them  with  weapons  of  defence  against 
those  who  might  attack  them;  in  Connecticut  a  similar 
company  was  chartered  in  May  or  June  of  the  same  year. 
In  May,  1^54,  Congress  pa'^sed  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
bill,  organizing  these  two  Territories,  and  expressly  declar- 
ing that  the  Missouri  compromise  of  1820  was  inoperative 
and  void  in  regard  to  tlicm.  As  thus  organized,  the  two 
Territories  extended  to  the  Roeky  Mountains,  taking  in  a 
considerable  portion  of  Colorado.  The  emigrants  forwarded 
by  the  emigrants'  aid  companies  entered  the  Territory  in 
very  considerable  numbers  in  the  spring  unci  summer  of 
185(,  generally  resolute  men.  able  and  willing  to  contend 
for  their  new  homes;  but  the  pro-slnvery  nu-n  of  Missouri 
and  .Arkansas  were  as  determined  to  sooure  the  pri/e  for 
them-fcUes,  and  a  series  of  raids  and  condicts  ensued,  last- 
ing for  four  years  or  more,  in  which  many  settlers,  as  well 
as  cnnsiderahic  numbers  of  the  invaders,  were  killed.  Law- 
rence was  twice  besieged  and  burned,  Pottawattamie,  Ossa- 
watomie,  and  Leavenworth  were  partially  destroyed,  the 


polls  invaded  and  broken  up,  legislatures  disturbed,  and 
their  meuibors  and  ofiicers  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and 
the  Territory  kept  in  a  constant  condition  of  turmoil.  Gov- 
ernor after  governor  was  appointed  by  the  Presidents  (Prcs. 
Pierce  appointing  (Jov.  Reeder,  and  Prcs.  Buchanan.  Govs. 
Shannon,  (Jeary.  Walker,  iJenver,  Medary,  and  Stanton), 
but  each  in  turn  became  convince<l  of  the  justice  of  the 
cause  of  the  settlers,  and  so  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
"border  ruffians,"  as  the  invading  party  was  called,  and 
their  leader,  David  Atchison,  formerly  V.  S.  Senator  from 
Missouri,  had  in  niost  cases  sufficient  influence  to  cause 
their  removal.  Four  successive  constitutions  for  the  Ter- 
ritory were  voted  upon  between  Dec,  1855,  and  Oct., 
1859;  the  first,  known  as  the  Topcka  constitution,  pro- 
hibited slavery,  and  was  adopted  in  Dec,  1855,  with  very 
little  opposition,  but  its  authority  was  never  rccognizctl  by 
the  pro-slavery  men,  very  few  of  whom,  however,  were 
legal  voters.  The  second,  called  the  Lecompton  constitu- 
tion, was  drawn  up  by  a  convention  never  authorized  by 
the  peoj)le.  and  composed  almost  entirely  of  Atchison's  fol- 
lowers, the  Free  State  men  refusing  to  vote,  and  only  2000 
out  of  more  than  10,000  votes  being  cast  for  it.  The  con- 
vention met  at  Lecompton  in  the  autumn  of  1857,  and  the 
constitution  prepared  by  it  had  four  sections  relating  to 
slavery,  prohibiting  emancipation,  conferring  upon  slave- 
holders all  the  immunities  of  the  worst  slave  codes,  and 
declaring  these  inviolable,  and  preventing  any  change  in 
this  constitution  before  181)4.  The  only  alternative  offered 
to  the  people  was  to  vote  for  this  constitution  (which  was 
other^vise  objectionable)  u-lfh  the  slavery  sections  or  irifk- 
out  them.  The  Free  State  men  generally  refused  to  vote, 
and  the  constitution  was  declared  to  be  adopted  by  about 
51100  majority,  the  greater  part  known  to  be  fraudulent. 
(>n  .Tan.  4,  1858,  the  people  had  an  opjiortunlty  of  voting 
against  it  at  the  Territorial  election,  and  llicrc  was  a  ma- 
jority of  10,220  votes  against  it.  On  Aug.  ."i,  1858,  Con- 
gress ordered  another  vote  on  this  constitution,  and  it  was 
rejected  by  over  10,000  majority.  Another  constitution  had 
been  mode  by  a  constitutional  convention  in  Apr.,  1858, 
and  had  been  adopted  by  a  small  vote.  As  it  was  not  quite 
satisfactory,  a  fourth  convention  met  at  AVyandotte  July  5, 
1S;VJ,  and  adopted  the  present  constitution  of  the  State. 
This  was  ratified  by  the  people  Oet.  4,  185!>,  by  about  4U00 
nmjority.  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State 
Jan.  20,  ISGl,  and  its  subsequent  history  has  been  one  of 
great  prosperity.  During  the  liilc  civil  war  no  State  of  the 
Union  sent  so  large?  a  jtroportion  of  its  male  population 
into  the  field  as  ICansas.  Its  growth  since  the  war  has 
been  without  parallel  for  its  rapidity.  Its  population, 
which  in  18G0  wos  but  1011,000,  is  now  not  far  from  (iOO.dOO  ; 
without  a  mile  of  railway  in  1802,  if  has  now  within  its 
boundaries  over  2500  miles:  it  has  subclued  lands  which 
for  thousands  of  years  bad  lain  waste,  planted  seliools  and 
churches  all  over  its  territory,  and,  though  in  the  sumnior 
of  1874,  it  was  severely  tried  by  a  visitation  of  grasshop- 
pers or  locusts,  which  destroyed  two-thirds  of  the  growing 
crop  of  Indian  corn  (the  loss  being  estimated  at  ."iO. 000, 000 
bushels),  and  reduced  the  settlers  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  of 
the  new  counties  to  destitution,  so  great  ia  its  vitality  and 
enterprise,  that  this  visitation  will  not  perceptibly  check  its 
growth. 


(ivvrrnnrs. — 

Tkruitorial. 

A.  11.  Ueeder 1854-55 

Wilson  Shannon 1855-51; 

John  W.  (Jearv !R5G-57 

Robert  J.  Waiker 1S57-5S 

James  W.  Denver I858-.5S 

Samuel  Medary 1858-59 


Frederick  P.  Stanton., 
State. 

Charles  Robinson 

Thouias  Carney 

Samuel  J.  Crawford... 
James  M.  Harvey... 


..1859-Gl 

.18Gl-fil 
,.18Gl-r.5 
.lPG5-fi9 
,..I*<G9-73 


Thomas  A.  Osborn 1873-77 


Popular  and  Electoral  Votct/or  Prcnident. 


jgg    Su«:«"ftilCiindldiit«jiforProiIJcnland  VIco-PrwWcni.    8|     ^^^jj'""     OppoiltlonCandldalciforPrtMldcntaQdVlcc-PrciIdCDt.    ^^'^jjy*     Mftjorltloj, 


IR64  Abraham  Lincoln  P.,  A.  Johnson  V.-P. 

18G8  U.  S.  <irant  P.,  S<'huyler  ("olfax  V.-P 

l872lU.  S.Grant  P.,  Henry  Wilson  V.-P 


16,441 

8 1.0  IS 
67,01rt 


Geo.  B.  McCIellan  P.,  G.  H.  Pendleton  V.-P. 

Horatio  Seymour  P.,  F.  P.  llinir  V.-P 

llorace  Greeley  P.,  It.  (irat)!  Urown  V.-P 


13,990 
32,970 


12,750 
17,058 
84,078 


KniiNaSy  tp.  of  Etowah  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  481. 

KanNnfl,  post-v.  anri  tp.  of  E<lgnr  co..  III.,  on  the  In- 
dianapolis and  St.  Louis  It.  K.,  104  miles  W.  of  Indian- 
apolis and  150  N.  K.  of  St.  Louis.  It  has  1  national  bank,  I 
weekly  newspaper,  4  eburcbes,  1  school,  2  hotels,  2  grain- 
warehouses,  1  agricultural  iniplenuMit  mnnnfactory,  3  wagon 
and  carriage-making  shops,  nnil  17  stores;  in  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  a  large  prairie,  2i  to  5  miles  from  timber.  Prin- 
cijial  industry,  farming  and  «toek-raising.  Pi»p.  of  (p.  1018. 
W.  W.  Hisiioi',  Kn.  **  News." 

Kansas,  tp.  of  Woodford  co..  111.     Pop.  :i49. 

Kansas,  a  tribe  of  Inilians  in  the  State  of  the  same 
name,  numliering  about  OflO.  They  belong  to  the  same 
family  with  the  Dakutas  and  Osages.  and   have  deereased 


L.  P.  BnorKFTT. 
rapidly  in  numbers  during  the  present  century,  on  account 
of  wars  with  the  Pawnees  ao'l  other  Indians  of  the  Plains. 
Ily  act  of  May  8,  18C2,  Congrcsp.  with  their  consent,  pro- 
vided fr»r  the  sale  of  their  reservatitm  in  Kansas  and  their 
removal  to  the  Or-ago  country  in  the  Indian  Territory. 

Kail'ins  City,  city  of  .Tackson  co..  Mo.,  on  the  right 
bank  <if  tlic  Missouri  Uiver,  just  below  the  mouth  of  Kan- 
sas Uiver,  and  1  mile  from  the  boundary -line  between 
Missouri  and  Kansas,  2't5  miles  W.  of  St.  Lrniis.  It  is  sit- 
uated at  the  point  where  the  jMissouri  Uiver  finally  bends 
to  the  E.,  and  is  the  natural  centre  of  an  immense  land  and 
river  traffie,  having  nine  railroails  (1875)  centring  in  a 
couimon  station,  and  four  or  five  others  in  construction. 
Tin-  >ile  was  originally  very  rough  and  uneven,  part  of  the 


1504 


KANSAS,  CONGRESSIONAL  LEGISLATION,  ETC.— KANT. 


city  being  on  a  bluff  and  part  on  bottom-lands;  much  has 
been  done,  however,  to  remove  irregularities  by  grading. 
The  streets,  though  not  uniformly  laid  out.  are  wide,  well 
lighted  with  gas.  and  well  provided  with  sewerage  and  side- 
walks. The  Missouri  Hiver  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  nearly 
1400  feet  in  length,  built  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  Thi-re  are 
four  linos  of  street  railroad,  which  also  connect  with  the 
adjoining  town  of  AVestport  and  with  Wyandntte  in  Kan- 
sas. There  are  6  daily  papers  {'^  morning  and  ii  evening), 
2  tri-w<'(>kly,  fi  weekly,  and  I  bi-monthly;  of  the  weeklies, 
1  is  in  iJerman,  1  is  agricultural,  and  1  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  trade  in  live-stock.  There  arc  12  banks,  28  ehurche?, 
14  schools,  2  medical  colleges  (with  a  medical  journal),  1  sem- 
inary and  I  hospital  (both  Roman  Catholic),  a  city  hospital, 
orphan  asylum,  workliouso  and  woman's  Iiome,  2  theatres, 
an  opera-house,  an  efficient  fire  department  ami  jioHce  force. 
The  surrounding  region  is  one  of  extraordinary  agricul- 
tural resources,  and  is  abundant  in  coal.  lead,  iron,  and 
other  minerals.  The  chief  importance  of  Kansas  City  con- 
sists in  its  being  the  centre  of  the  live-stock  traffic  for  tho 
States  W.  of  the  Mississippi — a  business  which  has  enor- 
mously increased  since  the  completion  ( in  1873}  of  tho  Mis- 
souri Kansas  and  Ti-xas  R.  R.,  connecting  this  city  through 
the  Indian  Territory  with  the  great  stock-raising  regions 
of  Texas.  The  pork-packing  business  is  also  rapidly  as- 
suming importance,  having  increased  from  l'i,000  hogs 
packed  in  ISC.S  to  nearly  200,000  in  lS7;i.  The  receipts  of 
cattle  in  1873  were  227.009,  valued  at  $3,415,0.35 ;  of  hogs, 
220.056.  valued  at  $2,131.1 78;  of  horses,  4202  ;  and  of  sheep, 
5975.  The  sales  of  merchandise  at  wholesale  in  1S73  were 
$15,695,000,  against  $13.84  1,440  in  the  preceding  year.  The 
receipts  <if  grain  in  1872  were  1,001.203  bushels,  and  in 
1873,  1,718,280  bushels.  .Manufacturing  industry  is  as  yet 
small,  but  with  the  rapid  development  of  the  coal-mines  at 
Fort  Scott,  may  be  expected  soon  to  assume  importance. 
The  receipts  of  coal  in  1809-70  were  less  than  1500  car- 
loads; in  1S7I  they  were  5000;  in  1872,  9990;  and  in  1873, 
11,022  carloads.  Five  years  ago,  the  only  fuel  used  in 
K.ansas  City  and  by  the  railroads  centring  there  was  wood, 
but  now  (1875)  coal  has  generally  taken  its  place,  and  the 
whole  Missouri  Valley  as  far  N.  as  Omaha  is  supplied  with 
coal  from  this  market.  The  mines  are  at  present  mostly  in 
Kansas,  the  whole  K.  portion  of  tb.at  State  and  the  con- 
tiguous counties  of  Missouri  beinij  underlaid  with  a  soft 
bituminous  coal,  which,  it  Is  claimed,  has  from  20  to  30  per 
cent,  more  available  power  for  steam-engines  than  tlio  av- 
erage Eastern  coals.  Extensive  water-works,  cotnbiuini;  the 
reservoir,  the  standpipe,  and  the  Holly  system,  were  being 
constructed  in  1874.  to  cost  from  $750,000  to  $1,000,000; 
there  were  to  be  20  miles  of  supply-pipes,  300  fire-hydr.ants, 
and  tho  2  reservoirs  were  to  have  a  capacity  for  holding 
20,000,000  gallons  of  water.  A  metropolitan  telegraph  com- 
pany was  formed  in  1873.  A  board  of  trade  was  organized 
about  thi-  beginning  of  1872,  and  has  taken  important  meas- 
ures for  the  clevelopment  and  regulation  of  the  commercial 
interests  of  Kansas  City.  It  sent  representatives  to  tho  con- 
vention of  Congressmen  at  St.  Louis  in  May,  1873,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Senate  transportation  committee,  when  sitting 
at  St.  Louis,  an  able  memorial  on  transportation  facilities 
for  the  West  and  South.  It  also  sent  delegates  to  tho  na- 
tional boarcl  of  trade,  an<l  secured  recognition  as  the  tenth 
among  the  great  trade-centres  of  the  country.  The  river- 
navigation  has  naturally  decreased  in  comparative  im])ort- 
ance  through  tho  extension  of  tho  railroad  system,  but  a 
company  for  barge-navigation  was  organized  in  1873,  in 
which  year  the  arrivals  of  steamboats  were  65.  The  val- 
uation of  real  estate  in  1872  was  $11,993,060:  in  1873, 
SI2,687.S75.  Pop.  in  1800.  only  4418;  in  IS70,  32,260.  It 
has  increased  very  rapidly  since  the  war. 

AV.  II.  Mii.i.i'.n.  En.  *' Jm  hnai,  of  Commkrcf,." 

Kansas,  Congressional  Legislation  of  1854 
in  RelVrence  to.  Sec  Dougl.\s,  Stephen  A.,  by  Hon. 
A.  H.  Sti;i'Mfns,  LL.D. 

Kansas  (or  Kaw)  River,  in  Kansns,  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Smoky  Hill  and  Solomon  rivers.  Its  prin- 
cipal affluents  are  the  Kepuldiean.  the  Rig  Rlue,  and  the 
(Irnsshnpper  rivers  from  the  N..  and  the  Wakernsa  from 
the  S.  It  has  innumerable  smaller  tributaries.  Steamboats 
have  traversed  its  whole  course  at  high  water,  but  its  navi- 
gatiim  is  not  of  any  practical  value.  It  falls  into  the  Mis- 
souri on  the  Missouri  State  line,  near  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Kan'sasville,  post-v.  of  Racine  co.,  Wis.,  on  the  West- 
ern Union  R.  R. 

Kansn',  province  of  China,  between  Thibet  in  the  S.  and 
Mongolia  in  the  N.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  100,000  square 
miles  :  its  pop.  at  10.000.000.  It  is  covered  with  mountains, 
and  traversed  by  tho  Iloang-ho.     Cap.  Lan-Chow-Fee. 

Kant  (Immanii:!.).  b.  ,\pr.  22,  1724,  in  Konigsberg, 
where  his  father,  of  Sfuftish  descent,  was  estal>lished  as  a 
saddler.     Kant  was  brought  up  in  strict  religious  princi- 


ples. From  1740  to  1740  he  studied  theology,  philosophy, 
and  mathematics  in  the  Konigsbcrg  University.  From 
1746  to  1755  he  was  engaged  as  tutor;  and  subsequenlly 
entered  upon  his  career  as  professor  at  the  Kiinigsbcrg 
University,  which  he  kept  up  till  1797,  when  old  age  com- 
pelleil  him  to  retire.  D.  Feb.  12,  1804,  in  the  eightieth 
year  of  his  age.  Ho  never  married,  though  he  was  very 
fond  of  society,  genial  in  his  manners,  and  a  favorite  with 
all  who  knew  him.  It  is  a  rather  singular  circumstance 
that  he  never  left  his  native  city  of  Kiinigsbcrg  except  for 
a  few  miles'  walk  out  in  the  country.  Tn  his  first  lectures 
at  the  university,  Kant  followed  pretty  closely  tho  Wolffian 
school  of  philosophy,  then  prevalent  all  over  (Jermany. 
Still,  even  in  those  earlier  works  his  dissatisfaction  with 
the  existing  state  of  the  science  of  philosophy,  and  a  per- 
sistent endeavor  to  ascertain  the  source  of  that  dissatisfac- 
tion and  its  remedy,  are  clearly  discernible.  The  great  works 
of  the  French  and  English  skeptical  writers  of  that  time, 
and  especially  the  works  of  Locke  and  Hume,  comjileted  tho 
change  that  was  taking  plaee  in  his  views.  The  lucidncss 
of  their  style,  too.  forbade  the  employment  of  the  extrava- 
gant jargon  introduced  by  WulfT  into  the  philosophical 
discussion  of  the  German  schools  in  their  refutation,  and 
forced  Kant,  for  tho  satisfaction  of  his  own  mind,  to  enter 
upon  a  thorough  investigation  of  all  the  problems  of  phi- 
losophy in  a  manner  and  style  altogether  new  and  liis 
own.  It  was  not  till  1781,  about  ten  years  after  he  had 
begun  his  new  researches,  that  he  published  their  result 
in  the  ('rititjitc  of  Pure  Iicnnoit,  which  was  soon  fol- 
lowed bv  the  Criiiffue  of  Prnctivti  ficanon  and  the  Critiifue 
of  (he  Pnirej-  of  Judijmcnt.  These  three  critiques  form,  in- 
fleed,  only  one  great  work,  and  cannot  he  understood  cor- 
rectly except  when  thus  studied  in  their  unity.  The  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  the  new  system  presented  by  Kant 
in  these  works  is,  that  instead  of  treating  philosophy  as  a 
transcendent  science,  it  treats  it  from  a  transcendental 
point  of  view.  That  is  to  say,  Kant  denies  that  by  mere 
reasoning  or  argumentation  we  can  discover  any  new  truth 
or  transcend  the  world  of  common  consciousness,  and  that 
hence  all  the  efforts  of  previous  philosophers  to  discover 
such  new  truths  have  been  futile.  Philosophy  can  only 
explain  and  prove  truth;  and  its  problem  is  to  discover 
and  apply  tho  touchstone  by  which  this  proof  can  be  made. 
Now,  all  theoretical  propositions  that  may  he  made  are 
either  identical  (like  A  =  A),  and  these  need  no  proof,  or 
synthetical  (A  is  A  and  something  else  too;  for  instance, 
iron  is  not  only  a  body,  but  also  magnetic).  Of  these  syn- 
thetical propositions,  again,  all  those  which  are  empirical 
can  be  proved  only  by  experience;  and  hence  pure  reason 
is  required  only  to  prove  those  synthetical  propositions 
which  are  not  empirical — that  is.  which  are  a  prinri.  For 
instance,  if  when  the  sun  shines  I  observe  a  stone  get 
warm,  and  say  that  the  sun  is  the  cause  of  th.at  warmth,  I 
utter  an  «  prinri  synthetical  proposition,  because  the  con- 
ception of  cause  is  not  any  quality  of  the  sun  or  the  stone 
that  I  perceive  empirically.  I  perceive  only  a  change  from 
cold  to  heat  in  the  stone,  hut  a  million  of  such  changes 
would  not  make  the  conception  of  change  a  conception  of 
cause.  It  is  this  class  of  conceptions  which  require  a  rule 
whereby  their  proper  applicati(m  can  be  secured,  for  it  is 
only  by  their  improper  application  that  disputes  have  be- 
come possible  between  philosophers.  When  quarrels  havo 
arisen,  for  instance,  as  to  whether  (lod  was  the  cause  of  the 
world,  or  whether  the  soul  was  a  substance,  etc..  the  dispute 
wouhi  have  been  settled  at  once  if  a  rule  had  been  known 
whereby  it  could  have  been  determined  whether  the  syn- 
thetical conception  of  cause  could  have  been  predicated  of 
(lod,  or  that  of  substance  of  the  sold.  Kant  discovered 
this  rule,  or  the  *'  supreme  principle  of  alt  synthetical  judg- 
ments," to  be,  that  synthetical  propositions  «/)rfV<n  are  valid 
onlv  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  shown  that  consciousness  could  not 
otherwise  be  possible.  Tbe  whole  Cridqnr  of  f*nre  lifnnnn 
is  notliingbut  an  application  of  this  principle  to  all  the 
various  problems  that  have  engaged  philosophical  specula- 
tion, and  especially  to  the  antinomies  to  which  it  has  given 
rise.  By  this  application,  Kant  rooted  out  the  entire  old 
science  of  metaphysics,  and  established  in  its  place  a  uni- 
versally valid  critique  of  reason,  orscience  of  knowledge. 

But  not  all  the  propositions  of  human  reason  are  of  a 
theoretii-al  character,  nor  could  tliey  well  be  so,  since  other- 
wise human  reason  itself  would  remain  unex]'laine(L 
Theoretical  reason  always  explains  by  the  categories  of 
causality,  substantiality,  and  reciprocal  relation,  but  all 
these  categories  explain  only  the  u  priori  synthetical  prop- 
ositions or  phenomena  that  occur  within  reason  :  not,  how- 
ever, reason  itself.  If  reason  itself  husan  explanation,  there- 
fore, it  must  be  of  an  entirely  different  character — of  an  abso- 
lute character,  in  fact.  It  mnst  be  an  immediate  explana- 
tion, having  no  grniiiid.  no  cause,  no  why  or  wherefore.  This 
explanation,  says  Kant  in  his  Critiffue  of  Prariirnl  R'ftmni, 
is  the  Freedom,  the  Self-determination,  or  the  Categorical 


KANWAKA— KARAITES. 


1505 


Imperative,  which  maDifcsts  itself  in  each  iiiilividual  as 
the  Moral  Law.  No  one  can  demonstrate  to  another  by 
argumentaltun  that  thcro  occurs  within  him  a  phenom- 
enon which  tells  him  at  every  moment  of  h\»  life  what 
he  ought  to  do  or  ought  not  to  do,  and  impels  him  to  do  it 
or  not  to  do  it,  no  matter  what  hi?  natural  inclinations  may 
be  ;  each  one  can  discover  that  this  phenomenon  does  occur 
only  in  his  own  consciousness.  Freedom,  therefore,  which 
is  nothing  but  this  categorical  imperative  or  moral  impuUc, 
can  never  be  proved  by  something  else,  as  theoretical  cogni- 
tions can  be  proved,  but  only  by  practical  experience.  If, 
however,  this  categorical  imperative  is  onco  admitted,  if 
any  individual  confesses  that  he  has  ever  donea  moral  act, 
then  it  can  bo  shown  that  he  also  admits  a  Supreme  God 
and  immortality.  For  no  one  could  rationally  perform  one 
moral  act  if  he  did  not  presuppose  that  he  couhl  rise  to 
such  a  perfection  as  to  make  all  the  acts  of  his  life  moral — 
a  perfection  to  which  finite  beings  can  attain  only  in  an  in- 
finite life.  Nor  could  he  rationally  perform  such  an  act  did 
he  not  presuppose  that  his  act  would  accord  with  all  tho 
other  acts  performed  by  moral  beings — an  accord  which 
can  bo  realized  only  by  a  God.  (Compare  Leibnitz's  /Ve- 
€Mtaf>ii»heU  Harmony.)  These  propositions  Kant  has  fur- 
ther demonstrated  in  his  Critique  of  Pure  Uelifjion,  pub- 
lished in  1704. 

The  remaining  problem  now  was:  How  can  reason  be- 
come conscious  of  its  free  acts — i',  e.  of  itself  as  practical 
reason  operating  upon  an  outside  world — if  that  outside 
world  can  be  cognized  only  by  its  theoretical  faculty  ;  that 
is  to  say,  under  the  categories.  Tliis  question  Kant  solved 
in  his  Critiffue  uf  th'^  Power  of  Judgment  by  shoxving  that 
wc  do  view  the  outside  world  under  other  forms  than  those 
of  theoretical  reason — namely,  under  tho  forms  of  purposes 
or  designs — forms  which  can  be  referred  either  tu  tho  out- 
aide  world  itself,  in  which  case  we  arrive  at  tclcological 
views  of  tho  worM,  or  to  our  own  reason,  in  which  case  we 
pass  eesthctical  judgments  upon  outside  objects.  In  either 
case,  we  posit  ourselves  as  free  judges;  and  thus  tho  CVi- 
tique  of  the  Power  of  Jndffmeitt  substantiates  the  immediate 
fact  postulated  by  the  Critique  of  Practical  7?cu8o;i,  and 
completes  the  whole  system  of  reason. 

Having  thus  fini^'lled  tho  work  of  his  lifetime,  Kant 
devoted  tho  remaining  years  of  bis  lifo  to  applying  its 
principles  more  in  detail  to  tho  sciences  of  law,  morals, 
theology,  and  to  natural  science.  Thus,  in  I7S0  he  pub- 
lished his  Melaphi/niritl.  fundamental  Principlea  of  the  Sci- 
ence  of  Phtfairn:  in  179.^  to  1797,  two  works.  Eternal  Peace 
and  Sft-taphifniral-Fund'tmrntal  Prim-ipha  of  a  Srirncc  vf 
Law  and  a  Scirnee  of  Morah;  and  in  17'JH  he  concluded  his 
literary  labors  by  his  Authropolojyy  a  book  full  of  rare 
knowledge,  shrewd  observatious  on  men,  races,  nations, 
and  the  sexes,  which  every  one  should  read  who  wishes  to 
become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  tho  author  uf  the  Crit- 
i»{ne  of  I'ure  Jtraatnt.  It  is,  moreover,  an  excellent  example 
of  tho  exquisite  clearness  of  stylo  which  distinguishes 
nearly  all  of  Kant's  writings.  As  an  introduction  to  tho 
Ciltiifue  of  Pure  Iteanon  echolarg  might  bo  recommended  to 
read  Kant's  I'ndrtjinucnn,  which  is  also  a  marvel  of  sym- 
metrical arrangement  and  lucidity  of  style.  Of  Kant's  many 
followers,  Fiehto  alono  adopted  fully,  and  carried  out  in  his 
own  way,  the  great  discovery  of  Kant's  transcendentalism. 
At  present,  however,  the  study  of  Kant  is  again  beconiiug 
quite  general  in  tirrniany,  and  several  new  editions  of  his 
complete  works  have  appeared  within  tho  last  few  years. 

A.  K.  KuotH>KR. 

Kanwa'ka,  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Kan.     Top.  913. 

Ka'olin  [f'bin.  fCao-finy,  tho  name  of  a  hill  of  porce- 
lain clay],  the  common  name  of  a  hydrated  Hilicato  of  alu- 
mina f  AU<)3.2Si02  +  2110)  or  clay  used  for  tho  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain.  Kaolin  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
potash  feldspar  by  the  loss  of  all  the  potash  and  two-thirds 
of  tho  silica,  which  ingrc<hents  arc  replaced  by  2  equiva- 
li-nts  of  water.  Tho  proportion?  of  silica  to  alumina  vary 
largcdy  in  different  countries,  the  kaolins  of  China  and 
Japan  containing  twice  as  much  silica  as  those  uf  Passau 
ari'l  Gutriiborg  in  Germany.  Large  beds  of  kaolin  arc 
found  at  St.  Austell  in  Cornwall,  Kugland  (where  it  is  de- 
rived from  pure  feldspar),  in  Limoges.  France,  at  Itrandnn, 
Vt.,  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Hichmnud,  Va.,  Aiken  co.,  S.  0,, 
noiir  Augusta,  *ia.,  and  many  other  ports  <d'  the  U.  S. 

Kaolin,  post-ip.  of  Iron  co..  Mo.,  20  mile?  from  Pilot 
Knob.     Pop.  .ir.:i. 

Kapio'DCf  tp.  of  Atchison  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  775. 

Kapp  (FitiKDnicn),  h.  at  Hamm.  Westpbiilia,  Apr.  13, 
1824;  studied  law;  came  in  iH.'iO  to  New  York:  practised 
hero  as  a  lawyer:  was  a  Presidential  elector  in  IHtiO  ;  then 
commissioner  of  entigratlon  ;  returned  to  Germany  in  1K70, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  German  diet  in  1H72. 

He    wrote    /iif    Shlarcn/'ratjr    in     den     Verriui'/tm    Stanteii 
(1851),  Qcaehichtc  der  Sfclavcrci  in  dtn  Vcrcini'jtcn  Staatrn 
Vol..  II.— 95 


(1860),  Geachichte  der  deutachen  Atutoauderuny  in  Amerika 

(1868). 

Kap'pel,  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Zu- 
rich, noted  for  tho  encounter  which  took  place  hero  (Oct. 
11,  1531)  between  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics, 
and  in  which  Zwingli  was  killed.  In  ISMS  a  monument 
was  raised  to  him  on  the  spot  where  ho  fell. 

Kara  (GEOitot:).     See  Czekxy  (George). 

Karahissar.     See  Afium  or  AFirst-KARA-HissAn. 

Karaites,  a  Jewish  sect.  In  the  early  part  of  tho 
Middle  Ages  congregations  of  this  name  wore  settled  in  tho 
region  known  in  Jewish  history  as  Babylonia,  in  Palestine, 
Egypt,  Syria,  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  Lithuania.  It  has, 
however,  hitherto  been  iiniiossible  to  fix  the  exact  date  of 
their  first  settlement  in  these  various  localities.  In  1110 
A.  D.  they  appcare«l  in  Spain,  but  soon  after  (11  ;iOj  suffer  per- 
secution at  the  hands  of  their  coreligionists,  who  in  contra- 
distinction to  them  are  known  as  Rabbinites.  With  tho 
help  of  tho  temporal  power  they  were  driven  from  the  citit^s, 
and  thereafter  confined  to  a  single  insignificant  town.  In 
1150  they  endured  a  second  persecution,  and  after  this 
period  we  lose  sight  of  them  completely  so  far  a?  Spain  is 
concerned.  In  166S,  King  John  111.  Sobicski  succeeded 
in  drawing  a  body  of  Karaites  from  Lithuania  and  tho 
Crimea  to  the  neighborhood  of  Lenibcrg  by  granting  them 
special  privileges  of  great  value.  In  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  Jews,  tho  number  of  the  Karaite  settlers  was 
inconsiderable,  and  since  then  it  has  kept  on  dimin- 
ishing. At  the  present  day  a  few  feeble  congregations  in 
the  East,  in  Poland,  and  Russia  are  all  that  remain  of  them. 
Their  chief  settlement  is  in  the  Crimea,  in  a  village  among 
tho  mountains  called  Tshufut  Kale,  where  they  enjoy  tho 
protection  of  the  Russian  government.  The  nmny  excel- 
lent traits  of  character  for  which  they  are  distinguished 
have  procured  their  exemption  from  special  enactments  of 
a  hostile  nature  which  have  been  at  different  times  directed 
against  the  Jews  of  Russia. 

Tho  name  Karaite,  or,  as  they  also  style  themselves, 
Bene  Mikra  ("sons  of  Scripture"),  is  derived  from  the 
fundamental  doctrine  that  marks  their  peculiarity  as  a  sect. 
It  consists  in  their  acknowledging  Scripture,  and  nothing 
hut  Scripture,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Talmud  and  the 
traditions  of  tho  rabbins,  as  tho  source  of  their  religion. 
Tho  rise  of  this  sect  is  wrajiped  in  obscurity.  Concerning 
the  time  and  tho  occasion  of  their  origin  tho  opinions  of 
scholars — nay,  even  the  accounts  of  the  chronicles— are 
widely  divergent.  Rabbi  Jehuda  ha  Levi  (1140|,  in  his 
philosophical  work  the  CHnniari  (3,  Go),  thinks  proper  to 
assign  their  origin  to  the  ago  of  John  Ilyrcanus  {l.'ia 
B.C.),  Tho  rabbins,  ho  thinks,  having  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  king,  his  friends  seized  the  opportunity  to 
stir  up  opposition  against  them,  and  a  new  sect  was  thus 
formed.  Other  authorities,  at  their  head  the  Gaon  Saadia 
(in  his  polemical  work  against  Auan),  and,  following  his 
lead,  Shorira  (950  a.  n.),  in  his  well-known  hjgeretk  (a  his- 
torical document  of  tho  highest  value),  con.sider  Anun, 
whom  the  Karaites  only  regard  as  the  first  leader  of  their 
sect,  as  its  founder.  Annn  flourished  about  700  a.  d.,  as 
Rapoport  has  shown  in  tho  Hebrew  periodical  Kerem 
Chrmed  (5,  p,  20l{;.  The  chronology  of  the  Karaites  in- 
accurately assigns  him  a  date  fully  a  century  too  early.  A 
second  time  tho  motive  of  revenge  is  called  in  to  exj)lain 
the  rise  of  tho  sect.  Anan,  it  is  said,  aspirctl  to  the  ofiieo 
of  rcah  tjchitha  ('*  Prince  of  tho  Captivity  "|,  but  another 
having  been  preferred  in  his  stead,  jealousy  provoked  him 
to  institute  a  division.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  this 
account  is  colored  by  tho  rancor  of  enemies.  Jealousy 
may  explain  tho  secession  of  an  individual  from  his  party 
or  creed,  but  it  can  never  bring  about  a  new  religious  move- 
ment ;  least  of  all,  such  a  one  as  gave  rise  to  the  sect  of  the 
Karaites — a  sect  whoso  existence  is  measured  by  at  hast 
twelve  centuries,  whoso  members  have  ever  displayed  pro- 
found religious  conviction  and  zeal,  and  havo  preserved  a 
degree  of  moral  energy  and  purity  which  calls  forth  univer- 
sal admiration.  A  third  view  concerning  ihc  origin  of  the 
Karaites  current  among  tho  mt-diieval  rabbins,  an<!  repre- 
sented by  such  great  names  us  those  of  Maimonidesand  A  ben 
Esra,  identified  them  with  tho  ancient  sect  of  the  Zidukim 
(Sadducees),and  writersof  the  class  wo  have  mentioned  com- 
monly apply  the  name  of  Sadducees  to  them  without  hesita- 
tion or  reserve.  This  view  derives  its  solo  support  from  the 
fact  that  tho  Karaites  agree  with  the  Sadducees  in  certain 
questions  of  religious  theory  nncl  practice ;  as,  for  instance, 
in  celebrating  tin'  feast  of  Pentecost  on  a  Sunday.  But.  on 
tho  other  hand,  we  should  consider  that  they  hold  the  most 
important  articles  of  faith,  such  ns  tho  doctrine  of  reward 
and  punishment,  of  the  resurrection  of  tho  dead,  etc.,  in 
common  with  the  rabbinfl.  and  reject  the  opinions  of  the 
Satlducccs.  If  (Jeigcr's  viexv  as  laid  down  in  his  Vi-Kchrift 
and  elsewhere  be  admitted,  and  it  is  trui-.  as  he  afiirms,  that 


1506 


KARAITES. 


the  Sadducees  accepted  tradition  in  its  earliest  form,  and 
rejected  only  its  later  development  by  the  Pharisees,  then 
the  futility  of  every  attempt  to  identify  both  sects  must  be 
at  once  apparent.  For  the  Karaites  were  consistent  in 
discarding  tradition  in  all  its  forms,  earlier  and  later. 

The   accounla   of   the   Karaites   themselves    concerning 
their  origin  appear  to  be,  so  far  as  their  writings  have  become 
known,  no  less  untrustworthy.     At  one  time,  they  acknow- 
ledge Jchuda  ben  Tabbai,  an  ancient  teacher  mentioned  in 
the^Mishna.  as  the  founder  of  their  sect :  again,  this  honor 
is  reserved  for  Anan  b.  David,  whom  we  have  already  men-  | 
tiotied  above;  while  at  the  same  time  they  claim  that  their  \ 
doctrine  is  as  ohl  as  .Judaism  itself;  that  the  jirinciples  they 
advocate  were  those  of  Moses  and  the  pr<ipbet8  ;  and,  fur-  ■ 
thermore,  that  thev  had  remained  unquestioned  until  the 
days  of  Simon  b.  .Shetach.    He,  the  brother-in-law  of  King  | 
Hyrcanus  and  president  of  the  Sanhedrin.  began  to  intvo-  j 
diico  innovations  of  an  arbitrary  character  and  contrary  to 
the  established  customs  of  Israel,  and  by  so  doing  laid  the 
foundations  of  rabbinism.     His  measures  were  resisted  by  , 
his  colleague  in  the  presidency  of  the  Sanhedrin,  Jehuda 
b.  Tabbai,  who  remained  true  to  the  ancient  law,  and  who  j 
is  for  this  reason  called  the  father  of  the  Karaites.  (Dod 
Marflechat,  chap,  ii.) 

Though  these  different  accounts  are  unclear,  contradict- 
ory, and  without  adequate  historical  basis,  they  all  contain 
an  essential  clement  of  truth,  or  at  least  indicate  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  truth  is  to  be  found.  The  correct  view  of 
thinfs  seems  to  be  the  following:  As  compared  with  the 
Bible,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  rabbinic  system  marks 
a  new  departure.  Like  every  innovation,  it  encountered 
opposition  at  the  very  outset.  This  opposition  was  grad- 
ually silenced,  but  could  not  be  completely  destroyed.  It 
continued  to  exist  as  a  strong  undercurrent,  and  when  the 
occasion  was  presented  rose  with  new  energy  to  the  surface. 
In  order  thoroughly  to  understand  this  process,  it  will  be 
necessarv  to  define  the  exact  position  of  rabbinism,  and 
brieflv  to  trace  the  successive  stages  of  its  develo]>ment. 

In  the  age  when  rabbinism  struck  root,  shortly  after  the 
return  of  the  people  from  captivity  in  Babylon,  the  condi- 
tions, both  external  and  internal,  amid  which  the  code  of 
the  Pentateuch  had  arisen  had  materially  changed.     The 
demands  of  life  in  favor  of  new  laws  were  pressing,  and  (he 
leading  spirits  of  the  time,  recognizing  their  justice,  felt 
themselves  called  upon — nay,  in  duty  bound — so  to  modify 
the  teachings  and  commands  of  religion  that  they  should 
conform  to  the  altered  state  of  affairs.     But,  holding  their 
own  authority  to  be  insufficient  to  ensure  obedience  to  those 
new  enactments,  which,  though  urgently  demanded  by  the 
exigencies  of  life,  were  contrary  to  the  prescriptions  of  the 
Bible  and  the  traditions  of  the  fathers,  they  resorted  to  a 
measure  at  once  thoroughly  effective  and  dangerous.     By 
the  aid  of  a  highly  artificial  and  tortuous  system  of  exe- 
gesis they  assumed  the  appearance  of  deducing  whatever 
laws  they  intended  to  pass  from  the  very  words  of  Scrip- 
ture  a  liieasurc  which  they  justified  on  the  ground  of  ne- 
cessity, and  because  the  means  in  this  ease  seemed  author- 
ized by  the  good  end  they  desired  to  reach.    A  wide  field  for 
controversy  was  thus  opened.    The  Sadducees  made  excel- 
lent use  of  the  opportunity  afforded  them,  and  employed 
as  the  keenest  weapons  of  attack  the  revealed  word  of  God 
himself  and  the  sacred  customs  of  antiquity.    But  their  ef- 
forts were  vain.     In  struggling  against  the  innovations 
of  the  rabbins  they  resisted  the  tendency  of  the  age,  and 
they  were  at  last  forced  to  succumb.     But  the  very  suc- 
cess of  rabbinism  encouraged  an  altogether  unprecedent- 
ed extension  of  that  vicious  method  of  exegesis  by  which 
its  triumph  had  been  secured,   and   became  instrumental 
in  rallying  anew  its  defeated  and  scattered  adversaries  and 
arming  them  for  the  attack.     The  new  method  of  the  rab- 
bins was  too  fruitful,  and,  breaking  through  all  restraints, 
soon  became  corrupt.     Though  at  first  regarded  as  a  mere 
makeshift  to  ensure  the  acceptance  of  measures  otherwise 
wholesome  and  wise,  it  came  to  be  considered  in  the  later 
schools  of  the  Talmudists  true  and  valuable  on  its  own  ac- 
count.    It  was  cultivated  with  exaggerated  zeal  and  dia- 
lectical acuteness.  and  thus  became  the  source  of  a  mul- 
titude of   legal    provisions    equally    unmeaning   and    un- 
called   for.     In    such    a  condition  of  affairs    it  could   not 
but  come  about  that  men   of  sound  judgment  and   firm 
will    should  protest    against   this  corruption   of   religion. 
The  opposition  was  at  first  carried  on  secretly,  then  with 
greater    boldness    and    openness — the    hostile   band    was 
small  in  numbers  at  first,  then  increased   by  a  large  and 
powerful  following — until  a  bitter  conflict  ensued,  and  at 
last  a  new  sect  went  forth  from  the  struggle.    Already  in 
the  Talmud   we  find  a  number  of  ordinances  which  ap- 
pear to  be  directed  against  those  who  hold  Karaite  opin- 
ions, and  which  therefore  presuppose  their  existence.     (AV- 
thiibnth.  62   li.)      The  celebrated  teacher  of   the  Mishna, 
Rabbi  Eliezcr  the  Great,  admonishes  his  disciples  (Ziora- 


chotli,  28  b)  to  keep  their  children  from  "  Higaion,"  mean- 
ing, as  the  commentator  explains,  from  too  frequent  reading 
of  the  Bible.     This  shows  us  that  even  in  the  days  of  R. 
Eliezcr  the  rabbins  saw  the  danger  which  would  threaten 
their  system  if  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Scripture 
were  to  become  general.      And  yet  it  was  impossible  to 
avoid  this  danger.     Within  the  pale  of  Judaism  the  people 
could  not  he  precluded  from  studying  Scripture,  as  was 
done  elsewhere.      The  reading  of  the  "books  of  Moses" 
formed  an  essential  element  of  the  sabbath  service,  and 
even  the  Talmudists  were  forced  to  declare  the  study  of  the 
Bible  a  religious  dutv,  though  of  less  importance  than  the 
study  of  the  Talmud.     iBnha  Mczia.  33  a.)     Indeed,  the 
letter  of  Scripture  was  the  very  foundation  on  which  rab- 
binism had  raised  its  huge  edifice.     It  was  thus  forced  to 
nourish  its  foe  at  its  own  breast,  and,  by  continually  re- 
curring to  the  Bible  for  the  sanclificatiou  of  its  encroach- 
ments, to  keep  alive  and  strengthen  the  spirit  of  opposi- 
tion which  these  innovations  tended  to  develop.     After  the 
close  of  the  Talmudic  epoch  the  spirit   of  opposition  was 
still  further  encouraged.     In    Palestine  (Tiberias)  greater 
attention  began  to  be  paid  to  the  correct  preservation   of 
the  biblical  text.      It  was  supplied  with  vowel-signs  and 
accents,  and   an  organized  Masoretic  school  devoted  care 
and  vigilance  exclusively  to  this  task.      A  similar  school 
arose  in  Babvlonia,  where  a  dilferent  system  of  vocalization 
was  introduced.       The    scrupulous  care  with   which    the 
Bible  was  now  studied  naturally  directed  the  thoughts  of 
many  to  the  wide  divergence  existing  between  the  real 
meaning  of  Scripture  and  that  which  passed  current  in  the 
schools  of  the  Talmudists.     Thus  the  number  of  those  hos- 
tile to  the  Talmud  kept  on  increasing.     But  when  in  the 
eighth  century  Babylonish  rabbinism  began  to  urge  new 
claims  to  supremacy!  the  like  of  which  had  never  been  heard 
of  before,  the  opposition  became  uncontrollable.     So  long 
as  the  Sanhedrin  had  remained  in  existence,  there  had  been 
at  least  a  senate  of  seventy  persons  to  limit  the  sovereignty 
of  thcnasi(first  president)  in  matters  of  religion.     During 
the  Talmudic  epoch  proper  great  diversity  of  opinion  pre- 
vailed among  the  individual  teachers,  without  there  being 
any  central  authority  of  sufficient  influence  to  pronounce 
final  decisions  on  disputed  questions.     This  state  of  things 
continued  in  the  succeeding  (the  so-called  Saburaic)  epoch. 
And  it  was  not  till  the  presidents  of  the  Babylonish  acad- 
emies had  assumed  the  magnificent  title  of  </"o?i  (highness) 
that  a  desire  awoke  for  greater  power  than  had  ever  been 
granted  before.  A  kin.l  of  iniallibility  was  assumed  by  these 
gaons.  and  the  iudgmcnt  of  an  individual  was  claimed  to 
be  binding  on  all  Israel.     At  that  time  honest  and  enlight- 
ened men  found  that  the  burden  of  rabbinism  had  become 
insupportable.     The  time  for  separation  was  at  hand.     An 
impulse  from  without  was  all  that  was  needed^    This  was 
given  by  ,\nan.      ( Fiirst  in  his    Hiniuri/ of  Knrni»m  has 
prirth/  recognized  the  true  relation  and  succession  of  events 
as  we' have  detailed  tbem  above;  bat  in  this  he  had  been 
already  anticipated  by  a  mediseval  writer  of  note.  Rabbi 
Simon" b.  Zemach  Duran.     See  GrUtz,  MonalsKchrl/l,  1874, 
Nov.,  p.  5tK).) 

Anan  ben  David,  b.  700  A.  n.  in  the  town  of  Bazra,  near 
Bagdad,  of  noble  family,  claiming  descent  from  King 
David,  received  a  thorough  education  in  Jewish  theology 
and  in  those  scientific  pursuits  which  were  cherished  at  the 
time.  He  soon  acquirerl  a  considerable  re|uitalion  as  a 
scholar,  and  collected  a  number  of  adherents  around  him, 
who  accepted  his  independent  views.  Even  thus  early  he 
did  not  scruple  to  deviate  from  the  beaten  track  of  rab- 
binic teaching.  In  754  he  settled  in  Bagdad,  where  his 
uncle,  Salomo,  the  "prince  of  the  Captivity,"  resided. 
When  the  latter  died  childless  (700)  the  nearest  claim  to 
the  vacant  oflice  was  that  of  Anan,  both  on  account  of  his 
eminent  learning  and  high  descent.  The  academical  pres- 
idents of  Sora  and  Anl.ar,  however,  opposed  his  election, 
because,  as  the  rabbinical  chronicles  tell  us.  "they  discov- 
ered a  defect  in  him  "  (in  the  .sV/Vr  >>"  Cahhtihi  ("  R"OK  »' 
Tradition')  of  Abraham  h.  David  of  Toledo,  1110-80). 
What  this  defect  was  thev  do  not  say.  and  their  silence  on 
this  head  amply  proves  that  it  could  have  been  no  moral  flaw. 
It  was,  indeed",  nothing  more  than  his  heterodox  opinions 
to  which  thev  referred.  The  party  of  Anan  sought  to  gain 
the  protcctio'n  of  the  caliph  Almansur,but  their  opponents 
represented  them  as  rebels,  and  caused  their  persecution. 
In  consequence,  Anan  and  his  adherents  fled  to  Jerusalem, 
where  heopenlv  cut  loo.se  from  the  authority  of  the  Talmud, 
and  founded  the  first  congregation  of  Karaites.  To  hini 
and  his  descendants  the  title  of  nasi  was  applied,  as  it  had 
formerly  been  given  to  the  patriarchs  of  Palestine  in  the 
Talmudic  epoch.  But  the  "  princely  "  office  of  nasi  was 
royal  only  in  name,  and  lacked  the  substanceof  power.  Its 
incumbents  continued  to  reside  in  Jerusalem  until  910. 
Later  on  they  removed  to  Cahira.  ,     ,    .        . 

The  foundation  of  the  sect  of  Karaites  had  thus  been 


KARAITES. 


1507 


laid  by  Anan.  though  he  was  far  from  carrying  out  his 
principle?  to  their  last  consequence.  Neither  he  nor  his 
followers  were  entirely  emancipated  from  those  religious 
views  and  practices  which  education  and  custom  had  so 
long  eontrihulcd  to  foster.  It  is  true  he  proclaimed  the 
right  of  interfireting  and  applying  the  words  of  Scripture 
independently  of  all  authority,  yet,  none  the  less,  he  clung 
to  many  of  the  ordinances  prescribed  by  the  .Mislinii.  Es- 
pecially was  this  the  case  in  questions  of  civil  law.  A 
complete  reconstruction  of  practical  religion,  which  nt  that 
time  included  the  administration  of  juFticc  in  its  spliore, 
transcended  the  powers  of  an  individual  to  accomplish. 
New  congregations  were  formed,  new  teachers  arose. 
Questions  whieh  Anan  had  never  considered  came  up  for 
decision.  Others  which  he  had  adjudged  were  discussed 
anew,  and  conclusions  differing  from  his  own  not  unfrc- 
qiiently  reached;  for  Anan  had  himself  opposed  the  habit 
of  blind  reliance  on  the  utterances  of  the  master,  and  de- 
clared free  exegesis  his  watchword.  As  the  sect  grew  in  num- 
bers, and  its  rival  teachers  struggled  to  fix  it  securely,  each 
on  the  basis  of  his  own  system,  iho  confusion  of  conflicting 
opinions  increased,  and  the  new  sect  was  in  imminent  dan- 
ger of  splitting  into  numberless  minor  sects,  and  thus 
perishing.  In  this  way  the  struggle  continued  until  800 
A.  T>.,  when  Benjamin  Xahawendi,  from  the  town  of  Xaha- 
wend  in  ancient  Media,  succeeded  in  gaining  universal 
recognition  among  the  Karaites,  and  to  him  the  sect  owes 
its  perpetuation.  In  his  day  the  name  Ananites  was  ex- 
changed for  Karaites,  by  which  latter  appellation  they  haro 
since  been  known.  His  authority  was  sufficiently  great  to 
challenge  even  that  of  Anan.  His  views,  laid  down  in 
con)menlaries  to  the  Bible  and  legal  compendia,  spread  tr> 
the  Kast  and  West,  to  the  congregations  of  Biibylon  and 
Palestine,  and  were  the  more  readily  accepted  because  they 
temied  on  the  whole  to  lighten  the  load  of  religious  duties. 
Anan  had  intcnlicted  the  use  of  fowl  at  table;  Benjamin 
piTinittod  it.  Anan  had  extended  the  obligation  of  the 
leviratical  marriage  to  all  male  relatives  of  the  deceased; 
Benjamin  confined  it  to  the  brother.  Anan  had  jealously 
guarded  the  rigid  sanctification  of  the  sabbath.  On  the 
sabbath  day  he  prohibited  conjugal  intercourse,  forbade 
circumcision,  and  demanded  the  literal  ajiplicntion  of  the 
words  of  Scripture,  "  Xo  one  shall  leave  his  place,"  thus 
locking  up  his  people  in  their  houses.  Bcnjaiuia  abrogated 
all  these  provisions. 

The  main  principle  of  Anan,  that  of  free  exegesis,  re- 
mained undisputed,  and  Benjamin  Xahawendi  could  not 
check  the  further  development  of  Karaisni,  even  had  he 
been  disposed  to  do  so.  And,  indeed,  after  his  death  wo 
find  differences  of  theory  continuing  to  exist  among  schol- 
ars, and  practical  differences  arising  in  various  congrcga- 
titms  concerning  important  questions  of  religious  law.  Thus, 
for  instance,  some  held  with  the  rabbins  that  it  is  permissi- 
ble to  keep  a  light  burning  on  Friday  evening,  provided  it 
had  been  lit  before  the  opening  of  the  subbatli,  while  oIbel■,■^ 
consiilered  it  wrong  to  <lo  so,  nml  were  forced  to  ]pass  the 
whole  night  in  darkness.  In  the  main,  however,  the  dan- 
ger of  dismemberment  was  averted  by  Benjamin,  and  the 
unity  of  Karai<m  secured. 

The  essential  difTerenee  between  themselves  and  the  rab- 
binist  Jews  had  meantime  come  thoroughly  homo  to  the 
Karaites,  and  was  continually  strengthened  by  the  habits 
of  their  daily  life.  Though  there  was  no  dogmatic  con- 
flict between  them,  though  the  same  basis  of  faith  was 
common  to  both,  yet  their  disagreements  in  other  matters 
were  too  important  and  far-reaching  to  admit  the  hope  of 
reconciliation.  The  common  celebration  of  feast-days  is  at 
all  times  a  strong  bond  of  union  between  coreligionists. 
This  bond  Anun  had  already  severed.  Kvrr  since  his  time 
the  Karaites  have  determined  the  day  of  the  new  moon  by 
direct  observation,  while  the  rabbinist?  continue  to  guitle 
themselves  by  the  calculations  of  their  received  calendar. 
The  Karaites  celebrated,  and  Still  celebrate,  the  Pentecost 
on  the  fiftieth  day  counting  from  the  Sunday  of  Passover 
Week  :  the  rabbinists,  on  the  fiftieth  day  counting  from  the 
second  day  of  the  feast.  Also,  the  rite  of  circumcision  is 
practised  hy  the  Karaites  in  a  way  not  recognized  as  vali<l 
Ity  the  rabbinic  law.  In  respect  to  dietary  laws,  the 
Karaite;!  abandoned  numberless  restrictions  held  sacred  by 
the  r.ibbinisls.  The  latter  naturally  liroke  ofl"  connection 
with  tho-ie  wlio  habitually  transgressed  their  laws.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Karaites  aspired  to  the  most  nnstero  purity 
in  the  social  relations.  As  early  as  the  days  of  Anan  they, 
with  the  help  of  their  peculiar  methotl  of  exegesis,  extemled 
the  number  of  forbidden  marriages  to  such  a  degree  that 
many  matrimonial  alliances  which  pa<"s  unchallenged  aimmg 
the  rabbinists  were  by  them  regarded  in  the  light  of  crimes. 
The  offspring  of  such  alliances  were  consiflered  to  have 
sprung  from  an  incestuous  intercourse,  and  intermarriage 
with  them  was  of  course  impossible. 

The  golf  between  Kar.iites  and  rabbini?ts  cnnM  no  more 


he  bridged  over.  The  peculiarities  of  both  parties  were 
strongly  marked.  Both  were  firmly  resolved  to  preserve 
their  own  opinions  and  institutions  intact,  and  they  might 
have  pursued  their  several  ways  side  by  side  without  inter- 
fering one  with  the  other.  But  this  was  not  to  be.  It  is 
in  the  nature  of  every  new  sect  to  seek  an  extension  of 
its  influence  by  drawing  converts  from  the  outside  world 
into  its  ranks.  The  leading  men  of  the  Karaites  being 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  Bible,  admirably  skilled  in 
scholarly  research,  and  impelled  by  holy  xeal  for  thetr 
cause,  produced  a  great  and  varied  literature  in  its  interest, 
and  in  every  way  labored  strenuously  to  gain  adherents 
for  their  doctrines.  In  the  course  of  the  ninth  century 
they  sent  out  missionaries  in  all  directions,  and  succeeded 
in  founding  congregations  in  Iran.  Persia,  Media.  Armenia, 
Syria,  Palestine.  Egypt,  and  the  N.  of  Africa.  Raltbinism 
witnessed  the  triumph  of  its  opponent  with  terror  and  dis- 
may, but  was  too  feeble  effectually  to  resist  it.  Its  repre- 
sentative men  were  equally  lacking  in  power  of  thought 
and  of  expression.  Even  the  gaons  of  the  academies, 
though  versed  in  Talmudio  lore,  were  utterly  ignorant  of 
the  ]»ursuits  of  science.  In  this  extremity,  the  rabbinists, 
though  loath  to  adopt  a  measure  which  seemed  so  deroga- 
tory to  their  dignity,  calletl  a  stranger,  Saadia  ben  Joseph 
(b.892  A.  n. )  of  Faium,  in  Upper  Kgypt.  to  Babylonia, 
and  appointed  him  gaon  of  Sora.  His  fame  as  a  profound 
Talmudist,  a  master  of  science,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
bitter  eneuiy  of  the  Karaites,  had  preceded  him.  The 
wisdom  of  the  appointment  was  proved  by  the  event. 
Saadia,  indeed,  was  a  writer  of  extraordinary  fertility  and 
genius.  The  reader  will  gain  some  conception  of  the  ver- 
satility of  his  mind  on  learning  that  this  man.  apart  from 
his  labors  on  the  field  of  the  Talmuil,  was  the  author  of  a 
Hebrew  grammar,  a  Hebrew  lexicon,  a  book  on  rhetoric, 
an  Arjibic  translation  of  and  commentary  on  the  Bible 
and  the  Mishna,  a  work  on  the  philosophy  of  religion  from 
the  Jewish  standpoint,  and  of  many  minor  treatises  be- 
sides. Not  only  did  ho  in  all  his  works  seize  every  oppor- 
tunity that  offered  a  plausible  pretext  to  refute  the  opinions 
of  the  Karaites,  but  he  also  directed  three  separate  books 
— on  the  marital  laws,  on  the  Hebrew  calendar,  and  the 
divine  institutions — expressly  against  their  doctrine,  and 
wrote  seven  polemical  treatises  against  their  most  distin- 
guished teachers.  The  influence  of  Saadia  inter])used  a 
barrier  to  the  further  spread  of  Karaism,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  tendeil  indirectly  to  strengthen  and  purify  it 
inwardly.  Such  attacks  as  thoso  of  Saadia,  carried  on 
with  the  weapons  of  science  and  learning,  and  the  keen 
sword  of  eloquence,  Karaism  had  never  before  experienced. 
They  called  for  counter-efforts  on  its  part,  which  brctught 
leaders  of  such  high  intellectual  power  to  the  front  as  only 
the  hour  of  danger  can  awaken.  Prominent  among  these 
are  Joseph  el  Bazri,  the  fust  Jc  wish  writer  on  the  philoso- 
phy of  religion,  and  Salmon  b.  Jerochim.  An  emulous 
strucrglo  betw<'en  the  literary  rivals  of  either  side  began, 
whoso  influence  was  salutary  to  both  parties,  encouraging 
thoroughness  and  accuracy  of  investigation.  The  half 
century  between  900  and  9;»0  A.  n..  during  the  lifetime  of 
Saadia  and  shortly  after,  is  the  golden  age  of  the  literature 
ofthe  Karaites.  Their  principles  were  then  firmly  grounded, 
their  theology  completely  systematized.  After  the  death 
of  Saadia  (1)12)  his  disciples  feebly  continued  the  contest 
for  some  time  longer  ;  hut  gradually  the  cries  of  I  he  contend- 
ing champions  died  out,  and  wlun  the  fight  was  over  the 
limits  of  lioth  sects  were  found  to  be  more  strictly  defined 
and  closed  in  than  they  had  ever  been  previously. 

We  may  say  that  the  rabbinists  by  their  persecutions  cre- 
ated Karaism.  By  their  literary  opposition  tiu-y  made  it 
strong  and  enduring.  In  the  following  centuries  the  feel- 
ing of  hostility  bctwi-en  Karait*  s  and  rnbbinisls.  which 
was  still  at  times  displayed  in  their  writings,  diminished 
in  billernefls.  Knlighlened  men  of  both  parties  admon* 
ished  their  friends  to  practise  patience  and  forbearance 
toward  their  opponents,  and  a  ^i^stingui^bed  rabbi,  She- 
maria  Icreti  (of  Crete  or  Cundia,  ll'lHI-ll'.'-Mt).  even  at- 
tem]>ted,  though  to  no  purpose,  to  reunite  the  two  divis- 
ions of  Juilaifiu.  A  similar  attempt  was  made  with  tho 
same  result  by  Uabbi  ttedalia  Ibn  Jaebia  of  Lisabon  in 
tho  year  Hf^T.  The  relations  subsisting  between  the 
Karaites  and  rabbinists  of  Lithuania,  Russia,  and  Po- 
land during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  were 
of  a  particularly  peaceful  ancl  cordial  characler.  while  in 
our  own  century  of  prr»gres»ive  and  liberal  culture  the  last 
vestiges  of  niutunl  distrust  have  completely  disappeared. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  in  tins  connection  that  e^■en  at  the 
time  when  the  animosity  of  the  eontemling  sects  was  most 
pronounced,  no  one  ever  thought  (d"  declaring  tho  opposing 
party  w  ithmit  the  pale  of  .ludaism.  t^n  the  contrary,  some 
of  the  very  highest  authorities  of  the  rabbinists  distinctly 
affirmed  that  the  Karaites  are  to  bo  considered  and  treated 
as  .lews,  nolwith'-'tanding  all  their  errors.     The  prc-ence 


1508 


KAKAJITCH-KARAMZIN 


often   men  is  required  for  P^^ic  worship   according^to 

counting  of  '^"'^"^  him'^elf,  not  from  any  desire  to 

""'  ""ie'thein'rom     "  feUow'ii ,  o(  Israel,  but  simply  bc- 
"::'  hey  do  n„"  alree  with  t'hc  rabbinists  in  re-iuiniv. 

i,  birth  and  not  circumcision  wl^chmak-^  ^^   ^^^ 

As  re-ards   the  scientific  and  "  "">     j^,     ^^  n„njer- 

mentioned.  They  "^^  "7j,i,oi<„^,  philosophy,  niathe- 
different  branches,  partly  '»  P^'^fA'^  ^^„„  „  beyond  a 
matics,  astronomy,  and  medicine.     It  is  cena         j    ^ 

c      1  ii.a  rin..tiine<i  of  the  existence  ot  troa,  oi  ru>eiui.wu. 

!;^;ry:;M^onada.m.ar,d.s„^ 

^'X/,™  (^Trt    f -llif!  ••  .  o"n \he  philosophy  of  religion. 
Lbn  edited  with  many  learned  annotations  a„<,  ex- 

'''rr-^Vi-irii'Lr^^^th^rtr'^s^riiifn^'^.ephth 

f^s'og^f  whose  commentaries  have  been  f-ely  used  by 
Joseph(h  1250  in  tneLriu       ..  ^_^^^_.  ^^   ^ 

'°  ^  '"':r  hl^^ralic      Tho-mo;t  important   of  these 

den  in  the  literature  of    he  karaitet     .  ._^   „,^ 

Karaism   and  <^h";  '^"    ;''        ,i,  „,„  seventeenth  century 

RUtaneel  professor  at  Kiinigsberg.  «ho  travelled  to  L.t  i^ 
nania  in  fi4  and  there  visited  the  Karaite  congregation  in 
ITr  \o  :.ud';  Uie  doctrines  of  the  sect  at  .ho  foiintain-head^  I 
He  was  f.illowed  by  (Sustavus  I'erringer.  protcssor  oi  mi. 
SAem"  'ai;uases^t  Tpsala,  who  ""<|-'-^,  t%weT 
iournev  for  the  same  purpose,  at  the  instance  of  "'c  Mve.i 
dhk°ng  Charles  XI..  in  1690.  Six  years  later,  two  scholars, 
stedes^'as  before,  went  on  a  similar  mission  to  I-<h"a"'a; 
aiTd    nduced  the  Karaites  to  send  one  of  their  learned  men 

^U'sl  in  order. o  supply  the  ^^^"^'^--f  ^^^^^^^'Z 
with  detailed  information  concerning  the  historv  ana  uio 
Tssen  ial  doctrines  of  their  sect.  Salomo  Toroki,  the  author 
^f  1he%,.,.H-'oM.  was  selected  for  this  purpose.  In  the 
f  iwln/vear  he  came  to  Upsala.  was  received  with  great 
JstiSna^d  wrote  a  treatise  in  answer  to  the  questions 
d,s Unction,  an  Holland,   however,    where 

tCJZ  X  abic^studies  were  cultivated  with  great  .eal 

and  devotion,  the  desire  for  a  better  understanding  of  Ka- 


j„„(  nnd  the  measures  taken  to  secure 
raism  was  most  "^ent  ^"^/Ji^^Uie  Dutch  scholars  who 
it  proved  most  »f =''^«-  /"""^i  ,„  »  knowledge  of  the 
took  a  prominent  I'^rt  >n  spread.n  ^^^^,^     ,^  ^^^^ 

history  ""J  '"""''.'^,°V  I  e  not  only  collected,  but  care- 
first  place,  LewmW  arner.K  not  on  y  ^^ 

(My  stu.lied  and  )'""»  "I^t-^hich  were  :fO  codices,  con- 
Hebrew  i"''""''\'"PV  ,   rw  frv  tes      Then  Jacob  Trigland, 

within  the  last  few  decades,  after  a  part  "'^ 

of  manuscripts  «i„g  to  Karaite  .;^  -■-„„,^, 

scattered  in  various  Periodica    .and  'o^^  <■ 

^ri^whi^wii?^!:^.:"^;--'--'^''--- 

'■^C^^drof-hJ'^elt^f  Karaite  is  -  ^^- -- 
exhausted.  The  greater  P"  "f  '^^'jje  of  the  wandering 
lost  in  the  course  of  ;,'°>;';';;°;,d  ^a  <he  d  '"lal  destiniel 
life  -hH-ht>'.'[/'^^^.,°  ";^1  :ris.  with  few  exceptions, 
they  met  with.     AM  at   ""''',,       u      e  „f  half-faded  man- 

'^"'!''*'°'ThfuCrorLe  d:nwtT;ralong 
uscripts.     Ihelioraryoi       .  minted  works  of  the 

than  any  other  in  ----•;':,:;"bre':surpassed  by  the 
Karaites      It  ^^if^'J'  „,,ieh  is  now  in  possession  of  tho 

"waSht  at  the  expense  of  the  emperor^       b.  AnLCK^ 

Kara'jitch  (V.k  ^--;---" V^  wa       'in^pend- 
cated  at  Carlowitz  ;  served  in  the  Ser wan  1^  ^^^ 

ence,  but  Bed  to  Austria  when  in    »  .^  ,„-,i,erary 

^'''*'^%r^Hircot;t    0    strvL^popularsongs.^vols., 

X'^a^JU:::  andf  Strwi'r^rammar  and  dictionary. 

-.rj^nj^i::-.^^^-;^^^^^ 

log  safe  anchorage.  In  the  eig"'  „  ,.  .  ,  j^  ,he  island 
t^'ish^ ?im:.=  It?,  i^ha-S'b^^^etirn  2000  and  3000 

'  K^raUo'r^  is^ed  -^';--:,^^>;^^':el'^S 
western  part  ot  the  '^'•''■•^;  •"'',,;'  1^1  high)  by  which  this 
of  one  of  the  few  P-^-^/^^'^^to  the  name  of  the  ancient 
,ange  can  '- ""f-^'-,,,  'eu/of  the  mythical  I'rester  .lohn. 

3:!i:v^'ne^.'':;i^u  ^^^;^^^^-  ^-  -- 

have  been  sought  in  vain    ^ J"       ™        \;'l";,„et  of  the 
Karaman',  own  o    Asia  Mm  ^_.  ^^^^^^^.^^     j,  ^^, 

IZl  ZniVr'ti'ir^s  orcot.on  and  woollen  stuffs.     Pop.  es- 

timated  at  12.000.  ,, 

Kamm.in;  <N.ko..^.   M.n.i.v^O, _b^^  ^ 

J^:-^i;lt  M;;;rof\s  count.       in  ea.y^^ 

i,„b?.ed  with  mystical  ;'  --  ^  ;::,^' n.^^ry  production, 
Freemasonry.  ms  "rsi  p.  ,„,■„,  „„»  his  /-'■»'•/•  of  a 
which  gained  him   great  ■■eP"^"  •'•  ;:g»2  \^ ,,,,  ^,.„i„„ 

I   «,.„,•„„    r--('-'P>"'''tUh    assumed.     Vn.il  ISO:-., 
J„„r„.^thoedltor.sh,pofwhKh  h    a      ^^^_^^,.^,„  ^„,,  y,,. 


ditors  up  ->•""•••"■.  ,„  jounialism  and  lit- 

Karam.in  devoted  1>""^'  f  ^^  ;7'-\, ,  ,1,^,,  the  best  known 

erature.  writing  poems,  e"'^''''"''  " "  '     f  ,,  ,  „as  his  senti- 

of  which  are  />o„.  ''■- "^^^^^^^  ";;  '•■,„ted  by  .he  emperor 

mental  period.     I"  ^*";\^^'' ""f%Oo' )  roubles,  and  withdrew 
historiographer  with  a  sajaryot  ^ 

for  some  years  to  Moscow  »""  '  g  ■       led  by  thcso 

self  up  entirely  to  l""<'"<^»/'"^;V,„„rado  views,  In  l-H 
studies  to  extreme  conservative  or  retro  raa  ^^  _  ^^^ 

ho  presented  to  .he  emperor  Alexander  a  ^^  ^^_ 

form  .hen  in  vogue  "f  "O^;;'/  ^  ,;y  Ud  through  the  lo- 

Karamr/in  returned  to  b  .  '"'"^'""^f  ,o„erfal  minister  of 

1  fl„ence  of  Count  Arak  ohe,  f,  the  a  1     o  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^.^ 

I  Z-^:"^  ^■'^'  '^^tll'liTasod  rank,  and  set  apart 


KARASOV-BAZAR— KASHAX. 


1 ")()!.» 


60,000  roubles  for  the  publication  of  his  H\*tortf  of  the  Rtu- 
«?«ii  Empire,  which  wns  then  completeJ.  The  history  was 
{iiibli.''bcd  in  1818,  and  the  first  edition  of  3000  copies  was 
sold  within  tweuty-five  days,  and  the  fume  of  Karamzin 
became  for  over  established.  The  rest  of  his  life  he  passed 
quietly  in  St.  Petersburg  and  the  vicinity,  in  intimate  re- 
lations with  the  imperial  family.  At  his  death  the  emperor 
f:ranted  his  family  (he  had  been  twice  married)  a  pension 
of  50,000  roubb's.  ErncXE  Schiiyi.ek. 

Kara^HOV-lta/ar',  town  of  Southern  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Taiirida.  on  the  Karasov.  It  has  large 
manufactures  of  morocco  leather  and  soap,  and  is  the  cen- 
tral market  of  the  Crimea.  Pop.,  comprising  Greeks, 
Russians,  .Armenians,  and  Jews.  14,:i97. 

Karntrliev',  town  of  European  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Orel.  It  carries  on  considerable  spinning  and 
weaving,  has  several  oil-mills,  and  manufactures  of  sail- 
cloth and  cordage.     Pop.  10,750. 

Kardza|E;'«i|j-Szallas%  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Jazygia  and  f'umania.  Its  trade  in  wheat,  wine, 
and  fruit  is  very  considerable.     Pop.  9515. 

Karelians.     See  Finns. 

Ka'rens,  a  people  of  Northern  Burmab.  belonging  to 
the  Mongolian,  or  perhaps  to  the  Thibetan,  family,  the  in- 
dependence of  whose  country  was  recognized  by  treaty  be- 
tween England  and  Burmab  in  June,  1875.  They  are 
chiefly  known  from  tlie  wonderful  success  among  them  of 
the  missifins  established  by  Messrs.  Judson  and  Board- 
man  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  soon 
followcii  by  numerous  others.  In  ISfiS  there  were  among 
the  Karens  flO  native  onlained  pastors  and  evangelists. 
34fl  native  preachers  unordained.  300  native  churches,  with 
about  20,000  church  members.  (See  Mason's  G»»p€l  in  linr- 
niafi  and  the  /ir/,i,it  of  the  Americnn  Hnpti'yt  MifHinn  Union 
for  1SC8.)  A  comparative  vocabulary  of  the  two  principal 
Karen  dialects,  Sgao  and  Pwo,  by  Rev.  Dr.  N.  Brown,  may 
be  found  in  Jt»urmtl  of  vlmeriVau  Oriental  Sodtty,  vol.  iv. 

Karg  i(iKortG).     Sec  Ai'pkndix. 

Karikal'y  a  French  possession  in  India,  on  th"^  Coro- 
mandel  coast,  150  miles  S.  of  Madras,  in  lat.  10°  S:.'  X., 
on  the  c'Stuary  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Kaveri.  Area, 
6.3  square  miles.  Pop.  about  50.000,  of  whom  hardly  1000 
are  Europeans.  The  colony  is  of  very  little  consequence, 
.as  the  estuary  is  unfit  for  navigation. 

Kar'kor*  ''ity  in  the  desert  E.  of  Palestine,  wbi-.-h  was 
the  capital  of  the  Midianitcs  in  the  time  of  the  Judges. 
Several  identifications  have  vainly  been  made  in  modern 
times;  the  true  site  was  undoubtedly  farther  to  tho  S.  E. 
than  recent  travellers  have  explored. 

KarU%  village  of  British  India,  in  tho  presidency  of 
Bombay.  -lO  miles  E.  of  Bombay,  is  famous  for  its  cavo- 
teniple.  which,  l.'iO  feet  long  and  40  feet  wide,  is  cut  into 
thf  rock  at  a  considerable  hoigbt.aud  consists  of  two  rows 
of  suulptured  pillars,  terminating  in  a  semicircular  en- 
closure and  bearing  an  arched  roof.  Tho  whole  etructuro 
is  well  preserved. 

Karr^tadt   fANonEAS  Rudolf),  b.   at    Karlstadt,   in 

Franconia.  in  1480;  his  true  name  was  Bodkxstkis.  He 
studied  at  different  places  besides  Rome,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  theology  at  the  Tniversity  of  Witten- 
norg  in  1513.  \\vi  was  a  learned  and  elofjuent  man,  and 
hecamo  one  of  the  mont  enthusiastic  and  energetic  cham- 
pions of  the  Reformation,  but  his  temper  was  vehement, 
almost  violent ;  and  differing  from  Luther  in  several  points, 
especially  in  his  views  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  a  disastrous 
controversy  broke  out  between  them.  Karlstadt,  whoso 
turbulent  mind  brought  him  in  connection  with  Thomas 
Miinzer  and  other  fanatics,  was  twice  banished  from  Sax- 
ony, and  actually  persecuted  by  the  Lutherans.  In  1523 
ho  went  into  exile  for  tho  first  time.  In  1525  ho  rc- 
(urni'd,  and  was  rceonelled  with  Luther.  But  when  the 
<'ont<-s(  between  I*uther  and  Zwingli  began  again,  in  152S, 
Kurl^tacll  was  once  more  banisiu-d.  At  last  he  found 
refuge  with  the  Swiss  Reformers,  with  whom  he  agreed 
concerning  tho  Lord's  Supper,  and  he  no  doubt  con- 
tributnil  much  to  bring  about  the  schism  between  the  I,u- 
tbcran  and  tbn  Bcfurmed  eburches.  I),  as  a  minister  at 
Bi\le  in  1511.  II in  jirineipat  writings  are  !>'■  utraffur  nprrii- 
Ccttiir  (1524),  and  AuHf^ynnff  dcr  Wurtr :  Dus  int  mtiit  Ldh 
(1525). 

Karma'tliiailH  [from  ITanuhtn  K'irmnt,  one  of  their 
early  leader"],  a  Mohammedan  sect  of  reformer'',  who  were 
originally  a  branch  of  the  Ismailis,  an<l  like  them  became 
free  thinkers.  They  were  at  one  time  very  powerful,  and 
hcM  nearly  abstduto  sway  over  Arabia.  Persia,  ntid  Syria, 
everywhere  defeating  the  caliph's  armieR.  In  !'00  a.  n. 
they  made  great  aclvanees  ;  in  928  they  threatened  Bagdad  ; 
in  930  they  attacked   Mecca,  then  full  of  pilgrims,  whom 


they  slaughtered,  desecrating  the  Kaaba,  and  carrying  away 
tho  Black  Stone,  which  they  kept  for  twenty  years.  Their 
capital  was  Labsa.  where  they  were  in  power  in  the  eleventh 
century.  Relics  of  them  exist  to  this  day.  They  now  re- 
ject Mohammedanism  and  conceal  their  real  doctrines. 

Karnak',  a  modern  village  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  occupying  part  of  the  site  of 
Thebes,  renowned  for  its  magnificent  architectural  re- 
mains. Chief  among  these  is  tho  great  temple,  1200  feet 
long,  3.'^0  feet  broad,  with  gigantic  colonnades,  colossal  fig- 
ures, sculptures  of  various  kinds,  in  colorcil  sandstone, 
marble,  red  and  dark  granite.  Fragments  have  been  found 
bearing  the  name  of  Sesortosis  (r.  c.  2300).  The  archi- 
tecture is  duo  in  largo  part  to  Mceris,  who  adorned  the 
palace  with  a  list  of  his  royal  predecessors.  There  are 
memorials  of  the  glory  of  Amenophis  (a.  c.  1500)  in  a  body 
of  bas-reliefs  of  his  wars  in  Asia.  The  great  ball  was  built 
by  Setbos  {b.  c.  1340).  The  chief  temple  contains  sculp- 
tures with  inscriptions  of  tho  time  of  Raraescs  the  Great, 
or  Scsostris  (n.  c.  1300-28).  The  great  tablet  of  Karnak 
was  shown  and  explained  by  the  priests  to  Germanicus 
(b.  0.  Ifi).  (See  ARCHiTKOTriiE,  Efivi'T,  LrxoR,  Thebes.) 
St.  John,  Frrfpt  and  X„hia  (1844,  355-378)^  Henry, 
L'F'/ifptr  Plniraonitjiir  (184fi,  ii.  205):  Bartlett.  i\7/-"-6o«f 
{Htirperfi  Monthhj,  1850,  i.  212);  Champollion-Figeac, 
E;ft/pte  Anriejnie  (1858,  310) ;  ib.  G*miihlv  v.  Avrjifpt 
(1852);  Lepsius,  Letters  from  Efjt/pt  (1853,  Letter  xxx.1 ; 
W.  C.  Prime,  From  Thebes  to  the  Pyramidn  [Harper  e 
Monthhf,  1857,  xiv.  4G3,  4G7) ;  Weber,  'Weh-Cjeseh.  [^  30, 
31,42)!  C.  P.  Khaiitii. 

Karnes,  county  in  S.  W.  Texas.  Area,  830  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  tho  San  Antonio  River.  It  has 
a  fertile,  sandy  soil,  is  one-third  timber-land,  and  the  rest 
prairie.  Stock-raising  is  the  chief  industry,  but  cotton 
and  grain  aro  also  raised.     Cap.  Helena.     Pop.  1705. 

Karoo'  Bokadam',  tho  CtrUrnR  cincrcns,  a  fresh- 
water snake  <if  India,  nearly  four  feet  long  and  quite 
harmless.     Otlicr  species  of  the  genus  are  found  in  tho  East. 

Karpin'ski  (Franciszek),  b.  Oct.  4,  1741.  at  IIolosco, 
Galicia,  and  educated  by  tho  Jesuits  at  Lembcrg.  In  1783 
he  became  secretary  to  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski.  and  lived 
at  tho  court  of  King  Stanislas;  but  from  1791  he  resided 
in  retirement  on  his  estates  in  Lithuania,  where  he  d.Sept. 
4,  1825.  His  songs  aro  still  very  po])ular  among  the  Poles. 
His  collected  works,  including  a  tragedy,  Judith,  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms,  and  a  number  of  idyls,  were  pub- 
lished in  4  vols,  at  AVarsaw  in  1804  j  his  memoirs  in  2  vols. 
at  Lembcrg  in  1849. 

Karr  (Jean  Bai-tiste  Alphonse),  b.  at  Paris  Nov.  24. 
LS08  ;  was  educated  at  tho  CoIl/'-ge  Bourbon:  published 
Sntin  leu  7V//rf(/#  ( 1832 ),  a  successful  novel;  became  chief 
editor  of  Fii/nm  1839;  and  founded  Lch  duepen,  ti  very 
successful  periodical.  In  1848  bo  removed  to  Nice,  where 
ho  engaged  in  gardening  on  a  large  scale.  He  has  pro- 
duced many  novels  and  other  works,  one  of  tho  best  of 
which  is  tlio  Voyaf/r  autunr  de  imni  Jardin  (1845). — His 
daughter,  TiifiRilsi:,  is  a  popular  writer  of  books. 

Karroo'  [a  Hottentot  term],  a  name  a])plici|  to  tho 
great  barren  ])lateaux  of  Southern  .-Vfriea.  Tho  soil  is  sbal- 
lo\v,  resting  upon  a  rocky  bed.  In  the  rainy  season  they 
furnish  abundant  pasturage,  and  jiortions  of  them  when 
irrigated  have  been  fountl  very  productive. 

Kara,  town  of  Armenia,  ceded  to  Russia  in  L878,  situ- 
ated on  a  table-land  between  tiOOO  and  7900  feet  above  the 
level  of  tho  sea.  It  carries  on  a  lively  transit  trade.  In 
1855,  its  fortifications  having  been  much  strengthened,  it 
sustained  a  long  siege  by  the  Russians,  but  was  compelled 
hv  famine  to  surrender  Nov.  30.  It  was  stormed  by  the 
Itussians  Nov.  18,  1877.     Pop.  12,000. 

Kar'stcn  fUriiMANN  Kari.I.  b.  at  Stralsund  Nov.  t'l, 
1817:  studied  botany  at  Berlin;  made  two  great  journeys 
Ihrongb  Northern  South  America  { ISI3-17  and  1818-5(1), 
and  was  after  his  return  appointed  professor  in  botany  at 
Berlin.  His  principal  writings  arc />»>  IV(/c^rth"o»i«<»>y/fiiie 
drr  Pafmrn  (1847b  Flora  Unlnmhitc  (1857-66),  and  Che- 
miitmuH  tlrr  !*danxriirrllr  (1870). 

Knn'hniis,  post-(p.  of  Clearfield  co..  Pa.    Pop.  452. 

KaNanlili',  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  Rum-clee.  is 
famous  for  its  manufacture  of  attar  of  roses.      Pop.  10,000. 

Kas'cliail^  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hernad.  Its  church  of  St.  Elizabeth,  built  1  .".12-82.  istbo 
finest  (lolbie  building  in  Hungary.  Knsehau  has  a  very 
brisk  trade  in  wine,  wheat,  and  fruit.     Pop.  21,742. 

Kashan'^  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Irak- 
Ajemec.  situated  3ft90  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is 
a  beautiful  eity,  with  a  |»alaec.  numerous  mosques,  baths, 
and  promenades,  and  important  manufactures  of  velvet, 
gold  brocade,  and  silk  stuOTs.     Pop.  30,000. 


1510 


KASIICiAR— KATHAY. 


Kashgar',  province  of  East  Toorkistan,  between  lat. 

36°  and  40°  N.,  and  Ion.  72°  and  77°  E.,  occupies  the  basm 
of  the  Kizil-Darya,  along  the  southern  slope  of  tlie  Tluan- 
Shan  Mountains.  Area,  about  i",OI)0  square  miles.  In  the 
eicrhtecnth  century  it  was  conquered  by  the  Chinese  and 
th°y  held  it  to  ISIili,  when,  under  a  general  rising  ot  the 
Mohammedan  population,  they  were  driven  out,  and  Kash- 
gar  and  the  adjacent  provinces  were  lormed  into  an  lude- 
],endcnt  liingilom  by  Yakub  Beg. 

Kashgar,  capital  of  East  Toorkistan,  in  lat.  :U)°  29' 
N  Ion  7i;°  12' E.,  on  the  Kizil-Darva,  in  a  fertile  and  well- 
euiiivated  plain  elevated  between  40(10  and  5000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall 
of  considerable  height  and  thickness  and  surmounted  with 
numerous  towers.  It  has  8  colleges,  1 1  caravanserais,  ex- 
tensive bazaars,  some  manufactures  of  woollens,  carpets 
gold  and  silver  ware,  and  a  lively  trade.  The  number  of 
its  inhabitants  is  very  differently  estimated  at  from  lb,OUO 
to  80.000;  60,000  seems  the  most  probable. 

KaNhill,  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Tver, 
on  the  Kashinka,  an  atHuent  of  the  Volg-a,  has  e.xtensive 
tanneries  and  manulactures  of  paper,  and  carries  on  an  ac- 
tive trade  in  grain  and  cattle.     Pop.  76:!9. 
Kashmir.     See  Cashmere. 

Kaskas'kia,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  III.  Pop.  1220. 
Kaskaskia,  post-v.  of  Randolph  eo.,  III.,  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  navigable  Kaskaskia  River,  7  miles  from  its 
mouth.  It  was  founded  in  1682  by  the  French  under  La 
Salle,  and  was  until  1818  the  capital  of  Illinois.  Many  of 
its  present  inhabitants  are  of  the  old  French  stock.  The 
town  was  onee  large  and  important,  but  it  has  declined. 
The  surrounding  country  is  very  fine. 

Kaskaskia  Indians,  a  tribe  onee  living  in  Illinois. 
In  18:!2  they  were  removed  to  what  is  now  Kansas,  and   j 
in  1S67  to  the  Indian  Territory.     They  are  intelligent  and 
quite   advanced   in   civilization.      They  are   confederated  , 
with  the  Peorias  and  others,  and  arc  few  in  number.  | 

Kaskaskia  (or  Okaw)  River  rises  in  Champaign 
CO.,  111.,  flows  about  .'JOO  miles  in  a  generally  S.  W.  course, 
and  enters  the  Mississippi  in  Randolph  co.  In  its  lower 
course  it  is  navigable. 

Kaskes,  tp.  of  Jackson  eo.,  Ala.     Pop.  729. 
Kaso'ta,  post-tp.  of  Lc  Sueur  co.,  Minn.,  on  St.  Paul 
and  Siou.i  City  R.  R.,  77  miles  S.  W.  of  St.  Paul.  Pop.  903. 
Kassimow',  town  of  European  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Riasan,  on  the  Oka.     It  is  an  old  town,  with  largo 
tanneries  and  manufactures  of  sailcloth.     Pop.  7781. 
Kasson',  post-v.  and  tp.,  Leelanaw  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  440. 
Kasson,  post-v.  of  Mantorville  tp..  Dodge  co.,  Minn., 
on  the  line  of  the  Winona  and  St.  Peter  R.  R.,  5"  miles  W. 
of  Winona,  in  a  farming  region,  was  first  surveyed  in  ISOO  ; 
contains  :t  churches,  2  banks,  2  weekly  newspapers,  2  hotels, 
1  flour-mill,  and   12  stores.     In   1873,  4aO,:'..-i9  _bushels  of 
wheat  wore  sliipped  from  this  point.     Pop.  (1870),  510. 
V.  \i.  Shaver,  Plb.  "  Dodge  Co.  Rei'iiblican. 
Kasson  (John  A.),  b.  near  Burlington,  Vt..  Jan.  11, 
1822;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in    1842; 
studied  law  in  Massachusetts,  and  practised  at  St.  I.ouis 
until  1857,  when  he  removed  to  Iowa;  was  ap).oiiited  as- 
sistant postmaster-general  in  1861  ;  elected  to  Congress  as 
a  Republican  in  1862  ;  commissioner  to  international  postal 
congress  at  Paris  in  1863;  again  elected  to   Congress  in 
1864,  and  again  in  1872  and  1874. 

Kastamoo'ni,  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  capital  of 
the  eyalet  of  the  same  name,  in  Asia  Minor.  It  has  36 
mosques,  24  public  baths,  manufactures  of  leather  and  cot- 
ton, and  the  vicinity  is  rich  in  cojiper  ore.     Pop.  48,000. 

Katagoom',  or  Katagum,  town  of  Central  Africa, 
in  Soudan,  capital  of  an  iudepeiidcut  district  of  the  same 
name,  fortified  with  walls  and  ditches.     Pup.  about  8000. 

Katali'din  (or  Katadn),  Itlount,  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  .Maine,  reaches  5385  feet  above  the  sea.  It  stands 
in  a  wilderness,  is  not  easy  of  access,  and  the  view  from  its 
toj)  is  e.xtensive,  but  wild  and  lonely. 

Katalidin  Iron-works  Plantation,  tp.  of  Pis- 
cataquis CO.,  .Me.     Pop.  35. 

Ka'ter  (IIenrv).  F.  R.  S..  b.  at  Bristol,  England,  Apr. 
16,  1777;  went  to  India  in  1796,  where  he  was  engaged  for 
several  years  on  the  trigonometrical  survey:  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  the  military  service,  and  retired  on 
half-pay  in  1814,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
scientific  stiulies.  He  invented  ah*uit  1825  the  important 
trigonometrical  instrument  callcl  n  flnntittr/  rtilUmatnr,  ex- 
perimented on  telescopes,  writing  for  the  PhiloHophifnl 
TrntiMnrtSnnn  accounts  of  various  researches;  was  principal 
author  of  Eardner  and  Kater's  Trrfitinf  on  Mrrhatiicn  in 
tho  Cabinet  Ci/clopKdia,  and  wrote  An  Account  of  the  Con- 


.(ruction  and  Verification  of  Certain  StandartU  n/  Linear 
Meamre  for  the  llumian  Government  (1832).  D.  at  London 
Apr.  26,'l835. 

Kathay',  or  Cathay.     A  remarkable  phase  in  the 
history  of  intercourse  between  Europe  and  farther  Asia  is 
best  characterized  by  the  name  then  given  in  the  West  to 
China.     fJr  if  China  was  ilincvrtrcd.  as  books  sometimes 
tell  us,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  then  the 
best  delinilion  of  Cathay  will  be  that  it   is  the  name  by 
which  China  was  known  in  Europe  hc/ore  itg  diacorrri/ ! 
That  spacious  seat  of  ancient  civilization  has  always  loomed 
so  large,  however  dimlv,  to  Western  eyes,  and  has,  in  spite 
of  its  distance,  subtended  so  large  an  angle  of  vision,  that 
onee  and  again  we  find  it  distinguished  by  difl'ereut  appel- 
lations, according  as  it  was  approached  as  the  terminus  of 
a  southern  sea-route   coasting  the   great   peninsulas   and 
islands  of  Asia,  or  as  that  of  a  northern  land-route  trav- 
ersing (he  vast  longitude  of  that  continent.     In  the  former 
aspect  the  name  has  always  been  some  form  of  the^  name 
r.in,  as  Chin  (Sinim  ?),  Sina,  Tbin.T,  T/.ini.sta.  Maha-chtn, 
China.     In  the  latter  point  of  view  it  was  known  to  the 
ancients  as  the  Land  of  the  S^re,  ;  to  the  Europeans  of  tho 
Middle  Ages,  as  the  empire  of  Cathay. 

The  latter  name  {Khiiai  in  Oriental  form)  is  still  that  by 
which  China  is  stvlcd  to  this  day  by  all  or  nearly  all  the 
nations  which  know  it  from  the  direction  of  Inner  Asii, 
including  the  Russians,  the  Persians,  and  the  nations  of 
Toorkistan,  yet  it  originally  pertained  to  a  people  who  were 
not  Chinese."  The  Khitdn  or  Khitit  were  a  nation  allied 
(it  is  supposed)  to  the  modern  Tunguses,  whose  chiefs,  after 
making  themselves  supreme  over  all  the  tribes  from  the 
Sea  of  Corca  to  the  Altai,  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth 
century  overran  the  Chinese  provinces  N.  ot  thc\ellow 
River  "and  established  their  empire  over  them  also,  under 
the  name  of  Liao  or  the  Iron  dynasty.  This  Kliil An  em- 
pire subsisted  for  two  centuries,  terminating  m  112..,  when 
it  was  in  turn  subverted  by  a  new  invasion  from  the  ^. 
And  it  must  have  been  in  those  two  centuries  that  the  name 
Khiiai  became  iudissohildy  associated  with  China. 

Tho  Nvuche,  or  Chiiiehf.  a  tribe  akin  to  the  modern 
Manchus."  displaced  the  KhitSn,  and  reigned  under  the 
name  of  Kin  or  Gold,,,  dynasty.  They  about  a  century 
later  (1214-34)  were  disjilaced  by  those  more  lamous  war- 
riors, the  Mongols  of  Chinghiz  Khan.  The  conquest  oflhe 
Kin  empire  was  completed  by  Okkodai,  the  son  of  (.  iiin- 
ehiz  :  but  not  till  the  third  generation,  and  sixty  years  atter 
the  capture  of  Peking,  was  the  Mongol  conqticst  extended 
over  Southern  China,  in  the  reign  of  Kublai.  This  southern 
emnire,  under  its  Chinese  covereigns  holding  Iheir  royal 
residence  {Ki,,,,-,-.,-)  at  the  great  city  now  called  Hang- 
chow  was  known  to  the  northern  conquerors  as  Manlzi.  a 
name  often  by  the  Western  Asiatics  "''IjanRf^'J  "f  con- 
founded with  AhUhin—i.  c.  tho  Hindu  Mah6-thln  (Great 

The  flood  of  Mongol  conquest  spread  westward  as  well 
as  eastward,  levelling  all  political  barriers,  sweeping  over 
Slavonic  Europe,  and  threatening  weak  mid  disunited  Chris- 
tendom widi  aunihilation.  And  when  Western  Europe  had 
recovered  from  the  alarm  of  this  brief  but  terrible  invasion 
(l-'lO-l")  Asia  lay  open  as  it  never  did  before  or  has  done 
since,  and  the  accidents  of  war,  commerce,  and  opportunity 
carried  a  number  of  persons  in  various  ranks  ol  life,  and 
from  almost  every  country  in  Europe,  to  its  remotest  re- 
cions.  Missions  also  went  to  the  Tartar  courts  from  the 
pope  and  the  princes  of  Europe,  and  among  others  .lohn 
of  Piano  Carpini  (1245-17),  a  native  ol  1  nil.na,  and  W  il- 
liam  do  Rubruquis  (1253),  a  Frenchman  both  I  ranciscan 
monks  of  suiicrior  intelligence,  who  have  left  us  narratives 
of  high  interest.  And  these  brought  to  V  eslcrn  Europe 
the  revived  knowledge  of  a  great  and  civilized  nation  00- 
cunving  a  country  in  the  extreme  East,  on  the  shores  of 
thi'oceSn,  which  bore  the  name,  then  first  heard  in  Europe 
of  CiTH  IV  Rubruquis  was  acute  enough  to  discern  that 
these  Cathavans  must  be  the  Seres  of  classic  fame.  But 
though  thes"c  travellers  saw  the  people  at  the  Tartar  court, 
and  Friar  William  gives  an  unmistakable  description  of 
them  (■•  Those  Cathavans  ore  little  fellows,  speaking  much 
through  the  n„se,  ami,  as  is  general  with  those  Eastern 
people,  their  eyes  arc  very   narrow      They  are  first  rate 

Itrtists  in  every  kind  of  craft They  do  their  wnling 

with  a  pencil  such  as  painters  paint  with,  and  a  „mjle 
ch.,rnrl,r  „f  ihrir,  vomprehend,  xrrrral  Irlirr,,  to  a,  to  form 
„  ,rhoh  irordr  the  last  remark,  imperfect  as  it  is,  shows 
the  intelligence  and  observation  of  the  writer),  neither 
traveller  reached  the  country  itself. 

The  first  actual  European  visitors  to  Cathay  of  whom  we 
know  are  the  P.dos  (sec  Pui.o,  MAmol,  regarding  whom  wo 
need  say  nothing  here.  But  just  as  they  were  reaching 
Venice  (1295)  after  their  absence  of  twenty. six  years,  the 
forerunner  of  a  new  band  of  travellers  was  ent^ering  (  h.na 
by  the  route  of  the  Indian  seas.     This  was  John  of  Monte 


KATHAY. 


1511 


Corvino,  another  Franciscan,  who,  already  nearly  fifty 
years  of  age,  was  plunging  single-banded  into  the  ocean 
of  paganism  to  preach  the  gospel  acconiing  lo  (he  inter- 
pretation of  his  Church.  After  years  of  uphill  work  and 
solitary  labor,  others  joined  him,  and  the  Catholic  mission 
flourished  at  Camhaluc  or  Peking,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Great  Khan  himself.  The  papal  see  woke  up  to  the 
importance  of  this  distant  work,  maile  Friar  John  arch- 
bishop in  Cambaluc  with  patriarchal  authority,  and  sent 
him  spasmodically  batches  of  suffragan  bishops  and  mis- 
sionary friars.  The  Roman  Church  ?prca<l :  churches  and 
houses  of  St.  Francis  were  founded  at  Cambaluc,  at  Yang- 
chow,  at  the  great  ocean-port  in  F<tkien  which  the  Westerns 
called  Zaytou  and  the  Chinese  called  T'swanchow,  and 
el.-ewhere.  Among  the  monks  whose  duty  carried  them  to 
Cathay  during  the  interval  between  1300  and  1328,  when 
Archbishop  John  was  followed  to  the  tomb  by  mourning 
crowds  of  pagans  a.-i  well  as  of  Christians,  several  have 
left  letters  or  narratives.  Among  these  we  have  several 
early  letters  from  the  archbi!>hoj>  himself  n3<>5-06);  one 
from  Andrew,  bishop  of  Zayton  ( ]"2Ci) ;  and  the  narrative 
of  Friar  Odoric,  afterwards  canonized  as  a  bnitus  of  the 
Church,  dictated  after  liis  return  to  iiis  native  FrluU  (l.'>30). 

The  narrative  of  Odoric  is  the  only  one  that  mentions 
Canton,  known  to  him  and  the  Westerns  of  that  age  by  the 
name  of  Chln-kalan  (/.  c.  "  (ircat  China,"  a  Persian  ren- 
dering of  the  Indian  MahiS-chfn).  He  landed  there  on 
arriving  from  India,  and  describes  it  as  a  city  as  big  as 
three  Venkes,  standing  on  a  great  river,  one  day's  voyage 
from  the  sea.  Thence  he  travels  through  Fokicn,  visiting 
the  cities  of  Zayton  and  Foochow,  and  then  to  Cansay  or 
Kinsay  [Kituj-a.ir — t,  e.  Haugchow),  the  va^tnc^s  of  which 
in  extent,  population,  and  wealth  made  the  same  extra- 
ordinary impression  upon  him  as  upon  Marco  Polo  and  all 
the  travellers  who  speak  of  it.*  From  tliis  point  it  is  not 
difficult  to  trace  his  journey  by  Nanking,  and  across  the 
two  great  rivers  of  China,  and  then  by  the  Imperial  Canal 
to  the  capital,  Cambaluc,  where  the  emperor  then  reigning 
was  Ye.-'uu-tinirtr,  a  degenerate  descendant  of  Kublai,  in 
the  fourth  generation.  This  traveller  on  his  homeward 
journey  seems  to  have  passed  by  Central  Asia,  and  by 
Kabul,  reaching  his  native  land  in  1.129.  Several  of  the 
stories  told  by  Odoric  that  were  probably  regarded  as  fic- 
tions by  his  contemporaries  are  remarkably  characteristic 
of  China.  IJef^ides  many  particulars  occurring  in  the  larger 
narrative  of  Marco  Polo,  ho  gives  the  earliest  notice  of  the 
now  well-known  Chinese  practice  of  using  tame  cormorants 
in  fishing ;  and  ho  mentions  the  custom  of  compressing  the 
feet  of  girls  to  prevent  their  growth. 

But  the  Exchange  had  its  emissaries  at  this  time  to 
Cathay  as  well  as  the  Church.  Tlie  record  is  a  very  frag- 
mentary and  imperfect  one,  but  many  circumstances  and 
incidental  notices  show  how  frequently  the  far  Fast  was 
reached  by  European  traders  in  the  fir.^^t  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century — a  state  of  tilings  which  it  is  very  difficult 
to  realize  when  we  see  how  all  those  regions,  when  par- 
tially reopened,  less  than  two  centuries  later,  9eeme<l  as  ab- 
solutely new  discoveries  as  the  empires  which  in  the  same 
age  Cortes  and  Pirarro  were  conquering  in  the  West. 

This  commercial  intercourse  cannot  have  commenced  till 
Borae  years  after  l.'iuO.  For  Monte  Corvino,  writing  in  1305, 
Bays  it  was  then  twelve  years  since  he  had  heard  any  news 
from  Europe,  the  only  Western  stranger  who  had  appeared 
in  all  that  time  being  a  certain  Lombard  chirurgeon,  who 
had  spread  awful  blasphemies  about  the  pope !  Yet  even 
on  his  first  entrance  into  China,  Friar  John  had  been  ac- 
companied by  "  Master  Peter  of  Tjucolotigo,  a  faithful  Chris- 
tian man  and  a  great  merchant,"  who  purchased  a  piece  of 
ground  for  Iho  niission-church  opjiosito  the  jialace  gate  at 
lacking.  Twenty-ono  years  later,  Pishop  Andrew  of  Zay- 
ton M326)  quotes  the  opinions  of  the  (Jenctese  merchants 
at  that  great  mart  touching  a  question  of  exchange  value. 
Odoric,  dictating  his  Irnvel.t  in  13;iO,  refers  for  corrobora- 
tion of  the  marvels  of  Kinsay  or  Cansay  to  the  many  per- 
sons at  Venice  who  had  themselves  been  witnenfes  of  all 
that  ho  asserted.  And  a  litter  traveller.  John  .Marignolli. 
mentions  that  there  was  (riVra  131(1),  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  ihrrr  Franciscan  houses  nt  Zayton,  n. /omlnm  or 
factory  and  warehouse  for  the  use  of  the  Christian  mer- 
chants. 

But  Iho  most  distinct  and  notable  evidence  of  the  ira- 
portanco  of  European  trn'le  with  Cathay  is  to  be  found 
in  the  work  of  Francesco  Bulducoi  Pegolotii,  written  about 
1310.  This  person  was  a  factor  in  the  Levant  and  else- 
where under  the  great  Florentine  houxe  nf  Iho  Bnrdi — the 
house  which  gave  a  husband  to  Panto's  Beatrice,  and  has 
given  a  heroine  lo  (Jenrge  Eliot  ( K'nnnfn ),  and  whieh  failed, 
about  the  date  of  the  hook,  in  consequence  of  dealings  with 

•This  (ireat  city  retnlned  much  of  Its  pro«perlty  till  destroyed 
by  the  TalpluRs  In  our  own  day. 


Edward  III.  of  England,  whose  bankers  and  agents  the 
Bardi  were.  The  book  is  a  regular  manual  of  commerce, 
giving  details  of  duties,  exchanges,  and  customs  of  trade  at 
the  various  marts  of  Europe  and  the  Levant. f  But  the  first 
two  chapters  are  devoted  to  information  for  the  merchant 
bound  to  Cathay.  The  route  lay  from  Tana  (or  Azov)  to 
Sarai  on  the  Volga  (above  Astracan),  and  thence  by  Organj 
(Old  Khiva)  and  Otrar  (not  far  from  the  modern  town  of 
Hozrat  Toorkistan )  to  Aiuialik  {  near  (iulja  on  the  Hi ),  and 
thence  to  Kanehow  in  North-eastern  China,  and  so  forward 
to  the  Grand  Canal  leading  to  the  great  marts  of  Cansay 
and  Cambaluc  ( llangchow  and  Peking).  Particulars  are 
given  as  to  the  investments  and  exchanges  proper  to  this 
journey,  an«l  especially  as  to  the  paper  money  then  form- 
ing the  currency  of  China.  The  extent  of  dealings  con- 
templated may  be  judged  frr»m  the  example,  which  the  au- 
thor assumes  for  illustration,  of  a  merchant  carrying  goods 
to  the  value  of  some  2o.0on  gr>l<I  florins  (say  ?60,b00}.  Lit- 
tie  was  to  be  taken  lo  Cathay  except  silver  in  ingots,  and 
the  purchases  contemplated  there  were  silk  and  rich  silk 
textures  (damasks,  gold  brocades,  and  the  like).  Silk  cost 
then  in  Cathay  about  o  tlorins  (say  $12)  for  20  Genoese 
pounds.  The  only  unsafe  part  of  the  road  was  that  between 
Tana  and  the  Volga,  but  even  there  a  company  of  sixty 
would  be  *' as  safe  as  in  your  own  house." 

The  picture  that  we  can  put  together  from  the  notices  of 
mediaeval  travellers  in  Cathay  is  that  of  the  China  that  wo 
know,  but  always  with  a  striking  contrast  as  regards  the 
facilities  of  movement  aUowed  to  foreign  visitors  in  the  in- 
terior. The  vast  swarms  of  population  and  of  river-ship- 
ping, the  great  plenty  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  splen- 
dor and  magnitude  of  the  cities,  the  high  civilization  of  this 
heathen  people,  the  cheapness  of  silk  and  porcelain,  the  use 
of  fossil  coal  and  of  paper  money,  are  the  features  which 
are  constantly  prominent  in  tliese  notices.  The  free  inter- 
course was  not,  however,  of  long  duration.  As  the  Mongol 
chiefs  in  Central  and  Western  Asia,  one  after  another, 
adopted  Islam,  the  power  of  bigotry  revived,  and  with  it 
the  old  obstacles.  Thus,  already  in  1330  we  find  a  mer- 
chant, William  of  Modena.  along  with  certain  friars,  put  to 
death  for  the  faith  at  Almalik.  Aliout  the  middle  of  the 
century  the  house  of  Chinghiz  in  China  began  to  totter,  and 
its  fall  in  136ft  closed  all  communication  with  the  AVestern 
World.  The  last  notices  we  possess  are  contained  in  a 
work  (strange  to  say)  on  Bohemian  history  by  John  Ma- 
rignolli. a  Florentine  monk  who  had  been  sent  as  envoy  to 
the  last  of  the  Mongol  emperors  by  Pope  Benedict  XII. 
Ho  had  gone  by  the  usual  land-route,  and  after  spending 
about  four  years  (1 342-4*') |  at  Peking,  returned  by  the  sea- 
route  to  India,  on  his  way  visiting  Ceylon,  where  he  was 
wrecked  and  robbed.  In  1370.  the  pope,  probably  in  ig- 
norance of  the  changes  in  the  East,  nominated  one  Friar 
William  of  Prato  to  be  archbishop  of  Cambaluc.  but  we 
know  not  if  he  attempted  to  rea*'h  his  see.  He  certainly 
cannot  have  succei'<led.  Later  prelates  appear  in  some  lists, 
but  this  has  been  shown  to  have  arisen  from  a  confusion 
with  another  see  in  Tartar  territory,  that  of  Cembalo,  other- 
wise Balaklava,  in  the  Crimea. 

Of  the  same  remarkable  phase  in  Cliinese  history  we  have 
also  a  good  many  notices  in  .Moliamniedan  writers.  The 
establishment  of  a  Mongol  dynasty  in  Persia  tl25S).  by 
which  the  Great  Khan  reigning  over  t^athay  was  for  many 
j-ears  acknowledged  as  lord  paramount,  led  to  a  good  deal 
of  intercourse.  Chinese  visitors  were  by  no  means  unknown 
at  the  court  of  Tabriz,  and  some  of  the  Persian  historians, 
writing  at  that  court  umler  the  patronage  of  the  ]\Iongol 
princes,  have  told  us  much  about  Cathay,  especially  Rasht- 
duddfn.  the  great  minister  and  historian  of  the  Mongol 
rulers  of  Persia  (d.  13IS).  We  have  also  in  the  book  of 
ibo  Moorish  traveller  Ibn  Bntuta,  who  visited  China  about 
i;;47_4M,  many  very  curious,  and  in  great  ]>art  true,  notices, 
thouirh  in  this  part  of  the  work  it  is  not  possible  to  give 
credence  to  the  whole  of  the  traveller's  narrative. 

With  Ihe  downfall  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  in  China,  as 
we  have  said,  this  curious  phase  of  history  came  to  a  close. 
The  new  and  native  rulers  reverted  to  the  old  indigenous 
))o|i<'V,  and  kept  all  foreigners  at  arm's  length,  whilst 
Mohammedanism  entirely  recovercii  its  grasp  over  Middle 
Asia,  and  the  Nestorian  Chri>tianity,  which  had  acquired 
eonsicierable  sway,  as  rapidly  dwindled  and  exjiired.  A 
dark  mist  descended  on  the  further  East,  covering  Mantzi 
and  Cathay,  with  thooc  cities  of  which  the  niedia'val  travel- 
lers had  told  such  such  wonders,  Cuwlnifur  and  A'iiiiiftt/, 
Zntfii,u  and  C}i\n-kaf6n.  And  when  the  veil  rose,  a  century 
and  a  half  later,  before  the  Portuguese  and  .'Spanish  navi- 
gators, those  names  were  heard  no  more.  In  their  stead 
men  spoke  of  Prkitiff  and  HatigrhotP,oT  Ohiuchen  and  Can- 


+  The  MS.  of  this  hook  Is  In  the  Rlrrarrllan  Lfhrnry  nt  Flor- 
ence. It  wn"«  printed  hv  G.  K.  Pai^nlnt  del  Ventura  In  a  work 
called  JMIa  Vfcima,  etc.\l"6o-66). 


1512 


KATIF— KAUFMAN. 


ton.  Not  only  Tverc  the  old  names  forgotten,  but  the  fact 
that  those  places  had  been  previously  known  to  Europe  was 
utterly  forgotten  also.  Gradually,  new  missionary  priests 
went  forth  from  Rome — Jesuits  now.  Xew  converts  were 
made,  and  new  vicariats  were  constituted:  but  the  old 
Franciscan  churches,  and  the  Xestorianism  with  which  they 
had  battled,  hud  been  alike  swallowed  up  in  the  ocean  of 
paganism.  In  time,  however,  slight  traces  of  the  former 
existence  of  Christian  churches  came  to  the  surface;  and 
when  Marco  Polo's  book  was  read  by  intelligent  men,  one 
and  another  began  to  suspect  that  his  Cathay  and  the  new 
China  were  identical. 

liat  it  was  a  very  long  time  before  this  was  thoroughly 
or  generally  understood.  When  the  new  interest  in  dis- 
covery recalled  attention  to  the  perusal  of  old  travellers, 
the  Cathay  of  which  they  spoke  was  regarded,  except  by  a 
s:igncious  few.  as  a  region  distinct  from  those  new-found 
Indies.  Cathay  had  been  the  aim  of  the  first  voyage  of  the 
Cabots  in  140G,  and  it  continued  to  be  the  object  of  many 
adventurous  voyages,  English  and  Dutch,  to  the  N.  W.  and 
X.  E.  till  far  on  in  the  sixteenth  century.  At  least  one 
nieniorable  land-journey  also  was  made  by  Englishmen,  of 
which  the  investigation  of  trade  with  Cathay  was  a  chief 
object — that  in  which  Anthony  Jenkinson  and  the  two 
Johnsons  reached  Bokhara  by  way  of  Russia  in  1558-59. 
The  country  of  which  they  collected  notices  at  that  city 
was  still  known  to  them  only  as  Cathay,  and  its  great  cap- 
ital only  as  Cumbnluc. 

Cathay  as  a  supposed  separate  entity  may  be  considered 
to  come  to  an  end  with  the  journey  of  Benedict  Goes,  the 
lay  Jesuit.  This  admirable  person  was  in  IGO.'i  despatched 
through  Central  Asia,  by  his  superiors  in  India,  with  the 
specific  object  of  determining  whether  the  Cathay  of  old 
European  writers  and  of  modern  Mohammedans  was  or  was 
not  a  distinct  region  from  that  China  of  which  parallel  mar- 
vels had  now  for  some  time  been  recounted.  Benedict,  as 
one  of  his  brethren  pronounced  his  epitaph,  *'  seeking 
Cathay,  found  heaven."  He  died  at  Suhchow,  the  frontier 
city  of  China,  bnt  not  before  he  had  ascertained  that  China 
and  Cathay  were  one. 

In  briefly  recalling  one  more  aspect  of  Cathay,  wo  close 
this  article.  It  was  Cathay,  with  its  outlying  islands  of 
Zipangu,  or  Japan,  that  Columbus,  penetrated  by  his  in- 
tense convictions  of  the  smallness  of  the  earth  and  of  the 
vast  extension  of  Asia  eastward,  sought  to  reach  by  sailing 
W. ;  and  to  the  day  of  his  death  he  was  full  of  the  imagi- 
nation of  the  proximity  of  the  domain  of  the  Great  Khan 
to  the  ishinds  and  coasts  which  he  had  discovered.  And 
these  imaginations  are  curiously  embodied  in  some  of  tho 
early  maps  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  intermingle  on 
the  same  coast-line  the  new  discoveries  from  Newfoundland 
to  Brazil  with  the  provinces  of  Marco  Polo's  Cathav. 

11.  YlLE. 

Katir%  town  of  Arabia,  is  situated  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 
in  lat.  L't>°  25'  N.  The  bay  on  which  it  stands  affords  good 
anchorage,  but  tho  town  itself,  which  is  fortified,  is  un- 
healthy, and  its  trade  is  dwindling  away.  Pop.  about  fiOOO. 

Katkoff'  CMicnAFi.).  b.  at  Moscow  in  1S20:  finished 
his  studies  at  Konigsbcrg  and  Berlin,  and  was  for  several 
years  professor  in  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  Since  185G 
he  has  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  journalism,  and  he 
has  exercised  an  enormous  influence — in  a  liberal  direction 
by  his  denunciatif)ns  of  existing  wrongs,  and  in  a  national 
direction  by  tho  formation  of  the  Old  Russian  party. 

Kato'nah,  post-v.  of  Bedford  tp.,  AVestcherter  co., 
N.  Y.,  on  the  Harlem  R.  R.,  42  miles  N.  of  New  York.  It 
has  1  weekly  newspaper. 

Kn'trine,  Loch,  a  lake  of  Scotland,  in  tho  county  of 
Perth.  It,  is  S  miles  long  and  J  of  a  mile  wide,  and"  re- 
markable as  well  for  the  depth  and  purity  of  its  water  as 
for  tho  beautiful  scenery  which  surrounds  it.  Glasgow, 
nearly  25  miles  distant,  draws  its  supply  of  water  from  this 
lake. 

Kat'sona,  town  of  the  empire  of  Sokoto.  in  Central  Af- 
rica. It  was  formerly  a  large  and  flourishing  citv,  but  since 
its  capture  in  1808  by  tho  Fulbes.  who  almost  ilcstroyed  it, 
its  trade  and  manufactures  have  removed  to  Kano.  It  has 
now  only  7itl)0  inhabitants. 

Kattimaiidu%  or  Cuttimundoo,  the  milky  latex  or 
sap  of  Euphorbia  nori/oHa,  an  East  Indian  plant.  This 
substance  resembles  gutta-percha,  and  has  considerable 
value  in  the  arts.  The  leaves  are  used  by  the  natives  for 
their  diuretic,  cathartic,  and  deobstruent  powers,  and  the 
juice  is  an  ingredient  in  anti-rheumatic  liniments. 

Katiili';;n,  or  Eyeo,  town  of  Central  Africa,  the  cap- 
i:al  uf  ii  state  of  the  same  name,  is  in  S°  .59'  N.  lat.,  4°  25' 
E.  Ion.,  and  is,  like  all  towns  of  these  regions,  surrounded 
with  walls  to  protect  it  against  marauding  tribes.  It  car- 
ries on  some  trade,  and  is  said  to  have  15,000  inhabitants. 


Ka'tydid  ( Ci/i-tophylluit  concavua)^  a  large  green  ortbop- 
terons  insect  of  the  U.S.,  belonging  to  tho  group  Locus- 
tariiic.  found  throughout  a  great  part  of  the  country-.  It  is 
so  called  from  its  note,  produced  in  the  early  part  of  the 
night,  somewhat  resembling  the  words  "  Katy  did."  This 
noise  is  produced  by  the  friction  of  transparent  membranes 
attached  to  the  wing-covers. 

Hatz'bach,  a  river  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Si- 
lesia, entering  the  Oder  at  Parehwitz.  On  Aug.  2fi,  1813, 
the  Prussians  under  Bliieher  totally  defeated  the  French 
under  Marshal  Macdouald  on  the  banks  of  Katzbach. 

Kauai%  one  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  is  situated  in  lat. 
22°  N.,  Ion.  150*'  30' W.  Area,  G40  square  miles.  Pop. 
4961.  It  is  high — Waialealc.  the  highest  point,  rising 
about  fiOOO  feet — of  volcanic  origin,  but  very  fertile.  Koloa 
and  Nawiliwili  are  the  principal  towns. 

KaufTman  CMaria  Anna  Ancemca),  b.  at  Coirc,  in 
the  Grisons.  in  1741.  Her  father  was  an  itinerant  painter 
of  ordinary  t.aients.  of  whose  work  notliing  authentic  re- 
mains. His  enthusiast  for  his  art  was,  however,  sincere, 
and.  appreciating  the  extraordinary  gifts  of  his  daughter, 
he  gave  her  such  instruction,  opportunity,  and  stimulus  as 
ho  could  command.  Her  talent  for  music  rivalled  her  tal- 
ent for  painting,  and  for  a  moment  she  was  tempted  to 
make  music  her  profession,  and  go  upon  the  lyric  stage, 
as  she  was  urged  to  do  at  ^lilan:  but  she  wisely  decided 
to  pursue  her  first  calling.  At  Como  she  painted  success- 
fully the  portrait  of  the  bishop,  through  whose  influence 
she  had  many  sitters  there.  At  Milan,  whither  her  parents 
went  when  she  was  but  thirteen  years  old,  she  associated 
with  artists  of  reputation,  studied  under  competent  mas- 
ters, copied  good  pictures,  and  won  favor  with  people  of 
the  court.  At  Schwartzenberg  she  painted  in  fresco  the 
twelve  apostles  by  order  of  the  bishop  of  Constance.  In 
1701  the  father  and  daughter  visited  Florence,  Parma, 
Rome.  Bologna,  Naples,  and  Venice.  In  Rome  she  formed 
the  friendship  of  Rafael  Slengs  and  Winckelniann,  and 
painted  the  portrait  of  the  latter  to  his  great  satisfaction. 
In  a  letter  to  a  friend  he  wrote  of  her  as  **  a  person  of  rare 
merit,"  "  very  eminent  in  portraits  in  oil."  In  Bologna  she 
executed  what  is  considered  her  finest  etching.  The  Toilet; 
in  Venice  she  won  praise  and  patronage  from  the  English 
tliere,  and  in  17Cfi  went  to  London  with  Lady  M'entworth, 
who  had  become  interested  in  her.  In  London  her  success 
was  brilliant.  The  duchess  of  Brunswick  sat  to  her:  she 
was  presented  at  court,  painted  portraits  of  the  queen  and 
son  of  George  III.,  and  was  overwhelmed  by  orders  from 
the  nobility.  She  was  spoken  of  as  "  the  beautiful  and  ac- 
complished Miss  Kauffman."  In  1768  she  was  chosen  one 
of  tho  original  thirty-six  members  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
just  started;  her  pictures  held  prominent  places  at  the  ex- 
hibition ;  she  was  flattered  by  the  admiration  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  and  chosen  to  paint  jiortraits  of  the  most  distin- 
guished and  beautiful  ladies  of  the  court.  When  the  plan 
of  decorating  St.  Paul's  cathedral  was  entertained,  J^Iiss 
Kanfl'man  was  scleetcd.  along  with  Reynolds,  West.  Bray, 
and  Cipriani,  an  Italian  artist  then  much  in  vogue.  She 
lived  in  England  till  1771.  when,  her  father's  health  fail- 
ing, she  married  Antonio  Zucchi.  a  Venetian,  and  the  three 
left  England  for  Italy.  At  A'eniee  she  lived  long  enough 
to  paint  Leonardo  Djfing  in  the  Arms  n/  Franciti  I.  Tho 
latter  years  of  her  life  were  spent  in  Rome,  where  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Klopstock  were  her  friends;  where  she  was  so 
much  respected  that  tho  French  general,  on  taking  posses- 
sion of  tho  city,  ordered  that  her  house  and  property  should 
bo  unmolested  ;  and  where,  after  a  lingering  and  painful  ill- 
ness, she  d,  in  Nov.,  1807. 

Angelica  Kauffman  owed  her  fame  and  fortune  as  much 
to  personal  attractions,  eharm  of  manner,  and  social  accom- 
plishments as  to  her  art,  which  was  mannered,  conventional, 
and  monotonous.  Her  pictures  are  graceful  and  pleasing, 
harmonious  in  color,  correct  in  drawing,  and  sweet  in  ex- 
pression, but  are  not  thought  deserving  of  the  praise  lav- 
ished on  them  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  Rafael  Mengs.  and 
Goethe.  Her  attempts  at  historical  painting  were  ambi- 
tious failures.  The  galleries  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris  and 
the  Royal  Gallery  in  Dresden  contain  excellent  examples 
of  her  work  ;  some  of  her  best  pieces  are  in  Russia.  In 
England  her  compositions  are  well  known.  An  unfortunate 
marriage  connection,  from  which  she  was  released  by  di- 
vorce, saddened  a  portion  of  her  life,  hut  gave  to  it  a  ro- 
mantic interest.  Of  her  later  marriage  with  Zucchi  little 
is  known.  0.  B.  FitOTriixoiiAM. 

Kaurman,  county  of  N.  E.  Central  Texas,  in  the  val- 
ley uf  the  Trinity  River.  Area,  950  square  miles.  It  has 
a  very  fertile  soil,  and  is  well  timbered.  Live-stock,  grain, 
and  cotton  are  staple  products.    Cap.  Kaufman.    Pop.  6895. 

Kaufman*  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Kaufman  co..  Tex., 
near  Trinity  Itiver.  10  miles  S.  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific 
R.  R.,  and  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Dallas,  on  the 


KAUFMANN,  VON— KAVAXAUGH. 


1513 


dividing-line  between  the  timbered  portion  of  Eastern  Tex- 
as :ind  the  gn-at  wheat-belt  of  Northern  Texas.  It  has  .'J 
churches  (1  colored),  2  pchools,  1  bank,  2  hotels.  1  news- 
paper, and  I  sa.-^h  and  door  manufactory;  is  at  tho  intef- 
scction  of  three  projected  railroads.  Principal  occupation, 
farminp^.  Pop.,  not  found  in  census  returns  of  1870,  esti- 
materl  in  ls74  at  12,000.       G.  W.  Clahk,  Plb.  "Star." 

Kauf'mann,  von  (C),  Russian  general,  governor-gen- 
eral of  Toorkcstan.  and  adjutant-general  to  the  czar,  of 
Oerman  descent,  made  himself  famous  by  his  successful 
expedition  into  Central  A?ia.  In  1S07  ho  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  the  vast  regions  which,  partly  depend- 
ent on  Russia  and  partly  inhabited  by  hostile  tribes,  formed 
the  provinces  of  t'ir  Daria  and  Semiretsebkaia.  but  which 
now  have  been  united  into  the  military  circle  of  Toorkestan. 
Ilia  tar<k  was  to  strengthen  and  extend  tho  influence  of 
Russia  in  Central  Asia,  ancl  he  soon  became  engaged  in  a 
war  with  Bokhara.  Immediately  after  his  arrival  in  Toork- 
estan  ho  took  up  a  position  with  his  troops  at  Dschisak, 
on  the  southern  frontier  of  his  territory,  and  entered  on 
long  negotiations  with  the  hostile  emir  of  Bokhara  until 
ho  received  largo  reinforcements  in  Mar.,  18G8.  lie  then 
commenced  to  march  southward  alongthe  river  Serafscban. 
Tho  emir  declared  war.  By  prudent  and  enorgctic  meas- 
ures Kaufmann  succeeded  in  defeating  the  force  of  the  emir. 
though  vastly  superior  in  numbers,  and  in  the  middle  of 
May  ho  occupied  Samarcand.  Tho  result  of  this  victory 
was  a  peace  very  advantageous  to  Russia,  by  which  the 
emir  ceded  Samarcand  and  a  large  territory,  and  became  a 
submissive  friend  of  Russia.  Kaufmann  now  used  the  hu- 
miliation of  Bokhara  for  the  subjugation  of  tho  most  dan- 
gerous enemy  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia — tho  khan  of 
Khiva.  Surrounded  on  all  sides  by  great  deserts,  Khiva 
was  imapproachablc  to  Russian  armies  without  the  aid  of 
Bokhara.  After  several  cautious  reconnoitrings,  Kauf- 
mann moved  in  Mar.,  1873,  three  columns,  consisting  of 
12,000  men,  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  from  Orenburg,  and 
from  Tashken<l,  toward.-?  Khiva,  and  after  great  hardships 
on  the  loni^  march  ho  entered  the  liostile  capital  .Tunc  10. 
lie  compelled  the  khan  to  a  peace  advantageous  to  Russia, 
and  defei'ed  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Toorkomans  and  Jo- 
mudfs,  which,  although  dependent  on  the  khan,  would  not 
acknowledge  the  peace.  In  consequence  of  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  Russian  government  ami  England,  tho  Russi.an 
army  again  retired  from  Khiva,  but  the  unconditional 
authority  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  was  nevertheless  es- 
tablished, numerous  military  stations,  which  will  prove  of 
great  service  under  future  expeditious  southward,  were 
established  on  the  Black  Pea,  the  Pea  of  Aral,  and  along 
tho  Amu-Daria,  and  the  territory  of  the  military  circle  of 
Toorkestan  was  doubled  by  conquered  districts.  Tho  resi- 
dcnoo  of  tho  gener.al  is  Tashkend.         Auoi'st  Niemann. 

Kaiikaii'na,  post-tp.  of  Outagamie  co.,  Wis.,  on  the 
Chieago  and  N'orlh-wcstern  and  lUo  Milwaukee  Lako  Shore 
and  Western  R.  Rs.     Pop.  1429. 

Kniirbach*  von  (Wimielm),  b.  at  Arolsen,  in  tboprin- 
cijiality  of  Waldcck.  Oct.  15,  1805.  His  parents  were  very 
poor,  and  tho  unfavorable  circumstances  under  which  be 
grew  up  gave  his  mind  something  bitter  and  sarcastic,  at 
th«  same  time  that  they  etrengtheued  and  elevated  his 
character.  In  1822  he  was  enabled  by  the  aid  of  the  sculp- 
tor Ranch  to  frequent  the  Academy  of  Diisseldorf,  where 
ho  stuflicd  under  Cornelius,  and  when  the  latter  removed 
to  Munich  in  IS2.>.  Kaulbacb  followerl  him.  He  remained 
in  this  city  for  the  rest  of  bis  life,  and  d.  there  Apr.  7.  1S71. 
Hi«  first  pictures,  Apofto  nmi  thf  .Vtwr*,  on  the  ceiling  of 
the  Odeon,  and  tho  sixteen  wall-pictures  in  the  palace  of 
Duke  Max  illustrative  of  the  myth  t»f  Cujiid  and  Psyche, 
all  executed  in  fresco,  were  protluced  under  the  inlUuMiee 
of  Cornelius,  and  are  kept  in  a  purelv  idealistic  Htyle.  But 
nearly  at  the  same  time  appeareil  bis  Lunatic  AMt/fuin,  an 
oil-painting  of  the  most  decidedly  realistic  character,  and 
to  tho  same  style  belong  his  celebralcl  illustrations  to 
/'riiirke  FurfiM,  n  series  of  skrtclies  as  ndntirable  for  their 
striking  conceptions  of  the  eharaeter  au'l  nature  of  the  dif- 
('■'letit  animals  as  distinguished  for  their  humor  and  satire, 
liiif  his  true  genius  did  not  fully  reveal  itself  until  18.17, 
when  ho  finished  the  finttlv  uf  thr  f/unti  for  Prince  Ba- 
c/ynsky;  next  year  followed  the  fhntnirtinu  of  Jiruinhm 
for  the  Pinakothck  in  Munich.  These  two  pictures,  which 
g'-Mi-rally  are  considered  as  liis  masterpieces,  are  not  his- 
torical puintings  in  the  oinnmnn  sense  of  tho  word.  They 
do  not  represent  facts,  but  ideas,  and  the  form  in  whii'h 
they  represent  the  ideas  is  tborouirhly  symbolical  or  alle- 
gorical, in  spite  of  tho  realistic  life  and  fulness  of  tho  de- 
tails. To  this  stylo  belong  all  his  largest  and  most  cele- 
brnted  productions — the  decoration  of  the  ^tairwav  in  the 
Museum  of  Berlin,  commene'-d  in  IS  17.  St.  yfi'harl,  the 
Patron  Sahtt  nf  Ifrrmauif,  finished  shortly  before  his  dcnth. 
and  others.     In  Germany  these  piotures  produced  a  very 


deep  impression  ;  no  one  here  hesitated  to  set  them  up  ns 
tho  highest  ])roductions  of  modern  art.  In  foreign  coun- 
tries, however,  they  did  not  meet  with  the  same  admira- 
tion. Their  jiictorial  eifect.  properly  speaking,  is  not  great. 
They  impress  principally  by  tlu-ir  intellectuality,  though  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  symbols  and  allegories  arc  some- 
times rather  trivial;  thus,  the  li  <■  format  if  nx  is  hardly  any- 
thing more  than  a  clever  arrangement  of  portraits.  There 
is  something  in  Kaulbaeh's  pictures  which  reminds  of  Wag- 
ner's music.  The  enthusiasm  which  they  awaken  is  of  a 
polemical  character.  They  throw  down  a  great  mass  of 
modern  painting  into  utter  insignificance,  but  they  seem  not 
themselves  to  satisfy  the  demands  which  they  raise. 

Clkmkns  Pktkrsk-N. 

Kau'nitz  (Wenzel  Antox),  PnixcK,  count  of  Riet- 
berg,  b.  at  Vienna  Feb.  2,  1711;  studied  at  Lcipsic  and 
Leyden  ;  travelled  through  France  and  Italy  :  and  entered 
tho  diplomatic  career  in  the  Austrian  service  in  1735.  By 
tho  consummate  skill  with  which  ho  negotiated  the  Peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748,  and  still  more  by  his  astonish- 
ing success  in  forming  an  alliance  between  Austria  and 
France  while  ambassador  in  Paris  (1750-52).  he  acquired 
great  fame  as  a  diplomat :  and  1753,  Maria  Tlicrcsa  made 
hira  chancellor  and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian 
government.  This  position  he  held  for  nearly  forty  years, 
and  he  was  generally  considered  the  greatest  statesman  of 
bis  age.  T'nder  the  reign  of  .Tosej)!!  IT.  his  influence  de- 
creased, especially  after  tlio  failure  of  his  negotiations  for 
the  annexation  of  Bavaria  to  Austria.  In  1702  he  retired 
on  account  of  old  age.  D.  June  27,  1704.  His  policy  was 
exclusively  Austrian,  and  centred  in  the  one  idea  of  mak- 
ing Austria  great,  but  in  details,  with  respect  even  to  some 
of  tho  most  important  political  transactions — as,  for  in- 
stance, the  division  of  Pnhmd,  the  church  reforms  of 
.Toseph  II.,  etc. — it  is  doubtful  whether  they  were  origin- 
ally planned  by  him.  Personally,  he  was  a  man  of  jiorfoct 
honesty,  with  taste  for  science  and  art.  generous  and  ami- 
able in  spite  of  his  enormous  vanity. 

Kail'ri  Pine,  the  Dmnmnnt  auttraliti,  and  other  spe- 
cies of  the  sjinio  genus,  produced  in  Australasia  and  the 
adjacent  regi<uis.  They  are  coniferous  trees  of  noble  size, 
and  the  best  (juality  as  timber.  Tiiis  tinibor  is  used  for 
ships'  masts  and  planks.  The  trees  produce  kauri  gum  or 
New  Zealand  dammar,  extensively  used  in  making  var- 
nishes. 

Kautz  (Ai.nKRT),  r.  S.  X..  b.  Jan.  20,  1839,  in  Ohio; 
graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  1858;  became  a  lieu- 
tenant in  18ril,  a  lieutenant-commander  in  18fi5,  a  com- 
mander in  1808;  served  in  tho  flagship  Hartford  at  tho 
passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and  Pt.  Philip  aiid  cajiture  of 
New  Orleans,  Apr.  24, 1862,  and  in  the  various  engagements 
with  the  Vickfburg  batteries  in  June  and  July.  18fi2. 
Highly  commended  in  thoofficial  despatches  for  "  gallantry 
and  aiiility.'*  Foxiiall  A.  Pakkkr. 

Kautz  (August  Valkntinu).  h.  Jan.  5, 1828,  in  the  vil- 
lage of  li-pringeu,  near  Pror/.hciin,  grand  duchy  of  Baden  : 
emigrated  to  tho  U.  S.  in  1.82H  with  his  parents,  who  settled 
in  Brown  co.,  O.,  in  1831  ;  graduated  at  West  Point,  and 
appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  July,  1852  ; 
promoted  first  lieutenant  1855;  cajitain  (Jth  Cavalry  May, 
iHlil:  api)ointed  colonel  2d  Ohio  Cavalry  Sept.  2,  1862; 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  May  23,  1804  ;  served  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  in  the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign, 
IS02:  in  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  in  pursuit  of  (Uu.  Morgan 
and  the  siege  of  Knoxvillo  isOl!,  and  with  the  Army  of  the 
Jumes,  commanding  cavalry  division,  18(11-05,  participating 
in  tho  occupation  of  Richmond,  Va.,  Apr,  3,  ISfi5,  com- 
nmnding  1st  division  25th  corps;  member  of  the  military 
commission  for  tho  trial  of  tho  assassins  of  Pres.  Linctdn  : 
appointed  Ueut.-cul.  31tb  Infantry  Julv,  1800;  transferred 
to  15tli  Infantry  Mar.,  1860;  col.  8th  Infantry  June,  1874. 
Author  of  Cnuipntu/  Clerk  (18(53).  Cuitnni9  of  ,^ervifr  for 
Non-commimiiionrd  Ofii'-rrii  aud  Soldiers  ( 1804),  and  Citntmnn 
of  Service  for  OJiccm  (1806).  G,  C.  Simmons. 

Kava.    See  Ava. 

KavaTln,  small  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  eya- 
let  of  .Saloniki,  on  the  >'Kgcan  Sea.  opposite  tho  island  of 
Thasos,  is  noted  as  the  birthplace  of  Mehemet  Ali.and  has 
an  important  export  trade  in  leaf  tobacco.     P.  about  5(U10. 

Kav'anaffh  (Juma).  daughter  of  Morgan  Kavanagh, 
a  novelist,  was  b.  in  1824  at  Thurles,  Ireland,  and  from 
childhood  rcsidcfl  chiefly  in  Paris,  whence  she  removed  in 
181(  to  London.  She  produced  a  very  large  number  of 
novels,  tales  for  children,  etc.,  among  whicli  were  M'kI*  - 
line  1 1848),  Xaifioliv  { ISal ),  //oafricc  (1866),  Siflviu  (1870). 
U.  at  Nice.  France.  Oct.  28,  1S77. 

Kav'anauKh  (  nrniiAun  H.).  D.  r».,I>.  near  Winchester, 
Ky..  in  lSi)2,  was  .Methodist  local  preacher  iii  1S22,  joined 
Keiiluoky  eoufcrence  in  l*>23,  and  for  flfty  years  has  been 


1514 


KAVI— KEAXE. 


a  successful  itinerant;  was  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction in  Kentucky  in  1839.  and  became  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  ISbi. 

Ka'viy  the  ancient  sacred  language  of  the  island  of  Java 
in  the  East  Indies,  is  based  chiefly  upon  the  .Sanskrit,  a 
knowledge  of  which  was  brought  by  lirahmanic  immigrants 
from  India  about  the  beginning  of  the  (Miristian  era.  It 
gradually  became  corrupted  by  the  ordinary  Javanese 
tongue  to  the  extent  of  about  two-fifihs  of  its  vocabulary. 
The  alpliabet  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  Devanagari.  although 
the  order  of  the  consonants  is  varied.  The  name  of  the 
language  signifies  "learned"  or  "wise,"  and  has  been  ap- 
plied only  since  it  began  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
aboriginal  languages  by  the  composition  of  a  literature. 
This  took  place  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
A  considerable  number  of  works  is  still  extant,  devoted 
largely  to  legends  of  the  Creation  and  poems  concerning 
mythical  heroes.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  sacred  lan- 
guage, as  well  as  the  religion  taught  by  it,  was  driven  from 
Java,  and  took  refuge  in  the  neighboring  small  island  of 
Bali,  where  some  knowledge  of  it  is  still  retained  by  the 
natives.  AVilliam  von  Humboldt  has  subjected  the  Kavi 
language  to  a  searching  examination,  and  has  e.Ktracted 
much  curious  information — Ceber  die  Kaici-Sprache. 

Kaw,  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  V49. 

KaAV,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1612. 

Kawkaw'lin,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Bay  co.,  Mioh.,  on  the 
Jackson  Lansing  and  Saginaw  R.  R.,  at  the  mouth  of  Sag- 
inaw River  and  the  head  of  Sagiuaw  Bay.     Pop,  756. 

Kaye  (John),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Hammersmith,  England,  in 
178.3;  graduated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  in  ISO-t; 
became  master  of  bis  college  in  1B14:  regius  professor  of 
divinity  in  \^\6  ;  bishop  of  Bristol  in  IS20,  and  of  Lincoln 
in  1827.  He  wrote  The  Ecclesiastical  Hietori/  of  the  Second 
and  Third  ('tntnyies,  illustrated  from  the  ]Vritiit;/s  of  Ter- 
fiiZ/mii  (lS2fil,  Writiiifjs  and  Opinions  of  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (IS.'io),  Writings  and  Opinions  of  Juetin  Martyr 
(1S36),  Gox'ernment  of  the  Chnrch  dnrintj  the  First  Three 
Centuries  (1855),  several  charges  to  his  clergy,  and  two  or 
three  anonymous  treatises  directed  against  Catholicism. 
B.  at  Lincoln  Feb.  19,  1853. 

Kaye  (Sir  John  William),  b.  in  England  in  1814, • 
served  for  some  years  in  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany;  returned  to  England  in  1845,  and  devoted  himself 
to  literature.  In  1S56  he  entered  the  Indian  home  civil 
service  ;  in  1859  became  secretary  in  the  political  and  secret 
department  of  the  India  office:  and  was  knighted  in  1S71. 
He  published  a  //I'sfory  of  the  War  in  Afghanistan  (  l!^5I- 
bS),  Hi»t<*r;f  of  the  Administration  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany (1853),  Life  and  Correspoudenr^e  of  Lord  Metcalfe 
(1854),  Life  of  Sir  John  Malcolm  (1856),  Christianiti/  in 
India  (I859),"//i'»Mr^  of  thi  S^poy  War  (2  vols..  18(i«-71 ), 
and  Essays  of  an  Optimist  (1S70).     D.  July  21,  1876. 

Kazan%  or  Kanan^  government  of  Russia,  bounded 
by  Viatka.  Novgorod,  and  Astrakhan.  Area,  23.650  square 
mik'S.  Poj).  1,670,337.  The  surface  is  Hat,  but  the  soil  fer- 
tile, affording  excellent  pasture.  Cuttle  an<l  bees  are  reared, 
good  timber  is  grown,  and  the  fishing  in  the  Volga  is  con- 
siderable. 

Kazan,  town  of  Russia,  the  capital  of  the  government 
of  Kazan,  on  the  Kazanska,  4  miles  from  its  intlux  in  the 
Volga.  It  has  a  university,  a  theological  seminary,  a  mil- 
itary school,  2  gymnasia,  and  several  other  educational  in- 
stitutions. Its  manufactures  of  leather,  soap,  hardware, 
and  spirits  are  considerable  ami  its  trade  very  extensive. 
It  was  destroyed  by  fire  twice  in  this  century,  in  1S15  and 
1842,  but  rebuilt  more  beautiful  each  time.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood is  the  magnificent  Semiozernoi  convent.  Pop. 
78,602. 

KazbiD%  or  Casbin*  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Irak-Ajemce,  in  a  beautiful  plain  covered  with  orchards 
and  encircled  by  hills.  It  manufactures  velvet,  silk,  satin, 
brocade,  coarse  cotton  fabrics,  and  articles  of  iron  and  brass. 
Its  breeds  of  camels  and  horses  are  very  celebrated.  The 
number  of  its  inhabitants  is  not  ascertained.  The  area  it 
occupies  ia  very  large,  but  a  great  portion  of  it  is  covered 
with  ruins. 

Kaz'inczr  (Franz),  b.  at  Er-Semlyfn.  Hungary.  Oct. 
27,  1759:  studied  law.  and  held  several  minor  offices  during 
the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  though  literature  was  always  his 
principal  occupation.  Being  implicated  in  the  eonspirnoy 
of  Martinovies,  he  was  condemned  to  death  in  1793.  He 
was  pardoncil.  hnt  kept  in  prison  for  seven  years.  After 
his  liberation  in  180]  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  lit- 
erature, and  exercised  a  great  influence  both  by  his  own 
works  and  by  hie  numerous  translations  from  the  German, 
French;  and  English.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  by  which  the  Latin  language  was  laid  aside  and 


I  the  native  tongue  adopted  as  the  medium  of  Hungarian 

I  literature.     D.  Aug.  "2.  1831. 

Kca'gy  (John  .M.),  M.  D..b.  in  Lancaster  co..  Pa.,  about 
17115  ;  d.  at  Philadelphia  Jan.  30,  1837.  He  taught  chiefly 
in  the  public  high  school  at  Harrisburg,  where  he  published 
his  Pestatozzian  Primer  in  lSi;7,  a  book  made  up  largely  of 
"  thinking  lessons,"  the  modern  *'  object  lessons."  He  ad- 
vocated, and  to  some  extent  practised,  the  mode  of  teach- 
ing a  child  to  read  words  *'  as  if  they  were  Chinese  sym- 
bols." (See  Barnard's  Jour,  of  Education,  1871,  vol.  xxii. 
p.  649.)  S.  S.  Haldemas. 

Kcan  (Charles  Jons),  son  of  Edmund  Kean,  b.  at 
Watcrford,  Ireland,  Jan.  18,  1811;  d.  Jan.  22,  1808:  was 
educated  at  Eton,  but  was  withdrawn  before  completing 
his  studies  there,  in  consequence  of  his  father's  broken 
fortunes:  declined  a  cadetship  in  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  made  his  first  appearance  on 
the  stage  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  on  Oct.  1.  1827.  in  the 
character  of  Norval.  His  reception  was  cold,  and  success 
came  to  him  slowly.  In  1830  he  visited  America,  and 
appeared  as  Richard  III.  at  the  Park  Theatre:  returned 
to  England  Jan.,  1S33,  and  played  in  the  provincial 
theatres;  made  a  professional  trip  to  Hamburg;  came  to 
London  in  1838.  and  took  position,  as  Hamlet,  in  the 
front  rank  of  his  profession.  In  1839  he  visited  again 
the  r.  S.  and  Havana:  returned  to  London  in  1840;  in 
1842  married  Miss  Ellen  Tree :  crossed  the  Atlantic  once 
more  with  his  wife  in  1846:  in  1847  went  back,  and  after 
playing  engagements  in  Birmingham,  Manchester.  Liver- 
pool, and  Dublin,  and  at  the  Ilaymarket.  he  identified  his 
fortunes  with  the  Princess  Theatre,  which  he  made  pop- 
ular and  lucrative.  Twice  Mr.  Kean  was  entrusted  with 
the  management  of  tl»e  Windsor  theatricals.  His  produc- 
tion of  Richard  IIL  and  of  King  John,  first  attempted  in  the 
U.  §.  on  a  scale  of  splendor  till  then  unknown,  had  great 
celebrity.  Mr.  Kean  gained  bis  chief  reputation  in  the 
tragedies  of  Shakspeare — Hamht,  Macbeth,  Bichard  //., 
Richard  lff.,Romea  and  Jnlirt — but  he  did  not  sustain  tho 
grand  traditions  of  his  father.  0.  B.  Frothinrham. 

Kean  (EoMrvD),  b.  in  London  Mar.  17.  1787;  d.  in 
Richmond  May  15,  1833  ;  date  of  birth  is  not  quite  certain. 
His  father,  it  is  believed,  was  connected  as  a  mechanic  with 
the  Royalty  Theatre  :  his  mother  was  an  actress  of  little 
repute.  The  child  was  born  and  reared  amid  the  associa- 
tions of  the  stage,  and  early  attracted  attention  by  his  apt- 
ness in  juvenile  jiarts.  For  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  he  was 
connected  with  strolling  companies,  played  in  every  variety 
oi  rCle,  and  by  practice  acquired  professional  facility.  His 
first  appearance  on  the  London  stage  was  at  Drury  Lane 
Jan.  2C.  1814.  in  the  character  of  i^hylock.  His  success 
was  immediate,  and  was  raised  to  the  highest  point  by  his 
impersonations  of  Hamlet.  Richard  III..  Macbeth,  Othello, 
Iag<i.  Lear,  8ir  (iiles  Overreach.  Sir  Edward  .Mortimer,  and 
other  parts  then  popniar.  He  visited  the  I'.  S.  in  1820, 
and  again  in  1825:  his  last  appearance  was  in  1833,  with 
his  son  Charles,  as  Othello;  his  strength  failed  him  in  the 
middle  of  the  play,  and  he  was  borne  out  in  the  arms  of 
his  son.  Kean  was  a  man  of  genius  and  accorajdishment, 
a  student  in  his  profession,  of  extraordinary  powers  of 
mimicry  and  conversation,  but  irregular  in  life,  capricious 
in  temper,  and  eccentric  in  habit.  Tradition  represents 
him  as  one  of  the  greatest  actors  that  ever  trod  the  boards. 
In  moments  ho  was  surpassingly  great,  but  his  reliance  on 
his  genius  made  him  unequal.  His  biography  by  "Barry 
Cornwall"  (Mr.  Procter)  gives  an  interesting  account  of 
the  actor  and  the  man.  The  Rtminiscences  of  Mt.  Macready 
contain  allusions  to  him  that  show  how  he  was  ngarded 
from  a  professional  point  of  view.  Mr.  Macready  speaks  of 
him  as  "  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  theatrical  geniuses 
that  have  ever  illustrated  the  dramatic  poetry  of  England." 
Kcan  was  small  of  stature,  but  graceful,  and  when  under 
the  influence  of  passion  effective,  and  even  grand.  His 
countenance  was  expressive,  his  eye  brilliant,  his  action 
free  and  noble,  his  voice  flexible  and  strong.  His  power 
of  impersonation  was  wonderful;  in  his  best  moments  "he 
seemed  to  clutch  the  whole  idea  of  his  character."  Tho 
impression  he  made  in  the  l'.  S.  was  impaired  by  his  own 
waywardness  in  refusing  to  complete  an  engagement  in 
Boston  on  his  first  visit  there.  0.  B.  Fiiotiiingham. 

Keane  (Jonx),  Lord,  b.  at  Belmont,  Ireland,  in  1781  ; 
entered  the  British  army  in  boyhood :  served  in  Egypt,  and 
in  Spaiu  during  the  Peninsular  war,  gaining  the  rank  of 
major-general;  commanded  the  British  expedition  against 
New  Orleans  in  1814  until  superseded  by  Pakenham  :  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  :  commanded 
the  West  Indian  forces  182.3-30,  ami  acted  for  some  time 
as  govprnor  of  Jamaica.  In  1833  he  was  sent  to  India. 
and  during  the  Afghan  war  ( 1839)  captured  ihe  stronghold 
of  tthuznee,  for  which  exploit  he  was  made  a  peer  and 
received   from   the    East  India    Company   a   pension    of 


KEARNERSVILLE— KEECIIIES. 


151o 


£2000.     D.  at  Burton  Lodge^  Hampshire,  Enghind,  Aug. 
24,  1844. 
Kear'nersvilley  post-tp.  of  Forsyth  co.,  X.  C.     Pop. 

9'Jj. 

Kear'ney,  county  of  Nebraskn,  bounded  on  tho  N. 
liy  Platte  Kivcr.  Area,  500  square  miles.  It  is  rolling 
prairie,  well  adapted  to  pasturage.  Cap.  Lowell.  Pop. 
58. 

Kearney,  pnst-v.  of  Wnf:hin*:tou  tp.,  C!ay  eo..  Mo.,  on 
the  Kansas  t^'ity  branch  ot  the  llaunibiil  iind  St.  Joseph 
K.  U.     It  lias  1  weekly  newi^paper.     Pop.  3yG. 

Koariiey,  tp.  of  Hudson  co.,  N.  J.     Pop.  974. 

Kearney  (LawrenckI,  b.  at  Perth  Aniboy,  N.  J..  Nov. 
30,  1789;  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  as  midshipnmn  in  1807: 
served  on  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States  during  the  war 
of  1812;  destroyed  pirates  in  the  \Vct;t  Indie?,  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  in  the  Levant :  commanded  the  Cliiua  squad- 
ron in  1841,  securing  Americnn  commercial  rights  ;  returned 
in  1844 ;  became  commodore  in  1866;  and  d.  at  Perth  Am- 
boy  Nov.  29,  18(J8, 

Kearney  Jnnetion,  ])nst-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Iluffalo 
CO.,  Neb.,  on  the  Vnion  l*iicitie  R.  K..  iit  its  junrtion  with  the 
Uurlington  and  ]\Ii.«s(>uri  H.  R..  11*S  niilus  \V.  of  Omaha. 
First  town-lols  were  .«ol<i  Sept.  9,  1S72;  in  .Tunc,  L^73,  it 
numbered  about  600  inhabitants,  2U0  buildings  costing 
$140,000,  3  hutele,  3  hanks,  I  school,  19  stores  of  various 
kind?,  and  a  d6p0t  costing  $29,000.  It  is  in  the  Ptatto 
River  Valley,  in  the  uiidst  of  a  tine  agricultural  region, 
with  decp-blaek  clayey  soil,  well  watered  by  running 
streams.     It  ha;^  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newi:pii|ieis. 

C.  M.  Clapp,  MASAfiEii  ■*  Keak.nlv  Times." 

Kearny  (Philip),  nephew  of  (Jen.  Stephen  W..  b.  in 
New  York  .June  2,  1815;  graduated  nt  Culumbia  College, 
and  studied  law.  but  in  1837  accepted  a  lieutenancy  in  the 
let  Dragoons,  (tf  which  regiment  his  uncle  was  then  colonel, 
and  soon  after  visited  Kurope  under  urdeis  of  the  gnvcrn- 
ment  to  examine  and  rejtort  upon  the  tHctiesof  the  French 
cavalry  service.  Here  he  attended  the  Polytechnic  School 
at  Saumur,  and  subsequently  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  Chasseurs  d'.Arri(|Uo  in  Algeria,  winning  tho  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Hnnor.  Returned  lo  the  U.  S.  In  IStO, 
and  was  attached  to  the  stall'  of  iJcn.  Scott  1S41-44,  under 
whom  he  served  with  great  gallantry  in  the  Mexican 
war;  captain  of  dragoons  in  1840,  and  brevetted  major  for 
Contreras  and  Cliurubuseo.  In  tlie  final  assault  on  tho 
city  of  Mexici*  he  lost  an  arm  at  (he  Sun  .Antonio  gate; 
subsequently  served  in  California  and  in  eomniand  of  an 
expedition  against  tho  Indians  on  t'olumbia  River.  Re- 
signed Oet.,  I8.'»],  and  wont  to  Europe,  where  he  con- 
tinued his  military  studies ;  served  in  the  Italian  war  of 
1869  HA  volunteer  aide  to  (Jen.  .Alaurier  of  the  French 
army,  being  engaged  at  Magenta  and  Suifcrino,  aud  for 
bravery  was  a  seconrl  time  decorated  with  the  cross  of  tho 
Legion  of  Honor.  The  news  of  the  outbreak  of  civil  war 
in  tho  U.  S,  caused  his  hasty  return  home,  where  his  jirof- 
fered  services  were  at  once  accepted  by  the  ^rovernmcnt. 
Appointed  at  once  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  ho 
was  assigned  to  t!ie  command  of  u  brigade  of  New  Jersey 
troops.  In  tho  Peninsular  campai;;n  of  1SI12  he  commanded 
a  division,  and  at  Williamsburj;  and  KairOuks  his  services 
wore  most  brilliant  antl  valuable,  as  well  as  throughout 
the  suljserjucnt  hard  fighting  hero.  Arriving  at  Harrison's 
Landiii<;,  he  was  ]>romotcd  to  bo  maJ<»r-Keneral  of  volun- 
teers, to  iliitu  July  4,  1802.  Subsequently,  in  the  sectmd 
battle  of  Hull  Run,  he  was  again  conspicurMis,  and  at  Cliiin- 
tilly.  where  he  was  killed  Sept.  1,  1802,  while  reeonnoitring 
in  advance  of  his  troops.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Kearny   Mlon.  Stkphkn  Watts),  uncle  <if  Philip,  b. 
at  Newark.  N.  J.,  Aug.  30.  1794  :  ou  tho  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  (Ireal  Rritain  he  abandoned  his  studies  at  Co- 
himbia  College,  nn*J  enlcrcil  the  army  as  first  lieutenant  13th 
Infantry  Mar.,  1HI2  ;  in  the  following  October  ho  was  dis- 
tin^uii^lied  in  ttie  assault  on  Ijueenstown  Heights.  an<l  pro-  i 
inoted  lo  be  captain  Apr.,  IN13  ;  on  the  close  of  tho  war  he 
was  rctuiiied  in  the  army,  rising  through  succcBsive  irrades  ■ 
to  bo  brigadier-general  in  1846.     In  the  war  with  Mexico 
he  commanded  at  the  commencement  the  army  of  theAVost,  i 
which  made  conquest  of  the  province  of   New  Mexico  ;  C8- 
tablii-hing  a  provisional  go\ernment  at  Santa  Fe,  he  con- 
tinued his  march  to  California,  and  Hec.fi,  ISIO,  fought 
tho  battle  of  San  Paseunl,  where  he  was  twice  wounrled  ; 
subsequently  commanded  the  tronps  of  sailors  and  nmrines 
and  detachment  of  dragoons  in  tlie  battles  of  San  tlabriel 
and  Plains  of  .Mesn.  .Ian.  S  and  9,  1817.      He  was  governor 
of  California  from  Mar.  to  June.  1817;  joined  the  army  in  , 
Mexico    and  w'S  governor  of  Vera  Cr\n  Mar..  1848,  and  I 
ItfayTTAl^,  of  the  city  of  Mexico.    For  his  serviees  In  New  i 
Mexico  and   (^alitornia   he    was    brovette.l    ninjor-general. 
Author  of  A  Maniinl  /ur  tfiv  Exrrcine  and  Maittruvrin^  uf    \ 


U,  S.  Draijoonn,  Ortjanic  LttWf  and  Lawafoi'  the  Governmeut 
of  the  Territory  of  Xew  Mexico.  D.  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Oct. 
31,  1848.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Kear'sarge,  mount,  a  conspicuous  mountain  in  Car- 
roll CO.,  N.H.:  lat.  44°0'20"N.,  Ion.  71*' 5' 40"  W.,  height, 
3250  leet.  On  the  suggestion  of  the  wife  of  the  assistant 
secretary  (»f  the  navy,  a  daughter  of  Levi  Woodbury  (tf 
New  Hampshire,  the  secretary  in  ISI'.I  named  the  vessel 
which  sunk  tho  Alabama  in  iStVt  after  this  mountain. 
Another  one  of  the  same  name,  in  iMcrrimack  co.,  N.  H., 
formerly  called  h'tfar-Surf/n,hy  the  Indians  Cowissewas- 
chook,  height  2950  feet,  has  been  erroueously  claimed  lor 
this  honor.  G.  V.  Fox. 

Kea'tins:^  tp.  f>f  Clinton  co..  Pa.  Keating  Village 
(Nasl.y  P.  o.  I  is  on  the  PhiUideli.hia  and  Erie  R.  R.     P.  439. 

Keating*  tp.  of  McKean  co..  Pa.  It  includes  Smeth- 
port,  tlie  county-seat.     Pop.  1435. 

Keatinf;^,  tp.  of  Potter  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  78. 
Keats  (Jonx),  b.  in  London  in  1790:  was  gent  to  a 
school  at  Enfield  kept  by  the  father  of  Charles  Cowdcn 
Clarke;  served  ISlD-lj  an  apprenticeship  to  a  surgeon, 
and  then  studied  in  London  ;  became  the  friend  of  Leigh 
Hunt,  Lamb,  and  the  other  authors  of  the  so-called  Cock- 
ney school;  publislied  iu  1817  a  vtduine  of  verses,  followed 
in  1818  by  £ii'.ii/iin'"n,  aud  another  volume  of  poems  in 
1820.  Keats  died  of  consumjttion  at  Home  Feb.  24,  ie21. 
The  often-repeated  statement  that  Keats  was  killed  by 
the  bitter  attack  upon  him  by  (Jiflord  in  the  Qudifrrfi/ 
Jit-rii  ir  was  uuiforntly  denied  by  tlnise  who  knew  him  best, 
and  (iifford's  criticism  was  more  injurious  to  its  author, 
audjustly  so,  than  to  any  one  else.  The  fame  of  Keats  as 
a  poet  has  widened  much  since  his  deatli,  aud  after  making 
due  allowance  for  his  youth  and  inexperience  ns  a  writer, 
his  poems  certainly  display  that  indescribable  quality 
called  genius  in  an  unusual  degree. 

Kcnyne  fCapt.  Roukut),  b.  probably  in  Iiondon  in 
lo94  or  If>9.");  was  a  member  of  the  Honorable  Artillery 
Company  in  London,  and  by  trade  a  merchant  tailor.  He 
aided  Plymouth  colony  by  donations  as  early  as  1024,  and 
became  one  of  the  fnunders  of  the  .Massaehusetts  colony, 
settling  at  Hostou  in  103.').  He  brou{;ht  over  considerable* 
estate:  organized  in  1038  the  Ancient  and  Honorable  Artil- 
lery Company  of  Roston  :  was  frequently  representative  for 
Boston  from  1638  to  1049  :  was  a  lilieral  donor  to  Harvard 
College,  aU'l  by  legacy  founded  a  free  school  at  Roston. 
now  the  Latin  Grammar  School.  He  was  a  brotlier-in-law 
of  the  ceh-brated  Jcdm  Wilson,  first  minister  of  Poston. 
both  having  married  daughters  of  Sir  John  jransfield, 
master  of  the  Minories;  was  an  eccentric  man,  and  his 
singular  will  (reprinted  in  part  in  \.  E.  Gen.  licff.,  vol.  vi.) 
covers  over  ^0  pages,  being  perha{is  the  longest  ou  record 
in  America. 

Ke'ble  (John),  M.  A.,  b.  at  Fairford,  Gloucester,  Kng- 
lanil,  .Ajir.  25, 1792.  passed  R.  A.  at  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford, 
3810;  became  a  fellow  of  Oriel  1811  ;  was  public  examiner 
at  Oxford  1814-10;  took  deacon's  orders  1815,  priest's 
1810;  was  a  tutor  at  Oxford  1818-23;  became  ]irofessor 
of  poetry  IS31  ;  was  one  of  the  original  Tractarians.  and  a 
leader  of  tlie  Anglo-Catholic  movement ;  became  viear  of 
Hursley  18;:n.  H.  at  Rournemouth  Mar.  29.  1800.  In  1827 
he  published  Thv  Christian  Year,  a  volume  of  sacrod  poetry 
which  attained  a  wide  popularity,  and  upon  which  his  famo 
chietly  rests  ;  also  publifthe<l  rniftrtinnrtt  Aroflrnn'rir  ( 1844), 
/.//ro  /imorriitluni  (IS  17),  Thr  I'trnhnn  in  ICiif/lifh  Vrrsc,  Dc 
Poitiva  I'i  Atrdica  (1847),  some  volumes  of  sermons,  and 
many  tracts  and  pamphlets  upon  ecclesiastical  subjects. 
(See  Memoir  of  liev.  John  KcUcf  by  Sir  John  T.  Coleridge, 
1809.) 

Kecskemet',  town  of  Hungary,  tho  capital  of  tho 
district  of  Peslh-Snlt.  The  rearing  of  cattle  uml  horses  is 
tho  chief  pursuit  of  the  inliabiiants,  and  the  annual  cattlo- 
fnir  held  in  this  city  is  tho  most  imj'ortant  in  the  whole 
country.     Pop.  42.0S9. 

Kcdf^e,  a  small  anchor  used  in  hauling  a  vessel  from 
onomooring  to  fliiolher,  in  pullinj;  off  a  ship  that  is  aground. 
etc.  Kedges  are  als<i  useful  in  preventing  ships  from  foul- 
ing with  their  bower  anchor. 

Keirceri,  or  KU'nri,  town  of  Rritish  India,  in  tho 
presidency  of  Rengal,  nt  the  mouth  of  the  Hoogly.  As  this 
river  forms  the  main  entranno  into  the  Ganges  and  the  road 
to  Calcutta,  the  town  has  aequireil  consiilcrablo  notoriety, 
and  the  first  lelograph-Iine  in  India  was  laid  between  it  and 
Caleuttn.  a  clistance  of  1(1  miles. 

Kee'chieR,  a  Irihe  of  Indians  residing  on  the  Washita 
River  in  the  Indian  Territory.  They  are  related  to  tho 
Pawnees  and  AVichitiis,  ami  formerly  lived  on  Trinity 
River  in  Texas,  but  were  removed  in  i859.  They  number 
little  over  100. 


1516 


KEEL— KEI  RIVER,  GREAT. 


Keel)  in  shipbuilding,  is  the  beam  which  passes  under 
the  ship's  hull  Irom  stem  to  stern.  It  is  usually  made  up 
of  several  heavy  timbers  bolted  together  leuf^thwise.  The 
ship's  ribs,  stern,  and  stern-post  spring  from  the  keel,  which 
is  external  to  the  hull,  as  the  keelson  is  internal.  Below 
the  keel  one  or  niorc^/ri/se  keels  are  bolted  on. 

Kee'ler,  tp.  of  Van  Buren  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1303. 

Kecrhatlling,  a  punishment  formerly  employed  in 
the  Dutch  and  other  navies.  The  oft'ender,  with  suitable 
ropes  attached,  was  dropi)ed  from  one  yanl-arm  into  tlio 
sea,  hauled  beneath  the  keel  of  the  ship,  and  then  drawn 
up  to  the  opposite  yard-arm.  The  culprit  was  lieavily 
weighted  with  lead  or  iron. 

KeeTson,  or  Kelson,  the  beam  inside  a  ship's  hull 
whieh  runs  fore  and  ait  ilirectly  over  the  keel.  It  is  made 
up  of  timbers  scarped,  nutdied,  and  bolted  into  one,  and  the 
keelson  is  itself  securely  bolted  to  the  keel. 

Keen  (William  Williams).  M.  D.,  b.  Jan.  19,  1S37,  in 
Philadelphia;  entered  Brown  University  in  1809  and  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College  in  1SG2;  studied  1SG4  at  Paris, 
Vienna,  and  Berlin  ;  returned  in  IStifi,  and  began  practis- 
ing in  Philadeljihia  ;  became  proprietor  of  the  Philadelphia 
School  of  Anatomy,  which  he  conducted  with  great  success  ; 
lectured  on  anatomy  at  this  institution  and  on  pathological 
anatomy  at  Jefferson  Medical  College,  and  was  appointed 
trustee  of  Brown  University  and  Crozer  Theological  Sem- 
inary, and  surgeon  to  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Philadelphia. 
His  printripa!  writings  are — On  Br/h-x  Parah/»h  (1864), 
Gunshnt  ]Voniuh  (1S64).  Practical  Atmtomi/  (1870),  Sketch 
<if  the  Eiirfi/  Histon/ of  Practical  Anatomy  (1874),  Diagrams 
of  the  A'crven  ft/ the  Human  /?of/f/ (1872),  Clinical  Charts  of 
the  Human  //of/_y  ( 1S"2).  Gunshot  Wound  of  the  Brain  (1871), 
Anat.y  Pathol. ,  and  Surg.  Uses  of  Chloral  (1874),  etc. 

Keene,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  111.     Pop.  1283. 

Keene,  post-tp.  of  Ionia  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1271. 

Keene,  city,  cap.  of  Cheshire  co..  N.  H.,  92  miles  N. 
W.  of  Boston  and  6.0  miles  N.  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  on  a 
wide  plain  surrounded  by  lofty  hills,  has  broad  thorough- 
fares shaded  by  stately  elms,  and  claims  to  be  the  most 
beautiful  inland  city  of  New  England.  The  public  build- 
ings consist  of  a  fine  court-house,  city  hall,  high-school 
building,  and  7  well-built  churches.  Central  Square,  from 
which  radiate  the  five  principal  avenues,  is  planted  with 
trees,  and  contains  a  soldiers'  monument  erected  at  a  cost 
of  nearly  ?20,U00.  The  eity  is  well  supplied  with  water 
brought  by  an  aqueduct  from  Silver  Lake.  ;i  miles  distant. 
There  are  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  large  public  library,  a 
gymnasium,  3  national  anil  2  savings  banks,  3  hotels,  o 
Masonic  lodges,  1  lodfje  and  1  encampment  of  Odd  Fellows. 
Two  railroads  centre  here;  a  third  (the  Manchester  and 
Keene)  is  about  to  be  built.  The  eity  is  noted  for  excel- 
lent public  schools  and  for  its  business  prosjierity  and  en- 
terprise. The  manufactures  are  large;  there  are  3  steam- 
mills  manufacturing  furniture,  sash  and  blinds,  and  ma- 
chinery. The  Cheshire  U.  K.  employs  several  hundred 
men  in  the  manufacture  of  locomotives  and  cars.  There 
arc  3  steam-tanneries,  an  iron-foundry,  a  flannel-mill,  gas- 
works, carriage  and  sleigh  manufactories,  and  granite- 
quarries  affurding  employment  to  about  400  men.  The 
valuation  of  taxable  property  in  Apr..  1874,  was  $4,500,000. 
Pup.  5971.  Tnos.  C.  Rand,  Ed.  "  N.  H.  Sentinkl." 

Keene,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Essex  co.,  X.  Y.  The  town- 
ship contains  Mt.  Marcy,  the  highest  of  the  Adirondaeks, 
and  has  iron-mines  and  manufactures  of  iron.     Pop.  720. 

Keene,  post-tp.  of  Coshocton  co.,  0.     Pop.  787. 

Keene  (BArnA),  b.  in  England  in  1S20:  came  to  the 
U.  S.  as  an  actress  in  1S52,  and  had  great  success  in  light 
comedy,  as  also  in  Australia  in  1S54.  Keturningto  Amer- 
ica in  1855,  she  became  manager  of  the  Varieties  Theatre 
in  New  York,  and  soon  afterward  inaugurated  another 
theatre,  long  known  by  her  name,  now  the  Olympic.  Here 
she  introduced  in  1858  the  very  successful  comedy  of  Our 
American  Cousin.  She  appeared  on  the  stage  with  suc- 
cess in  the  principal  American  cities  until  shortly  before 
her  death,  which  took  place  at  Moutclair,  N.  J-.  Nov.  4. 
1873.  It  was  at  one  of  her  representations  of  Onr  Amer- 
ican r<'n«i';i  that  President  Bincoln  was  assassinated  in  1865. 

Keen'cr,  tp.  of  Ja.^per  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  71. 

Keener  (Dikcan  F.),  b.  in  Maryland  or  Virginia;  re- 
moved tu  Louisiana;  was  a  member  from  that  State  to  the 
Confederate  Couiiress  in  ISfil.and  to  tlto  end  of  the  war  he 
held  a  high  positicm  throughout.  I'n-  was  brief,  practical, 
able,  and  eloquent  in  tlebate.  Since  the  war  he  has  taken 
no  active  part  in  polities,  but  exerted  a  great  influence  in 
preventing  a  collision  between  the  Federal  troops  under 
Gen.  Emory  anil  the  State  troojis  under  the  McEnery  offi- 
cials in  New  Orleans  in  Sept.,  1874. 

Keener  (John  C),  1>.  I).,  b.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1819; 


educated  at  Wesleyan  Academy,  Wilbraham,  Mass.,  and  at 
Wcsleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.;  was  editor  of 
the  New  Orleans  Christian  Advocate  (M.  E.  Church, 
South)  from  1865  to  1870.  and  was  elected  bishop  in 
that  year.  In  1873  he  visited  the  Southern  Methodist 
missions  in  Mexico,  which  were  at  that  time  entrusted 
to  his  superintendence.  He  is  author  of  Post  Oak  Cir- 
cuit. 

Keese'ville,  post-v.  in  Chesterfield  tp.,  Essex  co.,  and 
Au  Sable  tp.,  Clinton  co.,  N.  Y.,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
Au  Sable  River,  which  is  the  boundary  between  those  two 
counties,  4  miles  W.  of  Lake  Champlain  and  150  miles  N. 
of  Albany.  It  has  6  churches  (2  Catholic),  a  graded  school, 
a  national  bank,  a  public  hall,  ancl  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Iron  and  nail  works  constitute  the  principal  industry. 
The  water-power  is  excellent.  A  woollen-factory  was 
erected  here  in  1813.  and  a  rolling-mill  in  ISIG.  Three 
bridges  connect  the  two  parts  of  the  village,  one  being 
an  iron  susjiension  bridge.     Pop.  about  30OO, 

W.  Lansinu.  Ed.  "  Esskx  Co.  Republican." 

KefT,  or  El-Keff,  the  ancient  Sicca  Vencria,  town  of 
Tunis,  near  the  Algerian  frontier,  is  beautifully  situated 
among  fertile  and  well-cultivated  surroundings,  and  has 
a  strong  citadel.     Pop.  GOOO. 

Keigh'ley,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  York- 
shire, on  the  Aire.  Its  manufactures  of  woollen  and 
worsted  goods  are  very  considerable.     Pop.  15,005. 

Keight'lev  (Thomas),  b.  in  Dublin  in  Oct.,  1780; 
graduated  at  Trinity  College  in  that  eity  in  1808,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  production  of  a  series  of  classical 
textbooks  and  works  on  history  and  mythology,  by  which 
he  became  widely  known  in  Eiigland  and  America.  His 
best  works  were — Outlinrv  of  Jlistory,  Mi/tholitgi/  of  Ancient 
Greece  and  Italy,  History  of  India,  and  Sh<tks/jeare  E.tpo8- 
itor.  He  received  a  pension  from  the  English  government 
in  his  later  years,  and  d.  at  Erttb,  Kent,  Dec,  1872. 

Keil  (Karl  August  Gottlieb),  b.  at  Grossenhain,  near 
Dresden,  Saxony,  Apr.  23,  1754;  was  educated  in  theology 
at  the  University  of  Leip^ic.  in  which  he  became  tutor, 
lecturer  on  exegesis  and  hermeneulics.  professor  extra- 
ordinary of  philosophy  (1785),  of  theology  (1788),  and  full 
or  ordinary  professor  iu  1793.  His  writings  in  German 
and  Latin  are  especially  valuable  upon  the  subject  of  her- 
meneutics.  in  which  he  is  recognized  as  a  master.  His 
Manual  of  Hcrmtnentics  appeared  in  1810;  his  miscella- 
neous Latin  writings  wereiuiblished  after  his  death  by  Gold- 
horn,  under  the  title  Opuscula  Acadcmica,  etc.  (Leipsic,  2 
vols.,  1821).     D.  at  Lcipsic  Apr.  22,  1818. 

Keim  {THKonon^,  D.  D.,  b.  at  Stuttgart,  Wiirtemberg, 
Dec.  17,  1825;  studied  at  the  University  of  Tiibingen 
(1843-48),  devoting  himself,  under  the  guidance  of  Baur, 
to  philosophy,  biblical  criticism,  and  ecclesiastical  history; 
was  tutor  in  those  branches  at  Bonn  (1850)  and  at  Tiibin- 
gen (1851-55) ;  was  ordained  deacon  (1857)and  archdeacon 
(1850)  at  Esslingen,  and  became  in  ISCO  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  University  of  Zurich.  He  wrote  volumes  upon 
the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  several  parts  of  Germany; 
in  Ulm  (1851 ),  in  Swabia  until  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1855), 
in  Esj'lingen  (lSt»0),  Amhrosius  li/arer,  the  Sn-abian  Re- 
former  (18(10),  The  Human  Development  of  Jesus  Christ 
(ISIJI).  The  Historical  Words  r/ ^f^H*  (ISfi I ).  and  recast 
the  latter  two  works  into  The  Historical  (^hrist  (IS6G).  wliich 
at  once  gave  him  a  wide  reputation.  He  then  devoted  him- 
self to  a  nu)re  biographical  work  upon  the  same  subject, 
called  History  of  Jesus  of  Xazara,  of  which  two  volumes 
have  appeared  (18G7  and  1871).  an<l  have  been  translated 
into  English  (London.  1873).     D.  Nov.  17,  1^78. 

Keim  (William  Hifiii),  b.  at  Reading,  Pa.,  June  25, 
18i;i ;  educated  at  Mt.  Airy  Military  Academy  ;  was  chosen 
Representative  in  Congress  in  1S5S,  and  State  surveyor  in 
1850;  served  as  major-general  of  Pennsylvania  volunteers 
in  Patterson's  campaign  on  the  upper  Potomac  (1S(H),  and 
as  brigadier-general  U.  S.  volunteers  in  McCIellan's  army. 
D.  at  Harrisburg.  Pa.,  May  18,  lS(i2. 

Keim'er  (Samuel),  a  printer  in  Philadelphia  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  celebrated  in  the 
yl  ijfo/jf'o7rn/>/i// of  Franklin,  wlio  was  employed  in  his  office. 
Little  is  known  of  Keimer beyonil  these  inciiicntal  notices; 
the  place  and  time  of  his  birth  and  death  are  alike  undiscover- 
able.  Franklin  states  that  he  was  originally  '*one  of  the 
French  prophets,  and  could  act  their  enthusiastic  agitation," 
and  gives  an  amusing  accnunt  of  his  projects  for  founding  a 
new  religion,  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  which  were  never 
disclosed.  Keimer  went  to  Barbadoes,  where  in  17.'U  he 
was  pTini'iugthQ  Gazette,  and  in  1711  a  work  of  his  entitled 
Caribhcana  was  printed  in  London. 

Kei  River,  Great,  scjiarates  the  formerly  so-called 
British  Kafl^raria.  which  now  lornis  a  jwirt  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  from  Kaffraria  proper,  and  empties  itself  into  the 


KEISKAMMA— KELLOGO. 


1517 


Indian  Occao.     Like  all  rivers  of  Kaffraria,  it  is  unfit  for 
navifiation,  ils  bed  being  very  rocky  and  irregular. 

KeiskaTn'ma,  a  river  in  the  Capo  Colony,  rises  in 
Amatola,  and  Bows  into  the  Indian  Ocean  after  a  course  of 
SO  miles. 

Keith,  new  county  in  P.  W.  Nebraska,  adjoining  Colo- 
rad">.  inttT?cctcd  by  the  two  forks  of  the  Platte,  and  trav- 
ersed by  the  Union  Pacific  K.  R.     Area,  201(»  square  miles. 

Keith  MIkohgf).  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Pootland.  about  1640; 
was  educated  for  the  Presbyterian  ministry  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Aberdeen  :  adopted  Quaker  principles  about  1664, 
ancl  in  1075  was  associated  with  Robert  Barclay  in  defend- 
ing that  sect  in  public  discussions  with  the  university 
students.  He  was  also  associated  with  Pcnn  in  similar 
discussions  with  the  Baptists  in  London.  In  16s2  ho  took 
charze  of  a  Quaker  school  at  Edmonton,  and  was  impris- 
oned in  Newgate  for  refusing  to  take  an  oath  and  preaching 
without  license  ( 16S4).  Soon  afterward  he  cnmc  to  America; 
became  surveyor-general  of  East  .Jersey,  and  in  16S0  took 
charge  of  a  Quaker  school  in  Philadelphia.  Next  year  he 
went  to  New  England  as  a  Quaker  preacher,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  disputes  with  Increase  and  Cotton  Maihcr.  Re- 
turning to  Philadelphia,  he  became  involved  in  controversy 
with  his  own  sect,  chiefly  about  the  atonement,  and  ulti- 
mately came  into  sharp  collision  with  William  Penn  him- 
self, whom  ho  charged  with  deism,  and  by  whom  ho  was 
denounced  as  an  apostate.  Keith  thereupon  founded  a  sect 
known  as  Keithians.  Christian  Quakers,  or  Baj)tist  Qua- 
kers, but  ultimately  entered  the  Church  of  England,  and  was 
employed  as  a  missionary  for  the  conversion  of  his  former 
fellow-believers.  From  1702  to  1705  he  made  a  tour  of  tho 
Northern  colonies,  and  converted  many  hundreds  of  Qua- 
kers, who  were  baptized  by  him.  Returning  to  England 
in  1706,  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Edburton  in  Sussex, 
where  ho  d.  about  1715.  Ho  was  a  man  of  deep  learning, 
well  versed  in  PIatonism,and  wrote  many  theological  tracts 
both  for  and  against  Qu:ikerii*m  ;  al.»>  two  works  of  travels 
in  America  (  1699  and  1705)  and  a  X*  ir  Throri/  of  the  Lou- 
ffitiifie  (1709).  (See  Jannoy's  Iliston/  of  the  Friends,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1867,  and  Watts's  Ttibliotheca  Bn'tannica.) 

Keith  (firoROE^b.  at  Kineardine.  Scotland,  in  16S5. 
and  received  a  military  education.  After  the  death  of 
Queen  Anno  he  espoused  tho  cause  of  tho  Pretender,  was 
outlawed,  and  his  estates  were  confiscated.  For  several 
years  ho  lived  in  Rome  with  the  Pretender,  then  in  Spain, 
but  entered  at  last  into  the  service  of  Frederick  IL,  whoso 
friend  he  became,  and  who  employed  him  in  several  re- 
sponsible positions — as  ambassador  to  Paris  1751,  as  gov- 
ernor »if  Neufehatel  1754,  etc.  Through  the  king's  media- 
tion his  estates  were  restored  to  him,  but  ho  continued  to 
reside  at  Potsdam,  where  he  d.  May  25,  1778, 

Keith    ((iKORfiE  KEiTn-Ei.i'HiNSTONc),  Admiral.  Vis- 
rocNT,  b.  at  Elphinstone,  Scotlan<i,  Jan.  12,  1746;  entered 
tho  navy  in  boyhood,  and,  as  post-captain  commanding  the  | 
frigate  Perseus,  took  part  in  the  actions  of  Bunker  Hill  | 
(1775)  and  Fort  Mifflin  on  the  Delaware  (1777).     In  179.3 
he  served  with  the  Mediterranean  squadron  under  Lord  | 
Hood  at  Toulon,  and  as  admiral  was  despatclie<t  in  1795  to 
operate  against  the  Dutch  colonies.    Ho  took  jtossession  of    ' 
Ciijie  Colony  in  South  Africa,  Ceylon,  Cochin,  Malacca,  and 
the  Mohn'cii  Islands,  and  in  Aug.,  1796,  captured  a  Dutch  , 
squadron  near  Satdanha  Bay,  West  Africa.     For  these  bril-   I 
liant  services,  he  was  created  an  Irish  peer,  as  Baron  Keith  I 
of  Stonehaven   Marischal.      In   Mar.,  IHOO,   ho  blockaded  1 
Massena  in  Genoa,  co-operating  with  tho  Austrians,  who 
besieged  and  took  that  city,     lie  co-operated  with  Aber-  , 
crombifc  in   the   Egyptian  exptdition,  and  in   1S15  com-  | 
nianded  the  Channel  fleet,  which  prevented  tho  escape  of 
Napoleon   I.,  and  brought  about    his  surrender   to  Capt.  ] 
>faitland  of  the  BelUrophon.     In  lsI4  he  was  created  Vis-  I 
count   Keith  of  the  peerage  of  the   United   Kingdom.     D.   | 
at  Tullialan,  Pertli!«hire.  Scotland,  Mar.  10,  182.3, 

Keith  (.Tames  FnANns  EnwARo).  brother  of  George 
(16S5-I77S),  h.  at  Kineordine,  Scotland,  Juno  11,  1696; 
look  part,  like  his  brother,  in  the  rebellion  against  the 
Hanoverian  house;  was  outlawed,  and  lived  for  several 
years  at  Paris  and  in  Spain.  In  17-31  he  entered  the  Kus- 
sinn  servifi',  and  <listinguishe<l  himself  very  much  in  the 
wars  against  Turkey  and  Sweden.  In  174.3  ho  was  nnulo 
a  fii'ld  marshal,  but  in  1747  ho  left  Russia,  went  to  Berlin, 
and  was  one  of  Fre<leriek's  great  generals.  He  was  u  man 
of  great  military  talent  and  much  appreciated  by  tho  king. 
He  fell  at  Hoeh'kirch  Oct.  14,  175S. 

Keith  (Sir  Wii.!,iAM\  b.  in  the  N.  of  Scotland  about 
lOf'O;  became  surveyor-general  of  customs  in  Amerien  for 
the  Southern  colonies:  was  governor  of  Pennsylvania  for 
the  proprietors  1717-26;  was  fond  of  intrigu*-,  vain,  and 
treaeberous,  but  the  colony  prosperetl  under  bis  ailminis- 
tratinn.     Author  of  a    ///*/<»(■»/  <</   Vii-'finia   (17.'!S)  and   a 


Tolame  of  tracts  and  papers  (1749).     D.  in  London  Nor. 
17,  1749. 

Keiths'bur^,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Mercer  co..  111.  It  is 
on  the  Mississii)pi  River  and  the  Chicago  Burlington  and 
Quincy  R.  R.,  and  has  a  national  bank  and  1  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  of  v.  1179;  of  tp. 1579. 

Keitt  (Lawrence  M.),  b.  in  Orangeburg  district.  S.  C, 
Oct.  4,  1824:  graduated  at  the  State  College,  Columbia,  in 
184.3;  studied  law.  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1845;  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature  in  1S4S.  and  to  Congress  in 
185.3.  which  position  he  held  until  he  resigned  it  in  the  winter 
of  1860-61,  after  South  Carolina  had  passed  her  ordinance 
of  secession.  He  was  then  elected  to  the  Confederate  Con- 
gress, which  met  in  Montgomery  on  Feb.  4.  1861  ;  in  this 
body  he  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
provisional  and  permanent  constitutions  for  the  Confed- 
erate States.  He  subsequently  entered  the  military  service 
with  a  colonel's  commission,  and  gallantly  fell  at  the  head 
of  his  regiment  in  repelling  the  assault  at  Cold  Harbor  on 
the  .3d  of  June.  1S64.  As  an  orator  and  a  popular  dc- 
claimer  Mr.  Keitt  held  a  high  position.      A.  H.  Stephens. 

Kelat%  the  cap.  of  Beloochistan.  in  lat.  2S°  52'  N.  and 
Ion.  00°  3;i'  E..  situated  in  a  narrow  valley  6000  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  has  some  im- 
portance as  a  fortress,  but  it  is  ill  built  and  dirty,  and  ils 
trade  and  manufactures  arc  of  very  little  consequence. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Kellermann'  fFRAN<;ois  Crristophe),  b.  at  Stras- 
bourg 17.35;  d.  in  1820;  was  raised  slowly,  under  the  old 
monarchy,  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  when  the  Rev- 
olution of  17S9  broke  out,  and  suddenly  made  general-in- 
chief.  He  won  tho  famous  battle  of  Valmv  in  1792  against 
the  allies,  who  were  marching  on  Paris.  Kellermann,  being 
a  moderate  republican,  was  arrested  in  1793,  and  remained 
in  prison  until  the  Tbermidor  reactionary  revolution  in 
1794.  He  coninianded  in  1795.  with  success,  the  armies  of 
the  Alps  and  of  Italy,  and  Napoleon  made  him  duke  of 
Valmy  and  nmrshal  of  France.  Kellermann  was  a  soldier, 
not  a  politician  :  ho  did  not  stick,  therefore,  by  Napoleon, 
any  more  than  ho  had  done  l>y  the  radical  republicans  who 
had  been  the  first  to  discover  and  employ  his  rare  military 
genius.  On  tho  full  of  the  empire  in  1815,  lie  rallied  to  I  lie 
Bourbons,  who  confirmed  his  title  of  duke  and  made  him  a 
peer  of  Franco.  Felix  Al'caignk. 

Kellermann  (Francois  Etienne),  son  of  F.  C.  Kdh  r- 
mann,  b.  at  Metz  in  1770;  received  his  military  educiitiun 
under  his  father ;  was  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  in   1796, 
and  brigadier-general  in  1799.      He  distinguished  himself 
very    much    in    the    battles    of   Marengo.   Austerlitz,   and 
Waterloo.     After  the  restoration  of  tho  Bourbons  ho  with- 
drew from  the  service.     D,  June  2,  18.35. 
Kelley,  tp.  of  Ripley  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  240. 
KeI'ley  (Wii.mam  D\u»ah),  b.  in  Philadelphia  Apr. 
12,  1814.  a  grandson  of  M:ij.  ,hAiu  Kelley.  a  Revolutionary 
oflicer  of  New  .Jersey.      He  was   (I8;J5-.39)   a  jeweller  of 
Boston,  Mass. ;  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  bar  in 
1841;  became  a  leading  Democrat ;  was  attorney-general 
of  Pennsylvania  1845-46;    a  judge  of  the  common  pleas 
I  court  1846-56;  and   in  1854  became  a  republican;   was  n 
'  prominent  member  of  Congress   1861^74,  and  has  taken  a 
,   high  rank  as  an  elleetivc  public  speaker. 
I       Kellcy's  Island,  one  of  the  AVino  Islands  of  Lake 
I   Erie,  belongs  to  Erie  co..  0.,  and  has  flourishing  vineyards, 
j  producing  large  quantities  of  wiuo  and  grapes.     Pop.  of 

Kelley's  Island  tp.  8.38. 
I  KeTlogg,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Jasper  co.,  Ta.,  on  tho 
I  Chicago  Rock  IslanrI  and  Pacific  R.  R..  45  miles  E.  of 
j  Dos  Moines.  It  hat*  .3  churches,  1  Englii^h  newspaper 
I  (weekly),  large  jjump-faetory,  and  the  usual  number 
I  of  stores  and  whops.  It  has  good  water-power  and  nu- 
I  merous  branches  of  indu.'ftry.     Pop.  of  tp.  1507. 

S.  r.  Mm  iiKLL,  Kn.  "  News." 
KellOff^  fCi.ARA  LoiiSK),  h.  in  Snmtorville.  S.  C.luly. 
1842,  of  Northern  parentage  and  ancestry.  Her  father  is 
a  man  of  remarkable  ingenuity  in  mechanical  invention; 
her  mother  had  unusual  gifts  as  a  musician,  a  talent  with 
tho  pencil,  and  evni  skill  in  the  cutting  of  cameos.  Clnra 
was  their  only  child.  A  year  after  her  birth  the  family 
removed  to  New  Haven,  Conn.,  ami  resided  there  till  1S56. 
when  they  went  to  Xew  York.  Here  tlie  young  girl's  mu- 
sical genius  was  appreciated,  and  by  help  of  a  friend  her 
musical  eilucalion  was  begun  un<ler  the  direction  of  Millet, 
Rivarde.  Manzoclii,  and  .Albitc?).  all  teachers  of  tho  first 
rank  in  their  time.  She  studied  with  intense  industry, 
ambition,  and  paiision  for  art,  devoting  herself  wholly  to 
her  pursuit.  learning  along  with  music  the  French  and 
Italian  Innguaees.  Her  whole  professional  edueatinn  was 
acquired  in  New  York,  the  few  lessons  she  received  in  Lon- 
don  from    Ardili    being  scarcely    wortliv   uf  mention.     A 


1518 


KELLOGG— KELP. 


private  presentation  made  so  favorable  an  impression  on  ] 
her  auditors  that  she  was  V>rought  out  in  the  character  of 
Gildft  {Ht'folettu)  at  the  Academy  of  Music  iu  the  season 
of  1S61-C2,  and  sang  that  season  ten  or  twelve  times.  In 
1867  she  appeared  in  London  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre 
under  the  nianaj^ement  of  Mr.  Mapk-son,  and  was  immedi- 
ately engac;ed  for  the  following  or  summer  season.  Ro- 
turiiing  to  the  V.  S.  in  ISfiS,  she  made  a  brilliant  tour 
though  the  States  with  Mr.  Strakosch.  gaining  new  laurels, 
till  1872,  when  she  a:;ain  accepted  a  London  engagement, 
and  sang  at  Drury  Lane  with  Nil?son  under  Mapleson's 
management.  Her  success  was  even  more  signal  than 
before  ;  she  sang  also  at  a  ''private"  concert  given  by  the 
queen  at  Buckingham  Palace.  On  her  return  to  the  U.  S. 
she  resumed  her  professional  career,  singing  in  Italian 
opera  till  Nilsson  and  Lucca  absorbed  the  attention  of  the 
fashionable  world  of  music  :  then,  about  two  years  ago,  she 
determined  to  establish  in  America  on  a  popular  basis  the 
English  opera.  Into  this  enterprise  she  threw  herself  with 
all  her  accustomed  energy,  aided  by  a  deep  confidence  in 
the  musical  appreciation  and  enthusiasm  of  the  American 
people,  assuming  the  direction  of  the  pieces,  the  training 
of  the  singers,  the  translation  of  the  Vihrctti  from  French 
or  Italian,  and  in  general  the  conduct  of  the  business. 
Her  labors  have  been  severe  (in  the  winter  of  187-1—75 
she  sang  no  fewer  than  125  nights),  but  they  have  been 
crowned  with  complete  success.  In  the  Western  cities  her 
popularity  is  immense.  She  has  fairly  domesticated  opera 
there.  Miss  Kellogg  has  a  fine  musical  organization,  great 
capacity  for  labor,  a  retentive  memory  (she  is  perfectly 
familiar  with  thirty  operas — not  with  her  own  part  only, 
but  with  all  the  parts  and  with  the  instrumentation),  se- 
vere conscientiousueps  as  an  artist,  an  ardent  enthusiasm, 
and  a  voice  of  great  compass  and  pr.rity.  To  these  gifts 
she  unites  an  uncommon  talent  for  bur iness.  She  is.  more- 
over, much  respected  as  a  woman  for  her  blameless  life,  the 
perfect  decorum  of  her  behavior,  and  the  goodness  of  her 
heart.  0.  B.  FrOTHiNGH.VM. 

Kellogg  (Edward  X.),  U.  P.  N..  b.  Bee.  8,  1S42,  in 
Maine;  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  ISOl ;  became 
a  lieutenant  in  1RG4.  a  lieutenant-commander  in  18CC; 
served  on  board  the  Oneida  at  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay, 
Aug.  5,  1864,  and  was  commended  for  skill  and  courage. 
D.  of  yellow  fever  at  Ponsacola  in  the  fall  of  1S74. 

FoxnALL  A.  Parker. 
Kellogg  (Francis  W.),  b.  at  Worthington,  Hampshire 
CO.,  Mass.,  May  30.  1810;  removed  at  an  early  af^e  to 
Michigan,  and  became  a  lumber-merchant.  After  serving 
in  the  legislature  ho  was  elected  a  Representative  in  Con- 
gress in  1858,  re-elected  in  1800  and  1802,  and  appointed 
in  lf*05  collector  of  internal  revenue  for  tho  district  of  Ala- 
bama :  was  returned  to  Congress  from  Alabama  in  18GR. 

Kellogg  {Gkorge).  the  father  of  Clara  Louise  Kellogg, 
h.  June  19,  181 2,  at  New  Hartford.  Conn.;  graduated  at  Wes- 
leyan  University,  18"7  :  was  prinnipal  of  Sumter  Academy, 
Siimterville,  S.  C.,  18:!S-n,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  as 
an  inventor  and  manufacturer.  Among  his  inventions  arc 
a  jack-chain  machine,  cajiable  of  making  a  yard  of  chain 
a  minute;  a  dovetailing  machine;  improved  surgical  im- 
plements ;  type-distributing  and  other  machines.  lias  in- 
troduced into  England  American  machinery  for  making 
hooks  and  eyes,  hats,  etc.  Residence,  Cold  Spring,  K.  Y. 
Kellogg  (Stki-ren  WuiGnx),  A.  M.,  b.  at  Shelburne, 
Mass.,  Apr.  5,  1822  :  graduated  at  Yale  in  1840 ;  became  a 
lawyer  of  Waterbury,  Conn.;  clerk  of  tho  State  senate 
1851 :  was  in  both  houses  of  the  legislature;  judge  of  pro- 
bate 1854-60;  delegate  to  tho  Chicago  Repulilican  conven- 
tions of  1860  and  1808;  elected  in  1871  as  Representative 
in  Congress,  and  re-elected  in  1873,  but  defeated  at  tho 
election  of  Apr.,  1875. 

Kellogg  (Wii.i-tAM),  b.  in  Ashtabula  oo..  0.,  July  8, 
1S14:  removed  to  Illinois  in  1837;  studied  law;  acquired 
an  extensive  practice,  chiefly  in  respect  to  land  titles;  was 
member  of  the  State  legislature  1S49-50 ;  judge  of  the  cir- 
cuit court  for  three  years;  elected  to  Congress  in  1856,  re- 
elected in  1858  and  1>160;  appointed  in  1804  minister  resi- 
dent in  fJuatemala,  and  iu  1S6G  chief-justice  of  Nebraska. 
Kellogg  (William  Pitt),  b.  in  Vermont  in  ls?>n:  re- 
moved in  1^4f<  to  Illinois;  became  a  lawyer  in  1854;  was 
in  IJ^56  and  1800  a  Presidential  elector:  chief-justice  of 
Nebraska  in  1801  ;  served  as  a  colonel  of  volunteer  cavalry 
in  the  civil  war.  and  became  a  brigadier- general :  was  col- 
lector of  the  port  of  New  Orleans;  V.  .'^.  Senator  from 
Louisiana  186S-71  :  was  in  1872  declared  elected  governor 
of  Louisiana  for  the  term  ending  in  1877,  which  office  he 
ctill  (1875)  holds,  after  the  failure  of  an  insurrectionary 
attempt  (Sept.,  1874)  to  displace  him  in  favor  of  the  Demo- 
cratic candidate — a  movement  which  resulted  in  Federal 
military  interference,  a  Congressioiuil  investigation  (1875), 
and  a  finally  accepted  compromise  between  the  parties. 


Kel'loway  Rock^  The^an  arenaceous  limestone  un- 
derlying the  Oxford  Clay  in  England,  and  apparently  the 
lowest  member  of  the  Middle  Oolite.  (See  Jurassic.)  The 
term  Callovien  was  applied  by  D'Orbigny  to  a  geological 
horizon  corresponding  to  the  Kclloway  Rock. 

Kei'ly,  tp.  of  Warren  co..  III.     Pop.  1295. 

Kelly,  tp.  of  Cooper  co..  Mo.     Pop.  L'i72. 

Kelly,  tp.  of  Union  co..  Pa.,  contains  Kelly  Point  P.  0. 
and  West  Milton  P.  0.     Pop.  942. 

Kelly  (Robf.rt),  LL.D..  b.  Dec.  10,  1808,  in  New  York 
City;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  1820,  entering  and 
leaving  at  tho  head  of  his  class.  He  then  joined  his 
brothers  John  and  William  as  an  active  partner  in  the 
house  of  J.  &,  W.  Kelly  A  Co.,  retiring  in  1837  to  devote 
himself  to  the  cause  of  education  and  to  public  affairs.  He 
was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Free  Academy  ;  was 
president  of  the  board  of  education  and  a  regent  of  the 
University  of  the  State;  also  a  trustee  of  New  York  and 
Madison  universities,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  I'ni- 
versity  of  Rochester,  presiding  over  its  board.  He  was 
identified  for  many  years  with  the  House  of  Refuge,  the 
president  of  its  board  of  managers,  and  actively  engaged 
in  many  other  benevolent,  literary,  and  financial  associa- 
tions in  his  native  cif}'.  He  was  a  scholar  of  rare  culture 
and  master  of  many  languages.  He  held  the  office  of 
chamberlain  of  the  city  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Apr.  27, 
1850. 

Kelly  (William),  b.  in  New  York  City  Feb.  4,  1807. 
His  father,  Robert  Kelly,  d.  1825,  leaving  three  sons,  John, 
William,  and  Robert,  all  minors.  The  two  first,  the  "boy- 
merchants,"  as  they  were  called,  aided  by  Robert  after 
leaving  college,  ably  conducted  tho  extensive  house  until 
l'"""".  when,  John  having  d.  in  1836,  the  other  brothers  re- 
tired and  gave  themselves  to  promoting  charity  and  eilu- 
cation.  In  1^-42,  William  purchased  the  estate  known  as 
''Ellerslie,"  near  Rhinebeck,  and  became  a  leading  farmer. 
President  of  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society  1854; 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  State  Agricultural  College  at 
Ovid,  president  of  its  board.  lie  was  many  years  president 
of  the  trustees  of  Rochester  L^niversity.  and  of  the  board 
of  Vassar  College  from  its  foundation  til!  his  death  ;  presi- 
dent of  the  Baptist  educational  commission,  and  active  in 
many  other  charitable  and  religious  enterprises;  a  man- 
aging director  in  railroad,  steamboat,  banking,  and  trust 
companies,  and  working  president  of  several  iron  com- 
panies. A  New  York  State  senator  lS.'i5-5G,  and  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  governor  in  ISGO.  A  man  of  great 
benevolence,  widely  but  silently  difi'used.  D.  at  Torquay, 
Eng.,  Jan.  14,  1872, 

Kelly's  Mills,  tp.  of  Madison  co..  Ala.     Pop.  1525. 

Keloid,  more  eorrectly  Che'loid  [Or.  x^M- a  "crab's 
claw,"  from  some  fancied  resemblance],  a  name  applied 
to  two  apparently  distinct  skin  diseases:  (1)  A  sort  of 
fibroid  tumor  of  the  true  skin,  often  appearing  on  the  scar 
of  a  cut  or  burn.  It  in  almost  certain  to  return  after  ex- 
cision, is  n<»t  malignant,  and  is  thus  far  not  curable.  This 
is  tho  keloid  of  AUbert,  (2)  A  much  more  general  disease, 
sometimes  spreading  over  the  whole  body.  Congested 
tubercles,  generally  originating  near  the  sternum,  advance 
gradually  over  the  body,  are  very  irritable,  and  cause 
trouble  by  itching,  especially  in  warm  weather.  Cold  ap- 
plications and  tonic  treatment  p:illiatc  but  do  not  cure  it. 
Negroes  are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than  white  persons. 

Kelp,  Barilla,  or  Varec,  names  applied  to  the  ashes 
or  products  of  incineration  of  «eoir<W».  These  products 
were  of  far  more  importance  to  former  generations  than  at 
present,  having  once  been  the  sole  source  of  the  valuable 
alkali  soda,  for  making  soap  and  glass,  previous  to  the 
grand  discovery  of  the  French  chemist  Leblanc,  of  manu- 
facturing soda  from  common  salt.  .'\t  present  the  chief 
interest  that  attaches  to  kelp  is  as  the  principal  material 
from  wliieh  the  element  iodine  is  obtained.  The  name  for 
seaweed  ashes  uscil  in  France  is  mrrr.  MVeds  are  also 
used,  particularly  for  manufacturing  the  variety  called  ha- 
rifln,  in  Sicily,  Spain,  and  some  other  countries,  which 
grow  on  the  sea-shore  in  saline  soils,  these  plants  being 
cultivated  in  those  cnimtrics  for  the  purpose,  and  the  ashes 
uped  in  making  soap,  even  at  the  present  day,  though  ap- 
parently a  very  ]>oor  material  for  the  purpose.  Kelp  and 
varec,  on  the  other  hand,  are  made  exclusively  from  the 
.Mgje  and  Fuei,  which  grow  on  rocks  in  great  abundance, 
between  high  and  low  water  mark,  on  the  coasts  of  Ireland, 
Seotbmd,  Wales,  the  Orkney  Islands  and  tho  Hebrides,  and 
on  the  coast  of  Brittany. 

The  seaweeds  are  <iried,  and  burned  to  ash  in  rough  stone 
or  brick  ovens  built  on  (he  shore.  The  ash  fuses  into  a 
solid  mass,  which  is  broken  up  and  sent  to  market.  Twenty- 
four  tons  of  seaweeds  are  necessary  to  produce  one  ton  of 
kelp.    This  substance,  produced  from  actual  marine  plants. 


KELSEY— KEMP. 


1519 


is  much  poorer  in  soda-salts  (except  chloride  nf  sodium) 
than  the  barilla  variety,  but  coDtaios  more  polasli-salts. 
The  composition  of  these  products  varies  within  wide  lim- 
its, and  the  few  analyses  quoted  give  scarcely  a  general 
idea,  being  conlined  to  a  few  special  cases. 

SeatceeU  Asheg,  Kt:lp :  tcifhout  Cftarcoul  and  Carbonic  Acid. 


aa  carbonates, 
thcCO^  omit- 
ted  ." 


Potash 

Lime 
Magnesia 

Chloride  of  iKMlium 

Chloride  of  potassium.. 

Iodide  of  sodium 

Phosphate  of  lime 

I*h'>!*phate  of  iron 

Oxi'le  of  Irou 

Oxide  of  manganese.... 

Sulphuric  acid 

Silica. 


Percentage  of  ash  in  the 
wetxl.  dried  at  212^  F.... 


I 


Laminarta  \ 


Nortli  Sea. 


I, 


Pucua  v€- 
taetharina,   digUatut,   *  jTr^^**' 
Sea. 


24.77 
1.84 
6.50 
8.13 

33.72 

4.70 

8.41 

.75 


10.60 
.58 


9.78 


Aicuf 


Clyde. 


2240 
8.29 
8.79 
7.44 

28.39 

3.62 
S.63 


13.26 
1.56 

100.00 


17.68 
5.78 
4.71 
6.89 

35.38 

.13 

■   6.44 


23.71 
.28 

wo.ocT 


20.40        20.56 


Fueu*  M* 
tteutonu. 


15.23 
11.16 
8.15 
7.16 
25.10 

.37 

2.99 

.33 

28.16 
1.35 

moo~ 


French  and  Spanhh  Barilla,  called  also  Varec. 


AlicuDtc. 

ChcrtMurg. 

Spain. 

^!o6 

2.00 

sioo 
s6!oo 

22.19 
16.00 
45.78 
9.53 

liso 

traces. 
5.00 

15  85 

Chlori»le  of  puta:>sium 

10  55 

68  35 

CarlRniaie  of  soda 

Sulphate  uf  lime „ 

Iii^oluhk- 

1.10 

Water 

4.00 

10U.00 

100.00 

99.85 

(For  the  preparation  from  kelp  of  the  iodine  of  com- 
merce. SCO  under  Iodine.)  II.  Wubtz. 

Kel'sey,  tp.  of  El  Dorado  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  315. 

Kel'so,  post- (p.  of  Dearborn  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1908. 

Kelso,  tp.  of  Sibley  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  442. 

Kelso,  tp.  of  Scott  CO.,  Mo.     Pop.  1000. 

Kel'ton,  popt-v.  of  Box  Elder  co.,  Ut.,  on  the  Central 
Pacilic  K.  K.,  89  miles  W.  of  Ogden. 

Kcm''ble,  a  name  distinguished  from  firi^t  to  last  in  the 
records  of  the  English  stage.  The  founder  of  the  family, 
Uoger,  himself  an  aetorand  theatrical  manager,  )i.  in  Here- 
ford, Eng.,  -Mar.  1.  1721,  d.  in  1S02,  had  twelve  children,  tho 
eldest  of  \vhom,  Sarah,  married  an  actor  named  Siddoiis. 
(See  Mrs.  Smmujns.  )  The  oldest  son  was  John  Philip,  b.  in 
Prescot,  Lancashire,  Eng.,  Feb.  1,  1757.  This  was  the  "great 
Kemblo."  Ho  was  educated  partly  at  the  Roman  Catholic 
seminary  of  Sedgely  Park  in  Staffordshire,  and  afterwards 
at  the  English  College  at  Douay  in  France;  returned  to  Eng- 
lainl  at  tho  age  of  nineteen,  and  made  his  fir.-^t  aj'pearanco 
at  Wolverhampton  Jan.  S,  1770,  in  the  character  of  Thco- 
dosius ;  made  his  first  appearance  in  London  at  Drury  Lane, 
in  Sept.,  17S;i,  as  Hamlet  ;  became  manager  of  that  thea- 
tre in  1790;  in  lHO;i  bought  a  sixth  share  in  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  for  $24,000,  and  became  manager  of  it.  Tho  theatre 
was  burned  in  ISOS,  but  immediately  rebuilt.  An  increase 
in  tho  prices  of  admission  to  the  new  house  (from  six  to 
seven  shillings  for  tho  boxes,  and  from  three  to  four  shil- 
lings for  the  pit)  caused  tho  0.  P.  (old  price)  riots,  which 
lasted  for  some  months  and  menaced  the  ruin  of  the  e.-'tab- 
lishment.  At  this  time  Mr.  Kemble  was  grossly  insulted 
and  abused.  In  I>*I7  he  took  leave  of  tho  London  stage, 
retired  soon  afterward  to  the  S.  of  Franco,  and  finally  took 
up  his  residence  at  Lausanne,  Swit7.erhin<I,  where  he  d. 
FeW.  '2<\,  lH2:i.  Mr.  Kemble's  style  of  acting  was  more 
fuitfl  to  the  lofty  and  majestic  than  to  the  pathetic  and 
tender.  In  parts  like  Cato,  Coriolanus,  Holla,  Macbeth, 
Hamlet,  Lear,  King  John,  ho  was  supreme.  His  person 
was  of  heroic  mould,  his  action  was  stately,  hi.-*  deelama- 
lion  noble  and  true.  In  moments  of  |>assion  he  roue  to 
great  power.  But  his  form  lacked  suppleness,  his  limbs 
were  rigid,  his  voice  was  husky  and  unmusieal,  and  a  con- 
stitutional asthma  gave  a  labored  character  to  his  utter- 
ance. As  an  artist  he  had  not  "  the  art  to  conceal  his  art ;" 
ais  a  -<eholar  he  was  close  and  exact ;  lis  a  eoinpanion  he  was 
geni;il  :  a>*  a  man  he  was  held  in  high  esteem.  His  Z^iyif 
was  written  by  his  friend,  Mr.  Boaden,  in  2  vols.,  1825. — 
(iKonr.K  Stephfn,  brother  of  the  foregfiing.  h.  in  Kingston, 
Herefordshire,  May  .T,  175S;  made  his  d(^lmt  in  London  at 
Covent  (Jarden  in  ITS.t,  and  was  theatrical  mannirer  in  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow.     D.  June  J,  \^'2'2. —  Emza- 


BETH  (Mrs,  Whitlock),  sister  of  the  above,  b.  in  Warring- 
ton, Lancashire,  Apr.  2,  1761  ;  d.  Feb.  27,  183C;  made  her 
first  ap[iearauce  at  Drury  Lane  in  178^1;  came  to  the  U.  S. 
in  1792,  and  played  with  great  success.  She  performed 
several  times  before  llcorge  Washington.  In  l*sU7  she  re- 
turned to  England  and  retired  from  tlic  stage.  In  pcri^on 
and  voice  she  was  said  strikingly  to  resemble  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons. — CiiAHi-ES,  eleventh  child  of  Roger,  b.  at  Brecon,  S. 
AVales,  Nov.  27,  1775  ;  d.  in  London  Nov.  12,  1854;  was 
educated  at  Douay;  made  his  first  appearance  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1794,  playing  Malcolm,  with  his  brother  John  as 
Macbeth,  and  his  sister,  Jlrs.  Siddons.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent comedian,  appearing  at  his  best  in  characters  like 
Benedick,  Petruchio,  Charles  Surface,  very  creditably  in 
Cassio,  Mark  Antony,  Edgar,  but  failing  in  deeply  tragic 
parts,  ''  A  first -rate  actor  in  seconcl-rale  parts."  He 
adapted  German  and  French  plays  for  the  London  stage, 
and  in  lafe  life  was  ajipointed  examiner  of  plays,  lie 
visitcil  the  U.  S.  in  l^'.V2  with  his  daughter,  Fanny  Kem- 
ble, and  retired  from  the  profession  in  1S|0. — Frances 
AxsE  {commonly  called  '•  Fanny  "),  daughter  of  Charles, 
b.  in  London  in  1811.  She  possessed  the  famil}-  talent  for 
the  stage,  but  not  the  family  passion  f<tr  it.  Her  theat- 
rical career  was  suddenly  decided  on  to  relieve  the 
financial  embarrassments  of  her  father,  and  in  six  weeks 
after  her  mind  was  made  up  she  came  out  at  Cov- 
ent Garden  in  Oct.,  1829,  as  Juliet  to  her  father's  Romeo. 
Her  success  was  marked  in  characters  like  Juliet,  Portia, 
Bianca,  Belvidcra,  Lady  Teazle,  Camiola.  and  Julia  in  7'he 
Jlunckh'tck.  In  18^2  she  came  to  the  U.  S.  with  her  father, 
and  met  with  enthusiastic  applause.  In  1S,34  she  married 
Mr.  Pierce  Butler,  a  Philadelphia  gentleman  of  wealth, 
and  retired  from  the  stage.  The  marriage  being  unhappy, 
she  left  her  husband  ami  resirled  in  Lenox,  Berkshire  co., 
Mass.  In  1840-47  she  passed  a  year  in  Europe,  and  on 
her  return,  having  obtained  a  divorce  in  the  courts  of 
Pennsylvania,  resumed  her  maiden  name.  Since  1848 
Mrs.  Kemble  has  been  known  as  a  reader  of  Shaksjtearc  in 
tho  chief  cities  of  the  U.  S.  and  in  Great  Britain.  In  18G0 
she  left  America,  and  from  that  time  her  residence  has  been 
partly  in  England  and  partly  in  the  V .  S.,  with  two  inter- 
vals of  continental  travel.  At  present  she  resides  near 
Philadelphiii,  wholly  withdrawn  from  public  life.  Mrs. 
Kemble  is  the  author  of  several  books  in  prose  and  verse: 
Francis  the  Firn(,  a  play,  written  when  she  was  seventeen 
years  old,  and  performed  in  London  ;  A  Journal  of  a  lies- 
idtnvc  in  Awcriva  (2  vols.,  London  and  Philadelphia,  1835); 
The  Star  of  Scviifc.  a  play  ;  A  Voir  of  VonxolntioUf  a  record 
of  her  visit  to  Italy  in  184G;  litHidencc  on  a  O'titrr/ia  Plan- 
tation nSfi.l),  and  a  volume  of  poems. — AnELAinK,  younger 
sister  of  Frances,  b.  in  London  in  1820.  Her  talents,  both 
for  the  dramatic  and  lyric  stage,  were  brilliant,  but  her 
marriage  in  18i;j  to  Mr.  Edward  Sartoris  prevented  her 
pursuing  a  career  which,  beginning  in  Venice,  had  given 
continued  promise  of  success  in  Trieste,  Milan,  Padua,  Bo- 
logna, and  was  culminating  in  London,  where  she  sang  in 
JV'tnnii,  Fitftiro,  Si'inuntihu/a,  Sciiiirttwitle.  and  otlier  Operas. 
She  publislied  in  1807  A  Wcrk  in  n  Frcnrh  Count rj/'ftouKe. 
—  Her  son,  Ai,<;eiiS()N  Cmaui.es,  married  the  daughter  of 
Prca.  Grant  in  May,  1874.  0.  B.  FitointNGUAM. 

Kemble  (GoiverneuiOi  b.  in  New  York  City  Jan.  25, 
1780,  a  son  of  Peter  Kemble,  his  mother  being  Gertrude 
(iouverneur,  descended  from  Jacob  Leisler  of  colonial  his- 
tory, and  whose  daughter  was  the  wife  of  Abram  Gouver- 
ueur ;  graduated  at  Columida  College  in  180.'i;  beeamo  in- 
terested in  commercial  pursuits,  an<l  t^aw  much  of  the  lead- 
ing countries  of  Europe,  then  agitated  by  the  wars  of  Na- 
poleon; subsequently  visited  the  Mediterranean  ports,  and 
transacted  business  fur  the  L".  .*<.  in  connection  with  tho 
supply  of  tho  squadron  at  the  time  of  the  war  with  Algiers 
about  LS15;  estaljlished  in  I8l7  the  West  Point  Foundry 
at  Cold  Spring;  was  member  of  Congress  I8;;7-4I,  and  of 
the  constitutional  convention  of  New  Ytirk  in  1810;  was 
one  of  the  first  ami  most  active  ailvoeates  of  the  Hudson 
River  K.  U.,  and  an  early  and  efficient  friend  of  the  Pana- 
ma R.  R.  ;  to  his  other  ((unlilies  he  united  a  love  of  art, 
manifested  by  a  rich  cidleelion  and  a  kindly  regard  for 
artists;  was  one  of  the  last  nine  survivors  of  the  Tontine 
Attsociation  of  New  York,  organized  in  1790,  and  at 
whoso  death  {Sept.  10,  1875)  the  accumulated  profits  were 
divitled. 

Kemble  (John  Mitciieli,).    Soo  Appe.vpix. 

Kemp  {James),  D.  D..  1>.  in  .\berdeenshire,  Scotland,  in 
1704;  grailuated  at  Marisehal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1780; 
came  to  the  V.  S.  in  1787  ;  took  orders  in  the  ProteiUant 
Episcopal  Church  in  1789;  held  various  rectorships  in 
Maryland,  in  which  diocese  ho  became  in  1814  a  suffragan, 
and  in  ISIO  the  diocesan  binhop.  He  was  1816-27  provost 
of  the  State  Iniversity.  D.  in  Haltimoro  Oct.  28,  1827,  in 
consenuence  of  an  accidental  injury. 


1520 


KEMP— KENDALL. 


Kemp  (John),  Cardinal,  b.  at  Wye,  Kent,  England,  in 
1380;  was  ambassador  to  Aragon  in  H15;  bishop  of 
Rochester  in  1411*.  of  Chichestt-r  in  1421,  of  London  in 
November  of  the  same  year;  chancellor  and  archbishop  of 
York  in  142t>;  resijjned  the  Great  Seal  in  14.*i2;  joint  am- 
bassador tt»  France,  and  made  eardinal-pricst  in  14.;'.l  :  en- 
dowed the  College  of  Wye  in  1447;  ajjaiu  chancellor  in 
1450:  made  eardinal-bi^hl^]^  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
by  papal  bull  in  1 152,  and  d.  Mar.  22,  1454. 

Kem'pelen,  von  (Wolfgang),  Bauon,  b.  at  Presburg. 
Hungary.  Jan.  23,  1734,  was  the  inventor  of  a  so-called 
"  automaton  chess-player,"  made  for  the  amusement  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa  (17t>9).  which  was  exhibited  in 
Paris  in  17S4,  and  afterwards  in  England  and  the  U.  S. 
It  is  not  properly  an  automaton,  but  an  ingenious  con- 
trivance for  concealing  a  living  player,  as  is  fully  explained 
in  Tomliuson's  Amu»rmnits  in  Chrsn  {lS45t,  but  its  me- 
chanical ingenuity  is  great.  Baron  Kempclen  also  invented 
in  1778  an  automaton  speaking  human  figure,  which  he  ex- 
plained in  an  illustrated  work.  Lf  m^catiisme  de  la  parole 
(1701).  He  filled  several  political  posts  at  the  Austrian 
court,  published  poems  and  dramatic  pieces,  and  d.  at 
Vienna  Mar.  26,  1H04. 

Kemp'en,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Posen, 
on  the  Pchummerwasser,  has  manufactures  of  sonp,  tobacco, 
and  woollens,  and  an  active  trade  in  horses  and  cattle.  Pop. 
5S22. 

Kem'penfelt  (Richard),  Admiral,  b.  at  Westminster, 
England,  in  1720;  became  rear-admiral  in  1779;  captured 
a  French  convoy  on  its  way  to  the  West  Indies  in  1781; 
drowned  at  Spithead  by  the  sinking  of  his  vessel,  the  Royal 
George,  with  nearly  900  men,  Aug.  29,  17S2. 

Kemp'er^  county  of  Mississippi,  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Alabama.  Area,  775  square  miles.  It  is  fertile  and  some- 
what diversified  with  hills.  Cotton,  live-stock,  and  corn 
are  the  staple  products.     Cap.  De  Kalb.     Pop,  12,920. 

Kemper  (Jackson).  D.  D..  LL.D.,  Cantab.,  b.  in  Pleas- 
ant Valley.  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y..  Dec.  24.  17^9,  and  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1H09.  In  isll  he  took  dea- 
con's orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  in 
1812  was  ordained  a  priest.  After  holding  rectorships  in 
Philadelphia  for  twenty  years,  and  one  for  some  time  in 
Xorwalk,  Conn.,  he  was  made  missionary  bishop  of  In- 
diana and  Missouri,  and  was  afterwards  transferrer!  to  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  etc.  In  1854  he  became  bishop  of  Wisconsin. 
D,  at  Delafield.  Waukesha  co..  Wis.,  May  24,  1S70. 

Kemper  (James  Lawson),  b.  in  Madison  co.,  Va.,  in 
1821;  graduated  at  Washington  College,  Va..  in  1844j 
studied  law;  was  ten  years  member  of  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature, two  years  Speaker:  colonel  of  7th  Virginia  regiment 
C.  S.  A.  in  1861;  brigadier-general  1862:  major-general 
1864;  distinguished  himself  at  most  of  the  battles  on  the 
Peninsula;  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  (tettysburg; 
elected  governor  of  Virginia  in  1S73  by  the  Democratic 
party. 

Kemper  (Retben),  b.  in  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  was  the  son 
of  a  Baptist  preacher,  with  whom  he  emigrated  to  Ohio  in 
1800.  Soon  afterward.  Reuben  and  two  of  his  brothers 
settled  in  Mississippi  Territory,  engaged  in  land-survey- 
ing, and  conceived  the  project  of  stirring  up  an  insurrec- 
tion in  West  Florida  against  tlio  Spanish  government. 
They  formed  an  expedition  for  that  ])urpose  In  1808.  which 
was  unsuccessful ;  attempted  with  the  same  result  the  cap- 
ture of  Mobile  (then  a  part  of  West  Florida),  and  in  1812 
joined  the  great  expedition  organized  by  tJutierrez  and 
Toledo  against  Mexico.  In  this  campaign  Reuben  Kcm])er 
onmmanded,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  a  force  of  several 
hundred  Americans,  at  whose  head  he  won  some  brilliant 
actions  in  Texas,  but  the  results  of  victory  were  neutralized 
by  dissensions  between  the  Mexicans  and  Americans,  and 
the  latter  returned  in  disgust  to  the  V.  S,  Kemper  took 
j'art  under  Gen.  Jackson  in  the  defence  of  New  Orleans, 
afterward  settled  down  in  Mississippi  as  a  planter,  and  d. 
at  Natchez  in  1820. 

Kem'pis  (Thomas  a),  b.  at  Kempen.  near  Cologne,  in 
i:i80;  his  family  name  was  Hamt-RKEN   (Lat,  Malholua). 
In  1400  he  entered  the  monastery  (tf  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near 
Zwolle,  of  which  his  elder  brother  was  prior,  and  in  \A\?> 
n-as  ordained  priest;    in  1425  was  elected  sub-prior.     D. 
July  26.  1471.     By  the  other  monks  of  the  monastery  he 
was  highly  esteemed  for  his  deep  piety,  his  untiring  industry 
as  a  scholar,  and  his  great  gifts'  as  atoacher  and  supervisor  | 
of  the  novices;  and  his  authorship  soon  spread  his  fame 
far  outside  the  boundaries  of  his  personal  acquaintance,  i 
lie  wrote  several  books;  among  others,  a  chronicle  of  the 
monastery  of  Mount  St.  Agnes.     A  collected  edition  of  his  I 
works  was  given  by  the  Jesuit  Sommalius  ( Antwerji,  1607),  I 
But  the  book  which  sent  his  name  to  the  remotest  corners  j 
of    the   world    is   his   Z>f  /nn'tntiour  Chri'ifi.     It    has   been   i 


translated  into  all  languages  in  which  books  are  printed 
and  read,  and  it  is  used  as  a  hook  of  devotion  and  re- 
ligious instruction  by  all  Christians,  without  regard  to  dif- 
ferences in  creed,  race,  or  standpoint  of  mental  develup- 
n)ent.  With  the  exception  of  the  Bible,  it  is  probably  the 
book  most  read  in  the  whole  of  Christian  literature.  In 
consequence  of  his  personal  humility,  and  in  harmony  with 
tlic  moral  maxims  of  his  order  (unta  itcsdrl),  Thomas  I'l 
Kempis  has  never  mentioned  himself  directly  as  author  of 
the  book  ;  on  the  other  hand,  there  exist  copies  of  the  work, 
the  oldest  of  1441.  which  ascribe  the  authorship  to  the  cele- 
brated theologian  Jean  Gerson.  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris.  These  two  circumstances  have  occasioned  a 
very  sharp  controversy  between  French  and  German  theo- 
logians, and  the  question  seemed  at  one  time  doubtful.  (Seo 
G€rnen,Gf:rHnn  ndcr  Kemph.  1828,\'ienna,)  Of  late,  however, 
it  seems  to  have  been  decided  finally  in  favor  of  Thomas 
i  Kempis.  He  is  mentioned  by  three  contemporary  writers 
as  the  author  of  tlie  book.  There  is  a  perfect  harmony  in 
doctrines  and  in  style  between  De  Iniitntione  Christi  and 
other  devotional  writings  of  Thomas  a,  Kempis,  It  can  be 
satisfactorily  explained  how  the  copyists  could  make  the 
mistake  and  ascribe  the  authorship  to  the  celebrated  chan- 
cellor (or  to  St.  Bernard,  or  an  Italian  abbot,  (icrsen,  for 
there  arc  many  rivals).  A  new  edition  of  the  hook  was 
given,  after  an  autograph  by  Thomas  S,  Kempis,  by  Hirsche 
(Berlin,  187.V74). 

Kemps'ville,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Princess  Anne  co., 
Va.,  10^  miles  S.  E.  of  Norfolk,  and  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water on  the  E.  branch  of  Elizabeth  River,      Pop.  3100. 

Kemp'ten,  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Iller.  It  has  some 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods.     Pop.  10,370. 

Kempt'ville,  post-v,  of  Grenvillc  co.,  Ont.,  Canada,  on 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  Railway,  It  has  a  good  trade 
and  manufactures  of  lumber.     Pop.  of  sub-district,  872. 

Ken  (Thomas),  b,  at  Berkhamstead.  England,  in  July, 
16.'i7  ;  was  educated  at  AVinchester  and  Oxford:  travelled 
on  the  Continent  as  far  as  Italy  in  1674;  became  in  1679 
chaplain  to  Mary,  princess  of  Orange  (the  future  queen  of 
England) ;  was  chaplain  to  Lord  Dartmouth  in  the  Tangier 
expedition,  and  subsequently  (16'^4)  to  Charles  11.,  by 
whom  he  was  soon  after  made  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells. 
He  attended  that  king  on  his  deathbed.  On  the  accession 
of  James  II.  he  was  one  of  the  "  seven  bishops  "  committed 
to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to  obey  illegal  commands  of  that 
monarch.  Bishop  Ken.  however,  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  William  III.,  and  was  deprived  of  his 
bishopric  iu  consequence.  He  passed  his  declining  years 
at  Longleat,  engaged  in  writing  devotional  works,  among 
which  his  morning  and  evening  hymns  are  still  popular. 

D.  at  Longleat,  Wiltshire,  Mar.  iy.'l71I.  (Sec  his  Li/c,  by 
George  L.  Duyckinck,  New  York,  1859.) 

Kenai'ans^  a  branch  of  the  Athabascan  family  of  In- 
dians, living  in  Alaska,  deriving  their  name  from  Kenai, 
the  peninsula  between  Cook's  Inlet  and  Prince  William 
Sound.  The  Kenaians  are  held  to  include  all  the  Indians  N, 
of  Copper  River  and  W.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except 
the  Innuits  or  Esquimaux  and  the  Aleuts,  and  are  esti- 
mated to  numlier  2.5,000.  They  resemide  in  manners,  cus- 
toms, and  religion  the  tribes  of  Northern  Asia,  especially 
in  their  practices  of  cremation,  infanticidO;  etc.,  and  their 
system  of  caste, 

Ken'ansville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Duplin  co.,N.  C,  7  miles 

E.  of  Magnolia  Station  on  the  AVilmington  and  Weldon  R.  R. 
Pop.  2878. 

Ken'dal,  town  of  England,  in  Westmoreland.  Certain 
kinds  of  cloth  are  manufactured  here,  which  for  centuries 
have  been  known  under  the  name  of  "  Kendals."  Pop. 
13,442. 

Ken'dallf  county  of  N.  E.  Illinois.  Area,  324  square 
miles.  It  is  a  fertile  rolling  prairie,  dotted  with  groves  of 
timber.  It  is  traversed  by  Fox  River  and  the  Chicago 
Burlington  and  Quincy  R.  R.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are 
the  staple  products.     Cap.  Yorkville.     Pop,  12,399. 

Kendally  county  of  S.  W,  Central  Texas.  Area.  475 
squaro  miles.  It  is  one-third  prairie,  and  the  rest  is  well 
timbered.  Live-stock,  wool,  grain,  and  cotton  are  raised. 
There  are  many  German  settlers.  The  climate  is  healthful 
and  pleasant.     Cap.  Boerne.     Pop.  1536. 

Kendallf  po8t-v.  and  tp.  of  Kendall  co.,  Ill,  Pop. 
1445. 

Keiidallf  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Orleans  co.,  N.  Y.  The 
township  lies  on  Lake  Ontario.  The  village  has  4  churches. 
Pop.  1714, 

Kendall,  tp.  of  La  Fayette  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1131. 

Kendall  (Amos),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Dunstable,  Mass.,  Aug. 
16,  17S9;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1811;  in  1814  he- 
came  a  lawyer  of  Lexington,  Ky.,  where  he  was  for  a  time 


KENDALL— KENNEBEC  RIVER. 


1521 


a  tutor  iu  Henry  Clay's  family.  HenftcrwftrUs  reino\-eil  to 
Georgetown,  Ky.,  where  he  was  postiuafler  an^l  editor  of 
the  Arffu9,&n  aMc  Democratic  newspaper.  In  181.''.'.  Jack- 
son maJe  him  fourth  auditor  of  the  treasury,  lie  was 
181^5-40  postmaster-jreneral.  In  1846  ho  became  maua};cr 
of  Prof.  Morse's  interest  in  the  telegraph  businegg.  He 
was  an  early  friend  of  public  schools  in  the  West,  founded 
the  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  at  Washington,  and  was  a  lib- 
eral benefactor  of  Columbian  College  ancl  of  the  Baptist 
cburch  with  which  he  was  connected.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  his  iTA  and  TiniFif,  and  published  a  /w'/V  >>/  Andrew 
JarkunH  '(lS4;i,  incomplete).  D.  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
Nov.  12,  ISf.'J. 

Kendall  (George  Wilkiss).  b.  at  Amherst.  N.  H.,  in 
1807  ;  became  a  printer,  and  worked  in  many  places  in  the 
South  and  West  at  his  trade.  In  1:^85  he  settled  in  New 
Orleans,  where,  with  F.  A.  Lumsden.  he  founded  the 
Picayune  newspaper.  He  took  pari  in  the  Santa  F6  exjie- 
dition  of  1S41.  and  during  the  Mexican  war  was  with  Gens. 
Taylor  and  Scott,  and  furnished  to  his  newspaper  the 
earliest  and  fullest  accounts  of  all  movement?,  incurring 
thereby  a  large  expense.  He  published  Xarruthe  of  the 
Texan  Sanftt  /V  Expedition  (1844),  and  Thp  War  hrtireen 
the  U.  S.  and  Mexico  (folio.  1S51.  with  costly  illustrations). 
In  IS62  he  removed  to  Comal  co.,  Tex.,  where  he  had  a 
large  grazing  ranche.     D.  at  Post  Oak  Spring?,  Tex.,  Oct. 

21,  i.-^c:. 

Kendall^s  Mills,  post-v.  of  Fairfield  tp.,  Somerset 
CO.,  Me.,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Kennebec  Kiver  (here 
crossed  by  a  lofty  railroad  bridge),  and  on  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral and  the  Kennebec  and  Portland  R.  Rs.  It  has  a  fine 
water-power  and  manufactures  of  lumber,  etc. 

Kcn'dallville,  city  of  Xolile  co.,  Ind.,  at  tho  intersec- 
tion of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  and  the 
Grand  Rapiils  and  Indiana  U.  Rs.  It  is  surroundeil  by  a 
rich  ngricultural  region,  and  afford?  an  excellent  market 
for  all  kinds  of  produce.  It  has  S  churches,  1  national 
bank,  manufactories,  a  free-school  building,  and  1  weekly 
newspaper.    Pop.  2164.     C.  0.  Myers,  Ed.  '*  Standard." 

Ken'dell,  von  (Robrrt),  b.  at  Klinigsbcrg  F'^b.  27, 
1824:  atudieri  jurisprudence,  and  held  in  1^62  a  position 
at  the  court  of  lircslau.  In  1S63,  Bismarck  gave  him  an 
appointment  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  from 
this  time  he  always  accompanied  the  great  minister.  At 
all  diplomatic  negotiations,  on  travels  and  in  wars,  he  was 
always  at  the  side  of  Bismarck.  Sometimes  he  was  sent 
on  independent  diplomatic  errands  :  thus,  he  represented 
the  North  German  confederation  at  the  opening  of  tho  canal 
of  Suez  in  1869.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  tho  diet,  and 
in  Apr.,  1873,  ho  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome. 

AiGisT  Niemann. 

Kendo'ta,  tp.  of  Todd  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  94. 

Kcn'drick,  tp.  of  Greene  co.,  la.     Pop.  887. 

Kendrick  iAsahrl  Clark),  D.  D..  LL.D.,  b.  at  PouU- 
ney,  Vt.,  Dec.  7,  1809;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton,  N.  Y.,  in  1831  ;  was  professor  first  of  ancient  lan- 
guages, and  subsequently  of  the  Greek  language  abme,  in 
the  literary  and  theological  seminary  at  Hamilton  (which 
afterwards  became  Madison  University)  from  1831  to  1850. 
Since  then  ho  has  been  professorof  Greek  in  ihe  University 
of  Rochester.  He  has  published  several  introductory  (J reek 
textbooks:  tho  Amthtixiti  of  Xenophon,  with  notes  and 
vocabulary;  an  edition  of  Srlrrt  Orations  of  Drmon- 
theneH  ;  ^>7iocj.  being  poems  from  the  German  and  French; 
Otir  Pnetirnl  Fttrnritm  ;  a  revised  edition  of  Olshausen's 
^ew  Tf-tament  Cnmmrutunf  ;  CnmHicutnrjt  nn  tfir  Eplttfr  to 
the  Ift-hretrn  in  Lange's  liifdirnl  Cfimnirtttttrif  ;  aud  Li/c 
and  Lrttrri  ../  .Uf«.  Enii/if  C.  Jndnou  (1861). 

Kendrick  (Hrsrv  L.),  b.  in  New  Hampshire  in  1812; 
graduated  at  tho  U.  S.  Military  Academy  ;  entered  the  army 
as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  July,  lS,t/>,  but  was 
retained  at  the  Academy  for  twelve  years  ns  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology,  in  the  mean 
time  having  been  transferred  to  the  artillery,  and  attaineil 
tho  rank  of  captain  in  1846.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  ho 
was  engaged  in  tho  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  battle  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  and  defence  of  Puobia,  where  he  gained  the  brevet 
of  major.  From  tho  close  of  the  war  be  served  principally 
in  garrison  and  on  frontier  duty,  being  engage'l  in  frequent 
expeditions  against,  and  numerous  actions  with,  hostile 
Indians;  and  for  five  years  in  command  of  a  post  in  New 
Mexico,  when  in  hSfi?  appointed  professor  of  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  and  geology  at  Ihe  Military  Academy,  which 
chair  he  ha?  since  continue<l  to  fill. 

Kondrick  (Capt.  .John),  b.  in  Boston  :  was  a  resident 
of  Wnreham,  Mass.,  and  commanded  a  privateer  during 
tho  Revolutionary  war.  In  I7S7and  1791  he  made  a  voy- 
age  of  exploration  along  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America  and 
amoDK  the  islands  of  tho  Pacific,  and  open"  I  uptlie  sandal- 
Voi,.  II.-!)6 


I  wood  trade  with  China.  Congress  gave  him  a  modal  for 
'■  the  first  of  these  voyages,  in  which  his  second  in  command, 
Capt.  Gray,  discovered  tho  Columbia  River,  Capt.  Ken- 
I  drick  was  accidentally  killed  in  a  harbor  of  Hawaii  in  l&OO, 
I  by  a  ball  fired  iu  a  salute  from  au  English  vessel. 
I  Kendrick  (Xathamki.),  D.  I).,  b.  at  Hanover,  N.  II., 
I  Apr.  22.  1777:  received  liut  a  limited  early  education  ;  was 
I  licensed  as  a  Baptist  preacher  in  180.^,  After  pastorates  at 
j  Lansiugburg,  N.  Y.  {180.'>),  Midillebury,  Vt.  (1810),  and 
I  Eaton,  N.  Y.  (1817).  he  was  chosen  professorof  theology 
I  and  moral  philosojihy  at  Madison  University,  remaining  in 
i  that  post  until  his  death  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  11,  1848. 
I  Kendus'kea^,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Me., 
I  12  miles  N.  W.  of  Bangor.  It  has  3  churclics,  and  manu- 
!  factures  of  lumber,  cooperage,  stoves,  farming  tools,  and 
I  other  goods.     Pop.  770. 

j       Kenduskea^  River,  an  offluent  of  the  Penobscot,  in 
'    Maine,  flows  S.  E.  to   Bangor,  where  its  mouth  affords  a 
tidal  basin.     The  fall  of  its  waters  is  extensively  utilized 
in  sawing  lumber  and  in  other  manufactures. 

I      Kenea'Iy  (EnwARDVArcnA\Hvnn).D.C.L..b.atCork, 

I   Ireland,  in  1819  ;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  bc- 

j  came  early  celebrated  for  bis  knowledge  of  many  languages, 

'   having  publislied  translations  of  songs  and  ballads  from 

and  into   the  Greek,   Latin,  French,   Italian,   Portuguese, 

I   Dutch,  (iernian,  Spanish.  Swedish.  Danish,  Romaic,  Mag- 

1  yar.  and   Irish    languages.     He  was  a  contributor  to  Dr. 

I  Maginn's  Hoturrir  Iiuflfidn,  to  the  Ihihlin  rnirrrniti/  M'kj. 

\   azitic,  and  Eraser's   Mar/azine ;  published   in  1845  Ihnlla- 

fjhan,  or  the  Deipnosnphists  ;  in  18.00  Goethe,  a  S'ew  Pnnfo- 

j  nn'ntc,  both  works  abounding  in  wit  and  brilliant  criticism. 

Of  late.  Dr.  Kenealy  has  become  widely  known  as  Ihe  impas- 

I  sioned  advooafe  of  "  the  Claimant  "  in  the  celebrated  Tich- 

borne  case  (1873) :  founded  a  newspaper.  The  Eiuffinhmau, 

in    1874.    which    attained    an    imu]en!=e   circulation;    was 

elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  took  his  seat  in  Apr., 

1875. 

Ken'chf  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of 
.   the  Nile,  34  miles   N.  of  the  ruins  of  Theb*  s,  has  large 
manufactures  of  earlbenware.  and  carries  on  an  extensive 
trade  with  Arabia  and  Central  Africa.     Pop.  10,0(10. 

Ken^ilworth,  town  of  England.  inM'arwickshire.  It 
contains  some  ruins  of  Krnilworth  Castle,  which  becamo 
notable  in  the  history  of  Queen  Elizabeth  on  account  of 
the  gorgeous  manner  in  which  the  earl  of  Leicester  enter- 
I  tainecl  her  here  for  sevcntctn  d:i\s:  which  entertainment 
I  forms  the  subject  of  a  romance  of  Walter  Scott  and  a  novel 
of  Ludwig  Ticck, 

Ken'ites  [Heb.  Keyni  and  Kn^ini ;  Or.  Ktraioc],  a  col- 
lective name  for  a  tribe  'ir  race  which  resided  in  tho  Sina- 
itio  desert  and  otlicr  districts  adjoining  the  land  of  Canaan 
at  tho  time  of  the  Hebrew  Exodus.  Tliey  seem  to  have  been 
akin  to  the  Midianitcs  and  to  the  AinaU  kites,  but  were  dis- 
tinguished from  the  mass  of  those  tribes  by  their  steadfast 
friendship  for  and  alliance  with  the  Hebrews,  for  which 
reiison  tlicy  received  allotments  with  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
Jetbro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a  Kcnite,  whence 
gome  modern  critics  have  built  up  a  vast  fabric  of  argument 
to  show  that  the  Mosaic  ritual  was  derived  from  iutereourso 
with  the  Keuites  in  the  desert :  and  many  theories  have 
been  broached  connecting  the  Kenites  with  Cuin  as  Ibeir 
ancestor,  and  attributing  to  Ihem  an  important  part  in  He- 
brew history  down  to  a  late  jteriod.  (See  E.  Buuscn's  Keyt 
of  Sf.  Ptttr,  London,  isri7.) 

Ken'naday  (.Iohn),  D.  D.,  b.  in  New  York  City  Nor. 
.3,  1800;  joined  the  New  York  Methodist  conference  in 
1823;  preached  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  New  Haven.  Conn.     D.  Nov.  13,  1S63. 

Ken'namrr's,  tp.  of  Marshall  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  412. 

Kennebec',  county  of  S.  W.  Central  Elaine.  Area, 
about  I'OO  ^.jiiare  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  navigable 
Kennebec  I{iver.  and  by  the  Maine  Central  and  the  Kenne- 
bec and  Portland  R.  Rs.  The  surface  is  diversified,  the 
soil  mostly  fertile.  Live-stock,  grain,  hay,  wool,  and  dairy 
products  are  the  great  staples.  Tlie  county  has  abundant 
water-power,  timber,  nn«l  building-stone.  The  manufac- 
tures include  lumber,  carriages,  sleighs,  leather,  saddlery, 
metallic  wares,  maehincry,  agricultural  and  erlge  tools, 
and  wooclen  and  oilier  wares.  Ice  and  building-stono  arc 
c.xportcrl.     Cap.  .Augusta.     Pop.  53,203. 

Kennebec,  tp.  of  Monona  co.,  la.     Pop.  333. 

Kennebec  River  rises  in  Moosehead  Lake,  although 
its  principal  head  stream,  tho  Mouse  River,  rises  more  thnn 
60  miles  W.  of  that  lake,  of  which  it  is  a  tributary.  Tho 
river  falls  some  10(»0  feet  in  100  milcR,  reaching  tide-water 
at  Augusta,  where  tho  river  is  crossed  by  a  large  dam. 
affording  great  water-power.  Sea-going  steamboats  and 
coasting  vessels  ascend  to  (his  point,  except  at   low  water. 


1522 


KEXNEBUXK— KEXNETT. 


when  they  stop  at  Hallowell  or  Gardiner,  and  in  winter, 
when  navigation  ceases  entirely.  Above  Augusta  small 
steamboats  ascend  to  Watcrville,  IS  miles  farther,  wherr, 
as  at  many  points  above,  there  is  much  valuable  water- 

?ower.  The  river  is  navi<;ablc  for  ships  to  Bath,  12  miles. 
is  banks  are  fertile  aud  beautiful,  and  are  the  seat  of  a 
large  trade  in  lumber,  provisions,  hav,  cattle,  etc.  It 
reaches  the  ?ea  in  lat.  43°  44'  23"  N.,  Ion.  09°  46'  W. 

Kennebunk%  post-v.  and  tp.  of  York  co..  Mc.  The 
village  is  on  the  navigable  Kennebnuk  River.  3  miles  from 
the  sea.  It  has  an  insurance  company,  a  national  bank,  fi 
churches,  manufactures  of  twine,  braid.  lumber,  shipping, 
and  other  goods,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  good  co.isting-trade. 
Kennebunk  D^pot  is  a  thriving  post-village  on  the  Ports- 
mouth Saco  and  Portland  R.  R.,  24  miles  S.  W.  of  Portland. 
Pop.  of  tp.  2003. 

Kennebunkport%  post-r.  and  tp.  of  York  co..  Me., 
at  the  mouth  of  Kennebunk  River.  ^  miles  below  Kenne- 
bunk. It  has  a  good  harbor,  a  tliriving  trade,  and  manu- 
factures of  shipping  and  ships'  furniture,  and  contains  5 
churches.  It  is  a  pleasant  summer  resort.  It  was  perma- 
nently settled  in  1029.     Pop.  2372. 

Ken'nedale,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Tuscaloosa  co.,  Ala., 
on  the  Alabama  and  Chattanooga  R.  R.     Pop.  1202. 

Ken'nedy,  post-v.  of  Poland  tp..  Chautauqua  co.,  X.  Y., 
on  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western  R.  R.  and  on  Conewango 
Creek.     It  is  sometimes  called  Falconer. 

Kennedy  (Anthony),  b.  at  Baltimore.  Md..  in  ISIl; 
removed  in  childhood  to  Virginia:  studied  law.  and  became 
a  planter  and  cotton-manufacturer:  served  in  the  legislature 
of  Virginia  from  1839  to  1843;  returned  to  Baltimore  in 
1S50;  was  elected  to  the  Maryland  legislature  in  1S56,  and 
was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1857 'to  1863. 

Kennedy  (Benjamin  Hall),  b.  at  Summer  Hili,  near 
Birmingham,  England,  Nov.  6,  1804;  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1S27  ;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  ;  be- 
came assistfint  master  at  Harrow  in  1S30,  and  was  head 
master  of  Shrewsbury  school  from  1830  to  186G,  becom- 
ing in  18G7  regius  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  He  has  held  numerous  preferments  in  the 
Church,  and  written  many  valuable  manuals  for  the  study 
of  the  classical  languages. ^His  brother,  Charles  Rans, 
b.  at  Birmingham  Mar.  1,  1808;  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge;  became  a  barrister  (lS3o|:  published 
Poems  (1S43),  a  translation  of  VirtfH  into  English  blank 
verse  (ISJO),  a  translation  of  the  Omtiuufi  of  Demosthenes 
(5  vols..  1841-03),  with  notes  and  appendices  ;  several  law- 
books and  miscellaneous  verse.  D.at  Birmingham  in  1867. 

Kennedy  (Grace),  b.  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  1782: 
resided  in  Edinburgh,  and  wrote  under  nssumecl  names 
many  novels  and  tales  of  a  moral  and  religious  tendency 
which  had  an  extensive  circulation  and  were  translated  into 
several  languages.  Among  them  arc  Ihcinion  (1821), 
Father  CUment  fl823),  Aunn  }{'>»»,  the  Orphnn  of  Wntcrloo 
(1823).  and  Philip  Colcille  (1824).  D.  at  Edinburgh  Feb. 
28,  1825. 

Kennedy  (.Torn  Pendleton).  LL.T>..  b.  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Get,  2.'),  1795 ;  was  educatecl  .at  the  University  of 
Maryland,  where  he  graduated  in  IS12.  In  1814  he  took 
part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  battles  of  Bladensburg  and  North 
Point.  After  the  war  was  over  be  sturlied  law.  nncl  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816  :  having  a  taste  for  letters,  ho 
found  time  in  the  midst  of  his  professional  engagements  to 
devote  some  leisure  hours  to  a  new  publirntion  ontitlcl 
The  lied  Booh,  oi  "which  ho  became  the  chief  editor.  Itwa:? 
issued  every  two  weeks,  and  was  made  up  of  miscellaneous 
articles  in  prose  and  verse.  In  1820  ho  was  returned  as  a 
member  of  the  house  of  delegates  of  the  State  legislature, 
which  position  he  held  for  three  years  with  liigh  distinc- 
tion. Being  more  devoted,  however,  to  law  and  literature 
than  to  politics,  he  resumed  his  favorite  pursuits.  In  1832 
he  published  a  work  of  fiction  entitled  Thr  Sicallmr  fiam, 
which  consisted  of  a  collection  of  sketches  of  Virginia  | 
country  life  soon  after  the  Revolution.  This  book  was  ex- 
tensively read  and  became  very  popular.  In  1835  appeared  ; 
his  celebrated  fforieHhnc  B'>h{nnon,  a  work  that  added 
greatly  to  his  reputation.  The  hero  was  a  Revolutionary 
soldier  of  South  Carolina.  In  1835  appeared  his  7?oft  o////c  I 
lifnrl.  In  this  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
from  Maryland,  which  position  he  held  with  great  distine- 
tion  for  six  years.  In  the  Presidential  canvass  in  1810  he 
was  one  of  the  electors  fov  his  State  on  the  Harrison  ticket.  , 
In  this  year  ho  published  the  annals  of  QnodUhft,  which 
was  a  burlesque  or  satire  on  the  political  issues  of  the  day. 
In  1846  ho  was  again  returned  to  the  house  of  delegates  of  ' 
the  State  legislature,  of  which  liody  he  was  made  Speaker,  , 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  measurns  which  were  then 
adopted  to  resume  the  payment  of  the  State  debt  and  for 
the  restoration  of  tbo  public  credit.     In  politics  Mr.  Ken-  | 


nedy  was  an  ardent  and  earnest  Whig  of  the  Henry  Clay 
school.  In  I84y  he  published  the  memoirs  of  the  life  of 
William  "VVirt.  which  is  one  o^  the  most  finished  produc- 
tions of  the  kind  from  any  American  pen.  In  the  8.*ime 
year  ( 184'.t)  he  was  chosen  provost  of  his  a/wia  mo^cr,  which 
position  he  continued  to  h()Id  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  He  was  als^o  vice-]>rcsi(lent  of  the  Maryland  Histor- 
ical Society.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  by  Pre?.  Fillmore 
secretary  of  the  navy,  which  position  he  held  until  the  clofc 
of  that  administration.  It  was  under  his  auspices  at  the 
head  of  the  navy  department  that  the  Japan  expedition 
of  Com.  Perry  an<l  the  second  .\rctic  exploration  of  Dr. 
Kane  were  mainly  due.  During  the  late  war  Mr.  Ken- 
nedy's sympathies  were  entirely  on  the  Federal  side.  His 
antislavery  sentiments  were  very  strong  throughout  his 
whole  life.  After  the  war  he  made  an  extensive  tour  in 
Europe,  chiefly  with  a  view  of  benefit  to  his  health.  He 
did  not  long  survive  his  return,  but  d.  at  Newport,  R.  T., 
Aug.  18,  1S70.  At  his  death  ke  was  not  only  provost  of 
the  University  of  Maryland  and  vice-president  of  the  State 
Historical  Society,  but  was  also  chairman  of  the  trustees  of 
the  Peabody  Academy  of  Baltimore  and  a  member  of  the 
board  of  trustees  of  the  Peabody  Southern  Educational 
Fund.  A.  H.  Stephens. 

Kennedy  (Joseph  C.  G.),  LL.D..  b.  Apr.  1.  Isi.l,  at 
Mcadville,  Crawford  co.,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Allegheny 
College;  was  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  census  of  18.*>0 
and  ISfiO,  secretary  to  the  National  Institute  and  U.  S. 
Agricultural  Society  in  1854  :  sent  as  commissioner  to  Eu- 
rope in  18Jl  to  investigate  the  administration  of  census: 
appointed  I*.  S.  examiner  into  the  condition  of  national 
banks  ;  wrote  Census  of  1850  and  1860;  I/iifforif  and  Sta^ 
tiatics  of  Man/lnnd ;  prepared  the  law  for  U.S.  census; 
received  a  gold  medal  for  his  statistical  researches  from  tho 
king  of  Denmark,  and  is  member  of  different  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Belgi.an  scientific  societies. 

Kennedy  (Josiah  Forrest),  M.  D..  b.  Jan,  31,  18.34, 
near  Landisburg,  Perry  co..  Pa. ;  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College  in  18;>.').  and  in  medicine  at  the  University  of  City 
of  New  York  in  1858,  and  settled  at  Tipton,  la.:  was  com- 
missioned assistant  surgeon  in  U.  S.  regular  army  in  18f)l, 
which  position  be  resigned  in  Oct.,  1802;  settled  at  Dcs 
Moines  in  1870,  where  he  now  (ISTo)  practises  his  profes- 
sion. Dr.  Kennedy  has  published  in  the  medical  journals 
several  papers  on  practical  medicine,  and  is  assistant  sec- 
retary to  the  State  Alcdical  Society. 

Kennedy  (  Wh.i.iam  MiOee),  b.  in  Tennessee  in  1783; 
joined  the  South  Carolina  Mvlhodis^t  conference  in  1806, 
and  was  a  founder  of  his  denomination  in  North  and  Souih 
Carolina  and  in  Georgia.     D.  in  1S40. 

Ken'nodyviUc,  post-v.  of  Kent  co.,  Md.,  on  the  Kent 
County  It.  K.      Pup.  of  tp.  3247. 
Ken'uckcet,  tp.  of  Dare  eo,,  N.  C.     Pop.  599. 
Ken'ner's   Prai'rie,  a  v.  of  Matagorda  co.,  Tex. 
Pop.  6o. 

Ken'net  (White),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Dover.  England,  Arg. 
10.  1060  .•  was  educated  at  St.  Edmund  Hall.  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  vice-principal :  was  made  in  1707  dean, 
and  in  1718  bishop  of  Peterborough.     He  was  a  man  of 
indefatigable  industry,  and  accumulated  a  vast  collection 
of  historical  MSS..  largely  in  his  own  handwriting,  which 
now  form  part  of  tho  I.anndoicue  (\tllcctiun  in  the  British 
Museum,     Besides  more  than  fifty  miscellaneous  publica- 
tions, he  wrote  a  Hilton/  of  Entflnnd  from  the  Accession  of 
f^hnr/cs  J.  to  that  of  Queen  Anne,  forming  part  of  lluglics' 
collection    ( 1 70i> ;    2il    ed.    1719) :    liilUotherir    Americans 
Primordia^   an  Attempt  Toicard  Laifinrf  the  Foundation  of 
an  American  Lihrarjf  (1713);  and  -4  Hefjinter  and  Chron- 
iV/c,  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil,  from  the  Penlnration  of  Kintf 
Charles  II.  (vol.  i.  fob,  1728).     His  American   library  was 
,  collected  with  a  view  to  writing  a  work  under  the  title  A 
j   Full    Nistori/   of  the   Propagation    of    Chrintiantty    in    the 
'  Fnt/lieh  Xorth  American  Colonies,  which  unfortunately  was 
\  never  executed.     D.  at  Peterborough  Dec.  19,  1728.  (See 
his  Life,  by  Rev.  W.  Newton,  17.10).— His  brother,  Bash. 
■  Kennet,  D.  D..  b.  at  Postling.  Kent,  Oct.  21.  1674  ;  grad- 
uated at  Corpus  Christi  College.  Oxford;  was  long  chftp- 
I  Iain   at  the  English  factory  at  Leghorn.  Italy  (1706-13), 
and  was  elected  in   1714  president  of  his  college  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  d.  in  1714  or  1715.     He  wrote  Romre  Auti- 

ifHX    Xotitia,  or    the    Antiqnitl^s    of  Rome   (1696),    a    WOrk 

which  for  a  century  was  the  standard  school-book  on  tho 

subject ;    an  F.rpo»ition  of  the  Ap'^nthn    Crred,  a  Paraphrnae 

t-n  the  Psnhns.  in  vcrsc  (170G),  and  translations  of  Puffen- 
I  dorf  and  Pascal. 

Ken'nettf  post-v..  cap.  of  Dunklin  eo.,  Mo.,  on  the  Ft. 
Francis  River,  and  28  miles  W.  of  Gayoso  on  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

Kennetty  a  b.  (P.  0.  name,  KENyETx's  Square)  and  tp.. 


KENNETT— KENT. 


ir)23 


Chester  CO.,  Po.,  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Baltimoro  R.  R., 
ami  in  n  rich  agricultural  dislri<;t.  Pop  of  b.  SS4 ;  of  tp. 
UO-t. 

Kennctt  !Li  theh  .M.),  b.  at  Falmouth,  Ky.,  Mar.  la, 
1807:  studiid  law;  removed  in  1825  to  Missouri,  and  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits;  settled  in  St.  I.ouis  in  1812: 
was  chniriiKin  of  the  Pacific  U.  R.  convention  hold  there 
in  1849  :  was  mayor  of  St.  Ij(»uis  1S.',U-J2  :  president  of  the 
St.  Louis  and  Iron  ^lountnin  U.  R.  in  ISoil.  aud  chosen 
Representative  in  Congress  for  St.  Louis  district  in  lv^j4. 

Kcn'nicott  (Rkxjamin),  D.  D.,  h.  at  Totness,  Devon- 
shire. Kngland.  .Apr.  4,  1718,  of  humldc  parentage:  was 
aided  by  a  subscription  to  enter  Wadhnm  t^ollege.  Oxford, 
1744:  wrote  while  an  undergraduate  two  dissertations.  On 
thf  Trur  nf  Life  and  On  the  Olitntinnn  nf  Cain  nnd  Ahel  ; 
became  fellow  of  Exeter  College  and  keeper  of  the  Kadcliffe 
Library,  and  after  many  years*  labor  produced  his  great 
work,  the  IV/M1  TrMlnnientnm  Hehraicutn  cnm  Vnt'tin  Ltr- 
lionihnt  (2  vols.,  177C-S0).  and  d.  at  O.\ford  Sept.  IS,  1783. 

Kcn'lion  (Rev.  Rohriit  I,.).  M.  D..  b.  in  Granville  co., 
N.  C.  in  17811;  was  educated  under  the  Rev.  Dr.  Moses 
Andrew,  undo  of  Bishop  .Andrew,  at  Sparta.  Ha.,  and  at 
the  South  Carolina  College.  His  medical  training  was  be- 
gun under  Dr.  William  Lee,  .Jasper  co.,  (ia..  and  completed 
iu  Columbia,  S.  C.  He  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in 
the  South  Carolina  conference  \  M.  K.)  in  18o;).  On  account 
of  ill-health  he  located  and  practised  medicine  for  several 
years  in  (Icorgia  and  .\labama:  but  re-entered  the  itiner- 
ant ministry  in  IS24  in  Alabama,  and  exercised  his  sacred 
functions  with  great  success  till  .Ian.  9,  18.'J8,  when  ho  d. 
while  attending  the  session  of  the  Alabama  conference  in 
Columbus,  Miss.  His  remains  were  taken  to  Tuscaloosa, 
and  there  interred.  \  mural  mtmumcnt,  bearing  an  in- 
scription written  by  his  intimate  friend,  tiov.  Collier,  placed 
near  the  pulpit  in  the  Methodist  church  of  Tuscaloosa,  per- 
petuates bis  memory.  T.  0.  Sithmers. 

Keiriioiisbiirg,  post-v.  of  Wayne  tp.,  Noble  co.,  0. 

ruj.,  91. 

Kenockee',  postv.  and  tp.  of  .St.  Clair  co.,  Mich.,  15 
miles  W.  of  I'ort  Huron.     Pop.  1229. 

Keno'Kha.  county  of  .S.  E.  Wisconsin,  bounded  on  the 
K.  by  Lake  .Michigan  and  on  the  S.  by  Illinois,  Area, 
278  sf|uare  miles.  It  has  a  fertile  limosionc  soil.  Cattle, 
grain,  and  wend  are  staple  proiluets.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Kcniisha  R^ckford  and  Rock  Island  anil  the  Chicago  and 
Milwaukee  i;.  Rs.     Cap.  Kenosha.     Pop.  1.'!,I4", 

Kl'nosha,  city,  cap.  of  Kenosha  co..  Wis.,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  il  miles  N.  of  Chicago  and  34  S.  of  Milwaukee, 
almost  in  the  ,S.  E.  corner  of  the  ,Slate.  It  is  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  .Milivaukee  and  Kenosha  and  Rockford  R.  Rs. ; 
has  a  good  harbor,  9  churches,  1  bank,  1  hotels,  2  weekly 
newspapers,  several  public  and  private  schools,  including 
a  high  school,  a  seminary,  and  2  Catholic  parochial  schools, 
a  public  library,  a  reading-room,  3  carriage  and  1  wagon 
innnufuctory,  the  hitter  turning  out  oOno  per  year,  numer- 
ous manufactories  of  wooden  implenjents  and  furniture, 
several  tanneries,  lumber-yards,  and  fisheries,  2  water-cure 
establishments,  numerous  stores  and  shops  of  every  kind, 
2  telcgraph-olliccs,  2  foundries,  .'i  .Masonic,  Odd-Fellows,  or 
other  associations,  and  2  parks,  whence  th<>  name  of  "  Park 
City."  Pop.  4399.     Havs.McKini.kv,  Ed.  "  Tklkouai'II." 

Kcno'za  Lnkc  is  within  the  city  limits  of  Haverhill, 
Mass.  lis  beauty  is  celebrated  by  the  poet  Whittier.  Its 
area  is  238  acres.    It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  pleasure-parties. 

Kon'rick  (Fhascis  PATiiirK),  D.  I).,  h.  in  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, Dec.  3,  1797  :  studied  at  Rome,  where  ho  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1821,  He  was  sent  to  this  country,  and  was  for 
nine  ycnr^  conductor  of  the  Roman  Catholic  scminiirv  at 
lianlstown,  Ky.  In  1828  appeared  his  f.tllrrn  /mm  Omi- 
rroN  to  Odici/o,  a  controversial  work.  In  1830  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Arath  in  paitihuf,  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Con- 
well  of  Philadelphia,  to  which  see  he  was  translated  in 
18  12.  He  founded  the  seminary  of  St.  Charles  Bnrrotneo. 
and  in  18."il  became  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  and  in  18.')2 
njiostolic  rlelcgalc;  in  1859  honorary  primate  of  the  IJ.  S. 
lie  published  Thmlnrfin  Itniimiillea  {\  vols.,  1.839-40),  TVlr. 
vlnijHi  MuraHn  (3  vols.,  18II-I3I,  and  several  other  works, 
mostly  polemical.  D.  at  Ibillimore  ,luly  8.  lMf,3.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  had  nearly  finished  a  revision  of  the 
English  Bible,  with  copious  notes. 

Kenrick  (.Jons),  b.  in  Exeter,  England,  about  1803;  ' 
was  for  some  years  ehissical  tutor  in  the  College  of  York, 
and  became  in  1840  professor  of  history  in  the  New  College 
at  Manchester.  He  translated  Zumpt's  Ltiiin  (irammttr 
(1839).  published  a  volume  of  tlrrrk-  !-^.rrrriHrn  the  same 
year,  An  K»Ktii/  <>n  Priim-rnl  /liiitort/  (1840),  Aurirnt  /•'tfifftl 
tinrler  III,-  I'hiiniahH  (1850).  aud  I'hrrniciii  (18,'i7).  Tlio'l'wo 
latter  volumes  arc  of  cousidcrablc  value,  and  have  bccu  re- 
printed in  the  U.  S.  I 


Kenrick  (Pf.ter  Richard),  D.  D.,  a  brother  of  Arch- 
bishop Francis  P.  Kenrick,  b.  in  Dublin  in  1S06  ;  was  trained 
at  Maynootli:  became  u  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  Ireland  ; 
emigrated  to  the  V .  S.,  and  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  Vnlh- 
otic  Herald,  Philadelphia:  was  also  vicar-general  to  his 
brother.  In  1841  he  was  made  bishop  of  Drasa  in  parlibnn, 
and  coadjutor  to  the  bishop  of  St.  Louis,  to  which  sec  he 
was  translated  in  1843.  In  1847  he  became  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Louis.  He  has  written  'flic  Iluly  IIokhc  of 
Lorctlf,  Ant/iiean  Ordlndtiona,  aud  some  other  works. 

Ken'sett  (.Ions  FiuaiEuicK),  b.  Mar.  22,  1818,  at  Che- 
shire, Conn.,  d.  in  New  York  Dec.  14,  1872;  worked  as  a 
lad  with  his  uncle,  Alfred  Daggett,  an  engraver;  went  to 
England  in  1840,  and  began  the  practice  of  landscape  art 
in  1845:  passed  several  years  in  Kngland  and  Europe, 
studying  nature  in  Switzerland,  on  the  Rhine,  in  the  moun- 
t.ains  of  the  Abru7.?.i,  in  Sicily,  by  the  Bay  of  Naples, 
among  the  Italian  lakes,  amid  the  scenery  of  the  Cam- 
pagna  and  the  associations  of  Rome,  always  observing  and 
p.Ttiently  tnmsfciring  to  the  canvas  the  impressions  taken 
by  his  eye.  In  1848  he  returned  to  America,  and  was 
I  equally  faithful  in  his  study  of  native  scenery  at  Newport, 
Beverly,  ami  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic  sea-coast,  among 
the  White  Mountains,  the  Adironilaeks,  the  Catskills,  on 
Lake  George,  the  Hudson,  the  up]icr  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri, at  Niagara  ;  passing  his  summers  iu  collecting  ma- 
terials for  winter-work  in  his  studio  in  New  York.  A  facile 
and  diligent  artist,  well  trained,  quick  in  perception  and 
delicate  <if  touch,  he  executed  a  great  number  of  pictures 
singularly  equal  in  merit,  and  of  a  very  high  rank  in  ex- 
cellence. His  pers<uia!  (lualitics  f)f  sincerity,  motb'sty.  and 
puritj',  which  made  him  beloved  by  many  friends,  made 
his  pictures  dear  to  lovers  of  truth  and  feeling  in  art.  His 
work  commands  the  best  prices.  The  collection  of  his 
sketches,  made  for  exhibition  and  sale  after  his  death,  ex- 
cited unustnil  interest.  Mr.  Kensett  belonged  to  the ''real- 
istic school,"  as  it  is  called,  but  was  polished,  harmonious, 
sweet,  anil  sympathetic.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  1S49,  and  was  for  some 
years  a  member  of  the  national  art  commission  formed  to 
superintend  the  decoration  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 

O.  B.  FitoriuxcnAM. 
Keli'»inf;ton,  post-v.  of  Berlin  tp.,  Hartford  co.,  Conn., 
15  miles  S.  W.  of  Hartford. 

Kensinpiton,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Rockingham  co., 
N.  11. .  0  miles  S.  of  Exeter.  It  bus  3  churches,  and  nmn- 
ufactures  of  leather,  etc.  Pop.  C42. 
Kensington,  Pa.  See  Pnii.Anri.riiiA. 
Kensington  Gardens,  one  of  the  public  parks  of 
London,  2*  miles  in  circuit  and  extending  along  Hyde 
Park.  In  its  western  part  stands  Kensington  Palace, 
which  during  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  this 
century  was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  England. 

Kent,  county  of  England,  comjirising  the  south-eastern 
angle  of  the  island  between  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  and 
the  Strait  of  Dover.  .\rea.  ltJ27  square  miles.  Pop.  733,887. 
The  ground  is  undulating,  traversed  by  the  North  Downs; 
the  soil  is  very  fertile  and  the  climate  mild  and  genial,  Tho 
whole  county  consists  of  gardens  in  which  vegetables  and 
fruits  arc  raised  for  the  market  of  Loiidon,  and  meadows 
on  which  a  multitude  of  sheep  arc  reared.  Hops  are  the 
jirineipal  product. 

Kent,  county  of  New  Brunswick  (Canada),  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  Northumberland  .'^trait.  The  soil  is  pcncr;dly 
very  fertile.  Agriculture,  lumbering,  fishing,  and  ship- 
building are  carried  on.     Cup.  Riehiliueto.     Pop.  19,101. 

Kent,  county  of  Ontario.  Canada,  extending  from  Luke 
.St.  Clair  to  Lake  Eric.  It  is  intersected  by  the  river 
Thames  and  the  Great  ^Vestcrll  Railway.  Tho  surface  is 
level  and  fertile.  The  W.  part  is  a  kind  of  prairie,  some- 
times overflowed.     Cap.  Chatham.     Pop.  20,830. 

Kent,  county  of  Central  Delaware,  extending  across 
the  State  from  Marylnnd  eastward  to  Delaware  Hay.  Area, 
240  square  miles.  The  soil  is  geiwrally  level  and  quito 
fertile.  Live-stock,  grain,  wool,  und  fruit  are  the  staple 
products.  The  manufactures  include  carriages,  lumber, 
etc.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Delaware  and  tho 
Maryland  aud  Delaware  R.  Rs.  Cap.  of  co.  and  Slate. 
Dover.     Pop.  29,801. 

Kent,  county  of  Eastern  Maryland.  Area,  318  square 
miles.  It  has  Chesapeake  Bay  on  the  W.,  Delaware  on  the 
E.,  and  the  navigable  Sassafras  and  Chester  rivers  on  the 
N.  and  S.  respectively.  The  county  is  nearly  level,  but  not 
low:  its  soil  is  a  light,  fertile,  clayey  loam,  easily  cultivated. 
Live-stock,  grain,  wool,  and  fruit,  especially  |icaches.  are 
largely  prodneed.  The  county  exports  largo  quantities  of 
fish  and  oysrfrs.  II  is  traversed  by  the  Kent  Cnnnty  and 
the  Queen  Anoc's  and  Kent  R.  Rs.  Cap.  Chcstcrtown. 
Pop,  17,102. 


1524 


KENT— KENTUCKY. 


Kent)  county  of  Mtcbtgan,  in  the  S.  W.  central  part  of 
the  southern  peninsula.  Area,  864  scjuare  miles.  It  has  a 
rolling  siirt'iice  and  a  ricli  limestone  soil.  Salt  and  gypsum 
are  found  in  the  county.  Cattle,  grain,  wool,  Imtter.  and 
hay  are  staple  pnnlucts.  Lumlicr,  earriages.  Hour,  cloth- 
ing, cooperage,  and  saddlery  arc  leading  articles  cf"  manu- 
facture. The  county  is  traversed  by  numerous  railroads, 
mostly  centring  at  (irand  Rapids,  the  capital.  I'up.  60,403. 

Kent,  county  of  Rhode  Island,  extending  from  Narra- 
gan?i'tt  iJiiy  on  the  E.  to  the  Connecticut  liue  on  the  W. 
Area,  ISO  square  miles.  The  soil  is  generally  good,  the 
surface  uneven.  Li%'e-8tock,  grain,  hay,  and  potatoes  are 
the  staple  crops.  The  streams  aflord  good  water-power. 
There  are  important  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  and 
some  luniber  is  sawed.  The  county  is  travertied  l>y  the 
Providence  and  Stonington  and  the  Hartford  Providence 
and  P'ishkill  R.  Rs.     Cap.  East  Greenwich.     Pop.  l.s,^9ij. 

Kent,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Litchfield  co..  Conn.,  on  the 
Housafonic  River  and  R.  R.,  adjoining  the  W.  Imundary 
of  the  State,  48  miles  N.  of  Bridgeport  and  45  miles  W.  of 
Hartford.  It  has  ."i  churches.  5  stores,  a  hotel,  and  a  sem- 
inary. The  principal  industry  is  farming.  There  were 
formerly  3  blast  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron, 
now  only  one;  a  newspaper,  maintained  for  several  years, 
was  discontinued  in  1S74.  Pop.  of  tp.  1744.  including  a 
few  Indians  of  the  Housatouic  tribe.  W.  H.  Kikk. 

Kent,  post-tp.  of  Stephenson  co.,  III.     Pop.  1116. 

Kent,  post-v.  of  Republican  tp.,  Jefferson  co.,  Ind.,  8 
miles  \V.  of  Madison.     Pop.  309. 

Kent,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  601. 

Kent,  tp.  of  Putnam  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  1547. 

Kent,  post-v.  of  Franklin  tp.,  Portage  co.,  0.,  31  miles 
S.  E.  of  Cleveland,  on  the  Cuyahoga  Kiver,  which  here  af- 
fords a  fine  water-power,  utilized  by  extensive  cotton  and 
flour  mills  and  by  various  manufactures.  Kent  is  the  geo- 
graphical centre  and  divisional  terminus  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Great  Western  R.  R.,  of  which  the  principal  car  and 
machine  shops  are  located  here.  The  village  is  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  superior  window-glass  from  the  pure 
white  sand  rock  which  abounds  here,  and  also  as  the  local- 
ity where  Capt.  Samuel  Brady  made  his  famous  leap  across 
the  Cuyahoga  River  when  pursued  by  Indians.  It  has  1 
national  and  1  savings  bank,  I  weekly  newspaper,  a  fine 
public  school  edifice,  6  churches,  and  30  mercantile  estab- 
lishments. AI.  Dewev,  Ed.  "Sattrday  Bulletin." 

Kent  (Edward),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Concord.  N.  H.,  Jan.  8, 
1802  ;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1821  :  attended  a  course  of 
law  lectures  by  Chancellor  Kent  in  New  York,  and  engaged 
in  legal  practice  at  Bangor,  Me.,  1825;  was  a  member  of 
the  legislature  from  1S20  to  1833;  mayor  of  Bangor  for 
two  years,  and  governor  in  18.';h  and  1840.  In  1843  ho 
was  commissioner  for  settling  the  Maine  boundary-line 
under  tlie  Ashburton  treaty:  delegate  to  the  national  Whig 
convention  in  1S48;  eonsul  at  Rio  Janeiro  from  1849  to 
1854,  and  in  1859  associate  justiee  of  the  State  supreme 
court.     1>.  at  Bangor,  Me.,  May  19,  1877. 

Kent  (Edward  Ar(;rsTis).  Dt-kk  of.  b.  Nov.  2,  1767; 
was  the  fourth  son  of  King  (ieorpe  III.;  joined  the  army  ; 
participated  in  the  capture  of  some  of  the  Ereiich  West 
India  Islanils  :  was  appointed  governor  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  fcnvcs  in  North  America. 
The  island  of  St.  John  changed  its  name  to  Prinee  Eilward 
in  his  honor.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  married  (Miiy 
20,  1818)  a  German  ]irin<'e,-s.  Maiua  I>i>riSA  Vtctohia  (b. 
178G  ;  d.  Mar.  Ifi.  18(11 ).  widow  of  the  ])rince  of  Lciningcn, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  From  this  mar- 
riage the  reigning  queen  of  England.  Aloxandritia  Victo- 
ria, was  born  in  1819,  and  the  duke  d,  Jan.  23,  1820. 

Kent  (James),  LL.D..  b.  at  Philippi,  Putnam  co..  N.  Y., 
July  31,  1703,  was  the  scm  of  Moss  Kent,  surrogate  of 
Rensselaer  co.  He  gra-lnaterl  nt  Vale  College  in  1781  ;  was 
a  student  with  Egbert  Benson  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1787,  and  settled  at  Poughkeepsie ;  was  a  member  of  the 
legislature  in  1790  and  1792.  In  1793  ho  removed  to  New 
York,  and  became  a  master  in  chancery,  a  Icoder  among 
the  Federalists,  an  associate  and  friend  of  Hamilton  and 
Jay,  and  professor  of  law  in  Columbia  College.  While 
hero  ho  became  profoundly  versed  in  the  civil  law.  In 
1797  he  became  recorder  of  New  York,  then  an  officer 
presiding  over  a  court  of  civil  jurisdiction ;  in  1798-1804 
was  a  puisne  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York, and 
in  1804-14  chief-justice.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  New  York,  wliich  office  he  held  till 
1823.  He  was  in  1822  a  member  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention at  Albany;  in  1S24  resumed  his  professorship  in 
Columliia  College.  I),  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  12.  1847. 
His  legal  and  chancery  decisions  arc  mostlj^preserved  in 
Caines"  and  in  Johnson's  reports.  His  great  work,  the 
Commcntanes  on  Atucrican  Law  (4   vols.,  1820-30),  is  oao 


of  the  greatest  and  most  useful  legal  works  of  the  age,  and 
its  merits  have  becu  as  freely  acknowledged  in  Great  Brit- 
ain as  in  this  country.  Chancellor  Kent  was  one  of  the 
fathers  of  American  jurisprudence.  His  simple  style,  his 
abundant  learning,  his  accurate  citations,  and.  above  all, 
his  own  good  sense  and  conscientious  character,  have  given 
bis  writings  and  decisions  a  permanent  value. 

Kent  (Joseph).  M.  D.,  b.  in  Calvert  co.,  Md.,  Jan.  14, 
1779;  was  eilucatcd  as  a  physician,  combining  the  practice 
of  his  profession  with  agriculture  on  an  extensive  scale — 
first  in  Calvert  co.,  and  after  1800  in  Prince  George  co. 
He  was  a  Representative  in  Congress  1811-15  and  1821- 
26,  governor  of  Maryland  1820-29.  and  U.  S.  Senator  1833- 
37,     D.  near  Bladensburg  Nov.  24,  1837. 

Kent  (William),  b.  in  Yorkshire,  England,  oboutlfiSS: 
was  apprenticed  to  a  coach  pninter,  an<l  showed  so  much 
talent  that  he  was  enabled  l»y  tlii'  hel])  of  patrons  to  study 
the  line  arts  at  Rome.  In  1710  he  was  invited  by  the  earl 
of  Burlington  to  return  to  England  as  his  guest,  and  resided 
with  that  nobleman  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was 
in  some  request  as  painter.  sculj)tor,  and  architect,  but  his 
real  importance  was  as  the  founder  of  landscape-gardening 
in  England,  the  best  sjioeimen  of  the  new  principles  of 
taste  being  Kensington  Gardens.     D.  Apr.  12,  1748. 

Kent  Island^  the  largest  island  in  Chesapeake  B.iy, 
belongs  to  Queen  Anne  co.,  Md.  It  is  15  miles  long,  and 
is  very  fertile.  It  has  4  churches  and  important  oyster 
fisheries.  It  is  the  site  of  the  earliest  settlement  in  the 
State.  It  was  colonized  in  ICol  by  William  Claiborne  and 
others.     Pop.  1847. 

Kent'land,  post-v.  of  Jefferson  tp.,  cap.  of  Newton  co., 
Ind.,  on  the  Pan-Handle  (Pittsburg  Cincinnati  and  St. 
Louis)  R.  R.  It  is  situ:ited  on  the  Grand  Prairie,  in  the 
N.  W.  of  the  State,  in  a  rich  agricultural  section;  has  1 
newspaper,  1  bank,  I  plough-factory,  a  first-class  school 
building,  several  churches,  hotels,  stores,  shops,  and  mills. 
Pop.  802.  Jon.v  B.  Conner,  Ed.  "  Gazette." 

Ken'^tony  county  of  Kentucky,  having  the  Ohio  River 
on  the  N.  Area,  150  square  miles.  It  is  hiily.  hut  gener- 
ally fertile,  having  a  good  calcareous  soil.  Tobacco,  live- 
stock, and  corn  are  the  agricultural  staples.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  cigars,  tobacco,  iron,  etc.,  chiefly  carried  on  at 
Covington  (which  see),  its  chief  town  and  capital.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Kentucky  Central  and  the  Louis- 
ville and  Cincinnati  R.  Rs.      Pop.  3(i,09G. 

Kenton,  post-v.  ami  humlrcfl  of  Kent  co.,  Del.,  on  the 
Maryland  and  Delaware  R.  R.     Pop.  20.56. 

Kenton,  post-v.  of  Pleasant  tp..  cap.  of  Hardin  co., 
0.,  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Scioto  River,  near  the  centre 
of  the  State.  It  has  9  churches,  3  banks,  2  weekly  news- 
]tnpers,  2  hotels,  8  manufactories.  3  mills,  and  GO  stores. 
Principal  industry,  farming  and  lumbering.  Pop.  2010. 
A.  \y .  Mn.i.KR.  El).  "  RKi'iiiLirAN." 

Kenton  (Pimon),  b.  in  Fau(iuier  co.,  Va.,  Apr.  .'i,  1755; 
went  to  Kentucky  at  the  age  of  eighteen  in  conseqncnce  of 
an  affray,  and  w.ts  associated  with  Boone  and  other  early 
pioneers,  lie  acted  for  some  time  as  a  spy  for  Lord  Dun- 
moro,  the  liritish  go\emor  of  Virginia  :  participateil  in  the 
war  of  independence  W.  of  the  Alleghanies  :  returned  to 
Virginia  in  1784;  removed  his  whole  family  to  Kentucky, 
and  continued  to  take  part  in  all  Indian  wars  until  AVayne's 
campaign  in  179.3  established  the  supremacy  of  the  whito 
race  in  the  <^>hio  Valley.  Kenton  "took  up"  immense 
tracts  of  land,  but  when  they  became  valuable  they  were 
invariably  lost  to  him  through  the  invasions  of  settlers, 
coupled  with  his  ignorance  of  law,  so  that  he  was  ultimately 
reiluced  to  great  poverty.  lie  tottk  part  witli  the  Kentucky 
troops  in  the  Canadian  campaign  in  the  gectmd  war  with 
England,  fought  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  finally  had 
lands  couJirnied  to  him  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  and 
a  pension  by  the  U.  t?.  Congress.  1).  in  Logan  co.,  0.,  Apr. 
29,  18,36. 

Kent's  Hill,  post-v.  of  Readfield  tp..  Kennebec  co.. 
Me.,  is  the  scat  of  the  Maine  AVesleyan  Seminary  and  Fe- 
male College.  The  seminary  was  founded  in  1821;  the 
college  chartered  in  18J9. 

Kentuck'y,  one  of  the  central  States  of  the  Mississippi 
Vallev,  Iving  between  the  meridians  of  82°  3'  and  89°  2C' 
\V.  Ion.,  and  between  3fi°  30'  and  39°  0'  N.  lat.  Its  ex- 
treme length  from  E.  to  W.  is  308  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth  from  N.  to  S,,  172  miles.  The  northern  and  north- 
eastern boundaries  of  the  State  are  very  irregular.  The 
Tug  Fork,  or  main  stream,  of  the  Rig  Sandy  River  forms 
the  boundary  between  it  and  West  \*irginia  on  the  X.  E., 
from  the  summit  of  the  Cumberland  iVIountains,  about  lat. 
37°  33',  to  Catlettsburg.  where  the  IJig  Sandy  joins  the 
Ohio.  From  this  point  the  Ohio  River  forms  its  N.  N.  E., 
N.,  and  N.  W.  boundary  to  Cairo,  where  that  river  enters 
the  Mississippi ;  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  lying  N.  of  the 


KENTUCKY. 


1525 


Ohio,  andibe  jurisdiction  of  Kentucky  extending  tn  low- 
water  mark  on  the  X.  sident'tho  Ohio  River.  The  Missis- 
sippi forms  its   western  boundary,  aud  separates  it  from 


Seal  of  Kentucky. 

Missouri.  TennesMe  bounds  it  on  the  P.  for  the  whole 
di.«tance,  the  dividiu<;-Iine  being  the  parallel  of  36°  oO' 
from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Tenucssce  River,  and  that  of 
3G°  3S'  thence  to  the  meridian  of  J?o*  40'  W..  whence  a 
curved  line  following  the  summit-ridfrcs  of  the  Cumberland 
to  the  Big  Sandy  acpamtes  it  from  West  Virginia  on  the 
S.  E.  The  area  of  the  State,  according  to  the  eenpus  of 
isro,  is  37.6Sn  square  mile?,  or  24,n.'j.200  acres.  TheStato 
lies  wholly  within  the  Misii>i^sippi  Valley,  and  all  but  about 
1000  square  miles  of  it  in  the  sub-valb-y  of  the  Ohio. 

Face  of  thr  Conntrif,  etr. — Topographically.  Kentucky  is 
divi<led  into  two  unequal  areas — the  mountain  district,  in 
the  eastern  and  south-t-ajitiirn  secticjns  of  the  State,  cover- 
ing about  4000  square  miles;  and  the  table-land,  including 
all  the  region  W.  to  the  Mississippi.  Through  this  tabl"-land 
the  rivers  of  the  State  plough  deep  furrows.  The  State  is 
emphatically  well  watered,  but  most  of  tbe  larger  streams 
in  passing  through  the  tablc-lan«l  have  made  for  them- 
selves valleys  of  erosion  varying  in  depth  at  difHirentpoints 
from  25  to  600  feet.  There  are,  strictly  speaking,  very  few 
hills  in  this  table-land,  though  tho  bluffs  give  the  land- 
scape the  appearance  of  high  bills  ancl  abrupt  valleys  at  some 
points,  and  the  geological  structure  of  the  country  gives  it 
the  asppct  of  rounded  and  niammiliated  slopes  at  others. 
With  the  exception,  then,  of  tho  mountainous  districts  of 
Eastern  and  South-eastern  Kentucky,  which  have  the 
general  characteristics  of  tbe  Allcgbiiny  range,  being 
simple  regular  curves  of  great  X.  and  S.  extension,  but 
comparatively  narrow  in  an  E.  anci  W.  direction — Pine 
Mountain,  for  instance,  having  a  length  of  70  miles,  and  an 
average  wiilth  of  not  over  5  mile:),  and  ri.sing  in  the  ridges 
of  Pine  Mnuntiiin  and  Cumberland  Monnfain  to  the  height 
(ff  fully  mUUO  feet — the  topography  of  the  State  may  bo  re- 
garded as  a  succescton  of  river-valleys  deeply  incised,  hav- 
ing a  general  X.  W.  and  S.  E.  trend,  with  considerable 
stretches  of  taido-tand  lying  between,  and  having  an  aver- 
age? elevation  of  400  feet  above  tho  streams.  Tho  river- 
valleys  are  rarely  more  than  two  miles  in  width.  As  wo 
proceed  eastward  from  the  Mi-sisHippi.  the  table-lands  rise 
gradually  ;  those  between  the  Mississippi  and  a  line  drawn 
due  S.  from  Louisville  are  about  GOO  feet  above  the  sea; 
between  this  line  and  uni*  drawn  due  S.  from  Covington  they 
rise  to  UlOO  feet  or  a  little  more.  Lexington,  which  seems 
to  be  the  highest  point  of  the  t it ble- lands,  is  1070  feet  above 
tho  pca,  nnd  from  it  tho  lanrl  (-lopes  in  every  direction,  and 
(ho  decline  toward  the  E.  continues  till  wo  reach  Ibo  base 
of  the  Pine  and  Cumberland  ridges. 

.  liirrrt,  Lnkm,  rtr. — About  ><.'>0  miles  of  the  boundaries  of 
the  State  are  riverine,  including  the  Rig  Sandy,  the  Ohio, 
and  the  Mississippi.  The  two  largert  tributaries  of  tho 
Ohio  (as  well  as  many  smaller  ones),  tho  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee,  have  their  ultimate  sources  in  the  mountain- 
district  of  the  State,  nnd  iMtth,  after  a  wide  il/t>ntr  to  the 
S.,  return  to  the  Shite,  and.  crossing  it.  ])onr  their  waters 
into  the  Ohio.  Other  affluents  of  the  Ohio  are  Clark's 
River,  Tradewater  River,  and  the  large  and  important 
streams,  Green,  Salt,  Kentuekv,  and  Licking  rivers,  nnd 
still  farther  E,  tho  Little  Saiidy.  The  W.  Fork  of  Rig 
Sandy  is  a  eon-idcrablo  stream,  as  are  also  several  of  the 
tributaries  of  tho  Cumberland.  Kentucky.  Li'-king,  and 
Green.  The  Mississippi  has  a  few  smnll  tributary  streams 
in  the  State.  With  the  completion  of  tho  slaekwater  navi- 
gation im]irovcments  now  in  progress,  Kentucky  will  have 
nearly  40(10  inilcB  of  navigiiblc  wuters  in  bcr  bnundF',  of 
which  more  than   half  will   be  within   regions  containing 


valuable  coal  and  iron  deposits.  There  are  no  considerable 
hikes  in  the  State. 

Geofofftf. — Tho  geological  structure  of  the  State  is  vorv 
simple.  Its  expoaed  rocks  represent  the  Upper  Cambrian 
(Lower  Silurian),  including  the  Trenton  and  Hudson  River 
groups,  about  "IIO  feet  in  thickness  ;  the  Silurian,  thinly  de- 
veloped ;  the  Devonian,  consisting  mainly  of  about  lUO 
feet  of  shale;  tho  Sub-carboniferous,  consisting  of  the 
Waverley,  a  thick  series  of  sandstones  and  limestones 
(300  to  oOO  feet);  the  Sub-earboniferous  limestone  (10  to 
300  feet);  aud  the  Carboniferous  series  (1600  to  2500 
feet).  In  the  W.,  between  tho  Mississippi  and  tho  Ten- 
nessee rivers,  there  is  a  tract  of  beds  of  a  later  Tertiary 
age,  which  have  a  thickness  of  perhaps  3011  feet.  Just  W. 
of  tbe  Tennessee  River,  where  it  re-enters  the  State,  tho 
northernmost  point  of  the  great  cretaceous  rocks  which  ex- 
tend through  Tennessee.  Eastern  Mississipjii.  and  AVcstcrn 
Alabama,  appears  at  the  surface.  The  beds  below  the  Car- 
boniferous seem  to  have  been  deposited  tn  a  nearly  unin- 
terrupted succession  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  except 
in  the  region  from  Covington  to  Casey  co..  where  a  strip 
of  about  sixty  miles  wide  {directly  through  the  blue-grnss 
country)  was  lifted  above  tho  sea,  probably  about  the  time 
of  the  Carboniferous  era  or  earlier,  thus  for  a  time  forming 
a  nearly  complete  bnrrier  between  the  eastern  and  western 
coal-Jiclds.  E.  and  W.  of  this  the  land  remained  low,  and 
the  deposits  of  the  Coal  periods  were  made  with  from  ten 
to  twenty  alternations  of  exposure  to  the  air  and  submer- 
sion beneath  the  sea.  The  geology  of  Kentucky  is  not  at 
all  local  or  individual  in  its  character;  the  Tertiary  is  a 
part  of  tlie  great  Tertiary  deposit  of  the  lower  Mississippi 
River;  the  western  coal-field  is  a  prolongation  of  that  of 
Illinois,  and  the  eastern  of  the  Appalachian  fields  :  and  the 
Devonian  and  Silurian  stretch  southward  from  Indiana  and 
Ohio. 

Economic  Geology  and  Mineral^fjif. — The  most  imy>ort- 
nnt  of  the  economic  mineral  resources  of  Kentucky  nrc 
its  rich  and  abundant  deposits  of  coal  and  iron.  The 
whole  coal-area  is  about  14,000  square  miles,  of  which 
10,000  arc  in  the  eastern  and  4000  in  the  western  basin. 
The  coal-beds  vary  in  number  nnd  thickness,  but  will 
probably  average  in  the  eastern  section  in  good  exposures 
about  ten  beds,  aggregating  .'iO  feet:  and  in  the  western 
coal-measures  about  the  same  thickness,  but  fewer  beds. 
Most  of  this  coal,  especially  in  the  W..  is  a  soft  bituminous 
coal,  though  some  eannel  is  found;  it  resembles  the  Eng- 
lish coal  very  strongly.  The  eitstern  deposits  have  more 
splint  coals,  which  are  better  adapted  to  smelting  and  iron- 
making.  The  iron  district  of  the  State  covers  about  20.000 
square  miles,  in  almost  all  of  which  ores  of  such  richness  as 
to  pay  well  for  working  are  found.  Tho  best  ores  are  con- 
nected with  rocks  of  the  Clinton  grouji  of  the  Silurian, 
where  one  bed  has  been  discovered  having  a  depth  of  20 
feet  or  more.  (Jood  ores  are  also  found  between  the  Car- 
boniferous limestone  and  the  up])er  coal-measures.  Some 
of  tho  upper  beds  in  Edm()ndson  co.,  in  the  Orcen  River 
country,  are  oolitic  in  character,  and  have  a  thickness  of  5 
feet  or  more.  Most  of  the  iron  is  produced  in  small  char- 
coal furnaces,  though  no  State  in  tbe  I'nion  is  better  pro- 
vided with  good  coals  for  smelting  and  reducing  purposes. 
Lead  exists  in  tho  Trenton  and  Cincinnati  limc^Jtones  and 
in  the  Carboniferous  limestone,  but  has  not  been  success- 
fully worked.  Iluilding-stone  of  excellent  quality  exists 
in  several  sections,  and  is  exportecl  to  some  extent.  Tho 
Sub-carbr)niferous  sandstones  of  the  Waverley  group  are  in 
considerable  tlemand  both  in  Cincinnati  and  Louisville, 
aud  tho  oolites  of  the  Sub-carboniferous  limestone  are  un- 
rivalled in  beauty  and  durability.  Silver  ore  has  been 
found  near  Cumberlanil  Fulls.  A  more  remarkable  con- 
tribution to  economic  geology  is  that  afforded  Ity  the  salt 
sftrings  (tr  licks  of  the  State.  The  early  deposited  rooks— 
tho  Potsdam  sandstone  and  the  oil-bearing  sand-rock — 
were  laid  down  in  shallow  waterc.  and  absorbed  consider- 
able quantities  of  salt  from  the  brine.  In  time,  springs 
charged  with  this  saline  deposit  found  tlnir  way  to  tlie 
surface,  UHually  in  some  nmrfthy  valley,  and  thither  all  tbe 
herbivorous  mammals  naturally  resorted  to  lick  the  salt 
whii'h  bar!  crystallized  around  the  springs.  This  practico 
mupt  have  continued  for  many  thouoands  of  years,  and 
hence  we  find  in  these  swampv  licks  vast  quantities  of  the 
remains  of  these  animals.  Tbe  skeletons  of  the  buffalo 
and  the  deer,  and  below  these  of  the  elephant,  the  masto- 
don, and  mammoth,  the  fossil  elk.  nnd  a  species  of  musk- 
ox,  lie  in  countless  numbers.  Rig  Itone  Lick  in  Roone  co. 
has  in  an  area  of  about  t'll)  acre<t  many  thousands  of  these 
fossil  fkeletons.  Tho  remains  of  animals  fonncl  here  indi- 
cate very  eleiirly  that  tbe  elejdiant  period  in  this  region  was 
one  of  eohl  anil  low  temperature.  There  are  nnmeroufl 
medicinal  springs  of  great  virtue  in  the  State:  those  of 
Ilarrodsburg.  Rluo  Lick.  etc.  contain  eonsiilcrablc  quiinti- 
tics  of  sulphur.     SaUpotro,  gypsum,  and  selenite  abouncl 


1526 


KENTUCKY. 


in  the  caves.  The  caverns  of  tbe  State  form  one  of  its 
most  remarkable  features;  the  Mamiuoth  Cave,  which  Is 
the  most  wirlely  known  of  the  thousands  in  the  f?tate. 
though  possibly  not  the  largest,  is  very  fully  described  in 
this  volume  by  Prof.  N.  v?.  Shaler,  and  the  caverns  of  Ken- 
tu'.'ky  are  alsu  discussed  in  the  same  article.  (See  Mammoth 
Cave.)  We  may  say  here  that  they  occur  throuj^liout  the 
entire  range  of  the  Sub-carboniferous  limestone,  or  over  a 
region  of  GOOD  to  8000  square  miles.  In  the  region  drained 
by  the  Green  River  and  its  affluent?:  tliey  are  very  nnmer- 
oiis,  and  the  belief  is  very  general  that  they  underlie  almost 
the  whole  region.  In  some  jilaccs  there  are  what  are  called 
sink-holes,  considerable  tracts  often  containing  trees  of 
large  size,  under  which  the  roof  of  the  cavern  has  given 
way  and  precipitated  those  patches  {\vhich  arc  from  60  to 
]  JO  feet  or  more  in  diameter)  to  the  floor  of  the  cavern, 
often  200  or  MOO  feet  below.  In  some  cases  these  sink-holes 
become  partially  filled  with  water:  in  others,  the  trees  and 
shrubs  continue  to  grow  and  strettdi  up  toward  the  light. 
A  few  of  them  are  funnel-shaped  and  very  deep,  having  been 
sounded  to  the  depth  of  300  feet  without  reaching  bottom. 
Soils  aifl  Ver/cttitiniK — The  last  glacijil  period  did  not 
spread  its  ice-sheet  over  Kentucky.  I»ut  stayed  its  course  a 
few  miles  N.  of  the  Ohiu  Kiver.  Hence,  there  are  not  in 
the  State  the  gravelly  soils  which  are  found  wherever  the 
advancing  front  of  the  ghvr-ier  has  pushed  forward  its  mo- 
raine, made  up  from  the  lU-hrU  of  widely  separated  rocks. 
The  soil  of  the  Cincinnati  basin,  which  includes  the  entire 
blue-grass  region,  may  properly  be  called  a  soil  of  imme- 
diate derivation  ;  /.  c  it  is  formed  by  the  disintegration  of 
the  rocks  of  the  Cincinnati  group,  which  contain  brachio- 
pods  in  great  numbers.  This  crumbling  blue  limestone, 
which  falls  to  pieces  on  exposure  to  the  nir.  renders  the 
soil  derived  from  it  one  of  surpassing  fertility,  and  by  its 
constant  disintegration  restores  to  it  tlie  constituents  drawn 
from  it  by  the  crops.  Hemp  and  tobacco,  both  exhausting 
crops,  can  be  produced  on  these  lauds  in  undiminished 
quantities  for  a  score  or  more  of  years  in  succession,  and 
their  rich  and  gigantic  growth  is  nowhere  surpassed  :  and 
the  grasses  and  grains  of  the  region  arc  remarkable  for 
their  luxuriance  and  tlicir  nutritive  qualities.  The  region 
of  the  Sub-carboniferous  limestone  owes  its  fertility,  which 
is  almost  as  great  as  that  of  the  blue-gra^s  country,  to  the 
Sfime  cause,  the  disintegration  of  fossiliferous  limestone. 
These  two  tracts  comprise  about  three-sevenths  of  the  area 
of  the  State.  The  other  four-sevenths  are  less  suited  to 
the  culture  of  grain  and  the  best  grasses,  except  the  over- 
flowed lands  of  the  river-bottoms,  which  have  soils  of  re- 
mote derivation.  The  soils  underlaid  by  tbe  beds  between 
tlio  top  of  the  Cincinnati  group  and  tlio  top  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous areof  fair  fertility, and  oftentimes  rich  in  materials 
suited  for  certain  crops.  The  soils  within  the  Carbonifer- 
ous areas  are  admirably  suited  botlj  for  fruit  and  for  to- 
bacco culture,  and  under  proper  and  skilt'ul  tillage  will 
produce  any  crops  adiipted  to  this  climatic  belt.  The  great 
difference  between  tlicse  lands — a  part  of  which  have  been 
known  as  barrens — and  the  rich  blue-grass  country  is,  tliat 
the  former  require  a  fair  and  judicious  use  of  manures, 
while  the  latter  manure  themselves  throuirb  (be  disintegra- 
tion of  the  fossiliferous  limestone.  There  is,  however,  very 
little  really  barren  land  in  the  State.  The  peculiarity  of 
the  soils  is  manifested  in  the  distribution  of  the  forests. 
On  the  Sub-carboniferous  limestone  there  are  grand  forests 
on  the  uplands  where  the  blue  ash  {Frnrlnus  qtinilriturfH- 
lut'i)  and  the  black  walnut  {.htijhtus  nujrn\  mark  the  rich- 
est tracts.  Rich  but  k-ss  fertile  soils  have  extensive  forests 
of  beech  (Fagtiti  /vmiffiuea).  On  the  sandstone  soils,  es- 
pecially within  the  Carboniferous  areas,  the  forests  are  of 
oak,  of  which  there  arc  six  or  seven  species,  as  Qiierru» 
atba.  mond'ola.  fttlcfttn.  rubra,  niijnt,  etc.  In  tho  richer 
lowlands  the  tulip  tree  [Liriodtmiiron  tnfip!/ern)  sind  the 
sweet  gum  ( Lufuidnmbar  Bti/mriflun )  form  considerable 
forests.  Tho  open  parks  which  form  so  fine  a  feature  of 
the  blue-grass  region  are  mainly  of  the  sugar-maple  (Arrr 
Hnrrh'trinufit)  and  othrr  maplus,  tho  tulip  tree,  blue  ash. 
black  walnut,  etc.  In  the  swamps  of  the  S.  W.  the  cypress 
(Ta^odiuin  ifiniirhiim)  is  the  prineijml  constituent  of  the 
forests.  In  the  mountainous  district  of  Eastern  Kentucky 
there  are  limited  areas  of  pine  (Phntx  mZ/M).  There  are 
of  course  other  forest  trees  in  the  State,  but  the  species 
named  are  the  most  important.  AV'lien  the  State  was  first 
settled  by  tho  whites  there  was  a  tnact  of  about  7000  square 
miles  lying  between  the  Ohio  River  and  the  Tennessee  line, 
ami  between  the  8.">th  and  87th  meridians,  embracing  most 
of  the  l>evonian  shales  and  a  part  of  the  Carboniferous 
bedi,  which  was  open  prairie,  having  no  trees  except  along 
tho  streams:  this  was  duo  unquestionably  to  the  fires  kin- 
dled in  tho  grass  bv  the  Indians  each  year.  On  the  sup- 
pression of  these  fire«  Ibis  region  immediately  sprang  up 
in  timber,  .ind  is  now  densely  wooded  wherever  it  is  not 
under  cultivation. 


Zoologt/. — Very  few  of  the  larger  surviving  wild  animals 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  have  now  a  home  in  Kentucky. 
The  buffalo  or  bison,  which  in  the  last  century  roamed  in 
very  considerable  herils  through  this  State,  ami  perhaps 
as  far  E.  as  the  base  of  the  mountains,  became  extinct  in 
the  State  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The 
elk  may  have  disapjieared  a  little  earlier:  the  panther  has 
been  seen  within  tifty  years.  Bears  and  wolves  are  very 
rare.  Deer  arc  still  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
forests,  and  the  raccoon,  the  opossum,  the  badger,  and 
ground-hog  are  not  uncommon.  There  arc  at  le.Tst  two 
species  of  the  hare  or  American  rabbit,  and  live  or  six  of 
the  squirrel;  moles,  dormice,  rats,  field-mice,  etc.  are  suf- 
ficiently plenty.  Of  game  birds,  the  wild-turkey  is  found 
in  most  of  the  counties  of  the  State,  and  grouse,  partridges, 
quails,  etc.  abound.  The  rivers  contain  a  good  supply  of 
most  of  the  fresh-water  fish,  and  fresh-w.iter  roollusks.  in- 
cluding many  species  of  the  Unionida^.  the  fresh-water 
lobster,  etc.,  are  found  in  great  abundance.  We  have 
spoken  already  of  the  fossils  found  in  the  swamps;  there 
arc  very  many  fossils  also  in  the  caves,  but  except  some 
insects,  crustaceans,  and  fishes,  none  of  them  are  peculiar 
to  the  State.  The  so-called  eyeless  fish  of  the  Mammoth 
Cave  is  not  known  elsewhere. 

The  following  paragraphs  on  the  pro-historic  remains  of 
man  found  in  Kentucky,  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  X.  S.  Shalcr 
of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  State  geologist  of  Ken- 
tucky, seem  in  place  here  : 

J're-hifiloric  Jiemaiim  of  Man. — Two  distinct  Stages  are 
marked  by  these  remains — the  first,  or  most  remote,  by  tho 
mound-builder  works;  sccon<l.  the  later  conditions,  during 
which  the  common  Indian  graves  arc  formed.  The  first  of 
these  stages  was  evidonlly  a  period  of  considerable  dura- 
tion, in  which  the  State  was  in  possession  of  n  people  con- 
siderably more  civilized  than  the  common  North  American 
Indians;  they  Imilt  regular  fortifications  on  tolerably  uni- 
form plans,  ami  they  traded  for  copper  from  Lake  Superior 
and  shells  from  tlio  (lulf  of  Mexico.  Tiiey  seem  to  have 
been  an  agricultural  people,  their  numbers  being  too  great 
for  constant  subsistence  by  tho  chase,  ami  their  fortifica- 
tions implying  fixity.  Their  general  culture  and  habits 
would  seem  to  have  been  as  high  as  that  of  the  Natchez 
Indians  when  they  wt-re  first  approached  by  the  whites. 
Although  there  are  within  the  State  twenty  or  more  forts 
and  many  thousand  mounds  built  by  these  people^  they  do 
not  seem  to  have  existed  within  these  in  such  numbers,  or 
for  so  long  a  time,  as  they  did  in  Ohio.  The  State  is  also 
completely  wanting  in  the  "picture  mounds,"  or  represen- 
tations of  animals,  so  common  in  the  North-west.  This 
people  was  probably  here  before  the  coming  of  the  buffalo, 
as  its  bones  are  not  found  among  their  remains,  nor  its 
form  on  their  very  numerous  enrvings  and  pottery.  There 
.are  other  evidi-nees  of  tho  very  recent  coming  of  this  spe- 
cies into  the  .Mississippi  Valley.  There  is  nn  utter  absence 
of  evidence  that  this  people  ever  came  into  contact  with  tho 
earlier  fauna  of  the  Ehphas  priinitftuiuH  and  the  masto- 
don :  none  of  the  animals  of  that  time  figure  among  their 
art  products.  Possibly  to  the  same  age  we  may  attribute 
the  cave  remains  of  Western  Kontu»rky.  which  have  not 
been  as  yet  much  examined.  They  show  prolonged  occu- 
pation of  tho  sliallow  caverns  and  *'  rock-houses"  of  that 
region,  but  they  all.  so  far  as  examined  by  the  Kentucky 
survey,  show  only  animals  of  the  present  period.  Several 
hundred  caveins  and  *'  rook-houses  "  in  the  western  district 
exhibit  signs  of  occu|)aney.  Sometimes  these  caverns  are 
combined  \\\{\\  fortifications,  the  caves  being  used  for  resi- 
dence, and  stouo  walls  or  earthworks  for  tho  defence  of  tho 
hill  above. 

During  the  last  few  centuries  of  the  Indian  occupation 
wo  find  this  State  apparently  used  as  a  lumting-ground 
rathf-r  than  as  a  place  of  permanent  settlement.  It  seems 
likely  from  analogy  with  other  countries  that  this  neutral 
condition  of  the  area  between  the  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio 
had  been  brought  about  by  long  conflicts  between  tho 
southern  and  tho  northern  peoples  of  this  region.  The  es- 
sential similarity  of  the  customs  of  the  Natchez  Indians, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  mound-building,  to  the  so-called 
mound-builders  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  points  to  the  probable 
conclusion  that  this  neutral  hunting-ground  of  Kentucky 
marks  tho  southernmost  point  of  j>enetration  of  a  distinct 
warlike  race  which  drove  the  more  ancient  people  to  tho 
southward.  These  invading  peoples  arc  likely  to  have 
been  the  ancestors  of  the  tribes  the  whites  found  in  resi- 
dence along  tho  northern  borders  of  the  Ohio  River. 

As  a  whole,  the  pro-historic  remains  of  Kentucky  point 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  was  no  indigenous  man  dating 
farther  back  than  about  two  or  three  thonsaud  years.  There 
sc'ins  no  evidence  of  succession  in  the  stages  of  develop- 
ment, such  as  wo  find  in  the  European  pro-historic  records. 
The  oldest  remains  belong  to  a  state  of  eulture  answering, 
on  the  whole,  to  the  polished  Stone  Age  of  Europe,  though 


KENTUCKY. 


1527 


the  uso  of  copper  for  ornnraent?.  and  the  nmoimt  of  traffic 
indioatL'd  by  tlu-  presence  of  iniiteriiils  brought  from  great 
distances,  seem  tu  bo  an  indicution  of  nn  creD  greater  ad- 
Tance  in  civilitation.  It  seems  likely  that  the  highly  fin- 
ished forts,  ^bowinf^  a  capneity  for  quite  definite  measure- 
ment,  the  strongest  evidence  of  culture,  came  long  alter  the 
earliest  mound;^.  Despite  the  fact  that  mounds  perish  very 
slowly,  we  may  trace  every  gradation,  from  those  nearly 
blended  with  the  natural  surlace  tu  those  which  can  hardly 
have  withstood  a  thousand  years.  This  seems  not  to  be  the 
case  with  the  fortifications:  most  of  them,  at  least,  have 
still  great  distinctness  of  outline,  and  often  could  be  made 
tenable  by  modern  troops  with  a  few  ho.irs'  labor.  Some 
of  these  forts  would  require  several  thousand  men  for  a 
garrison  to  make  their  walls  of  any  utility:  this,  tojrelher 
with  the  fact  that  mounrl-builders"  remains  are  most  numer- 
ous where  the  soil  is  best  fitted  for  agriculture,  seems  to 
show  that  they  must  hare  been  in  the  main  agricultural. 
Some  of  their  pottery  shows  considerable  skill  in  manufac- 
ture, and  a  nice  taste  in  the  use  of  incised  ornaments.  The 
frequent  presence  of  pipes  shows  the  use  of  tobacco.  The 
great  care  taken  of  the  dead,  and  the  prodigious  accumula- 
tionjj  about  some  of  the  funeral  mounds,  seem  to  point  to 
the  conclusion  that  they  were  worshippers  of  ancestors. 
There  is  no  evtclenco  of  phattic-worship  in  the  remains  as 
yet  discovered  within  the  State.  Their  weapons  seem  to 
havo  been  the  same  as  those  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians generally,  except  that  the  spear  seems  to  have  been 
more  commonly  used:  their  axes  arc  almost  always  made 
iVum  materials  derived  from  beyond  the  great  lakes.  The 
buffalo  seems  to  have  followed  on  the  footsteps  of  the  van- 
isliing  mound-builders;  with  their  disappearance  the  for- 
ests returned,  except  over  the  country  of  the  Barrens  in  the 
central  part  of  Western  Kentucky. 

Tbere  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  in  its  most  peopled 
state,  before  the  coming  of  the  whites,  this  region  ever  bad 
anything  like  its  present  prqiulation:  nor  aye  there  any 
reasons  for  supposing  that  an  anticjuity  of  ^tOUO  or  4000 
years  would  not  embrace  all  the  human  events  of  which  we 
havo  any  record  here.  X.  S.  Shalkr. 

Climntfi. — In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  climate  of 
Kentucky  is  delightful.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
about  bb°j  and  the  extremes,  not  often  reachc<l,  arc  zero 
and  100*^.  The  winter  commences  late  in  December,  some- 
times not  till  January,  ancl  the  cold  weather  seldom  lasts 
long  after  the  1st  of  March.  The  winter  and  spring 
months  are  the  seasons  of  greatest  rainfall,  the  summer 
and  autumn  being  usually  somewhat  dry.  The  heavy 
rain?  of  winter  and  spring,  falling  on  the  adhesive  red  or 
blue  clay  of  the  central  counties,  ntakcs  locomotion  some- 
what ditlicuU  except  on  the  superb  macadamized  roads  of 
the  State.  The  summers  are  long  and  somewhat  hot, 
though  the  extremes  of  heat  are  less  than  in  States  farther 
N.  In  the  southern  counties  cattle  are  not  sheltered  in 
winter,  and  very  little  hay  is  cut.  The  blue-grasa.  falling 
down  as  it  ripens,  protects  the  lower  portion  of  its  stalk, 
and  furnishes  as  nutritious  grazing  in  winter  as  in  summer. 
Tables  r.  and  H.  give — Hrst.  the  maximum,  minimum, 
and  niean  tL-mperatures  of  each  month  and  the  year  at  tivo 
dilferent  points;  and  second,  the  monthly,  quarterly,  and 
annual  rainfall  at  the  same  points. 

Ayrienititrat  /*ro(fuctM, — '1  he  largo  proportion  of  exceed- 
ingly fertile  soil  in  the  State,  its  capacity  for  producing  a 
great  variety  of  crops,  au'l  its  extraordinary  facilities  for 
conveying  its  crops  to  the  best  markets,  arc  good  and  suf- 
ficient reasons  why.  in  proportion  to  its  area.  Kentucky 
should  bo  one  of  the  best  agricultural  States  in  the  Union. 
That  these  great  advantiiges  have  not  been  so  fully  de- 
veloped as  they  should  havo  been  is  doubtless  true;  yet 
the  agricultural  position  of  the  State  is  very  creditable  to 
her.  The  census  of  1870  gave  the  following  statistics  of 
tite  agricultural  wealth  and  productions  ol  tho  State  :  \*aluo 
of  farm?,  Jill  l.'iitS.Hlli ;  of  farming  implements  and  ma- 
chinery, $M,j72.sy((  :  of  all  farm  productions,  including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $S7,'177,it7-l ;  animals 
slaughtered  and  sold  for  slaughter,  $21, 121. Stil  ;  of  home 
manufactures,  $l,ns3,072  (deeidoilly  an  under-estimate,  as 
few  Slates  have  manufactured  so  largely  at  homo  jeans, 
linsey-woolsey,  bagging,  and  other  artielep  used  largely  on 
the  farms,  as  Kentucky);  forest  products.  $."»7l.ll'.M  ; 
market-garden  proilucts,  S,')27,:VJ0:  orcharil  products, 
$l,2;!I,.tH,'i;  wages  paid  to  farm-hands,  including  board, 
$10,70y..'iS2.  A  more  particular  statement  of  the  principal 
crops  and  the  amount  of  each  was  as  follows  :  wheal, 
(i,72S,701  bushels;  rye.  l.lOH,li;t:t ;  Indian  enrn.  .'iH.llltl.nor. ; 
oits,  (J,ll20.10.t;  barley.  2;JS,.|Hit  ;  buckwheat,  ;:ii;t:  cotton. 
lO.SU  bales;  llax,  2.17,2tJH  pounds;  hemp,  7777  tons;  silU- 
oocoons,  15  pounds  :  wool,  2, 2m,  lid)  pounds  ;  hay,  20l,:ilMt 
tons;  hops.  017  pounds;  tobacco,  10;(.:tO.S.S(»0  pounds; 
maple-augnr.  2»"''.'.11(1  pounds;  niaple-molasso"'.  ■l!'.07:t  gal- 
lons; sorghum-molasses,  1.7-10.153  gallons;  common  ]>ota- 


toes,  2,.^91,6r)2  bushels:  sweet  potatoes,  802.114;  peas  anc 
beans,  119,i)20;  beeswax,  o2,567  pounds;  honey,  1,171,500; 
domcstio  wine,  62,360  gallons;  cloTer-sced,  2551  bushels; 


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flax-tccd,  14,667;  grass-seod.  35,80(1.  Dairy  products: 
buttor.  1I,S7 1,978  pounds;  chofse,  Il,'i,21'.l;  milk  sold, 
l,;tl.'>,77y  j^alliii)!!.  Of  soino  of  thcgi*  crops  wo  luive  later 
iitn(it«ticii  from  tlic  usually  accurate  estiiiuLlcs  of  tlic  a;;ri- 
ciilttiral  dcpartmont.  If  llic-flc  err  at  nil.  it  i.t  almost  inva- 
riably in  till'  way  of  iindcr-cstimatc.  Tho  folio  wing  arc  tho 
linuris  for  the  vcar  IS7:!:  Indian  corn,  jS,.|.')l,mill  bushels, 
valued  nl  !i:'.i.'71.S.I  10:  wheat.  7.22.').nnil  bushels,  worth 
$S.7IL'.20II:  rvc.  1.1117. UOO  bushels,  worth  $S.'.2.:;'.ill :  oats. 


1528 


KENTUCKY. 


7,037,000  bushels,  worth  $2,633,320;  barley,  21S.000 
bushels,  worth  $213,000:  buckwheat.  3600  bushels,  wurlh 
$.3096;  common  jjotatoes,  1,737,000  bushels,  worth 
$1,076,910;  tobacco,  152,000,000  pounas.  worth  $10.94-1.000; 
hay,  337.000  ton^  worth  $1,392,706.  The  laad  under  culli- 
vation  that  year  in  these  crops  was  reported  at  3.732.0  12 
acres.  In  1870  the  value  of  the  entire  live-stock  of  the 
State  was  reported  as  $66,287,343,  and  the  numbers  were — 
317,034  horses,  99,230  mules  and  asses.  247,615  milch  cows, 
69,719  working  oxen,  3S2.993  other  cattle,  936,7fi.i  sheep, 
and  1,838.227  swino.  The  report  of  the  agricultural  de- 
partment for  Jan.,  1S74,  estimates  the  number  of  horses  at 
343,900,  of  mules  and  asses  at  83,600,  of  oxen  and  other 
cattle  at  380.400,  of  milch  cows  at  229,400,  of  sheep  at 
8118.100,  of  swine  at  2,008,000,  and  the  aggregate  value 
of  the  live-stock  of  the  State  at  $50,950,792.  We  are  in- 
clined to  believe  that  these  are  under-estimatcs,  both  as  to 
number  and  value.  A  shrinkage  in  values  of  nearly 
$in.000,0ll0  is  hardly  probable. 

Mnnii/aclKreH. — The  latest  published  statistics  of  manu- 
factures in  Kentucky  are  those  of  the  census  of  1S70.  The 
comparatively  slow  development  of  manufacturing  indus- 
try in  the  State  makes  this  a  matter  of  less  moment  than 
in  the  newer  States,  where  the  changes  of  a  single  year  are 
marvellous.  During  the  decade  from  1850  to  1S60  the  in- 
crease of  manufactures  was  rather  from  the  increase  in  the 
price  of  the  articles  manufactured  than  from  any  addition 
to  the  number  of  establishments  or  emp!oy6s.  From  I860 
to  1870  there  was  no  more  advance,  especially  after  the 
war,  but  with  the  best  and  most  permanent  water-powers 
in  the  world,  and  an  abundance  of  coal  to  generate  steam, 
Kentucky  is  far  behind  many  of  the  other  States  in  the 
extent  and  variety  of  her  manufactures.  The  discoveries 
of  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum  in  such  extensive  deposits  may 
stimulate  her  citizens  to  greater  activity.  The  manufac- 
turing statistics  of  the  State  in  1870  were — numl)er  of  es- 
tablishment?, 5390,  for  which  the  motive-power  was — 
steam-engine?,  1147.  with  31,928  horse-power;  and  459 
water-wheels,  with  7640  horse-power.  These  establish- 
ments in  1870  employed  30,636  persons,  of  whom  27,687 
were  men,  1159  women,  and  1790  children  and  youth:  the 
estimated  capital  of  these  establishments  was  $29,277,809  ; 
the  wages  paid,  $9,444,524;  the  raw  material  used, 
$29,497,535;  and  the  annual  product,  $54,625,809.  The 
greatest  of  these  manufacturing  interests  in  the  State  is 
the  produetion  of  iron  and  iron  goods,  including  pig  iron, 
forged  and  rolled,  castings  of  all  sorts,  and  stoves,  heaters, 
and  hollow-ware.  In  57  establishments  there  were  pro- 
duced in  1870  iron  and  articles  of  iron  to  the  value  of 
$7,869,053;  malt  and  distilled  liquors  come  next,  176 
distilleries  and  breweries,  producing  liquors  valued  at 
$5,222,089;  flouring-mil!  products,  in  190  mills,  are  made 
to  the  extent  of  $5,093,213;  lumber  planed  and  sawed  is 
produced  in  278  mills  to  the  extent  of  $3,748,809  ;  tobacco, 
as  chewing,  smoking.  snufT,  and  cigars,  in  102  establish- 
ments to  the  extent  of  $2,097,005;  bagging  in  11  factories 
to  the  amount  of  $1,752,120;  leather,  tanned  and  curried, 
in  182  tanneries  to  the  amount  of  $1,693,574;  furniture  in 
90  cabinet-shops  to  the  amount  of  $1,463,977  ;  wool-card- 
ing and  cloth-dressing,  and  woollen  goods  in  125  estab- 
lishments to  the  amount  of  $1,312,458:  machinery  of  all 
kinds  in  28  establishments  to  the  value  of  $1,453,426;  ag- 
ricultural implements  in  44  factories  to  the  amount  of 
$1,381,917;  carriages  and  wagons  in  325  establishments  to 
the  extent  of  $1,339,909  ;  clothing  in  167  establishments  to 
the  amount  of  $1,181,158  ;  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware 
in  127  shops  to  the  extent  of  $1,051,026;  sad.llery  and 
harness  in  212  shops  to  the  amount  of  $1,013,852  :  printing 
and  publishing  in  31  offices  to  the  amount  of  $842,210. 
The  other  more  important  manufactures  were — bookbind- 
ing, boots  and  shoos,  bread  and  other  bakery  products, 
brick,  bridge-building,  cement,  confectionery,  cooperage, 
cotton  goods,  glassware,  monuments  and  tombstones,  paints, 
lead,  and  zinc,  and  sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  Of  these  only 
boots  and  shoes  and  bridge-building  exceeded  in  the  ag- 
gregate $500,000. 

Minuiff. — The  census  returns  for  1870  in  regard  to  the 
mining  interests  of  Kentucky  are  singularly  imperfect. 
Only  35  mines  are  reported,  employing  925  persons,  with  a 
capital  of  $761,450.  j)aying  $312,486  wages,  using  $31,083 
of  raw  material,  and  producing  ores,  coal,  etc.  to  the  value 
of  $509,245.  It  is  hardly  beyond  the  truth  to  say  that 
si2g!o  irines  produce  a  larger  amount  than  this.  "The 
coal  resources  of  Kentucky,"  says  Prof.  Shalor.  "are  only 
exceeded  by  those  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  quantity  of 
ifrtn  or«  is  probably  not  exceeded  by  any  American  State. 
The  coal  r.nd  iron  products  of  the  State  already  reach  sev- 
eral millions  in  value,  and  are  destined  to  have  a  great  and 
rapid  development." 

lidih-nntU. — Having  ft  larger  amount  of  water-communi- 
cation in  its  navigable  streams  through  almost  every  part 


of  its  territory  than  almost  any  other  interior  State  (esti- 
mated by  Prof.  Shaler  at  over  4000  miles),  and  provided 
with  magnificent  macadamized  roads  to  most  of  ita  larger 
towns,  Kentucky  has  not  until  recently  felt  the  necessity 
for  railroad  extension  to  the  same  extent  as  most  of  the 
adjacent  States.  In  1841  there  were  but  28  miles  of  rail- 
road in  the  State,  and  there  was  no  increase  till  after  1818  ; 
in  1851  there  were  94  miles;  in  1860,510:  in  1862,567; 
in  1872,  1123;  and  in  Jan.,  1875,  1519  miles  in  opera- 
tion, the  cost  of  the  roads,  with  the  equipment,  being 
$62,728,511.  The  principal  roads,  beginning  on  the  east- 
ern border  of  the  State,  are — the  Lexington  and  liig 
Sandy,  beginning  at  Catlettshurg,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Big  Sandy,  where  it  connects  by  u  bridge  with  the  Chesa- 
peake ami  Ohin  from  Huntington,  and  extending  to  Lex- 
ington, 1 18  miles  (about  73  miles  of  this  are  now  completed, 
and  the  whole  will  he  in  running  order  during  the  present 
year);  the  Eastern  Kentueky,  Kiverton  to  (Jrayson,  with 
two  branches  to  coal-mines,  in  all  28  miles;  the  Elizabeth- 
town  and  Paducah.  185  miles  (this  is  to  be  continued  from 
Elizabethtown  to  Lexington,  to  connect  with  the  Lexington 
au'l  Big  Sandy) :  the  Kentucky  Central,  with  branches.  123 
miles:  the  Louisville  Cincinnati  aud  Lexington,  with  iho 
Cincinnati  branch,  in  all  189  miles;  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  in  all  436  miles ;  the  Paducah  and  jMcmjihis,  165 
miles  (of  which  about  53  miles  are  in  the  State) ;  the  Evans* 
ville  Henderson  and  Nashville.  98  railcs  in  the  State  to 
Guthrie;  the  Madisonville  and  Shawneetown  R.  B.,  about 
55  miles;  and  several  short  railroads  connecting  with 
Southern  or  South-western  lines. 

Flunnrfs. — The  assessed  valuation  of  the  State  in  1S70 
was  $409,544,244,  of  which  $311,479,694  was  of  real  estate 
and  $98,004,600  was  of  personal  jirojierty.  The  true  valua- 
tion that  year  was  estimated  to  be  $604,318,552.  The  total 
taxation  of  that  year,  not  national,  was  $5,730,118,  of 
which  $2,254,413"  was  State,  $1,307,833  county,  and 
$2,167,372  town,  city,  etc.  The  State  indebtedness  w.is 
$3,076,480,  for  which  bonds  had  been  issued,  and  $sin.liOO 
floating  debt.  Four  years  of  prosperity  have  increased 
materially  the  valuation  of  the  State  and  diminished  both 
its  debt  and  its  taxation.  On  Oct.  10,  1871,  the  entire  debt 
was  but  $2,720,710,  of  which  $1,652,317  was  of  bonds  issued 
to  the  board  of  education,  andnotncgotiiible.  and  $1,068,394 
negotiable.  On  Oct.  10,  1872,  this  debt  had  been  reduced 
to  $766,394,  but  $200,000  in  bonds  had  been  authorized  to 
meet  a  floating  debt ;  the  negotiable  debt  of  the  State 
therefore  stood  at  $966,394;  the  sinking  fund  at  the  same 
time  amounted  to  $1,691,991,  or  more  than  $700,000  more 
than  the  negotiable  debt.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  Oct., 
1873,  the  receipts  from  taxes  were  $1,024,460,  and  the  ex- 
penditures $1,476,469,  including  some  payments  on  the 
State  debt  which  were  ordered  paid  from  the  sinking  fund. 
The  State  bonds  are  5  and  6  per  cent,  bonds,  aud  have  com- 
manded a  ready  sale  at  good  prices. 

Commerce. — Kentucky   has  a  small   amount   of   foreign 
commerce,  Louisville,  its  chief  city,  being  a  port  of  entry, 
and  exporting  and  importing  directly  to  some  extent ;  but 
its  interior  commerce  is  of  great  magnitude,  variety,  and 
inijiortancc.     Its  numerous  navigable  rivers,  as  well  as  its 
railroads  aud  its  macadamized  roads,  enable  the  State  to 
send  its  products  to  market  with  great  facility,  and  the  im- 
I'orts  rival  the  exports  in  quantity  and  value.     The  prin- 
eipal    articles   shipped   are:   tobacco,  whisky,   salt,   beef, 
pork,   bacon,  flax.  hemp,   and  cotton-baling  stufls.  ropes 
'   and  cordage,  flour,  ale  and  beer,  iron,  as  pig  iron  and  in 
j  eastings  of  all  kinds,  etc.     Horses,  mules,  and  cattle  are 
I  sent  eastward  in  great  numbers,  the  State  maintaining  the 
I  highest  reputation  for  its  horses  botli  for  racing  and  trot- 
I   ting  purposes,  and  for  service  as  carriage  and  family  horses, 
its  nuiies  being  of  greater  size  and  belter  quality  than  those 
I  of  the  other  States,  and  its  cattle  being  of  the  best  breeds 
and  in  the  best  condition  from  the  excellence  of  its  pas- 
turage.    There  are  no  statistics  accessible  which  give  the 
I  amount  of  this  internal  commerce  at  a  later  date  fhnn  that 
,  of  the  census  of  1870.   and    these   only   incidentally,   but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  annually  reaches   at  least 
$400,000,000. 

/{(titka. — There  were  Nov.  1.  1874.  47  national  banks,  1 
of  which  was  closing;  the  46  in   operation  had  n  capital 
of  $10,018,900  paid   in,  $9,381,850   of  bonds  on   deposit, 
■  $10,264,670   circulation   issued,    of   which  $1,299,069    had 
I   been  redeemed,  and  $8,335,601  of  circulation  still  outstund- 
I  ing.    At  the  same  date  there  were  45  State  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  an  aggregate  capital  of  about  $12,000,000;  .3 
j   savings  banks,  having  a  capital  of  $450,000;  amount  of 
deposits  not  stated  :  and  38  private  banking-houses,  many 
of  them  with  very  large  capital.     There  were  Jan.  1,  1875, 
'    12  tire  and  marine  insurance  companies  in  the  State,  2  of 

ithem  mutual,  and  the  remainder  having  an  aggregate  cap- 
ital of  $1,384,000,  and  assets  of  the  whole  (in  4  e:ises  in- 
eluding  notes)  of  $1,889,036.53  j  liabilities  aside  from  cap- 


KENTUCKY. 


1529 


its]  and  net  eurplus,  $3-J3.774.88 :  amount  of  insurance 
written  during  the  yenr.  $47.-l25.263 ;  premiums  rccoivcj 
during  tho  vtar.  >^17i, jfis  ;  losses  paid  during  tlic  year, 
$244,738.  Al  tliut  time  lliore  was  but  1  life  iusiiruncc  com-  | 
pany  in  the  Siale.  tlie  Southern  Mutual  Life  at  Louisville, 
organized  in  l-<f>i;,  with  $inn,UOO  eapilal,  $752,005  assets,  I 
$629,031    liabilities,  $261,663   income,   and  $201,678   ex-  > 


pcuditurcs;  2166  policies  for  the    aggregate   amount   of 
S5,S20,!I2:!  in  force  at  that  date. 

Pnifii/titinu. — Wc  have  endeavored  to  throw  into  taliulnr 
form  as  many  facts  in  regard  to  the  population  of  Ken- 
tucky, past  and  present,  as  ]iossib)e.  The  earlier  censuses 
are  very  defective  in  regard  to  the  sex  and  ages  of  (he  col- 
ored population,  whether  free  or  slave,  jet  tho  annexed 


jear. 

WUtM. 

rrto 
eolorad. 

114 

Slana. 

1790 

ei.ix! 

12,430 

18IW 

179,S7.t 

739 

40,:i43 

1«10 

324.2:17 

1,713 

SO,.^! 

1S20 

434,r>44 

2,759 

126,7.32 

1<10 

517,787 

4.917 

16.1.213 

ISIO 

.WO.2.53 

7,317 

l,S2.2i8 

lH.->0 

7Gl,4l:l 

10.011 

210,9S1  1 

IfUM 

9I9.4S4 

in,R84 

2-2.'i.4,K3 

1870 

1,09S,692 

222,210 

none. 

73,677 
220,9.'..-. 
406,.'.ll 
.■■.64.1:1". 
687.917 
7T9,S:;s 
9*2,40.-. 
l.l.-..-.,6s4  , 
l,;i2I.Ull,| 


,211 

,9.56 

l.SO.'i 

192 

.084 
,()8S 

7:i(i 
;i2i 


6(i.-..ii; 


•28,922 
♦8.1,91.5 
•l.'>.'i,4:i2 
27.'),12.5 
33.'j,8:i3 
379,740  . 
479.67.-.  949.6.'>2 
563.3(i:!  I,09.i,sa-. 
G.55,33(i    1,2.57,613 


Foreign. 


31,420 
59,799 
63,:i98 


or  school 

Kgc, 

610  18. 


204,.571 
2:)2,570 
302,899 
t280,466 
4.54,.539 


or  11.111. 
tnr;  age, 

IS  to  a. 


•131,211 
2:i9,+S3 


or  «otiDs 

orer  21. 


*119,243 

«I7G,974 

•191,391 

289,471 


Cannot 
md  or 
write. 


•40,018 

•69,706 
•70,040 
.332,176 


table  will  be  found  to  contain  some  interesting  statistics  not 
hcrclofuro  tabulateil.  Tho  density  of  the  population  to  the 
square  mile  in  1S50  was  26.07:  in  ls60.  :f0.y4  :  in  1S70, 
35.33.  The  number  of  families  iu  1870  was  2.'i2,797,  or  5.67 
to  a  family  :  tho  number  of  dwellings,  224,'.tli9,  or  5.87  per- 
sons to  a  dwelling.  In  IS70  the  number  of  white  males  of 
all  age.^  was  557,:J26,  of  white  females,  541,366  :  of  colored 
males,  10.8.304,  of  colored  females,  113,906  ;  of  Indian  males, 
44,  of  Indian  females,  61 :  tho  number  of  native  males  was 
631,020,  of  native  females,  626.593  ;  of  males  of  foreign  birth, 
34,fJ55,  of  females  of  foreign  birth,  2.8,743.  The  number  of 
males  of  school  ago  was  230,491,  of  females  of  school  age, 
224,048.  Tho  number  of  male  citizens  (i'.  e.  voters)  was 
282,305. 

Etiiirftt'ton. — Tho  interests  of  higher  education  were  sub- 
jects of  thought  and  action  very  early  iu  the  history  of  the 
SLite.  Transylvania  University  at  Le.\ingti.n  {now  merged 
in  th.i  Kentucky  University)  was  organized  and  chartered 
in  1798,  and  other  collegiate  schools  not  lung  after;  but 
very  little  attention  was  paid  to  free  or  popular  education. 
Academics  and  private  schools  were  established  ail  over 
the  .<larp,  and  to  these  the  sons  and  tlaughfers  of  wealthy 
planters  and  manufacturers  were  sent,  while  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  children  of  the  poorer  elassi-s  were  entirely 
without  instructir.n.  There  was  no  provision  for  common 
schools  until  1S2I,  when  one-half  of  tho  clear  revenue  of 
the  Hank  of  the  Commonwealth  was  set  apart  for  a  school 
fund :  and  no  system  of  puidic  schools  was  established 
until  1838,  though  a  bill  fur  that  purpose  was  passed  in 
1830.  Under  tho  organization  of  1838  there  was  a  board 
of  education  and  a  superintendent  of  jiublic  instruction 
appointed.  Under  this  law  each  county  could  at  its  option 
vote  to  organize  public  schools  within  its  own  territory, 
and  then  avail  itself  of  the  aid  of  the  school  fund,  which  at 
this  time  amounted  to  a  considerable  sum.  In  a  number 
of  counties  no  organization  t(»ok  place,  owing,  it  was  said, 
to  tho  impossibility  of  linding  in  tho  county  three  men 
who  possessed  the  educational  and  other  qualifications  re- 
nuired  for  school  commissioners.  In  180 1  ])rovisiun  was 
made  by  llio  legislature  fur  the  erlucatiun  (.f  l.'tO  teatdicrs 
in  the  Slate  I'niversity  at  Lexington.  In  1870  a  bill  was 
i>nssed  for  tho  reorganization  of  the  school  system,  and  in 
iho  winter  of  1872-73  it  was  completely  reorganized.     Its 


chief  executive  officer  is  now  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  elected  for  four  years,  and  having  a  salary  of 
$.3000  besides  clerk  hire.  The  l.uard  of  education,  who 
constitute  his  cabinet,  consisls  of  the  superintendent,  the 
attorney-general,  the  secretary  of  state,  and  two  profes- 
sional educators:  the  State  board  of  examiners  consists  of 
tile  superintendent  and  two  practical  cducitors  selected  by 
him.  There  is  also  a  county  cuminissioner  for  each  county, 
elected  by  the  presiding  county  judges  and  the  justices  of 
the  peace  for  two  years,  and  a  county  board  of  examiners, 
consisting  of  the  county  commissioner  and  two  well-edu- 
cated and  competent  persons  to  sit  with  him,  who  arc  ap- 
pointed by  him.  The  sclo.ol  fund  consists  of  the  interest 
at  5  per  cent,  on  $1,327,000,  a  non-negotiable  bond  of  the 
State,  the  dividends  on  735  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  Hank 
of  Kentucky,  taxes  on  some  other  banks,  and  whatever 
distinct  tax  the  people  of  the  respective  school  districts 
may  vote  to  impose  up'-n  tliemselves.  Teachers*  institutes 
arc  required  to  be  held  annually  in  July  and  August  in 
each  county  by  tlie  county  cuipinissioncrs.  The  legal 
school  year  is  five  months  of  22  days  each;  the  scholastic 
age  in  tho  Stale  is  from  6  to  20  years.  Provision  was 
made  by  the  legislature  of  1S71  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  colorcil  children,  but  on  a  basis  so  narrow  and 
restrictive  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  be  enforced 
very  generally.  The  number  of  children  of  school  age 
reported  at  the  close  of  1873  was  416,71.3,  the  number  of 
schools  was  5521,  tho  number  of  teachers  about  600(1,  tho 
expenditure,  asiile  from  the  interest  on  county  school- 
bonds,  was  $977,425.82.  The  interest  in  public  school  edu- 
cation in  tho  State  is  evidently  increasing.  There  were  but 
24  academics  and  high  seliuuls  which  reported  to  tho 
superintendent  of  jiul.lio  instrucfi<in  in  1873;  these  had 
158  instructors  and  2621  pupils.  There  are  normal  depart- 
ments in  three  ot  the  colleges  of  tho  State — licrea,  (ieorge- 
town,  and  the  Kentucky  Stale  I'liiversity — and  normal 
schools  under  private  or  assuciational  control  at  Cavlislo 
(6  teachers,  75  pupils,  3  years'  course),  Callellsburg  (6 
teachers,  50  students,  3-5  years'  course),  and  Lcxinptt.n 
(American  Missionary  Association.  280  pupils).  liesides 
these  there  are  training-schools  at  Lexington  and  Frank- 
fort. There  are  12  universities  and  colleges  iu  tho  Slate; 
tho  following  were  their  statistics  in  1873-74  : 


Nimo  or  iiolrfr  Jljr  or  collef.?. 


Ptnco  wbora  looated. 


Berca. 


Tterea  t^ollegc i 

Ileth.l  College RussellvUle  , 

reelllan  CullcKO iCccllian 

('.•ntre  CullcKe |  Danville 

Ciiilral  i:nlver»lty Richmond 

Kioiu.  nci.  Cillei.'e Kniinence 

<ii'ori;.l..wn(  "H.-KC tieort'Olown 

Kentueky  Medical  Institute...  Frankfort 

Kentucky  fnivemity Lexington 

St.  Mary's  CollcKo .St.  Mary 

WarrendalcfoUeKo I  Bowling  Green.. 

Wealeyan  Unlrer»lty iMillemhurg 


ti 

Kumlwrof 

■tuOcntj. 

3  w 

Propar- 

Colli- 

awry. 

slow. 

s 

43 

14 

0 

28 

52 

11 

100 

6 

7.5 

.54 

5 

122 

29 

8 

4S 

6C 

7 

28 

80 

6 

17 

78 

8 

134 

10 

84 

3 

62 

R2 

4 

85 

13 

Value  or 
frouaA*.  band- 
ing... and  n|.. 

|.aratuH. 


SI  15,000 

176,000 
20,000 
70,000 
16,200 
.50,0110 
80,000 
7.5,000 

100,000 
R.OOO 
15,000 


Amounl  at 
endowment. 


S9 1,000 
20,000 

180,000 


12.5,000 

"soo.tioo 


prmliiellre 
rands. 


gl,.^30 
5,400 


11,000 


12,000 


Rocelpll 
for  ln*t 
year  irr>nt 
ttll  r>lhiT 
■ourcei. 


f29,000 
3,000 

2,800 

is,ooo 

1,S70 


Vrtliiniet 
Iu  lllirury, 


1,500 
1,000 


7,000 

1,500 

S.IKIO 

3,000 

20,000 

800 

800 


There  were  11  colleges  or  seminaries  for  women,  having 
75  professors  and  instructors  ami  1013  pupils,  of  nliom  742 
were  in  tho  collegiate  and  271  in  preparatory  stu.liei.  In 
all,  music,  both  instrumental  ami  vocal,  is  taught.  These 
had  libraries  ranging  from  500  to  .3000  volumes  ;  1  had  a 
gymnasium;  5,  chemical  laburat«.rie8 ;  4,  philosophical 
cabinets;  2,  natural  history  museums;  and  1,  an  astro- 
nomical  observatory.      There    wcro    10    professional    and 

•  Whiten  onlv  enumerated. 

t  White  children  only  enumerated. 


soientiflc  sohools  in  tho  State  in  1873,  as  shown  in  tho  toblo 
of  |.rufessional  schools  on  tho  next  page. 

Liliriirim. — In  1870,  the  census  reported  5516  public  and 
private  libraries  in  the  Slate,  with  1,909.230  vulumcs.  Of 
these,  1172.  having  318,985  vulumcs.  were  public.  This 
number  included  2  State  libraries,  with  9200  volumes;  10 
tov;n  and  city,  with  13,4:16  volumes;  218  court  and  law 
libraries,  with  61,590  (apparently  an  error)  ;  18  school  and 
college  libraries,  with  20,675  vuluines  (the  colleges  named 
above  have  38,000  volumes,  ami  the  professional  schools 
25,01)0  more)j  717  Sunday  schools,  with  160,377  volumes; 


15:30 


KENTUCKY. 


207  church  libraries,  with  53,707,  and  no  hiatortcal  or  eir-  !  city  more  than  20,000,  and  Lexinjrton  and  several  other 
dilating  libraries:  while  the  Pultlie  Library  of  Kentucky  '  towns  have  circuhitinf;  libraries.     The  number  of  private 
at  Louisville  has  45,000  volumes,  the  Historical  Library  in      libraries  reported  is  4M74,  eontainin-;  L5y0,24o  volumes, 
that  city  over  10,000,  the  Mercantile  Library  of  the  same  j       Scu^ajiupera. — In  IS72,   Kentucky  had  106  newspapers, 


Name  or  prorossional  school. 


L  Theological: 

Itiblc  ("nlk'tte,  University  of  Kentucky 

Panville  Thcolo^'ical  Sfuiiiiary 

St.  Juseph's  Sfniiiiarv  and  CuIlcKe 

Theological  8flio(»l  ot"  Bothel  Collc-to 

Western  Baptisl  Theological  Institute 

U.  Law: 

Colb't^o  of  Law,  Kentucky  L'niversitv 

III.  Mi;i>hal: 

Louisville  Medical  ColIcKe 

Medical  department.  I'nivcrsity  of  Louisville 

Louisville  College  of  Pharmacy 

IV.  SCIEXTIFIC: 

AEricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Kentucky 
tJuiversity 


Lexincton...., 

Danville 

Bartlstown  ... 
Kussellville... 
Georgetown., 

Lexington.... 

Louisville 


Lex,in  prion., 


"c  o 

Sludeou. 

Tilue 

of 

grounds 

and 

buildings. 

Amount 

of 
prcHluc- 

tive 
fiinds. 

Income 
from 

produc- 
tire 

funds. 

Receipts 

for  last 
yi-ar  front 
all  other 
sources. 

Is 

11 

It 

Volumes 

In 
UUrarj. 

4 

4 
8 
I 
2 

88 

14 

22 

824.000 
20,000 

SI.<?0,00ft 
1,800 

SI1,.500 

ii'.m 

8,000 

48,000 

8,000 

R 

?() 

3,000 

4,000 
100 

12 
15 

217 

253 

25 

2o'o,o6o 

1,500 

""si) 

15,000 

7oa 

3 

1,000 

11 

G7 

ISl 

27^,000 

105,000 

9,900 

7,089 

•20,000 

an  increase  of  Ifi  since  1S70.  Of  these,  10  wera  dailies, 
having  an  aggregate  circulation  of  over  40,000,'  2  tri- 
wecldy,  circulation  about  oOOO  ;  o  scmi-wockly,  circulation 
ahout  ■l.'iOU:  7i'.  wceltly,  circulation  about  140,000 ;  12 
montlily,  circulation  about  ^13,000.  Ily  far  the  grcaterpart 
were  political,  at  least  four-fifths,  but  S  were  religious, 
having  a  circulation  of  over  25,000,  and  3  professional,  with 
a  circulation  of  over  8000. 


Chitrchcs. — According  to  the  census  of  1S70,  there  were 
at  that  time  in  the  State  29()9  churches  or  congregations 
of  all  denotniuations,  2000  church  edifices,  87H,0;19  sittings, 
and  $9,S24,40.^^  of  churcli  property.  The  following  table 
gives  the  statistics  of  tho  principal  denominations,  accord- 
ing to  the  censu.s,  and  also  later  statistics,  generally  of  1874, 
where  attainable,  showing  in  this  short  time  a  great  in- 
crease over  tho  previous  numbers  : 


Denominatjons. 


Baptists 

Disciples  and  Christiansf 

<'onKre>;alioiKtli>ts 

Pioti'.slant  Kpisiofial  Church 

livanyclical  Association 

.Tewish  synagogues 

Lutherans 

Methodist  (Th.  South,  mostly^... 
Presby'u  (Gen.  Asseinblv)) 

"  "      "  .Sjuth  / 

Presbyterian,  other 

Itnnian  fatholics 

.shakers 

I  Unitarian 

('nivrrsalist 

Union  churches 


1004 
490 


978    818 


Sittings. 


288,936 
141,585 


15,800 
3,000 
1,500 
1,C50 
244,918 

97,150 

3,000 
72,.')50 

1,090 
700 
400 

4,G.50 


Value  of  church 

properly 


$2,023,975 
1,046,075 

"570,'3M 

1.10,000 

IW.OOO 

10,000 

1,854,505 

1,275,400 

17,090 
2,604,900 
23,000 
75,000 
5,530 

28,7.-;o 


ki  . 

"SS 

5 

^°.3 

■^  w 

Ministers. 

IS? 

g.,. 

t) 

1367 

12R5 

723 

545 

.';02 

313 

5 

5 

9 

39 

37 

41 

8 

7 

G 

4 

4 

4 

10 

8 

5 

1037 

898 

1132 

327 

301 

231 

203 

148 

155 

2 

2 

8 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

S 

23 

20 

21 

Statistics  of  ls;4. 


communicants. 


147.031 

51,372 

359 

3,927 

1.090 

800 

1,098 

120,303 

27,188 


500 

250 

175 

2,.500 


Adherent 
populaUou. 


588.124 
20.1,000 
1,854 
17.000 
5.000 
2.4(10 
6,000 
480,000 

116,000 


135,000 

1,000 

1,200 

800 

10,000 


S.S.tenehers 
and 
7?       scliulars. 


13,000 

29,700 

487 

3.814 

1,200 


27,350 


Charitable  Titntitutione. — There  is  an  institution  for  deaf 
mutes  at  Danville,  Ky.,  organized  in  182."',  being  one  of  tho 
earlier  institutions,  the  fourth  organized  in  this  country. 
In  l.*^73  it  had  5  instructors,  87  pupils  (4S  males.  39  fe- 
males); the  value  of  its  buildings  and  grounds  was  $100,000, 
iind  its  annual  expenditure  820,312,  of  which  nearly 
$18,000  was  appropriated  by  the  ,'^tate,  There  is  an  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  the  Mind  at  Louisville,  founded 
in  1812,  having  19  instructors  and  other  emitloyt's,  59  pu- 
pils, property  valued  at  $90,000,  and  receiving  from  the 
State  annually  810,000,  which  covers  its  expenditures. 
There  are  3  orphan  asylums,  all  at  Louisville,  liaving  in 
all  13  teachers,  1  j2  children,  and  expending  annually  about 
Slj,0OO.  Of  7  other  orphan  asylums  in  tlio  State  tlicre  is 
no  recent  report.  There  is  an  institution  at  Frankfort  for 
feeble-minded  children,  but  we  have  been  unable  to  obtain 
any  recent  report  of  its  condition.  The  house  of  refuge  at 
Louisville  is  a  municipal  not  a  State  institution;  it  has  IG 
teachers,  174  inmates  (150  boys  and  24  girls),  its  annual 
cost  is  about  $20,000,  and  the  inmates  earn  about  $j000  per 
annum.  There  are  two  insane  hospitals  in  the  State — 
the  Western,  at  llopkiusville,  and  the  Eastern,  at  Lexing-  I 
ton — both  well  managed.  The  Kentucky  jienitcntiary  is  at  I 
Frankfurt.  It  has  room  for  about  (100  prisoners.  It  has  not  j 
the  reputation  of  being  a  model  institution.  The  penal  in-  i 
stitutionsof  the  State  generally  are  susce]itible  of  very  great 
improvement.  In  1870  there  were  603  pcrson.s  convicted 
of  crimes  which  are  punishable  by  death  or  imprisonment 
in  the  State  penitentiary,  and  10(')7  in  prison  charged  with 
euch  crimes  and  awaiting  trial.  Of  these,  968  were  of  na- 
tive birth  and  99  of  foreign. 

ConHtttHtioHf  Onreninient,  Iteprcaetilntion  in  Congrettf  etc, 

*  Tlic  ITnlverslty  T,lbrnry. 

t  There  are  no  data  for  inakinc  a  correct  statement  of  the 
numbers  of  lhe«e  two  denomin.ttioiis  in  tlie  .stntf ;  the  "Dis- 
ciples" are  by  far  the  most  uuiuerous.  hut  Ix»tb  denominations 
have  been  very  negligent  in  collectlog  their  stati<tica.  j 


— Tho  present  constitution  of  the  State  was  adopted  in 
1850.  The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  auditor,  attor- 
ney-general, and  superintendent  of  public  instruction  arc 
elected  by  the  ]>eople  for  the  term  of  four  years.  The  gov- 
ernor is  ineligible  for  the  four  years  succeeding  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term.  If  a  vacaney  in  the  office  of  governor 
occur  during  the  first  two  years  of  the  term,  it  is  filled  by 
a  new  election  :  if  during  the  last  two  years,  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  after  him  the  Speaker  of  the  senate,  acts  as 
governor.  The  treasurer  is  elected  by  the  people  every 
two  years.  Tho  secretary  of  state  is  appointed  by  tho 
governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  ^and  consent  of  the  sen- 
ate. Senators,  38  in  number,  arc  elected  from  single  dis- 
tricts for  four  years,  one-half  every  two  years,  liepresent- 
ntives,  100  in  number,  are  elected  from  single  districts  for 
two  years.  Sessions  of  the  assembly  are  biennial,  and  can- 
not continue  longer  than  00  days  without  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  all  the  members  elected  to  each  branch.  The  members 
are  jiaid  $4  a  day  and  15  cents  a  mile  for  travel.  Lvery 
male  citizen  who  has  resided  two  years  in  the  State,  ono 
year  in  the  county,  and  sixty  days  in  the  precinct  in  which 
his  vote  is  ofl'creil,  is  entitled  to  vote.  The  court  of  appeals 
is  tho  supreme  court  of  the  State,  and  has  appellate  juris- 
diction over  tho  final  orders  and  judgments  of  all  other 
courts  of  the  State  in  civil  cases,  except  where  the  amount 
in  controversy  is  less  than  $50,  or  in  eases  of  judgment 
granting  divorce,  or  on  a  judgment  of  an  inferior  court 
from  which  an  appeal  is  given  to  the  quarterly  or  circuit 
court.  It  has  appellate  jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases  where 
the  fine  is  $50  or  more.  The  circuit  courts  have  original 
jurisdiction  in  civil  cases  where  the  amount  in  controversy 
is  S50  and  upwards,  except  where  exclusive  jurisdiction  is 
given  to  other  courts;  appellate  jurisdiction  in  certain 
cases  specified;  and  criminal  jurisiliction  for  the  trial  of 
all  offences  which  may  he  prosecuted  by  indictment,  and 
all  prosecutions  and  final  actions  except  where  exclusive 
jurisdiction  is  given  to  other  courts.    There  ore  also  county 


KEXTICKY. 


1531 


courts  and  justices*  courts.  All  judges  are  justices  of  the 
peace.  Judges  of  the  court  of  ajipeals  arc  elected  by  dis- 
tricts for  a  term  of  eight  years,  one  every  Sfcond  year,  and 
the  judge  having  the  shortest  term  to  serve  is  chief-justice. 
The  circuit  court  judges  are  elected  by  districts  for  six 
years,  and  justices  of  the  peace  for  four  years.  Under  the 
apportionment  of  1S72,  Kentucky  is  entitled  to  10  llepre- 
sentatives  in  Congress. 

Coiiutirn. — Kentucky  is  divided  into  110  counties.  The 
following  was  their  population,  divided  into  white  and  col- 
ored, iu  1S70,  population  in  ISOO,  and  valuation  in  1S70  : 


CoaDtie«. 

ItiTO. 

Whiles, 
1870. 

Cotftred, 
1870. 

Pop., 

lew. 

T.IUAtlOD, 
1870. 

Adair 

Allen 

11,065 

10,296 

5,449 

12,576 

17,780 

10,14.5 

10,698 

14,863 

8,573 

9,51.5 

11,409 

i>,672 

1.3,440 

7,781 

9,404 

10,826 

9,410 

27,408 

6,189 

7,.509 

8,81*4 

23,227 

10,882 

8,297 

6,497 

9,381 

7,690 

20,714 

4,439 

4,4:il 

9,198 

26,6.56 

13,398 

7,877 

15,300 

6,161 

5,074 

10.376 

9,529 

19,398 

11, .580 

9,379 

11,463 

6,.591 

15,705 

4,415 

12.993 

13,r,j(7 

18,457 

11.066 

8,4.53 

13,827 

4,547 

118,9,53 

8,638 

7,494 

3,731 

36,096 

8.294 

8,235 

6,016 

8,497 

3,0,55 

4,608 

9,113 

10,947 

8,200 

20,129 

6,2.33 

19,543 

4,681 

12,s:w 

9,4.5.5 

ni.w 

1.8,126 

13,988 

7,614 

9,48S 

1.986 

13.144 

7,9;m 

9,231 
7,.5.57 
8,975 
12,6:i8 
M,804 

o.ira 

I.5,.56I 
9,027 

14.:t09 
3.889 

ll.OW 
4,274 

9,229 
9,192 
4,7.51 

11.099 

14,137 
8,443 
9,684 
8,186 
8,282 
5,83o 

10,773 
5,491 

11,738 
6.587 
8,761 
8,748 
8,598 

27,123 
5,649 
7,409 
8,310 

13,415 
7,167 
7,802 
6,205 
8,572 
6,181 

17,111 
4,2*1 
4,411 
8,.599 

14,142 

11,842 
7,706 

10,637 
5,224 
4,474 
6,972 
9,020 

17,069 

11,173 
7,442 

11,002 
5,861 

13,429 
4,3IM 

10,015 

11.493 

12,467 
8,628 
6,818 

11,938 
4,496 

99,806 
5,199 
7,373 
3,620 

»l,4:i9 
7,737 
7,270 
5,872 
8,376 
2,924 
4,479 
8,887 
7,871 
7,147 

14,706 
4,814 

13,271 
4,,505 
9,493 
9,070 
county 

14,.544 

10,099 
6,800 
8,191 
1,970 
9,8:H 
7,073 
8,H2 
4,8.58 
5,931 

11.1195 

10,886 
7,88.5 

14,168 
6,217 

13,l;« 
3,812 

13,;«i9 
4,173 

1,830 
1,101 

698 
1,477 
3,623 
2,702 
1.012 
6,677 

291 
3,679 

636 

181 
1.682 
1,194 

643 
2,078 

812 

2.S2 

640 

100 

544 
9,812 
3,715 

495 

292 

809 
1,609 
3,603 

226 
22 

599 
12,513 
1,6.56 

171 
4,663 

937 

600 
3,404 

509    i 
2,329 

407 
1,937 

461 

729 

2,276 

99 

2,378 

2,192 

5,990 

2,438 

1,6.33 

1,869 

SI 

19,146 

3,439 

87 

111 
1,657 

657 

965 

144 

121 

131 

129 

228 
3,076 
1,0.'.2 
8,723 
1,419 
6,272 

179 

3,:m3 

385 

3,582 

3,289 

814 

1,294 

16 

3,310 

861 

789 

2,699 

44 

1,633 

3,918 

1,244 

1,393 

2,810 

1,176 

76 

641 

96 

9,509 
9,187 
7,404 
8,692 
16,065 
12,113 
11,196 
14,860 
6,044 
9,.304 
11,021 
4,980 
1.3,236 
7,289 
7,927 
9,318 
9,915 
20,909 
6,578 
8,510 
6,466 
21,627 
11,484 
6,652 
6,781 
8.796 
7,340 
13,549 
4,643 

"6,886 
22,599 
12,489 
6,388 
12,694 
6,317 
6,056 
10,6.il  i 
8,35r. 
16,233 
7,982 
8,806 
8,760 
6,213 
15,189 
5,494 
13,779 
10,:i48 
14,262 
11,949 
7.008 
11,875 
3,087 
89,404 
9.465 
6.306 

$1,768,973 
1.818.615 

Anderson 

iBallard 

1.511,100 
2.190,.5SS 

1  Barren 

,Bath 

1  Boone 

3,333,784 

2.i;04,16H 

j    5,006,925 

11,982,749 

iBoyd 

2,239,177 

iBoyle       

4,123,535 

3,900,888 

Ilreatbitt 

489,848 

Breekenridge  ... 
Bullitt  

3,584,220 
2,419,859 

Butler 

1,566,207 

Caldwell 

2,200,472 

Calloway 

1.976,765 

8,72 1,696 

2,2117,236 

Carter 

1,53.5,0.13 

l,432,3i;l 

Christian 

6,294,945 

(*huk 

6,29l),610 

('lay  

886,808 

Clinton 

870,279 

Crittenden 

<'umberland  .... 

Daviess 

Ivlmondsuu 

Elliott 

1,769,651 

1,234,9^18 

7,823,750 

874,224 

.■K.-i.6U3 

tittill 

1.. 520,720 

14,790,437 

4,337,841 

ri«yd  

685,255 

4,923,176 

1,434,348 

'iallalln 

1,862,731 

tiarrard 

(Irant 

3,8.36,809 
2,841,682 
3,732,053 

1,606.960 

1,219,873 

2,949,187 

HancocK 

Hardin 

Harlan 

1,752.31)0 

3,72S,8S2 

405,396 

6,720,070 

Hart 

Henderson 

2,535,910 
6,434,1.82 
6,262,399 

1,788,027 

Honkins 

2,477,2'J6 

3.55.385 

76.414,971 

.Iivs^amiau 

4.049,576 
684,049 

Tosh  Hell 

2M  944 

Kenton 

Knox 

Larue 

2.5,167 
7,707 
0,891 
6,488 
7,601 

14,229,8.50 

90.5,231 

1,542,217 

864,922 

1,1.52,310 

Ue 

Letcher 

8,904 

8,361 
10,617 

7,213  1 
19,021 

6,307 
17,207  1 

3,48.'5 
12,693 

6,982 

18.222 
10,360 
6,144 
8,898 

310,.502 

2,.H9,:H0 

4,48.3,920 

LivinKHlon 

1.. 509, 182 
4,269,i:V) 

937,674 

8,177,420 

Mat(ontn 

.Marion 

Mar.Hhall 

Martin 

,5.59,8.56 
.1.22.3,991 
1,487,165 

8,171,206 

Mi'Cracken 

MeLean 

6,284.816 
1,.564,S.23 
2,16.5,648 

120  773 

13,7o{ 
0,74-. 
8,5.- 1 

7,K.v.p 

«,-.'37 
10.7.'3 
13,7'.ili 
Il.i>:!(l 
12.209 

7.2S3 
12,710 

6,3:l5  ' 
10.443  ' 

3,9.50  ! 

4,129,231 

.Metcalfe 

I,:in1,(l95 
1,217,072 

Mont^^omeiy 

Mortian 

Multlenbure 

3,:.4r.,(l27 

7IK,.267 

2,4r,2,7.57 

5,.l;ill,2IO 

Nlcholiw  

Ohio 

Oldham 

Owoii 

3,090,:1.50 
3.313.(»I6 
3.194..i52 
2,588.  i:to 

OwMcy 

617,691 

Pt'ndluton. 

P«rry 

2,S»4,:V89 
330,083 

Countlei. 

Pop., 

1870. 

White, 
1870. 

Colored, 
1870. 

rss.' 

TatuntEoD. 
1870. 

Pike 

9,.562 
2,599 
17,670 
6,399 
7,145 
2.991 
5,809 
11,607 
1.5,7.33 
9,573 
6,9.36 
8,226 
12,612 
13,086 

9,460 
2,360 
16,595 
6,142 
6,776 
2,939 
6,316 
7,651 

io,;«o 

7,406 
4,477 
0,.376 
7,7.52 
9.880 

102 

239 
1,07,5 

2.57 

369 
32 

293 
.3,9.55 
5,383 
2,107 
1,479 
1,8,50 
4,8G0 
3,806 

4,56 
2,574 
6,367 
2,110 

675 
1,3.53 

138 

28 

3,825 

7,384 
2,237 
17,201 

t910,007 
343,819 
2,258,090 
1,025,147 
1,0:«,.531 
388,688 
1,0.57.097 
6,-22,370 
8,569,998 
2,533,749 
2,693,.561 
1,4*12,094 
2,803,846 
2,498,423 
1,739,680 
3,396,183 

-.mv"'. 

3,564,004 
1,419,585 
1,578,643 

988,8.52 

381,325 

.5,981,130 

Powell 

Pulaski 

Rockcastle 

6,343 

2,282 

6,024 

14,417 

16,433 

8,146 

6,188 

7,481 

11, .575 

11,051 

5,880 

12,791 

17,320 

11,575 

10,259 

7,533 

7,762 

.Scott 

Shclbv 

Simpsou 

Taylor  

Torid 

Trimhlo 

.5,.577         5,121 
13,640       11,006 
21,742        15,375 
12,464       10,;i54 
10,6021        9,927 
10,9371        9,582 
8,278!        8,140 
3,603)       3,573 
a,240l        4,415 

Wasbingloii.. 

Webster 

Whitlev 

Wolfe 

WoodfoM 

11,219 

1,15.5,684^ 

Totals 

l,321,0Il|l,09S,692 

222,210  1 

409,544,244 

Principal  Toirns. — Louisville  is  the  chief  city  of  the 
State,  and  had  in  1870  a  population  of  100,753;  Coving- 
ton in  Kenton  co.,  opposite  Ciucinnati,  has  nearly  80,OU0 
inhabitants;  Newport,  Campbell  co..  and  Lexington,  Fay- 
ette CO.,  have  each  between  Ij.OOO  and  20,000  inhiibitaiits  ; 
Paducah,  Frankfort  (the  capital  of  the  Slate),  Maysville, 
and  Bowling  (irecn  have  from  5000  to  lO.dOO;  Henderson, 
Owensboro',  Versailles,  llopkiusville.  Paris,  ^helbyville, 
Danville,  and  narrodsI)urg  liave  less  than  5000.  lluBsell- 
ville,  llichmond,  Lebanon,  Cyutbiana,  CoUmilius.  Franklin, 
BardstowD,  and  Ellzabethtown  are  thriving  towns. 

Ilist'inj. — The  territory  now  included  in  the  State  of  Ken- 
tucky was  during  the  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  probably  for  several  hundred  years  previously,  the 
favorite  hunting-ground  and  home  of  powcrlui  and  warlike 
tribes  of  Indians,  who  had  given  it  the  name  ot'  Kentueky, 
eignifying  "the  dark  and  bloody  ground."  In  1701).  Dan- 
iel Boone,  an  enter])rising  hunter  and  pioneer,  came  tliither 
and  established  himself  where  now  is  Boonesboro'.  ^Vithin 
the  next  six  or  seven  years  other  pioneers  settled  in  the 
territory,  and  among  them  such  men  as  Knox,  Bullitt, 
Harrod,  Henderson,  Kenluu.  Calloway,  and  Logan,  all  of 
whom  idontilied  themselves  with  the  subsequent  history  of 
the  State.  Virginia  claimed  this  whole  region  as  a  j>art 
of  her  territory,  and  most  of  the  pioneer  settlers  were  from 
that  colony,  but  they  purehascd  tlieir  lands  from  tlie  In- 
dians. On  May  2?>,  1775,  the  settlers  met  at  Boonesboro', 
and  in  convention  organized  themselves  as  the  ''.Assembly 
of  Transylvania."  They  established  courts,  enrolled  a 
militia  force,  and  passed  laws  :  but  when  their  doings  camo 
to  the  knowU-dge  of  the  Virginia  legislature  they  were  pro- 
nounced null  and  void,  though  grunts  of  land  were  niado 
to  these  pioneers.  In  I77f'i  the  legislature  of  Virginia 
erected  its  territory  S.  of  the  Ohio  into  the  eounty  of  Ken- 
tucky, embracing  all  the  country  lying  between  the  Big 
Sandy  liiver  and  the  iMississinpi.  In  17H.1  thi.x  county  was 
constituted  a  district,  and  the  decisi'ins  of  its  civil  and 
criminal  e<iurts  were  declared  to  be  subject  to  appeal  to  tho 
State  courts  of  Virginia,  llarrodsburg  had  been  foun<Ied 
in  177'l,  and  Lexington  jirobably  in  the  autumn  of  1775. 
During  the  Revolutionary  war  the  number  of  settlers  rap- 
idly increased,  although,  owing  tn  the  eontiiiual  hostilities 
of  the  Indians,  they  were  nbliged  to  go  e^>n^Ialltly  iu-n»e»l, 
and  had  numerous  and  lieree  eontlicls  with  the  Clierokecs 
and  other  Indian  tribes.  On  Aug.  I'J,  17H2,  a  bloody  and 
desperate  battle  took  plaec  between  the  whites,  who  num- 
bered nnly  In2,  and  an  Indian  force  of  about  600,  near 
Blue  Liek  Springs.  Col.  Boone  was  prumineul  in  the  bat- 
tle, and  hist  a  H<tn  in  it.  The  Kentuekiana  were  finally  de- 
fcate<i  with  the  loss  of  CO  of  their  nunihor.  In  17SI  tlio 
people  of  the  district  urged  that  they  might  bo  recognized 
as  a  State  and  admitted  into  the  Union  of  Stales,  They 
held  repented  conventions  in  17S5,  ITMrt.  and  17S";  and 
tho  Virginia  legislaturi'  puf'sed  an  ordinanee  in  I7H5  grant- 
ing a  separate  organization,  but  with  conditions  which 
caused  delay  and  discontent.  In  Jan.,  1787.  the  people  in 
cunvtntion  agreed  to  form  a  State  and  adopt  a  constiiu- 
tinn.  but  there  wre  liindrMrifi-s  i<n  the  juirt  of  Virginia; 
and  intrigue"  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish  viremv  in  Louisi- 
ana and  of  emissaries  from  (*anada,  both  trying  to  draw 
away  the  district  from  its  nllegianec  to  the  Union,  kept  it 
in  turmoil,  while  tho  Indian  hostilities  and  depredations 
were  uiakini;  the  lives  of  the  settlers  wretched.  At  length, 
when  the  diifieulties  with  Virginia  seemed  about  to  he  sot- 
tied,  the  announcement  was  made  that  the  Constitution  of 
the  U.  S.  had  been  aeoeplod  and  ratified,  and  the  wholo 
oontroversy  iu  regard  to  tho  organization  of  the  district  as 


1532 


K ENTUCK  Y— K  EN  VOX. 


a  State  was  handed  over  to  the  general  government.     In 

1790  it  was  made  a  separate  Territory  of  the  U.  S.,  and  on 

Apr.  19  the  delegates  of  the  people  asaemhled  once  more 

in  convention  (the  tenth  of  these  assemblies,  wc  believe)  at 

Danville,  and  reported  a  State  constitution,  which  was  soon 

after  ratified,  and  under  which  Kentucky  was  admitted  into 

the  Union  as  a  State  on  June  1.  1792.     Its  population  was 

at  that  time  about  75,000.     For  the  ne.vt  twelve  or  fourteen 

years  the  young  State  was  often  in  an  agitated  condition. 

She  had  a  vital  interest  in  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  in  its  being  at  least  in  the  hands  of  a  friendly 

power.     The  treaty  with  Spain  in  1705,  and  its  subsequent 

violation  by  that  power,  and  the  repeated  transfers  of  the 

territory  bordering  on  the  Gulf   to  and  from   France,  its 

final  purchase  by  the  U.  S.,  the  iuterineddling  of  the  Brit- 
.  ish  government' and  the  French  minister  with  the  matter. 

and  the  wild  and  treasonable  schemes  of  Aaron  Burr  and 

his  confederates,  all  tended  to  keep  the  people  at  fever- 
heat.     In  the  war  of  1812,  Kentucky  bore  an  honorable 

part,  though  she  suffered  severely  at  the  battle  of  French- 
town  anil  m  the  barbarous  massacre  which  followed  it,  and 
some  of  her  best  citizens  were  sacrificed  in  the  unfortunate 
and  ill-managed  attempt  to  relieve  Fort  .Meigs.  Somewhat 
later  a  civil  contest  in  the  St.ate,  known  as  the  "  Old  Court 
and  Xew  Court  controversv,"  which  virtually  involved  the 
question  of  the  repudiation  of  a  debt  of  doubtful  legality 
by  the  State,  was  decided,  greatly  to  her  honor,  by  the 
maintenance  of  all  her  obligations,  though  they  had  been 
obtained  by  fraud.  In  the  Mexican  war  the  State  sent 
move  than  her  quota  of  volunteers  to  the  conQict.  and  their 
gallant  conduct  in  the  field  won  them  lasting  renown.  In 
the  late  civil  war  the  State  declared  at  first  her  strict  neu- 
trality in  regard  to  both  parties  to  the  war,  but  as  it  proved 

Electoral  and  Popular  Votes  for  President  and  Vice-President. 


impossible  to  maintain  this  condition,  the  legislature,  after 
the  invasion  of  the  Southern  troops  in  Aug.,  ISGl,  engaged 
in  correspondence  with  the  opposing  forces,  and  finally, 
after  a  very  exciting  discussion,  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  the 
Union,  Nov.  27,  ISOl.  The  State  was  a  recruiting-ground 
for  both  armies,  and  its  people  were  almost  equally  divided 
in  sentiment.  It  furnished  iu  several  instances  the  battle- 
fields in  severe  and  hotly-contested  actions,  such  as  those 
of  Mill  Spring,  Pcrryville,  and  Richmond,  as  well  as  in  the 
minor  conflicrs  of  Cvnthiana.  Elizabethtown,  Grcensburg, 
Lebanon,  London,  Mount  Slorling,  Mumfordsville,  Pound 
Gap,  Prestonburg,  Somerset,  and  Tobb's  Bend,  and  suf- 
fered not  onlv  from  the  passage  of  large  hostile  forces  across 
its  tcrritorv,'  but  from  repeated  raids  to  and  through  the 
State.  It  "refused  to  ratify  the  fourteenlh  and  fifteenth 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and  is  the  only  one  of  the 
border  States  which  has  remained  constantly  under  Demo- 
cratic control  since  t-he  close  of  the  war. 
Governors  of  the  State. — 

Term  '''™'' 

Isaac  Shelby 1792-96  ]  Charles     A.     Wiekliffe 

.Tames  Garrard 1796-1804       (acliUK)--- ]^rf. 

lb  ristonlier  Greenup 1S04-08    Robert  P.Letcher \'^}{^i 

ClKules  S,..tt l«0K-r2  I  William  Owsley. 1844-48 

Uiac  .Shelhv      1812-16  1  John  .1.  Crittenden IM*"-^? 

Gmrae  Madison 1816-16  i  John  L  Helm  (aeting)..^^*-^! 

Gabriel  Slaughter  (act-  |  Lazarus  \V.  I  owell... J^Jl^;^ 

i„„i  1816-20    Charles  S.  Morehcad IS.'i.^-.D 

T  I      V^""  m*in-''4    "•-■■.!.  Tj  \(.,.»..fl,»,        iR5>n-iii 

Joseph  ivsiia;!;'.'.v.'.;!!."!;is24-2s 

rrU n..  ^Trttrtnlf.*  1S9S— :t'* 


Thomas  Metcalfe 1828-:5'. 

John  Breathitt 1832-84 

James T.  Morehead  (act- 

ingl    iwi-se 

James  Clark 1836-37 


Beriah  H.  Masoflin 1859-01 

James  F.  Robinson 18G1-C3 

Thoniaa  K.  Bramlette....l86»-«7 

John  L.  Helm 1867-67 

John       W.     Stevenson 

(acting) 1S67-68 

John  W.  Stevenson 1868-72 

Preston  H.  Leslie 1872-75 


1792 
1796 
1800 
1 804 
1 808 
1812 


George  Washington  P... 

tleorge  Clinton  V.-P 

Thomas  Jefferson  P 

.\aron  Burr  V.-P 

Thomas  Jefferson  P 

,\aron  Burr  V.-P 

Thomas  Jefferson  P 

Georjie  Clinton  V.-P 

James  Madison  P 

George  Clinton  V.-P 

James  M.adison  P 

ElbridKC  Gerry  V.-P 

I816ljames  Monroe  P 

1 1).  D.  Tompkins  V.-P 

t820jJames  Monroe  P 

D.  D.  Tompkins  V.-P... 


1824 


1828 


1832 


Andrew  Jackson  P... 

J.  C.  Calhoun  V.-P 

Heury  Clay  P 

Nathan  Sauford  V.-P.... 

Andrew  Jackson  P 

J.  C.  Calhoun  V.-P 

John  Quincy  Adams  P.. 

Richard  Rush  V.-P 

Henry  Clay  P 

John  Sergeant  V.-P 

.\ndrew  Jackson  P 

Martin  Van  Bureu  V.-P. 
1836' W.  II.  Harrison  P 

Francis  (irauRer  V.-P..., 
1  Martin  Van  Buren  P...., 

R.  M.  Johnson  V.-P 

1840  W.  H.  Harrison  P 

John  Tyler  V.-P 

Martin  Van  Buren  X'.... 

R.  M.  Johnson  V.-P 

1844' James  K.  Polk  P 

George  M.  Dallas  V.-P.. 

Henry  Clay  P 

T.  Prelinsbuysen  V.-P.. 

Zacharv  Tavlor  P 

Millard"  Fillmore  V.-P.. 

LewisCassP 

W.  O.  Butler  V.-P 


ISIS 


Winfield  Scott  P 

W.  A.  Graham  V.-P 

Franklin  Pierce  P 

W.  R.  King  V.-P 

James  Buchanan  P 

J.C. Breckenridge  V.-P.... 

John  C.  Fremont  P 

W.  L.  Davton  V.-P 

Millard  Fillmore  P 

.\.  J.  Donelson  V.-P 

.-Vbraham  Lincoln  P 

Hannibal  Hamlin  V.-P, 

J.  C.  Breckenridge  P 

Joseph  Lane  V.-P 

John  Bell  P 

Edward  Fvcrelt  V.  P 

Stephen  A.  Dousilas  P 

Herschel  V.  Johnscnl  V.-P. 

Abraham  Lincoln  P 

Andrew  Johnson  V.-P 

George  B.  McClellan  P 

G.  H.  Pendleton  V.-P 

Ulvsses  S.  Grant  P 

Sehuvler  Colfax  V.-P 

ilora'tio  Seymour  P 

Francis  P.  Blair,  Jr.,  V.-P. . 

Ulysses  S.  t"iraut  P 

Kenrv  Wilson  V.-P.... 

Horace  Greeley  P 

B.  (iratz  Brown  V.-P... 
Charles  O'Conor  P 


12 


57.0G8 
53,806 
74,642 
314 
67,416 

1,361 
53,143 
66,058 
25,651 
27,786 
64,301 
39,566 
115,889 

88,970 

100,208 
2,374 


For  most  of  the  data  concerning  the  topography,  geol- 
cy,  etc.  of  Kentucky  we  are  indebted  to  Prot.  ^.  b. 
Shaler,  State  geologist  of  Kentucky  and  professor  in  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

L.  P.  Brockett. 

Kentucky,  tp.  of  White  co..  Ark.     Pop.  U3. 

Kf^ntucUy,  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  1976. 

Kentucky,  tp.  of  Nicholas  co.,  W.  Va.     Pop.  015. 

Kentucky  River  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Letcher 
CO.,  flows  in  a  tortuous  north-westerly  course  some  250 
miles,  reaching  the  Ohio  at  Carrollton.  Its  middle  and  S. 
forks  join  the  main  stream  iu  Owsley  co.  Its  head-streams 
flow  through  a  rough  region,  abounding  in  iron,  coal,  and 
salt.  Great  amounts  of  money  have  been  expeudeil  in  im- 
proving the  navigation  of  ibis  beautiful  stream,  which 
steamboala  now  ascend  to  Frankfort,  60  miles,  and  flat- 
boats  for  150  miles.  At  high  water  cargoes  are  floated 
down  from  its  head-streams. 

Kent'ville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  King's  CO..  Nora  Scotia, 
on  the  river  Cornwallis  and  on  the  Windsor  and  Annap- 
olis Railway,  5il  miles  N.  E.  of  Annapolis.  It  contains 
the  principal  otfices,  car-shops,  and  engine-house  of  the 
railway,  and  has  1  weekly  paper.  The  scenery  is  fine,  the 
soil  fertile,  the  mineral  wealth  great.  Pop.  of  sub-dis- 
triot,  1779. 


Ken'yon,  post-tp.  of  Goodhue  oo.,  Minn.,  14  miles  E. 
of  Faribault.     Pop.  6Z3. 

Kenyon  (Jonx).  b.  in  Jamaica  about  nS-^i,  son  of  a 
wealthv  idanter  :  was  educated  at  the  Charter-house.  Lon- 
don, and  at  Peterhouse  College,  Cambridge;  cultivated  the 
friendship  of  Coleridge,  Soulhey,  and  A\  ordsworth  and 
published  two  or  three  volumes  of  verses,  not  without 
merit;  but  will  be  chiefly  remembered  for  the  generosity 
with  which  he  distributed  his  large  fortune  among  eighty 
legatees,  many  of  whom  were  distinguished  in  literature. 
B  W.  Procter"  (Barrv  Cornwall)  received  ±ri..00  ;  Dr.  Hen- 
ry Southey,  £SO0O  ;  Robert  and  Elizabeth  B.  Browning  (the 

i  latter  his"  cousin),  £10,000.  D.  at  Cowes,  Isle  ot  Wight, 
Dee.  3,  1850. 

'  Kenyon  (Li-ovn),  Lonn,  b.  at  Gredington,  Flintshire, 
Wales  Oct  5  1732;  studied  at  the  Middle  Temple;  was 
called'to  the  bar  in  1750;  was  associated  in  praelice  with 
Dunning;  became  attorney-general  in  1 , .s2:  master  of  the 
rolls  in  17S4  :  and  on  the  retirement  of  Lord  Mansfield  was 

'  by  Pitt  made  chief-justice  of  the  king's  bench,  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Kenyon,  Baron  (-,redington-apos  which  he 
held  till  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Bath  in  1S02.  Uo 
made  an  immense  fortune  at  the  bar,  but  was  dislike,  for  his 
arrogance.  His  grandson,  George  J.  Kenyon  published  a 
i.'/'c  (Lon.,  1S73),  for  the  purpose  of  justifying  his  character. 


KKNYON  COLLKGK— KEPLER. 


1533 


Kenyon  College,  situated  atGambier.  0.,  comprises  | 
three  distinct  ychooU — the  theological  seiuinary.  Keuyon 
College,  and  the  grammar  Bchool,  It  wa--  f'ouiHled  in  1825 
under  the  cor|H»rate  name  of  the  Theological  t^rmiiiary  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  diocise  of  Ohio,  aud 
opened  al  WDrlhingtoij,  near  Columbus,  with  the  purpose 
of  rearing  up  miuiiiters  of  the  gospel  in  the  mid8t  of  the 
habits  and  circumstances  and  with  all  the  facilities  of  econ- 
omy of  the  Western  country.  As  pupils  in  elementary  gci- 
enoo  and  the  chu-^sioa  increased,  an  act  of  tiie  U-git-lature  was 
obtained  by  which  the  president  and  pri»fetsors  were  con- 
stituted the  faculty  of  a  college  by  the  name  of  Kenyon  Col- 
lege, and  the  institution,  thus  moiiificd  and  enlarged,  was 
transferred  to  Uambier  in  1S28.  The  growth  of  tlie  insti- 
tution is  shown  by  the  institution  of  its  professurships : 
Latin  and  Greek  in  1.S25:  intellectual  and  moral  pliiios- 
ophy  in  IS2'J;  mathematics,  natural  philosopliy,  and  chem- 
istry in  1S:J0;  logic  and  rhetoric  in  If^.U  ;  mathematics  and 
civil  engineering,  separate  from  natural  philosophy  and 
chemistry,  in  1854;  Knglish  literature  and  history  in  iSjC) ; 
ond  in  the  theological  department:  systematic  divinity'  in 
ls;JO;  ecclesiastical  polity,  pastoral  divinity,  and  sacred 
literature  in  1833;  ecclesiastical  history  in  IS37;  ancl  pas- 
toral theology  in  18i)D,  In  1839  the  seminary  and  college 
faculties  were  organized  separately  hy  an  net  of  the  legis- 
lature, which  conferred  upon  the  former  power  to  confer 
degrees  in  divinity,  and  upon  the  latter  power  to  confer  de- 
grees in  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  situation  of  the  college 
is  beautiful  and  heulthy,  on  a  headland  to  the  N.  of  the 
valley  of  the  Kokosing,  and  in  easy  communication  with 
Cleveland,  Sandusky.  Columbus,  and  Cincinnati.  Itsbuild- 
ingii  are  elegant  and  comfortable.  Its  property — real  estate, 
buildings,  farmlands,  and  endowments  for  jirofessorships — 
amounts  to$4jO,UOl),  According  to  the  constitution  adopted 
in  IS21,  recognized  by  the  act  of  incorporation,  and  modified 
in  1870,  the  board  of  trustees  consists  of  the  bishops  of  all 
dioceses  which  may  embrace  territory  now  within  the 
limits  of  the  diocese  of  Ohio,  the  assistant  bishop  of  the 
diocese  in  which  the  seminary  is  situated,  the  president  of 
KenyoD  College,  4  cierical  and  4  lay  trustees  chosen  for 
terms  of  ten  years  by  the  board  of  trustees.  3  clerical  and 
3  lay  trustees  elected  for  terms  of  three  years  by  the  dio- 
cesan conventions,  and  2  clerical  an<l  2  lay  trustees  chosen 
by  the  alumni  for  terms  of  four  years.  At  the  publication 
of  the  triennial  catalogue  in  1873  the  number  of  gradu- 
ates was  555 — namely,  from  Kenyon  College  453,  and  from 
the  theological  seminary  170;  68  were  graduates  of  both 
schools.  Kli  T.  Tappax. 

Ke'okuk,  county  of  S.  E.  Iowa.  Area.  57r>  square  miles. 
It  is  well  watered,  and  consists  of  prairie  lands  with  groves 
of  trees.  The  soil  is  good.  There  are  productive  mines 
of  coal.  The  county  is  traversed  \>y  a  ln-uiieh  of  the  Chi- 
cago Hock  Island  and  Pacific  K.  R.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool 
are  staple  products.  Carriages  and  wagons  are  leading  ar- 
ticles of  manufacture.     Cap.  Sigourney.     Pop.  19,434. 

Keokuk,  city.  cap.  of  Lee  co.,  la.,  on  tho  W.  bank  of 
the  Missis-^ippi  Kiver,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Des 
Moines,  about  midway  between  lUirlinglon  and  Quiney. 
135  miles  H.  K.  of  l)es  Moines.  an<l  2uu  miles  above  St. 
Louis.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  tho  lower  rapids,  which  aro 
12  mites  long  with  a  fall  of  2i  feet,  and  is  at  the  head  of 
navigation  for  tho  larger  class  of  steamboat  navigation; 
is  a  port  of  delivery,  and  being  in  the  extreme  S.  E.  corner 
of  the  State,  hnn  received  the  name  of'Minte  City."  Keo- 
kuk is  built  on  lime-tone  blutVs  150  feet  high,  overlooking 
tho  river,  and  surrounded  by  a  rich  and  productive  dis- 
trict; is  well  built,  chiefly  of  brick,  .Main  street,  the  prin- 
cipal thoroughfare,  being  100  feet  wide  and  more  than  a 
mile  in  length.  A  mugnilieent  iron  ruilrond  and  liighway 
bridge,  2300  feet  in  length,  spans  llie  Mississippi;  *i  lines 
of  stcam-poekels  ply  daily  to  and  fro ;  (i  railroads  aro  eom- 

Idctcd  and  3  others  aro  projected.  It  has  20  churches,  4 
>anks,  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers,  1  religious 
monthly  in  Sweiiish,  1  medical  college,  4  large  public- 
school  buildings  ( briek,  costing  $l25.lt00),  a  U.  S.  court- 
room, a  public  library,  gaswork-*,  u  loan  an<l  building 
association,  an<l  several  large  pork-packing  establishments. 
A  large  wholesale  business  is  d'ine  in  dry  goods,  groceries, 
boots  and  shoe.-i,  and  all  kinds  of  merchandise.  Tho  U.S. 
givernnjcTit  is  eoustrueting  a  ship-canal,  U  miles  long  and 
not  less  than  3IH)  fiu-t  wide,  around  the  lower  rapids  at  a 
cost  of  about  $S.O0O,OuO.  Ity  it  a  first-class  water-power 
will  bo  secured  for  manufacturing  ]iurpo8e8.  Pop.  in  1850, 
2478;  in  lsf>0,  8130:  in  1870.  12,7(>fi. 

Enii:  J.  LI:^:l'Il,  Sc*\  of  Citiscna*  A»»ociation, 

Keokuk,  tp.  of  Wapello  co.,  la.     Pop.  700. 

Keokuk  .hinotioii,  post-v.  of  Adams  co..  III.,  at  tho 
jnni'tion  of  llie  (Jalesluirg  and  t^uincy  division  of  the  Clu- 
engo  Hurlington  and  (Quiney  K.  H.  and  the  Keokuk  branch 
of  the  Toledo  Wabash  and  Western  U.  U. 


Ke'osauqua,  post-r.,  cap.  of  Van  Buren  co.,  la.     It 
has  I  weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  869. 

Keo'wee,  post-tp.  of  Oconee  co.,  S.  C.     Po]>.  H20. 

Kep'lcr,  or  Keppler  (Johann),  b.  at  MagPtatt.  near 
Weil,  Wiirtemberg.  Dec.  27  (or  21),  1571.  His  father. 
Henry  Kepler,  was  a  soldier  in  tho  Netherlands  under  the 
duke  of  Alva:  his  mother.  Catherine  Guidenmann,  was 
daughter  of  an  innkeeper,  antl  was  \inahle  to  rend  or  write. 
Johann  came  intti  the  wctrld  by  a  premature  birlh,  and  ex- 
perienced a  severe  attack  of  smallpox  at  six  years  of  ngc. 
and  another  nearly  mortal  illness  at  thirteen,  which  left 
permanent  traces  upon  his  constitution,  so  that  he  was  a 
sutferer  through  lile  from  fevers  and  jicriodical  diseases. 
In  early  childhood  he  was  taken  from  school  to  serve  as 
waiter  in  a  miserable  inn  his  father  liad  set  np  at  Elmcr- 
dingen.  but  as  the  business  diil  not  prosper,  the  father  en- 
listed as  a  soldier  against  the  Turks  and  was  never  heard 
from  again.  Young  Kepter.  having  had  to  sutler  from  the 
severities  of  his  mother,  sought  refuge  ui(h  an  only  sister 
married  to  a  Protestant  minister,  and  the  latter,  fin<Iing  tho 
hoy  too  feeble  to  work  in  the  fields,  obtained  for  him  in 
1586  admission  to  a  Protestant  monastic  seho(d  at  Maul- 
bronn  ;  and  having  shown  aptness  for  learning,  he  was  sent 
in  158S.  at  the  expense  of  the  duke  of  Wurtemberg.  to  the 
University  of  Tiibingen  to  prepare  for  the  ministry,  and 
took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  in  15',H,  His  theses  on  theolog- 
ical topics  exhibited  too  great  freedom  to  merit  the  appro- 
bation of  that  faeulty,  and.  abandoning  his  studies  in  that 
department,  be  turned  with  eagerness  to  the  astronomical 
theories  of  Koperniek  (Co])ernicus)  as  expounded  by 
Mostlin.  His  proficiency  was  such  that  in  J50I.  at  the 
age  of  twenty-two,  he  was  ap|)ointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  Ihiiversity  of  (iratz  in  Styria.  where  the  saino 
year  ho  ]iublished  an  almanac,  and  in  15(10  n  co^^mograpli- 
ical  treatise  filled  with  erode  fancies  drawn  from  a  mixture 
of  theology  with  nialheniatics.  In  1507  he  married  a  beau- 
tiful widow  of  noble  birth.  liarbura  Muller  von  Mnlech.  and 
was  required  by  her  t<i  produce  proofs  of  his  own  nobility, 
which  ho  is  said  to  have  done,  but  tho  evidences  furnished 
by  the  innkeeper's  son  could  scarcely  have  been  very  satis- 
factory: at  nil  events,  the  union  was  not  n  happy  one.  In 
150'J  ft  series  of  religious  persecutions  began  in  Styria.  and 
culminated  two  years  later  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Protest- 
ant professors  from  the  University  of  (^iriitz.  Kepler  had 
visited  Tycbo  llrahe.  the  most  eminent  astrononiir  of  the 
time,  at  Peiiach.  near  Prat;ue.  in  liiliO,  and  joyfully  accept- 
ed an  invitation  to  aid  him  in  the  ealculr.tion  of  a  new  set 
of  '*  Kudolphinc"  astronomical  tablfs  ordered  by  the  em- 
peror Rudolph  II.,  who  was  ambitious  of  scientific  honors 
and  wished  to  replace  the  Ptolemaic  and  Copcrnican  tables 
by  others  bearing  liis  own  name.  Unfortunately.  Kepler, 
who  entered  ujton  liis  new  labors  in  Si-pt..  lOdl.  as  assist- 
ant imperial  mathcmaticiRn,  found  it  impossible  to  live  in 
harmony  with  Tyeho.  The  latter  doled  out  a  niggardly 
salary  tlorin  by  fiorin,  and  Madame  Kepler  bad  to  make 
jiersonal  solicitations  in  ord»T  to  collect  anything.  Tycho 
died  the  following  month  [Oct.  21).  find  Ke])ler  succeeded 
to  his  post,  with  a  nominal  salary  of  1501)  Horins  jier  an- 
num, but  the  imperial  treasury  being  low  and  payments 
rare  and  irregular,  he  had  to  eke  out  a  livelihood  by  east- 
ing nativities.  Astrology  was  then  an  admitted  branch  of 
astronomy,  and  in  a  treatise  on  that  subject,  />«■  Fmultunfutin 
ylWnj/o»/(V(1602),  Kepler  expounde<l  the  inilueneeof  ]dan- 
etary  conjunctions  upcin  hnnnin  destinies.  A  treatise  on 
optics,  /'itrriflponKii*!  nil  ViuUinuem  (  I  (lOn,  exhibited  ac- 
curate reseandies  into  the  structure  of  the  eye,  and  fur- 
nished the  formulas  which  have  been  ever  since  employed 
in  tho  calculation  of  eclipses.  In  ft  work  published  in 
H1116,  Ih  St'Un  .Voivi  mi  jmir  Scrprutfirii,  etc.,  Ke]der.  be- 
sides describing  a  new  star  in  the  ctmstidlation  of  the  Ser- 
pent, made  the  correction  of  I'our  years  in  the  era  of  the 
birth  of  Christ  which  has  since  been  accepted.  In  lOdD 
appeared  his  greatest  work,  the  AHtrmioinia  iVorvi,  com- 
piled from  the  observations  of  Tycho  Itrahe.  supplemented 
ny  his  own,  in  which  the  motions  of  the  planet  Mars  were 
made  the  basis  for  two  of  the  important  corrections  of  the 
received  astronomical  theorii'S  known  as  Kepler's  Laws  — 
namely,  the  cllipticity  of  the  planetary  orbits,  and  the  fact 
that  the  U  viiM  s  VriToii  (which  see)  of  every  planet  pasM  s 
over  cqmil  areas  in  etpml  times.  These  brilliant  discoveries 
were,  as  Kepler  truly  said  in  his  title-page,  "wrought  out 
by  persistent  research  extending  over  nmny  years"  i/'fti- 
riuiii  iinimnim  /ttrthntrt  utuiiio  rlnfuirftta),  the  mathematical 
oaleulatioits  having  been  ten  times  repeated  for  every  op- 
position of  Mars,  and  each  filling  ten  ])ages  of  figures.  All 
this  was  without  the  aid  of  logarithms,  which  wc  re  not  in- 
vented until  five  years  later  (by  Napier  in  161  lb  Kepler's 
worbily  position  was  not  imjiroved  by  these  wonderful  re- 
searches; his  salary  was  12.000  crowns  in  arrears;  Iho 
emporor  refused  him  permission  to  accept  a  professorship 


1534 


KEPPEL— KKRATKY,  DE. 


elsewhere;  he  lost  his  wife  and  three  bods  by  the  smallpox;  i 
a  conflict  arose  between  Rmiolph  and  his  brother  Matthias  ' 
for  the  crown  of  Bohumiii;  i'mj^ue  was  attacked  by  the  troops 
of  the  former  (IGll),  and  was  devastated  by  the  plague.  ; 
Uudolph,  having  resigned  the  crown  the  same  year,  died  at 
Prague  soon  after  (.Ian.  20,  1()12),  and  Matthias  having  be- 
come emperorof  Germany,  as  well  an  kinj^  of  Bohemia,  con-  I 
firmed  Kepler  as  imperial  astronomer,  allowed  him  to  accept 
the  prnfe?sc)rship  of  mathematics  at  (he  Vniversity  of  Linz, 
and  in  lOlil  summoned  him  to  the  diet  at  Ratisbon  to  per-  j 
suade  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  necessity  of  accepting  } 
the  Grecjoriau  correction  of  the  calendar,  for  whieh  purpose  i 
he  wrote  a  short  treatise.  In  1615  he  married  his  second  I 
wife.  Susanna  Rettinijer.  after  a  careful  scrutiny  of  tho  ! 
comparative  advantages  of  an  alliance  with  no  less  than 
eleven  ladies,  an  estimate  of  whose  charnefers  he  has  left 
on  record  in  a  letter  to  Baron  Strahlendorf  About  the 
same  time  his  aged  mother,  who  still  lived  in  the  duchy  of 
■\Vurtemberg.  became  a  victim  of  her  son's  scientific  repu- 
tation. She  was  formally  accused  of  "having  learned 
magic  from  an  aunt,  who  was  burned  as  a  witch,  of  having 
frequent  interviews  with  the  devil,  of  being  unable  to  shed 
tears,  of  killing  the  pigs  in  tho  neighborhood  by  riding 
them  at  night,  of  not  being  able  to  look  in  the  eyes  of  per- 
sons with  whom  she  talkeil.  and  of  having  hired  the  grave- 
digger  to  exhume  her  husband's  skull  to  make  of  it  a  cup 
for  a  present  to  her  son  Kepler."  This  trial  lasted  five 
years,  and  only  a  personal  appeal  (in  1020)  made  by  Kep- 
ler to  the  grand  duke  saved  his  mother  from  the  flames. 
She  was  released  only  after  every  ignominy  short  of  actual 
torture,  though  bravely  maintaining  her  innocence,  and  d. 
in  T()22.  At  Linz.  Kepler  was  now  denounced  by  tho 
Catholic  priests  as  not  only  a  heretic,  but  as  the  son  of  a 
witch.  During  these  sufferings  he  had  worked  out  tho 
third  and  greatest  of  his  immortal  laws — namely,  "that 
the  squares  of  the  periods  of  revolution  of  any  two  planets 
are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from 
the  sun."  This  discovery  was  made,  as  Kepler  was  careful 
to  record,  on  May  15,  1018,  after  seventeen  years  of  study 
upon  the  observations  of  Tycho :  it  was  published  in  IfilO 
at  Tjinz,  in  a  folio  volume,  flunnouiri  h  Mmuli  L  ihri  V.,  dedi- 
cated to  King  James  I.  of  England,  the  father-in-law  of 
the  elector  palatine,  who  had  just  become  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  whose  claims  to  the  imperial  crown  gave  rise  the  same 
year  to  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  The  rival  candidate,  Fer- 
dinand II.,  deposed  as  king  by  the  states  of  Bohemia  in 
tho  same  month  that  he  was  elected  emperor  of  (iermany 
(of  the  Romans),  desired  to  conciliate  the  favor  of  men  of 
science;  ho  offered  to  pay  Kepler's  arrears  of  salary  and 
to  enable  him  to  issue  the  ''  Rudolphine  Tables,''  but  tho 
breaking  out  of  the  great  war  postponed  for  years  the  ful- 
filment of  the  promise.  At  last,  after  a  delay  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  they  were  pulilishe<l  at  ITlm  in  102".  At  tho 
invitation  of  Wallenstein,  Kepler  removed  in  1020  to  Sagan 
in  Silesia,  and  soon  after  received  an  appointment  as  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Rostock.  Having  gone  to 
Ratislion  in  lfi.*iO  to  negotiate  in  vain  for  the  payment  of 
his  long  arrears  of  salary,  he  d.  there  Xov.  15,  and  was 
buried  in  St.  Peter's  churchyard,  tho  spot  being  now  cov- 
ered by  a  tompTe-monument  erected  to  his  memory  in  1S03. 
He  composed  his  own  epitaph  in  tho  following  striking 
words : 

"  Mcnsus  cram  coclos,  nunc  terrte  metior  umbras : 
Mens  cceicstis  erat,  corporis  umbra  jacet." 

(•'T  have  measured  the  heavens;  I  now  measure  the  shades 
of  tho  earth.  The  mind  was  of  heavenly  origin  :  only  tho 
shadow  of  the  body  lies  here.")  Kepler  published,  besides 
the  works  already  specified,  an  abstract  of  the  Ci)pcrnican 
system,  Epitome  Afitronomi'ir  Copcrnictr,  in  T  //.  h'lirot  dt- 
ffeNta,  etc.  (liinz,  2  vols..  lOlS-22)  ;  a  treatise  on  Ih'optrica 
(Frankfort.  IGll  ;  London.  105.^),  which  in  the  opinion  of 
Sir  David  Brewster  hii«l  the  foundation  of  optics;  a  small 
work  on  Comets  (1019);  several  series  of  Epfiemcride^, 
and  numerous  minor  productions  on  astrology  or  other 
subieets,  written  chiefly  for  bread.  His  total  published 
works  were  .^:i  in  number,  and  he  left  22  volumes  of  IMSS,, 
of  whieh  (hose  containing  the  correspondence  were  printed 
in  171S.  and  the  remainder  were  included  in  a  new  edition 
of  all  his  works  published  at  Frankfort  in  8  vols.  (1858-70). 

PonTER  C.  Bmss. 
Kep'pel  (ArGusTFs),  Viscofnt.  b.  Apr.  2,  1725,  was  a 
son  of  the  second  earl  of  Albemarle;  entered  the  navy  in 
1710;  circumnavigated  the  world  with  Lord  Anson:  was 
made  rear-admiral  in  1702.  For  many  years  ho  was  very 
successful  in  isolated  nnviU  engagements,  commanding  a 
single  vessel  or  a  small  squadron.  In  hie  only  general  en- 
gagement with  the  French,  whieh  took  place  near  t^shant 
in  July,  1778.  the  victory  remained  uncertain,  and  Keppel 
was  tried  by  court-martial,  but  acquitted,  and  his  conduct 
approved,  lie  was  several  times  first  lord  of  the  admiraltj; 


WM  in  1782  made  Viscount  Kcppcl  of  Elvedou,  and  d.  in 
Suffolk  Oct.  2,  1786. 

Keppel  (Sir  Henrv),  K.  C.  B..  a  younger  son  of  the 
earl  of  Albemarle,  and  an  admiral  in  the  English  navy,  b. 
June  14,  IS09 ;  entere<i  the  navy  af  an  early  age;  was  lieu- 
tenant in  1829,  commander  in  IS.I.'J,  captain  in  I8;i7,  com- 
modore in  1856,  vice-admiral  in  1807,  and  full  admiral  in 
1809.  His  early  service  was  on  tho  Enst  India,  Mediter- 
ranean, and  Cape  of  (Jood  Hope  stations,  and  on  the  coast 
of  China,  where  he  commanded  the  Dido  18(1—15;  in  the 
Crimean  war  he  commanded  the  naval  brigade  before  Se- 
bastopol :  was  again  (1850-57)  in  command  on  tho  Chinese 
waters,  and  created  K.  C.  B.  for  the  destruction  of  a  Chi- 
nese war-fleet;  naval  commander-in-chief  at  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ISOO,  from  whence  he  was  transferred  to  the  Brazil- 
ian station;  vice-admiral  and  comniander-in-ehief  on  the 
China  and  Japan  station  1807-60.  returning  to  England  in 
the  latter  year  as  admiral.  Auth<tr  of  Expedition  to  Bor- 
neo and  Visit  to  the  India)}  Archipffftf/o. 

Ker'atine  [<lr.  Ktpai;,  "hem"]  (another  name  that  has 
been  proposed  is  Elnstilie\  a  chemical  term  which  has 
been  introduced  to  designate  a  supposed  specific  substance 
forming  the  bai^is  of  a  large  class  of  animal  substances, 
such  as  horns,  hotfn,  nuija,  elaiee,  wool,  hair, /ent/ttrs,  cuti- 
cle, etc.  No  sufficient  correspondence  has  yet  appeared, 
however,  in  analyses  of  preparations  made  by  nny  of  the 
methods  yet  tried  upon  these  substances,  to  justify  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  specific  name  for  all.  The  entire  insol- 
ubility of  all  of  them  in  all  solvents  yet  tried— except  al- 
kalies, which  show  chemical  change  by  evolving  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen — has  been  the  (djstaclc  to  their  purification. 
After  boiling  them  in  fine  shavings  with  water,  alcohol, 
ether,  concentrated  acetic  acid,  and  dilute  soda,  until  all  is 
removed  soluble  in  these  agents^  Schercr  found  mean  re- 
sults about  as  follows: 

ButTnlo  horns.    Humno  nails. 

Carbon 51.23 50.94 

HvdroDjen 6.66 0.77 

Nitrogen 17.18 16.80 

5V^"^ I    24.23 24.99 

Fulphur ) 

Ashes 0.70. _fl50 

'lOO.OO  100.00 

Another  chemist,  named  Lear,  found,  as  a  mean  of  two 
analyses  of  human  hair,  calculated  without  the  ashes — 

Carbon 50.42 

Hydrogen 6.34 

Nitroeen '7.38 

Oxvpen 20.91 

Sulphur 5.00 

100.00 

Lenr  made  also  some  examinations  of  tho  ashes  of  hair  of 

different  colors: 

Percentage  of  ashos.      Peroxide  of  iron. 

Brown  hair From  0.32  to  1.10;  from  0.00  lo  0.-39 

Black  hair "      1.02  "  1.15;  0.21 

Bed  hair "      0.54  "  1.85;       "    0.17  "  0.27 

Gray  hair '*     0.75  "  1.00;  0.23 

Other  constitnents  of  tho  ashes  were  chloride  of  sodium, 
sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
silica.  Comparing  the  composition  of  hair  with  that  nf 
tho  proteids  (see  article  on  Ai.ut  mivn).  it  apjiears  that  it3 
carbon  atid  hydrogen  are  somewhat  less,  its  nitrogen  some- 
what less,  and  its  oxygen  about  the  same;  but  the  main 
diiTerenco  appears  to  be  in  the  sulphur,  whieh  is  /our  or 
fire  tiinrti  as  larue.  According  to  some  fashionable  notions 
of  the  day,  as  that  of  pho=phoretted  food  to  nourish  the 
brain  and  bones,  and  so  forth,  sulphuretted  food  should 
possibly  siimulato  the  growth  of  the  hair;  but  there  is  as 
yet  little  probability,  and  less  evidence,  of  the  validity  of 
such  notions.  Hkvrv  Wi  rtz. 

K^ratry,  de  ("ArcusTE  Hii,.\rion).  b.  at  Bennes  Oct. 
2^.  17G0.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  a 
warm  and  courageous  supporter  of  liberal  measures,  and 
enntributed  very  much  to  the  revolution  of  IS^O.  Louis 
Philippe  made  liim  a  peer  of  Franco  in  L'*.''.7.  He  opposed 
Xnpolenn  strongly,  and  after  the  coup  d'/tat  he  lived  in 
retirement.  I),  in  Nov.,  ISfjO.  Besides  a  great  number  of 
pnmplilets  and  minor  essays,  among  which  was  Questions 
«?  Vnrdrc  dit  /our  i\^?-7),  he  wrote  seveniJ  large  novels  and 
books  of  art -criticism:  Fr^dfric  .^naidall  (1827),  Saphira 
(1S,?5).  Dn  hrrtu  dnvn  hs  arts  d' imitation  (1822). 

K^ratrv,  de  (Estii.t:),  Coi-vt,  son  of  Auguste,  b.  in 
Paris  Mar.20.  18^2.  From  an  old  feudal  family  of  Britta- 
nv.  he  abandoned  its  legitimist  traditions,  served  as  a  vol- 
unteer during  the  Crimean  war,  then  as  a  French  gucrillero 
in  the  Mexican  campaign  1P0.V05,  nnd  published  afterwards 
in  several  reviews  some  articles  denouncing  the  frauds  and 
impolicy  of  the  imperial  intervention  in  ?dexico.  He  thus 
gained  some  celebrity,  and  in  1 809  was  returned  to  the  Corps 
L^'gislatif  as  an  opposition  deputy  by  tho  Brest  electoral 
district.     AVhen  the  revolution  of  1870  burst  out,  K6ratry 


KEHBELA— KEROSENE. 


1535 


was  made  at  first  prefect  of  police  of  Paris ;  then  ns  gene- 
ral of  division  he  organized  nearly  fifty  ImUalions  in  Bre- 
tagno ;  came  into  conflict  with  tiiirabetta  and  the  hiwyers, 
whom  he  acci^ed  of  incapacity  :  and  was  prclVct  nf  Tou- 
louse and  of  Marseilles  undcrthc  Thiers  Kovi'rninent  ( 1871- 
72).  Felix  Aicakjnp:. 

Kcrbe'la,  or  .>feshed-Hossf in,  a  city  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  [irovince  of  Irak'-Arabi,  50  miles  S.  AV.  of  6at;dnd. 
Pop.  estimated  at  2t>,000.  It  has  five  p:ntc!?.  a  well-supplied 
bazaar,  and  7  caravanseries,  and  derives  ;;ieat  sanctity  in 
Muhumiiiedan  eyes  from  the  ma.a;nificent  tomb  of  Hussein, 
who  was  killed  here.  It  is  a  place  of  pilj^rimapc.  largely 
inhabited  by  Persians,  and  much  coveted  by  Persian 
monarchs. 

KerToot  (.Tons  Baruett).  LL.D..  b.  Mar.  1,  ISIfi.  at 
Dublin,  Ireland,  and  educated  at  FIu«hin:j  Institute  and  St. 
Piiur.-*  Cnllege.  N.  Y..  whence  he  {graduated  in  1 834  :  was  or- 
dained deacon  Mar.  1,  18;J7  :  priest.  Mar.  1.  1S40  :and  bishop 
of  tho  diocese  of  Pittsburg  Jan.  25,  ISfifi;  received  the  degree 
of  1>.  D.  from  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.»  in  1850,  and  from 
Trinity  College,  Cono.,  in  1865  :  and  the  degree  of  LL.I>. 
from  tho  I'niversity  of  Cambridge,  England,  in  1807:  was 
president  of  St.  James's  College.  Md.,  1812-64,  and  of 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn..  1861-66  ;  and  published 
baccalaureate  anil  other  college  addresses,  sermons,  episco- 
pal addresses,  and  charges. 

Ker'guelen  Land,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
taking  its  name  from  the  French  navigator  who  discovered 
it  in  1772,  lOU  miles  long  and  50  mile^  broad,  is  situated  iu 
lat.  4'J°  54'  S.  and  Ion.  70°  10'  E.  It  has  many  bays  and 
inlets,  and  a  harbor  at  the  northern  extremity  was  <inc  of 
tho  stations  for  American  and  British  observers  of  the 
transit  of  Venus  in  Dec,  1874.  Seals  formerly  abounded, 
but  aro  no\T  extint;t ;  large  flocks  of  wild  fowl  still  remaiu. 
The  island  is  barren,  covered  with  moss,  and  has  but  a  few 
flowering  plants,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  so- 
catted  '*  Kerguelcn's  Land  cabbage,"  the  Priugha  antt- 
trnrbntirn^  a  cruciferous  plant,  having  a  head  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  cabbage.  It  has  pungent  qualities,  like  those 
of  horse-radish  and  mu^tar<l,  and  a'munds  in  a  volatile  oil. 
It  is  antiscorbutic,  and  is  valued  as  fond  by  mariners. 

Kerkook%  a  large  town  of  Koordistan,  Asiatic  Turkey, 
100  miles  S.  K.  of  Mosul  and  UO  mile?  X.  of  Bagdad.  Po*p, 
Ili.OoO.  The  town  stands  on  a  commanding  eminence  nearly 
perpendicular  on  all  sides:  it  has  numerous  mos<|Ucs  and 
three  Catholic  churches.  Near  by  are  inexhaustible  sup- 
plies of  naphtha,  whieh  is  the  principal  commodity. 

Kerl^rec,  de  fLoris  Billoiart),  Crevai-ier,  b.  at 
Quim])f'r,  France,  in  1704;  entered  the  marine  corps  at 
flcvonteen  years  of  age ;  was  in  fourteen  campaigns,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  on  board  the  Neptune  in  the  memora- 
ble coniliats  of  .Aug.  and  Oct.,  1716,  and  Oct.  21,  1747,  in 
tho  latter  of  which  he  was  in  comman<l  after  his  .superiors 
had  been  killed  or  wounded.  In  1752  he  was  apjtointcd 
governor  of  Louisiana,  and  remained  at  that  post  for  ten 
years,  comprising  the  whole  period  of  the  ."^evon  Years' 
war.  Returning  to  France  in  17(14.  he  was  charged  with 
peculation  and  undue  severity,  anil  thrown  into  the  Bas- 
lilo.  Sentence  of  exile  was  pronounccil  in  176*.),  but  he  was 
about  to  submit  new  evidences  to  the  tribunal  wlien  he  d. 
at  i*aris  ."^ept.  It,  1770.  He  wrote  memoirs  upon  Louisiana, 
never  published  and  supposed  tu  be  lost. 

Kerinan%the  ancient  CarrtmaHin,a  province  of  Persia, 
extending  along  the  tJulf  of  Persia,  from  Farsistan  in  the 
W.  to  Beloochistan  in  the  E.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about 
65,000  square  miles,  with  only  600.000  inhabitants.  The 
northern  part  is  a  desolate  plain,  where  no  life  can  exist, 
and  oven  the  southern  mountain-land,  though  interspersed 
with  fertile  and  beautiful  valleys,  is  nio<<tly  barren  and 
rustijed  rocks.  The  province  is  very  little  known,  however, 
with  the  exception  of  the  route  from  Belooehistan  along  the 
southern  border  of  the  desert,  and  that  fr(»m  the  capital, 
Korman,  to  the  sea-coast.  The  province  has  a  lireed  of 
camels  and  goats  whieh  are  fammis  for  their  long,  silky  hair. 

Kerman,  town  of  Persia,  the  capital  of  tho  province 
of  Kerman.  in  lat.  20°  48'  N.  and  Ion.  56°  MV  E.  It  was 
formerly  much  more  flourishing  than  now.  whieh  is  appar- 
ent from  the  fields  of  ruins  that  surround  it.  but  its  manu- 
factures ()f  shawls  and  carpets  are  still  celebrated,  and  it 
has  some  importance  as  a  fortress.     Pop.  .10.000. 

Kermanshah',  town  of  Persia,  the  capital  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  the  proviDce  of  Irak-Ajcmi.  in  lat.  114° 
30'  N.  and  Ion.  45°  37'  E.  It  is  a  flourishing  town,  with 
elegant  mosques  and  palaces  and  beautiful  promcimdes.  and 
is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  Persian  carpets.  In  the 
vicinity  is  the  celebrated  rock  of  Behistun.  whose  trilingunl 
inscription  furnished  the  key  to  tho  Assyrian  tin4  r.ld  Per- 
sian languages.  It  carries  on  a  very  brisk  trade  with  Bag- 
dad, Tcbcran,  and  Ispahan.     Pop.  35,000. 


Ker'mes  [Arab.,  "little  grnb"],  or  Scarlet  Grain,  a 

dyestuff  formerly  once  used  extensively  for  producing  a 
biood-red.  It  is  still  emjiloyed  in  Spain.  Africa,  and  the 
East,  but  is  to  a  great  extent  replaced  elsewhere  by  Cociit- 
NKAi.  (which  see).  Kernics  is  the  dried  bodice  of  Cocvitn 
fViVtV,  an  insect  inhabiting  the  kermcs  oak,  an  evergreen 
shrub-oak  of  Spain  and  tlie  Levant.  Kermcs  furnishes  a 
more  durable  but  less  brilliant  color  than  cochineal. 

Kermcs  >Iincral,  amorphous  trisulphidc  of  antimony, 
esL'cntially  Sb^iS^.  The  preparation  user!  in  medicine  con- 
tains oxide  of  antimony,  and  is  liencc  callc<l  oxysulphide 
of  antimony.  The  mode  of  preparation  for  this  purpose  is 
simply  to  boil  the  commercial  gray  sulphide  of  antimony 
with  an  alkaline  carbonate,  filter,  and  cool  for  twenty-four 
hours,  when  a  brown-red  powder  is  founil  to  have  deposited, 
which  is  washed  and  dried.  Tlie  jmrc  amorphous  trisul- 
phide  is  olitained  by  fusion,  and  sudden  cooling  in  water, 
of  the  native  crystalline  trisulphidc.  also  by  dissolving  tho 
latter  in  caustic  potash,  and  prccijtitating  with  an  acid. 
It  is  harder  than  the  native  sulphide,  and  its  powilcr  is 
red-brown,  but  lighter  in  color  than  the  impure  comp<iund 
containing  oxido  used  in  medicine  under  the  name  of 
mineral  kcnnea.  H.  WiRTZ. 

Ker'messe  [Flcm.  l-erkmcsif,  from  ktrk,  "church," 
and  »)«»»].  formerly  religious  and  parochial  festivals,  but 
now  more  exclilsively  ordinary  and  secular  enjoyments. 
These  arc  nearly  the  same  in  Flemish  countries,  Belgium 
and  Holland,  as  in  any  other  country  of  old  Europe;  but 
tho  kcrmesses  of  Flanders  are  more  extensively  known, 
because  the  custom  was  more  strictly  adhered  to,  and  be- 
cause attention  was  called  to  them  through  some  celebrated 
paintings  of  Teniers  and  other  great  Flemisli  artists. 
Dances,  Ijanquets,  target-sliooting,  all  sorts  of  comical  and 
even  clcrieal  processions,  formed  the  bulk  of  popular  amuse- 
ment during  the  kcrmesses,  which  were  sometimes  rather 
licentious  affairs — a  motive  which  induced  Joseph  11..  llien 
ruler  of  Flanders,  to  order  that  they  should  all  of  them  be 
celebrated  on  the  same  day.  That  rule  disappeared  with 
the  Austrian  domination.  Felix  Aitaicnk. 

Kern,  county  of  S.  California.  Area,  estimated  at  7800 
square  miles.  It  is  partly  mountainous,  being  traversed 
by  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  having  the  Coast  Range  on  the 
W.  On  the  X.  W,  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  the  l>asin  whence 
flow  the  head-streams  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Here  is  pon:c 
tule-land  which  may  be  made  very  proiluctive.  S.  E.  of 
the  mountains  there  is  a  basin  which  has  no  connection 
with  the  sea.  Wool  is  the  staple  product.  Cap.  Haviloh. 
Pop.  2025. 

Kern,  a  v.  of  AVhite  Pine  co.,  Nev.     Pop.  36. 

Kern  (Jean  Co-srad),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Berling;en,  Switzer- 
land, in  ISOS;  stuclied  at  the  gymnasium  of  Zurich,  at  tho 
univerbities  of  Bale,  Berlin.  Heidi'lberg,  and  Paris,  devot- 
ing himself  lirst  to  iheol()i;y,  and  aftcrwanU  to  law,  in 
which  latter  brnncii  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor.  He  sat 
in  tho  diet  of  18.^3;  became  in  1837  president  of  the  su- 
jireme  court  of  his  native  canton,  Thurgnu  ;  aided  in  re- 
vising the  Swiss  constitution  in  1S48:  and  became  distin- 
guished for  eloquence  as  a  member  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly. In  IH57  anil  isiil  he  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to 
Paris  for  tho  management  of  vital  interests,  and  in  1S75 
ho  became  president  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

Ker'nan  (Francis),  b.  at  Tyrone,  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y., 
.Ian.  1  (.  1^*16;  gra<luated  at  Georgetown  College,  D.  C, 
ami  immetliately  thereafter  began  the  study  of  law,  enter- 
ing upon  practice  at  Vtica  in  1S:HI;  was  reporter  of  the 
court  of  appeals  1854-57,  and  in  1S62  was  elected  by  the 
Democratic  party  to  Congress.  In  IS72  he  was  tho  candi- 
'latc  of  the  same  party  for  governor  of  New  York,  but  was 
not  elected  :  in  IH75  was  chosen  C  S.  Senator  by  the  legis- 
lature of  New  York.  J.  B.  Bisiiui*. 

Kern  Lake,  in  Kern  co..  Cal.,  is  connected  with  Kern 
Biver  by  a  slough.  It  is  full  of  fish,  and  is  in  part  over- 
grown with  tule  (Scirjni»  tal{(liin).  All  kimls  of  game- 
birds,  otter,  beaver,  raccoons,  and  other  game,  are  found  in 
the  tule  around  it.  It  is  in  a  very  fertile  region.  Its  size 
varies  with  the  rainfall. 

Kern  llivor  rises  in  Tulare  co.,  Cal..  flows  S.  and  S.  W. 
through  a  grandly  picturesque  region.  an<i  finally  divides 
into  two  parts— one  Mowing  N.  W.  and  N.  into  Tulare  Lake, 
and  one  into  the  lute-region  about  Kern  and  Buena  Vista 
lakes,  with  wliieh  it  is  connected.  Its  upper  waters  abound 
in  tine  trout.  Its  waters  aro  finally  discharged  into  Tularo 
Lake. 

Kern  Kiver  Slonf^h,  a  chnnnel  by  which  at  high 
water  the  surplus  contents  of  the  Tulnrc  Lake  in  Califor- 
nia flow  northward  into  San  Joaquin  River.  .At  ordinary 
staRcs  Tulare  Lake  has  no  communication  with  the  ocean. 

Ker'osenc  [from  Gr.  xiipoc,  "wax,"  and  i\atov,  "oil"], 


1536 


KERR— KKTONES. 


a  term  applied  by  Abraham  Gesner  in  1840  to  oil  distilled 
from  coul  in  Prince  Edward's  Island.  It  has  since  become 
the  general  term  lor  those  hydrocarbon  oils  which  arc  suit- 
able for  burning  in  lamps,  from  whiiicver  source  obtained. 
Most  of  the  kcrof^enc  now  u^ed  is  relined  petroleum.  (See 
Oil  fhom  Coal,  Siialk  Oil,  and  Pktuolelm.) 

Kerr,  county  of  S.  W.  Central  Texa?.  Area.  S18  sqimre 
miles.  It  is  partly  mountainous,  but  has  much  fertile  land. 
Stoek-niising  and' timber-cutting  are  the  principal  indus- 
trial pursuits.  The  cypress  timber  is  of  e.\ct:llcut  quality. 
Cap.  KerrsviUe.     Pop.  1012. 

Kerr,  tp.  of  Champaign  co..  111.     Pop.  3G1. 

Kerr  (Johm  Bozman),  son  of  -lohn  L.  Kerr.  b.  at  Easton, 
Md..Mar.  5, 1809:  graduated  at  Harvanl  in  1830:  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  IS.''.^ ;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  general 
assembly  of  Maryland  in  ]8;',0  ;  Uepresentative  in  Congress 
in  1S48;  and  was  sent  in  1851  as  charge  d'affaires  toiJuate- 
mala.  where  he  saved  the  lives  of  some  prominent  citizens 
during  a  revolution,  and  received  the  thanks  of  the  govern- 
ment of  that  republic.  On  bis  return  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  law  at  Ilaltimore,  and  was  afterwards  deputy  solicitor 
of  the  court  of  claims  at  Washington.     D.  Jan.  27,  1878. 

Kerr  (John  L.),b.  at  Greenbury  Point,  near  Annapolis. 
Mil.,  Jan.  15,  1780;  graduated  at  St.  John's  College  in 
1791):  became  distinguished  at  the  Maryland  bar:  was 
Representative  in  Congress  from  1825  to  1820  and  from 
1S:U  to  1883,  an.l  U.  S.  Senator  from  18-11  to  1843.  D.  at 
Easton,  Md.,  Feb.  21,  1844. 

Kerr  (Michael  C),  b.  near  Titusville,  Pa.,  Mar.  15, 
1827;  studied  law  at  the  University  of  Louisville;  settled 
at  Xcw  Albany,  Ind. :  was  elected  to  the  State  assembly  in 
18J)J :  reporter  t)  the  State  sujireme  court  in  1862,  and 
published  5  vols.:  in  18(j4:  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to 
Congress,  and  re-elected  in  186^.  ]Sfi8.  1870,  and  1874,  and 
in  ls7o  was  ehusen  Sjieaker  of  the  House.  B.  at  Hock - 
bridge  Alum  Springs,  Va.,  Aug.  lit,  1876. 

Kerr's  Creek,  tp.  of  Rockbridge  eo.,  Ya.     Pop.  1833. 

Kerrs'ville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Kerr  co.,  Texas,  83  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Austin. 

Ker'ry,  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Munster, 
bouniled  N.  by  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon  and  W.  by  the 
Atl.iutic.  Area,  1853  square  miles,  with  1U6.014  inhabit- 
ants: 201,800  in  1861.  and  238,2:19  ia  1851.  The  surface 
is  mountainous;  the  highest  muuntain  of  Ireland,  Cnrran 
Tual,  3410  feet,  is  found  here,  and  the  scenery  is  often  very 
beautiful,  as,  for  instance,  around  the  hikes  of  Kilhirney. 
Rut  the  soil  is  rather  inferior,  and  still  more  so  is  its  culti- 
vation. Oats,  ])otatocs,  and  turnijis  arc  the  chief  crops; 
dairying  and  fishing  the  chief  occupations.  The  ]>npuhition 
is  very  jtoor.    The  principal  towns  are  Tralec  and  Killarney. 

Ker'seymere  [originally  the  same  as  cassimcrc.  and 
probaldy  derived  from  Crfihniere].  a  thin,  fine-wool  fabric 
manufactured  chiefl\'  in  the  W.  of  England,  and  often  called 
heinnfy  for  brevity.  Also  a  coarse-twilled,  hmg-wool  fabric 
for  men's  wear,  made  mostly  in  the  N.  of  England:  this 
also  is  called  kf^rsey.  The  modern  cnssimevrt!  are  phiin  or 
figured  woollen  or  ciittnn-and-wocdlen  goods,  made  in  the 
U.  S.  and  Europe,  and  designed  for  men's  wear. 

Ker'shaw,  county  of  X.  South  Carolina.  Arcn,  750 
square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  M'ateree  River  and  a 
branch  of  the  South  Carolina  R.  R.  It  has  an  uneven  sur- 
face and  a  soil  generally  fertile.  Cotton,  corn,  and  rice  are 
staple  products.     Cap.  Camden.     Pop.  11,754. 

Kershaw  (J.  R.),  b.  in  South  Carolina;  was  a  prom- 
inent actor  in  the  American  civil  war  from  the  first  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  July,  1861,  where  he  commanded  a  regiment 
of  South  Carolina  volunteers  which  was  raiseil  prim-ipally 
by  himself;  subsequently,  as  brigadier-general,  he  eoiu- 
manded  a  brigade  throughout  the  Virginia  Peninsula  cam- 
paign of  1862:  at  the  second  battle  of  Rull  Run  :  engaged 
in  the  capture  of  Harper's  Ferry.  Sept.  15,  I8r.2.  iind  in  the 
battle  of  Antietam  two  days  later:  at  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, where  his  command  held  the  strong  position  of 
Maryc's  Heights,  so  fatal  to  their  opponents;  at  Chancellors- 
ville  and  at  (xettysburg;  transferred  to  the  West  with  the 
corps  of  Longstreet.  he  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Chieka- 
mauga  and  the  subsequent  siege  of  Knoxville.  Returning 
to  Virginia  in  18(14,  now  major-general,  he  commanded  a 
division  in  the  final  campaign  of  Lee's  army,  terminating 
at  Appomattox  Court-house.  Since  the  war  he  has  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  politics  of  South  Carolina. 

Kertch  [the  ancient  PnntSinpmim^  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Tauridn.  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Crimean  peninsula,  on  the  Strait  of  Kaffa.  It  was  a  flour- 
ishing town,  with  an  extensive  trade  and  23,000  inhabit- 
ants, when  in  1855  it  was  taken  by  the  allied  French  and 
English  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  sacked  bv  the  soldiery. 
Paiiticapmim  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  of  Miletus  in  the 


sixth  century  D.  c.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom of  Bosporus,  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  by 
Pompey  63  n.  c. ;  conquered  successively  by  the  Huns  (375), 
the  Genoese  (1280),  the  Turks  (1475),  and  the  Russians 
(1771).  It  is  alleged  to  have  been  a  residence  of  Mithri- 
dates,  the  ruins  of  whose  palace  are  found  on  a  hill  adjoin- 
ing Kertch. 

Ker'ton,  tp.  of  Fulton  co..  111.     Pop.  504. 

Ker'vyn  dc  Let'tenliove  (Joseph  Mahik  Brpno  Co5- 
stantin).  b.  at  St.  Michel.  Flanders  (now  Belgium),  Aug. 
17,  1817  ;  engaged  in  histori(^al  researches  in  early  life,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  authorities  upon  the 
antiquities  of  Belgium.  Among  his  works  are  ^tudc  nur  les 
Cfirtnn'i/ur»  (ie  Froissnrt  (1856),  Hixtoirc  de  Flnndre  (6  vols., 
1847-50),  both  which  obtained  premiums  for  distinguished 
merit;  t/a^'/f/^s  f/'^lrfpcrWf  (1863).  an  edition  of  the  Z.rr^*e« 
et  X<'ffnci<itiims  (h:  f*hHippt-  (U  Cfiiiiin'iieit  (1867),  and  nu- 
merous memoirs  published  by  the  academies  of  France 
and  Belgium. 

Keshe'^na,  post-tp.  of  Shawnnaw  co..  Wis.     Pop,  49. 

Kes'trel,  called  also  Wiiidhover,  from  its  habit  of 
maintaining  itself  in  one  place  in  the  air,  with  its  head  to 
the  wind,  one  of  the  smallest  and  most  abundant  of  Euro- 
pean hawks,  the  Fafru  timiuiicultig.  It  is  a  great  dcvourer 
of  mice  and  other  vermin. 

Kes'wick,  market-town  of  Cumberland.  England,  22 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Carlisle,  at  the  foot  of  Skiddaw  Mountain, 
and  beside  Lake  Dcrwentwater,  is  noted  for  its  picturesque 
sccnerv  and  as  the  residence  of  the  poet  Southey.  Pop.  in 
1871.  2777. 

Keswick  I>^p6t,  post-v.  of  Albemarle  co..  Va.,  on 
the  Washington  Citv  A'irginia  Jlidland  and  Great  Southern 
R.  R.,  110  miles  S."  W.  of  Washington,  ]>,  C.  and  on  the 
Chesiipcahc  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  90  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Rich- 
mond, Va. 

Keszthcly',  town  of  Hungary,  is  situated  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  Lake  Balaton,  on  which  it  carries  on  a  very  im- 
portant fishing  business.  Its  breed  of  horses  is  celebrated, 
and  its  trade  in  corn  and  wine  extensive.     Pop.  7150. 

Ketch'o,  or  C'aclia'o,  town  of  Anam,  in  Farther  In- 
dia, the  capital  of  the  province  of  Tonquin.  on  the  Ton- 
quin.  Although  this  river  is  navigable  only  for  small  craft, 
the  trade  of  Kcteho  is  considerable.  Bullion,  lacqaered 
wares,  and  fine  .silks  are  exported.     Pop.  150,000. 

Ketch'ura  (William  Scott),  b.  July  7,  1813,  at  Nor- 
I7alk,  Conn.;  graduated  at  West  Point  July  1,  1834.  and 
entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  ;  prior  to 
the  civil  war  he  served  in  Florida  against  the  Seininolcs, 
upon  the  Western  frontier,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  having 
in  18C0  arrived  at  a  majority  in  the  -Ith  Infantry.  In  Nov., 
1861,  he  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  10th  Infantry, 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  the  following  Fehruarv, 
and  colonel  of  the  lllh  Infantry  May  6. 1864.  After  eight 
months'  service  in  the  West  as  acting  inspector-general,  he 
was  in  Aug.,  1862,  placed  upon  special  duty  in  the  war  and 
treasury  departments  in  Washington.  Brevetted  brigailier- 
gcneral  and  major-general  Mar.  13,  1865;  retired  from  Ac- 
tive service  Dec.  15,  1870  j  d.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jane  28, 
1P71.  G.  C.  SiMstoNS. 

Ketones,  or  Acetones  (see  Acetone).  This  large 
class  of  bodies,  though  no  member  of  it  has  as  yet  obtained 
any  practical  application  of  importance,  is  of  great  interest 
to  chemical  science  and  the  chemical  student  ;  and  we  may 
expect  to  find  practical  uses  for  its  memhers  in  the  future 
if  we  prosecute  their  study.  The  ketones  have  the  same 
empirical  generic  formula  as  the  fatty  aldehydes,  ChHthO, 
and  each  ketone  has  therefore  its  metamere  among  the  al- 
dehydes. The  view  that  they  are  derivable  from  llie  alde- 
hydes, by  the  replacement  of  hydrogen  by  an  alcohol-rad- 
ical, does  not  seem  substantiated  by  synthesis  so  far;  and 
their  relations  to  the  aldehydes,  exhibited  in  the  foUowing 
table,  do  not  apjiear  to  lend  it  any  sup])ort.  Chancel  seems 
first  to  have  hypothetically  pointed  out  that  the  ketones 
are  carhoni/ fides,  containing  a  nuclear  molecule  of  carbonic 
oxide  or  e» rbonifle.  Gerhardt's  and  AVilliamson's  researches 
supported  this  view,  and  Wanklyn  demonstrated  it  by  show- 
ing that  carbonic  oxide  and  his  ethylidc  of  sodium  react  as 
follows,  producing  the  ketone  which  is  called  pmpioue, 
from  being  originally  formed  by  the  destructive  distillation 
of  calcic  propionate : 

CjHsNa  +  CO  =  Xa2  4  (C:iH,oO  =  CCCsITs.CHs) ;  and  we 

may  represent  the  ordinary  method  of  making  ketones, 
by  distilling  the  fatty  acid  salts  of  dyad  metals,  in  the  case 
of  ftropionc,  ns  follows: 

propionate  cnrb-aato.  Propione. 

CslifiOj*^^"  ^  C^"C*^3  +  CO,C2H5,C2H6. 


KETTELKK— KEW-KIA.NG. 


1537 


On  the  homologic  theory  (see  article  Homoi.ocy),  the  ke- 
tones, as  a  series  of  homologuos,  must  have  a  nuclear  molo- 

cule  or  radical  wCO  or  IIj.CO;  and  their  homologenic  for- 
mula is  IIj.C'O  +  nHjC;  the  consideration  of  which  excites 
very  curious  su«;<;cstioDS  and  speculations. 


Tho  last  cohimn  in  the  accompanying  table  shows  the 
system  of  notation  assigned  to  the  ketones  here  tabulated, 
by  AVanklyn,  who  lias  been  the  most  distinguished  investi- 
gator of  this  class  of  bodies.  There  have  been  placed  at 
the  end  of  this  table  two  ketones  of  high  rqnivalc-nts.  dis 
i  covered  near  forty  years  ago  by  Bussy,  but  which  have 


Fatty  Aldelijrdes: 
Kamn  nad  FormaliB. 


Formic CHgO 

Common CoH^O 

Propionic CaHgO 

Butyric— !  C4HaO 

Valeric !  CjHi^O 

Caproic CaflnO 

'Knanthylic CtFIhO 

Caprylic OsII.oO 

C,II„0 

C.„H„,0 


Fatty  KctouM. 


Di-hydroRen  ketone 

(unknown) 
H*ydrogen-methylo  ketone 

(unknown) 
Common  acetone 

Methyle-ethyle  ketone 

Propione 

Metbyle-butyle  ketone 

Butyrone 

Ethylc-amylo  ketone 

Valeronc 

Di-amylc  ketone 

Palmitonc,  or  margarouc.... 
Stcarono 


Wanklyn'is  Formula). 


co{™» 
cii. 


CO. 

ro. 


CO 


i  CIIj. 
ICIU.CII,. 


cii,,cir™,ciii 

CO  J  "la-      " 


CO 


rcir,. 


.CUj.CHa.CHj. 


..     -1     ii     .     J 


<  ■ir;,rH„,cH2,cHj,CH,,CHs. 

ICU2,Cir,,CII»,CIl2,CHj,CH2,CHa. 

ciio,cii;,cir2,cir2.cir2,cH2,CH2.ciij. 


CO,C3oIIg2. 

CO.Ca^HyQ. 


!)pcn  po  nearly  forgotten  that  they  are  scarcely  mentioned 
in  the  textbooks.  Tliey  were  compared  by  their  discoverer 
to  "prrmitirli,  and  are  easily  prepared  by  distilling  the 
crystiillized  fatty  acids  with  lime.  They  should  bo  re-ex- 
amined with  a  view  to  determine  their  practical  or  economic 
value  for  making  candles  or  otherwise.       Hknrv  Wrnxz. 

Ket'teler,  von  (Wilhelm  Emanuel),  b.  at  Miinster, 
Westphalia,  Dec.  2."),  I.SII;  studied  first  law,  and  entered 
tho  civil  service  of  his  native  city  ;  then  theology,  and  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1844.  In  iS41l  he  was  made  provost 
of  the  lledwigskirehe  of  Berlin,  and  in  1S;»0  bishop  of 
Mentz.  The  energy  of  his  character  and  his  talents  as  a 
debater  and  controversialist  have  made  him  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Ultramontane  party,  and  one  of  the  most 
prominent  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  tier- 
many. 

Ket'tcll  (Sahiki,).  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Aug.  .1, 
ISflO;  was  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  mastered  no  less 
than  fourteen  languages.  lie  assisted  Mr.  Goodrich  in 
preparing  tho  "  Peter  Parley  "  books,  and  was  (1848-55) 
chief  editor  of  the  Boston  C<nirify,  He  was  a  clever  writer, 
and  published  a  number  of  works,  of  which  the  best  known 
is  Sjirrhiirnn  of  Amrriran  Puelri/  (3  vols.,  1829).  I),  at 
Maiden,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1855. 

Kct'tcring,  town  of  England,  in  tho  county  of  North- 
ampton. It  has  flomo  manufactures  of  silk  and  plush. 
Pop.  M!)S. 

Kettle  River,  tp.  of  Pine  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  74. 

Ken'per,  The,  the  uppermost  of  tho  three  groups  into 
whi.h  the  'i'riassic  or  New  Ucd  Samlstone  period  is  divided. 
It  is  reprcsontod  in  Europe  in  different  localities  by  two 
very  dilTercnt  sots  of  strata,  supposed  to  bo  of  contempora- 
neous origin — the  one  a  series  of  red  and  yellow  fresh-water 
marls  an»l  sandstones,  and  the  other  a  more  recently  recog- 
nized series  of  marine  strata,  known  as  the  Hallstadt  and 
St.  Cassian  beds.  About  tho  true  position  of  theso  latter 
there  is  still,  however,  much  dispute,  and  where  these  are 
absent  the  Keuy)er  is  eapperl  by  a  bone-boil  of  especial  in- 
terest, as  in  it  have  been  found  the  remains  of  the  earliest 
known  maininals  { Micrntciite»,  etc.).  Whether  any  portion 
of  tho  American  Trias  is  equivalent  to  tho  European  Keu- 
per  is  an  open  question. 

Kow,  village  and  parish  of  England, county  of  Surrey, 
<.j)posite  Brentfonl,  in  Middlesex,  8  miles  from  I,ondo.n. 
kew  (lardens  and  the  pleasure-grounds  extend  along  the 
Thames  from  Kew  (Ireen  to  tho  borders  of  Uiehmond.  It 
was  in  these  grounils  that  Bradley's  observations  upon  the 
lixed  stars  were  made  about  the  middle  of  tho  seventeenth 
century,  with  a  telescope  constructed  by  Mr.  (!.  Molyneux, 
then  the  owner  of  Kew  House,  which  was  leased  by  the 
prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Ocorge  II.,  by  whom  the  •'  pleasure- 
grounds  "  were  first  laid  out,  and  further  embellished  by  his 
widow.  Kew  Palace,  an  unpretending  brick  house  of 
moderate  si«e,  became  royal  property  in  the  early  ilays  of 
tleorgo  in.,  who  here  played  his  favorite  part  (»f  "  Farmer 
(Jeorge."  A  cottage,  secluded  in  the  upper  part  of  the  park 
or  pleasure-grounds,  is  still  preserved  with  its  furniture  as 
it  was  left  by  (Jueen  Charlotte.  This  and  tho  nnlenanteil 
palaco  remain  in  the  possession  of  tho  Crown.  AVhile  tho 
Vol..  II.— U7 


life  of  the  royal  family  at  Kew  will  be  remembered  through 
Madame  d'.Xrblay's  (Miss  BnrncyV)  memoirs,  tlie  later  in- 
terest of  Kew  centres  in  its  gardens  and  btitanieal  collec- 
tions. The  large  and  choice  collections  of  living  plants, 
maintained  for  70  or  80  years  as  the  private  property  of  the 

sovereign,  under  the  administrali i(  the  two  Aitons.  futlicr 

and  son,  were  of  much  botanical  importance.  In  If.lS  the 
grounds  became  national  properly,  under  the  contr(d  of  the 
commissioners  of  tho  woods  ami  forests,  and  the  now  cele- 
brated establishment  was  foumled.  It  was  placed  under 
tho  charge  of  Sir  William  Il.iokcr,  and  since  his  death  in 
isr.o  tliatof  his  son,  Dr.  .Tose])h  II.  Hooker,  now  president 
of  tho  Royal  Society.  Umler  these  adniini.«trators  r.nd  tho 
liberal  .support  of  Parliament  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew 
have  become  tho  largest  and  most  im|>ortant,  as  well  as  the 
most  popular,  botanical  establishment  in  the  world,  both  as 
respects  tho  conservatories  ami  collections  of  living  )ilants, 
and  in  tho  herbarium  and  noble  museum  of  vegcluble  prod- 
ucts founded  by  Sir  William  Ilcjoker.  The  whole  establish- 
ment is  freely  open  to  the  public  every  day  after  one  o'clock. 
Tho  annual  number  of  visitors,  commencing  with  9000  in 
1841,  has  risen  to  nearly  700,000.  A.sA  GitAy. 

Kewa'nee,  posl-v.  and  tp.  of  Henry  co..  III.,  on  tho 
Chicago  liuilington  and  Quincv  K.  Ii.,'].'i2  miles  W.  of 
("hicago;  has  7  churches,  .'i  public-school  buildings,  1  na- 
tional and  1  private  bank,  1  weekly  newspaper,  2  flour- 
mills,  2  foundries  and  machine-shops,  several  wagon  and 
carriage  shops,  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements 
and  of  house-heating  iipparatus,  a  distillery,  and  the  usual 
complement  of  stores.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  rich 
farming-lands  and  inexhaustible  beils  of  bituminous  coal. 
Pop.  4225.  C.  Bassett,  Ed.  '■  I.vhei'E.vde.nt." 

Kcwas'kiim,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  Wis.     l>op.  1,109. 

Kewnu'liec,county  of  Wisconsin,  having  Lake  Mich- 
igan as  its  eastern  bounrlary.  Area,  about  :i4ll  square  miles. 
It  is  chiefly  covereil  with  foresls.  and  lumber  is  the  prin- 
cipal export.  The  soil  is  productive.  Orain  an<l  potatoes 
are  the  staple  crops.     Cap.  Kewaunee.     P<qi.  10,128. 

Kcwniinec,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Kewaunee  co., 
Wis.,  on  Lake  Michigan,  nt  the  mouth  of  the  Kewaunee 
River,  27  miles  E.  of  (ireen  Bay  City.  It  has  several 
churches,  hotels,  2  saw-mills,  and  I  weekly  ncwsiianer 
Pop.  Ifisl.  .'II 

Kcwpc'nnw,  county  of  N.  Michigan,  consisting  of  Iho 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  known  as  Keweenaw  I'nint  in 
Lake  Superior,  by  which  it  is  surrounded  except  on  the 
south-west  .Wde.  Area,  about  lifiO  square  miles,  it  is  cold. 
elevated,  and  unproductive,  but  abminds  in  valuable  ar- 
gentiferous copper,  the  mining  of  which  is  the  principal 
eniplr>ymenl.     Cap.  Eagle  Harlior.      Pop.  4205. 

Kcw-KinnK,  or  Kiu-Kinng  [Chinese.  "Nine  Riv- 
ers"), one  of  the  largest  cities  of  China,  situated  in  tho 
province  of  Kiang-Si,  on  the  Vang-tic  River,  near  the  N. 
extremity  of  I'oyang  Lake,  227  miles  S.  W.  of  Nanking. 
It  i«  the  emporium  of  tho  great  (ea-distriels  S.  of  Povang 
Lake,  and  tho  shipments  have  reacheil  25,000,0110  pounds 
in  a  single  year.  Tho  city  has  two  suburbs  nearlv  as  largo 
as  itself,  the  uniteil  population  of  all  three  beinc  calculated 
at  over  1 ,000,000,  notwithstanding  a  great  loss  of  population 


1538 


KEY. 


and  partial  ruin  incurred  during  the  Taeping  rebellion. 
There  is  an  English  settlement  and  several  American  houses 
of  commerce,  one  of  \vhieh.  Russell  &  Co.,  maintains  a  large 
number  of  steamers  on  the  river,  the  arrivals  of  steamers 
having  numbered  over  4110  in  1871.  The  trade  is  chiefly 
in  connection  witli  Shanghai. 

Key.  In  modern  music  every  regular  composition  is 
written,  or  purports  to  be  written,  in  one  or  other  of  the 
major  or  minor  scales.  The  scale  chosen  is  said  to  bo  the 
I:ri/  of  the  piece:  and  the  first  or  root-note  of  that  scale, 
from  which  all  its  steps  or  degrees  are  reckoned  and  derive 
their  character,  is  called  the  k'  ipiotc  or  tonic.  These  scales 
or  keys  are  either  major  or  minor,  no  other  "modes"  be- 
ing recognized  in  what  is  distinctively  known  as  modern 
music.  The  normal  form  of  a  .«eale  in  the  major  mode  is 
that  of  C ;  and  the  scale  of  A  gives  the  normal  form  of  the 
minor  mode.  But  under  certain  conditions  scales  similar 
to  those  of  C  and  A  may  take  their  rise  from  an:/  point  or 
degree  of  the  diatonic-chromatic  scale — i'.  c.  we  may  form 
a  scale  commencing  on  I),  E.  F,  etc.,  or  on  BI7.  EI7.  Cj,  etc. ; 
and  as  there  arc  twelve  degrees  in  the  origin.al  scale  (viz. 
C),  the  number  of  possible  scales  will  bo  twelve  in  the 
major  mode  and  twelve  in  the  minor.  The  composer  has 
therefore  a  choice  of  twenty-four  keys,  differing  both  in 
acuteness  and  in  certain  peculiarities  of  expression.  It 
will  be  found,  however,  (hat  every  one  of  those  additional 
scales  is  imperfect  in  its  natural  order  of  tones  and  semi- 
tones, difl'ering  more  or  less  in  form  from  the  pattern  .scales 
of  C  and  A,  and  therefore  requiring  an  adjustment  of  cer- 
tain intervals  to  render  it  fit  for  use.  Thus,  on  comparing 
a  scale  commencing  on  G  with  that  of  C.  as  in  Ex.  1,  wo 
perceive  that  the  place  of  the  semitone  at  Mi.  (as  indicated 
by  the  sliir)  does  not  correspond  with  that  in  the  key  of  C ; 
thus  rendering  the  new  scale  imperfect  and  practically  use- 
less : 

Ex.1.        Scale  of  C  Major.  Scale  of  G.  NB. 


To  remedy  this  it  becomes  necessary  that  tho  F  in  the  scale 
of  G  should  be  raised  a  semitone  by  means  of  a  sharp,  by 
which  alteration  the  two  scales  will  now  be  brought  into 
agreement.  In  music  written  in  the  scale  of  G  mjijor  every 
F  will  therefore  become  F  nharp  (unless  when  contradicted 
occasionally  by  a  3) ;  and  for  convenience'  sake  in  writing, 
a  sharp  on  F  is  placed  once  for  all  near  the  clef  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  called  the  sujnatiirc.  The  case  may  be  further 
illustrated  by  comparing  the  distances  of  the  letters  in  tho 
following  example: 


Ex.  2.    Scale  nf  C. 

C D- 

Scalc  of  G. 
G A 


-E— F- 


-B— C- 


-B-C. 


-D- 


-E— F- 


-G. 


Now,  to  bring  the  latter  into  correspondence  with  the  for- 
mer, it  is  evident  that  we  must  move  the  F  at  n  half  a  space 
nearer  to  G,  which  is  tho  office  of  a  sharp  when  expressed 
in  n«tte?.  In  the  key  of  D  major  there  are  needed  tiro  such 
rectifieationsof  the  sciile.  and  accordingly  two  sharps — viz. 
F  anil  (' — are  placed  at  the  commencement.  In  A  major 
three  sharps  are  rerjuired  :  and  all  the  other  keys,  major  and 
minor,  need  similar  adjustment  hy  tho  use  nf  sharps  or  flats, 
even  to  the  number  of  seven,  the  object  being  simply  to 
bring  them  into  conformity  with  the  csrahlished  order  of 
the  scale.  The  succession  of  the  keys,  both  major  and  mi- 
nor, with  tho  sharps  or  fiats  required  for  the  rectification 
of  their  scales,  is  shown  in  Ex.  :i : 
Ex.3. 


Keys  with  Siiaeps. 

Maj. 

jtfm. 

Sharps. 

C. 

A. 



G. 

E. 

F. 

n, 

B. 

F— C. 

A. 

Ft 

F-C— G. 

E. 

V,t. 

F— C— G— D. 

H. 

<lt 

F— C— G— D— A. 

Ft 

Dt 

F — C — G — D — A — E 

c-S- 

At 

F— C-G— D— A— E— B. 

Ke 

v-9  WITH  Flats. 

M„j. 

.Via. 

FlaU. 

F. 

n. 

n. 

z 

G. 

B— E. 

<:. 

I)-E-A. 

Mr,- 

I'. 

B_E— A— D. 

z 

Uh. 

B— I>-A— n— G. 

h». 

B— E— A— D— G-C. 

tb. 

A(,. 

B— E— A— D-G— C— F. 

The  signatures  of  tboFC  kovs  or  pcales  nrc  written  as  in  Ex. 
4,  whore  the  keifnotcn  of  (ho  ro=pt'ctivc  scalps  are  also  addod, 
the  upper  note  heini;  tho  major,  and  tho  lower  one  its  rela- 
tive minor,  or  that  having  the  eame  signature : 


;sE 


:^; 


Ex.  4.  C  G  D  A  E  B 


$ 


E 


B 


FJ 


GJ 
Ob 


DS  At 

Db  A|, 


Bb  F 

Thoup:h  there  are  in  reality  onlv  twelve  major  nnd  twelve 
minor  scales,  corresponding  in  nmnher  with  the  degrees  of 
the  diatonic-ehromatio  scale,  yet  in  the  example  just  given 
it  will  he  noticed  that  the  nuinhor  is  fj'tecn  of  each  mode, 
or  thirhf  in  all.  instead  of  twenty-four.  This  is  explained 
hy  observing  that  there  arc  in  the  example  three  major  and 
three  minor  keys  or  scales  which  are  in  snuiui  identical  with 
certain  others,  though  tliey  are  difTorently  written.  These 
are  called  the  "  hinominnus"  keys — »'.  f.  keys  having  two 
names,  and  written  variously  or  indifferontly  in  sharps  or 
in  flats.  They  arcFff  and  ii\f,  15  2  and  C\j,  and  CS  and  Db. 
with  their  relative  minors.  It  is  evident  that  FJand  (ij*. 
though  different  to  the  ctff,  are  tho  same  to  the  car,  when 
played  on  ordinary  keyed  instruments;  and  therefore  the 
same  sounfh  are  produced,  and  the  same  finger-keys  arc 
usecl  on  the  organ  or  pianoforte,  whether  a  piece  is  written 
and  performed  in  the  key  of  TJInr  in  that  of  Giy.  From 
which  it  follows  that  a  given  strain  or  movement  may  ho 
written  hy  a  composer  in  either  of  those  keys  at  pleasure, 
the  effect  on  tho  ear  being  precisely  the  same  whether  writ- 
ten in  six  sharps  or  six  flats.  In  Ex.  5,  for  instance,  the 
notes  at  a  are  in  sound  (and  under  the  fingers)  identical 
with  those  at  b : 

Ex.  5.— a.        In  Ft 


While,  therefore,  there  are  in  reality  {!.  e,  to  the  car)  only 
twenty-four  keys,  yet  as  three  of  the  mnjor  and  three  of  tho 
minor  keys  mny  be  expressed  in  two  ways — viz.  in  sharps 
or  in  flats — it  follows  that  the  number  of  keys  when  tcrilten 
(but  not  otherwise)  is  thirty,  as  shown  in  Ex.  4. 

To  find  the  tonic  or  keynote  of  any  piece  or  movement,  it 
is  ordinarily  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  lust  note  in  the  bnss 
(which  is  almost  always  the  tonic),  and  then  to  ascertain 
from  the  siffnnfnrc  whether  the  key  is  major  or  minor. 
Should  tho  final  bass-note,  for  instance,  bo  C,  and  no  sharps 
or  flats  be  fouml  at  tho  elef,  tho  key  is  that  of  C  mnjor;  but 
if  we  find  three  flnts  at  the  clef,  we  know  from  this  signa- 
ture that  tho  key  is  C  minor.  T\\\»,  however,  is  only  a  gen- 
eral rule,  to  which  there  are  several  exceptions,  as  when  in 
old  music  a  movement  in  Bb  is  written  with  tlic  signature 
belonging  to  F — i*.  c.  with  one  flat  only — tho  second  flat  be- 
ing inserted  before  each  E  in  the  piece  as  an  accidental. 
Also,  in  discursive  pieces,  digressions  into  new  keys  often 
occur,  including  whole  movements,  without  any  change  of 
tho  signature,  the  necessary  flats,  sharps,  or  naturals  being 
inserted  before  the  notes  themselves  where  necessary.  Occa- 
sionally also  in  ecclesiastical  compositions  the  last  note  of 
tho  bass  is  not  the  krt/note  or  tonic,  but  the  c/omninrif  with 
its  major  triad.  M'ith  these  ami  similar  exceptions  kept 
in  view,  the  hrt/notr  and  tlie  scale  and  mode  of  a  composi- 
tion may  bo  generally  ascertained  by  reference  to  the  final 
bass-note  and  the  signature. 

It  is  far  more  difficult,  however,  to  find  the  key  of  a  given 
mclodjf  than  of  a  piece  con^prising  two  or  three  parts  in 
harmnni/,  because  a  melocly  may  be  founded  on  certain 
notes  which  are  common  to  nm:rnl  Hca/rn  or  keys,  and  will 
necessarily  bo  equivocal  until  settled  hy  tho  addition  of 
harmony.  In  demonstration  of  this  see  the  melody  or 
theme  in  Ex.  C,  which  nt  first  appears  to  be  in  G  major: 

Ex.6. 


But  though  this  may  readily  and  very  naturally  be  har- 
monized in  O  major,  yet  the  key  in  which  the  composer 
conceived  it  mni/  possibly  prove  tn  he  V  major  or  E  minor, 
as  illustrated  by  the  harmony  in  Ex.  7  : 


KEY— KEY-BOAED. 


1539 


Ex.  7.        In  C  major. 


^^^^^^^ 


^   A 


::& 


E^E 


£E 


^ 


In  E  m  inor. 


^E^E^ 


r^r 


.*=M-36d=Fd-^ 


:*: 


^^^ 


-I ^ 

The  keynote  of  a  pivcn  melody  cannot  therefore  be  fully 
n^jccrtaincd  UDleiis  tliiit  melody  includes  in  its  ranj^ca/nho 
notes  of  ft  scale,  thereby  iduiitifviug  itself  with  tliiit  scale 
by  elements  and  progressions  which  would  be  foreign  to 
any  other. 

Kespecting  keynotes,  it  may  also  be  remarked  that  in 
keys  with  sharps  the  keynote  in  major  is  always  on  that 
letter  which  is  onr  nctuitoiie  ahitrc  the  Innt  Hhnrp  <jf  the  sig- 
nature. Thus,  if  there  are  two  sharps.  FJ  and  05.  the  key- 
note is  />.  When  F,  C,  and  O  arc  sharped,  the  keynote 
will  be  A,  and  so  on.  In  keys  with  Hats  the  keynote  in 
major  is  on  the  letter  n  fourth  below  (or  a  fifth  uhnre)  the 
laxt  jfnt  at  the  clef.  Thus,  in  two  flats.  Bb  and  h}y,  the  key- 
note is  Bb.  In  three  flats,  lib,  E^,  and  A\j,  the  keynote  will 
be  K^,  and  so  throughout.  The  kcynnto  in  miuor  is  always 
a  minor  third  below  the  major,  as  A  below  C,  G  below  1%. 
etc.  In  keys  with  sharps  the  minor  keynote  is  also  one 
whole  tone  below  the  last  ^harp  of  the  signature.  Thus,  in 
two  sharps,  FS  and  CJ,  it  is  IJ :  in  three  sharps,  Ff.  (%  and 
(i5,  it  will  be  FS,  and  so  on.  In  keys  with  flats  the  minor 
keynote  is  a  si.xth  below  the  last  flat.  Thus,  in  two  flat?, 
Bb  and  F^,  it  is  (J,  and  in  three  flats,  Bb,  E^y,  and  A\j,  it 
will  be  C.  To  recollect  the  anicr  of  major  keys  in  sharps, 
reckon  upteani  bt/  prrfcvt  fiftht,  as  from  C  to  G,  then  G  to 
I>,  l>  to  A,  and  so  onward.  This  gives  the  succession  of 
major  keys  in  regular  order  from  one  to  seven  sharps.  In 
major  keys  with  flats,  reckon  duwuward  htf  perfect  ffthi, 
as  from  C  to  F,  F  to  V\y,  etc.,  and  the  succession  of  keys  in 
reguhir  order  from  one  to  seven  flats  will  be  found.  This 
rule  applies  also  to  miuor  keys.         William  Statnton. 

Key  (Fkancis  St-oTT),  b.  in  Frederick  co.,  Md..  Aug.  1, 
17711,  and  was  educated  at  St.. John's  College.  He  practised 
law  ill  Frederick,  Mil.,  aiid  in  Washington,  I).  C.  lie  is  | 
chiefly  ri'incmbered  as  the  author  of  The  Sdir-Spanf/lnl 
llnuiur,  which  ho  composed  while  a  prisoner  iu  the  British 
fleet  during  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Melienry.  D.  at 
Baltimore  Jan.  II,  lH4:i.  A  volume  of  his  poems,  edited 
by  II.  \).  Jcdtns,  appeared  in  1867.  Mr.  Key  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  CJiiol-Justice  Taney. 

Key  (Thomas  Hkwitt).  M.  A..  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  South- 
wark,  Knglaud,  Mar.  20,  1791*:  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Tambridgo,  in  1S21  ;  studied  medicine,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  \'ir- 
ginia  on  the  first  organization  of  that  institution  in  1S24. 
lU'turning  to  Knglaiid  in  1^27.  he  was  for  thirteen  years 
professor  of  Liitin  in  the  newly-organized  University  of 
London,  after  which  ho  became  professor  of  compnrntivo 
grammar  and  headmaster  of  the  preparatory  school,  which 
positions  ho  retained  to  thu  lime  of  his  death,  Nov.,  1S75. 
llj!  published  a  Lutitx  (jnnnmar  (IHI.i-lfi),  /'hifological  Eh- 
0III/1  (  lSr»S),   Lmujtuiijr,   tin   Orif/iit    iintl    /Jrrriopmeut  (IH7-1), 

and  nniny  philological  essays  in  the  magazines.  His  great- 
(  U  work,  a  Latin- Enijliih  Lexieon,  is  still  unpublished. 

Key  (Thomas  Mahsiiall).  b.  in  Kentucky  about  IftlS; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  \K\V>\  studied  law:  settled  at 
Cincinnati,  and  took  a  high  position  at  the  bar.  He  was 
repeatedly  elected  to  the  Ohio  senate:  was  in  ISfil  sent  as 
commissioner  to  the  government  of  Kentucky  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  Union;  was  a  member  of  the  staff  of  Oen. 
McClcllan;  author  of  the  first  bill  passed  by  Congress  for 
the  emancipation  of  slaves,  and  also  of  that  for  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  slaves  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  D.  at 
Lebanon,  Ky.,  Jan.  I.'i.  IMIU. 

Kcy'-bonr(t,or  Fingrr-l>onr(l,  in  an  organ,  piano- 
forte, or  olhi-r  similar  in>lrunieiit  the  series  or  range  of 
short  levers,  usually  covcreii  with  ivory  and  ebony,  on  which 
the  lingers  of  the  performer  operate.  Each  of  these  Icvcra 
is  called  a  kejf,  the  longer  or  while  ones  representing  tho 
diatonic  scale  of  C  miijor  in  several  successive  octaves,  and 
the  shorter  or  black  ones  furnishing  tho  intermediate  sharps 
and  flats  requisite  for  tho  other  scales.     Tho  key-board  is 


frequently  denominated  a  hnnk^  row,  or  set  of  keys,  and  in 
organs  of  considerable  size  there  are  two,  three,  and  some- 
times four,  such  sets.  The  clavichord,  virgiual,  spinet,  and 
harpsichord  of  former  days  were  also  furnished  with  keys, 
tho  latter  frecpicntly  having  two  sets,  and  in  some  eases 
four  and  even  more.  Dr.  Ilimbault  remarks  that  "the 
author  of  a  rare  volume  published  at  Bologna  in  1590,  under 
tho  title  of  II  Dvsidrri'ti,  mentioning  some  curious  instru- 
ments in  the  palace  of  the  duke  of  Fenara,  says,  'There 
was  a  harpsichord  invented  by  Don  Nic'»la  Vinccntino,  sur- 
namcd  Arr{ninRirt>,  in  the  year  iJ.");').  It  had  six  rows  of 
keys,  comprehending  in  their  division  the  three  harmonic 
genera.'  He  adds  that  the  niuhitude  of  strings  on  this  as- 
tonishing instrument  rendered  it  very  difficult  to  tune,  and 
more  so  to  play."  (  Thr  Pitniofnrtc,  itn  Origin,  etc.)  Besides 
the  key-boards  for  the  fingers,  organs  are  usually  provided 
with  a  set  of  keys  for  the  feet.  Iho  former  being  distin- 
guished as  tho  muunah,  an<l  the  latter  as  tho  ped<da.  The 
key-board  has  reached  its  present  perfect  form  only  after 
several  centuries  of  experiment  and  improvement.  In  its 
rudest  elementary  form  we  may  trace  its  existence  in  the 
small  and  roughly  constructed  organs  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries.  It  appears  to  have  comprised  at  that 
period  only  a  few  parallel  levers  of  much  larger  size  than 
our  present  keys,  and  requiring  a  strong  pressure  to  move 
them.  Anterior  to  that  pcrioil  we  have  no  distinct  traces 
of  this  mecdianical  device.  *'  Guido,"  says  the  author  just 
quotecl,  'Ms  said  to  have  invented  the  clavier  or  key-board, 
and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  be  was  the  first  to  npply 
it  to  the  media'val  instrument  of  many  strings,  .  .  .  which 
seems  to  have  been  tho  same  with  the  clavichord,  and,  as 
such,  was  the  progenitor  of  the  harpsichord,  the  spinet,  the 
virginal,  and  the  pianoforte  of  modern  times.  .  .  .  The 
first  stringed  instrument  to  which  the  key-board  was  ap- 
plied was  proliably  the  clavicytherium  or  kei/til  cithara.  In 
its  early  stages  it  was  a  small  ot)l(jng  box,  with  the  strings 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  h;i!f  triangle."  {/hid.,  pp.  2S-li.'>.) 

The  structure  or  plan  of  the  key-board  now  in  use  is 
comparatively  modern,  and  its  very  outline  or  conception 
presupposes  such  a  knowledge  of  the  diatonic-chromatic 
scale  as  was  ntd  attained  till  many  years  after  the  time  of 
(luido.  The  probability,  therefore,  is,  that  for  a  long  jie- 
riod  tho  early  key-boards  consisted  merely  of  two  or  three 
octaves  of  short  levers  operating  on  pipes  tuned  in  the  nat- 
ural order  of  the  scale,  with,  possibly,  an  extra  key  in  each 
octave  for  a  fliit  seventh  or  other  needed  interval.  The  ad- 
justment of  the  key-board  so  as  to  comprise  «//  the  inter- 
vals would,  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  be  dependent  on 
the  regulation  of  the  elements  of  tho  ehronuitio  scale;  and 
for  this  reas<tn  we  cannot  date  tho  formation  of  our  present 
key-board  fartlicr  buck  than  about  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century  or  the  iMginning  of  the  thirteentli,  when  the  struc- 
ture of  the  scale  began  to  be  more  clearly  apprehended. 

The  ordinary  key-hoard  comprises  tones  and  semitones, 
but  excludes  all  lesser  or  enharmonic  intervals.  Each  black 
key  is  the  sharp  of  the  while  key  on  its  left,  and  the  Jfttt 
of  the  white  key  on  its  ri;/hf.  From  this  it  follows  that 
every  black  key  serves  two  distinct  purposes,  being  a  sharp 
in  one  relation,  and  a  flat  in  another.  This  apparently  de- 
fective arrangement  is  unavoidable,  on  account  of  a  certain 
irregularity  in  the  scale,  which  if  strictly  met  woubl  require 
us  to  have  one  black  key  for  Cf.  anri  aiKdher  for  l'f»;  and 
so  with  FS  and  every  other  black  key.  In  rrnfiii/,  CJ  and 
Db  are  not  the  same  sounds,  nor  are  DJ  and  V\j  the  same; 
but  to  avoiil  tho  eom])tcxily  of  mechanism  ^vhich  would 
arise  from  the  use  (d"  quarter-tone  keys,  and  the  nuiltipliea- 
tion  of  piites  or  strings,  the  scale  is  so  "tempered"  as  to 
make  eacn  black  key  give  a  middle  or  compromise  tone, 
which  shall  snflicienlly  answer  for  a  sharp  in  the  one  case 
and  a  flat  in  the  other,  though  not  truly  or  exactlj-  repre- 
senting cither.  This  same  "  tempering  "  take?  place  also 
on  the  white  keys  f<ir  a  similar  reason.  Hence,  all  tho 
finger-keys  on  tho  board,  whether  white  or  black,  come  to 
be  representative  of  two  or  more  dilTerent  intervals  or 
sounds  ncconling  to  the  place  and  relation  they  may  oc- 
cupy in  a  musical  eoniposition,  or  the  scale  In  which  such 
composition  is  written.  Thus,  the  while  key  ordinarily 
namerl  C  may  also  be  cither  BJ  or  DW»  when  used  in  certain 
scales:  and  so  of  every  other  finger  key  throughout  tho 
octave,  as  will  ho  seen  in  the  iMinipI-'  following: 


r       9 

.'.       JS 

.r 

V  y 

1'    i' 

It 

L-IL_I 

nt  r«   Dm 
(;     D    i; 

1$    I'-x    Om 

F    i;     A 

An 
It 

mm  111 

*'bb|*^bb|^^ 

ct  nbbl 
.     1 

1540 


KEYES— KHANDEISH. 


On  the  pianoforte  it  would  not  be  possible  to  express  the 
ininulo  difTurenccs  bcre  referred  to  without  a  multiplicity 
of  iidditioiuil  slrin<;s  and  corresponding  changes  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  key-board.  Hut  several  organs  have  been 
built  with  liey-boards  and  extra  pipes  to  give  quarter-tones 
or  enharmonic  intervals.  In  those  instruments  each  black 
kcv  is  divided  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  is  used  for 
sharps,  and  the  other  for  flats,  thereby  securing  much  richer 
and  purer  harmony  than  can  be  obtained  from  organs  tuned 
on  cither  the  equal  or  the  unequal  temperament.  Harpsi- 
chords, as  already  noticed,  were  constructed  centuries  ago 
with  additional  strings  and  rows  of  keys,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  trithnul  temperamentthe  advantage  of  quarter- 
tones.    (ScO^TF.MPEnAMENT.)  WlI.I.lAM  ST.\rNT0N. 

Keyes  (En.isvfS  D.mwiM),  b.  at  .Sturbridge,  Mass., 
.Tunc,  1810;  removed  in  boyhood  to  Maine;  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  IS:i2  ;  was  instructor  at  the  Military 
Academy  from  ISU  to  184S;  was  engaged  in  Indian  w.ars 
on  Puget  Sound  in  1856;  commanded  a  brigade  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  to 
date  from  May  17,  ISGl  ;  was  in  the  b.attlcs  before  Rich- 
uujud  in  command  i.f  the  4th  corps,  and  made  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  and  brevet  brigadier-general  U.  S.  army 
for  gallant  conduct  in  the  field. 

Key  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, S.  of  New  Guinea,  in  lat.  5°  2o'  S.,  Ion.  1G2°  E., 
consists  of  two  large  and  a  number  of  small  islands.  Great 
Key  comprises  an  area  of  294  square  miles,  with  21,000 
inhabitants:  Little  Key,  of  2S3  square  miles,  with  10.000 
inhabitants.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  mountainous, 
fertile,  and  rich  in  timber,  cocoanuts,  tortoise-shells,  sago, 
and  ilifferent  kinds  of  fruits.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
partly  Christians,  partly  Mohammedans,  arc  described  as 
hospitable,  industrious,  and  honest. 

Keynote.  See  Key,  by  Rev.  William  Staunton, 
S.  T.  i). 

Key'port,  post-v.  of  Raritan  tp..  Monmouth  co..  N.  J., 
on  Raritan  B.ay,  2.')  miles  from  New  York  City  and  13  miles 
from  Freehold.  It  has  4  churches,  1  gradcdschool  build- 
ing (costing  S:)0,000),  1  weekly  newspaper,  2  saw-mills,  2 
flour-mills,  .1  large  hotels,  and  numerous  boarding-houses 
for  summer  visitors.  There  is  a  fruit-canning  factory,  es- 
tablished in  1SC«.  employing  l.iO  hands.  Two  steamers 
plv  daily  between  Kcyport  and  New  York,  connecting  with 
stage-lines  to  several  towns  of  New  .Jersey.  Koyport  is  an 
important  centre  of  the  oyster,  clam,  and  fish  trade,  the 
oysters  being  generally  brought  from  Virginia  and  planted 
in  beds  until  they  attain  their  growth.     Pop.  2300. 

McKiVNEY  &  Pox,  Ens.  "Wepkly." 
Keys'burg,  post-v.  of  Logan   eo.,   Ky..   0  miles  from 
Allcnsville,  a  station  on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  R.  R. 
Pop.  133. 

Key'ser  (Petek  D.),  M.  D..  b.  Feb.  8,  1835,  at  Phila- 
delphia; studied  at  Delaware  College  until  1851;  en- 
tered the  chemical  laboratory  of  Prof.  F.  \.  Gonth  at 
Philadelphia:  went  to  Europe  in  1854;  graduated  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Jena.  (Jermany, 
in  1S04;  returned  homo  same  year  and  entered  the  army 
hospit:ils  as  acting  assistant  surgeon  I'.  .^.  A.  In  I8li3 
he  became  surgeon  in  charge  of  the  Philadelphia  Eye 
and  Ear  Infirmary;  in  1870  also  ophthalmic  surgeon  to 
the  medical  dep.artmcnt  of  the  German  Society  of  Phila- 
delphia ;  and  in  1872  one  of  the  surgeons  to  the  Wills 
Eye  Hospital  in  Phihvdclphia.  In  1853  he  published 
his  chemical  analyses  of  the  albinites  from  Reading,  Pa., 
IJethlchcui,  Pa.,  and  Orange  co.,  X.  Y. :  also  analyses  of 
thalite  and  of  oweuite  (tliuriugitc)  from  Harper's  Ferry, 
Va.,  and  in  1854  the  analysis  of  thuringite  from  Germany, 
and  the  analysis  of  barnhardite  from  Cabarrus  eo..  N.  C. 
To  the  medical  journals  he  has  contributed  The  I'm-  n/ 
Calabar  {Plii/noslirima)  in  Paralt/ait  of  Accommoilrilion 
(1SG5);  On  Pn-tiilcnrc  of  Pupiliar/i  Mfmbrniies  (ISB7); 
Injury  and  Dcitt ruction  of  an  Et/e,  with  Bone-formation  in 
the  /rr«(ISGy);  Rrmovnl  of  n  Cancrniilal  Tumor  from  the 
Surface  of  the  E'l/f  ( ISGO) ;  On  Impnirmenl  of  Vision  the 
retull  of  Denial  Irritation  {\!i7C):  Oil  the  Uecoreri/ of  Si'/ht 
after  Gray  Atrophy  of  the  Ontic  i>i»i«  (18711 ;  On  the  Une 
of  Chloral  Hydrate  after  Eye  Operaliont  (M'tl)  ;  Report 
on  OperaliOHH  for  Cataract  {iS7-i)  ;  On  Conrjenital  Heredi- 
tary Dinlocationfi  of  both  Lennen  ;  Jliiptnret  of  the  Chora- 
dix  ;    Phonphalie  Verjrneraiion  of  the  Cornea  (1874). 

Keys,  House  of  {Claret  Immla),  a  body  of  twenty- 
four  members  constituting  the  lowi-r  house  of  Tyndwaid 
Court,  the  legislature  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  All  vacancies 
arc  filled  by  the  hnnse  itself. 

Keys  of  Florida.     Sec  Florida  Keys. 
Keytes'ville,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Chariton  co., 
Mo.,  on  the  St.  Lo:iis  Kansas  and  Great  Northern  R.  R., 
174  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  St.  Louis:  has  3  churches,  2  hotels, 


a  largo  public  school,  1  bank,  1  weekly  newspaper,  1  flour- 
mill,  2  agricultural  implement  manufactories,  and  the  usual 
number  of  stores  and  shops.  Pop.  of  v.  .'j29  ;  of  tp.  1GG3. 
TnoMAS  D.  Bocie,  En.  "Herald." 
Key  West  [a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  Cayo  Ilnem, 
"b(uie  reef "],  post-v.,  cap.  of  Monroe  co.,  Fla.,  is  the  ex- 
treme southern  boundary  of  the  U.  S.,  and  forms  the  en- 
trance to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  distant  about  fiS'  from 
the  coast  of  Cuba.  It  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name,  7  miles  long  by  1  to  2  wide,  of  coral  formation,  ele- 
vated only  11  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  soil,  on  which  tropical  fruits  are  suc- 
cessfully cultivated.  The  town  is  a  naval  station,  has  a  large 
dfpat  for  U.  S.  stores,  etc. ;  it  possesses  a  good  and  spacious 
harbor;  is  in  connection  with  the  Northern  States  by  Mal- 
lory's  lino  of  steamers,  and  with  New  Orleans  by  a  line  of 
steamers  running  from  th.at  place  weekly  i-i'^  Cedar  Keys, 
where  it  connects  with  the  railroad.  Key  West  has  a  fine 
marine  r.ailway,  where  ships  of  .'lOO  tons  may  be  hauled  out 
for  repairs.  There  are  7  churches  of  the  various  denom- 
inations, 2  weekly  papers,  2  public  and  several  private 
schools,  a  convent,  1  hotel.  3  large  and  extensive  cigar-fac- 
tories, where  about  2500  Cub.an  refugees  are  employed  in 
making  cigars.  On  the  S.  W.  point  is  a  lighthouse,  with 
a  fixed  light  72  feet  above  the  water,  situated  in  24"'  33'  N. 
lat.  and  81°  47.3'  W.  Ion.  The  inhabitants  proper  are  em- 
ployed in  mercantile  pursuits,  fishing,  sponging  (which  is 
a  source  of  wealth),  and  wrecking.  The  population  has 
increased  largely  of  late  by  emigration  from  the  Bahamas 
and  Cuba.     Pop.  about  0000. 

i;.  J.  Flemminc,  Ed.  "Key  West  Dispatch." 
KhabOUr'  [C.r.  Cliaboras;  Heb.  Halior  or  Chebar],  a 
river  in  .\siatio  Turkey,  tributary  to  the  Euphrates,  which 
it  joins  at  Kerkesich  after  a  course  from  N.  to  S.  of  190 
miles.  It  is  noted  in  biblical  geography  as  the  river  along 
which  the  captive  Israelites  were  settled,  and  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Another  smaller 
river  of  the  same  name  is  a  tributary  of  the  Tigris. 

Khaldun'  (Ibn),  otherwise  called  Waly  Eddix  Abu 
Zeid  Abdalrahmas.  h.  at  Tunis,  Africa,  in  1332  :  studied 
polite  letters  for  some  years  in  Granada:  was  then  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  his  own  sovereign,  and  in  that  of 
the  sultan  of  Fe?, ;  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  in  13.82, 
and  settled  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  as  instructor  in  several  colleges  ; 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  conqueror  Timour  at  Damas- 
cus about  1400:  was  chief  cadi  at  Cairo  in  1384,  and  again 
in  1400.  and  d.  there  in  140fi.  He  was  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  Arab  writers,  and  left  a  vast  History  of 
the  Arabs,  the  Persians,  the  Berbers,  ai:d  the  Nations  among 
whom  they  hare  Lired,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  author- 
ities upon  Oriental  annals. 

Kha'Icd  (surnamed  "  The  sword  of  God  "),  b.  in  Arabia 
in  582  ;  commanded  the  cavalry  of  the  Koreish  against 
Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Ohud  in  623  :  was  converted  to 
Islam  in  029;  saved  the  army  of  Mohammed  at  the  battle 
of  Muta  the  same  year,  gaining  the  surname  by  which  he 
was  ever  afterwards  known:  invaded  Persia  in  632;  took 
Bozrab.  besieged  Damascus,  and  defeated  the  generals  of 
the  emperor  Ileraelius  at  Aiznadin  in  633:  stormed  Da- 
mascus in  034;  took  Aleppo  in  638.     D.  at  Emesa  642. 

Khalkas',  the  name  of  the  northern  part  of  Mongolia, 
a  part  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and  extends  between  Sibe- 
ria, the  river  Amoor,  the  desert  of  Gobi,  and  the  Altiii 
Mountains.  It  consists  mostly  of  vast  steppes,  where  the 
inhabitants  lead  a  miserable,  sluggish,  and  savage  life. 
Ranges  of  mountains  traverse  the  country,  however,  beau- 
tifuirv  terraced  and  well  wooded,  and  here  are  the  seals  of 
the  immense  Booddhist  monasteries.  The  inhabitants  are 
Mongolian  Tartars,  and  ]irofess  Booddhism.  The  country 
was  the  birthplace  of  Genghis  Khan.  Cap.  Oorga  or  Urga. 
Khallikan'  (Ibn),  also  called  Shems  Eddin  Abil  Abbas 
Ahmed,  I.,  at  Arbela,  near  the  Tigris,  in  1211  :  became  pro- 
foundly versed  in  Arabic  literature:  lived  for  a  time  in 
Cairo  E^vpt;  was  chief  cadi  at  Damascus  in  12G1,  and 
again' in"l 277,  and  d.  in  that  city  in  1282.  He  left  a  Bio- 
uraphieal  Dictionary  of  the  Illustrious  Men  oj  /»/..m,  which 
contains  data  upon 'several  thousands  of  persons,  and  is 
invaluable  to  the  student  of  Oriental  history. 

Khan  [formerly  spelled  cham  in  many  cases],  a  title 
given  to  many  Tartar  magnates  and  kings,  also  to  East 
Indian  princes  under  the  Moguls.  The  old  spelling  co.cn 
(as  in  Jaflier  Ally  Cawn)  fairly  represents  the  true  pro- 
nunciation. 

Khandeish',  orCandeish,  a  district  in  the  Bombay 
presidenev,  British  India.  E.  of  Guzerat  and  N.  of  the  Ni- 
jam's  dominions.  Area,  12.000  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
80,000.  Formerly  a  part  of  the  Mogul  empire,  it  was  an- 
nexed in  1818. 


KHANG-III— KHIVA. 


1541 


KhaiiK*Hif    or    Kang-Ui    [Manchu,    "inalterable 

peace"],  second  cmperur  ot  Cliiua  of  the  present  Manchu 
dynasty,  b.  in  \Obi ;  was  orij^iuall y  named  Ui-mcn  -  Yt 
("blue  spark"):  succeeded  t«  the  tbrouc  in  1GG2  ou  the 
de:vlh  of  bis  falber,  Chun-Chi,  under  the  regency  of  four 
innndarins;  assumed  the  povernmeut  in  li)G7.  and  imnie- 
diatfly  put  to  death  one  of  the  regents;  introduced  the  of- 
ficial tcacliinL;  of  I  he  Kuropean  system  of  astronomy  (IGfi"), 
studyinfr  it  himself  under  the  iustruction  of  the  Jesuit  Fa- 
tlier  Ferd.  Vcrhiost ;  suppressed  a  formidable  revolt  made 
by  the  prince  of  Yunnan  (167:i):  annexed  Kwnnp  Tung 
(iCSO).  Fo-Kien  (ltJSI)»  and  Formosa  to  the  empire:  con- 
cluded with  UusHiia  a  treaty  of  peace  and  limits  at  Nip- 
chow  (Sept.  ;>,  Uisy ) :  was  cured  of  a  fever  by  Jesuit  physi- 
cians (by  the  use  of  quinine),  who  thus  pained  the  ascend- 
ency at  bis  court;  annexed  Thibet  about  17lM(;  authorized 
a  persecution  of  Christians  in  1717,  and  d.  Dec.  20,  1722. 
Kbang-Hi  is  esteemed  the  greatest  of  the  Chinese  sover- 
eigns, and  through  the  Jesuits  became  the  best  known  in 
Europe;  he  caused  the  publication  of  important  works  on 
the  language,  history,  and  literature  of  China,  and  directed 
the  topographical  survey  (1708)  executed  by  Jesuits,  by 
whieb  Chinese  geography  is  best  known. 

Khnnia.     See  Canra. 

Khanpoor',  or  Kbaunpoor%  town  of  British  India, 
in  the  N.  W.  Provinces,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Ganges,  is  dirty  and  poorly  built,  V»ut  has  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  jewelry  and  leather,  an<l  carries  on 
an  active  trade.  It  is  a  military  station,  and  the  part  of 
the  city  occupied  by  the  barracks  and  their  gardens  has  a 
very  fine  aspect.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

Kharkov'9  government  of  European  Ilussia,  traversed 
by  theUon  and  ilsafiluents.  Area.  20,737  square  miles.  Pop. 
I, GH  1,18(1.  It  is  low,  mostly  level,  but  very  fertile.  Wheat, 
wine,  and  tobacco  arc  raised  in  great  quantities,  and  large 
herds  uf  cattle  reared.      Manufactures  are  unimportant. 

Kharkov^  town  of  European  Russia,  the  capital  of  the 
government  of  Kharkov,  on  the  Kbarkova,  an  affluent  of 
the  Don.  It  is  a  nourishing  town,  with  several  good  edu- 
cational institution: ,  and  four  annual  fairs  which  arc  much 
fre<(uented,  especially  the  wool-fair  in  spring,  at  which  (he 
value  of  the  wool  sold  generally  amounts  to  £1,IJO,000. 
Pop.  .>'J.yC8. 

KhartoomS  town  of  Egypt,  in  Upper  Nubia,  at  the 
conlluenco  of  the  Blue  and  the  White  Nile.  It  has  a  con- 
siderable trade,  being  the  centre  of  several  caravan-routes, 
especially  in  slaves  and  ostrich  feathers.     Pop.  30,000. 

Khatmandoo',  or  Katmandu',  the  capital  of  Nc- 
paul.  Ilindostan,  in  lat.  27°  \'V  N.  and  Ion.  85°  15'  E.  It 
i.^  poorly  built,  many  even  of  its  tem[)lcs  being  built  of 
wonil  ;  the  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty.  It  has  no  great 
commcreial  importance.     Pop.  .'>0,000. 

Khazars,  or  Chazars,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Finnic  or 
Magyar  stock,  settled  N.  of  the  Caucasus,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Volga.  They  had  kings  of  their  own,  and  derived 
some  celebrity  by  their  conversion  to  Judaism  in  the  eighth 
century. 

lihc'dive,  with  the  predicate  of  aftcsae  ("highness'*), 
is,  since  I8fi7.  the  official  title  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  The 
vicoregency  is  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Meliemet  Ali 
since  1811,  according  to  the  Turkish  law  of  succession,  and 
since  1M60  in  direct  line— (hat  is,  from  father  to  son.  The 
first  khedive  of  Egypt  is  Ismail,  pon  of  Il>rahtm  Pasha,  b. 
in  1830;  he  succeeded  his  uncle.  Said  Pasha.  Jan.  18.  18G3. 
Ismail  is  an  energetic  and  active  ur.in,  always  busy  with 
plans  of  increasing  his  power.  In  18G'Jho  travelled  in  Eu- 
rope like  a  sovereign  prince  in  order  (o  e?tJiblish  connec- 
tions with  the  powers  which  couhl  help  him  to  acquire  a 
greater  independence  of  the  sultan  ;  he  especially  courted 
the  aid  of  Napoleon  III.  But  this  journey  excited  great 
displeasure  at  the  court  of  C»mstantinople,  which  by  (hrents 
compelled  him  to  deliver  up  the  vessels  of  war  and  the  guns 
which  he  had  bought,  and  to  repair  personally  to  Coni<tan- 
tinople  in  order  to  prove  hissubmisst«m.  By  judicious  bribes, 
however,  the  kli'-tiive  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  more  in- 
fluence at  the  court  and  greater  advantages  from  the  sultan. 
In  1873  he  acquired  the  right  of  concluding  commercial 
tro\ties  wi(h  foreign  powers,  anil  in  the  internal  government 
of  the  country  ho  has  complete  autonomy.  He  has  tiime 
mucl)  to  introtlucc  European  civilization  into  his  country.  He 
has  not  attempted,  however,  to  educate  the  people  and  raise 
it  to  a  higher  standpoint ;  he  has  only  established  European 
institutions  in  the  country,  without  any  preparations,  com- 
pletely, despotically  ;  and  thus  in  Egypt  civilization  covers 
barbarism  like  a  varnish.  There  exists  since  l8rtG  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  people,  but  the  khodive  rules,  neverthe- 
less, absolutely,  and  (ho  poor  representatives  are  only  pup- 
pets. Magniticent  buildings  have  been  erected  at  Alexan- 
dria and  Cairo  ;  the  great  undertaking  of  building  the  canal 


of  Sues  received  great  support  from  the  khedive  ;  French 
opera  iscstablisbedin  amost  splendid  style  ;  and  on  diffennt 
occasions,  especially  at  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the 
khedive  received  his  European  guests  with  brilliant  and 
prodigal  hospitality.  The  army  and  fleet  are  in  excellent 
ctmdition,  and  provided  with  arms  of  the  latest  improvement ; 
different  expediti<»ns  have  been  undcrlaken  to  the  S.,  in 
order  to  extend  the  authority  of  Egypt  and  suppress  the 
slave-trade;  but  the  taxes  are  very  heavy,  and  arc  gath- 
ered with  despotic  severity  from  the  poor  people,  exactly 
as  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs.  Alglst  Niemann. 

Kherson',  government  of  European  Russia,  bordering 
on  the  Black  Pea.  W.  of  the  Dniester.  Area,  28,G6G  square 
miles.  Pop,  1,107.905.  The  northern  and  eastern  parts 
are  billy,  fertile,  and  often  covered  with  splendid  forests  ; 
the  southern  and  eastern  parts  are  a  saline  steppe.  Agri- 
culture is  often  impeded  by  lack  of  water,  and  by  the  im- 
mense change  of  climate,  from  (he  scorching  heat  of  the 
summer  to  the  piercing  eold  of  the  winter.  Tobacco  is 
extensively  cultivated;  cattle,  sheep,  and  silkworms  are 
reared. 

Kherson,  town  of  European  Russia,  the  capital  of  the 
governmeut  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dnieper.  It  was  founded  in  1778  by  Potemkin  ;  has  sev- 
eral good  educational  institutions,  some  manufactures  of 
salt,  leather,  and  rope,  extensive  shipbuilding,  and  a  large 
trade  in  timber.     Pop.  45,92G. 

Khi'va,  khanate  of  Toorkistan.  in  Central  Asia,  which 
until  recently  was  lield  to  extend  from  the  Sea  of  Aral  on 
the  N.  to  the  Persian  frontier  ou  the  S.,  and  from  Bokhara 
on  the  E.  to  the  Caspian  Sea  on  tlic  W.,  thus  comprising  a 
vast  region,  mostly  desert,  with  an  area  variously  calculated 
from  195,000  squ.are  miles  down  to  44.000.  and  a  population 
estimated  with  equal  uncertainty  from  2.000.000  down  to 
480,000.  As  the  result  of  a  war  with  Russia  in  1873,  the 
limits  of  Khiva  were  much  reduced,  and  were  in  part  defined 
by  treaty,  while  more  accurate  data  were  obtained  for  the 
population.  By  the  treaty  the  new  E.  boundary  is  the  river 
Amoo,  or  A[nu-Durya  (the  ancient  Oxus),  from  Kukertli 
in  lat.  40°  X.  to  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  thence  S.  W.  along 
the  so-called  "  ancient  bed  of  the  Oxus  "  to  the  Caspian,  in 
about  lat.  40°  N.  The  Khivan  territory  E.  of  the  Amoo 
was  ceded  to  Russia,  and  a  portion  was  transferred  by 
Russia  to  the  khanate  of  Bokhara.  The  area  and  popula- 
tion of  Khiva  are  still  uncertain,  owing  to  a  conflict  of 
jurisdiction  as  to  territories  claimed  by  Persia  and  by  Af- 
ghanistan on  the  S.,  but  as  Khiva  exercises  no  sovereignty 
over  the  disputed  region,  it  may  be  considered  as  practi- 
cally reduceil  to  the  oasis  N.  of  the  Desert  of  Toorkistan  or 
Kharcsm,  and  S.  W.  of  the  lower  Amoo  River,  a  district 
not  exceeding  30.000  square  miles  in  area,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  280,000.  The  whole  region  of  Toorkistan  was  prob- 
ably once  covered  by  a  vast  inh'nd  sea.  of  which  the  present 
Caspian  and  Aral  are  the  remains.  The  oasis  of  Khiva  is 
abundantly  watered  by  irrigation  from  numerous  natural 
and  artificial  canals  fed  by  the  Amoo,  and  by  the  employ- 
ment of  manures  profluces  an  abundance  of  wheat,  rice, 
cotton,  apples,  peaches,  pomegranates,  melons,  and  vines. 
The  climate  is  variable,  frosts  prevailing  from  October  to 
April,  while  tlie  heats  of  midsummer  arc  excessive.  In 
December  the  Amoo  and  the  Aral  are  usually  coveretl  with 
ico.  Manufactures  of  brass  and  earthenware,  woollen 
goods,  shawls,  and  silk  are  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and 
domestic  animals,  especially  horses,  asses,  and  camels,  are 
abundant.  Trade  is  carried  on  by  caravans,  sometimes  of 
2000  camels,  eliiefiy  \vith  the  Russian  cities  of  Orenburg  and 
Astrakhan,  th«  articles  of  importation  including  firearms, 
sugar,  muslin,  chintz,  and  fancy  goods.  A  former  traflio 
with  Persia  and  Afghanistan  has  been  interrupted  by  the 
hostilities  of  the  Turkoman  tribes,  but  a  brisk  trade  is  carried 
on  with  Bokhara  by  exchanging  European  for  Cliiiicse  and 
other  Oriental  staples  of  merchandise.  The  jtopulation  of 
Khiva  is  of  several  nationalities,  representing  the  results 
of  a  long  series  of  wars  au'l  irruptions.  The  ancient  popu- 
lation called  Sarts  or  Tajiks  still  form  the  large  class,  fur- 
nishing most  of  the  laborers.  They  are  of  Persian  aflinities, 
and  until  recently  there  were  many  thousands  of  Persian 
slaves.  The  Turkomans  or  Yoinuts,  Kirghiz,  and  Karapal- 
kacs  constitute  the  nomadic  population  of  the  ilesert,  and  are 
scarcely  to  be  reckoned  as  Klnvans.  though  some  td'  Ihcin 
are  adopting  a  tnnrr  setlleil  mode  of  life.  The  dominant 
race  is  that  of  the  I'/beks,  of  Turkish  origin.  Khiva  in 
the  widest  geographical  sense  comprehends  a  great  part 
of  Chnra-smia.  Sogdiana,  and  Bactria,  which,  tts  inde]iend- 
en(  kingdoms  or  as  provinces  subject  to  the  Persian 
and  P:irlhian  empires,  tilled  a  large  space  in  early  Asiatic 
history.  During  (he  Middle  Ages  it  became  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  under  the  name  of  Kharcsm  or  Kho- 
varesm ;  was  conquered  by  Genghis  Khan  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  by  Tamerlane  in  the  fourteenth,  and  by 


1542 


KHODAVENDTGHIAB— KHORSABAD. 


the  Uzbeks  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  latter  being 
the  founders  of  the  existing  khanate.  A  Russian  expedi- 
tion, sent  against  Khiva  hy  Peter  tlie  Oreat  in  '"J".  "J^ 
utterly  defeated,  and  another  simihir  undertaking  in  1^..J 
was  suceessfullv  resisted.  In  1873,  however,  the  ill-treat- 
ment of  Russian  captives  afforded  a  pretext  for  a  campaign 
skilfully  conducted  hy  Cen.  Kaufmann.  who  invaded  Khiva 
with  three  corps  of  0000  each  simultaneously  from  I  he  !■... 
the  M  W  and  the  S.  W.,  took  Kungnid  May  20,  and  occu- 
pied the  capital  June  10.  The  khan.  Scid  Mohammed,  had 
fled,  but  soon  returned  to  tender  his  submission  and  arrange 
terras  of  peace.  The  boundaries  were  defined  as  before 
mentioned,  slavery  was  abolished  (.July  25),  and  the  slave- 
trade  prohibited;  an  indemnity  of  2,200,0(10  roubles  was 
imposed,  payable  in  yearly  instalments  for  twenty  years, 
the  Russians  meanwhile  occupying  Shurakhan  and  Kun- 
grad  ;  the  right  of  making  treaties  with  foreign  powers  was 
surrendered,  and  the  Turkoman  tribes  were  to  be  punished 
for  their  continued  hostilities  against  Russia.  The  inde- 
pendence of  Khiva  was  recognized,  in  conformity  with 
promises  made  to  England,  but  Khiva  became  really  a 
Russian  dependency.  More  recent  events  (1874  and  lS7o) 
having  demonstrated  the  inability  of  the  khan  to  comply 
with  some  of  his  engagements,  the  Russians  occupied  the 
capital  anew  by  request  of  the  native  ruler,  and  the  region 
extending  from  Bokhara  to  the  Caspian,  and  S.  to  the 
Attrek  River,  was  formally  occupied  as  Russian  domain 
under  the  name  of  "Trans-Caspian  Territory,"  with  the 
capital  at  Krasnovodsk,  a  newly-established  port  on  the 
Caspian.  The  inhabitants  of  Khiva  are  .'^oonite  Moham- 
medans •  thev  have  some  taste  in  music  and  poetry,  and  a 

Z^:;^V^^':.^l^X:l^^^^'^^'^^^-  >  ^;;;;;rof  .hoNlVbudda  Riv^r^embracmg  the  plateaux  of 
r''^thc:;;::s;re™ud-b.^U,,hepa,aeeandba.aarsare  I  thcViiu.^^^ 

hill-tribes."  supposed  to  be  remnants  of  the  ear- 


and  madder.  Fruits  of  many  kinds  abound ;  silk  of  ex- 
cellent quality  is  grown  and  manufactured.  In  1872, 
8.000,000  jiounds  of  cotton  and  200,000  pounds  of  silk 
were  exported  to  Russia.  Domestic  animals,  especially 
sheep,  arc  reared  in  sufficient  numbers ;  turquoise,  iron,  coal, 
naphtha,  and  petroleum  arc  among  the  mineral  products. 
The  population  consists  of  Tzheks.  of  Tartar  origin;  the 
more  numerous  Tajiks  or  Sarts.  of  Persian  or  Aryan  origin, 
once  serfs,  and  still  the  principal  agriculturists:  and  the 
Kara-Kirghiz  and  Kiptchak  nomadic  tribes,  of  Turkish 
blood,  living  chiefly  in  the  eastern  districts.  The  govern- 
ment has  been  of  late  years  violently  disputed  between  these 
three  races.  The  present  khan,  named  Khudayar,  com- 
menced his  reign  in  18t:i,  and  being  by  descent  a  Kara- 
Kirghiz,  the  Turkish  tribes  were  in  the  ascendant  during 
his  minority.  On  succeeding  to  full  power  in  1819,  Khu- 
dayar favored  the  peaceful  and  industrious  Saris  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  turbulent  nomads,  until  the  latter  in  18.57  made 
a  successful  rebellion,  raising  his  brother  Mollah  to  the 
government.  A  war  with  the  Russians  in  1864  led  to  the 
annexation  of  the  greater  portion  of  Khokan  to  Russia,  to 
the  return  of  Khudayar  from  exile  in  Bokhara,  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  his  government  by  Russian  support.  A 
commercial  treaty  w.as  negotiated  in  1808,  but  in  1S74  the 
anti-Russian  sentiment  had  gained  the  ascendant,  fomented 
by  a  civil  war,  and  furnishing  pretexts  for  a  new  interfer- 
ence not  likely  to  bo  neglected.  The  chief  cities  of  Kho- 
kan are  the  capital,  bearing  the  same  name,  a  handsome 
place  of  50,000  inhabitants;  Marghilan,  and  Andiian. 
■^  PoiiTEn  C.  Bi.iss. 

Khondistan',  a  district  in  the  province  of  Orissn.  In- 
dia, about  200  miles  in  length  by  170  in  breadth,  at  the 


of  rude  construction,  and  the  few  edifices  meriting  notice  are 
mosques  and  colleges.  (See  Spalding's  A7,i'ia  and  Turkes- 
trni.  Mactiahan's  Cnmpniijniiiri  on  the  0.nia  aiirl  the  /all  of 
Khira,  and  Vambcry's  Central  Afin  anil  the  Avgln-Ruesian 
Frontier  Question,  al"l  published  in  1874.)  A  work  by  Hon. 
Eugene  Schuyler,  American  chargS  d'affaires  in  Russia, 
who  accompanied  the  Russian  expedition,  is  in  the  press 


(1875). 


PoRTEn  C.  Bliss. 


Khodavendigh'iar,  yilayct  or  province  of  Anatolia, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  S.  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  traversed  by  the 
Keshish-Dagh  Mountains  (ancient  Uli/nijinn).  and  compris- 
ing parts  of  ancient  Bithynia,  Mysia,  and  Phrygia.  Pop. 
about  1,100,000.     Cap.  Brusa. 

Khoi,  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Azerbijan,  in 
Iat.:iS°:J7'  N.,  Ion.  45°  15'  E.,is  one  of  the  best-built  cities 
of  the  country,  with  broad  and  straight  streets  traversed 
by  canals  and  planted  with  trees.  It  has  considerable 
trade,  and  the  surrounding  plain  produces  much  fruit, 
grain,  rice,  and  cotton  ;  but  the  locality  is  somewhat  un- 
healthy.    Pop.  about  :!0.000. 

Khojend',  or  Kodjend,  the  ancient  Jaxarten,  town 
of  Kho'kan,  Indejiendeiit  Toorkistan.  Central  Asia.  It  is 
a  populous  town,  but  decaying,  important  only  on  account 
of  its  transit  trade.  Duty  has  to  be  paid  here  on  all  mer- 
chandise entering  Khokan  from  Bokhara.  Pop.  estimated 
at  30,000. 

Khokan',  or  Kokan',  one  of  the  three  independent 
khnnates  of  Toorkistan   in  Central  Asia,  boundeil  on   the 
S.  \V.,  W.,  N.,  anil  N.  E.  by  the  Russian  province  of  Sir- 
Darya,  E.'and  S.  E.  by  Kashgaria  or  E.  Toorkistan,  and  S. 
by  the' Pamir  plateau"  and  the  Karateghin.     The  area  was 
formerly  calculated  as  high  as  227,000  square  miles,  and 
the  poii.  as  high   as  .3.0011,000,  but  these  estimates  were 
much  exaggerated.    The  western  part  of  the  khanate,  com- 
prising the  lower  basin  of  the  Sir-Darya,  with  (ho  import- 
ant cities  of  Tashkend  and  Khojend,  was  annexed  to  Rus- 
sia in  1864,  and  further  annexations  have  so  reduced  the 
khanate  that,  according  to  Russian  maps  published  in  1872, 
the  area  is  only  28,270  square  miles  and  the  pop.  800,000. 
In  the  present  aspect  of  affairs  in  Central  Asia  (1875)  its 
speedy  annexation  to  Russia  may  be  anticipated.    Khokan 
is  at  present  chiefly  comprised    within  the  valley  of  the 
river  Sir-Darva,  the  ancient  Jaxnrtr^,  forming  an  almond- 
shaped  district  about  165  miles  long  and  65  miles  wide. 
This  was  formerly  known  as  the  province  of  Ferghana. 
The  average  elevation  above  the  sea  is  1500  feet:  the  cli- 
mate varies  from  extreme  cold  to  extreme  bent,  according 
to  location.     The  valley  is  bounded  on  the  S.  E.  and  S.  by 
lofty  mountains,  the  chains  of  Thian-Shan  or  Muz-Tagh 
and  Asfernh-Tagh  forming  watersheds  between  the  basin 
of  the  Sir-Darya  and  those  of  the  Kashear  and  Amu-Darya 
rivers,  which  flow  E.  ami  W.  from  the  .Amir  plateau.     The 
country  is  abundantly  watered  by  the  numerous  tributaries 
of  the  Sir-D»ryn,  and.  aided  by  nn  extensive  system  of  ir- 
rigation, the  fertile  soil  produces  fine  crops  of  rice,  wheat, 
cotton,  and  barley,  as  well  as  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  eorgham,  1  scriptions. 


so-called  '   - 

liest  inhabitants  of  India,  their  physique,  religion,  man- 
ners, and  customs  being  entirely  non-.\ryan  and  of  an  ex- 
tremely low  type.  They  are  very  black,  with  thick  lips 
and  woolly  hair,  but  well  proportioned,  strong  and  athletic, 
living  upon  wild  fruits  and  roots  and  such  game  as  they 
can  snare  or  kill  by  their  rude  devices.  Their  language  is 
classed  with  the  Uriya:  it  has  many  dialects  and  a  "  pecu- 
liar pectoral  enunciation."  Human  sacrifice  was  formerly 
very  prevalent,  but  since  the  English  came  in  contact  with 
the'lChonds  (1835)  it  has  been  suppressed  through  the  long- 
continued  efforts  of  the  British  agent.  Col.  (now  Maj.-Gen.) 
John  Campbell,  who.so  Pergonal  Xarratire  (1864)  is  a  val- 
uable source  of  information.  The  Khonds  have  recently 
attracted  great  attention  from  ethnologists  on  account  of 
their  very  peculiar  customs.  I  See  the  works  of  Hodgson, 
MePherson  (1842),  Tylor,  Lubbock,  Brace,  Hunter,  and 
JIcLcnnan.) 

Khonsar',  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Irak- 
Ajemee.  It  has  a  largo  trade  in  dried  and  preserved  fruits. 
Pop.  12.000. 

Khooloom',  or  Tashkurgan',  town  of  Toorkistan, 
Central  .Xsia,  is  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  l.at.  36° 
40'  N.,  Ion.  08°  5'  E.  It  consists  of  about  20.000  hou.ses. 
one  story  high,  built  of  clay  or  sun-baked  brick,  with  con- 
ical roofs,  and  surrounded  with  w.alls  ;  it  is  defended  by 
two  citadels.  Melons  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity. 

Khoondooz.     See  Kooxdooz. 

Khorassan',  the  ancient  Bnctrin.  a  province  of  Per- 
sia, situated  between  lat.  31°  and  38°  N.,  and  between  Ion. 
53°  and  61°  E.  Its  southern  part  is  a  desert  of  shifting 
sand  and  salt  waste,  but  in  the  northern  part  branches  of 
the  Elburz  Mountains  form  beautiful  valleys,  whose  nalu- 
1  ral  fertility  is  still  further  increased  by  irrigation,  artificial 
manures,  and  a  most  careful  cultivation.  Cotton,  hemp, 
and  tobacco  are  grown  :  wine,  fruits,  and  silk  are  produced  ; 
aromatic  and  medicinal  plants  are  cultivated,  and  gold, 
silver,  ami  salt  are  found.  The  manufactures  of  silk  and 
goat-hair  fabrics  and  sword-blades  are  celebrated.  Cap. 
Meshed. 

KhOTSabad'  [corruption  of  Khotrnnhad.  "the  abode  of 
'  Khosru  or  Chosroes"].  a  v.  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Ti- 
gris, 13  miles  N.  E.  of  Mosul,  occupying  the  site  of  one  of 
the  royal  cities  of  Assyria,  the  remains  of  which  were  dis- 
covered by  E.  Botia  ili  1S43.  The  palace  of  Sargon.  exca- 
vated at  the  expense  of  the  French  government,  afforded 
the  first  historical  inscriptions  in  cuneiform  characters 
found  in  ancient  Assyria,  and  led  to  the  more  famous  dis- 
coveries of  Lavard  on  the  site  of  Nineveh.  The  excava- 
tors of  Khorsabad  erroneously  gave  the  name  of  Nineveh 
o  that  place.  (Sec  Botta  and  Flandin's  magnificent  puhli- 
'ation.  iVoni.mrii(«  i/e   .Viiiei-;  (5   vols.,  chiefly  of  plates. 


t' 
cat 


Paris,  IS  10-50),  and  articles  Assyria  and  CrsEiFORM  Is- 


KIIOSRU— KIANO-SU. 


154.3 


Khosru',  nr  C'hos'rocs  [(Jr.  Xovport^],  the  name  of  two 
Persian  uiunarchs  ot  the  8u^:^nDill  dynasiy  :   I.  NtsiliitVAS 
("  noble  spirit"),  ciillcti  by  historian!*  The  Jist,  one  uf  the 
greatest  of  Orieutul  M»Vfreigns,  was  tbirJ  ^on  of  Kobad  or 
Cobadcs,  by  whose  will  he  succeeded  to  the  thruiic  at  Ctesi- 
phon  Sept.  12,  6.11,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  elder  brnthere, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  as  a  measure  of  pre- 
caution.    Unreliable  legciiils  give  different  accounts  of  the 
birth  and  education  of   Khosru.     According  to  Kirdousi, 
his  mother  was  the  daughter  of  a  king  of  the  Huns:  while 
Eutychius  and  many  Persian  histories  assert  he  was  the 
offspring  of  a  noble  lady  of  Khorassan,  born   about  500, 
while  his  father  Kobad  was  a  refugee  in   that  province. 
Tlie  Greek  historian  Procopius  relates  that  Kobad  solicited 
the  Byzantine  emperor  Justin  to  adopt  Khotru,  in  order  to 
strengtiien  his  title  to  the  throne^  and  that  the  proposal  was 
accepted,  and  theyoung  prince  was  on  his  way  to  Constanti- 
nojtle,  when  a  sudden  rupture  put  an  end  to  the  (irojcct  nnd 
implanted  in  the  prince  that  hatred  of  the  (Jreeks  which  ho 
atttTwarda  displayed.     Tliis  talo   is  a  puerile    invention, 
though  repeated  by  some  modern  writers.     The  Iiereditary 
war  bi'tween  Greeks  and  Persians  had  broken  out  afresh  in 
6'.M,  and  was  carried  on  languidly  in  Armenia,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia  until  the  accession  of  Khosru.  Justinian  had 
come  to   the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  527,  and  being 
desirous  of  concentrating  his  energies  upon  the  war  with 
the  Vandals  in  Africa,  he  concluded  with  Khosru  an  igno- 
minious peace  (bXi)  by  agreeing  to  pay  an   annual  trihute 
of  410,000  pieces  of  gold.     One  of  the  conditions  made  by 
the  Persian  monarch  was  that  seven   (ireek  philosophers, 
who  had  been  persecuted  as  pagans  ami  had  taken  refuge 
in  Persia,  should  be  allowed  to  return  to  Ihoir  homes  and 
reside  there  under  Persian  protection.     During  the  jircced- 
ing  reign  a  politico-religious  sect,  called  after  their  founder 
Mazdak,  had  arisen  in  Persia,  inculcating  conununistic  or 
socialistic  principles.      Kobad  had  at  one  time  favored,  but 
at  a  later  pcrioil  endeavored  to  subdue  them,  seizing  the 
lenders  by   stratagem    and   massacring    many   of   the  sec- 
tarians.    A  formidable  civil  war  was  the  result,  continuing 
into  the  reign  of  Klmsru,  who  finally  suppressed  the  sect. 
The  actions  of  the  two  monarchs  in  this  respect  have  been 
much  confused  *vith  each  other,  many  events,  especially  the 
execution  of  Mazdak.  being  attributed  to  both,  and  it  is 
now  impossible  to  recover  the  facts  of  the  case.    One  of  the 
earlier  measures  taken  by  Khosru  was  the  administrative 
division  of  his  vast  empire  into  four  viceroyalties — Assyria, 
Media,  Persia,  anrl  Hnetriana,     He  is  charged  by  the  By- 
znntino  historians  with  having  incited  one  of  his  vassals, 
Almondar,  the  Arabian  prince  or  king  of  Ilira,  to  invade 
Syria,  in  violation   of  the  peace.     Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
war  broke  out  afresh.   Khosru  marched  an  arrny  into  Syria 
in  510,  imposed  enormous  contributions  upon  the  principal 
cities,  took  Antioch    f.lune)  after  a  gaUant  defence,  and 
nearly  destroyed  that  Kastern  metropolis  of  the  Byzantine 
empire.      Belisarius,  the  conqueror  of  Africa,  was  sent  to 
conduct  the  war  f 511  ).  and  by  a  bob!   irruption  into  Meso- 
potamia forced  Khosru  to  return  to  the  defence  of  his  own 
states.    Belisariiis  being  recalled,  the  invasion  of  Syria  was 
renewed  (5(2) ;  the  return  of  that  general  to  the  Held  caused 
the  PersianH  to  recr»»ss  the  Kuphrates.  and  his  second  recall 
for  the  Italian  campaign   (54;{J  again   gave  the  victory  to 
Khosru.   After  n  brief  truce  the  war  was  renewed  in  Colchis 
and  Lftzica,  provinces  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus, 
which  had  revolted  from  Persia  by  the  aid  of  .Justinian,  and 
continued  with  numberless  alteriuitions  ni'  fortune  until  5()L', 
when  the  Byzantine  emperor  consented  to  |iay  an  annual 
tribute  of  If). 000  pieces  of  gold,  and  remained  in  possession 
of  the  rlisputeil  provinces.  Southern  Arabia  was  soon  after- 
wards crinriuercd  by  Khosru  ;  the  Armenians  revolted  from 
hitn  in  5(i'J  with  the  support  of  the  emperor  Justin  1 1.,  and 
the  war  between  the  two  empires  was  renewed  in  571,  with 
the  usual  alternations  of  fortune,    Syria  was  again  ravaged 
by  the  Persians,  but  Khosru  was  completely  (lefeutcd  in  a 
great  battle  at  Melitene  in  Lesser  Armenia  in  57ii,  and  d. 
at  Ctesiphon  in  Mar.,  570.  leaving  the  throne  and   the  he- 
reditary war  to  his  son  Hormuz  (or   Hormisdas)  IV.     The 
reign  of  Khosru  is  accounted  by  tho  modern  Persians  the 
most   glorious  period   of  their   annals.     All    the   Oriental 
virtues  are  ascribed  (o  Inm.  and  there  can  he  no  doubt  that 
the  government  was  adinini-tered  with  vigor  ami  sngncily. 
Learning  was  powerfully  stimulated  by  the  translation  of 
tho  best  .*^ansk^it  and  Greek  works,  agriculture  and  eom- 
merco  reeeived  a  powerful  stimulus,  and  many  magnificent 
cities  were  built.     The  boundaries  of  the  empire  were  ex- 
tended beyond  the  IndiiR  ami  tin*  Oxus.  anrl  clipluirmtio  re- 
lations were  maintained  with  all  the  realms  from  Africa  to 
China. 

H.  Pt'nwiz  or  Ppnwis  ("tho  generous"),  grandson  of 
Khosru  I.,  succeeded  his  tatlier,  Hormuz  I\'..  who  was  de- 
posed in  5'.10  bv  a  rebel  general  nunied  Bahram,  who  reign^'d 
for  a  year.     The  young  Khosru  took  rofugowilh  the  Greek 


emperor  Mauritius,  by  whose  aid  ho  regained  the  throne,  and 
in  recompense  ceded  a  great  part  of  Mesopotamia,  besides 

{laying  a  large  sum  of  money.  On  the  murder  of  Aluuritius 
)y  Phocas  (G02),  Khosru  made  war  upon  the  usurper,  nomi- 
nally to  avenge  the  death  of  his  benefactor,  ond  within  a  few 
years  conquered  Syria.  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor.  He  took 
Antioch  in  Oil,  Damascus  and  Jerusalem  in  614.  Alexan- 
dria in  filO,  Chalcedon  in  01^^.  and  Aueyra  in  0211.  thus 
bringing  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Cnnstantinople.  Hcraeliu3 
had  succeeded  to  the  tliroue  in  GIO,  but  the  Persian  con- 
queror was  enjoying  too  great  favors  from  fortune  to  listen 
to  proposals  lor  pence.  With  the  wealth  of  so  many  king- 
doms he  built  a  palace  of  unparalleled  niHgnilicence  at 
Uastagerd,  60  miles  E.  of  Ctesiphon.  in  the  midst  of  a  park 
laid  out  upon  a  corresponding  scale.  After  twelve  years 
of  defeats,  the  emperor  Heraclius  began  in  621  a  series  of 
campaigns  in  whicli  he  recovered  all  his  lost  possessions, 
reduced  Khosru  to  exlremities.and  even  ravaged  his  palace 
of  Dastagerd.  In  consequence  of  these  misfortunes.  Khosru 
was  deposed  and  murdered  by  his  son  Shirweh  (Siroes)  in 
Feb.,  628.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Mohammed  pro- 
claimed the  doctrine  of  Islam.  He  sumnioneil  Khosru  by 
letter  to  recognize  him  as  the  proj)liet  of  Allah,  and  when 
the  former  tore  the  letter  in  pieces,  Mohammed  predicted, 
"  Thus  will  God  tear  his  kingdom  and  reject  his  supplica- 
tions." PoKTEii  C.  Bliss. 

Khotnn%  or  IHitsi,  one  of  tho  four  provinces  of  Kash- 
garia.  Icirnierty  Chinese  Toorkistan.  The  capital  city,  bear- 
ing the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  route  between  Var- 
kand  and  Lussa,  in  lat.  37°  N..  Ion.  "8°  to  S0°  E.  It  was 
formerly,  according  to  Abulfetla  and  other  Mohammedan 
geographers,  a  city  of  great  importance,  and  is  still  a  largo 
place,  enclosed  with  earthen  ramparts  and  with  broad 
streets,  though  ill  built.  If  has  manufactures  of  silk  fab- 
rics, leather,  and  paper,  and  bus  il  thriving  trade  in  these 
articles  and  in  ijti,  the  jas|nr  of  the  ancients.  The  in- 
habitants are  chiefly  Uzbek  Tartars,  and  the  place  is  cele- 
brated for  its  musk  and  for  the  beauty  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. 

Khotin.     See  Ciiotyn. 

Khuzistan%  the  ancient  Sueiann,  province  of  Persia, 
bordering  on  the  (Julf  of  Persia.  Its  southern  part  is  a 
low  plain,  sandy  in  some  parts,  swampy  in  others,  but 
generally  afl'ording  e\-cellent  pastures  wherever  it  is  well 
watered.  The  northern  part  is  mountainous.  Rice,  maize, 
sugar,  and  indigo  arc  cultivated,  and  large  herds  of  goats, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  reared. 

Khy'licr  Pass,  in  the  Khyber  Mountains,  a  gorge 
nearly  ;iO  miles  long,  enclosed  by  clifts  of  slate,  rising  al- 
most perpendicularly  on  both  sides  to  the  height  of  1000 
feet.  It  is  the  principal,  and  for  artillery  the  only  availa- 
ble, road  between  Hindostan  and  Afghanistan. 

Khyen'  Couiilry,  a  semi-independent  province  of 
Farther  India.  N.  W.  (tf  Burmah  and  E.  of  tho  British 
provinces  of  Araean  and  Chittagong.  It  is  a  narrow  strip 
some  200  miles  in  length,  traversed  by  the  largo  rivers 
Kbyen-dwem  and  Khyuung. 

Khyei-poor%  town  of  Sinde,  tho  residence  of  tho 
ameer  of  North  SInde,  near  the  Indus.  It  is  an  ill-built 
and  insignificant  pla(re.      Pop.  15.000. 

Kiaboiir'ra,  or  Amboyii<>  Wood,  a  very  expensive 
and  beautiful  wood,  importeil  lor  veneering  purposes.  It 
is  richly  nn>ttled,  and  is  of  a  reddish  hue.  It  is  sawed  in 
thin  slips  from  knots  and  wens  upon  the  Pterospermimi  In- 
(iii-um,  a  tree  of  tho  East  Indies.  It  is  chiefly  employed 
in  inlaying. 

Kinc'li'tn,  or  Uiakhtn,  town  of  Siberia,  in  tho  Rus- 
sian province  ot  Traiisliaikaliit,  near  the  Chinese  frontier, 
ISO  miles  S.  E.  of  Irkutsk.  I*(»p.  5O00.  It  was  established 
in  1727  as  tho  exclusive  mart  lorthetrafle  between  China 
and  Russia,  which  was  chiefly  conducted  by  means  of  an- 
nual fairs.  The  trade  sctnietimes  amouiitid  to  $S. 000, 000 
per  annum,  but  hos  decreased  since  the  treaty  of  Peking 
(l'*60),  which  pertnilled  cinnmeree  along  thewhole  frontier 
of  the  two  empires.  Kiachta  has  a  fortress  containing  the 
government  and  customs  buildings,  and  is  tho  residence 
of  many  Kussian  mendnints. 

Kinng-Clioo.     See  Kiong-Ciioo. 

KiaiiK^"*^!*  ftn  inland  province  of  China,  between  lat. 
21°  and  :tO°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  li;t°  ami  118°  E.  Area, 
72,|.S0  squaro  milos.  Pop.  4:i,HM,:^66.  It,  is  mountainous 
and  rich  in  miuerals.     Cap.  Nan-Cliang-Foo. 

Kianc'«Sn,  province  of  China,  between  hit.  31°  and 
.15°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  116°  and  122°  K..  b<irdcriMg  on  the 
Yellow  Sea.  Area.  44.5)tO  square  miles.  Pop.  5t,ini.t;il. 
The  ground  is  low  and  level,  but  the  soil  is  exceedingly 
fertile.  Rico  and  sugar  arc  the  principal  products.  Cap. 
Nan-King. 


1544 


KIANTONE— KIDNEY. 


Ki'antone9  post- v.  and  tp.  of  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y., 
6  miles  S.  of  Jamestown.     Pop.  of  v.  62;  of  tp.  539. 

Kickapoo%  post-tp.  of  Peoria  co.,  III.,  S  miles  N.  W. 
of  Peoria.     Pop.  lUO. 

KickapoOf  post-tp.  of  Loarenworth  co.,  Kan.  It  con- 
tains the  vilhigo  of  Kickapoo  or  Kickapoo  City,  on  the 
Missouri  Uiver  and  on  the  Leavenworth  Atchibon  and 
North-westorn  R.  R.     Pop.  1856. 

Kickapoo^  post-tp.  of  Vernon  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  912. 

Kickapoos,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  of  Algonquin  stock, 
who  iu  the  seventeenth  century  lived  on  the  Wisconsin 
River,  and  hunted,  in  company  with  the  allied  Miamis, 
over  a  vast  territory.  They  came  in  collision  with  the 
French  explorers  in  Illinois,  wliither  they  had  migrated 
early  in  the  eighteenth  contury.and  in  1763  were  found  by 
the  English  on  the  Wabash  River.  They  committed  hos- 
tilities against  the  settlers  in  the  Pontiac  war  (1765),  and 
again  in  ITDl,  \vhen  their  Wabash  village  was  taken  by  Gen. 
Scott,  and  another  burned  by  Wilkinson.  After  Wayne's 
victory  over  the  allied  Western  tribes,  the  Kickapoos  sub- 
mitted, and  by  the  treaty  of  Greenville  (Aug.  3,  1795)  they 
ceded  part  of  their  lands.  They  were  again  in  arms  in 
1811  at  Tippecanoe,  and  at  Fort  Harrison  in  1812;  as  a 
consequence,  several  of  tiicir  villages  were  burned,  and  by 
new  treaties  {1S15.  1810,  and  1819)  they  sold  most  of  their 
lands,  removing  beyond  the  Mississippi  to  Osage  River  reser- 
vation to  the  number  of  1800.  Few  of  them  would  settle 
down  to  agriculture,  but  roved  through  what  is  now  the 
Chickasaw  and  Creek  country,  committing  depredations  in 
Texas  and  other  frontier  states  of  Mexico,  wbere  many  of 
them  ultimately  established  themselves.  They  now  reside 
in  N.  E.  Kansas,  where  they  are  comfortably  established, 
and  in  the  Indian  Territory,  numbering  in  all  about  1500. 

Kidd  (William),  the  *•  Robert  Kidd**  of  popular  tradi- 
tion, was  the  son  of  a  Scotch  nonconformist  preacher.  He 
became  a  sailor,  and  in  1691  received  an  award  of  £150 
from  the  council  of  New  York  for  services  in  behalf  of  the 
colony.  In  1696  he  sailed  from  Plymouth.  England,  in 
command  of  the  Adventure  galley,  fitted  out  for  the  sup- 
pression of  piracy,  but,  according  to  the  general  belief,  he 
b'.-came  a  pirate  himself.  He  came  in  1G98  to  New  York 
with  a  large  amount  of  treasure,  which  was  seized  by  the 
earl  of  Bcllomont;  and  an  additional  treasure  which  Kidd 
had  buried  on  Shelter  Island  was  also  recovered.  Kidd 
himself  was  sent  to  London,  where  lie  was  hanged  May  24, 
ITOl — not  for  piracy,  but  for  the  murder  of  William  Moore, 
a  seaman.  The  trial  was  very  unfair,  and  there  is  some 
reason  for  believing  that  Capt.  Kidd  was  not  guilty  of  the 
crimes  wliich  have  made  his  name  so  notorious. 

Kid^der^  county  of  Northern  Dakota,  newly  formed, 
crossed  by  the  Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  occupied  by  the 
Pla*eau  du  Coteau  du  Missouri,  and  comprising  an  area 
of  1700  square  miles. 

Kidder,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Caldwell  co.,  Mo.,  on  the 
Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  R.  R.,  163  miles  W.  of  Hannibal. 
Pop.  of  V.  195;  of  tp.  922. 

Kidder,  tp.  of  Carbon  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1417. 

Kidder  (Daniel  Parish),  D.  D..  b.  at  Darien,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  18,  1815;  studied  in  Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Hamiltoa 
College,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Conn.,  in  1835.  He  preached  in  New  Jersey  confer- 
ence 1810-44;  was  connected  with  the  M.  E.  Rook  Con- 
cern ;  was  professor  of  practical  theology  in  Garrett  Bib- 
lical Institute,  Evanston,  III.,  in  1855,  and  afterwards  be- 
came professor  at  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Madison, 
N.  J.  lintzil  and  the  /iraziiiaiifi,  Afonnonisin  and  the  Mor- 
mons. IfomilctlcB,  and  The  Christian  Pastorate  were  pub- 
lished by  him. 

Kid'derminster,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Worcester,  on  both  sides  of  the  Stour,  near  its  influx  in  the 
Severn.  Its  carpet  manufactures  are  very  celebrated.  Pop. 
20,803. 

Kid'doo  (Joseph  B.),  b.  in  Pennsylvania;  on  (ho  out- 
break of  civil  war  he  enlisted,  Apr.,  1861,  as  private  in  the 
2d  Penn.^ylvauia  Vols.,  and  was  engaged  at  the  siege  of 
Yorktown,  the  battles  of  Williamsburg.  Fair  Oaks.  Malvern 
Hill,  etc.;  promoted  to  be  major  lOlst  Pennsylvania  Vols. ; 
subsequently  as  licutonant-coioncl  i;J7th  Pennsylvania 
Vols,  ho  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of  South  Mmnitain, 
Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg;  and  as  colonel  at  Chan- 
ccllorsvillc.  In  Oct.,  lS6:t,  he  was  appointed  mnjor  6th, 
and  June,  1864,  colonel  22d  IT.  S.  colored  troops,  operating 
during  the  siege  of  Petersburg  with  the  Army  of  the  James, 
being  severely  wountb-d  Oct.,  ISfU.  For  gallant  conduct  he 
was  brevettcd  brigadier-general  and  ninjor-gencral  U.  S. 
volunteers,  and  colonel  and  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.  In 
July,  1866,  ho  wae  appointed  lieutenant'Colonel  4.'ld  U.  S. 
Infantry,  but  owing  to  disability  arising  from  wounds  re- 


ceived in  service,  was  retired  Dec,  1870,  upon  the  full 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Kid'napping  [from  Ger.  kind,  Prov.  Eng. /r/rf,  "child," 
and  Pro".  Eng.  nap,  to  "seize"]  is  a  criminal  offence, 
defined  by  Blaekstone  to  be  the  forcible  abduction  or 
stealing  away  of  a  man,  woman,  or  child  from  his  own 
country  and  sending  him  into  another.  (0>//i/>i.,  iv.  219.) 
The  term  is  commonly  employed  to  denote  the  stealing  and 
carrying  away  of  children,  but  iu  law  it  is  applied  to  all 
persons.  This  ofTence  was  treated,  at  common  law,  as  an 
aggravated  kind  of  abduction  or  false  imprisonment,  and 
was  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  (See  Abdl'C- 
TiON,  False  iMpnisoNMEXT.)  At  the  present  day  the  na- 
ture of  this  crime  is  generally  defined  by  statute,  and  the 
carrying  of  the  person  taken  into  another  country  is  not 
usually  made  a  necessary  ingredient  in  the  offence.  Fraudu- 
lently inveigling,  enticing,  or  decoying  a  iierson  away,  with 
intent  to  imprison  or  secrete  him  or  detain  him  from  his 
home,  is  frequently  declared  to  be  kidnapping  as  well  as 
an  abduction  by  the  use  of  force.  It  is  sometimes  provided 
that  the  consent  of  a  person  to  his  abduction  shall  not  bo 
a  defence  to  the  party  aceusetl  of  the  offence,  unless  it  ap- 
pear satisfactorily  to  the  jury  that  such  consent  was  not 
extorted  by  threats  or  duress.  Such  is  the  case  in  New 
York.  There  are  frequently  special  statutory  provisions 
in  regard  to  the  kidniipj)ing  of  children.  The  consent  nf 
a  child  of  tender  years  has  been  held  at  common  law  to 
render  his  abduetion  none  the  less  a  criminal  offence.  At 
what  age  a  child  would  be  capable  of  giving  an  assent 
which  would  be  available  in  defence  has  never  been  pre- 
cisely determined.  His  capacity  in  this  respect  must  be 
ascertained  from  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 
In  New  York  it  is  declared  by  statute  that  every  person 
shall  be  guilty  of  kidnapping  who  shall  forcibly  seize  and 
confine,  or  shall  inveigle  another,  with  intent  to  cause  him 
either  to  be  sent  out  of  the  State  against  his  will,  or  to  bo 
secretly  confined  or  imprisoned  in  the  State  against  his 
will,  or  to  be  held  in  involuntary  servitude.  The  offeuco 
is  a  felony,  and  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  in  a  State 
prison  for  a  term  not  exceeding  ten  years.  The  statutes 
of  other  States  must  be  specially  consulted. 

George  Chase.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Kid'nev  [from  Ang.-Sax.  cy/me,  '"genitals,"  and  neah, 

"near;"  Lat.  reucs;  Fr.  rctii;  Old  English,  "the  reins"], 
an  excretory  organ  in  the  body  of  vertebrates  (an  imper- 
fect analogue  being  found  in  exceptional  invertebrates), 
whose  function  is  the  elimination  of  the  urine,  an  aqueous 
solution  of  various  effete  organic  products  and  of  inorganic 
salts,  the  debris  of  nutrition  and  metamorphosis  of  tissues. 
These  excretory  products — water,  salts,  and  organic  mat- 
ter— are  separated  from  the  blood.  In  the  kidney,  there- 
fore, arterial  branches  elaboiately  subdivided,  their  walls 
attenuated,  are  brought  in  close  contact  witli  a  system  of 
glandular  bodies  and  tubules  for  the  escape  of  the  compo- 
nents of  urine  by  transudation  and  secretion.  In  fishes 
the  kidney  presents  a  simple,  rudimentary  structure — one 
straight  tube  or  ureter  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
body,  and  giving  off  at  right  angles  numerous  tufts  of  tu- 
bules which  intcrdigitate  with  blood-vessels.  Reptiles 
have  a  more  definite  organ — a  localized  mass  of  tubules. 
Birds  have  relatively  large  kidneys.  iMammals,  especially 
man.  have  the  most  perfect  development— namely,  the  great- 
est multiplioation  of  tubular  surface  in  a  compact  form. 

The  kidneys  in  man,  two  in  number,  are  situated  in  the 
posterior  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  behind  the  perito- 
neum, one  on  either  side  of  the  spine  iu  the  lumbar  region, 
and  extending  from  the  eleventh  rib  to  near  the  crest  of 
the  ilium.  The  kidneys  arc  retained  in  tutu  by  their  blood- 
vessels and  by  fat  in  which  they  arc  imbedded.  A  kidney 
is  **  beau-shaped,"  or  ovoid,  with  a  concave  depression, 
notch,  or  *■  hilue  "  on  one  side;  is  of  a  bruwnish-red  or 
maroon  color;  in  consistency  is  dense,  firm,  but  fragile; 
measures  four  inches  long,  two  in  width,  and  one  in  thick- 
ness ;  in  weight  varies  from  four  and  a  half  to  six  ounces 
in  the  adult  male,  and  half  an  ounce  less  in  the  female. 
Relatively,  the  human  kidney.s  are  j^jjth  of  the  weight  of 
the  body.  The  kidney  is  invested  by  a  strong  fibrous  cap- 
sule loosely  attached  by  "areolar"  or  connective  tissue. 
An  organ  so  small,  it  contains  so  compact  and  elaborate  an 
arrangement  of  vascular  tufts  and  extensive  multiplication 
of  tubular  structure,  that  the  surface  for  excretory  work  is 
equal  to  six  times  the  entire  surface  of  the  skin.  (Mnpo- 
iher.)  A  vertical  section  of  the  kidney  (see  Fig.  1)  dis- 
plays a  hollow  organ,  consisting  apparently  of  a  thiok  wall 
folded  around  the  internal  cavity  at  its  hilus  or  concave 
side.  Two  distinct  structures  arc  noticeable  :  1st,  the  Cor- 
tex, or  external  peripheral  portion,  termed  the  "cortical 
substanoe,"  dark,  homogeneous,  granular  ;  2d,  internally 
a  series  of  pinkish,  fan-shaped,  or  pyramidal  masses,  their 
bases  towards  the  cortex,  their  apices  converging  upon  the 


KIDNEY. 


1545 


central  cavity.  lu  the  apparently  homogeneous  substance 
or  granular  matrix  miouie  inspection  reveals,  imbedded, 
convoluted  masse.3  of  capillaries — vascular  turts  known  as 


Fio 


Fio.  2. 


Vertical  section  of  kidney,  showing  Br.antilar  corti-x  and  pyra- 
mids or  lau-»liape<l  groups  of  uriuilcruus  tiibuiej. 

Miilliiijhiun  lii/t:  These  tufts  arc  surrounded  by  flask-liko 
capsules  or  membranous  cxpansiona  of  tui>ulcs.  A  tuft 
and  its  investing  capsule  constitute  a  *'  Mtt'i>!-jhlan  hodr/." 
Departing  from  the  capsule  of  the  tuft,  tlio  uriuifcrous 
tubule  is  tortuous  or  "  convoluted."  The 
cortex  includes  in  its  granular  "matrix" 
or  "stroma"  (be  Malpighian  bodies,  and 
convoluted  tubules  wbich  separate  uriuo 
from  the  blood  circulating  in  adjacent  and 
intertwining  capillaries,  as  well  as  from 
the  tufts.  The  cortex  is  therefore  the  sec- 
retory or  functional  portion  of  the  kidney, 
as  distiiiguisbed  from  the  pyrami<Ial  or 
medullary  portion,  \vhieh  is  termed  *'  tubu- 
lar." The  cortex  constitutes  three-fourths 
of  the  kidney,  being  thin  over  (ho  bases 
of  the  pyramids,  but  dipping  deeply  down 
between  them  (eolumns  of  Berlin),  and  con- 
taining the  vessel.",  nerves,  and  lymiihaticg, 
which,  entering  at  the  hilus,  ramify  towards 
the  periphery  of  the  organ.  The  pyramids 
vary  in  number  from  eight  to  eighteen,  and 
collectively  constitute  the  niedcillary  sub- 
stance of  the  kiilney.  .\  pyramid  is  a  col- 
lection of  straight  urinary  tubules,  which 
communicate  with  the  convoluted  tubules 
of  the  cortex  through  interincdialc  "  loop- 
ctl"  tubules.  One  straight  tubule  collects 
the  urine  of  several  convoluted  tubules.  A 
pyramid  contains  about  lOOU  tubuli  recti 
(straight  tubules)  converging  at  its  apex, 
which  presents  a  convex  ]iroces8  or  eleva- 
tion on  the  surface  of  the  cavity,  desig- 
nated a  papilla.  Several  pyramids  may  oo- 
alesconear  their  apices,  presenting  n  singlo 
papilla.  The  tubuli  recti  discharge  bv  free 
apertures  into  the  central  cavity  or  jcscr- °'"'"^'"'' ""'<"■'■ 
voir,  termed  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney.  The 
cavity  is  of  irregularoontour.  havingthroo 
sacculated  recesses,  termed  inrundibuli. 
The  pvlvis,  receiving  the  urine  coilroled  by 
the  several  pyramids  from  corresponding 
sections  of  the  cortex,  ])arl8  with  it 
through  the  ureter,  a  tube  communicating  of  cxereiorv 
between  the  kiilney  and  the  bladdir.  In  tubules  (labiifl 
the  human  a.lull  the  kidney  isa  symmelri-  J",',',!  j"*^ '''^' ''*  ' 
cal  organ,  but  in  IVptal  life  it  is  dividetl  into 
distinct  lobes,  seven  or  eight  in  number,  eneh  consisting  of 
ft  pyramid  and  corresponding  seotion  of  cortex.  The  super- 
ficial depression  and  lobulatcd  structure  disappear  later  by 


gin,  course,  and 

sulidlvlMions  nf 

a  single  uri- 
nary tubule. 
TriiuKltion  of 
tbi-  cnuvulutetl 

urinary  tubule 
Into  the  system 


tho  growth  of  new,  intermediate  pyramids.  In  other  mam- 
mals, the  sheep,  ox,  bear,  whale,  tho  kidneys  are  distinctly 
lobulatcd, — externally  nodulated.  Although  tho  visible 
distinction  between  lobules  is  obliterated  in  man,  disease, 
as  inflammation,  is  often  limited  by  the  primitive  bound- 
aries, leaving  adjacent  healthy  parts  to  vicariously  perform 
tho  function  of  the  crippled  ones.  The  kidney  having  but 
a  single  function,  the  excretion  of  urine,  interest  centres 
in  the  study  of  the  microscopic,  exact  structure  of  the 
glandular  apparatus  of  the  cortex,  and  of  the  system  of 
minute  tubules  which  conduct  the  excreted  fluid  to  the 
central  resfrvoir  of  the  kiilney,  thence  to  pass  to  the  blad- 
der antl  liiially  be  voided  from  the  body. 

Our  perfect  knowledge  of  tho  histology  of  the  kidney  has 
rcsultcil  in  part  from  the  labors  of  Miiller  and  Bowman  in 
unravelling  the  tubules  of  tho  lower  vertebrates,  in  part 
from  tho  line  injections  of  vessels  and  tubules  by  lluschke, 
Gcrbich,  Ilenle,  Ludwig.  and  others.  The  granular  stroma, 
matrix,  or  substance  of  the  cortex  is  studded  with  inuumer- 
ablo  Malpighian  bodies.  The  Malpighian  body  is  sphe- 
roidal, and  measures  about  the  too"'  "'  ik"'  "f  ""  •'"='' '" 
diameter.  The  reniil  artery,  a  lirancb  of  the  aorta,  enters 
tho  kidney  at  its  hilus.  extends  its  branches  up  between  the 
pyramids  to  the  cortex,  and  having  divided  and  subdivided 
many  times,  its  ultimate  branches  suddenly  expanding  into 
numerous  capillaries  rolled  in  a  spheroidal  form,  a  convo- 
luted mass,  or  plexus,  variously  designate. I  as  a  Malpig- 
hian (from  Malpiglii,  who  discovered  it)  "  tuft," '•  glome- 
rulus," or  "knot."  Tho  vessel  supplying  or  bringing  blood 

to  the  tuft  is  termed  the 
*' a_ifrrt lit"  vrssel,  and 
a  com])anion  vessel 
leaving  the  tuft,  re. 
moving  the  blood 
which  has  parted  with 
the  urinary  products, 
is  the  ••  t-fferent'*  ves- 
sel ;  it  conveys  its  con- 
tained blood  to  the 
yfi  renal  vein.  This  Mal- 
pigbian  tuft  of  capil- 
lary arteries  and  veins 
is  surrounded  by  a 
spheroidal,  flask- 

slinped,     membranous 
capsule,  which  is   the 
H"lalion  of  blood-vessels  in  the  kidney  be;'inning  of  a  urinif- 
I.,  Ilio  glandular  strucinre  separat-  e,-„us tubule.  Thethin- 
ing  the  urine:  a,  artery  conveying         ,,    ,  -n     •  „      r 

blood  by  alle'rent  vessel  en  to  tuft  of  "•'""•J  capillaries  of 
eaiiillaries  within  the  capsule  c;  tc.  the  tult  or  knot  part 
the  ell'erent  vessel  removing  blood  with  blood,  serum,  or 
to  network  of  capillary  veins  in,  and  water  bv  simple  trans- 
inlo  vein  v;  ul,  uriniferous  tubule.  „,,,,,;„„;  ,„„i  therefore 
excrete  the  chief  ingredient  of  I  he  urine,  water  being  from  Hi 
to  DM  percent,  of  itsconstilucncy.  The  capsule,  being  a  niero 
receiver  of  water  oozing  from  the  vessels,  performs  no  true 
secretory  or  glandular  action,  and  therefore  is  not  lined 
with  epithelial  or  secretory  cells  except  at  its  lower  third, 
being  nieioly  a  thin,  translucent.  siructureU'ss  basement 
meiiibnine.  The  c(iillielial  oelis  at  it.*  lower  third  continue 
to  lino  tho  uriniferous  tubule  whieli  departs  from  it.  This 
tubulo  is  convoluted,  at  first  about  :ttrr"'  "'  ""  '""''  '" 
diamoter,  later  u^nth  only,  and  its  epithelium  is  "sphe- 
roidal "  in  shape.  The  tuft  separates  water  by  transudation. 
Theso  oonvolutod  tubes,  by  their  glandular  lining  cells, 
separate  or  excrete  from  the  adjacent  capillary  vessels  tho 
solid  constituonls  of  the  urine,  rarely  us  high  as  6  per  cent, 
of  its  entire  volume.  (In  snakes,  w  hose  urine  is  nearly  solid, 
tho  entire  tract  of  capsule  and  tubule  is  lined  with  cells.) 
The  convoluled  tubules  were  discovered  in  the  oighteenth 
ocuturv  by  Ffrn-in.  'I'liev  occupy  Iho  cortex  between  and 
arounii  the  .Malpighian  bodies,  and  continue  in  a  transition 
state,  as  smaller,  iraii.-luceni,  unliiied.  "  looped  "  tubules, 
across  tlio  boundary  of  tho  cortex  to  the  medullary  or  pyr- 
amidal portion,  and  empty  into  the  larger,  straight  tubules 
(tubuli  recti)  which  compose  those  radiating,  fan-shaped 
masses — tlie  pyramids.  Theso  straight  tubules,  discovered 
in  tho  sovenleoiitli  century  by  Dellini,  merely  collect  tho 
urine  and  transmit  it  to  the  pelvis  of  tho  kidney.  Tlioy  are 
lined  with  "  tessellated  "  or  pavement  epithelial  cells,  which 
are  Hat  and  polygonal,  usually  live-sided.  Theso  liibiilea 
have  a  calibre  of  jUjtli  or  even  jiijlb  of  an  inch.  Tho 
pelvis  of  the  kidney  is  lineil  with  ovoid  cells,  the  ureter 
with  oonoiilal  cells.  Tho  presence  of  epithelial  cells  of  on« 
of  the  gevorni  forms  In  exoess  in  the  urine  is  of  service  in 
inilieating  what  part  of  tho  kidney  is  the  sent  of  disease. 

Karly  in  to'tal  lib'  the  iiiiilevi'lnpeil  kblncys  ore  sur- 
mounted by  tho  Wolilian  bn<lies,  having  a  stnietiiro  like  Iho 
kidney,  a  truo  urinary  seoretioii,  and  a  common  duct.  They 
disappear  as  the  kidneys  develop,  aiul  replace  them.  6ur- 
muuDtiug  the  kidneys  in  adult  life  are  small  masses,  the 


lo46 


KIDRON— KILDARE. 


Bnprarcnal  capsule?,  ductless,  glandular  bodies  of  unknown 
funcHon,  and  chii'fly  intcreating  «n  account  of  a  peculiar 
pigmentary,  granular  degeneration  tlu-y  rarely  undergo, 
di.-sseminating  ])ignu'ut  throughout  the  body,  impoverishing 
the  blood,  and  tingeing  the  skin.    (See  Addison's  Diseask.) 

An  anatomical  anomaly  is  the  *'  horseshoe  kidney,"  the 
two  kidneys  being  united  by  an  isthmus  of  fibrous  and 
granular  structure.  Exceptionally,  the  kidney  is  **  mova- 
ble," and  varies  its  position  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  The 
nervous  supply  of  the  kidney  is  rich,  dt-riveil  from  the  sym- 
pathetic system.  The  nerves  may  be  traced  from  their  en- 
trance at  the  hilus  up  to  the  afferent  vessels  of  the  tufts. 
The  kidney  is  well  known  to  be  easily  excited  to  action  by 
emotion  and  all  influences  upon  the  sympathetic  nenous 
system,  and  to  have  a  direct  ami  complementary  relation 
to  the  functional  activity  of  the  skin.  (For  diseases  of 
the  kidney  see  Rexal  Diseases,  by  Frederick  Zinsser, 
M.  I>.)  E.  Darwin  Hudson,  Jr. 

Kid'ron^  or  Cedron,  a  small  stream  or  "brook"  in 
the  vall<\v  E.  of  Jerusalem,  and  memorable  in  many  scenes 
of  biblical  history. 

Kiel,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  dnchy  of  ITolstcin,  on  the 
Kicler  Fjord.  It  is  well  built  and  lieautifuUy  situated,  has 
a  university,  some  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  trade. 
Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  Baltic,  deep  and  safe, 
and  now  very  strongly  fortified  ;  it  will  be  the  station  of  the 
German  fleet  in  tlie  Baltic,  and  the  seat  of  all  institutions 
belonging  to  tlie  German  navy.  Kiel  communicates  daily 
with  Copenhagen,  Christiania,  and  Malmo.     Pop.  31,764. 

Kiel'ce^  government  of  Poland,  adjoining  the  frontier 
of  Austrian  Galicia.  Area,  .'JG2;i  square  miles.  Pop. 
470,300.  It  is  watered  by  the  Vistula,  produces  good  wheat 
and  other  grains,  awd  has  abundant  iron-mines.  The  cap- 
i'al  is  a  town  bearing  the  same  name,  9fi  miles  S.  \V.  of 
Warsaw,  with  7205  inhabitants  :  !?eat  of  a  Catholic  bishop- 
ric and  seminary,  a  mining-school,  and  a  gymnasium  or 
aeademy. 

Kieiichow.     Pee  Kioxg-Choo. 

K ien'- Lung  [Chinese, '*  celestial  blessing"],  fourth  em- 
peror of  China  of  the  present  Mauchu  dynasty,  b.  in  1709 ; 
succeeded  his  father,  Yung-Ching.  in  1735;  made  war  upon 
the  Tartar  tribes  (17.'»4-tj0)  and  upon  the  kingdom  of  Ava 
(KfiS);  published  an  edict  against  Christianity  (1753); 
received  the  first  English  embassy  under  Lord  Macartney 
(1793) ;  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Kia-King  (1795),  and 
d.  Feb.  7,  1709.  He  was  a  protector  of  literature,  wrote 
treatises  in  Chinese  and  Manchu,  and  edited  a  vast  diction- 
ary of  the  latter  language. 

Kie'pert  (Heixrich),  b.  at  Berlin  July  31,  1S18:  de- 
voted himself  from  early  age  to  the  stuily  of  geography; 
enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Bitter ;  explored  Asia  Minor  in 
1S4I-42:  was  director  of  the  geographical  institute  of  Wei- 
mar 1815-52;  returned  to  Berlin  and  became  professor  at 
the  university  in  IS59.  His  Athis  von  Hellus  nnd  den  he!- 
fe.niHvhfH  C'thmif-n  (Berlin,  1SI0-4G  ;  revised  ed.  ISfiO),  and 
his  maps  to  Robinson's  PalcHtina  (Halle.  1S43),  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  seientilic  world.  His  HiHtoriachfjeo- 
{/ittphinrhe  Krliiiitrnitig  der  Krierje  zicischen  drm  out  ro- 
miHchcn  Ilcivhe  iiiid  den  peiaiHchen  /Conirjen  dcr  Sftisaniden- 
Dtfnastie,  was  awarder!  a  prize  in  1844  by  the  French  In- 
stitute. Of  his  numerous  rither  publications,  Aeuer  Ifond- 
atlnn  der  Erde,  A^  maps  (Berlin,  1857-01),  is  very  exten- 
sively used  and  much  appreciated  ;  also  his  Atlas  der  alten 
Wth  (1848),  etc. 

Kicr'kcgaard  (Soren  Aabvk),  b.  at  Copenhagen  in 
ISl.'i,  spent  his  whole  life,  almost  without  any  exception,  in 
his  native  city,  living  in  elegant  retirement,  at  last  almost 
in  seclusion,  and  d.  there  in  1854.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  some  of  them  also  very  large,  nnd  comprise  two 
series  of  writings,  published  simultaneously — one  pseudony- 
mou3ly,  the  olherunder  his  name.  In  the  former,  Whether — 
Or,  Stmjt^n  iif  Lift;  liifs  of  Phifosophif,  The  Idea  of  I/nrror, 

etc.,  he  gives  a  sketch  and  a  criticism  of  thope  different 
views  of  life  with  which  people  try  to  live  in  our  times,  and 
shows  that  outside  of  Christianity  there  is  a  chance  for 
dnr.zting  heroism,  for  brilliant  vices,  for  mediocrity,  and 
for  nonsense,  but  none  for  the  deepest  impulses  of  human 
nature.  In  the  latter,  Erercigeg  in  Cfirintitmiti/,  Jieedit  of 
Lovf,  Srrmoun,  etc..  he  develops  liis  own  conception  of 
Christianity,  partly  in  positive  form,  partlv  polemically, 
criticising  the  ruling  theological  systems.  His  conception 
is  very  austere.  Intellectually.  Christianity  is  a  paradox, 
whieh  can  b«»  grasped  only  by  faith  :  it  is  the  charaoteristic 
of  overy  truly  Christian  idea  that  it  is  a  cross  to  the  under- 
stamling.  and  yet  absolutely  imperative  in  its  form.  J^Ioral- 
ly.  it  is  love — not  charity,  or  benevolence,  or  honesty,  but 
a  love  which  knows  no  choice  nnd  makes  no  }>rcfercncc,  but 
embraces  the  whole  human  race  with  the  same  sympathy, 
blotting  out  all  those  differences  which  arise  from  the  natural 


relations  between  parents  and  children,  man  and  wife,  etc. 
^'Esthetically — that  is,  in  its  effect  on  natural  life— it  is  suf- 
fering ;  he  whose  life  is  not  one  continuous  suffering  is  not  a 
Christian.  He  was  a  most  powerful  stylist,  though  his  style 
was  more  seducing  than  convincing.     Clemens  Petersen. 

Kie'sewetter  (Rafael  Geohg),  b.  Aug.  29,  1773,  at 
Holieschau.  Moravia  ;  studied  philosopliy  and  law  at  01- 
miitz  and  Vienna;  held  since  1704  different  government 
offices  in  Vienna;  retired  in  1SI5.  and  d.  Jan.  1,  1850.  His 
writings  are  of  great  interest  for  the  scientific  study  of 
music,  especially  Oe/irhichic  dt-r  tvropp-tthtnhiud :  Mnnik 
(1834)  and  DcrweUliche  fimnng  von  f'r'iihen  Alittelaltcr  bia 
zur  Ei-fndnng  des  draniatischen  Sti'fn  {1841). 

Kics'ter,  tp.  of  Faribault  eo.,  Minn.     Pop.  61. 

Kiev',  Kief,  or  Kiew,  government  of  European  Rus- 
sia, bordering  on  the  Dnieper.  Area.  1042  square  miles. 
Pop.  144.270.  The  northern  part  is  biw  antl  marshy:  the 
snuthern,  hilly,  covered  with  branches  of  the  Carpathian 
Mountains.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  very  mild. 
Wheat,  maize,  tobacco,  hemp,  nnd  vines  are  cultivated  ; 
excellent  timber  is  grown  and  many  cattle  reared. 

Kiev,  town  of  Russia,  the  capital  of  the  government 
of  Kiev,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  beautiful  cities  of  Russia.  It  consists, 
properly  speaking,  of  three  towns,  each  with  its  own  walls 
and  fortifications — namely,  Petchcrsk,  with  the  famous 
monastery  of  Petcherskoi,  containing  the  tombs  of  many 
Russian  saints  ;  Kiev  proper,  with  the  celebrated  cathedral 
of  St.  Sophia,  built  in  1037;  and  Porlol.  which  is  occupied 
by  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  Kiev  has  a  university  fre- 
quented by  1500  students,  and  several  other  educational  in- 
stitutions. Its  manufactures  are  not  considerable,  but  its 
trade  is  extensive  and  important.     Pop.  70,591. 

Kikin'da,  Na^y-Kikinda,  or  Gross-Kikinda, 
town  of  Austria,  in  the  Temesvar  banat,  lias  an  imjiortant 
annual  fair  and  a  large  trade  in  cattle.      Pop.  17.462. 

Kilauea,  a  celebrated  volcano  in  Hawaii,  one  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  It  is  in 
constant  activity,  and  in  the  eruption  of  1840  sent  forth 
for  three  weeks  a  river  of  molten  lava  which  varied  from 
a  few  hundred  feet  to  3  miles  in  width.  The  crater  is  8 
miles  in  circumference,  and  varies  from  800  to  1500  feet  in 
depth.  Mauna  Loa,  another  famous  volcano,  is  only  16 
miles  distant. 

Kirbourn  City,  post-v.  of  Newport  tp.,  Columbia  co., 
AVis.,  on  the  Wisconsin  River  and  the  Chicago  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  R,  R.,  108  miles  N.  AV.  from  Milwaukee.  It 
has  8  churches,  1  bank.  4  hotels,  1  newspaper,  33  stores,  3 
harness,  5  boot,  4  blacksmith,  ancl  3  wagon  shops;  also  saw 
and  flour  mills,  sash,  iloor,  nnd  blind  factories,  and  a  tan- 
nery. There  are  extensive  public  schools  and  a  fine  insti- 
tute. Kilbourn  City  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  farming  dis- 
trict, is  the  eentre  of  the  hop-trade  of  the  North-west,  nnd 
noted  as  a  place  of  summer  resort,  being  at  the  foot  of  (lie 
famous  *' Dells  of  the  Wisconsin."  Three  elegant  little 
steamers  ply  on  the  river  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
pleasure-seeker.     Pop.  about  1100. 

Frank  0.  Wisner.  Ed.  "Wisconsin  Mirror." 

KiTbourne  (Jamks).  b.  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  Oct.  19, 
1770;  was  a  mechanic,  a  merchant,  and  a  manufacturer; 
in  ISOO  was  ordained  as  deacon,  and  at  times  ofliciated  in 
the  pulpit.  Having  attained  considerable  wealth,  he  was 
a  liberal  benefactor  tu  various  public  institutions,  and  in 
1802  removed  to  Ohio  with  a  numerous  following,  and 
founded  the  town  of  AVorthington  ;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress 1813-17,  and  again  1S39-41  ;  was  frequently  elected 
to  the  State  legislature  :  was  surveyor  of  public  lands,  com- 
missioner to  settle  the  boundary-line  between  the  public 
lands  and  the  great  Virginia  rcservaticm  ;  and  was  colonel 
of  a  frontier  regiment;  president  of  the  board  of  trustees 
of  AVorthington  College  for  thirty-five  years.  D.  at  AVor- 
thington,  0..  Apr.  9,  1850. 

Kildare',  an  inland  county  of  the  province  of  Leinster, 
Ireland.  Area.  653  square  miles.  Pop.  83.014,  of  whom 
2H,359  cannot  read  or  write.  The  ground  is  mostly  level 
or  slightly  undulating,  consisting  largely  of  reclaimed  bog; 
the  soil  is  a  deep  and  fertile  loam  ;  wheat,  oats,  and  harli-y 
are  the  principal  crops.  The  chief  towns  are  Atby,  May- 
nooth,  and  Kildare.  In  the  centre  of  the  county  is  the 
fantous  Ciirnitfh  of  Kildare,  consisting  of  a  ](lain  of  about 
5000  acres,  used  for  military  encampments,  and  famous  for 
athletic  sports  of  nil  kinds.  From  1851  to  1872,  21, 6U 
persons  emigrated  from  this  county. 

Kildare,  market-town  nnd  parish  in  the  county  of  the 
same  name  in  Ireland,  famous  as  tho  seat  of  one  of  the  old- 
est Catholic  bishopries  (saiil  to  have  been  founded  about 
500).  for  the  Parliament  held  there  in  1309.  and  for  the 
Curragh  races,  held  in  Apr.,  June,  Sept.,  and  Oct.  Pop. 
2654. 


KILDARE— KILNS. 


1547 


Kildare,  post-tp.  of  Juneau  co..  Wis.,  od  the  La  Croese 
di%-ision   oT  (he  Milwaukee   and  St.  Paul  K.  K.,  8  luiles 

N.  W.  uf  Kilbourn  City.     Pop.  685. 

KiTdeer,  the  Chmadriuti  ioci/€ni»,  a  North  American 
plover,  coiumoD  in  suinuicr  on  the  interior  plains,  and  iu 
winter  frequenting  the  sea-coast  from  Texas  to  M]i8»>uc'hu- 
setts.  It  is  named  from  its  cry,  which  is  constuully  re- 
peated.    Its  Uesh  is  not  prized  very  highly. 

Kirham  {Alexam>kk),  b.  at  Ep\vorth.  England,  July 
10,  I7li2;  jiiim-d  tlic  Wesleyan  Conlercucc  iu  17)Sf»,  and  in 
17^6  was  expelled  for  advocating  loo  fervently  tculesiaaticul 
reforms,  especially  a  more  equal  distribution  uf  powers 
among  laymen  and  preachers.  The  next  year  was  organ- 
ized "the  Kilhamites  "  or  "  Kcw  CoDncction  of  Wesieyan 
Methodists."     1).  in  1798. 

Ki'lia^town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  province  of 
Bessarahia.  on  a  hraneh  of  the  l>antibc.  It  carries  on 
consideraljle  tishinj^,  and  its  preparation  of  caviare  is  cele- 
brated.     Pcqi.  6101J. 

Kil'ian,  Saint,  b.  in  Ireland  early  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury; devoted  himself  to  missionary  labors  in  Thuringia, 
Germany,  where  ho  was  murdered  with  many  companions 
in  fi89,  being  afterwards  canonized.  Mueh  of  the  history 
of  Saint  Kilian  and  his  companions  is  admitted  to  be  le- 
gendary, but  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  to  doubt  the 
facts  above  stated. 

Kiliman^jaro',  a  mountain  of  Africa,  situated  on  the 
western  border  of  Zanzibar,  in  lat.  ?>°  40'  S.,  Ion.  .30°  E.,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  highest  mountain  on  the  continent.  Its 
top  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  its  height  is  esti- 
mated at  about  IS,7U0  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 

Kilkcn'nVy  an  inland  county  of  the  province  of  Lein- 
ster,  Ireland.  Area,  796  square  miles.  Pop.  !fl9,:i79, 
mostly  Roman  Catholics.  The  surface  is  undulating,  in 
some  places  rising  to  the  height  of  1000  feet;  anthracite 
coal  and  black  marble  are  found.  The  soil  is  light,  but 
fertile,  and  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  are  raised. 
The  only  city  of  any  importance  is  Kilkenny.  From  1851 
to  1S72  the  emigration  from  this  county  was  48,146. 

Kilkenny,  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny, 
on  the  Nure,  It  has  several  interesting  buildings,  a  col- 
lege, a  griimmar  school  in  which  Swift,  Congreve,  Far- 
quhar,  and  Berkeley  received  the  first  part  of  their  educa- 
tion.    Pop.  15,609. 

Kilkenny,  post-tp.  of  Le  Sueur  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  7.'J0. 

Killnr'ncy,  market-town  and  pari.-<h  of  Ireland,  Kerry 
CO.,  44  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Cork,  situated  in  the  midst  of  the 
most  beautiful  scenery,  and  within  about  a  mile  of  the  cele- 
brated lakes  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  The  town  contains 
several  hotels,  churches,  and  chapels,  and  a  magnificent 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  dispensary  and  fever  hospital, 
a  poorhouse,  etc.  Pnp.  5187.  The  lakes,  three  in  number, 
aro  connected  with  each  other;  the  lower  lake  is  nboiit  ti 
miles  long  by  2  miles  broad:  the  middle.  1\  miles  Inng  by 
i  mile  broad:  the  upper,  It  miles  lonj;.  Tliey  receive  sev- 
eral streams,  and  arc  interspersed  with  numerous  islands. 
On  a  projecting  penini^ula  which  divides  the  middle  from 
the  lower  hike  stand  (he  picturesque  ruins  of  Muckross 
Abliey  and  Hops  Castle.  The  lovely  and  pieturesfjuo  sce- 
nery abounding;  is  unsurpassed,  and  in  the  summer  is  a 
famous  attraction  to  tourists,  who  resort  hero  in  large 
numbers, 

Kill'bnrk,  tp.  of  Holmes  co.,  O.     Pop.  1121. 

Killhnck,  Ip.  of  Allegheny  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1919. 

KiU'rr,  a  name  applierl  to  cetaceans  of  the  genus  Orca,  i 
family  Delphinida',  or  dolphins,  and  given  in  allusion  to 
their  sanguinary  and  ravenous  habits.  They  are  noted 
enemies  of  the  right  whale?,  as  well  as  other  delphinoids, 
seals,  fishes.  The  kilhr  of  the  Atlantic  U,  S.  coast  is  Otca 
ytiufiatitr,  and  that  of   the  Pacific  coast,  O.  atnt. 

Killif'crnn'kio,  a  celebrated  pass  through  the  <iram- 
piun  Mnitutains,  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  about  15  miles 
N.  \V.  nf  l>unkeld.  At  the  N.  extremity  the  revolutiunary 
army,  under  Cien.  Maekay,  was  drf(ute<i  en  July  !7.  I6sy, 
by  tlie  n»yalif»ts,  under  (irahame  nf  Claverliouhc,  Viscount 
Dundee,  who  was  killed  at  the  moment  of  victory. 

Kil'lingly,  tp.  and  post-v.  of  Windhnm  co.,  Conn. 
The  lownnhip  in  traversed  by  the  Norwieh  and  Worcester 
R.  R.,  and  eimtainH  ^everal  manufaeturing  villngen.  one  of 
which  is  tho  bcirough  of  Danielsonvillc.  Killingly  has  a 
national  Itiink.      Pop.  5712. 

Kiriington  Peak,  in  Sherburne  tp.,  Rutland  co., 
Vt.,  II  miles  E.  of  Rullnnd,  is  the  third  in  height  of  the 
Vermont  mountains.  It  is  a  mtbin  landmark,  and  the  view 
from  its  t(»p  is  very  fine.     Its  lieight  is  4 1  NO  feet. 

Kiriincworth,  pnst-r.  and  tp.  of  Middlesex  oo., 
Conn.,  2.'{  miles  E.  of  New  Haven.      Pr.p.  s-,f;. 


Kirion,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.»  III.     Pop.  950. 

Kilmainc'  (CuAtii.FS  Jennings),  b.  at  Dublin  abont 
175U  ;  entered  the  French  army  in  1765;  served  under  La 
Fayette  iu  the  Ameriean  war;  became  brigadier-general  in 
1792;  was  distinguished  at  the  buttle  of  Jemappcs,  in  the 
Vendean  and  Italian  cainjtaigns,  and  was  appointed  iu  1797 
general-in  chief  of  the  army  fur  the  invasion  of  Euglaud. 
D.  at  Paris  Dec.  15,  1799. 

Kilmar'nock,  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Ayr. 

It  is  famous   for   its  calico-printings,  and  has  some  tan- 
neries and  distilleries.     Pop.  22,952. 

Kilns  [Ang.-Sax.  ct/ln,  from  cylrue,  "a  furnace  or  kit- 
chen "],  a  name  given  to  various  kimls  of  furnaces  or  ovens 
constructed  of  brick  or  stone,  in  which  a  hi<;h  and  uniform 
heat  can  bo  applied  to  bodies  for  the  jmrpose  of  drying, 
baking,  or  charring  them,  such  as  brick-kilns,  pottery-kilns, 
charcoal-kilns,  etc.  etc.  The  best  kiln  for  any  special  pur- 
pose is  that  in  which  the  requisite  intensity  of  heat  can  be 
produced  and  maintuinerl  un<ler  the  most  perfect  control  at 
the  least  expense  for  fuel.  Inh  rmittent  kilns  are  those  in 
which  the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  out  after  each  burning,  to 
be  again  started  after  the  kiln  is  recharged.  For  burning 
lime  with  wood-fuel  the  upright  kiln  is  the  simplest.  It 
may  be  built  of  briek  ;  if  of  other  masonry,  it  should  have 
a  brick  lining.  On  the  inside  it  is  circular  in  Iiorizontal 
section,  tapering  slightly,  by  a  curve  both  up  nnd  down, 
from  the  circle  of  largest  diameter,  which  is  from  4  feet 
to  6  feet  above  the  bottom.  A  kiln  of  10  to  11  feet  in 
largest  diameter  may  be  about  25  to  2S  feet  high.  5  to  6 
feet  diameter  at  top,  and  7  to  H  feet  at  bottom.  There  is 
an  arched  opening  on  one  side  at  the  bottom,  5  to  6  feet 
high,  through  which  the  wood  is  introduced  and  the  burnt 
lime  removed.  It  is  advantageous  to  have  a  horizontal 
grating  1  to  2  feet  above  the  bottom,  on  which  to  maintain 
the  fire.  These  kilns  arc  usually  located  on  a  hillf=ide,  so 
that  the  top  is  easily  accessible  for  charging  the  kiln,  and 
the  bottom  for  supplying  fuel  nnd  drawing  out  the  lime. 
In  charging,  the  largest  pieces  of  stone  to  be  burnt  are 
first  selected,  and  formed  into  a  rough,  dome-like  arch, 
with  large  open  joints,  springing  from  the  liotlom  of  the 
kiln  to  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  Above  this  arch  the 
kiln  is  filled  in  from  the  top.  taking  the  larger  stones  for 
the  lower  layers,  and  topping  ofl'  with  those  that  are  smaller. 
When  starling  a  fire  under  the  dome,  the  heat  should  be 
raised  gradually  to  the  required  degree,  iu  order  to  prevent 
a  sudden  expansion  and  probable  rupture  of  the  st(me 
forming  the  tlome,  which  might  either  cause  a  downfall  of 
tho  entire  mass  above,  or  choke  the  liraught  by  the  stone 
breaking  up  into  numerous  small  fragments.  .After  a 
bright  red  heat  is  once  reached  throut;h  the  mass  of  stone, 
it  should  be  maintained  to  the  end  of  the  burning,  as  indi- 
cated by  a  large  shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  the  contents, 
the  choking  up  of  the  voids  between  the  fragments,  and 
the  ease  with  which  an  iron  rod  can  be  In  reed  down 
through  the  stone  from  the  t<q>.  A  better  form  of  inter- 
mittent wood-biiruin[^  kiln  tlntn  the  one  described  is  Fhuwn 
in    Fig.  1,  in  wliich   the  fireplace  h   rests  on   a  permeated 


Fio.  1. 


brick  arch,  throufjh  which 
there  is  a  sufiieiently  frco 
eiriMilatitm  of  air  to  secure 
the  re(jui,<ite  <Irau<.'ht.  Tho 
interior  should  be  lined  with 
brick,  U'aving  a  thin  space 
between  the  lining  and  tho 
mil  side  nin^onry,  to  Iio 
filled  with  a^hes  or  other 
non  coniluetor.  This  eim- 
bles  the  in»<ido  to  ex|>and 
and  contract  without  seri- 
ous injury  to  the  kiln,  nnd 
lo  a  great  extent  prevents 
the  (ranf«iui.>^sion  of  heat  to 
the  outside  masonry — an 
important  consideralion 
when  the  latter  is  made 
of  stone  not  able  to  wifhstantl  great  heat.  In  Ihes^e  inter- 
mittent kilns  one  great  defect  is  the  enormous  waste  of 
hent  which  takes  place  at  each  burning,  for  ihe  quantity 
of  fuel  expendecl  in  rai!<ing  the  contents  of  the  kiln,  as  well 
ns  its  thick  masonry  walls,  to  the  degree  of  hnit  neecfsary 
to  burn  lime,  has  lo  be  repeated  each  time  tho  kiln  is 
charged.  Another  special  defeet  is.  that  the  stone  nearest 
tho  dome  is  liahln  to  hccomo  injured  by  everburning  hcforo 
the  top  portions  become  thoroughly  caustic. 

Intermittent  bill-shaped  kilns,  using  gas-coke  or  coal 
for  fuel,  are  extensi\ely  employed  in  EnghintI,  ?" ranee,  and 
(ieruniny  for  burnini;  PortlanrI  cement.  The  Cermnn  kiln 
is  usually  about  50  feet  hich  and  10  feet  in  greatest  diame- 
tcr.  It  is  filled,  for  burning,  with  altornato  layers  of  the 
raw  cement  and  ooko  or  coal,  in  tho  proportion  of  about  one 


c*«"^wr>sif*^ 


1548 


KILNS. 


part  by  weight  of  fuel  to  two  parts  of  raw  eement,  and  theo 
ijjnitej  at  bottom.  Three  to  four  days  are  required  fur 
b'urning,  and  fully  five  days,  and  sometimes  more,  for  the 

Fio.  2. 


kiln  to  cool  off  so  that  the  contents  can  be  removed.  The 
burning  is  always  carried  to  the  point  of  incipient  vitrifl- 
cation,  and  when  properly  burnt  the  pieces  of  cement  arc 
of  a  dark  greenish-gray  color,  are  quite  heavy,  hard  to 
pulverize,  and  are  cracked,  contorted,  and  shrunken.  These 
kilns  are  usually  tapered  to  a  small  diameter  at  top,  and 
have  one  or  two  side-openings  through  which  they  are 
charged.  . 

Fig.  2  represents  a  vertical  section  and  elevation  through 
the  draw-pits  of  a  Portland-cement  kiln,  of  the  form  gen- 
erally used  upon  the  Thames  and  elsewhere  in  England, 
Fi'.'S  being  a  sectional  [ilan  through  the  draw-pits.  These 
kilns  are  from  :J7  feet  to  40  feel  high  from  the  draw-pit  floor 
to  the  top  of  the  upper  eonc,  and  from  12  feet  to  15  feet  in 
largest  diameter.  Thev  are  built  of  brick,  with  an  interior 
linfng,  y  inches  thick,  oV  firebrick,  reacbing  to  within  5  feet 
of  the  top,  properly  bonded  to  the  e.tterior  masonry,  except 
in  the  lower  portion  to  the  height  of  about  12  feet,  which 
is  not  so  bonded,  and  can  therefore  be  renewed  with  ease 
whenever  necessary.  There  arc  two  draw-pits,  opening  on 
opposite  sides,  and"  separated  from  each  other  by  a  wedge 
of  brick-work,  finished  in  firebricks  on  top,  which  divides 
the  descending  contents  of  the  kiln  when  drawing.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  kiln,  just  above  the  wedge,  a  number  of 
Fia.  3. 


single  grate-bars  rest  upon  two  cross-bars.  By  knocking 
out°tlie  cross-bars  the  grate-bars  can  be  removed  and  the 
cement  drawn.  The  kiln  is  charged,  for  burning,  with  al- 
ternate layers  of  raw  cement  and  coke  or  coal — about  2  of 
cement  to  1  of  fuel  by  weight — through  two  man-holes 
placed  on  different  levels.  These  holes  are  tightly  closed 
during  the  burning.  Sometimes,  with  a  view  to  increase 
the  dr^iiight,  the  top  is  carried  up  higher  with  a  sheet-iron 
stack.  The  Coplav  Cement  Company  are  beginning  to  use 
kilns  of  this  form" for  making  Portland  from  argillaceous 
limestone,  near  Allcutown.  Pa.  The  raw  stone  is  first  finely 
ground  between  millstones,  then  tempered  stitUy  with  water, 
and  formed  into  lumps  of  irregular  shape  of  from  li  to  6 
pounds  weight.  These,  after  jiartial  drying,  are  burnt  in 
the  kiln  in  layers,  alternating  with  layers  of  anthracite  coal, 
about  sixteen  days  being 
consumed  in  ehaiijiiig. 
hnrnhi;i,  coolhltf^  and 
di-nwiii;i  a  kiln. 
O'liiiiiiioiitoyPapeliiiil 

Kiliif. — iMatorial.*    such 

as  common  lime,  lloman 

cement,  and  tlio  argillo- 

maguesian    cements    of 

the  U.  S.,  that  do  not, 

like    Portland     cement. 

require    prolonged     in- 

tonso  heat,  ean  be  burnt 

in  upright  kilns  (either 

bell -shaped,  eyliildrieal, 

or  ovoidal)  without  in- 
termission  in   the    fires. 

The  kiln  is  filled  with  al- 
ternate layers  of  coke  or 

coal  and  the  stone  to  b.- 

burned,  and   then   fired 

from    below    with    light 

wood.     As  the  eombus 

tion  is  completed  in  the 

lower  portion,  Iho  burnt 

stone  is  drawn  out  from 

time  to  time,  allowing  tho   entire   mass    above   to  settle 

down.     New  layers  of  fuel  and  stone  are  then  added  at  top. 

The  layers  of  stone  should  not  exceed  six  inches  in  thick- 


SCALE    or  rcET. 


ne<!s  It  is  usual  to  draw  the  burnt  stone  at  least  twice 
every  twentv-fonr  hours.  Fig.  4  gives  a  verlieal  section 
of  the  kilns'  in  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  for  burning  Kosendalc 
cement.  The  fuel  (anthracite  coal)  is  broken  up  very  fine. 
What  is  technically  known  as  "  second  .screenings  "  from 
the  mines  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  to.  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Coal  Co.  have  been  found  to  be  entirely  suit- 
able "  The  dolled  line  shows  the  interior  form  of  kiln  pre- 
ferred at  Balcony  Falls  on  the  James  River,  Vn.;  :t600 
pounds  of  anthracite  or  somi-bituminous  e<ial  have  been 
found  sufficient  to  burn  100  barrels  of  cement  of  .'.OO  pounds 
each.  A  continuous  kiln  of  the  upright  form  may  be  oper- 
ated with  either  wood.  peat,  or  eoal  fuel,  without  intcr- 
stratifying  the  latter  with  the  limestone,  by  maintaining 
the  fires  in  furnaces  at  the  side  of  the  shaft.  The  heat  and 
flame  are  conducted  into  the  shaft,  which  eonlaiiis  nothing 
but  the  material  to  be  burnt.  Indeed,  this  method  is  neces- 
sary when  wood,  which  cannot  be  subdivided  into  conve- 
nient size  for  inlermixtuie  with  the  stone,  is  the  fuel  cin- 
ploved  Figs.  5,  fi,  and  7  represent  a  flame-kiln  ol  this 
kind  for  anthracite  coal,  in  which  Q  arc  holes  through 
-    •     ■  '     watched ;  11  the 


which  the  progress  of  the  burning  can  be  watched;  II  he 
feed-ovens  lor  heating  the  eoal  before  it  passes  through  he 
dampers  S  into  the  furnaces  T;  U  the  ash-,.its ;  \  the 
draw  pits;  W  a  platform  in  front  of  the  furnaces;  and  O 
a  division-wall  to  prevent  the  meeting  of  opposite  draughts 
from  the  furnaces  T.  These  kilns  arc  some  imcs  called 
,Z,e,-/Ia„.c  kilns,  from  the  fact  that  the  fuel  belore  ignition 
is  made  wet  with  hot  water,  the  steam  Irom  which,  by  its 
decomposition,  aids  the  expulsion  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  therefore,  it  is  claimed,  facilitates  the  burning.  When 
designed  for  wood-fuel  the  furnaces  are  larger  and  somewhat 
differently  arranged.  These  kilns  arc  used  in  the  I  .  S  for 
burning  both  common  lime  and  eement  but  are  not  con- 
sidered adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  Portland  ecmen  . 
Poll  wood  is  used  in  them  for  burning  lime  in  Kockland 
Me.,  about  4  cords  being  required  to  burn  100  barrels  of 
'HO  to  240  pounds  each,  at  an  average  saving  ol  about 
three-sevenlhs  of  the  fuel  that  wmld  be  necessarily  con- 
sumed in  ordinary  intermittent  kilns.  When  first  starting 
the  fire  in  these  kilns,  the  portion  below  the  level  of  the 
grate,  called  the  thimble,  is  filled  with  ligh  wood  The 
interior  of  the  kiln,  nearly  up  to  the  top.  is  also  lined  with 
one  layer  of  wood  set  on  cud.     The  first  precaution  is  neees- 


KILNS. 


1549 


eary,  because  othorwiso  tho  stone  near  the  grate  would  be 
insufficiently  burnt ;  and  the  second  because  tbo  expansion 
of  tho  gtono  when  heated  would  injure  the  kiln  it"  lillcd  to 

Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


its  entire  capacity.  TIic  stone  should  bo  broken  into  pieces 
not  exceeding  8  Inches  to  10  inches  in  diameter.  In  these 
kiln?  the  stone  is  e.\po.«cd  to  tlic  heat  from  42  to  48  hours, 
and  the  burnt  lime  is 
drawn  every  tiorS  hour:», 
raw  stone  being  added  at 
tho  top,  while  tho  fires 
are  steadily  maintained 
in  Iho  furnaces.  A  kiln 
holding  enoiij;h  raw 
stone  to  makf  I  ".'>  barrels 
of  lime  f<hould  yield, 
when  tvell  under  way, 
about  100  barrrls  every 
24t  hours.  When  the 
amount  of  work  to  bo 
drine  is  very  great,  sev- 
eral of  these  kilns  are 
ranged  in  juxtaposition 
side  by  side,  each  having 
its  furnaces  on  ono  sido  and  its  draw-pit  on  the  oilier. 
With  this  arrangement  a  great  deal  of  masonry  is  suvcd, 
ns  tho  wails  separating  contiguous  kilns  need  not  bo 
very  thick,  and  need  not  bo  carried  as  high  as  the  side- 


walls  by  several  feet.  They  should,  however,  terminate 
in  a  wedge,  so  ns  not  to  impede  the  downward  move- 
ment of  the  contents  of  the  kiln. 

lirtvL- Kilns. — Bricks  are  burnt 
either  in  special  permanent  kilns, 
charged  with  the  ware  and  emptied 
at  each  burning,  or  they  are  piled 
up  in  regular  systematic  layers, 
with  openings  between  them,  so  as 
t:»  form  of  themselves  a  temporary 
kiln,  called  a  clamp.  (See  article 
BRifK.)  Permanent  brick-kilns  are 
of  various  forms,  generally  rec- 
tangular, and  they  may  be  arched 
over  on  top,  when  they  are  termed 
clof>c  kilns,  or  they  are  left  open. 
In  cl'iHp.  kilns  the  tires  arc  main- 
tained in  furnaces  at  one  end,  per- 
meate through  the  bricks  in  the 
boily  of  tho  kiln,  and  escape  through 
a  chimney  at  the  other  end.  In 
iiprn  kilns  the  lires  are  maintained 
under  the  ware  to  be  backed,  and 
penetrate  through  the  mass  u])Hard, 
esca()ing  on  the  top.  In  both  kilns 
the  bricks  are  piletl  up  in  courses  on 
their  edges,  in  such  manner  that  the 
bricks  in  the  difl'erent  layers  cross 
each  other,  and  arc  so  far  separated 
from  each  other  that  the  flame  finds 
a  free  passage  between  them.  In 
tlie  open  kilns,  in  order  better  to  rc- 
iiiu  the  heat,  the  entire  top  of  the 
pile  is  covered  over  during  the  burn- 
ing with  a  layer  of  brick-dust  or 
loam,  and  while  tho  bricks  are  cool- 
ing off  this  is  further  covered  with 
moist  clay  or  sand.  Kilns  for  burn- 
ing firebrick  should  have  a  firebrick 
lining,  and  are  in  all  respects  constructed  and  oj>erate(l  with 
more  care  than  is  usual  for  nmnufaeturing  common  brick. 

The  intermittent  kiln  used  by  Messrs.  A.  Hall  &.  Sons, 
Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.  (Figs.  8  and  9),  for  baking  firebrick, 
is  rectangular  in  plan,  about  ?>2  feet  long,  and  IIA  feet  wide 
inside.  It  is  rcnuirUable  for  the  comparative  thinness  of 
its  walls,  and  by  being  open  on  top.  Tho  walls  above  tho 
level  of  the  fires  consist  of  two  distinct  shells,  not  bonded 
together;  tho  inner  one,  a,  a,  of  firebrick,  9  inches  thick 
and  12  feet  high  above  tho  fnvs;  and  the  outer  ono  of 
common  briek,  8  inches  thick.  In  one  of  tho  long  siilrs  an 
opening  of  about  4'  8"  wide  is  left  for  charging  and  empty- 
ing the  kiln,  licforo  tho  baking  is  commenced  this  open- 
ing is  closed  with  old  firebrick  put  in  close-jointed,  but  dry, 
its  outer  surface  only  being  coated  over  with  a  layer  of  fire- 
clay mortar.  An  air-space,  2  inches  wide  at  bottom,  is 
left  between  the  inner  and  outer  walls,  but  the  walls  nro 
gradually  drawn  together,  so  that  they  touch  eaeh  other  at 
top.  The  side-walls  and  end-walls  of  tho  outer  shell 
are  not  bonded  together  at  the  corners,  and  do  not  ovcrlup 
each  other.  Tho  iirebriek  lining  is  therefore  exposed  to 
view  at  these  points.  The  outer  wall  is  built  with  a  groove 
/,/  about  2  inches  deep  and  .1^  inches  high,  M'ben  tho 
inner  wall  begins  to  expand  by  the  efi'ect  of  the  heat,  tho 


r 


Fio.  8. 


li^,^HW/fWMt 


a,. 


Scctlonnl  plnn,  on  line  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F. 


Qn 


interior  space  permits  it  to  do  so  without  hindranoe,  while 
it  prevents  a  scnsi))le  loss  of  heat  by  traDsuiiasiou.     As  tho 


heat    increases  tho    inner  wall   may  exert  sonio    pressure 
against  tho  outor  ono  without  any  injuriuus  elTect  on  thu 


1550 


KILNS. 


latter,  the  thin  portion  of  the  same  (the  groove/,/)  acting  I  ral  position  when  the  pressure  ceases.     Close  by,  and  op- 

as  a  sort  of  hin^e,  enabling  the   wall  to  bend  outward  to      posite  each  (exposed)  corner  of  the  firebrick  wail,  a  strong 
some  extent  under  the  pressure,  and  returning  to  its  natu-  '  wooden  post  */,  £/  is  firmly  planted  in  the  ground.     The 


Klevation  and  section,  on  line  G,  H 


corners  are  reinforced  with  angle-iron  h,  and  a  similar 
piece  of  angle-iron  i,  bent,  rests  with  its  two  ends  firmly 
against  the  angle-iron  of  the  corner,  and  with  its  convex 
back  or  middle  part  against  the  post.  When  the  inner 
wall  expands  it  lends  to  flatten  the  curve  of  the  bent  an- 
gle-iron ;  on  cooling,  the  latter,  by  its  spring-like  action, 
returns  to  its  original  position.  The  kiln  is  heated  by  ten 
furnaces,  five  of  which,  with  their  doors  and  ash-pits,  are 
sliown  in  elevation  {k,  k),  and  five  in  cross-section  (I,  I). 
The  grate-bars  run  across  the  whole  width  of  the  kiln,  the 
furnaces  or  fire-holes  being  provided  with  a  door  at  each 
end.  Between  the  fire-boles  and  the  benches  (nt,  vi)  upon 
which  the  green  brick  are  placed,  six  heavy  posts  (h,  ij) 
arc  placed  as  shown  ;  they  serve  partly  to  support  the  roof 
over  the  kiln  (not  shown  in  the  drawing),  and  partly  to 
carry  a  scaffolding  or  platform  (o,  o)  running  around  the 
kiln  for  easier  access  to  the  upper  portions.  The  green  or 
raw  bricks  are  arranged  in  alternate  courses,  the  spaces 

Fig.  10. 


the  centre  of  each  bench  and  extending  across  the  width 
of  the  kiln.  The  draft  of  the  kiln  can  to  some  extent  bo 
regulated  by  opening  or  closing  these  2-inch  spaces.  A 
kiln  of  the  above  kind  holds  about  70.000  firebrick  of  the 
usual  dimensions — i.  c  9"  -i-  4\"  X  2i".  The  baking  re- 
quires about  four  days'  firing,  of  which  the  fir^t  two  days 
consist  in  easy  firing,  and  the  closing  two  days  in  sharp 
firing.  The  whole  quantity  of  fuel  consumed  in  one  baking 
is  stated  to  be  40  tons,  of  which  a  little  more  than  half  is 
anthracite  coal,  the  balance  of  a  seuii-bituminous  kind; 
the  latter  being  used  only  during  the  latter  stages  of  the 
firing.  Eight  to  ten  days  are  required  to  charge,  bunt, 
cool  nffy  and  fwpti/  a  kiln  of  this  kind. 

Potteijf  kihiH  are  of  various  forms,  hut  in  none  is  the  fuel 
consumed  in  the  same  chamber  or  in  contact  with  the  ware. 
Porcelain  and  other  finer  kinds  of  clay  ware  cannot  even 
be  allowed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  flame  of  the 
furnace,  and  arc  therefore  always  enclosed  in  clay  boxes 
called  scffffnrti.  in  order  that  the  glaze  maj'  receive  no  in- 
jury. The  kiln  in  which  the  celebrated  Stn-cfi  ware  is 
baked  is  a  variety  of  the  upright  flame-kiln,  subdivided 
into  two  or  more  compartments  or  stories  by  perforaie<l 
floors.  Fig.  10  represents  this  kiln,  the  left  half  being  in 
elevation  and  the  right  half  in  vertical  secti(»nal  elevation. 
Fig.  11  is  a  horizontal  sectional  plan,  on  the  left  through 

Fig.  U. 


>#i."«-y 


between  them  as  nearly  equal  as  possible.  The  whole  pile 
i-:  finished  off  on  top  with  two  layers  of  old  burnt  firebrick 
laid  flat  and  quite  close,  but  with  a  2-inch  opening  over  [  D  the  heat  ascends  to  a  third   space  E,  usually  used  for 


the  upper  chamber,  and  on  the  right  through  the  fire- 
hearths.  Fig.  12  shows  a  vertical  half  section,  through 
the  baking  cliamber,  with  the  wares  arranged  in  it  for 
buking.  There  are  four  fires.  A,  A,  A,  A,  which //•«/  heat 
the  lower  chamber  IJ,  in  which  the  ware  receives  its  final 
baking.  The  heat  then  ascends  through  the  lower  perfo- 
rated floor  C,  and  heats  the  upper  chamber  P,  filled  with 
unglazed  ware,  which  here  receives  its  first  baking  before  it 
is  dipped  in  the  liquid  glaze,  preparatory  to  the  linal  bak- 
ing in  the  lower  chamlier.  Porcelain  ware  which  has  re- 
ceived only  its  first  baking  is  called  fnncuit.     From  chamber 


KILNS. 


1551 


bnking  bf*ruit  or  »eggnr»,  and  then  escapes  through  the 
chimney  F.  G,  G  are  the  doors  through  which  the  wares 
arc    introduced   and   removed;    (,   f,  (  are    the    openings 


Poltery  kiln. 

through  tho  floors  C,  there  being  only  half  as  many  Fuoh 
openings  in  tlie  upper  as  there  are  in  the  lower  floor.  The 
flue  from  tho  furnaces  to  the  lower  chamber  are  each  di- 
vided into  three  channels.  ;>,  p,;j  of  plan.  Small  openings 
rr,  IP  are  made  through  the  wall  of  the  chamber  B  for  ob 
serving  the  color  and  intensity  of  the  Iieat,  and  for  intro- 
ducing small  samples  of  biscuit  covered  with  glaze,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  progress  of  tho  baking.  These  holes  arc 
closed  on  the  outside  with  a  tube-stopper  carrying  a  plate- 
glass  disk  or  diaphragm,  and  a  sliding  damper.  Those  kilns 
arc  usually  at  least  20  feet  in  interior  diameter  and  40  feet 
high.  They  are  built  of  ordinary  brick  masonry,  with  a 
firebrick  lining,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  system  of  iron 
bands,  m,  m,  m.  When  ptartiug  the  fires,  coals  of  burning 
charcoal  are  firjit  put  into  the  space  c,  and  light  wood  in- 
troduced through  the  aperture  b  until  the  space  /  is  com- 
pletely full.  The  downward  draught  through  0  creates  a 
long  flame  in/,  which  reaches  through  the  flues  p,p,p  into 
the  chamber  B.  The  aperture©,  for  stirring  the  fire,  is  gen- 
erally kept  closed  with  a  clay  stopper  ;  d  is  the  ash-pit.  Tho 
draught  is  regulated  by  the  movable  lid  of  tho  aperture  h. 
Tlie  jiitiTig  of  the  scggars  one  above  tho  otiier  fur  baking  is 
shown  in  Fig.  12,  some  in  section  and  otliers  in  profile;  7, 
i/are  plates  of  refractory  clay  called  fireguards,  sf-t  in  front 
of  the  flues  to  ]>rcvent  the  flame  coming  in  direct  contiurt 
with  the  seggars,  and  to  exclude  ashes  and  dust.  liight 
worid-fuel  9|tlit  up  Kinall  is  almost  universally  used  for 
baking  pornelain.  Thoso  kinds  which  burn  with  a  long 
and  vigorou!^  flame,  and  discharge  but  little  ash  and  dust 
into  the  kiln,  are  preferred.  At  Stivres  poptnr  is  used,  and 
generally  in  tJerraany  piue.  These  kilns  can  be  operated 
at  the  rate  of  about  one  firing  per  week,  and  (ho  average 
endurance  of  the  Sevres  kilns  is  about  'M)0  firings,  or  six 
years.  In  other  places  several  have  been  known  to  last 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  years.  During  the  baking  tho 
heat  in  tho  lower  chamber  reaches  from  \'.W°  to  1^0°  of 
Wedgwood's  pvromctcr  (cf|uivalent  to  from  11.000''  to 
111,0000  c  anj  from  Ii»,S.'iO°  to  2l.fi.t2°  F.).  On  the  upper 
floor  the  temperature  varies  from  30°  to  00°  Wedgwood. 
Articles  of  common  stoneware  and  pottery  are  baked  in 
kilns  of  much  simpler  construction  than  the  Sevres  kiln. 
The  ware  !•*  not  placed  in  seggar?  piled  up  in  rolumns.  but 
the  flame  in  allowed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  it.  In 
form  they  somewhat  resemble  the  ordinary  baker's  oven, 
consisting  essentially  of  an  ellipsoidal  dome  of  brick,  with 
a  brick  or  earthen  floor,  ancl  having  at  one  encl  a  furnace 
and  at  the  ntlicr  a  chiinney-flue.  In  some  cases  tho  fl()or 
ascends  from  the  furnace  to  tho  chimney-flue,  in  others  it 
is  horizontal.  The  larger  kilns,  which  are  ;)0  to  HO  feet  in 
length,  are  usually  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a 
transverse  vertical  wall  constructed  with  numerDiia  open- 
ings to  allow  the  heat  to  pass  freely  through.  The  com- 
partment next  the  furnace,  being  the  most  intensely  heated, 
IS  used  for  baking  stoneware.  In  this  the  heat  frequently 
attains  120°  Wedgwood.  The  other  compartment  is  used  for 
baking  common  pottery.     With  the  large  kilns  about  five 


days  of  preliminary  fire  and  threedaysof  baking  fire  are  re- 
quired at  each  burning.  The  fuel  employed,  which  may  bo 
cither  wood  or  coal,  determines  the  details  of  the  furnace. 
77ir  Hoffntfxuu  Kiln  (Figs.  i;j  and  14).— Imagine  a  rail- 
road tunnel  8  to  9  feet  high  by  10  to  12  feet  span,  built  of 

Fig.  13. 
Section  on  line  A, 


brick  continuously  around  a  long  oval  of  such  dimensions 
that  the  central  line  of  the  annular  chamber  thus  formed  is 
about  360  feet  long.  This  annular  chamber  is  called  the 
hnrninif  chumhvr.  In  the  centre  of  the  narrow  space  en- 
closed by  the  ring  is  a  long  Jhtc  calird  I  be  Hinok-e-vfnntihcr, 
lending  to  a  high  chimney.  Fourteen  flues?  lead  at  equal 
intervals  from  tlie  lower  inner  side  of  tho  burning  chamber 
into  the  smoke-cbiiniber,  entering  it  vertically  from  tho 
bottom,  each  provided  at  its  end  in  tho  smoke-chamber 
with  a  damper  that  can  be  opene<l  and  closed  at  pleasure 
by  means  of  a  vertical  rod  operated  on  top  of  the  arch. 
There  are  also  fourteen  doorways,  each  about  6  feet  high, 
through  the  outer  wall  of  the  burning  chamber,  placed  at 
regular  intervals.  The  arched  to|i  of  I  he  burning  chamber 
is  pierced  at  intervals  of  3  to  -I  feet  each  way  with  vertical 
holes  about  0  inches  in  diameter,  culled  firti-hofet.  which 
are  used  for  supplying  the  fires  with  fuel  and  watching  the 
burning.  These  liobs  are  kept  habilually  closed  with 
dampers  on  top.  It  is  customary  to  call  each  portion  of 
tho  burning  chamber  between  two  consecutive  doorways, 
including  one  of  them,  a  eonijiartmcnt,  allhough  there  is  no 
permanent  division  of  the  burning  chamber  into  smaller 
chambers.  Kaeh  compartment  is  therefore  26  feet  in  length 
along  the  axis,  and  has  one  doorway  at  its  left-hand  outer 
angle,  and  one  smoke-flue  at  the  floor  in  the  inner  angle 
diagonally  opposite  to  the  doorway,  tho  observer  bciug 
suppoi^ed  to  be  entering  a  doorway. 

Manurr  »/  ('"in;/  thr  Ktlu. — Let  the  compartment,  and 
also  the  doorways  and  flues  eorresnonding  thereto  ft  ver- 
ally,  be  numbered  from  1  to  II.  When  tho  kiln  is  in  oper- 
ation all  the  compartments  but  two  or.  exceptionally,  three. 
are  filled  with  the  material  to  be  burnt.  Suppose  Nos.  I 
and  2  are  empty,  aii<l  all  the  others  filled.  All  the  door- 
ways except  Xos.  I  and  2  are  temponirily  closed  with  brick- 
work, and  all  the  flues  except  No.  II  are  cbtsed  with  their 
dampers.  Workmen  are  filling  compartment  No.  I  with 
raw  limestone,  and  removing  burnt  lime  from  compartment 
No.  2.  Compartment  No.  3  c<pntains  limestone  put  in  twelve 
days  ago.  ('ompartment  No.  1  that  put  in  eleven  days 
ago,  and  so  on  around  to  No.  14,  which  was  filled  yesterday. 
A  sheet-iron  movable  partition,  called  the  riit-njf,  separates 
No.  11  from  No.  1.     Yesterday  it  was  bttwctn  Nu.  13  and 


1552 


KILNS. 


No.  14;  to-morrow  it  will  bo  between  No.  1  and  No.  2. 
Yesterday,  all  the  6ues  except  No.  13  were  closed:  to- 
morrow, only  flue  No.  1  will  be  open.  Yesterday,  men 
were  setting  limestone  in  No.  14,  and  removing  burnt  lime 
from  No.  I  ;  to-morrow  they  will  be  lilling  No.  2,  and 
emptying  No.  JJ.  Every  day,  therefore,  tlie  stfring,  draic- 
iuff,  vitt-uff,  and  open  jUte  advance  one  compartment.  The 
compartments  not  yet  iiretl  are  heated  by  the  hot  gases 
passing  through  them  to  the  chimney,  the  ytone  in  the 
compartment  next  in  advance  of  the  fire  being  at  a  full  red 
heat,  while  that  farthest  off.  in  No.  H,  which  waj^  put  in 
yesterday,  is  only  warm.  No  fuel  is  put  in  with  the  ware 
when  charging  the  kiln.     It  is  all  supplied  through  the 

Fig, 


feed-holes.  A  serious  objection  to  the  Hoffmann  kiln  is 
that  the  force  of  the  draught  and  the  progress  of  the  com- 
bustion cannot  always  be  regulated  with  certainty,  even  hy 
the  most  experienced  and  careful  burner.  For  instance, 
the  draught  throujrh  the  chambers  7  and  8  is  longitudinal 
entirely,  and  can  only  be  cliauged  by  opening  the  flues  in 
these  chambers,  giving  a  cross  draught  towards  the  inner 
wall,  which  may  or  may  not  be  desirahlc.  It  would  operate 
very  badly  if  the  combustion  next  the  outer  wall  was  too 
slow,  in  which  case  a  flue  in  the  outside  wall  would  be  ad- 
vantageous. 

The  Morand  Kiln  (Figs.  15,  16, 17,  18,  and  19),  for  burn- 
ing by  successive  chambers,  is  an  improvement  on  Hofl'- 
16. 


a.; 


if}  ^jMf^^A^MPl^  n^wf^  y  JiB  m;^ 


-r 


Fm.  l.'!. 


Fig.  18. 


z^=^^-W^W 

^?s  ^iSts^LiS;  ^.  -  -  v^-  -  a 

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£ 

s^       1  rf 

._,„,u 

Fin.  19. 


FT  > 


Or 


'I   n  I  "  t 


oq;  ; 


•Q;: 


— E| 


—3 

a3  ; 


TiLZEZIiLZl 


Morand  kiln. 


mann's,  inasmuch  as  it  has  lonj^itudinal  flues  both  above 
and  below  (ho  burning;  clianiber.  with  branch  flues  fitted 
with  damper,s  leading;  int't  then)  iit  the  top  and  bottom  of 
each  chaini)cr.  so  that  tlie  direction  and  force  of  the  draught 
and  the  ])rof5rcss  of  the  luirning  are  untler  hotter  control. 
Fig.  15  is  a  side  elevation  of  a  portion  of  a  kiln  of  fi^■o 
eliarabcrs  built  of  hriclis  :  Fig.  16  is  a  longitudinal  section 
and  elevation  through  the  dotted  line  r,  r  of  Fig.  17  ;  Fig. 
17  is  a  transverse  section  on  line  z,  z  of  Fig.  l(i ;  Fig.  18  is 
an  end  elevation:  and  Fig.  19  is  a  sectional  plan,  showing 
the  horizontal  bottom-flues  in  dotted  lines.  A^  A^,  etc.  are 
tlie  drying  and  burning  chambers,  separated  from  each 
other  by  brick  partition-walls,  perforated  at  the  bottom 
with  openings  c,  c.  In  kilns  for  burning  bricks  these  walls, 
except  their  lower  portion  to  the  height  of  about  2  feet,  are 
usually  formed  of  the  green  bricks  to  be  burned.  Each 
chamber  is  ])roviiled  with  doorways,  d  and  c,  through 
which  it  is  filleil  and  em]>tied,  and  with  small  fireplaces, 
/,  /,  placeil  at  the  floor  level.  In  chamber  A',  where  the 
tiring  begins,  there  arc  six  fireplaces  in  the  end-wall  of  the 
kiln.  In  the  other  chamber  there  arc  only  two,  placed  op- 
j'ositc  each  other  in  the  end  of  the  chamber  nearest  to 
eliambcr  A'.  In  the  haunches  of  the  arch  above  the  cham- 
bers there  are  two  longitudinal  steam  and  smoke  draught- 
flues,  B,  B,  and  below  the  chambers  there  arc  two  others, 
r,  C,  called  hot-air  flues,  all  four  leading  from  chamber  A* 
to  the  chimney  at  the  other  end  of  the  kiln.  In  each  cham- 
ber in  the  end  farthest  from  chamber  A*  there  are  four  cor- 
responding branch  flues,  two  at  top.  i,  t.  and  two  at  bottom, 
/,  ^  leading  respectively  into  the  four  longitudinal  flues. 
These  branch  flues  arc  provided  with  dampers,  r.  r,  y  and 


fr,  ir,  v\  for  opening  and  closing  them  at  pleasure.  The 
two  lower  flues,  t',  C,  may  be  replaced  by  a  single  flue. 
There  are  numerous  feed-holes,  3. 7,  through  the  arch  for  sup- 
plying fuel,  arranged  substantially  as  iu  the  llofl^inann  kiln. 
This  kiln  is  operated  ns  fcdiows  :  All  the  chambers.  A',  A', 
etc.,  arc  first  suitably  filled  with  the  articles  to  bo  baked. 
The  doorways  and  ieed-holes  are  then  closed,  as  are  also 
the  branch  flues  leading  to  the  lower  longitudinal  flues. 
The  branch  flues  1,  1  leading  from  A'  into  the  upper  longi- 
tudinal flues  B,  B,  are  open.  Fires  are  then  started  in  the 
fireplaces  f,  /,  of  chuniber  A'.  As  the  wares  in  this  cham- 
ber arc  gradually  dried  and  heated,  the  steam  and  va|ior 
which  they  give  off  escapes  through  the  flues  B,  B  to  the 
chimney  at  the  far  end  of  the  kiln,  without  passing  through 
and  injuring  or  discoloring  the  wares  in  A'.  When  the 
wares  are  sufliciently  dried  in  A'  the  top  branch  flues  in 
that  chamber  are  closed,  and  those  in  chumber  A'  opened, 
.so  that  the  waste  heat  from  A'  passes  through  A',  and  dries 
and  heats  the  green  wares  therein  before  it  passes  into  the 
upper  flues  B,  B.  and  thence  to  tlie  chimney.  Or,  if  cham- 
ber .'\'  is  not  charged  ready  for  drying,  the  surplus  heat 
from  Ai  may  be  carried  to  A',  or  to  any  other  chamber, 
through  the  lower  longitu.linal  flue  ('.  by  a  suitable  adjust- 
ment of  the  dampers;  so  that  the  surplus  heat  from  one 
chamber  is  utilized  in  drying  and  heating  the  ne.xt  or  any 
following  chamber,  until"  A-'*  is  reached.  "When  the  wares 
in  any  chamber  are  siitheiontly  dried,  fires  are  started  in 
the  fireplaces  /,  and  stoking  from  the  feed-holes  at  top 
follows  at  the  proper  time,  or  when  there  is  heat  enough  111 
the  chamber  to  ignite  the  fuel  thus  supplied.  ^^  ben  the 
wares  in  A^  arc  sufficiently  dried,  the  upper  dampers   in 


KILO— KILPATRICK. 


1553 


that  chamber  are  closed  and  the  lower  odcs  opened,  so  that 
the  surplus  heat,  iustead  of  cutoriug  the  chiuiiuy,  is  thus 
conveyed  back  through  the  flues  C,  C  to  A',  or  to  any  other 
chamber  by  a  suitable  udjuiiitment  of  dumpers,  for  drying 
the  green  wares  with  which  that  chamber  has  in  the  mean 
time  been  freshly  charged.  The  steam  and  vapor  from 
a  drying  chamber  always  puss  directly  to  llie  chimney 
through  the  upper  flues  B,  B, creating  a  draught  quilo  suf- 
ficient to  draw  the  heat  through  the  lower  Hues  C,  C  from 
any  burning  chamber  into  any  drying  chamber.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  operation  of  this  kiln  is  completely 
under  the  control  of  the  burner.  The  fuel  used  for  stoking 
from  above  is  finely  pulverized  coal,  such  as  gmudge  or  re- 

FlG.  20. 


fuse  coal.  In  the  fireplaces  either  coal  or  wood  will  answer. 
Id  economy  of  fuel,  simplicity  of  management,  and  uni- 
formity of  burning,  whether  for  bricks,  tircV>ricks,  cement, 
or  pottery,  this  kiln  seems  to  combine  every  essential  fea- 
ture of  exeellencc. 

Charcoal  Kt'hi/i  are  of  a  variety  of  forms  and  sizes.  Those 
used  in  the  V.  S.  for  making  charcoal  on  a  large  scale  for 
smelting-furnaces  are  made  of  brick,  some  being  rcctan;;u- 
lar  in  plan  and  covered  on  toj)  with  a  flat  brick  arch,  while 
others,  known  as  the  beehive  kiln,  are  circular  in  plan  and 
dome-shaped.  A  rectangular  kiln  40  feet  by  l(i  feet  in 
plan  {Figs.  20  and  21),  with  side-walls  13  feet  high,  coverc<t 
over  with  an  arch  of  4-feet  rise,  will  hold  nearly  UO  cords 

Fig.  21, 


^i^tW^X^*"^^ 


(  tiun-i);tl   killi». 


of  merchantable  wood.  As  the  side-walls  and  arch  are 
habitually  made  only  8  inches  (or  one  brick)  thick  as  a 
measure  uf  ec<<nomy,  they  are  always  supported  by  a  tim- 
)>cr  framework  on  the  outside  to  jirevent  their  being  thrown 
dowu  by  alternate  e.Y|>unsiun  and  contraction  wheu^u  use. 
The  end-walls  are  generally  1  foot  thick.  The  supporting 
frame  consists  of  upright  timbers  4  inches  by  12  inehes,  and 
19  ft'ct  long,  placed  about  .'{  feet  apart,  witli  their  edges 
against  the  side-walls  and  end-walls.  They  are  tied  to- 
gether at  top  by  4-inch  by  G-inch  horizontal  cross-tics.  For 
a  kiln  of  the  above  dimensions  fourteen  of  these  frames, 
each  consisting  of  two  uprights  and  one  cross-tie,  embrace 
the  kiln  transversely,  and  four  of  them  longitudinally.  The 
transverse  frames  are  stin"ened  at  the  angles  by  diagonal 
braces,  spiked  to  the  uprights  and  cross-ties.  In  the  side 
and  en<l-wall8  numerous  vent-holes  aro  left,  each  of  tho 
width  and  (hieknesH  of  ii  brick  (about  4  inches  by  2  inches). 
There  aro  I.')2  of  these  lioles.  arrangeil  in  four  horizontal 
rows  of  3S  holes  each,  the  upper  row  being  4  feet  from  tho 
bottom  of  the  wall,  the  next  row  Ui  feet,  the  next  1  foot, 
while  tho  lowest  row  is  placed  Just  about  the  level  of  tho 
floDr  of  the  kiln.  In  one  end  of  the  kiln  there  is  an  open- 
ing abr)ut  fi  feet  by  0  fci^t  at  the  level  of  the  floor,  through 
which  most  of  tho  wood  is  introduced  and  the  charcoal  re- 
moved. Above  this,  near  tho  crown  of  the  arch,  there  is  a 
smaller  opening,  2  feet  by  2  feet,  for  completing  tho  filling 
of  the  kiln.  Both  openings  are  fitted  with  boiler-ir(m  tloors, 
and  aro  tightly  closed  during  tho  burning.  There  are  three 
vent-holes  on  top  thruuKh  the  crown  of  the  arch,  about  10 
feet  apart,  each  1  foot  by  I  fool,  elo.<'cd  with  iron  dampers. 
The  kiln  having  been  compactly  filled  tu  the  crown  of  tho 
arch  with  wood,  cut  and  split  into  the  usual  merchantable 
sizes,  the  two  end-doors  are  then  closed,  and  fires  are  then 
started  in  tho  three  vent-holes  on  top.  Thei'o  holes  aro 
then  at  once  closed  with  the  damperti,  all  the  small  vent- 
holes  below  being  open.  The  fire  shiwiy  and  gradually 
works  its  way  downward  through  the  mass  of  wood,  itrt 
progress  being  known  to  a  skilful  burner  by  the  eolur  and 
volume  of  smoke  issuing  from  the  lower  vent-holes.  From 
ft  to  7  days  are  required  to  completely  char  the  euntrnli  of 
a  kiln  of  tho  dimensions  above  given.  Tho  lower  vent- 
holes  are  closed  from  time  to  time,  one  after  the  other,  as 
tho  burning  is  completed  in  their  vicinity,  and  finally,  when 
they  are  all  closed,  tho  kiln  is  whitewashed  all  over  in  order 
to  close  all  the  pores  tltrough  ivbieh  the  air  could  enter,  and 
it  is  allowed  to  stand  four  or  Ww  days  for  the  lire  to  go  out. 
When  skilfully  operated,  iheso  kilns  will  yield  4'i  bushels 
of  charcoal  to  the  cord  (d'  wood.  With  wood  costing  $2.60 
per  cord  at  the  kiln,  the  eo.>>t  of  tho  charcoal  will  not  vary 
much  from  *.*4  to  10  cents  per  bushel.  This  covers  Jilfintf, 
coaling,  irhitricaiifiiii'j,  and  current  repairs  of  kiln. 

Q.  A.  tJii.i.MonB. 
Kilo   [CiT.   x^Aioi.   "thousand"],   a  )irefix  used   in  tho 
French  metrical    system  to  denote  a  thousand    times  tho 
\-or.  11    -',ts 


measure  indicated  by  the  word  to  which  it  is  prefixed  ;  as. 
Kilogramme,  a  thousand  grammes,  tho  unit  of  commercial 
weight,  is  equal  to  2.204G1'12j  pounds  avoirdupois  ;  Kilo- 
litre, a  thousand  litres,  a  measure  of  capacity',  is  equal  to 
264.1SC:i5  gallons;  Kilomltre,  a  thousand  metres,  the 
unit  of  linear  measure,  is  equal  to  0.G2138  mile;  Kilo- 
STFRF,  a  thousand  stercs,  a  iiicat;uro  of  solidity,  is  equal  to 
3.*;;ilG.y8  cubic  feet.  Tho  latter  term  is  rarely  employe)!, 
measures  of  solidity  or  volume  being  expressed  in  cubic 
denominations  of  tho  linear  base.  (See  Wetuic  Sv.stem.) 

KirpatricU  (Andrew  Robf.rt),  M.  D.,  b.  Mar.  24. 1S17, 
near  Cheucyville,  Uapides  parish.  La.;  educated  in  Geor- 
gia under  tho  tuition  of  a  Baptist  clergyninn.  Rev.  Otis 
ymith  ;  graduated  in  the  Medical  College  of  Georgia  at 
Augusta  in  Mar.,  I8;i7  ;  practised  medicine  first  in  Burko 
CO.,  Ga.,  then  (IS.'iS— l^J)  in  Avoyelles  parish,  La.;  hut  re- 
moved to  Woodville,  Aliss.,  where  he  passed  through  a 
severe  epidemic  yellow  fever  in  IS41,  and  published  a  full 
report  of  it  in  the  A>ip  OrUftui  M:dirtil  Jnuruftl.  From 
1S47  to  I'^tl^  he  resided  near  Trinity,  in  Concorflia  j)arisl), 
La.,  during  which  timo  bo  contributed  articles  to  the  AViu 
OrltunH  Metfivul  Joitnial ;  to  an  annual  medical  publica- 
tion, edited  by  l)r.  E.  D.  Fenner,  styled  Saiitfurii  Mtdiral 
Ucjiortu ;  J/iatoricftl  M^momuda  of  Cintcnrdia  ami  Cata- 
houla /\trtHhi.ti,  besides  other  articles  in  l)r  Jimc'»  Jicrictr, 
New  Orleans;  some  articles  to  Li/tpinrotl'»  O'aziltrrr  ;  a 
sketch  of  the  early  Baptists  in  Mi^'sissippi  and  Louisiana; 
and  kept  meteorological  tables  fur  theSmith.-^onian  Institu- 
tion. In  18G3  he  removed  to  Texas,  and  in  iSOrt  settled  in 
Navasola,  (irimes  co.,  where  lie  now  (lS7i))  resides.     Ilo 

fiassed  through  an  epidemic  yellow  fever  in  I8f)7,  nnil  pub- 
ished  a  report  of  tho  same  in  the  Trxnn  Mrdical  Jonnml. 
In  18GH  ho  was  chosen  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Texas 
Medical  College  in  Galveston;  cditol  the  A'»irn#of»i  Werkdi/ 
I    TnUrt   in    1S70-7I  ;    one    of  the    assistant   editors  of  tho 
I    Sniithrrn    M'diral   /^rfor^/,  Atlanta,   Ga.,   in    187;t-75;   also 
I  contributing  articles  to  the  Mrdiral  and  Sunjtral  Itrportcr, 
I'hiladelphia,  the  Rirhnutnd  and  LauiHvttlr  Mrdiral  Jmirtialf 
and  Till  Amrriran  }frdiral   WcrKdy  of  Louisville,  Ky. 

Kilpatrick  (Ilron  Judson),  b.  near  Deekertown,  N.  J., 
Jan.  II,  I^.'iG:  graduated  at  the   U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
I  and  entered  tho  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  May 
I   0,  IHill  ;  was  commissioned  captain  ."ttli  New  York  Vols.  May 
U,  an<l  wounded  at  battle  of  Hn;  Brihel,  ,Iune  III.     On  his 
(   recovery  was  commissioned  lieut.nant-eolonel  LM  New  York 
I   (.'avalry  \'ols.,  of  which  regiment  ho  became  colonel  iJec, 
i    181)2.    With  his  regiment  he  participated  in  the  Hap[.»han- 
noek  campaign,  in  theseeontt  buttle  of  Bull  Hun,  and  nniny 
minor  actions,  jind  in  the  Maryliiiid   eampiiigii.      I'uring 
"  Sloncman's  raid  "  to  tho  rear  of  (ien.  Lee's  army  he  com- 
manded  a  brigade  uf  cavalry,  and    was   promoted    lo   bo 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  .Tune.  I.^C^t.     At  the  batllo 
of  Gettysburg  ho  commanded  a  brigade  and  division.      In 


1554 


KILTY— KINDERGARTEN. 


Apr.,  1864,  he  was  ordered  to  duty  with  Gen.  Shcrmao  in 
the  West,  and  at  the  hattle  of  Resaca,  May,  1SG4,  was 
severely  wounded.  During  Gen.  Sherman's  niareh  to  the 
sea  and  subsequent  campaign  tl)rough  the  Carolinas  ho 
commanded  the  cavalry  and  was  actively  engaged.  In  June, 
isfij,  he  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  resigned  his  commission  in  the  regular  army  Dec,  ISOj, 
and  his  vuluiiteer  commission  Jan.  I.  IS(j(>.  In  Nov.,  18Gj, 
he  was  appointed  U.  S.  minister  to  Chili;  recalled  in  IH68. 

G.  C.  Simmons. 
Kil'ty  (Augustus  H.),  V.  S.  N.,  b.  Nov.  25,  ISOG,  in 
Maryland;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midsbipman  July  4. 
1S2I  ;  became  a  jiassed  midshipman  in  1^.".L'.  a  lieutenant 
in  l^S.■t7,  a  commander  in  1^55,  a  cajttain  in  1S()2,  a  com- 
modore in  ISfiO;  retired  in  1868.  Commanded  the  Mnund 
City  in  the  action  with  the  Confederate  gunboats  off  Fort 
Pillow.  May  10,  1SG2,  and  with  the  St.  Charles  batteries  on 
AVbite  River,  June  17,  1S62.  In  the  latter  engagement  Com- 
mander Kilty  was  severely  injured  by  the  exphision  of  the 
steam-chest  of  the  Mound  City,  which  was  pierced  by  a 
shell.  In  his  official  report  to  the  navy  department  of  June 
20.  18G2,  Flag-officer  Davis  says  :  "  Commander  Kilty  is  out 
of  danger,  but  be  is  severely  crippled  in  his  hands  and  feet, 
and  suffers  a  great  deal.  He  is  a  brave  gentleman  and  a 
h)yal  officer.  He  has  always  been  conspicuous  in  this 
sfjuadron  for  acting  his  part  in  the  best  spirit  of  the  pro- 
fession." D.  Nov.  10,  1879.  FoxiiALL  A.  Parker. 
Kihva.     See  Quiloa. 

Kilwinning,  a  small  town  in  the  county  of  Ayr.  Scot- 
land, famous  for  an  ancient  abbey,  now  destroyed,  which 
was  the  birthplace  of  Scottish  Masonry.  Until  IT^iG,  when 
the  Grand  Lodge  of  Scotland  was  formed,  all  other  lodges 
in  Scotland  received  their  charters  from  "  Mother  Kilwin- 
ning." This  prerogative  was  exercised  down  to  1S07.  Eg- 
linton  Castie  in  this  town  was  the  scene  of  the  famous 
*'Eglint<)n  Tournament"  in  18.39.  Pop.  about  4000. 
Kim'ball,  tp.  of  St.  Clair  co..  Mich.  Pop.  1091. 
Kimball  (  Hkbkr  C),  b.  in  1801 :  joined  the  Mormons  in 
1832  at  Kirtland,  0.;  in  1835  became  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  of  that  sect;  in  lS.'J7-'i.8  was  a  missi<tnary  in  Eng- 
land: in  1838  went  to  the  Mormon  colony  in  Ray  co., 
Mo.  :  removed  thence  to  Nauvoo,  III. :  and  in  1846  became 
head  priest  of  the  order  of  Melchizcdek  at  Salt  Lake  City, 
where  he  d.  June  22,  1868. 

Kimball  (Richard  Burleigh),  h.  at  Plainficld.  N.  11.. 
Oct.  II,  I81G;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1834;  studied 
hiw  in  Europe;  practised  atWaterford.  Saratoga  co.,  N.  Y., 
and  removed  in  1S40  to  New  York  City.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  the  most  widely  known  is  St.  Lc(/cr  (1849); 
others  are  Letters  from  Cuba  (1850).  Cnhn  and  the  Cubans 
(18501.  Romance  of  Stnffcnt-H/e  Abroad  (1853),  ffenrt/ 
Powfra,  Banker  (1868),  and  To-dmj  (1870).  He  has  con- 
tributed much  to  periodical  literature. 

Kim'berley  (John  WonKnorsK).  Eari.of.  b.  in  England 
Jan.  7.  1S26  ;  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  O.xford,  in  1847  : 
succeeded  his  grandfather  as  Baron  Wodehouse  in  1846; 
was  undcr-secretary  for  foreign  affairs  from  1852  to  1856, 
and  again  from  1859  to  1861,  under  the  administrations  of 
Lords  Aberdeen  and  Palmerston  ;  was  ambassador  to  Rus- 
sia in  1856  ;  special  minister  to  several  states  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Schleswig-IIolstein  question  in  18G3.  and  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  18C4  to  1866,  in  which  latter 
year  he  was  raised  to  tht-  earldom  of  Kimberley.  I'nder 
the  second  Gladstone  ailministration  he  was  lord  privy 
seal  (1S68)  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  (1870). 

Kim'beriy  (Lewis  A.),  U,  S.  N.,  b.  in  1830  in  New 
York;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Dec.  8,  1846; 
became  a  passed  midshipman  in  1852,  a  lieutenant  in  1855, 
a  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  a  commander  in  1866; 
pcrved  in  the  flagship  Hartforil  at  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  and  in  her  various  engagements  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  was  lier  executive  officer  at  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay. 
In  his  official  report  of  Aug.  6.  1864,  Capt.  Pcrcival  Dray- 
ton writes:  "To  Lieut. -Com.  Kimbcrly,  the  executive  offi- 
cer, I  am  indebted  not  only  for  the  fine  example  of  t-itolncss 
and  self-possession  which  he  set  to  those  around  him,  but 
also  for  the  excellent  condition  to  which  he  had  brought 
everything  belonging  to  the  fighting  department  of  the 
ship,  in  consequence  of  which  there  was  no  confusion  any- 
where, even  when,  from  the  terrible  slaughter  at  some  of 
the  guns,  it  might  have  been  looked  for." 

Foxhai.t.  A.  Parker. 
Kim'ble,  countyof  S.  W.  Central  Texas.  Area,  about 
1300  square  miles.  It  is  a  rough,  broken  region,  with  good 
pasturage  and  timber,  and  numerous  salt-licks.  The  val- 
leys have  a  good  soil,  which,  however,  reqtiires  irrigatiOD, 
for  which  there  are  many  facilities.     Pop.  72. 

Kim'broiis:h,  tp.  of  Arkansas  co..  Ark.     Pop.  611. 
Kim'chi  (David),  Rabbi,  b.  at  Narbonne,  Provence,  in 


1160;  was  one  of  the  raost  distinguished  Hebrew  writers 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Little  is  known  of  his  personal  his- 
tory beyond  the  fact  that  in  1232  ho  was  designated  l)y  the 
French  and  Spanish  rabbis  as  arbiter  to  settle  the  heated 
controversies  in  the  synagogues  growing  out  of  the  doctrines 
advanced  in  Maimonides'  More  J^'ci-ochim.  His  works  con- 
sist of  commentaries  on  nearly  all  the  books  of  the  Ohl 
Testament,  some  of  which  are  given  in  the  rabbinical 
Bibles  :  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicon  bearing  the  name 
of  Mi/ciui  (''Perfection"),  which  have  been  the  basis  of 
all  modern  works  of  the  same  kind  ;  and  a  Ji*-/iifati"n  of 
Chn'titianittf,  based  upon  the  denial  of  Messianic  predic- 
tions in  the  Psalms.  D.  Kimchi  exhibited  such  hostility 
to  Christianity  throughtiut  his  eommcntaries  that  numerous 
passages  were  struck  out  by  the  Inquisition  as  a  condition 
of  permitting  their  publication.  Several  of  his  works  remain 
in  manuscript.  D.  at  Narbonne  in  1240.  His  father,  Joseph, 
and  his  brother.  Moses,  were  also  distinguished  rabbis  of 
Provence,  the  former  having  been  driven  from  Spain  by 
Mohammedan  persecution.  Both  left  some  grammatical 
and  exegetical  writings. 

Kirn'meridge  Clay,  an  important  bed  of  marl  in 
many  localities,  several  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  and  often 
very  bituminous,  is  so  called  from  Kimmcridge  in  Dorset- 
shire. England.  It  constitutes  the  argillaceous  member  of 
the  Upper  Oolitic  formation.  (Sec  JrRASsir.)  It  contains 
many  distinctive  fossils  [Ostrfa  deftoidca,  Exogyra  virgulUf 
etc.)-  and  has  yielded  the  remains  of  the  IHiosanrun, 

■  Kim'poliing;,  town  of  Wallachia.  is  situated  in  a 
mountain-region  near  the  Transylvanian  frontier,  and  car- 
ries on  a  considerable  transit  trade.     Pop.  8695. 

Kim'shew,  tp.  of  Butte  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  857. 

Kin'aston  (Sir  Francis),  !>.  at  Otley.  Shropshire,  Eng- 
Kand.  in  1587;  studied  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  was 
employed  at  court,  and  gained  the  favor  of  the  king,  by 
whom  he  was  knighted  in  1618.  He  wrote  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  Chaucer's  TroiluH  and  Crcsnidaj  and  several  other 
volumes  of  verse,  but  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  founder 
and  regent  of  a  sort  of  university  at  Lonclnn  called  "  Mi- 
nerva's JIuseum,"  chartered  by  the  king  June  26,  1635. 
Owing  to  the  civil  war  it  came  to  a  speedy  end,  and  Kin- 
astou  d.  in  1642. 

Kincaid%  tp.  of  Jackson  co..  III.     Pop.  1049. 

Kincar'dine,  port  of  entry  of  Bruce  co.,  Out.,  Canada, 
on  Lake  Huron,  ships  grain,  lumber,  salt,  bark,  fish,  wool, 
and  butter.  It  has  some  manufactures  and  2  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.  of  V.  1907;  of  tp.  exclusive,  4097. 

Kincar'dineshire,  or  The  i>Iearns,county  of  Scot- 
land, lietween  the  Dee,  tiie  North  Esk,  and  the  North  Sea. 
Area,  381  square  miles.  Pop.  34.651.  A  great  part  of  the 
country  is  covered  by  the  Grampian  Mountains,  of  which 
Mount  Battock  rises  to  the  bight  of  3500  feet.  But  at  the 
foot  of  this  mountain-range  lies  the  "  How  o'  the  Mearns," 
a  low  anil  very  fertile  tract  of  land,  yiehling  excellent  crops 
of  wheat  and  oats.  Large  herds  of  sheep  and  short-horned 
cattle  graze  on  the  mountain-pastures.     Cap.  Stonehaven. 

Kind  (Kari,  Theodor),  b.  at  Leipsic  Oct.  7,  1799  :  stud- 
ied law,  and  began  in  1824  to  practise  as  an  advocate. 
After  the  Greek  war  of  liberation  he  contributed  very  much 
to  spread  among  his  countrymen  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
Motlern  Greece,  its  institutions,  language,  and  literature. 
His  most  prominent  writings  arc — Acnt/rirchi»i-/if  VolkfU*^- 
der  (1827),  Ncitgn'echiMche  Chrestoniatftie  (1835),  Genc/iichlc 
dergriechiacheu  Bet^ohition  (2  vols.,  1833),  translations  from 
Alexander  Sutso,  and  a  Greek-German  dictionary. 

Kin'dergarten  is  the  name  given  by  Friedrich  Frocbel 
to  a  er)m]>any  of  children  between  the  nursery  age  and 
that  of  the  primary  schools,  wlio  are  to  be  educated  accord- 
ing to  a  certain  method.  The  literal  meaning  of  the  word 
l-indtn/arten  is  "garden  of  children,"  and  it  suggests 
Froebel's  method  by  speaking  of  children  as  if  they  were 
plants  to  be  cultivated. 

Cp  to  Froebel's  time  the  method  of  educating  had  been 
to  drift,  a  process  properly  applicable  only  to  stone,  but 
which  well  expressed  the  hard  mechanical  method  of  pro- 
ceeding from  the  outward  inward,  instead  of  from  the  in- 
ward outward,  as  the  growth  of  all  living  organisms  must 
do.  As.  to  prepare  himself  for  his  work,  (be  gardener  of 
plants  first  learns  the  general  laws  and  conditions  of  vege- 
table growth,  and  next  inquires  into  the  special  soils,  de- 
grees of  light,  temperature,  and  moisture  necessary  to  the 
perfect  development  of  the  several  species  of  plants,  so 
Froebel  proposed  that  educators  should  prepare  tiiernselvcs 
to  cultivate  young  children — first,  by  acquainting  them- 
selves with  the  general  laws  and  conditions  of  human  na- 
ture, for  the  purpose  of  bringing  forth  the  common  sense 
and  common  conscience :  and,  secondly,  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  individual  possibilities  of  beauty  and  power  of  the 
several  children  committed  to  their  care.     Froebel  may  be 


KINDKKIIUOK-KING. 


i; 


).).) 


called  the  Copcroicus  of  education,  from  the  new  point  of 
view  that  he  took  ;  or  its  Newton,  from  tho  new  character 
of  method  that  he  proposed.  Seeing  that  tho  child,  a  mere 
sensibility,  comes  into  nature  from  Gocl  on  the  th>o(l-tide 
of  self-activity — not  an  isoliited  individual  abandoned  to 
the  reactions  of  tho  incxorahle  material  universe,  hut  in 
living  rehition  with  humanity's  heart  in  the  person  of  the 
mother,  whose  <luty  as  well  as  inmost  desire  it  is  to  bring 
him  into  a  joyful  yense  of  his  relations  to  his  race,  to  na- 
ture, and  to  (iod — Froebcl  souglit  an<I  found  the  clue  to  the 
true  method  of  education  by  analyzing  the  instinctive  play 
of  mother  and  child,  when  she  studies  its  instincts  and 
spontaneities  in  order  that  she  may  help  him  to  enjoy  his 
body,  which  is  the  first  world  that  circumscribes  him.  Hav- 
ing found  that  the  child  takes  possession  of  his  own  body 
and  develops  his  organs  of  sense  by  first  acting,  nnd  then 
realizing  his  action  as  a  conscious  fact,  Froebel  discovered 
that  in  tho  same  manner  he  must  bo  brought  to  take  pos- 
session in  a  measure,  and  gradually,  of  the  universe  out- 
side of  his  body;  that  is,  he  must  he  led  to  rut  with  the 
purpose  of  making  o**f/c»-/// changes  (he  instinctively  makes 
changes,  not  with  the  intention  to  compass  an  end,  but 
simply  because  he  cnn).  The  reaction  his  activity  provokes, 
gives  him  impressions  which  ri:=c  into  thoughts,  by  express- 
ing themselves  in  words  that  re-echo  his  impressions,  and 
later,  into  knowledge,  by  embodying  thcm.-jelves  in  tran- 
sient ofTects,  or  productions  more  permanent,  which  rcfloct 
his  inner  being  to  his  individual  consciousness. 

But  as  the  sympafbi/.ing  mother — not  perouiptorily,  but 
genially — assisted  llic  child  to  know  nn'I  use  his  organs 
of  sense  and  locomotion  in  nursery  play  till  bo  eould  run 
alone  and  began  to  speak,  so  the  kindergartners,  who  take 
tho  child  from  his  mother's  arras,  as  it  were,  must — not 
peremptorily,  but  geniiilly — superintend  his  production  of 
effi-'cts,  an<l  assist  him  to  express  himself  freely  in  conver- 
sntion.  while  he  is  following  the  laws  of  order  suggested  to 
him  in  pmducing  objects,  whether  transient  or  more  per- 
manent, that  give  him  experimental  knowledge  of  tho  laws 
and  order  of  n:iture,  muking  outwiird  things  a  stepping- 
stone,  not  a  stumbling-block,  of  progress. 

Tlie  Froebel  edtieation  is  not,  however,  merely  organic, 
or  even  artistic  and  intellectmil,  but  mornl  nnd  religions 
also,  never  losing  sight  of  the  principle  that  spontaneous 
(or  at  least  a  willing)  ditiuff  precedes  thinking,  and  think- 
ing precedes  knowing,  and  knowing  preceiles  nacning,  anti 
naming,  or  language,  is  the  creative  element  of  human  in 
contradistinction  to  merely  animal  intelligence. 

As,  when  tho  chibl  runs  alone  nnd  speaks,  tho  nursery 
education  merges  in  the  kindergarten,  so,  when  the  child 
can  manipulate  cleverly,  converse  intelligently,  and  begins 
to  invent,  and  hns  como  to  a  sense  of  moral  resptmsibility 
by  learning  **  fair  j)!ay  "  with  his  c<Mnj»anions,  (lie  kimler- 
garten  merges  in  tho  school.  lie  is  then  ripe  for  learning 
to  read  and  write,  to  appreciate  signs,  words  having  bo- 
come  familiar  with  things  signified,  material  and  mental, 
as  substantial  facts.  Elementary  materials  for  the  child's 
production,  by  whicli  he  is  eduiratcd.  were  graibially  elab- 
orated by  Froebel  in  fifty  years  of  experimenting,  and  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  nolitls,  round,  cnbicular,  and  triangular, 
divided  and  siibdivided.  with  tablets,  square  nnd  triangu- 
lar, sticks  of  various  lengths,  peas  or  balls  of  wax  repre- 
senting points,  cards  for  sewing  with  colored  threads,  pa- 
per for  foMing,  cutlittg,  pricking,  and  drawing,  also  for 
weaving;  all  to  bo  used  under  the  supervision  of  tlie  kin- 
dergartner  to  make  forms  of  order  and  use,  but  leaving  tho 
children  a  fair  margin  for  their  free  choice. 

Besides  these  manipulations,  which  meet  and  employ  in- 
stinctive spontaneities,  tho  instinctive  desire  to  work  upon 
the  earth  is  not  allowecl  to  die  out  from  want  of  opportu- 
nity to  plant  and  cultivate.  The  vegetable  world  is  al- 
ways at  hand,  ami  afTurds  subjects  for  exjimination  nnd 
analysis,  which  engage  nttention  next  after  the  works  of 
his  own  hands.  Tho  latter  arc  the  first  nnd  best  objects 
for  lessons,  since  what  a  child  has  done  (ir  made,  interests 
and  even  commands  hts  attention,  and  what  he  hns  made 
himself  ho  can  exhaustively  knnw — not  nwrely  its  nppear- 
ances,  hut  tho  Inw  nnd  method  nf  it'i  being.  wlii<'h  is  tho 
child's  own  thought.  If  ho  is  nllowe.l  in  give  an  nce.mnt 
of  how  ho  did  it,  and  what  ho  made  it  for.  he  will  have  a 
pattern,  as  it  were,  to  follow  in  analyzing  any  one  of  na- 
ture's works,  learning  its  Inw  aii"!  referring  it  (o  its  Author ; 
and  thus  tho  edueatinn  of  Fruchcl  IcarN  th<'  child  to  (}od 
Ihrou'^h  his  mother,  who  represents  to  him  infinite  Love, 
and  nature,  which  represents  to  him  infinite  Wisdom.  In 
the  spirit  that  ninkes  these  one  lie  comes  to  fr-el  that  lie 
"lives,  moves,  and  has  his  being."  for  "we  nre  tho  off- 
spring of  Ood,"  as  heathen  poet  and  Christian  apostio 
agree. 

The  methods  of  using  Froebel's  materials  for  education 
are  indicated  in  the  manuals  prepared  for  aiding  kinder- 
gartncrs,  written  under  tho  dircotion  of  FrocbcI's  ablest 


I  disciple  and  apostle,  the  baroness  Marenholtz-Buluw. 
There  is  one  in  German,  edited  by  (toldammer.  and  one  in 
French,  edited  by  Jacobs,  and  named  Lr  Jnrdin  den  Eu- 
fauH.  Both  are  anijdy  illustratecl  by  ])lntes — the  former 
published  in  Berlin,  tlio  latter  in  Brussels  by  F.  Claassen. 
In  the  beginning  of  his  career,  Froebel  published  a  work 
under  the  title  Mtn'ichen- Erzichuuy  ("  Education  of  Man  "}, 
in  which  the  word  kiitdcrtfurten  does  not  occur,  but  all  the 
elements  of  it  arc  manifest.  The  best  edition  of  it  is  edited 
by  his  disciple  and  relative,  Lange.  und  it  is  publi.<bcd  in 
Hamburg.  It  has  been  translated  into  French  by  tho 
baroness  Crombrugghe.  Later  in  life,  Froebel  published 
his  characteristic  and  unique  work.  Mnfter-Spit-l  und  h'nue- 
Lit-der,  which  has  been  translated  and  set  to  music  by 
Lady  Baker,  anil  jiublished  in  London.  The  notes  to  these, 
with  its  pictorial  illustrations,  have  been  translated  bv  tho 
baroness  Crombrugghe  into  French,  and  called  Camferica 
dea  Jfrre*.  It  is  a  kind  of  nursery  manual.  The  baroness 
Marcnholtz-Bulow  has  published  many  works,  among  which 
are  eminent  Education  (.1/  Lnlmr,  TIk  Ednmtiinuif  M!xniun 
of  Vt'nmeu,  Thf  Child'ti  Workshop,  and  a  pamphlet  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  published  by  the  National  Bureau 
of  Kducation  in  their  drruhir  of  Information  for  July, 
IS72.  which  may  be  had  for  tho  askinu;  by  any  citizen  of 
the  V.  S.  In  America  Mrs.  Matilda  IF.  Kriege  has  pub- 
lished extracts,  freely  translated,  from  the  above  works  in 
a  little  book  called  The.  Child  in  itH  RrlntionH  to  Nnturr,  to 
Man,  and  to  God  ;  nnd  AV.  Ilailmann.  a  small  bof)k  on  Kin- 
dcnjartcn  Culture.  There  is  also  11  monthly  periodical  de- 
voted to  the  interests  of  this  most  radical  of  reforms,  juib- 
liehed  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  Elizabkth  P.  Peacodv. 

Kinderhook'9  tp.  of  Tallapoosa  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  800. 

Kinderhookf  post-tp.  of  Pike  co..  III.,  on  the  Hanni- 
bal and  Naples  branch  of  the  Toledo  Wabash  and  Western 
R.  P.     Pop.  14:.4. 

Kinderhooky  post-tp.  of  Branch  co.,  !Mich.     Pop.  037. 

Kiiiderhook,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Columbia  co..  N.  Y., 
20  miles  8.  E.  of  Albany  and  b  miles  E.  of  the  Hudson 
River,  on  the  Boston  and  Albany  R.  R.  Tho  township  in- 
cludes the  villages  of  Valatie  and  Niverville.  Kinderliook 
Village  has  4  churches.  1  weekly  newspaper.  1  entton-mill, 
and  2  national  banks.  Valatie  has  4  cburehes.  4  cotton- 
mills,  a  knitting-mill,  and  2  hotels.  LindenwaM.  the  home 
of  the  late  ex-President,  Martin  Van  Buren,  is  2  miles  S. 
of  Kinderhook  Village.  He  was  a  native  of  this  town.  Pop. 
of  tp.  4055.  Wm.  B.  Howlanp.  Ed.  ""AnvKRTiSEn." 

Kinderhook,  tp.  of  AVashington  co.,  Va.     Pop.  2^91. 

Kiii(Niu,or  Kilinu,  queen  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  b. 
in  the  beginning  of  this  century;  reigned  from  the  death 
of  Kamehameba  II.,  in  182.t,  to  tho  accession  of  Kamc- 
hamoha  III.,  in  IS.'JU.  D.  in  1844.  She  was  much  upposed 
to  tho  French  Roman  Catholic  mission,  and  in  favor  of  tho 
Protestant  American  Methodist  mission. 

Kin^,  county  of  Washington  Territory,  extending  from 
Puget  Sound  K.  to  the  Cascade  Mountains.  It  is  an  un- 
even, heavily-timbered  region,  with  a  good  soil  and  a  mild 
climate.  Lumbering  is  the  chief  pursuit.  Excellent  lig- 
nitic  c(ml  abounds.  Area,  about  1550  square  miles.  Cap. 
Seattle.      Pop.  2120. 

Kiii^,  tp.  of  Christian  co.,  III.     P<'p.  Ii;i. 

King  (AisTiN  A.),  b.  in  Sullivan  co.,  Tenn..  Sept.  20, 
1801:  became  a  lawyer  1822,  removed  to  Misscturi  ISrtO; 
was  circuit  judge  of' Ray  co.  18.'^7-4H,  and  again  in  lSfi2; 
governor  of  Missouri  1849-5:1;  member  of  Congress  1862- 
64.     I),  at  St.  Louis  Apr.  22,  1870. 

Kinp  (CiiAULEs),  LL.I>.,  tho  »on  of  Bufus  King,  b.  in 
New  York  Mar.  10,  17S1I:  educated  at  Harrow  School, 
Englaml,  ami  at  Paris,  while  his  father  was  l'.  S.  minister 
to  Great  Britain,  serving  afterward  in  the  banking  house 
of  Hope  A  ('<!..  Amster'lam.  In  ISOfi  he  returned  to  New 
York:  entered  in  1810  into  mercantile  business  with  Mr. 
Archibald  Gracic.  his  father-in-law  :  served  for  a  time  in 
IS14  as  a  volunteer  in  the  war  with  England  ;  was  sent  to 
England  as  coinmissinncr  to  investigate  the  treatment  ut' 
Dartmoor  prisoners;  was  associate  with  Verplanek  in  etlit- 
ing  the  Xrtn  York  Amrriran  IS2.'i-27  :  siile  edil«ir  ISi;7-l7  ; 
and  afterward  assneinted  with  Col.  Webb  in  I  he  editorship 
of  the  Cnurirr  ftnd  Kuquirrr;  was  president  of  Columliiii 
t'ollege  l84U-f\l.  an<l  .1.  at  Fraseati.  Italy.  Sept.  27.  ISC.;. 
He  wrnte  a  sketch  of  the  < "rot on  Aqui'duct  (4 to,  184;'.).  //(«- 
tortf  nf  thr  AVip  York  Chamhri'  of  f  Vm/iicrce,  and  published 
many  addresses. 

King  (HoitATlo^,  b.  nt  Paris.  Oxford  eo.,  Me..  June  21, 
1811  ;  learneil  the  printing  tra<le.  and  publisbeil  in  his  na- 
tive State  a  newspaper  called  Tlir  JrffrrKonian.'  was  ap- 
pointed elerk  in  the  post-office  ilepartment  at  Wnshinglou 
in  18:i«;  by  gradual  promotion  became  first  nssislant  post- 
in  BSlor-gon  oral  in  1854;  was  oppointod  postmastcr-gonoral 


1556 


KING. 


in  1861  by  Pres.  Buchanan ;  retired  from  office  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Pros.  Lincoln,  but  remained  in  Washington  ; 
rendered  service  in  various  capacities  during  the  civil  war, 
and  became  especially  promini-nt  by  his  successful  efforts 
to  elevate  the  standard  of  society  life  in  Washington,  by 
introducing  a  literary  clement  into  social  reunions. 

Kin^  (Jamks  Gouk),  son  of  Rufus  King,  b.  in  New 
York  May  8,  I79I  :  stu<lied  in  the  best  English  schools, 
ancl  gfaduated  at  Hiirvard  in  ISIO;  studied  law;  was  an 
adjutant-general  in  the  army  IS12-1J;  became  a  prominent 
merchant  of  New  York  and  Liverpool ;  member  of  Congress 
from  New  Jersey  lS49-ol,  and  president  of  the  New  Y'ork 
Chamber  of  Commerce.   D.  at  Ilighwood,  N.  J.,  Oct.  ,'1, 1853. 

King  (John  Ai.sop),  eldest  son  of  Rufus  King.  h.  in 
New  York  Jan.  3,  178S;  educated  at  Harrow,  England, 
and  Paris:  served  as  a  cavalry  officer  1S12-15;  elected  to 
New  I'ork  assembly  in  lSI9andto  senate  in  1S23;  was  sec- 
retary of  legation  in  London  in  LS26,  and  afterward  chanje 
d'affaires  there;  was  a  member  of  Congress  LS-IO-51,  and 
governor  of  New  York  LSoT-oS  ;  delegate  to  the  "  Peace  con- 
vention "  of  1861,  and  to  the  State  constitutional  convention 
of  ISfi",  besides  holding  at  different  times  mnny  other  im- 

Sortant  public  positions  in  that  State.  D.  at  Jamaica,  L.  I., 
uly  7,  186S. 

Kin^  (Jons  Crookshanks),  b.  at  Kilwinning,  Scotland, 
Oct.  11,  1806;  educated  as  a  practical  machinist;  came  to 
the  U.  S.  in  1S29  ;  was  engaged  for  several  years  as  super- 
intendent of  factories  at  Cincinnati  and  Louisville,  but  in 
1834  turned  his  attention  to  sculpture,  in  which  he  met 
with  great  success,  having  executed  busts  of  Daniel  AVeb- 
ster,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Agassiz,  Emerson,  Shaw,  and 
many  other  prominent  men.  He  has  devoted  himself  espe- 
cially to  cameo  likenesses,  and  resides  at  Boston. 

King  (Jorix  P.),  b.  Apr.  3.  1700,  near  Glascow,  Barren 
CO.,  Ky.  His  father  soon  after  moved  to  Bedford  eo..  Tenn., 
where  the  son  remained  until  1815,  when  he  matle  his  wav 
to  Georgia;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
Augusta  in  1819,  before  his  majority.  In  1822  he  visited 
Europe,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  completing  and  per- 
fecting his  education.  During  this  period  ho  attended 
lectures  in  Edinburgh  aud  Paris;  on  his  return  he  rose 
rapidly  in  his  profession  amidst  the  most  formidable  com- 
petition. In  a  few  years  he  acquired  a  large  estate.  In 
18.33  ho  was  chosen  a  momljer  of  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion of  Georgia  of  that  year.  lu  this  body  ho  greatly  distin-  , 
guished  himself.  He  was  a  Jackson  Democrat,  and  by  his 
superior  talents  took  the  lead  of  that  party  in  the  conven- 
tion. Before  this  hi.s  reputation  had  not  extended  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  county  of  Riehmond,  but  by  his  debates 
in  this  convention,  and  especially  by  his  discussion  with 
the  late  AVilliam  H.  Crawford  (who  was  the  Democratic 
Congressional  caucus  candidate  fur  President  of  the  U.  S. 
in  1824),  he  rose  in  one  bound  to  tho  forefront  of  the  ablest 
and  most  eloquent  men  in  Georgia.  The  next  year  ho  was 
sent  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  took  ami  maintiiined  a 
high  position  ;  but  some  of  his  party  presses  of  the  State 
having  censured  (unjustly,  as  ho  thought)  a  very  notable 
speech  he  made  against  some  of  tho  leading  measure?  of 
Mr.  Viin  Buren's  administration,  he  promptly  resigned  the 
trust  committed  to  his  charge,  retired  to  private  life,  and 
resumed  his  profession  in  1838.  No  like  abandonment  of 
politics  from  pcr.sonal  disgust  has  occurred  in  tho  history 
of  the  V.  S.  In  1S41  he  was  elected  to  tho  presidency  of 
the  Georgia  R.  R.  and  Banking  Co.,  which  jtosition  (Juno, 
1875)  he  continues  to  hold,  and  for  many  years  has  been 
regarded  one  of  the  first  railroad  men  in  the  country. 

A.  H.  Sti:piiexs. 

King(JoNAsl,  D.  D.,b.  atHawley,  Mas;...  July  29,1792; 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  ISIG  and  at  Andovcr 
Seminary  in  1819;  preached  for  a  time  in  South  Carolina; 
was  1823-26  a  mi^-sionary  in  Syria,  and  1828-69  a  mission- 
ary at  Athens.  He  was  the  author  of  quite  numerous  writ- 
ings in  the  modern  Greek  language,  and  by  reason  of  some 
of  his  publications  was  sentencfd  in  I8."}2  to  fifteen  days' 
imprisonment  and  expulsion  from  the  kingdom,  but  an  of- 
ficial jtrotest  saved  him  from  tho  fulfilment  of  tho  sentence. 
D.  at  Athens  May  22,  1869. 

King  (MiTrnKi.L).  LL.D.,  b.  in  Scotland  June  8,  1783; 
removed  in  1H06  to  (Charleston,  S.  C,  and  became  a  profes- 
sor in  Charleston  College,  of  which  he  was  afterwiirds  for 
some  time  president.  lu  ISIO  he  was  admitted  to  tho  bar, 
and  began  a  prosperous  law-practice.  In  1819,  and  again 
in  L8 12-44,  he  was  judge  of  the  city  court.  He  early  attained 
a  wide  fame  for  leiirning,  and  for  many  years  was  a  Iea4ler 
in  the  cause  of  education  and  in  many  enterprises  for  the 
improvement  of  tho  public  taste  and  for  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge. 

King  (Pf.tfr).  Lord.  b.  at  Exeter,  Eng.,  in  1669.  was  a 
nephew  of  Locke;  studied  at  tho  University  of  Leyden, 


Holland,  and  read  law  at  the  Inner  Temple;  entered  Par- 
liament in  1699 ;  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeach- 
ment of  Sacheverell  in  1799,  and  in  1712  was  counsel  for 
Whiston.  Uy  George  1.  he  was  made  chief-justice  of  com- 
mon pleas  and  privy  couucillor,  and  in  1725  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor,  with  tiic  title  of  Baron  King  of  Ockhara. 
He  resigned  in  1733,  and  d.  at  Ockham,  Surrey,  July  22, 
1734.  Baron  King  wrote  several  treatises  in  support  of  the 
rights  of  dissenters,  and  a  Cn'tiad  History  of  the  Apostles' 
C'/Tprf(1702). 

King  (Philip  Parker),  Admiral,  b.  on  Norfolk  Island 
Dec.  13,  1793,  his  father  being  one  of  the  founders  of  that 
colony,  and  afterwards  (ISOO)  governor  of  New  South 
Wales  (Australia);  entered  the  navy  in  1807;  commanded 
an  exploring  expedition  in  Australian  waters  in  1817  and 
on  the  coasts  of  Patagonia  in  182:).  publishing  in  both  ca?e3 
the  hydrographical  results  of  the  survey.  Ho  afterwards 
settled  in  Australia,  where  be  took  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tics and  other  public  interests.  Ho  was  a|»pointed  rear- 
admiral  in  1854,  and  d.  at  Grantham,  near  Sydnev,  in 
Feb.,  1S55. 

King  (Preston),  b.  at  Ogdcnsburg,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  14. 1806; 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1827;  became  a  prominent 
lawyer,  journalist,  and  Democratic  politician  of  St.  Law- 
rence CO.,  N.  Y..  and  held  various  offices;  was  in  Congress 
1843-47  and  1849-53;  a  Republican  U.  S.  Senator  1857-63; 
became  in  lSfi5  collector  of  the  port  of  New  York.  He  was 
drowned  in  New  York  harbor,  Nov.  13,  1865. 

King  (RicFiARD  Jonx),  b.  in  England  about  1820  ;  wrote 
for  John  Murray  his  valuable  series  of  Hdiidhonks  to  the 
C<ithedr<ih  of  Enfffaud,  and  has  contributed  to  Ftnscr's  and 
other  magazines  some  very  able  topographical  and  anti- 
quarian sketches  of  English  counties  and  towns,  which 
were  published  collectively  in  1874. 

King  (Rufus),  Gen.,  son  of  Charles,  b.  New  York  City 
Jan.  26,  1814;  graduated  at  U.  S.  Military  Academy  :  was 
appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  engineers  July  1, 
1S33;  resigned  Sept.  30,  183G,  and  for  two  succeeding 
years  was  assistant  engineer  on  tho  Erie  R.  R.,  and  for 
four  years  (1839-43)  adjutant-general  of  the  Slate  of  New 
York.  Associated  during  this  time  and  until  1845  in  tho 
editorial  conduct  of  the  Albany  Evcniug  Jourual,  in  tho 
latter  year  he  removed  to  Wisconsin,  and  assumed  charge 
of  tho  Milwaukee  SctitijuJ,  of  which  ho  was  editor  until 
1861,  when  he  wn?  appointed  V.  S.  miui.-tcr  to  Rome;  but 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  caused  him  to  tender  his 
services  to  the  government  in  a  military  capacity,  and  in 
May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, serving  as  such  in  various  departments  in  Virginia 
until  Oct.,  1S03,  wlicn  ho  resigned  from  the  army  and  as- 
sumed his  duties  at  Rome  as  U.  S.  minister.  Recalled  July 
1,  1S67.     D.  Oct.  13.  1876.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

King  (RiFt's),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Scarborough.  Jle.,  Mar.  24. 
1755,  son  of  Richard  King,  a  wealthy  merchant ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1777  ;  studied  law  under  Thcophilus 
Parsons  at  Newburyport;  was  on  the  .statf  of  Gen.  Glover 
in  the  Rhode  Island  campaign  of  1778;  admitted  to  the 
bar;  commenced  practice  at  Newburyport  in  1780;  elected 
a  member  of  the  general  court  or  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1782  and  succeeding  years,  and  by  the  legis- 
lature chosen  in  17St  as  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress at  Trenton.  N.  J.  One  of  his  carlictt  acts  in  Congress 
was  to  move  aresolution  (Mar..  1785)  "  that  there  be  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  States  de- 
scribed in  tho  resolution  of  Congre^s  of  Apr..  1784  (the 
North-west  Territories),  otherwise  than  in  punishment  of 
crimo  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  personally  guilty; 
and  that  this  regulation  shall  be  made  an  article  of  com- 
pact and  remain  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  Constitu- 
tion between  the  original  States  and  eacli  of  the  States 
named  in  said  resolves."  This  resolution  was.  by  a  vote  of 
7  States  against  4,  referred  to  the  eummittee  of  the  whole, 
and  not  further  acted  upon  until  two  years  later,  when  its 
provisions  were  embodied  in  the  fannuis  ordinance  for  tho 
government  of  the  N.  W.  Territories  presented  to  Congress 
at  New  York  July  11,  1787.  by  Natlian  Dane  of  Massa- 
chusetts, which  became  the  Magna  Charta  of  five  great 
States.  King  was  one  of  tho  commissioners  appointed  by 
Massnehusetts  to  settle  tho  boundary  of  that  State  with 
New  York,  and  also  empowered,  with  his  ccdieague  Dane, 
to  convey  to  tho  U.  S.  tlie  large  tract  of  land  beyond  the 
Alleghanies  which  was  claimed  by  the  State.  In  Aug., 
1786,  he  was  associated  with  .lames  Monroe  as  a  committee 
to  represent  to  tho  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  the  neces- 
sities and  erabarrassraents  of  the  Federal  treasury  with  ref- 
erence to  the  5  per  cent,  impost  levied  by  Congress  on  the 
States.  Elected  a  meml>er  of  the  convention  for  framing 
the  Federal  Constitution,  King  took  his  seat  May  25,  17S7. 
participated  actively  in  the  debates,  and  was  one  of  the 
committee  on  revision  of  style  and  arrangement  of  the  ar- 


KING. 


15.57 


tides.  After  si^oin^  the  Constitution  he  returned  to  Mas- 
sachusetts, was  eU-ctftl  to  the  State  convention  for  the  con- 
sideration of  that  instrument,  and  was  in:^tnin)ental  in 
securing  its  ratilicatiun,  iiotwithstandint;  viuient  opposi- 
tion. In  17.SS  ho  removed  to  New  York  t'ily,  where  two 
years  before  he  liad  married  Mary,  diiugliter  of  John 
Alsop,  and  in  ITS'.*  was  elected  one  of  the  first  Fecleral 
Senators  for  X^'w  York  under  the  newly  establit^hcd  Con- 
stitution, his  follea'^uo  being  (ien.  Schuyler.  He  was  re- 
ole-^tcd  in  1705.  On  the  formation  of  the  earliest  national 
political  panics.  King  ranked  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Federalists;  Ilis  ardent  dcfcuco  of  Jay's  treaty  with  Eng- 
land ( I'SI'"),  both  in  the  Senate  aud  in  the  press,  under  the 
signafuro  of  "  Camillus,"  broui;ht  him  into  conspicuous 
favor  with  Pres.  Washington,  \Tho  offered  him  the  secre- 
taryship of  state  on  the  resignation  of  Edmund  Uandolph, 
and  in  I7i)fi  appointed  him  minister  to  Kngland.  He  re- 
mained in  Londnn  eight  ycar^,  notwithstanding  the  acces- 
sion of  the  opposite  party  to  power  in  lSIII,and  discharged 
the  duties  of  his  post  during  that  important  epoch  of  Eu- 
ropean history  with  great  tact  and  ability.  Returning  to 
the  IT.  S.  in  1^04,  he  settled  on  a  farm  at  Jamaica,  L.  I., 
where  he  remained  for  .-iomc  years  in  retirement,  but  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  (ir^-at  Britain  (ISI.I)  was  elected 
for  the  third  time  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  King  was  opposed 
to  that  war,  but  aided  in  passing  the  measures  necessary 
for  its  proso'ution,  and  after  the  Capitol  was  burned  in 
Aug.,  1SI4,  ho  made  a  stirring  appeal  to  tho  country  to 
avenge  the  outrage.  His  policy  after  the  war  was  directed 
towards  the  speediest  recovery  of  national  prosperity;  he 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  securing  the  navigation  and 
commercial  acts  of  IS|S;  took  an  interest  in  promoting 
trade  with  the  West  Indies;  strongly  opposed  the  estub- 
lishmcnt  of  a  national  bank,  and  procured  the  enactment 
of  a  general  measure  regulating  the  sales  for  cash  of  the 
public  Ifinds.  In  ISIfi  he  was,  against  his  will,  nominated 
by  the  Federalists  as  their  candidate  for  governor,  but  was 
defeated.  In  1319  he  was  elected  to  a  fourth  term  in  tho 
Senate,  during  which  he  was  chiefly  conspicuous  as  leader 
of  tho  opposition  to  tho  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave 
State,  and  to  tho  extension  of  slavery  genenilly.  His 
speeches  on  this  subject  formed  a  point  of  departure  for 
all  subsequent  Congressional  debates  on  slavery.  On  Feb. 
16,  IS2.">,  a  few  days  before  his  final  withdrawal  from  tho 
Senate,  he  ofl"ered  a  resolution  for  devoting  tho  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  put>lic  lands  to  the  purchase  ancl  emancipa- 
tion of  slaves  and  their  removal  to  some  foreign  country. 
Later  in  the  same  year  King  accepted  a  new  appointment 
as  minister  to  Englancl,  at  the  urgent  request  of  Pre?.  J.  Q. 
Adnms,  but  resigned  and  returned  homo  tho  following  year 
(IS^Ot.on  account  of  ill-health.  D.  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  Apr. 
29,  1S27.  He  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been  an 
able  diplomatist,  a  wise  and  liberal  statesman,  a  brilliant 
orator,  a  genuine  patriot,  and  a  philanthropist  of  enlarged 
views  and  true  insight.       .^,  i      Poiitkh  C.  Bmss. 

King  (Thomas  UrTi.fciij/^>MiVtr'Sti  itJuoApcfiW  countv, 
Mass.,  Aug.  27,  ISOI;  wSs  cdueaf  d  at  Wotlicld  Acad- 
emy ;  stuilicd  law.  and  moved  to  (ioorgia  in  I>^2:i,  where  ho 
married  a  lady  of  wealth  and  devoted  himself  to  planting. 
His  residence  is  on  St.  Simon's  Island.  Ho  was  from  l.S.'J2 
a  nieinlier  of  tho  Slate  senate  for  a  num'irr  <)f  years,  iu 
which  bo'Iy  he  greatly  distinguished  hiuiself  by  hin  etTorls 
in  the  cause  of  public  works  for  idieap  tratisporlation.  Ho 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Georgia  from  IS.'I'J  to  1S43, 
and 'from  1S46  to  |S4!>.  While  in  ('ongress  naval  nlfairs 
chiefly  occu]>iecl  his  attention.  Many  valuable  reports 
upon  these  subjects  were  made  by  him  during  his  ternjs  of 
Berviee.  In  iSlit.  (Jen.  Taylor  sent  him  on  a  special  mis- 
sion to  tho  then  Territory  of  California,  where,  iu  connec- 
tion with  Gen.  Riley,  he  rendered  important  service  in 
preserving  law  and  order  where  no  organized  civil  govern- 
ment existed;  and  this  was  done  without  any  aeti\e  inter- 
ference on  the  part  of  tho  military.  While  in  California 
he  cslablished  interests  of  an  individual  cdmraelcr  which 
subse(|uenlly  requireil  his  attention  to  the  exelusicm  of  poli- 
tics for  several  years.  In  IHfJO,  while  he  was  iqqtnsed  to 
/  the  policy  of  secession  (as  most  of  the  large  sluvebtdders 
of  the  South  were),  yet 'when  Georgia  in  \st\\  resulveil  to 
adopt  that  measure,  he  cast  his  fortunes  with  those  nf  tho 
State.     D.  May  H*.  1864.  A.  H.  Stki-iikns. 

Kin?  fTno\t\s  Starr),  b.  in  New  York  Doe.  16.  1H24; 
d.  in  Sun  Franeisco.  Cnl.,  Mar.  4.  |sni.  His  father  was  a 
rniversali-^t  minister  in  Clmrlctown.  Mas-.  Young  King 
had  a  passion  for  study,  but  was  oMiged  from  family  ne- 
cessities to  forego  n  college  education.  From  twelve  till 
twenty  he  lahored  first  as  clerk  in  a  store,  afterwanis  as  a 
teacher,  preparing  himself  in  leisure  hours  for  the  ministry. 
His  first  prea-'liing  was  in  \S'oloirn.  Mass.,  his  first  settle- 
ment in  ChnrIt«town.  over  lii«  father's  pllri^h.  In  1S4.S  ho 
ac'-eptcd  a  call   to  the  Cnitarian  church  in  Hollis  street. 


Boston,  and  remained  there  till  the  spring  of  1860,  when 
he  went  to  California  to  take  charge  of  the  Unitarian 
church  in  San  Franeisco.  The  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
roused  all  his  remarkable  powers  as  a  writer,  speaker,  and 
man,  and  to  his  influence  is  ascribed  the  change  of  public 
opinion  iu  the  State  from  lukewarnincss  towards  the  North- 
ern cause  to  devoted  loyalty.  Through  his  exertions  the 
U.  S.  Sanitary  (Commission  obtained  the  generous  sums  of 
money  that  enabled  it  to  carry  on  its  work  at  the  critical 
period  of  the  war.  Mr.  King's  eloquence  as  a  preacher 
and  lecturer,  which  was  familiar  throughout  the  West  and 
North-west,  made  him  equally  jx.pular  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
His  personal  qualities  endeared  him  to  all  who  knew  him. 
But  for  his  incessant  labors  in  the  pulpit  and  on  the  jdat- 
form  he  would  have  been  emiucnt  as  a  writer.  He  con- 
tributed frequently  to  the  Cmrvrwo^V/  Qurtrterft/,  but  he 
published  but  one  book.  The  W'/iitr  IfUlM,  tJm'r  Letjruda^ 
Latu/scnpi ft,  (utd  Pttftri/  (1S.^)9).  A  few  of  bis  papers  were 
collected  after  his  death — /'ntriutt'^m,  and  other  Papers 
(IS64).  The  same  year  Richard  Frothingham  wrote  a 
brief  memoir,  Tribute  to  Thoiiunt  Starr  Kiiiff.  In  1860 
Mr.  King  received  the  honorary  degree  of  A.  .M.  from  Har- 
vard College.  0.  B.  FitOTniNciiAM. 

Kin?  (William),  b.  at  Scarborough,  Me..  Feb.  9.  UfiS; 
was  endowed  with  distinguished  talents,  and  with  equal 
educational  advantages  might  have  become  as  prominent 
as  Rufus,  his  celebrated  brother.  After  residing  at  Tops- 
ham  for  some  years,  he  settled  at  Bath  as  a  merchant  about 
ISOO;  was  for  several  terms  a  mcml)er  of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature,  was  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of  the 
separation  of  Maine,  president  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  constitution  of  Maine,  and  first  governor  of  the 
new  State.  In  1821  he  was  made  U.  S.  commissioner  for 
the  adjustment  of  Spanish  claims,  was  a  general  of  militia, 
collector  of  customs  at  B:Uh  1s:;|-:m,  nnd  a  jiatrou  of  in- 
stitutions of  learning.     1>.  at  Bath  June  17,  1852. 

Kin^  (William),  b.  at  Antrim,  Ulster.  Ireland.  May  1. 
ir»j(l;  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  entered  the 
Church  in  1074;  became  dean  of  St.  Patrick  in  1CS8,  in 
which  year  ho  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the  tower  of  Dublin 
for  sympathizing  with  the  Knglish  revolutionists.  He  be- 
came bisliop  of  Kerry  in  ir.'.il.  urclibisliop  of  Dublin  in 
1702;  was  one  of  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland  iu  1717, 
1721,  and  172n,  and  d.  at  Dublin  Jlny  8.  1729.  .Ho  wrote 
several  controversial  works  against  Catholicism,  but  is  best 
known  by  a  remarkable  Latin  treatise  on  the  origin  of  evil 
( Dr  On'tfiiif  Mah\  1702),  and  by  a  sermon  on  predestina- 
tion {17091.  in  which  ho  maintains  that  the  moral  attri- 
butes of  (lod  are  difit'rent  from  the  qualities  bearing  the 
same  name  among  mankind. 

Kins:  (WrLLiAM  Rirrs).  b.  in  Sampson  co..  N.  C,  Apr. 
7,  nsii;  gradu.ated  at  Chapel  Hill.  University  of  North 
Carolina,  in  isn.'l;  studied  law.  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  ISOfi.  The  same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  legisla- 
ture from  his  native  county,  and  was  re-elected  to  the  same 
position  in  1S07  ;  this,  however,  he  resigned  on  tho  meeting 
of  the  legislature  to  accept  tho  ajtpointment  of  State  so- 
licitor for  the  Wilmington  circuit,  which  ofliee  be  also  re- 
i  signed  after  holding  it  for  two  years.  In  1S09  he  was 
again  returned  to  the  State  legislature;  in  ISIO  he  was  re- 
turned a  member  of  Congress  from  bis  district,  and  con- 
tinued by  re-elections  to  hold  this  position  until  ISIfi,  when 
he  resii;ne<l  it  to  become  secretary  of  legation  uniler  Wil- 
liam Pinekney,  American  minister,  first  to  Naples,  and 
then  to  St.  Petersburg.  During  his  Congressional  term  he 
was  an  ardent  and  able  advocate  of  the  wnr-jtolicy  aud 
mensures  of  Mr.  Ma'lison's  ndministration.  0\\  bis  return 
from  Europe  in  1S|S  he  moved  to  the  then  Territory  of 
Alabama,  where  he  establishc'I  a  plantation  ancl  devoted 
his  attention  to  agriculture.  In  ISP.I  ho  was  a  member  of 
tho  constitutional  convention  of  the  Territory  of  Alabama  ; 
and  upon  the  admission  of  Alabama  ns  a  Slate  into  the 
Fefleral  I'ninn,  the  same  year,  under  the  constitution 
formc'l  by  tins  convention,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  two 
U.  S.  Senntors,  which  position  he  continued  to  hold  from 
I  Sill  to  IHli.  During  the  whole  of  his  Senatorial  career 
Mr.  King  was  a  zeahms  supporter  of  the  views  and  policy 
of  (ien.  Jackson.  He  advocated  his  election  to  the  Presj". 
deney  in  1S2I.  IS2S,  and  IS;;2:  he  also  sustained  with 
great  ability  the  policy  of  Mr.  Van  Buren.  who  so  closely 
followed  in  the  "  fonlsteps  of  his  illustrious  predecessor." 
In  isn  he  resigned  his  position  in  the  V.  S.  Senate,  and 
nccepted  the  ap))ointment  of  minister  to  France  tendered 
to  him  by  Pros.  Tyler.  The  special  object  of  this  mission 
was  to  prevent  France  from  uniting  with  England  in  a 
joint  protest  against  the  incorporation  of  Texas  into  the 
Federal  UuifMi.  Having  been  successful  in  this  mission. 
.Mr.  King  returned  to  the  U.  S.  Nov..  1846,  and  remained 
in  private  life  until  I84S.  when  ho  was  appointed  by  tho 
governor  of    Alabama  to   fill  the  unexpired  term   in  tho 


T 


1558 


KING  AND  QUEEN— KINGS. 


U.  S.  Senate  of  Arthur  P.  Bagby,  who  was  sent  by  Pres. 
Polk  as  minister  to  Kussia.  This  unexpired  term  was  less 
than  a  iwelveuionth,  but  before  it  was  ended  Mr.  King  was 
again  elected  by  the  legislature  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  for  an- 
other full  term  of  six  years,  beginning  Mar.  4,  1849.  Upon 
the  death  of  Gpn.  Taylor,  on  July  9,  1850.  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Vice-President  Fillmore  to  the  Presidency  in  con- 
sequence of  that  event,  Mr.  King  was  unanimously  elected 
president  of  the  Senate.  He  presided  over  this  august 
body  during  the  exciting  debates  that  ensued  with  great 
urbanity,  dignity,  and  ability.  At  the  Presidential  elec- 
tion of  IS  J2  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  otfic© 
of  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  with  Gen.  Franklin  Pierce 
for  the  Presidency:  both  were  elected  by  large  majorities, 
but  Mr.  King  did  not  live  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  office. 
His  health  began  rapidly  to  fail  before  the  close  of  the  can- 
vass in  Nov.,  1852.  Early  in  Jan..  ISo.*?,  under  advice  of 
physicians,  he  went  to  ('ut»a,  but  was  not  ai)le  to  return  by 
the  4th  of  March,  the  day  of  inauguration.  This  being 
anticipated,  a  special  act  of  Congress  was  passed  and  des- 
patched to  him  in  time,  providing  for  his  taking  the  official 
oath  in  Havana.  Some  weeks  afterwards  he  was  able  to 
return  to  his  home  in  Dallas  co.,  Ala.,  where  he  d.  in  Apr., 
185:?.  A.  H.  Stephens. 

Kin?  and  Queen,  county  of  E.  Virginia.  Area,  330 
square  miles.  The  Mattapony  River  flows  along  its  S.  W. 
border.  It  has  an  undulating  surface,  and  contains  valua- 
ble marl-beds.  Corn  is  the  staple  product.  Cap.  King  and 
Queen  Court-house.     Pup.  9709. 

Kins:  and  Queen  Court-house,  post-v.,  cap.  of 
King  and  (^ueeu  co.,  Va.,  15  miles  from  West  Point. 

King'bird,  the  Tymnnna  Caro/('»e?)«M,  a  familiar  little 
bird  found  throughout  the  North  American  continent.  It 
belongs  to  the  tyrant  6ycatcher  family,  devours  considera- 
ble numbers  of  honey-bees,  and  boldly  attacks  and  drives 
away  hawks,  eagles,  and  crows,  flying  to  great  heights  in 
its  eagerness  for  the  encounter. 

King'-crab,  or  Horse-shoe  Crab,  the  Limnlua 
PithfphemuM,  a  remarkable  articulate  of  the  Atlantic  shores 
of  the  r.  S.,  classed  by  most  writers  as  an  entoniostracan, 
but  reckoned  by  others  as  constituting,  with  its  congeners, 
a  separate  sub-class,  and  by  some  regarded  as  an  anoma- 
lous representative  of  the  class  of  Arachnoids,  which  in- 
cludes the  spider-seorpions.  It  is  used  in  the  U.  S.  as  a 
fertilizer  for  land,  being  hardly  edible. 

King'dom,  tp.  of  Bibb  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  S35. 

King'ficld,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Me.,  22  miles  N. 
of  Farmington.     Pop.  560. 

King'fish,  or  Opah  {Lampn's  rjuttattiSj 'Reiz),  a.  fish 
which  is  the  solo  representative  of  a  peculiar  family  (Lam- 
pridida*),  said  from  its  beautiful  coh)rs  to  look  "like  one  of 
Nejitune's  lords  dressed  for  a  court-day."  It  is  widely  ' 
distributed,  being  found  in  European  seas,  in  those  of 
China  and  Japan,  and  also,  it  is  said,  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa.  ; 

King'flsherSf  or  Alcedinidap,  a  family  of  birds  be-  I 
longing  to  the  order  Insessores.  and  so  named  from  their 
jpeculiarly  piscivorous  hal)it3.     This  family  is  represented 
in  North  America  by  the  genus  Ccrylc,  nearly  allied  to  the  . 
typical   Old-World   Alct^do.     The  common   species   of  tho  [ 
U.  S.  is  the  belted  kingfisher  {C.  ah-you,  Linn.).  j 

King  George,  county  of  Virginia,  having  tho  river 
Potomac  on  the  N.  and  E..  and  the  Rappahannock  on  the 
S.  \\.     Area,  17fi  square  miles.     It  is  uneven,  and  much  of 
the  soil  is  fertile.     Corn  is  the  principal  product.     Cap.  [ 
King  George  Court-bouse.     Pop.  5742,  j 

King  George  Court-house,  post-v.,  cap.  of  King  i 
George  co..  Vu.,  I'J  miles  K.  of  Fredericksburg. 

Kingkitao,  or  Kienghitao,  called  by  the  Chinese 
Ilanrliing  or  Wangking,  and  by  the  French  S^oul  or 
Sioul,  the  capital  of  Corea.  near  the  centre  of  which  it  is 
situated.     There  arc  no  reliable  accounts  of  its  j^opulation. 

King'lake  i  Ai.EXANDEnAVii,M.\M),  b.  at  Taunton,  Eng.,  , 
in  1811  :  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  in  1.S32:  was  called  to  the  bar 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  ls;t7.  and  acquired  an  extensive  chancery 
practice,  but  retired  from  the  law  in   1S5G.      Soon  after 
finishing  his  studies  Kinglake  made  an  extensive  tour  in  i 
Eastern  countries,  of  which  he  published  an  account  under  j 
the  title  of  A'ofArn  ( 184-1 ).  which  obtained  great  popularity. 
He  accompanied   Lord   Raglan   in   the   Crimean   war,  and 
wrote,  in  great  part  from  the  papers  of  that  general,  a  Hin- 
toiji  of  the   Crimrnn  W'tir,  of  which  the   flrst  volume  ap- 
peared in  1863,  and  the  fifth,  devoted  to  the  battle  of  In- 
kerman,  in  1874.     This  work,  which  is  not  yet  completed, 
is  eloquently  written,  and  enters  into  great  detail,  but  e.x- 
hibits  a  bias  highly  unfavorablcto  the  French,  and  especially  i 
toward  ^'apoleoD  III.     Kinglake  entered  Parliament  in  I 


1857,  and  became  prominent  for  his  anti-Napoleonic  atti- 
tude upon  the  Conspiracy  bill  (1S58)  and  the  annexations 
of  Savoy  and  Nice  (IS6U). — His  cousin,  John  Alexander 
Kinglake,  b.  at  Taunton  in  1805.  a  lawyer  and  for  many 
years  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  for  Rochester,  has 
written  articles  for  the  reviews,  and  is  often  confounded 
with  the  historian. 

King'lets,  The  (Htijulns.  Cuv.),  constitute  a  genus  of 
the  extensive  family  of  Turdidje  (or  thrushes).  The  com- 
mon American  species  are  the  ruby-crowned  (H,  calendula) 
and  golden-crested  {li.  autrnpfi)  wrens  or  kinglets,  which 
are  both  closely  allied  to  the  golden-crested  wren  {li.  cris- 
tatfts)  of  Europe,  the  smallest  of  the  Old-World  birds. 

King'man,  county  of  S.  Central  Kansas,  Area,  643 
square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  Good  River,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  grazing. 

Kingman,  post-v.  of  Penobscot  co..  Me.,  on  Matta- 
wamkeag  River  and  the  European  and  North  Americao 
R.  R. 

King  of  Arms,  or  in  Scotland  King-at-Arms,  a 
herald  of  the  highest  rank.  The  English  kings  of  arras 
are  Garter.  Bath  (who  is  not  of  the  college  of  arms),  Cla- 
rencieux,  Norroy,  and  one  for  the  order  of  St.  Michael  and 
St.  George  (the  last  not  belonging  to  the  heralds'  college). 
Scotland  has  one.  called  Lyon,  or  Lord  Lyon  king-at-arms. 
Ireland  has  one,  Ulster  king  of  arms.  There  have  been 
other  English  kings  of  arms,  whose  ofiices  are  now  extinct. 
{For  these  and  some  continental  kings  of  arms,  see  Her- 
ald.) 

Kings  (Books  of).  First  and  Second,  two  of  the  canon- 
ical books  of  the  Old  Testament,  following  the  second  book 
of  Samuel  and  preceding  the  first  book  of  Chronicles.  The 
two  books  were  originally  but  one,  and  contain  the  annals 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  from  the  death  of  David 
to  the  Captivity.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  versions 
call  them  the  third  and  fourth  books  of  Kings,  reckoning 
the  two  books  of  Samuel  as  belonging  to  the  same  work. 
Ewald  and  other  modern  German  critics  go  still  further, 
reckoning  Judges  and  Ruth  to  belong  to  the  same  work, 
which  they  call  the  "  Great  Book  of  the  Kings,"  while  sug- 
gestions have  not  been  wanting  that  large  portions  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  book  of  Joshua  originally  belonged  to  it, 
constituting  an  unbroken  series  of  annals  from  the  creation 
of  the  world  to  the  dispersion  of  the  Hebrew  race.  It  is 
certain  that  the  books  of  Kings  are  in  reality  a  continua- 
tion of  those  of  Samuel — that  they  are  written  in  the  same 
spirit,  with  the  same  style  and  characteristic  expressions; 
but  the  identity  of  authorship  cannot  be  asserted  from  these 
premises,  as  there  are  numerous  minor  differences  which 
show  at  least  the  hand  of  another  contributor.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  contrast  in  many  respects  with  the  books 
of  Chronicles,  which  narrate  substantially  the  same  events, 
is  very  marked,  showing  a  considerable  jiriority  of  time  in 
favor  of  Kings.  By  a  modern  German  school  of  criticism 
the  two  works  are  designated  as  prophetic  and  priestly,  and 
this  antithesis,  which  is  nrguecl  to  represent  a  real  and 
long-continued  conflict  between  the  two  orders  of  religious 
teachers,  may  be  accepted  so  far  as  to  admit  a  noticeable 
distinction  in  this  resjiect  between  the  two  historical  works, 
lint  the  very  fact  that  the  books  of  Kings  are  largely  occu- 
pied with  the  public  ministrations  of  the  prophets,  while 
less  attention  was  given  to  the  priestly  service  of  the  temple, 
was  a  suflicient  reason  for  the  writer  of  Chronicles,  liimself 
probably  a  minister  of  that  sanctuary,  to  omit  to  dwell  upon 
the  prophetic  annals  already  written,  and  to  bestow  greater 
attention  upon  matters  which  might  be  of  greater  interest 
to  his  own  class.  The  books  of  Kings  have  been  considered 
to  show  a  strong  bias  against  the  northern  kingdom,  as  nil 
its  monarchs  without  exception  are  said  to  have  "  done  evil 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,"  but  as  far  the  larger  number  of 
the  monarchs  of  Judah  arc  charged  with  like  conduct,  tho 
argument  is  not  conclusive.  A  prominent  feature  of  Kings 
consists  of  the  narratives  of  the  prophets  Elijah  and  Klisha, 
which  occupy  fourteen  chapters.  The  Septuagint  version 
exhibits  some  remarkable  variations  from  the  received  te.xt 
of  Kings,  a  considerable  number  of  passages  being  trans- 
posed, while  a  few  are  omitted,  and  several  additional  frag- 
ments of  narrative  are  inserted,  chiefly  relating  to  Solomon 
and  Jeroboam.  Biblical  scholars  disagree  as  to  the  nuthen- 
ticity  and  value  of  these  fragments,  but  they  are  generally 
rejected  as  corruptions  of  the  original  te.xt.  The  sources 
from  which  the  writer  drew  \u»  materials  are  often  referred 
to.  They  were  a  scries  of  biographies  of  individual  kings, 
tho  writings  of  several  prophets,  and  a  general  history 
called  the  Hook-  *>/  th^  Kiiuji  vf  hrticl  ami  Judah,  of  which 
the  present  work  may  be  considered  as  a  brief  compend, 
.'Ml  these  original  works  have  perished.  As  to  date  and 
authorship,  the  narrative  itself  shows  that  it  must  have 
been  written  during  or  after  the  Captivity,  and  many  co- 
incid6nces  of  style  and  matter  appear  to  justify  the  Tal- 


KIXG'S-KIN08LEY. 


1559 


mudic  traditioD  which  ascribes  it  to  .Terciniah,  which  is 
maintained  in  recent  times  by  HUvernick  Hn>l  Grnf,  but 
opposed  by  Keil  and  l>avidscn.  Calinet  ascribed  the  au- 
thorship to  Ezra.  Miiny  critics  contend  for  a  still  later 
date  on  the  strenj^th  of  Chaldaic  forms,  which  mi^ht.  bow- 
ever,  have  easily  crept  into  the  Hebrew  language  during  the 
close  interenursu  witli  IJabylon  before  tlie  Captivity.  (See 
the  commentaries  of  Keil  (ISiCi;  Kilinbur;;h  Irans.,  1S57), 
Thcnius  (  istiM.  ScbUisser  (IHUl),  and  (I.  Kawlinson  in  the 

Spfaker'g  ('iimmentarif  (IST.'J)-)  PoUTEU  C.  BliSS. 

Kin|;^9,  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Lcinster, 
bordering  on  the  Shannon.  Area,  772  square  miles.  Pop. 
75,900,  of  whom  2S,:J8;{  cannot  read  or  write.  Towards 
the  S.  runs  a  small  branch  of  the  Slieve  Illoom  ^fountains; 
the  surfaee  i^  otherwise  level.  The  soil  is  tolerably  fertile. 
Cap.  Tullamore.  From  1S51  to  1872  the  emigration  from 
this  county  was  35,5113. 

Kings,  county  of  New  Brunswick,  intersected  by  the 
river  St.  J^hn.  The  soil  ie  fertile.  Large  quantities  of 
lumber  are  rut  and  sawed.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the 
European  and  North  American  Railway.  Cap.  Hampton. 
Pop.  24,593. 

King's^  county  of  Nova  Scotia,  bordering  on  the  Bay 
of  Fundy.  Its  shores  arc  bold  and  picturesque.  Its  soil  is 
to  a  great  extent  of  the  best  description.  It  is  well  tim- 
bered, and  produces  iron,  copper,  manganese,  slate,  build- 
ing-stone, etc.  The  county  is  travcrsicd  by  tlie  Windsor 
and  Annapolis  H.  K.     Cap.  Kentville.     Pop.  21,509. 

King's^  the  easternmost  country  of  Prince  Edward  Isl- 
and, Douiinion  of  Canaila.  It  is  very  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated.    Cap.  (leorgetown.     Pop.  about  17,000. 

KingH,  county  of  New  York,  comprising  the  western- 
moist  part  uf  liong  Inland,  and  including  some  small  islands 
along  the  coast.  Area,  72  stjuaro  miles.  Much  of  the  soil 
is  naturally  light,  but  proximity  to  markets  has  cau.sed  it 
to  become  very  productive.  Garden  products  arc  the  staple 
crops.  The  county  has  extensive  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial interests,  which  are  described  in  the  article  BnouK- 
LVN  (which  see).  It  is  traversed  by  various  railroads,  cen- 
tring in  lirooklyn,  the  capital.     Pop.  419,921. 

Kings,  l(t.  of  Williaint^iiurg  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1774. 

King^s  iuv  Qiiocn's)  Bench.     See  Cornxs,  I.  (1), 

Kings'borongh,  post-v.  of  Johnstown  tp.,  Fulton  co., 
N.  Y.,  i  mile  from  (lloversville.  It  has  10  manufactories 
of  mittens. 

Kingsborough(EDWARnKiN'G),  LonD,b.  Nov.  10,1705. 
lie  published  a  work  in  9  largo  folio  vols,  upon  the  ,4(j- 
(jV/h/mV*  nf  Mexico,  rompriHinij  j'ac-iiiniiUa  of  Anvient  aMcx- 
ican  Pttiiitttif/H  uud  IlirriHjly^hirH,  ti>(fvthcv  rrtth  the  Monu- 
menta  of  Nftn  Spain  by  M.  Diipnix,  irith  thfir  reitpcctivc 
ScnlcR  of  Mt-fiHurcmfut  and  Arrompatn/iuf/  De/tcri'pti'oue ; 
the  irhnfr  illiiHtrntcil  f/i/  iiKittt/  vftlutihtr  inrdltril  MSS.  (Lon- 
don, 1K30-IS),  at  an  expense  of  some  .$300,000.  Only  seven 
V(durae6  had  been  issued  when  Lord  Kingsborough  d.  at 
Dublin  Feb.  27,  1837;  the  two  concluding  volumes  were 
brought  out  after  a  considerable  interval.  This  work  is 
valuable  as  a  collection  of  materials,  but  is  confused  in 
arrangement  and  disfigured  by  uncritical  theories. 

Kings'bury,  an  unorganized  county  of  Dakota,  trav- 
ersed by  the  Dakota  or  James  River.  Area,  about  750 
square  mites. 

Kingsbury,  post-tp.  of  Piscataquis  co.,  Me.,  22  miles 
W.  of  Dov(r.     I'op.  174. 

Kingsbury,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Wasliington  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  Hudson  Biver.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Chaniplain 
Canal  mid  Uensselaer  and  Saratoga  U.  U.  It  contains 
Sandy  Hill,  one  of  the  county-seats;  has  great  water- 
power,  10  churches,  manufactures  of  lumber,  |)a]K'r,  ma- 
chinery, etc.,  and  valuable  limestone-quarries.     Pop.  4277. 

Kingsbury  (Ciiari.ks  P.),  Okn.,  b.  in  Now  Y'ork  IHIS  ; 
graduated  at  thu  )'.  S.  .Military  Academy,  and  entered  tho 
nrnty  as  second  lieutenant  of  ordnance  in  IS40;  served  as 
assistant  and  in  command  of  various  arsenals  until  tho 
threatened  (roubles  with  Mexico  in  conaecjuencc  of  tho 
proposed  annexation  of  Texas,  when  he  necumpanied  the 
army  of  occupation  to  Texas;  subse(|uently  during  the 
Mexican  war  was  (ien.  M'ool's  chief  ordnance  oflieer ;  was 
engaged  at  Huena  Vista  on  the  sluflTof  (Jen.  Taylor.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  ho  was  superintendent  of  the  V.  S.  armory 
at  Harper's  Ferry  in  Apr.,  JSOl.  when  tho  property  was 
destroyed  to  prevent  its  lulling  into  tlu'  bund-*  of  the  Con- 
federates; was  chief  of  ordnance  (with  rank  n|  eoh.iu-l )  of 
tho  Army  of  the  Potomac  |Ht'iI-('.2,  tliroughoul  (lie  Virginia 
Peninsulitr  campaign,  on  the  terminatiion  of  which  he  was 
relieved,  owing  to  ill-health,  and  subsequently  served  on 
important  special  duly  until  duly,  lKr>5,  when  he  was  t 
placed  in  churge  of  the  l*.  S.  arsenal  at  Walertown.  .Mas-  i 
sacbusetts.     In  Dec,  1^70,  he  was  retired  on  his  applica-  1 


tion,  with  the  rank  which  he  had  attained  in  his  corps,  that 
of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  the  author  of  various  ])ro- 
fessional  works,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  various 
periodicals.     D.  Dec.  25, 1879.  G.  C.  Simmons. 

Kingsbury  (Henkv  W.),  Coi..,  b.  in  Connecticut  in 
1837;  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  Academy,  and  aj)- 
pointed  second  lieutenant  of  ordnance  May  0,  18fil  ;  first 
lieutenant  of  artillery  May  14,  1801  ;  was  engaged  in  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run  on  the  staff  of  den.  McDowell,  with 
whom  he  continued  until  Dec,  L'^Ol,  when  ho  was  plaeeil 
on  duty  with  his  battery  in  the  defences  of  M'nsliington  ; 
in  the  spring  of  1802  he  accompanied  4he  Army  "of  the  Po- 
tomac to  Virginia,  and  in  Ajiril  was  apjioiuted  colonel  of 
the  11th  Connecticut  Vols.,  wliich  regiment  he  led  in  tho 
battles  of  Gaines's  Mill  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  subsequently 
at  South  Mountain  and  Antietnni.  where  he  received  wounds 
from  the  effect  of  which  he  d.  the  following  day,  Sept.  18, 
1862.  0.  C.  Simmons. 

King's  (or  Queen's)  Counsel,  in  Engli.^h  practice, 
are  certain  barristers  or  scrgeantf^-at-lnw  who  have  been 
specially  appointed  by  letters-patent  to  be  His  (or  Her) 
Majesty's  counsel.  They  are  entitled  to  a  right  of  ])rc- 
audicnce  in  all  the  courts  before  other  barristers  or  ser- 
geants, and  among  themselves  usually  have  precedence  ac- 
cording to  the  date  of  their  appointment.  Their  rank  in 
this  respect  is  generally  defined  by  the  terms  of  the  patent. 
King's  counsel  do  not,  as  their  name  might  indicate,  render 
legal  services  exclusively  in  behalf  of  the  Crown,  but  may 
be  retained  by  ordinary  clients.  They  cannot,  however, 
net  for  a  jdaintiff  in  a  suit  against  the  Crown,  or  engage  in 
the  defence  of  persons  prosecuted  for  crime,  without  ob- 
taining special  license  from  the  Crown.  But  this  is  never 
refused,  and  may  be  obtained  by  the  jmynient  of  a  small 
fee.  King's  counsel  are  appointed  for  life,  but  the  lettcrs- 
jiatent  may  be  revoked  for  dishonorable  practices  or  un- 
professional conduct. 

GioiiOK  Chase.     Rkvised  by  T.  AV.  Dwight. 

Kinp's  Creek,  tp.  of  Caldwell  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  G25. 

King's  Kvil  lScroful(t),&  disease  which  for  many  cen- 
turies was  professedly  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  kings  of 
England  and  France.  The  practice  is  traced  to  the  times 
of  King  Edward  the  Confessor  (1013-60),  was  emiiloycd 
by  Louis  XI.  of  France  in  I  180,  by  Charles  VIII.  at  Rome 
and  Naples  in  1105,  and  by  Francis  I.  in  1597.  Charles 
II.  of  England  (  HiOO-S-l )  carried  the  pnwtice  to  the  greatest 
extreme  of  any  English  monarch,  having  '*  touehcil  "  nearly 
100,000  patients  during  his  twenty-five  years'  reign.  It 
was  last  employed  in  England  by  Queen  Anne  (1703-15), 
Dr.  Samuel  .Johnson  having  been,  when  a  boy,  one  of  her 
patients;  but  <tn  the  accession  of  the  Brunswick  dynasty 
was  discontinued,  and  a  special  service  for  the  purpose 
omitted  from  tho  Eiturgy  in  1719.  Tlie  "Young  Pre- 
tender" attempted  to  gain  adherents  by  touching  for  tho 
king's  evil  at  Ilolyrood  Palace  in  1775.  and  Louis  XVI.  of 
France  performed  the  same  ceremony  at  Klieiins  as  late  as 
1775.  (For  curious  data  on  this  subject  see  Lccky's  Jlitftory 
of  liatinunHfim.) 

King's  Ferry,  post-v.  (sometimes  colled  Northvili.e) 
of  Genoa  tp.,  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y. 

Kings'ley,  tp.  of  Forest  co..  Pa.     Pop.  ,575. 

Kingslcy  i Calvin). D.D.,LL.D.,b. at  Annsville, Oneida 
CO.,  N.  v..  Sept.  8,  1S12  ;  licensed  as  Methodist  preacher  in 
1835;  graduated  at  Allegheny  College,  Pa.,  In  1841.  The 
same  year  he  was  appointeil  professor  of  nnithematics  in 
that  institution,  and  was  afterwards  a  pastor  at  Meadvillo 
and  Erie,  Pa.  In  185l»  was  elected  editor  of  the  W'tftrm 
('hrtHtian  Advocate  at  Cincinnati,  0.,  ami  again  in  1800, 
He  took  an  earnest  part  against  slavery,  aiol  was  elected 
bisliop  in  180L  In  ISOO  he  started  on  an  epincojial  ttiur  of 
the  world,  and  d.  at  Beirut,  Syria,  in  1870,  He  published 
On  thf  /{tHttrrectiou  of  the  fiudi/  (181.')),  und  lelt  u  pohthu- 
mous  work  on  his  travels  Around  the  Worfd. 

Kingslry  (Chahi.f.s),  b.  at  Hcdne.  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, June  lU,  l8l'.f,  was  the  son  of  Uev.  Dr.  C.  Kingsloy, 
at  one  lime  rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Chelcca,  and  after\Yards 
vicar  of  Ilolne.  Jlis  preliminary  education  was  directed 
by  Uev.  Derwent  Coleridge  at  Ottley  St.  John.  In  ls;;S» 
he  entered  King's  College,  London,  but  in  the  following 
year  removed  to  Magdalen  College.  Cambridge,  where  ho 
graduated  with  lionors  In  1842.  His  first  destination  was 
for  tho  law,  but  after  a  few  months  he  exclianged  that 
study  for  theology,  and  lo(tk  orders  in  the  Chureb  of  Eng- 
land, becoming  in  181 1  rector  of  Eversley,  Ilainpshire, 
where  he  resided  through  life.  He  early  devoted  himself 
(o  till'  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  working  classes, 
acquiring  thereby  the  nohnrfiirt  of  "the  Cliartist  parson," 
and  was  the  chief  originator  f»f  the  school  of  elhies  styled 
"Christian  socialism,"  with  which  was  closely  connected 
that  foDdncss  for  manly  eports  travestied  as  "  muscular 


1560 


KINGSLEY— K I NGSTON. 


Christianity."     His   earliest  publication    was    T*./-™  i, >€ 
Villaqe  Sermom.  addressed  to  his  rustic  parishioners  (lS4b), 
followed  in  l!<4S  bv  a  dramatic  poem,  the  .Saint  «  liaijetiy, 
foun.led  on   the  cireer  of  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  and  m 
ISiO  by  a  novel.  All.,n  L.,H-e,  Tailor  a„d  /'„.(,  the  produc- 
tion which  first  brought  him  into  notice,  and  by  which  he 
will  alw.-vvs  be  best  known.     It  was  bused  upon  personal 
research  "nmonj;  artisans  and  laborers,  undertaken  in  con- 
Son  with  Rev.  Fred.  D.  Maurice,  and  wh  ch  led  to  the 
establishment  of  co-oper.ative  associations.      This  work   i.ia 
an  immense  popularity  in  ..\mcrica,  and  conlributed  much  to 
determine  u'in^sley's  literary  career.  In  1S5U  he  was  chosen 
„rofe-or  of  modern  fiijtory  at  Cambridge  ;  resigned  in  lb5  I, 
in  which  year  he  became  cxnon  of  Chester,  and  subsequent- 
ly of  Wes'tminster,  and  chaplain  to  the  queen.     Among  his 
works   are    We.Uoard  Ho   {Xr^b),  Yeart,   a   novel    (!8al), 
Phaithnn    (1852),    Il<ipalla     (1S5.3),  Alexandria    and    her 
Shooh    (1854).  aUuiL   (1855),  Poe,n,  (1856)    W^  Heroes 
[1856),  ko  Year.  A.,o  (1857),  The  Roman  and  ,1^  Teuton 
1864       Hereward    (1866),   The    Hermit,    (W.).  How  and 
mvf   (1869).  At   Last,   a    Chrixlman   in   the   II «(  /nrfios 
(1871),  hay,  and  Puritan,.  Pro,e  Uhjl,  (1873^.  Westminster 
Sermon,   and  Health  and  Eduction   (1874).      A  collect^ion 
of  poems,  chieflv  Ivric,  was  published  in  18o6,  andAndro- 
meda.  a  hexameter  poem,  appeared  in  18o8.     In  18;^-  ho 
undertook  the  editorship  of  Hood  II  orrf..  and  in  18,  .i-,  4 
visited  the  V.  S.  on  a  lectaring-tour,  in  which  he  was  re- 
ceived with  warmth  by  the  literary  classes.     D.  at  Eversley 
Jan.  24,  1875.  Po«™«  C.  Bliss. 

Kinssley  (Henry),  a  brother  of  Charles  Kingsley,  h. 
at  llulne  vicara>'e,  Devon,  in  1824;  was  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  O.xford ;  lived  1853-58  in  Australia ;  ac- 
quired reputation  as  a  reviewer,  journalist,  and  novelist. 
Author  of  (leoff-rey  Harnhp,  (1859).  Pavrn,hoe  (1861).  Aus- 
tin Elliot  (IS63),  The  Hilh/ars  and  Ilnrtnn,  (1865).  Leujh- 
ton  Curt  (1866),  //e«./(l'8-n.  Old  Marqarct  (1871).  and 
other  novels.  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Daihi  Review.     D.  May  24.  1876. 

kingsley  (James  Lfcr.),  LL.D.,b.  at  Windham,  Conn., 
Au".  28,  1778;  graduated  at  Yalo  in  1799;  was  a  tutor 
there  lSOl-05,  librarian  1805-24,  and  professor  of  Hebrew, 
Greek  and  Latin,  and  of  ecclesiastical  history  1805-ul. 
D   at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Aug.  31,  1852.     He  contributed 


nany  valuable  articles  to  periodical  literature,  and  pub- 
ished  a  History  of  Yale  Coller,e  (1835)  and  a  Life,  of 
President  .Stiles,  and  valuable  editions  of  Tacitus  and  of 


ma 
li 

Cie'erode  Orat'.re.  Prof.  Kinssley  was  master  of  an  ele- 
gant style  in  both  English  and  Latin.  Ho  was  called  by 
President  Dwight  the  "American  Addison,"  and  several 
Latin  compositions  on  festive  or  eommcmorativo  occasions 
received  the  highest  praise  for  purity  of  Latin  style  from 
President  Woolsey. 

King's  MounJain,  a  mountain-range,  some  10  miles 
Ion"  N.  and  S..  with  lateral  spurs  abounding  in  marble  and 
iron,  mostly  in  Gaston  cc,  N.  C,  near  the  E.  border  of 
Cleaveland  co.  Its  S.  extremity  is  in  York  co.,S.  t.  Tho 
highest  point  is  Ciowder's  Knob,  some  3000  feet  high  and 
very  precipitous.  Near  the  S.  extremity,  in  South  Caro- 
lina a  body  of  British  troops  under  Lieut. -Col.  Ferguson 
were  surprised  and  attacked  (Oct.  7, 1780)  by  tho  American 
militia  under  Col.  Benjamin  Cleaveland,  and  alter  a  most 
gallant  defence  nearly  all  the  British  troops  were  made 
prisoners.  The  British  weco_iiL_part^  armed  wahbrcc^- 
luailiui_small;arnis.  then  first  cmployeil  in  warTaroT  On 
'theroliowiiigThiyTCn  Of  thg  Tory  prijoncrs  fffrirlianged 
other  crimes.     This  was  one  of  the  most 


for  murder  and  oL —   

bloody  contests  of  the  w.ar  in  the  Southern  States,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  the  final  success  of  tho  American  arms. 

King's  Mountain,  tp.  of  Cleaveland  oc,  N.  C.    Pop. 
1248. 

King's  Mountain,  tji.  of  York  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1818. 
King's  Prairie,  tp.  of  Barry  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  857. 
King's  River,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  686. 
King's  River,  tp.  of  Madison  eo..  Ark.     Pop.  958. 
King's  River,  of  California,  rise?  in  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
in  Fresno  co.,  by  numerous  head-streams,  and  flows  in  a 
S.  \V.  course  into  Lake  Tulare.     Its  copious  waters  divide 
into  numerous  channels  before  they  reach  the  lake. 

King's  River,  in  the  northern  basin  of  Nevada,  is  in 
Humbolill  CO.  It  sinks  about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Winne- 
mucca.  Its  valley  contains  some  75,000  acres  of  good 
grazing  and  tillage  land.  The  bottoms  have  a  heavy 
growth  of  blue-joint  and  red-top  grass,  and  the  hills  are 
covered  with  a  fine  growth  of  bunch-grass  and  white  sage. 
The  average  elevation  is  4850  feet.  Tlic  river  abounds  in 
trout. 

King's  River,  tp.  of  Tulare  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  1G6. 
King's  Store,  tp.  of  Pickens  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  212. 


Kings'ton,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Jamaica,  stands 
on  the  southern  coast.  12  miles  from  Spanish  Town,  tho 
former  capital,  in  lat.  18°  N.,  Ion.  76°  5U'  W.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  sur- 
rounded by  rich  sugar-plantations  and  numerous  villas  and 
gardens.  In  spite  of  the  regular  laud  and  sea  breezes 
morning  and  evening,  the  climate  is  very  hot,  and  as  parts 
of  the  vicinity  are  marshy,  the  place  is  unhealthy  ;  yellow 
fever  is  a  frequent  visitor.  Although  there  is  no  building 
of  any  architectural  interest  in  the  city,  it  is  nevcrthelcES 
well  built,  with  regular  and  spacious  streets,  and  it  has  re- 
cently been  provided  with  good  drinking-water  through  a 
magnificent  aqneduel.  The  harbor  is  enclosed  on  the  S. 
by  a  tongue  of  land,  and  is  defended  by  several  strong  forts, 
and  the  city  derives  its  greatest  im]iorlanee  from  its  situ- 
ation as  a  commercial  station  on  the  route  between  Europe 
and  Central  America.  The  value  of  exports  for  the  year 
1869-70  was  S0.315.S13,  and  of  imports,  f6, 600, 146.  Tho 
principal  articles  of  exportation  are  rum.  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  dyewond.     Pop.  about  35,BI'0. 

Kingston,  pnst-v.  of  King's  co.,  N.  B.,  on  a  neck  of 
mountainiuis  land  between  the  Kennelpccasis  and  Ihe  St. 
John  rivers,  19  miles  above  St.  John.  It  has  a  court-house, 
jail,  churches,  and  schools.     Pop.  about  200. 

Kingston,  a  citv,  cap.  of  Frontcnac  co..  Out..  Canada, 
near  the  lower  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  opposite  tho 
Thousand  Islands.  It  was  founded  in  1784  on  the  site  of 
the  old  French  fort  Fronlenac,  lat.  44°  8'  N.,  Ion.  78°  40' 
W.  It  is  strongly  fortified.  Its  harbor  is  sheltered  by 
"Wolf  and  Garden  islands.  It  is  connected  by  steam-ferry 
with  Cape  Vincent,  N.  Y.  Its  wharves,  shipyards,  and 
grain-elevators  are  well  constructed.  It  has  manufactures 
of  locomotives,  musical  instruments,  farming  tools,  stoves, 
and  many  other  kin<ls  of  goods.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway ,"lfil  miles  E.  of  Toronto.  It  has  3  banks,  a  board 
of  trade,  and  18  churches,  being  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic bish'op  and  the  see-town  of  the  Anglican  bishop  of  On- 
tario. Kingston  has  water  and  gas  companies,  a  fire  brig- 
ade, and  a  well-organized  police.  It  has  a  custom-house, 
a  jail,  a  penitentiary.  10  schools  and  academies,  and  is  Ihe 
site  of  Queen's  University  and  College,  including  a  medical 
college.  It  has  also  an  institution  called  Regiopolis  Col- 
le<'e.°  It  has  a  library  and  mechanics'  institute,  2  daily 
and  2  weekly  papers.  2  hospitals.  2  orphanages,  an  insane 
asylum,  and  many  religious,  benevolent,  and  temperanco 
societies.  Kingston  is  a  naval  station,  and  contains  Ihe 
roval  dockyards.  A  long  bridge  has  been  built  across 
Cjtaraqui  Bay.  The  town  is  mostly  built  of  blue  limestone, 
and  its  streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  It  is  di- 
vided into  seven  wards.     Pop.  in  1871,  12.407. 

Kingston,  post-tp.  of  Autauga  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1278. 
Kingston,  post-v.  of  King's   River  tp.,  Madison  co.. 
Ark.     Pop.  65. 

Kingston,  post-v.  of  Barlow  co.,  Ga..  at  the  junction 
of  the  Rome  It.  R.  with  the  Western  and  Atlantic  K.  R., 
41  miles  S.  of  Dalton.     Pop.  402. 

Kingston,  tp.  of  Dc  Kalb  co.,  IB.     Pop.  975. 
Kingston,  a  v.  of  Trimble  co..  Ky.     Pop.  59. 
Kingston,  posttp.  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass..  on  Ihe  sea- 
coast  and  on  the  Old  Colony  R.  R..  33  miles  S.  E.  of  Bos- 
ton.    It  has  a  good  harbor  for    light-draught  vessels,  3 
churches,    a   high    school,   and    manufactures    of  lumber, 
thread,  iron-ware,  gimlets,  rivets,  shipping,  etc.    It  has  also 
prosperous  agricultural  and  fishing  interests.     Pop.  1604. 
Kingston,  tp.  of  Tuscola  eo..  Mich.     Pop.  324. 
Kingston,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Meeker  CO.,  Minn.     Pop. 
of  V.  56 ;  of  tp.  530. 

Kingston,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Caldwell  co..  Mo.,  8 
miles  from  the  Hannibal  and  Si.  .loseph  K.  R.  and  60  miles 
from  Kansas  City.  It  has  a  good  court-house,  jail,  and 
school  building.  2  churches.  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  flour- 
mill,  anti  Ihe  nsnal  number  of  stores  and  shops.  The  prin- 
cipal business  is  wagon-making.  Pop.  of  v.  414;  of  tp. 
J2V7.  Mii.i.s  A  SpivEV,  F'lis.  '•Sentinel. 

Kingston,  tp.  of  Washington  co..  Mo.     Pop.  10S5. 
Kingston,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Rockingham  co.,  N.  H., 
38  miles  S.  E.  of  Concord.    It  has  an  academy,  3  ehurches, 
and  extensive  manufactures  of  carriages,  lumbcr,and  leather. 

Pop.  1051. 

Kingston,  city.  cap.  of  Ulster  co..  N.  Y.,  90  miles  N. 
of  New  York  City,  and  55  miles  S.  of  Albany,  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River  and  N.  bank  of  Rondoiil  f  r^'k; 
E  terminus  of  the  Kelaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  of  the  ^cw 
York  Kingston  and  Syracuse,  and  of  the  Wallkill  \  alley 
R.  Rs..  which  connect  by  steam-ferry  with  the  Hudson 
River  R.  R.  at  Rhinebeck.  immediately  across  the  nver. 
Kingston  was  incorporated  as  a  city  by  act  of  Mar.  29, 
1872,  by  the  junction  of  the  former  incorporated  villages 


I    r, 


,\i^^\-Xl 


KINGSTON— KIN,  NEXT  OF. 


1561 


of  Kingston  and  Rondout  with  the  small  viIlaj;cof  Wilbur. 
It  h:is  '2\  churches.  1  daily  and  o  weekly  newspaper?.  5 
national  and  .1  savings  banks,  lit  carriage  niantit'actorie^, 
5  iron-foundries  and  maehiuo-shops,  ceverul  hotels,  an 
academy,  several  private  seminaries,  an  efiicient  school 
system  with  16  teachers,  6  brickyards,  5  boat-building 
yards,  3  ferries,  4  lines  of  passenger  steanicrs.  a  volunteer 
fire  department,  a  horse  railroad,  a'handsoine  eity  hall  and 
court -house.  It  is  the  location  of  the  largest  cement 
manufactory  in  the  country,  turning  out  about  IIHIO  barrels 
daily;  receives  l.nOO.OOO  tons  of  coal  annually  by  the 
Di'laware  and  Ilmlson  Canal,  and  annually  ships  to  New 
York  at  least  1,000.001)  tons  of  blue  flagging-stone,  brick, 
ice.  lime,  and  lumber.  It  has  a  wharfage  front  of  4  miles, 
and  43  steamboats  are  owned  there  :  docs  a  heavy  business 
in  grain,  flour,  etc.  The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
eighteen  aldermen.  It  received  a  charter  from  (iov.  Stuy- 
vesant  in  \(\<\{  under  the  name  of  Wifftri'v/:,  was  first  set- 
tled in  lO'ij.  and  was  incorporated  by  j)atent  in  Ififi".  On 
Feb.  1"J,  1777,  the  first  State  convention  adjourned  from 
Fishkill  to  Kingston,  and  the  first  State  constitution  was 
adopted  Apr.  20,  and,  having  been  printed  at  Fishkill.was 
proclaimed  in  front  of  the  court-house  at  Kingston  Apr. 
22,  1777.  The  legislature  met  here  in  September  of  the 
same  year,  but  was  dispersed  by  the  approach  of  a  British 
force  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton  Oct.  7,  when  the  town  was 
burnt.  Being  afterwards  rebuilt,  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
village  in  ISOj.  Rondout,  now  a  part  i»f  Kingston,  was 
incorporated  in  lS4y  ;  it  was  long  the  county-seat,  an<l  had 
2  newspapers.  Pop.  of  city  in  1S70,  0316;  of  tp.  21.043. 
Horatio  FowLEit,  Ed.  *' D.\i[.y  Fuklma.v." 
Kinsston,  tp.  of  Delaware  co.,  0.  Pop,  5S7. 
Kiimston^  p(tst-v.  of  (treen  tp.,  Ross  co.,  0.,  10  miles 
N.  of  L'hillicolhe.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  academy.  Pop.  345. 
Kin^^ton,  post-b.  and  tp.  of  Luzerne  co..  Pa.,  in  the 
anthracite  coal  region.  The  borough  is  on  the  Lacka- 
wann.i  and  Bloomsburg  R.  R..  and  on  the  X.  branch  of 
the  Susr(uehanna.  opposite  Wilkesbarre,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  bridge.  The  massacre  of  Wyoming  took 
pla'-c  in  this  township,  and  is  commemorated  by  an  impos- 
ing ni'.nurnent.      Pop.  of  b.  1143  ;  of  tp.  282 J. 

Kingston,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Washington  co.,  R.  T.,  is  in 
Sou*h  Kingston  tp.,  3  miles  S.  E.  of  Kingston  Station,  on 
the  Providence  and  Stonington  R.  R.  It  has  a  national 
bank. 

Kini^Hton,  post-v..  cap.  of  Roane  co.,  Tenn.,  40  miles 
W.  of  Knuxvlilc  and  K'.O  E.  of  Chattanooga,  is  situated  at 
the  junction  of  the  Clinch  River  with  the  Tennessee,  both 
of  them  being  here  navigable  lor  stuambonts.  It  has  2 
weekly  newspapers.  1  hotel,  2  iron-furnaces,  2  steam  saw- 
mills, foundry  and  machiuc-shop,  1  charcoal  furnace,  1 
steam-distillery,  and  10  stores.     Pop.  739. 

W.  B.  RrFin.  En.  "  East  TKNNKSst;KA\." 
Kingston,  post-tp.  of  (ireen  Eako  eo..  Wis.  Pop.  807. 
KinK^tun  lEMZAnnTii  Ciirni-Kini!),  Dichkss  ok.  b.  in 
England  in  1720,  was  daughter  of  Col.  Chudlcigh,  gover- 
nor of  Chelsea  College,  who  d.  when  she  was  still  a  child. 
leaving  his  family  in  poverty.  Elizabeth  was  a  girl  of  re- 
markable beauty,  to  which  (circumstance  she  was  indebted 
for  an  appointment  as  maid-of-honor  to  the  princess  of 
Wales,  mother  of  (Jeorge  HI.,  through  the  influence  of 
Pulteney,  afterwards  earl  of  Bath.  She  was  privately  mar- 
ried in  1741  to  Capt,  llervey,  grandson  <tf  the  earl  of  Bris- 
tol, but  immediately  separated  from  him.  ami  for  many 
years  led  adissipated  life  in  European  capitals.  She  mar- 
ried the  duke  of  Kingsloi]  in  1 709,  he  being  ignorant  of  her 
former  marringo,  and  on  his  death  in  1773  sneeeeded  to  an 
enormous  fortune,  which,  however,  was  disputed  by  the 
duke's  relatives  on  the  ground  of  bigamy.  The  duchess 
was  tried  by  the  Uoupo  of  Lords  for  bigamy  in  1770,  and 
declared  guilty,  btit  retained  her  fortune,  as  being  derived 
from  brfjuest.  After  a  further  series  of  adventures  she  d. 
at  a  chateau  near  Paris  Aug.  28,  1788. 

Kingston-on-ThiimOH,  town  of  England,  in  tlie 
county  of  Surrey,  on  the  E.  bank  (tf  the  TlnuneH.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  corn  ami  malt,  anil  many  good  edu- 
oational  institutions.  Coins  and  other  remains  from  the 
time  of  the  Romans  arc  often  discovered  here.  Pop. 
15.2:>7. 

Kinf;*«'to\vn9  capital  of  the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  in 
the  We^f  Indies,  at  the  head  of  a  small  inlet  which  forms 
a  good  harbor,  is  well  built  and  fortified,  and  has  a  fine 
botanieal  gard'-n.      Pop.  about  .'lOOO. 

Kinffstown,  town  of  Indnnd,  on  the  ftouthern  shore 
of  the  Bay  of  Iftiblin.  It  has  a  magnificent  harbor,  and  is 
the  station  of  the  steam-packets  to  Holyhead  and  Liverpool. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  watering-places  of  Ireland. 
Pop.  ll.:>84. 

Kings'trro,  post-v.  of  Kings  tp.,  cap.  of  M'ilHnmsburg 


CO.,  S.  C,  on  the  left  bank  of  Black  River.  05  miles  N.  E. 
of  Charleston,  on  the  North-eastern  R.  R..  has  2  weekly 
newspapers.  2  schools  (1  white  and  1  colored),  3  churches, 

2  hotels,  I  livery-stable,  1   hook-and-laddcr  fire  company, 

3  bakeries,  2  drug  stores,  and  a  number  of  other  business 
interests.  The  principal  occupation  is  farming.  Pop.  of 
tp.  1774.  J.  Marion  Stauokiis,  for  Ei>.  "Star." 

Kinf^s'villCf  post-v.  and  tp.  (otherwise  called  Ramky) 
of  Johnson  co..  Mo.,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.  Pop. 
of  v.  298;  of  tp.  13G0. 

Kingsville,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Ashtabula  co..  0..  on 
the  Lake  Shore  R.  R.     It  has  an  academy.     Pop.  1758. 

King-te-Ching%  district  of  the  province  of  Kiang-Si, 
China,  anil  the  scat  of  the  celebrated  manufactures  of  ])or- 
celain,  in  which  ncarlj'  1,000,000  persons  arc  engaged. 

Kinf;  Wil'linm^  county  of  Virginia,  having  the  Mat- 
tnpony  River  on  the  N.  E.  and  the  Paniunkey  on  the  S.  W. 
Area.  200  square  miles.  It  is  iine\en.  and  (rencrally  fertile. 
Grain  and  tobacco  are  staple  products.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Richmond  and  Chc?apeako  R.  R.  Cap.  King 
William  Court-house.     Pttp.  7."(1j. 

King  William  Court-house,  post-v..  cap.  of 
King  William  co.,  Va.,  27  miles  N.  E.  of  Richmond. 
Pop.  44. 

King'-WOOd,  the  wood  of  a  species  of  Tn'ptolomia.  a 
Brazilian  leguminous  tree.  The  wood  is  very  beautiful. 
but  comes  only  in  small  pieces,  and  is  used  in  ornamental 
joinery. 

Kingwood,  post-tp.,  Hunterdon  co.,  X.  J.     Pop.  1942. 

Kin^wood,  post-v.  and  t  p..  caii.  of  Prtj^ton  co,.  W.  Va., 
is  situated  in  the  .Allt  irhany  iMounlains,  111  niiles  N.  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R. ;  has  2  churches.  1  nati<uial  bank, 
2  weekly  newspapers,  3  hotels,  numerous  stores,  a  fine 
school  building,  and  several  elegant  private  residences.  It 
is  on  the  line  of  a  proposed  raih-oad,  the  Iron  A'allcy  and 
Pennsylvania  line.  Principal  imlustry.  farming.  Pop. 
IjSl.  Wii.i..  M.  O.  Dawson. 

En.  "  PitESTON  Co.  .Journal." 

Kink'^O^Uf  the  Ccrcofepten  crniflh-otrit/tiit,  a  small  bear- 
like carnivorous  mammal  of  tropical  South  America,  liardly 
as  large  as  a  eat.  It  is  placed  in  a  family,  ('ercohptidje. 
It  is  a  graceful  nocturnal  creature,  arlxu-eal  in  its  habits, 
easily  tamed,  and  excessively  fond  of  honey,  one  of  tho])rin- 
eipai  articles  of  its  food.  It  has  many  popular  names,  but 
the  above  is  the  one  now  generally  employed. 

Kinli'e!  (Joiianx  CIoTTrnir:i)l,b.  at  Obereasscl  Aug.  11, 
ISIT);  studied  theology  at  Bonn  and  Berlin:  became  jiro- 
fcssor  first  of  theology,  and  then  of  the  fine  arts,  at  Bonn, 
and  published  a  volume  of  poems  whieli  beeanic  ]»opuIar. 
On  account  of  his  participation  in  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments in  Rhenish  Prussia  in  1S4S,  ho  was  sentenced  to 
twenty  years'  im])risonment  at  S[)andau,  but  c>caped,  lived 
for  some  years  in  London,  and  removed  in  ISriO  to  Zurich 
as  professor  of  the  history  of  the  fine  arts.  Of  his  writings, 
the  most  noticeable,  besides  his  ]ioems.  are  Die  altchritt- 
(irhr  h'uut^t  flSI.'i)  and  iV/mn/f/.  a  tragedy  (1857). 

Kiii'hick,  tp.  of  Lawrence  eo.,  Ala.     I*op.  1621. 

Kin'iniindy,  city  and  tp.  of  Marion  co..  III.,  229  miles 
S.  of  Chicago,  and  130  miles  N.  of  Cairo,  on  the  Illinois 
Central  U.  R..  has  1  bank.  1  weekly  newspaper,  5  churches, 
2  hotels,  large  school  buildings,  brick  mills,  various  manu- 
factories, and  12  stores.  Principal  industry,  farming,  graz- 
ing, and  fruit-raising.     Pop.  is'.ly. 

E!>\v\ito  FitKiCMAx,  En.  *■  Kismi'NDV  lNni:i»KNDr.ST.** 

Kill,  Next  of,  a  term  employed  in  law  to  denote  the 
nearest  blood  relatives  of  a  deceased  ]ter>on.  among  whom 
his  personal  property  is  distributed  after  the  payment  of 
debts  and  legacies,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  stat- 
ute of  distributions.  Thi.s  is  the  ordinary  technical  sense 
of  the  phrase,  though  it  is  sometimes  used  with  a  wider 
exIiMit  of  meaning,  to  <iesignatea  personV  nearest  relations 
by  Idood.  without  regard  t<»  this  stiitule.  The  relationship 
iiiust  bo  by  consanguinity,  and  not  by  afiiiiily.  The  next 
of  kin  may  be  either  of  lineal  or  of  collateral  consanguin- 
ity, and  the  nearness  of  relationship  among  them  is  com- 
puted according  to  the  rules  of  the  civil  law.  in  accordaneo 
with  which  the  degrees  between  one  relative  and  an(»tber 
are  aseertaine<l  by  reckoning  upward  from  one  of  the  par- 
lies to  the  common  ancestor,  and  then  downward  to  the 
other  party.  (The  distinction  between  lineal  and  collat- 
eral consanguinity  is  explained,  and  this  eivil-law  rule  of 
estimating  relntifmshiji  illustrat<'d,  in  the  article  CoNSAN- 
nriNiTV.  See  also  Akkimtv.)  Cpon  the  death  of  a  per- 
son intestate  who  was  tlie  ownerof  personal  property,  there 
are  two  important  rights  to  wbieb  bis  next  of  kin  are  en- 
titled :  one  is  to  administer  up(»n  his  personal  estate,  and 
the  other  to  share  it  among  themselves,  either  wholly  or 
partly,  according  to  the  statute  of  distributions.     By  the 


1562 


KINNEY— KIPPIS. 


English  common  law  the  power  to  administer  upon  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  a  wife  is  granted  to  the  husband  or 
his  representatives,  while,  by  ancient  statutes,  if  it  be  the 
husband  that  is  deceased,  administration  upon  his  property 
is  granted  to  either  his  widow  or  next  of  kin,  or  both.  In 
case  of  administration  by  the  next  of  kin,  one  or  more  are 
selected  from  among  them  as  administrators,  preference 
being  given  to  those  who  are  most  nearly  related  to  the 


ish,  highly  astringent  taste.  It  forms  a  deep-red  solution 
in  water  and  alcohol.  Kino  owes  its  astringency  to  tannic 
acid  (tannin),  and  is  used  in  medicine  to  check  morbid  dis- 
charges in  bowel  complaints.  Edwakd  Curtis. 

Kinross',  or  Kinross'-shirc,  county  of  .Scotland,  be- 
tween the  counties  of  Perth  and  Fife.  Area,  72  square 
miles.  I'op.  720S.  The  surface  is  undulating,  covered  with 
j  low  hills  which  enclose  i^ooh  Lcven.    The  soil  is  a  mixture 


intestate,  according  to  the  civil-law  method  of  reckoning      of  gravel  and  clay,  but  fertile  and  affording  good  pasturage 


above  referred  to.  Of  persons  in  equal  degree  any  one 
may  be  taken.  Children  arc  preferred  to  j.arents,  parents 
to  brothers  or  sisters,  brothers  or  sisters  to  grandparents, 
grandparents  to  uncles,  aunts,  nephews,  and  nieces,  etc. 
(See  AnMiNiSTKATiox.)  In  the  U.  !^.  the  English  rules  as 
to  the  appointment  of  administrators  arc  substantially 
adopted  in  the  various  States,  though  more  or  less  modi- 
fied by  statute.  After  the  payment  of  debts  by  the  admin- 
istrator, and  of  various  expenses,  as  funeral  expenses, 
taxes,  etc..  the  residue  of  the  property  is  dislributed  among 
the  next  of  kin  and  the  husband  or  widow  of  the  deceased. 
The  statute  of  distributions  was  enacted  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  (22  and  23  Chas.  II.  ch.  10).  If  the  deceased 
person  be  a  married  woman,  leaving  a  husband  surviving, 
he  takes,  by  English  law,  the  entire  personal  property  after 
the  usual  necessary  disbursements,  the  statute  not  applying 
to  husbands.  In  other  cases  the  statute  requires  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  surplus  property,  after  the  expiration  of 
one  year  from  the  time  of  granting  administration,  in  the 
following  manner:  If  the  intestate  leave  a  widow  and  chil- 
dren, the  widow  receives  one-third  of  the  property,  and  the 
children  the  residue  in  equal  proportions.  If  any  child  be 
dead,  leaving  lineal  descendants,  they  divide  equally  the 
share  which'he  would  have  received.  This  is  called  taking 
per  stirpit,  or  by  the  doctrine  of  representation.  If  there 
are  no  children  or  their  representatives,  one-half  goes  to 
the  widow  and  the  other  half  is  distributed  equally  among 
the  next  of  kin  who  are  in  equal  degree  and  their  repre- 
sentatives; but  no  representation  is  admitted  among  col- 
laterals after  brothers'  and  sisters'  children.  If  there  be 
no  widow,  the  whole  estate  is  divided  among  the  children. 
If  there  be  neither  widow  nor  children,  the  whole  is  distri- 
buted among  the  next  of  kin  in  equal  degree  and  their 
representatives.  Substantially  the  same  ]>referencc3  exist 
among  the  next  of  kin  in  regard  to  their  right  to  receive  a 
share  in  the  property  as  in  regard  to  the  right  to  be  ad- 
ministrators. If  children  survive  or  their  descendants, 
these  take  the  property  to  the  exclusion  of  other  relatives. 
If  there  be  no  children  or  their  descendants,  the  father 
takes  the  whole.  If  he  also  be  dead,  the  mother  and  the 
brothers  and  sisters,  with  their  descendants,  divide  the 
property,  and  so  on.  If  in  any  case  those  who  receive  the 
property  arc  related  to  the  deceased  in  equal  degrees,  they 
share  equally,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  jitr  ctijuia.  If  there  be 
any  personii'l  properly  of  a  testator  left  undisposed  of  by 
his"  will,  it  is  distributed  among  the  next  of  kin  according 
to  the  same  rules  of  distribution.  Statutes  of  distribution 
similar  in  their  general  provisions  to  the  English  statute 
have  been  enacted  in  the  IT.  S.,  though  with  various  modi- 
fications of  the  rules  just  stated. 

(5K0R0E  Chask.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Kin'ncy,  county  of  Texas,  bounded  on  the  S.  W.  by 
the  Rio  (Jrande.  Area,  1400  square  miles.  It  is  not  gener- 
ally very  fertile,  and  water  is  deficient,  but  it  affojds  good 
jiasturage.  Stock-raising  is  the  chief  pursuit 
Clark.     Pop.  1201. 

Kinney  (  Rev.  .John  W.),  b.  in  1790  ;  d.  in  Texas  Jan. 
9,  ISGj.  lie  joined  the  Ohio  (JI.  E.)  conference  in  181S. 
and  l)ecame  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  conference  when  it 
was  organized;  after  eight  years'  labor  in   Kentucky,  lo 


on  the  moorlands.     Principal  town.  Kinross. 

Kinsalc',  town  of  Ireland,  in  thccounty  of  Cork,  Mun- 
ster,  stands  on  the  ISandon  River,  2  miles  from  its  fall  into 
the  Atlantic.  It  has  an  excellent  harbr>r,  valuable  fisheries, 
and  is  much  resorted  to  as  a  bathing-place,  but  its  trade 
has  mostly  been  transferred  to  Cork.     Pop.  ('i9J5. 

Kins'ley,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Edwards  co.,  Kan., 
on  the  Arkansas  River,  and  the  Atchison  Topeka  and  Santa 
F6  R.  R.,  2R8  miles  W.  of  Topeka  and  34  E.  of  Fort 
Dodge,  110  miles  N.  of  the  salt-lieMs  on  the  boundary  of 
the  Indian  Territory,  of  which  it  is  the  nearest  shi)iping 
point.  The  first  house  was  built  in  Jlar.,  }K7o  ;  a  news- 
paper was  started  the  same  year ;  the  county  was  organ- 
ized in  1874  with  some  600  inhabitants.  Kinsley  suffered 
much  from  the  grasshopper  plague  (1874);  has  fine  soil 
and  climate.  JliiS.  C.  C.  McGiNMS.  En.  "  Reporteii." 
Kins'nian,  post-v.  and  tp.,  Trumbull  co.,  0.  Pop.  1029. 
Kin'ston,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  I.enoir  co.,  N.  C,  35 
miles  W.  of  Xew  Berne,  on  the  Atlantic  and  North  Caro- 
lina R.  R.,  has  a  high  school,  8  churches  (3  colored),  1 
newspaper.  1  hotel,  40  stores,  a  carriage  and  plough  fac- 
torv,  and  other  industries,  principally  farmiug.  Pop.  of  v. 
Illi3  ;  of  tp.  4604.  E.  A.  WiLSO.v,  En,  "  Gazette." 

Kiong-Choo',  town  of  China,  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Hainan,  on  the  northern  coast,  in  lat.  20°  N.,  Ion.  110° 
22'  E.,  and  is  surrounded  with  high  walls  of  hewn  stones. 
It  is  described  by  the  Chinese  as  a  model  of  a  city,  so  rich 
that  it  has  no  beggars,  so  noble-spirited  that  it  needs  no 
police,  and  it  is  said  to  have  200.000  inhabitants.  Unfor- 
tun.ately,  the  Chinese  speak  in  exactly  the  same  terms  of 
another  town  they  have  founded  on  Hainan,  and  describe 
it  with  exactly  the  same  features;  which  circumstance  oc- 
casions some  "mist  around'  the  double-star,  at  least  to  or- 
dinary minds. 
Kioto.     See  Miako. 

Ki'owa,  county  of  South-west  Central  Kansas.  Area, 
900  square  miles.  The  X.  TV.  part  is  travcrseil  by  the 
Arkansas  River  and  the  Atchison  Topeka  and  Santa  F6 
R.  R.     It  is  a  good  pastoral  region. 

Kiowas,  or  Kioways,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Sho- 
shone family,  having  a  reservation  in  the  S.  V,'.  of  the  In- 
dian Territory,  but  not  yet  reclaimed  from  a  nomadic  life, 
hunting  and  marauding  upon  the  great  plains  of  Kansas, 
Colorado,  and  Northern  Texas.  They  have  been  more  in- 
tractable than  any  other  Indian  tribe  except  the  Apaches, 
have  been  often  at  war  with  the  Pawnees,  the  Dakotas,  and 
the  Mexicans,  and  have  been  frequently  chastised  by  V.  S. 
troops.  Treaties  were  made  with  the  Kiowas  in  1853, 1865, 
and  1860,  by  the  hitter  of  which  they  agreed  to  settle  in 
the  Indian  Territory,  but  the  following  year  they  again 
committed  murders  in  Texas,  for  which  their  chiefs,  San- 
and  Big  Tree,  were  sentenced  to  death,  but  ultimately 


tanta 
Cap.  Fort  j  pardoned.     They  number  about  2000 

Kip  (Rt.  Rev.  Wii.i.iam  Ingraham),  D.  D.,  b.  in  New 
York  Oct.  3,  isn,  of  an  old  family  of  Dutch  descent  (orig- 
iniilly  Kype).  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1831  ;  took  deacon's 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1835;  was 
rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Albany,  183S-53.  and  in  the  latter 

Jlc   is    the 
captain  of  a  conipiiny  ;  emigrateil  to  Texas  in  i^.i.i.  ana      .,,,(i,ni.  nf  mnnv  worlis.  amons  wnicn  are  j iie  i.enlcH  Fatl, 
with  the  Rev.  Henry  Stevenson  held  the  first  camp-meetin 


catcd  in  Illinois,  and  fought  through  the  Black  Hawk  war  ,  y^^p  ^^s   consecrated  bishop  of  California.      Jl 
as  captain  of  a  conipiiny  ;  emigrated  to  Texas  in  1833.  and     auti,or  of  many  works,  among  which  are  The  Leiileii 

If/  Jcmiil  Mlstioiig  III  ynrllt  Amrritn  {ISiG),  Cliritliiiat 


in  Austin's  colony.     He  possessed  great  pulpit  power.    He 
belonged  to  the  Texas  conference  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

T.  0.  Simmers.  ! 
Kinnickinnick',  or  Killickinnick'  [Chippcway,  a 
"mixture"],  a  name  given  by  the  northern  Indians  to 
various  substances  used  liy  them  for  mixing  with  tobacco 
before  smoking,  such  as  the  inner  bark  of  the  red  willow 
and  the  leaves  of  the  mountain  cranberry  (Arcloslnphijlus 
Vin-Vrii). 

Kinnickinnick,  post-tp.  of  St.  Croix  co.,  Wis.  Pop. 
028. 

Ki'no,  an  astringent  drug,  the  hardened  juice  of  Ptcro- 
carpitt  nmrmtpimii^  a  lofty  tree,  natural  order  FabaceaJ, 
growing  in  the  East  Indies,  and  also  of  other  trees  in  tho 
West  Indies,  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia.  East 
India  kino  is  the  only  variety  in  general  use,  most  of  the 
others  being  unknown  in  America.  It  is  in  small  shining, 
brittle  fragments,  of  a  deep  reddish-black  color  and  bitter- 


Jfuliiliiiiii  in  Home.  Domeslic  and  llcliijinm  Lift:  in  /tali/, 
The  Ciiiacomh«  <>/  iioiix:  (1S54).  He  has  contributed  much 
to  periodical  literature. 

Kip'pis  (AxnnEW),  D,  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Nottingham, 
Eng.,  in  1725;  studied  theology  in  Dr.  Doddridge's  sem- 
inarv  at  Nottingham;  became  in  1740  minister  of  a  dis- 
senting congregation  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  and  in  1753 
of  a  Presbyterian  church  of  Unitarian  tendencies  in  Prince's 
street,  AVestminster,  where  he  remained  through  life.  In 
1703  he  became  professor  in  a  theological  academy  in  Lon- 
don for  the  education  of  dissenting  ministers;  wrote  much 
for  the  firnlUmnii'a  Mii;ltiziiif.  the  ihrnlhti)  R,  licit,  and  tlie 
A'eir  Anniinl  Kn/iiiter:  edited  Doddridge's  Lrclnrct  and  Dr. 
Lardner's  work's;  published  lives  of  Dr.  Lardner  and  of 
Capt.  Cook,  and  undertook  a  new  edition  of  that  vast  work, 
the  ntniirnphiii  IlriKimiicn.  but  it  was  projecteil  on  too  ex- 
tensive a  scale,  and  only  five  folio  volumes,  with  part  of  a 
sixth,  were  published,  extending  to  the  middle  ot  the  letter 


KIPTCHAK— KIRKALDY. 


1563 


p  (177g-93).  Dr.  Kippis  published  also  some  sermons  and 
coutroiersiiil  paiupbltts  ou  Ibeological  subjects.  1>.  at  Wost- 
miuster  iu  17'.ij. 

Kiptchak%  or  Kaptchak',  a  Tartar  or  .Mongolian 
race  whieli  j;ave  name  lo  a  khunato  founded  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  the  Golden  Horde,  and  which  extended 
from  the  Jiixnrtes  iu  Toorkistan  to  the  limits  of  Russia 
proper,  and  comprised  all  the  region  N.  «f  the  Caueasus  i 
traversed  by  tlio  rivers  Dnieper.  Don,  Volga,  and  Ural. 
After  the  career  of  Tamerlane  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
Kazan.  Astrakhan,  and  Crimea  became  independent  of 
Kiptchak,  and  were  at  length  annexed  to  Russia. 

Kir'by,  tp.  of  Northampton  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1844. 

Kirb»  post-tp.  of  Wyandot  co.,  0.,  on  the  Pittsburg 
Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  R.  R.     Pop.  s;ii>. 

Kirby,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  Ili>5. 

Kirby,  tp.  of  Caledonia  co.,  Vt.,  4  miles  S.  E.  of  Lyn- 
douville.      It  has  manufactures  of  lumber.      Pop.  417. 

Kirby  (KnMiNOj.b.  in  Rrownsville,  Jefferson  co..  X.  Y., 
1840;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  and  ap- 
pointed second  lieutenant  of  artillery  May  0.  1801.  Tho 
stirring  time  in  which  he  graduated  calleil  for  tho  services 
of  every  military  educated  man,  and  Kirby  was  at  one© 
ordered  to  Washington,  and  assigned  to  tlie  duty  of  drill- 
ing tho  newly-arrived  volunteers;  upon  tlie  movement  of 
the  army  he  was  as;<igned  to  Ricketts's  battery,  with  which 
h&  served  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  assuming  command  of 
the  same  upon  the  capture  of  (Jen.  Ricketts  ;  ho  was  next  en- 
gaged in  the  disastrous  combat  of  Hall's  IJIuft",  Oct..  ISOI ;  in 
the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign  of  lS(i2  bo  commanded 
a  battery  at  Vorktown.  Fair  Oaks.  Savage  Station,  Glcn- 
dale,  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  in  the  Uajipahannoek  cam- 
paign at  rredcrieksbnrg  and  Chancellorsville,  in  all  of 
which  battles  bo  displayed  great  coolness,  skill,  and 
bravery,  and  at  the  latter  received  wounds  from  the  olfect 
of  which  ho  d.  at  Wasliington,  D.  C.  May  2S,  ISG:J,  aged 
twenty-three.  For  his  gallant  services  at  Cbancellorsvillo 
he  was  appointed  on  his  deathbed  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  Though  barely  arrived  at  manhood,  *be  few 
years  of  his  life  were  well  and  honorably  filled  in  the  ser- 
vice of  his  country.  G.  ('•  Simmons. 

Kirby  (Wimjam),  b.  at  Witnosham,  Suffolk.  Sept.  19, 
17jy  ;  graduated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in  17S1,  took 
orders  in  tho  English  Church  and  obtained  the  living  of 
Barbam,  which  hn  held  Ihroagh  life.  lie  was  widely  known 
by  bis  work  on  Eiit'imol'ie/i/.  pul>li.sbed  in  ISI  j  in  eonjuiie- 
tion  with  Spence,  and  by  bis  IJridgewater  treatise  on  Unbi(a 
auU  InntimtM  of  Animah  in'tlt  lic/crcncc  to  Natural  Theolofft/ 
(ls:tO).     D.  at  IJarham  July  4,  ISoO. 

Kirby's  Mill,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  285. 

Kircli':»aoli,  von  (Hrco  EwAi.n),  b.  May  23,  1809; 
educated  at  tho  military  academy,  and  entered  in  lK2(i  tho 
2fith  regiment  of  infantry.  In  1850  he  was  attached  to  tiio 
staff  as  inujor  :  in  isjy  became  commander  of  a  regiment; 
in  l><0:i  of  the  liHh  brigade  of  infantry,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  made  a  mnjor-general.  In  ISOO.  in  tho  war 
against  Auslria,  he  led  with  distinction  tho  lOLh  division 
as  lieutenant-general :  fought  at  Nachod,  Skalitz.  Scbwein- 
sehadel,  (iradlitz,  and  in  tho  battle  of  Koniggriltz,  and  re. 
ceivcd  the  order  pmir  (c  mt'n'tr.  In  1.S70,  in  the  war  against 
Franco,  he  led  tlio  .Hh  army  corps.  At  its  head  ho  opened 
the  war  by  tho  attack  on  Weis.senburg,  and  two  days  after- 
wards ho  took  a  most  important  part  in  the  battle  of  Worth, 
Aug.  0.  Tho  crown  prince,  who  commanded  the  army,  gavo 
orders  to  break  off  the  figlit  ^vhicb  had  just  commeneefl, 
but  Kirehbach  continued  it  on  bis  own  responsibility,  and 
a  few  momi!nt3  later  on  tlie  crown  prince  agreed  witli  bim. 
Four  days  after  tho  battle,  in  which  ho  received  a  slight 
wound,  be  wa**  made  a  general  of  infantry.  In  the  battle 
of  Sedan,  when  thr  leader  of  the  1  lib  army  eorpn  was  se- 
verely wounded.  Kindibaeh  a-'sumed  tho  eniumand  of  this 
corps  too,  and  performed  the  decisive  manoeuvre  by  which 
the  French  army  was  completely  surnnmded.  During  tho 
siege  of  Paris  ho  held  Versailles  and  its  vicinity. 

AlfMST  NiKMASIf. 

Kir'clior  (ATiiASAsirs),  b.  at  fioisa,  in  Hesse,  May  2, 
lfi02  ;  joined  the  Jesuits  in  Ifil'J;  was  dlueateil  at  Wiirz- 
burg,  where  ho  was  ]>rofessor  of  philosophy  and  the  East- 
ern languages;  was  in  the  Jesuits'  college  at  Avignon 
in  lOHr,-;!'! ;  was  professor  of  matliematies  in  the  College 
of  Rome  ir..1.^-43.  D.  at  Rome  Nov.  2S.  IfiSO.  lie  wrote 
much  upon  pliysies,  archanjlogy.  philology,  etc. 

Kircli'liciin^  town  of  (lermany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Wiiriembcrg,  on  tho  Lauter,  manufactures  cntloo  fabrics, 
musical  instruments,  and  furniture,  aud  trades  in  corn, 
cattle,  and  wool.     Pop.  J4.15. 

Kirch'hoir  iOtstav  Robert),  b.  Mar.  12,  1S24,  at 
Kouigsbcrg;  atudieil  matliemntics  and  natural  science  at 


the  university  of  his  native  city;  lectured  on  physics  at 
Berlin  in  1S4S  and  at  Breslau  in  1850,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Heidelberg  in  1S54. 
His  researches  concerning  bent,  elasticity,  magnetism,  and 
electricity,  communicate<l  in  Poggendorff  s  AunaUn  and  in 
Crello's  Journal  fa  r  MuthdiuatiK-,  attracted  great  attention. 
But  his  most  brilliant  liiscovery  was  that  of  tho  spectro- 
scope, made  in  connection  with  Bunsen.  and  its  application 
for  tho  so-called  spectrum  analysis,  which  has  exercised  so 
great  an  influence  on  tho  study  both  of  chemistry  and  as- 
tronomy. (See  his  Chemischc  Annlifsc  i/nrrk  Spcctralbco- 
bachtutig,  together  with  Bunscn  (Vienna,  IS(>1),  Daa  Soutioi- 
gpectraun  uixl  die  Spectreu  der  chrmhchrn  Klc/)itntr  (Berlin, 
1861),  VorlcsHiiffen  iibtr  annlytieche  Mcchanik  (Leipsic, 
1874).) 

Kirgheez%  Kirghccz-Kaizaks,  or  Cossacks, 
the  name  of  a  nomadic  people  of  Central  .Asia,  numbering 
about  2,01)0,000,  and  occupying  a  vast  region  called  the 
Kirghccz  Steppes,  of  about  8;>0,UtHl  square  miles,  stretching 
from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Altai  Mountains  and  from  tho 
Sea  of  Aral  to  the  Tobol  and  Irtish,  traversed  by  several 
mountain-ranges,  between  which  extend  large  barren  plains 
dotted  with  salt  lakes.  It  is  now  divided  intu  the  three 
provinces  of  Orenboorg,  West  Siberia,  and  Toorkistan.  The 
climate  is  exceedingly  cold  in  the  winter,  excessively  hot  in 
the  summer,  and  always  very  variable.  Only  a  few  dis- 
tricts along  the  rivers  are  rudely  tilled  :  the  remainder  is 
pasture-land.  The  Kirgbecz  are  divided  into  the  Little, 
Great,  and  Middle  Hordes,  politically  distinct  from  each 
other.  They  arc  of  Eastern  or  Tureo-Tataric  origin, 
akin  to  the  Uzbecks  in  race  and  language.  They  are 
below  middle  size,  but  strong  and  hardy;  have  the  high 
cheek-bones  and  small,  deep-set,  oblique  eyes  of  the 
Mongolians,  but  their  faces,  though  generally  ugly,  are 
not  wholly  flat.  Their  language  is  a  very  pure  Turkish 
dialect;  their  religion,  a  mixture  of  Islamism  and  idcd- 
atry.  Without  being  savages,  their  state  of  civilization 
is  very  low.  They  know  but  little  of  agriculture,  ami 
still  less  of  manufactures.  The  breeding  of  sheep,  burses, 
and  camels  is  their  business,  besides  occasicuial  robbery. 
In  the  beginning  of  this  century  they  fully  deserved  tbelr 
title  of  the  "slave-hunters  of  the  ste])pes."  They  attacked 
the  caravans,  took  the  goods,  and  sold  the  persons  as  shives 
at  the  markets  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  But  the  line  of 
forts  wbieb  the  Russian  government  has  laid  Ihrougb  the 
country  has  effectually  checked  this  business.  The  wMunen, 
who  often  are  quite  pretty,  do  the  work.  The  men  spend 
most  of  their  time  on  horseback,  bunting  and  sporting,  or 
in  sensuous  enjoyments.  Mutton,  horseflesh,  and  sour 
mare's  milk,  from  which  an  intoxicating  beverage  is  dis- 
tilled, are  tho  princijial  articles  of  food;  bread  is  nearly 
unknown.  They  arc  governed  by  their  own  chieftains,  but 
since  18fi0  they  have  been  brouglit  under  Russian  authority, 
and  great  ])aiiis  have  been  taken  to  civili/.e  tlieui.  Tloro 
arc  no  towns  among  tbetn,  and  the  only  remains  of  cities 
and  temples  which  have  been  found  are  vestiges  of  ai.  ear- 
lier civilized  race. 

Kir'in,  or  Girin,  tho  largest  province  of  Mantchoorin, 
Chinese  empire,  bounded  N.  by  tho  Anu)or  and  Sooiigareo 
rivers,  E.  by  the  Oosooree  River  and  tlie  Japan  Sea.  S.  by 
I  Corca  and  Cliina   proper,  and  W.   by  China  .proper  and 
1   Mongolia.     Area,  about  200,0(10  square  miles.     Pop.  about 
I  .^(^0,0U0.    The  capital,  Kirin,  Kirin-Oola.  or  Uirin,  is  a  largo 
I  town  on  the  Soougaree,  and  is  the  residence  of  a  viceroy. 
Kirk  (KiiWAiin  Nonius),  D.  I).,  b.  in   New  York  Aug. 
14.  1S02:   graduated  at  Princeton  in  1S20.  and  afterwards 
studied  law  auti  theology:  served  as  agent  lor  the  foreign 
mission   board;   held   lS2S-;jti  a  Congregational  pastorate 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1839  became  secretary  of  the  For- 
eign Evangelical  Society.     In  I>'42  he  became  pastor  of  tho 
Mt.  Vernon  church,   Boston.  Mass..  with  which   be  main- 
■  tained  the  pastoral  relation  until  his  deatli,  Mar.  27,  istl. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  .st-rmuns  and  lec- 
tures, ttUil  many   published  occasional  discourses,  besides 
some  translations.     Dr.  Kirk  was  an  active  friend  of  the 
cause  of  Protestant  religion  iu  tho  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

Kirk  (Jnnv  Foster),  b.  in  182i  at  Frederickton,  N.  It., 
and  educated  in  Nova  Scotia.  In  1X12  he  removed  to  Bos- 
ton, Mass,  where  for  eleven  years  he  was  secretary  to  the 
historian  Preseott.  He  i«  the  author  of  a  //i«/on/  of 
ChnrUn  the  Hold  (3  vols..  ISfi.l-GT),  and  iu  1870  bccamo 
editor  of  Lipftitir«ftt'ii  Mntjnziur. 

KirkaTcly  iSir  Wh.mam}  of  Granfso,  b.  in  Scotland 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  son  of  Sir  James  Kirkaldy, 
high  treasurer  in  the  reign  of  .lames  V.,  was  one  of  the  ear- 
liest Protestants  of  Scotland;  joined  a  conspiracy  against 
Caniiual  Beatoun  in  1540;  surrendered  to  the  French  at 
St.  Andrew's  in  the  summer  of  that  year,  and  ivns  im- 
prisoned, but  esjapcd  to  France,  where  he  became  distill- 


1564 


KIRKBRIDE— KIRKLAND. 


ffuiahed  in  the  court  and  army  of  Henry  TI. ;  returned  to 
Scotlantl  in  16.t9;  took  part  in  the  political  movement 
against  Miiry  queen  of  Scots ;  narrowly  escaprd  assassina- 
tion by  IJuthwcIl  at  the  battle  of  <'arberry  JliU,  and  ])ur- 
siuhI  that  nobleman  to  the  eoast  of  Norway  (lj()7);  con- 
tributed to  the  defeat  of  Mary  at  Langside,  and  became 
governor  of  Kdinburjfh  Castle  (May.  1  .'iliS)  ;  espousod  the 
cause  of  Mary,  and  defended  the  castle  for  her  from  Ii>7(l 
to  l.')7;t  ajjainst  the  besiej^inj^  forces  of  Marshal  Berwick; 
surrendered  May  28,  and  was  hung  at  Edinburgh,  with 
several  of  his  followers,  Aug.  3,  1573. 

Kirk'bride  (Thomas  S.).  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  near  Morris- 
ville,  Bucks  CO.,  Pa..  July  31,  1809.  His  ancestry  were  of 
the  So(riety  of  Friends,  and  he  received  his  early  education 
in  the  excellent  schools  of  that  denomination.  He  gradu- 
ated M.  I>.  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  Mar., 
1S32,  and  was  immediately  appointed  resident  physician 
of  the  Friends'  asylum  for  the  insane  at  Frankford,  Pa. 
In  1S3-1  he  was  elccteil  resident  physician  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Hospital  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  for  two  years  in 
charge  of  the  west  wing  of  the  hospital,  which  was  the 
first  hospital  department  for  the  treatment  of  the  insane  in 
the  U.  S.  In  1835  he  opened  an  office  for  general  practice 
in  Philadelphia,  hut  in  Oct..  1840,  just  before  the  comple- 
tion of  the  new  Pennsylvania  Hospital  for  the  insane  W. 
of  the  .Schuylkill,  he  was  clecteil  its  superintendent  and 
physician-in-chief.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  at  the 
opening  of  the  hospital,  Jan.  1.  1S4!,  and  has  been  at  its 
head  for  thirty-four  years.  He  was  and  is  firmly  convinced 
that  not  more  than  250  insane  patients  should  be  treated 
at  one  time  in  a  single  hospital  :  and  foreseeing  that  that 
number  would  be  reached  in  his  hospital  within  a  few 
years,  ho  commenced,  amid  his  other  cares,  in  1853,  the 
effort  to  raise  money  for  a  second  institution.  The  hos- 
pital grounds  included  a  tract  of  113  acres,  and  by  divid- 
ing the  pleasure-grounds  and  placing  his  new  hospital  a 
third  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  other,  he  could  keep  tho 
two  entirely  distinct,  though  under  the  same  general  super- 
vision and  treatment.  He  was  the  first  superintendent 
in  this  country  to  separate  in  entirely  distinct  institutions 
the  two  sexes.  In  1 859,  with  the  assistance  of  some  friends, 
he  had  raised  in  Philadelphia  and  vicinity  $355,000,  and 
had  erected,  in  accordance  with  his  own  carefully  prepared 
plans,  a  hospital  for  tlie  insane,  which  is  so  perfect  in  all 
its  appointments  that  it  has  been  a  model  for  all  those  since 
erected.  To  this  hospital  he  transferred  all  his  male  pa- 
tients, and  while  retaining  the  general  superintendeney  over 
both,  placed  his  most  trusted  assistant  at  the  head  of  the 
male  department,  and  gave  most  of  his  personal  attention 
to  the  feuiale  department.  To  this  latter  ho  has  since  added, 
through  the  liberal  bequest  of  a  friend,  two  wards  at  a  cost 
of  about  $(10,000.  In  all  matters  appertaining  to  mental 
alienation  Dr.  Kirkhride  ranks  as  one  of  tlie  aldest  men  in 
the  profession.  A  careful  student,  thoroughly  devoted  to 
his  specialty  in  medical  science,  of  tho  most  gentle  and 
genial  miinnera,  and  of  rare  executive  ability,  he  has  l»ecn 
p-markably  successful  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane,  while 
his  writings  on  the  subject  have  given  him  a  high  reputa- 
tion. His  first  publication,  in  1850,  liu/cs  and  Rrffnlafioua 
for  the  PfunHijU'rinSn  Iftinpitnl  fnr  the  imtanPy  had  a  circu- 
lation far  beyond  that  liospital,  and  his  Propttsltiouft  Rela- 
tive to  thr  ('oiiHtntrtloii  It/  HoHj>itiiln  fur  the  Insane,  first 
adopted  by  the  Association  of  Medical  Superintendents  of 
American  Institutions  for  the  Insane  (of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  fotinders),  have  been  repeatedly  reathrmed  by  then), 
and  at  their  request  were  published  in  1854,  with  notes  and 
additions,  under  tho  title  of  The  f'onHtnirtion.  Off/a  iiizat  ion, 
ftii'/  Gcnctnl  Arraiiffemrnt  of  HoHpititin  for  the  fumiue.  It 
is  tho  standard  authority  on  this  subject,  both  in  Europe 
and  the  U.  S.  The  same  year  he  published  an  eloquent 
Appeal  for  the  Inaane.  In  his  thirty-four  years  of  super- 
intendeney of  (he  Pennsylv.ania  Hfispital  for  (ho  Insane, 
Dr.  Kirkhride  has  taken  up.  year  by  year,  in  his  annual 
reports,  nearly  every  subject  connected  with  the  care  and 
treatment  of  the  insano  and  the  provision  to  he  made  for 
them,  and  has  discussed  at  length  all  topics  connected  with 
the  eonslru<-tion,  heating,  and  ventilation  of  hospitals. 
These  reports  are  of  great  value  to  every  student  of  men- 
tal disease.  He  has  also  been  a  member  of  numerous  com- 
missions on  the  erection  and  management  of  insane  hos- 
pitals, and  an  active  participant  in  the  medical  and  phil- 
anthropic institutions  of  Philadelphia.  The  degree  of 
LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  in  1874.      L.  P.  Brockett. 

liirkcnrdy,  town  of  Scotland,  in  tho  county  of  Fife, 
on  the  Frith  of  Forth,  where  it  stretches  along  the  north- 
ern shore  for  about  3  miles,  which  has  given  it  the  name  of 
"  Lang  town."  It  has  large  bleatdiing-fields,  flax-spinning 
mills,  and  manufactures  of  linen  and  canvas,  and  its  harbor, 
though  completely  dry  at  low  water,  admits  large  vessels 
at  full  tide.     Pop.  12,422. 


Kirkcnd'bri^htshire,  or  the  Stewartry  of  Kirk* 

cudbrightf  county  of  Scotland,  bordering  on  the  Irish 
Sea  and  the  Frith  of  Solway.  Area,  954  square  miles. 
Pop.  41.852.  Only  one-third  of  the  surface  is  arable;  the 
rest  is  granite  hills  covered  with  moss,  the  highest  of 
which  are  Blacklarg,  2890  feet,  and  ("airnsmoor,  2329  feet. 
Cattle  of  the  , celebrated  (Jalloway  breed  are  reared  here. 
Principal  town,  ICirkeudbright. 

Kirk^dale,  parish  of  Yorkshire.  England,  in  the  Vale 
of  Pickering,  remarkable  for  a  eave  245  feet  long,  discovered 
in  1821  in  cutting  through  the  Oolitic  limestone  rock.  A 
great  abundance  of  fossil  bones  of  extinct  species  of  ani- 
mals was  found  there,  and  described  by  Dr.  Buckland  in 
his  /it/iffiu'ir  DihiriajiUy  as  well  as  in  all  recent  works  on 
palaeontology.  The  most  remarkable  were  hyasnas,  tigers, 
eli'])hants,  rhinoceroses,  hippopotiimuses,  cave-bears,  and 
horses,  all  of  species  not  now  representee!  in  England.  (See 
Cnve-Httutiuff,  by  W.  B.  Dawkins,  1874.) 

Kirke,  or  Kertk  fSir  David),  b.  at  Dieppe,  France, in 
1590,  of  English  parentage:  was  engaged  in  business  as  a 
wine-merchant  in  Bordeau.x  and  Cognac,  but  wmt  to  Eng- 
land in  consequence  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Huguenots, 
and  with  his  father  and  brothers  became  connected  with 
Sir  William  Alexander's  American  projects.  Da\'id  com- 
manded in  1627  an  expedition  of  three  vessels  under  let- 
ters of  marfjue,  with  which  he  blockaded  Quebec,  and  in 
an  engagement  near  Gasp6  (July  18.  1028)  captured  a 
French  squadron  commanded  by  De  Roqucmont  sent  Cor 
the  relief  of  Quebec.  In  1029,  Kirke  and  his  brothers 
asain  sailed  from  England  against  Canada,  compelled 
Champlain  to  surrender  Quebec  in  July,  and  also  reduced 
the  colony  of  Cape  Breton.  Both  these  conquests,  how- 
ever, were  restored  to  France  in  1032.  Kirke  was  knighted 
in  1033,  and  with  others  obtained  a  grant  of  Newfound- 
land, which  he  colonized,  being  governor  of  that  island  for 
twenty  years,  until  dispossessed  by  Cromwell,  when  he  went 
to  England  and  recovered  his  property  through  CroniwelTs 
son-in-law,  Claypole.  He  returned  to  Newfoundland,  and 
d.  at  Ferryl.and  in  1650.  His  Life  was  jiublished  by  a  de- 
scendant in  1871  (London). 

Kirk'ersville,  post-v.  of  Harrison  tp..  Licking  co..  0., 
2  miles  from  Kiikersville  Station  (Hutvillc  P.  O.),  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Pittsburg  Cincinnati  and  St. 
Louis  R.  Rs.     Pop.  295. 

Kirkes  (William  Srmioi'Sf),  M.  D.,  h.  in  England 
about  1820;  was  physician  and  lecturer  at  St,  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital  in  London;  published  in  IS48,  with  Dr. 
James  Paget,  a  Ilandhofik  of  Ph'fsiolofftf,  which  became  a 
standard  work  upon  that  subject  both  in  Enghiud  an<l  the 
V .  S. :  and  with  Dr.  William  Baly,  an  appendix  to  Miiller's 
Phijftiolofftf,  entitled  Recent  Advaucen  in  the  Pht/fiolotfif  of 
Motion.  Later  papers,  on  the  Detachment  of  FibrinofiB 
Deposits  from  the  Interior  of  the  Jfcart,  constitute  a  rc- 
ninrkablc  contribution  to  pathological  science.  D.  in  Dec, 
1804. 

Kirkintil'lochf  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of 
Duml)arton.     It  has  cotton  manufactures.     Pop.  6342. 

Kirk-Kilis'seh,  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the 
province  of  Room-Elee.  contains  se\'tM:il  tine  niot^qucs,  pub- 
lic baths,  and  extensive  bazaars,  but  is  generally  ill  built. 
It  is  famous  for  its  confectionery,  and  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  butter  and  cheese.     Poj).  10,000. 

Kirk'Innd,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  508. 

Kirklaiid«  post-tp.  of  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Utica 
and  Rome  division  of  the  Midland  R.  R.  It  contains 
iron-mines,  stone-quarries,  and  several  important  villages, 
among  which  are  Clinton  (which  see).  Kirkland  (or  Man- 
cinvvtL-r),  Franklin  Iron-works,  and  Clark's  Mills.    P.  4912. 

Kirkland  (Carolina  Matilda),  h.  in  New  York  in 
Jan.,  I8(il,  was  the  daughter  of  Samuel  Stansbury.  a  book- 
seller. She  married  Prof.  William  Kirkland  of  Hamilton 
College  (1800-10),  spent  some  years  in  Western  New  York 
and  Michigan,  and  afterwards  in  Nl-w  York  City,  where 
for  0  time  she  very  sueccssfuUy  taught  a  school  for  a  num- 
ber of  young  ladies.  Under  the  pseudonym  of  Mary  Clavers 
she  published  several  works  on  Western  life  distinguished 
for  piquancy  and  originality,  edited  the  Union  Ma'jazine 
(New  York,  1817-49),  assisted  in  the  management  of  Sar- 
tain'it  Maffazine  (1849-51 ),  made  two  short  visits  to  Europe 
(1848  and  1850),  and  attained  rare  popularity  and  success  as 
a  writer.  D.  Apr.  0,  18G4.  Her  principal  works  are — A  New 
Home,  WhoH  Follow?  (1839),  fore'^t  Life  (1842),  Western 
ClearinfjH  (1840),  Holidaijn  Abroad  (1849).  The  Eremug 
lionh  {  1  852),  Pernonal  }fenioirii  offJeorffc  Wa^hinr/ton  (  1  857). 

Kirkland  (John  Thornton).  D.  D.,  LL.D..  h.  at  Little 
Falls.  N.  Y..  in  1770;  d.  in  Boston  Apr.  20,  1840,  son  of 
Samuel  Kirkland,  missionary  to  the  Indians;  Harvard 
College  1780;  Congregational  church  in  Summer  street. 
Boston,  1794;  president  of  Harvard  College  1810-28.     He 


KIRKLAND— KISKIMINITAS. 


1565 


published  occasional  pamphlets  and  a  life  of  Fisher  Ames 

(1809).  }Iis  name  id  ideutifiud  with  Harvard  College  08 
one  of  its  ablest  uud  most  distinguished  |(rrj;idfut>.  equally 
remarkable  lor  sagacity,  kiuduess,  and  tnurgy.  ilis  ad- 
ministration was  cfTective  thruugh  thel'urceol  his  personal 
qualities;  he  bequeathed  nu  8yslem  of  rules  or  organized 
methods  to  his  successors,  and  upcuod  nu  avenues  of  future 
progrcfs.  but  graced  bis  position  and  gave  great  distinction 
to  the  college  by  his  intellect  and  dignity. 

0.  B.  Frothingham. 

Kirkland(SAMDEL),b.  at  Norwich.  Conn..  Dec.  t,  1744; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  17GJ.  In  1760  he  was  ordained 
a  Congregatiunal  minister.  Ho  lived  much  as  a  mission- 
ary with  the  Six  Nations,  and  was  appointed  in  1776  by 
tho  Congress  of  Massachusetts  to  jirocurc  their  favor  or 
neutrality.  In  this  attempt  he  was  but  partially  success- 
ful. He  was  afterwards  an  army  chaplain  in  the  Hovolu- 
tionary  war.  lie  may  be  rejrardeii  as  the  founder  of  Ham- 
ilton College,  since  he  established  the  academy  from  which 
it  sprang.  In  1789  ho  received  from  the  government  a 
grant  of  land  two  miles  square,  now  in  the  town  of  Kirk- 
land,  N.  Y.  D.  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  2S,  1S08.  (See  his 
Memoir,  by  Dr.  S.  K.  Loilirop,  his  grandson,  in  Sparks's 
Amer.  ftiograpfn/f  2d  series.) 

Kirk'lin  i  Kirk's  Cross-Roads  P.  0.).  a  v.  and  tp.  of 
Clinton  co.,  lud.     Pop.  of  v.  141  ;  of  tp.  I2Cr,. 

Kirk'inansville,  a  v.  of  Todd  co.,  Ky.     Pop.  889. 

Kirkpat'rick  (Andrkw),  b.  at  Mine  Hrook,  N.  J.,  Feb. 
17,  17j6;  graduated  at  New  Jersey  College  in  177j,  and 
began  the  study  of  theology,  but  soon  devoted  himself  to 
the  law;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  178.');  practised  with 
distinction  at  Morristown,  and  afterwards  at  New  Bruns- 
wick ;  became  judge  of  the  supremo  court  in  17'.>7,  and  was 
chief -justice  from  ISO."!  to  1824.  His  decisions  are  found 
in  Pennington's.  Southard's,  and  Halsted's  reports.  He 
married  in  1792  a  daughter  of  Col.  , John  BayarrI,  Kirk- 
jiatrick  Place  in  New  York  City  was  namecl  from  him.  H. 
lit  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan.  7,  18:U.  (See  Mtmoir,  by 
Gen.  James  (irant  Wilson.) 

Kirks'viUc,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Adair  co..  Mo.,  fi  miles  E. 
<.f  Chariton  River.  6j  miles  \V.  of  Quincy,  and  200  miles 
X.  W.  of  St.  Louis;  has  7  churches.  2  weekly  newspapers, 
2  banks,  4  hotels,  a  State  normal  school,  a  hub  and  spoke. 
furniture,  woollen,  cheese,  and  plough  factories.  AM  kinds 
of  business  arc  well  repre.-onted.  The  county  has  splendid 
farming-lands  anrl  an  abundant  supply  of  wood  and  coal. 
Principal  occupation,  farming.      Pop.  1  171. 

S.  M.  PiCKI.KR,  En.  "  JoiiRNAl-." 

Kirk'ville,  post-v.  of  Richland  tp.,  Wapello  co.,  la. 

Pop.  2;{fi. 

KirkvUle,  post-v.  of  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  150. 

Kirk^uaH,  capital  of  tho  Orkney  Islands,  N.  E.  of  tho 
most  nrirlhern  point  of  Scotland,  formerly  an  independent 
kingdom.  There  is  a  fine  cathedral  of  St,  Magnus  dating 
from  about  11.18,  and  close  by  the  ruins  called  the  King's, 
the  Karl's,  and  tho  Bishop's  palaces.  In  the  latter,  Haco, 
king  of  Norway,  died  in  12(>:;.  Kirkwall  has  steamer  com- 
munication with  Leith,  Abcnleen,  Wick,  and  Lerwick,  has 
an  annual  fair  of  considerable  celebrity,  a  museum,  libraries 
and  grammar  school,  and  cultivated  society.  The  vessels 
registered  at  tho  port  exceed  70,000  tons  burden.  Pop. 
3J0O. 

Kirk'u'oodf  a  villa  near  .Atlanta,  On. 

Kirkwood,  post-r.  of  St.  Louis  co.,  Mo.,  on  tho  Pa- 
cific R.  R.  of  .Missouri. 

Kirku'ood,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Broome  eo.,  N.  Y..  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Susquehanna,  and  on  the  T>elaware  Lacka- 
wanna and  Western  R.  R.  .Joseph  Smith,  the  Mormon 
prophet,  was  born  here.     Pop.  1  102. 

Kirku'ood,  tp.  of  Belmont  eo..  0.     Pop.  1792. 

Kirkwood  (Daviki,),  A.  .M.,  LL.I>..  b.  in  Harford  co., 
M'l.,  S'pt.  27,  isl  (  ;  was  a  mathematical  instructor  in  York 
CO.,  Pa..  18;i8-4;i;  principal  of  Lancaster  (Pa.)  high  school 
I81.'l-48:  of  Pottsville  academy  IS1S~J1  ;  professor  of  math- 
ematics 1861-54  in  I)elawure  College;  its  president  1854- 
50;  became  in  I85fi  profi-ssor  of  mathematics  in  Iu<lian» 
University;  author  of  f'<»»i»7«  nml  .l/»7'*o*t  ( 187^1),  and  of 
important  astronomical  papers,  which  havo  given  hiui  a 
high  reputation  at  homo  and  abroad. 

Kirkwood  (S\mitf.i.  J.),  h.  in  Harford  co..  Md.,  Dec. 
20,  isl.'t;  educated  at  WaHhingt<)n,  I>.  C. ;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Ohio  in  18L1;  was  for  four  years  prosecuting  attorney 
of  Rirhland  co..  and  a  member  of  the  Stale  eoiistltntional 
convention  of  IS50;  removed  tti  Iowa  in  18.').^;  was  elected 
to  the  Slate  senate  in  185ri  n*  a  llepublican  ;  was  governor 
of  Iowa  18fi0-fi:!,  and  was  honorably  dislinguishol  as  *mo 
of  the  great  *'  war  governors  "  for  his  efforts  in  maintaining 
tho  quota  of  Iowa  troops  in  tho  Held  and  providing  for  their 


comfort  and  efficiency  ;  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator  (1S66-67) 
to  fill  tho  unexpired  term  of  James  Harlan,  vacated  by  his 
acceptance  of  the  secretaryship  of  the  interior ;  in  1875  again 
elected  governor  of  Iowa;  and  in  I870clccted  U.S. Senator. 

Kirsanov^  town  of  Russia,  in  tho  government  of 
Tambov,  on  the  Pursovka,  carries  on  some  manufactures 
and  rears  a  good  breed  of  horses  and  fine-flecccd  sheep. 
Pop.  5063. 

Kirsch'wasser  [Ger.  for  "cherry-water"],  often  called 
Kirsehf  an  alcoholic  ii*ftieur  prepared  in  Piurope  from 
cherries.  The  ripe  fruit  is  first  stoned  and  then  fermented. 
Afterwards  the  broken  pits  arc  thrown  into  the  masli,  and 
the  whole  is  distilled.  A  fraudulent  imitation  is  m:ide  of 
ordinary  spirits  flavored  with  clierry-laurel  water.  It  is  a 
dangerous  compound.    (See  Maraschino.) 

Kirt'land,  post-tp.  of  Lake  co.,  0.     Pop.  1029. 

Kirtlnnd  (Jakkh  Potteii},  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  Nov.  10, 
17y-'',  at  Wallingfoid.  Conn.;  studied  medicine  1812-15  at 
the  medical  schools  of  Vale  and  Pennsylvania  universities  j 
began  practising  at  WuUiugford  ;  removed  in  1818  to  Po- 
land, 0.;  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Ohio  Medical  Col- 
lege at  Cincinnati  in  lS;^,7,of  the  Willouj:hby  ^ledical  School 
in  ISU,  and  of  the  Western  Reserve  College  in  Cleveland 
in  184:i,  which  latter  chair  he  filled  to  18fi4.  His  scientific 
researches  and  experiments  have  principally  been  engaged 
in  the  sexual  relations  of  the  naiads,  in  the  rearing  of  bees, 
and  in  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  on  his  residence  at  East 
Rockport,  0.     D.  at  E.  Rockport,  0.,  Uec.  10,  1877. 

Kir'waii  (RirnAnn"),  b,  in  Oalway  co.,  Ireland,  abont 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  St. 
Omer  in  France:  settled  near  London  in  1779;  devoted 
himself  to  chemistry  and  geology,  and  read  valuable  pa- 
pers before  the  Royal  Society,  for  which  he  received  the 
Copley  medal  in  1782.  He  returned  to  Ireland  in  17^'.', 
and  became  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  Among 
his  numerous  works  were  Ah  Est»ni/  tm  P/iiotfihttm  and  the 
Compoiifion  ttf  Acids,  Ktrmeiits  of  Miiuvdltiijy,  and  an  Es- 
satf  on  the  Analysis  of  Mineral  Wafers.  J),  at  Dublin  in 
1812. 

KisTaludyf  the  name  of  two  brothers  who  in  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  exercised  great  intluence  on  tho 
rising  Hungarian  literature.  Jhey  were  both  educated  at 
the  gymnasium  of  Raab.  entered  the  Austrian  army,  and 
made  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Germany,  but  retired  from 
tho  military  service  into  jirivatc  life  and  engaged  in  lit- 
erary pursuits.  The  elder,  S.\Nnon,  was  b.  at  Siimcg,  the 
family  estate,  Sept.  22,  1772,  and  d.  there  Oct.  28,  1811. 
His  poem  in  twenty  songs,  Him/y's  Love,  somewhat  senti- 
mental in  its  tone,  but  of  an  elegant  form,  excited  general 
enthusiasm:  his  ballads  also  made  a  great  impression:  his 
tragedies  were  Icps  successful.  The  younger  brother,  Ka- 
Roi.v,  was  b.  at  Tete  Feb.  fi,  1788.  and  d.  at  Pesth  Nov.  21, 
IB.'.O.  He  wrote  dramas,  took  his  subjects  from  national 
life,  treated  them  with  great  skill  for  theatrical  effect,  an<l 
became  the  favorite  of  his  countrymen  on  account  of  his 
sounil  and  pleasant  humor. 

Kishenev%  or  Ki?«hinof,  cajiital  of  tho  province  of 
Bessarabia,  on  the  Bnik.an  atliuent  of  tho  Dniester,  and  is 
]»icturesqucly  situated  on  three  bills,  between  which  tho 
ri\'er  winds  around,  crossed  by  several  bridges.  The  rail- 
way to  Odessa  has  been  in  operation  for  several  years,  and 
in  1S74  that  to  Jnssy  was  completetl;  thus  new  channels 
havo  been  opened  up  to  tho  trade  of  this  rapidly  growing 
city.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  civil  and  eceksiaslical  authori- 
ties of  Bessarabia,  and  has  about  20  ehurehes.  a  synagogue, 
several  nutgnilieent  Turkish  baths,  a  gymimsiuin,  a  semi- 
nary, gooil  schools,  and  several  theatres.  It  has  largo 
markets,  especially  for  caltle  anti  corn.  The  inhabitants 
arc  much  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  fruit  and  tobacco. 
Plums  are  exported  in  immense  quantities.  It  is  also  tho 
centre  of  a  very  considerabh-  trade  in  tallow,  wool,  wheat, 
hides,  etc..  carried  hence  (<»  Odessa  and  .lassy.  It  existed 
as  a  small  place  in  the  ninth  century,  wiis  nearly  destroyed 
in  the  seventeenth  bv  the  Tartars,  and  was  transferred  in 
1812  from  Moldavia  "to  Russia.     Pop.  120.000. 

At  ci  ST  Niemann. 

Kinli^oiif  a  small  river  of  Central  Palestine,  rises  near 
Mount  Tabor,  and  flows  N.W.  into  the  Mediterranean,  drain- 
ing tho  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  the  mountains  of  Carmel  and 
Sanuiria.  It  is  famous  in  biblical  hii^tory  as  anor<ling  tho 
Bcenes  of  the  defeat  of  Sisera  by  Deborah  and  Ihirak.  and 
of  (he  slaughter  <d'  the  priests  of  Haat  by  Elijah.  Some 
portion  of  the  Kishon  was  anciently  called  the  "  waters  of 
Sleciddo  :"   it  is  now  known  as  the  Xnfir->{  MnK-ntln. 

KiHkimin'itaN*  po^t-v.  and  tp.  of  Amifirong  co..  Pa., 
on  the  Kiskiminilas  River,  on  the  Western  division  of  tho 
Pennsylvania  Canal,  and  on  the  Western  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  (North-west  Station).     Pop.  1728. 


1566 


KIS-KOROS— KITTRELL'S  SPRINGS. 


Kis-Kdr6s%  town  of  llungarjr,  celebrated  for  its  fine 
red  wine.     Pop.  6413. 

Kiss  (Arr.rsT),  h.  nt  Pless,  in  Upper  Pilesia,  Oct.  11, 

1S02;  began  bis  education  in  tbe  royal  iron-foundries  at 
Gleiwitz;  pursued  bis  studies  at  the  academy  of  Btrlin, 
under  Ranch,  and  was  first  known  by  bas-reliefs  for  churches 
and  other  pubiio  buildings,  and  by  groups  of  nymphs,  tri- 
ton?,  and  similar  decorations  for  a  fuuntain  at  Charlotten- 
hof,  designed  by  Pchinkel.  The  pUifter  model  of  his  fa- 
mous group.  7'he  Atiiazon  and  the  l*nuthci\  was  exhibited  in 
is;;0.  and  created  such  enthusiasm  that  a  public  subscrip- 
tion was  opened,  even  on  Sundays  and  in  churches,  to  pay 
the  cost  of  casting  it  in  bronze.  In  1815  this  was  placed 
in  the  Museum  of  IJerlin.  The  same  artist  subsequently 
produced  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  the  Great 
for  the  city  of  Brcslnu,  two  statues,  one  colossal  in  size,  of 
Frederick  William  III.,  .SV.  Michael  and  the  Diafjnny  a  gift 
to  Frederick  William  IV.,  a  copy  of  which  in  zinc  is  at 
Carlsvuhe;  an  equestrian  statue  of  St.  Geonjej  of  colossal 
size,  which  was  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1855.  The 
work  of  Kiss  is  marked  by  grandeur  and  energy.  D.  Mar. 
2f,  1SG5.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Berlin.  0.  B.  Frothingham. 

Kis'singen,  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Saale,  has  three 
mineral  springs,  from  which  500,000  bottles  of  water  are  an- 
nually exported.  In  summer  the  place  is  much  frequented, 
as  the  water  is  not  only  drunk,  but  also  used  for  bathing. 

Kissingen,  The  Battle  of,  took  place  July  10.1866, 
between  the  Prussians  and  the  Bavarians.  The  latter  held 
the  Franconian  Saale  occupied  from  Waldaschach  to  Ham- 
melburg,  in  order  to  prevent  the  Prussian  army  from  cross- 
ing the  river.  Gen.  Vogel  von  Falckenstein,  the  Prussian 
commander-in-chief,  ordered  the  Goeben  division,  with  the 
Manteuffel  division  as  reserve,  to  advance  on  the  left  wing 
towards  Kissingen,  and  the  Beyer  division  on  the  right 
wing  towards  Hammelburg.  The  Bavarians  defended  the 
defiles  at  Kissingen  very  obstinately,  yet  after  a  contest  of 
two  and  a  half  hours  the  Prussian  artillery  succeeded  in 
silencing  the  Bavarian  cannons  at  Kissingen.  At  4  p.  m. 
the  town  was  stormed  by  the  Prussians,  and  an  attack 
which  the  Bavarians  made  with  a  fresh  force  at  7  p.  m.  was 
repellcil.  At  the  other  points.  Hammelburg  and  Walda- 
schach, the  Prussians  were  also  victorious,  and  crossed  the 
river.  Ai'gust  Niemann. 

Kist'nah,  or  Krishna,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Hin- 
dostan,  rises  in  the  Western  Ghauts,  about  -10  miles  from  the 
Malabar  coast,  flows  S.  E.  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
peninsula  of  Deccan  fur  800  miles,  and  enters  the  Bay  of 
Ben^jal  near  Masiilipatam.  Precious  stones  are  found  in 
some  portions  of  its  course. 

Kit  Car'son,  post-v,,  cap.  of  Greenwood  co.,  Col.,  on 
the  Kansas  Pacilic  R.  U.     Pop.  473. 

Kit'chel  (Haiivkv  Dknison),  D.  D.,  !>.  at  Whitehall. 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  ;i,  1812;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College.  Vt., 
1S35:  studied  theobigy  at  New  Haven;  held  Congrega- 
tional pastorates  at  Thomaston.  Conn.,  ls;:{y-4H;  at  De- 
troit, Mich.,  1818-04  ;  pastor  of  Plymouth  church,  Chicago, 
111..  1864-06;  became  president  of  Aliddlebury  College  1866, 
and  resigned  that  post  in  1875. 

Kitchen-ffardcn.  See  HouTicrLTunE  and  tho names 
of  the  principal  garden-vegetables. 

Kit'chen-mid'clcns  are  largo  mounds  consisting  of 
oyster-shells,  bones,  and  other  refuse.  They  are  found 
along  tho  coasts  of  Denmark,  anil  were  formed  in  pre-his- 
tori*  times  in  places  where  the  pagan  inhabitants  assembled 
to  celebrate  their  annual  religious  festivals.  Their  cha- 
racter was  not  fully  understood  until  tho  midiUe  of  this 
century,  but  their  thorough  exploratir)n  by  Worsaae  and 
Steenstrup  has  proved  of  great  interest  to  science,  as  they 
contain  numerous  specimens  of  weapons  antl  utensils,  and 
also  in  various  other  ways  give  illustrations  of  tho  life 
which  at  that  time  was  led  in  these  regions. 

Kite  [Welsh  cT/'/J,  a  toy  employed  for  ages  and  in 
many  countries  by  boys  as  a  plaything,  and  which  has  also 
had  its  scientific  uses.  Thus,  Franklin  and  others  have 
obtained  the  electric  spark  from  tho  clouds  l>y  this  danger- 
ous means.  In  engineering,  the  kite  has  been  employed 
to  carry  lines  across  deep  chasms,  and  in  removing  the  pas- 
sengers of  strancled  ships  the  kite  has  sometimes  been  suc- 
cessfully employed.  The  kite  is  a  light  frame  of  wood 
covered  with  strong  paper,  and  held  by  a  string  so  attached 
to  it  that  it  shall  bo  acted  upon  by  tho  wind  much  like  a 
ship's  sail  when  sailing  close  to  the  wind.  A  tail  is  usual- 
ly, but  not  always,  added,  which  gives  the  kite  steadiness 
in  sudden  flaws  of  winil.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  con- 
struct kites  in  the  form  of  owls,  bats,  dragons,  etc.  These 
have  no  tail,  but  fly  low,  and  well  before  the  wind. 

Kite,  tho  .IftVcrw  reffolfSf  a  common  bird  of  prey  in  Eu- 
rope, distinguished  by  the  beauty  and  ease  of  its  rapid 


flight  and  the  deep  forking  of  its  tail.  The  name  is  ox- 
tended  to  numerous  other  species  of  the  same  and  of  closely- 
allied  genera.  The  V.  S.  have,  among  others,  the  Missis- 
sippi kite  (Ictiiiin  MlHsisBippicnsis)  and  tho  black  kite 
{Jinsfrorhftmiis  sociabitis). 

Kit-Kat  (or  Kit-Cat)  Club,  a  society  consisting  of 
about  fifty  gentlemen  of  ability  and  rank  interested  in  pro- 
moting the  Protestant  succession  in  the  House  of  Hanover. 
It  was  instituted  in  170X.and  took  its  name  from  Christopher 
Kat.  a  pastry-cook  who  lived  near  the  tavern  where  they  met 
in  King  street,  Westminster,  and  supplied  the  members  with 
pics.  The  association  lasted  about  twenty  years.  Sir 
Godfrey  Kneller  painted  the  portraits  of  the  members,  4.'{ 
in  number,  among  whom  were  Addison,  Steele,  Walpole, 
Marlborough,  and  himself,  three-quarters  length,  whence 
the  term  "kit-kat  portraits."  The  memoirs  uf  the  club, 
illustrated  by  engravings  from  Knellers  pictures,  were 
published  in  1821.  0.  B.  Fkoti!INgham. 

Kit'sap,  county  of  Washington  Ter.,  consisting  of  a 
peninsula  between  Hood's  Canal  and  Paget  Sound,  with 
some  islands  in  the  sound.  It  is  heavily  timbered,  and  has 
good  advantages  for  commerce  and  the  fisheries.  Area, 
about  500  square  miles.  Lumbering  is  the  chief  pursuit. 
Cap.  Port  Madison.     Pop.  866. 

Kittan'nin^,  tp.  of  Armstrong  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1504. 

Kittanniiig,post-b.of  Valley  t  p.,  cap.  of  Armstrong  CO., 
Pa.,  on  the  Allegheny  River  and  Allegheny  Valley  R.  R.,  4  t 
miles  N.  of  Pittsburg  and  :^>5  miles  from  Parker  City.  It 
has  2  national  banks,  ."J  weekly  newspapers,  1  rolling-mill. 
1  woollen-mill,  several  oil-refineries,  and  various  other 
manufactories.  It  has  a  college  and  other  educational  insti- 
tutions.   Pop.  1889.      M.  B.  Oswald,  Ed.  "  Frek  Press." 

Kittatiu'uy^  or  Blue  Mountain^  a  chain  which 
takes  its  rise  near  ShawangunU.  I'lster  co.,  X.  Y..  passes 
S.  W'.  through  a  corner  of  New  .Jersey,  crosses  the  Dela- 
ware at  the  Water  Gap,  trends  W.  S.  W.  through  Pennsyl- 
vania, ci'osscs  the  Susquehanna  a  few  miles  above  Harris- 
burg,  and  the  Potomac  near  Berkeley  Springs,  and  con- 
tinues with  2;radually  lessening  altitude  through  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee  into  Alabama,  thus  having 
a  total  length  of  more  than  800  miles.  In  average  elevation 
and  bulk  the  Blue  Mountain  range  exceeds  the  iilue  Ridge, 
which  has  acquired  greater  prnniinence  on  maps  on  account 
of  its  greater  definiteness.  springing  from  a  narrow  base, 
and  the  greater  height  of  some  of  its  peaks.  The  average 
elevation  of  the  Blue  Mountain  is  from  800  to  2500  feet. 

Kit'tery,  post-tp.  of  York  co.,  Me.,  the  south-western- 
most tp.  in  the  State.  It  is  on  the  Piscataquis  Kiver,  op- 
posite Portsmouth.  N.  II..  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
ft  bridge,  and  is  on  the  Portsmouth,  Saeo  and  Portland 
H.  R..50  miles  S.  W.  of  Portland.  The  Portsmouth  navy- 
yard  is  on  Continental  Island  in  this  township.  Kittery 
has  5  churches.  It  was  settled  in  162:i,  and  was  the  birth- 
place of  Sir  AVilliam  Pepperell.  Kittery  Point  is  an  im- 
portant post-village  in  this  township.     Pop.  of  tp.  3333. 

Kit'tiwake,  a  popular  name  for  sea-gulls  of  the  genus 
litHSd.  Several  species  are  known.  They  are  rather  jiretty 
birds,  and  are  named  from  their  cry,  which  resembles  their 
name,  somewhat  slowly  pronounced. 

Kit'to  (Jons),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Plymouth,  Eng.,  Nov.  4, 
1804;  lived  for  years  in  great  poverty,  and  when  eleven 
years  old  totally  lost  his  hearing  in  consequence  of  an  ac- 
cidental injury  ;  was  sent  to  the  workhouse  and  learned 
the  shoemaker's  trade,  hut  devoted  all  his  time  to  books; 
published  in  iSL'j  K.'maf/s  and  !.ith  rs,  which  attracted  much 
attention  ;  learned  the  printer's  art  in  the  Islington  College; 
resided  at  Malta  1827-20,  and  at  Bagdad  :  travelled  exten- 
'  sively  in  the  East  1820-33;  published  the  Pi'eton'af  Bible 
(1S38),  Pictorial  IliHtonj  of  Pafcitiiic  (1830-40),  another 
Ifitttnnf  of  Palestine  (1843).  Tfic  Lost  .9cH«f«  (autobiograph- 
ical. 1845);  edited  and  largely  wrote  the  Ci/rloptfdift  of 
Biblical  Literature  (1845  ««•«/.);  founded  and  edited  the 
Journal  of  Saered  Literature  (1848-53).  and  nmny  other 
works. of  which  tho  mostpopular  was  Oai/if  liible  Hhmtra- 
^•oijj<i(8vol9.,  1849-53).  Kitio  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  Gicssen.     D.  at  Cnnnstadt,  Germany,  Nov.  25,  3854. 

Kit'tredcrc  (Thomas),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Andover.  Mass.,  in 
July.  1746.  lie  came  of  a  family  distinguished  for  the 
eminence  of  manv  of  its  members  in  the  medical  profes- 
sion. He  studied  "at  Byfield  Academy  under  Samuel  Moody 
(1725-95),  and  at  Newburyport  with  Dr.  Sawyer:  was  sur- 
geon of  Col.  Frve's  regiment  at  Bunker  Hill  :  received  his 
degree  from  Harvard  Vniversity  in  1811.  He  held  many 
important  public  trusts.  His  practice  at  Andover  began 
in  1768.     D.  at  Andover  in  Oct.,  1818. 

Kit'trell's,  post-tp.  of  Granville  co.,  N.  C,  on  the  Ra- 
leigh and  Gaston  U.  R.     Pop.  1820. 

KittrelPs  Springs,  a  place  of  valetudinary  resort  in 


KIU-SIU— KLAPROTII,  VON. 


1567 


Qranvillo  co.,  N.  C,  half  a  mile  from  Henderson,  on 
the  Raleigh  and  (tiiston  K.  R.  Here  are  saline  chalybeate 
water?,  useful  iu  a  cimsidenible  range  of  diseaiies. 

Kia'<*Siu%  Kioo-Sioo,  or  Xi'mo,  the  i^outhcrn- 
most  of  (ho  three  priueipul  islands  of  Japiin,  \s  situated 
in  the  Pacific,  between  lat.  31°  and  3t°  N.,  and  between 
Ion.  129°  and  \?>i°  E.,  antl  is  separated  front  Corea  by  the 
Strait  of  Torea,  and  from  the  island  of  Nij>hi)n  by  the 
Strait  of  Sikokf.  Nagasaki  is  situated  on  this  island; 
otherwise  it  i:*  entirely  unknown  to  foreigners. 

Kiu'i-Kiwi.     See  Apteuvx. 

Kiz'il-Ir'mak  [Turkish,  "red  river'*],  the  modern 
name  of  the  Haly:*,  the  principal  river  of  Asia  Minor,  ris- 
injf  nearly  in  the  K.  of  the  peninsula,  and  tlowing  circuit- 
ously  about  jOO  niilos  to  the  Black  Sea,  near  the  town  of 
Sinopo.  It  forms  the  boundary  between  the  Turkish  pasha- 
iics  of  Anatolia  and  Seovaa.  Its  principal  aflluent  ia  the 
Kara-Soo  or  Kastamoonoo  River,  the  Mc/ns  of  Strabo. 

Kizliar%  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Stavropol,  on  the  Terek.  Vines  are  cultivated,  and 
silkworms  reared  hero  with  great  care  and  considerable 
Bucces:?.     Pop.  11,000. 

Klad'no,  town  of  Bohemia,  1.1  miles  X.  AV.  of  Prague, 
has  some  iron-works  and  important  coal  and  iron  mines  ia 
the  neighborhood.     Pop.  jJUO. 

Kla'genfiirth,  town  of  Austria,  the  capital  of  Tarin- 
thia,  on  the  (llan.  It  is  fortified,  has  largo  nianulnctures 
of  white  lead,  an  important  transit-trade,  and  good  edu- 
cational institutions.     Pop.  l.'>,478. 

Klam'ath)  county  of  X.  W.  California.  Area,  about 
2000  square  miles.  It  is  boumled  on  the  W.  by  tho  Pacific 
O'-'f-vxn.  Its  surface  is  generally  rugged,  its  ciiniato  much 
cor>ler  than  that  of  tho  State  at  large.  Much  of  the  surfaco 
has  a  heavy  growth  of  redwood  and  other  timber.  Gold  is 
obtained  quite  extensively.  Cap.  Orleans.  Pop.  1080. 
The  county  is  now  (1S77)  abolished. 

Klamath,  tp.  of  Klamath  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  278. 

Klamath,  tp.  of  Siskiyou  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  R4. 

Klamath  Kivcr  rises  in  .Taekson  co..  Or.,  traverses 
the  Klamath  Lake,  passes  S.  AV.  into  California,  and  after 
Joining  tho  Trinity  River  in  Klamath  co.,  turns  N.  W., 
and  finally  enters  tho  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  a  rapid  stream, 
and  traverses  a  rocky  and  well-timbered  region;  itisnavi- 
galilc  for  small  steamers  some  30  miles. 

Klam'aths,  llamati,  or  Clamcts,  called  by  thcm- 
Belvejf  Lutliami,  a  tribe  of  Indians  living  near  the  lakes 
of  tho  same  nariie  and  on  the  Klamath  and  Koguo  rivers 
in  Southern  Orc^^on  an<l  Xorthcrn  California.  They  be- 
long to  the  tribal  group  called  Northern  Californian,  some- 
times termcil  the  Klamath  family,  which  occupies  portions 
of  tho  region  exicnding  from  Rogue  River,  Or.,  on  the  N. 
to  tho  parallel  of  10°  on  tho  S.,  an<l  from  the  \V.  bonnrlary 
of  Nevada  to  the  Pacific,  and  comprise-t.  busidt^s  tho  Klam- 
alhs  proper,  tho  Modocs,  Shastan,  Pitt  River  Indians,  Eu- 
roes,  CahrocH.  Iloopahs,  Woeyots,  Wallies.  Tolcwahs,  and 
Tototins  or  Rogue  River  Indians,  besides  several  small 
ban  Is  having  no  tlislinctivo  names.  Those  tribes  aro  in- 
cluded in  tho  ordinary  name  of  "Digger  Indians,"  given 
AS  a  term  of  contempt  to  all  the  aborigines  of  Northern 
nnd  Middle  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Southern  Ore- 
gon ;  but  the  Klamath  t^roup  of  tribes  is  unquestionably 
superior  to  tho  others  thus  i-otifouruli'd  with  them.  They 
are  tall,  muscular,  and  wi'll-made,  have  regular  features, 
tho  face  largo  and  oval,  and  tho  cheek-bones  slightly 
prominent;  tho  women  are  much  shorter  than  tho  men, 
out  are  not  unfrequently  quite  handsomo.  Tattooing  is 
practised  by  both  sexes  to  a  liniitetl  extent;  they  nro  fond 
of  nose  and  ear  rings,  and  paint  th'-ir  bodies.  They  build 
conical  and  sometimes  sfpiaro  houses  of  slono  and  wood, 
piirtly  sunken  in  the  ground  :  have  canoes,  anil  aro  expert 
ii.'^liers,  but  indilTerent  hunters,  being  fcmder  of  using 
snares  and  trap-*  than  weapons,  with  whi<rh  they  am  ill 
providc'l.  Bt'rries  and  roots  form  a  large  portion  of  their 
food.  The  women  aro  ingenious  in  b;isket-making  and 
plaiting  grass  into  hats,  hammocks,  an<l  mats.  They  aro 
fond  of  traflic,  usinj;  shell-money;  are  nut  addicted  to  war, 
hut  when  attacked  defend  themselves  desperately,  as  was 
instanced  in  tho  *' .Modoe  war"  of  1S7^.  Polygamy  is 
common,  and  morality  very  low,  wives  being  bought  and 
gold.  Tho  chiefs  havo  little  more  than  a  nominal  author- 
ity. Tho  passion  for  wealth  nnd  for  paniinj;  is  universal  ; 
Ihoy  are  superstitious,  and  their  relii;i<iri  is  a  degrading 
fotichism.  Flic  dead  are  sometimes  burned,  but  m(»re  com- 
monly buried.  In  IS.Sl  tho  Klamaths  proper  numhered  18 
Villatjes  and  about  .'!0(iO  Boids  :  they  have  sinep  rapidly  de- 
clined, partly  throuj^h  eonllicts  with  whites,  but  ehiofly 
thr'iuijh  tho  vices  contraetnl  lri»m  contact  with  "civiliza- 
tion."    By  a  treaty  made  in  IStU   they  ceded  to  the  V.  S. 


all  their  lands  except  a  reservation  on  the  Klamath  lakes 
of  1200  square  miles,  where  they  are  gradually  adapting 
themselves  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  es|)ecially 
devoting  themselves  to  lumbering.  In  1S7;J  they  num- 
bered only  672,  (For  copious  information  upon  the  Klani- 
athe  and  the  allied  tribes  sec  il.  II.  Bancroft's  Acttire  Hnccs 
of  the  Pacific  StutcH  (1874),  vol.  i.,  ch.  iv.,  where  all  the 
authorities  are  indicated.)  Porter  C.  Bi.iss. 

Klap'ka  ((Jyorav),  b.  at  TcmesviSr.  Hungary,  Apr.  7, 
1820;  was  educated  in  the  artillery  school  at  Vienna,  be- 
came an  oflicer  in  the  emperor's  life-guanls.  and  in  I.S47 
obtained  u  command  in  a  border  rcginu-nt.  AVheu  Hungary 
revolted  in  1S4S,  young  Klapka  immediately  espoused  the 
cause  of  his  insurgent  country,  and  was  made  chief  of  staff 
of  (ten.  Kis,  and  in  1849  commander  of  an  army  corps. 
He  led  bis  troops  with  talent  and  energy  in  the  battles  of 
Kapolna,  Komorn,  etc.,  nnd  was  made  minister  of  war  by 
Kossuth.  After  the  defeats  exiicrienced  by  the  Hungarians, 
Klapka  shut  himself  up  in  the  fortress  of  Komorn,  where 
he  heroically  repulsed  during  several  weeks  the  desperate 
attacks  led  by  the  famous  Austrian  general,  Haynan.  He 
surrendered  only  after  having  obtained  for  his  army  and 
himself  the  "  honors  of  war."  He  sjient  many  years  in 
exile  in  (iermany,  England,  France,  and  Turkey,  and  en- 
tering the  (tcrman  service  attempted,  Ihougli  unsuccessfully, 
to  raise  Hun^rary  against  Austria  in  iS.'j'.)  and  1800.  Klap- 
ka was  naturalized  as  a  Swiss  citizen,  and  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  tho  federal  council  in  18;j0,  In  1807,  on  the  reor- 
ganization of  (he  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  he  returned 
to  his  native  country,  and  was  employed  in  the  army.  In 
1873  he  was  in  the  military  service  of  1'urkey,  and  visited 
Kgypt  in  1S74.  He  wrote  Memoim  nf  thf  War  of  Jndrpen- 
f/ence  iu  Uttinjttrii  (1850),  The  Xafioiiftf  War  in  Hmufary 
and  TrauHt/h-ania  (1851),  and  a  work  on  'J'hc  War  in  the 
East  (18j0).  Fei.IX  AUCAIGNK. 

Klap'roth  (Maiitin'  nEiNRini).  b.  at  Wcmigerode.  Ger- 
many, Dee.  I,  17  lu;  was  employed  for  seven  years  in  an 
npothecary  shop  at  Quedlinburg,  and  afterwards  at  Han- 
over and  Berlin,  at  which  latter  ]>laees  he  made  a  methodi- 
cal study  of  chemistry,  and  puldished  numerous  analyse:; 
of  great  value,  whieh  obtained  Uiv  him  jirofrssorships  of 
chcnii.stry  at  the  Berlin  Pehool  of  Artillery  (1787)  and 
university  (17'^9).  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute,  of  tho  council  of  public  health,  and  of  many 
scientific  bodies.  Among  his  discoveries  were  the  metals 
zirconium,  titimiuni,  and  uranium,  thr*  8ul]ihate  of  stron- 
tium, and  the-  inolybdate  of  lead,  lie  dirl  nuieli  to  advance 
tho  classification  of  minerals  by  chemical  iinalysis;  was  an 
early  defender  and  popularizer  of  the  di.<eoveries  of  La- 
voisier. His  numerous  writings  were  chiefly  published  as 
papers  in  the  hcukuvhyifUn  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  the 
analyses  alone  constituting  five  v(»!umes  of  a  collecttd 
scries  published  from  17'.*.'i  to  IS  10.  Ho  also  edited  a 
Chemical  Dictimiart/  (5  vols.,  1^07-10)  and  a  Chemical 
Matnial.     D.  at  Berlin  Jan.  1,  1817. 

Klnproth,  von  fllEiNRini  Jiii.irs),  son  of  the  cele- 
brated elienii>t.  b.  at  Berlin,  Prussia,  Oct.  1 1,  17^:i ;  apjdied 
liimsell"  by  i-tcalth  when  ftuirleen  years  of  age  to  the  study 
of  Chinese,  and  manifested  such  wonderful  talent  Un  lan- 
guages that  he  was  allowed  tn  devote  liimself  to  philology 
instead  of  applied  eeience,  as  infendeil  by  his  father.  Ho 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Halle  and  Dresden,  and  find- 
ing in  the  I>re«den  library  a  fine  eolleeticui  (d'  Oriental  MSS.. 
be  establislie<I  in  ISOL*  (he  AHi(itiMchrn  Mtifjaziu,  printed  at 
AVeimar,  for  making  known  the  results  of  his  researches. 
These  nehievements  of  a  boy  of  nineteen  years  naturally 
attracted  nttenlion  in  Oermnny  nnd  Russia,  and  in  Istll 
tho  government  of  the  latter  country  appointed  Khiproth 
interpreter  to  an  einba;;sy  already  on  iln  way  to  China, 
Ho  set  out  alone,  overtook  the  embassy  in  Siberia,  and  ac- 
companied it  into  Mongolia  (.Inn.,  1800),  but  tho  refusal 
of  the  Chinese  government  to  receive  a  Russian  envoy  pro- 
vented  his  penetruting  into  China  proper.  Returning  to 
Furope  by  a  difTi-reiit  route,  be  aequired  a  knowledge  of 
tho  gi-ography  of  Central  Ania.auil  of  the  langunses  of  tho 
inhabitants,  whii^h  he  turned  to  good  account.  In  1807  he 
was  sent  to  explore  the  Caueiisus,  and  spent  a  year  in  I  hut 
region,  after  which  he  was  appoinled  professoi-  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  W'ilna.  He  wa^  made  a  member  of  fbe  I{ussian 
Academy,  liad  a  pension  ami  other  honors  equivalent  to  a 
grant  of  nobility,  but  diflieulties  thrown  in  the  way  of  tlio 
publication  of  hif  researches  Iccl  tn  a  rupture, and  when  bo 
left  Russia  in  IS12  his  titles  and  honors  were  revoked.  Ho 
then  |»ulilished  at  Halle  his  Triiv^h  in  CanraMnn  ami  (t'cor- 
l/tn  (isl2-Ml.  at  W'eimnr  his  iirinjraphirn.Ilintorival  Jh- 
Mrriptinn  /;/*  Eantcru  CaHcniatn  (IS14),  and  at  Berlin  his 
Ifmrriplion  nf  the  llnnnian  /*roviticrM  hrtirren  the  (\i»pian 
am/  lilavh  Sean  (  1 8 1 -( ).  He  cnneeived  a  great  admiration 
for  Niipideon  precisely  at  the  time  when  tho  fortunes  of 
that  monarch  were  most  rapidly  declining;  visited  him  at 


1568 


KLATTAU-KLOPSTOCK. 


the  island  of  Elba,  and  was  received  with  honor.  On  the 
final  establishment  of  the  Bourbons  in  France,  Klaproth 
settled  in  Paris,  obtaining  through  the  inlluonce  ol  Hum- 
boldt a  u..ininal  professorship  at  Berlin  wilh  a  handsome 
salary  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the  French 
capital,  engaged  in  the  production  of  a  scries  of  works 
upon  Asia,  especially  Central  Asia  and  China.  Among 
these  were  /«.V,  /•„///;/'""«  (l.S2:V2'J),  with  a  linguistic  at- 
las •  T.,hlc,w^  hhlvrhinrs  ,le  VAsie  (1824),  treatises  on  the 
Chinese,  Corean,  Mantchoo,  andother  Asiatic  languages,  ana 

verv  numerous  papers  in  the  transactions  of  learned  socie- 
ties. He  left  in  MS.  a  geographical  and  historical  work 
on  the  Chinese  empire,  and  a  Xtw  .Milhr,<ltili-s.»rSi/ele- 
nmllc  CtasH'ficilloH  of  AU  Known  L,,,,,,,;,,,,:-  >c,lh  U,.»b- 
«;„,■.<•».  The  geographical  labors  of  Klaproth  in  Central 
,  Asia  have  been  characterized  as  fraudulenton  a  colossal  scale 
by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  (1872).  1).  at  Pans  Aug.  20,  lb..3. 
'^'Klat'taii,  town  of  Bohemia.  68  miles  X.  W.  of  Prague. 
It  has  considerable  nianufaetuies  of  leather.     Pop.  73hL. 


Klail'scnburg  [Hun.  AV,?o«.v1r],  the  capital  of  Tran- 
sylvania, formerly  a  separate  principality  nf  the  Austrian 
empire,  now  unit'ed  to  Hungary,  situated  225  miles  S.  E. 
of  Pcsth  Pop.  2ii,SS2.  It  has  a  university  established  in 
187"  a  Unitarian  college,  a  fortified  castle,  manufactories 
of  porcelain,  and  a  considerable  trade.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  Magyars. 

lil^bcr  (.Teas  Baptiste),  b.  at  Straaljoiitg.  in  1755. 
Son  of  a  stonemason,  he  was  one  of  the  truest  and  best 
representatives  of  that  generation  of  Frenchmen  who 
started  from  the  then  so-called  low  ranks  of  society,  and 
demonstrated,  through  their  splendid  actions  and  noble 
conduct,  the  necessity  of  the  coming  of  the  Revolution, 
which  erased  for  ever  discrimination  between  classes.  Kle- 
ber's  military  and  warlike  character  caused  him  to  give  up 
his  first  calling  as  an  architect,  and  to  enlist  in  the  military 
service  of  Austria.  He  was  soon  tired  of  that  mercenary 
work,  and  returned  to  France,  where  he  was  inspector  of 
buildings  at  Belfurt,  when  in  1792  he  volunteered  to  serve 
as  a  private  in  the  republican  armies  of  France,  where  he 
rapidly  rose  to  the  highest  rank.  After  the  glorious  siege 
of  Mayencc.  Kleber  was  sent  to  fight  against  the  royalists 
of  Vendije,  then  to  the  armies  of  Sambre-et-JMenso  and  of 
the  Rhine,  with  which  ho  crossed  the  Rhine  and  won  the 
two  battles  of  Allenkirchcn  and  Fricilberg  in  179 J.  As  he 
was  0  strong  reiiublican,  the  Directory  did  not  want  to  em- 
ploy him  :  but  Napoleon  gave  him  a  command  in  the  ex- 
pedition to  Egypt,  and  left  him  there  as  gcneral-in-ehief. 
After  the  departure  of  Napoleon,  Klf-ber  vanquished  the 
Turks  at  Heliopolis;  ISOtl  again  subdue.l  Egypt,  which 
had  revolted,  and  was  murdered  at  Cairo,  June,  ISOO,  by  a 
fanatical  Moslem.  In  .Strasbourg  there  is  a  square  called 
"  Place  Kieber,"  adorned  with  a  statue  of  the  great  Stras- 
bourgcois  republican  general.  Felix  Aucaigse. 

lirccne'-Boc  [Dutch  for  "little  buck"],  the  Ceplinlo- 
«„«  ,,i/./mir<i,one  of  the  smallest  of  the  antelope  group,  an 
active'  little  animal  of  South  Africa.  It  is  one  foot  high  at 
the  shoulders,  and  is  of  a  dark  slate-color. 

Klein  (Joiians  Aram),  b.  in  Nuremberg  Mar.  24, 1792; 
d.  .May,  1875.  He  studied  at  the  art  academy  in  Vienna, 
ami  after  travelling  in  Hungary,  returned  and  began  work 
in  his  native  city  in  ISl  J  :  in  1819  was  sent  by  King  I.ouis 
of  Bavaria  to  Italy  ;  was  there  two  years,  and  afterwards 
made  Nuremberg  his  home.  Klein  was  chiefly  famous  as 
a  painter  of  baltlepieccs,  but  excelled  also  in  portraiture. 
He  was,  besides,  an  engraver  of  ability,  and  reproduced 
many  of  his  own  and  other  artists'  works. 

lilc-ist,  von  (Heinhich),  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Odcr 
Oct.  10.  1771).  He  never  succeeded  in  giving  his  life  a 
fixed  and  practical  aim.  The  military  service  he  left  in 
order  to  study  philosophy  and  mathematics,  and  these 
studies  he  lett'in  order  to  accept  a  position  in  the  I'russian 
civil  service.  This  he  gave  np  in  ISOC,  and  determined  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  literature,  but  more  than 
once  he  abandoned  literature  too  with  disgust.  The  result 
of  a  life  thus  scattered  was  despair,  and  the  state  of  degra- 
dation in  which  Napoleon  kept  Germany,  and  the  personal 
disappointments  and  calamities  which  befel  Kleist  troin 
this  source,  added  to  his  misery.  It  was  of  no  use  that 
moments  of  the  most  sublime  enthusiasm  alternated  with 
his  despair.  He  grew  tired  of  life,  and  Nov.  21,  ISU.  he 
«l»at  hiuiself  at  Waiisce,  near  Potsdam,  having  shot  first  his 
frienXaccofding  to  a  givcti  promise,  Henriette  Vogel,  the 
wife  of  a  rich  merchant,  a  spirited  and  highly  gifted  woman, 
but  sick  in  mind  like  her  lover.  In  1S26,  Ticek  published 
a  collected  edition  of  his  works  in  .•!  vols.  His  dramas.  Vie 
Famille  S<-hn<ffriiHl<-:u  (180;i),  Amphilriiwi  (1S07),  Her  zfr- 
brochcne  Kruij  (ISll),  Kiitchen  roll  Htilhroim  (1810),  Die 
llermanntiichlnchi,  and  Der  I'rinz  \;>ii  Homhurtj,  belong  now 
to  the  standard  pieces  of  every  stage  in  Germany  ;  and  his 


novels,  among  which  Muhnel  Kohlkuaa  occupies  the  first 
place,  have  taken  rank  beside  Goethe's  and  above  Ticck's. 
It  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  Kleist  was  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  original  poetical  geniuses  which  the 
German  people  has  produced.  Other  poets  have  depicted 
greater  characters,  but  in  the  life  and  fulness  of  the  de- 
lineation none  has  ever  surpassed  him,  and  the  sickliness 
of  his  s])irit  is  not  so  very  conspicuous  in  his  works.  After 
his  death  he  became  the  idol  of  the  romantic  school,  not 
exactly  on  account  of  the  diseased  state  of  his  mind,  but 
on  account  of  his  absolute  contempt  for  real  life. 

Ci.EMEXS  PeTEHSES. 

Klemm  (FniEnnicn  Gistav),  b.  at  Chemnitz  Nov.  12, 
1802  :  studied  history  in  I.eipsic,  Jena,  and  Dresden  ;  held 
difl'crent  positions  at  the  library  of  Dresden  1S"1-C3,  and 
d.  Aug.  2.i.  18fi7.  His  principal  writings  arc  Allr/emeine 
CnllurgrKchichle  dvr  Mclschheit  (10  vols.,  1843-52),  Allje- 
meine  Cnlliinoiaaemchaft  (2  Tols.,  1854),  and  .Die  Fraiien  (6 
vols.,  1854-58). 

Klen'zc,  von  (Leo),  b.  at  Hildesheim  Feb.  29,  1784; 
studied  at  Brunswick,  Berlin,  and  Paris;  travelled  through 
Italy,  and  settled  in  1S15  at  Jliinich,  where  ho  became 
architect  to  the  court.  He  built  the  whole  nioilern  Mii- 
nich— the  WaUialla,  Pinakothek.  Glyptothek,  Odeon,  Mu- 
seum, roval  palace,  post-office,  etc.,  and  a  great  number 
of  private  palaces  and  houses.  Also  in  St.  Petersburg, 
whither  he  was  invited  in  1S39.  he  built  a  great  number  of 
buildings,  all  of  which  are  distinguished  by  something 
magniUeent  and  picturesque;  but  there  is  nothing  original 
in  them.  Of  his  writings,  Aphnrtstinche  Bemerkuugen 
(1838)  is  an  interesting  book.     D.  Jan.  27,  1864. 

Kleptomania.  See  Issaxitv,  by  AV.  A.  Hammond, 
M.  I). 

Klias'ma,  a  river  of  Russia,  rises  in  the  government 
of  Moscow,  flows  through  those  of  Vladilneer  and  Nizhnee- 
Novgorod.  and  joins  the  Oka  after  a  course  of  327  miles. 
It  is  navigable  for  about  150  miles,  and.  as  it  runs  through 
the  most  llensely  peopled  and  industrially  developed  dis- 
tricts of  the  country,  is  of  great  conimereial  consequence. 

Klike'tats,  a  tribe  of  Indians  living  in  'Washington 
Territory,  in  the  region  N.  of  the  Dalles,  between  the  Cas- 
cade Range  and  the  Columbia  River.  They  belong  to  the 
Sahaptin  family  of  the  Columbian  group,  and  arc  there- 
fore akin  to  the  Nez  Perces  and  Walla  Wallas,  while  they 
seem  to  be  almost  identical  with  the  Yakimas,  from  whom, 
apparently,  thev  are  distinguished  only  by  geographical  lo- 
cation. They  were  formerly  quite  migr,atoryin  theirhabits 
of  life,  but  their  most  permanent  aboile  was  in  the  valleys 
between  Mounts  St.  Helen  and  Adams.  W.  and  S.  of  the 
Yakimas.  The  name  KlikeUtt  means  "  robber,"  and  was 
gained  by  their  encroachments  upon  neighboring  tribes, 
they  having  for  many  years  overrun  the  Willamette  Valley, 
until  in  1855  they  were  curbed  by  forces  of  the  V.  S.  army. 
They  have  since  been  consolidated  with  the  Y'akimas,  and 
placed  np<m  the  reservation  near  Fort  Simcoe,  E.  of  the 
Coast  Range,  where  they  have  made  considerable  progress 
in  civilization.  They  arc  divided  into  five  bands,  and 
number  about  2000.  (See  Bancroft's  Xatiie  Ituat  uf  the 
Pacijic  Slntr«,  vol.  i.) 

Kliki'tat,  county  in  S.  Washington  Territory.  Area, 
about  5000  square  miles.  It  lies  E.  of  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, and  is  bounded  on  the  E.  and  S.  by  the  Columbia 
River.  It  is  generally  a  good  open  grazing  country.  It 
includes  the  Klikitat  Prairie.  Cap.  Rockland.  Pop.  329. 
Kling'er,  von  (KmEnnirn  Maximilian),  b.  at  Frank- 
fort in  1753,  anil  educated  at  the  I'niversity  of  Gicsscn; 
wrote  dramas  for  the  Sevier  band  of  stridling  actors;  took 
part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Bavarian  war  of  succession  ;  went 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1780  ;  rose  there  to  the  highest  positions 
in  the  military  administration:  beennie  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  isll.and  d.  Feb.  25,  1S3I.  In  1775  ho  wrote  a 
tragedy,  Smrm  iiml  Dranr,,  a  horribly  affected  imitation  of 
Shakspeare,  from  which  the  whole  period  of  fermentation 
preceding  the  ajipearance  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  received 
its  name.  But,  with  the  exception  of  this  one  fact,  all 
Klinger's  tragedies,  comedies,  and  novels  arc  entirely  des- 
titute of  interest. 

Klipp'springcr  [Dutch],  the  Orcotrugvn  tallalrii,  a 
beautiful  and  graceful  South  African  mountain  antelope, 
resembling  in  its  habits  the  chamois.  It  is  an  extremely 
agile  and 'swift  little  creature,  less  than  two  feet  in  height, 
"kIop'sIocU  (FiUEnnirii  Oottlieb),  b.  in  Quedlinburg, 
Prussian  Saxonv,  July  2,  1724.  He  studied  theology  first 
in  Jena,  where  he  1 1 745 )  wrote  the  first  song  of  his  great  epio 
poem.  Mcntinh;  then  in  Leipsic.  where  he  (1748)  publish- 
ed the  first  three  songs  of  that  poem  in  Ilremitche  Jleiliuye. 
Thev  niaile  a  deep  impression.  Every  young  man  became 
at  oiiee  his  admirer  and  his  disciple.  But,  although  he  had 
touched  the  very  heart  of  his  nation,  he  found  no  support 


KNAI'l'-KXIAZNIX. 


1569 


and  little  encouragenieDt  at  home.  All  litenituro  in  Ger- 
luuny  was  at  that  time  more  or  less  a  court  affair,  and  every 
court  was  a  |)etty  copy  of  Versailles.  Frederick  the  (Jreat 
considered  tbe  attempt  of  forming  a  genuine  (ic-rman  litera- 
ture as  foolishness,  and  even  the  emperor  Josepli,  to  whom 
Klopstock  dedicated  his  great  drama,  flvrmnuni)  Svhhivht, 
could  not  bo  brought  to  take  any  notice  of  him.  He  was 
supported  by  foreigners.  The  Dani.«h  king  gave  liim  a 
pension — i<niall  enough — an<i  on  this  he  lived  ]>artly  in 
Copenhasen,  ]iartly  in  Hamburg,  where  he  d.  Mar.  14, 
ISO^.  Even  when  a  boy  he  entertained  the  idea  nf  writing 
a  great  epic  poem,  antl  he  certainly  succeeded  tn  realizing 
this  idea,  though,  iinf<<rtunateiy.  his  poem  bears  striking, 
even  painful,  marks  of  being  the  result  of  great  exertions, 
as  tnueh  as  the  product  of  great  powers.  Klupstock  be- 
comes often  forced  when  he  wishes  to  be  strong.  nn<J  obscure 
when  he  tries  to  be  deep.  His  0'^•*  are  generally  hard  to 
understand,  and  not  always  worth  unrlcrstanding.  It  is 
impossible,  therefore,  to  explain  the  impression  ho  made 
and  the  inlluence  he  exercised  from  the  artistic  value  of 
his  works:  they  depended  on  the  peculiar  position  he  oc- 
cupied in  the  history  of  ficrman  literature.  He  is  the 
father  of  modern  German  poetry,  not  because  he  created 
it,  but  because  he  made  it  possible — not  on  account  of  his 
genius,  but  on  account  of  his  standpoint.  Fn  a  moment 
when  the  German  nation  had  given  up  its  confidence 
in  itself,  and  looked  to  France  not  only  for  its  literary 
forms,  but  for  its  liter.-iry  impulses,  Khtpstock  steppeil  forth 
and  emphasized  German  character,  as  revealed  in  Gcrninn 
history  and  German  Protestantism,  with  such  a  strength 
that  it  echoed  through  two  or  three  generations,  and  became 
a  rallying-point  for  all  national  aspirations  and  .sympa- 
thies. Cl.KSfrSS  PRTKItSKV. 

Knapp  (Ai.BKnT),  b.  at  Tiibingen,  AVIirtcmberg.  July 
S."),  171IS:  studied  theology:  held  different  positions  in  the 
Protestant  Church,  and  was  appointed  pastor  in  18r.fi  at 
Stultg.irt.  where  he  d.  June  IH,  ISfil.  His  nniHtfirhen 
Geilirhir  (2  vols..  1S21))  iinil  Xrnrni  Orf/t'rfitr  {  1  S.'M  )  contain 
some  of  tbe  most  beautiful  hymns  prorluccd  in  our  time. 

Knapp  (CiiArscKY  L.),  b.  in  Berlin.  Vt.,  Feb.  2fi,  1809  ; 
learned  the  printing-trade  at  .Montpelier;  was  for  some 
years  editor  of  the  Vermont  Stnte  Journal ;  secretary  of 
state  from  1S:16  to  1840;  removed  to  Massachusetts,  and 
was  secretary  of  the  senate  in  ISjl.  and  wa.*5  a  member  of 
Congress  from  185j  to  I8j9.  He  had  nominated  Gen.  Har- 
rison for  the  Presidency  in  IS.'Xi,  obtaining  for  him  the 
electoral  vote  of  Vermont,  four  years  before  the  campaign 
in  which  that  President  was  elected. 

Knapp  (Hkom ann\  M.  T>.,  b.  in  Germany  in  18.t2  :  was 
professor  of  ophthalmology  iti  the  Tniversityof  IIei<lelberg 
from  iH(U  to  IMfi.S.  In  the  latter  year  he  removed  to  New 
York,  where  ho  opened  the  New  York  Ophthalmio  and 
Aural  Institute,  and  founded  the  ArrhirvK  <«/"  Ophthnimolofjif 
find  Otofntff/,  published  both  in  (lerman  and  English.  He 
is  the  author  of  fntraont/'tr  Tnimnx  and  various  papers  in 
different  ophthalmolf)gieal  periodicals. 

Knapp  (JAroH).  b.  at  Otego,  Otsego  CO.,  X.  v.,  Dec.  7, 
1709 ;  was  educalcrl  as  an  Episcopalian,  but  about  his 
twenty-first  year  joineil  the  Itiiptist  Church  :  studied  at 
Madison  University  in  Hamilton,  and  taught  school  at 
Springfield,  tvhcre  he  cnlerecl  tbe  ministry  in  1822.  Tn 
I.S;iO  he  remiived  to  Wiiterlown.  taking  an  activo  and  very 
successful  part  in  a  revival  there,  after  which  he  entered 
upon  the  wider  field  of  itinerant  preaching.  His  labors 
now  dircftrd  him  to  all  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of 
the  N'cw  England  and  Midillc  Statey.  ihcnee  westward  to 
Chi'-iigo  and  St.  liouif.  and  tinnlly  to  CiiliOiriiia,  every- 
where bybis  earnest  entliusiasm  and  practical  preachipg 
winning  mullitutles  of  converts.  He  published  his  Autn. 
hinfjrnphif  a  few  years  before  his  death  on  Mar.  2.  1874,  in 
whifh,  among  the  slatisties  of  his  bib-irs.  it  is  stated  that 
about  a  dozen  years  after  he  begun  iiidepcnrb-nt  preiiching 
the  number  of  converts  had  reached  100,000,  and  he  there- 
after refrained  from  counting  them. 

Knapp  (Samiei,  LonKxzol.  I-Ii.D..  h.  at  Newhurypnrt, 
Mass.,  Jan.  10,  178ri ;  graduated  at  Harlmouth  in  1804: 
became  alawyer:  commanded  a  militia  regiment  as  colonel 
in  the  war  of  1812-11  ;  from  1821  to  1828  edited  .inurnals  in 
Hn^'on,  Mass. — the  timrttr,  the  Xiidfniftl  Rrpufifimu.  ancl 
others.  In  1827  be  entered  upon  the  practice  of  hiw  in 
New  York.  Col.  Knapp  was  the  author  of  many  works, 
chiefly  biographical,  among  whidi  are  TmrrU  in  North 
Amrn'cft  f>,i  Afi  /^//(1818).  /iiorj.  Skftrbr» of  Eminent  Inir- 
yrfi,  St'ttt>imrn,  and  Mm  of  Lrtfri  f  1821  ),  Orniun  t,f  Fret- 
mnttonrt/  (1828),  Sl-rtrhrit  nf  l*nhfir  fVinrnrtrrt  (18:^0).  Av). 
/?mf/ra;)/M/(18n3).  Amc« of  HcWit t  Clinton  (1828).  of  Daniel 
AVcbster  (18.35),  Aaron  Uurr  (rs:].')).  anrl  a  revision  of  J.  H. 
Hinton's  Ifinlon/  of  the  Vnitrd  Statm  (1834).  D.  at  Hop- 
kinton.  Mass.,  .Tuly  8,  18.18. 

Knap'sack  [Dan.  knapxak,  from  knappen,  to  "eat"], 
Vol..  II.— 99 


a  case,  wallet,  or  scrip  of  leather  or  painted  canvas  carried 
upon  the  shoulders.  The  knapsack  is  chiefly  employed  by 
ioot-soldiers  for  carrying  their  personal  efl'ects. 

Knarcs'boroughy  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
York,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nidd.  It  has  some  manufac- 
tures of  linen  and  cotton  goods,  and  some  interesting  ruins. 
Pop.  o20j. 

Knaus  (LtTi>wic),  b.  at  Wiesbaden  Oct.  5.  1829.  His 
father  was  an  optician.  He  received  instruction  from 
Jacobi,  the  painter  of  the  grand  duke,  and  was  sent,  pen- 
sioned by  the  state,  to  Diisscidorf.  There  Sohn  and  Sha- 
dow were  bis  teachers,  but  he  .struck  out  an  originnl  path 
for  himself  in  the  portrayal  of  scenes  in  peasant-life.  In 
185;{  he  went  to  Paris,  and  remained  eight  years  ;  returned 
to  Germany;  sojourned  a  while  at  Berlin,  and  finally  (1  HOG) 
took  up  his  residence  in  DUsseldorf.  M.  Knaus  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Anisterdum.and  has  received  a  gold 
medal  at  Berlin.  Other  medals  were  bestowed  on  him  in 
I86:i,  1S5j,  1867.  18;»0,  and  a  medal  of  honor  in  18C7  ;  the 
same  year  he  was  created  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  The  pictures  of  Knaus  represent  scenes  in  Ger- 
man rustic  life,  and  are  rich  in  humor.  Good  examples 
may  be  seen  in  private  collections  of  New  Y'ork. 

Knpe'land  f  AB\ER).b.  in  1774  ;  was  fcr  a  time  a  Bap- 
tist minister,  then  a  I'niversalist,  and  finally  a  <lti?i.  lie 
was  ( 1  S2I-2M J  editor  of  a  I'niversalist  periodical  in  Phila- 
delphia; in  1828  editor  of  the  OUvefimnch,  N.  Y. ;  in  181^2 
founded  the  Jnre/ttitfator  at  Boston.  Mass..  and  in  ISIifi  was 
tried  before  the  supreme  court  at  Bostini  on  a  charge  of 
l)laspiieniy.  T).  at  Sa'ubria.  Ind..  Aug.  27,  1814.  He  pub- 
lished The  lJri>it  flH22).  LeriureM  on  Ciirrrmf  Snhation 
(1824),  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  (182;n,  a  /U- 
view  of  the  Evidences  of  Christian  if  t/  (1829),  and  other 
works. 

Kneeland  (Samtel),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Boston.  Mass..  Aug.  1, 
1821  :  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1840. and  at  (he  Ma?Pnehn-  " 
setts  Medical  School  in  I84.'i:  studied  in  Paris,  and  practised 
medicine  in  Boston  1845-50.  He  is  an  active  member  of 
many  learned  societies:  served  as  an  army  surgeon  in  the 
late  war.  In  1800  he  became  secretary  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology,  and  professor  of  zoology  and 
physiology  there.  Prof.  Kneeland  has  contributed  much 
to  scientific  and  other  literature,  and  edited  (I8ni>-l)9)  the 

Aniiufif  iff  Scientific  Discovery. 

KneriorfSir  GonrREv),  b.  at  Liibeck  in  1040  :  was  sent 
by  his  fat  her  (who  intended  lluil  he  should  pursue  the  military 

yrofession  )  to  London  toptucly  m  at  hem  n  tics  and  fort  ili  cat  ion. 
laving  more  taste  for  painting,  he  went  to  .Amsterdam, 
and  studied,  so  tradition  says,  with  Ilenibrandt  and  Ferdi- 
nand Bol ;  at  the  age  of  seventeen  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
I  a  pupil  of  Maratti   and  Bernini :  in  Venice  gained  a  repu- 
I  tation  by  painting  the  portraits  nf  eminent  jiersons,  espo- 
I  cially  of  Cardinal  Bassadonna.      His  fame  was  earned  in 
I  London,  whither  he  repaired  in  1674.     The  duke  of  Mon- 
I  mouth,  being  attracte<l  by  a  portrait  of  his  secretary  whitdi 
I   Knelter  had  painted,  sat  for  his  own.  and   persuader!  the 
I  king.  Charles  II.,  to  sit  also.     The  picture  was  successful, 
I  partly,  it  would  seem,  because  it  was  executrd  with  rapidity 
j  and  boldness,  and  the  artist's  fortune  was  made.     He  had 
I  as  much  as  he  could  do,  and  at  his  own  prices.     Tlie  nuni- 
I  ber  of  his  portraits  is  as  nstnnifihing  ns  llie  quality  of  his 
subjects.     He  painted  the  likenesses  of   ten  Fo\ereigns — 
Charles    IT.,   James    II..  William    III..    George   I.,    Louis 
j   XIV.,  peter    the   Great.    ChnrUs   V.,  and    queens    Maria, 
Mary,  and    Anne.     William   employed    him    to    paint    the 
;  beauties  of  }lamj>tnn   Ciuirt.  conferrrel  on   him  the  honor 
j  of  knighthood,  and  presented  him  with   a  goM  nn-diil  and 
I  chain.     George    I.  created    him   a   baronet.     Kneller  d.  in 
I   172",  and  had  a  monument  ereclctl  to  him  in  M'estminster 
1  Abbey;  he  was  buried  at  Whitton.     The  monument  was 
erected  at  hi::  own  e>:penFc,  after  designs  by  n  sculptor  of 
his  own  selection.     Kneller  wa-*  vain,  and  greedy  of  money 
and  distinction,  and  is  thought  (o  have  done  less  than  jus- 
tice to  his  roil  talents.    He  was  a  coarse  man,  ami  did  course 
work  ;    but   ho  had  knowledge,  judgment,  and  taste,  and 
when  he  exerletl  himself,  as  in  those  of  his  pictures  in  the 
Gallery  of  the  Admirals,  in  which  he  shared  the  honor  with 
Lcly.   showed    that    he  was   a  nnin   of  ability.      After  the 
death  of  Sir  Peter  Lcly  he  stood  a(  the  head  of  hi.'-  profrs 
fion  in  England.      But  be  owed  his  fame  to  the  qtialily  of 
his  patrons  rather  than   to  the  quality  of  his  art.     In  a 
belter  auc  he  micht  have  done  heltcr  work.     Th*^  portraits 
of  the  Kit  Kat  Club  are  among  the  best  of  Kneller  s  pieces. 
To   bim   we   owe   the  nre«ervation  of  Rafaellc's  cartoons. 
Kneller  was  married,  but   left  no  heirs  to  enjoy  the  largo 
fortune  that  he  accumulated.     He  was  a  wit,  highly  appre- 
ciated  by  men    like   Dryden.  Addison,   Prior,  and    Piccle, 
and  the  members  of  the   Kit-Kat  Club,  (o  which  he  be- 
lone  d.  0.  B.  FnorniNfinAM. 

Kniaz'nin   (Franciszck   Dyonizv),  b.   Oct.  A,  17:^0; 


1570 


KNIGHT. 


educated  at  Vitebsk,  in  the  school  of  the  Jesuits,  which 
order  he  entered.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  order  in 
1773  ho  became  secretary  to  Prince  Adam  Ozartoryski,  but 
ft'U  about  179(5  into  a  mental  derangement  from  which  he 
never  recovered.  D.  Aug.  25.  1807,  at  Konskawola,  one  of 
the  estates  of  the  jirince.  He  translated  Horace.  Anac- 
rcon.  (^atullus,  Ossian.  and  others,  and  among  his  own 
poetical  jiroiluctions  there  are  many  idyls  and  minor  poems 
of  a  delicate  beauty,  both  in  sentiment  and  form. 

Knight  [from  Teut.  Knecht,  defined  by  Grimm  ns  puer, 
f'imuhiH,  Bcrvus,  "attendant  or  servant"].  The  word  cor- 
responding to  our  "  knight"  is  in  most  languages  derived 
from  the  horse,  as,  for  instance,  the  French  chevalier,  the 
Danish  lii'tf'h'r,  etc.  In  nearly  all  nations  which  have  at- 
tained any  martial  renown  there  has  been  set  apart  a  body 
of  combatants  known  by  a  distinguishing  title  and  perform- 
ing certain  honorable  service.  Such  were  those  Grecian 
warriors  whom  historians  call  knights,  and  such  also  the 
cquitesof  Rome.  (See  Egt'ESTiiiAN  Okder.)  But  knight- 
hood, as  associated  with  chivalry,  is  of  Northern  origin. 
A  certain  value  of  land,  called  in  England  a  "knight's 
fee."  and  in  Normandy  "  fief  de  haubert,"  was  allotted  to  a 
tenant,  \vho  in  return  bound  himself  to  follow  his  lord  to 
battle.  Thus,  in  its  earlier  days  knighthood  was  but  a  part 
of  the  feudal  system,  and  could  boast  little  of  that  nobleness 
which  afterwards  distinguished  it.  Its  real  histcry  begins 
with  the  Crusades.  During  these  wars  it  assumed  a  vohin- 
tary  character.  The  younger  sons  of  noble  families  enlisted 
undor  the  banners  of  wealthy  lords,  in  whose  service  they 
might  hope  to  gain  such  honor,  and  even  riches,  as  would 
raise  them  to  an  ciiuality  with  their  elder  brothers.  Barons 
were  glad  to  take  these  adventurers  into  their  pay,  and  it 
was  not  long  before  knighthood  won  by  voluntary  service 
became  more  esteemed  than  that  feudal  sort  which  was  the 
right  of  the  eldest  horn  ;  so  that  in  time  rich  landowners 
grew  ashamed  of  a  title  which  they  had  not  earned,  and 
refused  the  honor  until  they  had  earned  it  by  some  brave  ex- 
ploit. During  the  Crusades  knighthood  became  blended 
and  almost  identified  with  religion.  Every  knight  pledged 
himself  to  aid  in  recovering  the  Holy  Land.  Fighting 
against  infidels  was  itself  a  religious  service;  warriors  who 
died  while  wearing  the  cross  were  assured  by  pries^  and 
pope  of  a  speedy  entrance  into  paradise:  chivalry  was  held 
to  be  little  lower  than  the  Church  itfielf,  and  the  two  were 
united  in  the  persons  of  those  monk-soldiers  who,  while 
under  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  were  also 
foremost  and  fiercest  in  battle.  Their  deeds,  however  great, 
were  supposed  to  increase  not  their  own  renown,  but  that 
of  the  order  to  which  they  belonged,  and  it  may  be  that 
such  devotion  to  a  common  interest  had  some  influence 
over  secular  warriors,  and  aroused  that  aprit  dc  corps 
which  made  knighthood  a  universal  brotherhood.  Another 
peculiar  trait  of  knighthood  was  the  worship  of  women. 
Women  gave  the  prize  in  tournaments;  the  knight  wore 
his  miatreas's  favor  in  real  as  in  mimic  battle;  God  and 
the  ladies  {Di'^n  it  nutrr  /Mme)  were  associated  on  the  lips 
and  in  the  heart  of  every  true  knight.  Various  manuals 
were  written,  especially  when  chivalry  was  on  the  decline, 
to  teach  knightly  duty,  but  our  most  vivid  knowledge  of 
knights  an<i  their  manners  is  derived  from  ancieut  ro- 
mances and  from  chroniclers  like  Froissart  and  .loinville, 
whose  naively-told  stories  show  us  not  only  the  virtues  of 
chivalry,  but  also  its  vices.  In  France,  knighthood  came 
nearest  to  the  ideal  standard.  German  knights  were  want- 
ing in  courtesy,  and  too  often  regarded  noble  birth  as  more 
important  than  noble  deeds. 

During  the  Mid<lle  Ages  many  orders  of  religious  knight- 
hood were  founded  for  the  purpose  of  helping  Christians 
against  the  infidels.  Their  members  wore  bound  to  pov- 
erty, rhastity,  and  obedience,  but  the  first,  at  least,  of  these 
vows  was  soon  l)roken.  The  orders  became  very  rich  and 
luxurious,  the  original  motives  of  their  formation  were  lost 
sight  of,  and  their  power  aroused  the  jealousy  of  kings  and 
nobles.  The  chief  of  those,  orders  were  :  The  Ilixtpiudleis, 
or  brothers  of  J?t.  John  of  Jerusalem,  founded  1043  to  nurse 
and  care  for  poor  wounded  crusaders.  After  leaving  the 
Holy  Land  they  occupied  first  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and 
then  Malta,  whence  thoy  were  expelled  by  Napoleou  Bona- 
parte in  1798.  The  r(m;>?ar«,  so  called  from  having  a  house 
near  the  supposed  site  of  Solomon's  Temple,  founded  IIIS 
for  the  protection  of  pilgrims.  They  grew  extremely  rich, 
and  after  quitting  Palestine  had  establishments  in  several 
European  countries.  Having  been  accused  of  heresy  and 
other  crimes,  they  were  in  1311  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement 
v..  at  the  instigation  of  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France, 
who  caused  many  uf  them  to  bo  imptisoned.  banished,  or 
put  to  death.  The  Tintouic  order,  instituted  during  tlie 
siege  of  Acre,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  acquired 
great  power,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  conquered 
Prussia,  Livonia,  and  Courland  from  their  heathen  chiefs. 
The  Spanish  order  of  St.  James  of  CnmpostcUa  was  founded 


for  the  defence  of  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  that  saint,  and 
the  knights  were  continually  engaged  in  warfare  with  the 
Moors.  Jankt  TrcKEV. 

Knight,  tp.  of  Vanderburg  oo.,  Ind.     Pop.  i;U2. 

Knight  (Chaules).  b.  at  Windsor,  Eng.,  Mar.  19,  1791 ; 
studied  at  a  classical  school  at  Ealing,  and  served  an  ap- 
prenticeship with  his  father,  whet  was  a  bookseller  at  Wind- 
sor. After  a  brief  residmec  in  liondon,  occupied  in  gain- 
ing a  practical  insight  into  journalism,  he  established,  in 
company  with  his  father,  ,'i  newspaper,  the  Wiudsor  and 
Eton  E,rprcfiH,  which  he  edited  from  1812  to  IH2G.  During 
this  peri'id  he  also  publi;;hed  the  I-'tonion  (a  magazine  ed- 
ited by  Praed,  and  of  which  Macaulay  and  Nelson  Cole- 
ridge, then  '*  Eton  boys,"  were  leading  writers),  and  the 
Plnin  EnffVtnhnui»,  a  cheap  literary  miscellany  in  2  vols., 
chiefly  written  by  himself  (1^20-22)".  Removing  to  London 
in  ]S2fl.  Knight  purchased  the  (luardinn  newspaper,  which 
he  edited  for  two  years,  when  hf  s<dd  it  in  order  to  coni- 
nienee  business  a?  a  publisher  in  Pall  Mali.  Tiio  most  im- 
portant venture  of  the  new  house  was  K'in';/Jit'»  Qnartcrly 
Maffozine  (1S23-24).  which  contained  some  brilliant  articles 
by  Macanlay.  Praed,  and  other  Cambridge  students,  hut 
came  to  an  end  after  six  numbers.  About  this  time  (1^24) 
he  brought  out  a  newly  discovered  work  by  Milton  on  Chris- 
tian Doctrine,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  remarkuhic  arti- 
cle on  Milton  with  wliich  JlacauJay  commenced  liis  tri- 
umphal career  in  the  columns  of  the  Ediht.urt/h  lirriew. 
vShortly  afterward  Knight  conceived  the  plan  of  a  national 
library,  "  a  cheap  series  of  books  which  should  comlcnsc 
the  information  contained  in  voluminous  and  expensive 
works,"  for  which  ho  selected  the  subjects  of  about  100 
volumes  in  history,  science,  art.  and  miscellaneous  lit- 
erature. The  scheme  being  too  large  for  a  single  pub- 
lisher, a  part  was  given  to  other  houses,  and  it  was  adopted 
by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  then 
just  formed.  As  a  consequence  of  the  commercial  crisis  of 
i-826,  Knight's  publishing-house  went  down  like  so  many 
others,  but  in  the  following  year  he  commenced  business 
again  as  superintendent  of  the  publications  of  the  U.  K. 
Society.  His  connection  with  that  association  lasted  nearly 
twenty  year?,  and  was  the  central  incident  in  his  career. 
He  displayed  great  enterprise  and  mental  activity  in  pro- 
jecting many  of  the  most  popular  and  useful  works  of  a 
series  which  was  practically  the  continuation  of  his  own 
early  scheme.  The  firifisfi  Ahnnunr  and  C"i)i/iniiin}i  In  ihf 
Ahitaunc  were  commenced  in  1S2S.  ecMted  by  Knight  for 
forty  years,  and  still  continued  as  an  indispensable  hand- 
book and  work  of  reference.  In  1^29  he  recommenced 
business  as  a  publif^her  in  his  own  name  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  out  the  Lihrori/  t-f  Kntrrtnininfi  Knotrhd^r,  a  sc- 
ries for  which  he  wrote  the  volumes  on  Menafjrriis  and  The 
Efcphant.  In  1832  he  commenced  the  Pcuni/  Mar^nzine, 
which  had  an  unprecedented  success,  reaching  a  sale  of 
200.000  within  a  twelveniontli.  ami  ler]  to  the  Penny  Ct/rlo- 
j)tEfh'a,  conimonced  in  is:;;i  \i\  the  V .  K.  Society,  but  of 
which  Knight  was  the  publisher.  Originally  intended 
a?  a  pojmlnr  manual  of  reference  in  eight  handy  volumes, 
it  grew  into  twenty-seven  bulky  volumes,  forming  n  learned 
and  original  digest  of  universal  knowledge.  Wilh  the  co- 
oj>eration  of  John  Kitio  miil  other  able  writers  Knight  next 
brought  out  a  series  of  illustrated  works,  the  Pictorial 
Jiibfr,  Pratfcr  liool^  Jh'atort/  of  Pahstine,  Pictorial  himtttrr/ 
of'  Enfffniid,  j/oudon,  Ofd  Evf/land,  Shakepenrc,  The  Land 
We  Live  In,  etc.,  which  had  a  deservedly  great  success.  In 
1SJ4  he  commenced  the  Enr/lish  Cydopirdia,  in  four  divis- 
ions, according  to  the  subject,  a  work  of  still  greater  value 
than  its  predecessor,  the  Penny  Ci/rlop/rdia.  Besides  edit- 
ing the  Wcfkli/  Vidnnie  and  tlie  Shilling  Vohinie  series, 
Knight  compile*!  Lfaff'  //<>itrs    uith  thr  licst  Authors,  Half 

Hours  of  Entflinh  Ilistio-if.  and  other  works  on  the  same 
plan,  prepared  a  valuable  biography  of  Shaks|)care.  and 
wrote  a  !*np,dar  History  of  England  in  S  vols.  (lS:.fi-C2), 
which  occupied  his  declining  years,  and  may  be  considered 
his  greatest  original  work.  After  1S02  he  revised  and  re- 
issued his  earlier  jiroductions,  and  wrote  an  int*^resling 
autobiograpliy  entitled  J\t^sa(fes  of  a  Working  Life  during 
Half  a  (\-i>tnry  {?,  vols..  1SG4-G.'>).  D.  at  Adtlhslone.  Sur- 
rcv,  Mar.  '.',  1S7.1.  Knight  may  fairly  bo  esteemed  one  of 
the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  English-speaking  public  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  as  tlie  founder  of  that  system  for 
the  generalization  of  knowledge  which  was  so  successfully 
carried  into  effect  for  many  years  by  himself  and  his 
younger  rivals,  the  Messrs.  Chambers.  His  original  pro- 
ducti<ins.  too  numerous  to  he  here  mentioned,  are  all  cha- 
racterized by  a  vigorous  style  and  a  high  degree  of  adap- 
tation to  the  wants  of  (he  class  of  rea<lers  addressed.  His 
i>ecuniiiry  success  was  not  in  proportion  to  the  enormous 
circulation  of  bis  works,  and  on  some  of  the  best  of  them, 
like  the  Penuy  Ci/rloprrdin,  he  lost  Iicavily,  In  considera- 
tion of  this  fact  he  was  in  18fi0  a])pointed  by  the  govern 
ment  publisher  of  the  Loudon  Gazette,  a  sinecure  post  with 


KNIGHT— KNITTING. 


1071 


£1200  a  year.  His  statue  was  erected  in  1874  in  hia 
native  city  of  Windsor.  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Knight  (Hknhy  Cocswkll)»  b.  at  Xewburyport,  Mass., 
about  17S8;  spent  his  childhood  at  Kowlcy  :  gra<luated  at 
Brown  Tniversity  in  181*2:  was  ordained  in  the  Kpiscopal 
Church,  and  published  two  volumes  of  sermon?,  but  was 
never  settled  over  a  congrt-galiun.  Ho  publislied  a  volume 
of  verse  in  1809,  and  another.  The  HroLfu  Ifarp,  in  1815, 
both  which  were  republished  with  ad<litinn8  in  1821.  D. 
I8;i5.  Ik-  lef^  an  amusing  autobio;;rapby.  extracts  from 
which  were  given  in  a  volume  entitled  Thorn  Collage,  or 
the  /'oct'e  i/ume  (1865).  which  chiefly  consists  of  sketches 
and  verses  written  by  his  younger  brother.  Frederick  (b. 
in  Hampton,  N.  H..  Oct.  9.  1791  ;  d.  at  Uowlcy  Nov.  20, 
ISl'J).  The  poems  of  Henry  C.  Knight  are  full  of  fine 
touches  of  character  and  sportive  satire,  which  make  them 
worthy  of  remembrance.  (See  Duyckinck's  Cyc.  Am.  Lit., 
vol.  ii.  p.  IJS,) 

Knii^ht  MonathanV  b.  in  Bucks  co..  Pa.,  Nov.  22. 1787  ; 
removed  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  with  his  parents,  to  East 
Bithlchem,  Washington  co. ;  received  only  a  limited  com- 
mon school  education,  but  by  close  application  at  home 
made  much  progress  in  the  study  of  mathematics,  of  which 
he  was  very  fond.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  ho  was  en- 
gaged as  a  teacher,  at  the  same  time  pursuing  his  occupa- 
tion a^  a  surveyor;  in  ISIG  he  made  for  the  State  a  survey 
of  Washington  co. ;  was  elected  county  commissioner  1817 
-20;  in  1822  he  was  elected  to  the  State  legislature,  and 
for  six  sessiims  waj*  re-elected  to  the  senate  or  house  of 
representatives  ;  l*.  S.  commissioner  (182;*))  for  extending 
the  National  Uoad  from  Wheeling  to  Illinois,  and  tor  many 
years  chief  engineer  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  U.  R.  D. 
*at  E.  Bethlehem  Nov.  22,  18.^8. 

Kniffht  (Jonathan),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Xorwalk,  Conn.,  Sept. 
4,  17S'J:  graduated  at  Yale  in  1808;  studied  under  Dr. 
Uush  at  the  medical  school  of  the  I'niversity  of  Pennsyl- 
vania 1811-13,  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiol- 
ogy at  Yale  College  in  181.1,  and  in  18:t8  was  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  surgery;  was  president  of  the  American 
Medical  Association  in  1853;  waa  a  skilful  operator  and 
an  effective  lecturer,  but  wrote  little.  He  obtained  in  1862 
the  establishment  of  a  U.  S.  military  hospital  at  New 
Haven.     D.  at  New  Haven  Aug.  25,  ISfil. 

Kni|;ht  (RiniArto  Pavnk).  b.  at  Wormsley  Grange, 
Hcrcfordsihiro,  England,  in  1750;  came  in  1771  into  pos- 
session of  a  handsome  fortune,  which  he  liberally  employed 
in  the  formation  of  a  unique  collection  of  ancient  coins, 
bronzes,  and  objects  illustrating  the  pagan  religions  of  an- 
tiquity. He  wrote  a  curious  work  entitled  An  Account  o/ 
the  Urmainft  of  thf  W'nrship  o/  Prinpun  hit  fly  criMtinff  at 
[nrmia  in  the  KimfiVnn  of  \ftpfei,  to  ichlch  in  adtlrtl  a  Dix- 
coHme  OH  the  Wnrithip  of  Priapnn,  and  itn  Connection  tcitli 
the  yfi/ttic  Thrttfotftf  of  the  Andcntn,  which  ho  privately 
printed  in  1780.  and  for  which  ho  was  severely  criticised 
on  the  score  of  delicacy,  though  at  the  present  day  the 
same  branch  of  inquiry  has  assumed  grciit  importance, 
ari'l  Knight's  treatise  was  reprinted  in  elegant  style  in  New 
York  in  1S71.  Ho  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  Par- 
liament and  trustee  of  the  British  Museum,  to  which  he 
bequeathed  his  collection  of  untiquos.  Ho  published  sev- 
eral volumes  of  |)Ocms,  which  were  little  esteemed,  a  success- 
ful work  on  the  l^iinciphnof  Tante  (1805),  and  an  edition 
of  Homer,  with  the  dignmma  restored  and  supposed  inter- 
polations suppressed,  which  createil  considerable  interest, 
but  was  not  ooocptod  as  authoritative.  D.  in  London  Apr. 
24,  1824. 

Knight  (Thomas  Axprew).  K.  R.  S.,  brother  of  Kichard 
Pavne  Knight,  b.  at  Wormsley  (irange,  Herefordshire,  Eng- 
land. Oct.  10,  1758;  graduated  at  Baliol  College.  Oxford, 
and  devoted  his  attention  to  vegetable  and  animal  physi- 
ology and  horticulture,  of  which  scienerg  in  their  modern 
form  ho  may  almost  be  considered  the  founder  in  Englnnd. 
He  contril>ute<i  forty-six  papers  to  the  Trnunartioun  of  the 
Royal  Society,  in  some  of  which  he  came  near  anticipating 
the  characteristic  doctrines  now  known  as  Donriuian. 
His  Hhidies  on  the  propagation  of  fruit  trees,  mnde  public 
a'lout  1795,  attracted  deserved  attention.     In  17'.'7  ho  pub- 

lishc'l  a  Trratimr  on  the  Cnttnre  of  the  Aftplr  and  the  Prar, 
nnd  in  1809  Pumona  ifcrrfovdieni'in.  or  Xntnral  ffi»torif  of 
the  aid  Cider  nnti  Perrtf  I'rnitn  uf  thr  Cntintif  of  firreford. 
He  succeeded  Sir  Joseph  Bunks  as  president  of  the  Horti- 
cultural Society,  and  d.  at  London  May  II,  18;;8.     After 

his  death  hi?*  Phtftitdoifiraf  anil  l/nrllrnllnrnf  Papem  were 
collected  and  jmblisbed  (1841),  with  a  sketch  of  his  life,  in 
a  volume  which  well  deserves  the  study  of  cotmtry  gentle- 
men. "  Few  men."  says  Allibone,  "  have  done  so  much  to 
promote  the  science  of  horticulture  as  Mr.  Knight  ha«  ef- 
fected, both  by  precept  and  example." 
Knight-Service.    See  Tknurf. 


Knight's  Ferry,  poat-v.,  cap.  of  Stanislaus  co.,  Cal., 
in  a  fertile  wheat-region,  once  celebrated  for  rich  placer 
gold-mines. 

Knightft  Templar.    Sec  Templar. 

Kni^hts'town,  post-v.  of  Wayne  tp.,  Henry  co.,  Tnd., 
on  the  Pittteburg  Cineionati  ami  St.  Louis  R.  K.  and  on 
Blue  River,  34  miles  E.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has  several 
churches,  a  national  bank,  an  academy,  machine-shoi)S. 
and  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  situated  in  a  fine  farming 
district.     Pop.  1528. 

Knierhts'viHe,  post-v.  of  Van  Buren  tp.,  Clay  eo., 
Ind..  is  situated  on  the  Terre  Haute  nnd  A'inccnnes  It.  R., 
16  miles  E.  of  Terre  Haute  and  50  W.  of  Indianapolis.  It 
has  3  churches,  3  schools,  3  lodges,  1  newspaper,  1  largo 
planing-mill  and  sash  and  door  factory,  2  blast  furnaces 
with  a  capacity  of  fifty  tons  per  day,  and  1  rolling-mill 
giving  employment  to  150  men,  3  coal-shafts,  3  drug  stores, 
and  8  other  stores.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  block-coal  re- 
gion of  Indiana,  is  one  of  the  largest  shipping-points  for 
freights  between  St.  Louis  and  Indianapolis,  and  the  N. 
terminus  of  a  projected  railroad  to  Bowling  Green.  Ky. 
It  was  first  laid  out  in  18(>5.  nnd  is  surrounded  by  a  fine 
timbered  and  agricultural  country.     Pop.  1071. 

LiTnF.n  WoLir.  Eu.  ''Clav  Co.  Enterprise." 

Knip'perdolling  (Brrxrard),  b.  in  MUnsler.  Ger- 
manj',  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  adopted  in 
Sweden  the  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists,  one  of  the  wild 
fermentations  of  the  Lutheran  reform,  and,  returning  to 
his  native  province,  was  associated  with  Matthia>'.  .Tobann 
Boccold  or  Bockelson  Tcalled  John  of  Ley  den),  and  other 
fanatics  in  the  celebrated  socialistic  crusade  proclaimed  in 
Miinster  in  1534.  KnipperdoUing  was  elected  burgomaster, 
and  subsequently  stadtholdcr,  John  ot  Leydcn  being  pro- 
claimed king.  Equality  of  property  and  coninuinity  of 
wives  were  among^tbe  cardinal  doctrines  of  (his  mad  effer- 
vescence, which  startled  Luther,  and  was  by  him  denounced 
in  the  strongest  terms.  On  the  suppression  of  the  move- 
ment. KnipperdoUing  was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death, 
after  frightful  tortures,  Jan.  23,  1536. 

Knit'ting  [Ang.  Pax.  cnytlan  or  hnittan:  Ger.  l-nuttei}^ 
knot;  Hind.y«ntA;  Sans,  tjnnnthi.  a  "knot  "],  a  manner  of 
wea.ving  or  twisting  a  single  thread  into  a  kind  of  cloth  by 
means  of  steel,  ivory,  or  wooden  implements  called  knit- 
ting-needles, which  arc  made  of  various  sizes,  according 
to  the  fineness  of  thread  used  and  the  tightness  of  stitch 
required.  For  fat  or  straight  knitting  two  needles  arc 
employed  ;  for  round  knitting,  such  as  stockings  and  cuffs, 
three,  four,  or  even  five,  are  needed.  Steel  needles  are  used 
with  silk,  flax,  and  cotton  thread;  wood,  bone,  or  ivory 
for  most  kinds  of  woollen  yarn.  As  knitting  consisls  of 
loops  or  meshes  made  without  knnti-.  it  is  easily  undone, 
the  slipping  of  one  loop  frequently  causing  the  destruction 
of  the  whole  fabric.  It  is  extremely  elastic,  and  therefore 
very  suitable  for  gloves,  stockings,  and  other  articles  in 
which  an  exact  fit  without  com])res?ion  is  desirable.  The 
work  is  easily  learned,  and  by  a  f^kilful  knitter,  whose  fin- 
gers have  acquired  delicacy  of  touch,  can  be  carried  on 
almost  or  altogether  without  using  the  eyes.  It  is  for  this 
reason  specially  adapted  as  an  emitloymcnt  for  the  aged^ 
and  is  practised  with  much  success  by  the  blind. 

Knitting  is  a  far  more  modern  invention  than  its  kindred 
art,  netting.  The  exact  period  when  it  was  first  practised 
is  not  known,  though  at  the  time  of  the  Rowleyan  contro- 
versy much  information  on  the  subject  was  collected  hy 
antiquaries.  Chalterton,  in  the  poems  written  by  him, 
pretending  that  Thomas  Rowley,  who  lived  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  their  author,  mentioned  knit  stockings: 

'*  8be  said,  as  her  white  handn  white  hosen  were  knitting, 
What  pleasure  It  is  to  be  married  !"— yfi/Zfi,  xxxvii. ; 

and  his  antagonists  used  this  as  an  argument  against  his 
vcracitv,  asserting  that  knit  hose  were  not  known  until  the 
sixteenth  century.  (For  particulars  of  this  controversy  see 
the  Orntlrman'n  Magazine,  1782-83.)  JTany  antiquaries 
affirm  that  knitting  was  invented  in  Scotland,  and  thence 
introduced  into  France;  others  say  (hat  it  is  of  Spanish 
origin,  and  was  first  known  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
Henrv  VIII.  But  in  a  rare  collection  of  the  acts  of  Edward 
VI.  is  one  specifying,  among  other  woollen  articles,  •' kiiitte 
hose,  knittepelicote.q.  knitte  gloves,  knitfc  slievcs."  In  1527 
(he  French  knitter^'  formed  themselves  into  a  corporation, 
styled  "Communaut/"'  des  Maftres  Bonnetiers  an  Tricot," 
choosing  for  their  patron  St.  Fiaere,  who,  according  to 
legends,  was  the  second  son  of  Eugenius,  a  Scottish  king 
in  the  seventh  century.  S(.  Fiacre  became  a  hermit,  an'l 
lived  at  Meanx  in  France.  Wherever  nnd  whenever  knit- 
ting was  invented,  it  is  certain  (hat  (icrman  women  of  all 
ages  and  classes  excel  in  the  art  those  of  other  nations. 
Very  young  German  children  are  sent  to  linitting-schools, 
and   stockings  are  knitted  by   little  creatures   who  have 


lo72 


KNOB  CREEK— KXOWLES. 


hardly  learned  how  to  wear  out  those  articles  by  walking  in 
them.  Such  schools  have  been  established  in  Ireland  aod 
Scothind.  hut  only  for  the  children  of  the  poor.  Excellent 
directions  for  both  knitting  and  nettin,^  will  be  found  in 
Madamo  Got  baud's  work  on  those  subjects  (London,  1870, 
J^vol.  Janet  Tickev. 

Knnb  Creek,  post-tp.,  Cleaveland  co.,  N.  C.    Pop.  fi.">8. 

Kno'bcl  [  Karl  Aigi  .st).  1).  D.,  b.  near  Sorau,  Silesia, 
Aug.  7,  1SI)7;  studied  at  the  University  of  Brcslau,  where 
he  became  a  professor  of  theology  in  1831,  and  at  (Jit-ssen 
in  18;i9.  His  work  on  Errfegiffstet  (ISofi),  Hihrcir  Pn^phcry 
(l?>:t7).  and  his  Conimrntnn'es  on  Itnink  {1S4.^).  Genesis 
(18.32),  Exodus  and  Leviticus  (1857).  Xnmhers,  Deuteronomyf 
and  iTtiHltHa  (ISfil),  and  Grneafof/ical  Tahfcs  of  Grncsie 
(l^hi]),  are  among  the  most  Icnrned  productions  of  the 
rationalistic  school  of  theology.    1).  at  Giesscn  May  '2h,  lSfi3. 

Kno'belsdorfr,  von  (Hans  GKonr.  Wenzeslais), 
Baiion.  b.  at  KuehUdel.  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Bran- 
denburg, Feb.  17,  U>'J7  ;  entered  the  Prussian  army,  and 
was  a  captain  when  in  1730  he  left  the  military  career  in 
order  to  study  art,  especially  painting  and  arehitecture. 
After  travelling  through  France  and  Italy,  ho  joined  the 
crown  prince  at  Rheinsberg,  and  soon  iiccaino  a  favorite  of 
his.  On  the  accession  of  Frederick  II.  to  the  throne  in 
I7I0,  Kuobelsdorflf  was  made  superintendent  of  all  the 
royal  buildings,  and  planned  the  Thiergarten  at  Berlin,  and 
built  Sans  Souci  at  Potsdam  and  the  opera-house  in  Berlin, 
besides  other  minor  buildings.     I).  Sept.  Ifi,  1763. 

Knob  Xos'ter,  post-v.  of  Washington  tp.,  Johnson 
CO.,  Mo.,  situated  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.,  20S  miles 
AV.  of  St.  Louis  and  78  miles  E.  of  Kansas  City,  has  6 
churches,  1  national  bank,  I  weekly  newspaper  (agricul- 
tural), 1  flour-mill,  3  hotels,  a  fine  public-school  budding, 
and  the  usual  number  of  stores,  built  mostly  of  brick. 
Pop.  1H4.  J.  R.  CoRDELL,  Ed.  ''Missouri  Farmer." 

Knobs,  tp.  of  Yadkin  co.,  X.  C.     Pop.  14j1. 

Knob  View,  post-tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  515. 

KnoTlys  (Hasserd),  b.  at  Chalkwcll,  Lincolnshire, 
England,  in  l.')'JS;  was  educated  at  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  an  Anglican  priest,  but  was  ejected  for  non- 
conformity, and  compelled  in  1G3S  to  flee  to  New  England. 
In  Boston  he  was  early  involved  in  a  controversy  with  the 
authorities,  and  was  afterwards  named  by  Cotton  Mather 
"  Mr.  Absurd  Knowless.''  Knollys  was  {16CS— il)  the  first 
minister  of  Dover,  N.  H.  Thence  ho  went  to  Long  Island, 
and  in  lfi41  returned  to  London,  where  be  was  for  a  long 
time  a  successful  Baptist  pastor.  D.  Sept.  19,  1G91.  He 
was  a  man  of  bold,  gcnt-rous,  and  liberal  spirit,  an  accom- 
plished scholar,  and  an  able  preacher  and  teacher  of  youth. 
He  wrote  -1  F/muin'j  fire  in  Zion  (Ullli).  a  pmall  Hebrew 
grammar  (IfilS),  and  an  autobiography,  finished  by  Kitfin 
(IG'Jl,')-  The  Hanserd  KnuUys  Society  of  London,  formed 
in  18  I  j,  reprints  early  Baptist  writings. 

Knollys,  or  Knolles  (Richard),  b.  at  Cold-Ashby, 
Northamptonshire,  England,  about  I.'i43  :  graduated  in  1505 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  chosen  fellow  ; 
was  appointed  head-master  of  the  Free  Grammar  School  at 
Sandwich,  Kent,  where  he  spent  a  useful  life,  and  d.  in 
June.  1(>10.  He  wrote  a  ('ompendimn  of  Lai. ^  Gr.,  and 
Hfli.  Grnmmar,  irith  JiootM  {  IGOO).  and  translated  Camden's 
liriinunin  into  English,  the  MS.  of  which  is  preserved  at 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford;  besides  several  other 
books  on  Oriental  subject.s.  But  the  only  work  for  which 
Knollys  is  now  remembered  is  the  Genemlf  flistorie  of  the 
7'ur/.v\.r(c.(  folio,  1GU;J),  which  was  reprinted  in  IGIO,  1631, 
and  1G3S.  The  best  edition  is  the  Gth,  in  3  vols.  (1087- 
1700),  with  a  continuation  by  Sir  Paul  Uycaut.  This  book 
was  commended  by  l)r.  Johnson  in  the  Jiamhler  (No.  122) 
as  "  displaying  all  the  excellence  that  narration  can  admit." 

Knot,  a  twisting  or  entwining  of  one  or  more  pieces  of 
cord,  or  the  looping  of  sueb  cord  around  some  other  sub- 
stance, in  such  a  way  that  the  two  parts  shall  be  held  to- 
gether. Knots  are  of  special  importance  on  shipboard, 
and  the  number  of  them  in  use  among  seamen  is  very 
great.  To  these  a  great  number  of  names  are  given.  Much 
skill  is  required  in  the  adjustment  of  some  of  the  kinds. 

Knot,  in  measuring  a  ship's  speed,  represents  a  nautical 
mile.  On  the  ship's  log-line  there  are  120  knots  to  the 
mile;  consequently,  the  number  of  knots  which  run  out  in 
a  half  minute  represent  approximately  the  number  of  geo- 
graphical miles  per  hour  in  the  ship's  rate  of  speed. 

Knot,  (irayback,  or  Robin  Snipe,  the  Trinyn  ca- 
mtta,  a  sandpijar  of  the  .\tlantic  States  and  of  Europe.  It 
is  some  ten  inches  long,  and  is  a  good  game-bird.  The 
young  birds  in  season  are  delicious  for  the  table.  The  place 
of  breeding  of  this  bird  is  unknown. 

Knott  (J.  Prcx-tor).  b.  in  Marion  co.,  Ky.,  Aug.  29, 
1S30;  studied  law;  removed  to  Missouri  in  1850;  was 
attorney-general  of  that  State  in   1860;  returned  to  Ken- 


tacky  in  1862,  and  was  a  Democratic  Representative  in  Con- 
gress from  18G7  to  1871.  and  again  elected  in  1874.  He 
won  a  national  reputation  as  a  humorist  by  several  of  bis 
speeches  in  Congress. 

Knout  [Russ.  kinit],  an  instrument  of  punishment  in 
Russia,  varying  in  form,  but  often  consisting  of  a  wide 
and  pointed  piece  composed  of  thongs  of  leather  braided 
with  wire,  soakeil  in  milk,  and  dried  hard.  This  is  swung 
by  a  handle,  anil  when  applied  to  the  back  of  a  culprit  cuts 
like  a  knife.  Criminals  were  often  scourged  to  death  by 
this  instrument,  which  at  present  is  less  frequently  used. 

Knowl'ed^e*  This  term  includes  the  possessions  of 
the  mind  derived  through  its  several  activities  of  sensuous 
perception,  reflection,  undorstaniling.  and  sj>eculation,  in 
so  far  as  the  same  relate  to  truth.  It  should  be  distinguished 
from  mere  feeling  and  from  opinion  or  impression.  Know- 
ledge implies  the  exercise  of  iliscrimination  and  comparison 
in  regard  to  iileas,  noting  their  agreement  and  disagreement. 
Feeling  is  limited  to  the  subjective,  and  relates  only  to  modi- 
fications of  the  feeling  subject,  there  being  no  antithesis  of 
subject  and  object  in  it.  When  the  Ego  pcrrrins  itself  as 
feeling,  it  becomes  conscious,  and  cognition  takes  the  place 
of  simple  feeling.  Inference  accompanies  all  grades  of 
knowing,  although  it  is  merely  implicit  in  the  lowest  stages. 
Hence,  all  knowledge  contains  the  results  of  inference,  and 
is  based  upon  it  to  some  extent.  The  realm  of  truth  which 
knowledge  has  for  its  oi>jcet  ineludes  three  de]iartments :  I. 
Nature  ;  II.  Spirit  or  Human  Mind  :  HI.  Pure  Ideas  or  Gen- 
eral Principles.  Knowledge  implies  convietion  reached  by 
the  perception  of  suffieient  grounds.  Certitude  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  truth, asa  mercpbascof  it.  It  appertains 
to  the  immediate  or  external,  aud  hence  to  the  phenomenal 
or  transitory.  Such  knowledge  as  is  derived  from  certitude 
or  immediate  knowing  lacks,  therefore,  the  unity  of  sys- 
tem, and  is  partial,  needing  modification  in  each  pnr- 
tioular  th^ou^dl  otlier  particular?  and  through  the  whole. 
Incismuch  as  there  is  unity  in  existence,  natural  and  spir- 
itual, an  isolated  knowledge  of  particulars  is  not  a  true  or 
adequate  knowledge.  Since  existences  are  interdependent, 
each  one  being  conditioned  by  all  others,  a  true  knowledge 
can  e.xist  only  in  a  systematic  form — that  of  science.  In 
science  each  thing  or  province  of  things  is  treated  in  its 
relations  to  the  others  and  to  the  whole.  Thus,  by  reason 
of  the  relativity  of  particular  existences,  a  true  knowledge 
of  them  must  deal  with  relations,  and  in  this  sense  know- 
ledge may  be  called  relative,  not  on  account  of  its  inade- 
quacy,  but  rather  on  account  of  its  trutli.  The  *'  relativity 
of  knowledge  "  is  a  doctrine  that  has  been  quite  well  known 
since  the  time  of  the  Sophists  of  Greece.  It  has  taken  a 
subjective  direction  in  modern  times.  It  has  been  held  (a) 
that  knowledge  is  relative,  because  we  cannot  cognize  ex- 
istence in  itself  absolutely,  but  only  in  its  modes;  (fc)  that  it 
is  rel.ative,  because  we  can  know  only  what  stands  in  rela- 
tion to  our  faculties;  (r)  because  the  subjective  constitution 
of  our  faculties  adds  elements  and  modifications  to  the 
matter  derived  from  sensation.  These  positions  have  been 
generalized  in  the  doctrine  of  the  relativity  of  knowledge 
based  on  the  lonct  that  we  know  only  phenomena,  and  not 
"things  in  themselves."  Knowledge  has  been  further  clas- 
sified according  to  its  origin  in  the  psychological  activities : 

(1)  the  intuitive — sensuous  ]iereepti<)n,  or  consciousness; 

(2)  the  discursive — inference  and  generalization;  (3)  the 
speculative — synthetical  and  analytical  processes  combined 
in  one.  Thus  arise  various  distinctions,  such  as  a  priori, 
a  posteriori,  abstract,  mediated,  intuitive,  representative, 
empirieal.apodictic,  etc.  etc.   (SceMiNn.)   W.  T,  llAniils. 

Knowles  (James  Davis),  b.  at  Providence.  R.  T.,  in 
July.  179S:  graduated  at  Columbian  College.  D.  C,  1824. 
In  Oct..  1825.  he  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  church 
in  Boston;  in  1S32  was  appointed  professor  of  sacred  rhet- 
oric at  Newlon  Theological  Institute  in  Massachu.setts.  He 
published  memoirs  of  the  first  Mrs.  Adoniram  Judson  (Ann 
Hasscltine)  and  of  Roger  Williams;  edited  the  Christian 
J^evicic,  and  d.  at  Newton,  Mass..  May  9,  1S38. 

Knowles  (Jamfs  SnFninANt,  b.  at  Cork,  Ireland,  id 
17S4.  Hi.--  father.  James  Knowles,  a  cousin  of  K.B.Sheri- 
dan, was  a  schoolmaster  and  teacher  of  elocution,  enjoying 
a  hi<rh  reputation,  and  was  editor  of  an  improved  edition 
of  Walker's  Prmumncinfj  Divtinnnrt/.  In  1792  the  family 
removed  to  London.  At  the  age  of  twelve  young  Knoivlcs 
composed  a  play,  which  was  represented  by  an  amateur 
company  of  schoolboys.  In  1^06  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance ns  an  actor  at  Dublin.  an<i  afterward  taught  elocution 
at  Belfast  and  (Hasgow,  without  attaining  eminence  in 
either  profession.  He  had  written  four  or  five  dramas 
which  have  not  been  preserved,  and  had  published  a  small 
volume  of  fugitive  poetry,  when  in  ISl.^  he  met  with  his 
first  success  hv  the  production  of  Cains  Groerhns  at  Belfast. 
In  1S20  VirginiuR  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane,  with  Ma- 
cready  in  the  leading  part,  and  Knowles  was  thenceforward 


KNOWLKSVILL 


-KNOX. 


ir>i:\ 


rocosnized  ns  one  or  the  chief  drainatio  authors  of  England. 
He  proJiiot'J  fuurtccD  othor  drainns,  ^orIle  of  wbieli  were 
unduiiblctlly  ainoiif;  the  bo8l"uciiD;;  pliiws"  of  thu  time, 
tl)oii;;h  nunc  di^pUvetl  any  exceptiunal  put^tic  geiiiuts,  and 
all  were  justly  anionablo  to  the  charge  ot  t>ys(eiiuilic  viola- 
tion of  the  "  nnilies."  The  plots  were  so  involvcil  in  their 
construction  as  to  require  a  great  ciTort  fur  their  cinnpre- 
heiision.  Knuwlesi  tfometiiues  took  part  in  r*-). resenting  his 
oivn  dramiiiH.  :ind  uado  a  successful  theatrical  tuur  in  the 
U.  f'.  In  IS4:J  his  Dramatic  Wor/cn  were  collected  into 
throe  volumes  (revised  cd.  2  vols.,  185G),  and  in  IS-lo  ho 
abandoned  Ihr  stajie  from  conscientious  8eruples,  devoting 
himself  to  literature,  and  in  ISID  ;i  pension  of  £200  was 
granted  him.  In  1S.V2  ho  joined  the  Baptist  denomination, 
and  became  a  preacher  distinguished  for  religious  fervor. 
His  lust  yeiirs  were  passed  in  retirement,  on  account  of  ili- 
heiilth,  at  Torquay.  Devonshire,  where  he  d.  Nov.  20,  1SG2. 
His  dramas,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are —  Wiflt'nm 
7V//MS25).  The  fir^'/ar'n  Ihtuqhtcmf  li.thnal  Cnem  ( 1S2S), 
Atrrrdth«(?reat  (ii^M),  The  ffxnrkfnuk  {\>^:i2),  The  Wi/e, 
a  Tah  of  Mmitnn  (IS.'i.'l),  Thn  Dawjhter  {\^'M\),  The  love- 
<7Aa«  {is:S7),  WnmonH  Wit  {\S:iH},  The  Moid  of  Matien- 
dorpt  (I8;t8),  Aorc  (18.19),  John  o/  Provida  (IS-IO),  Old 
Maid*  (1841).  The  Uuite  of  Arnffon  (1842),  and  The  Secre- 
tarjf  (1843).  He  also  published  two  novels — Henry  Fot- 
teacue  and  Gcur»je  Lorrfl  (1847),  and  two  controversial 
works  against  Romanism,  The  lioch  of'  /{ome,  or  (he  Arch- 
Hereaif  (V?A*J\,  and  The  Idol  DrmotiHfied  hij  itn  own  Priest 
(1851),  the  latter  volume  being  a  reply  to  Cardinal  Wisc*- 
man's  LectnrvH  nn   TrantuhHtuittiatinn.       PoUTr.Kt".  HiJSS. 

Knowlos'ville,  post-v.  of  Hidgeway  tp.,  Orleans  co., 
N.  Y..  on  the  New  York  Central  K.  U.  and  the  Erie  Canal. 

Knnwrton,  post-v.  and  cap.  of  Krown  co.,  Quebec, 
Caii:id;i.      It  is  the  scat  of  an  academy.     Pop.  about  .'iUO. 

KnoAvlton,  post-tp.  of  Warren  co.,  N.  J.     Pop.  IfiOl. 

linoulton,  p(ist-tp.  of  Marathon  co.,  \Vi?.     Pop.  Ififi. 

Knou'-\<itliinf;s^  the  name  assumed  by  a  .secret  po- 
litical so'-iety  in  ihe^  CS.  first  organized  in  ISfjIt.nnd  which 
appeared  in  the  elections  of  is.H  ns  a  well-di^'-ipllncd 
party,  and  fwept  .'Several  of  the  Northern  Stales,  irieludiiig 
New  York.  The  cardinal  idea  of  the  society  was  opposition 
to  foreign  citizenship.  In  tho  Presidential  campaign  of 
ISjfi  the  Know-Nothings  appeared  as  tho  "American 
party.**  presenting  Millard  Fillmore  as  its  camlidate.  but 
the  growth  of  the  slavery  issue  extinguished  tho  question 
of  foreign  citizenship,  and  the  party  speedily  died  a  natural 
death. 

Knox,  county  of  N.  W.  Central  Illinois.  Area.  720 
square  miles.  It  is  fertile  and  undulating,  and  eontains 
abunclant  supplies  of  coal,  with  considerabln  timber.  Cat- 
tle, grain,  wool,  and  hay  are  sla]d(^  products.  The  manu- 
factures include  carriages,  clothing,  flour,  saddlery,  furtii- 
lure,  brick,  and  metallic  wares.  The  county  is  traversed 
by  the  Chicago  Uurlington  and  Quincyand  Ihc  Peoria  and 
Oquawka  U.  Ra.     Cap.  fJalesburg.     Pop.  .39,522. 

Knox,  county  of  S.  W.  Infliana,  bounded  on  tho  E.  by 
the  \V.  f.irk  of  While  River,  on  the  S.  by  White  River,  and 
on  the  W.  by  the  Wabash,  which  Hcparatis  it  from  Illinois. 
Area,  .')I0  square  miles.  It  is  partly  level  and  partly  roll 
ing,  and  is  very  fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple 
pro»hictfl.  Tho  county  is  traversed  by  several  railroads, 
centring  at  Vincenncs,  the  capit.il.     Pop.  21,502. 

Knox,  county  of  8.  E.  Kentucky.  Area,  about  340 
square  miles.  It  is  a  mountain-region,  with  iron,  eonl, 
salt,  and  limestone.  Kivc-stoek  and  corn  are  staple  ^»rod- 
ucls.  Tho  county  is  traversed  by  tho  Cumberland  River. 
Cap.  Barboursvillo.      Pop.  8294. 

Knox,  county  of  Maine,  bounded  on  the  P.  E.  by  Pen- 
ob-i'.it  Bay  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  including  numerous 
islands.  Areii,  about  :i.')0  srpmrc  miles.  It  is  uneven,  but 
generally  fertile.  Wool,  potiitoes,  and  live-stock  are  staple 
products.  Tho  manufactures  include  shipping,  ships'  fur- 
niture, cooperage,  lime,  and  lumber.  The  lisheries  and 
forei-jn  and  coastwise  commerce  employ  a  eonsidcrnblo 
piirt  of  the  population.  The  county  is  traversed  by  tho 
Knox  and  Lincoln  R.  U.     Cap.  Roekhmd.      Pop.  .^0.82.^. 

Knox,  county  of  N.  E.  Missouri.  Area,  504  square 
mil'  s.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  is  generally  undulating.  It 
is  in  part  timbered  land.  Cattle,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool 
are  staple  products.  Carriages,  wagons,  an<l  brick  are 
leading  articles  of  manufaeture.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Quiney  Missouri  and  Pacific  R.  R.  Cap.  Edina.  *  Poi>. 
10.')7I.  ^  *^ 

Knox,  county  of  Nebraska,  formerly  called  Ij'Eau  qui 
Court.  Area.  1008  sauare  miles.  It  is  separated  from 
PaUnta  on  the  X.  by  the  Niobrara  and  Missouri  rivers.  It 
has  a  good  soil,  and  is  adaptetl  to  grain  and  stock-raising. 
Cap.  Niobrara.     Pop.  201. 


KnoXf  a  central  county  in  Ohio,  traversed  by  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  (Lake  Erie  division)  and  the  Cleveland 
Mt.  Vernon  and  Delaware  R.  Rs.,  intersected  by  tho  Ver- 
non AVulhondiiig  and  Licking  (N.  fork  )  rivers.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  tho  soil  rich.  The  chief  agricultural 
products  are  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  tobacco, 
and  hay.  Nearly  700. OOt)  ])ounds  of  wool  are  annually 
clijipedi  000,0(10  pounds  vt'  muplc-sugar  and  800.000  pounds 
of  butter  are  produced.  It  has  10,000  horses,  8500  milch 
cattle,  150,000  sheep,  and  .'(0,000  swine:  24  carriage-fac- 
tories and  a  considerable  number  of  manufactures.  Cap. 
Mt.  Vernon.     Area,  525  square  miles.     Pop.  20,ll.i;i. 

Knox,  county  of  E.  Tennessee.  Area.  510  square  miles. 
It  is  in  the  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Ilolston 
River,  which  traverses  it.  It  has  several  mountain-ridges, 
and  contains  abundant  iron  ore  and  marble.  Cattle,  grain, 
tobacco,  and  wool  arc  staple  products.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  various  railroads  centring  at  Kno.wille, 
the  capital.     Pop.  28,990. 

Knox,  an  organized  county  of  N.  Texas,  traversed  by 
the  Brazos  River.  Area.  1275  square  miles.  Its  surface  is 
hilly  and  br()ken,  and  partly  of  undulating  prairie-land, 
with  little  timber.  It  is  attached  for  judicial  purposes  to 
Montague  co. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Knox  co.,  111.     Pop.  2S81. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Jay  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  685. 

Knox,  po?t-v.  of  Centre  tp.,  cap.  of  Stark  co.,  Ind.,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Yellow  River,  7  miles  S.  of  tho  Pittsburg 
Kort  Wayne  and  Chicago  R.  R.  It  has  a  gootl  court-house 
and  school-house,  2  hotels,  I  newspaper,  and  a  number  of 
stores  and  shops.  Lands  in  the  vicinity  are  cheap  and 
well  adapted  to  stock-raising,  as  also  to  wheat,  corn,  and 
potatoes.     Pop.  244. 

0.  Mi'ssKLMAN.  Ed.  "Stark  Co.  LKnnF.R." 

Knox,  tp.  of  Clarke  co.,  la.     Pop.  777. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Pottawattamie  co.,  la.     Pop.  901. 

Knox,post-tp.  of  Waldo  CO.,  Me..  12  miles  N.W.  of  Bel- 
fast.    It  has  manufactures  of  lumber  and  carriages.     Poji. 

Knox,  post-tp.  of  Albany  CO.,  N.  Y.  It  has  6  churches 
and  several  small  villages,  and  is  on  the  Albany  an4l  Sus- 
quehanna R.  R..  17  miles  W.  of  Albany.  The  village  hag 
an  academy,  4  churches,  and  a  wnoUcn-mill.      Pop.  1656. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Columbiana  co.,  0.     Pop.  2151. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Guernsey  co..  0.     Pop.  SIC. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Holmes  co.,  0.     Pop.  964. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  0.     Pop.  1.301. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Vinton  co.,  0,     Pop.  559. 

Knox,  post-tp.  of  Clarion  co..  Pa.     Pop.  656. 

Knox,  tp.  of  Clearfield  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  587. 

Knox,  tp,  of  Jcfl'erson  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  SO:i. 

Knox  (IlKNrtv),  Gkneral,  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July 
25,1750;  receiverl  a  common  school  education;  became  a 
bot)kseller  in  Boston  and  au  ofticer  in  a  militia  body  of 
grenadiers,  having  devoted  much  study  to  military  tactics. 
W^hen  the  batllc  of  Bunker  Ilill  was  inipcn<ling  he  made 
bis  way  seerelly  out  of  Boston,  oflercil  his  services  to  Maj.- 
(Jcn.  Artenius  Ward  at  Cambridge,  and  acted  as  a  volun- 
teer aid  to  that  general  during  the  battle.  In  the  siege  of 
Boston  ho  was  engaged  as  engineer  and  artillery  i)flieer  in 
(Jridley's  regiment,  and  attracled  the  atlention  of  \\'iish- 
ington  by  his  skill  in  fortification.  He  was  soon  after 
placed  in  command  of  the  artillery  in  New  York,  took  a 
iuilliant  part  in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and 
was  thereupon  elected  by  Congress  brigadier  general  of 
artillery,  and  sent  to  New  England  to  raise  a  bntlalion  of 
that  arm.  In  the  buttles  of  Brandy  wine,  (>ernnintown, 
and  Monmouth  tho  artillery  under  Knox  bore  a  leading 
part.  He  was  a  member  of  the  court-martial  fttr  tho  trial 
of  Andre;  was  repeatedly  sent  to  New  England  as  com- 
missitmer  to  obtuin  money  and  recruits  ;  was  at  the  biitlle 
of  Yorklown,  after  whieh  he  was  made  major-general,  put 
in  comnmnd  at  \\'e«l  Point,  and  appointed  to  superintend 
the  disbanding  of  the  continental  armies,  and  commissioner 
to  arrange  with  Sir  (Juy  Cartel  on  the  terms  of  (he  surrender 
of  .Vew  Yitrk  City.  In  1785  he  succeeded  (ten.  Lincoln  as 
secretary  of  war  antl  of  the  navy,  retaining  that  ]iost  iVtr 
six  years  of  Washington's  atlniinislration.  In  1795  he 
removed  to  St.  (Jeorge's  in  Maine,  where  ho  acquired  an 
enormous  landed  estate,  and  finally  settled  at  Thoniaston, 
Me.,  where  he  d.  Oct.  25.  1806.  (See  his  f.i/r  and  Corre- 
Kpondtnrf,  by  Francis  S.  Drake.  Boston.  1S7L) 

Knox  (.IoiinV  b.  at  (Jifford.  in  Eosi  Lothian,  in  IftO.S, 
His  education  beean  at  Haddington.  At  lb"  rniversily  of 
St.  Andrew's  (1524)  he  learned  from  John  Major,  and  never 
forgot,  (hat  councils  are  above  popes,  and  thai  nations  give 
authority  to  kings,  can  depose  kings,  and   put    them  to 


1574 


KNOX. 


death.  Before  16u0  ho  was  ordained  priest,  in  advance  of 
the  canonical  age.  From  his  favorite  Fathers,  Jerome  and 
Augustine,  ho  went  to  Holy  Scrijiture,  and  the  progress  of 
his  investigation  into  those  questions  which  were  then  con- 
vulsing Kuropc  became  very  marked  about  l.i."i;>.  The  re- 
sult wa^,  that  he  made  a  distinct  avowal  of  his  Protestant 
cnnvietioDS  in  1642,  withdrew  from  his  position  as  teacher 
at  St.  Andrew's,  and  sought  a  covert  from  the  wrath  of 
Tardinal  Beaton.  The  shelter  needed  he  found  in  the 
house  of  Hugh  Douglas  (Id4;J-45).  This  was  at  Longnid- 
dry,  the  ruins  of  whose  ehapel  are  still  known  as  "  Knox's 
kirk."  Wishart,  his  dear  friend,  was  tried  for  heresy  Mar. 
1,  and  burned  to  death  Mar.  28.  I,'i45.  Cardinal  Beaton 
was  assassinated  May  21J,  1546,  and  the  castle  of  St.  An- 
drew's was  held  by  Norman  Leslie  and  the  other  conspira- 
tors. Knox  took  refuge  in  the  castle  at  Easter,  1547.  acted 
as  its  faithful  chaplain,  and  when  it  was  surrendt  red  tu  the 
French,  July,  1547,  was  among  the  prisoners,  I'nder  the 
charge  of  being  concerned  in  the  death  of  the  cardinal  he 
was  condemned  to  the  galleys  and  chained  to  the  oar. 
Sickness  was  added  to  his  trials  (1548).  The  "sobs  of  his 
heart"  were  heavy  when  the  galley  lay  tossing  in  sight  of 
the  wlilte  steeple  of  St.  Andrew's,  "where  God  first  in 
public  opened  his  mouth  to  His  glory ;"  yet  that  heart  was 
strong  in  the  uttered  assurance,  which  became  jiropbccy, 
that  Knox  should  glorify  God's  name  in  the  same  place. 
He  was  liberated  in  Feb..  1549,  went  to  England,  was  rec- 
ommended to  the  English  council,  and.  though  unordained 
as  a  Protestant  minister,  was  sent  by  Cranmer  to  preach  at 
Berwick — out  of  Scotland,  but  barely  out  of  it.  There  he 
battled  with  popery,  and  made  many  converts.  Cited  by 
Tonstall,  he  defended  the  cause  of  the  Keformation  with 
such  ability  that  he  was  appointed  one  of  Edward's  chap- 
lains {Dec,  1551).  He  was  consulted  about  the  Eook  of 
Common  Prayer  and  the  Articles.  He  was  sumnxuied  to 
London  Apr.,  1553,  and  was  in  full  royal  favor  at  the  time 
of  Edward's  death,  July  6,  1553  ;  he  had  declined  a  bishop- 
ric. He  was  married  155.*J  to  Marjory,  daughter  of  Richard 
Bowes  (brother  of  Sir  Robert)  of  Berwick.  The  accession 
of  Mary  ( 155.3)  made  England  a  dangerous  place  for  Kno.x. 
He  had  wisdom  as  well  as  bravery.  He  landed  at  Dieppe 
Jan.  20,  1554.  In  February  he  went  to  Switzerland,  and 
was  everywhere  cordially  received  by  the  Reformed  divines. 
In  Geneva  he  found  a  congenial  friend  in  Calvin.  He  took 
temporary  charge  (Nov.,  1554)  of  the  church  of  English 
exiles  at  Frankfort-ou-tbe-Main.  His  Fuith/nl  Admonititxi 
iiuto  the  Pftifeannre  of^  Ood'a  Truth  in  EitijUind  appeared 
this  year.  He  reerossed  the  Channel  Aug.,  1555,  saw  his 
wife,  preached,  and  dispensed  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  re- 
turned to  the  Continent  July,  1556,  accompanied  by  his 
wife.  The  clergy  of  Scotland  adjudged  his  body  to  the 
flames  and  burned  liim  in  effigy.  For  the  next  two  years, 
the  most  peaceful  of  his  life,  he  was  pastor  of  the  English 
church  at  (Jcneva.  The  Genevan  New  Tcstamout  (1557) 
and  the  Itiblo  (1560)  were  influenced  by  him.  In  1558  aj)- 
peared  his  /''Imt  Htast  nf'  the  Trnmpit  mjnlnHt  the  Mmistroim 
Jirijinirut  '>/  Women.  The  women  sjiecially  aimed  at  were 
Mary  of  (Juise,  queen  dowager  and  re|^nt  of  Scotland,  the 
princess  Mary,  then  heiress,  afterwards  occupant,  of  its 
throne,  and  Queen  Mary,  Knox's  *'  Jezebel,"  of  England. 
The  prospects  of  the  Reformation  seeming  brighter.  Knox 
was  recalled,  and  (Jan.,  15511)  for  the  last  time  left  Geneva 
for  Scotland.  Ho  was  refused  passage  through  England, 
wliose  *'  secret  and  assured  friend  he  had  been  in  cases 
which  herself  could  not  have  remedietl" — refuseil  under  the 
regiment  of  Elizabeth,  who  had  just  come  to  the  throne, 
and  who  was  yet  to  owe  as  much  to  Knox  as  perhaps  to 
any  man  of  the  time.  Knox  in  his  Blast  had  made  too 
sweeping  generalities  from  particular  cases,  and  Elizabeth 
stood  up  for  her  sex.  Knox  landed  at  Leilh  May  2,  and 
was  at  once  proclaimed  an  outlaw  and  rebel.  His  preach- 
ing at  Perth  was  followed  by  an  insurrection,  in  which  the 
'*  rascal  multitude  "committed  a  number  of  act?  of  violence. 
He  was  forbidden  to  preach  at  St.  Anrlrew's  June  9,  and 
preached  there  with  tlio  greater  zest  June  lO-l.'I,  and  the 
officials  and  people  destroyed  the  images  and  pictures  and 
pulled  down  the  monastery  on  the  14th.  Though  the 
direct  personal  influence  of  Knox  produced  a  relatively 
peaceful  abolition  of  the  old  worship,  the  storm  against 
"idolatry"  involved  the  destruction  of  many  precious 
works  of  art.  "  The  rooks'  nests  were  pulled  down." 
Knox  was  formally  ordained  at  Edinburgh  in  1560.  The 
Confession  of  Faith,  mainly  his  work,  was  adopted  by  the 
Parliament  .'Vug.  17.  The  Reformation  was  ofticialiy  estul>- 
lished  Aui;.  24.  The  first  General  Assembly  of  liie  Kirk 
was  held  Dec.  2ft.  Of  the  f<.rly  members,  there  were  but 
six  ministers,  of  whom  Knox  was  one.  Private  sorrow 
eamo  fast  on  public  joy,  for  this  same  month  ho  lost  his 
wife.  The  clouds  which  had  been  pwcpt  away  in  1560  be- 
gan to  gather  again  in  the  follnwing  year.  The  young 
queen  of  Scotland  had  returned  from  France  (Aug.  21, 1661 ). 


Never  was  there  a  less  congenial  conjunction  between  the 

throne  and  the  people.  The  first  interview  of  Knox  with 
her  took  place  early  in  Se])t.,  1561,  and  another  May  2, 
1562.  after  the  queen  had  been  told  of  a  sermon  in  which 
he  condemned  the  festivitie.-^  in  the  palace,  believed  to  have 
been  prompted  by  the  massacre  of  the  French  Protestants 
in  March  at  Vassy.  He  did  much  to  preserve  the  peace  in 
the  South  while  the  rebellion  of  the  earl  of  Hunlly  was 
crushed  in  the  North  (1562).  At  Lochlcven,  Knox  again 
saw  the  queen  (May  2.  15G3).  who  exerted  on  him  all  her 
powers  of  pleasing.  Her  success  with  Knox  was  little, 
but  it  was  great  with  her  Protestant  nobles  at  the  Parlia- 
ment May  20,  and  Knox  came  to  an  open  rupture  with  the 
earl  of  Murray,  whom  he  had  regarded  as  (»ne  of  the  greatest 
pillars  of  the  truth.  In  political  sagacity  and  insight  into 
character  Knox  took  rank  with  the  greatest  statesmen  of 
his  time.  He  now  spoke  in  the  puljtit  with  freedom  of 
the  apostasy  of  the  nobility,  and  of  the  reputed  marriage 
of  the  queen  to  a  papist.  I'nivcrsal  terror  and  ofl"ence 
followed.  Knox  was  deserted  by  some  of  bis  nearest 
friends.  The  queen,  whoso  hand  had  almost  grasped  the 
triumph  for  which  she  labored,  was  overwhelmed  with  anger 
that  this  man  should  defy  and  thwart  her  and  the  nobles 
she  had  won  to  her  side.  She  sent  for  him,  but  she  was 
now  too  nmch  wounded  and  angered  to  dissemble.  *'  I  can- 
not get  quit  of  you,"  she  cried  :  *'  I  vow  to  God  I  shall  he 
once  revenged  !"  and  could  speak  no  more  for  wee[>ing. 
The  moral  trial  of  the  position  of  Knox  at  such  a  time  is 
almost  inconceivable.  It  was  beyond  any  mere  test  of 
courage.  In  personal  matters  Knox  was  of  a  loving  nature. 
But  as  the  face  of  angry  men  could  not  move  him,  neither 
could  the  beauty  of  the  young  queeu  cliarm  him,  nor  her 
tears  melt  him.  At  this  time  powerful  efforts  were  made  to 
crush  Knox.  A  calumny  against  his  personal  purity  was 
set  afloat,  but  was  promptly  met  and  exposed.  In  Decem- 
ber he  was  accused  of  high  treason,  and  the  queen  thought 
she  should  now  "make  him  weep"  whom  her  tears  could 
not  move.  But  the  majesty  of  Knox's  heroic  nature  made 
itself  felt  in  the  council  of  the  nobles.  Knox  was  not  only 
acquitted,  but  couiniended.  and  "that  night  was  neither 
dancing  nor  fiddling  in  tiic  court."  The  same  year  he 
published  an  account  of  his  disputation  of  the  year  pre- 
vious with  Kennedy,  abbot  of  Cromaguel.  Knox  married 
a  second  time  ( I^Iar..  1564).  His  wife  was  Margaret  Stew- 
art, daughter  of  Knox's  friend,  who  stood  by  him  when  all 
other  men  forsook  him — Lord  Ochiltree,  who  was  of  the 
blood  royal  by  the  second  son  of  Robert  11.  Alliance  wilh 
kings  did  not  make  Knox  more  courtly.  He  was  brought 
before  the  privy  council  for  a  sermon  preached  in  St.  Giles's 
(Aug.  19,  1565)  in  the  presence  of  Darnlcy,  in  which  ho 
had  quoted  certain  texts  which  (he  ncw-niarricd  king,  not 
without  good  reason,  applied  to  himself  and  the  queen,  and 
was  violently  offended.  Knox  was  prohibited  from  preach- 
ing while  the  royal  pair  remained  in  the  city.  They  left 
before  Sunday,  and  when  tliey  relumed  they  wisely  let  the 
matter  drop,  for  the  pul|)it  of  Kn<)X  had  grown  mightier 
than  the  throne.  Mary  entered  the  Catholic  League  for 
the  extirpation  of  the  Protestants  Feb.  2.  1566.  Rizzio  was 
assassinated  Mar.  9.  On  the  return  of  the  queen.  Knox 
left  Edinburgh.  In  December  he  visited  his  son  in  England. 
Knox's  prophecy  was  fuKilled.  The  queen  became  the  in- 
strument of  Darnley's  overthrow;  he  was  murdered  Feb. 
10,  1567.  The  queen  married  Rothwell  May  15,  and  one 
month  later,  forsaken  by  her  husband,  was  a  prisoner  at 
Lochlcven  Castle.  Ten  days  later  (June  25)  Knox  was 
present  at  the  General  Assembly  in  Edinburgh.  Ho 
preached  at  the  coronation  of  James  VI.,  an  infant  thirteen 
months  old  (July  29).  Knox  urged  the  capital  arraign- 
ment of  Mary  on  the  charge  of  adultery  and  murder.  The 
aj:sassinati<tn  of  the  regent  Murray  (Jan.  23,  1570)  by  a 
man  whom  he  had  pardoned  on  the  persuasion  of  Knox, 
and  the  civil  troubles  which  followed  it,  greatly  depressed 
him.  In  October  he  had  a  stroke  of  apojdexy,  which  left 
him  weak,  but  did  not  long  keep  him  from  the  pitl))it.  Jlo 
had  enough  <»f  his  old  vigor  and  his  old  mode  of  using  it 
to  give  such  oflVnce  to  Kirkaldy,  governor  of  the  castle,  as 
to  make  it  prudent  to  retire  (May  5.  1571)  to  St.  Andrew's. 
Here  he  published  his  answer  to  Tyrie.  Ho  returned  to 
Kdinburgti  Aug.,  1572.  The  tidings  of  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew  (.Aug.  24)  helped  yet  further  to  break  bis 
declining  strength.  He  made  his  last  appearance  in  the 
pulpit  Nov.  9,  and  preaebecl  with  no  abatement  of  intel- 
lectual power.  Sick  and  exhausted,  leaning  on  his  staff 
and  tlie  arm  of  an  attendant,  with  a  loving  multitude 
crowding  around  him.  ho  crept  to  his  home,  and  there, 
when  speech  failed  him.  with  his  hand  uplifted  in  token  of 
the  faith  for  which  he  had  fought,  he  breathed  his  last  in 
perfect  peace,  Nov.  24,  1572 — one  of  the  most  heroic  mcTi 
of  a  heroic  race.  Two  days  later  he  was  buried  at  St. 
(liles's.  He  was  followed  to  the  grave  by  an  immense  body 
of  mourners,  nobles  and  people,  and  then  were  uttered  by 


K  NOX— K  N  Y  I'll  AUSi:X. 


l."^7o 


Morton,  the  new  regent,  the  words  "ho  neither  feared  nor 

flattered  any  fle^h,"  which  the  world  has  accepted  in  its 
later,  more  trraceful  phra-«inir.  as  the  epitome  of  Knox's 
character:  ''There  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of 
man.'*  The  precise  spot  where  he  was  buried  is  no  longer 
known.  It  is  said  the  highway  came  to  pass  over  it. 
Knox  was  pliysically  small  and  fcclde.  II is  voice  was 
weak.  It  was  its  moral  power,  by  which,  as  the  Knglish 
ambassador  wrote  to  Cecil,  "the  voice  of  one  man  is  able 
in  an  hour  to  put  more  life  in  us  than  six  hundred 
trumpets."  Knox  was  profoundly  pious,  indomitable  in 
pnr|)0!ie,  yet  not  without  j;cniality  and  humur.  not  without 
sensibility  and  tenderness,  and  tliat  vein  of  melancholy 
which  so  often  attends  them.  He  hated  bad  thinirs  rather 
than  bad  men.  His  animosities  were  the  animosities  of 
principle.  None  feared  him  but  the  enemies  of  truth.  Ho 
was  above  all  pettiness.  He  was  a  man  of  thought  and  a 
man  of  action,  a  statesman  as  well  as  a  divine,  with  an 
acuteness  of  insight  into  character  and  a  comprehension 
of  the  movements  of  Providence  which  gave  iiim  almost  a 
prophetic  forecast.  He  abhorred  every  species  of  tyranny, 
and  roused  a  spirit  in  his  native  land  which  broke  violence 
with  violence.  He  had  the  roughness  needed  for  a  rough 
time  and  a  fierce  people.  lie  was  intolerant  to  the  intol- 
erant, and,  exacting  in  his  conception  of  his  own  <luty.  be 
was  exacting  of  others.  His  writings  are  full  of  vigor, 
originality,  and  simplicity.  In  his  intellectual  tone  and 
theological  opinions  he  was  in  afiinity  with  Calvin,  in  his 
pergonal  heroism  he  resembled  Luther :  an<I  next  to  Luther's 
his  story  stirs  the  soul  in  this  great  baf(!e-roll  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. Ho  wantorl  nothing  hut  a  wider  sphere  lo  take 
rank  in  the  first  order  of  the  historic  men  of  his  age. 
Perhaps  ft  wider  sphere  could  not  have  been  given  him, 
for  as  none  but  Scotland  could  have  produced  a  Knox, 
none  but  .Scotland  would  haveendurcil  him.  Such  a  direct 
and  daring  contlict  as  Knox  wa^cd  with  the  great  would 
hardly  have  found  out  of  Scotland  such  a  support;  hut 
not  in  Scotlan«I  itself  could  any  man  but  Knox  have  de- 
veloped it.  The  estimates  of  so  strong  a  man  in  so  stir- 
rini;  a  time,  in  which  the  jfolitical  and  religious  antag- 
onisms were  so  violent,  vary,  of  necessity,  very  much. 
Hume:  "His  political  principles  were  as  full  of  sedition 
as  his  theological  were  full  of  rage  and  bigotry.'*  Whita- 
ker:  "A  holy  savage."  "I  happened  to  ask,"  says  Bos- 
well,  "  where  Johu  Knox  was  buried;  Dr.  Johnson  burst 
out,  '  I  hope  in  the  highway.'  "  Robertson  :  "  Zeal,  intre- 
pidity, disinterestedness,  were  virtues  which  ho  possessed 
in  an  eminent  degree."  Melville:  "That  most  notable 
prophet  and  apostle  of  our  nation,  John  Knox."  Banna- 
tvnc  :  "The  light  of  Scotland,  the  comfort  of  the  Church, 
the  mirror  of  godliness."  Smelon  :  "  I  know  not  if  ever 
so  much  piety  and  genius  were  lodged  in  so  frail  and  weak 
a  body."  Frou<lc:  "  Xo  grander  figure  can  be  found,  in 
(he  entire  history  of  the  Reformation  in  this  island,  than 
that  of  Knox.  Ru^  for  him  the  Reformation  would  have 
been  overthrown  among  ourselves.  .  .  .  He  raised  the  poor 
commons  of  his  country  into  a  stern  and  rugged  people, 
who  might  bo  hard,  narrow,  superstitious,  and  fanatical, 
but  who,  nevertheless,  were  men  whom  neither  king,  nol)Ie. 
nor  prie!<t  couM  force  again  to  submit  to  tyranny."  Car- 
lyle:  "The  most  Scottish  of  Scot?.  .  .  .  Nothing  hypo- 
critical, foolish,  or  untrue  can  find  hurhor  in  this  man  ;  a 
pure  and  manly  silent  tenderness  of  afTeotion  is  in  him; 
touches  of  genial  humor  are  not  wanting  under  his  severe 
austerity.  A  mojtt  clear-cut,  liurily,  distinct,  andeffcctivo 
man;  fearing  <iod  without  any  other  fear.  There  is  in 
Knox  throughout  the  spirit  of  an  old  Hebrew  prophet — 
spirit  almo<<t  altogether  unir{uc  among  modern  men.  A 
Ileaven-in^pircd  seer  and  heroic  leader  of  men." 

Knox's  //M/ori/../"  the  /i'/.,riiinti»u  in  .SV.,//.mk/  appeared 
in  I68G.  His  entire  works  have  been  cililed  by  Laing 
(ISIrt-S.')),  The  older  sketches  of  Knox  are  by  Beza,  A'lam, 
and  Vcrheidcn.  The  he^t  Lirrtt  are  by  McCric  ( I^M),  Nie- 
meyer  f  IK24).  and  Rrandes  (IS(J:.M.  The  general  histories 
of  tircat  Itritain  and  of  England  covering  Knox'o  time 
touch  upon  him  with  more  or  less  fulness — Hume,  Linganl, 
Kroude.  The  general  lii!)toric!<  of  the  Kiiglir'h  Reforma- 
tion and  Church  of  Knglnnd — Rurnel.  Short  :  of  the  Prot- 
cstant  Church  and  sects  of  (ireat  Rrilnin — Weber  (IM  (5- 
b'J ) :  more  particularly  the  histories  of  Scotland,  general — 
as  Robertson,  Tytler,  Von  Raumrr,  Rurton  :  or  special — 
Thomas  McCrie,  .Jr.,  Sk-rrrhr»  "/"  Sroitinh  f^hurrfi  Iliittory 
{ISll-ll'.).  D'Aubign/'-'s  Thrr^  (V,ifN,-.V*  «/*  .S'/rm/v//- (l.s:>0)  ; 
Rudloir  I2d  cd..  1«J4).  Kiisllin  i  |.s;,:M,  are  of  value.  Car- 
lylo  has  an  article  in  rrnnrr'i>  Mai/nzinr  for  Apr.,  IS7A,  on 
the  portraits  of  John  Knox,  published  by  Harper  A  Rron., 
1S7^>.  Lorimcr,  Jnhu  Knnx  mtil  fh*i  Church  nf  Kntj\%i%ui 
(Lond.,  IS7.'>i,  has  used  important  papers  to  illustrate  his 
work  in  her  pulpit  and  his  influenoe  in  various  respects. 

C.  P.  KnAiTii, 
Knox  (Jons  Jav),  b.  in  Knoxboro*,  Ouoida  co.,  N.  Y., 


Mar.  19,  1828;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in.  1849; 
was  a  private  banker  or  an  officer  of  a  bank  until  1802, 
when  he  received  an  appointment  from  Secretary  Chase, 
and  subsequently  bad  charge  of  the  mint  eoiniigo  corre- 
spondence of  the  treasury  department;  in  lJS(i7  he  was 
appointed  deputy  comptroller  of  the  currency;  and  in 
1870  his  two  reports  on  the  mint  service,  together  with  a 
codification  of  the  mint  and  coinngo  laws  of  the  U.S.,  willi 
many  important  amendments,  were  published  by  order  of 
Congress.  The  bill  which  he  proposed  was  subsequently 
passed  with  a  few  modifications,  and  is  known  as  "  the 
Coinage  Act  of  1873."  In  1872  he  was  appointed  comp- 
troller of  the  currency,  and  in  1877  reap])ointcd.  His  six 
reports  published  by  Congress  contain  historical  sketches 
of  the  two  banks  of  the  W  S.  and  of  the  State  and  national 
systems  of  banking,  and  statistical  information  of  banking 
and  currency  in  this  country,  from  the  curliest  date  to  the 
present  time. 

Knox  (LoRKS  L.).  D.  D..  b.  in  Nelson,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  8, 
1811  ;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  1838:  tutor  1838- 
40;  held  numerous  pastorates  aud  several  priucipalships 
of  seminaries  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  ;  was  pro- 
fessor in  Lawrence  University,  Appleton,  Wis.,  18;>8-64, 
and  was  placed  on  the  superannuated  list  of  his  Church  in 
1871. 

Knox  Corners  (KsoxBonorGn  P.  0.),  a  v.  of  Augusta 
tp.,  Oneida  eo,.  N.  Y.     Pop.  208. 

Knox'villCy  post-tp.  of  Greene  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1032. 
KnoxviHe,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ga.,  15  miles 
from  Fort  Valley  Station  on  the  South-western  R.  11. 

KnoxviUe^  city  of  Knox  tp.,  Knox  co.,  111.,  50  miles 
W.of  Peoria  and  50  E.  of  Burlington,  la.  It  has  1  news- 
paper (established  18j(>),  1  national  bank,  B  institutions 
of  learning.  7  churches,  4  hotels,  7  wagon  and  carriage 
shops,  2  flour-mills,  and  1  woollcn-mill.  It  is  largely  en- 
gaged in  coal-mining  and  wagon  manufacturing;  is  the 
scat  of  the  Episcopal  diocesan  school  of  lUiniiis  for  girls, 
with  an  attendance  of  over  100  pupils.  Pop.  1883. 
0.  L.  Cami'Bkli.,  Forkman  "  Knux  Co.  Rkpi:blican." 
Knoxville,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Marion  co.,  la.,  40 
miles  S.  E.  of  Des  Moines.  It  has  2  national  banks,  2 
weekly  newspapers,  6  churches,  3  hotels,  3  steam-mills.  2 
woollen-factories,  an  iron-foundry,  more  than  20  stores  of 
different  kinds.  It  is  situated  on  the  line  of  the  A.  K.  and 
D.  R.  R.     Pop.  of  V.  800:  of  tp.  4750. 

J.  L.  McCoRMACK.  Ed.  "Marion  Co.  Demochat." 
Knoxville^  post-v.  of  Frederick  co.,  I\Id.,  on  the  Poto- 
mac River,  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  and  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  R.  R.     Pop.  320. 

Knoxvillc,  post-v.  aud  tp.  of  Ray  co.'.  Mo.     Pop.  2-lfiO. 
KnoxviHe  (  Stock  bridgk  P.O.).  a  v.  of  Slcickbridge  tp., 
Madison  co..  N.  Y.     It  has  3  churches.     Pop.  241. 

Knoxvillc,  a  v.  of  Corning  tp..  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y..  on 
fhe  Cheuuing  Kivcr,  opposite  Corning,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  bridge.     Poji.  785. 

Knoxvillc,  post-v.  of  Knox  tp.,  Jefferson  co.,  0.  Pop. 
165. 

KnoxviMe,  poet-b.  of  Deerfield  tp.,  Tioga  co..  Pa.  Pi>p. 
400. 

Knoxville,  city,  cap.  of  Knox  co.,  Tcnn.,  is  situated  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Tennessee  River,  on  the  East 
Tennessee  Virginia  and  Georgia  R.  R..  and  on  the  projected 
road  from  Cincinnati  to  Charleston,  the  latter  roatl  being 
conipleled  40  miles  N.  to  Careyville  coaI-mine.'<',  and  10  miles 
S.  to  Maryville.  It  fans  17  churches,  5  banks,  2  daily  and 
4  weekly  newspapers,  3  hotels,  an  opera  house,  numerous 
and  enterprising  wholesale  houses,  n  rolling-nnll,  3  ftmo- 
drics,  a  paper-mill,  a  carriage-factory,  sash  and  blinil  fac- 
tories, extensive  railroad  car  and  repair  shops,  several  fine  - 
flour-mills,  and  many  other  industrial  establishments. 
Knoxvillc  is  the  third  city  of  Tennessee  in  size,  the  centre 
nf  the  great  valley  of  East  Tennessee,  one  of  the  most  beiiu- 
liful  and  fertile  regions  of  the  \} .  "^.^  tind  is  noted  for  the 
,  niimbor  of  its  public  eslablislnnenls.  which  include  a  mar- 
hlo  U.  S.  court-house  (and  postoflieo")  recently  completed 
at  a  cost  of  $100,000.  in  wliieh  the  Federal  courts  and  the 
Slato  supreme  court  mer-t  ;  the  East  Tennessee  University, 
the  State  Agricultural  College  (.■?5()0.000  endowmeut),  a  fc 
I  male  institute,  and  several  fine  city  free  schools,  free  public 
library,  .'^late  deaf  and  dumb  school  and  insane  asylum,  and 
!  an  orphans*  home.  Knoxvillu  University,  well  endowed  by 
the  M.  E.  Church,  is  to  be  erected  here,  as  also  a  city  hos- 
pital. It  is  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  and  man- 
ufaoturing  centres  in  the  .South.     Pop.  8(>82. 

RriK  k  Ricks.  Ens.  "Daii.v  CnnoNiri.E." 
Knoxville  Mines,  a  v.  of  Lake  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  104. 
Knyphnu'scn  ( Itono  IIknrv),  Raron.  b.  in  Alsace  in 
173U;  entered  the  military  service  of  Prussia  at  an  early 


1576 


KOALA— KOLLAR. 


age,  and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  Frederick  the  Great 
a-^ainst  Austria ;  befainc  lieutenant-general,  aud  was  second 
in  commniul  of  the  liegsian  ami  Waideek  troops  sent  to 
America  during  the  Kt-volutionary  war ;  was  engaged  in  the 
battles  of  Long  Ishind.  White  Plains.  Fort  Washington, 
lirandywine,  and  Monmouth,  and  was  temporarily  in  com- 
mand of  the  forrrs  in  New  York  City  in  June,  17?>0,  when 
hi'  made  two  raids  into  New  Jersey,  with  but  slight  ad- 
vantage beyond  the  sacking  of  Connecticut  Farms  and  the 
burning  of  Springfield,  lie  was  an  excellent  commanding 
ofliccr,  and  notable  for  taciturnity.  D.  at  Berlin,  Prussia, 
May  2.  I7S0. 

Koa'ta^  the  Phaacofarrtos  r/ncrctM^  a  syndactyl  marsu- 
jtial  mammal  of  Australia  and  of  the  family  Phascolarctidie. 
It  is  ursine  in  its  general  appearance,  nocturnal  and  arbor- 
eal in  its  habits,  and  extremely  slow  in  its  movements.  It 
is  a  marsupial  sloth,  but  we  arc  told  that  it  sometimes  comes 
to  the  earth  and  digs  up  succulrnt  roots  as  food.  The  fe- 
male carries  her  single  whelp  for  a  time  in  the  pouch,  but 
soon  transfers  it  to  her  back,  where  it  clings  by  the  Jong 
coarse  hair. 

Ko'bell,  von  (Franz),  b.  at  Munich  July  19,  1S03, 
and  bi-eanie  pn»fes:!ior  of  mineralogy  at  the  university  of 
his  native  city  in  IS.'U.  Of  the  Oenrhichte  tier  Wissen- 
schn/ten  hi  Ihnttichfnw/,  a  Work  which  was  undertaken 
under  the  auspices  of  King  Max  of  liavnria,  he  wrote  Oc- 

fx'hirhte  tfrr  Minrrahujic  von  1050  bU  JSOO;  hc  also  pub- 
lished several  popular  papers  on  mineralogy. 

Ko'bold  [Ger.],  in  German  legends,  a  kind  of  elf  which 
in  some  places  was  believed  to  be  attached  to  gome  particu- 
lar house  or  place.  In  general  the  kobolds  were  beneficent, 
but  some  were  malicious.  They  particularly  haunted  the 
mine>';  tliey  were  little,  decrepit  old  men  and  women,  dressed 
generally  in  miners' clothes.  They  heaped  up  precious  stones 
and  valuable  metals;  and  though  they  dreaded  to  be  seen 
by  men.  they  were  fond  of  doing  mankind  favors  in  secret. 
Ko'briii,  or  Kobryn,  town  of  Russian  Poland,  in  the 
government  of  Grodno,  on  the  Machazica,  has  some  trade 
and  7bM)  inhabitants. 

Koch'ville,  tp.  of  Saginaw  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  lOTO. 
Kock,  cle  (Charles  Pail),  b.  in  Paris  in  1794,  was  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  banker  Kock,  who  conspired  under  the 
Revolution  and  was  guillotined.  Paul  de  Kock  published 
his  novels  during  the  Restoration  and  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe.  These  works  are  all  of  a  very  comical  turn  and  of 
a  light  character,  sometimes  bordering  on  license.  Among 
the  most  popular  were  (for  they  are  now  somewhat  out  of 
fashion),  M.  Dnpnnt,  Gugtave  on  Ic  Mauvaia  Sujet,  and  Lea 
JJemohefleH  de  Mafjasln,  Paul  de  Kock  also  wrote  many 
vatuferillen  for  the  stage.  I>.  at  Paris  Aug.  29,  1S71. — His 
son.  Henri,  b.  in  Paris  in  1^21.  follows  the  literary  path 
trodden  by  his  father,  and  he  has  already  published  many 
light  novels  and  several  vaiide.vUlet  and  comedies.    ' 

Felix  Aucaigne. 
Kcrchlin'  (ANnnf:).*  b.  in  Alsace  in  17S6.  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Kfcehlin  family,  whieh  has  established 
and  rendered  the  print  trade  of  Mulhousc  iu  Alsace  so 
prosperous.  Jacques  and  Nicolas  Ka?chlin  were  the  first 
to  engage  in  that  industry,  but  it  reached  its  highest  degree 
through  the  efforts  of  Andr6  Koechlin,  who  can  be  considered 
as  the  head  of  this  family,  whieh  does  not  count  less  than 
seven  branches,  and  some  members  of  which  arc  still  the 
greatest  manufacturers  of  Mulhouso  prints. 

Fklix  ArCATGNE. 
Koek'koek  (Bernard  Cornelus),  b.  at  Middleburg 
in  the  Xetherlands  Oet.  11,  180;J;  i^tudicd  the  art  of  paint- 
ing under  his  father  and  at  Amsterdam,  and  settled  in  1S41 
at  Clevcs  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  where  he  d.  Apr.  5,  IS02. 
He  painted  landscapes,  and  his  pictures  arc  prized  very 
highly.  He  had  three  brothers,  who  all  are  painters  of  j 
note. 

Kohat%  town  of  the  Punjaub.  in  a  district  of  the  same 
name.  In  its  vicinity  arc  rich  springs  ol  naphtha  and  ex- 
tensive beds  of  sulphur.  It  forms  au  important  station  for 
the  trade  between  India  aud  Persia. 

Koh-i-noor'  (the  "mountain  of  light"),  a  famous 
diamond  which  for  many  centuries  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  monarchs  of  India,  and  now  in  that  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria. Successivo  cuttings  reduced  its  weight  from  900  I 
carats  to  792,  then  to  279.  next  to  IHfi.C.  and  at  last  in  1862 
to  I0;i.7;>,  being  rose-eut,  and  valued  at  about  $000,UUO. 

Kohl  f  JoRANN  (iEORo).  Ph.  D..  b.  at  Bremen,  Germany, 
Apr.  2S.  ISOS;  studied  law  at  the  universities  of  GSttingen, 
Heidelberg,  and  Munich;  resided  for  five  years  { 1832—17) 
as  a  private  tutor  in  Courland,  Russia,  and  after  visiting 
u  great  part  of  that  empire  settled  in  Dresden  in  IS.'IS, 
where  he  prepared  three  works  on  Russia,  all  published  in 
ISJI.  Their  success  led  him  to  make  a  similarly  careful 
series  of  journeys  in  the  Austrian  empire,  and  afterwards 


in  Great  Britain.  Denmark,  the  Nethcrlande,  and  tbo  Sla- 
vonic  portion  of  Turkey,  of  nil  whieh  countries  he  furnished 
excellent  accounts  in  his  popular  books  of  travel.  His  writ- 
ings on  Denmark  an'd  .SK-.-iwiek-IIolstein  (6  vols..  184C- 
47)  were  published  opportunely  just  before  the  political 
questions  regarding  the  Danish  duchies  sprang  into  im- 
portance (1848),  aud  they  therefore  obtained  a  wide  pub- 
licity. From  ls;>4  to  ISjS,  Dr.  Kohl  travelled  or  resided 
in  North  America,  and  as  a  conse(|uence  prepared  several 
valuable  works — Travels  in  (Miunla  (\^o:>),  Traif.U  iu  the 
North-wentrru  Pnrts  of  the  U.  S.,  and  Kitrhi'Gami,uv  Talta 
from  Lake  Superior  ( 1S07).  He  also  communicated  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  two  essays  on  early  maps  aud  charts 
of  America,  and  prepared  a  catalogue  of  Ihein  as  a  supple- 
ment to  Hakluyfs  great  work.  Iu  iStH  ho  published  a 
Jiist.  of,  and  Cominentarif  oji,  tiro  Mnjm  of  the  Xtir  U'ii/7(i 
made  in  Spain  at  the  Commcnvcntcut  of  the  Rtitjii  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  almost  at  the  same  time  a  Hift. 
of  the  Discorrrif  of  Aiiierica.  Dr.  Kohl  resided  after  his 
return  from  America  at  Bremen,  and  d.  there  June  G.  1871. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  communicated  to  the  Maine 
Historical  Society  important  data  rcppeetiug  the  early  an- 
nals of  discovery,  exploration,  and  aticinpted  colonization 
of  the  coasts  of  Maine  by  French  navigators. 

Kohl'-rabi  [Gcr..  perhaps  originally  meaning  '*  rape 
cabbage  "  or  "  Ijcet  cabbage  " — h'ohl-rultr'\,  a  variity  of  tbo 
lirnssica  oleraeca,  the  species  which  includes  the  cabbage, 
turnip,  etc.  The  thickened  edible  portion  is  the  leafy  stem, 
and  above  ground,  instead  of  the  root  beneath,  as  in  the 
turnip.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  I'.  S..  but  much  more  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  aud  is  prized  for  cattle  aud  for  table  use. 
Its  cultivation  is  precisely  that  of  the  cabbage. 

Ko'komO)  post-v..  cap.  of  Howard  co..  Tnd.,  54  miles 
N.  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Pittsburg  Cincinnati  and  St. 
Louis,  the  Indianapolis  Peru  and  Chicago,  and  the  Frank- 
fort and  Kokonio  R.  Rs..  being  the  terminus  of  the  latter. 
It  has  6  churches,  I  national  and  2  private  banks.  2  week- 
ly newspapers,  a  high-?ehoo|  building  (cost  $40,1)00).  ma- 
chine-shops, hub  and  spoke,  door  and  sash,  chair,  furniture, 
and  other  factories,  1  woollen  and  2  flouring  mills.  Pop. 
2177.  T.  C.  Philips,  Ed.  *' Tribine." 

1       Ko'kra,    or    Cocus-wood,   the    Aporo^a    dioira,   a 
rather  small  tree  of  the  East  Indies,  order  Euphorbiacea'. 
The  timber  is  very  hard  and  of  a  rich   handsome  brown 
I  color.     It  is  imported,  and  used  in  making  flutes  and  for 
I  ornamental  joinery. 

j  Ko'la,town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Archangel. 
I  is  the  northernmost  town  of  European  Russia,  situated 
;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kola  and  Tuloma.  36  miles  from 
I  the  Arctic  Ocean,  in  lat.  riS*^  50'  X..  Ion.  Z^^  lb'  E.,  cud  has 
a  good  harbor.  It  was  bombarded  by  the  allied  powers 
r  Aug.  2.1,  1854.     Pop.  about  1000. 

Kolapoor'y  an  independent  state  under  Engliiih  protec- 
tion, in  the  jircsidcney  of  Bombay,  partly  occupied  l)y  the 
!  AVestern  Ghauts,  jiarlly  situated  on  tHc  table-land  of  Dce- 
'  can,  bordering  on  the  Kistnah.     Area,  3445  square  miles. 
Pop.  500,000.     Cap.  Kolapoor. 

Kolb  (Geokg  FniErmicn),  b.  Sept.  14,  1808,  at  Spires, 
where  in  Ib'.'S  hc  founded  a  liberal  journal,  which  hc  con- 
dueled  for  more  than  twenty  years,  though  uuder  many 
ditlicuUies  from  the  government.  As  a  member  of  the 
Bavarian  diet  he  compelled  King  Louis  I.,  iu  l>4y.  by  his 
report  on  the  Greek  louu.  to  repay  to  the  state  treasury 
out  of  his  private  means  the  money  which  had  been  lent 
to  his  son,  King  Otho  of  Greece.  Shortly  after  the  reac- 
tionary party  came  into  |>ower,  aud  Kolb  had  to  retire  to 
Zurich  to  escape  from  the  persecutions  of  the  govtrnment. 
He  lived  here  from  185o  to  18ri0.  On  his  return  hc  became 
editor  of  the  liberal  journal.  Frankfurter  Ztitumj.  Besides 
being  a  journalist  and  politician,  hc  has  acquired  u  great 
name  as  a  statistician.  He  wrote  l/tindhuch  der  verylcich- 
eudtn  Stittistik  (1858)  and  O'rinidritis  dtr  Statiatik  (1862). 

Kol'csey  (Fkhkncz),  b.  Aug.  8.  1790.  at  Szo-Demeter, 
in  Transylvania:  studied  law,  but  allied  himself  very  early 
with  that  literary  movement  at  the  head  of  which  stood 
Kazinczy.  His  poems  and  tales  were  much  appreciated ; 
he  exercised  the  greatest  influence,  however,  by  his  clear 
and  vigorous  criticism.  Having  been  elected  a  member  of 
the  Hungarian  diet  { 1832-36).  he  showed  himself  to  be  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  orators  of  the  country,  and  a  great 
political  career  was  opened  for  him  when  he  suddenly  d.  at 
Pesth,  Aug,  21,  I8.'{S.  His  collected  works  were  published 
after  his  death  ;  his  JJiart/,  during  the  diet  in  184S. 

Koliazin'f  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Tver.     It  is  famous  for  its  shoe-factories.      Pop.  5895. 

Kolin'f  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe. 
Here  the  Austrians  under  Daun  defeated  the  Prussians  un- 
der Frederick  the  Great.  June  18,  1757.     Pop.  7727. 
KoHar'  (Jan),  b.  July  2y,  1793,  at  Mossocz,  in  North- 


KOLLIKER— KONIGSTEIN. 


1577 


western  Hungary,  of  Slavic  descent;  studied  theology  at 
Prcsburg  and  Jcnii :  was  appointi'd  minister  to  Ihe  Slavic 
congregation  nt  I*est!i  in  Isl'.t,  oml  removed  in  1K4'J,  as 
professor  of  Slavic  archaeology,  lo  Vicuna,  where  he  d.  Jan. 
2U,  18o2.  His  poeniB  and  Um^  edition  of  the  Slavic  popiilar 
songs  exercised  a  great  intluence  on  the  development  of  the 
Itohemian  literature.  lUit  a  still  iimri-  intense  and  much 
wilier  attention  was  attracted  by  his  idcsis  of  Panslavisro, 
which  pervade  his  poetry,  his  sermons,  and  his  archteologi- 
cal  writings,  and  which  were  openly  set  forth  for  the  first 
time  in  his  Ccbcr  die  Utrrarinchc  Wt'cfmrheitif/keit  zwiscUen 
dtn  Stiimmrn  und  MuudartcH  der  iilawischen  A'atioiten 
(1S;U),  written  in  (icrman. 

KoTlikcr  (Ridoi.f  Ai.BUKCtiT).  h.  at  Zurich.  Switzer- 
land, July  G,  1817:  studied  at  Zurich.  Uonie.  and  lierlin  ; 
became  distinguished  for  knowledge  of  histology  and  skill 
in  micro?c<tpical  anatomy  ;  was  nuide  an  instructor  at  Zu- 
rich in  1H41;,  and  in  I84j  adjunct  professor  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  of  physiology  :  received  the  full  professorship 
of  the  same  branches  at  Wiiizhurg  in  1.SI7,  and  in  IS-l'J 
heciimc  professor  of  anatomy  there.  Author  of  a  series  of 
very  valuable  works  on  histology,  physiology,  and  other 
departments  of  biology,  several  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  the  principal  European  languages. 

Kolmar,  tp.  of  Olmsted  co.,   Minn.     Pop.  972. 

Kolonio'Uf  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  (lalicia, 
on  (he  Pruth.  at  ilie  foot  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  It 
is  famous  for  its  pottery.      P(»p.  14,S.'iy. 

Kolom'na,  town  of  Kuropean  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Moscow,  on  the  Moskva,  near  its  confluence  with 
the  Oka.  It  has  large  silk  manufactures  and  a  consider- 
able trade.     Pop.  l:i,70:i. 

Koloshcs,  the  Russian  name  for  the  Indians  of  the 
const  of  Alaska.   fScc  Komacas.) 

iionfi  Mountains,  the  name  of  a  mountain-range  of 
Central  Africa,  commencing  in  lat.  9°  N.  and  Ion.  '.)°  20'  W., 
at  a  distance  of  about  2O0  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  (luinea, 
and  forming  the  northern  frrmtier  <tf  Ashaiitce.  The  height 
of  these  mountains  i-  not  more  than  2.')()0  feet,  but  very 
little  is  known  about  tbeui.  Tlic  Kong  district  is  remark- 
able for  its  trade  in  gold,  and  the  town  of  Kong  is  quite 
celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  col  ton  cloth,  in  which  it 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade,  being  itself  a  centre  of  sev- 
eral caravan-routes. 

Konfj^^'berj;,  town  of  Xorway.  in  the  province  of  Chris- 
tiania,  has  a  mining  scbool.  and  in  its  vicinity  silver-mines, 
discovered   in    102^5,   and  still   worked   with   profit.     Pop. 

about  .onon. 
Konia'gas,  Ka'diakn,  or  Southern  Eskimos,  a 

great  family  of  aborigines  inhabiting  thcsca-c<»ast  of  Alaska 
for  more  than  lilM)  miles  from  Kot/.ebuc  Sound,  N.  of  lUh- 
ring  Strait,  across  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River,  and  extending  inland  lOU  to 
IJO  miles.  They  derive  their  name  from  the  large  island 
of  Kadiak,  the  inhabitants  of  which  called  themselves 
K'nunfinl.  They  arc  divided  into  fourteen  tribes — the 
K'>niaga3  proper,  who  inhabit  Kadiak  and  tlic  neighboring 
islands;  (hugatslies,  on  the  islands  and  shores  of  Prince 
William  Sound;  Aglegmutes,  on  Itristol  Rnj' ;  Keyalaig- 
mutes,  on  the  river  Nushagak  and  the  coast  as  far  as  Cape 
Ncwenham;  Aguliuules,  on  the  coast  between  the  Kusko- 
quin  and  Kishunak  rivers;  Kuskoipiigtnutcs,  on  the  river 
Ku.-koquim:   Magemulrs.  near  Cape    Romanzofl";    Kwieh- 

Iiagmutcs.  Kwicbluagniutes.  and  Pa^hloliks  on  Kwichpak, 
vwiehluak.  and  Pashtulik  rivers;  Clinagmutes,  near  Pash- 
t'.lik  Ray:  Anlvgmutcs  of  (Jolovnin  Ray;  Kaviaks  and 
Miilemutes  of  Norton  Sound.  All  these  tribes  speak  dia- 
Icct.s  of  the  same  language.  (Fur  an  elaborate  account  of 
these  little  known  races  see  II.  II.  Rancrofl's  Native  Rucea 
n/tln-  I'ft'ifii:  StnUi,,  vol.  i.,  ISVI.) 

Ko'iiieh,  the  ancient  ftonitun,  town  of  Asialio  Turkey, 
the  capital  of  (ho  province  of  Karaniaiiin,  Asia  Minor, 
situated  in  lat.  'M"^  M'  N.  and  Ion.  ;i2°  41)'  K.  It  has  some 
manufactures  of  carpets  anrl  nuirocco.  but  it  is  mo.stly  in  a 
decaying  state,  although  its  walls,  surmounted  by  square 
towers,  its  nuiny  mos(|UCs  und  minarets,  give  it  an  impos- 
ing appearance  at  a  distance.  Pop.  between  4U,U00  und 
.')0,000. 

KO'niff  (Hf.ivnini  .To**Epn\  h.  Mar.  19,  1700.  nt  Fuldn. 
in  the  toruicr  eleelorale  nf  Iles-te.  held  different  small  of- 
fices in  Ihe  civil  serviee  at  Ihumu;  retired  in  is  17;  lived 
for  some  time  at  Wiesbaden,  and  d.  Sept.  23.  IS(iU.  He 
wrote  a  great  number  of  novels  and  so-calletl  historical  ro- 
mances—  f/i»fipi'f,dir  \i'4ilti'  imrrin  (2  vols.).  Wiffinm  Shnk- 
fif>r<trr    {2  vols.),    />i>    ("luUnKtfH    iu    .l/«iniS   (.'1    vols.),  etc. — 

which  were  eagerly  devoured  by  that  kind  of  people  who 
have  time  to  read  many  novels,  but  not  taste  enough  to 
rend  the  good  ones. 

KO'nigf^riUZy   a   fortified   town  of  Bohomiaf  on  the 


Elbe.  The  Austrians  under  Gen.  Rencdek  were  completely 
defeated  here  by  the  Prussians  under  Gen.  Moltko,  July  2, 
186(3.      Pop.  JVlGl. 

Kti'nisinhof,  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Elbe.  It  has 
some  manufactures.     Pop.  5370. 

Ko'ni^sbcrg,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Prussia 
and  a  fortress  of  lirst  rank,  is  situated  20  miles  from  the 
Baltic  on  both  sides  of  the  Pregel,  whose  two  arms,  the  old 
and  the  new  Prcgcl,  unite  within  tljc  city.  Pop.  Dec.  1, 
1871.  112,002.  It  is  the  scut  of  a  university,  of  the  pro- 
vincial government,  of  the  staff  of  the  1st  army  corps,  and 
has  a  numerous  garrison.  It  consists  of  three  former 
towns,  Altstadt,  Lobenicht.  and  Knei])hof,  which  in  1724 
were  united  into  one  city.  It  is  not  a  handsome  place;  the 
streets  arc  narrow  and  tlierc  are  few  conspicuous  buildings. 
Altstadt  is  the  oldest  part,  and  contains  the  palace  and  the 
tov^n-houso.  The  palace,  with  a  tower  87  metres  high, 
forms  an  oblong  square,  anil  stands  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  city.  It  is  rich  iu  historical  recollections.  It  was 
founded  in  12.'t7  by  King  Ottokar  of  Robcmia;  became  the 
residence  of  the  grand  master  of  the  (icrman  order  in 
I-ICC,  and  in  1J25  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Prussia. 
The  eastern  wing  was  built  in  lo;i2  by  Duke  Albrecht,  the 
southern  in  16^1.  In  the  chapel,  occujiying  the  western 
wing,  the  elector  of  "Rrandonburg,  Krcilcrick  IIF.,  crowned 
himself,  Jan.  18,  1701.  as  the  first  king  of  Prussia,  under 
the  name  of  Frederick  T.  In  the  same  place  William  I., 
afterwards  German  emper()r,  was  crowned  as  king  of  Prus- 
sia Oct.  18,  18(il.  Over  the  church  is  the  large  Moskowi- 
tersaal,  which  is  used  for  great  festivals.  In  front  of  the 
eastern  gate  stands  the  statue  of  Frederick  I.,  erected  in 
1801,  of  life-size.  Other  remarkable  buiblings  arc — the 
cathedral,  92  metres  long,  situated  on  an  island  formed  by 
the  Pregel,  a  Gothic  structure  commenced  in  l.'ilJo,  and  con- 
taining several  interesting  monuments;  the  old  university 
building.  Collegium  Albertinum.  founded  in  1;'»44;  the 
new  university  building,  on  the  parade-ground  to  the  N. 
of  the  juxlacc,  finished  in  |S(;2,  with  a  hall  frcscoecl  by 
Uosentelder,  Griif.  and  Piotrowsky.  On  the  parade-ground 
Pt.ands  also  the  theatre,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  place  rises 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  William  III.  by  Kiss. 
The  museum,  the  royal  library,  tlie  observatory,  tlieniuuu- 
nicnts  of  the  philosopher  Kant  and  the  niinister  Scliiin,  arc 
also  inlorcBting.  Excellent  scientific  and  benevolent  in- 
stitutions are  the  botanical  garden,  the  zoological  museum, 
the  seminary,  Ibrec  gymnasiums,  a  mercantile  school,  an 
aiuidemy  of  art.  asylums  for  the  deaf  und  dumb,  fur  the 
blind,  lunatics,  and  orphans,  and  several  hospitals.  The 
nnmufacturing  industry  is  considerable.  Iron-foundries, 
machine-shops,  breweries,  and  dyework.s  are  in  operation. 
Iron  goods,  chemicals,  soap,  paper  hangings,  leather,  and 
tobacco  are  manufactured.  To  the  city  belonged  in  1872, 
la  sea-going  vessels,  besides  8  river  steamboats.  At  Pil- 
lau,  the  port  of  Kiinigsberg,  entered  in  1871,  1322  vessels, 
with  cargoes  of  IIO.OJO  tons,  and  ."588  vessels  without  car- 
goes; and  cleared,  I.VIO  vessels,  with  cargoes  of  lii.'i.OGS 
tons,  and  8i  vessels  witluuit  cargoes.  Among  the  imports 
were  2lH,07fl  cwts.tea,  U0,4(i.')  cv.ts.  pig  iron.  3I8.1'J3  cwts. 
rails,  131,238  barrels  of  herrings,  1,018,255  cwts.  coal, 
1  323,'IS5  cwts.  salt.  Among  the  expoils  were  201,808  cwts. 
tea  to  Russia,  138,247  cwts.  rails,  20;'.,filiO  cwts.  flax  and 
heiup.OU7.00(i  cwts.  wheat,  2,130, l)2il  cwts.  rye,  401, SO  I  cwts. 
.  barley,  433,007  cwts.  oats,  310,500  cwts.*  beans,  700,412 
j  cwts.  oil-sceds,  104,8.33  cwts.  rags,  175,230  cwts.  salt. 

Konigsberg  was  built  by  the  Teutonic  order  of  Knights 

in  1255  as  a  fortress  against  llu'  jiagiin  Samhender,  and  losc 

I  to  importance  througli  its  corn-trade.      In  1020  its  foi-tifi- 

I  cations  were  reconstructed,  and  again  in  1813.     About  1523 

it  became  the  capital  of  the  duchy  (tf  Prussia.     In  1758  it 

i  was  occupied  for  a  short  time,  by  the  Russians,  in  1807  by 

I  the  French.     The  philosopher  Kant  taught  here  from  1755 

to  his  deatli,  Feb.  12,  1804,  AriasT  Nikmann. 

Ko'nic^^ninrk  (.MAitiv  ArnoiiA^,  CorNTKSs,  b.  nt  Stado. 
Ilanitver,  in  IfiiiO.  Her  lather  was  a  Swedish  general,  and 
fell  ill  th)'  Dutch  service  at  Bonn  in  1073;  her  motber  was 
a  daughter  of  the  Swedish  field-marshal  Wrangel.  She  re- 
ceived a  brilliant  education  at  the  courts  of  Stoekh<tlm, 
Hanover,  nnd  Rrunswick,  and  she  was  moret)Vcr  exceed- 
ingly beautiful.  In  1004  she  *vcnt  lo  Hresden,  where 
August  II.  had  just  ascended  the  throne,  and  in  lOOO  she 
bfirc  him  a  son,  the  famou.<4  Maurice,  nuirshal  of  Saxony. 
In  i7"2  (he  king,  whose  frien<l  she  became  after  being  his 
mistress,  sent  her  to  the  camp  of  Charles  X  1 1,  in  (Nunland 
(o  ))orsuade  him  to  niakc  pcact^  but  Charles  XII.  declined 
to  SCO  "  the  most  tanious  woman  of  two  centuries,"  as  Vol- 
taire calls  her.  The  rest  of  her  life  consists  merely  of 
anecdotes  an>l  gossip  more  or  Icm  credible.  She  d.  poor 
and  sutVering  at  Qucdiinburg  Feb.  10,  1728. 

Ko'niustpin,  small  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe.     Behind  it  rises  a  huge  rock, 


1578 


KONIGSWAKTH— KORAN. 


878  feet  above  the  river  and  lUl  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
entirely  inaccessible  except  through  a  narrow  passage  to 
tiie  N.  W.  On  tlie  top  ol  this  mek  is  buiU  the  famous 
fortress  (if  Koiiigstein  with  bombproof  casemate!?,  and  a 
well  1172  feet  deej),  to  which  the  crown  jewels  and  the 
treasury  of  the  kingdom  are  brought  in  times  of  war. 

Ko'ni§;8\varth,  town  of  Bohemia,  has  iron  and  tin 
mines  and  mineral  springs.     Pop.  74y4. 

Koohetph'i,  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Daghistan,  Caucasus,  manufactures  cloth,  shawls,  and 
arms.      Pop.  COOO. 

Koo'doOf  a  splendid  antelope  of  South  Africa,  the 
StrepHt'ccros  koodoo,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family.  It 
has  an  extensive  range  in  the  wooded  regions,  is  easily 
domesticated,  and  its  tlcsh  is  highly  esteemed.  Its  large 
and  spirally  twisted  horns  are  characteristic  of  the  species. 

KooTa^  or  Kufa^  town,  or  rather  the  ruins  of  a  town. 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Knordistan.  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Euphrates,  was  founded  by  Omar,  who  made 
it  his  residence,  and  who  was  murdered  here.  It  soon  be- 
came the  scat  of  Arabic  learning,  and  the  ancient  Arabic 
characters  called  Cu/ic  received  their  name  from  this  place. 
AVhen,  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  the  residency  was 
removed  to  Bagdad,  Koofa  declined,  and  sank  into  ruins. 

KoolTo,  or  Kiilfo,  town  of  Western  Africa,  in  the 
dominion  of  Gando.  stands  on  the  Mayarroxv,  in  lat.  10° 
10'  N..  Ion.  6°  45'  E..  and  is  surrounded  with  high  walls. 
It  has  an  important  trade,  and  about  12,000  inhabitants. 

Kooni)  or  Kiim^  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Irak  Ajeniee.  is  pariiy  in  ruins  since  its  destruction  by  the 
Afghans  in  1722,  but  is  at  present  rising  once  more.  The 
district  in  which  it  stands  is  very  fertile,  and  its  position 
on  the  road  between  Teheran  and  Kasbin  gives  it  consid- 
erable commercial  importance.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Koondooz'9  KhoondooZy  or  Kunduz,  a  small 
province  of  Northern  Afghanistan,  lying  between  the  fron- 
tier of  Bokhara  and  the  Bolor  Mountains,  formerly  an  in- 
dependent khanate  of  Tartary,  but  now  owning  allegiauce 
to  the  Ameer  of  Cabool.  The  greater  part  of  the  province 
is  mountainous,  but  there  are  some  fertile  valleys  where 
excellent  grain  is  raised.  The  capital,  Koondooz,  has  a 
population  of  2000. 

Koordislan',  or  Kurdistan,  the  name  of  an  exten- 
sive region  of  Western  Asia,  situated  between  hit.  o4°  and 
38°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  42°  and  47°  E.  It  forms  no  in- 
dependent political  unit,  but  is  divided  between  Turkey 
and  Persia,  though  its  relations  to  both  of  these  two  powers 
are  somewhat  loose.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  100,000  square 
miles  :  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  at  :J,000.000,of  whom 
four-tifths  are  Koords.  The  country  is  mountainous,  some 
of  the  peaks  rising  to  the  height  of  i:j.O()0  feet,  intersected 
by  beautiful  valleys  along  the  rivers,  which  in  great  num- 
ber flow  down  to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  The  Koords. 
who  are  M<)hammedans.  live  mostly  as  nomads.  They 
are  a  proud  and  fierce  race,  engaged  in  the  rearing  of  cat- 
tle, sheep,  goats,  an<l  horses,  of  which  great  numbers  are 
annually  exported  both  to  Turkey  and  to  Persia,  where 
they  are  highly  ej-teemed — the  goats  for  their  silky  hair, 
the  horses  for  their  strength  and  fieriness.  Generally,  their 
looks,  characters,  and  habits  correspond  perfectly  with  the 
description  Xenophon  gives  of  them. 

Koorile  Islands.     See  Kuimi.k  Islands. 

Koorskfor  Kursk,  government  of  European  Russia, 
between  the  Don  and  the  Dnieper.  Area,  17,3S5  square 
miles,  with  1,86C,H.')'J  inhabitants.  The  surface  is  mostly 
low  but  undulating,  and  the  soil  very  fertile.  Large  crops 
of  wheat  arc  raised,  besides  hemp,  tobacco,  and  fruit. 

Koorsk,  or  Kursk,  town  of  European  Kussia,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  government  of  Koorsk,  on  the  Seim.  It  is  a 
flourishing  to\vn,  with  an  extensive  trade  in  tallow,  rope, 
and  fruit,  and  many  good  educational  institutions.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Koorsk  is  held  au  annual  fair  in  the 
month  of  ,Iuly.  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  fairs  of  the 
country.      Pop.  2S.'.t2!. 

KooMruais,  Kitiinaha,  Coutanies,  Cottoiiois, 
or  Flat  bows,  a  tribe  of  Indiana  in  British  Columbia, 
Wiushington.  Idaho,  and  Montana  Territories,  called  by 
themselves  Skalzi.  They  are  classed  by  H.  H.  Bancroft 
(X'llive  /inrca  0/  thr  Part'Jic  StatrHf  vol.  i.,  1874)  in  the 
Shushwap  family  of  the  Columbian  or  Nootka-Columbian 
group;  by  others  they  are  placed  in  the  Palish  or  Flat- 
head family,  and  arc  sometimes  considered  a  family  by 
themselves,  though  closely  allied  to  the  Atnas  and  Oka- 
nagans.  Amid  a  multitude  of  authorities,  frequently  at 
variance  with  each  other  or  ilefectivc  upon  essential  points, 
the  tribal  distribution  of  this  entire  group  is  still  problem- 
atical. The  original  hnbitnt  of  the  Koolenais  is  in  British 
Columbia,  in  the  space  bounded  by  the  Columbia  and 
Clark  rivers  and  the  Kocky  Mountains,  where  about  400 


still  remain  upon  the  Kootenai  or  Flatbow  Lake.  Some 
hundreds  now  live  in  Washington  Territory,  on  the  great 
reservation  bounded  X.  by  the  U.  S.  frontier,  E.  autl  S.  by 
the  Columbia,  and  W.  by  the  Okanagan  Kiver;  400  live  in 
Idaho,  near  the  Cipur  d'Alenc  mission  ;  and  320  are  settled 
with  the  Kalispcls,  on  the  Jocko  reservation  in  Montana. 
They  are  generally  jieaceabic  and  self-sustaining,  hunting 
the  bufl'alo  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  have  had  little  deal- 
ing with  the  government.  They  have  made  some  progress 
in  civilization  under  the  auspices  of  Father  de  Smet  and 
other  Catholic  missionaries. 

Koo'tenay,  county  of  X.  Idaho,  bounded  X.  by  British 
Columhin.  E.  i>y  Montana,  S.  by  Ctt'ur  d'Alenc  River,  and 
W.  by  Washington  Territory.  It  is  partly  mountainous, 
but  contains  large  and  fertile  prairies.  It  is  traversed  by 
Clark's  River,  and  contains  several  large  lakes.  Gold  is 
reported  to  be  found. 

Ko'pel,  a  V.  of  Marion  tp.,  Mercer  co.,  0.  Pop.  305, 
Kopp  (Joseph  Ettych),  b.  in  1793  at  Miinster.  in  the 
canton  of  Lucerne,  Switzerland  ;  was  director  of  the  Ly- 
ceum at  Lucerne  from  1819  to  1841,  and  president  of  the 
board  of  education  to  IS45,  in  which  position  he  became 
conspicuous  by  his  opposition  to  the  Jesuits.  Ilis  princi- 
pal works  are —  Vrkumicnzur  lieleurhtutit/  der  Gfsfhirht*-  der 
cidij^noeaischen  B'unde  {2  vols.,  1835-51)  and  GcHchirhte 
der  eidgenoBsischen  B'unde  {5  vols.,  1845-G2),  by  which  he 
threw  new  light  on  the  relation  between  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg  and  their  possessions  in  Switzerland,  and  liissolvcd  the 
story  about  Tell  into  a  myth.  D.  at  Lucerne  Oct.  25,  1S66. 
Kop'parberg,  or  Stora-Kopparberg,  the  name  of 
a  political  division  of  Sweden,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Dal  River,  and  comprising  those  regions  which  formerly 
were  so  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  country  under  the 
name  of  Dalarne  (Lat.  Dahcarlia).  It  is  a  wild  but  beau- 
tiful mountain-region,  covered  with  forests  of  fir  and  birch, 
and  rich  in  copper  and  porphyry,  but  ill  suited  for  agricul- 
ture. The  inhabitants,  numhcring  about  ISO. 000,  form  one 
of  the  finest  types  of  the  Scandinavian  race.  They  are 
valorous,  hardy,  ingenuous,  and  trustworthy,  and  nearly 
in  all  crises  in  the  Swedish  history  the  Dnfrcttrlicr  have 
make  the  decision.  As  the  country  is  unable  to  support 
them,  they  spreail  over  Southern  Sweden  and  Denmark 
seeking  for  work,  but  they  always  return  to  their  native 
vales  with  their  earnings.     Cap.  Falun. 

Kop'pen,  von  (Peter),  b.  at  Kharkow,  Russia,  Feb. 
10,  17i'3;  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and 
devoted  himself  throughout  life  to  researches  concerning 
the  ethnology,  archaeology,  and  history  of  Russia.  His 
principal  worlcs  are — Afatcriaiicnzur  Culturgrgrfiirhte  Russ- 
lan(h{\V>^'i),  T>\f  OcsrhirhfcdcM  WcinhancfitDtd  Weiuhniidefs 
Ml  Iiitimfnnd»  (1832),  Tntiricn  (1840),  Efkno/frnphiftchc  Knrte 
dea  eiintpnischen  liussland  (1H51),  and  an  exhaustive  me- 
moir on  the  census  of  1800.  The  Russian  government  pre- 
sented him  with  an  estate  in  the  Crimea,  Karabagh,  where 
he  d.  June  4,  18G4. 

Ko'ran,  the  book  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  and  the 
foundation  of  the  Mohammcd:iu  literature.  It  may  be  also 
regarded  as  the  conservative  power  of  the  widely-spoken 
Arabic  language  and  the  source  of  its  refined  system  of 
grammar.  Its  religious  and  intellectual  influence  extends 
from  India  to  Morocco,  from  Turkey  and  the  borders  of  the 
Russian  empire  to  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Africa. 
In  comparing  it  with  the  Bible,  it  may  be  said  that  the  lat- 
ter differs  from  it.  an<l  from  every  other  book  called  sacred, 
in  having  been,  so  far  as  its  human  jiroduetion  is  con- 
cerned, a  growth  of  many  ages  and  of  many  nitnds.  It 
lies  in  history  as  a  stream  of  supernatural  influences, 
events,  and  teachings,  extending  from  the  patriarchal 
times  to  the  complete  introduction  and  establishment  of 
Christianity  upon  the  earth.  In  tliis  respect  the  Bible  dif- 
fers wholly  from  the  Persian,  Indian.  Booddliist,  and  Chi- 
nese books  with  which  it  is  so  often  ignorantly  compared. 
So  the  Koran  is  also  the  product  of  one  mind  and  of  one 

I  age.     In  certain  features,  however,  it  hears  a  much  closer 

;  relation  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  than  the 
other  writings  referred  to.     It  may  be  regarded,  in  fact,  as 

I  a  lateral  wave  from  that  great  tide  of  religious  thought  and 
feeling  which  came  down  from  the  curliest  times  of  human 
history,  bearing  in  its  mid-channel  the  Jewish  theocracy, 
and  culminating  in  the  Christian  Church.  In  other  words, 
the  Koran  may  be  regarded  with  some  reason  as  an  npocry- 
phal  book  of  the  Bible,  bearing  to  it  a  relation  similar  to 
that  of  the  weird  visions  of  the  Second  Esdras.  the  Wisdom 

;  of  Solomon,  or  the  sententious  book  of  Sirach.  Itisstilithe 
heaving  of  the  ground-swell  from  that  old  fountain-flood  of 
religious  power.     Without  Judaism  and  Christianity,  Mo- 

:  hammedanism  anrl  the  Koran  would  never  have  had  an  ex- 
istence. Without  Abraham  and  Moses  and  Christ  the  Arabian 
prophet  would   never  have  made  the  appearance  he  pre- 

i  scnts  in  history  as  the  reaffirmer  of  the  Divine  Unity,  the 


KORAN. 


J.")7!) 


^' 


rebuker  of  idolatry,  and  the  restorer  of  the  primitire  pa- 
triarclial  or  Abruharaic  religion. 

The  name  Konin  (Al  Konin.  with  the  article,  The  Koran) 
is  derived  from  an  Arabic  verb  tjnrd,  to  "read,"  and  this 
from  the  older  Slieinitic,  meaning  to  "cry  aloud"  (icpaw, 
»pa^(u),  to  *' pronounce,"  "  utter,"  *' dictate."  It  is  in  this 
respect  like  the  name  Mii/nt  (NTp?3),  from  the  cognate 
}{oi»rew  root,  and  which  tlie  .lows  gave  to  their  ."Scriptures. 
This  probably  .'*u;5geslcd  it  lo  .Moliammed.  thnu;;li  the  ap- 
plication he  makes  of  it  is  somewhat  different.  The  Jew- 
ish name  was  from  the  public  reading — the  Koranic,  from 
the  idea  of  recitation  or  dictatinn  to  jMohamined  himself. 
Sometimes  a  word  e.vprcssly  denoting  this  is  Ui-cd  for  the 
)urpose;  as  in  Sura  x\v.  (J,  7:  *•  .\nd  the  unbelievers  say, 
~IiM  is  a  lie  which  ho  hath  contrived;  they  arc  traditions 
of  the  ancients  which  he  has  caused  to  be  written  down, 
saying  that  thev  wore  dicttftrd  {tninln)  to  him,  morning 
and  evening.  ,Say  unto  them.  He  hath  revealoil  it  who 
knoweth  the  secrets  of  heaven  and  earth;  lie  the  (Jracious, 
the  Merciful."  The  medium  of  this  dictation  was  the  an- 
gel Gabriel,  who  is  elsewhere  callcil,  in  the  Koran,  Ihihn- 
7X*Hf/i(».  the  Holy  .Spirit  (see  .\vi.  101,  etc.),  and  sometimes 
simply  Huh,  The  Spirit,  as  in  l.K.x.  4.  Hence  also  the  Ko- 
ranic name  Tonzil,  or  the  "descent,"  defined  in  the  book 
Titrifnt  as  "the  declaration  or  revealing  of  the  Kru-an  by 
means  of  the  angel  (or  spirit)  tlencfntling  on  the  heart  of 
the  Prophet."  .Some  regard  Iho  word  Tamil  as  denoting 
the  literal  descent  of  the  book  in  successive  folios  or  por- 
tions from  the  heavens;  but  the  other  view  is  most  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  spirit  of  the  passages  in  which  the  term 
is  used. 

This  has  been  commonly  treated  by  the  earlier  Christian 
writers  as  all  a  designed  imposture,  very  much  as  it  waa 
vioweil  by  the  scoffing  Arabian  Kafirs  whom  Mohammed 
pathetically  rebukes.  Later  tierman  authorities,  on  the 
other  hand,  esnci-ially  Spronger  in  his  I.rbni  uml  Lrhre 
'Un  Mohauimtul,  go  to  the  other  extreme  in  ranking  the 
Arabian  reformer  with  the  |>rophets  and  apostles  of  the 
Christian  Scripluns,  and  even  with  the  Founder  of  Chris- 
tianity itself.  This,  however,  is  evidently  done  not  so 
much  in  honor  of  .Moharamcl  as  fr>r  the  disparagement 
of  Isaiah,  Paul,  and  Christ.  There  is  unquestionably  a 
deep  conviction  of  truth,  a  strong  sense  of  some  destined 
mission,  and  a  fervent  enthusiasm  prevailing  throughout 
this  remarkable  work.  No  man  can  carefully  study  it  with- 
out feeling  its  subjective  truthfulness — that  is,  without  be- 
ing impressed  by  the  thought  that  the  writer,  or  the  preacher, 
is  delivering  what  he  believes  to  be  a  true  message  from  a 
superhuman  sphere,  whatever  may  have  been  the  mode  ami 
influences  throu;;h  which  that  conviction  was  produced. 
The  explanation  which  would  so  easily  resolve  it  all  into  a 
studied  dece])tion  comes  from  a  shallow  overlooking  of  well- 
established  facts  in  the  human  psychology.  The  earnest- 
ness and  strong  devotional  spirit  manifested  in  ttie  Koran  re- 
pel the  idea.  There  is.  moreover,  a  tenderness  of  conscience 
in  respect  to  his  supposed  mission  which  one  guilty  of  a  long 
and  studied  imposition  would  seem  incapable  either  of  feeling 
or  affecting.  There  is  a  striking  instance  of  this  alluded  to  in 
Sura  xvii.  7.'i,  where  there  is  related  a  rebuke  Mcdiaramcd  had 
received  for  seeming,  on  a  certain  occasion,  to  have  swerved 
from  his  instructions  under  the  temptation  to  palliate  some 
forms  of  idolatry  among  his  followers.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
ho  olTored  the  touching  praycrreeorded  by.\l  Zamakhshnri  in 
his  commentary  on  the  passage:  "  We  have  it  from  tho  Pro- 
phet. Allah  bless  lijm  I  that  when  this  weakness  was  revealed 
to  him,  he  prayeil  and  said,  '  0  Allah,  never  again  leave  mo 
to  myself  for  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.'  "  It  is  not  easy  to 
reconcile  such  emotion  as  this,  and  such  utterances,  with  a 
protracted  scdiemc  of  harrleneil  and  deliberate  lying.  To  a 
similar  end  may  be  cited  tho  instances  of  tender  and  cbnr- 
ilablo  feeling  that  characterize  tho  earlier  parts  of  the  Ko- 
ran, though  in  the  later  chapters  strife  anil  oppression  had 
t.'ndeil  to  make  hi«  utterances  more  fierce  ami  fanatical. 
See  .Sura  ii.  .'>!):  "Verily  they  who  believe,  and  those  who 
;iro  Jews,  and  the  Christians,  and  the  Sabienns,  yes,  every 
one  who  believes  in  (lod  ami  in  llie  day  of  judgment,  and 
who  rloes  that  which  is  right. —to  all  such  is  there  recom- 
p-nso  from  their  Lord;  they  have  nothing  to  fear:  they 
shall  not  bo  grieved."  A  ililferent  language  is  found  iii 
some  other  parts,  which  commentators.  Christian  as  well 
MS  Mohammedan,  have  labored  to  reconcile:  but  it  is  better 
lo  admit  the  inconsiilency.  A  deliiiernte  dei'eption  would 
have  avi>ided  or  suppressed  it.  As  having  the  same  bear- 
ing, may  bo  meutmned  the  places  where  he  speaks  not 
only  reverently  but  temlerly  and  lovingly  of  Jesus,  or 
"'/«o  'hriiu  Mnii)iimii  (son  of  Mary),  Wind  of  truth,"  as 
he  calls  him.  Sura  xix.  :'..'i.  acknowledging  liim  as  one 
grenter  than  himself— a  revere  ncc  which  he  also  pays  to 
Abr:ibam  and  Moses.  Passages  elsewhere  which  are  inter- 
preted as  teaching  persecution,  or  the  enforcement  of  relig- 
ion by  the  sKcir  I.  are  to  be  regarded  in  the  same  light  as 


coming  from  a  change  of  temper,  and  as  having  been  still 
further  perverted  by  the  fanatical  bigotry  of  his  immediate 
followers.  It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether  they  were 
ever  meant  to  bo  ap])lied  to  .lews  and  Christians,  of  whom 
Mohammed  speaks  so  charitably  in  the  passage  cited. 
Throughout  the  better  part  of  the  book  the  Kafirs,  or  uii- 
6c/t'ciTr«,  who  arc  to  be  forced  into  truth  and  puritv  by  the 
cUnnsiuff  sword  of  Islam,  arc  the  unclean  alul  bloodv  pagan 
idolaters  whom  he  regards  as  in  alliance  with  Sbcitan  (Sa- 
tan, Eblis)  and  the  Jins. 

As  the  idea  of  crude  imposture  is  untenable,  so  also  does 
the  more  plausible  explanation  of  an  excited  enthusiasm  fail 
to  remove  all  the  difliculties  of  this  remarkable  literary  and 
religious  phenomenon.  The  Koran  is  a  book  which  can 
only  be  interpreted  on  the  ground  that  the  author  himself 
strongly  believed  in  it  as  coming  from  some  other  source  thiin 
llis  own  conscious  and  voIunt:iry  mental  exercises  regarded 
in  their  normal  condition.  There  have  been,  even  in  mod- 
ern experience,  too  many  wullattestcd  cases  of  the  ecst:itio 
trance,  of  abnormal  visionary  states,  of  clairvovant  and 
somnambulic  titterances,  to  warrant  the  summary  rejection 
of  such  explanations.  .Mcdiammed's  epile]itic  eomlition  of 
body  made  him  a  fit  subject  of  such  influences,  from  what- 
ever sphere  we  nuiy  regard  them  us  coming.  His  high  ge- 
nius gave  them  a  more  intensive  form  and  a  more  elevated 
character  than  ordinarily  characterize  such  utterances  in 
our  own  times.  We  know,  loo,  that  similar  claims  have 
been  ])ut  forth  by  men  characterized  not  so  much  bv  imag- 
ination as  by  the  loftiest  reason.  The  iatMoi'iot'of  Soc- 
rates, so  solemnly  asserted  by  bim  in  his  last  moments, 
belongs  to  this  class  of  psychological  phenomena.  The 
power  and  value  of  tho  utterances  produced  arc  to  bo 
judged  by  the  evidence  they  give  of  the  genius  and  mental 
rank  of  tho  one  from  wlnun  they  inoceeil,  and  the  coloring 
recei\'ed  from  the  outward  infiucnees  ()f  the  age  in  which 
they  appear.  Tliey  may  be  trilling,  they  m;\y  lie  unmean- 
ing, or  they  may  rise  to  an  eloquence  and  a  dignity  pro- 
ducing, as  in  this  case,  the  mightiest  efTccIs,  and  demand- 
ing, therefore,  our  awed  respect,  though  higher  evidence 
may  be  required  to  certify  them  as  an  actual  and  direct 
revelation  from  the  Divine  sphere.  The  careful  and  intel- 
ligent rettiling  of  the  Koran  furnishes  the  best  proof  here. 
Let  a  man  carry  steadily  along  with  such  rending  the 
thought  of  colli  artifice,  of  deliberate  lying,  or  studied  im- 
]iosture,  and  the  idea  is  continually  refuting  itself  It 
would  have  been  a  very  dill'eicnt  book  produced  in  that 
way.  Its  very  extravagances,  its  rhapsodies,  its  sudden 
emotional  transitions,  its  weird  pictures,  mingled  at  times 
with  the  sublimest  ideas,  give  conclusive  proof  of  a  deeper 
anil  more  mysterious  origin. 

There  arc  other  names  for  the  Koran  to  be  found  in  the 
book  itself,  such  as  Al  Kltuh,  "  the  Scripture,"  liikr,  "  me- 
morial" (used  like  the  Hebrew  zikcr,zikl-ariiii).  Al  FiirLan, 
etc.,  which  are  of  little  significance  in  determining  either 
its  form  or  the  nature  of  its  contents.  The  latter  would 
strictly  mean,  the  book  divided  into  sections,  as  the  Hi'lircw 
pprek  is  nscil  for  the  shorter  divisions  of  the  Talmud.  Keg- 
ular  division,  however,  is  very  far  from  being  a  feature  of 
the  Koran.  Its  one  hundred  and  fourteen  chapters  vary 
greatly  in  their  length,  from  forty  octavo  pages,  which  is 
the  length  of  Sura  ii.  in  Fliigel's  edition,  to  a  short  para- 
graph containing  a  verse  or  two,  which  is  the  extent  of  a 
largo  number  towards  the  end.  Besides  this,  there  is  an 
artificial  division,  subsequently  made,  into  sixty-five  equal 
portions,  called  Ahzfib,  and  each  of  these  again  subdivided 
into  four  equal  jjarts.  Another  makes  thirty  portions,  but 
all  tlieso  are  simply  for  the  use  of  renders,  and  made  in  im- 
itation of  the  synagogue  sections  for  the  worship  of  the 
Jews.  There  aro  mentioned  seven  principal  eilitions  or 
ancient  copies — two  named  from  Medina,  one  from  Alecea, 
one  from  Cufa,  one  from  itasrii.  a  sixth  called  tho  Syrian, 
and  a  seventh  styled  the  common  or  vulgatc  edition.  Tliev 
differ  slightly  in  the  reckoning  of  the  whole  number  of  the 
verses,  a  variation  arising  from  n  few  difierences  of  divis- 
ion :  but  they  all  agree  in  the  same  total  of  words,  which 
they  make  to  be  77.(i."fl,  and  the  same  total  of  letters. 
.T2.'!.01.'( :  the  Mohammedans,  as  ,Sale  says,  having  imitiilrd 
in  this  respect  the  superstitious  carefulness  of  the.lewi!.|i 
Mftsorites.  There  can  be  no  <loubt  of  a  wry  ancient  wri- 
ting, whether  made  by  .Mohammed  himself,  or  by  some  of 
his  lievoted  followers,  but  the  principal  means  of  promul- 
gallon  in  the  beginning  was  most  probably  by  oral  recita- 
tions made  by  those  who  had  eominiltcil  to  memory  partic 
ular  Sums,  and  in  some  cases  the  entire  Koran.  That  this  is 
by  no  means  incredible  appears  from  the  same  fact  nnd  the 
same  practice  as  now  exhibiteil  in  the  Mohammedan  schools 
in  India,  an. I  even  in  the  inlerinr  of  Africa.  The  solemn 
recitation  of  iMobammed,  believeil,  a"  it  was,  to  have  come 
from  the  nneel,  must  have  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
the  minds  of  his  early  disciples,  thus  aiding  the  memory 
Id  receiving  and  retaining   the  romarknblo  words.      Tho 


1580 


KORAN. 


.'/' 


belief  in  this  is  also  aided  by  the  fact  of  a  class  of  racn  in 
after  times  professionallv  devoted  to  this  practice,  and  dc- 
rivinj;  from  it  a  special  name.  Thi-y  were  called  huffii(hun, 
rnttotlrs^  connervatoreti,  qui  Cornnujn  ineworin  lenetit;  resem- 
bling in  some  respects  the  old  Homeric  chanters.  They 
are  referred  to  in  Ahmed's  Hinlori/  n/  Timur  (Manger  ed.), 
p.  871,  where  the  names  of  a  mimlier  of  them  are  given. 
(See  also  llerbelot.  nUil.  Orient.,  202,  and  Pocock.  Spe<-lm., 
X-S.)  So  the  Koran  itself  is  called  Mahfndz,  "the  book 
preserved."  The  term  is  used  Sura  l.\.txv.  22,  though  there 
applied  to  a  tablet,  whether  literal  or  as  figurative  of  the 
memory:  "Nay.  it  is  a  glorious  Koran,  prcscrvcil  (in  mem- 
ory)  as  on  a  tablet;"  though  some  would  interpret  it  as 
moaning  a  tablet  kept  in  heaven— the  original  in  the  Divine 
mind.  . 

The  Koran,  as  has  been  said,  is  a  reflection  from  the 
Bible,  however  distorted  and  apocryphal  the  image  it  pre- 
sents to  the  f'bristian  mind.  It  admits  the  divine  author- 
ity of  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  It  may  be  said,  too,  that  its 
inlluence  as  a  book  gives  a  more  encouraging  basis  for 
Christian  missionary  effort  than  can  be  found  in  the  worn- 
out  religions  of  Boo'ddha.  Brahma,  and  Confucius.  In  dis- 
tinction" from  them  it  is  a  live  book  and  the  text  of  a  living 
religion.  It  belongs  to  the  side  of  positive  theology,  bav- 
ingfor  its  ground,  like  the  Jewish  and  Christian,  the 
,  Vo/A  Ychnriih.  "  the  fear  of  God  " — of  a  personal  God— in- 
stead of  the  empty  theosophy  or  mystic  nature-worship 
that  characterizes  those  systems  of  the  remoter  East.  In 
opposition  to  their  materialistic  dualism,  their  elusive  pan- 
theism, their  cold  subjectivity,  stand  out  the  glowing  devo- 
tion, the  snblime  earnestness,  the  pure,  distinct,  and  lofty 
th-.-ism  of  the  Koran.  Its  doctrine  of  Allah's  sovereignty, 
of  his  immovable  throne,  of  his  eternal  decrees,  of  hiseon- 
tinual  person.il  providence,  is  the  antithesis  of  their  physi- 
cal fate.  So,  too.  does  its  teaching  in  respect  to  a  great 
judgment  to  come,  a  resurrection-day  of  final  account, 
"  the  book  "  in  which  each  man  shall  read  the  true  value 
of  the  life  lived  by  him  in  this  preparatory  world,  the 
'•meeting  of  his  siiis  that  have  gone  before  him,"  and  above 
all,  its  sublimely  rigorous  doctrine  of  prayer,  place  it  in 
direct  contrast  with  the  poor,  barren  worldliness  which  is 
all  that  we  get  from  the  best  selections  made  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Confucius.  In  view  of  these  facts  we  cease  to  won- 
rler  at  its  triumph  wherever  it  has  met  those  lifeless  creeds. 
It  is  all  the  more  hopeful  for  Christianity  that  it  should 
have  had  such  a  pioneer  or  forerunner  in  India  and  China. 
Better  to  contend  with  Mohammedanism  itself,  when  the 
time  comes,  than  with  those  dead  systems,  who.sc  inertia  or 
want  of  religious  susceptibility  presents  a  harder  and  more 
ho]ieless  antagonism  than  the  vitality  of  eveii  Mohammedan 
error.  The  very  fact  that  the  Koranic  religion  is  sharply 
controversial  gives  all  the  more  encouragement.  It  is  evi- 
dence of  some  kind  of  life :  it  shows  that  it  has  something 
to  contend  for.  It  is  better  to  meet  the  jealous  Islamite  in 
this  way  than  to  encounter  the  meaningless  pantheism  of 
the  Hindoo  or  the  stolid  indifference  of  the  Chinese.  VVith 
the  first  there  is  a  common  ground,  giving  hope  of  ultimate 
agreement.  The  Koran  has  all  those  grand  theistic  elements 
of  religion  that  demand  the  Christian  »/)pc/rr/fi/— that  is, 
the  doctrine  of  ihr  croni,  or  that  mediatorial  idea  which 
may  he  said  to  be  the  great  lack  of  Islainism.  When  other 
enemies  are  slain,  clear  discussion  may  bring  that  media- 
torial idea  to  light,  and  thus  show  that  the  Ar.abian  enthu- 
siast had  really  something  which  may  be  called  a  mission 
for  that  dead  iEasleru  world. 

Neither  can  it  be  denied  that  the  Koran  produced  a  most 
salutary  reformation  in  its  own  times.  Neither  the  Ish- 
maelite  nor  the  Joktanite  Arabians  had  wholly  lost  the 
old  patriarchal  or  Shemitic  monotheism.  But  it  had  be- 
come much  darkened  and  corrupted  by  Sabiranisin.  and 
some  still  grosser  forms  of  creature-worship  that  had  come 
in.  The  Koranic  name  for  this,  ;l/<.«Ait  kunn  ("  who  make 
sharers,  partners"),  is  suggestive  of  Paul's  description  of 
the  beginnings  of  iilolatry— "  The  worship  of  the  creature 
<i/on7  iriih  the  Creator,  or  h'ni'lr  the  Creator  (iropi  ii»' 
rriVaiTa,  Rom.  i.  25.  See  especially  Koran.  Sura  xyi.  1"2). 
Some  had  gone  farther  than  this,  even  to  what  might  he 
called  demon-worship,  occompanied  with  the  foulest  prac- 
tices. The  change  in  this  respect  produced  by  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Koran  was  sudden  ami  extensive.  It  was 
also  the  means  of  a  reformation  of  morals,  and  the  putting 
away  of  some  exceedingly  barbarous  and  revolting  customs. 
Thus,  infanticide  was  very  commonly  practi.sed,  especially 
the  putting  to  death  of  female  children,  ond  even  burying 
them  alive.  There  is  a  most  touching  allusion  to  such  a 
horrid  custom  in  Sura  Ixxxi.  The  passage  is  gi^ven  at 
some  length,  as  a  specimen  also  of  the  peculiar  Koranic 
rhythm,  and  of  the  weird  style  that  especially  chnraeteriies 
some  of  these  later  chapters.  It  is  entitled  Tnkirir,  or 
the  ••  Fidding  up."  from  the  verb  in  the  first  verse,  hlh' 
o»A-»/i<iin«ii  koirmral.     It  is  a  description  of  the  day  of 


iudgment.  and  we  have  rendered  it  almost  word  for  word, 
witira  few  slight  freedoms  in  the  use  of  the  active  for  the 
passive,  in  order  to  preserve  something  like  the  rhyming 
cadence : 

"  When  the  sun  [its  face!  is  shroudine. 

When  the  stars  are  downwards  gliding. 

When  the  hills  are  lightly  moving  (Jer.  iv.  24  ;  Ps.  ciiv.  4), 

When  the  camels  ten  mouths  gone, 

T'ncared  for  now.  are  left  alone; 

When  the  rabid  ticasts  are  gathering, 

When  the  seas  are  hotly  boiling. 

When  fto  liodiesl  souls  are  joining, 

ll7;r;i  thf  hnrifd  habr  ix  axhinij 

f-hr  what  critni'  lA*  yulhlpss  slm/init ; 

When  the  sealed  books  are  opeoing, 

When  the  heavens  are  deparlini:  ; 

Thin  when  hell  is  fiercely  buruiiig, 

And  when  Paradise  draws  near, 

Knows  each  soul  what  to  the  presence  it  hath  sent  before." 

The  Koran  abolished  the  cruel  practice  alluded  to  in  the 
verse  above,  and  others  of  a  similar  kind.  This  was  done, 
not  in  a  cold  humanitarian  way,  which  is  seldom  long  or 
intensely  elTicacious,  but  by  an  appeal  to  the  deepest  re- 
ligious feeling. 

Personifications  of  nature  are  not  frequent  in  the  Koran, 
but  there  are  some  examples  that  present  a  striking  com- 
bination of  the  moral  and  physical  sublime.  Thus,  in 
Sura  xxxiii.  72.  God  is  represented  as  offering  "  the  faith  " 
(truth,  law,  conscience,  accountabilityl  to  nature,  to  the 
heavens,  the  earth,  the  mountains.  They  are  "afraid  of 
it :"  thev  "  shrink  away  from  the  tremendous  charge."  But 
man  undertook  it— presumptuous  man,  "ignorant  and  un- 
just (to  himself)."  Hence  his  peril  and  his  woe.  It  is.  h<iw- 
eyer.  in  its  descriptions  of  the  Dixine  justice,  the  Divine 
unity,  the  Tliraiic  ../  AUnli — an  expression  Mohammed  so 
frequently  uses — and  the  Divine  majesty  generally,  that 
the  Koran  is  especially  magnificent.  See,  among  other 
similar  examplesi  Sura  lis.  22:  "God.  beside  whom  there 
is  no  God.  who  knoweth  the  future  (the  hidden),  as  he 
knows  the  present — God  most  merciful,  God  the  King,  the 
Holy,  the  Giver  of  peace,  the  Ever-to-be-trustcd.  the 
Keeper,  the  Almighty,  the  Great,  the  Most  High  ;  God  the 
Creator,  the  Maker,  the  Former,  exalted  above  all  idols,  all 
partners  of  His  throne.  Whatever  is  in  heaven  and  inearth, 
let  it  praise  Him.  the  Strong,  the  Wise." 

Aside  from  the  great  defect  before  referred  to,  there  arc 
two  things  in  the  Koran  which  may  be  regarded  as  positive 
deformities.  One  is  its  doctrine  of  polygamy,  and  the  other 
the  too  sensual  aspect  it  gives  to  the  happiness  of  Paradise. 
In  regard  to  the  second,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
representation  of  the  beautiful  females  was  ailapted  to  the 
Arabian  ideas,  and  is  therefore  adopted  among  the  other 
symbols  of  spiritual  joy.  such  as  "the  gardens,  the  fair 
rivers,  the  perennial  fruits."  which  enter  also  into  the  bib- 
lical pictures.  There  is  an  evident  int.  ntion  to  make  it  as 
|Uire  as  the  human  conception  will  allow.  That  a  degree 
of  spirituality  is  intended  is  shown  by  the  Arabic  words 
which  the  Koran  brings  into  use  respecting  the  two  worlds. 
The  great  idea  in  the  one  is  rcrtninti/,  assuralici:.  rtmiilii. 
Hence  the  phrase  that  occurs  so  frci|ucu(ly  in  connection 
with  the  "garden  and  the  fair  rivers,"  Cli,iliiliiia  fihmihihin 

•'  they  abide  there  for  ever."     In  contradistinction  to  this 

there  are  two  names  for  the  present  world  that  are  most 
expressive.  They  are  niiiii/n  and  Al-njrltii;  the  first  de- 
noting the  near  world,  the  world  of  sense,  the  common,  and 
sometimes  the  mran  worhl.  in  distinction  from  the  glorious 
and  the  strong  ;  the  second  is  literally  the  rolling  or  A.i«(cn- 
ii,,/  world,  the  transitory,  quick-vanishing  world,  the  failing 
worhl,  miiii</ii«  rnilurtiH.  in  distinction  from  the  permanent 
and  the  immutable.  (See  Sura  xvii.  10,  20,  and  many  other 
places.)  Besides  these,  there  is  the  general  term  for  the 
oih.-r  or  afterlife,  Arlienil,  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew 
n'"<nx.  as  we  may  suppose  it  to  be  used  in  the  prayer  of 
Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  14). 

For  the  fullest  details  respecting  the  Koran,  see  Sprcn- 
ger's  I.rhc,  nil./  Uhrclha  M.Jinmmud  :  Freytag.  Einlritunj 
In  (/o»  Stmlliim  tier  arabl»rlien  S/.rarlir  ;  llerbelot.  Bi'6/io- 
thiqnr  Ori,ni„le,  arts.  "  Koran  "  and  "  .Mohammed;"  and 
Sale's  Intrmlni-limi.  The  last  is  especially  to  be  commended 
for  candor  ami  fidelity.  Much  valuable  information,  espe- 
.■iiiUy  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  Koran  in  Central  and 
Western  Africa,  may  also  be  obtained  from  an  article  by 
Pr.d".  BIyden  of  Liberia  College  in  the  Mitlimlitt  Qunrlcrli/ 
l/nicc  for  Jan..  ISfiT.  Among  native  Arabian  authorities 
that  give  tho  fullest  information  may  especially  be  men- 
tioned the  two  great  commentators.  Al  Bei.lawi  and  Al 
Zaiiiakhshari.  The  fi.rmer  is  the  better  known  and  tho 
most  frequenllv  referre.l  to.  The  latter  (see  the  latest 
edition,  published  by  W.  Nassau  I-ees,  Calcutta,  IS.Ifi,  in 
2  quarto  vols.,  pp.  Iti47)  is  an  immense  mine  of  theology, 
phih.sophy.  .Arabic  grammar  and  lexicography,  besides 
aboun.ling  in  copious  citations  from  Aj;abic  poetry  and 
general  literature. 


T.4Vi,ER  Lewis. 


KOK  A  T— KOSTROMA . 


i:ksi 


Korat%  a  small  independent  territory  lying  between  | 
Siam  ttiid  Cambodia,  pituati'd  "n  an  clcviitud  table-land,  j 
Copper-mines  art-  wurked  by  the  natives,  and  the  sugar- 
cane is  cultivated.      l*op.  about  60,000;  of  capital^  also 
called  Korat.  "OOU. 

Kordofan'y  a  territory  of  Soodan,  Central  Africa*  be 
lonj 


and 


ing  to  Ejjypt,  and  situated  between  lal.  11"  and  Ia°  N. 
between  Ion.  28*^  and  32*  K.,  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Seuuaar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  White  Nile, and 
on  the  W.  by  Darfoor.  Area.  12.tMH)  s.juiire  miles.  Pop. 
600,000.  The  iuhahifants  aro  a  mixture  (►('  negroes  and 
Arabs  professing  Mohummodanism.  Kordofuu  is  a  sa- 
vanna, dry  in  the  hot  season,  but  covered  with  luxuriant 
verdure  during  the  rainy  season.  The  breeding  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  eauiels  is  tho  chief  pursuit  of  the  inhabitants. 
Cap.  Kl  Obeid. 

Hornegarf  or  Koornagrtrioe,  town  of  Ceylon,  55 
mile.-'  X.  E.  of  CoIomi)n.  beuulirully  situated.  It  is  a  resort 
of  pilgrims,  on  account  of  an  ancient  temple  where  a  foot- 
print of  Booddha  is  adored. 

Kdr'ner  f  Karl  TiiKonon),  b.  at  Dresden,  Saxony,  Sept. 
2^,  1701:  ft'll  in  a  skirmish  at  Wobbelin,  in  Mecklenburg, 
An;;.  2ti,  1813.  His  wh(»le  life  was  consecrated  to  the  one 
idea  of  rousing  his  countrymen  airiiinst  the  humiliating  and 
almost  infamous  despotism  which  Napoleon  exercised  over 
thom  ;  and  although  he  died  in  tho  twenty-second  year  of 
his  age,  ho  saw  the  idea  of  his  life  realized,  and  ho  heard 
the  world  say  that  this  great  result  was  in  no  small  degree 
due  to  him.  Even  when  a  very  young  man.  studying 
in  Freiberg  and  Berlin,  he  spoke  with  sm-h  velunience 
against  the  French  that  it  was  considered  necessary  for 
the  sake  of  his  safety  to  send  him  to  Vienna.  Hero  he 
liej^an  to  write  for  tho  stage,  and  was  very  successful,  but 
of  his  ilramas  Zriinf  is  the  only  one  which  deserves  atten- 
tioTi.  .After  the  disastrous  issue  of  Napoleon's  campaign 
in  Russia,  Korner  left  Vienna  and  volunteered  as  a  private 
in  the  Prussian  light-horse  of  Liitzow.  and  his  great  per- 
sonal valor  in  eon  nee  t  ion  with  his  inspiring  war-songs 
mnde  him  in  a  few  months  the  pride  and  the  enthusiasm  of 
his  countrymen.  After  his  death  his  sons^s  were  collected 
under  the  title  f,n>r  uiid  Srhtrrrtj  and  several  of  thom  are 
as  thrilling  with  their  genuine  beauty  as  exciting  with  their 
wild  inspiration.  Clkmkns  Pktkhsen. 

Kdros*     See  Kis-Kunu9  and  Xagv-Kohos. 

Kortetz',  nr  Cortitz^  an  island  of  Uussia.  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Yckaterinoshn  ,  is  formeil  by  the  Dnicjier,  and 
rises  10  J  feet  above  the  river,  framed  in  un  all  Fides  by  granite 
clilTs.  It  was  one  of  tho  strongholds  of  tho  Cossacks,  but 
after  their  removal  in  1781  by  Catharine  II.  it  was  settled 
by  (lerman  .Mennonites. 

Kort'right,  post  t p.  of  Delaware  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  LSI  2. 

Kor'vcy,  or  Corvey,  villugc  of  Westphalia,  on  thn 
We.i;r,  is  celebrated  for  its  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in 
HIO  by  Louis  the  Pious.  It  was  during  the  Middle  Ages  a 
fiiiioui'  centre  of  leurning,  and  from  it  issued  Ansgarius, 
Bruno.  Wiltekind,  \Vib:iId,  and  others.  The  massive  build- 
ini;s  of  tho  former  abbey  aro  now  occnpie<l  by  tho  prince 
of  Hohenlohe-.Schillingsrurnt  as  a  residence. 

KosciilM'kOf  county  of  N.  Indiana.  Area,  558  square 
mile-.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  is  generally  undulating. 
Cattle,  grain,  wool,  and  lumber  are  staple  j)roduet'<.  Tho 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Pittsburg  Port  Wiiyne  and  Chi- 
cn-^o  and  the  Cincinnati  Wabash  and  Michigan  R.  Ks. 
Cap.  Warsaw.      Pop.  23,531. 

KosciiiHko,post-v.,  cap.  of  Attala  co.,  Miss.,  tho  present 
northern  terminus  of  tho  New  Orleans  .Tuckson  and  Great 
Northurn  R.  R.,  is  situated  nearly  at  the  geographical  cen- 
tre of  the  State;  has  3  ehurehes.  2  liotcls,  25  stores,  15 
shops,  and  2  weekly  nowspjpers.  Principal  business,  rais- 
ing cotton,  of  which  25.000  bales  are  Khi]iprd  yearly.  Pop. 
577.  R.  Wai.poi.k,  Ed.  "  Centual  SxAn." 

KoHciusko  (THAnoEis),  [Tftdeuiz  KoMciuMsko],  b.  Fob. 
12,  1 7  Hi.  at  .Mereezowszczy/.Tia.  in  Lithuania,  of  an  nneirnt 
princely  race.  Edueat<-d  in  Warsaw.  Paris,  and  other  Eu- 
ropeim  capitals,  he  was  made  an  (dlicor  in  a  regiment  ;  but 
having  sui'd  in  vain  for  the  hand  of  adaughti-r  of  the  vice- 
grand  general  of  Lithuania,  and  the  king  of  Poland  him- 
self bring  unable  to  forward  bis  suit  with  the  unwilling 
father  of  tho  young  lady  (to  whom  Kos-iusko  had  bien  a 
tutor),  the  young  soldier  sailed  in  1775  from  Dantzie  for 
the  V.  S.,  by  way  of  Martinique.  In  I77fi  he  was  made 
colonel  of  ongineers.  lie  servnl  gallantly  throuch  tho  war 
of  tho  Revolution,  was  made  a  member  of  thi-  Cincinnati, 
a  Itrinadier-iieneral  by  brevet,  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress.  Returning  to  his  native  Inml,  he  fought  fop  his 
country  in  tho  wars  of  1702-01  against  the  pnrtitioners 
of  Poland  :  but,  notwithsfandinu  th''  prodigies  of  valor  per- 
formed by  the  unhappy  Poles,  with  Kosciusko  at  their  bead, 


they  were  totally  overpowered  at  Macieowioe,  whore  their 
commander  fell  covered  with  wounds.  Imprisoned  at  St. 
Petersburg,  he  was  set  free  in  17'Jli  by  the  emperor  Paul. 
from  whom  he  refused  the  oiler  of  a  sword,  lie  revisited 
the  U.  tS.,  where  ho  received  a  pension  and  a  grunt  of  land, 
but  in  the  following  year  he  retired  to  France,  displeased, 
we  are  told,  by  the  passage  of  the  Alien  law.  In  ISUl  ne 
lixcd  his  residence  ot  tioleure,  Switzorland,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  set  free  the  serfs  on  his  jiaternal  estate.  D.  at 
Solcure  Oet.  Hi,  1817.  The  statement  very  olten  made  with 
regard  to  Kosciusko  (that  he  exclaimed  '*/V»i'j»  PvlouiiE.'"  as 
he  fell  wounded  in  his  last  fight)  he  always  indignantly  de- 
nied. (See  J.  L.  Chodzko,  IlUtury  of  KoHciusko,  Militarij, 
Political,  and  I'riiatc.) 

Ko^ciiisko^  Mornit,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Austra- 
lian Alps.  7171)  feet  higli,  is  situateil  nearly  in  lat.  30°  30' 
S.  and  Ion.  134°  30'  W.,  on  the  boumlary  between  the  prov- 
inces of  New  Stmth  Wales  and  Victoria,  about  equidistant 
between  Sydney  and  Melbourne.  The  chain  of  mountains 
to  which  it  belongs  affords  tiie  most  pirturcsque  scenery  on 
the  Australian  continent.  The  great  Murray  and  Murrum- 
bidgec  rivers  take  their  rise  nearly  at  the  base  of  Mount 
Kosciusko. 

Koshkonong%  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Wis.  It  includes 
FoitT  Atkinson  (which  see).     Pop.  3202. 

Koslin%  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Pomerania, 
on  the  Miihlc-nbach.  It  has  considerable  niannfacturts  of 
ribbons,  stockings,  tobacco,  paper,  and  Eoaj).      Pop.  10,S-18. 

KoslOV%  town  of  European  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Tambov,  on  the  Voronezh.  It  has  large  manufactures 
of  woollen  and  linen  fabrics.     Pop.  2S,GI3. 

Kossc,  post-v.  of  Limestone  co..  Tex.,  on  tho  Houston 
and  Texas  Central  R.  K.,  13  miles  N.  of  Bremond. 

Kos'suth,  county  of  N.  Iowa.  Area,  432  square  miles. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Des  Moines  River  and  the  Iowa  and 
Dakota  division*  of  the  Chicago  .Milwankeu  and  St.  Paul 
R.  R.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Grain  is  tho  staple  product. 
Cap.  Algona.      Pop.  3351. 

Kossuth,  popt-v.  of  Des  Moines  co.,  la.,  2  mile:;  from 
Kossuth  Station  (Mediapolis  P.  0.)  on  tho  Burlington  Ce- 
dar Rapids  and  Minnesota  R.  K. 

Kossuth,  post-v.  of  Salem  tp.,  Anglaizo  co.,  0.,  on  tho 
Ohio  Caiinl.     It  is  also  called  Six-mile  Aqueduct.     Pop.  112. 

Kossutli,  tp.  of  Manitowoc  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  21SG. 

Kossuth  (Loris.  or.  strictly,  Lajos),  b.  at  Monok, 
Hungary,  Apr.  27,  1802,  of  a  family  originally  Slavie.and 
not  Magyar,  but  of  noble  rank  and  of  the  Lutheran  faith. 
Louis  was  carefully  educated,  and  in  1S22  became  a  suc- 
cessful advocate  of  Monok  ;  rcmovedin  1S31  to  Pesth  ;  was 
a  member  by  proxy  of  tho  upper  house  of  the  diet  of  1832- 
3l»;  and  by  liis  ceaseless  activity  as  a  writer  ancl  journalist 
did  nun-li  to  disseminate  liberal  jirinciples;  was  impris- 
oned at  Bnda  1S37— 10  as  a  ]ntlilieal  ofi'ender ;  was  editor 
<d'  tho  !\Mth  Jnnrmd  1811-11;  entered  the  lower  house  of 
tho  diet  in  Isl",  and  became  tho  leader  of  tho  liberals; 
headed  the  deputation  of  IS  IS  dennmding  a  new  ministry, 
in  which  he  became  minister  of  finance;  proposed  in  IS  10 
tho  independence  of  Hungary  ;  was  during  tho  Hungarian 
war  for  liberty  provisional  governor  of  Hungary,  Apr.- 
Aug.,  IStO,  and  was  succeeded  by  Giirgei;  escaped  to  Tur- 
key, where  he  was  protected,  notwithslandini;  the  demands 
of  Austria  and  Russia  for  his  extraililion.  In  ISjl  he  was 
allowed  to  go  on  board  the  U.  S.  steamer  Missi^siiipi,  whieh 
had  been  sent  out  for  Inni  by  tho  U.  S.  government ;  visited 
Kngland  ;  mado  thetour  of  tho  U.  S.  lS;')l-.*)2,  and  delivered 
many  eloquent  (hough  fruitless  appeals  fur  the  influence  of 
the  U.  S.  in  bi-half  of  the  prineiplc  of  non-intervention, 
believing  that  if  Russia  had  not  assisted  Austria  in  ISIO, 
Hungary  wouM  have  become  free;  has  since  IS.^2  resided 
chieliy  in  London  and  Turin, engaged  in  political  projects, 
in  pul>lie  speaking,  in  writing  for  liberal  journals,  and  lat- 
terly in  seicntiti*^  observations.  During  the  wars  of  Austria 
against  France  (1S,'»0)  and  Prussia  (ISOt'i)  he  was  actively 
engaged  in  preparing  for  insurroclions  in  Hungary,  but 
the  speedy  termination  of  both  wars  frustrated  his  hopes, 
lie  biM  been  several  times  eleetetl  iti  his  absence  to  the  diet 
of  Pesth,  and  sinee  the  reorganization  of  the  Austro  Hun- 
garian empire  (  I**!'*"!  has  been  free  to  return  to  his  native 
land,  but  lias  declined  to  do  so.  condemning  tho  arrange- 
ments whieh  were  nceepled  by  the  Hungarian  liberals.  Kos- 
suth in  his  best  days  was  one  of  tho  most  impassioned  ami 
effeelivo  of  publie  speakers,  and  possessed  a  marvellous 
capneily  for  the  aef|nisition  of  languages. 

Koslro'mn,  government  of  European  Russia,  pilu- 
ated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  co\intry,  and  trn^'erfcd  by 
the  Volga".  Area,  30.S34  square  miles.  Pop.  1.101.000. 
The  surface  is  low  and  flat,  dotted  with  lakes,  and  covered 
with  dense  forests.     The  climate  is  eovorc,  yet  good  crops 


15»2 


KOSTROMA— KRASICKI. 


of  grain  are  produced.  Tar,  pitch,  and  potash  are  manu- 
factured, and  much  timber  is  exported. 

Kostroma^  town  of  European  Russia,  the  capital  of 
the  govcrniui-nt  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Kostroma,  near 
its  influx  into  the  Volga.  It  has  40  churches,  2  monas- 
teries, a  poniinarv,  a  gymnasium,  and  several  other  educa- 
tional in.-^titiitions.  large  manufactures  of  leather  and  Uiien. 
and  an  important  trade  in  corn  and  timber.     Pup.  24,411). 

Ko'Cah,  one  of  the  independent  Rajpoot  states,  under 
E:ii;!ish  protection,  in  Hindostan.  Area,  4400  square 
mill'--.  Pop.  440,000.  Its  capital.  Kotah,  is  situated  on 
the  riiuml.iil.  in  lat.  25°  9'  X.  and  Ion.  75°  5'  E. ;  it  is  for- 
tified, and  is  a  town  of  some  importance,  having  good  ba- 
zaars, many  temidcs,  and  substantial  houses. 

KoHhen,  town  of  Germ.iny,  in  the  duchy  of  Auhalt, 
has  a  handsome  ducal  palace  with  several  fine  collections, 
is  the  seat  of  civil  and  military  authorities,  has  good  edu- 
cational institutions,  breweries,  tanneries,  iron-foundries, 
and  manufactures  of  tobacco,  vinegar,  carriages,  and  brass 
articles.     Pop.  10.59.3. 

Kot'zebue,  von  f  ArctTSTrs  Frtedrich  Fcrdinand), 
b.  in  Weimar  May  ?>,  1701  ;  studied  law  at  Jena,  and  after 
fini^bin;;  his  studies  he  went  in  17S1  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  was  introduced  to  the  empress.  From  that  time 
he  was  always  more  or  less  intimately  connected  with  the 
Russian  court.  Catharine  nominated  him  a  counsellor, 
and  gave  him  a  pension.  Paul  sent  him  to  Siberia,  but 
recalled  him  and  gave  him  an  office.  Alexander  used  him 
first  to  stir  up  the  popular  hatred  against  Xapoleon,  and 
then  after  the  Restoration  he  kept  him  in  Germany  with 
a  salary  of  1  j.OOO  roubles  a  year  to  report  on  the  liberal 
movements.  This  was  by  the  Germans  consideretl  as  a  sort 
of  espionage,  and  under  the  general  excitement  a  young 
student,  Sand,  broke  into  his  study  and  stabbed  him  at 
Mannheim,  Mar.  2.'t,  1819.  Even  before  he  went  to  St. 
Petersburg  the  first  time,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age, 
he  had  written  quite  a  number  of  tragedies,  comedies, 
dramas,  and  farces,  and  he  continued  <luring  his  whole 
life  to  evince  the  same  versatility  and  proliticnoss.  He 
wrote  about  100  plays.  He  attempted  every  descrip- 
tion of  drama  and  every  style,  and,  in  a  certain  sense  of 
the  word,  he  succeeded  in  them  all.  His  jilays  were  trans- 
lated into  every  language  which  had  a  stage,  and  for  more 
than  a  generation  they  reigned  absolutely  in  the  whole 
theatrical  world.  But  between  1S20  and  1S">0  they  disap- 
peared, succeeded  by  tliose  of  Eug&ne  iScribe,  and  now  only 
a  very  few  of  them — as,  for  instance.  The  Stranger,  Pizarro, 
The  Indians    in  London^  The   Tico  Kfinffsberrjerg,  etc. — can 

be  met  with,  and  even  these  only  in  the  suburbs  of  their 
native  country.  Ci-emens  Petkrsek. 

Koirba,  town  of  Southern  Russia,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Caucasus,  on  the  Koiib.an  River.     It  has  considerable  trade 
with  Astrakhan  and   Persia,  and  some  stlk  manufactures. 
.  Pop.  0405. 

Koiiban',  a  river  of  Southern  Russia,  rises  in  the  El- 
brooz  Mountains,  flows  Ijetween  the  governments  of  Stav- 
rojiot  and  Circassia,  and  empties  itself  ])artly  into  the 
Black  Sea,  partly  into  the  Sea  of  Azof. 

Kouli  Khan.    See  Nadir  Shah. 

Kou'miss,  Kumys,  or  Kumiz  [Russ.  knmyti^  of 
Mongolian  origin],  a  fermented  beverage  made  from 
mare's  milk  in  the  steppes  of  Russia  by  the  Kirghecz, 
Tartars.  Bashkeers.  Calmueks,  etc.  Tlie  alc(diol  is  derived 
from  the  milk-su'^iar,  which  is  present  in  mare's  milk  in 
larger  quantity  than  in  the  milk  of  other  animals,  us  is 
Been  in  the  following  table  by  Jagielski : 
Conipnaition  of  Mitk. 


Marc. 

7.3 
2.1 

AS9. 

Womao. 

4.8 
2.9 
2.9 
0.2 

lO.S 
89.2 
100.0 

Shi!<>p. 

Goat. 

Cow. 

6.4 
1.3 
1.9 

6.4 
2.4 
4.8 
0.9 

13..') 
86..5 

100.0 

4.3 
8.4 
4.4 
0.8 

12.9 
87.1 

100.0 

4.6 

Butter 

36 

5  1 

Salts 

Water 

10.9 

S9.I 

IHU.O 

9.6 
90.4 

100.0 

13.9 
86.1 

100.0 

The  fresh  milk  is  diluted  with  one-third  to  one-sixth  water, 
and  placed  in  a  sack  of  goat  skin  or  the  skin  from  the  en- 
tire hind  quarter  of  a  horse,  the  wider  end  serving  for  the 
base,  and  the  leg  portion  for  the  neck.  There  is  generally 
added  some  yeast,  the  sediment  from  a  previous  brewing, 
called  kor,  to  induce  fermentation.  Frequent  stirring  or 
shaking  is  essential  to  success.  In  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours  the  fermentation  is  complete,  the  product  being 
known  as  ''young  koumiss"  or  naumal.  Fresh  milk  is 
added  daily,  and  as  the  product  is  concentrated  by  the 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  surface  of  the  hide,  the  old 
koumiss  is  much  stronger  than  the  new.  Kounlis^  is  an  acid 


liquid  ofa  not  unpleasant  pungent  taste  and  an  ethereal  bou- 
quet. Iteffervesces  when  poured intoaglass.  Itis  very  intox- 
icating to  persons  not  accustomed  to  its  use,  and  produces 
drowsiness.  Besides  alcohol  and  carbonic  acitl,  it  contains 
the  other  constituents  of  the  milk,  except  tl»e  sugar,  and  is 
consequently  very  nourishing.  It  is  easily  assimilated,  even 
by  invalids,  and  the  hardy  vigor  of  the  Tartars  is  attrib- 
uted to  its  general  use  among  them.  Koumiss  yields  by 
distillation  a  strung  liquor  called  by  the  Calmueks  nrrarn^ 
rack,  or  rarkij.  From  the  residue  in  the  still  they  make  a 
kind  of  hasty-pudding. 

Beverages  somewhat  similar  to  koumiss  have  long  hecn 
made  in  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  in  Arabia  (called 
lehan),  and  in  Turkey  (called  i/anitsf). 

Koumiss  has  recently  attracted  much  attention  among 
European  pliysicinns,  and  its  manufacture  has  been  intro- 
duced at  Moscow.  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  and  London.  It 
may  be  made  from  the  milk  of  any  animal.  The  followini^ 
analysis  was  made  by  Wanklyn  of  the  contents  of  n  boHle 
of  koumiss,  twelve  days  old.  made  from  cow*s  milk  at  the 
establishment  of  E.  Chapman  &  Co.  in  London: 

Water I0,Gf;2  grains. 

Aleoliol 192      " 

Caseine  and  albumen I2S      " 

Su^ar  (lactose) n.S2      " 

Lactic  acid ViO      " 

Fat 36      " 

Ash W      " 

Carbonic  acid IJiO      " 

12,000  grains. 

It  is  claimed  that  koumiss  is  most  valuable  for  the  treat- 
ment of  extreme  debility  and  all  the  phases  of  impending 
marasmus.  It  is  said  to  have  specific  action  in  diabetes. 
(For  further  information  consult  Johnston's  ChemiKtrjf  of 
Commnu  Life;  Wagner's  Jahresherichte,  vol.  ii.  243,  and 
vi.  421;  The  Milk  Journal,  i.,  64:  BrUinh  Med.  J.y  Feb. 
21,  1874  ;  Pharm.  J.  and  Tram.,  Feb.  28.  1874;  The  Amer- 
ican Chemist,  vol.  v.,  June,  1875.)  C.  F.  Chakdler. 

Kous'so,  or  Cusso  [an  Abyssinian  term],  a  drug  con- 
sisting of  the  flowers  and  unripe  fruit  of  Bmi/ern  anthel- 
minfirit,  ft  small  rosaceous  tree  of  E.  Central  Africa.  It  is 
an  efficacious  and  safe  remedy  for  tapeworm,  but  costly. 

Kouznetsk,  town  of  Russia,  government  of  Saratov, 
has  large  tanneries  and  trade  in  timber.     Pop.  13,107. 

Kov'no,  government  of  AA''estern  Russia,  bounded  by 
Prussia  and  Poland,  and  watered  by  the  Niemen  and  its 
tributaries.  Area,  lO.lIo  square  miles.  Pop.  1,131.248, 
most  of  whom  arc  Roman  Catholics,  many  Jews.  The 
surface  is  low  and  flat,  and  more  than  two-thirds  of  it  are 
covcreil  with  lakes  and  dense  forests.  Besides  rye  and 
wheat,  flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cultivated. 

Kovno,  town  of  Western  Russia,  the  capital  of  the 
government  of  Kovno,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Vilia  and 
the  Niemen.  It  has  many  good  institutions  for  military, 
theological,  and  scientific  education,  but  its  manufactures 
and  trade  are  insignificant.     Pop.  34,012. 

KoylHon^  tp.  of  Tuscola  eo.,  Jlieh.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  farming  and  cattle-raising.     Pop.  422. 

Koze1sk%  town  of  Eurojiean  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Kalooga.  on  the  Jizdra.  It  has  large  manufac- 
tures of  sailcloth  and  trade  in  flax  and  hemp.  Pop.  8387- 
Krackowizcr  {EknstI.  M.  D.,  b.  in  the  duchy  of 
Slyria.  Austria,  in  1822;  studied  medicine  at  Vienna  and 
Padua;  as  captain  of  the  Students'  Legion  was  involved 
in  the  insurrection  of  184S,  and  finally  came  to  America; 
practised  at  Brooklyn.  X.  Y. ;  removed  to  New  York  City  : 
established  the  tierman  dispensary;  was  member  of  the 
committee  of  seventy  during  the  municipal  reform  ;  assisted 
in  reorganizing  the  Bellevuc  Hospital  Medical  College  in 
1874,  nnd  contributed  to  several  medical  periodicals.  1). 
Sept.  2::,  lS7o. 

Knuo'va,  the  capital  of  Little  Wallachia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Schyl.  It  has  several  good  educational  insti- 
tutions and  a  beautiful  public  park.     Pop.  25,000. 

Kra'kcn  [Xorse],  a  fabulous  sea-monster  described 
first  under  this  name  by  Pontoppidan,  althoujih  Olaus 
Magnus,  Gesner,  and  other  old  writers  have  substantially 
the  same  accounts.  The  tales  of  the  kraken  seem  to  have 
been  exaggerated  reports  of  large  ccphalopods  and  whales. 
Stories  of  its  devouring  ships,  of  its  back  being  taken  for 
an  island  and  men  landing  upon  it,  etc.,  rccull  similar 
fables  in  Lucian's  and  Pliny's  works  and  the  Arahian 
Xiffhtu:  but  Lucian's  narrative  is  a  witty  satire  on  the 
credulity  of  other  writers,  who  in  all  ages  have  seriously 
recorded  these  mons'rous  fables. 

Krasic'ki  (Icnacv),  b.  at  Dubiecko,  Galioia,  1734; 
studied  theology  in  Rome:  was  macle  bishop  of  Ermcland 
in  1707,  archbishop  of  Gnesen  in  1795,  and  d.  at  Berlin  lAJar. 
14,  1801.     As  Krmeland  was  annexed  to  Prussia  io  1772, 


KRASINSKI— KREMLIN. 


1583 


I^rasicki  became  a  Prussian  subject,  and  bis  talents  and 
elegant  attainnienta  soon  made  him  a  favorilo  of  Frederick 
II.  His  writings,  which  were  collected  in  AVursaw  in  ten 
volumes  in  ISU.f,  are  mttstly  aatirieal,  and  procured  for 
him  the  name  of  the  Polish  Voltaire.  His  Monomnckia 
("War  of  Monks")»  a  satirical  epic,  and  his  faVjlcs  have 
been  translates!  repeatedly  both  into  tJeriuan  and  French. 

Krasiii'ski  (Zv(:mc;nt  Napoleon).  Cot  nt,  b.  in  Paris 
Feb.  ly,  XM'ly  a  son  of  Count  Wyncent^-  Krasinski,  who 
after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  held  tlie  highest  position  in  the 
Russian  government.  The  snn,  however,  declined  all  offers 
from  Russia.  When  he  became  of  age  he  left  his  native 
country,  lived  in  different  European  capitals,  and  d.  in 
Paris  Feb.  24,  ISOH.  But  his  poetical  productions  were  re- 
ceived by  all  Poles  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  caupcd 
now  and  then  considerable  excitement.  His  principal 
works  arc — Xiehimka  Komrd;ifi,  a  drama  in  three  parts 
(IS;!7-1S),  Przrttsirit  ("  Before  Dawn  "),  and  Psalmtj  przy- 
aztosci  ('■  Ilymn^  of  the  Future"),  lyrical  poems  in  which 
a  glowing  patriutifm  is  combined  with  a  deep  piety. 

Krasnoslobodsk',  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Pcii7.li,  on  the  Mok:;ha,  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in 
corn.     Pop,  77152. 

Krasnovodsk%  a  Russian  fortress,  on  a  bay  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
in  lat.  10°  N.,  is  an  important  starting-point  for  seicntilic 
and  military  expeditions  to  Central  Asia.  Peter  the  Great 
understood  the  iin]»ortanee  of  the  point,  and  used  it  in  an 
undertaking  against  Khiva,  but  afterwards  it  fell  into  de- 
cay, until  it  was  once  more  oci-upied  and  fortified  in  Nov., 
1^6'.).  'From  here  the  savants  Kadde  and  Siewers  explored 
the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  adjacent  steppes  ;  fifteen  meteor- 
ological stations  were  established  in  Toorkistan;  and  the 
engineer  Kosclikul  ina'lo  a  geological  map  of  the  vicinity. 
In  connection  with  a  military  expedition  against  the  Toor- 
koman  fortress  Kisyl-Arwat,  about  I.'jO  miles  to  tho  S.  E. 
of  Krasnovodsk,  important  geodetic  labors  were  under- 
taken under  the  leadership  of  Col.  Stehnirzky.  purporting 
to  re-establish  the  old  water-road  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Sea  of  Aral  by  employing  the  old  bed  of  the  Oxua. 
During  the  great  expedition  against  Khiva,  led  by  (ien. 
Kauffinann  in  1H73,  one  of  tho  three  advancing  columns 
started  from  Krasnovodsk.  Augitst  Nikmans. 

Krasnoyarsk',  town  of  Siberia,  in  the  government  of 
Yeniseisk,  on  the  Yenisei.  It  is  a  neat  town,  with  consid- 
erable trade  in  fur  au'l  leather,  and  important  gold-mines 
in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  7028. 

Kraszew'ski  (Jozkf  Ionacv),  b.  at  Warsaw  in  1S12; 
studied  ai  Vilna;  settled  in  Volhynia;  went  in  18G0  to 
Warsaw  as  cililor  of  Gnzetn  i'^lnhn,  and  removed  in  l^ti.'! 
to  Dresden.  He  is  tho  most  prolilie  writer  in  tho  modern 
Polish  literature,  and  he  has  both  talent  and  education. 
Ho  has  written  a  largo  epic,  Anofiflun  (3  vols.,  lSiO-j;t), 
treaiing  a  subject  of  the  history  of  Lithuania;  a  great 
number  of  novels  anil  romances  depicting  Polish  life;  sev- 
eral historical  works;  and  a  multitude  of  monographs, 
travelling  sketches,  critical  essays,  etc.,  tho  whole  compris- 
ing over  IllM)  volumes. 

Krausc  (  Kari.  Christian  FniRnnirH),  b.  at  Kisenbcrg, 
in  tho  duchy  of  Saxc-Altenburg,  May  G,  1781  ;  studied  at 
Jena;  lectured  on  philosophy  at  Berlin,  Gottingcn,  and 
Munich,  but  lived  for  I  lie  most  time  at  Dresden  as  a  private 
m;in,  and  d.  at  Munich  ^ept.  27,  \^?.2.  His  views  of  tho 
human  race,  as  forming  pari  of  a  higher  and  more  spiritual 
realm,  led  him  to  peculiar  ideas  concerning  tho  destiny  of 
mankind,  the  development  of  human  life,  and  tho  organi- 
sation of  human  society;  and  these  ideas  brought  him  in 
connection  with  the  Freemasons.  His  writings  in  this  line, 
Dir  ilrci  nllmtrn  KitnnturhHnilr.n  rfcr  FfrimiturrrhrudcrHrhiift 
(1810),  Ifiiherc  VrrtfrtHtiifuiiff  lirr  erfit  uherfir/rrttm  (irutiff- 
»t/mf>nlr  drr  Freimnnrrrri  f  ISIO),  and  Urbitd  dcr  Meniichhfit 
(isll),  attracted  much  attention. 

Kraiitli  (CiiAur.KS  Piiii.n'),  D.  D.,  b.  in  Montgomery 
CO.,  Pa.,  May  7,  17U7;  reeeiveil  a  thorough  education  at 
hcHn-.',  and  early  showed  a  talent  for  pliilology.  At  the  age 
of  eighicen  he  commenced  the  study  of  medicine,  but  a 
changi!  in  hia  religious  views  led  him  to  enter  tho  ministry 
of  the  Ijutheran  (.^hurch.  Ho  was  licensed  1819,  and  be- 
came pastor  in  Marlinsburg,  Va.  ;  went  to  Philadelphia  in 
1827  ;  was  president  of  Petinsylvnnia  College  iSV.l-.'iO; 
professor  of  biblical  and  Oriental  literature  in  tho  theolog- 
ical seminary  of  the  Cicneral  Synod  at  Gettysburg  lS;i'*-fi7; 
d.  May  l!0,  I8ft7.  Dr.  Kraulh  had  every  quality  which  en- 
sures a  large  ilistinetion,  rxerpi  ambition.  His  mind  was 
of  a  very  high  order:  his  IcHriiing  extensive  and  exact  ; 
his  power  of  nioving  men  as  a  preacher  exlraonlinnry  ; 
and  his  character  one  of  the  most  exquisite  purity  and 
completeness.  Ho  wrote  much,  but  published  eompara- 
tivcly  little.     His  theological  position  was  that  of  uncom- 


promising adherence  to  tho  doctrines  of  evangelical  Prot- 
estantism, of  great  moderation  on  points  in  dispute,  and  of 
cautious  adjudication  between  tho  claims  of  conservatism 
and  progress.  A  very  complete  sketch  of  his  life  and  labors 
was  given  in  the  Evdntjclicaf  lievieir,  Jan.,  1SC8,  by  Prof. 
M.  L.  Stoever.  (Sue  also  McCliutock  and  Strong's  Cyclo- 
pndifi,  V.  IGD.) 

Krauth  (Charles  Pouterfield),  S.  T.  D.,  LL.D.,  son 
of  Charles  Philip  Krauth,  b.  Mar.  17,  182.t,  at  Martins- 
burg,  \'a. ;  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College,  tlettye- 
burg,  lS;i'J;  became  a  licentiate  in  1841  ;  labored  at  Balti- 
more, Md.,  1842-47  ;  ordained  1812;  pastor  in  Winehcstcr, 
Va.,  1848-65;  in  Pittsburg.  Pa.,  ISOj-il) ;  in  St.  Mark's, 
Philadelphia.  1859-Gl;  had  temporary  charge  of  St.  John's 
1SG4-05  and  1874-75;  labored  in  mission  churches  at 
Canton,  Md.,  1841.  and  in  St,  Stephen's  and  St.  Peter's, 
Philadelphia.  He  spent  ten  months,  1852-5.'!,  in  St. 
Thomas  and  Santa  Cruz,  D.  W.  I.;  for  nearly  three 
months  during  the  prevalence  of  yellow  fever  officiated 
as  jtastor  in  St.  Thomas;  subsequently  ]uiblisheii  Skrlrhra 
of  a  Wintrr  and  Sprhuj  in  thr  Jhiniufi  W'rut  Indies.  He 
became  editor  of  the  Luthrmn  18f>l  ;  in  18("i4.  Oct.  4,  was 
inaugurated  as  Norton  profcssorof  systematic  tluMtlogy  and 
ecclesiastical  polity  in  the  Lutheran  Seminary  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  is  the  author  of  its  constitution.  In  lsfi8  the 
chair  of  intellectual  and  moral  philosophy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  was  offered  to  Krauth  :  he  was  cliosen 
its  vice-provost  in  ]87o:  in  1874  the  department  of  logic 
was  attached  to  his  chair.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Histori- 
cal Society  of  Pennsylvania;  of  the  Pliilosojihical  and  Ori- 
ental Societies:  of  the  American  eommittec  (Old  Testament 
Company)  co-operating  with  the  British  revisers  of  the  au- 
thorized version  ;  and  of  the  American  Bible  Society's  com- 
mittee on  versions.  Besides  numerous  translations  from 
different  languages,  and  many  critical  and  annotated  edi- 
tions, ho  has  written  in  the  line  of  practical  theology — 
Pastoral  Office  (1845),  Chn/Mostom  (184*)),  Tranfjhjurution 
(1850),  Popular  Amii^onfintn  (1851).  The  Iiihh\i  Pcr/e^t 
fiaok  (1852),  The  Old  Church  on  fhf  f/ifl  (1854).  Pm-rrtt/, 
three  essays  (1858),  Christ  and  I/is  Khujdom  in  Shadows 
(187-1).  His  published  sermons  on  national  occasions  are — 
The  Former  Dayn  oud  These  />«»/«(  185fi),  Tht:  Altor  on  the 
I'hrrshiuff-Floor  (\S57),  The  Tiro  Pa<jeauts,on  the  death  of 
Pros.  liincoln  (181)5).  In  illustration  of  the  doctrines,  his- 
tory, and  usages  of  the  Lutheran  Clinrcb  he  wrote  The  Tt- 
<jau  ArticlcK  (1851)),  The  Lord's  JJai/,  Thcolmpcal  Fuci/rlnpie- 
dia  from  the  Sevcnteeutli  to  the  Niticteenth  Cruturi/  (1857), 
Chrintinn  Liberti/  (1860),  The  EvautfcUcnl  Mat^s  and  the 
Jiomish  Mass  (18C0),  The  Lutheran  Church,  I/rr  Glory,  etc, 
(18fi;5),  The  Augsburg  Cuufcssian,  translated  and  annotated 
{\>>6\i).  The  Conservative  JicformatifU,  and  its  Thcolotjy  aa 
repreHcuted  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  in  the  History 
and  Literature  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (1871, 
8vo,  pp.  858).  Dr.  Krantli  has  been  a  constant  laborer  in 
tho  liturgical  movements  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  writ- 
ten in  this  lino  Sunday  Scrriets  of  the  Churches  if  the  licf- 
orniation  (on  the  basis  of  Alt's  Cultus,  185;>),  The  Jubilee 
Service  (1867),  Common  Prayer,  arrangrd  from  thr  CollfCtB 
in  Ancient  i'eein  the  Lutheran  Church  ;  The  Church  Hooh  of 
the  General  Council  (18fii));  The  LHunjical  Muvcmrnt  in 
the.  German  lirformrd  and  Presbyterian  Churches.  Ho  has 
been  associated  with  the  organization  of  the  general  coun- 
cil of  tho  Lutheran  Church  in  America:  wrote  the  Pcffly 
to  the  Pope'M  Letter,  adopted  Nov.  0,  I8t)i);  the  Thcsrs  on 
Jusfificalion  (1870-74)  ;  was  elected  ])resident  of  the  coun- 
cil 1*870,  has  held  that  office  to  this  time  (1875),  and  is 
chairman  of  its  committee  for  the  preparation  of  a  consti- 
tution for  congregations  and  synoils. 

Dr.  Krauths  lil)rary  is  one  of  the  most  carefully  selected 
in  our  country,  and  contains  aboiit  Lt.OOO  volumes,  largely 
of  the  class  of  l«ioks  which  are  the  primary  sources  of  in- 
formation in  the  departments  of  his  investigations.  He  has 
published  a  number  of  papers  on  "  the  internal  history  an<l  re- 
lations of  the  Authorized  English  Version  of  the  Serijitures, 
and  of  the  Translations  and  Texts  which  have  intluenecd  it." 

KrebH  (Jttns  MnnAKi,).  T>.  D..  b.  at  Hagerstown.  Md., 
May  6,  IStll;  graduated  at  Diekinson  College  in  1827  and 
at  Prini'cton  Theological  Seminary  in  l^'M);  was  l8;U1-07 
pastor  of  the  Rutgers  street  ehurch.  M.  Y.,  and  held  many 
prominent  positions  in  tho  Old  School  branch  of  the  Pr»s- 
iiyfcrian  Church.  He  was  the  author  of  several  devotional 
and  other  works,  chiefly  of  a  religious  character.  D.  iu 
New  Vork  Sept.  :U).  lSfi7, 

Kromrnets',  town  of  Kuropean  Russia,  in  tho  govern- 
ment of  Volhynia.  on  the  Irwa,  which,  however,  is  not 
navigable.      It  has  seven  annual  fairs.     Pop.  10,486. 

KremcntclinoK',  town  of  Kuropcan  Russia,  in  Iho 
government  of  Poltava,  on  the  Dnieper.  It  has  manufne- 
tures  of  rope,  leather,  tnllow.  and  a  brisk  trade.   Pop.  2.'»,848. 

Kremlin.     See  Moscow. 


1584 


KREMNITZ— KRUPP. 


Krem'DitZy  town  of  Hungary,  situated  in  a  deep  val- 
ley among  barren  mountains,  and  provided  with  water  by 
an  aqueduct  aU  miles  long.  Its  eold  and  silver  mines  arc 
tho  richest  in  Europe.     Pop.  6330. 

KremSy  town  of  Lower  Austria,  on  the  Krems,  at  its 
intlux  into  tho  Danube.  It  is  famous  for  its  mustard  and 
wine.     Pop.  5300. 

Krem'sir,  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Moravia, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  the  March;  it  is  well  built,  the 
seat  of  several  civil  and  ecclesiasticiil  authorities,  and  has 
good  educational  institutions,  many  line  buildings,  and  an 
active  general  trade.      Pop.  'JllO. 

Kreutz'nach,  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Nahe, 
at  its  intlux  into  the  Ubine.  It  has  celebrated  salt  springs, 
much  used  for  bathing,  and  largo  manufactures  of  brandy, 
champagne,  chocolate,  and  tobacco.      Pop.  10,y3j. 

Kreuz'er,  the  name  of  a  small  coin  which  originated  in 
the  Tyrol  in  the  thirlcenth  century,  and  became  very  com- 
mon all  over  Germany  since  the  fifteenth.  At  present, 
since  I.S5S,  it  is  made  only  in  the  South  German  states  of 
copper.  100  to  a  gulden.  It  received  its  name,  cruciatua, 
cti(fi/t;r,  from  a  cross  imprinted  on  it. 

Kris,  or  Crease,  the  dagger  of  the  Malays,  often 
cnriou?!y  twisted,  the  more  seriously  to  mangle  those  who 
are  wounded  by  it.  It  is  of  native  manufacture  and  ex- 
tremely well  tempered. 

Krishna.     See  IIindc  Religion,  and  Mahabharata. 

Krishna  River.     See  Kistnah. 

Kroe'ger  (  Adolph  E.).  b.  in  1837  at  Schwabstadt.  near 
Friedrich?tadt,  in  the  duchy  of  Sleswick.  where  his  father 
was  a  minister.  In  1818  the  whole  family  emigrated  to 
America,  and  settled  at  Davenport,  la.,  and  soon  after 
young  Kroeger  entered  into  business  life  as  clerk  in  a  bank- 
ing-house. From  18.")7  to  ISGO  he  was  engaged  as  trans- 
lator on  the  New  York  Times.  During  the  war  he  served 
on  the  staff  of  Fremont.  After  the  war  be  settled  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  where  he  is  still  residing.  Both  by  his  trans- 
lations of  Fiehte  and  by  numerous  essays  in  difTcrent 
periodicals  he  lias  contributed  much  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  and  a  more  widely  spread  interest  in  German  litera- 
ture and  philosophy.  He  is  a  steady  contributor  to  the  St. 
Louis  Joiininl  of'  Speculative  PhUosuphif.  In  1873  he  pub- 
lished The  Mintiesiiif/cra  of  Gcrmanif,  containing  translations 
of  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide,  Ulrich  von  Lichtenslcin,  etc. 

Krolevets',  town  of  European  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tchernigov.  It  has  a  much-frequeuted  annual 
fair.      Pop.  fill!  7. 

Kro'nenbcrg,  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Wip- 
pLT,  li;is  uiauufactuves  of  silk  and  of  iron  and  steel  goods. 
Pop.  7S74. 

Kron'^tadt,  town  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  Transyl- 
vania. It  is  an  old  city,  consisting  of  an  inner  town  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  its  three  suburbs  respectively  inhabited 
by  Germans,  Szeklers,  and  Wallachs.  It  is  a  thriving  and 
very  neatly  built  town,  with  many  beautiful  gardens  and 
promenades.     Pop.  28,1)14. 

Kroos*     See  Liberia. 

Krotos'zyn%  or  Krotoschin,  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  Po;;en.  It  has  manufactures  of  tobacco 
and  linen,  and  a  large  trade  in  wool.     Pop.  7688. 

Krozet'  (or  Crozel)  Islands,  a  group  of  four  small 
islnnds  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  between  Kerguelen  and  Prince 
Edward  islands.  They  arc  uninhabited,  and  visited  only 
by  sealers,  Tho  easternmost,  situated  in  hit.  27°  S..  Ion. 
48°  E,,  was  selected  in  IS7I  as  a  station  for  the  observation 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  by  the  American  astronomers;  but 
owing  to  tempestuous  weather  the  party  were  unable  to 
land,  and  the  station  was  unoccupied, 

Krii'dener,  von  (Jt mask),  b.  at  Riga  Nov.  21.  17fi4, 
a  daughter  of  Haron  von  WietinghofF,  one  of  the  wcallbiest 
Livouian  noblemen,  and  a  granddaughter  of  the  famous 
Russian  field-marshal  .Miinieh.  In  1783  she  married  Baron 
von  Kriidener.  whom  she  accompanied  to  A'cnice  and  Co- 
])enhagen,  and  to  whom  she  bore  two  children.  In  1789 
she  made  a  journey  to  France,  from  which  she  sent  her 
husband  a  milliners  biil  of  20.000  francs  for  the  first  three 
months,  and  from  which  she  returned  in  1791  with  M.  de 
Fregcville,  a  young  lieutenant  of  hussars,  disguised  as  her 
footman,  .\fter  that  timo  the  couple  lived  separated.  The 
fame  of  Madame  dc  Stai-l  tempted  her  into  literature.    Va- 

l/tir,   oit   fettrca   de   (ntaUtve  de  Liuttr   <l    Ernent   de    G , 

was  produced,  correcteil,  read  aloud  in  tho  salons,  and  at 
last  published  at  I*aris  in  1803,  after  the  most  careful 
preparation.  Tho  result  was  a  perfect  success,  quite  a 
sensation,  which,  however,  did  not  satisfy  the  authoress, 
ll^r  connections  with  Jung-iStilling  and  the  Moravian 
B.'cthreu  had  now  the  ascendency  over  her  mind,  and  she 


appeared  in  the  world  as  a  Sister  of  Charity,  a  preacher,  a 
pr<»phetess.  In  1815  she  held  a  sort  of  religious  reunions 
in  her  hotel  in  Paris,  and  [leople  of  the  highest  rank  crowded 
her  salons;  the  emperor  of  Russia,  Alexander,  was  among 
her  visitors,  lie  invited  her  to  the  grand  review  over  the 
Russian  troops  in  the  plain  of  Chalons,  and  the  sight  in- 
spired her  as  the  beginniug  of  the  '•  reign  of  Christ  on 
earth.''  From  Bale,  where  she  attempted  to  ctmtinue  her 
religious  assemblies,  she  was  expelled;  also  from  Baden, 
Wiirteraberg,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Prussia.  In  1818  she 
was  escorted  by  the  Prussian  police  to  the  Russian  frontier, 
and  on  entering  her  native  country  she  was  forbidden  to 
preach  and  to  appear  in  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  She 
found,  nevertheless,  an  opportunity  of  visiting  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  attempted  to  renew  her  friendship  with  tho  em- 
peror. But  her  enthusiasm  for  the  Greek  revolution,  and 
her  indiscretion  in  working  for  her  ideas,  were  too  great 
for  tho  Russian  diplomacy.  She  was  banished  from  St. 
Petersburg,  and  went  in  1824  to  the  Crimea  in  order  to 
found  a  colony  in  accordance  with  her  own  ideos  of  human 
society.  On  this  expedition  she  d.  at  Karassubasar  Dee. 
25, 1824,  Her  life  and  character  have  been  subject  to  much 
curiosity  and  speculation;  at  present,  however,  most  critics 
agree  in  considering  her  a  specimen  of  a  not  uncommon 
kind  of  female  character,  only  that  peculiar  circumstances 
forced  her  gifts  and  her  weaknesses  into  caricuture. 

Krng  (WiLHELM  TiiArcoTT),  b.  at  Radis,  in  PruB.^ian 
Saxony.  June  22.  1770;  studied  at  M'ittenbcrg.  Jena,  and 
Guttingcu;  was  appointed  professor  in  philosophy  at 
Frankfort-on-thc-0«ler  in  1801 ;  at  Kiinigsberg  in  1804,  as 
the  successor  of  Kant;  at  Leipsic  in  1809;  resigned  in 
1834,  and  d.  Jan.  13.  1812.  He  took  part  with  great 
eagerness  and  with  a  certain  adroitness  in  all  literary  and 
political  movements  in  his  time,  lie  was  jiresidcnt  of  the 
Tugenbund,  formed  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  for  the  rcgcn, 
eration  of  Germany.  He  joined  a  Saxon  regiment  in  the 
campaign  of  1813.  In  politics  he  stood  foremost  among 
the  liberal  agitators  ;  in  theology  he  wrote  liriefe  iiber  die 
Prrfrrfihilifiit  der  tjcuffcnhnrteu  Ifffitjinn  (1796);  in  phi- 
losophy he  pretended  to  have  found  the  true  reconciliation 
between  idealism  and  realism,  which  he  presented  in  a 
quite  popular  form.  J'inidainentai  philoiKtphie  (1803),  and 
afterwards  in  a  more  scientific  form  in  his  AUtjemcinea 
I/midtrorterlinvh  der  jiliifn^npfiiarlien  Wisxensclia/ten  (4 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1827-28).  His  writings  are  very  numerous 
and  varied  :  they  were  popular  in  their  time,  but  are  now 
superseded. 

Kru'mau,  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Moldau,  consists 
of  Krumau  proper.  Latron.  six  suburbs,  and  an  iunuensc 
palace  or  castle  with  five  courtyards.  Krumau  has  large 
breweries,  and  a  famous  bccr-vault  excavated  in  a  solid 
rock.     Pop.  GCOO. 

Krum'macher  (FniEDRice  Adolf), b.  at  Tecklenburg, 
in  Westphalia.  July  13.  17(»8.  and  d.  as  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed congregation  at  Bremen,  Apr.  14,  1845.  His  Aij«- 
fdrit  (1805)  became  a  very  popular  book,  ran  through  many 
editions,  and  was  translated  into  English.  lie  wrote  sev- 
eral other  works,  poetical  and  religious,  none  of  which  at- 
tained great  popularity. — His  son,  FitiEimirn  Wilhkmi, 
b.  at  Duisburg.  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  Jan.  28,  K^'O,  and  d. 
as  chaplain  of  the  court  at  Potsdam,  Dec.  10.  18r»8,  wa?  a 
rather  harsh  opponent  of  the  rationalistic  school  of  theol- 
ogv,  but  he  was  a  very  eloquent  preaeher.  Of  his  writings, 
Kii/uh  the  Tithhite,  The  Last  D'lt/a  of  Eliaha,  Snfumon  and 
t/ic  Shidamite^  fjfiiiipsta  into  the  Ktut/dom  of  Ifenren,  Darid, 
Kintf  of  hratf,  and  his  Autobiography  have  beeo  trans- 
lated into  English. 

Krupp  (FniKURirn).  The  Krupp  cast-steel  works  at 
Essen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  were  founded  in  1810  by  Fried- 
rich  Krupp.  After  his  death,  in  182r»,  his  widow  and  sons 
took  charge  of  the  establishment  in  company  until  1848, 
since  which  time  one  of  the  sons,  Alfred  Krupp.  carries  on 
the  business  alone  under  the  firm-name  of  Friedrich  Krupp. 
Like  his  father,  he  had  many  difficulties  to  overcome  before 
he  achieved  any  signal  success,  but  the  introduction  of  steel 
for  cannons  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  the  prosperity 
of  the  works.  At  present  the  establishment  covers  an  area 
of  more  than  400  hectares  and  employs  over  12,000  hands, 
besides  about  5000  men  engaged  in  the  mines  and  smelting- 
houses,  2000  in  the  building  department,  and  739  in  the 
administration.  Tho  quantity  of  steel  produced  and 
consumed  for  casting  amounted  in  1872  to  more  than 
125,000.000  kilogrammes:  the  articles  manufactured  com- 
prised axles,  tires,  wheels,  etc.  for  railways  :  rails  and 
springs  for  railways  and  mines;  axles  for  steamboats;  dif- 
ferent parts  of  machinery,  rollers,  etc.,  and  cannons,  gun- 
carriages,  and  guns.  In  1873  there  were  1 100  furnaces  of 
different  kinds  in  operation  ;  275  coke-ovens.  204  smiths' 
forges.  240  boilers;  71  steam-hammers,  of  which  3  were  of 
100  cwts.,  1  of  200,  1  of  400.  1  of  1000  :  28r.  s'cam-cngines. 


KRUSENSTEKN— KriiX. 


15.^5 


of  which  6  were  of  150,  1  of  200,  1  of  500,  3  of  800,  and  1 
of  lunu  horso-power:  and  1050  machine-tools.  In  1S72 
500,0011,000  kilut:rttmmc9  of  cual.  iL'j.OIHi.OOil  kiloi^Tuiuines 
of  cuke,  3,500,000  cubic  metres  of  wnter.  ami  o.UOu.tluO  cubic 
metres  of  gua  were  consumed.  Of  means  of  eornniuuioatiou 
the  ostHblishmeut  possesses  52. K  kilonielre.'^  of  railway,  15 
locomotires,  i^OO  ears,  nnil  a  complete  system  of  telegraph: 
206  dwollius^-houses  for  officials,  2048  for  wi>rkingnieu, 
several  ho.^pitals,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a  photographic 
and  a  lithographic  cslablisliment,  etc.  belong  to  the  works; 
414  mine:^  and  several  smelting-housies,  with  11  blast  fur- 
nacpf!,  produce  annually  about  10,000,000  kilogrammes  of 
pig  iron.  Rich  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  Northern  Spain  be- 
long to  .Mr.  Krupp. 

Mo,«t  arllllerists  consider  the  Kru])p  cannon  to  be  the  best 
in  the  world.  They  are  mo.*Jt  extensively  used  ;  more  than 
];i,000  pieces  have  already  been  produced.  Since  lS72  the 
whole  German  army  has  been  jiroviiled  with  a  new  field- 
gun  invented  by  Mr.  Krupp.  The  system  of  his  cannon 
is  the  breech-loadiug ;  their  peculiarity  consists  partly  in 
the  appropriateness  of  the  metal,  partly  in  the  construction. 
At  the  Vienna  Expitsition  he  exhibited  the  following  can- 
nons :  I.  304  cm.  cannon  ;  calibre.  ;105  mm.,  length  of  tube 
6.7  m. ;  length  of  bore.  5.77  m. ;  weight  of  tube,  30,000  k. ; 
of  the  filled  steel  grenade,  200  k.  :  of  charge,  00  k. ;  of 
cast-iron  long  grenade.  257  k.  11.  28  cm.  howitzer;  cali- 
bre, 280  mm.;  length  of  tube.  .*t.2  m. ;  length  of  bore, 
2.5  m.;  weight  of  tube,  lO.noO  k. ;  of  filled  grenade, 
\'J'.i  k. ;  of  charge,  20  k.  III.  Short  cm.  ship  cannon; 
calibre,  200  mm.;  Icngtii  of  tube,  5.2  m. ;  weiglit  of  tube, 
18,000  k. :  of  grenade,  1S4  k.  IV.  hong  24  cm.  cannon 
for  casemate  ships;  calibre.  235.4  mm.;  length  of  tube, 
5.23  m.:  weight  of  tube,  155.000  k. ;  of  steel  grenade, 
filled,  135  k.:  of  cast-iron  grenade,  filled,  118.5  k.  V. 
Li»ng  21  cm.  cannon;  calibre,  2ii0.3  mm.:  length  of  tube, 
4.708  m.:  weight  of  tube.  10,000  k. ;  filled  steel  grenade, 
95  k.  VI.  21  cm.  siege  cannon  :  calibre,  200.3  mm. ;  length 
of  tube,  3.400  m. ;  weight  of  tube,  3000  k. ;  filled  gre- 
nade, 70  k.  VII.  Long  cm.  cannon;  calibre,  172.0  mm.; 
length  of  tube,  4.250  m. :  weight  of  tube,  5000  k.;  filled 
steel  grenade.  55  k.  VIII.  15  cm.  siege  cannon  ;  calibre, 
1  rj.l  mm. ;  length  of  tube,  3.44  m. ;  weight  of  tube,  3000 
k. ;  filled  grenade.  28  k.;  charge,  6  k.  IX.  Long  15  cm. 
cannon  :  calibre,  140.1  mm. ;  length  of  tube,  3.S5  m. ; 
weight  of  tube,  4000  k. :  filled  steel  grenade,  35  k.  ;  filled 
cast-iron  long  grenade,  28  k.  X.  12  cm.  cannon;  calibre, 
120.3  mm.;  length  of  tube,  2.925  m. :  weight  of  tube,  1400 
k. ;  filled  steel  grenade,  17.5  k. ;  filled  cast-iron  grenade, 
15.5  k.  XI.  0  cm.  field  cannon  ;  calibre,  91 .5  mm. ;  length 
of  tube,  2.04  m.  ;  length  of  bore.  l.sl'J  m.  :  weight  of  tube, 
425  k.;  filled  grenade.  0.9  k.;  charge,  O.fi  k.  XII.  8  cm. 
fieUl  cannon;  calibre,  78.5  mm.:  length  of  tube,  1.0:'5  m.; 
weight  of  tube,  295  k. ;  filled  grenade,  4.3  k.;  charge, 
0.5  k.  XIII.  fi  cm.  mountain  cannon;  calibre,  60  mm.; 
length  of  tube,  1.25  m. :  weight  of  tube,  107  k.  ;  filled 
grenade,  2.3  k. ;  charge,  0.2  k.  AuorsT  Nikmann. 

Kru'spnstern,  von  (.^dam  JonAxx),  b.  Nov.  19,  1770, 
a^  Ilag^ud,  K;«thonia,  and  cduoatcfl  at  the  naval  academy 
of  Kronstadt:  served  1793-99  in  the  Uritish  navy,  and  un- 
dertook, from  Aug.  7,  1803,  to  Aug.  19.  1800.  a"  scientific 
anl  commercial  cxpcditi<in  at  the  expense  of  the  Russian 
government  to  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Pacific.  The  ex- 
pedition was  a  great  succes-s,  and  has  been  described  by 
Krusenstern  himself  in  his  lifiie  um  ifir  \\%/t  (3  vol?., 
1810-12.  translated  into  English  by  Iloj.pner  in  1813). 
From  1824-27  he  published  Atftti  tfn  Vnc/nn  /*nciji»/iie  (2 
vols.)  and  RrcurU  de  nf'tnnirm  fiifiim/fntp/iitfiifH,  ptmr  ner- 
vi'r  ii'(tn(t/i/»e  et  ii'r.rpfiriilimi  tl    /'tttttm  f/**  l'i)rfttn  /'artfittite. 

In  1829  he  was  made  a  vice-admiral,  iu  1841  an  admiral, 
and  d.  Aug.  24,  1840. 

Krylof  (Ivan  AxnnKiviTrn),  h.  Feb.  14,  1708.  d.  Nov. 
21.  IS  14:  passed  the  early  years  of  his  boyhood  in  the  dis- 
tant pn»vinco  of  Orenburg,  where  his  father  was  serving 
aijainst  the  rebels  of  Pugatcheff.  and  subsequently  in  Tver. 
His  father  died  when  he  was  fourteen,  and  he  was  then 
ob!i.;ed  to  enter  the  goverinnent  servic  in  Tver,  and  after- 
war. U  in  St.  Petersburg,  at  a  salary  of  two  roubles  a  month. 
He  rei-eived  a  good  education  from  his  mother.  His  first 
iiroduetion,  at  the  ago  of  sixteen,  was  Co/rhiitun.  In  178S 
im  entere.l  into  journalism,  iu  which  be  continueil  until 
1790,  when  all  the  jirivate  priritirigofllceR  were  closed  by 
the  emperor  Paul,  por  some  years  after  he  resided  on  the 
estate  of  Prince  Galitzin,  teaeliing  the  children  and  acting 
as  ft  frien<l  to  the  family.  On  the  accession  of  the  empe- 
ror Alexander  in  1801.  IVinee  tialitzin  was  made  governor 
of  Livonia,  and  appointed  Krylof  his  seeretary.  His  pas- 
sion for  cards  caused  him  to  leave  the  service  iind  tn  wan- 
der about  Hussia  for  two  years.  In  18n5  he  wrote  his  first 
fables,  which  bad  a  great  success,  and  from  this  time  on 
his  literary  activity  was  entirely  confined  to  fable-writing. 
Vot,."TI.— 100 


His  first  essays  were  chiefly  adaptations  and  translations 
of  La  Fontaine,  but  he  afterwards  wrote  wholly  in  the  na- 
tional vein,  touching  sometimes  on  politics,  especially  on  the 
stirring  events  of  18I2,  though  principally  on  moral  and 
social  topics.  From  1812  to  1841  he  occupied  a  position 
in  the  imperial  public  library,  lie  never  married,  and  par- 
ticularly iu  his  latter  days  led  an  almost  solitary  life,  con- 
fining himself  to  occasional  visits  at  the  houses  of  one  or 
two  friends.  Eigkxk  Scmivlkr. 

Ku^blai  Khan,  the  founder  of  the  twentieth  or  Mongol 
dynasty  of  emperors  of  China,  was  a  gramison  of  ticnghis 
Khan,  b. early  iu  the  thirteenth  century  in  Tartary.of  which 
country  he  was  the  reigning  sovereign,  when  about  1250 
his  aid  was  invoked  by  Li-Sung,  emperor  of  China,  against 
the  Oriental  Tartars.  Tliis  task  having  been  successfully 
accomplished,  Kublai  Khan  remained  in  China  with  his 
largo  and  well-disciplined  army.  Afier  the  death  of  Li- 
Sung  and  of  his  imljccilc  successor,  Kuhlai  Khan  assumed 
the  title  of  emperor  of  China,  excluding  the  infant  claimant 
of  the  throne.  His  undisputed  reign  dates  from  1279.  after 
which  he  extended  his  empire  by  the  c<in<|uest  of  Tonquin, 
Cochin  China,  and  other  adjoining  countries,  until  bis 
limits  reached  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and 
the  Euxinc.  lie  sent  a  naval  expecliti(m  for  the  conquest 
of  Japan,  but  it  was  partially  destroyed  by  a  tempest,  and 
the  remainder  easily  defeated  by  the  .Ja])antso.  Under  his 
reign  the  celebrated  \'cnetian  traveller  Marco  Polo  resided 
many  years  at  theimjierinl  court,  of  which  he  has  given  so 
vivid  a  description.  (See  Katiiav,  by  Col.  Heniiv  Yi'le.) 

Kuenlun',  or  Koulkoiin,  the  name  of  a  mountain- 
range  of  Central  Asia,  wliieli  commences  near  the  point  of 
lat.  35°  N.  and  Ion.  75°  K..  from  which  tlie  Himalayiis,  the 
Hindoo-Koosh,and  the  Bolor-Tagh  radiate  in  three  difiVrcnt 
directions,  and  stretches  eastward,  forming  the  northern 
boundary  of  Thibet.  The  eastern  parts  of  (his  mountain- 
range,  which  extends  into  China  jiropcr,  are  almost  un- 
known to  us,  but  the  western  part,  generally  known  by  the 
names  of  Karakorum  and  Mustagb,  rises  to  a  height  of 
21.000  feet,  is  covered  with  tremendous  glaciers,  which 
sometimes  descend  to  10,000  feet,  and  forms  deep.  wild,  hut 
beautiful  and  exceedingly  fertile  valleys.  Karakorum  is 
properly  the  name  of  a  pass,  18,000  feet  high,  leading  from 
Thibet  into  Chinese  Toorkistan. 

Kufic  Writing.     See  CtJFic  Writing. 

Kug'Icr  (FitANz  TiiixiDou),  b.  at  Stettin  Jan.  19,1808; 
studied  lii>t(iry,  philology,  and  art  in  IJerlin,  lleitlelbcrg. 
and  Italy,  and  was  a(q»oinIed  (iroftssor  in  the  line  arts  at 
tbo  University  of  Berlin  in  1833,  His  Hamibitch  dcr 
GrRchichte  dtr  Malerei  von  Iiunntaiitin  dcr  Grosne  bin  an/ 
(lie  tieiitrc  Zcit  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1837),  and  his  llaudhuvh 
der  KiniMtfftHchifhtc  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1841-42),  arc  excel- 
lent productions — clear,  comprehensive,  and  very  instruc- 
tive: the  former  of  them  has  been  translated  into  English. 
His  Kltimn  Si-hrlfitn  iitid  Studit-u  zur  Knnsff/cschiclitr  (3 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1853-54)  contains  many  valuable  essays 
on  the  history  and  philosophy  of  the  fine  arts.  Very  little 
interest,  on  the  contrary,  have  his  dramas  and  poems,  and 
his  History  of  Frederick  th>'  Great,  though  the  latter  is  very 
much  read  in  Germany.  I),  at  Berlin  Mar.  18,  IS58,  in  tho 
midst  of  a  large  work  on  the  Grirfiic/itc  der  Hdukunst,  of 
which  he  finished  only  tho  three  first  volumes. 

Killin  ( A tiAMiKiti),  b.  at  Kiinigsberg-in-dcr-Ncumark, 
in  llie  Prussian  province  of  BramUnbing.  Nov,  19,  1812; 
studieil  philology  at  tho  University  of  Berlin  since  1833, 
and  became  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  of  Cologne  in  1841, 
and  in  1850  profcf-sor.  As  editor  of  Zritnchrift fUr  ver- 
iffrirhcudc  Sprarh/'orsidiiitif/  and  /iritriitft  ziir  vrrjffriiht  tiifr 
Spntrh/tirHrhumf  he  has  contributed  much  to  the  growth 
of  comparative  philology.  an*l  by  his  IHe  lirrnhkuufi  dra 
Fenrrn  iniil  drn  G'otfcrtranlcH  { Berlin.  1859),  as  well  as  other 
researches  in  the  same  line,  ho  inaugurated  tho  new  science 
of  comparative  mythology. 

Kiihn  (FiiANz).  banm  von  Kuhncnfeld,  b.  in  1R17;  en- 
tered in  1837  the  \>t  nginunt  of  infantry  as  a  lieutenant  ; 
distinguished  himself  in  iSls  and  1810  in  the  war  in  Hun- 
gary an'I  Italy:  was  employed  on  the  stafl"  and  as  teacher 
of  strategy  at  the  Military  Aeadt  my  of  \'jenna,  and  occu- 
pied in  1859.  in  the  war  in  I'pper  Italy,  the  important  posi- 
tion of  chief  of  stuff  to  (lyulay.  After  this  unfortunate 
war  bo  receiver!  ihi'  eoiniuand  of  the  17tli  regiment  of  in- 
fantry, and  in  the  war  of  I SOO  be  was  made  a  nnijnr-general 
ami  ehargcil  with  the  defence  of  tho  Tyrol  against  Hari- 
baldi.  He  was  successful  in  the  performance  of  this  task, 
and  was  promoted  to  bp  field-marsbal-lieutenant.  In  1868 
be  ua>  appointed  minister  of  war  for  the  whole  empire,  and 
devoted  liimself  with  great  energy  to  tho  reorgani.-alion  of 
the  arniv.  managing  \vith  delicacy  and  prudence  tbo  many 
difllculties  which  arose  from  the  discrepancies  between 
Austria  and  Hungary.     In  June,  1S74,  ho  rotired  from  this 


158t:> 


KCHNOL— KUKISCHE-HAFF. 


position,  in  consequence  of  one  of  those  fluctuations  so  com- 
luon  with  the  Austrian  government,  and  assumed  the  com- 
mani.l  of  Griitz.  Augtst  Niemann. 

Kiih'nol,  or  Kuehuoel  (Christian  Gottlieb),  b.  at 
Leipsic  Jan.  2.  17t.>S  ;  studied  th('oU)gy  in  the  univcr^-ity  of 
his  native  city,  where  he  began  to  lecture  on  biblical  exe- 
gesis anil  hcrmcneutica  at  the  age  of  twenty  :  became  pro- 
fessorof  philosophy  in  171tO,  and  preacher  in  17y*>.  In  1801 
he  acce])ted  a  professorship  atGiessen.  and  remained  there  I 
until  his  death,  Oct.  15,  Itfil.  His  earliest  original  work 
was  on  MvuHiaiiic  Propheciea  (1792 ).  in  German,  after  which 
he  published  (in  1794)  Notes  on  the  New  Tcntnment,  /mm  \ 
the  Apncn/f>h(i!  lioukfi  of  the  Old  Tt-atuineiit,  in  Latin,  and  in 
17y'.>  ThepHuhns  in  Metre,  in  German.  The  great  work  of  i 
his  life  was  his  Latin  Commeutuvif  un  the  Hintoricaf  liookn 
of  the  Nfw  Testament  (Leipsic,  4  vols..  IS07-lt*:  4th  ed. 
1S37),  which  had  great  popularity,  and  was  reprinted  in 
London  ( 1S37,  3  vols.),  with  the  addition  of  the  Greek  test. 
Kithniil  is  credited  with  many  of  the  best  qualities  of  a 
bibliiMil  interpreter,  and  held  a  middle  ground  between 
orthodoxy  and  neology. 

Ku'ka,  or  Kukawa,  town  of  Central  Africa,  the  cap- 
ital of  Uornoo.  in  lat.  12°  55'  N.  and  Ion.  13°  26'  W.,  on  tbe 
western  shore  of  Lake  Tchad.      Pop.  8000, 

Ku-Klux  KIan,or  Ku-KIux  [named,  we  are  told,  in 
imitation  of  the  click  heard  in  cocking  the  rifle ;  kfan  is  the 
word  c/(in  in  a  new  orthography],  a  former  gecret  associ- 
ation of  ex-Confederate  soldiers,  first  heard  of  in  Tennessee 
in  186?*.  The  society  soon  spread  into  several  other  States 
of  the  South,  and  many  murders  and  other  crimes  were 
committed  by  its  members,  who  were  dressed  in  fantastic 
disguises.  The  victims  were  chiefly  freedmen.  pei-sons  of 
Northern  origin,  and  Southerners  accused  of  favoring  the 
reconstruction  acts  of  Congress.  The  great  budy  of  the 
Southern  people  never  approved  of  this  method  of  settling 
the  questions  involved,  and  greatly  deplored  the  crimes  of 
the  Ku-Klui.  In  Apr.,  IS71,  Congress  made  these  offenders 
punishable  in  the  Federal  courts,  and  authorized  the  Presi- 
dent to  suspend  the  habeas  corpus  act  when  necessary  to 
the  preservation  of  order.  These  measures,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  U.  S.  troops  in  the  troubled  districts,  soon 
brought  the  disturbances  to  an  end. 

Ii.ula'9  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Serbia,  with 
some  manufactures  and  a  lively  trade.     Pop.  6908. 

Knlja,  or  Kuldsclia,  province  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in 
the  giivernment  of  Toorkistan.  Area,  25,500  square  miles. 
Pop.  in  1S71,  114.;i;i7.  It  was  formerly  Soongaria,  the  ex- 
treme X.  W.  province  of  the  Chinese  empire,  but  a  few  years 
since  it  declared  its  independence  under  a  native  sultan, 
and  in  May,  1871.  the  Russian  government  seized  and  an- 
nexed the  country  in  aceordanee  with  a  previous  agreement 
with  China.  The  capital,  Kulja,  called  also  ^fVc*',  is  situated 
on  the  Eelec  River,  and  has  considerable  trade.   Pop.  30,000. 

Kulm  [Bohemian  Chfumnl,  village  of  Bohemia,  8  miles 
N.  E.  of  Teplitz,  is  noted  for  the  battle  which  took  place 
here  Aug.  29-30,  181.3,  and  in  which  a  French  corps  under 
Vandamme  was  surrounded  by  the  allied  Russian-Austrian 
army,  ami  compelled  to  surrender  after  a  desperate  resist- 
ance, with  80  pieces  and  10,000  men,  having  lost  5000  men. 

Kulm 9  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Prussia,  on 
the  Vistula.  It  has  some  manufactures  of  linen  and  some 
trade  in  corn.     Pop.  72G3. 

Kumaon'9  territory  in  the  north-western  part  of  Hin- 
dostan,  forming  a  province  of  the  presidency  of  Agra, 
British  India,  and  situated  between  20°  and  31°  N.  lat.  and 
between  78°  and  81°  K.  Ion.  Area,  11,000  square  miles. 
Pop.  605, 010.  It  is  mostly  covered  by  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains, with  the  exception  of  a  belt  of  lowland  from  2  to 
15  miles  broad  extending  along  the  foot  of  the  mountain- 
range.  Two  crops  are  gathered  here  yearly  ;  rice,  sugar, 
and  indigo  form  the  one — wheat  and  Kuropean  fruits  and 
vegetables  the  other.  The  tea-jtlant  has  lieen  introduced 
with  success.  The  capital  is  .Vlmora,  situated  5337  feet 
above  the  soa. 

Kuniquat,the  Citrus  Japan ka,  a  v&T\eiy  of  the  orange 
which  is  perfectly  hardy  in  Japan  and  China,  and  would 
probably  succeed  in  inauy  parts  of  the  U.  S.  The  shrub 
and  its  fruit  are  both  very  small,  but  the  fruit  is  of  excel- 
lent qualify. 

Ku'nersdorf,  village  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Brandenlmrg.  Here  Frederick  the  Great  was  utterly  de- 
feated by  the  combined  liussian  and  Austrian  forces,  Aug. 
12,  1751). 

KuDg,  pRiscF,,  b.  in  1835.  was  uncle  of  the  late  em- 
peror of  China,  and  as  regent  hecame  the  virtual  ruler  of 
that  country  at  the  accession  of  the  former  in  1861.  In 
1860,  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  the  Pei-II<i  forts  an-l 
of  tho  summer  palace  of  Peking,  he  advised  the  emperor 


to  sign  the  peace  with  tho  French  and  English.  Prince 
Kung  is  the  leader  of  the  small  party  in  China  which  ad- 
vocates friendship  with  Christian  nations,  and  the  intro- 
duction in  the  Celestial  empire  of  Cheir  industrial,  scientific, 
and  manufacturing  processes.  He  agreed  with  Anson  Bur- 
lingame,  then  American  minister  at  Peking,  to  send  him  in 
1S68,  as  envoy  extraordinary  of  China,  to  the  V.  S.  and 
European  powers,  in  order  to  form  with  thrm  all  alliances 
on  a  very  enlightened  basis,  ile  became  afterwards  prime 
minister,  and  concluded  peace  with  Japan,  after  the  For- 
mosan  troubles,  Nov.,  1874.  On  that  occasion  he  was  ac- 
cused of  having  given  way  to  foreign  influence,  and  was 
even  condemned  to  death,  but  on  the  following  day  an  im- 
perial decree  reinstated  hini  in  all  his  offices,  which  he  re- 
tained until  the  death  of  the  young  emperor,  Jan.  17,  1875. 

Felix  Aucaione. 

Kuu^iir%  or  Kooni^oor,  town  of  European  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Perm.  Its  manufactures  of  Russian 
leather  are  celebrated  as  the  best  in  the  world.  Its  vicinity 
has  very  rich  iron-mines.     Pop.  8208. 

Kun*Hegyes%  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Theiss,  has 
71L'>  inhaliitants,  mostly  Calvinists. 

Kunnoilj',  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of 
Agra,  on  the  Kali  Nuddi,  3  miles  from  its  junction  with 
the  Ganges,  was  at  one  time  a  flourishing  town,  but  is  now 
only  a  vast  field  of  ruins,  of  which  some  Mohammedan 
tombs  are  interesting,  and  bear  witness  to  the  former 
splendor  of  the  place.     Pop.  15,000,  who  live  miserably. 

Kun-Szent-Martony',  town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Koros,  has  ','001  inhabitants. 

Kun-Szent-Miklos',  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Dan- 
ube, has  5751  inhabitants,  chiefly  Protestants. 

KuDth  (Karl  Sigismind},!!.  at  Leipsic  June  IS,  1788; 
studied  natural  science  at  Berlin;  lived  1813-19  at  Paris, 
engaged  in  the  editing  of  Humboldt's  and  Bonpland's  bo- 
tanical collection:  was  npjiointed  professor  of  botany  at 
Berlin  in  1820,  and  d.  Mar.  22, 1850.  His  principal  works 
arc  —  Enmncratio  plaiitariim  onniium  hueueque  cotjnita- 
rnm  (5  vols.,  Stuttgart,  lS33-50)and  Lehrbuch  der  Jiotnnik 
(1S47). 

Knnze  (John  Christophf.r),  D.D.,  b.  in  Saxony  about 
1740  :  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Halle  :  entered  the  Lutheran 
ministry,  and  cume  to  Philadeljthia  in  1770  as  associate 
pastor  of  the  German  churches  in  that  city.  For  several 
years  he  was  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
In  1784  he  ncct-pted  a  pastoral  call  to  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  be  resided  for  twenty-three  years,  until  his  death, 
July  24,  1807.    He  added  to  his  pastoral  duties  those  of  the 

iirofessorship  of  Oriental  literature  in  Columbia  College. 
lo  was  celebrated  as  a  Hebrew  scholar,  being  consulted 
even  by  the  rabbins  upon  the  philological  interpretation  of 
their  Scriptures.  He  published  several  works,  among  which 
•were  a  Ilinftprtf  0/  the  ChriHtniu  Rrliijion  nnd  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  a  t'literhiam  and  Liturr/i/,  and  a  Lutheran  Hymn 
au't  Pra>/er  Hook. 

Kuper  (Sir  Augtstis  LtoroLn),  K.  C.  B.,  G.  C.  B., 
b.  in  1800;  entered  the  royal  navy  in  1823;  served  on 
South  American  and  Mediterranean  stations  and  in  China, 
attained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  L^-OLnnd  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  on  the  East  India  and  China  stations, 
conducting  with  success  the  operati<ms  in  1864  on  the  coast 
of  Japan,  and  for  which  services  was  crcatdl  a  K.  C.  B. ; 
subsequently  promoted  in  the  navy  to  be  full  admiral. 

Kuppcrwunje',  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presi- 
dency of  Bombay,  in  lat.  23°  3'  N.,  Ion.  73°  9'  E.,  is  for- 
tified and  has  some  trade.     Pop.  13,000. 

Kiir^or  Koor,  a  river  of  the  Caucasus,  rises  in  Turkish 
Armenia  and  flows  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  course  is  so 
irregular  and  its  currents  so  rapid  that  it  is  entirely  unfit 
for  navigation.  In  most  places  it  is  even  impossible  to 
bridge  it. 

Ku'rile  (or  Koorilc)  Islands,  a  group  of  twenty-six 
islands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  near  the  Asiatic  coast, 
forming  a  chain  700  miles  in  length,  from  Kamtchatka  to 
Yesso,  tho  northernmost  island  of  Japan.  Estimated  area, 
3000  square  miles.  Pop.  uncertain,  but  very  small.  The 
surface  is  irregular  and  mountainous,  with  eight  or  fen 
active  volcanoes,  one  of  which  is  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet 
high.  The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  islands  resemble 
the  natives  (»f  Kamtchatka :  those  of  the  southern  are  chiefly 
Ainos.  a  race  found  also  in  Yesso.  These  islands  arc  divided 
into  Great  and  Little  Kuriles,  the  former  belonging  to  Japan, 
and  the  latter  to  Russia,  but  by  a  treaty  signed  June.  1^75, 
Japan  has  acquired  sovereignty  over  the  whole  group. 
There  are  iron  and  copper  mines;  the  seal-fishery  and  fur- 
trapping  is  of  some  value. 

Kn'rische*Haff,  a  lagoon  on  the  northern  coa?t  of 
Prussia,  extending  from  Labian  to  Mcmel,  separated  from 


KURNOOL— KYTIIUL. 


15«7 


the  Baltic  by  a  narrow  belt  of  land  called  "  Kurische-Noh- 
ruDg,"  and  communicating  with  it  through  a  channel  of 
hardly  1000  feet  width,  called  *' Mcmel  Deeps."  Its  water 
is  fresh  and  in  most  pluces  shulluw. 

Kurnool',  nr  Kurnul^  town  of  British  In'lin,  in  the 
presidency  of  M;idras,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name.  It  13  situated  on  the  Tamhudra,  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  has  about  20,0U0  inhabitants. 

Kurrachee'9  town  of  Sinde.  on  an  inlet  of  the  Ara- 
bian Sea,  is  miles  X.  \V.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  As 
all  tbe  branches  of  the  Indus  are  barred  by  sandbanks, 
Kurrachee  is  the  only  seaport  on  these  coasts,  and  as  it 
has  railway  communication  both  with  Hyderabatl  and  with 
Lahore,  it  carries  on  an  important  trade.     Pop.  22,000. 

Kur'shee*  town  of  Central  Asia,  in  the  dominions  of 
Bokhara,  has  some  fine  mosques,  bazaars,  and  public  baths, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  tra<ie  in  cattle,  carpets,  and 
horsecloths.  Tobacco  is  extensi\'ely  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

Kurtz  (Benjamin),  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Harrisburg,  Pa., 
Feb.  28,  1705;  was  at  fifteen  years  of  age  an  assistant 
teacher  in  the  Harrisburg  academy,  and  afterwards  gave 
private  instruction  in  ancient  and  modern  languages; 
stutlied  theology  :it  Lebanon,  Pa.,  under  the  direction  of 
Uev.  Dr.  George  Lochmau,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
181j  by  the  Lutheran  synod  of  Pennsylvania.  Ho  was 
successively  assistant  at  Baltimore  to  his  uncle.  Rev.  Dr. 
J.  I>.  Kurtz,  pastor  at  Ifagerstown,  .Md.,and  at  Chambers- 
burg.  an<l  in  lS;;;i  settled  at  Baltimore  as  editor  of  the 
Luthfriin  Ohsprvr.  He  conduuted  that  paper  for  twenty- 
nine  years,  making  it  a  leading  representative  of  the  Lu- 
theran culture  in  America.  Dr.  Kurtz  took  an  active  part 
in  foundling  the  theological  seminary  of  his  clcnomination 
at  (Jettyshurg,  spending  two  years  in  (Jermany  flS2o-27) 
seeking  aid  for  it;  he  was  also  a  Iea<Iing  manager  of  the 
Lutheran  Book  Company  estaldished  at  Baltimore  in  1840, 
and  was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Missionary  Institute  at 
Selinsgrove,  Pa.  He  wrote  several  theologi<'al  books,  was 
an  eloquent  speaker,  and  was  recognized  as  a  leader  and  a 
great  power  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  D.  at  Baltimore 
Dec.  2'J,  I8G6. 

Kurtz  (Jons  Daxiei,),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Ocrraantown,  Pa., 
in  Kfl.'t;  studied  Lutheran  theology  under  the  direction  of 
his  father,  Kev.  John  Nicholas  Kurtz,  and  subsequently 
under  that  of  Rev.  Dr.  H.  E.  Mlihlenburg  of  Lancaster, 
and  wag  licensed  to  preach  by  the  synod  of  IN-unsylvania 
in  I7S1.  In  1786  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  principal 
Lutheran  church  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  held  that  post  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  until  in  18;{2  ho  resigned  on  account 
of  advancing  age  and  infirmity.  He  was  tme  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Ueneral  Synod  of  the  liUthfiran  Ciiurch.  a  direc- 
tor of  the  theological  seminary,  and  closely  identified  with 
all  the  benevolent  institutions  of  his  Church.  D.  at  Balti- 
more Juno  30,  1856. 

Kurtz  (John  \icnoLAR),b.  at  Lutzclindcn,  Nassau,  Ger- 
many, about  1720;  studied  theology  at  Gicssen  and  Halle, 
and  in  1745  came  as  a  missionary  to  his  countrymen  in 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  the  first  Lutheran  minister  or- 
dained in  the  British  colonies  in  America,  labored  succes- 
sively at  New  Hanover,  Tulpehoeken,  (lermantown,  and 
York,  Pa.,  and  spent  much  time  in  perilous  missionary 
journeys  through  the  frontier  settlements,  exposeil  to  the 
tomahawk  and  the  scalping-knife.  He  was  pastor  at  York 
when  the  Continental  Congress  hfid  its  sessions  there  dur- 
ing the  Revolution,  and  gave  evidence  of  his  patriotism  by 
his  solicitude  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  soldiers.  At 
the  age  of  seventy  ho  n-tired  from  the  ministry,  and  spent 
his  remaining  years  with  his  son,  Kev.  Dr.  J,  D.  Kurtz,  at 
Baltimore.  wht?re  ho  d.  in  17U4. 

Kliskoquim',  a  river  of  Alaska,  rises  in  the  Chigmit  I 
Mountains  at  about  lat.  fil°  N.,  and  flows  .S.  W.  more  than   ' 
500  miles  into  Kuskoqtiim  Bay.     Its  course  has  never  been   ; 
explored  by  white  m<*n,  and  its  valley  is  occupied  only  by 
a  few  wandering  Indians  and  Ksnuimaux.  the  former  being 
Kenaians,  and  the  latter  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Koniagas,  called 
Kuskoquigmutes. 

Kiiss'nacht,  a  v.  of  .^iwitzcrland.  in  the  canton  of 
Schwytz,  on  an  arm  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Rigi.  Hero  is  Tell's  chapel,  and  many  localities  re- 
lating to  the  myth  of  Tell  arc  shown  in  and  around  tho 
villagi-.     Pop.  2:ion. 

Kiisteiid'Ji,  or  Ki»tcn4jehf  small  town  of  European 
Turliey.  oa  the  Black  Sea,  near  the  termination  of  Trajan's 
AVall.    It  carries  on  some  trade  in  corn.     Pop.  about  5000. 

Kiistrin'f  town  of  Prussia,  in  tho  province  of  Branden- 
burg, at  the  confluence  of  the  Warta  and  thi*  Oder.  It  is  a 
fortress,  but  only  of  the  third  rank,  and  has  il,)o4  inhabitants. 

Kutni'eh,  or  Kutaya^  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Asia 


Minor,  on  tho  Pusak.  It  has  many  mosques,  palaces, 
public  baths,  and  promenades,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
meerschaum,  opium,  tobacco,  and  goats'  hair.   Poj).  2S,9G:i. 

Kutais'y  government  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in  Caucasia, 
is  bordered  W.  by  the  Black  Sea,  S.  by  Asiatic  Turkt-y. 
and  E.  by  the  govcrnmrnt  of  Tiflis.  Area.  8000  square 
I  miles.  Pop.  605,0(10,  The  surface  is  mountainous.  The 
!  capital,  Kutais,  is  situated  on  the  Rion  (the  ancient  Thasin), 
and  has  826.3  inhabitants.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient CuttttiHiHin  or  Cytiitt,  the  caj)ital  of  Colchis,  is  forti- 
fied, and  carries  on  some  trade  in  corn,  wine,  and  cattle. 

Kutchillf  an  Indian  nation  of  Alaska,  occupying  tho 
upper  valley  of  tho  Yukon  (or  Kwiehpak)  River  through 
a  great  part  of  its  course.  Tliey  are  found  as  far  E.  as 
Mackenzie's  River,  and  arc  divided  into  a  large  number  of 
petty  tribes. 

Kut'tenbcrg,  townof  Bohemia, haslarge  cotton  manu- 
factures, and  in  its  vicinity  important  cojiper  and  lead- 
mines.     Pop.  12,727. 

Kutu'soff  (Mikhail  or  MiniAEL),  b.  1745;  entered 
the  Russian  army  at  the  age  of  sixteen;  became  major- 
general  in  1784;  was  tho  leader  under  SuvarofF  in  tho 
memorable  assault  nnd  capture  of  Ismail ;  became  lieuten- 
ant-general in  17in  :  was  amViassador  to  Constantinoph."  in 
1793,  and  fillcil  other  diplomatic  jiosts  up  to  the  Russian 
war  against  Napoleon,  when  his  services  were  put  in  re- 
quisition. In  l-sOo  he  entered  Germany  at  the  head  of 
50.000  men,  defeated  Mortier  at  Dlirrenslein,  and  disap- 
proved of  the  plan  followed  by  the  allies  at  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz.  His  greatest  title  to  glory  is  in  the  final  results 
which  he  obtained  in  the  Russian  campaign.  In  Aug.,  1812, 
he  was  appointed  generaUin-ehief,  and  though  he  lost  the 
battle  of  Borodino,  and  could  not  prevent  the  capture  of 
Moscow,  still,  his  energy  caused  the  Russians  to  reeovir 
confidence,  and  he  received  the  baton  of  a  field-marshal. 
After  the  evacuation  of  Moscow,  Kutusoff  hotly  pursued 
the  French,  infiieted  on  them  great  losses  in  the  battles  of 
Malo  Jaroslavatz,  Krasnoe,  and  Smolensk,  for  the  latter  of 
which  he  was  created  prince  of  Smolensk,  and  while  pur- 
suing the  Ereneh  in  Prussian  Silesia,  d.  of  a  malignant 
fever  at  Bunzlau,  Apr.  28,  1813,  Felix  At  caigne. 

Kiit'zing  (Fuikdrioh  Trai'gott),  b.  at  Ritteburg,  in 
Thuringia,  Dec,  1807;  studied  at  Hallo;  travelled  in 
Southern  Europe,  especially  exploring  the  flora  of  the 
coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  and  was  aj)pointed  in  1835  professor 
of  natural  science  at  Nordhausen.     His    principal  works 

are  Die  Unncanfilmnj  ujedeicr  Alfjruformen  in  hnhcrc  {  1839), 
Phycohigin  t/eiicrtifitf  (1843),  Phi/cofogia  f/criiifinirn  (1845), 
Specirn  Afffdvum  (1849).  His  researches  have  principally 
concerned  the  Alga*,  and  led  him  to  the  same  fundamental 
ideas  as  those  of  Darwin. 

Kutz'towii,  p<ist-b.  of  Berks  co..Pa.,qn  tho  Allcntown 
branch  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  R.  R.,  has  2 
weekly  ncwsjiapers,  an  iron-foundry  and  furnace,  and  a 
eo.achmaking  establishment.  It  is  the  sent  of  the  Keystone 
State  Normal  School,  which  has  400  students.  Pop.  1'  15. 
Rev.  a.  R.  Hohnk,  Ed.  *'  National  Ei>l'catur." 

Kwang-See.    See  Qtanc-Skk. 

Kwang-Tun^.     See  (^rANnriNfi. 

Kwei-C'hii,  KmcicIiow,  or  Queichow,  iirovinoo 
in  the  S.  \V.  of  China,  lying  between  Se  Cliuen.  Hu-Nan, 
Quang-See,  and  Yun-Nan.  Area.  64,547  square  miles.  Pop. 
5.228.219.  It  is  a  rugged,  mountainous  country,  of  which 
c<q>per,  iron,  lead,  ami  quicksilver  arc  the  most  valuable 
proilucts.     Clip.  Kwci-Yang. 

Kw'irhpak  River.     Sco  Ytkon. 

Ky'Riiitc  [Gr.  «varo?,  "Idur"],  a  natural  silicate  of 
alumina,  crystallizing  in  the  trieUnic  system,  commonly  of 
a  pale-blue  color  (whence  its  imme),but  occasionally  white, 
gray,  or  black,  and  generally  occurring  in  long-bladed 
crystallizations. 

Kynni/iiig.  Sec  Timiiku,  Pukskrvation  and  Fire- 
PR(joi--iN(i  or. 

Kylo^s  Springs,  tp.  of  Jaokson  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  407. 

Kymiirgrr,  tp.  of  Talladega  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  lOl.'i. 

Kyr'n',  tho  first  word  in  <ireek  of  *•  A'i/ri>  cicisnn." 
"  Lord,  hiivo  mercy,"  a  ]>etition  often  occurring  in  (ho 
liturgies,  masses,  and  other  ofliccs  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Hence  tiic  name  h'ifric  is  used  to  designate  tho  opening 
movenirnt  of  musical  masses,  ret|«iems,  and  various  ser- 
vices wbicdi  commence  with  the  words  h'l/rir  ff<  imni,  I'ln-intc 
rhiiinn.  For  this  reason  the  term  is  opplicd  in  the  .Angli- 
can Church  to  tho  responses  between  the  commandments 
in  the  Communion  office,  "  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us." 

Kythul%  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Ben- 
gal, the  capital  (»f  a  district  of  t)ie  same  name.  It  is  a  well- 
built  city,  with  a  magnificent  palace  and  60,000  inhabitants. 


1588 


L— LABEL. 


L. 


L,  one  of  the  consonants  called  liquids,  representing  a 
sound  fciunil  in  almost  every  language.  It  quite  constantly 
stands  for  tlic  same  sound  in  all  languages  using  the  Roman 
al(diahct;  although  tl  in  French  {mouillf)  undergoes  a 
peculiar  softening  in  certain  situations,  while  II  in  Spanish 
{lit  in  Portuguese)  has  a  sound  like  /  followed  by.y  a»  a  con- 
sonant. LI  in  Welsh  has  a  peculiar  aspirated  sound  not 
fonnd  in  Knglish.  L  is  to  some  extent  interchangeable 
with  other  consonants,  ))articuhirly  with  li  and  the  mutes. 
\f,  a  numeral,  L  stands  for  fifty;  as  an  abbreviation,  it 
represents  the  Latin  proper  name  Lucius. 

Laa'laiid,  or  Lollaiid,  an  island  of  Denmark,  in  the 
Baltic,  separated  from  Falster  by  Guldborgsund.  Area. 
452  square  miles.  Pop.  5(;,000.  It  is  low  and  flat,  but 
fertile  ami  well  cultivated.  Large  crops  of  wheat  are 
raised  :  fine  forests  of  oak  and  beech  cover  a  large  part  of 
the  island.     Principal  towns  are  Maribo  and  Jfaskov. 

Labadie'Mr.ANl.b.  Feb.  13,1610.at  Bourg-en-Guiennc, 
and  educated  at  Bordeaux  by  the  Jesuits,  in  whoso  order 
he  became  a  distinguished  professor.     In  163;i  he  left  the 
Jesuits,  and  commenced  preaching  peculiar  doctrines  of 
his  own,  having  considerable  success  at  Paris,  at  .^micns, 
at  Bazas,  and  at  Toulouse.     He  obtained  many  followers 
through  his  eloquence  and  learning,  claimed  to  have  re- 
ceived the  spirit  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  predicted  the 
end  of  the  world  in  lfi66.     Finding  no  rest  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and   being  subject   to   persecutions,   he 
publicly  embraced  the  Reformed  creed  in  1650  at  Jlontauhan, 
where  he  preached  for  several  years  a  return  to  apostolical 
religion  on  pietistic  principles.     In  lliii?  he  became  pastor 
at  Orange,  and  in  16.')9  at  Geneva,  where  he  gained  many 
proselytes,  but  created  such  disturbances  that  he  soon  with- 
drew, and  for  several  years  travelled  through  Germany  and 
Holland.     In  liiiili  he  became  pastor  of  a  Walloon  church 
at  Middelburg.  Midland,  where  several  persons  of  import- 
ance cinljraced  his  doctrines.     His  most  celebrated  di.sciples 
were  two  ladies,  Anna  .Schurmann  and  .\ntoinette  Bouri- 
gnon,  the  former  distinguished  for  her  learning  in  the  Ori- 
ental languages,  the  latter  as  authoress  of  many  devotional 
publications.     In   1669   he   removed   to   Amsterdam,    anri 
formed  a  body  of  followers  known  as  Labadists.    Expelled 
from  Holland  in  1670  as  a  dangerous  sectarian,  he  went  to 
Erfurt,  where  the  princess  palatine   Elizabeth   protected 
him  and  became  his  disciple.     He  afterwards  went  to  Bre- 
men, and  finally  to  Altona,  where  he  d.  Feb.  2,  1674.    His 
discii>les  settled  in  the  duchy  of  Cleves,  where  they  existed 
for  nearly  a  century.    Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  some 
Labadist  missionaries  settled  on  the  backs  of  the  Hudson 
in  New  York,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  founded  any  churches. 
Labadic's  iloctrines  were  a  combination  of  mysticism  with 
Calvinism  ;  he  held  to  illumination  by  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the 
means  of  salvation  superseding  the  Bible,  rejected   infant 
baptism  and  the  observance  of  the  .Sabbath,  and  taught 
communism  in  property.     The  Roman  Catholics  circulated 
many   charges   of   immorality  against  his   teachings,   but 
without  reason,  his  practices  having  been  ascetic  in  the 
extreme.     He  left  numerous  writings,  now  extremely  rare. 
Lab'arec  (Benjamin),  D.  D..  LL.D.,b.  at  Charlestown, 
\.  II..  June  .1,  1801  ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  182S,and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  18:U  ;  was  ordained  at 
Bradford,  Mass.,  IS.Jl  ;  was  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Jackson  College,  Tenn.,  lS.'i2-:i6,  its  president  1S.'!6-S7; 
president   of   Middlebury    College,  Vt.,  1840-66;    held   a 
j.asturatc  at  Hyde  Park.  Mass.,  1S69-71. 

Lnbarraque's'  Solution  (  Liquor  Sndit  Chlnrlimi^), 
a  solution  of  chlorinated  soda  formed  by  mixing  the  solu- 
tion of  fodic  earbcmate  with  that  of  the  best  quality  of 
blcaching-powder  (the  so-called  chloride  of  lime).  It  is 
very  valuable,  both  as  a  remedy  and  as  a  general  disinfect- 
ant, lis  chemical  constitution  is  indetinite.  See  S01HV.M. 
I^ab'arnm  [etymology  doubtful],  the  name  of  the  prin- 
cipal standard  of  the  Roman  armies  after  the  conversion 
of  Constantine.  It  was  a  banner  home  upon  a  cruciform 
standard,  and  had  the  monogram  of  Christ,  with  the  letters 
alpha  and  omega.  It  was  designed  to  commemorate  the 
conversion  of  Constantine,  and  was  an  object  of  adoration 
to  the  troops. 

Labaf  (Jean  Bapttste),  b.  at  Paris  in  1063;  entered 
the  ortler  of  the  Dominicans  in  les.") ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Xancy  in  16S7. 
and  went  in  1693  as  a  missionary,  first  to  Martinique,  and 
then    to    Guadeloupe,    where   he   remained  till   1705.     He 


worked  not  only  »s  a  missionary,  bnt  also  as  a  scientist, 
besides  being  a  man  of  great  practical  ability.  He  founded 
the  city  of  Basse-Terrc  and  took  part  with  great  energy  in 
the  defence  of  the  island  against  the  English.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Europe  he  lived  (or  some  years  in  Spain,  then  in 
Italy,  and  afterwards  in  Paris,  where  ho  d.  •Ian.  C,  1738. 
His  principal  writings  are  Xoiirfaii  vyaije  tttix  ties  de 
l'Am(riqtie  (6  vols..  1722).  Voi/ni/e  en  En/inyiic  et  Itnlle  (S 
vols..  17.10),  Helalion  hittoriqnc  de  V Ethiopie  oecidentale 
(5  vols.,  1722). 

Lab'danum,  or  Lad'annm,  the  resin  of  Cistns  ere- 
tivHn,  htitrlf'oliuH,  and  Ittdaui/erh't,  small  evergreen  shrubs 
of  the  order  Cistacea?,  growing  chiefly  in  the  Levant.  It  is 
combed  from  the  beards  of  goats  and  the  fleece  of  sheep 
that  browse  u|ion  the  hills  when-  it  grows,  and  is  also  col- 
lected by  drawing  a  rake  over  the  plants.  Leathern  thoogs 
are  attached  to  the  rake,  and  to  these  thongs  the  resin  ad- 
heres. It  is  nsed  as  an  incense  an<l  as  a  fumigation ;  also 
sometimes  in  plasters.  It  was  formerly  valued  as  a  stimu- 
lant and  expectorant. 

La  B^dollifere,  de  (1?mile  Gigailt).  b.  at  Paris 
1814.  He  is  especially  known  as  one  of  the  most  assiiln- 
ous  contributors  to  the  journal  Le  SIfcIc,  which  he  recently 
left  for  f.e  Antioiial,  another  republican  paper  of  Paris. 
La  Bfdolli^re  began  his  literary  life  by  writing  the  Pulilical 
Life  (if  the  Mnrquis  de  La  Fni/elte  in  1R33.  which  work  at- 
tracted public  attention  to  him.  He  has  translated  many 
English  and  American  books — Unrle  Tum't  Cnbin,  t\ie  nov- 
els of  Fenimoro  Cooper,  etc.  He  has  written  also  Hitlory 
of  the  Xntioiml  Giiiird,  Hitton/  of  llie  Miiiinem  and  Prirale 
Life  of  the  French.  The  Xew  Paris,  Hinlory  of  the  Me.rierin 
Wnr,  etc.  All  these  works  are  animated  with  a  high  spirit 
of  liberalism.  Fii.ix  Aicaigne. 

La  Bedoy^re,  de  (Charles  HrrnET),  Coi'st,  h.  at 
Paris  1786;  shot  there  Aug.  19,  1815.  His  historical  fame 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  most  exact  personification 
of  the  persecutions  which  the  Bonapartists  had  to  8ufl"er  at 
the  hands  of  the  Bourbon  restoration  after  Waterloo.  La 
B6doyere.  though  of  an  ancient  legitimist  family,  had  be- 
come the  admirer  of  Napoleon  and  taken  service  in  his 
armies.  Ho  did  not  resign  his  military  functions  on  the 
first  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814.  and  was  colonel  of  an  in- 
fantry regiment  when  the  emperor  landed  in  France  from 
the  island  of  Elba  in  1815.  La  Bedoyere,  like  the  whole 
army  and  the  whole  of  France,  joined  Napoleon  at  Vizille, 
who,  on  arriving  in  Paris,  made  him  his  aide-de-camp, 
general  of  division,  and  senator.  On  the  return  of  the  Bour- 
bons after  the  ••  Hundred  Days,"  La  Bfdoyere  was  arrested, 
tried  by  a  drumhead  court-martial,  and  shot. 

Felix  ArcAinxE. 
Ija'bcl  [Lat.  labellum,  "lip"  or  "tassel"].  In  its 
original  sense  Inhel  meant  a  narrow  strip  of  paper  or  parch- 
ment used  in  affixing  a  leaden  seal  to  a  deed  or  other  in- 
strument of  writing.  Verification  is  still  the  intrinsic  idea 
of  the  label,  although  its  mechanical  function  has  disap- 
peared, and  in  its  legal  sense  it  has  been  justly  termed  a 
qiirmi  trademark.  Like  the  trade-mark,  it  implies  pro- 
prietary rights  defensible  both  by  common  law  and  stat- 
ute (see  Trade-marks),  but  differs  from  it  in  including 
proper  names,  descriptive  terms,  etc..  and  in  excluding 
merely  arbitrary  symbols.  Although  the  distinctions  be- 
tween a  label  aiid  a  trademark  may  appear  at  first  glance 
shadowy  and  uncertain,  they  are  substantial  and  readily 
deducible  from  the  ethics  of  the  numerous  judicial  decisions 
on  record  ;  provided  always  that  the  rhnrarter  of  the  spe- 
cific matter  decided  upon  be  considered  without  regard  to 
the  terms  used  by  the  court  in  its  designation  :  for  the  word 
"trade-mark"  has  been  frequently  applied  even  by  learned 
judges  to  indicate  a  label,  and  hence  the  confused  ideas 
current  as  to  the  true  nature  of  the  latter. 

In  the  V.  S.  previous  to  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
I  June  18,  1874,  and  which  went  into  effect  Aug.  1  of  the 
same  year,  no  provision  existed  for  the  registry  of  labels, 
and  infringements  were  tried  in  equity  under  rulings  sim- 
ilar to  those  governing  trade-mark  cases,  but  based  more 
upon  the  substantial  justice  of  each  suit,  as  in  eases  of  un- 
fair competition  in  trade,  than  upon  the  clearly  defined 
axioms  that  govern  the  disposal  of  tradc-mnrks.  The  act 
just  mentioned,  however,  although  faulty  in  many  respects, 
afi'ords  a  basis  for  the  building  up  of  a  system  of  law  and 
practice  which  will  undoubtedly  ensure  to  labels  a  defined 
status  and  value  which  the  isolated  and  to  some  extent 


LABERGE— LABIAT.E. 


1589 


discorrlant  decisions  of  different  State  courts  have  failed  to 
give  them.  As  officially  staled,  the  scope  of  this  net  is  as 
fnMows:  ". *?<<*.  S.  That  in  the  construelion  of  this  act  the 
words  *  enjraving," 'cut.' and  *]»rint'  phall  be  applied  only 
to  pictorial  illustrations  or  works  connected  with  the  tine  i 
art<.  and  no  prints  or  labels  designed  to  be  used  for  any 
other  articles  of  manufacture  shall  bo  entered  untier  the 
copyright  law.  but  luny  be  registered  in  tlio  patent  office. 
And  tho  commissioner  of  patents  is  hereby  charged  with 
the  supervision  ami  control  of  thf  entry  or  registry  of  such 
prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with  the  rfKuhitions  provicled 
hv  law  as  to  copyriijht  of  prints,  except  that  there  shall  be 
paid  for  recording  tho  title  of  a  print  or  label,  not  a  trade- 
mark, six  dollar-5.  which  shall  cover  the  expense  of  furnish-  ' 
inn  a  copy  of  the  record,  under  seal  of  the  commissioner 
of  patents,  to  the  party  entering  the  same.  Scr.  ^.  That 
all  laws  and  parts  of  laws  inconsistent  with  the  foref;oin^  ' 
provisions  be  and  the  same  arc  hereby  repealed.  Sec.  5.  i 
That  this  art  shall  take  effect  on  and  after  tho  first  day  of 
Aiijfust,  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-four.  Approved 
June  1^.  1S74." 

*' By  the  word  'print,'  as  used  in  the  said  act,  is  meant 
any  device,  picture,  word  or  words,  figure  or  fisuros  (not  a 
trade-mark »,  impressed  or  stamped  dirct-tly  u]>on  the  arti- 
cles of  manufacture,  to  denote  the  name  of  the  manufac- 
turer or  place  of  manufacture,  style  of  gooils,  or  other  mat-  ; 
ter.     By  the  word  Mabel.'  as  therein  used,  is  meant  a  slip  i 
or  piece  of  paper,  or  other  material,  to  be  attached  in  any  ' 
manner  to  manufactured  articles,  or  to  bottles,  boxes,  and 
packages  coutainini;  them,  anil  bearing  an  inscriptiou  (not 
a  trade-mark),  as.  for  example,  the  name  of  the  manufac- 
turer or  the  place  of  manufacture,  the  quality  of  goods,   i 
directions  for  use,  etc.      By  tho  words  *  articles  of  manu-  I 
faclure' — to  which  su'-h  print  or  labpl  is  applicable  by  saiil 
act — is  meant  all  vendible  commodities  ]^rndni'od  by  band, 
machinery,  or  art.    lint  no  such  print  or  label  can  be  regis-  , 
tered  unless  it  properly  belongs  to  an  article  of  commerce, 
and  be  as  above  defined;  nor  can  the  same  be  registered  ; 
as  such  print  or  label  when  it  amounts  in  law  to  a  technical  I 
trade-mark."  ' 

It  will  ho  seen  that  the  act  in  question  excludes  trade- 
marks per  **•,  together  with  matter  relating  to  the  fine  arts 
and  belles-lettres.  In  addition  to  these,  it  also  excludes 
designs  or  articles  the  form  and  configuration  of  which  are 
intended  for  the  decoration  or  artistic  improvement  fns  dis- 
tinguished from  the  mechanical  or  functional)  of  manufac- 
tured articles.  | 

The  registry  of  a  label  is  specially  desirable  in  those 
cases  wherein  business  interests  are  identified  with  the  sale 
of  an  article  known  by  the  term  by  which  it  would  naturally 
he  designated,  as.  for  example,  the  word  "Akron."  for  a 
material  produced  at  Akron,  an  illustration  taken  from  the 
noted  case  of  Newman  r«.  Alfonl  (  (*.)  Barbour's  Reports,  p. 
5S.S>,  in  which  the  cement  obtained  from  a  bed  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Akron.  Krio  co.,  X.  Y.,  was  designated  as  Akron 
cement.  Any  one  could  quarry  and  prepare  cement  in  tho 
village,  and  sell  it  as  .Akron  cement,  for  sur-h  is  the  proper 
term  to  indicate  the  article.  But  parties  in  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  made  a  cement  obtained  from  another  locality,  and 
sold  it  as  Akron  cement.  The  court  enjoineil  them.  It 
was  shown  that  the  plaintiffs  had  made  known  to  the  world 
the  merits  of  the  cement-be<l  in  Akmn.  au'l  the  market  of 
the  product  depended  essentially  upon  the  title  given  it. 
The  sale  of  another  article  under  the  name,  therefore,  not 
only  defrauded  plaintiff  of  tho  profits  that  would  otherwise 
accrue,  but  deludc'l  the  public  into  purchasitig  what  it  ilid 
not  wish.  The  labtd.  therefore,  nlthouirh  lacking  the  in- 
herent characteristic  of  a  trade  mark,  that  of  exclusive  pro- 
prietorship. cxclu<les  competition  from  all  except  those  in 
co-equal  possession.  The  question  as  to  whether  tho  regis- 
try of  the  term  as  a  hibel  would  exclu'le  another  in  tho 
same  locality  from  using  it  has  never  yet  been  decided,  but 
in  all  probability  a  decision  wouhl  be  in  the  negative.  If. 
however,  the  party  registering  owned  the  entire  source  of 
snp]>ly,  as  of  cement,  iron,  or  otlier  product,  in  the  locality, 
the  term,  under  the  practice  of  the  patent  office,  woubl  be- 
c'tnie  a  trade-mark,  and  would  bo  regiMtored  as  such,  and 
not  ni  a  label. 

A^  with  a  geographical,  so  with  a  proper  name;  for 
alMiongh  tho  arbitrary  form  of  a  person's  signature  may 
c'MMtitule  a  trade-miirk,  his  name  alone  cannot.  Any  one 
named  Holloway  has  a  right  to  make  llolloway's  pills,  but 
one  llollowiiy  must  not  so  frame  his  labels  as  tu  rleceivo 
the  public  with  the  i<lca  that  the  articles  vended  by  him 
are  the  wares  of  another.  This  was  decided  in  the  rolls 
court  in  Kngland  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  the 
principle  holds  good  in  American  practice.  The  master  of 
the  r'lIU  declared  that  "the  defendant's  name  beine  Hol- 
loway, be  has  n  right  to  eonstituto  himself  tho  vender  of 
Hollnway's  pills  and  ointment.  .  .  .  But  he  has  no  ritrht  to 
do  so  with  such  additions  to  his  own  name  as  to  deceive 


the  public,  and  make  them  believe  that  ho  is  selling  tho 
plaintiff's  pills  and  ointment."  In  Burgess  r«.  Burgess,  in 
chancery.  ls.');l,  another  English  case,  the  court  aflirmed 
the  right  of  any  one  hearing  the  name  of  Burgess  to  make 
and  vend  "Burgess's  Anchovy  Sauce,"  but  compelled  tho 
defendant  to  remove  certain  accessories  from  his  store 
which  tended  to  mislead  the  public  into  tho  belief  that  they 
were  jmrchasing  from  another  person  of  the  same  name. 
But  had  some  person,  not  of  this  name,  adopted  the  term, 
there  is  no  <loubt  tliat  a  permanent  injunction  would  have 
issued.  And  could  it  have  been  shown  that  a  person  named 
Burgess  had  used  the  label,  not  in  the  hnua-ftiic  pursuit  of 
a  legitimate  business,  but  with  intent  to  trade  on  the  repu- 
tation of  another  dealer,  an  injunction  would  have  issued 
as  a  matter  of  course.  As  the  law  concerning  labels, 
although  now  embodied  in  statutes,  rests  fundamentally 
upon  commercial  equity,  the  jurisprudence  of  different 
countries  shows,  in  the  main,  great  uniformity  in  the  drift 
of  tlecisions.  For  instance,  the  view  just  previously  ex- 
pressed is  sustained  by  a  noted  French  case,  in  wluch  an 
association  organized  by  one  Th.  Roedercr  was  enjoined, 
with  especially  humiliating  conditions,  from  using  tho 
name  Roederer  except  in  a  manner  so  conspicuously  dis- 
tinctive as  to  show  at  a  glance  that  the  article  sold  was  not 
that  of  the  celebrated  wine-merchants  of  the  name.  An 
action  brought  in  a  V.  S.  court  would,  so  far  as  the  above 
points  are  concerned,  be  decided  in  accordance  with  tho 
above  acknowledge*!  princijdes ;  in  other  respects  tho 
analogies  of  the  law  of  trade -marks  wcmld  prevail.  In  some 
of  the  States  local  laws  provide  for  the  puiiishnirnf  of  in- 
fringers upon  a  label,  and  in  such  instances  the  courts  of 
the  State  are  the  proper  tribunals.  Even  where  no  such 
laws  exist,  an  action  under  tlie  common  law  may  be  main- 
tained, the  choice  of  courts  resting  with  the  lawful  owner 
of  tin'  label.  But  registry  in  the  U.  S.  patent  office  is 
always  desirable,  not  only  as  bringing  the  matter  within 
the  scope  of  the  V.  S.  courts,  but  for  the  reason  that  it  de- 
fines the  precise  character  of  the  label,  and  because  it  is 
notice  to  the  public  that  it  is  claimed,  so  far  as  his  option 
and  volition  can  secure  it,  exclusively  by  the  party  regis- 
tering the  same. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  so-called  copyrighting  of  labels 
never  gave  any  security  or  protection  to  them  in  point  of 
law,  although  to  a  certain  extent  useful  in  advising  tho 
public  of  the  asserted  proprietorship.  But  as  this  is  now 
forbidden  by  law,  no  further  consideration  need  be  given 
it.  Pictures,  engravings,  etc.  relating  to  the  fiiu'  arts,  and 
printed  matter  considered  apart  from  a  Cfunmcrcial  product 
or  article  to  which  it  is  attached,  are  subjects  for  cojiyright, 
and  no  matter  embraced  within  either  of  these  divisions  can 
be  protected  either  under  the  act  of  Congress  or  by  State 
or  common  law.  A  "  design  "  being  in  llie  nature  of  things 
arbitrary,  and  distinct  in  configuration  from  any  other, 
may  be  used  as  a  trade-mark,  provideil  that  its  use  for  this 
purpose  is  by  its  originator,  patentee,  or  owner  as  a  design, 
nut  as  for  trade  purposes  it  may  thus  be  brought  within 
the  scope  of  n  trade-mark,  it  cannot  properly  be  registered 
as  a  label.  Jamks  A.  AVuitnky. 

Laberpe'  (Ciiart-KS  JosfpiO,  b.  in  Montreal  in  1827; 
was  educated  at  tho  college  of  St.  Hyaeiiithe,  and  became 
a  lawyer  in  1S48;  in  IS.^il  he  entered  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment as  a  liberal :  in  1S6S  he  was  solicitor-general  for  Can- 
ada East.  He  was  an  able  public  speaker,  and  was  for  a 
time  eclitorially  connected  with  the  FvonrO'Citunfiinu  of  St. 
.Tohn's,  Quebee.  and  was  later  chief  editor  of  Lr  Xitti'onnl, 
Montreal.  He  was  for  a  time  a  licutcuant-coloncl  of  vol- 
unteer troops.     D.  in  Aug,  1S74. 

liftbotlo',  county  in  tho  S.  E.  of  Kan:*as.  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  Indian  Territory.  Area.  iV2i  square  niibs.  It 
is  drainr<l  by  (he  Neosho  and  its  branches,  and  by  aUluents 
of  the  Verdigris.  Valuable  coal  is  found,  and  the  cminty 
is  generallv  level  and  fertile.  (Jrnin  and  stock  are  staple 
products.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Missouri  Kansas 
and  Texas  U,  K.     Cap.  Oswego.     Pop.  997.1. 

T^nbolto,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Labette  co.,  Kan.,  on  tho 
Labette  Biver  and  the  Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  R.  K., 
9  miles  S.  of  Parsons  City.      Pop.  2S1I. 

Lnbitt'tiT  [Lat.  fahin,  "lips,"  from  the  two-lipped  co- 
rolla 1,  one  of  the  larger  of  the  mon  ope  talons  onlers  of  phie- 
nogamous  plants,  well  marked  by  tlie  o|q>osite  and  mostly 
aromatic   leaves,  square  stems,   liilabinte  corolla.  f"ur  tli- 
dynamous,  or  only  two  stamens,  and  a  four-parted  ovary, 
forming  four  seed-like  millets  Cnaked  seeds  of  the  old  bot- 
anists) around  the  base  of  a  single  style.     No  plants  of  tho 
order  are  known  tliat  are  in  the  least  degree  hurtful.     The 
essential  oils  which  give  an  aronmtie  charoetcr  tn  many  of 
them  are  separated  by  distillation  for  medicinal  purposes 
'  or  for  use  in  perfumery.     Several,  sueh  as  thyme,  summer- 
I   savory,  and   the   liko,  are  the  "sweet    herbs"  of  kilchen- 
I  gardens.     Lavandula  vera,  a  shrub  cultivated  throughout 


1590 


LABIENUS— LABOR. 


Germany,  and  widely  in  England,  has  fragrant  flowers, 
from  which  the  officinal  oil  of  lavender  is  produced.  Itoa- 
mnrinm  otncimtliK  is  au  evergreen  shrub  of  the  S.  of  France 
and  the  contiguous  coast  of  Italy,  the  leaves  and  flowering 
tops  of  wliich  yield  the  volatile  and  fragrant  oil  of  rose- 
mary. It  is  believed  that  the  essential  oils  just  referred  to 
are  constituents  of  cau-de-colognc.  Mtnthu  piperila  is  the 
well-known  peppermint.  It  is  cultivated  on  a  vast  scale 
in  Southern  Michigan,  Western  New  York,  and  Ohio. 


In 


St  Joseph  CO..  Mich.,  there  were  in  185S,  2000  acres  de- 
voted to  its  growth.  A  ton  of  dried  peppermint  yields  about 
3  pounds  of  the  es.sential  oil.  Spearmint  is  a  closely  allied 
species,  cultivated  for  its  aromatic  oil.  Many  other  plants 
of  the  order  are  widely  known  and  safely  used  in  domestic 
medicine— pennyroyal,  American  pennyroyal,  hyssop,  horo- 
hound,  and  the  "like.  A  few  are  cultivated  for  ornament, 
such  as  Chinese  Perilln,  several  scarlet  and  blue  sages,  and 
ColeuJi,  with  richly-colored  and  often  variegated  leaves. 

Asa  Gii.w. 
Labie'nus(TiTrs),h.  about  98  B.C.;  tribune  in  6.3  B.C., 
when  Cicero  was  consul ;  accompanied  Ca>sar  as  his  lien- 
tenant  to  Gaul,  and  distinguished  himself  in  bi  B.C.  by  his 
two  victories  over  the  Treviri,  and  in  52  in  the  campaign 
against  Vercingetori.t.  Although  he  entered  public  life 
under  the  ausjiices  of  Ca>sar,  and  served  him  for  many 
years,  he  nevertheless  sided  with  Ponipey  when  the  civil 
war  broke  out.  and  made  himself  conspicuous  by  the  mean- 
ness and  cruelty  with  which  he  treated  those  of  C.-vsar's 
soldiers  who  fell  into  his  hands  at  the  battle  of  Dyrrhachium. 
After  the  defeat  of  Pharsalia  he  fled  to  Africa,  and  thence 
to  Spain  after  the  defeat  at  Thapsus.  In  Spain  he  fought 
against  Ca!sar  at  Mnndn,  and  by  his  mistakes  the  battle 
w"as  lost.  D.  45  b.  c.  He  was  not  without  literary  ability, 
but  ho  was  a  loose  and  vain  character,  and  his  blunders 
and  crimes  have  thrown  his  successes  into  the  shade. 

Labienns,  Les  Propos  de,  the  title  of  a  bitter  satir- 
ical invective  against  the  second  French  empire,  and  per- 
sonally against  Napoleon  III.,  which  appeared  in  Paris  in 
ISfi.i,  immediately  after  the  publication  of  the  first  volume 
of  Napoleon's  life  of  .Julius  Caesar.  Labienus  is  represented 
to  be  a  soured,  disgusted,  and  obstinate  republican  living 
under  .\ugustus.  against  whose  usurpation  and  tyranny  he 
perpetually  chafed.  He  is  represented  to  have  written  a 
history  of  "his  country,  of  which  he  reail  jiassages  in  secret 
to  his  friends.  His  grandfather  is  said  to  have  served 
under  Julius  up  to  the  crossing  of  the  Rubicon,  and  his 
father  to  have  joined  the  Parlhians  rather  than  support  the 
triumvirate.  This  was  supposed  to  point  to  Victor  Hugo, 
whoso  father  was  a  general  under  the  first  republic ;  but  as 
this  latter  also  served  the  empire,  the  coincidence  is  not 
complete.  The  due  d'Aumale  wrote  a  life  of  the  great 
Condi''  which  was  printed  privately  forhis  friends,  and  was 
seized  and  confiscated.  This  was  a  point  of  similarity  with 
Labienus.  who,  however,  by  hypothesis,  could  not  have 
been  of  royal  extraction.  The  author  probably  did  not 
mean  to  i.oint  definitely  to  any  individual.  The  appear- 
ance of  a  volume  of  Memoirt  by  Augustus  is  the  occasion 
of  a  special  outburst  of  the  spleen  of  Labienus.  with  which 
the  satire  concludes.  The  author  was  M.  A.  Rochcard,  an 
ex-professor  in  a  provincial  college.  His  name  was  on  the 
title-page,  and  he  was  condemned  for  his  pains  to  four  or 
five  years'  imprisonment,  but  escaped  by  taking  refuge  in 
Brussels.  F-  A.  P.  Bahnard. 

La  Billnrdiere,  dc  (JAcqrES  Jti.iF.s),  b.  at  Aleni;on 
Oct.  2:t,  I7i5  ;  studied  medicine  and  botany  at  Montjjellier ; 
travelled  in  France,  England,  and  Italy;  made  in  li8G-S7, 
at  the  expense  of  the  government,  a  journey  in  Syria  and 
Palestine;  accompanied  the  expedition  of  D'Entrecasteaux 
in  1791 ;  was  taken  prisoner  in  1703  by  the  Dutch  at  Java, 


while  his  botanical  collections  were  carried  to  England; 
was  liberated  in  1795,  and  resided  afterwards  in  Paris, 
where  in  ISOO  ho  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
D.  at   Paris  Jan.  8,   1834.      He  wrote    /coiiri  plantarnm 

Sjrin:  vnri.innn  (1791-1812),  Sovir  /lollautllir  phlillnrum 
specimen  (}>)0i),  Ilelalion  dii  nj/tit/e  n  la  rechmht  (Ic  La 
Piroute  (1800),  besides  a  great  number  of  monographs  and 
essays. 

Lablache'  (Lnoi'),  b.  at  Naples  Dec.  17,  1794;  made 
his  dC-but  as  a  basso  in  1812  in  his  native  city;  achieved 
his  first  great  success  in  Vienna  in  1824,  and  sang  from 
1830  to  1857  alternately  in  Paris  and  London,  making  oc- 
casional trips  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Naples.  D.  at  Naples 
Jan.  23,  1858.  His  principal  performances  were  Figaro, 
Leporello,  Dulcamara,  Don  Pasquale.  etc.,  but  he  also  sang 
Henry  VIII.  in  -liiim  Ilolnm,  and  Giorgio  in  /  PuritanI, 
making  a  most  powerful  impression. 

La'bor  [Lat.],in  political  economy,  denotes  one  of  three 
great  agencies  by  which  wealth  is  produced,  the  others  be- 
ing land,  or  nature,  and  capital.  A  celebrated  German 
economist  divides  industrial  history  into  three  periods,  in 


the  first  of  which  nature  is  the  chief  productive  agent;  in 
the  second,  labor;  in  the  third,  capital.     In  the  first  of  the 
three  periods  wealth  consists  mainly  of  natural  i)roduec.  as 
in  the  hunting  and  .pastoral  stages,  and  likewise  in   the 
early  stiige  of    industrial    jirogress    in    new    and    prolific 
regions,  where  wealth  lies,  as  it  were,  on  the  surface.     In 
the    second    period— the    later   centuries    of    the    Midille 
Ages,   for  example  —  agriculture   progresses,  handicrafts 
multiply,   considerable    manual    skill    is    developed,    and 
labor   plays   the   principal    part.       In    the    third    period 
production    takes  jdace    on  a  large  scale,  machinery   su- 
persedes handicrafts,  as  in  the  case  of  the  haudlooin.  and 
labor  and  land  become  the  ministers  of  the  mechanical  pow- 
ers, materials,  money,  and  credit,  at  the  command  of  the 
capitalist.     This  generalization,  though  rough  and  needing 
some  qualification,  puts  in  a  strong  light  one  truth  in  par- 
ticular which   it  is  of   great  importance  to  the  working 
classes  to  recognize— namely,  that   labor  is  not  the  only 
productive  agent,  that  capital  gains  ground  with  industrial 
progress  in  respect  of  the  contributiim  which  it  makes  to 
production,  and  that  all  theories  on  behalf  of  labor  which 
omit  to  take  this  fundamental  economic  fact  into  account 
are  fallacious.     Thus,  the  leading  doctrine  of  some  Gerninn 
Socialists,  that  all  wealth  is   the  proiluct  of  labor,  eai.ital 
itself  only  accumulated  labor,  and  that  the  working  classes 
are  therc"fore  entitled  to  the  whole  produce  of  every  coun- 
try, is  unsound  and   delusive.      The   steam-engine  is  the 
typical  feature  of  modern  industry,  and  it  was  mainly  the 
p"roduct.  not  of  manual  laborers,  but  of  the  genius,  enter- 
prise   perseverance,  and  command  of  funds  of   two  em- 
ployers of  labor.  Watt  and  Boulton.     With  the  steam-en- 
gine came  production   uu   a  great   scale  and   for  distant 
markets,  needing  large  advances  of  capital  and  new  powers 
of  direction  and  enterprise.     Yet,  although  capital  has  be- 
come the  dominant  element  in  most  of  the  chief  depart- 
ments of  industry,  both  labor  and  the  powers  of  nature  do 
absolutely  much  more  in  our  d.ay,  though  relatively  less, 
for  the  production  of  wealth  than  formerly.     Walt  com- 
plained that  the  main  ditficulty  of  constructing  his  steam- 
engine  arose  from  the  unskilfulness  of  bis  workmen  ;  work- 
men now  easily  and  rapidly  make  far  more  perfect  machines. 
Again,  wealth  increases  fastest,  and  both  profits  and  wages 
are  highest,  in  the  civilized  world  where  natural  resources 
and  advantages,  such  as  fertile  soils,  mines,  water-commu- 
nication, arc  greatest.     Coal  and  iron,  for  example,  played 
an  insignificant  part  in   medieval  industry;  the  natural 
riches  of  whole  continents  lay  idle  ;  and  numerous  products 
of  nature  which  were  then  unknown  or  valueless  are  now 
sources  of  wealth.     A  still  more  important  consideration 
in   reference  to  the  three  great  productive  agents,  land, 
labor,  and  capital,  is  that  their  separate  ownership  is  not 
an  essential  or  a  universal  condition  of  things.     A  peculiar 
course  of  national  history  and  a  peculiar  legal  system  led 
to  a  separation  of  society  in  Great  Britain  into  three  great 
classes— landlords,  capitalists,  and  laborers ;  and  English 
economists,  with  the  tendency  to  premature  generalization 
which  characterizes  infant  philosophy,  were  led  to  reason 
i  as  though  this  were  the  natural  and  necessary  consequence 
i  of  industrial  progress,  and  as  though  rent,  profit,  and  wages 
must  belong  everywhere  and  always  to   difi'erent  classes. 
i  But  the  severance"  of  the  laborer  from  landed  property  is 
an  exceptional  fact  in  the  modern  world,  being  peculiar  to 
British  industrial  economy.     And  although  co-operation  is 
in  its  infancy,  it  has  succeeded  in  several  forms;  and  in 
Great  Britaiii  itself  the  recipients  of  wages  are  in  a  con- 
siderable number  of  cases  partners  also  in  profits. 

There  is,  however,  in  all  civilized  countries— and  there 
must  for  generations  to  come,  if  not  always,  be— a  large 
class  living  by  manual  labor  and  in  the  receipt  only  of 
wa<'e9.  The  causes  which  determine  the  material  condition 
of  This  class  and  their  real  income  must  long  retain  the 
highest  importance.  These  causes  arc  not  to  be  summed 
up,  as  some  eminent  economists  have  supposed,  in  any  sin- 
gle law  or  formula,  such  as  the  projiortion  of  capital  to 
laborers;  thev  vary  in  difi'erent  circumstances,  m  different 
places,  and  in  difi'erent  stages  of  economic  progress.  1  hus, 
the  etfect  of  an  increase  of  poimlation  on  wages  is  very 
different  in  different  regions.  In  Flanders,  for  example, 
wages  are  kept  down  by  excessive  population,  but 
in  new  countries,  such  as  the  Western  States  of  America 
and  in  Australia,  an  incrca.se  of  laborers  may  raise  m  jilace 
of  reducing  wages,  by  rendering  possible  a  better  division 
of  industry  and  the  ilovelopment  of  the  immense  resources 
of  nature.  In  such  regions,  too,  wages  are  often  paid 
chiefly  not  out  of  capital,  but  out  of  the  ultimate  produce. 
Even"in  old  countries,  where  they  are  paid  chiefiy  out  ot 
capital,  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  rate  of  wages  is 
absolutely  fixed  by  the  ratio  of  the  amount  of  capital  to 
the  number  of  laborers.  (See  Strikks.  Trades  Usions, 
Waues  )  What  it  is  desirable  to  draw  particular  attention 
to  here,  however,  is  that  the  rate  of  wages,  or  the  price  of 


LABORATORY,    PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL. 


loiil 


labor,  does  uot  in  the  majority  of  cases  by  ilsolf  determine 
the  amount  of  the  real  income  of  the  workinir  classes. 
though  it  is  one  of  the  conditions  which  do  su.  NVhere  the 
hiburcr  is  paid  altogether  in  food  and  other  commodities. 
bis  na.^c^  uud  his  rcul  income  are  identical.  In  nicdiieval 
Kurope  this  was  for  the  most  part  the  case.  And  lu  many 
parts  of  Germany  to  this  day,  and  in  ?omo  parts  of  Eng- 
land, the  farm-laborer  receives  part  of  his  wtigcs  in  kind. 
In  the  U.  S..  likewise,  and  in  Australia,  board  or  food 
.^'imetimes  forms  part  of  the  price  of  labor.  Nevertheless, 
the  decided  tendency  of  modern  industrial  economy  is  to 
suhstituto  money  payments  for  wages  in  kind  :  and  wher- 
ever this  change  takes  place,  or  in  so  far  as  it  does  so,  the 
real  income  of  the  laborer  becomes  subject  to  more  com- 
plex conditions,  and  ceases  to  depend  solely  on  the  rate  of 
wages  or  on  the  tenns  of  the  exchange  between  employer 
and  employed.  For  the  workman  then  makes  not  one  ex- 
change only — namely,  the  sale  of  his  labor  for  food  and 
other  article?— but  a  number  of  exchanges,  by  means,  first, 
of  the  sale  of  his  labor,  and  subsequently  of  the  purchase 
of  the  various  commodities  which  he  consumes.  The  term 
"  real  wages,"  which  is  still  sometimes  employed,  is  in  this 
c:iso  inappropriate  and  misleading,  an  tending  to  shut  out 
of  consideration  some  most  important  elements  of  the  real 
income  of  the  working  classes.  Two  workmen  may  be 
r:irning  exactly  the  same  wages,  yet  the  real  income  of  the 
one  may  be  increasing,  that  of  the  other  decreasing,  be- 
c;iuse  the  articles  which  the  former  buys  are  falling,  those 
on  which  the  latter  spends  his  wages  rising  in  price.  There 
are  places  where  the  laborer  contracts  to  work  for  a  year  at 
a  fixed  rate  of  monthly  or  weekly  wages  ;  here  the  amount 
of  commodities  constituting  bis  real  income  depends  partly 
on  the  seasons,  on  taxation,  and  on  various  circumstances 
quiteindependentof  his  wages. some  of  which  were  not  even  in 
existence  when  his  wages  were  fixed.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant results  of  the  introduction  of  money  as  the  medium 
of  exchange  that  the  working  classes  have  become  <lirectly 
and  deeply  concerned  in  matters — improvements  in  produc- 
tion, tari^s.  tuxes,  laws,  forms  of  association,  investments  for 
savings — which  otherwise  would  only  remotely  affect  them, 
or  not  at  all.  That  admirable  modern  institution  for  the 
economical  purchase  of  commodities,  the  co-operative  store, 
owes  its  origin  to  the  change  in  industrial  economy  which 
substituted  payments  of  wages  in  money  for  payments  in 
kind.  The  immense  purchases  of  land  which  the  working 
classes  have  made  in  rranco  and  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  are  among  the  results  of  money-wages. 
The  legal  system  which  has  excluded  the  British  laborer 
from  the  owiierahip  of  land  has  led  some  British  econo- 
mists to  look  to  co-operative  association,  by  which  the 
workman  becomes  a  partner  in  capital,  as  the  only  mode  by 
which  any  considerable  number  of  the  working  class  can  be 
raised  from  the  condition  of  living  from  hand  to  mouth,  and 
the  only  solution  of  the  labor  question.  But  in  France  there 
are  t.OOO.UOO  land-owner.-^  cultivating  their  own  ground, 
besides  many  more  whose  land  is  farmed  by  tenants,  and 
the  number  yearly  increases  by  the  purchase  of  little  plots  ; 
in  (Icrmany,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium  the  number  of  small 
]»roprietors,  who  would  otherwise  bo  only  laborers  for  hire, 
is  very  large,  and  land  in  those  countries  is  the  favorite 
investment  for  savings  from  wages.  In  the  V,  S.  there  are 
now  probably  :i, 000, 000  farms,  and  the  rapiility  with  which 
tlio  number  increases  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
in  IH.'.O,  I.U'J.or.t:  in  isno.  2,11  n. 077;  in  1S70,  2.0.VJ,9Sj. 
Even  in  England  a  great  number  of  working  men  ar«  own- 
ers of  house  property,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the 
English  working  classes  of  both  sexes  have  invested  sav- 
ings in  building,  benefit,  and  friendly  societies.  The  in- 
security, indeed,  of  many  of  these  investments  shows  the 
loss  which  the  laborer  in  (Jreat  Britain  sustains  from  the 
inaccessibility  of  land.  In  countries,  moreover,  in  which 
lanil  is  accessible  to  the  working  classes,  it  not  only  pro- 
vide.H  a  healthful  occupation  and  a  secure  investment 
for  those  who  acquire  it,  but  also  raises  the  standard 
of  wages  in  other  occupations.  An  American  employer 
pr>inted  out  to  the  English  trades-uinon  commission  that 
in  the  Stales  the  price  of  labor  is  in  a  great  measure 
regulated  by  what  a  man  can  make  out  of  luncl,  which 
there  competes  with  capital  in  the  labor-market.  What 
is  called  the  labor  question  is  not,  however,  susceptible 
of  any  single  solution,  be  it  co-operation,  a  good  land 
system,  secure  savings  banks,  nr  any  other  method.  All 
the  methods,  moral  and  intellectual  as  well  ns  material, 
which  benefit  and  elevate  all  classes,  and  not  the  working 
classes  alone,  must  concur  in  the  solution  '>f  the  problem. 
The  iidvautages  which  the  laborer  derives  froui  education, 
newspapers,  books,  cheap  postage  and  locomotion,  sanitary 
improvements,  medical  science,  show  how  his  condition  de- 
](onds  on  the  general  progress  of  civtliration  :  nnd  the  fu- 
ture doubtless  has  iu  store  additions  to  his  welfare  undreamt 
of  lit  |)rc.-4cnt.  T.  E.  Ci.iffk  Lkslie.       | 


Lab'oratorVf  Physical  aud  Chemical.    For  the 

first  fourteen  or  fifteen  hundred  years  of  the  Christian  era 
the  grand  sciences  now  known  as  physics  and  chemistry,  so 
far  as  they  had  advanced,  were  known  under  the  names  of 
the  "  Egyptian  art "  or  the  "  black  art "  (  whence  the  word 
''Chemistry"  or  '*  Chemie,"  from  Cheni,  Egypt),  and  were 
chiefly  cultivated  in  secret,  being  condemned  as  shameful 
and  illegitimate  by  the  State,  and  as  impi(jus  and  danger- 
ous by  the  Church.  The  amazing  power  and  progress  ly- 
ing here  in  latent  forms  were  no  doubt  instinctively  felt  and 
recognized;  and  from  the  element  in  humnn  nature  which 
holds  oninc  iymthtm  pn*  terrihifi,  these  studies  were  rightly 
regarded  as  fraught  with  peril  to  all  existing  institutions 
and  authorities,  and  to  the  perpetuity  of  the  prevailing 
ideas  that  had  been  carefully  inculcated  in  the  minds  of 
the  illiterate  mass  of  men — ideas  which  were  naturally  con- 
trived with  the  most  anxious  care  to  assist  iu  upholding 
those  authorities  and  institutions.  Thus  it  was  that  the 
laboratory — which  in  our  day  is  claimed  to  be  the  fountain- 
head  of  our  greatest  arts  of  civilization,  and  which  is  the 
sphere  that  now  absorbs  many  young  men  who  feel  within 
them  the  God-iniplantcd  ambition  to  arid  something  to  the 
sum  of  real  knowledge,  and  to  die  that  denth  which  comes 
to  all  with  a  consciousness  that  life  has  not  been  spent  in 
vain. — thus  it  was  that  philosophical  and  chemical  labor 
of  all  kinds,  during  all  these  centuries,  was  driven  into 
holes  and  corners,  and  classed  with  astrology,  alchemy, 
jugglery,  diabolism,  spiritualism,  and  all  that  genus  of 
mysticism,  quackery,  trickery,  and  fraud.  Thus,  as  we 
recede,  in  trying  to  trace  the  past  history  of  civilization, 
before  the  present  ep<»ch  of  printed  books,  we  find  it  almost 
or  quite  impossible  to  obtain  satisfactory  ideas  of  labora- 
tories or  of  their  occupants  antecedent  to  this  epoch.  The 
records  of  those  days,  consisting  of  manuscripts  and  pic- 
tures, are  both  rare  and  inherently  defective.  The  true 
stuclents  of  science  then  rarely  wrote  books,  and  still  more 
rarely  painted  pictures.  The  only  branches  of  chemistry 
and  natural  ]diilosophy  which  received  any  countenance 
from  the  powers  that  were,  and  any  aid  from  the  possessors 
of  the  existing  \vealth.  were  such  as  presented  the  promise 
of  immediate  and  direct  additions  to  that  priwer  anil 
wealth.  The  only  natural  si-ience  held  to  be  "practical  " 
in  its  character— as  held  even  now  by  many — was  such  as 
would  help  to  innlu-  jjioh*//  for  individuals ;  additions  to 
the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  involving  the  greatest  good 
to  the  greatest  number,  being  as  dust  in  the  balance. 

Naturally  and  necessarily,  such  books  as  may  have  been 
written  by  true  men  of  science  were  not  valuecl.  copied,  or 
preserved:  probably  not  sought  after  for  public  libraries, 
nor  even  admitted  thereinto,  unless  they  bore  the  stamp 
and  held  the  jargon  of  mysticism  of  some  sort — astrology, 
gold-making,  miracle-mongery,  or  the  preparation  of  nos- 
trums and  specifics.  Paintings — of  engravings  there  were 
none — were  founderl  almost  wholly  upon  the  popular  ideal 
of  the  haunts  of  these  popularly-reputed  mystics,  and  are 
not,  of  course,  to  be  fairly  or  justly  accepted  as  represent- 
ing the  real  science  of  those  days.  The  engraving  we  pre- 
sent with  this,  therefore,  of  a  medb-eval  laboratory  of  a  dale 
nearly  .'iHO  years  ago,  must  be  viewed  with  due  allowance, 
no  doubt,  for  the  necessary  coloring  of  the  mind  <if  the  ar- 
tist with  the  prevalent  idea  of  sucli  places  and  sueh  pur- 
suits. The  artist  in  this  case  was  the  elder  Teniers.  and 
the  date  of  the  original  painting — in  the  (lallery  of  the 
Li)uvre  in  Paris — somewhere  about  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Students  of  the  history  of  science  will  re- 
member that  this  was  a  generation  previous  to  the  birth 
of  Becher.  and  two  generations  before  that  of  StabI,  the 
two  chemists  who  were  the  f'uinders  of  the  first  scientific 
system  of  chemistry,  the  jihlogistic  system:  which,  witli 
tiiP  substitution  of  the  idea  of  fm  n'vit  for  that  of  i)bIopis- 
ton,may  be  held  as  still  standing  at  this  present  day.  The 
art  of  printing  was  then  a  century  and  a  half  old,  and 
printed  books  appear  in  this  painting,  prominently  exhib- 
ited. We  kn<iw.  from  very  numerous  facts  on  record,  that 
the  chemists  of  the  day  of  this  painting,  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury— many  of  whoso  names  even  are  uncertain  or  unknown 
— ma<lo  groat  discoveries — discoveries  \vhich  we  are  sure 
could  not  have  been  made  without  long,  exhaustive,  ainl 
unselfish  labor  and  research.  In  spite  of  the  assertion  — 
oft  repeated,  but  not  by  those  who  vtakf  discoveries — that 
they  are  ''mostly  made  by  accitlcnt,"  we  do  not  find  at  the 
present  day  that  aeeident  plays  any  important  part  in  the 
progress  of  human  discovery.  All  now  methods,  nmteriiils. 
arts,  theories,  gencralizatiims,  and  principles,  all  that  is 
entitlcfl  to  the  rank  of  a  discovery,  come  in  these  days  to 
men  in  the  laboratory,  as  the  sefjuences  of  indefatigable 
study  and  labor,  inspin-il  by  a  patient  enthusiasm,  devoid 
of  nil  tinetiire  of  sordid  ealeulatiou,  nnd  <'crtainly  con- 
(hicted  with  as  great  an  avoiilanec  <)f  the  cli-ment  of  aeci- 
d'-nt  or  random-work,  as  in  any  human  pursuit  whatever. 
Those  who  pursue  science  consider  themselves  justified  in 


1592 


LABORATORY,  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL. 


believing,  therefore,  tliat  it  has  ajivays  been  thus:  and  that 
the  many  funtlanientul  discoveries,  the  new  materials, 
methods,  and  nrls  which  came  from  the  laboratory  during 
the  so-called  alchemical  times,  were  neither  accidental  nor 


the  results  of  empirical  work,  but  arose  from  the  same 
identical  sort  of  research,  by  the  same  sort  of  men,  as  iu 
our  own  day. 

To  illustrate  this  assertion,  the  cut  is  presented  of  the 


Fio.  1. 


A  chemist's  hiL 


ui  11 


ixti-.-iiUi 


ancient  laboratory  furnace  of  the  famous  Gcber,  1100  years 
old.  It  will  be  observed  that  this  apparatus  involves  a 
number  of  inventions  and  principles  often  supposed  to  be 
of  modern  origin,  among  them  that  of  the  so-called  "  base- 
burning"  stoves.  The  name  Atlmnor  was  derived  from 
this    feature,   meaning    '•  deathless "    or    never-expiring. 


V^ 


Fig.  •-'. 

Ti)«tr  0  f  ff^    Allraor. 


Gctxr's  Tuwer  of  Alhanur  ^ab■rut  A. D. 

1,  the  ashe  hole;  2,   a,  the  ashe  hole:  6,  1,  the  ashe  hole;  2, 

the  focus  or  fire-       the  focus  or   fire-  the  focus;    3,   the 

roome;:i,  the  place       roome;  c,  the  pas-  kettle  where   the 

wherelheashesor       sages     made     for  water  of  the  Bal- 

8and  for  the  Hath       communication  of  neum  is  put;  4,  a 

arc  placed;    4,   a       the    Are;    rf,    the  round    (of    wood. 

Watt  rasse ;     .'»,    a       empty  place  of  the  hay,  or  sonic  other 

classe  dish  ;  6,  the       Tower;  r.thesolid  soft     matter)     to 

Eeijister  of  fire;",       part  of  the  Tower  ;  keepc  vpthe  Lim- 

Ihe  entrance    of        ^,  the  cover  of  the  beck  b<xiy  ;  .'>,  the 

the    fire    or    heat       Tower;  (?,  two  sev-  curcubite,  with  its 

from  the  Tower  of       erallcircleswhere-  Limbeck  head;  6, 

Alhanor;    8.    the       in  the  cover  is  in-  the    ReKiaters  of 

Iron  plate  or  Ves-       layd.  fire;  7.  the  stoole 

sel  containing  the  or  table  to  keepe 

Sand  or  ashes.  up  the  Re<ipiem; 

8,  the  Recipiem. 

Chemical  Lahoratorieu  are  at  present  too  numerous  and 
too  easily  accessible  to  make  it  necessary  to  illustrate  their 


ur>  ,  li'ilii  Li  p.uullu;^  by  the  elder  Tcuicis. 

arrangements  by  a  graphic  representation.  In  well-ap- 
pointed institutions,  as  at  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia 
College,  distinct  laboratories  are  now  provided  for  each 
kind  of  study  and  investigation.  Thus,  there  is  a  qualita- 
tive laboratory,  a  quantitative  laboratory,  an  assay  labor- 
atory, a  photometric  laboratory,  a  photographic  laboratory, 
a  laboratory  for  gas  analysis,  and  a  blowpipe  laboratory, 
each  of  which  is  provided  with  the  apparatus  and  fixtures 
required  for  the  work  for  which  it  is  designed. 

A  Phytical  Lahorntnrij,  as  its  name  would  indicate, is  an 
establishment  provided  with  all  the  appliances  needed  in 
the  prosecution  of  research  in  subjects  of  physical  investi- 
gation, such  as  those  of  heat,  light,  electricity,  etc.  Such 
an  establishment  may  moreover  be  specially  adapted  to 
each  or  all  of  the  following  objects:  1st,  The  instruction  of 
students  in  such  general  methods  of  accurate  measurement 
in  the  various  subjects  as  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  re- 
searches in  each  of  these  departments.  2d,  The  prosecu- 
tion of  original  investigations  by  which  new  facts  and  laws 
may  be  discovered,  and  additions  made  to  the  general  stock 
of  human  knowledge  in  these  directions.  3d,  The  appli- 
cation of  scientific  methods  to  the  examination  of  commer- 
cial products  or  materials,  to  test  their  value,  elBciency,  or 
improvement  under  treatment  by  new  processes. 

To  present  an  interesting  and  instructive  contrast  with 
the  laboratory  of  media-val  times,  above  depicted,  and  to 
furnish  an  index  of  progress  in  this  regard,  an  interior 
view  of  the  physical  laboratory  of  the  Stevens  Institute 
of  Technology,  prepared  at  our  request  by  President  Henry 
Morton,  is  given  here.  The  space  occupied  by  this  depart- 
ment in  the  Stevens  Institute  is  as  follows:  1st,  A  largo 
room  40  bv  60  feet,  illustrated  on  the  next  page,  atd 
which  is  used  as  a  general  laboratory  for  such  work  as  can 
be  pursued  under  ordinary  conditions.  2d,  An  optical 
room,  containing  a  large  collection  of  rare  instruments, 
especially  for  polarization,  and  used  chiefly  by  students 
engaged  on  problems  in  that  subject,  ."id,  An  optical  room, 
especially  arranged  for  observations  in  diffraction,  spec- 
trometry, and  the  like.  4th,  A  large  room  employed  chiefly 
for  investigations  in  acoustics,  although  used  also  from 
time  to  time  as  a  lecture-rooin.  5lh,  A  ]ihotonietric-room, 
provided  with  a  complete  set  of  photometric  apparatus  by 
Sugg  of  London,  fitli,  A  photographic-room,  with  dark 
closet,  cameras,  and  lenses  of  various  sorts.     7th,  An  eleo- 


LABORATORY,  PHYSICAL  AN'D  ClilCMICAL. 


15'J3 


trical  measurement-room,  oontaining  a  complete  set  of  in- 
struments fur  this  purpose,  iucludiugTbompsou'sufltatic  gal- 
vanometer of  high  resistance  aud  a  water-buttery  of  6.50  cells. 
The  largo  room  represented  in  the  cut  is  divided  by 
double  oasc3  into  ten  alcoves  on  tho  sides,  caoh  devoted  to 


the  use  of  special  instruments,  and  each  occupied  by  an 
appropriate  table.  The  middle  of  the  room  is  occupied  by 
a  series  of  tables  and  of  largo  pieces  of  apparatus,  such  as 
the  great  induction  coil  in  the  foreground,  the  large  electro- 
magnet in  the  distance,  etc.  etc. 


FlQ.  3. 


Tho  ii*'W  l.;»'toraiMry  lor  r«' 


:i[i<l  instruction  in  in 


-I'  -  nr  N;itiiriit  riiilosopliy  at  the  Stevens  Iii-suiutu  ut  lecliiioln^')-,  ui 
Uubukun,  K.  J. 


At  tho  present  day,  so  mn.nv  difT'Ti^nt  briinnhos  of  applied 
Bcivnco  are  undergoing  rapid  clovflopment  that  spooitio 
l;indj«jf  tcrhnirnl  laboratories  oxi-ft  in  considoraljlo  variety, 
in  which  tho  analytical  and  cxperimontal  researches  arc 
carried  on  exclusively  that  jiertain  to  special  teohnoloijical 
artH.  These  special  laboratorii-s  aro  fo  numorous  that  wo 
c;in  do  little  niorothan  mention  somoof  the  more  important. 

.\f  f'ltftirtfirril  Lahufitoriett. — Those  nro  of  several  kimlw. 
Attached  to  our  mints  and  assay-offioi-s  aro  special  assay 
la'turatories,  in  whieh  immense  numlKTS  of  delicate  assays 
of  ;;old  and  silver  luilli'in  aro  cmfimially  oon'Iueted;  and 
in  the  samo  CHlablisbnicnts  an'  nn-Hiti;;  iind  roiiiiintj  labor- 
atories, in  which  vast  quant itics  of  gold  and  silver  are 
parted,  refined,  melted,  cast,  and  prepared  for  the  coining 
departments  by  methods  of  high  interest.  Other  motnl- 
Iurgi<;al  laboratories  are  spceialiy  devoted  to  tho  assaying 
of  irin  and  steel,  and  their  ores,  slaps,  etc.,  by  methods 
chiefly  vnliiractric.  for  tho  sake  of  rapidity. 

frna  Lnhoratorirn,  such  n«  nhtmhl  hr  attached  to  all  our 
gasworks,  the  operations  of  photometry  and  oudiometry 
being  specially  carried  on  in  these,  with  many  others. 


A'jfii-tthund  Lnhnrnfttrirtt,  ns  in  nnr  agrieultnral  schools, 
and  in  the  agriiMiltural  dopartnient  ut  \Va^hingt<»n. 

Tho  Muifar-n-finhifi  art  requires  at  the  present  day  labor- 
atories in  which  peculiar  operations  aro  oarriod  on,  as,  for 
instance,  with  tho  polariseope. 

The  arts  of  </i/'tMy,  cft/int-prhitinf/,  and  hlearhiitff  require 
alsoehemical  and  analytical  invest!  gal  ions  of  various  l^iniis. 
so  that  many  spoeial  laboratories  exist  devoted  to  llu^e. 
Tho  same  may  l)o  said  of  nonp  and  vamlfv  m»kimj. 

In  Knglau'l,  at  tho  present  time,  many  spceinl  and  very 
important  government  labr)ratorios  are  being  organized  and 
perfected — -whieh  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be  imitated  ^oon 
among  us — to  prosecute  continual  and  special  analyses  of 
all  articles  of  food  and  medicine,  to  ensure  purity  and  de- 
tect fraud. 

We  may  add  to  theso  phnrniamtdrnf  laboratories,  in 
whieh  medicines  are  elaborated  ;  rfrrtnt-wta/hiri/i'ttl  labor- 
atories, in  whieh  elcetro-plating  and  electrolyping  are 
proseeutod  ;  ancl  telrffrnph  laboratories,  in  which  numer- 
ous special  arts  are  practised,  arising  out  of  tho  great  de- 
relopment  of  olcctro-telegraphy.  Hesuy  Wuutz. 


l.V.I-l 


LABOKDE— LABRADOR. 


Laborde'  (Maximilian),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Edgefield,  S.  C, 
Juue  5,  1SU4:  graduated  at  the  College  of  South  Carolina 
in  Columbia  in  1S21  :  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  the  Med- 
ical College  of  Charkston  in  1S2G.  His  tastes,  however, 
led  him  more  toward  the  pursuits  of  literature  and  science 
than  to  the  practice  of  medicine.  Ue  soon  became  a  dis- 
tinguished contributor  to  BitmeU'a  Mmjaziiie,  the  Smitliern 
Qiuu-tert)/  licvieu;  and  other  like  periodicals.  lu  l-S+2  he 
became  professorof  logic  and  belles-lettres  in  his  alma  mater. 
This  position  he  held  until  the  close  of  the  late  war.  In 
the  reorganization  of  that  institution  subsequently  to  the 
war,  whereby  it  is  no  longer  styled  the  College  (but  the 
University)  "of  South  Carolina,  Dr.  Laborde  was  assigned 
the  chair  of  rhetoric,  criticism,  elocution,  and  English  lan- 
guage and  literature.  This  position  he  assumed,  and  filled 
with  great  ability.  He  also  wrote  several  books  of  merit, 
especiallv  the  Histoi-i/  ../'  S'<,iith  Carullna  Culhrjc.  In  con- 
junction with  other  labors  he  had  for  a  number  of  years 
performed  the  high  trusts  of  the  office  of  president  of  the 
board  of  regents  of  the  State  lunatic  asylum.  D.  at  Colum- 
bia, S.  C,  Nov.  6,  1873.  A.  H.  Stephens. 

Laborde,  de  (Alexandre  Louis  Joseph),  Coint,  b. 
at  Paris  Sept.  15,  \~~i;  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in 
the  first  campaign  against  the  French  republic ;  returned 
to  France  after  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio ;  filled  several 
diplomatic  missions  under  Napoleon  ;  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1822  ;  took  part  with 
great  energy  in  the  revolution  of  IS.'iO  ;  was  made  a  briga- 
dier-general and  aide-de-camp  to  Louis  Philippe,  and  d.  at 
Paris  Oct.  24,  1842.  His  Wynye  jii'lorcaque  el  hislonqiie 
en  Espagne  (4  vols,  fob,  1807-lS,  with  90U  engravings)  is 
a  work  remarkable  for  its  learning  and  aecurateness,  and 
unique  in  its  elegance.  It  was  followed  by  Itineraire  di- 
.ertptif  de  VEspa.jnc  (5  vols.,  1809-27).  He  also  wrote 
Leu  monHmculs  de  la  France  (2  vols.,  1832-36,  with  259 
plates),    Versailles,  ancieii  et  modern  (1839-40),  etc. 

Laborde,  de  (Henri),  Viscount,  b.  at  Renncs, France, 
May  2,  1811 ;  studied  under  Delaroohe ;  exhibited  in  1836 
Haijar  in  the  Wilderness.  His  Capture  of  Damietta  (1841) 
and  Kni'jhts  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (1845)  are  at  Ver- 
sailles.    Ho  wrote  In,jrcs,  sa   Vie  et  sa  Doctrine  (1870). 

Laborde,  de  (Leon  Emmanuel  Simon  Joseph),  Mar- 
tiuis.  ason  of  Count  Alexandre,  b.  at  Paris  June  12,  1807; 
studied  at  (jtittingen; 


„ „ ^._,  travelled  in  the  East;  held  several 

diplomatic  positions  ;  was  curator  of  the  antiquities  of  the 
Louvre  from  1848  to  1854,  and  director  of  the  archives  of 
the  empire  from  1856  to  his  death,  Mar.  30,  1S69.  He 
wrote  Voyage  de  f  Arable  PHree  (1830-33),  Voi/ayc  en  Orient 
(1837-64),  and  several  other  works  relating  to  arohffiology 
and  art. 

Labouchere' (Henry),  Baron  Taunton,  b.  in  London, 
Eno-land,  Aug.  15,  1798;  was  educated  at  Oxford;  trav- 
elled in  the  U.  S.  with  Mr.  Stanley  (afterwards  Lord  Derby), 
making  the  acquaintance  of  the  leading  members  of  the 
government  and  Congress  at  Washington;  entered  Par- 
liament in  1826,  and  soon  became  recognized  as  one  of  the 
Liberal  leaders  ;  was  member  for  Taunton  from  1830  to 
1859,  when  he  was  made  a  peer  ;  filled  many  administrative 
posts,  having  been  lord  of  the  admiralty  (1832),  chief  sec- 
retary for  Ireland  (1846),  president  of  the  board  of  trade 
(1S47),  and  colonial  secretary  (1855-58).  D.July  13, 1869, 
leaving  no  male  heir.— His  nephew,  Henry  dv  Pre  La- 
bouchere, b.  at  London  in  1831,  served  ten  years  in  tho 
diplomatic  service  ;  became  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1865,  and  attracted  attention  by  his  able  letters  written 
from  Paris  to  the  Daily  A'eim  during  the  siege  of  that  cap- 
ital by  the  Germans.  They  were  published  in  a  volume 
with  the  title  Diari/  of  a  Besieged  Uesident  in  /'<in«  (1871). 
Labouchfere  (Pierre  Antoine).  b.  at  Nantes  Nov. 
26,  1807,  pursued  a  mercantile  career  till  1836;  then  stud- 
ied painting  in  Italy  and  under  Dclarochc,  and  became 
known  especiallv  by"  his  representations  of  subjects  from 
the  time  of  the  Keformation.  Luther  at  the  Did  of  Worms 
(1357)  and  Luther's  Death  (18G6)  became  very  popular. 

Laboulaye'  (finouAnn  Rene  Lefebure),  b.  at  Paris, 
France,  Jan.  18,  1811  ;  studied  law  while  following  n  me- 
chanical trade,  and  astonished  the  literary  world  in  1839  by 
publishing  a  learned  Histonj  of  Landed  Properly  in  Europe 
from  the  Time  of  C'^nsiantine  to  the  Present,  on  the  title- 
page  of  which  the  author  announced  himself  to  be  a  type- 
founder. The  book  was  cnuronu,'  (crowned )  by  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  In  1842,  after  being  admitted  to  practise 
before  the  royal  tribunal  at  Paris,  he  published  an  Essay 
on  the  Life  and  Doctrines  of  Sarigny,  and  in  the  following 
year  Researches  on  the  C'icil  and  Political  Condition  of 
Wtnnen  from  the  Times  of  the  Romans  to  the  Present.  In 
1845  he  "wrote  an  Essay  on  the  Roman  Criminal  Legislation 
respecting  the  Hesponsihilities  of  Magistrolrs.  which  again 
won  the  crown  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  pro- 
cured for  its  author  an  election  as  one  of  the  members  of 


that  body.     In  1849  he  became  professor  of  comparative 
legislation  at  the  College  de  France,   and   distinguished 
himself  by  the  clearness  with   which  he  expounded  the 
principles  of  legal  science.     He  also  began  from  this  time 
to  take  a  prominent  part  in  politics  as  an  ardent  republican, 
and   during  the  eighteen   years'  existence  of  the  Second 
Empire  there   was  in   France    no  more  able,  active,  and 
vigilant  worker  in  the  committees  and  public  meetings  of 
the  Liberal  opposition  than  M.  Laboulaye.  His  attention  was 
attracted  to  the  institutions  of  the  U.  S.  as  affording  some 
useful  models  for  introduction  in  France,  and  he  devoted 
much  time  for  several  years  to  their  careful  study.     He 
published  a  valuable  Political  History  of  the  U.  S.  from  the 
First  Attempts  at  Colonization  to  the  A  Hoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  of  which  vol.  i.  ajqiearcd  in  1855,  and  vol.  iii. 
and  last  in  186G.     He  translated  W.  E.  Channing's  works 
on  social  topics  (1854),  prefixing  a  life  of  Dr.  Channingand 
an  essay  on   his  doctrines,  and  brought  out  in  1855  that 
author's  work  on  slavery.     He   wrote  largely  for  several 
Tears  in  the  7?ci-iie  de  Legislation  and  other  periodicals, 
from  which  he  collected  in  1855  a  volume  of  Contcmporori/ 
Studies  on  Germany  and  the   Slarir  Countries,  and  in  1856 
another  on  Religious  Liberty.     In  1862  he  rendered  a  vast 
service  to  the  U.  S.  by  an  exposition  of  the  causes  of  the 
American  civil  war  in  the  work  entitled  The  Vnited  States 
and  France,  and  lost  no  opjiortunity  to  inculcate  his  opin- 
ions bv  speeches.     In  1863  he  published  perhaps  the  most 
popular  of  his  works,  Paris  in  America,  an  amusing  study 
of  American  characteristics,  which  has  been  republished  m 
ei-'ht  or  ten  editions  in  the  republics  of  Spanish  America, 
where  it  now  forms  one  of  the  principal  sources  from  which 
opinions  are  formed  about  the  U.  S.     In  18C5  he  wrote  tho 
Programme  of  the  Liberal  Party,  and  edited  in  1866-67  the 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  franl.lin.     He  was  many 
times  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  a  seat  in  tho  National 
Assembly.     In  1870  he,  inclined  to  favor  the  reforms  pro- 
posed by  Napoleon  and  E.  Ollivier,  and  from  his  professional 
chair  advocated  an  affirmative  vote  in  the  plebiscitum  of 
May.     He  was  elected  to  tho  National  Assembly  in  July, 
1871   was  made  chairman  of  the  committee  on  the  higher 
education,  and  in  1874  secretary  of  tho  committee  of  thirty 
on  the  (republican)    constitution,   in  which    capacity    ho 
maintained  (1875)  a  prolonged  battle  with  tho  monarchists 
of  every  type.     In  1873  he  was  made  director  of  tho  Col- 
K-go  de"  France.     Of  all  living  Frenchmen,  ho  is  perhaps 
the  best  entitled  to  the  admiration  and  gratitude  of  Ameri- 
cans. Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Labonrdonnais',  de  (Bertband  Francois  Mahe), 
b  atSt.Malo,  France.  Feb.  11.1699:  entered  the  navy  earlj-, 
and  became  a  captain  in  1724.  Having  served  for  somo 
time  in  the  Portuguese  navy,  returned  to  Franco  m  1 . ,..% 
and  was  made  governor  in  1734  of  Isle  do  France  and 
Bourlxm,  which  colonies  prospered  much  under  his  rule 
through  the  introduction  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  indigo  cul- 
ture, and  the  building  of  fortifications,  canals,  aqueducts, 
hospitals,  and  shipyards.  His  administration  has  become 
celebrated  through 'St.  Pierre's  romance,  Paul  and  Virginia. 
Durino-  (ho  war  between  England  and  France  was  very 
succeslful  in  his  undertakings  against  the  English  in  the 
East  Indies  In  1740  bombarded  and  took  JIadras,  and 
levied  a  war  contribution  of  9.000,000  francs.  But  tho 
French  governor-general,  Duplei.^,  became  jealous,  and 
discharged  him.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  1748,  was 
thrown  into  the  Bastile,  where  he  lay  for  three  years.  In 
1751  a  commission  declared  him  innocent  of  all  the  charges 
brought  against  him  by  Dupleix.  Liberated,  but  broken 
in  spirit,  he  d.  Sept.  9.  1753.  His  widow  received  a  pen- 
sion. In  1859  a  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  tho  Isle  ol 
Bourbon,  now  Reunion. 

Labrador'  [Port.  /,n/.rorfor,  "  laborer,"  or  lerrcilabo- 
rador,  ••cultivable  land"],  a  name  vaguely  applied  to 
that  part  of  the  peninsula  lying  between  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  Hudson's  Bay,  of  which  the  waters  flow  neither 
into  Hudson's  Bay  nor  Hudson's  Strait.  The  land  whose 
waters  flow  into"  the  bay  and  strait  above  mentioned 
was  for  two  centuries  the  property  of  the  Uu<lson  s 
Bay  Company,  and  was  (1809-71)  sold  by  them  to  the  Do- 
minion of  Ca'nada.  Labrador  proper  consists  of  two  parts. 
That  part  whoso  waters  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
formerly  belonged  likewise  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
and  now  constitutes  the  district  of  Labrador,  in  Saguenay 
CO.,  province  of  Quebec.  Canada.  This  coast  is  inhabited 
chiefly  bv  Indians  and  by  Canadians,  mostly  of  French 
descent  ■  In  1 873  the  country  was  reported  to  bo  in  a  pros- 
perous condition.  The  catching  of  seals,  herring,  codfish 
mackerel,  salmon,  trout,  halibut,  and  fur-bearing  animals 
is  the  r.rincipal  industry.     The  population  is  increasing, 

he  houses  gener.ally  neat  and  comfortable  and  the  prices 
of Voods  very  moderate.  The  eggs  and  f^.th^f  »f  "''-^ 
fowf  are  gathered  to  some  extent.      At  Mois.e  there  are 


LABKADOKITE— LAC. 


1595 


quite  extensive  iron-works.  The  Indianu  have  been  partly 
civilized  l>y  the  efforts  of  Roman  Cuthoho  mifsiouaries. 
They  are  of  the  Micmac,  Mingan,  Seven  Island,  Betsia- 
mite,  and  other  tribes,  Pop.  in  ISll,  exclusive  of  Auti- 
cusli  Island  (pup.  102),  and  inclusive  of  the  three  la«t- 
named  tribes  of  Indians,  3597. 

That  part  of  Labrador  whose  waters  flow  directly  into 
tlio  Atlantic,  and  which  lies  between  Cape  Cbudleigh  on 
the  N.  \V.  and  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  uu  the  6.  E.,  is  the 
r».-gion  mure  generally  called  Labrador.  It  belongs,  like 
the  former  region,  to  the  British  empire,  but  not,  like  it,  to 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  is  at  present  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Newfoundland.  It  is  governed  by  a  summary  court 
of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  whose  judge  is  also  magis- 
trate and  coroner.  There  is  a  bailiff  attached  to  the  court, 
aud  there  are  several  justices  of  the  peace.  The  court  is 
held  upon  a  revenue  cutter.  The  revenues  are  in  the  care 
of  a  collector  and  his  deputy,  whose  principal  office  is  at 
Blanc  Sablon.  There  are  usually  but  one  or  two  govern- 
ment mails  despatched  to  Labrador  during  the  summer. 
The  people  are  not  litigious.  Most  of  the  cases  before  the 
court  arise  from  disputes  with  regard  to  the  herring  fishery. 
This  coast  is  rooky  and  precipitous,  much  broken  by  bays 
and  inlets.  Small  islands  abound.  The  native  inhabitants 
are  mostly  of  the  Esquimaux  race.  Nearly  all  of  them  have 
been  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  labors  of  Moravian 
missionaries.  The  principal  mission-stations  are  Naiu, 
Ukkak,  Hopedale,  Hebron,  Zoar,  and  Rama.  There  are 
other  missions,  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  the  former 
among  the  Indians  of  the  interior,  who  arc  very  few  in 
numbers.  The  country  is  so  rocky  and  rough,  and  the 
climate  so  intensely  cold  In  winter  (when  the  temperature 
averages  lower  than  that  of  Ureeuland),  that  Lalirador 
would  bo  worthless  were  it  not  that  its  coasts  abound  in 
the  harp  and  hooded  seals  (whose  fur  and  oil  arc  very  valu- 
able), and  that  the  sea  is  abundantly  stocked  with  codtish 
and  lii-rring  of  the  best  quality.  The  streams,  too,  abound 
in  salmon-trout,  which  are  extensively  taken  ami  salted. 
Furs  and  feathers  are  collected  to  some  extent.  Seal  and 
tish-offal  are  beginning  to  be  exported  for  fertilizers.  The 
land-products  are  few  in  number.  The  llora  is  limited. 
The  forests  consist  of  stunted  birch,  willow,  juniper,  aud 
poplar  trees.  The  interior  is  rough  and  barren,  having  a 
rocky  surface,  with  sandy  valleys  and  numtrouc  swamps 
and  lakes.  Near  (he  settlements  a  few  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables  are  raised.  During  the  short  summer  the  coast 
is  visited  by  great  numbers  of  vessels,  mostly  from  New- 
foundland, England,  Jersey,  and  the  U.  S.  The  New- 
foundland seal  lisheries  employ  numerous  sailing  vessels 
and  quite  a  number  of  steamers.  The  population  of  that 
part  of  Labrador  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfoundland 
in  isiiy  was  2179,  exclusive  of  the  aborigines.  Disease 
and  famine  have  greatly  reduced  the  numliers  of  the  latter. 
In  IS'U  the  mission-station  of  the  Moravians  numbered 
only  1201  souls.  This  gives  for  this  whole  peninsula,  with 
jOO.OOO  square  miles  of  area,  a  population,  exclusive  of  a 
few  wild  aborigines,  of  only  7277  souls;  '.iJ*J7  of  whom,  on 
the  S.  coast,  bclnng  to  the  province  of  t^uebco  (  1^71 ) ;  2179 
to  the  Newfoundland  sottlemonts  ( ls69),  ami  the  remainder 
( IS70)  to  the  Moravian  missions.  (See  Hind's  Ej-plorations 
It/ the  Interior  of  the  Labrador  Peninmtltt,  ISfiH.) 

ClIAULES  W.  GrEFNF. 

Lab'radoritef  a  soda-Ilmo  feldspar  (see  Frldhpar) 
orystultizing  in  the  tricltnic  system,  and  originally  ob- 
t-iiiuf'd  from  the  eoast  of  Labrador.  Some  specimens  when 
turned  in  different  lights  display  to  perfection  a  "  chango 
of  colors." 

Lab'rador  Tea  {Lrdum  UttifnUum),  an  evergreen 
shrub  of  the  hi-nth  fiimlly  found  in  mar-thy  soils  from  Penn- 
sylvania northward.  The  natives  of  Labrador  use  the  leaves 
us  a  sub.4tituto  for  tea. 

Labrau'da,  in  classical  geography,  a  city  of  Caria, 
Asia  .Minor,  near  Mylasa,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus  Stratios).  The  ruins  found  at  lakli,  near  Kizel- 
jik,  where  sixteen  columns  of  an  Ionian  temple  are  still 
standing,  wero  identified  by  Chandler  and  by  Sir  Charles 
I'Vllows  a!<  those  of  Labranda,  but  Leake  believes  the  true 
!.ile  of  the  city  to  have  been  iu  the  hills  N.  E.  of  Mylasa. 

\ti\  Urea,  a  small  town  on  the  south-western  extremity 
f.f  the  island  of  Trinidad,  in  the  West  Indies,  10  miles  from 
San  Ftrnando,  is  noteworthy  from  its  oxtensivo  exporta- 
tion of  ii^phaltum. 

Kah'ridic  [from  LahruH^  the  typical  genus,  and  t*/*-],  a 
family  of  acanthopteryglan  teleucephalous  liwhes,  having 
the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  united  in  a  snlid  inaf<s,  and 
the  upper  chiefly  or  wholly  represented  by  the  third  bono, 
which  is  fixedly  articulated  to  the  fourth  ^uperinr  branch!- 
hyal  ;  the  form  is  oblong  or  elongated  ;  tlie  scales  cycloid; 
tli4<  upper  maxillary  bones  articulated  in  a  complex  man- 
ner; rhe  teeth  cnic  or  confluent  into  an  osseous  ridge,  tho 


dorsal  entire,  and  with  its  spinous  portion  generally  larger 
than  the  :foft.  and  the  ventral  fins  jugular.  The  lamily  is 
a  large  one.  embracing  our  blackfish  [Tautoya  onitis)  and 
burgall  I  Tttut'HjifltihrtiH  ti(Upergiig).  Thko.  Gill. 

La  Bniyore,  dc  (Jkan).  b.  at  Dourdan,  in  Normandy, 
probably  in  !fi4ti.  and  held  a  little  oflice  in  the  civil  service 
at  Caen!  when  Bossuet  called  him  to  the  court  of  Versailles 
as  teacher  to  the  prince  of  Conde.  The  rest  of  his  life  he 
spent  at  Versailles.  ChantiMy.  and  Paris,  always  belonging 
to  the  court,  where  ho  enjoyed  a  pensi(m  of  1000  francs  a 
year,  but  ocmipying  a  retired  though  dignified  position. 
b.  May  11,  llVJfi.  In  1088  ho  published  his  Caractins  de 
ThPophrtXHte,  tradnitH  dx'/rec,  on  leu  moeitrs  d^  ceHi'erfe.  Two 
more  editions  followed  in  the  same  year,  nine  during  the  life- 
time of  the  author,  and  a  great  number  in  the  next  century. 
It  has  been  translated  into  most  European  languages— 
into  English  by  Rowe  in  170*,* — and  its  reading  is  >tiU 
found  both  interesting  and  instructive.  It  is  a  work  of  in- 
sight, not  of  inspiration.  There  is  nothing  in  it  of  a  cre- 
ative imagination  which  reveals  the  depths  of  human  na- 
ture through  immediate  intuition.  But  it  contains  much 
of  tliat  fine  and  acute  observation  which  arrives  at  a  full 
understanding  of  human  characters  through  actual  expe- 
rience. Its  style  is  elegant  and  Its  tone  noble.  After  his 
death  was  published,  under  the  title  of  Dlalntjnes  post- 
humca  eur  le  Quntt'sme,  a  work  which  ho  left  unfinished. 

Ci.EMKNS  PeTKIISKN. 

Lablian',  an  island  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  or  rather 
in  the  China  Sea,  60  miles  from  the  N.  coast  of  Borneo  aud 
COO  miles  N.  E.  of  Singapore.  Area,  45  square  miles.  Pop. 
4.sy3.  The  island  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1S46  by 
the  sultan  of  Brunai  (Borneo),  and  a  settlement  called  Vic- 
toria has  been  made  at  the  S.  E.  extremity.  Its  chief  im- 
portance is  derived  from  its  central  position  with  regard 
to  Borneo,  Anam,  the  French  colony  of  Cambodia,  and 
the  Spanish  colony  of  the  Philippines.  There  is  a  fair  port, 
a  good  supply  of  water,  and  abundant  mines  of  coal,  for 
conveying  which  a  railway  5  miles  long  has  been  built. 
Sago,  camphor,  birds*  nests,  and  pearls  are  the  chief  ex- 
ports. Labuan  is  the  seat  of  a  colonial  bi-^hopric;  it  had 
in  1H72  a  tonnage  of  7000  and  an  export  trade  of  £185.000. 
Labur'num  [Lat.],  the  name  of  the  Lfibiinium  vnfijnre 
ami  niplinnn.  two  highly  ornamental  European  small  trees 
or  shrubs  of  the  order  Lcguinino?)e,  cultivated  in  shrubberies 
in  the  V .  S.  They  have  abundant  yellow  flowers  in  early 
summer.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  dark-colored,  and  valu- 
able to  the  carver  and  turner.  The  bark.  leaves,  and  seeds 
are  poisonous.  The  first-mentioned  species  is  called  Eng- 
lish, the  other  Scotch  laburnum. 

Labyc  ( ItiKinoNNf:),  a  French  theologian,  b.  at  Rovin, 
department  of  Ardennes.  France,  Mar.  :il,  1712;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  1728  ;  studieil  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Douai;  taught  for  some  time  in  tlie  College  of 
St.  Thomas,  but  retired  afterward  to  his  native  town,  whero 
he  formed  an  excellent  library,  with  which  was  connected 
a  cabinet  of  natural  history.  D.  Jan.  7,  171»2.  He  wroto 
Sniiniia  Siinuiiir  I.  Thumit,  nivv  cumpcndinm  tfiftdngiie  8cho- 
litHtirn  w  ninrtdia  I\  IHUnart  (0  vols.,  Liege,  1754). 

liabynetUN,  a  name  frequently  occurring  iu  Babylo- 
nian history,  but  uncertain  with  respect  to  its  significa- 
tion. It  is  applied  only  to  the  monarcbs.  but  whether  it 
is  used  as  a  proper  name  or  a  title  cannot  be  deeiiled.  One 
Labynetus  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (i.  74)  as  mediating, 
in  conjunction  with  a  prince  nf  Cilicia,  a  jieaco  between 
Cyaxarcs  and  Alyattes.  From  the  chron(dogy  it  is  evident 
that  this  Labynetus  must  have  l)een  idenlioal  with  Xebu- 
chadnczrar.  Another  Labynetus  is  mentioned  by  the  samo 
author  ( i.  77)  as  a  contemporary  of  Cyrus  and  Crresus.  with 
the  hiller  of  whom  he  was  in  alliance.  This  Labynetus  is 
the  same  as  the  Belshazzar  of  the  prophet  Daniel. 

Lab'yrinth  (Gr.  Xa^epii-^ot],  in  Greek  archa'ology,  a 
subterran<'an  cavity,  natural  or  mure  fnquenlly  artificial, 
with  intricate  passages.  The  most  famous,  that  of  Egypt, 
one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  tlu-  World,  was  near  Arsinoe 
and  beyond  Lake  Ma'ris.  It  had  I JOO  subterranean  rooms, 
and  as  many  above  ground,  and  had  a  wall  around  it.  If 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  royal  scjiulchre.  The  Cretan 
labyrinth,  where  the  Minotaur  was  ktpt.  Is  believed  to  be 
mythical.  Saiiios.  Leninos.  and  othi-r  ancient  places  had 
labyrinths  in  imitation  of  that  of  Egypt. 
Twibyrinthodon.  Sco  Ai>ri:Ni>ix. 
liar  ( I'r.  l-"fi'  :  (ier.  (iummfhirk].  Stirk-lac,  Sccd- 
lac,  laiiiip-lai',  Shrll-lac,  and  Liic-dyr,  a  rc!*in- 
ous  substance  produced  by  the  puncture  ui'  the  female  in- 
sect of  Ciurut  I'lcrn  or  t-.Jiriii  upon  branches  of  cevoral 
plants,  as  tlio  Firu»  rtdu/iona  (the  bo  tree  or  religious  treo 
of  the  Hiniloos).  the  Hhnmnut  jujuhn,  tho  Cro/.oi  huri- 
f't-nim  (or  bihar  tree),  and  the  Itiitm  fnmdtntn  {or  (ho 
butea  tree),  which  grow  in  Slam,  Assam,  Pegu,  Bengal, 


1596 


LAC. 


and  Malabar.  Tho  female  insect  is  of  the  size  of  a  louse 
— red,    round,  flat,  nnd    wingless.     The  male   is  twice   as 

iar-jio  as  the  female,  and  hus  four  wings.  Soon  after  ilia 
punctured  the  twig  becomes  incrueted  with  a  mammillated 
resinous  substance,  red,  hard,  and  nearly  tran.'^parent.  It 
serves  the  double  jiurpoise  of  protecting  the  eggs  and  of 
supplying  food  for  the  young  maggots  in  a  more  advanced 
slafe.  The  mothers  are  held  by  the  adhesive  fluids  whieh 
exude  from  the  punctures,  and  contribute  their  substance 
to  the  mass.  The  characteristic  constituents  of  the  incrusta- 
tion arc  the  lac-resin,  derived  from  the  tree,  and  the  lac- 
dyo,  analogous  to  that  of  the  cochineal,  Ctx^cus  cacti,  con- 
tained in  tho  insects.  The  most  valuable  product  is  ob- 
tained by  breaking  off  the  twigs  before  the  brood  escapes, 
and  drying  them  in  the  sun. 

Stlrlc-tttc. — These  dried  twigs  are  called  stick-lac,  and 
from  thorn  the  other  proihicts  are  i)reparcd.  That  from 
Siain  is  the  best,  tlie  inerustntion  being  oflcn  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick  all  around  the  twig;  that  of  Assam  ranks 
next.     Dr.  John  gives  the  following  analysis  of  stick-lac  : 

An  odorous  resin 6G.65 

Resin  in<>olublc  in  ether)  lg  ^S 

"      laecin J  

Coloring-matter  (analogous  to  that  of  cochineal)..      3.75 

Laceie  acid 0.G2 

Extractive 3.i>2 

Skins  of  insects 2.08 

Wax 167 

Salts I.W 

Sand 0.fi2 

Loss _2  90 

100.00 

It  is  insoluble  in  water,  to  which  it,  however,  imparts  its 
red  coloring-matter.  It  is  partially  sohil>lc  in  alcohol, 
coloring  it  red;   is  insoluble  in  fatty  and  essential  oils. 

S'td-lnc  is  the  resinous  concretion  s?parafcd  from  tho 
twigs,  coarsely  pounded,  and  washed  with  water,  by  which 
much  of  the  coloring-matter  is  removed.  AVhen  it  is  de- 
sired to  secure  tho  lac-dyo  also,  hot  water  is  used,  to  which 
a  little  soda  is  often  added. 

Lum}i-hic  is  8im})!y  sced-Iac  melted  into  lumps. 

ShfU'lac  is  prepared  from  seed-lac  by  placing  it  in  bags 
of  cotton,  about  -i  feet  long  and  0  inches  in  circumfercnee, 
and  warming  it  over  a  charcoal  fire.  When  the  resin  be- 
gins to  melt  the  bag  is  twisted,  and  the  clear  resin  is  al- 
lowed to  tlow  over  the  smooth  stems  of  the  banyan  treo  or 
planks  of  fig-wood,  when  it  cools  in  thin  layers  or  scales. 
Ilatchett  has  published  the  following  analyses  of  these  dif- 
ferent forms  of  lac : 

Stick-lao. 

Resin 68.0  

Coloring-matter 10.0  

"Wax 6.0  

Gluten 5.5  

Foreign  bodies 6-5  

Loss 4.0  

100.0 

Lnc-resin  \s  very  valuable,  much  harder  than  colophony, 
and  easily  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  may  be  nbtaine<l  pure  by 
treating  shell-lac  with  cold  alcohol,  and  filtering  the  solu- 
tion in  order  to  separate  a  yellow-gray  pulverulent  matter. 
AVhen  the  alcohol  is  again  distilled  olT,  a  brown,  translu- 
cent, hard,  and  brittle  resin,  of  specific  gravity  I.I.IO.  re- 
mains. It  melts  into  a  viscid  mass  with  heat,  and  ditfuses 
an  aromatic  odor.  Anhydrous  alcohol  disfsulvcs  it  in  all 
proportions.  According  to  John,  it  consists  of  two  resins, 
one  of  whieh  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol,  ether,  the  volatile 
and  fat  oils ;  while  the  other  is  little  soluble  in  cold  alcohol, 
and  is  insoluble  in  ether  and  the  volatile  oils.  Unverdor- 
ben.  however,  has  detectecl  in  shell-lac — (1)  a  resin  solublo 
in  alcohol  and  ether;  (2)  a  resin  soluble  in  alcohol,  insol- 
ulilc  in  ether;  (^i)  a  resinous  body  little  soluble  in  cold  al- 
cohol; (4)  acrystallizable  resin  ;  (5)  a  resin  soluble  in  alco- 
hol and  ether,  but  insoluble  in  petroleum,  ami  nncrystalliz- 
ablc;  (6)  the  unsaponified  fat  of  tho  Coccuh  insect,  as  well 
as  oleic  and  stearic  acids;  (7)  wa.K :  (8)  the  fnrciue  ot  Dr. 
John;  (0)  an  extractive  coloring-matter.  Dilute  h^-dro- 
chloric  and  acetic  acids  dissolve  shell-lac  readily;  nitric 
acid  slowly;  strong  sulphuric  acid  not  at  ail.  Like  most 
other  resins,  it  has  a  strong  aflinity  for  bases,  with  which 
it  forms  definite  compounds.  It  dissolves  in  aqueous  pot- 
ash, soda,  carbounte  of  soda,  etc.  It  deprives  the  caustic 
alkalies  of  their  alkaline  taste.  Tho  solution  in  caustic  pot- 
ash is  of  a  dark-red  color,  and  dries  into  a  brilliant,  trans- 
parent, reddish-brown  mass,  which  may  be  redissolved  in 
bnth  water  and  alcohol,  liorax  renders  five  times  its  weight 
of  shell-lac  soluble  on  boiling  with  water.  This  solution  is 
equal  for  many  purposes  to  spirit  varnish,  and  is  an  excel- 
lent vehicle  for  water-colors,  as  when  once  drie<l  water  has 
no  effect  upon  it.  India-ink  rubhtd  up  with  this  liquid 
forms  a  m<tst  valuable  hthcl-ink  for  the  lahorntory.  as  it  is 
not  affected  by  acid  vapors.     Sal-ummouiao  is  also  a  sol- 


vent for  shell-lac,  and  the  solution  has  been  suggested  as  a 
substitute  for  the  alcoholic  solution. 

/ifeacfied  Shell-lii'-.  —  By  passing  chlorine  in  excefs 
through  the  dark-colored  alkaline  solution  the  lac-resin  is 
prccipilJiteil  in  a  colorless  state.  \Vhen  this  precipitate  is 
washed  and  dried,  it  forms  with  aleohol  an  excellent  pale- 
yellow  varnish,  especially  with  the  addition  of  a  little  tur- 
pentine and  mastic.  By  exposure  in  thin  shreds  to  the 
sun's  rays  or  in  a  finely-divideil  state  to  ehlorine-watcr, 
or  by  reducing  it  to  a  line  jiowder.  susjiending  in  water, 
and  passing  hydrochloric  aeid  va])or  into  the  menstruum, 
the  dark-colored  varieties  are  bleached.  When  this  is  done, 
however,  the  resin  loses  many  of  tho.'ie  qualities  that  so  ad- 
mirably recommend  it  for  some  kinds  of  varnishes,  but  it 
answers  well  for  making  sealing-wax. 

Usee  of  Shril-fnc. — In  India  lac  is  fashioned  into  rings, 
beads,  and  other  trinkets.  It  is  the  material  of  which  tho 
best  modern  sealing-wax  is  made.  Turpentine  is  added  to 
promote  fusibility  and  prevent  brittU-ness,  Earthy  matters 
are  added  to  increase  weight  ami  to  prevent  too  rapid 
fusion.  For  red  and  other  light-colored  sealing-wax  very 
pnle  or  even  bleached  shell-lac  is  used,  while  for  black  and 
dark  colors  the  darker-colored  shell-lac  is  equally  suitable. 
The  following  are  common  proportions,  the  first  being  tho 
best,  Venice  turpentine  being  used  in  it: 

1.  2.  s.  4. 

Shell-lac 500  300  .340  330 

Turpentine I2j  400  370  330 

Chalk  or  magnesia 140  110 

Gypsum  or  zinc-white Vo 

Sulphate  of  baryta 60  160 

Vermilion .375  65  120  165 

Oil  of  turpentine ...  ...  ...  15 

1000  lUUO  1000  1000 

Tho  materials  are  melted  together  in  an  iron  pan,  with 
constant  stirring.  The  cool  but  still  soft  ma?s  is  rolled  on 
a  slab  of  marble  and  shaped  into  sticks,  or  the  fluid  mass 
is  poured  into  brass  moulds.  The  various  colors  are  im- 
parted by  cobalt  blue,  chrome  yellow,  bone-black,  etc. 
Perfumed  sealing-wax  contains  gum  benzoin,  storax,  or 
balsam  of  Peru.  Inferior  sealing-wax  is  colored  red  with 
oxide  of  iron  instead  of  vermilion,  or  it  is  e\en  made  of 
common  rosin  with  gypsum  or  chalk.  New  Zealand  resin, 
from  XXvi  Xftnthnrrhten  hantHii,  is  frequently  used  in  place 
of  shell-lae.  Media'val  sealing-wax  was  a  mixture  of  bees- 
wax with  turpentine  and  coloring-matter. 

ShcIMao  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  varnishes  and  for 
japanning,  tho  ordinary  shclI-lac  varnish  being  a  simple 
alcoholic  solution.  It  is  used  for  stift'ening  hat  bodies  and 
many  other  purposes.  Its  solution  in  sal-ammoniac  and 
water  has  been  suggested  as  capable  of  numerous  applica- 
tions. It  is  made  by  placing  :•  parts  white  shell-lac.  I  part 
sal-ammoniac,  and  6  to  H  parts  water  in  a  close  vessel  for 
twelve  hours,  then  boiling  with  c<instant  stirring  till  tho 
shell-hie  is  dissolved.  The  solution  may  be  used  as  a  stiff"encr, 
waterproofer,  or  vehicle  for  pigments  and  dyes,  as  paint 
or  varnish. 

Lft'--(/if  and  Iftr-lake  are  tho  secondary  or  by-products 
of  the  purification  of  stiek-lac.  The  coarsely-powdered 
stick-lac  is  macerated  with  hot  water,  to  which  a  little  soda 
is  sometimes  added.  Tho  red  liquid  thus  obtained  is 
.""trained  through  canvas  and  evaporated  over  a  charcoal 
fire  or  in  the  sun.  The  residue  is  made  into  little  cakes, 
which  are  known  as  htr-i/ifr,  and.  as  they  appear  in  com- 
merce, contain  about  60  per  cent,  of  coloring-matter,  2a 
of  resin,  25  of  earthy  imjiuritics.  Ltic-fukc  is  obtained  by 
precipitating  with  ulum  the  decoction  from  stick-lac,  pre- 
pared with  weak  caustic  soda.  The  jireeipitate  is  pressed, 
moulded  into  cakes,  and  dried.  It  contains  coloring-matter 
^yi),  resin  40,  alumina  9,  impurities  1.  Messrs.  Brooke, 
Simpsi)n  A  Spillcr  of  Manchester,  England,  have  intro- 
duced into  commerce  a  lac-dyo  superior  to  that  imported 
from  India.  They  treat  stick-lac  with  weak  ammonia,  and 
Jireeipitate  the  solution  with  chloride  of  tin.  The  coloring- 
matter  of  lac  dye  is  analogous  to  that  of  cochineal,  car- 
minic  oeid.  but  its  absolute  identity  has  not  been  estab- 
lished. The  shades  produced  by  it  are  less  bright,  but  more 
permanent.  Lae-dye  and  lake  are  chiefly  employed  for 
ilying  woollen  fabrics  scarlet;  2  or  .3  parts  produce  the  same 
effect  as  1  of  cochineal.  The  solvent  for  the  dye  is  cither 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid  ;  the  mordant  is  chloride  of 
tin  and  tartar.  Tho  following  processes  for  preparing  tho 
dye  for  use  are  given  in  Watts's  /tirtifni'irif  of  Chemidirtf  : 
(  1  t  A  mixture  of  4  parts  of  lao  with  strong  sulphuric  aeid 
is  allowed  to  stand  for  24  hours  in  summer  and  48  in  win- 
ter, then  diluted  and  stirred  with  ;U  parts  of  water,  and 
again  left  to  clarify.  The  clear  liqui<l  is  poured  into  an  iron 
pot,  and  mixed  with  the  wash- wa tor  <»f  the  previous  residue  ; 
the  solution  is  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  lime  sufficient  to 
neutralize  four-fifths  of  tho  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  precip- 


LAC— LACE. 


l.V.)7 


itato  of  pypautn  is  irmoved  :  the  liquid  ia  t)ipn  rendy  for 
use.  This  is  the  mode  of  preiiurntion  chiefly  n«lnpifd  in 
England.  (2)  .^2  parts  of  lac-dye  are  triturnt.d  with  10  to 
12  parts  of  sulphurio  acid  of  specific  gravity  l.Sj.  or  hy- 
drooblorio  acid  of  specific  {gravity  I.IM.  e:u-h  diluted  with 
three  times  its  weight  of  water.  Tlie  mixture  ir*  left  tu 
itself  for  4S  hours  in  winter  or  24  hours  in  summer,  and 
then  mixed  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  river-water.  (3) 
.12  p:\rts  of  Iftc-dyo  are  triturated  with  12  parts  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  of  specific  gravity  1.14S.  diluted  with  unequal 
weight  of  water;  the  mixture  is  left  for  24  hourii,  and  fre- 
quently stirred,  and  then  diluted  with  water.  To  dye  with 
the  color  thus  prepared,  each  pound  is  mixed  with  three- 
quarters  of  a  pint  of  «io-called  lac-spirit,  a  aolulion  of  slnn- 
nou*»  rhloriile  prepared  hy  dissolving  1  pouncl  of  tin  in  20 
pounds  of  fuming  hydrochloric  acid,  the  mixture  being  left 
to  itself  for  6  hours  before  use.  C.  F.  Chanih.kh. 

Lac  fitindostanco],  the  sum  of  100.000  rupees,  worth 
about  $5(1.000.  The  term  is  used  in  Kast  Indian  couimercc. 
One  hundred  lacs  make  one  crore  of  rupees. 

La  Caille,  de  fXicoLAS  Lot-is),  b.  Mar.  IJ,  1713,  at 
Rumigny,  in  Charapagne  ;  studie<I  mathematics  and  astron- 
omy ;  made  himself  known  by  his  participation  in  the  sur- 
vey of  the  French  coast  between  Xantcs  and  Hayonne,  and 
in  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  was 
appointed  professor  in  astronomy  at  the  Colb'ge  do  Maza- 
rin  at  Paris  in  1741.  In  1750  went  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  in  127  nights  determined  !)S00  stars  hitherto 
uniietcrmlncd  :  and  in  connection  with  Lalande  in  Berlin 
he  established  the  distance  of  the  moon,  IMars,  and  Venus. 
He  evinced  the  same  energy  in  his  literary  activity,  which 
comprises,  besides  his  Astroiiomim  Fnudumentn  (1758), 
Ttihitl/r  Solaret  (1758),  Olmervtitiomi  tmrSI''*  ftoilcn  (hi  zodi- 
arjiie  (1763),  .«everal  elementary  handbooks,  and  a  number 
of  essavs  which  have  been  of  great  iDfiueuco  on  navigation. 
D.  at  Paris  Mar.  21,  1702. 

Lacando'ncSf  an  Indian  tribe  of  Central  America, 
inhiibiiiiig  an  extensive  unexplored  region  of  Norllicrn 
Guatemala,  near  the  frontier  of  Ilelize,  on  a  river  of  tho 
same  name  tributary  to  tho  I'sninasinta.  Tbcy  formerly 
extended  into  Chiapas  and  Ta!)asco,  but  aro  now  found 
only  in  tho  region  of  the  Cliieho  Mountains.  They.  like 
tho  neighboring  Itzacs  of  Lake  Potcn.  belong  to  the  Maya 
stock,  and  do  not  di^er  in  point  of  actual  civilization  from 
the  other  fractions  of  thtir  race  in  Yucatan.  Tbcy  formoro 
than  three  centuries  kept  up  a  warfare  with  the  i^paniards, 
but  havo  generally  been  pacific  of  l:i(o  years,  and,  though 
allowing  no  whites  to  visit  their  settlements,  .'Sometimes 
traffic  a  little  on  the  frontiers,  giving  tol>at'oo  and  earsa- 
parilla  in  exchange  for  trinkets  and  firearms.  They  aro 
nominally  subject  to  Guatemala,  but  are  in  fact  entirely 
independent,  never  having  received  laws  from  or  paid  trib- 
ute to  tho  whites.  They  still  Jtractii^e  their  ancient  relig- 
ious rites,  and  havotownsof  sctnio  extent,  though  tho  mng- 
nifieent  description  of  their  eilio  t<dd  to  Mr.  John  L. 
Stephens  by  tho  cura  of  Quieh<5  is  but  a  romance.  (See 
Stepliens's  TnnifM  tu  Cvntrnt  Anicn'ra,  and  AIorelct'B  do. 
(trans,  by  Mrs.  Squior,  Now  York,  IsrO).) 

Lac'cadivcs  [Sans.  f(tKkr,*'a  hundred  thousand." and 
ffir^,  "  island  "],  a  numerous  grouj)  of  small  islands  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  (Arabian  Sea),  consisting  of  twenty  clusters, 
100  milcsfrom  (he  Malabar  const.  Area,  744  s(|narn miles. 
Pop.  7000.  They  aro  of  coral  formatiun,  the  largest  being 
only  7  miles  in  length,  and  most  of  them  are  mere  barren 
rocks.  From  the  dangers  of  I  ho  surrounding  reefs  the  Lac- 
cailives  are  little  frequented  by  navigators.  The  natives 
are  called  Moplays,  are  Mohammedans  of  .Arabian  descent, 
and  live  in  stono  huts.  Tho  only  cunraerco  is  in  cocoa- 
fibre  and  betel-nuts.  The  islands  pay  tribute  to  Cananoro 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras.  They  were  discovered  by 
Vasco  da  Oama  in  1499. 

Lace  [Oltl  Fr.  farin,  lacet,  from  Latin  Incinin,  the  guard- 
hem  of  a  robe:  in  Karly  English  htrr  meant  simply  a  fas- 
tening or  to  fasten,  in  common  with  th(?  Aug. -Sax.  farrr-nn, 
to  "  cttteh,  to  hold,"  probably  allif-d  to  the  (ireek  Atyui  and 
Latin  lifjnre  ;  Sanskrit,  hujati],  an  ornamental  open-work 
of  thread,  twisted,  plaited,  or  woven  into  patterns.  Itself 
comparatively  modern,  laee  is  derived  front  two  mnut  an- 
cient kinds  of  work,  netting  and  embroidery,  the  former  of 
which  was  used  by  tho  Kgyptiatis  to  ornament  the  borders 
of  some  festival  garments;  indeed,  the  network  of  blue 
heads  found  on  mummies  mny.  as  it  was  marjr  with  the 
needle,  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  Inco,  The  (Jreeks  iind  Ro- 
mans bordered  their  rnbes  with  embroidery,  enlled.  when 
of  superior  qiiality.  npuH  /'firi/ffintium,  from  the  skill  with 
which  it  was  executed  by  Phrygian  workers.  Among  early 
Christians  it  was  customary  for  women  to  wear  veils  during 
piibli.i  wnrship.  an<i  writers  of  the  second  century  com- 
plainnl  that  too  often  thiiso  coverings  minislered  rntlier  to 
vanity  (ban  tn  modesty,  being  frequently  uf  netting  inter- 


woven with  gold  or  silver,  through  which  the  face  was  visi- 
ble. Anglo-Saxon  embroidery,  known  as  opitu  Aiuf/icmnim, 
was  esteemed  even  in  Kome :  tho  cope  and  maniple  of  St. 
Cuthbert,  found  in  his  coffin,  and  still  preserved  at  Durham, 

are  gotnl  specimens  of  this  work, 
I  Lace  may  be  di\  idcd  into  two  principal  classes — point 
and  pillow  lace,  the  former  being  of  much  the  greater  anti- 
'  quity.  We  cannot  decide  when  point  was  first  made,  fo  vciy 
I  gradually  was  it  evolved  from  netting  and  embroidery,  with 
which  it  is  often  confoumled  in  old  records.  The  Italians 
probably  derivcl  it  from  Ityzantiuni,  since  its  earliest  de- 
velopment may  be  traced  to  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  towns 
engaged  in  commerce  with  the  Greek  empire.  The  oldest 
point  is  of  two  kinds — fnris,  or  point  roinptS  ("counted 
stitch  "),  ami  cut-work  {point  conpr).  Lncis  usually  con- 
sisted of  netted  squares,  made  in  tlic  ordinary  way  on  a 
mesh,  then  joined  with  the  needle,  and  darned  or  embroid- 
ered in  a  pattern,  like  the  modern  "guipure  d'art ;"  or  de- 
signs cut  out  of  linen  were  laid  on  the  netting  and  secured 
to  it  by  embroidery.  The  open  ground,  again,  was  some- 
times formed  by  drawing  tbrcafls  in  a  piece  of  linen  and 
fastening  them  with  the  needle  where  they  cro.s?od  each 
other.  For  cut-work,  threads  were  stretched  netwiso 
across  a  piece  of  linen,  called  '/uintin  from  the  place  of  its 
manufacture,  and  a  pattern  was  made  by  sewing  round 
with  butt<inliole  stitch  tbo.'^e  parts  of  the  linen  intended  to 
remain,  antl  cutting  the  rest  away.  By  degrees,  skilful 
workers  arrived  at  making  the  thick  part  entirely  with  the 
needle,  using  variations  of  two  stitches  (Figs.  1  and  2), 


Fio.  1. 


Fir.  2. 


similar  to  those  in  modern  point.  The  name  "cut-work," 
though  inapprojiriate,  was  long  retained,  and  as  late  as 
1(140  we  find  it  applied  to  Italian  lace  by  John  Taylor,  tho 
Water  Poet,  in  bis  Pruijuc  of  thr  J^'rcclle.  Embroidery, 
lncis,  and  cut -work  were  often  e<)ml)ined  in  one  piece, 
squares  of  darned  netting  alternating  with  squares  of  cut 
and  embroidered  linen;  and  this  work,  which  was  used 
chiefly  for  largo  articles,  sucli  as  coverlets  and  altar-cloths, 
was  sometimes  white  or  unbleached,  sometimes  varied  with 
gold,  sih  or,  or  colored  threads.  Tho  earliest  pat  tern -books 
extant  date  from  the  sixteenth  century,  and  are  extremely 
rare,  most  of  them  having  been  worn  out  in  the  using.  Tho 
best  known  ia  that  of  Vinciolo,  a  Venetian  (about  1G12), 
who  gave  new  designs,  besides  reimblisbing  many  from 
older  books.  Among  those  wo  may  notice  /-<■  Llvre  ;kju- 
veftu  dfS  Patronn  (it;  Lingerie  (llerlin,  152.*))  ;  /Cnittin;/  nnil 
Lace  /'(ittcrna,  Hans  Sibmaclier  ( 1597,  reprinted  at  Vienna 
1S6G).  having  a  curious  frontispiece  representing  a  work- 
room where  an  aged  female  is  directing  several  ytiung  pu- 
pils; La  /'i((ti</nfl  (ir  CAIifuiNr  inflitntriciiMr,  M.  Mignerak 
iU»05).  The  designs  in  tbesc  an<l  contemporary  works  on 
tho  same  8u!)ject  aro  either  geometrical  or  attempts  at  de- 
picting sacretl,  historical,  or  allegorical  scenes.  Sibmaclier 
gives  St.  George  and  the  Dragon  to  bo  worked  in  lacis  ; 
i\Iignerak  shows  how  the  seasons,  the  elements,  the  death 
of  Lucretia,  etc.  may  be  more  or  less  adequately  repre- 
sented with  the  needle.  In  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
London,  a  large  piece  of  lacis  in  many  compartments  con- 
tains in  each  a  Kible  picture  wrought  on  a  netted  groinnl. 
As  pattern-books  were  expi-nsive  nnd  easily  damaged,  it  was 
usual  for  ladies,  in  (be  times  when  needle-industry  ranked 
as  a  cardinal  female  virtue,  to  preserve  ilcsigns  and  stitches 
by  working  lace-samplers  or  "  sam-cloths,"  which  aro  still 
kept  as  heirloonts  in  many  families. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  laee  became  n  very  general  or- 
nament (tf  both  male  and  female  dress,  and  we  find  it  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  royal  edicts  and  accounts  :  "  H  peces 
of  yolowc  (yellow)  laee  were  bought  for  Henry  VHl.  at  a 
cost  of  5<».  4*/."  A  sumptuary  law  of  Queen  Mary  foibado 
the  wearing  of  "white  woorkes,  alias  eut-woorkes,  miuio 
bcyon'Ic  the  seas."  Stubb<'s,  in  his  denunciation  of"  rufl"«s," 
ileclares  them  to  be  "clogged  with  gold,  silver,  or  silk  lace 
of  stately  price,  wrought  atl  over  with  needle-work,  speckled 
an(l  sparkled  liere  and  tJK-re  with  the  sonne,  the  moone, 
the  starres.  an'l  many  other  antifpiities  siraunge  to  be- 
holde."  For  lho«e  muidi-reviled  yet  long-triuiu]>liant  ar- 
ticles of  dress,  pillow-lace,  being  lighter  than  point,  was  a 
favorite  edging.  This  work,  usnaily  supposed  to  havo 
been  invented  by  Ilarlmrn  Uttmann.  wife  of  a  master-minor 
of  St.  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  is  by  Joseph  S^-guin  pronounced 
of  Italian  origin.  "  From  Italy,"  says  he,  "a  kni>wlcrlgo 
of  tho  art  passed  into  France,  whence  it  was  acquired  by 


loil.S 


LACE. 


the  lace-makers  of  Flanders."  Be  that  as  it  may,  Belgium 
is  now  the  special  home  of  this  beautiful  fabric.  The  lace- 
pillow  is  a  round  or  oviil  boiird  forming  the  base  of  a  hard 
cushion  :  the  worker  places  it  upon  her  knees,  lays  on  it  a 
strip  of  parchment  pricked  with  holes  which  indicate  a  laco- 
pattcrn,  and  sticks  a  jiin  through  each  hole  so  that  its  point 
enters  the  pillow.  The  thread  for  making  the  lace  is  wound 
on  bobbins,  small  pieces  uf  wood,  hone,  or  ivory  about  the 
eircuniference  of  an  ordinary  lead-pencil,  having  round 
their  upper  ends  a  groove  or  neck  to  receive  the  threail ; 
by  the  twisting  and  crossing  of  these  the  lace  is  formed. 
The  ground  or  "mesh"  is  made  by  plaiting  (I'ig.  3)  or 
Fig.  3.  Fro-  *• 


twisting  the  threads  (Fig.  4):  the  pattern,  technically 
called  "gimp."  by  weaving  or  "clothing"  (Fig.  5.  These 
figures,  as  also  1  and  2,  represent  the  stitches  pj^  g 
considerably  magnified).  A  large  number 
of  bobbins  is  needed,  as  many  as  1200  being 
sometimes  employed  on  one  cushion.  Those 
not  immediately  in  use  hang  over  the  front 
of  the  cushion,  each  by  its  own  thread,  which 
is  sti  looped  as  not  to  become  unwound.  The 
leading  lines  of  the  pattern  are  sometimes 
miirked  bv  pins  with  colored  heads,  and  the 
"  gimp  "  threads  are  wound  upon  colored  bobbins.  Early 
piTlow  lace,  like  contemporary  point,  was  of  stiff  design, 
and  m.ay  be  compared  to  the  more  formal  of  modern  crochet 
edgings.  But  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century 
lac°e  of  all  kinds  changed  from  the  geometrical  to  the  flow- 
ing style,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparison  of  Holbein's  pic- 
tures with  thoso'of  Vandyke.  And  every  year  it  was  more 
generally  and  profusely  worn.  At  Queen  Elizabeth's  death 
3000  lace-trimmed  habits  were  found  in  her  wardrobe. 
Charles  I.  wore  hunting-dresses  adorned  with  rich  point. 
In  France,  and  all  countries  where  French  fashion-laws 
were  obeyed,  lace  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centurieswas  used  lavishly  for  nearly  all  articles  of  dress. 
The  falling  collars  and  cravats  which  succeeded  ruffs  were 
either  made  of  lace  or  deeply  bordered  with  it.  Ladies 
wore  lace  head-dresses,  lace  flounces,  ruffles  of  lace  at  the 
elbow,  aprons  frilled  with  or  composed  entirely  of  lace. 
Gentlemen  had  lace  cuff's  or  ruffles  (called  pleiirrtisen. 
"weepers")  which  fell  over  the  hand,  and  thus,  it  was 
said,  facilitated  cheating  at  cards;  they  wore  Ince-trimnied 
garters,  deep  frills  of  lace  at  the  knee,  lace  roses  in  shoes, 
even  quillings  of  lace  to  fill  up  the  wide  boot-tops  that 
were  fashionable  about  16(12.  Infants'  robes,  caps,  and 
cradle-furniture  were  made  of  rich  lace,  and  it  was  used 
for  curtains,  for  coverlets,  even  for  bathing  wrappers. 
Drayton's  prettv  conceit  for  a  head-dress  which  tiic  shep- 
herd Lalus  promises  to  his  mistress  must  have  been  in- 
spired by  the  sight  of  some  beautiful  lace  of  flowery  pat- 
tern : 

"  For  thy  head  Tic  have  a  Tyer 
Of  Nettim;  made  of  Strawlicry  wver. 
And  in  each  kmit  that  doth  couiimsc 
A  mesh,  sliall  slick  a  halfe-blowne  Rose 
Kcil,  ilainaskc,  white,  in  order  set ; 
About  the  sides  shall  run  a  fret 
Of  primroses;  the  Tver  throiichnut 
With  Thrift  and  Daysyes  frindccd  about." 

(77is  .Viixs'  ElUiiim,  Nimphall  ii.) 
Great  sums  were  spent  upon  lace,  and  as  it  was  nearly  all 
brought  from  Italy,  Venice  and  Genoa  were  enriched  with 
the  fortunes  of  French  nobles.  For  this  reason  its  impor- 
tation w.as,  between  1620  and  1060,  forbidden  by  many 
edicts,  which,  however,  had  little  efl'ect  except  to  inspire 
numerous  satires:  of  these,  La  Jii'iulle  dei  PimoemeHtii 
("The  Kebelliim  of  the  Laces")  is  specially  valuable, since 
it  names  every  kind  of  lace  known  at  the  time.  .Soon  after 
the  edict  of  li'.fiO  the  minister  Colbert,  resolved  that  France 
should  have  a  lace  manufacture  of  its  own,  sent  to  Italy 
for  workers,  and  established  them  near  Alenfon,  where 
thev  instructed  a  number  of  French  girls  in  the  art  of 
making  point.  Alenjim  lace,  which,  though  derived  from 
that  of  \'enice,  difl'cred  considerably  from  it.  was  by  Louis 
XIV.  called  imini  lU  fnim;-,  and  being  patronized  by  that 
monarch,  soon  became  indispensable  to  all  his  courtiers. 
In  1065  a  company  was  organized  with  the  monopoly  of 
its  sale  for  ten  years,  during  which  time  the  shareholders 
received  over  and  over  again  the  amount  of  their  original 


investments.      The   manufacture   of  "point   de    Franco," 
though  affected,  like  every  kind  of  French  industry,  by  the 
Revocation   of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  flourished  until  the 
Revolution,  when  nearly  all  demand  for  lace  ceased,  and 
many  Alenfon  workers,  having  uiinistcrcd  to  aristocratic 
lu.'iury,  shared  the  fate  of  their  high-born  patrons.     It  was 
revived  by   Napoleon   I.,  and  there  e,\ist   here  and   there 
fragments  of  a  suite  of  bed-furniture  powilered  with  the 
imperial  bees,  which  was  made  for  him  at  immense  cost. 
Venice  point  is  no  longer  worked,  e.tcept  by  skilful  repro- 
ducers of  old  lace.     The  raised  kind  was  especially  beauti- 
ful, and  had  the  appearance  of  carving  or  bas-relief,  the 
outlines  of  the  jiatterns  being  worked  over  thick  rolls  of 
cotton.    The  flowers  were  filled  in  with  delicate  lace-stitches 
(technically  called  mo(/<»)  and  couiiected  by  linden,  or  bars, 
of  e.xquisiie  lightness  varied  by  little  stars  and  picots.  or 
pearl  loops.    A  similar  lace  was  made  in  Spanish  convents 
and  devoted  to  church  purposes,  such  as  altar-furniture, 
vestments,  and  the  dresses  of  images.     In  the  island  of 
Ccphalonia  much  Italian  point  of  geometrical  design  has 
been  found  in  tombs  and  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Greek 
lace."     P<iint  d'Alenfon,  the  most  costly  and  complicated 
of  needle-laces,  is  made  in  small  segments  and  by  twelve 
difl'erent  workers,  each  of  whom  has  her  s|ieeial  province. 
The  pattern  is  printed  off  on  pieces  of  green  iiarchiiicnt 
about  ten  inches  long,  each  segment  numbered  in  its  order; 
the  pattern  is  then  ],ricked  upon  the  parchment,  which  is 
stitched  to  a  piece  of  coarse  linen  folded  double.     The  out- 
line of  the  pattern  is  traced  out  by  two  threads  fixed  by 
small    stitches    passed    with    another   needle   and    thread 
through  the  parchment  and  its  linen  lining.     The  ground 
is  ne.vt  worked  in  fine  riecriu  ("net")  backward  and  for- 
ward at  right  angles  to  the  border:  the  flowers  are  worked 
in,  and  the  various  "modes"  or  "fillings"  are  introduced. 
Tlie  threads  which  unite  lace,  parchment,  and  linen  are 
next  cut  by  passing  a  razor  between  the  folds  of  the  linen, 
and  the  niany  segments  are  joined  by  an  invisible  stitch 
called  "assemblage."     Point  d'Alenfon  is  the  only  lace 
in   which  horsehair  is  introduced  along  the  edge  to  give 
firmness  to  the  "  cordonnet."     The  horsehair  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  apt  to  shrink  in  washing,  and  thus 
impair   the  beauty  of  the  point.      Until   the   Revolution 
there  was   made  at  Argentan  a  point  resembling  that  of 
Alenfon.  but  with  heavier  flowers  and  a  "  bride"  ground 
of  large  hexagonal  meshes  worked  over  with  button-hole 
stitch.     The  art  of  making  this  lace,  which  was  very  strong 
knd  effective,  is  entirely  lost.     Pillow-lace  is  either  worked 
in  one  piece  on  the  cushion,  in  which  case  it  cannot  be  of 
any  great  width,  or  is  made  in  separate  flowers,  afterwards 
connected  by  "  brides  "  or  applied  on  net.     Of  the  hiller 
kind  are  Brussels,  Honiton,  and  guipure  de  Bruges.     The 
best  Brussels  lace  is  made  of  wonderfully  fine  thread,  the 
flax  for  which  is  grown  in  Brabant  and  steeped  at  Courtrai, 
the  I,ys  water  beiug  very  clear.     This   thread   is  spun  in 
cellars,  since  contact  with  dry  air  causes  it  to  break  :  a  ray 
of  light  is  thrown  on  it,  but  the  spinner  is  guided  chiefly 
bj-  touch,  and  stops  her  wheel  when  she  feels  the  slightest 
unevenness.     The  number  <.f  expert  spinners  being  small, 
and  their  work  tedious  and  unhealthy,  real  Brussels  thread 
is  very  expensive,  costing  from  20.000  to  50.000  francs  per 
pound.     Machine-made  thread  is  therefore  generally  used, 
tint  it  has  never  attained  the  fineness  of  that  spun  by  hand. 
The  most  costly  Brussels  lace  has  a  fine  needle-marle  ground, 
called  jifi'it  if  'I'nir/iiHlc,  rarely  used  exce])t  for  royal  trous- 
seaux;  the  pillow-made  ground,  though  much  less  expen- 
sive and  durable,  is  also  of  great  value,  and  is  commonly 
replaced  by  fine  machine  net  made  at  Brussels  for  the  pur- 
pose.    The  flowers  are  sometimes  worked  with  the  needle, 
but  more  frcquentlv  on  the  pillow:  a  fine  "  cordonnet " 
marks  the  outlines  of  the  pattern,  which  is  formed  with  a 
variety  of  beautiful  "modes."     A  piece  of  Brussels  lace 
passes  through  seven  different  bauds,  each  worker  having 
her  own  department,  and  knowing  nothing  of  the  intended 
effect,  which  is  decided  by  the  head  of  the  establishment. 
Laee-making  is  taught  in  schools,  of  which  there  are  over 
000  through   Belgium,  many  being  attached  to  convents. 
Brussels  flowers  coming  soiled  from  the  lacemakcrs'  hands 
arc  too  often  prepared  for  sale  by  means  of  white  le;id: 
this  process,  besides  being  injurious  to  health,  renders  the 
l.aco  liable  to  turn  black  on  exposure  to  heat  or  sea-air.  in 
which  case  it  can  never  be  cleaned.     Iloniton,  the  most 
valuable  English  lace,  is  made  along  the  Devonshire  sea- 
coast.     The  flowers,  now  generally  copied  from  nature,  are 
of  fine  woven  or  cloth-stitch,  a  thicker  thread  marking  the 
outlines.     Thev  are  either"  applied"  on  net  or  connected 
by  "brides,"  which,  like  the  pattern,  arc  worked   on  the 
pillow;  needle-stitches  are  occasionally  introduced.     Gui- 
pure de  Bruges,  sometimes  called  "  duchesse  "  lace,  resem- 
bles Iloniton,  its  sprigs  being  united  by  "brides." 

Of  the  manv  laces  made  in  one  piece  on  the  pillow,  \  a- 
lenciennes  is  the  most  esteemed.     Before  the  French  Rev- 


LACE-BARK  TREE-LACHAMBEAUDIE. 


1599 


olu.ion  it  was  worked  c'>-"y,»Vy»^;,tr„^,."'''u  ^as  ' 

cost  sometimes  »'  ™YLd  formi  >"  both  ground  and  ,mt. 
tern,  and  as  it  ncars  ^         „       p^niser  pronounces 

in  irilh  stitches,  and  was  very  penshaWe,  as  llu-  vellum  was 
Lff"  ed  h  dan,  >.  Thread  guipures,  --".M.ng  he  mod- 
ern nun;,  Maltese,  and  Russian,  were  made  in  Il.ilv  a-id 
Flanders  Some  speeimens  of  Russian  ace  now  ,n  the 
Sm^h  Kensington  'Museum,  arc  remarkable  for  bold  and 

'"nund'e"!'";  both  black  and  white,  is  either  worked  en- 
tire Iv  on  he  pillow,  like  fhantilly.  "r  has  p.llow  flowers 
tirely  ""   ""'  •      p,    ,^  rhantillv  laeo   is   now  made 

X^^^at  Bav  ux      Orammont,  in  Belgium,  produces  blaek 
face  an      ar-e  ,,nantities  are  manufactured  ,n  >pain   par- 
"cuiarlv  at  M.nagro.  where  l2,(H.n  workers  are  emp  oyed. 
Wh He  hhrndc  mantillas  are  worn  by  Spanish  ladies  at  bull- 
fi?hs       Irish   lace  comprises  ero.-het   gn.purc.   very  fine 
fait  ng   farriekmncross,  a  kind  of  cut-work,  and  embroid- 
Irv  Im.  m^ehine  net,  called  "  Limerick  l^ce/'     The  las^ 
named  variety  is  suitable  for  large  articles,  such  as  veils  and 
Soinee.     Worsted,  mohair,  and  •'yak'    ace,  used  of  la  o 
year,  7or  dross-trimming,   arc  made  ehielly   at   Le   Puy. 
ijTcek  and  Italian  peasants  work  aloe-.ibres   •"<"  -  '-» 
which   ihough  pret.l,  has   the  disadvantage  .d  not  wasli- 
Tn.     ,VMnetimes^,owever,  it  is  dyed  blacd,,  and  thus  re  i- 
le^ed  more  useful.      A   natural  lace  is  furnished   by  the 
];r'«"/,n..,-r,..,  a  lofty   West   Indian    '--^   «""7';    « 
flowers  and  large  smooth  leaves:  its  inner  bark  may,  after 
™a^eIaf?on    "water,  be  separated  into  line  layers  resem- 
bling  n  t      «"»hl  -d  silve'r  laees.  employed  for  uniforms 
and  eonrt  dress,  arc  made  either  of  very  fine  wire   or  si  k 
covererwith  afine  flat  thread  of  «'>1;1"'^"V"'.'    "wldh 
M  chinery  is  now  S-orally  used  in  the  inanufad,,.  which 
is  carried  on  in  I.on.lon,  Belgium,  I  aly    and  Frame 

The  first  machine  net,  made  at  Nottingham  about  ,«n 
anon  t le  ordinarv  stocking-frame,  was  a  looped  fabric, 
Xen  with  a  single  thread,  and  resembling  an  open  knit- 
"^g  bo"h  in  appearance  and  liability  to  nivel.  Improve- 
ments in  its  nmnufacturo  were  introdneed  by  Hammond. 
Robert  Frost,  Flint,  and  others,  but  the  object  of  iiiventors- 
"atel,  animi.ation  of  the  tirin  '"ree  -d  --side,  meshe, 
„f  nil  ow-work-was  not  attained  until  1S(  I,  wh.ii  lentn 
cf/a  t  "long  watching  a  woman  at  her  pillow,  and  eare- 

llV  iin^avelling  some  pieces  of  pillow  '"-■""";;;;';: 

to  liiake  twist  bobbinet.     l.-^ee  Nr.Ts.)     I,aee  pa  terns  are 

ior     d  in  bobbinet  either  in  a  frame  by  hand,  like  I.i.ner- 

ck  lace,  or  by  an  adaptation  of  the  .Iae,,u,.r,    apparatus  to 

ho  n  "maehfne.  Wllen  the  ""^^'Yl^^T'^^Zn:^. 
si.sts  of  separate  sprigs,  »•"!>.  or  dots,  the  tek  pa  ter,, 
thread  (called"  gimp  "j  is  earned  fr"". -n  -  b^  o  -r^ 
and  afterwards  cut  away  by  ehildren.  Net  who  li  nas  men 
?or«  in    tTio   working     8    eonfided  to    laee-menders,    who 

;  .  V  r  place  the  damaged  meshes.  In  No'-^'-";:;';^ 
chief  ieaL.f  the  English  mnehiue-laee  trade,  in    .sfi    there 

verc  2^0  lace  manufacturers,  employing  -;-;';'"'f  "jj; 
endnecrs,  laeo-dressers.  sinreh-makers.  designer  ,  a..d 
drnu"h" men! besides  mfiW  female  operatives.  Phe  nm- 
rtraugnismiu.i'ii  Tisflni)-  the  wages  and  profits 

terials  used  cost  about  il.i  l.i.oo".  mi^  ""^  i 

came  to  £3,115,000,  and  the  net  returns  to  about  t,'..UO.OO0. 


English  machine-nel  was  formerly  smuggled  into  France. 
but  the  French  now  eicel  in  the  liner  kinds,  and  show  spe- 
cial taste  in  their  patterns.  Their  principal  lace-inakirg 
towns  are  Calais,  Camhrai.  l-yons,  »-t.  Omer.  Lillc  M. 
Ouentin.  and  Caen.  Embroidery  on  machine-net  is  done 
in  Paris.  Every  kind  of  piMowdace  is  imitated  Ijy  nui- 
ehinerv,  and  so  "aceuratelv  as  to  deceive  a  superficial  or 
ignorant  observer.  But  in  this,  as  in  all  work,  that  done 
by  hand,  even  though  faulty,  has  a  cJrrrocf,,-  which  no 
niachine  can  sujiply  ;  and  the  very  evenness  and  flatness  of 
"imitation  "lace  make  it  of  little  value  from  an  artistie 

point  of  view.  ■       m     \    . 

.1  Peguin's  new  work,  already  cited,  contains  fifty  brau- 
tifui  photographs  of  oi.lan.l  mo.lern  hand  made  lace.  //.«- 
(orvoV  r.uc;  F.  Burv  Palliser  (London.  M^C,-,.  8vo) ;  Ik^,./,:, 
for  lnrr-mal:l,,g,  Mrs.  Hailstone  (187(1.  fob):  V.  Touche, 
Thr  II.n„lhn„k  of  /'■>!:'!  Luce  (1871);  Gmpu,;-  d  Art, 
Madame  (ioubaud  (ISTO).  Janet  Titkf.v. 

>  Laco-Bark  Tree,  the  Lay,-Ua  Hutearta  «.  large  tree 
of  the  order  ThTmelaeca>,  growing  in  the  \\  est  In.Ues. 
Its  white  inner  bark,  after  maceration  in  fre.-h  water,  is 
stretched  out  into  a  material  curiously  resembling  coarse 
lace. 

Laceda-mon.  See  L.vconh  and  Spauta. 
I,accdo'gna[Lat.  .4 ,,,„7o"m],  town  of  Southern  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Avelliuo.  This  town  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated, and  is  of  much  historical  interest.  Like  so  many 
"rher  places  in  Italy,  it.s  neighborhood  abounds  i„  Roman 
antiquities.  The  cathedral  was  originally  a  temple  of  (ob- 
tor  and  Pollux.     Pop.  in  lH7t.  Ili:!2. 

Lac^-D^de,  de  (liKRXAitn  CrmiAiN  Ktiknne  m  i.a 
V,M  K  stMr.iu'os,,  CoiNT,  b.  at  Agcn  Dec.  26,  175fi :  early 
showed  great  fondness  for  music  and  for  physics  and  nat- 
ural seicMice;  went  to  Paris  in  177f.  under  the  patronage  of 
Buffon  and  the  musician  filuek  ;  became  sub-demon  trator 
in  the  Royal  Cabinet  1780;  member  of  'be  Institute  and 
nrofcssor  of  herpetology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory 17%  :  president  of  the  senate  1801  ;  was  grand  ehaii- 
cJL  of  the  Legion  ..f  Honor  Jsn.-M  ;  re.eii  ere.l  the 
chamber  of  peers  in  1819  :  d  at  Kj.inay  Oct.  fi.  18  >o.  H 
earlier  works  on  science  and  mus.e  are  unimportant ;  bis 
beat  works  are  m.to/re  „a,„r,ll.  de,  <,un,lrupr,h,  onjKirc. 
f,  ,lr^  ,crDr,il-,  (1788).  //;»»'.<■"  nnturclh  da,  reptde,  (1.^J|, 
^tVrc  L";,„.«c  ,L  poU.o,„  (1798-1803),  Uistoire  uatu- 
relle  dm  cdiieft  (1804). 

I.a'cewillO,  post-v.  of  Braintrim  tp..  Wyoming  Co., 
Pa     on  the  E.  branch  of  the  Susquehanna   River  and  on 
the'Lehigh  Valley  R.  R.,  2H  miles  N.  W.  of  lunkhannock. 
I.achaise'  (FnAsro.s  n'A.x).  b.  Aug.  25,  11124   at  the 
Ch-iteau  of  Aix,  France.    He  was  grand-nephew  <-nhe  cele- 
brated Father  Colon,  confessor  of  Eouis  \   11.  an,l  of  Henry 
IV  afterthe  latter's  abjuration.  Laehaise  ha.l  tlurelore  rap- 
idly risen  to  be  "  provincial  '•-that  is,  a  ^^^ ^^'^'''^^ ^^ 
he  .Tcsuitical  order.    In  1H7.'.  he  became  confessor  of  Louis 
XIV..  tolerated  the  many  mistresses  of  this  king   was  con- 
ce  ,  ei  in  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  N""  -•  >-;      ° 
persecution  of  Protestantism,  and   of   F/nelon   and  oth.r 
iberal    .relates  of  the  (iallicaii  Church.     Louis  X  H  .  enused 
o  be  built  f..r  Father  Laehaise  a  splendid  mansion  ,n  one 
:  o    the  eastern  suburbs  of  Paris.     In  1  <(V1  the  grounds  were 
chosen  as  a  fit  place  for  the  largest  eemeter.v  of  ''-r'^- »■  1,  eh 
is  known  as  the  •' Cimetifre  duPire  Laehaise.      D...in. 
1  20    170'!      He  wrote  in  Latin  a  book  on  philosophy,  le,,- 

^:Z,2r,.i;.  i,  J.r.,,i'.  being  an  ^^^^^^  "^ ^^^^^^'^ 
lectures,  and  some  academical  essays.    I'tLix  AiCAioNt.. 

'  I.afhambraiidie'  (PikuueI.  b.  at  Sarlat,  department 
of  lordogne.  in  180C,.  would  have  not  been  much  known  if 
he  Kid  not  been  mixed  up.  though  in  a  quite  sccondaiy  de- 
cree with  revolutionary  movements  iii  Iranec,  and  if  h,s 
falls  1  ad  not  reflected  some  of  the  .s,.eial,s  le  ideas  eur- 
re  t  inis:;0  and  1818.  Lachamb.audie  only  received  a 
„rin.V  instruction;    he  joined  the  St.  Simonians,  and 

lo,   Is  to  their  chief,  M.  Eufnnlin,  he  was  able  to  publish 
"/;,/.!'/•:.';':  ^  18.^9.     Though  very  lil.er«l  in  their 

eaehi.  gs.  their  m.iralily  was  so  appropriate  and  so  ,„..u,l 

bat  1.V  received  the  annual  pri^e  of  the  French  Academy. 
I8IS  during  the  Uevolulion.  and  at  the  time  of  lie 
,.',„„  d-ftni  (d-  Dee..  18.-,1.  Lachambeaudie  assoc.ated  with 
Esouiros.  Illanqui.  and  other  ultra  radicals.  In  .lune.  MS 
at-t?.  the  insuraction  of  .Tune,  he  was  released  H'rough  the 
enorls  ofB.-ranger;  and  in  18,',1  l,c  was  prevented  from 
being  transporte.1  to  Cayenne,  thanks  to  the  duke  of  Per- 

T;"v,  who'had  been  twenty  years  ago  his  rnend  and    o^ 
writer  for  ft  poetical  review  then  published  (IS  9)  in  tno 

depart"-"'  "'  '■"■'"■■     '""•'">■"'"■";•■'''■  '^"rv"'o     18  sTnd 
eeieration  under  Louis  Philippe,  the  republic  of  I»18.  ""1 
f,„.     uipirc.  what  B^ranger  had  been  for  Fre.Kdimen^n.^^^^ 
the  Restoration. 


IGOO 


L  ACH  ES— LACLEDE. 


Lach'es  [Old  Fr.  McAt-Mc,  from  Fr. /(icXc,  "  negligence ;'* 
Lat.  la^us^  '•  loose,"  "  lax  "],  a  term  employed  in  law  to  de- 
note negligence,  remi;ssae^8,  or  UDreasunablo  delnj  in  en- 
forcing or  attempting  to  enforce  a  legal  ur  equitable  right  or 
claim.  It  is  most  commonly  used  with  reference  to  claims 
arising  in  a  court  of  equity  which  are  not  affected  by  an  ex- 

?ress  statute  of  limitations.  (See  Limitatioss,  Stati'Ti;  of.) 
t  is  a  rule  of  equity  not  to  encourage  stale  demands  or  give 
relief  to  parties  who  sleep  upon  their  rights.  A  clnim  must 
bo  us.-icrted  with  reasonable  diligence,  in  order  that  the  in- 
terests of  other  parties  may  not  be  unduly  prejudiced  by  the 
diffioulty  of  procuring  the  necessary  evidence  nfter  a  long 
interval  has  elapsed.  In  the  case  of  legal  titles  and  leiral 
dfinands,  however,  courts  of  equity  usually  act  in  obedience 
to  the  statute  of  limitations,  in  conformity  with  the  prac- 
tice of  courts  of  law.  In  some  States,  also,  there  arc 
special  statutes  of  limitations  applying  to  equitable  causes 
of  action.  But  where  this  is  not  the  ca^e,  and  a  demand 
is  striotly  of  nn  equitable  character,  the  statute  of  liuiita- 
tions  applying  to  legal  actions  is  not  an  absolute  bar  in 
equity  as  at  law,  though  it  is  frequently  followed  in  analo- 
gous cases.  But  where  the  analogies  of  the  law  do  not  ap- 
ply, a  court  of  equity  is  governed  by  its  own  inherent  doc- 
trine of  discountenancing  stale  demands.  What  shall  be 
deemed  an  unreasonable  delay  is  not  determined  by  any 
precise  and  definite  rule,  but  must  depend  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances of  each  particular  case.  A  long  delay  which 
would  ordinarily  be  deemed  laches  may  be  excused  when  a 
party  is  in  ignorance  of  his  rights,  without  any  fault  or  re- 
missness on  his  part:  when  a  transaction  is  involved  in 
obscurity,  so  that  information  in  regard  to  it  cannot  be  ob- 
tained ;  when  he  was  under  duress  or  undue  influence  which 
prevented  him  from  asserting  his  rights;  or  where  he  labors 
under  a  legal  disability,  as  insanity,  coverture,  infancy,  and 
the  like.  Poverty  or  pecuniary  embarrnssmeut,  however,  is 
not  a  sufficient  excuse  for  delay.  (See  Kerr  on  Fraud  and 
MUf'd-e,  pp.  :i0.'i-.312,  Am.  ed.) 

(teorge  Chase.     Reviseb  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Lach'esis  [(ir.,  the  name  of  one  of  the  Fates],  the  Cran- 
pcdnrejihaluH  Lnchen'iH  or  Lachesis  mutus,  one  of  the  most 
dreaded  of  the  venomous  serpents  of  tropical  America, 
called  bushmastcr,  curucucu,  and  couanacouchi.  It  has 
been  known  to  exceed  twenty  feet  in  length,  is  partly  ar- 
boreal in  its  habits,  and  often  attacks  man  with  the  greatest 
fury.  Its  poison  is  very  deadly,  and  when  greati}'  diluted 
constitutes  a  favorite  remedy  with  homocopathists. 

Lachine'  [Fr.  for  "  China,"  so  named  by  the  early  ex- 

?lorers,  who  hoped  to  reach  China  by  passing  up  the  St. 
,awrencej,  a  v.  of  Jacques  Cartier  co.,  Quebec,  Canada,  on 
Montreal  Island.  A  ship-canal  S\  miles  long  extends  from 
Machine  to  Montreal  harltor,  and  surmounts  the  Lachinc 
Rapids.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  ]\Iontreal,9  miles  dis- 
tant, and  by  steam-ferry  with  Caughnawaga  across  the 
river.     It  is  a  thriving  place.     Pop.  IGKfi. 

La'chish,  a  city  in  Southern  Palestine,  among  the 
mountains  separating  the  territory  of  Judah  from  the  She- 
phcluh,  or  plain  of  the  Philistines.  It  was  an  almost  im- 
pregnable hill-fortress,  as  its  name  probably  signified,  but 
was  taken  and  partially  destroyed  by  Joshua  and  fortified 
by  Uohoboam.  It  resisted  for  a  long  time  the  assaults  of 
the  Assyrian  army  under  Sennacherib,  and  the  biblical  ac- 
counts afford  no  indication  that  it  was  taken  ;  but  auKmg 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  discoverccl  by  Layard  at  Kou- 
yunjik  several  were  carved  on  large  slabs  representing  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Lnkhlfthn,  giving  a  ground-plan  of 
the  fortress,  and  a  picture  of  a  procession  of  Jewish  cap- 
tives from  the  same  place  appearing  before  Sennacherib. 
Tliis  interesting  discovery  has  given  rise  to  much  discus- 
sinii.  I,achish  was  afterwards  taken  by  XeVtuchadnezzar  at 
the  dnwafall  of  the  kingdom  of  .Tudah.  Its  rnins  have  been 
id -ntified  by  Raumer,  Van  dc  Velde.  and  Thomson  with 
the  modern  village  Vm-LakiH,  on  a  round  knoll  covered 
with  heaps  of  stones,  on  the  left  of  the  road  between  Gaza 
and  Hebron.  Other  geographers,  however,  question  the 
correctness  of  this  idcntilieation. 

Lach'lailf  a  river  of  East  Australia,  rises  in  Xew  South 
Wales  joins  the  Murrumhidgce  in  ^i°  .10'  S.  lat.  and  14-1° 
10'  E.  Inn.,  and  after  400  miles  enters  the  Murray. 

Lach'mann  (Karl).  D.  D.,  LL.D.,  h.  at  Brunswick, 
Germany.  Mar.  4,  170.1;  studied  at  the  universities  of  Lcip- 
sic  and  Gottingen;  founded  at  the  latter  a  philological 
society  in  union  with  Bunsen  and  Schulzo  ;  entered  the 
army  as  a  volunteer  in  1S1;J,  and  served  in  the  Waterloo 
ciimpaign  :  became  professor  extraordinarv  at  Kiinigsberg 
in  ISIS  and  at  Berlin  in  Is20;  ordinary  professor  in  1828, 
nnd  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  18;tfl,  remain- 
ing at  Berlin  until  his  death,  Mar.  1.1,  18.>1.  His  life  was 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  critical  editions  of  the 
classics,  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  masterpieces  of 
early  German  literature.     lie  published  an   eseny  On  the 


primitive  Form  nf  the  Poem  nf  the  XilirltnttfCn  Koth  (1816), 
translations  of  Shakspeare's  Sninifts  and  Macbeth  (1820\ 
critical  editions  of  the  yifnlnnf/cufifd  (182(i),  Walter  ron 
der  Vo(/ehceide  (1827).  Ctttutdnt,  Tifmlhi/i,  and  Pmpcrtiiis 
( 1829),  ]r*.//nfm  von  Eacheub'nh  (18;io).  Vlrivh  von  Lichten- 
titein  (1841*),  Caina  (1841),  liubriun  uud  Arimiun  (1S4.'>), 
Studies  on  the  Hind  (1847).  LucretiuH  (I8j0),  and  edited 
Lcssing'e  com]>lete  works  (13  vols.,  1838-40),  besides  nu- 
merous studies  upon  classical  and  early  German  philology 
and  literature.  His  great  work,  however,  was  his  edition 
of  the  (Jreek  text  of  the  New  Testament  (18.11),  the  first 
which  had  any  pretensions  to  be  called  critical,  and  wliich 
is  not  yet  entirely  superseded  by  the  labors  of  Tischcndorf. 
His  readings  were  taken  from  a  limited  number  of  the 
earliest  codices,  from  the  citations  of  Origen.  Irena'us.  Cyp- 
rian, and  the  earliest  Fathers,  from  the  friigmentg  of  the 
Latin  versions  previous  to  the  Vulgate  text,  which  was  re- 
printed at  the  foot  of  the  page.  (See  hie  Biography,  by 
Hcrz.  Berlin,  1851.) 

Lach'rymiP  Chris'ti  [Eat..  "  Chrir^fs  tears  "],  a  sweet 
but  very  spirited  wine  of  the  group  called  muscatel,  has  a 
fine  bouquet,  is  produced  chiefly  upon  Monte  Somraa.  near 
Naples,  in  Italy.  It  is  white  (sometimes  red),  and  of  me- 
dium alcoholic  strength.  Large  quantities  of  wine  from  the 
Levant  and  Southern  Italy  are  soM  as  Lachrymm  Christi. 

Lach'rymal  Gland,  or^Tear  Gland,  the  organ  in 
man  and  other  animals  which  jtroduces  tears.  In  man  it 
is  of  the  shape  and  size  of  an  almond,  and  is  found  above 
the  outer  angle  of  the  eye.  Its  secretion  is  discharged  by 
some  seven  duets  into  the  space  between  the  eyeball  and  the 
lid.  At  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye  may  he  seen  two  snmll 
apertures  through  which  the  supply  of  lachrymal  secretion 
is  taken  up  by  the  lachrymal  cnnals.  passed  into  the  lachry- 
mal sac.  and  thence,  through  the  nasal  duct,  into  the  nose. 

Lach'rymatory  [Lat.  tafri/mn.  a  "  tear"],  a  popular 
name  fnr  the  supposed  "  tear-bottles  "  of  the  ancients,  small 
glass  or  earthen  vessels  found  in  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
tombs.  That  they  ever  really  contained  the  tears  of  mourn- 
ing friends  is  probably  fabulous. 

Lack,  tp.  of  Juniata  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1290. 

Lackauan'na,  or  Lackawannock,  a  small  river 
in  Pennsylvania,  rises  in  Susquehanna  co.,  near  the  N.  E. 
corner  of  the  State,  flows  S.  W,  through  Luzerne  co.,  and 
enters  the  Susquehanna  River  at  Pittstou.  its  lower  course 
for  .10  miles  passes  through  the  larj^est  and  most  abundant 
anthracite  coal-basin  in  America,  to  which  it  gives  name. 
though  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Wyominj:  basin.  The 
chief  emporium  of  this  basin  is  Scranton.  formerly  called 
Lackawanna.  A  large  portion  of  the  anthracite  coal  nsed 
in  New  York  City  and  in  the  New  England  States  is  fur- 
nished by  this  coalfield,  which  has  an  area  of  108  square 
miles,  and  a  thickness  of  from  5  to  14  feet  at  a  depth  vary- 
ing from  100  to  400  feet  beneath  the  surface.  The.annual 
production,  including  the  Wyoming  Valley  as  n  part  ol  the 
same  field,  is  over  10.000.000  tons,  and  furnishes  constant 
freight  to  several  railways,  with  very  numerous  branch 
lines.  Next  to  Scranton.  Wilkesbarre,  Pittston,  and  Car- 
bondale  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  mining  industry. 

Larkawanna,  post-v,  and  tp.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pa..  3 
miles  S.  W.  of  Hyde  Park.      Pop.  .5i;i3, 

Larkawan'nock,  former  tji.  of  ^ferccr  co.,  Pa.,  now 
called  West  Laekawannock.     Poji.  1070. 

Lackawax'en,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Pike  co.,  Pa.,  on  the 
Erie  R.  R..  at  the  junction  of  the  Honrsdale  branch,  and 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Lackawanna  River  with  the  Dela- 
ware, here  crossed  by  railroad  and  canal,  the  latter  being 
carried  over  by  a  suspension  aqueduct.     Pop.  17;'f7. 

Laclede'  (formerly  Kinderhook),  county  of  S.  W.  Cen- 
tral Missouri.  Area,  about  690  squnre  miles.  It  is  a  rough, 
broken  region,  with  fertile  valleys  and  deposits  of  iron  and 
lead.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  R.  R. 
Tobacco,  cattle,  and  grain  are  leading  products.  Cap. 
Lebanon.     Pop. 9380. 

Laclede,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Fayette  co..  III.,  on  the 
Illinois  Central  R.  R..  34  miles  N.  E.  of  Centralia.  Pop. 
of  V.  1;.9:  of  Ip.  1242. 

Laclede,  post-v.  of  Linn  co..  Mo.,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Hannibal  and  St.  Josopli  and  tlio  Uurlington  and  South- 
western R.  Rs.,  97  miles  E.  of  St.  Jo.-^cph.  has  2  churches, 
3  hotels,  1  flouring-mill,  a  fine  brick  school-house,  1  weelily 
newspaper,  and  20  stores,  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  farming 
eouniry.  and  ships  large  quantities  of  grain.  Coal  is  abun- 
dant in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  about  1000. 

W.  J.  Porter,  for  En.  "LAci.EnE  Reitblicak." 

Ijacl&de  (Pierre  Ligteste).  the  foumler  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  a  native  of  France,  was  in  1762  a  resident  of  New 
Orleans,  when  he  established  the  Louisiana  Fur  Company 
under  a  charter  from  the  director-general  of  the  colony, 


LACMUS— LA  CROSSE. 


1601 


f^ivinf^  it  the  exclusive  right  of  trading  with  the  Indiana  on 
the  Missouri.  The  pioneers  under  his  direction  made  the 
first  setllement  un  the  site  of  St.  Louit*  Feb.  \o.  IT'il,  erect- 
ing a  largo  house  and  four  storeri,  and  named  the  place  in 
honor  of  L'»uis  XV.,  then  king  of  France. 

Lacmiis.     .Sec  Litmls. 

La'con,  po>-t-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Marshall  co..  III.,  on  tho 
Illinois  Kiver  :ind  a  branch  of  the  Chicago  and  .St.  Louis 
K.  K.,  I.IO  miles  .S.  W.  of  Chicago,  has  7  churches,  1  bank, 
1  weekly  newspaper,  a  court-house  and  jail,  a  sliawl-niill. 
3  flouriug-niitis,  a  distiller}*,  and  several  hotel?,  store?,  and 
Fhops.  Large  quantities  of  grain  arc  .-^hipped  from  this 
place.     Pop.  of  V,  2105:  of  tp.  LM4H. 

."^rKXCEU  ElLSWOHTII.  Ei>.  "  HoMK  JnCRNAL,*' 

Laco'na,  po?t-v.  of  Sandy  Creek  tp.,  O.^wegoco.,  X.  Y., 
near  Lake  Ontario,  is  the  N.  terminus  of  the  Syracuse 
Northern  U,  K.,  and  is  oa  the  Rome  Watcrtowu  and  Og- 
dcnsburg  K.  K. 

Laco'nia^  or  LaccdiPmoiif  the  southernmost  division 
of  the  ancient  Peloponnesus,  was  boun<led  W.  by  .Messenia, 
N.  by  Arcadia  and  Argolip.  and  E.  and  S.  by  the  Argolinn 
Gulf,  the  Myrtoan  Sea,  tho  Laconian  and  Messeniau  (lulfs. 
To  the  S.  it  ended  in  the  two  promontories  of  T:euarus  and 
Malea,  the  present  Cape  Matapan  and  Cape  Malio.  To  tho 
Laconian  Gulf  flowed  the  Eurotns.  on  whose  banks  was 
tho  capital  of  Laconia,  Sparta  {which  see). 

Lacouia,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Belknap  co.,  N.  11. 
(partly  in  Gilford  tp.),  28  miles  N.  of  Concord  and  102 
N.  of  IJoston,  upon  the  Winnipiseogee  Itiver,  between  the 
lake  of  that  name  ami  Grand  Cay,  and  on  the  Boston  Con- 
cord and  Montreal  R.  R.,  is  a  flourishing  manufiicturing 
village,  having  7  hosiery-mills,  1  flannel-mill,  an  extensive 
car  manufactory,  1  weekly  newspaper,  6  churches,  2  hotels, 
.1  banks,  numerous  stores,  and  various  minor  industries. 
The  views  of  lake  and  mountains  are  picturesque.  Pop.  of 
tp.  2:iO'j.  0.  A.  J.  Vai  GRAN,  Ed.  "DrMomAT." 

liaconlaire'  (  Jeam  Bai-tiste  Henri),  b.  May  12,  1S02, 
at  Uecey-sur-Ourco,  in  the  department  of  Cote  d'Or;  stud- 
ied law  at  Dijon,  and  went  in  1821  to  Paris,  where  a  bril- 
liant career  seemed  to  open  for  him  as  an  advocate.  But 
suddenly  he  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpiee;  was  or- 
diiined  a  priest  in  IS27  ;  became  preaclicr  at  the  ColK'go  do 
Henri  IV.  in  ls;iO;  and  founded  tho  journal  L'Arcnir  in 
connection  with  Lamcnnais  and  Montalembert.  His  stand- 
point was  a  most  singular  combination  of  ultmmontanism 
in  religion  and  radicalism  in  politics,  and  the  tone  of  Wxa 
sermons  and  articK'S  was  extremely  violfiit.  Summoned 
before  the  civil  court,  ho  was  acquitted,  but  when  tho  popo 
in  1832  denounced  his  ideas,  he  immediately  retracted  and 
submitted.  In  Is.'JS  he  began  his  celebrated  cm/rrenctH  in 
Nutre  Oame,  which  drew  immense  audiences,  and  in  1812 
he  onleretl  the  order  of  the  Dominicans.  In  184H  ho  was  a 
member  of  tho  Constituent  Assembly,  though  without  exer- 
cising any  influence,  and  after  1853 — in  which  year  he  was 
orclered  to  leave  Paris  on  account  of  one  of  his  ultramon- 
tane-radical sermons  —  ho  lived  in  retirement  at  Korfizo, 
where  ho  d.  Xtiv.  22,  IStil.  Besides  his  C»jii/4rence€  tin 
Xtitre  Dame  ilc  l\iri%  {\  volfl.,  1 8 1-1-5 1),  he  wrote  Vie  de 
St.  Dominiifun  (1810;  new  ed.  1858),  Leftrm  it  un  Jenne 
i/itmmtt  ( I85M),  iJiscoum  mir  le  Droit  et  le  Omtir  dp  la  Pro- 
ju'ifif  (1858),  etc. — His  brother,  Jean  TiihionoRE,  b.  at 
Recoy-8ur-Oureo  Feb.  1,  1801  ;  studied  law  at  Dijon  ;  after- 
wards dr-TOterl  himF^elf  to  natural  science;  ma<le  four  voy- 
a:;efl  to  South  America  between  1825  and  1 8;i2,  exploring 
Bra7.il,  tho  Argentine  Uepublie.  and  Chili:  travelled  in 
Senegal  ;  became  cilitor  of  tho  Trmp^  (18.'12),  in  18.15  pro- 
fessor of  loology.  and  in  1838  of  comparative  anatomy  in 
the  Tniversily  of  Lii'-ge,  Belgium;  \Trote  several  valuable 
works  on  natural  history  and  entomology,  and  d.  at  Li^'^go 
An:;.  :il,  1870. 

Lac'qiier  [from  Lap  (which  sec)],  a  varni>*h,  transpa- 
rent or  coIorc<l,  for  covering  wood,  papier-maeb/',  U-atber, 
or  metal.  It  is  of  many  kinds.  In  most  of  them  lac  is  an 
im]>ortant  ingredient.  Annofto  and  <lragon*s  blood  give  red 
tints,  nnd  gamboge,  aloes,  etc.,  yellow.  Larqucrs,  well  ma<le 
nnd  I'kilfully  npplied,  will  take  a  high  polish  and  withslnn'l 
lH»t  aii'l  etdd  water,  and  even  alcohol.  The  Jnpancso  and 
ChiiieHo  excel  in  the  art. 

\tt\v  qui  Parle,  ennnty  of  Minnesota,  boiin<led  W.  by 
Dakota  and  N.  K.  by  Minnesota  River.  It  is  traversed  by 
LiK?  i(ui  Parle  iind  numerous  other  streamn,  und  is  adiiplfd 
to  grain-culture.  Cap.  Lac  qui  Parle.  Pop.  1-15;  it  has 
greatly  increased  since  the  census. 

Lac  i\\\\  Parle,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap,  of  Lac  qui  Pnrlo 
CO.,  .Minn.,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Infpab  or  Lac  f|ui  Parle 
River,  about  2  miles  above  its  confluence  with  lh<'  Minne- 
sota. The  first  house  was  built  in  1870;  it  now  (1875)  has 
a  newspaper  and  all  the  usual  necompaninn-nls  of  a  grow- 
ing town.  It  is  on  tho  line  of  the  projected  Hastings  and 
Vor.  11.    -111! 


Dakota  R.  R..  miilway  between  the  St.  Paul  and  Pacific 
R.  R.  on  the  N.,  and  the  Winona  and  St.  Peter  on  the  S. 
It  has  a  large  school,  1  hotel,  and  1  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  of  tp.  307.  C.  J.  Co«HLAN,  El>.  "  PUFSS." 

La  Crescent',  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Houston  cc,  Minn., 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  opposite  La  Crosse,  Wis.  It  is 
the  E.  terminus  of  the  Southern  Minnesota  R.  R.     Pop. 

of  V.  380;  of  tp.  yr.i. 

Lacretelle'  (PieuhPv  Louis),  b.  at  Mctz  in  1751  ;  prac- 
tised law,  first  ut  Nancy,  and  then,  from  1778.  at  Paris, 
where  he  lived  in  intimate  connection  with  Malesherbes 
and  Laharpc.  Uncler  the  Revolution  took  part,  though 
with  great  moderation  and  cautiousness,  in  all  the  jirinci- 
pal  political  movements,  but  after  ISOI  lived  in  retirement. 
I'nderthe  Restoration  belonged  to  the  opposition,  and  his 
Mrrriirr  d'-  Frattrc  nnd  Minerrr  Fi'nnrfn'n,  published  in  con- 
nection with  S»'gur  and  Benjamin  Constant,  were  succes- 
sively suppressed.  I).  Sept.  5,  1S24.  Besides  a  number  of 
juridical  and  political  works,  he  wrote  Pfn-fraitu  rt  Ta^ 
fdraxr,  Etudes  eur  ht  lirtofuti'ni  Fraiiraiitf.  and  MrASfn'r^ea 
<y  MahfhrrhrH,  which  arc  of  great  interest  to  the  student 
of  the  history  of  that  period. 

Lacretelle,  de  (Jean  CiiAni.Es  DoHiNigrE),  b.  at 
Metz,  France.  Sept.  3,  17ti6:  studied  at  the  College  of 
Nancy:  was  admitted  to  tho  bar  at  the  age  of  eighteen; 
wrote  at  Nancy  a  tragedy  and  several  academic  essays  ; 
went  to  Paris  in  1787  ;  assisted  his  brother  Pierre  in  writ- 
ing for  the  Enryrlnpfdic  MMhoditjuf  ;  became  an  editor  of 
the  .J>>urn(if  den  Dflmtn.  fur  which  ho  reptn-ted  the  sessions 
of  tho  National  Assembly;  became  in  17iMI  secretary  to  tlio 
due  de  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  with  whom  he  was  ns- 
aociat<'<l  in  the  project  of  favoring  tho  king's  escope  ;  made 
himself  popular  ns  an  advocate  of  the  constitution  at  tho 
Club  des  Feuillants  ;  wrote  the  most  extensively  circulated 
account  of  the  execution  of  Louis  XVT.  ;  was  associated 
with  .Aiidrr-  Chrnicr  in  editing  the  Jnuniaf  dr  Pnriti  ;  ex- 
erted himself  in  speeches  and  with  the  pen  to  save  tho 
Girondins  from  the  popular  wrath  ;  was  accused  of  being  a 
royalist,  arrested  after  a  long  residence  at  Kpinay,  and  kept 
in  prison  two  years  (1797-09);  became  ]trofeseor  of  history 
in  Paris  18011,  imperial  censor  1810,  was  admitted  to  tho 
Academy  in  I8II,  nnd  ennobled  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1S22. 
Ho  remained  professor  of  history  for  thirty-six  years,  and 
wrote  eight  valuable  histories,  covering  all  the  period  from 
tlio  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  to  184C,  and  several  earlier 
periods.     D.  at  M^lcou  Mar.  2fi,  1855. 

La  Croix,  tp.  of  Emmet  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Michigan. 
Pop.  oo;;. 

Lacroix'  (Paitl).  b.  at  Paris.  France.  Feb.  27.  180(^; 
was  educated  at  the  ColK-ge  Bourbon,  and  has  written,  un- 
der the  pseudonym  of  **  Le  bibliophile  Jacob,"  a  vast  num- 
ber of  ronnuu'es  and  works  of  curious  learning  about  the 
books,  the  history,  manners,  and  custoiris  of  the  Middle 
Ages ;  distinguished  himself  by  his  efVorts  to  improve 
tho  Biblioth^'|uo  du  Uol ;  was  apjiointed  in  1855  conserva- 
tour  of  tho  .Arsenal  Library,  and  has  edited  since  1851  the 
Jlerue  Unirerinlle  des  Arta.  His  best  works  are  probably 
tho  Arts  (in  moifiu  /J;/e  rt  (1  r/p'itptr  tie  la  liennissauce  {  ISHSI, 
Mfpurs,  umnftH  ft  rOHtnmiH  tui  mnyin  rf'/c,  etc.,  with  4-1 1  phltcS 
(1871).  and  /-*(  riv  mi/itotn-  rt  fa  vir  refii/ieime  nu  vioi/cn 
bffr  (1872).  which  have  all  been  tran.'-luled  into  English. — 
liis  wife,  Ai'oi.iJNK  Bii-'KK.  has  written  some  popular  novels  : 
and  his  brother,  Jn.fs.  b.  in  Paris  May  7.  iNO'.i.  has  had 
success  as  a  writer  of  dramas  and  as  u  trnnslutor,  imitator, 
and  critic  of  Sbakspeare.  His  (Kdi/ni»  /ur.  a  translation 
from  Sophocles,  was  succfssfully  produced  on  tho  stage  in 
1858,  and  received  in  18G2  from  llic  French  Academy  a 
grand  prix  of  10,000  francs. 

Lacroix  (Siivksthk  Francois),  b.  nt  Paris  in  1765; 

becnuH'  professor  of  nialheunities  nt  the  nmrino  schitol  of 

Boeh<forl   in  1782,  held^subsecincntly  the  same  nosition  at 

the  normal  school,  the  Keolo  I'olytechnique.  Sorlmnne,  and 

!  ('(db'ge  de    France,   and  d.  at    Paris   May  25,  1843.      |i;» 

I  noble  cbaractor.  instructive  lectures,  and  very  useful  hand- 

I   bonks,  bcsifles  Trnite  du  Cutiul  di(f/rrutir{  rf  iufr;fral,  made 

him  (juite  a  popular  man,  ami  on  tho  re-eslablislimcnt  of 

the  Academy  under  XapoIe(ui   he  was  one  of  the  very  few 

of  the  i>riginal  members  living. 

La  CroNMC,  the  "national  sport"  of  Cnnadn,  a  field- 
game  of  Indian  origin.  The  players  have  a  misxr — a  hick- 
ory rod  some  six  fed  long,  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  bisliop's 
pastoral  ern»»k  ;  aerojm  the  crooked  part  leather  thongs  aro 
stretched  in  a  network.  There  is  a  rubber  ball  some  three 
inches  in  diameter.  Tho  object  of  each  of  the  two  par- 
ties in  the  game  is  to  send  the  ball  over  the  goal  of  Iho 
other  party.  Tho  ball  in  not  thrown,  but  carricl  on  the 
rrits^r.  It  may.  if  necessary,  be  thrown  froni  one  plnycr 
to  another,  but  is  not  to  he  touched  by  the  band. 

IjO  Crosse,  county  in  the  W.  of  Wisoonsin,  bounded 


1G02 


LA   CROSSE— LA   CYGNE. 


on  the  "W.  by  the  Mississippi  River.  Area,  450  square 
miles.  It  is  tltversified,  generally  fertile,  and  i?  traversed 
by  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  K.  H.  (La  Crosse  division). 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc  leading  products,  t'ap.  La 
Crosse.     Pop.  20,297. 

La  Crosse,  post-v.  of  Izard  co..  Ark.,  30  miles  N.  \V. 
of  Batc.-iville,  has  one  weekly  newspaper. 

La  Crosse,  city  and  cap.  of  La  Crosse  co.,  Wis.,  100 
miles  W.  of  Milwaukee,  is  finely  located  on  the  E.  bank  "(' 
the  Mississippi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Black  River  from  llio 
N.  and  the  La  Crosse  River  from  the  K..  the  former  trib- 
utary having  an  annual  lumber  product  of  260,000,000  feet, 
and  the  latter  draining  one  of  the  finest  farming  valleys  of 
the  State.  Opposite  in  Minnesota  is  the  Root  River  Valley, 
a  brge  and  rich  agricultural  section,  which  is  pierced  for 
200  miles  by  the  Southern  Minnesota  K.  R..  of  which  La 
Crosse  is  the  cistern  terminus.  The  main  commercial  sup- 
])ort  of  La  Crosse  is  derived  from  the  Black  River  lumber 
and  wholesale  trade  with  Southern  Minnesota.  The  Chi- 
c^igo  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  and  the  Chicago  Dubuque  and 
Minnesota  R.  Us.  connect  with  the  East,  North,  and  South. 
La  Crosse  has  L'l  church  buildings  (worth  §300,000),  3 
banks.  2  daily,  a  weekly  (1  German  and  I  Norwegian),  and 
3  monthly  newspaper.^.  3  school-buildings  worth  $15,000 
each,  and  4  others  of  wood,  a  library  association  with 
2.3011  voltimes,  a  fine  court-house  {cost  $40,000),  where  the 
U.  S.  courts  for  the  western  district  of  Wisconsin  meet 
twice  ayear,  an  opera-house,  acustom-house  with  the  largest 
registry  of  tonnage  between  St.  Louis  and  St.  Paul.  0  steam  ' 
saw-mills,  2  steam  flouring-mills.  an  extensive  machine-  ' 
shop  {cost  SfiO.OOd)  and  several  smaller  ones,  ■>  agricultural 
implcnont  factories,  the  largest  yard  above  St.  Louis  for 
building  steamboats,  j  large  breweries,  and  20  wholesale 
firms.  The  assessed  valuation  is  §3.000,000.  Pop.  in  ]870, 
77Soj  by  State  census  of  iS7o,  11.012. 

E.  B.  Usher,  Ed.  "  Liberal  Democrat." 

Lac  Surphuris  {milk  »/  milphnr),  finely  divided  sul- 
phur, precipitated  by  acids  from  solutions  of  alkaline  and 
alkaline*earthy  persulphides.  {See  Stlphur.) 

Lactan'tius  (FiRMiANrs).one  of  the  Christian  Fathers, 
b.  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  either  at  Firmum, 
Italy,  or  In  Africa ;  studied  rhetoric  at  Sicca  in  Proconsular 
Africa;  became  a  distinguished  orator,  and  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time.  At  the  invitation  of  the  emperor 
Diocletian  he  settled  at  Nicomedia  as  professor  of  Latin 
eloquence  (301),  became  a  Christian,  and  having  been  a 
witness  of  the  persecutions  of  the  times,  wrote  his  works 
in  defence  of  tiie  new  religion.  lie  was  called  by  the  em- 
peror Constantine  to  Treves  as  tutor  to  his  son  Crispus, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  d.  there  about  32j.  Lactantius 
was  called  the  "Christian  Cicero;"  ho  wrote  an  important 
work,  Divinnrum  fiiatitutiontim  libri  VII. ,  and  smaller 
treatises,  iJc  Ira  D*i  and  De  Opijtrio  Ihi,  vcl  Formatione 
Hominis.  The  famous  work  on  the  death  of  persecutors 
( Dc  Mortibua  I'rrnccuti>nim ),  attributed  in  the  only  existing 
manuscript  to  a  Lucius  Coelius  or  C:eeilius  Lactantius,  is 
now  generally  thought  to  belong  to  a  later  date,  perhaps  to 
another  Lactantius,  as  the  best  authorities  never  give  those 
names  to  Firmianus.  The  first  edition  of  Lactantius  was 
printed  at  the  monastery  of  Subiaco  in  14(15,  being  one  of 
the  iirst  specimens  of  the  typographical  art.  The  best 
editions  are  those  of  ]^e  lirun  and  Lcnglet  du  Frcsnoy  (2 
vols.,  4to,  Paris,  174H),  and  by  Fritzsche  (Leipsic,  1842-44, 
2  parts).  Two  other  editions  were  printed  at  Rome  iu 
140S  and  1470, 

Lac'teals  [Lat.  lac^  iactis,  "milk"],  the  lymphatic 
vessels  of  the  small  intestine,  a  part  of  the  general  ab- 
sorbent or  lymphatic  system,  pervading  all  parts  of  the 
body,  distinguished  as  lacteals,  since  they  imbibe  from  the 
glandular  mucous  surface  of  the  pmall  intestine,  following 
the  ingestion  of  fatty  food,  a  milky,  white,  opaque  fluid, 
"the  chyle."  The  chyle  is  fat  digested  by  the  pancreatic 
and  biliary  fluids,  reduced  to  an  emulsion,  molecular  par- 
ticles of  fatty  matter  suspended  in  an  albuminoid  liquid. 
The  laoteals  take  up  the  chyle,  traverse  the  mesentery,  and 
terminate,  by  two  or  throe  small  trunks,  in  the  thoracic 
duct,  iiero  the  eliyle  mingles  with  the  more  watery,  opales- 
cent lymph,  and  with  it  passes  up  to  enter  the  left  sub- 
clavian vein, and  becomes  a  nutritive  element  of  the  blood. 
(See  LvMPiiATics.)  E.  Darwin  Hi  dson,  Jr. 

Lac'lic  .\cid  [Ger.  MUch^llure:  Fr.  acide  hctique^, 
acid'-  tuincaiffnc  of  Braeonnot :  the  acid  which  is  formed  in 
milk  when  it  turns  sour,  and  which  exists  ihercfuro  in  but- 
termilk. It  is  CslIeOs,  and  is  formed  from  lactose  or  milk- 
sugar,  as  follows : 

Ci^HwOio  +  2H2O  =  4CsIl603. 
The  souring  of  milk  is  not  therefore  a  process  of  oxidation, 
but,  like  the  vinous  fermentation  of  sucrose  or  glucose,  a 
molecular  breaking  up  into  simpler  molecular  structures; 


lactic  acid,  like  alcohol  in  the  other  case,  being  an  inter- 
mediate product  of  decay  or  dissolution.  Sucrose  under- 
goes the  lactic  fermentation  like  lactose,  under  the  influ- 
ence or  impulse  of  the  same  special  ferments. 

The  names  of  Scheele,  Braconnot,  Bcrzelius,  Liebig.  and 
other  great  chemists  arc  associated  in  the  early  history  of 
the  discovery  of  lactic  acid  and  the  extended  controversies 
that  grew  out  of  it.  Braconnot  found  it  in  sour  beer,  sour 
meal,  sour  beet-juice,  fermented  rice,  and  many  other  places, 
and,  supposing  it  new,  culled  it  imttf  iv  ucid,  after  his  birth- 
place. Nancy.  Berzelius  appears  first  to  have  announced 
that  it  occurs  as  a  normal  constituent  of  flesh,  deducing  im- 
portant physiologiciil  conclusions.  Liebig  denied  its  oc- 
currence in  flesh,  but  afterwards  found  therein  garcnfacfic 
iiciti,  an  ispmere  or  metamere  of  lactic  acid,  which  Strecker 
found  to  be  convertible  into  ordinary  lactic  acid  by  heat. 
Mitscherlich  first  prepared  pure  lactic  acid  by  decompos- 
ing lactate  of  zinc  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  A  color- 
less syrupy  liquid:  deliquescent;  docs  not  freeze  at  12'' 
below  zero  F. :  density  =  1.215.  It  appears  strangely  like 
Qhfcrrine,  Call803,  in  its  properties,  though  intensely  sour, 
while  the  latter  is  intensely  sweet. 

Lactic  acid  has  been  produced  by  many  artificial  chem- 
ical transformations:  probably  the  most  interesting  being 
that  of  Lippmaun.  who  formed  it  by  synthesis,  by  combin- 
ing olofiant  gas  and  oxychloride  of  carbon,  which  gives 
parulactifUc  cfiforif/e: 

COCI2  +  CalU  =  CsHiCIaO. 
This,  with  alkalies,  gives  salts  of  paralactic  or  Liebig's 
sarcolactic  acid,  which  then,  by  heat,  as  aforesaid,  will  give 
us  the  ordinary  lactic  acid  of  buttermilk. 

Several  methods  of  manufacture  are  given.  One  is  to 
mix  6  pounds  of  cane-sugar  with  one  half  ounce  of  tar- 
taric acid  {to  convert  it  into  glucose),  and  after  forty-eight 
hours  to  add  3  pounds  of  prepared  chalk  and  4  ounces  of 
roftrn  curd,  which  latter  ferments  the  glucose  to  lactic 
acid.  Stir  the  mass  daily  in  a  warm  jdace  {00°  F.).  In  a 
week  or  so  it  becomes  a  paste  of  lactate  of  lime,  which  is 
dissolved  by  boiling  in  water  with  some  hydrate  of  lime. 
The  lactate  must  be  evaporated,  pressed,  washed  with  cold 
water,  and  pressed  repeatedly  for  purification,  tlien  decom- 
posed by  sulphuric  acid.  A  crude  lactic  acid  thus  cheaply 
prepared  might  probably  be  used  as  a  condiment  or  ingre- 
dient of  food,  confectioner}',  etc.  To  get  it  pure,  it  is  fur- 
ther converted  into  zinc  lactate,  which  is  then  decomposed 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Lactic  acid  has  a  great  solvent 
power  over  phnttplntlc  of  lime,  and  to  this  some  attribute  its 
known  medicinal  virtues. 

The  lactic  fermentation  of  sugars  is  referred  by  Pastrur 
and  others  to  the  action  of  the  common  yeast-fungus  !\-ii- 
cif/ium  Qf'jucum,  as  the  aU-oholic  fermentation  to  that  of 
Torultr.  It  is  said  that  filtering  common  brarer'n  i/cu-t 
through  paper  will  separate  it  into  two  portions:  that 
which  passes  through  containing  the  smaller  PeniriUium 
cells,  and  therefore  inciting  lactic  fermentation,  while  the 
larger  cells  of  Toniht  will  remain  on  the  filter,  which  will 
therefore  cause  a  saccharine  liquid  to  enter  into  vinous  fer- 
mentation, (See  Fermestatio.v.) 

Lnrtateit. — Somc  of  the  salts  of  lactic  acid  are  used  iu 
medicine.  Hexry  Wtrtz. 

Lactin  and  Lactose,    f^e  Mii-K-srcAU. 

Lactom'eter  [Lat.  h^c,  "  milk,"  and  Or.  MfTpo*-,  "  mea- 
sure"], a  graduated  cylinder  for  roughly  estimating  iho 
amount  of  cream  in  milk.  The  term  is  often  applied  to  the 
f/(^^/crome^■/■,  which  is  a  hydrometer  for  showing  the  specific 
gravity  of  milk.  (,Seo  Mir.K.) 

Lactuca'rium  [Lat.  lactnra,  "lettuce"],  a  drug  con- 
sisting of  the  dried  milky  juice  froni  the  mature  stem  of 
difl'erent  species  of  Lrtctur.u  or  lettuce.  It  is  in  reddish- 
hrciwn  lumps,  masses,  or  cakes,  of  an  oj>ium-like  smell  and 
bitter  taste.  It  was  introduced  intu  medicine  in  1700  as 
having  the  property  of  allaying  pain  and  procuring  sleep, 
like  opium,  but  its  powers  are  exceedingly  feeble,  and  it 
cannot  be  relied  upon.  Edward  Cimitis. 

Lacustrine  Villaf^cs,  or  Lake  Dwellings.  Sec 
Pai.epits  and  Prehistoric  Max. 

La'cy  {Li'is),  b.  in  San  Rnque.  Spain,  in  1772;  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  of  independence  against  Napo- 
leon, in  which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  leaders,  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  On  the  establishment  of  ab- 
solutism by  Ferdinand  VII..  Lacy  was  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
spiracy for  the  restoration  of  the  constitution,  which  was 
to  have  broken  out  Apr.  a,  lfjl7.  in  Catalonia,  but  the  plot 
having  become  known,  he  was  seized,  tried  by  court-martial, 
and  condemned  to  death,  the  sentence  being  secretly  pro- 
nounced and  executed  at  the  castle  of  Bellver,  Mnjorca, 
some  time  in  the  same  month. 

La  Cygnc,  post-village  of  Linn  co..  Kan.»  on  the  Mis- 
souri River  Fort  Scott  and  Gulf  R.  R.,  63  miles  S.  of  Kan- 


LA  D  A  K  H— L  A  DRON  ES. 


1603 


SIS  City,  bas  n  fioe  public  scboo!.  3  churches,  2  banks,  2  i 
hotels,   1   weekly    nL•w^[Japer,   and    su]H'rior   water-power,  ' 
making  it  a  de^i^a^_^le  locution  ibr  luanufiictures.     There 
are  4  lodges,  1  grange  society,  a  puljlic  library,  and  a  num- 
ber of  croecry,  hardware,  and  drug  stores.    Town-site  wa« 
laid  out  in  1870.     Pop.  about  I40U. 

Aldert  Gore,  Ed.  "JorRNAL." 

Ladakh%  or  Middle  Thibet,  an  independent  terri- 
tory in  Central  Asia,  extending  from  32°  to  oG°  N.  lat., 
and  from  Tt*"  to  7\t°  E.  Ion.,  between  Great  Thibet  in  E. 
and  Little  Thibet  in  W.,  and  separated  N,  from  Toorkistan 
by  the  Karakorum,  S.  from  Cashmere  by  the  Himalaya. 
Area,  estimated  at  oO,000  square  milts.  Pop.  loO.OOU.  It 
is  a  wild  mountainous  region  along  the  upper  course  of  the 
Indii^,  mostly  of  ^  sterile  soil  and  with  a  severe  climate. 
But  it  is  well  cultivated,  and  its  inhabitants,  who  are  Mon- 
golians, professing  a  kind  of  Lamaism  and  governed  by  a 
thcocratical  despotism,  raise  large  crops  of  wheat,  barley, 
an-i  buckwheat,  besides  rearing  iramenso  henls  of  shrt-j., 
which  jiupply  most  of  the  wool  use<l  in  Cashmere.  The 
mountains  contain  iron,  copper,  and  lead,  and  a  very  im- 
portant transit-trade  between  China  and  Ilindostan  is  car- 
ried on  by  mules  and  sheep.     Cap.  Lt:ii  (which  see). 

Ladanam.     See  LABnAMM. 

Ladd  I  William),  h.  at  Exeter.  X.  H..  May  10,  1778; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  17*J7;  was  for  pome  years 
a  captain  in  the  merchant  marine,  and  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal founders  of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  v.hich  he 
was  for  many  years  the  president.  He  edited  in  behalf  of 
that  society  the  Friend  of  Peace,  and  afterwards  the  Har- 
biu'jer  o/ /''•rtfc,  and  publii'hed  many  occasional  writings 
upon  the  same  topic,  of  which  the  most  important  w.as  An 
linnntf  on  a  Comjrcita  of  Natioit9  (IS4UJ.  D.  at  Portsmouth  \ 
Apr.'.J,  IS41. 

Ladi'gaf  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  Ala.,  on  the 
Sclma  Home  and  Dalton  R.  U.,  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Rome,  | 
(ia.     Pop.  1605. 

Lading:,  Bill  of,     .See  Bill  of  Ladisg,  by  Prof.  T.  | 
W.  Hwi.wiT,  LL.L).  I 

La'dislaSy  or  Lancelot,  king  of  Naples,  surnamed  j 
Tin:  LiUKHAL  and  inv.  Victoriois.  b.  about  I;l76:  succeeded  ! 
his  father,  Charles  III.,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother  | 
Margaret,  in  13S6:  was  driven  from  Naples  in  July,  lliS7, 
by  his  competitor,  Louis  II.  of  Anjou,  whom  Pope  Clement 
VII.  (of  Avignon)  had  invested  with  the  crown;  was  re- 
instated by  Otto  of  Brunswick  the  same  year;  repulsed  two 
invasions  made  by  Pope  Urban  VI.  in  lliSS;  was  crowned 
at  Gaeta  May  21*.  13110.  by  a  legate  of  the  nev[  pope.  Boni-  j 
face  IX.;  maintained  a  war  for  several  years  in  the  heart  j 
of  his  kingdom   against  his  rival,  Louis   IT.,  who  was  in   I 
possession  of  the  capital ;  recovered  that  city  July  9,  l.'!99;   ; 
was  a  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Hungary,  and  actually  j 
crowned  Aug.  o,  H0.'{,  but  soon  withdrew  his  claims;  at-  | 
templed  to  seize  Home  in  Aug.,  I4UJ;  was  excommunicated 
and  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  the  pope  June  IS,  140G; 
entered  Rome  in   140S,  retiring  in  a  few  months;  after  a 
long  series  of  alternations  of  fortune  again   took  by  sur- 
|»riso    and    plunilered   that   city  June  S,    I4l.'i,  and   d.   at 
Naples  .Aug.  Iti,  U14.    Ue  was  perhaps  the  earliest  mttdern 
Italian   ruler  who  conceived  the  project  of  the  unity  of 
Italy  ;  was  also  a  claimant  of  the  throne  of  Proveneo  and 
a  candidate  fur  the  imperial  crown  of  Germany. 

Ladislas  I.  (LoKTrK),  king  of  Poland,  b.  in  1260: 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom  of  Poland  in  121*6;  was  deposed 
in  1.300,  in  \?hieh  year  he  attended  the  jubilee  at  Rome; 
was  restored  in  1304;  carried  on  a  long  war  with  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights ;  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Poland  in  1320 
by  permission  of  Pope  John  XXTI.  ;  d<*fcated  the  Teutonic 
Knights  at  Plowco  iSept.  27,  1321,  and  d.  at  Cracow  Mar. 
10,  1333. 

Ladislas  II.,  king  of  Poland.     See  Jacrllok. 

LadislnH  III.,  king  of  Poland.  Sec  Ladislas  V.,  king 
of  Hungary. 

Ladislas  IV.,  king  of  Poland,  b.  nt  Cracow  Juno  0, 
l.VJJ;  succeeded  his  father.  .Sigisniund  III..  Nov.  13,  1()32;  j 
compe'Ieii  the  Russians  to  raisr  the  siege  of  .'Smolensk 
0''»32l:  drfratod  the  Turks  in  .Moldavia  (ir.3U,  and  the 
Tartars  of  the  Crimea;  made  a  truce  for  twenty-six  years 
with  Sweden  (1635) ;  began  a  wir  with  the  Cossacks  ( 1637) ; 
married  a  daughter  of  the  German  emperor  Ferdinand 
(1637),  and  d.  in  Lithuania  .May  lit,  K.IS.  Wv  was  an  able 
and  energetic  prince,  sprung  in  the  female  line  from  the 
Jat;ellons.  and  had  such  a  reputation  for  valor  that  in  his 
early  youth  a  party  among  tho  Russians  wished  to  make 
him  their  c7,ar. 

Ladislas,  or  Lndislnns,  the  name  of  seven  kings 
of  Hungary:  Lapislas  I.,  xiir.  Saint,  called  also  Lanct.lot, 
b.  about  iU41;  succeeded  his  brother,  Ueysa  I.,  in  1073;   , 


was  victorious  over  the  Wallachians.  Bohemians,  Russians, 
Cumans,  and  Poles:  conquered  Croatia  and  Dalmatia  (10^7  i 
for  the  crown  of  Hungary;  promulgated  a  new  code  of 
laws  nt  the  diet  of  Zablon  (11192);  stimulated  comniereej 
aided  Boleslas  II.  in  obtaining  the  throne  of  Poland  ;  pro- 
jected the  delivery  of  the  Holy  Laud  from  the  Moslems; 
erected  many  churches  and  monasteries,  and  favored  the 
clergy  in  their  efl'orts  to  civilize  the  Hungarians.  D.  Julv 
29.  lUi'a.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Celcstine  III.  in 
111*2. — Ladislas  II.,  b.  about  1134:  crowned  July  \b.  1161, 
and  d.  Jan.  14,  1162.— Ladislas  III.,  b.  about  llSo;  woe 
elected  in  1204  to  succc-ed  his  father.  Emcricb.  but  d.  May 
7.  1205. — Ladislas  IV.,  surnamed  thk  Clman.  b.  about 
1250;  succeeded  his  father,  Stephen  IV.,  in  1272;  made 
war  upon  and  at  first  defeated  the  Cumans  (1282),  but  tho 
latter,  reinforced  by  vast  hordes  of  Nogai  Tartars  or  Mon- 
gols from  the  plains  N.  E.  of  the  Black  Sea  {the  empire  of 
Kiptchak).  overran  and  ravaged  all  Hungary  (1285).  He 
then  made  terms  with  the  Cumans.  adopted  some  of  their 
customs,  repudiated  his  wife,  and  married  one  of  their 
princesses,  whence  his  surname,  but  was  finally  assassinated 
by  them  July  19.  1290.— Ladislas  V.  (III.  of  Poland),  b. 
Oct.  31,  1424  ;  succeeded  his  father,  Ladislas  U.  ( Jagell(.n), 
as  king  of  Poland  in  1434;  was  elected  king  of  Hungary 
in  144U  by  the  influence  of  the  famous  John  Huniades, 
vaivode  of  Transylvania,  by  whose  aid  he  defeated  the  in- 
vading Turks  in  two  great  battles  (1412-43):  made  a  ten 
years'  truce  with  the  sultan  Aniurath  II.  at  Szegedin  in 
June,  1444,  acquiring  thereby  the  sovereignty  of  Wallachia, 
but  at  the  instigation  of  Cardinal  .Julian  ol>tained  a  papal 
dispensation  from  his  oath,  and  invaded  Bulgaria,  where 
be  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle,  with  a  great  part  of 
the  Polish  nobility,  at  Varna,  Nov.  10,  1414. — Ladislas 
VI.,  THE  PosTnrMoi'S,  son  of  Albert  of  Austria,  emperor 
of  Ciermany  and  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  b.  Feb. 
22,  1440,  several  months  after  his  father's  death,  when 
Ladislas  V.  had  already  been  jilaced  upon  the  throne;  was 
elected  king  in  1445:  assumed  the  government  in  1451; 
was  crowned  king  of  Bohemia  Oct.  28,  1453,  and  d.  at 
Prague  Nov.  23.  1457.  He  was  cowardly  and  cruel,  and 
persecuted  the  followers  of  John  Huss. — Ladislas  VII.. 
eldest  son  of  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland,  b.  about  1456;  was 
designated  as  his  successor  by  iJcorge  Podiebrad,  king  of 
Bohemia.  July  19,  1469  ;  crowned  at  Prague  Aug.  16,  1471 ; 
entered  Hungary  with  an  army  on  the  death  of  Mathias 
Corvinus  in  1496  ;  was  j>rocIainied  king  and  crowned  Sept. 
21;  fought  against  the  Turks,  and  repulsed  the  army  of 
Bajazet  in  1501  ;  made  peace  at  Buda  Aug.  20,  1503;  per- 
mitted tho  proclamation  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  in 
1514,  and  d.  at  Buda  Mar.  13,  1516.       Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Ladmirault',  de  (Rkne  Patl),  distinguished  him- 
self in  tlie  war  with  Germany  (1870-71);  commanded  the 
4t!i  corps  in  the  battles  of  Courcelles,  Aug.  14,  Vionvilte, 
Aug.  16,  and  (jravelotte,  Aug.  18,  1870;  on  the  capitula- 
tion of  Metz  became  a  jtrisouer  of  war,  but  on  his  return 
after  the  conclusion  of  peace  received,  in  recognition  of  his 
brilliant  services,  the  command  of  the  territorial  division 
of  Paris,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  capital.  When 
in  1873  tho  arrangement  of  territorial  divisions  was  abol- 
ished. Ladmirault  retained  his  position  of  military  govern- 
or of  Paris.  ArcrsT  Niemann. 

La^dopa,  tho  largest  lake  of  Europe,  comprising  an 
area  of  6sUI  S(|uare  miles,  situated  in  Russia,  between  tho 
governments  of  Viburg,  Petersburg,  and  Olonctz.  It  re- 
ceives the  water  from  the  lakes  of  Onega.  Sainm,  and  II- 
men.  and  sends  it  through  the  Neva  to  tho  Baltic.  On 
account  of  shallows,  sandbanks,  and  sunken  rocks  naviga- 
tion is  very  dangerous  on  this  lake,  and  canalK  have  bei-n 
constructed  connecting  the  Neva  with  those  rivers  which 
flow  into  the  lake,  and  iboreby  establishing  a  water-com- 
munication through  tho  Volga  between  the  Baltic  and  the 
Caspian  Sea. 

LadO(;a,  po«t-v.  of  Montgomery  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Louis- 
ville New  Albany  und  Chicago  It.  R.,  II  iniles  S.  K.  of 
Crawfordsville,  is  a  thriving  mercantile  and  manufauturing 
town. 

Lado'nia,  post-v.  of  Fannin  co.,  Tox.,  13  miles  S.  E. 
of  Haiham.  on  N.  fork  of  tho  Sulphur  River.  It  has  I 
weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  516. 

Ladorc',  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Neosho  co.,  Kan.,  on  tho 
Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  R.  R.     Pop.  839. 

Lndroncj)',  or  iHariannc  Islands,  a  group  of 
twenty  islands  in  the  Paeific  Ocean,  belonging  To  Spain, 
anil  situated  between  13°  an<l  21°  N.  lat.,  and  between 
144°  and  146°  E.  Ion.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  have 
a  warm  but  not  unhealthy  climate,  and  comprise  an  nrca 
of  1251  square  miles  of  fertile  land,  hut  only  two  of  them, 
Guguan  and  Rota,  arc  inhabited.  They  were  first  discov- 
ered by  MagclhacDS  in   1521,  and  called  Las  Islas  do  los 


1604 


LADY— LAFAYETTE. 


LadroDes  (the  TbieveR'  Islands)  on  account  of  a  Btrong 
propensity  to  theft  observed  in  the  natiyes.  In  1667  the 
Simniards  established  a  regular  settlement  on  Guguan.aiid 
culled  the  inlands  Mariaune  Islands,  after  Queen  Maria 
Anna.  At  the  time  of  this  settlement  the  islands  had 
about  100,000  inhabitants,  who  received  the  settlers  well, 
and  made  great  progress  until  the  Spaniards  begun  to  at- 
tack their  independence,  when  a  war  broke  out  which  ended 
nearly  with  the  extermination  of  the  natives.  Theprestmt 
number  of  inhabitants  is  not  more  than  fiOOO,  and  of  these 
many  have  been  transferred  by  the  I^paniards  from  Luzon. 
Principal  town,  San  Ignazio  do  Agafia,  situated  on  Gu- 
guan. 

La'dy  [Ang.-Sax.  hlafdlfje^  probably  originally  mean- 
ing "  bread-keeper  "],  a  woman  of  good  social  standing :  a 
term  correlative  with  rfentUman.  In  Great  Britain  the  wife 
of  a  nobleman  is  legally  styled  '■  lady,"  and  the  title  is  by 
courtt'sy  given  to  daughters  of  nobles  and  the  wives  of 
knights  and  baronets.  The  Virgin  Mary  is  often  desig- 
nated "  Our  Lady.'* 

La'dy-bird  [Ger.  Marieyihafer,  "  Mary-bug  **],  a  com- 
mon name  for  coleopterous  insects  of  the  family  Coccincl- 
lida^,  of  which  there  are  more  than  1000  species  and  many 
genera.  They  are  extremely  useful  to  farniers.  destroying 
vast  numbers  of  aphides  or  plant-lice:  but  are  tlie  ob- 
jects of  many  popular  superstitions,  and  arc  by  many 
viewed  with  a  vague  and  unreasonable  dread.  They  are 
usually  of  an  elongated  hemispherical  shnpe,  frequently 
having  bright  colors,  and  are  often  spotted.  The  species 
are  quite  difficult  to  distinguish. 

Lady  Day,  the  25th  of  March,  the  feast  of  the  Annun- 
ciation of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  In  England  it  is  ouo 
of  the  quarter  days  upon  which  rent  is  usually  payable. 

Lady's  Slipper*     See  Cypripedium. 

Lae'laps  [Gr.  AaiAai/r.  a  "storm"],  a  genus  of  fossil 
saurians  found  in  the  cretaceous  strata  of  various  parts  of 
the  U.  S.  The  creature  was  carnivorous,  Ptirac  twenty-five 
feet  in  length,  and  doubtless  walked  upon  its  immense  hind 
legs  like  a  bird,  for  its  fore  legs  were  very  small.  It  must 
have  obtained  its  prey  by  leaping.  L.  aquilunt/His  is  the 
largest  known  species. 

Laon'nay  tp.  of  Logan  co..  111.,  traversed  by  the  Gil- 
man  Clinton  and  Springfield  R.  R.     Pop.  691, 

Laennec'  (Rene  Theodore  Hvacinthe).  b.  at  Quim- 
per,  lirittany,  Feb.  17,  17S1;  studied  from  ISOO  medicine 
in  Paris:  obtained  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  1804;  became 
principal  physician  at  the  Necker  Hospital  in  1816,  and 
professor  of  medicine  at  the  College  de  France  in  1S22.  In 
1S24  retired,  on  account  of  his  health,  to  his  native  town, 
where  he  d.  Aug.  13,  1826.  Was  the  inventor  of  the 
Stethoscope  (which  see).  Besides  articles  in  different 
medical  journals,  he  wrote  Traitf  (fa  rtiunruftation  mediate 
et  licH  via  hid  i  ft  ilrn  pnunitniH  et  dii  rcenr  ( ISl'J). 

LiTStryRones,  the  name  of  a  race  of  giants  men- 
tioned by  Homer  {Odj/nspi/,  x.  80-1^2).  Homer,  however, 
docs  not  know  anything  about  their  abode,  as  little  as 
about  that  of  the  Cyclops  and  other  fabulous  nations,  but 
later  traditions  assigned  Leontini  in  Sicily  or  Formiae  in 
Xaples  as  the  homestead  of  the  La'strygones. 

Laet,  de  (.Ias),  h.  at  Antwerp ;  was  in  1633  a  director 
of  the  Dutch  East  Inclia  Co.,  and  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Saumaise  (Sahnasius).  Published  nearly  twenty  learned 
geographical  works  in  Latin,  several  of  which  formed  pnrt 
of  the  miniature  series  of  /{rpuhficH  issued  by  tlie  Elzevirs 
ot"  Leyden.  Mnintained  a  sharp  literary  controversy  with 
Grotius  about  the  origin  of  the  American  Indian  tribes 
(1613-41).  His  most  important  works  were  ynrus  Orbin 
(folio,  Leyden,  1633) and  H intoria  Nnturah's  Jiraaih'a' {l6iS}. 
D.  about"  1649. 

liHi^ta're  Sunday,  >Iid-Lent,  or  Domiuica  de 
Rosa^  the  fnurth  Sunday  in  Lent,  the  diiy  on  which  the 
pope  blesses  the  Golden  Rosk  (which  see),  /jftftre,  "re- 
joice," is  the  first  word  of  the  introit  in  the  missal  for  this 
day  ( Isa.  Ixvi.  10).  On  this  day  only  is  the  organ  played 
during  Lent, 

La  Farge'ville,  post-r.  of  Orleans  tp..  Jefferson  co., 
N.  \ ..  on  the  (.'haumonl  River.    It  has  an  academy. 

La  Fari'na  (Giiseppe),  b.  at  Messina  in  ISl.');  d.  in 
1S63.  At  the  ago  of  eleven  he  comj)osed  a  hymn  to  Italy 
which  excited  great  admiration.  In  1S37.  after  an  in- 
effectual attempt  to  detach  Sicily  from  the  dominion  of  the 
Bourbons  by  heading  a  popular  insurrection,  he  fled  to 
Tuscany.  The  following  year  he  was  amnestied  and  re- 
turned to  Sicily,  but  after  about  three  years  he  was  once 
more  forced  to  retire  to  Tuscany,  Here  for  several  years 
he  occupied  himself  with  literary  pursuits  and  in  efforts  to 
promote  Italian  indepenrlence.  The  revolution  of  IS4S  took 
Lim  back  to  Sicily;  no  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Sicilian 


Parliament,  then  appointed  commissioner  to  the  courts 
of  Turin,  Florence,  and  Rome,  and  in  August  of  the  same 
year  he  became  minister  of  war  and  of  the  marine.  In  the 
spring  of  1S4'J  he  took  command  of  the  University  Legion 
against  the  Bourbons,  and  when  the  liberal  cause  was  lost 
he  escaped  to  Paris,  where  he  continued  in  relations  with 
Daniel  Manin  and  other  patriots  till  1S:)3,  After  a  few 
months'  stay  at  Tours  he  established  himself  at  Turin  in 
1854.  Here  he  made  great  efforts  to  strengthen  the  politi- 
cal party  in  favor  of  a  united  constitutional  monarchy  un- 
der the  house  of  Savoy.  He  co-operated  with  Cavour  in 
the  war  of  18.^9,  and  with  Garibaldi  in  org.inizing  the  nu- 
merous volunteers.  In  1860  be  was  elected  deputy  to  the 
Italian  Parliament  from  six  districts.  Among  the  many 
historical  works  of  La  Farina,  La  S'ton'a  d'ltnlin  may  be 
specially  recommended  for  the  warmth  and  patriotic  elo- 
quence with  which  it  is  written.  Two  volumes  entitled 
// Epiatohn-io  di  Giuseppe  La  Farina  were  published  at 
Milan  in  1869. 

Lafave',  tp.  of  Scott  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  175. 

La  Fayette',  county  of  S.  W.  Arkansas.  Area.  1060 
square  miles.  The  soil  is  generally  level  and  very  fertile, 
but  requires  drainage.  It  is  partly  prairie  and  partly  hard- 
wood timber,  and  is  traversed  by  the  navigable  Red  River 
and  by  the  Cairo  and  Fulton  R.  R.  Cotton  and  corn  are 
leading  products.    Cap.  Lewisville.    Pop.  9139. 

Lafayette,  county  of  Florida,  bounded  on  the  E.  hy 
the  navigable  Suwanee  River,  and  on  the  S.  W.  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  extensively  covered  with  forests,  and 
is  quite  level.  Corn  is  the  principal  product.  Area,  925 
square  miles.     Cap.  New  Troy.     Pop.  1783, 

La  Fayette,  parish  of  S.  Louisiana.  Area,  230  square 
miles.  It  is  level,  very  fertile,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
n.avigable  Vermilion  Bayou.  Cattle,  corn,  rice,  and  cotton 
are  leading  products.     Cap.  Vermilionvillc,     Pop.  10,388. 

La  Fayette,  county  of  N.  Mississippi.  Area.  607 
square  miles.  It  is  generally  level  and  highly  productive. 
Live-stock,  maize,  and  cotton  are  leading  products.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Tallahatchie  and  Yockenev  rivers  and  the 
Mississippi" Central  K.  R.    Cap.  Oxford.      Pop.  18,802, 

La  Fayette,  county  of  W.  Missouri,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  Mis^rouri  River.  Area.  585  square  miles.  It  is 
generally  level  and  highly  fertile,  partly  timber  and  partly 
jirairic.  Coal,  limestone,  and  sandstone  are  found.  Cattle, 
grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Flour  and 
lumber  arc  leading  manufactures.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Lexington  branch  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.  Cap.  Lex- 
ington.   Pop.  22,023. 

La  Fayette,  county  of  S.  W.  Wisconsin.  Area,  630 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Illinois.  The 
surface  is  diversified,  the  soil  fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and 
wool  are  stajdc  products.  Wagons  and  carriages  are  lead- 
ing articles  of  manufacture.  Lead  and  zinc  are  found.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Mineral  Point  R.  R.  and  the 
Pecatonica  River,  which  affords  good  water-power.  Cap. 
Darlington.     Pop.  22,659. 

La  Fayette,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Chambers  co., 
Ala.,  SO  miles  N.  E.  of  Montgoniery.  on  the  East  Alalmnia 
and  Cincinnati  R.  R.,  has  4  churches,  3  hotels,  1  weekly 
newspaper,  a  male  high  school,  and  a  fenmle  college.  In 
1S74  it  handled  6000  bales  of  ctton.  P.. p.  of  v.  1382;  of 
tp.  1694.  W.  C.  BLEnsoE,  En.  "Clipper." 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Crawford  co..  Ark.    Pop.  902. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Ouachita  co.,  Ark.    Pop.  1131. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Scott  co.,  Ark.    Pop.  400. 

Lafayette,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Walker  co.,  Oa..  16  miles 
S.  W.  of  Tunnel  Hill,  a  station  on  the  Western  and  Atlantic 
R.  R.    It  is  in  a  beautiful  mouutain-regiou.    Pop.  251. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Coles  co.,  III.    Pop.  1265. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Ogle  co..  111.     Pop.  467. 

Lafayette,  post-v.  of  Goshen  tp..  Stark  co.,  III.,  on  the 
Peoria  and  Kock  Island  R.  R.     Pop.  2S1. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Allen  co.,  Ind.    Pop.  1471. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Floyd  co..  Ind.     Pop.  1576. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Madison  CO.,  Ind.    Pop.  1452. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Owen  co.,  Ind.    Pop.  1071. 

Lafayette,  city,  cap.  of  Tippecanoe  co.,  Ind.,  on  the 
Wabash  River  and  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  Louisville  New  Albany  and  Chicago  and 
the  Toledo  Wabash  and  Western  R.  Rs.,  and  terminus 
of  the  Indianapolis  Cincinnati  and  Lafayette,  the  Cincin- 
nati Lafayette  an<l  Chicago,  and  W.  division  of  the  Lafay- 
ette Muncie  and  Bloomington  R,  Rs.  The  E.  division  of  the 
latter  road  is  graded  and  ready  for  equipment.  Lafayette 
originally  derived  its  chief  importance  from  being  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Wabash  River,  and  then  received  an 


LAFAYETTE— LAFITTE. 


1605 


impetus  vhicb  haa  suntaioed  its  growth  since  the  abandon- 
mc'utof  the  upper  Wabash  as  a  channel  of  commerce.  La- 
fayette has  2a  ohurches,  1  (Sunday)  weekly,  and  3  daily 
newspapers,  U  pubtio-i^clioo]  buildinj^s,  besides  several  de- 
nonainationat  academies,  street  railroad,  ga.'^wurks^  paid 
fire  department  with  fire-alarm  telegraph,  an  elegant  opera- 
houje.  State  agricultural  college  (Purdue  L'uivor?ity ).  and 
a  large  nuinbcr  of  manufactories  of  difTereut  kiud^.  There 
are  6  national,  4  private^  and  2  savings  banks,  with  an 
aggregate  capitol  of  nearly  $3,000,000.  The  wholesale 
trade  is  heavy,  especially  in  grocerici  and  boots  and  shoes, 
while  the  retail  traffic  finds  abundant  supplies  in  the  rich 
agricultural  region  of  which  Lafayette  is  the  centre.  The 
scenery  in  the  vicinity  is  very  beautiful.  Pop.  13,506. 
.S.  Vater,  Plb.  '■  Uailv  Joi  h.val." 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  .Allamakee  co.,  la.    Pop.  1120. 

Lafnyettc,  tp.  of  Bremer  co.,  la.    Pop.  S67. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Keokuk  co.,  la.    Pop.  959. 

I.a  I'ayrlte,  tp.  of  Story  co.,  la.    Pop.  401. 

I^nfayette,  a  v.  of  Centre  tp.,  Doniphan  co.,  Kan.,  on 
the  .Mi.-'suuri  lUver.    Pop.  54. 

Lafayette,  post-v.  of  Christian  co.,  Ky.,  22  miles  S.  W. 
of  Ilopkiusvillc,  the  county-scat.     Pop.  215. 

Lafayette,  a  v.  of  Motcalfe  co.,  Ky.     Pop.  53. 

Lafayette,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Gratiot  co.,  Mich.,  10 
miles  K.  'if  Iihaca,  the  county-seat.     Pop.  288. 

Lafayette,  tp  of  Nicollet  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  594. 

Lafayette,  tp.  of  Clinton  co..  Mo.     Pop.  2007. 

Lafayette,  t]).  of  Nemaha  co.,  Xeb.     Pop.  018. 

Lafayette,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Sussex  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the 
Sussex  K.  U.     Pop.  SS4. 

Lafayette,  po«t-v.  and  tp.  of  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Syracii^'c  and  Hinghamton  R.  U.  The  township  is  hilly 
and  fertile,  and  is  in  part  occupied  by  the  Onondaga  In- 
dian Reservation.     Pop.  of  v.  135;  of  tp.  2233. 

Lafayette,  a  v.  of  Jackson  tp.,  Allen  co.,  O.  (Herring 
P.  0.).  on  the  Pittsburg  Kort  Wayne  and  Chicago  R.  R. 
Pop.  337. 

fjalavctte,  *p.  of  rofihocton  co,,  0.,  traversed  by  tbo 
Pit:.-<Kiirg  iiihI  C'iiicinDiiti  U.  K.     Pop.  t»20. 

LafayrttCy  post-v.  of  I>ccr  Creek  tp..  Mndison  co.,  0., 
4  miles  N.  K.  of  London,  tUo  couuty-seat,  and  on  the  Na- 
tional Koud.     Pop.  I  CI. 

Lafav^^tte,  a  v.  (Whittlesey  P.  0.)  and  tp.  of  Medina 
CO..  O.     Pup.  1109. 

Lafayette^  poat-v.  and  cap.  of  Yarabill  co.,  Or.,  32 
milefl  S.  \V.  '^f  Portlund,  on  tbo  Vamhill  River  and  near 
tbo  Oregon  Central  U.  li.,  ha^  a  cburob,  a  botel,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  an  academv,  a  flourinf^-mill.  2  drug-stores,  and 
A  number  of  inercai)lilu  and  inanufaeturing  estaldi6bincnti<. 
It  i?  situated  in  a  fine  agricultural  tliptrict.  P(»p.  about  6.'>o. 
DoKiEis  A  IIkmuickk.  Ens.  '*  Coi  uicre." 

LafayettCf  v.  and  tp.  of  MrKcan  co.,  Pa.,  on  a  brancb 
of  the  lIutTalo  Itradfurd  and  Pittsburg  K.  R.     Pop.  591. 

Lafayette^  a  v.  ( Hossville  P.  0.)  of  Fayctto  co.,  Tenn., 
on  the  Memphis  and  Ohio  U.  R. 

Lafayette,  po»t-v.,  cap.  of  Macon  co.,  Tcnn.,  22  miles 
N.  of  Cftrtiiiij;e.     Pop.  lOl. 

Laftiyf'tte,  tp.  of  Pleasants  co.,  W.  Va.     Pop.  307. 

Lafiiycltc,  pDCt-v.  ami  tp.  of  Chippewa  co..  Wis.,  6 
mihM  \.  K.  of  Eau  Claire.     Pop.  ItTH. 

Lafayi^tto,  a  v.  (Sparta  P.  O.j  rmd  tp.  of  Monroe  co., 
Mis.,  'Ml  the  I'll  ('rosi40  divisiuit  of  tbe  Milwaukee  aud  St. 
Paul  U.  K.     Pop.  192. 

La  Tayrtte,  tp.  of  Walimrlh  co..  Wis.     Pop.  10.32. 

La  Fayette,  de  (.Marik  Pur,  .Tn.^s  Rorn  Yvns  flii.- 
BKUT  MoTiFii),  .Maiiqi'IS.  b.  at  the  ebi\tr)in  Cbava(tnac,  Au- 
verjjno.  Sept.  rt,  1757,  of  an  aneient  family.  His  father 
wft!*  killoil  at  Mindon,  and  on  hix  mother*!*  death  in  1770 
ho  fell  heir  to  larjfo  enlutes ;  married  in  1771  a  jprand- 
(laughtcr  of  the  due  do  Noiiillcs;  entered  the  guanlH,  and 
while  a  captain  of  dragoons  in  1 77'^  delerminod  to  join  the 
American  lU  V(iltiti(iniHl<< :  fitted  out  a  yiicht  at  his  own  ox- 
peiiHc,  and  landed  Apr.  21.  1777,  m-ar  (tf.rgetown,  8.  C. ; 
served  an  mnjor-goneral  1777-.s:t  without  pny,  furniflbing 
also  clothing  and  eamp  e<|uipnge  at  bir*  own  expense  to  tbo 
neetly  pntriot«i:  was  wounded  at  Hrandywinc,  and  fouglit 
with  great  honor  at  M<Mimoulh  ;  wii<i  in  France  I77U-H0, 
where  he  induced  the  kin;:  to  send  Uoebambonu  to  Amer- 
ica ;  coinlueted  the  eampaign  in  Virginia,  whieh  ended  so 
brilliantly  in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Vorktown  ;  an<i  then 
returned  ti>  France;  visited  the  V.  S.  again  in  I7'*4;  ex- 
erted hinipelf  to  prneure  th«'  aholitjon  of  nlnvery  in  the 
French  colonies,  and  freed  and  ednpntod  hi<i  own  slnvro  at 
Cnyenne  ;   wa^  in  the  Aj^nemhly  of  NotaMeF".  Paris,  17H7  : 


demanded  the  convocation  of  the  States  General,  to  which 
be  was  a  deputy,  178l>;  became  vice-president  of  the  Na- 
tional A>;8embly.  cominnndant  of  Paris,  and  chief  com- 
mander of  the  national  guards,  which  he  organized,  17H9; 
founded  the  clultf^  of  Feuillunts  1790;  protected  the  king 
and  queen  from  the  nmli  t)r  Oct.  5  and  C> ;  commanded  suc- 
cessfully the  army  of  Flanders  1792;  denounced  the  Jaco- 
bins, from  whom  ho  escaped  to  Flanders,  but  was  impris- 
oned for  live  years  by  the  Austrians  at  Olmiitz:  was  liber- 
ated by  Kapoleon.  and  returned  to  France  in  1790,  but 
would  never  become  a  partisan  of  Napoleon  ;  lived  princi- 
pally upon  bis  estate  of  La  Grange;  was  in  the  French 
House  of  Representatives  lbI5;  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties iSlS  :  visited  tbo  U.  S.  in  lS2-l-2r<,  and  received  a  grant 
of  $200,000  and  a  township  of  lanrl ;  was  chosen  to  tbe 
Chamber  of  Deputies  1S27;  took  part  in  isJiO,  and  com- 
manded the  national  guard,  but  not  in  person.  La  Fay- 
ette d.  at  Paris  May  20,  1^34.  It  would  be  hard  to  over- 
estimate the  services  done  by  La  Fayette  to  the  cause  of 
American  liberty.  In  France  be  was  an  ardent  and  con- 
sistent democrat,  but  he  was  ready  to  sacrifice  his  own  pref- 
erences for  the  advantage  of  tbe  public.  Even  bis  enemies 
admitted  his  perfect  honesty,  his  courage,  and  his  ability. — 
His  son,  Gkorges  AVasbington  La  Favj:ttk  (1779-1849), 
and  his  grandsons,  Oscar  (b.  ISIG)  and  EnMOsn  (b.  1S18), 
have  ligured  in  French  politics  as  republicans. 

Lafayette  College  at  Ea?ton,  Pa.,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Delaware.  Lcliigh.  and  Rushkill  rivers,  and  of  many 
canals  and  railroads — a  site  known  from  the  earliest  times  as 
a  centre  of  Indian  occupation,  and  of  missionary-work  by 
David  I'rainerd  ami  others — was  chartered  in  lH26.  Rev, 
George  Junkin.  I).  D..  was  the  (irst  jiresident.  It  has  been 
from  the  first  distiiiguisliod  lor  ehejip  living  and  thorough 
study,  especially  for  students  preparing  for  the  ministry, 
and  at  first  undertook  to  find  manual  labor  for  students 
who  wished  it.  Since  1S55  it  has  also  been  known  for  its 
course  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Englit-b  in  connection  with 
comparative  phihdogy  under  Prof.  F.  A.  March.  LL.D..  in 
which  it  has  been  a  pioneer,  and  trained  many  teachers 
and  professors  in  other  American  ctdlegcs,  and  has  now  a 
European  reputation.  It  is  also  known  to  the  scientific 
wiirlii  as  in  some  sense  the  bead -quarters  of  meteorology  in 
America,  for  hero,  since  1.S53.  the  observations  of  the  gov- 
ernment oflicers  and  tbe  collections  of  the  Smithsonian 
In.-^titution.  suj>plemented  by  the  world-wide  correspond- 
ence of  Prof.  J.  II.  Cotlin,  LL.D.,  have  been  reduced  and 
prepiired  for  publication  under  the  iHrcction  of  that  em- 
inent meteorologitit,  I'nder  tbe  presidency  of  Rev.  W.  C. 
Cattell,  D.  D..  and  since  1>'^'J5  it  has  still  further  become  a 
centre  of  scientific  and  technical  instruction  for  the  coal 
and  iron  regions  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  .Jersey,  in  tbo 
midst  of  which  it  is  situated.  It  has  received  nearly 
$1,000,000  of  new  endowment,  of  which  about  one-half 
has  been  given  by  Mr.  A.  Pardee  of  Hazleton.  Pa.,  and 
#."(iO,OU(l  bus  been  exjieniled  in  the  buildings  and  appara- 
tus for  scientific  and  technical  teaching  and  iiivestigutiuu. 
The  flora  of  Pennsylviyiia,  in  charge  of  Prof.  T.  C.  Porter, 
D.  D.,  is  the  most  complete  in  existence.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Early  English  department  of  the  library  is 
jirobably  tbe  best  in  the  country.  The  college  now  offers 
fixe  schools  or  courses  of  stu<Jy  of  four  years  each,  leading 
to  degrees  ;  two  of  general  culture — the  classical  and  the 
scientific;  and  three  technical — mining  engineering,  civil 
engineering,  and  ebemistry.  In  the  clashieal  school  there 
are  two  piinillel  courses — one  the  ennmion  college  course  in 
h<-athen  authors;  the  other  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  of 
Christian  authors,  the  latter  eslnblisheil  in  L^72,  and  sus- 
tained by  tbe  munificence  of  li.  Douglass,  Esq.,  of  New 
York  City.  Special  courses  of  two  terms  eaeh  are  given  on 
iron,  road  engineering,  and  cbemixlry;  and  any  person 
prepared  to  do  so  may  devote  his  whole  time  to  any  branch 
of  learning  or  science  taught  in  the  college,  either  in  an 
under-graduato  or  post-graduate  course.  A  law  school 
has  been  organized,  and  will  npi  n  in  t)ctoberof  this  year 
(IS7.'>).  There  are  2S  resiilenl  profc-^sors  and  tutors.  I  non- 
resident lecturers,  and  .110  students,  nearly  etjually  divided 
betwee?i  the  (dd  and  new  courses.  Traill  Grkkn. 

LaHtaii' i.InsFi-n  Fran'vih).  b.  at  Bordeaux  in  1G70; 
became  a  .lei'tiit  priest  ;  came  tit  I'anadii  as  a  missionary  in 
1712;  was  stationed  at  the  Iro(|n<'is  nli^sion  at  Sault  St. 
Louis,  and  studied  closely  the  Indian  ehaiaeter.  Discov- 
ered also  the  ginxeng-plant.  Returning  to  Franco  in  1717, 
wrote  his  two  esteemeil  works — Mtruni  dm  Sniiraifm  tnn(- 
ri'tfUtiiu^  (1721)  and  Uimin'ir  dm  fi/itniirrtrM  tlru  Portiuftih 
(lanMlr  .y.mr.au  .l/oM/Zr  { 1  73.1).    I),  at  Pordoaux  July  3.  1746. 

Lafittc'  iJACQiKs),  b.  at  Rayonne,  France,  Oct.  24, 
1707,  was  the  son  of  a  poor  caqienter:  went  in  I7H7  to 
Paris:  became  in  17SS  a  nookkeeper  in  the  hanking-houso 
of  Pi'rr''Kaux  ;  was  soon  ailmitte<l  l<>  (he  firm  by  reason  of 
his  finaiKMal  ability  ;  became  a  regent  of  the  Rank  of 
France  ISll'.f,  and  in  IHI  1  its  governor  :  was  in  the  Cham- 


llJDIi 


LAFITTE— LA  FOURCHE. 


ber  of  Deputies  1810-17;  acquired  great  reputation  by  his 

patriotic  uiau-.igemeut  of  the  pu'ilic  finuuccs :  became 
I'anker  to  NapoKun  iiiul  LouisXViil.:  was  widely  belovej 
for  his  geniTo3ity,  huuesty,  and  constant  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  good  government,  his  own  preferences  being  demo- 
cratic ;  supported  the  revolution  of  181^0 ;  was  minister  of 
finance  1830-31,  soon  after  which  he  suflercd  great  pecu- 
niary losses.     D.  in  Paris  May  20,  18-14. 

Lafitte*  (Jean),  b.  in  Franco  about  17S0.  He  has 
b?eu  made  the  subject  of  Ingraham's  romance,  The  /'irate 
of  the  Onff.  According  to  (what  appears  most  authurita- 
tivc)  writers  in  De  Bow's  Jifvivir.  vols.  xil.  and  xix.,  the 
former  of  whom  refers  to  the  late  John  R.  Grymes.  who  he 
says  was  once  Laffitc's  counsel,  he  came  from  IJordeaux 
or  Marseille?',  and  was,  "within  the  recollection  of  old  cit- 
izens now  living,"  a  blacksmith,  "  who  kept  his  forge  at 
the  corner  of  15ourbou  and  St.  Philip  streets."  This  is,  in 
a  subsequent  volume  (xxiii.),  referred  to  as  an  ''idle  story" 
by  a  writer  who  styles  him  one  of  three  brothers  whose 
(trivateering  operations  led  him  to  Galveston  Island,  and 
then  to  Barataria,  ''keeping  as  agents  in  New  Orleans  bis 
two  brothers/'  etc. 

The  cession  to  the  U.  S.  of  Louisiana  was  followed  by 
events — especially  the  war  betwecu  France  and  Spain — 
which  made  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  "  the  arena  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  profitable  privateering"  depredations  upon  the 
rich  commerce  of  Spain.  At  the  period  of  the  taking  of 
Guadeloupe  by  the  British  (1806).  most  of  the  privateers 
commissioned  by  the  government  of  that  island,  and  whi..di 
were  then  on  a  cruise,  not  being  able  tu  return  t'j  any  of 
the  West  India  islands,  made  for  Barataria,  there  to  dis- 
pose of  their  prizes,  which  could  not  be  admitted  into  any 
of  the  ports  of  the  U.  S.,  we  being  at  that  time  in  peace 
with  Great  Britain.  Most  of  the  commij^sious  granted  to 
privateers  by  the  French  government  at  Guadeloupe  hav- 
ing expired  some  time  after  the  declaration  of  the  indc- 
pendenee  of  Colombia,  many  of  the  privateers  repaired  to 
her  port  of  Carthagena  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  from 
the  new  government  commissions  for  cruising  against 
Spanish  vc3:>els.  Having  duly  obtained  tlieir  commissions, 
they  in  a  manner  blockaded  for  a  long  time  all  the  ports 
belonging  to  the  royalists,  aud  made  numerous  capture?^, 
which  they  carried  into  Barataria.  (See  Bauatauia  Bay.) 
It  is  asserted  by  Latour,  from  whom  wo  have  quoted  {Hist, 
of  the  War  in  E.  Floriila  and  Louisinntt)^  that  public  auc- 
tion-sales were  made  of  the  cargoes  of  their  prizes.  "  From 
all  parts  of  Lower  Louisiana  people  resorted  to  Barataria, 
withont  being  at  all  solicitous  to  conceal  the  object  of  their 
journey.  In  the  streets  of  New  Orleans  it  was  usual  for 
traders  to  give  and  receive  orders  for  purchasing  goods  at 
Barafaria  with  as  Uttlo  secrecy  as  similar  orders  are  given 
for  Philadelphia  or  Now  York."  While  Latour  denies  that 
these  men  were  really  pirates,  lie  admits  that  they  auda- 
ciously infringed  our  laws,  and  committed  a  great  offence 
in  smuggling  into  the  territory  goods  captured  from  nations 
with  which  we  were  at  peace. 

Preparatory  to  the  expedition  against  New  Orleans,  Lt.- 
Col.  Nichoils,  commander  of  the  British  forces  in  the  Flor- 
idas,  made  overtures  by  letter,  dated  Peusacola,  Aug.  31, 
LSU,  to  LafBte,  "with  his  bravo  followers,  to  enter  into 
the  service  of  (Jreat  Britain;"  ho  is  offered  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  lauds  arc  fo  be  given  to  "all  in  proportion 
to  respective  ranks."  The  letter  was  delivered  hy  Capt. 
Lockyer,  R.  N.,  commanding  an  armed  brig  which  Sept. 
2d  visited  Barataria  for  that  purpose,  and  who  personalhf 
offered  him,  aceonling  to  Latour,  besides  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain, the  sum  of  $;;0.l)0().  These  offers  he  communicated 
to  the  governor  of  Louisiana  hy  letter  couehcd  in  language 
which  girea  evidence  of  a  cultivated  mind  and  of  elevated 
sentiments.  "I  offer  (writes  he)  to  you  to  restore  lo  this 
Slate  several  citizens,  who  perhaps  iu  your  eyes  have  lust 
that  sacred  title.  I  offer  you  them,  however,  such  as  you 
could  wish  to  find  them,  ready  to  exert  their  utmost  efforts 
id  defence  of  the  country.  This  point  of  Louisiana  which 
I  occupy  is  of  great  importance  in  the  present  crisis.  I 
teuiier  my  services  to  defend  it ;  and  the  only  reward  I  ask 
is  that  a  stop  be  put  to  the  conscription  against  mo  and  my 
adherents  by  an  acf  of  oldivion  for  all  that  has  been  done 
hitherto.  I  am  the  stray  sheep  wisliing  to  return  to  tlie 
sheepfold.  If  you  were  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  my  otVences,  I  should  appear  lo  you  mucli  less 
guilty,  and  still  worthy  to  discharge  the  duties  of  a  good 
citizen.  I  have  never  sailed  under  any  flag  but  that  of  the 
republic  of  Carthagena,  and  my  vessels  are  perfectly  regu- 
lar in  that  respect."  No  answer  appears  to  have  been  given, 
and,  indeed,  an  expedition  already  in  preparation  under 

•  The  name  is  thus  most  commonly  spelt,  and  is  so  in  Latour's 
IlUftory;  but  in  the  appt-ndix  to  that  work  tho  signature  to  the 
several  letters  Ihciu  juitilisli-'d  is  printed  .1.  LngV" ;  and  It  is  so 
spelt  in  the  headinc  to  itie  If-lierol  Li.-(.:ol.  Nichoils;  beaee  this 
was  probably  his  own  and  the  correct  speUing. 


Commodore  Patterson  to  break  up  the  association  at  Bara- 
taria (where,  however.  Laffite  and  his  men  were  not  found) 
was  carried  out.  Subsequently  (about  the  middle  of  De- 
cember), when  the  invasion  of  New  Orleans  was  imminent- 
ly pending,  the  governor  of  Louisiana  issued  a  proclama- 
tion inviting,  and  Gen.  Jaekson  accepted,  the  services  of 
Laffite  and  iiis  men,  a  portion  <»f  whom  formed  a  corps  un- 
der Cajjts.  Dominique  aud  Beluche,  and  were  employed  on 
the  lines,  where  with  distinguished  skill  they  served  two 
twenty-four  pounders  in  batteries  Nos.  2  and  3.  Others 
enlisted  in  one  or  tlic  other  of  the  companies  of  mariners, 
under  Capts.  Songis.  Lagaud,  and  Colson,  and  served  at 
Forts  Petite  Coquille  (uow  Fort  Pike)  and  St.  Philip,  and 
Bayou  St.  JohD.f 

On  the  fith  of  Feb.,  ISlJi,  Pres.  Madison  issued  a  procla- 
I  mation  stating  that  "'it  had  been  long  ascertained  that 
many  foreigners,  flying  from  the  dangers  of  tlicir  own 
I  home,  and  that  some  citizens  forgetful  of  their  duty,  hail 
co-operated  in  forming  an  estaldishinent  on  the  island  of 
,  Barataria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  JVIississippi,  for  the 
purpose  of  a  clandestine  antl  lawless  trade.  .  .  .  But  it 
has  since  been  represented  that  the  offenders  have  mani- 
fested a  sincere  penitence;  that  they  have  abandoned  the 
prosecution  of  the  worst  cause  for  the  support  of  the  best, 
and,  particularly,  that  they  have  exhibited  in  the  defence 
of  New  Orleans  unequivocal  traits  of  courage  and  fidelity  ;** 
and  granting  full  pardon  for  acts  therein  defined,  provided 
that  certificate  in  writing  be  produced  from  the  governor 
of  Louisiana  stating  that  the  person  ''has  aided  iu  the  de- 
fence of  New  Orleans."  The  subsequent  career  of  Laffite 
is  involved  in  uncertainty.  J.  G.  Barnard. 

La  Fleche,  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Sarthe,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  has  manufactures  of 
paper  and  leather,  aud  a  brisk  trade  in  grain,  wine,  wax, 
cattle,  and  fowls.  The  palace,  which  was  liuilt  by  Henri  IV., 
and  which  for  some  time  belonged  to  the  Jesuits,  who  here 
had  a  celebrated  school,  is  now  used  for  a  school  of  artil- 
lery. It  contains  a  picture-gallery  and  a  library  of  20,tJU0 
vols.     Pop.  I)2y2. 

Laflin  (Addison  H.),  b.  in  Lee.  Mass.,  Oct.  2-1.  1823; 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1843;  removed  to  Her- 
kimer co.,  N.  Y.:  elected  in  1867  to  the  New  York  senate; 
in  1804  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  ;  re-elected  in  I8(i6  and 
lSf)8.  and  ajjpointed  in  1871  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  New 
York,  which  office  he  hold  till  Feb.  1,  1877.  D.  Sept.  2-1, 1878. 

La  Fontaine',  de  f  Jfan),  b.  at  Chateau  Thierry  in 
1021;  d.  IGUO.  Was  protected  at  first  hy  the  duchess  of 
Bouillon,  then  by  the  prince  of  Cond{s  Fouquet,  Henrietta 
of  England;  but  was  too  frank,  too  ojion-spoken,  ever  to 
succeed  in  securing  the  favors  of  Louis  XIV.  Had  for 
fricn<ls  Moliere,  Racine,  Boilcau,  and  was  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Wrote  at  first  his  Contes.  a  set  of  sh<»rt, 
lively,  but  rather  licentious  novels  ;  but  his  great  and  clas- 
sical work,  known  throughout  the  world,  is  his  Fables,  some 
of  them  taken  from  iEsop  and  Pha?drus,  which  have  been 
translated  into  every  language.  an<l  of  which  many  have 
been  committed  to  memory  hy  children  in  every  S(d:o(d.  La 
Fontaine,  like  Moliere,  had  a  larger  and  hctler  heart  thao 
most  of  the  French  writers  of  the  Louis  XIV.  period:  he 
held  fast  by  his  protector,  Fouquet,  even  after  the  ruin  in- 
flicted, through  a  personal  jealousy,  on  handsome  and 
kingly-looking  Fouquet  by  the  roi  eofcil  (Sun  King),  as 
Louis'  XIV.  liked  to  be  called.  Felix  ArcAiGxi-:. 

Lafontaine  iSir  Loris  HirM'oi.VTK),  Bart.,  b.  at  Bou- 
chervillc.  Lower  Canada,  in  Oct.,  1^07;  became  a  prom- 
inent advocate  and  politician  ;  accused  in  1837  <)f  sympathy 
with  the  insurgents,  a  reward  was  offered  for  him,  and  he 
escaped  to  Europe,  but  was  recalled,  and  became  premier 
of  Canada  for  some  time,  resigning  his  oflice  in  1851.  In 
18j3  ho  became  chief  justice  of  the  queen's  beach,  a  baronet 
in  18j4.  and  d.  in  Montreal  Feb.  20,  IStU. 

La  Fourclio,  parish  of  S.  E.  Louisiana,  bounded  S. 
and  S.  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Barataria  Bay.  Tho 
surface  is  flat,  and  abounds  in  lakes  and  bayous,  often 
navigable.  Ahuig  the  Bayou  La  Fourchearesomeof  the  best 
lands  in  the  Attakapas  region.  Rice,  sugar,  molasses,  and 
corn  are  leading  products.  Area,  102j  square  miles.  Cap. 
Thiboiieaux.      Pop.  14,710. 

La  Fonrche,  a  bayou  in  S.  E.  Louisiana,  an  outlet  of 
the  Mississippi,  which  begins  at  I>i>naldsonville  on  the  right 
banU,  and  flows  S.  E.  through  the  parish  of  La  Fourche  In- 
terior to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  a  total  lengtii  of  150 
miles.  Il  is  navigable  by  sieamboats  for  about  100  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  channels  of  com- 
munication between  the  Gulf  and  the  interior. 


+  Fortifving  Barataria  (Grand  Terre  Island)  or  the  passes  of 
Barataria  Bav  formed  no  part  of  the  services  rendered  by  these 
nt'-n.  When' the  writer,  twt^nty-one  years  after  the  bailh*  of 
New  Orleans,  visited  (irand  Terro  Island,  scarcely  a  trace  of  Laf- 
flte'8  occupatlou  remained. 


LAFUENTE— LAG  RANGE. 


1607 


Lafacn'te  (Modesto),  b.  at  Revnnal  do  los  Caballeroa, 
near  CcrviTii.  Spain.  May  1,  ISnii:  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Leon  aud  atthc  I'nivcrsity  ol'  Santiago  Com- 
postclla:  became  in  1S30  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  after- 
varda  of  philosophy,  at  Astorga;  began  in  JSll  to  publish 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Fray  (ierundio  "  a  scries  of  sa- 
tirical cssavs,  and'  in  185(1  issued  the  fir.«t  volume  of  an 
elaborate  Htmimj  of  Spain,  completed  in  l>^fi2  in  2G  vols. 

Lngcr  Beer.     See  BtEn,  by  Piio:-.  C.  F.  CitAXDLER. 

La'go  Maggio're,  the  longcstof  the  lakes  of  Northern 
Icily,  situated  between  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  aud  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Ticino,  and  traversed,  or  rather  formed,  by  the 
river  Ticino,  which  carries  its  waters  to  the  Po,  is  40 
miles  long  aud  2  miles  broad,  and  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  its  aceuery.  wild,  rugged  granite  mountains  alternating 
TFith  vincelad  hills. 

Lagomy'id.'B  [from  Lagomys,  Xnyu;,  "hare,"  and  »»"s. 
"miuse,"  and  -idx],  a  family  of  mammals  of  the  order 
Glire.t  or  Kodesti.\  (which  see),  anil  sub-order  Duplieiden- 
tau,  externally  resenibliug  a  guinea-pig  [Cftvia  apcrcn) 
an  I  to  sonic  extent  a  rabbit,  having  a  squat  body,  with  the 
binder  limbs  not  very  greatly  exceeding  the  fore  ones,  the 
back  arched,  and  the  bu'tocks  projecting  backward:  the 
heal  is  deep,  but  the  profile  scarcely  arched  backward;  the 
eyes  small,  the  snout  hare-like,  the  ears  short,  and  the  tail 
almost  wanting.  The  skull  is  depressed,  the  rostral  portion 
motleratelv  produced  and  narrow,  and  the  interorbital  area 
narrow  and  without  well-delined  supraorbital  processes;  the 
orbits  are  oval  and  rather  small ;  the  nasal  processes  of  the 
Bupramaxillary  bones  have  each  a  single  largo  aperture, 
and  are  not  perforated  in  a  sieve-like  manner;  the  lower 
jaw  h-is  the  ascending  rami  nearly  vertical  and  the  con- 
dyles correspondingly  advanced,  and  the  angular  processes 
extend  very  little  forward.  The  teeth  have  the  four  upper 
and  two  lower  incisors  (j  ;<  2)  characteristic  of  the  Diipli- 
cidentati,  and  five  molars  in  each  jaw  ( M.  j  ;  P.  M.  §  X  2) ; 
the  upper  are  (as  in  the  Lcpuridiu)  mostly  (M.  2 ;  P.  M.  1) 
provided  with  vertical  grooves  on  the  outer  as  well  as  inner 
surface,  and  three  transverse  ridges  of  enamel,  but  on  the  last 
"asinall  extra  Ioop"i3  developed;  the  molars  of  the  lower 
j.iw  have  each  the  groove  on  the  outer  surface,  as  well  as 
inner,  very  strong.  The  clavicles  are  wanting.  This  fam- 
ily includes  a  few  species  combined  in  one  genus  (  Lfif/rtiiii/i, 
Cuv.),  which  was  formerly  associated  with  the  hares  and 
rabbits  in  the  same  family;  but  the  numerous  diiVcrenees 
between  the  two  groups  have  caused  modern  mammalogists 
to  separate  Ihcm.  The  Lagomyidte  are  of  amalUr  sine  than 
most  Leporida>,  tho  largest  not  exceeding  the  guinea-pig  in 
Bize;  they  inhabit  cold  mountain-regions,  and  species  are 
found  in  Xorthern  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe,  as  well  as  tho 
Himalaya  Mountains  and  tho  Rocky  Mountains,  the  latter 
being  the  Lnijumtjn  pvincept  of  Richardson,  or  the  "  little 
chief  hare."  Tiieodoke  Gii,l. 

Lagoon'  [Lat.  Incimii,  a  "hollow;"  Sp.  layuna],  a  shal- 
low lake,  usually  eommuuicating  with  the  sea  or  with  some 
river.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  water  enclosed  in 
tho  atolls  or  circular  coral  islands. 

La'gOS,  a  British  colony  on  the  coast  of  Dahomey,  W. 
Africa,  extending  from  tho  river  Yerewa  to  Ode.  Pop. 
obnut  OO.UDii,  uf  whom  less  than  lOn  are  whites.  The  prin- 
cipal settlement  is  on  tho  island  of  Lagos  in  tho  Bight  of 
Benin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ikorodu  Lagoon,  from  which  it 
derives  its  name.  The  territory  uuiler  British  protection 
extends  only  Ul  or  12  miles  inland.  The  trading-posts  are 
Ba'lagry,  Palma,  and  Leekie.  the  exports  being  palm  oil, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  groundnuta.  The  town  of  Lagos  has  a 
population  of  .'SO.OOU,  is  the  seat  of  Catholic  and  Wesleyan 
missions.  AVas  once  famous  for  the  slave-trade,  but  was 
conquered  in  ISJl,  and  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1801. 

Lagos,  town  of  Portugal  in  the  province  of  Algarvo, 
on  the  western  side  of  a  large  bay.  The  harbor,  however, 
is  not  lit  for  large  vessels.     Pop.  HiMO. 

Lagos,  city,  capital  of  a  canton  of  tho  same  name  in 
the  stale  of  Jalisco,  Mexico,  near  tho  frontier  of  tho  state 
of  (iuauajuain,  noted  for  its  fine  churches  and  factories,  and 
for  the  abundant  dcpusils  of  iron  ore  in  the  vicinity.  It  is 
acentral  point  in  .Mexico,  and  as  sueh  has  been  designated  as 
the  place  of  juEietion  of  the  three  principal  railroa<l»  to  be  built 
by  governincnl  aid,  and  which  will  cunneit  Lagos  rcspeet- 
ivelv  with  the  eily  of  Mexico,  with  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
with  tho  Pacific.     Pop.  about  25,1100;  of  canton,  1)0,000. 

Lagosto'mintc  ffrom  Laitottontun,  Aaywc  "  hare,"  and 
o-ron".  ■■  month."  and  -in/r],  a  sub-family  "f  the  family 
Chinehillidrt).  whose  only  known  species  is  ilistinguishcJ 
by  a  rat-like  form,  but  with  a  bushy  tail,  a  broad  muffle, 
upper  lip  with  a  vertical  groove  like  a  hare's  (ami  hence 
tho  name),  moilerate  ears,  ami  imperfect  feel — i'.  e.  tho  an- 
terior with  four  toes,  and  the  pnslerior  with  three,  the  for- 
mer having  eoinparativcly  short  and  pointed  nails,  and  tho 


latter  long,  compressed,  and  acutely-pointed  ones;  tho 
molar  teeth  have  mostly  only  two  narrow  lamelUe,  but  in 
the  hindermost  u]ipor  ones  are  three.  But  one  species  is 
known — the  viscacha  or  Ltujniii<,mua  lrii:hodaclijhis  or  muxi- 
mu»;  it  is  a  characteristic  animal  of  the  Pampas  of  South 
America,  where  it  burrows  in  a  clayey  or  sandy  soil;  it 
has  the  singular  habit  of  bringing  to  the  mouth  of  its  bur- 
row every  hard  object  which  takes  its  fancy,  such  as  bones 
and  stones.  Theodoue  Gili.. 

Lago'tis,  or  Lagidium,  a  genus  of  the  chinchilla 
family  of  mammuls.  with  two  species,  L.  Cnvteri  and  L. 
patlipes,  is  tho  mountain  viscacha.  inhabiting  the  west- 
ern slope  of  tho  .\ndcs  in  Chili,  Peru,  and  Ecuador,  and 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  viscacha  of  the  plains 
(Lnr/oatomiu).  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  hare,  and  burrows 
in  tile  rocks.  The  fur  is  long  and  soft,  and  falls  out  as  soon 
as  the  animal  is  dead. 

La  Grande,  post-tp..  cap.  of  Union  co.,  Or.,  on  the 
S.  side  of  tirandc  Ronde  Valley,  SO  miles  S.  E.  of  Walla 
Walla,  and  on  the  line  of  the  projected  Portland  Dalles 
and  Salt  Lake  R.  R.,  has  Federal  and  State  land-offices,  is 
supported  by  its  proximity  to  the  mines  of  Eastern  Oregon 
and  Idaho,  and  is  eslcbratcd  for  the  even  temperature  and 
heallhfulncss  of  its  climate.  There  is  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.' 6 10.  E.  S.  McCoMAS,  Rfjhler  Stule  Lands. 

La  Grange,  county  of  X.  E.  Indiana,  bounded  N.  by 
Michigan.  Area,  oS4  square  miles.  Its  surface  generally 
consists  of  level  ami  productive  oak-openings.  Cattle, 
grain,  wool,  and  lumber  arc  leading  products.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  (Iraod  Rapids  and  Indiana  R.  R.  Cap.  La 
Grange.     Pop.  14, US. 

La  Grange,  a  v.  of  Colbert  co.,  near  the  N.  W.  corner 
of  Alabama,  scat  of  La  l5rango  College,  a  thriving  Presby- 
terian institution  founded  in  ISIiO. 

La  Grange,  ip.  of  Lafayette  co.,  Ark.    Pop.  2784. 

La  Grange,  post-v.  of  Richland  tp.,  Phillips  co.. 
Ark.,  15  miles  N.  W.  of  Uelena.     Pop.  G2. 

La  Grange,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Troup  co.,  Ga.,  71 
miles  S.  W.  of  Atlanta,  on  the  .\tlanta  and  West  Point  R.  R., 
has  5  churches,  2  banks,  2  hotels,  2  female  colleges,  1  nialo 
high  school,  1  steam  grist-mill,  1  furniture  manufactory,  34 
stores,  sonic  of  the  finest  flower-gardens  in  tho  South,  aud  1 
weekly  newspaper,  the  oldest  in  tho  Sttitc,  which  won  tho 
$50  gold  medal  atthe  Georgia  State  fair  in  1S73.  Pop.  2053. 
.1.  T.  Wateumax,  Ei>.  "La  Grange  Rei'ohter." 

La  Grange,  tp.  of  Bond  eo.,  III.     Pop.  lOCO. 

La  Grange,  poat-v.,  cap.  of  La  Grange  co.,  Ind..  in 
tho  centre  of  the  county,  on  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana 
R.  R'.,  15  miles  N.  W.  of  Fort  Wayne,  has  4  churches,  2 
banks,  1  weekly  newspaper,  2  school-houses,  1  large  hotel, 
and  tho  usual  number  of  slores  and  shops.  Pop.  1038. 
JcjiiN  II.  Rahick,  Ed.  "Stanuahd." 

La  Grange,  Ip.  of  Harrison  co.,  la.     Pop.  308. 

La  Grange,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Oldham  eo.,  Ky.,  on  tho 
Louisville  arol  Cincinnati  R.  R.,  near  the  junction  of  tho 
Lexington  and  Louisville  R.  R.     Pop.  612. 

La  Grange,  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  co..  Me.,  on  tho 
Bangor  and  Piscataquis  R.  R.  It  has  good  water-power 
and  manufactures  of  lumber,  etc..  and  is  the  site  of  a  re- 
markable ridge,  the  result  of  glacial  action.     Pop.  622. 

La  Grange,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  Mich.,  4  miloa 
N.  W.  of  Cassopolis.     Pop.  1884. 

La  Grange,  city  of  Lewis  eo..  Mo.,  on  the  Mississippi 
River  and  Mississippi  Valley  and  Western  R.  R.,  175  miles 
above  St.  Louis.  II  above  tjuiney.  111.,  and  30  below  Keo- 
kuk, la.,  has  II  chuivhcs.  2  hotels,  1  national  bank,  I 
savings  bank,  1  weekly  newspaper,  a  chartered  enllege, 
tobacco  manufactories,  several  largo  flouring  and  planing 
mills,  a  mammoth  rolling-mill  for  turning  out  railroad  iron, 
and  considerable  river  mule.  Incorporateil  as  a  city  in 
lh53.     Pop.  1576.       It.  M.  Wai.i.aie,  En.  "  Demociiat." 

La  Grange,  tp.  of  Dutchess  co..  N.  Y.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Duiehess  and  Columbia  R.  R.,  and  contains  several 
villages.     Pop.  1774.  » 

La  Grange,  post-v.  of  Lenoir  co.,  N.  C._.  on  tho  Allan- 
tie  and  .N.irtb  Carolina  R.  R.,  II  miles  from'Gcdilsborongb, 
hap  2  churches.  2  curriage-shiqis.  4  secret  societies,  1  feninlo 
high  school,  I  weekly  newspaper,  and  ships  annually  3000 
bales  of  cotton.     Pop.  about  300. 

B.  W.  Nasii.  Ed.  "Baptist  Review." 

La  Grange,  a  v.  of  Wells  tp.,  JelTrrson  eo..O..  on  tho 
Ohio  River  and  on  tho  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg  R.  R. 
(Phillipsburg  P.  0.1.     Pop.  228. 

La  Grange,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  T,orain  eo.,  O.,  on  tho 
Clev.  laii.l  I'..luml.u8  and  Cincinnati  R.  R.,  24  miles  S.  W. 
of  Cleveland.     Pop.  LiOU. 


1608 


LA  GRANGE— LA  HAKPE. 


La  Grange,  post-v.  of  Bell  co.^  Tenn.,  oa  tho  Mem- 
phis ami  Charleston  R.  R.     Pop.  760. 

La  Grange,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Fayette  co.,  Tex.,  on  the 
E.  bank  of  Colorado  River,  25  miles  from  Columbus,  20 
miles  S.  of  the  Central  R.  K..  and  14  miles  N.  of  the  '"  Sunset 
Route,"  has  4  churches,  4  schools,  2  weekly  newspapers,  a 
public  hall,  and  20  or  more  business-houses.  Pop.  HGo. 
J.  J.  GosSLER,  Ed.  "  New  Era." 

La  Grantee,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Walworth  co..  Wis.,  8 
miles  E.  of  White  AVatcr,  a  station  on  the  Milwaukee  and 
Mississippi  R.  R.     Pop.  1039. 

Lagrange'  (Joseph  Lons),  b.  at  Turin  Jan.  25,  1736; 
d.  at  Paris  Apr.  10,  1S13.  He  was,  by  the  rivalship  of  La- 
place only,  says  Prof.  Nichol,  prevented  from  "  bein;;  held, 
by  comiuon  consent,  the  most  illustrious  geometer  of  mod- 
ern times."  Though  born  in  Italy,  as  his  name  indicates, 
ho  was  of  French  extraction.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  ho 
was  made  a  professor  of  geometry  in  the  Royal  School  of 
Artillery.  In  1766  he  was  invited  to  Berlin  by  Frederick 
11.  (who  as  the  "greatest  king"  expressed  the  desire  to 
have  the  "greatest  mathematician  "  of  Europe  at  his  court) 
to  succeed  Euler  as  mathematical  director  of  the  Academy, 
of  which  he  was  made  president.  Here  he  wrote  his  Me- 
cnuiffite  Anufiftirfue.  After  the  death  of  Frederick  (17S6) 
he  received  invitations  from  the  sovereign  of  his  native 
Sardinia,  as  well  as  those  of  Naples  and  Tuscany,  but  ulti- 
mately accepted  one  in  17S7  to  take  his  residence  at  Paris 
(receiving  a  pension  from  the  Academy,  of  which  he  had 
been  elected  in  1772  a  foreign  associate),  where  the  rest  of 
his  lite  wa?  passed. 

The  method  of  the  Variation  of  Parameters,  expounded 
to  a  certain  point  by  Euler,  but  perfected  by  Lagrange,  is 
one  of  his  important  contributions  to  analytical  mechanics. 
The  ellipse  which  a  planet  would  describe  around  the  sun 
were  there  no  other  attraction  undergoes  fluctuations  of 
form  by  attractions  of  other  heavenly  bodies.  The  essence 
of  the  method  in  question  is  that,  holding  fast  to  the  idea 
of  the  simple  curve — the  ellipse — though  it  be  never  real- 
ized, the  actual  motion  of  the  body  is  conceived  to  be  on 
an  elliptic  curve,  the  pantinctern  (or  elliptic  elements)  of 
which  are  ever  varying  through  the  disturbing  action  of 
foreign  attractions.  To  subject  this  motion,  which  under 
the  name  of  "revolving  orbits"  had  its  origin  with  New- 
ton, to  .analytical  calculation,  and  to  determine  the  in- 
fluence of  each  planet  in  disturbing  the  elliptic  motion  of 
othi^rs,  was  the  problem  the  solution  of  which  is  in  great 
degree  due  to  Lagrange.  As  a  natural  sequence  to  this 
problem  arising  out  of  this  perpetual  change  in  the  planet- 
ary orbits  comes  the  greater  problem  of  the  ataffilit^  mid 
pernntneiice  of  the  solar  sifateniy  the  establishment  of  which 
is  Lagrange's  greatest  achievement.  Tbe  orbits  being  thus 
in  constant  fluctuation,  it  is  of  the  highest  interest  to  know 
whether  the  resulting  changes  be  necessarily  limited  in 
amount,  or  whether  they  will  progressively  increase  until 
the  Htubilitij  of  the  solar  system  sball  be  destroyed. 

Lagrange  demonstrated  (though  Laplace  had  preceded 
him  with  a  partial  demonstration)  that  the  fluctuation  of 
the  orbital  elements  is  limited  to  small  amounts,  and  is 
periodic,  extending,  however,  through  long  periods  of  time. 
Thus,  €.  <f,,  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,  now  dimin- 
ishing, will  continue  to  do  so  for  21.000  years,  and  then 
begin  to  increase.  At  the  same  time  the  apsides  and  nodes 
are  in  motion.  The  grand  cycle  of  the  earth's  perihelion, 
which  coincided  with  the  vernal  equinox  4089  years  B.  C. 
(about  the  date  ehronologcrs  assigned  to  the  biidieal  as- 
count  of  the  Creation),  will  be  eoitipletcd  in  110,000  years, 

"Some  of  the  (orbital)  ellipses."  says  Prof.  Forbes  (6th 
Dissertation,  Eucyc.  lint.),  "will  elongate,  whilst  others  tend 
to  become  circles;  their  planes  will  vary  in  inclination, but 
ultimately  be  stayed  within  the  limit  which  human  saga- 
city had  predicted  myriads  of  years  before.  *  These.'  says  a 
French  analyst,  *  arc  the  jiendulums  of  elernity,  which  beat 
ages  whilst  ours  beat  seconds.*  And  amidst  all  these  varia- 
tions, subject  to  law  and  to  impassable  limits,  the  Major 
Axes  of  the  orbits  preserve  a  steadfast  uniformity,  or  are 
subject  only  to  transient  fluctuations  ;  and  thus  permanence 
arises  in  the  midst  of  tfhange,  and  the  perfection  of  the  sys- 
tem is  demonstrated  by  the  very  nature  of  the  disturbances 
which  seemed  at  one  time  inevitably  to  limit  its  duration." 
"  These  results  may  be  considered  as  among  the  most 
astonishing  with  which  science  brings  us  acquainted. 
The  range  of  insight  which  man  has  acquired  into  the  past 
and  future  history  of  the  universe  throughout  periods  cora- 
jiarcd  to  which  the  whole  existence  of  his  species  is  but  a 
epan,  enhances  our  admiration  of  the  reasoning  power 
which  can  attain  to  knr)wledgc  so  high  and  excellent." 

Laplace  had  asserted  the  invariability  of  the  major  axes 
of  the  planetary  orbits,  which  involves  the  fort  of  stability. 
But  Lagrange,  says  Prof.  Niehol,  "from  a  higher  flight, 
showed  the  necetaity  of  that  stability;"  and  that  it  resolts 


I  from  the  ditipogitions  of  the  elements  in  nearly  the  same 
plane — the  almost  circular  form  of  the  orbits,  and  the  uni- 
furni  direction  of  the  motions  therein.  The  iniportunce  of 
such  assurance  is  enhanced  when  one  is  reminded  that 
Newton  believed  that  our  system  contaiaed  the  seeds  of 
dissolution. 

After  the  mention  of  these  two  opera  mngiin  of  Lagrange, 
his  miunr  works,  though  there  is  scarce  a  topic  in  physical 
astronomy  or  in  mechanics  or  pure  mathematics  which  he 
has  not  touched  and  shed  liglit  upon,  must  be  passed  by 
without  notice.  (A  very  complete  enumeration  and  analysis 
of  his  writings  is  attached  to  his  biography  in  the  8th  ed. 
of  the  Kucye.  Brit.)  Happy  in  the  atlectionate  attach- 
ment of  the  young  wife  he  at  the  age  of  fifty-six  had  mar- 
ried (his  first  wife  dying  soon  after  marriage,  twenty  years 
before),  living  in  intimate  relations  with  Laplace,  Euler, 
D'AIenibert,  and  other  renowned  contemporaries,  escaping 
the  misfortunes  to  which  the  French  Revolution  subjected 
nearly  all  his  contemporaries,  and  retaining  throughout  his 
scientitic  appointments,  Lagrange's  residence  in  Paris  was 
tranquil,  and  he  died  universaily  respected  and  regretted. 
"Take  him  as  a  whole,"  says  Prof.  Nichol,  "abstnict  sci- 
ence has  in  modern  times  possessed  no  other  servant  so 
great."  J.  G.  Barsard. 

La  Granja,  or  Sau  Ildefon'so,  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  (»f  Segovia,  with  a  magnificent  palace  built 
in  1724^  by  Philip  V.,  and  situated  about  4000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Here  Maria  Christina  was  surprised  (Aug.  13, 
I83fi)  by  a  number  of  conspirators  and  compelled  to  restore 
the  constitution  of  1S12.     Pop.  3S50. 

La  Greux,  tp.  of  Arkansas  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  355. 

La  Gro,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Wabash  co.,  Ind.,  is  on 
the  Toledo  Wabash  and  Western  R.  R.,  W' abash  and  Erie 
Canal,  and  Wabash  River.     Pop.  of  v.  519;  of  tp.  4066. 

La  Guay'ra,  town  of  Venezuela,  South  America,  the 
harbor  of  Caraccas,  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the 
sea  and  the  wall  of  the  inland  plateau,  which  rises  at  onea 
to  a  height  of  about  3000  feet.  It  is  one  of  the  hottest 
places  on  earth,  very  unhealthy,  and  often  visited  by  earth- 
quakes. Its  harbor  is  an  entirely  open  roadstead,  where 
the  water  is  always  agitated,  and  where  loading  and  un- 
loading are  very  difiicult.  It  is  nevertheless  the  principal 
port  of  Venezuela,  and  the  importation  of  manufactured 
goods  and  the  exportation  of  coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  sugar, 
indigo,  and  hides  are  extensive.     Pop.  about  8000. 

La  Gueronnierc,  de  (Lons  Ktiexne  Arthur  Dt?- 
BRKriL  Hkliux),  Viscoi  XT,  b.  in  Poitou,  France,  in  1816. 
In  18J0  ho  became  chief  editor  of  the  Puye-  and  attracted 
great  attention  by  his  Portraits  polit it jtttn  o^  Louis  Napo- 
leon and  the  count  of  Chambord.  After  the  ctmp  d'hat 
of  Bee.  18jI,  ho  became  a  decided  supporter  of  Napo- 
leon, was  elected  a  deputy,  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
aeil  d'£tat  (1853),  and  took  charge  in  tlie  ministry  of 
the  interior  of  the  delicate  relations  of  the  government 
to  the  press  and  to  literature,  in  which  capacity  his  con- 
ciliating manners  enabled  him  to  discharge  his  functions 
with  advantage.  In  ISGl  he  was  made  senator,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  most  popular  orators,  especially  on  the 
questions  relating  to  Italy  and  to  home  government.  In 
1S6S  he  was  made  ambassador  to  Belgium.  Ao  a  writer, 
M.  do  La  Gueronnidre  became  tbe  most  trusted  organ  of  the 
Napoleonic  policy,  and  his  pamphlets  {brochure*)  were 
often  the  first  indication  of  coming  events. 

La  HarpC)  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Hancock  co..  UK,  on  the 
Toledo  Peoria  and  Warsaw  R.  R..  at  the  junction  of  the 
Burlington  branch.  It  has  1  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  1741. 

La  Harpe,  de  (Fhkokric  Cesah),  b.  at  Rolle  in  the 
canton  of  Vaud.  Switzerland,  in  1754  ;  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Tdbingcn  :  became  tutor  to  a  younir  Kussian 
nobleman,  with  whom  he  travelled  through  Italy  and 
France,  and  was  recommended  by  Baron  t^rimm  to  Cath- 
arine II.,  who  appointed  him  tutor  to  her  two  grandsons, 
Alexander  and  Constantinc.  His  enthusiasm  for  the 
French  Revolution  made  his  stay  in  Russia  somewhat  diffi- 
cult, and  in  171'3  he  left  the  country,  but  received  a  pension 
for  life,  and  resided  partly  in  tienevn,  partly  in  or  near 
Paris,  until  1S14.  On  his  visit  to  Paris  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander received  his  former  tutor  with  great  esteem,  made 
him  a  Russian  general,  and  exercised  through  him  consid- 
eralile  influence  on  the  political  reorganization  of  Switxer- 
land.     In  I8I7  returned  to  Lausanne.     D.  Mar.  30,  1838. 

La  Harpc,  de  (Jean  Frax^ois),  b.  at  Paris  Nov.  20, 
1731);  made  his  debut  as  a  poet  in  1759  with  a  volume  of 
ffrro'idefi,  wrote  Waririck-  ( 1763),  Tinudeon  ( 1764),  and  two 
other  tragedies ;  was  in  176S  literary  critic  on  the  Merciire 
dr  France ;  gained  several  prizes  from  the  Academy;  ob- 
tained applause  by  a  drama,  Meiauie,  oh  la  lieliffieit^e 
(1776) :  was  elected  member  of  the  Academy,  and  in  1786 
appointed  professor  of  literature  at  the  oewly-establisbed 


LAIIASKA— LAITY. 


1609 


LycC'C.  Hero  largo  audiences  gathered  year  after  year  to 
hear  his  lectures  on  literature,  from  which  originated  his 
best  worlc.  ('onm  de  hi  titt/rttfiirc  nnct'emie  ct  inotlente  {10 
voU.,  nyO-ISOo).  Embraced  the  Revolution  with  great 
enthudiasin,  and  lectured  with  the  red  cap  on  hie  head. 
Was  nevertheless  arrested  and  kept  in  prison  for  some  time, 
and  this  incident  wrought  a  sin<;ular  change  in  him;  the 
philofiopher  of  the  school  of  Voltaire  beearae  a  fervent 
Cath'tlic.  As  a  poet,  La  Ilurpe  is  entirely  forgotten,  but 
his  Count  fit;  ta  littfrntHfe  is  still  an  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive book,  in  spite  of  the  superficiality  and  harshness  with 
which  some  parts  are  treated.     D.  Feb.  11,  180-'{. 

Ijahas'kaf  po^^t-v.  of  nuckingham  tp.,  Bucks  co.,  Pa., 
6  miles  N.  K.  of  Doylestown. 

Lahijail%  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Ghi Ian.  near 
the  Caspi.ni  Sea.    It  has  some  silk  mLinufactures.   Pop.  "000. 

La  IIoutan%  de  (Aumaxd  Loris  de  Dklondaiue). 
BviEON,  b.  near  Alont  dc  Marsan,  Ciascony,  France,  about 
Itl(i7j  camo  to  Canada,  probably  0^3  a  private  soldier,  in 
I6S:i,  in  one  of  the  companies  of  marines  sent  by  Gov.  de 
la  liarre  agaiust  the  Iroquois,  and  was  afterward  in  De- 
DOQvillo's  expedition  against  the  SenccaSi  being  stationed 
successively  at  Chambly  and  at  Forts  Frontenac,  Niagara, 
and  .'^t.  Jiisoph's.  In  ItiGS  he  was  sent  to  Michilimackinac 
and  .*^auU  .Ste.  Marie,  was  at  Green  Bay  in  KiG'J,  and  pre- 
tended to  have  explored  the  head-waters  of  a  branch  of 
the  Mississippi.  Returning  to  Quebec,  he  sailed  for 
Franco  in  lO'JO,  came  back  the  following  year,  and  was 
sent  by  Count  Frontenac  witli  despatches  to  the  French 
government  announcing  the  failure  of  Sir  WilHiim  Pliipps' 
expedition  against  Quebec,  The  vessel  put  in  to  Placentia, 
Newfoundland,  and  La  Ilontan  rendered  such  good  service 
in  defending  that  port  from  an  attack  by  the  English  that 
ho  received  a  command  as  lieutenant  in  Newfoundland 
and  Acadia.  In  lOUil  he  became  involved  in  difliculties 
with  the  governor,  mado  his  escape  to  Portugal  in  a  mer- 
chant vessel,  and  thence  passed  to  Spain,  Denmark,  and 
England.  Having  been  dismissed  from  the  French  service, 
and  being  unsuccessful  in  his  endeavors  for  reinstatement, 
he  published  at  the  Hague  in  170,'i  his  adventures  in  America 
under  the  title  Xomcnux.  \'tn/a;/r9  tie  M.  te  bnrnn  de  La- 
hutttnn  ilan»  I' Ameriffue  S*jjlentrinii<ile  (2  vols.),  and  added 
a  third  volume,  iJinlot/ue  tie  if.  Ic  baron  de  Lahontaa  et 
d'uH  tauvntje  dunn  i' AuUiitfue,  avcc  lea  rut/af/ea  du  mime  en 
/'oWtiya/ (Amsterdam,  1704).  These  volumes  were  widely 
Girculatc<l,  bnt  are  entirely  untrustworthy  for  details  of 
fact,  the  geography  and  ethnography  of  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi being  completely  fictitious,  though  lung  relied  upon 
by  compilers,     U.  in  Hanover  in  1715, 

Lahore',  the  jirincipal  city  of  the  Punjaub,  British 
Iniiia,  ;<ituatrd  on  tlie  western  bank  of  the  Ravee,  in  lat. 
:U^;ili'N.  and  Ion.  "I^IH'E.  The  eity  itself  is  surrounded 
with  a  high  brick  wall,  and  consi.-^ls  mostly  of  narrow, 
dirty,  and  overerowtled  streets  between  high  houses,  which 
present  only  bare  walls  toward  the  streets.  But  it  has 
many  magnilicent  Mohammedan  mosques  and  Hindoo 
temples,  iiri'l  its  extensive  bazaars  arc  well  stocked.  Out- 
side the  wall  arc  other  fortifiealioiis,  strctehing  7  miles  in 
circuit,  enclosing  the  most  bcautit'ul  antl  luxuriant  gardens 
and  promenades,  interspersed  with  large  monuments  and 
ruins  of  tlie  former  Hfilendor  of  the  city,  when  it  was  tho 
residenee  of  the  Mogul  emperors  iind  luul  I.IIDOJHIO  inhab- 
itants. Sinec  I'SPJ  it  has  been  a  Ih'ilit'h  po^scsi-ion.  and  it 
is  said  to  be  rising  again.  Its  present  pop,  is  estimated  at 
about  100,000. 

Lalir,  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
on  tliu  Shatter.  It  has  some  mamifaetures  of  sailcloth, 
vine;^ir,  tobacei>,  and  paper.      Pop.  7103. 

I^nh'sa^or  Kl*.Vir»ta  i  whieh  tatter  word  in  the  Arabio 
language  means  a  tract  of  land  where  (he  water  sinks 
through  tho  surface,  but  is  rt^tiiiiied  by  a  lower  layer),  tho 
name  of  an  independent  i|oniini<m,  situated  on  tho  eastern 
shore  of  Arabia.  00  miles  S.  W.  uf  Katif.  in  lat.  2.>°  25'  N., 
Ion.  -10°  I.V  E.,  anil  comprising  nn  extensive  valley,  fertile 
and  well  watered,  and  a  largo  capital,  tlmirishing  and  well 
built.  Wheat,  millet,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  cultivated,  and  horses  and  sheep  are  extensively  reared, 
but  dales  and  camels  arc  the  two  principal  items  of  tho 
wealth  of  tho  country.  The  population  of  (he  distriet 
numbers  about  50,000  ;  of  tho  town,  about  lO.iMHI.  The 
former  namo  of  tho  tribe  and  its  abode  was  Iledjaz.  A 
small  trilmlo  is  annually  paid  to  tho  Turkish  sultan. 

Iini'l>aeh«  or  Laybnoh,  town  of  Austria,  cap.  of 
duehy  of  ''arniidn,  beautifully  siluatrd  on  n  plain  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  nmd  from  Vienna  to  Trieste,  is 
an  olil  town,  with  some  manufaetures,  n  eonsidorabJo  trade, 
many  good  edueational  institutions,  and  several  intoresting 
buildings  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  cathedral  of  St.  Nicholas, 
the  G.ithio  town-house,  the  castle-  and  tho  palace  of  Count 
Aueraberg.     Pop.  23,032. 


Laid'lie  ( ARriiiBAi-n),  D.  D.,  b,  at  Kelso,  Scotland,  Dec. 
4,  1727:  graduated  nt  the  University  of  Edinburgh:  was 
ordained  in  1 75'.'.  and  was  for  four  years  pastor  of  the  Scotch 
church  at  Flushing,  Holland,  where  he  acquired  a  know- 
ledge of  the  l>uteii  language  and  the  theology  of  Ihc  He- 
formed  (Dutch)  Church,  with  which  ho  was  thenceforth 
conneeted.  As  a  consetpieneo  of  a  sharp  controversy  in 
New  York  as  to  the  language  to  bo  used  in  preaching  to 
the  churches  founded  by  the  Dutch  colonists.  Dr.  Laidlie 
was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Collegiate  church,  and  on 
Apr.  15.  1704,  preached  at  the  Mitldle  Dutch  church  the 
first  English  sermon  addressed  by  a  regular  pastor  to  an 
American  Dutch  congregation.  His  ministry  was  marked 
with  great  popularity  and  success.  Early  in  the  war  of 
the  Revolution  ho  retired  from  New  York  to  Red  Hook, 
N.  J.,  where  he  d.  in  1778. 

Laing  ( Ai.i-:xAM)i:u  GoutxiNl.b.  in  Edinburgh.  Scotland, 
Dee.  27,  1701.  entered  the  British  iirniy  :  served  some  3'enr3 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  was  in  ISl^O  aide-de-camp  to  the 
governor  of  Sierra  Leone.  AVas  employed  in  negotia- 
tions with  African  chieftains  for  the  supjiression  of  the 
slave-trade,  and  explored  the  upper  course  of  the  Niger. 
Returning  to  England,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major,  nnil  in  1820  undertook  an  overland  journey  from 
the  Meiliterranean  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Setting  out 
from  Tripoli  in  July  with  a  caravan  of  native  traders, 
reached  Timbuctno  in  August,  but  was  s<ion  after  murdered 
near  that  city.  Hud  [lublishid  an  account  of  his  earlier 
explorations.  Travels  throHtjh  the  Tlnumncc,  Kooraitkoy  and 
SoolliiKt  Cinintriea  to  the  Sources  of  the  Rokelle  and  Niger 
(London.  1825). 

Laillg  (Mau'OI.m),  h.  on  tho  island  of  Mainland,  Ork- 
neys, in  1702;  studiecl  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  ond 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  17.'^5,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  literature.  Wrote  a  continuation  (»f  Henry's  JIiHtory 
of  Great  Itrita'in  (17^5),  and  a  ffiM(<»ri/  of  Scotland  frovi  the 
Union  of  the  (h'ownn  to  the  Union  of  the  Kinf/do/im  (ISOO), 
with  dissertations  on  tho  Gowry  conspiracy  and  on  tho 
Ossian  poems,  adding  in  the  second  edition  an  essay  ar- 
guing the  guilt  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in  the  murder  of 
Darnicy.  Was  eleeted  o  member  of  Parliament  in  1S07, 
and  d.  in  the  Orkneys  in  Nov.,  1818. 

Laillg  (SAMfKL).  of  Rapdale,  Orkney,  brother  of  Mal- 
colm, was  author  of  several  of  the  most  instructive  works 
of  travel  published  in  the  ju'cscnt  century.  Among  them 
are  books  on  Xorwai/  {IS'M),  Sictdcn  (IS.'iS).  Xofcn  of  a 
Trardlcr  in  Franrr^  Prwaiia,  and  Switzerland  (1841),  iSV>- 
cial  and  PuUtical  State  of  the  European  People  in  IS/fS  and 
IS49  {\^o(\),  and  Ohnervations  on  the  Social  and  Political 
State  of  Denmark  (IS52). 

Lainf;(SAMii:i.),b.  at  Edinburgh,  Scotlnnd.  in  1810,  son 
of  Samuel  Laiiig  the  traveller;  graduate'!  nt  Cambridge 
(is;i2j,  and  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1840;  became  private  secretary  of  Mr.  Labouchere.  presi- 
dent of  tho  board  of  trade,  ami  afterward  a  member  of  tho 
railway  commission,  and  had  much  to  ilo  with  the  relations 
of  tho  government  to  the  railways,  then  bi-ing  rapidly  ex- 
tentlod.  To  his  eft'orfs  the  public  were  indebted  for  tho 
convenience  of  "  juirlianienlary  trains"  at  a  minimum  rate 
of  payment  of  one  penny  per  mile.  In  I8IH  he  became 
eluiiriuitn  of  the  Brighton  Railway  Company,  in  IS.>2 
chairnnm  ol  the  Crystal  Palace  Company;  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1852  for  his  native  district  ;  was  finaneial  secretary 
to  the  treasury  in  1859,  and  wont  to  India  in  I8fi0  as  min- 
ister of  finance.  Returning  in  1805,  he  again  entered  Par- 
liament, and  resumed  in  1807  tho  chairmanship  of  the 
Brighton  Railway  Company. 

Lniiips'hurf;,  posl-v.  of  Shiawassee  eo.,  Mich.,  on  (he 
Jaekson  Lansing  and  Snginaw  R.  R.  It  has  manufaoturcB 
of  castings  and  lumber. 

Lnird  I.Toun).  h.  at  Grcenoek,  Scotland,  in  1805,  was 
the  lirst  buibler  of  iron  steamshijis  in  isjit.  and  was  for 
many  years  head  of  the  great  firm  of  .lohn  Laird  A  Sons, 
iron  shipbuilders  and  engineers  at  Birkenhe»d.  near  Liver- 
pool, As  builder  of  the  Conferlcrate  jirivnteer  Alabama 
his  name  has  become  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  American 
civil  war.  Mr.  Laird  filled  many  posts  of  responsibility  in 
conneetion  with  eiunmeree  and  jiublie  works,  ancl  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  from  iHOl  until  his  death  at  Birken- 
hen.i.  O.-t.  2'.i.  IS7I. 

liair^A  StntioUt  postv.  of  Harrison  co..  Ky.,  on  tho 
Kentueky  Central  R.  R. 

I<n'itv  [remotely  from  the  Gr.  Aadc,  the  "  pe<tple'*].  a 
term  ehietly  used  to  distinguish  the  unordaineil  peopio 
from  the  elergy.  The  term  is  also  sometimes  employed  by 
persons  in  the  professions  of  medieine  and  law  to  distin- 
guish non-professional  from  professional  persons.  So  also 
mi'tnbers  of  certain  voluntary  associations  speak  of  tho  un- 
initiated OS  the  laity.  Convents  have  lay  brothers  and  lay 
sisters  and  lay  eldors,  lay  prooohors. 


IGIO 


LAJAED— LAKE. 


M 


Liuard'  (Jean  Baptiste  Felix),  b.  at  Lyons,  France, 
ar  :iO,  1783;  aocouipaniuJ  as  secretiiry  a  mission  to  Per- 
sia in  lSn7;  liccuino  iuturested  in  the  study  of  OrifUtal  re- 
li'ions  and  Oriental  intlui-nccs  upon  ancient  Orocci',  and 
iinido  a  fine  colleetiou  of  cuneiform  cylinders,  wliieh  were 
obtained  bv  the  luiiierial  Library,  liy  tlic  aid  of  the 
labors  of  Boi.p  and  Schlegel  in  the  young  science  ol  com- 
parative philologv,  as  well  as  by  bis  own  researches.  La- 
iud  was  enabled  to  broach  a  theory  of  the  common  origin 
of  the  races  now  called  Arvan,  which  has  since  been  con- 
firmed in  most  points,  lie  filled  diplomatic  posts  in  Greece, 
Russia,  .and  Penniark  until  the  tall  of  Napoleon  I. ;  was 
afterward  employed  in  the  liuaneial  department;  was  elect- 
ed in  18:!0  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  luscriptioos,  and 
wrote  most  of  vols,  xviii.  and  xi.\.  of  tho  vast  work  edited 
hv  that  body,  nUl„u-e  littcrairo  ,le  la  Fmm-c,  his  oontri- 
bntions  bein<'  upon  tho  early  rabbins,  soliolasties,  and  ju- 
risconsults. Of  his  numerous  and  learned  miscellaneous 
writings,  the  most  important  is  tho  lleclurchet  sur  te  Cnlle 
publiiPrI  Ut  .T/:/./J,v»  ,le  MUhra  en  Orient  ct  en  Occident 
(Paris,  1S17-48').     V.  at  Tours  in  Sept.,  1858. 

Lakanal'  (.Ioseph),  b.  at  Seires,  France,  July  14, 1762 ; 
studied  theology ;  became  professor  of  ihetorio  at  Bourgcs, 
and  of  pbilosophv  at  .Moulins:  was  elected  to  the  National 
Convention:  dislin>;uished  himself  by  his  solicitude  for  the 
io'c-P^t,  of  the  sciences  and  of  literature  ;  was  the  princi- 
pal founder  of  the  Museum  of  Natural    llisloiy,  of  the 
AcaAemy  of  Sciences,  and  other  institutions  of  higher  edu- 
cation ;  'entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  (17'.)5) ;  was 
professor  at  the  Lvcee  Charlemagne  under  tho  consulate 
and  empire  :  was  a' refugee  in  1815.  as  having  voted  for  tho 
dea'hof  Louis  XVI.;  settled  in  the  U.S.;  was  favored  by 
Jefferson ;   received  from  Congress  a  grant  of  500  acres  of 
cotton-land  in  Alabama,  and  became  a  planter;  was  chosen 
president    of  the    University   of   Louisiana;    returned  to 
France  after  the  revolution  of  1830  ;  was  re-elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1831,  and  d.  at  Paris  Feb.  14, 1845. 
Lake  [Lat.  hicua],  a  body  of  water  nearly  or  quite  sur- 
rounded bv  land.     Lakes  derive  their  forms  .and  character 
fr.ini  the  iialurc  of  their  basins  and  tho  region  in  which 
tbev  arc  found.     Mountain-lakes,  being  valleys  filled  by 
runnin"  streams,  are  long  and  narrow,  rarely  of  great  size, 
but  often  of  great  depth.     Lake  George  and  Lake  Cham- 
plain   in  the  Appalachian  .Mountains,  the  lakes  of  Con- 
s'ance.  Zurich.  Lucerne,  and  Geneva  on  the  N.  side,  Lago 
Ma'i-iore  and  Lago  di  Como  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Alps,  all 
renowned  for  the  beauty  and  loveline.«3  of  their  shores  or 
the  grandeur  of  the  surrounding  seen.^ry.  are  fair  cx.amples. 
TheTr  length  exceeds  their  width  twenty  or  thirty  times. 
The  depth^of  Lago  M,ig;iore,  which  is  hardly  3  miles  wide, 
reaches,  according  to  the  Italian  engineers.  2f.l3  feet  below 
its  surface,  or  more  than  double  the  depth  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  1921)  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.    .-Jometimes  their 
forms  arc  very  irregular,  for  the  water  of  a  mountain-lake 
often  covers  several  contiguous  valleys,  as  in  the  Lago  di 
Como,  with  its  two  long  branches,  and  the  lakes  of  Lucerne 
and  Lugano,  which  owe  their  strange  and  crooked  form  to 
the  fact" that  each  fills  four  distinct  valleys,  crossing  each 
other  almost  at  right  angles. 

Lakes  in  plains  and  plateaus,  being  simple  depressions  in 
a  uniform  snrfaee,  arc  generally  of  larger  size,  and  wider  , 
compared  to  their  length,  but  relatively  of  no  great  depth,  i 
The  larg'-sl  lakes  of  the  globe,  the  so-called  Caspian  and 
Aral  seas  in  Asia,  the  eciuatorial  lakes  of  Central  Africa,  the 
great  North  American  lakes,  and  Lake  Titieaca  in  South 
America,  all  belong  to  this  class.  Their  vast  expanse  and 
the  tamcness  of  their  shores  deprive  them  of  the  picturesque 
beauties  whicb  adorn  the  mountain-lakes. 

Most  lakes  receive  and  send  forth  large  rivers,  of  which 
tbev  seein  to  bo  an  expansion.  In  their  basins  the  wild 
alpine  torrents  spend  their  force,  and  their  muddy  waters 
flow  out  purified  and  transparent.  The  lakes  arc  thus  the 
regulators  of  the  mountain-streams,  preventing  ilestructivo 
freshets  ;  they  perform  the  same  office  in  the  low  plains. 

Snii  Lnkct. — Numerous  lakes,  however,  in  the  interior 
of  the  continents,  though  receiving  aflluents.  have  no  out- 
let, some  of  their  water  losing  itself  in  the  sandy  ground, 
but  the  greater  portion  passing  into  the  atmosphere  by 
evaporation.  These  are  usually  filled  with  salt  water.  All 
tho  surf.ace  of  the  continents  being  an  olil  sea-bottom,  the 
presence  of  salt  is  very  natural.  Fresh-water  rivers  and 
lakes  can  only  bo  found  after  the  surface  has  been  thor- 
ouzhly  wa.dicd  and  the  salt  carried  away  by  streams  hav- 
ing access  to  the  ocean.  The  Caspian  and  the  Aral  seas, 
nt^the  bottom  of  the  vast  depression  which  lies  between 
Europe  and  .\sia,  arc  the  most  extensive  salt  lakes.  The 
Caspian  Sea,  though  receiving  tho  Volga,  the  largest  river 
of  Kurnpe,  and  many  others  of  considerable  size,  evaporates 
so  much  ivater  that  its  surface  has  been  found  by  the  Unssian 
academicians  to  be  S3  feet  below  tlio  level  of  the  Mediter- 


ranean, and  varying  with  the  seasons.  Many  lakes  in  tho 
neighborhood  ooze  away  during  the  summer,  leaving  a 
pure,  white  crystalline  crust  of  salt.  One  of  them,  tho 
Ellon  Lake,  between  tlic  Volga  and  Ural  rivers,  furnishes 
thus  an  annual  crop  of  over  100.000  tons  of  salt. 

More  remarkable  than  all  is  the  Dead  .Sea,  which  lice  in 
the  deepest  part  of  a  long  valley,  sunk  from  4000  to  51.00 
feet  below  the  surrounding  country,  its  surface  being  1286 
feet,  and  its  bottom  over  2500  feet,  lower  than  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  feeder,  the  river  Jordan,  alone 
among  the  streams  of  the  earth.  acconi)dishcs  nc;irly  its 
wholc'career  below  the  level  of  tlic  sea.  When  expanding 
into  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  the  beautiful  sheet  of  water  whose 
shores  witnessed  so  many  of  Christ's  miracles,  it  is  nearly 
C20  feet  below  the  surface  of  tho  Mciliterranean.  I!y  an- 
other long  step  of  over  610  feet  downward  its  fresh  waters 
mingle  with  the  bitter  floods  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  this  last 
reservoir  the  salt  has  accumulated  so  as  to  transform  the 
water  into  a  heavy  brine,  which  may  be  the  remnant  of  an 
ancient  sea  of  miieh  l»rger  extent,  gradually  reduced  by 
evaporation  to  its  present  si/.c.  The  other  continents  have 
also  their  salt  lakes,  and  North  America  can  boast  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
its  kind. 

O'cntiraphical  Dialiihiilmu  <,/ intr».— Lakes  are  not  uni- 
formly spread  over  the  contineuts.  They  are  most  numerous 
in  the  northern  regions  of  Asia,  Europe,  and  North  America, 
but  more  thinly  scattered  farther  S.  and  in  the  southern 
continents.  .\sia  is  pre-eminently  the  land  of  the  salt 
lakes.  Both  in  its  north-western  steppes  from  the  Caspian 
to  Lake  B.alkash.  and  in  its  vast  central  highlands,  they 
occur  in  countless  numbers.  The  Altai  and  Daourian 
mountains,  however,  contain  the  largest  alpine  lakes,  among 
which  the  kingly  Baikal,  nearly  500  miles  long,  holds  the 
first  place. 

In  Europe  the  most  characteristic  and  celebrated  are  the 
mountain-lakes  which  adorn  the  Alps  of  Switzerland  and 
Scandinavia,  and  the  more  modest  chains  of  the  British 
Isles.  But  the  greater  number  and  the  largest  are  found 
on  the  slight  swells  an'l  in  lowlands  which  surround  the 
Baltic  Sea  in  Northern  Germany,  Western  Uussia,  Finland, 
and  Sweden.  The  lakes  of  Ladoga  and  Onega  in  Kussia, 
and  those  of  Wcner  and  Wetter  in  Sweden,  are  the  most 
extensive  among  the  European  lakes. 

In  Africa  the  great  platcau-lakcs  ore  typical  of  the 
continent.  The  majestic  Ukcrewe,  or  Victoria  Nyanza, 
and  the  Albert  Nyanza  at  the  sources  of  the  White,  the 
Tzana  at  the  head'of  the  Blue  Nile,  Lakes  Bangwcolo  and 
Tanganyika,  probable  head-waters  of  the  Congo,  Lake 
Nya"si  in  the  Zambese  basin,  are  all  crowning  the  table- 
lands of  Central  Africa. 

But  North  .America  is  peculiarly  rich  in  this  respect. 
Ko  continent  presents  a  more  remarkable  chain  of  large 
lakes  than  that  which  stretches  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  in  the 
Arctic  plains,  along  the  line  of  contact  of  the  oldest  geo- 
logical formations,  to  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  compris- 
ing the  Great  Bear  and  Great  Slave  lakes.  .Athabasca.  Lake 
Winnipeg,  and  the  five  great  lakes  from  Superior  to  On- 
tario, forming  together  the  largest  extent  of  fresh  water 
on  the  face  of  the  earth.  This  abundance  of  lakes  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent  renders  their  almost  com- 
plete absence  in  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  the  more  re- 
markable. AknoldGiyot. 

Lake.  This  term  is  applied  to  pigments  prepared  by 
com. lining  animal  or  vegetable  dyes  with  melnllic  oxides, 
usually  alumina  or  oxide  of  tin.  Almost  all  coloring-inatterB 
may  be  made  to  produce  lakes,  but  in  practice  a  few  only 


arc  found  available  for  this  purpose. 


Lakes  are  used  as 


pigments  for  painting,  for  wall-paper,  and  in  calico-print- 

Itcd  in/.v«.— (1)  Carmine  lake,  called  also  Florentine, 
Vienna,  Munich,  and  Paris  lake.  This  has  a  beautiful  red 
color,  and  is  the  finest  of  all  lakes.  It  is  made  by  adding 
an  alkali  to  a  decoction  of  cochineal  mixed  with  alum.  In- 
ferior cochineal,  and  the  residues  and  mother-liquors  from 
the  preparation  of  carmine,  arc  employed  for  carmine  lake. 
This  lake  was  manufactured  at  Florence  from  kcrincs  before 
cochineal  was  known  in  Europe.  A  finer  lake  may  be 
made  by  adding  freshly  precipitated  alumiua  to  the  mother- 
liquor  from  carmine.  (2l  -Madder  lake(»ler.  Krn/./.r.irmine) 
is  extensivclv  prepared.  It  has  a  more  or  less  deep  rosc- 
colnr.  with  a'bluish  tint.  The  following  is  Persoz's  process 
for  preparing  it ;  Madder  is  washed  with  cold  water  wherein 
some  sulphate  of  soda  is  previously  dissolved,  and  boiled 
for  about  twentv  minutes,  with  ten  times  its  weight  of  a 
10  per  cent,  solution  of  alum  free  from  iron.  The  liquid  is 
filtered  and  cooled  to  40°  or  35°.  The  red-colored  solution 
is  then  treated  either  (.i)  by  saturating  cautiously  with  car- 
bonate of  soda  equal  to  from  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  the 
weight  of  the  alum  used,  so  as  to  cause  the  formation  of  a 
i  basic  alum,  which  remains  in  solution,  aud  which  is  pre- 


LAKE. 


1611 


cipitatcd  on  boiling,  as  an  insoluble  basic  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina, bulilin;;  ull  tbe  coloring-matter  in  combination.  Or 
III)  by  uililiii.;  a  solution  of  acclatc  <pf  Icail.  containing  7S 
parts  of  tbe  s:»lt  for  every  100  of  alura  used,  tiltering  Irom 
the  precipitated  sulphate  of  lead,  and  boiling  to  precipitate 
a  colored  basic  acetate  of  alumina.  This  is  much  finer  than 
tiiat  precipitated  by  carbonate  of  so. hi.  Flowers  of  madder, 
garaucino.  or  other  preparations  of  ma  Jdcr  may  lie  used  iu 
phice  of  tiic  root.  The  coloring-matter  of  madder  may  be 
extracted  by  an  alkaline  solution,  and  precipitated  by  alum. 
(.!)  lirazil-ivood  lake,  known  also  as  Vienna  ball-lake,  Flor- 
en:ine,  Berlin,  new  lake,  etc.  The  wood  is  boiled  with 
water,  and  the  solution  should  be  left  some  time  to  permit 
certain  impurities  to  .settle.  The  addition  of  a  little  glue 
or  skimmed  milk  is  advantageous.  A  solution  of  alum  and 
tin  crystals  is  added,  ami  precipitation  effected  by  caustic 
potash,  taking  care  not  to  add  an  exe 'ss,  or  by  carbonate 
of  soda.  A  slight  excess  of  potash  gives  the  lake  a  violet 
tint. 

Kio('f  (inrf  Purple  Lakes. — (1)  Logwood  gives  a  violet 
lake  on  the  addition  of  an  alum  solution  to  its  doeoction, 
and  precipitation  cold  by  carbonate  of  potash.  (2)  Alknnet 
yielrls  a  purple  lake  when  tbe  finely-cut  roots  are  boiled 
with  potash,  and  the  solution  is  precipitated  by  alum, 

Yellmr  Lnkef. — ( 1 )  Persian  or  French  berries  furn  ish  a  yel- 
low lake  called  Dutch  pink.  Potash  or  soda  is  ndiled  to  tbe 
decoction,  and  then  a  solution  of  alum  is  poureil  in  as  long 
as  a  precipitate  occurs.  Tbe  color  is  brightened  by  treat- 
ing the  moist  precipitate  with  a  tin  solution.  (2)  Fustic 
lake  :  the  decoction  of  the  wood  is  treated  with  a  litllo  gluo 
or  skimmed  milk  to  remove  tannic  acid,  then  made  alka- 
line, anrl  precipitated  with  alum.  (.'!)  Qiicrcilnm  lake  is 
miide  in  the  same  manner.  ( t)  Weld  lake  is  mjide  in  the 
same  manner.  (5)  .\nnofto  lake:  the  aqueous  solution  of 
annotto  is  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda,  heated  to  boiling, 
and  precipitated  by  an  excess  of  alum. 

Oiiiiige  l.nko. — (I)  Annotto:  by  boiling  annotto  with 
carbonate  of  soila,  and  pre.'ipitating  by  alum  or  salt  of  tin, 
an  orange  lake  is  obtained.  The  color  is  still  deeper  if  the 
annotto  is  fir.st  boiled  with  water  and  the  solution  rejected. 
(2)  Turmeric  boiled  with  potash  and  precipitated  with  alum 
gives  an  orange  lake. 

IHhc  inkm  are  seldom  prepared.  (1)  Logwood  solution 
mixed  with  sulphate  of  copper,  and  precipitateil  cold  with 
|icita-ib,  gives  a  bine  lake.  (2)  .'^ulphindigotic  acid  mixed 
with  alum,  and  precipitated  with  carbonate  of  potash,  gives 
a  peculiar  blue  lake. 

Urefn  Lnkm  are  usually  prepared  by  mixing  blue  and 
yellow  lakes,  or  blue  pigments,  such  as  Prussian  blue, 
ullratnarine,  indigo,  etc.,  with  yellow  lakes.  (  I )  Coffet; 
lake:  a  very  good  green  lake  is  made  by  exhausting  1 
pound  of  bruised  collee-bcrrics  with  1  gallon  of  water,  ndtl- 
ing  2\  to  .3  pounds  of  sulyibate  of  copper,  and  precipitating 
with  caustic  potash,  avoiding  an  excess.  Jly  moistening  the 
precipitate  with  vinegjir  anil  exjiosing  it  to  the  air,  its  color 
is  bcighlencd.  (2)  Weld  yields  a  green  lake  by  similar 
treatment;  and  liy  adding  alum  to  the  sulphate  of  copper, 
and  precipitating  by  cold  carbonate  of  potash,  various  tints 
can  be  obtained. 

Olfier  Cohrg. — Lakes  of  other  colors  can  be  prepared  in 
a  similar  manner,  but  true  lakes  are  rarely  nmdo  except 
those  of  cochineal,  madder,  and  Bra7.il-wood.  Lakes  of 
great  variety  of  shades  may  also  be  obtained  by  the  substi- 
tution of  bismuth  or  antimony  solutions  for  those  of  alum 
and  tin. 

Ailullrrnlliiii  of  Lnkrt. — Starch,  gypsum,  China  clay, 
barytcs,  etc.  are  extensively  used  to  adulterate  lakes,  in- 
creasing the  yield  at  the  sacrifice  of  brilliancy.  To  secure 
Iburough  mixture  niih  the  lake,  they  are  often  added  to 
tbe  solutions  before  prci-ipitation. 

Aniline  Liikf,  so  called,  are  not  true  lakes.  They  are 
made  of  all  colors.  They  are  easily  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing 1  gramme  (IJ  grains)  of  the  aniline  color  in  4  kilo.  (J 
l)iut)  of  9.)  per  cent,  alcohol,  adding  10  grammes  (4  ounce) 
gum  copal,  and  when  all  is  dissolved  mixing  in  dry  starch 
to  a  uniform  mass,  which  when  dry  is  reduced  to  pnwdiT. 
Aiirino  produces  a  variety  of  beautiful  precipitates  if  mixed 
with  metallic  or  earthy  solutions,  and  (brown  down  by  the 
cautious  addition  of  an  alkiili.  Tliese  are  merely  bydrated 
oxides  or  snb-salts,  with  wbieh  tin'  aurine  is  meebanically 
ini'orporaled;  on  washing  with  distilled  water  they  lose 
their  color.  C.  F.  CMANnt.Kii. 

I.nke,  county  of  California,  consisting  of  the  valley  of 
('lo:ir  Lake,  which  is  some  SO  miles  N.  of  ."^iin  Francisco. 
It  is  enclosed  by  the  Hear  .Mountains  on  the  I'l.  and  Mayn- 
cannas  Mountains  on  the  W.,  both  of  which  are  arms  of 
the  t^oast  Uange.  .Area,  X'.',\\  sr|uaro  miles.  It  contains 
much  excellent  farming  laud.  Cattle,  wool,  and  dairy 
products  are  the  agricultural  staples.  .><ulpbnr  and  borax 
abound,  the  hitler  especially  iu  Borax  Lake,  Cap.  Lako- 
port.     Pop.  2»li9. 


Lake,  county  of  Colorado,  extending  W.  from  the 
Rocky  Jlountains  to  the  E.  border  of  Utah.  Area,  ICUD 
square  miles.  In  the  E.  part  the  -Arkansas  River  rises, 
and  also  the  Gunnison,  one  of  the  head-streams  of  tbe  Col- 
orado of  the  West,  It  abounds  in  timber.  There  are 
m!iny  lofty  mountains  iu  the  county.  Gulch-mining  for 
gold  is  a  leading  pursuit.     Cap.  Dayton.     Pop.  522. 

Lake,  unorganised  county  of  S.  E.  Dakota.  Area,  076 
square  miles. 

Lake,  county  of  X.  E.  Illinois,  having  Wisconsin  on 
the  N.  and  Lake  Michigan  on  the  E.  Area,  390  square 
miles.  It  is  level  and  fertile,  the  soil  being  a  clayey  loam. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc  largely  produced.  The  county 
is  traversed  by  two  divisions  of  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western R.  R.     Cap.  Waukegan.     Pop.  21,014. 

Lake,  county  of  N.  W.  Indiana,  having  Lake  Michi- 
gan on  tbe  X.,  Illinois  on  the  W.,  and  Kankakee  River  on 
the  S.  The  extreme  X.  is  sandy  and  the  S.  part  morshy, 
but  tbe  rest  is  very  fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are. 
staple  pi-oducts.  The  county  is  traversed  by  several  rail- 
roads, mostly  centring  at  Chicago.  Area,  4S0  square  miles. 
Cap.  Crown  Point.     Poji.  \'l,'.'>'.\\i. 

Lake,  county  of  Michigan.  Area,  .576  square  miles. 
It  is  very  level,  and  generally  has  a  good  soil,  but  is  mostly 
covered  with  forests.     Pop.  548. 

Lake,  county  of  X.E.  Minnesota,  hounded  N.  by  Can- 
ada and  S.  E.  by  Lake  Superior.  -Area,  HCOO  square  miles. 
The  lake  shore  is  abrupt,  and  characlcri/.ed  by  numerous 
short,  rapid  streams.  The  interior  is  a  succession  of  pine- 
covered  ridges,  diversified  by  numerous  lakes  and  flat, 
boggy  tracts  covered  with  small  larch  trees.  Cap.  Beaver 
Bay.     Pop.  135. 

Lake,  county  of  X.  E.  Ohio,  bounded  X.  W.  by  Lake 
Erie.  Area,  220  square  miles.  It  is  undulating,  and  has 
a  productive  clay  soil.  Iron  ore  is  found.  Live-stock, 
grain,  wool,  and  fruit  arc  leading  products.  Carriages, 
l)riik.  and  lumber  are  important  manufactures.  The  county 
is  traversed  by  the  Lake  Shore  and  the  Painesville  and 
Yonngslown  R.  Rs.     Cap.  Painesville.     Pop.  15,935, 

Lake,  county  of  X.  W.  Tennessee,  bounded  W.  by  Ihe 
Mississip]ii  River,  N.  by  Kentucky,  and  E.  by  Rcelfoot 
Lake  and  River.  Area,  150  .square  miles.  It  is  level,  well 
wooded,  and  fertile,  but  partly  subject  to  overfiow.  Indian 
corn  is  the  staple  product.     Cap.  liptonvillc.     Pop.  242S. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Cook  eo..  111.,  contiguous  to  Chicago,  on 
the  S.  of  that  city.     Pop.  3300. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Allen  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  1309. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Xcwton  Co.,  Ind.,  lying  N.  of  Beaver 
Lake.     Poji.  378. 

Lake.  tp.  of  Cen-o  Gordo  eo.,  la.     Pop.  11C4. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Monona  Co.,  la.     Pop.  17K. 

Lake,  Iji.  of  Muscatine  CO.,  la.     Pop.  843. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Dorchester  co.,  Md.     Pop.  1409. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Berrien  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Michigan. 
Poji.  1002. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Huron  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  320. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Lake  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  28. 

Lake,  post  V.  of  Scott  CO.,  Miss.,  on  the  Vicksburgand 
Meridian  It.  K. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Buchanan  CO.,  Mo.     Pop.  297. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Humboldt  CO.,  Xov.     Pop.  117. 

Lake,  Ip.  of  Ashland  co.,  0.     Pop.  701. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Logan  Co.,  0.  It  contains  Ihe  city  of 
Bellefontaine.     Pop.  3753. 

Lake,  posl-v.  and  Ip.  (the  former  also  called  Cmox- 
TOWS),  .Stark  co.,  0.,  12  miles  S.  E.  of  Akron.     Pop.  2113. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Wood  co.,  0.     Pop.  1120. 

Lake,  post-tp.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  597. 

Lake,  tp.  of  Mercer  co..  Pa.     Pup.  524. 

Luke,  Ip.  of  Williamsburg  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  873. 

Luke.  Ip.  of  Milwaukee  eo..  Wis.,  on  Lake  Michigan, 
just  S.  of  Milwaukee.     Pop.  2974. 

Lake  (Gi:ii,inn),  Visroi'NT,  b,  in  England- ,Iuly  27, 1714  ; 
entered  the  army  in  I75S;  served  in  the  closing  ciimpaigns 
of  the  Seven  Years'  war.  in  the  American  war  (17S1),  and 
in  Holland  under  the  duke  of  York  in  1793-91;  rosololho 
rank  of  general;  was  eonimnniler-in-cbief  in  Ireland  dur- 
ing the  insurrection  of  1797-9S:  defoaled  the  rebels  and 
recovered  Wexford  .lune  21;  ilefeated  the  French  troops 
under  Humbert  nt  Killala  Sept.  .S  ;  was  made  commander- 
iu-ebief  in  India  in  Isuil;  conducted  the  Mahratta  war 
(1N03)  with  brilliant  success,  taking  Delhi  (Sept.  12),  Agrft 
(lint.  17),  and  winning  the  decisive  victory  of  Lnsivareo 
|N"V.  I  1.  which  br.iu;;bl  the  .Mo-iil  emiie.or  i vassalage 


1612 


LAKE  BELT-LAKE  SUKVEY. 


e  Charles,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Calcasieu  parish,  La., 
I  on  Lake  Charles  and  Calcasieu  River,  .Ml  miles  N. 


to  England,  for  which  he  was  made  (Sept.  1,  1804)  Baron 
Lake  of  Delhi  and  Laswaree.  He  defeated  Holkar  near 
Bhurtpoor  A\)T.  2,  1.S05  ;  returning  to  England  in  1S07  was 
made  viscount  (Oct.  ."1),  and  appointed  governor  of  Plym- 
outh, where  he  d.  Fcl).  20,  ISOS.  The  title  became  extinct 
by  the  death  of  the  third  viscount,  June  24, 1S4S. 

Lake  licit,  tp.  of  Martin  Co.,  Minn.     Pop.  29G. 

Lake  Uutler,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Bradford  co.,  Fla.  It 
is  U  miles  S.  from  Olustec,  a  station  on  the  Jacksonville 
Ponaacola  and  Mobile  R.  R. 

take 

situated.^ - 

of  the  Gulf  of  Mexio.i,  M  miles  E.  of  .Sabine  River,  and 
■»00  miles  W.  of  New  Orleans,  on  the  (unfinished)  New  Or- 
leans and  Texas  R.  R.  It  has  11  steam  saw-mills,  1  week- 
ly newspaper,  4  churches,  7  orange-groves,  11  stores.  80 
lumber-schooners  making  vorages  from  Calcasieu  River  to 
Galveston,  Tcs..  chiefly  for  the  transportation  of  lumber, 
which  constitutes  the  leading  industry.  Pop.  about  500 
J.  \V.  Bin-AX,  Ed.  "  Weekly  Echo. 
Lake  City,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Columbia  Co.,  Fla.,  CO 
miles  \V.  of  Jacksonville  and  105  E.  of  Tallahassee,  on  the 
Jacksonville  Pcnsaoola  and  Mobile  R.  R..  has  5  churches, 
3  schools,  .I  weekly  newspapers,  and  the  usual  number  of 
stores  and  hotels."  It  is  surrounded  by  bright  silvery  lakes 
abounding  in  the  most  delicious  tish.     Pop.  964. 

E.  G.  JoHNSoy,  Ed.  "  Herald." 
lake  City,  post-v.  of  Calhoun  tp.,cap.  of  Calhoun  eo., 
la.,  on  Lake  Creek.  27  miles  S.  W.  of  Fort  Dodge,  has  2 
churches,  2  hotels,  1  weekly  newspaper,  a  fine  brick  school- 
house,  with  the  usual  proportion  of  stores  and  shops.    Situ- 
ated in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming  country.     Pop.  103. 
Eahi.  Billings,  Plb.  "  Pioneer." 
Lake  City,  post-v.  of  Missaukee  eo.,  Mich.,  on  the  E. 
shore  of  Wintergreen  Lake,  was  laid  out  in  1873  in  the 
midst  of  a  lumbering  and  fanning  region;  has  a  weekly 
newspaper,  stores,  and  saw-mills. 

S.  W.  Davis,  Ed.  "Missaikee  Reporter.' 
Lake  Citv,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Wabasha  co..  Minn.,  on 
the  Lake  Pepin  and  Chicago  and  the  Milwaukee  and  St, 
Paul  R.  Rs.,  D.T  miles  below  St.  Paul,  contains  4  large 
steam-elevators,  several  saw  and  flouring  mills,  a  large 
foundry  and  machine-shop,  a  plough  and  2  w.-igon  manu- 
factories, several  churches.  Masonic  and  other  lodges,  2 
banks,  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  public  library  and  10  or  12 
stores.  The  town  is  hand.somely  laid  out,  is  the  market 
of  a  thickly  settled  and  productive  wheat-region,  and  the 
scenery  on  Lake  Pepin  is  admitted  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
on  the  upper  Mississippi,  and  for  grandeur  to  vie  with  any 
other  region  in  America,  resembling  that  of  Lake  Geneva. 
Pop.  2fili8.  E.  C.  Spacldino,  Ed.  "  Lf.^der." 

Lake  Crys'tal,  post-v.  of  Judson  tp..  Blue  Earth  co., 
Minn.,  on  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux  City  R.  R. 

Lake  DweUings.  See  Palefits  and  Pre-historic 
Man. 

Lake  For'c§t,  post-v.  of  Shields  tp..  Lake  co..  III., 
on  Lake  Michigan  and  on  the  Milwaukee  divifi.m  of  the 
Chicago  and  North-western  R.  R..  8  miles  S.  of  Wauke- 
gan,  and  28  miles  from  Chicago,  is  laid  out  in  curvilinear 
form.  It  is  tho  seat  of  Lake  Forest  College,  and  has  a 
female  seminary. 

Lake  Fork,  tp.  of  Logan  co.,  111.     Pop.  398. 
Lake  <;corge,  the  P.  0.  name  of  Caldwell  (which 
see),  the  cap.  of  Warren  co.,  N.  Y. 

Lake  Haus'kah,  tji.  of  Brown  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  215. 
Lake  Ilen'ry,  tp.  of  Stearns  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  159. 
Lake  Johaii'iia,post-tp.,  Pope  co.,  Minn.    Pop.  219. 
Lnkc'land,  post-v.  and  tp.,  Washington  co..  Minn.,  on 
St.  Croix  Lake,  almost  opposite  Hudson.  Wis.     Pop.  595. 

Lake  I/ancrinp,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Hyde  co.,  N.  C, 
on  Mailamuskcet  Lake  and  Canal.     Pop.  2235. 

Lake  LiTian,  post-tp.  of  Kandiyohi  co.,  Minn.  Pop. 
238. 

Lake  Marmc,  tp.  of  Monongalia  co.,  Minn.  Pop.  196. 
Lake  .Ha'ry,  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  244. 
Lake  Mills,  post-v.  of  Winnebago  co.,  la.     It  has  1 
weekly  newspaper. 

Lake  Mills,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  AVis.,  9 
miles  X.  W.  of  .lefforson,  the  capital  of  the  county.  Pop. 
of  V.  590;  of  tp.  1509. 

Lake  of  the  Woods,  a  large  lake  on  the  boundary 
between  Pembina  co..  .Minn.,  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
A  small  detacheil  portion  of  Minnesota  lies  on  its  N.  W. 
side.  Its  principal  atllucnt  is  the  Rainy  Lake  River,  and 
its  waters  flow  N.,  through  the  Winnipeg  River  into  Lake 


Winnipeg.  It  contains  many  small  wooded  islands,  apart 
of  which  are  in  Minnesota  and  a  part  in  Canada.  It  is 
but  977  feet  above  the  sea-level,  being  598  feet  lower  than 
Lake  Itasca.  Wild  rice  {Zlzmtia  aqimlica)  grows  along  its 
shores  abundantly. 

Lake  Pleas'ant,  tp.  of  Hamilton  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  the 
Adirondack  region.  It  contains  Sageville,  the  county-seat, 
and  the  beautiful  Lake  Pleasant.  It  is  a  place  of  summer 
resort,  and  has  manufactures  of  lumber.     Pop.  318. 

Lake  Poets,  a  name  given  by  the  Eilinliiirijh  Jieiieic 
to  a  number  of  English  poets,  of  whom  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth, and  Southey  were  the  most  important,  who  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  lived  in  the  lake  region 
of  "Westmoreland  and  Cumberland.  England.  They  had 
little  in  common  except  the  desire  to  break  away  from  the 
conventionalities  of  the  literature  of  that  day. 

Lake'port,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Lake  co.,  Cal.,  28  miles 
N.  E.  of  Cloverdale,  tho  terminus  of  the  San  Francisco 
and  North  Pacific  R.  R.,  on  the  shore  of  Clear  Lake,  has  1 
bank,  1  weekly  newspaper,  2  churches,  2  hotels,  I  flpur- 
mill,  7  stores,  numerous  mineral  springs,  and  2  steamers 
plying  on  the  lake.  Principal  business,  farming.  Pop. 
248.  "  J.  B.  Baclis.  Jr.,  Eo.  "  Lake  Co.  Bee." 

Lakeport,  post-v.  of  Sullivan  tp..  Madison  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  S.  shore  of  Oneida  Lake.     Pop.  134. 

Lake  Prai'rie,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  la.  It  includes 
Pella  and  several  other  villages.  Pop.  4958. 
Lake  Prairie,  tp.  of  Nicollet  co.,  Minn.  Pop.  828. 
Lake  Prov'ideiice,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Carroll  parish, 
La.,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Mississijipi,  60  miles  .above 
Vicksburg,  has  5  churches.  2  machine-shops,  and  1  weekly 
newspaper.  It  is  located  in  the  heart  of  a  fine  cotton- 
growing  section,  and  ships  annually  7000  to  8000  bales. 
Pop.  320.  B.  H.  Lanier,  Ed.  "  Lake  Repiblican." 

Lake  Survey.  The  U.  S.  shore-line  of  the  great  lakes 
and  their  connecting  rivers,  if  measured  in  stejis  of  twenty- 
live  miles,  is  about  3O00  miles,  hut  if  the  indentations  of 
the  shore  and  the  outlines  of  the  islands  arc  included,  the 
developed  shore-line  is  about  4700  miles  in  length.  Where 
a  lake  is  narrow  and  along  rivers  it  is  necessary  for  nav- 
igation that  both  shores  be  surveyed.  This  increases  the 
a'ctual  shore-line  to  be  covered  by  the  survey  between  St. 
Regis  and  Duluth  to  about  6000  miles— a  dimension  which 
giv'J'S  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work.  The  ne- 
cessity of  accurate  soundings  and  accurate  charts  for  the 
commerce  of  these  lakes  is  evident  on  remembering  that  in 
the  frequent  storms  and  fogs  on  these  lakes,  vessels  are 
never  many  hours  from  shore,  and  that  during  the  summer, 
coinniercc.ns  shown  by  entries  and  clearances,  is  equal  to 
that  of  all  the  rest  of  "the  U.  S. 

The  first  appropriation  of  $15,000  was  made  in  1841; 
none  was  made  in  1847,  and  previous  to  1802  the  largest 
annual  apiunpriation  was  $76,000.  Since  that  time  it  has 
varied  between  !?50.000  and  $175,000.  At  first,  the  survey 
was  confined  mainly  to  special  localities,  but,  progressing, 
the  work  was  made  continuous,  and  one  lake  after  another 
was  taken  up  and  its  .American  ,«horc  completed.  The  first 
chart  was  published  in  1852.  It  was  not  till  |.'<52  that  work 
on  a  larger  scale  was  begun,  a  copy  of  the  Baelie-Wurde- 
mann  base  apparatus  being  then  obtained,  making  greater 
cision  in  the  triangulalion  practicable. 


The  work  has  been"  under  the  secretary  of  war,  at  first 
under  tho  direction  of  the  chief  of  topographical  engineers, 
and  since  the  junction  of  the  two  corps  under  the  direction 
of  the  chief  of  engineers,  I".  S.  army.  The  following  offi- 
cers have  been  in  immediate  charge  of  the  work  :  Capt. 
W.  G.  Williams,  T.  E.,  1841-45;  Lt.-Col.  J.  Kearney, 
T.  E.,  1845-51:  Capt.  J.  N.  Macomb,  T.  E.,  lS51-.i6; 
Lt  -Col.  J.  Kcarnev,  T.  E.,  1856-57  :  Capt.  G.  Meade,  T.  E., 
1857-61:  Col.  J.  'D.  Graham.  T.  E.,  1861-64;  Col.  and 
Brevet  Brij.-Gen.  W.  F.  Raynolds.  engineers,  1864-70; 
Major  and  Brevet  Brig.-Gen.  C.  B.  Comsloek.  1870.  They 
have  been  aided  from  time  to  time  by  such  other  oflicers 
of  their  corps  as  eould  be  spared  for  the  work,  ami  by 
civil  assistants,  until  a  body  of  men  has  grown  up  tlior- 
oughlv  competent  for  such  duty. 

The  normal  plan  for  the  survey  of  a  lake  is  the  follow- 
ing •  (1)  Tho  establishment  of  a  primary  triangulation, 
the  average  probable  error  of  whose  angles  shall  not  exceed 
Aths  of  a  second,  the  probable  error  of  its  bases  not  exceed- 
ing innJniTth  pc'-'  of  their  lengths.  (2)  The  determination 
from  the  primarv  triangulation  of  secondary  iioints  along 
the  shoreline  to  be  surveyed,  not  more  than  ten  or  fifteen 
miles  apart,  these  distan'ces  being  much  less  when  a  sec- 
ondary or  tc-rtiarv  triangulation  can  be  carried  along  shore. 
(?,)  .\  detailed  topographical  and  hydrogrnphical  survey 
along  the  shore  based  on  these  points,  extending  inland 
ahoul  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  and  bikoward  for  half  a  mile, 
or  to  tho  four-fathom  curve.     (4)  A  belt  of  offshore  by- 


LA  KETON— LALITA-PATAN. 


1613 


drography  doDe  with  a  steamer,  aod  cxtendiug  from  the  j 
ruur-futhom  curve  to  eight  or  tea  miles  from  lau<l.  (J)  | 
Lines  of  steamer-soundiugs  across  the  luke.  (Ct)  Preoi:je  i 
determiuiitious  of  latitude,  longitude,  and  azimuth  at  sev-  i 
eral  primary  Btntiun^.  (7)  Keductiou  of  ticld-work  and  ! 
construction  of  the  maps. 

lu  some  eases,  on  accuuntof  special  difficulty  or  cost,  the 
primary  triaagulatiou  has  not  been  carried  nlung  the  lake 
shore.  Thus,  on  the  American  shore  of  Lake  Huron  points 
were  determined  by  a  combination  of  astronoiuiciil  work 
and  triiinnuhition.  Oa  the  f).and  a  part  of  the  W.  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan  the  positions  of  points  needed  for  the 
maps  were  obtained  by  carrying  lines  of  azimuths  and  lati- 
tudes southward  from  known  points,  the  longitudes  being 
computed  from  their  azimuths  and  latitude.-*.  The  field- 
work  for  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  Michijyan.  St.  Clair,  and 
about  one-half  of  Ontario,  for  the  rivers  St.  Mary,  St.  Clair, 
Detroit,  St.  Lawrence,  is  now  {July  1,  1.S75)  completed. 
Lake  Erie  remains  to  be  done.  Forty-two  charts,  on  scales 
varying  from  55^0*^  ^**  ^nihna^^t  have  been  published,  and 
about  GUOO  are  issued  innually.  The  pressure  for  the  gen- 
eral charts  (scale  loo^iifjth)  has  been  so  great  that  few  of 
the  shore-charts  ou  a  larger  scale  have  yol  been  published. 
The  primary  triangulatiou  is  completed  from  Duluth  to 
Chicagt),  a  distance,  measured  along  its  a.\is,  of  700  miles, 
and  depends  on  four  bases,  of  which  one  is  yet  to  be 
measured.  When  the  triangulatiou  at  Chicago  is  con- 
nected with  that  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  the  length 
of  the  chain  wilt  be  increased  to  1300  miles,  with  three 
more  bases,  of  which  one  is  measured.  Incidentally,  this 
triangulatiou  will  give  an  arc  of  the  meridian  running  N. 
from  Chicago  for  4.')0  miles,  an  arc  of  a  parallel  running  W. 
fri>m  the  E.  end  of  Lake  Ontario  for  (KM)  miles,  and  an  ob- 
lique arc  from  the  same  point  to  Duluth,  800  miles  long. 
These,  in  connection  with  those  of  the  Coast  Survey,  will, 
in  combination  with  the  long  European  antl  Indiau  arcs, 
finally  give  a  more  precise  determination  of  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth,  which,  so  far  as  this  continent  is 
concerned,  now  depends  on  the  Peruvian  arc,  a  short  one, 
and  therefore  of  little  value. 

As  connected  with  the  lake  survoy,  determinations  of  the 
magnetic  elements  are  made  at  various  points,  the  heights 
of  the  lakes  above  the  sea  are  being  determined,  and  their 
fluctuations  arc  observed.  The  existence  of  solar  and  lunar 
tides  in  Lakes  .Michigan  and  Su])eriur  has  been  established, 
and  their  values  determined.  Aid  has  been  rendered  to  tho 
State  surveys  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  and  the  positions 
of  many  hundreds  of  points  near  the  lakes  have  been  pre- 
cisely determined,  wliich  will  servo  as  starting-points  for 
State  surveys  in  all  the  future.  C.  B.  Comstock. 

linKo'tnn,  tji.  of  Muskegon  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lakes  Mus- 
kegon aii.l  Michigan.      Pop.  1039. 

Lnkc'town,  tp.  of  Allegan  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Mich- 
igan.    P*»p.  t'ifio, 

Lnketowii)  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Car\*or  co.,  Minn.  Pnp. 
lo:t'.t. 

liake  Viil'loy,  post-tp.,  El  Dorado  co.,  Cal.   Pop. 246. 
Lake  Vnlley^  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Nev.     Pop.  11. 
Lake  View,  jiost-tp.  of  Cook  eo..  III.,  on  Lnko  Mich- 
igan, is  eonliguouM  to  Chicago  on  the  X.     It  contains  many 
fine  suburban  residences,  and  a  marine  hospital,  and  is  the 
sitcof  several  beautiful  cemeteries.    Pop.  |SU. 

liako  Viria^c,  post-r,,  cap.  of  Chicot  co..  Ark.,  on 
Old  lUver  Lake,  part  of  a  former  channel  of  the  Mississippi 
Kiver. 

Lake  Village,  post-v.  of  Belknap  co.,  N.  II.,  at  tho 
outlet  of  Lakr-  Wiiinlpi.''eogee  in  (iilford  and  Laconia  tps., 
on  tho  Boston  Concord  and  Montreal  H.  U..  27  miles  X.  of 
Concord.  It  has  I  churches,  1  hotel,  1  weekly  newspaper, 
railroad  repair-shops,  several  hosiery-mills,  foundry  and 
machine-shops.      Pop.  in  village  liinils,  ubnul  !il'>OI1, 

M.  A.  IIavnis,  Plu.  "  Laki:  Vii.LAr.i:  Timi:h." 
Lakevi  lie,  post-v.  ofSalishurytp.,  Litchfield  CO.,  Conn., 
6  niile^   E.  of  Millerton,  N.  Y.     It  is  a  romantic  place  of 
summer  resort,  is  t)i<>  snit  of  the  Cnnnceticut  institution  for 
feeble-minded  children,  and  has  a  public  library. 

Imkeville,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.,  .1ft 
miles  S.  of  Bnslnn.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Old  Colony  and 
Newport  and  the  Tounton  and  New  Bedfonl  B.  lis.,  con- 
tains several  beautiful  lakes,  large  forests  and  valuable 
granite  ledges,  and  has  2  churches  and  a  publio  library. 
Pnp.  IJ.V.l. 

Lakevillo,  tp.  of  Dakota  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  7S0. 

Lakevillc,  post-v.  of  Livonia  tp.,  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y., 
at  the  toot  of  Cunesus  Lake.  It  has  i  cliurehoa.  Pop. 
Ii'.n. 

Lnkeville   Plantation,  tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Mo. 

Pop.    I  Its. 


Lak-Nugy,  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Marog,  has  1IJ112 
inhabitants,  mostly  engaged  in  agriculture  and  tho  rearing 
of  cattle  and  p<»ultry. 

Laksh'mi,  a  goddess  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon.  Through- 
out the  whole  range  of  Oriental  mythology  no  creation  is 
to  be  met  with  more  pleasing  than  that  of  Lakshmi.  at  once 
the  Ceres  and  the  Venus  of  India,  the  bride  of  the  Preserver 
Vishnu,  who  sprang  in  the  full  perfection  of  maidenly 
beauty  from  the  foam  of  the  sea,  as  Homer  and  Hesiod 
sing  of  Aphrodite.  According  to  the  Viehuit  Purann,  "  Tho 
goddess  S'ri,  seated  on  a  full-|jlown  lotus,  and  holding  a 
water-lily  in  her  hand,  radiant  with  beauty,  rose  from  tho 
waves.  The  great  sages,  enraptured,  hymned  her  with  vo- 
tive song.  ViHirnntHH  and  the  celestial  choirs  sang  before 
her,  whilst  (jfnrturhi  and  the  heavenly  nymphs  danced. 
The  Ganges  and  other  holy  rivers  followed  her,  attending 
on  her  ablutions.  The  elephant  of  the  skies,  taking  up 
pure  waters  in  vases  of  gold,  poured  them  over  the  god- 
dess, the  queen  of  the  universal  world,"  etc.  Lak^hmi, 
it  has  been  observed,  is  also  represented  as  the  counter- 
part of  Vishnu,  the  beneficent  protector  and  preserver. 
Vishnu  is  meaning,  Lakshmi  is  speech.  She  is  intellect, 
he  is  understanding.  He  is  righteousness,  she  is  devotion. 
He  is  Creator,  she  is  creation.  He  is  the  male  energy,  she 
is  the  female,  and  .SVf/,ff  of  Vishnu.  (SeeSAKTi.)  Her  com- 
plexion of  ekin  is  delicate  saftVon.  Her  attendant,  like 
that  of  Minerva,  is  the  owl.  This  is  a  curious  circum- 
stance, but  difficult  of  satisfactory  exjilanatinn.  The  sim- 
ple fact  appears  to  be  that  Lak^limi  has  always  been  such 
a  popular  deity  in  Hindustan  that  gradually  her  true  cha- 
racter was  lust  sight  uf.  and  the  attributes  and  attendant 
emblems  of  other  divinities  were  ascribed  to  her.  Tlius, 
some  Hindus  have  confcmnded  her  with  Saras wuti,  tho 
true  goddess  of  learning  of  the  East,  who  as  such  might, 
like  Minerva,  be  (itiy  attended  upon  by  the  owl.  How- 
ever, in  the  early  times  of  the  epic  period  of  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature Lakshmi  was  simply  known  as  the  queen  of  loveli- 
ness and  good-luek,  also  called  Ptnlma,  S'ri,  Kamiila,  Va- 
rtthiy  rtc.  (See  Sir  William  Jones's  Uifmn  to  Luktthmi, 
wherein  she  is  addressed  as  "the  world's  great  mother.") 
Hindus,  when  they  perform  solemn  obsequies  in  honor  of 
deceased  ancestors,  almost  invariably  invoke  the  consort 
of  the  Preserver.  As  the  goddess  of  fertility  she  is  widely 
worshipped  by  agricultural  laborers.  Balfour  states:  "The 
Maliratta  cultivators  are  attentive  to  her  worship,  and  when 
tho  rufj/ii  crops  are  well  above  the  ground  they  jiroceed  to 
their  fields,  where  they  place  five  stones  round  a  trie,  un 
which  they  set  pots  of  vermilion  and  some  wheaten  fiour, 
which  they  worship  us  the  Puurh-Pumlu."  In  all  of  the 
ordinary  worship  paid  to  Lakshmi  throughout  India  it  is 
suflicicnt  to  state  that  the  ceremony  principally  consists 
of  offerings  of  liuwers  and  grain.  The  goddess  is  a  very 
favorite  subject  of  Hindu  art.  In  painting  and  sculpture 
she  is  represented  as  a  very  young  girl,  with  the  full  breasts 
of  a  mature  matron,  thus  ty]iifying  budding  beauty  eon- 
joined  with  full  fertility.  She  is  frequently  represented 
as  reclining  at  the  feet  of  Vishnu.  A  huge  lotus  supports 
them  as  they  ride  upon  the  silver  foam  of  the  churned 
ocean  of  milk.  K.  C.  Cai.pw  km,. 

Lalande%  dc  (Joskimi  Jcrome  \.v.  Fran(;ais),  h.  at 
IJourg-en-Bresse.  department  of  Ain,  July  II.  17;t^;  edu- 
cated at  Lyons  by  the  Jesuits;  at  Paris  studied  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  and  in  17^1  was  sent  to  Berlin  to 
make  observations  complementary  to  those  made  by  La 
Caillc  at  the  Cajic  of  (ioo-l  Hope  concerning  the  distance 
between  the  earth  and  the  moon.  In  1702  was  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy  at  the  ColIC-gc  do  France,  and  direc- 
tor of  tho  observatory  of  Paris.  He  cumlueted  the  i'tunuuK- 
tianrc  (Ic  IVtnpH  from  1700  to  177.'»,  and  from  1701  till  bis 
death.  His  leelures  were  exceedingly  attractive,  not  only 
to  the  student,  but  to  educated  people  in  general,  and  his 
success  in  diff'using  astronomical  kuowledgo  and  interest 
was  very  renmrkahle.  His  most  prominent  writings  are 
TntitS  (i'AMtnmumiv  (2  vols.,  17fll),  Ahr/iji  tic  Xmi'./k/iom 
(171(3),  AxtroiKwn'f  rfcif  I)m>ic»  (17S5).     D.  Apr.  4,  ISO". 

Lnleniant'(CiiAiii.Ks).  b.  in  Franco  Nov.  17, 15S7;  ho- 
eanie  a  Jesuit  in  1007:  went  to  Canada  iu  1625  as  superior 
of  the  niinsions:  opened  Ibe  first  schoid  in  Quebec  in  iO!JI  ; 
attended  Champlain  on  his  deathbed  ;  returned  to  France 
in  It'i.tS;  became  rector  of  colleges  of  his  order  at  Boiun, 
La  Fl^ehe,  ami  Paris,  and  viee-provincial.  D.  at  Paris 
Nov.  IS,  ll'>7  I.  He  wrote  several  letters  on  the  missions  of 
Canada,  reprinted  at  Albany  in  IS70. — His  brother  JriioBti: 
( 160;!-lfi7.'')  was  superior  of  (ho  Canadian  missions  1011- 
50,  and  again  for  several  years  from  1059,  nnd  wrote  fl  vol- 
ume>'  of  the  Jtnuit  livhuhtuH. — His  nephew  (lAluiiKl,,  b. 
lOlO,  a  missionary  to  tho  Hurons,  was  put  to  death  by  tor- 
ture by  the  Iroquois  Mar.  17,  lOIO. 

Lali'tn-l*atanS  town  of  Nepnul,  Northern  Hindostan, 
It  has  mauy  clvgaut  buildings.     Ptip.  21,000. 


1614  ^ 

Lallemand'  ( Gen.  CnAni.ES  Fn.tN90is  Astoise)  BAno.s, 
b.  at  Me-U  June  2:1.  U74;  entered  the  army  in  1 ,  U- ;  dis- 


L-4LLEMAND— LAMAISM. 


l>.  at  iMi-u  June  -■■',  11  n,  K.I.V.V..  . — .    ■"■■  -       ;,     .        , 
tiuguishcl  himself  in  the  cami-uigns  in  tgypt,  P<"-"'K^  _ 
Prussia.  .Spain,  and  Russia:  was  briga.l.er  and  baron  m 
1811    and  was  made  lieutenant-general  and  member  "I  tne 
chamber  of  peers  on  .Napoleon's  return  from  IClba.     He  ac-  \ 
compauied  the  etnperor  in  the  Water  00  ean.pa.gn    an 
was  sent  as  oomn.issoner  to  Capt.  .Ma.tland  to  treat  for  h.s 
surrender  to  the  English  navy,    lie  was  sent  ■>  I"-;;™"  '» 
Malta,  and  on    his   release  went  to   Turkey.  Pers  a,  and 
E-ypt  in  an    unsuccessful  search   for   en.idoyment,  a  ter 
which  ho  made  his  way  to  the  f.  S..  where  he  proposed  to  . 
found  a  colony  of  French  imperialist  refugees.     A  hrst  at- 
tempt htvd  already  been  .na.le  in  Alabama  but  as  .proved 
a  failure,  he,  with  his  brother.  Baron    Ilenr.   Lallemand, 
located  a  Vh,,,,,,,  d:Uilc  on  tha  Trinity  K.ver  >"    1«";. 
then  bdoncing  to  Me.ueo.  where  in  1.S17  he  1''^™  ''"J    f 
colonists.     Driven  from  Tc.as  by  the  Span.sh  autho    t.es  , 
in  .Mexico.  Lallemand  an,l  his  cmpantons  fell  back  upon  ; 
the  projector  a  colony  in  Alabama,  and,  aided  by  a  bounti-  1 
ful     ubscription    opened    in   Paris,  lands  were    again  ob- 
Uined  and^he  so'called  »m;.  or  ™,.,o»  of  Marengo  wa 
founded  ou  the  banks  of  the  Totnbigbee  River.     A  city  was 
laid  out.  and  named  E„.i!rr//I.-:  the  streets  were  denomi-  , 
nated  from  the  victories  in  which  the  refugees  had  partici- 
pated under  Napoleon.     Lallemand,  however,  took  no  per-  , 
sonal  part  in  the  Marengo  colony.     After  .Revising  nmny 
wild  i.roiects.  he  settled  in  Louisiana  in  1S19,  and  opened 
acorrcspondence  with  Xapoleon,  whom  he  proposed  to  carry 
awav  from  ,St.  Helena.     The  cs-emperor,  dymg  >■>  IS'21 
bequeathed  11)0,000  francs  to  Lallemand.  but  the  1-rcnch 
government  ojiposed  obstacles  to  his  receiving  it  on  account 
of  his  bavins  been  tried  and  condemned  to  death  in  1-  ranee 
during  his  absence.     In   1823  he  fought  in  the   Spanish 
war-  went  afterwards  to  Brussels;  entered  France  without 
molestation;  returned  to  the  U.  S.,  and  established  a  snc- 
ccssful  school  in  New  York.     After  the  revolution  of  U^..O. 
Lxllemand  was  restored  to  his  military  and  political  honors 
(!><■;■' 1   look  his  seat  in  the  chamber  of  peers,  and  was  lor 
two  vears  military  commander    in  Corsica.     D.  in  Pans 
Mar.'o.  1S39.  ,       ^ 

I.nlly'-Tollendal'  (Thomas  AnTHt;n),  Couxt,  b.  at 
Romans,  in  France,  in  Jan.,  1702,  of  Irish  descent,  his 
father  having  come  to  Franco  with  James  XL  ;  received  a 
militarv  education ;  fought  with  distinclion  at  Kohl  in 
l-r!  ai  Fontenov  in  174:,,  at  Falkirk  in  1741.,  and  received 
in  17,-i7  the  comiimnd  of  an  expedition  against  the  French 
possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  He  was  very  successful  at 
first :  conquered  the  Coromandel  coast  and  laid  siege  to 
Madias,  but  being  left  unsupported  by  the  other  French 
commaiulers,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  at  Pondielierry 
in  17i;i  and  was  brouibt  to  England  as  a  prisoner.  Uav- 
in.'  hci'vdthat  his  personal  enemies  accused  him  of  various 
crfmos.  he  went  to  Paris  on  parole  and  demanded  a  truTd. 
But  bv  infamous  intrigues  ho  was  thrown  into  the  Baslile, 
and  after  nineteen  months'  imprisonment  placed  heforc  a 
court,  which,  after  a  kind  of  mock  trial,  condemned  lim,  to 
death  as  a  traitor  and  defaulter.  He  was  executed  May  .1, 
178ti  Bv  tlio  indefatigable  exertions  of  his  son,  Trophime 
(iSr.ard,  supported  by  Voltaire,  a  revision  of  tJio  proceed- 
ings was  ordered  in  1778,  which  ended  with  the  complete 
reversion  of  the  sentence. 

La'ma,  or  Llama,  the  Aurhcnin  glama,  a  quadruped 
of  the  family  Camelidie,  an  artiodactyl  ungulate  mammal 
of  the  Andes  of  South  America.  It  is  believed  to  be  spe- 
cifically  identical  with  the  ^''^^--V"  <"^"''/7  ;„„,,„ 
lama  is  domesticated,  and  employed  as  a  beast  of  burden, 
though  to  a  much  smaller  extent  than  in  the  age  of  the 
old  Peruvian  ineas.  In  fact,  it  is  believed  to  be  the  only 
domestic  animal  known  upon  the  American  eont.nent 
before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  The  old  Peruvians  em- 
ployed immense  numbers  of  lamas.  Besides  its  use  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  its  flesh  is  eaten,  though  it  is  not  big  ily 
esteemed.  Its  wool  is  employed  as  a  textile  material,  but 
is  inferior  to  that  of  the  alpaca.  It  is  of  brown  or  varie- 
gated color,  slenderly  built,  and  carries  about  100  pounds. 
Lama,  or  Lamas  ((JiiANnb     See  Lamaism,  by  Janet 

Tl<KKV. 

La'maism  [from  Thibetan  tmnn,  "priest"  or  "lord  J, 
the  nresent  religion  of  Thibet,  Mongolia,  and  a  great  part 
of  Tartary,  is  Booddhism,  modified  by  Sham.vsism  and 
SivMSM  (which  sec),  and  containing  some  relies  of  the 
ancient  Thibetan  faith.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  the  wor- 
shii)  of  grand  lamas,  in  whom  Booddha  is  supposed  to  bo 
incarnate.  These  priest-gods  are  very  numerous,  every 
lamasery  or  monastery  of  note  having  one  at  its  head,  i  he 
most  important  are:  the  yOyh-"  Jth,-po-chhe.  or  IMn, 
Lnma,  at  Lhassa:  the  P.in-irhm  Hin-pn-Mr,  at  bKra- 
Shiss-Lhun-po,  in  Further  Thibet ;  the  U«mn  Tnmba.  at  the 
lamasery  of  the  Great  Kouren,  on  the  river   Toula;  the 


Tchanq-Kla-Fo,  at  Peking;  and  the  &a-Dchu-Fo.  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas.     After  the  grand  lamas  rank  the 
l,hnlul.-ln>.  or  incarnations  of  celebrated  Booddhis  ic  saiiils  ; 
and  next  to  these  in  the  lamaio  hierarchy  come  the  k-hubil- 
'„han>.  in  whom  dwell  the  souls  of  former  patrons  or  lound- 
ers  of  lamaseries.     The  lower  classes  ol  lamas  are  incarna- 
tions of  nobody  in  partir-ular,  and  gain  consideration  only 
bv  superior  learning  or  talents  ;  among  them,  therelore,  aro 
found  scholars,  scribes,  artists,  physicians   and    sorcerers 
(which  two  terms  are  in  Tartary  frequently  synonymous), 
praver-makers.  and  artisans.    Tbey  form  a  large  proportion 
of  the  population— about  one-third,  according  to  SI.  Huo. 
■•  In  most  Tartar  families,"  says  this  writer,  "  all  the  sons 
except  the  eldest  become  lamas,  an  1  at  the  age  of  seven 
enter  a  monastery  as  ch„hi.  (novices  or  disciples)      This 
«tate  of  things  is  favored  by   Chinese  rulers,  as  it  keeps 
down  the  population  of  Tartary  ami  Thibet,  all  classes  of 
lamas  being  vowed  to  celibacy."     The  history  of  Tl  |bV»" 
Booddhism  mav,  according  to  Csoma  de  Koros,  be  divided 
into  two  distinct  periods.     The  first  began  in  the  seventh 
century  A.  c,  when  King  Srong-Tsan-(^ianibo  married  two 
princesses  from  Nepaul  and  China.     Both  ladies  brought 
to  their  new  home  images  of  Booddha  and  works  on  the 
Booddhistic  faith,  to  which  the  king  became  a  wi  ling  eon- 
j  vert      He  encouraged  the  building  of  temples  and  colk-ges, 
I  and  sent  to  India  his  minister  Thumi  .'-Jcmbhota  who  there 
learned  Sanskrit  an.l  arranged  a  Thibetan  alphabet  after 
Cashmerian  characters.     Srong-Tsaii-tJambo  wrote  a  his- 
torical  treatise  on  Booddhism,  called  .l/n.M-A»i»„.  or     The 
Hundred  Thousand  Precious  Commandments,    and  obtained 
the  name  of  a,..kr„„„w,  ("  wheel-turner,'   or  "e'fe"  «  or 
of  doctrine").     Manv  sacred  works  were  tn.nslattd  l.om 
the  Sanskrit,  and  Booddhism  continued  to  flourish  until  the 
close  of  the  tenth  century,  when  King  Langtarnia  or  gLang- 
dar,  opposed  and  nearly  extirpated   it.     In  the  eleventh 
ceniurv  it  was  revived  by  Atisha,  hBromston.  and  other 
learned  Thibetans,  and  from  this  second  period  cl"le»  its 
division  into  sects.     "  Those  persons  who  still  adhere  to  the 
ancient  forms  of  worship  are  called  u,j,r,m,,p<,,  and  arc  most 
numerous  in  the  parts  of  Thibet  nearest  India. 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  Tsong-Kaba,  a  native  of  the 
province  of  Amdo,  efl-ected  a  revolution  in  Thibetan  Booddh- 
ism     This  reformer's  birth  was  caused  and  accompanied 
bv  miraculous  circumstances.    He  came  into  the  world  with 
a'lon-  white  beard;  his  countenance  was  grave  and  majes- 
tic-he  spot  from' the  moment  of  his  birth,  all  his  utter- 
anJes  shiwing  a  knowledge  of  the  my.^teries  of  existence. 
At  the  age  of  three  years  he  desired  to  lend  a  religions  life 
and  his  mother,  favoring  such  early  devotn.n,  hersell  cut 
off  bis  hair  an.l  flung  it  outside  the  tent.     From  it  sprang 
a  man  ellous  tree,  having  fragrant  wood  and  .'e^^es  in- 
scribed with  sacred  characters.     Tsong-Kaba  withdrew  to 
ihe  mountains,  and  spent  his  time  in  l-myer  anJ  eoiitem- 
plalion,  but  seldom  returning  to  his  i.arents    ent.     Dun  g 
one  of  his  visits  thither  he  met  a  wandering   aiua  from  tht 
West,  who  remained  with  him  and  instructed  bim  111  re  ig- 
ion.     When  the  teacher  died  the  pupil,  eager  tor  lurther 
knowledge,  travelled  westward  to  seek  it.  and  a   last  reached 
Thibet.     There  he  was  stopped  by  a  spirit  (//,<.).  who  told 
him  that  in  that  country  he  was  destined  to  teach  prayers 
and  rites.     Tsong-Kaba  remained  at  this  meeting-place,  to 
wh  e    was  given  The  name  Lh.,-S,.  ("  land  of  spirits    ),  and 
Tm   ledhimself  to  reform  the  worship  of  Booddha.  Hega.ned 
a  reputation  for  sanctity,  and  in  spile  of  oppo.sitioti  f  om 
the  priests  of  higher  rank  was  joined  by  many  '""'"f  •     '  " 
were  called  Yellow  Caps  to  distinguish  them  Irom  the  Ked- 
Cap  lamas,  0.  adherei'.ts  to  the  old  forms      The  new  sec 
soo*^,  spread  over  all  Thibet  and  Tartary.     Its  f""-  ;■"■  '^•^;' 
in  1419  at  the  lamasery  of  Kaldan.  near  Lhassa,  which  he 
had  established,  and  there,  according  to  Lamaic  belief,  h  s 
body  still  remains,  unchanged  in  appearance  and  m.raca- 
ou^v  supported  above  the  earth.    He  '■>"'"-";  "-''"f,'^ 
of  w'hich  the  most  important   is  Lam-]l,m-T„e„.Ho  (ibo 
"Progressive  Path  to  Perfection"). 

The  tttle  of  rO,p:lv„  J!in-po-Mf  ("  precious "  or  holy 
majeriv").  proper  to  the  grand  lama  of  Ti.bel  was  given 
"  w  ,r  1  the  ?nd  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Mong>.ls  call 
,1  /M  ,',  or  TM  la,nn,  by  which  name  he  "  !^™^'f»'^ 
know  to  Europeans.  His  territorial  power  dates  Iron  lOW, 
when  Nag-dva.ig-bLo-b7,aug-rgya-mtsho  was  made  tem- 
por  lord  of  Thibet  by  the  Mongol  conqueror  of  that  country 
'and  China  There  has  since  then  been  a  constant  succession 
o?  Dalai  Lamas,  none  of  whom  has  made  any  mark  in  h  s- 
°orv  These  Thibetan  sovereigns  have  no  share  in  secdar 
business,  which  is  transacted  by  a  viceroy  called  ""'-J''"'' 
r"s  iritual  emperor  ")  and  four  ministers  chosen  from  the 
am  class  The  Dab  i's  office,  like  that  of  all  other  iv.ng 
Booddha^  is  to  sit  cross-legged  in  his  temple  and  silently 
rec      I  tl  e  ador..tio„  of  .h?falthfal,  towards  whom  he  oc- 

cas  onally  extends  bis  hand  "'.'"I'^rl^'bTv^onlv  X; 
carnatc  Booddha  never  dies.     He  quits  his  body  only,  alter 


LAMALINE— LAMAR. 


1615 


a  brief  period,  to  enter  that  of  a  young  child.  Therefore 
when  a  griinj  lama  depart?  no  grief  is  shown — merely  an 
anxiety  to  know  where  he  may  be  found  in  his  new  form. 
Sometimes  ho  tells  this  before  his  wiihdrawiil,  ur  after  it 
sends  a  si;^n.  whieh  is  interpreted  by  the  augurs.  He  com- 
monly truiisniigrates  in  Thibet,  so  thut  long  ami  dangerous 
journeys  must  ofd-n  be  undertaken  in  search  of  him.  \Vhen 
the  young  living  Bouddha  has  been  found  he  must,  before 
his  recognition,  answer  many  questions  about  the  lamasery 
of  which  ho  in  his  former  state  was  head,  and  identify 
among  various  artieirs  those  belonging  to  the  late  grand 
lama.  This  examination,  it  would  appear,  is  always  passed 
with  credit,  which  fact  M.  Hue,  while  owning  thntdeception 
may  sometimes  bo  used,  gravely  attributes  to  the  possession 
of  the  child,  not  by  Booddha.  but  by  .Satan.  The  litdo 
grand  lama  having  been  joyfully  acknowletiged.  is  con- 
ducted to  his  lamasery,  where,  placed  upon  an  altar,  he  is 
worshipped  by  believers.  The  Diilai  Lama  is  chosen  by 
lot  from  three  rhaberons  or  living  Booddtias  of  tender  age; 
at  least  such  a  form  of  election  is  gone  through,  but  its  re- 
sult is  determined  by  the  emperor  of  China  or  his  mini^ter8. 
Like  iho  Thibetan  sovereign,  the  living  Booddha  of  a  lama- 
sery has  no  real  power,  that  being  in  the  hands  of  anon- 
incarnate  lama-chief,  assisted  bj*  subordinate  officers. 

A  lamasery  [dOon-pn)  or  monmtery  is  very  unlike  our 
idea  of  such  an  establishment.  It  consists  of  numerous 
houses  or  hnts  built  around  a  temple  {Lhn-Khnutf,  "spirit 
house").  The  lamas  have  no  common  refectory,  but  live 
according  to  their  wealth,  which,  as  they  arc  not  under 
vows  of  poverty,  is  sometimes  considerable.  Those  who 
have  reached  a  certain  rank  as  theological  scholars  receive 
an  allowance  from  tho  emlowmcnt.  Some  arc  paid  liber- 
ally Ijy  tho  faithTul  for  their  services  as  physicians,  exor- 
cists, or  intereess.irs  for  departed  souls.  Others  engage  in 
trade  or  transcribe  the  sat^red  writings.  Each  lama  has 
under  him  one  or  moro  chabis,  who  ;iut  as  his  servants,  and 
arc  instructed  by  him  in  religion  and  the  Thibetan  language, 
a  knowledge  of  which  is  as  necessary  for  a  lama  as  that  of 
Latin  for  a  Human  Catholic  priest,  or  of  Hebrew  for  a 
Jewish  rabbi.  Lamai  temples  are  built  in  the  Indo-Chinese 
style,  and  are  profusely  adorned  with  paintings  and  sculp- 
ture. Opposite  the  principal  ontran-e  is  a  broad  flight  of 
steps  surmounted  by  an  altar,  upon  which  arefbo  BooiMhic 
images.  In  front  of  the  chief  id  >1,  and  hardly  moro  life- 
like than  it,  sits  the  living  Booddha.  Tho  lamas  are  called 
to  prayer  by  a  blast  blown  upon  a  sca-shcM.  They  enter  in 
prucesjion,  bow  before  the  incarnate  Booddha,  and  place 
themselves  in  a  circle  according  to  tlioir  ninl:.  Tho  service 
is  chanted;  a  bell  is  rung  at  intervals,  and  there  is  loud 
and  (to  European  ears)  discordant  music.  Inecnao  is  used, 
tho  most  o.doomed  being  brought  from  Thibet,  tho  Holy 
Land  of  Lamaism.  There  the  inr^aniato  Booddbas  trans- 
migrate; tho  lamaseries  there  are  largi-r  and  better  endow- 
ed, tho  lamas  more  learned  than  tUuso  of  Tartary  and 
Mongolia. 

Besides  tho  ehnrmnnaf^  or  monk-lama?,  there  are  her- 
mits {ijalpim)  who  inhabit  cells  or  eaves  and  spend  their 
time  in  contemplation.  Also  a  largo  einss  of  wandering 
lamas,  who  travel  from  tenf  to  tent  and  from  lamasery  to 
lamasery,  receiving  evrry where  a  welcome  as  ready  as  that 
given  in  Kuropo  to  the  itinerant  friar«  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
I'Vmilo  lamas,  or  nuns,  form  a  part  of  tho  Thibetan- Booddh- 
io  sy»tem  ;  their  number,  however,  is  comparatively  small. 
Cleri'^al  assistance  is  not  necessary  at  wcdilings  and  fune- 
rals, but  the  lamas  arc  generally  employed  to  foretell  tho 
most  fortuimte  day  for  a  marriage  ;  to  facilitate  the  passage 
of  a  ileparting  fail  an'l  pray  for  its  happy  transmigration  ; 
and  to  specify  tho  host  manner  for  disposing  of  the  dead. 
Cremation  is  u<*ual,  but  bodies  are  frequently  exposed  in 
lonely  places,  where  they  are  devoured  by  beasts  of  prey. 

As  a  rule,  Lnniaists  are  devoted  to  their  religion,  and 
give  generously  for  the  building  of  lamaseries  and  other 

^^iou9  objects.  They  arc  fond  of  going  on  pilgrimages  to 
I  >ly  places,  such  a.^  Lhassa ;  the  lamasery  of  the  Five 
Towers  {Oit-Tn>/),  near  which  Boocldha  is  said  to  dwell 
wi'hin  a  mountain  :  and  Tsong-Kaba's  birthplace,  where  is 
a  famous  lamiisery  called  Konna  bourn  ("Ten  Thousand 
Images").  There  grows  tho  tree  sprung  from  the  re- 
furmiir's  hair,  all  efl"orts  to  propagate  which  have,  says  M. 
Hue,  been  unsuccessful.  Penance  forms  a  part  of  the  pil- 
grim's duties.  Tho  more  zealous  penitents  make  tho  cir- 
ouit  of  tho  lamasery,  prostrating  themselves  at  each  step, 
with  their  foreheads  touching  tho  ground.  Or  they  carry 
a  heavy  Ioa<l  (if  prayer-books,  ami  thus  gain  creilit  for 
having  repeated  all  the  prayers  therein  contained.  Lighter 
forms  of  penance  are^walking  round  tho  lamasery  while 
telling  tho  beads  of  a  rosary,  or  turning  a  wheel  called 
rcArt-A'or  ('*  revolving  prayer").  This  devotional  machine 
is  usually  a  sort  of  barrel,  moving  u)ion  an  axis  and  in- 
scribed all  over  with  lioorldhi-'tie  petitions.  The  worship- 
per sets  it  going,  and  it  turns  pr.iyers  for  his  benefit  v.hile 


he  pursues  some  more  mundano  occupation.  The  most  com- 
mon ros  try-prayer  is  that  called  the  Maui,  consisting  of  six 
syllables:  "Om  .\f'tiii  Ptidnir  Ifoiim"  (**0h,  the  gem  in  the 
lotus  I  Amen").  According  to  Klaproth,  this  is  tho  Thibetan 
translation  of  a  .Sanskrit  formula  brought  from  India  by 
Thumi  .Sombhola.  Volumes  have  been  written  commenting 
on  it,  and  ascribing  to  it  various  meanings.  It  probably 
expresses  a  desire  to  attain  the  gem  perfection,  and  be  ab- 
sorbed into  Booddha,  of  whom  the  lotus  is  an  emblem. 

Kvcn  a  casual  student  of  Lamaism  must  observe  the 
similarities  between  its  ceremonial  and  that  of  Uoman 
Catholicism.  These  wure  pointed  out  by  M.  Hue.  for  which 
frankness  his  interesting  book  was  placed  in  the  Index  Es- 
punfatorltt>i.  To  account  for  them,  he  premised  that  the 
wandering  lama,  Tsong-Kaba's  instructor,  was  in  reality  a 
Christian  missionary.  The  canonical  books  of  Tibet  ex- 
ceed in  length  those  of  every  other  country.  They  are 
comprised  in  two  collections,  the  Kan-^ur  {hKnak-Iif/t/ttr), 
consisting  of  H^S  volumes,  containing  108;j  distinct  works  ; 
and  the  Tan-jur  {hnTti)i-h;fifiii')  of  '2'2ii  volumes,  each  weigh- 
ing from  four  to  live  pounds  in  the  Peking  edition.  A  large 
proportion  of  both  collections  is  translated  from  the  San- 
skrit, but  they  contain  also  many  original  treatises  by 
Thibetan  and  Tartar  authors.  (See  Travdit, hy  E.  U.  Hue; 
the  works  of  Alexander  Csoma  de  Kiiros;  />/«  Litniaittche 
Hiernrchir,  K.  Fr.  Kfippeu ;  UechcvchcH  nnr  Ich  Lnmjucs 
TartarcH,  P.  A,  Ilfiinusat.)  Janet  Tl'CKEY. 

Lamaline^  port  of  entry  of  Burin  district.  Newfound- 
land, 40  miles  by  land  from  Burin,  situated  on  lowgrouinl, 
which  is  destitute  of  trees.  Very  large  codfish  are  here 
taken.     Pop.  rJlO. 

Lamantiii.     See  Manatee. 

Laniar%  county  of  Ala.,  once  Sanford  co.  (which  sec). 

Ijamar,  county  of  N.  Texas,  bounded  X.  by  the  Ucd 
River.  Area,  lUlo  square  miles.  It  is  b:itf  jirairie  and 
half  timber-land,  very  fertile,  producing  tobacco,  cotton, 
live-stock,  and  corn.     Cap.  Paris.     Pop.  16,700. 

Lamarf  post-tp.  of  Randolph  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  fil". 

LamaTf  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Barton  co..  Mo.,  20 
miles  from  Kansas  line  in  an  open  prairie  country;  has  a 
bank,  a  steam  Houring-mill,  a  saw-mill,  ?>  chundies.  2  weekly 
newspapers.  3  hotels,  a  large  graded  school,  etc.     I'.  H'l]  I. 

Kdwarp  Bt'i.i:[t,FOR  Ens.  '^Soith-west  Missourian." 

Lamar,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Clinton  co.,  Pa.,  8  miles  S. 
of  Mill  Hall.     Pop.  l."/Jl. 

Lamar  (Lrcius  Qiinti's  CixciNXArrs),  b.  July  15, 
1797;  studied  law  at  Judge  Gould's  Litehlicld  schoi.I, 
Conn.,  the  most  funuius  institution  of  the  kind  then  in  llic 
U.  S. :  admitted  to  tho  bar,  removed  to  Milledgcville.  (Ja., 
in  1819,  and  soon  attained  hij^h  position  in  his  profession. 
Ho  \vap  chosen  by  the  legislature  to  compile  the  statutes  of 
the  vState  from  IHIO  to  ISLMI.  In  18;;o  he  was  elevated  to  the 
circuit  court  bench.  The  duties  of  this  oflice  he  discharged 
with  great  dignity  and  aliility;  his  decisions  were  ciin- 
siderod  of  tho  highest  authority,  not  only  in  Georgia,  but 
in  the  adjoining  States.  Universally  beloved  and  esteemed, 
8urroun<led  by  a  happy  family,  with  the  brightest  prospecls 
of  a  high  career,  and  without  any  known  cause,  he  fell,  iit 
his  home  in  Milledgeville,  by  his  own  hand,  on  .Iu!y  I, 
1S."4,  Without  any  collegiate  training.  Judge  Lannir  from 
boyliood  was  a  lover  of  books,  became  distinguished  for  his 
attainments  in  hftlrM-httnn  n.m\  for  the  classic  purity  of  his 
composition,  and  in  forensic  eloquence  stood  among  the 
first  orators  of  his  day.  •  A.  H.  SrfiiiiKNS. 

Lamar  ( Lrrns  QiiNTt^s  Cincinnati-s),  son  of  L.  tj.  C. 
Lamar,  b.  in  .lasper  co.,  Ga.,  in  lS2f>;  was  educated  and 
graduated  at  Kmory  College,  Oxford,  Ga.,  with  llie  highest 
honors  of  that  institution ;  studied  law,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession;  subsequently 
moved  to  Mississippi,  and  settled  at  Oxford  in  that  State; 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  iSjft;  was  re-elected  to  Con- 
gress (tho  3t)lh),  an<l  resigned  his  seat  in  that  body  after 
Mississippi  passed  her  ordinance  of  secession  in  ISill. 
At  tho  outbreak  of  tho  war  he  accepted  a  colonelcy  in  the 
provisional  army  of  the  Confederate  States,  but  was  after- 
wards sent  on  a  Kuropcan  mission.  On  his  entrance  into 
Congress  in  1>*.'>7.  .Mr.  Lamar  tO(ik  a  very  high  position  as 
a  debater  and  orator.  Beforo  his  retirement  hestood  among 
the  first  in  iho  House.  In  1S72  he  was  ogiiin  elected  a 
memberof  the  House  from  Mississippi  to  the  llJd  Congress. 
In  this  body  his  position  was  amongst  the  foremost  in 
logical  argument,  scbttlarly  neomplishmcnts,  ]iatriotii.'  fer- 
vor, and  forensic  display.  His  .'Speech  upon  the  death  of 
Mr.  Sumner  was  considered  one  of  tho  most  eloquent  over 
delivered  upon  the  floor  of  the  House.     A.  H.  Steimikns. 

Lamar  (MiRAHKAir  B.),  b.  at  Louisville,  Ga.,  Aug.  Ifi, 
17l'S:  became  a  merchant  and  planter;  establi.-^hed  in  1S28 
a  State  Rights*  newspap<'r,  the  ('nhi>iif>ni  /in/iiirrr  ;  re- 
moved in  183j  to  Tc.\as,  where  he  was  distinguished  at  tho 


1616 


LAMARCK,  DE— LAMAS. 


battle  of  San  Jacinto ;  became  a  major-general,  attorney- 
general  of  Texas,  and  secretary  of  war :  in  1^36  was  chosen 
Vice-President,  and  wns  (18;JS-41)  President  of  Texas.  In 
184(i  ho  fought  at  Monterey  and  on  the  Comanche  frontier. 
He  wns  appointed  in  IS.'>7  U.  S.  minister  to  the  Argeutine 
Republic,  and  in  1868  to  Costa  llica  and  Nicaragua.  I). 
at  Richmond,  Tex.,  Dec.  lU,  1869. 

Lamarck%  de  (Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de 
JIunkt),  CiiKVAMER.  b.  at  liarcntin.  France,  Aug.  1.  1744 : 
studied  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Amiens  :  entered  the  army 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  serving  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  at  it:i  close  devoted  himself  to  medicine  and  physical 
S'jience  at  Paris,  and  in  I"7t5  published  a  pni>cr  on  atmo- 
spheric vapors,  followed  by  the  Flore  Fnturaise  (1778). 
In  1770  he  was  chosen  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  became 
botanist  of  the  Jardin  du  Roi  17SH;  etlited  the  Dictiommire 
de  Hutnniqne  (15  vols.,  1785)  for  Panckoucke's  Encyrlo- 
pfdle  Mtthodi<iHe,  and  was  professor  of  zoology  at  the 
museum  1794-1818.  His  principal  works  are  Si/Hfenic  dea 
animaux  8(ni8  vertrhrea  (1801);  P/iifoS'iphitr  Zoolngiqiie 
(1809),  in  which  ho  announced  substantially  what  is  now 
called  the  law  of  evolution,  together  with  some  rather  fan- 
ciful speculations;  H'lKtnirc  natnreUe  dfn  atu'inanx  sant  vrr- 
tebrrs  (1815-22);  TabJenu  eucyclnpfdlqtie  de  In  Botaniqxie 
(1791-1823),  and  other  works.     D.  at  Paris  Dec.  8,  1829. 

La  Mard,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  111.     Pop.  1349. 

La  Mar'mora  (Albert),  Couxt,  elder  brother  of  Al- 
fonso, b.  at  Turin  in  1789;  d.  in  1863;  received  his  mili- 
tary education  at  Fontainebleau,  and  in  1808  served  in 
Calabria,  then  in  Lombardy,  afterwards  in  Austria;  at 
Bautzen  was  decorated  by  the  hand  of  Xapolcon  I. ;  fought 
at  Leipsic  ;  was  made  prisoner  at  Torgau.  and  released  only 
in  time  to  join  the  Sardinian  forces  at  Grenoble  in  1814. 
Having  taken  part  in  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1821, 
he  was  banished  to  Sardinia,  where  he  spent  nine  years  in 
studying  the  island,  especially  its  geology.  In  1820  ap- 
peared his  first  volume  of  statistics  of  Sardinia,  rejirintcd 
at  Paris  in  1839.  After  traversing  the  island  nineteen  times, 
he  described  it  minutely  in  a  work  which  does  him  the 
greatest  honor,  and  which  may  well  servo  as  a  model  for 
the  scientific  illustration  of  any  country.  He  was  recalled 
in  1831  by  Charles  Albert,  his  military  rank  was  raised,  and 
he  was  made  member  of  the  Turin  Academy  of  Sciences. 
In  1818  he  went  to  Venice  to  assist  Manin.  After  being 
named  to  the  senate  he  was  sent  to  Sardinia  as  royal  com- 
missioner, and  by  his  earnest  an<l  friendly  councils  he 
calmed  tlie  passions  of  the  Separatist  party.  In  1857  ho 
publisbod  the  third  and  last  volume  of  his  Via<jgio  in  Sar- 
dinia.    In  1S6U  appeared  his  Itinerarto, 

La  Marmora  (Alfonso),  Maiiqi'IS,  b.  at  Turin  in  IS04, 
of  an  old  and  noble  family;  loft  the  military  academy  in 
1823  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  of  artillery;  while  in  Ger- 
many in  1830  was  greatly  struck  witli  the  Prussian  military 
system;  reported  upon  it  with  a  view  to  the  reform  of  the 
Piedmontese  light  artillery ;  and  on  the  accession  of  Charles 
Albert  was  entrusted  with  the  formation  of  mounted  batte- 
ries.   In  1831,  lia  Marmora  established  a  school  for  non-com- 
missioned artillery  officers  ami  soldiers,  and  between  that 
time  and  1848  ho  visited  almost  every  country  in  Kurope 
for  purp()ses  of  military  study.    He  took  an  active  and  im- 
portant part  in  the  battles  of  1848;  saved  the  life  of  the 
king  in  the  insurrection  at  Milan  ;  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Franco,  and  on  his  return  was  made  minister  of  war.     In  I 
1849  he  was  sent  to  Tuscany  to  restore  the  grand  duke; 
then  to  Genoa  to  suppress  the  republican  insurrecti(m  there  i 
— an  event  which  he  describes  in  his  recent  work.  L'n  Epi-  ' 
aodio  drl  Hiaorgimenlo  Italinno.     In  Oct.,  1849,  being  again  ! 
minister  of  war.  ho  established  the  system  of  obligatory 
instruction  in  tiie  regiments,  purged  the  army  of  incompc-  i 
tent  officers,  reduced  the  number  and  improved  the  quality 
of  the  troops,  enlarged  the  beraatjlieri  c<irps,  etc.     In  1854  i 
he  organized  and  took  command  of  the  15.000  troops  sent 
to  the  Crimea,  led  them  to  the  victory  of  the  Tchernaya.and 
returned  to  Piedmont  to  resume  his  post  as  minister  of  war. 
In  1859  he  accompanied  Victor  Emnmnucl  to  the  field,  and 
after  the  peace  of  Villafranca  ho  became  president  of  the  ! 
council.     In  ISfil  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Prussia,  where  ' 
he  biid  the  foundation  of  the  Italo-Prussian  nllianee,  which 
he  concluded  in  18fifl,  and  by  moans  of  which,  notwitbsland-  j 
ing  the  defeats  of  t"'ustoza  and  Lissa,  Venice  was  restored  | 
to  Italy.   Sent  minister  to  Paris  in  I8(»7,  and  was  governor 
of  Rome  in  1870-71.     (See  his  Qmittrc  IH'^rtn-ai,  etc.,  and  , 
Uii  po  di  iuce.)     D.  at  Florence,  Italy,  Jan.  5.  1S78, 

l.amarque'  (Maximimev).  CorsT,  b.  July  22,  1770,  | 
at  St.  Sever,  in  the  department  of  Landes:  entered  the 
army  in  1791,  and  distinguished  himself  in  Spain  by  the 
capture  of  Fuenterrabia  in  1794.  In  1801  he  was  made  a  i 
brigadier-general ;  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz ;  ac-  j 
companied  Joachim  .Murat  to  Naples  in  1808;  put  down  | 
the  rebellions  in  Calabria;  captured  the  island  and  fortress  ! 


of  Capri  from  the  English,  and  was  made  a  general  of 
division.  On  his  return  from  Elba,  Napoleon  made  him 
governor  of  Paris,  and  later  on  he  sent  him  to  put  down 
the  insurrection  in  the  Vendee,  which  task  he  fulfilled  with 
as  much  forbearance  as  firmness.  On  the  second  return  of 
the  IJourbons  he  left  France,  being  exempted  from  amuestv, 
and  lived  at  .\msterdam,  but  was  allowed  to  return  in  1818. 
In  1828  he  was  elected  a  memljcr  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, where  he  sided  with  the  opposition,  and  exercised 
some  influence  by  his  peeuliar  eloquence  and  disinterested 
character.  D.  at  Paris  June  1,  1832.  His  funeral,  June  5, 
occasioned  an  insurrection  in  Paris,  which  cost  many  lives. 
Lamartine',  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Fond  du  Lac  co.,  Wis., 
7  miles  W.  of  Fond  du  Lac.     Pop.  1367. 

Lamartine,  dc  (Alimionse  Maiuk  Lons),  b.  at  Mi- 
con,  Burgundy,  Oct.  21,  1790  ;  d.  at  Paris  Feb.  28,  1869. 
His  name  is  popular  and  classical,  not  only  in  France — 
where  for  nearly  thirty  years  he  held  the  sceptre  of  poetry, 
and  during  four  months  the  sceptre  of  power — but  also 
throughout  the  world,  for  his  works  wore  translated  into 
every  language.  Lamartine  was  for  a  iew  months  the  real 
dictator  of  France,  but  he  was  a  poctieal  statesman,  like 
Castelar  of  Spain,  and  no  practical  results  came  out  from 
his  tremendous  political  power.  Still,  he  left  as  a  states- 
man a  memory  as  highly  honored  as  his  memory  as  a  poet 
and  historian  is  elevated  and  unsullied.  He  was  brought 
up  by  his  mother  with  a  delicacy  and  tenderness  of  senti- 
ment which  is  reflected  in  the  M''dtt'ttion»,  \hc  first  poetical 
production  of  Lamartine.  After  the  first  fait  of  Napoleon 
I.,  whose  rigid  and  rough  rule  disagreed  with  Lamartine, 
he  took  service,  being  a  nobleman  by  birth,  in  the  body- 
guard of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814.  When  Napoleon  camo 
back  from  Elba,  Lamartine,  instead  of  following  Louis 
XVIII.  to  Ghent,  travelled  for  four  years  in  Italy  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  1820  he 
published  his  first  volumes  of  poetry,  Lcs  Mf'ditntious,  Le 
I. fie,  etc.,  more  than  45,000  copies  of  which — a  large  num- 
ber for  that  time — wore  immediately  sold.  Ho  acted  after- 
wards as  attache  to  the  French  legation  at  Naples,  London, 
and  then  as  charge  d'affaires  in  Tuscany,  always  thanks  to 
the  protection  of  Chateaubriand,  who  had  become  the  ad- 
mirer and  the  friend  of  the  young  poet.  A  young  English 
lady,  possessed  of  a  very  large  fortune,  became  at  the  same 
time  enthusiastic  of  Lamartine,  and  he  married  her.  In  1832 
ho  made  his  famous  "journey  in  the  East,"  the  descri]ition 
of  which  he  published  under  that  title.  From  that  time 
( 1834)  Lamartine,  having  been  elected  dejiuty  to  the  French 
Assembly,  divided  his  life  between  politics  and  literature. 
His  Hiatortf  of  the  Girondists,  published  in  1840,  built  up 
his  reputation  as  a  liberal;  and  in  1848  he  acted  as  the 
leader  of  the  ])rovisional  government  of  the  French  re- 
public, in  the  capacity  of  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  But 
he  was  too  much  of  an  aristocratic  gentleman,  of  a  genuine 
f/rnnd  aeit/nciir,  not  to  oppose  the  daily  increasing  torrent 
of  revolutionary  passions.  He  had  prevented  France  from 
adopting  the  red  flag  as  its  national  banner  by  his  eloquent 
apostroj)he  to  a  Parisian  deputatir)n:  ''The  red  flag  has 
(miy  gone  around  the  Cliam])^do  i^Iars.  while  the  tricolor 
has  made  the  tour  of  Europe."  After  the  insurrection  of 
June,  1848,  Lamartine  sank  entirely  into  political  oblivion, 
and  he  retired  into  ])rivate  life.  But  he  had  lost  his  poet- 
ical and  literary  strength  ;  he  wrote  hastily  some  works, 
with  tho  expectation  that  their  sale  would  jiay  up  the  tre- 
mendous debt  which  he  had  incurred,  principally  through 
a  generosity  of  heart.  But  all  bis  efforts  were  fruitless  to 
fill  up  the  abyss;  he  lived  almost  in  poverty,  when  in  18f>7 
the  Corps  Li^gislatif  voted  him  a  large  annuity,  which 
softened  his  last  days,  for  he  died  two  years  after  having 
received  this  testimonial  of  the  gratefulness  of  France  to- 
wards one  of  her  greatest  poets,  historians,  and  most  hon- 
est statesmen.  A  public  subscription  was  started  after  his 
death,  and  in  1871  a  statue  was  erected  to  Lamartine  near 
Mricon,  at  Milly,  a  village  where  he  had  spent  his  youth, 
and  which  he  has  so  often  celebrated  in  his  books.  To 
the  list  of  his  works  already  mentioned  above  can  be  added 
among  the  most  remarkable  Iliaton/  of  the  Revobtti'm  of 
IS^S,  The  Coiifideueea,  ToitHaaint  L'Oitvertui-e,  a  drama, 
(I'oieviere,  <7»-«siV//rt,  and  the  numbers  of  two  kinds  of  peri- 
odical reviews  exclusively  edited  by  him — Lr  CniiMci/licr 
and  Coiira  Fainificr  de  Lift/^rattire.         FtLix  AucAlG.VE. 

La'mas  (.Andres),  b.  at  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  about 
1817,  received  an  excellent  education  in  his  native  city, 
and  at  an  early  ago  became  distinguished  both  in  literature 
and  politics,  founding  tho  Historical  Institute  of  Monte- 
video, and  filling  euecessivcly  several  important  offices.  He 
was  prefect  of  Montevideo  during  a  portion  of  the  cele- 
brated nine  years'  siege;  minister  of  finance,  nn<l  sevoral 
times  plenipotentiary  to  Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres  to  nego- 
tiate the  most  important  concerns  of  the  republic.  It  is, 
however,  for  his  vast  knowledge  of  South  American  history 


LAMB— LAMBRUSCHIXI. 


1017 


that  bo  is  best  known,  bis  private  collections  of  manuacripta 
being  perbnp:*  (he  must  important  materinls  extant  upon 
the  subject,     lie  has  published  several  vulumt-s  uf  a  vast 

Collettioti  of  Mrmoirs  tuid  Docnmcnla  rehitircto  the  Histortf 

and  (ifographif  of  the  Jiio  de  la  Flata,  and  uumeroua  poems 
and  bisturical  treatises. 

Lamb,  tp.  of  Dickinson  co.,  Kan.     Pop. -162. 

Lamb    Caroline).     See  Melbouuse. 

Lamb  iCii.vhles),  b.  in  London  Feb.  18,  1775.  His 
father,  who  was  a  servant  to  one  of  the  benchers  of  the 
Inner  Tcinpk*.  had  some  literary  taste  and  a  rare  fund  of 
huuior,  and  was  author  of  a  small  volume  of  verse.  Charles 
was  cduca(c<l  at  the  school  of  Christ's  Hospital  from  his 
seventh  to  his  fifteenth  year,  Coleridge  being  a  fellow-pupil 
an. I  friend,  and  in  178'J  obtained  a  L*ierkship  in  the  South 
Sea  House.  In  17'J2  ho  became  an  accountant  in  the  office 
of  the  East  India  Company,  and  remained  at  this  post  until 
182j,  when  he  retired  on  a  pension.  There  was  a  tendency 
to  insanity  in  the  family,  which  manifested  itself  in  Charles 
for  a  short  time  in  179j»  and  in  his  sister  Mary  the  next 
year,  when  she  killed  her  mother  with  a  knife.  In  1707, 
Lamb  printed  a  small  volume  of  verses  written  )ty  him- 
self, Coleridge,  an'l  Charles  Lloyd.  He  devoted  much  at- 
tention to  early  Knj;lish  literature;  published  in  ISO" 
TaUa  /itjtn  Sba/:npc<irr,  and  in  ISOS  Specimens  of  Entjllnh 
Vrtxnuitic  Puttn  irho  litrd  about  the  time  of  Shakxpenre.  Ho 
twice  appeared  as  a  dramatic  author,  having  printed  in 
ISOI   a  tragedy,  John   ]\'oodrif,  and    in  1800   a   farce,  Afr. 

II ,  which  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane.     Neither  of 

these  plays  had  the  slightest  success,  and  the  author  wisely 
devotetl  thereafter  his  occasional  literary  cffttrts  to  the  field 
in  which  he  is  best  known  and  njost  universally  appreciated. 
Several  brilliant  Eitafii/«  appeared  from  time  to  time  in 
Leigh  Hunt's  lirjlcctor  (ISlU)  and  in  other  periodicals,  but 
it  was  not  until  1S20  that  he  began  the  EHHntfH  of  EUa  in 
the  London  M'ltjosine.  They  wore  collected  in  1S2;1,  and 
established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and 
thoughtful  of  humorists.  In  1S,J3  ho  added  the  Ln^t  Esuayn 
of  Elia.  After  his  retirement  in  1S2J  from  the  drudgery 
of  office-labor  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  were  passed 
in  the  companionship  of  a  host  of  literary  friends,  to  whom 
be  was  mueh  attached.  Among  them  were,  besides  Cole- 
ridge ami  IJoyd.  Southey,  Wordsworth,  Godwin,  Talfourd, 
Procter,  Leigh  Hunt,  Hazlitt,  De  Quinecy,  and  Hood,  and 
their  Wednesday  evening  sessions  at  Lamb's  house  in  Inner 
Temple  lane  were  for  several  years  a  markcl  feature  of  lite- 
rary life  in  London.  Lamb,  though  painfully  moclest  and 
somewhat  hesitating  in  his  speech,  was  an  admirable  enter- 
tainer, and  his  table-talk,  of  which  fragments  have  been 
preserved  by  his  biographers,  abounds  in  the  rarest  wit. 
His  sympathy  with  the  literary  labors  of  others,  even  in 
spheres  far  removed  frotn  his  own,  was  an  admirable  trait 
of  character,  surpassed  only  by  his  absolute  freedom  from 
exclusiveness  in  regard  to  opinions,  religious  or  philosoph- 
ical. His  feeble  and  delicately  strung  physique  was  too 
susceptible  to  the  effects  r)f  liquors  and  tobacco,  which  ho 
nevertheless  craved,  this  bi-ing  his  only  frailtj'.  Ho  was 
never  married.  1).  at  Kdmonton  Dec.  27,  is;i4.  An  admi- 
rable biography  and  selection  from  his  letters  was  pub- 
lished by  T.  N.  Talfourd  in  IStO,  and  his  F.'n>d  Mrmorioh 
in  1S(S.  The  poems  of  Lamb,  though  graceful,  were  never 
popular,  but  his  reputation  rests  securely  upon  his  criti- 
cisms and  the  A'#»fi^«  of  EHa,  acknowledged  to  bo  one  of 
the  most  exquisite  volumes  in  the  whole  range  of  English 
literature.  —  .Makv  Anne  L.\mb,  b.  in  London  in  17t»j, sister 
of  Charles,  was  a  woman  of  considerable  litt-rary  tuk-nt, 
and  took  part  in  siirae  of  her  brother's  works,  especially 
the  TuUa  from  Shuktpeaie.  She  resided  through  life  with 
Charles,  who  was  tenderly  attached  to  her;  received  a 
pension  after  his  death  from  the  East  India  Company,  and 
d.  at  St.  John's  Wood  May  20,  1S47.      PouTEn  C.  Huss. 

Lamb  (<lcn.  John),  b.  in  New  York  Jan.  1,  K^t'i;  aa- 
sistrl  his  father  at  the  business  of  optician  ami  maker  (»f 
mathematical  instruments;  took  a  distinguished  part  in 
Montgotnerv's  expedition  against  Quebec,  in  which  hi*  was 
wovhuIlmI  and  taken  prisoner ;  beeamo  major  and  cohmel  of 
artillery  under  <len.  Knox;  and  did  good  service  through- 
out thu  war.  clo!<iiig  liis  cari'cr  at  Yorktown.  lie  was  after- 
wards a  member  of  the  New  York  legislature,  an«l  was  ap- 
pointed by  Washington  collector  of  customs  for  the  p«)rt  of 
Nrw  York,  which  post  ho  hchl  the  remaintler  of  his  life. 
1>.  in  New  York  May  .'JI,  ISOO.  (See  Life  of  Lamh,  by 
Leake.  Albany.  ls.">0,) 

Lamballe%  de  (Marie  TriEui^sK  Lot'isp.  de  Savoie- 
CAttii;\lN).  I'lMNTESS.  1).  at  Turin  Sept.  S,  1710,  iind  mar- 
ried in  17fi7  the  prince  of  Laml»alle,  son  of  the  duke  of 
Uourbon-Penlhii'vre.  who  did  next  year.  Petween  Mario 
Antoinette  and  the  princess,  who  was  as  much  distinguished 
by  her  intelligence  as  by  her  beauty,  arose  a  friendship 
which  proved  true  to  the  last.  When  the  royal  family  at- 
Vol.  II.— 102 


tempted  to  flee  (May  29. 1791)  the  princess,  who  was  mis- 
tress of  the  royal  household,  preceded  them,  but  when  the 
attempt  failed  returned  from  England  to  slay  with  the  queen. 
whose  humiliations  and  sufferings  she  shared  with  genuine 
heroism.     Murdered  in  the  massacre  of  Sept.  8,  1792. 

Lambaye'que,  town  of  Peru,  South  America,  on  the 
Lauibayetjue.  b  miles  from  its  mouth  into  the  Pacitic,  is 
bcaulifully  situated  and  well  built.  It  has  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  carries  on  some  trade, 
though  its  roadstead  is  over  a  mile  distant  from  the  shore, 
and  very  bad.     Pop.  10,000. 

Lam'bert  (Daniel),  b.  at  Leicester,  England.  Mnr.  l.*?, 
I7(tO  ;  was  remarkable  for  his  great  size,  and  for  some  years 
exhibited  himself  to  visitors  in  London  and  the  large  cities 
of  England.  Previous  to  the  age  of  nineteen  ho  had  not 
been  noted  for  corjiulency,  but  owing  perhaps  to  a  seden- 
tary life  as  keeper  of  a  prison,  he  attained  in  17911  a  weight 
of  44S  pounrls.  and  ultimately  739  pounds.  He  was  only  5 
feet  11  inches  in  height,  strictly  temperate  in  habits,  and 
distinguished  for  health,  octivity.  good-humor,  and  polished 
manners.     D.  at  Stamford  June  21,  1S09. 

Lambert  (Johann  Hkinimcii),  b.  Aug.  29,  172R,  at 
Miilhausen  in  Alsace,  in  humble  circumstances,  but  suc- 
ceeded by  industry  and  perseverance  in  developing  his  nat- 
ural talent  for  mathematics  and  natural  science;  travelled 
much  as  jtrivate  tutor  to  two  young  Swiss  noblemen,  and 
came  in  17(')l  to  Herlin.  where  Kreileriek  II.  made  him  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Science  and  superintendent  of 
the  Antronomical  Almanac.  His  Photomvtria.aivide  mennnra 
ct  fjradihna  hnninis  colorum  et  vmhrtv  (1760)  contains  the 
first  scientific  representation  of  the  measurement  of  the  in- 
tensity of  light;  and  his  /n»it/niur'H  Orhitn-  (\>metaruin 
I'roprirtatrn  still  occupies  an  hontirablc  jdace  in  the  history 
of  astronomy.  His  metaphysical  writing's,  on  the  contrary, 
have  become  entirely  forgotten.    D.  at  Lcrlin  Sept.  25, 1777. 

Lambert  ffien.  John),  b.  at  Kirkby  Malham<lale.  York- 
shire, England,  Sejit.  7,  llilO;  studied  law.  ami  on  theout- 
break  of  the  great  rebellir)n  entered  the  Parliamentary 
army  as  cnptain  under  Lord  Fairfax.  Ho  was  conspicuous 
ill  the  ])rineipal  battles  of  the  war;  was  cohmel  at  Marston 
M<»or  (1014)  and  major-general  in  the  Scots  war.  (lO.'.U),  in 
which  he  gained  the  actions  of  Hamilton  and  Inverkeilhing  ; 
was  appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  in  10J2;  was  o  mem- 
ber of  ('rom well's  council  and  Parliament  I  UJ.")4) ;  and  aided 
Cromwell  to  become  Protector,  but  opposed  his  assumption 
of  8<»vereign  power  in  16J7,  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  was  dismissed  from  court  with  a  pension. 
On  the  accession  of  Richard  Cromwell  in  ICJS,  Uen.  Lam- 
bert headed  the  confederacy  of  military  commanders  which 
deposed  that  feeble  ruler,  and  asjiired  to  the  Protectorate. 
In  May,  10.')9.  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  tlio  reinstal- 
lation "of  the  '•  Hump  Parliament;"  defeated  the  royalists  at 
Chester  in  August,  came  into  c(uifliet  with  and  forcibly 
dispersed  the  Rump  in  October,  thereby  becoming  head  of 
thu  committee  of  safety  and  virtual  ruler  of  England. 
Lambert  started  with  an  army  to  oppose  Monk  (Nov.),  but 
the  troops  deserting  in  great  numbers,  he  was  soon  seized 
by  order  of  i'arliainent  'Jan..  lllOtt)  onil  cast  into  the  Tower, 
whence  ho  eseii)ied  and  reassembled  forces  against  J^lonk; 
hut  being  captured  a  seconfl  time,  he  was  tried  and  eon- 
deinned  to  death  (.lune,  10fj2)  by  the  new  court  of  king's 
bench  under  Charles  II.  His  sentence  was  commuted  to 
banishment,  and  he  d.  on  the  island  of  tiuernsey  in  1092. 

l^am'bcrtville,  postv.  of  West  Amwell  tp.,  Hunter- 
don CO.,  N.  .1..  on  the  l>elaware  Kiver  and  the  Pelvidero 
division  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  II  miles  above  Trenton, 
44  miles  from  Philadelphia,  and  71  from  New  York.  It 
has  .')  churches,  2  weekly  newspapers,  .O  hotels,  1  natioruil 
bunk,  a  rubber-factory,  iron-foundry,  railroad  construelion 
and  repair  shops,  a  cotton.  2  paper.  2  spoke,  and  2  twine 
mills,  with  exeelUMit  water-power.      INqi.  ;{HI2. 

Hazkn  a  R.uiKUTs,  Ens.  and  Piuh'S.  of  "  Rkaoon." 

Lamb^HC,  small  town  of  Algeria,  in  the  province  of 
Constantino,  is  used  by  the  French  as  a  penal  colony.  It 
stands  on  the  silo  of  the  ancient  LamhenHn;  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  of  Numidia  and  the  station  of  a  Roman 
legion.  Uuins  of  an  nmpliitheatre.  a  tem]do  of  iEsculai)ius, 
and  a  niagtiilieent  wall  with  forty  gates  are  stUl  extant. 

Lnm'brthf  one  of  the  suburbs  of  London,  on  the  S.  of 
the  Thames,  opposite  Westminster,  with  which  it  is  ccm- 
nected  by  the  Waterloo.  Westminster,  and  Vauxhall  bridges. 
Pop.  :t79,ll2.  Lambeth  Palace,  an  eilifieo  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  has  been  for  evnturios  the  principal  residence  of  Iho 
archbishops  of  Canterbury,  and  has  a  line  library. 

LnmbrtiNchrni  (Rakpaello),  Aruk,  b.  at  (ionoa  in 
17SS;  d.  in  lS7;t;  passed  some  years  at  Rome  in  the  study 
of  theology,  after  which  the  young  abb/'-  returned  to  his 
father,  theii  living  in  Tuscany,  to  devote  himself  to  agricul- 
tural and  philanthropic  pursuits,  going  from  time  to  time  to 


1618 


LAMBTOX-LAMINARIA. 


Florence  for  the  benefit  of  scientific  lectures.  At  the  age  I 
of  forty,  Lambruschini  published  his  first  work— a  work  | 
which  "proved  him  an  cle-;aut,  careful,  and  thoroughly  in- 
structed writer,  anxious  to  promote  all  real  progress.  The 
habit  of  training  plants  suggested  to  him  the  true  metho<l 
of  training  men;  Vieusseux  entrusted  to  him  the  education 
of  his  nephew,  and  he  afterwards  established  a  boarding 
college  for  boys  at  his  villa  of  San  Carboui.  In  isati  he 
took  the  direction  of  La  (Jidda  dclV  Eilia-alore.  In  1848 
he,  with  Kicaaoli  and  Salvagnoli,  wrote  pulilical  articles  for 
La  ratria.  and  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Tuscan  assembly. 
In  ISJ'.I  bo  published  his  Lihii  delta  Edm-aziom;  then  his 
I)ialo.,lu  mdla  hlrnztoue,  enlarged  an.I  reprinted  in  18/1. 
In  185'J  he  was  made  in.spector-gcneral  of  the  schools  in 
Tuscany,  afterwards  of  all  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
kinu-.loin,  besides  being  entrusted  with  the  superintendence 
of  tbe  Istituto  di  Studii  Superior!,  in  which  he  was  professor. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  senate  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Lamb'ton,  county  of  Ontario.  Canada,  bounded  on  the 
N  bv  Lake  Huron  ami  on  the  W.  by  the  St.  Clair  Kiver. 
Vetrolcum  is  produced  to  some  extent.  The  soil  li? J'^jy 
fe-tile.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  K.  K. 
Cap.  Sarnia.     Pop.  ;!1,U',I4. 

Laine'go,  town  of  Portugtil,  in  the  province  of  Beira. 
It  is  bcautitullv  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Penude  Moun- 
tains, on  an  alflnent  of  the  Douro,  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
has  an  ancient  castle,  an  episcopal  palace,  a  college,  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral,  and  many  other  ecclesiastical  monuments. 
It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  tha  fourth  century, 
and  was  the  residence  of  the  early  Moorish  kings  of  Por- 
tugal.   P"p.  yooo. 

Lamellibranchiata,  or  Acephala  (a  class  of  mol- 
lusksi.     ,*ce  Coxciioi.oiiv,  by  G.  W.  Trvon,  .Jr. 

Lamennais',  de  (  UrnrEsFKLiciTE  RoBnitr),  Abbe,  b. 
June  HI,  1782,  at  St.  Malo,  Bretagne  :  acquired  very  early, 
throu>'h  passionate  application  to  studies,  a  comprehensive 
knowFedge  of  theology,  philosophy,  and  history;  adopted, 
though  only  after  some  hesitation,  the  ecclesiastical  career ;   i 
received  tlie  tonsure  in  1811,  and  took  holy  orders  in  1817.  | 
It  struck  him  that  lack  of  true  religion  was  rtie  real  cause  , 
of  all  the  mental  and  nior.al  troubles  from  which  the  age 
sufi'cred  ;  and  although  he  move.l  along  through  many  and 
verv  singular  windings,  and  changed  his  standpoint  and  j 
allies   more  than  once,  at  the  bottom  of  all  his  different  I 
views  of  the  world  lies  the  idea  that  the  regeneration  ol  the 
time  depends  on  a  religi.ms  revival.     The  first  work  in 
which  he  set  forth  his  idea  with  full  power  was  his  Lmy 
siir  ni,il:tr''mi<-e  en  MatilTe  de  Reliqiia,  (4  vols..  181  i-L'll), 
a  brilliant  apology  for  the  Church  and  the  monarchy  hailed 
with  enthusiasm  bv  the  I'ltiamonlane  clergy  and  the  old- 
conservative  statesnien,  hut  offensive  to  the  (iallican  party  ; 
in  the  French  Church,  and  hateful  to  all  the  different  shades 
of  dcmocracv  and  liberalism.     It  awakened  a  certain  sus- 
picion however,  even  among  its  best  friends.  The  monarchy 
w-is  not  based  on  its  legitimacv.  but  on  its  usefulness  to  the  j 
Church,  and  in  the  Church  the  highest  authority  was  not  | 
sought  for  in  th.'  infallibility  of  the  pope,  but  in  the  universal  [ 
consent  of  all  Christians.    In  his  next  following  works,  ia 
Reliqlw,  rnmiJerfe  dan,  /<■«  Rapport,  arec  VUrdrc  cud  ct  pa-   \ 
//(.V;'ii«{2vols..  IS2J-2l))and/Voffr^»</f /t  Itfmluiianflde  la 
oJn-e  r-.niirr  r£,,l!K  ( 1 82H ),  this  idealization  of  the  existing 
Church  and  moiiarchy  developed  into  a  tendency  towards 
reform  of  both;  and  after  the  July  revolution  in  18;iO  he 
openly  broke  with  the  old  monarchy,  and  tried  in  his  journal, 
the   \i-n,lr,  to  establish  an  alliance  between  the  Church  and 
the  free  constiluthm.al  government.     He  was  immediately 
denounced  at  Home,  and  the  pope  condemned  in  18112  the 
views  set  forth  in  the  Avndr.     Nor  was  he  accepted  by  the 
doctrinaires,  who  felt  that  his  present  staiidi>oint  was  only 
an  intermediate  station  from  which  he  soon  would  pass  into 
radicalism.     .At  the  first  niiunent  he  submitted  e<iinpletely 
to  the  papal  condemnation  ;  the  .4rrMii-  was  suspended.    But 
after  a  veai's  silence  and  meditation  he  ]uiblifbeil  in  lS,i4 
his  I'arid.t  d'nn  Crayant.  which  made  an  unexampled  sen- 
sation :  it  ran  through  1  On  editions  in  a  few  years,  and  was 
translated  into  all   Euiv.pean  languages.     The  jiope  con- 
demned  it,   and   l.amennais   answered  by  his  -1;?"ir<-»  rff 
Jlmne  (18:!G).    By  these  two  books  he  broke  absolutely  with 
the  Church,  and  in  his  subsequent  works,  Lr  Llir,-  dti  J'enple 

(lS:i7),  A\./.li««f  d-iaif  rhdannphir  {?.  vcds.,  1841-4.1),  JJc  la 
Itellijinn  (1841  ),  Du  I'aMf  il  de  I'Arfnir  dn  I'eiijilr  (\»42).  he 

appeared  as  the  apostle  of  the  democracy,  as  the  prophetic 
cxpouniler  of  the  alliance  between  Christianity  and  radical- 
ism. In  184'J  he  was  a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly;  after  the  rr.n;)  r/V(<i(  he  lived  in  absolute  retirement. 
D.  Feb.  27,  lSi4.  In  accordance  with  his  will,  his  corpse 
was  brought  to  Pere  la  Chaise  and  deposited  among  the 
poor  and  unknown,  without  any  funeral  rites;  not  oven  a, 
simple  stone  marks  hia  grave. 

Lamenta'tions,  Book  of,  a  canonical  book  of  the 


Old  Testament,  following  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  and  gener- 
ally attributed  to  that  prophet.  Itconsists  id"  fivechuptcrs, 
each  composed  of  twenty-two  verses  (except  the  third, 
which  has  sixtv-six),  according  to  the  number  of  letters  in 
the  Hebrew  alphabet,  and  is  an  acrostic,  each  verse  begin- 
ning with  a  distinct  letter.  The  contents  arc.  as  indicated 
by  the  title,  a  series  of  dirges  or  threnodies  upon  the  down- 
fall of  Israel.  Some  have  found  the  occasion  of  its  com- 
position in  the  defeat  of  Josiah  at  Megiddo,  and  regard  the 
references  to  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem  as  prophetic;  but  the 
internal  evidence  is  decisive  that  it  must  have  been  written 
after  the  event  it  commemorates.  Little  opposition  has 
been  made  by  modern  critics  to  the  tradition  derived  from 
the  Sc].tuag"int  text  and  supporteil  by  the  Talmud,  which 
refers  its  authorship  to  Jeremiah,  treating  it  as  an  appendix 
to  the  prophecies. 

Lameth',  de  (Alexandre  TniononE  Virionl,  Cohxt, 
b.  at  Paris  Oct.  28,  17G0.  desccndi  d  from  a  noble  family  of 
Pieardy  ;  was  one  of  three  brothers  who  figured  largely  in 
French  politics  during  and  subsequent  to  the  Revolution, 
after  having  rendered  services  in  the  American  war  of  in- 
dcpcnilencc  on  the  staff  of  Count  Uochambeau.  Alexandre 
became  a  colonel  in  1  78;'i,  and  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
States  General  in  178il,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  clergy.  He  was 
chosen  president  of  the  National  Assembly  Nov.  20,  17110; 
afforded  protection  to  Louis  XVI.;  tendered  him  counsels 
which  were  disregarded;  was  a  member  of  the  constitutional 
committee;  had  frequent  conflicts  with  Mirabeau,  and  op- 
posed Robespierre  and  the  Jacobins.  On  the  outbreak  of 
war  with  Austria  (17112),  Lameth  served  as  field-marshal 
in  the  army  of  the  North  ;  was  accused  by  the  Assembly 
(Aug.  10).  together  with  La  Fayette  ;  escaped  from  France, 
was  seized  by  the  Austrians,  and  imprisoned  three  years  at 
Magdeburg;  repaired  to  England  in  179.');  \vtis  well  re- 
ceived by  Fox  and  the  Whigs,  but  being  ordered  by  Pitt  to 
leave  the  country,  joined  his  brother  Charles  at  Hamburg, 


opening  there  a  eoniniereial  house.     Under  the  eo: 
and  empire  Lameth  was  prefect  of  several  depart 

•  .  .  .■  .  _      »        1  1...         T     i.xlD  \     \       I 


Under  the  consulate 
nieuts  ; 
was  appointed  lieutenant-general  by  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1814  and  during  his  reign  was  for  four  sessions  a  leader  of 
the  opposition  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Lameth  wrote 
much  on  ].olitics,  his  most  important  work  being  ILitlone 
dc  I'Agncnddi'c  conalilnanle  (2  vols.,  1828-29). 

I^aineth,  de  (Charles  Malo  Fras(,-ois),  Count,  b.  at 
Paris  Oct.  0,  1757,  brother  of  Alexandre  ;  served  as  captain 
on  the  staff  of  Count  Rochambcau  in  the  American  Revo- 
lutionary war :  was  wimuded  at  the  capture  of  a  Bnlish 
redoubt  "at  Yorktown,  and  promoted  to  be  colonel.  During 
the  Revolution  his  career  was  singularly  parallel  to  that 
of  his  brother  Alexandre;  like  him,  be  was  at  one  time 
(Julv.i  1791)  ch.isen  presiilent  of  the  National  Assembly, 
served  ks  field-marshal,  had  to  flee  after  the  events  of  Aug. 
10  1792.  and  .settled  at  Hamburg.  From  1809  to  l.-^ll  ho 
served  in  the  army  under  Napoleon,  obtaining  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  After  the  Restoration  he  lived  in  pri- 
vacy until  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1829  :  eo- 
ope"rated  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  d.  at  Paris  Dec.  28, 
is:i2— His  elder  brother,  CoiST  Theodore,  b.  at  Pans 
June  24  17;'ifi,  also  served  in  America,  was  a  deputy  and 
a  field-marshal,  but  took  little  part  in  |,olitics.  lie  wrote 
a  biogra].by  of  his  celebrated  brothers,  whom  bo  survived 
many  year.*.     D.  at  Busagny  Oct.  19,  1854. 

I.a  Mottrie',  dc  (Jiliex  Okkray).  b.  at  St.  Malo  Dec. 
■^  >  1701) ;  studied  medicine,  and  was  appointed  physician  in 
The  urmv  of  the  duke  of  Gramont,  but  was  disebargid  on 
account  of  his  llhlalye  nam,;  lie  de  /■.l«,r(tbe  Hague.  17  l.i), 
which  lio.d^  was  luiblic  Iv  burnt  f.ir  its  materialism  and  athe- 
ism After  the  publication  of  La  fahtd/ue  dn  Mfdenn  de 
MncldarrI  (Amsterdam,  174fii  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
France  and  sought  refuge  in  HolUand,  but  he  was  expelled 
also  from  this  country  on  account  of  his  /.-.  Eoenlte  etnjee 
(1747)  and  i:  llaniin,  .maehine  (  Levden,  1748).  He  removed 
to  Berlin  ..11  the  invitation  of  Frederick  II..  with  whom  he 
lived  in  great  inumaey.  Here  he  wrote  /.7/..«mc-;,,,„(e 
(1748),  An  dejauir.  etc.,  and  d.  suddenly  Nov.  11.  li.'l, 
from  over-eating.  Frederick  II.  wrote  his  (h„je ;  \  <.ltaue 
called  him  a-fooir  and  this  different  impression  which 
his  writings  made  on  his  time  gives  them  a  certain  histori- 
cal interest  ;  else  they  are  entirely  destitute  of  scientific  or 
literarv  value. 
1  I.ainina'ria  [Lat.],  a  genus  of  seaweeds,  of  which  L. 
!  dddlala.  I,ullj,„a.  and  nae.harlna.  all  deep-sea  plants  are 
,,r"ii;ed  in  Europe  for  the  rich  supply  of  iodine  aflorded  by 
them  when  burned  as  kelp.  The  stem  of  Lam.nuna  ,1,./,- 
laia  (sea-tangle,  girdle)  is  manufactured  into  bougies  and 
uterine  tents  for  surgeons'  use.  In  some  cases  these  tents 
are  superior  to  tents  of  compressed  sponge.  It  is  reniarK- 
ablc  that  the  sea-tangle  of  the  American  coasts,  specifically 
identical  with  that  of  Europe,  is  unfit  for  this  use. 


LA  MINE— LAMP. 


itjiy 


LaMine,|>09t-r.  and  Ip.  or  Cooper  CO.,  Mo.,  oo  La  Mine  | 
River,  7  miles  W.  of  Bouneville.     Pop.  1088.  | 

Lam'ina!*  Uay,  the  festival  of  St.  Peter's  chains  (Aug. 
IJ,  probably  so  called  because  it  was  an  ancient  practice  on 
this  day  to  make  an  offering  of  bread  a«  the  first  fruits  of 
the  year ;  henco  *•  loaf-mass,"  corrupted  to  Lammas. 

I.am'mcrgeyer  [<icr..  ".lumb-vulture"},  called  also 
Grillon  and  Bearded  Vulture,  the  (Jiipnfim,  burba- 
tut,  one  of  the  lar;:est.  perhaps  (ho  largest,  of  the  birds  of 
prey  (since  the  condor  has  by  recen(  au(hors  been  described 
as  rather  inferior  to  the  lammcrgeyer  in  size),  an  dld-World 
bird,  a  vulture  in  anatomy,  but  an  eagle  in  habits,  rarely 
feeiling  upon  carrion.  It  is  a  strong  and  bold  hunter,  some- 
titnes  reaching  ten  feet  in  expanse  of  wing. 

Lammermoors',  a  range  of  hills.  1732  feet  high,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  East  Lothian  and  Kerwickshire, 
Scotland,  and  covering  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  latter 
county,  where  it  presents  a  bold,  rocky,  and  dangerous  coast 
to  the  Xorih  .Sea. 

Lam'nidie  [from  Lamna.  the  typical  genus,  and  -iV/jc], 
a  family  of  sharks,  with  a  fusiform  body  ;  the  caudal  fin 
with  the  lower  lobe  a  little  s[aallcr  than  the  upper:  with  a 
keel  on  each  side  of  the  tail ;  and  two  dorsal  fins,  the  first 
of  which  is  behind  the  pectorals.  Head  with  a  pointed 
snout:  mouth  large,  inferior;  teeth  large:  the  nostrils  not 
confluent  with  the  mouth:  the  spiracles  obsolete  or  entirely 
wanting:  the  branchial  apertures  very  wide.  The  family 
thus  defined  e[ubracc3  several  genera,  including  the  nmck- 
ercl  shark  and  the  formidable  "man-eater"  of  the  Amer- 
ican waters.  The  row  of  teeth  on  the  upper  jaw  in  all  these 
forms  exhibits  a  break  a  short  distance  from  (he  symphysis 
on  each  side,  where  the  teeth  are  much  smaller  than  the 
others.  Two  well-defined  groups  represent  the  family — 
viz.  Laranai.  in  which  the  teeth  are  lanceolate  or  siginyidally 
curved,  and  not  serrated  ;  and  Carcharodontcs,  in  which  the 
teoth  are  triangular  and  serrated.  The  two  groups  arc 
represented  in  the  .Vtlautic  as  well  as  Pacific  waters  of 
North  America,  the  .\tlantic  species  being  Imiroptii  Oekai/i 
and  C'irckamluii  Alu-fmdi.  The  family  was  well  repre- 
sented in  past  geological  epochs,  and  enormous  toctn  of 
Cuiclmr,„lnn  are  found  in  Tertiary  beds.    Theouore  Gill. 

Lamoille',  county  of  N.  Vermont.  Area,  450  square 
miles.  It  is  quite  mountainous,  but  generally  very  fertile, 
atlording  fine  pasturage.  Cattle,  grain,  wool,  potatoes,  hay, 
and  dairy  products  are  the  agricultural  staples.  Lumber, 
leather,  and  starch  are  manufactured.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Lamoille  Kiver  and  by  the  Portland  and  Og- 
dcnsburg  K.  R.     Cap.  Hyde  Park.     Pop.  12,-148. 

Lamoille,  post-tp.  of  Bureau  co..  III.     Pop.  1408. 

Lamoille  River  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Vermont, 
and  Hows  westward  into  Lake  Chaniplain,  through  La- 
moille. Franklin,  and  Chiltenrlen  cos.  It  furnishes  exten- 
sive water-power. 

Lamoille  Valley,  a  v.  of  Elko  co.,  Ncv.     Pop.  134. 

1,11  .Moin,  tp.  of  MeDonough  co.,  III.     Pop.  1107. 

Lainiiine',  post-tp.  of  Hancock  co.,  Me.,  on  the  sea- 
c<iast,  .\.  of  .\It.  Desert  Island.     Pop.  612. 

Ijamont',  post-v.  of  tjttawaco.,  Mich.,  on  Graml  Uiver. 

Lamoute',  post-v.  of  LIk  Fork  tp.,  Pettis  co.,  Mo.,  on 
the  .Missouri  Pacific  R.  R.     Po|i.  1S4. 

Lamoriciere,  ile  (rntiisTopiii-:  Locis  L£on),  b.  at 
Nantes  Feb.  li,  ISOti;  was  a  pupil  of  the  Polytechnic  ."^chool ; 
entered  the  army,  took  part  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
Arabs  of  Algeria,  and  captured  Abd-el-Kader  in  1847. 
After  the  revolution  of  Feb.,  1818,  he  was  elected  repre- 
sentative in  the  National  .Assembly,  and  as  a  general  fought 
a:;ainsl  (lie  Paris  insurgen(s.  .\s  soon  as  they  were  defeat- 
el  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  .lune  28.  1848,  but  re- 
signed on  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  as  President,  and 
in  the  .\ssembly  opposed  the  Itoiiupartist  policy.  On  the 
night  of  the  r-oii/j  iVfl'il,  Dec.  2,  Is,,  1,  he  was  sent  as  pris- 
oner to  the  fortress  of  Ham.  and  thence  exiled  from  France. 
In  |8(',0  be  took  the  command  of  the  jnipal  troops,  but  was 
defeated  at  Castelfidardo  by  Victor  Kinmanuel's  generals. 
Ho  returned  to  France,  thanks  to  a  pardioi  already  granted 
to  him  in  1867  by  Napoleon  III.,  and  <l.  in  bis  clitKeau  of 
Prouscl  near  .Vmiens  Sept.  10,  ISGj.      Fti.ix  At  caicse. 

Lnmotte',  tp.  of  ."^anilac  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  04. 
Lainotte,  de  (Wvtoink  HoinAnn).  b.  at  Paris.  France, 
in  l'>72;  studied  in  a  .lesiiit  college;  obtained  success  in 
writing  operas  of  the  pastoral  type,  and  also  with  four 
tragedies,  on©  of  which,  htfz  ftf  Canti-n  (I72;i).  has  main- 
tained a  place  on  the  French  stage.  He  became  blind  at 
the  age  of  forty;  was  admitted  to  the  .Vcadeniy  in  1710; 
was  dramatic  censor,  and  was  noted  for  the  literary  para- 
doxes he  maintained  in  his  critical  essays.  He  wrote  many 
fables,  odes,  and  eclogues,  depreciated  Homer,  and  brought 
out  an  "  improved  end  corrected  "  lllud  in  French  verse. 


reduced  to  ten  hooks,  which  involved  him  in  a  violent  con- 
troversy with  Madame  Dacier.  D.  at  Paris  in  1731.  His 
complete  works  form  10  vols.  (17o4), 

Lamotte,  de  (Jf.avnf.  nE  Lcz  nE  Saint  Remv  peVa- 
I.OIS),  CofXTESs.  b.  at  Font^le.  in  Champagne,  .Tuly  22, 
1766,  of  a  noble  but  degenerated  family;  educated  by  the 
countess  of  Boulainvilliers.  and  received  a  pension  of  Louis 
XV.  on  account  of  her  descent  from  the  house  of  Valois. 
.\ftcr  marrying  the  count  de  Lamotte.  a  penniless  ad\'en- 
turer.  she  settled  in  Paris  aliont  I  780.  and  soon  began  the  in- 
trigue with  Carclinal  Rohan  which  has  become  famous  under 
the  name  of  the  "  necklace  story."  It  ended  with  her  convic- 
tion May  M,  1785.  She  was  whipped,  brandeil,  and  put  in 
theSalpetriere.  In  1787  she  escaped,  came  to  London,  and  d. 
there  .Vug.  2">.  1701.  falling  during  a  night-revel  out  of  a 
wintlow.  (Consult  The  Difimnnil  Sfrklnvi'  (Carlyle's)  and 
Louis  Blanc's  HiMtnire  de  In  lUrolution  /niliruiMe,  and 
Campardon's  Marie  Anloinette  et  Ic  Poifg  du  Collier  (1864).) 

Lamoure',  county  of  E.  Central  Dakota,  traversed  by 
the  Dakiita  River.  .Airea.  1800  square  miles.  It  is  almost 
entirely  uninhabited  by  white  men. 

Lamp  [Fr.  lampe;  Lat.  hnnpnn;  Or.  Aa^Taf,  from  Aa^- 
ntLv,  to  "shine"].  Defined  till  within  a  few  years  as  a 
receptacle  for  oil  with  a  wick  for  illumination,  the  inven- 
tions of  the  past  and  present  geucration  have  made  it 
impossible  to  distinguish  between  the  /nm/<  properly  so 
called  and  any  other  artificial  means  of  giving  light. 
Known  to  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  and  11  reeks,  lamps 
were  originally  simple  flat  vessels  of  oblong  or  round 
shape,  at  one  end  of  which  was  a  smalt  handle,  at  the 
other  a  little  projection  with  a  hole  forming  a  nozzle,  and 
with  a  larger  opening  on  the  back  anil  in  the  centre  into 
which  the  oil  was  poured.  The  oil  used  was  generally  veg- 
etable, but.  .according  to  Pliny.  sometiuKS  of  liquid  bitu- 
men. These  lamps,  of  terra  coKa  or  metal,  many  of  very 
elegant  form,  were  placed  on  nr  hung  with  chains  to  bronze 
candelabra.  Tareutum  and  iEgina  were  famed  for  making 
the  latter  of  great  elegance.  But  though  the  ancients  con- 
fined their  ingenuity  to  the  ornamentation  of  the  lamp  and 
its  stand.  Hero  of  .Alexandria  (b.  r.  221 ),  in  his  Tnniis,  i.n 
I'nenmaliet,  details  four  inventions,  by  one  of  which  "oil 
can  be  raised  by  water  within  its  stand. "  and  by  the  other 
"raised  by  means  of  air."  All  the  older  lamps  formed  a 
crust  on  the  wick,  which  was  renioveil  by  :i  needle  or 
picker;  none  of  them  gave  a  good  light,  and  the  majority 
of  the  poorest  persons  of  the  younger  generation,  especially 
in  our  cities,  have  literally  no  idea  of  the  limited  artificial 
illumination,  even  of  the  rich,  before  the  days  of  gas,  cam- 
phcne.  lard  oil.  and  hydrocarbons. 

From  the  earliest  times  until  within  a  century  the  lamp 
remained  the  same,  consisting  simply  of  oil  and  a  wick  in 
a  receiver.  In  1784,  M.  Ami  Aigand  (or,  according  to 
some,  M.  tjuinquct)  produced  an  entire  revolution  in  arti- 
ficial light  by  the  invention  of  a  liunier  with  a  circular 
wick,  the  fiame  being  thus  supplied  with  an  outer  and  in- 
ner current  of  air.  the  eflfcct  of  which  was  increased  by 
means  of  a  glass  chimney.  Argand  was  also  the  inventor 
of  the  chimney  itself  as  applied  to  other  lamps.  Soon  after 
.\rgand.  I'ctcr  Kciri  I  787  )  made  the  great  invention — which 
was  only  fully  developed  of  late  by  .\ronson — of  raising 
the  supply  of  oil  by  means  of  another  fluid  whose  specific 
gravity  is  greater  limn  that  of  oil,  this  being  generally  salt 
in  water.  The  principal  inventions  since  his  arc  as  follows  : 
.John  .Miles  (1787)  invented  a  portable  carriage-lamp,  also 
one  with  a  reservoir  on  the  same  principle  as  "a  birdcage 
waler-fountnin,"  and  a  burner  of  twisted  wire.  Th.  II. 
Stokes  (1787)  patented  a  new  and  peculiar  method  of  rais- 
ing oil  in  lamps  to  suoply  the  wick.  and.!.  Smcthursl  ( 1701 ) 
anil  .1.  Lucas,  with  W.  jiaylis  (170.!).  made  ingeninus  ap- 
plications of  lenses  to  light.  Eckhardt  and  Morion  (17117) 
set  forth  a  "method  of  making  lamps  and  candlesticks  by 
means  of  sliding  pillars,  so  that  Ihcy  may  be  raised  or  eon- 
traoted."  M.  Carcel  in  1708  invented  a  lamp  in  which  the 
oil  was  raised  by  clockwork.  This  and  Stokes's  laiiip  are 
the  parents  of  the  moderator  lamp.  Aliout  seventy  varieties 
of  this  or  the  pressure  lamp  have  been  iialeiited  in  England. 
A  modification  of  the  Carcel  lamp  known  as  the  Diiicon  was 
lung  popular  in  .Vmerica.  In  1810  an  American  named 
Wood  wrote  a  singular  novel,  consisting  of  the  adventures 
of  a  lady  in  search  of  a  really  good  lamp,  in  which  the 
successful  end  was  the  attainment  of  the  Diaeon.  .lames 
Sinclhurst  and  .Michael  Paul  ( 1802)  pa(enled  the  register 
tube,  air-lubes,  and  a  reailily  removable  burner,  wi(h  re- 
flectors. Porter's  "automaton  "  ( 1804)  was  very  ingenious, 
"the  lamp  being  suspended  on  an  axis  counterbalanced  by 
a  weight,  so  as  to  make  it  hang  level  when  full  and  at  an 
angle  of  4.'>'^  when  empty,  so  as  to  feeil  itself  evenly  by  the 
gradual  ascent  of  the  burners."  (1.  li.  .Alcoek  (1 8015 1  sup- 
plied oil  by  means  of  a  piston  and  tube,  also  with  n  lube 
and  syringe,  which  forced  the  oil  up  by  compressed  uir"ot 


1620 


LAMPASAS— LAMPBLACK. 


any  heavier  fluid  than  oil."  Elizabeth  Perr.vman  (1809) 
invented  an  improved  street  and  hall  lamp.  J.  Smethurst 
(ISU  )  offered  several  improvements,  one  of  a  spiral  burner 
with  screw- valve  ;  also  tlic  doublc-coue  globe.  Peter  Du- 
rand  ( ISl  1)  attempted  to  "render  illumination  more  soft 
and  agreeable  to  the  eye."  Lord  Cochrane  (ISIS)  invented 
lamps  for  burning  the  "spirit"  or  *'oil  of  tar,"  and  made 
an  jirrangement  for  allowing  the  direct  rays  of  light  to 
fall  ]ii*riiendieularly  ou  the  ground  bcueath  the  tlame. 
•SaimiL'I  Parker.  Jr.  (IS22),  made  the  important  impruvc- 
mcnt  of  lixing  French  chimneys  upon  burnerd  by  means 
of  metal  supports  affixed  to  the  turning  adjuster  of  the 
lampwick.  J.  C.  Haddau  and  J.  Johnston  (1838)  invented 
an  ingenious  candie-Iamp  with  a  spring,  the  candle  being 
m:uU'  without  a  wick,  the  wick  being  in  a  short  tube  above, 
up  to  which  the  candle  rose  as  it  melted.  Robert  Kcttie 
entered  (I84o)  an  improved  method  of  signalizing  on  sea 
or  land  with  colored  glass  lamps,  shades.  a!id  reflectors, 
also  un  excellent  arrangement  of  reflectors  for  liglithouses. 
W.  C.  Wilkins  (1S40)  devised  a  number  of  inventions  con- 
nected with  raising  oil  by  atmospheric  pressure,  with  gas- 
burner.-i  and  heating  gas.  Robert  Hesketh  {1SJ2)  claimed 
the  invention  of  the  combination  reflector,  also  that  of  glass 
iu  eorrusated  sections,  every  alternate  face  being  silvered. 
Edwin  Whale  (1Sj2)  invented  candle-lamps  which  did  not 
require  snuffing,  and  eandle-clooks.  Abel  Easton  (1853) 
patented  a  self-generating  gas-lamp,  the  gas  being  made 
from  spirits  of  wine.  Edward  Maneire  (1854)  patented 
lamps  in  which  the  oil-reservoir  was  raised  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  burner,  and  so  placed  that  its  inner  surface 
acted  as  a  reflector.  Ed.  Simons  (185J)  invented  an  ap- 
paratus for  condensing  and  absorbing  the  smoke,  etc.  aris- 
ing from  gas  and  other  flames,  and  increasing  the  light. 
Theodulo  Cavfi  (18.'»G)  suggested  a  "continual  lamp"  to 
burn  twenty-four  hours  without  requiring  attention,  by 
means  of  a  ]>lunger  and  elastic  India-rubber  tube.  John 
Maedooald  (ISj(i)  presented  imjirovements  for  regulating 
the  supply  of  oil  to  lamps,  or  of  liquids  of  any  kind  for  any 
useful  ])urposes,  by  means  of  air-tubes  and  valves.  Charles 
E.  Ileinke  (ISofi)  contrived  an  improved  apparatus  for 
illuminating  objects  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  or 
lighting  mines  where  explosive  gases  exist.  This  was  an- 
other form  of  safety-lamp,  originally  invented  by  Dr. 
Clanny  of  Sunderland  in  181.3,  and  perfected  by  Humphry 
Davy  and  George  Stephenson  in  1815,  the  former  receiving 
all  the  credit  of  the  invention.  A  much  better  lamp  of  tho 
same  kind  was  patented  by  J.  Roberts  and  George  Upton 
( 1827).  A.  V.  Newton  ( ISoO)  made  an  improved  construc- 
tion of  lamp  for  burning  hydrocarbons  without  the  aid  of 
the  usual  glass  chimney.  M.  A.  F.  Mennous  (1859)  in- 
vented a  very  curious  api>aratu8  for  the  distribution  of 
heat  as  evolved  by  lamps,  and  tho  application  of  it  to 
heating  and  cooking.  A.  V.  Newton  (1860)  suggested  an 
improved  lamp  for  burning  hydrocarbons  without  a  chim- 
ney ;  and  again,  in  the  same  year,  for  smokeless  lamps,  tho 
principle  being  that  of  a  blower  supplying  enough  oxygen 
to  cause  complete  combustion,  il.  R.  Fanshawe  (ISG2) 
patented  a  submerged  light,  or  reflect()rs  for  the  purpose  of 
alluring  fish.  Solomon  and  A.J.Grant  (1804)  invented 
several  improvements  in  lamps  for  burning  magnesium  and 
other  raetailie  substances,  the  wire  being  fed  by  clockwork. 
AV.  Ryder  (ISlU)  suggested  burning  ]iaraffin.etc.  in  lamps 
by  means  of  an  inconsumable  metnfiko»  wick  or  burner — 
1.  e.  a  wick  of  gliiss  fibres  in  metal  tubes.  E.  J.  C.  Welch 
(136.0)  off'ercd  an  improved  clockwork  apparatus  for  sup- 
plying with  a  regular  pressure  air  to  burners  <d"  hydrocar- 
bons. W.  B.  Dalston  (1885)  improved  an  atmospheric- 
pressure  lamp  for  burning  hydrocarbons,  in  which  tho  oil 
was  consumed  in  the  form  of  gas.  The  apparatus  com- 
prised an  air-pump,  a  cup  of  alcohol,  tubes,  a  copper  coil 
or  cylinder,  and  a  regulator.  C.  Rahn  (ISfij)  invented  an 
improvement  for  concentrating  light,  applicable  to  dental 
and  other  operations,  by  means  of  a  combination  of  lenses. 
Giaeomo  Felice  Marehisto  (1S65)  recorded  improvements 
in  apparatus  for  obtaining  light  without  danger  of  explo- 
sion, l)y  the  use  of  air  which  has  been  rendered  influm- 
roable  by  aJmixture  with  the  vapors  of  petroleum  and  other 
hydrocarbons.  The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  mechanical 
motor,  a  circular  chamber  and  drum  in  compartments,  with 
opening?  for  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  air,  the  chamber  being 
half  filled  with  air,  upon  which  the  hydrocarbon  floats.  The 
count  De  Fontaine  >l'>reiiu  (ISfi."))  invented  an  illuminating 
apparatus  for  burning  petroleum  in  the  open  air  without 
the  use  of  a  chimney.  Count  de  Mitreau  also  suggested  a 
number  of  improvements  in  the  Carcel  or  moderator  lamps 
for  burning  mineral  oils.  Though  elaborate  and  compli- 
cateil.  his  inventions  arc  ingenious  ami  suggestive.  C.  T. 
Mlillcr  also  made  improvements  for  burning  hydrocarbons 
an<l  turpentine,  by  which  atmospheric  air  was  mingled 
witli  the  gas.  It  may  be  rcraarketl  that  the  difficulty  of 
distinguishing  between  inventions  relative  to  lampi  and 


those  referring  to  general  illumination  does  not  appear  be- 
fore so  recent  a  period  as  1865,  when  the  introduction  of 
petroleum  into  England  greatly  stimulated  studies  in  all 
])ractical  methods  of  generating  light.  Thus,  the  apjta- 
ratus  of  William  Clark  (  IStJj)  for  lighting  and  beating,  by 
comhiuing  air  and  gas  from  hydrocarbons  by  means  of  a 
simple  reservoir  and  tubes,  with  diaphragms  of  wire-gauze 
to  prevent  explosion,  is  as  afpplioable  to  gasworks  or  cook- 
ing as  to  a  hand-lamp.  H.  A.  Bonneville  (1805)  invented 
a  safety-lamp  in  which  the  flame  must  be  extinguished  be- 
fore the  gauze  cylinder  can  be  removed.  J.  Maublanc 
(1S65)  attempted  what  has  since  been  perfected  by  J. 
Aronson — a  kerosene  lamp  which  can  be  lighted  without 
removing  the  shade.  The  lorce  of  the  old  Hindoo  proverb, 
that  '*  it  is  always  dark  under  the  lamp,"  was  attempted  to 
be  removed  in  the  same  year  by  Levi  Hewitt,  who  invented 
a  contrivance  to  remedy  tho  inci>nvenience  caused  by  the 
extensive  shadow  cast  under  ordinary  illuminators,  by 
means  of  horizontal  burners  of  paraffin.  D.  Gallafent 
(1850)  attempted  to  adapt  the  Argand  principle  to  paraffin. 
Louis  Pebyre  (18(35)  suggested  an  improved  apparatus  for 
burning  hydrocarbon  oils  in  the  open  air  without  a  chim- 
ney. It  consisted  of  a  cap  and  two  wick-tubes,  the  former 
having  two  air-holes  in  its  top  or  sides,  with  an  opening 
below,  putting  it  in  communication  with  the  oil-vessel,  tho 
wick-tubes  extending  above  and  below  the  cap.  Eliz. 
Leiehenstadt  (1860)  patented  an  ingenious  lamp  for  tho 
purpose  of  burning  a  mixture  of  crude  benzole,  camplior. 
and  aconite  root.  Alexandre  Mugnin  (ISfiOi  offered  an 
improved  lamp  containing  in  a  reservoir  a  sjinnge  filled 
with  petroleum,  in  which  was  a  tube  of  wire-gauze  through 
which  a  wiek  passetl.  This  wick  absorbed  only  the  vapor 
of  the  petroleum,  forming  a  gns-larap.  William  James 
Current  (18G0)  invented  a  system  of  telegraphing  with 
colored  lights,  and  devised  a  lamp  fur  the  purpose.  Charles 
Brown  (1800)  offered  a  very  valuable  invention  for  con- 
suming smoke  from  lamps.  Edward  Howard  (1860)  at- 
tempted to  make  a  non-explosive  lamp  for  all  kinds  of 
highly  inflammable  oils.  The  principle  was  ingenious,  but 
the  application  was  imperfect.     (See  Petroleum.) 

The  chief  improvements  in  lamps  of  late  years  have 
been,  with  few  exceptions,  modifications  of  the  foregoing. 
It  is  remarkable  that  tho  first  specific  invention  of  the  kind 
ever  made,  that  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  which  the  oil 
was  raised  by  water,  involves  the  pressure  principle  since 
developed  as  the  mofhrator  in  nearly  a  hundred  forms,  the 
last  of  which  is  that  of  Joseph  N.  Aronson.  applied  to 
burning  kerosene  and  other  inflammable  fluids,  though  it 
may  be  used  for  any  oils.  In  this  the  reservoir  and  tube 
for  oil  are  accompanied  by  another  containing  water,  their 
connection  being  such  that  by  the  least  deflection  of  the 
lamp  from  the  perpendicular,  the  oil  supply  is  cut  off  near 
the  burning  point.  While  burning,  this  lamp  may  be  rolled 
on  tho  ground,  upset,  or  reversed  for  any  time,  without 
danger.  Its  blaze  is  remarkably  steady  and  clear,  and 
from  the  great  simplicity  of  its  principle  the  lamp  is  not 
likely  to  get  out  of  order.  The  gas-sunlight  apparatus  of 
R.  G.  Berford  is  intended  to  concentrate  light  for  work  or 
reading.  It  consists  of  a  hemispherical  cuj>  made  of  glass, 
filled  with  water,  and  placed  beneath  a  horizontal  burner. 
It  is  especially  adapted  for  reading,  engraving,  writing,  or 
sowing.  The  lamp-burner  of  .1.  Aronson  (1875)  is  a  sim- 
ple but  effective  invention  by  which  a  lamp  may  be  lighted, 
trimmed,  or  filled  even  in  the  dark,  without  removing  tho 
chimney,  globe,  or  shade,  the  latter  remaining  stationary. 
Capt.  Doty,  an  American,  has  invented  a  lamp  for  light- 
houses, signals,  etc.,  wliich  has  been  extensively  adopted  in 
France.  The  most  important  recent  inventions  in  lamps 
are  cliiefly  American.  Chahles  G.  Leland. 

Lampa'sas,  county  of  Central  Texas.  Area,  ^^b 
square  miles.  It  is  mostly  rolling  prairie,  with  some  hills 
and  fertile  wooded  valleys.  It  is  bounded  on  the  AV.  by 
the  Colorado  Uiver.  Live-stock  and  grain  are  staple  prod- 
ucts. The  county  abounds  in  mineral  springs.  Cap.  Lam- 
pasas.    Pop.  1344. 

Lampasas,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Lampasas  co.,  Tex.  It 
has  I  weekly  newspaper. 

Lamp'black.  This  term  is  applied  technically  to  car- 
bonaceous pulverulent  matters  deposited  during  the  im- 
perfect fuliginous  combustion  of  carburetted  gases  or  va- 
pors, in  the  presence  of  inadequate  supply  of  air  or  oxygen. 
The  quality,  both  as  regards  fineness  and  color,  for  use  in 
pigments,  blacking,  and  printing  inks,  varies  greatly  with 
the  materials  burned  in  the  manufacture  and  with  tho 
methods  employed.  For  the  cheaper  cotnmercial  qualities 
the  materials  employeil  are  f/oit-tar,  irnofl-t>t>-,  petroleum, 
soft  resinous  woods  like  pine,  pitrh,  roniu.  and  even  hitwin- 
1IOU8  conJft.  In  making  ordinary  lampblack  several  quali- 
ties aro  obtained  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  apparatus, 
bv  means  of  the  following  arrangement,  which  is  here  de- 


LAM  I'KRTICO— LANCASTER. 


1G21 


scribed  in  but  a  general  wav :  The  fireplace  is  connected 
with  the  soot-chambers  by  means  of  a  brickwork  jrallery  or 
horJEoutal  flue  at  least  14  feet  lonj;;,  in  which  inferior  tarrt/ 
materiiil  tlfposits.  A  series  of  chiiiiibcr^  <»r  c<»nfli'uscrs  then 
usually  fdlluws,  in  which  the  successive  depot^its  increase  in 
fincnci'S  and  value  successively.  The  la^t  chamber  has 
suspended  over  it  a  loose  conical  hooil,  of  coarse  woollen 
material,  through  which  the  (lrau;;ht  percolates,  and  which 
of  course  collects  the  finc!?t  black  of  all.  As  the  pores  of 
this  houd  become  clogged  it  is  shaken  or  tnppc<I.  Its  con- 
tents arc  reserved  for  fine  printer's  ink  and  similar  uses. 

For  special  uses  lampblacks  of  special  kinds  are  some- 
times prepared  from  costly  oils  and  resinous  substances,  for 
which  extravagant  prices  are  required.  For  instance,  it  is 
said  that  the  finest  tfeiiuhir  India  inks  arc  made  of  soot  ob- 
tained by  burning  the  costly  material  cnmphtir.  It  would 
appear  as  if  the  very  finest  blacks  ought  to  bo  now  made 
very  cheaply  by  proper  manipulation  of  our  cheap  Ameri- 
can mineral  oils.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  natural  gas  of 
the  gas-wells  in  different  sections  of  the  l*.  S.  may  be  con- 
verted into  fine  qualities  of  lampblack  on  a  largo  scale. 

Lampblack  in  crude  form  always  contains  some  oily, 
tarry,  or  resinous  matters,  and  sometimes,  according  to 
Ueicbenbach,  a  little  naphthaline.  Braconnot  found  in 
lampblack  from  resinous  wood — 

Carbon  79.1 

Moisture 8.0 

Resin " 5.3 

Tar 1.7 

Ulmlne 0.5 

Sulphate  of  ummuuia 3.3 

with  some  other  small  impurities.  When  printer's  inks  or 
oil  colors  are  to  be  prepared,  these  impurities  are  im- 
material, but  when  water-colors  are  wanted,  as  when  to  be 
ground  with  gum-water  to  make  imitalion  India  inks,  etc., 
the  resinous  and  tarry  matters  must  be  removed  before- 
hancl.  This  may  be  done  by  careful  calcination,  but  not 
witimut  detriment  to  the  quality  of  the  finer  blacks.  A 
better  way,  therefore,  is  to  work  into  a  paste  with  heated 
oi7  of  vitriof,  which  chars  and  destroys  the  hydrorMirbon- 
accous  matters.  Thorough  washing  with  water  yioMs  then 
a  very  superior  material  f^or  India  ink.     IIknhv  Wimitz. 

Lnmpcrti'co  {Fi:ni:i,p:),  b.  at  Viccnza  in  183.'i,  of  a 
wealthy  eouimercial  family;  received  his  earliest  instruc- 
tion from  his  mother,  a  lady  of  intelligence  and  of  a  strong 
will:  pursued  his  classical  studies  as  a  day  pupil  in  the 
seminary  of  Vicenza:  his  other  studies  ])rcparatory  to  a 
legal  course  were  pro«ecnted  at  lnjino.  At  this  time  he 
formed  relations  with  Pnsini,  Messcdaglia,  and  Luz/ati. 
In  1S.'>1  he  published  an  article  on  the  advantages  which 
e<!onomical  science  may  derive  from  poetry.  In  IHjD  the 
Institute  of  Venice  honored  with  a  prize  his  memoir  Sufft; 
fonitr>furuz*r  (Ifl  tnijlio  ilrlV  htmn  (It  Siifz.  IHs  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  memoir  Ih  N't  I  Vm  «  drlfr  /)oftn'tie  di  Gian 
Alfirin  Often;  Sulla  Stnti'tlicfi  Teorica  in  tjenrrale  e  an  Mcl- 
rhiorre  dioin  in  pnrtirolnrr  ;  Shtdii  tnlln  Lctjinlnzione  Minc- 
ffirift  ;  fntroduzi'ine  ad  iiii  rorio  ili  Srt^nzri  Evomtmicn  ;  II 
Litvoro.  Since  his  twenty-first  year  he  has  continued  to  oc- 
cupy positions  of  the  highest  tru?t  in  his  native  town.  In 
iHftft  he  was  elected  deputy  to  Parliament,  was  re-elocted  in 
1H(17.  and  was  named  to  the  senate  by  the  minister  Min- 
ghetii  when  ho  hail  Hcarceiy  attained  to  the  required  age. 

linmporcc'chio,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Florence.  It  contains  a  remarkable  work  of  Luca  dclla 
Uobbia,  and  is  known  as  the  birthplace  of  Berni,  the  au- 
thor of  Orlando  finminorata.      Pop.  «2V3. 

linm^prey,  or  Ijampcr  Eel^  the  common  name  of 
the  l'etromy/.onti<lji'.  cartilaginous  fishes  of  the  grou]*  Hy- 
peroartia,  class  Marsipobranchii,  having  an  eel-like  body, 
a  round  sucking  nmuth  with  numerous  teeth,  and  having 
seven  round  gill-holcw  on  eiudi  side  of  the  neck.  Europe 
has  two  abundant  species,  the  /*rfiunn/Z'ni  nxiniiu^  and 
Lantprtrn  Jliirintilin;  the  V.  S.  have  a  number  of  species, 
among  which  arc  /*.  AiiiTirdntiti,  very  nearly  related  to  the 
P.  mariniii,  and  species  of  Lniiifi'trti  and  nerirly  allied  gen- 
era. They  arc  prized  as  food  by  some.  The  lampreys  arc 
represented  in  Australia  by  (he  jioiieheil  lamprey  ((t'mtria 
Afnttnthm),  which  has  an  enormous  pouch  upon  the  throat. 
l.'^ee  Pi:tiu)«vzontii».i;.)  TiiKoimiu:  (Jii.i,. 

I^nmprid'idir  [from  Lumpri»,  the  type  (»f  the  family, 
and  -idtr],  ri  family  of  ueanthopteroun  tcle<»erpbalnn«i  fishes 
of  the  mackerel  gniuji.  ebanu*teri7.»'d  by  the  much  com- 
prcHscil  body,  small  deciduous  scaleo,  smiill  mouth,  abi4cnoe 
of  teeth  in  adultx,  six  branehioHtegal  rays,  long  undivided 
dorsals,  multiradiate  thoracic  ventral  finn,  nuntorous  pyloric 
cncca.  and  large  posteriorly-bifurcate  air-bladder.  A  single 
genus  (  Laniprit)  i.-*  known,  whose  representatives  (probably 
Iwlonging  to  but  one  species,  the  O/nth  or  A.  litiifi)  are  found 
in  the  northern  Atlantic  and  Mediterronean.  The  A.  /una 
has  been  reconled  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  onslern  American 
coast,  but  is  doubtless  a  mere  straggler.    Tmkoikiki:  (Jill. 


Lamprid'ius  (iSuus),  one  of  the  Scriptoret  Niston'ie 
AufftiHtir,  lived  at  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Four 

biographies  are  inscribed  with  his  name — namely,  those  of 
Commodus,  Antoninus  Diadunienus,  Elagabalus,  and  Alex- 
ander Severus — but  there  is  good  evidence,  both  internal 
and  external,  for  bis  identity  with  ./Klius  Spartianus,  to 
whom  the  biographies  of  Iladrianus,  Verus,  Julianus, 
Severus,  Piscennius  Niger,  and  (leta  are  ascribed, 

Lamp'sacUM  [.Vafi^a»eo«],  a  (Ircek  city  on  the  Helles- 
pont, in  Mysia,  4)ppo!-itc  C'allipolls,  was  anciently  called 
Pityusa,  and  was  famous  for  its  wine  and  its  phallic-wur- 
ship.     Near  its  site  stands  the  village  of  Lamsaki. 

Lamp^^shelly  a  name  ai)plie(l  in  a  largo  sense  to  all 
the  HuAciiioroDA  (which  see),  but 
especially  to  those  of  the  family  Tk- 
REBnATri.iii.K  (which  see).  The 
valves  are  united,  and  the  pedicle 
for  attachment  passes  out  through  a 
foramen  of  the  projecting  one.  as  tho 
wick  passed  out  of  an  ancient  lamp  ; 
hence  the  name.  Shells  of  several 
species  of  niollusks  are  also  used  as 
lamps  (as  the  Fnsna  anttqnus  in 
Shetland).  Theokohe  (iiLL. 

Lamp'son  (Sir  Cruris  Miranda),  Baut.,  b.  in  Ver- 
mont Kept.  21,  ISfllj;  went  in  1S;J0  to  England,  where  he 
was  naturalized  in  1848:  became  a  wealthy  merchant  of 
London,  a  Hudson's  Bay  director,  a  trustee  of  the  Pcabody 
fund,  and  rendered  important  services  in  laying  the  Atlan- 
tic cable,  for  which  in  ISOli  be  was  made  a  baronet.  He  is 
deputy  governor  of  the  Hudson's  Buy  Company. 

Lamps,  Safety.  See  Safctv  Lami*s,  by  Mns.  S.  B. 
Hehuuk. 

Lan^ark,  town  of  Scotland,  the  capital  of  the  county 
of  Lanarkshire.  The  beautiful  scenery  in  its  vicinity  at- 
tracts many  tourists.     Pop.  6099. 

Lanark)  county  of  Ontario,  Canada.  Area,  1180  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence 
Railway.  It  abounds  in  lakes  and  streams.  There  are 
two  ridings.     Cap.  Perth.     Pop.  ."jI^OUO. 

Lanark,  i)ost-v.  of  Ilock  Creek  tp.,  Carroll  co.,  HI.,  21 
miles  S.  W.  of  Frceport.  on  tiie  Western  Union  R.  II.,  hiiw 
1  national  bank,  I  weekly  newspaper,  fi  churches,  2  hotels. 
several  warehouses  and  elevators,  24  stores,  and  a  flouring- 
mill.     Pop.  972.  J.  R.  Howi.ett,  Ei>,  ''Gazette." 

Lanark,  tp.  of  Portage  co.,  Wis.  Pop.  471. 
Ijun'arkshirc,  or  Clydrsdale,  county  of  Scotland, 
comprising  the  upper  basin  <>['  the  Clyde,  between  Edin- 
burghshire on  tlu!  E.  and  Ayr  and  Renfrew  on  the  W. 
Area,  889  square  miles,  of  which  only  one-half  is  under 
cultivation.  Pop.  70r>,279.  Along  tho  Clyde  the  surface 
is  level  and  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  but  the  southern 
part  is  mountainous  and  the  soil  nferile.  It  is  rich,  h<iw- 
evcr,  in  coal,  iron,  and  lead — richer  perhaps  than  any  oilier 
region  in  (ireat  Britain  ;  160  collieries  and  Li  iron- works  are 
worked,  and  90  furnaces  in  blast.  Almost  every  kind  of 
manufacture  is  carried  on  in  or  abont  (iLAscow  (which  see). 
Lanc'ashire,  or  Lancastorshire,  county  of  Eng- 
land, liurdering  on  the  Irish  Sen.  Area,  1905  j-quare  miles. 
Pop.  2.818,904.  Tho  northern  and  western  parts  are  cov- 
ered with  ranges  of  hills  which  separate  Lancashire  from 
the  county  of  York,  and  of  which  the  highest  point,  Conis- 
ton  Fell,  is  2J77  feet.  Tho  rest  is  low  and  level,  consisting 
<»f  a  sandy  loam,  watered  by  the  Lune,  Wyre,  Mersey,  and 
I  Irwell,  and  generally  fertile.  Manufactures,  however,  and 
not  agriculture,  arc  th'*  chief  interest  of  Lanca:shiri',  and  iis 
manufactures  flepcnd  mainly  on  its  immense  coal-beds,  cov- 
ering nearly  lOO  square  miles.  Alth(»ugh  almost  everylbiug 
is  manuliicturcd  in  or  arouml  Mancliestcr,  Liverpool.  Hinn- 
ilton,  and  Preston,  yet  c<»Iton  goods  form  the  principal 
item,  and  in  I8tl0  no  less  than  lil.'i.filiO  persons  were  en- 
gaged in  this  branch  of  industry,  consuming  2, .192, 000  bales 
of  cotton  and  producing  goods  to  the  value  of  £80,000,000. 
Lanc'aHler,  county  of  S.E.  Nebraska.  Area,  804  square 
miles.  It  has  a  highly  fertile  soil,  productive  of  grain.  The 
county  contains  several  salt-basins  which  yield  considerulile 
salt.  There  are  also  (|uarrics  of  fine  building-stone.  The 
c<<unty  is  traversed  by  Salt  Creek,  whose  waters  are  braek- 
itih,  and  by  the  various  railnuids  centring  ut  Lincoln,  tlio 
capital  of  the  county  and  tStatc     I*op.  7074. 

Lancaster,  county  of  S.  E.  Pennsylvania.  Aren,  920 
s(|uari*  miles.  It  is  a  beautiful  region,  diversified  with  low 
bills,  and  is  one  of  the  mowt  fertile  districts  in  the  worM. 
Live-stock,  tobacco,  grain,  hay,  ami  dairy  produce  are 
tho  principal  staples.  Tho  manufactures  arc  very  im- 
portant, and  include  fioiir,  carriages,  tobacco,  clothing, 
saddlery,  furniture,  metallic  wares,  cooperage,  leather,  iron, 
lumber,  agricultural  implements,  and  many  other  kinds  of 


1622 


LANCASTER. 


goods.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Reading  and  Co- 
lumbia and  the  Pe'unsylvania  R.  Us.  and  their  branches. 
The  county  has  much  water-power,  an  abundance  of  mica- 
ceous routing-slate  and  bhu*  limestone,  and  some  marble. 
Cap.  Lancaster.     Pop.  I21.;i4U. 

Lancaster,  county  of  South  Carolina,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  North  Carolina  and  on  the  W.  by  Wateree  River. 
Area.  HOO  square  miles.  It  is  uneven  in  surface  and  gen- 
erally fertile.  Corn  and  cotton  are  staple  crops.  Cap.  Lan- 
caster Court-house.     Pop.  12,087. 

Lancaster,  county  of  Virginia,  bounded  S.  E.  by  Ches- 
apeiike  Ray  and  P.  W.  by  the  navigable  Rappahannock 
River.  It  is  level  and  naturally  fertile.  Corn  and  wheat 
are  staple  products.  Area,  108  square  miles.  Cap.  Lan- 
caster Court-house.     Pop.  5355. 

Lancaster,  town  of  England,  the  capital  of  Lanca- 
shire, on  the  Lune,  near  its  mouth.  It  is  a  neatly-built 
tuwn,  with  an  old  castle,  a  fine  aqueduct,  which  carries  the 
Lancaster  Canal  across  the  Lune,  and  manufactures  of  fur- 
niture, leather,  and  cast-iron  work.     Pup.  17,248. 

Lancaster,  post-v,  and  tp.  of  Cass  co.,  III.,  on  the 
Springlield  and  Illinois  South-eastern  R.  R.  (Philadelphia 
Statiun).     Pop.  1239. 

Lancaster,  tp.  of  Stephenson  co..  111.     Pop.  08fi. 

Lancaster,  tp.  of  Huntington  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1492. 

Lancaster,  i)Ost-v.  and  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  Ind.  The 
towusiii))  is  travorsi'd  by  the  Madison  and  Indianapolis 
R.  R.  (  Bright's  Station)."    Pop.  1442. 

Lancaster,  tp.  of  Wells  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1381. 

Lancaster,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Keokuk  co.,  la.  Pop. 
of  V.  135  ;  of  tp.  1525. 

Lancaster,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Atchison  co.,  Kan.  Pop. 
000. 

Lancaster,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Garrard  co.,  Ky.,  1 1 2  miles 
S.  E.  of  Louisville,  on  the  Louisville  Nashville  and  (Ireat 
Suuihern  R.  R.  (Richmond  branch),  has  G  churches,  3  ho- 
tels, 1  weekly  newspaper,  1  national  and  1  deposit  bank,  2 
high  schools,  a  planing-mill,  a  tobacco-factory,  a  wheat- 
fan  factory,  4  society  lodges,  and  about  70  business-firms. 
There  is  a  company  of  U.  S.  troops  in  garrison.  Lancaster 
is  in  the  *'  Blue-grass  region,'*  and  is  noted  for  its  fine  corn 
and  wheat.     Pop.  741. 

Jos.  R.  Rlckkk,  Ed.  "Central  Kenttckv  News." 

Lancaster,  a  thriving  and  beautiful  town  of  Worcester 
CO.,  .Mass.,  un  the  Worcester  and  Nashua  R.  R.,  19  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Worcester.  It  has  a  fine  memorial  hall,  a  pub- 
lic library,  a  national  and  a  savings  bank,  and  is  the  seat 
of  thf?  State  industrial  schoul  fur  girls.  Its  streets  are 
shaded  by  noble  elms.  It  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  county, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1653.     Pop.  1845. 

Lancaster,  post-v.  of  Liberty  tp.,  cap.  of  Sehuyler  co., 
Mo.,  on  the  Missouri  Iowa  and  Nebraska  R.  R.,  2  miles  E. 
of  the  St.  Louis  Kansas  City  and  Northern  R.  R.,  22r»  miles 
N.  W.of  St.  L«>uis,  has  county  buildings,  3  hotels.  2  churches, 
1  national  bank,  I  weekly  newspaper,  a  fine  seminary  build- 
ing, and  a  number  of  stores  and  shu])s.  There  is  abun- 
dance uf  coal  in  the  vicinity.  Prin.'ipal  industry,  farming 
and  dairying.     Pop.  427. 

lliiNiiY  A,  Miller,  Ed.  "Excelsior." 

Lancaster,  post-tp..  cap.  of  Coos  co.,  N.  II.,  137  miles 
N.  of  ('uncord,  on  the  lioston  Concord  and  Muntreal  R.  R., 
has  5  churches,  2  weekly  newspapers,  an  academy,  a  sav- 
ings bank,  a  paper-mill,  a  fuundrv,  50  stores  and  sho^is. 
Pop.  2248.      W.  F.  Williams,  Ed.'" Coos  REprnLicAN." 

Lancaster,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
New  Vurk  Central  and  the  Erie  U.  Rs.,  10  miles  E.  of 
Buffalo.  It  has  6  churches,  a  number  of  manufactories, 
and  a  bunk.  Pop.  ir)'.l7.  The  Inwnship  contains  several 
other  villages,  and  has  a  pup.  of  4330. 

Lancaster,  city  of  Hooking  tp.,  cap.  of  Fairfield  co., 
0.,  on  the  Hocking  River,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati and  Zanesvillo  with  the  Hooking  Valley  R.  R.,  21 
miles  N.  E.  of  Circleville  and  30  S.  E.  of  Culumbus.  It 
has  10  churches.  1  private  and  2  national  banks,  a  mag- 
nificent court-house  (cost  $150,000),  2  weekly  newspapers, 
several  fuuntlries.  ll.uring-raills,  and  manufactorie?.  2  new 
public-school  luiildingfl  (cost  $30,000  each),  a  good  city  hall, 
and  several  wine-cellars,  one  nf  which  will  hold  40,011*0  gal- 
luns.  The  State  refurm  fiirm  for  bovs  is  located  near  by, 
and  maintains  400  b..ys.  There  are  few  cities  in  the  U.  S. 
mure  beautifully  situated  than  Lancaster.     Pop.  4725. 

T.  Wktzler.  En.  "  Eaglk." 

Lancaster,  tp.  of  Butler  co.,  Pa.  {P.  0.  Middle  Lan- 

ca.sier).     Pup.  1053. 

I«ancaster,  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Lnnenstor  co..  Pa.,  on 
tho  Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  68  miles  W.  of  Philadelphia,  was  la 


1818,  when  William  Cobbett  visited  it,  the  largest  "  inland  " 
town  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  located  in  the  centre  of  tho  largest 
and  must  productive  limestone  region  in  the  State,  if  not  in 
the  U.  S.  It  was  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania. 
and  when  the  British  troops  occupied  Philadelphia  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  met  here.  It  is  laid  out  regularly,  the 
streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles:  the  principal 
streets  are  macadamized,  and  the  houses  almost  invariably 
of  brick.  There  are  14  macadamized  roads  leading  to  the 
city.  The  city  is  lighted  with  gas,  has  a  neat  theatre,  3 
daily  and  7  weekly  (2  German)  newspapers,  and  7  monthly 
publications,  fine  free  schools,  and  free  night  schools  during 
the  winter  months,  33  churches  and  chapels.  4  handsome 
cemeteries,  a  volunteer  fire  department  with  7  steam-engines, 
3  national  banks  with  a  en])ital  of  over  $1,000,000.  5  other 
banks,  waterworks  on  a  vast  scale,  extensive  foundries,  and 
iron  manufactures  of  the  most  varied  kind.  There  is  in- 
vested here  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  over 
$l,500,0<fO,  employing  1700  hands  and  paying  to  them  an- 
nually $450,000  in  wages.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  seed- 
leaf  tubacco  business,  nearly  20.000.000  cigars  being  annu- 
ally manufactured.  At  least  25,000  barrels  of  lager  beer 
are  brewed  here  annually,  most  of  which  finds  its  market 
elsewhere.  Lancaster  has  a  court-house  erected  in  1853 
at  a  cost  of  $U»0.0()0.  a  hospital,  almshouse,  and  prison, 
all  of  approved  modern  construction,  and  a  home  for 
friendless  children.  It  is  the  seat  of  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College  and  Theological  Seminary,  under  the  control 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  antl  was  the  residence 
and  place  of  burial  of  Pres.  James  Buchanan  and  of  Thad- 
deus  Stevens.     Pop.  of  city,  20,233;  of  tp.  1002. 

John  A.  Hiestasd,  Ed.  "  Hailv  Examiner." 

Lancaster,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Lancaster  co.,  S.  C,  28 
miles  E.  of  Chestt^.  has  3  churches,  1  weekly  newspaper, 
a  high  school,  a  hotel,  and  several  stores  and  shops.  Prin- 
cipal industry,  farming.     Pup.  501. 

I).  J.  Carter,  Ed.  "Ledger." 

Lancaster,  post-v.  of  Dallas  co.,  Tex.,  has  some  manu- 
factures. 

Lancaster,  popt-tp.,  cap.  of  Grant  co..  Wis.,  25  miles 
N.  W.  of  Galena.  III.,  and  20  miles  N.  of  Dubuque,  la.,  is  a 
thriving  inland  town,  located  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  agri- 
cultural and  lead-ore  region.  It  has  1  bank,  2  weekly 
newspapers,  G  churches,  4  hotels,  a  large  woollen-mill,  and 
a  sash  and  door  factory.     Pop.  2710. 

Jons  Cover,  Ed.  "Grant  Co.  Herald." 

Lancaster,  Drcnv  and  Countv  Palatine  of,  a  ter- 
ritorial division  uf  England  nearly  corresponding  to  tho 
county  of  Lancashire,  but  distinguished  from  it  in  law  as  a 
separate  administrative  entity.  It  derives  its  origin  from 
a  royal  charter  of  Edward  III.,  by  which  it  was  conferred 
upon  Henry,  earl  of  Derby,  Jlar.  0.  1351,  and  on  his  death 
in  13()2  it  was  granted  to  John  of  Gaunt  and  his  heirs  for 
ever;  received  a  grant  of  a  chancery  and  palatine  privi- 
leges in  1377  ;  became  a  Crown  possession  un  the  accession 
of  Henry  IV.  tu  the  throne  in  131H).  at  which  time  the  order 
of  succession  to  the  duchy  was  declared  to  be  independent 
of  the  succession  of  the  Crown,  so  that  should  the  house  of 
Lancaster  lose  the  latter,  it  might  still  retain  tho  former. 
This  expectation  was  not  met,  for  on  the  accession  of  the 
house  of  York  in  1401.  Eilward  IV.  confiscated  it  to  tho 
Crown,  and  in  turn  attempted  to  make  it  a  private  appan- 
age uf  hi.s  descendants.  The  result  has  been  that  down  to  the 
present  time  the  government  of  the  duchy  has  been  vested 
in  the  sovereign,  not  as  king  of  Englancl.  but  as  duke  of 
Lancaster.  The  county  palatine  is  a  jmrtion  of  the  duchy, 
and  is  governed  liy  a  separate  court,  jiresided  over  by  a 
chancellor.  wh()  is  usually  also  chancellor  of  the  duchy,  an 
officer  who  of  late  years  has  been  a  member  of  tho  cabinet. 
The  duehy  court  is  held  at  Westminster. 

Lancaster  (Sir  James),  b,  in  England  about  1550; 
cominauded  two  naval  expeditions  to  the  East  Indies  in 
15UI  and  101)1,  which  opened  trade  with  Ceylun.  Sumatra. 
Java,  and  other  islands,  and  was  largely  concerned  in  pro- 
moting tho  search  after  h  N.  W.  passage  to  Asia.  Lan- 
caster Sound  was  named  from  him.     D.  in  1G20. 

Lancaster  (Jusepr),  b.  in  London  Nov..  177S.  opened 
a  school  for  children  in  Southwark  in  171(S  on  the  principle 
of  mutual  instruetiun,  and  having  achieved  a  brilliant  suc- 
cess, numerous  sehuuls  on  the  same  plan  were  speedily  es- 
tabli)^hed  by  him  in  other  cities,  and  he  devoted  himself  to 
tho  popularization  of  his  mcthttd.  He  came  to  the  U.  S.  in 
I.HIH,  where  ho  had  some  success,  and  obtained  from  the 
legislature  of  Canada  a  grant  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
ing his  sj'stem  of  iuslructiun.  He  was  a  Quaker.  D.  in 
New  York  Oct.  24,  1S3?<.  His  family  removed  to  Mexico, 
where  several  of  his  grandchildren,  under  the  name  of 
Lancaster-Jones,  have  figured  in  ]>olitics,  and  where  his 
system  is  now  (1875)  in  full  operation,  supported  by  legis- 


LANCASTER  COURT-HOUSE-LAXDIT. 


1623 


lacive  grants  under  the  management  of  a  national  Lancas- 
tiTian  foeicty.  Tlio  same  system  has  also  been  largely 
adopicd  in  Colomljia  und  other  parts  of  South  America. 

I/ancaster  Court-house,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Lancaster 
CO.,  \':i.,  fin  iiiilcj  E.  by  X.  of  Kichmond. 

Lancaster  Gun,  a  system  of  artillery  devised  by  Mr. 
Lanca-^tir,  an  Englishman.  The  guu  had  a  twisted  ellipti- 
cal bore  and  an  elongated  elliptical  shot,  but  no  grooves. 
The  plan  hai  not  been  adopted  to  any  extent. 

Lancaster,  House  of.  See  England,  John  of  G  AtJHT, 
IIksky  1\'..  etc. 

Lancaster  Sound  lends  from  Baffin's  Bay  to  Barrow 
Strait,  between  the  island  of  North  Devon  on  its  northern 
side  and  several  minor  islands  on  its  southern.  It  is  2J0 
miles  long,  forms  the  entrance  to  the  N.  W.  passage,  and 
was  discovered  in  Ittlfi  by  Baffin. 

Lancclet.  See  Amphioxis  and  Lkptocabdia. 
Lancelot'  (Claidk),  b.  in  Paris  in  IGlo  :  was  educated 
under  the  influence  of  the  Abb6  dc  Saint-Cyran,  who 
brought  him  into  connection  with  the  religious  association 
of  Port  Royal,  in  Paris.  In  the  schools  of  this  association 
he  taught  mathematics  and  Greek,  and  wrote  for  the  use  of 
his  pupils  a  Grammin're  tjiiifral  (ItJGO),  Le  Jardln  dea 
Uacincf  Oircqiict,  a  Greek  dictionary  (165"),  yoiivelle 
mith"ftf  pour  iipprendrf  Itt  Liijii/iw  tfi-erfiur,  a  Greek  gram- 
mar (Ifij.'i).  and  several  other  works.  After  the  suspension 
of  the  school  iu  ICGO,  he  was  tutor  to  the  princes  of  Conti 
till  IG72,  when  he  retired  first  to  St.  Cyran,  and  then  to 
t^uimperK*,  where  he  spent  his  time  in  prayers,  meditations, 
and  penitence,  and  d.  .Apr.  15.  11)95.  He  was  neither  a 
great  philologist  nor  a  great  graiiunarian,  though  his  books 
are  remarkable  for  clearness  and  precision  :  but  he  was  a 
great  pedagogue.  His  method  of  instruction  and  education 
was  in  strong  opposition  to  the  barbarous  pedantry  of  the 
Middle  .\gcs,  and  exercised  great  influence  on  the  method  , 
adopted  by  the  eighteenth  century. 

Lan'cers,  a  name  given  to  such  cavalry  regiments  as 
are  armed  with  lances.  The  Cossacks,  the  Polish  lancers, 
and  the  Uhlan  (lancer)  regiments  of  various  armies  are 
among  the  most  celebrated  corps  of  cavalry.  Most  of  them 
carry  a  lance  or  spear  of  ash,  eight,  ten,  or  sixteen  feet  long,  , 
armed  with  a  steel  point  and  decorated  with  a  pennon. 
The  alh,  9th,  12th,  Itjih,  au<l  17th  British  light  cavalry  are 
lancers.  There  is  a  wide  ditference  of  upiiiii»n  among  mili- 
tary critics  as  to  tfao  valuo  of  the  lanco  in  the  warfare  of 
the  present  day. 

Lan'cet  Win'dow,  in  Gothic  architecture,  is  a  nar- 
row \vio<l'i\v  with  11  sharply  pointed  head.  Lancet  win- 
dows generally  appear  in  gruiij)S.  The  hineet  window  is 
one  of  the  eharactcristie  marks  of  the  Early  English  or 
First  Pointed  .*ityle  and  the  French  Ogivalo  Priiiiitif; 
hence  these  arc  often  called  the  Lancet  styles  of  Golliic 
building. 

Lance'wood,  the  wood  of  Gttatteria  virgata  and  hittri- 
fnl'ui,  used  (especially  the  former)  for  the  shafts  of  car- 
riages. The  tree  is  tall  ami  very  straight.  It  is  of  the 
order  ,\nonaceir.  and  grows  in  the  West  Indies. 

Lancia'no  [Lat.  Anxnnum],  town  of  S.  Italy.  This 
is  one  i>f  the  most  beautiful  towns  in  the  ,\bruzzi.  It  has 
many  fine  public  buildings,  among  which  the  eathe<lral 
should  bo  first  named.  This  church.  "Our  Lady  of  the 
Bridge,"  stands  high  above  the  river-valley  on  grand  and 
lofty  Koman  bridges  of  the  time  ofl)ioctet Ian,  and  from  some 
points  of  view  seems  to  be  suspended  in  the  uir  rather  than 
resting  on  the  earth.  Its  architecture,  both  external  and 
internal,  is  striking,  I.aticiano  is  in  railway  communication 
with  Ancona  and  with  Naples,  and  good  common  roads 
connect  it  with  the  ncighliuring  towns.  It  nmnufacturen 
linen  on  a  large  scale;  also  silk,  wool,  and  various  chemical 
products.  Pop.  in  1874,  17,.'ilO. 
Land.     Sec  ItKAt,  Piiopkbtv. 

liUndntr,  posl-lp.  of  Grafton  co.,  N.  H.,  8,'>  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Concord.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of 
starch,  lumber,  etc.     Pop.  8S2. 

Lan'dau,  town  of  Uhenish  Bavaria,  on  theriver  Queich, 
It  was  from  olden  times  n  fortress.  In  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  it  was  taken  eight  times.  It  is  still  a  fortress,  and  has 
considerable  tobacco  manufneturcs.  Pop.  I2.;in.'i.  besides 
a  garrison  of  more  than  GMOil  persons.  In  Ifisi  it  wiis  fnr- 
titied  by  Vauban,  atid  was  supposrcl  to  hnvi-  been  lutide 
impregnable,  but  in  171)2  lionis  of  Baden  took  it. 

Land'-crab,  a  name  applied  to  a  rather  large  number 
of  crab^,  remarkable  as  being  gilled  animals,  which  in  the 
perfect  state  are  air  breathers.  One  of  the  best  known 
species  of  tho  U.  S.  is  the  tielaiiinua  vocan*  or  fiddler. 
(See  t'li  \n.) 

Lan'denburg,  post-v.  of  Xow  Qardon  tp.,  Chester  oo.. 


Pa.,  on  the  Wilmington  and  Western  R.  R.,  20  miles  N.  W. 
of  Wilmington. 

Lan'der,  county  of  Nevada,  bounded  N.  by  Oregon  and 
Idaho.  Its  surface  is  broken  by  numerous  N.  and  S. 
mountain-ranges  and  valleys.  Some  of  the  latter  arc  fer- 
tile, and  arc  especially  adapted  to  stock-growing.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  Humboldt  River  and  the  Central 
Pacific  H.  R.  Silver  and  lead  are  mined  and  smelted,  and 
some  gold  is  obtained  in  the  N.     Cap.  Austin.     Pop.  2SI5. 

Lander  (Gen.  Fkedehic  Wkst),  b.  at  Salem,  Mass., 
Deo.  17,  1S22  ;  studied  at  the  .Military  Academy  at  Norwich, 
Vt.,  and  conducted  two  perilous  surveys  for  a  railroad  to 
the  Pacific,  being  the  only  survivor  of  the  sccoud  expedition. 
In  May.  ISfil.  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general;  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  daring  in  the  Virginian  campaigns, 
and  d.  of  congestion  on  the  brain  at  Paw  Paw,  Va.,  Mar. 
2,  1862. — His  wife.  Jean  Margaiset  Davkxpout,  b.  in 
Wolverhampton.  Eng.,  May  3,  I82'.l.  was  a  distinguished 
actress  previous  to  her  marriage  in  ISCO  ;  acted  as  a  hospital 
nurse  during  the  war;  and  in  18C5  returned  to  the  stage. 

Lander  (Loiisa),  b.  at  Salem,  Mass.,  about  IS.'io, early 
manifested  her  genius  for  sculpt  arc  by  modelling  likenesses 
of  members  of  her  family  and  executing  cameo  heads  ; 
went  to  Rome  in  1S55  ;  became  a  pupil  of  Crawford,  and 
Soon  after  finished  in  marble  her  two  earliest  statues,  To- 
Diiy  and  Guluha,  which  obtained  her  considerable  celebrity. 
Among  her  later  works  are  busts  of  Hawthorne  and  Ijov. 
Gore  of  Massachusetts,  statuettes  of  yinjiiiin  lime  and 
L'lidinc,  a  life-size  statue  of  Vinjiiiin.  a  reclining  statue  of 
Eriiiigeliiic,  Etiziibelh,  the  Ejcih  of  Silicriu,  a  statuette  of 
t'ercs  moiiniiiii/  /or  Piuaerpiiie,  A  Si)lplt  Alitjhtiiig,  and 
several  portrait  busts. 

Lander  (KunAnn).  h.  in  Truro,  England,  in  1804;  ac- 
companied Cnpt.  Clapperton  on  his  second  .Vfrican  expe- 
dition, and  |)ublished  the  narrative  from  ('lai>pcrton's  pa- 
pers (182'J-.'iO).  In  1830  he  ami  his  brother  John  made  a 
successful  expedition,  descending  the  Niger  to  its  mouth. 
In  18:J2  Ije  returned  to  the  upper  Niger  in  two  steam-ves- 
sels, on  a  commercial  expedition,  was  mortally  wounded 
in  a  conflict  with  the  natives,  and  d.  at  Fernando  Po  Feb., 
18.14. 

Landernau',  town  of  France.  14  miles  E.  of  Brest,  in 
the  department  of  Finistcrc.  It  manufactures  good  leather 
and  pajier.  has  a  consi.lerable  trade  iu  wine  and  iron,  a  good 
harbor,  a  fine  Gothic  church,  and  extensive  marine  barracks. 
Pop.  789.!. 
Lan'dcrsville^  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Ala. 

Pop.  i;3i. 

Landes,  department  of  France,  bounded  N.  by  tho 
Girou.le,  S.  by  the  Basses-Pyrenees,  and  W.  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  Area,  S590  square  miles,  with  :i0n,52S  inhabitants. 
The  eastern  and  southern  parts  are  hilly  and  fertile,  and 
well  adapted  for  agriculture;  much  aud  excellent  wine  is 
produced.  But  the  western  part,  bordering  on  the  ocean, 
consists  only  of  desolate  tracts  {Iniidm)  of  sandbanks, 
marshes,  and  swaiu])S,  covered  with  bcath  and  dwarf 
shrubs,  and  inhabited  by  a  few  scattered  families,  whose 
members  stalk  along  on  stilts  in  the  sand,  herding  their 
?heep  and  swiue.  On  thedowus  arc  planted  foreslsof  pino 
and  cork  trees,  and  these  plantations  afford  some  resources 
to  the  inhabitants  in  cork-cutting  and  charcoal-burning. 
In  18C.1,  out  of  ;i8,UUj  children,  1S.590  received  no  school 
inrorumlinn  ut  all.     Cap.  Mont  do  .Marsan. 

Land'KrovCj  post-tn.  of  Bennington  co.,  Vt.,  12  miles 
N.  E.  of  Munchester.  It  has  manufactures  of  lumber  and 
ohair-slock.     Pop,  302, 

Lan'dis,  tp.  of  Cumberland  co.,  N.  J.  It  contains  tho 
town  of  \ivEi,ANii  (which  sec).      Pop.  7079. 

Lan'disburg,  ])ost-b.  of  Tyrone  tp.,  Perry  co.,  Pa. 
Pop.  IIG'.I. 

Lan'disvillc,  post-v.  of  E.  Hcmpfield  tp.,  Lancaster 
CO.,  Pa.,  12  miles  N,  W,  i»f  Lancaster,  at  the  crossing  of  tho 
Reading  and  Columbia  and  the  Pennsylvania  R,  IU. 

Landit',  a  celebrated  historical  y'oi'rr,  or  fair  and  mar- 
ket, which  was  tho  type  of  those  of  the  same  kind  so  nu- 
merous in  the  Middle  .-Vges,  and  which  are  now  continued 
in  France  only  by  tho  famims  /'h'iti  of  Bcaucairc  and  the 
ham  and  gingerbread  fairs  held  in  Paris  during  the  weeks 
preceding  ami  following  Easter,  The  name  hiudit  is  a 
corruption  of  Lttttdi,  .Mitnday  :  for  tho  Lniidit  fair  opened 
both  In  Paris  and  in  .'^t.  lienis  on  the  first  .Monday  after 
tho  1  Itbof  ,lune,  St.  Harnabas's  Day.  The  talcs  and  books 
of  Ihe  .Midillo  Ages  arc  filled  with  allusions  to  the  Landit, 
which  lasted  for  one  week,  and  which  was  much  frequented 
by  the  university  students.  It  was  both  a  t'estival,  a  kind 
oi  French  kermesse,  and  n  market.  It  is  said  that  Charle- 
magne instituted  the  Lanilil,  which  wn«  solemnly  opened 
every  year  by  a  procession  iu  which  attended  the  bishop 


1624 


LAXDIVAR— LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  IN  LAW. 


of  Paris,  with  the  rector  of  the  university,  all  the  priests 

and  officials,  and  the  students.  The  Revolution  put  an 
end  tu  the  Landit,  and  now  it  is  no  more  than  au  ordinary 
market  for  sheep,  which  are  allowed  to  be  brought  to  St. 
Denis  and  sold  there  between  the  Xlth  and  ll^th  of  June  of 
each  year.  Felix  Aucaigne. 

Lamrivar  (Rafael),  b.  in  Guatemala  Oct.  27.  1731 : 
graduated  at  the  university  of  that  city  ;  entered  the  order 
of  Je^^uits  in  1750  in  Mexico,  and  rose  to  be  the  head  of  the 
seminar^'  of  San  IJurja.  Expelled  as  a  .lesuit  on  the  sup- 
pression of  that  order  in  Spain  and  America  (1707),  he 
passed  his  remaining  years  at  Bologna,  Italy,  and  acquired 
distinction  by  his  elegant  Latin  poetry,  descriptive  of 
tropical  life  in  America.  Besides  miscellaneous  verses,  he 
published  in  1782  Hnxtirntio  McricanUf  in  fifteen  cantos,  in 
which  he  describes  the  lakes  of  Mexico,  the  volcanoes,  the 
mines  of  gold  and  silver,  the  wild  animals,  binls,  and  plants 
of  New  Spain,  upon  the  model  of  Virgil's  Gcoryiva.  I),  at 
Bologna  Sept.  27.  17'.);;. 

Landlord  and  Tenant  in  Law.  This  phrase  is 
used  to  expr?s5  a  relation  between  the  owner  of  land  and 
one  to  whom  he  transfers  it  for  such  a  period  or  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  an  interest  still  remaining  in  himself, 
technically  called  a  reversion.  The  more  common  mode  of 
tran-^fer  is  to  create  an  estate  in  the  land  for  a  fixed  period, 
called  an  estate  for  years.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  time 
should  be  measured  by  years,  the  leailing  thought  being 
that  the  time  for  the  commencement  and  the  termination 
of  the  estate  is  certain.  Thus,  an  estate  for  a  month,  or 
even  for  a  day,  is  of  the  same  grade  as  one  for  a  tliousand 
years,  unless  there  is  some  statute  to  the  contrary.  The 
common  law  makes  a  principal  division  of  estates  into 
those  of  freehold  and  less  than  freehold.  An  estate  for 
years  belongs  to  the  latter  class,  and  is  thus  inferior  in 
dignify  to  an  estate  fur  life,  which  is  a  freehold.  An  estate 
for  years  is  ranked  as  a  chattel,  no  matter  how  long  it  may 
liist.  Partaking  to  some  extent  of  the  nature  of  land,  it  is 
called  a  chattel  renl.  The  reason  of  this  rule  is  of  a  his- 
torieul  nature.  When  these  interests  were  first  introduced 
into  the  law,  they  belonged  to  the  sphere  of  contracts. 
They  were  granted  to  husbandmen,  whose  only  remedy 
in  case  of  a  violation  of  right  was  derived  from  the  law 
of  contracts.  The  right  itself  was  of  a  personal  nature. 
Although  a  tenant  for  years  is  now  regarded  as  having  an 
est;i!e  in  the  land,  it  partakes  to  some  extent  of  its  original 
character.  Accordingly,  if  an  owner  of  it  dies,  his  nnex- 
pired  interest  does  not  descend  to  his  heirs  as  land,  but 
passes  to  his  administrators  or  executors  as  a  chattel.  An 
owner  of  such  an  interest  is  said  to  have  a  term  for  ye.ars. 
The  word  "term"  is  here  used  to  point  out  the  fact  that 
the  estate  has  a  fixed  and  definite  termination.  A  distinc- 
ti(m  is  thus  drawn  bet\veen  the  meaning  of  the  words 
"  term  "  and  *'  time."  Thus,  if  one  should  grant  an  estate 
for  three  years  to  .A,  and  at  the  end  of  bis  tfrm  to  B,  the 
estate  of  the  latter  would  begin  whenever  A's  interest  might 
terminate,  whether  by  surrender  of  his  estate  or  by  lapse 
of  time.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  word  "  time  "  had  been 
nscd,  B's  estate  could  not  commence  in  possession  until 
three  years  had  actually  elapsed. 

An  estate  for  years  usually  commences  by  means  of  an 
instrument  called  a  hnte.  The  person  making  it  is  called 
a  frrtxor,  and  the  person  receiving  it  is  termed  a  fe»HCc,  It 
frequently  becomes  imjiortant  to  distinguish  between  a 
lease  and  an  agreement  for  a  lease.  One  of  these  creates 
an  estate,  and  is  ''  executed  "  in  its  nature :  the  other  con- 
fers a  right  to  an  estate,  and  is  "executory."  The  rights 
and  remedies  in  the  two  cases  are  quite  different.  In  the 
case  of  a  strict  lease,  the  lessee  may  insist  on  possession 
when  the  proper  time  arrives,  and  to  that  end,  if  possession 
be  refused,  may  bring  an  action  of  ejectment;  in  the  case 
of  an  agreement  for  lease,  his  regular  remedy  would  be  to 
bring  au  action  in  a  court  of  equity  to  obtain  a  lease,  and 
subsequently  he  might,  by  means  of  the  lease  thus  ob- 
tained, acquire  the  possession.  To  which  class  any 
particular  instrument  belongs  depends  mainly  upon  the 
intention  of  the  parties  as  derived  from  the  terms  of  the 
contract.  Kntry  by  the  Icssqc  is  an  essential  element 
in  constituting  an  estate  for  years.  A  distinction  is  thus 
taken  between  the  strict  estate  and  an  intertnac  termini 
(or  a  mere  interest  in  a  terra).  This  phrase  is  applied  in 
two  ways.  Its  first  signification  has  reference  to  the  in- 
terval between  the  execution  of  the  lease  and  the  time  fixed 
for  the  estate  to  eommr-nce.  Thus,  if  a  lease  were  executed 
in  February,  and  the  estat«  was  to  commence  in  possession 
on  May  1st,  during  the  intervening  period  the  lessee  would 
have  an  "  intercsse  termini."  This  expression  also  applies 
to  the  case  where  the  time  for  taking  possession  has  arrived, 
and  yet  there  has  been  no  entry.  The  lessee  cannot  avoid 
responsibility  by  refusing  to  enter,  though  the  remedies  of 
the  lessor  would  not  be  the  same  as  if  an  entry  had  taken 
place.     Nice  distinctions,  which  need  not  here  be  discussed. 


are  derived  from  the  doctrines  of  tnter«««e  Urmini.  One  im- 
portant difference  between  the  first  form  of  it  and  that  of  an 
actual  lease  may  be  noted.  If  a  lessee  has  actually  taken 
possession  of  a  house  and  lot,  and  the  house  be  destroyed 
by  fire  wholly  without  his  fault,  the  lessee,  in  the  absence 
of  an  agreement  or  of  a  statute  to  the  contrary,  is  liable 
for  rent.  This  would  not  be  the  case  if  ho  had  but  an 
intercsse  termittt.  When  the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant 
has  been  fully  constituted,  there  is  a  twofold  relation,  or 
so-called  "  privity,"  between  them— privity  of  contract  and 
privity  of  estate.  Privity  of  contract  is  derived  from  the 
terms  of  their  agreement ;  "  privity  of  estate  "  partakes  of  a 
feudal  origin,  and  expresses  all  the  relations  springing  up 
between  the  parties  from  the  fact  that  one  of  them  has  a 
temporary  interest,  and  the  other  is  the  ultimate  owner. 
This  is  a  very  important  distinction,  and  will  he  again 
recurred  to  in  the  course  of  this  article.  These  observa- 
tions are  preliminary  to  a  discussion  of  the  main  subject, 
which  is  very  complicated  and  forms  the  topic  of  extended 
treatises.  It  will  only  be  possible  to  give  a  cursory  view 
of  the  rights  and  relations  of  the  parties.  The  subject 
will  be  considered  under  the  following  principal  divisions: 
I.  The  creation  of  the  relation  ;  1 1.  Its  termination  or  de- 
struction ;  III.  The  respective  rights  and  obligations  of 
the  parties;  IV.  Assignment  and  sub-letting. 

I.  It  has  been  already  observed  that  the  common  course 
is  to  create  this  relation  by  a  written  instrument.  By  the 
rules  of  the  common  law  an  estate  fur  years  may  be  created 
orally.  The  statute  cf  frauds  (see  FitAuns,  Statute  of), 
however,  applies  to  the  case,  and  the  estate,  uuless  the  term 
be  short,  must  be  created  by  writing.  The  terms  of  the 
statute  vary  in  the  different  States  as  to  the  estates  which 
maybe  created  without  writing.  The  general  fact  remains 
that  oral  leases  are  only  allowed  where  the  term  is  short. 
In  some  of  the  States  the  name  of  the  lessor  must  be 
subscribed;  in  others,  it  may  appear  anywhere  in  the 
instrument.  An  agent  may  act  for  the  lessor,  but  where 
the  latter  must  execute  a  written  lease  the  agent  should 
have  written  authority,  and  should  sign  the  principal's 
name,  adding  his  own  as  agent.  It  is  prudent,  in  most 
cases,  though  not  usually  necessary,  to  attach  a  seal  to  the 
instrument.  The  rules  as  to  parties  are  substantially  the 
same  as  in  other  contracts.  The  presumj>tion  is  that  an 
owner  may  lease;  incapacity  is  the  exception.  The  prin- 
cipal classes  of  incapacitated  persons  are  the  insane,  intox- 
icated persons,  such  as  are  under  duress,  infants,  and  married 
women.  The  latter  may  in  some  States  by  statute  make 
leases  ;  the  transactions  of  infants  are  in  general  voidable, 
rather  than  void,  and  may  be  ratified  upon  attaining  ma- 
jority. The  same  general  rule  applies  to  persons  mentally 
unsound,  who  may  ratify  on  the  recovery  of  their  reason, 
unless  they  were  at  the  time  of  entering  into  the  lease  un- 
der judicial  guardianship.  In  that  case,  by  a  technical 
rule,  the  lease  is  wholly  void.  Trustees  may.  acting  within 
the  scope  of  their  trusts,  make  leases,  and  so  also  may  cor- 
porations under  like  limitations.  The  capacity  to  take  a 
lease  which  is  clearly  beneficial  to  a  lessee  may  exist  even 
whore  he  could  not  be  a  lessor.  Thus,  a  young  child  or  a 
person  bereft  of  reason  may  be  presumed  to  acce]>t  a  ben- 
efit when  he  could  not  be  allowed  to  assume  a  burden.  As 
a  general  rule,  a  lease  can  only  be  made  of  such  an  interest 
as  a  lessor  may  have  at  the  time  of  its  execution.  Thus, 
if  a  person  having  a  life  estate  in  land  should  jiurport  to 
lease  it  for  twenty-one  years,  and  should  die  within  a  few 
days  afterwards,  the  lease  would  terminate  at  the  moment 
of  his  death.  Owing  to  this  fact,  life  tenants  are  frequently 
unable  to  make  advantageous  leases.  To  remedy  this  de- 
j  feet  it  is  not  uncommon  for  one  who  creates  a  life  estate  to 
!  confer  upon  the  life  tenant  a  pmccr  (see  Powers)  or  author- 
j  ity  to  create  a  lease  commencing  during  his  tenancy,  and 
i  continuing  for  a  moderate  period — viz.  twenty-one  years. 
'  If  this  power  is  executed,  the  result  is.  that  while  the  life 
tenant  lives  the  rent  is  payable  to  him;  after  his  death,  to 
the  next  owner  for  so-called  reversioner).  Should  his  death 
I  occur  during  the  currency  of  a  quarter,  the  rent  belongs  as 
I  a  unit  to  the  reversioner,  unless  there  is  some  clause  in  the 
'  instrument  or  a  statutory  provision  to  the  contrary.  Should 
the  life  tenant  live  till  after  the  expiration  of  the  lease,  he 
may  execute  another  under  the  power,  etc. 
I  Should  a  party  having  no  interest  whatever  in  land  pur- 
'  port  to  make  a  lease  of  it,  he  would  of  course  convey  noth- 
i  ing.  Still,  should  be  afterwards  acquire  it.  the  instrument 
might  operate,  on  the  theory  of  an  estoppel  (see  Kstoi'PEl), 
to  prevent  him  from  setting  up  a  title  as  against  his  lessee. 
This  would  only  be  where  he  had  no  estate  icfmtever  when 
he  made  the  lease.  If  he  had  some  estate,  though  less  than 
what  he  purportC'l  to  convey,  the  lease  would  pass  what  he 
had,  and  would  spend  its  force.  If  he  had,  for  example,  an 
estate  for  ten  years,  and  made  a  lease  for  twenry,  the  lease 
would  pass  the  ten  years,  and  would  have  no  further  ope- 
ration. 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  IN  LAW. 


1625 


II.  The  Di»$olution  or  Deatruction  of  the  Relation. — The 
leading  modes  in  which  the  relutiou  of  landlord  and  tenant 
may  be  broken  up  or  dissolved  are — (1 1  by  eviction,  (2)  by 
surrender,  (^S)  by  merger,  (4|  by  destruction  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  lease,  (6)  by  forfeiture,  iuotuding  the  act  of 
disclaiming  the  relation  on  the  part  of  the  tenant. 

(1 )  Erirtidii. — By  this  term  is  meant  the  act  of  depriving 
the  tenant  of  the  estate.  It  may  be  either  by  some  person 
having  a  superior  title,  or  by  the  landlord.  A  mere  stranger 
or  wrongdoer  cannot  legally  cause  an  eviction.  Should  such 
a  person  turn  the  tenant  out  of  possession,  he  would  stilt 
be  liable  to  pay  rent.  But  in  the  case  of  a  true  eviction 
the  tenant  is  discharged.  An  eviction  may  either  be  partial 
or  total.  The  former  does  not  necessarily  discharge  the  ten- 
ant absolutely.  Ho  may  still  be  liable  to  perform  in  part 
the  obligations  of  the  lease.  Thus,  if  a  landlord  should 
leaj'c  two  houses  for  a  gross  rent,  and  the  tenant  should  be 
evicted  from  one  of  them  by  a  persun  having  a  better  title, 
rent  would  still  be  ilne  for  that  portion  of  the  premises  ac- 
tually enjoyed  by  the  tenant.  This  rule  does  not  apply  to 
a  partial  eviction  by  the  wrongful  act  of  the  landlord.  In  this 
case  the  entire  rent  issuspenclcd  while  the  eviction  continues, 
as  he  is  guilty  of  a  breach  of  his  portion  of  the  contract. 
The  doctrine  of  "constructive  eviction"  should  be  referred 
to.  This  is  a  modern  principle,  allowing  the  tenant,  in  case 
the  landlord  renders  the  occupation  of  the  premises  practi- 
cally valueless  by  his  own  wrongful  act,  to  abandon  them, 
and  make  use  of  this  theoretical  eviction  as  a  defence  to  the 
payment  of  the  rent.  Thisgroundcannot  be  taken  unless  the 
tenant  vacates  the  premises.  The  mere  deterioration  of  the 
premises  in  value  is  no  eviction.  Accordingly,  if  one  hires 
a  house  and  lot,  and  the  building  is  accidentally  destroyed 
by  fire,  the  tenant  cannot,  by  the  rules  of  the  common  law, 
leave  the  premises  and  ccaso  to  pay  rent.  The  land  still 
remains,  and  by  legal  theory  the  rent  is  indivisible  and  can- 
not be  apportioned.  So- far  is  this  doctrine  extended  that 
if  the  landlord  insures  with  his  own  funds,  the  tenant  can- 
not insist  that  the  insurance-mnney  be  applied  to  rebuild 
the  house,  though  ho  might  if  the  premiums  of  insurance 
bad  been  paid  by  himself,  as  ho  would  in  that  case  prac- 
tically be  the  insurer.  There  may  bo  a  clause  insertecl  in 
the  lease  that  on  the  buildings  becoming  untenantable  the 
tenant  may  abandon  the  premises  and  be  relieved  from  lia- 
bility. The  .same  recult  is  attained  in  some  of  the  States 
by  statute  modifying  the  common  law.  The  rule  itself  is 
not  to  be  extended  to  the  ease  where  llie  subject-matter  of 
the  lease  has  wholly  ceased  to  exist.  This  is  not  properly 
a  ease  of  eviction,  but  rather  of  a  want  of  material  for  the 
contract  of  the  parties  to  operate  uj)on.  The  doctrines  of 
eviction  sometimes  work  a  hardship,  as  where  a  landlord 
who  has  failed  to  receive  rent  ejects  u  tenant  for  that  reason 
during  the  currency  of  a  quiirter.  He  may  thus  lose  bis  rent 
for  the  portion  of  time  whicli  has  elapsed  since  the  last  rent- 
day.  This  result,  however,  may  be  avoided  by  the  insertion 
of  appropriate  claui'es  in  the  lease. 

(li)  Siirremirr. — By  this  word  is  meant  the  act  of  the  ten- 
ant yielding  up  his  estate  to  the  landlord.  It  requires  the 
assent  of  both  parlies.  A  surrender  may  be  mado  either 
by  words  or  acts.  When  made  by  words,  the  stAtutc  of 
frauds  as  to  the  necessity  of  writing  may  be  applicable: 
when  mado  by  acts,  no  writing  will  lie  necessary.  This  is 
called  a  surrender  by  '*  act  and  operation  of  law."  Such  a 
surrender  will  only  take  place  where  the  oct  on  which  re- 
liance is  pla4;ed  is  iiir»iiin'itnit  with  the  continuance  of  the 
tenancy.  Thus,  if  the  landlord  f-hould  substirute  a  new 
tenant  in  tlio  place  of  the  former  one  with  his  consent,  or 
should  hiiuHcIf  take  possession  in  the  same  manner,  a  sur- 
render might  bo  presumed,  as  there  would  be  a  plain  in- 
consistency between  the  new  state  of  things  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  tenancy,  Hnwi-ver.  if  the  liiiidlord  should 
merely  assent  in  wordn  to  the  tenant's  leaving  the  prem- 
ises, without  taking  any  step  on  his  part,  there  would  be 
no  surrender  by  means  <if  an  art  of  which  it  couhl  be  af- 
firmed that  there  wa«  an  inconsistency  between  it  and  (he 
continued  enjoyint-nt  by  the  toinint  of  the  jiremises;  and  if 
the  statute  of  frauds  were  not  complied  with  as  to  writing, 
there  would  bo  no  valid  surrender.  The  delivery  and  accept- 
ance of  the  key  have  in  numy  instances  been  hold  to  be  evi- 
dence from  which  un  intent  to  surrendf-r  might  be  inferred. 
The  effect  of  a  surrender  in  to  break  u|>  the  relation  of  land- 
lord and  tenant.  Accordingly,  if  it  should  take  place  tluring 
n  qinirter.  no  rent  could  bo  eollecte<l  for  that  portion  of  it 
which  had  elapsed.  This  remark,  of  course,  could  not  he  ap- 
plied to  rents  which  had  aedially  become  duo  bof«ir«  the 
surrender.  Nor  can  a  surrrnder  be  held  to  affect  the  pre- 
viously acquired  rights  of  third  persons.  An  instance  of 
the  application  of  thix  rule  is  found  in  case  the  tenant  has 
made  a  sub-lease  of  which  tlie  landlord  is  cognizant.  The 
landlord  could  not  iiecejd  a  surrender  so  as  to  impair  the 
rights  of  the  under-lenniit  wilhotil  Ins  consent. 

(3)  .\hnj^>'. — This  topic  resembles  that  of  surrender.    It, 


I  however,  proceeds  upon  a  different  theory.  It  depends  upon 
a  rule  of  law  founded  upon  jtublic  convenience,  jirevcuting 
a  person  from  holding  inconsistent  rights  and  interests  in 
the  same  property.  In  the  ease  now  under  consideration  it 
might  be  applied  to  the  act  of  the  tenant  acquiring  the  cstiitc 
of  the  landlord,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  landlord  in  becoming 
owner  of  the  lea^c.  In  either  case  the  estate  of  the  tenant 
would  in  general  merge  in  that  of  the  landlord.  Another 
form  of  statement  is  that  the  prior  estate  merges  in  that 
which  is  future  and  reversionary  in  its  nature  where  the 
latter  is  of  a  superior  or  of  an  equal  grade.  Thus,  an  es- 
tate for  years  may  merge  in  a  life  estate,  or  even  in  an 
estate  for  years  reversionary  in  its  nature.  The  subject 
of  merger  is  full  of  thorny  distinctions,  for  a  full  account 
of  which  Mr.  Preston's  treatise  on  the  subject  may  be  con- 
sulted. It  is  not  necessary  or  expedient  to  present  them 
here.  It  may  be  much  controlled  by  the  intent  of  the  par- 
ties wherever  any  good  reason  can  be  found  for  keeping 
the  two  estates  distinct  and  separate  in  the  same  person. 

(4)  Deati-nction  of  the  SiihJfCt-iiialttr. — The  rights  and 
obligations  growing  out  of  the  contract  arc  reciprocal. 
They  depend  upon  the  existence  of  jiroperty  to  be  leased. 
If  that  is  totally  destroyed,  the  contract  is  at  an  cud.  An 
illustration  may  be  found  in  the  lease  of  a  room  in  a  build- 
ing which  is  totally  destroyed  by  fire.  The  room  having 
ceased  to  exist,  the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant  is  ter- 
minated. 

(5)  Fur/t'ittirc. — There  are  various  grounds  on  which  a 
lease  may  be  forfeited.  They  depeml  in  general  upon 
clauses  found  in  the  instrument  of  demise.  Forfeiture  may 
also  be  caused  by  a  violation  of  the  implied  obligations 
growing  out  of  the  contract,  as  by  disathrming  the  land- 
lord's title,  and  transferring  the  j)crforniance  of  the  ten- 
ant's obligations  to  another.  Spoil  or  destruction  of  the 
premises,  termed  waste  (see  W.\stk),  is  also  a  ground  of 
forfeiture,  as  being  a  breach  of  the  tenant's  duty.  It  is, 
however,  a  general  rule  that  a  mere  wrongful  act  or  breach  of 
contract  docs  not  of  itself  causeadissolntion  of  the  tenancy. 
It  rather  gives  the  landlord  an  o]ttion  to  uphold  or  to  over- 
turn the  estate.  Accordingly,  if  no  afhrmative  steps  are 
taken  by  him  the  estate  will  continue.  He  may  also  waive  his 
right  to  enforce  the  forfeiture,  either  by  express  words  or  by 
implication.  An  instance  of  the  latter  is  an  acceptance  of 
rent  with  full  knowledge  on  his  part  of  a  breach  of  contract. 
This  subject  will  be  again  referred  to  in  connection  with 
(\>»ditioi>n.  I'orfeiture  when  enforced  terminates  in  evic- 
tion. It  is,  however,  a  lawful  act,  ami  the  result  of  o  right 
exercised  under  the  contract,  while  eviction,  as  ordinarily 
understood,  is  either  an  art  performed  by  a  stranger  having 
a  superior  title,  without  reference  to  the  contract,  or  is  a 
wrongful  act  on  the  landlord's  part. 

III.  There  are  certain  rights  and  obligations  implied  by 
law  from  the  relations  of  tlie  parties.  These  may  bo  in- 
creased, modilicd.  or  diminislied  by  special  clauses  in  the 
lease.  The  jiarties  nniy  make  any  agreement  not  incon- 
sistent with  law  m-  with  the  rules  of  pul>lic  policy.  It  will 
not  bo  possible  to  arrange,  or  even  tt)  state,  the  special  pro- 
visions thus  resorted  to.  They  assume  two  general  forms: 
they  arc  either  ennditicms  or  covenants.  The  main  dis- 
tinction between  these  is  that  the  office  of  a  condition  is  to 
enable  the  lessor  to  declare  the  lease  forfeited:  that  of  a 
covenant  is  to  confer  a  right  of  action  in  case  of  its  breach. 
This  action  will  sometimes  bo  in  a  court  of  law  for  dam- 
ages;  at  other  times,  in  a  court  of  equity  for  an  injunction 
or  a  specific  performance  of  the  covenant.  A  clause  may 
be  drawn  both  as  a  condition  and  a  covenant,  when  tlie 
lessee  will  have  his  choice  of  remedies.  Tl»o  ruk-s  of  law 
governing  conditions  are  more  strict  than  tlH)Be  which  pre- 
vail coneerning  covenants,  since  a  forfeiture  is  frequently 
very  severe.  The  distinction  miiy  well  be  illustrated  in  tho 
case  of  non-payment  of  rent.  Where  there  is  n  condition 
in  a  lease  entailing  a  forfeiture  for  its  non-payment,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  landlord  to  dcnniml  the  exiu't  rent  on  the 
day  it  is  due  at  a  specified  hour  at  the  front  door  of  the 
house,  etc..  otherwise  the  forfeiture  eould  not  take  place. 
If  his  object  were  simply  to  collect  the  rent  by  actioti,this 
precision  would  not  be  necessary.  If  the  tenant  did  n«tt 
pay  promptly  an  action  could  at  once  be  maintained.  An- 
other instance  may  be  alluded  to.  There  is  frequently  a 
Cfindilion  that  a  lessee  shall  not  assign  without  thu  consent 
of  the  lessor.  i\  consent  to  assign  to  one  person  dispenses 
with  the  eontlilion  altogether.  The  doctrine  of  waiver  is 
also  reftdily  applied,  and  tho  courts  infer  thai  a  forfeiluro 
is  waived  by  any  ae(  on  tho  landlord's  part  inconsistent 
with  it,  such  as  acceptance  of  rent  with  knowbrdgo  of  the 
oct  of  forfeiture. 

Independent  of  express  clauses  in  tho  lease,  tho  law  will 
in  general  impose  upon  the  tenant  the  Odiowing  duties: 
(1)  to  pay  rent,  |2|  to  render  fculiy  or  to  be  faithful  to  tho 
h'flsor.  (.'I)  to  refrain  from  (>oniniitting  nets  of  waste,  (4) 
to  make  ordinary  repairs,  (5)  to  render  up  possession  at 


1626 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  IN  LAW. 


the  end  of  the  term.  <\)  The  duty  to  pay  rent  is  fairly  to 
be  implied  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  premises.  There  is 
usually  an  e.tpress  covenant  to  this  effect.  Where  there  is 
none,  the  tenant  may  he  liable  to  a  reasonable  amount  for 
'•  use  and  occupation."  Kent  until  it  is  due  is  deemed  to 
be  real  estate;  after  it  is  payable,  even  though  not  paid,  it 
becomes  a  debt,  and  is  a  mere  right  of  action,  and  is  re- 
garded as  personal  property.  The  landlord's  right  to  rent 
is  of  a  dilTorent  nature  from  the  tenant's  estate  ;  the  former 
is  incorporeal,  the  latter  is  corporeal;  the  former  is  real 
estate,  the  latter  is  personal  property  (chattel  real).  (2) 
Fealty  is  a  word  of  feudal  origin,  and  expresses  the  duty 
of  the  tenant  to  be  faithful  to  the  landlord.  The  leading 
rule  in  modern  law.  derived  from  this  view,  is.  that  the 
tenant  cannot  dispute  the  title  of  the  landlord.  Practically, 
the  rule  amounts  to  this,  that  so  long  as  a  tenant  remains 
in  undisturbed  possession  he  cannot  set  up  as  a  defence  to 
an  action  for  rent  by  his  landlord  that  the  latter  has  no 
title.  On  similar  principles,  all  encroachments  made  by 
the  tenant  on  the  land  of  others  enure  to  the  benefit  of  the 

iTndlord  as  between  him  and  the  tenant.     In  other  words,      ^—^  „w..„..  -.    r.i..;„ 

he   at    r  is  norpermitted  to  deny  that  he  was  acting  for  |  part.     This  f-*  ^-^'Lv  .ncreases  ";«/°;P'^7''-^j°V  'rU": 
his  landlord.     The  rule  ceases  to  prevail  as  soon  as  the      terests  and  rights  connected  with  thi.  subject.     The  trans- 


transgress  statutes  to  prevent  forcible  entry,  and  may,  per- 
haps.'be  regarded  in  that  case  as  nugatory  by  the  courts. 
Should  the  landlord  permit  the  tenant  to  hold  over  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time  beyond  his  term,  he  may  become 
a  "tenant  at  sufferance."  (See  Tenant  at  Sufferance.) 

Thus  far,  the  duties  of  the  tenant  have  been  considered. 
Those  of  the  landlord  may  be  briefly  referred  to.  They 
are  principally  to  secure  the  tenant  in  quiet  enjoyment  of 
the  premises,  "and  to  discharge  all  taxes  upon  the  land  un- 
less there  is  some  agreement  to  the  contrary.  In  every 
sealed  lease  there  is  an  implied  covenant  by  the  landlord 
for  quiet  enjoyment.  This  means  such  enjoyment  as 
agaiust  persons  having  a  paramount  title.  The  tenant 
must  defend  himself  against  strangers.  It  is  the  better 
opinion  that  if  the  State  takes  the  land  under  the  right  of 
eminent  domain,  the  landlord  is  not  responsible,  nor  has 
the  tenant  any  defence  for  that  reason  to  an  action  for  rent. 
This  is  not  deemed  to  be  a  paramount  title,  and  the  tenant 
must  look  to  the  State  for  indemnity. 

IV.  Agsiipunent  timl  .S'lii-franiic.!/.— Either  of  the  parties 
may  assign'  or  transfer  his  interest,  cither  in  whole  or  in 


tenant  is  evicted  by  some  person  having  a  superior  title. 
So,  if  he  be  threatened  with  an  eviction  by  such  a  person, 
be  may  yield  the  possession  to  him  or  become  his  tenant, 
and  set  "up  these  facts  as  a  defence  to  any  action  by  his 
lessor.     It  may  be  further  stated  that  the  tenant,  while  he 
cannot  deny  his  landlord's  original  title,  may  show  that  it 
has  expired  or  has  been  subverted.     Thus,  if  the  lessor  has 
fallen  in  debt,  and  his  estate  is  sold  on  an  execution,  the 
tenant  may  purchase  it  and  himself  become  owner.     The 
effect  of  such  a  transaction  would  be  to  destroy  the  claims 
of  the  lessor  under  the  lease.     (?.)  The  subject  of  waste 
will  be  treated  separately.  (See  Waste.)     It  is  enough  to 
say  here  that  it  is  an  act  on  the  part  of  the  tenant  to 
the  injury  of  the  landlord,  and  leading  to  a  forfeiture. 
It  is  either  negative  or  positive,  "  permissive  or  voluntary." 
Under  this  doctrine  it  is  the  duty  of  the  tenant  to  refrain 
from  cutting  down  timber  trees,  or  destroying  or  impairing 
buildings,  or  opening  mines,  or  from  acts  of  neglect  tend- 
ing to  injure  the  estate.     He  is  to  use  the  property  as  a 
prudent  owner  would,  without  doing  injury  to  the  rever- 
sioner.    As  he  is  in  possession,  he  is  bound  to  sec  that 
others  do  not  commit  similar  acts.     He  is  in  some  sort  an 
insurer,  though  his  liability  is  not  extended  in  this  country 
so  far  as  to   make  him  responsible   for   accidental   fires, 
though  he  might  be  for  such  as  were  caused  by  his  negli- 
gence.    There  may  be  clauses  inserted  in  the  lease  permit- 
ting him  to  commit  waste,  either  in  an  unlimited  way  or 
under  restrictions.    These  will  not  be  extended  so  far  by  the 
courts  as  to  allow  mere  wanton  destruction,  and  acts  of 
that  kind  will  be  restrained  by  courts  of  equity.     (4)  The 
tenant  is  also  bound  to  make  ordinary  repairs.     He  must, 
for  instance,  keep  roofs  and  windows  tight.     Accordingly, 
in  the  absence  of  special  agreement,  he  cannot  call  ui)on 
the  landlord  to  make  repairs.     This  matter  is  frequently 
regulateii   by   special    agreement,  the   landlord    assuming 
more  or  less  fully  the  duty  of  making  the  repairs.     If  a 
tenant  agrees  to  "make  full  repairs,  he  will,  in  general,  be 
liable  to  replace  buildings  destroyed  by  an  accidental  firo 
or  otherwise,  the  word  "  repair"  being  construed  as  equiva- 
lent to  ••  rebuild."     A  duty  sometimes  springs  up  as  be- 
tween the  tenant  and  third  persons  or  the  public  to  keep 
the  premises  in  good  order.    Thus,  if  he  should  allow  them, 
being  on  a  public  street,  to  become  dilapidated  and  to  cause 
injurv  to  persons  passing  by,  he  might  be  liable  to  an  ac- 
tion for  damages.     (5)  When  the  tenant's  term  ceases  ho 
should  render  up  possession  to  the  landlord.    At  this  point 
a  question  frequently  arises  as  to  his  right  to  remove  such 
improvements  as  ho  may  have  made  for  the  purposes  of 
trade  or  manufacture,  or  for  other  reasons.     This  topic  has 
been  fully  discussed  in  the  article  on  fixtures.  (See  Fix- 
Ti'iiES.)     If  the  tenant  continues  in   possession  after  his 
term  expires,  legal  proceedings  to  eject  him  may  be  resorted 
to.     The  regular  course  is  to  bring  an  action  of  ejeetinent 
against  him.    This  remedy  is  expensive  and  dilatory,  while 
despatch  is  frequently  of  great  consequence  to  the  laud- 
lord's  interests.     Statutory  remedies  of  a  summary  nature 
are  resorted  to  in  a  number  of  the  States.     These  provide 
in  substance  that  the  tenant  mivy  be  summoned  before  a 
magistrate — e.  ij.  a  justice  of  the  peace^and  required  to 
show  cause  why   he  does  not  leave  the   premises.     This 
summons  is  speedily  returnable  ;  it  may  be  within  a  few 
hours.     If  no  good  cause  for  the  delay  is  shown,  a  man- 
date is  addressed  to  an  officer  of  the  court  requiring  him  to 
dispossess  the  tenant.    In  some  iuetances  the  landlord  takes 
the  law  into  his  own  haluU.  and  by  his  own  act  dispossesses 
a  refractory  tenant.     This  course  is  to  be  discouraged,  par- 
ticularlv  ill  those  States  where  the  summary  proceedings 
prev 


;  and  may  lead  to  a  breach  of  the  peace,  and  may  |  general  no  greater  rights  than  the  lessee. 


fer  of  interests  may  be  considered  under  two  principal  di- 
visions: (1)  Bv  the  tenant;  (2)  by  the  landlord. 

(1)  A  distinction  must  be  taken  in  the  outset  between 
assignment  and  a  sub-tenancy.     In  a  complete  assignment 
the  "tenant  parts  with  his  entire  interest ;  in  a  partial  as- 
signment he  transfers  all  his  interest  in  a  portion  of  the 
premises.     The  case  may  be  illustrated  by  a  lease  of  two 
houses  for  a  specified  time  and  for  an  entire  rent.     Should 
the  tenant  sell  all  his  interest  in  one  of  the  houses,  there 
would  be  a  partial  assignment.    In  a  sub-tenanoy  the  tenant 
still  retains  some  interest.     The  importance  of  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  transactions  is  very  great,  as  an  en- 
tirely different  set  of  rules  is  applied  in  the  two  cases.     In 
order  to  understand  the  efl'ect  of  an  assignment  it  is  neccs- 
sarv  to  recur  to  the  subject  of  "  privity,"  which  has  already 
bee'n  referred  to.    It  was  stated  that  there  is  between  a  land- 
lord and  tenant  a  twofold  privity— that  of  contract  and  of 
estate.    When  an  assignment  takes  place  there  is  privity  of 
estate  between  the  lessor  and  the  assignee:  the  privity  of 
contract  between  the  lessor  and  the  lessee  remains  as  before. 
The  result  of  this  theory  is  that  the  lessor  has  his  choice  of 
remedies.  He  may  eithe"r  pursue  the  lessee  upon  the  "  privity 
of  contract."  or  the  assignee  upon  the  "privity  of  estate." 
This  proposition  involves  the  doctrine  of  covenants  '■  run- 
ning with  the  land."    By  this  technical  phrase  is  meant  that 
there  are  or  may  be  two  classes  of  covenants  in  a  lease,  some 
of  which  may  bind  an  assignee,  and  others  not,  since  they 
Bolely  affect  the  lessee.     Those  which  will  bind  an  assignee 
are  said  "  to  run  with  the  land."    It  is  frequently  a  question 
of  much  nicety  to  determine  whether  a  covenant  has  this 
characteristic.     As  a  generol  rule,  in  order  that  a  covenant 
may  bind  an  assignee  it  must  concern  the  property  em- 
bra"eed  in  the  lease.     Instances  are  promises  to  pay  rent, 
to  keep    a  house  insured,   to   cleanse  a   sewer  upon   the 
premises,  etc.  etc.     In   some  instances   a  covenant  which 
would  not  regularly  "run  with  the  land"  is  made  to  do  so, 
because  the  assignees  of  the  lessee  are  referred  to  in  the 
lease.     When  the  promise  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  land, 
or  is  "collateral,"  it  will  not  be  binding  upon  the  assignee. 
The  details  of  this  subject  are  well  stated  in  a  note  to 
Spencer's  ease  in  SiiiUh's  Lfadimj  «i»f».     The  lessee,  in 
any  event,  remains  liable  during  the  entire  tenancy,  or 
un"til  the  contract  between  the  parties  has  spent  its  force. 
The  assignee,  on  the  other  hand,  being  liable  to  the  lessor 
only  on  the  ground  of  his  relation  to  the  estate,  may  ter- 
minate all  responsibilitv  to  him  by  making  an  assignment 
to  a  second  assignee.    He  may  even  assign  1..  a  beggar  to  re- 
lieve himself  from  liability.     There  may  thus   be  an  in- 
definite series  of  assignees,  any  one  of  whom  will  be  liable 
for  a  breach  of  covenant  occurring  during  his  ownership, 
but  not  for  anv  transpiring  after  he  has  parted  with  his 
estate.     However,  if  the  lessee  is  made  liable,  he  will  in 
general  have  a  remedy  over  as  against  the  assignee  who 
was  owner  when  the  breach  of  covenant  took  place.     Ibe 
loswee  is  on  this  view  deemed  to  be  a  surety  for  the  assignee. 
Similar  principles  will  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  a  )iarlial 
assignment.     Such  an  assignee  will  be  liable  to  the  land- 
lord in  proportion  to  the  interest   which  he  has  acquired. 
None  of  these  rules  will  be  applie.l  to  a  sub-tenancy.     As- 
1  sume  for  exauiide,  that  a  lessee  has  taken  a  lease  for  five 
years,  and  then  sub-lets  the  entire  premises  for  lour  years, 
"retaining  one  year  at  the  close  of  the  term  to  himself.     He 
has  thus  become  landlord  to  his  own  lessee.     There  is  now 
'  no  •' privity  of  estate"  between  the  original  landlord  and 
the  6ub-le9"6ee.     The  latter  does  not  claim  the  estate  of  the 
original  lessee,  but  holds  under  a  new  and  derivative  con- 
tract      It  is.  however,  true  that  the  sub-lessee  can  have  in 

His  interest 


LAXDO— LANDSCAPE  GARDENIXO. 


1G27 


being  derived  from  that  person^s  estate^  must  stand  or  tall 
with  it.  If,  therefore,  the  lessee  fails  to  perform  bis  cov- 
enants, so  us  to  he  liable  to  eviction,  the  sub-lessee  may 
also  be  deprived  of  his  estate.  If  threatened  with  an  evic- 
tion for  that  reason,  he  may  by  agreement  with  the  original 
lessor  become  his  tenant,  and  relieve  himsetffrom  obligation 
to  his  own  immediate  landlord,  the  original  leiisee. 

A  word  should  be  added  as  to  the  effect  of  a  mortgage  of 
a  lea^e.  This  is  properly  to  be  regarded  as  an  assignment. 
A  lease  being  a  chattel  interest,  a  mortgage'  of  it  must,  ac- 
cording to  the  usual  rules  prevailing  in  mortgages  of  chat- 
tels, be  regarded  as  a  sale  or  assignment.  Still,  it  is  not  in 
general  deemed  to  be  ?uch  an  assignment  as  to  render  the 
mortgagee  liable  upon  the  covenants  in  the  lease  binding 
upon  the  lessee,  and  *' running  with  the  land."  unless  the 
mortgagee  goes  into  possession.  In  that  case  he  would  be 
liable. 

(2)  Am'ifttmfnt*  by  the  Landlord. — For  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, the  only  case  that  will  be  considered  is  that  of  an 
owner  in  fee  parting  wi»h  a  smaller  estate  than  he  pos- 
sesses. In  such  a  case  ho  has  a  reversion  to  which  rent  and 
fealty  are  incidental.  If  he  assigns  his  reversion,  the  rent 
goes  with  it.  though  it  is  not  expressly  mentioned.  This 
remark  would  not  be  a|)plicable  to  rent  then  due,  which  is 
a  mere  debt,  and  in  legal  contemplation  separated  from 
the  land.  The  rent,  even  when  not  due,  may  be  assigned 
by  express  words  without  the  reversion,  or  the  reversion 
without  the  rent.  There  were  some  difficulties  in  the  com- 
mon law  attending  an  assignment  hiyih  of  the  lease  and  the 
reversion.  These  were  removed  in  England  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  by  a  well-known  enactment  by  Par- 
liament, sometimes  called  the  statute  of  monasteries.  If 
there  are  any  covenants  in  the  lease  binding  on  the  land- 
lord, these,  if  they  are  of  a  nature  to  **  run  with  the  land," 
will  attach  to  the  purchasers  of  the  reversion.  There  may 
be  a  partial  as  well  as  a  total  assignment  of  the  reversion. 
The  same  general  rules  as  to  proportional  rights  and  liabil- 
ities will  be  applied  as  in  the  case  of  a  partial  assignment 
of  a  lease.  The  reversion  may  be  apportioned  by  operation 
of  law,  aa  where  the  owner  dies  leaving  several  heirs  who 
take  undivided  interests  as  tenants  in  common.  In  order 
to  render  the  lessee  liable  to  the  assignee  of  the  reversion, 
notice  of  the  assignment  must  usually  bo  given.  If  not. 
any  payment  of  rents  made  to  the  lessor  before  notice  of 
the  assignment  must  be  allowed  to  the  lessee.  Registration 
of  tbe  assignment  will  nut  bo  notice  to  the  lessee,  as  he  could 
not  be  expected  to  examine  the  public  records  lo  see  if  an 
assignment  has  taken  place.  He  may  assume,  until  ho  has 
notice  to  the  contrary,  that  the  original  slate  of  things  con- 
tinues. (See  RKGiSTRATioy.)  (Further  information  upon 
the  general  subject  may  bo  sought  in  the  works  on  real  prop- 
erty, such  as  Cruise's  Ditfrnt ;  Washburn  on  /{ruf  Properti/ ; 
Hitliard  on  do.;  Kent's  Commentaries  ;  Piatt  on  Leaner, 
also  on  Currnnntn,  etc,  etc.)  T.  W.  D wight. 

Lan'do,  Poi>k,  b.  at  Sabina,  succeeded  Anastasius  III. 
in  'Ji;; ;  d.  in  9U. 

Landon  (Lktitia  Elizabeth).    See  Maclean. 

lian'dor  I^Waltrr  Savace),  b.  at  Ipsley  Court,  War- 
wickshire. Kngland,  Jan.  HO,  17".').  Being  the  son  of 
wealthy  parents,  he  wa^  intended  for  the  army:  received  a 
careful  early  training  from  private  tutors  and  at  Rugby 
School  (ITSJ):  entered  Trinity  College.  Oxford,  in  17l»3; 
was  rusticated  in  the  summer  of  17iM  for  a  breach  of  dis- 
cipline, and  never  returned;  printed  in  17*.)j  a  small  vol- 
ume of  poems,  which  attracted  no  attention;  studied  law, 
thou<;h  never  called  to  Ihe  bar,  au'l  issued  in  17yH  u  poem 
{Ofhir)  of  considerable  length,  which  in  1S02  he  published 
in  a  Latin  translation  {fii'hiruit),  and  which  .TcflVey  de- 
clared to  l>c  e(|ually  uiiinfellijfible  in  both  languages,  while 
Southey  ancl  De  (Juinccy  prided  themselves  upon  being  its 
only  reajlers.  Landor  visited  Paris  in  1H02,  Buecceded 
soon  after  to  his  patrimonial  estates,  spent  immense  sums 
in  improving  them,  in  buyinj^  others  in  .Monmouthshire, 
and  in  huihlin^  a  )>alatial  tnnn-ion  :  but  in  HItrt,  in  a  mo- 
ment of  irritation.  si)lrl  all  his  lands,  ordered  his  magnifi- 
cent house  to  he  torn  down,  and  prepareil  lo  live  abroad. 
In  I  SUM  he  raised  a  body  of  troops  at  hit  own  expense, 
joined  the  S)ianish  general  Blake  in  defending  the  Penin- 
sula njjain^t  Ihe  French  invasion,  and  contributed  a  large 
sum  lo  Ihe  Spanish  military  treasury,  receiving  the  thanks 
of  the  supreme  junta  and  a  eommiosion  as  colonel.  Lan- 
dor  married  in  1><11  ;  resigned  his  commission  on  the  relurn 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  to  Spain,  and  in  1^1. 'i  settled  in  Florence, 
Italy,  where  for  seven  years  he  occupied  the  palace  of  Iho 
Metlicis,  and  afterward*  houghl  the  celebrated  villa  (ihe- 
rardesca  at  Fiosole.  In  1*12  he  published  Cnuut  Jufimi,  a 
Trof/rt/i/,  irhich  elicited  the  warmest  praise  frim  Southey; 
in  ls2o.  A/7//10  Hfrnira,  in  Latin  fpnhlished  at  Pi-ja);  in 
Ift24,  another  volume  of  Lnthi  f^i^rmn.  and  in  the  same  year 
the  first  series  (2  vols.)  of  hit)  most  celebrated  work,  Imagi- 


nnry  Conreraations  0/ Literary  Men  and  Statesmen,  of  which 
the  second  series  appeared  in  1.^29.  This  work  in  its  best 
passages  rises  to  a  sublimity  rarely  equalled  in  English  lit- 
erature, while  there  is  an  abundant  display  of  cynicism,  ill- 
temper,  and  worse  logic.  A  passionate  enemy  of  conven- 
tionalism and  of  tyranny,  whether  political  or  social,  he 
indulged  in  startling  paradoxes,  defending  Tiberius  and 
Nero,  and  advising  Ihe  Greeks  in  their  struggle  willi  Ihe 
Turks  to  discard  firearms  and  employ  only  the  weapons  of 
their  classical  forefathers.  After  thirty  years'  residence  in 
Italy.  Landor  took  up  his  residence  at  Bath  in  IS.'tS,  pub- 
lished in  1836  one  of  his  best  works.  PericUn  aud  Attpaniaf 
followed  by -4  Entire  on  Sntin'utt  (183C),  Pfutameion  and 
Pentnlogue  (1S."?7),  and  the  dramas  Atfdreu  of  Hiuujary  and 
Giorniina  of  Xaphfi.  all  written  in  Italy;  The  flrlhuics 
(1847),  Popery^  Britinh  and  Foreujn  (1S51),  LaiH  Fruit  nff 
an  Old  Tree  (18o3),  Antony  and  Octnriufi  (18.50).  and  Dry 
Stirls  Fayotrd  {1858),  besides  some  minor  works  and  a 
voluminous  literary  correspondence  in  the  columns  of  the 
Examiner.  The  last-named  volume  contained  some  poems 
satirizing  a  lady  at  Rath,  who  ol)tained  a  verdict  against 
the  poet  for  libel,  with  a  judgment  of  £1000.  It  was  evident 
to  his  aclmircrs  that  the  great  poet  was  in  his  dotage,  but  the 
public  refused  to  accept  such  a  doubtful  excuse,  and  amid  a 
storm  of  obloquy  Landor  retired  to  Florence,  where  he  d. 
Sept.  17,  1864.  A  collective  edition  of  his  works  ap- 
peared in  1S40  (2  vols.),  and  a  complete  edition,  to  be  con- 
tained in  7  vols.,  was  commenced  in  1874.  His  biograjihy 
was  written  by  John  Forster  (I8)»y;  new  ed.  1874).  Lan- 
der's writings  have  never  been  popular,  but  they  all  con- 
tain unmistakable  evidences  of  a  high  order  of  genius, 
which  is  best  appreciated  by  the  **  fit  audience  though  few  " 
of  poets  possessing  kindred  gifts.  PoittKn  C.  Bi.iss. 

Lands'bcr^«  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Bran- 
denburg, on  the  Warta.  It  has  large  breweries  and  cele- 
brated nurseries  of  fruit  trees.     Pop.  18,6;U. 

Land'scape  Gar'dcnin^*  Landscape  gardening  is  a 
branch  of  horticulture,  the  highest  results  of  which  may  be 
attained  by  processes  of  a  comparatively  simple  ehar.icter 
— simpler,  for  instance,  than  those  of  kitchen  or  of  floral 
gardening.  Failure  of  success  in  it  being  oftener  duo  to  a 
halting  purpose  than  to  lack  of  science,  of  means,  or  of 
skill,  this  artielo  will  be  chiefly  given  to  establishing  the 
definition  and  limitation  of  the  general  end  proper  lo  the 
art;  some  indications  Icing  incidentally  presented  of  the 
manner  in  wliich,  under  the  requirement  of  different  indi- 
vidual tastes  and  different  local  conditions,  it  may  be  ju- 
diciously pursued. 

There  are  two  other  branches  of  horticulture,  which  in 
ordinary  practice  are  often  so  much  confounded  with  that 
of  landscape  gardening  that  the  rcacler  may  find  it  conve- 
nient to  have  lliem  set  apart  from  it  at  the  outset.  One  of 
them  is  the  cultivation  of  plants  with  special  regard  to  an 
interest  in  their  distinctive  individual  qualities.  The  other 
is  the  cultivation  of  plants  (trees,  shrubs,  perennials,  and 
annuals)  with  a  view  to  the  production  of  effects  on  the 
principles  commonly  stu<lied  in  the  arrangement  of  precious 
stones,  enamel,  and  gtd<l  in  an  elaliorate  piece  of  jewelry, 
or  of  flowers  when  sortecl  by  colors  and  arranged  for  the 
decoration  of  a  head-dress,  a  dinner-table,  or  a  terrace. 
Whether,  in  any  undertaking,  one  of  these  two  leading  mo- 
tives or  that  of  landscape  gardening  bo  adopted,  it  may  bo 
jjresumed  that  the  result  will  satisfy  that  motive  in  pro- 
)iortion  as  it  shall  bo  followed  to  Ihe  end  with  singleness 
of  purpose.  We  now  turn,  therefore,  from  the  two  wliich 
have  been  defined  to  consider  what,  in  distinction  from 
them,  the  lea^ling  motive  of  landscape  ganlening  nmy  be. 

Derivatively,  the  wonl  "lanilscapo"  is  thought  to  apply 
only  to  such  a  scene  as  enables  the  observer  to  comproliend 
the  shape  of  the  earth's  surface  far  before  him,  or,  as  we  say 
in  common  idiom,  "  to  get  the  He  of  the  land,"  the  land's 
shape.  Consistently  with  this  view,  it  will  bo  found,  on 
comparing  a  variety  of  scenes,  that  those  which  woubl  bo 
most  ui)hesitalin(;ly  (dassed  as  landscapes  are  distinguished 
by  a  certain  degree  of  breadth  and  distance  of  view.  Look- 
ing at  the  face  of  a  thick  wood  near  at  band  or  of  a  precip- 
itous rock,  we  do  not  use  the  term.  Pursuing  the  compari- 
son farther,  it  will  be  found  that  in  each  of  those  scenes  to 
which  Ihe  word  more  aptly  aj)idies  there  is  a  more  marked 
subordination  of  various  iletails  to  a  characteristic  effect  of 
the  scene  as  a  whole.  As  Lowell  says,  "  A  real  landscape 
never  presents  itself  to  us  as  a  disjointed  succession  of*  iso- 
lalc(|  parlicutam ;  wo  take  it  in  with  one  sweep  ot  the  eyes 
— its  light,  its  shadow,  its  melting  gradations  of  distance." 
But  there  are  many  situations  in  which  plant-beauty  is 
desired  where  the  area  to  bo  operated  upon  is  so  limited, 
or  so  shaped  and  eirtfinifttanced.  that  the  depth  and  breadth 
of  a  landscape  scene  must  be  oonsideretl  impracticable  of 
attainment.  In  America  gardening  is  required  for  the  dec- 
oration of  places  of  this  class  many  thousand  times  for  one 


1628 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


in  which  such  restraining  conditions  are  not  encounterefl; 
and  the  question  may  he  asked  whether  they  must  all  be 
cxchidcd  from  the  tield  of  landscape  gardening,  and  if  not, 
what,  in  these  cases,  can  be  the  siguitieaueo  of  the  prefix 
'*  landscape  "?  As  a  general  rule,  probably,  so  many  pur- 
poses require  to  be  served,  and  so  many  diverse  conditions 
to  be  reconciled,  that  the  only  rule  of  art  that  can  be  con- 
sistently iipplied  is  that  of  architecture,  wliich  would  pre- 
scribe that  every  plant,  as  well  as  every  moulding,  shall 
bear  its  part  in  the  "  adornment  of  a  service."  To  this  end, 
parterre  and  specimen  gardening  are  more  available  than 
landscnjie  gardening.  But  it  may  hap])eu  that  where,  with 
duo  regiird  to  considerations  of  health  and  convenience, 
there  would  be  st^ant  space  for  more  than  two  or  three  middle- 
sized  trees  to  grow,  there  will  yet  be  room  for  a  great  deal 
of  careful  study,  and,  with  careful  study,  of  success  in  pro- 
ducing effects  the  value  of  which  has  nothing  in  common  with 
either  of  the  objects  of  horticulture  thus  far  defined. 

As  an  example,  suppose  a  common  village  dooryard,  in 
which  are  found,  as  too  often  there  may  be,  a  dozen  trees 
of  different  sorts  planted  twenty  years  before,  and  that,  by 
good  chance,  among  them  there  is  one,  standing  a  little 
way  from  the  centre,  our  fair  Western  kinsmaid  of  the 
linden  (7*.  httcmphijlUt).  Trampled  under  by  ruder  and 
greedier  neighbors,  and  half  starved,  youth  and  a  good 
constitution  may  yet  have  left  it  in  such  condition  that,  all 
the  rest  being  rooted  out,  sunlight  given  it  on  all  sides, 
shortened  in,  balanced,  cleaned,  watered,  drained,  stimu- 
lated, fed,  guarded  from  insidious  enemies,  its  twigs  will 
grow  long,  delicate,  and  pliant;  its  branches  low  and  trail- 
ing, its  bark  become  like  a  soft,  finely-grained  leather,  its 
u]tper  leaf-surface  like  silk,  and  its  lower  leaf-surface  of 
such  texture  and  tint  that,  with  the  faintest  sunlight  and 
the  softest  summer  breeze,  a  constant  wavering  sheen,  as 
of  a  damask  hanging,  will  be  flowing  over  the  whole  body 
of  its  foliage.  While  it  regains  its  birthright  in  this  re- 
spect it  will  also  acquire,  with  fulness  of  form  and  moder- 
ate play  of  contour,  a  stateliness  of  carriage  unusual  in  a 
tree  of  its  age  and  stature.  If  landscape  gardening  is  for 
the  time  to  take  its  order  from  this  princess  of  the  fields, 
and  all  within  the  little  court  m.adc  becoming  with  her 
state,  the  original  level  surface  of  the  ground  need  be  but 
slightly  modified,  yet  it  may  perceptibly  fall  away  from 
near  her,  dipping  in  a  long  and  very  gentle  wave  to  rise 
again  with  a  varying  double  curve  on  all  sides.  There 
cannot,  then,  be  too  much  pains  taken  to  spread  over  it  a 
velvet  carpet  of  perfect  turf,  uniform  in  color  and  quality. 
Looking  upon  this  from  the  house,  it  should  seem  to  be 
margined  on  all  sides  by  a  rich,  thick  bank,  generally  low 
in  front  and  rising  as  it  recedes,  of  shrubs  and  flowering 
plants;  the  preparation  for  which  may  have  required  for 
years  a  clean-lined  border,  curve  playing  into  curve,  all  the 
way  round,  A  very  few  plants  of  delicate  and  refined  cha- 
racter may  stand  out  in  advance,  but  such  interruptions 
of  the  quiet  of  the  turf  must  be  made  very  cautiously.  Of 
furniture  or  artificial  ornaments  there  must  be  none,  or 
next  to  none,  for  even  bodily  comfort  may  willingly  defer 
a  little  to  the  dainty  genius  of  the  place.  They  may  well 
walk,  for  instance,  a  few  steps  farther  who  would  take  a 
lounging  seat,  put  up  their  feet,  and  knock  the  ashes  from 
their  pipes.  Vet  a  single  Chinese  garden-stool  of  a  softly 
mottled  turquoise-blue  will  have  a  good  effect  if  set  where 
a  flickering  light  will  fall  upon  it  on  the  shady  side  of  the 
tree.  The  rear  rank  of  shrubs  will  need  to  stand  so  far 
back  that  there  will  be  no  room  to  cultivate  a  suitable 
hedge  against  the  street.  The  fence  will  then  best  be  a 
wall  of  cut  stone,  with  decorated  gate-piers;  or  with  a  base 
of  stone  it  may  be  of  deftly-wrought  iron  touched  with 
gilt.  By  no  means  a  casting  with  clumsy  and  overdone 
effort  at  feeble  ornament — much  better  a  wooden  construc- 
tion of  less  cost,  in  which  there  is  a  reflection,  with  variety, 
of  the  stylo  of  the  house  if  that  is  of  wood  also,  c)r  if  it  is 
not,  then  something  like  a  banister-rail  of  turned  work, 
but  with  no  obviously  weak  parts.  The  gateway  being 
formed  in  a  symmetrical  recess  of  the  fence  nearly  opjiosite 
the  tree,  the  house-door  being  on  the  side,  the  approach  to 
it  will  bend,  with  a  moderate  double  curve,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  seem  to  give  place  to  the  tree,  and  at  the  same  time 
allow  the  greatest  expanse  of  unbroken  lawu-surface.  Near 
the  gateway,  and  again  near  the  corner  farthest  from  it, 
there  may  be  a  small  tree  or  a  cluster  of  small  trees  or  large 
shrubs,  forming  low.  broad  heads  (dogwood  grown  in  tree- 
form,  sassafras  kept  low,  or,  to  save  time,  the  neat  white 
mulberry),  the  tups  of  which,  playing  into  that  of  the 
loftier  linden  on  the  right,  will  in  tiiue  give  to  those  sitting 
at  the  bay-window  of  the  living-room  a  flowing  sky-line, 
depressed  and  apparently  receding  along  the  middle.  If 
there  is  a  tall  building  over  the  way  with  signs,  or  which 
otherwise  offends,  and  the  sidewalk  space  outside  admits, 
we  will  plant  upon  it  two  trees  only,  adjusting  them,  as  to 
both  kind  and  position,  so  that  they  will  almost  repeat  the 


I  depressed  line  of  the  nearer  foliage,  at  no  greater  distance 
I  than  is  necessary  to  obscure  the  building,  t^uite  hidden  it 
I  need  not  be,  lest,  also,  there  should  be  some  of  the  sky 
lost,  banishment  from  the  lower  fields  uf  the  sky  being  a 
punishment  that  we  should  strive  not  to  need.  But  let  us 
hope  that  at  the  worst  we  have  but  our  neighbor's  stable 
opposite,  and  that  the  tops  of  more  distant  trees  may  be 
seen  over  it;  we  shall  then  still  bo  glad  to  have  the  chance 
of  bringing  up  two  trees,  set  somewhat  farther  apart  than 
before,  on  the  roadside,  as  their  effect  will  be  to  make  an 
enlarged  consistency  of  character;  to  close  in  and  gather 
together  all  that  makes  up  the  home-scene,  and  to  aid  the 
turf  in  relieving  it  of  a  tendency  to  pettiness  and  excite- 
ment which  lies  in  and  under  the  shrubbery. 

Let  a  different  theme  be  sung  on  the  same  ground.  Sup- 
pose that  it  is  an  aged  beech  that  we  have  found,  badly 
used  in  its  middle  age  as  the  linden  in  its  youth — storm- 
bent,  lop-limbed,  and  one-sided,  its  veteran  trunk  furrowed, 
scarred,  patched,  scaly,  and  spreading  far  out  to  its  knotted 
roots,  that  heave  all  the  ground  about  like  taut-set  cables. 
If  we  had  wanted  a  fine  dressy  place,  this  interesting  ob- 
ject would  have  been  cut  away  though  it  were  the  last  tree 
within  a  mile.  Accepting  it,  nothing  would  be  more  com- 
mon, and  nothing  less  like  landscape  gardening,  than  to 
attempt  to  make  a  smooth  and  even  surface  under  it.  Let 
it  be  acknowledged  that  fitness  and  propriety  require  that 
there  should  be  some  jdace  before  the  htmse  of  repose  for 
the  eye,  and  that  nowhere  in  the  little  property,  to  all  parts 
of  which  wo  may  wish  at  times  to  lead  our  friends  in  fine 
attire,  can  we  risk  danger  of  a  dusty  or  a  muddy  surface. 
Starting  from  the  corner  nearest  the  tree,  and  running 
broader  and  deeper  after  it  has  passed  it  and  before  the 
house,  there  shall  be  a  swale  (a  gentle  water-way)  of  cleanly 
turf  (best  kept  so  by  the  crojiping  of  a  tethered  cosset  and 
a  little  play  now  and  tlien  of  a  grasshook,  but  if  this  is 
unhandy  we  will  admit  the  hand  lawn-mower).  Now,  to 
carry  this  fine  turf  right  up  over  the  exposed  roots  of  the 
beech  would  be  the  height  of  landscape  gardening  indeli- 
cacy ;  to  let  it  come  near,  but  cut  a  clean  circle  out  about 
the  tree,  would  be  a  landscape  gardening  barbarism.  What 
is  required  is  a  very  nice  management,  under  which  the 
turf  in  rising  from  the  lower  and  presumably  more  humid 
ground  shall  become  gradually  thinner  and  looser,  and  at 
length  darned  with  mo^s,  and  finally  patched  with  plants 
that  on  the  linden's  lawn  would  be  a  sin — tufts  of  clover 
and  locks  and  mats  of  loosestrife,  liverwort,  and  dogtooth- 
violets  ;  even  plantain  and  sorrel  may  timidly  appear. 
The  surface  of  the  ground  will  continue  rising,  but  with  a 
broken  swell  towards  the  tree,  and,  in  deference  to  its  bent 
form,  hold  rising  for  a  space  on  the  other  side;  hut  no- 
where will  its  superior  roots  be  fully  covered. 

Suppose  that  we  are  to  come  to  this  house,  as  it  is  likely 
we  may,  three  times  out  of  four  from  the  side  opposite  to 
where  the  beech  stands  ;  our  path  then  shall  strike  in  well 
over  on  that  ()])p<jsite  side  and  diagonally  to  the  line  of 
the  road:  there  will  be  a  little  branch  froni  it  leading  to- 
wards and  lost  near  the  tree  (the  children's  path),  while 
the  main  stem  bends  short  away  toward  a  broad  bowery 
porch  facing  the  road  at  the  corner  nearest  the  gate.  The 
path  must  needs  be  smooth  for  ease  of  foot  and  weleome- 
ness,  but  if  its  edges  chance  to  be  trodden  out  a  little,  wc 
will  not  be  in  haste  to  fully  repair  them.  Slanting  and 
sagging  off  from  a  ringbolt  in  the  porch  there  is  to  be  a 
hammock  slung,  its  farther  lanyard  caught  with  two  half- 
hitches  on  an  old  stub  well  up  on  the  trunk  of  the  beech. 
\  strong,  brown,  seafaring  hummo<rk.  There  shall  be  a 
scat,  too,  under  the  tree  of  stout  stuff,  deeji,  high-backed, 
armed,  and,  whether  of  rustic-work  or  plank,  fitted  by 
jointing  (not  held  together  by  nails,  bolts,  or  screws).  It 
may  even  be  rough-hewn,  anil  the  more  checked,  weather- 
worn, and  gray  it  becomes,  without  dilapidation  or  dis- 
comfort to  the  sitter,  the  better:  here  you  may  draw  your 
matches  and  clean  out  your  pipe,  and  welc<>me.  Wc  will  have 
nothing  in  front  to  prevent  a  hedge,  but  must  that  mean  a 
poor  }tretenee  of  a  wall  in  leafage  ?  rerhajts  it  must  have 
that  character  for  a  few  years  till  it  has  become  thick  and 
strong  enough  at  bottom,  and  always  it  may  be  a  moderately 
trim  affair  on  the  roadside,  otherwise  we  should  be  tres- 
passers on  our  neighbors'  rights.  But  its  bushes  shall  not 
be  all  of  one  sort,  and  in  good  time  they  shall  be  bushes  in 
earnest,  leaping  up  with  loose  and  feathery  tops,  six,  eight, 
and  sometimes  ten  feet  high.  And  they  shall  leap  out  also 
towards  us.  Yet  from  the  house  half  their  lieight  shall  bo 
lost  behind  an  under  and  out-growth  of  brake  and  bind- 
wecil,  dog-rose  and  golden -rod,  asters,  gentians,  Inilter- 
cups,  poppies,  and  irises.  Here  and  there  a  spray  of  low 
brambles  shall  bo  thrown  out  beforo  all.  and  the  dead  gray 
canes  of  last  year  shall  not  be  every  one  removed.  There 
will  be  coves  and  capes  and  islands  of  ehickweed,  catnip, 
cinquefoil,  wild  strawberry,  hcpatica,  forget-mo-not,  and 
lilics-of-the-valiey,  and,  still  farther  out,  shoals  under  the 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


1629 


turf,  where  crocuses  and  daffodils  are  waiting  to  gladden 
the  children  and  welcome  the  bluebird  in  the  spring.  But 
near  the  gate  the  hedge  shall  be  a  little  overrun  and  the 
gateposts  overhung  ao.l  lost  in  sweet  clematis  :  nay,  as  the 
gate  must  be  set-in  a  little,  because  the  path  enters  side- 
wise,  there  shall  bo  a  strong  bit  of  lattice  over  it,  and  from 
the  other  side  a  honeysuckle  shall  reinforce  the  clematis  ; 
and  if  it  whirls  off  also  into  the  thorn  tree  that  is  to  grow 
beyond,  the  thorn  tree  will  bo  none  the  worse  to  be  held  to 
a  lowly  attitude,  bowing  stiffly  towards  the  beech.  Inside 
the  gate,  bv  the  pathside,  and  again  down  by  the  porch, 
there  may  be  cockscombs,  marygolds,  pinks,  and  pansies. 
But  nothing  of  plants  tied  to  the  stake,  or  of  plants  the 
names  of  which,  before  they  can  command  due  interest, 
must  be  set  before  us  on  enamelled  cards,  as  properly  in  a 
botanic  garden  or  museum.  -Vbovo  all.  no  priggish  little 
spruces  and  arborvit;cs,  whether  native  or  from  Satsuma  ; 
if  the  neighbors  harbor  Ihem.  any  common  wooJside  or 
fence- row  bushes  of  the  vicinity  may  bo  set  near  the  edge 
of  the  property  to  put  them  out  of  sight :  nannyberry, 
hazel,  shadbush,  dogwood,  even  elder,  or  if  an  evergreen 
(conifer)  will  befit  the  place,  a  stout,  short,  shock-headed 
mountain-pine,  with  two  or  three  low  savins  and  a  pros- 
trate juniper  at  their  feet.  Finally,  let  the  roadside  be 
managed  as  before.  Then,  if  the  gate  bo  left  open  nut 
much  will  1)0  lost  by  it ;  not  all  the  world  will  so  much  as 
look  in,  and  some  who  do  will  afterwards  choose  to  keep 
the  other  side  of  the  way.  as  it  is  better  they  should.     Yet 

",  ur  the  old  seat  under 


As  with  reference  to  Landscape  effect,  it  is  not  to  be 
overlooked  that  nature  acts  both  happily  and  unhappily. 
A  man  may  take  measures  to  secure  the  happy  action  and  to 
guard  against  the  unhappy  action  in  this  respect  with  no 
more  effrontery  than  with  respect  to  the  production  of  food 
or  protection  from  lightning,  storm,  frost,  or  malaria.  Ho 
need  not  wait  for  the  slow  and  uncertain  process  by  which 
in  nature  a  certain  position  would  be  adapted  for  a  certain 
tree.  He  may  make  the  soil  fertile  at  once.  He  need  not 
take  the  chance  that  a  certain  thick  growth  of  saplings  will 
be  so  thinned  by  the  operation  of  what  are  called  natural 
causes  that  a  few  of  them  may  yet  have  a  chance  to  become 
yigorous,  long-lived,  umbrageous  trees.  Knowing  how 
much  more  valuable  a  very  few  of  these  will  be  in  the 
situation,  with  the  adjoining  turf  holding  green  under 
their  canopy,  than  the  thousands  that  for  long  years  may 
otherwise  occupy  it,  struggling  with  one  another  and  bar- 
ring out  the  light  which  is  the  life  of  all  beneath  them 
ho  may  make  sure  of  what  is  best  with  oxe  and  bill- 
hook. The  ultimate  result  is  not  less  natural  or  beautiful 
when  ho  has  done  so  than  it  wnuld  have  been  if  at  the 
same  time  the  same  trees  had  been  eaten  out  by  worms 
or  taken  away,  as  trees  sometimes  are,  by  an  epidemic 
disease. 

On  the  other  band,  there  are  several  considerations,  ne- 
glect of  which  is  apt  to  cause  too  much  to  be  asked  of 
landscape  gardening,  and  sometimes  perhaps  too  much  to 
be  professed  and  attemjitcd.  The  common  comparison  of 
the  work  of  a  landscape  gardener  with  that  of  a  landscape 


l^n'r'r^f  wm  i:yn!;hi:::\;nd;rvle;-;i;;t^u;;w-or  [  painter,  ..r  e.atnp.e,- easily  — -  "^J^^, -If-^^X 
"  ■  •■■   ■      a  scene  !  The  artist  in  landscape  gardening  can  nevei  have,  Ike  I  he 


ruile  or  vulgar:  on  the  contrary,  there  will  be 
of  much  relinement  as  well  as  of  much  beauty,  and  those 
who  live  in  the  house,  especially  if  they  have  a  way  of 
getting  their  work  or  their  books  out  under  the  beech,  will 
find,  al  the  sun  goes  round  ami  the  clouds  drift  over,  that 
taking  it  altogether  there  is  a  quality  more  lovable  in  it 
than  Ts  to  be  found  in  all  the  glasshouses,  all  the  ribbon 
borders,  all  the  crown  jewels  of  the  world. 

The  same  will  be  enually  true  of  the  result  of  the  very 
different  kind  of  gardening   design   first  supposed.       We 
come  thus  to  the  iiueslion.  What  is  the  distinctive  quality 
of  this  beauty?     In  each  case  there  has  been  an  ideal  in 
view,  and  in  each  clement  introduced  a  consistent  pursuit 
of  that  ideal,  but  it  is  not  in  this  fact  of  consistency  that 
we  find  the  beauty.    Wo  term  it  landscape  beauty,  although 
there  is  none  of  the  cxjianse  which  is  the  first  distinguish- 
ing quality  of  a  landscape.     This  brings  us  to  the  consid- 
eration that  from  the  point  of  view  of  art  or  of  the  science 
of  the  imagination  we  may  ask  for  something  more  in  a 
landsca)ie  than   breadth,  ilepth,  composition,  and    consist- 
ency.      A   traveller,  su.bbnly   turning   his   eyes    upon   a 
landscape  that  is  new  to  him.  and  which  cannot  be  directly 
associated  with  any  former  experience,  may  find  himself 
touchcrl  as  if  by  a  cicep  sympathy,  so  that  in  an  instant  his 
eyes  moisten.     After  long  and  intimate  acquaintance  with 
such  a  landscape  it  will  often  be  found  to  have  a  persistent 
inftuence  which  may  be  called  its  charm— a  charm  possibly 
of  such  power  as  to  appreciably  affect  the  development  of 
the  character  and  shape  the  course  of  life.     Landscajics  of 
parlioular  type  associate  naturally  an.l  agreeably  with  cer- 
tain events.'    Their  fitness  in  this  respect  is  due  to  the  fact 
that,  through  some  subtle  action  cm  the  imagination,  they 
affect  the  same  or  kimlred  sensibilities.     If  in  these  door- 
yards  there  is  something  to  which  every  element  contrib- 
utes, comparable  in  this  respect  to  a  poetic  or  a  musical 
theme,  as  well,  in  the  one  case,  of  elegance  and  neatness, 
carried  perhaps  to  the  jioint  of  quaint  primness,  as  in  the 
other  of  homely  cninfort  and  goo.l-nature,  carried  close  to 
the  point  of  careless  habits,  then  the  design  aiol  process  by 
which  it  has  been  attained  may  lay  some  slight  claim  to  be 
considered  as  a  work  of  art,  and  the  highest  art-significaiicc 
of  the  term  landscape  may  properly  bo  used  to  distinguish 
its  character  in  this  respect. 

In  the  p.issibilitv,  not  of  making  a  perfect  copy  of  any 
charming  natural  iandscaiie.  or  of  any  parts  or  elements  of 
it.  but  of  leading  to  the  production,  where  it  does  not  exist, 
under  required  conditions  and  restrictions,  of  some  degree 
of  the  poetic  beauty  of  all  natural  landscapes,  wo  shall  thus 
find  not  only  the  special  function  and  the  justification  of 
the  term  landsca]ie  gardening,  but  also  the  first  object  of 
study  for  the  lamlscape  gardener,  anil  the  standard  by 
which  alone  his  work  is  to  be  fairly  judged. 

There  are  those  who  will  oHcstion  the  propriety  of  re- 
garding the  production  of  tlie  poetic  beauty  of  natural 
landscape  as  the  enil  of  landscape  gardening,  on  the  ground 
that  the  very  term  "  natural  beauty"  means  beauty  not  of 
man's  design,  and  thai  the  l.isl  result  of  all  man's  labor 
will  be  but  a  poor  counterfeit,  in  which  it  is  vain  to  look 
for  the  poetry  of  nature.  .Much  has  been  written  to  this 
effect ;  with  what  truth  to  the  nature  of  man  it  will  bo  well 
eiiutiously  to  consider. 


landscape  painter,  a  clean  canvas  to  work  ujion.     Always 
there  will  be  conditions  of  local  topography,  soil,  and  cli- 
mate by  which  his  opcriitions  must  he  limited.     He  cannot 
whenever  it  suits  him  introduce  the   ocean    or    a  snow- 
capped mountain  into  his  background.     He  cannot  illu- 
minate his  picture  with  constant  sunshine  nor  soften  it  by 
a  perpetual   Indian   summer.     Commonly,  he  is    allowed 
only  to  modify  the  element?  of  scenery,  or  perhaps  to  bring 
abo'ut  unity  a"nd  distinctness  of  expression  and  suggestion 
in  a  locality  where  elements  of  beautiful  landscape  already 
abound,  but  arc  partly  obscured  or  seen  in  awkward,  con- 
fusing, and  contradiet"ing  associations.     This  is  especially 
likely  to  be  the  case  in  undulating  and  partially  wooded 
localities,  such  as  in  America  are  oftenest  chosen  for  rural 
homes.     Again,  the  artist  in  landscape  gardening  cannot 
determine  precisely  the  form  and  color  of  the  details  of  his 
work,  because  each  species  of   plant   will   grow  up  with 
features  which  cannot  be  exactly  foreknown  in  its  seed  or 
sapling  condition.     Thus,  he  can  see  his  designed  and  im- 
aginary landscape  only  as  one  may  see  an  existing  and 
tann-ible  landscape  with  half-closed  eyes,  its  finer  details 
not'being    wholly  lost,  yet    nowhere   perfectly   definable. 
Still,  again,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  works  in  landscape 
gardening  have,  as  a  general  rule,  to  be  seen  from  many 
points  of  view.     The  trees  which  form    the  background, 
still  oftener  those  which  form  the  middle  distance,  of  one 
view  must  be  in   the  foreground  of   another.     Thus,  the 
working  out  of  one  motive  must  be  limited  by  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  working  out  of  others  on  the  same  ground,  and 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  the  same  materials.     I'lnally, 
the  conditions  of   health  and  convenience  in  ei.nnection 
with  a  dwelling  are  incompatible  with   various  lonns  of 
captivating  landscape  beauty.     A  house  may  be  placed  in 
a  lovely  situation.  Iherelore.  and  the  end  of  long  and  costly 
labors  of  improvement  abmit  it  prove  comparatively  dull, 
formal,  ami  uninteresting.     What  is  lost  is  a  part  of  the 
price  of  health  and  convenience  of  dwelling.      The  Iand- 
scaiie gardener  may  have  made  the  best  of  the  case  under 
the  conditions  prescribed  to  him. 

It  has  been  sabl  thai  landscapes  of  ft  particular  type  as- 
sociate naturally  and  ngr.eably  with  certain  events.  It  is 
to  be  added  that  the  merit  of  landscape  gardening  consisis 
largely  in  the  degree  in  which  their  designer  has  been  in- 
spired by  a  spirit  congenial  te  elcmenis  of  locality  and  oc- 
casion which  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  gardening  elements. 
The  grounds  for  an  ordinary  modest  home,  for  instance, 
may  ilesirablv  be  designed  to  give  the  house,  gardens,  and 
offices  an  aspect  of  retirement  and  seclusion,  as  if  these  had 
nestled  coiilv  down  logelher  among  the  trees  in  escape  from 
the  outside  'world.  The  gnoinds  of  a  great  public  loiibl- 
a  monument  of  architecture— will,  on  the  other  hand. 


'cale,  nf  open,  simple,  and  broad 
es  of  foliage,  as  convenience  of 
very  Irce  arranged  in   subordi- 


ing- 

be  desirably  as  large  in 

in  spaces  of  turf  and  mai 

aiiproueh  will   allow,  and  . 

nation  to,  and  support  of,  the  buiMing.     The  grounds  of  a 

church  an.l  of  an  inn.  of  a  cottage  and  of  an  arsenal,  of  a 

burvingplaco  and  of  a  place  of  amusement,  will  thus  dif- 

fer,'in  each  case  correspondingly  to  their  primary  purpose. 

Uealiling  this,  it  will  be  leeognized  that  the  choue  ol   tho 

site,  of  the  elevation,  aspect,  entrances,  and  outlooks  of  a 


1630 


LANDSEER— LANE. 


building  for  no  purpose  oan  be  judiciously  determined  ex- 
cept in  connection  with  a  study  of  the  leading  features  of 
a  plan,  of  its  approaches,  and  grounds.  Also,  that  in  the 
desi»n  of  roads,  walks,  lakes,  and  bridges,  of  the  method 
of  dealing  with  various  natural  circumstances,  as  standing 
wood,  rocks,  and  water;  in  a  determination  of  what  is  pos- 
sible and  desirable  in  respect  to  drainage,  water-supply, 
distant  ]>rospects  to  be  opened  or  shut  out,  the  avoidance 
of  malaria  and  other 'evils, — all  these  and  many  other  du- 
ties are  necessarily  intimately  associated  with  those  of  gar- 
dening (or  the  cultivation  of  plants)  with  a  view  to  land- 
scape effects.  Frederick  Law  Olmsted. 

Land'seer  (Charles),  son  of  John  and  brother  of 
Edwin,  b.  in  1799;  received  instruction  from  his  father; 
studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  exhiljited 
in  1S2S;  was  chosen  an  associate  in  1S;J7,  a  member  in 
iS45,  and  keeper  in  1S51.  He  was  a  painter  of  historical 
pieces.  His  I'liimlering  of  Bmiiuj  Hvtite.  an  incident  of 
the  civil  war  in  England,  is  well  known.  Other  pictures  are 
—Cbti-i'S't  Harl:,<rc  in  Prhmi,  The  De/mrluru  of  Chnrle^  II. 
in  l)i>.,„he,  The  .Voi.i-«  „r  Melrose,  The  Iletitn,  of  the  Dove 
to  the 'Ark.     D.July  22,1879.  0.  B.  FnoTHiNGnAM. 

LanUseer  (Sir  Euwis),  younger  brother  of  Charles,  b. 
in  Loudon  in  1S02;  excelled  while  a  boy  in  the  painting 
of  animals;  became  a  student  of  the  Academy  in  1816; 
began  to  exhibit  when  only  fourteen  years  old.  Sketches 
made  when  he  was  but  live  years  old  are  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum.  In  1S20,  at  the  suggestion  of  Uaydon, 
he  look  advantage  of  the  death  of  a  lion  at  E.\cter  Ex- 
change to  study  the  anatomy  of  the  animal,  and  subse- 
quently he  painted  several  pictures  introducing  the  lion — 
The  Liuii  Ileposiioj,  The  Lion  Dislnrhcil,  Van  Ambuigh  and 
the  {.ions.  The  four  bronze  lions  at  the  base  of  the  Nelson 
Monument  in  Trafalgar  Square  were  his  work  ;  they  were 
done  by  order  of  the  government  (1SJ9),  and  uncovered 
Jan.  .'il,  1S67.  Landseer  is  beyond  question  the  greatest 
animal  painter  of  his  time  as  respects  anatomical  truth, 
vigor  of  treatment,  and  power  of  characterization ;  he 
treats  his  subjects  suggestively,  often  with  humor,  and  ex- 
cels equally  in  producing  comic  and  tragic  effects.  Uis 
pictures,  which  are  very  numerous  and  of  great  variety,  are 
too  well  known  through  engravings  to  need  mention.  Some 
of  his  best  originals  may  be  seen  in  the  Vernon  Collection 
(National  Gallery)  and  the  Sheepshanks  Collection  at  South 
Keusinglon.  His  subjects  were  taken  from  animal  life  in 
all  regiljus — deer  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  polar  bears 
from  the  Arctics,  and  dogs  of  every  breed.  Edwin  Land- 
seer was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1S26, 
and  a  member  in  ISSl.  In  ISaO  he  received  knighthood 
from  the  queen.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Charles  Eastlake  in 
ISfiO,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  but 
declined  the  honor.  0.  B.  Frothi.ngbam. 

Landseer  (John),  b.  in  1761  ;  d.  Feb.  29,  1852 ;  was 
the  son  of  a  jeweller:  received  his  earliest  instruction  from 
\Vm.  UyTne.  His  first  jiroductions  were  vignettes  for  Mac- 
lin's  Bible  and  liowyer's  Hisiori/  of  Knijland  (179:!);  in 
1799  was  engaged  on  a  series  of  views  in  the  Isle  of  Wight 
for  J.  M.  W.  Turner  and  J.  C.  Ibbetson  ;  afterwards  pub- 
lished engravings  of  animals,  after  Kubens,  Snyders, 
Rembrandt,  and  others;  in  1806  gave  lectures  on  engrav- 
ing at  the  Royal  Institute,  which  were  puldishcd  ;  in  1807 
was  chosen  associate  engraver  by  the  Academy  ;  in  181i 
began  a  series  of  line  engravings  illustrating  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Dacca  (British  India),  20  plates:  in  1817  read  a 
paper  to  the  Society  of  .-Vntiquaries  on  Enijnired  O'emi  Jrom 
Jiaii/lon,  and  later  gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  Emjiaved 

Hieioylyphies ;   in    1821!    published    Sahiran     Keseaiehea,   a 

volume,  and  in  18.14  a  catalogue,  descriptive,  explanatory, 
and  critical, of  the  earliest  pictures  iu  the  National  Gallery. 
As  late  as  ISil  exhibited  at  the  Royal  .\cademy  views  of 
Druidical  temples  in  the  islands  of  Guernsey  and  Jersey. 
One  of  his  early  pictures,  J)or/s  of  .Ml.  St.  Jlnnard,  was 
finely  engraved  by  his  father.  0.  B.  Frothlngiiam. 

Landseer  (Thomas),  A.  R.  A.,  elder  brother  of  Edwin 
and  Charles,  an  engraver  of  ability  and  repute.  His  best 
work  is  the  reproduction  of  his  brother's  pictures,  which 
he  executed  with  spirit  and  delicacy.  The  pinte  of  Rosa 
Bonheur's  llorie  fair,  published  in  1861.  gave  him  celeb- 
rity. He  wrote  the  /.i/e  of  William  llexriek  (artist)  in  2 
vols.  (1871).     D.  Jan.,'l88i).  0.  B.  FROTHi.vGnAM. 

Land's  End.     See  Cornwall. 

Laud^iTord,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Chester  co.,  S.  C.  Pop. 
2100. 

Lands'hnt,  a  quaint  old  town  of  Bavaria,  capital  of 
the  district  of  Lower  Bavaria,  on  the  Isar.  It  has  large 
breweries  and  manufactures  of  tobacco,  and  many  inter- 
esting buildings,  among  which  are  St.  Martin's  church, 
built  in  14.i0,  with  a  tower  454  feet  high  ;  the  old  castle, 
built  in  1232 ;  a  royal  palace,  with  beautiful  frescoes.    From 


1800  to  1826  it  was  the  seat  of  a  university,  previously  lo- 
cated at  Ingolstadt,  and  subsequently  removed  to  Munich. 
In  the  tifteeuth  century  it  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Bavaria-Landshut.     I'op.  14,141. 

Land!ihut,town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Zieder  and  the  Bober,  has  some 
linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  is  noted  for  the  vic- 
torv  which  the  Austrians  gained  here  over  the  Prussians, 
June  23,  1760.     Po)).  6673. 

Lands'krona,  town  of  Sweden,  in  the  province  of 
Malmi),  on  the  Sound,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  some  manu- 
factures of  leather  and  tobacco.  On  the  island  of  liven, 
a  mile  distant,  was  the  residence  and  observatory  of  Tycho 
Brahe.  the  celebrated  astronomer,  of  which  nothing  now 
remains.     Pop.  7323. 

Land'slipt  a  sort  of  avalanche  of  earth  and  rocks  from 
the  sides  of  mountains  or  hills.  Earthquakes,  frost,  and 
especially  the  action  of  water,  are  frequent  canses.  Soils 
resting  on  inclined  planes  of  smooth  rock  or  upon  beds  of 
loose  gravel  are  liable  to  slide  en  innxse  during  long-con- 
tinued rains.  Elevated  peat-swamps  have  been  known  to 
absorb  so  much  water  as  to  burst  and  deluge  lower  regions 
with  torrents  of  muil.  Underlying  strata  of  clay  may  be- 
come liquefied  and  gush  out,  leaving  the  surface  to  topple 
in.  A  remarkable  land-slide  occurred  near  Nice,  France, 
when  the  castle  and  village  of  Roecabruna,  surrounded  by 
oran<'e  and  lemon  groves,  moved  for  some  distance  down 
the  mountain  without  disturbing  the  houses.  One  of  tlie 
most  famous  land-slides  was  that  in  which  Goldau  in 
Switzerland  was  destroyed.  In  1826  there  was  an  extensive 
land-slide  2  miles  from  the  Notch  in  the  White  Mountains 
of  New  Hampshire,  which  destroyed  the  Willey  family, 
choked  up  the  Saco  River,  and  flooded  the  surrounding 
country. 
Landstnrm.  See  German  Empire — Armij  and  Xnry. 
Land  Tax,  a  revenue  derived  by  a  government  from 
an  assessment  on  land.  (See  Taxation,  by  Rev.  A.  L. 
Chapix.  S.  T.  D.J 
Landwchr.  Sec  German  Empire— -limj  and  Nary. 
Lane,  county  of  W.  Kansas.  Area,  720  square  miles. 
It  is  a  prairie  region,  watered  by  tributaries  of  Walnut 
Creek. 

Lane,  county  of  Oregon,  extending  from  the  Cascade 
Range  W.  to  the   Pacilic.     Area,  l.inil   square  miles.     Its 
E.  part  is  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  and  is  highly  fertile. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  leading  products.     The  county 
is  traversed  by  the  Oregon    and    California  R.  R.     Cap. 
Eugene  City.     Pop.  6426. 
Lane,  tp.  of  Warrick  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  870. 
Lane,  tp.  of  Greenwood  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  320. 
Lane  (Ebenezeri,  LL.I)..  b.  at  Northampton.  Mass., 
Sept.  17, 1793;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1811;  studied  law 
with   Matthew   (Jriswold,  bis  uncle:    removed   in    1.'*I7  to 
Ohio,  and  in  1822  became  a  resident  of  Sandusky.    He  was 
1824-30  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas;  of  the  State  supreme 
I  court   1S30-37:    chief-justice  1837-45,    and    aftcrivards   a 
railroad  manager.     1).  at  Sandusky,  0.,  June  12.  1866. 

Lane  (Edward  William),  Ph.  D.,  b.at  Hereford,  Eng- 
land, in  1801  ;  was  educated  for  the  Church,  but  never  took 
;  orders;  went  to  Egypt  in  1825,  and  resided  there  three 
!  years,  studying  the  -Arabic  language  and  literature,  and 
making  two  voyages  up  the  Nile;  again  spent  two  years 
there  (1833-35),  preparing,  at  the  request  of  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  I'seful  Knowledge,  bis  popular  and 
entertaining  work  on  the  Manners  and  Cnstoms  of  the  Mod- 
ern Ei/i/ijllans,  which  was  published  in  1830  :  made  a  trans- 
lation 'of  the  ,l;<r(,/.iii  Xiijhts,  with  notes  (1841);  went  to 
Egypt  for  the  third  time  in  1842,  and  afterward  resided  in 
Cairo,  principally  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  an  .\rabio 
lexicon,  under  tlie  patronage  of  the  iluke  <if  Northumber- 
land, and  after  the  death  of  that  nobleman  with  the  sujiport 
of  the  British  government.  The  first  part  appeared  in 
IS63,  the  second  in  1865,  and  others  more  recently,  but  was 
left  unfinished.  Mr.  Lane  also  published  .Silceliont/rom  the 
ICnr-an  (1843)  and  Arabian  Tales  and  Anerdotet  (1845); 
was  in  1864  made  correspi>nding  member  of  the  Institute 
of  France,  and  in  Feb.,  1875,  received  the  degrees  of  mas- 
ter of  philosophy  ami  doctor  of  literature  from  the  I'ni- 
versity  of  Leyden.     D.  Aug.  10,  1876. 

Lane  (Rev.  Geouge  W.),  b.  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  Jan. 
15,  1815,  a  son  of  the  Rev  George  Lane:  was  licen.sed  to 
preach  in  Georgia  in  Mar.,  1834:  was  classical  teacher  in  the 
manual-labor  school  near  Coviugton,  Ga.,  and  then,  for  ten 
years,  professor  of  languages  in  Emory  College.  He  was  a 
man  of  large  attainments  and  indomitable  energy.  lealous 
and  successful  as  a  minister,  and  belonged  to  the  Georgia 
M.  E.  conference.    D.  Sept.  21,  1848.        T.  0.  Summers. 


LANE— LAXGDON. 


1631 


Lane  (ilKNRy  S.l,  b.  in  Montgomery  co..  Ky.,  Feb.  24, 
lull  :  wiis  early  in  life  admitCcti  lo  the  Indiauii  bar;  was 
ID  Congress  ISIl—t.'t;  lieutenant-coloDcl  of  volunteers  in 
the  Mexican  war;  choeen  U.  S.  Senator  in  1S50,  but  un- 
sealed; elected  go^'ernor  of  Indiana  18G1 ;  V.  &.  Senator 
from  Indiana  18t>l-C7. 

Lane  i.Tamks  Hevrv),  b.  at  Lawrcnceburg,  Ind.,  .Tune 
22.  \^\i.  was  a  son  uf  llou.  Amos  Lane,  an  able  lawyer 
and  politiiMsin.  J.  H.  Lane  was  iidmitteil  to  the  bar  in  Is40  ; 
enlisted  in  the  3d  Indiana  Vols,  in  1810  as  a  jirivate.  but 
became  a  colonel,  and  at  Buena  Vislu  eomiuandcd  a  bri- 
gade with  great  credit  ;  was  IS47-4S  colonel  of  the  ^th  In- 
diana. In  184S  he  was  chosen  lieutenant-governor;  was 
in  Congress  1853-55,  and  voted  for  the  Ncbrai^ka  bill;  re- 
moved in  1855  to  Kansas:  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
first  Free  State  government;  was  president  of  both  the  To- 
peka  and  the  Leavenworth  ( 1S57)  constitutional  convcn- 
tioii-j.  and  major-generni  of  the  Free  State  forces.  In  185G 
he  was  chosen  by  the  Free  State  legislature  as  U.  S.  Sen- 
ator, but  was  not  allowed  a  scat,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
indicted  for  high  treason  by  the  enemies  of  the  Topeka  c<m- 
stitution.  and  compelled  to  flee.  In  IS.">S  he  was  indicted 
and  tried  for  the  murder  of  a  neighbor  whom  ho  had  killed 
in  a  fjuarrel.  l>ut  was  accjuitted.  In  I  SOI.  and  again  in  I8f)5, 
he  was  sent  from  Kansas  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  lie  served 
efliciently  for  some  time  during  the  civil  war  as  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  In  ISfiCi  ho  received  a  ])aralytic 
stroke,  and  on  July  11,  1866,  took  his  own  life,  at  Leaven- 
worth, Kan. 

Lane  (Rev.  Jons),  b.  in  Virginia  Apr.  8,  1789:  entered 
the  ministry  in  the  South  Carolina  M.  K.  conference  in  181-t, 
and  in  ISIG  became  a  pioneer  of  i^fethodism  in  Mississippi. 
He  was  present  at  the  first  session  of  the  Mississippi  con- 
ference, in  which  for  many  years  ho  was  a  standard-bearer. 
He  ivaa  also  a  probate  judge  in  AVurrcn  co.,  where  ho  exer- 
cised a  wide  innuence.  haviug  married  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
Vick,  after  whom  Vicksburg  was  named.  D.  at  Vickaburg, 
Miss.,  Oct.  10,  1855.  T.  0.  Simmeks. 

Lane  (.rosi:iMi).b.  in  Buncombe  co.,  X.  C,  Dec.  14,  IROl; 
removed  in  youtli  to  Indiana,  where  he  engaged  in  mercan- 
tile pursuits  and  in  ]M)Iities  :  served  iis  colonel  of  tlio  2d  In- 
diana Vols,  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  made  a  brigadier 
and  brevet  major-general  for  gallantry  at  Bucua  Vista  and 
in  many  minor  actions;  became  in  ISIS,  an<l  again  in  1S53, 
governor  of  Oregon  Territory;  was  a  delegate  in  1851-5Uj 
U.  S.  Senator  lS5'.t-fiI  ;  ami  iu  iSf'.O  was  nominated  for 
Vice-President  on  the  Breckenridgo  ticket. 

Lane  fSir  Rammii,  b.  in  Xorthamjitonshire,  England, 
about  15:»0;  entered  the  service  of  (Juoen  Klizabelh  in  150.'i 
as  equerry;  served  with  credit  in  the  rebellion  of  15(19,  and 
in  Ireland  in  15S3-84,  and  was  appointed  by  Sir  Walter 
Huleigh  in  Feb.,  15S5,  governor  of  Virginia.  Ho  aban- 
diined  the  province  in  the  following  year,  returning  to  Eng- 
land with  Sir  Francis  Drake;  was  colonel  in  Drake's  exjic- 
dition  against  Portugal  in  15^1);  wounded  in  an  Irish  cam- 
paii^n  in  1591,  knighted  in  1593,  antl  d.  iu  Ireland  iu  1604. 

I^nne  Prai'rie,  tp.  of  Otter  Tail  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  SO. 

LiliK'N,  tp.  of  Morgan  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  722. 

LuiurN'boro'y  poat-v.  and  tp.  of  Anson  co.,  N.  C,  on 
the  Carolina  Central  U.  R,     Pop.  129:!. 

Lanen'borough,  a  pleasant  post-tp.  of  Berkshire  co., 
Ma^s.,  on  the  i'ittsfield  and  North  Adams  R.  R.,  5  miles 
N.  of  Pittsficld.  It  has  quarries  of  niarlile  and  limestone, 
and  mines  of  iron  and  glass-sand,  a  literary  as.^ociutioD,  4 
churches,  a  public  library,  and  nninufacturcs  of  iron,  glass, 
lime,  etc.  It  is  widely  known  for  its  scenery,  at  some  points 
wild  and  grauil,  at  others  remarkably  beautiful.    Pop.  13y.'{. 

Lnncsboroii;;!!,  posl-v.  of  Carrollton  tp..  Fillmore  co., 
Minn.,  on  tho  Southern  Minnesota  K.  U.,  50  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  has  1  weekly  newspaper.      Pop.  C55. 

LaneHborou^hf  post-v.  of  Harmony  tp.,  Suscjuehanna 
CO..  Pa.,  on  the  Krie  U.  R.,  1  mile  N.  K.  of  Susquehanna 
Dt'pftf,  and  on  the  Susf|uehanna  River. 

LnncN'burg,  tp.  of  Lc  Sueur  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  1123. 

lianeN  treek,  post-tp.of  Union  co.,N.  C.    Pop.  1575. 

Lanes'ville,  a  thriving  post-v.  in  the  X.  K.  part  of 
Gloucester  tn.,  Essex  eo.,  Mas;*..  5  miles  from  Glouoeater 
Village,  on  the  N.  shore  of  Capo  Ann. 

Lnnc'villc,  tp.  of  Halo  oo..  Ala.     Pop.  25fln. 

LnnYrnnc,  b.  at  Pavia,  Italy,  about  10(15;  studied  at 
Bologna,  and  taught  juricpru'lence  and  dialectic  at  Pavia 
with  applause:  removed  to  Frnnee.  and.  probably  in  1039, 
settled  at  Avranches;  entered  the  Rpne<lietine  abbey  of  Bee 
1042,  which  soon  became  a  renowned   school  of  theology, 

?atristics,  and  dialectic;  was  maile  prior  in  IflCc  took  part 
050-09  in  tl»e  controversy  with  Berengarius:  lieranif  ab- 
bot of  Caen  lor.f.,  and  was  appointed  arclibi-bop  of  Canter- 


bury by  William  the  Conqueror  1070 — a  position  which  was 
rendered  a  trying  one  by  the  solf-will  of  the  Conqueror  and 
his  successor,  the  refractory  conduct  of  some  of  the  clergy, 
and  the  unsettled  relations  of  the  po])e  to  the  king  in  re- 
gard to  church  preferments.  Lanfrane  was  one  of  the  foun*!- 
crs  of  scholasticism.  His  most  important  existing  works 
arc  De  c<»rpmr  it  «amjuhir  Domini  and  commentaries  on 
the  Pauline  Epistles.     D.  at  Canterbury  May  24,  I0S9. 

Lanfrey'  (PiEnitK),  b.  in  1828  at  Chambi'Ty,  Savoy,  then 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  His  father  was  a 
Frenchman  who  had  been  a  military  oflieer  under  the  em- 
pire. Pierre  entered  the  Jesuit  college  at  Chambf^ry.  I>ut 
left  on  account  of  having  written  a  pamphlet  against  his 
reverend  instructors,  and  compleled  his  studies  at  the  Col- 
lege Bourbon  in  Paris,  where  iie  qualified  for  the  bar.  but 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  pliilosophical  and  his- 
torical studies.  His  first  work.  T/ir  Chnrrh  and  the  Phi- 
hsophrm  of  the  Eiffhtertith  Vruturif  (  1S57),  made  a  consid- 
erable sensation,  which  was  deepened  by  An  Efm'tt/  on  the 
French  /icrohition  ( 1  S5S).  Tftr  Politicnl  Histori/  of  the  Poprg 
(I860).  Political  Stndirs  and  Portraits  (18G3),  and  The 
ReHtnratinn  of  Poland  (ISG3).  In  ISG7.  M.  Lanfrey  ct»m- 
mcnccd  the  publication  of  his  most  important  work,  a 
Iliston/  of  y/fpn/eon  /.,  of  which  the  fifth  volume  ap- 
peared in  IS71.  the  ablest  and  niot-t  complete  arraignment 
of  the  First  Enipiro  at  the  bar  of  hif^tory  that  has  a])peart  d. 
M.  Lanfrey  served  in  tlu^  moln'/es  of  Savoy  during  the 
Franco-Cierman  war,  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly 
in  Feb.,  1871,  and  in  October  of  that  year  was  appointe<I 
by  Thiers  minister  to  Switzerland,  but  resigned  in  1873; 
elected  life  senator  in  1S75.     D.  Nov.  15,  IS77. 

Lang  fJoiiv  Di'NMORr),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Largs.  Ayrshire, 
Scotliind,  about  ISOO  ;  emigrated  to  Sydney  at  an  early  age, 
and  becunie  ]>rincipal  of  tho  Australian  Cidlege.  In  ]S:;i 
ho  pnldished  The  lUstnrj/ <>/'  AVm-  South  Wafe>t,  both  an  a 
i*cual  Sftt((incnt  and  ax  a  Britinh  C(doni/,t\ictirsl  historical 
work  on  that  colony  possessing  any  claims  to  fulness  and 
authority.  It  has  passed  through  several  editions.  Dr. 
Lang  wrote  briefer  works  upon  other  separate  colonies, 
including  New  Zealand  (IS't)),  Philipshuid  (1847),  CooKs- 
lancl  (  1S47),  and  Freedoin  and  Independence /or  the  Gtddtn 
Landi  of  Australia  (1853),  republished  iu  1870  under  tho 
title  The  Cominy  Event. 

Lang  (Louis),  b,  at  Wnldsee.  Wiirtemberg.  Mnr.  29, 
1814;  became  noted  at  an  early  ago  for  skill  in  painting 
likenesses  in  pastel ;  resided  at  Constance  ( 18oO-.'M  1  ami  at 
Paris  (1834-37);  eame  to  the  U.  S.  in  1838;  went  to  Italy 
in  1841,  studying  at  Venice,  Bologna,  Florence,  and  Ron.e; 
then  spent  two  years  in  tho  U.  S.  ( 184  5— 17),  engaged  in  the 
artistic  decoration  of  houses,  an<l  after  another  visit  to 
Rome  (1847-49)  made  his  permanent  residence  in  New 
York  City. 

Lang'dale  (SlrM.vnMADi'KE),b.  in  Yorkshire.  England, 
aij<Mit  I.VJO;  was  sheritl"  of  that  county  in  D)42:  cmbractd 
the  Royalist  cause,  and  became  one  of  tlie  most  valiant 
generals  of  Charles  I.,  defeating  the  Scotch  at  Corbridgo 
and  raising  tho  siege  of  Pontefract  Castle  (1644);  com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Xaseby,  June  14,  IG45.  which  was 
lost  through  the  imprudence  of  Priuc<-  Rupert  ;  joined  ALmt- 
rose :  was  defeated;  escaped  to  the  Isle  of  Man;  uent 
thence  to  the  Continent;  joined  the  Scotch  royalist  army 
in  1G48:  took  Berwick  by  surprise  (May);  defeated  by 
Cromwell  at  Preston  (Aug.  17):  captured  and  im]irlsnii(d 
in  Nottingham  Castle;  escaped  to  Flanders;  was  made 
baron  by  Charles  II.:  was  lunl  li(iitenant  of  Yorkshire  <in 
tho  Restoration  in  ll'.fiO.  nml  cl.  at  York  Aug.  5,  1G61.  Clnr- 
ondon  in  his  ///«^>rl/ of  ihr  HduUion  gives  him  a  high  repu- 
tation for  courage  and  skill. 

Lang'deH    (CnnisTiu-nKR   CuLfMnis).   A.  M..  LL.B., 

A.  B..  dean  of  the  law  faculty  <if  Cambridge  I'nivcr.'ily, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  b.  in  Hillsborough  en..  N.  M..  May  Tl, 
1826;  entered  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  in  isi.'i,  and  Har- 
vard College  in  LS48;  left  college  to  pursue  teaching  in 
1849,  and  decided  not  to  return,  hence  did  not  graduate 
with  his  class;  in  IS50  began  the  study  of  law,  and  at- 
tended Harvard  Law  Sch()ol  in  the  sub^cquent  year.  At 
the  annual  eommeneonicnt  in  1853  110  received  the  degree 
of  LL.n..  and  at  the  following  eomnicncemcnt  the  honorary 
degree  of  .\.  M.;  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  practised 
law  until  be  was  appointed  Dane  professor  of  law  in  Cam- 
bridge I'niversity.  .\t  the  annual  commencemeiil  in  1870 
he  received  the  <legree  of  \.  B.  as  a  niember  of  llie  class  of 
LS5I.  and  was  nppointecl  to  the  position  he  now  hobU  at 
tho  beginning  of  the  academic  year  of  1870-71. 

J.  S.  Oinnoss. 

'Lanf;'tlon«  jtost-tp.  of  Sullivan  eo..  N.  H..  50  miles  W. 
of  Coneord.     D  has  mnnufactures  of  lutuber.      Pop.  4  11. 

Langdon  (CiiAHi.KS  C.).  of  Northern  birth:  emigrated 
about  is.'IG  to  Alabama,  and  became  a  nierchant  of  Perrv 


1632 


LANGDON— LANGLOIS. 


00. ;  was  afterwards  editor  of  the  Mobile  lirghler,  a  Whig 
paper;  was  mayor  of  Mobile,  and  in  1861  opposed  seces- 
sion ;  chosen  in  1.S6J  to  Congress,  was  not  allowed  to  take 
his  seat :  was  the  founder  of  Uitronelle,  Mobile  Co.,  Ala., 
where  he  has  since  resided. 

Laiigdon  (.rmiN),  LL.D.,  a  patriot  of  New  Hampshire, 
b.  at  I'l.rt-'niouth  in  1741,  became  a  successful  moreliant  of 
that  town.  In  17"l  he  assisted  in  securing  for  the  colonies 
the  ordnance  stores  in  the  fort  near  Portsmouth.  In  1775 
he  was  sent  to  the  Congress.  In  177f)  he  bccauie  navy 
agent.  Speaker  of  the  New  Hampshire  assembly,  and  judge 
of  the  common  pleas.  He  gave  the  money  with  which 
Stark's  famous  brigade  was  equiiipcd,  and  in  person  com- 
manded a  company  at  Bennington,  Saratogiv.  and  elsewhere. 
In  177n  he  was  president  of  the  New  Hampshire  convention 
and  Continental  agent.  In  1783  he  was  sent  to  Congress, 
and  was  afterwards  more  than  once  Speaker  in  the  New 
Hampshire  legisl.ature.  He  was  president  of  New  Hamp- 
shire in  1785,  and  in  1787  was  in  the  convention  which 
drafted  the  Federal  Constitution.  In  1788  he  was  governor, 
and  again  in  1805-09  and  lSIO-12.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
1780-1801,  and  declined  the  secretaryship  of  the  navy  and 
the  Vice-Presidency  of  the  U.  S.     1).  Sept.  IS,  1819. 

Langdon  (Samuel),  I).  D..  AnERnREx,  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  12,  1723,  and  graduated  at  Harvanl  in  1740. 
He  became  master  of  a  grammar  school  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  II.;  was  a  chaplain  in  the  Louisburg  e.spedition  1745; 
assistant  minister,  and  afterwards  (1747-74)  pastor,  of  the 
First  Congregational  church  at  Portsmouth ;  president  of 
Harvard  College  1774-80.  and  afterw.ards  a  minister  at  j 
Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.  He  was  prominent  in  the  public  ; 
affairs  of  the  State.  Published  many  sermons,  and  several 
volumes  upon  theological  and  religious  subjects.  U.  Nov. 
29,  1797. 

Langdon  (WonnBrnv'l.brotherof  .John  Langdon  (1741- 
1810),  h.  at  Portsmouth.  N.  H.,  in  1739  :  served  in  Congress 
1770-80;  ajudgeof  tlie  New  Hampshire  supreme  court  1782, 
and  again  1786-90,  and  held  other  public  offices.  D.  at 
Portsmouth  Jan.  13,  1805. 

Lange  (Joranv  Pkter),  b.  Apr.  10,  1802.  at  Sonnborn, 
near  Elberfeld,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  humble  circum- 
stances; acquired  his  first  education  by  his  own  energy; 
•attended  for  a  year  and  a  half  the  gymnasium  of  Diissel- 
dorf :  studied  theology  at  Bonn  ;  preached  in  several  places, 
and  was  ap|iointed  professor  of  theology  at  Zurich  in  1841, 
and  in  1854  at  Bonn.  His  Lrhrn  Jrs„  (3  vols.,  1844-47), 
translated  into  F.nglish  by  Sophia  Taylor  and  J.  E.  Ryland 
(Philailelphia,  1872).  Chrlnlliehe  Dmjmalik  (Z  vols.,  1849- 
52),  and  Ap„Fl,Jhi-hr  y.,ll,dli-r  (2  vols.,  1853-54),  exercised 
a  widespread  and  highly  bencfici.al  infiuence;  of  his  Thco- 
JnrjUrhhamihilm-he  llihrlirfrk  an  English  edition  has  been 
prepared  under  the  title  of  £nii./f'»  Cnmmenlnry,  by  Philip 
SclwafT,  and  published  at  New  York  ( 1865,  teq.). 

Lang'eland  (''long  land"),  an  island  of  Penmnrk,  in 
the  Baltic,  between  Funen  and  Laaland.  It  is  33  miles  I.mg 
and  3  miles  broad.  Area.  106  square  miles.  Pop.  18,399. 
It  is  exceedingly  fertile,  producing  wheat,  apples,  good  tim- 
ber, and  excellent  cattle.     Principal  town,  Rudkiiibing. 

I/an'gemarcq,  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of 
West  Flanders,  has  extensive  manufactures  of  lace  and 
linen.      P,.p.  615S. 

Lan'genbielaii,  a  number  of  villages  in  Silesia,  Prus- 
sia, un  the  IVila,  consisting  of  I'pper,  Lower,  Oreat,  Lit- 
tle, New,  and  01,1  I.angenbielau,  which  together  form  a 
town  of  12,700  inhabit.ants.  Many  kinds  of  manufactures 
are  carried  on,  especially  cotton. 

Iiangensal'za,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Saxonyl  numbering  about  10,000  inhabitants;  was  several 
times  "the  theatre  of  battles.  On  Feb.  15,  1701,  the  allied 
Prussians  and  Englishmen,  under  Sydow  and  Spiircken,  de- 
feated the  (lerman  imperial  anuy  nnder  Steinville;  Apr. 
17,  ISI3,  the  Prussians  defeated  the  Bavarians:  June  27, 
1866.  a  bloody  contest  look  place  between  the  Prussians 
and  the  Hanoverians.  Under  the  commanrl  of  King  (Jcorge, 
who  had  allied  himself  closely  to  .\ustria,  the  Hanoverian 
army,  numbering  about  20.000  men.  broke  u|i  from  Giit- 
tingcn  and  moved  southward  in  order  (o  join  the  Bava- 
rians, who  stood  on  the  other  side  of  the  Thiiringer  Wald. 
A  Prussian  corps  nnder  the  command  of  (len.  von  Fliess, 
reinforced  by  tri>ops  from  Saxe-Dotha.  anrl  numbering 
about  10,000 "men,  pushed  forward  from  fiotha  in  order  to 
detain  them.  .\t  Langcnsalza  an  encounter  took  ]dace,  in 
which  the  Hanoverians,  although  victorious,  sutfered  so 
much  that  they  were  unable  to  continue  their  march.  They 
lost  102  officers  and  1327  men;  the  Prussians,  846  in  all. 
As  a  superior  number  of  Prussian  troops  came  on  from 
other  sides  during  the  next  days,  the  Hanoverians  had  to 
capitulate  ;  the  army  became  jjrisoners  of  war,  and  soon 
after  the  kingdom  ceased  to  exist.        Augitst  Niemann. 


Langeron',  de  (.\sdraclt).  Count,  b.  at  Paris  Jan. 

13,  1703:  served  in  America  as  sub-lieutenant  during  the 
closing  year  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution ;  rose  to  be 
colonel  in  1786;  emigrated  from  France  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  Revolution;  took  service  in  Russia  in  1790, 
first  against  Sweden,  and  afterwards  against  Turkey  ( 1790 
-91) ;  was  with  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  invasions  of  the 
Low  Countries  and  of  France  (1792-94) ;  returned  to  Rus- 
sia, and  rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  and 
count  (1799) ;  commanded  a  Russian  division  at  Austerlitz, 
and  on  the  Danube  in  the  Turkish  war  from  1S07  to  1812; 
bore  a  ilislinguishcd  )uvrt  in  resisting  the  grand  army  of 
Napoleon  in  the  invasion  of  Russia  (1812-13),  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Leipsio(Oct.  18),  and  the  advance  upon  Paris  (1S14); 
was  governor-general  of  New  Russia  in  1822;  served  in 
Turkish  war  1828-29,  and  d.  at  St.  Petersburg  July  4,  1831. 
He  left  MS.  memoirs  which  were  used  by  Thiers  in  the 
History  of  the  Connxdate  and  Empire. 

Langevin'  (Hector  Louis),  C.  li.,  h.  at  Quebec  Aug. 
15, 1820 ;  was  educated  at  the  Quebec  College  and  in  Mont- 
real; became  an  advocate  in  1850;  was  for  a  time  a  jour- 
nalist in  Montreal,  and  afterwards  in  tjuebec ;  was  mayor 
of  Quebec  1857-60.  and  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Par- 
liament 1858-66.  In  1S64  ho  became  solicitor-general,  and 
in  1860  postmaster-general.  He  was  ( 1866-69)  secretary 
of  state  in  the  Dominion  cabinet,  and  1869-72  minister  of 
public  works.  He  sits  (1875)  in  the  House  of  Commons 
for  Dorchester,  Quebec;  was  made  C.  B.  in  1868.  Author 
of  Droit  AdmiiiiHtrotif  des  Paroisnes  (1862),  aud  is  a  con- 
servative in  politics. 

Lang'ham,  de  (Simon),  Cardinal,  b.  probably  at 
Langham.  Rutlandshire,  England,  about  1310  ;  became  n 
monk  in  Westminster  in  1335,  prior  and  abbot  in  1349, 
high  treasurer  of  England  1360,  bishop  of  Ely  1362,  chan- 
cellor 1363,  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  papal  pro- 
vision July  22,  1366.  His  most  noted  action  was  the  re- 
moval of  Wyclifie  from  the  wardenship  of  Baliol  College, 
Oxford,  in  which  he  was  su[iportcd  by  Pope  Urban  V.,  who 
signalized  bis  approval  by  making  Langham  a  cardinal- 
presbyter  (1368).  while  the  king,  Edward  III.,  was  favor- 
able to  the  Reformer.  The  new  cardinal  was  forced  to  re- 
sign his  archbishopric  (Nov.,  1368),  and  retired  to  Avignon, 
where  he  became  a  trusted  counsellor  of  Pope  Gregory  XI., 
and  d.  July  22,  1376.  After  the  accession  of  Richard  II. 
his  remains  were  removed  with  great  pomp  to  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1379. 

Lang'horne  (JonN).  D.  D..l>.  at  Kirkby-Stephen.Weet- 
morelanil.  England,  iu  Mar.,  1735:  entered  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1760;  became  curate  of  Si.  John's,  Clerkenwell, 
and  of  Blagden.  Somersetshire,  and  was  some  time  assistant 
preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1708  he  removed  to  Folke- 
stone, where  his  brother  William  i  1721-72)  was  perpetual 
curate,  and  with  him  made  a  translation  of  Plutarch's  /.Ives 
(6  vols.,  1770),  which  still  holds  its  position  as  one  of  the 
most  wiilely-read  of  any  translation  from  a  classic  author. 
Ho  publisiied  many  poems,  tales,  and  sermons  of  little 
value,  and  in  1777  became  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of 
Wells,  Somersetshire.     D.  at  Blagden  Apr.  1,  1779. 

Lang'land,  Langplande,  or  Longland  (Robert), 
b.  probiiblv  at  Cleobury  .Mortimer,  Shro], shire,  about  1332  ; 
was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College, 
and  a  monk  at  Malvern.  His  Vision  nf  Piers  Plowman,  in 
alliloralive  verse,  written  about  1362.  was  a  satire  upon  the 
clergy,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  works  written  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  ;  first  jointed  in  1550.  The  best  edition  is 
that  of  Thomas  Wright  (London,  1856).  Langland  d. 
about  1400. 

Langles  (Loris  MATniEr),  b.  at  Perenne,  Haute-Loire, 
Aug.  23,  1763;  studied  Oriental  languages  at  Paris,  and 
attracted  considerable  attention  in  1787   by  his  translation 
into  French  from  the  Persian  of  Tamerlane's  Institutes.    In 
1789-90  he  edited  Father  Amiot's  Mantchoo-French  dic- 
tionary, and  in   1795  he  induced  the  French  re|.ublican 
government  to  establish  a  special  school  of  Onental  lan- 
guages, of  which  he  himself  became  the  first  administrator 
1  and  professor  in   the  Persian.     Tbrougli  this  school,  and 
through  the  geographical   Society  of  Paris,  (if  which  he 
also  was  the  founder,  he  exercised  a  large  and   beneficial 
infiuence.      He  was  also  the  author  of  numerous  works  re- 
lating to  Oriental  languages  and  literature.     D.  at  Paris 
Jan.  28,  1824. 
1       Langlois'  (Victor),  b.  at  Dieppe  Mar.  20,  1829;  stud- 
1  ied  Oriental  languages,  and  travelled  in  1852-53  in  Cilicia 
and  Armenia,  where  he  discovered  over  eighty  new  (ireek 
i  inscriptions,  and  unilertook  excavations  at  Tarsus,  from 
which  bo  brought  many  interesting  antiquities  to  Pans. 
'    In  1867  he  pubiishod  Le' Mnnt  .Ulios  el  ses  Mouaslires.  con- 
I  taining  a  pholo-lilhographic  reproduction  of  the  gcogra|)h- 
ical  work  of  Ptolemv.     In  1SG8  ho  began  the  publication 


LAXGNAU— LANGUAGE. 


1683 


of  CoKectwit  dea  Hintorienw  anciena  et  modernes  de  I'Armi- 
ni>,  which  was  uotiuiijbcU  wkcD  bu  d.  May  14,  ISGU. 

Lang'imu,  towu  of  Switztrlund.  in  the  canton  of  Bcmc, 
hns  iron-fuumlrii-s.  tanneries,  inauufactures  of  tobacco  and 
watches,  and  au  active  trade  in  liucn  and  cheese.  Pop. 
53CI). 

Lango'ln,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Benton  co,,  Miun.,  on 
the  MiMsissij.jii  Uiver.     Pop.  Hit. 

Lnns  Plantation,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Me.    Pop.  36. 

Langrcs,  tuwn  of  Frnnce,  in  the  depnrtiucnt  of  Haule- 
M.irne,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Murne,  ou  a  plateau 
at  an  delation  of  liGO  feot.  It  is  au  old  town,  with  a  ca- 
thedral of  the  eleventh  century,  a  college,  and  theological 
seminary.  Large  trade  in  grain  and  cattle,  and  celebrated 
raanufacture  of  fine  cutlery.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Diderot, 
to  whose  memory  a  ra'inuinent  was  erected  here.    Pop.  8320. 

Lang's,  tp.  of  Darlington  co.,  S,  C.     Pop.  1211. 

Langs'ton,  post-v.  of  Montcalm  CO.,  Mifh.,  10  miles 
from  Greenville  .Station,  which  is  ou  tho  Detroit  Lansing 
and  Lake  Michigan  K.  K. 

Lnngston  (John  Mfrokr),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Louisa  Court- 
hou.^c,  Louisa  co.,  Va..  Dec.  14.  1829.  By  birth  a  slave,  ho 
was  emancipated  when  six  years  old:  educated  at  Oberlin 
College,  where  he  graduated  in  1849,  and  from  the  theolog- 
ical department  of  the  same  college  in  1853;  jitudied  law, 
being  admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar  in  IS51;  pursued  his  profes- 
sion for  thirteen  years  in  Ohio,  when  he  was  called  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  law  department  of  the  Ilowanl  Tniversity 
at  Washington,  D.  ('.;  became  dean  of  the  faculty,  and  in 
IS'.'J  vice-president  and  acting  president  of  the  university. 
Was  appointed  in  1871,  by  the  President  of  the  U.  S,,  a 
member  of  tho  board  of  health  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
of  which  in  1S7j  he  was  elected  secretary.  Author  of  va- 
rious addresses  ami  papers  upon  political,  biographio,  lit- 
erary, and  scientific  subjects,  and  is  distinguished  as  an 
orator  and  scholar. 

Lang'8troth  (Lorenzo  Lorratne),  b.  at  Philadelphia 
Dec.  2j,  ISIU;  gra<luated  at  Yale  IS.U;  tutor  there  1^31- 
35;  pastor  of  the  South  Congregational  church,  Andover, 
M:iHS.,  183t)-39;  principal  of  ,\bbott  Female  Seminary, 
Andover,  1838-39;  of  (irecufiuld  (Mass.)  High  School 
1839-43;  pastor  of  Second  Church,  Grccnfieid,  Mass., 
1843-48;  principal  of  a  young  ladies'  school,  Philadelphia, 
18iH-.'i2.  Since  1858  has  resided  at  Oxford,  O.  Mr.  Lang- 
Btroth  is  famous  as  tho  inventor  of  the  movable-couib  hive, 
which  has  wrought  a  revolution  in  bee-keeping.  Author 
of  tho  ///*■*:  fuifi  //out  I/- /ice,  etc.  /  /  X  •?  i  3  "^ 

Lang'toft  (i*i:TBU),b.  in  the  second  lialfo^  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  canon  of  tho  order  of  St.  Auguj^tine  at  Brid- 
lington, Yorkshire,  and  derived  his  name  from  a  parish  of 
tho  same  county,  perhaps  his  native  idace.  lie  translated 
from  tho  Latin  into  French  verso  Herbert  Bosenham's  Life 
of  Thoiiutn  tl  /itr/:ct  (1300?),  and  wrote,  also  in  verse,  a 
French  Cfnonicle  of  Kmjftmd  from  the  siege  of  Troy  to  tho 
reign  of  Kdward  I.,  translated  into  English  verse  by  Robert 
de  Brunne,  and  edited  by  Ilearno  (Oxford,  1725). 

Lang'ton  (Stfj-hkm).  CARniNAi,,  b.  in  Devonshire,  Lin- 
coln, or  Sus'-ex,  Eiig.,  about  1 1 00;  was  educated  at  Paris, 
taking  degrees  in  philofophy  and  theology;  became  a  pro- 
fessor and  chancellor  of  tlio  university  and  canon  of  Notro 
Dame;  was  a  fellow-student  with  Lothario  Conti,  who  bc- 
camo  pope  in  1I9S,  unit  was  named  in  tho  same  year  a 
member  of  tin-  papal  household.  In  1200,  Langtou,  while 
on  a  visit  to  Rome,  was  made  a  eaflinul.  and  in  December 
of  the  same  year  wa-*  by  exprc?<s  oriler  of  the  pope  elected 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  opposition  to  the  wilt  of  King 
John.  Though  consecrated  b\-  the  pope  at  Vitt>rbo  in  June, 
1207,  Lan;5ton  was  not  permitrrd  to  take  pim'^ession  of  his 
800  until  the  submistsinn  of  Kin;^  John  to  iIk-  papacy  in  I21.'t, 
when  he  inimeiliately  joined  the  insurn<*nt  barons  in  their 
con6ict  with  that  monarch,  a>!^i»led  ihi'm  at  Bury  St.  Ed- 
mund's (Nov.  20,  1214)  in  drawing  up  the  basis  of  Magna 
Charta,  and  heatled  the  lint  of  buronial  signers  of  that  in- 
strument at  Riinnvmede  (June  15,  1215).  For  this  conrluet 
ho  incurred  tho  ceiisure  of  the  pope,  imd  notwilbstaniling 
a  visit  to  Home  was  siispclTTed  frOm  bis  runcrionTIn  De- 
cember of  that  year,  but  restored  Feb..  II'IO.  Ho  returned 
to  England  in  1218;  rrowned  Ihnry  III.  in  1220;  presided 
at  tlio  ('ouneil  of  Osn«*y  in  1222.  wliirh  drew  np  a  code 
of  canon  law;  watched  over  tlie  ol.Hcrvaneo  of  Magna 
t'haria;  and  in  1223  again  jdneed  himself  at  tin-  head  of 
tho  barons  to  demand  its  eoiifirmation  fr<tin  Hmry  III. 
The  divijtion  of  the  Bible  into  chapters  has  been  c^nimiHily 
attributed  to  hini-  TTc  Ts  n-presentcd  ns  having  been  a 
ntan  of  great  b'urning  and  author  of  numerous  theological 
works,  none  of  which,  however,  is  extant.  D.  nt  Slindoo, 
Sussex,  July  9,  1228.  (Sco  Hook's  Aichbinhvpt  of  Can- 
tcrbnrv.) 

Vol.  IL— 103 


lian'guage.  The  word /anyuar^e  comes  from  the  Latin 
linguUf  "  tongue,"  through  derivative  forms  represented  by 
Fr.  Imujntje,  It.  liniftiatftjio.  It  signifies,  then,  primarily, 
utterance  by  the  tongue,  that  being  the  most  active  and 
essential  of  the  articulating  organs.  It  is  in  nccordonco 
with  this  that  we  use  the  word  ;  it  denotes  orticulate  utter- 
ance for  the  expression  of  thought.  But  this  also  in  two 
ways.  First,  wo  mean  by  language  the  general  power  or 
faculty  of  expression  of  thought  by  nrtieulale  utterance,  a 
power  possesr-cd  and  exercised  by  all  normally  conFtiti;(cd 
and  circumstanced  human  beings  fnot  by  the  deaf  nor  by 
the  solitary);  in  this  sense,  «7>ff -A  is  its  common  synonym. 
Secondly,  we  mean  a  particular  body  of  articulate  utter- 
ances, signs  for  thought,  used  in  some  definite  community, 
present  or  past,  as  their  means  of  expression;  intelligillc 
between  members  of  that  community,  but  not  to  outsiders. 
It  is  of  the  highest  inij)ortance  to  hold  these  two  senses 
clearly  apart,  for  ui>on  their  confusion  depends  no  small 
part  of  tho  falso  views  of  language  more  or  less  commonly 
held. 

AVe  shall  begin  by  considering  the  extrrnal  body  of  lan- 
guage, the  audible  sounds.  These  are  produced  by  on  ap- 
paratus locatc<l  in  the  throat  and  mouth,  supplied  with  ma- 
terial by  the  lunjrs.  The  lungs  send  forth  a  current  of  air 
through  the  throat  and  mouth.  This  rtctivts  tone  and 
pitch  in  the  larynx  by  the  action  of  the  vncsil  cords,  which 
are  tho  membranous  edges  of  a  pair  of  half-valves,  capable 
of  being  brought  close  together  and  made  tense  across  the 
passage  of  the  throat,  so  ihut  the  expelled  air  causes  them 
to  vibrate  like  the  tongue  or  reed  ot  an  organ-pipe;  and 
this  vibration,  transmitted  to  our  organs  of  henring  by  the 
sympathetic  movement  of  the  air,  is  cognized  by  us  as 
sound.  Above  this  vibrating  apparatus  is  set  the  cavity 
of  the  pharynx,  the  mouth,  and  the  n(»?i',  in  the  manner 
of  a  sounding-box  :  anel  voluntaiy  tdiiiniies  niaele  in  the 
walls  and  apertures  of  this  box  diftcrenliate  the  sound, 
giving  rise  to  a  great  variety  of  dislinguit-bable  products, 
which  are  our  aljdiabetic  sounds.  That  branch  of  lin- 
guistics which  concerns  itself  with  the  physical  character 
of  alphabetic  sounds, as  dependent  on  the  voluntary  move- 
ments of  the  organs.  Is  called  phonetics  or  phonology  :  it 
involves  something  of  acoustics,  and  something  of  anatomy, 
but  is  quite  distinct  from  either.  A  very  brief  conjiilera- 
tion  of  its  leading  principles  will  be  all  that  is  needed  here. 

Tho  number  of  distinct  articulations  capable  of  being 
nroduced  by  the  organs  of  utterance  is  indefinitely  great. 
Nearly  300  have  been  represented  separately  by  Ellis  in  his 
"  PalaHjtype  "  (first  chapterof  AVir/y  EvgUnh  Proniimititiou). 
But  many  of  these  are  variations,  hardly  perceptible  to  any 
but  skilled  and  observant  ears,  of  what  is  practically  the 
same  sound;  and  no  single  language  uses  for  purposes  of 
speech  more  than  a  fractiv)n  of  this  nuniber.  The  most  im- 
portant division  of  the  system  is  info  vowels  and  cemsonants. 
The  vowels  are  the  e>pener  sounds,  those  in  which  the  modify- 
ing action  of  the  mouth-organs  on  the  intonated  currents  of 
breath  is  le-ast,  which  are  therefore  mainly  tone;  the  con- 
sonants are  the  closer  sounds,  those  in  wliich  the  element 
of  oral  action  prevails  more  or  less  over  that  of  tone.  Upon 
the  antithesis  of  vowel  and  consonant,  the  succession  of 
alternutely  opener  and  closer  sounds,  depends  what  we  call 
tho  nificul'ttf  character  of  our  utterance;  tho  stream  of 
audible  ttouud.  consisting  especially  of  the  vowels,  is  nar- 
rowed or  cut  oil'  from  point  to  point  by  the  consonants,  and 
so  broken  into  articnlif  *' joints,"  being  thus  made  both 
distinct  and  flexible  to  a  degree  that  would  be  attainable 
in  no  other  way.  There  is  a  class  of  eoni-onants — p  h.  kg, 
id — in  which  tlic  interference  of  the  mouth-organs  with  tho 
stream  of  breath  is  carried  to  tho  extreme  of  complete 
stoppage:  these  are  ealled  mutes  (stops,  cheeks).  Thero 
is  another  in  which  the  organs  are  so  closely  tipproached 
that  a  rustling  or  buzzing  is  heard  at  the  orilice.  and  is  tho 
conspicuous  element  in  tho  sound  produced:  the.<e  nro 
called  fricatives;  Ibey  are  eonveniently  divided  into  sibi- 
lants— such  as  It  z,  «/*  zh  (of  azure) — and  spirants — such  as 
/r,  tho  two  f/f-sounds  (//iih,  thru),  ami  the  (ierman  eA. 
Another  very  distinct  ehif^s  is  that  of  the  nasals  or  re- 
sonants  ;  in  these  there  is  a  eonijdete  closure  of  the  mouth- 
organs  at  the  same  points  as  in  the  utterance  of  the  mutes, 
but  the  nasal  passa;re  is  unclosed,  so  that  the  eounils  are 
sonorous  and  eonlinuable — as  m,  n,  vg  (in  m'tiging) :  in  the 
nnsrtl  voivels  (e.  g.  of  I'reneb)  there  is  an  unelosuro  of  tho 
nasal  pavsiigo  along  with  (trdinary  vowel  utterance,  giving 
an  addcfl  twang  to  tho  prmluct.  One  more  class  of  con- 
sonants remains,  the  xenii-vowels  ;/•  »'',  ',  r — sounds  wliieii 
stand  on  the  line  between  vowel  imd  consonant.//  being  only 
in(inite.«ima1ly  difierent  from  the  i'  of  pt'qur  (the  /r-sound), 
and  ir  from  the  k  of  nifc  (the  oo-^nund) :  and  /  and  r  being 
convertible,  and  by  many  languages  converted,  to  vowel 
use?. 

In  English,  and  In  the  majority  of  other  languages,  there 
arc  in  tho  mouth  three  places  of  complete  closure,  produ- 


1634 


LANGUAGE. 


oiDg  mutes — a  front,  or  labial,  at  the  lips,  giving  p  and  6  ;  a 
back,  or  palatal,  between  the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the 
soft  palate,  giving  /,-  and  ij  ;  and  an  intermediate,  or  lingual, 
between  the  tip  or  front  part  of  the  tongue  and  tlie  roof  of 
the  mouth  at  or  back  of  the  upper  front  teeth,  giving  (  and  d. 
The  last  two  pairs  may  vary  in  character  according  to  the 
phu-e  on  the  palate  and  the  parts  of  the  tongue  used  ;  and 
different  ('s  and  Ic's  are  sometimes  found  side  by  side  in  the 
same  language.  Usually  there  is,  as  in  English,  a  cor- 
responding nasal  to  each  mute  closure.  But  the  other  conso- 
nants alsolend  toward  the  same  organs  of  production  :  thus, 
the /"and  i- and  w  are  more  labial ;  the  (/i,  the  s  and  s,  and  the 
r  aiid  I,  are  Ungual ;  and  the  cli.  the  sli  and  i/i,  and  the  y 
are  more  palatal.  And  even  the  vowels  show  the  same  tend- 
ency: from  the  n-sound  of  /nr,  which  is  the  purest  alpha- 
betic tone,  most  unmodified  by  the  niouth-organs,  the  tongue 
approaches  the  palate,  toward  the  /--position,  more  and  more 
in  the  a  of  pan,  the  e  of  pen,  and  the  j  of  jnn,  giving  thus 
a  palatal  scries  of  vowels ;  and  the  lips  are  more  and  more 
rounded  and  approached  in  the  a  of  all,  the  o  of  jiole,  and 
the  n  of  ride,  giving  a  labial  series. 

There  is  one  more  principle  of  relationship  to  be  noted: 
that  of  sonant  to  non-sonant  or  surd  sounds.  The  «  and 
z,  for  example,  are  uttered  with  the  same  articulating  po- 
sition of  the  mouth-organs,  but  the  former  with  simple 
breath,  the  other  with  intonated  breath  or  sound:  the 
former  a  hiss,  the  latter  a  buzz.  .\nd  the  difference  of  ( 
and  d  is  the  same,  sound  beginning  in  the  former  only  im- 
mediately after  the  breach  of  mute  contact,  which  is  made 
witli  breath  alone,  but  in  the  latter  before  the  breach,  by 
forcing  :iir  enough  to  support  for  a  moment  the  sonant 
vibratTon  of  the  vocal  cords  up  into  the  closed  cavity  of 
the  mouth.  Thus,  the  mutes  and  fricatives  go  usually  in 
pairs,  of  surd  and  sonant.  But  in  the  opener  positions  the 
mere  breath  is  not  sufficiently  characterized  to  give  an 
alphabetic  constituent  for  each  position,  and  we  throw  all 
the  different  products  together  as  h. 

The  principles,  then,  which  determine  the  system  of  the 
alphabet  arc:  (1)  the  degree  of  approach  of  the  organs, 
between  the  absolute  openness  of  a  {far)  and  the  absolute 
closure  of  k,  t,  p  ;  (2)  the  particular  organs  or  parts  of  the 
mouth  brought  toward  or  against  one  another:  and  (3)  the 
kind  of  material  furnished  to  the  mouth-organs  by  the 
throat,  whether  breath  or  sound.  Annexed  is  a  sample 
alph.abet  thus  arr.anged,  containing  (with  neglect  of  some 
miuor  distinctions)  the  simple  sounds  of  the  English  lan- 
guage : 


vowels. 


V 

r.  I 

tv           semi-vowels. 

n 

m      nasals. 

surd.       ? 

aspiration. 

-> 

sonant, 
surd. 

zh 
sh 

z 

sibilants.      "» 

p 

sonant, 
surd. 

dh 

th 

^  \  spirants.        j 

'? 

sonant. 

fj 

d 

1  mutes. 

k 

t 

palatal 

liuKual 

laiiial 

sorics. 

series. 

scries. 

In  this  scheme,  a    represents  the  <i-sound  in  pan,  A  the 
sound  in  all, and.  a  the  "neutral"  vowel-sound  in  hut.  hurt. 


that  are  found  in  anv  human  alphabet,  and  n  great  many 
more;  and  (apart  from  special  individual  disabilities)  any 
sound  is  equally  easv  at  the  outset,  bctore  habits  are  form- 
ed, to  all  human  beings :  there  is  nothing  eharacteriBfic  of 
race  in  the  aljihabets  of  different  races.     But  each  person 
grows  up  to  produce  bv  imitation  just  those  sounds  which 
he  hears  others  make  "about  him.     Some  sounds,  however, 
are  easier  and  sooner  learned  than  others:  the  norm  in 
every  language  is  given  by  the  practised  adult  speakers, 
and  "the  child,  beginning  by  reproilucing  only  imperfectly 
what  he  hears,  gradually  acquires  the  same  facility  and  ac- 
curacy as  his  fellows  possess.     .lust  so,  every  well-endowed 
child  is  capable  of  gaining  the  skill  of  eye  and  hand  re- 
quired for  any  one  of   an   indefinite  number  of   trades; 
and  he  actuaflv  gains  that  to  which  he  is  made  to  apply 
himself.     Without  such  application  he  would  learn  none; 
and  so  he  would  acquire  no  language  if  he  were  not  taught 
it.    There  are,  we  shall  sav.  a  thousand  different  languages 
in  the  world,  and  each  of  tbcm  has  a  different  word  for 
"  hand."  or  "  green,"  or  "  run  :"  there  is  no  reason  why  any 
human' bein"  uses  one  of  these  thousand  words  instead 
of  another,  except  that  he  hears  it  used  by  others,  and  then 
hims"lf  learns  to  reproduce  it  by  imitation,  and  to  associate 
it  with  the  same  idea  which  it  reiiresents    in  their  use. 
There  is  no  such  relation  between  the  articulating  appa- 
ratus and  the  apparatus  of  mental  action,  of  perceiving, 
and  comparins.  and  judging,  that  anywhere  in  the  world 
a  human  being  produces  a  series  of  articulate  sounds  by 
an  internal  and  natural  impulse  as  representative  of  a  con- 
ception.   The  relation  of  uttered  signs  for  ideas  is  precisely 
what  that  of  acted  signs  would  be;  the  hands  and  arms  aro 
capable  of  making  an  infinity  of  combinations  of  motions, 
and,  as  the  experience  of  the  deaf-mute  shows  us,  a  person 
is  capable  of  .associating  conceptions  with  these  motions  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  make  them  a  full  apparatus  for  the 
expression  of  thought.     We  see  clearly  enough  that  the  tic 
between  such  signs  and  the  movements  of  the  mind  is  an 
external  and  artificial  one;  but  it  is  not  less  the  case  with 
our  own  si^ns.     That  is  to  say,  every  uttered  word  is  an 
arbitrary  alid  conventional   sign— arbitrary,  because  any 
other  could  have  been  made  to  answer  the  same  purpose; 
conventional.  becaus=e  the  selection  of  this  one  has  its  sole 
crround  in  the  accord.ant  usage  of  a  community.     It  was 
Teamed  bv  the  direct  instruction  or  from  the  examjile  of 
others  who  used  it  alreadv  ;  it  has  no  lie  with  its  inner  con- 
tent or  meaning  save  that  of  a  mental  association.     He 
who  has  acquired  and  learned  to  use  one  set  of  signs  may 
add  another  and  another,  and  use  them  also  wilh  readiness, 
even  forgetting,  if  the  shift  be  made  early  enough,  his  first 
acnnired  set,  or  "native  language."  in  their  favor. 

We  see,  then,  cleailv,  what  the  "  gift  of  language  is  to 
man  It  is  a  general  power  of  expression.  It  consists  in 
such  gifts  of  mind  and  of  body,  and  in  such  command 
over  tliem,  that  anv  human  being  can  possess  himself  of 
any  of  the  systems  of  expression  established  and  current 
in  'the  world,"  and  make  use  of  it.  more  or  less  perfectly,  for 
communication  and  for  the  operations  of  his  Inought.  It 
places  all  existing  languajes  within  his  reach,  but  puts 
none  into  his  possession  :  he  can  learn  to  speak  anything, 
but  can  speak  nothing  without  learning.  But  the  power 
to  use  implies  also,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  the  power 
to  produce.  If  there  could  be  such  a  thing  started  as  a 
■  ■  -.--,.  » beings,  it  would,  by  the 


Thn  snoken  alnhabct  of  every  lani-ua'-e  may  be  reduced      speechless  community  of  human  ^ 

ihc  spoken  ai^pnaoci  oi  every  i.iu„i  ^o    ,  ^.^__  _^  ,  _^       exercise  of  its  gift,  make  a  beginning  of  supplying  itself 

a  language,  which  would  become  increased  .ami  extended 
and  perfected  until,  after  generations  enough  had  made 
their  contributions  to  it.  it  would  compare  with  some  of 
those  now  current.  Of  what  kind  the  beginnings  would  be 
we  shall  see  belter  after  considering  the  main  facts  relating 
to  the  life  and  growth  of  the  existing  tongues. 

Men  are,  even  now  and  everywhere,  makers  as  well  as 
learners  and  users  of  language.  If  the  whole  life  of  lan- 
guage consisted  in  simple  teaching  and  learning,  every 
language  would  continue  the  same  from  age  to  age.  But 
not'onc  does  in  fact  continue  the  same:  all  are  changing, 
some  more  and  some  less  rapidly.  The  English  has  changed 
so  that  the  form  of  a  thousand  years  ago,  which  we  call 
An^lo-Paxon.  is  as  a  wholly  strange  tongue  to  us.  I.ntin 
cha'igcd  into  Old  French,  and  this  into  modern  French  ;  old 
lli.'h-Gerroan  changed  into  Middle,  and  this  into  ^cw :  and 
so  on.  This  is  simply  the  effect  of  the  collective  mind  of  the 
speaking  community  working  underneath  its  apparatus  ot 


to  a  systematic  form  resembling  this.  Alphabets  are,  how- 
ever, of  very  different  character  as  regards  both  the  num- 
ber and  the  identity  of  the  sounds  composing  them.  And 
Languages  differ  not  only  in  their  sounds,  but  in  the  coin- 
binations  of  sounds  allowed  in  forming  syllables,  and  in 
the  combinations  of  syllables  allowed  in  forming  words. 
Some  have  hardly  more  than  a  dozen  articulations,  all  told, 
while  the  Sanskrit  and  English  each  possess  near  fifty: 
some  allow  only  one  consonant  in  a  syllable,  and  that 
always  before  the  vowel,  while  the  English  makes  such  in- 
tricate and  difficult  combinations  asKlranda,  tiorl/tha;  some 
(as  Chinese)  admit  only  words  of  one  syllable,  while  Amer- 
ican Indian  languages  sometimes  count  the  syllables  of  a 
word  by  the  score.  And  as  they  differ  in  these  respects,  so 
also,  and  much  more,  in  the  combinations  of  sounds  by 
which  they  represent  any  given  conception  ;  whence  the 
diversity  and  mutual  unintelligibilily  of  human  languages. 
This  diversity,  which  is  very  different  from  what  we  might 
feel  ourselves  authorized  to  expect,  considering  the  funda 


mental  unity  of  the  human  mind  and  its  operations,  i"8"o"ne  !  expressi™,  and  adapting  the  latter  ♦.'''';,, ':|;"'''Xf„"'hat 
-  -         '  •       ■  and  shifting  )ircferences.     Nothing   is  plainer  tnan   inai 

whatever  new  knowledge  and  altered  conceptions  may  arise 
in  a  comniunitv  must  somehow  find  e.xpression  in  its  speech 
—that  the  passing  out  of  mind  of  old  conceptions  is  accoin- 
panicd  by  the  oblivion  of  their  signs  (if  not  transferred  to 
new  uses):  and  then  there  is.  besides,  a  kind  of  wear  and 
tear  of  words,  by  which  they  change  shape  or  disappear. 


of  the  problems  which  the  science  of  language  has  to  ex 
plain. 

We  hayc  said  that  articulate  sounds  are  produced  by  the 
voluntary  action  of  their  utterers.  Of  course  this  does  not 
imply  that  the  speaker  understands  at  all  the  mechanism 
which  he  sets  in  motion,  or  commands  it  otherwise  than  as 
he  commands  the  mechanism  of  locomotion  or  of  gesture 


he  commands  the  mechanism  ot  locomotion  or  nt  gesiure.      lea.  oi   ..u,...,    ..,   ........  ~..^,  -■■-■■„  ■      .         ^^^  ,j^ 

Each  human  organ  is  capable  of  making  all  the  sounds  I  and  a  constant  production  of  new  material  to  taKC  me 


LANGUAGE. 


lC3o 


place  of  what  is  lost,  nnd  to  extend  and  improrc  the  mcane 
of  oxpreesioD.  To  nndorstund  these  chaiijii'S  is  to  under- 
stand the  growth  of  hnijrua^f';  and  in  order  to  bo  undcr- 
stoiid,  in  tliGuisoh'es  and  in  their  oaui^e^,  they  need  to  bo 
Studied  in  tlieir  detail;  the  general  eflcct  is  only  the  sum 
of  <lotails.  ca<di  of  which  has  its  own  history  and  occasion. 

Tho  chiingcs  of  language  may  be  best  grouped  under 
three  heads:  (I)  alterations  of  old  materiul  ;  (2)  loss  of 
material  ;  {'.i)  ndditionsi  of  new  material.  Alterations  of 
old  inaterial,  again,  are  made  either  in  the  external  audible 
form  of  words  or  in  their  internal  content,  their  meaning. 
Each  kind  of  alteration  is  indepemient  of  the  other;  and 
for  tho  ruason  that  tho  tie  between  form  anil  meaning  is. 
as  pointed  out  above,  only  one  of  the  convenience  of  use; 
otherwise  tho  two  could  not  he  divorced.  Each  is  dctcr- 
minod  by  tho  requirements  of  the  convenience  of  theusers; 
and  this,  f>o  far  as  alteration  of  outward  form  is  concerned, 
makes  towards  ease  of  nttcrance,  economy  of  tlie  muscular 
offnrL  of  enunciation.  The  princi[ilo  of  eaec  is  that  which 
underlies  the  whole  department  of  phonetic  change.  It 
shows  itself  most  ohviousiy  in  the  constant  abridgment 
which  words  undergo  by  tho  lo.'^s  of  initial,  and  especially 
of  final,  sounds  and  syllables,  and  the  omission  or  con- 
traction of  interior  elements.  Thus,  benr  in  "wo  bear" 
is  fr^m  hititramaitiy  bore  in  "we  bore"  from  b'tb/iontiasi, 
hnd  in  "  had  wo  "'  from  hiibnid^-drima  ;  nlnut  is  from  rlee- 
monnnf:  and  so  on.  Wo  may  follow  the  gradual  re(iuction 
of  a  word  like  bh<irnmitni  through  such  forms  Xi9  phrromca 
(dial,  (ireolt)  and/VrriHirt*  (Lat.),  and  bnimm  (Goth.) ;  and 
so  in  innumerable  similar  cases.  By  this  means  especially 
tho  endings  which  once  showed  the  grammatical  forms  of 
words  aro  worn  out  and  lost.  As  i«  well  known,  no  lan- 
guage shows  the  results  of  this  abbreviating  process  in  such 
a  d.greo  as  the  English.  The  monosyllables  which  form 
two-thirds  to  (hree-(|uartcr8  of  our  language  as  spoken  or 
written  were  all  of  them  words  of  two  or  three  or  tnore 
syllables  in  its  earlier  condition.  But  also  tho  constituent 
elements  of  words  that  are  sparerl  become  variously  altered. 
Tho  character  and  extent  of  the  spoken  alphabt't  are  all 
the  time  slowly  changing.  Old  sounds  go  out  of  use  :  new 
oncH  are  introduced  ;  both  vowels  ond  consonants  are  shifted 
to  other  places  and  moiUs  of  utterance.  Thus,  the  old 
In'lo-European  aspirates  (mutes  with  a  puff  of  jlafuit,  a 
kind  of  A,  following  the  broach  of  their  contact)  have  long 
sineo  disappeared  in  Europe,  becoming  variously  altered ; 
tho  root  b/iftr,  instanced  above,  is  in  ancient  Greek  ^)Acr 
(;//i).  in  modern  Greek,  as  in  Latin.  />»■  (tiie/a  sound  not 
found  at  all  in  tho  original  alphabet)  :  in  (lermanic,  brr  ; 
tho  huh  of  hftban  (our  bavn)  Is  Latin  cap  (cnpcrc) ;  and  so 
on.  All  such  transitions  of  sound  are  more  or  less  strictly 
reducible  to  rule,  being  governed  by  the  physical  relations 
of  sounds  and  by  the  general  tendencies  of  language,  an 
modified  by  tho  special  tendencies  and  habits  of  eaoli  par- 
ticular community.  To  trace  them  out,  and,  so  far  as  is 
possible,  explain  them,  is  the  task  of  phonetic  science.  As- 
similation is  the  head  under  which  the  larger  part  of  them 
fall ;  both  on  the  smaller  scale,  making  diflicult  conibiua- 
tions  more  pronounceable,  and  on  tho  larger  scale,  approx- 
imaMng  tho  whole  vowel  and  consonant  systoms  to  one  au- 
olber,  making  thn  vowels  closer  and  the  consonantsopener, 
and  thus  filling  up  the  alphabetic  system  with  intermediate, 
more  sli-^jhlly  din'orentiated,  soiuuls.  In  Indo-European,  h 
was  tho  only  fricativcconsonant,  and  «  (f'ur).  i  (  piifite),  ami 
u  (cii'c)  iho  only  vowel-sounds,  and  a  formed  a  quarter  to 
a  third  of  tho  whole  utterant^e,  while  wJtli  us  n  has  sunk  to 
much  less  than  a  hundredth.  There  aro  examjiles  of  tho 
opposite  principle,  dissimilation,  and  more  difficult  and 
anomalous  eases;  of  which  the  most  note<l  and  intricate  is 
the  so-called  (irimm's  law  of  the  rotation  of  mutes  in  Ger- 
manic language,  whereby,  of  the  original  surd,  aspirate, 
and  sonant  mutes  (in  this  order)  each  if  by  the  majority  of 
Gci'iiumic  dialects  pushed  around  one  step,  and  in  the  lligh- 
(ierinan  two  steps;  thus.  .^ans.  tmt,  Eng.  (hut,  Gcr.  tlfiit 
(th-^  sibilant  replacing  the  aspirate). 

Tho  changes  of  internal  content  or  meaning  of  words  are 
quite  as  indefintlely  various  as  those  of  form,  and  even 
mitro  irredu"iblo  to  systematic  order.  There  is  hardly  a 
conceivablo  transfer  of  use  which  may  n<»t  be  found  exeui- 
plilierl  in  tho  history  of  words.  But  much  the  greater  part 
of  them  may  be  rutlely  cla"sified  un<ier  two  great  heads — 
restriction  anil  extension.  By  restriction  or  apcciali/.alion 
is  meant  tho  taking  of  a  general  word  expressive  of  (|uality 
or  action,  and  making  of  it  the  specific  appellnlion  ol  s«une 
thing  or  class  of  things  possessing  that  along  with  other 
qualities.  Thus,  the  vm  is  named  from  its  "  shining,"  tho 
m'M.ji  from  her  '*  niensurint; "  of  time;  a  pfnurt  from  its 
'*  wandering  "  motion  ;  tlx-  e/re^rV  force  from  its  displaying 
itself  in  "amber"  (when  rubbed);  a  rmtrmf  from  the 
shapo  of  tho  "growing"  moon;  a  bonrd  from  its  b"ing 
*' broad  "  in  ])roportion  to  its  thickness;  and  so  on.  This 
is  one  of  the  earliest,  most  conetaot,  and  moat  fruitful 


methods  by  which  names  of  things  have  been  won.  But  a 
name,  once  won,  becomes  the  appellation  of  a  class  of  rehitcd 
things,  and  the  limits  of  classes  are  constantly  shifting  and 
spreading  by  direct  an<l  indirect  means.  Even  huh  and  moon 
become  class-names  when  tho  progress  of  astronomy  dis- 
closes other  bodies  of  analogous  character  with  tbera  ;  planet 
is,  by  the  same  means,  both  changed  in  application  (mado 
to  exclude  hhh  and  include  earth)  and  widened  (to  take  in 
Uranus  and  Neptune  and  the  asteroids).  But  not  tics  of 
scientific  classitication  alone,  lies  of  analogy,  of  every  kind 
and  dogroe.  aro  used  to  extend  the  sphere  of  application  of 
words,  lioafd  is  made  to  signify  the  **  table,"  and  then  the 
food  set  on  it,  and  the  body  of  men  that  sit  round  it  (board 
of  directors,  etc.).  Post,  literally  ''put.  placed,"  gets  a 
whole  scheme  of  meanings,  seemingly  of  utter  diversity, 
although  each  is  real!}'  fastened  to  some  one  of  the  others 
by  a  traceable  tie  of  association.  Thus,  a  great  part  of 
our  words  come  to  have  a  variety  of  senses  more  or  less  re- 
mote from  one  another — senses  which  it  is  the  oflicc  of  the 
lexicographer  to  place  in  tlieir  right  mutual  relations,  but 
which  the  ordinary  speaker  would  often  be  puzzled  to  ex- 
plain. But  there  arc  two  special  departments  of  this  change 
which  require  a  word  or  two  of  additional  notice.  In  the 
first  ])lace,  ail  our  expressions  for  intellectual  and  moral 
conceptions  and  relations  arc  obtained  thus  from  terms 
originally  indicative  of  what  is  physical  and  sensible: 
thus,  right  is  "straight,"  and  n-rony  is  '*  wrung  "  or  *' twist- 
ed ;"  undfratand  is  "stand  in  the  midst  "  of  anything;  im- 
ply is  "  fold  in,"  a]tphf  is  "  fold  to,"  rrpfij  is  "  bend  back," 
complif  is  "bend  along  with  ;"  dnrlnp  is  "  unwrap  ;"  occur 
is  ■'  run  against ;"  apprehend  is  "  take  hold  ;"  and  so  on. 
In  tho  second  place,  words  indicative  of  relation,  form- 
words,  connectives,  auxiliaries,  are  made  from  words  for- 
merly of  more  definite  and  material  meaning  by  a  gradual 
extension  so  wide  that  it  results  in  a  coniplete  efl'aceuient, 
by  attenuation,  of  that  meaning.  Thus,  the  verb  he,  the 
copula  between  subject  and  predicate,  is  mado  up  of  roots 
signifying  originally  "  grow,"  "  dwell,"  "  sit,"  "  stand,"  and 
the  like.  The  auxiliary  have,  now  a  sign  of  past  time  (/ 
barn  done),  of  future  obligation  (  /  have  to  <jo),  and  so  on,  is 
from  a  root  meaning  "seize."  "grasp;"  vill  cf)nies  from 
"encloae,"  fthall  from  "offend,"  may  from  "be  strong." 
The  articles  are  from  demonstratives  and  numerals:  rela- 
tives, from  demonstratives  and  interrogatives ;  conjunc- 
tions, from  adverlis  niul  other  parts  of  speech. 

By  both  these  methods  the  material  of  a  growing  and 
cultivating  language  is  constantly  undergoing  conversion 
to  liner,  more  formal,  more  coneej)tual  uses,  and  this  is 
perhaps  tho  grandest  general  movement  that  goes  on  in  it. 
There  aro  minor  movenunls  id'  every  kind,  many  of  which 
aro  mado  tlie  subject  of  exposition  and  illustration  in  such 
works  as  Trench's  Stndi/  of  IVordt  and  JCufflinh  J^ttut  and 
PrcHf-ut;  there  is  no  space  to  dwell  ujion  them  here. 

Tlio  second  general  division  of  linguistic  change  is  that 
of  loss.  It  is  a  comparatively  simple  subject.  As  language 
is  maintained  and  kept  in  existeneo  only  by  use,  disuse 
causes  <li8appcaranee  of  any  of  its  elements.  A  wonl  is 
lost  when  tho  eoncejition  for  which  it  stood  dies  out  of 
men's  knowledge  and  remembrance;  so,  for  examjile.  the 
phraseology  of  ancient  religion  and  ancient  arts,  when 
these  aro  superseded  by  n";w,  unlc-s,  indeed,  some  of  the 
old  words  should  take  on  new  and  changed  meanings ;  then 
we  have  only  that  minor  kind  of  loss  which  consists  in  the 
ilisappearance  of  an  internal  content.  But  words  are  also 
crowded  out  of  use  by  the  uprisal  of  new  terms  which  come 
iulit  fashion  an<l  make  Ihcm  dispensable.  When,  for  ex- 
ain|de,  the  Hood  of  words  of  Latin  origin  was  brought  in 
upiMi  I'ingliah,  it  eaus<,'d  the  obsolescence  of  nuniy  an  equal- 
ly good  term  of  Saxon  (trigin  ;  and  sporadic  cases  are  al- 
ways liable  to  happen  of  words  being  allowed  by  careless- 
ness, as  it  were,  lo  die  out,  which  we  nflcrwards  regret. 

A  moro  important  deparlitient  of  b'Ss  consists  in  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  signs  of  grammatieal  distinctions,  and 
with  these  of  the  consciousness  uf  the  distinctions  them- 
selves. chi<'fly  as  a  result  of  the  wearing-out  processes  of 
phonetic  decay.  As  alrcaily  noted,  no  modern  language 
ttffers  such  abuixlaiit  exemplification  of  this  as  our  Engli>h. 
Thus,  the  seven  original  cases  (d  our  family  have  been  re- 
duced to  two  (in  certain  pronouns,  three) ;  the  five  origiinil 
tenses,  to  two;  the  agreement  of  tho  adjective  with  its 
rntun,  in  two  forms  of  ileelcnsion,  is  entirely  lost;  the 
scheme  of  artificial  or  graminatieal  gender  is  obliterated; 
the  subjurielive  mood  is  nearly  gone.  But  the  same  thing 
is  true  in  less  degree  of  all  tho  languages  akin  with  ours, 
and  of  all  others  which  have  any  grammatical  structure  at 
all.  The  law  of  abbrevialion  is  inex()rable  in  its  working, 
and.  along  with  what  can  well  enough  be  spared,  takes 
away  what  is  valuable. 

The  third  division  of  change  includes  additions  to  tho 
material  of  language.  Of  the  addition  of  new  meanings  to 
old  words,  Buffioioat  nolioo  hoA  already  been  taken ;  and  it 


168G 


LANGUAGE. 


is  evident  that  by  this  means  the  resources  of  expression 
of  a  language  may  be  very  much  increased  without  auy 
corresponding  outside  show.  It  is  possible,  too,  to  no  small 
extent,  tu  pile  away  the  results  of  new  knowledge  in  the 
oM  words :  however  much  we  may  come  to  know  more  than 
of  old  about  the  Ktin,  hrtit,  ri'itiitf/  and  /alii mj,  and  innumer- 
able o'.hnr  subjects,  it  docs  not  disturb  our  employment  of 
the  traditional  names.  These  are  just  as  real  parts  of  the 
growth  of  language,  produced  by  the  same  forces  and  for 
the  same  purposes,  as  the  more  external  aclditions.  Ex- 
tcrntil  additions  are  of  two  kinds:  those  made  by  borrow- 
itig  from  abroad,  and  those  made  by  the  development  of 
native  material.  Borrowing  is  a  wcllnigh  universal  pro- 
cess of  language-making;  there  is  hardly  one  unmixed 
tongue  in  the  world,  unless  here  and  there  a  dialect  which 
never  comes  into  contact  with  any  other.  But  only  thoso 
languages  borrow  on  a  large  scale  of  which  the  speakers 
have  derived  to  a  large  extent  their  cullnre,  knowledge, 
institutions,  from  other  cnmmunitie.s.  The  Persian  in  this 
way  gets  material  of  expression  indefinitely  from  the  Ara- 
bic ;  the  Turkish,  from  the  Persian  and  Arabie  ;  the  modern 
dialcf'ts  of  India,  from  the  Sanskrit;  the  Japanese,  from 
the  Chinese.  And  so  all  t)ie  pp'>plc3  who  inherit  (irrck  and 
Roman  civilizatitm  have  taken  abunrJantly  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin  vocabularies.  And  our  English  has  borrowed 
more  than  any  other  language  that  is  not  descended  direct- 
ly from  the  Latin;  partly  because  the  forcible  fusion  of  a 
Gcrm.anic  and  a  Romanic  diak'(;t  which  was  the  result  of 
the  Xorman  Conquest  opened  the  d>)or  to  such  borrowing 
and  made  it  easy;  and  partly  because  the  native  processes 
of  composition  and  derivation  in  Kuglish  had  become  so 
inactive  tliat  not  much  growth  could  be  accomplished  by 
their  aid.  As  our  vocabulary  presents  itself  in  tlic  diction- 
aries, about  live  sevenths  of  it  arc  of  classical  origin.  Of 
course,  in  actual  use,  in  speaking  or  writing,  the  propor- 
tion is  very  different,  because  the  core  of  the  language, 
embracing  the  words  of  most  frequent  upc,  is  almost  ex- 
clusively Oeimanic  ;  the  Germanic  part  is  fiO  to  I'D  per  cent. 
Names  of  things  are  most  easily  and  directly  borrowed, 
connectives  least  easily,  grammatical  apparatus,  endings 
of  derivation  anrl  inflection,  almost  not  at  all.  The  foreign 
material  is  stripped  of  its  native  grammatical  form,  and 
often  shapel  over  a  little  to  assimilate  it  to  the  native  stock 
of  the  borrowing  language;  ami  it  i<  prepared  for  free  prac- 
tieal  use  by  means  of  the  grammatical  apparatus  of  the  lat- 
ter, each  borrowed  element  thus  often  becoming  the  nucleus 
of  a  little  family  of  derived  and  inflected  words.  What  thus 
conifs  into  a  language  is  to  a  very  great  extent  only  words 
of  loarne  I  use,  employed  almost  exclusively  by  those  who 
know  it  as  of  foreign  origin  and  recognize  ils  source;  but 
more  or  less  of  it,  according  to  circumstances,  works  its  way 
down  into  popular  n^o,  and  is  then  in  no  way  distinguish- 
able from  that  which  is  of  idtimately  native  growth:  the 
mass  of  speakers  use  their  words  simply  because  they  arc 
in  use,  neither  knowing  nor  caring  whence  they  came. 

For  obtaining  new  resources  of  expression  out  of  the  old 
material  of  a  language,  the  mothoils  cannot,  of  course,  bo 
very  various.  In  the  course  of  the  phonetic  changes  of 
language  a  single  word  sometimes  divides  into  two  or  even 
more  forms,  which  then  go  on  to  lead  an  imlependent  life; 
so  Anglo-Saxon  n/'bas  separated  into  of  nniXoJf,  Anglo-Saxon 
dn  into  otir  and  nn  or  «,  erihwtt  into  also  and  a«  ,-  and  we 
have  such  doublets  as  mhiUte  and  mlinitf,  condurt  and  co;i- 
rfH'7,  (frntle  and  rfrntrrl  and  grntilr,  and  so  on;  but  such  a 
method  operates  only  on  a  very  restricfcil  scale.  A  process 
of  much  wid-^r  reach  and  greater  importance  is  that  of  the 
forma'ion  of  compound  words,  which  is  very  extensively 
and  fruitfully  resorted  to  by  all  the  tongues  of  our  family, 
althou:?h  much  more  by  some  than  by  others.  Wc  have  in 
English,  for  example,  combinations  of  every  grade — from 
suL'h  loose  ones  as  bo'tkrover,  rhnh--hitrk,  througli  closer, 
like  trth/ecfoth,  in/culaud,  homefttcai/,  vailrnttd,  steanibuat.  to 
such  as  have  been  so  far  altered  in  pronunciation  or  mean- 
ing, or  both,  that  we  do  not  ordinarily  think  of  them  as 
compound  at  all,  like  hrptihfn>;t,  forvh'oil.  Ifxitfiipniti,  or 
such  as  have  their  origin  wholly  concealed  from  all  but 
learned  ovcj*,  like  »itch  and  wltirh  (from  no~h'ke  and  ipAo- 
likc).  Many  a  flccmingly  simple  word  of  ours  is  proved 
by  biatorical  inquiry  to  bo  put  together,  no  great  way  back, 
from  two  or  more  others.  For  we  are  always  ready  to  for- 
get tiie  origin  of  tbo  terms  we  use  when  thoy  aio  once 
made  and  put  to  use;  and  then  the  processes  (»f  ]»honctic 
cliange  seize  upon  them  and  alter  and  disguise  them  past 
recognition. 

Very  frequently  these  processes  act  only  upon  one,  the 
lat'cr.  of  two  members  of  a  compound,  converting  it  into 
a  dependent  addition  to  the  other.  Thus,  our  /i/  in  ffodfi/, 
mnnit/,  bomehfy  etc.  is  to  us  a  mere  suffix,  forming  adjec- 
tives from  the  nouns  if  id,  man,  hinue  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
as  /';■/•*'/»/.  frii/y,  it  makes  ndver'ns  from  adjectives;  but  in 
Anglo-Saxon  it  was  an  appended  adjective,  tic,  lice,  our 


like.  The  d  which  makes  the  past  tense  of  our  *'  regular  " 
verbs  is  similarly  traceable  to  the  verb  did^  added  as  an 
auxiliary  in  early  (ierman  language  to  some  verbal  word. 
The  ai  of  French  vhaiitcrai  is  an  auxiliary — J'«i,  "  1  have." 
The  bavi,  bii^  and  vi  of  Latin  verbs  arc  of  the  same  origin  ; 
so  is  the  <Tw  {n/t)  of  the  tireek  future.  These  are  but  ex- 
amples of  a  large  number  of  endings  or  suflixcs  whicli  come 
demonstrably  from  independent  words,  at  first  compounded 
with  other  words,  then  disguised  in  form,  and  finally  com- 
ing to  be  felt  as  mere  modilicatory  a]>pendages,  and  ex- 
tended in  use  in  that  office.  No  other  method  of  producing 
such  elements  of  cxjircssiou  is  known  through  all  the  his- 
torical epochs  of  language.  It  is  true  that  by  no  means 
all  suffixes  admit  of  this  explanation;  but  that  is  because 
the  evidence  wliich  would  constitute  an  explanation  is  no 
longer  attainable.  The  facts  in  our  language  which  seem 
to  make  against  it — especially  the  instances  of  internal 
change  like  man  men^  lead  led,  tfira  yare — are  capable  of 
easy  explanation  as  inorganic  or  accidental  results  of 
plionetic  change,  and  traceable  to  original  external  addition 
like  the  rest.  In  ^hort.  we  have  here  a  method  of  linguistic 
growth  which  is  in  corajdetc  accordance  with  the  facts  and 
tendencies  of  known  linguistic  history,  and  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  l>est  modern  students  of  language,  is  capable 
oi' having  produced  the  whole  structure  of  speech.  It  works 
very  slowly,  indec<l,  as  conii)arcd  with  wholesale  borrowing, 
but  its  effects  are  intinitely  cleeper  and  more  important. 

All  those  methods  of  ehange  are  carried  on,  it  will  be 
observed,  in  the  interest  of  convenient  expression.  Tltcrc 
is  new  knowledge  of  every  kind  to  be  provided  for — new 
facts,  new  classifications,  abstractions,  deductions:  and 
there  are,  not  so  indispensable,  but  as  inevitable,  changes 
of  the  instrument  of  expression  itself  in  its  uttered  form, 
in  its  apparatus  of  connection  and  relation.  As  a  whole, 
the  proce:58  seems  a  biglily  intricate  one,  but  in  its  details 
it  is  perfectly  intelligible.  It  is  a  constant  name-making, 
a  never-ending  satisfaction  of  the  individual  needs  of  ex- 
pression, as  suggested  by  an<l  built  ujion  the  already  sub- 
sisting uses  of  a  language,  as  governed  in  the  mode  of 
satisfaction  by  the  existing  habits  of  speech,  and  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  ease.  The  idea  being  conceived,  the 
mind  reaches  after  the  means  of  its  significati<»n,  and  finds 
this  wherever  it  lies  most  ready  at  hand.  The  mind  is 
easily  content :  no  nicely  adajited  sign,  essentially  bodying 
forth  the  conception,  is  required:  only  a  representative 
which  shall  be  iienccfi>rth  ns,sociated  with  the  conception, 
and  one  having  such  relation  to  antecedent  expression  that 
it  shall  commend  itself  to  the  acceptance  of  the  community. 
For  this  is  an  ordeal  which  everything  in  language  must 
pass.  Nothing  is  language  until  it  is  adopted  by  a  com- 
munity as  its  means  of  communication.  Though  every 
individual  change  jtroceeds  from  individual  action,  and  luis 
its  own  time  and  jilaee  and  occasion  of  origination,  the 
common  action  is  equally  a  factor  in  its  history. 

It  is  easy  to  find,  in  the  antithesis  of  individual  action 
and  that  of  the  community,  the  explanation  of  dialectic 
variation.  Every  language  is  all  the  time  changing;  it 
changes  by  specific  items,  v.liich  begin  with  individuals  and 
.spread  by  communication,  by  imitation,  through  the  whole 
mass  of  the  community.  So  long  as  they  do  thus  spread, 
the  langu.agc  of  the  community,  liowevcr  rapidly  it  may 
change,  remains  homogeneous  throughout  its  whole  terri- 
tory, with  the  exception  of  those  minor  local  and  class  dif- 
ferences which  jirevail  within  the  limits  of  every  existing 
tongue  without  disparagement  to  ils  unity,  because  those 
who  speak  it  can  all  understand  one  another  in  reference 
to  the  most  necessary  subjects.  iJut  if  the  parts  A  and  ii 
and  C,  and  so  on,  become  separated  from  one  another,  so 
that  the  changes  initiated  in  A  do  not  spread  into  II  and  C, 
nor  thoso  made  in  li  or  C  into  the  rest,  then  the  local  dif- 
ferences begin  at  once  to  be  multiplied  and  deepened; 
mutual  intelligcnco  becomes  more  and  more  diflicult,  an(l 
finally  impossible:  and  different  languages  are  the  result- 
All,  then,  that  makes  for  unity  of  community  represses 
dialectic  growth.  And  the  forces  of  culture  are  those  which 
work  most  efficiently  toward  this  result.  A  literature, 
writing,  instruction,  tend  to  check  the  rate  of  change  of  a 
language,  and  to  efface  local  and  class  differences  already 
exisling.  Ignorance  and  barbarism  both  encourage  rapid 
alteration,  and.  by  favoring  the  isolated  and  antagonistic 
position  of  districts  and  tribes,  make  for  divarication  also. 
The  maintenance  of  wide-extended  unity  of  speech,  be- 
cause of  wide  unity  of  other  institutions,  is  possible  only 
under  civilized  conditions. 

The  state  of  language  throughout  the  earth  is  precisely 
what  the  principles  here  laiil  down  would  lead  us  to  ex- 
pect. The  world  is  full  of  dialects,  some  closely  and  ob- 
viously akin  with  one  another,  others  having  resemblances 
discoverable  upon  closer  examination,  others  apparently 
unrelated.  If  speech  began  to  exist  along  with  a  single 
race  or  a  limited  number  of  races  of  human   beings,  and 


LANGUAGE. 


1637 


Spread  with  tbcni  IVum  land  to  laud  and  from  coDtlDcnt  to 
oontineDt.cvcr  nlttTiDg  aud  divaricuCing  diulecticully  with 
every  new  <livisiou  oIl  ii  race  ur  cumtuunity,  the  result 
would  linully  bo  what  we  see  it  tu  he.  In  the  luu<;  ages  of 
barbari!«iii  the  j;iuwih  of  diaU-ets  was  the  prevailing  teud- 
oucy ;  sinoe  civilization  has  become  tho  ovenvlieliuing 
fiirco  in  the  history  of  (he  worhl.  the  tendency  is  the  other 
way  :  iho  cuUivated  dialects  of  the  leading  nations  aro  cx- 
tendini:.  and  crowding  out  divorsit_v,  and  even  encnuraging 
men  to  luok  forward  to  a  time  when  one  or  two  languages 
shall  prevail  universally. 

Such  being  the  ca^-^e,  it  is  evidently  one  of  the  first  ob- 
jcots  tu  bo  aimed  at  by  the  students  of  language  tu  make 
a  classificatioD  of  all  human  dialects  according  to  their 
relationship  and  its  degrees:  only  thus  can  the  way  be 
prepared  for  the  historical  research  of  language  in  general. 
And  this  *vork  has  been  accomplished,  so  far  as  the  assem- 
blage of  matrrials  has  made  it  possible — jtrovisiunally,  that 
is  tu  say,  and  with  full  acknowledgment  uf  the  probability 
of  aincndnieot  and  improvement  hereaftor.  And  at  least 
tho  main  outlines  of  the  classification  wo  have  here  to  re- 
view. In  imitation  of  genenlngieal  phraseology,  the  dia- 
lects regarded  as  demonstrably  de.'jcendcd  from  a  common 
ancestor  aro  called  a  "  family,"  ca;;h  family  being  tlicn  di- 
vided into  branches,  sub-braDches,  etc.,  as  may  be  found 
convenient. 

Im/o-EHropenn  Ftiinih/. — This  is  sometimes  also  called 
Aryan,  ur,  by  the  (iormans,  Indo-Germanic.  It  is  the 
family  to  which  our  own  tongue  belongs,  with  must  of  tho 
other  languages  of  Europe,  and  with  those  of  Suuth-wcstem 
A^ia;  and  it  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all.  It  is  di- 
vided into  seven  principal  brunches.  There  is  (1)  the  /n- 
(iitin,  or  Sanskritie.  an  intrutler  into  India  from  the  X.  \V., 
prjbably  not  more  than  liiHiO  to  ;iU0O  years  B.  c,  and 
gradually  filling  all  the  northern  country,  with  a  part  of 
the  southern  peninsula,  the  l>ekban  ;  the  rest  remaining 
in  puj»st'ssiun  of  tho  mure  ab(»riginal  Dravidian  tribes.  Its 
oldest  language  is  the  Sanskrit,  the  earliest  parts  of  the 
literature  of  which,  the  hymns  of  the  Veda,  go  back  prob- 
ably to  near  2000  u.  c,  the  remotest  date  anywhere  reached 
among  Indo-European  records.  The  language  is  alf^o  less 
altered,  by  changes  either  of  form  or  of  meaning,  from  the 
original  common  speech  than  is  any  other;  an«i  hence  tho 
iSanskrit  takes  the  leading  place  in  all  researches  into  the 
oMest  language-history  of  the  whole  family.  The  great 
groups  of  varying  dialects  known  as  Hindi,  Bengali,  Mab- 
ratti,  are  the  modern  repri-s<-nlatives  of  the  branch;  and 
between  them  and  the  Sanskrit  lie  the  Prikril  dialects  aud 
the  I'llli,  the  sacred  language  of  Southern  Hiiddhism.  (2j 
The  Iraninn  branch,  oc'tipying  the  great,, Iranian  plateau 
between  the  borders  of  Mesopotamia  and  of  India.  It  is 
nearly  akin  with  tlie  Indian,  auil  the  two  are  often,  aud 
very  properly,  combined  togi^ther  into  a  single  *•  Aryan  " 
branch;  their  oldest  dialects  are  hardly  more  unlike  tlian, 
fur  example,  some  of  tho  Ocrmanio  languages  aro  unlike 
one  another.  Tho  eldest  records  of  the  branch  of  definite 
dft'c  are  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Darius  and  his  sue- 
cessiirs  (from  about  JOO  ».  i\);  in  part,  probably,  older  is 
the  iSible  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  tho  A  vesta;  its  lan- 
gtiage  is  called  tho  Zend,  (»r  Aveslan,  or  Old  Bactrian.  Of 
cnn:oiderahly  later  date  is  the  prublcmatical  Iluzvilresh.  or 
I'ehlevi;  and  the  Ptlrsi  but  little  precedes  tho  Modern  Per- 
sian, which  has  a  great  and  valuable  literature,  beginning 
from  al)out  10(10  a.  d.  To  this  branch  belong  also  I  lie 
Kunlish,  tho  Ossetic  in  the  Caucasus,  and  probably  the 
Afghan  ;  also  the  Armenian,  which  has  a  literature  going 
back  to  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  (ti)  Tho  Greek  brnneh. 
Of  this  Iho  history  is  too  well  known  to  require  more  than 
a  wor<l  here.  It  has  in  the  poems  of  Homer  the  oldest 
monuments  of  the  family  outside  of  India.  What  wcro 
the  relatione,  tu  it  and  to  the  fauiily,  of  the  languages  on 
tho  N.,  and  of  those  on  the  E.,  in  Asia  Minor,  is  very  uo- 
cerlain,  and  will  perhaps  never  ho  determined.  Tho  present 
Albanian,  or  Skipetar,  regardeil  aH  mu<lorn  representative 
of  tho  ancient  lllyrinn,  is  of  disputed  eliaraeter,  but  more 
probably  Indo- Kurojiean.  (I)  The  lutlir  branch.  This 
included  a  considerablo  nuinbor  of  the  languages  of  Italy  ; 
and  of  some  of  them,  especially  the  Osean  and  the  I'mbrian, 
considerable  remains  aro  left;  uf  ulhers.  as  Vulseian  and 
Sabine,  tho  merest  fragments.  All  were  wiped  out  by  tho 
Latin  dialect  of  Unme,  which  aUo  extendecl  itself,  along 
with  It<iman  dominion  and  institutions,  in  both  directions 
through  Southern  Europe,  giving  rise  to  tho  muilem  group 
of  the  U' I  manic  languages,  embracing  as  its  principal 
menibors  the  Italian,  Kreneh,  Provencal,  Spnnish  and 
Portuguese,  Humansh.  and  Walhichinn,  each  inelutling  a 
greiit  variety  uf  dialects.  Tho  literatures  of  these  modern 
languages  commence  between  tho  tenth  and  thirteenth 
centuries;  fragments  of  Latin  como  down  from  tho  third 
century  u.  c  {;'»)  Tho  Crftic  branch.  The  Celtic  lan- 
guages formerly  occupied  a  very  broad  space  iu  Europe, 


but  they  have  been  continually  encroached  upon  by  buCh 
Romanic  and  Germanic,  until  now  they  survive  only  on 
the  farthest  western  edges  of  their  old  territory.  Tho 
Welsh,  the  Cornish  (extinct  since  tho  end  of  the  last 
century),  and  the  Armoriciui  of  Hrittany  constitute  tho 
Cymric  divisiun  of  the  extant  dialects;  tho  Cjadhelic  in- 
cludes the  Irish,  the  tiaelie  of  Scotland,  and  the  Manx  of 
the  Isle  of  Man.  Irish  and  Welsh  monuments  go  back  to 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  (0)  Tho  Sf'nosti'c,  or  Siavo- 
Lcttic  branch.  The  seat  of  the  Slavonic  languages  is  in 
Eastern  Europe.  The  important  members  of  the  eastern 
subdivision  are  Russian.  Bulgarian,  and  Servian;  of  the 
western,  Polish  aud  Iluhcmiau.  The  earliest  Slavonic 
record  is  a  Bible  versiun  made  iu  the  ninth  century.  The 
branch  is  a  double  one,  in  virtue  of  being  made  to  include 
the  more  remotely  but  still  specially  kindred  Lettish  dia- 
lects— namely,  tho  Lithuanic,  Livonian,  and  (extinct)  Old 
Prussian.  These  have  no  records  older  than  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  the  Lithuanian  especially  is  distinguished 
by  the  primitivcness  of  some  of  its  forms.  (7)  The 
Germanic  (or  Teutonic)  branch.  This  is  divided  into 
four  sub-branches.  The  Ma;so-Gothic,  or  dialect  of  the 
(iuths  of  Mcesia,  is  long  since  extinct,  and  is  represented 
only  by  parts  of  a  Bible  version  made  by  lUfilas  in  the 
fourth  century.  It  occupies,  as  both  oldest  in  time  and 
most  primitive  in  structure,  much  such  a  position  in  the 
braneii  as  the  Sanskrit  occupies  in  the  family.  The  Scan- 
dinavian sub-branch  tills  Denmark,  Sweden,  Noiway,  aud 
Iceland.  It  has  its  olilest  living  representative  in  the  Ice- 
landic, and  its  oldest  and  most  original  monuments  also 
eomc  from  Iceland  iu  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  The  more  jirojicr  German  is  divided  into 
the  lligh-derman  of  the  c.ntral  and  southern  region,  and 
the  Low-German  ol  the  northern  lowlands.  The  High- 
German  begins  its  Old  period  in  tho  eighth  century,  its 
Middle  in  the  tweltth.  and  its  New  in  the  sixteenth;  what 
we  cull  the  German  language  is  its  only  cultivated  dialect. 
A  great  partultlie  Low-German  territory  in  Germany  now 
acknowledges  the  supri  macy  of  tho  literary  High-German  ; 
but  the  Ketherlandish  ur  Dutch  has  an  independent  culture 
and  literature,  and  the  English  is  its  colonj",  brought  to 
Britain  by  the  Angles  and  Saxons  in  the  fifth  century  and 
later.  Tlic  oldest  Anglo-Saxon  remains  arc  from  the  sev- 
enth century. 

Respecting  all  this  great  and  important  body  of  lan- 
guages is  to  bo  held,  in  conformity  with  the  principles  laid 
down  above,  that  they  are  descended  frum  the  tongue  of  a 
single  community  which  lived  somewhere,  within  narrow 
limits,  at  some  remote  period,  and  by  sprtad  and  emigra- 
tion broke  up,  over  and  over  again,  into  separate  parts, 
with  the  inevitable  consequence  oi  tho  breaking  up  uf  its 
speech  into  dialects.  Where  antl  when  that  original  com- 
munity lived  it  is  wholly  imputsible  to  determine  from  any 
evidences  as  yet  brought  to  light ;  certainly,  language  does 
not  give,  and  cannot  be  expected  ever  to  give,  any  definite 
information  about  it.  The  question  of  the  time  depends 
wholly  upon  the  grander  and  now  much  moc»te<l  question 
of  the  antiquity  of  man  on  the  earth;  tho  historical  lin- 
guist will  only  say  tliat  ho  does  not  know  well  how  to  ctMU- 
pretJS  all  the  events  of  Indo-European  language-history 
into  the  brief  space  of  tiOtJO  years,  and  will  wlIcohic  an  ex- 
tension of  the  period ;  hut  what  extension  to  ask  for  he 
dt>es  nut  at  present  know.  As  for  the  place,  the  popular 
impression  which  fixes  it  about  the  Hindu-Kush  or  in  Bac- 
tria  has  no  defensible  basis  whatever  ;  the  facts  of  huiguage 
admit  of  being  reconcildl  with  almost  any  theory  that  can 
bo  suggested.  It  is  now  prevailingly  lield  by  linguistic 
Scholars  that  the  European  branches  must  have  constituted 
a  community  together  for  8(»nie  time  after  their  common 
separation  from  the  Asiatic  or  Aryan  braneli ;  but  that 
proves  nothing.  The  Slavonic  and  Girnianic  branches  are 
also  believed  to  be  of  especially  near  kindred  ;  whether  the 
Celtio  branch  shall  be  reckoned  lis  independent,  or  more 
closely  connected  with  the  Italiean,  is  a  disputed  point,  as 
is  also  the  special  ^elation^bi^l  of  tho  two  classical  lan- 
guages. While  language  is  thus  silent  as  to  ]>lace  and 
time,  it  gives  some  definite  information  respecting  the  con- 
dition of  the  primitive  ooinniunity,  showing  it  to  have 
been  nut  merely  nomadic,  but  of  setllccl  and  agricultural 
lif'',  with  well-developed  family  organization,  with  domes- 
ticated aninmis,  with  some  of  the  arts  of  life,  aud  with 
knowledge  of  a  metal  or  two. 

The  history  of 'development  of  iDdo-Eurnpcan  language 
is  better  tindorstoud  than  that  of  any  other  family,  the  ma- 
terials being  cxcepti<)nally  abundant.  a!id  lia\  ing  received 
an  amuunt  of  study  which  has  been  bestowed  up'Ui  nu  other; 
its  nmin  features  are  pretty  clear,  though  tture  remains 
abundance  of  obscurity  in  its  details.  The  language  began 
in  a  condition  uf  munosyllabie  "roots"  (analogous  with 
those  of  which,  fur  example,  tho  Chinese  language  is  even 
down  to  the  present  time  composed),  utteranct'^  which  were 


1638 


LANCxUAGE. 


neither  noun  nor  verb,  nor  any  other  "part  of  speech," 
but  were  as  rcaUy  to  turn  to  the  uses  of  one  as  of  another. 
They  were  of  two  elnsses — verbal  roots,  expressing  material, 
sensible  aet  or  quality  ;  and  a  small  number  of  pronominal 
or  demonstrative  roots,  indicating  position  and  direction. 
That  the  distinction  of  these  classes  is  primitive  is  by  no 
means  certain  :  but  it  is  at  any  rate  earlier  than  the  growth 
of  Indo-European  structure.  The  first  important  step  of 
growth,  it  seems,  was  the  making  of  a  predicative  or  as- 
sertive form — a  verb;  it  was  done  by  couibining  with  ver- 
bal roots  certain  affixed  pronominal  elemcnls,  and  "  under- 
standing "  the  copula  between  them  ;  thus,  dit-mi,  "  giving- 
I,"  to  be  used  henceforth  only  in  the  sense  ••  I  [am]  giving" 
(or,  "  a  giver;"  or  "giving-minc  ").  Thus  were  made  the 
three  persons  of  a  verbal  form,  in  three  numbers,  singular, 
dual,  and  plural ;  and  the  addition  of  a  preterit  "augment"- 
tense,  a-rUl-mi,  "  then-give-I  " — !.  e.  "I  gave,"  a  redupli- 
cated preterit  or  perfect  (/(t-rfu-mi'.  "  give-give-I  " — i.  e.  "I 
have  given,"  and  a  future,  dd-Hj/aiiii,  probably  "  I  am 
going  to  be  giving,"  left  to  this  simpler  form  the  character 
of  a  present.  More  or  less  of  an  imperative,  o|italive,  and 
subjunctive,  and  of  a  middle  or  reflexive  voice,  also  were 
products  of  the  original  tongue  before  the  separation  of 
the  branches.  The  establishment  of  a  verb  left  the  re- 
mainder of  linguistic  material  in  the  condition  of  noun, 
noun  substantive  and  noun  adjective;  for  these  two  parts 
of  speech  were  at  first  not  held  apart.  A  system  of  inflec- 
tion was  by  similar  means  (very  hard  to  understand  in  their 
detail)  created  for  these  also,  indicating  case,  number,  and 
gender.  Of  eases  there  were  seven,  besides  the  vocative — 
namely,  nominative  or  subject-case,  accusative  or  lo-case 
(also  direct  object),  ablative  or /rom-case,  locative  or  in- 
case, instrumental  or  %-case,  dative  or/or-case;  and  geni- 
tive, case  of  general  relation  or  appurtenance.  Of  num- 
bers, there  were  the  same  three  as  in  the  verb  :  and  the  dis- 
tinction of  gender,  which,  founding  itself  on  the  natural 
differences  of  sex,  extends  itself  to  all  objects  of  thought, 
being  only  in  small  part  governed  by  sex,  is  something 
very  characteristic  of  our  family  ;  much  the  smaller  number 
of  human  languages  make  any  account  of  such  a  distinc- 
tion. The  pronouns  are  a  class  of  words  inflected  like 
nouns  .and  adjectives,  but  coming  from  pronominal  instead 
of  verbal  roots.  From  the  same  roots  come  naturally  the 
first  adverbial  words,  indicators  of  position  and  direction  ; 
the  other  particles,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  are  yet 
later  to  arise.  The  interjection  is  no  "part  of  speech,"  but 
rather  an  unanalyzed,  holophrastio  utterance,  analogous 
with  the  undeveloped  root.  Thus,  by  combination  of  ele- 
ment with  element,  and  the  assignment  of  the  combinations 
to  specific  uses  in  definite  connections,  this  language  arose 
from  a  mere  indefinite  intimation  of  intended  meaning, 
such  as  our  exclamations  give,  to  orderly  and  distinct 
statement— first  in  single  clauses,  then  in  elaborate  com- 
binations of  clauses,  in  periods.  How  much  time  the  pro- 
cess occupied  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  it  must  have  been 
a  long  time ;  and  before  the  separation  of  the  branches  took 
place  a  height  of  synthetic  development  was  reached  from 
which,  although  every  branch  has  more  recent  synthetic 
formations  to  show,  there  has  been  on  the  whole  a  reces- 
sion, by  the  substitution  of  more  "analytic"  moans  of  ex- 
pression of  relation,  of  form-words  and  aux'iaries — our 
own  English  being,  as  in  other  respects,  the  most  marked 
and  extreme  example  of  the  new  tendency. 

The  importance  to  us  of  the  study  of  Indo-European 
language  lies  partly  in  the  fact  that  it  is  our  own  family, 
and  that  also  to  which  belong  the  tongues  of  the  founders 
and  leading  representatives  of  our  civilization,  so  that  the 
study  is  connected  in  its  bearings  with  a  variety  of  other 
inquiries  in  which  wo  are  especially  interested.  It  has  also 
been  the  principal  foundation,  and  almost  the  initial  phase, 
of  the  general  science  of  language,  because  there  was  no- 
where else  in  the  world  so  large  and  varied  a  body  of  re- 
lated linguistic  phenomena,  by  the  examination  of  which 
the  general  laws  of  linguistic  life  could  be  deduced,  and 
methods  of  research  worked  out  which  might  be  fruitfully 
applied  where  the  material  was  less  abundant,  and  exhibited 
a  less  length  and  breadth  of  development.  Ileneo,  and  not 
from  any  over-estimate  of  this  language,  as  alone  worthy 
of  investigation,  or  as  furnishing  the  norm  of  human 
speech,  comes  the  conspicuous  absorpti<>n  of  linguistic 
students  thus  far  in  Indo-European  studies.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  profounder  comparative  stuily  of  other  fami- 
lies also  is  well  prepared  for,  is  becoming  more  and  more 
urgent,  and  is  engaging  more  and  more  labor :  although 
none  has  yet  received  anything  like  the  same  degree  of 
comprehensive  and  penetrating  examination  as  the  Indo- 
European  family.  We  shall,  aooordingly,  review  the  others 
much  more  briefly. 

The  Sri/th!'iii  i>r  Ural-Altaic  Family. — This  group  of 
languages,  widely  coterminous  with  the  Indo-European,  is 
often  also  called  the  Turanian,  and  is  generally  reckoned 


to  contain  five  great  branches:  (1)  The  Finno-Hungarinn, 
chiefly  European  in  locality,  including,  besides  Finnish 
and  Hungarian  or  Magyar,  the  Lappish  and  the  dialects 
of  a  host  of  unimportant  tribes  stretching  through  North- 
ern and  Eastern  Europe  across  the  Ural  chain.  (2)  The 
Samoyed,  along  the  shores  of  Siberia,  from  the  White  Sea 
to  the  Yenisei,  and  up  that  river  to  the  Altai  Mountains, 
probably  its  original  seat,  (.'i)  The  Turkish,  recent  occu- 
pants of  Asia  Minor,  and  overlapping  the  border  of  Europe, 
extending  over  a  vast  tract  of  (.'entral  Asia,  and  having  an 
important  branch,  the  Yakut,  even  on  the  Lena,  to  its 
mouth.  (4)  The  Mongoliiin.  yet  f:irthcr  East,  but  nowhere 
reaching  the  ocean.  (5)  The  Tungusic  or  (from  Ihenameof 
the  principal  people)  Manchu,  beyond  in  the  north-eastern 
end  of  Asia,  save  its  peninsulas  and  islands;  the  ^lanebus 
have  also  held  China  in  their  grasp  during  the  past  two 
centuries.  The  languages  of  the  first  or  westernmost 
branch  do  not  difl'er  remarkably  in  their  general  character 
from  the  Indo-European,  but  have  more  of  what  is  called 
the  "agglutinative"  type:  that  is  to  say,  root  or  theme 
antl  ending  are  less  intimately  united,  rather  "stuck  to- 
gether" than  fused  together,  the  ending  retaining  a  moro 
independent  character:  this  results  both  in  a  greater  regu- 
larity and  a  greater  intricacy  of  formation.  But  the  two 
easternmost  members  are  of  a  much  less  developed  and 
more  jejune  character,  verging  on  the  stifl'  incxpressivc- 
ncss  of  monosyllabism  ;  and  this,  in  connection  with  other 
peculiarities,  linguistic  and  physical,  casts  some  doubt  on 
the  coherence  of  the  family.  There  is  neither  abundance 
norantiquity  of  literary  productiveness  among  the  Scythian 
races;  their  main  part  in  history  has  been  war  and  dev;is- 
tation  :  the  wild  and  curious  mythic  popular  poetry  of  the 
Finns  (the  Kahrala)  is  their  most  original  work,  unless, 
indeed,  it  shall  turn  out  to  be  true,  as  is  eliiimed  of  late, 
that  the  "Accadian  "  people,  who  laid  the  foundation  of 
Mesopotamian  civilization,  and  invented  the  cuneiform 
writing  which  was  afterwards  borrowed  and  ado]ited  by 
both  Semitic  and  Indo-European  peoples,  was  Scythian, 
of  the  Ugrian  branch.  This  would  carry  the  antiquity  of 
Scythian  language  back  to  a  point  fully  as  remote  as  that 
reached  either  by  Indo-European  or  Semitic.  It  cannot  be 
long  now  before  this  question  is  settled. 

Of  the  various  and  diverse  languages  of  the  North-eastern 
Asiatic  waters,  the  JajianeKe  is  the  only  one  that  deserves 
mention.  It  is,  though  highly  polysyllabic,  of  an  exceed- 
ingly simple  structure,  phimetically  and  graniuiatically, 
much  like  the  Mongol  and  Manchu,  and  may  perhaps  yet 
be  proved  of  one  family  with  them.  Its  culture  is  derived 
from  China. 

The  S.  E.  of  Asia  is  filled  with  languages  which  have 
monosyllabism  as  their  distinctive  characteristic.  The 
Cliiiiese  is  by  far  the  most  pr<iininent  and  important  among 
them.  This  is  a  language  in  the  highest  degree  remark- 
able for  the  paucity  of  its  resources  and  the  exceeding  deft- 
ness with  which  they  are  used,  so  as  to  |ierform  the  duties 
of  a  highly  cultivated  speech  during  an  unpreeedcntedly 
long  period.  The  Chinese  literary  monuments  go  back  to 
nearly  2000  n.  c,  and  are  of  great  variety,  extent,  and 
merit.  The  language  is  composed  of  only  some  500  differ- 
ent ivords,  as  we  should  write  them  :  but  their  number  is 
raised  to  about  1500  by  the  tones  of  utterance,  this  clement 
having  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  intellictual  distinc- 
tion in  the  scanty  monosyllabic  tongues,  both  Chinese  and 
Farther  Indian.  The  means  of  formal  distinction  are  in 
part  form-words,  particles  and  auxiliaries,  and  in  part 
|iosition  in  the  sentence.  The  intelligibilily  of  the  literary 
language  is  much  aided  by  the  mode  of  writing,  which  is 
to  a  great  extent  indicative  of  meaning,  instead  of  pro- 
nounced form.  The  popular  dialects  are  numerous,  and  so 
diverse  as  to  be  like  so  many  independent  languages. 
Some  of  them  are  saiil  to  make  a  degree  of  approach  to  an 
agglutinative  structure.  _     • 

The  onlv  tie  to  connect  the  Farther  Imlian  and  the  Him- 
alayan (at  least  in  part)  with  the  Chinese  dialects  is  their 
common  nionosvUabie  structure.  The  liurmcse,  Siamese, 
etc.  have  literatures  of  no  great  antiquity  founded  on  that 
of  India,  whence  comes  their  religion  I  Buddhism)  also; 
and  nearly  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  Thibetan.  A  vast 
deal  has  still  to  be  done  to  make  clear  the  character  and 
relations  of  this  great  and  perplexing  confusion  of  littlo- 
known  and  unimportant  dialects. 

Off  this  corner  of  Asia  lies  Iho  vast  and  scattered  array 
of  the  isles  of  the  Pacific.  They  arc  occupied  by  at  least 
three  independent  and  wholly  insular  races  and  language- 
families.  Australia  and  Tasmania  arc  the  home  of  one, 
the  Aimtrallati.  New  Guinea,  part  of  Horneo,  and  the  moro 
inaccessible  parts  of  several  other  islands  and  groups,  are 
inhabited  by  a  black  race  with  frizzleil  hair,  the  Papuan  or 
Negrito;  its  dialects  are  almost  entirely  unknown,  but  aro 
bebeved  to  be  unrelated  with  any  others.  But  the  great 
j  islands  nearest  ^Malacca  (and  Malacca  itself  by  recent  im- 


LANGUAGE. 


1639 


migratioD),  and  the  shores  of  the  others  just  mentioned, 
anil  the  scattered  groups  within  the  limits  innrked  by  For- 
uioaa  iiud  Xl-w  Zciiland,  by  Madagascar  aud  Kaster  Island, 
aro  Iho  liouio  uf  an  immense  and  well-deliut-d  tuniily,  the 
Mnlnjf- l^iffyncKiaUf  in  three  branches — Malay,  Melunesian^ 
and  Polynesian.  Several  of  the  dialects  of  the  Malay 
branch  have  literary  culture,  derived  from  the  mainland; 
that  of  Java  and  Ilali,  coming  from  India,  has  rocuidr^  go- 
ing back  oven  to  the  lirst  centuries  of  our  era.  The  Malay 
has  adopted  I?lam,  and  with  it  the  Arabic  alphabet.  These 
languages,  though  not  monosyllabic,  arc  nearly  bare  of 
structural  development,  not  having  evrn  a  clear  distinction 
of  noun  and  verb,  nor  anything  that  cmld  fairly  ))0  called 
inflection.  Their  phonetic  form  is  also  simpler  than  that 
of  any  other  known  tongues. 

The  Drtiviii'tin  group  of  languages,  of  Southern  India, 
is  of  an  a;rgluttna(ive  type,  somewhat  resembling  tho 
Scythian,  aud  some  linguistic  sch<)lars  have  been  ovcrhasty 
to  pronounce  it  a  branch  of  the  Scythian  family,  lis  prin- 
cipal members  aro  the  Tamil,  Canarese,  and  Telugu.  They 
have  literatures  of  some  antif[uity,  founded  on  tho  San- 
skrit, their  culture  having  been  derived  from  the  Aryan 
races  of  the  North. 

The  Caucasus  region  is  filled  with  a  medley  of  peculiar 
dialects,  apparently  akin  with  no  others  in  the  world,  aud 
for  the  most,  [tavt  unrelateil  even  with  one  anotlier. 

The  Srnu'ti'^  Fann'fi/. — This  is  the  only  Asiatic  family  re- 
maining to  be  considered.  Its  home  is  in  tlie  great  but 
barren  and  thinly  populated  peninsula  of  Arabia,  with  its 
border-lands  —  Palestine  and  Syria  on  the  X.  W.,  Mesopo- 
tamia on  tho  X.  E. — and  with  an  outlier  in  Africa,  across 
tho  Straits  of  Babclmaiideb.  It  is  usually  ilivided  inio 
three  branches — Syriac,  ranaanilic,  and  Arabian — but  the 
recent  resurrection  of  the  Assyrian  language  from  tho 
cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  has  brought 
to  light  so  peculiar  a  dialer-t  as  to  make  it  better  to  rank 
tho  Syriac  or  Aramaic  with  tho  Canaiinitic,  leaving  the 
A.'syrian  alone  as  third  division.  The  members  of  the 
central  branch  would  be,  then,  the  II(  brew  with  the  other 
related  Palestinian  dialects,  tlie  Phfenieian  with  its  Car- 
thaginian colony,  and  the  Syrian  or  Chaldce.  Tho  solo 
surviving  literature  of  the  Uobrew,  written  during  the  Kfo 
of  tho  language  (it  became  extinct  as  averiiacular  fourcen- 
turics  before  t.'hrist).  is  our  Old  Testament  ;  its  oldet't  parts 
come  from  near  tho  middle  of  tho  sec  »nd  thousand  years 
D.  C.  Neither  Pliocnicia  nor  Cartliago  has  left  any  litera- 
ture ;  their  language,  very  closely  like  tho  Hebrew,  is  known 
only  from  inscriptions.  Of  the  Moabitic,  a  remarkable 
monument,  from  "JOO  it.  c,  was  discovered  a  few  years  ago  ; 
tho  language  was  almost  pure  IK'brew.  The  Hebrew  has 
been  kept  in  artificial  learned  existence,  like  tho  Latin, 
and  has  an  immense  literature  as  such.  Apart  from  an 
Aramaic  passage  or  two  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  abun- 
dant Syriac  lilcrature  commcncea  in  the  second  century 
with  a  Christian  Hiblo  version.  The  Assyrian  literatuD-, 
inscribed  and  impressed  on  alabaster  and  on  clay  tablets, 
is  now  coming  rapidly  to  light,  and  furnishing  un<l  ]iromis- 
ing  information  of  the  highest  interest,  especially  in  its 
bearing  on  biblical  history  ;  its  records  are  perhaps  as  old 
as  the  biblical.  The  Arabic  proper  makes  its  appearance 
only  recently,  pt>sHessiug  but  few  records  which  are  older 
than  Mohammed  {seventh  century) ;  but  tliero  are  in  tlio 
suuth-wcstern  corner  of  tho  peninsula  remains  of  a  wholly 
indcpendeiit  and  much  oliler  civilisation,  and  of  dialects, 
called  Ilimyaritie,  very  dilTirent  from  the  classical  Arabic. 
The  Seiniiic  dialects  of  Abyssinia  are  a  colony  from  these, 
ami  nearly  akin  with  them:  the  Klhiopic,  or  (ice/,  has  a 
Christian  literature  dating  from  tlie  fourth  century  ;  the 
Amharic,  which  has  crowded  (he  other  out  of  cultivate<l  use, 
does  not  appear  until  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth.  This  is 
tho  ancient  distribution  of  Semitic  dialects:  since  the  rise 
of  Mohammi-diinisin  the  Bedouin  Arabic  has  sprea'l  itself 
over  nearly  tho  whole  Semitic  territory,  extinguishing  tho 
other  dialects,  has  taken  possi'Ssi<in  of  Kgy]>t,now  its  main 
scat  of  literary  cultivation,  and  of  the  whr>lc  northern  bor 
der  of  Africa,  and  has  influenced,  and  more  or  less  fille(l 
with  its  material,  tho  Persian,  Turkish,  anrl  llindustuiii, 
and  even  the  widely  sundered  Spanish  and  Malay,  thus 
winning  a  sway  eompiirable  to  that  of  thf  Latin,  (hough 
falling  far  short  of  the  Latin  in  (lie  iinpr>r(ance  of  tho  do- 
riveil  languages  to  which  it  lias  given  birth. 

The  Semitic  rneo  has  played  a  far  greater  part  in  history 
than  any  other,  save  only  the  Indo- European,  and  its  lan- 
guages possess  a  corresponding  degree  of  importance. 
Their  range  (d*  ilialoetic  (iitTerenees  is  much  les><  (han  that 
prevailing  in  our  family  ;  they  are  olosrly  kimlred  forms 
of  speech.  Not,  apparently,  beenuse  they  have  been  more 
recently  separated  than  the  Indo-Kuropran  diiileets,  but 
because  their  structure  has  been  especially  rigid  and  un- 
changing. The  Semitic  structure  is  more  peculiar  and 
probtema'ical  than  that  of  any  other  family  of  languages. 


Its  striking  characteristics  are  its  tri-consonantal  roots  and 
its  internal  flexion.  The  roots,  namely,  have  not,  like  the 
Indo-European,  each  a  constant  vnwel.  which  is,  even  if 
more  varialjle  than  the  consonants,  an  integral  part  of  it; 
the  vowel  or  vowels  in  Semitic  have  a  formative  value,  are 
indicative  of  relation,  not  less  than  tho  vowels  of  m««  and 
men,  of  hind  and  fmtnii/  and  Imiid  and  bond.  And  (with 
insignificant  exceptions)  the  radical  consonants  are  thr{*e, 
no  more  and  no  less.  Suffixes  and  prefixes — and  even  in- 
fixes, elements  inserted  within  tho  body  of  the  root — are 
not  unknown,  but  tho  sphere  of  their  application  is  limited, 
because  so  much  of  what  is  done  in  Iiido-Kuropean  by  af- 
fixes is  here  accomplished  by  internal  change  of  vowel. 
Thus,  for  example  (in  Arabic,  which  is  by  far  the  moSt 
primitive  and  transparent  in  its  structure  of  all  the  dia- 
lects), all  that  we  can  call  the  root  corresponding  to  "kill" 
isiy-f-/;  tftitfifn  is  a  third  person  singular,  meaning  "ho 
killed,"  and  f/iitila  its  passive,  **  he  was  killed,"  «»/(«/«  its 
causative.  'Mic  caused  lo  kill,"  <ytf^(/a  its  conative,  '*  ho 
tried  to  kill,"  tji^a^r^n  its  reflexive,  "  he  killed  himself," 
and  so  on.  Then  {n)rjtiii  is  imperative,  "kill !"  and  a  sec- 
ond set  of  verbal  persons  (hardly  to  be  called  a  tense)  has 
this  form  of  the  root  ;  iftuftnfu,  latfiufu.  <t<fliifn,  and  so  on. 
The  active  participle  is  tfdtil,  "killiug,"  the  intensive 
iqftlf,  "causing  to  kill,"  the  passive  mrtfjtul,  "killed."  Tho 
infinitive  or  verbal  noun  is  (/«//.  "act  of  killing;"  and  qltl, 
"enemy,"  and  r/^r/,  *' murderous,"  are  specimens  of  deriva- 
tive words.  These  examples  arc  sufficient  to  bring  out  tho 
remarkable  features  of  Semitic  speech.  We  have  paralleled 
above  the  internal  fiexion  with  the  Germanic  ith!mtt  of  h'md 
and  hmiud  and  their  like:  but  the  essential  diflercnce  be- 
tween tho  two  coses  is,  that  what  in  Indo-European  is 
rather  a  sporadic  phenomenon,  antl  capal.de  of  easy  expla- 
nation as  the  i7i(««/-accidental  result  of  phonetic  change 
consequent  upon  external  additions,  in  Semitic  is  the  very 
life  and  soul  of  the  language,  irreducible  to  anything  dif- 
ferent. It  is,  however,  tho  prevailing  belief  among  lin- 
guists that  this  condition  ol  Semitic  language  must  be 
tho  result  of  a  very  peculiar  history  of  development  out 
of  beginnings  more  analogous  with  those  found  in  other 
families  of  speech  ;  and  attenijits  are  constantly  making  to 
penetrate  tho  secret  of  tho  development,  but  as  yet  without 
any  considerable  measure  of  success.  It  is  very  certain, 
meanwhile,  that  there  can  be  no  proof  of  any  relationship 
between  the  Semitic  and  any  other  family  until  the  attempts 
prove  successful.  It  is  a  favorite  subject  of  effort  with  pome 
])hilologists  to  demonstrate  tho  primitive  unity  of  the 
Semitic  and  Indo-European  races:  and  there  are  many 
indications  outside  of  language  which  favor  the  conclu- 
sion ;  but  thus  far,  at  any  rate,  the  language  is  an  impassa- 
ble barrier. 

Tho  other  peculiarities  of  Semitic  structure  are  of  small 
account  as  compared  with  those  already  noticed.  The  verb 
tends  more  to  conjugational  distinctions,  such  as  were 
illustrated  above,  than  to  rlistinetions  of  ti-nse  and  nmoij. 
It  marks  the  difTerenee  of  gender  in  its  personal  inflection. 
The  noun  is  almost  destitute  of  case  variation  ;  it  anil  tho 
verb  have  the  three  numbers  found  in  early  Indo-European. 
Secondary  derivation,  or  the  forming  of  derivative  from 
derivativi',  is  almost  unknown,  as  is  also  the  formation  of 
compounds.     Connectives  of  clauses  are  few  and  simple. 

Among  tho  languages  of  Africa,  those  nearest  to  Asia, 
grouped  together  as  the  ffaitiitic /ninth/,  are  often  elainu'd, 
but  on  gnumds  which  mn«t  be  pronounced  thus  far  insuffi- 
cient, to  be  akin  with  the  Semitic.  The  family  is  reckoned 
to  comprehend  three  branches — tho  Egyptian,  the  Libvun 
or  Uorber.  and  the  Ethiopian  ;  (he  most  conspicuous  mem- 
bers of  the  last  aro  (he  (lalla  and  Somali.  The  Egypdan 
of  the  modern  period  is  the  Coptic,  which  has  a  Christian 
literature  beginning  early  in  our  ei-a;  it  was  overpowered 
by  tho  Arabic,  ami  became  extinct  several  centuries  ago. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  is  tho  language  of  (he  hier()glvphs, 
and  has  older  records  (han  any  other  form  of  human  speech, 
renching,  in  scanty  measure,  probably  into  tho  fourtn  mil- 
lennium before  Christ.  The  Egyptian  is  a  tongue  of  the 
simplest  possible  structure,  with  deficient  distinction  of  its 
parts  of  speech,  and  with  ^ery  little  flexion;  go  entirelv 
lacking  (ho  oharaeteristic  featuris  of  Semitic  lhat>  in  spite 
of  apparent  coincidences  in  their  pronouns,  (ho  two  cunnnt 
well  bo  brought  together  until  tho  riddlo  of  Semitic  struc- 
ture is  solveri. 

The  extreme  south  of  Africa  is  occupied  l)y  the  Hottentot 
and  Bn<'hman  dialects,  which  have  been  recently  elaiiued, 
though  prol.jibly  without  good  reason,  to  bo  connected  with 
the  Itamilic  family.  N.  of  them,  and  up  tti  the  eipiator, 
are  founil  the  branches  of  a  w<-ll-defined  family,  the  .V-.k/A 
A/n'rnii  (or  Bantu,  Kafir).  The  mnrk<'d  pr-.-uliarity  of 
its  structure  is  its  use  of  pn-fixes,  instnid  of  suffixes,  as 
principal  inllectional  apparatus.  Those  of  its  languages 
which  border  upon  tho  Hottentot  share  with  tho  latter 
(from  whi.m   they  aro  believed  to   have  derived  tho  pccu^ 


1640 


LANGUAGE. 


liarity)  the  possessioo  of  clicks,  or  smacking  and  cluckiug 
eounits,  in  their  alphabetic  system. 

Between  the  Simth  African  languages  anil  the  Great 
Desert  lies  a  perfect  Babel  of  languages  and  races,  into 
the  little-understood  classification  and  characterization  of 
which  we  cannot  here  enter.  Even  the  best  authorities  are 
greatly  discordant  in  their  treatment  of  it. 

The  J!a?que,  on  the  border  between  France  and  i^pain, 
by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  is  the  only  other  language  of  the 
Old  AVorld  which  calls  for  mention.  It  is  unrelated  with 
anything  else  in  the  world,  and  perhaps  a  relic  ot  a  fsimily 
which  occupied  at  least  s<imc  part  of  Western  Eurojie  be- 
fore the  intrusion  of  llic  Indo-Kuro])ean  peoples.  It  is  of 
an  intricately  agglutinative  structure,  commonly  styled 
polysynthctic. 

The  same  polysynthelic  structure  characterizes  tho  lan- 
guages of  the  New  World,  in  the  main,  and  is  the  only  tie 
by  which,  if  at  all,  they  are  to  bo  connected  together  as  a 
single  family.  Tho  peculiarities  of  its  manifestation,  and 
tho  classification  of  tho  American  dialects,  are  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  on  tho  Indian  Languages  of  this  con- 
tinent. 

The  classification  horo  given  is  strictly  a  linguistic  one, 
making  no  a:;count  of  tho  c:hnological  division  of  human 
races.  Between  tho  two  there  ia  not  a  necessary  accord- 
ance. Every  language,  as  \7e  have  seen,  is  an  institution, 
kept  in  existence,  like  all  the  other  parts  of  our  acquired 
and  accumulated  culture,  by  a  process  of  teaching  and 
learning;  it  docs  not  go  down  by  descent.  Just  as  any  in- 
dividual c:in,  if  circumstances  favur  or  require,  learn  as  his 
first  languago  or  "native  tongue"  a  dialc?t  wiiich  is  not 
that  of  his  ancestors,  so  a  community — which  in  this  re- 
spect is  only  an  aggregate  of  individuals — can  do  the  same. 
And  such  cases  have  occurred,  over  and  over  again,  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Like  the  useful  arts,  the  sciences,  art, 
religions,  a  language  may  be  abandoned  by  a  race  which 
had  produced  it,  or  assumed  by  one  which  had  no  part  in 
its  production,  because  naturo  makes  all  men  capn,!>!e  of 
speech,  but  prescribes  to  no  one  what  speech  ho  shall  use. 
Yet,  wliile  a  language  is  a  traditional  institution,  it  is  the 
most  clinging  and  persistent  of  institutions,  and  also  the 
one  running  out  into  the  greatest  infinity  of  detail  and 
possessing  the  most  notably  objective  character.  Words, 
sentences,  grammatical  structure,  can  be  recorded  and 
turned  over  and  compared  almost  as  if  they  wero  real  sub- 
stances like  fossils  or  archtoological  remains.  The.;o  qual- 
ities make  languago,  beyond  any  othtr  human  product,  of 
value  in  tracing  out  tha  relations  of  th^;  differeut  sections 
of  the  human  race  anterior  to  tho  epoch  where  trustworthy 
historical  record  begins.  I?^s  evidcuco  yields  no  certainty, 
hut  only  a  probability.  Human  communities  have  been 
influencing  one  another  since  the  beginning  of  time;  and 
it  is  not  possible  to  say  absolutely  of  any  race  on  earth  that 
it  has  not  obtained  its  speech  somewhat  as  the  French  got 
their  Romanic,  or  the  Xormans  their  French,  or  the  Irish 
their  English.  But  it  is  only  the  forces  of  a  highly-devel- 
oped civilization  that  give  a  language  tho  power  to  propa- 
gate itself  widely  beyond  its  natural  limits — that  enable  a 
minority  of  a  mixed  community  to  determine  the  speech  of 
the  whole:  the  ruder  the  people,  the  greater  tho  probability 
that  its  linguistic  relations  represent  its  tics  of  blood. 
Hence,  tho  trustworthiness  of  linguistic  evidence  is  great- 
est where  it  is  most  desired,  among  wild  and  primitive 
races,  as  to  whom  recorded  history  is  silent.  The  ethno- 
logical problem  is  doubtless  too  tlifficult  to  be  ever  com- 
pletely solved  by  us;  the  mutual  encroachmonta  and  super- 
positions of  races,  with  consequent  mixture  i>f  blood  and 
of  speech  in  every  degree,  the  dwindling  and  disappearance 
of  one  race,  and  the  expansion  of  another  to  greatness,  form 
a  web  so  intricate  ihat  it  will  never  bo  unravelled.  But  in 
the  present  condition  of  ethnolugv,  language  is  the  richest 
and  most  reliable  source  of  information.  There  are  ulti- 
mate questions  which  it  cannot  decide,  and  as  to  which 
zoology  and  biology  will  probably  some  day  show  a  higher 
authority.  Suc^h,  for  example,  is  that  of  the  unity  or  va- 
riety of  the  human  ra-je :  here  linguistic  science  can  only 
say  that  there  are,  on  the  one  hanil,  no  differences  between 
hum.an  languiigos  which  might  not  be  the  result  of  later 
divergence  from  a  common  nucleus;  and  that,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  a  great  many  languages  so  unlike  that  they 
can  never  be  proved  descended  from  the  same  ancestor, 
since  they  show  no  correspondences  which  might  not  bo 
the  result  of  ftc:ridont.  Linguistic  material  is  not.  like 
physit-al,  analyzablc  to  its  minutest  elements;  creation, 
annihilation,  trausmutafion.  are  the  commonest  of  pro- 
cesses within  it:  it  yields  its  results  only  to  historical 
methods  of  investigation.  Thus  far.  it  has  been  found  pos- 
sible even  to  unite  into  families  only  languages  wliich  had 
the  bond  of  a  common  structure;  correspondences  of  ma- 
terial, of  radical  elements,  anterior  to  the  growth  of  struc- 
ture, have  not  been  available;  and  although  it  need  not  be 


declared  impossible  that  they  may  yet  be  found  available 
between  certain  families,  it  is  absolutely  imytossible  that 
they  should  be  so  between  all.  Koot-comparisons.  among 
families  of  unrelated  structure,  are  in  the  very  highest  de- 
gree ]>rccarious;  none  yet  made  are  to  bo  approved  as 
sound. 

The  question  of  tho  origin  of  language  has  assumed  an 
entirely  new  aspect  in  consequence  of  the  recent  progress 
of  linguistic  science.  It  is  clearly  seen  that  language  as  a 
concrete  possession,  a  stock  of  words  and  phrases  used  for 
the  commuuication  and  elaboration  of  thought,  is  in  no 
jiropcr  sense  of  the  word  a  gift,  a  natural  capacity,  a  fac- 
ulty, but  rather  an  accumulated  acquisition,  the  outcome 
of  certain  faculties  and  tendencies  which  belong  to  man 
and  are  a  characteristic  part,  of  him.  To  maintain  the  di- 
vine origin  of  language  now  is  simply  to  hold  that  man 
was  endowed  by  his  Creator  with  those  faculties  and  tend- 
encies, with  the  foreseen  and  intended  purpose  that  he 
work  them  out  to  the  possession  of  language :  as,  in  a  dif- 
ferent but  still  essentially  similar  way,  with  the  capacities 
that  have  brought  him  to  tho  possession  of  his  other  insti- 
tutions— of  regulatf^d  society,  of  art.  of  the  arts  of  life. 
To  hold  that  he  was  put  in  possession  at  his  birth  of  a  de- 
veloped speech  is  analogous  to  holding  that  he  was  pro- 
vided with  houses  and  clothes  and  instruments  and  ma- 
chines. The  formal  structure  of  language.  e\cn  the  more 
formal  part  of  its  vocabulary,  we  see  to  have  been  devel- 
oped by  degrees  out  of  a  simple  body  of  formless  roots, 
indicative  of  external,  sensible  acts  and  qualities — in  the 
same  manner,  and  for  the  same  reason,  that  instruments  and 
machines  have  been  developed  out  of  simple  sticks  and 
atones  and  flakes  of  flint,  that  architecture  began  with 
caves  and  huts,  and  dress  with  skins  of  animals  and  fig 
leaves.  To  investigate  the  origin  of  languago  is  to  inquire 
how  these  rudiments  of  speech  were  produced.  The  inquiry 
is  not  a  part  of  the  historical  science  of  language,  becauso 
history  brings  us  only  to  the  recognition  of  these,  and  to 
the  recognition  of  them  only  in  their  kind,  not  in  their 
concrete  identity  as  sueh  and  such  utterances.  But  it  is 
au  essential  and  prominent  part  of  linguistic  philosophy  as 
a  branch  of  anthropology,  and  can  only  be  properly  treated 
by  one  who  understands  tho  facts  of  later  language-history, 
and  can  read  their  meaning. 

To  express  himself  is  natural  to  man.  and  he  has  for 
that  purpose  a  variety  of  instrumentalities — namely,  ges- 
ture, grimace,  and  utterance.  All  are  capable  of  beiug  put 
to  use,  apart  from  anything  conventi<mal,  between  human 
beings  anxious  to  understand  one  another;  and  ail  are, 
under  dotermiuiug  circumstances,  so  put  to  use.  That  any 
one  of  them  should  bo  employed  with  the  intent  to  commu- 
nicjite  is  enough  to  constitute  au  act  of  language-making. 
It  is  by  the  addition  of  this  intent  that  they  pass  over  from 
the  condition  of  natural  to  that  of  conventional  expression. 
The  sphere  of  natural,  instinctive  expression  is  limited  to 
the  feelings  or  emotions  of  the  cxpresser;  it  is  purely  sub- 
jective, and,  so  far  as  the  action  of  the  voice  is  concerned, 
it  extends  only  to  tones;  it  does  not  include  articulations, 
specific  combinations  of  vowel  and  consonant.  There  is 
nowhere,  in  the  whole  domain  of  language,  anything  going 
to  show  that  a  sound  or  combination  of  sounds  is  ever  pro- 
duced as  tho  natural  representative  of  an  act  of  the  intel- 
lect, a  conception  or  a  judgment.  While  human  expression 
remains  instinctive  and  emotional,  it  is  not  language,  any 
more  than  that  of  tlie  lower  animals,  with  which  it  is  anal- 
ogous. But  when,  for  instance,  a  cry  whi<-h  was  at  first 
tho  direct  outburst  of  jjain  or  pleasure  or  disgust  or  warn- 
ing is  repeated  or  imitated  for  the  purjioso  of  giving  to  an- 
other an  intimation  of  pain,  etc..  then  the  making  of  lan- 
guage is  begun.  The  lower  animals,  some  of  them,  are 
able  to  make  a  beginning  here;  if  a  dog  stands  at  a  door, 
and  scratches  or  barks  in  order  to  attract  attention  and  bo 
let  in.  waiting  for  the  opener  who,  he  knows,  will  an.swer 
his  call,  that  is  an  act  of  language-making  as  genuine  and 
perhaps  as  good  as  the  earliest  attempts  of  a  human  being 
Would  be.  There  is,  to  be  sure,  an  essential  difl'crence  be- 
tween the  two  cases:  but  it  lies  only  in  this:  the  dog,  with 
his  limited  powers,  can  go  no  further;  he  is  incapable  of  a 
continuous  progressive  development ;  but  the  man  sees  and 
appreciates  what  is  gained  by  his  linguistic  act,  and  tries 
it  again,  and  tries  others;  and  so.  by  a  gradual  process  of 
accumulation,  he  arrives  at  a  body  of  expressions  which 
use  by  and  by  renders  conventional;  and  by  manipulation 
of  them  he  comes  to  linguistic  structure,  and  finally,  in 
races  more  gifted  or  more  tavored  by  circumstances,  to  vo- 
cabularies and  grammars  like  our  own.  Then,  by  a  process 
of  development  showing  the  most  striking  analogies  with 
that  just  described,  he  adds  the  art  of  writing,  a  mode  of 
record  of  speech  which  continncs  and  completes  its  value 
both  to  the  individual  and  to  the  race. 

This  exposition  shows  tho  true  ground  on  which  the  dif- 
ferent relation  of  men  and  of  the  lower  aniimils  to  language 


LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS— LANGUEDOC. 


1641 


is  to  be  put  and  argued.  Usually,  tho  great  and  ruinous 
error  is  coiumiUcd  of  assuming  that  at  the  bc^iuning  cer- 
tain uuiiibiuutioDs  ut'  sounds  must  have  naturally  signified 
goinothir.g  lo  mau,  aud  then  of  searching  anxiously  for 
siuiilar  {ihenuuiona  among  the  animals:  also.  This  can 
never  lead  to  auy  valuable  result.  The  true  point  for  the 
attention  of  naturalists  is  this:  What  signs  are  to  be  discov- 
ered in  animals  below  man  (like  that  quoted  above  of  tho 
dog)  of  the  power  to  adapt  means  to  ends  in  the  way  of  ex- 
pression, with  more  or  less  of  free  consciousness  and  intelli- 
gence? That  their  power  is  extremely  limited  is  clear 
enough  from  the  fact  that  no  nice  or  community  of  animals, 
80  far  as  we  know  or  have  reason  to  suspect,  possesses  any 
conventional  language  kept  up  by  teacliing  and  learning. 
It  is  hero  just  as  in  the  ease  of  instruments:  the  power  to 
uso  a  stick  or  a  stone  as  tool  or  weapon  cannot  be  abso- 
lutely denied  to  certain  animals;  and  men  began  with 
nothing  better:  but,  except  in  man.it  is  not  a  growing  and 
developing  power.  With  the  animals  it  remains  a  natural 
gift;  with  man  it  becomes  by  degrees  an  institution,  and 
leads  to  tho  possession  of  ships  aud  steam-engines  and 
cannon.  To  ascribe  the  lack  of  language  in  animals  to  the 
wnnt  of  some  specific  mental  power  is  an  error,  like  tho 
error  of  ascribing  its  possession  by  man  to  the  addition  of 
some  specific  mental  power,  some  linguistic  faculty  or  lan- 
guage-sense. Tho  lack  and  the  p<tsscssion  arc  both  alike 
tho  results  and  indications  of  a  whole  eust  and  grade  of 
mentiil  capacity.  <d"  combinations  of  Huiulties  wliicli  show 
themselves  abundantly  also  in  other  ways.  No  animal 
below  man  has  any  accumulated  results  of  the  exercise  of 
his  natural  powers,  any  iustitulions — any  civilization,  in 
fihort.  To  make  language  dependent  on  a  power  of  form- 
ing general  ideas  or  concepts  is  least  of  all  t<)  be  approved  ; 
for  it  is  past  all  reasonable  (|ucstion  that  the  lower  animals 
do  form  such,  in  their  degree  and  xvithin  their  limits  ;  noth- 
ing like  intelligence  is  possible  otherwise.  The  power  of 
the  dog  in  this  respect  is  not  sensibly  dificrent  from  that 
of  the  wholly  undeveloped  aud  speechless  man  ;  but  the  ac- 
quifiition  of  language,  impossible  to  Iho  dog,  trains  and 
e<|uips  the  power  in  m:in,  and  makes  it  capable  of  vastly 
higher  and  more  abundant  work. 

The  prominence  in  existing  language  everywhere  of  tho 
voice  Its  means  of  expression  has  its  ground,  not  in  any 
especial  nearness  of  the  organs  of  utterance  to  tho  move- 
ments of  the  soul,  but  only  in  a  kind  of  natural  selection 
and  survival  of  the  fittest.  The  voice  is,  for  obvious  rea- 
sons, tho  most  available  instrumentality,  in  the  infinite  va- 
riety and  rapidity  of  its  apprehensible  combinations,  in  the 
small  expenditure  of  muscular  effort  which  they  cost,  in  their 
power  to  command  attention  from  any  direction,  and  in  tho 
dark  as  well  as  in  the  light,  and  in  the  liberty  afi"orded  the 
hauiia  for  other  work  at  tho  same  time.  Experience  brought 
all  this  to  light. even  as  it  has  brought  to  light  Iho  various 
availabilities  of  wood  and  slone  aud  metal.  That  we  find 
every  part  of  the  human  race,  at  the  very  beginning  of  our 
knowledgeof  it,  in  possession  of  a  spoken  language, a  more 
or  less  complete  system  of  vocal  »igus  for  ideas  and  their 
relations,  means  no  more  than  that  the  whole  race  had 
lived  long  cnttugh  to  have  worked  out  its  natural  gifts  to 
their  ncceSf'ary  and  intended  results.  It  by  no  means 
proves  that  there  was  not  a  time  when  gesture,  more  than 
utterance,  was  tho  principal  nu-ans  of  expression,  or  even 
that  for  a  period,  of  duration  inipo.-^siblo  to  determine,  men 
may  have  had  no  expression  different  from  or  higher  than 
that  of  tho  auijnals  next  beneath  Ibeni  in  the  scale  of  cre- 
ation. Tho  natural  (as  distinguished  from  the  conven- 
tional) means  of  expression  atill  continue  most  important 
auxiliaries  to  language;  for  anything  but  tho  driest  scien- 
tific statement,  tone  and  gesture  and  jjosturo  and  facial 
expression  are  requisite;  they  are  the  subjective  means 
whereby  tho  personality  of  tho  speaker  is  impressed  upon 
the  hearer — whereby  he  moves,  excites,  persuades.  And  their 
power  is  greater  and  their  aid  more  indispensable  the  lower 
tho  grade  of  the  language  and  of  those  who  uso  i(.  In  tho 
highest  elaboration  of  S|irei-h.  and  with  those  trained  to 
employ  and  interpret  it  with  the  keenest  ?ensibi!ily,  even 
t!io  written  page  shows  tho  reader  the  very  tone  and  action 
of  tho  writer — seems  to  smile  or  scowl  or  weep  or  excite. 

Out  of  tlie  leading  part  asuunu^l  by  the  voice  grows  tho 
imporlanco  of  onomatop(i>ia,  or  the  vocal  imitative  princi- 
ple, in  Iho  earliest  history  of  language.  The  intent  being 
to  make  an  intelligible  sign,  and  the  voice  tho  instrument, 
audible  sounds  are  the  matlers  most  easily  signified.  This 
is  just  as  natural  and  necessary  as  that  in  a  written  system 
of  signs  the  outlines  of  visible  objects  are  most  easily,  and 
therefore  earliest,  signified.  A  hieroglyphic  mode  of  writ- 
ing, intended  for  the  eye  to  understand,  begins  with  pic- 
tures of  things  that  strike  tho  eye,  and  proceeds  from  them, 
in  various  ways,  to  inrlieate  matters  of  more  varied  and 
oven  of  subjectivo  knowledge.  A  system  of  audible  signs 
begins  in  like  manner  with  a  rude,  sketchy  dejiietion,  as  it 


may  be  called,  of  audible  sounds,  and  arrives,  by  figurative 
transfer  and  by  various  ties  of  association,  at  the  intimation 
of  other  classes  of  acts  and  qualities.  The  sphere  of  imi- 
tation is  by  no  means  restricted  lo  the  actual  sounds  occur- 
ring in  nature,  though  these  may  well  enough  have  been 
the  first  subjects  of  reproduction.  What  its  limits  are  may 
be  best  seen  from  the  range  of  ononiatopoctie  expression  in 
existing  languages.  There  is  a  figurative  imitation,  where- 
by rapid,  slow,  abrupt,  repealed  movements  are  capable  of 
being  signified  by  combinations  of  sounds  which  mako 
through  the  car  upon  the  mind  somewhat  the  same  im- 
pressions as  the  movements  themselves  through  the  eye. 
And  while  this  was  a  jirincipal  suggestcr  of  the  means  of 
mutual  intelligence,  it  may  well  enough  have  been  found 
even  more  fertile  than  we  now  regard  it  as  being.  Our 
recognition  of  the  value  of  the  imitative  principle  is  thus 
founded  njion  our  general  theory  <if  language,  in  combi- 
nation with  the  fact  that  the  same  principle  continues 
efiicicnl,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  through  the  whole  his- 
tory of  language;  it  docs  not  depend  upon  our  ability  to 
trace  the  main  mass  of  material  in  any  existing  langungo 
to  an  ononiatopoctie  origin.  For.  tlie  intent  being  simply 
to  ])rovidc  by  the  most  available  means  for  communication 
between  man  and  man,  ononiatopceia  would  bo  gradually 
crowded  out,  after  tho  provision  of  a  certain  quantity  of 
intelligible  signs,  by  the  later  and  now  almost  exclusive 
method  of  the  combination  and  variation  of  those  signs; 
and,  with  that  readiness  to  forget  derivations  and  disguise 
etymologies  which  is  a  leading  aud  most  valuable  feature 
in  universal  language-history,  the  signs  of  imitative  origin 
would  be  hidden  and  disap]>ear. 

If  by  such  methods  as  tliosc  here  described  there  could 
bo  made  a  suflieient  working  provision  of  signs,  to  be  de- 
veloped by  degrees  into  such  languages  as  we  now  find  in 
the  world  ;  if  these  methods  are  in  harmony  with  the  known 
history  of  language,  the  one  stage  passing  into  the  otlu-r 
without  a  break  or  a  change  of  governing  principle:  if, 
from  what  we  know  of  man  anil  of  his  linguistic  ca}>acilies 
aud  activities,  these  are  the  methods  by  which  a  new  lan- 
guage would  bo  created  if  it  were  possible  that  a  com- 
munity of  human  beings  should  begin  life  again  without 
any, —  then  this  is  such  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  language  as  science  demands. 

it  may  be  brielly  pointed  out.  in  conclusion,  that  there  is 
no  relation  whatever  between  the  develojiment  of  language 
and  any  dcvelo]inient  of  nnin  himseif  out  of  a  lower  tyjio 
of  animal.  JIan  was  man  in  endowment  when  the  j)roduc- 
tion  of  his  jnesent  speech  began  :  its  acquisition,  like  that 
of  the  other  parts  of  his  civilization,  has  only  helped  in  Ibe 
development  of  his  powers,  raising  him  higher  and  higher 
in  the  scale  of  manhood,  and  being,  of  all  his  aequisilions, 
the  one  most  fundamentally  in)])urtaut,  most  needful  aud 
helpful  to  eveiything  else  that  he  jiossesses. 

The  view  of  the  history,  nature,  and  origin  of  language 
here  compendiously  ])rcscnted  will  be  found  worked  out  in 
much  greater  fulness  in  the  writer's  works,  Laiujuuijc  uud 
the  Studi/  of  LftiujtKUje  (New  York.  1807),  The  Life  aud 
Growth  of  Lnnifwiije  { IH7&),  and  Oriental  and  Linyaisiic 
Studies,  i.  (1^72).  Other  general  works  on  the  subject  in 
English  ore  M.  Miiller's  Lccturrs  on  the  Scioire  of  l.an- 
ffmufc;  H.  We<lgwood*s  Orii/in  <f  Lnuffuatfe  (  London.  1S()6); 
F.  W.  Farrar's  Chitjitcm  n»  l^autfuatjc,  Familice  of  Lanfjnaije, 
etc.;  A.  II.  Sayce's  Principles  of  Comparative  Philvlof/y 
(London,  1871). 

To  trace  the  history  of  the  study  of  language,  from  Iho 
often  surprisingly  acute  but  crude  and  narrow  speculations 
of  the  ancients  down  to  and  through  the  reuutrkablc  col- 
lections, comparisons,  analyses,  deiluetions,  of  the  great 
linguistic  scholars  (especially  in  (Jcrnuiny )  of  this  century, 
constituting  tho  vast  and  rieh  department  of  **  coniparalivo 
philology,"  is  a  task  by  itself,  and  will  not  here  bcattempteil. 
The  best  auth»»ritie8  for  it  are  L.  Lersch,  Sprachphilunopliic 
dcr  Alien  (I.S40);  II.  Pteinlhat.  fienchivhte  der  Sprnvhtcis- 
Hcnnchnft  bti  dm  Orirrhtn  nnd  flUmcnt  (18C:i);  T.  Benfey, 
t^iHrhichfc  drr  Sf>rnrhuinMriiHrhaft  umi  dcr  OrientnliKchvn 
Philnloijic  in  iJtut^vhland  (iHf.U).  J.  Jolly  has  added  a 
general  sketch  of  tho  history  to  bis  (tcrman  translation  of 
the  writer's  Lantfutiifv  aud  the  Stndtf  tf  Lnnt/nnijc  {M\iu\t.h, 
1H7I).  nnd  some  interesting  details  are  given  in  the  fiist 
series  of  Miiller's  Lecturer.  W.  D.  AViiitnuy. 

Lanciint^o  of  Flowers,  a  sentimental  systrm  of 
floral  >yinliolH  by  means  of  which  it  is  intended  that  tho 
more  tender  feelings  an<l  passions  shouhl  be  expressed. 
Among  the  Turks  nnd  Persians  we  are  told  that  the  hm- 
guage  of  flowers  has  received  much  attention,  and  is  carried 
to  great  refinement  and  expressiveness  ;  but  in  othercoun- 
tries  it  is  chiefly  used  by  young  persons  of  both  sexes.  Tho 
literature  of  the  subject  is  extensive,  but  not  important. 

liniiKilodoc',  one  of  the  old  provinces  of  Franco, 
bounded  S.  by  tho  Mediterranean  and  E.  by  tho  Rhone;  it 


1642 


LANGUIDIC— LANSDOWNE. 


bore  while  a  Roman  province  tlie  name  of  Gnllia  Xarbo- 
nemii  :  passed  Iroin  Uie  Komans  to  tlie  Gotlis,  from  tlic 
Goths  to  the  Saraoous,  and  from  the  Saracens  to  thci'ounts 
of  Toulouse  ;  iu  \-M\  it  was  finally  annexed  to  the  French 
orown.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  received  the  name  of  Laugue- 
doo  [tau'iitc  d'lic),  from  the  circumstance  that  its  inhab- 
itants expressed  "yes"  by  vc,  while  in  the  northern  pnrt 
of  France  it  was  expressed  by  oil.  It  is  now  divided  into 
the  dcpartiuents  of  Anleche,  Audc,  East  Pyrenees.  I  ppcr 
Oaronne,  tiers,  U^rault,  Lozere,  Tarn,  and  Taru-et-Uaronne. 
Langiiitlic',  town  of  France,  in  the  county  of  Morbi- 
han,  has  (;;1S2  inhahitauts. 
L.'AngniIIe',  tp.  of  Phillips  co..  Ark.  Pop.  SOO. 
l,».\nsuille,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  St.  Francis  co..  Ark., 
on  the  M.miihis  and  Little  Rock  K.  It.,  and  on  the  L'An- 
guillc  River.     Pop.  30C. 

Lanier',  tp.  of  Preble  co.,  0.  Pop.  1634. 
Lanjuiuais'  (Jk.\n  Dexis),  b.  at  Konnes  Mar.  12, 
Vib'i;  studied  law;  practised  for  some  time  at  the  bar; 
was  appointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical  law  in  his  native 
city  in  1775,  and  became  conspicuous  as  a  man  of  superior 
talent,  when  in  17Sy  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the  States 
General.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention  he  sided  with 
the  Girondists,  and  opposed  all  extreme  measures.  On 
June  2,  1793,  he  was  arrested,  but  escaped  to  Renues.  and 
resumed  bis  seat  in  the  .Assembly  in  17UJ,  after  the  fall  of 
the  Terrorists.  During  the  Directory  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the  senate  during  the 
consular  rule,  in  which  latter  position  he  led  the  opposition 
against  the  monarchical  tendencies  of  the  government  of 
Napoleon,  who  nevertheless  made  him  a  count  on  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Empire.  He  voted  for  the  deposition 
of  the  emperor  in  I8U,  was  made  a  peer  of  France  by 
Louis  XVIII.,  and  advocated  liberal  principles  during  the 
Kestoration,  in  opposition  to  the  reigning  political  and 
ecclesiastical  reaction.  He  was  a  man  of  great  literary 
attainments,  and  after  his  death  (Jan.  13,  IS271  his  son 
published  a  collected  edition  of  his  writings  {I  vols.,  Paris, 
IS32),  containing  valualile  contributions  to  the  sciences  of 
politics,  archfeology,  and  language. 

Lank'ester  (Enwix),  M.  D..  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at 
Melton,  Suffolk,  England,  Apr.  23,  ISU;  studied  medicine 
at  University  College,  London,  l!*3i-37  ;  graduated  at  Hei- 
delberg 1839;  became  lecturer  at  St.  George's  school  of 
medicine  1843;  secretary  of  the  Ray  Society  1844;  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  New  College.  London,  1850; 
president  of  the  Microscopical  Society  ISo'J.  and  elected 
coroner  for  Central  Middlesex  (city  of  London)  18C2.  He 
acquired  wide  fame  as  a  lecturer  and  writer  upon  sanitary 
and  social  science,  physiology,  botany,  zoology,  foods,  mi- 
croscopy, etc. ;  was  author  of  many  valuable  reports  and 
scientltic  papers,  and  of  various  hooks  upon  the  above 
Bubjects,  mostly  designed  for  popular  u.se,  and  since  1866 
edited  the  Journal  of  Social  Science.     D.  Oct.  30,  1S74. 

Lan'man  (Chaules),  b.  in  Monroe,  Mich.,  .Tune  It, 
1819,  the  son  of  Charles  James  Lanman;  received  an 
academical  education  in  Plainlield,  Conn.;  was  a  clerk  iu 
New  York  from  1S35  to  1845,  when  for  a  few  months  he 
edited  the  Monroe  Ouzt^nr;  was  associate  editor  in  1841)  of 
the  Cincinnati  Clironirlr,  with  E.  D.  .Manstield:  and  after 
making  a  canoe  tour  of  the  Mississippi  and  through  Lake 
Superior,  returned  to  New  York,  and  was  associated  as  a 
writer  with  the  ll'tihi  ICxpress.  In  ISIS  he  liecame  a  cor- 
rcsponilent  of  the  .Vulioiial  fntelliffriicrr,  travelling  exten- 
sively through  the  U.S.;  settled  at  Gcorgetoivn,  l>.  C,  and 
held  at  Washington  the  positions  of  librarian  of  the  war 
department,  librarian  of  copyrights  in  the  state  department 
and  private  secretary  of  Daniel  AVebstcr,  librarian  of  the 
interior  deiiartmcnt,  and  librarian  of  the  House  of  Ueprc- 
eentatives.  In  1857  ho  became  the  .\merican  correspond- 
ent of  the  llhulraled  Lnndnn  Xcim,  and  in  1869  of  the 
London  Atltrn^Tiini.  He  has  published  E»na}j»  for  .Summer 
Jioura,  3  eds. ;  A  Summer  in  the  \Vildcrne«9;  A  Tour  to  the 
Hirer  Sotjuenoy,  republished  ill  England;  Lettem  from  the 
Alleghany  Mountoinii;  Occasional  Rerordu  of  a  Toiirint ; 
Private  Life  of  Daniel  Websterj  republished  in  England: 
Adeentures  in  the  Wilds  of  America,  made  from  previous 
publications,  in  2  vols.,  and  republished  in  England,  with 
introductory  letters  from  Washington  Irving;  Oirtionary 
of  Congress,  6  eds.,  three  of  theui  published  by  the  general 
government;  Life  of  Witlinm  Woodhrid/je:  edited  Prison 
Life  of  Alfred  Ely,  and  two  volumes  of  Sermons  by  Rev. 
Octavius  Pcrinehief.  Since  1871  he  has  been  American 
secretary  of  the  .liipaneso  legation,  and  has  published  The 
/?,'(/  Hook  of  .Michigan  and  The  Japanese  in  America,  the 
latter  reprinted  and  very  successful  in  England. 

I^anman  (Chari.ks  James),  b.  nt  Norwich,  Conn.,  July 
5,  1795;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1SI4;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  New  London,  Conn.,  in  1817  ;  removed  to  French- 


town,  now  Monroe,  Mich.,  and  held  various  public  offices, 
such  as  judge  of  probate  and  U.  S.  receiver  of  public  moneys 
(1823-32).  He  was  one  of  the  most  promiueut  and  public- 
spirited  of  the  early  citizens  of  Michigan  ;  returned  in 
1835  to  Norwich,  Conn.  ;  lost  much  of  bis  property  in  the 
financial  crash  of  1837;  was  mayor  of  Norwich  in  1838; 
removed  to  New  London,  Conn.,  in  1SG2.  D.  July  22, 1870. 
lianman  (James),  h.  at  Norwich.  Conn.,  June  14,1760; 
gvaduatcd  at  Vale  in  17SS;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1791  ;  held  numerous  important  State  offices;  was  a  V.  S. 
Senator  1819-25;  held  judgeships  in  the  State  courts  1826 
-29;  was  mayor  of  Norwich  1831-34.  He  was  the  step- 
father of  Park  Benjamin.     D.  Aug.  7,  1S41. 

Laiiman  (Joseph),  U.  S.  N.,  b.  July  11,  1811,  in  Con- 
necticut; entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Jan.  1,  1825; 
became  a  passed  midshipman  in  1831,  a  lieutenant  in  1835, 
a  commander  in  1855,  a  captain  in  ISGl,  a  commodore  in 
1862,  a  rear-admiral  in  1867.  Commanded  the  Minnesota 
at  the  attack  u|)on  Fort  Fisher,  Jan.  15.  1865,  and  is  thus 
commended  by  Rear-admiral  David  D.  Porter  in  his  official 
report  of  that  action  :  "  Commodore  Joseph  Lanman,  com- 
manding the  Minnesota,  was  selected  to  lead  the  line,  his 
vessel  being  the  slowest  and  least  manageable.  I  recom- 
mend him  to  the  consideration  of  the  department  as  one  on 
whom  thev  can  place  the  utmost  reliance,  place  him  in  any 
position.""    D.  Mar.  13,  1874.  Fo.\hall  A.  Pakker. 

Lanner.    See  Falcos. 

Lannes  (Jean),  b.  at  Lectoure,  in  Guienne,  Apr.  11, 
1769,  of  poor  parents,  and  apprenticed  in  his  fifteenth  year 
to  a  dyer;  in  1792  left  this  occu|iation  and  enlisted  in 
the  army,  where  he  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  colonel; 
w.as  nevertheless  discharged  in  1795.  at  the  reorganization 
of  the  army,  but  in  1796  followed  Napoleon  to  Italy  as 
a  volunteer,  and  very  soon  attracted  his  attention  by  his 
boundless  audacity  ;  distinguished  himself  in  every  battle 
by  some  daring  feat,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
in  1797;  in  1798  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Egyjit,  re- 
turned with  him  in  1799,  and  rendered  him  great  ser- 
vices by  his  faithful  adherence  on  Nov.  9.  1799,  in  reward 
for  which  he  was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1800, 
and  commander  of  the  consular  guard ;  led  the  vanguard 
when  in  the  same  year  the  army  crossed  the  Alps  at  St. 
Bernard,  and  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Austrians 
at  Monlebcllo.  On  the  establishment  of  the  empire  lie  was 
made  a  marshal.  He  led  the  memorable  siege  of  Saragossa, 
and  compelled  the  city  to  surrender  Feb.  21,  1809,  and  nt 
Ratisbou  he  was  the  first  who  put  the  scaling-ladder  to  the 
ramparts.  When  he  greiv  older  his  judgment  developed 
rapidly  with  his  courage,  and  Napoleon  considered  him 
one  of  his  best  generals,  when  his  career  was  cut  off  sud- 
denly in  the  battle  of  Essling,  being  mortally  wounded, 
and  d.  a  few  days  after  in  Vienna,  May  31,  1809. 

liannion',  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Cfttcs- 
du-Nord.  It  manufactures  several  kinds  of  coarse  woollen 
and  linen  goods,  and  has  some  general  tr.ade.     Pop.  6598. 

La  Noue,  de  (Frani;ois),  b.  in  15:11.  in  the  vicinity 
of  Nantes,  of  an  old  noble  family  of  Brittany:  embraced 
the  Reformed  creed,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  army 
of  the  prince  of  Cond6  as  one  of  the  most  valiant  Hugue- 
not soldiers.  At  the  siege  of  Fontenay-le  Comte,  in  1570, 
he  lost  his  left  arm.  and  had  it  replaced  by  one  of  iron, 
whence  he  received  bis  surname.  Bras  dc  Fvr.  In  1572  ho 
went  to  La  Rochelle,  trying  to  bring  about  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  city  and  the  king.  Having  failed  in  this, 
and  seeing  that  there  was  no  other  means  of  safety  for  his 
partv  than  open  war,  he  took  the  command  of  La  Rochelle, 
and  defeniled  the  city  for  four  years  with  great  success. 
After  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1578  he  Vent  to  Flanders, 
entering  the  service  of  the  Low  Countries:  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Spaniards,  and  retained  at  Madrid  for  five 
years,  but  at  last  exchanged  in  1585  for  Count  Egraont. 
Under  Henry  IV.  he  again  fought  for  the  cause  of  his  re- 
ligion, and  d.  .Aug.  4,  1591,  from  a  wound  he  received  at 
the  siege  of  Lamballe.  During  his  several  imprisonments 
be  engaged  in  literature,  and  his  Bisrours  politif/nes  el  mi- 
litaircs  fBaic,  1587)  have  been  often  republished.  His  cor- 
respondence was  published  in  1854. 

Lans'dale,  post-b.  of  Gwyncdd  tp.,  Montgomery  CO., 
Pa.,  about  25  miles  N.  of  Philadelphia,  on  the  North 
Pcnn.sylvania  R.  R.,  at  its  central  point  and  junction  with 
the  Doylestown  and  Stony  Creek  hranehes.  It  has  a 
churoh,  3  hotels,  1  national  bank,  2  weekly  newspapers  (1 
German),  agricultural  m.achinc-works,  foundry,  carriage 
manufactories,  telegraph-office,  planing-mills,  a  number 
of  stores,  etc. 

F.  WAGVEn,  Prop.  "Lansdale  Reporter. 
Lans'downe    (Hexrv     PETTv-FiTZMAtRicE),  third 
MAlt«iKs.s  OF.  b.  in  London,  Engband,  July  2,  1780,  second 
son  of  William  Potty,  first  earl  of  Sheldcbne  (which  see). 


LANSDOVVNE— LANSING. 


1643 


who  in  17S1  was  crcfited  marquess  of  Lan?downe;  educated 
at  Weslminslcr  School  aud  at  Edinburgh  under  the  tutor- 
ship of  Duj^atd  Stewart :  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Caui- 
hridgc,  in  I^Ol,  aud  uuder  the  uamc  of  Lord  Henry  Petty 
was  clioseu  as  a  Whig  in  1S0«  to  u  seat  tn  I'arliameut  for 
the  borough  uf  CaJDc.  Iludistiuguii>bed  lliIu^^etf  in  debate, 
giving  his  chief  attention  to  tiuaucc;  wa:*  elected  member 
for  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  ISOG  on  the  death  of 
Pitt»  and  io  the  same  year  became  chanccllur  of  the  ex- 
chequer in  the  ministry  of  Grenvillc  and  Tox,  retiring  from 
office  iu  1807.  On  the"  death  of  bis  elder  brother  in  180lt, 
ho  succeeded  to  tho  title,  and  became  one  of  the  heads  of 
the  Liberal  party  in  tho  House  of  Loids,  being  an  early 
advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation,  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
parliamentary  reform,  and  free  trade.  On  the  return  of 
tho  Whigs  to  power  iu  1827,  ho  became  secretary  of  tho 
home  department  under  Canning,  secretary  of  foreign  af- 
fairs under  Lord  Goderich  (ISL'S),  lord  president  of  the 
council  under  Earl  Grey  from  Nov.,  18;;i»,  to  Nov.,  1S34, 
under  Lord  Melbourne  from  Apr..  1835,  to  Sept.,  ISIl.and 
under  Lord  John  Russell  from  July.  1810,  to  Feb..  18J2. 
Fur  many  years  he  had  beentbe  Liberal  leader  in  the  upper 
house,  when  ho  resigned  that  position  iu  18J2,  not  intend- 
ing to  return  to  office,  but  in  December  of  the  same  year, 
on  tho  formation  of  the  Aberdeen  ministry,  he  consented 
to  take  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  without  a  portfolio,  and  again 
in  the  first  Pulmerston  ministry,  Feb.,  I8jj,  to  Feb.,  1858. 
He  was  a  man  of  cultivated  taste,  formed  a  splendid  library 
aud  collection  of  art-treasures,  was  a  generous  patron  of 
literature,  and  made  Lausduwne  House  the  centre  of  polite 


society  in  England.  He  was  a  trusted  adviser  and  friend 
of  tho  queen,  but  refused  a  duUedum  and  the  premiership. 
After  the  death  of  the  duke  of  AVellington  he  was  the  patri- 
arch of  tho  House  of  Lords,  and  perhaps  tlie  most  univer- 
sally honored  statesman  of  the  realm.  I),  at  liowood 
House,  Calne.  Jan.  31.180.'}. — His  son  Hrxnv,  fourth  mar- 
quess, b.  in  ISIG.  d.  in  July,  iSfifi;  his  grandson,  llESitY 
CiiARLKs  Kkith  FiTZMAiRicr:,  fifth  marquess,  b.  Jan.  14, 
IS  15,  was  lord  of  the  treasury  ( 1 808-72 )  and  under-sccretary 
of  state  for  war  (1872-71),  in  second  (iladstono  ministry. 

Lansdownc  (William  Petty),  Marquess  of.  See 
Shelblrnk,  Earl  of. 

L'Alise,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cnp.  of  IJaraga  en.,  Mich.,  on 
Keweenaw  liay,  Lake  Sui)eri()r ;  is  the  N.  AV.  terminus  of 
tho  Marquette  Houghton  and  Ontonagon  R.  R.,  and  has  a 
lino  of  iron  steamers  ruuuiug  to  the  ports  of  tho  copper- 
region.     Pop.  33. 

Lan'sin^,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Allamakee  co.,  Ta..  on  tho 
Missisj:i]>pi  Uiver  and  the  (')iicago  iJubiiquo  and  Minnesota 
R.  U.,  81  iriiles  N.  uf  l)ubuque,  has  several  eburcdies  aud 
hotels,  1  national  and  1  savings  bank.  3  weekly  newspapers 
(1  German),  2  steam  saw-mills,  a  furniture  factory  and 
flouriug-mill  (both  steam),  an  agricultural  implenunt  fac- 
tory, a  large  school  building,  and  numerous  lunincss  houses, 
has  daily  ferry  connection  with  Wisconsin, aud  handles  an- 
nually 75U.0(M)  bushels  of  grain.  Pop.  of  v.  175.'j ;  of  tp.  2jl9. 
James  T.  Metcalf,  En.  "Mirror  and  Chroniclk." 

Litinsin;;,  city  and  tp.  (tf  Ini,'hnm  co..  onp.  of  the  Stat© 


N,  u 


of  Michigan,  is  «itnated  on  Grand  River,  about  IIH)  miles 
from  its  miiutb,  at  its  confluence  with  tho  Cedar,  anil  on 
the  Chicago  and  Lake  Huron,  tbo  Detroit  Lan^-ing  nnd 
Luke  Miidiignn.  tho  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Soulliern, 
and  the  Michigan  Central  R.  Us.  It  has  two  oilier  less 
important  lines  of  railroad,  and  others  are  projected. 
Lan!«irtg  was  laid  out  by  the  State  ns  a  capital  in  1817,  and 
was  projected  on  a  lilicral  Mcale.  with  avonue^*  seven  and 
five  rods  in  width:  is  situated  on  high  land  r»n  both  sidefi 
of  tho  river,  is  St  miles  W.  of  Detroit  ami  00  S.  W.  of  Sag- 
inaw. It  has  2  national  nnd  2  private  bnnkp.  a  gaslight 
and  a  fire  insurance  eompany,  10  churelicK,  3  hotels,  an 
opera  house.  3  weekly  newflpapern,  iron-works,  superior 
common  and  high  sehonls,  a  female  anrl  a  oommereial  col- 
lege, State  Agricultural  College,  State  Reform  School,  State 


Lansing,  Mich. 

Library  of  20,000  volumes,  several  private  literary  nnd  li- 
brary associations,  and  a  young  men's  lecture  society. 
(Jrand  River  is  spanned  by  4  iron  bridges  and  1  wooden 
one.  Tliero  is  a  noted  mineral  spring.  The  fine  water- 
power  has  made  Lansing  an  important  manufacturing  cen- 
tre, ami  it  has  a  large  eom[dement  of  niereantih'  Iiousch 
and  of  professional  men.  Tbo  State  eapitid  is  on  high 
ground,  fifty  feet  above  tho  river;  an  appropriation  of 
$l,200,ll0lt  was  mado  in  1874  for  a  new  building.  A  eity 
government  was  organiited  in  1851).  Pop.  of  oily,  5-11; 
of  tp.  exclusive  of  city,  82:{. 

W.  S.  GKonor,  En.  "Statk  RrnrnLiCAN." 
I>aiisinf;,  powt  v.  and   tp.  of  Mower  eo.,  Minn.,  on  tho 
MilwauUrc  and  St.  Paul  U.  R.  (Iowa  and  Minnesota  divia- 
ionj.     pop.  77;L 


1644 


LANSING— LAODICEA. 


Lansing,  tp.  of  Tumpkins  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  E.  shore 
of  fayugii  Lake.     Pop.  2S74. 

Lansing  i.roiis),  b.  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  .".0,  17;U: 
stuilicii  law  witli  Ilobl.  Yatfs  ia  Albany  ami  James  Diiaiic 
ID  New  York  t  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war  as  niililary 
secretary  to  Gen.  Schuyler;  was  for  seven  years  a  nienibcr 
of  the  legislature,  for  four  years  mayor  of  Albany;  mem- 
ber of  tlfe  Old  Congress  1784-88;  member  of  the  Slate 
convention  for  considering  the  U.  S.  Constitulion,  which 
he  opposed,  leaving  the  convention;  commissioner  in  1790 
to  seille  the  Vermont  controversy;  appointed  judge  of 
New  Y'ork  supreme  court  Sept.  28,  17!lll,  chief-justice  Feb. 
l,i,  179S,  and  chancellor  of  the  State  from  Oct.  21,  ISOI,  to 
18U.     I).  Dec.  12,  1829. 

ljan'sin!;bura;h,po3t-v.  and  f  p.  of  Rensselaer  CO.,  N.Y., 
3  miles  N.  of  Troy,  on  the  Hudson  River,  nearly  opposite 
the  confluence  of  the  Mohawk,  has  6  churches,  6  hotels,  1 
weekly  newsjiaper,  established  in  179S,  1  savings  bank,  an 
academy, !!  public  schools,  25  brush-factories,  2  oilcloth  and 
2  cracker  fautories,  5  malt-houses,  a  fire  and  a  police  dc- 
p;\rlment,  and  is  connected  with  Troy  by  a  street  railroad. 
It  is  perll.aps  the  chief  point  in  the  U.  S.  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  brushes,  oilcloth,  and  crackers.  It  has  considerable 
river  trade,  and  is  connected  with  Waterford  by  a  bridge 
across  the  Hudson.  Named  from  the  founder,  Abraham  J. 
Lansing,  who  settled  here  in  1771.  Pop.  of  v.  Go72;  of  tp. 
6S01.  J.  <i-  Scott,  Ed.  '•  Gazette." 

Lan'singville,  a  v.  of  Hamdcn  tp..  Delaivare  CO.,  N.  T., 
on  the  S.  side  of  Delaware  River.     Pop.  110. 

Lansingville,  post-v.  of  Lansing  tp.,  Tompkins  CO., 
N.  Y.     Pop.  07. 

Lanta'ua,  a  genus  of  mostly  tropical  shrubs  of  the 
orJor  Verbeuacca;.  Many  have  stimulant  and  aromatic 
qualities,  i.  /iseiuloilica  is  highly  esteemed  in  Brazil  as  a 
substitute  for  tea.  A  number  of  the  species  are  beautiful 
greenhouse  shrubs,  notably  L.  camara  and  inl.rta  of  trop- 
ical America.  The  U.  S.  have  at  least  two  species  native 
to  the  (lulf  States,  L.  camara  and  inroliu-mfa.  Some  have 
square  stems.  The  flowers  are  mostly  showy  and  of  chang- 
ing color.^. 

Lan'tern  [Lat.  lauima,  Interna],  a  portalile  or  fixed 
artificial  light,  enclosed  in  a  suitable  case  to  protect  it  from 
the  action  of  air-currents.  Ancient  Rome,  Greece,  and  Car- 
thage employeil  lanterns.  The  lantern  also  appears,  but  not 
frequently,  on  Egyptian  monuments.  Thin  layers  of  horn, 
oilcil  or  wa.\ed  pajjer,  or  linen,  bladder,  and  other  translu- 
cent substances  were  used,  .\idhelm,  bishoi)  of  Sherborne 
in  ICngland,  mentions  glass  lanterns  in  70o  A.  D.  Tlic  East- 
ern nations,  and  especially  the  Chinese,  excel  in  the  making 
of  ornnmcntal  lanterns. — On  the  evening  of  the  lith  of 
January  tlie  Chinese  eelol)ratc  the  Feast  of  Lanterns. 
.SjMietiiues  the  wealthy  Ciiinese  spend  tiiousanrls  of  dol- 
lars ou  a  single  lantern,  whose  sides  are  often  of  silk,  and 
whicii  m:iy  have  a  diameter  of  twenty-five  feet.  It  eon- 
tains  usually  a  great  number  of  wax  candles.  The  origin 
of  the  lantern-festival  is  vat'iously  stated. 

Lau'tern-fly,  a  name  given  to  several  insects  of  the 
family  Fiilgoridx,  some  of  which  arc  reputed  to  emit  a 
brilliant  light  from  the  forehead.  Of  these,  Fnl-iora  ran- 
delaria  of  China  and  F.  Iniiicniaria  of  Guiana  are  the  best 
known  species,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  really  emit 
any  light.  Tiiey  are  nearly  three  inches  long,  and  arc  the 
largest  of  tlie  Ilemiptera.  Some  of  the  genera  produce  a 
fine  wliito  wax,  utilized  in  the  S.  K.  of  Asia. 

Lan'thanuin  [(Jr.  haviivtiv,  "to  escape  notice"],  an 
elementary  metal  of  rather  rare  occurrence,  to  which  Mo- 
sander,  its  discoverer,  in  18:19  gave  this  name,  because  it 
had  remained  concealed,  in  combination  with  cerium,  for 
thirty-six  years.  Mosander  also  found  in  1S42  in  oxide  of 
lanthanum  another  rare  metal,  d'ultfiniiun,  which  he  named 
from  the  Greek  5i6wMo«.  *'  twofold  "  or  *'  twin,"  from  its  con- 
generic association  with  lanthanum  and  difficulty  of  dis- 
tinction therefrom.  Didymium  gives  rose-colored  salts  and 
solutions,  while  those  of  lanthanum,  when  ])ure,  are  white. 
Those  three  rare  and  curious  metals,  cerium,  lanthanum,  and 
didymium,  arc  usually  found  in  combination  in  the  minerals 
cerilc,  nttauilf,  min-oinontitc,  mosaiulrite,  etc.;  but  the  One 
here  under  consideration,  lanthanum,  occurs  by  itself,  as  the 
beautiful  mineral  laiilhaiilic,  in  at  least  three  American  lo- 
calities— in  the  zinc  ores  of  Saueon  Valley,  Lehigh  co..  Pa., 
at  the  Canton  mine  in  Georgia,  and  at  the  Sandford  ore- 
bed,  Moriah,  Essex  co..  N.  Y.  Lanthanite  is  carbanate  of 
iauthaiiniiti  n.rtiUj  or  /ont/mim,  La2C03,.'iH20,  containing  55 
p'*r  cent,  of  lanthana.  It  is  sometimes  pink  in  color,  from 
the  presence  of  its  roseate  twin-sister,  didyniia.  Lnuthnna 
is  a  white  oxide,  like  lime  or  magnesia,  very  heavy,  density 
a''Out  6,  which  absorbs  carbtmic  acid  and  water  from  the 
air,  and  slakes  with  water,  like  lime,  to  a  hydrate. 

llESllY  Wdktz. 


Lan'thopine  [Gr.  KavBivtiv,  "to  escape  notice,"  and 
6;r6«,  for '■  Opium  "],  a  base  homologous  with  papaverine, 
contained  in  opium.  (See  Watts's  Diet.,  Sup/jlemcnt.) 

Lanu'viiim^  an  ancient  city  of  Latium,  20  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Rome,  where  now  stands  the  hamlet  Civitii  Lavigna.  It 
was  anciently  a  place  of  much  importance,  famous  especial- 
ly for  its  temple  and  sacred  grove  of  Juno  Sospita.  It  was 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Latin  League,  and  the  birthplace 
of  the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius.  Few  remains  of  the  old 
town  now  exist. 

Lan'za  (Giovanxi),  b.  in  1815  at  Vignala,  Piedmont; 
stu'licd  medicine  at  Turin,  and  practised  in  his  native  city  ; 
in  1848  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  espoused 
the  policy  of  Cavour;  in  1805  entered  the  cabinet  of 
Cavour  as  minister  of  puljlic  education,  and  in  IS5S  ex- 
changed this  ofiice  with  the  ministry  of  finance;  in  18;'i9, 
after  the  Peace  of  Villafranca,  resigned,  together  with 
the  whole  cabinet  of  Cavour,  and  then  worked  simply 
as  a  member  of  Parliament,  of  which  he  was  elected 
president  several  times:  in  1804  took  charge  of  the  min- 
istry of  the  interior  under  La  Marmora,  but  retired  in 
1865.  Once  more  entering  Parliament,  and  having  been 
elected  president  in  Sept.,  18G7,  he  opposed  the  financial 
policy  of  the  ministry  of  Mcnabrca,  and  resigned  his  presi- 
dency when  the  ministry  triumphed.  His  re-election  in 
1809  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  ministry,  and  he  now 
undertook  to  form  a  new  eainnet  himself.  He  occupied 
theminisfry  of  the  interior,  and  the  other  members  belonged 
mostly  to  that  section  of  the  Right  which  had  supported 
Menabrea's  internal  policy,  but  opposed  his  financial  mea- 
sures. Lanza  endeavored  to  introduce  the  greatest  possi- 
ble parsimony  to  bring  order  into  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
kingdom.  Nevertheless,  as  the  annexation  of  the  papal 
states  in  1870  took  place  while  he  held  office,  large  ex- 
penses for  the  army  and  navy  were  necessary.  The  pecu- 
liar tendency  of  the  Itali.an  Parliament  to  grant  the  ex- 
penses, but  to  reject  the  taxes,  overthrew  the  cabinet  of 
Lanza  in  187.T.  June  23  he  gave  in  his  resignation,  as 
the  Parliament  would  even  not  allow  Sclla's  tax-bill  to  bo 
discussed.  AiOfST  Xiemasm. 

Lanzaro'te,  the  most  N.  E.  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
comprises  an  area  of  325  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  17,JU0.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  20110  feet,  and  contains 
several  active  volcanoes.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  produces 
the  finest  grapes  and  wines  on  the  Canaries,  but  it  is  much 
exposed  to  drought.  Teguise  is  the  capital;  Arrecife,  the 
principal  port. 

Lan'zi  (Li-ir,i),  b.  at  Monte  dell'  Almo,  Italy,  Juno  14, 
1732;  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1719, and  became, 
after  its  dissolution  in  1773,  assistant  director  of  the  gallery 
of  Florence.  He  now  devoted  himself  much  to  the  study 
of  art  and  archa;ology,  especially  Etruscan  language  and 
antiquities,  and  his  two  works  on  these  subjects,  Sagrfio  di 
liiiijiia  etrntfca  (3  vols.,  1789)  and  Storia  pittarica  drti'Ilafia 
(6  vols.,  1792),  attracted  great  attention — also  in  foreign 
countries ;  the  latter  was  translated  into  English  by  Thomas 
Roscoc.     D.  Mar.  30,  ISIO. 

Laoc'oon  [Gr.  Aao«d«)v],  a  Trojan  patriot  and  priest 
who  opposed  the  introduction  of  Sinon's  wooden  horse  into 
tho  city  of  Troy,  and  was,  with  his  two  sons,  slain  by  two 
great  serpents  from  the  sea.  His  myth  is  variously  given, 
but  tho  account  in  Virgil's  jEncid  is  the  best  known.  Tho 
death  of  i^aoeoiin  and  his  sons  is  the  subject  of  a  noble 
group  now  existing  in  the  Vatican.  It  is  described  by 
Pliny,  and  was  rediscovered  on  the  Esquiline  Hill  in  1  JOfi. 
It  was  executed  by  Agesander,  Alhenodorus  (his  son),  and 
Polydorus,  Rhodian  artists  who  probably  lived  in  the  lime 
of  'Til  us.  The  Laocoiin  has  been  made  tho  subject  of  Les- 
sing's  masterly  criticism.  (See  bis  Laocoon,  translated  by 
Ellen  Frothingham,  1875.) 

Laodice'a  [Gr.  ,\ao4.icaca],  the  name  of  six  Greek  cities 
built  liy  the  Seleuciila;,  mouarchs  of  the  Syrian  empire, 
who  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  were  the  chief 
representatives  and  inheritors  of  his  Eastern  conquests,  five 
of  them  having  been  named  in  honor  of  Laodice,  w'ife  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  and  one  in  honor  of  the  wife  of  Antioehus 
Theos.  Of  these,  one  in  .Media,  one  in  Mesopotamia,  and 
another  on  the  Orontes  in  Pheenicia  (called  Cabiaiia  by 
Ptolcmv  and  ad  lihanum  by  Pliny),  have  not  been  iden- 
tified in" modern  times.  I.  LAonirEA  Combpsta  [Gr.  K<iTa«- 
Kii.vy.ivr,.  tlie  "burne.l"],  now  Ladik,  situated  to  the  N.  \V. 
of  Iconium  on  the  highroad  from  (irecee  to  the  Euphrates, 
anil  variously  .assigned  to  Lycaonia,  Pisidin,  and  Galatio, 
as  the  boundaries  of  those  provinces  were  ehan'.'cd.  Strabo 
derived  the  name  from  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  surnumil- 
ing  country,  but  Hamilton  (Kcnearclics.  vol.  ii.)  asserts  that 
there  is  not  a  particle  of  volcanic  or  igneous  rock  in  tho 
neighborhood,  and  proposes  to  derive  the  name  from  some 
confl.agration.     Leake  (Asia  Minor,  p.  44)  found  at  Ladik 


LAON— LAOU-TSZE. 


1645 


more  numerous  fragments  "f  ancient  architccturo-ftntl  sculp- 
ture than  at  any  other  place  visited  by  liiin  in  ihut  country. 
Imperial  coins  of  the  reigos  of  Titus  and  l>oini(ian  show 
that  it  must  have  hccn  a  largo  city. — II.  La'Hucka  ad 
Lyci'M,  now  EHhi-IUHHtir,  a  city  in  the  S.  W.  of  Phrygia, 
somelime-i  reckoned  to  Onria  and  to  Lydia,  near  Colussaj, 
4(1  miles  E.  of  Ephcsus  and  fi  miles  W.  nf  Ilierapolis.  situ- 
ated on  the  spur  of  a  hill  between  thcvalleysof  the  Asopus 
and  Caprus  rivers,  which  hero  fall  into  the  Lycus,  was 
originally  called  Dionpfffi^  and  afterwards  77io'f*,  and  bav- 
in;^ been  rebuilt  by  Antiochus  II.  (Tlieos).  2ri0  D.  c,  was 
named  from  hi^  wife  LAonuM:,  by  whom  he  was  poisoned 
D.  (-'.  24(j.  From  the  Syrian  monarcdis  it  passed  to  the  kings 
of  Pcrgamu3,  and  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  on 
the  death  of  Attains  IH..  I'^l  B.  c,  wlien  it  became  the 
capital  of  the  vast  province  of  (irealer  I'liryj^ia.  and  rapidly 
took  position  as  one  of  the  most  populous,  splendid,  and 
wealthy  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  distinguished  also  in  liter- 
ature, noted  as  the  seat  of  a  great  medieal  school,  and  was 
the  official  residence  of  Cicero  during  his  (iroconsulatc  in 
A?<iiv  (Ut-.Mi);  an'l  very  interesting  accounts  are  to  be 
found  in  the  great  orator's  correspondence.  It  became  the 
residence  of  great  numbers  of  Jews ;  was  one  of  the  earliest 
scats  of  Christianity  in  Asia  Minor,  the  church  having 
been  founded  by  Paul,  who  wrote  an  episilu  to  the  Laodi- 
ceans  (now  lost ),  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
siani".  According  to  the  superscription  to  I  Timothy,  Paul 
wrote  that  epistle  from  Laodicoa,  called  "the  chiefcst  city 
of  Phrygia  Pacotiana,"  but  there  is  no  further  notice  of  his 
visit.  The  terrible  threat  conveyed  by  the  uutborof  Keve- 
lation  to  the  "an^el  of  the  chureh  of  the  Laodiceans,  '  one 
of  the  seven  churehes  of  Asia  ( iii.  14-22),  will  readily  occur 
to  mind,  and  has  rendered  the  term  LainUccnn  a  synonym 
for  Inkeirnrm,  "  neither  cold  nor  hot."  The  city  was  nearly 
dcstroycfl  by  earthquakes  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  but 
quickly  restored,  ancl  was  the  scat  of  two  impurtant  general 
councils  of  the  Christian  Church:  the  first,  whose  date  is 
variously  placed  fmin  ;!fi3  to  ;t72,  enacted  sixty  canons,  one 
of  which  defined  the  books  fthence  called  cmioniml)  of 
Scripture;  the  set:ond  in -170  eonilemneil  the  Eutyebians. 
It  was  again  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  in  401,  was 
captured  by  the  crusfulers  in  I1'.I9,  by  the  Turks  in  12j.t, 
and  finally  destroyed  by  Tamerlane  in  1402.  Its  splendid 
and  wid'dy  scattered  ruins,  including  a  stadium,  gymna- 
sium, aqueduct,  and  three  theatres,  have  been  frequently 
described  by  modern  travellers.  (Sco  good  account  in 
Smith's  i>ivi.  Oco'f.  ii.  122.) — III.  LAonic^:\  ad  M\ni^,  a 
city  of  Syria,  founded  by  Seloucus  Nicator,  now  L\takia 
(whiiih  sec).  Poktbu  C.  Hi.iss. 

I^aon'  [Late  hat.  Lnndminm'],  town  of  France,  the  an- 
cient /.n'fifitntnu  (■fitr'ttniii,  the  llihrnx  of  Caesar,  capital  of 
the  department  c)f  Aisne.  is  situated  on  the  top  of  an  iso- 
lated hill  with  steep  declivities,  and  surrounrled  with  a  wall 
flanked  with  towers.  Its  (iothic  cathedral,  built  1114, 
crowning  the  top  of  the  hill,  adds  much  to  the  picturcsquc- 
ness  of  its  appearance.  This  ancient  city  was  the  scene 
of  an  ecclesiastical  council  in  9  IS.  was  taken  by  tlio  Eng- 
lish in  !  12H,  was  memorable  in  the  wars  of  Napolroii  i. 
and  in  the  Franeo-tJerman  war  of  |H70,  having  capitulated 
to  the  (lernians  Sept,  'J.  If  has  a  palace,  often  the  residonco 
of  French  monarchs,  and  a  famous  library.      Pop.  10,208. 

liao'nn,  post-tp  of  Winnebago  co.,  III.     Pop.  742. 

Ijiionay  postv.  of  Pomfret  tp..  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  Siw  l.'rcek,  and  on  the  Dunkirk  Warren  and  Pittsburg 
U.  K.  It  has  2  churches  and  several  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments.    Pop.  21S. 

La'os,  country  of  Farther  India  or  Indo-Cliina,  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  vast  peninsula  S.  of  t'hina,  bounded  N. 
by  the  Chinese  province  of  Yun-nan,  E.  by  Tonquin  and 
Annm,  S.  by  Siam.  and  W.  by  the  Shan  states.  Area,  en- 
tirely uncertain,  as  well  as  pop.,  which  is  estinmled  at 
],.50li.0l)n.  The  Shan  states  r,n  the  \.  W.  were  formerly  a 
part  of  Ij'ios,  but  are  now  separate.  Lao^  is  travers'-d  by 
the  great  Mc-kongor  f-imbodia  lliver,  and  consists  chiefly 
of  the  fertile  valley  of  this  river,  which  is  very  produetive 
of  sugar,  rice,  tobneeo,  gums,  br-tel-nnts,  and  other  fruits, 
which  with  leak,  saiidal-wond.  and  gold-dust  form  the  chief 
exports.  Formerly  independent,  the  tribe)  of  Laos  have 
since  the  eighteenth  century  acknowledged  a  nominal  do- 
pcndimcp  upon  Siam.  The  people  are  related  to  the  Hur- 
me-(e  in  blood,  language,  religion,  and  customs;  they  are 
ingenious  artisans,  and  trade  with  Tonquin  and  Siam. 
Cap.  Cliii-ngmni. 

l.a'oii-Ts/e,  otherwise  T^ao-Tscn^  I>no«t86e,  or 
Ijao-kiiin,  a  Chinene  moral  pliibfsnpher  whose  teachings 
have  many  points  in  oimmon  with  thoso  of  .Sankhya 
Booddlia,  of  whom  he  was  eontempornry.  Lao-tse  means 
in  Chini'so  "aneient  sage."  ilis  family  name  was  Li-pC-- 
yang.  and  he  was  born  in  the  third  year  of  the  emperor 
Ting-ouaug,  of  the  dynasty  of  Tscheu,  near  Lai   in   the 


principality  of  Thsou,  This  would  be,  according  to  Rein* 
old  von  Pliinckner,  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  but 
another  account  places  the  year  of  his  birth  about  Ct)4. 
Little  is  known  of  Laou-tszo  except  that  he  was  state 
librarian  and  keejxT  of  the  records  at  the  imperial  court 
of  Tseheu.  nn'l  that  having  resolved  in  advancing  age  to 
retire  from  China,  probnbly  to  India,  be  ren)aini'<l  for  a 
short  time  on  the  liorder,  llan-kow,  where  he  was  per- 
suaded by  the  general  Yun-hi  to  at  least  leave  some  record 
of  his  doctrines  in  a  book,  ile  did  so,  the  result  being  the 
LftD-tic  Tno-te-hiiuj  ("  The  Road  to  Virtue"),  a  small  col- 
lection of  aphorisms  which  probably  contain  more  deep 
philosophy  set  forth  in  a  spirited  and  genial  form  than 
can  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  the  same  size.  It  has 
within  a  few  years  been  translated  into  the  principal  Eu- 
ropean languages,  and  extensively  coniinented  on.  Lanu- 
ts/.c  makes  all  things  proceed  frtjm  and  live  in  an  infinite 
First  Cause,  which  he  calls  T<ui.  and  which  John  Chalmers 
thinks  best  to  leave  untranslated,  because  neither  "  Way," 
'*  Reason,"  nor  "  The  Word  "  gi\es  it  exactly.  lie  placed 
moral  pcrlection  in  the  indiviihial,  in  independent  realiz- 
ing of  truth,  and  in  self-discipline,  being  in  nil  resjiects 
the  opposite  of  Confucius,  who  exhorted  blind  obcdienco 
to  old  customs  and  the  doctrines  of  the  ancient  pages. 
Confucius  is  said  to  have  taken  a  long  journey  lo  visit 
Laou-tszc.  They  met  and  interchanged  their  views,  until 
Laou-tszo,  probably  wearied  by  the  narro\v  scope  of  the 
opinions  of  Confucius  and  bis  frequent  quotations  of  the 
ancients,  sharply  exclaimed,  *' Why  talk  for  ever  on  of 
men  who  are  long  dead,  and  whose  very  bones  are  dust? 
Only  their  words  remain  and  arc  heard.  When  the  wise 
man  meets  with  opportunity,  he  rises  with  it;  if  he  does 
not,  he  lets  the  weeds  grow,  goes  his  way,  and  follows  his 
destiny.  I  have  beard  that  a  shrewd  nierehaut  conceals 
his  opulence,  and  the  sage  of  pci'fect  virtue  loves  to  seem 
simple.  Put  away  your  priile  and  your  many  desires,  with 
the  endless  ambition  wliieb  is  manifest  in  yonr  manner.  It 
is  all  folly  :  and  that  is  all  I  have  to  say."'  This  was  a  cut 
direct,  but  it  was  natural.  Ci»nfucius  followed  the  ancients, 
and  aimed  at  establisliing  society  upon  conventional  rules, 
while  Laou-tszc.  a  rationalist,  yet  a  mystic,  despised  glory, 
the  world,  the  llesh,  and  {as  a  writer  in  Lnnnisse  adds)  the 
devil  as  known  to  Christianity,  (.'onl'ueius  is  said,  on  re- 
turning to  bis  scholars,  to  have  remarked.  *'liirds,  1  know, 
can  fly,  fish  can  swim,  and  beasts  run.  The  running  ones 
may  be  snared,  the  swimming  hooked,  and  the  flying  snared. 
But  I  know  not  how  the  dragon  rises  on  the  wind  and  clouds 
toheaven.  I  have  Seen  I*aou-tsze.  anil  he  is  like  the  dragon." 
Tradition  stsites  that  Laou-tszc  when  last  seen  was  mounted 
on  a  black  ox.  and  rode  away  into  the  western  wiJdcnirss 
of  Thibet.  Brimze  figures  representing  him  thus  riding 
may  be  seen  in  every  shop  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  goods. 
From  his  disquisitions  on  Tau,  tlie  great  cause  and  spring 
of  life  and  morals,  or  that  wbicli  with  him  takes  the  place 
of  the  Deity  or  the  Absolute,  Laou-tsze  became  the  head 
of  one  of  the  great  religions  of  China,  known  as  the  Tauist. 
lie  did  not  distinguish  between  spirit  an<I  matter,  lieing.  in 
fact,  a  pantheist,  and,  like  lioucldha.  he  seems  to  identify 
pure  existence,  devoid  of  passion  and  t  arlhly  emotions,  with 
a  state  which  is  not  to  oe  separated  from  non-existence. 
His  philosophy  embraces  much  that  resembles  the  Itleuti- 
t'dtHlrhrvy  a  (b)etrinc  of  identity,  of  Sehelling,  and  still  more 
the  bold  jiarailoxes  of  Hegel  as  to  the  logi<-aI  sameness  of 
"Being  and  Not-Being."  Yet  from  this  mysterious  un- 
known Being  of  nature  be  deduces  a  vigorous  and  beauti- 
ful moral  ereed.  The  water  that  bublileil  up  in  the  spring 
of  the  valley  came  from  be  knew  not  where,  and  s<i  it  eaine 
from  unn-hrrr.  from  nothing.  That  spring  fl<»ws  on  for 
ever — a  symbol,  he  thought,  of  all  existence,  which  con- 
tinually flows  from  non-existence.  And  yet  the  eternal 
Tun  is  ticither  one  of  these  nor  the  other,  but  the  slumber- 
ing possibility  of  !)oth.  Th<'  following  extracts  give  an  iilea 
of  the  style  of  Laou-tszc:  '*  The  reason  (  Ttnt)  which  can  bo 
reasoTied  is  not  the  eternal  lEeasun — the  name  wliieli  can  be 
named  is  not  the  eternal  Name."  "When  in  the  world 
beauty  is  recognized  to  be  beautiful,  straiglitway  tliero  is 
ugliness.  When  in  the  world  goodness  is  recognized  to  bo 
goofl.  straightway  there  is  evil.  And  thus  in  like  nmnnrr 
existence  and  non-existence  mutually  originate  each  other; 
so  also  diflictilty  and  ease,  long  and  short,  treble  and  bass, 
before  and  after."  Laou-tsze  often  suggests  Emerson,  and 
the  latter  in  his  essay  on  Cumprimntion  has  extended  the 
idea  of  the  former,  that  "  an  inevitable  (/ualtmn  bisects  na- 
ture." **  It  is  after  wisdom  has  conferred  renown  that  there 
are  great  shams.  And  it  is  not  until  a  nation  bus  got  into 
a  disordered  state  that  there  are  patriots"  {i.  e.  faithful 
ministers). 

Laou-tsze  lived  in  ft  great  ago.  "  Ho  wa<?  contemporary 
with  Booddba  in  India,  with  Jeremiah.  Habakkiik.  Daniel, 
and  Kzekiel  in  Judiea.  with  Tbales.  Anaximander,  Pythag- 
oras, Hcraclitcs,  and  Xenophanes  in  Greece,  while  at  the 


1646 


LA  PALA— LAPIDARY. 


same  time  an  immense  reformation  of  the  doctrines  of 
Zoroaster  took  place  in  Persia."  It  seems  impossible  while 
studying  his  seiitenocs.  so  full  of  sagacity  and  dec])  wis- 
dom, to  doubt  that  some  of  this  Western  influcnee  had 
reached  him. 

The  principal  works  on  Laou-tsze,  in  the  order  of  merit, 
area?  fallows  ;  L'to-tsr'e  Titit  'J'e  ICTnt/,  ttns  ifcm  ChineHitiflitn 
tit*  Drnttffie  nheruct^it,  eiiif/eleitet  mtfi  comnicntirt.  von  V  ie- 
tnr  VDii  Strauss  (Lcipsic,  1870);  Le  Livre  ih  fn  Vnie  it  de 
la  VcrtH,  traduction  dc  M.  Stanislas  Julien  (Paris,  I.S42j, 
to  which  may  be  adclcd  The  Speculations  of  the  Old  /'hifos- 
opher  Lau-tHze  on  MetaphysifS,  PoUti/.  and  Muraliti/,  by 
John  Chalmers,  apparently  in  great  part  a  translation  from 
the  version  of  Julien  (Loudon,  1S6S).  Le  Tao-te-h'm(j,  on 
Le  Livre  rfrfrf  dv  In  Ruismi  supreme  et  de  la  VcrtUj  par  Lao- 
tscii,  traduit  par  G.  Pauthior  (only  the  first  part  of  tliis 
published):  Memoires  de  I'nnciennc  Academic  dcs  Inacrip- 
tinns  (vol.  xxxviii.).  by  De^uigncs :  Mf  moires  sur  ht  Vie  cf 
la  Doctrine  de.  Lao-tsen,  by  Abel  Remusat ;  the  (Tcrman 
version  by  Rcinold  von  PlUnckner  (Ltio-tsn  T6.o-te-king. 
Leipsic,  1870)  is  rather  an  extravajant  paraphrase  than  a 
translation,  it  beinj;  difficuU.  or  often  impossible,  to  recon- 
cile any  of  its  phrases  with  those  of  the  other  versions. 
The  remarks  of  the  early  Jesuits  yn  Laou-ts/.e  are  as  ab- 
surd as  they  are  contradictory,  Pere  Couplet  (Uifi7),  in 
common  with  Montucei  (1S08),  seeing?  in  him  almost  a 
Christian  Trinitarian,  while  Pere  du  Ilalde  (I7r.f))  abuses 
him  as  an  atheist  and  destroyer  of  all  morals,  in  which 
opinion  he  was  followed  and  outdone  by  tlie  Fathers  Bou- 
vet,  Fouquet.  Pr^mare.  and  Amiot.  A  good  English  trans- 
lation of  Laou-tszc's  work  is  desirable.      C.  G.  Lelasd. 

La  Pa'la,  tp   of  San  Diego  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  120. 

Lapal'cong,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware 
River,  opposite  Easton,  Pa.     Pop.  1150. 

La  Paz,  seaport  of  Mexico,  cap.  of  tho  territory  of 
Lower  Calilornia,  on  La  Paz  Bay,  W.  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Calif  )rnia,  is  tho  scat  of  a  deeliniug  pearl-fishery;  exports 
to  San  Francisco  tropical  fruits  and  hides.  Pop.  about  1000. 

La  Paz  de  Ayacucho,  city  of  Bolivia,  the  capital  of 
the  dL-pirtnunt  of  La  Paz,  and  one  of  the  capitals  of  the 
rejiublic,  in  la^  10°  oO'  S.  and  Ion.  GS°  H)'  W.,  at  an 
elevation  of  12.22(5  feet,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Chu- 
queapo.  Well  built,  with  an  agreeable  climate,  and  beauti- 
fully situated,  its  promenade  or  alnnuda  presents  a  splen- 
did view  of  the  tllimani,  and  is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  Bo- 
livia. It  was  founded  in  lo-lS;  is  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  Bolivia,  transacting  a  large  foreign  trade  with  the 
Peruvian  ports  of  Arica  and  Islay,  with  the  latter  of  which 
it  has  been  brciu'iht  into  close  connection  by  the  completi(m 
of  the  Aroquipa  Railway  to  Puno  on  Lake  Titicaca.  It  has 
a  beautiful  cathedral,  14  other  churches,  a  university,  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  theology,  and  science,  and  has  frequently 
been  tho  seat  of  the  national  government.     Pop.  8li,000. 

Lapeer',  county  in  the  E.  of  the  southern  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  Area,  6M0  square  miles.  It  is  uiululating  and 
fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc  staple  products.  Lum- 
ber and  flour  are  leading  articles  of  manufacture.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Detroit  and  Bay  City  and  the  Port  Huron 
and  Lake  MiL-higan  R.  Rs.     Cap.,  Lapeer.     Pop.  21,345. 

Lapeer,  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Lapeer  co.,  Mich.,  60  miles 
N.  of  Detroit,  at  the  junction  of  the  Detroit  and  Bay  City 
wiili  Chicago  and  Lake  Huron  R.  R^.  A  branch  of  the 
former  railroad,  G  miles  long,  connects  with  Fish  Lake. 
Lajieer  has  1  national  hank,  2  weekly  newspajiers,  9 
churches,  7  hotels,  several  large  mills  and  shops,  and  many 
stores.  It  is  in  a  fine  farming  region,  ami  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a  large  business  in  ])ino  lumber  and  shingles. 
Pop.  of  city,  1772  J  of  tp.  exclusive  of  city,  1IU)2. 

S.  J.  ToMi.iNsoN,  Ed.  "Ci.AniON," 

Lapeer,  post-tp.  of  Cortland  co..  N.  Y.  It  contains 
the  beautiful  cataract  called  Hunt's  Falls,  on  Fall  Creek, 
71  feet  high.     Pop,  7:15. 

Iia  Perouse,  de  (Ttan  Franc^oir  nn  Oai.attp),  Coi'nt, 
b.  at  lino  near  Albi,  France,  Aug.  22,  1741  ;  entered  the  navy 
in  17-")(i;  served  in  the  American  war  of  independence,  and 
was  placed  at  the  bead  of  an  exploring  expedition  which 
Louis  XVI.  fitted  out,  and  which  left  Brest  Aug.  1,  178a. 
Doubling  Capo  Horn,  Ija  P^rousc  followed  the  American 
coast  to  Monterey,  California,  crossed  then  the  Pacific,  and 
followed  the  Asiatic  coast  from  Manila  to  Petropaulovsk. 
From  this  place  he  sent  his  journals  and  charts  to  Pari.s, 
and  in  Sept.,  1787.  he  started  southwanl.  A  letter  was  re- 
ceived from  him  dated  Botany  Bay,  Feb.  7,  1788,  and  from 
this  place  it  was  his  intention  to  go  to  the  Isle  de  France 
by  way  of  Van  Dieraan's  Land,  but  nothing  more  was  ever 
heard  of  him.  It  is  probable,  however,  according  to  re- 
searches made  in  1791  by  Admiral  d*Entreca?tcaux  and 
I>umont  d'Urville  in  182S,  that  he  was  shipwrecked  in 
17S8  at  Vanikoro,  in  the  New  Hebrides  group  of  islands. 


Lap'ham  (Increa.se  Allkn),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Palmyra, 
N.  Y.,  .Mar.  7,  Isll.  Was  a  civil  engineer;  was  employed 
on  the  Miami,  Welland.  and  Louisville  canals.  Was  sec- 
retary of  the  Ohio  canal  commission  18S3-35,  and  early 
won  a  wide  fame  as  a  botanist  and  geologist.  In  1S;JG  he 
removed  to  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  where  he  has  held  many  ]»ub- 
lic  offices.  In  18fi2  he  became  president  of  the  Wisconsin 
Historical  Society.  He  published  valuable  papers  and 
works  on  the  geography,  gculogy.  mineralogy,  anti  history 
of  Wisconsin,  was  a  careful  obsL-rver  of  the  meteorology  of 
tho  region,  and  prepared  a  memorial  to  Congress  showing 
the  necessity  of  storm-predictions  for  the  benefit  of  com- 
merce, and  how  they  could  be  secMired.  the  suggestions  of 
which  were  subsequently  carried  out.  All  branches  of 
physical  science  engaged  his  attention,  and  he  did  more 
than  any  other  man  in  the  State  to  develop  and  stiniuluto 
scientific  investigation  for  practical  ends.  In  1873  he  was 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  a  geological  survey  of  the  State. 
He  organized  the  survey,  and  conducted  it  with  great  ef- 
ficiency for  two  years,  nntil,  in  consequence  of  a  ]>olitical 
revolution,  ho  was  superseded.  He  had  prepared  two  able 
reports  which  are  yet  unpublished.  He  d.  suddenly  at 
Ocouomowoc  Sept.  14,  1875. 

Lap'idary  [Lat.  ?r»;)K/arj'»«,  a  "stonecutter,"  from  lapiSf 
a  "  stone,"  but  limited  to  one  who  works  in  precious  stones]. 
By  some  writers  a  distinction  is  observed  between  the  en- 
graver of  ycHis  and  cameos  and  the  lapidary,  the  latter  being 
supposed  to  merely  prepare  precious  stones  for  jewelry 
by  cutting  and  polishing  them.  Of  lateyears,  since  a  great 
demand  has  sprung  up  for  imitations  of  ancient  Scotch 
jewelry  and  for  tierman  beads,  all  of  agate,  carneli.in,  and 
other  third-class  stones,  the  lapidary  has  been  chiefly  de- 
voted to  this  class  of  work.  The  first  step  in  polishing  a 
stone  is  to  slit  it.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  circle  or 
disk  of  thin  sheet  iron  placed  horizontally,  and  made  to  re- 
volve by  very  simple  machinery.  Dianioud-dust  is  applied 
to  the  edge  of  the  iron  plate,  and  sperm  oil  drops  upon  it 
from  a  can.  A  raised  edge  around  the  tal)le  is  provided  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  the  dust.  A  small  quantity  on  the  disk 
will,  if  pro|icrIy  managed.  last  all  day  without  appreciable 
loss.  Wh-^n  cut,  the  stone  is  ground  on  horizontal  wheels 
made  of  lea<l,  brass,  iron,  or  alloys,  and  sometimes  of  wood 
of  different  degrees  of  hardness.  The  wheels  of  metal  are 
calloil  Inps.  On  these  is  spread  emery,  diamond,  or  corun- 
dum powd'T.  and  sometimes  the  powder  of  agates  and  other 
gems.  For  the  la-t  polish,  wheel:^  are  used  covered  with 
cloth,  leather,  or  hard  brushes.  The  powders  of  diamond, 
etc.  gradually  imbed  themselves  so  firmly  in  the  lead  or 
other  soft  metal  of  which  the  wheels  are  made  that  the  stone 
yields  to  tliem.  It  is  held  either  with  the  fingers  or  by  wax 
in  a  hollow  at  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  pressed  against  the 
wheel.  The /((rcf«,  or  flat  surfaces  which  give  brilliancy  to 
transparent  stones,  are  cut  by  a  very  simple  contrivance. 
By  the  side  of  the  horizontal  griuding-whcel  is  )>laced  an 
upright  heavy,  club-like  piece  of  wood,  resembling  a  long- 
necked,  very  narrow  bottle  reversed.  Into  this,  in  difi"ercnt 
places,  a  rod  is  stuck,  at  one  end  of  which  the  gem  is  affixed 
with  cement.  The  gem  presses  on  the  wheel  as  it  revolves, 
and  the  surface  is  cut  away.  To  make  a  new  facet  the  rod 
holding  the  gem  is  simply  stuck  into  another  hrde.  which 
gives  a  new  inclination  or  a  new  angle.  The  diamond- 
jiowder  used  is  made  from  bort,  or  cheap  coarse  diamonds, 
and  sells  at  from  £1  to  £2  per  carat.  The  workmen  acquire 
wonderful  facility  in  shaping  and  polishing  stones,  and 
from  a  given  pattern  will  produce  any  object  required  with 
great  rapidity.  Certain  gems,  such  as  the  cairngorm,  are 
very  elegantly  cut  in  Scotland,  but  the  great  mass  of  beads, 
bracelets,  and  inferior  '*  Scotch  "jewelry  comes  from  Ober- 
stein  in  Germany.  (See  Gems.)  (For  further  information 
consult  the  woriis  of  Dr.  A.  Billing.  Dr.  Feuchtwanger, 
King,  and  HoUzapfel.)  Cmaki.ks  (J.  Li;i,and, 

Lapidary.  In  writing,  this  word  is  applied  to  a  style 
peculiar  to  inscriptions,  and  which  derives  its  name  from 
liipis,  a  **  stone,"  from  being  commonly  applied  to  monu- 
ments. As  it  was  developed  at  a  time  when  Latin  was 
principally  used  for  such  purposes,  its  rules  are  in  reference 
to  that  language.  It  has,  says  Larousse,  its  special  rules, 
its  consecrated  abbreviations,  its  ready-made  formulas,  and 
its  conventional  archaisms.  It  affects  to  be  ancient  and 
unchangeable  by  perpetuating  words  no  longer  in  common 
use.  anil  exerts  itself  chietly  to  be  concise,  without  neglect- 
ing great  words  or  pompous  forms.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
write  well,  and  in  ancient  forms  is  much  more  difficult  to 
read,  owing  to  the  abbreviations,  by  which  words  are  often 
represented  by  single  letters.  The  commonest  abbreviations 
in  Latin  inscriptions  are  the  following: 

Ab  I'rbe  ComlUa, "  Year  of  the 
buildini;  of  the  city  "  (Rome), 
or  "  from  the  building  of  the 


A.    K,    Artinm    Baccalaureus, 

Bachelor  of  Arts. 
A.  M..  Aflium  Magister,  Master 

of  Arts. 
A.  U.  CyAnno  Urbis  OindUce^  or 


city.*' 
COSS.,  Cbnsules,  consuls. 


LAPIS  LAZULI— LAPLACE,  DE. 


1647 


CS..  CbHJtttt.  I  K..  JTalfndU,  "At  (or  In)  the 

C  VIR.,  Ckniatn  fir,  a  magU-  {      Kalfiid:*." 

trail'.  ;  L.,  I.ihrr'us,  a  frccdinan. 

CC  VV..  Clarissimi   VJrC,  tery  ,  N,  A' •/*".».  nephew. 

ilhHiri  MIS  miMi.  O.  T.  B.  tj..  Ov.«i  ttia  bene  71*i*m- 

D.  M.,  Ifiis  MuHibtis,  "To  the  I      cnit/.  '*M:iy  your  boiiea  rest 

M.-iiiL's."  j      well :" 

D.  M.  S.,  Diu  M'lnibus  Sticnimy    P.   M..    Pim/if^z  Maxtmus,  the 

'•Allarof  the  Mant's."'  |      great  pontiir. 

D.  S.  P. .  Pi'  tit'i  pfcimia,  "  At  hut    S.  C.,  Stnattui  roruu//o,  "  By  a  de- 

own  f'xpt-nse."  crcp  of  tho  Senate." 

F^  FiHuj,  >on.  I  S.  P.  Q.  R..  S^n>Uw  popiihisqiff! 

F8-.  /'V<i/fM.  brothers.  Ronuinus,  "The  Sonale  and 

(J.  I).  N.,  Ornio  Domini  noUrt,  \      the  Koinaa  pe<>pl« 


S.  T.  T.    I...  Sit  fibi  terra  hrijc, 

"May  the  earth  be  light  to 

(ont  Iht'el" 
V.  F..  I'irus /rcU,  "He  did  it 

wliih^  alive." 
V.  P..  I'irm  poxt/H.  "  lie  erected 

it  whilf  yet  alive." 
V.  S.  ]j..  I't'fttin  solrit  libmx^  "  He 

did  it  to  accomplish  a  vow." 


"To  ilii-  (ii-niiis  i()r  tutelary 

spirit*  <if  nur  Ma-'ttrr."  I 

H.  F.  <'..  If-rfx  facinwiuni  cum-  i 

ri'.  "  Kxe-'ul'-d  bv  the  heir."  i 
n.  M.  H.  N.  S.,  ll'i)C  monnm^-  \ 

turn     hrrfdrrn     non     seqiiitiir, 

"This   ni'tnument  (Iik*s    not  ' 

follow  our  inb'Titnne)'."  1 

T.  O.  M..  J'ni  O.tfimo  ^f'^rimo,  , 

"  To  Juvf,  thi  b'jst  and  great-  , 

est."  i 

Among  the  peculiarities  of  lapidary  style  is  that  by  which 
a  date  was  e.\pressed  hy  mnkin;;  tho  numeral  letters  promi- 
nent in  an  inscription.  Of  this  kind  is  the  followinj^, 
which  was  formerly  on  tho  face  of  an  old  clock  before  a 
tavero  in  Paris : 

**  AV  t?Mps  dV  rnt  ChirL-s  T.-*  hVU 
C.'st  VI  liosleL  fVt  caiiblrVIt." 

By  addin:;  !h?3e  capitals  the  date  1405  is  obtained.  (See 
Chronockam.)  CiiAitt.p.3  G.  Lelasi>. 

La'pis  Laz'nli  [Lat.  M/jiV,  "stone,"  and  Arab,  asii^ 
*'heavi?n  "j,  a  natural  silicate  of  lime  and  alumina,  with  a 
small  amount  of  sulphurets,  crystallizing  in  the  mono- 
metric  system,  ami  of  a  beautiful  Berlin-blue  color.  It  i,-; 
highly  valued  for  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  articles, 
and  was  formerly  the  sole  sourcs  of  the  rich  paint  ultra- 
marine, which  is  now  chiefly  manufactured  artificially. 

Lap'ithiE  [Aafftfljti],  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  race  of 
Thessilians,  the  d*seen<lants  of  Lapithcs,  a  son  of  Apollo, 
whoso  king  was  Pirithous,  son  of  Ixion.  They  overcame 
the  Centaurs  in  a  bloody  war,  but  were  in  turn  humbled  by 
Hercules,  as  relate  I  in  llcsiod  and  Ovid.  They  wore  prob- 
ably an  early  warlike  race  of  the  Pelasgian  stock. 

Laplnce'  (rvnii.i.KPicRRKTHf'onoRK).  b.  Nov.  7,170^; 
entered  the  French  navy  early:  was  niado  captain  in  ISIM, 
rear-admiral  in  1S4I,  vice-admiral  in  IS.i.3,  and  retired 
in  ISjS.  He  commanded  in  two  c.\pcilitions  of  circum- 
navigation, which  he  described  in  1'".'/".'/''  autonr  dn  Monde 
(5  vols.,  Paris.  lS;{.'}-;i9j  and  Cfitnpat/ne  dc  Ctrcnmufivigatiun 
(4  vols.,  184J-4S).     I).  Jan.  24,  1875. 

Laplace,  de  fPtEnnr:  Simox),  M\RQrrs,  b.  at  Beau- 
mont en-Aug'\  in  X'iriniindy,  Mar.  L'.l.  ITtO.  of  poor  pa- 
rcn's:  ho  was  indelttcd  to  the  interest  of  wealthy  friends  for 
almisT^ion  to  tho  College  of  Caen  and  the  military  school 
of  Iloaumont.  Brought  to  tho  notice  of  D'Alembort,  who 
procured  him  the  mathematical  mnstership  of  tho  military 
sehool  at  Paris,  that  city  bcc.imc  his  resilience  at  the  ago 
of  eii;h;ccn.  Two  papers  on  the  Theory  of  ProbaI»ilittc9 
printo  1  at  tho  Academy  rUiring  the  ensuing  five  or  six  years 
arc  mentioned  by  tlio  Aendeniy  as  chosen  for  publication 
among  many,  with  the  eulogy,  "This  society  has  never 
known  so  young  a  person  t()  furni'ih  in  so  short  a  time  no 
many  important  memoirs  on  subje^ds  so  diverse  and  so 
diffi  :ult."  He  was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  I78.'tamoin- 
ber.  His  political  career  during  the  Kevolution  and  under 
Napoleon  has  been  much  commented  upon,  but  ucilhcr 
space  nor  adequate  data  allow  its  tliscussion  here. 

Lapliioo  is  stylccl  by  Prof.  Forbes  (fifh  Dissertation, 
Enci/c.  Itrit^  "a  sort  of  exemplar  or  typo  of  (he  highest 
oIajh  of  mathematical  natural  pnilosophersof  tbis,  or  rather 
tho  immi'dialely  preceding,  ago;"  by  Mr.  Airy,"  the  great- 
est mathematician  of  the  past  age;"  and  by  Prof.  Xichol, 
"tho titanic  geometer."  It  may  bo  added  thiit  (he  present 
a!;o  haa  proilu'cd  no  recognized  rival;  that  (o  Newton 
alnno,  as  a  "  m;ithematical  philosopher,"  is.  in  any  ncc,  supc- 
riorify  concc  Ic-I.  His  more  important  invcstigaliuns  are — 
his  improvements  of  tho  lunar  theory  ;  his  discovery  of  the 
cause  of  tlie  great  inequality  of  .Tupiter  nnd  Sntiirn's  mo- 
tions ;  his  tlir'ory  of  tho  tides;  his  work  on  jirobnbililies. 
Newton's  newly  disfovered  law  of  gravitation  Imd  been  so 
successfully  applied  to  the  lunar  motions  ns  with  one  im- 
portant exception  to  reconcile  ihem  to  the  refpiirements  of 
th^  theory  ;  th'^  nnoxplainotl  exception  was  "  that  the  mcnn 
nt'iti'in  of  (h-*  moon  has  been  accelerated  from  century  to 
century  by  a  minute  quantity,  which,  in  the  lapse  of  thou- 
samls  of  years,  has  become  rccngnizniilc."  The  earliest  au- 
thentic observations  of  eclipse,  made  a(  Babylon  in  the 
years  71fl.  720.  721,  show  that  they  oceurre  I  1}  hours  ffooiirr 
thnn  if  the  present  mcnn  motion  of  tho  mom  then  obtained. 
The  interval  has  been    Imi-fr  than    it   should    liuve  been 


found  to  be,  and  hence  the  motion  fe^s  rapid  in  former  cen- 
turies. As  regards  the  moon's  orbit,  "the  effect  has  been 
that  at  each  lunation  she  approaches  nearer  to  the  earth 
than  during  the  last  hy  one-fourteenth  of  an  inch  !  thus  de- 
scribing a  spiral  of  almo'it  infinitely  slow  convergence." 

To  understand  (he  ^'olution  of  this  apparent  anomaly  as 
finally  given  by  Laplace,  il  must  be  remembered  that  under 
tho  action  of  central  forces  the  angular  velocity  of  a  satel- 
lite about  its  primary  will  be  increased  by  an  increase  of 
the  central  force:  that  the  effect  of  the  sun's  attraction  on 
the  moon  and  earth  is.  on  the  whole,  to  diminish  the  central 
force  between  these  bodies  by  a  minute  qu.antity  propor- 
tional to  the  inverse  cube  of  the  sun's  distance.*  The  dis- 
turbing effect,  therefore,  of  the  sun's  attraction  is  to  make 
the  moon".^  motions  less  rapid  than  they  otherwise  would 
be;  anrl  whatever  diminish*? //o'^*  »listiiri)ing  effect  accele- 
rates the  moon's  motion,  ^^ow,  though  the  earth's  nienn 
distance  from  the  sun  has  not  varied,  the  eccentricity  of  its 
orbit  has  been  diminishing  from  the  earliest  historic  times, 
and  with  it  the  arcrni/r  inverse  cube  of  the  distance.  Hence, 
the  secular  acre^cr«tion  of  the  moon  above  descrilnvl ;  wliich, 
however,  as  also  its  approximation  to  the  earth,  nui.-t  cease 
with  the  attainment  of  minimum  eccentricity  by  the  earth's 
orbit,  when  the  reverse  effects  will  ensue.  The  amount  of 
acceleration  is  now  about  10"  of  longitude  in  a  century. 

A  comparison  of  ancient  observations  with  modern  re- 
vealed an  acceleratii)n  of  the  mean  motion  of  Jupiter  and 
a  retardation  of  that  of  Saturn,  whereas  modern  observa- 
tions alone  show  a  contrary  effect  to  be  in  progress.  The 
revealing  after  many  years  of  ptu<iy  of  the  source  of  the  re- 
sulting discrepancy  between  astntnomical  tables  nnd  ob- 
servation is  regarded  as  one  of  tho  prouilesi  achievements 
of  its  author,  though  Mr.  Airy  regards  his  theory  of  tho 
tides  as  furnishing  a  "greater  claim  for  reputation." 

Analytical  expressions  for  celestial  pliennmona  can,  in 
general,  be  but  approximations,  in  which  terms  considered 
insignificant,  as  involving  the  square,  cube,  or  higher  pow- 
ers of  minute  quantities,  are  discarded.  Laplace  demon- 
strated that  among  those  which  had  been  thus  neglected  in 
the  expansions  of  the  mutual  perturbations  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  were  some  multiplied  by  sines  or  cosines  of  angles 
renijered  small  by  sm:ill  multipliers.  Mathematicians 
arc  familiar  with  tho  tact  that,  subjected  to  integration, 
such  terms,  by  making  tlie  small  multiplier  a  diristtr,  pro- 
duce quantities  of  appreciable  magnitude.  The  effect  of 
this  discovery  and  the  restoration  of  such  terms  was  a  com- 
plete reconciling  of  ancient  and  moilcrn  observations.  Thus 
were  removed  from  the  theory  of  gravity  the  two  most 
formidaI>le  obstacles  to  its  acknowledged  adequacy  to  ex- 
plain celestial  phenomena — the  anomaly  of  the  lunar  aecel- 
era'ion  and  the  great  inequalities  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 

Tidal  theories,  previous  to  Lajtlace's  investigations,  pre- 
sumed the  earth  lo  be  at  rest,  and  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
to  be  in  motionless  equilibrium  between  the  forces  of  gravity 
and  the  solar  and  lunar  attractions.  Laplace  had  the  bold- 
ness to  attempt  the  solution  of  a  problem  in  which  necount 
is  taken  of  the  mntiunH  (relatively  to  the  earth)  which  tlie 
fluid  particles  must  receive  in  order  to  produce  the  tides  ;  in 
other  words,  of  the  forces  rer|uired  to  produce  them.  All  hough 
this  theory,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  no  more  really  grasps 
the  actual  lidnl  phenomena  of  the  existing  sens  of  (he  earth 
than  the  equilibrium  theory,  it  in»idd  solve  the  problem 
did  the  ocean  cover  the  whole  of  the  earth's  surface  with 
uniform  or  nearly  uniform  depth,  or  did  it  so  occupy  a 
canal  continuous  between  parallels  of  tatilnde  around  tho 
globe;  and  it  furnishes  highly  interesting  and  even  import- 
ant results. 

In  another  paper  (Amn\  Jour,  of  Science^  1S59)  the 
writer  remarked  :  "  If  tho  actual  conjij/ttrution  of  tho  ocean's 

•The  sun's  a'iracfitm  varies  as  the  Inverse  square  of  the  dis- 
tance; but  (if  the  moon  be  new  or  full)  il  is  by  \\\<}  diffeiener 
only  of  ilH  attraclions  on  the  earth  uiid  moon,  by  which  one  is 
drawn  nuin/froui  (he  olh'-r, and  so  tiuirli  of  iln'  mulual  ntlnution 
of  earth  arid  moon  nentralizL-d.  Now,  if  A*  be  the  sun's  mass, 
and  />  lie  its  distance  from  the  earth,  and  d  that  of  Ihc  nH«)n, 

•S  S 

this  difference  at  time  of  new  moon   will  be  ,„    — ;— —  .    ■ 

(D  —  tlYt       in 
Sinecdishut  aJgth  of  A  this  diffei'cnce  will  reduce  (nearly)  to 

*    -;  and  the  same  for  full  moon.    But  on  the  contrary,  when 

the  moon  (In  first  or  last  quarter)  and  earth  areequidlstaul  from 
the  sun,  il  dmn-x  th'-m  I'ntrthrr,  owinu  to  the  slightly  ouiverk'cut 
dircctiotiH  of  Us  attraction,  Iliouu'b  by  hnlf  only  id  the  above 
expressed  force.  The  average  effect  (neRlcctlng  a  srnall  fluclti- 
utliig  and  Hclf-neutrali/Jng  force)  is  a  decremi'nt  of  (lie  gravi- 
tating force  between  tho  earth  and  moon,  equal  to  "-,  which 

may  bo  computed  at  ^^ri^b.  and  by  which  the  period  of  a  luna- 
tion would  he  lengthened  yj[{y.  or  \  h<uirs.  Il  is  mtt,  however,  the 
tutnl  amount  of  ihe  sunN  ellect.  but  its  excessively  minute  (now) 
u:anin{i  fluctuation  (owiiiK  to  the  minute  increase  in  the  aifratje 
value  of  IP.  through  Ilio  pronresslve  diminution  urecccntri- 
citvi,  thill  causes  the  moon  s  *'  acceleration." 


1648 


LAPLACE'S   COEFFICIENTS. 


bed  is  the  very  basis  of  a  dynamic  theory  of  the  tide?,  then 
a  theory  which  is  ohlijied  to  reject  entirely  tliis  actual  enn- 
figura'ion,  and  instead  of  ocean-beds  of  Ihnited  areas,  iso- 
lated from  each  other  by  dry  land  in  tho*c  parallels  where 
the  tidal  etTects  arc  the  greatest,  substitutes  an  imaginary 
ocean  covering  tiio  tchofe  r/tobe,  and  of  the  same  depth  fol- 
lowiii<;  each  parallel  of  latitude,  the  problem  can  be  only  a 
raatht'iiiatical  one  of  more  or  less  interest,  from  which  noth- 
ing; of  any  practical  value,  as  to  the  actioit  ])licnomena  of 
the  tides,  can  ho  expected  ;"  and  Mr.  Airy,  who  speaks  of 
Laplace's  investigation  as  "one  of  the  most  sfdendid  works 
of  the  greatest  mathematician  of  the  age,"  in  almost  the 
same  breath  says,*'  As  it  is,  Laplace's  theory  fails  totally 
in  3]>]ilication.  from  the  impossibility  of  introducing  in  it 
the  cun-iideration  of  the  boundaries  of  the  sea  :"  and  Prof. 
Forbes  (fith  Dissertation)  fully  sustains  the  writer  when 
ho  says,  *•  It  is,  in  fact,  like  many  other  productions  of  the 
same  age  and  school,  a  great  display  of  ingenuity  and 
mathematical  skill,  which  hardly  yields  a  .single  result 
worthy  of  confulencc  or  agreeing  with  nature,  except  by 
the  ahnndonment  of  its  deductive  rigor,  or  a  concealed  in- 
duction backward  from  the  phenomena  to  he  accounted  for." 

The  doctrine  of  Probabilities — the  subjecting  to  the  rigor 
of  mathematical  methods  subjects  which  /cimw  no  law  (i\  e. 
of  chance) — furnishes  the  most  subtle  and  at  the  same  time 
the  most  fascinating  of  problems,  occupying  as  it  were  a 
borderland  to  Metaphysics,  Logic,  and  Mathematics.  The 
ThSoiic  (innhftlqnr  mtr  fen  PiuibabHtttx  of  L;iplace  is  re- 
gardeil  as  quite  the  ablest  specimen  of  matheniaticai  writ- 
ing of  his  age;  but  one  which  cannot  here  be  discussed. 
(See  Phobabilities.) 

In  this  brief  notice  it  would  be  in  vain  to  discuss  La- 
place's distinctive  claims  to  greatness  as  a  mathematician 
and  a  ])hilosopher.  His  mastery  of  mathematical  analysis 
was  perhaps  unsurpasst-d,  and  he  has  contributed  gi'catly 
to  the  development  of  this  powerful  agent  of  human  rea- 
son, especially  in  its  application  to  physical  problems. 
Ho  is  the  inventor  of  the  most  powerful  calculus  (since 
generalized  and  enlarged  as  the  Spherical  /Jttrmonfr  Anat- 
ysiH)  known  generally  as  that  of  LArLACF-'s  (^okfficibnts. 
(See  that  head.)  It  is  due,  however,  to  L^jfudre  to  say 
that  he  (according  to  Dr.  Forbes)  "was  the  first  to 
imagine  and  employ  those  artifices  of  calculation  known 
as  *  La])lace  Functions.'  "  His  longest  and  most  system- 
atic work,  the  Mf'niui(fnr  C^U-^itc,  is  a  compendium  of  tho 
proliU'tns  of  (ihysica!  astronomy  which  had  been  accumulat- 
ing for  a  century,  but  which  arc  treated  by  methods  mainly 
original  with  himself.  This  work,  though  written  with  en- 
tire tlisregard  to  preserviug  the  order  and  connection  wliich 
would  enable  the  reader  to  fuUow  him,  is  justly  considered 
his  most  imperishable  monument.  Dr.  Buwditch.  whose 
voluminous  explanatory  notes  appended  to  his  translation 
arc  almost  an  indispensable  aid,  was  accustomed  to  remark, 
"  Whenever  I  meet  the  words  of  il  etit  fnn'/c  dr  voi?-  (i.  e. 
it  is  cii.H}f  to  ficr),  I  am  sure  that  hours  and  pvrhaps  days  of 
hard  study  will  he  necessary  fur  nio  to  discover  how  it 
plainly  appears."  It  is  certainly  a  disparagetncnt  to  the 
work  that  it  should  he  so,  for  I  think  mathematicians  will 
admit  that  a  little  more  reganl  to  order  and  connection, 
and  a  slight  condescension  to  furnish  explanation  or  clue, 
would  make  tho  work  more  useful,  ccriainly  more  easily 
read. 

For  a  short  time  Laplace  was  one  of  Napoleon's  minis- 
ters. The  cause  of  disagreement  is  unknown,  but  his  was 
not  tho  character  of  miud  best  fitted  for  politics  or  di[)lo- 
raacy,  and  he  was  evidently  out  of  his  element.  No  moro 
infelicitous  or  unjust  characterization  than  that  ap])lied  hy 
Napoleon, '*  the  intinitesimal  philosopher,"  could  have  been 
made.  No  modern  mathematician  has  exhibited  greater 
powers  of  generalization  :  and  in  his  Xthit/ar  Jlifpnthcuitt 
wc  have  one  of  the  grandest  conceptions  of  the  origin  of 
the  actual  Coshiok,  as  the  result  of  continuous  action  of 
physical  "  laws,"  and  one  which  has  anticipated  modern 
thought  in  relation  to  ilcrdopnieut.  Lapbicc  has  been  cen- 
sured for  •'  meanly  "  suppressing  in  the  second  eilition,  pub- 
lished afier  the  emperor's  fall,  the  dedication,  "yl  Napoh'on 
le  Grand,"  which  had  been  given  to  the  first  edition.  Mr. 
Todhunter  iff  inf.  nf  the  Thron/  of  Probahitift/)  thinks  that 
"tho  fault  was  in  tho  original  publication,  and  not  in  the 
final  suppression;"  and  that  it  would  have  been  "almost  a 
satire  to  have  repealed  it  when  the  tyrant  of  Europe  had 
become  tho  mock  sovereign  of  Elba  or  the  exile  of  St. 
Helena."  He  has.  too,  on  very  inadequate  grounds  been 
charged  with  atheism.  His  Inst  words  (he  died  in  Paris  Mar. 
5,  LS'J7,  exactly  a  century  after  Newton),  so  similar  in  sen- 
timent to  language  attributed  to  his  great  predecessor, 
prove  that,  like  that  great  philosopher,  insight  into  the 
mysteries  of  nature  deeper  than  other  men's  nourished  in 
him  not  arrogance,  but  humility  ;  "  Ct-  que  tiotm  cfinuainnouD 
est  pen  de  chusc;  cc  fjite  nous  i'jnorous  cat  iiitmeune," 

J.  G.  Barnard. 


Laplace's  Coefficients.  The  properties  of  these 
important  analytical  exjiressions  were  discovered  by  La- 
place while  investigating  the  attractions  of  bodies  nearly 
splicrical  in  figure.  The  total  attraction  of  any  body  upon 
a  material  point  is  the  resultant  of  the  attraction  of  all  its 
elementary  particles:  or,  to  slate  in  different  form,  the  total 
effort  of  the  attraction  in  any  given  direction  is  tho  integral 
of  the  comi)onenls  in  that  direction  of  tho  attractions  of 
all  the  elementary  particles.  If  j-.  y,  z  be  the  rectangular 
co-ordinates  of  any  elementary  portion  dm  {~  pdxdi/dz, 
p  being  the  density)  of  the  attracting  body,  and  jr',y',z'  the 
co-ordinates  of  the  attracted  point,  the  attraction  exerted 
by  dm  (varying  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance) 
will  be 

pdm 

and  the  componcDt  of  this  panilkl  to  the  axis  of  x  will  be 

pf.r'  —  x)tl.r<fti<h 

and  the  component  of  the  nttrnclion  exerted  by  the  entire 
body  upon  the  attracted  particle  will  be  the  triple  integral 
of  this  last  expression.     Now,  if  we  put 


-^A 


pdxdi/dz 


[{x'  -  jc)i  +  (/  -  1/)'^  +  {r'  -  z)^i  (2) 

(that  is,  T'  is  the  sum  of  the  quotients  of  the  elementary 
masses,  each  divided  i»y  its  distance  from  the  attracted  par- 
ticle), it  will  be  found  that  ( 1 )  is  simydy  the  partial  dilfcr- 
entiai  (with  sign  changed)  of  V  taken  with  regard  to  tho 

d  V  d  V 

variable  a:'.     Hence  also  —   ,  ,  and  ^ -—  give  the  compo- 
rt// dz 

ncnts  of  attraction  parallel  to  the  axes  of  ^  and  z;  or,  more 

generally,—  --    is  the  component  of  attraction  parallel  to 

any  line  of  which  dn  is  an  element  of  length. 

The  function  V,  first  introduccil  by  Laplace  for  gravita- 
tion, is  of  great  iinportani'o  in  physics,  au'l  the  name  of 
potentinl  has  been  given  to  it  by  the  English  mathcmnti- 
cian  the  late  (leorgc  Green,  who  (taking  his  clue  from  the 
use  of  it  made  by  Laplace)  may  be  said  to  have  created  tlie 
theory  as  we  now  have  it.  In  reference  to  gravitation,  not 
only  does  the  amount  of  attractive  force  depend  upon  it 

(bcinff,  in  any  direction,  —  —    I,  but  the  Kork  which  (hat 
dn  ) 

attraction  is  potent  to  do  along  anv  path  is  evidently  the  in- 

/dV 
rfs,  or,  —  V}  hence  the  name  of  potential. 

A  property  of  V.  easily  verified,  is  that  the  sum  of  tho 

second  partial  dilferentials  with  respect  to  eaeh  of  the  co- 
orclinates  of  the  attracted  point  is  y.rro.  provided  it  be  not 
a  part  of  the  attracting  mass.  In  the  latter  ease  (demon- 
sfration  cannot  be  here  given)  the  sum  is  —4iTp',  Hence, 
tho  property  in  question  is  expressed  by 

p'  being  the  density  at  tho  attracted  point  of  tho  mass. 
Jlcnce,  if  we  know  the  potential  V  with  reference  to  any 
point  included  in  its  oini  mnss  of  which  the  co-ordinates  are 
a:',  y',  z'f  the  variable  density  will  be  expressed  hy 

"*"  dy'^  "*"  dz"i 

The  determination  of  T  lends  nt  once  to  the  determination 
of  the  attraction  upfin  any  point.  V  is  the  inltgial  of 
pdjcdijdz  multiplied  by 

[(x'-  j:)2  ^•  {y'~ y)^  +  {z'-zW^  ,  (4 ) 

the  reciprocal  of  the  distance  bi-'twpen  the  element  flm  and 
the  attracted  particle.  If  wo  IransfDrm  x",  r/.  z'  into  (lolar 
co-ordinates  r',  6',  at',  and  x,  y.  z  into  /•,  0,  w,  wc  have  tlio 
iijual  expressions  (the  angle  0  being  mcasared  from  the 
axis  of  z], 

j-'=  I '  sin  9' cos  u' :     y'=  r' sin  0' sin  u' :     z'=r'  cosO', 
and  corresponding  ones  for  x,  i/,  z. 

If.  with  Laplace,  we  represent  cos  »  and  cos  9'  by  m  ami 
il',  the  above  reciprocal  will  be  converted  into 

[,•2  +  )•'»  -  2it'  JMf '  +  \/n^^Vl  -^'-"  cos  («!  —  <»')  J  ]'  i ; 

which  may  bo  expanded  into  converging  scries  (according 
as  r'>  or  <  r), 

1  r  r< 

P<,-,  +  Pi-.i+ ■P'-Ti+T 

in  which  Po  Pi  .  ■  ■  ■  and  Pi  are  rational  and  entire  funo 


4„  \(/x'» 


7r\ 


(5) 


LAPLACE'S  COEFFICIENTS. 


1649 


lions  of  n,  VI  —  fi.'  cos  w,  ••/l  —  m^'  aio  w  ;  any  coefficient  /*( 
is  of  t  dimensions  in  these  quantities  (and  the  sixuic  is  tnio 
with  regard  to  the  variables  m'  nod  w'),  and  its  numerical 
value  has  plus  or  minus  unity  for  maximum  and  minimum. 

If  wo  style  the  expression  (-1)  Q.  it  will  be  found  to  sat- 
isfy the  condition  (3)  (with  zero  for  second  member). 

In  polar  co-ordinates  this  condition  becomes 

and  if  we  substitute  for  Q  the  developments  (o),  it  will  be 
found  that  /'i  satislies  the  condition 

The  functions  Pi  possess  remarkable  properties  discov- 
ered by  Laplace.  Hence  their  name.  LafAncca  Co^J^^Unta. 
As  resulting  from  the  develupmeuts  (j),  they  are  deter- 
minate, and  hence  involve  only  numerical  quantities  with 
fi  and  w,  fi'  and  w'.  Other  expressions  derived  from  the  in- 
tegration of  (7).  and  onlaining,  of  course,  but  one  set  of 
variables  with  arbitrary  constants,  share  in  tl»c  same  prop- 
erties, and  are  designated  as  Lnpluce' a  Functions  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  Coefficients.  These  properties  {proofs 
of  which  cannot  be  hero  given)  are  the  following: 

1.  If  Qi  and  Si  be  two  Laplace's  Coefficients  or  Func- 

/-ft    /»2Tr 
/       Qi  *Vi  dft-dui  =:  0,  when  i  and  i'  are 
—  1,/    0 
ditferent  integers,  the  sura  of  which  bo  not  minus  unity. 

2.  A  function  F  (fi,w)  of  n,  VI— ^i-cosw,  and  VI —^ 
einw,  which  docs  not  become  infintto  between  the  limits  —  1 
and  +  1  of  Ml  And  0  and  2tr,  of  u,  can  be  expanded  in  a  scries 
of  Lnpf<icf.'*a  FunctionH  (which  is  equivalent  to  saying  that 
any  fuuction  of  a-,  y,  z  can  be  thus  expanded);  that  is, 

F{^,u»)==Fo  +  Fi  +  Fi  .  .  .  -(-Fi+  .  .  .  ,  (S) 

in  which  Fi  is  a  Laplace  Function  of  tho  order  i,  and  is 
equal  to 

That  Is,  Pt  (which  contains  symmetrically  fi  and  fi.% 
and  also  w,  ••'),  by  being  multiplied  by  fin^  function, 
Fin', Hi'),  of  }i*,'J\  —  m'  cos:  w',  VI  — /x'  sin  w,  and  intcfrnited 
as  above,  is  converted  into  the  Laplace  Function  of  i  order, 
of  tho  development  of  /'  (/x.  w). 

The  general  expression  for  these  coefficients.  Pi,  is  ex- 
ceedingly complicated.  Wo  give  here,  as  examples,  ex- 
pressions for  Pi  and  1*2  only. 

Px = m/ + vrr;:*  v'n^'^  cos  («  -  «')• 
ft=![u'-J)C/*"-l)+3(i-M')^M(i-**'^)Vcos(«-«') 

+  Ml  -m"^)(  I  - 1^"^)  COS  2(«  -  w'). 

The  Laplace  Functiona,  Ft  (tho  sum  of  which  from  t  =  0 
to  I  =a  to  tho  order  of  tho  given  fuuction,  /',  constitutes  the 
development  of  the  latter),  may  be  obtained  from  /'  by  the 
indicated  process  (U),  involving  the  use  of  the  *' Laplace 
Coufficienis  "  /\  :f  but  when  tho  function  /•'  Is  rational  and 
integral,  tho  development  is  more  readily  made  the  melhod 
indicated  by  Laplace,  having  recourse  to  the  general  forms 
of  Laplace  Functions  (or  Sphrricttl  hnrmnnicajf  i.  e.  to  the 
general  solutions  of  differential  equation  (7). 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  initicate  the  processes  by  which  these 
general  form«  arc  detcrrained,  but  give  thoso  of  0,  I,  2,  3d 
orders  with  the  general  expression  for  a  harmonic  of  ant/ 
order  i,  calling  Si  the  general  solution  of  (7)  with  regard 
to  variables  m  and  w: 

0  0 

S  =Ut 


+('• 


r,W 


-,( 


rl  ,  sin  : 


t  +  If  ,  COS  2 II 


/f'TU3-s^}+(i- 


l- 


'1' 


M- 


•\  A  ,  sinti 


•  In  relation  to  those pecultarnunnlltlcM,  A,  this  equation  holds 
for«iVA<rof  the  twoitcis  of  variables /a,  w,  or  m'.  w'. 

f  It  is  nut  unusual  to  slylc  iht?  di;vcli>|iinenl  (8)  as  a  scries  of 
"  Laplace's  Otrfficirnl ;"  but  I  ImIIcvc  U  inoro  correct  to  confine 
that  deslynatlnu  to  the  (jimntitbn  A,  which  appear  ni  neiiinl 
"coeflicient?!"  in  thcMlcvi'lopment  (To.  These  quiin({(i<-<i  nre  in- 
deed l-iplnce  Kunctiont  itr  " S/>/trrirat  hnrmonir.t,"  Uut  of  very 
ni.Trkcd  peculiarily  of  form;  beiii;;  biaxutl  or  double  (i.  r.  pns- 
scssin.,'  I  he  essential  properties,  in  eac/i  of  Ibc  two  seis  of  varia- 
bles M.  «^  and  (x',  w')  and  de>fitute  of  arbitrary  cnnHlants;  and 
thrnuch  this  double  form.  Instrumental  In  eonVertin-^  F(n',ta') 
Into  a  I-a|)lncc  i'linctioii  /•'  mul.  ilni-*.  to  (he  ilcvclopmcul  of  F 
(m  tit)  in  Ijaplace  Furulious,  or  Spherical  hurmunies. 
Vol..   II.— (Ill 


+  Z?  3  cosw  I  +(1— m*)m  I  a  5sin2»-|-  /?  3  cos2cii   [ 
+(1  -m')^  [  A  *J*siD  3  w  +  fljcos  Sol 


and  in  general 


6'^"=  2 


.(1-M^): 


etc. 


I 


'+. 


A      sm  nut  +  If     cos  n n 


(10) 


(;-n)(t-«-l) 

2(2*'- 1)        * 

j    VI         »lUH«-t-y/        CO?  HOI     [, 

In  the  foregoing  the  capital  letters,  with  super  and  sub 
fixes  represent  arbitrary  constants. 

To  develop  any  rational  integral  function  F oT  jr,  t/,  Zy  of 
degree  f,  these  variables  must  first  be  transferred  into  polar 
co-ordinates. 

The  general  Laplace  Function  (10)  of  tho  same  order  (' 
will  be  subtracted  from  it.  and  the  arbitrary  constants  de- 
termined by  tho  condition  that  the  remainder  /'*— .V^  shall 
contain  no  powers  or  products  of  ^  or  V  1  —  ^■■'  of  higher 
than  tho  t  -  1  order. 

This  determines  Fi  of  (S).  From  that  remainder  (of  de- 
gree I*—  1),  tho  general  expression  (10)  of  next  lower  order 
1—1,  is  subtracted;  and  the  constants  again  determined 
by  the  condition  the  new  remainder  shall  contain  no  pow- 
ers or  products  of  ^  or  V  I  —  fi^  of  higher  order  than  i  —  2; 
by  which  Fi-i  of  (S)  is  determined;  and  so  on. 

First  invented  for  expressing  the  attraction  of  a  body 
of  nearly  spherical  figure,  its  first  application  may  here  be 
illustrated.  It  is  well  known  that,  except  for  spherical  or 
ellipsoidal  figures  the  integration  of  V,  (2),  is  impracticable 
by  direct  process. 

Transposed  into  the  variables  r,  ^,  and  w,  pdxdi/dz  be- 
comes pi'^drdfidia.  Tho  denominator  of  V  develops,  for 
an  external  attracted  point,  into  the  first  of  the  scries  (o). 
If  wc  suppose  the  mean  radius  of  the  body  to  be  o,  and  va- 
riable radius  to  be  a  ( I  +//),  in  which  tho  greatest  value  of 
the  variable,  y,  is  supposed  to  be  but  a  small  fraction,  and 
if  we  integrate  I  with  reference  to  i-,  from  r  =  a, 
to  r  =  a(l +y),  wo  shall  get  (supposing  the  density  p  to 
be  constant,  and  neglecting  powers  of  y  above  the  first), 

for  that  jiart  resulting  from  the  stratum  of  small  variaMo 
thickness  (positive  or  negative)  ay,  by  wbieli  tho  given 
body  varies  from  true  sphericity  of  form.  Tliis  function  y 
must,  of  course,  be  given,  in  terms  of  fA,  Vl  — /x^^cosoi,  and 
^/l  —  (I*  sin  u  ;  and  can  bo  developed  in  Laplace  Functions, 
Yo  +  J'l  +  J'j  +  .  .  .   Yi  r   .  .  . 


But  by  (0)  -  -- 


i^  J  —\J    0 


y  Pi  (Ifji  dui  =  Yi :   hence   the 


terms  of  the  integral  (11)  become,  severally, 

(2i  +  lj    r'<'*i        '' 
and  henco  (since  that  part  of  V  belonging  to  the  sphere  of 
•lirpa' 


radius  a  is  easily  found  to  bo 


(12)  r- 


4irpa'     4irpa* 


{  >»^3 


), 


.' 


(2'+l) 


r  + 


...j. 


Thus  tho  potential  r(from  wliich  can  by  diGTerentiation 
bo  derived  the  attraction)  is  determined. 

If,  on  tlic  other  hand,  the  body  {f.y.  the  earth  considered 
as  a  fluid  enveloping  a  spherical  nucleus)  be  such  that  a 
foreign  attrjvction  pntdiu-v  a  slight  distortion  or  deviation 
from  perfect  sphericity,  many  important  problems  (c.  */.  the 
tides)  depend  on  the  determination  of  tins  distortion.    The 

'  direct  effect  of  the  foreign  atlructi(m  would  be  determined 
with  comparative  case  ;  but  the  problem  is  very  much  com- 

\  plicated  by  tho  fact  that  this  directly  prottuccd  stratum  of 

I  distortion  itacf/  reacts  upon  the  particles  of  its  own  sub- 
stance; which  secondary  action  must  be  taken  into  account. 
The  potential  of  that  reaction,  in  terms  of  the  sought  quan- 

j  tity,_i/,can  by  aid  of  ( 12)  be  cxpreiHrd tinu/i/firafh/,  und  oom- 
bincil  tcit/i  tho  potential  of  the  foreign  attraction  in  ex- 
pressing tlie  conditions  of  equilibrium,  and  thus  tho  actual 
tidal  dislortions  determined. 

Tho  discovery  of  tlie  remarkable  functions  of  Laplnco 
(whose  own  demonstration  of  their  properties  was  regarded 
as  inconclusive,  or  at  least  incomplete)  was  followed  by  a 
controversy  among  eminent  marhematieians,  the  subslanco 
of  which  is  given  by  IJ«)wditch  in  his  voluminous  notes  to 
botdt  iii.  chap.  ii.  ^  I J  of  tho  Mtcaniipte  Ctlrnfr. 

The  method  has  since  been  gencrali/.ed,  and,  under  tho 
designation  of  apht-ricul  hnrmonic  anali/ain,  greatly  devel- 
oped (see  Thomson  and  Tait,  Natural  Pfiifmiop/n/,  whero 
Its  objeot  is  defined  to  bo  "the  expression  of  an  arbitrary 


1650 


LAPLAND  AND  THE  LAPPS. 


periodic   function   of   two   indepen.lent   variables   in   the  ; 
^  "per  form  for  »  large  class  of  I'hy^i-l  P-W^XXduc"- 
in<r  arbitrary  data  over  a  spher.eal  surface   and  the  deduc 
tio'u  of  solutions  for  every  point  of  space    ) 

in  nve  ic^ations  of  the  distribution  of  electnc.ty  and 
m-,  "ne  i'.m-of  the  conduction  of  heat,  etc.-its  power  alo.,e 
"n'c.p  with  the  difficulties  of  the  problems  The  n,c^ 
hnpor  nt  application  involving  grav.tat.on  .s  o  the  theory 
of  'the  Fi-uro  of  the  Earth,  the  attraction  ot  the  mass  on 
each  of  itf  particles  being  that  of  approximate  y  spher.eal 
la^•  rs  of  m,ltter  equally  dense  through  each,  but  v-y.og  n 
donsitv  from  layer  to  layer.  Bes.des  '''^  ^"^l^^^^  ^  f 
mentioned,  consult  Pratt, /'isf'-e  oy  ihv  ha,  h,  ^l^J"^'"' 
^Uctririonnd  Ma<„,Hi.m  ;  J.J.  Sylvester,  Ao<e.«..  Spher- 
ical  Harmonic.  .-    Phil.  Ma,j.,  1ST6    vol.  »■ 

A  simple  harmonic  function  is  deBned  under  the  head 
utZni,-  Motion.  A  combination  of  such  producesacom- 
nlcThamooic  function.  "  Fourier's  Theorem  (wh>ch  >s 
Sot  only  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  results  «'  '-;J-° -" 
alvsis  but  mav  be  sai.l  to  furnish  an  indispensable  ustru- 
»rt  in  rLt;ea.ment  of  nearly  every  recon.teques.,^^ 

modern  physics  ■•)  amounts  to  th.s-viz.  ^"  '/"°^''f°^7;*. 
ever  between  definite  values  of  the  variable  may  be  ex 
nressed  as  a  complex  harmonic  function.  The  ^pherical 
Tarmonic  analvsis  "  is  but  an  extension  (^^ence  probably 
"ts  name)  of  {his  principle  to  the  expression  of  quantity 
arbitrarily  distributed  over  a  <pher,cal  "y/^"g^^^.^„p_ 

Lapland  and  the  Lapps.  Lapland  ("the  land  of  the 
LipW'   U  the  name  generally  given  to  an  extensive  territory 
o^NCthern  Europcltretching  along  the  Arctic  Ocean,  from 
the  AUantic  to  the  White  Sea.     It  does  not  form  an  indo- 
pentoit  poli  ical  unit,  but  is  divided   tefveen    Norway 
Swe don   and  Russia,  and  inhabited,  besides  the  Lapps,  by 
Irnns    Norwegians.  Swedes,  and  Russians.     The  general 
aspect  of  the  "ountn-  is  rather  forbidding.     A  long,  severe 
winter  of  nine  months,  during  which  the  sun  does  not  r  se 
for  two  months:  a  short,  extremely  hot  summer  in  July 
and  ."ugust,  during  which  the  sun  does  not  ^,<;' ?  j'/P"?! 
and  a  fall  of  a  couple  of  wecks,-such  is  the  climate.     The 
forests  of  pine  and  birch  which  cover  the  southern  parts 
of  the  cou'^try  soon  cease ;  barley  and  po'''  -s  may   be 
raised  as  far  as  70°  N.  lat.,  but  only  in  a  few  v. alleys.     Un 
Ihc  lar"e    ablcland  nothing  grows  but  liehens  and  mosses 
on  which  the  large  herds  of  reindeers  feed,  which     ogethcr 
w°th  hunt     g  and  fishing,  afford  the  inhabitants  their  solo 
:esourc-es  ol^ife.     The'l.apps  belong  to  'he   LaPPO"ian 
subdivision  of  the  Tschudic  races,  which  ■"•«  jf";"^^''^ 
the  philologist  Castren  to  the  Finnic  group  of  the  great 
Turanian  family.     This  gives  'h"- '"».  P-'/'rih^/nanies 

£=^b«be^.r^ti;oth;r^^  ;:^A^^ 

before  Us  oecupatiL  by  Aryans,  and  therefore  hefore  the 
European  historical  period.     Their  dwellings  on   the  E.  1 
sideTf  ?he  continent  Jxtended  as  far  S.  as  the  lower  ^  olga 
hut  they  were  long  ago  driven  from  their  old  home  by  the 
steady  prrsure  of' Finns,  Slaves,  and  others,  laterally  and  | 
f  om  belw,  until  they  have  been  crowded  into  their  present 
seal    Now  and  then,  however,  their  frontier  has  been  able  to 
ma  ntain  itself,  or  even  advance  upon  that  of  the.r  neigh- 
W''      Thev  have  always  been  closely  connected  with  the  i 
Finns,  possiblv  even  ccmfounded,  by  early  observers,  bot^^  j 
ethnically  and  geographically^,  especially  '"  L^i;''" ''/^'f 
ancient  Fenni,  mentioned  by  Taci  us  ''Y';  '^«;' ••'■<>  ^.  of 
Europe,  were  probably  the  ancestors  of  the  Lapps,  not  ot 
fhe  Xns.     They  ha>-e  a  tradition  of  their  former  occu- 
pancy of  Sweden  or  Finland.     "  The  Swedes  and  Lapps 
'.         they  say,  "  were  originally  brothers.  When  a  storm  came  on^ 
the  Swedes  put  up  a  board  and  took  shelter  under  it   the 
Lapps  took  to  a  tent ;  and  ever  since  the   after  have  lived 
in  te'nts,  the  former  in  houses."    The  primitive  wanderings 
'         of  the  ancient  Sabrae  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
those  of  the  Finns.     Their  later  history,  too,  is  only  inci- 
dental to  that  of  their  Aryan  conquerors,  who  have  either 
reduced  them  to  the  condition  of  serfs,  or  forced  them  into 
sterile  an.l  icy  regions,  where  they  could  never  develop  an 
independent  nationality.  ,    .     e    _j.„ 

The  Lappish  countries  now  are  Lappmark  in  ^werten, 
Russian  Lapland  to  the  White  Sea,  and  Finnmark,  or  the 
March  of  the  Finns,  in  Vpper  Norway,  where  many  of 
them  live.  The  Lapps  subject  to  Russia  are— (I)  those  of 
he  duchv  of  Finlaid.  N.;  (2)  those  of  the  government  of 
Archangel.  Lallerstedl.  in  L;  S;v.„Hli,„„-ir.  counts  in  Finn- 
mark  13.000  Lapps  to  fioOO  Finns  and  2-,,n00  Norwegians. 
Friis  estimated  156fi  Lapps  to  174-  N'or-vegians  ,n  1M5. 
Since  then  the  Lapps  seem  for  a  long  time  to  have  in- 
creased as  the  Norwegians  decreased;  then  those  were  sta- 


tionary and  the  Norwegians  increased  up  to  ISSd,  though 
"hould  be  remembered  that  the  Lapps,  Uving  been  to  a 

gr;at  extent  absorbed,  are  reckoned  as  Norwegians      Bu  ; 

^h"  author  considers  them  as  dying  out  in  Finnmark.  At 
,"°  ,      "  .    ;„   io-,i|   the  n.>pu  ation  of  Russian  Lap- 

the  last  oe°^"».  ■;  \^  ■•.•  ,;^  T^Lapps,  1956  were  Kar'e- 
and  ""l^^i^^' ^fj,'"' To'Ihise  might  be  added  a  few  Nor-  : 

Ir^Ln  t'd'Vinrmigrants.     Brafe  in  1863  counts  28,000 

l.amis  under  Sweden  and  Russia.  

The  Lapps  of  the  Russian  empire,  Gurowsk,  says,  have 
as  i,u,ro,lli>-i.  c.  provincial  natives  of  non-Russian  stock 
!!Jn  or<.anization  and  rights  distinctly  recognued  by  the 
government.  But  a  narrow  policy  is  exercised  towards  them 

Ld  less  done  for  their  improvement  than  >°  ^""'/.Yt her 
more  especiallv  in  Sweden.  The  N orwegians.  having  hither- 
rreArSthem  as  hopelessly  debased  and  ignorant,  ne- 
g  ected  them,  but  latterly  Swedish  and  Norwegmn  mission- 
Irie    have  much  enlightened  and  softened  both  Lapps  and 
F\'„";,_Stockfleth  particularly,  and  the  brothers  La=s tad.us, 
Lutherans,  who  labored  in  the  first  half  of  this  century. 
!       The  I  npps  seem  to  be  physically  inferior  to  the  Finns. 
'  probablv  be^-anse  less  comfortably  housed,  fed.  and  clothed 
i  [hou"h  they  are  wonderfully  hardy,  and  quite  as  courageous 
i  There  i«  much  intermixture  of  these  races  at  the  Finland 
'  Jrontte    ami  at  the  copper-mines.     Friis  'h-'^s  the  mixed 
race  best  able  to  withstand  the  rigorous  el-ma  e  of  the  ftir 
North      The  Laplanders  are  wild,  savage,  and  dull,  small 
of  I  a  ure  with  large  head,  short  neck,  small  gray-reddi,h 
evef  ha  r'  dark  brown,  beard  short,  hands  long,  legs  thin 
abdomen  projecting,  the  result  of  improper  or  insufEcient 

f  od^omp^e.^'ion  liiht,  chin  P-'"'>'"|i,^,^t;  trll^avl, 
inent  In  disposition  they  arc  peaceable  but  too  slaMsn, 
aTd  ;tuJborn  'withal.  They  appear  f™"^-'^/;^^:',''^" 
arc  reallv  knavish  and  treacherous.  The  Lap  .  "'""-""^ 
„«  well  as  the  Finn  lives  partly  upon  fish  and  game,  is  a 
herd'man  Like  the  Finn,  he  catches  the  fish  of  the  lakes 
th    safmon,  the  cod,  cod-bait,  herring  and  o.her  fish  of  the 

t:t.  -^^m:::.  onXiSJ'tit  1^"- "i 
!  s^ -b^a^«^.^tfth!V?.  e^i^ 

,  and  ^hile  the  s^ow-covered  ground  -/I  '»» .— Z;^'';/ 

render  slcd-travelling  po^^'bl?  '°  *  "^    ^be  Xr  h  "  bul 
The  reindeer  has  been  called  the '-camel  of  the  North,    but 

seUlers°annot  keep  these  animals,  for  they  will  -«    <hr.Te 

'fs  ailed  or  confined  in  pastures  and  not  allowed  to  wan- 

I  der  freelv  over  large  spaces.     Latterly,  steam  eommnniea- 

Hon  be 'ween    Bergen,   Trondheim.  and    Ilammerfest  has 

iTven  anew  inniuUe    o  trade,  and  begun  somewhat  to  de- 

felon  the  resou  ces  of  the  country.    But  from  Ilammerfest 

1  N  and  N.  E.  reindeers  complete  the  line  of  eommnnioat.on 

!  The  i  ai.ps  of  Finnmark.  La  .land,  and  Norway  ''"ve  eno.  gh 

re  ndee'r'^neat  and  skins  for  themselves  and  the  seed  pop 

nlation.  many  thousands  of  these  animals  ^e  "g  k'"^'»  e^e^_ 

vear.    They  also  furnish  the  Norwegians  >"th  game   some- 

"times  as  liany  as  10,000  grouse  in  a  day.     The  L..p|    ot 

land  hunts  in  winter  the  squirrel,  -b'e  ermine  ot, 

and  bear,  and  in  summer  seeks  the  hsher.cs  of  the  coasts, 

i:x±:^rs;^^^^;i:^:^:^^^frOI 

III,  be"  hes   for  beds,  very  few  and  -"'P-e  u'ens.l  j  a 

Hx^i:^:-^=iron::qip^=~ 

t'^I  ac CO  and'ioffee  are  scarcely  known  ^u'  --'.  ^;-'^-:^ 

"■Be"w"e"n'lS.«  and  lS6o  these  people  lost  14.944  reindeer 
ei.he    by  death  on  the  fields  or  by  eonfi.-ation  --ee -h.ch 

'  emigrated  to  Sweden  with  20,0011  reindeer.     The  fa>or.te 
::rrnt*s  of  .he  Lapps  are  hajbplaj-ing  an   ,  on      e^N^ 

L-n'eXrtrnrali'd^kii^' IwthiU  w^th  the  skide^ 

'IHSSSiSs^^^r^^-H 

I  Lapps  scarcely  understanding  each  other.     There  is  mucn 


LA  PLATA— LA.PSE. 


1651 


heathenism  among  them.  Their  Christianity,  nominally 
Greek,  consists  in  little  more  than  mtinihlinj;  the  prayer 
"Lord  Jesiis.  Son  of  God,  have  mercy  ujton  me!"  The 
Swedish  anti  Xorweeian  Lapps  are  Lulheraiis.  ami  of  these 
all  the  adiiln  are  aide  to  read.  The  Lajips  formerly  wor- 
shipped a  fleity  called  the  Storjunker  (''great  noMe"),  to 
whom  they  sacrificed  a  full-grown  reindeer.  Ticrmes  was  the 
divinity  next  in  rank,  and  Baiwc,  or  the  Sun.  Hut  the  god 
most  venerated  liy  them  was  .Jubmel,  worshipped  also  liy 
Other  peoples  akin  to  them,  under  the  name.Juinala,  Jiimara, 
or  Num.  Their  rude  wooden  or  stone  idols,  often  only  gro- 
tesque unhewn  logs  or  blocks,  stood  within  an  enclosure 
of  boughs,  and  were  honored  with  simple  riles.  I-ike  all 
Turanians,  the  Lapps  believe  in  supcrualurully  wise  men. 
Their  noaids  or  magicians  are  both  their  oracles  and  pliysi- 
oinns,  the  medium,  in  short,  between  the  human  and  the 
divine,  able  to  control  the  spirit  world  in  a  degree  to  make 
it  favorable  to  mankind.  Some  ancient  famous  noaids 
were  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Sagas.  These  clever  medi- 
oinc-men  are  often  selected  for  their  office  while  children, 
on  account  of  some  hiarkcd  nervous  susceptibility,  and 
trained  to  throw  themselves  into  real  or  pretemled  frenzies, 
followed  by  fainting,  preparing  for  such  occasions  by  fast- 
ing or  stimulants.  In  these  fits  or  trances  the  noaid  is 
supposed  to  be  transported  by  his  bird-familiar  to  heaven, 
earth,  or  the  realm  of  the  dead,  at  pleasure,  and,  being 
awakeneil  by  a  brother  magician,  relates  his  visions  to  his 
superstitious  and  ignorant  followers.  Like  all  |iolar  people 
and  those  inhabiting  desolate  regions,  the  Lapps  by  organi- 
sation and  habit  are  subject  to  nervous  excitement :  their 
old  women  especially  start  and  scream  at  the  slightest  dis- 
turbance of  fear  or  disgust,  rush  frantically  about,  striking 
insanelv  at  every  one  near,  and  then  faint  and  iloze  for  a 
while.  In  church  a  contagious  furor  sometimes  takes  place, 
many  striking  each  other  or  moving  violently  about  and 
falling  into  fain'ing-lits.  In  their  sicknesses,  too,  these 
people  ore  liable  to  delirium.  So  that  there  are  many 
Donids,  who  fiml  it  easy  to  impose  upon  a  ready  credulity 
by  their  air  of  mystery,  their  superior  knowledge  of  for- 
mulas, song,  sleight  oi"  hand,  hieroglyphics  on  the  ninc- 
druin,  and  even  a  certain  empiric  skill  in  medicine  which 
some  of  them  accpiiro.  There  are  those  among  Ibem  who 
profess  to  have  the  power  of  selling  favorable  winds  to 
sailors,  and  this  superstition  is  believed  in  by  the  Swedish, 
Norwegian,  and  Russian  peasants,  as  well  as  by  the  Lapps. 
(For  references  sec  FiNL.\xn.)  E.  ToititEv. 

I^a  Plata.  Sec  Aiir.K.vTixE  Kkimbi.ic. 
La  I'la'ta,  county  of  S.  W.  Colorado,  bordering  on 
Utah  and  Xew  Jle.vico.  Area,  about  70011  square  miles. 
It  contains  the  Sierra  San  Miguel  Mountains  and  part  of 
the  .Sierra  La  Plata  range,  is  well  watered,  and  the  S.  W. 
portiim  is  occupied  by  the  I'te  Indian  reservation.  Oold- 
mines  have  been  discovered  here.     Cap.  Parrott. 

I^a  Vlata,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Macon  co.,  Mo.,  on  the  St. 
Louis  Kansas  City  and  Northern  R.  H.  It  has  1  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  of  v.  546 :  of  tp.  loOfi. 

I.a  Plata,  Kio  dc.     See  Plata,  Rio  nr.  i.a. 
La  Pointc,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  .'\shland  co..  Wis., 
is  a  lishieig-station  at  the  S.  end  of  Madeline  Island,  one 
of  tlie  .Apostle  group  in  Lake  Superior.     It  was  settled  by 
French  missionaries  in  lOSU.     Pop.  1-'2I. 

Ija  Porte,  county  of  Indiana,  bounded  N.  W.  hy  Lake 
Michigan  and  N.  by  .Michigan.  Area,  loO  square  miles. 
A  largo  portion  nf  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  Imt  there  are 
Borne  barrens,  and  on  the  banks  of  tin-  Kankakee  there  are 
extensive  nnirshes.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wrml  are  largely 
produced,  and  lumber  is  manufactured.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  numerous  railroads.  Cop.  La  Porto.  Pop. 
27,0152. 

La  Porto,  post-v.  of  Plumas  eo.,  Cal.,  20  miles  S.  of 

Quiufry.    It  is  the  business-centre  of  a  large  niining  region. 

La  Porto,  post-v.  of  Larimer  co..  Col.,  on  both  sides 

of  Cache  a  la  Poudro  Creek,  lU  miles  N.  W.  of  Oreoley,  in 

a  fertile  region. 

Liiportc,  city  of  Kankakee  (p.,  cop.  of  Laporto  co., 
Ind..  at  the  intersection  of  the  Lake  .Shore  and  Michigan 
.Siinlhcm  will)  the  Indianapolis  INtu  and  Chicago  H.  It., 
.V.I  miles  K.  cd'  t'hieago  and  12  miles  ,S.  of  Lake  Michigan, 
has  If)  churches,  i  bonks.  :i  weekly  newspajiers,  2  hotels. 
Holly  waterworks,  publio  library  of  ;HliM)  volumes,  an 
academy,  fine  schools,  numerous  mercaniib*  houses  and 
manufaclurics,  and  is  the  scat  of  Indiaiii)  .\IiilicaI  College. 
Laporte  is  handsomely  situated  on  a  hiLrb  plali'iiti  on  the 
edge  of  the  rich  prairie  of  tho  san)e  name,  is  surrounded 
with  fine  driven  and  promenades  thickly  skirletl  with  maple 
and  other  shade  trees,  anil  is  close  to  a  chain  of  seven  clear 
and  beautiful  lakes,  which  are  traversed  by  steamers  and 
constitute  one  of  the  attractions  which  annually  draw  hun- 


dreds of  summer  visitors  from  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  tho  South.     Pop.  GiSI. 

C.  U.  Powell,  Ed.  "  IlF.nALn." 

La  Porte,  post-v.  of  Carlisle  and  Eaton  tps.,  Lorain 
CO.,  0.,  -t  miles  S.  E.  of  Elyria. 

Laporte,  post-b.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Sullivan  co..  Pa.,  28 
miles  N.  E.  of  JIuncy.on  the  line  of  the  projected  Sullivan 
and  Erie  and  Muney  Creek  R.  Us.,  has  2  churches,  2  week- 
ly newspapers,  and  one  of  the  largest  tanneries  in  tho 
U.  S.,  using  from  11000  to  SOOO  cords  of  bark  annually. 
Lumbering  and  mining  arc  important  industries.  Eagles- 
mere  Lake,  noted  for  its  beauty,  is  5  miles  distant,  tho 
brooks  are  filled  with  trout,  and  doer  abound  iu  the  forest. 
Pop.  of  b.  14.1 ;  of  tp.  5:iO. 

J.  K.  Pin  OH,  El).  "SCLLIVAN  Co.  Demookat." 

La  Porto  City,  post-v.  of  Big  Creek  tp.,  Black  Hawk 
CO.,  la.,  on  Wolf  t!'reek.  1  mile  above  its  conduence  with 
Cedar  River,  on  the  Burlinglon  Cedar  Rapids  and  Minne- 
sota R.  R.,  15  miles  N.  of  Vinlon.  15  S.  of  Waterloo,  and  40 
N.W.  of  Cedar  Rapids,  has  4  chuivhcs,  2  hotels,  I  weekly 
newspaper,  a  bank,  a  large  flouring-niill,  a  wagon  and  car- 
riage manufactory,  and  a  fair  number  of  business-houses. 
It  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  fine  agricultural  country, 
and  was  laid  out  iu  June,  1S55,  by  the  subscriber.  Pop. 
about  1500.  .J.  Wasso.n,  En.  "Phogrhss." 

La  Porte  tin  Thcil  (Imiaxcois  .Teav  Gabiukl),  b.  at 
Paris  .Tuly  l;i,  1742;  recciveil  a  military  education,  and 
served  in  the  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,  but  de- 
voted all  his  leisure  hours  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  literature,  and  published  in  17il5  a  translation 
of  ^Kschylus's  Ti-ii;i'-tltiin,  ami  in  1775  of  the  //)y»)*i«of  Calli- 
maehus.  From  1771!  to  17S()  he  resided  in  Rome,  and  hav- 
ing received  admittance  to  the  Vatican  library,  which  at 
that  time  was  generally  closed  to  foreigners,  ho  brought 
back  to  Paris  a  great  number  of  historical  documents  illus- 
trative of  French  history.  Three  volumes  of  these  docu- 
ments were  published  in  1701,  containing  among  olher 
things  the  letters  of  Pope  Innocent  III.:  but  the  further 
publication  was  interrupted  by  the  Revolution,  and  the 
materials  were  )ilaced  in  the  National  Library.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  occupied  with  a  translation  of 
the  (Icoijraphi/  of  Strabo,  of  which,  however,  only  nine 
books  were  finisheil,  when  he  d.  May  28,  1815. 

Lap'poiibcrg  (.Johaxx  Martix),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Ham- 
burg .Inly  MO,  17'.M;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and 
law  at  London,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen,  receiving  the  doc- 
torate in  1811!;  ivas  for  a  time  minister  resident  for  Ham- 
burg at  Berlin;  became  in  182:!  keeper  of  tho  archives  at 
Hamburg,  and  was  in  1850  plenipotentiary  in  tho  Frank- 
fort conference.  His  best  work  is  O'cm-hnhd:  run  Einilund 
(1834-.37);  ho  also  wrote  valuable  histories  of  the  German 
Hanse  Towns,  of  Heligoland,  etc.  His  JJhiori/  of  Eiit/liiiiit 
relates  to  the  Anglo-Sa.von  period,  and  is  the  standard  au- 
thority for  early  English  history.  It  has  been  translated 
into  English,  with  notes  and  additions,  by  Benjamin  Thorpe. 
The  //inhtn/  (>/'  EiKfl-iiiil  ttti'Itr  thi:  Xormnnt,  comnienced  by 
Lappenberg  and  linishcd  liv  Piiuli,  was  also  translated  by 
Thor]>e.     Lappenberg  d.  Nov.  2»,  18G5. 

La  Prai'rio,  a  fertile  counly  of  Quebec,  Canada,  on 
the  S.  side  of  tho  St.  Lawrence,  directly  S.  of  Montreal. 
Cap.  La  Prairie.     Pop.  11,8(51. 

La  Prairie,  posl-v.  i>t  La  Prairie  co.,  Quebec,  Canada, 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence.".'  miles  above  Montreal, 
has  an  aeadcniy  and  a  convent.     Pop.  1259. 

La  Prairie,  tp.  of  .Marshall  co..  III.  Pop.  1400. 
La  Prairie,  tp.  of  Rock  co..  Wis.  Pop.  8157. 
Lapse  [Lat.  Utptiiii,  from  tntmr,  to  "glide,"  to  "fall"]. 
A  devise  of  real  property  or  a  bei|ue8t  of  personal  properly 
is  said  in  law  to  lapse  wlien  the  ilevisee  or  legatee  dies  after 
the  making  of  the  will  and  before  the  death  of  the  testator. 
The  etfect  of  this  at  comnion  law  is  that  in  the  case  of  a  de- 
vise the  property  deviseil  passes  to  the  heir-at-law  of  tho 
testator,  while  in  the  case  of  a  legacy  tho  iiroperly  be- 
queathed passes  to  the  residuary  legatee  if  one  be  named 
in  the  will,  and  if  not  to  the  next  of  kin.  (See  Kix,  NixT 
or.)  The  reason  why  this  ilisposilion  is  made  of  the  prop- 
erty, instead  of  its  passing  to  the  representatives  of  the  de- 
ceased ilonee,  is  that  a  will  takes  eflcet  only  from  the  time 
of  the  testator's  death,  and  the  donee  can  acquire  no  title 
unless  ho  is  in  being  at  that  time.  There  is  a  dislinetion 
between  a  lapsed  ami  a  void  devise  or  bequest.  The  gift 
is  void  when  the  person  specified  as  donee  is  dea<l  or  in- 
compeieiit  to  take  the  property  at  llie  time  when  the  will 
was  inatie.  The  general  rule  is,  that  the  same  disposition 
shall  be  made  of  the  property  included  in  the  terms  of  tho 
gift  as  in  the  i-ase  of  a  lapsed  devise  or  bequest.  It  seems, 
however,  to  bo  the  English  rule  that  a  voi'l  devise  passes 
to  the  residuary  devisee.     These  oommon-law  rules  have 


1652 


LAPWAI— LARCENY. 


been  to  some  extent  changed  by  statute.  By  tbe  English 
statnte  of  wills  (1  Vict.  ch.  26)  the  real  estate  comprised 
in  a  lapsed  devise  sliull,  unless  a  contrary  intention  a|. pears 
in  the  will,  pass  to  the  residuary  devisee,  if  any  there  be, 
instead  of  to  the  heir-at-Ia>y.  It  is  further  provided  that  a 
devise  or  legacy  to  a  child  or  other  descendant  shall  not 
liipse  if  issue  of  the  devisee  or  legatee  survives  the  testator, 
but  shall  take  effect  as  if  the  devisee  or  legatee  had  died 
immediately  after  the  testator,  unless  a  contrary  intention 
appears  by  the  will.  A  change  similar  to  this  second  pro- 
vision has  also  been  made  hy  statute  in  New  York,  and  also 
in  several  other  States  of  this  country. 

A  legacy  is  also  said  in  some  cases  to  lapse  even  though 
the  leg'atec  dies  subsequently  to  the  testator.  This  happens 
when  the  vesting  of  the  leg.acy  depends  upon  a  future  con- 
tingency, and  the  legatee  dies  before  the  contingency  oc- 
curs. Thus,  if  a  legacy  bo  given  to  one  ichen  he  attains, 
or  if  he  attains,  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  he  dies  before 
that  time,  it  is  a  lapsed  legacy.  (See  Lecacv.) 

George  Chase.     KEViscn  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 
Lapwai',  post-v.  of  Nez  Perc^  co.,  Id.,  12  miles  S.  E. 
from  Lewiston.     Pop.,  including  U.  S.  troops,  91. 

Lap'wing  [so  called  from  the  flapping  of  its  wings  in 
flight],  or  Pee'wit  [named  from  its  note],  the  Vunellus 
cHelitlim.  a  game  bird  ctimmon  throughout  a  great  part  of 
the  Old  World,  but  unknown  in  America.  It  is  referred  to 
the  plover  family.  Its  flesh  is  excellent.  It  strives  with 
great  ingenuity  to  conceal  its  nist,  which  is  greatly 
sought  for  the  "eggs,  which  are  sold  in  quantities  as  plo- 
vers' eggs. 

Lar,  town  of  Persia,  cap.  of  the  province  of  Laristan,  60 
miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Persia.  It  is  famous  for  its  manu- 
factures of  sword-blades,  muskets,  and  silks,  and  has  fine 
bazaars.     Pop.  12,000. 

Lar'amic,  county  of  Wyoming  Territory,  bounded  N. 
by  Montana.  E.  by  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  and  S.  by  Colo- 
rado, extending  N.  and  S.  the  whole  length  of  the  Territory, 
4  degrees  of  latitude  by  J  a  degree  in  width,  and  includes 
the  Wyoming  portion  o'f  the  Black  Hills,  belonging  to  the 
Ogallalla  Sioux,  where  gold  was  found  in  1SV4,  and  which 
were  explored  in  the  summer  of  1875  by  hundreds  of  miners. 
Area,  about  14,0(10  square  miles.  It  consists  largely  of  the 
elevated  Laramie  Plains,  well  adapted  to  sheep-raising,  and 
is  broken  by  the  Laramie  range  of  mountains.  The  county 
is  traversed  by  the  North  Platte,  the  N.  and  S.  forks  of  the 
Big  Shycnne,  and  hv  the  Union  Pacific  U.  R.  Cap.  Chey- 
enne city.     Pop.  2Q'jr;  in  1S75,  6000. 

Laramie,  city,  cap.  of  Albany  co.,  Wyoming  Tcr.,  on 
the  Union  Pacilic  R.  R.,  b7  miles' by  rail  N.  W.  of  Chey- 
enne, and  7122  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  laid  out  in 
Apr.,  1S(18,  when  the  railroad  reached  this  point,  lies  in 
the  midst  of  the  Laramie  Plains,  is  regularly  built,  chiefly 
of  wood,  with  a  few  structures  of  stone,  has  5  churches.  2 
daily  newspapers,  I  national  bank,  a  court-house  and  jail, 
several  hotels  and  schools,  and  numerous  stores.  The  rail- 
road company  has  established  here  extensive  maehine- 
shops.  A  stream  of  clear  cold  water  passes  through  the 
city,  and  is  fed  hy  a  spring  at  the  foot  of  the  lilaek  Hills, 
a  few  miles  E.  Laramie  is  the  second  town  in  the  Terri- 
tory in  point  of  population,  which  is  rapidly  increasing; 
it  is  noted  as  the  first  place  in  America  where  a  female  jury 
was  empanelled.     Po)i.  about  .3000. 

Larnmic,  a  river  in  Wyoming  Territory,  formed  by 
the  union  of  two  branches,  the  Big  ami  the  Little  Laramie, 
which  rise  in  the  Medicine  Bow  ^lountains.  and  flow  N.  E., 
skirting  on  the  E.  the  plains  of  the  same  name.  It  enters 
the  X.  fork  of  the  Platte  at  Fort  Laramie,  and  is  much 
used  for  floating  lumber  from  the  mountains. 

Laramie  Mountains,  a  riingc  vising  at  the  Red 
Buttes,  near  the  Sweetwater  River,  Wyoming  Tcr.,  and 
extending  in  a  curve  southward  to  the  Arkansas  River, 
near  Long's  Peak  in  Colorado,  forming  a  wall  which  closes 
in  the  Laramie  Plains  to  the  N.  E.  and  E.  Geologically, 
it  is  composed  of  a  nucleus  of  red  syenite,  with  margins 
of  fossiliferous  formation.  Carboniferous,  Triassic,  Jurassic, 
Cretaceous,  and  in  some  places  lignite  Tertiary,  the  beds 
inclining  from  a  central  axis  at  different  angles.  This 
range  is  connected  with  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  and 
Black  Hills  by  low  anticlinals  extending  across  the  prai- 
rie, tbe  most  complete  and  beautiful  to  he  found  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  numerous  branches  of  the 
Platic  rise  in  this  range,  of  which  the  principal  summit  is 
Lar.amic  Peak.  Coal  has  been  found  in  them  in  consider- 
able quantities. 

Laramie  Peak,  the  loftiest  summit  of  the  Laramie 
Mountains,  in  .Mbany  CO.,  Wyoming  Tcr. 

Laramie  Plains,  an  elevated  table-land  in  Wyoming 
Territory,  lying  iu  Carbon  and  Albany  counties,  S.  of  the 


N.  fork  of  the  Platte,  between  the  Laramie  Mountains  on 
the  N.  E.  and  the  Medicine  Bow  spur  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains on  the  S.  W.,  watered  by  the  Big  and  Little  Laramie 
and  Medicine  Bow  rivers.     The  tops  of  some  of  the  sur- 
rounding mountains  are  covered  with  perpetual  snoiv,  and 
the  mean  altitude  of  the  plain  being  above  7000  feet,  the 
summer  is  always  short  and  the  winter  severe.     The  prin- 
cipal cereals  can  be  raised,  but  the  soil  is  more  suited  to 
potatoes,  turnips,  bcaus,  peas,  and  other  vegetables,  which 
have  been  successfully  cultivated  at  Fort  Sanders,  a  mili- 
tary post  on  the  S.  W.  margin  of  the  plains.     Grazing  will 
be  "an  important  industry,  and  vast  beds  of  iron  and  coal 
of  good  quality  have  been  found. 
Larash,  or  Larache.    See  El  Araiseb. 
Larceny  [contracted  from  lairoriut/,  from  Lat.  ?a(ro- 
cinimii.  "  theft"],  the  wrongful  or  fraudulent  taking  and  car- 
rying away  by  any  person  of  personal  property  belonging  to 
another,  with  a  felonious  intent  to  convert  it  to  the  taker's 
own  use,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner.    When  the  prop- 
erty is  taken  directly  from  the  house  or  person  of  the  owner 
the  offence  is  termed  mixed  or  compound  larceny  ;  in  other 
eases  it  is  called  simple  larceny.     Simple  larceny  was  fur- 
ther distinguished  at  common  law  as  grand  or  ]ietit  lar- 
ceny, the  former  being  the  theft  of  goods  above  the  value 
of  twelve  pence,  the  latter  the  theft  of  goods  below  this 
value.     But  the  distinction  between  grand  and  petit  lar- 
ceny has  been  abolished  in  England  and  in  many  of  the 
States  of  this  country  by  statute.     While  in  some  of  the 
States  it  is  still  retained,  the  value  of  the  property  upon 
which  the  distinction  depends  has  been  generally  changed 
by  legislation.     In  New  York,  for  instance,  the  property 
must  have  a  greater  value  than  $2J  in  order  that  the  steal- 
ing of  it  may  be  grand  larceny.    If  it  he  worth  this  nmount 
or  less,  the  theft  is  petit  larceny.    At  common  law  the  only 
importance  of  the  distinction  was  that  the  severity  of  the 
punishment  inflicted  differed  in  degree  according  to  the 
grade  of  the  offence.    Both  forms  of  the  crime  were  felonies. 
(See  Fklosv,  Crime.)     But  in  those  States  where  the  dis- 
tinction  is  retained,  grand  larceny  is  sometimes  declared 
to  be  a  felony,  while  petit  larceny  is  made  simply  a  mis- 
demeanor.   This  is  the  case  in  New  Y'ork.    The  taking  and 
carrying  away,  which  are  necessary  elements  in  the  oH'cnco 
of  larceny, are  also  technically  termed  caption  and  asporta- 
tion.    It  is  not  requisite,  in  order  that  the  crime  may  bo 
complete,  that  the  property  should  remain  permanently  in 
the  thief's  possession  or  be  removed  to  any  considerable 
distance  from  the  position  which  it  previously  occupied. 
It  is  a  sufficient  asportation  if  every  part  of  the  thing  stolen 
be  removed  from  tbe  )ilace  which  that  part  occupied,  even 
though  the  entire  article  is  not  wholly  removed  from  its  re- 
ceptacle or  the  place  where  it  had  been  jiut.    On  this  ground 
it  was  adjudged  larceny  where  a  jicrson  lifted  a  bag  which 
he  was  intending  to  steal  partly  out  of  the  boot  of  a  coach, 
but  was  detected  before  its  complete  removal.    So  if  a  sword 
be  drawn  partly  from  a  scabbard,  or  if  goods  be  removed 
from  one  ]iart  of  a  wagon  to  another  by  one  who  intends 
to  commit  a  theft,  the  larceny  designed  is  sufticicntly  per- 
petrated, though  the  thief  had  only  momentary  possession. 
But.  on  the  other  hanil,  if  a  bale  of  goods  resting  upon  its 
side  be  merely  lifted  anil  set  upon  end,  there  is  no  complete 
asportation,  since  some  small  portion  of  the  goods  still  re- 
tains its  former  position.     The  strictness  with  which  the 
rule  is  adhered  to  that  every  p,article  of  the  properly  stolen 
must  bo  taken  from  its  former  position  thus  results  in  very 
nice   distinctions,  since  the  determination  of  the  question 
whether  a  certain  act  of  attempted  larceny  was  criminal  or 
not  criminal  may  turn  upon  the  point  whether  an  iusig- 
nificiint  part  of  the  goods  was  moved  a  very  snuill  distance 
from  the  place  which  it  previously  occupied.  The  rule  is  more 
practical  of  application  than  ctiicacious  as  a  means  of  de- 
termining with  reasonaldc  accuracy  the  v.arious  degrees  of 
moral  turpitude  in  acts  of  intended  theft.     It  is  further 
necessary,  in  order  that  larceny  may  be  committcil.  that 
the  property  should  be  entirely  in  the  possession  of  the 
thief,  though  but  for  a  moment.     Thus,  where  goods  were 
fastened  by  a  string  to  a  shop-counter,  and  a  thief,  in  at- 
tempting to  carry  them  away,  removed  thtm  only  as  far  as 
the  string  would  permit,  it  was  held  that  the  owner  was 
not  completely  deprived  of  his  possession,  and  that  conse- 
quently the  intended  larceny  had  not  been  fully  perpetrated. 
But  where  a  ring  was  snatched  from  a  lady's  car.  but  fell 
immediately  afterwards  from  the  thiers  hand  ir'o  her  hair, 
where  it  was  subsequently  found,  the  entire  possession  which 
the  thief  had  hail,  though  only  instantaneous,  was  deemed 
sufficient  to  warrant  his  conviction  for  larceny.    On  account 
of  this  rule,  that  the  briefest  interval  of  complete  po,"se8- 
sion  is  sufficient,  immediate  restitution  by  the  thief  after 
taking  the  property  will  not  lessen  nor  do  away  with  the 
criminalitv  of  the  offence. 

It  is  a  fundamental  legal  principle  in  regard  to  this  crime 


LARCENY. 


1653 


that  there  can  be  no  larceny  committed  without  an  act  of 
trcsjmss.  Trespass,  as  the  term  is  used  with  reference  to 
personal  property,  is  an  injury  to  or  violation  of  a  person's 
title  and  postjct^sory  interest  in  chattels,  and  consists  in 
wrongfully  depriving  him  of  possession  against  Lis  will. 
Hence,  larceny  may  be  committed  not  only  by  taking  goods 
away  from  one  in  whom  the  absoiuto  title  to  them  is  vested, 
but  al!<o  by  taking  iliem  from  any  one  who  has  a  temporary 
ownership  nnd  an  immediate  right  of  pot^sesslon.  The 
ownership  of  the  property  may  be  either  general  or  special, 
and  the  possession  may  be  either  actual  or  constructive.    A 

Ecrson  is  said  to  have  a  general  or  absolute  title  when  ho 
as  an  exclusive  right  of  permanent  ownership,  while  one 
has  a  special  title  or  special  property  in  chattels  when  he 
has  them  in  his  possession,  and  retains  them  for  a  limited 
period,  subject  to  the  claims  of  the  absolute  owner.  A 
bailee,  for  instance,  would  have  a  special  property  in  goods 
entrusted  to  his  ehargc.  and  a  person  would  be  guilty  of 
larceny  from  him  who  took  the  goods  from  his  possession.  In 
all  cases  of  simple  bailment,  where  the  absolute  owner  is  en- 
titled to  resume  possession  of  tho  goods  at  any  time  at  his 
own  option,  if  they  arc  stolen  by  a  third  person  while  in  tho 
custody  of  tho  bailee,  they  may  be  described  in  the  indictment 
against  the  thief  as  the  property  of  either  the  bailor  or  tho 
bailee.  The  former  has  tho  constructive  and  the  latter  the 
actual  possession.  A  general  owner  may  even  be  adjudged 
guilty  of  larceny  if  betakes  his  own  goods  away  from  the  per- 
son who  has  tho  special  ownersiiip  of  them  for  thctime  being, 
with  a  feloniuu-s  intent  to  charge  tho  latter  with  their  value. 
But  there  can  bo  no  theft  from  a  person  who  has  not  a  legal 
right  to  tho  possession  of  tho  goods  taken.  A  servant  is 
never  deemed  in  law  to  have  tho  possession  of  tho  goods 
committed  to  his  charge  by  the  master,  but  only  tho  custody. 
Ho  lias  neither  tho  general  nor  the  special  ownership,  and 
the  possession  is  constructively  in  the  master.  If,  therefore, 
tho  property  is  stolen  while  in  the  charge  of  the  servant, 
the  theft  is  committed  again.';t  the  master,  and  not  against 
the  servant.  But  goods  in  the  possession  of  a  thief  arc  re- 
garded in  law  OS  iiis  property  to  sut-h  nu  extent  that  a  per- 
son wlio  steals  thorn  fiont  him  will  bo  guilty  of  larceny. 
In  like  manner,  a  finder  of  property  has  a  special  riglit  of 
oivnorship  in  it  as  against  all  tho  world  but  tho  true  owner, 
and  a  wrongful  deprivation  of  his  posFCssory  interest  would 
cons:i*.utc  an  act  of  larceny  against  him. 

As  larceny  involves  nn  act  of  trespass,  it  cannot  bo  com- 
mitted by  any  one  who  1ms  himself  a  right  of  property  and 
oC  immediate  possession  in  the  goods  taken.  If,  therefore, 
a  bailee  converts  to  his  own  use  the  property  entrusted  to 
him  during  tho  continuance  of  tho  bailment,  ho  is  not 
guilty  of  larceny.  Hut  if  th"  bailment  has  terminated 
when  the  gootls  arc  taken,  as  if  they  ar(^  taken  by  a  carrier 
after  they  have  been  transported  by  him  to  tlic  place  of 
destination  anr|  there  delivered,  a  trespass  is  committed, 
and  tho  act  is  therefore  the  offence  of  larceny.  The  rela- 
tion of  bailor  and  bailee  may  also  be  tormiimted  before  the 
nattiral  expiration  of  the  time  for  whifh  the  contract  was 
formed  between  the  parties,  by  a  wrongful  act  of  inter- 
ference *vith  the  property  on  tho  part  of  tho  bailee,  who 
will  subsequently  be  guilty  of  larceny  if  lie  appropriate  tho 
goods  lo  his  own  use.  If,  for  instance,  n  carrier  of  goods 
"  breaks  bulk,"  as  it  is  termed,  by  wrongfully  opening  a  box 
or  bale  or  package  which  he  lias  received  for  transportation, 
be  ceases  immoiliately  to  have  any  right  of  ownership  in 
the  good."  as  a  bailee,  and  if  he  abntracts  and  carries  away 
any  portion  of  them  he  is  chargeable  with  larceny.  This 
rule  leads  to  the  peculiar  result  that  if  :i  bailee  takes  llie 
entire  package  entrusted  to  him.  he  commitu  no  crime*  but 
only  a  breach  of  trust,  while  if  he  breaks  it  open  and  takes 
a  part  of  the  contents,  he  perpetrates  larceny.  Tho  prin- 
ciple already  stated,  that  a  servant  has  the  custody  and  not 
tho  possession  of  his  master's  gnods,  renders  it  on  aet  of 
hireeny  for  him  to  convert  to  his  own  use  tho  property 
which  ho  has  received  from  the  master.  But  if  tno  prop- 
erty was  received  from  sonu^  tliird  person  for  delivery  to 
tho  nmsler  or  to  be  held  for  his  use,  the  servant  would 
not  bo  guilty  of  larceny  in  appropriating  it,  for  the  reason 
that  it  had  never  come  into  the  master's  possession,  and 
therefore  no  act  of  trespass  eould  be  rommitled  against  tho 
master  by  pernmnently  retaining  it.  Tins  defeet  in  tho 
common  laiT,  which  deelari'd  such  an  aet  of  conver-^ion  by 
a  servant  no  crime,  but  only  a  breaeh  of  trust,  has  been 
remedied  by  legislation  in  recent  times,  by  whieh  sueli  nets 
of  wrongful  appropriation  have  boon  declared  eriminal  of- 
fences, anci  have  received  the  name  of  embezzlement.  (See 
Emukzzi  r.MKNT.) 

Finders  (»f  lost  goods  have  no  right  to  detain  them  from 
tho  possession  of  the  true  owner  if  he  is  known  :  nnd  if  thoy 
appropriate  the  property  to  ilieir  own  use  when  they  know 
to  whom  it  belongs  or  have  reasonable  means  of  nseertain- 
ing  the  true  owner,  they  are  guilty  tif  larceny.  If,  for  in- 
stance, carriers  of  passengers  find  in  their  vehicles  pack- 


ages of  goods  upon  which  the  name  of  the  owner  is  marked, 
they  cannot  retain  and  dispose  of  them  as  their  own  prop- 
erty without  committing  tiiis  offence.  But  if  articks  be 
found,  and  there  is  no  means  of  discovering  tho  owner, 
there  will  be  no  larceny  though  tho  finder  subsequently 
applies  them  to  his  own  use.  This  is  true  oven  though  the 
owner  may  have  been  discovered  in  the  mean  time. 

It  is  a  general  principle  that  larceny  must  be  eommitled 
against  the  will  of  the  owner  of  the  property.  If  the  goods 
are  taken  by  his  consent,  which  has  been  fairly  obtained, 
no  wrongful  act  of  any  kind  is  committed.  But  if  his  eon- 
sent  be  procured  by  fraud  or  stratagem,  tho  asportation 
will  in  some  cases  constitute  larceny.  It  is  necessary  at 
this  point  to  distinguish  between  that  frau<lulent  acqui- 
sition of  the  chattels  of  another  which  will  constitute  lar- 
ceny, and  that  fraudulent  taking  which  constitutes  the 
criminal  offence  of  obtaining  goods  by  false  pretences.  (Seo 
Chkat.)  When  the  owner  Intends,  in  consequence  of  the 
fraudulent  devices  by  which  lie  is  iniluenced,  to  part  with 
the  absolute  property  in  tho  goods,  retaining  no  interest  in 
himself,  the  person  who  receives  the  goods  is  guilty  of  tho 
crime  of  using  false  pretences.  But  when  he  intends 
merely  to  part  with  his  possession  of  the  property  for  a 
certain  interval,  instead  of  his  entire  ownership,  but  tho 
person  who  by  artifice  obtains  his  consent  lakes  the  goods 
with  tho  secret  design  of  appropriating  them  to  his  own 
use,  hirceny  is  committed.  The  act  of  taking  another's 
j)roperty  is  deemed  to  bo  a  trespass  unkss  the  consent  of 
tho  owner  is  given  with  a  full  comprehension  on  liis  part 
of  tho  receiver's  intent  with  reference  to  the  transfer  of 
ownership.  In  case  of  fraudulent  larceny  the  poasrssion 
of  the  goods  is  given  willingly,  but  tho  owner  is  still  de- 
prived of  liis  propcrit/  in  them  against  his  will.  If,  for 
example,  a  person  hires  a  horse  and  carriage  for  a  limited 
lime,  but  appropriates  tiiem  to  himself,  he  commits  larceny, 
because  the  owner  only  intendcfl  to  give  liim  the  use  of  the 
property  and  not  tho  title.  But  where  one  obtains  a  pay- 
ment of  money  by  presenting  a  letter  falsely  purporting  to 
be  an  order  from  tho  creditor,  and  appropriates  the  funds 
to  himself,  ho  is  guilty  of  obtaining  property  by  false  pre- 
tences. If  property  bo  obtained  by  fraud  from  a  servant, 
it  will  be  larceny  when  tho  servant  is  merely  entrusted 
with  the  possesb^ion  of  tho  goods  for  a  special  purpose,  nnd 
has  no  authority  to  part  with  tho  property  in  them  except 
to  fulfil  the  special  ])urposo  for  which  they  were  entrusted 
to  him.  But  when  lie  has  a  general  autliority  to  dispose 
of  his  master's  jiroperty,  a  person  may  procure  a  transfer 
of  ownership  from  liim  by  fraud,  and  will  then  be  cliarge- 
abie  with  false  jtrctences. 

The  trespass  committed  in  taking  the  property  must  also 
bo  nccomjianicd  by  a  felonious  intent  to  deprive  the  owner 
of  his  entire  ownership,  and  convert  (ho  property  to  tho 
taker's  own  use  or  dispose  of  it  for  his  benelit.  The  goods 
must  bo  taken,  as  it  is  expressed  in  technical  legal  jihrase, 
futiiiin  fiirandi — with  a  design  of  stealing.  Thus,  if  prop- 
erty be  taken  upon  a  claim  of  title  or  merely  by  niielake, 
or  if  tho  intent  is  Eimi)ly  to  use  the  articles  and  afterwards 
to  return  them  to  the  true  owner,  no  larceny  is  perpilralcd, 
becauso  the  felonious  intent  is  wanting.  The  wrongful 
purpose  must  also  exist  at  the  time  of  the  taking.  If  the 
property  be  acquired  rightfully,  nnd  with  no  design  of 
misappropriation  at  the  tinio  it  is  received,  a  subsequent 
conversion  of  it  with  felonious  intent  by  the  person  having 
it  in  his  possession  will  not  eonstituto  larceny.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, a  person  should  find  an  article,  and  lakt>  it  with  tho 
intention  of  restoring  it  to  the  owner  when  diseovere<l.  but 
should  afterwards  appropriate  it  to  himself,  he  would  ho 
chargeable  merely  with  an  act  of  trespass  ami  not  of  lar- 
ceny. Tho  same  rub'  np[dies  when  property  is  taken  at 
first  in  the  eommission  ">f  a  trespass,  but  with  no  design 
of  depriving  the  owner  of  it  permanently.  It  is  sometimes 
stated  in  treatises  upon  eriminal  law  and  in  tho  reports 
that  there  can  be  no  larceny  unless  properly  bo  taken  /nrri 
cnunn — for  the  sake  of  gain  r)r  profit  to  the  thief.  This 
doctrine  is  only  sustainable  at  the  present  day  by  giving 
to  tho  icrm  ill rri  ("gain")  a  much  more  comprehensive 
meaning  than  it  was  formerly  held  to  bear.  It  must  be 
used  to  denote  not  merely  pecuniary  profit  to  the  thief,  but 
any  advantage,  whelber  pecuniary  or  otherwise,  which  ho 
obtnins  by  the  ae(|uisition  of  the  properly,  whcllorthis  bo 
a  direct  or  indirect  result  of  the  taking.  Tlius,  it  has  been 
adjudged  laroeny  to  lake  an  article  with  intent  to  present 
it  (o  a  frieinl;  or  to  intercept  and  burn  a  letter  to  supprej^s 
inquiries  it  may  suggest  concerning  the  thief's  eharacler; 
or  to  take  and  kill  a  liorse,  that  his  existenec  might  not 
furnish  evidence  against  a  third  person  who  bad  been  ac- 
cused of  stealing  liim.  Some  cases  have  denied  the  doc 
trino  of  iticri  cf/KKa  entirely. 

It  is  only  personal  property  which  is  tho  subject  of  lar- 
ceny at  eommon  law.  Anything  which  is  deemed  in  law 
to  bo  real  property,  or  to  savor  of  tho  realty,  cannot  (hero- 


1654 


LARCH— LAREDO. 


foro  1)0  stolen.  If  soil  be  taken  from  a.  person's  land,  or 
apples  from  his  fruit  trees,  or  grass  and  grain  be  cut  down 
and  carried  away,  no  larceny  is  committed.  Those  classes 
of  articles  which,  in  themselves  personal  properly,  have 
become  so  attached  to  laud  as  to  form  a  part  of  the  really, 
an<l  are  denominated  iixtureg.  arc  not  subject  to  larceny. 
(See  FiXTfUKs.)  But  when  things  which  once  belonged 
to  the  realty  have  been  severed  from  it,  and  fubscqueutly 
carried  away  with  felonious  intent  to  B]>propriale  Ihem  to 
the  laker's  own  use,  the  act  will  amount  to  larceny,  because 
by  reason  of  the  severance  the  articles  become  personal 
pVonertv.  The  severance  may  be  made  either  by  the  thief 
or  l>v  some  third  person,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  any 
particular  interval  of  time  should  intervene  between  this 
and  the  a.'>portalion.  The  two  .acts  need  only  be  so  much 
separated  as  not  to  constitute  one  transaction  in  order  that 
the  taking  may  bo  larceny.  Otherwise,  it  is  only  an  act 
of  trespass.  At  common  law,  also,  choscs  in  action  are  not 
the  subjects  of  larceny,  since  they  are  regarded  as  mere 
evidences  of  a  right,  without  intrinsic  value  in  themselves. 
(See  CnosE  in  Action.)  There  can  be  no  larceny,  more- 
over, of  animals /'i-a.-  imiiirie  (I.e.  of  a  wild  nature),  so 
long  as  they  arc  unreclaimed  or  unconfined.  (See  Feb« 
Natir.e.)  If  such  animals  are  reclaimed  from  their  wild 
state  by  being  tamed,  they  become  the  subject  of  this  of- 
fence, provided  they  are  tit  for  food,  but  not  otherwise. 
Thus.  ]»igcons,  hares,  deer,  swans,  etc.  may  be  stolen  when 
reclaimed,  but  dogs,  eats,  bears,  foxes,  squirrels,  etc.  can- 
not. If  an  animal  is  dead,  it  is  of  course  subject  to  lar- 
ceny if  it  be  suitable  for  food.  The  same  is  true  if  an  an- 
imal be  confined.  These  common-law  rules  in  regard  to 
the  kinds  of  property  which  may  be  stolen  have  been  much 
changed  in  modern  times  by  statute,  and  it  is  now  gener- 
ally provided,  both  in  England  and  in  this  country,  that 
choses  in  action  and  a  large  variety  of  articles  which  savor 
of  the  really,  but  are  readily  detached  from  the  land  with 
which  they  are  connected,  may  be  the  subjects  of  larceny 
or  its  eriuivalent.  Various  other  important  changes  of  the 
common-law  principles  applying  to  this  crime  have  also 
been  mailo  by  legislation,  which  must  be  ascertained  by 
special  reference  to  the  statutes  of  dilTerent  Slates.  (Con- 
snlt  the  works  of  Bishop,  Wharton,  Russell,  Chitty,  and 
Colby  on  Criminal  Lnir.     i?ec  also  RoiinERV.) 

George  Chase,     Revised  by  T,  W.  Dwight. 

Larch  [Or,  Wpif],  applied  to  trees  of  the  genus  Larix, 
conifers  with  deciduous  leaves.  The  Larix  Eiiropaa,  called 
"  Scutch  larch  "  in  this  country,  is  not  a  native  of  Great 
Britain,  though  very  extensively  grown  there.  Its  wood  is 
valuable  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  In  Russia, 
"Orenburg  gum,"  a  wholly  soluble  and  edible  product,  is 
obtained  from  tho  charred  trunks  of  this  tree,  as  is  Brian^on 
manna  in  France.  Tho  Himalaya  larch  is  Larix  Grif' 
fithtii.    (For  tho  American  larch,  see  Hackmatack.) 

Lar'com  (I.tcvl,  b.  at  Beverly  Farms,  Mass.,  in  1826; 
was  for  a  lime  a  teacher  in  Illinois.  She  compiled  flrratli- 
iti'imii'  the  lleiirr  Life  (l.sOG).  and  is  author  of  I'lirinn  (ItiGS). 
Her  literary  career  began  while  she  was  an  operative  in  a 
Lowell  factory.  She  has  been  an  editor  of  Our  Young 
Fut/:e,  a  children's  periodical. 

Liarcy',  de  (Chaiiles  Pai'lin  Roger  he  Saubekt), 
liAUos,  b.  Aug.  211,  1S05,  at  Vigan,  in  tho  department  of 
Gard.  France;  sturlied  law,  and  was  aduiitled  lo  the  bar 
in  lS2ii ;  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
Ks:)U,  and  being  a  legitimist  and  liberal  took  |iart  with  great 
energy  in  the  opposition  against  Guizot.  After  the  fall  of 
the  ,Iuly  monarchy  in  IStS,  he  accepted  the  Republic,  and 
sat  in  the  Constituent  and  again  in  the  Legislative  .■\s9em- 
bly,  but  retired  into  private  life  after  the  cou/j  d'ftat.  Elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1K71,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  jiublic  works  by  Thiers  in  February  of 
the  same  year,  and  held  tho  position  to  June,  1X72;  voted 
for  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  the  validity  of  the  elections 
of  the  Orleans  princes,  the  dissolution  of  the  national  guard, 
and  against  the  maintenance  of  the  commercial  treaties. 
His  pamphlet.  La  Ii<rt>lulioti  tfe  la  /'';'«j(cc.  made  great  sen- 
SAlion  in  \^Z\:  in  18B0  he  published  tho  first  part  of  Vet 
VicissiltiilfiH  politiqnes  de  la  France. 

Lard  [Fr.  lanl,  from  Lot.  lardiim"],  tho  oily  part  of  hog's 
fat,  extracted  by  melting  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water, 
exicnsively  used  for  culinary  purposes  and  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  candles,  illuminating  oil,  pomades,  unguents,  and 
soaps.  The  ordinary  lard  of  commerce  is  obtaineil  from 
tho  entire  fat  of  tho  animal;  the  best  quality  is  that  de- 
rived from  the  fat  which  surrounds  the  kidneys.  It  is  often 
adulterated  to  the  extent  of  2b  per  cent,  or  more  by  the  ad- 
dition of  alum,  lime,  mutton  suet,  starch,  potato  flour,  or 
other  farinaceous  substance,  while  water  may  bo  employed 
for  the  same  purpose  up  to  12  per  cent.  The  presence  of 
water  is  detected  by  the  loss  of  weight  umlcr  moderate 
heat;  that  of  starchy  substances  by  changing  to  a  blue 


color  in  a  solution  of  iodine.  The  composition  of  lard  is 
02  parts  oleino  to  3S  of  stearine  and  palmiline,  the  former, 
called  lard  oil,  being  used  for  lubricating  machinery  and 
for  illumination,  while  the  latter  is  chiefly  employed  for  Ihe 
m.anufacture  of  hard  candles.  Lard  is  one  of  the  chief  pro- 
duct? of  the  Ceulral  States  of  the  U.  S..  Chicago  and  Cin- 
cinnati being  largely  engaged  in  this  industry,  which  has 
reached  nearly  2."»b,tH)(),(lUU  pounds  per  annum,  as  shown  by 
a  comparison  of  the  statistics  of  several  years.  Lard  is  the 
chief  material  employed  in  pharmacy,  in  combination  with 
vegetable  balsams  and  oils,  for  the  ])reparalion  of  unguents 
and  cerates,  for  which  purpose,  however,  only  the  best  qual- 
ity can  be  atlvantagcously  used.  Lard  oil  is  exported  from 
the  U.  S.  in  immense  quantities,  cliielly  to  France,  where  it 
is  largely  used  for  the  adulteration  of  tdive  oil.  Lard  oil 
is  often  mixed  with  2."i  per  cent,  of  rosin,  tlic  latter  substance 
forming  an  acid  wliich  protects  the  oleine  from  its  tendency 
to  rancidity  when  exposed  to  dampness,  and  also  increasing 
its  power  of  illumination.  The  melting-point  of  pure  lard 
varies  from  78°  to  87°  F, 

Lardiz'abal  y  Ifribe  (Migtei.),  b.  in  the  province 
of  Tlascala,  Mexico,  in  1744  ;  studied  at  Puebla  and  at  the 
University  of  Valladolid  in  Spain  ;  obtained  high  scientilic 
employments  at  court,  but.  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the 
favorite  Godoy,  was  exiled  in  1785  to  the  Basque  provinces, 
where  he  became  the  head  of  the  seminary  at  Vergara.  In 
ISOS  he  was  restored  to  favor  by  Ferdinand  VII..  and  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Indies  :  retired  to 
Cadiz  before  the  French  invasion  :  was  elected  representa- 
tive for  New  Spain  (Mexico)  in  the  central  junta  (Sept.), 
ancl  became  a  member  of  the  regency  ;  came  into  conflict 
with  the  Cortes  in  1811.  by  whose  order  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Alicante;  was  exiled  from  Spain  in  Aug.,  1812,  proceed- 
ing to  England;  returned  to  Spain  in  1814  as  councillor 
of  state  and  universal  minister  of  the  Indies  under  the  abso- 
lutist government  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  exercising  immense 
power ;  again  fell  into  disfavor  a  year  or  two  later,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Pamplona,  and  passed  his  Inst 
years  in  honorable  exile  at  the  head  of  the  seminary  of 
Vergara,  Biscay,  where  he  d.  Dec,  182.1. — His  brother, 
Mamel.  b.  at  tlascala  Dec.  22.  17.19,  was  a  learned  magis- 
trate at  the  Spanish  court,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Spanish  Academy.     D.  about  1818. 

Lard'ner  (Dioxvsiis),  LL.P..  b.  at  Dublin  Apr.  1. 
17'J.1;  graduated  at  Dublin  University  1817:  remained  in 
his  college,  of  which  ho  was  for  a  time  chaplain,  until 
1827.  and  received  many  honors,  mostly  for  excellence  in 
mathematics  and  j.hysics ;  abandoned  the  clerical  profes- 
sion ;  became  in  1S28  professor  of  astronomy  and  physics 
in  the  University  of  London;  resided  lS4l)-45  in  tho 
U.  S.,  and  afterwards  in  Paris,  where  he  d.  Apr.  29, 
1859.  The  greatest  of  bis  works  was  the  publication  of  tho 
Cabinet  Ci/rlnpnitia  in  I;i4  vols..  12mo  (lS:iO-14),  composed 
of  a  series  of  treatises,  partly  written  by  himself;  also  pro- 
duced an  Al(iehraic  Qeometry  (1823),  a  work  on  Caleulua 
(1825),  on  the  Steam-Ent/ine  (1828),  a  scries  oi  Handbooks 
upon  science  (IS51-5fi),  the  Muaxum  of  Science  and  Art 
(1854),  and  other  works. 

Lardncr  (.Iahes  L.),  U.  S.  N.,  b.  Nov.  20,  1802,  in 
Pennsylvania;  entered  the  navy  as  aniid>bipman  May  10, 
1820:  became  a  lieutenant  in  1828,  a  commander  in  1851, 
a  captain  in  ISiU.  a  commodore  in  1862,  a  rear-admiral  on 
the  retired  list  in  18l',ri;  commanded  the  U.  S.  frigate  Sus- 
quihnnna  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery.  Rear-admiral 
Dupont  characterizing  his  "close  support"  of  Ihe  flagship 
as  "  a  very  gallant  thing."  Foxhai.i.  A.  Parker. 

Lardner  (Xathaxiei.),  D.D.,  b.  at  Hawkshurst,  Kent, 
,Iuno  6,  1G84,  an  English  Presbyterian  minister  of  Uni- 
tarian proclivities;  studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden  1099- 
17U:!;  was  long  minister  of  Crutched  Fri:irs.  London;  is 
chieflv  remembered  as  author  of  The  Crcilihiliitj  of  the  Got- 
prl  Hittory  (5  vols.,  1727-4.1),  first  delivered  as  a  series  of 
lectures  at  the  Old  Jewry,  and  still  a  standard  work  ;  pub- 
lished also  a  Hinlori/  of  the  Apnullr h  and  Eranr/cliilf  ('i  vols,, 
1750-57),  Letter  on  ihe  Logon  ( 1759,  distinctly  Socinian), 
./riPi'«/,  and  Heathen  Testimonies  (1704-07),  a  llisturi)  of 
/lerelief  nf  the  I'irtt  Tiro  Centuries  (1780),  etc.  D.  at 
Hawkshurst  July  24,  1768. 

Lare'do,  post-v..  county-sent  of  Webb  co.,  Tex.,  on  tho 
left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  2011  miles  above  its  mouth,  at 
the  crossing  of  tho  high-road  between  San  .-Vntonio,  Tex., 
and  Saltillo,  Mexico,  400  miles  S,  W.  of  the  former  city, 
was  founded  by  Spanish  settlers  in  the  latter  part  of  tho 
eighteenth  century  as  a  frontier  town  of  .Mexico,  and  suf- 
fereil  much  then  and  since  from  Indian  inroads.  On  the 
annexation  of  Texas  to  the  U.  S.  nmny  of  the  Mexican  in- 
habitants moved  across  the  river  and  founded  Nuevo  La- 
redo.   Tho  town  is  tho  American  terminus  of  tho  chartered 


LARES— LARK. 


1655 


luteraatioDal  K.  R.,  which  is  to  unite  the  U.  S,  with  Mex-  I 
ico.     It  has  a  cuD^iUorablo  trade  with  Mexico.    Pup.  2040. 

La'rcs  [pi.  of  tttr,  Etruscnn  for  "lord"].  In  the  re- 
ligion of  ancient  Rome  the  Lares  were  tutelary  ^pints^ 
public  or  private.  The  domestic  Lares  appear  to  have 
been  originally  the  spirits  of  the  departed  lufuibers  of  the 
family,  and  wore  worshipped  with  slmplt'  but  very  devout 
eervicea.  The  Lares  diflered  from  the  Manes,  which  were 
spiritu  that  were  supposed  to  hover  nciir  the  tomb.  The 
Penates  included  other  domestic  spirit?,  not  ancestral. 
Public  Lares  had  care  of  highways,  ship?,  fields,  etc.  The 
images  of  the  Lares  were  also  worshipped. 

Larg^e,  one  of  the  characters  or  notes  in  aneient  music, 
and  the  hmgest  in  point  of  duration.  The  notes  formerly 
in  use  were,  in  the  order  of  their  respective  time-values, 
the  largo,  the  long,  the  breve,  and  the  somibreve.  They 
were  commonly  written  thus: 

Large.        Long.      Breve.  Seraibrove. 


The  relative  duration  of  these  notes  was,  theoretically  con- 
sidered, equivalent  in  proportion  to  8,  4,  2,  und  1.  the 
"large"  being  equal  in  time  to  two  longs,  or  four  breves, 
or  eight  Bcuiibreves;  the  "long,"  to  two  breves  or  four 
Bemil>rcve9;  and  the  ■•breve,"  to  two  semibrevos.  It  may 
be  considered  certain,  however,  that  these  ratios  were  not 
very  accurately  observed  in  the  pracfice  of  music,  but  were 
regarded  only  as  approximate  measures  of  slowness  or 
rapidity,  subject  always  to  such  variations  and  irregulari- 
ties as  might  take  rise  from  the  feelings  of  the  performer, 
or  {in  vocal  music)  from  the  accentuation,  purport,  and 
proper  expression  of  the  words.  The  actual  length  of  time 
represented  by  each  of  these  ancient  notes  was  alto  much 
less  than  would  be  inferred  from  the  names  of  the  first  two, 
which  suggest  a  highly  prolonged  duration.  It  will  bo 
observed  that  while  in  modern  music  the  "breve"  is  the 
longest  note  in  use,  yet  in  ancient  music  its  duration  was 
short,  as  indicated  by  its  name  aud  by  comparison  with 
the  "  largo  "  and  the  "  long."  A  note  such  as  tho  "  large," 
equal  in  length  to  four  breves,  eight  semibreves,  or  sixteen 
minims,  would,  of  course,  be  impracticable  if  the  old  time- 
table were  not  essentially  difl'crent  from  our  own  as  a 
measuro  of  rapidity.  .Some  idea  of  the  rate  or  speed  of 
the  old  notation  may  probably  be  derived  from  tho  hear- 
ing of  (iregorian  music  as  still  in  use  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  where  the  mode  and  velocity  of  chanting,  as  handed 
down  by  tradition,  may  bo  taken  as  a  sutticicntly  correct 
representation  of  the  time- value  of  the  ancient  note. 
Judging  by  such  a  standard.  Ilie  ancient  liirge,  long,  breve, 
and  semibreve  would,  at  the  longest,  be  only  eijuivalent  to 
our  present  breve,  semibreve,  minim,  and  crotchet  ;  while 
this  relative  proportion  might  probably  be  still  better  rep- 
resented by  our  semibreve,  minim,  crotchet,  and  quaver. 
Hut  in  the  absence  of  any  positive  rule  for  the  translation 
of  ancient  notes  into  their  ef|uivrtlents  uiidi-r  tho  modern 
system,  tho  most  common  mn<!c!  followed  by  musicians  is 
to  render  the  long  by  a  semibreve,  tho  breve  by  a  minim, 
and  the  semibreve  by  a  crotchet,  as  in  tho  example  follow- 
ing: 


Ancicn 


..gf^^g^^-z 


3E 


Good  Lord,    dc  •  Ht  -  er      us. 


Modern. 


=S3= 


'^^^m 


(Seo  Notation.)  William  Staunton. 

Lar'gO  [It.],  in  music,  a  term  denoting  a  slow  and 
rather  heavy  movement,  with  a  rate  of  progress  somewhat 
faster  than  "  grave  "  or  •' adagio."  Lnnj/nttt,,  iho  diminu- 
tive, aud  lari/hiniiinio,  the  superlative,  indicate  respectively 
a  decrease  rir  increase  of  slowness,  tho  latter  being  hardly 
distinguishable  from  "grave,"  "  adagieaimo,"  and  other 
terms  implying  extreme  slowness. 

La'rif  town  of  Italy,  in  tho  province  of  Pisa,  about  IR 
miles  S.  of  the  city  of  Pisa.  Its  old  forlifioations  and  cas- 
tle are  still  in  good  condition.     Pop.  in  1K74,  10,081, 

Laric'iOf  or  Corsican  Pine  {PinuH  Lnncio)t  a 
large  pino  of  the  S.  of  Kur(»pe,  esteemed  for  its  timber  aud 
its  resin.  It  grows  well  in  the  most  barren  sands,  and, 
with  other  species,  has  been  extensively  pbinted  in  the 
Landes  of  S.  W.  France,  thus  transforming  a  waste  of 
worthless  land  into  valuable  plantations,  and  preventing 
tho  destruction  of  fertile  regions  by  tho  moving  of  Band- 
dunes, 

Lar'idtc  [fromZarii*,*' gull."  and  the  family  termination 
•  iV/.'],  a  family  of  birds  distinguished  by  the  schizognatli 
palate,  lateral  open  Dostrils,  feet  completely  webbed  between 


the  three  anterior  toes,  hallux  or  posterior  toe  rudimentary 
(aud  free)  or  obsolete,  and  wings  elongated  and  pointed. 
These  are  the  chief  and  superticial  distinctive  characters  of 
the  family,  which  embraces  several  well-marked  minor 
groups,  distinguished  by  most  recent  authors  as  sub-families 
— viz.  (1)  the  jajgers  (Lestridinie),  (2)  the  gulls  (Larinw), 
(;>)  the  terns  (.Sternina'),  aud  (4)  tho  skimmers  (Ilhynchop- 
inaj).  These  groujis  are  very  trenchantly  distinguished  from 
each  other,  but  the  first  two  and  last  two  are  contrasted  with 
each  other,  the  jiegers  and  gulls  on  one  hund  being  closely  al- 
lied, aud  on  the  other  the  terns  ancl  shearwaters.  The  sub- 
families themselves  are  very  homogeneous,  the  various 
members  of  each  differing  very  little  from  each  other.  Rep- 
resentatives are  found  in  every  sea,  and  sometimes  wander 
far  inland.  A  M<Hi»ujr<iph  of  fhr  Xitrtfi  Amen'mii  Lan'tiir 
has  been  recently  (1^74)  published  by  Dr.  E.  Coues  in  his 
Sirds  of  tliv  XoitIi-ic€«t  (pp.  6sy-7i;).    TiiEonouE  Gill. 

Lari'^ot.  The  name  of  one  of  the  stops  in  an  organ, 
otherwi^e  known  as  tho  "nineteenth."  It  consists  of  a 
single  rank  of  mclal  pipes,  and  is  tuned  an  octave  above 
the  twelfth  stop,  or  two  octaves  and  a  fifth  {i.  r.  a  nine- 
teenth) above  the  diapasons.  It  occurs  also  as  one  of  tho 
ranks  of  the  scsquialtcra  and  mixture  stops. 

Lar'imcr,  county  of  Colorado,  bounded  W.  by  the 
Medicine  Bow  Mountains  and  N.  by  AVyoming.  Area, 
2000  square  miles.  It  is  watered  by  Cache  la  Poudro  and 
Big  Thompson  creeks,  which  afford  irrigation  aud  water- 
power.  It  is  a  fertile  region,  producing  grain,  hny.  butter, 
and  wool  extensively.  Lignitic  coal  and  silver  are  found. 
Cap.  Fort  Collins.  *Pop.  «;JS. 
Larimer,  tp.  of  Somerset  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  951. 
Lar'iliiT  [frtun  Larug,  a  ''gull,"  and  the  sub-family  affix 
-i'n/r],  a  sul)-fauiily  of  Laridu',  characterized  by  a  well-de- 
veloped beak,  whose  upper  mandible  is  hooked  and  projects 
downward  in  front  of  the  upper,  and  has  no  cere  at  tho 
base.  In  this  are  included  the  birds  familiar  to  every  one 
who  has  been  along  the  shore  as  "gulls,"  but  under  this 
common  designation  are  embraced  many  species.  In  the 
most  recent  general  catalogue  of  birds  {Hauil-lixt  of  Genera 
and  Species  of  Itirdn,  by  George  Robert  Gray)  7r>  species 
are  enumerated  under  five  genera — viz,  JihodoHhihin,  with 
1  species;  Lmus,  with  18  sections  and  68  species;  Xemn, 
with  2  sections  and  2  species:  Pa(/opfii{fi,  with  2  species: 
and  Jilnmt,  with  3  species.  Many  of  these,  however,  are 
undoubtedly  varieties.  Dr,  Coues  recognizes  ten  American 
species,  and  in  addition  two  varieties — viz.  Lama,  with  5 
sub-genera  (including  Paijuphila  and  Rissa)M\<X~  species; 
lifiodoMttfhia.  with  its  single  species;  and  A'oiia,  with  2 
sub-genera  and  species.  LaniM  has  a  square  tail,  and  in- 
cludes the  largest  and  most  common  species;  lihodnHtelhia 
has  A  wedge-shaped  tail ;  and  CrenfjniH  a  forked  tail.  Tho 
species  of  the  last  two  genera  arc  inhabitants  of  tho  arctic 
regions,  and  lexcejit  A',  sabinei)  are  very  rare. 

TnKonoRE  Gill. 
Larin'sa^  town  of  Kuropean  Turkey,  in  the  province 
of  Salonieu,  on  tbi"  Saleinbria,      It  has  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  cotton  and  silk  goods,  mid  a  large  trade  in  wine 
besides  a  very  important  transit-trude,     Po]>.  2j,(iOU, 

Laristan',  district  of  Persia,  part  of  the  province  of 
Fursistan.  and  bordering  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  mostly 
an  arid  sandy  wuste,  and  the  guinea-worm  is  so  frequent 
as  to  become  a  perpetual  plague. 

La  Rive*  Ue,  the  name  of  two  eelebrnled  Swiss  physi- 
cists, father  and  son. — Chahlks  GASPAru*.  b.  at  Gi-iieva, 
Mar,  14,  1770;  resided  from  17it4  t<.  1791)  at  Kdinburgh  on 
account  of  the  political  disturbances  in  his  native  country  ; 
returned  in  171IU  to  Geneva,  and  look  charge  of  its  insane 
asylum  ;  founded  a  museum  of  natural  science  and  a  botan- 
ical garden,  and  delivered  annual  courses  of  lectures  on 
medicine  and  chemistry.  1),  at  Cieneva  I^Iar.  IH,  Is;i4. — 
AiGi'STK,  b.  at  (ieneva  Oct.  1,  1801  ;  studied  chemistry  and 
natural  science  under  his  father;  was  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  (icneva.  and  since  I8fi4  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
members  of  the  French  Academy.  !►.  at  Marseilles  Nov. 
27,  IS73.  Kleetrieity,  its  theory  as  well  as  its  practical  ap- 
plicability, formed  the  principal  subject  of  their  investiga- 
tions, and  both  of  them  coinmuuicated  to  different  scien- 
tific   papers  —  liibfiothi^tpie    Uin'rniirffe,  Atitlftlri  dr    C/tiiiiir,* 

etc. — a  number  of  valuable  essays  relating  lo  this  braiieh 
of  natural  science.  The  princinal  work  of  Auguste  de  la 
Rive  is  his  Traitf  d* ElcctricitS  thforiqne  applicfe  (;J  vols,, 
Paris,  IS.^,4-.'i8). 

Larix.     See  LAncii. 

Lark  [Ang.-Pax.  lu/crr;  Scotch,  lnvn>rK-],  a  popular 
name  of  several  passerine  birds  of  the  group  Oscines  (sing- 
ers). The  true  lurks  are  of  the  family  Alaudidu'.  of  which 
tho  skylark  (d' the  Old  WmUX  ( A/'iuda  fin-ni-iM}  is  the  typ- 
ical spirit.  This  most  intere.stine  bird  is  a  great  favorite, 
from  its   sweet   song,  which  it  sends  forth  while  soaring 


1656 


LARKHANA— LARREY. 


aloft  in  clear  weather.  It  is  a  fine  cage-bird,  and  is  now  to 
some  extent  naturalized  in  the  U.  S.  by  the  laudable  efforts 
of  the  acclimatization  societies.  Europe  has  several  other 
species  of  .4Aiif'/(r.  The  liorned  skylark  {Eremnphitn  cnr- 
untn)  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  bird<!  of  the  great  Western 
plains  of  the  U.  S.  The  shorclark  yOtoantt  afpciti-iit)  is  a 
very  sweet  singer.  Tho  well-known  meadow-lark  of  the 
V.  S.  (Stnrnet/'t  maffim)  is  of  the  oriole  family.  There  are 
two  varieties,  the  eastern  and  the  western,  which  differ  en- 
tirely in  their  song. 

Larkha'na,  town  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency 
of  Uombay,  in  the  district  of  Sinde,  7  miles  AV.of  the  Indus. 
It  is  fortified,  has  a  larj^e  trade  in  grain,  and  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  silk  goods.     Pop.  9000. 

Lark'insbiirs,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Clay  eo..  111.,  on  the 
Springfield  and  Illinois  South-eastern  R.  K.     Pop.  976. 

Lark'insvillev  postv.  and  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Ala.,  on 
the  -Memphis  and  Charleston  R.  K.     Pop.  2(108. 

Lark'spur^  a  popular  name  of  the  herbs  of  the  genus 

Befphinitirn  (order  Kanuucnlacea?),  which  are  found  in  the 
cool  regions  of  both  continents.  The  U.  S.  have  eight  or  ten 
native  species,  and  Europe  as  many.  They  are  poisonous 
herbs,  and  have  a  limited  nso  in  medicine.  Several  of 
these,  with  some  Asiatic  species,  are  favorite  garden  flowers. 

Lar'ned,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Pawnee  en.,  Kan.,  on  the  At- 
chison Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  R.  R.  and  the  Arkansns 
River,  is  the  station  for  Fort  Lamed.  It  has  1  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  about  ."500. 

Larnod  fBKNJAMiN  F.),  b.  in  Massachusetts  in  1791; 
entered  the  U.  S.  army  as  ensign  of  the  21st  Infantry  in 
Oct..  ISl.'J;  served  with  distinction  throughout  the  war, 
and  for  gallant  conduct  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Erie,  where 
he  commanded  a  eompnny,  was  brevetted  captain  ;  retained 
as  regimental  paymaster  on  the  reduction  of  the  army  in 
181o  ;  during  the  Mexican  war  was  marie  deputy  pay- 
master-general, and  on  the  death  of  Gen.  Towson  succeeded 
him  in  ISjt  as  paymaster-general  of  the  army,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel  :  from  that  date  until  his  death  discharged 
the  responsible  duties  of  his  office  with  rare  integrity.  The 
outbreak  of  civil  war  largely  increased  his  labors,  and  called 
fur  a  reorganization  of  his  department,  which  be  thoroughly 
accomplisherl,  hut  at  the  expense  of  his  life,  for  his  over- 
tasked powers  gave  wav,  and  he  d.  at  his  residence  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Sept.  6,  1S62. 

Larned  (Simon),  b.  in  17,^4  at  Thompson,  Conn,:  was 
a  Revolutionary  officer  who  settled  at  Pittsfield.  Mass..  in 
17S4.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  1S04-0.):  eolnnel  9rh 
XJ.  S.  Infantry  1S12-1.J.  and  afterwards  sheriff  of  Berkshire 
CO.,  Mass.     D.  at  Pittsfield  Nov.  9,  1S17. 

Lamed  (Svlvkstkr),  son  of  Col.  Simon  Larned,  b.  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  .31,  1796;  graduated  in  L^l.tat  Mid- 
dlebury  College;  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  in 
1SI7  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  ilcwcnt 
to  New  Orleans,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  the  rare 
eloquence  and  power  of  his  preaching.  D.  of  yellow  fever 
An^.  31, 1820.  (See  his  Life  and  Sermons,  by  11.  R.  Gurley. 
184L) 

Larned  (Wim.tam  ArcrsTrs).  A.  M.,  b.  in  Thompson, 
Conn.,  .June  2:5.  ISOfi:  graduated  at  Yale  1826:  taught  in 
Salisbury.  X.  C,  1S26-2H  ;  tutor  and  theological  student  at 
Yale  182S-;j|  ;  was  ordained  lS."51-35  pastor  of  a  Congre- 
gational church  at  Mill  bury.  Mass.;  was  instructor  in  He- 
brew and  Greek  in  a  theolo-^ical  school  at  Troy.  N.  V., 
1835-37;  professor  of  rhetoric  and  Enejlish  literature  in 
Yale  College  1S39-G2.  D.  at  New  Haven,  C.nn..  Feb.  3, 
13<>2.  Prepared  an  edition  of  Demosthenes  On  the  Croien; 
editor  of  tlie  A'ctc  EmjluutUr  ISJl-jj. 

Lar'nioa,  town  on  the  southern  shore  of  tho  island  of 
Cyprus,  Turkey,  in  a  fertile  but  very  unhealthy  plain.  It 
has  nn  harbor,  hut  a  good  roadstead,  ami  carries  on  an  ex- 
teni^ive  trade,  exporting  silk,  wool,  and  oil,  and  importing 
iron,  paper,  and  colonial  products.  It  is  annually  visited 
by  61)0  or  700  vessels  of  60,000  tons  burden.  Pop.  about 
11). 01)0.  ^ 

La  RorhefoiiranldS  de  fFRAN(:ois),  Ditkk,  prince 
of  M.irsillac,  b.  at  Paris  Dec.  1'..  ICr3;  received  a  military 
education,  an<I  served  for  some  time  in  the  armv.  but  the 
element  in  which  he  felt  perfectly  at  home  was'tho  court 
intrigue.  While  yet  a  young  man  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  contest  between  Anne  of  Auflria  and  Richelieu, 
which  ended  with  his  banishment  from  Paris.  On  the 
death  of  the  car.Iinal  in  lfi.!2.  he  Immediately  returned  to 
the  court,  but  heini;  poorly  rewanled  bv  the  queen,  he 
sought  an  alliance  with  tho  leaders  of  the  Fronde  ;  and  in 
order  to  acquire  influence  and  become  of  importance  he 
established  and  carried  through  a  love-intrigue  with  Ma- 
dame dc  Longueville,  a  sister  of  the  prince  of^Conde.  This 
time  too,  however,  bis  political  enterprises  brought  him 


nothing  but  trouble,  and  after  1660  ho  gave  up  all  am- 
bitious plans  and  lived  solely  for  literature  and  social  en- 
joyment in  intimate  intercourse  with  Mesdames  dc  Sable 
and  Sevign6,  and  with  Buileau.  Racine,  and  others.  In 
lGti2  appeared  his  Mi  moires,  and  in  1065  his  Hpjlcxionii. 
The  latter  made  a  great  sensation,  as  well  on  account  of 
its  elegant  style  and  acute  observations — for  which  rcafon* 
it  is  still  considered  a  classical  work  in  France — as  on  ac- 
count of  its  philosophy,  by  which  the  difference  between 
virtue  and  vice  is  reduced  to  a  mere  conventionality,  and 
egotism  is  established  as  the  principal  if  not  the  only  spring 
in  the  human  will.  D.  at  Paris.  Mar.  17.  IfiSO. — Another 
member  of  the  same  family,  FitANrors  Ai.exandrb  Fn£- 
PKRii:  UE  LA  RocHEFOi'cAULn-LiANroi  RT.  b.  at  Paris  Jan. 
II,  1747;  lived  mostly  on  his  estate  of  Liaucourt ;  was 
president  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1789;  emigrateil  in 
1792  ;  lived  in  England  and  the  U.  S.  ;  returned  to  France 
in  1799  :  was  much  in  public  life  under  tlie  Restoration  as 
an  advocate  of  liberal  measures,  and  d.  at  Paris  Mar.  27, 
1827.  He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer  on  different  social 
topics,  but  his  name  is  best  known  as  that  of  a  great  prac- 
tical philanthropist.  He  established  the  first  model-farm 
in  France,  introduced  vaccination,  founded  at  Liancnnrt  a 
school  for  industry  and  art,  which  developed  into  the  cele- 
brated Kcole  des  Arts  et  Metiers  of  Chalons,  brought  the 
method  of  mutual  instruction  into  use,  and  established  the 
first  savings  bank  in  France. 

La  Rochejacqiielcin',  de  fllFvnt  nir  Vfrgf.r), 
Count,  b.  Aug.,  1772.  at  the  chateau  of  La  Durbellierc,  in 
Vendee;  did  not  emigrate  when  the  Revolution  broke  out, 
but  joined  Lescure,  became  for  a  short  time  the  distin- 
guished leader  in  the  first  Vrsdfan  War  (which  see),  and 
was  killed  Mar.  4, 1794,  at  the  battleof  Nouai  116,  near  Chollet, 
La  Rochejaequelein  is  the  noblest  personification  of  those 
royalists  who  thought  sincerely  that  only  the  return  of 
France  to  the  legitimist  monarchy  could  give  the  conntry 
peace  and  happiness.  He  was  a  reactionary  La  Fayette, 
and  when  he  was  chosen  as  gcneral-in-ebief  of  the  Ven- 
dean^,  be  said  to  his  soldiers,  **  If  I  fall  back,  kill  me ;  if  I 
go  forward,  follow  me;  if  I  die,  avense  me  I"'  He  took 
part  in  all  the  early  battles  fought  in  Vendue  against  the 
republicans,  and  after  he  had  been  chosen  chief  of  all  the 
royalist  armies  be  defeated  twice  the  army  of  the  National 
Convention  around  Autrain.  and  occupied  Le  Mans,  La 
Fli'^ehe,  Laval,  and  other  cities. — His  nephew,  Henri  de  la 
RornF.iACyi'Ei.EiN,  the  latest  celebrated  representative  of 
that  historical  family,  gave  up  its  ultra-legitimist  opinions, 
rallied  to  the  imperial  regime,  was  made  a  senator  by  Na- 
poleon III.,  and  d.  in  1867.  Fti.ix  Atcaigne. 

La  Rose,  post-v.  of  Marshall  co..  III.,  on  the  western 
division  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton  R.  R.,  has  1  weekly 
newspaper. 

Larousse'  (PiEnnr.l.b.  in  1S16  at  Toucy.  department 
of  Yonne  ;  began  to  be  known  as  jiartncr  of  Roycr,  a  eele- 
bratrd  Paris  pul)lishcr  of  books  for  primary  education. 
Many  of  these  books  are  used  now  in  French  schools,  and 
were  written  by  Laroussc  himself.  In  1803  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  his  universal  dictionary  ( iJivtiounnirc  tin  XIXe 
ftirrlr),  and  set  at  work  surrounding  himself  with  the  best 
writers.  The  work  was  published  by  subscription,  and  had 
an  immense  success,  (hough  it  slowly  appeared  periodically 
in  small /««ei>ii/c«  in  a  pamphlet  form  of  about  fifty  pages 
each.  Larousse  exhausted  bis  strenirth  in  this  stuj)endous 
work,  and  he  d.  Jan.,  lS7r),  leaving  his  encyclopaedia  at  the 
letter  M.  He  was  a  moderate  but  strongly-convinced  re- 
publican. Ftl.IX  AtTAIGNE. 

Lar'ra,  de  (Mariano  .Tosk),  b.  at  MatJrid.  Spain.  Mar. 
24,  ISOO  ;  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  '*  Fifjaro  "  as  tho 
most  popular  modern  satirist,  dramatist,  and  critic  of  bis 
country,  after  a  short  career  abounding  in  tumultuous  ad- 
venture, d.  by  bis  own  hand  at  Madrid  Feb.  13,  1837.  His 
works  have  been  many  times  reprinted  in  Spain,  Mexico, 
and  South  America. 

Ijar'rabee,  tp.  of  AVaupacca  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  362. 

Larramcn'dif  dc  (Mantel),  b.  in  Biscay  about  1600 ; 
was  a  .Tesuit.  and  became  the  principal  authority  upon  his 
native  language,  the  liasque.  of  which  he  prepared  a  gram- 
mar and  dictionary,  and  maintained  it  to  have  formerly 
been  universal  in  Spain.  The  titles  of  his  works  arc  El 
fnipnsihfe  Veut^tdo  (KIO).  Antiffurdad  if  Unnernfrlidnd  del 
Unitruenre  en  Eipn^tt  (1728),  Dicdonnrio  trifiufjue  del  Cas- 
tefhnio,  finaeiieurc  i/  Lathi  (174.'>).  D.  in  Biscay  about  1750. 

Larrey'  (Dominique  Jean),  Raron,  a  famous  military 
surgeon,  b.  at  Baudean,  Ilautes  Pyrenf-cs,  in  July,  1766; 
studied  surgery  with  his  uncle.  Oscar  Larrey.  a  successful 
surj;eon  of  Toulouse,  under  whose  care  the  baron's  elder 
brother,  Charles  Francois  Hilaire  Larrey,  M.  D.  (1774- 
1810).  an  able  surgeon  and  writer,  was  also  trained.  Tho 
younger  Larrey  went  in  17S7  to  Paris;  entered  the  navy; 


LARREY— LA  SALLE. 


16.57 


returnetl  to  Paris;  studied  under  Dessault  and  Sabaticr; 
joincd  the  army  in  1791i  ;  invented  the  unihulauce  vuUmte 
1793,  and  was  made  sur^jeon-in-chief ;  served  in  Kgypt, 
Germany,  Spain,  everywhere  disphiying  the  grandest 
courage  and  perfect  devotion  to  the  eonifnrt  and  honltli  of 
the  troops,  and  especially  to  the  wounded,  whether  Iriouds 
or  enemies  ;  was  mailc  a  baron  on  th<-  lifld  of  Wa^^riim 
1S09 ;  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz  and  Waterloo;  made 
countless  and  exceedingly  iuiportaut  improvements  in 
operative  and  clinical  surgery,  and  made  important  obser- 
vations in  general  medicine.  D.  of  pneumonia  at  Lyons 
July  25.  1S42. 

I^arrcy  {Kki.ix  IltppoLVTF.)  M.  D.,  Bahon,  son  of  the 
great  Baron  Larrey,  h.  Sept.  KS,  ISOS:  entered  the  army, 
and  in  IH32  received  his  degree  at  Paris  ;  became  professor 
of  pathology  at  Val  de  Grace  1841  ;  becatne  sanitary  in- 
spector of  the  army  1S5S  ;  was  chief  surgeon  in  the  Italian 
campaign  1861*,  and  the  author  of  several  medical  and  sur- 
gical books  and  of  many  professional  papers. 

Lartet'  (KnoiAnn),  b.  at  St.  Guf-rand,  France,  in  ISOI  ; 
has  been  one  of  the  most  distinguished  promoters  in  France 
of  researches  in  fossil  palipontology  and  pre-historic  an- 
thropolojjy,  having  been  for  many  years  professor  of  the 
former  science  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris. 
Among  his  numerous  discoveries  may  be  mentioned  the 
mammalian  remains  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of  Gers  (1837), 
including  entire  skeletons  of  MaHtodmi  awjustidcus,  and 
affording  the  first  proof  of  the  existence  of  fossil  monkeys 
in  Europe.  Subsequently  he  worked  with  (Jaudry  in  de- 
veloping the  palpcontological  results  of  excavations  in  the 
Miocene  beds  of  Piterini,  an'I  aided  Christy  in  exploring 
the  caves  of  Perigord,  as  well  as  in  the  publication  of  the 
results  in  the  lirtitptiir  Aquitnnterr  (isr>7-71),  a  work  on 
the  pre-historic  ethnohtgy  of  P6rigord. 

Larue'y  county  of  Central  Kentucky,  bounded  N.  E.  by 
Salt  UivL-r.  It  is  undulating  and  fertile.  Cattle,  tobacco, 
and  grain  are  staple  products.  Area,  400  square  miles. 
Cap.  HodgensviUe.     Pop.  8235. 

LaruCy  post-v.  of  Montgomery  tp.,  Marion  co.,  0.,  IH 
miles  U'.  of  Marion,  on  the  Scioto  Kiver  and  Clcvi-hind  Co- 
lumbus Cincinnati  and  Indianapuli.s  R.  U.,  has  1  weekly 
newspaper,  2  hotels,  flouring  and  saw  mills,  a  factory,  a 
union  school,  various  stores  and  warehouses.  Principal 
business,  farming  and  lumbfring. 

J.  A.  Moi  sKit,  M.  1).,  roH  Fd.  "  LAurn  Citi/.kn." 

Lar'va  [  Ijat.  for  "  mask."  so  called  becnuse  it  was  onco 
believed  to  conceal  a  perfect  insect],  in  the  life  of  most  in- 
eects  and  of  many  infcriftr  invertebrate  iininials  the  con- 
dition or  stage  of  devebipnu-iit  which  follows  the  batching 
of  the  egg,  and  which  in  most  insects  is  fincceede<l  by  the 
pnpa  or  chrysalis  state.  The  larva*  of  flies  (Diptera)  are 
catlcil  maggots;  those  of  coleopterous  insects  are  grubs; 
those  of  moths  and  other  Lepidoptera  are  catorpillars.  A 
tC'Jfx  (plu.  •ro/iV^j*)  is  the  larval  condition  of  a  trematodc 
worm.  There  is  really  no  one  stage  of  dev<'Iopment  in  the 
larval  state,  for  it  is  usually  one  of  most  active  progress, 
lu  some  cases  another  condition,  the  senii-jjupa,  precedes 
the  pupa  form  into  which  the  larva  is  changed. 

Lar'will,  post-v.  of  Whitley  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Pittsburg 
Fort  Wayne  anri  Chicago  K.  U. 

Ijarynt^i'liH  [from  (5r.  Adpi-yf,  "larynx"],  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  larynx.  It  may 
first  bo  divided  into  acute  and  chronic  varieties,  and  the 
chronic  subdivided  into  simple  chronic  catarrh  of  the  larynx, 
laryngeal  phthisis,  and  syphilitic  laryngitis.  The  first  of 
these,  acute  laryngitis,  generally  commences  as  an  inflani- 
miition  of  the  pharynx,  which  is  afterwards  communicated 
to  the  larynx,  although  it  does  occur  imlcpondently  in  the 
larynx  itself.  The  cause  is  generally  "  a  cold,"  or  exposure 
to  sudden  ehiingcs  ijf  tcmprrature,  or  it  may  ho  Irautnatic; 
and  the  sympttuns  consist  of  hoarst^iess,  a  sensation  of 
tickling  and  dryness  in  the  throat,  and  more  or  hss  cough 
and  expectoration.  With  ordinary  care  It  subsides  in  a 
couple  of  days  without  any  ine.lieal  intorforcneo,  or  at  most 
a  warm  bath  ftdlovTcd  by  gmde  diaphoresis.  In  very  severe 
cases  inhalations  of  infusion  of  hops  may  bo  used  every 
two  or  three  hours  with  decid'd  advantage,  but  we  should 
ho  very  wary  about  making  astringrnt  local  applications 
with  a  sponge  or  brush.  Simple  chronic  catarrh  of  the 
larynx  is  usually  a  sequela  of  the  aculo  form,  or  arises  by 
extension  of  a  similar  inflammation  of  the  [pharynx  and 
posterior  nares.  The  symptoms  arc  somrwhnf  simihi-  to 
tho^c  of  the  acute  form,  though  not  as  well  marked,  nnd  in 
addition  there  is  an  almost  constant  hawkingand  hemming 
kept  up  by  the  patient  to  clear  his  throat  from  the  contin- 
ually accumulating  mucus.  In  the  treatment  of  this,  as  in 
that  of  all  intlainmalions.  the  first  indication  is  to  remove 
all  irritati<»n,  and  the  patient  should  be  cautioned  against 
swallowing  largo  masses  of  food  ut  a  time,  or,  what  is  a 


very  common  practice  in  this  country,  partaking  of  very 
warm  dishes,  followed  by  large  draughts  of  ice-water.  All 
the  food  taken  should  be  of  equable  medium  temperature, 
neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold,  and  the  inhalation  of  hot  nnd 
cold  air  and  noxious  vapors,  dust,  etc.  should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible.  Besides  all  this,  the  general  health 
should  bo  by  no  means  neglected,  and  local  medication 
seems  to  be  very  beneficial.  Standard  solutions  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  sulphate  of  copper,  perehloridc  of  iron,  iodine, 
etc.  are  those  most  commonly  used;  they  seem  to  produce 
a  better  result  wIicti  changed  from  time  to  time,  and  the 
application  should  bo  made  by  means  of  a  cnmcrs-hair 
brush  from  twice  to  five  or  six  times  weekly. 

'  Laryngeal  phthisis  occurs  in  connection  with  pulmonary 
phthisis;  the  symptoms  ditVer  lifllo  from  those  of  an  or- 
dinary laryngitis,  but  upon  examination  the  cartilages  arc 
found  thiokeued.  and  often  there  is  ulceration  affecting  both 
them  and  the  cords.  Syphilitic  laryngitis  exists  as  a  mani- 
festation of  that  dire  affection,  syphilis.  It  is  jirincipally 
from  the  previous  history  of  the  ciise  nnd  an  exploration 
of  the  chest  that  we  differentiate  it  from  laryngeal  jihthisis. 
Sometimes  the  destruction  of  tissue  is  appalling.  In  the 
latter  two  varieties  the  chief  reliance  must  be  placed  on 
the  constitutional  treatment  of  the  disease  of  which  they 
arc  but  symptoms  ;  but  still,  local  medication  shoulil  not 
be  ignored.  In  ulcerative  laryngitis,  from  whatever  cause, 
powdered  iodoform  seems  to  have  the  most  beneficial  eflcct. 

KinvAIlD  J.   BIRMINGHAM. 

liaryn'{;oscope  fGr.  Aapi-yf.  "  larynx."  nnd  <rKontlv,  to 
"examine"],  an  instrument  proposed,  and  in  jiart  intro- 
duced, by  Mr.  Liston,  and  employed  by  other  eminent  .•sur- 
geons of  his  time:  hut  greatly  improved  and  first  system- 
atically used  by  the  late  Prof.  Czermak.  It  is  emjiloytd 
for  examining  the  eonditiou  of  the  diseased  larynx,  nnd 
also  for  observing  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords  during 
phonation.  It  consists  of  two  mirrors;  the  larger  one. 
concave,  throws  light  upon  the  smaller,  which  is  held  in 
the  throat  of  the  patient  and  illuminates  the  interior  of 
the  larynx,  at  the  same  time  presenting  a  reversed  ininico 
of  the  glottis,  voeal  cords,  and  surrounding  parts.  The 
laryngoscope  is  of  great  value  in  treating  local  diseases 
of  the  throat. 

I^ar'ynx  [Gr.  Ao/jvyf  ],  the  organ  of  voice,  situated  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  windpipe.  The  lower  part  of  it  is  cylin- 
drical, and  scarcely  wider  than  the  windpipe,  but  above  it 
widens  out  and  forms  a  triangular-shaped  box,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  hyoid  hone  by  various  muscU  s.  It  is  situated 
in  front  of  the  o-sopbagus,  and  immediately  beneath  the  in- 
tegument on  the  front  of  the  neck,  where  it  forms  a  projection 
known  as  the  pomum  Adnmi,  \\h\v\\  is  very  prominent  in 
males.  The  larynx  is  composed  of  various  cartilages,  nine 
in  number,  the  most  important  of  wliieli  are  the  thyroid, 
cricoid,  two  arytenoid,  and  the  epiglottis.  It  is  moved  by 
a  number  of  niu5cI^.'S,  and  lined  with  mucous  membrane, 
which  in  places  is  thrown  into  dupHcaturcs  or  folds,  con- 
stituting the  ary-epiglottic  folds,  the  ventricular  bands, 
and  tiie  vocal  conls. 

The  function  of  the  larynx  is  twofold — the  production 
of  the  voice,  and  protection  to  the  lungs  and  bronchi  dur- 
ing respiration.  The  manner  in  which  the  voice  is  pro- 
duced is  as  follows:  The  vocal  cords,  which  are  stretched 
across  the  laryngeal  tube,  arc  relaxed  when  the  voice  is  at 
rest,  but  as  soon  as  there  is  u  desire  to  produce  a  sound, 
they  arc  put  on  the  stretch,  and  approximated  by  certain 
muscles  connected  with  the  larynx,  and  at  the  same  lime 
the  air  is  driven  forcibly  through  them  from  the  lungs. 
Tlie  qmility  of  the  sound  is  regulated  by  the  degree  of  ten- 
sion nnd  npproximiition  of  the  cords,  nnd  the  force  with 
which  the  column  of  air  is  driven  through  the  aperture. 
This  has  nothing  to  do  with  nrticulntion,  which  is  produced 
by  the  lips  and  tongue.  The  movements  of  the  larynx 
during  rcf-piration  are  as  follows:  At  each  iu'-pirafion  the 
vocal  cords  are  separated  and  the  larynx  freely  opened,  but 
in  expiration  it  is  partially  closed  by  the  relaxation  of  the 
vocal  cords.  The  larynx  further  protects  the  lungs  from 
the  invasion  of  any  foreign  ))o<ly.  We  are  all  nequninled 
with  the  violent  coughing  produced  by  a  crumb  of  breml 
wbieli  has  been  drawn  in  by  a  sudilen  inspiration.  The 
larnyx  is  subject  to  many  aflections,  the  most  common  of 
which  aro  laryngitis,  or  inflammation  of  its  lining  mem- 
brane; paralysis  of  some  of  its  muscles;  growths  on  the 
cords;  ulcerative  and  laryngeal  phthisis. 

KhWAIU)  ,1.   BKHMINfJIIAM. 

l.n  Salle,  county  of  N.  Central  Illinois.  Area,  1152 
square  miles.  It  is  level  and  very  fertile.  Cnftle.  grain,  wool, 
anrI  hay  are  largely  produced.  Bituminous  cool  nnd  sand- 
st<me  are  obtained  extensively.  Carriages,  harnesses,  nnd 
flour  are  the  chief  manufactures.  The  county  is  traversed 
by  the  Illinois  nnd  Fo\  rivers  nnd  by  numerous  railroads. 
Cup.  Ottawa.     Pop.  (»(>,7y2. 


1658 


LA   SALLE— LASSA. 


I  La  Salle,  county  of  S.  W.  Texas.     Area,  1470  square  } 

milts.     It  consists  of  extensive  and  rather  dry  undulating  I 
prairies,  watered  hy  tbe  Frio  and  Nueces  and  their  branches. 
1  It  is  a  groat  stock-range,  where  cattle  and  sheep  are  pas- 

tured.   Pop.  oy. 
!  La  Salle,  eity  and  tp.  of  La  Salle  co.,  III.,  on  the  N. 

bank  of  the  Illinois  River,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Illi- 
t  nois  Central  R.  R.  with  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 

!  R.  R.,  ilil  miles  .•>.  W.  of  Chicago  and  1  mile  li.  of  Peru.    It 

!  is  situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  tlie  Illinois,  ami  is 

I  connected    with    Chicago    by    the    Illinois   and    Michigan 

■  Canal.     The  adjoining  city  of  Peru  is  practii-ally  a  suburb 

of  La  Salle,  which  will  undoubtedly  soon  absorb  it  in  the 
same  municipal  org.anization.  Zinc-smelting  establish- 
ments, four  in  number,  one  being  the  largest  in  the  coun- 
try, form  an  important  feature  of  business:  a  glass-factory 
is  in  successful  operation;  hydraulic  cement  is  produced 
upon  an  extensive  scale;  and  2110.000  tons  of  ice  are  an- 
nually sent  down  the  river  to  a  .Southern  market.  It  has 
gasworks,  and  a  street  railroad  connecting  La  Salle  with 
Peru  was  completed  in  l.''"4.  The  canal  connection  be- 
tween tho  Mississippi  and  the  great  lakes  has  recently  been 
greatly  improved  in  the  vicinity  of  La  Salle.  There  is  a 
gooil  supply  of  bituminous  coal  within  the  city  limits,  and 
the  )>l.ace  offers  great  inducements  to  manufacturers.  There 
are  :i  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  of  city,  52110;  of  tp.  .'i452. 

R.  C.  Stiivens. 
La  Salle,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  Mich.,  on  the 
Michigan  Southern  R.  R.  (Detroit  division).     Po]i.  1S92. 

La  Salle,  ile  Mean  Baptiste),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Rheims, 
France,  ,\pr.  liO,  lti.")l  ;  became  a  cathedral  canon  at  Kheims 
when  seventeen  years  old;  received  the  doctorate  after 
studying  at  the  Sulpitian  school,  Paris;  became  a  priest 
Kill  ;  ilevoted  himself  to  the  instruction  of  the  poor; 
founiled  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  an  order 
which  received  papal  approval  in  1725.  D.  Apr.  7,  1719. 
Numerous  miracles  are  credited  to  him,  and  in  1840  he  was 
declared  '■  Venerable  "  by  Gregory  X\'I. 

La  Salle  (Ren£  Robert  Cavelier),  .Sieur  ns,  b.  at 
Rouen,  France,  in  164.3;  became  a  .lesuit,  but,  renouncing 
his  profession,  embarked  for  Canacla  in  IfiOG ;  became  a  fur- 
trader;  in  101)9  set  out  to  find  the  N.  W.  passage  by  way 
of  the  great  lakes;  explored  Lake  Ontario,  and  in  1671 
discovered  the  Ohio  ;  went  to  France  in  1674;  was  ennobled 
and  received  important  grants  in  Canada.  Returning  in 
167S  from  another  voyage  to  France,  he  explored  the  great 
lakes,  and  attempted  to  colonize  their  shores;  descended 
the  Illinois  and  the  Mississippi,  reaching  tho  (lulf  of 
Mexico  Apr.  9,1682,  and  named  the  region  Louisiana.  In 
168:5  ho  went  to  France,  and,  having  received  a  commission, 
endeavored  in  1684  to  plant  a  colony  in  Louisiana,  but 
the  voyage  was  disturbed  by  dissensions,  and  ho  landed 
in  Mar.,  1685,  in  Matagorda  Ray,  Tex.,  and  built  a  fort. 
His  followers  were  much  reduced  in  numbers,  and  having 
deciilcd  to  g<»  by  land  to  Canada,  he  was  murdered  by  his 
own  men  on  tho  banks  of  a  branch  of  Trinity  River,  Mar. 
19,  1687. 

Las  An'imas,  county  of  S.  E.  Colorado,  extending  W. 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Area,  7000  square  miles.  The 
W.  part  is  mountainous,  the  E.  part  a  grassy  plain.  The 
Cimarron  and  Purgatory  are  the  principal  rivers.  It  con- 
tains coal,  iron,  gypsum,  fireclay,  marble,  and  considerable 
timber.  It  has  good  grazing  and  farm  lands.  (Jrain  and 
wool  are  staple  products.     Cap.  Trinidad,     Pop.  4276. 

Las  Animas  (West),  post-tp.  and  cap.  of  Bent  co., 
Col.,  situated  on  Arkansas  River  at  its  crossing  by  the  .Ar- 
kansas Valley  branch  of  the  Kansas  Pacific  R.  R.,  2  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  Las  Animas  River;  it  was  laiil  out  in 
1873;  has  a  newspaper  and  all  the  usual  accessories  of  a 
rising  town.  It  is  the  government  freigiiting-point  for 
New  Mexico,  and  has  a  large  cattle-trade.     Pop.  500. 

Charles  W.  Bowma.v,  Ed.  '■  Leader." 

Las'car  [Hind.  lnnbkn)\  an  "army  "],  properly,  an  East 
Indian  cjimp-follower,  but  the  name  is  now  applicii  in  the 
East  Indies  to  boatmen,  sailors,  and  other  low-caste  menials. 
The  lascars  are  able  seamen,  but  cruel  and  treacherous. 
There  is  a  company  of  gun-lascars  at  IIong-Kong  in  the 
Bvi'ish  colonial  eorvico.  They  are  Malays,  and  number 
176  men. 

Las'caris,  the  name  of  two  celchrated  Oreek  grnm- 
raarians  who  took  refuge  in  Western  Europe  after  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  (ireek  empire  by  the  Turks,  and  contributi'd 
very  much  to  the  introduction  of  the  study  of  the  t^rcek 
language,  literature,  and  philosophy  into  Italy  and  France. 
Anoreas  Joanses,  h.  about  144.'p,  at  Rhyndacus  in  Phry- 
gin.  whence  he  received  the  surname  RnvMtAcENfS.  He 
liveil  in  Italy  and  France  at  the  courts  of  Lorenzo  do' 
Medici,  for  whom  he  puhlishetl  his  eelebnited  Aniholnffia 
Grifca;  of  Louis  XII.,  who  used  him  in  several  diplomatic 


missions;  and  of  Leo  X.  and  Paul  III.  B.  in  Rome  in 
15:15. — Of  the  life  of  Coxstantixe  Lascaris  very  little  is 
known.  He  lived  mostly  at  the  court  of  Francesco  Sforza 
in  Milan,  where  he  wrote  his  famous  (irammatica  6'rjun, 
but  he  also  taught  in  Florence  and  Kaples.  D.  in  1493. 
Las  Casas,  de  (Bartolom£).  See  Casas. 
Las  Cases,  de  (Emmanuei,  Augistin  Diei'iwnxe 
Marie  Josei-ii).  Mari^i'is,  b.  at  Las  Cases,  in  Languedoc, 
in  1766  ;  entered  the  navy  ;  emigrated  in  1791  ;  served  lor 
some  time  in  the  army  of  the  prince  of  Conde  ;  lived  later 
on  in  Londcin,  where  he  published  his  Atian  hintorique 
(1803)  ;  returned  in  1805  to  France;  held  several  offices  in 
the  civil  and  military  service  during  the  om])ire,  and  ac- 
companied Napoleon  to  St.  Helena  in  1815.  A  letter  he 
wrote  to  Lucien  lionaparle  (Nov.  27.  1816).  and  in  which 
he  spoke  freely  of  the  manner  in  which  Napoleon  was 
treated,  caused  him  to  be  arrested  and  transferred  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  After  thirteen  months'  imprisonment 
he  was  liberated  ;  resided  in  Belgium,  and  returned  after 
the  death  of  Napoleon  to  France,  where,  in  1824,  he  pub- 
lished his  Mrmitriftl  tU  ^t<\  f/r/iiic,  containing  a  record  of 
the  remarks  which  Napoleon  had  made  to  him  in  their  con- 
versations.    D.  May  15,  1842. 

Las  Cru'ces,  post-v.  of  Pofia  Ana  co.,  N.  M..  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  3  miles  above  Mcsilla.  It  has  2  weekly  news- 
papers. 

La  Sieur,  tp.  of  New  Madrid  co..  Mo.  Pop.  2004. 
Las'ker  (Edward),  b.  Oct.  14,  1829,  at  Jarocin,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Puscu  ;  studied  jurisprudence  and 
mathematics;  spetit  three  years  in  England  studying  Eng- 
lish constitution  and  law  ;  and  received  in  1856  an  oflice  in 
the  Prussian  government.  His  creed,  however,  and  his  con- 
stitutional views,  which  he  set  forth  in  several  excellent 
papers,  prevented  him  from  advancing  in  the  service  ;  in 
1870  he  was  appointed  an  attoruey-at-law  in  Berlin.  Since 
1865,  in  which  year  he  was  elected  a  member  from  Berlin 
to  the  Prussian  house  of  deputies,  Lasker  has  devoted  him- 
self with  great  energy  and  steadily  increasing  influence  to 
his  parliamentary  career,  regardless  of  his  practice  as  an 
attorney  and  of  other  personal  interests.  Until  186s  he 
represented  in  tho  house  of  deputies  a  district  of  Berlin, 
and  then  Magdeburg;  in  the  North  German  and  in  the 
German  diet  he  represented  first  a  district  of  Berlin,  and 
then  one  of  Saxc-Meiningen.  At  first,  his  political  con- 
viction allied  him  with  the  progressive  parly,  but  when  it 
became  evident  that  Bismarck's  policy  aimed  at  tho  estab- 
lishment of  a  united  Germany,  Lasker  became  one  of  the 
founders  of  tho  nati<mal  liberal  party,  which  still  has  the 
majority  in  the  Parliament.  In  the  internal  development 
of  the  empire  he  always  stands  for  that  which  is  right,  for 
the  strict  fulfilment  and  judicious  development  of  the  law  ; 
and  in  pursuing  this  aim  he  pays  regard  to  none,  to  no 
powerful  party,  to  no  ]iowerful  person,  not  even  to  tho  gov- 
ernment itself,  with  which  he  agrees  in  other  questions ;  as, 
for  instance,  with  respect  to  foreign  policy.  On  all  import- 
ant laws  of  a  more  recent  date,  especially  on  those  concern- 
ing trade  and  traflic,  usury,  imprisonment  for  debt,  loans 
with  premiums,  etc.,  he  has  exercised  a  decisive  influence. 
What  has  made  him  most  popular,  however,  was  his  attack 
on  the  ministry  of  commerce  (Feb.,  187.'!) ;  he  attacked  di- 
rectly one  of  the  highest  oflicials  In  the  ministry  of  stale, 
and  several  princes.  August  Niemaxn. 

Las  Pal'mas,  town  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  (Iran 
Canaria.  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  It  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated at  the  feet  of  lofty  hills,  with  a  spacious  and  good 
harbor.  It  is  also  well  built,  with  a  fine  old  cathedral  and 
many  beautiful  promenades.  It  has  some  manufactures  of 
glass,  leather,  woollens,  and  hats.     Pop.  11,400. 

Las  Pi'las,  an  extinct  volcano  in  Nicaragua,  forming 
one  of  the  chain  called  Los  Marrabios,  extending  across 
the  plain  of  Leon.  Nearly  at  its  foot  a  new  volcanic  cone 
several  hundred  feet  high  was  formed  in  1850  by  an  erup- 
tion which  lasted  a  month. 

Las'sa,  Lliassa,  or  H'Lassa,  the  capital  of  Thibet, 
situated  in  lat.  29°  30'  N.  and  Ion.  91°  40'  E..  on  a  plain 
9500  feet  above  the  sea  and  encircled  by  lofty  mountains. 
It  is  a  very  lively  and  well-built  town,  with  a  population 
estimated  "at  50,000,  and  nn  extensive  trade  in  precious 
stones,  gold,  velvet,  silk,  and  cashmere.  Its  principal  im- 
portance, however,  it  derives  from  the  Booddha-la,  a  temple, 
with  adjoining  palaces,  monasteries,  and  schools,  situated 
on  the  top  of  a  hill  close  by  the  city,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  magnificent  road.  The  Booddha-la.  or  "  moun- 
tain of  Booddha,"  is  the  residence  of  the  Dalai  Lama,  tho 
pope  of  Booddhism.  Thousands  of  pilgrims  come  annually 
to  visit  it  ;  hundri'ds  of  them  stay  there  to  complete  their 
theological  and  |ihilosophical  education;  and  all  of  them 
leave  behind  them  a  present  to  the  Dalai  Lama.  The  tem- 
ple and  palace,  which  cover  many  acres  of  land,  glitter  with 


LASSEN— LATHAM. 


1659 


golden  domes  and  miuarcts  nntl  columns,  and  it  \s  said  that 
few  places  ou  earth  contain  sucli  enormous  treasures  of  gold 
and  precious  slouos  as  thv  Booddbala.  Ilut  t'orcigners-^lhat 
is,  ail  who  are  not  Booddbists — are  Ibrbiddco  to  enter  not 
only  the  Booddbala,  but  also  ibc  city. 

Las'sen,  county  of  N.  California,  bounded  E.  by  Ne- 
vada. Area,  -M32  square  miles.  It  consists  of  arable  val- 
leys, dry  sago  plains,  alkali  flats,  and  rougb  mountains. 
Tbc  greater  part  has  its  drainage  into  lakes  with  no  out- 
let, drain  and  live-stock  are  the  chief  products.  Cap. 
Susanville.     Pop.  i:i27. 

Lassen,  tp.  of  Tehama  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  2-10. 

Lassen  (t7HRisTiAx),  b.  at  Bergen,  in  Norway,  Oct.  22, 
180U;  studied  at  Chrisliauin,  Heidelberg,  Bonn,  Paris,  and 
London  ;  attracted  great  utteiiliou  by  hia  EnHni  mir  h-  Hull, 
written  in  connection  with  Burnout' |  Paris,  IS2i>),  and  his 
edition  of  /litopttdetft,  a  c()llcction  of  Indian  fables,  made 
in  aounection  with  A.  \V.  Schlegel  (Bonn,  1S21*);  and  bc- 
onme  professor  in  Indian  languages  at  the  University  of 
Bonn  in  IS.'JO.  By  liis  critical  editions  of  Itmtitutiotiea 
liti'fHfe  Pfncn'lica  ( \^,i~),  AntbuUtfjia  Sonmcritn  (1838),  etc., 
and  by  hid  numerous  linguistic,  areha'ologieal,  and  histor- 
ical writings  he  became  the  founder  of  tbe  study  of  Indian 
language,  literature,  and  history  in  Europe.  His  princi- 
pal work  was  his  Im/iirhe  Attcrthttmufcuyide  (4  vols.,  Bonn^ 
1844-62}.      D.  May  y,  1S76. 

Lasscn*s  Peak,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Shasta  co., 
Cal.,  rises  H),;>71  feet  above  the  sea. 

Las'sile,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  Ark,     Pop.  782. 

Las'so  [Sp.  Ifizo^  kindred  to  the  word  lace],  or  Lariat' 
[Sp.  f't  rifttii],  a  long  thong  of  ox-bide  or  rope  of  horse- 
hair used  by  Spanish-American  iierd«men  and  hunters  for 
catching  cattle,  horses,  or  game.  A  running  noose  at  the 
end  is  dexterously  east  over  the  neck  or  legs  of  the  beast, 
the  other  end  of  the  lasso  being  fastened  to  the  saddle,  from 
which  the  lasso  is  thrown. 

L^Assomption',  county  of  Quobeo,  Canada,  bounded 
on  the  S.  by  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  lies  directly  N.  of  Mont- 
real.    Cap.  L'Assomption.     P<)p.  lj,473. 

L'Assomption,  ]iost-v.  of  L'Assomption  co.,  Quebec, 
Canada,  on  L'Assomption  River,  is  the  seat  of  a  college 
and  convent.     Pop.  1210. 

I^as'tra  a  Sign'a,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Florence,  on  the  Kft  bank  of  the  Arno,  about  8  miles  f».  AV. 
of  the  city  of  Florence.  It  is  well  built,  and  was  a  for- 
tified town  under  the  Florentine  republic.  Pop.  in  1817, 
10,276. 

La'sus  [Aaaov],  son  of  Chabriuua  or  (according  to 
Schneidewin)  Charminus,  a  (}reek  dithyrambic  poet  and 
hymn-writer  of  Uermione  in  Argolis,  flourished  about  510 
D.  c.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Simonidcs,  and 
the  reputed  teacher  of  Pindar.  Of  all  his  poems,  only  a 
fragment  of  a  hymn  to  l)einetcr  remains,  which  is  given 
in  Bcrgk's  I'ottif  Lyi-iri  Cirirci.  11.  Duisi.KU. 

Las  Ve'gas,  post- v.,  cap.  of  San  Miguel  co.,  N.  M.,  70 
miles  E.  of  Santa  ¥6,  on  tbe  Pecoa  Kiver,  has  2  churches, 
2  weekly  newspapers,  2  hotels,  a  public  sebuol.  2  denouii- 
national  schools,  a  door  and  sash  factory,  mineral  hot 
springs,  and  a  large  number  of  stores.  Within  a  few  miles 
are  6  grist-mills  and  M  s-iw-mills.  The  Atchison  Topcka 
and  Siinta  Fe  U.  K.  will,  when  completed,  pass  a  few 
miles  to  the  N.  of  Las  V'ugas.  Cattle-raising  and  farming 
arc  the  chief  industries.     Pop.  about  1.^00. 

Loiis  IloMMKi.,  Fd.  '•  (Jazette." 

lintnki'nh,  or  Ladiki'yeh,  the  ancient  Laodk-ka  ad 
Mauk  I  which  see),  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  province 
of  Syria,  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  many  mosques, 
among  which  arc  several  beautiful  ones,  and  a  consider- 
able trade  with  Kgypt,  espeeially  in  tobacco;  yet  it  bears 
a  general  aspect  of  dilapidation  and  downfall.    Pop.  10,000. 

Lateen'  Sail  [It.  Ittlhm,  "large  or  broad"],  a  trian- 
gular sail,  used  mo^dy  upon  small  vessels  in  thr  Mediter- 
ranean. The  anterior  and  superior  edge  is  faHlened  to  a 
long  yard  which  is  crossed  at  about  one-third  of  its  length 
by  a  short  mast.  Tbe  yard  inclines  about  4j°  to  the 
horizon. 

Latent  Heat.  See  IIkat,  by  Pnnp.  W.  P.  Taow- 
DniixiK,  .\.  M. 

I<aleral  Pressure  of  laquiils.  Sec  IlvnRODY.SAU- 
irs  and  II  voiiostath  s,  by  .1.  !'.  Fiii/Ki.i..  C  K. 

Lat'eran  is  the  name  of  a  place  in  Rome  occupying 
the  site  of  the  estates  of  the  aneieitt  Konniii  family  Latr- 
ranim.  The  two  principal  buildings  situated  in  the  place 
are  tlio  church  of  S.  tiiovunni  and  the  palace.  The  old 
Latenin  palace  became  imperial  property  under  Nero,  who 
put  I'laulius  Lateranus  to  death  and  contiseuterl  his  es- 
tates.    Constantino  the  Ureal  preacnied  it  to  the  pope,  and 


I  it  was  the  pontifical  resideuoe  until  in  LiOO  the  Holy  See 

I  was  transferred  to   Avignon,     On  the  return  of  Gregory 

XI.  to  Rome  in  L177.  he  took  up  bis  residence  in  the  Vul- 

;  iean.     Having  been  burnt  down  under  the  reign  of  Clement 

iX.,  the  Latenin  palace  was  rebuilt  in  IjJS  under  Sixlus 
v.,  but  it  reuKiiued  unoccupied  until  innocent  XII.  in  HHiii 
made  it  an  orpbnn  asylum.  In  ls4.'i,  liregory  XVl.estab- 
j  lished  hero  the  ^luseum  (Tregorianuui  Lntcranensc  for  an- 
j  tiquities,  tbe  Vatican  and  Capilolinc  museums  affording  no 
I  more  space.  The  church,  S.  Giovanni  in  Lateruno.  was 
founded  by  Constantino  the  Great,  overthrown  by  an  earth- 
quake in  806,  rebuilt  by  Sergius  111.  001-11,  burnt  down 
in  i;t08,  restored  by  Clement  V.,  and  subsequently  much 
altered  and  modernized  by  Martin  V.,  14;J0,  Pius  1\'.,  Iii60, 
Borromini.  IGoO.  and  llulileo,  1734.  For  centuries  it  was 
the  principal  church  in  Christendom — Omnium  urhiit  ct 
orhiH  rcclcniarniu  mater  ct  caput.  Five  great  cecumenical 
councils  were  held  in  its  vaults.  The  popes  are  still  crowned 
here,  and  from  the  balcony  of  its  front  facade  the  Holy 
Father  blesses  the  people  ou  Ascension  Day. 

Lat'eran  Coun'cils — thus  called  because  they  were 
held  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran  in  Home — com- 
jtrise,  besides  six  minor,  five  great  (Veiimeiiical  councils — 
namely,  (1)  that  convened  by  Calixtus  If.,  and  opened 
Mar.  18,  112;i.  by  which  the  long  strife  between  the  popes 
and  the  German  emperors  concerning  investiture  was 
eniled  on  the  following  terms:  "The  eniperor  surrenders 
to  tlod,  to  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  tbe  I'atliolie  Church 
all  right  of  investiture  by  ring  and  stuff.  .  .  .  The  pope 
agrees  that  the  election  of  German  prelates  shall  be  had  in 
the  presence  of  the  emperor,  provided  it  is  without  vio- 
lence or  simony."  (2)  That  convened  by  Innocent  II., 
and  opened  Apr.  20,  IK'.O.  by  which  the  anti-jiope.  Ana- 
cletus  II.,  and  all  who  had  received  oOice  under  him.  were 
deposed.  (;i)  That  convened  by  Alexander  III.,  and  opened 
Mar.  2,  1170,  by  which  it  was  established  that  henceforth 
*' tbe  election  of  the  popes  shall  be  confined  to  the  college 
of  cardinals,  and  two-tiiirds  of  the  votes  shall  be  required 
to  make  a  lawful  election,  instead  of  a  majority  only,  as 
heretofore."  (4j  That  convened  by  Innocent  III.,  and 
opened  Nov.  II,  121 J,  by  which  a  crusade  was  determined 
upon  for  the  libenition  of  Palestine  from  the  infidels,  tbe 
heresy  of  the  Waldenses  was  condi-mned.  and  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  established  its  an  article  of  failb. 
(5)  That  convened  by  Julius  II.,  and  opened  May  3,  1.M2, 
by  which  tbe  acts  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  were  annulled, 
and  the  concordat  coneluded  in  I.'jID  between  Francis  I, 
and  Leo  X.,  who  succeeded  Julius  II.,  and  closed  the  coun- 
cil in  1617,  was  substituted  for  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
Bourges. 

Lnter'za  [Lat.  Fratuertium],  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Leccc,  about  35  miles  S.  W.  of  Taranto.  Pop. 
in  1874.  6;U8. 

La'tes  [properly  taio  or  latuf,  Gr.  Aotos],  a  genus  of 
large  Percidic,  of  which  is  F^utrn  nifottrun,  the  fiimnus  fish 
from  which  Latopolis  in  Egypt  took  its  name.  This  fish 
is  the  largest  in  that  stream.  It  is  three  feet  long  iin«l  of 
fine  flavor.  L.  ucf-HtH  is  an  excellent  food-fish  of  the  tidal 
parts  of  the  Ganges. 

La'tex  [Lat.  for  "juice"],  the  tbirk,  milky  juice  of 
certain  plants,  as  the  milk-wted.  celandine,  etc.  It  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  true  sap,  and  in  contained  in  a  set  of  tubes 
called  '•  laticilerous  vessels."  Many  iniporliint  products, 
such  as  opium  and  caoutchouc,  are  tbe  ihied  latex  of  some 
one  or  more  species  of  jdants.  In  snme  plants  the  latex 
exhibits  the  pnemtmenon  culled  cyclosis. 

Lath«  a  thin  strip  of  boarti  used  to  nail  upon  tbe  up- 
rights of  house-walls.  I'pon  the  biibs  tbe  plaster  is  laid 
by  the  trowel.  Laths  are  now  sawed  out  complete  by  ina- 
ohinery.  Formerly,  a  wide  and  Ibin  board  was  split  into 
laths.  Laths  are  generally  miide  cd' small  sticks;  any  kind 
of  wood  which  will  not  warp  will  serve  for  laths. 

Ln'tlinin  (John),  b.  at  KItham,  Kent.  England,  June 
27,  l7tU;  studied  medicine  and  natural  history;  estab- 
lished himself  in  17(Kt  as  a  physician  nt  I)artford;  aided 
Sir  A.  Lever  in  forming  bis  museum,  and  was  one  cd'  Ibc 
founders  of  the  Royal  Society  ond  of  the  Liniuean  Society. 
Besides  papers  on  medicine  and  natural  history,  ho  was 
the  autlHir  of  a  (Imrml  Si/noptn'ii  nf  liirdu  {S  vols.,  1781- 
IHOI  )  and  of  an  Atrfrj-  Oniif/mfntjirnit  (I79I),  both  which 
were  combined  in  a  new  edition  under  the  title  .1  (J*unal 
HiHtnrif  uf  iiirdn  (10  vols.,  1821-24).  D.  at  Komsey  Feb. 
•I,  is:!7. 

lifithnm  CMii-ToN  S.),  b.  at  Columbus,  0..  May  23, 
IS27;  graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  in  ls|5;  became 
a  lawyer  of  Alabama,  and  was  clerk  of  the  courts  in  Ru«- 
sell  CO.  lS4S-r)0;  clerk  of  the  recorder's  court.  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.;  a  district  ottorncy  ISoO-al  ;  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  California  lSj;t-5j;  collector  of  the  port  of  San 


1660 


LATHAM— LATHE. 


Francisco    1855-57;    governor  of   California   ISGOj    U.S. 
Senator  1861-67. 

Latham  (Robkrt  Gordon),  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S..  b.  at  Bil- 
linj;sljorou;;h.  Lincolnshire,  Eng. :  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  L'ainhridiie,  where  he  became  a  fellow  of  King's  Col- 
lege and  received  degrees  in  arts  and  in  medicine;  became 
a  lecturer  al  Middle.«ex  Hospital:  published  Xorimtf  and 
the  Av>rirc'/mH«  ( l^^ill) ;  translations  from  the  Swedish, 
etc.;  became  in  1H4I  professor  of  English  literature  in 
University  College,  London ;  published  a  work  on  7'Ae 
English  Lnu^ufvje  llS41),  a  series  of  English  grammars 
(lSt:!-50),  liisiorif  of  the  Englinlt  Lnngumje  (!S4'.»),  Hnud- 
b'i'ik  »f  the  EnijltHh  Lniu/unge  (1851),  a  translation  of  Syd- 
enham's Wurh-ft  ( 1848-.l'j),  Xatiiral  Hilton/  of  Man  (1850), 
Mtiit  and  his  Migratious  (1851),  a  series  of  works  on  eth- 
nology (1850-59"),  Comparative  Phiiufogi/  flS(12).  a  tho- 
roughly revised  edition  of  Johnson's  /Jictiouart^,  in  36 
numbers  (1857-70),  and  other  works. 

Lathe  [Fr.  tour;  Ger.  Drihbanlc],  a  machine  for  shap- 
ing materials  by  the  process  called  turning.  It  has  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  as  the  •*  foot-lathe."  the  "  engine- 
lathe,"  the  "lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms,"  or  as 
classified  by  reference  to  the  art  to  which  the  tool  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted.  In  the  lathe  the  material  to  be  shaped  is 
sustained  by  two  ■*  centres,"  between  which  it  is  given  a 
motion  of  revolution,  while  a  turning- tool,  held  by  the 
hand  of  the  workman  or  by  a  tool-holder  attached  to  and 
moved  by  a  "slide-rest,"  cuts  away  the  exterior,  and  gives 
the  mass  the  sliape  required  in  the  finished  piece. 

The  lathe  was  known  in  very  early  times.  Its  invention 
is  claimed  by  Diodorus  Siculus  for  Talus,  the  grandson  of 
Daedalus;  Pliny  ascribes  it  to  Theodore  of  Samos  (740  b.  c), 
and  spates  that  Phidias  and  Pericles  were  very  expert  in 
its  use.  Cicero  called  the  workmen  using  the  lathe  *'ra«- 
cnlarii.'*  Phidias  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  to 
adapt  the  machine  to  turning  wood.  It  had  previously 
bc;en  used  in  turning  vases  and  other  forms  in  clay;  and 
the  potter's  wheel,  which  is  a  kind  of  lathe,  was  in  use 
among  the  ancients.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  used 
by  the  Hebrews.  Very  rude  lathes  were  used  in  Europe 
at  a  period  which  antedates  history,  and  they  are  still  met 
with  in  some  jiarts  of  the  country.  Turned  objects  in 
WDorl  were  exhibited  at  the  international  exhibition  at 
Vienna  in  187.'l,  made  by  the  peasantry  of  Galicia,  among 
the  Carpathian  forests,  on  these  old  lathes.  Fig.  1  repre- 
sents this  tool.  The  work- 
man goes  into  the  forest, 
selects  two  trees  growing 
side  by  side,  and  close  by 
a  young  maple  or  beech. 
Two  maple  cones  inserted 
in  the  trees  serve  as  cen- 
tres, .ind  the  block  to  be 
turned  is  fixed  between 
them,  the  end  being  first 
trimmed  to  cylindrical 
shape  to  take  the  '*  bight" 
of  tlie  rope,  one  end  of 
whicli  is  attached  to  the 
eml  of  the  sapling,  and 
the  other  to  the  treadle 
seen  below.  The  cross- 
bar, d,  is  a  rest  to  sup- 
port the  turning-tool.  The  treadle  btini^  worked  by  the 
loot,  the  piece  revolves,  and  the  turning  is  readily  performed. 
Lathes  were  adapted  to  other  than  cylindrical  forms  of 
revolution  in  comparatively  modern  times.  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  Jacques  Besson,  Salomon  de  Cans,  and  Jerome  Car- 
dan produced  modifications  and  improvements,  having  for 
their  object  the  production  of  oval  and  other  geometrical 
figures.  The  engine-lathe,  with  its  slide-rest,  was  tho  in- 
vention of  Joseph  Bramah,  an  English  mechanic,  in  1791. 
The  lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms  was  invented  by  an 
ingenious  Americ.in  mechanic,  Thomas  Blanehurd,  about 
1820,  and  was  by  him  applied  to  turning  gun-stocks  and 
shoe-lasts. 

Tho  metal-worker's  engine-lathe  has  been  variously 
modified  by  many  inventors.  Tho  most  efiieient  and  per- 
fect machines  of  tins  class  are  built  by  the  leading  manu- 
facturers of  machine  tools  in  tho  U.  S.  This  is  the  most 
generally  useful  and  most  indispensable  tool  of  the  whole 
collection  of  tho  metal-worker,  and  it  is  hardly  less  im- 
portant in  wood-working. 

The  art  of  turning  is  often  made  nn  independent  in- 
du>!try.  It  employs  large  numbers  of  workmen,  and  some 
of  the  finest  illusKtrations  of  manual  dexterity  and  of  ar- 
tistic skill  are  produced  by  the  use  of  this  tool.  (See  Titrn- 
iNc.)  The  lathe  is  usually  so  constructed  that  the  work 
may  be  placed  between  two  conical  pointed  "centres,"  one 
of  which  is  stationary,  and  the  other  of  uhicb  revolves, 
driven  by  the  foot  or  by  other  power,  and  communicates  its 


Fig. 


motion  to  the  work.  AVhile  the  piece  is  thus  rotating  about 
the  line  joining  the  centres,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  is 
brought  against  the  exterior  or  the  projecting  jtorlions, 
and  It  is  gradually  worked  into  the  required  shape.  When 
the  axis  remains  constant  in  ])osition,  the  tool  being  moved 
inward  and  outward,  or  laterally  as  required,  the  surface 
becomes  that  of  a  solid  of  revolution,  composed,  usually, 
of  cylindrical  combined  with  spherical,  spheroidal,  or  other 
geometrical  forms.  The  axis  is  sometimes  changed  in  po- 
sition during  the  operation  of  turning,  as  in  the  "rose- 
engine,"  by  which  oval  and  many  intricate  combinations 
of  regular  figures  are  produced.  Hand-turning  is  usually 
adopted  in  working  wood  and  ivory.  The  tool  is  carried 
in  the  hand  of  the  operator^  a  rest  being  provided  to  sup- 
port it  beneath  while  it  is  moved  in  the  horizontal  plane 
by  the  turner.  In  the  engine-lathe  used  for  working  metal 
tliC  tool  is  secured  in  a  tool-po.-^t  erected  upon  a  slide-rest, 
which  latter  is  moved  horizontally  by  suitaljle  mechanism, 
worked  either  by  hand  or  by  the  automatic  "feed-motion" 
of  the  lathe.  In  the  "chuck-lathe"  the  work  is  carried  in 
a  chuck  mounted  on  the  end  of  the  rotating  spindle,  which 
in  tho  first  described  or  centre  lathe  earrit  s  the  live  or  ro- 
tating centre.  The  chuck  grasps  the  work  firmly,  and  thus 
enables  the  dead  centre  to  be  dispensed  with  when  turning 
short  pieces. 

The  foot-lathe  is  driven  by  the  foot  of  the  workman, 
operating  a  treadle  beneath.  When  the  tool  is  larger,  and 
is  driven  by  steam  or  water  power,  it  is  called  a  power- 
Jathc.  Nearly  every  trade  uses  some  form  of  lathe,  which 
by  some  peculiarity  of  detail  is  cppeeially  fitted  for  its 
work.  The  forms  of  the  lutbc  are  therefore  Qumcrous^ 
while  the  variety  of  attachments  is  enormous. 

Fig.  2. 


Screw-cutting  engine  lathe,  with  foot  motion. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  very  complete  foot-lathe,  as  made  by 
Chase  &  Co.  of  New  York  City  for  general  work.  A  hori- 
zontal shaft,  extending  beneath  the  bed  of  the  lathe  from 
end  to  end,  carries  a  pulley  balance-wheel,  which  by  means 
of  a  belt  not  shown  drives  the  spindle  which  runs  in  bear- 
ings in  the  "head"  of  the  lathe  at  the  leO.  This  driving- 
shaft  is  turned  by  a  treadle  which  is  worked  by  the  foot  of 
the  turner.  The  slide-rest,  seen  at  the  middle  of  the  lathe 
between  the  two  heads,  is  moved  either  by  hand,  or  auto- 
matically, by  a  small  shaft  running  from  end  to  end  of  tho 
lathe,  and  partly  concealed  by  that  portion  of  the  slide-rest 
which  carries  the  handle  for  attaching  and  detaching  it. 
The  tool  is  shown  in  its  place  in  the  tool-holder,  which  is 
mounted  upon  and  carried  by  the  slide-rest.  The  back 
centre  is  shown  nt  tho  right,  and  the  back-head,  in  which 
it  is  carried,  is  adjustable  in  position  at  any  distance  from 
tho  fixed  head,  and  is  clamped  by  tho  nut  and  handle  seen 
beneath  it.  Tho  centre  is  moved  backward  and  forward 
by  the  handle  at  the  right,  which  turns  a  screw  within  tho 
shell,  and  when  in  adjust?nent  it  is  clamped  by  a  smaller 
set-screw  or  clamp,  seen  above  it.  The  train  of  gearing  at 
the  end  of  the  lathe  adjacent  to  the  driving-head  is  used 
to  determine  the  relative  motion  of  the  tool  and  the  work, 
when  it  is  desired  to  secure  an  exact  velocity-ratio,  os  in 
cutting  screws.  The  ge.iring  seen  behind  the  driving- 
spindle  takes  its  motion  from  the  pinion  on  that  spindle  at 
the  left,  and,  turning  with  the  belt-cone,  transmits  it,  with 
a  reduced  velocity-ratio,  to  the  gear  on  the  driving-spindlo 
at  the  right.  This  gear  drives  the  live  spindle  to  which  it 
is  keyed.  With  this  arranc^ment  the  driving-pulley  and 
its  attached  pinion   turn  loosely  on   the  driving-spindle. 


LATHE. 


1661 


A  rapid  uiution  of  tlio  driving-wheel  is  thus  converted 
into  a  blow,  stroog  movcniebt  of  the  live  centre,  and  the 
latho  is  thus  adapted  to  turning  metals.  Throwing  the 
baok-gcaring  out  of  gear,  the  largest  gear  can  bo  clamped 
to  tbo  belt-eune,  and  the  driving-spindle  then  jiartakes  of 
the  rupid  motion  of  the  latter,  turning  witli  the  higher 
velocity  required  lo  working  wood  and  other  soft  materials. 
Both  the  back-gearing  and  the  screw-cutting  attachment 
are  usually  dispensed  with  in  lathes  intended  for  turning 
wood  only.     Fig.  2  represent:;  a  Inrgo  foot-lathe,  capable 


Fia.  3. 


Jeweller's  lathe. 

of  taking  pieces  10  inches  in  diameter  and  -10  inches  long. 
A  more  u:iual  size  turns  pieces  G  or  8  inches  in  diameter 


and  about  2  feet  long.     The  jeweller's  lathe,  shown  in  Fig. 
3,  illustrates  this  style. 

The  finest  fitting  and  the  best  workmanship  is  expended 
upon  the  head-stock  of  the  lathe.  Fig.  4  is  a  sectional 
drawing  of  this  part  of  the  tool,  as  made  at  the  Free  In- 
stitute of  Industrial  Science  at  Worcester,  Mass.  It  rep- 
resents the  best  of  practice.  This  lathe  resembles  in  gen- 
eral structure  that  shown  in  Fig.  2,  The  foot-motion  is 
omitted,  this  being  a  power-lathe.  It  is  8  feet  in  length, 
"swings" — i".  e.  it  can  turn  a  piece  of  the  diameter  of — 10 
inches,  and  weighs  l.'^iiu  |M>uuds.  The  spindle  A,  A  is  of 
hardened  cast  steel,  ground  perfectly  cylindrical,  «//<r  hav- 
iiiff  been  hardened^  to  avoid  danger  of  change  of  form  in 
the  process  of  hardening,  to  secure  absolute  truth  in  size 
and  shape,  and  to  obtain  perfect  smoothness  and  the  de- 
sired hardness.  The  box.  ii,  carrying  this  spindle  is  sub- 
jected to  all  the  strain  thrown  upon  the  latter,  whether  by 
the  weight  of  the  piece  or  by  the  force  exerted  by  the  tool. 
Here  it  is  made  of  a  single  piece  of  steel,  fitted  approxi- 
mately to  finished  size,  hardened,  and  finally  ground  to 
exact  form  and  to  fit.  The  fpiudlc-bcaring,  C,  (',  where  it 
turns  in  the  box,  is  conical,  and  capable  of  adjustinoiit 
longitudinally  to  take  up  the  looseness  occasioned  by  the 
wear  which  takes  place  even  with  hardened  steel  journals 
running  in  hardened  steel  bearings.  End-play  is  prevented 
by  the  nut,  D,  D,  and  the  set  screw,  E,  K,  which  hr>ld  the 
spindle  snugly  in  a  position  such  that  it  may  turn  freely 
without  either  side  or  end  play.  The  back  end  of  the 
spindle  is  carried  in  the  journul,  F,  its  box  being  held  by 
the  cap-screw,  G,  U.  The  conc-pullcy,  11,  II,  turns  loosely 
on  the  spindle  when  the  back-gear  is  in  action,  and  is 
clamped  by  the  sliding-bloek.  I,  and  screw.  J.  when  llie 
spindle  and  the  cone  are  to  move  together,  the  cone  driving 
the  gear,  K,  K,  directly,  and  the  latter  carrying  the  sj)iii(lle. 
to  which  it  is  secured  by  keys.  The  pinion.  L.  L,  on  the 
cone-pulley,  drives  the  back-gear.  A  spindle.  M.  M,  car- 
ried on  the  rear  plate  of  the  head-stock,  X,  N,  carries  tlio 
feed-cone  pulley,  O.  The  belt-cone,  II,  II,  and  the  back 
gearing  are  given  broad  bearings. 


Head-stock,  IC-lncb  engine  lathe,  made  at  Free  Institute  of  Industrial  Science,  Worcester,  ^(ass. 

A  good  lathe  must  he  capable  of  turning  a  truly  cylin-  I  the  way  when  using  it.  Pieces  carried  between 
drical  surface,  and  of  |)roduciiig  a  perfectly  plane  face  are  connected  with  the  face-plate  by  a**  dog,"  a 
upon  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  or  of  any  piece  secured  in  the  j.^^  j- 

latho  in  such  manner  that  the  faee  to  be  finished  shall  lie 
in  the  transverse  plane.  These  requirements  are  attained 
by  skilful  design  and  careful  fitting.  Lathes  used  in 
screw  cutting  are  driven  by  an  arrangement  of  belting 
which  permits  them  to  bo  turnecl  in  either  direction  at 
pleasure.  As  the  reversal  of  motion  usually  occurs  very 
suddenly,  "friction-pulleys,"  which  are  not  afleeted  by 
shocks,  are  generally  used.  Lathes  for  turning  metals  are 
driven  at  speeds  much  less  than  those  adopted  in  working 
wood.     These  speeds  arc  : 

Material.  Fcet  per  minute. 

Iron,  chillufl  white  cost r> 

'•      soft  itray b't 

Steel 15 

Iron,  wrouicht 20 

Wtw^'s  and  bronze BO-CO 

Wood 1500-4500 

Pieces  to  bo  turned  are  frequently  of  such  shape  that  it 
is  more  convenient  to  b»dt  them  upon  a  "face-plate"  than 
to  hold  them  between  centres.  J)isks,  pulleys,  wheels,  and 
similar  pieces  aro  thus  held.  The  faco-plato  is  a  strong 
disk  of  metal  of  convenient  sixe.  having  a  hub  on  the  rear 
face,  bon-d  and  having  a  screw  threat!  cut  insiile  it  to  fit 
the  thread  cut  on  thn  end  of  Iho  spindle  P,  Fig.  I.  Tho 
dead  ei-ntre  and  pLippet-head  aro  drawn  back  entirely  out  of 


the  centres 
clamp  hav- 


Judson  lath 


ing  a  projecting  arm  which  enters  a  slot  cut  in  the  face-plate, 
and  aio  thus  driven.     Pieces  for  h  liich  the  faec-jtiato  is  used 


1662 


LATHE. 


mny  be  sometimes  more  conveniently  held  by  a  "chuck." 
This  coDSists  of  a  tjici'-plale  carrying  on  its  face  a  set  of 
projecting  pieces,  movable  in  radial  lines  by  means  of 
screwp,  cani.-^.  or  other  mechanism,  either  together  or  inde- 
pentlently.  The  piece  to  be  turned  is  placed  between  these 
jaws,  and  they  are  forced  together,  seizing  the  work  firmly, 
and  compelling  it  to  turn  with  the  face-plate. 

Fig.  5  represents  the  Judson  chuck  in  elevation  and  in 
part  section.  The  jaws  are  forced  together  or  separated  by 
the  screws  shown,  which  screws  are  turned  by  a  wrench, 
shown  in  use  on  the  lower  one.  Circles  1,  1,  1,  2.  2,  2, 
scored  on  the  face,  enable  the  workman  to  secure  a  sym- 
metrical adjustment  when  it  is  desired.     The  jaws  being 


independently  adjustable,  unsymmetrical  pieces  may  be 
chucked  readily  and  accurately.  The  wedge-shaped  lug 
which  connects  the  nut  of  each  screw  with  its  jaw  causes 
the  same  force  which  drives  the  jaw  a.^rainst  the  work  to 
press  the  former  more  firmly  against  the  face-plate,  thus 
holding  the  work  firmly  and  snugly.  The  shell  of  this 
apparatus  is  usually  of  iron  :  the  jaws  should  be  of  steel ; 
the  screws  are  of  wrought  iron.  A  "scroll-chuck"  has  a 
similar  form,  but  the  jaws  are  moved  simultaneously  by  a 
spiral  feather  on  the  face  of  a  disk  within  the  casing. 
These  chucks,  if  accurately  made,  always  place  the  piece 
symmetrically  on  the  axis,  but  they  cannot  be  used  for  un- 
symmetrical work. 


Fig.  6. 


Horton's  chuck. 
The  Horton  chuck,  Fig.  6,  combines  tiie  distinguishing  I  moved  by  a  set  of  geared  screws  turned  by  a  circular  rack, 
features  of  both  the  forms  just  described.     The  jaws  are  !  of  wrought  iron,  sliding  in  the  circular  groove  cut  in  the 

Fig.  7. 


The  lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms. 

A,  gun-stock;  B.  cutter-head;  C.  former;  D,  Kuide-whcel;  E.  E,  E.  E,  swinging  frame  hoHinc  cutter-head  and  guide-wheel;  F,  F, 
cutter-head  belt ;  G.  drivinc-shaft ;  H,  drivlnR-bclt  ;  I,  belt  to  first  counter-shaft :  J.  belt  from  first  counter  to  second  counter- 
shaft K  ;  L,  ImU  to  fe«il-sbufl ;  M,  fted-motion  ;  N,  shipper  for  feed-niutiun  M.  ana  revolving  motion  T;  O,  hand-feed;  P,  sliding 
t»hle ;  R,  R,  R,  R.  shaft  aud  connecting  gears  for  revulTing  the  stock  A  and  former  C ;  S,  hand-wheel ;  X.  clutch  on  revolring 
shaft  B;  U,  revolving  stop-belt. 


LATHROP— LATIN   LANGUAGE. 


1663 


back-plate.  The  front  and  back  plates  are  nicely  fitted  to- 
gether, !'o  that  no  dust  or  dirt  can  get  inside.  Taking  out 
the  rack,  the  jaws  are  uiuvable  independently.  The  face 
of  the  jaw  has  a  slightly  raised  portion,  and  a  groove  is  cut 
at  the  corner  whcru  it  meets  the  *'  bite/'  to  allow  of  accu- 
rate regrinding. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  lathe  for  turning  irregular  forma 
originally  invented  by  IJlanchard,  and  n^  now  used  at  the 
U.  S.  artit-nal  at  Springfiehl,  Ma.^s.,  i>f  whiu-h  drawings  arc 
kindly  furnished  by  the  commanding  otTiccr. 

In  this  beautiful  machine  the  |)attcrn  or  former,  C,  is 
mounted  between  centres  parallel  with  the  piece  to  be  made 
its  duplicate,  and  is  revolved  at  precisely  the  game  rate  of 
speed.  A  cutler-head,  IJ,  carrying  several  knives  and  driven 
by  the  belt,  F,  swings  in  the  frame.  E,  K,  E,  on  the  centres 
at  the  base.  A  guide-wheel,  D,  bearing  against  the  former, 
C.  throws  the  frame  and  cutter-head  in  and  out  as  the  guide- 
wheel  and  the  gun-stock  revolve  synchrouou!*ly,  making  the 
latter  a  fac-simile  of  the  ])attern.  A  slow,  uniform  motion  is 
given  the  frame  in  the  longitudinal  direction,  thus  shaping 
the  piece  from  end  to  end.  Many  modifications  of  this  copy- 
ing tool  are  now  made  for  special  uses. 

In  the  *'  ro^e-enginc  lathe  "  the  spindle  carrying  the  work 
is  movable,  and  is  vibrated  by  a  guide-wheel  or  pattern- 
wheel  turned  at  a  fixed  rate  of  speed,  and  having  an  out- 
line which  is  determined  by  the  shape  of  the  design  to  bo 
cut.  Sfvcral  wheels  being  used  in  succession,  intricate 
and  beautiful  geometrical  combinations  arc  obtained.  (Sec 
Hfdtzaptfers  Mrchanical  Mtinipuiatioiis;  The  Luthe  and  its 
tV»;    .^fnnttft  iiu   Tounicnr.)  R.  li.  TlU  IISTON'. 

La'throp,  post-v.  of  San  Joaquin  co.,  Cal.,  on  the  Cen- 
tral Tacilic  U.  H.,  9  miles  S.  of  Stockton. 

Lathrop,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Clinton  co..  Mo.  It  has  1 
weekly  ni'wsp;iper.     I'op.  of  v.  b2'.i;  of  tp.  1782, 

Lathrop,  post-tp.  of  Susquehanna  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  983. 
Lathrop  {John),  D.  D.,  b.  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  May  17, 
1710;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1703;  taught  for  a  time 
in  the  Indian  school,  afterwards  Dartmouth  College:  was 
(I7fi^-l>*l(l)  a  Congregationalist  minister  of  Boston,  first 
over  the  Old  Xorth,  and  then  over  the  Second  church.  His 
degree  of  I>.  I),  was  conferred  first  by  Harvard,  and  then 
by  Edinburgh  I'nivcrsity.  D.Jan.l,  IStO. — His  son, .Jons 
(b.  Jan.  I.'i.  1772:  d.  Jan.  .10,  IS20),  wasa  famous  wit,  poet, 
and  orator  of  the  early  years  of  the  reimblic. 

Lathrop  (.John  HiniM).  LI*.!).,  b.  at  Sherburne,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  22.  17'.i'J:  graduated  at  Yale  in  1819,  and  was  a  tutor 
there  IS22-20;  beeame  a  lawyer  in  1826,  and  afterwards 
tau(;ht  in  Norwich,  Vt..  and  (iardiuer,  Me.:  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  Hamilton  College 
lS29-:ij;  of  law,  history,  etc.,  1835^0;  president  of  the 
University  of  Missouri  1840-t9  ;  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin  1849-59;  president  of  Indiana  University 
is;)9-ti0;  profrssor  of  Enj^Hsh  literature  in  the  University 
of  Columbia.  Mo.,  1800-62.  and  its  president  1865-66.  D. 
at  Cohunbin,  Mo.,  Aug.  2,  I8(i0. 

Lathrop  (Joskph),  !►.  !>..  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Oct. 
20,  1731  ;  grailuated  at  Yale  College  in  I7a4  :  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Congregational  church  in  West  Springfield  in 
17.'>6,  and  retained  that  position  sixty-four  year.'\  until  his 
death,  I>ce.  31.  1820.  His  published  works  in  7  vols. 
( I796-I8III )  are  eompiisfd  almost  entirely  of  sermons,  sev- 
eral of  which,  entitled  ]\'nfri»  In  Sfierjt*M  Ctothiiij,  elicited 
by  troubles  in  his  parish,  bad  a  wide  celebrity.  Tbo  last 
volume  contains  an  autobiograjdiy. 

Latia'no,  town  uf  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Lecce,  about  II  miles  S.  of  HrindiMi.  Pop.  in  1871,  5953. 
LatiUidn'  [frnm  LniUnn,  ft  typical  genus,  and  the  ter- 
mination -I'/.'],  a  ("arnily  of  fishes  <if  the  order  Tclcopt'])bali 
and  sub-order  .'\canth«»pteri.  distinguished  by  sub-jugular 
ventral  fins,  each  of  which  has  a  spine  and  five  branching 
ravd  ;  a  more  or  less  ehmgatetl  body  (the  vertebral  cidumn 
hiiving  mure  than  Ww  abilominal  and  ftiurtcen  camlal  ver- 
tfliraM,  covered  with  scah-v.  und  with  the  lateral  line  sub- 
mcilian  along  the  tail  ;  an  elongated  dorsal  fin,  of  which 
the  spinous  portion  is  shorter  than  the  soft  ;  ami  a  com- 
pressed head,  with  a  snout  truneatcil  or  moderately  pro- 
duced. These  are  the  principal  diagnostic  characters  of  a 
group  of  fishes  which  have  been  variously  ])laeer|  by  iliffer- 
ent  naturalists,  Cuvier  having  referred  some  forms  to  the 
Perciilii'.  and  others  to  the  I.abridu' :  and  (iiinther  having 
refcrretl  all  to  the  family  Trachinidie,  except  MnlnrnnthuH^ 
for  which  he  framed  a  jieculiar  family— -Malacanlhidie.  It 
embraces  not  many  genera,  but  eonibiniilde  nn<ler  several 
gruups  of  genera,  or  possibly  subfamilies — \\i..  Imtim, 
with  three  genera,  Lutiluu,  i'ltnlitlittHun,  and  Pmltttitua  ; 
M  Ai-ArANTMi.  with  the  Mithirauthun:  and  PiNgrii'inF.s,  with 
the  genus  l*i}U{uij>rn.  All  the  genera  are  tropical,  the  I'in- 
qttipfiifii  being  peculiar  to  America,  and  tlic  others  tropi- 
cupolitau.  TiiicononK  Gill. 


Lat'imcr  (Hugh),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Thuroa«ton,  Leicester- 
shire, England,  in  1491,  was  Iho  son  of  a  thrifty  yeoman; 
was  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  chosen 
a  fellow  I  juy  :  passed  a  bachelor  1510,  and  a  master  15U ; 
was  cross-bearer  to  the  iinivcrsity,  and  in  1516  became 
Greek  professor;  was  ordaineil  a  priest  at  Lincoln  ;  became 
a  Protestant  by  reason  of  the  laliurs  of  liilney;  was  dis- 
missed from  the  university  as  a  heretic  by  Wolsey  1527; 
became  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  1530;  beeame  rector  of 
West  Kingston.  Wilts.  1531 ;  was  excommunicated,  but  ab- 
solved on  his  submission,  1532;  chaplain  to  Anne  Uolcyn 
1534 ;  became  bishop  of  Worcester  1535  :  resigned  his  oftico 
1539.  not  being  able  to  accept  the  Six  Articles  (31  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  14t,  and  was  imitrisoncd  in  the  keeping  of  the 
bishop  of  Chichester:  was  afterwards  silenced  by  authority 
and  shut  up  in  the  Tower  1546—17;  declined  his  former 
bishopric  1548;  was  preacher  to  Edward  VI.  1549-50;  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  by  proclamation  of  t^ueen  Mary 
1553;  transferred  to  the  Hocardo  of  Oxford,  with  llidley, 
1554  ;  tried  and  condemned  by  order  of  Cardinal  Pole  1555  ; 
and  burned  at  the  stake  with  Uidley  in  the  ditch  near  Ba- 
liol  College  Oct.  16,  1555.  Latimer  was  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential and  fearless  of  the  English  Ueformers,  and  his  ad- 
mirable SvrnuniH  (4  vols..  London,  1845)  are  models  of  for- 
cible and  witty  speech.  (See  his  Life,  by  Rev.  K.  Demaus, 
1869.) 

!  Lntimor  ( Jamks  EujahI.  A.  M.. S.  T.  P..  b.  Oct.  7, 1826, 
at   Harlffird,  Conn.  :  graduated   in    184S  at  the  Weslcyan 

;  University;  entered  the  Methodist  Episco])al  ministry: 
was  for  many  years  an  instructor  in  the  seminaries  of  his 
Church,  and  held  pastorates  in  the  State  of  New  York  1861 
-69;  became  in  1870  professor  of  systematic  theology  in 
Boston  University. 

Lal'imorc,  post-tp.  of  Adams  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  1230. 
I^at'in  Churchy  a  name  ajjplied  to  the  Koman  Cath- 
olic, the  Occidental,  or  Western  Church.  It  is  antithetical 
to  Greek  Catholic,  as  the  title  of  the  Oriental  or  Eastern 
Church.  After  the  separation  of  tlic  Greek  Church  from 
the  Koman  (ninth  to  eleventh  century)  the  Catholics  of  the 
West  were  called  Latins,  because  of  their  retention  of  the 
Latin  language  in  the  church  service.  In  association 
with  this  distinction  we  sjicak  of  the  Latin  Fathers  after 
(not  before)  the  separation,  Iho  Latin  ritual,  the  Latin 
clergy.  A  Greek  latini/.ed  is  a  convert  from  the  Greek  to 
the  Koman  Church.  (See  Aschbaeh,  Alhj.  K.  L,  (1850),  iv. 
12;  Bcrgicr,  Theulo(ji<;  in  ICiu'j/clnp.  Mcthodique  (\1i>\3),  ii. 
408;  Milman,  Lutin  ChriHtianiti/  (1854).)     C.  P.  Kkauth. 

Lati'nif  in  the  government  of  ancient  Rome,  were  in- 
ferior citizens  of  a  class  superior  to  the  Peregrini.  Tho 
term  originally  designated  the  jieople  of  Latium  ;  these 
after  the  Social  war  attained  an  inferior  kind  of  citizen- 
ship, the  nature  of  which  is  not  clearly  known.  The  jiia 
ttttii,  hittiuitiiH,  or  Latium  (  Latin  (irivilcgc)  was  afterwards 
extemleil  to  nmny  cities,  towns.  an<i  colonies  in  foreign  parts, 
and  the  Latini  and  their  descendants,  even  though  living  at 
Rome,  possessed  only  tbo  Latin  and  not  tho  full  Roman 
citizenship. 

Latini  (BniNKTTo),  b,  at  Florence  in  1230;  belonged 
to  the  party  id'the  Guelphs;  was  exiled  in  1261  ;  lived  for 
several  years  in  Paris;  returned  after  the  <»verthrow  of  tho 
Ghibellines  to  Florence,  where  he  d.  in  1294.  lie  is  better 
known  as  the  teadier  and  friend  of  I>!inlc  than  on  account 
of  his  own  writings,  tho  most  remarkaMe  of  which  is  his 
Lirrr  dr  trfnor,  written  in  French,  translated  into  Italian 
in  1474,  and  containing  a  compendium  of  the  whole  wis- 
dom of  his  time. 

Latin  Language.  Latin  is  a  member  of  that  great 
family  of  languages  calle<l  Indo-European,  ami  aico,  but 
less  properly,  Indo-Gernianic  or  Aryan.  This  family  em- 
braces the  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Lithuanian.  Greek  with  its 
modern  representative  Romaic,  Latin  an<l  its  modificntions 
the  Romance  tongues,  Celtic,  Gcrnuin,  ami  English.  These 
languages,  for  the  most  part,  present  striking  resemblances 
in  words,  in  infiections,  and  in  general  granunatica!  struc- 
ture. Tho  Sanskrit  is  tho  oldest  of  them  all,  and  throws 
more  or  less  light  on  the  obscurities  of  all  the  rest.  The  San- 
skrit has  prevailing  usages  which  pass  away  in  its  descend- 
ants, as  the  ending  -»</of  tlie  firht  person  present  indicative, 
which  appears  in  a  limited  number  of  words  in  tJreek,  in  ft 
modified  form  in  two  In  Latin  {nun  and  inqtinm),  in  only 
ono  in  EngliRh  (am),  further  modified  in  the  Oerman 
hin,  and  utterly  disappearing  in  other  tongues;  it  has  a 
dual  as  well  as  singular  and  phiral  for  its  nouns,  pronouns, 
adjeclivcs,  and  vcr!>s,  which  the  Greek  po.«ses,-eil,  but  was 
little  inclined  to  use,  which  the  Latin  retained  only  in  duo 
an<l  (i»i/<".and  confused  in  »«>»  and  ro*.  and  whioh  the  Eng- 
lish and  GeriuHU  have  retained  in  only  one  word.  Iirain, 
ztrtt-n  :  it  had  both  augment  and  redoplicutiiin.  in  which 
tho  Greek  nearly  followed  it,  while  the  Latin  retained  only 


1664 


LATIN   LANGUAGE. 


reJuiilicition,  nod  that  in  certain  verb?,  the  German  an 
aiij^iueut  in  the  |)nft  participle  of  simples,  the  last  faint 
trace  of  which  appears  in  some  old  forms  in  English,  as 
i/ihpt :  it  had  eight  cases,  which  kept  certain  relations  dis- 
tinct which  were  afterwards  confused,  as  the  genitive,  da- 
tive, and  ablative,  which  last  was  lost  in  Greek,  and  in 
Latin  also  was  mostly  lost  as  a  separate  form,  and  in  use  be- 
came very  complicated  and  irregular;  in  making  its  redu- 
plicalive  syllable  it  illustrates,  with  one  exception  only, 
the  order  of  the  development  of  the  L.atin  vowels,  a,  u,  ii,  e, 
i ;  and  in  its  words,  .is  will  be  seen  below,  it  is  sometimes 
more  closely  allied  to  the  Celtic  or  Germanic  than  to  the 
Greek  or  the  Latin.  In  former  times  it  was  customary  to 
regard  the  Latin  language  as  descended,  and  that  very 
directly,  from  the  Greek,  and  real  or  fancied  connections 
wore  tr.^ccd  out  between  nearly  all  the  Latin  and  Greek 
words.  Others,  who  discovered  in  the  Latin  language 
words  and  forms  which  occur  in  the  German  and  the 
Celtic,  were  led  to  believe  that  the  Latin  was  largely  de- 
rived from  the  Celtic.  But  in  resolving  such  a  question 
there  are  very  great  difficulties.  How  are  we  to  know 
whether  the  IL'ellio  or  the  Latin  form  is  the  older?  We 
may  generally  receive  the  statements  of  the  Romans  them- 
selves as  to  the  origin  of  certain  words  which  they  dis- 
cussed, but  as  we  have  no  monuments  of  Celtic  earlier  than 
the  seventh  century  of  our  era,  how  is  modern  research  to 
decide  whether  the  Celtic  word  is  an  old  collateral  form  of 
the  Latin,  or  was  actually  carried  by  the  Romans  in  their 
conquests  and  deposited  among  the  strange  people  ?  Was 
the  Ccltio  tir,  for  instance,  an  original  word  with  this  people, 
or  only  the  barbaric  form  of  the  Roman  icrni  '  While  in 
some  cases  one  of  these  views  might  be  correct,  and  in 
other  cases  the  other,  we  can  only  assert  with  confidence 
that  the  Latin  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  above, 
but  more  closely  resembling  the  Greek  in  its  oldest  elements 
th.in  any  other  member,  and  afterwards,  in  historic  times, 
following  the  development  of  the  Greek,  adopting  words 
from  it  with  no  change  of  form,  or  only  such  as  convenience 
or  regard  for  analogy  required,  imitating  its  construction, 
as  in  modern  times  English  and  French  have  imitated  each 
otlier.  and  first  translating  and  then  imitating  its  literature, 
as  Early  English  dealt  with  French  and  with  Itali.an. 

To  show  how  far  this  resemblance  extended  in  some  of 
the  most  ancient  forms,  and  with  what  remarkable  excep- 
ti<ms,  we  subjoin  four  comparative  tables  of  groups  of 
words,  putting  the  Latin  words  in  italics  only  when  they 
are  identical  with  the  Greek  or  closely  allied  to  it,  and  en- 
closing in  parentheses  such  words  as  are  more  remotely 
connected  in  the  group,  or  ch.angcd  in  meaning,  or  both: 

I.  The  names  of  the  human  body  and  its  parts : 


BnylUh. 

body, 

skin, 

bone;  G.  Bein  (=  leg, 

bone), 
hair;  G.  Hanr^ 
head;  G.  Jfaupt, 
back, 

ueek, 

shoulder, 

arm ;  tl.  Arm, 
brcii^t ;  (i.  lintM, 
heart  ;    (1.   Ilerz  ■ 

face, 

brow ;  St.  bhnt, 
eye;   Goth,  auqo; 
Aitge;  St.  akshi^ 
car, 

nose. 


corpus ; 

i cutis:  (G.  IIaut  = 
I    hide), 


crinis, 
caput ;  G. 
dorsum, 


Kopf, 


<  coUuui ;  G.I/als;  \ 
I  Goth,  hall,         / 

humerus,  uments, 

brachium, 
pectus, 

cor  (core), 

facies, 

/roiw, 

ocultts, 

aurii;  G.  Ohr, 
(nasus;  St.  «as;'l 
1     G.  -Vttse,  J 


G. 


i     XP'^^      (tTKVTO^     or 

(     KVTo^  —  hide). 
oCTToGi';  Ht.aslhi. 

vCjtov. 

avxrif. 

(ot/nos;  Goth.amsa; 
(      St.  amsa. 

KapSia.,  Kpa^ia,  K^p. 

WpOiTdiTOy. 

(of^pii?  —  eyebrow). 
ous  (iiTOf ;  Goth.  aujo. 


OTofia. 


iDcua;  archaic)      v-^,^ 
dingua,  ;  yA"<r<ra. 

densdentis;  G.Zahn^  oSovc  o^oito^. 


mouth;  Goth,  mitnths 

G.  Muml^  OS. 

longiu*;Golh.  tungo;\    f  Ii 

(;.  Znnge.  /    1 

tooth  ;  SI.  d'tt  danta, 
lip;  it.  Lfp/f, 
hanA;(i.}Jand;Goth. 

hatitfiis, 
ftst ;  G.  Fatixt, 
L'llww;  {j.  EUrnhogen, 

toe,  G.  Zehe^ 

nail  ;    G.    Nagel ;    St. 

le-'. 

kui'c;  Goth.  ^SThiu;  G. 

/Cuir, 
fool ;  Goth,  fotus ;  G. 

Fuss, 

II.  The  names  of  the  Dcitj  and  of  human  relations: 

God;   G.   Gotl;  Goth. 

GudoT  GiUK,  Detu,IHvm;  Si.d€va;  e«k,  (Zevs)  Ato?. 


fingfr;    G.   Finger;  \ 


labium, 

xeiAo^. 

maniis;  arch.  AiV, 

x«i'p- , 

puonus. 

vliia ;  Goth,  aleina, 

nvyfiri. 
uikiirq. 

digUus;  Ft.  doigl. 

SdxTvkoi. 

unguis, 
criis, 

O-xeAos. 

genu. 

yoi'u;  St.  f7flrnu. 

pes  pedis. 

iroii?  TToSd? ;  St.  pad. 

man ;  G.  Mann ; 
(iuth.  man, 


father;   Goth,  fadar; 

ti.  ra/er.  pater, 

mother;  *.i.  Mutter,        mater, 
son;   G.  Sohn;   Uoth. 

Sunns;  St.  sunn,         filius, 
daujrhter;    Goth,      "i 

dnuhtar;  G.  /)och->  fiUa, 

/('»■ ;  St.  duhitri,       I 
brother;  Goth.  6ro-| 

t/inr  ;  ii.   Bruder  ;  >  frater, 

St.  bhrntri,  \ 

sister;  (ioth.,9t'(Var;  1 

G.  ikhwester ;   St.  ^  soror, 

svasn, 


Latin. 
homo   huminis; 

Lioth.  gnmtt, 
vir ;    A.^.  u-er; 

Celt.  Jear, 


f  avBpiifno^. 

\a.vrip ;  St.  nri. 


n-aTijp ;  St.  pUri. 
y.r\-rqp  \  St.  matri. 


Buyarffp. 

\     clansman). 


uncle ;  G.  Onkei, 

aunt;  G.  TbrUe;  Ft.} 

tante,  J 

nephew  ;  G.  Ke^Te,     } 
niece  ;  G.  Nichte,       J 

boy  (G.   Bube,  pro-"| 

viue.),  > 

girl.  \ 

maid  ;  G.  Magd;  Goth. 

viagalhs,  virgo, 

III.  Pronouns: 

I ;  G.  ich;  Goth,  ik,      ego;  C.  me,  mi, 
me;   G.  viich;    Goth. 

viik,  me, 

thou :  Goth,  thu ;  G.  du,  tu, 
thee;    (1.  dich ;  Guth. 

thuk.  te, 

we;  Goth,  veis;  G.~ 

tcir, 
ye ;  St.  yvyam ;   G. 

■ihr, 
he,  she;    G.    er,    sie ; 

Goth,  sa/i,  is,  so,  hie,  sui  (reflex.), 

it;  G.  es;  that;  Goth. 

l/ia(u,  id. 

who,    what    (G.   wer, 

u-as),  qiii,  quod, 

who?  what?  G.  werf 

u-a.s  f  Goth.iroj  .*"  u^a  f  quis  f 
whether?  (ob3.);Goth. 

uaihar  t  uler  t 

IV.  Cardinal  nurabera  : 


f  patruus, 
1  uvunculus, 
I  am  it  a, 
\  matertera, 

fnepos,l'i;,h/," 

\»«P"^.  J  meaning, 

\puer,    \  (St.  ptdni 
[puelta,]     =  son), 


a5cA^^. 


\  aScA^idi). 


nos ;  C.  ni, 

vos;  Goth,  jus, 


quid  f 


irapOivov. 

cyui,  tytav ;  St.  oham. 

cV^tMc ')  St.  md, 

ffii,  TV,  Tiii'Tj ;  St.  tvam. 

ffi,  Te;  St.  tva. 

{^fi.«tc  (vJi,  dual); 
St.  nau. 
fvfific  (o'4'<^(  dual); 
\     St.  ram, 

(t  obs.)  iv. 

09,  o;  St.  yah. 
Ti9 ;  Ti ;  St.  kafi. 
irdrepof ;  St.  katara. 


Gothic.  German.     English.    Zatii 


Greek. 


Btnucan 
(from  CorsscD). 


a  ins. 


cm, 


iffii,  zwei, 
thrri.t,  drei, 
fidvor,  rier, 
/itnf,  /iiii/, 
sAcJis,  scchs, 
sibun,   sif^en. 

ahtan,  acht, 

nitm,     neun, 
toihun,  sehn. 


one,  tinus, 

two,  duo, 

three,  ires, 

fou  r,  quatuor, 

five,  quinque, 

six,  sex, 

seven,  seplem, 

eight,  octo, 

nine, 

ten, 


di  <fd9, 

£vo, 

Tp«t9, 


Satukrit. 

^eka        ) 

^Uleb.    }eca  or  un-. 

I  echad),  > 

dva,         teis. 

iri,  tri-. 

TeTTapt^,chtiittr,     cbuar-. 
wftrre,     paiichan,  cain-orcvin'. 

shaxh,       sees-  or  sfs-. 

saptan,    se/u-OT-^eAtu-. 
,,       c  uhlar-nthtar-, 

<^^^^\  titar-orvtan-. 

navnn,     ««-. 

dasan,      lecu-. 
ainli/,  ei/f or elf,c]i:YCn,undecim ,    ei-fitifa,    ekudasn,  tesne-eca. 


7iovem, 
decern. 


cirrd, 

OKTW, 

2e'Ka, 


tvalijf,    ziv6/f,    "   twclve,duo</ec(m,6w5cKa,   dvasada,  tesns-teis. 

Interesting  facts  maybe  gathered  from  the.^c  tables,  and 
from  similar  ones  which  our  space  does  not  allow  us  to  in- 
troduce here  ;  as  that  a  generic  word  in  one  language  may 
brcomo  specific  in  another;  as  Gr.  fiijp,  Eng.  deer;  G. 
Ifmifl,  Eng.  hound;  Lat.  dif/itns,  Fr.  (fottjt,  Eng.  tor;  that 
in  sumc  instances  the  English  or  the  English  and  the  Ger- 
man retain  an  old  form  lost  to  the  Latin;  as  Gr.  opo</»o9, 
r<vf»/V  Gr.  irdTov,  pttth:  G.  P/nd;  that  in  some  cases,  where 
the  word  is  generally  preserved,  the  modern  form  may  be 
nearer  to  the  Sanskrit  than  to  the  classical  form;  as  Gr. 
ovott.a',  \jXtX.  nomen :  G.  Xante;  Fng.  name;  St.  nutiinn  :  (ir. 
ij&v^;  Lat.  auavig;  Eng.  siccct;  St,  evUdu;  and  that  there 
arc  interesting  cases  of  change  of  moaning  ;  as  (tf.  wdrTos  = 
sea;  Eng. /joh/:/;  Lat.  niarc  =  sea:  Eng.  mfrv.  a  lake  :  lleb. 
elcph  ^  a,xi  ox:  Gr.  eAe.^a9  =  nn  elephant;  Gr.  icoirpos  =  a 
wild-boar,  which  seerns  to  be  the  Lat.  coper,  a  goat,  as  well 
as  apcr,  a  wild-boar:  and  that  pronouns  and  numerals  arc 
the  least  variable  elements  in  language. 

Certain  languages  of  Italy,  the  Oscan,  Umbrian.  Celtic, 
Mcssapian,  and  Etruscan,  have  affinities  to  the  old  Latin 
more  or  Ie?s  close,  and  i)robably  in  this  mdcr,  and  these 
languages  have  substantially  the  same  alphabet  with  it. 

The  remains  of  the  Sabine  and  Oscan  belong  to  a  period 
when  the  Saliincs  had  mixed  themselves  up  with  the  con- 
quered Ausonians.and  had  learned  their  language;  of  this 
we  have  certain  specimens,  therefore  properly  called  r^a- 
bello-Oscan.  The  most  important  of  these  arc  the  Hantine 
Ttihh,  the  Cipptis  AhcUanim,  and  the  Tabht  o/  Aj/nmie. 
The  Hnntino  Table,  now  in  the  Museo  Borbonico,  is  a 
bronze  tablet  found  in  171*3  at  Gppido.  on  tho  borders  of 
Lucania.  and  called  Tabula  Bantina  from  tho  name  Bnuftre 
in  tho  inscription,  which  seems  to  refer  to  the  neighboring 


LATIN   LANGUAGE. 


1665 


city  of  liftntin  in  Apulia.  The  Cipnus  Abcllanus,  a  fltonc 
tablet,  w:is  moved  fruiu  Avellii  Veccuia  to  the  muilern  vil- 
Iai;e  of  this  name  iu  l(»,S6.  and  there  used  as  a  dourstep 
till  iu  1740  it  was  noticed  and  removed  to  the  museum  of 
Nttla.  The  lironxe  tablet  of  Agnone  was  so  called  from  the 
place  near  which  it  was  found  in  1848.  Among  these  re- 
mains wc  find  the  following:  uaiai  ~  arso,  a  mm  ft  i  ^  ma-tri 
(comp.  Ileb.  em  ),  mit  —  al,  antcr^  inter,  com  =  cum  (prit'p.), 
dckittjftioi  --  dictario,  <iiovei  —  Jovi,  diumpniH  =  lymphis, 
thtrad  —  extra,  eatud  —  esto,  horto  =  Imrtura,  int  ^  est, 
Av(M  =  civis,  //*/a/oi"«  =  legatis,  /("i*fVurf  =  liccto^  m(ij*«  =  magis 
(comp.  Fr,  mui'i*  and  It.  wai"),  nep  =  nee,  ncque,  «f  =  ne, 
paterei  =  patri,  7)011  =cura  {i.  e.  quuui),  pim  zj=  que,  prti  = 
ftT'Ji,  pntter  =  prujter,  naa/itom  —  sacrum,  eenatein  =  senatus, 
8vai  =  si,  triom  =  terra,  vium  -^  viam. 

The  relics  of  I'mbrian  arc  contained  on. seven  tables  in 
a  state  of  perfect  preservation.  They  were  discovered  in 
1444  in  a  subterranean  chamber  at  La  Sehicggia,  near  the 
ancient  city  of  /(/ucium,  now  (luhhiu  or  Cijithio,  and  hence 
styled  the  I'jui'iuc  or  Euijubinr  Tables.  Iguvium  lay  at  the 
foot  of  the  .'Vpeniiines,  near  the  Via  Flaniinia.  and  is  known 
to  have  been  an  old  Umbrian  town  ;  this  circumstance  is 
the  foundation  of  the  belief  that  these  tables  are  specimens 
of  the  L'mbrian  tongue.  Tliey  relate  chiefly  to  matters  of 
religion,  and  are  written,  some  in  Umbrian  or  in  Etruscan, 
and  others  iu  U<unan  characters.  Lepsius  infers  that  the 
former  were  written  not  later  than  a.  r.  c.  400,  and  the  latter 
cir.  A.  V.  r.  6.>0.  The  L'mbrian,  being  subjected  to  disturbing 
causes  not  uiilike  those  wliich  at  a  later  period  afl'ected  the 
Latin,  exhibits  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Uomance 
l'in;^iies.  Wo  find  the  ending  -«  for  -nm  ;  9  and  d  final  arc 
constantly  dropped;  there  is  a  tendency  to  substitute 
liquids  for  mutes  ;  and  o  is  softened  to  h.  Kxamplea  of 
Umbrian  words  are  :  o^<'r  =  ager,  ahtu  =  actutum,  af/a  = 
albtis,  under  =  inter,  aia  ~  ara,  nr<,'t"»=  avibus,  hcnci  = 
venieg,  dicom  =  dicere,  eit  -  est,  e^tii  =  esto,  far—  far, 
/utu  —  fatum./crnie  —  ferina,/trM  —  facito, /ra/cr  =  frater, 
pater  =  pater,  i/e  =  ibi,  kventm-  =  quaestor,  mann  ■=  manus, 
mentrn  —  magistcr  (comp.  It.  mnentro),  main  =  magis,  ncp  — 
noc,  ncque.  nuntrn  and  Home  ^  nonion,  namer  =  uumcrus, 
one  ^  ore,  pir  -z  nvp.jirc,  ptiplna  —  populus,  rca  =  res,  xnfcrc 

—  sacrum,  ncnt  —  sunt,  *r/"=^  sues,  «c»iia'=  cena,  tujh  ~  ta- 
bula (comp.  Fr.  tdble),  tra  ~  trans,  nri7*iim  =  cum  ore  (with 
this  kitm  enclitic  comp.  mecuiHf  etc.;   It.  mcco,  etc.). 

While  the  relation  of  the  Celtic  to  the  early  Latin  is  very 
obscure,  yet  there  is  reascjn  to  belie\  e  that  the  relation  was 
important  in  earlier,  as  wc  kno^v  it  to  liave  been  in  later, 
times.  The  Celts  had  preceded  all  other  races  in  the  west- 
ward movement :  they  arc  mentioned  even  by  Herodotus 
ns  living  beyond  the  I'illars  of  Hercules,  and  they  had  filled 
.the  Transalpine  plain  jirobably  soon  after  the  time  of  the 
Tarquins.  There  must  have  been  a  substratum  of  (,'elts  in 
Italy  at  a  very  early  period:  for  ancient  authorities  assert 
their  connection  with  the  Uiubrians,  and  this  fact  is  in- 
dicated by  the  name  of  tlieir  country,  UmhrUt,  and  of  their 
chief  river,  Cmhro,  compared  with  Jlumhrr,  t'l/mri,  and 
the  like.  The  Celts  arc  known  also  to  have  occupied  the 
neighboring  Liguria.  A  great  authority,  tSchlcichor,  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  Celtic  ami  the  Latin  were  more  closely  con- 
nected in  pre-histr»rie  times  than  the  Latin  and  the  (ireek. 
We  subjoin  a  eomparativc  list  of  a  few  out  of  the  many 
Celtic  words  connected  with  the  Latin  ;  and  thou,:;b,  as  wo 
have  saiil  above,  the  priority  of  the  one  to  the  other  cannot 
be  made  out,  they  present  an  element  sometimes  only  ob- 
scurely related  to  the  Grcck^  and  sometimes  quite  inde- 
pendent of  it :  «rVe-^  alius,  ar  —  ad  (cf.  ar  in  arbiter, 
arcesso,  etc.),  nrbha  —  arvuin,  arch  -^  area,  arm  or  arr  — 
anna,  cahit  =  cantus,  canrri  =  cantor,  car  —  amicus  (comp. 
crtriiJ<),  cnua  —  caseus,  ctaidtb  -  gladius,  cm  —  cruor,  cimt 
=  cutifl,  dant  or  dtnit   -  dens  dentis,  din  ^  deus,  dii:  or  diit 

-  dies,  /aiih  =  vaies,  frar  or  r/rir  ^  vir,  Jin  =  finis,  furch  ^ 
fuTca,  fjarin  ^gravis,  tadcn  ^  latro,  lahn  =  lux  legie,  larhd 
or  /ait  ^  htc  lactis,  Inch  --^  laeus.  me  or  mi  -^  ego,  me,  mo- 
uadh  --  mons  montis,  nmr  or  mitir  more,  ncad  -■-  nidufl. 
Ml  ^  DOS,  noeth  or  nockd  -  nudus,  nitmcrui  —  nuinihir,  ober 
~  opernri,  01  =  ovis,  on?  =-  ursus,  our,  nur,  or  or  ----  aurum, 
ubh  -=  ovum,  pain  --  panis,  pan  quando,  piom  -  plum- 
bum, jtor  ^  puer,  rt'y  or  rtiy  rex  regis,  r«i7A  —  rota,  «mcc 
-^  sacer,  itain  stannum,  tarhh  taurus,  tc  or  ti  -  tu,  to, 
tir  --  terra,  tra      trans,  tn^j  ^  duco. 

The  Alessapians  or  lapygians  were  settled  in  Iho  S.  of 
Italy.  Scanty  fragments  of  their  ilialect  are  founti  pretty 
frequently  in  the  Terra  d'<Hranto  ;  they  are  in  (Jn'ok  letters, 
and  almost  always  written  from  left  to  right.  This  dialect 
seems  to  have  preserved  Iho  Lithuanian  elements  with  little 
change:  and  subjected  to  no  influences  but  that  of  the  (ireek 
colonists,  into  whose  idiom  it  was  rapidly  absorbed,  it  may 
bo  regarded  as  a  pure  reiiinant  of  the  old  Italian.  Sonic 
Messapian  words  that  have  come  down  to  ns  with  their 
meanings  are  :  irai^c  =  panis,  ^pivho^  (whence  /irumtiHiitm) 
3E  ccrvus  (comp.  Litb.  brvdit  —  elk),  fiavftia  ■-=  domus  (coiup. 
Vol..  II.  — 10;, 


G.  bnucn  =  to  build,  and  Eng.  boircr);  and  among  the 
words  iu  the  inscriptions  we  find  IN©I  =  inde,  and  MOHKo:i 
^  i^farcus.  I 

The  Etruscans  were  called,  by  the  Greeks,  Tyrrheni  and 
Turseui  :  by  the  Romans,  Tusci  and  Etrusci :  and  by  them- 
selves, liasena  or  Kasenna.  According  to  Herodotus,  the 
Tyrrheni  were  originally  Lydians,  who  during  a  grievous 
famine  sought  a  new  home,  and  under  Tyrsenus  came  to 
the  country  of  the  Umbriaus  (*Om^pi.koc).  which  was  thence 
called  after  him  Ti/mruia.  All  that  modern  research  is  as 
yet  able  to  say  of  their  ori;jin  is,  that  they  were  a  foreign 
people  that  came  by  sea,  and  that  they  were  akin  to  nations 
of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Their  language,  which  has 
been  preserved  in  a  great  number  of  inscriptions  on  monu- 
ments and  fictile  vessels,  has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of 
scholars  with  small  results  as  yet.  The  longest  of  these 
inscriptions  is  one  of  forty-six  lines  from  Perugia.  Their 
al))habct  is  the  medium  through  which  the  Oscans  and 
Umbriaus  seem  to  have  deriveil  their  characters.  The  in- 
scriptions aro  written  in  almost  all  cases  from  right  to  left, 
according  to  the  Semitic  and  the  most  ancient  Greek  cus- 
tom. Various  theories  on  the  origin  of  the  Etruscan  lan- 
guage have  been  propounded.  Dr.  Donaldson  has  at- 
tempted to  prove  its  Scandinavian  or  Low  German  cha- 
racter ;  Padre  Tarquini  and  others,  its  Semitic  afiinitics  ; 
but  at  present  all  that  can  be  asserted  with  confidence  is 
the  Pelasgic  or  old  (Jreek  character  of  the  language.  AVhat 
was  wanting  to  enable  scholars  to  form  a  certain  or  highly 
probable  judgment  was  a  critical  examination  of  all  the 
remains  of  the  language ;  and  this  the  learned  Corssen  has 
happily  now  furnished  us  in  his  great  work  Utbir  die 
Sprache  die  Etrunhcr  (Lcipsic,  1874-76).  Wo  give  the 
following  specimens  of  Etruscan  words:  ocAr  =  ager, 
aypoc,  antes  —  ventus,  avt(io%^  auk  =  ac,  atrium  =  atrium, 
«ri7  =  £cvuin,  aiwr,  baltca  —  balteus,  belt,  cana  =  cantor, 
cn/)ra=  capra.  r«««j'«  ^  cassis  ;  rtcr  ^  mors  (comp.  kjjp), 
c/nn  =  filius  vel  filia  (comp.  Gael.  f7">i),  r/niHjms  ^  equus 
(comp.  the  Homeric  in-TrofiaMos),  esmi  —  snm  (comp.  St. 
asm!  and  Gr.  ti/u'Ot  hiHtcr  —  histrio,  itiia  =  idus,  lar  ~  do- 
minus  (comp.  lar)^  mala  -^  mains,  urpoR  —  nepos,  spend- 
thrift (Fcntun  9,  14),  iimH  -=  sol  iSabine,  ausci),  vcrnc  —  -nvp, 
Umbr.  pir:  and  the  following  proper  names:  Alpnan  = 
Albinus,  Aplu  =  Apollo,  Caiia  =  Caius,  Mcnrva  =  Minerva, 
Hcrcfe  =  Hercules,  Titr  ^  Titus,  Vipia  -^  Vibia. 

77ic  Af/'fiabct. — The  Semitic  alphabet  had  originally  16 
characters:  the  Oscan  and  the  I'mlirian  had  20  each;  the 
Etruscan  19;  and  the  old  Latin,  1*1.  The  Etruscan  letters 
seem  to  bo  a  modification  of  the  (Jreek,  with  some  new 
characters.  The  Italian  alphabets  from  the  first  contained 
Y,  H.'P,  X.  which  were  invented,  or  at  least  newly  applied, 
by  the  (irceks.  Put  beside  this  Greek  alphabet  borrowed 
from  the  earliest  Hellenic  settlers,  there  was  a  later  set  of 
Greek  characters,  which  the  Latin  derived  from  the  Greeks 
of  Cuma?,  probably  under  the  Tarquins,  when  there  were 
special  relations  between  Home  and  Cuinie.  Put  the 
Humans,  showing  in  this  their  jiraotical  tendency,  sup- 
pressed letters  for  which  they  had  no  sound.-',  as  ie>,  «!•,  X 
(eh);  they  mostly  dropped  K  as  unnecessary,  altered  the 
shape  of  C  for  convenience,  added  Y  and  restored  Z.  For 
some  time  C  represented  both  the  medial  (/.)  and  the 
tenuis  guttural  {;/),  and  then  G  was  introduced  by  the 
frcedman  Sj).  Carvilius  (cir.  a.  r.  c.  ;'i2.'i),  th<uigli  Gains 
and  (inteuB  were  to  the  last  indicated  by  the  abbreviations 
C.  and  CN,  In  Cicero's  time  the  number  of  letters  was 
21  (/>-■  Itiimum  Xalnra,'!,  IKJ),  but  before  his  death  Y  {}j) 
was  intro<luced  to  transcribe  (ireek  words,  and  Z  was  re- 
stored, and  cla.>»8ieal  Latin  confined  itself  to  the  use  of  the 
following  2.1  letters:  ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRS 
T  V  X  Y  Z,  J  and  U  being  mere  modern  devices  to  discrim- 
inate between  the  powers  of  1  and  V  respectively  as  vowels 
and  as  consonants.  The  Greeks  retained  the  names  of  the 
old  Pho'iiician  hieroglyphics,  but  the  Uomaiis  dropped 
them,  and  named  the  signs,  mneli  as  we  do,  by  their  sounds. 
y/c  aid  /jiitiii. — We  have  some  interesting  remains  of 
the  old  Latin,  considered  as  contemporary  and  akin  to  the 
old  Italian  dialects,  such  as  it  was  before  (ireek  civilization 
and  culture  had  begun  seriously  to  work  upon  it.  For  tbo 
earlier  centuries  we  have  only  a  few  brief  inscriptions  of 
religious  ami  legal  import.  As  we  approach  the  Punio  wars 
the  inscriptions  become  more  numerous  and  complete,  but 
we  are  here  near  the  time  when  the  Latin  language  began 
to  be  inoililled  or  to  lose  its  proper  characteristics  under 
the  pressure  of  (ireek  influence,  and  to  be  transformed  into 
the  idiom  of  the  Augustan  age. 

(Jne  of  the  most  important  and  ancient  specimens  of  the 
genuine  Uoiinin  language  is  the  f\trmrn  Fnitrum  Arrafiumf 
the  S(»ng  of  the  Arval  Prothers,  discovered  on  marble  tab- 
lets in  1777.  while  workmen  were  digi;ing  out  the  founda- 
tions of  the  sacristy  of  .Sf.  Peter's  at  Home.  These  tablets 
are  probably  not  older  than  A.  u.  r.  ;'>:tj  (n.  c.  219),  but 
there  ia  every  reasoa  to  believe  that  the  song  itself  is  the 


1666 


LATIN  LITERATURE. 


same  that  was  sun;*  in  the  earliest  ages  of  Rome.  Every 
word  of  this  ancient  hymn  can  be  made  out  with  a  high 
degree  of  certainty.  We  here  find  enon  (ace.)  =  nos,  with 
which  we  may  compare  the  G.  tni*  ;  Lfmen  —  Lares ;  *i'n» 
for  sinas;  ndvncnpit  for  ad  vos  capite,  which  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  usage  of  comedy  in  after  times;  berbcr  for 
verbere  or  verbera;  and  (inUn  for  solis,  with  which  we  may 
compare  <r€Aa«,  ^Ato?.  Two  relics  of  a  similar  character  have 
been  preserved  by  Cato.  Further  discoveries  relating  to 
the  f'ratres  Arvahn  were  made  in  1S66  at  the  fourth  mile- 
stone of  the  Via  Portuensis,  consisting  of  72  lines  contain- 
ing the  acts  of  the  order  i \.  f.  c.  754).  Several  fragments 
of  the  Salian  Hymns  also  have  been  handed  down  by 
Varro.  Fragments  of  the  oldest  Koraan  laws  have  been 
preserved  by  Varro,  Pliny,  and  Festus,  but  the  most  copi- 
ous as  well  as  the  most  important  are  the  remains  of 
the  /hioficrim  Tahitfir,  the  Twelve  Tables.  These  were 
engraved  on  tablets  of  bronze,  au'i  publicly  set  up  in  the 
Oomitium.  A.  u.  c.  304  (b.  c.  449);  and  it  may  he  added 
here  that  the  Romans  had  no  other  liody  of  codified  law 
till  the  time  of  Justinian,  in  the  sixth  century  after  Christ. 
Beside  the  tablets  just  mentioned,  they  have  been  preserved 
chietlj  by  Cicero,  Varro.  hivy,  Pliny,  Festus.  Aul.  Gellius, 
Gains,  and  Ulpian.  Thfi  Kpituphfi  <>/  the  Scipivs  (a.  v.  r. 
456-588)  are  very  important  and  interesting  specimens  of 
early  Latin.  They  are  examples  of  a  custom  introduced 
from  Greece,  are  the  earliest  dated  inscriptions  of  anycon- 
siilcrable  length,  and  are  very  useful  in  settling  points  of 
archaic  quantity.  In  these  documents,  m  in  the  accusative 
and  d  in  the  ablative  singular  are  generally  wanting,  but 
each  occurs  once :  «  in  the  nominative  is  sometimes  added, 
sometimes  omitted;  and  consul  is  written  both  coiwi^  and 
cdHol.  .Some  words  are  spelt  indifferently  with  o  and  i/,  but 
the  use  of  r  between  two  vowels,  for  the  earlier  f,  is  invari- 
able. The  inscription  of  the  Cuhimna  fiotitratn,  contained 
on  a  bronze  tablet  found  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol  in  1565, 
commemorates  the  naval  victory  of  C.  Duilius,  a.  u.  c.  494 
(b.  r.  260),  This  preserves  many  archaic  forms,  such  as  d 
in  the  ablative,  C  for  G,  and  single  instead  of  double  con- 
sonants, Ritschl,  however,  suspects  that  this  inscription 
suffered  a  restoration,  and  that  with  forms  that  did  not 
belong  to  the  period  of  the  victory.  To  these  may  be  added 
the  Senntun  (^onsuftntn  dr  /iaccfiaunfifniH,  belonging  to 
A.  r.  c.  668  (b.  r.  186).  and  found  in  Calabria  in  1640; 
and  the  Lrx  Tkoria  de  A'jria.  or  .Agrarian  Law  of  Sp. 
Thorius,  passed,  according  to  Rudorff,  a.  u.  c.  643  {b.  r. 
Ill),  which  presents  a  specimen  of  tho  formal  written 
language  of  the  age  immediately  preceding  that  of  Cicero. 

Chaules  Short. 

Tjatinliiteratnre.  The  literature  of  Rome  is  less  orig- 
inal and  ooinpietc  than  that  of  (Jreeoc,  with  which  it  stands 
most  closely  connected,  but  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  less 
important.  For  Roman  law  everywhere  underlies  the  con- 
stitutions of  Europe:  the  language  of  Unme  is  the  parent 
of  several  of  )ier  chief  tongues  ;  her  literature  has  always 
been  the  chief  study  of  the  schools  ;  she  has  given  to  Chris- 
tianity its  nomenclature:  and  from  her  great  power  of 
assimilation  and  adaptation  she  has  preserved  to  us  what- 
ever was  most  valuable  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  of  all 
other  nations  with  which  she  came  in  contact. 

The  literary  life  of  the  Romans  nmy  be  divided  into 
three  periods:  (I)  The  Archaic  Period,  beginning  A.  r.  c. 
h\\  (n.  c.  240)^  when  Livius  Andronicus  exhibited  tho  first 
regular  drama  in  Latin  at  Rome;  (2)  the  Mid«Ue  Period, 
the  Ciceronian  and  the  Augustan  age,  which  begins  a.  i'.  c. 
671  (b.  r.  83);  (3)  The  Imperial  Age,  beginning  A.  n.  14. 

The  Archaic  f*erimi. — The  earliest  literature  proper  of 
the  Romans,  as  of  other  nations,  was  poetic,  and  the  earliest 
author  Livius  Andronicus,  a.  u.  c.  470-550.  He  trans- 
lated the  Odt/Hsci/  of  Homer  into  Saturnians.  and  also  ren- 
dered from  the  Greek  tragedies,  imitating  the  easier  Greek 
metres.  Cn.  Nsevius  began  to  exhibit  plays  a.  r.  r,  519, 
and  with  more  originality  than  Anclronicus.  T.  Maccius 
PInulus  fc,  A.  r.c.  500-5701  was  a  prolific  writer  of  comedy. 
Of  the  plays  ascribed  to  him.  twenty-one  were  considered 
certainly  genuine,  of  which  we  have  twenty,  more  or  less 
complete,  and  nineteen  others  were  probably  genuine.  He 
borrowed  bis  plots  from  tho  Greeks,  but  wirkerl  them  up 
antl  with  grt-at  ability.  His  measures  are  skilfully  handled, 
and  sometimes  with  harmonious  effect ;  his  diction  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  history  of  Latin.  His  plays  long  main- 
tained their  popuhirity,  nnd  have  been  extensively  studied 
and  imitated  in  modern  times.  Q.  Knniiis  (a.  v.  r,  515- 
585)  had  a  higher  social  and  political  position  than  the 
literary  men  that  ]»reeed(d  bim.  and  was  the  first  to  attain 
tho  full  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen.  Cicero  was  very 
fond  of  him,  and  largely  (uioted  bim  in  his  writings,  and 
Horace  styles  him  Patrr  Enniui  as  the  founder  of  Latin 
poetry.  His  greatest  work  was  the  Atnutfra,  or  history 
of  his  nation,  from  the  arrival  of  ,Kneas  in  Italy  down  to 
the  poet's  own  time.    He  also  wrote  tragedies,  mostly  after 


Euripides,  and  Satnnr — ^(hat  is,  probably,  miscellaneous 
poems  in  various  measures.  We  possess  them  only  in  frag- 
ments. M.  Pacuvius  (e.  a.  u.  c.  534-6221,  the  nephew  of 
Ennius,  was  a  painter  and  a  poet.  There  are  extant  frag- 
ments of  his  tragedies  imitated  from  Sophocles  ;  we  have  the 
titles  of  twelve  of  his  plays.  To  this  period  belong  Statius 
Ciecilius,  an  able  imitator  of  the  Greek  New  Comedy,  and 
Lusrius  Lavinius,  the  rival  of  Terence,  against  whom  nil 
the  Terentian  Prologues  are  directed  except  that  of  the  /fc- 
ct/ra.  P.  Terentius  (a.  r,  r.  569-595)  at  an  early  age  came 
from  Carthage  to  Rome,  where  he  was  a  slave  of  the  sen- 
ator Terentius,  by  whom  he  was  educated  and  set  free.  He 
was  intimate  with  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger,  and  hence 
the  rumor  that  Scipio  was  the  author  or  elaliorator  of  the 
plays  of  Terence.  We  have  of  him  six  comeilies,  and  prob- 
ably these  are  all  that  he  wrote.  They  were  great  favorites 
with  the  ancients,  as  they  have  been  with  the  moderns.  He 
has  not  the  versatility  of  Plautus,  neither  has  he  his  extrav- 
agance; his  verse  is  not  so  varied,  hut  it  is  more  melodi- 
ous ;  his  language  is  truly  Roman,  and  his  phrases  often 
reappear  in  the  best  works  of  the  best  period  of  the  litera- 
ture. His  plays  also  have  often  been  imitated  in  the  modern 
drama.  Roman  prose,  like  English,  was  reached  by  an  in- 
termediate step,  the  earliest  Roman  historians  emjiloying 
the  Greek  language.  These  were  Q.  Fabius  Pictor  (c. 
a.  v.  c.  525)  and  L.  Cincius  Alimentus.  M.  Porcius  Cato 
(a,  r.  c.  520-605)  was  the  first  real  Latin  jirose-writcr.  Jlis 
writings  wore  numerous  and  various.  He  wrote  ()rii/hie» 
in  seven  books,  an  account  of  the  Italian  tribes,  aud  pub- 
lished instructions  on  agriculture,  health,  and  eloquence, 
hut  only  his  Oe  Be  Ruttticn  has  been  preserved  entire. 
There  were  orators  of  this  period,  as  Fabius  Maximus.  ftL 
Cornelius  Cethegus.  the  Gracchi,  and  others  ;  and  also 
jurists,  as  Sextus  JEliue.  who  wrote  the  first  Roman  treatise 
on  law,  L.  Attius  or  Accius  (a.  r.  c.  584-c.  650)  wrote 
tragedies  after  the  Greek,  and  dealt  also  with  pure  Roman 
subjects.  He  wrote  other  works,  and  resembled  Ennius  in 
the  varied  character  of  his  writings,  but  he  was  more  pol- 
ished and  accurate  in  style.  I^.  Afranius  (b.  c.  a.  i:,  c. 
605)  wrote  Fahultc  Tixjatfe,  of  which  we  have  the  titles.  He 
combined  the  popular  manner  of  Plautus  with  the  elegance 
of  Terence.  C.  Lucilius  (c,  A.  v.  c.  606-651)  was  the  father 
of  satire  proper  (//or.  S,  ii.  1  and  10),  His  writings  of 
this  class  were  numerous,  of  which  we  now  have  upwards 
of  SOO  fragments,  very  valuable  in  the  study  of  early  Latin. 
An  important  literary  work  of  Sulla's  time,  and  one  much 
copied  and  used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  has  come  down  to  us 
in  the  Rhetorica  ad  //^rrjuM'KHi,  a  complete  manual  adapted 
from  Greek  s<»urces.     It  is  by  an  unknown  hand. 

The  Middle  Heriod.~T\\\'s  is  the  Golden  Age  of  Latin 
literature,  and  may  be  subdivided  into  two  periods,  in  the 
first  of  which,  the  Ciceronian,  prose  culminated;  aud  in 
the  second,  the  Augustan,  poetry  was  pre-eminent. 

The  Ciceronian  Arje.  —  M.  Terentius  Varro  (a.  r.  c. 
638-727).  styled  by  Quintilian  vir  /{nmanomm  entditissi- 
miis,  of  ancient  family  and  senatorial  rank,  was  an  exten- 
sive writer,  versatile  in  matter  and  in  form.  Tho  total 
number  of  his  works  was  seventy-nine,  of  which  four  were 
written  in  verse.  His  prose  writings  embraced  literature, 
eloquence,  history,  jurisprudence,  grammar,  philosophy, 
geography,  husbandry.  au<l  other  subjects.  M.  Tullius 
Cicero  (a.  v.  c.  648-711)  was  born  near  Arpinum  in 
Latium;  his  father  was  a  Roman  knight.  He  was  endowed 
with  great  talents,  had  iron  industry,  was  kind  and  gene- 
rous in  his  disposititm.  and  cherished  the  loftiest  aims. 
His  tone  of  mind  qualified  him  to  become  the  interpreter 
and  transplanter  of  Grecian  culture  and  refinement.  He 
was  ft  true  patriot  and  full  of  good  intentions,  hut  was 
without  calmness  and  that  courage  which  might  have 
carried  him  safely  through  all  the  dangers  and  distrac- 
tions which  beset  bim.  Cicero  possessed,  to  a  marvel- 
lous degree,  that  Roman  power  of  appropriating  and  as- 
similating foreign  ideas  to  which  we  have  adverted.  He 
thus  enrichecl  Roman  literature  by  introducing  into  it  sev- 
eral new  departments  not  previously  attempted.  Ho  be- 
came the  creator  of  a  standard  prose  so  refined  and  so 
suited  to  the  genius  of  the  Latin  language  that  it  was 
never  afterwards  surpassed.  The  real  business  of  Cicero's 
life  appears  in  his  legal  and  ]>olitical  speeches,  and  hero 
his  ability  shows  to  the  greatest  advantage;  the  know- 
ledge and  experience  gained  in  this  career  were  turned  to 
the  highest  account  in  the  rhetorical  treatises  which  ho 
composed  toward  the  end  of  his  life.  His  later  composi- 
tions also  included  political  science,  ethics,  the  philosophy 
of  religion,  and  theoretic  philosophy.  Reside  all  this,  his 
extensive  personal  connections  and  his  social  dispositirui 
led  to  a  voluminous  correspondence.  Of  his  speeches,  fifty- 
seven  have  come  down  to  us;  we  have  twenty  in  fragments, 
and  we  know  of  thirty-three  more  delivered  by  him,  mak- 
ing in  all  110,  Of  these,  the  most  famous  are  those  against 
Catiline,  for  Milo,  against  Verrcs,  and  the  second  against 


LATIN  LITERATURE. 


1667 


Antony  {Ttic.  Dint.  <le  Or.,  37;  Jiw..  Sat.  10.  125  teq.). 
In  llie  case  of  Verrcs.  Cicero  prosecutcil,  iind  llurtensius, 
bis  great  rival,  delcndcd  ;  nnd  Cicero  by  his  success  became 
head  of  iho  bar,  icj-  jmlirii'rum.  Tbo  extant  rhetorical 
works  of  Cicero  are — tiluttirica.  or  Ve  /nrrttiionr,  an  im- 
inaluro  work  ;  Vt-  Oniiurr,  written  A.  i'.  c.  699,  composed, 
after  the  manner  of  Plato,  in  a  dialogue,  and  between  the 
two  greatest  orators  of  the  precetliug  period,  L.  Crassus  and 
M.  Antonius.  and  several  others  ;  this  work  is  one  of  the  most 
elaborate  productions  of  Cicero,  varied  in  its  contents  and 
graiiil  and  el"nuent  in  stylo  ;  De  Vluria  Oratvrilnis,  or  /inilint, 
a  history  of  Komau  eloquence;  Oiulur  ml  .M.  lirulnm,  Cic- 
ero's /<!•/  iptn-d  on  rhetoric,  giving  his  ideal  of  an  orator: 
I'arliiiinn  Oinlnriir,  a  sort  of  catechism  of  rhetoric:  Tnp- 
ic.i  ml  V.  Trcbuliiim.  an  explanation  of  Aristotle's  ToiriKi, 
written  down  from  memory  during  a  sea-voyage— a  mar- 
vellous feat;  l)e  U/jlimo  Ij'nirre  ((rrttonim,  forming  the  in- 
troduction to  his  translation  of  Demosthenes'  and  /Eseliines' 
speeches  for  and  against  Ctesiplion.  which  translation  is 
lost.  The  four  collections  of  letters  that  have  come  down  to 
us,  if  we  count  in  ninety  addressed  to  Cicero,  contain  alto- 
gether Hti4.  and  are  a  treasure  of  contemporaneous  history, 
and  on  some  matters  the  sole  authority  extant.  They  con- 
sist of— .■!</  FmnillureH,  10  hooks  (A.  i:.  r.  091-711);  Ait 
Allicum,  12  books  (a.  y.  r.  6S6-71 1 ) ;  .Id  Qniiiliim  Frnlrem, 
3  books  I  A.  1-.  c.  fl91-7llU):  .id  M.  Ilnilnm.  2  books  (ques- 
tioned by  Markland.  Lond..  1745:  defended  by  C.  !•'.  Her- 
man, liiitting..  1844|.  Cicero  studied  philosophy  originally 
to  perfect  himself  as  an  orator,  and  in  his  later  years  wrote 
on  the  subject  partly  as  a  matter  of  ambition,  and  partly 
as  a  solace  amid  his  troubles  and  in  the  thoughtfulness  of 
declining  life.  Admirable  as  the  matter  sometimes  is,  and 
important  as  it  sometimes  is  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
is  our  only  means  of  knowing  the  system  or  view  in  ques- 
tion, the  form  is  scarcely  less  admirable  (»r  important.  Be- 
ing the  first  Uoman  ivriter  who  treateil  philosophical  sub- 
jects in  a  clear  and  elegant  manner,  he  created  the  philo- 
sophical stylo  in  Latin.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his 
extant  works  in  this  department:  Ih-  llrpnbtirii.  6  books, 
of  which  scarcely  a  third  has  rcachecl  us :  l)f  I^ptfilntn, 
probably  in  6  books  originally,  of  which  we  now  possess  only 
three  and  some  fragments:  I'nrndti.ni,  an  exposition  of  six 
striking  maxims  of  the  Stoics:  ('ununliitin,  on  his  daugh- 
ter's death,  of  which  only  fragments  exist;  Huriemim,  on 
the  praise  of  philosophy,  now  fragmentary:  l)c  t'inilma 
Unuorum  €t  Miitm-nm,  in  i}  books,  a  compilation  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  Greek  sects  concerning  the  Supreme  (iood 
and  Evil,  perhaps  the  most  carefully  elaborated  of  all  his 
phitos^iphical  works:  .\cmtcmicn,ov  doctrines  of  the  Acad- 
emv,  originallv  in  2  books,  afterwards  rewritten  in  4  books; 
we  have  now  the  second  hook  of  tlii>  1st  ed.,  and  of  the  2d 
ed.  the  first  part  of  the  first  ami  some  fragments  ;  TiiHrn- 
/.(ii/r  l)lM/iu(rttiaiirii,  in  5  books.  On  certain  metaphysical  and 
moral  piints;  TimriiM,  a  free  rendering  of  Plato's  dialogue 
of  this  name:  fjr  Itrnriim  .\iiinni,  in  3  books,  mainly  ex- 
crTpts  from  the  (ireek  philosophers  on  this  subject:  Cnlo 
Miijiir,  or  praise  of  r)ld  age. containing  materials  drawn  from 
I'liilo.  .Xenophon.  and  others,  with  a  eari'fnl  delineation  of 
Cat'i's  character,  finished  in  style  and  important  in  matter; 
/)c  lUriiialione,  in  2  books,  a  supplement  to  (>'■  Ihnniin 
.Vdinrii  :  /<<■  Fnio,  now  in  mutilated  form,  attacking  the 
views  of  the  Stoics  and  defending  those  of  the  Arademics ; 
Lrrliin,  rir  praise  of  friendship,  largely  ilrawn  from  lircek 
sources,  composed  in  a  highly  interesting  manner;  />«■ 
titnrlii,  in  2  books,  read  by  Petrarch,  but  since  lest;  JJe 
OlTiriin,  in  3  books,  addressed  to  his  son  to  form  his  morals, 
hastily  written  and  praeti.al,  containing  some  just  an<l  pro- 
foun.r  views  andeuliveni-cl  by  illustrations  from  Roman  his- 
tory. In  Iho  ileparlment  of  jurisprudence  he  wrote  lie  Jim; 
Cieili,  He  inaile  some  attempts  in  history,  as  Cntiuiii-iitiiriitii 
Cr.B«iW<i(ii«.Viii'anil  .4 </"iiV"Mi/.i,  which  arc  lost.  In  poetry  this 
groat  prosi'-writer.  like  our  .leremy  Taylor,  was  liltli'  more 
than  a  versifier,  and  only  subjeefed  himself  to  tlu'  ridicule 
of  the  great  poets,  as  Juvenal  I.V.l^  lit.  124  x./.i  and  .Mar- 
tial (2.  S9,  3  »<•</.).  Cicero's  freedman  nnd  friend.  Tiro,  sur- 
vived him,  and  published  his  orations  and  letters.  C.  Ju- 
lius l^iesar  (a.  I'.  t\  B5I-71II|  hail  the  most  varied  talents; 
he  was  second  as  an  orator  only  to  Ciceri>— was  a  historian, 
a  grammarian,  a  great  statesman  and  general.  Ilf  his 
literary  works  the  most  important  has  come  down  to  us, 
Cnminrutnrii  dp  Itrtln  liittliro,  in  7  books,  and  Or  ttrttn 
Cirili,  in  3  books  :  and  iifler  his  death  the  last  year  in  Haul 
and  the  .Alexandrine.  African,  and  Spanish  wnr-^  werc>  nar- 
raleil  by  his  friends,  the  first  two  by  A.  Hirlins,  aii.l  Ihi' 
last  two  by  some  unknown  hand.  Ciesar's  style  is  a  model 
of  simplicity,  precision,  and  directness,  with  little  rhetori- 
.■al  nniainenl.  Cornelius  Nepos  (c.  A.  r.  c.  000-730).  the 
friend  of  Cicero  and  .\llicus,  and  also  of  Catullus,  was  a 
somewhat  voluminous  writer  of  history  and  biography,  but 
only  a  portion  of  his  l)r  Vlrii  ///ii«fri/<ii«  is  extant.  His 
style  is  graceful,  hut  deviates  in  some  points  from  classic 


usage.  T.  Lucretius  Cams  (c.  A.  u.  c.  656-699)  in  his  l)e 
Neriim  Saiiiru.  in  6  books,  treated  of  physics,  of  meta- 
physics, anil  the  Epicurean  ethics,  in  imitation  of  Em|ic- 
docles  and  Ennius.  This  work  is  important  as  being  the 
fullest  exponent  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus,  and  though 
written  in  an  archaic  style,  it  was  composed  with  great 
mastery  of  thought  and  expression.  He  received  little  at- 
tention in  his  own  age,  but  the  Augustan  poets  admired  and 
copied  him.  He  has  been  fortunate  in  his  treatment  in 
modern  times,  having  been  edited  by  the  great  Lachmann 
(Berlin,  18all-00)  anil  by  a  consummate  English  scholar, 
Mr.  Monro  (Camb..  1800-73).  C.  Sallustius  Crispus  (A.  u.  f. 
667-720)  devoted  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  history.  Of 
his  works  we  have  liit/iim  <_'ttfitiiiai-iitin  and  liiUum  Jiiijnr- 
tliinum  complete;  of  his  Hinloriir,  in  5  books,  we  have  only 
fragments.  He  was  the  first  Roman  historian  who  wrote 
according  to  fixed  rules.  Like  his  great  model,  Thucydides, 
ho  was  sententious  and  concise,  soinetimes  even  to  obscuri- 
ty. He  deviated  from  the  usages  of  his  time,  perhaps 
largely  through  hatred  of  Cicero,  and  nflTcctcd  archaic  dic- 
tion. '  C.  Valerius  Catullus  (a.  u.  e.  007-700),  called  by 
TeufTel  the  greatest  lyric  poet  in  Latin,  and  by  Niebuhr 
the  greatest  poet  Rome  ever  possessed,  except  perhaps  some 
few  of  the  earlier  ones,  followed  at  first  the  track  of  the 
Alexandrine  poets,  but  afterwards  developed  rich  lyrical 
talent  which  was  ripened  by  love  and  a  bitter  cxperieuoo 
of  life.  The  116  pieces  that  have  come  down  to  us  refer  to 
such  a  variety  of  topics,  are  composed  in  so  many  different 
styles  nnd  metres,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  classify  them. 
Some  are  strictly  lyrical,  one  is  a  legendary  heroic,  four 
may  be  called  elegies,  and  several  epigrams.  His  genius 
adorned  whatever  it  touched,  but  it  is  every  way  to  be  a 
matter  of  profound  regret  that  many  of  his  poems  are  de- 
filed by  gross  coarseness  and  sensuality.  P.  Vergilius  Maro 
(a.  !-•.<•  684-735),  by  way  of  eminence  the  Roman  poet, 
was  alike  distinguished  for  ability,  learning,  delicacy,  and 
amiability.  His  extant  poems  are.  ten  Kilinjn  or  bucolics, 
imitations  and  partly  translations  of  Theocritus  :  (imnjha, 
in  4  books,  in  which  he  partly  availeii  himself  of  his  own 
experience  in  youth  and  p.irtly  drew  ou  the  lircek  writers, 
especially  on  Xenophon  and  Hesiod,  and  partly  on  the 
Roman  writers  Dn  llilni»  /tnillrig  ;  the  masterly  diction 
of  this  work  makes  it  the  most  perfect  Roman  poem  as  a 
work  of  art ;  the  .'Kmid,  in  12  books,  on  which  Vergil  spent 
Iho  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  and  dying  regarded  as  in  an 
unfinished  state.  In  this  poem,  which  has  taken  its  place 
among  the  great  epics  of  the  world.  Vergil  partly  availed 
himself  of  IJreek  models,  and  partly  relied  on  his  exten- 
sive studies  in  Italian  legends,  history,  and  localities.  Bo- 
side  these  undoubtedly  genuine  works,  we  have  several 
Viirmhiii  .Miiiiini.  )ierhaps  wruugly  attributed  to  him.  As 
to  the  form  of  his  name,  the  in.scriptions  of  the  time  of  the 
Republic  and  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  are 
in  favor  of  Vcriiitiiiu ;  the  earliest  dated  instance  of  the  use 
of  the  form  ViniiliuK  belongs  to  the  fifth  century  after 
Christ.  (J.  llnra'lius  Elaccus  (A.  n.  c.  089-740)  has  shared 
with  Vergil  the  greatest  popularity  among  all  the  Roman 
poets.  The  branch  of  poetry  he  first  cultivated  was  satire  ; 
of  this  we  have  two  books  or  eighteen  pieces;  his  A'/mi/ioi 
l.iliiv,  of  about  the  same  dale,  a  sort  of  satire  of  a  inoro 
special  character,  contains  seventeen  pieces.  He  aller- 
wards  resolved  to  transplant  Aleieus  and  Sappho  into  Ro- 
man soil,  and  the  result  is  the  three  first  books  of  the  Ciir- 
miiiii  or  odes,  to  which  he  added  a  fourth  after  an  interval 
of  about  six  years.  These  are  the  most  elaborate  of  all 
his  works,  'fho  K/iininlit.  23  in  number  in  2  books,  aro 
of  the  same  general  character  as  the  Sulhii.  but  being 
wriltin  in  the  maturity  of  his  learning  and  ability,  have 
higher  qualities  ami  arc  in  a  more  perfect  form;  the  third 
of  the  second  book,  the  .lr«  /'i,<fiVri.  treating  of  lesthetio 
questions  in  the  Ureek  style,  is  the  most  fumoos  of  the 
Epistles.  Albius  Tibullus  (c.  A.  f.  r.  700-73.'))  followed  the 
Alexandrine  pools  in  his  choice  of  annitory  subjects;  his 
representations  are  nalural  and  his  style  very  simple.  Wo 
have  four  books  of  /■.'/■'/iV"  under  his  name,  of  which  the 
third  is  by  an  imitator  of  Tibullus;  Lygdainus  is  his  real 
or  ficlitious  designation.  Sextus  Propertius  (c.  a.  f.  c-. 
70.1  7311)  was  also  an  elegiac  poet,  ond  a  disciple  of  the 
Alexandrines,  learned  and  often  obscure,  but  lively  and 
original.  Ho  has  left  five  bnoks  of  Klii/im.  P.  ttvidius 
Naso  (A.  t'.  r.  71 1-770).  the  most  pridific  of  the  great  poets 
of  Riilne.  was  carefully  bred  as  a  pleader,  but  from  natural 
bent  turned  off  into  the  path  of  poetry.  The  following 
are  his  works  now  extant  ;  Umiidit,  2\  letters  in  elegiac 
verse,  feigned  to  have  been  written  by  Indies  or  chiefs  in 
the  heroic  age  ;  l.ihri  Amiirum,  49  elegies.  chicHy  amatory 
pieces:  .4i»  Amnlnriii,  «.  didaclic  jioem  in  elegiac  verse; 
Urmrdiii  ,4iio.ii«,  of  Ihu  same  charailer  and  form  ;  .Meia- 
mor/iAi.ncoii  l.ihri  AT.,  a  collection  of  Iho  most  remarkable 
fables  of  classic  mythology,  in  dactylic  hexameters;  /'«»- 
(oriiiii  I.iliri  VI.,  an  oxiiosilion  in  elegiacs  of  tlio  festivals  in 


1668 


LATIN  LITERATURE. 


tlie  Roman  calendar:  Tri/itium  Lihri  V.  and  Kx  I*outit  Lihri 
/  r,,  the  former  consisting  of  50  elegies  and  tlie  latti-r  of  (fi, 
d('Scril)ing  his  sufferings  on  his  way  to  exile  and  while  he  was 
in  exile;  /fci's.  a  poem  in  elegiacs  written  against  an  enemy 
whose  name  is  concealed  :  Nalieutityni,  a  fragment  in  hex- 
ameters on  fishes.  Ovid  had  a  most  fertile  mind,  possessed 
great  niiis'tcry  of  form,  and  treated  his  subjects  with  inim- 
itable ease  and  grace,  and  had  he  been  as  retined  as  Vergil, 
he  would  have  rivalled  liim  in  fame.  T.  Ijivi\is  of  Patnvium 
(a.  u.  r.  095-770)  was  the  most  important  prose-writer  of 
the  Augustan  ago.  He  wrote  on  philosophy  and  on  rhet- 
oric, but  his  great  work  was  his  .!/>  Vrbc  Confiita  Libri,  or 
history  of  Rome  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  A.  v.  r. 
745,  in  142  books,  of  which  only  35  are  extant,  being  the 
first  decade  and  books  21—45  ;  but  we  have  a  summary, 
I'vruH-hir,  of  most  of  the  lost  portion.  For  his  matter  ho 
drew  especially  on  Polybius  and  the  later  annalists;  but 
his  manner,  eminently  natural  and  lively,  of  relating  events 
and  of  depicting  moods  and  characters,  was  his  own.  His 
diction  was  wanting  in  strict  classical  Latinity,  and  its 
provincial  characteristics  were  designated  as  piitnvinitas 
(Qnint.  15,  55).  Justinus,  who,  with  Florus,  probably 
livc<i  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  abridged  the  Vniveranl 
Jfixton/  of  Trogus,  a  work  in  44  books,  written  in  the  ago 
of  Livy.  Vitruvius  Pollio  composed  (c.  A.  v.  c.  740)  Ife 
Arrhitectura  Lihri  ,V.,  and  dedicated  it  to  Augustus. 

The  Imperial  Ar/e,  the  Silver  Aje  of  Roman  Literature. 
The  Firnt  Centnrif,  A.  D.  14-117. — M.  Vclleius  Patorculus 
(a.  n.  30)  treated  the  history  of  the  Empire  in  his  abridg- 
ment of  Roman  history  in  two  books.  His  words  are  clas- 
sical, but  his  style  is  affected  and  pompous.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  Valerius  Maximus,  whose  Fnctomm  et  Bic- 
tornm  Mfmorabtlium  Libri  IX.,  addressed  to  Tiberius,  18  a 
compilation  made  without,  taste  or  discrimination.  A. 
Cornelius  Cclsus,  of  the  time  of  Nero,  wrote  on  various 
practical  matters,  and  composed  an  encyclopjedia,  of  which 
the  eight  books  treating  of  medicine  alone  have  reached  us. 
Phasdrus,  partly  under  Tiberius  and  partly  under  his  suc- 
cessor, published  his  book  ni^  ^EHopean  Fabhn  in  good  iam- 
bic senarii,  and  in  good  literary  style.  L.  Anua-us  Seneca 
(c.  A.  u.  c.  750-A.  D.  f)5),  the  most  brilliant  figure  of  his  time, 
in  genius  and  culture  may  be  compared  with  Ovid.  His 
works  were  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  but  composed 
with  an  aim  to  brilliancy  rather  than  accuracy.  Many  of 
them  are  known  only  in  fragments  or  by  quotations. 
Among  those  extant  may  be  mentioned  EpiHtnls:  mi  Lucil- 
imuy  Apocolocifntogix,  a  satire  upon  Claudius,  and  De  lie- 
nejiciin.  We  have  also  as  attributed  to  Seneca  t-ertain  epi- 
grams and  tragedies.  The  latter,  eight  in  number,  agree 
in  the  main  with  one  another  and  with  the  prose  works  of 
Seneca.  Q.  Curtius  Rufus,  under  Claudius,  wrote  Hintoriif 
Afexandri  Maf/ui,  in  10  books,  (he  two  first  of  which  arc 
lost.  He  is  rather  a  rhetorician  than  a  historian,  and  in 
his  style  somewhat  resembles  Seneca.  Contemporary  with 
Seneca  was  Columella  of  Gades,  who  wrote  De  lie  linitira, 
in  12  books.  Under  Caligula  or  Claudius,  Pomponius  Mela 
wrote  his  JJe  Chronofjraphia^  in  3  books,  the  earliest  geog- 
raphy we  possess.  A.  Persius  Flaecus  (a.  d.  34-62)  wrote 
some  compositions  that  have  been  lost,  and  six  satires, 
which  are  mostly  reflections  on  tenets  of  the  Stoics,  with 
extensive  employment  of  Horatian  words  and  phrases.  M. 
AnnasuH  Lucanus,  a  friend  of  Persius  and  nephew  of  Sen- 
eca (A.  D.  30-()5),  wrote  on  various  subjects  in  prose  and 
verse.  We  have  hi?  Pharaalia^  in  10  books,  an  unfinished 
epic  on  the  civil  war  between  Porapey  and  Caesar.  It  is 
historically  accurate,  but  (he  style  is  artificial  and  pathetic. 
possessing  great  beauties  and  great  defects.  In  Noro's 
time  arose  that  ethical  novel  which  we  have  under  the 
name  of  Petronius  Arbiter.  Originally  a  largo  work,  it 
is  now  a  heap  of  fragments,  the  largest  of  which  is  the 
Centt  TrimftlrhioniH.  C.  PHuius  Secundus,  Pliny  the  Elder 
(a.  T).  23-7'J),  an  officer  and  inspector  of  finance,  was 
also  a  person  of  great  and  diverse  literary  activity.  Of  his 
works  there  is  extant  only  his  Aatitratia  I/iittorin,  in  37 
books,  a  sort  of  cneyclopa'dia  of  natural  science.  It  was 
compiled  from  a  great  number  of  authors,  and  is  admirable 
for  its  extent,  but  bears  marks  of  haste,  and  is  composed 
in  an  uneven  style.  It  long  enjoyed  great  authority.  The 
only  poet  of  the  lime  of  Vespasian  that  has  come  down  to 
us  is  Valerius  Flaecus,  whose  Artjonautim.  in  10  books,  is  an 
imitation  of  Apollonius  of  Rhodes.  The  style  is  pretentions 
and  the  phraseology  mostly  derived  from  Vergil.  Under  I»o- 
mitian  wrote  C.  Silius  Italicus  (a.  n.  25-101).  originally  a 
)>Dlitieian,  then  a  literary  man.  He  wrote  the  /^/fHiVrt.  apoem 
in  17  books,  deriving  his  matter  from  Livy  and  Polybius. 
and  in  stylo  imitating  Homer  and  Vergil.  At  the  same 
jicriod  (c.  A.  i>.  45-'.MJ)  lived  P.  Papinius  Statius.  His 
earliest  and  largest  work  was  the  TbrbaiH,  in  12  hooks, 
drawing  on  Antimachus  for  material  and  following  Vergil 
in  form;  he  \oR  his  Arhi(/ein  unfinished:  his  Si fvpr,  in  5 
books  are  very  interesting,  forming  valuable  sketches  of 


the  time.  Mostly  under  Domitian  also  lived  M.  Valerius 
Martialis  fc.  a.  d.  42-102)  :  we  have  by  him  fifteen  books  of 
ejtigrams,  turning  on  the  social  life  of  Rome  in  those  days, 
with  all  its  grossnessand  servility.  Martial  appears  in  these 
writings  almost  equal  to  Ovid  in  ease  ami  elegance  of  poetic 
form,  but  sinks  quite  below  him  in  moral  detrradation. 
M.  Fabius  Quintilianus  (c.  a.  d.  3.)-il5)  holds  a  high  place 
among  the  prose-writers  of  this  period.  Educated  at  first 
for  the  bar,  he  afterwards  became  the  most  distinguished 
teacher  of  eloquence  in  Rome.  He  composed  a  work  on 
the  causes  of  the  decay  of  oratory,  which  is  lost ;  we  happily 
still  possess  his  great  work  /nxtitutio  Oratorio,  in  12  books, 
on  the  complete  training  of  the  orator.  This  work  is  very 
valuable  for  its  matter,  and  treats  the  subject  in  an  inter- 
esting and  judicious  manner.  Quintilian  was  sensitive  to 
the  faults  of  the  diction  of  his  period,  and  continually  reverts 
to  the  earlier  and  better  usage,  never  wearying  of  praising 
and  recommending  Cicero;  but  t^tiintilian's  own  style 
seems  artificial  and  ungraceful  to  the  admirers  of  that  con- 
summate writer.  Sextus  .Tulius  Frontinus  (e.  a.  d.  40-103), 
a  distinguished  engineer,  has  left  records  of  his  experience 
and  studies  ;  we  have  extant  Strataf/riuatn,  a  work  on 
tactics,  and  De  Aqnig  Vrbin  Jioni/r,  in  2  books,  written  in  a 
concise  and  refined  style.  The  most  eminent  poet  of  the 
time  of  Trajan  is  J).  Junius  Juvenalis  (c.  a.  d.  47-1301, 
who  turned  from  the  study  of  oratory  and  the  pursuits  of 
wartothe  study  of  poetry.  We  have  by  him  sixteen  satires, 
the  last  of  which  betray  the  infirmities  and  faults  of  age. 
The  earlier  satires  depict  the  vices  of  Roman  society  in  a 
manner  always  interesting,  and  sometimes  horribly  vivid. 
His  style  is  concise,  energetic,  and  always  suited  to  his 
theme,  only  he  indulges  now  and  then  in  a  flash  of  sarcas- 
tic wit  even  in  his  most  grave  passages.  Among  the 
prose-writers  of  the  time  of  Trajan,  the  first  place  has  been 
conceded  to  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus  (c.  A.  D.  54-119).  His 
extant  works  are  Dia  tot/us  de  Oratorihun,  composed 
with  a  fulness  and  grace  not  found  in  Tacitus's  other 
writings:  Ajfriroia,  a  valuable  biography  of  his  father-in- 
law,  reminding  us  by  its  manner  now  of  Sallust,  now  of 
Cicero  ;  Oemnmia,  written  in  a  sympathetic  spirit  and  with 
a  high  rhetorical  coloring;  //fsfonff, a  narrative  chiefly  of 
the  Flavian  dynasty  (a.  p.  69-96),  originally  in  fourteen 
books,  of  which  only  the  four  first  and  the  first  half  of  the 
fifth  have  come  down  ;  Auuafen,  or  Ab  ExcrnHn  Dlri  Autfu»ti, 
in  16  books,  a  history  of  A.  D.  14-68,  of  which  we  now 
have  only  the  first  and  the  last  third.  His  style  is  very 
peculiar;  it  is  concise  often  to  harshness,  audacious  in  its 
irregularities,  and  withal  of  a  poetic  coloring;  it  is  com- 
monly sententious,  but  on  special  occasions  grand  and  son- 
orous, and  then  reminds  us  of  the  best  periods  rounded  by 
the  hand  of  Cicero.  C.  Plinius  CflpciUus  Seeundus,  Pliny 
the  Younger,  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Pliny  the  Elder 
(a.  It.  62-113).  was  a  fluent,  smooth,  and  interesting 
writer.  We  have  of  him  the  speech  in  which  he  returned 
thanks  to  Trajan  for  the  consulate,  commonly  called  Pane- 
ijip'icAot;  Kpiotuhr,  composed  with  a  view  to  publication, 
in  9  books;  and  EpiaUds-  Plinii  et  Trajant,  in  an  unfin- 
ished state. 

The  limit  assigned  to  this  article  allows  us  to  add 
scarcely  more  thau  the  chief  names  of  the  rest  of  the  Im- 
perial l*eriod. 

Of  the  nevnud  century  of  our  era  are  Suetonius,  the  au- 
thor c)f  the  Lires  of  the  Twelve  Cfr&arn  ;  Florus.  who  wrote 
an  abridgment  of  Roman  history  ;  Terentius  Scaurus,  the 
grammarian;  the  historian  Appian.  who  wrote  in  (Jreek; 
the  jurists  lUpius  and  Gains;  the  critic  Aulus  (lellius,  au- 
thor of  tho  Shorten  Attirir  ;  Appuleius.  author  of  the  Met- 
ftinorphonfH  :  Minucius  Felix,  whose  Octavitts  is  tho  earliest 
extant  work  of  Christian  Latin  literature:  Tertullian,  a 
defender  of  Christianity  ;  Aeron  and  Porphyrion,  the  classic 
commentators:  the  Vrrnio  ]'ctun  of  the  Hible,  at"tcrwards 
revised  and  called  the  Vnh/ata.  In  the  third  rt7tfuri/  we 
find  the  jurists  I'lpian  and  Julius  Paulus ;  Cyprian,  bish- 
op of  Carthage,  chiefly  an  apologist:  Nonius  the  lexicog- 
rapher; Terentianus  Maurus,  a  writer  on  metres:  Ar- 
nobius.  a  Christian  apologist,  and  Laetaiitius  his  pupil,  the 
most  elegant  of  all  the  Cliristian  Latinists.  To  the  fourth 
crutur)]  belong  the  grammarians  Victorinus  and  Donatus; 
Eutroj)iu8  the  historian;  tho  theologian  Hilary;  the  poet 
Ausonius:  Damasus.  one  of  the  earliest  writers  of  Chris- 
tian hymns;  Ammianus  the  historian:  the  grammarian 
Servius  ;  St.  Ambrose,  whose  hymns  appnuieh  classical 
perfection  ;  St.  Jerome,  the  translator  of  the  liible  and  re- 
viser of  the  earlier  version  :  Prudentius.  the  greatest  of  the 
i'hristian  poets:  Claudiau,  the  last  classic  poet;  and  St. 
Augustine,  the  theologian,  the  greatest  of  tho  Latin  Fa- 
thers. This  period,  the  period  of  decay,  cannot  well  go 
beyond  tho  time  of  the  philosopher  Boethius,  c.  A.  D.  500, 
and  certainly  not  beyond  the  age  of  Justinian,  under 
whom  the  great  Corpus  Juria  was  drawn  up,  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century,  Cuables  Shokt. 


LATI.NUS— LATROBE. 


I(j(i9 


Lati'miSy  a  king  of  Latium,  was,  according  to  tho  com- 
mon tradition,  a  son  of  Founu?  and  tho  nymph  Marien.  and 
the  father  of  Lavinia.  whom  he  gave  in  mnrriajrr  to  ^iira?. 
But  heside!^  this  there  were  many  other  dificrcnt  traditions 
concerninj;  his  descent  and  history. 

Lat'itude,  on  the  earth,  18  the  distance  of  a  place  from 
the  equator  measured  on  the  meridian  pa«?ing  through  the 
phice,  and  expressed  in  denominations  of  circular  measure. 
To  the  ancient  geographers  the  largest  dimension  of  the 
known  world  was  that  which  lay  in  the  direction  E.  and  W. 
Hence  distances  measured  E.  or  W.  from  a  meridian   as- 
sumed as  an  axis  of  reference  were  called  longitudes  (Lat. 
Aiiiyr7if(/o, '*  length  "),  and  those  measured  in  the  transverse 
direction,  latitudes  (Lat.  Inti'tuito,  "  breadth  ").    Geographi- 
cal latitude  is  the  angle  made  by  the  vertical  (or  perpen- 
dicular to  tho  horizon)  at  the  place  and  the  plane  of  the 
equator:  but  as  the  earth  is  not  truly  spherical,  this  verti- 
cal is  not  usually  coincident  in  direction  with  the  radius 
drawn  to  the   place   from   the  earth's  centre.     Tho  angle 
made  by  this  radius  with  the  plane  of  the  equator  is  called 
the  geocentric  latitude.     Geographical  latituilc  is  also  the 
angle  made  by  tho  horizon  of  the  place  (which  is  the  plane 
touching  tho  earth  at  the  (dace)  and  tho  horizon  or  tangent 
plane  of  that  point  of  the  equator  in  which  the  meridian 
of  the  place  cuts  it:  and  as  this  last  plane  is  necessarily 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis,  it  follrtws  that  the  latitude  of  a 
place  is  equal  to  the  angle  which  its  horizon  makes  with 
the  earth's  axis,  and  that  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above 
tho  horizon   is   equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place.      Hence, 
if  tliere  were  a  star  situated  truly  in  the  pole  of  the  eeleslial 
sphere,  the  latitude  of  any  place  at  whieh  such  star  could 
be  Been  could  be  determined  by  the  sintple   observation  of 
that  star,  correctifm  having  been  made  for  the  effects  of 
refraction,  aberration,  and  nutation.    As  the  star  called  the  j 
pole-star  is   not  truly  in  the  pole,  wheu  it  is  observed  for  i 
latitude  further  and  more  important  correction  is  necessary  i 
for  its  position  at  the  time  of  observation  relatively  to  the 
true  pole.     A  meridian  observation  of  any  star  or  other 
celestial  body,  whose  declination  (distance  from  the  equi-  ' 
Doclial  or  celestial  equator)  at  the  time  of  observation   is 
known,  affords    an   easy  means   of   determining   latitude. 
Meridian  observations  of  stars  passing  near  the  zenith  fur- 
nish the  most  satisfactory  results,  being  hardly  perceptibly 
affected  by  refraction.     Observations  of  celestial  bodies  out 
of  the  meridian   may  also,  with   proper  auxiliary  data,  be 
used  for  ascertaining  latitudes,  the  varying  conditions  pre- 
senting several  distinct  problems  in  spherical  astronomy. 
Latitude  in  the  heavens  is  tho  distance,  in  angular  mea- 
sure, of  any  celestial  object  from  the  ecliptic,  or  plane  of 
the  earth's  orbit,  measured  on  a  secondary  (that  is,  a  circle 
perpendicular)  to  tho  ecliptic.     The  latitude  is  geocentric 
if  given  as  it  would  seem  if  observed  from  the  centre  of  the  j 
earth,  and  heliocentric  if  given  in  like  mariner  as  if  observed 
from  the  centre  of  the  sun.  F.  A.  P.  BARNAnn. 

Latitlldina'rians,  a  former  Broad-Church  party  in 
the  ('huroh  of  England.  Their  chief  scat  was  Cambridge, 
and  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  was  their  most  flourishing 
period.  The  Latiludinarians  attempted  to  unite  the  I'uri- 
tan  and  Presbyterian  elements  with  the  national  Church. 
They  wore  strongly  Protestant  and  Low  Church  in  their 
foelinffs.  and  generally  Arminian  or  indifferent  in  doctrine. 
Burnet,  Whialon,  Tillots<in.  Chillingwortli,  Cudwnrth,  More, 
Gale,  and  Wilkins  were  among  their  greatest  names.  Tho 
modern  Hroad-Chureh  parly  is  also  called  Lalitudinarian. 
La'tiiim^  during  the  Roman  empire  the  most  fertile 
and  most  den-iely  peopled  province  of  Italy.  Its  undu- 
lating plain,  rising  from  tho  Mediterranean  to  the  Apen- 
nines, produced  the  choicest  wines,  and  contained,  bewitles 
Rome,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  many  populous  and  flour- 
ishing towns;  as,  for  instance.  Alba  Longa,  Tusculum, 
Ardea,  Lavinium,  Antium,  and  Corioli.  By  neglect  the 
water-courses  anil  the  whide  ilraining  system  of  tlio  plain 
fell  into  disorder,  nn<l  (hustho  whole  coast-district  between 
Antium  and  Terracina  was  transformed  Into  an  unproduc- 
tive and  pestiferous  swamp,  known  as  tho  Pontine  ^larKlics. 
Ijato'na  [Gr.  Letu],  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  mother 
of  Apollo  au'l  Diana  (Artemis)  by  Jupiter  (Zeus).  Pur- 
sued by  a  serpent  sent  by  Juno  (Hera),  she  fled  frtim  place 
to  place,  until  at  last  she  found  rest  nn  the  floating  inland 
of  belos,  whieh  Jupiter  fixoti  firmly  for  her.  and  wliere  she 
bore  him  t\To  children.  Atlhoiich  the  myths  relating  to  her 
were  much  enlargerl  by  later  writers,  no  xpecial  worship  was 
over  instituted  fur  her,  and  hhe  hn<l  no  temples  of  her  own. 
Latoar'd*,Vuvrr4:nr',drfTn^oi>nM.K  M\t.oCouKKT). 
b.  at  Carhaix.  iJrittiiiiy,  N<»v.  '2'.\,  I74''>:  edui'tited  at  the 
college  of  Quimper;  entered  military  service  in  17»>7:  served 
for  some  tinte  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  <)islingui-'hed  him- 
self in  1782  at  the  siege  of  Port  Mahon  ;  wa-^  a  captain  at 
tho  outbreak  of  (he  Revolution  :  fought  with  brilliant  suo- 
cess  in  llic  republionn  armies  of  the  At|is  autl  the  Pyrenees, 


I  and  became  the  commander  (although  still  retaining  the 
sitnple  title  of  captain)  of  a  vanguard  of  8000  men,  com- 
posed of  all  the  companies  of  grenadiers,  which  soon  be- 
eamc  famous  as  "  the  infernal  cohimn."  and  more  than  once 
decided  the  battle  by  its  irresistible  impetuosity.  In  1795 
he  retired  from  service  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  mak- 
ing a  sea-voyage  he  was  taken  by  an  English  cruiser  and 
held  as  a  prisoner  of  war  till  1797.  He  re-entered  the 
army  a?  a  substitute  for  the  last  son  of  one  of  his  friends; 
fought  under  Massena  in  Switzerland,  and  then  at  (ho  head 
of  his  own  company  in  Germany,  where  he  fell  at  Ober- 
hauscn.  Bavaria,  June  27.  1800.  His  indomitable  courage, 
his  noble  pride,  and  the  generosity  and  simplicity  of  his 
character  made  him  the  idol  of  the  soldiers.  After  his 
death  his  heart  was  embalmed  and  carried  in  a  silver  va?e 
by  his  company,  anrl  his  name  continued  to  be  called  at 
roll  till  1S14,  the  oldest  sergeant  answering.  "  l>ied  on  the 
field  of  honor."  He  had  a  passion — not  unsuccessful — for 
linguistical  studies,  and  published  in  17H2  A'inreUe'i  Jie- 
chcrrhrs  nur  In  Latufiie,  VOrirjiue  ct  Irs  Aiitit/uit^H  i/e/i  lirC' 
M»*.  whieh  was  reprinted  iu  1802  under  the  title  Oritjinea 

Gnuloinea. 

|ja  Trappe,  a  retired  valley  in  the  department  of  Orne 
(Normandy).  P" ranee.  8  miles  N.  of  Mortagne,  where  in 
1140  a  Cistercian  abbey  was  founded  under  very  severe 
rules,  from  which  originated  the  celebrated  religious  order 
known  as  the  TitAi'PtSTs  (which  sec). 

I^atroille'  (Pierre  AxnRKl,  b.  at  Brives.  in  the  de- 
partment of  Corrcze,  France,  Nov.  29,  1762:  studied  first 
theology,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  17Sfi,  hut  devoted 
himself  afterwards  to  the  study  of  entomohtgy  :  became 
superintendent  of  the  entomological  division  of  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  at  Paris  in  1708.  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1814.  and  professor  of  zoology  after  the 
death  of  Lamarck  in  1820.  and  d.  Feb.  6.  l8."i.'J.  "The  most 
prominent  of  his  numerous  and  voluminous  writings  are — 
Ifinfiiire  nattirri/e  (lea  CruHtart'ti  et  tfrn  Inxertpft  (\  4  vo]s.,  1S02 
-05),  Genera  Cruatacfttrum  <t  InHrrtorum  (4  vols..  18flft-09), 
Coiirg  iV Entomofngie  (is;jl).  He  also  wrote  parts  of  Buf- 
fon's  Natural  History  and  the  entomological  part  of  Cuvier's 
Jitf/ne  animal. 

La'tro  (M.  PoRCirs),  of  Spanish  birth,  flourished  in 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  He  is  highly  spoken  of 
by  Quintiiiau,  and  also  by  the  elder  Seneca,  who  had  known 
him  from  boyhood,  and  who  has  given  in  his  CourrttrrrHiK 
interesting  details  of  his  personal  and  professional  charac- 
ter, and  specimens  of  his  declamations.  Among  his  pupils 
was  the  poet  Ovid.  He  d.  b.  c.  4.  having  taken  his  own 
life,  according  to  Jerome,  while  suft'ering  from  a  severe 
fever.  His  writings  have  perished  ;  for  the  Derlamatio  in 
C  .Saffitathim  Crinpitm  and  the  Dcclaniatt'o  in  d'ceroncm 
have  been  ascribed  to  him  without  sufficient  reason.  (See 
BUhr's  Gcurh.  d.  Hiim.  Lit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  488;  Lindner,  Be 
M.  Porcio  Latrune  Cummentatio,  Brcslau,  18,'>.').) 

H.  Drisi.er. 

Ijatrobe%  post-b.  of  Westmoreland  co..  Pa..  41  miles 
E.  of  I'ittsburg,  on  the  Loyalhannn  Creek,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Ligonier  Valley  and  Pennsylvania  Central  R.  Rs., 
has  I  weekly  newspaper.  7  churches.  2  hotels,  2  banks.  1 
college,  and  1  convent  (St.  Vincent  and  St.  Xavier),  ;t  largo 
coal  and  coki-  companies,  a  paper-mill,  2  itlaning-mills, 
several  large  flouring -mills,  carworks  and  machine-shops, 
and  the  usual  number  of  stores  and  shops.  Pop.  1127. 
Charles  B.  Fink,  hu.  "Apvaxck." 

Latrobe  (Benjvmin  Henry),  b.  in  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, May  I,  ]7t<7  ;  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Lcip- 
sic  :  served  in  the  Prussian  army  (  1785)  ;  returned  to  Eng- 
land ;  studied  architecture:  became  surveyor  of  public 
offices  of  London  (I78S(;  came  to  the  V.  S.  in  179t>,  built 
tho  bank  of  Pennsylvania,  the  Schuylkill  waterworks,  the 
cathedral  and  exchange  at  Baltimore, completetl  tho  Capitol 
of  the  U.  S..  and  rebuilt  it  after  its  destruction  in  I8I5; 
built  steamboats  at  Pittsburg  iu  tho  same  year,  and  d.  at 
New  Orleans  in  Sept.,  1820. 

Latrobe  (BENJ\Mfv  H.>,  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa..  Dec. 
Ifl,  I80fi :  graduated  at  St.  Mary's  Ctdlege,  Baltimore.  iSL'.'t ; 
studied  law,  an<l  was  admitted  to  tho  luir:  after  practicing 
his  profession  in  New  Jersey  and  Baltimore  for  a  few  years, 
abandoned  it  to  become  a  civil  engineer,  and  in  18;{0  was 
appointed  assistant  to.Ionnthan  Knight,  then  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  H.  K.  Co.,  as  such  locating 
the  Washington  branch  of  (hat  road  and  that  between  Point 
of  Bocks  and  Harper's  Kerry,  and  many  other  important 
divisions;  was  chief  engineer  (tf  the  Baltimore  and  Port 
Deposit  B.  R.,  locating  and  completing  it  ;  suceeedetl  Mr. 
Knight  on  his  retirement  in  lS42.  and  flnished  the  road 
to  Wheeling.  Va. ;  has  been  chief  engineer  and  president 
of  various  railroad  companies,  besides  consulting  engineer 
for  various  State  govoromcDts,  and  is  frequently  consulted 


IbTO 


LATROBE— LAUDER. 


by  the  general  governmeDt  on  important  works  of  internal 
improvement. 

Latrobe  (Charles  Joseph),  b.  in  EnglanJ  early  in  the 
ninutet'Uth  century  ;  author  of  sevenil  works  of  travel  of 
high  merit,  among  which  are  The  Alpenstuvk,  or  ^^k-etckea 
vj  Steins  Sct-urri/  utid  Mtinnerg  (1829),  The  Rambler  in  yurth 
Ametica  hi  1S3^~3S  (1835),  and  Tht  /iamUer  in  Mexico  in 
18S4  ( lt>''i61.  Mr.  Lalrol'c  accompanied  \Va«hingtoa  Irving 
in  his  "tour  on  the  prairies." 

Lat'ten  [Fr.  (niton],  a  kind  of  sheet  bronze  used  in  the 
Midille  Ages  for  making  church  ornaments,  monumental 
brasses,  and  the  like.  lu  later  times  latten  denotes  simply 
sheet  brass  or  other  sheet  metal. 
liatter-Day  Saints.  See  Mormonism. 
Lat'timore  (Samiel  Allan).  Ph.  D..  LL.D.,  b.  May 
31.  1828,  at  Liberty,  Ind.  ;  graduated  in  KS50  from  Asbury 
University,  Greencastle;  became  professor  of  <Ireek  at  the 
same  university  in  1852,  of  natural  science  at  Genesee  Col- 
lege, Lima,  N.  Y.,  in  1860.  and  of  chemistry  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rochester,  N.  Y..  in  1867. 

Lat'ty,  tp.  of  Paulding  co.,  0.  Pop.  294. 
LatiideS  de  {Hesri  Masers).  b.  Mar.  23,  1725.  near 
Montagnac.  in  the  department  of  H^rault,  France  ;  received 
a  military  education,  and  went  in  174S  to  Paris  to  study 
mathematics.  Anxious  to  make  himself  conspicuous  some- 
how, he  obtained  an  audience  with  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
and  told  her  that  a  conspiracy  had  been  formed  against  her 
life,  and  that  a  box  containing  a  subtle  poison  would  be 
sent  to  her  through  the  post.  The  box  came,  but  its  con- 
tents were  found  to  be  ashes  only,  and  it  was  discovered  that 
Latudo  himself  had  sent  the  box.  He  was  thrown  in  the 
Bastile,  and  as  he  escaped,  but  was  caught  again,  bis  term 
of  punishment  was  prolonged.  Three  times  he  escaped,  and 
three  times  he  was  caught  again,  and  thus  it  happened  that 
he  was  kept  in  prison  for  thirty-five  years  as  a  punishment 
for  a  mere  foolishness.  In  17S4.  Madame  Legros,  who  in- 
cidentally became  acquainted  with  his  history,  procured  his 
liberation,  a  pension  was  given  him,  and  the  whole  unfor- 
tunate affair — for  it  was  hardly  anything  more — was  for- 
gotten. But  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  the  case  was 
brought  before  the  public  with  all  its  details,  and  used  as  a 
means  of  exciting  the  revolutionary  hatred  against  the  old 
regime — a  purpose  for  which  the  story  was  eminently  well 
suited.  Latude  published  hia  Mf moires  in  1789;  his  advo- 
cate Thierry.  Le  Despotisme  dSroHr  {Z  vols.,  1791-92),  and 
in  1793  a  court  awarded  him  60,000  livres  in  damages,  to 
bo  paid  by  the  heirs  of  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Thus,  the 
French  people  made  a  similar  mistake  to  that  which  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.  had  made.  She  took  Latude  for  a 
criminal;  they  made  him  a  hero:  both  forgot  that  he  was 
a  fool.  A  later  world  has  been  more  just ;  it  pities  him. 
D.  Jan.  1.  1805. 

Lau^bailf  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia, 
on  the  Queiss.  It  has  a  bell-foundry,  .several  breweries,  and 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  Hueu  goods,  cloth,  and  tobacco. 
Pop.  6G10. 

I^au'be  fllEi.N-RicH).  b.  at  Sprottan,  in  Silesia,  Sept.  18, 
1800;  studied  since  1826  theology  at  Halle  and  Rreslau, 
and  settled  in  1832  in  Leipsic,  devoting  himself  exclusive- 
ly to  literary  pursuits.  He  travelled  much  in  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy  ;  was  often  persecuted,  and  several  times 
imprisoned,  for  his  participation  in  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments of  his  time ;  sat  in  the  German  Parliament  of  1848 ; 
waa  director  of  the  Burg  theatre  of  Vienna  from  1849  to 
1807,  and  of  the  theatre  of  Leipsic  in  1808-09.  His  writ- 
ings are  partly  historical — Dan  ueue  Jahrhumlert  (2  vols.. 
1833).  Moilf^rnen  Characterintiken  {2  vols.,  1835),  Geackichte 
dtr  Dentuchen  Literatur  (4  vols.,  1840),  Daa  crstc  Deutsche 
Pitrlnment  (3  vols.,  1849),  Dan  /iurfftheatcr  (1868),  etc.; 
partly  travelling  sketches  and  novels — Framosischc  Lust- 
er hi  Utter  {'A  vols.,  1840),  Bnsjttnffp  Europa  (4  vols.,  18.H3-37), 
Der  deutsche  Krietj  (9  vols.,  1803-66),  etc.;  partly  dramas 
—  ^fonfttdeschi  (1845),  Die  Carlssrhuler  (1850),  O'rn/  Es^ex 
(1856),  etc.  He  is  a  man  of  enterprise,  of  practical  ability. 
and  of  some  talent,  but  he  has  no  genius,  and  his  studies  wore 
superficial.  As  a  writer  of  fancy  his  mastership  of  all  the 
technicalities  of  art  often  enabled  him  to  produce  striking 
effects,  but  he  never  made  a  lasting  impression.  As  a  his- 
torical writer  his  mental  vivacity  and  varied  personal  ex- 
perience make  him  very  entertaining,  but  he  never  in- 
structs. Clemens  Petersen. 

Laud  (William),  b.  at  Reading,  Berkshire.  Oct.  7, 1573, 
was  the  son  of  a  rich  clothier;  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  in  1589;  became  a  fellow  in  1593;  took  his  degree 
aa  master  of  arts  in  1598;  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1601.  From  1601  to  1021.  in  which  latter  year  he  was  cod- 
secrated  bishop  of  St.  David's,  ho  held  several  minor  posi- 
tions. In  1607  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Stanford,  North- 
amptonshire; in  1609  rector  of  West  Tilburv,  Essexshire; 
in  1611  president  of  .St.  John's  College,  Oxford;   and  ia 


1615  archdeacon  of  Huntingdon.  In  all  these  positions  he 
plainly  showed  his  character,  and  by  degrees  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  James  I.  He  was  a  learned  man  and  a 
liberal  supporter  of  learning;  an  exemplary  clergyman, 
energetic,  dignified,  and  benevolent  to  the  poor;  but  he 
hated  the  Puritans,  and  the  fearlessness  and  consistency 
with  which  he  resisted,  and,  later  on,  even  persecuted  them, 
made  the  hatred  reciprocal.  He  was  a  churchman,  rather 
than  a  theologian.  His  religion  had  a  color  of  sacerdotal- 
ism. He  understood  the  Church  better  as  a  worldly  insti- 
tution than  as  a  spiritual  necessity,  and  its  rites  and  cere- 
monies were  to  him  of  paramount  importance.  In  1617  ho 
accompanied  King  James  to  Scotland,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  introduce  episcopacy  into  the  government  of  the 
Sc(»tch  Church,  but  it  failed.  After  the  accession  of  Charles 
I.,  Laud  was  removed  to  the  sec  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1626, 
and  in  1628  to  that  of  London.  In  1624  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  court  of  high  commission,  in  1627  a  privy 
councillor,  and  after  the  assassination  of  Buckingham  he 
actually  became  prime  minister.  In  1630  he  was  chosen 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  in  1033  he  was 
made  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  These  powerful  and  in- 
fluential positions  he  used  with  more  passion  than  pru- 
dence, and  more  energy  than  justice,  to  carry  through  his 
ecclesiastical  views.  The  Puritans  were  everywhere  and  in 
every  way  repressed.  People  who  would  not  conform  to  the 
Established  Church  were  fined,  imprisoned,  branded  on  the 
forehead,  and  exiled  ;  in  some  eases  they  even  had  tlieir 
ears  cut  off  and  their  noses  slit  open.  His  spies  were  every- 
where. The  smallost  congregations  of  Separatists  were 
broken  up,  and  even  the  devotion  of  private  families  did 
not  escape  his  control.  But  if  the  exertions  were  great,  the 
purpose  was  rather  small.  Besides  these  harsh  and  tyran- 
nical measures  in  order  to  compel  people  to  conform  to  the 
Established  Church,  that  which  the  archbi:^hop  did  to  per- 
fect the  institution  itself  was  rather  of  a  jietty  character — 
regulations  with  respect  to  the  proper  place  of  the  altar, 
the  due  manner  in  which  the  altar  ought  to  be  railed  in, 
''Sunday  sports,"  etc.  The  result  was  a  deep  and  itnplac- 
ablc  hatred.  In  1635  a  new  attempt  was  made  to  intro- 
duce the  episcopacy  into  the  Scotch  Church,  and  this  time 
it  led  to  the  Scotch  rebellion,  which  ushered  in  the  English 
revolution.  When  in  1640  the  Long  Parliament  met,  the 
archbishop  was  impeached  for  higli  treason,  and  by  order 
of  the  Commons  brought  to  the  Tower.  There  he  remained 
three  years,  exposed  to  many  indignities.  At  last  his  trial 
came  on,  and  although  he  defended  himself  admirably,  and 
was  not  found  guilty  by  the  Lords,  the  Commons  sentenced 
him  to  death  and  gave  order  to  his  execution,  which  took 
place  June  10,  1644.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
publishe<l  in  London  1857-60;  his  Dinry  and  his  letters  are 
of  great  historical  interest.  Clemens  Petersen. 

Lairdanine  [from/(iii(/nnt(»i],a  base  homologous  with 
morphine  and  codeine,  contained  in  opium.     (See  Watts's 

Diet.,  Snj'jjlcmcnt.) 

Lau'danum  [probably  from  Lndannm  or  Labdanum 
(which  seel],  the  tincture  of  opium,  made  by  soaking  the 
dried  and  powdered  drug  in  alcohol.  It  is  a  valuable 
opiate,  though  of  variable  strength.  It  ought  never  to  be 
given  to  young  ehildreu  as  a  domestic  remedy.  It  has  a 
more  stimulant  and  astringent  effect  than  morphine,  and 
frequently  causes  headache. 

Lau'da  Si'on  Salvato'rem  ('' Praise  the  Saviour 
of  Zion  "),  a  sequence  sung  in  the  Roman  Catholic  churches 
on  Corpus  Christi  Sunday.  It  is  a  rhymed  Latin  hymn  by 
Thomas  Aquinas,  in  twelve  stanzas — nine  having  six  lines 
each,  two  having  eight  lines  each,  and  one,  the  twelfth, 
having  ten  lines. 

Lau'der  (RonEnr  Scott),  R.  S.  A.,  b.  at  Silver  Mills, 
near  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1803;  studied  painting  at 
Edinburgh  and  London  under  the  patronage  of  David  Rob- 
erts and  Sir  Walter  Scott :  spent  five  years  in  Italy  ;  resitled 
from  1838  to  1849  in  London,  and  for  the  remaindc-r  of  his 
life  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  d.  Apr.  21,  1S09.  He  was  a 
<ft-nre  painter  of  great  merit,  his  best  works  being  scenes 
from  Scott's  novels.  His  Christ  tcuchiiiff  ilnmilitif  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Scottish  Association  for  the  Encouragement 
of  Art,  and  presented  to  the  Scottish  National  Gallery  at 
Edinburgh. 

Lauder  (Sir  Thomas  Dick),  Bart.,  b.  near  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  in  1781,  only  son  of  Sir  Andrew  Lauder,  sixth 
baronet  of  Fountainball.  Haddingtonshire;  was  a  contrib- 
utor to  Blnckirood's  Mar/axine  from  its  commencement,  and 
so  successfully  rivalled  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  peculiar  de- 
partment of  historical  fiction  that  several  of  his  tales  were 
attributed  to  the  author  of  Waverley.  Among  them  were 
Lochandhn  (1825).  The  Wolfe  «/  Hudenoch  (1827),  Hiifh- 
land  Jiumldra,  irith  Lfnuj  Taiti  to  Shorten  thr  Way  (1837), 
and  Lvfjendiirif   Tnle-  u/the  Hi'/hlandn  (1841).      Hc  was  an 

active  member  of  scientific  and  antiquarian  societies,  edited 


LAUDER— LAUGHTER. 


1671 


several  works  on  natural  history,  and  was  a  contributor  to 
the  Edinburgh  Eiwyclopttdia,    \>.  near  KdinburgU  May  29, 

18-18. 

Lauder  (William),  b.  in  Scotland  early  in  tho  eight- 
eenth century:  educated  at  Edinburgh  I'niversity;  pub- 
lished in  17iiy  a  collection  of  modern  Latin  verso;  and 
becoming  a  tearher  of  Latin  in  Loudon,  contributed  to  the 
Oentlemnnn  Mmjuziuf  in  1747  a  series  of  articles  attempt- 
ing to  pntve  that  Milton  had  in  his  /*(irn</inv  Lont  borrowed 
largely  from  modera  Latin  poems  by  (irotius,  Maseuius. 
and  others.  These  essays  were  reprinti'd  in  a  volume  in 
1751,  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  but  it  was 
soon  uiieertnineil  that  the  work  was  an  iinposture,  tho  par- 
allel passages  quoted  being  either  forged  or  taken  from  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  i*ni-ndi»e  Lost.  Lauder  confessed 
his  offence,  and  went  to  Barbadoes,  where  he  d.  in  1771. 

Lau'dcrdale,  county  of  N.  W.  Alabama,  boun«lcd  N. 
by  Tennosft-e  and  S.  by  the  Tennessee  River.  The  \V.  end 
touches  Mississippi.  Area,  GJO  square  miles.  It  is  gener- 
ally very  fertile.  The  N.  part  is  a  rolling  plateau.  Cot- 
ton, pork,  and  corn  are  the  chief  products.    Cap.  Florence. 

Pop.   \:y,\VM. 

Lauderdale,  county  of  Mississippi,  bounded  E.  by 
Alabama.  Area,  720  square  miles.  It  is  generally  level 
and  extremely  fertile.  Corn  and  cotton  arc  staple  products. 
It  is  tnivt-rsed  by  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and  the  Vieksburg 
and  Mni-hau  \\.  Rs.     Cap.  Meridian.     Pop.  13,102. 

Lauderdale,  county  of  W.  Tennessee,  having  the  Mis- 
sissippi KiviT  ou  its  western  boundary,  which  separates  it 
from  Arkansas,  the  Forked  Deer  Creek  partly  on  the  N., 
and  the  liig  Ilatchic  River  on  the  S.  Area,  .'iiJU  square 
miles.  Th«'  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  Corn,  cot- 
ton, and  wliL-at  are  tho  chief  productions.     Cap,  Kipley. 

Pop.  iu.n;;h. 

Lauderdale,  post-v.  of  Lauderdale  co.,  Mis«.,  on  the 
Mobile  nnd  Ohio  R.  R..  19  miles  X.  of  Meridian,  has  a 
church,  a  semi-monthly  newspaper,  an  orphans'  home,  and 
ii  Iiir^e  business  in  shipping  cotton.  One  mile  S.  E.  am 
tho  Laiid<'rdalc  Springs,  a  favorite  watering-place.  Pop. 
2.M).   \Vm.  II.  IlooAS,  .Manager  "(Orphans' HoMK  Ii.\NNKii." 

Lauderdale  (Col.  Jami:s),  b.  in  Virginia  about  1780  j 
removcil  early  in  the  present  century  to  West  Tennessee; 
bore  a  distinguished  part  in  the  Crt-ck  war  under  Gens. 
Coffee  and  Jackson,  an'l  wus  killed  while  fighting  with 
great  gallantry  at  the  first  battle  of  New  Orleans  Dec.  2.'*, 
IHII.  Several  counties  and  towns  ia  the  Southern  States 
were  named  for  him. 

Landerdale  (Jamfs  maitland),  Eifinrn  Earl  op,  b. 
in  SL'oIland  in  J  ".'>*.) ;  entered  Parliament  in  I7SU;  was  ono 
of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings 
in  1788;  succeeded  to  the  title  in  17^'.',  and  was  elected  one 
of  the  8i.Ytccn  representative  peers  of  Scotland;  favored  the 
French  Revolution  ;  visited  France,  and  formed  an  inti- 
macy with  Krissot  and  the  leading  Girondists;  energetic- 
ally opposed  all  tlie  war-measures  of  Pitt  ;  rewigned  his 
scat  as  ri'prescntativo  peer:  became  a  citizen  of  Ijonilon, 
and  ran  unsuccessfully  torslicriff;  wrote  much  upon  finance 
ami  Indian  affairs,  and  on  the  accession  of  the  Wliigs  in 
1.S06  became  a  baron  of  the  United  Kingdom,  privy  coun- 
cillor and  chanci'llor  of  Stuthind.  In  -Aug.,  1.SII7,  he  was 
charged  with  an  unsuccessful  mission  to  Frunce  to  treat 
for  peace  ;  resigned  the  chaueellorship  the  same  year;  con- 
tinued in  tho  House  of  Peers  to  oppose  the  wur-pidicy  ;  in 
1SI6  cntleavorcd  to  obtain  the  release  of  Napoleon  from  St. 
Ilcli'na  by  act  of  pHrliainent.  Hi-  publisht-d  in  iSOl  u  very 
popular   Wi)rk,  An    Inifuiry   I'litu   tht:    Snturc    and  Oriijin  oj' 

Pithtif   W'li/t/i,  and   in  i>-ii'J  a  treatise  on  tho  system  of 
government  for  India.     D.  Sept.  I.'l,  LS^Jl). 

Lauderdale  tJonv  iMaitland).  Dtkrop,  b.  at  Lctb- 
ington,  Scotland,  May    lU,    Hllli;  educated  ns  a    rigorous 
Covenanter;    was  commissioner  to  treat  with  Charles  I.  in   j 
his  prison  in  tho  I^lc  of  Wight,  and  obtained  the  signature  I 
of  the  treaty  known  as  tho  ■*  Kngagement"  (Dee.  2r»,  Ifil"), 
by  which  tho  king  was  again   recognized  in  Scotland;  was 
tho  chief  favorite  of  Charles   II.  <luring  his  brief  rule  in 
Scotland  (IftlU-^l):   was  taken  prisoner  at  tho  battle  of 
Worcester  (Sept.,  ICjI),  and   remained   nine  years   in   tho 
ToWlt  and  other  prisons;  was  made  secretary  of  state  and 
high  commissioner  in  Scotland  by  Charles  II.  in  Itifiit;  re-  \ 
ceivect  in  rapid  successitm  all  tho  highest  posts  in  Scotland, 
of  which  kingdom  lie  was  tho  virtual  ruler  for  nuiuy  years ; 
was  created  duke  of  Lauilenlale  in  lC7.'t ;  raised  to  the  Kng-  i 
lish  peerage  in    Ili7i  as   Kiirl  tlnilford,  and  sworn  of  tlie  i 
privy  council,  forming  a  member  of  the  celebrated  Cafml  ' 
ministry.      He   was  a   tlatterer  of  Charles,   ami   has   been 
painted  in  the  darkest  colors  by  Maenuhiy  in  his  Ilintory 
u/  En'jhtnd.      D.  at  Tunbridgo  Aug.  24,  If.HI. 

Lau'dnn,  von  (GinroN  Krnst),  Baron,  b.  at  Trotzen, 
Livonin,  Oct.  10,  17  HI.  of  a  Scottish  family,  and  entered  in 


his  fifteenth  year  the  Russian  military  service,  but  was  dis- 
missed after  the  Peace  of  Belgrade  (i7;i9)  with  the  rank  of 
a  lieutenant.  He  now  offered  his  services  to  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia,  but  was  not  accepted,  because  the  king  disliked 
his  face.  He  then  went  to  Vienna,  was  employed  as  a  cap- 
tain, and  fiKight  in  the  Bavarian  and  in  the  second  Silcsian 
war,  not  without  distinction,  but  without  promotion.  Alter 
the  peace  he  was  removed  to  a  regiment  stationed  ou  tho 
Turkish  frontier,  and  here  he  was  nearly  forgotten.  In 
the  first  year,  however,  of  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  distin- 
guished himself  as  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  Uhlans — so 
much  that  in  17r»7he  was  made  a  general.  His  commission 
came  to  him  through  the  hands  of  the  Prussians,  accom- 
panied by  a  congratulatory  letter  from  Frederick  II.  At 
Kuncrsdorf  (  Aug.  12,  17J'J)  he  decided  the  battle  and  turned 
the  victory  whicli  the  Prussians  had  gained  over  the  Rus- 
sians into  a  complete  rout  of  the  Prussian  army.  Having 
been  made  a  fielii-miirsbal  and  placed  at  the  head  of  an  in- 
dependent corps  of  .'10,(100  men.  he  defeated  the  I*russians 
once  more  at  Landshut  ( June  20,  I7tJ0),  an<l  took  Scbweid- 
nitz  (Oct.  I,  Kfil).  After  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg  ho 
lived  in  retirement  on  his  estates,  engaged  in  studies,  until 
Joseph  n.  placed  liim  at  the  comiimnd  of  tho  whole  Aus- 
trian army  in  tlie  war  against  the  Turks.  Tlie  campaign 
was  a  most  brilliant  one;  the  Turks  were  repeatedly  de- 
feated and  Belgrade  was  taken.  In  the  Bavarian  war  of 
succession  he  commnnded  the  .Austrian  army,  and  succeeded 
in  placing  the  Prussian  armies  in  a  very  difficult  position 
when  peace  was  concluded.  The  Austrian  emjiirc  gave  him 
tho  title  of  generalissimo,  which  none  but  Eugene  had  ever 
had.  and  overloadetl  him  with  dotations  and  honors.  I). 
suddenly  at  Ncutitschein  July  14,  1700. 

Laudouiiilre,  de  (Ukni^:  Goilatne),  b.  in  Franco 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  was  sent  by  Admiral  Coligny 
along  with  Jean  Ribault  to  found  a  colony  in  Florida  ; 
sailed  from  Diepjio  Feb.  15,  I5f>2,  and  left  tho  colonists  at 
Port  Royal  ;  returnc'l  with  three  ships  to  their  relief  in 
l.')tU:  found  the  settlement  abandoned;  entered  the  river 
St.  Jfdin's,  called  by  him  the  river  May,  and  built  Fort 
Caroline.  In  the  surprise  and  masi^acre  perpetrated  there 
by  the  Spaniunls  under  Menendez  {Sept.  20,  1565)  Laudon- 
nicre  escaped  with  but  a  few  followers  ;  arrived  in  Franco 
in  Jan.,  16t)0  ;  was  coldly  received  by  tho  court,  and  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  obscurity.  He  published  in 
IjSfi  an  account  of  his  adventures,  Ih'ntoire  notable  de  fa 
Fluridr.  vtnxtruant  IvH  tmis  rotfaf/rn  /aifti  eu  ivrde  par  des 
capitainei  et  den  pilutea  fran^ais,  (See  alsoT.  Irving's  Con- 
queat  of  Florida.) 

Lau'enburg,  duchy  of  Northern  Germany,  bounded 
by  Ilolsicin.  Mecklcnliurg,  Hamburg,  and  Hanover.  Area, 
454  square  miles.  Pop.  40,5)G.  Cup.  Butzcburg,  the  only 
other  towns  being  Lauenhurg  and  Miilln.  Important  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  Lauenhurg  has  during  the  present  cen- 
tury become  of  fo  little  value  as  to  have  several  times  served 
as  a  make-weight  in  treaties.  It  was  taken  by  Franco 
from  Hanover  180M,  incorporated  with  the  French  empire 
ISIO,  regained  by  Hanover  IS!.'!,  ceded  to  Prussia  1815, 
ami  transferred  to  Denmark  the  same  year.  In  18G4,  after 
tile  Danish  war,  it  wris  ceded  lo  Austria  ami  Prussia,  and 
by  the  convention  of  Gasteiu  (isr)5)  it  wiis  acquired  by  tho 
king  of  Prussin  for  the  sum  of  l,M75,00it  thalcrs,  paid  from 
his  own  pocket,  whereupon  he  became  its  duke,  and  has 
conducteci  the  administration  separately  from  that  of 
Prussia. 

LaurnbuTf;,  town  of  Prupsia,  in  the  province  of  Pom- 
eraiiiii,  on  tbc  Leba,  has  inanufaelures  of  lincu  and  woollen 
fabrics  and  ^  aluablc  li^heries.      Pop.  OjoO. 

I^angh'ery,  tp.  of  Ripley  co,,  Ind.     Pop.  1874. 

J«aiigliiiig  <>aN.     See  NiTitooKN. 

Laugli'tcr  [Ang.-Sax.  hlxihtor,  from  hUnhhnn,  to 
'*  laugh  "J  consists  of  convulsive,  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent involuntary,  actions  of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  by 
means  of  which  the  uir,  being  expelled  from  the  chest  in 
a  series  of  jerks,  produces  a  succession  of  short,  abrupt 
sounds,  variously^  modified  according  to  individual  pecu- 
liarities :  at  the  same  time  the  angles  of  the  mouth  are 
drawn  backward  an<l  upward;  the  upper  lip  is  ehvnteil  ; 
tho  nostrils  are  expanoed  ;  (he  lower  eyelid  is  slightly 
raiseil,  anil  (he  external  angles  of  tho  orbital  iq>cnings 
tlirown  into  wrinkles  by  (he  contraction  of  tho  lower  pint 
of  the  orbicularis  iialpi-brarum  muscles,  wliile  the  eyes  as- 
sume a  peculiarly  bright  iipj)earunce.  If  the  action  be  suf- 
ficiently intense  <.r  jirc.longed.  tears  are  shed  through  the 
compression  exerted  an  the  lachrymal  sacs,  the  brows  ore 
elevated,  and  other  muscles  of  the  body  may  participate  to 
such  an  extent  that  tlie  head,  trunk,  and  limbs  are  thrown 
into  movements,  and  even  (ho  contents  of  the  bowels  and 
blailder  may  bo  evacuated  by  tlie  expulsive  efforts  of  the 
abdominal  muscles  overcoming  the  normal  contractility  of 
(he  sphincters. 


1G72 


LAUGnXER. 


Tins  roinarkable  category  of  actions,  which  in  its  en- 
tirety Via  call  Imt'/hter,  may  be  originated  in  various  ways. 
In  children  antl  weak-minded  persons,  and  in  certain  ani- 
mals, it  is,  as  Darwin  asserts,  the  expression  of  pure  pleas- 
ure, hut  in  the  normally  constituted  adult  the  most  intense 
jileasurc  unmodified  by  other  emotions  does  not  appear 
to  he  capaldc  of  exciting  laughter.  At  the  same  time,  it 
must  be  admitted  that,  no  matter  how  induced,  laughter  is 
always  indicative  of  a  certain  amount  of  high  spirits  and 
eelf-satisfaction.  combined  sometimes  with  a  sense  of  su- 
periority. The  exciting  causes  of  laughter  are,  as  a  whole, 
not  thoroughly  understood,  and  have  been  the  subject  of 
very  diverse  opinions  from  physiological  and  psychologi- 
cal writers,  none  of  wliich  appears  to  be  entirely  correct  or 
to  include  all  the  emotional  or  other  excitations.  Thus, 
Hohbeg  assorts  that  "laughter  is  a  sudden  glory  arising 
from  sudden  conception  of  some  eminency  in  ourselves  by 
comparison  with  the  intirniity  of  others,  or  of  our  own 
formerly.*'  But  this  explanation  by  no  means  covers  the 
ground,  for  wc  very  frequently  laugh  at  matters  that  in  no 
way  concern  ourselves,  as,  for  instance,  at  a  humorous  re- 
mark made  by  another,  or  at  some  striking  incongruity  of 
action  in  an  individual  which  cannot  by  any  means  be  con- 
nected with  our  own  being.  As  Bain  remarks,  Hobbes'a 
definition  will  only  apply  to  the  laugh  of  victory,  ridicule, 
derision,  or  contempt  against  persons  whom  we  ourselves 
have  humiliated.  Bain  has  very  well  shown  that  mere  in- 
congruity is  not  of  itself  always  sufficient  to  excite  laugh- 
ter, although  such  is  the  generally  received  opinion.  There 
arc  many  incongruities  whicdi.  as  he  says,  may  produce  any- 
thing but  a  laugh.  A  little  reflection  will  enable  any  one 
to  call  up  hundreds  of  such  without  there  being  developed 
the  slightest  disposition  to  laughter.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  the  incongruous  in  certain  forms  is  capable  of 
causing  laughter.  Thus,  upon  one  occasion  the  writer  wit- 
nessed the  fact  of  a  whole  congregation  of  devout  worship- 
pers thrown  into  paroxysms  of  the  most  intense  laughter 
by  the  attempt  of  a  dog  which  had  entered  the  church  to 
pass  through  the  chancel-railing  to  reach  his  master,  the 
officiating  clergyman.  When  half  through  he  stuck  fast, 
and  hy  no  effort  could  he  either  a<lvance  or  retreat.  His 
cries  drowned  the  voice  of  the  minister,  and  he  was  finally 
with  difficulty  extricated  by  the  senior  warden  and  the  sex- 
ton, and  carried  howling  out  of  the  church.  In  this  in- 
stance the  incongruity  was  of  the  most  marked  character, 
and  there  was  in  addition  the  sudden  revulsion  of  feeling 
whieh  so  frequently  excites  laughter.  To  use  the  language 
of  Herbert  Spencer — who  lays  great  stress  on  this  sudden 
interruption  of  the  course  of  one  emotion  by  the  instan- 
taneous development  of  another — the  channels  through 
which  tiio  discharge  was  about  to  take  place  were  closed, 
and  a  new  channel  opened.  In  another  instance  which 
camo  under  the  writer's  notice  the  incongruity  and  revul- 
sion were  still  more  evident — more  even  than  in  the  case 
given  by  Spencer  of  the  tame  kid  snuffing  at  a  pair  of  de- 
voted lovers  in  the  most  highly  wrought  part  of  a  sensa- 
tional drama.  Two  lovers  on  the  stage  had  reached  the 
culmination  of  their  fate,  and  were  dying  in  each  other's 
arms.  The  intfsrest  of  the  audience  was  worked  up  to  the 
highest  pitch:  many  were  in  tears,  and  then  the  curtain  ■ 
slowly  descended.  But  the  dead  lovers  had  fallen  too  far 
to  the  front,  and  wheu  the  curtain  reached  the  stage  they 
were  between  it  and  the  footlights.  In  an  instant  the  idea 
of  the  ludicrous  was  aronsed,  aud  amidst  peals  and  shrieks 
of  the  most  convulsive  laughter  from  the  audieuee  the  two 
actors  had  to  get  up  and  walk  abjectly  from  the  presence 
of  the  crowd. 

True  wit  does  not  excite  laughter,  for  the  reason  that  in 
true  wit  there  is  the  very  reverse  of  incongruity  ;  but  the 
attempt  at  wit.  being  incongruous,  does  give  rise  to  the 
idea  of  the  ludicrous,  and  hiughter  is  produced.  This  is 
well  sliown  in  the  following  lines  from  the  signboard  of  an 
inn  kept  by  one  Littlejuhn  : 

"  Ve  who  love  old  wine  and  good, 
Come  ill  ami  drink  wiih  Roliin  Hood: 
If  llohin  Hood  is  not  at  home, 
Come  in  aud  drink  with  Little  John." 

There  is  nothing  incongruous  in  this;  it  is  witty,  but 
though  it  causes  pleasure  and  may  excite  a  smile,  it  does 
not  cause  laughter.  In  the  course  of  time.  Iiowever,  the 
inn  camo  into  the  possession  of  Jacob  Snodgrass.  who, 
ignorant  of  the  relation  between  Robin  Hood  and  Little 
John,  but  knowing  the  persuasive  power  of  the  old  sign, 
and  wishing  to  continue  it  as  far  as  truth  would  allow,  left 
it  intact  with  tho  exception  of  erasing  the  name  of  Little 
John  and  substituting  that  of  Jacob  ^nodgrass.  Nobody 
ha<l  ever  laughed  at  the  old  sign,  but  every  one  hiuirhi-d  at 
tliis.  for  the  incongruity  between  Robin  ilood  and  Jaeob 
Snodgrasa  was  so  palpable  that  the  impulse  to  laugh  was 
irresistible. 

The  incongruous,  to  be  capable  of  exciting  laughter, 


must  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  produce  no  other  strong 
emotion.  If  this  latter  occurs,  the  sense  of  the  ludicrous 
is  overwhelmed  by  the  more  powerful  feeling  which  tho 
event  occasions.  Tbu?,  if  in  the  instance  cited  of  the  dog 
sticking  fast  in  the  ehancel-railing  the  struggles  of  tho 
animal  to  get  free  had  ignited  some  lueifer  matches  acci- 
dentally near  him,  the  emotion  of  fear  would  have  arisen  in 
the  minds  of  the  congregation,  would  have  overwhelmed 
all  idea  of  the  ludicrous,  aud  cries  of  fright,  not  laughter, 
would  have  been  the  result. 

The  theory  of  Dumont  is,  when  analyzed,  not  materially 
different  from  that  which  ascribes  laughter  to  a  perception 
of  incongruity.  According  to  this  author,  wc  laugh  when 
the  mind  is  concerned  with  facts  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
cause  us  to  think  at  one  and  the  same  time  that  a  thing  is 
and  is  not.  In  other  words,  when  we  are  forced  to  affirm 
and  deny  the  same  thing — when,  in  sliort,  the  understand- 
ing is  obliged  to  conceive  simultaneously  two  contradictory 
relations  of  one  thing  or  circumstance.  "  It  is  certain,"  he 
says.  "  that  wc  can  no  more  succeed  in  uniting  two  con- 
tradictory elements  in  a  single  conception  than  we  can 
cause  two  bodies  to  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same 
time.  But  two  distinct  forces  can  so  act  upon  two  bodies 
as  to  push  them  towards  the  same  space,  aud  thus  to  cause 
a  shock  or  a  succession  of  shocks.  In  like  manner,  diverse 
circumstances  can  prompt  the  understanding  to  attempt  to 
make  two  contradictory  ideas  enter  into  the  same  concep- 
tion. From  this  attempt  a  kind  of  intellectual  contest  re- 
sults, of  which  laughter  is  the  expression."  This  contest 
between  contradictory  ideas  is  nothing  more  than  the  sense 
of  incongruity  to  which,  as  a  cause  of  laughter,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  has  alrea<ly  been  directed. 

But  besides  those  causes  of  laughter  which  are  entirely 
intellectual  in  character,  there  are  others  which  are  sensa- 
tional, others  which  arc  partly  sensational  and  partly  in- 
tellectual, and  again  others  which  are  pathological.    As  an 
instance  of  a    sensational    cause   (classed  erroneously  by 
Bain  as  mechanical),  tickling  may  be  mentioned.     Among 
the  pathological  causes  hysteria  jtlays  an  important  role, 
and  the  abnormal  condition  of  the  mind  from  which  laugh- 
ter is  evolved  as  an  expres::^ion  of  grief  (sardonic  laughter) 
may  be  placed  in  the  same  categoiy.     Among  the  mixed 
;  sensational  and   intellectual    is  the  fact   that   individuals, 
,  especially  children,  laugh  when  the  motion  of  tickling  is 
made  towards  them.     Ilere  the  laughter  is  the  result  of  tho 
perceptirm  of  the  approaching  finger  performing  the  motion 
.  of  tickling,  evoking  the  recollection  of  previous  ticklings. 
j  According  to  Darwin,  the  anthropoirl  ajics  utter  a  rcitcr- 
I  ated  sound  when  they  are  tickled  un<ier  the  armpits.     The 
I  laughter  from  tickling  is  of  reflex  character,  and  scarcely 
i  if  at  all  under  the  control  of  the  will,  though  such  control 
I  may  be  acquired  by  repeated  eff'orts. 

But  there  is  frequently  another  governing  factor  in  the 
!  laughter  from  tickling,  besides  the  mere  sensational  ex- 
t  citation.  AVe  laugh  when  we  are  tickled  by  others,  but  we 
I  do  not  laugh  when  we  tickle  ourselves.  This  is  especially 
the  case  when  the  motion  is  made  on  the  skin  covering  the 
siiles  of  the  chest.  The  fact  iijtpears  to  be  that  in  order 
;  for  laughter  to  result  from  tickling  wc  must  be  in  igno- 
j  ranee  of  the  exact  spot  which  is  to  be  tickled.  Wheu  we 
I  know  it,  as  we  do  when  we  are  about  to  tickle  ourselves, 
I  laughter  does  not  result. 

I  Bain  asserts  that  cold  and  some  kinds  of  acute  pain 
I  cause  laughter,  but  this  is  ])robably  erroneous.  The  laugh- 
I  ter  of  young  infants  in  their  sleep,  commonly  ascribed  by 
!  mothers  and  nurses  to  colic,  is  more  likely  due  to  pleasant 
[  dreams. 

Tiie  mechanism  of  laughter,  so  far  as  the  muscles  of  the 

I  face  are   concerned,  has  been  admirably  studied  through 

!  the  agency  of  electricity  by  Dr.  Duehenne  (de  Boulogne), 

anci   previouslv,  verv  philosophically,  by  Moreau   (de  la 

Sarthe)  and  Si'r  Charles  Bell. 

flihfioifntph If. -^Thomas  Hobbes,  Coiiipfrte  Wor/-*,  edited 
by  Sir  Willimn  Molesworth.  Latin  and  English  (London, 
18.19-45,  op.  Human  Xatiirc) ;  Moreau  (de  la  Sarthe),  Sitr  la 
Structure,  hi*  L'tfiffeg  et  lea  f-aractl'ren  da  (IfJfVroiteti  parties 
dp  In  face  de  V ihnnmc.  art.  .'?,  t.  iv.  of  L' Art  dc  vmniaitre 
leu  Homme-  par  f<i  /'/iifKloffnoinir,  par  Gaspard  Lavater 
(Paris,  1820);  Sir  Charles  Bell,  Tlir  Auafomt/  ami  Phtfm'- 
o/nffi/  of  E.rprefminn  (3d  cd..  London,  184-1);  Alexander 
Bain,  The  Emotions  and  the  ]\'tfl  (2d  cd.,  London, 
ISG.^);   L$on   Dumont.  Du   Catinr/)  dn    /iirr  (Paris,  1802); 

.    'flit'orie    Hrirntifiipie    de    la    Seunibitit^,    le 

P/niMtr  et  la  I'cinr  (Paris.  187o);  Herbert  Spencer,  The 
Phifniolofftf  of  Lan<fhtcr  { Eniatfii,  2d  series.  18(53:  published 
in  the  U.S.  ns  IlluHtratittuHfif  Vnivrrnnl  Protfrcss,  New  York, 
1861);  G.  B.  Duehenne  (de  Boulognel.  Mi^caninme  de  la 
Phi/ninfjnomie  hnmnine.  ete.  (Paris,  18fi2);  Charles  Darwin, 
The  Erpresfiinn  of  thc^  Emotions  in  Man  and  An  tmnh  (hon- 
don,  1872) ;  I.  Luys.  Etndea  de  Phy»ioloffie  et  de  Pafhofojie 
cfr^bralea  (Paris,"  1S74).  *W.  A.  Hammo.nd. 


LAUGIER— LAURENCE. 


1673 


Lau^ier'  (AsnRfi),  b.  at  Paris  Aug.  1,  1770:  was  em- 
ploTcd  l»y  the  Convention  during  the  French  Hcvolution 
in  collecting  the  bells  from  the  ehurehes  of  Bretaffne  to  be 
melted  into  cannon  ;  was  afterwards  at  the  hea<l  of  the 
office  for  the  inanufaoture  of  powder ;  served  iu  the  medical 
corps  of  the  army  ;  became  professor  of  pharmacy  and 
chemistry  at  several  institutions,  assistant  professor  at  the 
Museum  at  Paris  in  ISOl?,  and  professor  in  ISId,  on  the  death 
of  Fouroroy,  who  was  his  relative.  Laugicr  made  numerous 
important  chemical  discoveries,  recorded  chiefly  in  the 
AitnaleM  of  the  Museum ;  he  was  long  a  nicmher  of  the  dc- 
partiiieut  of  public  instruction,  and  along  with  Foureroy  was 
the  organizer  of  a  large  number  of  colleges  and  lyeeums. 
He  puKJifihed  a  Courn  de.  Chimic  ffrni'raic  (3  vols,  Itj2S). 
D.  at  Paris  Apr.  18,  1832. 

Laugier  (AiT.rsTE  Ernest  Paul),  son  of  Andrf',  b.  in 
Paris  Deo.  22,  1812  ;  studied  astronomy  under  Arago ;  ob- 
tained a  post  in  the  observatory  at  Paris  ;  made  important 
discoveries  in  regard  to  ma;2:netism.  comets,  eclipses,  me- 
teors, and  solar  spots;  made  improvements  in  astronomical 
clocks:  determined  the  exact  latitude  of  the  Paris  obser- 
vatory (IS-V?), correcting  previous  errors,  published  a  cata- 
logue of  53  nebulas  and  another  (1857)  of  the  declination 
of  140  stars,  and  contributed  many  astronomical  papers  to 
the  CounniiH'turr  dn  Triiipn.  He  was  long  associated  with 
Arago  in  researches  on  terrestrial  physics,  and  was  for 
Borae  years  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  D.  at 
Paris  Apr.  5,  1872. 

Laiincr,  a  species  of  sand-eel.     Sec  Ammodytes. 

Lauu('('!^'Con9  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  of 
England,  tormcrly  cap.  of  the  counfy  of  Cornwall,  on  the 
Kensey  Kiver,  a  tributary  of  the  Tamiir,  22  miles  X.  E.  of 
Plymouth,  with  which  it  is  conucoted  by  railway.  It  is 
situated  on  a  steep  hill,  at  the  top  of  which  arc  the  ruins 
of  Castle  Terrible,  built  by  the  ancient  princes  of  Corn- 
wall; has  elaborately  carved  gates,  several  public  buildings, 
and  a  grammar  school  founded  by  Quceu  Elizabeth.  Pop. 
5U0. 

Xjaunceston,  the  second  town  of  Tasmania  or  Van 
Dicmen's  Land,  cap.  of  the  county  of  Cornwall,  situated  on 
the  river  Tamar  at  it^  confluence  with  the  Esk,  32  miles 
S.  E.  of  Port  Dalrymplc,  has  22  churches,  30  schools,  5 
banks,  3  newspapers,  commodious  government  buildings, 
and  a  considerable  trade  with  .South  Australia,  and  X'ietoria, 
exporting  wool,  timber,  and  fruits,  and  importing  manu- 
factured goods.     Pop.  lO.OSS. 

Launch,  the  principal  boat  attached  to  modern  ships. 
Ships  of  the  largest  hize  sometimes  have  steam  launches, 
and  these  in  the  uavul  service  frequently  carry  a  piece  of 
artillery,  and  are  very  serviceable  iu  shallow  waters  and 
rivers. 

Lannch'ing  [Fr.  lancer,  "to  hurl  out"],  the  removal 
of  a  new  ship  from  the  shipyard  to  the  water.  .Ships  are 
usually  l>uilt  upon  inclined  wooden  ways,  and  when  the 
hull  is  flnished  the  vessel  is  allowed  to  slide  stern  foremost 
into  the  water.  The  spurs  are  usually  set  up  after  launoh- 
ing.  The  Itreat  Eastern  was  launched  sidewise  into  the 
Tliames(  18i>8),  powerful  hydrostatic  pressure  being  required 
to  force  her  into  her  proper  element. 

Laun'tlalr,  tp.  of  McLean  co.,  III.     Pop.  835. 

La  I  nion.     Sec  Tsiun. 

Lau'nitz  (ItoiiEUT  ERKitiiARD),  b.  at  Higa,  Russin,  Nov. 
4,  IHiUi;  studied  in  Uoino  under  Thrirwiildsen,  and  settled 
in  182S  at  New  York,  where  he  d.  Dec.  13,  IS70.  Tho 
battle  monument  at  Frankfort.  Ky.,  the  Puliiski  monument 
at  Savannah,  (la.,  the  monument  to  George  11.  Thomas  at 
Troy,  .V.  v.,  were  executed  by  him. 

Lail'ra  [l-ir.  \avpa,  a  "defile,"  or,  ns  some  say,  a  name 
taken  fr'Hu  ii  district  in  ancient  Alexandria],  in  former 
times,  anrl  especially  in  tlie  Levant,  a  collection  of  hermils" 
cells,  each  of  whoso  occupants  either  provided  for  himself 
alone,  or  at  most  passed  but  two  days  in  the  week  in  the 
community  of  his  brethren.  Tho  tenants  of  the  laura  w«ro 
subject  to  severe  rules.  Solitude,  silence,  and  a  most  mea- 
gre diet  were  the  lot  of  all. 

Ijaiira'ceiP  [from  AniirH*.  the  typical  genus],  a  natural 
ord  r  of  exogenous  plants,  chiefly  tnes.  often  of  j,'real  size. 
This  oriler  is  mostly  tropical,  and  prorluces  many  trees  of 
great  economic  value.  Among  its  products  are  cassia,  cin- 
namon, camphor,  and  many  valuable  drugs  and  timber- 
woods.  Tho  sassafras,  bay,  and  a  few  other  shrubs  and 
trees  of  tho  V.  ?>.  arc  lauraeeous. 

Laii'ramic,  tp.  of  Tippecanoe  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  21 14. 

Lau'ra  Town,  tp.  of  Stokes  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1117. 

Lniiroa'na  di  Borrl'lo,  town  of  R.  Italv,  in  tho 
province  <if  Heirffio  di  <'ulabria,  about  2U  miles  E.  of  Pal- 
mi.     Pop.  in  1S74,  5807. 


Lan'rel  [Lat.  Lnttmg],  a  name  properly  belonging  to 
the  LnnruH  nobilin  or  bay  tree  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
In  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe  it  becomes  a  large  tree.  Its 
wood  has  a  limited  use  in  the  arts:  its  essential  oil  is  em- 
ployed in  perfumery;  its  fruit  yields  a  fixed  oil,  used  in 
veterinary  medicine:  its  flowers  aflbrd  rich  bee-pasture; 
its  leaves  were  the  material  of  the  luurel  crown  of  victors 
in  war  and  of  successful  poets  and  artists.  The  name  is 
often  loosely  extended  to  all  the  Lauraccse,  to  which  this 
tree  belongs.  Shrubs  of  the  genus  Kalmia  (which  see)  are 
j  called  laurels  in  the  U.  S.  Some  of  the  larger  rhododcn- 
!  drons  of  our  country  are  called  mountain-laurels.  Tho 
evergreen  cherry  trees  are  called  Ciif:nr:v  Lairei.  {which 
see).  In  (Ireat  Britain  they  are  often  simply  called  laurel. 
The  Portugal  laurel  is  one  of  the  cherry  laurels.  Several 
kinds  of  magnolia  are  known  locally  in  tho  U.  S.  as  laurel 
trees.  In  England  the  Dnphue  taurcolti  is  called  spurge 
laurel.  It  is  a  handsome  European  evergreen  shrub,  some- 
times planted  in  the  TI.  S.,  and  is  of  the  order  Thymelacea;. 
It  has  a  poisonous  bark. 

Laurel,  county  of  S.  E.  Kentucky.  Area,  430  square 
miles.  It  is  hilly  and  mountainous,  but  much  of  the  soil 
afi"ords  fine  pasturage.  The  grain  cro])  is  the  most  im- 
portant. The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Knoxville  branch 
of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  K.  R.  Cap.  London.  Pop. 
6016. 

Laurel,  post-v.  of  Little  Creek  hundred.  Sussex  co., 
Del.,  on  the  Delaware  R.  R,,  7  miles  N.  of  Dclmar,  and  on 
the  navigable  Broad  Creek.     Pop.  1U80. 

Laurel,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Franklin  co..  Tnd.,on  Whito 
Water  River  and  White  Water  Valley  R.  R.  It  has  1 
weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  of  v.  741  ;  of  tp.  1942. 

Laurel,  a  v.  (LAriiFi,  Factorv  P.O.)  and  tp.  of  Prince 
George's  co..  Md.,  on  Patuxent  River  and  on  the  Washing- 
ton branch  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  ii.  R.,  has  a  large 
cottou-mill.     Pop.  of  v.  1148;  of  tp.  1684. 

Laurel,  tp.  of  Asho  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  456. 

Laurel,  post-v.  of  Monroe  tp.,  Clermont  co.,  0.,  15 
miles  S.  of  Bnlavia.     Pop.  126. 

Laurel,  tp.  of  Hocking  co.,  0.     Pop.  1343. 

Laurel  Creek,  tp.  of  Watauga  co.,  N.  C.    Pop.  585. 

Laurel  Factory,     Sco  Lauhki,,  Md. 

Laurel  Fork,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  Va. 

Laurel  IlilK  'p.  "f  Lincoln  co.,  N.  C. 

Laurel  Hill,  tp.  of  Richmond  co.,  N. 

Laurel  Hill,  a  beautiful  cemetery  within  the  limits  of 
the  cily  of  Philadelphia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Schuylkill. 
The  grounds  comprise  more  than  20  acres,  picturcs(piely 
situated  u]>on  several  hills,  are  ornamented  with  great  taste, 
and  have  a  fine  tJothic  chapel.  (See  Philadkli'Mia.) 

Laurel  Hill,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, rising  in  Camliria  co.,  and  running  S.  W.  as  tho 
boundary  between  Somerset  co.  on  tho  E.  and  Westmore- 
land and  Fayette  cos.  on  the  W. 

Laurel  Junction,  p(>st-v.  of  AVood  eo..  West  Va.,  at 
the  juneljon  <»f  the  Laurel  Fork  and  Sand  Hill  K.  R.  with 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  U.  R.  It  is  an  iui)>'>rtaiit  point 
in  the  trade  in  petroleum,  which  is  obtained  in  large  quan- 
tities in  tho  vicinity,  anil  brought  here  by  pipe  and  rail  to 
be  tanked.     It  is  called  also  Laiiiei.  Fohk. 

Laurell,  tp.  of  Madison  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  992. 

Laurel  Ri<lf;e,  a  rnnge  of  mountains  rising  on  tho  S. 
bank  of  the  A'nugbiogheiiy  River,  in  South-\vest<rn  Penn- 
sylvania, and  trending  S.  W.  to  Cheat  River,  through  Tay- 
lor, Marion,  anci  Monongalia  cos.,  West  Va. 

Lau'rence  (BirnAnn).  !>.  C.  L.,  b.  at  Bath,  England, 
in  1760;  graduated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  in 
1782;  look  orders  in  the  Church  of  England;  preached  the 
Bam|»t<in  lectures  ISO)  ;  appointed  Soon  after  to  the  rectory 
of  ,\Iersbam,  Kent  ;  bceiiine  r*'gius  ]irofessor  of  Hebrew 
and  canon  of  Christ  Church.  Oxford.  IS14:  archbishop  of 
Cashol  IH22.  and  d.  at  I>uhlin  Doc.  28,  1S38.  Archbishop 
Laurence  was  one  of  the  restorers  of  Oriental  studies  in 
England,  and  ]ierhaps  the  only  high  dignitary  of  his  times 
who  cultivated  the  diali'cH  ()f  the  Semitic  languages.  His 
most  important  service  to  theology  was  the  recovery  from 
Ethiopic  manuscripts  of  several  interesting  apocryphal 
works,  often  quoted  by  the  early  Fathers,  but  supposed  to 
have  been  Inst.  These  were  the  Anrnit>i'nu  of'  the  /*rn/>hft 
hnitih,  edited  with  Latin  and  English  versions  in  IHI9, 
and  Thr  Iiu.,k  of  Enoch  thr  Prophrt  (1821  :  3d  od.  IS3B). 
He  brought  out  a  now  version  of  Fourth  Esdras  (1S20), 
also  from  the  Ethiopic;  published  A    /HiHrrtntion  on  the 

LufjuM  uf  St.  Jnhn  (1808),  Critirni  lirfh-rti,m»  on  thr  Vui- 
tarittn  Vrr^ion  of  the  A'rir  Tefttammt  I  I S  1 1 ),  i)n  thr  Ejitt- 
e«cc  of  the  Soul  after  Death  (1834),  and  numerous  <»cca- 


Pop.  2197. 
Pop.  430. 
C.     Pop.  2127. 


1674 


LAURENE— LAURVIG. 


sional  essays  and  sermons. — His  elder  brother,  French 
Lavrence,  LL.D..  regius  professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford 
(d.  1S09),  was  author  of  Critical  fiemark/i  on  JJetarJieti  Pas- 
aaf/ett  uf  the  Ncic  Tetstameut  (1810)  and  other  works,  but  is 
best  known  for  his  iwierc^iin^  Correspondence  loith  Ldmund 
linrhe,  imblisiied  in  1827. 

Lau'rene,or  Laurol  [Lat.  ;a?irH»,  "laurel "],CnHi6, 
a  hydrocarbon  homologous  with  benzol.  (See  Watts's  Did., 
Sitpplcninitf  p.  .'104.) 

Lau'rensy  county  of  S.  Central  Georgia.  Area,  759 
square  miles.  It  is  generally  level  and  bus  a  good  soil. 
Cotton  and  corn  are  staple  products.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  navigable  Oconee  River,  and  has  extensive 
forests.     Cap.  Dublin.     Pop.  7834. 

Laurens,  county  of  N.  W.  Central  South  Carolina. 
Area,  000  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  varied,  its  soil  well 
cultivated  and  productive.  Cotton  and  corn  are  staple 
products.  Flour  is  llie  chief  article  of  manufacture.  Cap. 
Laurens  Court-liousc.      Pop.  SS^J-'iG. 

Laurens,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Otsego  co.,  N.  Y.  The  vil- 
lage has  manufactures  of  importance,  and  there  is  a  sulphur 
spring  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  1919. 

Laurens,  tp.  of  Laurens  co.,  S.  C,  containing  the  county- 
seat.     Pop.  4289. 

Laurens  Court-house,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Laurens  co., 
S.  C,  on  the  Laurens  R.  R.,  31  miles  N.  W.  of  Newberry. 
It  has  1  weekly  newspaper. 

Laurens  i  IfEVRV),  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1724,  of 
Huguenot  stin-k  ;  was  well  educated  in  Charleston  and  Lon- 
don; acquired  an  ample  fortune  in  mercantile  business,  and 
was  consjiicuous  in  the  contests  with  the  Crown  admiralty 
judges,  whose  injustice  was  then  great,  lie  served  as  a 
major  against  the  Cherokees  ;  went  to  England  in  1771.  and 
while  thrre  strove  to  avert  a  war;  became  in  1774  president 
of  the  South  Carolina  congress;  in  177()  was  sent  to  the 
General  Congress,  of  which  he  was  president  1777-78.  In 
1779  he  was  sent  as  U.  S.  minister  to  the  Netherlands,  but 
was  made  a  prisoner  by  the  British  while  at  sea,  and  kept 
a  close  prisoner  in  the  Tower  for  tifteen  months.  In  1781 
he  was  released,  and  appointed  by  the  Congress  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  negotiate  a  peace,  with  Franklin  and  Jay 
as  his  colleague?,  t).  Dec.  S.  1792,  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and 
by  a  diroeti<Mi  in  his  will  his  body  was  burned  and  the  bones 
afterwards  buried.  Many  of  his  pamphlets  and  other  pa- 
pers have  been  reprinted. 

Laurens  (Col.  .Ton\),  ''the  Bayard  of  the  American 
Rcvolutiuu,"  b.  in  n.'j^i,  a  son  of  Henry  Laurens;  educati-d  in 
England,  an<l  in  1777  joined  the  army,  and  was  placed  upon 
the  staff  of  Washingttin,  who  loved  him  as  a  son.  From 
Monmouth  to  Ynrktown  he  was  in  all  of  Washington's  bat- 
tles, and  in  all  displayed  (he  utmost  valor,  so  that  Wash- 
ington is  reported  to  have  cheeked  him  for  rashness.  He 
wounded  Gen.  Charles  Lee  in  a  duel,  and  the  latter  declared 
he  "could  have  hugged  the  boy  "  for  his  handsome  behavior 
on  that  occasion.  Ijaurens  was  badly  wounded  at  German- 
town  and  Coosahatchie.  In  1780  he  went  as  a  special  min- 
ister to  France,  and  successfully  negotiated  a  loan.  Re- 
turning, he  served  with  great  and  even  unnecessary  activity 
under  Greene,  and  was  killed  in  the  contest  on  the  Comba- 
hee,  Aug.  27,  1782.  (See  his  Life  and  CorreapondencCf  by 
W.  (J.  Sims,  1867.) 

Laurent'  (Francois),  b.  in  Luxemburg  July  S,  1810; 
studii'il  law  at  Louvain  and  Liege,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  civil  law  at  the  University  of  Ghent  in  18.'J5.  His 
historical  essajs  have  been  collected  under  the  title  Etudes 
Hiir  I'HiHtoire  de  VHnmunit^  (14  vols.,  1860-68). 

Lauren'tian  .Mountains,  the  principal  range  of 
British  Atneriea,  forming  tlu;  watershed  bt-tween  Hudson's 
Bay,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  great  lakes,  and  between  the 
same  bay  and  the  Mackenzie  River.  It  rises  near  the  Atlantic 
sea -coast  of  Labrador,  sweeps  S.  W.  across  the  Ottawa  River 
to  Lake  Ontario  at  its  outlet,  thence  curving  N.  W.  skirts 
Georgian  Bay,  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  and  thence  N.  to 
the  ,\rctie  Ocean,  with  a  total  length  of  ;JOU0  miles.  The  fun- 
damental series  of  rocks,  called  the  Laurentian  System  by 
Sir  William  Logan,  consists  of  highly  metamorjihosed  sedi- 
mentary deposits  of  hornblendic  and  micaceous  gneiss,  al- 
ternating with  mica  schist,  and  abounding  in  beds  of 
crystallized  limestunc  and  of  magnetic  oxides  of  iron,  as 
well  as  vast  masses  of  granite,  syenite,  and  greenstone. 
This  system  is  believed  to  be  older  than  any  of  the  Silur- 
ian strata  in  (Jreat  Britain,  and  even  to  be  the  oldest  on 
the  globe.  Indications  of  organic  life  have  been  detected 
and  classified  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson  as  Ettznun  Cunndcnn*-,  it 
being  still  uncertain  to  what  groups  they  should  be  referred. 

Lauren'tiuft,  Saist,  was,  according  to  tradition,  a 
pupil  of  Sixtus  II..  who  made  him  deacon,  and  uftcrwards 
archdeacon  and  treasurer,  at  Rome.    In  268  a.  d.  the  magis- 


trate, during  the  Valerian  persecution,  commanded  Lau- 
rentius  to  reveal  the  treasures  of  the  Church  ;  accordingly, 
the  saint  collected  a  company  of  poor,  sick,  lame,  and  blind 
persons  and  presented  them  as  tlie  required  treasures ;  for 
which  act  he  was  condemued  to  be  broiled  alive.  He  un- 
derwent martyrdom  with  great  courage  and  resignation 
Aug.  10,  258. 

Laurenza'na,  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Potenza.  situated  in  a  mountainous  and  not  very  fertile 
district.  It  is  not  on  the  line  of  any  railway,  and  is  even 
without  carriage-roads,  but  liy  means  of  mules  it  carries  on 
a  considerable  trade  with  the  neighboring  provinces.  Pop. 
in  1874.  t)966. 

Lau'restine,  or  Lauresti'nus,  the  Vihnmum  Tinus, 
an  Old- World  shrub,  one  of  our  tinest  cultivated  evergreens, 
belonging  to  the  order  Caprifoliaeeoe.  It  has  somewhat 
poison4>us  qualities. 

Lau'ria,  town  of  S.Italy,  in  the  province  of  Potenza^on 
the  high-road  from  Naples  to  Calabria.   It  has  fine  churches 
and  other  good  buildings,  and  was  the   birthplace  of  the 
celebrated  Admiral  Ruggiero  di  Lauria.    P.  in  1874,  10,690. 
Lau'ric  Acid  [Lnt.  /ftuniti,  "  laurel  "].  Laurostcaric 
Acid  (Marsson),  Pichuric  Acid,  or  Pichurinitalg- 
S^LUre  (Sthamer),  Ci2H2i02.     This  fat  acid  belongs  in  the 
fatty  group  of  monatomic  acids,  CnllanOj,  and  was  first 
described  by  Marsson  (.4»ji.  Phdi-m.,  xU.  4:j,  1842)  from  the 
fat  of  the  bay  tree  (Laurw*  wthiiix),  and  by  Sthamer  (/.  c. 
liii.  .39.'!)  from  the  fat  and  the  volutile  oil  of  the  pichurim 
bean  {FnhiF  Pichurim  jnaj.).     Gideon  E.  Moore  also  found 
it  in  the  wax  of  ^fl/rica  ceri/era  {Sif/.  Jmtr.  [2],xxxiii.  313). 
It  exists  as  a  glycidc  f  laurostearine  or  laurine),  from  which 
it  is  prepared    by  saponifying  these  fats  or  the  wax  by 
caustic  alkaline  solutions,  and  after  the  soap  is  separated 
by  common    salt  (Marsson),  decomposing  the   soaps   thus 
formed  by  hydrochloric  or  tartaric  acids.     Laurie  acid  also 
exists  in  other  like  vegetable  bodies,  sometimes  in  connec- 
j  tion  with  niyristic  acid  (ChH2sOi').  as  in  Myrica  cerf/era 
'  and  the  so-called  Dika  bread  (  Mmujijeru  Gahouensin),ti.\\^ 
j  in  a  salve-like  fat  obtained  from  Coccus  Axin,  the  Aye  or 
axin  of  the   Mexicans.     In   connection  with  many  other 
fatty  acids,  it  exists  in    spermaceti    and  in  the  oil  of  the 
cocoanut.     It  fuses  at  about  4:1°  C.  to  a  colorless  oil,  and 
I  solidifies  to  a  scaly  crystalline  white  mass,  and  crystallizes 
I  from  its  alcoholic  solution  in  white  tufts  and  silky  needles, 
t  or  sometimes  in    nearly  translucent    scales.     It  dissolves 
[  readily  in  alcohol,  and  yet  more  freely  in  ether.     Its  alco- 
I  liolic  solution  has   a  feebly  alkaline  reaction.     It  is  quite 
insoluble  in  water,  but  when  boiled  in  it  volatilizes  with 
!  the  vapor.     The  sodium,  potassium,  and  barium  salts  of 
■  lauric'acid  are  soluble  in  water.     The  salts  of  the  heavy 
'  metals  with  lauric  acid  are  insoluble,  or  sparingly  so.     The 
!  calcium  salt  Ca"  (Ci2H2302)2  obtained  by  mixing  the  solu- 
j  tious  of  hiurate  of  sodium  and  calcium  chloride  is  resolved 
I  by  distillation  into  calcium  carbonate  and  laurostearone=s 
j  Ca"C03  +  C23H«0.  B.  Silliman. 

Lau'rinc  |  Lat. /aur«»."  laurel  "],  or  Bayberry  Cam- 
phor, ('221130*^3.  n  crystalline  body  obtained  from  the  ber- 
ries of  the  bay  tree. 

Lauriston%  de  (Jacques  ALEXANunF.  Behnard  Law), 
Makqiis,  b.  in  Poudicherry,  India.  Feb.  1,1768:  was  a 
companion  of  Napoleon  at  the  military  school  of  Paris, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  war  and  diplomacy  during 
the  Revolution,  the  Consulate,  and  the  Empire.  His  de- 
fence of  Ragusa  against  the  Russians  was  a  brilliant  ex- 
ploit, and  the  battle  of  Wagram  was  decided  by  his  valor 
and  judgment :  and  be  was  the  negotiator  of  the  marriage 
of  Napoleon  with  Maria  Louisa.  He  was  favored  by  Louis 
XVIII.,  being  made  a  manjuis  in  1S17  and  marshal  of 
Franco  in  1S21.     D.  at  Paris  Juno  10,  1828. 

Lnu'rite,  a  sulphide  of  ruthenium  and  osmium,  which 
occurs  in  small,  iron-black,  lustrous  crystals,  associated 
with  native  jjlatinum.  in  Rorneo  and  Oregon.  It  contains 
sulphur  :^I. 79  per  cent.,  ruthenium  f).^. IS,  and  osmium  3.03, 
agreeing  nearly  with  the  formula  0sS4.12Ru2Ss.  It  was 
discovered  by  Wiihler,  and  named  in  honor  of  Mrs.  C.  A. 
Joy.  (See  Ann.  Ck,  Pharm.,  cxxxix.  H6,  and  Ztitsch.f, 
Cfi  [2],  vi.  85.) 

Lau'rium,  a  range  of  hills  in  Attica,  Greece,  famous 
in  ancient  times  for  rich  mines  of  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and 
antimony.  At  the  beginning  of  our  era  these  mines  were 
deserted,  being  considered  exhausted.  In  ISG.'i  a  foreign 
company  began  to  rework  with  profit  the  refuse  left  by 
the  ancient  miners,  and  have  recently  reopened  the  mines 
themselves. 

Laur'vig,  town  of  Norway,  on  an  inlet  of  Christiania 
Fiord,  has  a  good  harbor,  large  distilleries,  some  trade  in 
timber,  and  very  important  iron-works  in  its  vicinity. 
Pop.  about  5000. 


LAUSANNE— LA  VATER. 


1675 


Lausanne'  [unc,  Aaiwaiiiiim],city  of  SwitKerland,  capi- 
tal of  tUv  Clinton  of  Vaud,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Luke 
of  (icnt'Vrt,  built  on  two  hills. connei*tt'd  by  a  t*plendid  bridge 
of  granitf.has  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathcdriil,  connnencid  about 
lOUO,  completed  in  lli7j,  a  library  of  DO.UOl)  volume!',  many 
good  educatiooal  institutioufi,  and  several  manufiictories  of 
tobacco,  leather,  and  gold  and  silver  ware.  On  account  of 
its  beautiful  ^litualion  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Jura 
Mountain?,  and  near  the  Lake  of  (Jeiieva,  it  attracts  yearly 
a  great  number  of  tourists,  who  generally  reside  here  for 
some  time.  Lausanne  is  famous  in  literary  annals  from 
having  been  the  residence  of  lluller,  Voltain-,  and  Cibbon. 
The  hou?o  occupied  by  the  latter  while  writing  his  cele- 
brated liUtnrif  is  still  shown,  and  visite.i  by  multitudes  of 
travellers.  Hyron  wrote  here  his  Pn'no}ur  "/  Chilton.  An 
ecclesiastical  council  was  held  here  in  14J'J,  a  conference 
between  Calvin,  Farel,  and  Viret  in  hKiO,  leading  to  the 
adoption  of  the  creed  of  tlie  Hefurmed  faith,  ami  in  modern 
times  it  has  been  the  scene  of  a  noted  peace  congress  (.Sept., 
1S71)  and  a  Masonio  universal  coDventioa  (1875).  Pop. 
26.520. 

Lniisnnnf ,  tp.  of  Carbon  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  141B. 
Laiiztin',  de  { AiiMAxr)  Louis  de  Gontaut),  Ditke,  b.  in 
Pari.".  !■■  ranee.  .\pr.  IJ,  1747;  commanded  a  naval  expedi- 
tion which  captured  Senegal  and  Gambia  from  the  English 
(1779);  took  part  in  the  American  war  (17JS0-ts:{)  at  the 
bead  of  "  Lauzun'a  Legion:"  afterwards  succeeded  to  the 
title  of  due  de  Biron  ;  was  a  deputy  to  the  States  General ; 
a  confidant  and  secret  agent  of  the  duke  of  OrKrans;  ap- 
pointed general-iu-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  July  W, 
17y2,  of  the  army  of  the  coasts  of  La  Hochelle  May  16, 
179.'i;  took  Siiumur,  and  defeated  the  Vendcans  at  Par- 
thcnay.  He  then  tendered  his  resignation,  but  being  ac- 
cused by  Carrier  before  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  of 
too  great  lenity  to  the  Vendeans,  he  was  deposed,  thrown 
into  the  Abbayc  prison,  tried  for  conspiracy  before  the 
Kcvolutionary  tribunal  Dee.  ;tl,  17y;i.  and  executed  the 
same  day,  meeting  hie  fate  with  cynical  courage.  Lauzun 
had  great  ability,  but  was  dissolute  and  unprincipled.  His 
Miiiutirm  were  jmblislied  at  Paris  in  IS22. 

La'va  [Lat.  lavme,  to  "wash"],  the  material,  fused 
or  solidified  after  fusion,  which  has  escaped  from  a  vol- 
canic crater.  The  term  is,  however,  applied  gencrully  to 
those  volcanic  roeks  which  are  filled  with  ragged  cellules. 
If  extremely  light  and  loose,  it  is  called  scoria  or  slag. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  lava.  Molten  lava  (lows  like 
molten  glass  or  iron,  a  portion  being  usually  unfuscd  and 
held  in  suspension  in  the  fused  portion,  which  is,  indeed,  a 
Dative  glass.  The  boiling  motion  sometimes  observed  in 
hot  lava  is  due  to  the  escape  of  steam,  sulpliur-vapor.  car- 
bonic acid,  air.  etc.  Lava-beds,  after  cooling,  snmctimes 
exhibit  great  caverns,  which  are  a>erilied  to  the  Honing 
off  of  the  lower  strata  of  the  lava  after  the  coiding  of  the 
surface.  (See  Volcano,  by  PnoK.  Aunold  Guvot,  Ph.  D., 
LL.D.) 

Lava  Ornaments  (so-called)  arc  made  of  iron  slag, 
which  is  m<'lt«-<l  utid  manufactured  into  vases  and  other 
small  ornamrnlul  and  useful  articles. 

liavac'a,  county  of  S.  Central  Texas.  Area,  920  square 
miles.  It  is  partly  timber-ianil,  and  has  considerable  ureas 
of  prairie.  Nearly  all  the  soil  is  very  productive.  Live- 
stock, corn,  cotton,  woo],  and  fruit  are  important  prod- 
ucts. The  county  is  well  watered  by  the  Navidud  and 
the  head-slreams  of  the  Lavaca  Kiver.  Cap.  ILillettsville. 
Pop.  DIGS. 

Lavaca  (Pokt  Lavata  P.  0.),  seaport  of  Calhoun  co., 
Tex.,  on  the  \V.  side  of  Lavaca  Itay,  an  arm  of  Matagorda 
Hay.  It  is  the  S.  K.  d'rminuH  of  the  Mexican  (iulf  and 
San  Antonio  K.  K.,  and  has  an  extensive  coastwise  trade. 
Pop.  7tiS. 

Lavngn^af  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Genoa, 
famous  fur  its  excellent  quarries  of  slate  (Chiappami).  This 
slate  la  extensively  used  for  roofs,  pavement?*,  and  other 
domestic  purposes,  and  is  largely  exported  to  vari'ius  Ku- 
ropcan  countries,  and  also  to  .\mcrica.  The  public  build- 
ings of  the  town  are  imposing,  especially  the  churches. 
Pop.  in  IH74,  6HSS. 

I. aval',  town  of  France,  the  capital  of  the  department 
lit  .Miiyerine,  on  tlie  Maycnno  Uiver.  It  is  nnted  for  il.^  linen 
nianufa<;tures ;  linen  goods  to  the  value  of  half  a  million 
franco  are  sold  at  eacl»  of  its  monthly  miirkets.  Among  its 
other  manufactures  are  paper  and  earthenware,  and  it  has 
a  bri?*k  trade  in  grain,  timber,  and  cattle.      Pop.  22,RU2. 

Laval,  county  of  Quebec.  Canada,  consisting  of  the 
Isle  J^sus.  an  island  2-1  miles  long  and  0  miles  broad,  lying 
between  the  Ottawa  River  on  the  N.  W.  and  the  Ilividre 
dcs  Prairies  nn  the  S.  K.      Pop.  9172. 

I^aval,  tie  (Puan'.ois  ok  MoNXMonKxrv),  b.  of  an  nn- 
cioDt  and  noble  family,  at  Laval.  Krance,  Mar.  2.'^,  1622; 


becamev^  priest  id  Paris  1tJ45;  declined  the  bishopric  of 
CochinX'hina  in  1651  ;  became  archdeacon  of  Evreux  in 
1663:  bishop  of  Petra;a  in  jmrtibuH  and  vicar-opostolic  of 
New  France  in  16.)S.  In  1663  ho  founded  the  seminary  of 
Quebec,  and  in  1660  consecrated  the  parish  church  of  Notre 
Dame,  lu  1674  he  was  bishop  of  the  new  see  of  Quebec, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1688  to  his  seminary,  to  which  ho 
gave  his  worldly  possessions.  Ho  was  de  facto  ruler  of 
Canada,  in  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The 
Laval  University  at  Quebec  commemorates  his  name.  D. 
at  Quebec  May  6,  1708, 

Lavailo',  post-tp.  of  Sauk  co..  Wis.     Pop.  881. 

La  Valliere,  de  (Loiisk).  b.  in  1644  in  the  province 
of  Touraine  ;  was  one  of  the  *' filles  d'honneur "  of  the 
duchess  of  OrK'ans  ( Henrietta  of  England),  when  she  be- 
came in  1001  the  mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  whom  she  loved 
sincerely  and  for  himself,  not  for  his  royal  title,  as  did 
afterward  Montespan.  Maintenim,  etc.  She  represented 
the  only  poetical  ray  which  brightened  the  life  of  the  man 
who  was  called  the  "sun  king"  (roi"  aoiril).  Mile,  ile  la 
Valliere  never  used  her  influence  except  fordoing  good  to 
everybody,  and  she  was  so  much  ashamed  of  her  equivocal 
situation  that  she  entered  a  convent  as  soon  as  the  pnsfion 
of  Louis  XIV.  for  Mademoiselle  de  Montespan  and  others 
allowed  her  to  bury  herself  in  a  religious  life.  The  king 
took  her  forcibly  once  from  the  convent  in  1670,  but  at  last, 
in  I67o,  she  took  her  religious  vows  under  the  name  of  Sister 
Louise  of  Mercy  {Sceur  Louine  tlr  lit  MiHrnoortlc).  D.  at 
the  Paris  Carmelite  convent  in  1710.  She  left  Lcttevti  and 
RrftectioiiK  OH  the  Merri/  of  (Jod.  Felix  AiCAiGNK. 

Lavandula  Spi'ca,  the  broad-leafed  lavandula.  yields 
oil  of  spike  (the  true  luit  not  the  eommon  eoniniercial  arti- 
cle), which  is  valued  by  painters  and  nrti.*ans,  and  is  used 
in  farriery. 

Lavatcr'  (.Tohan.v  Caspar),  b.  at  Zurich,  in  Switzer- 
land, in  1741  :  ijjtudied  theology,  and  in  I  76  I  was  iipjiuintcd 
preacher,  first  of  the  orphan  house,  then  of  St.  Petri  church 
in  his  native  town,  which  positii»n  he  held  till  bis  death,  in 
ISOl.  The  most  prominent  trait  in  his  character  was  his 
absolute  veracity.  Trutli  was  with  him  not  a  duty,  but  a 
passion — not  the  honor  of  his  soul,  but  the  necessity  of  his 
nature.  Wherever  he  l"<iund  truth,  with  Christ  or  Cugli- 
ostro.  with  Spinoza  or  Mesnier,  he  acknowledged  and  ac- 
cepted it  unconditionally.  IJul  the  consiqucnce  was.  that 
bis  adversaries  took  the  opjiortunity  of  accusing  him  of 
almost  every  kind  of  heresy  which  ever  had  appeared  iu 
the  history  of  Christianity.  "With  his  character  corre- 
sponded his  talent.  As  his  veracity  was  a  pas.-^ion,  and 
not  a  pedantry,  his  conceptionsof  truth  and  fali^ehootl  were 
intuitions,  and  n<»t  products  of  analy.'-is.  Rapt  in  enthu- 
sia,5m  or  struck  by  horror  at  what  he  saw,  he  painted  Ins 
visiims  with  a  lovu  or  hatred  which  generally  eommnnded 
the  feelings  of  his  audience,  but  which  often  gave  his  views 
a  distasteful  one-sidedness.  His  friendship  with  tJoetlie  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  instances  on  record  of  mutual 
sympathy,  and  ils  elevating  and  expanding  influence  on 
human  character.  Hut  when  in  17Sj  he  wrote  his  J'outiua 
I'iliitHH  be  gave  such  a  picture  of  a  no-Christian  that 
Goethe  literally  shrank  from  him  with  all  the  aver.<if)u  and 
antipathy  of  which  his  nature  was  capable.  Lavatcr  came 
to  his  door  and  wrote  his  name  on  the  tablet,  but  Goethe 
remained  unmove<l,  and  would  never  see  him  any  more. 
There  was  always  a  tendency  towards  mysticism  in  Lava- 
tcr, but  in  his  earlier  days  lie  was  conscious  of  this  tend- 
ency, and — for  instance,  in  liis  AuHHirhttn  in  dir  Eirii/ktit 
\*'  Peeps  into  Ktcrnity"  ) — the  reader  is  charmed  witliout 
lieing  duped  by  Itis  mysticism.  Put  when  he  grew  olil  he 
became  visionary,  a  prey  to  the  <tbfcurity  of  ebarlatiniry, 
ami  his  fervor  and  zeal  turned  into  fanaticism,  lie  hailed 
the  French  Uevulution  with  unbounded  enthusiasm,  but 
when  the  king  was  beheaded  he  at  once  turned  around  and 
bceanio  one  of  its  bitterest  opponents.  Even  his  life  was 
(»ften  in  danger,  and  when,  in  170it,  Massena  todk  Zurich 
he  was  fired  at  in  the  streets,  where  he  administered  help 
to  tlie  wounded  and  dying,  and  he  d.  two  years  alter  from 
a  wound  he  received  on  that  occasion.  His  poetical  writ- 
ings are  entirely  without  interest,  nnd  his  religious  writings 
are  so  interwoven  with  the  interests  of  the  monuMit  that 
they  cannot  lie  iip]»r(''-iatrd.  hardly  even  underslimil,  with- 
out a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  state  of  the  (icrnnin  civiliza- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  But  bis  Phtfuioff- 
nominrhr  Frtufmrutr,  wliieli  he  published  177;')-78  in  four 
large  volumes,  profusely  illustrated  and  very  expensive, 
will  nevrr  ceuse  to  intercut  nmnkincl.  That  book  started  a 
new  idea,  or.  rather,  it  deseribcil  a  natural  and  necessary 
process  which  lakes  place  whenever  man  meets  man.  with 
such  exactness  and  telicity  as  to  raise  this  proeefs  from  n 
dull  and  sluirgish  i>raetiee  !<»  a  conxeious  and  free  mental 
activity.  Where  there  is  combinalion  there  is  significance, 
where  there  is  movement  thcro  is  character.    Consequently, 


1676 


LAVAUR— LAW. 


the  human  figure,  which  is  the  finest  combination  known, 
must  signify  something  of  its  nature,  ami  the  motion  of  its 
parts,  the  play  of  its  feature?,  must  express  something  of  its 
character.  IJut  before  Lavater  this  had  never  liein  said. 
The  impression  made  by  the  outward  appearance  had  l>een 
overloolied.  I'eople  had  judged  one  another  from  their 
ch)thes.  And  when  Lavater  demonstrated  that  the  soul, 
the  character,  the  history  of  an  individual,  was  painted 
on  his  face,  that  a  human  face  might  be  read  like  a  printed 
leaf,  he  produced  the  profoundest  sensation.  I'eople  were  j 
panic-stricken.  They  began  to  wear  masks.  They  left  the 
drawing-rooms  when  a  person  entered  who  believed  in 
Lavater.  No  less  was  the  enthusiasm.  People  felt  that 
a  new  signification  had  been  added  to  beauty,  a  new  eharm 
to  life,  a  new  sensibility  to  the  soul.  It  has  been  argued 
against  the  Plii/nii^yiininische  Frnr/mailc  lha.1  the  author  has 
tried  to  make  physiognomy  a  science,  but  the  criticism  is 
hardly  just.  Lavater  knew  very  well  that  physiognomy  is 
a  taleiil  and  not  a  science ;  and  although  he  is  very  anxious 
to  establish  rules  and  show  how  a  certain  vice,  for  instance, 
always  affects  a  certain  feature  in  the  same  way,  he  is  as 
anxious  to  impress  upon  his  readers  that  the  rules  are 
subordinate  to  the  total  impression,  and  the  single  fea- 
tures must  be  interpreted  by  the  view  of  the  whole.  His 
rules  are  to  him  a  convenience,  and  hardly  anything 
more.  Clemens  1'eteusen. 

LavaurS  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Tarn, 
on  the  .Agout.  It  is  the  entrepot  of  the  silk  produced  in 
Upper  Languedoc,  which  is  spun  here,  and  then  sent  to 
Lyons  or  Paris.     Pop.  7438. 

Laveleye'  (Kmile  Louis  Victor),  b.  at  Bruges,  Bel- 
gium, Apr.  5, 1822 ;  studied  at  the  Athenasum  of  his  native 
city,  and  at  the  College  Stanislas  in  Paris,  and  took  high 
honors  in  the  law  course  at  the  University  of  tihent.  From 
1818  onward  he  has  been  entirely  occupied  with  those  eco- 
nomical studies  which  have  given  him  so  great  a  reputa- 
tion. At  first  he  wrote  in  the  Belgian  periodicals,  defend- 
ing liiieral  principles  against  the  Ultramontanes  ;  became 
from  18j8  a  constant  contributor  to  the  lievtie  des  Lfeux 
Mundet ;  was  in  ISIU  appointed  professor  of  political 
economy  at  the  University  of  LiSge,  and  in  1867  repre- 
sented Belgium  as  member  and  secretary  of  the  inter- 
national jury  upon  paintings  at  the  Paris  Universal  Expo- 
sition, lie  has  been  honored  with  membership  in  the' 
Royal  Academy  of  Belgium  and  the  French  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  Among  his  numerous  works, 
that  <ni  Property  nnd  its  Primitire  Forms  (1874)  has  already 
become  a  classic.  In  June,  1875,  he  published  a  small  vol- 
ume <)n  the  liell'ftous  Conflict  in  Europe,  with  a  preface  by 
W.  E.  Gladstone. 

LaveUlo,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Potenza, 
of  ancient  origin.  It  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake 
in  IS.'il.     Pop.  in  1874,  5709. 

Ijav'enderf  the  Lavnndida  vera,  a  labiate  shrub,  a  na- 
tive of  the  S.  of  Europe,  very  extensively  cultivated  for  its 
fragrant  Bowers,  which  yield  a  volatile  oil  much  u.sed  in 
perfumery.  Lavender-water,  spirit  of  lavender,  ete.  arc 
of  considerable  service  in  pharmacy  and  medicine. 

La'vcr,  a  name  ap])licd  to  several  edible  seaweeds,  such 
as  L'frit  latinsima,  Porphr/m  btciniatit,  and  P,  viihjarie. 
These  are  quite  commonly  eaten  as  luxuries  in  Europe, 
either  pickled  or  stewed. 

Laverdiere  (Ci.AinE  II.),  b.  at  Ch.1teau-Richcr  Oct. 
23,  |H2fi:  was  ordained  a  Catholic  priest  in  1851:  became 
a  professor  in  the  seminary  and  librarian  of  Laval  Lniver- 
Bily.  He  look  part  in  the  publication  of  three  volumes  of 
Jesiill  /^^^l(l'o)l«  (1858)  concerning  early  missions  in  Canada, 
edited  the  voyages  of  Champlain  (5  vols.,  1870),  with  notes 
and  a  biography,  the  Journal  des  Jt'uniUs  (1871),  wrote  a 
J/lutoire  flu  (Janada  for  schools,  and  several  smaller  treatises 
upon  subjects  connected  with  early  Canadian  history.  1). 
at  Qucliec  Mar.  27,  1873. 

Lavialle'  i  Pikrre  Joseph),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Mauriac,  France, 
in  1820;  eame  when  twenty-three  years  old  to  the  U.  S. ; 
was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest:  served  for  a  while 
in  New  York,  and  then  became  president  of  St.  Mary's 
College,  Ky..  and  was  its  president  1855-G5.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  made  bishop  of  Louisville.  He  founded  a 
number  of  schools  and  charitable  institutions.  D.  near 
Bardstown,  Ky.,  May  11,  1867.  Bishop  Lavialle  was  a 
man  of  extraordinary  energy  and  ability,  and  w;is  highly 
esteemed  by  Protestants,  as  well  as  by  those  of  liis  own 
faith. 

Lav'ington  (George).  D.  D.,  b.  in  Wiltshire,  England, 
in  1683:  became  can<in  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  in  1732,  and 
in  1747  bishop  of  Kxeter.  Becoming  involved  in  a  con- 
trriversy  with  Wesley  and  Whitefield.  he  wrote  in  1749  The 
FfithuniaKin    itf   the    Mrthodintit    nnti   Pajt'mtH  t^ompared,   an 

amusing  and  well-written  work,  not  without  some  passages 


of  a  too  broad  raillery,  and  very  defective  as  a  statement 
of  facts.  In  1755  he  published  a  work  of  similar  character 
respecting  another  sect  of  dissenters.  The  Morariann  Com- 
/jared  and  JJeleclcd.  Bishop  Lavington  partially  retracted 
his  language  towards  Wesley,  and  partook  of  the  communion 
with  him  as  late  as  1702,  in  which  year  he  died. 

Laviti'lniTif  now  Priitica,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  in 
Latium.  was  situated  17  miles  8.  of  Rome,  near  the  sea.  It 
was  founded,  according  to  Iraditifni.  by  .^neas,  on  his  arrival 
in  Italy,  and  named  after  his  wife  Lavinia,  and  was  in  early 
times  the  sacred  metropolis  of  the  Latin  cities,  but  never 
acquired  any  importance,  political  or  commercial.  The 
name  was  often  confounded  by  classical  writers  with  that 
of  another  ancient  Latin  city,  Lanuvium. 

Lavoisier'  (.\ntoine  Latrest),  an  illustrious  savant, 
one  of  the  fathers  of  modern  ehernislry,  b.  at  Paris  of 
wealthy  parents  .\ug.  16,  1743;  studied  at  the  College 
Mazarin  :  pursued  astronomical  knowledge  under  La 
Caillc:  learned  botany  under  Bernard  dc  Jussicu;  worked 
in  Rouelle's  chemical  laboratory  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes; 
became  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in  176S:  obtained  a 
farmer-generalship  in  1769,  in  order  to  increase  his  income, 
his  expenditures  in  chemical  research  requiring  a  large 
outlay  of  money :  took  a  prominent  part  in  public  affairs, 
writing  numerous  and  able  papers  on  state  questions:  dis- 
covered the  composition  of  water  in  1783:  and  made  many 
important  researches  in  physics.  In  chemistry,  the  science 
to  which  his  attention  was  ehic8y  directed,  he  made  not 
only  important  discoveries  and  great  inventions  in  appa- 
ratus and  in  methods  of  work,  but  he  was  one  of  the  first 
and  ablest  of  philosophical  chemists,  the  destroyer  of  the 
false  theories  of  Stahl  and  Priestley,  and  was  the  principal 
inventor  of  the  system  of  chemical  nomenclature  which  pre- 
vailed exclusively  for  more  than  fifty  years  after  his  death. 
Lavoisier  was  guillotined  by  the  Jacobins  May  8,  1794,  on 
account  of  his  former  connection  with  the  farming  of  the 
taxes.  The  most  important  of  his  works  are  Traitf  de 
Chimle  (  1789)  and  Me  moires  de  Physique  et  de  tVii'/n/c,  which 
includes  his  principal  occasional  scientific  papers. 

Law.  When  the  magnitude  of  any  quantity  is  altered 
by  changes  of  any  other  quantities,  the  statement  of  the 
relation  existing  between  them  is  known  as  a  law  of  nature. 
Thus,  the  fact  that  the  force  of  gravity  is  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  is  known  as  the  law  of  gravitation, 
and  the  equality  of  the  angles  of  refleeiiou  and  incideiiee  is 
the  law  of  reflection.  Generally,  iaivs  may  be  expressed 
by  equations,  and  the  highest  aim  of  scientific  investiga- 
tion is  to  determine  the  form  of  these  equations,  and  to  show 
that  they  follow  from  simple  well-established  laws.  Laws 
seldom  seem  exact,  owing  to  various  disturbing  causes,  but 
if  these  are  properly  allowed  for,  the  true  law  is  never 
deviated  from  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature.  The 
failure  of  one  or  more  of  these  laws  in  a  particular  case 
constitutes  a  miraele.  The  term  "law"  is  also  applied, 
but  less  ]iroperly,  to  the  statement  of  any  general  fact, 
as  that  all  bodies  possess  mass  or  that  matter  is  impene- 
trable. K.  C.  Pickeri.vo. 

Law  [Lat.  lex  :  Ang.-Sax.  lag].  When  taken  in  its 
widest  and  most  comprehensive  manner,  without  limitation 
to  any  particular  subject-matter,  certain  essential  and  ele- 
mentary notions  are  implied  in  the  term  Law,  all  neces- 
sary to  its  complete  and  accurate  meaning.  These  essen- 
tials are  (1)  a  lawgiver;  (2)  an  inferior  subject  :  (3)  a 
command;  (4)  power  in  the  lawgiver,  resulting  from  some 
organic  relation  between  himself  ami  the  subject,  to  en- 
force the  command.  As  the  utteronce  of  a  command 
implies  the  formation  of  a  wish  and  an  act  of  the  will,  it 
follows  that  the  lawgiver  must  necessarily  be  a  rational,  in- 
telligent being,  and,  so  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  ex- 
istences, must  be  either  God  or  man.  The  authors  of  all 
law,  then,  in  a  true  sense  of  the  term — the  only  lawgivers 
possible — are  the  Divine  Ruler  of  the  universe,  and  men 
who  may  be  clothed  with  authority  over  individuals  or  over 
that  organized  aggregate  of  individuals  which  forms  the 
state.  The  commands  which  God  issues  in  reference  to 
material  objects,  whether  animate  or  inanimate,  and  which 
prescribe  rules  concerning  all  the  movements  and  pro- 
cesses of  the  physical  creation,  fall  under  our  general 
definition,  and  are  truly  laies.  They  certainly  differ  in 
a  most  important  feature  from  the  commands  addressed 
to  rational  beings,  since  they  are  wholly  without  any 
moral  quality  :  but  it  is  only  upon  the  assuni|>tion  that  the 
invariable  order  and  sequence  of  acts  and  events  in  the 
material  universe  are  the  results  of  commamls  uttered  and 
rules  set  by  a  conscious  and  intelligent  lawgiver  that  the 
phrases  "  Inies  of  nature."  "physical  taies,"  "lairs  of  nat- 
ural science,"  and  the  like,  become  at  all  proper  and  ad- 
missible: without  this  assumption  such  forms  of  speech  are 
self-contradictory  and  un.scientific.  The  other  and  more 
perfect  class  of  the  divine  laws  embraces  those  set  by  Him 


LAW,  CANON. 


1677 


to  rational  bcinps.  to  mankind.  Hero  tho  inferior  subjects 
arc  endowed  with  n  free  will,  arc  clothed  with  an  ability  to 
choose  between  an  n^^enl  and  u  refu:*al  to  roniply  with 
the  command.  The  command  to  do  or  to  forbuar,  which  is 
only  the  exprcspcd  will  of  the  lawgiver,  in  iti^elf  creates  in 
the  rational  subject  ft  ct»rre!«|>ondin(j  duty  or  (ddigation  to 
do  or  to  forbear ;  he  is  bound  to  obey.  When,  llierefore. 
tho  subjfct?  of  God"?  laws  are  intelltf;ent  beinps.  a  fifth 
essential  clement  is  involved  in  the  peneral  concc|ition  of 
law,  and  that  is  tho  notion  of  duty  or  obligation.  Again, 
as  the  choice  exists  between  obedience  and  dif;(»bi>dicnce,  as 
the  inferior  subjects  may  violate  the  duty  which  has  arisen 
from  the  promulgation  of  the  cnnimand.  the  power  of  en- 
forcement residing  in  the  lawgiver  is  exercised  by  the 
threat  and  impo-jition  of  some  evil  as  a  consequence  of  tho 
violation.  Ilcnec  we  find  a  sixth  essential  element  involved 
in  the  general  conception  of  law  when  addressed  to  rational 
beings — that  of  compelling  obedience  by  tho  danger  or  fear 
of  suffering  evil  in  the  event  of  disobedience;  which  evil, 
thus  imposed  as  a  penalty,  is  termed  the  iinnctiun  of  the 
law.  Sufh  is  the  nature  of  (Jod's  law.wliich  is  addressed  to 
rational  beings,  and  which  may  be  collectively  designatecl 
the  "moral  law,"  since  its  commands  necessarily  create  an 
obligation  resting  upon  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed, 
and  obedience  or  disobedience  is  therefore  always  a  moral 
act. 

liuman  laws,  or  those  which  arc  set  by  human  la-wgivers. 
are  all  of  the  samo  essential  nature  as  those  which  have 
collectively  been  designated  the  moral  law  of  (Jod.  The 
differences  are  plainly  those  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.  The 
object  of  nil  liumari  law — or,  in  other  words,  of  all  com- 
mands uttered  by  the  constituted  lawgiver — is  to  ]>rcscribe 
and  impose  duties,  to  create  and  define  rights,  and  to  cn- 
ffireo  the  observance  of  both.  A  brief  analysis  will  disclose 
the  general  nature  of  all  such  jural  rights  and  duties, 
and  will  explain  their  genesis,  or  how  tbey  arise  from  the 
commands  of  the  lawgiver.  T  select  for  the  purj)OFe  of  this 
analysis  the  highest  type  of  human  legislation — namely, 
the  municipal  law.  or  that  of  independent  sovereign  na- 
tions, in  which  all  commands  are  uttered  by  the  supreme 
power  of  the  state,  whatever  be  the  form  of  the  government, 
or  whatever  department  thereof  possesses  this  legislative 
function.  The  object  of  every  command  is  to  impose  a 
duty  an<l  to  ereate  a  right,  and  its  effect  is  tlius  necessarily 
twofold  :  tho  duty  rests  upon  some  person  or  class  ot  per- 
sons, and  a  corresponding  right  is  given  to  another  person 
or  class  of  persims.  Two  r|i;jtinet  individuals  or  groups 
are  thus  nei^essnrily  affeetetl  by  every  command,  and  they 
are  placed  by  it  in  a  relation  of  d^-pendencc.  or  even  of  an- 
tagonism. All  rights  created  by  the  law  are  correlative  to 
duties,  and  all  duties  are  correlative  to  rights.  The  supreme 
power  in  the  slate  issues  a  command,  the  effect  of  which  is 
to  clothe  a  given  person  with  a  certain  right.  Now,  a  legal 
right  in  its  highest  and  widest  sense  is  nothing  but  a  claim 
that  another  person  or  class  of  persons  sliall  do  s<jme  act 
or  forbear  from  some  act  respecting  the  individual  who 
hrdds  the  right.  We  could  have  no  legal  rights  were  there 
not  other  persons  whom  these  rights  obliged  to  do  or  for- 
bear towards  us.  Every  right,  then,  residing  in  one  person 
corresponds  or  correlates  to  a  iluty  devolving  upon  another 
person  or  class  i>f  persons.  All  possible  rights  and  duties  thus 
crcafetl  or  ifuposied  by  tlieeoniniamlsof  the  supreme  (lo wer  in 
the  state  belong  to  one  or  the  other  <if  two  elasses  :  they  an- 
either  private  or  public.  In  the  (irxt  class  the  duties  rest 
upon  persons,  and  the  corrcsponrling  rights  are  held  by 
other  persons,  so  that  the  command  always  iind  neeessarily 
affects  two  <lifferent  sets  or  groujis  of  iixlividuals,  both 
standing  in  the, came  subordinate  relation  to  the  shite.  In  the 
flectmd  class  the  duties  also  rest  upon  persons,  but  the  cor- 
responding rights  are  hehl  by  that  organic  nggregatooreom- 
munity  of  persons  which  constitutes  the  state.  This  capital 
lino  of  dislinclion  in  reference  to  the  bidders  of  rights  not 
only  separates  all  the  jiriniary  rights  and  duties  into  two 
grand  departments,  but  it  also  divides  the  remedies  for  their 
violation  into  the  corresponding  classes  of  civil  and  criminal. 
These  iluties  are  either  positive — that  is,  nVdigations  to  do 
some  act  ;  or  negative — that  is.  obligations  tt>  refrain  or 
forbear  from  some  act.  When  the  determined  person  upon 
I  whom    the  duty  n-sts,  or  any  one   of  mankind  where  tho 

duty  rests  upon  all,  neglects  to  do  tho  act  which  liis  posi- 
tive obligation  requires  of  him,  or  docs  the  act  which  his 
negative  obligation  forbids  him  to  do.  he  commits  an  in- 
jury, offence,  or  delict.  A  delict,  injury,  or  offence  is, 
therefore,  at  once  the  violation  of  a  duty  resting  upon  the 
offender  and  the  infringement  of  a  right  poHsessed  by  some 
other  person.  Such  violations  of  duty  must  be  redressed, 
and  fi)r  this  purpose  the  law  is  provided  with  sanctions. 
Injuries  themselves  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
exactly  corresponding  to  the  disfinctioii  of  rights  into 
private  and  public  already  stated — namely  (  1 )  tliose  wliich 
primarily  affcot  the  rights  of  private  porsous,  aud  are  re- 


dressed by  private  remedies  pursued  by  the  injured  party; 
and  (2)  those  whicli  primarily  affect  the  state,  and  aro 
redressed  in  its  name  by  means  of  [lunisbments  inflicted 
upon  tho  wrongiloer.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  same 
pnysical  act  is  both  a  public  and  a  private  injury,  and  e.v- 
poses  the  offender  to  both  a  criminal  punishment  and  a 
private  remedy.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  iu  such  cases 
two  distinct  rights  are  invaded  and  two  distinct,  duties  aro 
violated  l>y  the  same  physical  act.  liow  far  this  double 
nature  of  wrongs  an<l  this  ilouble  re<lresa  therefor  shall  bo 
allowed,  greatly  varii's  in  different  systems  of  national  law, 
according  to  their  notions  of  public  policy. 

The  essential  elements  wbich  enter  into  the  conception 
of  law  set  by  human  authority  having  been  thus  deter- 
mined, I  proceed  to  describe  its  grand  divisions  or  depart- 
ments and  the  general  nature  of  its  subject-matter,  without 
reference  to  any  particulor  natii»nal  forms,  or  to  any  special 
modes  of  enactment  or  distribution  of  governmental  func- 
ti<tns.  The  law,  considered  both  objectively  and  subject- 
ively— that  is,  both  as  a  system  of  rules  creating  rights 
and  imposing  duties,  and  as  a  method  and  a  power  of  es- 
tablishing further  rules — consists  of  two  distinct  depart- 
ments, two  sciences — ^jurisprudence  and  legislation.  Juris- 
prudence in  its  primary  signification  denotes  the  laws 
which  have  been  enacted,  either  the  entire  body  of  exist- 
ing legal  rules  which  prevail  in  any  particular  state,  or  the 
features  which  aro  common  to  all  tho  national  systems  as 
tbey  have  been  established  in  different  countries  and  at 
different  times.  Asascienceit  is  occupied  with  the  study  and 
investigation  of  these  laws.  It  is  naturally  separated  into 
two  divisions,  which  may  ajtpropriately  be  called  general 
and  particular.  General  jurisprudence  is  employed  in  the 
discovery,  examination,  and  arrangement  of  institutions, 
principles,  and  rules  which  aro  found  as  parts  of  all  ex- 
isting legal  systems,  and  especially  of  tlioso  whicli  have 
far  advanced  in  the  march  of  civilization.  It  does  not 
represent  the  whole  law  of  any  country,  but  rather  the 
similitudes  between  the  laws  of  different  countries.  Par- 
ticular jurisprudence  is  concerned  only  with  the  whole 
existing  la\v  of  a  specified  country,  in  whatever  form  this 
may  have  issued  from  the  bands  of  tiie  legislator  who  hail 
called  it  into  being  as  a  collection  of  positive  rules — that 
is,  with  the  municipal  law.  In  determining  the  exact  im- 
jiort  of  this  term,  another  conception  is  introduced  and 
joined  with  that  of  the  law — the  conception  of  the  state. 
The  state  or  nation — for  tho  words  are  iu  this  respect  syn- 
onymous— is  an  independent,  separate,  and  sovereign  polit- 
ical society,  with  its  own  organization  and  government. 
The  coneejition  of  the  state  may  be  summed  up  in  the  sin- 
gle but  most  comprehensive  term.  p(ditical  s<jvercignty  ;  but 
this  includes  the  attributes  of  political  independence,  ])oIiti- 
cal  equality,  and  absolute  power  within  t  lie  domain  of  legisla- 
tion. From  the  union  of  the  notions  inv<dvcil  in  the  terms 
"law"  and  '*  the  stiito"  wo  complete  the  description  of  tlic 
complex  result  which  is  denominated  the  "  municipal  law." 
It  is  the  entire  body  of  positive  jurisprudence  winch  belongs 
to  a  se])arate  and  sovereign  political  society,  a  state;  wbich 
is  promulgated  in  its  name  and  by  its  authority,  in  what- 
ever manner  that  authority  nniy  bo  exercised  ;  and  which 
is  absolutely  binding,  throughout  the  territorial  jurisdiction 
of  that  state,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  and  every  other  law. 

While  jurlKprudciiec  is  comersant  only  with  hiws  which 
have  been  enacted,  legislation  has  to  do  with  laws  which 
should  beenacteil,  anil  with  the  process  of  enactment,  with 
the  discovery  and  statement  of  what  tho  law  as  a  whole 
ought  to  be,  and  willi  the  bringing  of  it  into  an  agreement 
with  that  perfect  standnrib  .Turisprudenco  and  legislation 
are  therefore,  in  respect  to  their  ultimate  objects,  separate, 
but  in  their  study  as  sciences,  and  in  tho  actual  operations 
by  wbich  their  objects  aro  attained,  they  must  necessarily 
be  combined.  John  Noiiton  PoMicitov. 

|jn\V«<'nnon.  The  term  *•  canon  law"  designates  tho 
body  of  rules  and  reguhitions  wbich  were  primarily  estab- 
lished by  the  Christian  t'hurch  and  enforce<i  by  ecclesias- 
tical auth<irity.  hut  which  in  the  course  of  time  became  ex- 
tended to  many  matters  purely  civil,  ami  were  recognized 
and  sanctioned  by  tlio  tribunals  of  tho  state.  After  tho 
Roman  empire  became  Christian,  and  tho  Church  became 
in  part  i<lentilied  with  it,  there  arose  a  threefold  jurisdiction 
of  the  ecclesiastical  triliunals— that  is,  of  tho  bishops  iu 
their  various  degrees  i»f  dignity  and  adminislratlvo  au- 
thority. (I)  This  jurisdiction  was  exercised  in  respect  of 
any  subject-matler  whatever,  civil  or  otherwise,  over  all 
the  clergy,  over  oil  persons  in  h<dy  orders.  (2)  The  jurisdic- 
tion exteuih'd  over  laymen  in  relation  to  all  matters  strictly 
ecclesiastical — ([uestions  pertaining  to  the  internal  order, 
discipline,  doctrines,  anil  observances  of  tho  Church,  (H) 
It  also  extended  over  laymen  in  relation  to  cerloin  special 
subjects,  whieh,  although  strictly  civil,  and  in  moclern  sys- 
tems of  national  jurisprudence  universally  regarded  as  such, 
were  claimed  by  tho  Church  to  have  a  peculiar  religious 


1678 


LAW,  THE  CIVIL. 


aspect  and  to  nearly  concern  the  ("oul's  welfare.  The  most 
important  of  those  special  subjects  were  marriage  and  di- 
vorce and  the  succession  to  the  personal  estates  of  deced- 
ents. The  term  canon  law  has  a  direct  and  primary  rela- 
tion to  the  creative  source  by  which  the  rules  that  compose 
it  are  uttered — namely,  the  law-making;  [)Ower  of  the  Church 
considered  as  an  organic  and  independent  society  capable 
of  lejrislating  within  a  certain  domain  and  upon  a  certain 
chiss  of  subjects.  It  is  broader  than  the  ecclesiastical  hiw, 
for  while  it  embraces  within  its  scope  everything;  that  per- 
tains to  the  or;»ani7.ation,  order,  doctrine,  and  discipline 
of  the  Church,  it  also  extends  to  many  other  topics  which 
have  only  a  very  indirect  connection  with  these  purely  ec- 
clesiastical matters.  In  short,  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
comprehensive  system  of  regulations,  primarily  established 
by  the  legislative  authority  residing  in  the  Church,  relating 
to  subjects  both  spiritual  and  temporal,  and  administered 
by  both  spiritual  and  temporal  tribunals. 

The  canon  law  as  a  separate  and  completed  system  is, 
and  for  several  centuries  past  has  been,  contained  in  col- 
lections of  digests  and  codes  which  taken  together  are  de- 
nominated the  Corpm  Jnrh  Catinnt'ci.  The  Roman  law. 
by  the  orders  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  had  been  arranged 
in  three  separate  compilations — the  Pandects  or  Digest, 
the  Cude,  au'l  the  Novell? — and  in  this  compact  form  was 
known  as  the  Cftrjntfi  Jiirin  Civilift.  In  direct  imitation  of 
this  proceeding,  both  as  respects  name  and  method,  the 
Corpti/t  Jiirh  Cauotn'ri  is  composed  of  three  distinct  parts — 
*'  Tlie  Decree."  '*  The  Decretals."  and  **  The  Extravagantes  " 
— which  have  some  correspondence  with  and  analogy  to 
the  Pandects,  the  Code,  and  the  Js'ovells.  I,  '*  The  De- 
cree.'^— This  work  was  composed  and  published  about  the 
year  1140  by  flratian.a  Benedictine  monk  of  Bologna,  who 
tuidertook  the  task  at  the  request  of  St.  Bernard,  with  the 
immediate  object  of  furnishing  a  treatise  for  use  in  the 
university  at  that  city.  It  is  based  upon  all  the  previous 
legislation  of  the  Church,  which  was  treated  as  authorita- 
tive, and  which  was  scattered  through  numerous  compen- 
diums,  acts  of  councils,  and  decretals  of  popes  ;  and  it  is,  in 
fact,  a  cotnjilcte  collection  or  epitome  of  the  canon  law  as  it 
then  existed  and  was  in  force  throughout  the  Western 
Church.  The  name  given  to  it  by  the  author  was  ^0*1- 
cnylaiitia  Diftcnrdnnthim  Canonum,  but  it  is  generally 
known  and  cited  as  the  *•  Decree  of  Gratian  "  ( Decretum 
Grrftiani),  or  more  often  as  the  "Decree."  It  consists 
chiefly  of  extracts  taken,  as  above  stated,  from  all  other 
writings  that  contained  the  law  in  a  scattered  and  confused 
sha]>e,  and  these  citations  are  arranged  and  classitied  ac- 
cording to  their  subject-matter,  being  connected  by  a  text 
which  the  author  himself  composed.  In  other  words,  these 
extra'?ts  do  not,  as  in  the  Pandects,  make  up  the  entire 
work  ;  the  legal  principles,  doctrines,  and  rules  are  given 
by  the  author  in  his  own  language  (technically,  rfi'c/«  Ura- 
ti'rtHi)^  and  the  citations  are  annexed  thereto  as  proofs  or 
illustrations.  Tlie  whole  body  of  the  jurispruilence  as  it 
then  existed  is  thus  presented  in  an  orderly  and  scicntitic 
method.  The  '*  Decree  "  is  divided  into  three  parts.  Part 
First  contains  101  sections  or  paragraphs — technically 
called  ''distinctions"  {tliatinctioiicti) — and  the  important 
subject?  of  which  it  treats  are  the  nature  ami  sources  of 
dilTercnt  kinds  <tf  law,  and  especially  of  the  ecclesiastical 
law,  persons  in  holy  orders,  and  the  bishops  and  other 
higher  ranks  of  the  clergy.  Part  Second  is  quite  different 
in  its  external  form,  and  consists  of  thirty-six  *•  causes  "  or 
cases  (rnu»!r),  which  are  first  stated,  anrl  under  each  arc 
placed  the  legal  questitms  that  arise  therefrom  It/uxfititnieit), 
which  questions  are  then  solved  by  ap]>ropriate  extracts 
similar  to  those  in  the  first  part.  The  thirty-second  '*  cause" 
and  third  "question"  is  a  special  treatise  on  the  subject 
of  penance  ( />c  ;>n'')n'^'ji//a),  and  is  separated  into  seven 
"distinctions."  Part  Third,  which  has  for  its  title  *' />e 
Connecrationc,"  is  divided,  like  the  first,  into  "  distinctions." 
It  treats  of  the  consecration  of  churches,  of  the  sacraments, 
and  of  the  performance  of  divine  service.  The  work  in  all 
its  parts  contains  about  HOOO  extracts,  each  being  indicated 
by  the  letter  C,  which  signifies  "caput"  or  "  i-npitnhtm," 
and  not.  as  has  generally  been  supposed,  "canon."  Although 
the  "  Decree"  was  the  compilation  of  a  private  person,  its 
substance  was  taken  from  the  existing  law  ;  it  was  at  once 
sanctioned  ami  ajiproved  by  the  highest  authority  in  the 
Church — by  popes  themselves — and  thus  acquired  ail  the 
force  of  original  legislation.  Its  text  has  been  the  object 
of  numerous  commentaries,  or.  as  thev  arc  technically 
termed,  glosses,  the  most  important  of  which,  the  (Homm 
onh'nfiria,  is  usually  printed  with  it.  Many  editions  have 
been  issued  from  time  to  time:  and  in  consequence  of  a 
decree  made  by  the  Council  of  Trent  a  revised  and  cor- 
rected edition  was  prepared  by  papal  command  under  the 
care  and  direction  of  several  learned  doctors,  and  was  finally 
published  A.  i).  15S0.  II.  The  second  part  of  the  Corpita 
Juris  fniioHt'ci,  called  "The  Decretals,    consists  of  three 


distinct  subdivisions:  (1)  "The  Gregorian  Decretals,"  or 
decretals  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  five  books;  (2)  the 
"  Liher  Scxtita"  or  the  **  Srrtns"  being  a  coUuction  of  de- 
cretals prepared  by  order  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII. ;  and  (3) 
the  "Clementine  C<mstitutions,"  or  decretals  published  by 
Pope  Clement  V.  The  following  is  a  brief  description  of 
these  compilations.  After  the  great  work  of  Gratian  was 
completed,  numerous  collections  of  subsequent  decretals 
were  made  by  private  persons,  which  possessed  a  greater 
or  less  amount  of  authority,  but  which,  on  the  whole, 
tendeii  to  produce  confusion  and  uncertainly  in  the  study 
and  administration  of  the  canon  law.  To  remedy  this  evil, 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  directed  his  chancellor,  Raymond,  a 
Benedictine  monk,  to  prepare  a  new  compilation,  which 
should  be  based  upon  and  should  take  the  place  of  all  those 
to  which  reference  has  been  made.  Raymond  accordingly 
in  12.'i-4  published  his  Qulutjtic  Lifni  Ihcrcttth'um  Gregorii 
Nnnt\  which  was  at  once  approved  and  ordered  to  be  used 
in  the  courts  and  the  universities.  It  contains  not  only  the 
decretals  \vhich  had  appeared  since  the  "  Decree  of  Gratian," 
but  also  some  of  a  more  ancient  date  which  had  been 
omitted  from  that  work,  together  with  extracts  from  the 
Fathers  and  from  acts  of  councils,  the  whole  being  arranged 
in  five  books  and  distributed  into  tilk-s,  and  again  into 
chapters.  The  principal  subjects  of  which  it  treats  are  the 
organization  and  jurisdiction  of  the  spiritual  courts,  the 
proceedings  therein  and  their  sentences,  the  clergy,  be- 
trothal and  marriage,  and  crime.  The  same  condition  of 
affairs  again  arose  at  a  subsequent  perioil;  the  same  need 
was  felt,  and  the  same  remedy  was  adopted.  Pope  Boni- 
face VIII.  caused  another  compilation  to  be  made,  con- 
taining all  the  decretals  which  had  been  issued  since  that 
of  Gregory.  It  was  publi.«hed  in  1208,  and  follows  the 
same  order  of  arrangement  as  its  immediate  predecessor; 
and  under  the  notion  that  it  was  the  supplement  to  that 
work  it  was  called  Liber  Serins.  Pope  Clement  V.  in  the 
year  1318  issued  a  collection  of  his  own  decretals  and  of 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Vienne,  over  which  he  pro- 
sided,  which  is  known  as  the  "  Clementine  Constitutions." 
To  the  text  of  all  these  decretals  commentaries  or  "glosses  " 
have  been  added,  which  have  acquired  a  certain  authority 
from  long-continued  usage,  from  the  judgments  of  courts, 
and  from  the  teachings  of  universities.  HI.  The  "  Extrava- 
gniiten." — This  third  part  of  the  Corpus  Jurin  Canonici  con- 
sists of  two  divisions — the  "  Extravagantes  of  John  XXII." 
and  the  "Extravagantes  Communes."  The  former  con- 
tains certain  decretals  of  the  pope  whose  name  it  bears, 
collected  by  an  unknown  author,  and  published  without 
official  sanction  in  132j.  The  latter  is  a  collection  of  de- 
cretals by  various  popes  from  Urban  VI.  to  Sixtus  IV., 
A.  i>.  148.3.  Neither  of  these  compilations  was  made  with 
authority,  nor  did  they  originally  form  a  part  of  the  Corpus 
Juris  Canonici,  but  iu  1682  they  were  incorporated  into  it, 
and  placed  upon  the  same  footing  as  the  other  decretals  by 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  John  Norton'  PuMKttoY. 

Law,  The  Civil,  The  " civil  law  "  (jus  <irilr), in  its 
strictly  technical  import,  denotes  the  body  of  Roman  juris- 
prurlence  collected  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  ar- 
ranged and  digested  in  the  compilations  which  taken  to- 
gether bear  tho  name  Corpus  Juris  Civi/is.  In  this  form 
it  became  to  a  great  extent  the  basis  of  the  municipal  laws 
of  the  continental  states  of  Europe.  The  term  is  not;  there- 
fore, exactly  synonymous  with  "  Roman  lnw,"and  docs  not 
describe  that  system  in  its  condition  as  the  actual  juris- 
prudence of  the  Roman  empire:  it  was  first  used  in  its 
jircscnt  special  sense  by  the  jurists  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
was  applied  to  the  collections  made  by  .Justinian  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  "canon  law."  The  civil  law  of  tho 
Roman  state  and  the  canon  law  of  the  Roman  Church  thus 
stood  side  by  side,  and  were  the  two  great  sources  from 
which  the  jurisprudence  of  modern  Europe  has  been  largely 
derived.  A  description  of  the  civil  law,  therefore,  requires 
some  account  of  the  Roman  law,  of  which  it  was  in  fact  the 
final  stage.  The  Roman  law,  as  a  national  jurisprudence 
from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  the  death  of  Justinian, 
in  whose  reign  it  was  fixed  in  its  present  shape  and  ceased 
to  be  a  growth,  exten<ied  through  0  period  of  about  1300 
years,  and  from  an  archaic  state  of  barbarism  it  was  trans- 
formed through  progressive  stages  into  an  enlightened  and 
philosophic  code,  so  wise  and  just  in  its  principles,  and  so 
lofty  in  its  practical  morality,  that  it  is  susceptible  of  little 
imjtrovement  from  the  culture  of  the  present  age.  So  far 
as  the  narrow  limits  of  this  article  will  permit.  I  shall 
sketch  in  a  very  general  manner  ( 1  )  the  external  history 
rtf  its  development — that  is.  the  forms,  means,  and  modes 
by  which  the  law  was  created,  and  the  process  of  growth 
from  its  primitive  rutleness  to  its  final  perfection  :  and  (2^ 
the  more  important  and  characteristic  features  of  the  law 
itself,  the  principles,  iloctrines.  and  rules  which  were  at 
length  gathered  into  the  compilations  of  Justinian.  This 
latter  account  must  necessarily  be  exceedingly  imperfect, 


LAW,  THE  CIVIL. 


1679 


and  18  given  simply  to  illu^lrnte  tbe  spirit  of  the  Koman 
jurispruilcncc  and  it?  method  of  development. 

Hitturirul  Sketch. — Little  is  known  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty of  the  law  in  the  earliest  centuries  of  the  Uonian 
state,  during  the  period  of  the  kings.  The  political  or- 
ganiiatiun  was  in  the  highest  degree  aristocratic,  and  all 
power  was  held  by  the  superior  orders,  the  patricians 
\pnpu(n»).  The  commons  {pUbi),  though  free,  had  sub- 
stantially no  voiec  in  the  ninnngement  of  public  affairs,  and 
even  the  private  law  discriminated  harshly  against  them. 
It  is  inferred  upon  general  principles — that  is.  from  the 
general  nature  of  barbarous  societies — that  the  laws,  or 
wha*  were  called  the  laws,  consisted  almost  entirely  of 
tribal  customs,  which  were  banded  down  by  oral  tradition, 
and  the  knowledge  of  which  was  possessed  exclusively  by 
the  ruling  classes.  It  is  certain  that  for  several  centuries 
I  ho  law  largely  partook  of  a  religious  eharaeter,  was  in- 
timately connected  with  religious  observances,  and  enforced 
by  religious  sanctions.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  kingly 
power,  and  as  the  result  of  a  political  revolution  in  which 
the  commons  ( ptrbn)  ncquired  an  accession  of  authority, 
in  the  year  -1.52  b.  o.  and  ;i*'2  of  the  city  a  partial  code  was 
prepared  and  adopted,  which  became,  and  ever  after  was. 
the  basis  of  the  Roman  jurisprudence — that  is.  all  future 
growth  of  that  jurisprudence  was  actually  or  fictitii)usly 
constructed  upon  it  as  a  fountlation.  This  code  was  the 
celebrated  Law  of  the  XII.  Tables,  or  the  XII.  Tables. 
The  contents  of  this  statute  as  a  whole,  and  even  its  order 
and  arrangement,  are  unknown.  Certain  extracts  from  it 
have  been  preserved  in  the  writings  of  various  authors,  and 
from  them  modern  jurists  have  attempted  to  reconstruct 
the  entire  text,  but  the  result  is  of  course  conjectural.  It 
seems  to  bo  established,  however,  that  among  other  sub- 
jects the  first,  second,  and  third  tables  treated  of  judicial 
proceedings:  the  fourth  of  tbe  paternal  power,  the  power 
ofthc  pnt*-r/tinn'lia8  over  the  family  :  the  tilth  of  heirs  and 
persons  under  the  care  of  tutors,  and  iloubtless  of  thu  whole 
subject  of  succession  :  the  sixth  of  property  and  possession  ; 
the  seventh  of  buildings  and  tii'lds  ;  the  eighth  of  delicts — 
that  is,  of  injuries  to  person  or  pr<»perty  from  wbieli  a  right 
of  compensation  arose:  the  ninth  of  public  and  political 
law;  the  tenth  of  the  law  relating  to  sacred  rites  and  ot)- 
servances;  and  that  the  eleventh  an<i  twelfth  were  supple- 
mentary to  the  others.  A  part  of  this  code  was  certainly 
political :  that  portion  which  rclatcil  to  the  private  law  was 
probably  an  enactment  in  a  statutory  form  of  the  pre- 
existing customary  regulations,  witlniut  substantial  change. 
For  a  htng  period  subsequent  to  the  epoch  of  the  XII. 
Tables,  the  public  history  of  Korae  was  a  continuous  con- 
flict between  the  aristocracy  ( />o/>i(/i(«)  and  the  commons 
{ptchn),  which  resultt'd  in  the  Inttcr's  obtaining  complete 
political  equality  with  the  former ;  but  tiiis  struijgle  ha^i 
no  interest  for  us  except  in  its  eftVet  upon  the  aclniil  law- 
creating  power  of  the  state.  In  Ktigland  and  the  I'.S.  thi- 
law-making  power  is  conferred  upnn  two  ilistinct  depart- 
ments, the  legislature  and  the  hijrher  courts,  the  authority 
of  the  lesislalure,  however,  being  supreme.  In  other 
words,  the  actual  law  of  Knjfland  and  uf  this  country  was 
partly  made  by  the  legislature  in  tbo  form  of  statute.-,  and 
partly  made  by  the  courts  and  promulgated  in  the  form  of 
judicial  decisions,  the  latter  being  so  far  inferior  that  it 
can  be  altered  by  statute.  The  law  of  K<fme  grew  up  in 
exactly  the  same  metbnd.  by  a  process  e.vnctly  tbe  same  in 
its  essential  nature,  altbou;;!!  differing  somewhat  in  its  ex- 
ternal form.  A  portion  of  it  was  stnlutory.  and  a  portion 
— an<I  during  a  long  period  of  it^  liistory  by  fnr  the  gn'ater 
portitm — was  the  law  <d' judicial  deeisiiui,  or  what  Hi-nthnni 
flneeringly  cnlk-d  *'judt;e-Tiiade  law."  I  will  briefly  de- 
Bcribe  the  modes  in  which  these  two  species  '»f  the  legisla- 
tion were  effected  prior  to  the  time  when  the  legislative 
function  became  possessed  exclusively  by  the  emperor. 
Ttie  uolitical  constitution  of  the  state  provided  three  dif- 
ferent official  assemblies  of  the  eitizens — that  by  the  centu- 
ries {vitmitin  ren(urifitn),  which  consisted  of  both  patricians 
and  commons;  that  by  the  curies  {romitiu  curiaUi),  which 
was  composed  of  the  patricians  alone:  and  that  by  the 
tribes  {cnmitia  trilintn),  which  was  cmifmed  cxehisivcly  t<i 
the  communs.  The  resolution;^  cftlie  centuries  were  termed 
'•  laws  "  (/ff/cf),  statutes,  and  were  always  binding  upon  the 
whole  state  J  those  of  the  other  assemblies  were  originally 
binding  upon  their  respective  orders  alone,  but  in  the  year 
4r.,'(  of  the  city,  in  consequence  of  a  statute  (/''j-  //inftimia), 
they  were  clothed  with  all  the  efficacy  of  laws.  The  as- 
semblies of  the  patricians  soon  lost  their  legislative  func- 
tion, and  were  long  retained  tor  certain  formal  purposes 
only,  while  those  of  the  tribes  greatly  increased  in  im- 
])ortnnce,  and  their  ordinances  \  plriii'tiritn)  became  a 
common  form  of  legislation.  Durinc  the  republic  the 
senate  did  not  possess  the  power  of  law-making,  hut 
upon  the  establishment  of  the  empire  the  popular  assem- 
blies were  abandoned,  and  their  function  was  transferred 


[  to  the  senate:  its  resolutions  (geuattta  consultu)  for  a 
while  thereafter  took  the  place  of  both  the  "laws  "and 
i  the  •'plebiscites" — that  is,  became  the  only  s|iccies  of 
'  statutes.  The  law  of  judicial  decision,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  created  iiy  the  magistrates,  by  far  the  most  important 
of  whom  was  the  pnvtor.  This  office  was  first  instituted 
soon  after  the  inauguration  of  the  republic.  Its  terra 
was  but  one  year,  so  that  the  changes  in  the  actual  incum- 
bents were  very  frequent.  The  law-making  function  of  the 
pra'lor  was  exercised  in  tbe  preparation  and  promulgation 
of  an  official  declaration  or  doeument  termed  the  ''edict." 
Upon  entering  on  tbe  duties  of  his  office  each  pra?tor  issued 
a  statement  of  the  legal  principles,  doctrines,  and  rules  by 
which  he  should  be  guided  in  administering  justice  during 
his  term.  Each  new  magistrate  would  adopt  the  whole  or 
the  greater  part  of  his  immediate  predecessor's  work,  and 
annex  such  improvements,  amendments,  or  additions  as  he 
thought  proper.  In  this  manner  the  edict  became  a  con- 
tinuous and.  to  a  certain  extent,  systematic  body  of  juris- 
prudence, based  upon  the  XII.  Tables  a^  its  foundation,  and 
increasing  each  year  by  the  work  of  successive  magistrates. 
That  portion  of  it  which,  onrc  established,  was  continued 
from  year  to  year  without  change  was  termed  edictum  per- 
prtiiHin,  and  since  it  was  borrowed  by  eacdi  prtvtor  from 
his  immediate  predecessor  and  incorporated  into  his  own, 
it  was  also  named  r<iirtiint  franiffatititiiit.  Tlio  new  portiim 
which  a  magistrate  added  was  called  efiiitmn  )i'nutii.  It 
must  not  bo  supposed  that  the  pnvtorian  edict  bore  any 
resemblance  to  a  modern  statute  or  to  a  decision  of  a  mod- 
ern court,  much  less  to  a  modern  code  or  digest.  It  did  not 
contain  a  statement  of  principles  in  a  general  and  compre- 
hensive form,  nor  of  abstract  rules  of  conduct  defining  the 
primary  rights  and  duties  of  citizens.  Like  all  legislation 
in  a  certain  period  of  social  development,  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely a  mere  nnnouncement  of  the  remedies  which  would 
be  allowed  by  the  magistrates  under  specified  circumstances, 
and  which  had  not  been  provided  for  by  the  pre-existing 
law.  The  law  as  created  by  the  edict  was  in  substance  iho 
enumeration  of  remedial  rights,  remedies,  and  actions, 
ratlier  than  the  utterance  of  general  rules  of  conduct. 
About  the  year  50S  of  the  cily.  after  the  conquests  of  Rome 
had  been  widely  extended,  and  its  relations  with  foreigners 
hail  become  constant  and  intimate,  they  not  being  regarded 
as  amenable  to  or  governed  by  tbe  law  jiertaining  to  its  cit- 
izens (/(/»  civf'ic),  a  special  pra-tor  was  c(tnslituted  with  ju- 
risdiction over  legal  controversies  iu  which  bidh  or  one  of 
the  litif^ants  were  foreigners.  lie  was  called  the  jtrntor 
percf/rhiu^— that  is,  the  j»r;ptor  for  strangers  {  pcrct/rttti) — 
to  distinguish  him  from  the  ordinary  magistrate,  who  then 
took  the  name  prntor  urbniiuH.  As  the  pra*ti>r  (teregrinus 
was  not  in  any  manner  restricted  by  the  Human  law  per- 
taining to  tbe  citizen  { jiift  rivih),  but  could  witlmut  limitation 
invoke  the  rules  of  law  common  to  all  nations  (Jim  fftnliidu), 
which  in  time  came  to  be  considered  as  identical  with  the 
general  principles  of  abstract  justice  and  equity,  his  edict 
was  the  most  important  instrument  in  shaping  the  entire 
jurisprudence  of  the  state,  in  freeing  it  frinn  its  primitive 
technicality  and  barbarism,  and  in  bringing  it  to  an  agree- 
ment, with  the  essential  rules  of  right.  The  principles 
which  lie  announced  were  in  time  aiioptcd  by  the  prittoy 
urhttiiun,  and  thus  the  Uonmn  law  in  all  its  depart mcnts 
was  brought  under  the  influence  of  the  same  legislative 
forces.  The  process  of  judicial  legislation  which  has  been 
thus  described  seems  on  tbe  surface  to  be  very  different 
from  that  pursued  in  the  courts  of  England  and  of  the 
r.  S.,  but  it  is  essentially  the  same.  Tbe  Uonuin  nmgis- 
trate  attempted  to  anticipate  all  the  fads,  events,  and 
transactions  that  ini^bt  arise  during  bis  official  term,  and 
to  lay  down  a  prcvitpus  rule  applicable  to  them  ;  while  the 
Kngli.-^h  and  American  court  waits  till  the  acts  and  events 
have  happened,  and  have  been  brought  before  it  in  a  foren- 
sic dispute,  and  then  fnr  tbe  first  time  dcelarcs  the  rule 
which  determines  the  rights  ami  obligations  of  the  parties. 
Our  judges  legislate  r.r  post  fuctn,  in  the  form  of  single 
decisions;  the  Roman  nmgistrates  legislated  before  tbe 
fact  in  the  form  of  a  more  general  etlicl :  both  plainly 
aeeompli^'h  the  same  purpose  in  the  political  organizaticm 
of  the  slate.  Certain  inferior  magistrates  »d"  the  city,  and 
especially  the  judicial  officers  of  the  provinces,  possessed 
(he  power  of  issuing  an  edict,  and  that  of  tho  provinces 
{rdivtum  pntfiitriit/r)  was  of  great  im]>ortancc.  The  con- 
struetive  and  legislative  laltors  of  the  pradors — for  their 
number  was  largely  increased — continued  through  the  re- 
public, and  reaehed  their  lieigbt  during  the  early  period 
of  the  empire,  but  deelined  and  finally  ceased  after  tho 
law-making  function  of  the  emjieror  had  been  firmly  estab- 
lished. The  cdii't  itself  had  grown  to  be  long,  and  doubt- 
less unwieldy.  At  length  (a.  n.  1.10),  by  eommand  of  tho 
emperor  Hadrian,  it  was  entirely  rearranged  ami  put  into 
a  permanent  form  by  Salvias  .Tulianus.  a  professional  juris- 
consult.     Un<lcr  the  name  cdirtum  pfipttniim  it  remained 


1680 


LAW,  THE  CIVIL. 


from  that  time  uiichanfred.  the  official  coJo  of  the  **jiidge- 
mmW  law."  anil  iipnii  it  the  succeeding  rare  of  jurists  ex- 
peinic-d  ihcir  labors  and  their  learning  in  the  form  of  eom- 
montfiriesnnd  treatises:  it  was  sejmrate*!  into  titles  according 
to  the  subject -matter,  following  the  order  of  the  XII.  Tables. 
It  lias  heen  suggested  by  some  modern  writers  that  in  this 
work  of  redaction  the  three  great  edicts — that  of  the  pnetor 
nrbanus,  that  of  the  jir!»?tor  ])eregriiius,  and  that  of  the 
provinces — -were  consolidated  into  one.  If  this  was  so,  the 
process  was  the  same  which  would  take  place  in  this  country 
or  in  England  if  the  rules  of  equity  and  of  the  common 
law  sliouid  be  combined  and  reduced  into  a  simple  harmo- 
nious system  by  rejecting  from  the  one  all  that  was  in 
coiilliet  with  the  more  just  and  moral  doctrines  of  the  other. 
Another  force  which  was  greatly  eflicient  in  promotifig  and 
guiding  the  development  of  the  law  through  the  formatix'e 
period  I  have  not  as  yet  mentioned  :  namely,  the  opinions 
of  learned  jurists  (rcsponsa  prudeuthim).  It  has  sometimes 
been  said  that  these  utterances  of  the  jurisconsults  always 
had  an  absolute  authority  and  were  binding  upon  the  courts, 
and  that  the  jurists  themselves  were  thus  actual  legislators, 
]  recognized  as  forming  a  part  of  the  la\v-making  machinery 

of  the  state.  This  is  a  mistaken  theory,  and  presents  a 
very  erroneous  view  of  the  Roman  legislation.  As  has  been 
already  described,  the  only  constituted  means  for  the  crea- 
tion of  law  were  the  statutes  passed  by  the  citizens  in  their 
as-iemblies,  or  afterwards  by  the  senate,  and  the  edict  of  tho 
praetors.  Whatever  part  the  jurisconsults  as  a  class  played 
in  tho  great  work  of  legal  development — and  it  was  a  most 
important  one — was  by  way  of  infiuence,  was  moral,  and 
chiefly  consisted  in  advising  and  assisting  the  magistrates 
in  the  performance  of  their  legislative  work,  and  in  aiding 
the  courts  in  the  decision  of  causes.  Beyond  a  doubt,  the  aid 
was  great,  the  advice  and  guidance  were  powerful  and  eflec- 
tive,  but  they  were  not  compulsory.  l>uring  the  flourishing 
period  of  the  republic,  and  down  to  the  time  of  Cicero,  many 
of  the  ablest,  best,  and  most  learned  citizens  devoted  them- 
selves tothestudy  of  thelawasasoienceandasan  art.  They 
were  not  advocates  like  Cicero;  they  formed  a  distinctive 
class,  to  whom,  on  account  of  their  special  knowledge,  the 
names  "jurisconsults"  and  jwrtif/eiirej*  were  given.  They  pub- 
licly instructed  students;  they  were  consulted  by  litigants, 
to  whom  they  gave  legal  opinions.  During  the  earlierperiod 
to  which  reference  is  now  made  they  did  not  compose  sys- 
I  tematic  treatises  upon  the  law,  but  contented  themselves 

with   answering  the  cases,  actual  or  hypothetical,  which 
were  presented  to  them.    Tliese  answers,  technically  termed 
j  rfipitnttn  pnnleudum,  when  cited  to  the  courts  would  un- 

\  doubtedly  be  used  with  much  effect  in  determining  the  de- 

cision, and  the  effect  would  depend  upon  the  reputation  of 
the  person  whose  opinion  was  quoted.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
also  that  in  preparing  his  edict  each  ]ira?tor  availed  him- 
self of  all  the  aid  he  could  obtain  from  the  learning  and 
wisdom  of  these  professional  experts;  and  this  is  the  more 
probable  from  the  fact  that  the  pra'tor  himself  was  often, 
if  not  generally,  chosen  from  the  same  class,  and  ho  would 
naturally  be  anxious  that  his  legislative  work  should  meet 
the  approval  of  all  his  fellow-jurisconsults.  After  the 
empire  was  established  the  position  of  tlieso  jurists  was 
somewhat  altered.  Augustus  accordtui  to  their  opinions  a 
certain  legal  authority,  but  required  an  imperial  sanction 
or  appointment  for  those  who  desired  to  exercise  tlie  func- 
tion. Hadrian  afterwards  ordered  tliat  their  juridical  ojiin- 
ion  should  have  the  force  of  law,  itrc)vidtMi  tlicy  all  agreed, 
but  if  they  differed  tho  judge  should  be  at  liberty  to  ftdlow 
■whatever  one  he  ])leased.  The  character  of  the  jurists 
themselves  was  al^o  greatly  changed.  In  the  second  and 
third  centuries  of  our  era  a  class  of  juridical  writers  arose 
far  surpaissing  tho  earlier  prttfhnleH,  whose  labors  brought 
I  the  law  to  tho  highest  condition  which  it  reached.     They 

!  introduced  the  philosophic  element  ;  they  created  tho  sys- 

!  tem  of  classitication,  which  has  remained  substantially  un- 

I  changed  to   the   present   day ;    they   com])Osed    elaborate 

treatises  either  upon  the  law  as  a  whole  or  upon  some 
spcL'ial  department,  and  it  was  from  these  treatises  that  the 
material  was  taken  which  formed  the  Uit/eHt  afterwards 
compiled  by  the  eommaml  of  Justinian.  Kinally.  most  of 
them  occupieil  high  official  positions  under  the  various  em- 

fterors,  and  thus  took  an  active  part  in  the  work  of  legis- 
ati<)n,  eitiier  by  framing  the  "constitutions''  issued  in  tho 
name  of  the  cm])eror,  or  by  rendering  the  decisions  in  his 
supreme  Ofurt  of  appeal.  Of  these  illustrious  men,  whose 
labors  have  influoneed  the  jurisprudence  of  the  entire  civ- 
ilized world,  five  stand  in  acknowledged  pre-eminence — 
Gains.  Papinian,  Paul.  I'ljiian,  and  Mu<iestin.  (iaius,  who 
wrote  in  the  time  of  the  Antonines.  held  no  office,  hut  was 
a  private  teacher  of  the  law.  Of  his  works,  the  InstitulcH 
has  been  preserved  almost  entire,  and  its  discovery  in  1816 
marked  an  era  in  the  study  of  the  Roman  jurisprudence. 
Papinianus  was  the  praetorian  prefect,  supreme  judge  of 
appeal,  under  Septimius  Severus,  and  was   murdered  by 


his  son  and  successor,  Caracalla.  lie  was  universally  re- 
garded by  all  writers  who  succeeded  bira  as  the  foremost 
and  greatest  of  the  Roman  jurists.  Nothing  remains  of 
his  numerous  works  except  the  extracts  found  in  the  ran- 
fleets,  of  which  there  are  a  great  number.  Paulua  was  pnr- 
torian  prefect  under  Alexander  Severus,  a.  d.  222.  Resides 
the  quotations  contained  in  the  Ifitfrnt,  one  of  his  treatisee, 
Receptfc  iSenteiitiff,  still  survives.  Ulpianus  wrote  iluring 
the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla,  and  was 
killed  by  the  soldiery  (a.  n.  228)  while  praetorian  prefect 
of  Alexander  Severus.  The  Panrlerts  contain  a  greater 
number  of  extracts  from  his  works  than  from  those  of  any 
other  jurist.  Fragments  of  a  separate  treatise  are  also 
extant.  Modestinus  lived  and  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus.  and  was  a  mtmher  of  his  council,  ile  is 
only  known  to  us  by  his  contributions  to  the  D'ujeHt.  At 
the  final  overthrow  of  the  republic  the  popular  assemblies 
lost  the  po^ver  of  enacting  statutes,  which  was  for  a  while 
transferred  to  the  senate:  it  soon,  however,  became  prac- 
tically, and  ere  long  openly,  tho  attribute  of  the  emperor 
alone.  Finally,  when  the  jieculiar  function  of  the  pra'tor 
had  ended,  the  whole  legislative  authority  was  centred  in 
the  supremo  head  of  the  em|)ire,  ami  there  remained  as 
long  as  there  was  any  life  or  creative  force  in  the  law  itself. 
The  official  declarations  by  the  emperor  were  gencrically 
termed  "constitutions,"  and  were  of  three  species — edicts, 
decrees,  and  rescrij)ts.  "Edicts"  were  legislative  in  their 
character,  addressed  to  the  wlude  empire,  and  in  every  re- 
spect tlie  same  as  the  *' hf/f*"  of  the  earlier  form  of  the 
government,  and  as  the  statutes  of  the  jiresent  day.  "De- 
crees" were  judicial  decisions  rendered  in  causes  brought 
before  the  emperor  on  appeal:  while  "rescripts"  were 
official  answers  made  to  those  who  consulted  him  whether 
as  public  functionaries  or  as  private  persons.  Decrees  and 
rescripts  had  not  the  force  of  general  statutes,  but  were 
used  as  precedents,  and  arc  found  in  the  collections  of  im- 
perial constitutions.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
emperor  personally  prepared  and  issued  the  constitutions. 
Although  done  in  his  name  and  by  his  command,  they  wore 
usually  the  work  of  professional  jurists  who  filled  high 
offices  of  state,  and  who  were  often  the  ablest,  purest,  and 
most  learned  men  of  the  empire.  It  thus  happened  that 
some  of  the  best  examples  of  philosophical  legislation  ap- 
peared during  the  reigns  of  the  very  worst  of  emperors, 
such  as  Commodus.  Caracalla,  and  Nero.  From  the  time 
of  Alexander  Severus,  which  may  be  regarded  as  its  cul- 
minating epoch,  the  Roman  law  rapidly  declined;  all 
power  of  progress  had  gone:  and  at  length  the  appeal 
was  constantly  to  the  past  and  to  the  writings  of  the  dead 
jurists.  As  an  illustration  of  its  condition,  of  the  loss  of 
all  intellectual  vigor,  and  of  the  bliml  reliance  upon  au- 
thority, an  imperial  constitution  made  a.  n.  426  by  Theo- 
dosius  II.  and  Valentinian  III.  ordered  that  in  the  decision 
of  causes  the  judge  should  always  follow  the  opinion  ex- 
pressed by  a  majority  of  the  five  jurists  whose  names  have 
already  heen  mentioned  ;  but  if  there  was  an  equal  division 
among  those  of  the  five  who  hail  expressed  an  opinion  on 
the  particular  p<iint,  that  of  Pa(>inian  should  prevail:  and 
if  he  was  silent,  then  the  judge  could  exercise  his  own  dis- 
cretion. Some  attempts  were  made  at  a  partial  codifica- 
tion during  this  final  jieriod  of  decadence.  Two  collections 
of  imperial  rescripts  were  prepared  by  private  jurists — one 
by  Gregorianus  (a.  t>.  ."^Ofi)  and  the  other  by  Hermogianus 
(A.  n.  .'jtJ6).  Tho  emperor  Theodosius  II.  (a.  d.  43S)  pub- 
lished a  code  containing  the  general  constitutions  (edicts) 
issued  since  the  conversi<in  of  Constantino  to  Christianity, 
which  was  during  the  same  year  adopted  by  Valentinian 
HI.  in  the  Western  empire.  Although  superseded  in  tho 
East  by  the  compilations  of  Justinian,  it  long  continued  to 
be  used  in  the  West,  and  was  the  collection  of  laws  chiefly 
known  U>  and  employed  by  the  Germanic  tribes  which 
overran  the  Western  empire.  A  portion  alone  of  this  code 
has  heen  preserved,  somewhat  condensed,  in  the  i^reriarium 
of  Alaric. 

The  emperor  Justinian  commenced  his  reign  a.  I>.  527. 
In  528  he  appointed  a  commission  of  ten  jurisconsults, 
among  whom  were  Tribonian  and  Theophilus,  with  direc- 
tions to  select  from  all  the  existing  imperial  eon.^titutions 
those  which  were  operative,  and  to  arrange  them  in  a  sys- 
tematic order.  They  were  permitted  to  change  the  words, 
to  combine  several  constitutions  into  one,  and  to  make 
other  modifications  that  would  better  express  the  sense, 
but  were  forbidden  in  any  manner  to  alter  the  law  itself. 
Their  work  was  completed  in  one  year,  and  published  with 
the  title  Cotiex  Jiinthn'uuus,  but  was  soon  supplanted  by 
another.  After  the  compilation  of  the  DUfcst  this  original 
code  was  revised  by  a  diflerent  commission,  a  considerable 
number  of  new  constitutions  which  had  been  issued  by  tho 
emperor  was  added,  changes  thus  rendered  necessary  were 
made,  and  the  new  eilition  was  published  a.  p.  534,  under 
the  name  Codex  Repetitte  PraUctionia.     This  work,  known 


LAW,  THE  CIVIL. 


1681 


as  The  Code  {Coder)^  has  been  preserved  to  the  present 
day,  the  earlier  edition  being  entirely  lost.  It  contains 
the  imporiul  constitution!!  from  Hadrian  to  Jti^^tinian  ;  it  is 
divided  into  twelve  books,  each  of  these  into  titles:  each 
title  confains  a  number  of  constitutions  arranjjed  in  a 
chronological  order,  with  the  nnrnes  of  the  emperors  who 
were  their  authors  and  their  dates.  In  the  year  6.'i0  the 
emperor  created  another  commipeion  of  sixteen,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  Tribonian.  and  entrusted  to  them  the  task  of 
compiling  a  body  of  the  existing  law  from  the  writings  of 
the  great  jurists.  According  to  the  general  plan  which  he 
prescribed,  all  the  juridical  works  of  authority  were  to  bo 
consulted  and  extracts  made  from  them:  these  quotations, 
with  such  modifications  as  should  be  necessary  to  explain 
the  meaning  and  harmonize  the  whole  result,  were  to  be 
collected  into  fifty  books,  and  arranged  according  to  the 
order  of  (he  edict  after  it  had  been  revised  under  Hadrian 
(edicttim  prrpetidiin).  The  commission  finished  their  labors 
in  three  years,  and  in  5Z3  published  the  result  under  the 
name  of  f*aiiderts  or  The  lUijtHt,  In  compiling  the  Dt'f/est 
selections  were  made  from  more  than  20011  different  trea- 
tises written  by  thirty-nine  jurists,  most  of  whom  flourished 
within  the  period  of  about  100  years  from  the  fr)rmaIion 
of  iho  perpetual  edict  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  to  the  death 
of  Alexander  Peverus.  Following  the  plan  projiosed  by 
the  emperor,  the  JJufHt  is  divided  into  fifty  books;  each 
book,  with  the  excejition  of  three,  is  separated  into  titles; 
and  each  title  into  sections,  which  consist  of  the  extracts 
from  various  authors.  The  internal  arrangement  and  clas- 
sification of  the  material  itself  which  forms  the  body  of  the 
l)!ijrHt  are  universally  admitted  to  be  very  defective.  Hav- 
ing provided  for  these  great  compilations  of  the  law,  Jus- 
tinian ordered  an  elementary  work  to  be  com])08ed  and 
entitled  The  fnxtitutrH.  It  was  prepared  by  two  jurists, 
Thcophilus  and  Dorotheus.  under  the  supervision  of  Tri- 
bonian, and  was  published  about  tlie  same  time  as  the 
Di'ijrttt.  Chiefly  based  upon  the  IitHtitutcH  of  Gains,  it  is 
separateil  into  four  books,  and  these  into  titles,  and  deals 
alone  wirh  the  private  law.  Thr  fnstitntcn  was  written  prin- 
cipally for  use  in  the  law-schools  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  jurisprudence,  and  this  use  has  continued  un- 
changed to  the  present  day:  no  other  elementary  work  has 
supcrsedcfl  it.  It  was  the  design  of  .Tustiniun  th:it  the  en- 
tiro  body  of  the  Roman  law  should  l>c  comprised  in  the 
Code  and  the  DitjcRt,  and  to  that  end  he  forbade  any  refer- 
ence to  or  citation  of  the  ancient  jurists  either  in  the  courts 
or  the  schools,  and  abrogated  all  the  conf^titutions  which 
were  not  found  in  !iis  collection;  he  even  prohiltitcd  all 
commentaries  upon  the  J^undctti.  The  cm(>cror,  however, 
did  not  restrain  himself  from  making  additions  to  the  law 
which  he  had  corlined,  but  lie  issued  from  time  to  time  new 
constitutions  iuovrflte  cuimtltittionrs),  the  number  of  winch 
exceeded  U'lO,  some  of  them  relating  to  very  important 
points  of  the  private  law.  They  were  oflicialiy  published 
after  his  death,  and  are  known  as  The  Kovefls.  The  four 
works  thus  described,  The  Panderftt  or  Diycut,  The  Coda, 
The  fiiiif{tiite9,and  The  iVorc/^w,  constitute  the  Cvrjjua  Juris 
CivifU. 

These  law-books  of  Justinian  were  not  immediately  in- 
troduced into  the  West,  and  in  fact  the  Koinan  law  was 
for  a  long  time  perpetuated  among  the  !>arbarian  invaders 
of  the  Western  ])rovince8  by  means  of  very  inferior  and 
imperfect  compilations,  itml  not  by  the  ('orpun  Jniin  CtvUin. 
From  A.  r>.  41.')  Iho  Visigolh^  had  established  themselves 
in  Southern  <«aul.  About  the  middle  of  the  same  century 
the  kingdom  of  (he  Iturgundians  was  founded  on  the  Rhone. 
In  t'.f.'I,  Iliily  was  subjugated  by  the  Ostrogoths.  For  these 
three  kiiigdoios  three  ditr<'rent  eorles  were  formed,  liy  which, 
rather  than  by  thn-c  of  Justinian,  the  Roman  law  was  kept 
alive  among  all  the  Ci-rmanic  peoples.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  AW/. 7  of  Theodoric  (  ICdirtum  Throdon'ri),  prepared 
in  /iOO  for  the  Ostrogoihs.  It  contained  extracts  from  the 
sources  of  the  Roman  law.  freely  treated  ;  it  was  very  short 
and  incomplete,  Imt  it  left  the  existing  law  in  full  force  in 
all  cases  for  which  it  did  n(!t  expressly  provide.  The 
secitnd  was  the  ftren'ariiiin,  composed  by  Alaric  in  .'VOC  for 
the  Rrimans  within  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths.  It 
cnnlained  a  part  of  the  Theodosian  code,  and  extracts  from 
(lie  novclls  annexed  thereto,  from  two  wnrks  of  (laius  and 
I'auliis,  from  the  (Jrcgorian  and  tlic  Hcrmogmian  codes. 
and  fnun  a  treatise  of  Papinian.  Tbe  third  and  least  im- 
portant of  those  compilations  ivas  that  made  for  the  Bur- 
gundians,  about  517 — Lrx  litnnuun  Ihinjuiidi»nuin,  some- 
times though  erroneously  named  I'upinuuM.  I'pon  the 
defeat  of  the  Ostrogntlis  in  hh\  under  Justinian  his  collec- 
tions were  introduced  into  Italy,  hut  they  retained  their 
position  of  authority  for  a  short  time  only.  In  Sfirt  the 
Lombards  subjugated  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  and  the 
(leruiariic  tribes  I'roni  tliat  time  were  establi>*!u'rl  in  per- 
mant-nt  supremacy  over  the  entire  Western  I'uipire.  (See 
Falck.  Encyclopedic  Juridit^ue,  ^  SO.)  This  political  revo- 
Voi..  it.— 100 


lution  did  not  blot  out  the  Roman  law,  which  continued  to 
exist  as  an  actual  jurisprudence,  but  under  a  very  peculiar 
form,  utterly  unknown  to  modern  usages  and  opposed  to 
modern  conceptions.  The  Germanic  invaders  wherever 
they  spread  did  not  destroy  the  Romans  nor  impnye  upon 
them  a  new  law.  Each  race,  living  ujion  the  same  soil, 
preserved  and  obeyed  its  own  laws,  which  were  thus  no 
longer  territorial,  as  are  laws  at  the  present  day,  but  were 
;  pergonal,  in  that  they  applied  to  different  classes  of  persons 
dwelling  in  the  same  country.  According  to  the  general 
rule,  each  person  was  subjected  to  the  law  of  his  birth  — 
Roman  to  Roman,  Frank  to  Frankish,  or  IJurgundian  to 
Burgundian.  Wherever,  therefore,  the  province  had  be- 
come thoroughly  Romanized,  wherever  the  Roman  dominion 
had  been  fully  established,  as  in  Gaul.  Spain,  and  Italy, 
there  were  left,  even  after  the  su|ireniacv  of  the  German 
invaders,  the  remains  of  Roman  institutions,  laws,  and 
modes  of  thought.  The  codes  above  mentioned,  compiled 
after  the  conquest,  altltough  exceedingly  imperfect,  were 
vastly  superior  to  the  (Jermanic  laws  and  customs  with 
whicli  they  were  contrasted,  and  as  society  gradually  be- 
came settled  they  were  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  Iegi.slation 
that  was  created  for  the  nations  which  finally  came  into 
existence  from  the  united  pojmlutions.  In  this  manner 
the  Roman  law  was  Instoiically,  and  as  it  were  uncon- 
sciously, incorporated  into  the  jurisprudence  of  the  conti- 
nental nations,  and  was  the  great  storehouse  of  principles, 
doctrines,  an'l  rules  whence  the  material  of  that  jurispru- 
dence was  drawn  during  its  process  of  development.  The 
imjiortant  influence  exerted  by  the  ecclesiastics  in  tliis 
work  has  already  been  described  in  the  article  upon  the 
Canon  Law.  and  the  cxjihination  need  not  be  repeated. 
The  reason  is  plain  why  the  like  effect  was  not  produced 
in  the  legislation  of  England.  The  Saxon  invaders  of 
Britain  found  but  few  traces  of  the  Roman  institutions  ; 
there  was  no  opportunity  for  a  "personal"  law  with  them; 
all  was  territorial.  The  Saxon  customs  prevailed  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others  throughout  the  kingdom  ;  the  Roman 
law  was  not  left  side  by  side  with  them,  to  grow  up,  and 
finally  to  overshadow  them.  The  only  influence  which  it 
exerted  upon  the  legal  develojiment  during  the  Saxon 
domination  was  through  the  ecclesiastics  and  the  canon 
law  which  they  administered.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
silent,  unconscious,  historical  method  by  which  the  law  of 
the  dead  empire  was  perpetuated  and  macle  dominant  over 
modern  states,  there  was  another  open,  external,  conscious, 
and  intentional  cause  which  exerted  a  powerful  aid  in  pro- 
ducing that  result.  About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  a  spirit  of  free  inquiry  was  suddenly  awakened 
throughout  Europe,  and  one  of  its  earliest  and  most  remark- 
able manifestations  was  shown  in  the  scientific  study  of  the 
Roman  law,  which,  eoinmencing  in  Italy,  soon  extended  to 
France,  Spain,  and  even  to  Kngland.  A  school  was  foundc<l 
at  Bologna  in  which  Irnerius  commenced  to  lecture  upon 
the  Corpus  Juris  Cirilin  {a.  n.  1120).  The  professors  at 
Bologna,  as  a  part  of  the  instruction  which  they  gave  to 
their  students,  t^omposed  short  nr)tes  upon  the  text  of  tbe 
JJirfcHt  and  the  Codr,  explanat<uy  of  obscure  and  doubtful 
passages.  To  these  notes  the  name  "  glosses  "  was  given, 
and  the  entire  school  of  early  commentators  have  been 
dfuiotninatcd  "glossators."  The  glosses  themselves  were 
collected  and  revised  by  Accursius  (a.  n.  121*0-0(1),  and 
form  the  earlier  body  of  commenlarics  upon  the  books  of 
Justinian.  From  Bologna  the  study  of  the  law  r!i]iidly 
spread  over  Europe,  anil  lectures  were  even  delivered  at 
Oxford  in  114y.  The  effect  of  this  movement  \\\n\n  tho 
local  jurisprudence  of  the  Continent  was  immediate  and 
profound.  From  the  universities  the  influence  extended 
at  once  to  the  tribunals,  and  the  Roman  taw  was  (hence- 
forth acknowlcdgC'l  (o  be  X\\v-  comnitm  law  of  Europe. 

The  Snlmtnure  o/  the  Homon  Luir. — Tlic  limits  of  this 
article  will  not  ])ermit  even  an  outline  of  the  law  i(sclf,  and 
I  shall  merely  attempt  to  explain  and  illustrate  its  inter- 
nal growth  and  gratirnil  transformation.  In  thi*  primitive 
perioil,  nlthough  even  tlicn  .-showing  the  wnmierful  capa<'ity 
of  (he  Roman  people  for  legislation,  the  laxv  as  a  whole 
was  exceeilingly  arbitrary  and  technical,  dealing  in  ex- 
ternal symbolic  acts,  demantiing  a  strict  observance  of 
prescribed  formulas,  and  without  a  single  element  of 
abstract  morality  and  justice.  Tho  Romans  conceived  of 
their  law  as  applying  only  to  the  citizen,  and  thence  termed 
H  jitu  rieile.  Its  rules  eoercerl  none  but  citizens,  and  while 
strangers  and  f<)reigners.  even  when  permanent  inhabitants 
of  the  territory,  could  obtain  none  of  the  advantages  which 
it  conferred,  they  were  at  the  same  time  free  frnni  its  pe- 
culiar liurdens.  Siilo  by  side,  however,  with  this  strictly 
national  law  of  the  state  and  the  citizen,  the  Romans  from 
an  eiirly  day  conceiveti  of  another  system  of  jural  rights 
which  they  regarded  as  common  to  all  natinns.  and  therc- 
fnre  irvinvd  Jim  t/enfiuni- — tho  law  pertaining  to  all  nations. 
Whenever  a  judicial  controversy  arose  in  which  a  foreigner 


1682 


LAW,  MUNICIPAL— LAW. 


or  stranger  was  a  piirty,  since  the  law  for  the  citizen  (lid 
not  apply  to  him,  the  magistrate  fell  back  upon  the  rules 
■which  ho  found   prevailing  among   all  the  jicoplcs   with 
which  he  was  acquainted.     .\s  these  regulations  were  thus 
common,  and  not  local  and  particular,  it  necessarily  followed 
that  they  were  based  upon  some  universal  principles,  and 
were  not  as  arbitrary  and  technical  as  the  corresponding 
rules  of  the  Koman  civil  law.     The  notion  thus  introduced 
from  an  actual  observation  of  the  neighboring  peojiles  was 
greatly  extended  in  subsequent  times,  until  at  length,  under 
the  philosophical  jurists  of  the  early  empire,  the  jun  ;/cii(iiim 
came  to  be  considered  as  synonymous  with  absolute  right, 
justice,  and  equity.     Again,  it  frequently  happened,  cs- 
jiecially  after  trade  and  commerce  had  sprung  up,  that  in 
controversies  between  citizens  questions  would  arise  that 
were  not  covered  by  any  existing  rule  of  the  Koman  civil 
law,  and  the  magistrate  would  be  required  to  exercise  his 
legislative  function.     Here  also  in  creating  the  new  rule  ho 
naturally  invoUeil  the  broader  and  juster  doctrines  which 
he  had  introduceil  while  adjudicating  upon  the  rights  of 
strangers.     There  thus  existed  in  the  administration   of 
justice  two  widely  different  systems:  (1)  the  original  civil 
law  of  Rcmie,  which  was  enforced  against  the  citizen  in  all 
cases  that  were  expressly  provided  lor  by  its  rules  or  that 
could  be  fairly  brought  within  their  operation  ;  and  (2)  a 
boily    of    rcgidations   contained    in    the   prajtorian   edict, 
prim,arilv  applicable  to  persons  who  were  not  citizens,  but 
afterwards  extended  to  citizens,  and  enforced  in  all  cases 
where  the  former  system  was  silent.     The  internal  growth 
of  the  Roman  jurisprudence  as  a  whole,  as  a  single  munici- 
pal  law  for  the  Roman  state,  consisted  in  the  steady  ex- 
pansion and  development  of  the  latter  branch  under  the 
edictal  legislation  of  the  pra'tors  and  the  scientific  labors 
of  the  later  jurists,  until  it  finally  displaced  and  completely 
absorbed  the  original  civil  law,  of  which  no  traces  are  left 
in  the  compilations  of  .Justinian.     This  statement  may  be 
illustrated  by  a  reference  to  a  few  of  the  most  important 
divisions.     So  far  as  it  is  concerned  with  primary  rights, 
the  Roman  law  is  separated  into  three  grand  departments: 
(1)   the  status  of  per.«ons;    (2)   things  as  the  objects  of 
rights:  and  (3)  obligations.     In  the  primitive  period  tho 
status  of  persons  formed  by  far  the  most  important  de- 
partment  of   the   national  jurisprudence.      The  peculiar 
feature  of  the  early  society  around  which  all  rights  and 
duties  were  grouped  was  the  family.     Its  head   was   the 
paterfamiUitt.     It  included  his  wife,  all  of  his  descendants 
who  iiad  not  been  emancipated  or  transferred  to  another 
by  marriage,  the  wives  of  his  male  descendants,  all  persons 
incorporated  into  it  by  adoption,  and  the  slaves.    The  legal 
authority  of  the  paterfamilias  was   prodigious,   and    em- 
braced three  distinct  branches— the  paternal  power  (pntca- 
tas),  the  marital  power  (maii»«).  and  the  power  over  things 
(rfomriiriim).     Ho  was  thus  tho  legal  representative  head 
of  his  wife  and  children,  and  other  descendants;  all  their 
labors  and  acquisitions  within  the  sphere  of  private  affairs 
belonged  to  him.     Even  the  tics  of  relationship,  and  tho 
rights'and  capacities  incident  thereto,  were  not  determined 
by  tho  common  descent  and  a  common  blood,  but  by  tho 
subjection  to  a  common  paternal  power.     This  primitive 
condition  of  tho  family,  of  which  a  slight  outline  only  h.a3 
been  given,  was  gradually  changed  ;  the  paternal  and  tho 
marital  powers  diminished,  and  finally  disappeared,  and 
tho  family  as  exhibited  in  the  books  of  Justinian  is  sub- 
stantially" the  same  as  in  the  modern  law.     The  early  rules 
of  property  were  to  the  last  degree  arbitrary  and  unjust. 
Tho  strictly  legal  property  in  things,  the  only  one  recog- 
nized  bv  tiie  civil   law  {ilomiiiium  c.r  jure  ijniiitiim),  could 
only  beacquired,  held,  or  transferred  by  a  citizen.     Things 
as  the  subjects  of  property  were  separated  into  two  classes 
— rm  mnnripi  and  res  nee  maitcipi,  the  former  embracing 
land  in  Roman  territory,  slaves,  horses,  cattle,  and  beasts 
of  burden,  and  the  latter  all  other  things.     To  constitute 
a  valirl  transfer,  oven  between  citizens,  of  articles  belong- 
ing to  the  first  class,  required  the  observance  of  certain 
exceedingly  technical  formulas  termed  "mancipation,"  or 
a  constant  possession    for  one   year   called  "usucapion.' 
A  stranger  could  acquire  legal  property  (ilomhiinm)  in  no 
manner.     These  unjust  and  arbitrary  rules  of  the  civil  law 
were  utterly  abrogated  by  the  prretorian  legislation.     By 
inventing,  protecting,  and  enforcing  a  species  of  property 
denominated  in  boniSf  which  was  based  upon  principles  of 
justice  and  equity,  and  which  could  be  held  in  things  of 
all   kinds,  and    acquired   and   transferred   in   simple  and 
natural  modes,  this  entire  department  of  the  law  was  revo- 
lutionized, and  became  the  comprehensive  and  complicated 
system  suited  to  a  wealthy  and  commercial  people.    In  the 
primitive  condition  of  the  law  obligations  resulted  cither 
from  ci>ntracts  or  from  delicts.     The  rudeness  and  tcchni- 
calitv  which  characterized  other  parts  of  the  system  were 
especially  ]>rominenl  in  all  that  related  to  contracts.     Four 
classes  alone  were  recognized  as  binding — that  is,  as  raising 


any  obligation — and  these  did  not  depend  upon  good  faith, 
or  a  valuable  consideration,  or  any  other  element  of  riglit 
and  equity,  but  upon  a  compliance  with  the  prcseribcJ 
forms.  These  four  classes  were — (1)  Those  made  by  the 
thing  (re),  which  became  binding  by  a  delivery  of  the 
thing  to  which  they  related;  of  which  class  there  were 
four  species — loan  (wiidmui),  where  the  same  amount  was 
to  bo  returned;  com.iintliilniii,  where  tho  very  thiug  loaned 
was  to  bo  returned ;  deposit  (dcpuiiliim),  and  pledge  (;)cj- 
tinc).  (2)  Those  made  by  words  (verbit).  These  were 
executory  agreements,  v/hich  became  binding  by  the  use 
of  certain  specified  words  put  in  the  form  of  a  question 
and  answer.  (•")  Those  made  by  letters  (/i'(c/i»),  which 
became  binding  by  tho  entry  of  a  memorandum  in  the  do- 
mestic books  of  account  of  the  parties.  (4)  Those  made 
by  con.'^cnt  {consensu),  which  became  binding  by  the  mere 
consent  of  tho  parlies,  without  any  formalities.  Of  this 
class  four  species  alone  existed — sale,  hiring,  partnership, 
and  a  kind  of  bailnietit.  The  changes  wrought  by  the 
pr;etorian  legislation  in  tho  law  of  contract  were  more 
numerous  and  important  than  those  made  in  any  other 
department.  In  tho  place  of  these  few  and  arbitrary  rules 
a  system  was  built  up  which,  with  a  few  special  additions, 
is  sufiicicnt  for  all  the  business  and  commercial  transactions 
of  modern  society.  John  Xobton  Pomeuoy. 

Law,  .llunicipal.  See  Municip.vl  Law,  by  Pnor. 
T.  \V.  i>\viGHT,  LL.D. 

Law  (.\XDRF.W),  b.  in  Connecticut  about  1V4S ;  graduated 
at  Brown  University  1773;  became  a  clergyman,  and  was 
for  forty  years  a  teacher  of  music ;  published  a  Cotleetion 
of  Hymn-Tunes   (17S2),    The   Hndiments   of  Music   (1783), 


The  'Musical  Maijitzine  (1792),  and  The  Art  of  Singing  (3 
parts.  1803).  He  was  author  of  tho  well-known  tune 
"  .-Irchdale."  invented  four  characters  to  express  the  four 
syllables  of  music,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  .\mericnn 
musical  composers.  D.  at  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  July,  1821. 
Law  (EnsirxD),  I>.  D.,  b.  near  Cartmel,  Lancashire, 
England,  iu  17Ua  ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  chosen  fellow  upon  graduation 
in  1723;  obtained  the  rectory  of  tiraystoek,  Cumberland, 
in  1723;  became  archdeacon  of  Carlisle  in  1743.  master  of 
Peterhouso  College,  Cambridge,  in  17i4,  librarian  of  the 
university,  professor  of  casuistry,  anil  archdeacon  of  Lin- 
coln soon  afterward,  prebendary  of  Durham  in  l"fi7,  and 
bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1768.  D.  at  Rose  Castle,  Carlisle, 
Au<'.  14,  17S7.  Bishop  Law  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  liberal  prelates  and  acute  metaphysicians  of  his  age; 
translated  from  the  L.atin  Archbishop  King's  Essay  on  (he 
Origin  of  Eeil  (1731).  with  copious  notes:  wrote  an  En- 
qitiri/  into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and  Time  (1735),  Considera- 
tions on  the  Theory  of  Itcligion  (1745),  and  IteJIeclionB  on 
the  li/'c  and  Character  of  Christ  ( 1 749).  lie  published  an 
edition  of  the  Works  of  John  Locke  (1777),  with  a  biogra- 
phy of  that  philoso]ihcr,  of  whom  he  was  an  admirer  and 
follower.  His  Considerations, "  a  work  of  singular  beauty," 
was  often  reprinted,  and  was  edited  in  1820,  with  a  Life 
by  Dr.  Paley. — llis  eldest  son,  Eowaud,  was  the  first  Lonn 
E'LLKNiionouGn  (which  see);  another  son,  GnoiicE  llExnY 
(17C1-1S45),  became  bishop  of  Chester  in  1812  and  of 
Bath  and  Wells  in  1824;  and  a  third  son  became  bishop 
of  Elphin. 

Law  (John),  of  Lauriston,  b.  in  Edinburgh,  .Scotland, 
Apr.  21.  1071,  oldest  son  of  a  goldsmith  and  money-changer 
who  accumulated  a  fortune  and  bought  the  large  estate  of 
Lauriston.  which  John  inherited,  deriving  from  it  his  title. 
.•\t  the  a^c  of  twenty  Law  settled  in  London,  and  soon  be- 
came prominent  in  financial  circles,  though  addicted  to 
gambling  and  dissipation.  Having  killed  an  antagonist  in 
a  duel  (1094),  ho  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped  from 
prison  anil  took  refuge  in  France,  travelling  thence  into 
Italy  and  Holland,  and  was  for  some  time  connected  with 
a  banking-house  in  Amsterdam.  Returning  to  Scotland  in 
17tlO,  ho  published  a  pamphlet  advocating  a  state  bank,  but 
as  the  project  met  with  no  favor  at  home,  he  presented  it 
to  the  French  government,  with  the  same  result,  .\nother 
pamphlet  was  issued  on  the  same  subject  in  1705.  For  sev- 
eral years  Law  led  a  wandering  life  in  European  capitals, 
gainin"  large  sums  at  the  gaming-table,  until  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  in  1715  opened  a  field  for  his  grand  scheme. 
The  kingdom  was  burdened  with  an  enormous  debt,  and 
the  regent  caught  at  a  plan  which  promised  unlimited  gain 
to  the  state.  A  private  "general  bank,"  with  a  capital  of 
fi, 000.000  livres,  was  chartered  under  letters  patent  of  May 
2,  1710.  and  began  to  emit  vast  quantities  of  notes,  redeem- 
able in  specie,  discounting  bills  of  exchange,  and  accepting 
at  par  the  government  paper,  then  at  SO  per  cent,  discount. 
The  national  credit  and  the  general  prosperity  immediately 
received  an  immense  stimulus:  the  vicious  principles  in- 
volved were  not  at  first  detected.  Law  was  hailed  as  a  na- 
i  tional  benefactor,  and  in  a  few  months  had  issued  notes  for 


LAW— LAWN. 


l(i.s:] 


nearly  20,000.000.  But  their  circulation  was  limited  to  a 
few  large  cities,  until  in  Apr.,  1717.  the  government  decreed 
that  Law's  notes  should  he  accepted  in  payment  of  impost?. 
Another  feature  was  added  to  the  scheme  in  Aujr..  1717.  by 
the  formation  of  the  celebrated  iMi8:<issippi  or  West  India 
Company,  with  a  capital  of  lOO.OOU.dOO  livrcs,  a  monop- 
oly of  tr:ul'?  witii  Canada,  and  sovereign  rights  over  the  ter- 
ritory c)f  Louisiana,  which  was  to  be  colonized  upon  a  vast 
scale.  Parliament  was  hostile,  and  in  Aug.,  1718.  prohib- 
ited the  receipt  of  Law's  bank-notes  in  payment  of  taxes; 
D'Argenson.  president  of  the  council  (tf  finances,  lent  his 
patronage  to  a  rival  Western  company  called  the  yl;i/j'- 
Si/9trm,  but  Law's  star  was  still  in  the  ascendant,  and  the 
decree  of  Parliament  was  declared  invalid  by  judicial  in- 
terposition. By  royal  edict  of  J)cc.  4,  17IS,  the  "general 
bank"  was  transformed  into  a  roi/nl  hauK-,  with  Law  as 
director  and  the  king  as  security.  Another  edict  of  May, 
1719,  conferred  a  monopoly  of  East  Indian  and  African 
trade  upon  the  favored  organization,  which  now  absorbed 
the  EatJt  India  Company,  took  tlio  name  of  ''  (^onipany  of 
the  Indies."  augmented  its  capital,  and  undertook  to  pay 
the  national  debt,  agreeing  to  lend  the  kiug  10,000,000.00*0 
livres  at  ,1  per  cent.  Au  unexampled  fever  of  specula- 
tion now  carried  the  shares  to  .10  or  40  times  their  original 
value,  antl  nearly  20,000,000,000  in  notes  were  issued.  On 
Jan.  .'>,  1720,  Law  received  the  appointment  of  oontroller- 
gencral  of  the  finances,  and  in  Xlarch  he  united  the  royal 
bank  to  the  Company  of  the  Indies.  It  was  in  the  conver- 
sion of  paper  demanded  by  this  colossal  operation  that  the 
utter  bankruptcy  of  the  company  was  first  perceived.  The 
government,  becoming  alarmed,  issued  an  edict  deposing 
Law  from  tho  controllership,  abolishing  the  bank,  and  de- 
priving the  company  of  its  home  monopolies  and  its  connec- 
tion with  the  state  revenues.  As  a  commercial  corporation  tho 
company  struggled  for  existence  during  several  months,  and 
disappeared  in  November.  In  December,  La\v  quitted 
Frani'c.  carrying  with  him  only  a  few  hundred  !ouis-d'or, 
and  loatleil  with  the  public  execration.  lie  travelled  on  tho 
Continent  for  some  lime,  returned  to  fireat  Britain  by  per- 
mission of  tho  ministry,  received  a  pardon  for  his  early 
crime,  was  presented  at  court,  and  entertained  illusive  hopes 
of  repairing  the  disasters  of  the  "  system."  in  which  he  pre- 
served a  genuine  confidence.  A  friend  in  France,  the  mar- 
quis dc  Lassay,  gave  him  for  some  years  a  pension  of 
20,000  livres.  He  gradually  fell  into  obscurilj',  and  d.  in 
poverty  at  Venice  Mar.  21,  1720,  His  remains  wore  buried 
in  the  church  of  iSan  Gemiano.  from  which  tliey  were  trans- 
ferred in  1808  to  that  of  Sau  Moise  by  the  celebrated  Mar- 
shal Law,  a  grandson  of  his  brother,  who  founded  in  Franco 
a  noble  family,  still  flourishing  under  the  namo  of  Law  t>£ 
Lai'risto.v.  Tho  complete  works  of  John  Law  were  trans- 
lated for  tho  first  time  into  French  in  1790.  They  were  re- 
printed in  1^12,  and  liavo  since  been  inserted  in  the  great 
collection  of  tho  writings  of  the  principal  economists  and 
financiors  of  the  eighteenth  century,  published  by  M.  Guil- 
laumin,  (See  Thicrs'a  Ifistoire  fie  Law  {ISitS) ;  John  P. 
World's  Mrmoira  of  the  Life  of  Jtthn  Law  (1824);  and 
Mackay's  Mcmoirt  of  Extraordinary  Popnlnr  JJehiaiont 
(1850).)     (See  Mississii'i'i  Sciiemk.)      Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Law  (John),  b.  in  New  London,  Conn.,  in  170G,  was 
son  of  Lyman  :  graduated  at  Yale  t'ollege  1814  ;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1817;  emigrated  to  Indiana  and  located  at 
Vincennes,  where  ho  was  successively  elected  prosecuting 
attorney,  member  of  the  legit^laturo  (I82.*t).  and  judge, 
holding  tho  latter  office  eight  years.  In  iS.'iR  he  was  ap- 
pointed receiver  of  public  moneys:  in  ISTiS,  judge  of  tho 
court  of  land  claims  ;  removed  to  Evansville  ;  was  elected 
in  I8rtO  a  member  of  Congress,  and  re-elected  in  18C2.  IIo 
drew  up  and  reported  the  bill  assigning  a  jiension  to  tho 
surviving  soldiers  of  the  Revolution,  and  has  been  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Historical  Society. 

Lnw  (Jon ATI!  vn),  b.  at  Milford.,  Conn..  Aug.  fi,  lrt74  ; 
gratliiatcil  at  Harvard  in  lOlt;*;  studied  law,  and  practised 
at  Milford.  and  was  a  magistrate  for  more  than  thirty 
yeiir^,  having  been  ehief-justice  from  I72j  to  1741,  and 
governor  froui  1741  until  his  death  in  May,  174L 

l.nw  (Lyman),  b.  at  Xew  Lomlon.  Conn.,  Aug.  10,1770  ; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  1701  :  studied  law  with  his 
f.ither.  Uichard  ;  served  in  tho  State  legislature,  of  which 
ho  wa--r  at  one  lirac  Speaker,  and  was  a  Represi'ntativo  in 
Congri'ss  1811-17.     1).  at  New  London  Feb.  .1,  IS42. 

Law  (UirHARh).  LL.I).,  b.  at  Milford,  Conn..  Mar.  17, 
17.'i:!.  sin  of  Gov.  Jonathan;  graduated  at  Yule  Cidlego  in 
17Jl  ;  Htuilieil  law,  and  practised  at  New  liomlon.  where  he  , 
be.'.inie  chief  judge;  delegate  to  Continental  Congress 
1777-78  and  1781-84;  mayor  of  New  Londtm  for  more 
than  twenty  years;  justice  tind  ehief-juslieo  of  supremo 
court  of  State,  and  district  judge  by  appointment  of  Wash- 
ington. He  aided  Roger  Sherman  in  revising  tho  Connec- 
ticut code  of  statute  law.    B.  at  New  London  Jan.  20,  IbOO. 


Law  (WiLi.iAsi),  b.  at  King's  Cliffe.  Northamptonshire, 
England,  in  IfiSC;  was  admitted  into  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  1705;  became  a  fellow  of  that  college  1711  ; 
graduated  as  M.  A.  1712;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England,  and  preached  for  a  time  in  London,  but  on  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Brunswick  to  the  throne  (1711) 
forfeited  his  fellowshij)  and  bis  prospects  of  advancement 
in  the  Church  by  refusing,  as  a  Jacobite,  to  take  tho  oath 
of  allegiance.  He  never  again  officiated  in  public  as  a 
ctergynian.  In  1717  the  bishop  of  Bangor,  Dr.  Benjamin 
Iloadley,  having  in  a  sermon  before  the  king  given  rise  to 
tho  famous  "Bangorian  controversy"  by  attacking  the 
non-jurors,  Law  wrote  in  reply  7'firee  Letters  to  Bishop 
Hoadlejf,  remarkable  for  their  close  reasoning  and  com- 
mand of  language,  which  placed  him  at  once  in  the  front 
rank  of  the  defenders  of  authority  both  in  Chundi  and 
State.  In  1724  he  wrote  one  of  the  best  of  the  numerous 
replies  to  Mandeville's  Fnhlc  of  the  livrn  (republished  with 
introduction  by  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  1S44),  and  in  1729  his 
masterpiece,  the  Srrioun  Cull  to  u  Ihrout  and  J/ffif  Life — 
.a  work  fo  which  Dr.  Johnr^on  attributed  his  eon\crsion, 
which  had  great  influence  upon  the  brothers  "Wesley,  and 
which  elicited  the  warmest  praise  even  from  the  pens  of 
tho  historians  Gibbon  and  Maeaulay.  Shortly  before  this 
lime  Law  became  tutor  to  Edward  (iibbou,  father  of  the 
historian,  accompanied  his  pupil  to  Oxford,  and  was  for 
several  years  a  member  of  liis  family  at  Putney.  Between 
the  years  17.'J.1  and  17.'U»  be  became  acquainted  with  the 
writings  of  the  German  mystic  Jakob  Biihrne,  and  adopted 
his  teachings,  which  influenced  the  treatises  On  the  Sao-n- 
meH((1737),  Christ  ion  liriji  neration  (17'iO),  and  his  numerous 
other  tracts.  In  1740  a  wealthy  widow  lad}',  Mrs.  Ilutcho- 
son,  and  Miss  Hester  Gibbon,  sister  of  his  pupil,  resolved 
to  spend  their  lives  in  a  quasi-conventual  manner,  devoting 
their  fortunes  to  charity,  aud  engaged  the  services  of  Law 
as  chaplain  and  almoner.  The  three  thenceforth  resided  at 
King's  Clifl"e,  and  Law  now  prepared  a  series  of  works  ex- 
pounding tho  doctrines  of  Biihrne  ;  these  were  The  Woif  to 
J)iviue  Knowledge  (1740),  The  Spirit  of  Prayer,  and  'The 
Spirit  of  Love.  He  also  wrote  some  illustrative  materials  for 
a  translation  of  tho  works  of  Bohmc  executed  liy  the  ladies 
above  na?ned,  but  published  after  bis  death  under  the  name 
of  Law  (4  vols.,  1701-Sl).  Ho  d.  at  King's  ClifTo  Apr.  0, 
17{)1.  In  the  following  vear  his  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished in  9  vols.  (See  hi's  Life,  by  R.  Tighe  (18i:i).  aud  a 
volume  of  Notes  and  Materials  for  bis  biography,  printed 
for  the  Theosophian  Library,  1800.) 

LaAVes  (Hknrv),  b.  about  IfiOO  at  Salisbury,  England. 
where  his  father,  Thomas  Lawcs,  was  vicar-choral  in  tho 
cathedral.  Educated  as  a  classical  musician  under  the  in- 
structions nf  .John  Cooper,  he  became  about  l(i2.'>  one  of 
the  "gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel"  to  Charles  I.,  and 
acquired  celebrity  as  a  composer  of  music  for  masques  and 
songs.  Milton's  Mamptc  of  f'omnn  was  set  to  music  and 
brought  out  under  his  personal  dirfction  at  Luillow  Castio 
in  16u4.  an<l  the  great  poet.  prolial!ly  a  pupil  of  Lawes  in 
music,  bestowed  upon  him  extraordinary  eulogies  in  sev- 
eral of  his  poems.  Waller,  Herrick,  and  Phillips  wrote  of 
him  in  a  similar  strain,  and  were  indebteil  to  him  for  tho 
populari/.ati<»n  of  many  of  their  songs.  The  music  of  Lawes 
was  of  the  Italian  style,  and  was  of  very  unequal  merit.  IIo 
was  a  royalist;  remaine<l  in  the  service  of  the  king  as  "clerk 
of  the  cheque"  until  1010.  and  composed  the  anthem  for 
the  coronation  of  Charles  II.  He  published  in  lOj^  Ayrca 
and  JJialtnjitcn,fnr  f)nr.  Tiro,  and  Thrrr  I  ot<Ti,  comprising 
l.'iO  pieces.  D.  at  London  in  Oct.,  lliG2,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. —  Hiselderbr(»tber,  Wii.mam  Lawks, 
also  a  gentleman  of  tho  chapel,  and  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Chester,  was  associated  with  Henry  in  several  of  his  musi- 
cal undertakings,  eomp(t-ied  the  music  for  Sandys's  verj^ion 
of  the  Psalms  (1648),  and  for  many  songs  of  that  period. 

Lawler  (Joab),  b.  in  North  Candina  June  12.  1700; 
was  educated  for  the  ministry,  and  became  a  Baptist  cler- 
gyman ;  served  from  1820  to  18;tl  in  tho  lower  house  of  the 
Alabama  legislature  ;  was  elected  Slate  senator  IS.'H  ;  was 
receiver  of  public  moneys  I8;i2-.'tr),  treasurer  of  the  I'ni- 
versilv  of  Alabama  |8:t;{,  nnd  elected  to  Congress  in  1834, 
D.  at  "Washington,  D.  C.  May  8,  1838. 

Lnw'lcfj  jjost-v.  of  Chickasaw  CO.,  la.,  on  the  Chicago 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  R.     Pop.  about  400. 

Lawn,  from  the  Old  Knglish  Intend,  nn  open  clear  place, 
meant  formerly  an  open  space  between  woods,  but  is  now 
mostly  restricted  to  a  space  of  ground  covered  with  gra^s 
for  orniinieutal  purposes.  In  order  lo  produce  a  thick - 
turfed,  dark-green,  velvety  lawn,  the  soil,  especially  if 
light,  should  lie  well  provided  with  manure,  and  worked  so 
deeply  as  to  allow  the  plant  to  e.^tend  its  roots  bel<»w  tho 
stratum  generally  reached  by  a  surface-drought.  The  seed 
used  should  bo  a  mixture  of  red-top  and  while  clover,  in 
the  proportion  of  three  parts  of  thu  former  to  one  of  tho 


1684 


LAW  OF  NATIONS— LAWRENCE. 


latter;  but  it  is  not  recommended  to  mix  the  Rrass-seed  I 
with  that  of  some  grain,  which  is  often  done.  The  idea  is 
to  produce  shade  for  the  young  grass-plant,  but  the  effect 
really  is  that  it  is  starved.  A  third  and  indispensable 
condition  is  frequent  mowing — once  a  week,  at  least  once 
every  two  weeks,  and  each  spring  a  little  top-dressing,  es- 
pecially on  any  poor  spot. 

I,nw  of  \ations.     See  Internation.4L  Law. 
Law  of  Storms.     See  Storms. 

Law'rance  (.Toun),  b.  in  Cornwall,  England,  in  1760; 
caiuc  to  New  Yorlc  in  1707  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1772  ;  w,as  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  in  1777,  and  judge- 
advocate  at  the  trial  of  Major  Andr€  :  member  of  old  Con- 
gress 178.i-8fi.  of  the  new  Congress  1789-0.3  ;  U.  S.  district 
juilge  1791-96;  U.  S.  Senator  1795-1800;  presiding  over 
the  Senate  in  1798.  He  was  a  zealous  defender  of  Wash- 
ington and  Hamilton.     D.  at  New  York  Nov.  10,  1810. 

Law'rcnce,  county  of  N.  W.  Alabama.  Area,  S.'iO 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Tennessee  River. 
The  S.  part  is  a  high  plateau.  As  a  whole,  it  is  a  very  fer- 
tile county.  Cotton,  corn,  and  live-stock  are  largely  pro- 
duced. The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Memphis  and 
Charleston  R.  R.     Cap.  Moulton.     Pop.  16,6.i8. 

Lawrence,  county  of  N.  E.  .\rkansps.  Area,  540  sqtiare 
miles.  It  is  a  fertile  Wooded  plateau,  with  ridges  and  rich 
alluvial  valleys.  Cotton  and  grain  are  proiluced.  The 
county  has  rich  ores  of  iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  lead.  It  is 
traversed  bv  Black  River  and  by  the  Cairo  and  Fulton 
U.  R.     Cap.'  Powhatan.     Pop.  5981. 

Lawrence,  county  of  S.  E.  Illinois,  bounded  E.  by  the 
Wabash  River,  which  separates  it  from  Indiana.  Area,  400 
square  miles.  It  is  partly  uneven  and  partly  level,  with 
ccmsiderable  timber  and  some  swamps.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Euibarras  River  and  by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  and 
the  Cairo  and  Vincennes  R".  Rs.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Cat- 
tle, grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Cap.  Lawrence- 
ville.     Pop.  12,53:i. 

Lawrence,  county  of  S.  Central  Indiana.  Area,  444 
square  miles.  Its  surface  is  broken  and  well  timbered. 
The  soil  is  productive.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple 
products.  Coal  is  found  in  some  places.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  E.  branch  of  White  River  and  by  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  and  the  Louisville  New  Albany  and  Chi- 
cago R.  Rs.     Cap.  Bedford.     Pop.  14,028. 

Lawrence,  ccmnfy  of  E.  Kentucky,  bounded  E.  by 
West  Virgiuia.  Area,  642  square  miles.  It  is  mountain- 
ous, with  fertile  valleys.  Corn  is  the  chief  farm  product. 
Coal  is  found  in  great  quantities  and  of  superior  quality. 
The  navigable  Big  Sandy  River  washes  its  E.  border.  Cap. 
Louisa.     Pop.  8497. 

Lawrence,  county  of  S.  Central  Mississippi.  Area, 
581)  square  miles.  It  is  gener.ally  fertile.  Corn,  rice,  and 
cotton  are  staple  products.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Pearl  River.     Cap.  Monticello.     Pop.  6720. 

Lawrence,  county  of  S.  W.  Missouri.  Area,  576  square 
miles.  It  is  undulating  and  in  part  billy,  with  a  large  area 
of  timber-land.  Copper,  lead,  and  iron  ore  have  been  found. 
The  soil  is  good.  Live-stock,  grain,  tobacco,  and  wool  are 
staple  products.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  .\tlantic 
and  Pacific  R.  R.     Cap.  Mt.'Vernon.     Pop.  1.1.067. 

Lawrence,  county  of  S.  Ohio,  bounded  S.  E.  and  S.  \V. 
by  the  Ohio  River,  .-irea,  400  square  miles.  It  is  uneven, 
but  fertile,  (train  and  tobacco  are  staple  crops.  Coal  and 
iron  are  mined,  the  latter  very  extensively.  Iron,  charcoal, 
and  cooperage  are  leading  manufactures.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  Iron  R.  R.  Cap.  Ironton.  Pop.  "1,;!80. 
Lawrence,  county  of  Pennsylvania,  bounded  W.  by 
Ohio.  .\roa.  42.">  square  miles.  It  is  uneven,  but  fertile. 
Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Lumber  and 
flour  are  leading  manufactures.  Coal  and  iron  ore  are  mined. 
It  is  traversed  by  Beaver  River  and  its  affluents,  and  by 
the  Erie  and  Pittsluirg  and  the  Pittsburg  Fort  Wayne  and 
Chicago  R.  Rs.     Cap.  Newcastle.     Pop.  27,298. 

Lawrence,  county  of  Tennessee,  bounded  S.  by  Ala- 
bama.    Area,  Olio  square  miles.     Its  surface  is  mostly  high, 
healthy,  and  productive.     Oraiu   and  tobacco  arc  staple 
products.     There  is  abundant  water-power.     Iron  is  mined 
to  some  extent.     Cap.  Lawrenccburg.     Pop.  7601. 
Lawrence,  tp.  of  Sanford  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  5:!7. 
Lawrence,  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  244. 
Lawrence,  tp.  of  Lawrence  eo.,  111.     Pop.  1492. 
Lawrence  (.Sedan  P.  0.).  a  v.  of  Richl.and  tp..  He  Kalb 
CO.,  Ind.,  on  the  Michigan  Southern  R.  K.  (.\ir-liue  divis- 
ion).    Pop.  176. 

Lawrence,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  Ind.,  on  the 
Cleveland  Cincinnati  and  Indianapolis  R.  R.     Pop.  2360. 
Lawrence,  city,  cap.  of  Douglas  co.,  Kan.,  on  both 


sides  of  the  Kansas  River,  at  the  junction  of  the  Kansas 
Paciiic  with  the  Leavenworth  Lawrence  and  Kausas  U.  R., 
3S  miles  S.  W.  of  Leavenworth,  has  17  churches,  2  national 
ancl  'i  other  banks,  a  public  library,  ,'i  daily.  2  tri-wcekly, 
and  4  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  State  I'ui- 
versity.  Lawrence  is  the  second  city  of  the  State,  both  as 
to  ]iopulation  and  wealth  :  has  a  dam  across  the  Kansas 
River  nearly  completed,  which  will  afford  3000  horse- 
power, the  largest  pork-packing  establishment  in  the  State, 
a  woollen-factory,  iron-foundries,  machine-shops,  planing 
and  llouring  mills,  tanneries,  and  a  large  nunil>er  of  mer- 
cantile houses.  Si.x  railroads  centre  here,  affording  low 
freights  ami  easy  communications  in  all  directions.  Law- 
rence has  had  an  eventful  history.  It  was  founded  in 
1854  in  the  midst  of  the  struggle  for  a  free  State,  and  was 
the  bead-quarters  of  John  IJrowu,  Lane,  Robinson.  Con- 
way, and  other  noted  leaders.  It  was  burned  in  1863  by 
the  Quantrell  raid,  but  has  been  rebuilt,  and  is  now  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  enterj)risiug  cities  of  the  ^Vcst.  Pop. 
8320.  T.  D.  TnAciiF.ii,  Ed.  "  I)AiLV  JotRNAI.." 

Lawrence,  city  and  one  of  the  caps,  of  Essex  co., 
Mass.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Merrimack  River,  26  miles 
N.  W.  of  Boston,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine,  the  Lowell 
and  Lawrence,  and  the  Manchester  (N.  11.)  and  Lawrence 
R.  Rs.,  was  until  30  years  ago  an  almost  uuiuhabited  waste, 
forming  portions  of  the  towns  of  Andover  and  Jlethucn. 
The  river  in  its  natural  condition  floweil  over  a  bed  of 
rooks  at  this  pla^e,  having  a  descent  of  26  feet,  without 
any  sudden  fall,  for  the  distance  of  about  half  a  mile,  af- 
fording unrivalled  water-power,  which  in  1845  led  to  its 
selection  for  a  uianufajturing  centre.  By  the  efforts  of 
.Vbbott  Lawrence,  Nathan  Appleton,  and  other  enterpris- 
ing capitalists  of  the  State,  the  Essex  Company  was  incor- 
porated in  that  year,  proceeded  to  construct  a  dam  of  solid 
granite  across  the  rapids,  and  opened  a  canal  90  feet  wide 
and  U  miles  long  for  the  utilization  of  the  water.  This 
dam,  900  feet  long  and  40  feet  high,  one  of  the  most  sub- 
stantial constructions  in  New  England,  was  completed  Oct. 
14,  1847,  at  a  cost  of  $250,000,  and  on  Feb.  24,  1848,  the 
first  wheel  was  set  in  motion  by  water  from  the  canal,  since 
which  time  the  industries  of  the  place  have  acquired  a 
rapid  and  almost  unexampled  development.  A  second 
canal  has  recently  been  built,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  The  most  important  establishment?  are  the  Atlantic 
cotlon-inills.  capital  $1,500,000,  employing  1800  looms  and 
1400  operatives;  Pacific  Mills,  capital  $2,500,000,  employ- 
ing about  5000  operatives:  and  the  Washington  Mills,  cap- 
ital $1,650,000,  1265  looms,  and  2900  operatives.  Other 
prominent  establishments  are  those  of  the  Lawrence  duck 
and  woollen  mills,  Hoadley  steam-engine  works,  the  Ev- 
erett and  Pemberton  mills  (cotton  and  woollen),  .Arlington 
woollen,  Russell,  and  other  paper  mills.  The  Pacific  mills 
occupy  a  vast  area;  their  buildings  are  of  colossal  dimen- 
sions and  considerable  architecturiil  beauty,  this  company 
being  noted  for  the  educational  and  social  advantages  it 
offers  to  its  operatives  with  its  fine  library  (6000  volumes), 
reading-room,  relief  societies,  and  hospitals  for  the  sick 
and  aged.  The  original  Pemberton  mill,  a  brick  structure, 
suddenly  fell  Jan.  10,  1800,  burying  700  persons  in  its 
ruins,  of  whom  91  wore  killed  or  mortally  injured.  The 
new  building  is  very  strongly  built.  The  city  received  its 
name  in  honor  of  the  Lawrence  family,  its  principal  found- 
ers :  was  incorporated  as  a  town  .Vpr.  19.  1847,  and  as  a 
city  Mar.  21,  1853;  has  21  churches,  3  national  and  3  sav- 
ings banks,  2  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers,  59  public 
schools  (graded),  a  public  library  (14,000  volumes),  very 
fine  high  and  grammar  school-houses,  a  beautiful  common 
(17  acres,  with  miniature  lake)  and  park,  excellent  water- 
works and  fire  department,  court-house,  city-hall.  Masonic 
temple.  Odd  Fellows'  and  music  hall,  several  institutions 
of  public  and  private  beneficence,  numerous  manufactures 
of  machinery,  carriages,  hardware,  and  flour;  an  assessed 
valuation  of" $24,1 17,373,  a  large  proportion  of  which  con- 
sists of  capital  invested  in  manufactures,  which  afford  em- 
ployment to  nearly  15,000  operatives.  The  prosperity  and 
enterprise  of  Lawrence  are  notable  phenomena  of  Amer- 
ica.    Pop.  in  1850,  82S2;   1860,  17,039;   1870,  28,921. 

Oeobgi!  S.  MEnaiLL,  Ed.  "  Daily  Amehicas." 

Lawrence,  postv.  and  tp.  of  Van  Buren  co.,  Mich.,  9 
miles  W.  from  Paw  Paw.  It  has  1  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  of  V.  555;  of  tp.  1927. 

liawrence,  tp.  of  Mercer  co.,  N.  J.     Pop.  2251. 

Lawrence,  tp.  of  St.  Lawrence  co..  N.  Y.  It  is  level 
and  very  fertile,  contains  several  flourishing  villages  and 
7  churches,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Ogdensburg  and  Lake 
Champbiin  R.  R.     Pop.  2577." 

Lawrence,  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  0.     Pop.  1245. 

Lawrence,  tp.  of  Stark  co.,  0.  It  contains  Canal 
FtLTox  (which  see).     Pop.  3366.     ' o.„.:„„rM 


Lawrence  Station   (N. 


LAWRENCE. 


UiSry 


Lawrence  P.  0.)  is  on  tho  Pittsburg  Fort  Wayne  and  Chi- 
cago U.  U. 

Lawrence,  tp.  of  Tuscarawns  co.,  0.     Pop.  1-179. 

J>a\vrencCy  post-tp.  of  Washington  co.,  0.     Pop.  28C0. 

J*nu  reuoe,  (p.  of  Clearfield  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1720. 

Ijawrence,  tp.  of  Tioga  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1/57. 

Lawrence,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  7oO. 

liftAVrence,  Saint.     Sec  L,vi  iikntiis,  Saint. 

Lawrence  (Abbott),  LL.D.,  b. at  tiroton,  Mass.,  Dec. 
Ifi,  I7'J-.  His  father,  Samuel  Lawrence  (1754-1827),  was 
a  Revolutionary  officer.  Abbott  Lawrence  studied  iu  the 
academy  at  Groton,  and  became  iu  1S1)S  a  clerk,  and  in 
ISII  a  p:irtner  in  tho  dry-goods  business  of  his  brother 
Amos  iu  itiiston.  In  this  business  he  often  visited  Europe. 
He  was  an  early  advocate  of  the  protective  taritl",  engaged 
Iarg<dy  in  manufacturing,  and  was  ouo  of  tho  principal 
founders  of  tho  city  of  Lawrence,  Mass.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  ls;jj-;{7  and  lS;jU-n  ;  was  in  lSt2  a  commis- 
sioner to  settle  the  Aroostook  boundary  (question;  U.  S. 
minister  to  (ireat  Britain  IS4'J-J2.  He  founded  tho  Law- 
rence Sjientific  School  of  Harvard  University,  founded 
scholarships  and  prizes  in  public  schools,  and  was  a  Iil)cral 
benefactor  of  tho  Oroton  Academy,  now  known  by  his 
name.  Jle  was  liberal  in  ail  philanthropic  and  charitable 
causes.  He  received  in  18j  t  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  Harvard  University.     U.  at  Uo.«ton  .Aug.  18.  1S.'>5. 

Lawrence  (Amos),  b.  at  Groton.  iMa^s.,  Apr.  20,  1780, 
and  studied  in  the  academy  of  his  native  place.  In  IS07 
he  set  M\t  a  mercantile  business  in  Boston,  and  in  181-1  his 
brother  Abbott  became  his  partner.  Ho  acquired  a  largo 
fortune,  wliich  he  freely  and  unostentatiously  employed 
fur  tho  good  of  the  public  and  of  individuals,  bestowing  in 
tlic  most  unobtrusive  and  noiseless  way  hundreds  of  thou- 
■^ands  of  dollars  for  benovolent  uses.  D.  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Dec.  31,  1852.  (See  Extntrf/i  from  hia  Ifittn/  and  (\n-rc- 
gjiomience,  tcith  Memoir  by  W.  K.  Lawrence,  his  son,  18J5.) 

Lawrence  (Eioknr),  b.  in  New  York  Oct.  10,  182:i; 
graduated  at  New  Vork  University  in  1^41;  has  written 
Liir<i  of  liritinh  UiHturi(ttnt.  and  is  a  vulumimuis  contributor 
to  Harpers'  periodicals,  chieMy  upon  subjects  connected 
with  the  political  inUuence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
of  which  he  is  an  earnest  opponent. 

Lawrence  (Gkoiujk  Alfhko),  b.  in  1827  in  England; 
was  educated  at  Rn^by  und  iJaliol  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated  with  honors  in  ISIS;  was  ndniitted  to  tho 
bar:  author  of  (/cy  Livi)n/»tfnir,  Strmd  tmd  (i'unt.  Unrrcn 
Jlouof,  and  other  popular  novels.     D.  Sept.  21,  1876. 

Lawrence  (Sir  Hkvuy  Montoomery),  b.  at  Matura, 
Ceylon,  June  28,  ISIifi:  studied  at  tho  Military  Co!Iet;c  at 
AdJiscombe;  went  to  India  in  1x21  as  a  cadet  in  tlie  Ben- 
gal artillery;  took  part  in  the  Af(;han  war  in  lSl;t;  was 
acnt  in  the  same  year  as  British  resident  to  Khatmandooj 
participated  in  the  Sutlej  campaign  ;  was  resident  at  La- 
hore from  1810  to  I'^ltt;  thr-u  chief'  of  the  board  of  admin- 
istration in  the  Punjanb,  agent  of  the  governor-general  in 
Rnjpootana  ( 1S52).  ari'l  in  1S.'>7  commisr^ioner  in  Oudc.  He 
eondiictecl  tho  memorablo  defence  of  tho  British  residency 
at  liUcUnow  againj't  the  mutineers,  until  on  .luly  2  ho  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  tl,  at  Lueknow  .July  1,  1857.  (Soo 
his  At/V,  by  Kdwardes  and  Merivale.  London,  1872.) 

Lawrence  (Cnpt.  Jamks),  b.  at  Burlington,  N.  J..  Oct. 
1.  17*^1  :  entered  tho  V.  S.  navy  as  a  tnidshipuian  in  17'.I8; 
became  lieutenant  in  1S02;  took  part  in  the  war  with  Tripoli 
(181)1-05);  was  appointed  in  181(1  to  tho  command  of  tho 
Hornet  ( IS),  with  the  rank  of  master-commandant ;  cruised 
in  Com.  Bainbridj^e's  squadron  on  the  South  American 
coast  at  the  clo«e  of  1SI2.  anil  on  Feb.  21,  18i;{,  captureil, 
near  the  mouth  of  tho  Heincrara  River,  the  British  sloo]i- 
of-war  Pencrick  ( 18),  after  an  engagement  of  liftcen  min- 
ute?. Tho  Peacock  had  six  feet  of  water  in  her  hold  when 
she  surrendered,  and  went  down  immediately  after  with  a 
number  of  men  of  both  crews.  Returning  to  New  Vork 
with  these  prisoners,  and  those  of  several  other  prijtes, 
Lawrence  received  from  Congress  a  gold  medal,  was  pro- 
moted to  bo  captain  (Mar.  4),an<l  commander  of  the  frigate 
Chesapeake.  On  Juno  I,  while  ho  was  lying  in  Boston 
harlinr,  tho  British  frieate  Shannon  (:!8),  Capt.  P.  V.  Broke, 
came  iu  si^ht  with  tho  express  design  of  fiyhiinK  the  Chesa- 
peake. Capt.  Lawrence  aeeepteil  the  implied  challenge, 
liut  both  he  and  his  principal  onieers  were  soon  mortally 
woun'led,  antt  the  Chesapeake,  lieing  mueb  disabhvL  was 
taken  by  assault,  anil  carried  into  Halifax,  where  he  d. 
July  5,  ISLJ.  Hi8  exclamation  on  being  carried  below, 
"  Don't  give  up  tho  ship!"  became  a  household  word  in 
the  U.  S. 

Lawrence  (Jasos  Vai.i:nti\k  0*Ruikn1.  M.  D..  b.  in 
New  Orleans.  La.,  in  1791;  grailuated  in  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1816,  having  previously  for 


some  time  been  house-physician  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital. After  securing  a  lucrative  practice  in  New  Orleans 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  where  in  1822  he  gave  a  six 
months'  course  of  lectures  on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and 
prepared  for  the  press  a  work  on  morbid  anatomy.  I>. 
Aug.  19,  182."L  His  p.apers  were  published  in  tho  Phila. 
Jour,  of  Med.  (uid  Pliyn,  Sciences.  P.\UL  F.  EVK. 

Lawrence  (John  Laikh  Mair),  D.  C.  L.,  Baron,  b.  at 
Riehm«)nd,  Yorkshire.  England,  Mar.  4,  1811  ;  was  edu- 
cated at  Haileybury  College,  where  he  became  proficient 
in  Oriental  languages  and  laws;  went  to  India  in  1S2'J  us 
a  cadet  in  the  Bengal  civil  service;  filled  various  subordi- 
nate administrative  and  judicial  posts,  and  in  1840,  after 
the  first  Sikh  war,  was  called  to  tho  responsible  office  of 
chief  commissioner  of  the  Punjanb,  becoming  lieutenant- 
governor  in  1819.  In  this  post,  which  he  retained  many 
years,  Lawrence  displayed  rare  talent  in  the  government 
of  a  naturally  turbulent  race,  and  with  such  perfect  success 
that  the  Punjaub,  far  from  joining  the  mutiny  of  ls.')7,  as 
was  anticipated,  was  able  to  send  forces  of  Siklis  and  Pun- 
jabees  to  the  relief  of  Delhi.  His  co-operation  with  Can- 
ning, Havelock,  Outnun.  and  Cly<lc  for  the  suppression  of 
the  mutiny  was  of  inestimable  value,  and  gave  him  popu- 
lar fame  as  '*  the  saviour  of  India."  Having  returned  to 
England  in  1858,  the  last  special  court  of  directors  of  the 
East  India  Company,  on  the  eve  of  its  abolition,  conferred 
a  pension  of  £2000  upon  Lawrence,  who  also  received  a 
baronetcy,  and  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council.  He  was 
viceroy  of  India  from  I8fi;j  to  1868,  and  was  created  a 
baron 'in  KSOy.     D.  June  27,  1879. 

Lawrence  (Sir  Thomas),  b.  in  Bristol,  England,  in 
1709;  d.  Jan.  7.  1880.  His  father  was  a  tavern-keeper. 
When  a  mere  child  he  made  sketches  in  chalk  ;  at  ten  he 
used  the  crayons  with  skill ;  at  seventeen  he  painted  in  oil ; 
ho  was  but  thirteen  when  he  received  a  silver  palette  and 
five  guineas  from  the  Society  of  Arts  for  a  copy  of  The 
Traniifitjurutiou  ;  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  being  younger 
than  the  rules  required,  he  was  made  a"  supplementary  as- 
sociate" of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  paintetl  portraits  of 
tho  king  and  queen  :  in  1794  he  was  elected  an  academician  ; 
in  1815  he  was  knighted:  in  1820  he  became  jiresidcnt  of 
the  Academy.  Lawrence  came  to  London  in  1789.  Reynolds 
befriended  him  with  counsel  and  influence,  and  so  diligent 
was  he  that  during  his  first  year  in  London  he  exhibited 
at  Somerset  House  seven  portraits  of  women.  Flattered 
by  his  success  in  ])ortraits,  Lawrence  was  moved  by  an 
ambition  to  attempt  historical  painting,  and  produced  Sntun 
Sitwrnnuitiff  hit  LcyjouK,  the  subject  taken  from  Milton;  but, 
thfuigh  the  picture  was  praised  by  his  admirers,  its  recep- 
tion did  not  justify  his  abandonment  of  the  department  in 
which  he  so  far  cxcelleil  all  otliers.  The  most  distinguished 
men  and  women  of  the  time  sat  to  him;  his  prices  were 
high,  rising  in  1810  to  100  guineas  for  heads  and  400  for 
fill  I -lengths — more  than  thrice  his  earlier  charges.  In 
1814  tho  princo  regent  commissioned  Lawrence  to  paint 
the  sovereigns,  generals,  and  statesmen  who  were  in  league 
against  Napoleon.  The  famous  Waterloo  gallery  at  ^Vind- 
sor  is  the  result.  In  \'ienna  he  jtainted  the  emperor  of 
Austria;  in  London  he  painted  Bliichcr  and  Plaloff;  in 
Rome  he  painted  Pius  VI  I.  and  Cardinal  iionsalvi.  Honors 
were  showered  on  him  at  home  und  abroad;  foreign  acade- 
mies elected  him  to  menibcr>bi}p :  he  was  made  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  A  handsome  person  and  elegant 
manners  nidetl  Sir  Thomas  in  his  profession  with  tho  no- 
bility and  peojilc  of  wealth.  His  jdctures  are  remarkable 
I  for  richness  of  c(dor,  a  mingled  stdtness  and  splendor  that 
was  of  great  eiTect.  particularly  in  the  portraits  of  women, 
which  ore  preferred  to  those  of  men.  So  great  was  tho 
fame  of  Lawrence  that  a  school  of  art  was  formed  nfler  his 
example,  but  of  late  years  his  fame  has  been  declining. 
(See  J/' f»o/r*  «"(/ forrc*y>wti(/t'Hcc,  by  I).  E.Williams,  Lon- 
don, 18:il,  3  vols.)  0.  B.  Frothingiiam. 

Lawrence  (Timothy  Bigki.ow),  b.  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  2.5.  1>»20,  a  son  of  Abliott  Lawrence;  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1810;  was  an  attaclu''  of  the  .American  legation 
in  London  during  his  father's  resiilence  as  minister  at  the 
British  court,  und  remained  in  that  position  until  IS55; 
was  U.  S.  consul-general  in  Italy  1802-09.  \).  in  Wash- 
ington, n.  C.,  Mar.  21,  1801). 

Lawrence  (Sir  William).  B  \rt..F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Ciren- 
cester, Kngland,  .luly  10.  I78;>;  studied  surgery  for  five 
years  as  apprentice  to  Dr.  Abernethy ;  became  in  his 
twentieth  year  demonstrator  of  anatomy  at  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital;  professor  of  anatornv  and  sur^rery  at  Iho 
Collegcof  Surgeons  (1815-191.  and  director  »d"  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's (1819),  which  position  he  retained  until  lsC5.  His 
name  is  intimately  connected  with  the  progress  of  practical 
surgery  in  En;xlan<i,  to  which  ho  made  brilliant  contribu- 
tions, described  in  a  long  series  of  papers  in  the  TnmitaC' 
tivun  of  the  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society.     He  was  re- 


1686 


LAWRENCE— LAWSON. 


markaMe  for  varied  attainments  beyond  the  line  of  his 
jirofessiou  :  possessed  an  elegant  literary  style ;  was  un- 
rivalled OS  a  lecturer;  was  twice  president  of  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  member  of  a  host  of  scientific  societies,  and 
surgeon  oxtnii>rdinary  to  the  queen,  by  whom  he  was  made 
a  baronet.  His  most  important  works  were  the  Lrrtures 
on  PhifHiohitjif,  Zooh^ijy^  and  the  ^'atural  Histori/  of  Man 
(IS19:  Dth  ed.  ISIS),  the  Tt-eatiee  on  Heniia  (1807),  and 
the  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Ei/e  (18-il),  edited  iu  the 
U.  S.  by  Dr.  Isaac  Hays  (1347  ;  new  ed.  185S). 

Lawrence  (William),  b.  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  0.,  June  26, 
ISl'J;  graduated  at  Franklin  CuUege,  0.,  in  lSo8.  and  at 
the  Law  School  of  Cincinnati  in  1840;  settled  at  McCon- 
nellsville,  and  afterwards  at  Bellefontaine,  0..  and  engaged 
with  success  in  law-practice;  edited  (1846—47)  the  Logan 
Gazette,  and  at  one  time  the  Western  Law  Monthh/;  was 
often  in  the  senate  and  lower  house  of  the  Ohio  legislature  ; 
was  the  founder  of  the  reform  school  and  of  the  free  banking 
law  of  the  State;  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  1850-64; 
for  some  time  colonel  of  the  84th  Ohio  in  the  civil  war;  a 
member  of  Congress  1865-71  and  1873-74.  Author  of  a 
work  on  the  Ohio  Civil  Code,  The  Law  of  Interest  and 
Usitri/,  and  comjiiled  vol.  xx.  of  the  Ohio  Heports. 

Lawrence  (William  Bkach).  LL.D..  b.  in  New  York 
Ci(y  Oet.  23,  ISUO  :  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1818  ; 
studied  law  in  Europe;  admitted  to  the  N"ew  York  bar  in 
1S23;  secretary  of  legation  in  London  1826-27;  chargfi 
d'affaires  ad  interim  1827-28;  resided  for  some  time  in 
Paris,  where  he  made  a  translation  of  Barb^  Marbois's  His- 
ton/  of  Lonibinna,  and  its  Cession  htf  France  to  the  U.  S. 
(1830),  adding  an  introduction  and  notes.  Returning  to 
the  U.  S.  in  1832,  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  po- 
litical economy  at  Columbia  College,  published  in  1834; 
gained  a  prominent  jiosition  in  his  profession :  was  influ- 
ential in  promoting  the  Erie  Railway  enterprise ;  was  vice- 
president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  1836-45,  to 
■whoso  Proceeditifjs  he  was  a  frequent  contributor;  wrote  a 
Historic  of  the  Negotiations  in  reference  to  the  Eastern  and 
North-eastern  boundaries  o/the  U.  S.  ( 1841 ),  a  brief  Memoir 
of  Albert  Gallatin  (1H43),  a  small  volume  on  the  Coloniza- 
tion of  Xew  Jersey  (1843),  and  numerous  articles  in  the 
quarterly  and  monthly  reviews.  In  1850  he  became  a 
resident  of  Rhode  Island,  where  he  became  lieutenant- 
governor  and  acting  governor  in  1851,  and  member  of  the 
constitutional  convention  iu  1853.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Social  Science  Congress  which  met  at  Bristol,  England, 
in  Ot;t.,  1869,  and  lecturer  on  international  law  (1872-73) 
at  the  law  school  of  Columbian  College  at  Washington, 
I).  C,  in  which  city  he  has  been  em])loyed  for  several  years 
as  an  advocate  in  cases  of  iuternatioiuil  claims,  especially 
those  arising  from  the  Treaty  of  Washington  of  1^71,  and 
has  published  several  arguments  and  hrochnrcs  upon  that 
subject.  His  most  important  original  works  have  been  The 
Law  of  Charitable  Uses  {\^\b).  Visitation  and  Search  (1858), 
a  Commcntarif  on  the  Elements  of  International  Law  (in 
French,  3  vols.,  Lcipsic,  1868-73),  Disabilities  of  American 
Women  Married  Abroad  (1871),  and  Administration  of 
Effiiti/  Jurisprudence  {Boston,  1874).  Ho  is.  however,  best 
known  by  his  valuable  edition  of  Wheatou's  ICl'-mcnts  of 
International  Law,  with  an  introduction,  memoir,  and  copi- 
ous notes  (1855  :  revised  ed.  1803). 

I^nw^renceburg^  city  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Dearborn  cc, 
Ind,,  <tn  the  Ohio  Kiver,  20  miles  below  Cincinnati,  on 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  and  the  Indianapolis  Cincinnati 
and  Lafayette  U.  Rs.,  has  2  national  banks,  2  weekly  news- 
papers. 7  churches,  the  usual  number  of  stores,  several  ho- 
tels, and  a  large  number  of  furniture  manufactories.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  the  White  Water  Canal,  whieh  affords  ex- 
cellent water-power.  Pop.  3159;  of  tp.  exclusive  of  city, 
1708.  E.  F.  Sibley,  Ed.  *'  Democratic  Register." 

Lawrencebur^y  post-v.  and  cap.  of  Anderson  co., 
Ky.,  lU  miles  S.  of  Frankfort,  on  the  line  of  the  proposed 
Frankfort  and  Harrodsburg  R.  R.,  has  3  churches,  a 
national  bank,  and  a  seminary.     Pop.  393. 

Lawrencebur^,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Tenn., 
on  the  projected  Memphis  and  Knoxvillo  R.  R.,  20  miles 
W.  of  Pulaski  and  80  S.  W.  of  Nashville,  on  Shoal  River. 
40  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Tennessee,  has  4 
churches,  a  Catholic  convent,  1  weekly  ne^vs])apcr.  3  hotels, 
4  large  cotton-factories,  and  the  usual  number  of  stores. 
There  are  fine  beds  of  iron  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  351. 

Tbomas  B.  Malonk.  Ed.  " Joirnal.'* 

Lawrence  University  of  Wisconsin,  an  institu- 
tion of  learning  in  Apjdeton,  Outagamie  co.,  Wis.  It  was 
founded  in  1817,  the  Hon.  Amos  A.  Lawreneo  of  Roston, 
Mass.,  offering  to  give  $10,000  towards  the  estiildishmcnt 
of  a  collegiate  school,  provicled  an  additional  $10,000  should 
be  raised  by  the  Methodist  denomination.  This  was  done, 
and  the  first  classes  were  formed  in  ilie  ])repftratory  depart- 
ment in  the  fall  of  1849,     In   1852,  Rev.  Edward  Cooke, 


D.  D.,  was  elected  president  of  the  college,  and  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  his  ofliee  with  the  collegiate  year  begin- 
ning in  1853.  According  to  the  catalogue  of  1873-74,  the 
number  of  different  students  in  attendance  during  the  year 
was  377,  of  whom  i<o  were  in  the  regular  college  classes. 
The  whole  number  of  graduates  up  to  1873  was  148,  of 
whom  about  one-third  wore  ladies.  The  library  of  the 
institution  was  founded  by  the  Hon.  Samuel  Appleton  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  by  a  donation  of  $10,000  ;  it  now  comjiriscs 
7000  volumes.  The  jiroperty  of  the  university  amounts  to 
about  $180,000.  Besides  the  original  donation  of  Mr. 
Lawrence  to  the  foundation  of  the  institution,  he  has  fa- 
vored it  with  several  additional  gifts.  Dr.  Cooke  resigned 
the  presidency  about  1800,  and  wiis  succeeded  by  R.  Z. 
Masi>n,  LL.D.,  who  resigned  in  1805.  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rev.  (i.  M.  Steele.  D.  D.,  the  }>resent  incumbent.  The 
courses  of  instruction  in  the  college  are  two,  classical  and 
scientific.  There  is  also  provision  for  instruction  in  civil 
engineering.  In  the  academical  department  the  facilities 
for  a  broad  English  culture  and  business  education  are 
ample.  J.  H.  Worman. 

Law'renceville,  tp.  of  Henry  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1194. 

Lawrenceville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Gwinnett  co,,  Ga.,  15 
miles  N.  E.  of  Stone  Mountain,  beautifully  situated  in  the 
centre  of  a  fine  cotlon-produeing  district,  has  2  ehurchcs, 
2  academies,  1  weekly  newspaper,  a  handsome  court-house, 
and  considerable  trade. 

Lawrenceville,  post-v.  of  Lawrence  tp.,  cap.  of  Law- 
rence CO.,  Ill,,  on  the  Embarras  River,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  with  the  Paris  and  Danville  R.  R,, 
9  miles  W.  of  Vinceunes,  has  3  churches,  2  weekly  news- 
papers. 2  hotels,  and  a  number  of  stores.  Principal  busi- 
ness, farming.     Pop.  455. 

Mary  Blntin,  Ed.  "Riral  Republican." 

Lawrenceville,  post-v.  of  Lawrence  tp.,  fiercer  co., 
N.  J.,  0  miles  N.  of  Trenton.  It  has  a  boys'  high  school 
and  seminary  for  young  women. 

Lawrenceville,  post-v.  of  Lawrence  tp.,  St.  Lawrence 
CO.,  N.  v.,  on  the  Ogdensburg  and  Lake  Champlaiu  R.  R., 
and  the  seat  of  a  fine  academy.     Poj).  350. 

LaAvrenceville,  post-b.  of  Lawrence  tp..  Tioga  co,, 
Pa.,  on  Cowanesque  Creek,  at  the  junction  of  the  Corning 
Cowanesque  and  Antrim  and  the  Tioga  R.  Rs.     Pop.  478. 

Lawrenceville,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Brunswick  co.,  Va., 
20  miles  W.  of  Ilieksford  Station.  It  has  1  weekly  news- 
paper. 

Laws,  tp.  of  Williamsburg  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1274. 

Law'son  (.John),  a  native  of  Scotland,  who  in  1700  be- 
came surveyor  to  the  province  of  North  Carolina,  and  in 
1701)  published  a  valuable  work,  A  New  Voyage  to  Caro- 
lina, containing  the  Exact  Description  and  Natural  History 
of  that  Country,  etc.,  with  a  good  map  and  accurate  illus- 
trations. In  1712,  while  engaged  in  prosecuting  his  sur- 
veys, he  was  taken  ]>risoner  by  the  Tuscarora  Indians,  and 
burned  at  the  stake  as  a  supposed  usurper  of  their  hinds. 
His  New  Voyage  was  reprinted  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  in  18C0, 

Lawson  (  L.  M.).  M.  D.,  b.  in  Nicholas  co.,  Ky.,  Sept. 
10,  1S12,-  graduated  in  1837  at  Transylvania  University, 
where  he  became  j»rofessor  of  anatomy  iu  18-13.  He  sub- 
sequently filled  the  chair  of  materia  mediea  iu  the  Medical 
College  of  Ohio  (1847),  occupied  similar  posts  iu  the  Ken- 
tucky School  of  Medicine  at  Louisville  (1854),  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana  at  New  Orleans  (18(>0),  returning  to  the 
Ohio  College  in  1857  and  in  ISOl.  He  conducted  the 
Western  L<i net/  from  1842  to  1804.  edited  Hope's  Morbid 
Anatomy  {1811),  and  published  his  best  work,  a  Practical 
Trtatise  on  Phthisis  PulmonaUsf  in  1SG4.  D.  at  Ciocinoati, 
0.,  Jan.  21,  I8G4. 

Lawson  (Thomas),  b.  in  Virginia:  entered  the  navy 
in  iNDil  as  surgeon's  mate,  which  position  he  resigned  in 
isll  to  take  a  similar  position  iu  the  army;  in  1S13  was 
promoted  to  be  a  full  surgeon,  and  after  serving  in  this 
capacity  for  twenty-three  years  was  appointed  surgeon- 
general  of  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  This  re- 
sponsible position  he  ably  tilieil  for  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
during  which  time  he  labored  incessantly  to  improve  the 
condition  of  his  corps,  and  it  was  under  his  direction  that 
the  publiention  of  statistics  aud  reports  by  the  medical 
otficers  of  the  army  was  inaugurated.  Of  a  fiery,  ehivalric 
nature,  he  acted  as  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  Louisiana  vol- 
unteers in  the  Florida  war.  and  as  chief  medical  otlieer 
ae-.'ompanied  the  general-in-chief  throughout  the  war  with 
Mexico,  gaining  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general  for  bravery. 
D.  at  Norfolk.  Va..  May  15,  18Gi. 

Lawson  (Sir  Wilfrid).  Bart.,  b.  in  Cumberland,  Eng- 
land, iu  1829;  became  at  an  early  age  an  enthusiastic  ad- 
vocate of  the  temperance  movement;  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Carlisle  in  1859,  and  introduced  in  Mar.,  1864,  the  mea- 


LAWSOXS— LAYEKING. 


1687 


sure  well  known  ns  the  Permissive  Bill,  the  main  principle 
of  which  \)  the  giving  to  two-thirds  of  the  inbuhitanis  of 
any  parij'li  or  township  an  nheolutc  veto  npon  all  licenses 
for  the  sale  ^if  intoxitating  liquors  granted  within  their 
district.  Defeated  at  the  clccliou  of  lS(i:>,  ho  was  returned 
at  the  head  of  the  poll  in  IS6S  as  a  supporter  of  (iladslone, 
and  again  elected  in  Foh.,  1874.  lie  is  the  leader  of  the 
Inilod  Kingdom  Temperance  Alliance,  and  its  spokesman 
in  Parliament,  where  he  figures  also  as  u  frequent  opponent 
uf  Disraeli  upon  other  subjects. 

Lawson's,  tp.  of  Somerset  co.,  Md.,  on  Tangier  and 
Pocomokc  sounds,  traversed  by  the  Eastern  Shore  11.  H. 
Pop.  3.)49. 

Law'ton,  post-v.  of  Antwerp  tp..  Van  Burcn  co.,  Mich., 
ir,  iniks  .■'.  W.  "f  Kaluiuaioo,  at  the  junction  between  the 
.Michigan  fintral  and  the  Paw  Paw  li.  Us.,  has  a  large 
blast  furnace,  a  foundry  and  machine-shop,  a  |doughfac- 
torv  and  planing-inill.  2  wagon-sho].s.  1  weekly  newspaper, 
several  churches  and  schools,  and  the  usual  number  of 
si. ires,  shops,  ami  smaller  manufacturing  establishments. 
Tbo  principal  industries  arc  farming  and  fruit-raising. 
Poji.  1081.  E.  V.  IIavdkn,  Ed.  "  Tuibune." 

Lawton,  tp.  of  lieaufort  co.,  S.  C.  Pop.  3905. 
Lau'ton  ((icn.  Ai.KXAsnKii  R.),  b.  in  Beaufort  dist. 
(now  CO. I,  S.  C,  about  1S20:  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1339,  when  be  was  commissioned  as  second  lieutenaul  in 
the  Ist  Artillcrv,  an.l  stationed  on  the  northern  frontier 
until  ISIl.  Tlien  resigned;  studied  law  at  Harvard  Law 
School.  Mass.,  and  commenced  the  practice  in  Savannah 
in  1812.  Soon  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession,  and  was 
repeatcillv  elected  to  the  State  legislature,  first  to  the 
house  and  then  to  (he  senate,  where  he  achieved  great  dis- 
tinction. Upon  the  organization  of  the  Savannah  and 
Augusta  K.  H.  in  IS  111,  he  was  chosen  its  first  |iresident. 
In  "Apr.,  isr.l.hewas  appointed  brigadier-general  in  the 
provisional  army  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  was  put  in 
command  of  the  coast  of  (icorgia.  This  positionhc  held 
until  June,  |8ri2,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Virginia, 
where  ho  serveil  with  Stonewall  .Jackson  in  his  several 
campaigns:  received  Ihc  eominand  of  a  division,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  Sharpsburg,  disabling  him  for  a  year, 
after  which  he  served  as  quarlerniastcr-geiieral  until  the 
close  of  tho  war.  After  the  surrender  in  ISCa  he  resumed 
the  practice  of  law  in  Savannah,  which  he  still  pursues 
with  eminent  success.  Ho  is  also  at  this  time  (1870)  a 
distinguished  member  of  the  legislature  from  the  county 
of  Chatham.  A.  H.  Steimikn.s. 

Lawyer.  See  .\TTnnNr:Y,  BAnnisTKii,  Kino's  Coux.sei,, 
Anvoi-ATK,  Sii.iriTon,  Pnoi-Toit,  Skukeast-at-Imw. 

Lay  (Bi-.v,iAMiN),  b.  at  Colchester,  England,  in  IGSl  ; 
settled  at  Barbadoes  in  1710;  became  obnoxious  on  ac- 
count of  abolition  principles,  and  being  a  Quaker  removed 
to  Abinglon,  Pa.,  where  ho  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
zealous  agitators  against  slavery,  in  which  connection  ho 
was  an  associate  of  Franklin  and  Bcnezet.  He  scp.aratid 
from  tho  Society  of  Friends  in  1717  on  account  of  slave- 
holding  being  permilte.l  lo  ils  nunibers,  but  had  tho  pleas- 
ure at  a  later  day  to  see  that  body  assume  an  attitude 
similar  to  his    own.     In   1737  ho  wrote   a  ])ainplilet,  AH 

Sl<irrl:rr)„;-)i  llint  l.ri/,  ill'-  Iiinnrnil  hi  /Inniliiiji;  .■l/»o«(.((.«, 
printed  l.y  Franklin,  lie  oppose.l  tea-drinking,  distributed 
religious  books  as  prizes  in  the  schools,  and  mannfacturcd 
his  own  clothing,  so  as  not  lo  avail  himself  of  the  products 
of  slavo-labor.     D.  at  Abington  in  1780. 

Lay  (IlKfiuv  CiiAMi'i.iN).  I).  I).,  LI,.D..h.  at  Riidimond, 
Va.,  Dec.  8,  1823:  gradualed  at  the  rniversily  of  Virginia 
in  1812,  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia;  or- 
dained deacon  .fuly  10,  IS  1(1;  was  minister  in  Lynnliaven 
parish,  Va.,  until  .June,  1817,  when  ho  removed  to  the  church 
of  tho  Nativity,  Hunlsville,  Ala.;  ordained  priest  July  12, 
18  IS  ;  consecrated  missionary  bishop  of  the  South-west  Oct. 
23, 18.)i),  and  translated  to  the  diocese  of  Kaslon  Apr.  1,  1809. 
liay'ainon,  a  priest  at  Krnelv  on  Ihc  Severn  River, 
Wori-eslersliire,  England,  flourisheii  in  the  second  half  of  Ihc 
Iwclflh  century  as  the  author  of  the  llnii.  a  rhyming  chron- 
icle of  English  history  from  the  lime  of  the  faliulous  Brutus 
of  Troy  to  tho  death  of  King  Cadwallader  dlsw  A.  n.).  His 
work  is  an  amplified  Inuisbitioii  <ir  Ilie  Hrnl  il' Aniilrleni: 
of  tho  Anglo-Norman  pool  Waco,  llie  nddilions  being  ilc- 
rived  chiefly  from  the  writings  of  Bedo  and  St.  Augustine 
of  Canterbury,  while  Waco's  work  is  itself  lillle  more  than 
a  translation'  of  (leolTrey  of  Monmonlh's  l,alin  //i«i.,iiVi 
Jlril/oniim.  The  value  of  liayamon's  chronicle  is  mainly 
philological.  It  contains  ;'.2.2.iO  lines,  some  allileralivc, 
hut  more  imitating  the  imperlVcl  rhyme  of  ils  Anglo-Nor- 
man original.  Tin-  best  edition  is  that  of  Sir  Frederic 
Madden,  with  a  literal  Iransliition.  notes,  and  a  grammali- 
cal  glossary,  published  by  the  English  Society  of  Antiquaries 
(3  vols.,  1.847). 


Lay'ard  (  Aistes  Hen-ky),  D.  C.  L.,  b.  of  English  parents 
at  Paris.  France,  Mar.  5,  1817  ;  spent  several  years  of  his 
youth  in  Florence,  Italy,  and  commenced  the  study  of  law 
in  England.     In  1839  ho  undertook  a  course  of  Eastern 
travel   extending  over  several   years,    chictly   within    the 
Turkish  empire;  learned  Persian  and  Arabic;  was  for  a 
time  correspondent  at  Constantinople  for  a  London  paper ; 
spent  many  months  in  1842  in  cxidoring  the  antiquities  of 
Susa  and  S.  W.  Persia ;  and  passing  through  Mosul,  became 
deeply  intereslcd  in  the  cxcavalions  then  being  made  by 
the  French  consul,  M.  Botta,  at  Khorsabad,  the  supposed 
site  of  Nineveh.     After  consultations  at  Conslanlinople, 
the  British  minister.  Sir  Stratfonl  (fuming,  ofl"ered  to  as- 
sume a  portion  of  the  expenses  of  similar  excavations,  and 
Layard,  returning  to  Mosul  in  lS4fi,  began  that  scries  of 
wonderfully  successful  researches  which  lias  made  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  the  richest  Oriental  museum  in  the  world,  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  reconstruction  of  ancient  Orien- 
tal history  by  means  of  the  copious  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
Accounts  of  these  discoveries  were  given  by  Layard  in 
Nhierrh  and  ilt  JlriiiaaiK  (1849).     The  British  government 
in  1849  ajipointcd  him  attache  to  its  legation  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  ho  undertook  for  the  British  Museum  a  second 
series  of  excavations  in  Assyria  and  Chaldea,  which  resulterl 
in   another   Kurk,  Discoveries  ammiij   the  Ruins  of  Ninercli 
and  Itnhiilim  (1863).    lie  also  published  2  vols,  of  engrav- 
ings of  the  Moiiiimrnls  of  A'i„<-r(h  ( 1849-53),  and  a  volume 
of  inscriptions  (1851).  In  18.'i2,  Layard  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament for  Aylesbury,  and  for  a  few  weeks  was  under-see- 
rctary  of  slate  for  foreign  affairs  in  Lord  John  Russell's 
administration.     Ho  was  again  on  duly  in  the  legation  at 
Constantinople  for  a  short  time  in  1853,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  tho  House  of  Commons  in  the  debates  on  Eastern 
questions,  advocating  a  vigorous  policy  against  Russian 
aggression.     He  visited  the  Crimea  in  1854,  witnessed  tho 
battle  of  the  Alma,  and  examined  the  condition  of  the  army, 
concerning  which  he  .soon  afterward  gave  testimony  before 
a  parliamenlary  committee,  the  appointment  of  which  ho 
was  instrumental  in  procuring.     In  1855  he  became  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Administrative  Reform  Association;  was 
chosen   lord  rector  of  Aberdeen    University  in   1855  and 
1S5C;  was  defeated  at  the  election  of  Mar.,  1857;   spent 
some  months  in  India  during  the  great  rebellion  of  1857- 
58;  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Southwark  in  IsfiO,  and 
appointed  by   Lord  Palmerslon  in  July,  1801,  under-sec- 
rctary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  holding  lliat  iiost  until 
the  fall  of  the  Russell  minislry  in  July.  1800.  In  that  year 
ho  became  a  trustee  of  llie  British  Museum  ;  was  chief  com- 
missioner of  works   and   privy  counsellor  in   (lladslono's 
administration  (Dec.,  IS08I  until  in  Nov.,  1809,  ho  accepted 
the  post  of  envoy  at  Madrid,  where  he  slill  remains  (1875), 
having  rendered  im]iorlaiit  services,  both  to  England  and 
incidentally  to  the  U.  S.,  during  the  troubled  period  of  his 
diiiloinatic  life  in  Spain. 

Lay'cock  (Thomas),  M.  D.,  h.  Aug.  10,  1812,  at  Weth- 
erby,  Yorkshire;  was  educated  at  London,  Paris,  and  (!iit- 
tingcn,  where  he  received  degrees  ;  became  professor  of  tbo 
practice  of  physic  and  of  clinical  medicine  at  lOdiiilnirgh 
1855;  physician  to  tho  queen  in  Scotland  1809;  wrote  and 
observed  "much  upon  sanitary  science,  physiology,  mesmer- 
ism, insanity,  etc.  Author  of  7'/ie  AVrroii*  Diseases  uf 
H'omcli  (18411),  J/i'/i(/  mid  Hiitin.  in-  ihf  Vorrrltilions  of  Puil- 
srioiiswss  iind  Oryaniztilioii  (1800;  2d  ed.  1809),  Method) 
of  Mrdioil  Uliser'vitlion,  etc.     D.  Sept.  21,  1870. 

Lay  Days,  a  term  used  in  the  law  of  shipping  to  de- 
note Ihe  days  allowed  to  llie  charlerer  or  freighler  of  a  vessel 
by  Ihe  terms  of  the  cliarler-])arly  for  loading  and  unbiad- 
ii'ig.  For  detaining  Ihc  vessel  during  this  slipulaled  time 
no  expense  is  incurred  by  the  charterer,  but  if  Ibis  lime  is 
exceeded  he  is  obliged  to  pay  lo  Ihe  master  or  owner  a  cer- 
tain sum  for  the  aiblilional  deU-nlion.  the  amount  of  which 
is  usuallv  delermincd  beforehand  by  a  provision  in  tho 
charter  jiarly.  The  sum  to  bo  paid  is  teebnically  termed 
demurrage.  '(See  DEMrniiAGE.)  Lay  days  for  unloading,  as 
a  rule,  commence  when  the  vessel  has  arrived  at  Ihe  usual 
place  for  discharging  the  cargo.  When  such  place  is  a 
dock,  they  commence  when  she  enters  Ihe  iloek,  and  not 
when  she'  reaches  the  wharf.  The  jiarlies  may.  however, 
make  a  special  agreement  as  to  the  time  when  Ihey  shall 
begin.  Sometimes  this  depends  upon  usage.  (See  CiiAiiTiii- 
Paiitv.)  In  the  absence  orcusloni  to  the  contrary,  Sunday 
is  included  in  Ihe  compulalion  of  lay  days  al  Ihe  port  of 
discharge.     (ii:omir,  CiiAsi:.    Revised  nv  T.  W.  Dwibht. 

Lay'cring,  or  LayiiiKi  the  propagation  of  herbaceous 
plains  by  pegging  down  branches  and  covering  ihe  portion 
to  be  rooted  wilh  carlb,  or  of  trees  by  bending  down  a  low 
branch,  )>egging  it  to  Ihe  ground,  and  partly  covering  it 
wilh  earth.  The  covered  part  takes  root,  and  as  soon  as 
the  roots  are  well  devclo|ied  llie  layer  may  be  cut  olV  and 
planted  as  a  new  tree.     It  is  thought  that  a  notch  cul  in 


1688 


LAYNEZ— LEAD. 


the  branch  between  the  trunk  of  the  parent  tree  and  the 
covered  part  favors  the  early  development  uf  the  new  roots. 

Laynez'  (Diego),  b.  in  1512  at  Almazan  iu  Castile: 
studied  at  Alcala  and  Paris:  became  the  general  of  the 
Jesuits  on  the  death  of  Loyola  in  loJ6.  and  d.  at  Home 
Jan.  10.  1505.  He  was  a  man  of  great  natural  gift>",  and 
still  greater  attainments;  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  debates  of  the  Council  of  Trent  and  at  the  ast^embly 
uf  Poissy;  and  left  several  theological  works  in  manu- 
Fcripf.  which,  however,  no  one  has  been  able  to  road  on  ac- 
ci^unt  of  the  bad  han<lwriting.  His  labor  in  tlie  service  of 
the  order  was  very  succospful,  and  his  influence  on  the 
members  was  decisive.  It  is  generally  acknowledged  that 
tlic  peculiar  .spirit  which  characterized  the  Jesuits  issued 
from  Layncz. 

Laz'nristSy  a  body  of  Roman  Catholic  missionary 
priests,  founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  1024.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  College  of  St.  Lazare  at  Paris, 
their  original  house  given  them  in  1():12,  but  their  proper 
title  is  "  Priests  of  the  Mission."  They  are  engaged  in  for- 
eign, and  especially  in  domestic  missions,  and  in  the  teach- 
ing of  theology.  They  are  found  in  most  civilized  and  in 
several  barlmrous  countries,  and  have  fourteen  establish- 
ments in  the  U.  S.,  including  three  colleges. 

Laz^ulite  [Arab.  azul.  "heaven,"  and  Or.  Ai'flos, 
"stone"],  or  Azuritef  a  mineral  composed  of  phosphate 
of  alumina,  magnesia,  and  iron,  and  bearing  some  resem- 
blance in  color  to  lapis-lazuli. 

Lazzaro^ni  [It.  fazzaro,  "a  leper"],  formerly  the  pop- 
ular name  fur  the  lower  classes  of  Naples,  so  called  from 
the  hospital  of  St.  Lazarus,  their  customary  plaee  of  refuge. 
The  name  is  ultimately  derived  from  tiiat  of  the  beggar 
Lazarus  iu  the  parable.  The  lazzaroni  of  Naples  number- 
ed at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  nearly  40,000  per- 
sons, who  had  no  fixed  employment  or  home,  but  were  by 
turns  porters,  boatmen,  or  peddlers,  besides  their  constant 
recourse  to  begging.  From  the  Middle  Ages  they  derived 
the  obligation  to  wear  a  peculiar  dress  of  the  simplest  de- 
scription, were  treated  by  the  government  as  a  separate  class, 
electing  annually  a  chief  called  capo  luzzaro,  and  often 
took  part  in  political  revolutions.  They  upheld  Masaniello 
in  1647,  and  fought  bravely  against  the  French  during  the 
siege  of  Naples  in  1799.  During  the  republican  agitations 
of  the  present  century  they  generally  sided  with  the  Bour- 
bon monarchy.  They  are  no  longer  recognized  as  a  sep- 
arate class,  and  their  condition  has  much  improved  under 
the  governmeut  of  Victor  Emmanuel. 

Lea  (Hrnry  Charles),  son  of  Isaac  Lea,  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia Sept.  19,  lS2o;  early  disjdayed  a  talent  for  science, 
and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  wrote  for  Si//iiniiHn  Jouninl  a 
paper  on  the  salts  of  manganese.  Ho  gave  much  attention 
to  conchology,  publishing  Description  itf  ucw  Species  of 
S/i'l/s,  .and  at  a  later  period  to  the  organization  of  society 
ill  the  Middle  Ages.  He  has  published  a  remarkable  work, 
Siipvrntltion  and  Furce  :  Essays  on  the  Wai/er  uf  Law,  the 
Worjer  of  Battle,  the  Ordeal  and  Torture  (ISGG;  2d  cd. 
1870),  a  Historical  Sketch  of  Srtcerdotal  Celihaei/  in  the 
Christian  Church  (1S67),  a.iid  Studies  in  Church  History: 
The  Rise  of  the  Temporal  Power,  Benefit  of  Clerr/y^  and 
Excommunication  (1869).  Mr.  Lea  early  became  a  member 
of  the  iinportant  publishing-house  of  Lea  A  Illanehard,  of 
which  he  was  long  the  head,  ami  is  now  the  sole  represen- 
tative. Ho  was  prominent  during  the  civil  war  in  organ- 
izing the  system  of  municipal  bounties,  has  written  much 
on  political  subjects,  and  has  been  for  years  engaged  on  a 
work  on  the  history  of  the  Inquisition  with  special  ref- 
erence to  America  (  Mexico  and  Peru). 

Lea  (Isaac),  LL.D.,  b.  of  Quaker  stock  at  Wilmington, 
Del.,  Mar.  4,  1792;  was  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  iu 
liis  early  youth,  and  devoted  his  spare  time  to  the  study 
of  uatur.al  history,  especially  geology,  making  collections 
of  fusriils,  uiinerals,  and  shells  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadel- 
phia. In  1S15  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  and  began  to  coiitriUuto  papers  to  its 
Journal.  From  1S21  to  1851  was  a  partner  with  hisfalher- 
in-law,  Matthew  Carey,  in  what  was  then  the  principal  pub- 
lishing-house in  the  V.  S.,  and  in  1827  commenced  a  re- 
markable series  of  memoirs  upon  fresh- water  nnrl  land 
moUusks,  which  were  continued  for  nearly  fifty  years,  and 
form  the  materials  for  a  great  work  upon  American  I'nion- 
ida)  on  which  he  has  long  been  engaged.  In  1828  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
in  1  s5S,  and  i?  connected  with  the  chief  societies  of  natural 
history  throughout  the  world.  His  private  collection  of 
Uniouidie  is  the  richest  in  existence,  embracing  nearly 
10,000  specimens,  and  his  memoirs,  read  chiefly  before  the 
Philadel]»hia  societies,  number  more  than  150.  ]Io  made 
important  discoveries  of  saurian  remains  in  the  red  sand- 
stones of  Pennsylvania  below  the  coal-measuret,  published 


Contrihutionn  to  Qeolngy  (1S33),  Fossil  Footmarks  in  the 
Bed  Sandstones  of  Potteviilc  (folio,  with  colored  plates, 
185.'!).  and,  besides  other  works,  collected  into  13  vols. 
(1827-73)  his  miscellaneous  papers  with  the  title  Observa- 
tions on  the  (Senus  Vnio. 

Lea  (Matthew  Carey),  b.  in  Philadelphia  in  1823, son 
of  Isaac  Lea  ;  studied  chemistry  under  Prof.  James  13ooth; 
has  printed  in  the  Am.  Jour,  of  Science  many  analyses  of 
minerals  and  chemical  compounds;  has  given  special  at- 
tention to  photography,  and  published  on  it  an  important 
work,  ^1  iManual  of  P/toto(/nijjhi/  (186Sj  2d  cd.  1871). 

Lea  (TuoMAS  Gibson),  b.  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  Dec.  14, 
1785,  a  brother  of  Isaac  Lea.  His  Catalof/ur  of  Plants 
Collected  near  Cincinnati,  0.>  was  published  iu  1849  by  the 
late  Dr.  W.  S.  Sullivant.     D.  Sept.  25,  1844. 

Leach  {Wii.mam  Elford),  b.  at  Plymouth,  England, 
in  1790:  became  in  1809  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Abernethy  at  St, 
Bartholomew's  Hospital ;  became  an  enthusiastic  investiga- 
tor in  zoology  and  curator  of  the  natural  history  depart- 
ment of  the  British  Museum.  In  his  work  on  Crustaceohifjif 
(1813)  he  was  the  first  to  separate  the  Insccta  of  Linnaeus 
into  Mi/viopoda,  Araehnida,  Insecta,  and  Crustacea;  he 
published  a  Zoolofjical  Miscellany  (3  vols.,  1814-17),  and 
commenced  a  J/istory  of  the  British  Crustacea,  of  which  17 
parts  aj>ptarcd.  wheu  an  affection  of  the  eyes  forced  him  to 
resign  the  curatorship.  and  abandon  iu  great  degree  hla 
favorite  studies.  D.  at  San  Sebastiano,  Piedmont,  Aug; 
25,  1836. 

Lea'cock,  post-tp.  of  Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  7  miles  E.of 
Lancaster.     Pop.  1900. 

Lead  [Ang.-Sax.],  a  plummet  used  on  shipboard  for 
taking  soundings  or  measurements  of  the  depth  of  the  sea. 
The  ordinary  lead  is  attached  to  a  line  of  twenty  fathoms  ; 
the  deep-sea  lead  weighs  some  twenty-five  pounds  and  has 
a  much  longer  line.  (For  improved  methods  of  deep-sea 
measurements  see  art.  DEEr-SEA  SorNniNCS,  by  Prof.  W. 
P.  TROwBRinr.E,  A.  M.) 

Lead  [(ler.  Blei;  ¥r.  plomh;  Saxon,  lo'd;  Dutch. /oorf, 
also  meaning  a  "  ball "  (suggesting  '•load,"  as  of  a  gun); 
Lat.  plumbum,  also  Satumum  :  to  the  modern  word  is  as- 
signed a  kindred  with  "  clod  "  and  "clot  "].  Lead  is  one 
of  the  metals  mentioned  iu  the  book  of  Job,  and  known 
therefore  in  the  earliest  times.  In  Numbers,  also,  among 
the  spoils  of  the  Midianites,  lead  occurs.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  Solomon's  verse  iu  Proverbs  —  "Burn- 
ing lips  and  a  wicked  heart  are  like  a  jiotsherd  covered 
with  silver  dross" — refers  to  the  glazing  of  pottery  with 
litharge  made  from  lead.  In  the  hanging  gardens  of  Baby- 
lon lead  existed  largely  as  a  building  material. 

1.  Occurrence  in  Xature. — Lead  is  known  in  nature  as  a 
constituent  only  of  solid  rocks  and  soils.  It  has  not  been 
discovered  in  mineral  waters  or  in  the  ocean,  nor  in  veg- 
etable or  healthy  animal  bodies.  On  life  it  acts  as  a  poison. 
Its  ores  arc  numerous.  It  is  found  as  sulphide,  chloride, 
and  iodide,  as  oxides  and  oxychlorides,  selenides  and  tellu- 
ridcs,  as  sulphate,  carbonate,  chromate,  phosphate,  molyb- 
date,  vanadate,  tungstate.  Its  commonest  metallic  chcm- 
iral  associates  are  silver,  <jold,  antimony,  and  arsenic. 
Though  in  its  veins  in  the  rocks  it  is  commonly  found 
associated  with  iron  and  copper  sulphides  and  other  com- 
pounds, yet  it  is  almost  never  found  crystallized  together 
in  the  same  mineral  species  with  these  two  latter  metals. 

A'atirc  Lead. — Metallic  lead,  as  a  mineral,  has  been  re- 
ported at  many  localities,  widely  distributed  over  the  earth, 
but  occurs  in  such  minute  quantities  that  it  is  one  of  the 
rarest  of  all  minerals,  and  difficult  to  find  in  mineral  col- 
lections. Though  other  native  metals,  such  as  gold,  silver, 
platinum,  mercury  (and  copper,  in  a  smaller  degree),  have 
a  great  tendency  to  alloy  with  lead,  yet  there  are  scarcely 
any  well-ascertained  cases,  among  the  great  number  of  an- 
alyses of  these  native  metals  on  record,  of  the  detection  of 
the  slightest  traces  of  lead.  This  alone  is  proof  positive 
that  these  native  metals  have  not  been  formed  by  igneous 
processes,  but  rather  by  chemical  precijiitation  at  temper- 
atures below  that  of  the  fusion  of  lead  and  its  alloys.  This 
argument  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  of  the  common  na- 
tural association  of  silver  and  gold  with  lead  in  its  ores, 
especially  in  galena.  Two  localities  of  metallic  lead  in 
minute  quantities  on  the  American  continent  are  a  point 
in  the  country  immediately  N.  of  Lake  Superior,  called  Dog 
Lake,  where  Prof.  Chapman  of  Toronto  recognized  it  form- 
ing a  small  string  iu  white  quartz;  and  in  an  argentiferous 
galena  of  the  Zomelahuacan  district  of  Vera  Cruz  in  Mexico. 

2.  .Metallurgy  of  Lead. — In  the  consideration  of  the  ex- 
traction of  lead  from  its  ores,  by  far  the  most  important 
ore  is  galena,  from  which  very  nearly  all  our  lead  comes. 
(Jalena,  or  galcnitc  (the  word  being  the  Greek  yaA^iTj. 
"serenitv,"  from  imaginary  medieinal  virtues  early  attrib- 
uted to  i't),  is  Hulphidc  of  had,  PbS,  and  is  the  only  known 


LEAD. 


1689 


compoun<l  of  this  metal  with  sulphur,  conliiinin^j:  sO.O  per 
cent,  of  louii  and  13.  l  of  fititphur.  There  iirt."  few  metallic 
orc3  moro  easily  and  simply  reducible  to  the  metallic  or 
"rcgulus  "  form  than  coiuiiiun  galena,  and  hence,  no  doubt, 
the  very  ancient  knowledge  of  lead  possfssed  by  man.  Sim- 
ple roastinj;  of  galena  in  an  ordinary  fire  will  drive  off  tbo 
sulphur  and  furnish  melted  lead.  Xevertbeless,  as  lead  is 
a  mctul  required  by  man  in  enormous  quantities*  extreme 
economy  is  needed  in  its  metallurgical  manipulation,  and 
hence  this  branch  of  technology  is  practically  by  no  means 
80  simple  and  obvious  a  business  a.-^  might  be  supposed. 

Lead-smelling  furnaces  arc  of  two  classes,  revcrbcr- 
atory  and  blast  furnaces,  corresponding  to  two  very  differ- 
ent modes  uf  smelting.  We  shall  speak  first  of  the  opera- 
tion with  the  nterberatori/ /iiniacc. 

It  has  been  stated  that  simjjle  roasting  eliminates  metal- 
lic lead  from  galena.  It  has  been  no  unusual  occurrence, 
indeed,  in  the  early  history  of  different  countries,  and  par- 
ticularly so  in  America,  for  hunters  and  pioneers,  ami  even 
for  the  aborigines  after  instruction  by  the  former  class,  to 
procure  their  bullets  by  smelting  down  galena  broken  by 
themselves  from  the  rocks.  Some  mines  of  this  metal  are 
said  to  owe  their  discovery  to  this  need  on  the  part  of  the 
primitive  explorers.  The  ability  to  aeeoniplit^h  the  rr duc- 
tion  30  simply  proceeds  from  the  following  chemical  facts. 
The  first  effect  of  a  preliminary  roasting  upon  sulphide  of 
lead — in  a  revcrberatory  space,  for  instance — at  a  compar- 
atively low  heat,  for  about  two  hours,  is  to  oxidize  portions 
of  the  ma-^s  into  both  oxide  of  Iea<I  and  sulphate  of  lead. 
On  then  raising  the  heat  for  about  half  an  hour  to  a  bright 
red,  the  following  reactions  take  place: 

PbS  +  2PbO  =  ;jPh  +  SO2.  and 
PbS+  PbSO*  =  l'Pb-l-  :iS02. 
the  products  in  each  case  being  simply  metallic  lead  and 
sulphurous  acid  gas.  This  is  a  general  description  of  the 
most  essential  steps  in  the  simplest  kind  of  lead-smelting, 
which  requires,  however,  many  further  precautions  and 
operations,  to  detail  which  would  carry  us  ti»o  far.  Tlieso 
two  successive  steps  of  oxidizing-roasting  an<l  smelting 
are  sometimes  conducted  in  separate  furnaces.  In  the  case 
of  argentiferous  galenas,  when  their  learl  is  to  he  subse- 
quently treated  to  separate  the  et'ivcr  it  carries  with  it  fseo 
Sii,VKit),  much  more  knowledge  and  skill  than  are  usually 
exercised  in  the  smelting  operation  arc  called  for  to  avert 
loss  of  silver  by  volatilization.  It  appears  to  have  been 
proved  by  chemists  that  certain  chemical  reactions  occur 
in  the  mass,  accompanied  jirobably  by  intense  temperature 
loc'tfli/,  which  cause  much  loss  of  silver  unless  the  heat  bo 
regulated  carefully,  and  not  continued  unnecessarily  long. 
The  subject  is,  however,  not  well  understood.  In  another 
pro:;ess,  in  use  in  France,  metallic  innt  is  employed  with 
ores  containing  much  quartz  to  reduce  tbo  lead,  and  pre- 
vent its  ln'ing  converted  into  a  fusible  silicate,  which  wiuild 
be  diflicult  or  impossible  to  reduce.  Tho  ciiarge  of  I  ho  fur- 
nace is  KtlO  pounds  of  the  silieious  ore,  with  frcnn  L'llU  to  210 
pounds  of  scrap  iron,  excluding  cast  iron,  which  is  less 
suitable  in  this  case. 

Lertd-smrltiufi  loitk  a  fflant. — This  ia  accomplished  in  two 
classes  of  apparatus — the  **  cupola  furimcc"  and  the  "ore- 
hearth."  The  cupola  is  tho  apparatus  most  used  through- 
out the  continent  of  Europi',  being  ada]>tablo  to  poorer  ores, 
while  the  simple  ore-hearths  are  adaptc<l  only  for  very  clean 
and  pure  gale?ias,  producing  at  the  same  time,  however,  tho  j 
purest  and  softest  lead,  which  brings  tho  highest  prices. 
The  smelting  with  a  blast  in  a  cupola  furnace  is  sometimes 
practised  upon  the  raw  ore — as  by  what  is  called  tho  Site- 
9tnH  process — in  which  case  waste  metallic  iron  is  emi)loyed, 
OS  in  the  French  method  above,  to  tako  up  the  sulphur  of 
tho  galena.  Six  parts  of  galena  require  one  part  of  cast- 
iron  scraji :  and  to  Hux  out  the  silica,  etc.  of  tbo  ore,  about 
H  parts  tt(  foi-fje  rimhr,  a  highly  basic  fusible  silicate  of 
iron,  are  added.  This  mixture  an<I  coal  in  equal  parts  arc 
thrown  separately  into  tho  ton  of  tho  furnace.  The  lead 
fusfs  down  into  a  cavity  in  the  hearth  IhIow  the  tuyere. 
and  a  mutt  is  also  formed  of  mixed  sulphidi -i  of  lead  and 
iron  (usually  with  silver  also),  which  retiuircs  subsequent 
Rp]iara*e  treatment.  The  action  of  tho  fusible  lead-slags  on 
the  walls  of  tho  furnace  is  terribly  destructive,  and  a  fur- 
nace will  run  but  about  eitjht  ilnyit  before  requiring  a  new 
lining. 

The  commonest  practice  in  Prussia,  Sweden,  France,  and 
Belgium  is  to  roast  out  the  sulphur  from  tho  ore  before 
smelting  with  a  blast.  In  Prussia  a  large  part  of  the  sul- 
phur is  even  saved  in  this  operation,  by  forming  cavities  in 
the  upper  parts  of  tho  heaps  of  ore  and  w<mh1,  in  which  it 
condenses.  Tho  expense  of  the  roasting  operati(»n  is  thus 
nearly  covered.  Such  roasted  ore  is  then  fluxed  in  tho 
blast  furnace  with  silicious  slags  from  previous  operations. 
A  matt  is  the  product,  which  goes  through  subsequent  com- 
plex operations  to  separate  the  copper,  lead,  and  silver  it  is 
liable  to  contain. 


Ore-hearths  are  much  more  primitive  contrivances,  used 
where  ore  is  pure  and  abuuilant,  and  economy  of  the  same 
less  important  than  cheapness  of  plant  and  saving  of  lal)or. 
Without  cuts  but  an  imperfect  idea  can  be  conveyed.  For 
tho  *■  Scotch  hearth"  the  ore  is  now  usually  roasteil.  though 
formerly  worked  raw.  This  is  a  very  simple  opparatus — lit- 
tle more  than  a  rectangular  chamber,  with  opening  in  front 
and  tuyere  entering  at  the  rear.  The  lead  drains  off  through 
a  channel  in  front.  In  tho  case  of  the  "American  hearth" 
— which  has  been  used,  among  other  places,  at  Kossic  in 
St.  Lawrence  co.,  X.  Y. — the  hearth  is  sometimes  surround- 
ed with  a  hollow  iron  casing,  through  which  the  blast  passes 
on  its  way  to  the  tuyere,  thus  attaining  a  high  temperature. 
(Jreat  rapidity  and  eheajmess  of  working  arc  thus  attained. 
Even  this  simple  apparatus  of  the  ore-hearth  requires  much 
special  skill  and  many  precautions  in  its  management  on 
tho  part  of  the  workmen,  which  cannot  Ipc  entered  into  here. 

Fumes  from  Lend-Hinrlthuj. —  In  all  furnace  operations 
with  lead  much  smoko  and  fume  result,  cliietly  mechanical, 
but  partly  through  volatili/.ation.  Some  compounds  of  lead 
— pre-eminently  the  chloride  of  lead — are  very  volatile  at 
high  temperatures.  Even  metallic  lead  volatilizes  rapidly  at 
a  high  reil  heat,  and  boils  at  a  white  heat.  If  any  commnn 
salt  or  chlorides  are  present,  great  loss  may  result  in  the 
furnace.  In  all  cases  where  economy  is  an  object  measures 
must  bo  taken  to  catch  and  save  the  fumes.  The  condens- 
ing flues  or  chambers  through  which  the  draft  or  blast  is 
caused  to  pass  have  sometimes  an  immense  length.  In  one 
case  in  England  a  flue  Jh-r.  miles  hnuj  and  eight  feet  wide 
by  six  feet  high  saved  ./(/'//  thousand  didlurn  worth  of  lead 
per  annum.  Other  arrangements  are  chambers  furnished 
with  filters  of  pebbles  kept  eonstanlly  wet  with  running 
water,  through  which  a  powerful  blower  forces  the  fumes. 
JJy  means  of  exhausters  in  other  plans  the  fumes  are  drawn 
through  a  series  of  water-seals  under  diaphragms  which 
dip  thereinto.  Dr.  Thomas  Richardson,  one  of  the  most 
diatinguishcfl  of  the  liritish  metallurgists,  relates  that  the 
]iurii)cation  of  lead-furnace  gases  by  this  latter  jdiui  was 
so  complete  that  he  icatlccd  through  the  exit-jUm  without 
perceiving  any  fume — an  experiment  which  should  not  be 
rashly  emulated. 

Jirjiniuif  of  Lcfid. — Two  metallurgical  operations  coming 
under  this  hea<l  are  of  esjiecial  interest  and  importance — 
tho  extraction  of  tho  silver  often  contained  in  it,  and  the 
converting  of  hard  into  soft  lead.  The  former  subject  will 
be  treated  of  under  SrLVr.ii.  Hardness  in  lead  is  due  to 
several  causes,  presence  of  antimoni/  being  the  commonest. 
Exposure  of  tho  Icacl  in  a  fused  state  on  the  liearlh  of  a 
furnace  to  continued  currents  of  air  over  its  surface  will 
gradually  remove  tho  antimony  and  other  metallic  imjiu- 
ritics,  and  yield  a  soft  or  softer  lead.  Such  a  hearth,  it  is 
found,  must  have  an  impervious  mefallic  lining,  as  other- 
wise tho  very  fluid  alloy  will  leak  through  like  water  and 
bo  lost.  This  operation  is  stateil  to  be  carried  on  on  an 
enormous  scale  in  England,  on  hard,  antinionifcrous  Sjian- 
ish  lead.  Chinese  tcn-chist  f<<td  is  one  of  the  hard  alloys 
(with  tin)  that  is  thus  susceptible  of  being  relhied,  yielding 
over  7J  per  cent,  of  soft  refined  lead,  tin  being  separated 
by  this  method  as  easily  as  antimony.  Tlie  dross  that 
forms  in  this  jirocess,  containing  UMially  lead  wilh  tin  or 
antimony,  is  utilized  best,  according  to  Richardson,  by 
treating  it  with  acetic  acid,  whicli  converts  the  lead  into 
commercially  valuable  acetate,  and  the  residue  on  smelting 
yields  good  antimony  or  tin. 

.*{.  Chrmirnl  CmiHtitiitinii  aud  Proprrtica. — Lead  is  one 
of  tho  softer  and  more  plastic  and  sectile  of  the  metals,  be- 
ing only  approached  in  thtse  respects,  among  tlie  nietals 
in  common  use,  by  pun-  gold.  Color,  wiicn  fresh  cut,  blu- 
ish-gray, with  beautiful  lustre,  hut  a  dull  film  of  an  oxy- 
gen-compound quickly  forms  over  the  surface.  The  mal- 
leability of  lead  is  great,  and  its  ductility  also,  but  its 
tenacity  is  so  small  that  it  is  drawn  into  fine  wire  with 
great  diflieulty.  It  has  so  little  strength  that  a  wire  one- 
twelfth  of  an  ijieh  in  diameter  breaks  with  a  weight  of  20 
poun'Is.  It  mells  at  about  G;!i'»°  F..  beginning  to  soften 
an<i  become  |>asty,  however,  at  about  r»17°.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  certainly  somewhat  variable,  being  but  11.07  by 
the  hnvest  determination  of  Playfair  and  Joule,  and  ll.llj 
by  the  highest  figure  given,  attributed  to  no  less  an  au- 
thority than  the  great  itrrzelins;  and  for  diemieally  iiure 
lead  llerapalh  gives  I1.H.'»2.  and  Karsten  ll.itSSS.  It  is 
probably  ininprrHnifdt;  to  some  degree,  wlucli  may  account 
in  part  for  the  diverse  densities.  Pliiyfair  and  Joule  found 
its  density  in  mrltrd  form  t(»  bo  ln..*)fi;t.  lis  crystals  are 
isometrie.  Fresh-cut  lead  does  not  tarnish  in  ]jerfeelly 
dry  air,  nor  in  j)ure  water  entirely  free  from  dissolved  oxy- 
gen, showing  that  the  tarnish  is  due  to  conjoint  action  of 
oxygen  and  water.  If  exposed  to  both  water  and  air,  or 
immersed  in  pnrv  water  exposed  totlii'  free  air,  it  is  rapidly 
corroded,  and  a  ]>ortion  fllnK-tlvrH,  If  the  water  contains 
carbonic  acid  or  carbonates,  however,  or,  according  to  some, 


1G90 


LEAD. 


also  sulphates  and  phosphates,  there  is  formed  over  the 
metal  a  tiliu  of  an  insoluble  salt  of  lead,  which  retards  fur- 
ther action.  A?  these  insoluble  compounds,  particularly 
the  carbonate  of  lead,  are  somewhat  soluble  in  water  con- 
taininc^  free  earbonin  acid,  some  slow  action  often  still  con- 
tinues, and  no  prudent  person  will  venture  to  use  hahitu- 
allv.  for  drinkin;;  or  cooking  purposes,  water  that  has  stood 
for  any  appreciable  time  in  leaden  pipes  or  tanks,  or  even 
in  a  well  or  cistern  into  which  a  leaden  pipe  has  been  in- 
serted for  connection  with  a  pump — a  practice  extremely 
common  with  [ilumbers.  Waters  containing  nitrnfcH,  not 
uncommon  in  well-waters,  are  believed  to  dissolve  lead 
with  especial  rajjidity. 

4.  Uses  uf  Lend. — In  metallic  form  lead  is  used  for  many 
purposes  too  familiar  to  need  enumeration.  The  principal 
compounds  of  lead  that  have  known  uses  are  litharge,  the 
protoxide;  miutiim,  or  red  lead,  the  three-four  oxide;  the 
carbonate,  or  irhitf  Itaif;  the  nitrate,  chromate,  and  acetate 
of  lead,  all  of  which  will  be  referred  to  again  :  and  the  sev- 
eral alloys  with  other  metals,  which  will  be  treated  of  first. 

5.  Aiiin/H  i,f  Lrnd. — Few  metals  form  alloys  so  easily 
and  in  such  number  as  lead  ;  and  to  this  fact,  together  with 
tlie  great  cheapness  of  this  metal,  is  due  to  a  large  extent 
its  high  v.alue  to  the  human  race.  In  an  alloy  may  fre- 
quently be  combined  the  chemical  and  physical  properties 
of  each  of  its  metallic  constituents,  and  the  cheap  metal, 
lead,  may  thus,  to  a  very  important  extent,  be  endowed 
with  strength,  hardness,  whiteness,  brilliancy,  and  resist- 
ance to  oxidation,  while  retaining  its  easy  fusibility,  and 
even  gaining  in  this  latter  respect.  Lead  alloys  readily, 
permanently,  and  in  various  proportions  with  the  metals 
j)otnssiuni,  s(>fllum,  arsenic,  antimnni/.  tfUnrium,  hinmitth,  tiu, 
cndminin,  manrjnneac,  mercurif,  silver,  f/ofd,  pfatinitni,  jtal/fi- 
diiim,  and  iridium,  but  apparently  not  easily  or  readily 
with  alnminnm,  iron,  cobalt,  nickel,  znir,  and  copper.  With 
some  of  these  latter  metals  it  may  be  mixed  mechanically 
when  both  arc  in  fusion,  but  on  standing  more  or  less  sepa- 
ration, sometimes  nearly  complete — as  in  the  case  of  lead 
and  zinc,  for  example — will  be  found  to  occur,  owing  to 
differences  of  density.  The  alloys  of  lead  will  be  taken  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  above  enumerated, 

Affot/s  tritlt  Potassium  and  Sodium. — The  salts  of  potash 
and  soda  with  organic  acids,  if  fused  with  litharge,  yield 
these  alloys.  Scrulla?  prescribes  for  the  lead-sodium  alloy, 
to  fuse  together  at  a  high  temperature  lOU  parts  of  litharge 
and  60  parts  of  cream  of  tartar.  Two  parts  of  sodium  to 
one  of  lead  give  ij.  brittle  alloy,  but  with  less  sodium  the 
compound  is  malleable.  The  curious  classes  of  organic 
compounds  containing  lead,  ethylides,  methylides,  and 
amylides  of  lead,  are  prepared  with  the  help  of  the  lead- 
sodium  alloy. 

With  Arnriiic. — This  alloy  is  white,  brittle,  and  crystal- 
line, and  very  fusible.  It  is  of  practiejil  interest  in  connec- 
tion with  the  manufaeture  of  lead  nhnt,  which  are  formed 
of  a  true  alloy  of  lead  with  metallic  arsenic,  containing 
some  2  per  cent,  of  the  latter,  held  by  the  shot-manufac- 
turers to  be  absolutely  essential  to  success  in  the  manufac- 
ture. 

With  Antimoutj. — Here  we  have  alloys  of  eminent  im- 
portance, tifpe-mrfal  being  the  chief.  The  alloys  of  these 
two  metals  are  harder  and  more  fusible  than  either  metal, 
while  endoweil  with  peculiar  qualities  adapting  them  for 
making  tine  and  sharp  castings.  Common  ty])e-metal  con- 
tains 17  per  cent,  of  antimony,  the  remainder  being  lead, 
sometimes  with  a  little  zinc.  Common  sterenty]>e  metal 
varies  from  these  proportions  within  small  limits,  some- 
times a  little  tin  being  added.  Music  plates  are  chiefly  tin, 
Ijcing  about  fiO  per  cent,  of  this  metal  to  ^b  of  lead  and  5 
of  antimony.  Some  of  the  various  alloys  used  for  ma- 
chinery-bearings, called  ■*  Babbit  metal''  and  the  like,  con- 
tain lead  and  antimony.  Emery-wheels,  in  Europe  at 
least,  are  made  of  an  alloy  of  lead  and  antimony  mixed 
with  emery.  A  large  proportion  of  this  brittle  metal,  an- 
timony, even  75  per  cent.,  may  be  added  to  lead  without 
making  the  mass  brittle,  great  whiteness,  hardness,  and 
capacity  for  polish  being  thus  attained.  Keys  of  musical 
instruments,  »uch  as  flutes,  etc.,  are  made  of  such  au  alloy, 
containing  two-thirds  of  antimony. 

With  Tellurium.' — With  this  metal,  and  with  its  related 
metalloid  selenium,  lead  forms  definite  crystallized  com- 
pounds, occurring  in  nature  as  crystallized  mineral  spe- 
cies. Altttitc  is  the  telluride  of  lead;  clmiathalite,  zorgitCf 
and  h hrhachite  are  selenides  of  lead. 

With  Uismnth. — Malleable  alloys  when  the  bismuth  is 
small,  but  when  equal  to  the  lead  they  become  brittle. 
The  most  useful  alloy  with  bismuth  is  one  also  containing 
antimony,  70  of  lead,  15  of  antimony,  and  15  of  bismuth, 
which  expands  on  solidifying,  and  hence  has  been  used  for 
stereotype  metal,  but  from  the  present  high  price  of  bis- 
muth is  costly. 

With  Tin,  etc, — Here  we  have  some  of  the  most  valuable 


alloys  of  lead,  including  hard  and  soft  solders,  pcictcr,  and 
with  bismuth  also  the  common /((*i'6/e  allinjs.  Three  gradi  s 
of  solder  are  in  common  use  :  common  solder,  of  equal  parts 
of  tin  and  lead :  fine  solder,  of  2  parts  of  tin  to  I  of  lead  ; 
and  a  cheaper  article,  of  2  of  lead  to  I  of  tin.  The  follow- 
ing figures  arc  the  fusing-points  of  the  different  alloys,  in 
Fahrenheit  degrees: 


Tin  1  to  lead 

"    1  "     "     


..25, 
.10, 
.  5, 
..  3, 
..  2, 
..  1, 


558° 
541° 

511° 
482° 
441° 
370° 


Tin  It  to  lead 1, 

1, 

1, 

I, 

1, 

1, 


.334*' 
34  0« 
35GO 

305° 

38 1"^ 
The  follow- 


Common  pewter  contains  4  of  lead  to  1  of  tin. 
ing  are  the  best-known  fusible  alloys : 

Lead.  Bfsmiill).  TIo.  Fuses. 

Homberg's  alloy 1         1         1         2o2°  F. 

Krafffs  ''     2         5         1         220°  F. 

Xewton's        "     5         S         3         202°  F. 

Rose's  "     1         2         1         201°  F. 

The  last  two  will  of  course  melt  in  boiling  water.  These 
fusible  alloys  are  of  great  value  in  taking  anatomical  casts 
and  impressions  of  delicate  and  combustible  objects,  or 
tliose  which  will  not  stand  a  heat  above  the  boiling-point. 
By  adding  mercury,  their  fusing-points  may  be  lowered 
still  further.  Such  an  alloy  with  mercury  will  adhere  to 
glass,  and  is  much  used  for  coating  the  interior  of  glass 
globes,  tubes,  etc.  The  alloy  called  in  England  Qtt*ena 
metal  contains  of  antimony,  lead,  and  bismuth  I  part  each 
with  9  parts  of  tin.  Teapots,  spoons,  etc.  are  made  of  it. 
With  Codinium,  fusible  alloys  of  tin  and  lead  similar  to 
those  with  bismuth  may  be  made,  which  fuse  at  even  lower 
temperatures  still.  This  facr  was  discovered  by  an  Amer- 
ican chemist  named  Wood.    (See  Fusible  Metal.) 

With  Silver,  (jold,  Platinum,  etc. — Lead  has  a  great  affin- 
ity for  the  noble  metals.  It  is  stated  that  if  a  thin  sheet 
of  one  of  these  metals  be  held  horizontally,  and  a  drop  of 
melted  lead  be  let  fall  on  it,  it  will  make  a  perforation  and 
pass  through,  in  consequence  of  the  great  fusibility  <d'  the 
alloys  formed.  In  the  process  of  assaying,  when  litharge 
is  reduced  to  metallic  lead  in  admixture  with  an  ore  of  gold 
or  silver  for  subsequent  cupellation,  the  lead  takes  into  al- 
loy with  itself  every  trace  present  of  the  precious  metals, 
the  success  of  assaying  as  an  art  being  dependent  on  tho 
completeness  of  this  corabiuation.  In  the  chemical  labor- 
atory, if  any  substance  containing  lead  is  incautiously 
heated  in  a  ])Iatinum  or  silver  crucible  or  other  vessel,  a 
perforation  is  the  certain  consequence. 

6.  The  Useful  Compounds  of  Lead. — Litharge,  PbO.  the 
protoxide  of  lead,  also  called  massicot.  This  is  chiefly  a 
product  of  a  special  cupellation  of  metallic  lead,  carried  on 
for  the  |>urpose  of  its  manufacture.  iSome  of  it  is  ?ent  to 
market  in  scaly  or  flaky  form,  as  it  cools  quickly  from  fu- 
sion :  but  the  more  compact,  lumpy  portions  are  ground  and 
constitute  levigated  litharge.  The  color  of  the  scales  is 
sometimes  yellow  and  sometimes  reddish,  but  there  has  not 
been  found  any  chemical  difference  between  the  two  varie- 
ties. Protoxide  of  lead  is  also  obtainable ^y  igniting  the 
nitrate,  carbonate,  or  oxalate  of  lead.  Its  density  is  about 
H.l.'i.  It  is  dimorphous,  crystallizing  in  tho  regular  system 
as  cubes  and  dodecahedra,  and  also  in  the  trimetric  system. 
Minium,  lied  Lead,  the  ."5-4  oxide,  I'l-iC^.  This  is  a  fine- 
colored  red  substance,  familiar  to  all  from  being  used  ex- 
tensively as  a  pigment  and  for  coloring  paper.  It  is  poi- 
sonous, of  course,  and  should  therefore  be  employed  and 
handled  far  more  circumspectly  than  is  customary.  Min- 
ium occurs  as  a  native  mineral  in  many  European  localities, 
and  in  one  known  phice  in  America — Austin's  mine,  Wythe 
CO.,  Va.  It  is  a  product  uf  the  continued  action  of  a  low 
red  hciit  upon  litharge  while  cxjupsed  to  the  air.  Its  den- 
sity when  pure  is  about  8.8.  Besides  its  use  as  a  pigment, 
etc.,  it  is  employed  as  one  of  the  most  important  materials 
in  the  manufacture  of  lead  or  flint  glass.  White  Lead, 
Carbonate  of  Lead,  Ceruse. — This  highly  important  com- 
pound, PbO.COj,  is  found  native,  sometimes  in  very  beau- 
tiful transparent  crystals,  as  the  mineral  ecrussitc.  There 
are  several  American  localities  of  fine  varieties — at  Thoe- 
nixvillc.  Pa. ;  in  AVythe  eo.,  Va. ;  at  King's  mine.  Davidson 
CO..  N.  C,  and  other  places.  The  crystals  arc  right  rhombic. 
White  lead  is  prepared  commercially  by  two  methods,  the 
older  of  which,  called  the  "  Dutch  process."  is  somewhnt 
curious  and  complex  in  its  character.  Sheet  lead  is  roUcd 
into  loose  rolls,  each  of  which  is  placed  in  an  carthrn  jar 
containing  a  little  vinegar  at  its  bottom,  the  lead  not  touch- 
ing the  vinegar.  These  jars  are  pileil  up  in  alternate  Inyers 
with  some  material  which  is  fermenting  and  evolving  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  spent  tan-bark  being  preferred,  though  for- 
merly stable  manure  was  used  and  thought  essential  to 
success.  A  large  building  is  thus  filled  with  jars  and 
closed.     Basic  acetate  first  forms  on  the  surfaces  of  the 


LEAD. 


1691 


sheets,  which  is  decomposed  by  the  atmosphere  of  carbonic 
acid,  forming  carboimle  and  free  acetic  acid,  which  latter 
then  acts  again  on  tVcsli  portions  of  lead  ;  so  tliat  liut  little 
vinegar  is  needed  to  keep  the  process  g<iing  on  cimtinuoiisly. 
The  heat  of  the  fermentation  helps;  and  in  duo  time,  the 
jars    being  opened,  the  lead  sheets  arc  found  encrusted 
with  white  had,  which  is  beaten  oiT.  ground,  and  washed. 
The  proilui-t  thus  ol)tained  is  deemed  superior  in  "  body, ' 
or  opacity  in  mixture  with  oil,  to  that  ot  any  other  method 
y,t  discovered,  and  brings  therefore  a  higher  price.    Much 
while  lead  is  made,  however,  by  simpler  and  more  speedy 
operations,  as  bv  boiling  solutions  of  the  nitrate  or  acetate 
of  lead  with  litharge,  which  dissolves  to  form  a  basic  salt. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  then  precipitates  a  very  good  quality  of 
white  lead,  not  generally  accepted,  however,  as  equal  in 
bo.ly  to  that  of  the  old  Dutch  process.    The  liquid  drained 
off  from  the  precipitate  is  boiled  again  with  litharge,  and 
so  on.     Niiriite  of'  Lend.— Tilts  is  used  as  a  material  for 
the  preparation  of  the  carbonate  and   chromatcs.  and  is 
therefore,  in  crystallized  form,  a  regular  article  of  commerce. 
Aerlnle  nf  Lend,  Smjar  of  /.<■«</.— This  familiar  article  has 
well-known  uses  in  medicine.     It  is  manufactured  by  dis- 
solving litharge  in  wood-vinegar  or  other  cheap  form  of 
acetic  acid.  It  crvstallizes  very  beautifully,  few  objects  being 
more  beautiful  than  a  mass  of  fresh  crystals  of  acetate  of 
lead;  but  on  exposure  to  the  air  acetic  acid  is  lost,  with 
formation  of  a  basic  acetate,  with  a  little  carbonate  also  in 
time.     Hence  sugar  of  lead  has  an  od.ir  of  acetic  acid,  nnd 
the   transparent  crystals   gradually  fall   down  to  a  white 
powder,  to  disiiolve'which  in  water  requires  an  addition  of 
acetic  acid  to  replace  that  which  has  been  lost.     It  is  from 
this  circumstance  that  the  luirulc.  which  undergoes  no  such 
spontaneous  change,  but   remains  clean   and   uniform,  is 
largely  supplanting  the  acetate  in  commerce  of  later  years. 
CluomiiteH    nf   l.fiid :    Cliromr-Vrlloic    mid   Chrome-Iled. — 
These  arc  two  brilliant  and  valuable  pigments,  chrome- 
yellow  being  especially  so.     The  latter  occurs  naturally  ns 
"an  elegant  crystallized  mineral  called  crocoile.  of  which  an 
American  locality  is  at  Congonhas-do-Campo  in  Brazil.    It 
was  in  crocoite  "that  Vauquelin  first  discovered  the  metal 
rhrnmiiim  in   1791.     Hhriimi-.t/clliiw  is,  however,  prepared 
artificially  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  the  nitrate  of  lead 
with  chro'ma"te  of  jiotash.     The  brilliant  yellow  precijiitatc 
that  falls,  after  thorough  washing  and  drying  at  a  low  heat 
is  ready  for  grinding  with  oil  for  pigmentary  purposes.     If 
the  heat  in  drving  much  exceeds  that  of  boiling  water,  the 
color  will  be  liable  to  injury  from  reducing  action  of  traces 
of    organic    matter    always   present.      In    calico-printing 
chrome-yellow  is  formed  on  the  tissue  itself  by  successive 
application  of  the  above  specified  compounds  of  lead  and 
elir<ime  in  appropriate  ways.     This  color,  however,  does 
not  attach    itself   so  well  "to   silken   and   woollen   fabrics. 
Chrome-yellow  as  a  pigment  is  liable  to  be  much  adulterated 
with  cheaper  substances.     .As  most  of  these  are  insoluble 
in  nitric  acid,  they  may  generally  be  delecleil  by  heating  a 
little  of  the  color  with  diluted  nitric  acid,  which  should  dis- 
solve it  wholly  to  a  clear  yellow  liquid.     C'knimr-red  is  a 
chromalc   containing  twice  as  much  lead  as  the   yellow 
chromatc : 

Chrome-yellow  is PbO,Cr0.v 

Chrome-red        " 2(l'bO),CrOa. 

The  red  pigment  is  produced  from  the  yellow  by  several 
different  mcthoiis— either  by  boiling  with  lime  or  an  alka- 
line .-..luli.>n,  which  takes  out  half  the  acid:  or  by  digesting 
with  levigated  litharge;  or  by  b.iiling  it  with  neutral  yel- 
low chromalc  of  potash,  which  forms  biehromato  of  potash 
with  half  its  acid  :  or  by  fusing  it  with  saltpetre.  Its  color 
i.s  very  fine,  consiilcred  equal  in  tint  to  vermiliim,  but,  like 
all  lead-colors,  it  becomes  dingy  in  the  air  in  time,  through 
the  action  of  sulphur,  forming  black  lead-sulpliiile.  Clirome- 
<ircrn  should  strictly  be  the  green  o.xide  of  chromium,  but 
"most  of  what  passes  uniler  that  name  commercially  at  the 
present  day  is  a  mixture  of  ehroniate  of  lea^l  with  some 
l.lue  pigment — jirussian  blue  or  ultramarine.  -A  dilute  :icid 
will  quickly  distinguish  such  mixtures  from  true  chrouio- 
grccn,  which  latter  should  be  totally  unacted  on. 

llKSiiv  WriiTZ. 

I.cad  [.\ng.-.Sax. ;  Dutch.  I^mdl.  After  iron,  this  is  the 
most  abundant  and  widely  ilistribuled  of  the  metals.  II 
i<  bluish-gray  in  color,  ve"ry  soft  and  ductile,  but  wilhout 
elasticity.  Its  specific  gravity  is  ll.lCi.  It  fuses  at  01',!° 
K.,  and  when  raised  to  a  while  heat  in  the  open  air  it  vola- 
tilizes, burning  with  a  blue  flame  and  leaving  an  oxide 
known  as  litharge.  Its  uses  in  the  arts  are  very  varied, 
such  as  f.ir  ro.ifing,  for  lining  sinks,  cisterns,  etc.,  for  shot 
aiol  balls  f.ir  firearms,  and  for  the  luanufaotnro  of  load 
pipe.  This  lalter  is  formed  by  mechanical  pressure,  the 
softness  of  the  lead  permitting  of  its  being  forced  out  in 
tubes  of  indefinite  length  without  welding.  From  Iho  fa- 
cility with  which  lead  pipes  are  manufaotured,  and  after- 


wards bent,  cut,  and  united,  they  arc  almost  universally 
employed  as  conduits  for  the  distribution  of  water  through 
buildings  in  cities;  and  the  employment  of  lead  in  this 
connection  has  created  the  plumber's  trade,  which  takes  its 
name  from  pliirnhmn.  •'  lead."     Type-metal  is  formed  of  an 
alloy  of  lead  and   antimony,  and  the  alloys  which  go  by 
the  name  of  pewter  or  solder  are  composed  of  lead  and  tin. 
Lead  has  apparently  been  in  use  among  civilized  nations 
from  the  dawn  of  the  historic  period.     Among  barbaric 
races  it  seems  to  have  been  but  little  used,  its  softness  maU- 
in"  it  of  little  value  to  the  savage  man,  whose  only  use  for 
metals  was  for  the  manufa-jture  of  offensive  and  defensive 
weapons  and  for  tools — purposes  served  much  better  by 
bronze  and  iron.    I,ead  is  found  in  all  the  geological  forma- 
tions except  the  igneous  rocks,  and  deposits  of  it  are  known 
to  occur  on  every  considerable  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face.    In  China  lead-mines  have  been  worked  from  remote 
ages,  the  metal  being  there  chiefly  employed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sheet  lead  used  to  line  the  chests  in  which  tea 
is  stored  and  transported.     Among  the  nations  of  West- 
ern Europe  lead  was  a]i|iarently  first  brought  into  general 
use  by  the  Romans,  who  derived  a  large  )iart  of  their  supply 
from  "Spain,  where  the  remains  of  their  smelting- works  are 
still  to  be  seen.     Lead  occurs  as  a  component  element  in 
many  minerals,  but  the  lead  of  commerce  is  almost  exclu- 
sively obtained  from  the  sulphide,  or  galena.    This  consists 
of  lead  86.55,  and  sulphur  !:;.15.  Near  Ihe  outcrops  of  lead- 
deposits  this  ore  is  sometimes  extensively  decomposed  by 
oxidation,  and  the  carbonate  (cerussite)  and  the  phosphate 
(pyromorphite)are  formed  in  such  quantities  as  to  have  an 
economic  value.     The  other  ores  of  lead  which  deserve  to 
be  mentioned  are  hnurniniite,  autimonial  lead  ore;  memcle- 
silf,  the  arseuiale :  atujicaitr.  the  sulphate;  and  craw/ordile, 
the' chloride.     There  are  also  vanadates,  chromatcs,  etc., 
which  have  only  interest  to  the  mineralogist.     Nearly  or 
quite  all  galena  contains  some  silver,  and  often  so  much 
that  it  is  called  argentiferous  galena,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  important  ores  of  Silveu  (which  see).     Lead  occurs 
in  three  distinct  classes  of  deposits — viz.  what  are  known 
as  gash  veins,  segregated  veins,  and  fissure  veins.   Of  those 
the  first  class  is  confined  to  the  sedimentary  rocks,  and  con- 
sists of  fissures  or  crevices  filled  or  lined   with    galena. 
These  arc  generally  vertical,  though  sometimes  horizontal, 
when  the  ore  which  they  contain  is  said  to  form  Jloore. 
Gash  veins  arc  usually  restricted  to  a  single  stratum  of 
limestone,  and  have  apparently  been  produced  by  the  for- 
mation of  cracks  and  joints  by  shrinkage.     These  joints 
have  been  subsequently  enlarged  by  the  solvent  power  of 
atmospheric  water,  which  has    flowed  through  them  and 
filled  or  lined  them  with  galena  deposited  from  a  solution 
issuing  from  the  adjacent  rock.    Segregated  veins  are  sheets 
of  mineral  matter  found  in  nietainorphie  rocks  conforinablo 
to  their  bedding.     Galena  rarely  occurs  in  large  quantities 
in  deposits  of  this  kind.     Those  of  Spain  are  the  only  ones 
known  which  have  economic  value,  and  they  may  perhaps 
belong  to  a  difierent  category.    In  fissure-veins  lead  occurs, 
frequently  in  large  quantities,  associated  with  copper,  silver, 
zinc,  antinionv.  and  many  other  minerals.    It  is  an  imjiort- 
ant  fact  that  iiighly  argentiferous  galena  is  mostly  confined 
to  fissure   veins  traversing  crystalline  rocks.     liy  far  the 
greater  portion  of  the  lead  of  commerce  is  obtained  from 
rocks  of  sedimentary  origin,  especially  the  limestones  of 
the  Silurian  and  Carboniferous  ages.     These  arc  the  cal- 
careous sedimenls  of  nneieni  seas,  the  waters  cd'  which  con- 
tain lead  in  solution,  part  of  which  was  sparsely  distributed 
through  the  materials  that  accumulaled  at  the  bottom.  Sub- 
sequently, it  was  leached  out  and  re.leposited  when  the  sea- 
bottom  was  raised,  hardened  into  limeslone,  and  was  trav- 
ersed by  fissures  which  became  channels  of  drainage.     Do- 
posits  of  this  class  are  typified  by  the  lead-mines  of  Wis- 
consin and  Missouri;  which  will   be  described  in  another 
paragraph. 

Among  the  leail-producing  rations  of  the  globe,  England 
is  the  first.  The  product  of  her  mines  in  I,'<"2  was  (10,150 
tons.  This  was  oblaiiicd  chiefly  fnim  the  Cambrian  and 
Silurian  rocks  of  Wales,  and  from  Ihe  Carboniferous  linic- 
Blones  of  Devonshire,  Cumberland.  Northumberland,  and 
Durham.  The  next  largest  producer  of  lead  is  Spain,  in 
which  the  mines  worked  from  the  remotest  ages  have  been 
recently  reopened  and  largely  multiplied.  The  production 
of  lead  in  Spain  was  at  one  time  over  10,000  tons  per  an- 
num, lint  it  has  now  fallen  to  less  than  half  that  amount. 
The  deposits  ivhicli  have  been  the  most  productive  are  those 
of  the  Sii'rra  Gadnr.  where  Iho  lead  occurs  in  Lower  Silu- 
rian limesloncs,  much  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  Mississippi 
Volley.  The  third  in  the  list  of  lead-iirodiieing  nations  is 
the  V.  .S.,  in  which  the  annual  product  is  from  12.000  to 
l,'>,Oflll  tons.  Though  widely  distributed  throughout  tho 
eountrv.  Iho  mining  of  lea.l  is  now  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  ••  lead-rcgi..n "  of  the  ii|iper  Mississippi 
and  that  of  tho  State  of  Missouri.     Throughout  the  Alio- 


1692 


LEAD. 


gheny  belt  and  the  ractnmorphic  region  of  New  England 
giilcna   occurs    in    nunnTous    localities.     Most   commonly 
it  is  contained   in  segregated  veins,   but  is   occasionally 
found    also    forming    part    of    true    fissure    or    crosiS-cut 
veins.     Nearly  all  the  galena  of  this  region  is  argentifer- 
ou.>J,  but  the  quantity  is  generally  small;  and  with  one  or 
two  oxcoj»tions  all  the  mines  -which  have  been  opened  here 
have  failed  to  be  remunerative.     The  exceptions  referred 
to  are  the  Washington  mine  of  Davidson  c<>.,  N.  C,  and 
thL'  Wheatley  mine,  situated  at  Phfeuixville,  Pa.     In  East- 
ern New  Vork  there  is  a  group  of  lead-mines  which  at  one 
time  produced  large  quantities  of  metal,  but  which  have  of 
late  years  been  abandoned.    These  are  the  Ancram  mine  in 
Columbia  co..  the  mines  near  EllenviUe  in  Ulster  co..  and 
that  at  Rossie.     The  EllenviUe  mines  were  itpened  in  ver- 
tical veins  in  the  Shawangunk  grit  which  lies  at  t!ie  base 
of  the  Upper  Silurian  series  of  rocks.     In  J-Sa^I  the  Ellen- 
viUe mines  yielded  over  half  a  million  pounds  of  lead.    The 
lead-mine  at  Hossie,  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.,  was  at  one 
time  very  productive,  and  famous  not  only  for  its  yield  of 
lead,  but  for  the  beautiful  crystallized  minerals  with  which 
it  was  associated.    It  ceased  to  be  remunerative  some  years 
ago,  and  has  now  been  for  a  long  time  unworked.     The 
lead  occurs  here  in  a  well-defined  vein  cutting  gneiss  rocks. 
It  has  an  average  width  of  about  two  feet,  half  of  which  in 
places  was  solid  galena.     The  vein-stone  is  chiefly  calc- 
sj»ar.     The  mines  of  Phcenixville,  Pa.,  arc  located  in  veins 
which  penetrate  the  gneiss  and  Triassic  sandstones.     Here 
the  lead  is  associated  with  considerable  copper,  and  is  re- 
markable fur  the  occurrence  of  a  large  quantity'  of  phos- 
phate of  load  (pyroraorphite).  which  has  been  extensively 
worked  as  an  ore.     In  East  Tennessee  and  Virginia  con- 
siderable quantities  of  lead  were  produced  in  former  years, 
but  the  mines  in  this  region  have  been  for  some  time  aban- 
doned.    This  has  been  for  the  most  part  due  to  the  abun- 
dant production  of  the  lead-mines  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  hereafter,  when  the 
means  of   transportation  shall  be  improved  and  the  col- 
lateral industries  are  introduced  into  this  region,  the  work- 
ing of  some  of  these  mines  will  be  resumed  with  j)rofit.    In 
Central   Kentucky,  near  Lexington,  a  group  of  lead-veins 
is  found  traversing  the  Lower  Silurian  limestones.     These  i 
are  fissure  veins,  of  which  the  vein-stone  is  chictly  sulphate  i 
of  baryta.     Though  containing  so  much  galena  as  to  con-  | 
vey  the  impression  of  great  richness,  It  is  a  question  whether  ' 
any  of  these  veins  can  be  profitably  worked.     The  lead  of   j 
this  region  is  argentiferous,  and  a  continuous  sheet  one  ' 
inch  in  thickness  would  abundantly  pay  for  mining,  but  it 
is  doubtful  whether  this  quantity  cnn   be  depended   upon 
in  any  vein  yet  opened.     It  is  a  matter  of  no  little  in-  ■ 
terest   in   connection   with   the  Lexington  lead-veins  that 
at  least  one  of  them  was  quite  extensively  worked  by  the  ' 
ancient   inhabitants    of   the   Mississippi    Valley,      (lalena  ' 
seems  to   have  been  highly  prized    by  this    ancient  peo- 
ple, as   it   is  frequently  found  in   their   mounds.      It   is, 
however,  always   in  the  condition  of  the  ore.  and  it    is  : 
doubtful  whether  they  made  any  use  of  the  metal  itself.   ' 
Probably    the    brilliant    ore    was    valued    for   ornamental 
purposes,  as  was  the  mica  of  North  Carolina,  also  mined  , 
by  the  same  people.     The   only  lead-producing   distriotg 
of  the  U.  S.  at   the  present  time  arc  those  of  the  upper  j 
Mississippi  and  the  State  of  Missouri.     Of  these,  the  first 
covers    the   contiguous   angles  of    Wisconsin.    Iowa,    and 
Illinois,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  district  lying  within 
the  first-mentioned  State.     Lead   is    here  found   in   gash   I 
veins,  contained  in  the  Galena  limestone,  a  portion  of  the  1 
Lower  Silurian  system,  and  the  equivalent  in  part  of  the 
Trenton  group  of  New  York.     This  formation  has  been  ex- 
tensively eroded  by  atmospheric  action,  and  forms  broad 
valleys   and  plains,  where  the  soil,  derived  entirely  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rock,  contains  many 
masses  of  galena,  which  in  these  circumstances  is  known 
as  "  float  mineral."    These  scattered  masses  frequently  lead 
to  important  deposits  in  the  rock  itself,  and  thoy  arc  there- 
fore sought  in  the  *•  diggings"  with  which  the  region  is 
dotted  over,  both  for  their  own  sake  and  because  they  so 
often  load  to  something  still  more  valuable.   In  the  (Jaiena 
district  there  are  two  sets  of  fissures  which  traverse  the 
limestone,  and  run,  one  imperfectly  N.  and  S..  the  other 
nearly  nt  right  angles  to  this.  These  fissures  are  sometimes 
as  much  as  500  feet  in  length,  and  they  have  been  known 
to  expand  into  eaves  thirty  or  forty  feet  wide,  ami  of  equal 
or  greater  height.  The  walls  of  these  fissures  are  frequently  I 
lined  with  the  sulphides  of  iron.  lead,  and  zinc,  and  with  ! 
masses  and  crystals  of  calc-spar.     These  sometimes  form 
stalactites  and  incrustations  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  dis- 
tinctly that  they  have    been   deposited  from  solution    in 
water  which  continually  percolates  through  the  soil  and  , 
subjacent  limestone.     Everything  indicates  that  the  lead 
of  this  region  is  indigenous  to  the  Galena  limestone,  as  it  j 
is  restricted  to  it,  and  all  explorations  of  the  underlying  | 


and  overlying  rocks  have  failed  to  detect  any  continu- 
ation of  the  lead-veins  above  or  below.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  deposit  of  lead  in  the  cavities  which  now  contain 
it  is  a  phenomenon  of  comparatively  modern  date,  as  it 
could  only  have  taken  place  when  the  Galena  limestone 
was  raised  above  the  sra-levd.  and  was  traversed  by  a  flow 
of  surface  water  which  drained  through  its  fissures,  and 
more  or  less  completely  filled  them  with  ore.  It  may  be 
even  said  that  the  lead  is  being  deposited  there  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  for  the  bones  of  the  elephant  and  mastodon  have 
been  found  at  the  "diggings."  in  which  the  cavities  were 
filled  with  crystals  of  galena.  Such  being  the  nature  of  the 
deposits  of  the  upper  Mississippi,  it  may  be  predicted  that 
they  will  never  be  worked  over  a  much  larger  area  than 
that  now  covered  by  the  mines,  for  the  twofold  reason — 
that  in  the  district  where  the  Galena  limestone  is  deeply 
buried  it  has  never  served  as  a  channel  through  which  sur- 
face drainage  has  passed,  and  it  is  therefore  probably  with- 
out any  considerable  fissures;  and  even  though  the  Galena 
limestone  should  contain  important  deposits  of  lead  where 
covered  by  the  Hudson  River  group,  its  lead-veins  would 
there  give  no  sign  at  the  surface. 

The  production  of  lead  in  the  Galenadistrict  was  in  1825, 
664.530  pounds.  From  this  date  it  rapidly  increased,  and 
in  1845  it  was  54.494.856  pounds;  since  when  it  has  grad- 
ually, though  somewhat  irregularly,  declined,  and  it  will 
probably  never  again  reach  the  figures  quoted.  The  lead- 
mines  of  Missouri  are  like  in  all  essential  particulars  to 
those  of  Wisconsin,  except  that  the  formation  which  con- 
tains them  is  older — the  equivalent  of  the  Calciferous 
sand-rock  of  New  York — -and  the  fissures  which  contain  the 
lead  arc  somewhat  more  continuous,  giving  more  system 
and  certainty  to  mining  operations.  Among  the  Missouri 
lead-mines  the  '"Mine  La  Motte ''  was  first  worked  150 
years  ago.  and  is  now  valued  at  more  than  $500,000,  al- 
though it  has  at  times  yielded  more  than  1,000,000  pounds 
of  lead  per  annum.  ValK-'s  and  Perry's  mines  in  St.  Fran- 
9ois  CO.  have  been  scarcely  less  productive.  In  these  mines 
the  ore  is  found  in  a  system  of  inosculating  veins,  forming 
a  network  of  which  the  limits  have  not  yet  been  reached. 
The  production  of  the  Missouri  mines  could  apparently  be 
not  only  largely  increased,  but  maintained  at  a  much  higher 
than  the  present  yiehl  for  an  indefinite  period. 

In  the  far  West  lead  occurs  in  a  great  number  of  localities, 
but  has  nowhere  been  the  object  of  special  search  or  min- 
ing enterprises,  as  its  value  is  too  low  to  pay  for  the  neces- 
sarily great  expense  of  mining  and  transportatinn  in  that 
region.  It  is  abundant  in  the  silver  districts  of  Colorado 
and  Utah,  nearly  all  the  silver  ores  there  having  the  cha- 
racter of  argentiferous  galena,  and  their  treatment  being 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  lead  they  contain.  In  Nevada 
and  California  lead  is  comparatively  rare. 

The  ore  from  which  lead  is  almost  always  extracted  fuses  at 
nearly  the  same  temiterature  as  the  metal  itself;  hence  it 
would  seem  that  the  metallurgy  of  lead  would  be  very 
simple  ;  but  the  facility  with  which  it  is  oxidized  and  dis- 
sipated by  heat  makes  it  a  matter  of  no  little  diflieulty  to 
avoid  serious  loss  in  the  process  of  reduction.  The  different 
varieties  of  ore  which  arc  met  with  also  require  very  con- 
siderable diversity  in  their  method  of  treatment.  Where 
the  galena  is  mixed  with  much  silicious  matter  it  has  been 
found  most  profitable  to  smelt  it  in  a  cupola;  but  where  it 
is  purer,  or  the  foreign  matter  it  contains  is  calcareous,  the 
Scotch  hearth  or  some  form  of  reverbcratory  furnace  is  used. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  where  the  ore  contains 
very  little  mineral  matter,  and  the  galena  contains  little 
over  an  ounce  of  silver  to  the  ton.  the  processes  adopted  in 
the  reduction  of  the  ore  arc  quite  simjile.  A  reverberatory 
furnace  is  usually  employed.  This  has  a  sloping  hearth  to 
carry  off  the  fuscci  metal  as  fast  as  it  is  produced.  The  ore 
is  charged  into  the  h<)t  furnace,  and  is  permitted  to  remain 
for  a  time  at  a  low  temperature,  undergoing  a  kind  of  cal- 
cination. Suhsequently,  a  higher  heat  is  applied  for  a 
time,  to  be  followed  by  another  "firing."  so  that  by  alter- 
nations of  smelting  and  roasting  the  ore  is  ultimately  de- 
]>rived  of  its  metal.  Argentiferous  galenas  require  a 
special  and  somewhat  elaborate  treatment,  for  the  details 
of  which,  as  well  as  for  further  information  on  leod-smelting 
proper,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  Metalll'Rcv 
and  SiLVKH.  anrl  the  previous  article,  Lead. 

The  salts  and  oxi<les  of  lead  are  quite  numerous,  and  are 
somewhat  extensively  employed  in  manufactures  and  medi- 
cine. Of  these  one  of  the  best  known  is  the  protoxide  called 
litharge,  used  as  a  drier  with  oils  an<l  varnishes  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass.  Red  lead,  or  *'  minium,'*  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  protoxide  with  the  peroxide.  It  is  very  gen- 
erally employed  as  a  pigment,  either  in  oil  paints  or  in  the 
coloring  of  wall-papers,  sealing-wax,  etc.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed, like  litharge,  in  the  manufacture  of  glass.  Per- 
haj>s  the  most  important  preparation  of  lead  is  that  of  the 
carbonate  of  the  protoxide.     This  is  commonly  known  as 


LEADING-XOTE— LEAD  PLASTER. 


1693 


White  Lead  (which  see).  Some  of  the  gaits  of  lead  are 
highly  poisonous,  ami.  since  the  quantity  of  lead  used  by 
every  civilized  community  is  great,  grave  accidents  are 
not  uncommon  from  this  caussc.  The  carbonate,  the  oxide, 
and  the  acetate  of  lead  are  the  most  active  poisons.  They 
are  introduced  into  the  system  both  by  the  lutigs  and  the 
digestive  organs.  With  those  who  work  much  in  the  prepa- 
rations of  lead,  ag  painters,  plumbers,  and  those  employed 
in  glazing  cards,  earthenware,  etc..  cases  of  lead-]>oisoning 
are  constantly  met  with.  One  of  the  most  striking  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  is  what  is  called  *•  lea<l  colic,"  or  cutlca 
pictottum.  It  also  produces  local  or  general  paralysis  or 
other  symptoms,  which  are  always  grave  and  difficult  of 
cure.  The  use  of  lead  pipe  must  be  regarded  as  the  source 
of  many  cases  of  lead-poiponinjr.  It  has  been  prnjiosed  to 
avoid  this  ikinger  by  lining  lead  pipe  with  tin.  and  pipe  of 
this  kind  is  now  coming  into  general  use.  It  is  but  liltle 
more  expensive,  and  is  certainly  far  safer,  than  that  made 
from  pure  lead.  (Seo4*EAi»  Poisosixc.)    J.  S.  Nkwbkiuiv. 

Lead'ing-Note,  in  music,  the  seventh  degree  of  the 
major  sc.ile.  or  the  semitone  next  below  the  octave.  In  the 
scale  of  C  the  leading-note  will  thus  be  B  ;  in  that  of  UJ?.  it 
will  be  A,  anil  so  in  the  other  keys.  In  major  keys  with 
sharps  the  la$t  sharp  of  the  signature  is  always  on  the 
leading-note.  From  a  certain  natural  tendency  to  regolvc 
itself  upwar<l  into  the  octave,  the  major  seventh  of  the  scale 
is  said  to  lend  the  ear  in  that  direction,  or  cause  it  to  ex- 
pect that  the  next  progression  will  bo  to  the  octave,  and 
hence  its  name  of  /<(i(/tM^-notc.  In  minor  scales  the  seventh 
in  its  natural  form  is  not  properly  a  leading^ote,  being  a 
minor  seventh  above  the  tonic.  It  is  thus  a  whole  tone 
below  tho  octave,  and  does  not  possess  any  sjiecial  upward 
or  leading  tendency.  This  defect,  however,  is  removed  by 
the  use  of  an  accidental  sharp,  which  brings  the  seventh 
into  tho  same  relation  to  tho  octavo  as  in  the  major  mode, 
and  makes  it  equally  characteristic.  The  leading-note  is 
considered  as  the  most  sensitive  interval  of  the  scale,  be- 
cause (as  already  stated)  it  creates  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
a  peculiar  longing  or  desire  for  an  ascent  into  the  octave 
above,  which  it  already  seems  almost  to  touch.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  especially  in  cadence?,  the  car  feels  disap- 
pointed and  baulked  when  the  leading-note  takes  any  olher 
direction,  and  particularly  fo  when  tho  progression  is  a 
downwani  one,  Instanees  of  this  are  given  at  a.  l>,  and  c 
in  Ex.  1,  and  these  may  bo  compared  with  the  true  pro- 
gression as  represented  in  each  ease  by  the  black  dots: 

Ex.  1.  a  b 


:;f^^ 


J^ 


^^^^ 


T-3.  —  \-m-  is— (»-  i^' 


■&=&. 


1— t- 


^ 


:^ 


Exceptions  to  this  general  rule,  however,  occur  in  good 
compositions  when  special  effects  are  to  be  producecl,  or  in 
flowing  melodies  where  the  leading-note  is  not  prominent 
«ff  «MrA,  or  when  by  an  upward  spring  tho  leading-note  in 
its  resolution  passes  over  the  octavo  and  lakes  the  third  or 
fifth  abovo.  Some  casos  of  this  kind  will  be  seen  in  Ex.  2 
under  tho  asterisks : 
Kx.  i 


__..    _, •_]__!_  J    'i  J-     -.111 


Tho  leading-note,  as  third  in  tho  chord  of  the  seventh  on 
the  dominant,  is  subject  also  to  tho  rules  relating  to  the 
resolution  of  sevenths.  liut  in  this  case  the  rule  of  the 
leading-note  as  such,  and  tliut  itflVctiiig  it  as  third  in  the 
chord  of  the  seventh,  arc  coinrident  in  requiring  that  the 
progression  should  bo  one  semitone  upward— r'.  c.  into  tho 
tonic.  WiM.iAM  Staunton. 

Leading  Qnestion,  a  phrase  used  in  tho  law  of  ovi- 
deneo  to  denote  a  question  put  to  a  witness  which  is  so 
framed  as  to  suggest  or  imlieatethe  answer  desired.  Thus, 
for  example,  if  a  witness  were  oskeil.  "  I)id  he  not  <lo  a 
certain  act  ?"  or  *'  I>id  he  not  carry  a  pistol  ?"  an  affirmn- 
tive  answer  would  be  plainly  suggested.  It  is  a  general 
rule  in  regard  to  the  taking  of  testimony  that  learling  ques- 
tions aro  not  allowable  in  the  direct  examination  of  a  wit- 
ness:  by  which  is  meant  an  exaininati<jn  by  the  party  pro- 
ducing him.  The  oliject  of  the  rule  is  to  prevent  a  witness 
from    Ix'ing  a  facile   iuslruuieut    in  tho    hands  of  skilful 


counsel  for  the  introduction  of  testimon.v.  artfully  colored 
or  fabricated,  or  presenting  the  facts  of  the  case  in  a  dis- 
torted or  inaccurute  form,  and  to  obtain  a  ver.^iou  of  the 
circumstances  of  the  ease  which  shall  dt-pend  entirely  upon 
his  own  recollection.  There  is  particular  danger  that  a 
witness  will  be  hd  upon  a  direct  examination,  because  he 
is  likely  to  favor  the  cause  of  the  party  for  whom  he  ap- 
pears, and  to  desire  that  he  may  succeed  in  the  action. 
Leading  questions  are.  however,  permitted  even  upon  a 
direct  examination  when  the  witness  appears  to  be  hostile 
to  the  party  producing  him.  or  in  the  interest  of  the  other 
party,  or  unwilling  to  give  evidence.  They  are  also  allowed 
where  an  omission  in  testimony  is  evidently  caused  by  a 
want  of  recollection,  which  a  suggestion  may  assist,  as 
where  a  transaction  invidvcs  numerous  items  or  dates.  The 
same  is  true  when  a  particular  specification  of  a  matter  of 
inquiry  is  ncccs:-ary.  in  order  that  a  witness's  attention 
may  bo  directed  to  it.  The  prohibiti(ni  of  leading  ques- 
tions only  applies  to  material  suljjei^ts  of  inquiry,  and  not 
to  that  part  of  tho  examination  which  is  merely  introduc- 
tory to  the  principal  points  in  controversy.  Such  ques- 
tions aro  allowed  at  tho  preliminary  stuge  of  the  exami- 
nation for  the  sake  of  convenience  and  expedition.  Vpon 
cross-examination,  or  examination  by  the  opposing  party, 
there  is  no  restriction  u]»on  inquiry  by  leading  questions. 
Tho  object  in  this  case  is  to  expose  the  inaccuracies  in  the 
witness's  direct  testimony,  and  as  ho  appears  in  opposition 
to  tho  counsel  then  examining  him,  there  is  no  danger  of 
his  being  influenced  to  subserve  their  designs.  (See  Evi- 
PENCK.)  Tho  whole  subject  is  peculiarly  within  the  discre- 
tion of  the  judge  presiding  at  the  trial,  subject  to  review 
by  an  appellate  court  in  a  plain  case  of  an  abuse  of  the 
discretion.     Geohgk  CnAsi-:.    Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Lead,  Medicinal  Uses  of.  In  this  relation  the 
local  and  constitutional  cficets  of  lead  compounds  have  to 
be  considered.  Luralhj^  mlnhh:  salts  of  lead  are  astringent 
and  irritant,  but  the  latter  property  is  much  less  marked  in 
proportion  to  the  astringeiicy  than  in  the  case  of  salts  of 
mercury,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc.  Indeed,  weak  solutions 
of  lead-salts  arc  positively  soothing.  Taken  internally  in 
large  dose,  however,  these  salts  are  powerful  iriitant])oisons. 
Solutions  of  lead  salts  are  used  in  medicine  as  local  ajipli- 
cations  in  catarrhs  of  mucous  membranes  and  in  nuiny  in- 
flammations of  the  skin,  especially  where  attended  by  much 
heat  and  pain.  They  should  not,  however,  be  used  in  in- 
flammations of  the  eye.  except  by  physicians'  prescription, 
as  if  there  be  any  ulceration  of  tho  cornea  an  indcliblo 
white  iqiacity  will  be  produced  sit  the  spot  by  chemical  de- 
composition of  the  lead-salt.  The  preparations  used  as 
lotions  arc  solutions  of  lead  acetate,  nitrate,  and  suliacetate. 
Two  officinal  solutions  of  the  latter  aro  directed  by  tho  U.  S. 
Pharmacopceia.  the  stronger  being  commonly  called  *'  Gou- 
lard's extract,"  and  the  latter  *' le:id  w;iter."  From  tho 
former  are  also  prepared  a  cerate  ("  (Jnulard's  cerate  ")  and 
a  liniment.  Internally,  lead-acetate  is  alone  used,  its  em- 
ployment being  as  an  astringent  in  diarrha?as  and  in  bleed- 
ing from  the  stomach,  hmoluhh  lead  compounds,  like  the 
carbonate,  arc  simply  soothing  to  moist  surfaces,  but  as.  if 
applied  in  quantity,  they  may  bo  rendered  soluble,  and 
thus  irritant,  or  become  absorbed,  ami  thus  iiuluco  lead- 
poisoning,  other  insoluble  ])owdrrs,  like  zinc-oxide  or  salts 
of  bismuth,  are  safer.  The  cniHtltutiounl  cfleclsof  lead  are 
wholly  poisonous,  and  are  brought  on  by  a  slow  and  steady 
impregnation  of  tho  system  with  the  metal.  (See  1-i:ad- 
PoisoNTNf;.}  EnwAitn  Ct  itns. 

Lead  Plaster,  Diachylon,  or  Emplaslruin 
Plunibi.  This  familiar  plaster  of  lead  is  a  lead  soa]>  (see 
SoAr),  formed  by  the  action  of  litharge  or  plumbic  oxide 
on  olive  oil  in  presence  of  water.  These  materials  aro 
boiled  together  in  the  jiroportion  of  0  (lounds  of  jdumbio 
oxide  in  fine  powder.  1  gallon  of  olive  oil,  and  water  2 
pints,  supplying  more  water  as  it  ovajjorales,  until  the  oil 
and  lead  oxide  unite  into  the  consistence  of  a  plaster.  Tho 
glycerine  of  the  oil.  set  free  by  the  basic  power  of  the 
plumbic  oxide,  remains  in  aqueous  solutinn.  llic  i'alty  aciils 
of  Ihe  oil  forming  with  the  leail  the  lead  plaster,  which  is 
made  uj)  in  cylimlrical  sticks  of  a  yellowish-white  or  gray 
color,  brittle  when  cold,  but  softening  and  melting  by  a 
gentle  heat,  when  it  is  readily  s]iread  upon  leather  or  cotton 
cloth  for  use.  It  is  (|uite  insoluble  in  water,  and  nearly  so 
in  alcohol.  It  is  without  toste.  but  has  a  faint  peculiar 
odor.  This  prejtaration  of  lead  was  well  known  in  ancient 
surgery.  Pliny  (  Hint.  Xnt.,  xxxiv.  UW)  gives  a  formula  for 
its  preparation  almost  identical  with  tho  one  now  in  use. 

The  nature  of  the  reaction  which  occurs  is  explained  by 
tho  following  formula : 

Olclnc.  LllhnrffV.      WnUr. 

2031X5(0^113303)3  +  aPbO  -i  3HaO  = 
Plumbic  olrKle.  Olyrcrlne. 


1694 


LEA  D-POISONING— LEAF-CUTTER   BEE. 


Load  plaster  may  also  be  prepared  Iiy  double  decomposi- 
tion, precipitating  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  by  one  of 
soap. 

It  19  employed  in  surgery  on  account  of  its  adhesiveness, 
and  for  thi:*  purpose  a  portion  of  resin  is  adiieri  while  the 
diachylon  is  in  a  fused  state.  In  this  way  it  is  used  to 
hold  to2;etlier  the  edges  of  wounds  in  persons  of  delicate 
skins.  It  is  also  used,  spread  on  cotton  bandages,  as  a 
strappiiii;  for  giving  support  and  causing  pressure,  as  in 
ulcers  of  the  leg. 

In  the  large  way,  this  important  preparation  is  made  in 
a  steam-jacketed  copper  holding  fifty  gallons  or  more, 
and  capable  of  standing  a  pressure  of  alniut  10  pounds 
per  inch,  giving  a  temperature  slightly  above  boiling- 
point.  Lard  and  lard  oil  may  be  substituted  for  olive  oil 
in  the  preparation  of  lead  plaster,  but  by  no  means  will 
all  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable  fats  answer  this  purpose. 
Logan's  plaster  is  made  Ijy  boiling  together  litharge,  IG 
ounces;  carbonate  of  lead,  IG  ounces:  Castile  soap,  12 
ounces;  butter  (fresh),  i  ounces ;  olive  oil,  2i  pints ;  mas- 
tic (powdered).  2  drachms.  By  a  high  heat  lead  plaster  is 
decomposed,  giving  off  irritating  vapors  of  acrolcinc  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  glycerine,  and  leaving  a  black- 
ened residue,  with  oxide  of  lead.  Diachylon  or  diachylum 
is  a  derivative  of  far-fetched  meaning,  from  the  Greek 
5ia,\uAo«,  ''very  juicy,"  or  ''prepared  with  the  juices  of 
plants,''  such  having  been  the  ancient  practice  in  prepar- 
ing this  plaster,  vegetable  juices  supplying  the  place  of 
water.  Its  chief  use  in  pharmacy  is  in  the  preparation  of 
other  plasters.  Made  from  the  refuse  oleic  acid  of  stearic 
aci<l  candle-factories,  and  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of 
oil  or  tallow,  it  has  been  used  as  a  wheel  grease.  A  compound 
of  lead  oxide  with  the  acids  of  linseed  oil,  prepared  by  de- 
composing tiie  potash  soap  of  linseed  oil  with  solution  of 
acetate  of  lead,  serves,  when  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpeptine,  ■ 
for  printing  on  wall-paper  previous  to  gilding  it  with  gold- 
leaf  or  Dutch  metal,  or  dusting  it  with  wool-shearings  for 
the  production  of  flock  patterns.  B.  Silliman. 

Lead'-Poisoning,  a  diseased  condition  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  a  considerable  amount  of  lead  in  the 
system.  This  condition  is  induced  in  various  ways :  (1) 
By  the  use  of  lead  pipe  for  the  ctinduction  of  drinking 
water.  Happily,  a  large  proportion  of  the  waters  used  for 
drinking  and  cooking  have  not  the  power  to  take  up  lead 
in  solution;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  very  great 
number  of  cases  of  lead-poisoning  are  induced  in  this  way. 
(2)  By  the  use  of  lead  pipes  in  racking  off  wines,  cider,  and 
beer;  by  the  use  of  lead-lined  chambers  in  soda-water  ap- 
paratus and  the  like.  It  is  very  certain  that  the  use  of 
leaden  siphons  for  drawing  cider  and  vinegar  from  the  cask 
is  a  very  common  practice  among  farmers  and  dealers  in 
the  U.  S.  ;  and  a  dangerous,  senseless,  and  even  criminal, 
practice  it  undoubtedly  is.  (:J)  By  the  use  of  lead-paints; 
hence  the  name  ''painter's  colio"  applied  to  one  symptom 
of  lead-poisoning.  Si/mptom^. — Th^sc  arc  (1)  pain,  often 
intense  in  the  abdominal  region,  with  constipation,  some- 
times, though  rather  rarely,  accompanied  by  acute  inflam- 
matory symptoms;  (2)  a  blue  line  visible  on  the  gums 
near  the  roots  of  the  teeth  :  the  gums  and  teeth  often  foul 
and  tender;  the  breath  offensive,  the  mouth  having  a  me- 
tallic taste;  (."ii  ?ometimes  icterus  or  jaundice — the  skin  dark 
ra'her  than  yellow:  the  patient  usually  looking  pinched 
and  haggard:  (-1)  there  is  a  certain  proportion  of  cases 
which  liavo  'Mead-palsy,"  affecting  primarily  the  extensors 
of  the  wrist.  This  is  called  "  wrist-drop,"  though  it  is  some- 
times seen  with  no  other  indication  of  lead-poisoning. 
Lead  rheumatism  sometimes  occurs,  and  disease  of  the 
brain  from  Icafl-jioisoning,  while  delirium,  convulsions,  and 
coma  are  not  unknown,  but  arc  rare.  Trentmcut. — Opium 
is  the  sheet-anchor  in  ordinary  Icad-poisoning.  It  relieves 
the  pain,  and  even  at  times  the  obstinate  constipation  of 
this  disease.  Cathartics  are  very  useful,  except  when 
there  is  much  tenderness  of  the  bowels.  Then  tlieir  uso 
should  be  deferred  for  a  time.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  pre- 
scribed in  chronic  cases,  and  is  believed  to  assist  in  the  , 
elimination  of  the  metal.  Sulphuric  acid  and  the  sulphates 
are  given  with  a  view  to  precipitating  lead  from  the  cir- 
culation, aii.l  fixing.  Kevised  by  AVillaku  Parker. 
Leudvillo.     Sue  Appendix. 

Leaf  [Ang.-Sax.;  Gothic,  /«»/«/  Gcr.  Laiih ,•  denoting 
something  broad  and  thin],  in  botany,  one  of  the  pieces 
which  make  up  the  expanded  portion  or  green  foliage  of  a 
plant.  Being  the  essentia!  organs  of  vegotation.  leaves  arc 
the  most  important  part  of  a  plant.  In  them  actual  as- 
similation, or  the  conversion  of  the  plant's  inorganic  food 
into  organic  matter,  only  takes  place.  This,  accordingly, 
may  be  taken  as  the  primary  function  of  the  leaf,  which 
may  be  defined  as  being,  physiologically,  an  arrangement 
for  the  exposure  of  a  large  green  surface  to  the  light  and  I 
air;  of  "(/recti  surface,"  because  it  is  only  in  the  presence  | 
of  the  green  matter  of  vegetation   (called  chlorophyll  or  I 


leaf-green)  that  assimilation  takes  place:  and"  to  the  light," 
because  this  takes  place  only  under  solur  radiation.  The 
green  rind  of  shoots  subserves  the  same  purpose,  so  far  as 
it  goes  ;  but  the  expansion  of  definite  portions  of  the  green 
surface  of  the  shoots  in  the  form  of  foliage  vastly  increases 
(  tho  amount  of  working  surface^  and  therefore  the  power  of 
I  vegetal  i(»n. 

Considered  even  as  foliage,  the  word  hnfls  naturally  and 
I  almost  inevitably  used  in  more  than  one  sense,  both  popu- 
I  larly  and  in  descriptive  botany;  as  (1)  for  the  expanded 
I  green  blade  alone  (the  lamina  of  tho  leaf):  and  (2)  for 
!  this  and  its  su])porting  footstalk  (petiole),  and  whatever 
else  is  normally  connected  with  it.     A  complete  leaf,  in  the 
botanist's  sense,  consists  of  blade,  footstalk,  and  a  ]iair  of 
stipules  (lateral  appendages  at  the  base  of  the  latter);  but 
these  three  parts  are  very  commonly  re«Uiced.to  two,  the 
stipules  being  wanting  or  fugacious,  and  not  rarely  to  one, 
the  footstalk  being  absent,  and  so  the  blade  growing  di- 
rectly out  of  the  stem.     Indeed,   sometimes   the  blade  is 
wanting,  while  the  footstalk  remains,  with  or  without  the 
stipules,  or  only  the  stipules  arc  produced,  or  there  is  in 
the  place  of  the  leaf  a  body  not  distinctly  answering  to 
cither  of  these  three  constituent  parts.     This  leads  us  to 
the  botanist's  idea  of — 

A  Leaf  Morphofof/icanr/  considered. — As  leaves  are  pro- 
duced on  the  stem  at  definite  points  (called  uodes),  and  in 
a  fixed  arrangement  and  order,  and  as  they  appear  under 
most  diverse  forms,  and  either  with  or  without  all  the  parts 
which  a  leaf  may  have — the  deprivation  or  transformation 
sometimes  being  sueh  that  the  organ  fulfils  little  or  no 
function  as  iTjliage — so  the  botanist  has  come  to  regard  the 
leaf  generically,  as  being  whatever  body  occupies  the  place 
of  a  leaf,  however  unlike  a  foliage-leaf  it  may  bo  either  in 
appearance  or  function.  The  intermediate  gradations  be- 
tween ordinary  leaves  and  these  various  representatives  uf 
leaves,  both  as  regards  office  or  structure  and  appearance, 
compels  this  view,  irrespective  of  other  considerations.  In 
the  absence  of  any  generic  name  for  this  protean  organ, 
which  takes  almost  all  forms  and  functions,  the  botanist, 
from  the  morphological  point  of  view,  extends  the  signifl- 
cati<m  of  the  term  hnf  {u  cover  them  all.  Leaves  as  foliage 
arc  the  typical  leaves.  Of  these  the  diversity  is  great,  and 
the  nomenclature  correspondingly  extensive.  The  details 
of  structure  and  terminology  need  not  here  be  entered 
upon  ;  they  have  a  j)lace  in  every  elementary  treatise  on 
botany.  Suffice  it  to  say.  that  a  foliage-leaf  is  either  simple 
or  compound — simple,  when  there  is  a  single  blade,  with  or 
without  its  footstalk:  compound,  v:\iC^Ti  the  footstalk  divides 
or  branches,  or  bears  distinct  partial  blades,  called  le<i/letn. 
Of  specialized  leaves,  a  series  of  the  more  imptirtant  modi- 
fications will  serve  to  illustrate  the  jilan  upon  which,  in  the 
plant,  one  and  the  same  organ,  fumlamentally,  is  modified 
and  made  subservient  to  wholly  diverse  offices.  Some  aro 
storehouses  of  food,  in  which  organic  vegetable  products 
for  future  uso  are  deposited  and  concentrated.  To  this  use 
the  first  leaves  (namely,  the  cotyledons  in  the  seed  of  a 
large  proportion  of  ])ha*nogamou8  plants)  arc  wholly  or 
partly  devoted.  So  arc  the  bud-scales  of  bulbs,  which  are 
modified  leaves  or  bases  of  leaves:  while  the  fleshy  leaves 
of  houscleeks.  of  the  century  plant,  aloe,  and  such-Hkc  suc- 
culent plants,  serve  at  the  same  time  as  ordinary  foliage 
for  the  production  of  food,  and  as  magazines  for  its  storage. 
So  bud-scales  represent  leaves  devoted  to  the  use  of  pro- 
tection; tho  temlrils  of  the  pumpkin  arc  probably  leaves 
transformed  for  the  purpose  of  climbing;  and  in  the  pea- 
plant  Rfmio  of  the  leaflets  of  a  compound  leaf  are  tendrils 
for  climl>ing,  while  the  rest  servo  as  foliage.  In  the  bar- 
berry some  of  the  leaves  are  branched  spines  :  in  Sarraccnia 
and  some  other  plants  they  are  pitchers  or  tubes  in  which 
insects  are  cauglit;  and  in  the  Venus's  flj'trap  [Ditman)  a 
part  of  tho  leaf,  endowed  with  a  special  sensitiveness, 
power  of  rapid  closing,  and  a  digestive  apparatus,  is 
clearly  carnivorous.  (See  Piivsior-ocv,  VE^•ETABI-E,  Dio- 
N.f:A,  etc.  Also,  Darwin,  fuaectivoroua  Plnjitu,  iSTo.)  The 
*•  leaves  "  of  a  flower — of  the  corolla  no  less  than  the  ealjx 
— afford  another  instance  so  obvious  that  this  name  has 
always  been  applied  to  them  in  common  language;  and  to 
the  morphological  botanist  the  essential  organs  of  the  blos- 
som (stamens  and  pistils)  equally  represent  leaves,  more 
completely  transformed  and  specialized,  and  devoted  to 
sexual  reproduction.  They  conform  to  leaves  in  situation, 
arrangement,  etc.  (For  the  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  the 
stem,  and  the  laws  governing  it.  sec  Pilvl.l.OTAXV.  Their 
anatomic:il  structure,  behavior  under  light,  action  upon  the 
air,  and  general  functions  aro  considered  in  tho  article 
Pnvsior.oGV,  Vegetable.)  Asa  Gray. 

LeaT-cutter  Bee,  a  name  given  to  several  solitary 
bees  of  the  genus  Mn/'irhi/^,  which  construct,  or  sometimes 
merely  line,  their  cells  with  bits  of  leaves  cut  out  by  their 
scissor-like  jaws.  Jif.  cfiifitnruldyi'i,  our  most  common  spe- 
cies, is  found  also  in  Europe.     It  cuts  out  pieces  of  rose- 


LEAF  RIVER— LEAGUE,  ANTI-CORN   LAW. 


1695 


leaf  for  its  cells,  which  are  of  a  very  ncftt  and  curious  struc- 
ture.    The  cell  it  stufTd  with  poUcQ,  in  which  it  deposits  an 

Leaf  River,  tp.  of  Oglo  co.,  III.     Pop.  1067. 

Leaf  lliver,  a  v.  of  Perry  co.,  Miss.,  near  the  S.  W, 
bank  of  Leaf  River,  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Augusta.     Pop.  720. 

Lear-Kollcrs  (Tortricida*),  an  imjtortant  family  of 
small  lepidupterous  insects,  characterized  by  sliort  bcak- 
likc  palpi.  They  are  mostly  nocturiuil,  and  take  their 
name  from  the  fact  that  many  species  make  a  rude  tent  by 
rolling  up  the  leaves  of  trees,  often  fastening  thorn  with 
siken  threads.  The  number  of  genera  ami  species  is  great, 
and  as  a  rule  the  insects  are  great  destroyers  of  useful 
vegetation.     The  genus  Tortrix  is  the  typical  one. 

Leaf  Valley,  poat-tp.,  Douglas  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  232. 

League  [It.  l^gfi ;  Span.  Utjua  ;  Fr.  ?/V»e,  from  the 
Gaelic  Unc  or  /encArf,  *'a  stooe,"  as  the  (Jauid  used  to  mark 
distances  by  stones]  is  a  measure  of  length,  used  in  America 
mostly  for  distances  at  sea,  but  in  Europe  also  upon  land. 
The  nautical  league  is  fl^^th  id"  a  degree,  or  '^  geographical 
miles,  or  3.457875  statute  miles,  in  England  the  land- 
league  is  ',^  statute  miles.  In  France  the  legal  post-league 
is  2.12  English  miles;  in  Spain,  SOOO  vurnSf  or  7418  Eng- 
lish yards. 

League,  Achipan.    See  Acn.cAX  Leagite. 

League,  .\nti-Corn  Law,  a  name  taken  by  a  famous 
associ:ilinn  of  Manchester  manufacturers,  founded  in  18o9, 
for  abolishing  all  fiscal  imposts  on  corn.  The  first  Man- 
chester election  of  members  of  Parliament,  which  took 
place  in  1832,  carried  free-trade  candidates,  that  electoral 
issue  being  then  raised  at  the  hustings  for  the  first  time  in 
England.  In  1834  the  first  meeting  of  Manchester  mer- 
chants was  called  to  consider  the  question  of  corn-law  re- 
peal. In  IS30  a  miscellaneous  anti-corn  law  society  was 
formed  in  I^ondon,  which  included  22  members  of  Parlia- 
ment. Among  the  names  of  the  adherents  were  those  of 
(Jroto  tho  historian,  Ilutne  the  economist,  Sir  William 
Molesworth,  and  J.  A.  Roebuck;  Ebenezer  Elliott,  the 
corn-law  rhymer;  W.  H.  Ashursl,  a  lea<ling  promoter  of 
the  penny-postage  system:  Francis  Place,  tho  chief  of 
working-class  agitators ;  William  Weir,  subsequently  editor 
of  the  Dnitif  NeioH  ;  Col.  Thomjison,  the  great  expositor  of 
free  trade.  But  no  intellect,  however  eminent  nnd  various. 
could  avail  against  monopoly  without  money  aii'l  popular 
opinion,  and  of  these  forces  the  precursor  was  W.  A.  Paul- 
ton,  a  young  surgeon  of  bright,  elastic  enthusiasm,  with  a 
genius  for  agitation.  In  1838  a  Dr.  IJirnie  had  announced, 
at  the  theatre,  Bolton,  hancashire.  a  lecture  on  the  corn 
laws.  Tho  doctor  was  hiclen  with  notes,  in  which  be  got 
80  entangled  that  he  could  not  tell  what  he  had  to  say,  Mr. 
Thomas  Thomasson,  afterwards  tho  executor  of  Cobden,  a 
man  of  striking  energy  of  character  and  commercial  sa- 
gacity, being  among  the  auditors,  said  to  Paulton,  who  was 
near  him,  **  You  can  speak  ;  go  down  on  the  stage  and  de- 
liver the  doctor."  The  spontaneity  and  capacity  which 
Paulton  showed  on  that  occasion  led  to  his  being  invited 
to  lecture  himself,  and  ultimately  he  delivered  300  lectures 
against  the  corn  laws  throughout  (ircat  Britain.  Ho  be- 
came Iho  private  and  contidential  secretary  of  tho  future 
League,  which  his  eloquence  and  thoroughness  mainly  in- 
stigated. At  a  dinner  given  to  him  at  Boston,  Mr.  Bright 
made  tho  first  public  speech  delivered  out  of  his  native 
town,  Rochdale.  Later  in  the  same  year  Dr.  B')wriug, 
then  of  free-trade  r(>put<!,  being  entertiiined  at  a  dinner  in 
Manchester,  .Mr.  James  Howie  cried  out,  on  Mr.  Paulton'a 
health  being  drunk,  '*  Why  could  not  wo  havo  a  free-trade 
association?"  A  week  later  one  was  formed,  consisting  of 
seven  persons,  of  whom  tho  chief  was  .Mr.  Archibabl  Pren- 
tice, founder  of  the  Mititrhnti  r  Exanihifn;  who  had  him- 
self, as  early  as  182^  adviseil  Iho  formation  of  such  a  so- 
ciety. A  subscription  of  fivo  shillings  each  was  adopted; 
£5000  ca'.'h  was  wanted  before  corn -law  repeal  whs  carried. 
In  1838,  Mr.  Cobden  first  became  prominent  in  the  Man- 
chester (.'hainber  of  Commerce  for  resistance  to  the  restric- 
tive commercial  policy  of  the  manufacturing  trade  of  tho 
country.  In  18:il)  delegates  from  the  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts were  appointed  to  proceed  to  Ltuidon  to  press  their 
opinions  upon  the  legislature.  Mr.  Charles  Pellmm  Vil- 
liers,  who  ten  years  later  became  president  of  tho  Poor  Law 
Board,  undertook  to  represent  the  free-trade  question  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  On  Feb.  HI,  18311,  Mr.  Villicrs 
moved  that  certain  manufacturers  bo  heard  by  counsel  be- 
fore tho  bar  of  tho  Huuso  of  Commons,  against  tlio  corn 
laws,  as  injurious  to  their  private  interests.  Tho  m<»tion 
was  rejected  by  an  overwhelming  majority.  On  Mar.  12 
following,  tho  day  on  which  the  ,\nti-Corn  Law  League 
originated,  Mr.  Villiers  again  moved  "that  tho  House  re- 
solve itself  into  a  ccunmittec  of  inquiry  on  tho  corn  laws," 
when  only  195  members  could  bo  found  to  vote  for  inquiry, 


while  342  voted  against  it.  Discouraged  and  di!^raayel^ 
the  partisans  of  inquiry,  who  had  come  up  from  Miin- 
ohester  to  await  the  result  of  the  motion,  rushed  over  to 
Herbert's  hotel,  then  standing  in  Palace  Yard,  opposite  tho 
House  of  Parliament,  to  consider  what  could  be  clone.  It 
was  in  that  crowded  room  that  Cobden,  leaping  on  a  chair, 
reminded  the  delegates  of  the  victorious  ctt'orts  of  the  Han- 
seatic  League,  which  three  centuries  previously  had  frcid 
tho  trade  of  the  Hanse  Towns  from  the  imposts  of  Ger- 
man princes.  "Let  us."  cried  Cobden,  "have  an  Anti- 
Corn  Law  League,  which  shall  free  corn  and  trade  also." 
It  was  then  and  there  that  the  League  originated.  Cobden 
proposed  that  a  fund  of  £50.000  be  raised,  and  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  that  sum  was  subscribed  in  tlic  room.  Tho 
chief  Manchester  commercial  houses  followed  with  sub- 
scriptions of  £50  and  £100  each. 

The  English  corn  laws,  which  had  for  their  object  tho 
restriction  of  the  trade  in  grain,  date  as  far  back  as  I3G0. 
At  that  time  the  prohibition  was  against  exportation.  It 
was  not  until  1462  that  an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  its 
free  importation.  The  object  of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League 
of  1831*  was  slated  by  the  chairman  (Mr.  J.  B.  Smith),  on 
the  occasion  of  Paulton's  first  lecture  in  tho  Manchester 
Corn  E.Kchange,  *•  to  be  the  same  righteous  object  as  that 
of  the  Anti-slavery  Society,  which  sought  to  obtain  for  tho 
negro  the  right  to  dispose  of  himself;  and  the  object  of  the 
League  was  to  obtain  for  the  people  tho  right  to  dispose 
of  their  labor  for  as  much  food  as  could  be  got  for  it"  in 
whatever  market  the  exchange  could  be  made.  Tho 
Leaguers  little  foresaw  at  the  time  the  formidable  work 
they  had  undertaken,  and  only  gradually  learned  them- 
selves, as  the  great  agitation  pr4)cecdcd,  the  principles  they 
had  to  establish.  What  they  discovered  was  that  monopoly 
always  had  advocates  ready  m.ade,  who,  sharing  in  its  ex- 
clusive advantages,  had  reasons  for  being  enthusiastic  in 
its  defence.  Any  tradesman  would  profit  could  he  exclude 
from  the  market  rival  articles  of  those  in  which  he  dealt. 
His  profits  would  increase  at  the  expense  of  the  purchaser. 
Themonopolist  dealer  considers  this  protection,  but  the  pub- 
lic, who  arc  the  customers  of  the  market,  find  it  to  be  but 
I)rotcclion  on  one  side — the  protection  of  the  seller  wlnlo 
10  has  bis  hands  in  the  pocket  of  tho  buyer.  What  tho 
public  want  is  free  inircbasc  in  a  free  market,  the  power  to 
procure  what  they  want  from  whoever  has  it  to  orter.  Free 
buying — that  is  ]»rotection  to  the  customer.  The  doctrino 
of  the  purchaser  is  as  much  food  as  a  man  can  buy,  for  as 
much  wages  as  a  man  can  earn,  for  as  much  work  as  a  man 
can  do  ;  and  is  the  natural,  an<l  ought  to  be  the  inalienoble, 
birthright  of  every  man  who  has  tho  strength  to  labor  and 
the  will  to  work.  On  other  things  besides  corn,  protection 
was  always  on  tho  side  of  the  seller  until  the  Anti-Corn 
Law  League  freed  all  English  industry  from  restrictive  im- 
posts. These  *•  free  traders,"  as  the  Leaguers  were  styled, 
were  opposed  by  an  organized  party  who  took  the  title  of 
"  protectionists,"  who  maintained  (I)  that  protection  was 
necessary  to  keep  certain  lands  in  cultivation  ;  (2)  that  it 
was  desirable  to  cultivate  as  much  laml  as  ]MJssiltIc  in  order 
to  improve  the  country;  (3)  that  if  improvement  by  that 
means  were  to  cease,  there  must  be  depcmlence  on  the  for- 
eigner for  a  large  (lortion  of  the  food  of  the  peojde ;  (1) 
that  such  dependence  would  lie  fraught  with  immense  dan- 
ger. In  the  event  of  war  supplies  might  be  stopped,  for 
the  ports  might  be  blockaded,  the  result  being  famine,  dis- 
ease, and  civil  war.  (5)  That  the  advantage  gained  by  pro- 
tection enabled  the  landed  proprietors  and  their  tenants  to 
encourage  nmnufaclures  and  trade:  so  much  so  that  wove 
the  corn  laws  abolished  half  the  country  shopkeepers  would 
be  ruined  ;  that  would  be  followed  by  the  stoppage  of  many 
mills  and  factories  :  large  numbers  of  the  working  classes 
would  be  thrown  idle,  disturbances  would  ensue,  cajdtal 
would  be  withdrawn,  and  no  one  could  venture  to  say  what 
would  he  the  final  consequences.  By  this  formidable  enu- 
meration it  was  made  to  appear  that  the  end  of  EnglantI 
was  certainly  at  hand  if  the  corn  monopoly  was  disturbed. 
No  country  in  the  world  can  hope  to  put  on  record  a  more 
appalling  set  of  consequences  if  protecti(ui  is  menaced.  In 
Lnglan<l  they  exercised  a  commanding  inlluence  oven  over 
the  working  people,  who  were  induced  to  believe  that  it  was 
for  their  interest  that  bread  was  nnide  dear.  The  learned  as 
well  as  tho  ignorant,  the  aristocracy  as  well  as  the  small- 
town shopkeeper,  worn  under  the  samo  uninstructed  terror. 
Even  Sir  dames  (iraham  declared  in  Parlinmcnt.  when  a 
fixed  duty  on  corn  instead  of  a  fluctuating  one  was  pro- 
posed by  Lord  .lohn  Russell,  that  "  it  would  not  be  the  de- 
struction of  one  particular  class  in  tho  state,  but  (d'  the  stato 
itself."  Sir  Robert  Peel  at  first  mot  tho  efforts  ctf  the  League 
by  a  sliding  scale,  varying  with  tho  price  of  wheat.  Tliis 
wa<  a  thoroughly  English  device,  worthy  the  genius  of  a 
people  who  never  precipitate  themselves  even  into  the  truth. 
Had  .Moses  been  an  English  premier,  instead  of  nmking  tho 
CommuadmcDts  absolute,  he  would  havo  proclaimed  a  slid- 


1696 


LEAGUE,  HOLY— LEAMING. 


ing  soaie  of  violation.  The  struggle  of  the  League  lasted 
seven  year;?,  iiiul  cuat  half  a  millioii  of  money.  In  the 
fourth  year  of  their  activity  ilr.  Paulton  stated  that  the 
League  oiuployed  upwards  of  uOO  persons  in  making  up 
electoral  packets  of  tracts,  and  ilH)  otlicr  persons  in  dis- 
tributing tlifui  amongst  the  constituencies.  lu  England 
and  Scotland  alono  they  distributed  to  electors  5.0011.000 
tracts  and  stamped  publications,  while  to  non-clectur.>  of 
the  working  class  they  distributed  o, GOO, 000  pultljcatiuns. 
In  addition,  the  League  had  stitched  up  in  monthly  mag- 
azines and  other  periodicals  420,000  tracts.  The  entire 
number  of  tracts  and  stamped  pul>lieati<>ns  issued  hy  the 
League  in  the  single  year  IS4;i  was  9.020,000.  weighing  up- 
wards of  100  tons.  Such  were  the  business  features  of  this 
famous  association,  iiut  its  success  came  from  its  inspira- 
tion, and  its  inspiration  came  from  its  renmrkable  leaders. 
Ebenozer  Elliott  wrote  fiery  rhymes  for  it;  Col.  Thomj)son 
wrote  its  Vitierh'tHin;  Ocorge  Wilson,  the  chairman  of  the 
League,  admittedly  tiie  most  efficient  public  chairman  who 
appeared  in  England  during  his  day,  organized  its  popular 
action  ;  James  Noland,  a  vigorous  speaker,  acquainted  with 
the  people,  was  a  sort  of  outrider  to  the  League,  going  into 
market-towns  on  market-days  on  a  white  horse — perhaps 
as  a  pacific  emblem,  partly  a  means  of  conspicuousncss.  Ho 
took  the  figliting  among  the  belligerent  farmers,  so  that 
when  Bright  and  Cobdon  came  the  strengtli  of  the  enemy 
was  known,  and  the  local  stock  of  turbulence  being  ex- 
pended the  great  orators  obtained  a  hearing.  There  was 
one  R.  R.  R.  .Moore,  with  a  voice  that  ft-Il  o!i  a  meeting  like 
the  bursting  of  a  roi^ervoir.  It  was  not  what  he  said,  but 
the  sound  it  made,  that  produced  the  oft'ect.  The  maddest 
clamor  was  not  hushed;  it  was  overwhelmed  by  the  new 
roar,  which  was  always  reserved  to  the  end  of  the  meeting. 
His  function  was  to  appeal  for  subscriptions,  and  he  ex- 
actly answered  that  end,  for  when  his  astounding  voice  fell 
upon  the  meeting  no  one  seemed  to  have  the  power  of  going 
away.  In  the  hours  of  argument  Mr.  Villiers's  mastery  of 
the  question  was  ever  hcanl,  and  his  high  character  lent 
iuflucnco  to  the  cause.  Mr.  Milner  (libson,  another  Par- 
liamentary voice,  had  a  graceful  and  cogent  eloquence 
which  always  commanded  attention.  Mr.  W.  J.  Fox.  a 
Unitarian  minister,  and  subsequently  M.  P.  for  Oldham, 
surpassed  all  the  orators  of  the  League  of  that  day  in  bril- 
liance of  speech.  Shorter  and  more  rotund  than  Charles 
James  Fox,  he  notwithstanding  produced  effects  of  rhet- 
oric transcending  those  of  his  great  namesake,  and  which 
"brilliance '*  but  weakly  describes.  Above  all  in  renown 
were  the  great  names  of  Cobden  and  IJright.  Mr.  Cob- 
den,  the  "pale-faced  manufacturer,"  whom  tiio  landowners 
believed,  and  the  farmers  were  persuaded,  was  a  Man- 
chester enemy  of  all  agriculture  and  paid  emissary  of 
the  Socialist  insurgents  of  the  Continent,  was  himself  the 
sou  of  a  Sussex  farmer,  and  whoso  ambition  was  to  die 
one  of  that  class;  and  did,  seeking  and  accepting  no 
other  distinction  than  that  which  his  genius  east  around 
his  name.  Ho  was  the  logician  of  the  League.  As  a  mas- 
ter of  lucid  statement  on  the  platform  or  in  Parliament  he 
left  no  equal  at  his  death.  When  he  had  made  a  statement 
he  looked  at  it  and  around  it,  as  though  he  saw  it  in  the 
air  before  him.  AVhat  was  deficient  he  supplied,  what  was 
redundant  he  withdrew,  hy  putting  the  question  in  another 
way,  in  wliich  he  omitted  any  mischievous  word  or  quali- 
fied any  phrase  he  had  used  which  might  mislead,  so  that 
he  could  not  bo  misunderstood  by  accident  nor  his  meaning 
perverted  hy  design.  This  contributed  to  give  the  League 
great  ascendency,  since  all  its  adherents  cr>uld  quote  with- 
out fear  of  contradiction  what  he  said,  and  his  speeches  of 
one  day  became  the  authority  of  the  next.  Mr.  IJright's  was 
a  grander  and  move  imposing  order  of  eloquence,  at  once 
impassioned  and  colossal.  Cohden  presented  the  facts, 
Bright  put  lire  into  them.  AVith  the  finest  voice  of  any 
Euroftean  orator,  lie  displayed  a  measured  vehemence  on 
the  platform  which  gave  the  impression  of  unknown  power. 
He  was  the  Vulcan  of  the  movement,  who  forged  at  red 
heat  and  hurled  the  burning  bolts  which  finally  set  protec- 
tion in  (lames.  These  were  the  great  propagandists  of  po- 
litical economy  who  made  conquest  of  the  premier,  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  who  won  for  himself  an  imperishable  name  hy 
repealing  in  ISIO  the  corn  laws,  thus  "giving  the  people 
bread,  no  longer  leavened,"  as  he  promlly  said,  "  by  a  sense 
of  injustice."  Never  was  such  a  wreck  of  political  reputa- 
tions as  took  place  within  a  few  years  of  the  abcdition  of 
protection  in  corn.  Nothing  happened  which  had  been  pre- 
dicted by  the  prognosticators  of  disaster.  Puoi-  lands  were 
more  cultivated  tluin  hef(trc ;  no  stoppage  of  imports  by 
war  has  occurred;  manufacturers  and  shopkeepers  have 
thriven  beyond  all  the  dreams  (tf  prosjierity  ;  instead  of 
rents  of  land  falling,  the  aristocracy,  the  chief  owners  of 
it,  have  grown  rich  while  they  slept,  and  farmers  have 
found  *'  ruin  '*  a  very  pleasant  thing  to  them.  The  working 
classes  have  been  better  instead  of  worse  employed,  and 


their  wages  in  large  districts  now  excite  the  jealousy  of 
curates,  while  the  agricultural  laborers  are  at  last  able  to 
insist  upon  improved  provision  for  themselves.  A  stimulus, 
inconeei\  able  heretofore,  has  been  given  to  trade;  fluctua- 
tions in  the  price  of  corn  have  decreased  ;  api)rehensions 
of  insuthcicnt  harvests  no  longer  excite  dread,  and  the  Brit- 
ish race  are  physically  much  improved  since  the  days  before 
Cobden  and  Bright  arose.  The  victory  of  (he  Anti-Corn  Law 
League  was  the  greatest  ever  won  by  reason  in  the  history 
of  human  agitations.  Neither  in  piety  nor  morals  nor  trade 
are  men  for  trusting  one  another.  Everybody  is  for  pro- 
tecting his  neighbor  from  benefiting  himself.  Nobody  is 
for  leaving  freedom  free.  The  princi])le  of  progress  in 
commerce  and  social  life  is  not  to  limit  litierty,  but  to  limit 
injury.  It  was  the  establishment  of  this  principle  in  trade 
that  caused  this  League  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  histo- 
ric forces  of  British  civilization.     Gkoiu;k  J.  Holvoake. 

League,  Hoi  y[Fr./,'f.S'fl("»rf  Lk/jk"),  called  The  League 
par  fscellmrc,  was  entered  into  in  I'tTll  jit  Peronne,  by  tlie 
beads  of  the  Catholic  jiarty  under  the  leadershij)  of  Guise, 
for  resistance  to  the  spread  of  Protestantism  and  opjto- 
sition  to  the  succession  of  the  Calvintstic  princes  to  the 
French  throno.  This  led  to  the  renewal  of  the  bloody 
civil  wars,  which  were  not  ended  until  1690,  when  Henry 
IV.  won  the  battle  of  Ivry. 

LeaKe,  county  of  Central  Mississippi.  Area,  570  square 
miles.  It  is  undulating  and  fertile,  and  is  traversed  by 
Pearl  River  and  its  aflluents.  Cotton  and  corn  are  staple 
products.     Cap.  Carthage.     Pop.  8490. 

Leake  (Sir  John),  b.  at  Rotherhithe,  England,  in  1 050; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  naval  service  during  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  by  taking  Newfoundland  from 
the  French  (1702),  for  which  he  was  made  admiral  and 
knighted:  relieved  Gibraltar  in  Oct.,  1701,  and  Mar.,  17U0, 
forcing  the  French  and  Spaniards  to  abandon  the  siege; 
took  part  in  the  reduction  of  Barcelona  the  same  year;  cap- 
tured Carthagcnaand  Majorca  in  170G;  became  commander- 
in-ebief  of  the  fleet  in  1707;  took  Sardinia  and  I\Iiuorca 
in  1708;  became  rear-admiral  of  (Jreat  Britain  and  lord 
of  the  admiralty  in  1709;  represented  Rochester  in  Par- 
liament for  some  years,  and  d.  at  Greenwich  Aug.  1,  1720. 

Leake  (Stkphen  Martin),  F.  S.  A.,  b.  in  England  in 
1702  ;  was  an  eminent  autliority  upon  heraldry  and  numis- 
matics: became  Clarencieux  Herald  in  1741,  Garter  Herald 
in  1754  ;  published  a  manual  of  British  coins,  Summi  liri- 
tfitniic!  Hifitftrioj  in  17-t',  and  a  Life  of  his  uncle,  Sir  John 
Leake,  in  17o0.     D.  in  London  Mar.  S-l,  1774, 

Leake  (William  Mahtin),  b.  in  London,  England,  in 
Jan..  1777;  educated  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich;  obtained  a  commission  in  tlie  artillery  in  I7W4; 
served  in  the  West  Indies;  sent  in  171*11  to  Constantinople 
to  instruct  the  Turks  in  the  use  of  artillery;  appointed  in 

1500  to  advise  the  Turks  in  resisting  the  French,  and  pro- 
ceeded  through  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  to  Egypt  ;  iind  in 

1501  was  engaged  with  William  Hamilton  in  making  a 
general  survey  of  I'pper  Egypt.  In  1S04  he  was  ajq)ointcd 
to  survey  tlie  coasts  and  fortresses  of  European  Turkey, 
and  made  a  careful  exploration  of  (Jreece.  For  many  years 
he  was  frequently  employed  upon  government  commissions 
in  the  East,  and  gave  the  result  of  his  researches  in  the 
learned  works  Jiescarches  in  Grrrcc  (1SI4 ),  7'i'potftaphi/ 
of  Athrns  (1S21).  Journal  of  a  Tour  iu  Atiin  Minor  (182-1), 
Travch  in  the  Morca  (18H0),  Travels  in  Northern  Greece 
(18.3.5).  /V/o;joHnr«(«eff  (1846),  A'irm/smnM  Hrffrnira  (18.04), 
Dinpufrd  QucntiotiH  of  Ancient  Geoffrapfn/  f  I8i^7),  antl  ///«- 
torivnf  Oiitliiir  of  the  Greek  Jierohifimi  (1820),  and  other 
minor  political  works.  He  attained  tlie  rank  of  colonel; 
retired  from  the  army  in  1823,  and  devoted  himself  thence- 
forth chiefly  to  geography.  In  ls;?.S  he  married  I^Irs. 
Mnr.=dcn,  v-idow  of  the  historian  of  Sumatra  and  daughter 
of  the  learned  Orientalist  Sir  Cliarles  Wilkins.  and  she 
rendered  him  valuable  assistance  in  Iiis  literary  tasks. 
Filling  important  posts  in  the  geographical  and  antiqua- 
rian societies  of  London,  he  was  for  many  years  a  lea<iing 
authority  njion  Eastern  questions.  He  was  an  ardent  sym- 
pathizerwith  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  independence. 
I),  at  Brighton  Jan.  0,  1860. 

Leakes'iille,  ])Ost-v.,  cap.  of  Greene  co.,  Miss.,  on 
Chiekasawha  River. 

Leaks'villCf  post-tp.  of  Rockingham  co.,  N.  C.  Pop. 
20:;  1. 

Leam'ing  (Jeremiah),  D.  D..  b.  at  Middletown.  Conn., 
in  1710;  graduated  at  Yale  in  174;'):  wits  ordained  to  the 
Episcopal  ministry  in  1748;  preached  eight  years  at  New- 
port, R.  1.,  twenty-one  years  at  Norwalk,  and  eight  years 
at  Stratford.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  was  im- 
prisoned as  a  Tory,  contracting  a  disease  of  the  hip  which 
rendered  him  a  cripple.  On  account  of  infirmity  he  de- 
clined iu  1783  an  election  as  first  bishop  of  the  American 


LEAMINGTON— LEATHER. 


1697 


Episcopal  Church.  He  wrote  a  Defence  of  the  Epiaeopal 
Gutfemnient  of  the  Church  (1766),  a  Second  Vf/encf  (1770), 
Et'idencea  of  the  Truth  of  Chriatianity  (I'SJt.  and  Ditter- 
tntinna  mi  Variona  Subjecta  ( 1789).  D.  at  New  Haven.  Cono., 
8epi.  i:..  1S04. 

Leam'ington,  or  Leamington  Priors,  town  of 
EnglniHl,  2  uiilc:^  from  Warwick,  on  the  Leain.  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  8pring;s,  saline,  sulphurous,  and  chalybeate, 
whii'h  attract  a  large  number  of  fashionable  guests  during 
the  season  from  October  to  May.  It  is  wholly  of  modern 
growth,  and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  places  in  England. 
Pop.  22.7.iO. 

Leap  Vear.     See  Calendar,  by  F.  A.  P.  Baiisabd. 

Lear  (  Tobias  >,  b.  at  Portsmouth,  N.  II.,  Sept.  19.1762; 
graduated  at  Harvard  I'niversity  in  \~^^;  became  private 
secretary  to  Washington  in  KSo;  was  consul-general  at 
Santo  Domingo  ^1802)  and  at  Algiers  (1S04);  was  in  1805 
commissioner  to  negotiate  peace  with  Tripoli,  and  return- 
ing to  the  U.  S.  became  accountant  in  the  war  department. 
D.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Oct.  U,  1816. 

Lcar'ned  (tJen.  Ebrxezer),  b.  in  Massachusetts  about 
1728;  was  a  captain  in  the  French  war  ( I7o(>-C3)  ;  raised 
the  ;id  Massachusetts  regiment  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary war;  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in  Apr., 
1777:  took  part  in  the  relief  of  Fort  Schuyler  (Aug.,  1777), 
and  commanded  the  cpntre  at  the  battle  of  Stillwater  (Sept. 
19,  1777):  was  at  Valley  Forge  the  ensuing  winter,  and 
was  forL-ed  by  broken  health  to  retire  from  service  in  Mar., 
1778.  A  pension  was  granted  him  in  1795.  D.at  Oxford, 
Mass..  Apr.  I,  1801. 

Lcas'burg,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Caswell  co.,  N.  C.  Pop. 
1461. 

Lease.  Sec  Landloiid  and  Tenant  in  Law,  by  Prof. 
T.  W.  DwiGiiT,  LL.l). 

Lease  and  Release*  See  Bargain  and  Sale,  by 
Pkok.  T.  W.  DwiGiiT,  I.L.D. 

Leather  [Sax.  ieth^r,  from  /iVAe,  "soft:"  Ger.  Leder  ;  \ 
Fr.  ruiVJ.  the  skins  of  animals  prepared  by  processes  which  i 
protect  them  from  putrefaction  and  render  them  soft,  pli-  I 
al)le,  tough,  and  non-transparent.  [ 

Hittorxf. — .^kins  constituted  the  first  clothing  of  man,  , 
and  have  been  more  or  less  perfectly  prepared  from  the  j 
earliest  times.  Persian  and  Babylonian  leather  was  long 
celebrated,  and  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  \ 
era  the  Russians  and  Hungarians  were  most  skilful  tan- 
ners. The  earliest  method  consisted  undoubtedly  in  cleans-  ' 
\u%  and  drying  the  skins.  Then  fat,  smoke,  urine,  sour 
milk,  brains,  etc.  were  in  time  found  to  be  cfhcaeious. 
Later,  astringents — nut-galls  in  the  East  and  oak-bark  in 
the  West — were  introduced,  giving  rise  to  the  process  of 
t'ttiin'tnj,  and  alum  to  ttiiring.  It  was  not  till  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  that  the  true  nature  of  the  processes 
began  to  be  understood,  when  the  structure  of  the  skin  and 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  agents  employed  had  become 
knuwn.  In  1778,  Macbride  proposed  raising  skins  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  :  in  179.1,  Dej'eux  recognized  tannin 
as  a  peculiar  boly,  and  in  1795,  Seguin  showed  that  leather 
tanned  with  oak-bark  was  a  compound  of  tannin  with  the 
animal  tissue,  and  proposed  his  process  of  quick  tanning. 
Ranks  in  ISO  I  discovered  the  tanning  projiertics  of  terra 
japonica,  and  Pelouze  in  1H;U  investigated  nut-galls  and 
showed  the  acid  character  of  tannin.  Davy,  Proust,  Vau- 
quclin,  Chaptal,  F.  Knapp,  Rollet.  and  many  other  chem- 
ists contributed  important  investigations  on  the  subject. 
Mechanism  has  done  much  more  than  chemistry  to  expe- 
dite the  operations  antl  improve  the  appearance  of  leather. 
It  is  an  unfortunate  fact,  however,  that  in  most  cases  tho 
quality  of  the  leather  has  deteriorated  in  proportion  as  tho 
processes  have  been  quickened. 

The  Mnnufartnre  of  Leather  is  conducted  in  three  en- 
tirely distinct  ways:  I.  lanninrf  by  tho  aid  of  bodies  con- 
tiiiiiing  tannin;  II.  fotri'iiy  with  alum  and  common  salt; 
Hi.  f*nriM«/ with  oil.  The  whole  skin  is  not  converted  into 
leather,  hut  only  thai  portion  known  as  Xhc corium  or  drrntn, 
which  possesses  a  fibrous  texture.  This  is  covered  on  the 
hair  or  bloom  side  by  the  epiclermis,  consisting  of  nu- 
cleated cells,  and  on  the  flesh  sicle  by  a  fatly  tissue,  both 
of  whii'h  are  removed  by  the  tanner. 

I.  Tnnninfj. — The  skins  of  almost  all  quadrupeds  may 
be  converted  into  leather.  In  practice,  the  hides  of  bulls 
and  oxen  yield  the  best  leather  for  soles,  harness,  and  for 
belting;  calves'  nkins  furnish  the  best  upper  leather  for 
boots  and  choes  :  lamb,  sheep,  goat,  and  buck  skins  are 
generally  tawed  with  alum  or  oil  for  the  preparation  of 
glove,  wash,  or  bookbinders'  leather.  Most  of  tho  so- 
called  huckakin  is  now  prepared  by  tawing  the  skins  of 
wild  hog:^  from  Africa.  Alligators*  hides  have  recently 
been  introduced  for  boots  and  t*hoes.  Horse,  ass,  pig,  and 
seal  skins  are  tanned  for  trunks  and  saddlerv  purposes. 
\.M,.  11.-107 


Preparation  of  the  Skina. — (1)  Steeping  or  macerating 
in  water  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  solteu  tho  skin  and  to 
remove  blood  and  dirt.  Fresh  hides  arc  macerated  two  or 
three  days,  dried  or  salted  hides  eight  or  ten  days.  They 
are  taken  out  of  the  water  twice  daily  and  put  hack  again. 
(2)  Cleansing  the  flesh  side  is  etfected  by  supporting  the 
hide  on  a  "  tree  "  or  "  beam,"  a  stout  semicircular  plank, 
and  scraping  it  with  a  dressing-knife  to  remove  the  fatly 
tissue,  etc.  (3)  Loosening  tho  hair  is  eff"ected  by  sweating, 
liming,  or  treatnu-nt  with  depilatories.  Sweating  is  a 
putrefactive  fermentation  which  is  often  resorted  tu  lor  solo 
leather,  as  lime  tends  to  render  the  leather  brittle.  Tho 
hides  are  piled  up  with  the  flesh  side  inward  in  a  tank 
which  can  bo  closed  to  retain  tho  heat  generated  by  the 
fermentation.  Some  salt  or  wood  vinegar  is  generally 
rubbed  on  them  beforehand.  When  tlic  smell  of  ammonia 
is  perceptible  the  operation  is  completed.  Similar  results 
are  obtained  by  hanging  the  hides  in  rooms  heated  to  from 
86°  to  122°  F.^  the  air  of  which  is  kept  moist  by  steam. 
Liming  consists  in  placing  the  hiih's  in  vats  with  milk  of 
Hme,  frequently  transferring  them  from  one  vat  to  another, 
or  taking  them  out  and  replacing  them,  to  allow  the  limo 
to  act  equally  on  every  part.  When  the  hair  is  found  to 
be  i)roperly  loosened  the  hides  are  withdrawn.  Depila- 
tories are  used  for  skins  of  the  smaller  animal?,  which  will 
sustain  neither  sweating  nor  liming.  Rhusmn,  a  mixture 
of  orpiment  and  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  slaked 
lime,  has  long  been  used.  It  is  rubbed  on  the  hair  side  of 
the  skin,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  contact  till  the  hair  is 
sufficiently  loosened.  Sulphide  of  calcium,  which  is  the 
active  agent  in  the  rhusma,  has  of  late  been  substituted 
for  it.  The  refuse  lime  of  gasworks  contains  a  consiiler- 
able  proportion  of  this  comjiound,  and  may  be  used  with 
advantage.  In  (iermany  sulphide  of  sodium  is  now  used, 
either  in  solution  (I  part  to  100  of  water),  or  as  a  paste  with 
three  times  its  weight  of  lime  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water.  The  paste  is  ajppliod  with  a  brush  to  the  hair  side,  and 
the  hides  are  then  covered  with  damp  matting,  to  prevent 
tlie  drying  of  the  paste;  tho  process  is  complete  in  fifteen  or 
twenty  hours.  Acid  liquids  possess  some  depilatory  power, 
and  are  sometimes  used.  The  Calmuck  Tartars  employ 
sour  milk.  The  acid  liquid  resulting  from  the  fermenta- 
tion of  barley  or  rye  meal  in  water  has  been  used.  (4) 
Removing  tho  hair  is  efi'ected  by  scraj.ing  on  the  beam  with 
the  dressing-knife.  The  skins  arc  then  washed  in  water. 
(5)  Bating  is  next  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
the  lime  and  the  lime  soaps  which  have  been  formed  in  the 
skin.  The  material  employed  is  the  dung  of  i)igeons, 
fowls,  or  dogs,  mixed  with  water.  The  skins  are  placed  in 
this,  and  frequently  handled  to  secure  uniform  action.  Tho 
dash-wheel  is  used  in  large  establishments  to  keep  the  con- 
tents of  the  vat  in  constant  motion  and  save  handling. 
Rating  is  very  efl"eclive,  but  it  is  attended  with  some  dis- 
advantages. The  putrefaction  of  the  liate  during  the 
steeping  injures  the  skins,  renders  them  lighter,  and  di- 
minishes their  strength.  Tho  jirocoss  must  therefore  be 
carefully  watched  ami  interrupted  at  the  iiroper  moment. 
Dilute  hydrocbl<irie  aeiil.  and  even  sugar  solutions — 4  or  5 

(jounds  of  sugar  or  molasses  to  (iU  gallons  of  water — have 
jccn  recommended  as  substitutes  for  dung.  (6)  Swelling 
or  raising  the  hides  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  swell  tho 
fibres,  and  make  the  skins  more  susceptible  to  tho  oction 
of  the  tanning  solutions.  The  swelling-bath  may  consist  of 
(ol  barley  meal  and  one-tenth  its  weight  of  sour  dough 
difl"u8ed  in  water,  which  yield  by  fermentation  lactic  and 
other  acids;  (h)  of  spent  tan-liquor,  wliieh  contains  con- 
siderable lactic  and  butyric  acid  :  (f )  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
1  part  of  acid  to  H'OO  or  15110  id"  water.  Considerable  prej- 
udice exists  against  sulphuric  acid,  tm  the  ground  that  it 
injures  the  quality  of  the  leather,  hut  it  is  still  extensively 
used.  (7)  Tanninfj. — The  tanning  materials  are  various 
astringent  vegetable  products  which  contain  tannin  (tan- 
nic acidt.  Those  most  useil  are  oak,  fir.  and  hemlnek  bark, 
sumac,  divi-divi,  Valonia  nuts,  myrohalans.  euteh,  gam- 
bir,  catechu,  and  kino.  (Sec  article  Tansr' AciD.)  The 
impregnation  of  the  hides  with  tannin  is  efi'ected  by  (o) 
placing  them  between  layers  of  coarsely  crushed  bark  in  a 
vat,  which  is  then  filled  with  water  or  old  liquors;  (A)  im- 
mersing them  in  fir^t  a  weak  aqueous  infusion  of  the  tan- 
ning material,  and  afti-rwards  in  a  stronger:  [r)  sewing 
two  hides  together  into  a  sack  and  filling  this  with  the  tan- 
ning solution.  The  progress  of  the  operation  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  exiinnning  ll»e  hide  on  a  freshly  cut  edge,  which 
shows  the  depth  to  which  the  tannic  acid  has  penetrated. 
When  the  appearance  is  uniform  throughout  the  ibiekness 
the  tanning  is  completed.  Quick  tanning  maybe  accom- 
plished by  various  means,  some  good,  others  objectionable, 
(n)  The  a}>plica(ion  of  hydrostatic  pressure  to  force  the 
liquor  through  tho  hides;  (t)  cireuhitinn  of  the  liquor 
among  the  hides;  {c)  sewing  tho  hides  into  sacks,  filling 
witli  oak-bark  chips  and  water,  and  immersing  in  vals  of 


1698 


LEATHER. 


catechu  infusion  made  dense  by  molasses  ;  {d)  motion  of 
the  hides  in  the  lifjuor :  (e)  frequent  withdrawal  and  work- 
ing of  the  hides  on  rollers;  (/)  puncturing  the  hides  wilh 
sharp  needles  to  produce  artificial  pores;  (;/)  treatment,  of 
the  hides  in  vacuo.  (8)  Currying  is  the  jirocess  by  which 
the  tanned  skins,  after  being  converted  into  leather,  are 
prepared  for  use.  For  sole  leather  it  consists  in  merely 
hauunenng  the  dried  hide  to  render  it  more  compact.  For 
upjier  leather,  used  for  boots  and  shoes,  it  consists  of  (n) 
pari  rig  with  a  knife  to  secure  uniform  thickness ;  (i)  scrap- 
ing for  a  similar  purpose;  (.)  graining  with  the  pommel  or 
graining-board;  {d)  finishing  off  with  a  flattening  iron  or 
horn  to  remove  creases,  etc.;  (e)  greasing,  which  consists 
in  rubbing  in  a  mi.Nture  of  oil  and  tallow  :  the  skins  are 
previously  moistened,  and  after  the  .application  of  the 
grease  are  hung  in  warm  rooms  to  dry  it  iu  ;  (/)  blacken- 
ing, which  is  effected  by  an  application  of  a  fresh  .solution 
of  oak-bark,  and  then  of  copperas  (ferrous  sulphate)  solu- 
tion, to  which  some  blue  vitriol  (cupric  sulphate)  has  been 
added;  (7)  greasing  again;  (*)  applying  a  solution  of 
glue  and  (allow;  (0  polishing  with  glass.  (For  details  with 
regard  to  special  varieties  of  leather  see  below,  and  also 
Morocco  LuATHF.n.)  Lacquered  leather,  commonly  called 
patent  leather,  is  made  by  applying  a  varnish  to  the 
leather,  and  then  placing  it  in  a  stove  heated  to  about  120° 
F.  This  causes  the  varnish  to  become  thin,  to  spread  out 
evenly,  and  dry  to  a  smooth,  polished  surface.  Cow  or 
split  skins  are  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 

Corduran  differs  from  morocco  in  being  prepared  from 
heavy  skins,  and  by  retaining  its  natural  grain.  It  is  a 
soft,  fine-grained,  colored  leather,  usually  dyed  red,  yellow, 
or  black.  It  was  originally  prepared  by  the  ancient  Ori- 
entals. It  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  at  Cordova  in 
Spain,  whence  the  name.  The  French  name  for  shoe- 
maker, cnvdouitifr,  is  probably  derived  from  this  leather. 
The  manufacture  of  this  leather  was  established  at  Cor- 
dova, and  for  a  long  time  European  markets  were  ohiefiy 
supplied  from  this  city.  The  best  qualities  of  cordovan 
are  now  made  at  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  Aleppo; 
Bremen  supplies  the  best  German. 

Yufis  or  liussiii  Leather  is  a  very  strong,  pliant,  and 
watertight  leather,  usually  colored  red  or  black,  which  has 
a  peculiar  penetrating  odor,  due  to  the  oil  of  birch  with 
which  it  is  impregnated.  It  was  invented  by  the  Bulga- 
rians. The  best  is  made  in  various  Russian  and  Lithua- 
nian provinces.  The  name  yufts  is  derived  from  the  Russian 
jiifti,  signifying  a  pair,  and  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
two  hides  are  sewed  together  in  the  form  of  a  sack  for  the 
dyeing  operation.  The  hides  of  young  cattle  are  generally 
employerl.  but  sometimes  horse,  sheep,  goat,  and  calfskins 
arc  employed.  The  hides  are  cleansed  with  lime  in  the 
usual  manner.  They  are  swelled  in  an  acid  bath  prepared 
wilh  malt,  exhausted  tan-liquor,  or  hiiKchkn,  the  dung  of 
dogs  rubbed  up  with  water.  Willow,  fir.  and  birch  b.irk 
arc  employed  in  the  tanning.  The  hides  are  first  sub- 
mitted for  some  days  to  the  action  of  partially  exhausted 
bark  ;  they  are  then  placed  in  vats  with  fresh  bark,  or  a 
warm  infusion  made  from  it.  The  tanning  requires  five 
or  six  weeks.  The  tanned  hides  are  next  impregnated  with 
dii/i/iit  or  elachert,  the  oil  of  birch  obtained  from  bireh-wood 
by  dry  distillation.  It  is  rubbed  in  on  the  Hesh  side,  and 
when  the  hides  are  thoroughly  impregnated,  they  are 
stretched  till  soft  and  supidc.  They  are  then  rubbed  on 
the  hair  side  with  .alum  solution,  grained,  and  dried.  The 
dry  hides  are  sowed  together  in  pairs,  forming  sacks  which 
arc  filled  wilh  the  dye-liquor,  which  for  red  is  a  decoction 
of  sandal-wood.  Tlio  dyed  leather  is  dressed  by  the  usual 
mechanical  operations.  Russia  leather  is  specially  useful 
for  bookbinding,  the  oil  of  birch  repelling  insects. 

II.  'fiiwiiiij  wilh  Alnmiu'i  S'llis  ("white  tanning")  is 
generally  resorted  to  for  sheep  and  goat  skins,  though  it  is 
also  applied  to  cow  and  ox  hides  for  moccasin  and  lace 
leather.  The  thick  skins  are  prepared  as  for  tanning ; 
sheep  and  goat  skina  arc  nuire  carefully  cleansed  and  freed 
from  hair  and  wool.  Lime  and  fermented  bran-liquor  are 
used,  however,  as  already  described.  The  skins  are  then 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  common  salt  and  alum.  After 
removal  from  Ihe  solution  and  drying  Ihe  skins  appear 
shrunken  and  stiff.  In  order  to  restore  suppleness  and 
flexibility  they  are  dampened  with  water,  and  subjected  to 
meeh.anical  operations  which  stretch  and  knea<I  them.  If 
thin  they  are  stretched  on  a  frame  to  dry.  Thick  hides  arc 
greased  as  described  under  Toituinf/.  Fine  glove-leather  is 
tawed  by  a  different  process.  The  .skins  of  kids  or  lambs 
arc  most  carefully  handled  to  avoid  abrading  or  staining 
them.  They  arc  cleansed  and  unhaired  by  lime  and  bran- 
liquora  as  for  ordinary  tawing.  The  tawing  is  effected 
by  applying  a  paste  composed  of  wheat  flour,  yolks  of  eggs, 
alum,  common  salt,  and  water.  As  the  yolks  of  eggs  aid 
by  furnishing  tlie  oil  which  they  contain  in  tl»e  state  of 
emulsion,  which   gives  the  kid   leather  its  highly  prized 


suppleness  and  softness,  they  may  be  replaced  by  an  emul- 
sion of  almond,  olive,  or  fish  oil.  The  skins  are  thoroughly 
soaked  and  kneaded  in  the  paste,  to  which  2  or  3  per  cent, 
of  carbolic  acid  is  often  added  to  prevent  putrefaction,  and 
packed  in  heaps.  They  are  then  stretched  by  hand  and 
rapidly  dried  in  the  air.  They  are  then  dampened,  placed 
in  linen  cloths,  and  trodden  to  render  them  soft.  They 
are  then  planed,  dried,  and  planed  again,  polished  by  rub- 
bing with  a  heavy  glass  disk  or  by  the  apprctcur,  simulta- 
neously with  the"  application  of  some  white  of  egg,  gum, 
or  fine  soap,  to  give  a  gloss  to  the  hair  side,  which  is  after- 
wards dyed. 

Shaf/rcen. — Genuine  Oriental  shagreen  (unghi'r,  saf/ri, 
srir/rc)  is  a  variety  of  tawed  leather  which  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  its  hardness  and  strength.  Its  appearance 
is  very  peculiar,  the  grain  side  being  covered  with  globular 
granules,  which  are  produced  by  stamping  the  hard  seeds 
of  the  wild  orach  (Chenopodiiim  nlbmn)  into  the  wet  hide, 
and  afterwards  knocking  them  out.  This  leather  origin- 
ated in  the  East,  and  the  best  is  now  brought  from  Persia, 
Constantinople,  Algiers,  and  Tripoli.  The  name  shagreen 
is  also  applied  to  fish-skin  prepared  for  covers  and  for  pol- 
ishing wood. 

III.  Tmeing  wilh  Oil  {"  Samian  tawing  "),  for  the  prep- 
aration of  shammy  (chamois)  or  ivash-leather.  For  this 
leather  the  upper  or  exterior  layer  of  the  corium  of  the 
thick  skins  is  cut  away,  as  it  is  too  compact  and  prevents 
the  ready  absorption  of  oil.  Thin  skins,  as  those  of  lambs 
and  goats,  are  not  deprived  of  the  exterior  layer.  The 
skins  are  prepared  with  lime  and  the  subsequent  bran-bath, 
as  in  alum-tawing.  They  are  then  stretched  and  rubbed 
with  oil,  which  is  worked  in  by  the  fulling-machine.  They 
are  then  hung  in  the  air.  Oiling,  stamping  in  the  fulling- 
machine,  and  exposure  to  the  air  are  repeated  till  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  oil  has  lieen  worked  into  the  skin.  The 
skins  are  then  heaped  together  in  a  warm  room  to  produce 
a  kind  of  fermentation,  which  must  be  carefully  watched, 
and  occasionally  interrupted  by  airing  to  prevent  over- 
heating. The  oil  becomes  rancid  by  these  operations,  and 
appears  to  combine  wilh  the  animal  fibres  of  the  skin. 
The  uncombincd  oil  is  then  removed  by  a  tepid  bath  of 
potash  solution,  and  the  skins  are  wrung  out  and  dried. 
The  softness  and  suppleness  are  restored  by  dressing. 
Cordovan  or  Turkey  leather  is  oil-tawed,  without  having 
the  hair  side  removed,  while  the  flesh  side  is  blackened  in 
the  usual  wav. 

Stearic  Acid  Taicinr). — According  to  Knapp's  researches, 
a  very  good  white  kid  leather  is  obtained  by  tawing  the 
epidermis  (lilosa)  from  lamb  or  goat  skins  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  stearic  acid  in  alcohol.  The  leather  thus  ob- 
tained is  very  soft,  has  a  whiter  color  than  ordinary  glace 
leather,  and  a  beautiful  gloss. 

Sialistio. — According  to  the  report  of  the  ninth  census 
there  were  in  1S70  in  the  U.  S.  42:17  tanneries,  with  a  cap- 
ital of  $42,720,505,  erajdoying  20,784  hands,  and  paying 
$7,9:14,416  in  wages  per  annum.  The  bark  employed 
amounted  to  1, 255, ;i4fi  cords,  valued  at  $0,089,303;  8,788,752 
hides,  9,664,148  skins,  and  other  materials  of  a  value  of 
$1,631,234,  wore  used,  the  t^^tal  value  of  (he  materials  be- 
ing $63,069,491.  The  products  were  17,577,404  sides  of 
leather  and  9,794,148  skins,  of  an  aggregate  value  of 
$86,169,883.  There  were  also  3083  establishments  for  cur- 
rying leather,  with  a  capital  of  $12,303,785,  employing 
10,027  hands,  and  paying  .$4,154,114  in  wages.  Theae 
consumed — 

9,13:!,:W0  sides,  value $33,784,271 

4,084,980  skins,  value 6,833,215 

2,089,754  gallons  oil,  value ''oi'?i?2 

Other  materials,  value 1.305.612 

Cost  of  all  materials S43,.56.5,,')93 

and  produced  9,133.330  sides  of  leather  and  4,084.980 
skins,  the  total  value  of  which  was  $54,191,167.  New  York 
and  Boston  arc  the  great  markets  for  all  sorts  of  leather  in 
this  country. 

Lilcratiire. —  The.  Art)  of  Taniiinr)  and  Curryinr).  by  Camp- 
bell Morfit;  A  New  avd'ComplrIc  Trealinc  on  tlie  Artn  of 
Tannine/,  Curryimi,  and  Lealhcr-IJrem'nij,  by  11.  Dussauee; 
C.  H.  Schmidt's  Hnndliuch  der  Lohrjcrhcrei  ;  Ilandburh  der 
WciHsyerberei  ;  Die  Siiffianfabricalion  ;  Die  Lcdcrfdrbe- 
kunsl ;  Die  A'i! rtchnerkuniit ;  and  Knodorer's  Xeue  Wich- 
li<;c  Erfindun//  in  der  Lnhijerherei ;  Hie  Fabrikalion  den 
Lohfiaren  Ledem  in  Deultehland,  by  F.  A.  Gunther;  Lehr- 
buck  der  SohUedertjcrberei.  by  Von  Bichon  ;  Naliir  nnd  De- 
sens  der  Irerberei,  by  F.  Knapp  ;  Die  Dentnehe  (Jerberzeitnnr/  ; 
Nenea  Journal  der  ijeitammten  Gerberei  ;  Gerber  Conner  ; 
Cuire  et  Pe.anx.  by  H.  Villain  ;  MaKriel  den  Indrntries  dn 
t'lii'i-.  by  J.  P.  Damouretti ;  Cuim  el  Peanr,  by  M.  Fauler, 
Rapports  dn  .lury  International  Exp.  Vnir.  18$7  ;  Ure's 
Dictionary  of  Artn.  Mnnnfaclnres,  and  Mines;  Wagner's 
rcc/iiin/o./'v  ;"  Watls's  Diilionary ;  Muspratt's  Chemistry, 
especially  last  German  edition,  C.  F.  Chandler. 


LEATIIEK-WOOD— LEBANON. 


1609 


Leatlier'-wood,  Moose*\vood,  or  Wic'opy,  the 

lUrvn  piiiugtrin,  a  shrub  of  tbo  order  Thyiuelacea?,  i«  abun- 
dant in  the  iiurtheni  parts  of  North  America.  Its  tough 
b;irk  was  Ui^cd  by  the  ludiaus  fur  thongs  or  cordage.  Tbo 
bark  has  irritant  cathartic  properties,  and  its  decoction  in 
small  doses  is  recommended  fur  tho  cure  of  sick  headache. 
Its  wood  is  very  white,  soft,  and  brittle. 

Leather\vood,post-tp.  of  Henry  co.,  Va.    Pop.  3673. 

Leathcs  (StanluvV  D.  D.,  b.  at  EUesborough,  Eng- 
land, Mar.  21,  1S30;  educated  at  ('auii>ridgc ;  served  us 
curate  in  several  churches  in  London  ;  became  in  ISO'S  pro- 
fes.^or  of  Hebrew  in  King's  College,  London,  and  has  espe- 
cially devoted  liimself  to  Christian  evidences.  IIo  was 
Boylo  lecturcrfrom  ISfiS  to  187*',  Ihilsean  lecturer  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1S73,  and  Bampton  lectun'r  at  Oxford  in  1S74; 
is  a  member  of  the  Anglican  commission  for  tho  revision 
of  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  was  one  of  tho 
delegates  to  tho  Evangelical  Alliance  in  the  session  of 
1S7;I  in  New  York.  Ilis  best  known  work  is  the  W'itneHs 
of  Si.  John  to  Cfirhf. 

Jj'Eaa  qui  Court,  a  former  county  of  Nebraska,  now 
called  Kni>x  (which  sec). 

Leav'el  (Rev.  Hadi-n),  M.  D.,  b.  in  Madison  co.,  Ivy., 
May,  1812:  graduated  at  the  rniversity  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1833;  practised  medicine  in  Kentucky  and  Jli^sissippi 
for  several  years,  and  in  1847  entered  tho  ministry,  in  which 
be  rose  to  eminence.  Ho  was  pastor  of  t!io  Alctbodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  Vicksburg,  at  tho  time  of  his 
death,  Sept.  11,  1847.  T.  0.  f^i'MMEiis. 

Lcav'en  [Fr.  /er«m,  from  Lat.  fcvarc,  to  "raise"],  a 
piece  of  sour  dough  used  for  raising  bread.  The  principle 
of  its  action  is  the  same  as  that  of  Ykasv  (which  see). 

IjCav'cnworth,  county  of  N.  E.  Kansas,  bounded  E. 

i)artly  by  the  Mi.'^souri  River  and  S.  by  the  Kansas  River. 
[t  has  a  rich  and  well-cultivated  soil.  Coal  is  found.  Cat- 
tle, grain,  and  wool  are  staple  products.  Tobacco,  car- 
riages, and  clothing  arc  the  most  important  articles  of 
manufacture.  Tho  county  is  traversed  by  several  railroads. 
Cap.  Leavenworth.     Pop.  32,444. 

Leavcuwortliy  post-v.,  cap.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ind., 
on  the  Ohio  River,  CO  miles  below  Louisville,  Ky.  It  has 
a  gracliMi  s'shool,  a  newspaper,  and  is  a  good  shipping-point. 
Tho  Great  Wyandotte  Cavo  is  situated  6  miles  E.  of  the 
town.     Pop.  007. 

Leavenworth^  city  and  cap.  of  Leavenworth  co.,  Kan., 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Missouri  River.  39  miles  from  Kan- 
gas  City,  Mo.,  and  312  miles  by  land  above  St.  Louis  ;  E. 
terminus  of  tho  Kansas  Central  fnarrow  gauge)  and  the 
Kansas  Paoific  R.  Rs, ;  N.  terminus  of  the  Leavenworth 
Lawrence  and  Galveston,  and  the  W.  terminus  of  the  S.  \V. 
line  of  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacilic  R.  R.,  which 
latter  roa<l  crosses  tho  Missouri  at  this  point  over  a  mag- 
nificent iron  bridge  constructed  at  a  cost  of  $l.nOO,OUU. 
The  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  known  as  tho  Missouri  Pacific, 
ami  tho  Kansas  City  St.  Jo?epli  and  Council  lilufls  R.  Rs.. 
also  pass  through  the  city..  Leavenworth  contains  27 
churches,  9  commodious  school-buildings,  several  private 
seminaries,  Slate  normal  schoid,  the  St.  Mary's  (Catholic) 
Academy,  2  orphan  asylums,  4  daily  and  0  weekly  ucws- 

Impers,  4  monthly  periodicals,  2  insnrnm-o  companies,  6 
tanks,  a  paid  fire  department,  and  4  miles  of  street  rail- 
way. The  Kansas  State  penitentiary  is  situated  4  miles  S, 
of  tho  city.  Fort  Leavenworth  military  reservation  ad- 
joins the  city  on  the  \.,  and  has  a  military  prison.  Leaven- 
wrtrlh  d-Tives  its  chief  impnrtancv  from  the  nmnufaoturo 
of  carpets,  furniture,  stoves,  engines,  mining  machinery, 
and  iron  bridges.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  tho  State,  a  great 
centre  of  trade  with  the  Territories,  and  is  noted  among 
Western  cities  for  its  elegant  resiliences  an<l  its  many  miles 
of  sha<le<l  thoroughfares.  The  first  house  was  built  in  1H.")4. 
I'op.  17, X7;!.  J.  W.  RoBKHTS,  K».  "  CoJIMEnriAL." 

Leaven  worth,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  Minu.,  17 
niiU'S  S.  W.  of  New  Clm.     Pop.  433. 

lieavcnworth  (Ei-tAs  Warneii),  LL.D.,  b.  at  Canaan, 
('olnml>ia  co.,  X.  V.,  Dec.  20,  1SI)3  ;  spent  his  childhood  and 
yuth  at  Great  Harrington,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1S2I;  began  the  study  of  law  the  same  year  in  tho 
ollii'C  of  William  Culleu  Bryant  at  Great  Harrington  ;  spent 
2  years  at  tho  Litchfield  (C(mn.)  law-school;  admitted  to 
tho  bar  in  Jan.,  1827,  in  which  year  In-  removed  to  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y,,  where  he  practised  law  with  success  for  many 
years  until  forced  by  ill  health  to  abandon  it.  lie  was 
mayor  of  Syracuse  in  18  10  and  IS.'ill;  member  of  assembly 
in  18.")0  and  18."j7:  secretary  of  State  18.'(l-:).'i,  to  which 
ofiice  be  was  again  nominated  in  18.M);  president  of  the 
board  fif  quarantine  commissioners  ISfifl;  elected  regent 
of  the  university  Feb.,  ISfil  ;  appointed  by  President  I:iin- 
coln    in    Mar..    ISfil,   cuinmi.-^inji' r   under   the   convention 


with  New  Granada;  was  in  1865  president  of  a  board  of 
commissioners  to  locate  the  State  asylum  for  the  blind,  an^l 
in  the  same  year  trustee  of  the  State  asylum  for  idiots,  to 
which  post  he  was  twice  reappointed;  member  for  the  fifth 
district  of  the  constitutional  commission  1872;  published 
in  1873  the  dcncnloijif  of  the  Leavenworth  Famifi/  in  the 
U.  S.,  an  elaborate  work,  the  result  of  years  of  research 
and  correspondence,  and  was  elected  1874  a  representative 
in  the  V.  S.  Congress.  He  is  now  (1875)  president  of  the 
Syracuse  savings  bank,  of  the  gaslight  and  waterworks 
companies  of  that  city,  and  holds  numerous  other  posts  of 
trust  and  responsibility. 

Leavenworth  i  Gen.  Hknrv),  b.  in  Connecticut  Dec. 
10,  17;C;  studied  and  ])ractised  law;  entered  the  army  in 
Apr.,  1812,  as  captain  ot"  the  2jtli  New  York  Infantry  ;  was 
made  raajorof  tho  Uth  Infantry  in  Aug.,  1813;  commanded 
his  regiment  at  tho  batllis  of  Chippewa  (.luly  5)  and  Niag- 
ara Falls  (July  23,  181  1).  Ijciug  wounded  in  the  latter  en- 
gagement; made  lieutenant-colonel  and  brevet  colonel  for 
bravery  in  the  above  engagements;  lieutenant-colonel  jth 
Infantry  of  tho  regular  army  in  Feb.,  1818;  commandeil 
expedition  against  Arickarco  Indians  on  the  npper  Mis- 
souri River;  made  brevet  brigadier-general  in  July,  1824; 
colonel  3d  Infantry  in  Dec,  182.').  He  founded  several 
military  posts  on  the  Western  frontier,  one  of  which,  Fort 
Leavenworth,  was  the  nucleus  of  the  present  flourishing 
city  of  Leavenworth,  Kau.  1).  at  Cross  Timbers,  Indian 
Territory,  July  21,  1834. 

Leaves.     Seo  Leaf,  by  Phi>f.  Asa  Gray,  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Leavltt,  tp.  of  Oceana  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  316. 

Leavittf  post-v.  of  Monroe  tp.,  Carroll  co.,  0.,  7  miles 
W.  S.  AV.  of  CarrolUou.     It  has  1  weekly  newspaper. 

Leavitt  (Joshua),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Heath,  Franklin  co.. 
Mass.,  Sejit.  8,  17Ui;  graduated  at  Yalo  in  1814;  studied 
law,  and  in  LU'.I  was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  ]iractiscd  law  in 
Heath,  Mass.,  and  I*utney,  Vt. ;  grailnated  in  1826  at  tlie 
Yale  Divinity  School;  was  tho  highly  successful  pastor  of 
a  Congregational  churcli  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  1825-28  : 
editor  of  the  Sttilor'ti  Maffnzinr  1828~.'}1  ;  of  the  Xew  Yin-!: 
EvantjeUiit  18:!l-37;  of  the  Kinancipator  1837—17:  and  in 
1848  became  connected  with  the  Independent,  which  eoii 
nection  ho  retained  till  his  death.  Mr.  Leavitt  was  always 
active  in  tho  cause  of  Sunday  schools,  temperance,  seamen  s 
aid,  and  tho  abolition  of  slavery.  Ho  was  a  zealous  frei-- 
trader,  and  greatly  iufluencoci  the  politit-iil  opinion  of  his 
time.     1».  Jan.  16,"  1873,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  V. 

Lebade'a  [.\epa5<to],  now  Livaoia,  an  ancient  town 
of  Bo-otia,  at  the  northern  foot  of  Helicon,  noted  for  the 
cave  of  Trophonius  and  a  famous  oracle. 

Leb'anon  [Heb„  from  Uibimn,  "  to  be  white;"  Assyrian 
Labniniu  ;  <iv.  At^ai-o?;  Lat.  Lihanua ;  Arabic  Jtbcl  Lih- 
nnn~\,  a  celebrated  range  of  mountains  in  Syria,  extending 
about  110  miles  along  the  sea-coast  frtnn  the  Xuhr  el 
Kibir  (Kleulherusl  River  on  the  N.  to  the  Nahr-el-I.itany 
(Lcontes)  on  the  S.  ;  t".  v.  from  the  great  pass  opening  into 
the  valley  of  Hamah  (Hamath).  hit.  34°  40',  to  the  vicinity 
of  Tyre,  in  lat.  3;!°  20',  and  separated  by  the  elevated  val- 
ley of  El-Bukaa  (Conle-Syria).  U)  to  20  utiles  wide,  from 
the  parallel  range  of  Anti-IjKHANon  (which  see),  similarly 
extending  from  near  Homs  (Kmesa)  on  the  N.  to  tbo  peak 
(d'Jebel-esh- Sheikh  {Hcrmon).  a  few  miles  S.  of  Damascus. 
In  tho  centre  of  tho  valley  of  Kl-Bukaa  are  the  niojestic 
ruins  of  B,\Ai,Bi:r  (wliich  see),  tho  ancient  IIcHopoIis,  near 
which  rise  tho  Aasy  (Orontes)  and  Litnny  rivers,  the  ior- 
mer  fl(»wing  N.  to  the  Cilician  liulf.  liie  latter  S.  to  the 
Mediterranean,  above  Tyre.  Physically,  the  mountains  of 
Lebanon  are  connected  northwards  through  their  prolonga- 
tion, the  .L-bel  Nusarieh.  with  llie  great  chain  of  Tauius  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  southward,  through  the  hnver  mountnins 
of  Palestine  and  Moab,  with  tbo  Sinaitic  group  and  the 
coast  range  of  W.  Arabia;  and  some  modern  geographers 
empbiv  the  name  in  this  wider  sense.  Lebanon  was  at  the 
earliest  recorded  i)eriod  the  chief  geographical  feature  and 
eastern  limit  of  Pikkvuia  (which  see);  it  was  altermitrly 
subject  to  Assyria  and  Kgypt.  whose  monarchs  often  em 
ployed  its  celebrated  cedars  to  supply  timber  for  their  edi 
fices,  and  was  included  within  tho  boundaries  of  the  llelirew 
"  land  of  promise  "  (  Num.  x.xxiv. :  Deut.  xi.  2  I ;  Josh.  i.  4  ), 
though  it  never  came  into  tln'ir  possession,  unless  in  a  \  ery 
limited  sense  for  a  brief  period,  and  may  properly  lie  con- 
sidered as  the  northern  boundary  itf  the  ILdy  Land.  The 
books,  projdietie,  poetic,  and  historiciil,  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament al)onnil  in  references  to  Lebanon,  which  supplied 
the  timber  for  Solomon's  magniticcnt  tempi*-  and  palaces; 
and  tho  term  usually,  though  not  uniformly,  inclmles  both 
ranges.  Lebanon  proper  was  called  by  the  early  Arabian 
geographers  Jehel  Libnan,  and  V>y  later  writers  .lebct-el- 
(Jhurby.  "the  west  mountain,"  in  distinction  from  Auli- 
Lfbanon.  calbri  Jebel  esli  Shurkv.  "  iIk-  ni-t   mnnira  ii." 


1700 


LEBANON— LEBANON  VALLEY  COLLEGE. 


These  names,  however,  are  cow  seldom  heard  in  Syria, 
where,  besides  local  names,  the  northern  section  is  called 
Jcbel-Akkar,  the  central  Sunnin,  and  the  southern  Jebel- 
ed-Druze.  Between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  the  plain  uf 
Ph(jeuicia  is  of  varying  breadth,  but  never  more  than  10  or 
15  miles,  while  spurs  are  several  times  thrown  off  which  jut 
precipitously  into  the  sea.  The  base  of  the  range  has  an 
average  breadth  of  20  miles  ;  the  peak  of  Jebel  Tiinarun 
attains  a  height  of  10,j:j3  feet,  that  of  l>ahar-el-Kudib 
10.051,  and  Sunnin  S500  feet.  The  elevation  decreases 
towards  th©  S.,  and  falls  rapidly  from  the  "  twin-peaks" 
of  Tomat-Niha  (G500  feet)  to  the  wild,  abrupt  ravine  of 
the  Litany,  whose  banks  sometimes  rise  perpendicularly 
lOUU  feet.  The  mass  of  Lebanon  is  a  hard,  partially  crys- 
tallized Jurassic  limestone,  surmounted  in  many  places  by 
a  grayish  white  cretaceous  deposit,  whi-nce  perhaps  the 
name,  more  usually  derived  from  the  snows,  which  cover 
the  main  ridge  from  December  to  March.  The  southern 
section  exhibits  traces  of  violent  volcanic  action,  and 
earthquakes  are  still  frequent,  that  of  ISltT  having  buried 
thousands  of  persons  in  Safed  beneath  the  ruins  of  their 
homes.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Maronites,  a  Christian 
sect,  in  the  N.,  and  Druses,  professing  a  corrupted  Moham- 
medanism, in  the  .S.  These  races  are  rivals,  and  have  for 
centuries  been  at  feud:  a  terrible  massacre  of  Christians 
in  1860  resulted  in  European  intervention.  The  district  is 
subject  to  a  Maronite  governor,  depending  upon  the  pasha- 
Hc  of  Damascus.  There  are  more  than  'Si)  ruins  of  ancient 
temples  within  this  region,  which  has  still  a  considerable 
population.  Cap.  Nahr-ed-Dammur,  formerly  called  Deir- 
el-Kamr.  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Lebanon,  county  of  S.  E.  Pennsylvania.  Area,  300 
square  miles.  It  consists  in  the  main  of  the  very  fertile 
Lebanon  Valley,  and  is  bounded  N.  W.  by  a  range  of  the 
Kittatinny  Mountains.  Its  soil  is  a  rich  reddish  clay  loam. 
Live-stock  and  grain  are  staple  products.  Clothing,  metallic 
wares,  tobacco,  furniture,  carriages,  flour,  etc.  are  largely 
manufactured.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Lebanon 
Valley,  the  North  Lebanon,  and  the  Lebanon  and  Fre- 
montR.  Rs.     Cap.  Lebanon.     Pop.  .'>4,006. 

Lebanon,  post-v.,  cap.  of  De  Kalb  co.,  Ala.,  on  the 
Alabama  and  Chattanooga  R.  R.  (Brandon's  Station). 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Sharpe  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  609. 
•    Lebanon,  post^tp.  of  Xew  London  co.,  Conn.,  contains 
several  villages,  and  has  important  manufacturing  interests. 
Pop.  2211. 

Lebanon,  post-v.  of  St.  Clair  co..  III.,  24  miles  E.  of 
St.  Louis,  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  R.  R.,  has  7  churches, 
4  hotels,  1  bank,  1  weekly  and  1  semi-monthly  newspaper,  1 
machine-shop,  2  large  mills,  and  a  great  variety  of  stores. 
It  is  noted  for  its  educational  advantages,  being  the  seat 
of  McKendree  College  (Methodist,  founded  1835),  the  oldest 
institution  of  the  kind  in  the  West,  and  is  quite  a  summer 
resort  for  residents  of  St.  Louis.     Pop.  2117. 

T.  W.  EcKERT,  Ed.  "Journal." 

Lebanon,  post-v.  of  Centre  tp.,  cap.  of  Boone  co..  Ind., 
at  the  junction  of  the  Indianapolis  Cincinnati  and  Lafay- 
ette with  the  Anderson  Lebanon  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.,  26 
miles  X.  W.  of  Indianapolis,  has  2  weekly  newspapers,  5 
churches,  3  banks,  4  hotels,  3  mills,  3  stave-factories,  an 
acadctDj,  and  47  stores.     Pop.  1572. 

T.  IL  Harrison,  Ed.  "Pioneer." 

Lebanon,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Marion  co.,  Ky..  67  miles 
S.  E.  of  Louisville,  on  the  Kuoxville  branch  of  the  Louis- 
ville Nashville  and  Great  Southern  R.  R..  at  its  junction  with 
the  Cumberland  and  Ohio,  has  2  national  banks,  8  churches, 

2  hotels,  2  weekly  newspapers,  3  high  schools,  1  carriage 
and  1  furniture  manufactory,  and  is  the  shipping-point  for 
the  productions  of  several  counties.     Pop.  925. 

James  W.  Hopper,  Eik  "  Standard." 
Lebanon,  post-tp.  of  York  co.,  Me.,  on  the  New  Hamp- 
shire line  and  on  the  Portland  and  Rochester  R.  R.   It  has 

3  churches.     Pop.  1953. 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Clinton  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1119. 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Dakota  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  216. 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Cooper  co..  Mo.     Pop.  3316. 

Lebanon,  jiost-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Laclede  co.,  Mo.,  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  R.  R.,  185  miles  S.  W.  of  St.  Louis. 
It  is  very  pleasantly  ?ituated.  contains  5  churches,  2  news- 
papers, a  first-class  seminary  and  a  number  of  stores,  and 
is  the  business  centre  of  a  large  tract  of  surrounding  coun- 
try.    Poj>.  of  V.  10<»0  ;  of  tp.  3358. 

J.  G.  Lehen,  Ed.  and  Prop,  of  "Anti-Monopolist." 

Lebanon,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Grafton  co.,  N.  H.,  on  the 
Connecticut  River  and  Northern  R.  R.,  65  miles  N.  W.  of 
Concord,  directly  opposite  White  River  Junction.  Vt.,  has 
;'•  churches,  1  national  and  1  savings  bank.  I  weekly  news- 
paper, numerous  stores,  a  fine  park,  extensive  manufactures 


of  furniture,  agricultural  implements,  iron  castings,  etc., 
and  the  only  clastic  sponge  manufactory  in  the  II.  S.  The 
W<.'gt  Village  has  a  church,  a  hotel,  railroad  shops,  and  the 
Tilden  Ladies'  Seminary.  Water-power  is  afforded  by  the 
Muscoma  River,  which  falls  -100  feet  within  the  town. 
Principal  industries,  farming  and  wool-growing.  Pop. 
3094.  E.  H.  Chenev,  Ed.  "  Frf.e  Press." 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Hunterdon  co..  N.  J.     Pop.  3561. 

Lebanon,  post-v.  of  Clinton  tp..  Hunterdon  co.,  N.  J., 
on  the  New  .Jersey  Central  R.  R.  It  has  important  manu- 
factures and  trade. 

Lebanon,  post-tp.  of  Madison  co..  N.  Y.,  on  the  Syra- 
cuse and  Chenango  Valley  R.  R.  Tlic  Midland  and  llie 
Utica  Clinton  and  Biughamtun  R.  Rs.  also  traverse  the 
town.     Pop.  1559. 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Meigs  co.,  0.     Pop.  1823. 

Lebanon,  a  v.  of  Bethel  tp.,  Monroe  co.,  0.  (P.  0. 
name,  Masterton).     Pop.  124. 

Lebanon,  post-v.  of  Turtle  Creek  tp.,  cap.  of  Warren 
CO.,  0.,  5  miles  from  the  Little  Miami  R.  R.  and  30  m.  N.  K. 
of  Cincinnati,  has  7  churches,  2  weekly  newspapers,  3 
hotels,  2  planing-mills,  a  new  town-hall,  a  public  library, 
a  national  normal  school  with  1600  students,  a  county  in- 
firmary and  orphans'  home.  Principal  industry,  farming. 
Pop.  2749.     Wm.  C.  McClintock,  Pib.  "Western  Star." 

Lebanon,  post-b.,  cap.  of  LeV>anon  co..  Pa.,  beautifully 
located  on  tlie  Lebanon  Valley  and  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  R.  Rs..  25  miles  E.  of  Harrisburg  and  5  miles  N. 
of  the  great  Cornwall  iron-hills.     It  has  15  churches,  1  daily, 

1  semi-monthly,  and  7  weekly  (2  German)  newspapers,  and 
is  well  provided  with  banks,  hotels,  schools,  factories,  ma- 
chine-shops, and  stores.  Copper,  marble,  and  anthracite 
coal  abound,  tlie  latter  supplying  8  large  furnaces.  It  is 
regularly  laid  out,  well  built  of  stone  and  brick,  has  a  fine 
water  and  gas  supply  and  other  modern  improvements. 
Situated  on  the  Swatara  Creek  and  Union  Canal,  it  is  the 
centre  of  an  active  trade.  The  original  settlers  were  (ier- 
mans,  but  English  is  now  generallv  spoken.     Pop.  6727. 

T.  T.  AVurth.  Ed.  "  CouRiEn." 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  628. 

Lebanon,  post-v..  cap.  of  Wilson  co.,  Tenn.,  30  miles 

E.  of  Nashville,  and  6  miles  S.  of  the  Cumberland  River, 

at  the  E.  terminus  of  the  Tennessee  and  Pacific  R.  R.  and 

of  the  Lebanon  and  Nashville  telegraph  line,  has  7  churches, 

2  national  banks,  4  hotels,  a  large  woollen-factory,  flouring 
and  other  mills,  a  market-bouse,  town-hall.  Masonic  and 
Odd  Fellows  halls,  a  business  and  telegraph  college,  2 
female  seminaries,  several  public  schools,  1  weekly  news- 
paper and  1  quarterly  (educational)  periodical.  It  is  th© 
seat  of  Cumberland  University,  founded  in  1842  by  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  which  is  now  fully  or- 
ganized with  six  departments  ( including  law.  theology,  and 
engineering),  a  library  of  6000  volumes,  12  professors,  and 
an  average  of  301)  students,  including  the  preparatory  de- 
partment.   Pop.  2073.     R.  L.  C.  White.  Ed.  "Herald." 

Lebanon,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Russell  co.,  Va.,  in 
Clinch  River  Valley,  15  miles  N.  of  Abingdon  and  21  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  Mississippi  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  has  2 
churches,  1  weekly  newspaper,  a  male  and  female  academy, 
and  several  hotels,  stores,  and  shops.  Principal  business, 
farming.     Pop.  of  v.  209:  of  tp.  2246. 

J.  IJ.  Jones,  Ed.  '*  Rissell  Progress." 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Dodge  co.,  Mis.     Pop.  1621. 

Lebanon,  tp.  of  Waupacca  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  657. 

Lebanon  Springs,  post-v.  of  New  Lebanon  tp..  Co- 
lumbia CO..  N.  V.  It  is  a  place  of  summer  resort.  Here 
is  a  copious  mineral  spring,  having  u  constant  temperature 
of  70°  F.  The  waters  have  nearly  the  taste  of  pure  water, 
and  are  so  abundant  as  to  furnish  a  valuable  motive-power. 
The  hotel  accommodations  are  ample,  and  the  waters  have  a 
good  reputation  in  many  diseases.  In  the  vicinity  there 
arc  large  manufactories  of  tbermomelers  and  of  phuruia- 
ceutical  preparations.  (See  New  Lebanon  and  Moi  st 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.)  Near  at  hand  are  several  communities 
of  Shakers.     The  scenery  is  delightful. 

Lebanon  Valley  College,  located  at  Annville.  Leba- 
non CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  R.  R.,  21 
miles  E.  of  Harrisburg.  It  was  organized  and  chartered 
by  the  State  legislature  in  1867.  From  this  time  until  1871 
it  was  under  the  supervision  and  jurisdiction  of  T.  R.  Viek- 
roy.  In  Juno  of  this  last-mentioned  year  the  board  of 
trustees  assumed  the  control  and  reorganized  the  faculty, 
with  L.  H.  Hammond,  the  present  incunibcnt,  as  president. 
The  growth  of  this  institution  has  been  gradual  and  con- 
stant, and  though  young  it  now  has  a  respectable  number 
of  students  in  each  uf  the  college  classes.  Young  ladies 
are  admitted,  and  have  equal  advantages  with  young  men. 
They  may  pursue  the  same  course  of  study  or  the  one  es- 


LEBAS— LECCE. 


1701 


pcciolly  arranged  for  them.  In  this  institution  tho  joint 
education  of  the  sexes  proves  not  only  successful,  but  in 
many  respects  advantageous.  There  are  cabinets  of  minerals 
and  a  museum  well  begun,  and  the  trustees  have  ordered 
the  procuring  of  a  library  and  complete  apparatus  during 
tho  present  year.  '  h.  U.  H.vmuond. 

lipbas'  (Jkax  Bai'tiste  ApoLi.iNAinE).  b.  in  a  village 
in  the  ileparlmcnt  of  \'ar,  France,  Aug.  i:i,  I"'.'";  studied 
at  the  Kcolc  Polytcchnique;  was  employed  since  1823  as  an 
engineer  in  the  French  navy  :  became  keeper  of  the  naval 
inuseura  in  1S39,  and  d.  in  Paris  in  187:!.  His  name  be- 
came nuite  famous  on  account  of  his  success  in  tratisport- 
ing  the  obelisk  of  Luxor,  weighing  oOd.noO  pounds,  from 
Thcbis  in  Egypt  to  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris,  which 
ho  has  described  in  his  L' Obrfisqtie  dc  Luxor,  hittoire  de 
sa  tninnhttiun  d  Puriii,  etc.  (18.37). 

Lc  Bas  (Philippe),  b.  at  Paris  .Tunc  18,  1794;  served 
first  in  the  navy,  then  in  the  army,  at  last  in  the  oBico  of 
the  prefect  of  the  Peine,  and  was  appointed  by  Queen  Ilor- 
tense  governor  to  Prince  Louis  Xapuleon  in  1820.  In  1827 
ho  returned  to  Paris;  was  appointed  professor  in  Greek  at 
tho  Lyceum  in  1829;  and  made  a  scientific  journey  in 
Greece  and  .^sia  Minor  in  1842  at  the  expense  of  the  gov- 
ernment. His  priiicijial  writings  are  Expfiration  rfe«  ftt- 
Hrriptiiina  [frrcifHPH  ft  t'ltiiifx  reciieitticH  en  (ir*'cf  (ISS,*)),  and 
Viti/iifje  archhtloijiifue  en  Grice  et  en  Aaie  Mincure  (1847). 
D.  at' Paris  in  1881. 

Lebcau'  (Jean  Loi  is  Joseph),  b.  Jan.  2, 1794,  at  Iluy, 
in  tho  province  of  Li6ge,  Belgium  ;  studied  law,  ])raetised 
as  an  advocate  with  great  success;  founded  in  1824  the 
Junrntii  I'tititiijuf  de  Li<';fc;  brought  about  that  ulliimee 
between  the  clerical  and  liberal  parties  which  made  it  pos- 
sible for  the  Belgian  provinces  to  dissolve  the  union  with 
tho  Nethcrlanils ;  opposed,  as  member  of  the  congress  of 
1830  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  1831,  the  annexation 
to  France  and  the  election  of  the  duke  of  Nemours  as  king; 
served  under  King  Leopold  as  minister  of  justice  to  1834  ; 
was  called  once  more  in  1840  to  the  ministry  of  foreign  af- 
fairs, hut  retired  before  the  violent  opposition  of  tho  cleri- 
cal ]iarly.  D.  in  his  native  city  Mar.  19.  18G5.  lie  wrote 
ObaiTVutinna  aur  le  Ponvoir  Rotfal  dana  ica  Etuta  Conatitn~ 
tionrja  (1830).  (See  Lea  Fondateura  de  la  Monarchie  BvltfCf 
by  Juste,  1865.) 

Lebedin',  town  in  Kussia,  in  the  government  of  Khar- 
kov, with  considerable  local  trade  and  manufactures.  Pop. 
13,377. 

Leblanc'  (UrhaisI,  b.  at  La  Commanderie,  Dcux- 
Sdvres,  France.  Nov.  20,  1798:  studied  veterinary  science 
at  tho  school  of  A I  fort,  where  he  afterward  became  professor  ; 
was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  prefecture  of  police  at  Paris 
in  1832,  and  elected  member  of  the  Medical  Academy.  Be- 
sides a  great  number  of  minor  essays,  communicated  to 
various  medical  periodicals,  he  published,  together  with 
Trousseau,  Atlita  dn  IJirtionnaire  de  Midevinc  et  de  Chi- 
rurt/ie  vfterinnirea,  and,  together  with  Follin,  Traits,  dc 
fnitfintuf/ie  ciuHjnir/-e  (2  vols.,  1866). 

I,e  lltnirf  post-tp.  of  Erie  eo..  Pa.,  on  ^  branch  of  tho 
Pliil!i.|.l|.lua  and  Erie  R.  K.     Pop.  1748, 

1,(1  liii'iir  (Edmovo),  marshal  of  France,  b.  at  Paris 
Dee.  fi,  1809;  received  his  military  education  in  the  Keolo 
PoIyteehnif|ue :  entered  the  artillery  in  1822,  and  distin- 
giiished  himself  as  oflieer  in  the  staff  during  the  expedition 
against  Constantine.  From  I8:',7  to  1840  he  served  in  Algeria; 
returnetl  then  to  France  ;  bcL-ame  second  commander  of  the 
Keolo  Polyteehniquo  in  1818,  and  went  in  1864  to  Crimea 
as  colonel  and  chief  of  the  stalTof  the  artillery.  Here  ho 
dislinguisheil  himself  greatly,  both  in  the  battle  of  Alma 
and  at  the  artillery  attack  on  ,^ebaslopoI,  which  ho  partly 
leil ;  in  Ni>v.,  1861,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general.  After 
tho  close  of  the  Crimean  campaign  he  was  sent  tc  Kinboorn 
as  coininander-in-ehief,  and  remaineil  there  to  1865.  Ho 
then  received  the  command  of  the  artillery  of  the  guard; 
was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1867,  aii'l  look  an  im- 
portant anil  l)rilliant  part  in  the  Italian  war  of  1869.  In 
1889  ho  was  commanrler  of  the  8th  corps,  stationed  at  Tou- 
louse. Unfortunately  for  him,  Niel  d.  Aug.  14.  1889,  and 
be  was  called  npttn  to  succeed  him  as  minister  of  war,  for, 
allli'ni;.:b  an  exeidlent  ofiieer,  he  was  unable  tn  master  an 
administration  of  such  dimensions.  Mar.  21.  1870,  he  was 
created  a  marshal,  and  four  months  afterward  the  war  with 
tlermany  began.  Since  the  last  victorious  wars  the  or- 
giini/.atiim  of  the  French  army  had  made  great  progress 
uiiiler  the  talented  and  energelieni  government  of  Niel  ; 
thus  Lo  Bieuf  believed  that  tho  army  was  fully  prepared 
for  war.  Hut  he  had  not  been  able  to  understand  how 
much  superior  was  the  organization  of  the  (lerman  army. 
Jle  received  the  eminent  position  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
emjieror — that  is,  of  actual  commander  of  the  army,  as  the 
emperor,  even  bodily,  was  unable  to  command  in  jicrson. 


But  this  task  was  too  heavy  for  the  marshal.  The  dispo- 
sitions of  the  French  army  at  the  end  of  July,  1870,  and 
the  first  strategical  measures  against  tho  invading  (iernian 
army,  showed  the  greatest  lack  of  preparation  and  a  fatal 
weakness  in  the  command.  A  short  time  after  (.^ug.  12, 
1870)  Baiaine  was  made  commander-in-chief,  and  Le  litcuf 
received  the  command  of  the  3d  corps.  In  this  position  he 
took  an  active  and  brilliant  part  in  the  battles  of  Vionvillo 
and  Gravelotte  ( Aug.  IG  and  18),  and  fought  at  Noissevillc 
(.\ug.  31  and  Se]it.  1  )  with  such  a  furious  stubbornness  that 
the  French  army  jirobably  would  have  succeeded  in  break- 
ing through  the  tierinan  lines  if  tho  other  generals,  and 
especially  liazainc  himself,  had  shown  an  equal  valor.  At 
the  surrender  of  Metz  he  became  a  prisoner  of  war.  He 
lived  in  Cassel,  where  Napoleon  resided,  and  after  peace 
was  concluded  went  to  the  Hague.         Ai'OfST  Niehass. 

Lebon'  (.Toseph),  b.  at  Arras  in  1786.  was  curate  of 
Neuville  when  the  Revolution  liroke  out,  and  in  1792  was 
elected  representative.  Soon  after  ho  was  chosen  commis- 
sioner in  his  own  department  of  Pas-dc-Calais,  and  displayed 
an  energetic  violence  against  the  reactionary  party.  When. 
after  the  illli  Thermidor,  this  party  came  into  power,  Lebon 
was  tried  for  his  alleged  revolutionary  excesses,  sentenced 
to  death,  and  guillotined  Oct.,  1796.  His  son  published  in 
1881  a  book,  J.  Lebon  in  Ilia  I'rivnie  and  Political  Life, 
which  attempts  to  exonerate  his  father  from  some  of  the 
atrocities  attributed  to  him.  Fii.ix  Atcaigne. 

Le  Hrc'toii'  Flats,  an  important  suburb  of  Ottawa, 
the  capital  of  Canada,  is  situated  on  Chaudierc  and  Victoria 
Islands  and  on  the  Canada  Central  Railway.  It  nianu- 
faclures  immense  ([uantilies  of  lumber,  flour,  castings,  and 
otlier  goods.     Pop.  about  2000. 

Lebri'ja,  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Seville, 
manufactures  woollen  cloths,  hempen  fabrics,  pottery,  brick, 
tiles,  glass,  and  soap,  and  is  celebrated  for  tho  excellent 
oil  produced  in  its  vicinity.     Pop.  10,338. 

Le  Bnin  (CnAKi.Es),b.  at  Paris  Mar.  22.  1819;  studied 
under  Nicolas  Poussin  in  Paris  and  Rome  :  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Aeaiiemv  of  Painting  and  .Sculpture  in  1818  ; 
first  painter  to  Louis  .\1V.  in  1881  ;  director  of  the  manu- 
facture of  (iobclins  tapestry  and  president  of  the  Academy, 
ond  d.at  Paris  Feb.  12,  1090.  Tho  most  prominent  of  his 
works  are  a  series  of  pictures  of  the  history  of  Fiance  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  XIV..  at  Versailles,  and  another 
series  of  pictures  illustrating  the  life  of  Alexander  tho 
Great,  in  the  Louvre  ;  but  besides  these  a  great  number  of 
historical,  religious,  and  allegorical  pictures  is  scattered 
through  other  French  and  European  galleries.  Tliey  rep- 
resent in  the  art  of  painting  the  same  taste,  the  same 
wstbetical  ideal,  as  that  which  is  represented  in  poetry  by 
Corneille.  Racine,  and  Boilcan.  They  contain  nuieh  which 
deserves  to  be  admired — an  inexhaustible  invention,  a  re- 
fined sense  for  effect,  perfect  elegance  in  forms  and  arrange- 
ment, etc.  But  the  feeling  is  generally  tame  and  shallow. 
the  allegories  arc  often  very  superficial,  and  tho  incon- 
sistencies of  I  he  costume  are  sometimes  irresistibly  ludicrous. 
In  his  time  he  exercised  an  enormous  influence.  Not  only 
the  painters  and  sculptors,  but  all  artists,  from  the  vase- 
maker  and  jeweller  down  to  the  sign-painter  and  job- 
printer,  f'ollowcil  his  taste,  which  for  a  generation  or  more 
was  reigning  absolutely. 

Lcbriin  (Ciiaki.es  Frasijois),  duko  of  Piaeonza,  b.  at 
St.  Sauvenr-Lendclin,  Normandy,  Mar.  19,  1739;  was  for 
several  years  secretary  to  the  ehancellor,  Maupeou.  After 
the  ncee'ssion  of  Louis  XVI.  and  the  dnwufall  of  Maupeou 
ho  lived  in  obscurity  until  1789.  whin  bis  paniplibt,  I.a 
mix  du  citoi/en,  attracted  considerable  attention.  He  was 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  Slates  General,  and  ns  n  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  acquired  both  influeneo 
and  authority  by  his  modenilion  and  by  his  insight  in 
financial  maiters.  Having  bten  imprisoned  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror,  he  entered,  under  the  government  of  Ihe 
Direetorv,  Ihe  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  was  chosen 
its  )iresiilent  Feb.  20,  1798.  He  allied  himself  very  closely 
lo  Gen.  Bonaparte,  and  was  made  third  consul  by  him  Nov. 
9,  1799.  On  the  eslablishment  of  the  empire  he  became 
minister  of  finances,  or  urch-treasurer,  in  1^08  governor  of 
Liguria  and  duke  of  Piacen7.n,  and  in  1810,  on  the  abdica- 
tion of  King  Louis,  governor  of  Holland,  whence  he  was 
driven  by  Ihe  allies  in  1814.  After  the  first  restoration  he 
was  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Louis  XVlll.,  but  having 
during  the  Hundred  Days  received  the  title  of  grand  mas- 
ter of  Ihe  university  from  Napoleon,  ho  was  excluded  from 
the  Chamber  of  Peers  on  the  second  restoration.  In  1819, 
however,  he  was  allowed  to  lake  his  seal,  and  in  the  do- 
bates  he  silled  with  tho  constilulional  opposition.  I).  June 
16,  1824.  His  MiiMiirea  were  published  in  1829  by  his  son. 
I.cc'oc,  the  former  Terra  d'Otranto,  a  province  of  Italy, 
belonging  to  tho  division  of  Apulia.     Area,  3293  square 


1702 


LECCE— LECOMTE. 


miles.  Pop.  49;i,594.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Apennines, 
and  produces  corn,  tobacco,  wine,  olives,  and  in  some  places 
cotton,  but  often  sutlers  from  severe  droughts. 

Lpcee,  the  ancient  Lifcia  or  Lu/iui,  one  of  tho  most 
beautiful  towns  in  S.  Italy.  It  is  situated  in  tho  prov- 
ince of  Leeee,  lat.  40°  42'  N.  and  Ion.  :X°  40'  E.,  on  a  plain 
between  the  Adriatic  on  the  N.,  tho  Gulf  of  Taranto  on  the 
\V..  and  the  Ionian  Sea  on  the  S.,  precisely  at  tho  point 
whieh  forms  the  heel  of  the  Italian  boot.  The  town  is  reg- 
ularly built  of  a  remarkably  fine  white  stone,  and  has  many 
interesting  edifices,  especially  churches  and  cunvcnt?,  some 
of  whieh  contain  admirable  works  of  art.  At  the  {jate  of  St. 
Biagio  stands  a  grand  triumphal  arch  erected  in  commemora- 
tion of  tlie  entrance  of  Charles  V.  Tho  myal  manufactory 
of  tobacco  is  on  old  establishment,  but  has  rcei'ntly  been 
provided  with  the  best  modern  machinery,  ami  tho  first 
quality  of  Lecccse  tobacco  is  said  to  be  equal  to  that  of 
Seville.  The  public  library  contains  10,000  volnnics,  both 
day  and  evening  schools  are  established,  and  the  charitable 
institutions  are  numerous  and  well  sustained.  Lecce  (])rob- 
ably  of  Cretan  origin)  was  very  flourishing  during  the  Ro- 
man period,  escaped  the  barbarians,  and  in  1000  A.  D.  was 
governed  by  its  own  counts,  among  whom  wero  Tancred 
and  Bohemond.     Pop.  in  1S74,  23,247. 

Lec'co,  town  of  N.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Como.  It 
is  delightfully  situated  on  the  Adda,  near  tho  point  where 
it  flows  out  from  the  S.  E.  arm  of  Lake  Como,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Resegone.  Leeeo  already  existed  under  the  Romans, 
and  continued  a  town  of  considerable  importance  through 
all  tho  vicissitudes  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  now  one  of 
the  most  industrious  and  prosperous  of  the  small  towns  of 
Loiubardy.  Its  iron  and  silk  manufactories  are  extensive. 
In  its  neighborhood  stands  the  pretty  villa  in  which  .Man- 
zoni  wrote  a  part  of  his  remarkable  romance  /  fmmeisi 
S/>f>ii.  A  picturesque  road  on  the  E.  bank  of  tho  lake  con- 
nects it  with  Colico,  while  it  has  direct  railway  communi- 
cation with  Bergamo.     Pop.  in  1874,  7040. 

Lech,  a  river  of  Southern  Germany,  rises  in  the  Vorarl- 
berg,  runs  N.  through  Tyrol  and  Bavaria,  and  joins  the 
Danube  after  a  course  of  about  140  miles.  A  little  below 
FUssen  it  becomes  navigable  for  small  boats,  and  for  larger 
from  .Augsburg,  but  it  has  generally  no  great  commercial 
importance  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of  its  course, 
bottom,  banks,  etc.     Many  mills  are  worked  by  its  waters. 

Lechevalier'  (Jean  Baptiste),  b.  at  Trclly,  Nor- 
mandy. July  1.  17.i2;  studied  theology  at  the  seminary  of 
St.  Louis  in  Paris,  but  did  not  take  orders;  accorajmnied 
in  1784  the  count  of  Choiseul-Goufiicr  as  secretary  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  participated  with  great  energy  in  his  ex- 
plorations of  the  plain  of  Troy;  travelled  much  in  Spain, 
En;,'land,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia,  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  library  of  Stc.  GeneviJve  in  Paris  in  1805, 
which  position  he  held  to  his  death,  July  2.  ISIiG.  His  Voi/- 
uijf^  lie  la  TtimfU-  f  1797)  and  Y'li/aijc  d*-  In' Pmpnnthle  ct  da 
I'uiil  Eiijrin  (ISOO),  in  which  he  pretended  to  have  made 
many  groat  discoveries  concerning  the  geography  of  tho 
Homeric  epics,  made  a  great  sensation  at  tiieir  first  appear- 
ance, but  are  now  generally  put  in  the  same  class  as  his 
r'y««'.'  ffumer  (1829).  in  which  he  proves  that  Ulysses  wrote 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odi/tmeif, 

Lech'ford  (Thomas),  a  lawyer  from  London  who  set- 
tled at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  ni.lS.  Ihc  first  to  practise  that  pro- 
fession in  Xcw  England.  Ho  returned  to  England  in  llUl, 
much  dissatisfied  with  his  experience;  published  in  1G42, 
I'lninc  Vealiiit/,  nr  Xewcn  from  Xew  Eiiijlaud'a  Pieaciit  Gov- 
criimml,  etc.,  and  in  1044  Neic  Entjlniid'a  Adiice  to  Uld 
Enijlaiid.  Ho  is  said  to  have  d.  soon  after.  A  new  edition 
of  the  I'lainc  Draliiiri,  with  introduction  and  notes  by  J. 
Hammond  Trumbull,  was  published  in  1807.  Though  writ- 
ton  in  a  spirit  of  hostility  to  New  England,  it  contains  val- 
uable information. 

Lec'ithine  [Or.  AjViSo?,  "yolk  of  an  egg"],  tho  motiVrc 
fi»'/Meioic  of  Gobloy,  a  phosphuretted  fatty  body  found  in 
the  yolk  of  eggs,  the  brain,  bile,  blood,  and  in  the  roe  of 
fish.  Diakonow  gives  it  the  formula  ChIIjoN  PO9;  Strecker, 
CtjllMiNl'Og.  (Sec  Watts's  Oiri.,  iii.  500,  and  Suppl.,  778.) 

Lcck'y  i  Wiii.iAM  EnwAnn  IlAiiTpni.E),  b.  near  Dublin, 
Ireland,  .Mar.  2(1,  IS.;8;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, in  18J9;  published  anonymously  in  isiil  Tht  Leadem 
0/  I'ahlic  Opiiiinn  In  /ri-laiid'(ne\r  cd.  1872);  travelled  ex- 
tensively oil  the  Continent:  settled  in  I>ondon,  devoting 
himself  to  historical  and  philosophical  researches  :  and  sur- 
prised the  learned  world  in  1805  by  the  /Ai»(.>rv  nf  the  !{:«<■ 

antl  Injliiencr.  nf  Ihf  Spirit  nf  liatin'nnl inm  in  Eiiro'pr.  a  work 

which  united  to  an  elegant  style  a  judicial  imjiarlialily  and 
a  more  than  German  erudition.  It  was  speedily  republished 
in  the  U.S.,  as  was  also  his  next  work,  n  Hintoryof  Eiirnpran 
MnraU /mm  Auffitgtint  to  (ViarlfT}ia>pif,  whieh  displayed  the 
characteristics  of  its  predecessor  in  a  still  higher  "degree. 
All  these  works  were  translated  into  German  by  Dr.  H. 


Jt)lowic2,  and  the  UiMtortf  of  Morula  has  become  a  text- 
book in  more  than  one  German  university.  Lecky  is  not 
known  to  have  published  anything  else  except  a  lecture 
before  the  Royal  Institution  on  the  /nltuinrf  if  the  Imagi- 
nation in  Ilietori/.  He  married  about  1870  a  maid  of 
honor  of  the  queen  of  Holland,  has  considerable  fortune, 
and  possesses  a  fine  library. 

Le  Claire,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Scott  co.,  la.,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  U>  miles  below  Clinton,  and  midway  be- 
tween St.  Louis  and  St.  Paul.  It  is  at  tho  head  of  the  Up- 
per Rapids,  which  extend  15  miles  to  Rock  Islaml.  It  is 
a  place  of  active  trade.     Pop.  of  v.  lOO."".;  of  tp.  1910. 

Le  Clear  (Thomas),  h.  at  Oswego,  N.Y.,  Mar.  II,  1818; 
attempted  at  the  age  of  nine  years  to  execute  a  portrait  on 
a  jiine  board  with  lamp-black,  \'eiietian  red.  and  white- 
lead,  and  at  twelve  created  a  sensation  by  a  St.  Matthew, 
for  which  he  filled  several  orders  at  two  dollars  and  a  half 
each.  In  1832  his  father  removed  to  London,  Up]ier 
Canada,  where  he  took  some  jiortraits,  and  two  years  later 
was  employed  at  Goodrich  on  Lake  Huron  to  decorate  the 
panels  of  a  steamboat.  He  afterwards  visited  Green  Bay, 
Wis.,  painting  portraits  of  the  Indians  in  that  vicinity; 
returned  to  London,  and  after  exercising  his  improvised 
art  for  brief  periods  at  Elmira  and  Rochester,  in  the  midst 
of  jirivations  and  discouragements,  made  his  way  to  New 
York,  where  in  18.19  he  opened  a  studio  in  Broadway,  and 
soon  gained  an  honorable  position  in  the  artistic  fraternity, 
his  jiicture  of  The  Riprimnnd  having  been  purchased  by 
the  .'Vrt  Union  during  the  palmy  days  of  that  institution. 
From  1844  to  ISGO  he  successfully  practised  his  art  in  Buf- 
falo, and  painted,  among  others,  the  admired  pictures  The 
Marble- 1  III i/ers  and  Youne/  America,  Returning  to  New 
York,  he  has  since  enjoyed  popularity  as  a  colorisf,  and 
exhibits  great  power  over  details.  He  has  produced  strik- 
ing portraits  of  ex-President  Fillmore,  Hon.  D.  S.  Dickin- 
son. T.  B.  Thorpe,  and  Booth  as  Hamlet;  his  Itineranla, 
exhibited  at  the  National  Academy  in  1802,  was  praised. 

Leclerc'  (Jean),  b.  at  Geneva  JIar.  19.  1057;  studied 
theology,  and  accepted  the  Arminian  doctrines;  travelled 
much  in  France,  England,  and  Holland;  was  appointed 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  Remonstrant  col- 
lege of  Amsterdam  in  1084:  retired  in  1728,  and  il.  at  Am- 
sterdam Jan.  8,  1730,  The  most  jirominent  part  of  his 
comprehensive  and  varied  literary  activity  was  his  editor- 
ship of  BibliothefjXie  Universelle  et  I/iatoriqne  (2(>  vols., 
1080-93),  liibliothhine  Choiaie  (28  vols.,  1703-13),  and 
JUblinthi-fjiie  Ancicnnc  et  Moderne  (28  vols.,  1714-27). 

Ijeclerc  (  Victor  Emmanuel),  b.  at  Pontoise,  near  Paris, 
Mar.  17,  1772  ;  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1791  ;  distinguished 
himself  at  Toulon  in  the  armies  of  the  .\rdennes  and  the 
Alps;  was  a])pointed  military  commander  of  iMarseilles  in 
1795,  and  made  a  brigadier-general  in  1 797  ;  married  in  tho 
same  year  Napoleon's  eldest  sister,  Pauline,  and  went  in 

1801,  with  a  large  fleet  and  an  army  of  30,000  men,  to 
Santo  Domingo  to  vindicate  the  authority  of  France  over 
the  colony.  After  a  contest  of  some  months  a  truce  was 
made,  but  when  Toussaint  I'Duverture  was  sent  as  a  prisoner 
to  France,  a  new  rising  of  tho  colored  population  under 
Dcssalines  took  place,  and  at  the  same  time  the  French 
army  was  attacked  antl  more  than  decimated  by  yellow 
fever.     Leclcrc  himself  fell  a  prey  to  the  disease  Nov.  2, 

1802.  His  wife,  who  had  accompanied  him  to  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  behaveil  with  great  coui"age  and  fortitude, 
married  in  1803  the  Prince  Borghese. 

Leclercq'  (  .Mkhti.  Theopobe),  b.at  Paris  Apr.  1, 1777; 
held  from  1810  to  1819  a  subordinate  place  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice, but  lived  else  on  an  independent  fortune.  D.  at  Paris 
Fob.  15,  1851.  His  works  consist,  besides  a  couple  of  novels, 
of  8  vols.  (i{  prorcrbea  dramatitpieti,  small  draums  not  des- 
tined for  the  theatre,  but  for  private  ))crformance  in  the 
salons.  They  are  rich  in  the  finest  and  most  striking  psy- 
chological observations,  and  many  of  them  belong,  on  ac- 
count of  their  humor  and  elegance,  to  the  most  exquisite 
productions  of  French  literature.  They  were  received  with 
extraortlinary  applause,  and  exercised  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  French  drama. 

Lecocq'  (Charles),  b.  in  Paris,  France,  about  1835,  is 
regarded  as  the  best  successor  of  Auber  in  comic  operas, 
of  which  the  most  successful  have  been  Flvur  dc  Thf,  La 
Fille  dc  Madame  Aniiot,  and  GimjU-GiroJla,  each  in  three 
acts.  LeH  Prfa  Saint  Uerrnis,  with  libretto  by  V.  Sardou  and 
Gille,  was  brought  out  in  Paris  and  London  in  Nov.,  1874. 

Lccomte'  (Lons),  b.  at  Bordeaux,  France,  about  1055; 
was  one  of  the  six  .lesuits  selected  for  their  mathematical 
attainments  to  undertake  a  somi-scientific  mission  in  China. 
They  embarked  at  Brest  Mar.  3,  1080,  with  the  Chevalier 
de  Chaumont,  ambassador  to  Siam,  whore  they  arrived  in 
•September,  and  were  detained  two  years  by  the  reigning 
monarch,  Phra  Narai,  who  prided  himself  upon  his  know- 
ledge of  mathematics.     Arrived  at   Pekiu   in   Feb.,  1088, 


LECOMPTON— LECTIONARY. 


1703 


thpy  made  astroDomicnl  obsorvatioDS  in  various  parts  of 
tlie  empire  for  fcvcral  year.*,  and  became  well  acquainted 
with  the  condition  of  the  country  and  people,  and  had  con- 
Bidcrable  success  in  making  proselytes  to  Catholicism — a 
eueccjig  much  facilitated  by  their  tolerance  of  many  pagan 
ceremonies  which  the  uii:<sionaries  of  other  orders  cou<iemn- 
cd  an  idolatrous.  Lecomte  wasscnt  to  Home  in  10^2,  beciiuio 
soon  afterward  confessor  to  the  duchess  oj  liurjtuudy,  and 
wrote  a  work,  Xouveaux  Memoires  »ur  V Etnt  pr/ncut  (fe  fa 
Chine  (3  Vols.,  169C-97-1701  ),combininj;  much  information 
with  an  exajrf^erated  panegyric  upon  the  Cliiiiese,  who  were 
represented  a,s  havini;  always  retained  a  knowledge  of  the 
true  God."  This  work,  together  with  Sitr  les  C^rhnonic»  dc 
in  Chine  (170U),  was  censured  by  the  faculty  of  theology  at 
Paris  and  by  the  Congregation  at  Rome.  Lecomte  d.  at 
Bordeaux  in"  1729. 

Lecomp'ton,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Douglas  co.,  Kan.,  10 
miles  N.  W.  (if  Lawrence.  It  is  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Kan- 
sas River,  opposite  Perry  .*^tat ion  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  R.R. 
It  was  for  a  time  the  Territorial  capital  of  Kansas.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Lane  University  (I'nited  Rrcthrcn).     Pop.  971. 

he  Conte  (John),  M.  D..  son  of  Lewis,  b.  in  Liberty 
CO..  Ga.,  l>ec.  4.  18IS;  prepared  for  college  under  the  tui- 
tion of  the  undersigned;  grmiuated  in  1S:;S  with  high 
honors  at  Franklin  College,  Athens  (now  University  of 
Georgia) ;  studied  medicine,  taking  his  degree  in  I8-U  from 
the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons;  mar- 
ried the  same  year,  and  in  1842  began  practice  at  Savan- 
nah, Ga.,  and  from  that  time  forward  contributed  largely  to 
the  prominent  medical  journals  of  the  U.  S. ;  elected  in 
1SI6  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  in 
Franklin  College,  and  resigned  in  iSa;')  to  become  lecturer 
on  ehcmi?try  in  the  Cidlege  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
N.  Y.  ;  accented  in  iS.'jfi  the  new  professor?bip  of  natural 
and  mechanical  philosophy  in  the  South  Carolina  College, 
Columbia;  in  IS69  became  professor  of  physics  and  indus- 
trial mechanics  in  the  new  University  of  California  at  Oak- 
land, and  president  after  the  resignation  of  Pres.  D.  C. 
(litman  in  Apr..  1875;  is  a  member  of  the  lea<ling  Ameri- 
can scientific  societies,  to  whor'C  ])rocee<ling8and  various  scl- 
ent i  tic  journals  he  hflscoiitrihuled  important  papers  on  phys- 
i'ral  se,ience :  has  published  bis  addresses  of  I'liilonophtf  uf 
Mrfficinr  i\S  i'J  )  and  Stilt/ 1/  '>/  tfit'  /'fii/nir,if  Srirurra  (ISJ8); 

and  contributed  77if?  SvLulur  IIifptttfuxi«  to  the  !*opnhtr 
Srirtice  .Von/A/y  for  Apr.,  IH73.  In  l>ec.,  1857.  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures  on  the  **  Physics  of  Meteorology  "  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  and  in  Nov.,  1807, 
one  of  f<jur  lectures  on  the  "  Stellar  Universe"  at  the  Pea- 
boily  Institute  in  Baltimore.  By  the  burning  of  Columbia, 
S.  C.,  in  Feb.,  I8tj;j,  Im  lust  the  nearly  coui])leted  manu- 
scripts of  a  treatise  on  (Ji-mrul  I'liynicn.     A.  II.  Stkphk.ns. 

Le  Conte  (Maj.JoiiM  Raton),  brother  of  Lewis,  b.  near 
Shrewsbury.  N.  J.,  Keh.  22,  1784;  entered  the  engineer 
corps  of  the  U.  S.  army  in  1S1;J;  was  long  employed  in 
surveys  and  fort ifieatious,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  major 
in  ls:il.  He  was  a  successful  cultivator  of  natural  science, 
especially  botany  and  zoology.  He  published  Monngrapfm 
o/  fht'  Xitrth  Amerirnn  Sprrira  nj'  I'trirultiria,  Crfifinla,  and 
iiUfdiit,  Olmrrrtitiona  of  'Ae  North  Americnn  Species  o/ 
Viofd,  and  /JfHcriptioitM  uf  the  Spvcim  ttf  North  AmcfXPfin 
TortoiMca  in  the  Ainiala  of  the  \rw  York  Li/n-tim  of  Ntilu- 
rut  Hintory,  vols,  i.,  ii.,iii.;  A  Moiunjvnphjf  nf  North  Amrr- 
icftn  IliHtrroidra  in  the  Itonton  Jourti'tl  of  Ntttuntl  Hiatoiy, 
vol.  v.,  and  ifrHcriptionn  of  thrre  uvw  Sprcim  of  Arvicitia, 
\rith  i{rinnrk»  upon  other  North  Anirrirtin  Jiodcnta,  In  the 
J*roceediinj»  of  the  Aradcnit/  of'  N'tturaf  Scif:)irea  of  Phila- 
defphittf  in  several  of  which  he  had  the  benefit  of  the  sci- 
entific observations  of  his  brother  Lewis.  I>.  at  Philadel- 
phia Nov.  21,  1860. 

Lc  Conte  (John  L.iWRKsrB),  M.  D.,  son  of  John  E.  Le 
Conie.  b.  in  .Vew  York  .Mav  Li,  182r>:  graduated  in  ISIO 
at  tin-  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons;  made 
several  seientitic  excursions  in  the  Western  States  while  a 
student,  and  subsequently  extended  his  travels  to  Central 
America,  tlio  results  of  which  were  communii!ated  to  scicn- 
lilie  sorietics  and  journals.  Mis  spreialty  is  the  study  of 
North  .\mcrican  Coleoptera,  on  which  subject  he  is  recog- 
nized as  a  high  authority.  The  Smithsonian  Institution 
puhlished  in  l8(il-iV2  his  Cfnnnijirtttion  of  tht;  Cotroptera  of 
North  Amrrira,  and  in  I8ft:i-0V>  his  Liit  of  lh«  Cotroptera 
i'f  North  Amrrim.  Pr.  Lo  Conte  enten-d  the  army  in  1802 
:n  surgeon  of  volunteers,  and  beeaiue  a  iiiedieal  inspeotr»r 
nf  the  regular  army.  He  is  a  meuilKT  of  the  National 
Ai'ademy  of  Seienoes,  and  was  in  I87;{  elected  president  of 
llio  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Soienoo. 

IjC  Conte  (.Iosfph),  M.  P.,  son  of  Lewis,  b.  in  Liberty 
CO.,  (la..  Feb.  20,  182:5;  sturlied  at  a  private  school  uniler 
llie  rhiirge  of  the  undersigned:  graduated  with  distinction 
at  Franklin  College.  Ga.,  in  1811,  and  in  medicine  in  New 
York   in  184.>;  settled  in  184S  as  a  physician  in  Macon, 


Ga. ;  studied  natural  history  under  Agassiz  at  Cambridge 
in  ISJU;  became  in  l85.'i  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Franklin  College,  and  of  chemistry  and  geology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  South  Carolina  from  ISjf>  to  18G9,  accompanying 
his  brother  John  in  1809  to  California,  where  he  took  the 
chair  of  geology  in  the  University  of  California.  Resides 
numerous  seientitic  papers,  he  has  written  on  art  and  edu- 
cation, and  published  a  work  on  77tc;  Mutual  Jiclatioits  of 
litiigion  and  Science  (1S74).  A.  H.  Stki-iiens. 

Le  Conte  (Lnwis),  M.  D.,  b.  near  Shrewsbury,  Mon- 
mouth CO.,  N.  J.,  Aug.  4,  1782;  descended  from  a  French 
Huguenot  family  that  settlccl  about  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  at  New  Roehellc.  N.  Y. ;  graduated  in  1799 
at  Columbia  College  ;  studied  medicine  in  the  office  of  Dr. 
David  llosack,  but  never  practised,  and  soon  settled  in 
Liberty  co.,  Ga.,  taking  charge  of  his  father's  estate,  es- 
tablishing a  botanical  ganlen.  especiully  rich  in  bulbous 
plants  from  the  Cajic  of  (lood  Hope,  where  he  produced 
large  camellias  anil  the  hybrid  Amorif/fit  Jt>hn»iniii.  In  his 
laboratory  he  tested  the  discoveries  of  elicmists,  the  fruits  of 
which,  averse  to  ]ml)lisliing,  he  communicated  to  his  friends. 
Stephen  Elliott  and  other  botanists  acknowledged  their  ob- 
ligations to  him,  and  by  his  observations  he  enriched  the 
monographs  of  his  brother,  Major  John  E.  Le  Conte.  Re- 
sides occasional  rambles  in  the  adjoining  counties,  he  made 
two  scientific  excursions  to  the  region  of  the  Altamaha  River, 
the  earlier  in  company  with  the  botanist  Dr.  William  Raid- 
win,  U.  S.  N.,and  the  later  with  Mr.  (Jordon,  the  Scotch  col- 
lector and  botanist,  who  gave  an  account  in  I^oudous  Gar- 
dcner*a  Mmjazine  of  the  result  of  many  months'  residence 
with  him.  Dr.  Lc  Conte  devoted  much  attention  to  math- 
ematical studies,  and  manuscripts  on  this  subject  and  on 
native  animals  and  binls.  whieh  were  in  the  custody  of  his 
son.  Prof.  Jfdin  Le  Conte,  were  lo?t  by  the  burning  of  Co- 
lumbia, S.  C.,in  Fc)>.,  1805.  His  death,  Jan.  9. 18:^8,  result- 
ed from  poison  taken  into  his  system  by  dressing  a  wound 
for  a  member  of  his  family.  By  his  wife.  Ann  Quartcrman, 
whom  he  married  in  1812,  and  who  died  in  Dec,  1820,  ho 
had  four  sons  and  three  daughters,  of  whom  two  sons,  the 
scientists  Profs.  John  and  Joseph  Lo  Conte,  still  survive 
(1875),  as  well  as  one  daughter.  A.  II.  Stephens. 

Leconrbe'  (Claurk  Joskpo),  Count,  b.  at  Lons-le- 
Saulnier.  France,  in  1759;  spent  eight  years  in  the  army 
in  early  life,  without  securing  any  advancement,  but  at  tlie 
organization  of  the  National  (Juurds  at  the  outltreak  of  tho 
French  Revolution  became  commander  of  those  raised  at 
Lons-le-Saulnicr,  and  soon  after  joined  the  army  of  tho 
Upper  Rhine  at  the  head  of  a  battalion  from  the  Jura. 
He  distinguished  himself  repeatedly  in  the  battles  in  the 
Netherlands,  especially  at  Fleurus  (.lune,  1794),  where  he 
had  command  of  a  brigade,  and  hcbl  his  position  for  seven 
hours  against  llt.OtiO  Austrians.  The  same  qualities  were 
displayed  in  the  campaigns  on  the  Rhine,  tho  Danube,  and 
in  Switzerland,  and  nuide  him  general  of  division  in  1790. 
For  partisanship  in  I'avor  of  Moreau,  Napoleon  slruek  his 
name  from  tiio  roll  of  officers  (I8I)1),  and  he  lived  in  re- 
tirement at  Itourges  during  the  Knipire.  Louis  XVIII.  re- 
stored liim  his  rank,  and  made  him  grand  officer  of  tho 
Legion  of  Honor  and  count  in  1814.  Heopi)osed  Napoleon 
on  his  return  f'roui  Elba,  but  finally  accepted  a  command 
under  him  in  the  Jura,  with  hcad-((uartcr3  at  Rcforf,  where 
he  d.  Oct.  2:t,  ISlo.  His  statue  was  erected  at  Lonsdo- 
Saulnier  in  1857. 

Lecouvrcur'  (Adrienne),  b.  at  Dnmery,  near  Epernay, 
France,  .Apr.  5,  1092.  In  1702  her  parents  settled  at  Paris, 
and  after  receiving  some  instruction  from  the  actor  Legrand, 
she  entered  tho  stage  at  Strasliourg  in  17H).  Nrxt  year 
(May  14,  1717)  she  matle  her  di- but  nt  the  Thr-Atre  Fran- 
pais  in  Paris,  where  she  very  soini  attained  the  first  jjlaco 
both  in  comedy  and  tragciiy.  Her  character  as  an  actress 
was  not  so  much  the  gratid  as  the  touching,  and  ln'r  prin- 
cipal power  was  a  most  wonderful  miiniery.  Her  death 
was  very  sail.  Maurice  of  Saxony  was  her  lover;  not  tho 
only  one  she  over  had,  but  she  loved  him  deeply,  and  \>hen 
he  was  made  duke  of  (*ourland  she  sold  her  diamonds  in 
order  to  furnish  him  with  the  money  necessary  to  take  pos- 
session c)f  the  country.  It  wiis  alleged  that  another  ol  his 
mistresses,  tho  duchess  id"  Ron  i  I  Ion,  poisoned  her  from 
jealousy,  and  she  d.  Mar.  20,  17;ttb  \\*iY  remains  were  not 
allowed  lo  rest  in  eonsoerated  ground,  but  were  buried  se- 
cretly in  a  private  place.  Roused  by  imligimtion,  Vol- 
taire wrote  an  ode  on  her  death,  but  publie  opinion  was 
so  fixed  on  this  point  that  he  had  to  leave  the  city.  In 
modern  limes  her  tragic  history  was  made  tho  subject  of 
one  of  the  mr)st  suooessful  dramas  of  Scribe  and  Legouv6, 
in  whieh  Rachel  achieved  celebrity  in  tho  r^tir  of  Adrienno. 

Ijec'tionnry  fLat.  iectionarium],  a  service-book  con- 
taining the  lections  (lessons)  of  Seripture  to  bo  read  in 
the  ehurch.  or  '\n  other  eases  a  list  iudu';iting  what  lossonfl 
are  appointed  for  different  days  in  tho  calendar. 


1704 


LECTOURE— LEE. 


Lectoure'f  town  in  France,  in  the  department  of  (iers. 
on  the  right  bunk  of  the  Gers.  It  has  a  brisk  trade  in  grain, 
wine,  brandy,  mulfs,  and  cattle.     Pop.  6122. 

liCc'tiirn  [Lat.  fff-trutu,  from  iefjere,  Uctum,  "to  read"], 
or  Anibo,  the  readiuj^-desk  of  a  church;  the  stand  at 
which  thf  lesson  for  the  day  is  read.  These  names  are  used 
in  Uomnn  Catholic  and  in  yome  Protestant  churches.  The 
form  is  various,  and  the  lecturn  itself  is  either  fixed  or 
movable. 

Le'da,  in  (rrccian  mytholofi^y,  was  the  wife  of  Tyndareus, 
kin,'  uf  Siiarta.  and  by  Zeus,  whu  surprised  hrr  in  the  shape 
of  a  swan,  she  was  the  mother  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  There 
are  many  versions  of  the  myth,  but  the  above  is  the  most 
common. 

Led'erer  (Jonx),  known  only  as  an  early  explorer  of 
the  mountain-region  of  Virginia,  wrote  in  Latin  an  account 
of  his  travels,  which  was  translated  and  printed  in  lGT2by 
.Sir  William  Talbot,  Bart.,  under  the  title  T/ic  DiacovcricB 
of  John  Lrfhircr  in  three  several  marches  from  Vinjinia  to 
the  Went  of  Carolina  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent,  hryun 
in  Mareh,  1669,  and  ended  in  September,  1670  {quarto,  27 
pp.,  with  a  map).  Sir  William  states  in  the  preface  that 
Lederer  was  driven  out  of  Virginia  by  ill-treatment  from 
the  pDpulaee — that  he  made  his  acquaintance  in  Maryland, 
and  induced  him  to  write  this  treatise  as  a  vindication.  He 
was  probably  a  Oerman. 

Liedg'er-Lincs,  in  music,  short  lines  added  above  and 
below  the  five  regular  lines  of  the  stave.  As  the  stave 
affords  ruum  only  for  a  limited  number  of  the  notes  now  in 
use,  the  ledger-lines,  with  the  spaces  between,  are  equiva- 
lent to  a  temporary  extension  of  the  scale,  thereby  furnish- 
ing a?  many  new  degrees  above  and  below  as  may  be  re- 
quired. These  short  additional  lines  are  also  a  convenience 
to  the  eye  of  the  performer,  as  the  notes  placed  on  or  be- 
tween them  can  be  read  with  great  facility;  whereas,  if 
the  lines  were  continuous  and  permanent  (forming  a  stave 
of  eight  or  ten  lines),  the  same  notes  could  not  be  read 
without  difficulty  and  constant  risk  of  error.  (SeeXoTATioN 
and  SrAi.i:.)  William  Stalxtos. 

Ledochow'ski,   de   (Cardinal    Miecislas    Halka),  i 
CofNT,  b.  Oct.  29.   1822,  at   Ledochow,  Galicia  ;    studied  , 
theology  at  Warsaw,  Vienna,  and  Rome:  became  domestic  ! 
prelate  and  prothonotary  apostolic  to  Pope  Pius  IX. ;  and 
entering  the  papal  diplomatic  service  was  auditor  of  the 
nunciature  successively  at  Madrid,  Lisbon,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 


I  pnrnons  injiaeiium  in  i^oi ;  ana  at  ttie  reqi 
of  the  kin;      "  "  .....         .    -  .         ... 

of  Une 

of  Poland.  On  May  26,  1873.  he  led  in  the  protest  signed 
by  the  clergy  against  the  new  Prussian  ecclesiastical  laws, 
which  placed  the  choice  of  bishops  and  priests  in  the  hands 
of  the  people  of  the  diocese  or  parish.  Persistently  refusing 
to  appear  before  the  courts  to  justify  his  action,  his  prop- 
erty was  taken  in  payment  of  fines,  and  he  was  confined  in 
]trison  at  Ostrowa.  where  he  has  since  remained,  having 
been  exhorted  to  constancy  by  a  papal  brief  of  Nov.  '.\,  1873, 
and  elevated  to  the  cardinalate  in  the  secret  consistory  cele- 
bratutl  Mar.  lo.  1S75. 

Ledrii'-Rollin'  (Alexandre  Auoustk),  b.  at  Paris 
Feb.  2,  IS07.  began  to  be  known  soon  after  the  revolution 
of  July.  1830,  by  acting  as  an  ''avocat"  for  the  political 
men  prosecuted  by  tite  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  or  by 
writing  pamphlets  and  memoirs  in  which  lie  indicted  in  a 
legal  and  technical  argumentation  the  repressive  measures 
ordered  against  individuals  or  public  liberties.  He  was  at  the 
same  time  a  favorite  and  celebrated  lawyer  in  ordinary  law- 
suitjj,  and  published  dogmatic  works  and  periodical  reviews 
on  jurisprudence.  In  1861  he  was  elected  member  of  the 
Chamlier  of  Deputies,  and  upheld  openly  the  pure  doctrines 
of  republicanism  in  the  chamber.  In  1848  he  was.  as  min- 
ister of  the  interior,  one  of  the  provisional  government  of 
the  republic,  and  put  in  practice  his  theory  of  universal 
sulTrajjc.  When  Cavaignae.  and  afterwards  Louis  Napoleon, 
took  the  power  into  their  hands.  Ledru-Hollin  continued  to 
fight  for  liberty  as  a  memberof  the  National  Assembly.  On 
June  l:J,  1819,  he  was  the  leader  of  an  insurrection  at  tempte<l 
to  prevent  Louis  Napoleon  from  sending  the  French  troops 
to  help  in  the  re-establishment  of  the  pope  at  Rome.  Thcin- 
surreetion  collapsed,  and  Ledru-RoUin  escaped  to  England. 
There,  though  he  kept  quiet  and  exclusivrly  busy  with 
writing  books,  his  extradition  was  asked  by  Napoleon  III., 
under  the  pretext  that  he  had  been  participant  with  Maz- 
zini  in  the  insignificant  plot  of  Tibaldi  against  the  life  of  the 
emperor.  But  the  extradition  was  not  granted,  and  Ledru- 
Rollin  returned  to  France  in  1870.  He  did  not  wish  to 
enter  again  the  political  arena  :  still,  the  republicans  elected 
him  deputy  in  1873,  and  ho  was  one  of  the  members  of  the 
extreme  Left  in  the  Versailles  Assembly,  llcouly  delivered 


and  Santiago  do  Chili,  nuncio  at  Brussels,  and  archbishop 
of  Thebes  in  partibns  iiifidtlium  in  1861 ;  and  at  the  request 
:  king  of  Prussia  appointed  in  Jan.,  1866.  archbishop  , 
lesL'M  and  Posen,  becoming  thereby  ex  ojftcio  primate   I 


one  speech,  in  favor  of  universal  sufi'rage,  which  was  worthy 
of  the  great  orator,  and  was  his  •'  chant  du  cygnc,"  for  ho 
I  d.  soon  after  (Jan.  1,  187i»).  and  was  accompanied  by  thou- 
j  sands  of  Parisians  to  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise. 
'  Felix  Aucaigxe. 

I^e'dum,  Oil  of  [Gr.  A^fioi/.  the  ''ledum"],  an  essen- 
tial oil  obtained  by  distilling  the  leaves  of  marsh  tea,  Le- 
dum patnstre.  It  is  reddish-yeilow,  has  an  acid  reaction, 
1  smells  like  the  plant,  and  consists  of  a  hydrocarbon  iso- 
meric with  oil  of  turpentine,  and  an  oxygenated  oil  having 
the  c()mpositiou  of  ericinol,  CioHieO. 

Le'dlim  Palus'tre  [Gr.  A^Soi-]  (  MarA  Tea,  Hosmariuun 
SylveMtri»\,  a  small  evergreen  shruli  growing  in  swamps  and 
I  other  wet  j)laces  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  Asia,  and 
I  America,  and  in  mountainous   regions  of  more  southern 
'  latitudes.     The  leaves  have  a  balsamic  odor  and  an  aro- 
m.atic.  camphorous,  bitter  taste,  and  contain,  among  other 
ingredients,  a  volatile  oil  and  tannin.     They  arc  thought 
to  possess  narcotic  properties,  and  have  been  employed  to 
allay  irritation  in  whooping-cough,  dysentery,  leprosy,  and 
scabies.  (  U.  S.  IHf^p.)    They  are  said  to  protect  clothes  from 
moths,  are  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  hops  in  beer, 
and  arc  employed  in   Russia  to  tan  goat.  calf,  and  sheep 
skins  into  a  reddish  leather  of  an  agreeable  smell,  as  also 
in  the  preparation  of  oil  of  birch,  for  making  what  is  gen- 
erally called  Russia  leather..  C.  F.  Ciiaxdler. 

IjCd'yard,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  New  London  co..  Conn., 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  navigable  river  Thames,  8  miles  8.  of 
Norwich.  The  township  is  traversed  by  the  Norwich  and 
Worcester  R.  R..  and  has  a  public  library  and  inij)ortant 
manufactures.     Pop.  131>2. 

Ledyardf  post-tp.  of  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.,on  the  E.  shore 
of  Cayuga  Lake.  It  contains  the  village  of  Alrora  (which 
see).     Pop.  2221. 

Ledyard  (John),  h.  at  Groton,  Conn.,  in  1751;  lived 
for  a  time  among  the  Six  Nations,  to  whom  he  intended  to 
become  a  missionary,  and  studied  in  Dartmouth  College 
with  a  view  to  that  work  :  but  his  restless  spirit  prompted 
him  to  embark  alone  in  a  log  canoe  upon  the  Connecticut 
River  and  leave  college  for  ever.  He  shipped  as  a  sailor 
to  Gibraltar:  enlisted  as  a  British  soldier,  but  was  soon  dis- 
charged :  returned  to  America  during  the  Revolutionary 
war;  went  to  London,  and  sailed  as  a  corporal  of  marines 
under  Capt.  .Tames  Cook  on  his  last  voyage,  of  which  Led- 
yard  kept  a  diary,  an  abstract  of  which  was  published  at 
Hartford.  Conn..  1787.  In  1782  he  deserted  from  the  Brit- 
ish service  when  off  Long  Island.  Assisted  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  and  others,  he  started,  after  many  vexatious  hind- 
rances, from  St.  Petersburg  (whither  be  had  walked  from 
Stockholm,  through  Lapland  and  Finland)  for  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  At  Irkutsk  in  Siberia  he  was  arrested,  and  was 
hurried  back  to  the  Polish  frontier  and  expelled  from  Rus- 
sia for  some  unknown  reason.  In  1788,  immediately  after 
his  return  from  Russia,  he  started  under  the  auspices  of 
Sir  Joseph  Hanks  and  others  fur  the  exploration  of  Africa, 
but  was  attacked  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  by  an  acute  febrile  dis- 
order, of  which  ho  d.  Jan.  17.  1789. 

Ledyard  fCol.  William),  b.  at  Groton,  Conn.,  in  1738; 
was  in  Sept..  1781,  commander  of  Fort  Griswold,  near  New 
London,  whieh  he  defended  with  great  courage  against  an 
overpowering  British  force  until  it  was  taken  by  storm, 
when,  with  more  than  100  of  his  soldiers,  he  was  massacred 
by  the  exasperated  enemy,  Sept.  7,  1781.  A  monument 
now  commemorates  the  event. 

I^ee,  county  of  .Alabama,  bounded  E.  by  Georgia.  Area, 
620  .square  miles.  It  is  hilly,  but  fertile.  Cotton  and  corn 
are  staple  products,  and  Hour  is  the  leading  article  of  man- 
ufacture. The  county  is  traversed  by  the  East  Alabama 
and  Cincinnati  and  the  Savannah  and  Memphis  R.  Rs., 
and  branches  of  the  Western  R.  R.  of  Alabama.  Cap. 
Opelika.     Pop.  21,730. 

Lee,  county  in  Eastern  Arkansas,  formed  in  1873  from 
portions  of  Crittenden.  Monroe,  Phillips,  and  St.  Fnincis, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Mississippi  and  traversed  by  the 
St.  Francis  an<l  L'.Anguille  rivers.  The  surface  is  for  the 
most  part  level,  well  timbered,  and  fertile,  and  yields  very 
abundant  crops,  chiefly  of  cotton  and  corn.    Cap.  Mariana. 

Lee,  county  of  S.  W.  Central  Georgia.  Area,  350  square 
miles.  It  is  level  and  fertile.  Cotton  and  corn  arc  the 
staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  the  South-western  R.  R. 
of  Georgia.     Cap.  Starkville.     Pop.  0567. 

Lee,  county  of  N.  Illinois.  Area,  720  square  miles.  It 
is  level  and  very  fertile.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  are  the 
staple  products.  The  county  is  traversed  by  Rock  and 
Green  rivers,  and  by  various  railroads,  centring  at  Dixon, 
the  capital.     Pop.  27,171. 

Lee,  county  of  S.  E.  Iowa.  Area,  300  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded   E.  by  the  Mississippi  and  S.  W.  by  the  Des 


LEE. 


1705 


Moines.  It  is  extremely  fertile,  rolling,  and  well  oulti- 
rated.  Cuttle,  gruiu,  and  wuul  iire  staple  products.  Car- 
riages, furniture,  harn*-'8ses,  tobacco,  metallic  wareg,  coop- 
erage, luml>er,  brick,  etc.  are  auiung  the  leading  articles  of 
manufaeture.  Tbc  county  is  traversed  by  (he  Burlington 
and  Soulb-weslern  and  the  Des  .Moines  \'iiUey  U.  Us.  and 
a  branch  of  the  Chicago  IturliugloD  and  Quiuey  li.  U.  Cap. 
Fort  Madison.     Pop.  37.210. 

Ijee^  county  of  E.  Kentucky.  Area,  3U0  square  miles. 
It  is  mountainous,  with  fertile  valleys.  Corn  is  the  staple 
product.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Kentucky  Uiver. 
Caps,  lieatty  ville  and  Proctor.     Pop.  3U5J. 

Lee,  euunty  of  X.  E.  Mississippi.  Area,  620  square 
miles.  It  is  undulating  and  very  fertile.  Live-stock,  corn, 
and  cotton  arc  leading  jiroducta.  The  county  is  traversed 
by  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  K.  K.    Cap,  Tupelo.    Pop.  10,965. 

Lee,  county  of  S.  W.  Virginia.  Area.  .'i76  square  miles. 
It  irt  bouniled  .V.  W.  by  the  Cumberland  Mountains  of  Ken- 
tucky and  S.  K.  by  Powell  Mountains.  The  surface  is  high 
and  partly  mountainous.  Coal  is  found.  The  soil  is  excel- 
lent. Live-.-^tock,  grain,  and  wool  are  leading  pn»ducts.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  Powell's  River,  and  contains  much 
fine  scenery.     Cap.  Jonesville.     Pop.  13,268. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Fayette  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  389. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Sacramento  co.^  Cal.     Pop.  370. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Rrown  co.,  III.     Pop.  I6G0. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Fulton  co.,  111.     Pop.  1296. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Huena  Vista  co.,  la.     Pop.  302, 

Lee,  tp.  of  Madison  eo.,  la.     Pop.  420. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Polk  co.,  la.     Pop.  729. 

Lee,  post-tp.  of  Penobscot  co.,  Me.,  60  miles  N.  E.  of 
Bangor.     Poj*.  900. 

Lee,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Berkshire  eo.,  Mass.,  on  the 
Ilousatonic  River  and  R.  R.,  99  miles  N.  of  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  and  in  miles  S.  of  Pittsfield,  K.  terminus  of  the  Keu 
and  Hudson  R.  R.  (in  construction)  and  N.  \V.  terminus  of 
the  Lee  and  New  Haven  R.  U.  (surveyed);  has  I  national 
and  I  savings  bank,  I  weekly  newspaper,  7  churches,  3  ho- 
tc\-t,  a  public  library,  excellent  scliools,  26  paper-mills,  2 
iron-fijuiiilries,  3  machiue  ^hops,  i-x tensive  woollen -fac- 
tnrie^,  a  tr-ttting  park,  aiirl  line  niarblc-cpiarrics  which  sup- 
plied materials  for  the  Capitol  extension  at  Washington 
and  fnr  the  Catholic  cathedral  in  Xew  York.  First  settled 
in  1700,  incorfioruted  in  1777,  and  njune(l  for  Gen.  Charles 
liCe ;  first  paper-mill  erected  in  iSdO  by  Samuel  Church. 
Pop.  3800.  (.See  l/iMtorif  of  Lrr,  by  Aniory  Gale,  1861.) 
J.  A.  RoYCK,  Ed.  "  Valley  Gleaner." 

Lee,  tp.  of  Allegan  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  249. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  .Mich.     Pop.  1123. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Platte  CO..  Mo.     Pop.  2290. 

Lee,  post-tp.  of  Strafford  co.,  X.  II.,  33  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  Concord,  has  manufactures  of  leather  and  lumber.  Pop. 
770. 

Lee,  post-tp.  of  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.     Pop.  2060. 

Lee,  post  V.  and  tp.  (the  former  called  also  Albany)  of 
Athens  CO.,  O.  It  is  the  seat  of  Atwood  Institute  (Free 
Baptist).     Pop.  1140. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Carroll  co.,  0.     Pop.  901. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  0.     Pop.  II 14. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Williamsburg  eo.,  S.  C.     Pop.  1181. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Aceomao  co.,  Va.     Pop,  0183. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Fairfax  co.,  Va.     Pojt.  1340. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Shenandoah  eo.,  Va.     Pop.  2698. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Caliioun  CO..  W.  Va.     Pop.  008. 

Lee,  tp.  of  Clark  eo..  Wis.     Pop.  203. 

Lee  (Rt.  Rev.  Ai.iKcn).  I>.  D.,  b.  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Sept.  9,  18U7  ;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1827  ;  was  aiimitlcd 
to  the  bar  in  1830,  and  practised  law  at  Norwich,  Conn, 
1S31-33;  studied  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
N.  Y. ;  was  ordained  a  iloacon  of  tbc  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  IS37.  and  a  priest  in  1H38;  rector  of  Calvary 
church,  Uockilale,  Del.,  lS38~n;  consecrated  bishop  of 
Iii-lawurc  in  ISU,  and  became  also  rector  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Wilmington,  Del.  He  is  author  of  Li/r  of  St.  Peter  (1852), 
Li/f  »/  Sf.  John  (IS6U,  Trrnti^r  un  HuptUm  (1864),  Me- 
moir uf  SitHtin  Mtifmur  (I860),  Ifurhinijvr  ./  Christ  (1867). 

Lee  (Ann),  h.  at  Manchester,  England,  Feb.  29,  1730; 
worked  in  a  cotton  mill,  and  afterwards  became  a  cook  ; 
was  married  to  a  man  named  Stanley,  ami  foon  began  to 
lake  part  in  the  conventicles  of  .lolin  iin<l  .lunc  Wardley, 
the  '>rii;in;il  "  Shaking  Ijuakers,'' whom  ^lle  nueeceded  as 
the  leader  of  the  sect  in  1771,  soon  after  which  bhe  was  for 
a  time  confined  in  a  jail,  and  then  in  a  mad-house.  After 
her  release  she  was  acknowledged  as  a  "  mother  in  Christ," 


and  assumed  the  title  of  "Ann,  the  Word."  In  1774  she 
went  with  a  few  followers  to  New  York,  and  in  1770  settled 
at  Watervliet,  near  Albany,  Here  she  was  charged  with 
high  treason  and  witchcraft,  and  imprisoned  for  some  time 
at  Albany  and  Poughkcepsie.  This  im[>risonment,  regarded 
as  ft  per.-'ecutiun,  brought  her  many  followers.  (See  Siia- 
KEits.)     D.  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1784. 

Lee  {AktihiO,  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  b.  in  Westmoreland  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  20,  1740.  son  of  Thomas  Lee;  educated  at  Eton 
and  Edinburgh,  where  hr  graduated  as  M.  D.  in  1706. 
and  practised  at  William.sburg,  Va. ;  returned  to  Europe; 
studied  law.  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770;  became 
prominent  in  jmblie  affairs  in  London,  and  in  after  years 
served  as  comnuFsioner  of  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and 
finally  of  the  General  Congress,  in  London,  Paris,  Madrid, 
and  Berlin  successively.  While  in  Paris  he  and  Mr.  Izard 
were  involved  in  serious'  differences  with  Franklin  and  Silas 
Deane.  In  1781  he  was  in  the  Virginia  assembly;  was  in 
Congress  1782-86,  and  held  other  positions  of  importance. 
D.  Dec.  14,  1792.  Mr.  Lee's  mission  in  Europe  was  very 
fruitful  of  good  to  the  U.  S.  Personally,  ho  was  a  truth- 
ful, straightforward,  and  decided  man.  a  hearty  lover  of 
freedom,  and  wa^  never  married.  (See  his  />//V.  by  R.  H. 
Lee,  1829.)  He  was  a  brother  of  Fnineis  Liglitloot,  Rich- 
ard II.,  Thomas  L,.  Philip  L.,  and  William  Lee,  all  emi- 
nent patriots. 

Lee  (Charles),  b.  at  Dcrnhall,  Cheshire,  England,  in 
1731,  and  was  the  son  of  a  colonel  in  the  British  army. 
When  eleven  years  obi  he  entered  the  service;  was  in 
Braddock's  expedition,  and  was  wounded  at  Ticonderoga 
in  1768;  distinguished  himself  in  Portugal,  but  never  rose 
higher  in  the  British  service  than  a  half-pay  lieutenant- 
colonel,  his  meddlesome  disposition,  quarrelsome  temper, 
and  sarcastic  speeehes  about  his  superiors  interfering  with 
his  promotion.  He  became  later  a  soldier  of  fortune ;  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  king  of  Poland  and  a  mnjor-general ;  entered 
the  Russian  service  against  the  Turks,  ancl  became  notorious 
as  ft  duellist.  In  1773  he  came  to  America,  purchased  an 
estate  in  Berkeley  co.,  Va.,  and  became  an  ardent  Whig. 
lu  1776  he  was  chosen  major-general  of  the  Cuntincnlal 
army  ;  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Charleston  :  and  in  1770 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Baskingridge,  N.  J.  AVhile  in 
prison  it  is  now  considered  certain  that  Lee  made  treason- 
able proposiiious  to  the  enemy.  In  1778  he  was  ex- 
changed, and  nt  the  battle  of  Monmouth  his  iiisub<irdin!ition 
nearly  lost  the  daj'.  He  was  court- mart iulud,  and  .suspend- 
ed for  one  year  from  command,  and  soon  after  was  wounded 
in  a  duel  by  Col.  John  Laurens,  who  challenged  him  in  con- 
sequoneo  of  disres[ieefful  language  used  to  (jlcn.  Washing- 
ton. He  then  retired  to  Virginia,  where  he  led  the  life  of 
a  hermit;  and  a  disrespectful  letter  sent  by  him  to  Con- 
gress causeil  his  dismissal  from  the  service.  D.  while  on 
ft  visit  to  Philadelphia  Got.  2,  I7S2.  (His  Life  luis  been 
written  by  Sir  H.  Bunbury,  by  Edward  Laugworthy,  by  J. 
Sparks,  and  by  G.  II.  Moore,  1801.) 

Lee  (CuAitLKS  AI.^'lM:[^).  M.  I).,  b.  at  Salisbury,  Conn., 
Mar.  3,  ISdl  ;  graduated  at  Williams  College,  and  took  his 
medical  degree  at  Pittslield,  Mass.,  in  1826;  settled  in  1820 
in  New  York,  where  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  tlio 
Northern  Dispensary.  Ho  hold  nt  various  times  professor- 
.••hips  in  no  Icj^s  than  ten  medical  schools,  and  aided  in 
foumling  the  medical  college  of  the  I'ni versify  of  New 
York  City  an<I  that  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  He  wrote  much  un 
medical  and  other  subjects,  and  was  at  one  time  editor  of 
the  N.  y.  Jfiurital  of  Afctlici'ne.  He  bestowed  much  atten- 
tion upon  the  colonization  or  Gheel-svstem  of  the  (reatmeut 
of  the  insane.      D.  at  Peekskill.  N.  Y.,  Feb.  14.  1872. 

Leo  (Ki.KANoii  Pkim  vj.  b.  near  Natchez.  Miss.,  in  1820, 
was  the  daughter  of  Mnj.  N.  A.  Ware;  resided  in  Pbilu- 
delphiu  and  Cincinnati,  and  bcfiime  tbc  wife  of  II.  W.  Lee 
of  Vicksburg,  Miss.  With  her  sister.  Mrs.  C.  A.  Warfield 
of  Kentucky,  she  publislied  PovniH  by  Tico  AV#fei«  ( 1843) 
and  other  works.     I),  in  I860. 

Lee  (Ei.i/.A  BiTKMiNSTKiO.  b.  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
ftboul  179  t,  diiugliter  of  Rev.  Dr.  .lo.xcph  and  sister  of  Rev. 
J.  S.  Buekminster.  married  Mr.  Thomas  Lee  of  Boston; 
wrote  Shrtrhm  n/  a  AVir  ICiif/hnul  I'lV/fiyr  ( 1837).  »  Ai/. 
n/  liichler  (I8I2|.  translated  from  the  German;  Wnlt  ntnl 
Viift  {18L'>)  from  the  (Jerman  of  Riehter;  Xaomi.  or  Itoft- 
ton  Tico  I/,n,itrr,i  )>./r»  At/n  (1818),  J/rmoiV  of  /{rr.  Dr. 
Ihickminntrf  aud  Jn^rp/i  S.  lUtrkmittntfr  (18(9),  llorfiuu-, 
thf,  Pttrifh  Orphan  (IS6IM,  I'arthruin,  or  thr  Lunt  Ihnji  »/ 
Pttffauiitm  (1868),  [tnd  77ic  fi<irr/„fttr'i  Maidrn,  from  the 
German  of  B.  Auerbaeh.  D.  in  Brookline,  near  Bo.ston, 
June  22.  1804. 

Loo  iFiiAsris  LionTFooT),  Bon  of  Thomas,  b.  at  Strat- 
ford. Wectmoreliindco.,  Va.,Oct.  I  1, 1731  :  received  a  careful 
classicnl  and  KngliMli  education  from  a  private  tutor ;  in- 
herited an  amplo  estate;  served  in  the  house  of  burgesses 


1706 


LEE. 


troiu  1765  to  1772.  and  four  terms  as  delegate  in  the  Conti- 
noutal  Congress  from  1776  to  1779;  was  a  signer  of  tlic 
Declaration  of  Independence;  member  of  important  com- 
mittees, and  frequently  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the 
whole,     lie  rendered  important  services  in  framing  the  old 
Articles  of  Confederation,  and  insisting,  as  conditions  of 
peace   with    England,  upou  the    right   to  the   navigation 
of   the    Mississippi,  anjl   to    tlic    Newfoundland   fisheries, 
thereby  justly  earned  the  gratitude  of  New  England.     lie 
aeblom  spoke   in  Congress,  but  exercised  great  influence, 
and  was  a  consistent  friend  and  supporter  of  Washington 
in  the  most  critical  times.    Retiring  from  Congress  in  177U, 
he  resumed  the  life  of  a  country  gentleman,  distinguished 
for  geniality  and  wit,  but  averse  to  politics,  in  which  he 
did  not  again  figure  e.xcejit  by  a  brief  service  in  the  Vir- 
ginian senate.    D.  at  Monocan,  Richmond  Co.,  Va.,  in  171)7. 
Lee  (FRi;iiERirK  George),  D.  C.  L.,  b.  at  Thane  Vicar- 
age.   Oxfor.lshire,    England,   Jan.   6,   1832;    graduated    at 
tJxford  with   high   honors  in   18.)4;    toolt   holy  orders   in 
IS.)!!;   was  successively  curate  of   Sunningwell,  assistant 
minister   of   Berkeley  c'uapel,    incumbent  of   St.   Mary's, 
-Aberdeen,  and  vicar  of  All  Siiints',  Lambeth,  which  post  he 
now  fills  (lS7a).     Dr.  Leo  was  from  lSo7  to  ISIi'J  a  secre- 
tary of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Union  of 
Christendom,  founded  the  I'nion  Jiccieic  in  1SG3  and  con- 
ducted it  until  ISC'J,  and  has  been  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  Chiirih   ilitijaziiic;  has  written  several  volumes  of 
poems  and  many  theological  essays,  of  which  (IIuiijuks  of 
the  Siipfniatiiru/  and  Lyrirs  of  Light  and  Life,  both  pub- 
lished in  1874,  attained  considerable  popularity.     Dr.  Lee 
is  a  writer  of  undeniable  ability,  but  his  avowed  belief  in 
the  ecclesiastical  miracles  of   the  fourth  century  and    in 
many  modern  marvels  has  exposed  him  to  sharp  criticism. 
Lee  (FnEDERicK  Ruhakd),  R.  A.,  b.  at  Barnstaple,  Eng- 
land, in  June.  1798:  served  in  the  Netherlands  at  an  carK- 
age  as  an  officer  of  the  56th  Foot;  studied  painting  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  for  landscapes,  especially  of  Eng- 
lisli  and  Scotch  scenery,  his  pictures  having  been  purchased 
for  the  most  celebrated  private  galleries  of  England.     He 
began  exhibiting  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1824 ;  was  elect- 
ed .\ssociate  in  1834  and  Academician  in  18.'!8.    He  has  exe- 
cuted notable  joint  works  with  Thomas  Sidney  Cooper,  R.  A. 
Lee  fU.iNVAH  F.),  b.  in  Newburyporl,  Mass.,  in  1780, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Sawyer,  and  became  the  wife  of  George 
G.  Lee  of  Boston,  Mass.     She  was  the  author  of  many  ex- 
cellent books,  among  which  are  Three  Ej-perimcnts  ofLhinn 
(18.3S),  The  Old  Pointer,  (1838),  The  Huguenot,  in  France 
and  America,  Hittnry   of  Sculpture   and   Sculptors   (18j4), 
Memoir  of  Pierre  TouMaint  (1853).     D.  in  Boston,  Mass.. 
Deo.  28,  1865. 

Lee  (Harriet),  b.  in  London,  England,  in  1756;  pub- 
lished in  1786  a  novel  in  b  vols.,  Thi  Error,  of  Innocence, 
and  in  1787  a  drama.  The  Xew  I'crroge  ;  followed  at  much 
later  dates  by  two  other  dramas  and  another  novel.  She 
is  best  known  as  associated  with  her  sister  (see  Lee,  Sophia) 
in  the  authorship  of  the  Conierhnri/  Talc,  (5  vols..  1797- 
ISOj),  once  extremely  popular,  and  reprinted  in  New  York  ' 
in  1857.  Eight  of  the  ten  tales  were  from  Harriet's  pen, 
the  most  remarkable  being  The  Oerman',  Tale  ;  and  Kruitz- 
ner,  which  supplied  Byron  the  jdot,  the  machinery,  and  some 
of  the  language  of  Werner.     D.  at  Clifton  Aug".  1,  1851.       I 

Lee  (Gen.  Hexry),  the  father  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  and  a 
relation  of  R.  II.  Lee.  b.  in  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  Jan. 
29,  1756;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  177'i;  in  1776  entered 
the  army  as  a  captain  of  horse,  and  served  afterwards  both 
in  the  North  and  South  in  command  (as  major  and  after- 
wards as  lieutenant-colonel)  of  a  partisan  corps  known  as 
"  Lee's  Legion,"  while  Lee  himself  was  familiarly  knoivn 
as  •'  Lighthorse  Harry."  He  became  renowned  lor  bold- 
ness, .activity,  and  efficiency.  He  retired  from  the  armv 
soon  after  the  battle  of  Eulaw,  in  which  ho  distinguished 
him.self  greatly.  He  was  in  Congress  in  1786;  was  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  1792-95  ;  commander-in-chief  of  the  ex- 
pedition against  the  whisky  insurgents  1794;  and  again  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1799.  In  his  celebrated  eulogy  on 
\V  ashiugtou.  prepared  by  direction  of  Congress,  ocour  the 
words,  ''First  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the 
hearts  of  his  countrymen."  In  1809  he  was  confined  for 
debt  in  Spottsylvania  oo.,  Va.,  and  wrote  his  Memoim  of 
the  War  in  the  Southern  Department  (1809).  In  1814 
he  was  in  Baltimore,  the  guest  of  Mr.  Alexander  C. 
Hanson,  at  the  time  when  the  house  of  that  gentleman 
was  attacked  by  a  mob.  Gen.  Lee  took  part  in  the 
defence  of  the  house,  and  was  nl'ierward  put  into  the  city 
jail  lor  safety,  but  the  mob  entered  the  jail,  and  killed 
or  cruelly  maimed  the  whole  parly.  Gen.  Lee  never  re- 
covered from  his  injuries.  He  went  for  his  health  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  d.  on  the  return  journey,  on  Cumber- 
land Island,  (ia.,  where  he  was  the  guest  Of  Mrs.  Shaw, 
a  daughter  of  Gen.  Greene,  Mar.  25,  1816.     Ho  was  frank, 


j  generous,  and  impulsive;  and  in  the  opinion  of  Gen. 
Greene  did  more  than  any  other  man  to  bring  about  the 
triumph  of  the  Americ:in  arms  in  the  Southern  department. 
Lee  (Henry),  a  brother  of  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee.  b.  at  Strat- 
ford. Westmoreland  CO.,  Va.,  in  1787;  graduated  in  1808 
at  William  and  Mary  College:  became  major  36th  Infantry 
in  1S1:1.  He  was  author  of  The  Compuiijn  of  17gl  (1824), 
Life  if  Niipoleon  (vol.  i..  1S.;5|,  Ohaercotion,  on  the  Writ- 
'  '"a'  of  Tkomu,  Jefferson  (18:j2j.  D.  at  Paris  Jan.  30,  1837. 
I  Lee  (He.vry  W.),  b.  at  Haindcn,  Conn.,  July  26,  1815. 
and  d.  in  Davenport.  Ia.,  Sept.  26,  1874;  received  deacon's 
orders  in  1S38;  in  1840  became  rector  of  a  church  which  he 
had  built  up  at  Springfield.  Ma.ss. :  in  1S48  received  charge 
of  St.  Luke's  church  at  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1854,  when  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Iowa,  which 
position  ho  held  at  his  death.  J.  B.  Bisnop. 

Lee  (Jesse),  b.  in  Prince  George's  co.,  Va.,  Mar.  12, 
1758;  joined  the  Methodist  Church  in  1773;  in  1783  was 
received  into  the  conference;  in  1787  penetrated  New  Eng- 
land, and  preached  from  the  Connecticut  to  the  farthest 
settlements  in  Maine.  He  formed  the  first  Methodist 
'•cl.'vs8"in  New  England  at  Strntfield.  Conn.,  Sept.  26, 1787, 
and  the  first  in  Boston,  Mass..  July  13, 1792.  Ilewasthree 
times  elected  chaplain  to  the  l'.  S.  House  of  Representa- 
tives and  once  to  the  Senate.  In  1S07  he  published  at  Bal- 
timore. Jill.,  his  History  of  Methodism  in  America.  D. 
j  Sept.  12,  1810.  Abel  Stevens. 

I  Lee  (John),  LL.D..  F.  R.  S.,  b.  in  London  Apr.  28, 
1783:  graduated  at  St.  John's  College.  Cambridge,  in 
1806;  became  fellow,  and  travelled  extensively  in  the 
East,  luakjng  collections  of  antiquities.  In  1815  ho  took 
the  name  of  Lee  (his  original  name  having  been  Fiott) 
j  upon  inheriting  the  property  of  an  uncle,  and  devoted 
himself  to  science.  He  was  a  member  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
learned  societies,  and  was  for  two  years  president  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society.  He  erected  a  magnificent 
observatory  at  his  residence  near  Aylesbury.  Bucks,  and 
engaged  competent  astronomers  to  conduct  the  observations. 
D.  at  Hartwell  House  Feb.  25,  1866. 

Lee  (Leroy  Madison),  D.  D..  b.  in  Petersburg.  Va., 
1808;  joined  the  Virginia  Methodist  Conference  in  1828; 
in  1836  was  appointed  editor  of  the  Richmond  Christian 
Adrocate;  in  1859  resumed  the  pastoral  office.  He  has 
published  Life  and  Times  of  Jesse  Lee,  Atlrice  to  a  Young 
Concert,  etc.  .Abei,  Stevens. 

Lee  (LiTHER),  D.  D.,  b.  at  Schoharie,  N.  T.,  Nov.  30. 
1800  ;  became  a  Methodist  travelling  preacher  of  the  .M.  E. 
Church  in  1827  ;  lectured  in  favor  of  temperance  and  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  being  mobbed  several  times  ;  seceded 
on  account  of  slavery  from  the  M.  E.  Church  in  1842: 
joined  the  new  body  of  "  Wesleyan  Methodists,"  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Syracuse  (1843);  president  of  the 
first  Wesleynn  Methodist  general  conference  in  1844,  and 
editor  in  New  York  of  the  organ  of  that  Church,  tlic  True 
Wrslci/an.  In  1856  he  was  chosen  president  of  Michigan 
I'nion  College  at  Leoni,  Mich.:  resigned  and  spent  several 
years  in  Ohio;  became  in  1864  professor  at  .Adrian  College, 
Mich.;  returned  to  M.  E.  Churoh  in  1867,  and  has  since 
been  a  member  of  the  Michigan  conference.  Dr.  Lee  has 
edited  several  papers  and  written  various  religious  and 
controversial  works. 

Lee  (Mary  Elizabeth),  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Mar. 
23.  1S13.  was  a  niece  of  Judge  Thomas  Lee.  She  contrib 
uted  much  prose  and  verse  to  periodical  literature,  and 
was  author  of  Tales  from  History.  D.  at  Charleston  Sept. 
23,  1849.  (See  a  Memoir,  with  selections  of  her  poetry,  by 
S.  Gilman,  D.  D.,  1851.) 

Lee  (Nathaniel),  b.  at  Hatfield,  Hertfordshire,  Eng., 
about  1657;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  be- 
came an  actor  and  afterwards  a  dramatic  author,  producing 
a  new  play  every  year  from  1675  to  1681 ;  was  several  years 
confined  in  an  insane  asylum  ;  aided  Dryden  in  writing 
iK'lipus  and  the  Duke  of  Guise.  He  was  killed  in  an  afi"rav 
in  London  in  1090.  Two  of  his  eleven  tragedies.  Theo- 
do, ins  and  Alexander  the  Great,  were  Successful  acting 
dramas  throughout  the  eighteenth  centur}'. 

Lee  (Richard  Henry),  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  son  of  Thomas,  b.  at  Stratford,  the  family- 
seat  of  the  Lees,  in  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  Jan.  20.  17:i2. 
He  was  educated  in  England,  and  after  his  return  marched 
with  a  company  to  join  Bradd»»ok.  who  rejecte4l  his  services 
with  an  ill-judged  expression  of  contempt  for  the  "pro- 
vincials." He  was  early  chosen  to  the  house  of  burgesse.", 
where  he  at  once  took  a  commanding  position  on  the  side 
of  popular  rights.  He  was  in  Congress  1774-77,  1784-85, 
and  1786-87.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous  motion  of 
June  7,  1776,  "That  these  United  Colonies  are.  and  of 
right  ought  to  be.  free  and  independent  iStates,"  etc..  and 
advocated  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  a  bold  and 


LEE. 


1707 


brilliaut  speech.  Duriug  1780  he  was  for  ft  portion  of  the 
time  in  I  he  Ik'lflatthe  \iviul  of  the  mililiu  of  Westmoreland 
CO.  Ho  was  a  Senator  from  Virginia  17S',t-lt2.  ami,  though 
not  a  FederalisI,  .supporte<l  the  ndntini^tratiuu  of  Washing- 
ton with  ztal.  I>.  at  Chanlillv,  Va.,  .lunf  ID.  1791.  He 
was  a  man  of  amiable  and  noble  cbaraetur,  uf  cuinmundiug 
presence,  excellent  abilities,  and  self-.-iacrituring  patriotism. 
(See  his  Li/e  and  Corrcgpondence  (182j),  by  R.  11.  Lee,  hia 
grcat-graudaon.) 

Lee  f  RoBi: rt),  D.  I).,  b.  at  Twccdmouih,  North  Durham, 
Eng.,  Nov.  1 1,  1S04  ;  entered  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's 
in  1S24:  was  ordained  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  ls:!2; 
was  minir^UT  at  Arbroath  (18;J.1)  and  at  Caniptiie  ( IS.'Jfi),  and 
in  1S4.';,  on  the  disruption  of  the  Scottish  (,'hurcb,  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  to  the  pastorate  of 
the  Old  lirey  Kriars' Church.  In  IS44  he  published  a  transla- 
tion, witii  a  preface,  of  T/u-  Th'ses  >>/  ICraitnit  touchimj  Ej- 
cnininiinirtiti'in,  as  a  reply  to  the  writers  of  the  "Secession 
Church,"  who  charged  the  adherents  of  the  establishment 
with  "  Erastianism,"  In  1840  he  became  regius  professor 
of  biblical  criticism  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and 
devoted  himself  at  once  to  a  course  of  minute  investiga- 
tions upon  the  text  of  the  Hil>le.  which  resulted  in  the  great 
work  of  bis  life,  T/ic  flnf^  /iihfe,  icith  tthmtt  60,000  Mar- 
fjinnl  Iie/t-rencc8  and  Vartoitii  jficndiiif/it,  rcvined  and  im- 
proved,  published  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  London  in 
1851.  lie  was  charged  by  iho  WitiuHt  newspaper  with  in- 
culcating licresy  in  regarcl  to  universal  salvation,  and  vig- 
orously defended  hira^^elf  in  the  columns  of  the  Smtsumu. 
In  1SJ8,  Dr.  Lee  was  a  member  of  a  deputation  sent  to 
London  to  appeal  before  a  parliamentary  conimitteo  on  the 
subject  of  university  reform,  and  his  suggestions  were  em- 
bodied in  the  measure  as  finally  passed.  In  IS;)7  he  jiub- 
lished  a  volume  ot  Prat/fru  fur  Pnhlic  H'orw/i//;,  and  having 
employed  them  in  his  own  parish,  was  arraigned  in  IS.VJ 
before  the  presbytery  of  Edinburgh,  and  later  before  the 
General  Assembly,  on  a  charge  of  introducing  into  public 
worship  a  liturgy  and  certain  forms  and  postures  unknown  to 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  Dr.  Lee  argued  his  own  case  in  a 
speech  of  great  eloquence,  and  obtained  u  verdi<'t  in  his 
favor.  In  l^^t'iO  he  published  The  Uefurm  »/  tht-  Church  of 
Scfjtlnnd  in  Worvhip,  Oovcrnmcnt,  and  JJurfriiw,  in  which 
ho  discussed  liturgy,  postures  in  worship,  instrumental 
music,  and  the  propriety  of  observing  certain  festivals  and 
fasts,  with  a  tenclency  towards  bringing  the  Church  of 
Scotland  into  greater  hormony  with  the  age.  The  (iineral 
Assembly  of  ISOII-fil  reported  favorably  upon  these  views, 
and  on  the  22d  of  Apr.,  lSfi.5,  an  organ  was  first  opened  in 
hia  church  of  (irey  Friars — an  event  which  niarkr-d  an  era 
in  the  national  Church,  and  has  been  frequently  iniitatctl. 
The  action  of  1S(U  was,  however,  reversed  by  the  (Jeneral 
Assembly  of  I8G5,  and  Dr.  Leo  was  preparing  to  contest 
his  favorite  views  before  the  civil  courts  when  he  was  at- 
tacked with  paralysis,  and  d.  at  Torquny  Mar.  12,  ISiiS. 
Dr.  Lee  was  the  acknowledged  leader  of  "the  liberal  party 
in  the  Scottish  Church.  (See  his  IJ/t  mul  licmuin^,  by  Rev. 
R.  IL  Story,  1870.) 

Lee  (Robert  Edward),  h.  at  Stafford  House,  Wcstnoore- 
land  CO.,  Va.,  on  Jan.  lU,  18U7.  Having  been  entered  as  u 
cadet  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in  I82i). 
ho  was  graduated,  second  uf  his  class,  in  1H21*.  and  attached 
to  the  army  as  a  sceond  lieutenant  of  engineers  on  the  Ist 
of  July  of  that  year.  Habitually  employed  upon  the  most 
iniportnut  duties  of  his  corps  in  time  of  peace,  he  ha<l  also, 
previously  to  |M4(),  been  specially  rletailed  to  airl  in  estab- 
lishing the  boundary-lino  ootween  Oliio  and  Michigan,  and 
from  1H;I7  to  l>^ll  wa?»  superintending  engineer  uf  the  im- 
provements in  the  harbnr  of  St.  Louis  and  of  the  Minsouri 
and  upper  Mississippi  rivers,  to  which  was  added,  from  IH40 
to  1841,  the  supervision  i>f  the  improvements  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Ohio  belciw  Louisville,  and  of  the  lower  Mia- 
sisHippi.  Alreafly  a  captain  of  engineers  since  July  'J,  Is.'is, 
ho  first  saw  field-service  in  the  war  with  Mexico  as  chief 
engineer  with  Gen.  Wodl.  Hut  when  (ien.  Scott  took  com- 
mand for  the  principal  operation  against  the  Mexican  cap- 
ital in  Miir..  1S47,  he  called  ("apt.  Leo  to  his  side.  In  that 
briiliunl  campaign  he  was  conspicuous  for  professional 
aldlily  as  well  as  for  gallant  and  meritorious  c(.nduct.  win- 
ning in  quick  succession  the  brevets  of  miijr)r,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  cobdiol  for  Itis  part  in  the  battles  of  Cerro 
tJordo,  Contreras,  Churubusco.  Chapultcpec  (in  which  latter 
action  be  was  wounded  i,  ancl  in  the  ciipture  of  Ibo  city  of 
Mexico.  Hy  the  eb»se  of  the  war  he  bud  come  to  he  gen- 
erally regarded  in  the  army  as  the  «Mie  oflicer  best  fitted 
ultimately  to  succeeil  (Jen.  Scott  In  ibe  chief  command. 
Called  tfi  Wnshington  for  a  time  as  assistant  to  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  nrrny,  be  resumed  hia  place  on  the  board  of 
engineers  charged  with  the  delVnce  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 
From  Sept,  1,  1852.  to  the  end  of  Mar.,  lS.).'i.  be  was  super- 
intendent of  tho  Military  Academy,  a  position  which  he 


gave  up  to  assume  the  duties  of  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
2d  Cavalry,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  on  Mar.  3, 
ISJj,  at  the  formation  of  that  regiment.  For  several  years 
ho  now  served  on  the  Texas  border;  but  happening  to  be 
on  leave  of  absence,  near  Washington,  at  the  time  of  the 
raid  of  John  lirowu  (Oct.  17  to  2.">,  1859),  Col.  Lcc  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Federal  forces  employed  in  its 
repression.  Having  soon  after  returned  to  his  regiment, 
he  fell  iu  command  of  the  department  of  Texas  during  tlie 
greater  part  of  IStlO.  On  Mar.  ll»,  18G1,  he  became  colonel 
of  his  regiment  by  regular  promotion,  but  resigned  that 
commission  three  weeks  later  (Apr.  26)  u])on  the  secession 
of  Virginia.  Repairing  to  Richmond,  he  tendered  liis  s^er- 
vices  to  the  governor  of  the  State,  and  by  acclamation  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  its  fiirccs,  with  the  grade 
of  niajor-generat.  Extracts  from  his  letters  at  the  time 
show  the  character  of  the  man.  Writing  to  Gen.  Scott,  he 
said:  ''Since  my  interview  with  you  on  the  18th  inst.  I 
have  felt  that  I  ought  not  longer  to  retain  my  connnigsion 
in  the  army.  I  therefore  ten<ier  my  rcsigniition,  which  I 
request  you  will  recouiuiend  for  acceptance.  It  \vouId  have 
been  presented  at  once,  but  for  the  struggle  it  has  co^t  mo 
to  separate  myself  from  the  service  to  wliich  I  have  devoted 
all  the  best  years  of  my  life  and  all  the  ability  I  possessed. 
.  .  .  Save  iu  defence  of  my  State,  I  never  desire  to  draw 
ray  sword."  To  his  sister  the  same  day  he  wrote:  *'  I  am 
grieved  at  my  inability  to  see  you.  I  have  been  waiting  for 
a  more  convenient  season,  which  has  brought  to  many  be- 
fore mc  deep  aud  lasting  regret.  Now  we  arc  in  a  state  of 
war  which  will  yield  to  nothing.  The  whole  South  is  in  a 
state  of  revolution,  into  which  Virginia,  after  a  long  strug- 
gle, has  been  drawn  ;  and  though  I  recognize  no  necessity 
for  tiiis  state  of  things,  and  would  have  forborne  and  pleaded 
to  the  end  for  redress  of  grievances,  real  or  supposed,  yet 
in  my  own  person  I  had  to  meet  the  question  wbelher  I 
would  take  part  against  my  native  State.  Willi  all  my 
devotion  to  the  Union,  and  the  iec^ling  of  loyalty  and  duty 
of  an  American  citizen,  I  liavc  not  been  able  to  nutke  up 
my  mind  to  raise  my  hand  against  my  relatives,  my  chil- 
dren, my  home.  I  have  therefore  resigned  my  commission 
in  the  army,  and  save  in  dtjencc  of  viy  native  State,  with 
the  hope  that  my  poor  services  will  never  be  needed,  I  hope 
I  may  never  be  called  on  to  draw  my  sword.  I  know  you 
will  blame  me,  but  you  must  think  of  me  as  kindly  as  you 
can,  and  believe  that  I  have  endeavored  to  do  what  1  have 
thought  right."  I*)nteriug  upon  the  duties  of  his  new  posi- 
tion, he  set  to  work  to  organi'/.e  and  develoji  the  tlefi  nsive 
resources  of  his  State,  having  assumed  "eominaml  td"  tlio 
military  and  naval  forces  of  Virginia"  on  Apr.  2.'-,  1S61. 
A  month  later  he  directed  the  occui)ation  iu  force  of  tho 
important  strategic  position  of  Manassas  Junction,  which 
ho  visited  about  the  1st  of  June  and  gave  special  directmns 
for  its  defence.  iMeaiiwhile,  \'irginia  hnving  entered  tho 
Confeileracy  and  Richmond  become  the  capital,  Lee  was 
appointed  third  iu  rank  of  tho  five  generals  by  virtue  of 
an  act  of  the  Confederate  Congress  creating  that  grade — 
Samuel  Cooper,  lately  ailjutant-general  of  the  U.  S.  army, 
and  Albert  Sidney  Jidinston.  a  brigadier  in  the  same  service, 
being  his  seniors.  For  the  time  he  remained  at  Richmond, 
generally  consulted  by  Mr.  Jefi'erson  Davis  concerning 
military  afl'airs,  until  tho  early  autumn,  when  he  was  as- 
signed to  command  the  forces  confronting  Gen.  Rosecraiis, 
his  lornier  junior  in  the  engineer  corps.  Rut  practically 
reduced  to  inaction  on  that  field,  (»cn.  IjCO  was  transferred 
to  the  command  of  the  coast  of  North  and  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  about  Dec.  1,  1801,  with  impaired  rei)Utation, 
which  was  not  retrieved,  in  public  estimation,  on  that  the- 
atre of  operations.  So  the  notion  grew  widespread  that, 
wanting  in  decision  antl  not  a  man  ot  action,  lie  was  un- 
fittoil  for  practical  warfare.  Tho  Confederate  Congress, 
however,  having  created  the  ofiico  of  commander-in-chief, 
Mr.  Davis,  regarding  it  us  an  encroacbnnnl  upon  the  e.\eeu- 
tivo  jiuwer,  vctoiil  the  law,  but  not  long  after,  or  about 
the  end  of  Mar.,  1S(J2,  culletl  Gen.  Lee  back  to  Richmond, 
and  nominally  invested  bim  with  the  functions  in  question, 
which  were  exercised  without  material  inllnence  or  control 
over  either  the  organization  or  operations  of  Confcderato 
armies.  It  was  in  this  posture  of  atlairs  that  tien.  .loseph 
E.  Johnst*>n  was  wounded  ut  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines  or 
Fair  Oaks.  May  .11,  18(12.  Leo  the  following  day  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  him  in  the  direct  command  of  the  army 
assembled  for  the  defence  of  Richmond,  and  his  first  act 
was  to  draw  all  his  troops  back  to  their  eneanipnienls  near 
the  city.  Their  casualties  in  the  late  engagements  had  boon 
rising  tiOIH),  and  their  material  gainr^  some  10  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery, f»7lH)  rifles  and  muskets,  with  considerable  subaist- 
ence  and  quurternmster'f.  medical,  and  ordnance  stores; 
but  Lee  wisely  stood,  as  yet.  upon  tho  defensive,  while 
gathering  all  possible  reinforoenn'nlM  from  the  southward, 
which  .lohnston  declares  liad.  in  like  need,  been  withheld 
from  him.     In  this  way,  by  tho  night  of  June  25,  ISG2,  Lc'e 


1708 


LEE. 


had  added  from  2l:i.000  to  25,000  men  to  his  forces,  includ- 
ing Jackson's  and  Ewvll's  veterans,  fresh  from  their  recent 
successes  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  had  at  his  dispo- 
sition an  army  80.0U0  strong,  which  he  soon  infused  with 
the  belief  that  he  was  equal  to  every  emergency  in  the  husi- 
nesa  of  war,  and  that  it  was  invim-ihle  under  his  lead. 
McCleltan's  position,  meanwhile,  was  peculiarly  strong; 
his  left  and  centre,  covered  by  a  great  morass  (White  Oak 
Swamp),  extending  southward  from  the  Ghickahominy 
nearly  to  James  River  ;  only  his  right  (some  S/i, 000  men) 
was  at  all  exposed  to  attack,  but  well  protected  by  intrench- 
meiits  and  artillery.  Thus  disposed,  there  was  an  army  of 
at  least  100,000  men,  admirably  equipped.  His  new  adver- 
sary, now  reaily  for  the  offensive,  put  -Jackson  in  motion 
with  three  divisir>ns  (I^.OflO),  by  a  wide  circuit  arounrl  the 
Federal  right  tc(  fall  upon  its  rear  with  his  now  well-known 
vigor,  and  leaving  Magrudor  with  bandy  25,000  men  to 
shield  Richmond  from  the  mass  of  MeClellan's  force,  Lee 
threw  Longstreet  with  40,000  men  forward  to  a  direct  attack 
upon  the  Union  right  under  Fitz  John  Porter,  late  in  the 
afternoon  of  June  2fi.  Under  this  attack  Porter's  corps 
was  pressed  back  behind  Beaver  Dam  Ureek,  where  he 
found  stable  standing-ground;  but  retreating  that  night 
to  the  stronger  position  about  Cold  Harbor,  where,  rein- 
forced, he  successfully  withstood  all  assaults  until  the  full 
weight  of  Jackson's  turning  movement  fell  upon  and  over- 
powered him,  driving  his  shattered  divisions  across  the 
Chickahominy,  with  the  loss  of  twenty  cannon  and  many 
small-arms.  The  wise  audacity  of  Gen.  Lee's  plan  of  attack 
gave  him  the  field,  hut  the  nature  of  the  ground  enabled  Mc- 
('lellan,  in  spite  of  the  extreme  demoralization  of  his  troops 
following  the  disaster,  to  effect  a  consummate  retreat, 
though  hard  pressed  at  every  step  in  the  several  affairs  of 
June  2'^,  29,  and  30,  to  the  shelter  of  naval  support  in 
James  River  and  the  almost  impregnable  position  of  Mal- 
vern Hill,  the  attack  upon  which  was  repulsed  on  July  1 
with  a  heavy  Confederate  loss.  But  Richmond  was  now 
virtually  relieved  from  the  risk  of  an  attack  from  McClel- 
lan  and  the  quarter  of  James  River.  A  fresh  Federal  army 
having  been  massed  soon  after  in  the  vicinity  of  Culpeper 
Court-house,  under  Gen.  Pope,  in  menace  of  an  attack  from 
that  direction,  Jackson  was  at  once  detached  to  confront 
and  stay  this  fresh  danger,  and  the  battle  of  Cedar  Run 
was  won  by  hira  on  Aug.  9.  Ten  days  later,  leaving  a  force 
to  secure  Richmond  from  a  coHy>  tie  mf(i'»,  Lee  was  in  move- 
ment with  his  main  army  for  a  stroke  at  Pope — a  movement 
of  signal  aud-jcity  in  execution  that  ended  in  the  com- 
plete discomfiture  of  his  opponent  in  the  notable  actions 
of  Aug.  2l>and;i0, 1S02 — or  seeond  battle  of  Manassas — with 
the  loss  of  30  pieces  of  artillery  and  large  stores  of  war 
material.  Following  this  brilliant  success.  Gen.  Lee  threw 
his  victorious  corps  swiftly  across  the  Potomac  into  Mary- 
land as  far  as  Frederick  Town — an  operation  more  boldly 
and  skilfully  conceived  than  thitroughly  carried  out  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  offensive  objects  for  which  it  was  under- 
taken. For  while  the  detached  operation  entrusted  to 
Jacksim  resulted  in  the  important  capture  of  Harper's 
Ferry,  so  much  of  Lee's  army  was  diverted  to  (hat  end  for 
so  long  a  period  that  in  the  interval,  thrown  virtually  on 
the  defensive,  the  Confederate  general  gave  M'^Clellan  time 
to  concentrate  his  masses  upon  and  tight  him  at  Antietam 
(Sept.  17.  1^1)2)  when  separated  from  a  material  part  of  his 
army,  and  with  .lackson  present,  with  two  of  the  previ- 
ously detached  divisions,  only  under  the  stress  of  a  severe 
forced  march.  Under  these  circumstances  Lee  was.  there- 
fore, unable  to  profit  decisively  from  the  advantage  he 
gained  at  the  close  of  that  combat,  and  after  standing 
in  position  awjiiting  attack  from  his  now  strongly  rein- 
forced opponent,  ho  found  it  expedient  to  abandon  the 
campaign  and  retire  into  Virginia,  the  major  object  of  his 
movement  having  unquestionably  been  sacrificed  to  the 
minor.  The  Union  army  having  been  reorganized  during 
the  next  month,  and  a  new  commander  ((Jen.  Bnrnsidel 
given  it  on  the  7th  of  November,  he  took  tlie  offensive 
with  Richmond  again  as  the  objective,  but  Aquia  <'rerk  as 
his  bane,  and  reached  the  N.  bank  of  the  Rappahannock  at 
Fredericksburg  on  the  17th  of  that  month,  to  liml  Gen.  Leo 
in  due  season  ready  to  dispute  his  further  march.  Then 
came  the  Ltth  of  December,  with  the  Idoody  conflict  of 
Fredericksburg,  which  afforded  another  illustration  of  the 
high  capacity  of  the  Confederate  general  as  a  defensive 
soldier.  With  another  change  of  Federal  commanders  came 
the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  (May  2-4,  lsfi3).  Lee,  as 
habitual  to  him,  forecasting  his  adversary's  plan,  was  now 
able  to  give  another  victory  to  his  supremely  confident, 
trustful  army,  even  though  his  strongest  corps,  or  one- 
third  of  his  force,  was  detached  at  the  time.  As  the  whole 
field  or  theatre  of  war  stood,  after  that  battle,  for  the  Con- 
federates in  all  quarters  of  their  territory,  it  would  seem 
qlear  th.at  a  comprehensive  strategy  must  have  inrlicated 
the  employment  of  their  available  resources  in  a  different 


operation  from  that  which  Lee  next  essayed,  as  is  alleged, 
entirely  against  his  own  judgment  and  advice,  under  the 
orders  of  his  ])olitioal  8U])erior — that  is  to  say,  the  cam- 
paign ending  in  mortal  disaster  to  the  Confederate  cause 
on  the  field  of  Gettysburg  (July  1-3,  18G3),  from  which  ho 
withdrew  shorn  of  some  27.000  of  the  very  61ite  of  his  army, 
as  well  as  of  its  prestige  of  habitual  success,  which  had 
made  it  wellnigh  invincible.  But,  though  beaten  and 
foiled,  he  withdrew  and  repassed  the  Potomac  with  con- 
summate method  and  skill,  leaving  his  opponent  wholly 
unwilling  to  seriously  adventure  the  offensive  in  turn  for 
ten  months.  By  that  time,  however,  Lieut, -Gen.  (Jrant, 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  V.  S.  with 
absolute  powers,  took  the  field  against  Gen.  Lee  with  an 
army  of  over  140,000  men,  thoroughly  inured  to  war.  To 
meet  this  formidable  general  and  army  Lee  stood  as  reso- 
lutely ready  as  on  ail  previous  occasions,  but  his  redoubtable 
corps  were  reduced  to  within  55,000  infantry  and  artillery. 
The  object  of  Grant  was  to  turn  his  adversary's  position, 
and  reaching  an  open  field  beyond  the  AViIderno«s.  upon 
Lee's  communications,  force  him  to  figlit  lor  their  integ- 
rity at  mortal  disadvantage.  But  altogether  too  wary  and 
far-sighted  to  be  thus  out-manoeuvred.  Gen.  Lee  became 
himself  the  assailant  at  the  threshold  of  the  operation, 
when  his  adversary  was  entangled  and  his  corps  danger- 
ously separated  in  the  dense  recesses  of  the  Wilderness,  on 
May  5,  lSfi4,  and  inflicted  a  loss  of  20,000  men.  On  the 
next  day.  Grant  essaying  to  move,  Lee  was  again  the  as- 
sailant, with  the  advantage  of  the  affair  on  his  side.  As- 
sailed in  turn,  however,  on  May  7,  HI,  and  12,  in  tentative 
operations,  Lee's  position  was  found  impregnable,  so  that 
at  the  close  of  the  third  week  of  the  campaign  the  aggre- 
gate of  Federal  losses  rose  above  40.000  ofliccrs  and  men. 
Grant  having  skilfully  crossed  the  North  Anna  on  May  21, 
the  gain  was  immediately  so  neutralized  by  the  position  in 
which  he  found  his  adversary  awaiting  his  further  march 
that  the  Union  army  had  to  retrace  its  steps,  and,  led  by  a 
wide  circuit,  was  carried  to  the  scene  of  McCleilan's  dis- 
aster at  Cold  Harbor  within  ten  milesof  Richmond.  There, 
reinforced  by  Smith's  corps,  16,000  strong,  making  the  sum- 
total  of  reinforcements  97,000  men  added  to  his  army  be- 
tween the  12th  and  31st  of  May,  1803,  while  the  Confed- 
erates had  been  strengthened,  all  told,  by  less  than  20,000 
men.  Gen.  Grant  on  June  3  adventured  a  direct  assault 
upon  Lee's  intrenched  lines,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the 
annals  of  war  record  no  more  sanguinary  repulse  than  that 
which  was  then  inflicted.  It  is  noteworthy  that  by  this 
time  the  casualties  of  the  Union  army  reached  00,000,  in- 
eluding  3000  officers:  and  it  remained  for  Gen.  Grant  to 
seek  a  new  line  of  approach  to  his  objective;  that  is  to  say, 
throwing  his  army  acros*  the  James  and  S.  of  the  Appo- 
mattox on  June  14  and  15,  1804,  he  opened  a  new  campaign 
at  Petersburg  of  300  days.  Looking  at  the  force  employed 
against  him  during  all  that  period,  and  his  own  compar- 
atively petty  resources.  Lee's  stand  at  Petersburg  has  no 
parallel  in  war,  and  the  details  of  that  nmsterly  defence, 
properly  related,  will  form  one  of  the  most  instructive  les- 
sons in  the  art  of  war.  From  the  \ery  outset,  notwith- 
standing his  great  advantages  in  all  war-resources,  in  the 
presence  of  such  an  adversary  as  Lee.  Gen.  Cirant  found  it 
expeilicnt  to  shelter  his  forces  behind  strong  intrenchments. 
In  the  course  of  the  ten  months  of  struggle  and  combat 
which  ensued,  from  a  concurrence  of  adverse  circumstances 
elsewhere  than  at  Petersburg,  Lee,  foreseeing  the  ultimate 
issue,  would  have  evacuated  that  position  early  in  1.^65, 
but  his  political  superiors  were  unwilling  to  give  up 
Richmond  until  fiirced  away  by  Federal  arms.  Re- 
duced to  about  40.000  rifles  in  his  trenches,  on  Mar.  25, 
iNfio,  the  Confederate  general,  with  that  astute  audacity 
which  had  come  to  be  characteristic,  essaying  the  oflensive, 
delivcrcfl  a  strenuous,  skilfully-aiuted  stroke  in  his  finest 
manner  at  a  vulnerable  ])oint  in  his  opp(.neiit's  lines  :  Iiut  at 
the  critical  moment  the  supports  quaileij.  aini  the  ctiterjirisc 
miscarried,  with  a  loss  which  he  could  ill  afford.  Now 
Grant  in  turn  massed  two  corps  au'l  all  his  cavalry  for  a 
counter-stroke  at  Lee's  right  (lank.  But  before  tlie  blow 
fell,  the  Confederate  general,  coiu'cntrating  15,000  men, 
again  smote  his  menacing  adversary  with  wellnigh  "his 
wonted  success."  Swinton  states,  as  also  that  a  Federal  dis- 
aster was  barely  escaped.  But  the  terrible  blow  fell  soon 
after  upon  the  Conf^cderate  lines  at  Five  Forks,  which 
made  them  untenable.  So  Lee,  retreating,  was  pressed 
with  such  vigor  and  skill  that  his  surrender  at  Appomattox 
was  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  campaign.  And  iilthougli 
that  cnpitulation  embraced  only  some  27,000  men,  but  MHIO 
ai  whom  were  armed,  it  brought  the  war  of  secession  in  all 
quarters  to  an  immediate  close  so  soon  as  the  event  was 
known. 

Judged  critically,  it  may  be  said  that  rarely  has  a  com- 
mander been  so  sharp-sighted  and  quick  to  detect  the  pur- 
poses of  an  opponent  as  was  Gen.  Leo.     Never  surj>asscd. 


LEE— LEECH. 


1709 


courage,  nliioli  enaljlc.l  liiiii  to  uiiiko  it  relatively 
comparable   instrument   of   his   jOans.     In    the   cr 


comii 


if  ever  equalled,  in  the  art  of  winning  the  passionate,  per-  I 
soiial  love  as  well  as  admiration  of  his  troops,  he  acquired 
and  held  an  inftueucc  over  his  army  to  the  very  last  in- 
stant, foun.led  on  a  suiirimc  trust  in  his  judsjcuent,  pre- 
science, and  skill,  coupled  with  his  cool,  stalde.  equable 

'      '■  --'-•:-'■•  iiio  im- 

crisis  of 
disastrous  battle,  as  at  Gettysburg,  and  als.)  on  tliat  day  at 
Petersburg  when  the  whole  Federal  army  seenied  surging 
in  upon  hFTn  through  the  breach  in  his  lines  opened  by  the 
exploded  mine,  den.  Lee  was  seen  to  be  as  placid  and 
cheerful,  as  free  from  anxiety  and  clear-headed,  as  at  the 
close  of  ft  dav  of  viotory.  Strategically  defective  and  ill- 
eonceived.  \ct  the  (iettysburg  campaign  was  executed  by 
r.ee  with  a  inaslerlv  knowledge  of  the  theatre  of  operations, 
unsurpassed  celerity,  and  secrecy  of  movement,  and  with 
all  possible  care  of  his  communications;  but  it  must  be 
added  that  in  that  battle,  as  also  previously  in  the  san- 
guinary assault  upon  McClellan  in  \»G2  at  Malvern  Hill, 
there  was  a  serious  lack  of  that  tactical  concentration  of 
his  masses  on  the  part  of  the  Confederate  general  which 
was  essential  to  success.  It  is  also  ap|)arcnt  that  he  was 
wanting  in  the  talent  of  administration  which  distinguished 
Wellington;  unlike  whom  also,  with  all  his  military  vir- 
tues, Lee  was  careless  of  the  discipline  and  training  of  his 
army.  From  temperament,  likewise,  he  gave  way,  as  no 
general  so  placed  ever  should  consent  to  do  in  matters  of 
supreme  military  concern,  to  his  political  chief,  and  hence 
not  only  undertook  false  campaigns,  like  that  of  the  second 
invasion,  and  maintained  too  long  a  position,  like  that  of 
Petersburg  in  ISC.j,  but  ho  failed  to  throw  the  decisive 
weight  of  his  great  personal  and  professional  authority 
against  that  sHtleil  )Mdicy  of  wide  dispersion  of  its  forces 
wliich  proved  so  fatal  to  the  Confederate  cause.  For  the 
proper  measure  of  ticn.  Lee's  rank  among  the  soldiers  of 
history,  however,  seeing  what  ho  wrought  with  such  re- 
source's as  he  had,  under  all  the  disadvantages  that  ever 
attended  his  oiieralions,  it  were  fair  to  sujipose  what  ho 
might  have  achieved  in  campaigns  and  battles  with  re- 
sources at  his  own  disposition  equal  to  those  against  which 
he  invariably  contended. 

In  person.  Robert  K.  Lee  was  of  remarkable  manly 
beauty,  with  a  distiiiguishcil  martial  appearance  and  car- 
riage.' Lett  at  the  close  of  the  war  without  estate  or  pro- 
fession, he  accepted  with  alacrity  the  presidency  of  Wash- 
ington College  at  Lexington,  Va.,  to  which  simple  employ- 
ment he  gave  the  same  devotion,  with  the  like  high  sense 
of  .lutv,  which  had  distinguished  the  captain  of  engineers 
and  the  commander  of  the  chief  army  of  one  of  the  bel- 
ligerents in  a  mighty  civil  war.  At  the  same  time,  not  uii- 
inindful  of  the  largo  inlluenco  he  had  acquired  over  his 
section,  he  lost  no  opportunity  to  use  that  influence  to 
soften  and  assuage  the  passions  and  animosities  of  his 
people.  '•.Madam,  <lo  not  train  up  your  children  m  hos- 
tility to  the  government  of  the  II.  S.,"are  authentic  charac- 
teristic words  which  he  uttered  to  one  widowed  by  the  war, 
who  in  bringing  her  son  to  him  for  education  had  spoken 
bitterly.  But  sixtv-ihree  yeiirs  of  age,  with  apparent 
promise  of  prolongetl  health  and  a  life  of  usel'iiliuss  and 
influence,  he  was  taken  suddenly  ill,  and  in  a  fortnight  d. 
Oct.  12,  l«70,  at  Lexington.  Thomas  Joiiiias. 

I.ce  (Sami:ki.).  n.  D.,  b.  at  Longnor,  Shropshire,  Eng- 
land, May  II,  ITX-I;  receive.l  his  first  instruction  at  a 
charity  school,  an.l  was  at  the  ago  of  twelvn  apprenticed 
to  a  c'arp.nter.  While  laboring  at  this  trade  he  acquired 
Iho  chief  classical.  Oriiiilal,  ami  modern  languages,  and  at 
the  ago  of  thirty  was  enabled  to  enter  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
hri.lge,  as  a  student,  graduating  in  due  course,  taking  or- 
ders in  the  Cliureh,  becoming  in  1S111  university  professor 
of  Arabic,  and  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  in  IS.U.  He 
published  a  Itrhrrw  Oriimmnr,  which  hail  a  wide  circula- 
tion in  Knglaiid  and  America  ( IKHO),  translations  of  the 
7V-1I--/.  ../•  Ml.  IlKitifi  (is:'.:!),  and  of  the  ll.,„l.-  o/' ./.,/,  (  1S?,71, 
and  a  llrl,rr,r  nml  K,uji:,h  Lexicon  (1810).  1).  at  Barley, 
Hertfordshire,  Dec.  I«,  lSo2. 

Lee  (Samiki.  Pim.ifs),  U.  S.  N.,  b.  Feb.  13,  IS12,  in 
Virginia;    entered   the  navy   as  a  midshipman    Nov    ■"" 
1S2.^;  became 
in  18:17,  a  coinman 

niodoro  in  isr.fi.a  ri'ar-adininil  in  1^70;  retired  fnon  active 
siTvije  Feb.  l;i,  lH7;i.  Commanded  the  Dneiila  with  dis- 
tinguislied  gallantry  at  the  passace  of  Forts  .lackson  and 
St.  Philip  and  capiure  of  New  Orleans,  "driving  off  the 
assailants  of  the  Varulin,  and  preventing  her  oflicers  and 
cnnv  from  being  captured  by  the  Conl'cdi  rates."  From 
lS(i2  to  ISfil  commandeil  the  North  Atlantic  blockading 
squadron,  and  from  lf<(lt  to  ISfi.'i  the  Mississippi  squadron. 
From  ISOfi  to  ISO?  president  of  the  board  to  examine  vol- 
unteer oflicers  for  admission  into  the  navy;  ISCS  to  1S70 
gnal-onicer  of  the  navy  ;   IS7tl  to  Is;.'!  in  command 


passed  miilshipman  in  ls:t3.  a  lieutenant      »"""" 

lander  in  IS''.'',  a  captain  in  isfi2.  a  com-      ■"•.""' 

,     •     I  :..  lo-n.  ...i:..i  r, „..i;.„      iiainlii 


chief  sign 

of  the  North  Atlantic  fleet. 


FoxiiAi.i,  A.  Paiikku. 


Lee  (Sarah  Wallis),  b.  in  Colchester,  England,  in 
17'J1  :  married  Thomas  Edward  Bowdich,  whom  she  ac- 
coni)ianied  to  the  Cold  Coast  of  Africa  in  ISU,  residing 
there  until  1S22.  Mr.  liowdich  was  employed  as  a  com- 
missioner to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Ashanteo 
in  18lo,  and  with  the  aid  of  his  wife  published  in  ISl'J  a 
work  entitled  .1  .V/i«»ioii  to  Aahaiitec.  Ho  d.  at  Bathurst, 
Isle  of  St.  Mary.  Jan.  10,  l.'S24.  Mrs.  Bowdich  published 
in  1825  Storiea  of  Stynnrje  Lands,  ill  which  she  narrated 
with  great  efl'ect  her  observations  in  Africa,  edited  three 
illustrated  works  on  mammalia,  birds,  and  shells,  written  liy 
her  late  husband,  and  prepared  other  original  works  of  the 
same  character,  which  gave  her  an  honorable  name  in  the 
annals  of  British  science.  Mrs.  Bowdich  resided  many 
years  in  Paris,  where  she  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Baron 
Cuvicr  and  other  distinguished  naturalists,  and  married 
her  second  husband,  Mr.  Lee.     D.  in  l.'^oO. 

Lee  (Sophia),  h.  in  London  in  May.  17o0.  daughter  of 
an  actor. and  in  1780  wrote  a  comedy,  Tlir  Chapter  o/.-lcci- 
<lriitK.  which  was  brought  out  with  success  at  the  llaymarket 
Theatre.  The  profits  of  this  play  enabled  Miss  Lee  to  es- 
tablish at  Bath  (1781)  a  seminary  for  young  ladies,  which 
was  for  many  years  conducted  by  her  along  with  her  sister 
(see  Lee,  IIa'rriet).  with  whom  her  name  is  inseparably  con- 
nected in  the  authorship  of  the  celcbr.ated  Canttihnri/  Ta/en. 
Two  only  of  these  tales,  and  the  introduction,  were  written 
by  Harriet.  She  wrote  two  novels  and  a  tragedy,  which 
were  moderately  successful,  and  another  comedy,  which 
proved  a  failure.  D.  at  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  Mar.  3, 1824. 
Lee  (Thomas),  b.  in  Virginia  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  was  third  son  of  Richard  Lee,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  and  grandson  of  Richard  Lee.  the  founder 
of  the  family  in  America,  who  as  a  Cavalier  played  a  dis- 
tinguished part  in  Virginia  along  with  Berkeley  in  securing 
tho  allegiance  of  that  colony  to  the  Stuarts.  Thomas  Leo 
succeeded  to  the  ancestral  estate  at  Stratford.  Westmoreland 
CO..  on  the"  Northern  Neck;"  became  president  of  the  coun- 
cil;  and  his  commission  as  governor  had  just  been  made 
out  when  he  d.  in  17:)0.  He  had  married  Hannah,  daughter 
of  Col.  Philip  Ludwell,  a  member  of  the  council,  and  by 
her  had  six  sons,  all  of  whom  were  distinguished  for  their 
public  services  during  the  Revolution :  Phili]i  Ludwell,  a 
member  of  the  council;  Thomas  Ludwell.  b.  about  17:{0, 
member  of  the  hou.se  of  burgesses,  of  tho  conventions  of 
1775  and  1770,  of  the  Committee  of  Safety,  and  one  of  tho 
judges  of  the  supreme  court,  d.  soon  after,  aged  47;  Rn-n- 
ARB  Uenrv,  Frasxis  LicHTFOOT,  and  Arthiir  (see  those 
names);  and  William,  the  fifth  son,  b.  about  17:!7;  was 
a-'ent  of  Virginia  in  England;  elected  sherifl'  of  London 
iu'l773  and  alderman  in  1775  ;  afterwards  diplomatic  agent 
of  the  U.  S.  at  the  Hague,  Vienna,  and  Berlin  ;  recalled  in 
1779,  and  d.  at  Oreenspring,  Va..  June  27,  1705.  In  the 
third  and  fourth  generation  from  Thomas  this  family,  al- 
lied by  descent  and  intermarriage  to  tho  Lees  of  military 
celebrity,  has  produced  several  influential  citizens.     .  ■  * 

Lec  (Wilson),  b.  in  Sussex  co.,  Del.,  in  17(51  ;  became  an 
itinerant  .Methodist  in  17S  1  ;  travelled  and  preached  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  after  1701  went  to  New  Englan.l.  and  shared 
with'jesse  Lee  in  the  founding  of  Methodism  there.  1).  in 
Anne  Arundel  co.,  Md.,  Oct.  11,  1804.  AiiEi.  Stevens. 
Lec  Centre,  post-lp.  of  Lee  co..  111.  Pop.  1028. 
Lee  Centre,  postv.  of  Leo  tp..  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y..  9 
miles  N.  \V.  of  Rome,  has  some  manufactures.  Pop.  355. 
Leech  [Ang.-Sax.  h-rr],  a  name  vaguely  apjilicd  to  va- 
rious representatives  of  the  order  Bdellodea  or  ^llngllisuga- 
ria,  but  especially  employed  fur  the  species  of  the  family 
HirudinidiB.  This  group  has  a  number  of  genera  and  spe- 
cies, and  all  of  tluin  have  in  common  an  elongated,  flat- 
tened, and  transversely  annulate  body,  which  is  narrowed 
anteriorly  and  obtuse' posteriorly  :  the  anterior  extremity 
has  an  oval  sucker,  ami  within  tho  mouth  are  three  jaws 
converging  backwards  and  denticulated  in  their  margins; 
ton  inconspicuous  eyes  are  developed  on  the  upper  lip;  the 
posterior  extremity  has  a  large  round,  .ibliciiiely-iiisertcd 
sucker.  Tho  sexes  are  united  in  one  indivblual.  The  best 
known  species  are  the  oflicinal  leeches  (Hirmto  ofih-inaliK, 
rillcinalit.  nnA  11.  Irorirna).  Leeches  afl"ord  the  least 
painlul  means  for  tho  local  abstraction  of  blood.  They 
take  from  three  to  five  times  their  weight  in  blood,  six  gen- 
erally being  a|iplie  1  for  every  fluid  ounce  of  blood  to  be 
lost.  To  ilisgorgo  the  blood,  apply  salt  or  squeeie  them. 
The  medicinal  leech  is  cultivated  in  Europe,  being  kept  in 
ponds  in  natural  meadows,  and  increase  rapiilly.  horses, 
cows,  etc.  being  driven  in  to  feed  lliein,  or  the  leeches  im- 
mersed in  warm  blood  deprived  of  fibrine.  They  arc  kept 
in  clear  soft  water  in  jars,  and  are  sensitive  to  change  ot 
weather.  TiiEonoiiE   iJlI.t,. 

Leech  (John),  b.  in  London  in  1817.     His  father  for 
many  years  kept  tho  London  Coffee-house  on  Ludgalo  Hill. 


1710 


LEECH— LEESER, 


Leech  was  educated  at  Charter-house,  and  was  a  student 
at  the  K(»yal  Aciidcmy.  As  an  artist  he  was  neglected. 
His  genius  appeared  in  sketches  of  character  for  /hff'^  Life 
in  Lfnidou:  in  ISl"  he  began  to  work  as  a  designer  for 
Ptiticb,  and  for  eij^hteen  years  made  that  journal  famous 
among  journals  hy  the  wit,  originality,  versatility,  and  hu- 
mor of  his  pencil.  In  1861  a  rich  Manchester  firm  enabled 
tlio  artist  to  reproduce  many  of  his  drawings  by  a  ne\vly- 
in vented  mechanical  process  in  large  size  and  colored. 
These  were  exhibited  at  Egyptian  Hall.  Leech  d.  Oct.  30, 
ISGt.  0.  B.  Frothingham, 

Leech,  tp.  of  Wayne  co.,  III.     Pop.  1268. 

Leech''bur;^f  post-b.  of  Armstrong  co.,  Pa.,  on  the 
Pennsylvania  (  entral  R.  R.  and  Pennsylvania  Canal,  35 
miles  X.  E.  of  Pittsburg,  has  4  churches.  2  hoti-ls,  1  weekly 
newspaper,  1  bank,  an  academy,  a  flouring-mill,  )^  stores, 
a  wagon  and  carriage  manufactory,  tin-factory  and  roll- 
ing-uiill :  the  two  latter  use  for  fuel  a  natural  gas  obtained 
friim  a  well  1200  feet  deep.  A  fine  school-building  is  now 
(1875)  being  erected  at  a  cost  of  $20,000.     Pop.  .368. 

J.  F.  Robertson,  Ed.  "Enterprise," 

Leech  Lake*  in  Cass  co.,  Minn.,  is  20  miles  long,  16 
miles  wide,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Jlississippi 
by  the  Leech  Lake  River.  Elevation,  1330  feet.  It  is  in  a 
well-timbered  region,  inhabited  by  the  Leech  Lake  Indians, 
a  band  of  Chippewas. 

Lee  Creek,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  654. 

Leeds,  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of  Eng- 
land, and  one  of  its  leading  manufacturing  cities,  situated 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  northern  bank  of 
the  Aire,  here  cros.»;ed  by  t\vo  stone  and  four  iron  bridges, 
which  connect  the  city  proper  with  its  two  large  suburbs, 
Hunslet  and  Holbeck,  situated  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
river.  Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  though 
generally  well  paved  and  well  lighted.  The  western  part 
of  the  city,  however,  contains  several  fine  streets  lined  with 
elegant  houses.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  public  build- 
ings are — St.  Peter's  church,  rebuilt  in  1838,  and  the  hirg- 
est  of  the  thirty-six  churches  of  the  city;  the  town-hall, 
with  several  fine  statues :  the  grammar  school,  the  corn  ex- 
change, the  cloth  hall,  the  borough  jail,  etc.  The  city  has 
many  benevolent  and  educational  institutions,  such  as  the 
Mechanics'  Institute,  founded  in  1S24,  with  a  library  of 
13.000  vols.;  the  School  of  Art,  which  annually  gives  in- 
struction in  drawing  to  3000  persons;  the  AVorkingmen's 
Institute,  numbering  about  20U0  members,  etc.  As  a  man- 
ufacturing ])lace  Leeds  was  conspicuous  already  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  products  of  its  industry  were  at  that 
time  nearly  the  same  as  now — namely,  woollens,  linens,  and 
leather.  But  at  first  it  was  only  the  coarser  kinds  of  wool- 
lens which  were  manufactured  at  Leeds,  while  now  its  cloths 
can  compete  in  fineness  and  elegance  with  those  of  any  other 
place.  About  12.000  hands  are  employed  in  this  kind  of 
manufacture,  and  a  similar  number  in  that  of  linens.  Of 
late  the  iron  manufactures  have  grown  very  considerably; 
machinery  is  annually  made  to  the  value  of  about  £2.000,000. 
Near  the  citv  are  the  beautiful  ruins  of  Kirkstale  Abbey. 
Pop.  1J1,SJ0"  in  ISU;  171,805  in  1851  j  207,153  in  ISGl; 
25y,212  in  1871. 

Leeds,  county  of  Ontario,  Canada,  bounded  on  the  S.  E. 
by  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Area.  805  square  miles.  It  is 
in  part  united  for  judicial  and  other  purposes  with  Gren- 
ville  CO.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the 
Brockvillc  Railways.  Cap.  Brockville.  Pop.  of  Leeds  and 
(Jrenville  cos.,  including  Brockville,  57,918. 

fjppds,  post-tp.  of  Androscoggin  co.,  Me.,  on  the  Maine 
i'lMitnil  and  the  Androscoggin  R.  Rs.  It  has  5  churches, 
gooil  water  power,  and  some  manufactures.     Pop.  128S. 

Leeds,  post-v.  of  Northampton  tp.,  Hampshire  co., 
Ma.-s..  on  Mill  River  and  on  the  New  llavcn  and  North- 
am]itun  R.  R.,  5  miles  N.  M'.  of  Northampton.  It  was  the 
scat  of  important  manufactures,  but  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed, with  several  other  villages,  May  6,  1874,  by  the 
bursting  of  the  Williamsburg  reservoir. 

Leeds,  post-v.  of  Catskill  tp.,  Greene  co..  N.  Y.,  at  the 
falls  of  Catskill  Creek,  which  furnishes  water-power.  It 
has  2  churches  and  various  manufactures.  It  is  4  miles 
N.  \V.  of  Catskill.     Pop.  847. 

Leeds,  post-tp.  of  Columbia  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1098. 

I.eedH  (.lonN),  b.  in  Bay  Hundred.  Talbot  co.,  Md.,  May 
18.  1705;  was  for  forty  years  a  clerk  of  the  county  court 
and  a  judge  of  the  Provincial  Court;  received  in  1760  a 
commission  to  supervise  the  returns  of  Ma.son  and  Dixon 
of  the  boundaries  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania;  pub- 
lished in  1769  in  Philogophtrnf  Trnn/tnctionit,  Obn^rmtion 
of  the  Transit  of  VenuH^  and  while  surveyor-general  of 
Maryland  d.  at  Wade's  Point  Plantation,  in  Mar.,  1790. 

Leek  [Ang.-Sax.  leac'],  the  AHimn  porrum,  a  liliaceous 


plant  of  the  onion  genus,  the  mildest  in  flavor  of  that  whole 
group  of  plants.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  kitchen- 
gardens  of  Wales,  Scotland,  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Thcro  are  many  varieties,  some  of  which  arc  much  esteem- 
ed. The  lower  jiart  of  the  sttm  is  the  part  eaten.  The 
juice  made  into  a  syrup  is  a  good  diuretic  and  stimulant 
expectorant  medicine,  valued  in  domestic  practice. 

Leek,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  PtafTord,  on 
the  Churnet.  It  has  some  silk  manufactures  and  many 
good  educational  institutions.     Pop.  10,045. 

Lec'lanaw,  county  of  Michigan,  bounded  W.  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  E.  by  Grand  Traverse  Ray.  Area,  310 
square  miles.  It  is  very  level,  and  abounds  in  lakes  and 
forests.  Grain  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  products.  Cup. 
Northport.      Pop.  4576. 

Leelanaw,  tp.  of  Leelanaw  co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Mich- 
igan.   Pup.  8.';o. 

Lee'mans  (CoNRADrs),b.  at  Zalt  Bommel,in  the  prov- 
ince of  Gfldcrland,  Apr.  28,  1809;  studied  from  1826,  first 
theology  and  then  nrcha'ology,  at  the  University  of  Leydcn, 
and  was  appointed  first  conservator  at  the  Museum  of  An- 
tiquities of  that  city  in  IS'Mk  He  was  eminently  success- 
ful in  gathering  together  all  the  archaeological  treasures 
which  the  city  possessed,  and  arranging  them  in  proper 
order,  and  in  ls;;i)  he  was  made  director  of  the  museum. 
In  1859  he  was  furthermore  commissioned  by  the  govern- 
ment to  found  an  ethnographical  museum,  with  which  Pie- 
bold's  celebrated  Japanese  collection  was  incorporated. 
Most  of  Leemans's  writings  are  critical  and  historical  de- 
scriptions of  objects  of  the  museum,  but  more  especially  on 
Egyptian  antiquities:  among  which  are  his  critical  edition 
of  the  Hicro<jhfphica  of  Horapollo  (1835),  and  his  ^fi^ffjfp- 
tiftche  Monumciitena  van  het  Museum  van  Andhcdcn  te  Lev- 
den  (1835-651. 

Lee'pertown,  tp.  of  Bureau  co.,  111.     Pop.  .387. 

Leer,  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Hanover,  on 
the  Leda,  near  its  junction  with  the  Ems.  has  several  sugar- 
refineries,  cotton-weaving  and  printing  establishments,  to- 
bacco manufactories,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  a  consider- 
able boat-building  business.     Pop.  8932. 

Lee's,  tp.  of  Columbus  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  031. 

Lees  (FREnKKKK  RirHARi>),h.  at  Mcanwood  Hall,  near 
Leeds,  England,  Mar.  15,  1815;  devoted  himself  from  an 
early  age  to  the  temperance  cause,  and  worked  with  success 
both  by  lectures  and  writings.  He  published  The  Jfefn- 
phifHics  of  Ouciiism  A^rfl^^-cffr/ -(1838-39),  the  Hintort/ of  Al- 
cnhol  ( 1843),  and  a  Treatise  ou  Lngicy  or  thr  Method,  Menus, 
and  Matter  of  Argument.  In  1845  he  started  the  Truth- 
Seeher  in  Literature,  Philosophi/,  and  RcUffion,  a  periodi- 
cal which  continued  for  several  years.  In  1853  he  repre- 
sented the  British  tcnijierance  associations  of  the  N.  of  Eng- 
land at  the  world's  tetnperance  convention  in  New  York, 
and  in  1800  he  was  presented  with  a  testimonial  of  lOOO 
guineas  by  the  friends  of  temperance  in  Great  Britain. 

Lees'burg,  post-v.  of  Plain  tp.,  Kosciusko  co..  Ind., 
on  the  Cincinnati  Wabash  and  Jlichigan  R.  R.  It  has  an 
active  trade.     Pop.  320. 

Leesbiirf?,  post-v.  of  Harrison  co.,  Ky.     Pop.  144. 

Leesburg,  post-v.  of  Highland  co.,0..  on  the  Bfarictta 
and  Cincinnati  R.  R.,  64  miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of  Cincinnati. 
Pop.  508. 

Lecsbiirg,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  0.     Pop.  1410. 

Lee.sburg,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Loudon  co.,  Va., 
on  the  Washington  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  38  miles  N.  W.  of 
AVashington,  D.  C,  lies  in  a  fertile  agricultural  district 
near  the  E.  base  of  the  Kittoctan  Mountain  and  3  miles 
from  the  Potomiic  River:  has  6  churches.  1  national  bank. 
2  hotels,  2  weekly  newspapers,  1  male  and  1  female  semi- 
nary, several  fine  schools,  a  steam  saw  and  planing  mill, 
and  the  usual  number  of  mercantile  and  industrial  estab- 
lishments. The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted,  and 
the  court-house  square  is  a  large  and  beautiful  enclosure, 
laid  out  with  walks  and  shade  trees.  There  are  numerous 
and  nourishing  lodges  of  benevolent  societies.  The  battle- 
field of  "Ball's  Bluff"  lies  2  miles  from  the  town.  Pop. 
of  V.  1144;  of  tp.  4075.     B.  F.  Shketz.  En.  "JIirror." 

Lee'ser  flsAAc),  b.  in  Neukireh,  Westphalia.  Dee.  12. 
1806;  came  to  Richmond.  Va..  in  IS24;  was  at  first  engagcil 
in  commerce,  but  in  1829  beeame  rabbi  of  the  jirincipal 
Jewish  synagogue  in  Philadelphia,  and  wrote  several 
works  relating  to  Jewish  history  and  doctrine,  among 
which  are  The  Jews  and  the  Mosaic  Lair  f  1833b  Dixroursrtt. 
Arfjnnienfafire  and  Devotional  (1836).  Partutfurse  Form  if 
Prai/ers  (1837),  Descriptive  Geotfraphtf  of'  Pftlr^tine.  from 
the  Hebrew  of  Rabbi  .Joseph  Schwartz,  and  a  Translation 
of  the  Hntt/  Scriptures  iO\i\  Testament) /Voni  the  oriffinnf 
Hebrew  (1853).     In  1813  he  established  a  monthly  maga- 


LEE'S  MILL— LEFORT. 


1711 


7.ino.   Thr  Ocrident  anrf  Amrn'can  Jewinh  Advornte;   retired 
from  the  ministry  in  ISaO.    D.  at  Philudelphia  l\h.  1, 1808. 

Lee's  Mill,  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1522. 

Lees'porCy  potJt-v.  of  Ontetaunco  tp..  Berks  co.,  Pa., 
on  the  E.  sjiic  of  the  Schuylkill  Kiver,  H  miles  N.  of  Read- 
in^'.  Its  niilruad  station  (Kcudiug  R.  K.)  is  across  the 
river  in  Rern  tp. 

Lee's  Summit,  post-v.  of  Jackson  co.,  Mo.,  on  the 
Missouri  Puritir  R.  R.,  209  miles  W.  of  St.  Louis  and  2-1 
miles  S.  K.  of  Kansas  City,  has  li  churches.  I  weekly  news- 
paper. 1  hutel,  1  graded  school.  1  grain-elevator,  and  20 
i>U!<iness-housc.«.  It  is  one  of  the  garden-spots  of  Missouri. 
Pop.  about  lOUO.  L.  D.  Caumklv.  Pru.  "  Ledokb." 

Leet,  tp.  of  Allegheny  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  fl29. 

Leete  (William),  h.  in  England  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century:  eame  to  New  England  in  16;i7j  was  an  early  set- 
tler of  New  Haven.  Conn. ;  a  founder  of  the  town  of  Guil- 
ford in  10:19;  was  for  many  years  chosen  assistant  and 
deputy  governor,  and  was  governor  of  Tonneetieut  from 
Ifitil  to  1605.  Tie  was  frequently  a  couimissioner  of  the 
colonies  between  IGJJ  and  1G70;  befriended  and  enter- 
tained the  regicides  tJofTe,  Whalley,  and  I>ixwell  in  Mar., 
IGCl  ;  was  again  chosen  governor  in  167fi,  and  annually 
ro-eleeted  until  his  death,  at  Hartford  Apr.  Ifi,  1683. 

Leeto'nia,  post-v.  of  .'<alem  tp.,  Columbiana  co.,  0., 
at  the  junetion  of  the  Pittsburg  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicag<i 
and  (ireat  Western  R.  Rs..  G.>  mik-s  X.  W.  of  Pittsburg,  has  j 
churches,  I  bunk,  1  weekly  newspaper,  3  hotels,  numerous 
stores.  1  rolling  and  1  planing  mill,  4  blast  furnaces,  ex- 
tensive coal-mines  and  c<»ke-ovens,  a  nail  and  bolt  mill, 
boiler-works,  a  foundry  and  machine-shop,  luraber-yards. 
and  a  fine  school  building.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  farm- 
iug  country,  and  was  incorporated  in  IS(ii>.  Pup.  12(10. 
W.  Hahuv  Watson,  E».  '•  Rcpoutku." 

Leeu'warden,  town  of  the  Netlierlands.  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Friesland.  It  is  10  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  but 
in  the  fourteenth  century  it  lay  on  the  shore  of  a  deep  inlet 
of  the  sea,  wbieh  by  degrees  has  been  filled  with  banks  of 
sand  and  mud  and  become  solid  gnumd.  The  eity  is  inter- 
sected by  canals,  and  is  neatly  built,  with  many  olegnnt 
houses.  Among  its  educational  institutions  and  scientific 
societies  is  particularly  notable  its  society  for  Frisian  his- 
tory and  language.  Its  trade  in  cattle,  swine,  butter,  flax, 
and  spirits,  and  its  manufactures  of  linen  and  paper,  are 
quite  considerable.      Pop.  2.'>.4o0. 

Leeu'wenhoeck,  von  (Antonh-s),  b.  at  Delft,  Neth- 
erlands. Oct.  21,  1632:  went  in  his  sixteenth  year  to  Am- 
sterdam, and  entered  a  merchant'?  office,  but  returned  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  years  to  his  native  city,  and  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  to  the  study  of  natural  science.  Ho  nianu- 
faetured  Optical  instruments,  especially  microscopes,  ancl 
these  he  applied  with  the  most  brilliant  success  to  his  re- 
searches in  physiology.  Mis  principal  discoveries  were 
that  of  the  red' globules  of  the  blood  in  16";i,  that  of  the 
infusorial  animalcules  in  IGT.**,  and  that  of  the  spermatozoa 
in  1677.  By  these  discoveries  he  attraetcil  general  atten- 
tion, and  established  connections  with  nil  learned  men  anil 
learned  societies  of  his  age,  such  as  Leibnitz,  the  Royal 
Society  of  Iion<lon,  and  others.  His  writings  were  pub- 
lished partly  in  book-form  at  Leyden,  partly  as  erunmuni- 
cations  to  scientific  journals,  Aiift  KrwHtn,  /'hi/onnphimt. 
Tratmarttouii,  etc.,  and  collected  in  1721  in  4  vols,  under 
the  title  Opera  oinnin,  ittrc  nrcnnn  uaturrv  ope  eraet'imi mo- 
rum  mioroHritpini-um  ilricrUt,      D.  at  I)clft  Aug.  26,  1723. 

LeewnnI  Islands*     See  Antillks. 

LeCrbvre'  i  I'uANrois  .Ioski-ii),  dnke  of  Dantzic,  mar- 
shal of  I'raiM-e,  b.  at  RulTacb,  Alsace.  Oct.  2r>,  17.'*a;  enlisted 
Sept.  10.  177:'',  in  the  French  guard,  and  distinguished  him- 
self greatly  by  courage  and  resoluteness  on  several  occa- 
sions during  the  Revolution.  In  1792  ho  was  made  cap- 
tain of  the  13lh  infantry  regiment,  and  his  talents  now 
developed  v«ry  rapidly:  in  K'.*l  he  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  Having  been  appoiiit<d  commander  of  the  I7lh 
military  division,  to  which  Paris  belonged,  he  supported 
Napoleon  on  Nov.  1»,  17y'.t,  and  was  made  a  marshal  of 
Franco  at  the  establishment  of  the  empire.  In  the  war 
against  Prussia  he  also  distinguished  himself,  especially 
by  the  siege  and  capture  of  [>ant/.ic  (May  26.  1S07).  whence 
be  derived  his  title  of  duke.  Rut  his  mo.«t  brilliant  exploit 
was  his  campaign  in  Spain  in  isOS.  He  took  Rilbao,  and 
defeated  the  English  under  Rtake,  Nov.  7.  In  1814  he 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  army  opposing  the  inva- 
tion  of  the  allies,  but  after  the  abdi«'iitioM  of  Napoleon  he 
.«ul»niitled  to  the  Rourbons  ami  was  made  a  peer  of  France 
by  Louis  Will.,  .lune  4,  iNl  I.  D.  at  Paris  Sept.  14,  1820. 
lie  had  twelve  sons,  who  all  died  before  him. 

I.pfebvre'-nosnouettes'  fCnAiif.i^sl.  Coint,  b.  at 
Paris,  France,  Sept.  II,  1773  ;  served  in  the  French  army  in 


Belgium  under  Dumouriez  in  1792:  was  aide  de-camp  to 
Napoleon  at  Marengo:  distinguished  himself  at  Auslerlitz ; 
became  brigadier  in  IS06,  and  general  of  division  in  IS08; 
began  the  siege  of  Sarag'»ssa  in  S])ain  :  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  English  ;  escaped  from  England ;  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Austrian  (1809),  Russian  (1812).  and  (lerman 
(ISI3)  campaigns,  and  in  the  defence  of  France  from  in- 
vasion (ISII):  was  made  a  peer  by  Napoleon  in  isl.'i: 
fought  at  Fleurus  ancl  at  Waterloo  ;  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  royalists,  but  escaped  to  the  U.S.;  joined 
with  Baron  Lallemand  in  the  attempt  to  found  a  colony  of 
French  refugees  in  Alabama:  was  in  correspondence  with 
Na])oleon  for  the  purpos4'  of  effecting  his  rescue  from  St. 
Helena,  and  received  1. 50. 000  francs  by  the  will  of  that 
monarch,  and  while  returning  to  Europe  was  lost  at  sea 
near  Kinsale.  Ireland.  Apr.  22,  1822. 

Lcicvre  (PETr.it  Pail),  I).  H.,  b.  at  Roulers,  in  Bel- 
gium, Apr.  30,  1804,  and  educated  in  Paris;  came  to  the 
IT.  S.  in  1828;  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  at 
St.  Louis  in  1831  :  was  stationed  at  New  Madrid,  Mo.,  and 
afterwards  became  a  travelling  missionary  in  the  North- 
west. In  1844  he  became  bishop  of  Zela  in  ptirlibus  and 
coadjutor  of  Detroit.  He  was  active  in  the  establishuient 
of  charitable,  religious,  and  educational  institutions.  I>. 
at  Detroit,  Mich.,  Mar.  4,  1869. 

Leffevre  (Tansecii)  (commonly  known  as  Tanaquil 
Faber,  from  the  Latinized  form  of  his  name),  b.  at  Caen  in 
]6ir>;  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College  ut  La  Fleche,  where  he 
devoted  himself  especially  to  philosophy  and  classical  lit- 
erature. Cardinal  Richelieu  appointed  him  inspector  of 
the  press  of  the  Louvre.  After  the  death  of  Richelieu  his 
salary  was  irregularly  paid,  and  he  was  obliged  to  sell  his 
library.  Having  resigned  his  position,  he  retired  to  Langres, 
afterwards  to  Prcuilly,  where  he  eml>raceil  Protestantism; 
was  soon  ofter  ajjpointed  professor  in  the  Reformed  acade- 
my of  Saumur.  His  works  were  ehierty  annotated  editions 
of  the  classic  authors,  r.  7..  of  Longinus.  ^liau,  Lucretius, 
Horace,  Pha^drus,  Terence,  Anaereon.  Sajipho,  and  several 
others.  He  translated  also  into  Latin  iambics  the  Fables 
0/  Ltilcmnu  (Saumur,  1673),  and  wrote  IVcv  des  Poetea  grcca 
anil  Mi'thude  poitv  vommcncer  hn  //iiiiiuuitfs  grecquea  ct 
latins.  D.  Sept.  12,  1672.  He  left  one  son  and  two  daugh- 
ters, one  of  whom  was  Madame  Dacier.         H.  Drislku. 

I.efkosi'a,  or  Nicosia,  the  ancient  Lriiconia,  the 
cajiital  ot  Cyprus,  and  silnatcMl  nearly  in  the  midtlle  of  the 
island.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  has  many  inter- 
esting and  elegant  buildings,  chielly  Christian  churches 
transf(»rniccl  into  mosques.  It  has  some  manuiactures  of 
silk,  cotton,  and  leather.     Pop.  1S,U00. 

Le  FI6  { AnoLPHK  Charlks  EMMANrKL),h.at  Lesneven, 
France.  Nov.  2.  1S04  :  received  his  military  education  at  St. 
(^'yr;  dislinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Ctuistantiue  in 
1837,  and  on  the  expedition  against  Medeah  in  1S4(.I;  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  after  the  February  revolution, 
and  sent  as  the  ambassaclor  of  the  republic  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, Sept.  7,  1S!S,  he  was  elected  a  member  ot"  the  Con- 
stituent .Asseinldy  :  returned  in  the  lieginning  of  ISl'.l  to 
Paris,  and  was  at  first  an  adherent  of  Louis  Napoleon,  but 
became  later  on  one  of  his  adversaries.  He  was  one  of  the 
members  who  in  Nov.,  1851,  proposed  that  the  command 
of  the  army  should  rest  with  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
The  jiroposition  was  not  adopted,  and  shortly  after  the 
coup  ilVfal  he  was  arrested,  liy  a  decree  of  .Jan.  9,  lS.'t2, 
he  was  banished,  but  in  18,'i9  he  was  permitted  to  return  to 
France,  where  he  lived  in  retirement  till  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
Sept.,  1870.  During  the  Revolution  be  became  minister  of 
war,  and  sat  as  a  meniber  for  Brest  in  the  National  Assembly 
at  Bordeaux,  but  resigned  in  .June,  IS71,  his  ofliee  in  the 
ministry,  ami  went  again  to  Petersburg  as  ambassador.  In 
spite  ol  the  high  positions  whiidi  he  bos  held  since  1870, 
the  part  he  hos  played  in  public  life  is  nevertheless  not  very 
important.  Arwisr  Nikmasn. 

Le  Flore,  county  of  Mississippi,  traversed  by  the  nav- 
igable Ya/<>o  River.  .Area.  6I.'»  square  miles.  Much  of  iho 
surface  is  subject  to  overflow,  but  it  is  very  fertile.  It  has 
been  formed  since  the  census  of  1870.     Cap.  McNutt. 

Lefort'  (Fran<;ois),  b.  at  (Jcneva  in  16.')6,  of  Scot- 
tish di'siM-nt,  and  was  early  placed  in  a  merchant's  ofliee 
in  Hamlnirg.  Thence  he  ran  away  in  his  fourteenth  >ear, 
came  lo  Marseilles,  and  enlisted  in  (he  Swiss  guard  in 
the  French  ser\  ice.  In  1674  he  left  France  on  account 
of  a  duel:  enlercil  the  service  of  the  Nel  lierlands :  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Audenarde,  but,  templed  by 
the  golden  promises  of  a  Russian  recruiter,  he  wintin  1675 
through  Arcbanjjcl  to  Moscow,  wdiere  he  first  held  a  position 
as  secretary  to  the  Danish  ambassador,  and  then  became  a 
captain  in  the  Russian  army.  In  I6>^2  he  became  aecjuaintcd 
with  the  c7.ar.  Peter  the  (Jreat,  at  that  time  only  ten  years 
old.    He  became  his  teacher,  soon  also  his  friend,  and  after 


1712 


LEFTWICH— LEGACY. 


the  revolution  of  KJ.sy,  which  made  Peter  the  Great  sole 
ruler  of  Russia,  aod  in  whiidi  Lefort  had  doue  the  czar 
great  service,  his  influence  became  almost  unhoundcd.  To 
some  extent  the  whole  direction  of  Poter's  remarkable  reign 
was  given  by  Lefort,  and  his  influence  can  be  distinctly 
traced  out  in  many  of  the  most  important  military  and  civil 
measures  which  the  czar  carried  through.  But  ho  d.  early. 
Mar.  12,  I  (V.MI.  in  consequence  of  tlio  frightful  dissipations 
which  formed  the  czar's  daily  habits. 

Lcft'wich  (Gen.  .TocL),b.in  Bedford  co..Va..in  1759; 
was  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution  ;  fought  at  Gcrmanlown 
and  <\imdcn,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Guilford:  com- 
manded a  brigade  under  Harrison  at  Fort  Meigs  in  tho  war 
of  1812;  bceamo  a  niajor-gcncral  of  militia,  and  was  often 
a  member  of  the  Virginia  legislature.  D.  in  Bedford  co. 
Apr.  20,  ISIG. 

Ijeg'acy  [Lat.  leyare,  to  "bequeath'*],  a  bequest  or  gift 
of  pcr.^onal  property  by  will  or  testament.  A  lo^'acy  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  a  devise,  which  is  a  gift  or  cauveyauce 
by  will  of  real  estate.  Legacies  arc  of  three  kinds — gen- 
eral, specific,  and  demonstrative.  A  legacy  is  sr.id  to  bo 
general  when  it  does  not  amount  to  a  bequest  of  any  par- 
ticular portion  of,  or  article  belonging  to,  the  personal  es- 
tate of  the  testator,  as  distinguished  from  all  others  of  the 
same  kind.  A  specific  legacy,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  be- 
quest of  specified  property,  which  is  particularly  desig- 
nated or  described,  so  as  to  be  definitely  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  testator's  estate.  Thus,  a  bequest  of  a 
sum  of  money,  the  amount  of  which  is  named,  is  a  general 
legacy,  while  a  bequest  of  all  the  money  which  is  contained 
in  a  certain  box  or  other  particular  receptacle  is  specific.  A 
bequest  of  a  horse,  of  silver  plate  of  a  certain  named  value, 
of  a  library,  of  clothing,  or  of  any  article  described  iu  this  in- 
definite way.  would  be  a  general  legacy  :  but  a  bequest  of  tho 
horse  in  the  testator's  stable,  of  all  the  plate  wliich  should 
be  in  a  certain  house,  of  a  library  which  the  testator  had  in 
a  particular  mom,  of  the  clothing  which  ho  had  worn,  etc., 
would  be  a  specific  legacy.  If  there  were  a  general  legacy 
of  a  chattel,  as  of  a  horse,  it  would  be  valid,  even  though 
the  testator  had  no  property  of  the  sort,  and  the  executor 
wouhl  be  obliged,  if  there  were  sufficient  assets,  to  procure 
an  article  of  the  kind  mentioned,  in  order  to  meet  the  be- 
quest. But  when  a  legacy  is  specific,  only  the  particular 
property  designated  is  to  be  given  to  the  legatee,  and  if  the 
testator  owned  no  such  property  the  legacy  fails.  General 
legacies  are  sometimes  termed  pecuniary  legacies,  but  tho 
designation  is  inaccurate,  as  specific  legacies  may  also  bo 
pecuniary,  as  the  examples  already  given  indicate.  A  be- 
quest of  money  will  not,  however,  be  a  specific  legacy  be- 
cause it  is  directed  to  be  applied  to  a  specific  purpose,  as 
for  the  purcliasc  of  particular  articles  for  the  legatee.  That 
it  may  be  specific  there  must  be  a  sufficiently  particular 
description  in  the  will,  so  that  the  exact  fund  shall  be  given 
to  the  legatee  or  applied  to  his  use  which  the  testator  allots 
to  him.  A  demonstrative  legacy  is  a  bequest  of  a  certain 
amount  of  money  to  be  paid  out  of  a  particular  fund;  as, 
for  example,  a  bequest  of  $J00  payableout  of  the  proceeds  of 
tho  sale  of  certain  property.  This  form  of  legacy  is  interme- 
diate between  a  general  and  a  specific  legacy,  and  partakes 
of  tho  legal  characteristics  of  both.  The  importance  of 
distinguishing  between  these  various  kinds  of  legacies  is 
principally  with  reference  to  the  doctrines  of  abatement 
and  ademption  which  are  applicable  to  the  subject  of  leg- 
acies. By  (tbnUmeiit  is  meant  a  proportional  reduction  of 
the  bequests  to  various  legatees  when  there  are  not  sufficient 
assets  to  make  full  payment.  It  is  the  duty  of  an  executor 
umler  a  will  to  discharge  all  the  testator's  lawful  debts  be- 
fire  paying  the  legacies,  upon  the  principle  that  ''a  man 
must  be  just  before  he  is  generous."  All  the  personal 
nssits  may  be  applied,  if  necessary,  to  the  payment  of 
dL-'jt.-.  even  though  property  bestowed  in  specific  legacies 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  But  if  there  bo  any  residue 
after  the  indebtedness  is  satisfied,  it  is  to  be  first  applied 
to  the  payment  of  the  specific  legacies,  then  the  demon- 
strative legncies  are  to  be  satisfied,  and  finally  the  general 
Ieg.acies.  If  (here  bo  insufficient  assets  to  satisfy  tho 
legacies  in  cither  of  these  three  classes  successively, 
those  in  tho  same  class  will  be  reduced  proportionally 
by  the  law  of  abatement.  But  the  specific  legacies 
are  to  be  ])aid,  even  though  other  legatees  are  entirely  or 
partly  deprived  of  a  share  in  the  assets.  Neither  specific 
nor  demonstrative  legacies  will  abate  with  general  legacies, 
unless  the  testator  particularly  directs  that  certain  general 
legacies  shall  have  jirecedence  of  those  which  are  specific. 
In  some  cases  general  legacies  of  a  particular  character  will 
be  preferred  to  others  of  the  same  class.  Thus,  if  there  be 
any  valuable  consideration  for  tho  testamentary  gift,  as 
where  a  general  legacy  is  given  in  consideration  of  n  debt 
owing  to  the  legatee  or  of  the  relinquishment  of  any  right 
or  interest,  as  of  her  dower  by  a  widow,  such  legacy  will 


be  entitled  to  a  preference  of  payment  over  the  other  gen- 
eral legacies.  After  all  the  general  legacies  are  paid,  any 
residue  of  assets  will  puss  to  the  residuary  legatee,  if  one 
bo  named  in  the  will,  ami  if  not  will  be  distributed  among 
the  next  of  kin.  (See  Ki\,  Next  or.)  A  residuary  legacy 
is  so  termed  because  it  is  a  gift  or  allotment  of  this  remain- 
der by  the  will  to  some  designated  person.  General  leg- 
acies are  never  subject  to  abatement  for  the  benefit  of  re- 
siduary legatees,  and  are  to  be  paid  in  full  if  there  are  suf- 
ficient assets,  even  though  they  exhaust  the  entire  residue 
of  the  ])ersonal  estate.  Advmpdun  is  an  extinguishment  or 
destruction  of  a  legacy  as  a  result  of  some  change  or  loss 
of  the  property  bequeathed,  or  of  its  non-existence,  or  it  is 
the  substitution  ofsomo  other  provision  for  the  person  named 
as  legatee  which  is  deemed  a  satisfaction  of  the  legacy. 
The  first  part  of  this  definition  applies  more  a])proj>riatGly 
to  specific,  the  latter  to  general  legacies.  Thus,  if  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  a  specific  legacy  were  never  in  the  posses- 
sion of  tho  testator,  or  were  not  owned  by  him  at  the  time  of 
death,  the  legacy  fa.ils  entirely, and  the  legatee  has  no  claim 
against  the  testator's  estate.  A  legacy  of  this  kind  is  also 
adeemed  when  the  specific  property  designated,  though  it 
formed  a  part  of  the  testator's  estate  at  the  time  of  making 
the  will,  was  subsequently  sold  or  otherwise  disposed  t»f  by 
him,  or  so  altered  by  him  in  form  as  to  change  its  identity. 
Thus,  if  the  thing  specified  were  a  gold  cup,  and  the  testa- 
tor should  have  it  made  into  jewelry,  or  if  a  piece  of  cloth 
wore  made  into  a  garment,  the  gift  to  the  legatee  would  be 
extinguished.  So  if  a  debt  specially  bequeathed  be  received 
by  tho  testator,  the  legacy  is  adeemed  because  the  subject 
of  it  is  extinguished.  Ademption  may  also  occur  as  a  re- 
sult of  a  removal  by  the  testator  of  the  articles  bequeathed 
from  one  place  to  another.  Thus,  if  the  testator  should  be- 
queath all  his  furniture  as  being  situated  in  a  particular 
house,  and  afterwards  remove  it  to  another  house,  the  leg- 
acy would  fail.  This  would  not  be  the  case,  however,  if  the 
goods  were  removed  by  reason  of  a  sudden  emergency,  as 
to  save  them  from  fire,  or  if  tho  removal  were  effected  by 
fraud  or  without  the  knowledge  or  consent  of  the  testator. 
An  ademption  may  be  p.artial,  as  where  a  portion  of  the 
property  bequeathed  is  found  among  the  assets  of  the  de- 
ceased, but  not  the  whole.  A  pledge  or  mortgage  of  tho 
property  by  the  testator  is  generally  held  not  to  occasion 
an  aclemption.  In  regard  to  the  rule  of  ademption,  demon- 
strative legacies  difl'er  from  those  which  are  specific.  If  the 
fund  out  of  which  a  demonstrative  legacy  is  to  be  paid  is 
not  in  existence  at  the  testator's  death,  the  legatee  will  have 
a  valid  claim  for  satisfaction  out  of  the  general  fund  of  as- 
sets, and  the  bequest  to  him  will  rank  among  the  general 
legacies.  Demonstrative  legacies  therefore  resemble  spe- 
cific legacies  by  cot  being  subject  to  abatement  witli  the 
general  bequests,  while  they  are  distinguished  from  them 
by  not  being  suViject  to  ademption.  The  doctrine  of  ademp- 
tion is  applied  iu  courts  of  equity  to  general  legacies  when 
a  parent  or  other  person  i;i  loco  panniin  {i.  c.  standing  in 
the  place  of  a  parent)  bequeaths  a  legacy  to  a  child  or 
grandchild,  and  afterwards  in  his  lifetime  gives  a  portion 
or  makes  a  provision  for  the  same  child  or  grandchild,  with- 
out expressing  it  to  ho  in  lieu  of  the  legacy.  If  this  portion 
or  jtrovision  be  etjual  to  or  exceed  the  amount  of  the  legacy, 
I»e  certain  and  not  merely  contingent,  and  Ite  a  gift  of  the 
same  geueral  nature  as  the  legacy,  it  will  be  deemed  a  sat- 
isfaction or  extinguishment  of  the  legacy.  This  is  on  the 
ground  of  the  presumed  intention  on  the  part  of  the  testa- 
tor to  substitute  one  portion  for  another  which  ho  has  al- 
ready made. 

Legacies  are  further  distinguished  as  vested  or  contin- 
gent. A  legacy  is  said  to  be  vested  at  the  time  of  the  tes- 
tator's death,  when  the  legatee  acquires  an  absolute  present 
right  of  present  or  future  enjoyment.  It  is  said  to  be  con- 
tingent when  the  right  of  enjoyment  depends  upon  the 
happening  of  some  contingency.  Thus,  a  legacy  given  to 
a  man  i/'  he  reaches  the  age  of  twenty-one  will  not  vest 
until  he  attains  that  age:  but  if  it  be  given  to  hv  pnyahl^ 
when  he  becomes  twenty-one.it  vests  at  the  testator's  death. 
the  right  being  absolute,  though  the  time  of  enjoyment  is 
deferred.  A  conditional  legacy  is  a  bequest  whoso  existence 
depends  upon  the  happening  ornot  happeningof  someuncer- 
tiiin  event  by  which  it  is  either  to  take  place  or  be  defeated. 
(See  CovniTioN.)  A  contingent  legacy  is  one  form  of  a  condi- 
tional legacy,  the  condition  being  that  the  legatee  shall  bo 
alive  at  a  particular  period.  (Sec  Williams  on  Exrruforti,  ii. 
1)0;',.)  A  cumulative  legacy  is  one  additional  to  a  previous  leg- 
acy given  in  the  same  will.  It  is  sometimes  an  important 
question  of  construction,  in  determining  the  effect  of  a  will, 
whether  a  second  legocy  is  intended  to  be  cumulative,  so 
that  the  legatee  is  entitled  to  both,  or  is  merely  a  repeti- 
tion of  a  previous  bequest,  so  that  only  a  single  gift  is  be- 
queathed. The  general  rule  is  that  when  the  testator  has  not 
plainly  dcclarecj  a  different  intention,  two  or  more  legacies 
of  the  same  article  or  the  same  amount  of  money  given  to 


LEGARE— LEGATES. 


1713 


the  sarao  person  in  the  same  instrument  amount  to  but  a 
fiinglo  gift.  liut  bequests  of  different  artiflrs  or  of  differ- 
ent amounts  of  money,  or  of  the  oumc  amount  in  diflerent 
instrument!',  \fi\\  he  generally  considered  cunuilutive  lega- 
cies. Other  distinctions  between  legacies  are  not  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  require  speeifio  mention. 

As  a  general  rule,  all  cIhsbcs  of  persons  may  bo  madoleg- 
ateeji.  But  in  Englan*!  and  in  several  of  the  States  of  this 
country  it  has  been  provi^led  by  statute  that  a  legacy  given 
to  any  subscribing  witnees  to  a  will  shall  bo  void.  This 
enactment  has  been  made  on  account  of  the  danger  of 
permitting  a  will  to  bo  supportetl  by  persons  who  are 
beneficially  interested  in  its  enntmtp.  In  New  York  this 
rule  lA  mofliliod  by  the  provision  that  if  the  witness  would 
have  been  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  estate  in  cnse  the  will 
was  not  established,  he  shall  receive  so  much  of  this  share 
as  does  not  exceed  the  value  of  the  legacy.  Alien  enemies 
also,  nt  common  law,  arc  incapable  of  taking  legacies.  In 
England  bequests  to  Ui'es  declared  by  statute  to  be  super- 
stitious are  void;  as,  for  example,  to  maintain  a  chautry 
priest  or  to  pay  for  the  saying  of  masres  for  the  testator's 
soul,  etc.  lint  bequests  for  "charitable  uses,"  as  for  the 
endowment  of  hospitals  or  the  foundation  of  insititutions 
of  learning,  and  for  like  purposes,  arc  generally  favored, 
and  will  be  deemed  valid.  IJiiI  if  such  bequests  are  charged 
upon  land,  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  statute  of  9 
Geo.  II.,  ch.  36,  they  will  be  void.  In  the  U.  *S.  the  right 
to  make  bequests  for  charitable  uses  in  general  exists, 
unless  controlled  by  statute.  (See  TnrsTS.)  In  this  way 
legacies  may  be  given  to  trustees,  though  not  incorporated 
for  charitable  uses.  Corporations  may  take  property  by 
bequest,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  general  purposes 
for  which  they  were  formed  and  the  provisions  of  their 
charters.  The  right  of  a  corporation  to  take  personal 
property  by  bequest  must  not  bo  confounded  with  the 
power  to  take  laud  by  will.  (See  Will.  CottcimATioN.)  In 
New  York  it  is  declared  that  no  person,  having  a  husband, 
wife,  child,  or  parent,  shall  bequeath  to  a  corporation  more 
than  one-half  of  his  personal  estate  after  the  payment  of 
his  debts.  ( In  regard  to  capacity  to  make  a  will  and  convey 
legacies,  see  Wii.i.s.) 

At  common  law,  legacies  arc  not  payable  until  the  ex- 
piration of  a  year  from  the  time  of  the  testator's  death. 
This  period  is  allowed  to  the  executor  to  ascertain  the 
nature  and  value  of  the  property,  to  collect  the  assets, 
to  determine  the  extent  of  the  testator's  indebteclness,  to 
satisfy  cliarges  agaim^t  the  estate,  etc.  In  this  country, 
where  the  subject  is  frequently  regulated  by  statute,  the 
same  limit  is  generally  adopted.  As  a  general  rule,  inter- 
est is  to  be  reckonetl  uj»on  the  amount  of  the  legacy,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  legatee,  from  the  end  of  the  year  when 
the  legacy  becomes  payable.  Itut  where  the  legacy  is  given 
in  payment  of  a  debt  due,  it  will  bear  interest  from  tho 
death  of  the  testiitor.  So  when  a  bequest  is  given  by  a 
parent  to  his  child  by  way  of  maintenance,  or  by  a  hu.s- 
i>and  to  his  wife  in  lieu  of  dower,  interest  will  run  from  tho 
time  of  death.  If  a  legacy  be  given  to  an  infant,  the  ex- 
ecutor will  not  be  justified,  by  the  rules  of  comiuon  law.  in 
paying  it  lo  the  infant,  or  to  tho  father  or  to  any  other 
relative  of  the  infant,  without  the  stinction  of  a  court  of 
cquitv.  If  payment  should  be  made  without  such  snii'-tion 
to  the  father  or  relative,  tho  exeeutor  might  be  eonipelled 
to  pav  the  legacy  again  lo  tho  infant  when  he  became  of 
age.  IJut  in  Knglaud  it  is  now  i»rovidei|  by  statute  that 
tho  execulor  may  relievo  hiiusell  from  responsilolilv  in 
such  a  case  by  paying  the  legai-y  into  the  Hank  of  Kugland 
forthe  bonelil  of  the  infant.  In  this  country  it  is  sometimes 
provided  by  statute  that  legacies  to  a  minor,  if  not  of 
greater  value  than  a  certain  specified  sum,  may  bo  paid  to 
the  father  for  the  minor's  use.  Such  a  statute  exists  in 
New  York  when  the  bequest  is  of  less  value  than  $J0. 
When  it  is  of  greater  value,  there  are  provisions  for  its 
j)ayinent  to  the  general  guardian  or  for  its  investment.  A 
legacy  given  to  a  married  woman  must  at  common  law  be 
paid  to  the  husband,  unless  it  be  given  for  the  wife's  sepa- 
rate use.  This  is  true,  oven  though  the  husband  and  wife 
are  <livorccd  n  mrititn  rt  thorn.  Itut  courts  of  equity  may 
compel  a  husband,  on  receiving  a  legacy  given  to  bis  wife, 
to  make  a  suitable  provision  for  her  support.  I'ntil  such 
support  is  provided  tho  executor  may  deelJno  to  pay  him 
tho  legacy.  In  a  number  of  the  U.  S.  it  is  providcl  by 
statute  that  married  women  may  take  property  l»y  bequest 
in  the  sauio  way  as  if  they  wen*  single.  Legacies  given  to 
one  person  in  trust  for  another  should  regularly  be  paid  to 
tho  trustee.  When  a  legacy  is  bequeathed  by  a  lenfator  to 
his  ere<iilor,  it  is  a  general  rule  in  equity  that  it  is  to  bo 
deemed  as  given  with  a  view  to  tho  satisCai'tion  of  the  debt, 
if  the  bequoflt  he  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  amount  of 
tho  debt.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  favored,  an<l  will  not 
bo  applied  except  un<Ier  these  special  eireunistancos,  and 
when  the  legacy  is  of  the  same  general  nature  as  the  debt. 
Vol..  U.— 108 


It  is  a  general  principle  applicable  to  all  legacies  that  tho 
legatee  does  not  become  fully  entitled  to  the  bequest,  so  as 
to  obtain  a  right  of  action  in  a  court  of  law,  until  the  as- 
sent of  the  executor  is  obtained.  lie  cannot,  accordingly, 
take  possession  of  the  legacy  without  such  assent,  and  if  ho 
does,  may  bo  sued  by  the  executor,  who  may  recover  the 
value  of  tho  property.  The  assent  of  tho  executor  may  bo 
express  or  it  may  bo  implied  ;  as,  c.7..  where  he  acquiesces 
in  tho  taking  of  the  property  by  the  legatee.  This  rule, 
however,  does  not  affect  tlie  right  of  a  legatee  to  proceed  to 
recover  his  legacy  before  a  court  of  equity  or  a  probate 
court. 

It  sometimes  happens  in  the  administration  of  estates 
that  legacies  are  paid  by  executors  before  all  the  debts  aro 
satisfied.  Debts  may  subsequently  be  proved  of  which  tho 
executor  had  no  knowledge,  ancl  if  there  are  no  assets  re- 
maining to  discharge  them,  he  may  bring  a  suit  in  equity 
to  compel  the  legatees  to  refund  to  an  amount  equalto  this 
indebtedness  if  ho  acted  prudently  in  paying  the  legacies. 
The  residuary  legatee  would  first  be  compelled  to  refund, 
and  next  the'  general  legatees.  They  would  refund  pro- 
portionally so  far  as  was  necessary  to  satisfy  the  debt.  So 
if  one  legatee  received  full  payment  of  his  share,  and  it 
afterwards  appeared  that  there  was  an  original  deficiency 
of  assets  to  pay  all  tho  legacies  in  full,  the  other  legatees 
may  compel  him  to  refund,  so  that  all  in  the  same  class 
mav  receive  ])roportionaI  amounts  upon  their  respective 
shares.  This  wouM  not  be  tho  case,  however,  if  tho  insuf- 
ficiency of  assets  wero  attributable  to  the  negiigence,  de- 
fault, or  misconduct  of  the  executor,  and  the  executor  would 
himself  be  solely  liable  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  If  thero 
bo  a  ci)utiugent  claim  against  the  testator's  estate,  the  ex- 
ecutor may  retain  the  assets  from  the  legatees,  if  necessary, 
to  meet  the  demand  when  the  contingency  occurs.  If,  how- 
ever, the  legatee  offers  to  indemnify  tho  executor  against 
the  future  claim,  the  indemnity  must  be  accepted  and  tho 
legacy  paid  over.  If  payment  be  mudc  without  requiring 
a  bond  of  indemnity,  the  executor  will  be  liable  for  the  satis- 
faction of  the  demand,  when  it  becomes  due.  out  of  his  own 
estate.  But  it  is  frequently  provided  by  statute  in  tho 
States  of  this  country  that  claims  against  the  estate  of  a 
deceased  person  must  be  presented  within  a  short  period 
after  the  issue  ofletters  testamentary,  if  the  executor  give  duo 
notice  of  his  appointment.  The  effect  of  such  a  notice  varies 
in  the  different  States.     The  statutes  must  be  consulted. 

.Turisdietion  in  regard  to  legacies  is  vested  in  general 
either  in  probate  courts  or  in  courts  of  equity.  Tho  juris- 
diction in  equity,  independent  of  statute,  is  exclusive  where 
the  bequest  invidves  the  execution  of  trusts  charged  upon 
land,  or  whore  remedies  of  a  peculiarly  equitable  nature  aro 
i  sought.  No  suit  will  be  maintainable  in  a  court  of  law,  as 
has  been  seen,  to  recover  a  legacy  unless  it  has  been  as- 
sented to  by  the  executor.  But  in  all  cases  where  actions 
at  law  may  bo  brought  upon  legacies  tho  jurisdiction  of 
equity  is  concurrent.  (Kor  tho  rules  of  law  in  regard  to 
lnp»Al  leijfjr'tvH,  SCO  the  article  hiPSK.  In  regard  to  tho  in- 
terpretation of  bequests,  sec  Inti:iiphktation  and  Con- 
STRicTiov.  See  also  Wii.i.s,  KxKri'xon.  The  following 
treatises  may  bo  consulted  on  this  subject:  Williams  on 
Exerutoi»:  .Farnian  on  Wiffx;  Ue<lfield  on  ]yill»:  Roper  on 
Leijaeiet;    lledfielil  on  the  //'fir  nii-l  I'ro'ticr  nf  SurrntffttcH* 

CottrtH.)      llr.oitcK  Cmasi:.     Kkviskd  kv  T.  W.  Dwhjiit. 

Lcgnr6  (llufiii  S\vi\TON),b.  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  2, 
17'J7  ;  educated  at  Ucv.  Dr.  Moses  Waddell's  famous  Willing- 
ton  School  ;  graduated  at  the  C'ullego  <tf  South  Carolina  at 
Columbia  in  1811  ;  went  to  Kurope  to  further  prosecute  bis 
studies,  eiiiefly  law  and  literature:  returned  in  1S20,  and 
practised  law  in  Charleston.  In  ls;(0  he  was  honored  with 
the  oflico  of  attorney-general  of  the  State,  and  at  the  saino 
time  had  charge  cjf  the  .S'ofW/icrfi  Qnttitnlt/  AVriMf,  published 
at  Charleston,  of  which  periodical  he  was  chief  editor,  and  by 
the  contributions  of  his  pen  elevated  It  to  the  first  rank  of 
publications  of  its  character  in  the  V.  S.  In  1S;!2  ho  was 
charge  d'affaires  from  the  U.S.  to  lielgium,  an«i  from  1S37 
to  1S;!'J  was  member  of  Congress  from  South  Carolina;  iu 
lS41-i;i  filled  the  office  of  attorney-general  of  tho  U.  S., 
and  also  part  of  the  time  was  acting  secretary  of  slate.  D. 
smldenly  at  Boston,  Mass.,  June  10,  iSlli,  where  he  bad 
gone  in  comjtany  with  the  President  to  attend  the  UuiikLr 
Hill  celebration.  His  fine  taste  as  a  writer,  his  eminent 
acquirements  as  a  scholar,  ami  his  learning  and  eloquence 
as  a  lawyer,  were  known  and  appreciated  throughout  tho 
Union.  His  writings  wero  collected  and  published  in 
IS  16  in  2  vols.  Svo.— His  sister,  Mauv  Swinton  liK(;Aitii 
(Mrs.  Bullen),  b.  about  iSOt),  attained  considerable  success 
as  a  painter.  She  removed  in  1M19  to  West  Poiiil.  Leo  co., 
la.,  whoro  she  founded  and  endowed  Logar<5  College  for 
women.  A.  H.  Stki'IIKNS. 

I»CK'ntt»j»  and  Lei^atioil*  The  Latin  word  /^-yo^iffwas 
used  of  persons  commissioned  or  acting  as  delegates,  and 


1714 


LEGATO— LEGEND. 


especially  of  ambassruiors,  of  adjutants  or  deputy  com- 
inantlertj  of  an  army  usually  appointed  by  the  senate,  occa- 
sionally by  commanders  themselves,  and  of  (he  emperor's 
provincial  governors.  In  international  law  *'  legation  " 
denotes  erabussy.  the  right  of  legation,  the  right  to  send  an 
ambassador,  or  the  whole  subjeet  of  the  nature  nnd  powers 
of  public  envoys  :  nnd  '*  legate."  the  envoy  or  minister  him- 
gclf,  Tht'  popes,  borrowing  the  word  from  the  old  Roman 
state,  called  their  principal  envoys  to  the  Catholic  nations 
legates  a  or  tie  latere.  Those  were  cardinal?,  but  nuncios 
(from  inintim,  a  "messenger,"  an  '*  envoy  ")  were  not,  and 
thus  were  a  lower  grade  of  papal  envoys.  T.  D.  Woolsey. 

Lega'to  [It.],  in  music,  a  graceful  movement  in  which 
the  notes  are  connected  by  a  uniform  and  gliding  motion. 

Lc'gend  [L:it.  Irtfrndtan,  from  ler/rrc.  to  *' read  "]  np- 
poiirs  to  have  been  originally  applied  in  the  ecclesiastical 
dialect  to  portions  of  Scripture,  and  at  a  later  period  also 
to  other  writings  of  religious  instructioTi  or  edification,  .Tp- 
pointed  to  be  not  chanted,  intoned,  or  recited,  but  nod  in 
church  services,  and  it  therefore  nearly  eorrespondecl  in 
signification  to  the  modern  h^'ioii.  In  the  authorized  bre- 
^'iarics  used  in  the  Romish  Church  the  term  Ircttu  is  now  ap- 
]ilitd  alike  to  extracts  from  Scripture  ami  to  lives  of  saints 
of  post-apostolic  ages,  which  are  introduceci  into  the  church 
services  in  precisely  the  same  way.  The  primitive  Christian 
community  consisted  of  two  classes  of  persons — the  ordi- 
nary or  secular  clergy,  whether  parochial  or  missionary  ; 
and  the  laity  or  people.  The  Scriptures,  including  many 
books  now  regarded  by  all  sects  as  apocryphal,  together  with 
exegetical  and  doctrinal  essays  and  narratives  of  the  lives 
and  deaths  of  saints,  sufficed  for  the  instruction  of  both 
elasjcs  alike.  But  besides  the  clergy  and  the  laity  there 
were,  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian  Church,  as  in 
most  other  Oriental  religions,  a  certain  number  of  anchor- 
ites or  hermits  living  in  seclusion  not  only  from  the  pro- 
fane world,  but  from  each  other,  who  do  not,  however,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  usually  consecrated  to  a  religious  life  by 
clerical  ordination,  but  self-devoted  to  mortitication  of  the 
passions,  penance,  and  ascetic  exercises.  When  these  re- 
oluses  became  sufficiently  numerous  to  attract  attention  as 
a  peculiar  class,  they  acquired  the  name  of  monitchi  (Gr. 
lAovos,  *'  single  "  or  '*  alone  "),  whence  our  word  monk.  For 
the  sake  of  mutual  suitervision  and  discipline,  and  for 
greater  security  from  persecution  and  disturbance,  the 
monks  grail ually  abandoned  their  individual  solitudes, 
gathered  together  in  small  communities,  and  became  co-ao- 
biif.e,  or  *' livers-in-common  "  (Ur.  koivo^,  pio?),  dwelling 
apart  from  the  world,  at  first  in  desert  retreats,  and  after- 
wards in  cloisters  or  habitations  in  which  each  had  his 
separate  cell  for  repose  and  private  discipline  and  medita- 
tion. A  new  literature,  designed  primarily  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  persons  thus  severed  from  the  general  body  of  the 
faithful  and  devoted  to  a  religious  life,  sprang  up,  and  this 
literature  was  greatly  enlarged  in  extent  and  modified  in 
character  after  the  establishment  of  regular  orders  or  mon- 
astic institutions  organized  each  under  its  own  special 
rules,  and  recognized  by  the  Church  as  permanent  bodies 
corporate.  This  is  the  literature  of  the  hfjcud,  the  signifi- 
cation of  which  term  was  gradually  changed,  and  the  com- 
positions emliraecd  under  it  vari<iusly  named  according  to 
their  ditfereut  purposes  and  character.  Thus,  there  were 
the  lectionen,  collectively  legendariunt,  lectiouarium,  or  li'bcr 
Icctionariiie,  consisting  of  lives  of  saints  and  confessors, 
read  at  their  festivals,  and  ;>r/j?»ro«e«,  collectively  ;jaM/ojif(/»? 
or  librr  pnHHtoualig,  containing  the  passions  of  martyrs, 
read  on  the  anniversary  of  their  deaths.  This  latter  term 
was  sometimes  applied  exclusively  to  histories  of  the  pas- 
sion of  the  Saviour.  There  were  also  numerous  treatises  on 
cU'in  or  monastic  life — such,  for  example,  as  the  old  Eng- 
lish Aiifrrn  liiirle  for  the  instruction  of  nuns — which, 
though  not  now  called  legends,  were  sometimes  included  in 
that  designation,  because,  like  religious  narratives,  they 
were  read  aloud  to  the  monks  and  nuns  assembled  for  re- 
fection :in<l  on  other  special  occasions.  The  nomenclature 
of  all  this  literature  is  somewhat  confused.  The  distinc- 
tions between  its  branches,  which  do  not  seem  to  have  ever 
been  very  sharply  marked,  gradually  become  obsolete  in 
common  usage,  and  centuries  before  the  invention  of  print- 
ing "legend  "  liad  come  to  signify  any  religious  narrative 
not  taken  direetly  from  the  Old  or  New  Testament,  even  if 
not  designed  for  ]>ublic  reading,  but  rather  for  private  study  ; 
and  it  was  applied  indiscriminately  both  to  prose  and  to 
poetic  compositions.  There  is,  indeed,  no  critical  distinc- 
tion between  the  prose  and  the  poetic  legend,  except  in 
literary  form,  and  it  may  be  added  that  many  mediocval 
narratives  usually  ranked  with  romances  of  chivalry — the 
ff'di/  (ii-nil,  for  example — areas  truly  religious  in  spirit  anil 
historic  in  character  as  most  of  the  ecclesiastically  accepted 
legends  of  the  same  period.  Very  many  legends  exist  in 
both  forms,  but  the  Church  does  not  favor  verse  except 


when  employed  for  strictly  devotional  purposes,  as  hymns* 
and  the  like,  and  therefore  the  authorized  legeudarics  em- 
braced prose  narratives  alone. 

As  a  general  rule — subject,  indeed,  to  some  few  excep- 
tions— it  may  be  said  that  even  the  most  credible  legendary 
annals  now  extant  were  not  the  work  of  eye-witnesses  to  the 
events  they  describe,  or  even  of  contemporary  writers,  but 
were  compiled  from  popular  narratives  orally  handed  down, 
or  from  other  sources  now  quite  unknown,  lleriee,  upon 
the  whole,  we  cannot  perhaps  better  deline  the  legend  of 
the  Romish  and  other  churches  than  as  a  |)rofessed  his- 
tory of  sacred  persons  or  niiraeuluus  events  founded  ujion 
tradition,  but  practically  or  formally  recognized  by  the 
Church  as  authentic,  and  entitled,  if  not  to  be  received 
as  matter  of  faith,  at  least  to  reverence.  Legends  are, 
therefore,  to  the  churches  which  accept  them  what  mythol- 
ogy was  to  the  old  ]>agau,  and  still  is  to  mauy  non-Chris- 
tian religions. 

At  the  first  awakening  of  the  spirit  of  historical  criticism 
the  palpably  unhistorical  character  of  the  religious  legends, 
and  the  intrinsic  improbability,  not  to_  say  absurdity,  of 
very  many  of  them,  threw  a  shade  of  suspieiun  which  soon 
ripened  into  utter  discredit  on  this  whole  branch  of  eccle- 
siastical literature,  and  the  term  "legend"  acquired  the 
signification  of  superstitious  tale  or  fictitious  narrative, 
the  adjective  "legendary,"  that  of  fabulous,  imaginary,  or 
at  best  traditional.  At  present  these  words  are  frequently 
applied  to  the  fragmentary  annals  and  fantastic  tales 
which  make  up  the  body  of  unwritten  popular  literature,  ur 
what  is  called  the  folk-lore,  of  European  and  Oriental  na- 
tions. These  latter  legends  are  too  diversified  in  origin 
and  critical  character  to  be  considered  under  a  single  head, 
and  for  notices  of  them  we  refer  to  titles  Faihy  and  Folk- 
lore, confining  ourselves  in  the  presmt  article  to  the  relig- 
ious legends  of  early  and  mediaeval  Christianity  and  of  the 
modern  Romish  Church. 

Apart  from  the  few  well-authenticated  ancient  ecclesias- 
tical annals  which  have  come  down  to  us,  the  oldest  extant 
legends  which  can  with  any  confidence  be  affirmed  to  bo 
genuine — that  is,  not  spurious,  however  little  entitled  to 
credit — are  some  of  the  sketches  of  hermit-life  in  the  Vilx 
Patrum,  which  are  referred,  with  reasonable  probability,  to 
known  authors,  though  other  parts  of  that  collection  are 
certainly  later  fabrications.  The  old  Roman  martyrologies, 
though  often  ranked  among  legends,  and  truly  legendary 
or  unhis*t<tric  in  character,  arc  catalogues  rather  than  nar- 
ratives. They  were  condemned  by  some  of  the  early  popes, 
and  even  by  Gregory  I.,  notwithstanding  his  appetite  for 
the  marvellous,  as  of  totally  unknown  origin  and  unworthy 
of  credit ;  and  they  may  safely  be  rejected  as  of  no  histor- 
ical authority  whatever.  The  legends  accepted  by  the  early 
Church  very  generally  have  monks  and  monastic  life  for 
their  subject  and  their  object.  Tliey  were  composed  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  up  that  life  as  the  true  Christian 
ideal,  the  type  for  the  imitation  of  the  aspirant  to  sanetifi- 
cation,  and  of  guiding  the  votary  to  perfection  in  the  real- 
ization of  it.  They  were  not  intended  for  the  world,  but 
for  those  who  had  retired  from  it,  or  who  were  preparing 
to  renounce  it.  Hence,  in  them  the  monkish  virtues  alone, 
not  the  social,  are  exemplified  and  exalted.  In  short,  they 
were  professitmal.  not  popular,  didactic  writings.  Though 
the  personal  authorship  of  most  old  legends  is  unknown, 
they  were  evidently  in  general  the  work  of  monks,  to  whom 
the  retirement  and  leisure  of  monastic  life  gave  both  op- 
portunity and  encouragement  for  this  species  of  literary 
oeeu])ation.  In  their  departures  fioni  historical  fact  they 
were  by  no  means  always  intended  to  be  received  as  true, 
and  therefore  to  deceive,  though  numbers  of  the  most  ex- 
travagant have  been  accejiled  by  the  Church  as  authentic. 
Thev  were  sometimes,  doubtless,  honest  statements  of  what 
was  believed  to  be  the  literal  truth,  sometimes  mere  literary 
cxercitations,  and  sometimes  religious  romances  exhiliiting 
the  writer's  spiritual  ideal  in  the  form  of  an  imaginary 
history.  Writers  actuated  by  these  various  motives  would 
naturally  take  their  images  and  illustrations  from  the  roost 
convenient  sources.  Hence  heathen  divinities,  demigode, 
and  heroes  figure  in  them  under  various  Christian  disguises, 
and  the  legend  of  Barhiam  and  Josuphat,  who  to  this  day 
retain  a  place  as  saints  in  the  Romish  calendar,  has  been 
unequivocally  traced  to  a  Sanskrit  religious  nimanee  as  its 
(uiginal.  nnd*  its  heroes  identified  with  Sakya-Muni,  the 
founder  of  Rooddhism,  and  one  of  his  disciples.  The  early 
legends  are  often  rich  in  poetical  imagery,  nnd  even  thought, 
and  distinguished  by  an  apparent  truth  of  local  color  and 
an  air  of  probability  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  De  Foe's 
apparition  of  Mrs.  Veal.  They  are  therefore  of  value  as 
illustrations  of  contemporary  life  and  opinion,  notwith- 
standing the  uncertainty  of  the  periods  to  which  they  be- 
long and  of  the  extent  to  which  they  have  been  disfigured 
by  later  recensions. 

But   with    the   growth  of    the   temporal   power   of  the 


LEG  EN  DRE— LEGG  ETT. 


1715 


Church,  and  more  especially  with  the  increasing  influence 
of  monastic  corporation?,  the  aim  and  character  of  the  le- 
gend underwent  an  important  clian<;e.  Jlonachism  had 
diverged  mure  and  more  from  the  tyjiical  form  of  ordinary 
social  life,  and  given  birtli  to  new  and  special  interests  pe- 
culiar to  large,  opulent,  and  powerful  bodies  of  mcu,  prac- 
tically inilepeniient  of  the  civil  power,  living  in  ii^olation 
from  the  pursuits  and  cares,  the  duties,  the  hopes,  and  fears 
of  common  humanity,  and  constituting;  a  third  estate  which 
aimed  at  ostaldishing  a  supremacy  over  the  other  two.  For 
this  new  institution  and  its  objects  new  instrumentalities 
were  required,  and  the  legend,  as  modified  and  adapted  to 
a  new  public  and  to  new  purposes,  became  <»ne  of  the  most 
efficient  of  these.  Legends  began  to  be  addressed  not  only 
to  the  regular  but  to  the  parochial  clergy  and  to  the  laity, 
whom  the  dawn  of  intelligence  which  preceded  the  revival 
of  classical  learning  was  rend«-ring  accessible  to  literary 
influences.  The  simplicity  and  true-hcarlcdncss  which, 
in  spite  of  exaggeration  and  absurdity,  make  them  attract- 
ive even  in  an  age  of  culture  and  religiiius  light,  disappeared. 
They  became  what  the  (Jeruians  call  'J'niileiizrnmniie — tales 
designed  for  the  diffusion  and  inculcation  of  particular  doc- 
trines or  maxims,  the  catch-words  or  symbols  of  this  or  that 
party  in  the  Church,  and  more  especially  for  the  glorification 
of  particular  religious  orders,  in  whose  hands  Ihcy  arc  at 
this  ilay  among  the  most  potent  means  of  action  on  the  un- 
reasoning classes  which  unhappily  form  a  large  proportion 
of  the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest  circles  in  modern  society. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  Reformation  the  legends  of 
the  Church  were  superseded  by  translations  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  the  popular  reading  of  Protestant  countries,  and 
their  circulation  was  much  diminished  even  in  those  which 
continued  to  adhere  to  the  Cliureh  of  Home.  In  the  Catli- 
olic  reaction  which  followed  the  triumphs  of  the  Kel'orniers 
strenuous  and  Buccessful  cfi"or(s  wore  made  to  rehabilitate 
the  old  legendary  literature  by  remodelling  the  ancient 
traditions  through  discreet  omissions  and  the  infusion  of 
new  elements  into  their  comiiositiou,  and  to  strengthen  its 
influence  by  reports  of  modern  miracles  duly  authenticated 
by  ecclesiastical  authority.  These  endeavors  have  been 
stimulated  to  new  activity  in  the  present  generation,  and 
in  no  age  have  su]>ernatural  wonders  been  more  abundant, 
in  no  age  have  holder  experiments  on  popular  credulity 
been  tried,  in  none  have  more  determined  eflbrts  been  made 
to  eliiuinato  the  spiritual  and  magnify  the  material  clement 
in  religion,  than  in  our  own.  The  legends  which  have  Ijcen 
rewritten  or  composed  within  the  last  three  centuries,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  present,  are  almost  uniformly  destitute  of  all 
merit  except  those  of  style  and  dexterous  adaptation  to  pur- 
pose, and  have  rarely  any  literary  or  liislorical  interest,  un- 
less as  monuments  of  the  aberrations  of  the  human  intellect. 

A  niicstion  of  great  and  growing  importance  to  the  doc- 
trine, the  discipline,  and  the  ethics,  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical, of  the  churches  and  peoples  who  accept  religious 
legenils  is.  Whether  and  to  what  extent  they  are  binding 
on  the  faith  of  believers?  This  question  has  been  inei- 
di'nlally  much  discussed  in  reference  to  legends  connected 
with  the  lives  ami  miracles  of  modern  saints  in  treatises  on 
canonization,  which  rite  bears  u|ion  it  in  this  way  :  The 
evidence  of  miracles  wrought  on  the  intercession  of  the 
candidate  is  submitted  to  a  board  of  cardinals  specially 
named  for  the  occasion,  and  reported  on  to  the  iiontifl',  who 
finally  adjudges  upim  its  suflieieney,  and  in  the  aflirmative 
case  pronounces  the  alleged  fads  established,  and  decrees 
the  enrollment  of  the  new  saint  upon  the  calendar.  The 
whole  inciuiry  is  in  the  nature  of  a  judicial  proceeding,  and 
it  conforms  so  closely  to  the  forensic  practice  of  civil  tri- 
bunals that  coimsel  are  heard  for  and  against  the  claims 
of  the  aspirant,  the  opposing  counsel  being  complimented 
with  the  title  of  tirlvurnliiit  ili'dlinl:,  "  tho  dcvil's  iidvoeiile." 
Now.  if  the  ]iopc  is  to  be  considered  as  acting  c.r  rallnili/l 
in  rendering  sentence,  then  his  judgment  is  infallible,  and 
of  course  belief  in  the  evidence  on  which  that  judgment  is 
founded  becomes  obligatory.  I'pon  the  character  of  the 
pontiff's  action  in  this  ease  the  wei'.;h(  of  the  numerous  au- 
thorities citeil  bv  licncdict  XIV.,  />'■  Srrronim  llr!  Cniiniii- 
zatioiic  (sec  I'ra'to  ed.  of  18:i«.  lib.  i.  cap.  I'.',  4.1.  41,  4,'ii,  is 
dcciiledly  in  support  of  its  infallibility,  and  tho  personal 
opinion  of  Benedict  himself.  Iliough  he  does  not  give  a 
formal  decision  upon  it.  is  evidenlly  ravoral)le  to  that  doc- 
trine. In  many  cases,  indeeil,  if  not  in  all— as.  for  example, 
in  that  of  the  canonization  of  tho  saints  Isidore,  Ignatius 
Loyola,  Francis  Xavier,  Teresa  il  ,Icsu,  and  Filippo  Neri, 
by  llregory  XV. — the  decree  expressly  recites  that  the  pope 
Dirltin  Sumine  innltnclun,  e.r  nllinnimil  liiir  Chrlnlianir  mipi- 
eiilln-  Vathftlrd  qunm  dlriuir  rrrllnlil  (irnrnliim  Driin  ijiMc 
confliluil,  .  .  .  dreernll,  etc.  etc.  Here  tho  assertion  of  in- 
fallibility is  unequivocally  implied. 

The  literature  of  the  legend  is  of  vast  extent.  The  most 
conspicuous  collections  are  the  Vilrr-  f^tilntw,  tlr  Vil/l  rt 
Verbis  Scniorum,  ecu  IliHoria  Ercmilica  (best  edition,  that 


of  Rosweyde,  1  vol.  fob,  Antwerp,  162S);  the  Leijeiidn 
Aurmi,  or  /liKtnn'ii  Lumbardicn,  compiled  by  Jacobus  de 
Voragine  in  tho  thirteenth  century,  and  first  printed  in 
1470,  perhaps  the  most  widely  circulated  and  at  the  same 
time  intrinsically  among  the  most  worthless  of  all:  the 
Flos  Sanctorum  of  the  .lesuit  Kibadineira,  commonly  known 
as  the  GiHcrril  f,r,/,iid  (first  published  in  Spanish  in  2  vols, 
fob,  Madrid.  l.'ili'.i-KilO) :  this  has  been  augmented  by  sup- 
plements, and  printed  in  many  languages  and  in  hundreds 
of  editions,  and  is  the  source  from  which  most  smaller  col- 
lections of  legends  have  been  drawn  :  anil,  linally.  the  Acin 
Sanctorum,  edited  by  a  .Jesuit  association  known  as  the 
Bollandists,  from  the  name  of  its  founder.  Of  this  vast 
collection,  begun  in  IGUI.  about  60  folio  vols,  have  appcareil, 
ancl  it  will  pr<ibal>Iy  extend  lo  lOl).  Tiiero  is,  moreover,  an 
immense  number  of  legends  of  inilividual  saiuts,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Of  these  the  most  extensively 
known  is  the  Gturic  dl  Maria  of  Liguori  ( 1st  ed.  2  vols.  Svo, 
Venice,  17S4).  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Portu- 
guese Santuariu  Marian"{'iU  10  vols.  4to,  Lisbon,  170y-2;i), 
containing  tlic  legends  of  more  than  2000  miraculous  images 
of  the  A'irgin  in  tho  Peninsular  possessions  of  Portugal 
alone.  (On  this  whole  subject  consult  Maury,  Let  Li'jcudcs 
jiieuscs  du  Mcijat  Atjc  (ISI"):  Milman,  History  of  Latin 
Chritlianiti/i-Uh  cd.,  1807);  and  hec^y.  History  uf  Ration- 
alism in  Europe  (4th  cd.,  1870).)         Gt:onGE  P.  M.iiisn. 

tegendre'  (.\nniEN-MAUir,),  h.  in  Paris  in  17j2  ;  d.  at 
his  suburban  residence  Auteuil  .lan.'J,  1833.  A  inalheuia- 
tician  who.  says  Prof.  Nichol.  "  would  have  been  ut  the 
head  of  the  most  illustrious  school  of  modern  Europe,  had 
he  not  possessed  as  compeers  Lagrange  and  Laijlaee."  He 
early  distinguished  himself  as  a  successful  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  military  school  at  Paris,  and  before  atluiuing 
the  age  of  thirty  made  his  d^but  in  the  world  of  science  by 
one  of  his  finest  memoirs — tliat  on  The  Attraction  of  Sphe- 
roids— by  which  he  gained  admission  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  (1783).  His  equally  imjiortant  investigations  of 
tho  Figure  o/'tlic  Fiancts,  considered  as  made  of  spheroidal 
strata  whether  homogeneous  or  otherwise,  soon  followed,  and 
in  LSOo  his  Xcw  Method  for  deterinininffthe  Orbits  of  Comets. 
Itis  Elements  of  Geometry  has  been  translated  into  all  lan- 
guages, and  has  become  a  classic  in  that  species  of  liter- 
ature, lie  assisted  Dc  Prony  in  tiio  calculation  of  his  great 
logarithmic  tables :  invented  tho  rule  of  the  least  st/utfres 
of  errors;  was  author  of  a  work,  the  Exercices  sur  le  Cafcul 
integral,  and  of  researches  on  the  Eulerian  integrals;  both 
of  which  woro  subsequently  developed  into  tho  great  work 
of  his  life — the  Trait/-  dcs  Fonetiona  rllipti<fU€9. 

A  funeral  discourse  was  ]>ronounced  by  Poisson  in  which 
he  says:  "In  common  with  the  geometers  who  have  jne- 
ceded*  him,  the  labors  of  Legcndro  ended  only  with  his  lile. 
.  .  .  Only  a  short  lime  jireeediug  his  death  he  procured 
tho  most  recent  ol>scrvations  (»f  comets  of  short  ])crinds,  for 
tho  purjioso  of  applying  and  ]ierfccling  his  methods.  .  .  . 
The  hist(jry  of  seieiu-c  (dicrs  nuiny  such  examples.  At  an 
ago  nearly  equal  to  tliat  which  Lc!;:cndro  attained,  Lagrange 
died  while  publishing  an  enlargqd  second  edition  of  his 
Mecunii/ue  Analyiii/uc;  Laplace  in  finishing  the  5lh  vol- 
ume of  tho  Mtcani'jnc  Celeste;  Euicr  while  finishing  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  ascensional  fo:-cc  of  balloons."  (.Ste 
Memorial  Eneye.  of  Bailly  de  Merlicu.K ;  and  Vcrhulst.  I)ct 
Fonetiiais  ellijjti<iucs, ) 

Legeudro,  though  inferior  in  range  and  power  of  intillect 
to  cither  of  his  three  great  contemporaries — Lapbiee,  La- 
grange, and  Kuler — was  nevcrlbeless  only  int\'rior  to  lluui : 
and  was  one  of  that  age  who  most  jiowerfully  coutriloitcd 
to  the  advancement  of  mathematieat  science.  According  to 
Prof.  Forbes,  he  was  the  first  to  imagine  and  employ  those 
artifices  of  calculation  known  usually  by  the  name  of 
"  Laplace's  functions."  \Vhen  towards  the  close  (d'  his  life 
the  discoveries  hy  .\bel  and  Jacobi  of  the  ivct//^  distinc- 
tive characteristic  of  elliptic  functions — their  periodicity 
— gave  an  nnbioke<l-for  extension  ond  generalization  to 
the  applications  (d'lhese  functions,  he  welcomed  them  with 
a  liberality  (says  I*rof.  Fiu'bcs)  'Mvorthy  of  all  commendii- 
tion."  Legcndrc's  life,  spent  in  pri\'oey  and  strcnnons  de^ 
votion  to  science,  was  uneventful.  (Consult  Vcrhulst,  su- 
pra, and  Hriot  and  Bouquet,  Th/orie  des  Fonetions  double- 
mcnt  jn'rioditjues.)  .1.  U.  Bahsahh. 

li^K^rt'incnt  [Fr.],  in  music,  a  term  indicating  a  gay, 
light,  and  airy  nio\'cment. 

Le  <;ott,  Ip.  of  Marion  co.,  S.  C.     Pop.  \M'>:>. 

Lcg'geU  (.MouTiMKU  I).),  b.  at  Ithaca,  .\.  V..  A|>r.  19, 
18:11:  removeil  lo  Ohio  in  1817:  stmlied  law;  praeliscd, 
and  was  superintendent  of  schools  at  Zauesville  in  1801, 
when  he  raised  the  78th  Ohio  Infantry,  of  which  he  was 
appointed  colonel  in  .Ian..  18tJ2,  ami  which  he  led  at  Fort 
Donelson,  Piltsfiurgh  Laniling.  and  t'oiintb  ;  eouinianded 
at  the  capture  of  .Inckson,  'I'enn. :  ilelended  Ilolivar.  Ti  nn.. 
against  a  largely  superior  force:  appointed  brigadier-pen- 


1716 


LEGGETT— LEGUMINE. 


era!  of  voluuteere  Nov.  29,  1S62;  was  severely  wounded  at 
ChiimpiuD  Hills,  aud  again  before  Vickaburg:  was  iu  the 
Atlanta  campaign  ;  commanded  a  divi^iun  in  Sherinan'a 
march  to  the  stu :  brevetted  major-gencrul  for  this  latter 
campaign,  he  wns  iu  Aug.,  1 S75,  promoteil  to  be  full  major- 
gu'iu^ral,  which  office  he  resigned  the  following  mouth,  and 
was  appointed  commissioner  of  patents  Jan.  i'.),  1S71. 

Leggett  (William),  b.  in  New  York  City  in  1S02  ;  grad- 
uated at  (Teorgotr)wn  College  in  1822  ;  was  midshii)nian  in 
V.  S.  navy  from  1822  to  1820;  published  in  1823  a  volume 
of  poems,  Lrinure  Hours  at  Sea  ;  wrote  for  the  Mirror  his 
T'llfi  />!/  ft  Country  Svhon/mnster,  and  established  the  Critic, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  in  1S2.S;  was  associated  with  W.  C. 
Ilryant  in  the  editorship  of  the  Eieninfj  Pont  from  1829  to 
1S;!5:  edited  the  I'iitin  Denfcr  in  ISIiG;  was  appointed  iu 
18J19  diplomatic  agent  to  (Juatoinala.  but  before  going  to 
his  post  d.  suddenly  at  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  Jlay  29,  1839. 
Two  volumes  of  bis  political  essays  were  published  by  Theo- 
dore Sedgwick,  Jr.,  in  1840. 

Legg's,  tp.  of  Limestone  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  121G. 

Leg'horn  [It.  Ai'i-orno],  a  large  maritime  town  in  Cen- 
tral Italy,  in  the  province  of  Leghorn,  lat.  4.S°  32'  N.,  Ion. 
111°  is'  E.  It  stauils  on  a  tongue  of  land  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Calambrouo  on  the  N.  and  the  lowest  spur  of  the  Tus- 
can Apennines  on  the  ^^.,  62  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Florence  and 
12  miles  S.  S.  W.of  Pisa.  A  navigable  canal  connects  it  with 
the  Arno,  which  enters  the  sea  7  miles  N.  of  the  town,  and 
smaller  canals  int('r>;ect  it  in  various  directions.  There  are 
two  harbors,  the  old  and  the  new,  the  latter — S.  of  the  fi»r- 
mer  and  overlooked  by  the  largo  lighthouse — being  capable 
of  receiving  vessels  of  heavy  tonnage,  and  even  ships  of 
war.  More  than  11,000  ships  of  various  sizes  entereil  the 
harbor  in  1873,  the  import  and  export  trade  of  that  year 
amounting  to  above  $35,000,000.  The  import  trade  em- 
braces cotton,  wool,  cutlery,  hardware,  etc..  and  colonial 
products  generally.  The  export  trade  is  in  silks,  straw 
hats,  borax,  coral,  and  many  of  its  own  manufactures. 
These  are  very  extensive,  and  consist  of  oil.  soap,  tobacco, 
salt,  etc.  The  port  of  Leghorn  was  for  a  long  time  free, 
except  for  government  monopolies,  but  since  1807  it  no 
longer  enjoys  special  privileges.  Notwithstanding  this 
change,  the  port  of  Leghorn  is  one  of  the  most  frequcDted 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  commerce  and  general  pros- 
perity of  the  town  are  constantly  increasing;  fine  public 
and  private  buildings  are  being  erected:  facilities  for  com- 
munication between  its  different  quarters  are  multiplying; 
its  suburbs  are  being  extended  and  embellished:  and  it  is 
every  year  more  and  more  resorted  to  as  a  fashionable 
bathing-place.  The  churches  and  ])ublie  edifices  generally 
are  very  respectable,  and  the  Jewish  synagogue  is  the  sec- 
ond in  Europe  in  size  and  richness.  The  monument  to 
Ferdinand  I.,  near  the  port,  is  a  work  of  merit,  without 
being  pleasing.  The  aqueduct  and  great  reservoir  which 
supply  the  city  with  water  are  remarkable  constructions. 
The  first  notices  of  Leghorn  arc  of  the  ninth  century,  and 
relate  to  the  building  of  a  church  there,  but  it  had  little 
importance  for  a  long  time.  At  the  close  of  the  fourteenth 
century  we  find  it  under  the  protection  of  the  French  king, 
who  in  1407  sold  it  and  its  territory  to  Genoa  for  26.0(10 
gold  ducats.  Genoa  ceded  it  in  1421  to  Florence  for  100.000 
gold  florins,  and  this  republic,  aware  of  the  value  of  her 
new  possession,  spared  no  pains  to  increase  its  prosperity. 
Under  the  Medici  the  harbor  was  improved,  the  fortifications 
wore  strengthened,  and  exceptional  privileges  an<l  immu- 
nities granted  to  the  inhabitants;  religious  toleration  was 
also  established,  so  that  merchants  of  all  nations  flocked 
thither.  Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  Leghorn  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  impoverished  it  by  forced 
contributions  and  forced  loans,  from  which  it  recovered  but 
slowly.  The  population,  consisting  of  various  nationalities, 
was  in  1ST4,  97,096,  among  whom  were  8000  Jews. 

l4e'gion    [Lat.  tegin,  from   hrfcre,  to  "gather,"  "col- 
lect"], a  military  organization  of  the  ancient  Romans,  com- 
bioing  all  the  constituent  elements  of  an  army,  and  num- 
bering from  about  3000  to  about  6000  men.     Originally, 
service  in  the  legiou  was  a  privilege  reservetl  to  the  Roniau 
citizen  of  property,  the  slaves,  prohtarii  (more  children- 
begetters),  etc.,  being  excluded  from  its  ranks,  and  the  al- 
lied forces  being  separately  organized  under  the  distinctive 
denominations  »orii  and  nuxilia  ;   but  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  Borii  and  R-mmni  disappeared  when  all  the  Ital- 
ian states  were  admitted  to  full  citizenship  with  the  native 
Romans,  and   un<ler  the  exigencies  of  the  civil  war  all  : 
classes  were  enrolled  in  the  legions,  and  the  employment 
of  mercenary  soldiers   became  common.     The  horse  and  , 
foot  of  the  legion  have  already  been  described  (see  Cav-  ! 
Atnv  and  Infantry),  the  artillery  seems  to  have  had  no  j 
distinctive  ptrnonnef,   and   the  prototyjn's   of  the   modern  , 
"staff  departments"   have   not   been   minutely  described. 
In  imitation  of  the  Romans  the  armies  of  France  in  1534  | 


and  li)J7  were  organized  into  legions,  and  in  1792  our 
own  army  was  officially  designated  as  '*  the  legion  of  the 
V.  S.,"  tlio  infantry  regiments  were  styled  "sub-legions,"' 
and  the  major  and  brigadier  general  were  called  respec- 
tively the  legionary  and  sub-legiouary  general  ;  hut  in 
neither  of  these  cases  was  the  resemblance  to  the  original 
organization  more  than  nominal.  Robert  N.  Scott. 

Legion  of  Uoiior^  Order  of  the,  a  French  order 
of  merit  instituted  May  9,  1>U2  (I'J  Floreal,  an  Id),  by  the 
First  Consul,  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  order  has  received 
several  modificatitnis  since  then.  It  consists  of  several 
ranks — viz.  grand  officers,  grand  crosses,  commanders,  and 
knights.  Its  distinctions  are  conferred  for  civil,  but  more 
especially  for  military  achievements.  The  order  pofgesses 
considerable  wealth,  of  which  the  proceeds  are  paid  out  in 
pensions  to  wounded  and  disabled  members  and  gome  oth- 
ers. Their  house  at  Paris  was  burned  by  the  Communists 
May  24,  1871. 

Legna'go,  town  of  N.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Verona, 
on  the  Adige  and  on  the  high-road  between  Mantua  and 
Padua,  about  23  miles  S.  E.  from  the  city  of  Verona.  This 
town  has  much  strategic  importance,  and  formed  one  of 
the  four  angles,  though  not  the  atrongcst,  of  the  famous 
qiiadri/dtrral.     Pop.  in  1874,  13,355. 

Legna^no,  town  in  N.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Milan, 
about  17  miles  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Milan.  It  contains  some 
interesting  churches,  and,  among  other  fine  pictures,  an  io- 
valuablo  one  by  Luini.     Pop.  in  1874,  6685. 

Legouv^f  the  name  of  two  French  |)oets  of  some  note. 
— Gabkiel  Marie  Jean  Baptiste,  b.  at  Paris  June  23. 1764, 
and  d.  there,  insane.  Aug.  30,  1812.  He  wrote  tragedies,  of 
which  Epirharis  et  X^ron  (1794)  made  a  great  sensation  on 
account  of  Talma's  performance  of  Noru  and  the  allusions 
of  the  part  to  Robespierre  :  and  elegies,  of  which  Lc  Mirite 
de«  I'cmmea  (1800)  proved  a  great  success. 

Legouve  (Gabrie!-  Ernest  Wilfrid),  sod  of  the  pre- 
ceding, b.  at  Paris  Feb.  14,  1807,  made  his  debut  in  lite- 
rature with  a  poem,  Deronvertc  dc  V Imprimerie  (1827), 
for  which  he  received  a  prize  of  the  Academy;  wrote, 
in  company  with  Scribe.  Adricnne  Lecmivrcur  (1849),  Lea 
Cuutes  de  la  rdnc  dc  Navarre  (1850),  Bataille  den  lJame» 
(1851),  and  Lc8  Doi,ftM  de  Ffe  (1858).  His  tragedy.  Mrd^e, 
in  which  M.ademoiselle  Rachel  refused  to  play,  though  the 
refusal  cost  her  a  fine  of  5000  francs,  was  translated  into 
Italian,  and  performed  with  great  success  by  Madame 
Ristori.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  Higtoirc  mora/e  den 
Femmca  (1848),  which  made  a  success  similar  to  that  of  his 
father's  poem. 

Lc  Grand,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Marshall  co.,  la.,  on  tho 
Chicago  and  North-western  R.  R.  (Iowa  division).  Pop. 
1537. 

Legu'mine  [Lat.  Ugumeny  "pulse"].  This  is  one  of 
the  vegetable  protcida,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
albuminoids.  (Sec  article  Albi'minoids,  by  Piiof.  Chand- 
ler.) It  is  so  extremely  similar  in  its  chemical  properties 
and  composition  to  animal  cascine,  the  substance  of  cheese 
— that  is,  of  curd  of  milk — that  several  distinguished 
chemists,  among  them  Liebig  and  Braconuot.  have  been 
unable  to  find  any  difference,  and  concluded  that  they  were 
identical.  Other  equally  distinguished  analysts,  however, 
I>nmas  and  Cahours,  have  maintained  that  there  is  an  ap- 
preciable ditTerence  in  composition  and  in  chemical  nature. 
Whether  the  vegetable  caseine,  plant  curd,  or  Icguinine 
passes  directly,  iu  solution  through  tlie  blood,  into  the  milk 
of  lactiferous  mammals,  is  a  question  to  be  worked  out 
by  physiological  chemists.  Leguminc  occurs  extensively 
throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  is  more  especially 
found  in  various  kinds  of  seeds  and  nuts.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that,  with  starch,  it  makes  up  almost 
the  whole  substance  of  the  seeds  of  leguminous  plants, 
such  as  peas  and  beans.  Hence,  the  powerfully  nutritious 
character  of  these  as  food — that  is,  for  those  ]»osses5cd  of 
powerful  digestion,  for  vegetable  cascine  is  far  from  being 
as  readily  soluble  in  the  gastric  liquids  as  animal  caseine 
or  curd  of  milk.  Peas  and  beans  contain  about  one-quar- 
ter of  their  weight  of  this  plant-curd,  and  are  comparable, 
therefore,  so  far  as  richness  in  nitrogen  is  concerned,  to 
eggs  or  to  milk  when  condensed.  Ordinary  cow's  milk,  ac- 
cortling  to  the  highest  determinations  on  record,  contains 
nttt  more  than  5^  per  cent,  of  dry  cascine  by  weight;  wo- 
man's milk  contains  less  than  4  per  cent. 

One  remarkable  point  connected  with  the  chemical  com- 
position of  legumine  is  a  large  proportion  of  phoFphorus  in 
organic  forms  of  combination.  Voelcker  found  in  legurnine 
precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  acetic  acid,  and  thus  freed 
from  all  mineral  matters,  from  l.SS  to  2. IS  per  cent,  of  ab- 
solute phosphorus.  The  believers  in  the  virtues  of  phos- 
phurettcd  foods  as  uerve  and  irain  nourishers  should  by 
this  have  their  attention  directed  to  leguminous  aliments. 


LEGl'MINOS^E— LEIBNITZ. 


1717 


Lei^umino  was  prepared  in  pure  state  by  Duinaa  nnd 
('ahours  from  milk  of  sweet  almonds.  Tht-v  are  bruised, 
S'liikc'l  in  warm  water  for  Ihreo  hours,  cnij'lied  to  pulp,  and 
an  equal  «ei^,'hl  olould  water  added.  In  an  hour  ibe  mass 
U  pressed  ilirou-jh  a  clotli.  The  liquid  deposits  its  starch, 
and  is  then  filtered.  Acetic  acid  (avoiding  excess)  now 
precipitates  or  curdles  the  legumine  as  a  white  coagulum 
or  curd,  which  is  washed  on  a  filter  with  water,  then  with 
alcohol,  dried,  pulverized,  and  treated  with  other  to  remove 
fatty  substances.  It  is  more  difficult  to  obtain  the  vegeta- 
ble curd  pure  from  beans,  ns  these  contain  mucilaginous 
matters  which  render  the  filtration  troublesome.  This  might 
probably  be  overcome,  however,  by  some  experiment,  should 
it  be  desirable  to  obtain  eheaply  a  concentrated  "  brain- 
food."  Tlie  legumine  thus  prepared  is  stated  by  other 
chemists  still  to  retain  in  a<ltni.\ture  some  albumen,  to  sep- 
arate which  requires  re-solution  in  ammonia  and  re-pre- 
cipitation with  acetic  acid.  H.  Wi'rtz. 

Legumino's.x  [Lat.  l^'jumm,  a  "pod"],  or  Fabaceie 
[Lat,  f'lhit,  a  '*  bean  "].  a  large  and  must  important  natural 
order  of  plants,  equalled  by  no  other  of  the  dicotyledonous 
clas>>.  except,  possibly,  by  the  related  order  Rosacea;.  Its 
distinguishing  marks  are  the  p;ipiIionaceous  corolla  and 
the  legume  (i.  (?.  a  solitary  and  simple  2-valved  pod,  of 
which  the  pea-pod  is  a  familiar  representative),  along  with 
alternate  leaves  furnished  with  stipules.  Vet  no  one  of 
these  oharactera  is  without  exception,  and  the  papilioaa- 
oeous  belongs  to  only  one  of  the  three  great  Bub-orders, 
one  of  which,  the  Mimose;i?,  has  wholly  regular  flowers. 
Among  the  food-plants  of  (ho  order,  beans,  pease,  and  clo- 
ver, also  peanuts,  are  the  most  important  representatives. 
But  there  are  also  many  poisonous  or  very  active  plants 
or  pro.lucts.  among  which  the  Calabar  or  ordeal  bean,  now 
turned  to  useful  account  in  medicine,  is  remarkable,  inas- 
much as  the  plant  is  nearly  related  to  the  common  bean. 
Moreover,  both  in  Australia  and  California  plants  of  the 
pulse  family,  which  would  be  supposed  to  be  innocent  and 
nutritious,  prove  to  be  sheep-poisons.  Among  plants  or 
products  of  the  order  with  active  properties,  senna,  indigo, 
copaiva,  tolu,  kino,  and  catechu  may  be  specified.  Other 
drugs  and  dyes  of  large  use  are  gum-aral)ic,  tragacanth, 
liquorice,  copaiba,  tolu,  tamarinds,  sanders-wood.  logwood, 
Brazil-wood,  etc.  Among  timber  trees,  the  locust  and  rose- 
wood. Asa  Gray. 

IjChf  city  of  Central  Asia,  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Ludakh.'is  situated  in  lat.  ."1°  8'  N..  Ion.  77°  40'  K.,  in 
a  valley  of  the  Himalayas,  at  an  elevation  of  11, 3(^10  feet 
above  the  sea,  aud  forms  a  station  of  some  importance  on 
the  commercial  road  between  Central  Ania  and  India.  It 
is  surrounded  with  a  wall  of  sun-dried  brick,  surmounted 
with  turrets,  and  contains  a  great  palace  of  the  rttjah.  Its 
population  is  variously  estimated  at  from  6U00  to  12,000. 

Le'hi  City,  post-v.  of  Ctah  eo.,  I't.,  on  the  Utah  South- 
ern R.  R.,  at  thu  junction  of  the  American  Fork  U.  R.,  and 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Utah  Ijake,  near  the  river  Jordan.  The 
people  profess  the  Mormon  faith. 

Ije'high,  county  of  K.  I*cnnsylvania.  Area.  350  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  N.  K.  by  the  Lehigh  River  and  N.  \V. 
by  the  Blue  Mountains.  The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile. 
Thi.-i  county  contains  mi  net*  of  zinc  and  iron.  Live- 
stock anJ  grain  are  staple  prrtducts.  Carriages,  tobjiceo, 
brick,  clothing,  (lour,  leather,  furniture,  iron.  lime,  metallic 
wares,  and  agricultural  implements  arc  leading  articles  of 
numufitcture.  .Many  of  the  people  arc  of  l.Jerman  descent. 
Cap.  Allentown.      Pop.  5(>,7y0. 

Lehigh,  Ip.  of  Northampton  co..  Pa.     Pop.  3-(9G. 

liChigh  Kivcr,  in  Pennsylvania,  rises  in  Pike  co.,  and 
traverses  a  region  remarkaliitt  for  its  beauty  and  famous 
for  its  great  productioo  of  anlhriuulc  coal.  It  parses  the 
Blue  Ridge  at  Mauch  Chunk,  and  at  Ka.'^lon  unites  with 
the  Delaware.  It  is  nearly  IHO  miles  long,  and  for  70  miles 
has  been  fitted  for  slack-water  navigation. 

Lcliif^h'ton,  post-b.  of  t'arbon  co,,  Pa.,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Lehigh  River,  and  on  tlm  Lehigh  Valley  R.  R.  and 
tlie  Lehigh  and  Suscjuehanna  division  of  the  New  Jersey 
Central  H.  R.  It  has  '.i  chureheit,  it  hotels,  a  fine  publio 
school,  and  1  newsptiper.      Pop.  11M5. 

II.  V.  AioitTniMEi:,  Kn.  "Carbon  Advocate." 

I^eh'man,  i)oat-v.  and  tp.  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.   Pop.  709. 

I.ehninn,  tp.  of  Pike  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  8;{2. 

Leh'mnnii  (CiiAni.Ks  Kuvkst  Roi>oi.i*i!k  Hknui).  b.  nt 
Kiel,  in  Holslein.  Apr.  1-1,  IHII,  and  received  his  first  in- 
struction in  the  art  of  painting. by  his  father;  but  settled 
early  in  Paris,  where  be  studied  under  Ingres,  and  began 
to  exhibit  in  IS^i).  His  ]>ietures  excel  in  brilliancy  of  ool- 
oring.  and  are  generally  distinguished  by  a  peculiarly  ro- 
mantic and  dream-like  feeling,  even  when  the  subjects 
have  been  choaco  from  the  Bible  or  the  Wreck  literature. 


He  has  also  painted  many  excellent  portraits,  such  as  those 
of  Liszt.  Alphonso  Karr,  and  Buron  Haussmanu. 

Lehinann  {  Koi>oi,I'Hk).  a  brother  of  Charles  Lehmann, 
b.  at  Kiel,  in  IIoK>tcin.  Aug.  19,  1S19;  studied  under  his 
father  and  brother,  but  resided  later  on  for  the  niopt  part  in 
Rome,  and  painted  mostly  fcenes  of  Italian  life  and  nature. 
Le  pape  Sixte-  Quint  binigsant  leg  Muraia  Puuthm,  now  at  the 
museum  of  Lille,  is  one  of  his  most  celebrated  pieces. 

Le'ia^  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Punjaub,  in  lat. 
31°  N.  aud  Ion.  71°  K.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  sugar,  cotton,  silk,  indigo,  copper,  iron,  and  wool.  Pop. 
15,00U. 

Ijeib'nitz(OoTTFRiEDWii,HELM),b..Iune  21,0.  s.,  1646, 
in  Leipsic,  where  his  father  was  established  as  a  notary 
public  and  actuary  of  the  university.  The  father  died  when 
Gottfried  was  six  years  old.  His  mother  sent  him  to  school, 
where  he  evinced  a  remarkable  love  of  study  and  unusuii! 
talent.  Ho  learned  Latin  without  the  aid  of  a  grammar, 
simply  by  reading  and  re-reading  Livy  and  the  Chrono- 
loijiruf  TlifHunyuH  of  Calvisius.  and  acquired  such  fiuency 
in  that  language  that  at  the  ago  of  thirteen  ho  wrote  for  a 
wager  .'!00  faultless  hexameters  within  six  hours.  A  large 
number  of  his  works  arc  composed  in  Latin.  Ho  took  chief 
delight  in  logic,  and  thus  was  led  to  the  study  of  the  scho- 
lastics and  of  metaphysics  in  general.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
Leibnitz  entered  Ibe  Leipsic  University  to  prepare  himself 
for  active  life  by  the  study  of  law.  Ho  excelled  there,  as 
everywhere;  read  in  1003  his  dissertation  De  Prhictpio 
Indtvt'dui,  and  in  10(10  published  his  work  J)e  Arte  Combi- 
natoria,  which  really  contains  the  germ  of  all  his  future 
achievements  in  the  fields  of  mathematics  and  philosophy. 
In  the  same  year  ho  left  Leipsic,  because  his  ago  was  urged 
as  a  barrier  to  his  obtaining  tlio  degree  of  doctor  juris,  and 
went  to  the  university  at  Altdnrf,  where  he  obtained  it  by 
his  dissertation  I)r  (Uisibns  Pirplexi»yi\,\u\  elicited  such  gen- 
eral admiration  that  ho  was  ofTevcd  a  professorship  at  the 
university,  which  he,  howo\er,  refused.  During  the  winter 
ho  remained  at  Nuremberg,  studying  the  works  of  Kepler, 
(Talilco,  Bacon,  Gassendi,  and  Descartes,  also  continuing 
his  law-studies.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
celebrated  statesman  Baron  Boinel)urg,  the  former  prime 
minister  of  the  elector  of  Mentz.  and  accompanied  him  to 
Frankfort,  where  he  began  to  jirepare  himself  for  a  polit- 
ical life.  He  there  wrote  his  famous  essay,  No\ui  MrtfioJus 
divcf'Uflii'  dnrfitdiripti'  J nrisprudfutin:  (lOfiS),  which  he  sent 
to  the  elector  of  Mentz.  accompanied  by  the  sketch  of  a 
chart  "  which  would  enable  any  judge  or  lawyer  to  decide 
immediately  any  given  case  of  law  according  to  the  fixed 
principles  of  jurisprudence."  This  so  pUasetl  the  elector 
that  ho  appointed  Leibnitz  assistant  to  Dr.  Lasscr  in  the 
elaboration  of  a  reformed  code  of  Roman  law.  He  soon 
distinguished  himself  by  his  various  literary  labors — so 
much  that  within  a  few  years,  when  barely  twenty-four 
years  r)f  jige,  he  was  iijqiointed  by  the  elector  a  member  of 
the  court  of  appeiils.  the  highest  jiidieiiil  tribunal  of  the 
electorate.  His  ofiieial  labors  did  not  in  the  least  disturb 
his  other  studies.  He  was  specially  interested  at  that  lime 
in  effecting  a  reconciliation  between  Protestants  and  Ro- 
man Catholics,  and  kept  up  an  extensive  correspondence 
with  prominent  members  of  both  churches  (with  Bossuet 
among  others),  having  discovered,  as  he  thought,  a  basis 
on  which  the  theories  of  both  churches  on  the  subject  of 
transubstantiation,  their  main  jioint  of  ditpute.  could  bo 
harmonized.  Tin*  ])reparations  nnnle  iiy  Louis  Xl\'.  for  a 
war  against  GermaMy  at  the  same  time  led  him  to  enter 
deeply  into  polities.  To  the  German  electors  he  submitted 
a  memorial,  counselling  a  friendly  feeling  towards  France 
and  the  establishment  of  a  united  Germany,  which,  he  said, 
would  alone  gi\<'  peace  to  Furope.  To  Louis  .XlWlie  sub- 
mitted a  memorial,  through  Boineburg,  which  counselled 
an  expedition  of  France  against  Fgypt,  which  was  so  well 
received  by  the  French  king  that  Louis  XIV.  expressed 
his  desire  for  a  persomil  interview  with  the  author.  Ac- 
cordingly, Leibnitz  left  Mentz  in  Miir.,  ll»72,  for  Paris, 
where  he  submitted  a  memorial  to  the  king,  \\hich.  how- 
ever, has  only  recently  been  mude  public.  Ho  pointed  out 
the  conquest  of  Egypt  as  the  key  to  India  and  the  humili- 
ation of  Holland.  Napoleon  alterwards  carried  out  the 
achemo  in  order  to  threaten  Kngland's  jKiwer  in  the  Fast. 
Leibnitz's  main  object  was  to  ilivert  (he  king's  mind  from 
a  war  with  (Jernmny  by  a  foreign  enterprise  ;  and  jirobably 
this  object  was  soon  discovered,  nnd  caused  the  rejection 
of  his  scheme.  He  maile  diligent  use  of  his  stay  in  Paris. 
however,  to  study  its  libraries  nnd  become  ac(|uainted  with 
its  men  of  science.  News  of  his  friend  Boineburg's  death 
compelled  him  to  visit  London  for  a  short  time,  where  ho 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Newton.  Boyle,  and  others,  and 
was  chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Here  the  report 
of  the  death  of  his  other  friend,  the  elector  of  Mentz, 
reached  him.      When  he  returned  from  ICngland,  be  ilid  not 


1718 


LE1B>^1TZ. 


go  to  Mentz,  therefore,  but  to  Paris.  Here  he  soon  formed  ' 
an  extensive  acc^uaiutauce,  became  intimate  with  Cassini 
and  lIuyghon.«,  and  was  admitted  to  the  highest  circles  of  ; 
society.  In  1070  he  accepted  the  third  offer  made  him  by 
the  ciuke  of  I'runswick-Liineburgof  a  position  at  his  court, 
having  just  then  made  his  immortal  discovery  of  the  dif- 
ferentia! calculus,  which  he  did  not  make  public,  however, 
until  1C84.  In  1G7S  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg,  in 
recognition  of  his  many  labors  in  the  interest  of  science 
and  of  the  country,  conferred  the  rank  of  counsellor  upon 
him,  which  made  him  a  member  of  tbo  supreme  court.  Be- 
sides his  judicial  duties  and  other  scientific  labors,  Leib-  : 
nitz  took  charge  of  the  duke's  mines  in  the  Ilartz  Moun-  I 
tains,  utilizing  the  opportunity  to  study  mineralogy,  and 
kept  u]i  constantly  his  labors  in  behalf  of  a  union  betvvcen 
the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  In  1079  the  i 
duke  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Ern.'^t  August, 
subsequently  elector  of  Hanover.  When,  some  years  later, 
the  princess  Sophia  Charlotte  of  Hanover,  Leibnitz's  pupil, 
married  the  prince  of  Brandenburg,  future  king  of  Prussia,  , 
it  was  deemed  advisable  in  16S7  to  send  Leibnitz  to  Italy  > 
vn  a  political  expedition,  but  chiefly  with  a  \  iew  tu  collect  , 
materials  for  a  history  of  the  house  of  Brunswick  (the 
Guelph  family)  from  its  earliest  origin.  Leibnitz  made  \ 
this  the  great  literary  work  of  his  life,  though,  like  most 
of  his  works,  it  has  been  printed  only  recently.  His  stay 
at  Rome  was  one  prolonged  ovation.  Every  learned  society  , 
elected  him  a  member.  The  office  of  custodian  of  the  great 
Vatican  library  was  offered  him,  with  prospects  of  a  car- 
dinal's hat,  if  he  would  join  the  Roman  Catholic  Cliuruh. 
But,  favorably  disposed  as  he  was  to  Roman  Catholicism, 
he  never  could  be  brought  to  join  that  Church.  He  did  his 
best  to  enlist  it  in  behalf  of  science,  and  arranged  a  per- 
manent correspondence  with  the  famous  Jesuit  missionary 
Grimaldi,  then  leaving  for  China,  through  whom  he  also 
sent  his  Science  of  Dijadica  to  the  emperor  of  China,  so  ar- 
ranged as '"to  prove  the  creation  of  the  world  out  of  nothing." 
After  his  return  to  the  Hanoverian  court,  Leibnitz  was  ap- 
pointed custodian  of  the  Wolfcnbiittel  Library.  His  pa- 
tron, Ernst  August,  who  in  1692  had  become  elector  of 
Hanover,  died  in  1098,  and  although  his  successor,  George, 
future  king  of  England,  retained  Leibnitz  in  his  posi- 
tion, Leibnitz  no  longer  felt  comfortable  under  a  ])rincG 
who  took  no  interest  in  matters  of  science  and  art.  Ho 
therefore  accepted  a  call  to  Berlin  from  his  former  pupil, 
the  princess  Sophia  Charlotte,  and  there  established  the 
scientific  society  which  has  since  grown  into  the  Berlin 
I'niversity.  In  1700  ho  was  sent  on  a  political  expedition 
to  Vienna,  and  made  another  attempt  to  unite  the  Protest- 
ant and  Catholic  churches.  On  his  return  to  Berlin  ho 
found  that  tho  English  skepticism  of  the  Lockian  School 
had  made  its  way  there,  and  at  tho  solicitation  of  Sophia 
Charlotte,  now  queen  of  Prussia,  wrote  bis  celebrated 
Tht'ndirre  to  comliat  it.  The  death  of  tbo  queen  in  1705 
was  a  severe  blow  to  Leibnitz.  More  than  ever  he  devoted 
himself  to  science.  When  in  1711  ho  met  Peter  the  Great 
at  Torgau,  he  induced  him  to  found  libraries,  observatories, 
etc.,  aud  so  interested  that  monarch  that  he  was  invited  to 
another  personal  conference  at  Carlsbad.  In  1714.  Leib- 
nitz visited  Vienna  for  tho  last  time,  and  there  wrote  for 
Prince  Eugiinc  his  Monudolojij,  the  work  by  which  he  is 
most  widely  known  as  a  philosophical  writer.  Soon  after 
it  was  finished,  the  elector  George,  being  about  to  leave  for 
England,  ordered  Leibnitz  home  to  attend  to  his  duties. 
Leibnitz  went  back,  finished  his  history  of  the  house  of 
Brunswick,  and  plunged  into  other  scientific  labors,  in  the 
midst  of  which  death  overtook  him,  Ni>v.  14.  1716.  Only 
one  person,  his  secretary,  Eckhart,  followed  him  to  his 
tjrave.  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  clergy  both  re- 
fufied  to  attend  his  burial. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  multi- 
tude of  Leibnitz's  writings  and  the  variety  of  subjects  upon 
which  they  treat.  His  unpublished  manuscripts  till  the 
whole  side  of  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  Hanoverian  library, 
and  range  over  the  various  subjects  of  law,  history,  theology, 
speculative  nhilosophy,  mathematics,  and  all  the  natural 
sciences.  There  is  scarcely  a  branch  of  human  knowledge 
which  his  wonderful  mind  has  not  explored  and  enriched; 
and  in  this  universality  of  his  knowledge  ho  stands  un- 
rivalled in  history.  Neither  Aristotle  nor  Kant.  probabl>; 
tho  other  two  most  universal  minds,  reach  Leibnitz  in  the 
extent  of  their  knowledge.  And  with  all  this  devotion  to 
science  he  was  never  forgetful  of  practical  affairs.  An  ac- 
complished statesman  and  politician,  he  was  an  untiring 
correspondent,  and  in  society  brilliant  and  interesting  as 
few  men  even  of  his  time,  when  society  made  great  de- 
mands. Though  he  never  married,  he  enjoyed  the  society 
of  ladies,  and  fascinated  them  by  his  courteous  manners 
and  conversational  powers.  During  the  reign  of  the  late 
king  of  Hanover  a  beginning  was  made  to  publish  tho 
complete  works  of  Leibnitz,  a  literary  undertaking  of  un- 


paralleled magnitude.  A  few  volumes  were  issued  iu  truly 
royal  style,  but  the  expulsion  of  the  king  and  the  absorp- 
tion of  Hanover  into  the  German  empire  unhap]>ily  put  a 
stop  to  the  enterprise.  The  chief  points  of  his  philosophi- 
cal system  are  three  in  number;  (I)  The  Principle  vf  the 
SiiJ^rient  Heitniju. — In  human  knowledge,  says  Leibnitz 
substantially  in  explanation  of  this  principle,  we  meet  with 
two  different  classes  of  knowledge — one  which  is  based  on 
the  formula  A  =  A,  and  which  is  self-evident,  needing, 
therefore,  no  further  explanation  ;  and  one  which  says  of  a 
thing  (A)  that  it  is  not  only  this  (/.  <■.  .\.  I,  but  also  something 
else.  Kant  subsequently  called  the  former  class  analytical 
and  the  latter  synthetical  propositions.  Now,  of  this  latter 
class,  adds  Leibnitz,  it  will  not  do  to  assert  merely  that 
they  are  true,  but  a  sufficient  ground  mu.st  be  shown  why 
they  must  be  true ;  and  if  we  cannot  show  tho  ground,  they 
are  not  proved  true.  By  strictly  separating  this  class  of 
propositions  from  those  that  are  merely  analytical  or  identi- 
cal, and  applying  to  all  synthetical  a^^sertions  tho  crucial 
test  of  the  sufficient  reason,  Leibnitz  contends  that  the 
higher  sciences  of  physics,  metaphysics,  etc.  can  he  aa 
conclusively  established  as  those  sciences  that  rest  merely 
upon  the  analytical  principle.  Leibnitz  neglects,  how- 
ever, to  state  what  is  the  sufficient  reason  which  is  tho 
basis  of  all  synthetical  propositions,  and  it  was  reserved 
for  Kant  to  complete  the  work  of  Leibnitz  in  this  re- 
spect. It  appears,  however,  from  all  of  Leibnitz's  writ- 
ings whenever  he  had  to  apply  that  principle,  that  he 
was  quite  well  aware  of  the  nature  of  that  sufficient  rea- 
son. (See  Kant.)  (2)  Tlie  Doctrine  of  Mouiide. — At  an 
early  period  of  his  life,  Leibnitz,  who  till  then  had  ac- 
cepted in  explanation  of  the  universe  the  then  generally 
received  theory  of  atoms,  convinced  himself  of  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  this  theory,  in  that  it  could  not  explain  the  activ- 
ity reigning  in  tho  universe.  By  tho  two  conceptions  of 
motion  and  a  world  of  atomic  matter,  Descartes  had  tried 
to  explain,  in  his  famous  Prindpin,  all  the  ])!ienomGna  of 
the  universe,  from  tho  position  and  course  of  the  stars  down 
to  the  construction  of  the  smallest  plant,  and  again  up  to 
the  highest  functions  and  passions  of  rational  human  be- 
ings. But  as  this  theory  was  defective,  in  Leibnitz's  opinion, 
in  that  it  showed  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  motion  which 
vitalizes  the  universe,  he  proposed  to  substitute  for  the  ma- 
terial atoms  spiritual  atoms.  Ho  made  public  his  discovery 
at  an  early  day,  and  it  excited  an  extensive  discussion 
amongst  the  scientific  men  of  his  age.  In  his  first  an- 
nouncement of  his  new  theory,  Leibnitz  calls  "spiritual 
atoms"  what  ho  subsequently  termed  monads,  *•  Suppos- 
ing," says  ho  in  substance,  **  that  wo  look  upon  this  universe 
as  an  infinite  number  of  spiritual  activities,  each  again  con- 
taining within  itself  an  infinite  number  of  activities,  and 
each  thus  limiting  the  other:  then  every  such  monadic  ac- 
tivity must  be  limited  or  influenced  in  a  more  or  less  degree 
by  all  the  others,  so  that  even  the  smallest  monad,  if  it 
could  become  conscious  of  all  tho  impressions  directed  upon 
it,  would  become  conscious  of  tho  whole  infinite  world.  "This 
limitation  ajjpears  to  each  monad  as  something  foreign  to 
itself,  and  where  this  limitation  ceases  there  is  itself  in  its 
own  body.  Each  monad  having  clearest  consciousness  of 
wltat  passes  within  itself,  and  increasing  that  consciousness 
only  as  it  learns  to  unravel  the  impressions  produced  upon 
it  by  the  other  monads,  it  is  simply  by  the  grade  of  con- 
sciousness attained  that  the  monads  are  distinguished  from 
each  other.  From  tho  smallest  speek  of  dust  to  the  high- 
est seraph  this  distinction  rules;  and  as  each  monad  carries 
within  itself  tho  power  to  reach  the  highest  degree,  there 
can  be  no  creation  and  no  death  in  the  world;  everything 
must  bo  stea<ly,  progressive  development  or  evolution. 
Matter  must  be  always  the  same,  since  the  monads  are  al- 
ways the  same;  and  force  can  never  he  destroyed,  since  tho 
monad  can  never  be  destroyed.  The  whole  interchange  of 
forces  is  simply  tho  result  of  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
movement  on  the  part  (<f  the  universal  force  which  every 
atom  possesses,  and  all  forces  are  therefore  correlated  with 
each  other  through  motion."  Leibnitz's  theory  of  nature, 
iu  its  fundamental  principles,  is  thug  the  same  that  has  re- 
cently been  adopted  by  the  natural  scientists  of  England. 
(Translations  of  several  short  articles  written  by  Leibnitz 
in  ex])ositiiin  of  this  theory  can  lie  found  in  the  Jour.  Spec. 
Phil.  (St.  Louis),  vols,  i.  (containing  the  ytimadtdoijii),  ii., 
iii.,  V.)     (;!)   Prr-t:HtftUishcd   J/nrmoiii/. — There  remained, 

I  however,  one  great  problem  to  explain,  which  was  how  one 
monad  can  influence  another  one,  and  which  also  involves 
the  question  how  communication  between  body  and  soul  is 
possible.  This  puzzled  Leibnitz  Tur  a  long  time,  until  he 
was  insensibly  led  to  an  idea  whieh,  he  says,  **  surprised 
me,  but  which  seemed  inevitable.     This  was  that  the  soul 

:  or  every  other  real  unity  must  have  been  created  in  such  a 

!  manner  ns  to  have  everytliing  arise  in  it  from  it."  own 
proper  nature,  with  a  perfect  tipoutonrity  in  relation  to  it- 

!  self,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  with  perfect  conformity  to 


LEICESTER— LEIGH. 


1719 


the  outside  thin;;s.  That  thus  our  intcmal  perceptions — 
thai  is,  those  in  the  soul  itself,  and  not  in  the  hrain  or  in 
the  suhtle  parts  of  the  body — being  nothing  but  phenomena 
related  to  external  thing?  or  true  appearances,  and  like 
well-regulated  dream?, — that  these  internal  perceptions, 
therefore,  in  the  s"ui  itself  come  to  the  soul  through  ita 
own  original  constitution:  that  is  to  say,  through  that  rep- 
re?cntativc  character  (capable  of  exprcsiiing  outside  tilings 
by  relation  to  ita  organs)  which  was  given  to  it  at  its  crea- 
tion, and  which  constitutes  its  individual  character.  Thus 
it  is  that  each  of  these  substances — I'ach  representing  pre- 
cisely the  whole  universe  in  its  own  way  and  according  to 
a  certain  point  of  view,  and  the  perceptions  or  expressions 
of  the  external  things  reaching  the  soul  in  this  point  by 
virtue  of  its  own  laws,  as  nf  a  world  in  itself,  and  as  if 
nothing  existed  but  God  and  itself  (to  use  the  mode  of  ex- 
pressinn  of  a  certain  person  of  elevated  mind,  and  whoso 
sanctify  \s  everywhere  rccognizeil),  must  be  in  perfect  accord 
with  all  others,  whereby  the  same  effect  is  produced  as  if 
they  all  communicated  with  each  other  by  a  transmission 
of  species  or  of  qualities,  as  the  vulgar  philosophers  imag- 
ine. Moreover,  the  organizeil  mass,  wherein  the  point  of 
view  of  the  soul  exists,  being  expressed  more  nearly,  and 
finding  itself  reciprocally  ready  to  act  of  itself  according 
to  the  laws  of  the  bodily  machine  in  whatever  moment  the 
soul  wills  it — neither  ono  interfering  with  the  laws  of  the 
other — the  intelligence  and  the  blood  have  precisely  those 
movements  which  are  necessary  to  respond  to  the  passions 
and  perceptions  of  the  soul.  It  is  this  mutual  rttpport. 
regulated  in  advance  in  each  substance  of  the  universe, 
which  produces  what  wo  call  their  communication,  and 
which  alone  constitutes  the  union  uf  body  nnd  soul.  It  is 
thus  that  we  can  understand  how  the  soul  has  its  seat  in 
the  body  by  an  immediate  presence — a  presence  that  could 
not  be  greater,  since  the  eoul  is  there  just  as  the  unity  is  iu 
the  result  of  the  unities,  which  is  tho  multiplicity." 

This  is  the  celebrated  theory  of  a  pre-established  harmony, 
upon  which  Leibnitz  also  built  his  religious  system,  as  in- 
deed none  of  his  discoveries  stand  apart,  but  each  is  closely 
connected  with  all  others,  and  the  result  of  the  same  orig- 
inal view  of  tho  universe.  His  mathematical  discoveries 
were  the  outgrowth  of  his  purely  philosophical  appercep- 
tions, no  Ie?s  than  his  religious  convictions,  and  it  was  his 
distinvery  of  the  monad  theory  which  made  him  so  sure  that 
by  its  means  ho  could  reconcile  Protestants  and  Honuin  Cath- 
olics on  their  main  point  of  dispute,  the  doctrine  of  trunsub- 
stantiation.  (Mee  Kuno  Tischer,  Leibnitz  und  Mciiie  iSchnle, 
in  vol.  ii.  of  his  fieach  d^-r  rtfluern  PhiL;  also  Erdmann's 
ed.  of  his  works.  2  vols,  f  Berlin,  1S4')) ;  Foiicher  do  Tarcil's 
ed..  6  vols.  (Paris.  18oi)):  <»•  H.  Pcrtz*s  ed.  (with  (imtcfend 
and  tJerhardt).  12  vols.  (Hanover.  iJerlin.an'l  lliiUe.  lS4:i- 
6:M:  Onnot  Klopp's  ed.,  4  vtds.  (Hanover,  I8C1-66)  ;  Guh- 
rauer's  '/.  \V.  F.  Ltibuitz  (2  vols.,  and  ed.  of  Leibnitz's  Ger- 
man writings.  Itreslau  (ls;i7-4riK)  A.  E.  Kkokceh. 

liUiccs'tcr,  or  Leicostershirc,  county  of  England, 
situated  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  country,  bounded  N.  by 
the  river  Trent.  Area,  SO:i  square  miles.  Pop.  2'\7,i\'2. 
The  ground  ts  hilly;  some  coal  and  lead  mines  are  work- 
ed; granite  and  freestone  arc  quarried.  But  the  rearing 
of  sheep  and  cattle  gives  the  country  its  industrial  charac- 
ter: 260,000  acres  of  land  are  in  grass;  and  its  breeds  of 
cattle  and  long-woolled  sheep  are  very  celebrated.  Tho 
80-called  Stilton  cheese  is  chiefly  made  in  this  county, 
which  Also  is  tho  principal  seat  of  the  English  manufoo- 
tures  of  hosii-ry. 

LeicCHter^  town  of  England,  the  capital  of  Lcicestor- 
Bhire,  on  tho  Soar,  whose  auclent  name  was  Leire,  whence 
the  name  of  tho  city.  Its  manufactures  of  woollens  and 
hosiery  are  very  important,  employing  more  than  2a, 000 
hands;  also  laoo  is  made  hero  to  a  considerable  extent. 
The  oily  was  known  to  the  Itomans  under  the  name  of 
li'tttr,  and  Roman  remains  are  found.      Pop.  ll.>,0S4. 

Leicester,  post-tp,  of  Worcester  co.,  Mass..  0  miles  AV. 
of  Worcester,  The  Boston  and  Albany  H.  U.  traverses 
the  S.  part.  The  town  has  a  fertile  soil,  well  adapted  to 
grazing,  here  a  lending  ttursuit.  Tliere  arc  several  villages, 
7  woollen  and  II  card  factories,  1  national  bank,  a  publio 
library,  an  academy,  a  town-hall,  K  churches,  a  memorial 
h;ill,  and  good  water-power.     Pop.  27fiS. 

Leicester,  tp.  of  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y.  It  contains 
several  manufacturing  villagps.     Pop.  1711, 

I^eicpsler,  post-tp.  of  Muneombe  co..  N.  C.    Pop.2180. 

Leicester,  post-tp.  of  Ad.llson  oo.,  Vt.,  .'»  miles  N.  of 
Brandon,  on  the  Contra!  Vermont  R.  R.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  lime  and  paint.      Pop.  0:10. 

Leicester  (RonKHT  Dudley),  EAni.  of.  a  son  of  tho 
duko  of  Northumberland,  who  was  executed  for  trying  to 
make  Liidy  .lane  Grey  queen  in  l-STiM,  b.  Sept.  7,15^3; 
married  Amy  Uobsarl  lA.'iO;  was  enndojuned  as  n  traitor 
1554;  pardoned  1j.">.'>;  bocaino  the  favorite  of  t^ucen  Eliza- 


beth, who  made  him  K.  G.  and  master  of  tho  horse  1558. 
The  sudden  death  of  his  wife  in  1660  aroused  strong  sus- 
picions that  he  was  aspiring  to  the  hand  of  the  queen. 
Created  carl  of  Leicester  in  1564;  in  lJt>0,  Elizjibcth  pro- 
posed his  marriage  with  the  queen  of  Scots,  and  somewhat 
later  his  secret  marriage  with  tho  widow  of  Essex  aroused 
the  anger  of  the  queen  ;  was  sent  to  tho  Low  Countries  as 
captain-general  in  1585  and  1587,  but  displayed  no  ca- 
pacity; was  in  158S  generalissimo  of  the  troops  raised 
against  the  Spaniards.     D.  in  Oxfordshire,  Sept.  4,  1588. 

Leicester  (Simon  de  ^lontf'ort),  Eaki*  or,  founder 
of  tho  English  House  of  Commons,  b.  I20C  in  France,  and 
was  a  sou  of  Simon  do  Montfort,  tho  vanquisher  of  tho 
Albigenses.  In  12;il  his  brother,  the  Count  Aiiiaury  do 
Montfort,  gave  him  the  honor  of  Leicester,  inherited  from 
his  maternal  grandmother,  an  English  lady ;  fur  this  tillo 
Simon  did  homage  to  Henry  IIL  in  12;n,  and  in  123^  it 
was  formally  granted  by  the  king  after  his  marriage  with 
the  king's  sister ;  was  for  many  years  emi)loyod  as  governor 
of  Gascony,  where  he  conducted  many  wars  with  advantage, 
and  twice  refused  tho  French  regency  ;  in  England,  unlike 
most  other  French  adventurers  of  that  pcrioii.  he  took  tho 
part  of  the  barons  against  the  king  in  the  wars  of  Henry 
III.'s  reign  :  compelled  the  king  to  sign  the  jirovisions  of 
Oxford  1208,  and  after  tJloucester's  death  (  12i>2j  became 
the  leader  of  tho  baronial  party;  dictated  terms  at  tho 
Mise  of  Lowes  12G4;  summoneil  the  Parliament  of  ]2fi.*>, 
at  which  knights  of  the  shire  and  reprcsenlatives  of  tho 
boroughs  were  admitted — the  germ  of  the  future  Ilougc  of 
Commons;  became  jut^ticiary  of  England.  Lung  tho  vir- 
tual master  of  tho  realm,  he  was  attacked  by  Edward, 
prince  of  M^ ales,  at  Evesham,  and  there  defeated  and  slain, 
Aug.  4,  1265. 

Lcich'liardt  (Lri>wiG),b.  at  Trebitscb, in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Brandenburg,  Oct.  2;>,  iSlli ;  studii  d  philology, 
medicine,  and  natural  science  at  Gottiugen  and  Berlin; 
travelled  through  Italy,  France,  and  Kuglaud,  and  went  in 
1841  to  Australia,  where  ho  made  a  great  name  for  himself 
as  an  explorer.  Tho  results  of  hiu  first  minor  travels  were 
published  in  lieitriiije  zur  Geolotjie  wn  Anntnilia  (Hallo, 
1855).  His  large  tour  from  Moreton  Bay  on  the  E.  coast 
to  Port  Essiugton  on  the  N.  coast  (1844-40),  he  described  in 

his  Journul  o/'  an  Ovt-rinnd  I^jrjjidition  in  Anntftifia  from 
Moreton  liui/  to  Port  Enaijajton  (London,  1847).  In  Dec, 
1847,  ho  started  on  a  still  greater  expedition  across  the  con- 
tinent from  E.  to  W.,  but  the  last  report  which  came  from 
him  was  dated  Fitzruy  I)owus  Apr.  8,  1848,  and  later  re- 
searches havo  confirmed  tliat  he  jierished  on  the  trip.  His 
biography  was  written  by  Zuchold  (Leii)sic,  1856). 

Lei'dy,  post-tp,  of  Clinton  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  515. 

Leidy  (JosRvn),  M.  D..h.  at  Philadelphia  Sept.  9, 1823; 
graduated  in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1844:  devoted  himself  to  biological  researches,  especially 
comparative  anatomy  and  vertebrate  palivontnlogy,  on 
which  jiapers  were  published  in  Pror.  of  Avnd.  Nut.  Sr{- 
cnccs  of  Phila.,  Trnnti.  of  Am.  Philos.  5oe.,  an<i  Smithsonian 
Contrihft.  to  Knotrhdffc  ;  in  1853  was  chosen  ])rofeSBor  of 
anatomy  in  tho  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  1871  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Swart hniore  (.'ollege,  both  which  positions  ho  still  fills. 
I)uring  the  civil  war  Prof.  Leidy  rendered  important  ser- 
vice as  surgeon  at  Satterloe  Hospital,  Philadel]ihia.  His 
contributions  to  seientiOc  periodicals  number  souie  hun- 
dreds. Among  his  more  important  works  are  I'fora  and 
Fauna  vithin  Lirimj  Animals,  Memoir  on  an  E rttnct  Sfn'- 
cirn  of  American  Ox,  Auficnt  Fmina  of  Ntbranl-it,  Memoir 
on  the  E.rtinrt  Slotli  Tribe  of  N.  A.,  and  Cretaceous  Hep- 
tiles  of  the  V.  S.,  all  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, and  Contributions  to  the  Extinct  Vertebrate  Fauna 
of  the  Western  Territories  (1H73),  published  by  U.  S.  Ge<d. 
Survey  of  tho  Territories.  (See  an  interesting  notice  of  liis 
life  and  earlier  writings  in  A.  J.  Med.  Reporter  for  Sept., 
1863.) 

Lci^h,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lancaster, 
13  miles  W.  of  Manchester.  It  has  large  manufaetures  of 
cambrics,  muslins,  and  silk  and  cotton  goods.   Pop.  10,<)2l. 

Lei^h,  tp.  of  Amelia  co.,  Va.     Pop.  3464, 

Leigh,  tp.  of  Prince  Edward  co.,  Va.     Pop.  3391. 

Leigh  (Bknjamin  AVatkins^.  LL.1>..  b.  in  ChosterfieM 
CO.,  Va..  Juno  18,  1781  ;  gradiiatotl  at  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lego  ;  practised  law  at  Petersburg,  and  afterwards  at  Rich- 
mond ;  was  reporter  of  the  court  of  appeals  ;  often  chosen  to 
the  legislature;  was  appointed  n  commissioner  to  revise  (he 
statutes,  and  again  to  adjust  land  questions  with  Kentucky  : 
and  was  in  I8:t5  elected  to  tho  U.  S.  Senate,  and  took  a 
jtrominent  part  in  the  ilebates.  but  resigned  in  1837,  and 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement.  He  publishe<l  12 
volumes  of  Ueportu  of  Court  of  A/>fnaU  and  lien.  Court  of 
Va.  (1833-44),     D,  at  Richmond  Feb.  2.  1849. 


1720 


LEIGH— LEISLER. 


Leigh  (Hezekiah  G.).I*.  D.,  b.  in  Perqniiiiftnsco.,  N.  C, 
Nov.  l*;i,  1795.  For  thirty-five  years  ho  occupied  respon- 
sible positions  in  the  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  M.  E. 
conferences.  He  was  one  of  the  foundcr.s  and  prinoijial 
supporters  of  Kandolph-Mocon  College,  lie  had  a  power- 
ful inteileot  and  great  executive  ability.  D.  in  Mecklen- 
burg CO..  Va.,  Sept.  19,  1853.  T.  0.  Si  mmkus. 

Leii^h'ton,  tp.  of  Lawrence  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  1283. 

LeiuMitou,  tp.  of  Allegan  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1200. 

Leighton  (Alkxandkr),  M.  D.,  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
l:ind.  in  1668;  educated  at  the  university  of  that  city,  in 
wliicli  he  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  from  1GU3  to 
liilM,  when  he  became  a  Presbyterian  preacher  at  London, 
where  he  also  practised  medicine;  wrote  ASpcrtifum  licltl 
Sacra  ;  or  the  Lookinff-QUiAH  of  the  Hohf  War  (1024),  and 
an  Appeal  to  the  Parliament ;  or  St'im'H  Plea  aijainnt  the 
Prelarie  (I02S).  For  the  latter  publication,  deemed  libel- 
lous with  respect  to  the  king,  queen,  ami  bishops.  Leighton 
was  sentenced  by  the  Star  Chamber  to  be  twice  publicly 
whipped,  to  lose  both  ears,  to  stand  twiec  in  the  pillory, 
to  bo  branded  on  the  cheek  with  the  letters  S.  S.  (sower  of 
sedition),  to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000,  and  to  suffer  perpetual 
imprisonment  in  the  Fleet.  After  eleven  years'  imprison- 
ment he  was  released  by  order  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1010,  received  peeuniary  indemnity,  and  in  1612  was  made 
keeper  of  Lambeth  Palace  as  a  state  prison,  where  he  d.  in 
1014. 

Leighton  (Frkderick),  A.  R.  A.,  h.  at  vSearborough, 
England,  Bee.  3,  1830;  received  his  first  instructions  in 
drawing  at  Rome;  entered  as  student  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Berlin  in  1843,  and  finished  a  general  education  at 
Frankfort;  went  to  Brussels,  where  was  produced  in  1848 
his  first  painting,  Cimabue  Jindinff  Giotto  Drawing  in  the 
Fiffd«  :  studied  at  Paris  and  Frankfort,  and  again  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  executed  the  Cimabue,  which,  exhibited  at 
the  London  Royal  Academy  in  1855,  and  being  by  a 
hitherto  unknown  native  artist,  was  so  favorably  received 
that  it  was  eagerly  purchased  by  the  queen.  In  rapid  suc- 
cession he  produced  many  fine  paintings,  classical,  scrip- 
tural, and  dramatic:  especially  noticeable  are  his  Triumph 
o/.l//(Ki>  (1856) :  Scene  from  Romeo  and  Juliet  (\>^5i^)  ;  Star 
of  lirthlrhem,  and  Michael  Anrjelo  nursim)  hia  Dying  Ser- 
vant (1862);  HpIch  of  Troy  and  David  (1865);  Syracnuan 
Bride  leading  Wild  lieastfi  to  the  Temple  of  Diana  (1866); 
has  also  executed  designs  for  literary  works,  among  which 
is  Romola. 

Leighton  (Robert),  D.  D.,  son  of  Alexander,  b.  in 
Edinburgh  in  161 1:  graduated  at  the  university  of  that 
city  (1031),  of  which  he  became  principal  in  1053;  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Dunblane  in  1601,  in  pursuit  of  the  plan 
of  Charles  II..  Sharpe,  and  Lauderdale  to  Anglicize  the 
Church  of  Scotland;  accepted  it  with  reluctance;  appealed 
twice  to  the  king  to  adopt  milder  measures  in  the  attempted 
reform  (1665  and  1009);  accepted  the  archbishopric  of 
Glasgow  in  1670  upon  liberal  conditions,  which  were  not 
fulfilled,  and  he  therefore  resigned  in  1073  and  retired  to 
Rroadhurst,  Sussex.  D,  at  London  June  20,  10S4.  His 
works,  all  posthumous,  arc  highly  esteemed  fur  their  broad 
and  liberal  views  ;  they  include  Sernwui  ( 1002) ;  Prclertionrs 
Thcoli,gicfp  ( 1693);  Comir.entnri/  on  the  First  Epintlc  of  Peter 
(I0'.)3);  and  A**//Mn)ioHj»  Trade  (1703), and  have  been  often 
reprinted.  See  his  hife  by  J.  N.  Pearson,  accompanying 
the   Works  (4  vols.,  1825). 

Lei'ningen^  former  principality  of  Germany,  was 
erected  in  1779,  comprised  an  area  of  250  square  miles, 
and  was  situated  between  the  Lower  Palatinate  and  the 
bishopries  of  Speyer  and  Worms.  By  the  Peace  of  Lun6- 
vilU-  in  1801  it  was  divided  between  Baden,  Bavaria,  and 
ILsst^,  and  the  prince  was  deprived  of  his  sovereignty. 

Lein'steTf  province  of  Ireland,  comprising  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  island,  bortlering  on  the  Irish  Sea 
and  St.  George's  Channel.  Area.  7619  square  miles.  Pop. 
1.457,635  in  1861;  1,339,448  in  1871.  of  whom  1.141,401 
were  Roman  Catholics.  Before  the  English  invasion  this 
nrovinee  formed  two  kingdoms,  those  of  Leinster  and 
Moath  ;  now  it  is  dividi-d  into  twelve  counties — namely, 
Dublin,  iMe;ith,  Louih.  Kildare,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  King's, 
Longford,  tiueen's.  Westmeath,  Wicklow,  and  Wexford. 

Leipo'a  ocella'ta,  the  "native  pheasant'"  of  Aus- 
tralia, a  guUinaccous  bird  of  the  familv  Mcgapodidse, 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  turkey.  Its  flesh  is  good  and 
its  oggs  are  excellent.  The  nest  is  a  mass  of  leaves,  dirt, 
and  sticks,  the  heat  of  which,  produced  by  fermentation. 
hatches  the  eggs.  The  leipoa  is  a  swift  runner,  but  is  very 
stupid,  and  often  tries  to  csoapo  the  hunter  by  hiding  her 
bead  in  a  bush. 

Leip'pa,  or  Btthmisch  Leipa,  town  of  Bohemia,  on 
the  Pulsnit/.,  is  the  seat  of  several  eJvil  and  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  and  has  good  educational  institutions,  exten- 


sive breweries,  and  manufactures  of  articles  of  steel,  guns, 
and  glass.     Pop.  y2tL 

Leip'sic,  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  with  100,925 
I  inhabitants  according  to  the  census  of  1871,  is  situated  in 
I  an  extensive  plain  (w)jich  often  was  the  theatre  of  great 
battles)  on  the  Pleisse.  which  here  receives  the  Parthe  and 
flows  into  the  Elster.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  com- 
mercial towns  of  the  German  empire,  the  centre  of  the  Ger- 
man book-trade,  and  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  university. 
The  inner  town,  consisting  of  ohl,  tall  houses,  one  looking 
very  much  like  the  other,  presents  the  aspect  of  industry, 
enterprise,  and  solid  wealth;  it  is  encircled  by  five  regular 
and  modern-looking  suburbs,  and  in  a  still  wider  circle  the 
whole  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  villages,  which  join 
the  town  like  a  sort  of  second-grade  suburbs.  The  inner 
town  is  separated  from  the  suburbs  by  the  Promenaden.  a 
circle  of  beautiful  gardens  and  walks,  which  occupy  the 
place  of  the  old  fortifications,  and  contain  the  most  im- 
portant public  places  of  the  city,  such  as  the  Augustus- 
platz,  on  which  the  new  theatre  and  the  museum  stand; 
the  Rossplatz,  and  the  Flcischerplatz.  In  the  inner  town 
is  the  market-place,  which  contains  the  town-hall,  erected  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  several  other  fine  buildings.  The 
most  important  streets  are  the  Grimma,  Briihl,  Peter,  and 
Katharinen-strasse.  The  streets  of  the  suburbs  are  longer, 
broader,  and  more  regular,  but  much  more  quiet;  Elster, 
Kiinig.  and  Nuremberger-strasse  are  noteworthy.  In  spring 
and  fall  a  Messe  takes  place  at  Leipsic — that  is.  a  market 
in  which  merchants  from  all  countries  come  together  in 
order  to  do  business.  As  the  improved  means  of  communi- 
cation which  modern  times  afford  makes  such  gatherings  less 
necessary,  the  Messe  has,  of  course,  lost  some  of  its  import- 
ance. Nevertheless,  it  still  attracts  about  40,000  foreign 
merchants,  often  from  distant  countries,  and  the  aspect  of 
the  city  is  much  changed  during  this  time,  partly  on  ac- 
count of  the  multitude  of  shops  which  fill  the  market-place, 
the  Augustusplatz,  and  all  surroundings,  partly  on  account 
of  the  bustle  in  the  streets.  The  principal  articles  in  which 
bargains  arc  made  at  the  Messe  are — fur  (6.000,000  thalers 
annually),  leather,  cloth,  woollens,  linens,  and  glass.  The 
most  remarkable  buildings  are — the  new  theatre,  built 
from  1864  to  1867,  after  plans  by  Langhaus,  in  Renais- 
sance style,  with  a  porch  on  Corinthian  columns  in  the 
front  and  a  magnificent  veranda  in  the  rear;  the  museum, 
opposite  the  theatre,  finished  in  1858,  after  jjlans  by  Langc, 
and  containing  on  the  ground  floor  a  not  very  important 
collection  of  plaster  casts,  on  the  middle  floor  a  large  col- 
lection of  pictures,  among  which  arc  four  celebrated  land- 
scapes by  Calanie,  and  on  the  upper  story  a  large  collection 
of  engravings  ;  the  university  or  the  Augusteum.  frequented 
by  about  2000  students,  and  built  by  Geutcbriick  in  1836 
after  plans  by  Schinckel ;  the  Pleisseuburg,  formerly  a  cita- 
del, now  used  as  V>arracks,  a  large  structure,  though  with- 
out any  artistic  interest,  commenced  in  1549  by  the  elector 
Maurice  of  Saxony.  The  most  remarkable  among  the 
churches  are— the  Nicolaikirche,  built  in  Gothic  style  in 
the  twelfth  century,  and  the  Thomaskirehe,  built  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  containing  a  beautiful  marble  altar.  The 
Gewandhaus,  built  in  1481,  is  now  used  as  a  conservatory 
of  music,  and  is  the  home  of  classical  music  in  (Jermany. 
Leipsic  appears  as  a  town  for  the  first  time  in  history  in 
1015;  before  that  time  it  was  an  insignificant  village,  in 
which  Henry  I.  built  a  castle  in  922.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  fortifications  of  the  city  protected  its  commerce, 
and  Charles  V.  increased  the  liberties  of  its  Messe.  In  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  it  supported  the  new  doctrine,  but 
suffered  much  from  the  war;  and  afterwards  felt  more  severe- 
ly the  Thirty  Years'  war.  Tilly  took  it  in  1631  ;  later  the 
Swedes  and  the  imperials  held  it  alternately;  its  prosperity 
was  entirely  destroyed.  Since  1007  it  attracted  the  book- 
trade,  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  it 
bt'came  the  centre  of  the  same  in  Germany.  The  Seven 
Years'  war  destroyed  its  enterprise  once  more,  but  its  fa- 
vorable locution  enabled  it  to  recover  quite  rapidly.  Dur- 
ing the  wars  of  Napoleon  new  calamities  came  over  it. 
From  Oct.  10  to  18,  1813,  the  great  battle  in  whieh  Na- 
poleon was  defeated  raged  in  and  around  it,  and  all  great 
movements  in  (Jermany  have  affected  it  more  or  less  on 
account  of  its  central  position.  ArcirsT  Niemann. 

Leipsic,  post-v.  of  Liberty  tp.,  Putnam  co.,  0.,  near 
Dayton  and  Michigan  R.  R.  (Roanoke  Station).    Pop.  200. 

Leis'ler  (Jacob),  b.  at  Frankfort.  Germany;  came  to 
America  in  1600  as  a  soldier  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  West 
India  Co.;  was  some  time  stationed  at  Albany,  where  he 
engaged  in  trade  with  the  Mohawk  Indians,  and  acquired 
some  wealth.  While  on  a  voyage  to  Europe  in  1678  ho 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Moorish  corsairs,  obtained  liberty 
by  paying  a  ransom,  returned  to  .America,  settled  in  New 
York,  and  in  1083  became  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
court  of  admiralty.     On  May  31,  16S0,  Leislcr  headed  an 


LEISXIG— LELAND. 


1721 


insurrcotion  "for  the  preservation  of  the  Protestant  relig-  f 
ion,"  took  (he  fort,  declared  for  (he  prince  of  Orange,  and 
planted  within  the  fort  a  battery  of  six  {*uns,  which  gave 
ori;;in  to  that  name  as  still  applied  to  the  public  park  at 
the  lower  end  of  Manhattan  Ii»land.  The  deposed  lieu- 
tcnanl-j;overnor,  Francis  Nicholson,  and  Mayor  Corthmdt 
tried  in  vain  to  restore  authority,  and  retired,  the  former 
to  England,  the  latter  to  Albany.  In  August,  the  "com- 
mittee of  cafety  "  appointed  Lcisler  conmuiudcr-in-chief 
with  the  powers  of  a  governor,  and  he  made  unsuccessful 
efforts  to  be  recognized  as  such  at  Albany.  In  December 
ho  dissolved  tl»o  committee  of  safety,  appointed  a  council, 
and  assumed  the  style  of  a  royal  governor,  on  (he  .strength 
of  a  despatch  addressed  "  to  such  (person)  as  for  the  time 
being  takes  care  for  preserving  the  peace  and  administer- 
ing the  laws  in  His  Majesty'.^  province  of  New  York." 
Early  in  liiUO  ho  sent  a  small  fleet  against  the  French  at 
Quebec.  On  the  appointment  of  Sloughtrr  as  governor, 
Leisler  refuged  to  surrender  the  fort  and  the  government 
(Mar.,  161)1)  until  convinced  of  the  former's  identity  and 
authority.  For  this  constructive  treason  Leisler  was  soon 
after  imprisoned,  with  his  son-in-law  and  secretary,  Jacob 
Milborne,  and  both  were  condemned  and  executed  May  Iti, 
161*1.  At  a  later  period  the  memory  of  Leisler  was  re- 
habilitated by  an  act  of  Parliament  (161*5),  an  indemnity 
was  given  to  his  heirs  ( IfiDS },  an<l  the  bones  of  Leisler  and 
Milborne  wore  honorably  buried  in  the  Dutidi  church.  One 
of  (ho  acta  of  Leisler  during  his  brief  authority  ( lOSK)  was 
the  purchase  of  lands  at  New  Rochelle  as  a  place  of  refuge 
for  persecuted  Huguenots. 

Leis'nit?,  town  of  Germany,  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Muldc,  manufactures  woollen  and  linen  stuffs.     Pop.  6770. 

liCitch  (William),  P.  I).,  b.  at  Rothesay,  Scotland,  in 
1814;  graduated  in  IS^iG  at  the  University  of  tilasgow  ; 
stu'lied  theology  in  the  Divinity  School;  was  ordiiiued  in 
the  Presbytcriiin  Church  in  IS.'IH.  and  from  lH+;i  to  IB.'iO 
was  parish  minister  at  Monimail.  In  the  latter  year  ho 
was  chosen  principal  of  Queen's  University  at  Kingston, 
Canada,  in  which  office  he  was  installed  Nov.  8.  ISOO,  and 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  actively  engaged  in  organ- 
izing that  institution  upon  a  large  basis  of  modern  culture. 
Principal  Lcitch  was  an  enthusiastic  scientific  observer,  es- 
pecially devoted  to  animal  physiology  and  astronomy.  In 
I8ft;i  he  published  an  esteemed  work,  (iod'a  Glory  in  the 
Jleaveua.  or  Contributions  to  Astro-theotoijy.  D,  at  Kings- 
ton M  ly  S>.  iHrtt. 

Lei'tersbiirg,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  Md., 
6  miles  N.  E.  of  llagerstown.     Pop.  \V,\b  \  of  tp.  167.'i. 

Leithy  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh, 
on  the  Frith  uf  Forth,  2  miles  from  Edinburgh,  whoso  port 
it  is,  and  with  which  it  is  connected  by  continuous  ri)ws  of 
bouses.  Its  streets  are  nnrroxv,  tortuous,  and  filthy,  but  its 
harbor  is  excellent,  25  feet  deep,  provided  with  a  break- 
water, and  containing  two  wet  docks  and  three  dry  docks. 
Its  shipbuilding,  both  in  wood  tind  iron,  and  its  manufac- 
tures of  rope,  sailcloth,  soap,  etc.,  are  considerable,  and  its 
trade  extensive,  importing  large  quantities  of  grain,  wine, 
hemp,  timber,  and  tobacco.      Pop.  44,277. 

Loi^hn,  or  Ijeytlia^  a  river  of  Austria,  rises  in  Lower 
Austria,  furms  for  some  distance  the  boundary  between  the 
two  divisions  of  the  ,\ustro-  Hungarian  eitipire,  called,  after 
the  river,  (.'isleithania  and  Transleithania,  bn^aks  through 
the  Lcitlia  Mountains,  which  rise  from  IjOO  to  20UO  feet, 
into  Hungary,  and  joins  the  Danube  at  Altenburg. 

Lcit'meritz,  (own  of  Hohemia,  is  brautifutly  situated 
on  the  riglit  bunk  of  the  Elbe;  contains  a  splendid  cutln'- 
dral,  founded  in  l>l5i.  niid  many  other  remarkable  build- 
ings, among  whicli  are  the  episcopal  palace,  surrounded  with 
walls,  the  town-halt,  and  sevoral  monasteries;  lias  a  the- 
ological seminary,  a  gyninasiutn,  and  otiier  educatiomil  in- 
stituli<ms,  iinpttrtant  siilmon  fisheries,  and  striiw  hut  iniiii- 
ufacture^.  and  curries  ou  au  active  trade  in  corn,  wine,  and 
fruit,     pop.  Io.U2;i. 

Lertomischl,  town  of  Bohemia,  on  tboLautschna,  has 
a  line  palace  and  park,  a  beautiful  church,  and  sevoral  good 
ediicalional  and  benevolent  institutions.      Pop.  ~{)'!<7. 

lieit'nrrffloTTLiKn  William).  Pn.  0..  b.at  Pesth,  Hun- 
gary. Oi't.  14,  I'^l'.ll.     His  father,  a  Cernian   physician,  left   , 
Hungary   in  consff|uence  of   the  revcdution   of  ISI'.t,  and  I 
Bctllod  in  Turkey,  whore  (iottlieb,  already  a(*quainti'il  with 
the    olassieal    languages,    became    proficient    in    Turkisli, 
Arabic,  and  moilern  (Jreek,  stmlying  under  the  best  native  | 
professors  at  Constantinople  and  itrusa  ;  learned  F']nglish,  j 
French,  and   Italian  at  Ihe  Hrilish  Collei^e  at   Malta;   he-   . 
oaine  interpreter  to  the  Engli^li  commissariat  during  the 
Crimean  war.  after  which  he  went  to  Lonilon,  was  natural- 
ized as  a  Hritifh  subject,  and  became  professor  <tf  Oriental 
languages  and  Mohammedan   law  in    King's  College.     In 
l>*i'i|  he  was  appointed  director  uf  a  college  at  Lahore,  in 


the  Punjaub:  founded  numerous  societies,  schools,  colleges, 
and  free  public  libraries  in  India:  established  several  news- 
papers in  Arabic  and  Urdu;  promoted  the  study  of  the 
Aryan  languages,  and  succeeded  in  organizing  the  Punjaub 
University  upon  a  broad  basis.  From  1S60  to  ISG8  he  was 
engaged  in  an  exploration  of  Thibet  and  other  citnntries 
N.  of  the  Himalayas,  and  was  the  tirst  to  make  known  the 
remarkable  country  of  Dardistan,  with  its  interesting  group 
of  languages.  At  a  later  dale  he  extended  his  philological 
researches  to  the  languages  of  Cahool.  Cashmere,  and  Ua- 
dakhshan,  excavated  an  important  series  of  Gra^co-Booddh- 
ist  sculptures,  and  exhibited  at  the  Vienna  Exposition  of 
lS7;i  an  extensive  collection  of  Central  Asiatic  antiquities. 
He  lias  published  a  /'hihmophical  Orammnr  of  Aruhic  in 
tho  English,  Urdu,  and  Arabic  languages;  The  RnviH  of 
Turkvu  ;  a'  Compnnttlre  (irmnmnr  of  the  Dardu  Lant/Hai/ci  ; 
Diftfof/Kt^v  in  those  languages  :  Hittory,  Somjs,  and  Lfijcndu 
of  DardiHtaHftind  Onvco-IfoodtUiist  Z>/«corenefi,  besides  nu- 
merous contributions  to  the  Proceedings  of  learned  societies 
in  London  and  on  the  Continent. 

Lei'trim,  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Con- 
naught,  borduring  N.  on  Donegal  Bay.  Area,  6i:^  pquare 
miles,  or  :!92,30;i  acres,  of  wliieh  115,869  arc  uncultivated, 
and  2.'{,748  under  water,  cuvcreil  by  lakes,  of  which  Lougli 
Allen,  traversed  by  the  Shannon,  is  the  largest.  The  ground 
is  billy,  very  irregnlar,  and  rugged;  coal,  iron,  and  lead 
are  foiind.  The  soil  is  cold,  stiff,  and  retentive,  except  in 
the  valleys,  where  it  is  very  fertile.  Rye,  potatoes,  and 
oats  are  the  common  crops,  sonic  cattle  are  reared.  Pop. 
I.'i5,2i)7  in  1841  ;  111.1115  in  1851  ;  104,744  in  18fi]  ;  95.562 
in  1871.  The  principal  town  is  Carrick-on-Shannon,  with 
only  1568  inhabitants. 

rr'laiid,  post-v.  of  Adams  tp.,  La  Salle  co..  Til.,  on 
the  Chicago  Burlington  and  Quincy  R.  R.,  67  miles  S.  W. 
of  Chicago. 

Leiand  (Charles  Godfrey),  b.  at  Pliiladt-lphia  Aug. 
15.  1S24;  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1846,  after 
wliich  he  spent  two  years  travelling  in  Europe,  and  study- 
ing at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Paris,  devoting  himself 
especially  to  lesthotics  and  the  jiliiiosophy  of  modern  civil- 
ization. Returning  to  I'hiladelphia  in  1848,  he  studied 
law,  but  aijaudoned  its  practice  in  favor  of  the  literary 
vocation,  to  which  ho  addressed  himself  particularly 
through  tho  magazines,  and  acted  occasionally  as  editor 
of  more  than  one  of  tho  periodicals  of  that  day.  While  well 
versed  in  graver  subjects,  and  well  acquainted  with  all 
branc-hes  of  inllrn-lvltrKa,  Mr.  Leiand  achieved  his  greatest 
popularity  by  jiroductions  of  a  humorous  or  burlesque  cha- 
racter. He  has  passed  several  years  in  Eunqie,  and  now 
resides  in  London,  where  he  is  well  known  in  literary  circles. 
Among  his  works  are  Thr.  I'o^try  and  Mi/Mtrry  «/  Drcnnia 
(1855K  AhlHfcr  Khi-Vh  Skrtrh-'liook  (1855),  ^Hunhiuc  in 
Tfion;/ht  {\H62),  Lvijvnd»  of  liirdx  (1861),  Huns  lin-itinuuna 
linditda  (5  parts, '  1867-70),  a  volume  of  poems  (1871), 
Etjijptian  Sketch' Hook  (I87.'5),  EwjUnh  Gypiien  and  their 
LVin'jHHffC  (187:M.  Fit-S>ni;/  (1S74),  besides  translations 
from  Heine  and  SeheflVI.  In  IN75  he  jmblished  a  volume 
of  Kntjlinh  f'l/pni/  /'oriri/  with  the  as.sistance  of  Miss  ,Ianet 
Tuckey  and  Prof.  E.  H.  Palmer.  As  a  writer  of  dialect 
poetry  Mr.  Leiand  has  shown  a  considerable  mastery  of 
the  (|uaint  speech  of  the  "  Pennsylvania  Dutch,"  and  his 
*'  Hreitrnaim  "  ballads  are  as  highly  appreciated  in  England 
as  in  America. 

liClnnd  (Hknrv  Pkrry).  brother  of  CharlesO. Leiand, 
b.  in  Philadelphia  Oct.  28,  1S28;  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor in  prose  and  verse  to  Ihe  Kniif:t  rfutck-rr,  the  S/'i>il  of 
the  TinifH,  and  other  magazines  and  periodicals.  He  was 
endowed  with  large  powers  of  observation,  cultivated  by 
travel,  and  a  keen  sense  of  humor,  which  would  havegiven 
him  eminence  in  American  literature.  He  publi(<hed  two 
hooks — a  vtiluine  of  travel,  Amrriraun  in  Hoinr.  and  a  col- 
lection of  humorous  sketches  entitled  Thr  (I'nii/  l!*iy  Mrtrc 
(1856).  During  the  civil  war  ho  was  a  lieutenant  in  tho 
1 18th  Pennsylvania  Vols.,  and  was  jirostratcd  by  a  sun- 
stroke, from  Ihe  effeets  of  which  ho  never  recovered.  D.  at 
Philadelphia  Sept.  22,  1868. 

liOtnnd,  or  Laylonde  ( Jons),  h.  in  London,  England, 
about  15011;  was  edu.-ated  at  Si.  Paul's  ScIukiI  and  at  Ox- 
ford; tocdt  holy  orders,  and  devoted  himself  to  Ihe  stu.ly 
of  English  antiquities.  He  was  appointed  by  Henry  Vlll. 
one  of  his  chaplains,  rector  of  Popeliiig  near  Calais,  and 
royal  antiquary  (I5l!;t).  In  the  latter  capacity  he  was  com- 
missiimed  to  iinike  a  survey  of  Englaiul,  a  la^k  which  occu- 
pied him  six  years,  and  was  so  thoroughly  pcrformr<l  that 
tho  mass  of  materials  gathered  was  more  than  he  could 
arrange,  much  less  prepare  for  publication.  After  eight 
years*  solitary  labors  of  classification,  he  became  insane  in 
1550,  and  d.  at  Loudon  Apr.  18,  15.^2.  His  account  of 
British  authors,  entilled   (\}ni)iif'nttir{t    de  SrriptorihuH  Uri- 

tannicis,  was  published  in  170U  by  Dr.  .\nthony  Hall,  his 


1722 


LELAND--LEMERY. 


Jtinerar}/  of  England  in  1710-12  (9  voIs.).aud  his  Be  Hibue 
Itritnnnicis  Collectanea  in  1715  (6  vols.),  the  two  latter 
works  being  cditc-tl  b_v  an  eminent  scholar,  Thomas  Hearne. 
Leland's  manuscripts  were  deposited  iu  the  liudleian  Li- 
brary at  Oxtonl,  and  were  largely  used  by  Stowc.  Cumden, 
and  l->ugdale  iu  their  respective  antiquarian  works. 

Leiand  (Johx),  D.  B.,  h.  at  Wigau,  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  IS,  1691  ;  educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin; 
was  for  oO  years  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Dublin, 
where  he  d.  Jan.  10, 1766.  His  j)oieraical  anJ  apologetical 
works  were  highly  esteemed  and  widely  circulated.  The 
best  known  was  A  View  of  the  Principal  Dcistical  Writcra 
in  Emjlnnd  in  the  Last  and  Present  Century  (1754),  often 
reprinted. 

Leiand  (John),  b.  at  Grafton,  Mass.,  May  14,  17.^4; 
was  1775-01  a  Bajitist  preacher  in  Virginia,  and  1792- 
l^^ll  a  pastor  in  Cheshire,  Mass.,  though  in  fact  he  was  an 
itinerant,  visiting  often  places  remote  from  his  residence. 
D.  at  Xurth  .\dams,  Mass.,  Jan.  14,  1841.  His  Life  and 
writings  have  been  twice  published  since  his  death. 

Leiaud  (Thomas).  D.  D.,  b.  at  Dublin.  Ireland,  in  1722  ; 
educated  at  Trinity  C'oUege,  Dublin,  where  he  became  fel- 
low and  professor  of  poetry.  His  translation  of  the  Ora- 
liiius  of  Demostheuea  (1750-70)  was  long  a  standard  work; 
also  published  a  }l!ntorif  of  the  Life  and  Ileign  of  Philip, 
Aini/  of  MacedoH  (IToS),  and  a,  iJinaertation  on  the  Prin- 
ciplea  of  Unman  Eloquence  (1764),  a  controversial  work 
directed  against  Bishop  Warburton  ;  a  Hintorif  of  Ireland 
(177'!),  and  several  volumes  oi  Sermons  (1769 J,  besides  nu- 
merous other  works.     D,  at  Dublin  in  1785. 

LeI'eges,  was  the  name  of  an  ancient  race  which  was 
widely  spread  over  Greece,  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  intermediate  islands,  but  which,  like  the  Pelns- 
gians,  became  incorporated  with  the  Hellenes  and  disap- 
peared as  an  independent  people.  Herodotus  pays  that 
Leleges  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  Carians;  a  later  Greek 
writer  places  them  in  the  same  relation  to  the  Cariansas  the 
Helots  to  the  Lacedajmonians.  In  the  Homeric  poem  both 
Leleges  and  Carians  appear  as  equals  and  auxiliaries  of  the 
Trojans.  Thus  it  appears  that  there  existed  a  close  relation 
between  the  Leleges  and  Carians,  but  about  the  character 
of  this  relation,  and  about  the  origin  of  the  people,  nothing 
is  known.  What  the  later  Greek  literature  contains  con- 
cerning this  subject  is  evidently  invention. 

Lele«x'(A[)oi.i'nE),b.atPari3Nov.l5, 1S12,  and  began 
his  artistic  career  as  an  engraver  and  lithographer  ;  iu  1835 
commenced  to  exhibit,  and  soon  gained  great  rcjiutation 
as  a  genre  ]>ainter,  representing  with  much  humor  and 
grace  scenes  of  life  in  Brittany,  Northern  Spain.  Algeria, 
and  the  streets  of  Paris  during  the  revolution  of  1818.  His 
pictures  arc  very  common  in  French  galleries. — His  brother, 
AitMAND,  b.  at  Paris  iu  1S18,  studied  for  some  time  under 
Ingres  and  in  Italy,  hut  turned  also  to  the  genre.  Ho 
seems  to  have  a  finer  sense  for  the  strictly  picturesque  than 
his  elder  brother,  but  less  humor  and  character. 

Leie'wel  (JoAcnisi),  b.  at  Warsaw  Mar.  21,  1786; 
studied  in  his  native  city  and  at  Vilua,  and  became  jiro- 
fcssor  of  history  at  the  Lyceum  of  Kremenets  in  V(jlhynia 
in  1809,  and  at  the  University  of  Vilua  in  181  I,  but  was 
dismissed  in  1824,  being  suspected  of  participating  iu  secret 
revolutionary  associations.  Next  year  be  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Polish  diet,  and  becauie  one  of  the  most 
energetic  and  iiiflueutial  agitators,  and  one  of  the  most 
prominent  leaders  of  the  Polish  rising  of  18o0.  After  the 
failure  of  the  revolution  he  tied  to  France,  and  lived  partly 
in  Paris,  partly  at  Lagrange,  the  villa  of  La  Fayette  ;  but 
ill  ls;j3  ho  was  banished  from  France  on  account  of  his 
jiiirticipation  in  diiferent  Polish  conspiracies.  He  wont  to 
Lrus-el-*,  where  he  resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  wholly 
dcvutcd  to  science.  D.  May  29,  1801.  His  writings  are 
very  numerous,  but  they  are  all  of  the  highest  order.  His 
knowledge  is  always  amjde,  and  generally  exhaustive;  his 
views  are  large  and  elevated;  his  style  is  pure  and  very 
impressive.  Besides  his  Numismatique  du  Mot/en  Af/e  ( Paris, 
1835),  Pj/th^as  de  Marseille  et  le  Geographic  de  son  Temps 
(Paris,  1836),  G^otfraphie  des  Arahen  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1851), 
G{n(jraphie  du  Afoi/'-n  ^ije  (4  vols.,  Breslau.  1852-57).  all  of 
which  arc  scientific  contributions  of  the  highest  value,  ho 
wrote  several  works  relating  to  the  history  of  his  native 
country  which  contain  some  of  the  most  brilliant  pages  of 
mcjdern  historiography,  and  which  generally  are  as  reliable 
as  they  arc  interesting.  The  principal  of  these  works  are 
—  Hintonj  of  Poland  (Warsaw,  1829),  with  a  continuation 
(Brussels,  ISl.*?),  Oonsidt  rations  stir  l' Etat  politirpie  de  Van- 
cienne  Poloffne,  et  sur  V IHstoire  de  son  Pcnple  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1844),  La  holoijne  au  Moycn  Age  (3  vols.,  Posen,  1845-51). 

Leloug'  (jAcgrEs),  b.  at  Paris  Apr.  19,  1665;  received 
his  first  education  at  Malta,  having  been  destined  for  the 
order  of  St.  John,  but   separated  therefrom;    studied  in 


Paris,  and  in  1099  was  appointed  librarian  at  the  oratorium 
of  St.  Honors  in  Paris,  where  he  d.  Aug.  13,  1721.  His 
liibliothcca  Sacra,  a  catalogue  of  all  editions  and  transla- 
tions of  Holy  Scripture  t,2  vols.,  17U9),  and  his  /Hhtiuth^qn-^ 
hifttorifpic  de  la  Prance  (1719),  a  catalogue  of  all  French 
historians  and  their  works,  arc  regarded  as  model  works  of 
bibliography. 

Le'ly  (Sir  Peter),  b.  at  Soest,  Westphalia,  in  1618;  d. 
in  London  in  1680.  His  father,  whose  family  name  was 
Van  dek  Faes,  took  the  name  Dr-  Lvs  or  Lely  from  the 
circumstance  of  having  liverl  over  a  perfumer's  shop,  whiih 
bore  the  sign  of  a  lily.  Peter  studied  at  Haarlem  with 
Peter  Grebber,  but  came  to  England  in  1641  as  a  historical 
painter,  aud  soon  devoted  himself  In  portraits,  at  first  copy- 
ing those  of  Vandyke,  who  had  diid  the  year  before  his 
arrival.  Through  the  influence  of  William,  prince  of 
Orange,  he  was  introduced  to  Charles  1.,  whose  portrait  he 
executed,  along  with  those  of  Williiim  and  Mary.  Lcly 
succeeded  Vandyke  as  court-painter,  and  rose  rapidly  to 
fame  and  fortune.  It  was  he  who  painted  the  portrait  of 
Cromwell,  aud  who  was  bidden  by  his  sitter  to  put  in  all 
the  pimples  and  warts.  Charles  II.  conferred  on  him  the 
honor  of  knighthood,  and  commissioned  him  to  paint  the 
"beauties"  of  his  time  for  Hampton  Court.  In  the  same 
place  are  several  of  the  portraits  of  admirals  which  the 
duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  engaged  this  artist  to 
paint.  Most  of  his  portraits  arc  of  women,  and  are  of  a 
showy  and  meretricious  character.  The  artist  painted  to 
suit  the  taste  of  an  abandoned  age.  His  historical  pieces 
are  in  private  collections.  The  Susanna  and  the  Elders 
is  in  the  gallery  of  the  marquis  of  Exeter.  Lely  was  buried 
in  Covent  Garden.  There  is  his  monument  with  bust  by 
Gibbon  and  epitaph  by  Flatman.      0.  B.  Fkothingham. 

Lemaire'  (Nicolas  Eloi),  b.  at  Triancourt,  France, 
Dec.  1,  1767;  studied  at  the  College  of  St.  M^nehould  and 
afterwards  at  Sainte-Barbe  in  Paris;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  poetry  in  the  College  of  France,  afterwards 
in  the  same  department  in  the  faculty  of  letters  in  Paris 
(1811);  became  dean  of  the  faculty  (1825):  in  1810  Murat 
named  Lemaire  as  head  of  his  projected  University  ofNaplrs, 
but  Napoleon  was  not  willing  to  let  him  leave  France,  and 
settled  a  pension  upon  him.  After  the  Restoration,  Louis 
XVIII.  favored  the  ]>ublication  of  a  complete  series  of  the 
Latin  authors,  of  which  Lemaire  was  constituted  chief 
editor.  From  the  list  of  writers,  made  by  Louis  himself, 
Lucretius  was  omitted  for  political  considerations.  The 
series  was  completed  in  142  volumes,  to  which  Lucretius 
was  subsequently  added  by  P.  A.  Lemaire,  nephew  and 
assistant  of  the  editor.  D.  Oct.  3,  1832.  (See  \'itice  snr 
N.  E.  Lemaire  par  J.  L.  Gillon,  in  appendix  to  the  BihU- 
otheca  Latina.)  H.  Dkislkk. 

Le  MarSy  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Plymouth  oo.,  la.,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Iowa  division  of  the  Illinois  Central 
and  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux  City  R.  Rs.,  25  miles  N.  E.  of 
Sioux  City.  It  has  a  State  bank,  2  newspapers,  a  variety 
of  stores,  workshops,  and  a  flouring-mill.  3  churches,  3 
hotels,  etc.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fertile  farming  district. 
Pop.  152.  J.  C  ButnANAN,  Ed.  "Sentinel." 

Lem'berg,  city  of  Austria,  the  capital  of  Galicin,  sit 
uated  on  the  Peltov  in  a  narrow  valley  surrounded  by 
forest-clad  hills.  It  is  the  scat  of  the  government,  aud  of 
a  Roman  Catholic,  an  Armenian,  and  a  (ireek  archbishop. 
It  has  n  cathedral,  built  in  1370  by  Casimir  the  (Jreat,  two 
beautiful  synagogues,  many  splendid  palaces,  and  other 
magnificent  buibiings.  Its  university  is  attended  hy  about 
1400  students  aud  has  35  professors.  Its  manufactures  are 
not  important,  but  its  trade,  though  to  a  great  extent  merely 
transit,  is  very  extensive;  it  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Jews, 
who  number  about  25.000.     Pop.  87.105. 

IjJ'mery  (Nh-olas).  b.  at  Rouen  Nov.  17.  1645;  studied 
pharmacology  in  his  native  city,  at  Montpellier,  and  at 
Paris, and  gave  lectures  on  chemistry  which  attracted  great 
audiences,  and  gained  the  applause  of  all  truly  scientific 
men,  as  he  kept  closely  to  facts,  aud  abandoned  all  mysti- 
cal dreams  of  a  sympathy  between  the  metals  and  the 
planets,  of  an  elixir  for  the  prolongation  of  human  life, 
and  other  such  things.  He  belonged  to  the  lleformcd 
Church,  and  from  this  circumstance  severe  troubles  arose. 
In  1683  he  left  France  and  went  to  England,  where  be  pre- 
sented a  copy  of  the  5th  ed.  of  his  ('ours  de  (^himie,  ]iublishcd 
in  1675,  to  Charles  II..  and  was  well  received.  Soon  alter, 
however,  the  political  troubles  in  England  caused  him  to  re- 
turn to  Paris,  and  after  tiie  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
in  1685,  by  which  he  lost  his  right  of  practising  ns  an  apothe- 
cary and  physician,  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  continued  his  activity  as  a  lecturer  aud  writer  un- 
molested till  his  death,  Juno  19.  1715.  The  most  promi- 
nent writings,  besides  his  Cours  de  Vhimie,  are  Pharmaropfc 
univtrscHc  (1697)  and  Traitt  dca  Droyuts  simples  (1G98). 


LEMHI— LE  MOYNE. 


1723 


Lem'hiy  oounty  of  Idaho,  bouudcd  E.  by  tho  Bitter 
Uuot  Muuutaius.  It  has  scvtral  forlile  valleys,  but  is  pen- 
orally  mountainous.  It  has  important  gold-mines.  Cup. 
Salmun  City.     Pop.  9S8. 

Lem'in|;toii,  pnijt-tp.  of  Esecx  co.,  Vt.,  on  Connecticut 
River,  ti"  miks  N.  E.  of  Moutpelior.     Fop.  191. 

Lcm'ley's,  tp.  of  Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C,     Pop.  971. 

Lem'ma  [(ir.A^M^a].  an  auxiliary  propositicm  domon- 
Ptratcd  out  of  it?  re|2;ular  order  to  facilitate  tho  demonstra- 
tion of  some  other  proposition.  Tho  conclusion  of  the  Irm- 
ma  is  needed  in  the  demonstration  of  the  main  proposition  ; 
and  rather  than  encumber  that  proposition,  a  separate 
demonstration  is  introduced.  Tho  eleventh,  twelfth,  and 
thirteenth  propositions  of  Book  viii.,  Davics's  Le^riifirr,nrQ 
lemmas.  W.  G.  Peck. 

Lcm'ming,  a  name  applied  to  rodents  of  tho  family 
Muridfc  and  sub-fiimily  Arvicolinic  (field-mice),  belonging 
to  the  genus  Myodes.  Some  species  are  very  abundant  in 
the  high  northern  regions  of  both  continents.  They  are 
very  proli6c,  and  in  Scandinavia  arc  at  times  extremely 
destructive.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  occasional 
great  migrations  in  search  of  food.  Myod€$  Norvegicus  is 
the  typical  lemming. 

Ijemnis'catc  [Or.  Xtijuh-io-kos;  Lat./fr;n»(Va/i/«],acurve 
of  the  y'oM/-(/j  order,  shaped  somewhat  like  tho  liguro  8,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram. 
It  is  the  locus  of  the 
points  of  intersection 
obtained  by  drawing 
perpendiculars  from 
the  centre  of  a  hy]ier- 
bola  to  the  tangents 
drawn  to  that  curve. 
If  tho  equation  of  tho  hyperbola  is 

the  equation  of  the  corresponding  lemniscatc  is 

If  the  hyperbola  is  equilateral,  that  is,  if  n  =  t,  this  equa- 
tion becomes 

The  curve  is  quadrible;  in  the  latter  case  tho  entire  area 
iuc]u<Ied  within  the  two  branches  CA  and  CC  is  equal  to 
the  square  uf  the  aemi-transvcrse  axis,  that  i?,  to  «*.  In 
tho  figure  A  and  B  are  the  vertices  of  tho  hyperbola,  and  C 
is  its  centre.  At  A  and  B  tangents  to  tlie  curve  are  per- 
pendicular to  A  B  ;  the  point  C  is  a  multiple  point,  at  which 
tangents  to  tho  curve  coincide  with  tho  asymptotes  of  the 
given  hyperbola.  W.  Ci.  Peck. 

Lem'nos  [\T}fivo<;,  now  Limni  or  Stalimni],  an  island 
in  the  >^gean,  bolmigiug  to  Turkey,  -10  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Athos.  Area,  loO  square  milcf?.  It  is  of  vory  irregular 
outline,  is  rocky  and  nilly,  ^»J  bears  strong  marks  of  vol- 
canic action,  but  tho  valleys  arc  fertile,  and  the  ancients 
relate  that  tho  mountain  Mosyehlus  was  sometimes  an  ac- 
tive volcano.  This  island,  so  famous  in  history  and  myth- 
ology, now  contains  some  12,000  inhabitants,  mostly  Greeks. 
Its  chief  town,  Castro,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 

Lein'on  [Ilindostaneo,  limbu,  iimu,  or  nimhii,  from 
which  the  .\rabian  (imuu;  Sp.  fhiifin,  etc.],  tho  fruit  of 
CitniK  I  i  molt  ill  III.  Tho  Cilrutt  genus,  of  which  the  orango 
and  lemon  arc  the  familiar  representatives,  constituted  u 
natural  order,  Aurantiacea',  which  of  late  is  merged  in  tho 
large  order  Rutaceir.  The  leaves  of  these  trees  are  noted 
for  tho  translucent  dots  appearing  like  punctures  when 
held  between  the  eye  and  the  light,  these  dots  being  oil- 
glands  and  giving  tho  fine  aroiim  whieh  chnractorizcs  tho 
genus :  also  for  the  joint  bolow  tlio  bladr,  which  shows  tho 
Ii-af  to  be  a  compound  one  rerlueeri  to  tho  terminal  leaflet  ; 
and  tho  petiole  below  is  usually  more  or  loss  winged,  with 
loafy  borders.  Tho  lomon  tree  does  not  form  tho  oloso  heatl 
of  doep  green  foliage  which  is  so  striking  in  tlio  orango 
trco,  but  is  of  irregular  growth,  with  paler  ancl  sparser 
loaves.  Tho  young  shoots  are  dull  purple  ;  the  corolla  ex- 
tornally  purplish  and  internally  white  ;  tho  delicate  aromn 
distinct  from  that  of  the  orango-hloHsom.  The  fruit  is  pale 
yellow,  ovoid  or  oblung,  usually  crowned  by  a  nipple;  tho 
rind  lirm  and  adherent  to  tho  pulp:  (he  juice  nharpty  acid, 
but  in  some  varieties  sweetish.  The  roughness  of  tho  sur- 
face of  the  lemon  is  owing  to  the  imbedded  uil-eollg.  These 
furnish  tho  oil  and  essence  of  Icraon,  obtained  cither  by 
expression  or  distilhitii>n.  liomon-peel  is  a  well-known 
flavoring  ingredient.  Lomon-juice  is  not  only  largely  used 
for  acidulated  drinks  and  fur  elTcrvcscing  draughts,  but 
also  for  the  preparation  of  citric  acid,  its  important  ingre- 
dient. This  i^  used  in  medicine  for  febrile  and  rheumatic 
diseases,  and  in  the  arts  for  certain  processes  of  ealico- 
rinting,  to  discharge  colors  and  dccprn  the  white  parts  of 
tiyod  with  ferric  salts.     Concentrated  lemon-juice  is 


I 


lorgcly  employed  on  shipboard  for  the  proiention  of  f  curvy 
in  long  voyugcs.  The  commercial  article  is  derived  from 
the  lime  and  bergauiot,  as  well  as  from  lemons. 

The  lemon  is  of  Indian  origin  ;  tho  tree,  which  probably 
represents  the  wild  state  of  both  tho  lemon  and  the  citron, 
is  u  native  of  the  forests  of  Northern  India.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  tree  to  Kurope  is  duo  to  tho  Arabians.  Its  chief 
cultivation  as  an  object  of  industry  is  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  between  Nice  and  Genoa,  in  Calabria,  Sicily,  etc.  It 
endures  less  cold  than  the  orange,  and  wherever  it  well  suc- 
ceeds is  a  more  profitable  culture.  As.\  (Iray. 

Lemon,  tp.  of  Butler  co.,  0.  Pop.  5242.  It  includes 
MiddleloWM  ( 1'.  U.)  and  other  villages. 
Lemon,  ]>ost-tp.  of  Wyoming  co.,  Pa.  Pop.  6.11. 
Lemon  (M.vkk),  b.  in  London,  Eng.,  Nov.  .30,  IRflO; 
was  author  of  more  than  si.\ty  plays  and  farces,  many  of 
tlicul  highly  successful,  and  of  several  novels,  but  will  ho 
ehierty  remembered  for  his  long  connection  with  Punch, 
From  the  establishment  of  that  paper  in  1841  he  was  as- 
sistant editor,  and  in  ls4n  assumed  the  chief  management, 
which  he  retained  throngli  life.  lie  was  also  for  many 
ye.irs  literary  eililor  of  the  London  ItluHiratcd  Kfim,  for 
"which  he  wrote  about  100  songs,  and  assistant  of  Charles 
Dickens  in  the  management  of  Ifousetio/d  Words.  lie  was 
distinguished  for  his  generous  sympathies  and  his  hatred 
of  shams.  D.  at  Crawley,  Sussex,  Mity  23,  1870. 
Lemond',  post-tp.  of  Steele  co.,  Minn.  Pop.  417. 
Lem'on,  Oilof  (0/ciim  C/tn').  the  volatile  oil  of  lemon- 
peel,  extracted  from  tho  grated  rind  by  pressure  or  by  dis- 
tillation with  water.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by  putting 
the  grated  peel  in  hot  water  and  skimming  off  the  oil  which 
rises  to  the  surface.  That  obtained  by  pressure  has  more 
of  the  peculiar  flavor  of  tho  fruit,  but  contains  mucilage, 
etc.,  which  make  it  more  liable  to  change  on  keeping  than 
that  which  is  prepared  by  distillation.  Oil  of  lemon  is  a 
volatile  lic|uid,  generally  yellow,  having  the  peculiar  odor 
of  tho  fruit  and  a  pungent,  aromatic  taste.  Its  sp.  gr.  is 
0.8517.  It  is  sparingly  s<dublc  in  water;  dissolves  in  7.14 
parts  alcohol  of  s]).  gr.  0.8H17:  in  10  parts  alcohol  of  sp. 
gr.  0.8:'i;  in  any  quantity  in  absolute  alcohol;  mi.xes  with 
both  fiNed  and  volatile  oils.  It  dissolves  sulphur,  plios- 
phorus,  resins,  and  fats.  Kxposed  to  air  and  light,  it  ab- 
sorbs o.vygcn,  with  the  formation  of  ozone,  becomes  darker 
and  more  viscid,  and  evolves  a  little  carbonic  acid.  It  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  two  hydrocarbons,  CjoHis,  isomeric 
with  each  other  and  with  oil  of  turpentine,  differing  from 
each  other  in  optical  rotary  power,  and  in  their  behavior 
with  hydrochloric  acid. 

Oil  of  lemon  is  largely  used  in  perfumery  and  as  a 
flavoring  for  ice  cream  and  syrups;  has  the  stimulant 
properties  of  the  aromatics.  though  in  pliarmacy  it  is  chiefly 
used  to  im]uirt  flavin-  to  other  meilicines.  It  sh(mld  not  bo 
dark-colored  or  viscid,  and  should  not  leave  a  permanent 
stain  on  paper.  It  is  often  adulterated  with  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, lavender,  alcohol,  etc.  Tho  presence  of  cheaper  oils 
may  generally  be  reooguiicd  by  the  odor.  Turpentine  may 
be  detected  by  noting  the  behavior  of  tho  oil  with  regard 
to  polarized  light  before  and  alter  heating.  With  pure  oil 
little  or  no  change  will  be  noticed,  but  when  turpentine  is 
present  the  de.\tro-rotary  power  will  bo  considerably  in- 
creased by  healing.  C.  i'.  CliANUi.KR. 

Lemont',  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Cook  co..  111.,  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  Alton  II.  K.,  215  miles  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  Pop. 
357,'). 

Lcmontcy'  (Pikrhk  1<!iioiaiiii),  b.  at  Lyons  ,Ian.  14, 
1702.  J)i'puty  in  the  National  .Assembly,  Lemonley  soon 
turned  against  the  revolutionists,  and  he  fought  at  Lyons 
during  tlie  siege  of  the  city  by  Couthon.  He  escaped  ali\'0, 
andfledto  Switzerland.  lie  relumed  to  France  in  ISOJ.nnd 
was  elected  in  1SI7  member  of  the  Academy.  His  jirineipal 
works,  whi(  li  were  held  in  high  repute,  are  Kk'iii/  "ii  ihr  Mn. 
narcliical  K'li'I'llnhmriil  of  l.imii  A'/ I',  and  llirturi/  iif  the 
Uriifiiri/.      1).  at  Paris  June  20, 182G.     FfxiX  AlliAKiNE. 

Lem'onweir,  post  v.  and  tp.  of  Juneau  co.,  Wis.,  on 
tho  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  U.  U.     Pop.  1947. 

liO  .Moyne,  a  Canadian  family  of  eleven  hrolhcrfl,  seven 
of  whom  acted  prominent  parls  in  advancing  French  ex- 
l]loralions.  conquests,  and  settlements  in  ,\niericii.~  Their 
lather.  CiiAui.KS  i.k  Movm:,  b.  in  Normandy,  France,  in 
lfi2li,  camo  to  Canada  in  Hill;  lived  some  years  among 
the  llnrons;  obtained  extensive  land-grants;  was  distin- 
guished in  wars  against  the  Iroquois  nn<ler  Courcelles  and 
Tracy  ;  was  held  a  prisoner  by  those  Indians  several  months 
in  llili.'i,  and  was  created  in  lOI'iS  Seigneur  de  Longueil,  10 
which  title  that  of  Chaleauguay  was  al'lerwanls  adiled.  Ho 
was  for  some  tiuio  military  comnmndi-r  of  Montreal,  where 
he  d.  in  It.S.T.— Of  his  sons.  PiKuiiK  and  Jkan  Haptistk 
weredislinguisheil  in  Louisiami.  gaining  Ihe  titles  of  Sieurs 
ni;  liiENViM.K  and  d'Iiikuviii  k  i  which  see). — Tho  oldest 


1724 


LEMPA— LENA. 


brother,  I.  Chaulks,  Baron  de  Longueil,  b.  in  Jlontrcal 
Dec.  lU,  1656;  served  in  his  youth  in  the  French  army  in 
Flanders:  promoted  colonization  to  (_'anada  :  built  a  stone 
fort  on  his  estate  at  Longueil :  was  wounded  in  the  repulse 
of  Sir  William  Phipps's  asi^ault  upon  yuehec  in  IfiUO:  was 
made  governor  of  Alonlreal  and  baron  in  1 7(H) ;  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  colonial  forces:  fought  against  the  English 
expedition  of  Walker  and  ^sicholson  in  1711 ;  was  in  com- 
mand at  Three  Rivers  in  1720,  and  at  Montreal  from  1721 
to  1726;  rebuilt  Fort  Niagara  in  the  latter  year;  was  made 
chevalier  of  the  order  of  St.  Louis,  and  d.  at  Montreal  .June 
8,  17211. — II.  Jacqies,  Sieur  de  Sainte  llelene,  b.  at  Mont- 
real in  Apr.,  1669,  was  sent  in  Mar.,  1GS6,  with  his  younger 
brothers,  I'ierro  and  Paul  (afterwards  Iberville  and  Mari- 
courti.  in  an  expedition  under  the  c<iinnKiiid  of  rhevalier 
do  Troyes  against  the  English  on   Hudson's   I!ay,  where 
they  had  built  Forts  Monsipi,  Ilupert.  ami  Kichichouanne. 
These  three  forts  were  captured,  as  well  as  a  vessel  of  war 
having  on  board  the  English  governor-general  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  Sainte  Helene  having  borne  a  leading  jiart  in  each 
action.     He  was   second  in   command   of   the  expedition 
which  took  Fort  Corlear  (Schenectady)  Feb.  9,  IfiUO,  and 
in  the  same  year  commanded  the  batteries  which  repelled 
the  English  squadron  at  Quebec,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
mortally  ivoundcd. — III.  Pail,  Sieur  de  Maricourt,  b.  at 
Mitntrcal  Dec.  1.^,  1663,  participated,  as  above  mentioned, 
in  Troves' expedition  against  Hudson's  Bay.  being  wounded 
before  Fort  Monsipi  (June  20,  1GS6);  remained  with  his 
brother  Iberville  in  command  of  that  district  up  to  1690, 
when  he  aided  in   the  defence  of   Quebec;    took  part  in 
Frontenac's  expedition  against  the  Iroquois,  witii  whom  he 
negotiated  peace  in  1701,  and  in  -Apr.,  1704,  lost  his  life, 
with  forty  others,  in  a  stockade  burned  by  those  Indians. 
— IV.  Jost:i'H,  Sieur  de  Scrigny,  b.  at  Montreal  July  22, 
166S;  became  an  oflicer  in  the  French  navy,  and  in  11)94 
and  I6'J7  commande<l  ves.sels  in  Hudson's  Bay  in  co-opera- 
tion with  the  land  operations  of  his  brotiier  Iberville.    Sub- 
sequently he  commanded  a  squadron ;  brought  to  Louisiana 
some  of  its  earliest  settlers,  and  in  1718-19  surveyed  the 
coast  of  that  colony.     He  was  engaged  in  the  capture  of 
Pensacola  from  the  Spaniards  (.May  14),  and  repulsed  them 
from  Dauphin  Island,  near  Mobile  (Aug.  19,  1719).  after  a 
siege  of  a  month  ;  was  made  captain  of  a  ship  of  the  line 
in  1720,  and  in  172.'!  rear-admiral  ami  governor  of  Koche- 
fort,  France,  where  he  d.  in  17.S4. — V.  Axtoi.ie.  Sieur  do 
Chiteauguay,  b.  at  Montreal  July  7,  168.3;  became  an  offi- 
cer of  the  French  army;  brought  a  body  of  colonists  to 
Louisiana  in  1704;  served  under  Iberville  against  the  Eng- 
lish in  1705  and  1706;  was  royal  lieutenant  in  Louisiana 
in  171S;  was  eng.aged  in  the  Florida  campaign  against  the 
Spaniards  in   1719;   taken  prisoner  at  Pensacola  Aug.  7, 
and  cojnmanded  at  Mobile  from  1720  to  1726,  when  he  was 
removed  from  otfice  and  recalled  to  France;  sent  as  gov- 
ernor to  .Martinique  in  1727,  and  afterwards  to  Cayenne; 
returned  to  France  in  1744;  was  made  governor  of  Cape 
Breton  in   1715;  successfully  defen<led  Louisburg  against 
the  New  England  forces  under  Peppcrcll,  and  d.  at  Roche- 
fort,   France.   JIar.  21.    1747.     He    inherited   the   title  of 
Sieur  de  Chateauguay  from  his  brother  Loris,  b.  in  Jan., 
1676,  who  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  attack  on  Fort 
Nelson,   Hudson's    Bay,   and    d.   Nov.    4,    1694. — .Another 
brother,  Fkam,ois,  b.  Mar.  10,  1066,  killed  in  battle  with 
the  Iroquois   at  Kcpcntigny  June  7.    1691,  was  the  first 
Sieur  de  Bienville,  the  title  having  passed  on  his  death  to 
his  brother,  .lean  Baptiste.    Sauvolle,  the  first  colonial  gov- 
ernor of  Louisiana,  has  often  been  incorrectly  included  as 
one  of  the  brothers  Le  Moyne.  Portkii  C.  Bliss. 

Lcm'paf  a  river  of  San  Salvador,  Central  .\merica, 
rises  in  Lake  Guija,  near  the  (xuateiuala  boundary,  flows 
E.  S.  E.  nearly  150  miles  through  the  ilepartnicnts  of  Son- 
sonate,  Cuscatlan,  and  San  Vicente,  then  bending  S.  forms 
the  E.  boundary  of  the  departments  of  San  Vicente  and 
La  Pa/,  and  the  W.  boundary  of  San  Miguel,  and  falls  into 
the  Pacific  after  a  total  course  of  210  miles.  The  Lempa 
is  the  largest  stream  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central  America, 
and  is  navig;iblc  for  a  large  part  of  its  course.  The  valley 
of  the  Lcini)a  is  broad  and  well  settled,  and  one  of  the  most 
productive  agricultural  regions  within  tropical  .America. 

Lempritre  (Jons),  D.  D.,  b.  in  the  island  of  Jersey 
about  1750;  studied  at  Westminster  School  and  at  Oxford; 
took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  :  was  head-master 
of  classical  schools  at  .\bingdon  and  Exeter;  became  rector 
of  Meath  and  Newton-Petroek.  Devonshire,  in  ISll,  and  d. 
Feb.  21,  1824.  at  London.  He  published  in  178S  a  small 
tiihlioilieca  CTa«»i'co,  or  "  Classical  Dictionary."  much  en- 
larged in  the  2d  ed.  of  1792.  and  which  has  since  been 
many  times  renrintcd  in  England  and  the  V.  S.  It  was 
baaed  upon  Sabbnthicr's  Dirtfonnitire  thu  Autfum  clamtiques, 
published  at  Ch'ilons-sur-Marne  in  .10  vols.  (1766-90),  and 
was  in  turn  the  basis  of  Anthon's  well-known  classical  dic- 
tionary.    Dr.  Lemprifiro  published  also  a  volume  of  Ser- 


mons (1791),  the  first  volume  of  a  translation  of  Herodotus 
(1792),  and  a  Virtionfiri/  n/  Uiiircrnal  /iintjrnphi/  (180S)  in 
a  single  volume,  which  was  reprinted  in  New  York  iu  1825 
(2  vols.),  with  additions  by  Eleazar  Lord. 

I.emp'stcr,  post-tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  N.  H.,  40  miles 
W.  of  t'oneord,  has  3  churches  and  manufactures  of  lum- 
ber.    Pop.  678. 

Lemur  [Lat.  Irmm;  "spectre"],  the  name  of  a  genus 
of  mammals,  bestowed  on  it  on  account  of  the  appearance 
of  the  aiiimal,  and  especially  its  large  staring  eyes  and  its 
nocturnal  habits.  By  the  late  Dr.  Gray  the  genus  was 
split  into  three — viz.  Vnrci-ia,  Lemur,  and  Proiimia.  (See 
Lemi  )iin.t:  and  Lemurix.c.) 

Le'mures,  in  Koman  mythology,  was  by  some  writers 
used  as  the  general  name  for  all  spectres  or  spirits  of  the 
dead,  of  which  the  good  ones  were  called  (arcs  and  the 
evil  Inrrir.  More  commonly,  however,  lemuro  was  used 
synonymously  with  himr,  denoting  only  those  spirits 
which  returned  to  the  upper  world  with  the  purpose  of  in- 
juring the  living.  In  order  to  propitiate  them  an  annual 
festival  called  Lcmnria  was  held  to  their  honor,  and  cer- 
tain ceremonies  were  performed  on  the  nights  of  the  9th, 
11th,  and  13th  of  May.  The  days  on  which  tliese  rites 
were  performed  were  considered  unlucky,  and  the  temples 
remained  closed  during  the  festival.  .A  description  of  the 
ceremonies  is  found  in  the  Dfth  book  of  Ovid's  t'litli. 

Lemur'idsp  [from  Lemur,  the  typical  genus,  and  the 
family  termination  -I'lifc],  a  family  of  the  sub-order  Pro- 
simiic  and  order  Primates,  whose  Iccth  arc  of  three  kinds^ 
viz.  incisors  (f  Z5  X  2),  canines  (J  X  2),  and  molars  (P.  M. 
t  —  \\  ^I-  3x2);  the  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  small 
(sometimes  deciduous),  and  separated  into  two  groups  by 
a  symphysial  interspace,  and  those  of  the  lower  ja\v  larger, 
contiguous,  and  proclivous;  the  canines  of  the  lower  jaw 
proclivous,  parallel  with  and  resembling  the  incisors  (and 
hence  sometimes  mistaken  for  them);  leg  with  the  hbula 
and  tibia  distinct  from  each  other;  hind  foot  with  the  sec- 
ond toe  armed  with  a  subulate  claw,  and  the  other  toes  pro- 
vided with  flattened  nails.  This  family  includes  the  le- 
murs, or,  as  they  are  sometimes  calle<l.  half-monkeys,  and 
is  confined  to  the  island  of  Madagascar,  the  equatorial 
parts  of  Africa,  and  India.  A  considerable  range  of  varia- 
I  tion  is  exhibited  by  its  several  constituents  in  the  general 
[  form  and  proportions,  the  shape  of  the  head,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  tail  (which  in  some  is  very  large,  and  in  others 
wanting),  the  size  of  the  ears,  and  the  length  of  the  tarsus; 
the  morlifications  iu  these  respects  have  caused  the  diifer- 
entiation  of  the  family  into  four  sub-families — viz.  Indrisi- 
na\  Lemurlua?,  Nycticebinse,  aud  Galagiiiinae.  The  peculiar 
relations  of  the  family  will  be  more  appropriately  consid- 
ereil  umler  the  bead  Prosimi.c,  aud  the  minor  groups  under 
their  titles.  TiiRo.  Gill. 

Lemiir'inx  [from  Lemur  and  the  sub-family  ending 
-itm],  the  chief  subfamily  of  Lemurida?,  in  which  there 
arc  36  (exceptionally  32)  teeth — viz.  I.  j  (sometimes  lost 
from  the  upper  jaw),  C.  \,  P.  jM.  J,  M.  Ix-:  the  neural 
spines  of  the  jiosterior  (last  dorsal  and  lumbar)  vertebra 
inclined  forward  :  the  tail  elongated,  and  generally  exceed- 
ing two-thirds  the  length  of  the  body  :  the  hind  limbs  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  fore  ones,  and  with  the  tarsus  of 
normal  proportitms,  or  moderately  elongated;  and  the  ears 
moderate,  with  the  anterior  portion  of  the  helix  well  de- 
veloped, folded  ()vcr  the  fossa;  of  the  concita  and  anti- 
helix,  and  witli  the  tragus  and  anti-tragus  distinctly  de- 
veloped. The  group  includes  the  typical  lemurs,  which  are 
readily  recognizable  by  their  external  appearance  ;  the  head 
is  produced  into  a  more  or  less  elongated  snout,  and  some- 
what resembles  that  of  the  raccoons  or  foxes.  All  the  liv- 
ing species  arc  confined  tc  the  island  of  Madagascar.  Ex- 
clusive of  I'/iirnrta/t uM  (which  rather  belongs  to  the  Gala- 
gininie),  they  are  grouped  in  four  gener.a — viz.  Lemur, 
Hupaiemur,  Lrpihmur,  and  Mij-nrtbiia  (  Peters,  1874).  They 
are  chiefly  nocturnal  animals,  live  in  the  forests  of  Mada- 
gascar in  the  trees,  feed  on  insects  and  fruit,  and  associate 
together  in  troops.  In  repose  they  roll  themselves  up  in 
the  form  of  a  ball,  and  wind  their  tail  around  the  body. 
Their  elongated  hind  limbs  enable  them  to  leap  with 
agility.  Theo.  Gill. 

Ijemtiroidca*  a  name  applied  by  some  to  the  sub-order 
Pnosnii-t;  ^which  see). 

Le'na,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  .^^ibcria,  rises  near 
Trkoolsk.  in  the  mountains  N.  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  enters 
(ho  .\retic  Ocean  through  several  branches  between  Ion. 
125°  and  130°  E.  It  receives  the  Viiim.  Olekma,  and  Al- 
dan from  the  right,  and  the  Viliooi  from  the  left,  passes  by 
Olekminsk  and  Yakootsk,  and  is  navigable  from  May  to 
November. 

Lena^  post-v.  of  Stephenson  co..  111.,  on  the  Illinois 
Central  U.  R.,  132  miles  N.  W.  of  Chicago.  It  has  a  bank, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  steam  flouring  and  jilaning  mills,  an 


LENA— LENNOX. 


1725 


iron-fouadry,  several  carriage  and  wagon  niaDufnctorios, 
nnti  other  shop?,  1  very  fine  ftod  2  Pimiller  public-school 
buiMing}!,  a  school  library,  2  hotels,  a  steam-elcvalor,  4 
grain-warehouses,  and  the  usual  number  of  stores.  Grain, 
stock,  dairy  produets,  tol>aeco,  etc.  are  the  eluef  articles  of 
export.     Pop,  1294.  J.  W.  Newcohek,  Ed.  "  Star." 

Lena,  a  v.  of  Brown  tp.,  Miami  co.,  0.     Pop.  144. 

IjC'iiau  (XiKOLAL's),  whoso  truc  uamo  was  Nikmusch 
vo\  STREHLENAr,  b.  at  Csatud,  Huugary,  Aug.  1j,  1S02; 
studied  philosophy,  jurisprudence,  and  medicine  at  Vienna, 
travelloa  much;  visited  in  1832  the  U.  S.;  resided  after  his 
return  to  Europe  alternately  in  Vienna,  Ischl.  and  Stutt- 
gart, but  beeame  insane  in  ISIl,  and  d.  Aug.  22.  ISr>l),  in 
a  lunatio  asylum  at  Oberdobling,  near  Vienna.  He  pub- 
lished his  first  volume  of  poems  in  li>32 ;  in  liS-if>  followed 
a  (lecond;  in  1H3^,  Fuunl,  in  1837,  Savonarofa,  in  18-12,  the 
Afftt'ijfuarH,  and  after  his  death,  Don  Jimtt.  A  collected 
eilition  of  his  works  was  publishcil  at  Stuttgart  in  l.S,")j,  in 
4  vols.  It  is  unquestionable  that  Lenau  was  an  original 
poetical  genius,  and  the  great  impression  which  he  pro- 
duced in  (fcrmuny  was  not  only  natural,  but  just.  The 
extraordinary  brilliancy  and  variety  of  bis  imagery  might 
be  the  product  of  study  and  labor,  to  some  e.\tent  at  least  j 
but  there  is,  especially  in  his  Polish  and  Hungarian  songs, 
a  fresh  gush  of  genuine  feeling,  and  in  his  verse  a  full, 
round  melody  which  belongs  to  the  genius  alone.  Never- 
theless, even  in  his  earlier  productions,  it  is  evident  that 
ho  endeavors  to  raise,  by  the  aid  of  the  speculative  ]ihilos- 
ophy,  his  poetical  foundation  above  that  standpoint  which 
ho  actually  occupies  as  a  living  jicrsouality  :  and  this  at- 
tempt at  making  tho  poetry  bigger  than  the  poet  by  help 
of  an  artificial  substruction — an  attempt  friMjUcntly  met 
with  in  the  latest  period  of  (jerman  literature,  I>ut  wliich  by 
itself  is  as  impossible  as  climbing  the  moon — resulted  with 
Lenau  first  in  forced  ideas,  unsound  excitement,  and  ob- 
scure expressions,  and  then  in  tho  total  destruction  both  of 
tho  genius  and  the  personality.  Ci.kmkn«  Peteusen. 

Iten^awee^  county  of  Michigan,  bounded  P.  by  Ohio. 
Area,  720  sijuarc  miles.  It  is  undulating,  very  fertile,  and 
well  watered.  Cattle,  grain,  and  wool  arc  staple  jirodiicts. 
Lumber,  carriages,  cooperage,  metallic  wares,  saddlery,  fur- 
niture, clothing,  cheese,  flour,  machinery,  and  brick  are 
leading  articles  of  manufacture.  Tho  county  is  traversed 
by  the  Michigan  Southern  R.  K.  and  its  branches.  Cap. 
Adrian.     Pop.  IJ.b'Jb. 

IjCn'caSy  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  Honduras,  Central  Amer- 
ica, spfuking  a  language  called  ChouUil,  a  Mexican  term 
signifying  "barbarian."  Tiny  arc  industrious  and  peace- 
able mountaineers,  numbering  some  40,000,  and  occupying 
tho  table-lands  of  Otoro  and  Intibncat,  near  Coinayagua, 
the  cajiital  of  the  republic.  There  arc  Chontal  Indiiins  in 
Nicaragua  and  in  th('  .Mexican  states  of  Oaxaca  and  Ta- 
basi'o,  hut  their  languages  arc  probably  distinct  from  each 
other  and  from  that  of  the  Lencas. 

I.i^Encl08'  (Anne,  called  Ninon  ns),  b.  at  Paris  in  1G15. 
Pos«e?scd  of  a  small  fortune,  which  she  managed  very 
shrewdly,  and  which  enabled  her  to  make  love  the  pursuit 
of  her  life  without  making  it  a  business,  she  left  early  tho 
parental  roof  and  established  an  independent  household. 
She  was  beautiful,  .•^he  was  spirite<I;  Scarron.  Saint-Evre- 
mond,  MoTH^re,  Fontcnelle,  Larochefoucauld,  and  others 
road  Iheir  works  in  her  salon  ;  but,  above  all.  she  was  fas- 
cinating, and  it  soon  became  indispensable  for  all  young 
men  of  birth,  wealth,  and  elegant  ambitions  to  be  intro- 
duced to  her.  One  lover  followed  tho  other  in  rapid  suc- 
ccfl^ion.and  this  life  went  on  uninterruptedly  for  more  than 
half  a  century.  She  was  the  mistress  of  the  marijuis  of 
Sevigne  ;  In  the  next  generation  his  stm  was  her  lover,  and 
in  the  third  she  seduced  his  grandson.  Her  own  son,  who 
had  been  educated  by  the  father  and  kept  in  ign<»rancc  of 
tho  mother,  fell  desperately  in  love  with  her,  and  when,  in 
order  to  prevent  a  horrible  crime,  she  was  compelled  to  re- 
veal tho  secret  suddenly  to  him.  the  you?ig  man  blew  out 
lii.^  brains  in  her  presence,  but  she  herself  remained  com- 
paratively cool  at  the  affair.  At  Inst  a  ehango  came. 
She  was  now  over  seventy.  Young  men  began  to  call  her 
"  Mademoiselle  do  L'Enelos,"  an<l  not.  ns  formerly,  simply 
"  Ninon,"  Ladies,  even  of  the  highest  nosilion  n'nd  <d'lh"o 
finest  eduoalion,  now  began  to  crowd  her  salon,  and  for 
many  years  longer  her  social  position  was  very  brilliant. 
She  felt  sad,  however,  as  her  letters  to  Saint-Evremond. 
who  wrote  her  bictgraphy,  show,  but  there  was  no  remedy, 
To  tho  student  her  eliiiraetcr  does  not  seem  to  be  of  any 
great  interest,  but  her  life  is  exceedingly  eharaeteristio  of 
tho  ago  in  which  she  lived.  Her  salon  and  the  Revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  prepare  the  feeling  very  well  for  tho 
scenes  of  tho  French  Revolution.  She  attained  a  great 
rt'^c,  dying  at  Paris  Oct.  17,  I70i).       Clemens  Peteusen, 

Lenc'zy,  or  Lenozyc'af  town  of  Russia,  in  tho  gov- 


f  ernmcnt  of  Warsaw.     It   hud   some   linen    manufactures. 
I  Pop.  533S. 

Lendina'ra  [Lat.  Lendennriir'\,  a  small  town  of  N. 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Kovigo.  about  2I>  miles  S.  W.  of 
Padua.  This  very  ancient  town  was  tho  subject  of  much 
contention  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  now  conluins  Some 
handsome  ehurcliee.  with  tine  pictures  by  Paul  Veronese, 
Scbastiano  del  Piombo,  etc.     Pop.  in  1S74,  6909. 

Le  Neve  (.Ioiin),  b.  in  England  about  1679;  was  cdu- 
catetl  at  Trinity  College,  Camln'idge.  and  became  rector  of 
Thorntonle-I^Ioor,  Liucohishire.  1).  about  1711.  He  was 
a  zealous  collector  of  biographical  materials;  wrote  J-'atti 
Ecctr_gitx  Aur/lfcaiiB'-  (1710),  Mnuumcyttn  Avylicnnn  (D  vols., 
1700-19).  //mt«  of  the  Protestftnt  Jthhopn  (1720),  LtvcH  of 
the  Archlnshops  (172'!),  and  other  minor  works.  A  new 
edition  of  the  Fault  was  published  in  1S54  (3  vols.)  by  T. 
Duffus  Hardy,  nseistant  keeper  of  the  public  records,  with 
a  continuation  down  to  that  year.  AVlnle  the  original  edi- 
tion contained  only  11,000  entries,  Hardy's  edition  con- 
tained data  respecting  more  than  30,000  clergymen  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

Ij'Enfanl' (  Pierre  Chahi.es),  b.  in  France  in  1755; 
came  to  America  with  La  Fayette  in  1777,  and  served  in 
tho  Revolution  as  an  oOicer  of  engineers;  became  eajitain 
in  1778;  was  wounded  at  tho  siege  of  Savannah;  promoted 
to  be  major  in  1783;  was  engineer  at  Fort  Mifliin  in  1791  ; 
drew  up  the  plan  fur  the  city  of  Washington,  and  was  ar- 
chitect of  some  of  the  jiublic  buildings  at  that  capital.  In 
IS12  lie  was  appointed  professor  of  engineering  at  AVcst 
Point  Military  Academy,  but  declined.  B.  in  Prince 
George's  co.,  Md.,  June  14,  1825. 

Len'itivcs  [Lat.  ienh-e,  to  "soften"],  in  medicine,  sub- 
stances which,  without  specially  active  virtuis  of  their  own, 
possess  by  reason  of  viscidity  the  power  to  mechanically 
sheathe  mucous  membranes  or  raw  surlaces  from  tlie  action 
of  irritants.  Such  are  the  bland  fixed  oils,  glycerine,  and 
solutions  of  gummy  and  starchy  substances. 

EnwARD  Curtis. 

Lenkoran')  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Raku, 
on  thti  Caspian  Sea.  In  its  vicinity  are  many  hot  sulphur 
sj)rings  of  great  medicinal  repute.     Pop.  5C14. 

Len'nep,  t»)wn  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Lcnncp,  an 
atiluent  of  the  Rhine,  has  exlenfive  manufactures  of  linen. 
woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  especially  of  ribbons. 
Pop.  7653. 

Lcnuep)  van  fJACon),  b.  in  Amsterdam  Mar.  25,  1802  ; 
studied  law  at  the  University  of  Leyd<  n  ;  practised  with 
great  success  as  an  advocate;  was  appointed  attorney-gen- 
eral for  the  province  of  North  Holland,  and  d.  Aug.  20, 
18G8.  Ho  made  his  debut  in  literature  with  a  volume  of 
poems,  Nntiomif  Lvijfmh.  and  shortly  after,  under  the  Bel- 
gian revolution  of  1830,  his  two  comedies,  the  Frontier  Vit- 
Ififfr  and  the  Viflaijr  hvyinnl  the  Fvfut.-rr,  were  performed 
with  great  success.  Ho  wrote  about  thirty  more  dramas. 
some  of  whicli  were  received  with  great  applause.  Rut  it 
was  chiefly  as  a  novel-writer  he  gained  bis  fame  Inspired 
by  the  example  of  Waller  Scott,  he  trcaltd  the  hiKtory  of 
his  fatherlaiiil  in  a  scries  of  romances,  about  50  in  all,  and 
Severn!  of  these  acquired  a  great  rrnutatiou  and  were  trans- 
lated into  (tcrman.  French,  and  Lnglish  ;  us,  for  instance, 
y/jc  JCose  o/  hi  kniitn  autl    The  AdoptfU  Son. 

I^enni-I^rnnpo.     See  Dei,awakes. 

Lcn'ni  .IliHs,  jiost-v.  of  Middbtown  tp,.  Delaware  co,. 
Pa.,  on  the  West  Chester  and  Philadelphia  U.  R, 

Lcn'uoXy  county  of  Ontario,  Canada,  bordering  on  Lake 
Ontario,  includes  Aniberst  Island  in  that  lake.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  (Jrand  Trunk  Railrtay.  The  county  of  Ad- 
dington  is  joined  to  it  for  judicial  purposes.  The  soil  is 
fertile.     Cup.  Nepauec.     Pop.  Ill,;i96. 

Lennox  (Charlotte  Ramsay),  b.  in  New  York  in  1720, 
her  father,  Col.  James  Ramsay,  being  lieutenant-governor 
of  the  province ;  went  to  London  at  tho  age  of  flftecn  ;  de- 
votc<I  herself  to  literature,  nn<l  wrote  novels  which  obtained 
great  [lopularity.  She  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Richard- 
Bon  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Among  her  works  were  a  volume 
of /'.,rm#  (1752):  The  Female  Qnij-ntf{l7J:i):  Shakni^crc 
Ufnntratefl  (175.1-jI),  a  collection  of  talcs  used  by  Bhak- 
ttpearo  in  his  plots  ;  /fenriettii,  a  Xovel  ( 1758) ;  PhUnnderf 
a  Dramatic  /'aWoraM  1758)  ;  Sophia  (170.'1):  Father  /tru- 
mttif'a  Oreek  Theatre;  and  a  translation  of  the  duke  of  Sully's 
Mrinoim  (Kfil).     D.  in  London  Jan. 4,  1801. 

Lennox  (Earih  and   Dukes  ok).     See  Stewart  and 

RlriiMoNn. 

Lennox  (Lord  Oeoror  HENnv^  Oen..  b.  in  England 
Nov.  27.  I7;J7,  was  second  son  to  Charles  !>cnno.\.  second 
duke  of  Richmond  :  entered  the  army  in  1751  ;  distinguished 
himself  in  the  German  campaigns  as  aide-de-camp  to  (bo 
duke  of  Cumberland  (1757)  and  to  the  king  (1702);  entered 


1726 


LENNOX— LENS. 


Parliament  ia  1761  :  attended  his  brother,  the  third  duko 
of  Richinoiul,  in  his  embassy  to  France  in  1705:  became 
lieutenant-pcncral  in  1777;  constaVilc  of  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don and  governor  of  Plymouth  in  17S1  :  gi_*neral  and  mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council  in  17G;i.  I>.  at  Stoko  Park  Mar. 
2J,  IS 05. 

I^ennox  i  Lord  William  Pitt),  b.  in  England  Sept.  20, 
17tl'J,  the  fourth  eon  of  the  fuurth  duke  of  Richmond,  ancj 
Ijodijun  of  William  Pitt :  educated  at  Westminster  :  entered 
tl]o  army  ;  was  for  some  years  attached  to  the  staff  of  the 
duke  of  Wellington  ;  has  been  a  volumiiiuus  contributor  to 
tlR-  Sportiiiff  Jieview  and  to  several  magazines  and  Ilclv:^Ila- 
])i--YS.  Among  hia  works  are  Comptott  A udln/  (l^il),  The 
Tii/t./fiDiter  (1843), /'ere?/  Hamilton  {lSb2), 'Pfiih'p  Court- 
H«Y/(18,)7),  Mcrrie  Eu;/f<tn(l  (\S!j7),  liecreationa  of  a  Sporta- 
man  (1802),  Ft/ti/  Vtars'  liiograp/iical  AV/H/;i/Vr)jce«(  J863), 
Adttittures  of  a  Man  of  Famili/  (18C1J ;  and  Draj'ta  on  mi/ 

Mcmnrif  (I86j). 

Lcn^noxville,  post-v.  of  Compton  eo..  Quebec.  Canada, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Massawippi  Valley  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railways.  3  miles  from  Sherbrooke:  is  the  seat  of 
liishops'  College,  a  flourishing  instituiiun.     Pop.  about  900. 

I^enoir',  county  in  E.  North  Carolina.  Area.  400  square 
milo?.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina 
K.  K.  and  the  navigable  Neuse  River.  It  is  level  and  fer- 
tile. Rice,  cotton,  and  corn  are  staple  products.  Cap. 
Kinston.     Pop.  10.434. 

Lenoir,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Caldwell  cc,  N.  C,  15 
miles  X.  of  Morganton.  It  is  the  seat  of  Lenoir  Female 
College.     Pop.  of  v.  446 ;  of  tp.  2054. 

Lenoir  {Gen.  William),  b.  in  Brun^vrick  co.,  Va.,  May 
.SI,  1751;  removed  in  childhood  to  North  Carolina;  took 
nn  active  part  in  the  campaigns  against  the  British  and 
Tories  in  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina;  was  for 
sixty  years  justice  of  the  peace:  often  a  member  of  both 
branches  of  the  legislature;  president  of  the  senate  for  five 
years;  then  president  of  the  council,  and  for  the  last  eigh- 
teen years  of  his  life  major-general  of  the  State  militia.  D. 
at  Fort  Defiance,  N.  C.  May  6,  1839. 

Lenormand'  (Marie  Anne  Adelaide),  b.  in  Alenpon 
j\I:Ly  27,  1772  ;  came  in  1790  to  Paris  as  saleswoman  in  a 
linen  shop,  and  appeared  in  1793  as  a  fortune-teller.  She 
was  several  times  arrested — in  1794.  1S09,  and  1821— but 
this  circumstance  only  contributed  to  make  her  more  popu- 
lar. During  the  empire  her  rooms  were  visited  by  people 
of  the  highest  rank,  even  by  the  empress  Josephine,  and 
when,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  she  went  to  Aix-la-Cha- 
pflle,  whe  attracted  the  attention  of  the  assembled  mon- 
archs,  especially  of  Alexander  of  Russia.  After  1830  she 
was  nearly  forgotten,  and  d.  in  obscurity  Juno  25,  1843, 
but  her  life,  and  even  her  writings,  M^moireH  historiques  et 
srcrtts  stir  I'iniperatn'ce  Jimt'phiue  (1829).  etc..  are  not  with- 
out interest  for  the  mental  physiognomy  of  those  times. 

Lenormant'  (Charles),  b.  in  Paris,  France,  June  1, 
1802:  .studied  law;  travelled  in  Italy,  where  he  gave  spe- 
cial attention  to  archjeology  ;  became  in  lS2o  inspector  of 
fine  arts  :  accompanied  Champollion  the  younger  to  Egypt 
in  1828:  took  an  active  part  as  a  member  of  the  commis- 
sion for  ex])loring  the  Morea  :  became  after  the  revolution 
of  1S30  chief  of  the  section  of  fine  arts  at  the  ministry  of 
the  interior,  keeper  of  books  and  antiquities  at  the  royal 
library,  professor  at  the  Sorbonnc  { 1835),  and  professor  of 
Egyptian  archaeology  at  the  College  of  France.  He  wrote 
numerous  treatises  on  art,  numismatics,  ceramics,  and 
Egyptolugy,  as  well  as  on  religion  and  history,  and  was 
editor  for  many  years  of  the  Corresjjoniiaut  magazine.  D. 
at  Athens  Nov.  24,  1859. — His  wife,  Amkhe,  a  niece  of 
Madame  R(!*camier,  edited  the  correspondence  of  that  cele- 
brated lady  (1859),  besides  writing  works  on  Afadame  de 
.SVc/,/  (1802)  and  the    )Vomeit  of  the  Revolution  (18fi5). 

I^rnormant  (FnAN(;ois),  son  of  Charles,  b.  at  Paris  in 
18:15:  was  educated  by  his  father,  following  his  footsteps 
as  an  an-hneologist,  to  which  ho  added  a  thorough  study 
of  the  languages  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  in  »vhich 
department  he  has  become  a  leading  authority.  Ho  is 
especially  prominent  for  his  important  researches  in  the 
Accadian  language;  and  after  travelling  in  Egypt,  Tur- 
k'Wt  find  Greece  became  in  1874  professor  of  archavjlogy  at 
the  Biblit)th()quo.  His  Mnmial  of  the  Ancient  /listnri}  of 
fhr  EaHt  (3  vols.,  18fi8-69;  Am.  ed.  2  vols..  1809-70)  is  tlio 
bi'st  modern  compendium  of  the  results  of  Egyptian,  Phoeni- 
cian, and  Assyrian  researches.  Other  important  works  are 
l.ittrr»/i«Hifriolorfiqne9  et  (pigraphiquctt  (3  vols.,  1871-72- 
73)  ;  EtndeH  nccndifiunea  (1873-74) ;  Ln  ^fngie  chez  ten  Ai- 
sifvicnft  (\9>74),  and  Le»premierefi  CivilinittioHfi  (1874).  From 
none  of  the  recent  workers  in  the  field  of  the  cuneiform 
monuments  have  greater  results  been  obtained. 

I^en'ox,  tp.  of  Warren  co..  III.     Pop.  948. 

Lenox,  tp.  of  Iowa  co.,  Ia.     Pop.  445. 


2 


LenoXy  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.,  6  miles 
S.  of  IMttstield.  It  was  loug  the  county-seat.  It  is  travert;ed 
by  the  Housatonic  River  and  R.  R.,  and  has  manufactures 
ofiron.  plate  glass,  lime,  lumber,  flour,  briek.  etc.  Iron  ore 
and  limestone  are  obtnined  here.  The  town  has  4  churches, 
a  public  library,  and  a  gond  high  school.  It  is  a  favorite 
placQ  of  summer  resort.     Pop.  1905. 

Louox,  tp.  of  Macomb  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  21,34. 
Lenox,  post-tp.  of  Madison  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Oneida  Lake, 
has  several  mineral  springs  and  beds  of  iron  and  gypsum. 
It  contains  Canastota,  Oneida,  and  many  other  villages. 
Pop.  9810. 

Lenox,  post-tp.  of  Ashtabula  co.,  0.     Pop.  752. 
Lenox,  tp.  of  Susquehanna  co.,  Pa.     Pop,  1751. 
Lens,  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Pas  de 
Calais,  on  the  Souchez.  an  affluent  of  (ho  Scheldt,  has  im- 
portant coal-mines  in  its  vicinity.     Pop.  5738. 

Lens  [Lat.  A»«,  a  "lentil"],  in  optics,  a  transparent 
substance  bounded  by  opposite  curved  surfaces,  or  by  one 
plane  and  ono  curved  surface,  the  curvature  being  usually 
spherical.  The  property  of  a  lens  is  to  refract  or  bend 
the  rays  of  a  pencil  of  light  transmitted  through  it  sym- 
metrically toward  or  from  a  fixed  line  called  the  axis. 
The  axis  is  fixed  by  the  condition  that  the  tangents  to  the 
opposite  surfaces  at  the  points  where  it  meets  them  are 
parallel  to  each  other  and  perpendicular  to  this  axis. 
Lenses  arc  called  converging  or  diverging  lenses  according 
to  the  efi'ect  produced  by  them  upon  parallel  rays.  They 
arc  of  several  kinds,  distinguished  by  the  character  of 
piQ   I  their  curvatures.      Six 

3  4         5      6      f'*^"^s  f^re  shown  in  the 

figure,  the  first  a  double 
convex,  the  second  a 
plano-convex,  the  third 
a  double  concave,  the 
fourth  a  plano-concave, 
the  fifth  a  meniscus, 
and  the  sixth  a  con- 
vexo-concave or  concavo-convex,  receiving  the  one  or 
the  other  of  these  names  according  as  the  incident  light 
falls  on  the  convex  or  the  concave  side.  The  use  of 
lenses  in  optical  instruments  is  to  aid  vision  by  forming 
images  of  objects,  to  be  viewed  instead  of  the  objects 
themselves;  which  they  do  by  causing  pencils  of  light 
from  the  several  points  of  such  object  to  converge  to- 
ward or  diverge  from  corresponding  points,  in  the  first 
instance  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lens,  and  in  the 
second  on  the  same  side.  These  points  are  called  /(ni". 
The  image  is  positive  and  real  when  formed  by  converging 
rays ;  negative  and  imaginary  when  without  being  actually 
formed  it  seems  to  exist  to  the  eye  receiving  the  diverging 
rays.  Only  one  of  the  pencils  from  the  object  can  have  its 
axis  coincident  with  the  axis  of  the  lens;  but  every  ob- 
lique pencil  has.  nevertheless,  an  axis  passing  through  the 
optical  eeniro  of  the  lens;  and  the  focus  of  each  pencil 
will  be  found  in  the  a.xis  of  that  pencil  or  in  the  axis  pro- 
longed. It  is  unfortunately  true,  however,  that  the  rays 
refracted  from  the  border  of  a  lens  of  spherical  curvature 
meet  the  uxis  at  a  point  less  distant  from  the  lens  than 
tiiat  in  which  those  nearer  the  centre  meet  it.  Ilcnec,  (ho 
focus  of  a  simple  lens  is  not  a  single  point;  or  rather, 
every  elementary  ring  into  which  the  lens  may  be  supposed 
to  be  divided  produces  its  own  focus;  and  the  distance  on 
the  axis  between  the  fueus  of  the  extreme  border  and  that 
of  the  rays  indefinitely'  near  the  centre  is  calleil  the  spher- 
ical aberration.  It  is  furthermore  true  tlnit  inasmueh  as 
the  rays  of  the  difl^erent  colors  of  light  arc  unequally  re- 
frangible, these  difierent  colors  ha^e  foci  differently  distant 
from  the  lens  ;  the  focus  of  the  red  being  most  distant,  and 
that  of  the  violet  least.  This  separation  of  the  diff'erent 
colors  is  callrd  dispersion,  and  the  distance  along  the 
axis  between  the  foci  of  tlie  rays  of  greatest  and  Icai^t  ro- 
frangil>ility  is  called  the  chromatic  aberration.  Spherical 
lenses  would  tliereforc  be  of  little  use  in  optics  if  it  were 
not  possible  so  to  combine  them  as  to  neutralize  the 
effects  of  both  these  two  kinds  of  aberration.  Chromatic 
aberration  may  be  corrected -by  using  a  convex  lens  formed 
of  a  material  of  low  dispersive  power  in  corabinati<tn  with 
a  concave  in  which  this  power  is  higher.  Two  such  lenses 
placed  in  contact  may  be  so  adjusted  to  each  other  that 
their  absolute  dispersions  shall  bo  Cijual  and  opjiosite, 
while  there  is  a  predominance  of  refracting  power  in  the 
converging  glass  by  which  it  may  form  an  image.  In  such 
combinations  the  converging  lens  employed  is  usually  of 
crown  glass  and  double  convex,  its  diverging  mate  being 
plano-convex  and  of  flint  glass.  The  convexity  of  one  side 
of  the  double  convex  is  in  this  ease  made  of  exactly  the 
same  curvature  as  the  concavity  of  the  plano-eoncave,  and 
tlie  tw(»  are  usually  united  with  Canada  balsam  or  other 
transparent  cement;  by  which  means  the  loss  of  light  in 


LENT— LENZ. 


1727 


consequence  of  reflection  at  the  surfiices  of  contact  is 
almost  wholly  preventcj.  Chrumatic  tiHirration  cannot  be 
perfectly  corrected  liy  a  combination  of  tivo  glasses  only, 
beL'ause  it  is  not  true  that  the  digpersive  powers  of  different 
media  are  in  precisely  tho  eamo  ratio  for  each  of  the  ele- 
mentary colors'.  Combination^  of  three  different  lenses 
have  therofure  sometimes  been  used  in  telescopes,  in  order 
to  correct  tho  very  small  secondary  dispersion  which  is  left 
in  any  combiualion  of  two.  But  this  is  a  refinement  which 
is  in  general  hardly  neceesary.  A  combination  of  glasses 
for  the  correction  of  color  is  called  an  achromatic  combina- 
tion. A  combination  designed  to  destroy  the  efl'ect  of 
spherical  aberration  is  called  aplanatio.  The  spherical 
aberration  of  a  single  lens  can  never  bo  less  than  1.07 
times  the  thickness  of  the  lens.  This  is  (he  amount  of 
aberration  in  a  Ions  made  of  glass  having  an  index  of  rc- 
fraetion  of  1.5,  of  which  tho  two  opposing  curvatures  havo 
radii  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  six.  the  incident  rays  falling 
upon  tho  more  convex  surface.  If  tho  index  is  greater, 
the  disproportion  of  the  radii  of  curvature  must  be  greater 
also.  For  tho  index  1.6,  it  i:«  one  to  fourteen.  For  the  in- 
dex l.fif'C,  it  is  one  to  infinite — t".  e.  a  plano-convex.  By 
a  combination  of  a  double  convex  and  a  meniscus  (whose 
radii  nf  curvature  may  be  calculated  Fig.  2. 

when  the  index  of  refraction  of  the 
glass  is  given)  the  spherical  aberra- 
tion in  the  axis  may  be  completely 
corrected,  Such  a  combination  was 
first  described  by  Sir  .John  Herschel.  Hut  this  is  a 
fact  of  no  practical  value,  because  the  aberration  of  ob- 
lique pencils  in  such  combinations  is  very  great.  A  menis- 
cus having  the  curvature  of  a  prolate  ellipsoid,  and  an  op- 
posing sphorical  concave  surface  whoso  centre  of  curvature 
is  the  more  distant  foctis,  will  concentrate  rays  falling 
parallel  to  its  axis  upon  its  convex  surface  truly  into  that 
more  distant  focus:  provided  the  index  of  refraction  of  the 
material  is  equal  to  the  semi-axis  major  ilivided  l)y  tho  ec- 
centricity. A  jdano-convex  Ions  of  which  the  convex  side 
has  the  carvoture  of  a  hypcrboloid  will,  on  a  like  supposi- 
tion as  to  the  index,  cause  rays  incident  on  the  plane  surface 
parallel  to  its  axis  to  converge  truly  into  the  more  distant 
focus  of  the  hypcrboloid.  In  these  cases,  however,  the  ob- 
FiG.  ;J. 


Fio.  4. 


e  U 

liquo  pencils  suffer  aberration  :  and  thougli  probably  for 
celc^jliiil  object'*,  in  which  the  extreme  obliquity  of  the  pen- 
cils is  very  small,  ihey  might  be 
useful,  the  diflicully  of  constructing 
glasses  of  such  curvature  prevents 
their  being  used.  An  achromatic 
combination  of  (wo  lenses  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  .'I  is  aplanatic  also  for 
two  points  on  tho  line  of  its  axis; 
but  tho  oblique  pencils  still  havo 
aberration  at  these  distances.  These 
points  arc  indicated  in  the  figure  at 
(f  and  fi.  It  was  discovered,  how- 
ever, in  1S2'.»,  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Lister  of 
London,  that  thi*  aberrations  of  ob- 
liqtic  pencils  from  radiants  at  theso 
distances  are  contrary  to  each  other, 
and  also  that  the  focus  conjugate  to 
a  radiant  at  the  shorter  of  theflc  dis- 
tances, /',  is  negative,  while  that  con- 
jugate to  a  radiant  at  tho  longer  dis- 
tance, n,  is  positive;  so  that  if  an 
object  be  placed  at  the  nearer  apla- 
natic focus  of  a  given  cunibiuation, 
its  inmge  is  a  virtual  image  formed 
behind  itself;  and  if  the  placo  of 
tills  virtual  imago  be  at  the  distanco 
of  the  remoter  a|)lanalic  focus  of  a 
secon*!  combination,  a  positive  image 
will  bo  formed  beyond  this  second 
combination  which  will  bo  free  from 
botii  spherical  and  chronmtio  aberra- 
tion, as  well  in  oblique  axes  as  in  tho 
principal  axis.  In  Fig.  .'1  tho  lino 
;/)/  .'*hnws  tlie  direction  ut'  a  ray  froiu  f>,  and  the  Vmv /•/  that 
of  II  lay  fron]  a.  The  first  produced  toward  the  right  wo\ild 
meet  the  axis  behind  f>.     The  second  continued  to  the  left 


would  meet  the  axis  beyond  the  lens.  In  Fig.  4,  b  is  the 
nearer  ajjlanatic  focus  of  tho  lens  /J  ;  and  its  conjugate  a 
is  tho  remote  aphiuatic  focus  of  the  lens  A.  liy  the  use  of 
both  lenses,  theretore,  an  object  at  b  will  form  an  image  be- 
yond A  which  will  be  free  from  aberration  both  of  color 
and  of  sphericity.  This  discovery  of  Mr.  Lister  was  the 
foundation  of  the  wonderful  improvement  introduced  into 
the  compound  microscope  about  forty  years  ago.  Besides 
the  evils  of  aberration  attendant  on  the  use  of  spherical 
lenses,  there  is  another  which  consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
images  formed  are  not  plane,  but  curved,  even  after  aber- 
ration has  been  corrected.  This  defect  has,  however,  been 
also  removed  in  the  Micitost'opi^  by  combinations  explained 
in  the  article  on  that  instrument  (which  sec). 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard. 
Lent  [Gcr.  Lenz,  "spring;"  according  to  some  writers 
because  tho  days  ff-iiffthiu;  others  derive  it  from  fme^  a 
"lentile,"  that  food  being  largely  eaten  iluring  the  Lenten 
season],  the  fast  of  forty  days  (not  counting  Sundays) 
which  begins  with  Ash  Wednesday  and  ends  with  Easter 
Sunday.  It  is  observed  by  the  Eastern,  Roman,  Anglican, 
Lutheran,  and  some  other  churches.  It  commemorates  the 
forty  days'  fast  of  our  Lord  in  the  wiblcrness.  The  Greek 
Church  lengthens  it  to  forty-eight  days. 

Jjentan'do  [It.].  Tn  music,  this  term,  when  applied 
to  a  series  ot  notes,  signifies  agraiUuil  and  regular  decrease 
of  rapidity.  It  frequently  occurs  in  connection  with  medial 
and  final  cadences,  and  in  passages  marked  as  expressive, 
where  it  has  the  effect  of  a  gradual  dying  out  or  melting 
away  of  t!ie  sound  into  comparative  stillness. 

IjCn'tile  [Lat.  fcim'],  the  Ermm  leitfi,  an  anniml  legu- 
minous herb  of  the  Old  World,  resembling  tlio  velcli  or 
pea,  and  extensively  cultivated  as  food.  Tho  seed  is  the 
part  employed.  It  is  smaller,  more  nutritive,  and  more 
digestible  than  the  pea.  There  are  many  varieties.  It 
grows  well  on  tho  poorest  lands,  and  might  be  cultivated 
in  the  Southern  tJ.  S.  Lcntilo  Hour  is  used  for  invalids, 
and  is  palatalde  and  excellent.  The  vine  is  small,  but  af- 
fords excellent  fodder  for  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle.  Fre- 
senius  found  in  lUO  parts  of  air-dried  seed — starch  35.5, 
gum  7,  sugar  1.5,  leguniine  25,  fat  2.5,  cclhilose,  peotine, 
etc.  12,  ash  2.3,  and  water  14.  Lentilcs  have  recently  been 
introduced  into  England. 

Lonti'ni  [Lat.  Lnoititii],  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Syracuse,  about  2ii  miles  X.  W.  of  the  city  t>f  Syra- 
cuse. Interesting  vestiges  of  the  ancient  city,  such  as  re- 
mains of  aqueducts,  cisterns,  tombs,  etc.,  still  exist,  and 
vases,  coins,  and  inscriptions  arc  f<)und  in  abundance.  In 
its  neighborhood  may  still  be  seen  the  ruins  of  the  castle 
of  Brieinia,  mentioned  by  Thucyditlcs.  In  420  n.  c.  Tjcon- 
tini  sent  to  .Athens  for  help  against  Syracuse.  In  21  1  B.  c. 
it  fell  into  tho  hands  of  the  Romans.  The  present  town  is 
composed  of  respectable  buildings,  and  the  streets  arc  com- 
modious. Its  trade  and  industry  are  considerable.  Pop. 
in  1S74,  10,578. 

Lcu''to  [ft.],  one  of  tho  terms  used  in  music  to  express 
a  slow  aiiit  somhie  species  of  movement.  liCnto  is  very 
slightly  qui<-Ucr  than  "  large"  and  *'  adagio."  The  supcr- 
lati\i%  li  ntinfimo,  im|)ties  a  further  retardation  of  time. 

fjen'tllllis  was  the  name  of  a  celebrated  patrician 
family  of  ancient  Home,  belonging  to  tho  _//*■»*  Cnnufia, 
Ono  of  tho  most  conspicuous  members  of  this  family  was 
Publins  Cornelius  Lentulus  Sura,  lie  was  consul  in  71 
B.  r.,  but  in  the  following  year  he  was  ejected  from  the 
senate,  together  with  sixty-three  others,  on  account  of  the 
open  scandals  of  bis  jirivate  life.  This  event  brought  him 
in  connection  with  that  parly  in  Homo  which  wished  to 
overthrow  tho  republican  institutions;  and  alter  Catiline 
left  the  city  in  G'A  n.  v.,  Lentulus  was  achnilly  at  the  head 
of  tho  conspiracy.  Tho  umb-rtaking  failcil.  partly  on  ac- 
count of  his  irresoluleness  and  weakness,  ond  it  was  wholly 
his  awkwardness  and  ulter  lack  of  cautiousness  in  his  rela- 
tions to  the  ambassadors  of  the  Allobrogrs  which  furnished 
('ioero  with  eviilences  on  which  he  conhl  arrest  tho  b  nders 
of  tho  conspiracy  and  bring  (hem  before  the  court.  Len- 
tulus was  strangled  in  the  prison  of  tho  Capitol. 

Lenz  (Jakob  Miciiaki-  Rkinhomi),  b.  at  Sessweyen, 
Livonia,  Jan.  12,  1750;  studied  at  Kiinigsborg,  and  went 
in  1771  as  tutor  for  two  young  nol)lemen  to  Strasbourg, 
where  ho  associated  much  with  (Joethe  and  Jung  Stilling. 
After  (loethe  left  Strasbourg.  Lenz  fell  desperately  in  love 
with  Froderiea  Brion  of  Sesenheim,  and  seems  to  have  led 
a  rather  wild  life.  In  1770  he  went  fr)  Weimar;  but  un- 
able to  bring  his  life  into  harmony  with  (he  (b'man<ls  of 
good  society,  he  soon  left  ogain,  roved  omund  from  pinco 
to  ])lace,  half  insane,  and  <1.  in  iittermiscry  at  Moscnn  May 
21,  I7i»2.  His  works,  mostly  consisting  of  dramas,  were 
collectrd  In  three  volumes  in  1M2S  by  Tieek.  Like  bis  life, 
they  ])resent  only  a  loose  series  of  impulses,  incoherent  and 


1728 


LEO— LEO  AFRICANUS. 


often  repulsive.  But  just  as  his  life  derives  a  certain  in- 
terest from  his  conmction  with  tJoethe.  so  his  works  are  of 
value  to  the  student  of  Cierman  literature  as  illustrations 
of  the  character  and  teadcneies  of  the  so-called  Sturm  und 
JJraug  period, 

IjC^Oy  a  sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  entert?  al)Out 
July  22  and  leaves  about  Aug.  23.  The  constellation  of 
the  siimc  name,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  heavens,  occupies 
the  zodiacal  region  corresponding  to  the  sign  Virgo,  and 
contains  many  remarkable  nebulae 

Leo,  the  name  of  six  emperors  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire :  Leo  I„  thk  TiiitAriAX  (457-474).  b.  in  Tln-aciM  about 
4Un.  was  only  a  military  tribune  when  the  emperor  Marcian 
died  in  457.  But  Aspar,  the  conimamlcr-in-chief  of  the 
army,  dared  not  grasp  at  the  crown  himself,  as  he  was  a 
foreigner  by  birth,  uf  the  nation  of  the  Alaui,  aii»I  an  Arian 
by  creed.  Ho  raised  Leo  to  the  throne,  persuaded  tliiit  he 
was  too  indolent  to  care  for  anything  more  than  the  at- 
tributes of  power.  Leo,  however,  soon  emancipated  him- 
self from  the  influence  of  Aspar,  and  even  seized  the  very 
first  opportunity  of  getting  entirely  rid  of  him.  A  magnif- 
icent expedition  was  nmlertaken  in  connection  with  Anthe- 
mius,  emperor  of  the  West,  against  Genseric,  king  of  the 
Vandals  in  Africa.  The  expedition  failed  utterly,  and  the 
odium  nf  the  failure  was  thrown  on  Aspar.  The  Vandals 
being  Arians  like  the  Byzantine  minister,  a  rumor  of  trea- 
son arose,  and  under  the  riots  which  ensued  Leo  had  Aspar 
killed  in  the  interior  of  the  palace.  In  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  several  successful  campaigns  had  been  made 
against  the  Huns,  but  in  the  latter  part  military  calamities 
were  added  to  inundations,  earthquakes,  and  conflagrations. 
Leo  I.  was  the  first  Christian  king  who  at  the  ceremony  of 
coronation  received  his  crown  from  the  hands  of  a  bishop — 
an  ominous  precedent;  he  favored  the  clergy  much,  and  is 
generally  called  the  Great  by  the  orthodox  party;  the 
Arians  called  him  Mnrdfa,  the  "butcher." — Leo  II.  (from 
Jan.  to  Nov.,  474)  was  a  grandson  of  Leo  I.,  and  only  four 
years  old  at  the  death  of  his  grandfather. — Leo  III.,  the 
IsAV  RiAN  (717-741),  b.  in  Isauria  about  680  of  poor  parents, 
enlisted  in  the  army,  where  he  rose  rapidly,  and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Eastern  army  against  the  Saracens 
in  7I<>,  when  Theodosius  III.  deposed  and  exiled  Anastasius 
IF.  Leo  chose  not  to  acknowleilge  Theodosius  III.,  march- 
ed his  army  against  him  in  the  name  of  Anastasius  II.,  de- 
feated him,  and  seized  the  crown  for  himself.  The  Saracens 
foHuwod  him,  and  besieged  Constantinople  for  two  years, 
but  having  been  routed  several  times,  they  were  at  last  re- 
pelled with  great  loss.  In  726  he  issued  an  edict  ordering 
all  images  to  be  removed  fr.>ra  the  churches  of  the  empire, 
and  thus  began  the  memorable  contest  between  the  icono- 
clasts and  iconolaters  which  disturbed  the  empire  for  more 
than  a  century.  The  immediate  result  of  the  edict  was  a 
general  commotion,  especially  in  the  western  jtrovinces, 
and  in  72S  the  exarchate  became  lost  to  the  Byzantine 
crown. — Leo  IV.  (775-780),  b.  in  750,  a  son  of  Couslantinc 
v.,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  was  mild  and  tolerant,  but 
weak  :  his  generals,  however,  were  very  successful  against 
the  Bulgarians  .and  Arabs. — Leo  V.,  the  Armenian  (81.*?- 
820),  arrived  from  the  commandership  <if  the  army  to  the 
throne  through  a  long  series  of  despicable  treasons;  but 
having  once  established  himself  firmly  on  the  throne  by 
his  brilliant  victories  over  the  Bulgarians  and  Arabs,  he 
showed  himself  an  administrator  of  uncommon  ability. 
Reforms  were  introduced,  and  the  wliolo  administrative 
system  placed  on  a  footing  of  honesty  and  justice.  He  was 
violent,  however,  even  cruel,  and  utterly  intolerant.  He 
persecuted  the  worshippers  of  images  with  great  severity. 
At  last  a  conspiracy  was  formed,  and  he  was  murdered  on 
Christmas  I>ay  in  the  church,  before  the  altar. — Li:o  VI., 
THE  Piiir.osoi'MKK  (886-012),  b.  in  865,  a  sou  of  Basil  I., 
whom  he  succeeded.  He  was  a  writer.  His  OracuUi  is  a 
poem  in  iambic  verses,  prophesying  the  fate  of  the  Byzan- 
tine empii-c  :  there  are  several  editions  of  it.  His  Orntioucs, 
numbering  thirty-three,  arc  composed  mostly  on  theologi- 
cal subjects;  tiiere  is  no  collected  edition  of  them,  but 
some  are  found  in  Baronius's,4njta/fff,  others  in  BiUiothera 
pfifruiii,  etc.  Alorc  important  was  his  treatise  on  military 
afl'airs,  mostly  consisting  of  extracts  from  other  writers. 
There  exist  many  editions  of  this  work,  as  well  as  an  Eng- 
lish translation  by  .John  Cheke  (155)),  and  a  French  by 
Joly  dc  Mezcray  (1771).  The  reign  of  this  ruler  was  one 
uninterrupted  scries  of  stupidities  and  failures. 

Leo  I.,  Saint,  Pope,  regarded  by  many  Protestants  as 
the  first  real  pope,  and  surnamed  the  (Jueat.  b.  about  390, 
probably  at  Kome;  in  early  life  disjilayed  uncommon  zeal, 
knowledge,  and  capacity,  and  was  often  employed  by  the 
]»opes  upon  important  ecclesiastical  and  political  duties; 
was  chosen  pope  in  440,  though  only  a  deacon.  Leo  op- 
posed the  Pelagian,  Manieha'an,  Priscillian,  and  Eutychiau 
heresies;  labored  with  great  ability  for  the  cvtonsion  of  the 


Roman  primacy;  visited  Attila  in  person  (452),  and  in- 
duced him  to  spare  Rome,  but  in  455  the  city  was  sacked 
by  (ieuseric.  Leo  d.  Nov.  10,  461.  Of  the  many  editions 
of  his  writings,  the  best  is  that  of  the  Bailcriui  (Venice, 
753-757). — Leo  II.,  Saint,  became  pope  in  082,  and  d.  in 
68^. — Leo  III.,  a  Roman,  became  pope  iu  795;  crowned 
Charlemagne  emperor  of  the  West,  and  freed  Rome  from 
Byzantine  domination.  D.  June  II,  8!6. — Leo  IV.,  a  Ro- 
man, became  pope  in  847;  built  the  Leonine  wall  about 
the  Vatican  suburb,  which  is  hence  culled  the  Leonine  City  ; 
restored  the  town  of  Porto,  which  he  colonized  with  Cor- 
sicans,  and  founded  Leopolis  (now  deserted),  12  miles  from 
Civita  Vecchia.  D.  July  17,  855. — Leo  V.,  a  Benedictine 
and  cardinal,  became  pope  Oct.  28,  and  d.  in  prison  Dec.  6, 
903. — Leo  VI.,  a  Roman,  became  jiopo  July  6,  928.  and  d. 
Fob.  3,  929. — Leo  VII..  a  Roman,  became  pope  in  9;J6,  and 
d.  in  939.  Little  is  known  regarding  him. — Leo  VIII.,  a 
Roman,  was  made  popo  by  Otho  I.  in  U63,  in  place  of  the 
infamous  .lohn  XII.  Benedict  V.  was  his  rival.  I).  905. — 
Leo  IX.  (lintno),  iin  Alsatian,  cousin-german  to  Conrad  the 
Salic,  b.  June  21,  1002  ;  became  bishop  of  Taul  in  1026;  was 
celobratcd  for  learning;  was  nominated  pope  at  Worms  in 
1048,  and  recognized  at  Rome  in  1049;  was  largely  under 
the  influence  of  Ilildebrand,  afterwards  (iregory  VII.  The 
great  events  of  his  pontificate  were  tlie  Berengurian  con- 
troversy and  the  great  exertions  of  Leo  and  Uildebrand 
for  the  extension  of  discipline.  I).  Apr.  13,  1054. — Leo 
X.  (Ginvnimi  de'  Medici),  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnitieent, 
b.  at  Florence  Dec.  U,  1475;  received  the  tonsure  and  was 
made  abbot  of  Fontedolce  and  of  Passignano  when  but 
seven  years  old;  became  cardinal  in  /^f^/o  when  thirteen, 
and  full  cardinal-deacon  when  seventeen  (1492);  was  exiled 
with  the  other  Mudici  in  1494;  served  under  Julius  II. 
against  the  French  as  legate  and  field-marshal,  but  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Ravenna  1512:  by  the  aid  uf  the  em- 
peror, the  pope,  Venice,  and  Spain  restored  the  Medici  to 
Florence  1512;  succeeded  Julius  II.  as  pope  1513.  His 
pontificate  is  memorable  for  the  splendor  of  the])apal  court; 
his  extensive  patronage  of  learning  and  art;  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  L'niversity  of  Rome,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  committee  under  the  presidency  of  Lascaris  for  the 
publication  of  Greek  manuscripts  ;  the  scandalous  and  open 
sale  of  indulgences  iu  order  to  procure  the  necessary  means 
of  building  St.  Peter's  church  ;  the  origination  of  the  Ref- 
ormation under  the  influence  of  Luther,  at  which  he  at  first 
laughed  as  a  ludicrous  monkish  quarrel;  the  c()ntirmation 
and  extension  of  the  Spanish  power  in  Italy  ;  and  the  final 
suppression  of  the  Florentine  republic.  As  a  prince,  Leo  had 
illustrious  qualities;  as  an  ecclesiastic,  he  certainly  failed, 
as  much  from  a  lack  of  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  as  from  a 
want  of  knowledge  of  the  tendencies  of  the  critical  times  in 
wiiich  !ic  lived. — LeoXI.  (Alcsaandro  Ottuciauo  de'Mcdici), 
a  grand-nephew  of  Leo  X.,  b.  at  Florence  1535;  became 
bishop  of  Pistoia  1573;  archbishop  of  Florence  1574;  car- 
dinal 1583  :  po]>e  1605  ;  d.  Apr.  27. 1605.  after  a  pontificate 
of  twenty-six  days. — Leo  XII.  (Aunihnle  dclln  O'emja),  b. 
Aug.  2,  1760;  became  archbishop  of  Tyre  1793;  cardinal 
in  islO;  pope  in  1823;  extended  papal  authority,  and  re- 
formed some  points  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  adminis- 
tration. I).  Feb.  10.  1829.— Leo  XIII.  {(nm-acrhino  IWci), 
b.  Mar.  2.  islll,  ut  Carpineto,  in  the  di(pcese  of  Anagni;  be- 
came a  cardinal  in  1846;  chamberlain  of  the  Sacred  College 
in  1877,  and  pope  in  1878. 

Leo  (Heinrioh).  b.  Mar.  19,  1799,  at  Rudolstadt,  the 
capital  of  the  German  principality  of  Sehwartzburg-Rudol- 
etadt.  Under  the  influence  of  Jahn  he  changed  from  medi- 
cine to  history,  took  part  in  Jena  ancl  Giittingen  with  great 
energy  in  all  the  agitation  of  the  ymmg  students,  and  wrote 
U^hrrdiv  Vt'r/dsiiKtij  dev  fomhardisrfieti  Sfiidtc  (1820).  But 
suddenly  he  broke  off  all  these  connections,  went  to  Italy 
with  a  stipend  from  the  princess  of  Rudolstadt.  and  became 
on  his  return  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  liegel.  Having 
settled  in  1828  as  professor  in  history  at  the  l'niversity  of 
Halle,  he  developed  a  great  productivity,  following  more  or 
less  closely  the  tracks  of  Hegel's  ideas  in  his  llnudhurh  der 

GeirhichU  dm  Mtttelalters  (1830),  Gcnrhirhtf  der  ifnh'mijich- 
en  Stfiatni  (3  vols.,  1829),  Ziruff  /iUrficni  nicdrrViudixrhe 
Geuchichten  (2  vols.,  1832-35).  But  once  more  he  suddenly 
and  harshly  turned  against  his  own  f<u'mer  standpoint,  at- 
tacking the  Hegelian  philosophy  in  a  rather  curious  man- 
ner in  his  lh\  Difntcrire^f  uiid  die  f}ciifMrhfu  I'liirriKifHten 
(1836),  SriiHchreifiru  an  Gorren  (1838),  and  Die  Jletjclinfjcn 
(1839).  Hengstenberg  had  now  become  his  idol.  Under 
his  influence,  and  in  the  service  of  ultra-reactionary  tend- 
encies, he  wrote  Lchrhnch  der  t^nireniiifffCHcfiivhtr  (6  vols., 
1835-441  and  Lcii/aden  fur  df'n  Unfrrrirht  in  dcr  V>iii-rr- 
edfr/egfhichte  (4  vols.,  1838-40),  and  a  number  of  articles  in 
the  Evangcliachc  Kirckemeittmg.     D.  Apr.  24,  1878. 

Leo  Africa'nus  (Joannes),  originally  named  Al  Has- 
san luN  Mohammed,  b.  at  Uranadu,  Spain,  about  1485,  of 


LEO  ALLATIUS— LEON. 


1729 


Muoriish  parents,  who  emigrated  to  Fez  io  Morocco  after 
the  capture  of  Granada  by  the  Spaaiard^.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  bo  accompanied  uu  uncle  on  an  embassy  to  Tim- 
buctoo,  and  afterward  travelled  through  ."cverul  countries 
of  N.  and  Central  Africa,  penetrating  through  Bornoo  to 
Nubia,  de:?cending  the  Nile,  and  extending  his  explorations 
into  Persia.  Returning  from  Constantinople  by  sea  io 
1j17,  ho  was  captured  by  corsairs  and  taken  to  Rome, 
where  he  became  a  Christian,  was  patronized  by  Pope  Leo 
X.,  whose  name  he  took,  learned  Italian  ancl  Latin,  and 
taught  Arabic.  I),  at  Tunis  in  150!*.  His  great  work,  the 
Deiftrtption  of  Africa,  was  written  in  Arabic,  published 
in  Italian  by  Ramusio  (1650)  and  in  Latin  by  Elzevir 
(K.:i2j. 

Le'o  Alla'tius  [Latinized  form  of  Leonk  ALLArn],  b. 
of  (ireek  parents  in  the  island  of  Chios  in  1 JS6.  lie  was 
taken  when  nine  years  old  to  Calabria  iu  Italy,  and  thence 
in  ir.OO  to  Home  to  complete  his  studios;  was  employed  in 
HJ22  by  Pope  (ircgory  XV.  to  superintend  the  transfer  to 
Rume  and  the  incorporation  in  the  \'atican  of  the  Heidel- 
berg library,  which  had  been  given  to  the  pontiff"  by  tho 
clectorof  Bavaria;  was  nppointtMUiy  Pope  Alexander  VII, 
in  IGfil  librarianof  tho  Vatican,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
dL*ath  in  lfit»9.  Leo  was  a  ]»rolific  writer:  his  works  were 
partly  editions  and  elucidations  of  the  classic  and  ecclesi- 
astic writers  and  notices  of  authors,  and  partly  treatises 
on  the  history  and  doctrines  of  (he  Roman  Church  and  on 
tho  diffcroncos  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 
Though  the  son  of  (Ireck  parents,  be  was  an  extreme  par- 
tisan of  the  Roman  Church.  A  complete  list  of  his  pro- 
<Iuctions  ( JO  enumerated  by  Fabricius)  is  added  to  his 
Errrritniio  tfe  MrtiMuvft  Trntporum  Aufi'ftiontni  (Cologne, 
|tU.M.  and  is  also  given  by  Fabricius  in  bis  liibtiotheca 
lirarti,  vol.  xi.  4.'i7  "yy.,  ed.  ilarles.  (Seo  Creuzer.  Znr  Gench, 
tier  C((t>iH.  P/iilofoffir.)  II.  Drisler. 

Leo'beilf  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Styria,  on 
the  .Mur,  is  beautifully  situated,  well  built,  and  fortified. 
Here  a  preliminary  trenfy  was  concluded  (Apr.  18,  17M7^ 
between  Austria  and  France,  which  was  followed  half  a 
year  Inter  by  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio. 

Le'obschiitZ)  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Sile- 
sia, on  th"  Zinna.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  wool,  ffax,  and 
corn.     Pop.  S27L 

Leoch'arcSy  an  Athenian  sculptor  of  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  n.  c,  belonged  to  the  second  Athenian 
scliKol.  Pliny  mentions  several  of  his  works,  and  speaks 
with  enthusiasm  c»f  llieiii.  Uf  one,  inini/mi^fle  curried  off 
In/  the  Enifff,  which  originally  was  cast  iu  bronze,  there  are 
marble  copies  in  Rome  and  V^cuicc. 

Le'o  Diac'onus,  b.  about  a.  d.  950  at  Caloc  in  Ionia; 
Wiis  sent  to  Constaiitiiiopio  to  pursue  his  sturlics,  and  was 
j>redeut(iHJ6)  when  the  populaeo  brokeoutin  revolt  agninst 
tile  emperor  Nieeiihorua  I'hoeas  :  ticeoiupauied  Basil  II.  in 
the  war  against  the  Bulguriuns,  though  filling  the  office  of 
deacon  ;  wrote  a  history  of  the  evcnis  that  took  place  in 
his  own  time  from  A.  n.  U.'i'J  to  D75,  valuable  for  its  iu- 
formaMon,  though  faulty  in  style.  This  work  was  first 
published  (Paris.  1H[S)  by  Hase,  who  has  collected  in  bis 
preface  the  chief  facl.<*  of  bis  life;  reissued  in  tho  Corpus 
J/iHltri«  liyzatitinic  (Bonn,  IS^H).  II.  Drisleh. 

Le'o  Grammat'icuSf  of  whose  life  scarcely  anything 
is  known,  and  wln)so  date  even  is  doubttul,  wrote,  probably 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  eeutury,  under  tho  title 
Chrttiuujruphiit  ( \(H3voypa^i.<x  \,  a  narrative  of  Byzantine 
events  froiu  H7.'i  to  *Jiii  a.  n.  The  work  is  extant,  and 
was  published  along  with  Theophanc*  by  Combefis  ( Paris, 
1G55).  H.  Ukislkii. 

Leo'la*  tp.  of  Adams  CO.,  Wis.     Pop.  |S5. 

I*coni'iiisU»r,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Here- 
ford, on  the  Lugg.  It  is  the  eentre  of  the  most  celebrated 
cattle-breeding  district  of  England.     Pop.  5865. 

Leominster,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Worcester  eo.,  Mass., 
on  the  Na-fbua  Kivrrand  on  the  Boston  (Minton  and  I-'itoh- 
burg  and  the  Fit^-libtirg  R.  Rs.,  18  miles  N.  of  Worcester 
and  10  miles  W,  N.  W.  of  Boston.  It  has  a  national  and 
a  savings  bank,  a  newspaper.  5  ehurches.  a  large  public 
lilirary.  a  high  sehool,  2  hotels,  and  a  number  of  nt'iroa. 
The  principal  manufacturing  business  ecmsisls  of  horn 
gitods.  furniture,  pianos,  children's  eiirriages.  tunning  and 
currying,  paper,  woollen,  linen.  lealber  board  mills,  and 
ft)rk-workp.  The  village  is  supplied  with  ai]ueduet-wator 
at  a  cost  of  about  $15(1.(100.  and  with  gnsworks.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  some  of  the  best  farming  IuihI  in  (he  county. 
IV)p.  ;isy4.  l**.  N.  RocTWKi.i,.  En.  "  ICnti  rtPnisK." 

Le'oilf  province  of  Northern  Spain,  comprising  an  area 
of  filfifi  s(|uare  miles,  with  .150,002  inhiibilants.  It  is  cov- 
ered with  mountain-ranges,  whieb,  espeeinlly  in  the  north- 
ern part,  enclose  beautiful.  wi-ll-waterei|,  mii)  f.rtilo  valleys, 
while  the  eastern  jmrfs  are  more  level  and  afford  excellent 

Vol..  II.— nt:i 


pasturage.  Large  flocks  of  merino  sheep  are  reared;  flax, 
beiup,  maize,  and  fruits  arc  raised,  and  many  medicinal 
herbs  arc  gathered.  Together  with  the  provinces  of  Sala- 
manca and  Zamora  it  formed  the  former  kingdom  of  Leon, 
founded  in  74(J  by  Alfouzo  the  Catholic,  who  conquered  it 
from  the  Saracens,  and  was  united  to  Castile  by  Ferdinand 
III.  in  12.10.  The  inhabitants  of  this  province,  who  gene- 
rally arc  uneducated  and  la/.y.  but  honest  antl  noble,  boast 
much  of  the  purity  of  their  blood  and  the  antiquity  of  their 
Christianity. 

Leon,  town  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Leon,  at  tho  confluence  of  the  Bernesga  nnd  the  Torio.  Since 
tho  annexation  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Leon  to  Castile  the 
city  has  lost  its  importance,  and  although  it  has  a  large 
market  for  wool  and  horses,  and  many  beautiful  churches 
and  magnificent  palaces,  its  general  character  is  decay. 
Its  eatbeilral,  built  in  the  fourteenth  century,  is  perhaps 
the  most  elegant  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture  extant. 
Pop.  10,040. 

Leon,  city  of  Mexico,  state  of  fiunnajuuto,  near  tho 
boundary  of  Jalisco.     It  was  founded  in  1  J7(>,  but  did  not 
acquire  importance  until  the  miildleof  the  present  century. 
It  now  claims  to  be  second  only  to  tho  capital  of  the  re- 
public in  point  <jf  population,  which  is  generally  estimated 
I  at   100,000.     Tho  chief   industries  arc   tanning,  saddlery, 
I  and  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen  stuff's.     There  are 
I  abundant  iron -mines  at   Comanja.  a  fi'w  miles  to  the  X. 
I   Leon  is  well  built,  has  a  large  and  beautiful  square,  with 
several  fine  public  buildings  and  churches,  and  has  become 
the  commercial  emporium  for  an  extensive  region,  cspeci- 
I   ally  for  tho  rich  plain  or  bajio  of  tluauajuato,  famous  for 
I  its  thriving  cities  and  its  prosperous  agriculture.    Leon  has 
;   for  years  aspired  to  become  the  capital  of  a  new  state  {Es- 
[  t'ttlo  (it(  iVutro)  to  bo  formed  of  parts  of  duanajuato  and 
j  Jalisco,  and  is  not  without  hopes  of  becoming  the  capital 
of  Mexico.     A  railroad  is  now  (1S75)  contracted  for  by  a 
Mexican  company  from  Mexico  to  Leon,  and  another  by  an 
.\meriean  company  from  Leon  to  the  Rio  Grande,  which 
will  vastly  increase  the  importance  of  this  city. 

Leon,  town  of  Nicaragua,  and  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Leon,  is  situated  in  lat.  12°  25'  N.,  Ion.  S6°  57'  W., 
in  the  centre  of  a  well-watered  and  well-cultivated  plain, 
200  feet  above  the  sea,  and  numbers  24.000  inhabitants, 
Creoles  ami  mestizoes  of  difTercnt  grades.  It  is  divided  into 
six  quarters  (canloncs) — Sagrario,  San  Felipe,  San  Juan. 
Calvario,  Zaragoza,  and  Laborio  y  San  Sebastian,  and 
separated  only  by  a  street  from  the  Indian  town  of  Sub- 
liiiba.  The  city  was  originally  founded  by  Francisco 
Fernandez  de  Conlova  in  152:i,  on  the  western  border  of 
Lake  Managua  in  Imbita,  but  on  account  of  various  em- 
barrassments of  the  location  the  inhabitants  removed  in 
KilO  the  city,  together  with  the  large  Inclinn  town  Sub- 
tiabfl.  to  the  present  place.  WmA  water  was  found  here, 
which  now  is  led  fntm  different  springs  through  the  ei(y. 
Formerly  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Nicaragua,  and  tho 
scat  of  a  bishop  and  of  the  Spanish  government.  Leon  has  de- 
veloped into  the  best  builtcity  of  the  republic.  In  itscentral 
part  the  streets  are  paved  and  lighted.  The  finest  building 
18  (he  cathedral,  commenced  in  1746  by  Bishop  Marin 
Bullon  y  Figueroa.  and  finished  in  1774  by  Bishop  Vinchcs 
y  Calirera.  It  belongs  to  no  particular  style,  but  is  of  im- 
mense dimensions,  though  too  low  in  j>roportion  to  its 
length  and  breadth.  The  front  facade  is  ornamented  with 
a  largo  qu:Ldrangular  lower,  whose  platform  offers  a  most 
splendid  view.  In  (he  neighborboud  td'  the  cathedral  stands 
tne  old  episcopal  palace,  and  connected  wiih  it  (he  ciMlege 
of  San  Ramon,  the  university  of  Nicaragua.  Both  build- 
ings were  founded  in  lfi7S  by  Bishop  Andres  ile  las  Navas 
y  l^uevedo.  The  new  episcopal  palace,  situated  at  the 
southern  corner  of  the  plaza  and  close  to  the  cathedral,  was 
not  finished  in  IS7;i.  At  the  northern  corner  of  the  jJaza 
stands  the  old  government  building.  But  none  of  these 
structures  are  distinguished  by  architectural  beauty.  The 
ten  or  twelve  other  churches  of  Leon  are  rather  coinmon- 
plai'o,  though  two  of  them  nossess  interesting  peculiarities  ; 
thus,  the  front  facade  of  tlie  churcli  Del  Calvario  is  orna- 
mented with  bns-reliefs  representing  scenes  of  Holy  Scrip- 
lure,  which  are  not  without  artistic  merit,  nnd  in  the  in- 
terior of  (he  rhurch  I)e  la  Merced  several  good  pictures  are 
found  and  a  Iteantifiil  altar.  Several  former  monasteries 
have  been  taken  into  public  use;  (bus,  the  monastery  of 
San  Juan  de  Dios  has  been  transformed  into  a  hospital, 
which  serves  as  a  practical  school  for  medical  students. 
'  Leon  has  no  industry,  but  some  trade  through  the  port  of 
Corinlo.  Tho  surroundings  are  very  beaulilul.  and  mineral 
springs  are  found  on  many  points  at  the  foot  of  Sierra  de 
los  Marrabios.  The  town  of  Subtiaba,  situated  close  by, 
has  a  large  ehureh,  almost  as  large  as  (he  cathedral  of  Leon, 
but  no  other  structure  of  any  imporlaiiee.  It  is  divided 
into  Iwo  quarters.  San  Pedro  and  Puelila  Orande,  At  the 
time  of  the  conquest  it  bad  lUO.diio  inhaliitanls ;  the  pros- 


1730 


LEON— LEONIDAS. 


ent  number  is  not  known.    The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
some  small  Indian  industry.  ArcusT  Niemann. 

JjeoUj  county  of  Florida,  bounded  N.  by  Georgia. 
Area,  GOO  square  miles.  It  is  undulating  in  the  N.  and 
level  in  the  S.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  abounds  in  heavy 
forests  and  beautiful  lakes  and  streams.  Corn  and  cotton 
iire  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Jacksonville 
Pen^acola  and  Mobile  R.  R.  Cap.  Tallahassee.  Pop. 
15. 2:10. 

liCon,  county  of  E.  Central  Texas.  Area.  1100  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  E.  by  Trinity  River  and  W.  by  the 
Navastita.  The  county  is  fertile,  and  contains  extensive 
timber-lands.  Iron  ore  and  lignitic  coal  abound.  Live- 
j^tock,  corn,  and  cotton  are  staple  products.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  International  and  Great  Northern  R.  R. 
Cap.  Centrevillc.     Pop.  6523.' 

fjCon,  post-v.  of  Centre  tp.,  cap.  of  Decatur  cc,  la.,  21 
miles  S.  of  Osceola.  It  has  a  national  bank  and  1  "weekly 
ueiTsp:ipt'r.     Pop.  fS20. 

Leon,  tp.  of  Goodhue  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  970. 
Leou,  post-tp.  of  Cattaraugus  co.,  N.  Y.    Pop.  1204. 
Leou,  ]tost-tp.  of  Monroe  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  1241. 
Leon,  tp.  of  Waushara  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  869. 
Leon'ard  (Daniel),  b.  at  Norton,  Mass.,  May  29, 1740  : 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1760  ;  became  a  prominent 
lawyer;  was  frequently  chosen  to  the  legislature,  and  at 
first  supported  the  Whig  cause  with  great  energy  and  elo- 
quence, but  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  adhered  to  the 
royal  cause,  losing  thereby  a  considerable  estate.     He  un- 
dertook to  reply  to  John  Adams's  arguments  against  the 
colonial  measures  of  Lord  North,  and  his  letters,  signed 
MasgdchiiHettciii^is,  have  been  pronounced  the  best  defence 
(if  the   English  government   that   appeared    in  America. 
Leonard  left  Boston  with  the  British  forces  (1776) ;  resided 
for  a  time   in  London;  was  many  years  chief-justice  of 
Bermuda,  and  d.  at  London  June  27,  1S29.     The  polemic 
lu-tween  Adams  and  Leonard  was  reprinted  in  1819,  with  a 
]iri'f;ice  by  the  former,  who  employed  the  nom  de  plume  of 
Sin-itu'ilns. 

Leonard  (James),  b.  at  Pontypool,  England,  about 
1018;  settled  at  Taunton,  Mass.,  in  1652,  and  established 
there  the  first  iron- works  in  the  British  colonies  of  America. 
D.  at  Taunton  in  1691. 

lieonar'do  da  Pi'sa,  or  Leonardo  Bonacci,  b. 
at  Pisa  in  1170  ur  ItSO  ;  spent  a  great  part  of  his  life  in 
travelling  tlinuigh  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Greece  in  order  to 
study  the  dift'crcnt  systems  of  arithmetic,  and  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  a  mathematician.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  algebra  in  Europe,  and  he  contributed  much  to 
the  full  understanding  of  the  Arabic  system  of  arithmetic. 
His  principal  work.  Liber  Abaci — which  latter  word,  orig- 
inally the  name  of  an  instrument  of  calculation,  he  uses  as 
the  general  designation  of  arithmetics — was  written  in  1202, 
nnd  published  in  a  splendid  edition  in  1857  at  Rome  by 
B.  Boneompagiii. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Sec  Vinci,  in  Appendix. 
Leou'ardsville,  post-v.  of  Brookfieid  tp.,  Madison  co., 
N.  Y.  It  has  a  church,  a  national  bank,  and  manufactures 
of  impurtanee. 

I^eon'ardtown,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  St.  Mary's  co., 
Md..  on  Briton's  Bay,  a  tributary  of  the  Potomac  River,  has 
2  churelies,  a  court-house,  a  jail,  a  town-hall  and  library, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  2  hotels,  6  stores,  2  wheelwright  and 
blacksmith  shops,  etc.  It  is  quite  popular  as  a  summer  re- 
sort.    Pop.  of  V.  4S5;  of  tp.  2957. 

B.  Harris  Camalier,  for  Ed.  **St.  Mary's  Beacon." 
Lcon^  de  (Fray  Lris  Ponce),  b.  at  Belmontc  near 
Gr;in:ida.  Spain,  in  1527;  entered  the  University  of  Sala- 
niunoa  at  an  early  age,  distinguishing  himself  in  classics 
and  philosophy;  entered  the  order  of  St.  Augustine  at 
Salamanca  in  1543,  devoting  himself  to  a  profound  study 
of  sacred  literature  ;  became  in  1560  a  licentiate  in  theology 
and  doctor  of  divinity,  and  in  1561  obtained  the  jtrofes- 
sorship  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (theology)  by  competition 
with  seven  candidates,  and  in  1571  obtained  in  a<lditioii 
the  chair  of  siiered  literature.  He  had  become  known 
as  the  most  elegnnt  poet  of  Spain,  when,  on  account  of  a 
spirited  translation  of  the  Canticle,  to  which,  in  opposition 
to  tlie  received  teachings  of  the  Church,  but  in  conformity 
with  the  conclusions  of  modern  sohnlarship,  be  gave  the 
form  of  a  pastoral  eelogue.  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by 
the  Inquisition  (1572),  upon  the  double  accusation  of  Lu- 
1  hor:inism  and  of  disobedience  to  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  in  having  translated  a  book  of  Scripture  into  a 
modern  tongue.  He  was  brought  before  the  high  eourt 
more  than  tifty  times,  easily  vindicated  himself  from  the 
first  charge,  and  presented  an  elegnnfly-written  defence, 
which  is  one  of  the  admired  monuments  of  Spanish  prose. 


It  was  of  no  avail  thnt  he  proved  the  translation  to  have 
been  made  at  the  request  of  a  friend,  and  without  intention 
of  publication:  the  liominieans,  who  controlled  the  Holy 
Office,  were  jealous  of  his  fame  as  the  most  distinguished 
theologian  of  a  rival  order,  and  ho  was  condemned  to  the 
rack;  but,  fortunately,  this  sentence  was  revoked  by  the 
higher  court  at  Madrid,  and  by  the  urgent  efforts  of  power- 
ful friends  he  was  liberated  after  five  years'  confinement, 
during  which  he  had  written  his  classic  treatise  On  the 
JVanirg  11/  Christ  (*'De  )os  Nombres  do  Cristo"),  and  com- 
menced other  works,  some  of  which  his  broken  health  pre- 
vented his  completing.  The  university  remained  faithful 
to  its  greatest  name,  and  Fray  Luis  resumed  his  lectures 
with  opplause  Dec.  30,  1576,  on  whicli  occasion  he  com- 
menced his  address  with  the  words.  **  As  we  remarked  in 
our  last  lecture,"  thus  seeming  to  forget  the  long  and  jiainful 
interval  of  silence.  In  1580,  Frny  Luis  puldished  a  Latin 
Commentary  on  the  Canticle  ;  in  15S3  Thr  }*erfccf  W'i/f  ("  La 
Pcrfecta  Casada") ;  wrote  soon  after  a  poetical  panijihrasc 
of  the  book  of  Job,  and  translations  of  Virgil's  Erloijiu-H  and 
(icnrf/ic9  and  some  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  which  were  not 
published  during  his  life.  His  lyric  poems,  the  finest 
in  the  language,  shared  the  same  fate,  as  also  his  transla- 
tions of  forty  of  the  Psalms.  Ho  rose  to  be  general  and 
provincial  vicar  of  his  order,  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  perfect  tranquillity,  and  d.  at  Madrigal  Aug.  23, 1591. 
His  poems  and  miscellaneous  works  were  first  published  by 
his  friend  Qucvedo  in  1631,  since  which  time  they  have 
been  recognized  as  Spanish  classics.  (See  Ticknor's  Spanish 
Literature  and  A.  Arango  y  Escandon's  Proceto  dc  Fnii/ 
Luia  de  Leon  (Mexico,  1871),  an  elegant  and  scholarly 
production.)  Porter  C.  Bliss. 

Leones'sa,  town  of  S.Italy,  in  the  province  of  Aquila 
degli  Abruzzi.  This  town,  consisting  of  several  small  vil- 
lages, was  given  in  dower  by  Charles  \.  to  his  daughter 
Margaret,  and  rich  mementoes  of  that  period  are  still  pre- 
served.    Pop.  in  1874,  5451. 

Leonfor'te?  town  &f  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Catania. 
This  town  is  situated  on  the  skirts  of  a  mountain  about  33 
mites  S.  W.  of  Catania.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and 
in  the  churches  may  be  seen  some  very  gouil  pictures.  It 
bus  an  active  trade  in  grain,  oil,  almonds,  sulphur,  wines, 
etc.     Pop.  in  1874,  12,010. 

Lie'onhardt  (Gerhard  Adolph  Wilhelm),  b.  at  Ncu- 
haus  in  Hanover  June  6,  1815:  studied  jurisprudence  at 
Giittingen  and  Berlin:  entered  the  service  of  the  Hano- 
verian government  in  1837,  and  was  appointed  minister  of 
justice  in  1865.  For  fifteen  lears  ho  was  jircsident  of  the 
committee  of  examination  in  jurispru<lencc.  AViicn  (in 
1866)  Hanover  was  annexed  to  Prussia,  Leonhardt  was 
first  made  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Celle.  and 
then  chief-justice  for  the  new  provinces,  Nov.  IG,  1867  :  the 
king  gave  him  a  scat  in  the  Prussian  Herren-haus  ("  House 
of  Lords"),  and  shortly  after  ho  was  appointed  Prussian 
minister  of  justice.  Both  in  Hanover  and  Prussia  many 
important  and  excclient  laws  are  due  to  him.  and  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  federal  council  and  president  of  the  standing 
committee  on  justice  ho  has  created  a  new  criminal  code 
for  the  Gennan  empire.  Avgist  Niemann. 

Le'onhard,  von  (Karl  C^sar),  b.  at  Rumpeuheim, 
in  the  electorate  of  Hesse.  Sept.  12,  1779;  studied  political 
economy  at  Marburg  and  Giittingen,  and  hehl  several 
important  positions  in  the  Hessian  government  from  1800 
to  1S16.  At  Giittingen  the  lectures  of  Bliimenbaeh  led  him 
to  the  study  of  mineralogy  and  geology,  and  he  continued 
to  cultivate  these  sciences  with  great  energy  and  success, 
even  while  in  office.  In  1816  he  was  mn<le  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Municli,  and  in  i81S  he  ac- 
cepted the  chair  as  professor  in  geology  at  the  University 
of  Heidelberg,  where  he  d.  Jan.  23,  1862.  From  IJ^O?  to 
1829  he  edited  the  Ta8ch<  nbiich  fiir  MiuiraltHjic,  and  from 
1S30  to  1858  the  Jahrbuch  /Ur  Mintrattiific.  His  writings, 
the  most  prominent  of  which  arc  yulunjrtirhichte  der  Erde 
(4  vols.,  1836-45),  O'rundzuge  dcr  Mineraloijie  (2  vols., 
1860),  etc.,  are  not  so  much  distinguished  by  originaLdis- 
coveries  and  independent  researches  as  by  a  clear  and  com- 
prehensive representation  of  what  was  already  known. 
Leo'ni,  post-tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Mich.  Pop.  1376. 
Leon'idasy  post-tp,  of  St.  Joseph  co.,  Mich.  Pop. 
1463. 

Leonidas^  king  of  Sparta,  succeeded  his  half-brother, 
Clcomenes,  about  490  b.  c,  and  was  sent  in  the  spring  of 
■180.  when  the  Persians  had  conquered  Macedonia,  to  de- 
fend the  defiles  of  Thermopylje,  between  Mount  <¥Aix  and 
the  Maliac  Gulf.  With  the  co-operation  of  a  tleet  in  the 
gulf,  the  defiles  could  be  defended  by  a  comparatively 
small  army,  but  the  Greek  fleet  was  unfit  for  battle  at  the 
motnent  the  Persian  attack  began,  and,  what  was  still 
worse,  they  had  forgotten  to  occupy  a  practicable  pathway 
which  led  across  Mount  (Eta,  and  which  was  shown  to  the 


L  EON  I  DAS— LEOPOLD. 


1731 


Pcrsions  by  a  traitor,  Ephialtes.     For  two  days  the  Greeks  j 
resisted  llic  barlmriun  host  with  great  valor;  the  Persian   , 
losses  were  eiiorliums.      But  at  daybreak  on  the  third  day 
Leoniihis  learned  lliat  the  Persians  had  found  the  pathway  j 
and  were  eoniing  in  masses  across  the  mountain.     There 
was  still  time  to  retreat.     But  having  sent  away  his  aux- 
iliary Irocips,  Leonidas  with  his  SdO  Spartans  remained  in 
the  defiles,  and,  nceupying  a  small  hill  in  the  centre  of  the 
position,  they  fought  to  the  last  man. 

Leonidas  [.\<iui'.{«  or  -Sin],  the  name  of  two  poets 
whose  remains  are  preserved  to  us  in  the  lircek  Auihntogi/. 
The  former,  a  native  of  Tarentum,  flourished  about  n.  c. 
27Ct.  lie  composed  over  100  epigrams  in  tlie  Dorio  dialect. 
— The  other,  of  .Mexandria,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero  at 
Itome.  In  the  Aiitlinlniji/  there  are  41!  epigrams  ascribed 
to  him,  some  of  which  arc  probably  not  his.  They  arc  less 
highly  csleenied  than  those  of  Lconidas  of  Tarontum. 
The  poems  of  both  are  edited  by  Jacobs  in  the  Anthnioijia 
(Jrntn,  and  by  Jleineke  (Leipsic,  171)1).        H.  Drisi.f.r. 

Le'oninc  Verse  [from  Pope  Leo  II.,  or  from  one 
Leoninus.  Benedictine  canon  of  yt.  Victor,  Paris,  in  the 
twelfth  century],  the  rhyming  hexameter,  pentameter,  or 
elegiac  verse,  especially  in  Latin.  Traces  of  this  rhyming 
practice  ajipear  in  Ovid,  anil  even  in  earlier  poets,  but  the 
custom  prevailed  extensively  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  rhyme 
being  often  barbarously  imperfect,  and  the  metre  not  much 
belter. 

Leonowens  (  A.nn.v  IIakriette  CuawfouI)),  b.  at  Caer- 
narvon, Wales,  Nov.  o,  ls;i4,  daughter  of  a  British  officer, 
Thomas  Maxwell  Crawford,  who  while  acting  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  Sir  .1.  Maenaughton  was  cut  in  pieces  by  the  Sikhs 
on  the  frontiers  of  Lahore.  She  married  an  olhcer,  Thomas 
Leonowens.  upon  whose  death  in  India  she  was  left  in  that 
country  with  two  children  dependent  upon  her  own  exer- 
tions, and  resided  for  some  time  at  Singapore.  Through 
the  recommendation  of  the  English  consul  at  that  port  she 
was  selected  to  fill  the  post  of  governess  in  the  family  of 
the  late  first  king  of  Siani,  who,  having  learned  English 
from  .\meriean  missionaries  before  coming  to  the  throne, 
<lcsired  his  numerous  children  to  be  educatetl  in  that  lan- 
guage, of  which  he  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  and  culti- 
vator, having  even  established  a  printing-press  within  his 
]>alaco.  Arriving  at  Bangkok  in  ISt;.'!,  she  filled  for  four 
years  not  only  the  position  of  instructress  to  the  royal 
household,  but  of  secretary  to  the  king  in  his  extensive 
English  corrcspontlenco,  and  exerted  a  considerable  influ- 
ence as  a  mediator  with  the  king  in  behalf  of  the  victims 
of  arbitrary  oppression,  whether  natives  or  foreigners.  The 
present  first  king  of  iSiam,  then  a  boy,  was  the  special  ob- 
ject of  her  careful  and  successful  training,  and  shortly 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  ISGS  abolished  slavery 
throughout  his  iloniinions.  (See  ,Siam.)  i\Irs.  Leonowens 
on  retiring  from  her  post  in  .Inly,  lr*0",  settled  in  the  U.  S. 
and  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  being  now  a  resident  of 
New  York.  She  has  published  two  interesting  volumes 
upon  her  Siamese  experiences — The  ICnyfiiih  Govcrnemt  at 
the  Ctmrt  of  Sidin  (iHTti)  and  the  Jiumance  of  the  Ifarem 
(1S72). 

Leontini.     See  Lkntini. 

Leon'tiu!*,  or  Leo  Pilatiis,  a  native  of  Thcssalonion, 
according  to  Hody,  but  Ilatlam  nnikes  him  (on  the  author- 
ity of  Petrarch's  letters)  a  Calabrian;  came  to  Florence 
about  LIOO  A.  n.,  and  was  employed  by  the  rojjublic  at  the 
request  of  Boccaccio  to  teach  his  native  language.  Ho  was 
the  first  who  publicly  lectured  on  Homer  in  Western  Europe, 
an<t  the  first  who  translated  that  poet  into  Latin.  Leaving 
I'lorcnee,  he  visited  Venice,  where  he  met  Petrarch,  who 
had  studied  tJrcek  under  Barlaam.  Thence  he  went  to  Con- 
stantinople, intending  to  rottirn  to  Italy,  but  d.  while  cross- 
ing the  Adriatic.  Gibbon  <lescribes  his  appearance  and 
manners  as  repulsive.  (Ihrlinr  (tnri  F<tll,  vol.  viii.  ]).  1  IS.) 
prom  hiui  Boccaccio  colleoted  the  materials  for  his  treatise 
ou  the  genealogy  of  the  heathen  gods.  (Sec  (libbon,  /.  c.  ; 
Hody,  Dc  (Jrircit  ilhiiilribuii,  pp.  1-11.)  H.  lIlllsi.Ell, 

Ijenp'nrd  [Lat.  ten,  "Hon,"  and  pnrdiiH.  a  "panther," 
it  ha\  iug  been  anciently  believed  to  be  the  offspring  of  the 
lion  and  panther],  the  /'r/i't  liujianlitit  or  Lcitji'inlun  vnriitn. 
The  leopard,  though  not  the  largest,  is  one  of  the  most 
active  and  bloodthirsty  of  the  eat  family.  I'ound  through- 
out a  largo  part  of  Africa  and  of  Asia  and  its  islands,  it 
is  of  even  ivider  distribution  than  the  lion.  It  rarely 
assails  man,  but  among  animals,  wild  and  domestic,  it  is 
extremely  destructive.  Its  beautifully  spotted  fur  gives  ita 
readily  distinguished  character.  The  hhick  leopard  is  a 
variety  brought  from  Java.  The  "hunting  leopard  "  bo- 
longs  t(i  a  very  distinct  genus  of  the  cat-family  (  (jiirpttrtln)^ 
anil  is  more  properly  known  as  the  Chkktaii  (which  see). 

i/Copnr'di  (Hiacomo),  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Reeanati, 

not  I:vr  from  .\ncon;i.in    17'.'^;   was  taught  the  rudiments 


of  Latin  and  of  philosophy  by  two  ecclesiastics  ;  at  the  age 
of  eight  began  Ureek  by  himself,  and  after  his  fourteenth 
year  pursued  his  studies  without  master,  or  even  guide, 
making  unrestricted  use  of  his  father's  large  and  choice 
library.     "  .M  sixteen,"  says  one  of  his  biographers.  '•  his 
learning  was  so  vast  that  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  it 
without  seeming  to  exaggerate."     lie  was  comidctely  mas- 
ter of  the  tireck  and   Latin  languages  and  classical  litera- 
ture, was  familiar  with  the  Fathers  of  the  Church    and 
other  later  (Jreek  and  Latin  writers,  had  a  scholarly  know- 
ledge of  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Hebrew,  and  was 
profoundly  versed  in  his  own  language.     Notwithstanding 
acquirements  so  disproportionate  to  his  years,  his  faculties 
were  not  in  the  least  clogged  by  them,  and  his  reason  and 
imagination   lost  nothing  of  their  astonishing  power  and 
individuality.     His  physical  strength,  however,  gave  way. 
and  there  were  already  symptoms  of  the  complicated  and 
cruel  malady  which  finally  ended  his  life.     At  the  age  of 
nineteen,  conscious  of  his  great  genius  and   burning  with 
a  lofiy  ambition,  ho  longed  for  the  resources  of  a  larger 
town  ;  but  his  father,  a  zealous  Catholic,  and  already  alarm- 
ed at  the  skeptical  tendencies  of  his  son,  refused  to  consent 
to  his  wider  contact  with  the  world;  and  the  obedient  son 
reluctantly  remaineil  at  home  until  1S22.     As  it  is  impos- 
sible in  this  brief  notice  to  eniuuerato  his  works  in  the  or- 
der of  their  production,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  biog- 
r.iphies  of  Le(qiardi  for  a  list  of  the  brilliant  results  of  his 
labors  during  tlieso  years.     The   splendid   success  of  the 
three  poems  entitled   AW  Itullii,  Suprn   il    Moiiiimciiln  di 
Dante,  Ad  Anrjcli)  Mat,  etc.  induced  him  to  brave  all  op- 
position and  go  to  Rome,  which  ho  did  in  1822.     Here  he 
was   enthusiastically   welcomed,   and    soon   made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Niebuhr,  who  expressed  to  Bunsen  and  other 
eminent  tierinans  the  liveliest  admiration  for  the  learning 
and  genius  of  tlie  jiale.  bent,  and  emaciated  young  Italian. 
Ho  even  procured  for  him  the  ofl'cr  of  tho  chair  of  Ureek 
jihilosojihy  in   the   Univer.ity  of  Berlin,  but  the  wretched 
health  of  the  poet  forced  him  to  decline  this  flattering  ofler. 
His  small  pecuniary  means  were  soon  exhausted,  his  %  lews 
on  the  subject  of  religion  prevented  him  from  accepting 
employment  at  the  papal  court,  and  ho  was  obliged  to  re- 
turn, in  the  spring  of  tho  same  year,  to  llecauati.  where  he 
renmined,  with  occasional  long  visits  to  ^lilan  and  Bologna, 
until   1S27.     In  that  year  he  went  to  Florence,  where  he 
lived — with  now  and  then  a  visit  to  his  family — until  IS:!."., 
in  close  friendship  with  Capponi,  Nicculini,  etc.     The  joy- 
ousness  which  had  nmrked  tho  first  boyhood  of  Leopardi 
had  faded   early  away,  and   was    succi-cded    by  an    ever- 
increasing    sadness,  which    had    now    darkened    into    tho 
deepest  melancholy — alike  tho  cause  and  the  consequence 
of  his  hojieless  philosophy.     No  doubt  his  physical  sufl'er 
ings  largely  influenced  his  philosophical  beliefs,  though  he 
protested  vigorously  against  this   ajudogy   for  them,  and 
insisted   that  his   absolute   denial   of   a   beneficent  Provi- 
dence, and  his  assertion  that  //o/a  was  tho  only  reality, 
were  the  results  of  a  free  antl  earnest  exercise  of  his  reason 
and  of  the  courage  which  he  had  to  ]iroelaini  his  conclu- 
sions.    In    IS.'i.'i  ills  devoted   frii-nd    Uanieri   took    him   to 
Naples  in  tho  hope  of  alleviating  at  least  his  terrible  phys- 
ical sufl'erings.     The  elVect  of  the  change  was  at  first  bene- 
ficial, and  even  Leopardi  began  to  regard  life  as  a  thing 
to  bo  desired  :   but  neither  the  clinmte  nor  the  tentlercst 
care  on  the  part  of  his  generous  friend  conUl  save  him,  and 
he  expired  on  ,Inne  M.  I.s;t7.     Leopardi  has  been  compared 
with  Byron,  but  there  is  little  in  connnon  between  the  self- 
ish bitterness  of  the  great  English  poet  and  the  profound 
melancholy  id'  the  Italian — the  former  a  natural  outgrowth 
of  unbridled   passions,  the  latter  of  acute   and    incessant 
physical  sufl'ering.     The  student  of  Leopardi  will  lie  likely 
to  find  a  stronger  jiarallel  between  his  eliaracter  and  genius 
and  those  of    Pascal,  widely  ditl'erent  as  were  their  phi- 
losophical and  religious  convictions.     Though  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  had    his   life  been   prohmged  this   earnest 
seeker  after  truth  would  have  ultinnitely  rested  in  a  less 
'  desiiairing  creed,  yet   the  miserable  attempts  to  uuike  it 
'  appear  that  Leopardi   in  his  last  days  sought  for  a  reeon- 
I  eilmtion  with  the  Church  have  been  nnist  thoroughly  cx- 
I  posed  and  confuted.    (See  Maro  Alonnier,  //  ftnti'r  t-Mt-' Ite 
fa   Trrn-  dt/i   Mt,ft» ;    also    Montanari,    tVtinjraJta   del    Cniitc 
Lriipardi ;   the  works   of  Louis  de  Sinner,  Sainte-Beuve, 
Schul/,,  Kanieri,  Uiordani,  IJioberti,  etc.)     The  most  com- 
plete   collection    of   Leopardi'fl    works   yet  published  was 
issued  from  tho  press  of  Lo  Monnior  nt  Florence  between 
i   ISI.'i    and    1S.')1,  under   the  supervision    of    dillerent  edi- 
tors. Cauomsi:  C.  Mausii. 
Lo'ojtold,  post-lp.  of  Perry  CO.,  Ind.     Pop.  K02. 
Leopold   I.,  emperor  of  Ctermany  (l(irif-170.'i),  b.  at 
Vienna  .lune  '.I,  1010,  the  second  son  of  Ferdinand  III.  and 
Maria  .Anna  of  .'<paiii.     He  was  educated  for  tho  Church, 
but  at  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in   lO'i.')  he  became 
king  of  HiuiL'nry,  rind   in  ll'js   he  suoi-eeded  his  father  as 


1732 


LEOPOLD— LEPIDODENDRON. 


kiDg  of  Bohemia  aud  emperor  of  Germany.  He  was  a 
man  of  small  stature  and  feeble  health,  with  a  sour  and 
mclanclioly  face,  anrl  the  lip  of  the  Ilapsbiirgers  extra- 
ordinarily developed.  He  had  f^omo  interest  in  ]inj;uistic 
studies  and  a  fine  car  for  mii'ic.  but  he  was  reticent  uml 
stiff  in  his  behavior,  a  man  of  rL-(;iiIar  and  simple  habits, 
but  ceremonious,  proud,  bip;otcd.  and  hard.  Although  be 
was  very  industrious^  he  left  the  administration  in  utter 
confusion,  aud  in  spite  of  his  pcaceableness,  or  rather 
timidity,  his  reign  was  one  long  series  of  wars  with  Louis 
XIV.,  the  Turks,  and  the  Hungarians.  Of  his  three  wars 
with  France,  the  two  first,  which  ended  by  the  Peace  of 
Nymwegen  in  ItJTS  and  of  Ryswiek  in  IG*J7,  arc  described 
in  the  articles  on  Lotris  XIV.  and  Wim.iam  or  Oiiange, 
and  the  last  one,  the  SivVMSii  AV,\u  or  Simtkssion.  in  a 
separate  article.  The  point  at  issue  between  Austria  aud 
Turkey  was  Transylvania.  The  Turks  held  it.  and  the 
Hungarians  demanded  it.  In  16l>2  the  war  began,  ami  the 
Turks  broke  iuto  Hungary.  But  in  ^C)C^'^,  LeopoUl  received 
troojis  fnim  the  (lerman  empire,  ."^weden,  and  France,  and 
money  from  the  j>o])e  and  the  Italian  states,  and  Aug.  1, 
IfiiU,  Montecucc()li  succeeded  in  routing  the  Turkish  army 
at  St.  Gothard  on  the  Raab.  On  Aug.  10  an  armistioo  of 
ten  years  was  concluded,  in  which,  however,  the  Turks  re- 
tained Transylvania,  to  the  great  indignation  of  the  Hun- 
garians. ?^oon  after  disturbances  arose  in  Hungary  from 
the  contest  between  the  national  Protestant  and  the  Aus- 
trian Catholic  jiarties.  Leopold  treated  his  political  ad- 
versaries with  the  utmost  harshness,  and  the  result  was  a 
formidable  insurri'ction  under  the  leadership  of  Tokiilyi  in 
lfiS2.  The  Hungarians  called  the  Turks  to  aid.  and  on 
July  14,  108.3,  an  army  of  200.000  men  laid  siege  to  Vien- 
na. Leopold  had  flci.  and  in  spite  of  the  valorous  resist- 
ance of  the  citizens  and  the  garrison  the  city  would  have 
fallen,  and  with  it  the  power  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  if 
the  Polish  king.  .Tohn  Sobieski,  had  not  arrived  before  its 
walls  (Sept.  12),  and  completely  routed  the  besieging  army. 
In  10S7,  Archduke  Charles  of  Lorraine  defeated  the  Turks 
at  Mohacs  ;  in  1097,  Prince  Eugene  defeated  thematZenta: 
aud  in  1699  peace  was  concluded  at  Carlowitz,  by  which 
the  Turks  ceded  Transylvania.  Slavonia,  etc.,  and  retired 
behind  the  Danube,  never  to  endanger  Europe  again.  The 
Hungarians  also  submitted,  and  at  the  diet  of  Presburg 
(16S7)  the  Hungarian  crown  was  declared  hereditary  In  the 
family  of  Hapsburg.  Nevertheless,  they  rose  once  more, 
and  when  Leopold  d.  at  Vienna  (May  5,  1705)  insurrection 
ragi'd  in  his  Hungarian  countries,  and  war  with  France  in 
his  Belgian,  German,  and  Italian  possessions. 

Leopold  II.,  emperor  of  Germany  (1790-92).  b.  at 
Vienna  May  5,  1747,  the  second  son  of  Francis  I.  and  Ma- 
ria Theresa.  In  I7fi5  he  succeeded  his  father  as  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany,  and  proved  himself  a  libera!  and  enlightened 
ruler.  But,  like  his  brother,  Joseph  II.,  and  like  Pombal 
in  Portugal  and  Struensee  in  Denmark,  he  was  a  despotic 
reformer,  and  his  reforms  caused  great  annoyances  and  dis- 
turbances. In  1791)  he  succeeded  his  brother  in  Austria 
and  (iermany.  and  found  on  his  ascension  to  the  throne  the 
vast  em])ire  in  a  critical  state.  With  great  tact,  however, 
he  managed  the  difiicult  situation.  He  pacified  Hungary, 
quelled  the  insurrection  in  Belgium,  concluded  jicace  with 
Turkey  at  Sistova  in  1791,  and  re-established  the  friendly 
relations  with  Prussia  by  the  congress  of  Reichenbaeh  in 
1790.  .Just  as  he  had  entered  a  confederation  with  Prus- 
sia and  Saxony  for  the  support  of  Louis  XVI.  against 
his  rebellious  subjects,  he  d.  suddenly  at  Vienna  Mar.  1, 
1792. 

Leopold  L,  king  of  Belgium  (18.31-65).  b.  Dec.  16, 
17911,  the  youngest  son  of  Duke  Francis  of  Sa.xe-Coburg ; 
received  a  very  careful  education,  was  made  a  general  in 
the  Russian  army  after  the  marriage  of  his  sister  to  the 
grand  duke  Constantine,  accompanied  Alexander  I.  to  Vi- 
enna and  Paris  in  1814,  and  was  married  in  1810  to  the 
princess  Charlotte  .Augusta,  heir-apparent  of  Great  Britain. 
After  her  death  in  1817  he  lived  in  retirement  in  London 
or  travelling.  In  1S.10  he  refused  the  crown  of  Greece,  hut 
in  ls:U  he  aceepted  that  of  BLdgium,  and  married  in  18;i2 
a  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  bore  him  three  children. 
His  reign  was  calm  and  undisturbed.  He  was  firm,  dis- 
criminating, ami  progressive  in  his  interior  policy,  an<l 
he  represented  liis  people  with  tact  and  dignity  among 
other  sovereigns.  D.  at  Lcaken,  near  Brussels,  Dec.  10, 
IS  6.".. 

Leopold  II.,  king  of  Belgium,  b.  Apr.  9,  1835,  a  son 
of  King  licopold  I.  and  Queen  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  Louis 
Philippe  of  Fr.ance;  was  married  (.Aug.  22,  185:i)  to  Marie 
Hcnricttc.  a  daughter  of  the  archduke  Joseph  of  Austria, 
and  ascended  the  throne  Dec.  10,  lSfi5. 

Leopold  I.,  prince  of  Anhalt-Dessau.  generally  known 
as  the  Old  Dhssaieu,  b.  June  .1.  1(170.  and  evinced  even 
as    a    boy    a    strung    passion    for    military    business.      In 


\(\SS  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  made  him  a  colonel  and  chief 
of  a  regiment  of  horse,  but  in  169'i,  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  who  was  a  Prussian  general-field-raarshal,  he  en- 
tered the  Prussian  service  and  received  his  father's  regi- 
ment. He  was  at  once  passionate  and  shrewd,  domineering 
and  kind,  utterly  rough  in  his  manners  and  often  sublime 
in  his  feelings.  As  a  youth  he  fell  in  love  with  .Anna  Luiso 
Ffise,  the  daughter  of  a  druggist,  and  in  spite  of  all  rcmon- 
,  strances,  as  soon  as  he  was  of  age  ( in  1698)  he  married  her, 
induced  the  emperor  to  raise  her  to  princely  rank,  and  led 
a  noble  and  happy  married  life  with  her.  He  served  from 
1 698  to  171-j  with  great  distinction  and  in  high  and  responsi- 
ble positions  under  Eugene  and  Marlborough  in  the  Nether- 
i  lands,  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  Italy,  and  on  the  accession  of 
!  Frederick  William  I.  to  the  Prussian  throne  he  actually 
became  the  head  of  the  Prussian  army.  He  was  a  master 
in  military  training.  He  invented  the  equal  step,  and 
formed  those  armies  with  which  Frederick  II.  founded  the 
political  power  of  Prussia.  He  was  at  once  despotic  and 
inspiring,  and  that  spirit — a  spirit  of  discipline — before 
which  the  Austrians  broke  down  at  Sadowa  and  the  French 

■  at  Sedan,  descends  from  the  Old  Dessauer.  He  was,  how- 
I  ever,  not  only  a  drill-sergeant,  like  his  royal  friend.  Fred- 
I   erick  William  I. :   he  was  also  a  general.     His  conquest  of 

I   Riigen  and  the  capture  of  Stralsund   in  1715  in   the  war 

■  against  the  Swedes  were  brilliant  exploits.  Frederick  11., 
who  disliked  him  because  he  smelt  of  the  tofmrrf,  cnl/cijhim, 
valued  his  capacities  as  a  commander  very  highly.  In  the 
first  Silesian  war  he  placed  him  in  command  of  the  army 

j  on  the  Hanoverian  frontier,  and  in  the  second  he  sent  him 
j  t't  invade  Saxony,  where  ho  won  the  brilliant  victory  at 
'  Kesselsdorf  which  ended  the  war.  After  the  death  of  his 
'  wife,  in  1745,  he  retired  from  all  participation  in  public 
life,  and  d.  on  his  estate  at  Dessau  Apr.  7.  1747. 

Leopold  II.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  (1824-59),  b.  Oct. 
3,  1797,  a  son  of  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand  III.  He  ruled 
in  the  same  spirit  as  his  grandfather,  Leopold  I.,  emperor 
of  Germany,  under  the  name  of  liCopold  II.     In  1847  ho 

'  granted  a  free  constitution,  and  although  in  1849  he  had  to 
flee  to  Naples,  he  was  recalled  shortly  after  by  his  own  sub- 
jects. Thus  he  weathered  the  liberal  storm,  but  the  na- 
tional, which  soon  followed,  was  too  powerful  for  him.  In 
1859  he  iletl  wifli  his  family  to  A'ienna.  No  regard  was 
paid  to  his  abdication  in  favor  of  his  son.     His  dominions 

I  were  incorporated  with  the  kingdrim  of  Italy  in  conseqiicnco 
of  a  popular  vote,  and  he  d.  an  exile  at  Brandcis,  in  Bohe- 

i  mia.  Jan.  20,  1S70. 

j       Leos'thenes,  an  Athenian  general  of  whose  earlier 

!   life  nothing  is  known.     In  324.  when  Alexander  the  Great 

i  ordered  all  the  Greek  states  to  recall  those  citizens  who  had 
been  exiled  for  political  reasons,  several  of  the  states  rose 
in  rebellion.  Alexander  dying  shortly  after,  a  league  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  Macedonians  out  of 
Greece,  and  Lcosthenes  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  con- 
federate army.  His  career  was  short  but  brilliant.  He 
routed  the  Boeotians,  wlm  sided  witii  the  Macedonians,  and 
then  defeati'il  Antipater,  the  Macedonian  general,  and  shut 
him  up  in  Lamia.  But  while  besieging  this  city  he  was 
wounded  mortally  in  the  head  by  a  stone  thrown  from  the 
r:inij)arts.  aud  d.  two  days  after,  322  ii.  c. 

Lepau'to,  Gulf  of,  also  called  the  (>tilf  of  Corinth, 
an  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean.  75  miles  long  and  about  16 
miles  wide,  between  Peloponnesus  and  the  mainland  of 
(Jreece,  terminates  to  the  E.  in  the  Gulf  of  Patras,  con- 
nected with   it  by  tlie  Strait  of  Lepanto.  not  more  than  a 

!  mile  wide.  In  this  gulf  was  fought  (Oct.  7,  1571  i  the  cel- 
ebrated battle  between  Don  John  of  .Austria,  commanding 
the  allied  Spanish.  Venetian,  and  papal  licet,  an<l  ,Ali  Pa?ha, 
commander  of  the  Turkish  fleet,  from  which  battle  may  be 
dated  the  decline  of  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe.  (See  the 

I  elaborate  and  very  impressive  description  in  Prescott'sy//*- 

I    t->rif  ../  /'/n'lip  II.  nf  Spuin.) 

Lep'idine  [Gr.  Acn-i?,  "scale,"  or  "bark"].  CioHgN, 
a  volatile,  oily  base,  homologous  with  chinoline,  obtained' 
with  that  and  other  bases  on  distilling  quinine  orcinchonine 
with  water  and  potassic  hydrate.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  1.072, 
boiling  ]ioint  between  200°  and  271°  *'.  The  isomeric  base 
iridoline.  formerly  supposed  to  be  identical  with  lepidine,  is 
found  in  the  oil  of  coal-tar.  C.  F.  CnAxni.ER. 

Lepidodeti'dron  [Gr.  "  scale  tree  "].  a  genus  of  fossil 
trees,  usually  referred  to  the  Lyeopodiaeea\  but  was  once 
thought  to  be  allied  to  the  coniferous  araucarias.  Their 
remains  are  found  in  the  Devonian  rocks  and  the  Lower 
Coal-measures,  and  they  are  believed  to  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  producti<m  of  coal.  Their  surface  is  marked 
with  scale- shaped  spaces,  which  are  the  scars  of  fallen 
,  leaves.  Many  of  them  were  of  great  size— 40  to  80  feet 
high  and  3  to  0  feet  through.  Remains  of  many  species 
are  known,  partly  American,  partly  European,  and  partly 
common  to  both  couliucuts. 


LEPIDOLITE— LEPIDOPTERA. 


I73;i 


Lrpid'olitC  [Gr.  Afir.t.  "  scale,"  and  A.9o5,  "stone"],  j 
a  species  of  mica,  crvstalliiing  in  the  trimetric  systcni,  anil 
in  composition  a  siiieatc  of  alumina,  etc.  with  lithia.     It 
is  generally  met  with  in  granular  masses,  consisting,  as  its 
name  implies,  of  foliated  scales. 

liCpidop'tcrn.  This  term  [Or.  Aem's,  "scale,"  and 
irrcpd.'.  "  wing  "]  was  applied  to  the  huttcrllics  and  moths  hv 
Linnrcns,  in  allusion  to  the  fine  powdery  scales  which  clothe 
their  wings.  liut  this  is  a  character  of  secondary  import- 
ance, ascertain  Diplcra(r'ii/cj-.  ctc.)and  roleo|.tcra.  as  well 
as  Neuroptera.  have  the  body  slightly  scaled.  The  l.epidop- 
tcra  are  hetter  ilistingui.shcd  hy  the  long,  slender  larvie 
(caterpillars),  which  have  usually  from  two  to  five  pairs  of 
soft,  flesh V.  unjointed  abdominal  legs,  besides  the  three 
thoracic  p'airs.  They  arc  active,  and  eat  vegetable  food  : 
the  pupa  (chrysalis)  is  inactive,  the  limbs  being  soldered  to 
the  body,  the  'whole  integument  forming  a  solid  ease  :  while 
the  adult  (imago)  is  distinguished  from  all  other  insects  by 
the  want  of  mandibles  fitted  for  mastication  (as  they  exist 
in  a  verv  rudimentary  state),  and  by  the  maxilire  being 
united  and  forming  a  sucking-tube  called  the  "  tongue." 
Other  essential  characters  are  the  small  head  with  its  large 
clypeus,  the  minute  lal>rum.  the  large  globular  compound 
eyes,  the  large,  sealed  labial  palpi  held  up  in  front  of  the 
face  and  protecting  the  tongue,  and  by  the  usually  broad 
wings  densely  covered  with  minute  scales.  The  l.epidoptcra 
are  essentiallv  flying  insects  ;  the  broad  wings  arc  strength- 
ened by  hollow  rods  (the  so-called  veins,  containing  an  air- 
tube  around  which  the  blood  flows),  which  arc  placed  near- 
est together  on  the  front  or  eostivl  edge  of  the  wing.  The 
normal  number  of  these  veins  is  si.x  :  they  are  v.ariously 
brnnehcd,  afl"ording  characters  for  distinguishing  families 
an.l  genera.  .\s  they  rarely  walk,  only  using  their  legs  as 
supports  while  at  rest,  these  appendages  are  slender  and 
weak,  and  very  uniform  in  appearance,  but  frequently  the 
foremost  pair  of  legs  are  aborted  or  rndimentary.  The 
head  is  small,  the  masticatory  muscles  being  slightly 
developed,  since  these  insects  take  little  Ibod.  ami  then 
only  by  sucking  up  dew  or  honey  through  their  tongue. 
The  thorax,  however,  filled  with  the  large,  powerful 
muscles  of  flight,  is  very  largo  in  proportion  to  the 
head,  and  more  or  less  spherical,  duo  to  the  small  size 
of  the  prothoraeic  segment  and  the  rather  small  third 
(uietathoracic)  segment.  The  abdomen,  or  hind  body,  is 
cylindrical,  about  twice  as  long  as  the  thorax,  with  no 
true  ovipositor  or  other  appendage,  except  tv/u  valve-like 
pieces  in  the  female,  representing  the  ovipositor  of  other 
insects.  In  the  male  there  is  a  pair  of  hooked  forceps 
adapted  f.ir  clasping  the  abdomen  of  the  female  during  cop- 
ulation. Heturning  to  the  head,  besides  the  two  large  com- 
pounri  eyes,  are  two  simple  eyes  (ocelli )  situated  behind  the 
former.  "  The  most  interesting  organs  are  the  antennie, 
which  vary  greatly  in  the  difl'erent  groups.  In  the  butter- 
flies they  are  knobbed,  in  the  .■sphinx  and  its  allies  they  are 
fusiform,  in  the  silkworms  ( liombycidu!)  they  are  beauti- 


Calerpillar,  chry.salis,  and  bullertly,  male  auil  female,  of  the 
pine  silkworm  mi>th  {Ilumtii/x  </i.v>"r). 

fully  pectinated,  the  branches  being  especially  long  and 
well  develnpeil  in  the  American  silkworm  (Trim  I'l.lii/ihf- 
mil.)  and  f'ecropia.  Luna,  and  I'roiiulhea  moths.  These 
branched  organs  are  und.oil.te.lly  provided  with  the  sense 
of  hearing,  as  are  the  knobbi-.l  feelers  of  the  butterflies, 
which  have  scattered  over  the  knob  little  auditory  sacs  con- 
necting with  the  antennni  nerve.  The  hairs  clothing  the 
body  of  a  liullerfly  or  moth  are  simply  modifieil  scales,  as 
can  be  demonstrated  by  comparing  a  numbiT  under  the 
microscope  with  the  scales  taken  from  the  base  of  the  wings. 


where  the  hairs  gradually  pass  into  scales.  These  scales 
are  inserted  by  a  sort  of  ball-and-socket  joint  to  the  wing, 
the  points  of  attachment  being  arranged  in  irregular  raiseil 
lines.  They  are  more  or  less  notched  at  the  end.  and 
beautifully  ornamented  with  miero.seopic  lines.  Under  the 
microscope  they  are  colorless,  and  the  varied  and  rich  colors 
of  the  wings  of  butterflies  and  some  moths  arc.  like  those 
of  pearl,  due  to  the  interference  of  light. 

Kegarding  the  internal  anatomy  of  the  Lepidoptera,  wo 
may  say  that  the  nervous  system  is,  in  its  general  form, 
much  as  in  other  insects.  There  are  seven  ventral  ganglia 
in  the  adult  and  eleven  in  the  larva.  This  decrease  in  their 
number  is  due  to  the  fusion  during  the  pupa  state  of  the 
first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  ganglia  of  the  larva,  exclu- 
sive of  those  situated  in  the  front  part  of  the  bead.  The 
two  thoracic  ganglia  or  nerve-centres  resulting  from  this 
fusion  distribute  nerves  to  the  legs  and  the  muscles  of  the 
wings.  Meanwhile,  the  fifth  and  sixth  ganglia  of  the  larva 
have  either  disappeared  entirely,  or  been  united  with  the 
others.  (Xnrjj'irl.)  In  connection  with  the  tongue  is  a 
sucking  stomach,  which  opens  into  the  (lostcrior  end  of  the 
fcsophagus.  The  silk-glands  of  the  larva  are  very  large, 
consisting  of  two  long,  flexuous.  thick-walled  glands  silu- 
ated  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  opening  l)y  a  common 
orifice  on  the  under  side  (labium),  usually  at  the  extremity 
of  a  short  tubular  protuberance.  They  are  most  developed 
when  the  cater|iillar  is  about  to  transform  into  the  pupa 
state,  and  is  aliout  to  spin  a  cocoon.  The  silk  is  a  glutinous 
secretion  which  solidifies  and  assumes  a  thread  like  texture 
on  exposure  to  the  air.  There  are  six  long  urinary  tubes 
which  open  into  the  posterior  or  pyloric  end  of  the  stomach. 
The  ovaries  consist  of  four  very  long  tubes  :  the  copulatory 
pouch  is  a  remarkably  large  pyriform  reservoir.  The  testes 
form  two  round  or  oval  follicles. 

The  metamorphoses  of  the  Lepidoptera  are  "complete," 
the  larva  being  worm-like,  the  pupa  inactive  and  closely 
resembling  the  adult,  except  that  the  limbs  are  soldered  to 
the  bodv.     The  eggs  of  butterflies  and  moths  are  more  or 
less    spherical,  sometimes    flattened,  usually   ribbed,    and 
forming  beautiful  objects  for  the  microscope.     The  young 
caterpillar  on  hatching  often  eats  up  its  shell  and  embryonal 
membranes  before  partaking  of  its  true  vegetable  food.     It 
is  then  much   like  the  adult,  but  with  the  head  larger  in 
proportion  to  the  body,  and  usually  wilh<mt  the  hairs,  spines, 
and  warts  characteristic  of  the  older  individuals,  and  which 
are  acquired  during  the  subsequent  moults.  There  are  four  or 
five  of  these  changes  of  skin  or  moults.    Previous  to  moult- 
i  ing  the  caterpillar  slops  eating.  Ilie  old  skin,  now  hardened 
i  and  tense,  splits  asunder  on  the  back,  and  the  calerpillar 
draws  its  new  body  out  of  the  rent,  and  then  considerably 
exceeds  its  former  size.     This  is  a  critical  period  with  the 
'  insect,  and  many  through  weakness  and  disease  rlie  during 
the  process.     Mr.  Trouvelot  tells  us  in  his  account  of  the 
Polvphemus  silkworm  ( Ai«fiir<tii  j\niiirnl!i!,  yo\.  \.  ]t.  .W) 
that  when  the  silkworm  is  batched  it  weighs  one-twentieth 
of  ft  grain,  when  ten  days  old  one  half  a  grain,  and  when 
it  has  attained  its  full  size,  which  it  does  in  fifty-six  days, 
it  weighs  207  grains,  or  414(1  limes  its  origimil  weight.   By 
the  time  the  calerpillar  has  become  fully  grown  it  will  have 
consumed  not  less  than   120  oak-leaves,  weighing   three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  ;  besides  this,  it  will  have  ilrunk  not 
less  than  one-half  an  ounce  of  water.     "So  the  food  taken 
by   a  single  silkworm   in  fifty  six    days  equals  in    weight 
sii.OOO  times  the  primitive  weight  of  the  worm.  Of  this  about 
quarter  of  a  pound  becomes  cxcrcmentilious  matter,  207 
groins  are  assimilated,  and  over  .")  ounces  have  evaporated." 
Hefore  entering  upon  the  pupa  state  the  caterpillar  grows 
restless,  stops  ealing.  deserts  its  food,  and  spins  a  silken 
cocoon,  or.  if  not  a  silU-produeing  wr.rm.  constructs  a  ruile 
cocoon  of  particles  of  dirt.  or.  if  a  borer,  in  the  stems  of 
plants  or  trunks  of  trees,  of  chips  made  by  the  larva,  fasl- 
eneil  together  with  silk.      Hire  it  remains  for  two  or  three 
days.      Meanwhile,  its  body  contniels  in   length,  ami  the 
skin  of  the  pupa  grows  beneath  Ihat  of  the  larva.     AVhile 
the  bodv  of  the  wormlike  caterpillar  exhibits  no  difference 
between  the  thorax  and  abdoni the  muscles  of  the  grow- 
ing pupn  variiMisly  iMiiilract  and  enlarge  benealh  the  eali-r- 
pillar  skin  until  tile  pupa   I'nrm  is  coniplole.  when  it  works 
its  way  out  through  a  rent  in  the  back.    This  pupa-skin  is 
developed  from  the  hiipmlrrmiii  or  inner  layer  of  skin,  as 
shown  by  Weissman.  and  the  rudiments  of  the  pupa  and 
imago  exist  as  small  clisks  of  cells  allaehed  to  fine  lraehea> 
or  nerves  in  the  very  young  caferjiillar.  so  Ihat  ,<wammer- 
dam's  idea  Ihat  the  skin  of  the  pupa  ami  imago  existed  in 
the  larva  is  partially  correct.  The  difl'eront  forms  of  cocoinis 
are  very  varied  and  often  beautiful  objects.     Those  of  the 
geometric  tir  measuring  moths  are  thin,  imd  often  consist 
simply  of  a  network  of  threails  suspeioled  anooig  the  leaves 
of  the  plants  on  which  the  calerpillar  has  IVil.    The  cocoon 
of  the  tv.iiio/io  moth  is  made  out  of  the  hairs  of  the  eater- 
pillar,  which  are  finely  barbed  and  adhere  together  without 


1734 


LEPIDOSIREN— LEPIDOSTEID.E. 


anv  silk  thread.  The  most  complete  cocoons  arc  those  of 
the  silkwortus.  Our  native  silkworm  {Tcitn  J'ith/jjheniH«) 
constructs  a  very  perfect  cocoon,  a  continuous  thread  com- 
posing it.  Mr.  Trouvelot  states  that  the  Pol,vpheuiu:H  larva, 
when  about  to  .-^pin  its  cocoon,  draws  tlie  leaves  loj^ether  as 
a  support  for  the  threads,  forming  the  foundation  of  the 
cocoon.  "This  seems  to  be  the  most  difficult  feat  for  the 
worm  to  aeeomplish,  as  after  this  the  work  is  simply 
mechanical,  the  cocoon  being  made  of  regular  layers  of  silk 
united  by  a  gummy  substance.  The  silk  is  distributed  in 
zigzag  lines  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  When  the 
cocoon  is  made  the  worm  will  have  moved  his  head  to  and 
fro,  in  order  to  distribute  the  silk,  about  2.i4,U00  times. 
After  abuut  half  a  day's  work  the  cocoon  is  so  far  eumi)leted 
that  the  worm  can  hardly  be  distinguished  through  the  fine 
texture  of  the  wall;  then  a  gummy,  resinous  substance, 
sometimes  of  a  light-brown  color,  is  spread  over  all  the  in- 
side of  the  cocoon.  The  larva  continues  to  work  for  four 
or  five  days,  hardly  taking  a  few  minutes  of  rest,  and  finally 
another  coating  is  spun  in  the  interior,  when  the  cocoon  is 
all  finished  and  completely  air-tight.  The  fibre  diminishes 
in  thickness  as  the  completion  of  the  cocoon  advances,  so 
that  the  last  internal  coating  is  not  half  so  thick  and  so 
strong  as  the  (mtside  ones."  The  eoeoon  of  the  Chinese 
silkworm  {Bumhtfx  mori)  is  white  or  whitish  yellow,  and  is 
over  an  inch  long  ami  nearly  half  asbroadj  3G0  cocoons 
weigh  a  pound  and  a  half. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  females  of  the  Bomhyx 
mofi  and  a  few  other  moths  have  in  one  or  more  instances 
been  known  to  lay  eggs  which  without  being  fertilized  by 
the  males  have  hatched  out.  Psi/chc  helix  was  for  a  long 
time  supposed  to  reproduce  solely  in  this  way,  but  lately 
Clans  has  found  the  males,  which,  however,  arc  exceed- 
ingly rare.  Connected  with  this  subject  of  parthenogenesis 
among  the  Lepidoptera  is  the  occurrence  of  two  forms  of 
the  sexes,  or  dimorphism.  Mr.  Wallace  has  discovered  two 
forms  of  females  of  PnpHio  Mcmnon  ;  one  form  is  normal, 
having  its  wings  tailed,  as  usual  among  the  swallow-taiied 
butterllies.  while  the  second  form  is  tailless,  resembling  the 
tailed  male.  Pttpilio  Pnmmon  has  three  sorts  of  females, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  trimorphic.  Pttpilio  Onneunn  is  tri- 
morphic.  Our  PapiHo  Tunnis  is  dimorphic,  the  Southern 
dark  form  having  been  described  as  a  distinct  species 
under  the  name  of  P.  (I'fnucus.  Pnpilio  Ajax.  is  polymor- 
])hou?,  the  same  batch  of  eggs  having  given  rise  to  P.  Ajax 
and  varieties  Wnhhii,  TtJainoui'tle'*,  and  Marcellua.  Lepi- 
doptera in  the  larva  state  arc  much  exposed  to  disease,  espe- 
cially those  kept  in  confinement.  Pebrinc,  a  disease  due  to  a 
very  minute  fungus,  has  threatened  to  exterminate  the  silk- 
worm in  Southern  Europe.  Another  (lii^ense.  muscardine,  is 
due  to  the  attacks  of  another  fungus,  the  liotn/tuH  Jiannianns. 
Fossil  Lepidoptera  have  occurred  in  the  .Jurassic  forma- 
tion; a  sphinx-like  moth  has  been  found  in  the  Tertiary 
beds  of  Kurope,  and  an  unknown  moth  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A  few  minute  forms  have 
occurred  in  amber,  -'\bnut  a  thousand  species  of  butterflies 
alone  inhabit  this  country,  and  about  25,000  species  of  Le- 
jiidoptera  in  all  are  known  to  exist. 

The  following  synopsis  of  the  different  families  begins 
with  the  lowest  and  cuds  with  the  highest : 

Sifnopttifi  of  the  Families  of  Lepidoptera. 

1.  Wings  variously  fissured;  larva  cither  hairy  and  pupa 

naked  {Ptcrophorufi),  or  naked  and  spinning  a  cocoon 
{Alncita)  :   I'tcmphorida-  (plume  moths). 

2.  Wings  very  narrow,  more  or  less  pointed  ;  fringe  very 

long;  larva  very  slender,  often  mining  leaves:  Tiiieidte 
(clothes  moth,  etc.). 
.3.  Wings  oblong:  larva  naked,  rolling  up  leaves  :   Tortri- 
cidie  (leaf-rollers). 

4.  Palpi  very  long;    larva  often  glassy  green:  Pifralidx 

{ snout  motlis). 

5.  Wings  broad,  triangular;  larva  with  only  two  pairs  of 

abdominal  legs,  and  consequently  a  measuring  gait: 
/'haln-uidie  (geometrids,  nicasuring-worms). 

6.  AVings  rather  narrow  ;  larva  smooth,  cylindrical,  taper- 

ing towards  both  ends:  Soctuidn^  (owlet  moths,  cut- 
worms, ete.). 

7.  lleail    unusually   small,  sunken:    antenna;    pectinate; 

body  hairy;    larva  hairy,  gpinning  a  thick  cocoon: 

Jiomhi/cidn'  (silkworms). 
S.  Iligh-colored  m<iths.  with  large  heads;  antenna'  either 

simple,   sub-fusifurni,   or  slightly   pectinated:    larva 

naked,  and  humped  at  the  end,  or  with  radiating  tufts 

of  hairs  :  Zyiinuida:. 
9.  Wings  very  long  and  narrow,  semi-transparent;  larva 

boring  trees:    ^ICi/eriadir  (borers). 
10.   Largo  moths  with  large  heads,  narrow  wings  ;  a  long 

tongue;  larva  with  a  horn  on  the  end  of  the  body; 

pupa  often  with  a  free  toDgue-caso  :  Sphingida  (hawk 

moths). 


pidosiren. 


11.  Antenna;  knobbed,  wings  broad;  larva  often  spincd; 
chrysalis  naked,  often  with  protuberances  and  golden 
or  silvery  spots:  Pupilionidve  (butterflies). 

A.  S.  Packard,  Jr. 
Lepidosi'ren  [Gr.AeTri?,  "scale," and  o-cipij*-.  "  siren  "], 
the  typical  genus  of  the  family  Lepidosirenidu',  distin- 
guished by  its  very  elongated  eel-shaped  body  (it  having 
about  lifty-five  pairs  of  ribs) ;  the  pectoral  and  ventral 
•'•fins  "or  filaments  are  plain  and  tapering,  and  are  en- 
tirely destitute  of  rayed  fringes;  there  arc  five  branchial 
arches,  with  four  corresponding  intervening  clefts;  no 
external  branchial  appendage  is  developed;  and  tlie  cusps 
of  th<'  ili  ii!:il  ji|;!t.>  nf  ilir  jialatc.  US  well  as  lower  jaw,  arc 
well  developed.  Tlic  genus 
is  represented  by  only  one 
well -distinguished  species 
I  l.rptditHircn  pantdoxa, 
Fitzinger),  although  two 
or  three  have  been  thought 
to  exist  by  some.  The  spe- 
cies occurs  quite  generally 
apparently  in  the.\mazon  River,  as  well  asits  tributaries,  but 
is  rare  :  if  popular  reports  arc  to  be  credited,  this  or  a  spe- 
cies of  the  same  genus  sometimes  attains  a  gigantic  size, 
though  the  length  of  those  obtained  rarely  much  exceeds 
three  feet.  (See  Lepidosirenid.*:.)  Thkodore  Gill. 

liCpidosiren'idse  [from  Lepido»ircu,  the  typical  genus 
of  the  family,  and  the  termination  -ida],  a  family  of  fishes 
of  the  order  Sirenoidea,  with  an  elongated  and  eel-shaped 
body  covered  with  modi^rate  cycloid  seales  ;  the  dorsal  and 
anal  arc  united  with  the  caudal,  and  form  a  continuous 
homogeneous  border  for  the  tapering  tail;  the  pectoral  and 
ventral  fins  are  developed  as  articulated  filaments;  the 
upper  labial  cartilage  has  a  median  pair  of  conical  teeth; 
the  palatine  dental  plate  on  each  side  is  elongated  and 
oblong,  and  has  several  strong  cuspidate  vertical  ridges; 
the  labial  plate  is  of  similar  form,  and  has  also  several 
transverse  cuspidate  ridges;  the  air-bladder  is  represented 
by  two  lung-like  sacs  slightly  connected  together  and 
communicating  by  a  duct,  provided  with  a  glottis  opening 
in  the  floor  of  the  oesophagus.  This  family  is  of  extreme 
interest,  as  it  was  for  a  long  time  a  matter  of  dispute 
whether  its  members  were  fishes  or  amphibians.  Fitziuger 
(1837)  and  Natterer  (is;ifl),  who  first  described  the  Ameri- 
can type  [Lcpidosircn  paradoxa),  referred  it  to  the  am- 
phibians next  to  Sireu,  from  which  they  difi'erentiated  it 
.chiefly  by  the  seales,  and  hence  gave  the  name  Lepidnsinn 
— i.e.  "scaly  siren."  Owen  (1839),  who  first  made  known 
the  African  type,  on  the  other  hand  contended  that  it  was 
a  fish.  After  much  discussion  they  were  and  are  now 
conceded  to  bo  true  fishes,  representing  a  peculiar  family 
(Lopidosirenida;),  order  (Sirenoidea).  and  su]>er-order  or 
sub-class  (Dipnoi)  of  the  class  of  Fishes  (whieh  see).  The 
family  is  also  interesting,  as  being  (next  to  the  related 
Ceratodontidtf)  the  most  nearly  allied  to  numerous  extinct 
fishes  which  flourished  during  PaUvozoic  and  Mesozoic 
times,  and  which  until  lately  were  much  misunderstood. 
The  two  recent  genera  (LEriDosiREN  and  PitoTorrEurs)  arc 
alone  known,  and  will  be  noticed  under  their  respective 
names.  (Sec  also  Sire.voidei.)  Theodore  Gill. 

IjCpidoste'idflB   [named  from  the  typical  genus  Lrpi- 

do8teiis  (Acms,  scale,  and  octroi',  bone)  and  the  family  termi- 
nation -idee],  the  only  existing  family  of  the  order  Kliombo- 
ganoidea,  distinguished  by  the  elongated  and  sub-eylin- 
dricai  body  co\  cred  with  rhomboidai  scales;  the  head 
elongated,  ami  terminating  forwards  in  a  long  beak-like 
snout;  the  upper  jaw  projecting  beyond  the  lower,  and 
with  the  nostrils  near  the  end  of  the  snout ;  the  fins  aio 
provide<l  with  fulcra;  the  short  dorsal  situated  far  btdiind, 
and  just  above  the  anal  tin  ;  the  stomach  is  simple  in  form, 
but  with  numerous  jiyloric  appendages;  the  intestine  has  a 
rudimentary  spiral  valve.  This  family,  although  the  only 
living  ty}»e  of  the-  order  to  whieh  it  belongs,  had  numerous 
relations  in  the  Mesozoic  and  Paleozoic  epochs.  The  skel- 
eton has  many  peculiarities,  among  whieh  is  the  eumposito 
structure  of  the  upper  jaw,  as  well  as  the  character  of  the 
vertebra",  which  are  eonvex  in  fnmt  and  concave  behind. 
There  are  but  few  representatives,  which  are  divisible  into 
three  groups,  by  some  entitled  genera,  viz.:  Lcpidostmay 
CifliudfOHtruH,  and  AtraftonttnH.  The  genera  are  regarded 
by  some  as  nionotypie  :  i. » .  all  the  forms  bLdonging  te  each 
are  considered  to  be  members  of  a  single  speeies;  while 
others,  e.  7.  Agassiz,  admit  as  many  as  eighteen  or  twenty 
undefined  species  in  the  family.  The  species  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  waters  of  northern  America,  but  representa- 
tives of  one  group.  Ati-nrtanfrm,  descend  as  far  southwards 
as  Central  America  and  Cuba;  a  species  has  also  been  re- 
cently discovered  in  China.  In  the  Tertiary  epoch  the 
family  was  represented  by  forms  closely  related  to  the  liv- 
ing American  species  in  Kurope.  Theodore  Gill. 


LEPIDUS— LEPROSY. 


1735 


Lep'^idus,  the  name  of  an  ancient  patrician  family  of 
Rome  beluDg^iug  to  thc^milian  gens.  The  most  conspicuous 
membtT  of  the  family  was  Makci's  ^Kmii.k  s  Lki'IDTS,  the 
triumvir.  He  was  a  weak,  vain,  and  avaricious  man,  des- 
titute of  any  talent  or  any  superior  quality,  but  twice — 
and  both  times  in  momenta  of  the  utmost  consequence — 
chance  placed  the  decision  of  affairs  in  his  hands,  lie  was 
praetor  in  19  b.  c,  when  the  war  broke  out  between  Caesar 
and  Ponipey.  He  sided  with  Ca'sar.  was  made  his  mntjiHUr 
etfuifmn  in  47  n.  c,  consul  in  4t>  b.  c,  and  in  44  received  as 
his  provinces  Spain  and  Gallia  Narbonensis.  Ho  was  just 
organizing  bis  proconsular  army  at  Homeland  was  thus  at 
the  head  of  the  only  armed  force  in  the  city,  when  Ca?sar 
was  murdered.  He  used  his  position  to  get  himself  elected 
pnnti/rx  innjci'inun,  and  having  brouglit  about  a  rec4)ncil- 
iation  between  Aniimy  and  the  senate,  be  proceeded  to  his 
provinces,  flattered  and  coaxed  by  both  parties.  The  agree- 
ment between  Antony  and  the  senate  did  not  last  long,  how- 
ever, and  after  the  defeat  at  Mutina,  Antony  took  refuge 
with  Lepidus.  and  was  well  received.  Octavianus,  who 
up  to  this  time  had  acted  simply  as  the  general  of  the  sen- 
ate, saw  that  in  a  contest  with  Lepidus  and  .Antony  the 
cause  of  the  aristocracy  was  a  lost  cause,  and  commenced 
immediately  negotiations  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
famous  triumvirate  in  4'.i  n.  c.  By  the  partition  of  the 
provinces,  Lepirlus  received  Spain  and  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
and  was  lelt  as  governor  of  Rome  while  Antony  and  Octa- 
vianus proceeded  against  Brutus  and  Cassius.  But  by  the 
second  partition,  after  the  battle  of  Philippi  in  42  B.  c,  he 
was  treated  rather  slightingly,  and  received  only  Africa. 
This  province  ho  held  till  ^G  b.  c,  in  which  year  Octavianus 
orclercd  him  to  join  him  at  Sicily  against  Sextus  Pompeius. 
Lepidus  came,  and  believed  the  opportunity  favorable  for 
an  attempt  at  throwing  off  the  authority  of  Octavianus.  .At 
the  decisive  moment,  however,  his  Sdldiers  deserted  him,  and 
on  liis  knees  he  had  to  beg  for  mercy.  Octavianus  treated 
him  with  great  contempt,  deprived  him  of  his  province, 
though  not  of  his  private  fortune  or  of  his  dignity  of  pon- 
tiftj-  mnximns,  and  banished  him  to  Circeii,  where  ho  lived 
in  retirement  till  his  death,  13  B.  c. 

Lepor'idrp  [Lat.  lrpu»^  "hare,"  and  -irfic],  a  family  of 
duplieidentate  glirine  mammals,  readily  recognizable  by  the 
external  appearance  of  the  body,  as  well  as  by  the  struc- 


The  Uabbit. 

ture  of  the  skeleton.  'The  hind  legs  being  much  more  do- 
velnped  than  the  fore  !  alih<nigh  not  so  ilispropitrtionately  as 
in  (he  kangaroos  .'ind  jumping  mice ),  the  animal  iirogresses 
by  a  series  of  running  leaps  or  short  jumps,  in  which  latter 
case  the  back  is  cr«ioked  and  arched  ba<rkwarcl,  and  gives 
the  characteristic  jihysiognomy  :  the  heail  is  high,  arched 
backward,  and  ct-mpressed;  the  eyes  lateral  and  promi- 
nent; the  snout  rounded,  and  with  the  nostrils  converging 
dt)wnward  to  a  median  furrow  which  divides  the  lips;  the 
cars  are  more  or  loss  elongated,  and  the  tail  is  short  and 
bushy,  and  turned  up.  Tho  skull  is  high  and  conijircssed, 
the  rostral  portion  much  produced  and  broad,  and  the  in- 
terorbital  urea  widened  by  the  development  of  enlarged 
and  expanding  supraorbital  plates  or  procest^cs  separated 
generally  by  narrow  fissures  from  tho  body  of  the  frontal 
bones  fore  and  aft  ;  the  orbits  are  ample;  the  nasal  pro- 
ees?es  of  the  supraniaxlllary  bones  are  perforated  in  a  sieve- 
like  manner;  and  the  lower  jaw  has  the  ascending  rami 
very  oblique,  and  the  condyles  consequently  far  backward, 
and  tho  angular  process  extensive  forward.    Tho  teelh,  be- 


sides tho  four  incisors  of  the  upper  and  two  of  the  lower 
jaw  (Jx  2),  consist  of  six  molars  in  the  upper  and  five  in 
the  lower  jaw  on  each  side  (M.  \,  P.  M.  3X2);  those  of 
tho  upper  jaw  have  mostly  (M.2.  P.  M.  2)  a  vertical  groovo 
on  the  outer  as  well  as  inner  surface;  the  crowns  are  broader 
than  long,  and  have  three  transverse  ridges;  those  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  broader,  and  the  grooves  are  much  stronger. 
Imperfect  clavicles  are  developed.  Such  arc  the  most  im- 
portant characters  common  to  the  hares  and  rabbits.  The 
species  are  quite  numerous,  between  thirty  and  forty  species 
being  generally  recognized,  and  are  most  abunilant  in  the 
arctogsean  regions  (North  America,  Euroj)e,  and  Northern 
Asia)  and  the  temperate  zone;  representatives  arc  found, 
however,  far  X.  and  S.,  one  (Lepua  glaciah's)  extending  to 
the  Arctic  regions,  and  others  are  found  as  far  S.  as  Brazil, 
India,  and  the  Cape,  but  scarcely  or  not  at  all  in  the  low- 
lands of  tlie  torrid  regions.  Though  thus  widely  diffused 
and  numerous  in  species,  they  agree  so  closely  in  structure 
as  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  there  is  more  than  one 
generic  typo  among  them,  although  as  many  as  four  have 
been  proposed  by  the  late  I>r.  J.  K.  Gray. 

There  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  habits  between  tho 
hares  and  rabbits.  The  hares  never  burrow,  but  simply 
compose  a  "  form  "  or  nest,  in  which  they  rest  and  bring 
forth  their  young,  and  the  young  aro  born  covered  with 
hair  and  with  the  eyes  open.  The  rabbits,  on  the  contrary, 
burrow  in  the  ground,  and  often  make  extensive  tunnels, 
and  in  these  burrows  they  live  and  bring  forth  their  broods  ; 
the  young  aro  brought  into  the  world  naked  and  blind. 
Notwithstanding  such  differences,  however,  there  are  no 
corresponding  structural  characters,  and  the  difierent  ani- 
mals aro  closely  related.  All  the  American  species  are 
*'  hares  "  in  the  sense  thus  understood.     Theodore  Gill. 

liCporiile'  [Fr.],  a  name  applied  to  a  remarkable  fer- 
tile hybriii  between  the  common  European  hare  and  tho 
rabbit.  Leporides  are  now  extensively  breil  in  France, 
where  they  are  esteemed  for  tho  table. 

Lcpo'riuSf  a  native  of  Gaul;  entered  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century  a  monastery  in  the  vicinity  of  Mar- 
seilles, and  acquired  a  great  reputation  for  learning  and 
holiness.  He  afterwards  fell  into  the  heresy  of  Pelagius, 
and  maintained  that  man  has  no  need  of  the  grace  of  God, 
and  that  Christ  was  born  with  a  human  nature  only.  Ho 
was  exeomniunieated,  and  went  to  Africa. 
Hero  he  met  with  St.  Augustine,  and  so 
great  was  the  influence  of  this  powerful 
man  on  Leporius  that  in  425  he  retract- 
ed, and  was  ordained  a  presbyter  by  Au- 
gustine. His  retraction,  which  was  ad- 
dressed to  Proculus,  bishop  of  Marseilles, 
and  Cylliunius.  bishop  of  Aix.and  pub- 
lished'in  IfiiiU  under  tho  title  lihcUm 
eiiutitl'ttiunin  Hire  Hdti'n/actt'onis  ad  epia- 
copoM  (Inlliiv,  was  much  appreciated  by 
tho  old  Church. 

Lcp'ra  [Gr.  At'irpa,  "leprosy"],  adis- 
ease  of  the  skin,  in  which  scaly  patches, 
concealing  a  red  and  inflamed  surface, 
are  seen,  particularly  upon  those  parts 
of  the  limbs  where  the  bones  aro  but 
thinly  covered.  It  is  not  contagious, 
may  last  for  many  years  or  may  bo 
sp<intancously  cured,  and  does  not  usual- 
ly affect  tho  general  health.  Arsenical 
medicines,  with  applications  of  tarry 
"    '  compounds  and  iodide   of  sulphur,  aro 

5^"^^  recommended  in  its  treatment, 

IjCp'rosy  [(ir.  Aeirpa,  **  leprosy"]. "an 
incurable  constitutional  disease  of  adult 
life,  which  is  especially  |irevalcnt  in 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  clinmtes."  ( luibt-rt  LivifiiHj.) 
It  maybe  divided  into  three  forms,  as  follows:  "First. 
Macular  leprosy,  characterized  by  an  eruption  on  the  skin, 
accom|>anied  by  aniesthesia.  Sennid,  Ameslhotic  leprosy, 
of  which  the  ehief  features  arc  aniesthesia  and  diseolora- 
tions  of  the  skin  and  atrophy  of  tho  muscles,  with  ulcera- 
tion and  mutilation  of  the  hands  and  feel.  The  thini  form, 
or  tubereulatid  leprosy,  is  characterized  by  a  bronzing  and 
tubereulaled  thickening  of  the  skin,  especially  of  tho  face, 
oars,  hands,  and  feet,  tollowed  by  similar  changes  in  tho 
mucous  membrane  of  tlu*  u])]»er  |)art  of  the  alimentary  and 
resjilratory  tracts,  ending  fatally  in  from  two  to  fifteen  years, 
by  intereurreni  disease  in  some  vital  organ.''    { Lirrliiitf.) 

Leprosy,  or  fl'pfinutinniii  (inrpnrnm,  is  a  disease  which 
has  been  known  and  justly  dreaded  from  the  earliest  ages. 
We  find  frequent  mention  of  it  in  the  Bible,  but  the  diseaao 
as  there  spoken  of  evidently  includeil  many  other  skin  af- 
fections, which  at  that  lime  they  were  unable  to  differen- 
tiate. The  proof  of  this  is  that  tho  cases  aro  there  men- 
tioned as  having  recovered,  which  wo  now  know  would 


1736 


LEPSIUS— LEQUESNE, 


have  been  impossible  had  they  been  true  leprowy.  The 
IrpiT  has  always  been  an  outcast  from  society,  both  on 
aeoount  of  the  Ufathsomeness  of  his  disease,  and  the  idea 
which  has  prevailed  of  its  contagiousness.  During  the  Mid- 
dle Aj;es  numerous  leper-houses  were  established  iu  various 
parts  nf  Europe,  where  those  suffering  from  the  disease 
were  coiiliueil.  and  prohibited  by  law  from  ajjpeuring  in 
the  streets.  Now,  however,  that  it  is  known  that  the  dis- 
ease can  only  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring,  the 
laws  are  more  lax  on  this  point,  and  a  Icpcr-house  is  a 
thing  seldom  heard  of.  At  the  present  time  leprosy  is 
most  prevalent  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  the  cases  met  with 
throughout  Europe  and  America  are  rare.  Almitst  every 
drug  iu  the  pharmacojiuiia  has  been  nscd  iu  the  treatment 
of  this  dis'-'ase,  but  without  avail,  and  now  the  treatment 
is  principally  palliative.  Good  food,  clothing,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  marriage  amongst  lepers  are  the  only  means 
we  possess  to  better  their  condition  and  decrease  their 
number.  Edward  J.  Bi:KMiNt;nAM. 

Lep'sius  (Kari.  Richatid).  Ph.  D.,  b.  at  Naumburg, 
Prussian  Saxony,  Dec.  23,  1810,  the  son  of  K.  P.  Lepsius 
{ I77ii-\^b''<),  an  able  archteologist ;  studied  at  Leipsic,  G'6t- 
tingon.  and  Berlin  under  Bopp's  instruction,  graduating  at 
Berlin  with  a  thesis  on  the  Ei  GrBiAS  Tablrs  (which  see), 
which  obtained  his  degree;  went  to  Paris  in  183.3,  and  for 
his  PdliTfHjrnphtf  applied  to  Linguistic  lienearches  gained 
the  Volney  prize;  in  1835  made  researches  in  the  libraries 
of  Italy:  devoted  his  attention  to  languages,  especially  to 
■^Egyptology,  and  wrote  Letter  to  M.  RoseUini  on  the  Hiero- 
fffifphic  Alphahet  in  1837;  went  to  England  in  I83S  ;  pro- 
jected an  expedition  to  Egypt,  which  left  England  in  1842, 
and  with  success  returned  to  Germany  in  18-4J;  became 
professor  at  Berlin  in  1846;  again  went  to  Egypt  in  18G6, 
and  discovered  at  Tanis  a  bilingual  inscription  of  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Euergetes ;  has  published  a  valuable  work  on 
the  Nile,  translated  into  English;  and  was  placed  over  the 
Prussian  state  library  in  Berlin  in  1874.  Among  liis  works 
are  Jhts  Todtenbuch  der  Aer/i/pter  {lS-i2),  Die  Chronoloffie 
der  Ae(f_>/pter  (1840),  Denkmtiler  aita  Aegijpten  tind  Aethio- 
pien  {1849-59),  Ueber  den  eraten  iifji/pfischcn  Gotfcrkrein 
(1851),  lirie/e  una  Aegypteit  (1852),  JCdnit/abtick  der  alten 
Aeffi/pter  (\H;ii^)y  Die  (igi/ptische  Elle  (l855j,  Ueber  eiuige 
ii;/'/ptisrhf  A'linhtformen,  etc.  (1871),  etc. 

I^eptan'dra  [proposed  for  its  generic  name  by  Nut- 
tall],  the  pliarmaceutical  name  of  the  Culver's  physic  (  Vc- 
raiiicn  Virginica,  order  Scrophulariaceae),  a  tall  perennial 
herb  of  the  Atlantic  U.  S.  which  has  decided  cathartic 
powers.  Its  impure  resinoid  is  extracted  and  sold  as  lep- 
taudrin.  It  is  an  agent  of  considerable  value,  and  is  be- 
lieved by  many  practitioners  to  act  decidedly  upon  the 
liver:  but  this  is  very  doubtful. 

Lep'tis  [Pha-nician  for  '*  naval  station"],  or  Great 
Leptis,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  another  and  less 
imj)nrtaut  Leptis,  an  ancient  Sidonian  colony  and  seaport 
in  what  is  now  Tripoli  in  Barbary.  between  the  two  Syrtes 
and  near  the  modern  Tripoli.  It  had  a  fine  roadstead  and 
an  artificial  harbor,  long  since  choked  vt'ith  sand.  At  this 
jioint  are  very  extensive  ruins,  in  great  ]iart  buried  in  the 
sand.  Le])ti3  once  had  a  large  trade,  but  is  now  almost 
without  inhabitants.  It  was  one  of  the  three  cities  which 
gave  the  name  Tripolia  to  this  region. 

Leptocar'dia  [Gr.  Aen-Td?,  "slender,"  and  KapSia^ 
" heart  " |.  the  class  of  vertebrates  containing  the  lowest 
organized  forms  of  the  branch,  and  formerly  confounded 
with  the  class  of  fishes.  Only  a  single  genus  {Urnnchin- 
atftmn,  Costa,  or  Amji/n'n.rus,  Yarrell)  is  known,  and  this  is 
believed  to  be  the  surviving  typo  of  a  class  which  must 
have  been  rich  in  representatives  in  the  distant  past,  but 
which,  on  account  of  the  easy  dcstructibility  of  all  its 
parts,  has  left  no  recognizfd  remains  in  the  rocks.  The 
brain  is  of  the  most  rudimentary  character  and  not  devel- 
oped into  enlarged  lobes,  as  in  all  other  vertebrates  ;  the 
skull  is  also  undeveloped,  nor  are  there  any  rudiments  of 
auditory  organs;  the  skeleton  is  represented  by  a  simple 
notocord  or  embryonic  backbone,  which  is  not  divided  into 
vertebra',  and  has  no  ribs  or  other  appendages,  no  scap- 
ular or  pelvic  arches,  and  consequently  no  pectoral  or  ven- 
tral fins  being  developed.  The  circulatory  system  is  also 
very  simple,  and  the  heart  simply  tubular  and  not  divided 
into  distinct  chambers  (and  hence  the  name  of  the  class). 
The  mouth  is  an  elongated  aperture  bounded  by  a  semi- 
cartilaginous  hoop,  which  is  beset  with  filamentary  pro- 
cesses clothed  with  ciliated  tentacles;  this  ojicns  into  "an 
expanded  pharyngeal  chamber,  which  is  s[tlit  <m  each  side 
by  obliquely  transverse  clefts,  through  which  the  water 
taken  in  by  the  mouth  is  discharged  into  an  "  atrial  cham- 
ber." and  thence  through  a  pore  which  represents  the  bran- 
chial orifice  of  the  Myxinida?.  Such  arc  the  chief  dis- 
tinctive characters  of  this  type.  The  differences  from  all 
others  are  so  great  that  it  is  at  first  difficult  to  perceive  the 


homologies  of  the  various  organs  and  parts  with  those  of 
the  higher  vertebrates.  So  great,  indeed,  arc  the  differ- 
ences that  the  original  dcscriber  of  the  European  species. 
Pallas,  failed  to  perceive  any  resemblance  to  fishes  or  other 
vertebrates,  and  referred  it  to  the  mollusk  genus  Limaj-. 
Quite  recently,  too  ( in  1S74  ),  Semper,  with  a  full  knowledge 
of  its  organization,  has  deliberatuly  excluded  it  from  the 
vertebrates  altogether.  By  all  other  authorities,  however, 
it  has  been  referred  to  the  branch  of  vertebrates,  but  in 
various  degrees  of  relation^hij)  to  the  class  of  fishes. 
Costa,  Yarrell,  and  most  other  authors  until  recently  have 
regarded  it  as  the  lowest  of  fishes.  Isidore  Geoffrey  St. 
Hilaire,  C.  Bonaparte,  and  Moquin-Tnndon  (all  under  the 
name  Myclozoa),  and  Hackel,  Gtgenbaiir,  O.  Schmidt,  Cope 
(all  under  the  name  Leptocardia).  and  others,  have  raised 
the  type  to  class  value;  and  several  of  them  have  con- 
trasted it  with  all  the  other  vertebrates,  and  thus  expressed 
their  views  as  to  the  fundamental  nature  of  its  distinctive 
characters. 

Although  the  animal  is  so  peculiar,  it  can  be,  however, 
in  general  terms,  compared  with  the  Alarsipobranehiates, 
and  therefore  with  the  other  vertebrates  :  and  although  the 
brain  is  in  a  rudimentary  condition,  the  jirincipal  nerves 
are  developed  (though  under  somewhat  doubttul  guises), 
and  their  relation  to  the  frame-work  permits  the  ]>robable 
recognition  of  the  homologies  of  the  several  regions  of  the 
*'  head."  The  muscular  system  is  represented  by  fiake-like 
segments  or  *' myotomes,"  V-shaped  and  jjointed  forwards. 
According  to  Huxley,  the  oral  aperture  is  large  and  extends 
backwards  to  the  level  of  the  junction  between  the  sixth 
and  seventh  myotomes,  and  is  there  divided  from  the 
branchial  cavity  hy  ^  ^"^  vchnn  pahiti."  Eight  ["  o  — /i  "] 
pairs  of  nerves  are  given  off  from  tho  ccrebro-sjiinal  axis 
as  far  as  this  point.  The  eighth  or  most  jtosterior  of  these, 
which  for  convenience  may  be  called  h,  passes  out  between 
the  sixth  and  seventh  myotomes,  and  runs  down  ])arallel 
with  the  lateral  attachment  of  the  velum.  The  next  five 
{fj,f,  €,  d,  c)  pass  out  between  the  first  six  myotomes  to  the 
integument  and  to  the  walls  of  the  buccal  cavity,  Tho 
foremost  two  nerves  [b  and  a)  pass  in  front  of  the  first 
myotome;  and  the  nerve  a  runs  parallel  with  the  upper 
side  of  tho  notochord  to  the  end  of  the  snout,  giving  off 
branches  to  that  region  of  the  body  which  lies  in  front  of 
the  mouth  :  this  nerve  lies  above  the  eye-spot.  In  Hux- 
ley's opinion,  the  eighth  nerve  (h)  corresponds  with  the  last 
of  the  prc-auditory  cranial  nerves  in  the  Ammoccotes  or 
young  of  Petromifzou,  which  is  the  ** portio  dnnt;"  while 
those  between  it  and  the  optic  nerve  represent,  apparently, 
the  third  (nwtores  oculomm),  fourth  (pathetici),  fifth  (^i- 
tfcnn'naf),  and  sixth  (nbducentea)  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  in 
the  higher  vertebrates,  the  optic  nerves  of  course  being  the 
second  pair,  while  the  first  («)  in  Brauchiostoma  *' has  tho 
characteristic  course  and  distribution  of  the  orbito-nasal 
division  of  the  trigeminal."  Thus  the  brad  has  at  least 
six  pre-anditory  myotomes,  and  "  on  the  other  hand,  from 
the  seventh  myotome  backwards,  a  certain  number  {sup- 
posed to  be  eight)  of  segments  answer  to  the  post-auditory 
or  parachordal  region  of  the  higher  vertehrata."  These 
are  supposed  to  represent  **  proto-vertebra>,"  and  thus  an- 
tagonize the  hypothesis,  at  one  time  so  prevalent,  that  the 
head  of  vertebrates  is  composed  of  four  "vertebra);"  and 
Huxley  suggests  "  that  the  numerous  ])roto-vertebra}  which 
lie  in  front  of  the  fourteenth  of  Amphiajrut  (Branchio- 
stoma)  are  represented  only  by  muscles  and  nerves  in  the 
liigher  Vertol)rata."  The  other  characteristics  of  this  cu- 
rious type  will  be  found  in  the  works  of  the  numerous  au- 
thors who  have  directed  attention  to  it,  the  most  recent  of 
whom  are  Stieda  of  Dorpat,  and  Huxley  and  Bay  Lau- 
kester  of  London.  But  one  genus  ( Br:inehiostoma  of 
Costa.  1S34.  or  Amphifjun  of  Yarrell,  is;;*))  is  known, 
and  the  species  are  doubtful.  Representatives  have  been 
found  along  almost  the  entire  European  coast,  but  most 
abundantly  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  the  ludian  seas 
(Borneo,  etc.),  North  Carolina,  tho  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
Brazil.  They  live  in  the  sand  from  lower  water  mark  to 
a  depth  of  at  least  ten  or  twelve  fathoms.  They  are 
transparent,  and  specimens  rarely  exceed  three  inches  in 
length.  TnKonoRK  Gill. 

Lep'tophis  [Gr.  Acn-Tos,  "slender,"  and  0.^19,  "snake"], 
a  genus  of  non-venomous  colubroid  serpents  of  very  slender 
proportions  and  arboreal  habits.  Some  serpents  of  tho 
U.  S.  [e.  tj.  grass-snake,  or  Ci/rfophia  irstintH,  and  ribbon- 
snake,  or  Eutivnia  Battrita)  have  been  erroneously  referred 
to  the  genus. 

Lcquesne'  (EuoSne  Louis),  b.  at  Paris  Feb.  15,  1815 ; 
studied  law,  an<l  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839,  but  en- 
t^-red  in  1811  tho  School  of  Fine  Arts;  became  a  ]iupil  of 
Pra«lier  at  Rome,  and  began  to  exhibit  in  1845.  His  most 
prominent  works  are  the  Dniuint/  Faun  iu  the  garden  of 
the  liU.\cmbourg,  the  Victor}/  on  tho  tomb  of  Napoleon,  and 


LERAY— LEROUX. 


173 


the  Prtfft$iu  on  tho  front  of  the  new  opera-house;  ho  has 
alsu  unnie  a  number  of  excellent  busts. 

Leniy',  tp.  of  Blue  Kartb  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  -l-IS. 

I^e  Ray,  tp.  of  JcflTcrsun  co.,  X.  Y,  It  cuutatns  several 
vill!i;,'('^.     IN.p.  2802. 

Le  Rays'villey  post-b.  of  Pike  tp..  Bra^lford  co.,  Pa, 
Pop.  2S 1. 

Lerca'ra  Frid'di,  town  of  Sicily,  in  tho  province  of 
Puleriiio,  jileasantly  .situated  in  a  very  fertile  district 
abounding  in  sulphur-mines.     Pop.  in  1874,  OlJi. 

Ler'do  dc  Teja'da  (Sebastian),  president  of  Mexico, 
b.  at  .latapa,  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  Apr.  2j,  1825,  of 
pure  Spanish  ancestry:  studied  at  a  college  in  Pucbia  with 
a  view  to  the  priesthood,  but.  abandoning  that  purpose,  en- 
tered tho  Crtllej^e  of  San  IMoronso  in  .Mexico  and  studied 
law  ;  wa.'»  admitted  to  the  bar  in  18Jl  ;  was  chosen  rector 
of  San  lldofonso  in  ISj2,  and  became  in  Dec,  ISoo,  one  of 
the  magistrates  of  tho  sujtrenie  ci)urt  of  justice.  About  this 
time  his  brother.  Mii^uel  Lenlo  de  Tejadii.  an  eminent  states- 
man and  economist,  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in 
the  cabinet  of  Pre.-^ident  <_"omonfort,  and  by  his  energetic 
policy  respecting  the  privile;^cs  and  property  of  tho  Cath- 
olic Church  became  the  leader  of  the  liberal  party.  To  him 
Sebastian  lent  such  efficient  cr>-opcratinn  as  to  be  called  to 
the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  which  ho  accepted  .June  A, 
1.SJ7.  On  the  overthrow  of  Tomonfort  in  Jan.,  1858,  ho 
devoted  himself  anew  to  the  direction  of  tho  college  and  to 
practice  at  the  bar,  whore  ho  soon  gained  an  eminent  posi- 
tion. On  tho  restoration  of  tho  lilieral  government  Lerdo 
was  elected  to  Congress  (  Apr.,  ISiH  ).  re-elocted  in  the  ful- 
lowing  year,  and  was  three  times  chosen  to  tho  presidency 
of  that  body,  the  term  of  that  office  in  Mexico  being  only 
one  month,  lie  was  president  of  Congress  in  May,  18C3, 
when  the  capture  of  Puebia  forced  President  Juarez  to 
abandon  the  capital  of  the  republic,  and  was  one  of  the  few 
nroiniucnt  statesmen  who  accompauiod  the  government  in 
its  retreat  to  San  Luis  Potosi.  In  that  city  he  accepted 
tho  post  of  minister  of  justice.  Sept.  15,  and  that  of  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  Sept.  21,  180)',  thereby  becoming, 
next  to  Juarez,  the  leading  representative  of  the  cause 
of  national  independence  during  the  protracted  struggle 
against  tho  French  intervention  and  the  so-called  empire 
of  tho  Austrian  archduke  Ferdinand  Maximilian.  In  the 
successive  retreats  of  thi;  republican  government  to  Mon- 
terey, .■^altillo,  Durango,  Chihuahua,  and  Paso  del  Xorte.  as 
well  as  in  its  advance  three  years  later  to  Chihuahua.  Zacatc- 
CAS.and  San  Luis  Potosi,  Lerdo  preserved  an  imperturbable 
confidence  in  the  ultimate  success  of  the  cause  to  which  his 
entire  energies  were  clevoted,  and  when  tho  turning  of  the 
tide  placed  the  archduke  a  prisoner  in  tlie  hands  ot  Ihe  re- 
publicans, neither  Juarez  nor  Lenlo  wavered  hof<)re  tho 
most  urgent  appeals  in  his  resolution  to  execute  upon 
that  prince  tho  sentence  to  which  he  had  been  condemned 
after  a  protracted  trial.  I'pon  tlio  restoration  of  the  na- 
tional government  to  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1807,  Lerclo  was 
clectrd  president  of  the  supremo  court  of  justice,  to  which 
post  was  annexed  the  vice-pre-'idency  of  the  republic,  but 
continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  was  generally  erediterl  with  being  tho  origin- 
ator of  tho  most  important  mt-asurcs  taken  for  the  rebuild- 
ing ftf  the  shattered  political  edifice.  He  retired  from  the 
cabinet  .Ian.  17,  1871  :  was  an  unsuocossful  candidate  for 
tho  presidency  in  the  clo-tion  of  July  of  that  year,  and 
upon  the  sudden  death  of  Juarez  (July  18,  1872)  succeeded 
him  by  virtue  of  his  office  as  vic^-president.  In  tho  elec- 
tion of  Oct.,  1872,  Lerdo  was  chosen  president  for  four 
years,  ending  I>ec.  1.  I87ft.  His  administration  has  boon 
characterized  by  a  strict  adherence  to  tlie  policy  established 
by  Juarez,  by  the  enforcement  of  tho  "laws  of  reform" 
against  the  alleged  machinations  of  tho  reactionary  or 
'•  Church  party,"  and  by  a  rigid  suppression  of  all  attempts 
at  rcvolutinn.  Ho  is  distinguished  i"or  cunsiiniirialc  urbanity 
and  great  diplomatic  sagacity,  combinc«|  with  indexible 
determination.  l*oitTi:ii  C.  Bi.iss. 

Ler'ici,  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  (Jenoa.  It 
lies  on  the  (iulf  of  Spezia  in  the  ini^lst  of  charming  scenery, 
and  has  acquired  some  notoriety  from  the  confinement  of 
Garibaldi  within  its  fortress  in  1M12.  Its  maritime  activ- 
ity is  great  for  its  population,  which  in  1874  was  59 (l>. 

Ler'ida^  ]>rovinco  of  Spain,  bounded  X.  by  tho  Pyre- 
nees and  K.  by  Hareelona.  comprises  an  area  of  'Ifll'.i  square 
miles,  with  ;t:(0,.1lH  inhabitants.  The  northern  portion  is 
covered  with  spurs  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  rich  in  iron,  cop- 
per, leatl,  zinc,  marble,  jasper,  and  gypsum.  The  southern 
portion  is  an  extensive  jdain,  which  produces  wheat,  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  i 

Lorida  [Lat.  /Imfa],  town  of  Spain,  tho  onpital  of  the 
province  of  Lerida.  on  tho  Segro,  is  surrounded  by  walls 
and  strongly  fortified,  as  it  is  tho  key  of  .\ragon  and  Cata-  I 


j  Ionia,  and  consequently  a  point  of  great  military  import- 
ance.    It  has  two  remarkable  cathedrals,  one  ot  the  thir- 
teenth, the  other   of  the   eighteenth  century;    a  lyceuni, 
,  and  several  other  educational  institutions ;   its  university, 
founded  in  LJUU,  was  suppressed  by  Philip  V.    Pop.  19,027. 
I       Leriiis,  The,  several  small  islands  off  Antibcs,  and 
in  the  department  of  Var.  France.     The  largest,  Stc.  Mar- 
guerite, was  the  place  of  imprisonment  of  tho  **  Man  in  the 
I  Iron  Mask  "  from  1G80  to  1098.     Its  fortros?,  Kontere^',  is 
I  now   a  ]»rison    for   military  convicts   and  Algerines,   and 
I  Bazaino  was  here  confined  (1874).    It  was  the  Lmm  of  the 
ancients.     The  next  smaller  island,  St.  Ilonorat  (/U(inriri<t 
I   Leriu(t),  is  named  from  St.  Honoratus,  archbishop  of  Aries, 
'  who  founded  here  in  the  fourth  century  the  convent  of  h6- 
rins,  which  became  a  famous  school  of  theology,  and  passed 
into  tho  Benedictine  order.     After  1650  tho  monastery  lost 
its  importance,  and  is  now  in  ruins,  and  the  island  supports 
some  agrieullnral  inhabitants.    There  are  some  smaller  un- 
inhabited islands  in  the  vicinity. 

Ler'ma  (Francisco  i»e  Roxas  de  Saxdovat.),  Dckk  of, 
b.  in  Spain  during  the  sixteenth  century;  was  made  a 
duke  and  ]»rirne  minister  of  .*^]»ain  immediately  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Philip  HI.  in  1598,  and  governed  the  em]iiro  till 
1CI8,  during  which  period  tho  exhausted  and  distracted 
state  of  tiie  country  became  more  and  more  apparent.  His 
foreign  policy  was  markcfl  by  defeats,  his  internal  by  cru- 
elty and  weakness.  In  spite  of  enormous  exertions,  he  was 
compelled  to  conclude  peace  with  England  in  10(1 1  and  with 
the  Cnitcd  Provinces  in  1008  on  humiliating  conditions.  In 
1009  he  issued  the  decree  of  proscription  by  which  several 
thousand  Moorish  families,  forming  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  industrious  elements  of  the  Spanish  population,  were 
driven  out  of  Spain,  anrl  their  properly,  at  least  in  many 
cases,  confiscated.  Under  Philip  1\'.  the  animosity  against 
the  fallen  minister  became  so  strong  that  an  examination 
was  made  of  his  adminstration,  and  ho  was  compelled  to 
return  a  largo  sum  of  money  to  the  treasury.  D.  shortly 
after,  in  102  >. 

Lermontoir  (MicnAEi.),  b.  Oct.  15.  1814;  received  a 
military  educatirai,  and  entered  tlio  imperial  guard,  but 
was  removed  in  I8.'i7  t(»  the  army  of  Caucasus  on  account 
of  a  poem  he  wrote  on  the  death  of  Pushkin.  In  1810  ho 
published  a  volume  of  poems  at  St.  Petersburg,  which  made 
a  great  sensation,  and  gained  for  him  (he  title  of*  the  poet 
of  Caucasus."  But  a  novel  ho  wrote  slnntly  after,  T/ir  ffei') 
t'f  Our  Tiuir,  caused  a  duel  between  him  and  one  of  his 
fellow-officers  in  the  army  of  Caucasus,  and  ho  was  shot 
July  27,  1811.  Most  of  his  works  have  boon  translated 
into  (Jerman  by  Bodenstodt  (IS52),  and  some  of  them — as, 
for  instance.  The  Sontf  of  Cznr  Ivan  Vasi'ltevitch  —  into 
French  by  Saint  Ren6  Taillaudier. 

IjCrilir'ada  [from  Lcmira,  one  of  tho  genera],  a  pro- 
posed order  of  crustaceans,  not  recognized  by  all  syttua- 
atists.  They  are  assigned  to  tho  Entomostraca.  and  tu  a 
Boction  called  Pcecilopoda.  Tho  mouth  is  for  suction,  tho 
thorax  not  jointed,  tho  or/^ans  very  small.  The  males 
are  totally  unlike  the  females.  All  arc  parasites  of  very 
degraded  type.  They  aro  often  much  more  completely 
organized  when  young  than  when  mature.  In  tho  latter 
stage  they  loso  tho  power  and  organs  of  locomotion  and 
of  eight.  There  aro  many  diverse  and  strange  forms  re- 
ferred to  this  order,  most  of  which  would  never  be  recog- 
nizofl  as  crustaceans  but  for  their  larval  forms.  They  aro 
found  attached  to  fishes  and  other  aquatic  animals. 

Le'ros  [A«po?].  a  Turkish  island  of  the  .Egean,  ?>•'  miles 
S.  of  Samos,  is  0  miles  long  fr<tm  X.  to  S.,  and  I  miles 
wiile,  is  very  fertile,  and  has  goud  harbors.  Pop.  oOOO. 
Its  people  were  anciently  proverbial  fi»i-  ill-nature,  and  its 
present  inhabitants  are  dcsjiiscd  as  niggardly. 

liCrot.     See  PouMorsK. 

liCroux'  (Pn-.nnr.),  b.  at  Paris  in  1798;  studic<l  at  tho 
Lyceum  Charlemagne;  fonnrle<l  the  (ilnUe  newspaper  in 
1821,  ns  organ  of  tho  philosophers:  adhered  to  the  Saint 
Simonians  in  18:il,  converting  his  paper  into  the  organ  of 
their  »f)cialiHlic  policy:  withdrew  after  the  promnlgatinn 
of  the  new  doctrines  of  Knfantin.  He  became  in  is;i2 
erlilor  of  Ihe  Hrvur  Etfifrfoprdi<inr,  and  in  cnnneetion 
with  Jean  Uoynnud,  established  in  18:iS  tho  Xrw  Eurtf~ 
rloprrffin,  whicli  wtts  a  continuation  of  the  Enctfrl'tpffUr  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  His  capital  work,  Hr  V Hunutuitf, 
ilr  Mon  Priiirifir  ft  fir  Htm  Avitir.  appeared  in  1>^.';9,  con- 
taining bis  philosophical  and  theolt»gical  iihas.  consisting 
in  a  continued  progn-ss  of  man  and  nature  towards  perfec- 
tion through  changing  forms.  \\f  foundeil  in  1841  the  /fn-uf 
fii'I^priiflnntr,  with  Viardot  an<l  (leorire  Sand,  ami  in  18IS, 
wad  oleotod  a  representative  of  the  National  Assembly  as 
an  ultra  radical.  After  the  roup  tV.'tat  of  1851  be  emi- 
grated to  tho  island  of  Jersey. and  afterwards  to  Lausanne. 
Switsorland.     Pierro  Loroux  was  a  kind  of  modern   and 


1738 


LE  BOY— LESCHES. 


secular  Zwingli,  the  rpprcscntative  of  pure  and  honest  radi- 
calism in  philosophy.  He  wrote  also  Ckrialiauily  and  its 
Democratic  Oiif/in,  Mullhua  and  the  Econnmitls.  ur  Shall 
there  he  alwni/a  Pnnr  t  Job.  a  drama,  The  Samarcae  Beach, 
a  philosophic  Jioem.  The  Ptulocran/,  or  The  (lot'crnmeni  of 
the  Jlich,  etc.  JIo  returned  to  France  after  the  amnesty  of 
Aug.  15,  1809,  and  d.  at  Paris  Apr.  12,  1S7I. 

Felix  Aucaione. 
Lc  Roy,  tp.  of  Koono  cc.  111.     Pop.  1002. 
I-e  Hoy,  post-v.  of  Empire  tp.,  McLean  co.,  III.,  on  the 
Indiun.npolis  Blooniington  and  Western  K.  R.,  has  1  week- 
ly newspaper.     Pop.  S62. 
Leroy',  tp.  of  Benton  co.,  la.     Pop.  1S07. 
Leroy,  tp.  of  Bremer  co.,  la.     Pop.  303. 
IiCroy,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Coffey  co.,  Kan.,  on  \cosho 
River,    winch   affords  good    water-power.     The  town  has 
some  manufactures.     The  station,  2  miles  distant,  is  ou  the 
Missouri  Kansas  and  Texas  R.  R.     Pop.  of  v.  410  :  of  to. 
10114.  '  ^ 

liCroy,  tp.  of  Calhoun  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1303. 
Leroy,  tp.  of  Ingham  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  859. 
Leroy,  post-v.  of  Osceola  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  148. 
Leroy,  post-v.  and   tp.  of  Mower  co.,  Minn.,  on  the 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  R.  R.     Pop.  1057. 

Le  Roy,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Genesee  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
Erie,  Central,  and  Plate  Lino  R.  Rs..  25  miles  S.  IV.  of 
Rochester,  50  miles  E.  of  Buffalo,  and  10  miles  E.  of  Bata- 
via,  has  7  churches,  2  banks,  2  weekly  newspapers,  4  lime- 
kilns, 4  stone-quarries,  several  flour,  planing,  gvpsuni, 
]>laster.  and  saw  mills,  with  fine  water-power  supplied  by 
Oatka  Creek.  It  is  the  seat  of  Ingham  University  for 
ladies,  and  has  an  academic  institute,  an  art  conservatory, 
and  a  public  library.     Pop.  of  v.  2034:  of  tp.  4027. 

C.  B.  Thomson-,  Ed.  "  Gazette." 
Leroy,  posf-v.  of  Westfield  tp.,  Medina  co.,  0. 
Leroy,  tp.  of  Lake  CO.,  0.     Pop.  811. 
Le  Roy,  post-tp.  of  Bradford  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1144. 
Le  Roy,  post-tp.  of  Dodge  co..  Wis.     Pop.  157G. 
Leroy  (William  E.),  IT.  S.  N.,  b.  Mar.  24,  ISIS,  in  Now 
York  :  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Jan.  11,  1832; 
became  jiassed  midshipm.an  in    18:iS,  lieutenant  in  1843, 
commander  in  ISGI,  captain  in  18G0,  commodore  in  1870, 
and  rear-admiral  in  1S74;  commanded  the  Keystone  State 
in  a  severe  engagement  with  Confederate  irou-clads  off 
Charkslon,  .S.  C.  Jan.  31. 1863,  and  tlie  Oneida  at  the  battle 
of  Mobile  Bay,  Aug.  .').  1S64,  and  conspicuous  on  both  occa- 
sions for  "  gallantry  and  determination." 

,  Foxhall  a.  Parker. 

Leroy  d'Etiollcs  (Jean  Jacql-es  Joseph),  b.  at  Paris 
Apr.  5,  1798;  studied  medicine,  and  took  his  degree  in 
1824.  In  1822  he  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Surgery  a 
set  of  instruments  which  he  had  invented  for  the  operation 
of  lithotrity.  The  invention  was  disputed  by  Civialo  and 
Aniusa;it,  who  also  claimed  it,  but  after  close  examination  of 
the  case  the  prize  was  awarded  to  Leroy  d'Ktiolles.  The  most 
prominent  of  his  writings  is  his  IlUtuire  dc  la  Lltholrilie 
(1 839).     D.  at  Paris  Aug.  25,  1860. 

Leroy  de  St.-Arnaud  (  Jacqies  Achille),  b.  at  Paris 
Aug.  20.  ISOI  ;  enlisied  in  ISIG  in  the  body-guard  of  Louis 
XVIII.,  but  left  in  1S20  the  military  service,  and  led  for 
several  years  a  rather  adventurous  life  in  Franco  and  Eng- 
land. In  1831  ho  again  entered  the  army;  served  at 
Blaye.  where  the  duchess  of  Berry  was  detained;  became 
in  1S37  captain  in  the  foreign  legion  in  .\lgeria.  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  very  much  during  the  following  years 
at  the  taking  of  Constantine,  by  the  capture  of  Bou-Maza. 
as  commander  of  the  province  of  Constantine.  and  bv  his 
canipai;.'n  against  the  Kabyles.  In  1851  he  was  made  a 
general  and  commander  of  one  of  the  military  divisions  of 
Paris.  In  the  same  year  he  became  minister  of  war,  and 
in  this  position  he  rendered  great  services  to  Xapoleon  Dec. 
2,  1852,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  mar- 
shal. In  1S54  he  commanded  the  French  armv  in  the 
Crimean  war,  and  won  the  battle  of  Alma,  hut  iirSeptem- 
ber  he  had  to  give  up  his  command  on  account  of  sickness, 
and  d.  on  board  the  Berthollet,  Sept.  29,  1854. 
,,?'.*''■'',''  "le  (Jean\  b.  at  Lery,  France,  in  1534;  was  in 
15ao  a  Calvinistio  minister  at  Geneva,  when  ho  was  engaged 
by  \  illegagnon  to  acrM,,„panT  dig  expedition  to  Brazil  and 
introduce  (he  Reformed  religion  in  that  counlrv  (1550).  He 
preached  for  some  time  to  the  colonists  on  thesmall  island 
in  the  b.ay  of  Hio  de  Janeiro  now  called  Villegagnon,  and 
was  thus  the  first  Protestant  preacher  in  the  New  World. 
After  the  unfortunate  result  of  that  colony,  Lery  returned 
to  France  ;  was  in  1500  a  citizen  of  Geneva  ;  was"  afterward 
preacher  at  Belleville.  Xevers.  and  Sancerre;  lost  twenty- 
two  of  his  congregation  by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew;    retired  to  Berne,  Switzerland,  where  ho  seems  to  1 


have  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  d.  there  in  Ifill. 
JIo  wrote  an  account  of  his  Brazilian  adventures,  Uittoire 
d'un  Voi/ar/e fait  en  la  terre  du  lirenil  (La  Rochelle,  1578; 
often  reprinted),  and  a  Jiialoire  mimorable  de  la  ville  de 
Sancerre  ( 1574). 

Le  Sage  (Alaix  Rexe),  b.  May  8.  lOfiS.  at  Sarzeau.  in 
the  present  department  of  Morbihan  ;  received  his  first  edu- 
cation by  the  Jesuits  at  Vauues ;  studied  philosophy  and 
law  in  Paris  since  1692,  and  began  to  practise  as  an  advo- 
cate in  1095,  but  gave  up  this  career  in  109S,  in  order  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits,  in  which 
undertaking  he  was  aided  by  the  Abbe  de  Lyonne.  who 
gave  him  a  pension  of  -600  livres  a  year.  His  literary 
career  he  began  by  translating  dramas  and  novels  from  the 
Spanish,  but  from  mere  translations  he  rose  by  degrees  to 
the  production  of  independent  works  of  ;  :  greatest  merit. 
Of  his  numerous  jilays.  which  moitly  consist  of  farces  and 
comic  operas,  the  most  prominent  are  Criipin  (1707)  and 
7'iircarc((I709),  which  latter  comedy  is  a  satire  on  the  finan- 
ciers of  that  time,  who  are  said  to  have  offered  the  author 
100,000  francs  if  he  would  suppress  his  w(»rk.  A  still  greater 
success  he  achieved  as  a  romancer.  Le  biahle  buiicux  ( 1 707), 
HUtoire  de  (jttzman  d'  Al/arache  (1732),  and  especial  I V  llia- 
toire  de  (III  lllas  de  SantiUane  (1715),  were  received  with 
great  applause,  and  the  last-mentioned  is  still  a  favorite  in 
all  civilized  countries  and  with  all  educated  people,  on  ac- 
count of  its  striking  psychological  observations  and  refined 
satire.  D.  at  Boulogne  Xov.  17,  1747.  His  (Eiurea  com- 
pletet  (12  vols.)  were  published  at  Paris  in  1828. 
Le  Sauk,  tp.  of  Stearns  co.,  Minn.  Pop.  268. 
Lesbo'nax  [Aecr/SiLraf].  of  Mitylcne  in  Lesbos,  lived  in 
the  time  of  Augustus;  wrote  a  number  of  orations  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Attic  orators,  of  which  two  have  come  down 
to  us.  They  are  given  in  the  collections  of  Reiske  and  of 
Dobson,  separately  by  Orelli  (Leipsic,  1820).^Another  Lcs- 
bonax,  a  grammarian,  whose  date  is  unknown,  has  left  a 
treatise  on  grammatical  figures,  published  in  "Valckenaer's 
edition  of  Ammonius  (Leyden,  1749;  reprinted,  Leipsic, 
1822).  H.  Drisler. 

Les'bos,  or  Mitylene,  .in  island  of  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, 10  miles  (lisiaut  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
belonging  to  Turkey.  Area,  GOO  square  miles.  Pop.  40,000, 
of  whom  15,000  are  Turks.  Tho  island  is  mountainous, 
but  very  fertile,  producing  excellent  olive  oil,  figs,  grapes, 
and  pine  timber;  its  wine,  famous  in  olden  time,  is  now 
inferior.  Thcophrastus,  Alcaeus,  and  Sappho  were  born  here. 
Chief  town,  Castro. 

Lescarbot'  (Marc),  seigneur  de  St.  Audcbert,  b.  at 
Vervins,  France,  about  1570;  became  a  lawyer;  was  asso- 
eiatecj  with  Do  Mont  in  the  colonization  of  Acadia  iXova 
Scotia)  in  1005.  and  was  engaged  with  Poutriiicourt  in  the 
settlement  of  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis)  until  its  aban- 
donment in  1C07.  when  he  returned  to  France.  He  pub- 
lished in  1609  a  Hiatoirc  dc  la  .Vfimctlc  trance,  giving  an 
account  of  Cartier's  voyages  to  Canada,  of  Laudonuierc's 
failures  in  Florida,  and  of  tho  enterprise  with  which  ho 
was  personally  connected,  the  first  attempt  at  settlement 
having  been  made  on  what  is  now  Boon  Island  on  the  coast 
of  Maine.  lie  added  a  collection  of  poems,  written  by  him- 
self and  others  in  the  new  colony,  under  the  title  £i»  Miiset 
de  la  Ji'otivillc  France,  one  of  which  relates  the  defeat  of 
the  Micmac  by  the  Armouchiquois  Indians  in  Maine  in 
1007.  The  descrii»tion  of  the  country  and  the  accounts  of 
the  Indians  arc  spirited,  and  probably  faithful.  The  vol- 
ume attracted  the  attention  of  Hakluyt,  and  under  his  au- 
spices an  English  translation  of  the  greater  part  was  pub- 
lished tho  same  year,  under  tho  title  A'ova  Francia,  or  the 
Deecriplion  of  that  part  of  Sew  France  tchich  i>  one  Couti- 
uent  with  Virijinlu  (1009).  A  second  edition,  enlarged,  of 
the  original  work  appeared  in  lOlI,  and  a  third  in  1013, 
with  the  addition  of  two  smaller  treatises,  La  Cimrersion 
de»  Sauiuiffca  and  Utilation  tierniere  de  ee  qui  c'rat  pass(  au 
vot/aijc  dn  Sienr  dr  L'outrincourt.  the  former  having  been 
first  printed  in  1010  and  the  latter  about  1612.  An  account 
is  given  therein  of  the  disputes  between  Poutrincourt  and 
the  Jesuits,  in  which  Lescarbot  sided  with  the  former.  He 
also  published  in  1013  a  poetical  description  of  ,Switzer- 
land,  Le  Tablcan  de  la  Snisae,  aud  in  1029  an  account  of 
the  repulse  of  tlie  English  from  the  Isle  of  l\\i6.  As 
early  as  1599  he  had  written  a  Diacoiira  in  favor  of  the 
union  of  tho  Greek  Church  with  the  Catholic.  D.  about 
1030. 

Les'chcs  fAto-xi']'  ''■  n<'!"'  Mitylene,  one  of  the  class 
known  as  the  Cyclic  poets,  nourished  about  700  b.  c.  His 
poem,  entitled  the  Little  Iliad  (notpi  'Ui«).  treated  of  tho 
events  subsequent  to  Homer's  great  poem,  including  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  from  which  that  j)art  is  calieil  also  tho 
Iteatructitm  of  Troy  {'ixiov  iripats).  Pausanias  has  quota- 
tions from  Lescbes,  and  an  extract  is  preserved  in  Pro- 
clus.  H.  Drisler. 


LESGHIANS— LESSEPS,  DE. 


1739 


Lcs'ghians,  a  people  of  tho  Caucasus,  Asiatic  Uussia, 
nuinbcriii;^  about  3U0,UU0,  and  speaking  many  languages. 
UnJcr  (lie  iuQucncc  of  Sbaniyl  thcv  unitcl  into  a  siuglc 
political  boily,  and  for  many  years  carried  on  a  Jirave  re- 
sistance to  Russia.  Since  ISo'J  they  have  liecn  peaceable. 
Their  religion,  called  Muradism,  is  a  form  ot'  Alohara- 
medanism  taught  by  a  native  prophet,  who  began  his  re- 
ligious career  about  ls;iO.  They  inhabit  the  mountains  of 
AVestern  l),vghestan,  where  each  village  is  a  fortress. 

Les'lcy  (John),  b.  in  Scotland  .Sept.  2'J,  Ii27;  graduated 
at  King's  College,  Aberdeen  ;  studied  at  several  continental 
universities,  and  in  1JJ4  was  appointed  professor  of  ca- 
non law  at  Aberdeen.  He  attached  himself  to  the  fortunes 
of  Mary  queen  of  i^cots,  by  whom  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Uoss;  became  her  diplomatic  a;;cnt ;  was  inii)lieatcd  in  the 
l)roject  for  her  marriage  to  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  the 
consequent  rebellion  in  the  N.  of  England  (loliS);  went  to 
France  in  1573  in  her  service  and  for  the  promotion  of 
Catholic  interests;  received  ecclesiastical  appointments  in 
th.it  country,  becoming  in  lo0.3  bishop  of  Coutances  in 
Normandy,  and  was  soon  after  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Brussels,  where  he  d.  .May  :il,  Ijilli.  lie  wrote  much  in  de- 
fence of  his  royal  mistress,  and  published  at  Rome  a  his- 
tory of  Scotland,   l)r  OrhjinrH  M'H-ihtiH  ct  /ifhtiv  (ifnliH  Sro- 

tot'ntn  (Rome,  167S),  in  10  books,  seven  in  Latin  and  the 
last  three  in  the  Scottish  dialect.  This  portion  was  re- 
printed in  1830  by  the  Bannatyne  Club. 

Lesley  (.T.  Pf.tc;ii),  b.  Sept.  17,  1S19,  at  Philadelphia; 
graduated  at  tho  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  IS.'iS,  and 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1811:  was  assistant 
geologist  on  the  first  survey  of  Pennsylvania  in  IS.ill— tl, 
and  prepared  the  maps  and  illustrations  for  the  final  report 
in  1812;  after  travelling  on  foot  around  France,  heard  lec- 
tures in  the  University  of  Ilalle  through  the  winter  of 
1S44;  returned  home  in  1S45,  and  was  authorized  by  the 
American  Tract  Society  to  estalilish  its  colporlage  system 
in  the  northern  and  middle  counties  of  Pennsylvania;  be- 
came pastr)r  of  the  .Milton  church  near  Boston  in  18-17,  and 
left  the  ministry  in  Is.'jU  to  settle  at  Philadelphia  as  a  pro- 
fessional geologist ;  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Iron  Association  in  1  So.'),  secretary  and  librarian  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society  in  1  S;')8,  professor  of  geology 
and  mining  engineering  in  the  scientilic  department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  187.3,  and  State  geologist  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1871;  examined  tho  Bessemer  iron-works 
of  Europe  in  18(13;  was  U.  S.  Senate  commissioner  to  the 
Exposition  of  1807,  and  s]ient  the  following  winter  in 
Egypt  :  was  chosen  one  of  the  corporate  members  of  the 
National  Academy  in  18()-1 ;  published  n  Mmiunl  nf  Cnal 
and  lit  Titpntiniphi/  (ISiifi),  a  Guide  to  ikc  Iron-wmkt  of 
the  U.  S.  (1858),  arid  the  first  series  of  reports  of  progress 
of  the  geological  survey  of  Pennsylvania  in  1875. 

Les'lie^  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Ingham  Co..  Mich.,  on  the 
Jackson  Lansing  and  Saginaw  R.  R.,  21  miles  S.  of  Lansing. 
It  has  5  churches,  a  large  union  high  school,  a  newspaper,  (1 
magnetic  artesian  wells  of  great  flow,  3  hotels,  1  private 
bank,(i  steam-mills,  1  iron-foundry, cxlensivo  stave-works, 
and  a  number  of  stores.  It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict.    Pop.  I'JSIO.       J.  W.  Ai.i.KX.  En.  ••  Li:sLiE  11i;iialu." 

Leslie  (Ciiahi.ks),  b.  at  Ilaphoc,  Donegal  eo.,  Ireland, 
about  ItJIJ.  His  father,  Dr.  John  Leslie,  was  successively 
bishop  of  the  Orkneys,  of  Raphoe,  ami  of  Clogher  for  more 
than  fifty  years,  and  d.  in  1(171,  at  the  age  of  1(11  years. 
Charles  was  educated  at  Trinity  College.  Dublin;  studied 
law  at  the  Temple,  London,  for  several  years  subsequent  to 
1()71  ;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  in  1(1811,  and 
was  chancellor  of  the  cathedral  of  Connor  in  1(187,  but  by 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  id  allegiance  to  William  and  .Mary 
cut  olV  all  prospect  of  ec  ■lesiasticnl  preferment.  lie  then 
devoted  himself  to  religious  and  political  controversy,  for 
both  of  which  he  was  well  fitted  by  extensive  studies  in 
English  hi-story  ami  law  and  in  theological  literature.  For 
thirty-three  years  he  was  the  leading  literary  chamiiion  of 
the  .iacobites.  His  works  against  Jews.  Socinians.  Presby- 
terians, (Quakers,  and  Catholics  oucc  enjoyed  great  faiiie. 
but  the  only  work  of  Leslie  which  has  exercised  any  in- 
fluence in  the  i>resent  century  is  tho  Slimi  Mvlhnd  irilli  the 
Driait  (10!)  I),  tho  argument  of  which  rests  principally  upon 
the  Christian  miracles.  Though  still  esleeined  by  evangeli- 
cal theologians,  it  is  regaiilcd  as  inailiquate  lo  the  wants 
of  the  present  day,  and  is  now  little  read.  Leslie  was  for 
some  years  at  the  court  of  the  Pretender  on  the  Continenl. 
then  resided  in  Italv,  returned  to  England  in  1721,  and  d. 
Apr.  13,  1722. 

Leslie  (CiiAni.rs  RniiFnTl,  b.  at  Clerkcnwell,  London, 
of  American  parents,  in  17!M.  His  father  was  a  watch- 
maker of  Philadelphia.  The  boy  relumed  wilh  his  parents 
to  Philadelphia  in  ISOO,  anil  nfier  leaving  school  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  bookseller;  in  1811  went  lo  England;  studied 
with  West  and  Allston;  waselcctcdoasocinteof  the  Academy 


in  IS21,  and  member  in  1S20.  llis  first  attempts  at  paint- 
ing were  on  a  largo  scale  of  historical  subjects,  but  ho  soon 
abandoned  this  style  for  another,  in  which  he  became 
famous.  In  1833  he  >vas  appointed  professor  of  drawing 
at  West  Point,  but  held  the  position  for  five  months  only. 
In  1S47  he  was  chosen  professor  of  painting  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  held  the  office  four  years,  and  delivered  lectures 
which  were  published  by  the  title  of  A  Hundhonk/or  Yuinif/ 
I'unitrrit.  In  1845  appeared  his  Lt'/e  of  I'uunttfbU,  the  ar- 
tist. Leslie's  productiveness  has  been  very  great.  His  works 
cover  a  period  of  about  half  a  century;  they  exhibit  much 
variety  in  subject,  but  with  much  sameness  of  manner.  Sev- 
eral of  tho  best  of  them  have  been  engraved.  His  .time /'ojc 
nnd  Sfendrr,  Sir  Rmjer  d<  Coffvln/  (joirtf/  lo  ("hnrch,  Mnif  Dny 
ill  Ihr.  Reifiii  of  Qiii-cii  Klizniieth,  arc  familiar.  His  works 
found  great  favor  in  Englanil,  partly  from  (he  character 
of  his  subjects,  which  were  token  chiefly  from  English  lit- 
erature, and  partly  from  (he  artist's  sympathy  with  English 
scenery  and  manners.  They  arc  full  of  a  sweet  humor, 
elegant  in  conception,  graceful  in  execution,  and  finished 
in  style.  The  best  are  in  the  Sheepshanks  Collection.  Les- 
lie painted  a  few  portraits  and  some  ceremonial  pieces, 
among  which  are  the  Coromttinn  of  the  Qitmi  and  tho 
CliriHtcniiKj  of  the  Priiiccge  Jlui/al.  He  d.  in  Loudon  Jlay 
5,  1859.  0.  B.  FuoTiiixciiAM. 

Leslie  (Eliza),  b.  ot  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  15,  1787, 
sister  of  C.  R.  Leslie;  accompanied  her  parents  to  Eng- 
land in  17113,  returning  in  ISOU;  made  her  first  appearance 
as  an  authoress  in  1827  with  her  A'crciit/Z'/iie  liei-eiptu  for 
I'anlni,  C'ul;rH,  iind  Si'/rlmeiilii,  the  popularity  of  which  led 
to  other  successful  works  of  the  same  class.  In  1831  she 
published  the  Amrricmi  Girh'  Hook,  and  having  won  a 
prize  ofl'ered  by  Mr.  (iodey  of  the  Liidi/'a  ISouk  by  her 
story  .l/i».  Wtmliiiiftlon  Potts,  she  thereafter  devoted  herself 
chiefly  to  writing  works  lor  the  young,  by  which  she  acquired 
great  popularity.  Her  DomcKtic  Cooktrij  linok,  ])ublished 
in  1837,  went  through  fifty  or  sixty  editions,  while  the 
Home  Book  (1840)  and  Liidifa  Ucceipt  Hook  (184(1)  were 
also  widely  circulaled.  Her  only  novel  was  entitled  ^iiir/i'a, 
or  n  Yotimj  Liuhj's  Vii-in'iliidta  ( IS  18).  She  contributed  to 
Hart's  FiiiKiti-  Prone  Wrilirs  of  Aiiirrico  an  interesting  auto- 
biogrnphical  sketch.    D.  at  lilouccster,  N.  J.,  Jan.  2,  1858. 

Leslie  (Gkorbe  Drxi.op),  b.  in  London,  England.  July 
2,  1835,  son  of  C.  H.  Leslie:  was  educated  at  the  Mercers' 
School,  received  artistic  training  from  his  falhcr  and  at  a 
school  of  art  at  Bloomsbury,  and  was  in  1851  aduiillcd  as 
a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Ho  began  lo  exhibit 
pictures  at  the  Academy  in  1857,  was  elected  an  associate 
of  that  institution  in  180S,  and  has  attained  considerable 
popularity  as  an  artist. 

Leslie  (Hknrv  Davm)),  b.  in  London,  Engliiml,  Juno 
18,  1822:  studied  music  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  C. 
Lucas;  founded  in  Is5(i  a  choral  society  known  by  his 
name,  and  in  1801  was  made  ]irineipal  of  the  College  of 
Music,  an  institution  founded  in  that  year  on  the  system 
of  the  continental  conservatories.  He  has  published  sev- 
eral symphonies,  overtures,  oratorios,  and  cantatas,  besides 
various  compositions  for  stringed  instruments,  and  sixty 
or  seventy  songs,  duets,  antlieins,  and  pieces  for  the  pittUO. 
In  1804  he  composed  a  romantic  opera  in  three  acts. 

Leslie  (Sir  Joiis),  b.  at  Largo,  Fifcshiro,  Scotland, 
Apr.  10,  1706;  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  St.  An- 
drew's and  Edinburgh;  spent  two  years  (1788-89)  in  Vir- 
ginia as  tutor  in  one  of  the  Randolph  families;  settled  in 
London  in  I791l.and  applied  bimsell  (o science.  Hetrans- 
hued  liull'on's  Nulnrui  llisiori/  of  llirdu  (II  vols.,  1793),  trav- 
elled on  the  Continent  as  tutor,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  iirofcssorsbips  at  St.  Andrew's  and  (ilasgow.  In 
1805  he  was  eleeled  by  the  town-council  of  Edinburgh 
profcs.sor  of  malhenialies  in  the  university  of  that  city, 
after  a  vigorous  opposKion  by  (he  clergy  on  the  score  of 
dangerously  liberal  opinions  both  in  politics  and  religion. 
In  1819  he  succeeded  Prof.  Playfair  in  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy,  which  he  held  through  life.  He  was  knighted 
a  fewmon'lhs  before  bis  dealb,  ivbieh  occurred  Nov.  3,  1832. 
Ho  early  took  high  rank  as  a  scientific  investigator  and 
I  discoverer.  His  E.rpcriiiiciiliit  Iiiijiiirif  into  the  Antnrc  ond 
I  Propiuiiiiioii  of  Ileal  (1.804)  gaincil  the  Rumford  medal  of 
the  Royal  S.icioty.  From  1809  lo  1822  he  |inblished  a  se- 
ries of  textbooks  in  geotnclry  and  the  higher  iniillieiuatics, 
and  from  1822  to  his  death  a  similar  series  iin  natural 
philosophy.  In  1810  he  discovered  (ho  process  of  artificial 
congelation.  He  was  tho  author  of  a  large  number  of  soi- 
onlitic  articles  in  the  Eneifelopirdin  Britaiiiiiea. 

Les'seps,  tie  (Fi;nniNANi)),  Visioh.st,  b.  at  Versailles 
Nov.  19,  1805  ;  entered  public  life  in  1828  as  an  attach/'  ot 
Lisbon;  held  various  eonsiilnr  ofiiees :  proposeil  in  1851  to 
Mebenict  Said,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  the  cutting  of  a  canal 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  published  in  that  year  a 
report,  Peicemciit  de  I'lathmc  de  Suez  cxpoai.     A  firman 


1740 


LESSING— LESTRI  DIN-£. 


s:inctioning  the  enterprise  was  granted  in  1804,  and  the 
wnrk  was  executed  1S09-G9,  (For  ii  sketch  of  the  history 
of  the  riuez  Canal  and  the  many  diffieultit-s,  financial,  dip- 
lomatic, and  nutiiral.  which  were  overcome  largely  hy  the 
energies  of  M.  de  Lcsseps,  see  SfEz  Canal.)  M.  do  Les- 
seps  since  the  c(»niplt-tiou  of  his  great  work  has  been  the 
recipient  of  many  honors  and  rewards,  and  has  directed 
his  attention  to  other  vast  projects,  such  as  a  central  Asian 
railway  and  the  conversion  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara  into  an 
inland  sea. 

Les'sing  (GoTTiroi.n  Ephraim),  b.  at  Camenz,  Saxony, 
171^11:  studied  at  Leipsic,  or  rather  tried  to  study,  first 
theology  and  then  medicine,  but  his  innate  passion  for  the 
theatre,  dramn.  and  literature  in  general  was  too  powerful ; 
moved  to  Berlin,  whore,  in  intimate  connection  with  Moses 
Mendelssohn  and  Xicolai,  he  led  for  several  years  an  exclu- 
sively literary  life,  the  most  remarkable  fruit  of  which  were 
his  Lrfters  on  L  iteniture.  In  170"  went  to  Breslau  us  gov- 
ernment secretary  to  Cen.  von  Tauonzion.  and  while  re- 
siding there,  in  the  midst  of  the  .Seven  Years'  w:ir.  wrote 
Miiiiifi  fon  Harnhelm^  the  first  national  drama  of  Germany 
and  the  inauguration  of  a  grent  and  brilliant  literature. 
It  made  a  great  sensation,  and  the  impression  was  both 
widened  and  deepened  by  his  tragedy,  Emifie  Gulotti, 
which  soon  followed.  In  17G9  he  went  to  Hamburg  as 
director  of  the  theatre,  and  there  wrote  his  Hnmhurqifsche 
Dramtiinrifie.it  series  of  theatrical  reviews,  which,  together 
with  his  Lnokoon,  a  scries  of  general  critical  analyses, 
not  only  oxerciseil  a  great  influence  on  Gorman  literature, 
but  raised  a  new  issue  in  modern  civilization  :  from  Ham- 
burg went  to  Wolfeabiittel  as  librarian  at  the  dueal  library, 
and  while  in  this  position  published  the  famous  Wnlfcn- 
bUtfehchr  Ftaifm<nt<\  the  first  and  perhaps  the  strongest 
attack  on  the  historical  basis  of  Christianity.  The  Fraff- 
turutc  were  written  by  Reimarus;  Lessing  was  only  their 
editor  and  chaiupiun,  but  he  defended  them  against  the 
orthodox  Church  with  such  superiority  of  intelligence  and 
brilliancy  of  argument  that  the  ducal  government  became 
alarmed  and  bade  him  stop.  Although  a  very  independent 
character,  he  submitted,  and  later  on  set  forth  his  religious 
views  in  another  form,  in  his  great  philosophical  drama, 
Xnthan  der  Weise,  one  of  his  last  and  most  perfect  works. 
His  philosophical  essay  on  the  development  of  civilization, 
TJie  Erzlchmiff  dea  Mcnnckengenchlcchts,  followed  next  year. 
He  d.  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1781.  Lessing's  mind  is  very 
strikingly  characterized  by  the  well-known  saying  of  his. 
that  if  God  held  truth  in  the  right  hand  ancl  doubt  in  the 
left,  and  oflTered  him  the  choice,  he  would  choose  the  left 
hand.  Truth  in  the  form  of  dogma,  maxim,  or  rule  he  did 
not  acknowledge.  He  understood  truth  only  in  the  form 
of  something  to  be  searched  after,  to  be  striven  for.  To 
him,  religion  was  not  obedience,  but  insight  ;  morality,  not 
duty,  but  wisdom;  poesy,  not  inspiration,  but  taste.  Al- 
though Voltaire's  antagonist,  he  is  Voltaire's  disciple.  But 
in  his  searchings  after  truth  and  in  his  exertions  towards 
perfection  few  have  ever  surpassed  him  in  acuteness  and 
penetrating  power,  and  none  in  resoluteness  and  veracity. 
What,  was  a  needle  between  Voltaire's  fingers  became  a 
sword  in  Lessing's  hand.  What  Voltaire  had  used  only  as 
a  brilliant  means  of  repartee,  Lessing  laid  down  and  car- 
ried through  as  a  powerful  principle.  He  was  a  greater 
critic  than  Voltaire,  and  he  is  the  founder  of  modern  art- 
criticism,  of  that  kind  of  authorship  which  at  present  at- 
tracts the  attention  of  the  greatest  and  most  accom- 
plished minds  in  all  nations  by  its  analyses  and  <lennm3t ra- 
tions of  the  relation  between  art  on  tl>c  one  side  and  na- 
ture, history,  morality,  and  religion  on  the  other.  All  that 
hail  been  written  aiiout  art  before  Lessing — by  Aristotle 
and  Horace,  by  lioileauand  Voltaire — became  insignificant 
when  f.ftohonn  and  the  Ifamhnr<fis''he  Di'ftinatiirfjie  were 
puV'lished.  It  consisted  merely  of  rules,  and  was  founded 
on  the  idea  that  art  could  be  rlcfined  by  rules.  Lessing 
understood  that  art  is  as  free  in  its  creations  as  nature, 
and.  like  her.  bound  by  laws,  not  by  rules:  and  to  find  out 
and  establish  these  laws,  every  one  of  which  opens  up  new 
persi>ectives  into  the  philosophy  of  matter  and  mind,  is 
the  task  of  criticism.  This  idea  is  truly  the  discovery  of 
a  new  world,  and  every  point  on  which  Lessing  lighted  is 
explored  and  described  with  wonclerful  completeness  and 
accuracy.  A  positive  system  of  philosophy  and  religion 
Lessing  probably  did  not  possess.  Yet  his  criticism  on 
these  two  fields  was  not  merely  destructive.  He  never 
took  from  people  their  prejudices  without  giving  them  a 
hint  or  suggestion  of  how  the  empty  place  was  to  be  filled  ; 
and  his  ideas  in  philosophy  of  the  infinite  perfectibility 
of  mankind,  and  in  religion  of  the  true  relation  between 
the  Bible  and  the  tradition,  have  not  been  without  influ- 
ence. Cl.FMENS  PeTERSKN. 

Lessin?  (Karl  FRiFPRirnV  b.  at  Wartenberg,  Silesia, 
Feb.  IS,  18(lS  :  received  his  first  .artistic  instruction  at  the 
school  of  architecture  at  Berlin ,-  studied  then  for  several 


years  at  DUsseldorf  under  Schadow.  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  gallery  of  paintings  at  Carlsruhc  in  18.')S. 
His  paintings  are  partly  landscapes,  partly  historical,  and 
among  the  latter  his  I/unm'te«  ( is:juj,  //ii.?«  be/ore  the  Coun- 
cil ( ls{2|,  Thv  Martifi-dom  of  IIhhh  (iSjU).  and  others,  ex- 
cited great  admiratii)n  by  the  strength  and  richness  of 
their  characterization.  A  pupil  himself  of  the  school  of 
Diisseldorf.  and  laboring  in  many  points  under  its  influence, 
he  has  contributed  much  to  elevate  and  ennoble  it. 

Les'ter,  post-tp.  of  Black  Hawk  co.,  la.     Pop.  844. 

Lester  (Charles  EnwAnns),  b.  at  Griswold.  Conn., 
July  Ij,  1S1.'>,  a  clescendant  of  .Timathan  Edwards  ;  resided 
for  a  time  in  the  South  and  West :  cnmc  to  the  bar  in  Mis- 
sissipjii.  and  was  afterwards  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian 
ministry;  was  U.  S.  consul  at  (lenua.  Italy,  1S42— 17,  and 
has  attained  distinction  as  a  journalist  and  political  lec- 
turer. Among  other  works  he  has  published  The  Glori/ 
and  Shame  of  Entfland  (1S41),  Condition  and  Fate  of  Eng- 
land (1S42),  Life  of  Vcf^imeiua  (181C),  The  Napoleon  Dtj- 
nastif  (1852).  Life  of  Charles  Snmticr  (1874),  Our  First 
Hmidrcd  Yrarn  (1874-75),  and  Several  translations  of 
standard  Italian  authors. 

Lestocq'  (Jean  Hi:nMAs),  b.  at  Celle,  Hanover,  Apr. 
29,  10'J2.  His  father,  a  French  emigrant,  was  a  surgeon. 
and  the  son  chose  the  game  profession;  in  1713  went  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and  was  appointed  surgeon  in  the  service 
of  Peter  the  tireat.  Itut  was  banished  to  Kazan  in  171S  on 
account  of  his  dissolute  habits.  In  172j.  Catharine  I.  re- 
called and  ajjpointed  him  surgeon  in  the  service  of  the 
princess  Elizabeth.  He  soon  acquired  complete  control 
over  the  mind  of  the  princess,  and  it  was  by  his  instigation 
and  by  his  aid  that  she  undertook  the  revolution  of  Nov. 
2J.  1741,  which  made  her  empress  of  Russia.  The  king  of 
Poland  now  made  Lestocq  a  count,  the  empress  gave  him 
a  pension  of  7000  rubles  annually,  and  for  several  years 
his  influence  in  Russian  politics  was  very  great.  But  in 
1748  the  vice-chancellor,  Bestoozhcf,  succeeded  in  rousing 
the  empress's  suspicion  against  him.  He  was  arrested,  put 
to  the  torture,  and  banished  to  Ooglitch.  In  17G1,  Peter  III. 
recalled  him  to  the  court,  and  Catharine  II.  gave  bim  an 
estate  in  Livonia,  where  he  d.  June  12.  1767. 

Lestosau'riis  [Or.  AjjoT^t. '*  pirate."  and  o-aupoc.  "liz- 
ard"], a  genus  of  extinct  reptiles  from  the  Cretaceous  of 
Kansas.  (See  MosASArnrs,  by  Prof.  O.  C.  Maush.) 

L'Estrange'  (Sir  Roger),  b.  at  Hunstanton  Hall. 
Xorfolksbire.  England,  in  lOltJ:  was  probably  educated  at 
Cambridge;  accompanied  King  Charles  I.  in  1631)  in  his 
expedition  against  the  S?ot.=,  and  being  a  Bealoue  royalist 
during  the  civil  war  was  captured  in  an  attack  on  Lynn 
(1644),  and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Roundheads.  He 
was,  however,  reprieved,  and  kept  captive  several  years, 
until  in  1648  he  escaped  and  unsuccessfully  trie<l  to  stir  up 
a  rebellion  in  Kent  :  after  which  he  flecl  to  the  Continent. 
He  returned  to  England  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Long 
Parliament  in  1653,  and  made  terms  with  Cromwell.  At 
the  Restorati(m  be  was  appointed  censor  or  "  licenser  "  of 
the  press  :  established  the  Public  Intelh'fjcncer  newspaper  in 
1665  and  the  Obscrrator  in  1679,  in  both  of  which  sheets 
and  in  a  multitude  of  pamphlets  he  showed  himself  a  most 
energetic  supporter  of  the  Crown.  He  made  translations  of 
.losephus.  Cicero's  (J^vcs,  ^sop's  Fables,  Erasmus's  Col- 
loffnlea,  Quevedo's  Visions,  and  other  works,  ancient  ami 
modern,  some  of  which  possessed  considerable  merit,  though 
unfaithful  and  disfigured  by  flippant  phrases.  Ho  was 
knighted  on  the  accession  of  James  II., elected  to  the  Par- 
liament of  16S5,  and  dismissed  from  his  oflBce  of  censor  at 
the  revolution  of  1688,  soon  after  which  he  became  insane. 
D.  in  London  Dec.  II,  1704. 

Lestrid'inw  [from  Lestris,  the  generic  name,  literally 
"robber."  nn<l  the  sub-family  affix  -itur],  ti  sub-family  of 
the  faniilv  Larida*.  distinguished  by  a  well-clcveloped  beak, 
the  upjier  mandible  of  which  is  strongly  hooked,  overhang- 
ing the  lower,  and  which  has  at  its  base  a  well-developed 
cere.  In  this  grouji  are  embraced  the  jUgers  or  gull-hunt- 
ers, and  those  names,  as  well  as  their  scientific  designntions, 
are  derived  from  an  alleged  peculiarity  in  their  habits,  it 
being  affirmed  that  they  chiefly  obtain  their  fofid  by  pur- 
suing the  smaller  gulls  after  tliey  have  secured  food,  and 
compelling  them  to  disgorge  :  the  fn<ul  thus  dejected  they 
pounce  upon,  and,  as  the  bald-hearled  eagle  does  to  the  fish- 
hawk,  appropriate  it  to  themselves.  The  species  are  mostly 
inhabitants  of  the  polar  regions,  G.  R.  Gray  recognizing 
four  species  from  the  northern  seas  and  one  from  the  Ant- 
arctic; but,  according  to  the  same  authority,  two  species 
(not  even  represented  in  the  British  Museum)  are  found  in 
intermediate  regions,  one  (Stereorariu»  //ordifi)  being  at- 
tributed to  '*  Malay.  Philippines.  Sandwich  Islands."  and 
another  i,S.  spinicnuda)  to  "Atlantic  Ocean.  St.  Helena." 
Dr.  Coues  admits  four  North  American  species,  which  he 


LE  SUEUR— LETTERS  TESTAMENTARY. 


1741 


places  in  two  sub-goncra^  Buphngnsj  with  one  species,  aud 
Stercontrim,  with  three.  TUKODOllB  Gill. 

Le  Sueur,  county  of  S.  Central  Minnesota,  bounilcd 
W.bv  the  Minnesota  Kiver.  Area,  MO  square  miles.  It  is 
fertile,  level,  niul  well  womltHl.  tJrain  anil  lumber  are  load- 
ing proriiicts.  The  county  eontains  a  great  number  of  small 
lakes,  an-1  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux  Cily  K.  U. 
Cop.  Lc  Sueur.     Pop,  ILfiO?. 

iie  Sueur,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Le  Sueur  co.,  Minn., 
on  the  Minne--uta  River  aud  on  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux 
City  U.  U..  tK'>  miles  from  St.  Paul.  It  has  0  churches,  an 
elegant  public  school,  several  wa^on  aud  furniture  manu- 
factories, and  a  number  of  stores.     Pop.  1009. 

M.   K.   PRENDKUGAST,   LATK  El).  **  Lk  SlKm  CorRIER." 

Lesueur'  iErsTA<iiKK  b.  at  Paris  in  1G17:  received  his 
first  artistic  inftruetion  from  his  father,  who  was  a  sculptor ; 
i*tudie<l    under   Simon  Vouet,   together    witli    Lebrun.    his 
future  rival,  and  soon   became  oue  of  the  most  esteemed 
painters  of  that  time  in  France,  but  d.  at   Paris  in  16j.>.  i 
His  pictures  represent  subjects  of  the  Bible,  St,  Paul  at 
Ephftiis ;  of  the  Christian  legends.  Sceitcn  in  the  Life  of  | 
St.  Bruno  :  and  of  the  (Ireek  mythology.  Scencn  in  the  Life 
uf  t'npiii :  and  the  circumstance  that  he  had  never  been  in 
Italy,  nor  raado  a  thorouj^h  study  of  the  history  of  the  art  , 
of  painting,    gave   his    genius  a  freshness,    naivete,    and  I 
originality   which  still  charm  in  his  pictures,  while  it  is  \ 
ju^t  these  qualities    which   are  missing   in    Lebrun,  who  ; 
folluwed  Pouj^sin  to  Italy,  and  succeeded  in  throwing  Le- 
sucur  into  the  shade. 

Lesaenr  (Jean  Fran(;ois),  b.  Jan.  l.'i,  17fi3,  at  Drucat- 
Plesfliol.  near  Abbeville,  France;  was  appointed  director 
of  music  at  the  cathedral  of  Seez  in  1770,  and  in  17S0  at 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  The  innovations  which 
his  compositions  intniduced  into  the  style  of  sacrecl  music 
attracted  the  public,  but  vrcre  not  approved  of  by  connois- 
seurs and  the  clergy,  an<l  iu  17SS  he  gave  up  his  position, 
and  lived  for  some  years  in  retirement  in  the  country.  In 
170.'t  liis  opera  La  Carcrnc  made  a  great  success,  and  in 
170.3  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  newly  formed  con- 
servatory of  music  in  Paris.  This  po.-itioii  he  lost  in  INOL' 
on  account  of  dissensions  with  his  eolleai^ues,  but  in  I.SO-I, 
Napoleon  made  him  director  of  the  imperial  orchestra. 
The  mass  and  Tc  fhtim  which  he  composed  for  the  coro- 
nation of  the  emperor  were  received  with  great  applause, 
and  liis  opera,  Lia  fiatulrH,  even  excited  enthusiasm,  La 
Mort  </',l»/«7/»(,  on  the  c  mtrary,  was  more  coolly  received 
iu  1800,  and  liis  later  masses  and  oratorios  failed  to  make 
much  impression.  In  1H17  ho  was  appointed  professor  in 
composition  at  the  reorganiz(Ml  conservatory  of  music,  and 
among  his  pupils  wore  IJerlioz,  Ambroise  Tliomas,  Gounod, 
and  l)ictsch.     1).  in  Paris  Oct.  C>,  ls;i7. 

LetartS  ip,  of  Mtigs  co.,  0.,  on  Ohio  River.    Pop,  i;>19, 

Letch'ery  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  S.  E.  by  Vir- 
ginia. It  is  a  mountain  region,  having  beds  of  bituminous 
coal.  Corn  is  the  princijjal  crop.  Area,  300  square  miles. 
Cap.  Whitesburg.     Pop.  lOUH. 

Letcher  (John),  b.  at  Lexington,  Va.,  Mar.  29,  1813; 
educated  partly  ut  Washington  College,  but  graduated  at 
Uandolph'Mueon  College,  Va.;  studied  law  and  was  ad- 
mifled  to  the  bar  iu  ISIIO.  aud  while  practising  edited  a 
newspaper  in  his  native  town  ;  in  1H.')0  was  a  member  of 
the  State  constitutiotml  coiiveulion.  and  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  is.i;;  to  l.S.)9,  when  In-  was  ducted  governor  of 
Virginia.  This  positii>n  ho  was  hohling  when  the  Slate 
passed  her  ordinaiu^e  of  secession  in  lSt>|.  Though  he  hatl 
not  favored  the  policy  of  .accession,  yet  as  an  imliviilual  and 
as  chief  mngislnile  he  sustained  the  action  of  the  State  with 
zeal,  energy,  and  ability.  After  the  war  he  took  no  prom- 
inent part  in  politics,  but  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at 
Lexington,  A.  H,  StivPiikns. 

Ijetcher  (Robert  P.),  b.  in  Gerard  co.,  Ky.;  was  a 
lawytT  by  profession  ;  a  member  of  the  Slate  logisluturo 
fnr  a  number  of  years,  and  once  Speaker  of  the  house ;  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  IS2;i  to  1833;  was  an  intimate 
personal  aud  political  friend  of  Air.  Clay  ami  .Mr.  Critten- 
den ;  was  elerti-d  governor  (»f  the  State  in  lH|(i,  and  was 
minister  to  Mexico  iu  1819.  U.  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Jan. 
2\,  1S(U.  A.  II,  Stkpiikns. 

Lc'the,  in  Grecian  mythology,  was  a  river  in  the  lower 
wrld  of  which  tho  departed  souls  drank  before  entering 
the  Klysian  Fields,  thereby  entirely  forgetting  all  about 
their  life  on  earth.  It  was  also  used  as  a  personification 
of  oldivion. 

Leto.     See  Latona. 

KctohnU'h'ee,  post-tp.,  Lowndes  co.,  Ala.    Pop.  2538. 

Kt*troiiii(>'  (.Ji:a»  Antoink),  b.  at  Paris  Jan.  26,  17H7: 
studied  tho  art  of  painting  under  David,  but  fell  himself 
more  strongly  drawn  towards  science;  worked  for  several 


years  under  Mentelle.  jirofessor  in  geography ;  travelled 
from  I-SIO  to  1812  through  France.  Italy,  aud  Switzerland; 
wrote  in  1814  his  Cotii-M  /(rmrntain;  dc  Geoi/rapJu'r,  tiurienuc 
ct  tnoilvntc.  which  was  often  republished;  became  iu  1831 
professor  iu  history  and  areliicology  at  the  Collljge  do 
France,  and  in  1810  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  kingdom. 
1).  at  Paris  Dec.  13,  1818.  His  principal  works  are  AV- 
chernficn  pour  acnir  ^  VJ/istoiic  lie  VEtjypte  (1823),  liecuril 
den  InHcrtptiuiiJt  yrccfptes  ct  latinea  de  V Etji/pte  (1842—18),  and 
Dipiomrs  ct  Cfiurtres  dr  f'^poquc  Merovimjicnne  any  pnptfiUH 
et  aur  vt'lin  (1S4-1).  Noteworthy  among  his  minor  works  is 
his  La  Statue  vacate  dc  Mcninon  (1833). 

I.rtter  of  Attorney.     See  Power  of  Attohney. 
Letter  ol"  Credit,  a  Utter  written   by  one  merchant 

]   or  correspouileut  to  another  requesting  him  to  credit  Uie 

j   bearer  or  the  person  therein  named  with  a  sum  of  money. 

j  Letters  of  credit  are  either  general  or  special.  They  are 
general  when  addressed  to  any  and  every  person  to  whom 

I  they  may  be  presented,  and  therefore  give  any  person  to 
whom  tliey  may  be  shown  autlmrity  to  make  advances  upon 

I  the  credit  of  the  drawer.  They  are  special  when  addressed 
to  a  particular  indiviilual  by  name,  who  alone  is  authorized 
lo  act  upon  the  request.  If  advances  Ijc  made  upon  a  letter 
of  credit  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  presented,  he  has  a 
right  of  action  against  the  drawer  for  reimbursement.  A 
privily  of  contract  springs  up  between  tlieui  upon  accept- 
ance of  the  request  by  the  drawee.  (See  (iiiARANTV.  Burge 
on  Surcti/afiip :  Bell's  Vomnuntaries  Laws  of  Scotland; 
Story  on  Bilh.) 

Gkorge  Chase.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwigrt. 
Lette'rej  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Naples, 
not  far  from  (.'astellammare.     Pop.  in  187J,  5610. 

Letterken'y,  tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  2178. 
Letters.     Sec  PAL.KOGRAfnv. 

Letters,  Law  Concerning.  Pee  Literahv  Pkop- 
ERTv.  by  Pkof.  T.  W.  D\vi<;nT.  LL.D, 

Letters  of  Administration.  See  Letti:rs  Testa- 
ment art,  A  DM  I MST  RATION. 

Inciters  of  Marque.    See  Privateer,  War,  Marque 

(Ll'.TTERS  or). 

Letters  Patent.     See  Patent. 

Let'ters  Ko'gatory,  a  writ  or  instrument  sent  in  tho 
name  and  by  the  authority  of  a  judge  or  court  to  another  iu 
adifFerentcountry  or  State,  requesting  that  the  deposition  of 
a  witness  be  taken  who  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  for- 
eign tribunal,  to  be  used  as  testimony  in  a  cause  pending 
before  the  judge  or  court  from  which  the  letters  are  sent. 
This  instrument  informs  the  court  abroad  of  tlie  pendency 
of  Iho  action,  the  names  of  the  foreign  witnesses,  and  is 
frequently  nccompanicil  by  written  interrogatories,  pre- 
pared by  the  litigating  parties,  upon  wliich  the  witness  is 
to  be  examined.  It  also  contains  an  oiler  on  the  part  of 
the  court  issuing  the  letters  to  perform  a  similar  service 
for  the  foreign  tribunal  whenever  required.  The  witness  is 
examined  cither  before  the  judge  receiving  the  letters,  or 
before  a  commissioner  apjiointed  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
answers,  signed  and  sworn  to  by  the  deponent,  and  duly 
nuthenticate<l,  arc  then  returned  to  the  court  from  which 
tho  letters  isf^ued.  (Sec  DKi'i)snniN,  Witness.) 

(Ji:ou(;e  Chase.     Hkviskd  hy  T.  AV.  Dwkjiit. 

Let'ters  Testamentary,  an  instrument  in  writing 
granted  by  a  surrogate  or  other  judicial  officer  having  ju- 
risdiction of  the  probate  of  wills  to  an  executor  as  evidence 
of  his  authority,  and  enuxiwering  him  to  administer  Iho 
estate  of  the  deceased.  When  a  person  dies  intestate,  let- 
ters of  n  similar  ehuraeter  are  granted  to  the  person  wlio  is 
apjjointed  ailniinislrator.  but  they  are  then  termed  "letters 
of  administration."  By  the  Kngli,-h  common  law  execu- 
tors c<iuld  perform  most  of  the  acts  pertaining  to  (heir 
ofliec,  except  engaging  in  suits  in  relation  to  the  estate,  be- 
fore obtaining  letters  lestamentary,  since  an  executor's  au- 
thority and  title  is  deemed  in  law  lo  be  derived  from  tho 
will,  and  only  to  be  evidenced  by  the  letters  granted.  This 
rule  has  generally  been  changed  in  American  practice  by 
statute,  ami  it  is  usually  requirecl  that  letters  testamenlarv 
must  be  obtained  before  an  executor  will  be  authorized  lo 
perform  any  of  his  usual  <lufits  in  the  settletnent  of  the 
estate  except  those  of  minor  iinporlanee.  An  adininistralor 
has  no  authority  to  net  until  letters  of  adiuinislration  are 
granted  to  him,  though  after  the  grant  is  made  his  title  and 
authority  will,  by  tietion  id"  law.  relate  back  to  the  death 
of  Iho  intestate.  (See  Kution.)  Letters  granted  by  the 
surrogate  are  only  valid  within  the  limits  <d"  the  State  in 
which  they  are  issued.  If  there  are  assets  of  the  deceased 
within  a  foreign  Slate  or  country,  letters  must  he  iKsucd 
there  to  subordinate  or  ancillary  aclministrators.  and  tho 
principal  executor  or  administrator,  as  such,  will  have  no 
authority  to  administer   such  assets,  unless  they  arc  ro- 


1742 


LETTER- WOOD— LEURET. 


raitted  to  him  from  the  foreign  jurisdiction.    (See  Will, 

ApMIMSTRATOR.  EXKri-TOIl,  PROBATK.  ^TRROGATE.) 

(iKiMCGK  Chask.     Rkv!si:i)  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Let'ter-wood,  or  Suake-wood,  a  rare  and  costly 
ornamental  wood  used  lor  inlaying  and  veneering,  the 
product  of  lirosimnm  Anbletii,  an  artocarjiaceous  tree 
of  South  America.  It  is  so  hard  that  axes  of  extraordi- 
nary temper  arc  required  to  fell  the  tree.  Its  rich  brown 
wood  has  somewhat  letter-shaped  marks,  which  arc  nearly 
black.     It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  kinds  of  wood. 

Let'tic  Race,  The,  forms  a  subdivision  of  the  Slavic 
^roup,  belonging  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and  is 
ilselt  divitied  into  three  branches — the  Lithuanians,  the 
Letts,  and  the  Old  Prussians.  The  Old  Prussians  inhab- 
ited the  region  between  the  Niemen  and  the  Vistula,  but 
were  completely  Germanized  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  few  remains  of  their  language  were  collected  by  Nes- 
selmaun,  and  published  at  Berlin  {1JS4))).  The  Letts,  num- 
bering about  1,000.1)1)11,  inhabit  Courland,  Western  Livonia, 
and  the  adjacent  districts  of  the  governments  of  Vitebsk. 
Kuvno,  and  Pskov.  Their  language  was  not  reduced  to 
writing  until  the  sixteenth  century,  on  the  introduction  of 
the  Reformation  ;  the  first  book  printed  in  Lettish  was  the 
minor  catechism  by  Luther,  which  ajipcared  in  1  j86.  Since 
that  time  the  language  has  been  cultivated  with  steadily 
increasing  care.  Religious  books,  and  even  books  of  fiction, 
were  translated;  lyrical  poetry,  and  even  plays,  were  pro- 
duced by  native  authors ;  and  at  present  Lettish  newspapers 
and  periodicals  are  issued.  The  Lithuanians  comprise  the 
Lithuanians  proper,  numbering  about  7  JO.OOO,  and  inhabit- 
ing the  eastern  part  of  Courland  and  the  governments  of 
Vilnaand  (Jrodno  ;  the  Samogitians  or  Shamaites,  number- 
ing about  Olio, 000,  and  occupying  the  governmont  of  Kovno  ; 
and  the  Lithuanians  in  Prussia,  numbering  about  150.000. 
The  Lithuanian  language  is  spoken  in  several  dialects. 
Like  the  Lettish,  it  was  not  reduced  to  writing  until  the 
time  of  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation,  but  it  is  much 
older  than  the  Lettish,  and  exists  in  a  much  more  prim- 
itive state,  fur  which  reason  it  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  the 
student  of  the  Indo-Germauic  languages.  It  is  rich  in 
songs,  of  which  a  small  collection  was  published  by  Rhesa 
at  Kiinigsbcrg  in  1S2j  ;  and  in  tales,  proverbs,  and  riddles, 
of  which  a  collection  was  published  at  Weimar  in  l!^o7  by 
Schleicher.  A  Lithuanian  dictionary  was  published  in  ISo-i 
by  Nesselmann,  and  a  grammar  by  Schleicher  (Prague, 
I8jG) ;  liielenstein  gave  a  Lettish  grammar  in  2  vols.  (Ber- 
lin, 1863-66). 

Lettres  de  Cachet.    See  Cachet,  Lettres  de. 

Lett's,  post-v.  of  Grandview  tp..  Louisa  co..  In.,  on  the 
South-western  division  of  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific  R.  R.  (Ouonwa  Station).     Pop.  ^S. 

Let'tuce  [Lat.  lactHca'\,  an  important  salad-plant,  the 
LactHca  sdtira,  a  composite  herb,  the  native  country  of 
which  is  not  known.  There  are  many  varieties,  some  of 
which  form  heads  of  leaves  and  others  do  not.  It  is  easy 
of  digestion,  rather  laxative,  and  gently  soporific.  From 
its  juice  the  narcotic  LACTrcARii'M  (which  see)  is  prepared. 
There  are  several  Asiatic.  Eurnpean,  and  American  species 
of  wild  lettuce  {Luctuca),  most  of  which  have  an  acrid-nar- 
cotic quality. 

Leucadia.     See  Santa  Maura. 

IjCucan'ilinc  [iJr.  Xcvko^.  *•  white,"  and  Sans,  nil,  "  in- 
digo"], C^-oHjiNa,  a  base  produced  by  the  action  of  redu- 
cing agents  on  rosaniline,  and  related  to  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  indigo-white  to  indigo  blue: 

RosAnlllnp.  Lcucantllne. 

C-20Hl9N3  +  H2  =  C20H,lN5. 

(Sec  Watts's  Dirt.,  iii.  574.) 

Leuch'tcnberg,  in  the  Middle  Ages  an  independent 
principality  of  tiermany,  received  its  name  from  the  castle 
ol"  Leuchtenberg.  and  was  ruled  by  a  landgrave.  In  1G46 
the  male  line  of  the  dynasty  became  extinct,  and  the  land- 
graviate  fell  to  Bnvaria.  In  1S17  the  Bavarian  king,  Maxi- 
milian Joseph,  ceded  it  for  5,000,000  francs  to  his  son-in- 
law,  Eugene  Heauharnais,  who  assumed  the  title  of  duke 
of  Leuchtenberg.  Area,  about  SO  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
6500.     Cap.  Pfreimt. 

Len'cine  [Gr.  \cvk6<:,  "  white  "],  a  curious  crystalline 
substance  which  is  among  the  products  of  incipient  putre- 
faction of  the  albuminoid  or  proteid  bodies.  Proust  was 
the  discoverer  of  it  in  cheese,  and  Braconnot  obtained  it 
by  treating  animal  substances  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  oc- 
curs diffused  widely  throughout  living  animal  tissues.  Its 
composition  is  CellisXOj.  Another  name  now  given  to  it, 
conveying  a  theory  of  its  constitution,  is  amidnmproic  acid, 
represented  thus  :  CgHul  XH2)02:  as  derived  from  cnproic 
a^nd.  C6H12O2.  by  replacement  of  II2  by  NII2,  amidogen. 
It  was  called  by  its  earlier  investigators  oxide  of  caatine  or 


cn«eoK«  oxide.  Another  crystalline  substance,  called  tf/ro- 
siitCy  which  is  CsHjiNKs,  always  accompanies  leucine,  both 
in  nature  and  as  formed  artificially.  Leucine  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  washed  leim  meat  in  oil  of  vitriol,  removing 
the  latter  by  chalk,  evaporating,  dissolving  in  alcohol,  de- 
colorizing with  animal  charcoal,  and  crystallizing.  There 
arc  several  other  methods,  however.  Leucine  may  be  sub- 
limed like  camphor.  It  dissolves  in  warm,  not  in  cold, 
water. 

The  study  of  these  immediate  products  of  metamorphoses 
of  the  nitrogcn(ms  substances  that  form  animal  tissues  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  in  connection  with  physiology 
and  the  learning  of  the  chemical  laws  of  life  and  death,  of 
health  and  disease.  In  this  view,  leucine  and  tyrosine,  and 
their  associates  and  congeners,  are  bodies  of  high  import- 
ance, which  call  for  the  serious  attention  and  investigation 
of  the  chemical  student,  H.  Wirtz. 

Leucip^pus,  the  teacher  of  Bcmocritus  and  the  founder 
of  the  atomic  school  in  the  Greek  philosophy,  lived  probably 
about  500  B.  c,  but  of  his  personal  life  nothing  is  known, 
ilis  writings  have  ail  perished,  and  from  the  notices  which 
Aristotle.  Plutarch,  and  Cicero  give  it  is  impossible  to  sco 
now  how  far  he  had  developed  the  atomic  theory. 

Leu'cite  [Gr.  Aeu»c6y,  "white"],  a  natural  silicate  of 
alumina  and  potash,  crystallizing  in  the  monometric  sys- 
tem, and  of  a  gray  or  white  color  (hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  "  white  garnet").  It  occurs  abundantly  in  the  vol- 
canic rocks  of  the  Rhine  and  of  Italy. 

Leuck'art  (Kahi.  Georg  Friedrich  Rrnoi.F),  b.  at 
Helmstedt,  in  Brunswick.  Oct.  7,  1823:  studied  medicine 
and  natural  science  at  Gottingen  under  Wagner,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy 
at  the  I'niversity  of  Gicssen  in  1S50.  His  licitrilfjen  znr 
Kcuntniss  wirbelloser  T/ticre  {1S4S)  and  Ueher  den  Poly- 
morphiamnn  der  Individiien  (1S51)  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, but  it  was  more  especially  his  helminthologioal  re- 
searches. Die  lilftsenbnndir'urmcr  (1856)  and  Trichina  epi- 
ntlis  (1861),  which  made  his  name  celebrated.  He  also 
wrote  Die  Parasiten  den  Menschen  [2  vols.,  lSGl-66). 

Leucocytha^'mia  [Gr.  Aev^d?,  "white,"  icvto?,  "cell," 
and  alfia,  "blood"],  or  Leucha*mia,  a  disease  of  the 
human  subject,  characterized  by  a  very  great  excess  of 
the  white  cells  in  the  blood,  and  by  a  corresponding  dimi- 
nution of  the  proportion  of  red  corpuscles.  It  is  accom- 
panied by  enlargement  of  the  spleen  or  of  some  of  the  lym- 
]ihatic  glands,  or  of  both,  and  cases  are  reported  accom- 
panied by  disease  of  the  medullary  mass  in  the  bones,  which 
mass  takes  on,  or  perhaps  normally  possesses,  the  lymph- 
atic function.  In  some  cases  the  white  blood-cells  are  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  normal  ones:  in  others  they 
are  smaller  and  accompanied  by  free  nuclei  and  granules. 
The  liver  is  frequently  enlarged.  A  hemorrhagic  diathe- 
sis is  often  developed.  The  patient  wastes  away  and  be- 
comes anivmic.  Of  the  causatiim  and  cure  of  this  disease 
nothing  is  known.     It  is  always  fatal,  but  often  chronic. 

Leu'coline  [Gr.  A(vk6^,  "white"].  C9H7N,  a  volatile 
oil^-  base,  isomeric  with  chinoline,  obtained  from  the  oil 
of  coal-tar.  (See  C/icm.  ^uc.  Jour.,  xvi.  377.) 

Leucorrh<r'a  [Gr.  AfVKos,  "white,"  and  per*-,  to 
"flow"],  the  "whites,"  a  catarrhal  flow  from  the  vaginal 
or  uterine  raucous  membranes.  This  disease  is  an  exag- 
geration of  the  normal  mucous  secretion,  and  is  often  con- 
sequent ujion  a  some\vhat  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
mucous  membranes.  Rest,  the  use  of  iron  and  otlicr  tonics, 
and  astringent  washes  arc  often  highly  beneficial.  Some- 
times the  catamenia  assume  a  leucorrhtval  character,  espe- 
cially towards  the  close.  The  cervix  uteri  is  often  involved 
in  a  sub-acute  or  chronic  inflammation,  which  not  unfrc- 
quentiy  is  best  treated  by  local  caustic  or  other  applications. 

Leiieothea.     See  Ino. 

Leuc'tra,  village  of  Bwotia,  Greece,  became  famous 
as  the  place  where  the  Thcbans  under  Eparainondas  de- 
feated the  Spartans  under  Cleombrotus  in  371  B.C.,  thereby 
checking  for  ever  the  induence  which  Sj)arta  bad  exercised 
over  Greece  for  several  centuries. 

liCuk,  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Valais, 
on  the  Rlione.  It  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  5000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  and  is  famous  for  its  hot  springs, 
saline,  sulphurous,  and  chalybeate,  which  are  used  for  both 
bathing  and  drinking,  chiefly  in  diseases  of  the  skin. 

Leuret'  (Fra\<;'0is),  b.  at  Nancy  Dec.  3,  1797:  studied 
medicine,  and  took  his  degree  in  1826.  Having  applied 
himself  with  special  interest  to  the  study  of  mental  dis- 
eases, and  developed  original  ideas  of  the  treatment  of 
the  insane,  he  was  appointed  physician  of  the  insane  sec- 
tion of  the  Bic^tre,  then  director  of  a  lunatic  a.'jylum  in 
Paris,  .and  at  last  director  of  the  Bicf'tre.  His  most  prom- 
inent writings  are  Fragments  pitychologiques  8ur  la  Folic 


LEUTHEN— LEVEE. 


1743 


(1834),  Trnilrmeiil  moral  i{e  la  Folic  (1840),  and  Drt  Indi-   | 
rations  i1  ouiire  dam  Ic  TrailemenI  moral  de  la  J-'alie  (1S46). 
I).  «t  Xancy  Jan.  fi,  1S51. 

Leu'thcn,  village  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silo-  I 
sia,  9  miles  W.  of  Brcslau.  Hero  Frederick  the  lircat  com- 
pletely  Jefeiilcd  the  Austrians  under  Prince   C'barles  of 
Lcirrainc  on  Dec.  8,  17J~. 

Leut'schau,  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Zip?, 
has  J729  inlialiitanis,  mostly  engaged  iu  tho  cultivation  of 
wine,  fruit,  saffron,  and  hops.  I 

Leut'ze  (Kmmani'EL),  b.  at  Emiugen,  Wiirtemberg,  i 
May  24.  Ii'lO.  son  of  a  mechanic,  who  on  account  of  his 
political  opinions  left  Germany  for  the  T.  S.,  and  made  his 
homo  in  Philadelphia.  His  early  passion  for  art  showed 
itself  in  rude  portraits.  A  picture  representing  an  Indian 
Gaziuifun  the  Setiiiir/  Sun  indicated  so  much  talent  that  his 
commissions  soon  enahled  him  to  travel  abroad.  In  1S41 
ho  arrived  in  Amsterdam,  ami  from  there  went  to  iJiissel- 
dorf.  and  beeamc  a  pupil  of  Lessing.  His  first  picture, 
Cilumbtu  lirl'nre  the  I'imncil  of  Salamanca,  was  purchased 
by  the  Art  Union  of  Dlisseldorf.  At  Munich,  Leutze  be- 
came an  admirer  of  Kaulbaoli.  Tlieneo  he  went  to  Italy, 
visiting  the  chief  citicn  and  studying  the  great  masters,  but 
he  was  a  German  by  birth  and  temperament,  and  he  came 
back  to  Germany  as  to  his  home,  married  there,  and  there 
lived  till  ISj'J;  then  returned  to  America,  and  between 
Philadelphia  and  Washington  passed  the  rest  of  his  life.  | 
1).  in  Washington,  I'.  C,  July,  l!*l)8.  Leutze  painted  nu- 
merous portraits,  and  of  eminent  pcr.sons,  of  (ien.  Grant 
among  the  rest.  But  his  chosen  field  of  art  was  the  romance 
of  history,  which  he  illustrated  with  such  vigor  and  truth 
as  were  in  him.  In  Washington  and  Philadelphia  his 
work  meets  the  eye  of  the  visitor  in  public  and  private 
places.  In  the  Ca|iitol  his  WcuUrn  Emifiralion  is  con- 
spicuous. His  W'anliinijlon  Crufmimj  tht:  Dclaifare  is  famil- 
iar through  engravings.  Other  pieces,  well  known  and 
more  or  less  celebrated,  arc  The  Landinri  of  the  Norse- 
men, Cromwell  and  hii  Daiiijhtci;  The  /conoclaKt,  John 
Knox  ndiiinninhiinf  }fartf  Stnarl,  Volninbua  before  t'crdinand 
find  Itabrll.i,  Wiictiun  Mniiiiiem,  Godlra.  Leutze  was  a 
rapid  painter,  with  immense  fire  and  dash.  His  works  are 
popular  with  the  lovers  of  action,  but  distasteful  to  the 
lover  of  delicacy  in  drawing  and  color.  He  was  the  Amer- 
ican exemplar  of  the  modern  (Jerman  school  of  Kaulbach 
and  Cornelius,  with  a  tumult  of  passicm  all  his  own. 

0.  B.  FnoTiiiMiiiAM. 
Lenzc,  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Haiuaut,  on 
the  l)cnder.  ha?  breweries,  distilleries,  salt-reDncrics,  oil- 
mills,  dyeing  establishments,  blcaching-grouuds,  and  manu- 
factures of  hosiery  and  lace.     Pop.  (500!). 

Levaillant'  (Fraxi.ois),  b.  in  I7J3  at  Paramaribo,  in 
Dutch  Guiana,  of  French  parents;  removed  to  Kurope  in 
17B:t;  was  educated  at  different  places  in  Germany,  and 
in  1777  studied  natural  seieneo  at  Paris;  in  17.SI)  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whence  he  made  two 
journeys  to  tho  interior  of  Africa,  which  ho  described  on 
his  rerurn  to  Paris  in  178j  in  his  Vniiai/e  dana  l' Inter ieur 
fie  rA/'rif/ne  (Killt)  and  Srrfmd  loi/nf/e  (1795).  These 
books  were  read  with  great  interest  and  ran  through  scv- 
eral  editions,  though  they  were  much  criticiseil  by  scien- 
tifio  aulhorities.  Of  unquestionable  value  were  his  collec- 
tions, sold  iiartly  in  France,  partly  in  Holland,  and  his  or- 
nithological works, /fi«'f"'ic  natnrrlledra  Oiiieaus  d' .U'ri'ilic 
(0  vols.,  I79S-1SI2I,  Jfiiloire  nolnrrllc  dct  I'errotjuclii  (2 
vols.,  |.S01-n5).  D.  at  .Sezanne  in  Champagne  Nov.  22, 
1S21. 

Le'van,  tp.  of  .Tackson  co.,  HI.     Pop.  1321. 
Lcvaii,  tp.  of  Pope  co.,  Minn.     Pop.  loO. 
Lrvan'na,  post-v.  of  Union  tp.,  Brown  co.,  0.,  on  the 
Ohio  lliver.  opposite  Dover,  Ky.     Pop.  101. 

Levant',  post -l  p.  of  Penobscot  co..  Me.,  .S  miles  W.  by 
N.  ofllaugor.  It  has  manufactures  of  lumber.  Pop.  liji). 
Levant,  The, a  name  of  Italian  origin.  //  hronir.  It 
denolis  the  countries  bordering  on  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Mecliterranean— Asia  Minor.  .'<yria,  and  Kgvpt.  Like  Ori- 
ent, it  signifies  "  rising,  east,"  and  was  brought  into  use  in 
t!ie  early  .Miildle  Ages,  when  the  Italian  republics  controlled 
the  commerce  of  Kurope. 

Lev'ee.  The  word  Irrfr  is  French,  and  signifies,  ninonK 
other  meanings,  "raising,""  embankment,""  embanking," 
"bank,"  "causeway,"  "mole."  Levees,  embankments, 
dikes,  dams,  were  used  by  the  ancients  during  the  earliest 
historical  periods.  Probably  the  first  to  use  tliein  were  tho 
Egyptians  in  tho  Nile  valley.  Tho  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians also  leveed  and  reclaimed  portions  of  the  valley  of 
the  Ku]ibrales  and  Tigris.  The  Chinese  leveed  their  great 
rivers,  tho  Yang-t7.e-Kiang.  or  Blue  River,  and  the  Hoang- 
Ho,  or  Yellow  Kiver.  Egypt  being  a  rainless  country,  or 
nearly  so,  except  near  the  sea-coast,  the  alluvial  valley- 


lands  of  the  Nile  could  not  be  cultivated  without  irrigation. 
During  tho  flood  season  of  the  Xilc — the  greatest  height 
being  reached  about  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equinox  — 
water  is  drawn  off  through  sluices  in  the  levees,  and  con- 
veyed through  canals  to  where  it  is  needed;  it  is  there  re- 
tained within  leveed  areas  or  basins  as  long  as  required. 
Variations  of  a  few  feet  in  the  annual  rise  of  the  Nile  aro 
therefore  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  Egyptians,  for 
low  inuixlations  cause  dearths  or  famines,  and  excessive 
inundations  destruction  of  property,  disease,  and  loss  of 
life.  The  Nile  system  is  one  of  leveeing  and  irrigation,  but 
the  irrigation  includes  the  inundation  of  the  valley-lands 
throughout,  leaving  dry  only  the  mounds  on  which  the  cities, 
towns,  and  villages  are  built,  or  the  leveed  areas  from  which 
the  water  is  excluded.  Near  Cairo  the  river  levees  are  from 
12  to  1.^)  feet  in  height,  and  but  very  little  higher  than  the 
river  flood-line.  The  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  lands 
through  sluices — or  graduated  outlets — for  many  centuries 
has  caused  the  gradual  elevation  of  these  lands — about  four 
to  four  and  a  half  inches  in  a  century — and  also  the  elevation 
of  the  river  flood-line.  Below  Cairo,  at  the  head  of  the 
Delta  proper,  there  has  been  constructed  since  1846  a  ma- 
sonry dam,  or  "barrage,"  ])rovided  with  numerous  sluice- 
gates, across  the  branches  of  the  Nile,  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  irrigation  during  low  water  in  the  river.  Navi- 
gation is  provided  for  by  means  of  a  lock  at  the  end  of  the 
"  barrage."  It  is  said  liiat  200,000  laborers  were  employed 
to  strengthen  and  maintain  the  Nile  levees  during  the  ex- 
cessive flood  of  1S74. 

Queen  .Semiramis,  Sivys  Wheeler,  "prevented  the  overflow 
of  the  Euphrates  valley  by  the  erection  of  stupendous 
mounds  or  dams  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates;  and 
henceforth  the  laud  was  irrigated  by  hand  and  by  engines." 
In  China,  says  M.  line.  "  the  ra.iintenance  of  the  dikes  on 
Yellow  River  is  entrusted  to  a  special  board,  which  forms 
in  the  provinces  of  Cliee,  Shan-Toong.  and  llonan  a  body 
independent  of  the  provincial  government."  In  Hindostan 
levees  or  embankments,  or  "  bunds,"  are  used  to  construct 
reservoirs  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  the  sterile  hills  and 
plains,  which  were  only  barren  for  want  of  irrigation  dur- 
ing the  protracted  seasons  of  drought.  In  the  JIadras 
provinces  alone,  ('apt.  Smith  informs  us,  there  exist  no  less 
than  43,000  reservoir-tanks  in  repair,  and  10.000  out  of  re- 
pair— all  of  native  origin.  He  estimates  the  length  of 
the  levees  or  embankments  which  fcjnu  these  reservoirs  at 
30.000  miles,  suflieient  "  to  put  a  girdle  round  the  globe." 

In  Italy  the  levee  system  has  been  in  use  for  many  cen- 
turies— for  reclamation  as  well  as  to  facilitate  irrigation — 
and  the  obi  Italian  engineers  announced  some  truths  which, 
though  manifest  and  plain,  are  not  even  yet  fully  recognized 
among  modern  engineers,  or  those  of  to-day.  They  learned 
that  the  lower  or  alluvial  portions  of  turbid  or  sedimentary 
rivers  can  be  leveed  safely,  without  elevation  of  their  beds  or 
surface  as  the  result  of  the  increased  quantity  of  water  con- 
fined within  the  channel  by  levees;  that  "derivations,"  or  out- 
lets, will  not  permanently  lower  the  tbiod-line  iu  such  por- 
tions of  a  sedimentary  river:  and  that  a  division  of  the 
waters  of  such  a  river  into  more  than  one  channel  results  in 
tho  elevation  of  the  beds  and  high-water  lines  of  the  divided 
channels.  Frisi  says  :  "  It  is  a  bydrostatical  paradox, 
commonly  taught  by  Italian  engineers  in  the  past  century, 
and  uniformly  eonfirmed  by  exjieriencc,  that  you  do  not 
diminish  the  height  of  the  waters  in  great  floods  by  less- 
ening the  quantity  of  the  water."  Gugliclmini  taught  that 
"  the  greater  the  quantity  of  water  that  a  river  carries  the 
less  will  be  its  fall"  or  surface  slope,  and  also  that  "the 
greater  tho  force  of  the  stream  the  less  will  be  the  slope  of 
its  bed."  It  has  been  the  pri-valent  belief  that  levees  have 
caused  tho  rising  of  the  bed  anci  surface  of  the  river  Po 
until  the  flood-lino  of  that  river  is  above  the  roofs  of  tho 
houses  in  Ferrara.  But  it  is  now  well  known  that  neither 
tho  flood-line  nor  the  bed  of  the  Po  has  been  elevated  at 
all  iluring  the  past  100  years  and  more,  and  that  for  "the 
roofs"  tho  "first  floor  "of  the  houses  should  be  snbslitute*l 
in  speaking  of  the  comparative  height  of  the  river  at  high 
water.  Tho  exaggerations  are  due  to  M.  Cuvier,  and  were 
alleged  to  bo  based  upon  statements  made  by  De  Prony, 
but  the  engineer  Lcuubiirdini  has  pioveii  their  falsity. 
j  The  levees  of  llollanil.  whereby  immense  areas  of  land. 
I  submerged  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  below  mean  tide  in  Iho 
i  North  Sea.  have  been  reclaimed,  drained,  and  cultivated, 
'  are  the  most  wonderful  of  any  in  the  world.  The  levees 
and  hydraulic  works  of  Holland  are  said  to  have  cost  fully 
$l..'i0li.O0ll.0OO.  The  whole  country  is  an  intricate  netivnrk 
j  of  rivers,  water-channels,  and  canals  bordered  by  levees, 
1  and  the  unconquerable  perseverance  and  industry  of  tho 
Dutch  people  have  converted  a  desolate  marsh  and  lakes 
into  the  richest  farms  and  gardens  in  Europe.  By  means 
of  steam  machinery  and  windmills  these  lands  arc  kept 
dry.  To  prevent  their  being  overwheline.l  again,  the  levees 
;  are  placed  under  a  careful  system  of  surveillance. 


1744 


LEVEE. 


Levees  for  the  protection  of  river  lowlands,  as  well  as  to 
facilitate  the  ri-cla.uiation  of  marshes,  morasses,  feus,  aud 
overflowed  laud,  have  Iiecn  exteusivcly  constructed  in  other 
piirtions  of  the  German  states,  aud  in  France,  En^rliind. 
Ireland,  and  eli^ewhere.  Sinee  1871  the  levee  system  has 
Ijcen  applied  on  a  larj;e  scale  in  California  to  the  reclama- 
tion of  the  tule-lands  iu  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  and 
iSan  .Toaquin  rivers.  The  aggregate  length  of  these  levees 
at  thiiii  time  probably  exceeds  1000  miles. 

Li  vecs  an  Applied  to  the  Missiftippi  Hiver. — The  leveeing 
of  the  Mississippi  Uiver  was  commenced  at  New  Orleans 
in  about  the  year  1720,  the  engineer  Dumout  dc  la  Tour 
having,  after  locating  the  future  city  in  1717,  ordered  a 
fnint  levee  of  jU'O  feet  in  length  by  4  feet  in  height  aud  IS 
feet  wide  at  top,  as  necessary  to  protect  the  city.  In  171 7, 
De  la  Tour's  observations  showccl  that  the  river  flood-line 
w;is  three  feet  higher  than  the  river-bank  in  the  beud  where 
\\v  located  the  proposed  city,  aud  he  allowed  for  a  levee  one 
loot  above  the  then  high-water  line.  AVe  are  informed  by 
tlie  historian  F.  Xavier  Martin  that  in  171S  there  was  au 
"extraordinary  rise  of  the  Mississippi"  which  greatly 
discouraged  the  new  settlers.  "Bienville."  he  says,  "had 
selected  a  site  for  a  city,  but  the  colony  not  having  means 
to  build  dikes  or  levees,  the  idea  was  abandoned."  Never- 
theless, the  New  Orleans  levee  was  undertaken  afterwards, 
and  completed  in  1726.  Soon  after  the  founding  of  New 
Orleans  plantations  were  established  along  the  river-banks 
above  and  below  the  city,  but  each  proprietor  had  to  con- 
struct and  inaiutain  his  own  levee.  At  that  time  the  river 
during  its  floods  rose  above  its  banks  everywhere — from 
three  to  four  feet  in  the  bends,  and  one  foot  or  more  around 
the  points — thus  affording  vent  to  the  water  through  con- 
tinuous lateral  outlets  on  both  banks,  and  submerging  the 
valley  annually:  but  the  reduction  of  current  velocity  in 
the  channel,  and  of  chanuel  section,  prevented  the  banks 
from  caving  rajpidly,  therefore  the  levees  required  were  in- 
significant compared  with  what  they  are  now.  The  levees 
were  low,  because  the  river  deposits  had  kept  the  banks 
always  nearly  up  to  the  flood-line.  They  were  more  per- 
manent, because  the  banks  caved  in  but  little ;  therefore 
levee  maintenance  then  cost  but  a  fraction  of  what  is  now  ] 
required.  In  1723  small  settlements  bad  already  been  es- 
tablished at  several  points  between  the  mouth  of  Red 
Kiver  and  New  Orleans — at  Pointe  Coupee.  Baton  Rouge, 
Manchac,  below  the  Lafourche,  at  Cannes  lirGl^cs,  and  at 
Tchapitoulas.  In  172H  the  settlements  extended  almost 
continuously  "for  thirty  miles  above  New  Orleans."  and  in 
17^16  twelve  miles  below  and  thirty  miles  above  on  both 
sides  of  the  river.  In  1735  a  great  flood  occurred,  which 
inundated  New  Orleans  aud  broke  through  or  overtopped 
the  levees  in  many  places,  and  probably  the  New  Orleans 
levee.  The  range  from  high  to  low  water  observed  aud  re- 
corded in  that  year  at  New  Orleans  was  15  feetj  which 
slightly  exceeds  the  range  of  recent  years  (11.8  feet,  which 
is  to  the  flood-Iineof  I S02,  the  highest  due  to  a  river-rise  only 
reeorded  for  fifty  years  ])aat)  at  New  Orleans.  This  proves, 
on  the  assumption  that  the  Gulf  level  is  unaltered,  that  the 
river  flood-line  is  no  higher  at  New  Orleans  now  than  it  was 
in  1735,  if  so  high.  In  1743,  says  Gayar6,  "  an  ordinance 
was  promulgated  requiring  the  inhabit  ants  to  complete 
their  levees  by  Jan.  I.  1741,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of 
their  lands  to  the  Crown."  In  1752,  according  to  Monette, 
the  settlements  were  nearly  continuous  for  ''20  miles  below 
and  30  miles  above  New  Orleans,"  while  "  nearly  the  whole 
coast  was  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  and  securely  pro- 
tected from  flitod.<."  In  1770  a  great  flood  occurred  with 
inundations,  and  in  17^2  another.  Great  floods  occurred 
also  in  1785,  171H,  and  171*9,  and  tiuring  each  of  these 
years  New  Orleans  was  inundated.  But  little  progress  was 
made  in  levee  construction  from  1703.  when  France  ceded 
Louisiana  to  Spain,  until  1>>II3,  when  it  passed  to  the  I'.S., 
after  having  been  ceded  back  to  France  by  Spain  in  the 
year  1800.  In  1805  the  settlements  and  levees  began  about 
4tl  miles  below  and  extended  nearly  120  miles  above  New 
Orleans;  and  the  Pointe  Coupee  settlement  above  had  a 
front  of  21  miles  on  the  river.  <^>pposite  Natchez,  near 
tlio  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  River,  and  at  New  Madrid, 
small  settlements  had  been  made.  Both  banks  of  the 
Ilayou  Lafourche  in  Lower  Louisiana  were  leveeil  for  about 
45  miles  from  the  river  Mississippi.  In  1812,  Louisiana 
was  admitted  into  the  Federal  Union,  and,  according  to 
Stoddard,  the  levees  were  continuous  on  "both  sides  of  the 
rivor  from  the  lowest  settlements  "  to  Ba*on  Rouge,  and 
on  the  right  bank  to  Pointe  Coup^'O.  In  1S28  the  river- 
banks  were  leveed  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  and 
above,  here  and  there  on  the  W.  bank,  levees  were  in  ex- 
istence as  far  up  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  In  1844 
tliey  were  nearly  continuous  to  Napoleon  on  the  W.  bank, 
with  many  isolated  levees  between  Vicksburg  and  Memphis. 
In  18C1  levees  extended  almost  continuously  from  Cape 
Girardeau  in  Missouri,  with  about  40  miles  of  openings 


in  the  aggregate  above  the  Arkansas  River,  right  bank, 
according  to  Prof.  Forshey,  down  to  near  the  forts  below 
New  Orleans. 

The  process  of  levee  construction,  as  applied  to  the  Mis- 
sissipjii  River,  began  at  New  Orleans.  The  lower  Mississippi 
— that  portion  below  the  last  atlluent.  Red  River — was  first 
leveed;  therefore  the  enlargement  of  the  lower  river  by  the 
closure  of  its  outlets  and  the  confinement  of  all  the  water  to 
the  channel,  took  place  before  the  leveeing  of  the  upper  river. 
It  was  well  that  it  so  haj)pened,  for  had  the  upper  river 
been  first  leveed,  before  the  enlargement  of  the  lower  river, 
the  flood-height  below  would  have  been  much  increased 
and  the  inundations  made  more  frequent  and  disastrous. 
To  prevent  injury  and  danger  to  Lower  Louisiana,  the  sugar 
region,  its  levee  system  should  be  perfected  first  and  every 
outlet  closed.  During  150  years,  sinee  about  1720,  the 
leree  system  was  gradually  extended,  from  New  Orleans, 
about  70  miles  below  and  about  1000  miles  above.  Every 
bend,  before  levees  were  built  around  it.  was  a  continuous 
outlet,  for  tlie  river  floo<l-line  was  several  feet  higher  than 
the  banks  in  the  bends.  Even  the  banks  around  the  points 
were  overflowed  before  they  were  leveed,  for  they  were 
formed  by  alluvial  deposits  while  inundated,  and  were 
leveed  because  subject  to  overflow.  The  lower  river  was 
first  accommodated  to  the  leveeing  up  of  outlets.  The 
building  of  levees  is  nothing  else  but  the  closing  up  of 
outlets,  and  the  retention  between  the  river-banks  and  the 
levees  of  the  waters  which  previously  passed  out  laterally 
over  the  banks.  No  evidence  exists  that  the  flood-line 
of  the  lower  Mississippi  River  is  the  fraction  of  an  inch 
higher  now  than  it  was  before  the  building  of  the  first  levee 
in  front  of  New  Orleans,  but  the  area  of  the  river's  channel 
has  been  increased  undoubtedly.  Every  outlet  except  the 
Bayou  Lafourche — the  high-water  capacity  of  which  is  only 
about  12.t)00  cubic  feet  ]ier  second,  or  less  than  the  one- 
hundredth  part  of  the  ^Mississippi — has  been  closed  below 
Red  River  without  adding  to  the  height  of  the  river  flood- 
line  iu  the  lower  river.  Had  the  levee  system  been  com- 
menced above  and  extended  downward,  the  first  effect  would 
have  been  diS"crcnt. 

The  last  outlet  closed  below  Red  River  was  the  Bayou 
Plaquomine  in  18G5.  the  capacity  of  which  was  about  35.000 
cubic  feet  per  second;  but  the  highest  flood-line  of  recent 
years  below  it  was  that  of  1S(>2.  which  was  0.7  foot  above 
the  1S58  mark  opposite  New  Orleans.  In  1871  a  storm- 
tide  backed  up  the  river  at  New  Orleans  to  a  height  about 
the  same  as  in  1862,  but  at  Donaldsonville,  30  miles  below 
the  Plaqueminc.  the  river  in  1871  was  1.45  feet  lower  than 
in  1862.  Again,  in  1874  an  extraordinary  storm-tide  raised 
the  river  (Apr.  15  and  16)  at  New  Orleans  about  8  inches 
above  the  1SG2  mark,  but  at  a  point  45  miles  above  New 
Orleans,  and  about  30  miles  below  Donaldsonville.  and  60 
miles  below  the  Plaqucmine,  the  flood-line  of  1874  was 
about  6  inches  below  that  of  1862.  Hence  the  statement 
(by  the  V.  S.  levee  engineer  commission  in  their  recent  re- 
port) that  the  effect  of  closing  the  Plaqucmine  outlet  was 
to  add  "  ubitut  six  iiicken  to  the  nurmal  jinod-heifjht  at  Aew 
Orleansj"  seems  to  want  the  support  of  facts. 

The  front-lancls  at  the  Belleville  foundry,  opposite  New 
Orleans,  formed  by  overflow  deposits  before  the  river  was 
h-veed,  were  found  (see  Ph.  fnni  Hifil.  of  the  Mins,)  to  be 
but  three-tenths  of  a  fottt  below  the  flood-Hne  of  the  great 
flood-year  1858,  and  they  were  but  1  foctt  below  that  of 
1862,  the  highest  known  for  fifty  years.  Observation  shows 
that  in  a  current  deposits  do  not  generally  reach  within  1 
foot  of  the  flood-line.  Recent  levellings  show  that  the 
flood-line  of  1862  was  but  2.1  feet  higher  than  the  crown 
of  Old  Levee  street,  opposite  Jackson  Square  (the  old 
Place  d'Armes),  New  Orleans,  about  100  yards  from  the 
river,  and  but  4.2  feet  above  the  crown  of  Cliartrcs  street, 
opposite  the  square,  and  about  2li0  yards  distant  from  the 
river.  The  river-bank  here  is  the  same  as  it  was  in  1717, 
having  neither  caved  in  nor  receded  by  accretion.  When 
De  la  Tour  laid  out  the  city  in  1717  the  flood-line  was  .^ 
feet,  at  least,  above  the  river-bank  here,  or  certainly  as  high 
as  now  ;  again  showing  no  rise  of  the  flood-height  since 
then. 

It  has  been  claimed  (by  XLS.  engineers  Humphreys  and 
Abbot)  that  the  blue  clay  bed  of  the  Mississip]d  River 
'•  resists  the  action  uf  the  strong  current  like  marlile."  and 
that  therefore  "  the  bed  of  the  Mississippi  cannot  yield" 
and  aec(imniodate  itself  to  the  increased  (pmntityof  water 
confined  1o  the  cliannel  by  levees.  It  is  therefore  assumed 
by  them  that  no  enlargement  of  water-way  occurs,  and  no 
allowance  for  it  is  made  in  calculating  the  effect  of  adding 
to  the  quantity  of  water  by  extending  levees.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  action  of  running  water  slowly  wears  away 
even  the  hardest  primitive  and  volcanic  rocks — as,  for  in- 
stance, through  the  immense  canons  of  the  Colorado  Ri\'er, 
and  elsewhere  all  over  the  world  ;  and  that  it  dissolves  and 
wears  away  clay,  no  matter  how  firm,  cannot  be  gainsaid 


LEVEE. 


1745 


with  truth.  WlK'Devcr  a  "cut-off"'  occurs  iu  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  the  clay  bed  of  the  river  i^  rapidly  excavated, 
and  the  ciit-ufT  houu  hecumcs  as  hirge  iu  scciiun  as  the 
river  clsewliero.  Kvery  bend  of  the  river  below  a  cut-oft" 
is  escavati'd  rnpi<Ily  and  leu<rtheDe(i,and  the  deepest  water 
IB  always  found  nearest  to  the  bauk  in  the  bend  where  the 
blue  clay  bed  has  ju.-*t  been  washed  out.  Iu  IS7J,  for  in- 
stance, the  maximum  horizontal  raiij^e  or  extent  of  cavint; 
at  Morganzia.  holow  Hed  Ilivcr.  iluring  that  year  was  ijl) 
feet;  at  I'oint  Mauoir.  opposite  Port  Uudson,  it  was  IIUO 
feet;  at  Lobdeil's,  above  I3aton  Rouge,  it  was  460  feel; 
Dear  Bayou  (iouta  it  was  'AoO  feet;  at  Landry's,  in  Ascen- 
sion parish,  it  was  120  feet;  in  two  places  iu  .St.  Charles 
parish  it  was  .'iOO  feet:  opposite  New  Orleans  it  was  2ni) 
feet  in  one  place  and  220  feet  in  another,  while  cavings  uf 
22rt  feet,  I6l)  foct,  and  80  feet  occurred  between  New  Orleans 
an'l  the  forts  below:'  all  of  which  show  that  the  clay  bej 
of  the  Mississippi  docs  yield  and  wear  away  from  year  to 
year,  and  far  more  rapidly  than  is  necessary  for  the  very 
slow,  and  in  fact  inappreciable,  yearly  increase  due  to  Icvcc 
extension.  A  recent  comparison  of  river  crosa-sections 
opposite  Jackson  and  St.  Anne  streets.  New  Orleans,  by 
Prof.  Forshcy.  furnishes  another  proof  that  the  area  of  the 
cbaunel-way  is  enlarging  by  yielding  of  the  clay  bed. 
Sections  wore  taken  opposite  the  above-named  streets  iu 
IS50  and  in  n72.  ami  the  areas  of  section  in  1n72  were 
54,000  and  j6,n00  s^uaro  feet,  respectively,  greater  than  in 
1850.  Opposite  Jackson  street  the  depth  had  increased  13 
feet,  and  opposite  St.  Anne  street  it  had  increased  from  150 
to  165  feet.  Opposite  the  lower  portion  of  New  Orleans  a 
like  increase  of  section  ancl  depth  was  manifest. 

There  is  evidence  that  in  muuy  phices  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi is  slightly  widening  as  well  as  deepening.  Below 
Baton  Rouge,  at  a  point  where,  on  the  left  bank,  levees 
have  existed  since  IS05.  new  levees  have  been  built  farther 
back  because  of  the  caving  in  of  the  river-bank:  ancl 
directly  opposite,  ou  the  W.  side  of  the  river,  the  same 
thing  has  occurred.  In  other  places  opposite  banks  are 
caving  in,  and  the  river's  width  is  increasing  in  straight 
reaches  of  (he  river.  Opposite  Baton  Rouge — the  bank  on 
the  E.  or  bluff  side  remaining  as  it  was— the  W.  bank  is 
caving  in  yi-arly,  thereby  compelling  the  construction  of 
new  levees  farther  back.  The  artesian  trell-boringsat  New 
Orleans  showed  that  (he  river  had  cut  through  clay  strata 
before  reaching  its  present  depth.  Everything  indicates 
that  the  Missi«si]>pi  River  is  not  and  cannot  be  an  excep- 
tion to  the  laws  which  govern  the  How  of  water  in  a!i  sedi- 
mentary rivers,  small  or  great.  As  the  normal  maximum 
quantity  of  water  is  increased,  the  mean  velocity  of  current 
is  acceleratcil,  the  area  of  channel- way  is  enlarged,  and  the 
slopes  of  the  bed  and  surface  arc  diminished.  The  levee 
system,  therefore,  as  applied  to  such  a  river  as  the  Missis- 
sippi, is  based  upon  correct  principles,  an<l  the  effeet  of 
levees,  if  persevered  in  and  maintained  properly,  will  be  to 
lessen  the  liability  to  inundations,  and,  if  anything,  to  re- 
dace  the  flooci  line:  if  cut-offs  and  outlets,  which  alone 
interrupt  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  river  regimen, 
are  prevented. 

"Cut-offs"  precipitate  a  whole  river,  by  shortening  the 
plane  of  descent,  upon  a  lower  level  below  the  bend  cut- 
ofT.  The  effects  are,  a  considerable  lowering  of  the  flooti- 
line  in  the  vicinity  above;  a  less  corresponding  elevation 
of  the  flood  line  in  the  region  below,  and  for  a  time  a  par- 
tial gorge  of  water  below;  a  greatly  increased  velocity  of 
cnrrent  above  and  below  an<i  through  the  cut-off",  due  to 
the  increased  slopes  of  bed  and  surface:  nnd  for  years 
afterward,  in  a  great  river  like  the  Mississippi,  a  rapid  ex- 
cava'ion  and  prolongation  of  the  river-bends  below,  and  to 
some  extent  above,  thereby  compelling  the  frcfpicnt  recon- 
struction of  levees  around  the  bends,  and  each  time  on 
lower  ground,  and  Iherefore  higher  and  much  more  ex- 
pensive embankments  than  ever  before,  because  the  river 
alluvial  lancis  are  highest  next  the  river,  nnd  they  slope 
downward  away  from  the  river.  A  fall  of  15  fret  below  tlio 
river  flood-line,  within  a  distance  of  one  mile  back  from 
the  river,  is  not  uncommon  above  New  Orleans,  and  even  a 
fall  of  20  feet  within  one  mile  may  le  f.miid  in  places. 

When  the  river  was  first  leveed  lub-w  ]{v<\  River,  em- 
bankments of  from  I  to  6  feet  high,  wiili  a  crown  of  J  feet 
and  slopes  of  2  to  l,were  found  sufficient  around  tbebends, 
where  now  levees  from  15  to  20  feet  high,  with  a  crown  of 
10  feet  or  more  anr|  slopes  of  :\  to  1.  are  needed,  and  are 
n(»w  built  nnd  maintained.  A  levee  15  feet  high.  «.f  the 
crown  and  slopes  last  named,  contains  nearly  twelve  times 
as  much  earth,  for  a  given  length,  ns  was  required  for  tho 

•  In  Tensas  parUh,  above  Red  River,  n(  Kempe\  the  eflVet  nf 
the  Davis  Cut-oir  of  isc,7  has  be.-ii  to  enuse  ;iri  nverntfe  rnvinnln 
of  the  river-bank  durlriL'  the  years  iSf.H  |o  isyn  both  inrluiive 
of  1.»00  feet  per  vear.  In  lH74tbe  eavlnirnt  WfNr.n's.  same  parish] 
was  :Mni)  leet.  In  Concordia  parish,  at  .Marentro.  the  maximum 
caving'  in  1868  wns  30U0  feet,  and  1400  feet  in  187;* 
V,,,..  If.— Ill) 


old  levees ;  hence  the  largely  increased  cost  of  levee  con- 
struction and  maintenance  now,  with  the  river  flood-line 
no  higher  than  at  first  notwithstanding  the  efi'ects  of  cut- 
offs. Kvcry  cut-ofl"  increases  the  cost  of  Icveo  maintenance 
and  the  danger  of  inundations  ;  therefore,  so  fur  as  possible, 
they  should  be  prevented.  Above  Red  River  many  cut-offs 
have  occurred  :  below,  including  one  opposite  the  mouth 
of  Red  River,  but  three  in  alt  have  ever  occurred.  Fausso 
River  Cut-off"  dates  back  to  1722,  at  the  beginning  of  tho 
levee  era.  Red  River  Cut-off"  was  made  by  Capt.  Shreve, 
an  employ^  of  tho  U.  S.  governmcDt,  in  18.'U.  The  Rac- 
courci,  between  the  two  former,  was  made  bj'  the  State  of 
Louisiana  in  1S4S-4'J,  by  digging  a  deep  canal  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  long  across  the  neck  of  the  I^ond.  The  total  dis- 
tance around  these  three  lower  Mississipju  cut-off's  was 
about  65  miles,  and  the  total  fall  acrops  their  necks  about 
12  feet,  where  the  usual  high- water  slope  was  less  than  three 
inches  per  mile.  Their  effect  in  adding  to  the  caving  and 
lengthening  of  the  river-bends  below,  and  thereby  increas- 
ing the  cost  of  levee  maintenance,  was,  and  is  still,  very 
great ;  for  the  river  has  not  yet  regained  its  original  length 
and  slopes. 

Outlets  temporarily  lower  the  flood-line  of  a  sedimentary 
river,  but  their  final  effect  always  must  be  an  increased  el- 
evation of  the  bed  and  surface  of  such  a  river,  and  the 
contraction  of  its  channel-way  ;  for  the  law  is  tliat  tlic  less 
the  quantity  of  water  flowing,  as  the  normal  maximum,  the 
greater  must  be  ttic  slopes  of  bed  and  surface.  Outlets, 
therefore,  cannot  be  dc]icnded  upon  for  lowering  the  fl<»od- 
line  of  the  lower  Mississippi  permanently,  ami  they  are 
not  needed,  because  the  extension  and  perfection  of  tho 
levec  system  never  has  caused,  and  will  not  cause,  any  ele- 
vation ()f  the  river  flood-line.  Levees,  and  levees  alone,  if 
properly  constructed  and  maintained,  can  be  relied  upon 
for  the  icclamation  of  ail  the  alluvial  lands  subject  to  over- 
flow in  the  valley  of  tho  Mississippi,  and  the  improvement 
of  navigation  will  also  result  from  a  perfection  of  the  system. 

It  has  been  said  (Ph.  and  llyd.  of  the  Minn.)  that  the 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  at  flood  are  "undercharged  with 
sediment;"  that  is,  that  more  could  bo  sustained  than  is 
held  up  and  transported  down  stream  with  tho  current; 
therefore,  that  it  contains  less  sediment  than  is  due  to  its 
velocity.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon  observations  show- 
ing that  sometimes,  in  sonic  places,  when  the  river  is  falling, 
and  is  at  a  stage  between  high  and  low  water,  the  river-water 
is  more  highly  charged  with  sediment  than  at  a  Hood  stage. 
It  is  assumed  or  erroneously  iufericd  because  of  this  that 
no  deposits  can  occur  at  any  stage  of  the  river  below  an 
outlet  or  a  crevasse,  no  matter  of  what  dimensions.  It  is 
very  well  known  that  iu  all  turbid  streams  flowing  between 
banks  of  alluvium  I  hi-  caving  in  of  I  he  banks  occurs  prin- 
cipally when  the  floods  arc  subsiding,  when  the  banks  have 
lost  tho  support  of  tho  water  which  they  had  at  a  high 
stage.  Then  the  river-water  as  it  passes  around  a  caving 
bend  becomes  ovfrchanjt il  with  sediment,  and  as  it  cannot 
all  bo  sustained  and  transported  to  tho  river-mouth,  the 
surplus  is  dropped  on  the  next  bars  beluw,  or  wherever  the 
velocity  or  sustaining  power  of  the  current  is  reduced. 
To  assert  that  the  Mississippi  is  ut  all  tintfi  *'  undercharged 
with  sediment,"  and  therefore  difl'ercnt  from  other  sediment- 
ary rivers,  because  it  is  in  jilaces  and  at  times  less  muddy 
at  its  high  stage  than  when  the  banks  are  caving  in  at  a 
mill  stage,  is  certainly  unwarranted.  Tho  waters  of  all 
sedimentary  rivers  with  caving  banks  are  more  turbid  when 
and  where  the  banks  arc  caving  in,  and  the  same  laws  gov- 
ern the  flow  of  water  in  the  Mississijipi  as  in  other  turbid 
rivers.  Tho  "clay  bed  of  the  l\lississippi  "  obviously  does 
yield,  because  the  river  excavates  its  bends  by  untlcrmining 
its  banks,  liecpens  its  channel,  and  scours  out  its  cut-off 
channels;  deposits  nrr  made  from  its  waters  after  tbcy  be- 
come overcbargecl  with  seilinient  by  caving  banks  wherever 
and  whenever  there  is  a  loss  of  current  in  tho  eddies  under 
or  below  the  p<rmls  and  below  outlets. 

As  an  exatnple  oi'  tho  efl^ecl  of  nn  outlet  or  crevasse  to 
cause  a  deposit  in.  and  contraction  of,  the  channel  of  tho 
iMississippi  below  it,  the  following  is  given:  In  IS"  I.  Apr. 
II,  a  crevasse  oceurred  in  a  large  levee  at  Bonnet  Carrf', 
left  bank  of  the  .Mis-<issippi.  Id  miles  above  New  Orleans. 
It  becnme  i;t70  feet  wide,  with  an  area  of  discbarge  of 
about  32,000  square  feel,  or  nearly  one-sixth  that  of  tho 
river  opposite.  The  range  of  tho  river  here  from  high  lo 
low  water  is  about  21  feet,  and  the  level  of  the  land  one- 
fourth  of  a  mile  back  of  the  line  of  levec  which  hiid  given 
way  WHS  15  feet  below  the  river  flood-line.  On  the  I5th  of 
July,  when  the  river  had  fallen  15  feet,  the  water  ceased  to 
run  through  the  creva«se  outlet  opening.  In  the  latter  part 
of  September,  when  the  river  bad  fallen  20  feet,  sections  of 
the  river  were  carefully  taken  above  anil  below  this  outlet. 
Tho  results,  briefly  summed  up.  were  as  follows:  Maximum 
ilepihy  above  crevasse,  1 10  and  71)  feet  on  two  sections  at 
the  then  stage  of  water ;  maximum  depths  of  sections  below 


1746 


LEVEL— LEVELS. 


crevasse,  62  and  04  feet.  Firm  clay  bottom  above ;  soft, 
silty  oozo  bottom,  indicating  recent  deposit,  below  crevasse. 
Low-water  widths  above,  2S8G  and  'Mili  feet;  below,  240G 
and  2452  feet,  showing  a  reduction  in  mean  width  below  of 
521  fret.  Low-water  areas  of  upper  sections,  lS4,fi5.'i  and 
101,107  square  feet;  of  lower  seclinns.  •)r),640  and  10fi.lf>(l 
square  feet,  a  reduction  of  channel  section,  means  of  upper 
and  lower,  of  73,015  square  feet.  The  widths  on  the  high- 
water  lines  averaged  .'^105  feet  for  the  upper  sections,  and 
3^65  feet  below;  the  width  below  beinj;;  2110  feet  the  great- 
est at  high  water.  The  mean  high-water  urea?  of  sections 
were,  however,  75,000  square  feet  less  below  thim  above. 
It  was  estimated,  approximately,  that  this  outlet  or  cre- 
vasse of  the  full  dimensions  measured  would  discharge  at 
high  water  about  one-tenth  of  the  river  at  flood.  Below 
this  crevasse  there  were,  in  the  next  bend  as  well  na  oppo- 
site, extensive  deposits  of  sand  and  earth,  reacliing  several 
feet  above  the  low-water  line,  irhich  ircre  knotni  to  be  neir. 
All  of  which  measurements  and  observations  demonstrate 
unmistakably  that  the  Bonnet  Carr6  crevaspo  outlet  of  1874 
did  cause  a  partial  filling  up  and  contraction  of  the  river- 
channel  below  it. 

Numerous  examples  of  the  effects  of  outlets  to  contract 
the  river-channel  below  them  on  Red  River  and  elsewhere 
could  be  given  if  space  permitted.  Wc  shall  mention  one 
only.  Tone's  Bayou,  20  miles  below  Shreveport.  wirK-ii  hail 
its  origin  as  an  overflow  coulee  of  insignificant  dimensions 
twenty-five  years  ago,  now  discharges  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  turbid  waters  of  Red  River  whieh  reach  it,  and  yet 
the  flood-line  below  is  as  high  as.  if  not  higher  than,  before, 
while  the  channel  below  has  been  reduced  to  correspond 
with  the  quantity  of  water  abstracted.  All  of  the  water 
of  Red  River  now  passes  Shreveport,  and  the  high-water 
section  there  is  .about  23.000  square  feet.  Below  Shreve- 
port and  above  Tone's  Bayou  three  outlets  exist  on  the 
right  bank,  and  others  on  the  left  bank,  whereby  the  river- 
section  just  above  Tone's  is  reduced  to  9000  square  feet. 
Tone's  Bayou  itself  has  a  section  of  5000  square  feet — or 
had  in  1872 — while  that  of  Red  River  below  it  has  been 
contracted  to  but  3500  square  feet,  and  to  a  width  of  less 
than  200  feet.  Fully  five-sixths  of  the  water  of  Red  River 
escapes  through  outlets  within  about  20  miles  below  Shreve- 
port, and  yet,  while  the  area  of  the  river's  section  is  reduced 
correspondingly,  the  river  flood-line  is  as  high  as,  if  not 
higher  than,  ever.  Outlets  therefore  cannot  permanently 
lower  the  flood-line  in  sedimentary  rivers,  although,  as  wc 
sec  in  the  Mississippi,  when  they  occur  suddenly,  as  cre- 
vasses, and  enlarge  rapidly,  their  effect  is  to  reduce  it  tem- 
porarily, or  until  the  river  has  had  time  to  accommodate 
itself  to  its  new  regimen  by  deposits  in  and  contraction  of 
its  channel  below.  The  result  is  certain;  how  soon  is  a 
mere  question  of  time. 

In  calculating  the  effects  of  adding  to  the  quantity  of 
water  in  the  Mi.ssissippi  River  by  closing  outlets,  or  in  per- 
fecting the  levee  system,  or  of  reducing  the  quantity  by 
outlets,  it  will  not  do  to  assume  that  the  sectional  area  of 
channel- way  will  be  neither  enlarged  nor  contracted — that 
it  is  fixed  and  unchangeable.  Tliat  certain  determinate 
and  determinable  relations  exist  between  the  quantity  of 
water  flowing,  the  mean  velocity  of  current,  the  sectional 
area  of  channel-way.  and  the  slopes  of  bed  and  surface, 
cannot  be  ignored  or  disregarded.  They  must  be  admitted 
to  ensure  a  reliable  result.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
levees  alone  can  bo  relied  upon  for  the  permanent  recla- 
mation of  the  Mississippi  Valley  lands.  The  only  way  to 
safety  and  exemption  from  inundations  is  to  build  and 
maintain  adequate  levees.  Cut-offs  should  be  prevented  as 
long  as  possible.  Outlets  arc  worse  than  useless,  even  if  it 
were  possible,  which  it  is  not,  to  provide  a  separate  and 
leveed  channel  to  the  sea  for  the  water  so  drawn  off;  they 
overflow  land  when  rcclamaticm  is  the  end  in  view.  Arti- 
ficial reservoirs  arc  impraetieable.  and  whiit  natural  swamp- 
reservoirs  there  arc  above  Red  River  only  add  to  the  river- 
floods,  and  thereby  increase  the  danger  of  inundation,  by 
feeding  the  rise  below  them.  As  to  the  diversion  of  tribu- 
taries, it  would  be  useless  even  if  practicable.  By  uu-nns 
of  levees,  and  afterwards  of  interior  drainage,  every  acre 
of  land  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  exclusive  of  drainage 
channels,  may  be  reclaimed,  cultivated,  and  made  the  home 
of  millions  of  ])rospcrou8  inhabitants.  According  to  V.  S. 
engineer  Ucn.  Abbot,  with  levee  protection  and  drainage 
2.500,000  acres  of  sugar-land,  7.000.000  acres  of  cotton- 
land,  and  1,000,000  acres  of  corn-land  of  inexhaustible  fer- 
tility may  be  opened  for  cultivation  and  settlement. 

The  total  lengths  of  levees  required  to  protect  the  Mis- 
sissippi front  may  be  stated  as  follows:  In  Louisiana  below 
Red  River,  500  miles;  above  Red  River,  280  miles.  In 
Mississippi,  380  miles.  In  Arkansas,  545  miles.  In  Mis- 
souri. SO  miles.  Total,  1785  miles.  In  Louisiana,  the  in- 
terior rivers,  b.ayous,  and  old  river  l:»kes  would  require 
about  925  miles  more.     ""--  "   '^'    ■ 


for  the  maintenance  of  her  supremacy  as  the  greatest  cot- 
ton-produeer  in  the  world,  and  the  only  way  to  maintain 
this  supremacy  is  to  perfect  the  Mississippi  River  levee 
system,  and  so  bring  all  of  the  valley-lands  int>  cultivation. 
The  U.  S.  alone  can  do  this.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
the  States  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Arkansas  have  not 
the  means  an<l  resources  necessary  for  its  aceomplishmeni!. 
Surely,  the  permanent  reclamation  of  the  great  Mississippi 
Valley,  with  its  ten  or  twelve  millions  of  acres  of  the  richest 
alluvial  lands  in  the  world,  is  or  should  be  of  sufhcicnt 
national  importance  to  justify  its  being  undertaken  by  the 
general  government.  t»,  W.  R.  Bayley. 

Lev'el  [.\ng.-Sax.  Itr/cl,  from  Lat.  ^/fce//a,  "level"].  A 
level  Hiir/'urc  is  onc  that  is  concentric  with  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  ;  that  is,  with  the  surface  the  ocean  would  have  if 
the  globe  were  entirely  covered  with  water.  Any  lino 
drawn  in  a  level  surface  is  a  li  rcf  line.  For  ^mall  areas, 
that  is,  for  areas  of  a  feiv  miles  in  extent,  we  may  regard 
a  level  surface  as  the  surface  of  a  sphere  osculatory  to  the 
ellipsoidal  surface  of  the  earth  at  the  middle  point  of  the 
area  in  question.  The  surface  just  described  is  a  surface 
oi  true  liAcl.  A  surface  of  ajijiurrnt  lei-d  at  any  point  is  a 
plane  drawn  tangent  to  the  surfaco  of  true  level  at  that 
point.  Any  line  drawn  in  a  surfaco  of  apparent  level  is  a 
line  of  apparent  level.  The  lines  indicated  by  our  level- 
ling instruments  arc  lines  of  apparent  level,  but  we  may 
deduce  from  them  lines  of  true  level  by  making  suitable 
corrections  for  curvature.  W.  G.  Peck. 

Levclliug.     See  HvpsoMF.rnY. 

liCvcSling  Instruments.     The  instruments  used  in 

IcvcHiug  are  of  fwn  classes.  Those  of  the  Jirst  class  are 
used  to  point  out  or  indicate  a  lino  or  surface  of  a]>parcut 
level,  and  arc  tcchnicall}'  called  Irvrh:  those  of  the  eccond 
elass  arc  used  to  measure  the  distances  of  this  line  or  sur- 
face of  apparent  level  above  the  jioints  whose  difl'erencc  of 
level  is  to  be  determined,  and  these  arc  called  Icrelliuff- 
rods.  W.  G.  Pkck. 

Levcllingorods.  These  are  rods  of  wood  graduated 
to  feet  and  deeimuls  of  a  foot,  the  lines  of  di\  ision  being 
nuuibcretl  from  below  upward;  the  0  of  tlie  scale  is  at  the 
bottom  of  the  rod.  One  of  the  best  consists  of  a  staff  of 
hard  wood,  cr.pped  with  metal,  usually  about  12  feet  in 
length.  A  sliding  vane  can  be  moved  up  and  down  by  a 
cord  running  on  pulleys  let  into  the  rod.  This  rod  is 
graduated  to  hundredths  of  a  foot,  and  on  onc  eilgc  of  the 
rectangular  opening  that  is  made  in  the  vane  is  a  vernier, 
by  means  of  which  the  rod  may  be  read  to  thousandths  of 
a  foot.  The  vane  is  divided  into  four  sections  by  lines 
througli  its  centre,  one  parallel  to  the  rod  and  the  other 
perpendicular  to  it,  and  these  sections  arc  painted  in  con- 
trasted colors  for  greater  facility  in  determining  the  mid- 
dle of  the  vane.  A  second  form  of  IcvcUing-rod  is  similar 
to  that  just  described,  except  that  the  rod  is  constructed 
in  two  sections,  onc  of  whicli  slides  in  a  groove  of  the 
other.  The  arrangement  of  the  graduation  is  modified  to 
conform  to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  sliding  joint.  A 
third  form  of  rod  is  now  much  used.  It  eon>ists  of  a  sim- 
ple rod  witliout  a  vane,  the  divisions  and  numbers  being 
so  distinct  that  the  readings  nniy  be  made  by  the  observer. 
This  form  of  rod  is  mostly  employed  in  connection  with 
the  Gravatt  level,  a  level  which  difi'ers  from  the  Y  level 
already  described  in  having  an  inverting  telescope.  This 
form  of  level  admits  of  greater  optical  power,  with  the 
same  length  of  telescope,  and  is  therefore  better  adapted 
to  making  close  readings  at  great  distances.  When  this 
species  of  level  is  used  the  figures  on  the  levelling-rod  are 
both  reversed  and  inverted. 

The  differenrc  of  /tit 7  between  two  neighboring  points 
may  be  determined  by  means  of  the  levelling  instruments 
just  described  as  follows  :  Let  the  level  be  set  up  at  some 
convenient  place  and  so  arranged  as  to  indicate  a  surface 
of  apparent  level  ;  place  a  level!ing-rud  at  the  first  point 
and  note  the  height  at  which  it  is  intersected  by  the  level 
surface;  in  like  manner,  place  a  rod  at  the  second  point 
and  note  the  height  at  which  it  is  cut  by  the  level  surface; 
subtract  the  first  of  these  heights  from  the  second,  and  the 
remainder  will  be  the  difference  of  level  of  the  two  points. 
If  the  remainder  is  -|-,  the  second  point  is  bigluT  than  the 
first;  if  the  remainder  is  ~,  the  second  point  is  lower  than 
the  first.  In  the  same  manner  wc  may  iletcrmine  the  dif- 
ference of  level  between  the  seennd  point  an<l  a  third  point, 
between  the  third  point  and  a  fourth,  and  so  on,  as  tar  as 
may  be  desirable.  The  total  diflcrcnce  of  level  between 
the  first  point  and  the  l.ast  is  then  equal  to  the  algebraic 
sum  of  all  the  partial  difierences  of  level.     W.  G.  Peck, 

Levels.     Levels  are  constructed  on  one  of  three  prin- 
ciples:  1st.  a  line  of  apjiarcnt  level  is  perpendicular  to  .1  i 
plumb-line  freely  suspended  ;  2d,  a  line  of  apparent  level  I 
is  tangent  to  the  free  surfaco  of  a  liquid  in  equilibrium;  " 


LfiVfiQUE— LEVI. 


1747 


and  lUi,  II  ray  of  light  which  is  pcrpcndiuulur  tu  h  vertical 
mirror  i:*  a  line  of  apparent  level. 

The  level  used  by  bricklayers',  carpenters,  etc.,  affords 
an  example  of  the  method  of  applying  ihe  first  priueiplc. 
In  it»  simplest  form,  this  kind  o\'  level  coD^it^ts  of  a  T- 
shaped  frame,  the  line  corresponding  to  the  top  of  the  T 
bcin-;  perrcctly  straight  and  at  right  angles  to  a  second  line 
draiTn  through  the  middle  of  the  stem  of  the  T.  A  plunib- 
linu  is  atluohed  at  j'omc  point  of  the  ?euonil  Hue ;  and  when 
the  instrnraent  is  held  so  that  the  plumb  line  corresponds 
to  this  second  line,  the  first  lino  is  :i  line  uf  itpparcnt  level. 
Tiio  cross  lino  of  the  T  may  be  turned  downwards,  as  is 
usually  tho  case  when  used  by  mechanics,  or  it  may  bo 
turned  upwards,  in  which  ca?e,  if  supported  on  a  suitable 
stand,  it  can  bo  used  for  the  rougher  kinds  of  field  level- 
ling. 

Tho  ordinary  Y  level  is  an  example  of  tho  instruments 
constructed  on  thcHecond  prinuiplc.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  telescope  mounted  on  two  vertical  supports,  which 
from  their  shape  are  called  Y's.  Tho  Y's  themselves  are 
attached  to  a  si»Iid  bar,  called  the  fi'mh,  which  turns  about 
an  axis  at  right  angles  to  it.  The  tinib  aud  its  axis  are 
connected  with  a  supporting  tripod  by  means  of  a  ball- 
and-socket  joint,  so  arranged  that  the  axis  may  be  made 
vertical  by  tho  aid  of  levdling-scrows.  Suspended  from 
the  tolescopo  is  a  di-Iicate  spirit-level,  which,  when  in  ad- 
justment, is  parallel  to  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  tele- 
scope. Tho  lino  of  collimation  of  tho  telescope  is  indi- 
cated by  two  cross  hairs  mounted  on  an  adjustable  dia- 
phragm placed  in  the  common  focus  of  the  field  lens  and 
eye-piece.  The  parts  of  tho  instrument  are  so  cnnstructccl 
that  they  may  be  brought  into  accurate  adjustment:  that 
is,  into  proper  relative  positions.  When  the  instrument  is 
adjusted  the  attached  level  is  parallel  to  the  line  of  colli- 
mation of  the  telescope,  and  both  are  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  limb,  thai  is,  the  line  that  remains  fixed  when 
tho  limb  is  turned  in  azimuth. 

To  use  the  instrument  thus  adjusted  wo  plant  the  tripod 
firmly  in  the  ground,  and  by  means  of  the  Icvelling-scrcws 
bring  tho  level  in  such  a  position  that  the  bubble  will  re- 
main in  the  nii<litlo  of  the  tube  during  an  entire  revolution 
in  a7.imuth.  The  axis  of  the  limb  is  then  vertical,  and 
consequently  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  in  all 
its  positions  is  a  line  of  apparent  level. 

Levels  couatrueted  on  tho  third  principle  arc  called  re- 
Jlcitiufj  levels.  One  form  of  this  class  of  levels  eont-ists 
of  a  plate  of  glass  suspended  from  a  ring  and  weighted  so 
thaf  the  plant!  uf  the  glass  shall  always  be  vertical.  One 
half  of  the  glass  is  silvered  and  the  <»tlier  half  unsilvered, 
tho  line  of  division  between  the  two  portions  being  verti- 
cal. A  tine  is  ruled  across  the  middlo  of  the  plate  perpen- 
dicular to  the  one  last  mentioned,  and  is  consequently  hori- 
zontal. To  use  the  instrument,  it  is  held  by  the  ring  and 
raised  or  lowered  until  tho  observer  sees  the  image  of  his 
eye  rolleotod  from  the  rulol  horizontal  lino  on  the  silvered 
portion;  tho  plane  through  tho  eye  in  that  position  and 
the  line  on  Ihe  unsilvered  portion  is  a  plane  of  apparent 
level.  Instruments  of  this  kind  arc  convenient  for  making 
reconnaissances,  antl  al-^o  for  contouring  in  topognij)bical 
surveys,  but  they  arc  not  very  accurate.        \V.  G.  Pkck. 

L^vdqoe  (Jkan  CnARLKs),  b.  at  Bordeaux,  France, 
Aug.  7,  IHIS;  made  extensive  stmlios  of  the  li reck  and 
Alexandrian  philosophers;  resided  in  1H17-4H  at  Athens, 
and  became  profi'SHor  in  philosophy  at  tho  College dc  France 
in  1.S56;  in  I'^ti.'f  member,  and  in  1S73  vice-president,  of 
tho  Academy  of  .Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  Besides  a 
number  of  articles  in  the  Remrthn  Oftur  Afondcn  remork- 
able  for  erudition,  he  {>ublishe<l  in  IStJO  Lti  Sriencr  tin  lienu 
(2  vols.),  a  work  which  received  priz.esfrom  several  French 
academies,  but  which,  as  a  philosophy  of  the  beautiful, 
BtamU  lar  behind  what  tho  modern  (lerman  philosophy 
contains  on  the  subject. 

IjCV'en,  Loch,  a  lake  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of 
Kinross,  abuut  II  miles  in  circuit.  On  an  is-land  opposilo 
th*'  town  of  Kinross  are  remains  of  IiO<'h  Leven  ("a^-tle,  in 
which  Mary  queen  of  IScots  was  imprisoned  from  Juno, 
1607,  to  May,  15II8. 

Lever.  See  Mechanical  Powkrs,  by  Prop.  W.  P. 
TnownuinoK,  A.  .M. 

Le'ver  f('iiAitn:s  Jamks),  M.  D..  T,L.I).,  h.  at  Dublin 
Aug.  31,  ISOC;  took  the  degree  of  M.  B.  at  Dublin  Univer- 
sity ls;il,  and  of  M.  D.  at  (Jjitiingen  ;  was  medical  supcr- 
inteniteut  in  Londonderry  during  tho  cholera  season  of 
is;;i;  physician  to  the  legation  at  Brussels  ;  editor  of  tho 
/Jiiftlin  UiiiierMi'tif  .}faffax{uc  IS12— If) ;  vice-consul  at  Ppezia 
ls.')S-li7.  and  afterwards  consul  at  Trieste;  ottained  great 
success  as  a  writer  of  humorous  novels,  chiefly  destriptive 
of  Irish  life  ami  character,  among  which  aro  Hnrnf  Knrrr- 
qiirr  (1S40).  Chniien  OWfaffcy  (IHII),  Arlfmr  0' Lrnry 
(ISU),   The  0'Donughue{\)i\bi  Ifnrace  Trmplrton  (IW49), 


ro/(rre(/aa(1857).  The  nramUifjhHof  fUHhop's  Folhj  {X^S), 
Lord  Kilifobbin  (1872),  aud  many  others.  1).  at  Trieste 
June  1,  1872. 

Lev'erett,  post-tp.  of  Franklin  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  New 
London  Niirthern  R.  li.,  lUG  miles  W.  of  Boston,  has 
manufactures  of  pails,  satinets,  and  lumber,  and  tobacco 
18  raised.     Pop.  S77. 

Leverett  (  Ft!i:L)K!uck  Percival),  b.  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  Sept.  11.  ISO.);  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1.S21,  and 
was  afterwards  principal  of  the  Boston  Latin  School :  pub- 
lished a  Latin  lexicon  (|s;;(;)  uud  a  number  of  Latin  clas- 
sics, with  notes.     D.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  G.  IS.'IG. 

Leverett  (Sir  JohnI,  BAUT.,b.  in  England  in  IGIO.  and 
came  with  his  father  to  America  in  lO^J^i.  He  held  many 
important  positions,  both  in  Massachusetts  aud  in  Eng- 
land, where  ho  was  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Cr<tmwell.  his 
intimate  friend.  In  Mas.sachuf^etts  he  was  Speaker  of 
the  house  KiTm-"!,  major-general  1  fiOl'.-T^.  deputy -govern  or 
1G71-7-J.  and  governor  ir)7;t-70.  In  IG7G  he  was  knighted 
au<l  made  a  baronet  by  Cliarlcs  II.     D.  Mar.  IC,  IGTlt. 

Leverett  (Jon.v),  F.  R.  S.,  b.  at  Boston,  Mass..  Aug. 
2.'),  1GG2.  a  grandson  of  Sir  John  Leverett;  gra*luatcd  at 
Harvard  in  1G80;  was  a  judge,  lawyer,  and  Speaker  in  the 
general  court,  anrl  was  president  of  Harvard  t'ollege  1707- 
24.    He  had  a  wide  reputation  for  learning.    D.  May  .*J,  1724. 

Levorricr'  (Urbain  Ji:an  Joseph),  b.  at  St.  L6  Mar. 
11,  ISll  ;  studied  at  the  Keolc  Polytechnique,  Paris;  made 
some  important  tliscoveries  in  chemistry,  and  in  1S4(J  aston- 
ished tho  world  by  the  correct  announcement  of  the  place 
in  the  heavens  where  woubl  be  discovered  tho  planet  now 
called  Neptune.  He  was  director  of  the  observatory  of 
Poris  18fii-7n.  to  which  be  was  reappointed  in  1H72;  be- 
came a  senator,  an  academician,  and  a  grand  ofticcr  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  did  much  to  promote  popular  edu- 
cation.    D.  Sept.  2:!,  1877. 

Le  Vert  (Hr-Nitv  SrRAcnEv),  M.  D.,  b.  in  King  Wil- 
liam CO..  Va.,  Dee.  2C,  1804,  a  descendant  of  a  naval  sur- 
geon from  Count  Rochambeau's  fleet,  who  after  the  siege 
of  Yorktown  settled  in  Virginia;  graduated  M.  D.  in  tlio 
University  of  Pennsylvania  1820.  and  his  thesis  on  metallic 
ligatures  was  afterwards  published;  went  to  Ahibile,  and 
from  his  genial  disposition,  erudition,  skill,  and  nolde  im- 
pulses soon  rose  to  great  distinction.  He  married  Octa- 
via  AValton  (see  0.  W.  Le  Vert).  D.  in  Mobile  Mar. 
15,  I8G4.  Pail  F.  Eve. 

Le  Vert  {OrrAViA  Walton),  b.  nt  Bellevue.  near  Au- 
gusta, Oa.,  abdut  1810,  iier  father.  Col.  (ieorgo  Walton 
(son  of  the  signer  of  tho  Declaration  of  Independence  of 
the  same  name),  removed  to  Pensacola,  Fla.,  in  her  child- 
hood, as  territorial  secretary,  and  for  a  time  acted  as  gov- 
ernor. Here  she  imbibed  sneh  a  knowledge  of  French  and 
Spanish  tliat  they  were  almost  equally  with  English  her 
mother-tongues.  She  was  invited  while  still  a  girl  to  se- 
lect a  nnmc  for  the  future  capital  of  Florida,  and  chose  the 
musical  Seminole  word  Tallahassee.  Upon  tho  expiration 
of  his  term  of  ofllce,  (.'ol.  Walton  removed  to  Mobile,  where 
his  daughter  was  married  in  iSi'-G  to  Dr.  H.  S.  Lo  Vert. 
She  had  previously  spent  one  or  two  winters  in  AVashing- 
ton,  where  she  enj*<yed  the  friendship  of  t'lay,  AVebster. 
Calhoun,  and  Wasliinglon  Irving.  an<l  acquired  distinction 
for  the  preeit^ion  of  the  reports  she  wrote  of  the  famous 
congressional  debates  on  the  removal  of  the  deposits  from 
the  U.  S.  Hank.  In  lSo;;-f)4,  and  again  in  isr>5.  Mrs.  Lo 
Vert  travelh-(l  in  Eunqie.  was  received  into  the  best  circles 
of  society  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  and  recorded 
her  observations  in  the  interesting  volumes  called  Souvenirs 
of  Travfl  (2  vols.,  I8,'i7).  She  rendered  good  service  in 
behalf  of  the  Mount  Vernon  Association,  and  was  noted 
for  oflict'S  of  charity  during  the  ci\il  war.  Slie  is  under 
stood  to  have  jirepared  two  books,  Stntrein'rM  of  Dtntin- 
guinhed  Proidc  and  »S'oi/iriiiV«  n/  tfif  W'ttr,  which  have  not 
yet  bien  puolished.  She  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  as  an 
accomplished  linguist,  ei>nver.'iationatist,  and  leader  of  so- 
ciety.     D.  near  .\ngusta.  (la..  Mar.  K'.,  IH77. 

Le'vi  flleb..  "wreathed  "].  in  biblical  history  the  third 
son  of  Jaeub  and  Leah.  b.  in  Padan-aram  about  a.  r.  I'.'IT. 
and  the  ancestorof  tmeof  tho  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  eall«  4 
by  bis  name.  (See  Lr.viTi:s.)  Of  his  nersonnl  history  lb-- 
only  trait  which  has  been  recorded  is  tlie  massacre  hIuoIi, 
with  his  brother  Simcfui,  ho  perpetrated  upon  the  inlnil  - 
itants  of  Sheehem  lo  avenge  tho  wrong  done  his  sisti  r 
Dinoh  (flen.  xxxiv.).  Levi  went  into  Egypt  with  lli^ 
father  ond  brothers  ofter  tho  elevation  ot  Joseph,  and  d. 
there.  Moses  and  Aaron  were  his  descendauts.  apparently 
in  the  fourth  generation. 

Levi  (liEONE).  Pn.  D.,  b.  at  Aneona,  Italy,  of  Jewish 
parcnfs,  June  fi.  IS2I  ;  removed  in  ISIl  to  Liverpool;  was 
naturalized  in  18(7  ;  was  one  of  tho  founders  of  the  Liver- 
pool Chamber  of  Commerce  1849  ;  became  in  1852  professor 


1748 


LEVIATHAN— LEWES. 


of  commercial  law,  etc.  in  University  College,  Lomlon ;  i 
became  a  bairistcr  in  1SJ9:  received  the  duutorate  frciin 
Tubingen  li<01  ;  has  done  much  for  the  reform  of  commer- 
cial law  and  practice,  the  utilization  of  statistics,  etc.  Au- 
thor of  f'.)mm<-n"i<  L'lwii  vols..  lS.ill-52).  Merrnnlilr  Ltiio 
(]8.')-t).  On  Tiixaliim  (1800),  fiitcnintiniiill  Vitmmerriiil  Law 
(l.Sf>4),  and  other  works,  besides  many  valuable  papers  on 
Btatisticul  and  commercial  science. 

Levi'athan  [Hob.,  "  wreathed  monster"],  in  the  Old 
Testament  usually  designates  the  crocodile,  but  in  the  Tul- 
mudical  writers  the  whale,  the  fabulous  dragon,  or  any 
other  creature  of  monstrous  size,  may  be  called  leviathan. 
The  name  is  also  used  figuratively  for  gigantic  animals  as 
well  as  other  objects. 

Lev'ico,  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Tyrol,  at 
the  issue  of  the  Brenta  into  the  Lake  of  Levico.  has  0(174 
inhabitants,  mostly  employed  in  the  cultivation  and  manu- 
facture of  silk. 

Leviga'tion  [Lat.  liciugare,  "to  plane,"  "to  rub 
smooth  "],  a  special  manipulation  of  the  laboratory,  de- 
viseil  for  the  purpose  of  converting  substances  to  a  smooth, 
uniform  powder.  A  flat  surface,  called  the  "slab,"  is 
used  to  place  the  substance  upon,  composed  of  stone,  glass, 
or  metal ;  artd  a  "  muller."  having  a  Bat  surface  below,  is 
propelled  round  and  round  with  an  eccentric  motion  over 
the  mass.  A  liquid  is  always  added,  usually  oil  or  water, 
to  assist  the  operation.  The  process  of  levigation  has 
passed,  probably  hundreds  of  years  ago,  from  the  labora- 
tory into  the  arts,  and  paints,  printing-inks,  and  often 
drugs,  are  comminuted  by  a  process  of  levigation,  on  the 
manufacturing  scale,  in  so-called  "eccentric  mill?."  Pnr- 
phi/rizuiiuii  is  another  name  formerly  applied,  from  slabs 
of  porphyry  being  employed.  A  aputula  is  an  essential 
adjunct  in  the  small  laboratory  operation  to  collect  to- 
gether readily  and  heap  up  the  mass  when  spreail  by  the 
muller.  H.  WuitTZ. 

Lev'ings  (No.vn),  B.  T)..  b.  in  Cheshire  eo..  N.  11.,  in 
170(1:  early  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and 
in  1818  entered  its  itinerant  ministry  as  a  candidate  of  tho 
New  York  conference;  travelled  and  preached  with  much 
popularity  and  success  in  New  York,  Connecticut,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Vermont :  was  presiding  elder  over  largo 
districts  of  his  Church,  and  a  member  of  its  Gleneral  Con- 
ference ;  in  1844  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
the  American  Bible  .Society.  In  this  office  he  often  trav- 
elled over  the  U.  S.,  preaching  with  great  effect,  and  suc- 
cessfully promoting  the  interests  of  the  society.  After  a 
laborious  tour  through  the  South-western  States  he  was 
attacked  by  epidemic  cholera,  and  d.  at  t'incinnati  on  his 
way  home,"  Jan.  9,  1849.  Abel  Stkve.ns. 

Ijev'irate  Mar'riage  [Lat.  hvir.  a  "  husband's 
brother"],  the  marriage  of  a  widow  by  the  brother  of  the 
deceased  husband.  This  custom  (common  among  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  and  not  unknown  at  the  present  day  among 
rude  and  simple  races)  was  perpetuated  by  the  Mosaic  law. 
It  is,  however,  practically  obsolete  among  the  .lews.  The 
canon  law  expressly  fi>rbids  such  marriage,  and  in  Great 
Britain  it  is  still  viulawful.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  generally 
permitted  to  marry  the  brother  of  a  deceased  husband.  But 
the  true  levirate  marriage  was  compulsory,  or  at  least  ob- 
ligatory (except  on  certain  conditions),  but  only  in  case 
the  deceased  husband  left  no  male  issue.  In  Abyssinia 
and  parts  of  Asia  the  levirate  law  is  still  in  force.  It  seems 
to  have  prevailed  in  aneient  Italy  also. 

LiCv'is,  county  of  Quoboe,  Canada,  on  the  S.  shore  of 
tho  St.  Lawrence,  opposite  Quebec.  It  is  traversed  by  tho 
Grand  Trunk  Railway.  Cap.  Levis.  Pop.,  including  Levis- 
town,  24,831. 

Levis  (formerly  Poist  Levi),  an  important  suburb  of 
Quebec,  Canada,  in  Levis  CO..  is  opposite  that  city,  on  the 
S.  bank  of  the  ,St.  Lawrence  (here  1  mile  wide),  and  is  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway.  It  has  a  larger  trade  than  any 
town  in  Canada  e.\cept  Quebec  and  Montreal.  It  is  the 
scat  of  a  convent,  and  has  a  board  of  trade.  The  river  is 
crossed  by  a  ferry.     Pop.  in  1871.  1".,021. 

Ije'vite^  one  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  a  descendant  of  Levi, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  but  in  a  more  limited  sense  one 
of  those  members  of  that  tribe  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
priestly  families  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  Tho  Levites  con- 
stituted a  kind  of  inferior  priesthood.  They  had  no  in- 
heritance except  certain  cities  on  either  side  of  the  river 
Jordan  ;  in  which,  however,  they  were  not  compelled  to  re- 
side. There  are  at  the  present  day  some  Jewish  families 
who  claim  a  lineage,  more  or  less  pure,  from  the  Lcvitical 
stock. 

lievit'icus  [so  named  in  the  Vulgate  bccanse  it  is  largely 
occupied  with  directions  for  the  Levitical  service],  the  third 
hook  of  the  Pentateuch  and  of  the  Old  Testamen'.  It  con- 
tains the  Mosaic  law  of  sacrifices,  the  laws  regarding  cere- 


monial uncleanness.  the  laws  with  regard  to  intercourse 
between  Israelites  and  foreigners,  together  with  brief  his- 
torical accounts,  admonitions,  and  the  like.  Its  direct  Mo- 
saic origin  has  usually  been  taken  for  granted,  but  several 
recent  (Jerman,  Dutch,  and  English  commentators  refer  it 
to  the  ]icriod  of  E/.ra.  (See  Pentateuch.) 

Lev'ulose  [Lat.  Imi-nm.  "left"].  Celli^Oo,  a  variety  of 
glucose.  It  occurs  associated  with  dextro-glueoso  in  honey, 
in  many  fruits,  and  other  saccharine  substances.  Fruit- 
sugar  or  invert-sugar  is  a  mixture  of  eq\ml  proportions  of 
these  two  sugars.  Cane-sugar  is  invertetl — that  is.  trans- 
formed— into  a  mixture  of  dextro-glucose  and  levulose  by 
warming  with  dilute  acids,  or  by  contact  with  yeast,  peo- 
tase,  etc.: 

Cano-pugnr.  Dextro-glacosc.    Levuloae. 

C12II22O11  -1-  II2O  =-  CsUliOs  +C6Ul206. 

Levulose  may  be  extracted  from  inverted  cane-sugar  by 
adding  to  the  inverted  sugar  obtained  from  10  grammes  of 
cane-sugar  6  gms.  of  slaked  lime  and  100  of  water.  A  solid 
compound  of  levulose  autl  calcium  is  formed,  while  the  cal- 
cium compound  of  dextro-glucose  remains  in  solution,  and 
may  be  separated  by  pressure.  On  suspending  the  precip- 
itate in  water,  and  decomposing  with  carbonic  acid,  the  lev- 
ulose is  set  free,  and  can  be  obtained  as  a  syrup  on  evapo- 
rating the  filtered  solution.  Levulose  is  also  produced  in  a 
pure  state  by  treating  inulin  with  dilute  acids.  It  is  a  col- 
orless, uncrystallizable  syrup,  as  sweet  as  cane-sugar,  and 
exhibiting  most  of  the  reactions  of  dextro-glucose.  It  is 
more  easily  altered  by  heat  and  acids,  less  readily  by  alka- 
lies and  ferments.  (See  Gli'COSE  and  Src.Mi.) 

C.  F.  CnA,'«DLEn. 
Le'vy,  county  of  Florida,  bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  N.  W.  by  the  Suwanee  River,  and  S.  by  tho 
Withlacoochce.  Area,  8.1O  square  miles.  A  large  part  of 
its  area  is  occupied  by  (ho  "  Gulf  Hammock."  an  extremely 
fertile  tract,  covered  with  dense  hard-wood  forests.  Corn, 
cotton,  and  lumber  arc  staple  products.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  Florida  R.  K.  Cap.  Cedar  Keys.  Pop.  2018. 
,Levy  (Emile),  b.  at  Paris  Aug.  29,  1S2G;  studied  at  the 
Ecole  dcs  Beaux  Arts,  and  under  Pujol  and  Pieot,  and  be- 
gan to  exhibit  in  18o4.  His  most  celebrateil  pictures  are 
/,.?  Souper  lilire  (I8.)9),  Viriiiir/ilorU  (1863),  Za  Moil 
d'OrpUc  (1S66J,  and  in  MusUjui  (18G9). 

Lew'es,  town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Sussex,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  Ouse.  on  a  declivity  of  the 
South  Downs,  and  carries  ou  a  considerable  trade  in  grain, 
cattle,  and  sheep.     Pop.  10,7Jo. 

Lewes,  post-v.  of  Sussex  co.,  Del.,  on  Delaware  Bay, 
2  miles  S.  W.  of  Cape  Henlopeo.  and  directly  in  front  of 
the  Delaware  Breakwater,  which  aflords  an  excellent  and 
ample  harbor  for  vessels  of  all  classes  and  sizes.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Junction  and  Breakwater  R.  II.,  which 
connects  here  with  the  Old  Dominion  .steamship  Co.,  and 
lies  directly  opposite  and  12  miles  distant  from  Cape  May. 
It  has  3  churches,  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  a  number  of 
stores.  Wrecking,  fishing,  and  farming  form  the  principal 
business.     Pop.  lO'.IO. 

J.  H.  D.  KsowLES,  Ed.  "Breakwater  Light." 
Lewes  (George  IIesrv),  b.  in  London.  England.  Apr. 
18,  1817:  was  in  youth  a  clerk  in  a  commercial  house; 
commenced  the  study  of  medicine,  but  abandoned  it  for 
that  of  philosophy  and  psychology,  to  which  he  devoted 
two  years  in  Germany  ;  returned  to  London  in  1840;  de- 
voted himself  to  literature,  and  speedily  became  known  as 
a  deeji  thinker  and  a  writer  of  uncommon  attainments,  es- 
pecially by  his  articles  in  the  magazines  anil  quarterly  re- 
views. His  earliest  important  work  was  the  itioijrttjtliii-itl 
Hintury  iif  J'hiliiai>iihy  /nmi  Tlialtt  to  (.'omtc,  published  in 
1847,  which  foreshadowed  his  own  opinions  as  being  of 
the  so-called  Positivist  type — a  book  of  considerable  ability, 
which  became  popular  and  has  reached  a  fourth  edition. 
From  1849  to  18j4,  Lewes  was  literary  editor  of  the  Liiuler, 
wrote  a  compenilium  of  ComtCis  PhiloKop/ii/  uf  the  ^ScicnccB 
(ISaS),  Liitu  of  Kobcspierrc  (I80O)  and  of  Goethe  (1S06), 
Seatide  Studi<:»  ( 1858),  Phi/siiilogy  0/  Cummuit  Life  ( ISCO), 
StHtlio  111  Aiiliimi  Ai/c  (1861),  and  ,4i-i«to(/<-,  «  Clinpter 
from  the  Uinlory  iif  .Vciciioe  (1864),  besides  one  or  two  nov- 
els and  dramas  of  minor  importance.  Since  1854  he  li.as 
been  largely  engaged  in  jihysiological  and  anatomical  re- 
i  searches,  some  of  the  results  of  which  were  embodied  in 
papers  communicated  to  the  British  Association  for  tho 
'  Advancement  of  Science — On  thf  Spimit  Curd  an  a  Crnlrc 
i,f  Sfiisnfion  and  ViiUliim  (18."i8),  and  On  the  Xrn-nUH  Si/g- 
lem  (18.')9).  In  1863  he  founded  the  Fortn!i/l,t/i/  Kcrietr, 
but  in  Dec.  1866,  was  compelled  t>y  ill-health  to  retire 
from  its  editorship.  His  most  ambitious  work,  that  in 
whicH  he  purposes  to  embody  his  whole  system  <pf  philos- 
ophy, bears  the  title  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind.  Vol.  i., 
The  Foundation  of  a  Cretd,  was  published  in  1873 ;  vol.  ii. 
in  187o. 


LEWES— LEWIS. 


1749 


Lewes  (Marian  Evans),  wife  of  (leorse  H.  Lewes,  and 
kuuwu  by  the  uont-d^'pinme  of  U(:uhgg  Ei.iot,  b.  in  War- 
wicksbiri*,  KugJaod,  ubuiit  1820,  was  tbe  daughter  of  a  poor 
ourato,  but  wa.-i  adu|iiud  by  n  wealthy  clcrgyinau.  who  garo 
her  a  careful  eduuatiuu.  Ou  leaviug  the  acudeiuy  she  be- 
camo  a  pupil  of  Herbert  Spencer,  since  become  famous  ns 
a  philosopher,  and  under  his  training  acquired  great  breadth 
of  mental  development,  learning  German,  French,  and  Ital- 
ian, studying  music  and  art  as  well  as  motaphysics  and 
logio.  Her  earliest  literary  effort  was  a  translation  of 
Strauss's  Li/e  of  .A«im  (1846),  followed  in  ls04  by  Feucr- 
bach's  Ettence  of  Ckrittianitjf.  As  as-sociale  editor  of  the 
Wc*tininiiter  Urcieio  she  soon  became  acquainted  with  the 
leading  representatives  of  the  schoul  of  licntham  and  J.  8. 
Mill,  with  which  she  may  he  classified.  As  a  novelist  her 
first  work  was  Scene*  of  Clerical  Life  (1S58),  originally  pub- 
lished in  fihickwood.  In  1859  Admn  Bede  proved  a  uril- 
liant  success,  and  her  reputation  was  maintained  bv  The 
MiUonthe  riogn\\^m),S!lii»  Mnnieri\^&\),  l{omoln{\^m), 
/V/,V  //o//  (ISOO),  and  3/r.W/'m.r>rA  (1871-72),  the  last  of 
which  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  novels  of  the  cen- 
tarv.  As  a  poet  she  has  pubtished  Tht;  Spantnh  fii/pf>/ 
(mS),  Agatha  (18CU).  and  Th*-  Lrffoul  of  Jnhal  {1H7-I), 
which  would  have  sufTiccd  to  establish  a  poetical  reputation 
of  an  unknown  writer,  but  have  scarcely  added  to  the  fame 
of  the  great  novelist.  Her  skill  as  a  painter  of  strongly 
marked  types  of  character  is  marvellous. 

Lewes  and  Rehoboth,  hundred  of  Sussex  co.,  Del. 
Pop.  Jl^s. 

Lew'in  fTnoM\s).  F.  S.  A.,  1>.  at  Ifield.  Sussex.  Eng- 
land; e>luciited  at  the  Merchant  Taylors' Schoul,  London, 
and  at  Trinity  ('ulloge,  O.xfovd,  taking  high  lionors  iu 
classics;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  18:i:t,  and  in  1863 
became  conveyancing  counsel  to  the  court  of  chancery.  He 
has  written  a  treatiso  on  The  Lato  of  TrastH  ( IS  r2).  The 
Life  and  Eftintb-n  of  St.  Panl  { IS.'>| ).  an  £*«fiy  on  the  ('hro- 
nototfjf  of  the  .Veto  Trutamrnt  {\i^bi),JentJin(viii,  n  Sketch  of 
die  Cit^  and  Temple  from  the  Earliest  Timet  to  the  Siege  bjf 
Titut  (1861),  Ciraar't  Incajiioit  of  Hritaiu  (1862).  Sietjc  of 
Jerusalem  b^  Tttua  (1 8(1.'!),  und  Fautt  Sacri,  or  a  Keif  to  the 
OKrottolojtf  of  the  Xeir  Tt-nt anient  (lstJ5).  In  the  work  on 
CsBsar's  iuv'a<«ion  ho  questioned  the  correctness  of  the  re- 
ceived theories  as  to  the  landing-place  of  that  conqueror, 
and  was  involved  in  a  controversy  on  the  subject  with  Dr. 
Airy,  the  astronomer-royal,  which  led  to  a  new  survey  by 
the  admiralty  of  the  tides  in  the  British  Channel  near 
Dover.  For  more  than  twenty  years  after  the  publication 
of  his  early  work  on  St.  Paul,  Mr.  Lcwin  was  ent;age«l  in 
the  study  of  the  apostle's  missionary  journeys,  visiting  in 
person  through  a  series  of  years  nearly  every  place  named 
in  the  New  Testament  in  connection  with  i*aul,  collecting 
the  geographical  data  of  antiquity,  and  illustrating  his 
materials  by  accuratu  modern  plans  of  the  localities  in 
qaostion.  As  the  reMult,  a  revised  edition  of  his  work  on 
St.  Paul  appeared  in  1871  in  two  large  volumes,  splendidly 
illustrated.  Mr.  Lcwin's  views  upon  the  sacred  localities 
in  Jerusalem,  especially  the  site  nf  the  temple,  have  given 
rise  to  much  controversy  in  cm  nee  t  ion  with  the  rival 
theories  of  Roltinson,  Williams,  ami  Fergnsson. 

Lew'is,  or  Lcw'iMHOn  [said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Louis  XIV,,  though  known  long  before  his  time],  a  simple 
and  effectivo  elamp  by  which  to  raise  blocks  of  stone.  Three 
iron  keys,  suspended  Iroui  a  cross-bolt,  are  let  into  a  tish- 
tail-shapcd  hole  in  the  stone.  Tho  three  keys  together  fill 
this  hole,  and  the  stone  can  be  lifted  by  moans  of  the  cross- 
bolt,  which  is  attiiched  to  a  erano.  When  the  stone  is  in 
place  tho  b(dl  is  withdrawn,  tho  middle  key,  which  is 
straight,  is  slipped  out,  and  the  lateral  wedge-shaped  keys 
are  then  readily  removed.  There  is  also  an  ap])aratus  called 
tho  lewis  used  for  shearing  cloth. 

Lewis,  county  of  N.  K.  Kentucky,  Iioundcd  N.  by  the 
Ohio  Uiver.  It  is  a  hilly  but  fertile  limestone  region.  Areo, 
401)  square  miles.  Corn  is  the  largest  agricultural  product. 
Cap.  Vanceburg.     Pop.  'Jllo. 

Lewifif  county  of  N.  E.  Missouri,  bounded  E.  by  tho 
Mis.'issippi  River.  Area,  5011  square  miles.  It  is  rolling 
aud  fertile,  aiiounding  in  limber,  ennl.  anci  limestone.  Cat- 
lie,  grain.  aii<l  wool  are  staple  pruduots.  Ii.  is  traversed 
by  the  Quiney  Missouri  and  Pacific  and  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  Western  K.  Us.    Cap.  Monlieello.    Pop.  16,114. 

LewU,  county  of  N.  New  York.  Area,  I28S  square 
miles.  The  county  is  trnversed  by  Itlaek  River,  the  valley 
of  which  is  very  fertile,  hut  the  E.  ])orlion  and  a  part  of 
tho  W.  are  chiefly  wilderness,  covered  by  forests.  Cattle, 
grain,  wool,  hay.  butter,  and  cheese  are  extensively  pro- 
<luced.  Lumber,  carrioges,  leather,  cooperuire,  saddlery, 
pajier,  paper-pulp,  hemlnrk  extract,  and  wooch-n  wares  are 
leading  articles  of  manufacture;  but  dairying  is  the  prin- 
cipal indiistrv  of  tho  counlv.  which  is  traversed  by  tho 
Utiea  nnd  Bliick  River  R.  R.*  Cnp.  Lowvillo,     Pop.  28,fiil9. 


Lewis,  county  of  W.  Middle    Tennessee.      Area,  420 
square  miles.     It  is  uneven  and  generally  fertile,  but  is  not 
cxten:^ively  settled.    Indian  corn  is  the  chief  product.    Caji. 
j  Ncwburg,"    Pop.  11)86. 

I       Lewis,  c<»unty  of  Washington  Territory,  extending  W. 

from  the  Cat^cade  Range.     Area.  182U  square  miles.     The 

W.  part  is  level  and  fertile.    The  E.  abounds  in  forests  and 

is  broken  by  mountain-ranges.    Tho  county  is  traversed  by 

I  the  Northern  Pacitic  R.  R.     Grain  is  the  staple  product. 

(  Cap.  Claquato.     Pop.  888. 

I       Lewis,  county  of  N.  Central  West  Virginia.     Area,  530 
square  miles.    It  is  hilly  and  rolling.    The  soil  is  uniformly 
i  fertile.     Tobacco,  live-stock,  wool,  and  corn  are  the  chief 
I  staples.     Grazing  is  extensively  followed.     Coal  and  iron 
abound.     The  county  is  traversed  by  the  W.  fork  of  the 
'  Monongahela  Uiver.     Cap.  Weston.     Pop.  10,175. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Coosa  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  .t67. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Clay  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1220. 
Lewis,  post-v.  of  Cass  tp.,  Cass  co.,  la.     Pop.  400, 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Holt  co..  Mo.     Pop.  4081. 
Lewis,  post-tp.  of  Essex  co..  N.  Y..  in  the  Adirondack 
region,  has  beds  of  iron  ore  and  a  mineral  spring.    Pup.  1724. 

Lewis,  tp.  (P.  0.  West  Leyden)  in  Lewis  co..  X.  Y.,  is 
largely  covered  with  forests,  aud  has  5  churches.    Pop.  1252. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Brown  co.,  0.     Pop.  2817. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Lycoming  eo.,  Pa.     Pop.  963. 
Lewis,  tji.  of  Northumberland  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1228. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1007. 
Lewis,  tp.  of  Mason  co.,  West  Ya.     Pop.  1364. 

j       Lewis   (Gen.  Axnui:w),  b.  in    Ulster,   Ireland,  about 

'  17^.0  ;  was  brought  to  Virginia  in  1732  by  his  father,  who 
settled  at  Bellefontc,  Augusta  co.,  and  was  tho  first  white 
resident  of  that  county.     Andrew  was  a  volunteer  in  the 

I  campaign  to  tbe  (.)hio  in  17;')  I  ;   was  a  major  in  RraiMock's 

I  expedition,  and  present  at  the  great  defeat  on  the  Monon- 
galieia  (July,  1751)) ;  commanded  the  Sandy  Creek  cx]>edi- 
tion  in  1756;  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  in  1758 
near  Fort  Duqucsne,  and  taken  to  Montreal  ;  was  the  Vir- 

'  giniun  commis-iioncr  in  the  treaty  made  with  the  Iroquois 
at  Fort  Stanwix  in  1708;  was  made  brigadier-general  in 
1774,  and  commanded  the  Virginia  troops  in  the  victory 
over  the  8hawncc  confederacy  at  Point  Pleasant  at  tho 
mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha  River.  Oct.  10,  1774.  prob- 
ably the  severest  enga^cenient  with  the  Indians  recorilcd  in 
American  annals  u])  to  tlint  time,    lie  was  lor  sevcrol  years 

:  a  member  of  tho  house  of  burgesses,  took  part  in  the  con- 
vention of  1775,  was  n]q>ointed  a  brigadier-general  by  Con- 

i   gross  at  Washington's  request  in  177'>.  and  was  engaged  in 

'  military  operations  ogninst  Lord  Dunmore.  He  resigned 
his  eomniission  on  account  of  ill-health  in  1777.  anil  d.  in 

I  lUdford  CO.,  Va.,  in  17SII.  Gen.  Lewis  was  distinguished 
for  athletic  powers  and  an  imposing  presence,  and  was 
highly  esteemeil  by  Washington.  His  statue  occupies  one 
of  the  pedestals  apmnd  the  Washington  mnnunn-nt  at  Rich- 
mond.    He  had  four  brothers  who  are  ujentittned  in  \*ir- 

j  giniun  annals:  i^AMi  KI-,  who  eomnianded  a  company  at 
Uraddock's  dcleat :  Thomas  ( 1 718-1*U),  who  advocated  Pat- 

I  rick  Henry's  resolutions  in  the  house  of  burgesses  in  1765, 
wi  s*tt  member  of  the  State  e<mventions  of  1775  and  1776, 
one!  of  that  fi>r  the  ratilieation  c»f  the  Federal  ('<in.>;titution  ; 
W II.  I.I  AM  (  1724-1811 ),  who  served  under  his  brother  in  the 

I   French  aud  Indian  war,  and  was  colonel  in  the  Revolution  ; 

\  and  CuAriLRS.  b.  in  Virginia,  who  iilso  became  colonel,  and 
WHS  killed  at  the  battle  uf  Point  Pleasant,  Oct.  10.  1774. 

Lewis  (\)u>),  M.  I).,  b.  at  Auburn.  N.  Y..  Mar.  3.  1823; 

.  studied  at  the  Harvard  Miilieal  S<di(«>l  in  Roston.  and 
practisecl  for  a  time  at  Port  Hymn,  N.  \ .,  and  at  Rufltilo, 

I  where  he  published  a  monthly  medical  magazine,  in  which 
ho  inculcated  the  importance  of  gymnastics  as  a  necessary 
part  of  a  good  education,  ond  proposed  to  replace  tho  use 

I  of  drugs  by  dii-t  and  exercise.     He  fnumled  at  Ronton   in 

I  iSOitun  inslilulion  fnr  training  teaebers.nn<l  estllbli^lled  in 
the  following  year  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  an  academy  fur 
young  ladies.  In  Sept.,  IS6H,  tho  institute  at  Lexingt'oi 
was  destroyed  by  lire,  and  \>r.  Lewis  then  engaged  in  medi<-ul 

;  praeliee  in   Roston.      Has  publir^hed    The  Avw  t_ii/iiiii<isti,'4 

i    (  1862 ),  UVo/*  Liiuj/Hf  and  lloir  fit  Main  them  Siroii;/  I  1  SC.i ). 

I  Tiilh»itt.oiit  l*iitpii'H  Sfumaihn{\V>lK)),  Our  0'ir/«  ( 187  0.  and 
Vhat»  irith   yoniuj   Women  (1874). 

j  Lewis  fPixoN  Hali.),  b.  in  Dinwiddio  co.,  Vo..  Aug, 
I  10,  |S02;  removed  in  youth  to  Hancock  eo.,  t^a.;  was  ed- 
]  ucated  a(  .Mount  Zion  Academy  and  South  Carolina  College; 
t  removed  befori-  I  S'J.'l  to  Autauga  eo.,  Abi.:  entered  public 

life  when  twenty-three  years  old,  and  at  once  took  a  leading 
I  po^ilicm  ns  a  Slate  Rights  man;   was  in  Congress  182H~44; 

U.  S.  Senator  1844-48.  D.  in  New  York  Oct.  25,  1818. 
I  Mr.  Lewis  was  o  ccessively  corpulent,  weighing  450  pounds. 


1750 


LEWIS— LEWISBURG. 


but  possessed  no  small  de;rco  of  iiliysical  activity.     He 
was  an  able  Mij>porter  of  extreme  State  Eights  views. 

Lewis  (Ei.i.isl,  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  h.  at  Lcwisberry,  York 
CO.,  Pa.,  May  115.  17;iS  ;  was  a  printer  iu  his  youth,"  and  in 
1822  came  to  the  bar  ;  in  1824  was  deputy  atloruey-gen- 
cral  of  Pennsylvania,  attorney-general  in  1S.^.■!,  held  va- 
rious judgeships  in  the  district  and  supreme  courts  of 
Pennsylvania,  became  in  1854  chief-justice  of  the  latter 
court,  and  in  lSo7  was  rechosen.  ilis  skill  in  medical 
jurisprudence  won  for  him  the  honorary  degree  of  M.  D.  In 
ISiS  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  revise  the  crimi- 
nal code  of  the  State.  He  wrote  Ahriili/m'  nl  «/'  tlic  Crimi- 
nnl  law  nf  the  U.  S.     D.  in  Philadel])hia  Mar.  I'J,  1871. 

Lewis  (EsTKLLA  Ansa  Robinson),  b.  near  Baltimore, 
Md..  .•ipr.,  1824;  was  educated  at  Mrs.  Willard's  seminary 
at  Troy;  married  in  1841,  Sidney  I).  Lewis.  Esq..  of  Brook- 
lyn, since  deceaseil,  and  has  resided  chiefly  in  Europe.  She 
published  the  volume  of  poems  entitled  The  Itctord  of  the 
lleiiit  in  1844,  The  Clnld  „f  ihe  Sen  in  1S48,  The  Mijths  of 
the  Miiiiiiicl  \n  1SJ2,  and  T/e^cmx/i,  a  tragedy,  in  1863.  A 
collection  of  her  poems  was  issued  in  the  T.'S.  in  1S58  and 
in  England  in  18(i6.  She  has  since  published  the  tragedies 
S»pi>hn  of  Leaboa  (ISGS).  The  Khif^  Siraiiiriem  (1869),  and 
a  series  of  letters  upon  European  topics  addressed  to  Amer- 
ican journals  over  the  signature  SlcUa. 

Lewis  (Francis),  one  of  Ihe  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  b.  at  Lhindaff,  Wales,  in  Mar..  17l:i,  and 
educated  at  Westminster;  became  a  merchant  of  New 
York,  and  in  1757  was  on  the  stalf  of  (Jen.  Mercer,  and 
was  captured  at  Oswego  and  sent  to  France;  received 
a  grant  of  5000  acres  from  the  British;  was  1775-79 
a  member  of  Congress,  and  was  afterwards  exceedingly 
useful  to  the  country,  especially  as  an  importer  of  military 
stores.  His  wife  and  himself  were  long  imprisoned  bv  the 
enemy,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  estates  was  destroyed. 
D.  in  New  York  Dec.  30,  1803. 

Lewis  (Sir  Geouoe  Cornewali,),  Bart.,  h.  in  Radnor- 
shire, England,  Oct.,  1806;  grivduated  with  high  honors  at 
Oxforii,  in  1828;  came  to  the  bar  in  1S31  at  the  .Middle 
Temple;  entered  Parliament  in  1847;  Wiis  an  under-secre- 
tary  of  state  1848  ;  secretary  of  the  treasury  1850-52  ;  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  1855-58  ;  became  secretary  of  state 
for  the  home  department  1859,  for  war  1801,  and"  was  one 
of  the  translators  of  MUller's  Iliatonj  dnd  Aniiquitlea  of' 
the  Doric  Race  (1830)  ;  author  of  Oz-iJ/Zn  ,,/'  Jtomatire  Ln'ii- 
(/•'"tjca  (1835).  Iiijluence  of  Anthurili/.iii  Miillera  of  Opinion 
{  1849),  Methods  of  Obaervntiuu  and  Heiiaonimj  in  Politics 
( 1852),  fnrjiiiri/  into  the  CredibiUty  of  Enrti/  liomnn  ffialoiy 
(1855);  editor  of  the  Edinburgh  Reeiew  '(1851-55),  wrote 
Aatrunomi/  of  the  Ancients  (1801),  A  /ha/wpie  on  the  Heat 
Form  of  (Jorrrnment  (18G3).  He  also  transUatod  a  part  of 
Miiller's  Hiatorij  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Oreece.  D. 
in  Herefordshire  Apr.  13,  1SG3. 

Lewis  (.loHN  FnnnERicK),  R.  A.,  b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, .luly  U,  1805:  first  attracted  attention  by  a  series 
of  studies  from  wild  animals  which  were  engraved  by  him- 
self; was  next  engiiged  in  making  sketches  of  inanner.s  and 
costumes  in  Spain,  of  which  lithographic  copies  were  pub- 
lished in  1833-34  in  2  vols.:  resided  on  the  (.'ontinent, 
chiefly  in  Italy,  from  1838  to  1851,  making  long  visits  to 
tireece,  Turkey,  and  Egypt;  exhibited  in  1853  a  scrici?  of 
64  copies  in  water-colors  of  the  most  fiunous  jiicturcs  of 
the  \  enetian  and  Spanish  schools,  which  colleelion  was 
purchased  by  the  Scottish  Academy;  was  president  of  the 
Society  of  Water  Colors  from  185.5  to  1858;  elected  asso- 
ciate in  1859,  and  member  of  the  Royal  Acndemy  in  1865.  ) 
D.  Aug.,  1876.  I 

Lewis  (John  Thavers),  T.L.I).,  D.  D.,  b.. Tune  20, 1825.  ( 
at  Cork,   Ireland;  graduated  in   1840  at   Trinity  College, 
Dublin;  was  appointed  curate  of  Newtown  Butts  in  1848;  ' 
went  as  missionary  lo  Hawkesbury  in  Canada  in  1850  :  be- 
came rector  of  Brockville  in  1855;  was  nominated  bishop  i 
of  Ontario  in  1802,  and  wrote  much  for  jieriodicals. 

Lewis  (Matthew  RnEBonv),  "Monk  Lewis,"  b.  in 
London.  England,  .July  9.  1775;  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  in  (Icrmany.  llis  famous  romance.  The  Monk  (1795), 
was  in  its  original  form  so  obscene  that  he  was  obliged  to 
suppress  the  first  edition,  but  in  its  amended  form  it  had 
an  immense  popularity.  Ho  fell  heir  to  great  West  Indian 
estates,  and  exerted  himself  to  improve  Ihe  condition  of 
his  slaves;  was  the  literary  associate  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
author  of  many  tales,  plays,  and  poems,  mostly  full  of  su- 
pernatural horrors,  and.  except  The  Monk,  mostly  forgot- 
ten. The  Journal  of  a  in  »t  Indian  Proprietor  (1834)  is 
one  of  his  best  books.  Lewis  was  a  man  of  amiable  and 
benevolent  character.     D.  at  sea  May  1 1,  1818. 

Lewis  (.Meriwether),  h.  near  Chnrlottesville.  Va..  Aug. 
18,  1774,  the  son  of  W.  F.  L"wis.  a  wealthy  citizen:  vol- 
unteered in  the  ••  Whisky  Xnsurrootion  "  of  1794;   became  , 


.an  ensign  in  the  regular  army  1795.  and  captain  in  1800. 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  Jetierson's  private  secretary,  and 
in  1803-00  he.  with  ('apt.  William  Clarke,  was  sent 'upon 
a  famous  expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1807,  Lewis 
was  made  governor  of  Louisiana  Territory.  He  was  ha- 
bitually suliject  to  depression  of  spirits,  and  in  one  of  his 
hours  of  melancholy  look  his  own  lilc,  near  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  Oct.  11,  1809.  (His  memoir  was  written  by  Mr! 
Jefferson,  and  published  with  Biddic  and  Allen's  iVarradw 
of  the  Lewis  and  Clarke  Expedition,  1814.) 

Lewis  (Gen.  Morcan),  b.  in  New  York  City  Got.  16, 
1754,  son  of  Francis  Lewis;  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1773;  studied  law  in  Ihe  office  of  John  Jay;  joined  Wash- 
ington's army  at  Cambridge  in  June,  1775;  was  made  cap- 
tain of  a  rille  comjiany  in  Aug.,  major  of  2d  New  York 
regiment  in  Nov.,  colonel  and  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Gates 
in  June,  1770  ;  was  at  the  battle  of  Saratoga,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished in  Gen.  Clinton's  cam|>aign  against  Sir  John 
Johnson  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  especially  at  the  bailie  of 
Stone  Arabia.  After  the  war  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  Dutchess  CO.,  became  a  judge  of  common  pleas,  was 
elected  attorney-general  in  179i,  made  judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  State  in  1792,  and  chief-justice  in  1801. 
He  was  governor  of  New  York  1805-00;  member  of  the 
legislature  1808-11;  quartermaster-general,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  in  1812;  promoted  to  major-general 
in  1813;  was  engaged  in  the  operations  on  Ihe  Niagara 
frontier  in  Apr..  1813,  and  was  in  command  of  the  defences 
of  New  York  Cily  in  1S14.  He  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  literature  and  agriculture,  delivered  an  address  be- 
fore the  authorities  of  New  York  City  on  the  centenary 
anniversary  of  Washington's  birth,  Feb.  22,  1S32;  was 
president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  in  1835, and 
(1.  in  New  York  .\pr.  7,  1844. 

Lewis  (Tayler),  LL.D..  L.  H.  D.,  b.  at  Northumber- 
land, Saratoga  co..  N.  Y..  JIar.  27,  1802;  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1820;  studied  law  at  .Albany,  and  began 
to  practise  at  Fort  Miller,  but  relinquished  this  pursuit, 
and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  study  of  the  clas- 
sical languages  .and  literatures  of  Hebrew'.  Syriac.  and 
Arabic,  became  professor  in  Greek  at  the  University  of 
New  York  in  183S,  aud  at  Union  College  in  1849.  Be- 
sides several  translations  and  numerous  articles  in  periodi- 
cals, he  wrote  The  ,Si.r  Dai/s  ,f  Crrali'jn  (1855),  The  Bible 
and  Science  (IS50),  The  /Jiriiir  Unman  in  the  Scriptures 
(1860),  and.  together  willi  E.  W.  Blyden  and  Theodore 
Dwight,  The  People  of  Africa,  their  Character,  i^nndilion, 
and  Future  /'roapccis  (1871).  D.  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
May  11,  1877. 

Lewis  (WiNST.owl,  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  8,1799; 
graduate  of  Ilarvanl  University  in  1819;  proceeded  to 
Europe,  and  pursued  his  medical  studies  under  Dupuy- 
tren  in  Paris,  and  in  London  under  Dr.  ."Vbernethy  :  re- 
turning to  Boston,  at  once  look  a  leading  position  in  the 
profession,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Warren  as  consulting  phy- 
sician of  the  Massachusclis  General  Hospital;  was  also 
city  physician  of  Boston  ISOl;  re)ieatcdly  eliusen  to  the 
State  legislature ;  was  president  of  Ihe  N.  E.  Historical  and 
Genealogical  Society  1:  01-60:  and  a  prominent  member  of 
the  order  of  Freemasons,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years 
granil  master  of  .Massachusetts.    D.  at  Boston  Aug.  .3,  1875. 

Lewis  nn«l  Clarke,  county  of  W.  Central  Mon- 
tana. .Area,  2'i|9  squ:iic  miles.  It  is  boiinde.l  E.  by  the 
Jlissouri  l{iver  and  N.  by  Ihe  Medicine  Kiver.  It  has 
good  grazing  and  fiirin  lan<l.  iirodneing  bullcr  and  grain. 
Gold  qunrt it-mining  is  the  principal  industry.  Cap.  Helena. 
Pop.  5040.  largely  increased  since  the  census. 

Lew'ishorry,  p.>sl-b.  of  Newberry  tp.,  York  co..  Pa., 
12  miles  S.  ol'  llarrisburg.     Pop.  268. 

Lew'isboroii^h,  post-tp.  of  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  Connecticut  line.      Poj).  IGOl. 

Lew'isburp,  post-v.  of  Faulkner  co..  Ark.,  on  Ihe  Ar- 
kansas lliver,  50  miles  above  Little  Rock,  has  2  churches, 
2  schools,  3  hotels,  a  carriage  and  wagon  faetorv,  etc. 
Pop.  239.  E.  B.  Henry,  Ed.  "Western  Empire." 

Lewisbnr^;,  tp.  of  Montgomery  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  827. 

Lcwisbiirg,  a  v.  of  Mason  co.,  Ky.,  on  the  Jlaysvillo 
and  Lexington  R.  R.     Pop.  151. 

Lewisblirg,  a  v.  of  St.  Tammany  parish.  La.,  on  the 
N.  shore  of  Lake  Ponlehartrain.     Poj).  110. 

Lewisbiiri;,  a  v.  of  Champaign  co.,  O.     Pop.  733. 

Lcwi»biirg,p.-v.  of  Harrison  tp.,  Preble  co.,  0.  P.  391. 

Lcwisburc,  post-b.,  cap.  of  Union  oo..  Pa.,  on  Ihe 
W.  braiieli  i.r  the  ."^usqii'-hanna  River,  opposite  the  Lewis- 
bnrg  juiielinii  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Erie  R.  li..  68 
miles  N.  of  Harrisbiirg.  has  7  cluirches,  2  banks,  2  weekly 
newspapers,  2  extensive  manufactories  of  agricultural  im- 


LEWISBURG— LEXICON. 


1751 


plemcnts,  a  large  aod  well-appointed  boat-,vard,  a  woollen 
factory,  uiid  iruo-works.  It  i:^  the  seat  of  a  university 
and  an  academy.  Large  quantities  uf  graiu  are  annually 
ghippcd  from  this  point.  A  railroad  connects  il  with  Tyrone. 
Pup.  i'.ILM.  J.  R.  C'uiiNKLits,  Ed.  "  CHitosuLii." 

Lewishur^y  post-v.  aud  cap.  of  Marshall  co.,  Tenn., 
50  miles  S.  of  Xiishville  and  21  miles  W.  of  Shelhyville, 
on  the  Duck  Kiver  Valley  U.  K.,  has  H  husiness-houscs.  4 
churches,  |  weekly  newspaper,  1  hotel,  a  male  and  female 
institute,  a  plough  and  a  f hoc  factory,  and  other  imlui^trles. 
Pop.  :tL'2.  G.  WvTHi:  Ewisg,  En.  "Gazette." 

I*ewi«ibarp9  post-v,  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Grecnhrier  co., 
West  Va.,  on  the  line  of  the  James   Uivcr  and  Kanawha 
turnpike.  4  miles  from  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  and 
y  miles  from  the  Greenbrier  White  Sulphur  Springs,  has  5 
churches,  1  hank.  1  weekly  newspaper, .'»  puliHc  and  several 
private  schuols,  and  10  slnres.    Is  in  a  fine  blue-grass  coun- 
try.    Pop.  S75.        B.  F.  H.viiLow,  Ed.  •*  Isdepesdent." 
liCWis  Creek,  tp.  of  Wushington  co.,  Ala.    Pop.  12J0. 
Lewis  Fork,  tp.  of  Wilkes  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1062. 
Lewis   Fork,   the  southern  branch  of  the  Columbia 
River,  in   Idaho   Territory,  called  also  Shoshone,  Snake, 
and  Saptin  or  Siihaptin  River.  (See  Shoshone:.) 

Lcwis'ia,a  plant  o(  the  Portuinca  family,  named  from 
its  discoverer,  Capt.  Meriwether  Lewis,  who  found  it  in  the 
mountains  about  the  sources  of  the  Columbia  River.  It  is 
found  as  far  S.  as  Arizona.  The  root  is  called  racine  nmvrc 
by  the  Canadian  voyageurs.  and  is  used  for  food  by  the  Ore- 
gon Indians,  who  call  it  upatlum.  It  3'ields  abundance  of 
starch. 

Lew'isport,  post-r.  of  Hancock  co..  Ky.,  on  tho  Ohio 
River,  8  miles  above  Rockport,  Ind,     Pop.  ;tOS. 

Lew'iston,  post-v.  of  Trinity  co..  Cat.,  on  Trinity 
River,  in  a  goldininiD!!;  region  among  lofty  mountains,  14 
miles  N.  E.  of  Wcaverville.     Pop.  ',y.iS. 

Lewiston,  pnst-v.  and  cap.  of  Nez  Perc^  co..  Id.,  at 
the  junction  uf  the  Snake  and  Clearwater  rivers  and  head 
of  ste.inilioat  navigation,  tHI  miles  from  Walla-Walla,  Wash. 
Ter.  It  was  formerlj- tho  capital  of  Idaho.  It  has  1  weekly 
newspaper. 

Lewiston,  city  of  Androscoggin  co..  Me.,  .10  miles  E. 
of  Portland,  situated  on  the  Maine  Central  R.  R.  and  on 
Androscoggin  River  at  one  of  the  most  powerful  water- 
falls in  Xcw  England:  is  largely  engaged  in  the  inanufac-* 
turc  of  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics;  has  13  churches,  I 
daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  2  national  and  H  savings 
banks.  Bates  College  t  Free  Baptist)  and  thcdogicul  school, 
fine  school  system  with  costly  edifices,  a  public  library, 
and  an  elegant  city  building  with  one  of  the  largest  public 
halls  in  New  England.  In  tlie  park  in  the  centre  of  the 
city  is  a  soldiers*  m<mumcnt  surmounted  liy  a  bronze  statue 
by  Simmons.  There  ure  10  cotton-mills,  with  212,548 
spindles,  and  5  woollen-mills,  with  S7.7.'>0,000  invested, 
which  manufactured  by  water-power  in  1H7.3,  ."l;), 000,000 
yards  of  cotton  and  woollen  poods,  v.ilued  at  $Il,yO0,000. 
Tlio  river  here  falls  .'»0  feet  over  a  ledge  of  rocks,  and  tho 
surrounding  scenery  is  highly  picturesfjue.  hewiston  is 
now  flS75)  tho  second  city  of  the  State  in  population, 
having  largely  increased  since  1S70,  when  the  number 
was  l;t,000.      F.  L.  DiNni.EY.  Ed.  **  Evkninu  JotitNAi,." 

Lewiston,  pnst-v.  of  Winona  co.,  Minn.,  on  the  Wino- 
na and  St.  Peter  K.  R.,  Hi  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Winona. 

LeWiNton,  p(»st-v.  and  tp.  of  Niagara  co.,  N.  V.,  on 
the  Niagara  Kiver,  opp'<silc  t^utenston,  <'anada,  is  the  N. 
terminus  of  tho  BuHalo  and  Niaj^ara  Falls  R.  R.,  and  is 
at  the  head  of  navigutinn  from  Lake  Ontario.  It  has  4 
churches,  and  was  furnieriy  connected  with  Queenston  by 
a  suspousion  bridge.  It  is  partly  occupivd  hy  thi;  Tus(!a- 
nira  Indians.  Lewiston  is  the  seat  of  the  seminary  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Angels.  Pop.  of  v.  770;  of  tp.  20.)«. 
LcwiNton,  tp.  of  Lunenburg  co..  Va.  Pop.  1805. 
Lpuiston,  po.-t-tp.  of  Columbia  co.,  AVis.  Pop.  1031. 
lii'W'istown,  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Fulton  co.,  III., 
on  the  Lewislown  branch  of  tin-  Chicag*)  Burlington  and 
tiuincy  B.  R.,  60  niiks  N.  W.  of  Springfield,  has  1  national 
b:ink,  I  weekly  newspiipcr,  2  hotels,  carriagr,  wjig<tn,  wool- 
len, plough,  spoke,  ami  hub  factories,  (louring  and  saw 
mills,  and  a  numher  of  stores  and  shops.  Pop.  of  tp. 
2ttj2.  W.  T.  Davidson,  En.  •*  Fii.ton  iJEMoruAT." 

Lewi8tOWnf  poRt-b.,  cap.  of  Mifilin  ei>..  Pa.,  on  tho 
Juniata  River  one!  Canal,  01  miks  AV.  of  jlarrisburg.  is  on 
the  main  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.  K..  and  teruiinus  of 
two  of  ita  branches,  has  7  churchi's,  7  Imfels,  '.'>  banks,  3 
weekly  newspapers,  an  neademy,  a  fine  piiblir  scbo<d  build- 
ing, 2  flouring-rniils.  2  furnares  ;  Mann's  a.\e-factories,  Lo- 
gan's steel-works,  and  Logan's  trout-ponds  are  located  in 
tho  vicinity.     Grain,  iron,  and  coal  are  largely  shipped. 


The  surrounding  mountain-scenery  is  surpassingly  grand, 
attracting  numerous  visitors  during  the  summer  months. 
Pop.  27.{7.  Fitvsi.NGEn  Buos.,  Pubs.  "Gazette." 

Lew'isville,  post-v.,  cap-  of  La  Fayette  co.,  Ark,,  19 
miles  S.  E.  of  Fulton. 

Lewisvillo,  post-v.  of  Franklin  tp.,  Henry  co.,  Ind., 
on  the  Columbus  Chicago  ami  Indiana  Central  R.  R. 
Pop.  4 in. 

Lewisvillc,  post-tp.  of  Forsyth  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  816. 

Lewisville,  post-v.  of  Summit  tp.,  Monroe  co.,  0. 
Pop. 124. 

Lcwisvillc,  a  b,  (Ulysses  P.  0.)  of  Ulysses  tp..  Pot- 
ter CO.,  Pa.     Pop.  226. 

Lewisville,  tp.  of  Chester  co..  S.  C.     Pop.  2507. 

Lewis-wilh-llarris,  the  largest  and  northernmost 
of  the  Outer  Hebrides,  separated  from  Ibe  mainland  by 
the  Minsh  Channel,  comprises  an  area  of  770  square  miles, 
with  23,666  inhabitants.  The  coasts,  especially  of  the 
southern  part,  Harris,  are  wild  and  rugged  ;  in  the  interior 
tracts  of  swamp  and  peat-moor  occur.  Barley  and  potatoes 
are  cultivated,  but  fishing  is  the  principal  occupation. 
The  inhabitants  speak  the  Gaelic  language,  though  in  tho 
northern  part  there  is  a  colony  of  purely  Scandinavian 
descent.  Stornoway.  situated  on  the  eastern  coast,  is  tho 
only  town  of  the  island.  Remains  of  Druidical  structures 
'  arc  very  frequent,  and  remnants  of  forests  which  formerly 

covered  the  surface  are  everywhere  met  with. 
I       Lex  Domicilii.     See  Domicile,  Inteuxational  Law, 

;    PltlVATE. 

I       Lex  Fo'ri  [Lat.,  the  "  law  of  tho  forum"],  tho  law  of 
I  the  jtlacc  or  state  where  a  remedy  is  sought  or  action  insti- 
tuted.    It  is  a  well-established  legal  doctrine  that  the  forms 
;  of  remedies,  the  modes  of  procedure  in  the  conduct  of  suits, 
and  the  execution  of  judgments  arc  to  be  regulated  e.xclu- 
;   sivcly  I)v  the  laws  of  the  place  where  tho  action  is  brought. 
j  This  rule  is  applie*!  in  determining  what  jtarties  are  legally 
entitled  to  maintain  and  defend  actions,  what  form  of  ac- 
tion should  be  brought,  and  what  kind  of  process  ma}'  be 
employed  in  securing  the  enforcement  of  a  claim.     For  in- 
!   stance,  a  written   instrument  having  a  scrawl  instead  of  a 
I  regular  seal  would  be  considered  in  some  States  as  a  sealed 
I  and  in  others  as  an  unsealed  instrument,  and  the  appro- 
I  ])riatc  form  of  action  might  therefore  vary  in  different  States, 
being    governed    by   the  Irj-  fori.     Arrest  and    imprison- 
ment might  not  be  allowable  upon  a  certain  ebiini  by  the 
'   law  of  llie  place  where  the  contract  was  made  {l'\r  loci  con- 
I   tiactun),  but  might  be  adopted  as  a  mode  of  legal  process 
if  permitted  by  the  law  of  the  State  in  which  the  action 
was  instituted.     The  defence  of  set-off  (sec  Set-ofk)  or  of 
I   discharge  under  insolvent  laws  (see  iN.soLVKsrv)  is  also 
I  governed  by  the  lex  fori.     The  same  is  true  of  defences 
under  the  statute  of  frauds  (see  FnArns,  Statute  ok)  or 
under  the  statute  of  limitations  (see  Limitations.  Statiti; 
ok).     All  suits  must  I.e  brought  within  the  period  prescribed 
by  the  law  of  the  country  where  the  suit  is  brought,  or 
they  will  be  barred.     (See  Lex  Loci,  Lex  Rei  Sit«.) 

Gkoiuje  Chase.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwic:ht. 
Lcx'icou,  Uietionary,  Thesaurus,  Vocabulary, 
<■lo^Ha^V.     The  first  two  of  these  words  are  the  etymo- 
logical equivalents  of  each  other,  the  Greek  A«fn,  the  source 
of  the  one,  corresponding  in  signification  to  ihc  Latin  dirito, 
the  parent  of  the  other.     A*fts  and  dirfio,  though  sometimes 
used  in  the  sense  of  *roi  (/.both  mean  rathera  phrase, a  umnitrc 
rfc  (///■*-,  or  at  h-ast  a  special  use  of  a  term,  than  an  ordinary 
single  vocable,  and  the  explanation  of  sueh  phrases  was 
tho  original  oflico  of  lexicons  or  dictionaries.     Tho  titles 
'*  lexicon  "  and  "  dictionary  "  are  of  comparatively  modern 
origin,  because,  though  there  were  exiilaiiatory  lists  of  tho 
Arfrtc  or  diciiofun  of  particular  (ireck  and  Latin  autbi>rs, 
true  dictitinarics   or  eolleetivo   vocabularies  of  the  whole 
verbal  stock  of  particular  languages  hardly  existed  in  tho 
classic  ages.     There  is  no  well-established  ilistinction  of 
use  or  meaning  between  the  two  words,  though  "lexicon" 
is  perhaps  more  frequ<'ully  iipplied  than  "dictionary"  to 
the  larger  word-books  o!  the  llelirew,  (Jreek,  Arabic,  San- 
skrit.and  other  deatt  or  unfaniiliar  langiniges.      In  pre.^^i-tit 
usage  a  lexicon  or  tlielionary.  in  its  complete  normal  foriii. 
I  is  a  general  listed'  the  aulliori/rd  words,  phrases,  and  idiom- 
atic expressions  occurring  in  the  litrraluie  of  a  given  Ian> 
I  guage,  with  indications  of  the  pronunciation,  the  etymol- 
I  "K.v.  and  the  history  of  each  word,  with  equivalents,  defi- 
;  nitions,  or  explanations  in  thi*  satno  or  in  ati(*iher  (ongue, 
and  with  exemplificulions  of  the  act^ial  use  of  the  words  in 
I  combination  with  others,  and   illustrations  of  peculiarities 
in  their  grammatical  relations.     Many  dielionaries,  hoth 
'  for  greater  clearness  and  for  saving  space,  now  introduce 
'  engravings  of  material  objects  in  cases  where  verbal  de- 
senptions  would   necessarily   be  unintclligiblo   or   prolix. 
1  This  is  a  real  iinprovement,  and  the  objcotions  which  have 


1752 


LEXIXGTOX. 


IVrl  Z"°^  «g»'n''  it  have  generally  their  foundalion  in 
pure  lcxicogrii|ihical  pedantry. 

Al/,em„n,H  j.  also  a  general  explanatory  word-list,  but 
.rofesaedly  mure  eop.ous  than  ordinary  dictionaries,  and 
provided  with  more  of  citation  and  discussion  in  illustra 
tion  and  support  of  the  definitions  ascribed  by  it  to  the 
words  w  a,.,  compose  it.  In  English  this  term  is  not  often 
applied  to  dictionaries  ol  modern  languages,  however  volu- 
minous and  complete. 

A  rocabulury  is  an  expository  catalogue  of  words,  but  in 
l^nglish  use  It  commonly  comprises  only  technical  or  pro- 
fessional terms  occurring  in  a  particular  author  or  in  agi  ven 
art  or  science,  though  it  is  also  applied  to  partial  lists  of 
words  collected  from  little-known  tongues.  We  eninloy 
vocabulary,  too,  as  the  e(,uivalent  of  the  (ierman  It',,,;. 
Z'l"'  "  "  'y'"^-'">,'^y  i">pl.ving  not  a  list  of  words,  but 
the  entire  verbal  wealth  of  a  given  language  as  disnh.ved 
in  Its  literature  or  speech.  This  u.se  of  this  word  is  hardly 
authorized  in  the  Romance  languages,  and  lliev  oflcii  apply 
the  term  "  vocabulary  "  to  copious  general  dictionaries 

A  y/,«,„r^  ,s  a  work  of  a  lexical  character,  but  com- 
mon y  restricted  to  obsolete,  provincial,  obscure,  or  tech- 
nical words.  It  may  embrace  only  such  as  are  employed 
by  a  particular  author  or  class  of  authors,  or  it  may  aim  to 
comprise  all  the  anthiuated  or  professional  words  of  a  lan- 

iZr^i  °r  •.  ■?  ""''""''S  ""1-f  in  a  particular  stage  or 
period  of  It.  In  continental  lexicography,  "  Hoss.arv  "  is 
generally  confined  to  explanatory  lists'of  obsolete  word, 
or  ol  words  employed  in  senses  different  from  classical  o^ 

of" won°s  of"arr=''  """^  ''  ""^  °"'°  "PP""''  '»  <=»'l«=tio"« 
But.  after  all,  the  common  nsage,  even  of  lexicographers, 
does  not  always  accurately  discriminate  between  any  two 
ol  these  words,  and  onr  definitions  must  accordingly  bo 
taken  with  some  latitude.  °  ' 

The  order  of  the  words  in  lexical  lists  is  usually  alpha- 
betical, but  in  certain  languages  an  etymological  .arra  , ■he- 
rder wKiehT'''  .^""  '""•^'  '"*""•'■'■•  ">»  "'iie»l  forms 
under  wh  ch  derivative  words  are  grouped  commonly  fol- 

i'  nh  r.t    ?   %  >     ^"  '"'""  alphabetical  dietionariel  the   I 
alph   bet  Itself  does  not  conform  to  the  ordinarv  modern 
A  I   I.  sequence,  but  the  letters  are  arranged  according  to 
their  idionological  affinities.     There  are  also  word-bloks  in 
which  a  classification  according  to  primary  signification, 
without^  reference  to  real   or  supposed  radical  forms,  ha     ' 
been  adopted.     Dictionaries   of  these  classes  require  for 
convenient  use   and  are  often  provided  with,  an  alphabet- 
ical index.     The  Spanish  and   Knglish  dictionary  of  Fer- 
nandez IS  remarkable  as  having  the  words  of  the  two  lan- 
guages under  a  single  alphabet.     Besides  general  lexicon" 
whether  of  words  or  of  science,  literature,  or  art    '«  D?o-' 
T.ONARY),  modern  philology  has  given  birth  t..  numenms  • 
new  classes  of  word-books.     Thus,  almost  all  the  prbici  "al 
lumg  languages  have  diclionaries  of  their  dialects  and 
even  America,  remarkable  as  it  is  for  substantial  unifo  niity 
of  speech   whether  in  its   Hispanic  or  in  its  Anglo-Saxon 
dis nets,  has  furnished  imporlant  contributions  to  English 
dialectology  11,  lartlelfs  D.c.onan,  of  ^m.r,>„,„„„,  (2d 
ed..  Boston,  UM)  and  in  other  kindred  glossaries      There 
are  also  dictionaries  of  pronunciation,  of  prosodv.  and  of 
rhymes;    of  etymology.-    of  idiomatic    and    conventional 
1  hrases;  of  grammatical  diffienllies;  of  synonyms  and  of 
rhetorical  analogues  or  equivalents;  and  in  the  essentially 
homogeneous    languages,    as    (Jerman,    of  foreign'  words 
Lopied*™  ""'"'  ""■  '"''  <^<'"'l'''^^'<^'y  naturalized  and 

All  dictionaries,  even  those  of  science  and  art,  are  essen- 
tially word-books,  for  the  knowledge  of  words  is  the  know- 
ledge ol  things,  inasmuch  as  the  full  comprehension  of  the 
nomenclature  of  a  given  science  implies  the  mastery  of  the 
science  Itself.  No  lexicon  or  other  list  of  the  words  of  a 
living  language,  or  of  the  terminology  of  a  progressive 

knowledge,  can  ever  be  complete,  for  new  words  are  formed 
and  introduced  faster  than  lexicographers  can  collect  them, 
and  the  hourly  discoveries  of  science  are  hourly  demand- 
ing the  coinag..  of  fresh  terms  to  enunciate  them.  A  cer- 
tain tune  must  elapse  before  the  claims  of  a  new  word  to 
1.  ."■«?  1  r  f  '"'^"''^^'V-  "■'"^"'O'-  in  literature  or  in  art,  can 
hodv  of  "h";  ""''  "^•'■^""■'•'i--  «nd  besides,  no  scholar  or 
body  of  scholars,  no  student  or  association  of  students  of 

fn,„'ir',"""f  17  ^"""'.  '''""  "'«■  """■'  "^'''"""o  of  human 
f,  b  ^  r  7:r  ^'"^attalnment.  or  with  the  rapid  mul- 
tpicaton  of  the  words  in  which  new  ideas  require  to 
clothe  themselves.     Dictionaries,  whatever  their  ringe  or 

dllTr'VT  "i'  ."'.'""  '■"P'-'-f'''''  -iigests,  and,  like  the 
digests  of  legal  adjudications,  are  never  lo  be  cited  as  „„. 
ffr,.""'  "emplified  use  of  ,he  words  by  rabbis   in 

iterature  or  in  science  is  the  authority.     Hence,  the  real 
test  of  a  lexicon  IS  the  multitude  of  its  judiciously  selected  I 
citations.    In  ih.s  i„y  ,hc  crowning  excellence  of  Dr.  .lohn- 
eon  8  Ji„gl„l,  Dictwnary,  and  the  destruction  of  the  40,000  I 


Uie"      ^  .  1     '  "'',"''  ^  ^••"■"fi""'!  ">  ^ave  space  is  one  of 
the  greatest  losses  that  English  lileratnre  has  sustained. 

All  literature,  especially  poetry  and  jurisprudence  in- 
0 hues  to  arch.aic  forms  of  expression,  and  its'  diction  ,Td 
other  respects  less  readily  inlelligible  than  that  of  ordinal? 
conversalion.  Hence,  explanalory  lists  of  peculiar  y<«ablcj 
and  verbal  combinations,  first,  no  doubt  in  the  fo7,n  of 
m  rg.ual  glosses  must  have  been  almost  coeval  wi,h  tho 
1th  of  written  literature  itself.  These  glosses,  gradually 
collected  into  separate  voluuies,  were  the  earliet  lexicons^ 
Ru  1  men  ary  dictionaries  have  been  found  stamped  even 
on  he  bncks  of  Assyria,  and  more  or  less  complefe  lexica" 
eolee,.ons  existed  a.  a  very  remote  period  inPallUecI 
uated  nations  of  the   East,  as  well  as  in  Hrecce      The 

^Te  th""'?,"  °"'-^^»'"-.  »'■  »'-  fo-lh  century,  is  satd 
to  be  the  oldest  European  general  dictionary  extaLl.  In- 
comp  etc  as  were  the  ancient  dictionaries,  they  hayc  been 
of  extreme  v.,  ue  to  scholars,  for  the  very  reason  that,  be  ng 
designed  exclusively  for  the  elucidation  of  rare  words  o? 

for''ea7,;'"'"'  ^""■''i"'"---  ">«  ^r-e  and  labor  ^  q  si"e 
for  cataloguing  and  explaining  familiar  ex,,ressiu'„s  of 
every-day  life  have  been  spared,  and  the  co,  ipile  s  have 
consequently  been  able  to  be  more  full  and  thorough  in  the 
exposition   of  really  difficult  words  and  phrases.     Hence 

the  Tr  e"  f  ^'"'  '"  ""•''  """'-''-'''  '"'  ""^  knowledge  of 
the  force  of  many  i^„f  ,,,y„^„.^,  „,  "once-used  irm-ds  " 
eehnical  tenns,  and  .he  like,  which  without  them  would 
haie  reinained  quite  unintelligible.  And  this  is  equally 
true  of  the  more  primitive  word-books  of  modern  lan- 
guages. Palsgrave,  Florio,  Colgrave,  and  slill  older  vo- 
cabuaries  answer  many  questions  in  English  philology  of 
which  we  have  no  other  solution. 

It  does  not  appear  that  tho  Greeks    and   Latins   had 
bilingual  lexicons,  or  dictionaries  explaining  their  word- 
list  in  another  tongue.     Instruction  in  forefgn  languages 
W.TS  oral    as.  in   fact,  it  continued  to  be.  substantiallv   in 
modern  hiirope  until  the  seventeenth  century.     Tho  pupil 
in  general  had  little  or  no  .self-help,  and  his  teacher  was 
his   dictionary.     Modern   dictionaries  of  the  learned  1-in- 
guages.  indeed,  existed  at  an  earlier  period,  but  Sieph.ns 
and  the  other  great  lexicographers  of  the  sixteeulh  century 
labored  for  advanced  scholars.  no(  for  tyros;  and  this  ex- 
plains why  not  only  Greek  and  l.alin  dictionaries  hod  their 
j  explanations  in  the  latter  language,  but  why  even  the  old 
i'.uglish  and  bennan  word-books  employed  the  same  uni- 
versal medium  for  defining  obscure  words  of  the  vernacu- 
lars     ISotwithstandiiig  the  immense  importance  which  the 
rapidly  increa.sing  study  of  foreign  languages  has  given  to 
dictionaries  ol  this  class,  the  principles  of  bilin.'unl  lexi- 
cography, at  least  in  regard  to  modern  langmiges,  do  not 
appear  to  have  ever  been  well  eonsidere.l  and  discu-^sed 
and  consequently  there  are  few  bilingual  dictionaries  of 
iving    languages   which  have  any  pretensicms   to   philo- 
logical  merit     Hilperfs  (Jermau-Euglish  dictionary  may  bo 
said  to  have  been  gooil  for  its  time,  and  the  same"  rem'ark 
1  may  be  applied  to  Fleming  and  Tibbins'  French  and  Eng- 
ish  dictionary,  but  the  latest  editions  of  boll,  arc  far  be- 
iiiid  the  demands  and  the  possibilities  of  the  age.  Of  other 
bilingual  general  dictionaries  of  living  languages,  tho  only 
I     hree  known  to  tho  writer  whi.h  can  be  pnuiounce,!  even 
1  tolerable  are  the  late  edition  of  Kraiiicr's  Dulch  and  French 
j   dictionary,  the  German   and  French  dictionary  of  S.vh« 
I  and  the  Icelandic  and  English  dictionary  of  Cleasby  and 
j    I  igfusson,  which,  with  great  comjiression  and  economy  of 
j  sjiace,  are  all  truly  excellent, 

j       The  material  form  and  construelion,  soarcoly  less  than 

!   the  literary  execution,  of  lexicons  is  a  matter  of  very  great 

importance,   especially   in   an   ago  whose  habits  of  stu.Iy 

' ""  '"Very  scholar  to  unshelve  and  reshelvo  dictionaries 

twenty  times  in  a  day.  The  principles  of  convenience  in 
this  respect  arc  almost  universally  sadiv  neglected  by  lexi 
cographers  and  compilers  of  eneyclop.Tdia.s  ind  other"  books 
ot  reference.  \\  c  are  acquainted  with  no  satisfactory  essay 
on  this  subject,  and  for  want  of  a  belter  we  refer  to  a  scries 
of  enlieisms  on  the  form,  composition,  and  statistics  of 
"  ebslers  and  other  dictionaries  by  tho  writer  of  tho  pres- 
ent article  in  the  New  York  X„i,;.,i  for  1S65.  (For  a  list 
of  important  lexical  works  see  our  article  Dicrioxvnv 
and  wo  may  notice  the  following  a.l.litinnal  general  dic- 
tionaries:  of  Sanskrit,  that  of  Biihtlingk  and  Hoth.  just 
finished  at  St.  Petersburg;  .Sanders' (icnnan  Dictionary 
very  full,  but  arranged  on  bad  [irinciples,  very  badly  Car- 
rie 1  out;  Tominaseo's  very  voluminous  Italian  Diction- 
ary, now  advance.l  to  letter  .S',-  De  \ries  and  To  Winkel's 
important  Dictionary  of  the  .\etlicrlan<lish  I,an<'uage- 
J-ane  s  great  Arabic  I.exi.'on,  rather  more  than  half  issued  • 
and  two  new  editiims  of  Facciolati  and  Forcellini's  Latin 
Dictionary,  at  I'rato  and  at  I'adua.     (iwinnK  1'.  Marsh 

I.ex'ington,  county  ..f  Central  .South  Carolina.  Arc-i, 
701)  square  miles.  It  is  hilly,  with  a  good  soil.  It  is  bounded 
on  thcN.E.  bythcCongarce  River.     Liyc-slock,  rice,  corn,  j 


LEXINGTON. 


1753 


aod  cotton  are  leading  products.  Flour  is  the  chief  article 
of  mftniitacture.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Columbia  nnd  Au- 
gusta K.  It.     Cap.   Lexington  Court-house.     Pop.  12,988. 

Lexington,  tp.  of  Dallas  co.,  .\Ia.     Pop.  li.>U. 

Lexington,  tp.  uf  Lauderdale  co.,  Ala.     Pop.  12G6. 

Lexington,  post- v. .cap.  of  Oglethorpe  co..Ga..Hcar  the 
Athens  brunch  of  the  Georgia  K.  K.  ^Ckawfokd  Station). 

Lexington,  po<it-v.  and  tp.  of  McLean  co..  111.,  on  the 
Ciiioago  and  Alton  It.  U..  100  miles  tS.  of  Chicago  and  15 
W.  of  Bloomington,  has  6  churches,  2  banks,  2  weekly 
ncw.tp  iperR,  1  hotel,  a  public  graded  !»ehool,  lodges  of  Patrons 
of  lliifliiandry,  and  a  K"od  trade,  dealing  largely  in  stock 
and  farm  products.     Pop.  24U1.  Ed.  "  Estkrpuise." 

Lexington,  po«t- village  of  Scott  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Lex- 
iogton  briiiuh  c^f  the  Ohio  and  Miiisiiisippi  U.  K.  Pop.  of 
V.  4(U:  of  tp.  2529. 

Lexington,  tp.  of  Johnson  co.,  Kan.,  on  the  Kansas 
Uivcr  and  the  St.  Louis  Laivrcnce  and  Western  R.  II.,  on 
waich  is  De  Soto  Station.     Pop.  1.250. 

Lexington,  city,  cap.  of  Kayetto  co..  Ivy.,  on  a  branch 
of  iho  Elkhorn  liiver,  Go  miles  S.  E.  of  Louisville  and  20 
milea  S.  E.  of  Frankfort,  on  the  Louisville  Cincinnati  and 
Lexington  and  the  Kentucky  Central  R.  Rs.,  has  IB 
churches,  I  State  and  3  national  banks,  1  daily.  4  weekly, 
and  2  ?emi-wo?kly  newspapers,  7  free  sehouls,  2  private 
Catholic  schools,  5  denomin:itioual  female  seminaries,  a 
U^jrary  company  owning  10. 000  volumes,  a  State  insane 
asylum,  au  orphan  asylum,  carriage,  bagging,  and  rope 
f^'jlories,  and  a  large  trade  sustained  by  the  resources  of 
the  fertile  and  beautiful  surrounding  country.  Tho  city  is 
regularly  laid  out  at  right  angles,  is  well  built,  well  jjaved 
and  lighted,  an  1  the  streets  are  bordered  with  shaile  trees. 
Founded  by  Col.  Robert  Patterson  in  May,  1775,  tho  town 
received  i!j»  name  in  commemoration  of  tho  battle  of  Lei- 
in'^ton  fought  the  preceding  month.  It  was  incorporated 
in  17'S2,  was  f'lr  a  lime  Iho  State  (capital,  and  eoon  became 
tho  principal  scat  of  wealth  and  culture  W.  of  tho  Allc- 
ghauies,  an<l  celebrated  as  the  home  of  several  eminent  men, 
chief  of  whom  was  Henry  Claj',  to  whose  memory  a  monu- 
ment has  been  ereetcrl  in  the  beautiful  ctMuetory.  Transyl- 
vania University,  the  oldest  college  in  the  Western  StiUcs, 
wai  founded  hero  in  1798.  antt  had  law  and  medicul  dopart- 
msnts.  Tho  Kentucky  State  University,  chartered  in  ISjS, 
aud  opened  at  Harrodsburg  in  1859,  was  removed  to  Lox- 
in-^ti'U  in  1805,  and  Transylvania  University  was  com- 
binvd  with  it.  The  new  instittilion  had  iii  1^72,21  prules- 
8ors,  9  other  oJficers,  579  students,  and  20,000  volumes  in 
il«  libraries.     Pop.  11,801. 

Lexington,  post-tp.  of  Somerset  co..  Me.,  24  miles 
N.  W.  of  Xorridgcwfick.     Pop.  397. 

Lexington,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Middlesex  co.,  Mass., 
11  mik-*  \.  W.  nf  Ho8ton,on  the  Boston  Lowell  and  Najih- 
ua  R.  K.  (Lexington  branidi).  has  5  ehurches,  1  savings 
bank,  I  we.-kly  newspaper,  a  line  high  school,  aud  a  public 
library  with  .'J500  volumes.  There  are  uo  manufactures, 
tho  principal  business  being  farming,  dairying,  and  raar- 
ki!t-gardt'iiiug.  It  was  settled  in  1012  unrler  the  name  of 
"Cambridge  Farms."  and  probably  received  its  name  from 
Lexington  (  Laxington  or  La.vtnn).  Nottinghamshire,  Kiig- 
lanil,  of  whicli  place  Francis  Whttmore,  au  early  settler, 
was  a  native.  Memorable  as  the  spot  where  tho  lirst  blood 
was  sht-d  in  tho  Revolutionary  struggle,  this  historic  town 
possesses  many  m<>uien(oesof  that  period.  A  modest  granite 
monument  upon  the  village  green  tells  its  story  of  lite  sac- 
rificed fur  prin.-iple,  while  a  beautiful  memorial-hall  ia  elo- 
quent with  tablets  and  statues  of  .John  llaneoek,  Samuel 
Ad  imf,  tho  tuiuute-man  of  1 775  ami  the  soldier  of  IHfil.  The 
two  f'irtuer  trero  inaugurated  at  tho  centennial  celebration 
of  tho  battle  of  Lexington,  Apr.  19,  1775,  an  occasion 
whieh  was  brilliantly  sueec-sful  in  Iho  many  thousands 
of  visitors  attracted  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  including 
tho  national  and  State  executives,  and  elicited  eloquent 
oration*  an'l  genuine  poetry.  Lexington  is  tho  native 
plai;e  of  Theodore  Parker,  whose  granclfutber,  Ciipt.  .John 
Parker,  commanded  tho  company  of  minnfe-meii  flred  upon 
by  the  British  troops  in  1775.  Pop.  ot  tp.  2277.  (See  the 
excellont  Hintury  of  Lexinytun,  published  in  1808  by  Uou. 
Charles  IludsiMi.) 

On  the  evening  of  tho  18th  of  April.  Gnn.  flago  de- 
spatched  a  force  of  SOU  men,  untler  Llrut.-t'ol.  Smith,  to 
Concord  for  tho  purpose  of  destroying  tho  military  stores 
there  collected,  and  in  anticipation  hud  picketed  the  roads 
leading  from  Ronton  to  prevent  the  news  of  the  intended 
expedition  from  spreading.  Tho  capture  of  Hanenok  and 
Adams,  who  wore  at  Lexington,  was  also  e'niternplatcd. 
But  in  these  excited  times  everybody  was  on  the  niert.  and 
the  first  movement  of  the  enemy  was  at  once  maile  known 
by  preeoncerte«l  signals.  an<l  Paul  Revere,  rowing  across  to 
the  Charleslown  shore,  mnunted  his  hor^o  Jiiid  rnile  swiftly 


away  towards  Lexington,  arousing  each  household  us  ho 
went;  the  bells  of  the  village  churches  now  rang  out  the 
ularm ;  signal-guns  were  fired  and  other  messengers  were 
arousing  the  eounivy.  By  midnight  Paul  Revere  had  ar- 
rived at  Lexington  aud  given  the  alarm:  the  militia  at 
once  assembled  on  the  village  green,  but  there  being  no 
signs  of  tlic  enemy,  they  were  dismissed  to  await  their 
coming,  after  a  number  of  men  had  been  sent  out  towards 
Boston  to  report  the  approach  of  the  British.  It  was  about 
4i  in  the  morning  when  Major  Pitcairn,  with  six  com- 
jiauies,  who  hud  surprised  and  cajitured  all  the  outposts, 
arrived  within  a  mile  or  two  of  Lexington.  A  general 
alarm  was  now  sounded,  and  tho  militia  to  the  number  of 
GO  or  70,  under  commancl  of  Capt..lohn  Parker,  were  drawn 
up  in  lino  upon  the  green.  Pitcairn.  moving  rai>idly  for- 
ward with  his  men,  himself  rode  up  and  ordered  the  militia 
to  surreniler  and  disperse.  The  militia,  however,  held  their 
ground,  and  after  tiring  a  volley  over  tlieir  heads  without 
effect,  a  second  fire  was  poured  into  the  American  line, 
which  killed  eight,  and  wounded  ten  of  the  little  band. 
Capt.  Parker,  seeing  that  further  resistance  w<iuld  result 
in  the  certain  destruetion  of  all  hands,  ordereil  his  men  to 
disperse,  which  they  did,  some  discharging  their  muskets 
at  the  British  as  they  retired,  inflicting,  however,  but  little 
injury  upon  tho  enemy  (three  of  the  regulars  were  wounded 
and  Pitcairn's  horse  struek),  who  now  pressed  on  to  Con- 
cord,six  miles  beyond,  wbenec  Revere,  continuing  bis  ride 
with  Kbcnezer  Dow  and  Dr.  Samuel  Preseott,  hacl  hnstened 
to  spread  the  ahirm.  Rt-vere  and  Dow  were  captured  by  a 
British  patrol :  Preseott,  however,  barely  escaping,  succeed- 
ed in  reaching  Concord.  The  Lexington  men  rallied  after 
the  departure  of  the  regulars,  and  ft>IIowed  on  to  Concord, 
and  in  the  retreat  of  t!»e  British  wbieh  followed  the  battle 
at  Concord  bridge,  joined  in  the  pursuit,  wbieh  only  termi- 
nated on  tho  arrival  of  th(k  regulars  at  Charlest<iwn  Neck, 
under  the  guns  of  their  shipping.  In  this  pursuit  three 
more  of  the  Lexington  militia  were  killed.  During  a  visit 
in  1S52  of  Kossuth  to  '*  the  birtbplucc  of  American  lil>erty," 
he  said  of  the  fallen  heroes  of  tlmt  day:  ''  It  is  their  sac- 
rificed blood  with  which  is  written  the  preface  of  your  na- 
tion's history.  Their  death  was,  an<l  ever  will  be,  the  first 
bloody  revebition  of  America's  destiny,  and  Lexington  the 
opening  scene  of  a  revolution  that  is  destined  to  change  the 
ebiiracter  of  human  governments  and  the  condition  of  the 
liuman  race.''  In  1799  a  small  nuinument  was  erected  upon 
the  spot  where  began  the  contest  of  the  Revolution. 

Fkank  E.  WKTHirriKi.i,.  En.  *•  Minttk-Man." 

Lexington,  post  v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Sanilac  cm.,  Mich., 
is  a  ]iort  of  entry  <ni  L:iUe  Huron,  20  miles  N.  of  Port  Hu- 
ron, has  5  ehurches,  4  hotels,  I  weekly  newspaper,  a  flour- 
ing-mill,  1  woollen  and  2  furniture  fiurtories.  and  a  num- 
ber of  stores  aud  shops.  Pop.  of  v.  iib(»ut  1(100;  of  tp. 
243.3.  C.  S.  NiMs,  Ed.  ".Iki  r^RsoxiAN." 

Lexington,  post-tp.  of  Le  Sueur  co..  Minn.     Pop.  507. 

Lexington,  post-v.,  cup.  of  Holmes  co..  Miss.,  situated 
equidistant  between  the  Yazoo  Biver  nnd  the  Mississippi 
Central  R.  R.,  has  l  eburehes,  I  weekly  newspaper,  1 
hotel,  2  schools,  and  a  number  of  stores  and  shops.      Pop. 

7N.  HnsKlNS  A    Wll.MAMS,   Pt'US.  "  AdVKUTISKR." 

I<exingt(»n,  eity.  tp..  and  Clip,  of  Lii  Fayette  eo..  Mo., 
on  Ihi*  S.  bunk  of  tlie  ^Missouri  River  and  (he  Mist^ouri  Pa- 
cific R.  R.  iSedalia  branch).  250  mile^  W.of  St.  Louis  (.'170 
by  the  river)  and  40  miles  E.  of  the  Kansas  line;  is  situ- 
ated on  a  high  bluff  :M10  feet  alx.ve  the  river.  The  ter- 
minus of  the  St.  .Joseph  and  Lexington  R.  U.  is  at  North 
Ijexingtim.  on  the  opposite  biink  of  the  river,  where  also 
the  St.  Louis  Kansas  City  and  Northern  R.  U.  passes  along 
tho  rivcr-botlom.  The  eity  has  10  ehurehes,  4  hanks,  4 
weekly  newspiipers  (I  (Jerman),  il  female  seniinarie.^,  hthI 
excellent  pulilic  sehoolji,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  hemp- 
growing  region.  Immense  strata  of  coal,  reputed  the  best 
in  the  State,  underlie  the  whole  county,  and  furnish  the 
h'adiug  article  itf  commerce.  Lpxingtr)n  wiis  settled  in 
|k:I7;  it  is  healthy,  and  enjoys  sulistanlial  commenMiil 
prosperity.  In  Sept.,  1^01.  a  Union  force  of  ulmut  2S00 
men,  under  Cnl.  .Tiiiues  .Mulligan,  occupied  the  hill  on  the 
N.  R.  of  Lexington,  which  naturally  strong  position  was 
fortified  and  held  against  a  Confederate  force  of  some  25,H00 
men,  under  (Jen.  .'Sterling  l^ric*-;  the  siege  terminating;  on 
the  20th  in  the  >urren"ler  of  (be  town  and  garrison.  Miii"r 
Frnnk  .1.  White  retook  the  tr.wn  Oct.  10,  capturing  fiOor 
70  prisoners,  and  releasing  such  of  Mulligan's  b-ree  us  were 
fouud  there.  Again,  in  Oct.,  IHOl.  (he  army  of  (Jen.  Price 
here  n(tacke<I  (ii'U.  Blunt,  who  afti>r  a  two  hours'  resistance 
withdrew.      Pop.  uf  eity  1:17.'.;  of  tp.  O.t.iO, 

M\i(K  L.  ru:  Motti:.  Kf».  **Ri:oisTnn.*' 
Lexington,  pnnl-tp.  of  (Jreene  co.,  N.  Y..  among  the 
CatsUill  .Mountains,  has  3  churches,  and  contains  n  natural 
ice-cave.      Pop.  Ut7I. 

Lexington,  post-v.  ond  (p..oop.  of  Davidson  co..  N.  C, 
on  the  Nurtli  ('iirnliM:i  B.  li.     Pop.  "f  v.  175:  of  tp.  2289. 


1754 


LEXI NGTON— LEYDEN. 


Lexington,  post-v.  of  Richland  CO.,  0.,  on  the  Balti* 
more  and  Oliio  K.  K.  (  Lake  Erie  div.).     Pup.  -132. 

L(CxiiigCon«  tp.  of  Slark  co.,  O.  It  contains  the  city 
of  Ai.LiANrK  (which  sec).     Pop.  57U0. 

Lexingtou,  tp.  of  Lexington  co.,  S.  C.  It  contains 
the    county- seat,   Lexington    Coubt-uouse   (which   sec). 

Pop.  ir.ii.i.' 

Lexington,  post-v.  and  cap.  of  Henderson  co.,  Tcnn., 
an  inland  town,  ;1U  miles  E.  of  Jackson,  has  '2  church(\«,  2 
hotels,  1  weekly  newspaper,  and  an  academy.  It  was  lo- 
cated in  IS21,  was  seriously  damaged  durinj^  the  war,  but 
is  now  being  rapidly  rebuilt.     Piip.  about  3l'0. 

L.  M.  Foun,  En.  **  Kkporter." 

Lexington^  post-v.  of  Burleson  Co.,  Tex.     Pop.  lo7. 

Lexington^  post-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  llockbriugo  Co., 
Va..  situated  in  the  "  Valley  of  Virginia,"  on  the  N.  branch 
of  James  River.  :\b  mik-s  N.  N.  W.  of  Lynchburg,  has  7 
churches,  3  hotels,  I  weekly  and  1  somi-nionlhly  news- 
paper, I  bank,  a  public  library,  a  foundry,  flouring-mills, 
and  a  number  of  business-houses.  It  has  unlimited  water- 
]^ower,  and  is  the  head  of  canal  navigation  on  the  James 
Kivcr  and  Kanawha  Canal,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Valley 
11.  K.  The  celebrated  N;itural  Bridge  and  the  iiiuturosquc 
Peaks  of  Otter  are  in  the  immediiite  vicinity.  Washington 
College  was  founded  here  in  1798  by  licorge  Washington, 
and  the  Virginia  Military  Institute  (the  West  Point  of  the 
South »  established  in  ls;;9.  The  former  was  reorganized 
after  the  civil  war  as  Washington  and  Lee  University,  un- 
der the  presidency  of  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  who  resided  here 
until  his  death.  It  now  has  over  20  instructors,  nearly  300 
students,  and  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  while  the  Mili- 
tary Institute  has  12  professors,  300  students,  and  a  library 
of  oOOl)  volumes.  It  receives  an  annual  appropriation  from 
the  State,  which  appoints  a  certain  number  of  cadets.  Stone- 
wall Jackson  was  a  professor  at  this  institute,  and,  like  Gen. 
Lee,  is  buried  here.    Pop,  of  v.  2S73:  of  tp.  3948. 

Bahi'LAv  &  Co.,  PfDs.  "'Gazette." 

IjCXington  Court-house,  post-v.  of  Lexington  tp., 
cap,  of  Lexington  co..  8.  C,  on  the  Charlotte  Columbia  and 
Augusta  R.  R.,  12  miles  AV.  of  Columbia,  has  3  churches,  1 
weekly  newspaper,  several  schools,  2  hotels,  an  excellent 
water-power,  supplying  1  flouring-mills,  and  manufactories 
of  cotton -yarn  and  furniture.  It  is  a  noted  place  for  sum- 
mer resort;  famous  also  for  its  fruits.  Pup.  in  1S74  aliout 
450.  G.  M.  Hahman.  Pirt.  "Dispatch." 

Lex  Lo'ci  [Lat.,  the  ••  law  of  the  plnce  "],a  phrase  used 
in  law  as  a  common  abbreviation  for  the  more  complete 
expression  lejr  /oci*  contrttcttm,  the  "  law  of  the  place  of  a 
contract."  It  is  a  general  principle  of  ]jrivate  international 
law  that  the  validity,  interpretation,  an<l  olpligatory  f(»ree 
of  personal  contracts  are  to  bo  determined  by  the  law  of 
the  place  where  the  contract  is  made,  if  that  is  also  the 
place  where,  by  the  stipulations  of  the  parties,  the  agree- 
ment is  ro  be  performed.  But  if  a  different  place  of  per- 
formance is  agreed  upon,  this  is  deemed  the  place  of  the 
contract,  tho  law  of  which  is  to  be  followed  in  its  construc- 
tion, the  determination  of  the  rights  acquired  under  it,  and 
the  duties  and  obligations  which  it  imposes.  The  rule  may 
be  briefly  stated,  that  a  contract  valid  by  the  law  of  the 
place  where  it  is  made  or  is  to  be  performeil  is  valid  every- 
where, and  if  void  by  sueh  law  is  void  everywhere.  This 
rule,  however,  is  not  without  important  exceptions,  for  a 
contract  may  be  valid  in  one  country  which  would  not  bo 
euforcible  in  another,  on  account  of  its  being  considered 
in  the  latter  as  injurious  to  public  morals  or  welfare,  or  iu 
contravention  of  public  policy  or  some  positive  law.  There 
is  no  binding  obligation  resting  upon  any  state  to  give 
force  anci  effect  to  contracts  made  in  other  states;  and 
though  this  is  generally  done,  it  depemis  entirely  upon  in- 
ternational comity,  which  will  not  be  extended  so  far  as  to 
operate  disadvantagcously  to  the  interests  or  public  insti- 
tutions of  the  state  in  which  the  contract  is  sought  to  he 
enforced.  The  capacity  of  the  parties  to  contract,  as  de- 
termined by  minority,  coverture,  guariliansliip,  and  other 
causes  of  personal  disability,  is  also,  as  a  general  rule  in 
English  ami  American  law,  governed  by  the  le-r  f»ci  con- 
traHntf.  The  place  where  the  contract  is  made  is  that  in 
which  the  assent  of  tho  parties  first  concurs  and  becomes 
complete.  For  instance,  if  a  proposition  he  made  by  a 
jicrson  in  one  place  to  a  person  in  another,  and  an  assent 
to  tho  offer  be  depo-ited  in  the  mail  addressed  to  the  first 
party,  the  contract  is  generally  deemed  t<t  be  fully  made  at 
the  time  and  place  of  mailing  the  answer.  The  hx  luri 
also  governs  as  to  the  formalities  and  modes  of  authenti- 
cation necessary  in  the  execution  of  contracts.  (See  Inter- 
national Law.  Private  ;  Lkx  Foim  ;  Lex  Rki  SiT.t: ;  Story 

on  the  Conjlirt  o/  Lnirt  ;    Wcstlake's  Priratr  Inlt^fmitional 

L'tir.)  (teohrk  Chase.     Revised  nv  T.  W.  Dwi^iit. 

XjCX  Ro'i  Si't.T  [Lat.,  the  "  law  of  the  place  of  tho  sit- 
uation of  a  thing  "J,     The  transfer  of  real  estate,  the  ten- 


ure by  which  it  may  be  held,  and  all  contracts  or  acts  in 
regard  to  its  numagenient,  enjoyment,  or  disposition,  are 
governed  by  the  law  of  the  place  where  such  jiropcrty  is 
situated.  It  is  only  in  relcrence  to  real  jiroperly  that  this 
invariable  rule  prevails.  The  ownership,  luujiagemcDt,  and 
conveyance  of  personal  property  are  governed  in  some  cosea 
by  the  law  of  the  jdaee  where  the  owner  is  domiciled  (sec 
Domicile),  iu  other  cases  by  the  law  of  the  place  where  eon- 
tracts  in  regard  to  it  arc  made  or  are  to  be  performed  (see 
Li:x  Loci).  These  laws  may  be  either  those  of  the  state  or 
country  where  tho  personal  estate  is  situated,  or  those  of 
some  other  state.  The  ca[)acity  of  persons  to  take  or  trans- 
fer real  estate  is  also  determined  l»y  the  Icj-  rt!  Kttfc.  If, 
for  instance,  aliens  arc  prohibited  by  the  laws  of  a  country 
from  holding  lands,  they  can  obtain  no  valid  title  to  real 
property  situated  therein,  whatever  may  be  the  law  of  the 
place  of  their  domicile.  The  fornuilities  to  be  observed  and 
the  modes  of  conveyance  to  be  employed  must  be  thoso 
which  the  local  law  prescribes.  Thus,  it  is  a  general  rule 
at  common  law  that  a  seal  is  required  to  an  instrument  con- 
veying an  interest  iu  lands,  and  therefore  a  deed  executed 
without  a  seal  in  a  country  where  this  was  not  required 
would  be  hehl  invalid  as  a  conveyance  of  land  in  a  state 
where  the  cnmuion-law  rule  prevailed.  Tho  /f.r  rei  «itfe 
further  determines  the  interest  in  real  ])roperty  which  may 
bo  transferred.  If  this  law  provides  that  an  owner  of  laud 
shall  not  alienate  more  than  a  certain  portion  by  devise  or 
any  other  specified  method,  no  larger  interest  can  be  trans- 
ferred, although  the  instrument  of  conveyance  be  executed 
iu  a  foreign  country.  The  law  of  the  place  of  situation 
governs  not  only  real  property  of  a  corporeal  nature,  as 
land,  but  also  that  which  is  incorporeal,  as  servitudes, 
easements,  rents,  etc.  (See  Inteh-natioxal  Law,  Private; 
Lex  Loci;  Lex  Fori.) 

George  Chase.     Revised  bv  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Lcy'dcn  [nnc.  Lni/diftuim  Ufiinvnrmn :  Fr.  /*#■_</(/(■],  an 
important  city  of  the  Netherlands,  iu  the  province  of  South 
Holland,  on  the  Old  Rhine,  G  miles  from  its  outlet  in  the 
North  Sen.  It  is  intersected  by  canals,  kept  exceedingly 
clean,  well  built,  with  straight  and  broad  streets  ;  its  Breede 
Etraat  is  cou>idcred  one  of  the  finest  streets  in  Europe. 
Thus,  although  tho  former  splendor  of  the  city  is  almost 
entirely  lost,  there  is  not  the  least  indication  of  decay.  It 
was  once  a  strong  fortress,  and  the  siege  which  it  sustained 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1.073-74  made  it  famous.  For  seven 
weeks  there  was  no  bread  within  the  walls,  but  tho  bur- 
ghers still  resisted,  though  the  hunger  became  almost  un- 
bearable. At  last  the  prince  of  Orange  came  to  their  reseue. 
The  dikes  were  opened,  and  the  waters,  which  drowned  a 
great  number  of  the  besiegers,  carried  a  fleet  of  200  boats 
loaded  with  ]>rovisii'ns  to  the  city.  Now  the  bastions  arc 
covered  with  windmills,  and  the  citadel  and  the  towers 
transformed  into  storehouses.  As  a  reward  for  the  valor 
the  city  evinced  during  the  siege  the  prince  of  Orange 
founded  a  university  here,  and  it  soon  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  institutions  of  learning  in  Europe,  adorned 
with  such  names  as  those  of  Scaliger,  (Jomar,  Arminins, 
Grotius,  and  Utscartcs.  An  immense  trade  in  books  de- 
veloped at  the  same  time,  and  its  Elzevir  editions  are 
world-renowned.  Now.  the  university,  allhough  an  insti- 
tution of  good  reputation,  has  hut  iiOU  student.",  and  tho 
city  only  .'»  printing-offices.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  Leydcn  was  one  of  the  cloth-manufac- 
turing centres  of  the  world.  It  had  100, OOU  inhabitants, 
and  its  broadcloths  commanded  the  higliest  ])riees  at  any 
fair.  Now,  it  1ms  only  ;ilM21  inliabilants,  and  only  half  a 
score  of  factories,  employing  about  1000  hands.  Yet,  al- 
though retiring  from  the  bustle  of  life,  Leydcn  shows  no 
signs  of  decay  ;  it  seems  only  to  rest  and  prepare  itself  for 
any  new  chance  which  may  come  up.  The  great  j.ainters, 
Metzu,  Mieris,  Dow,  and  Rembrandt  were  horn  here.  Tho 
Pilgrim  Fathers  who  left  England  for  Amsterdam  in  lOOS 
remained  in  Leydcn  from  1609  till  their  departure  for 
America  in  1020. 

Leydcn,  |)ost-tp.  of  Cook  co,.  III.,  10  miles  N.  W.  of 
Chicago.      Pop.  \\M. 

Leydcn,  post-tp,  of  Franklin  co..  Mass.,  i)  miles  N.  of 
Greenfield.  Leyden  (Jlen  is  a  place  much  visited  for  its 
romantic  scenery.     Pop.  618, 

Leydcn,  post-tp.  of  Lewis  co.,  N.Y.,  on  the  Utica  and 
Black  River  R.  R.,  has  >itone-quarrie8  and  various  mann- 
facluriug  interests,  and  contains  several  villages.  Pup.  204^. 

Leyden  (John),  b.  in  Denholm,  Roxburghshire,  Scot- 
land, Sept.  S,  177  J;  studied  at  Edinburgh  Cniversity  ;  was 
ordained  in  1798,  but  soon  abandoned  the  clerical  for  tho 
medical  profession,  and  in  1802  obtained  an  appointment 
as  assistant  surgeon  in  India.  Ho  first  residi-d  at  Madras; 
studied  the  Oriental  languages,  and  removing  to  Calcutta, 
became  professor  of  Iliudostanec  in  Fort  William  College. 
He  afterwards  became  a  judge  and  assay-mastcr  at  the 


LEYDEN— LIBEL. 


1755 


mint.  He  accompanied  the  Eu^li^h  expedition  against 
Java,  and  d.  at  Hniavia  Auj^.  21,  ISll.  Among  other  works 
he  wrote  u  HiHtnricttl  Acrount  of  Di»coveri*a  and  TmveU  in 
A/i'ica  and  uii  EfHfty  on  fhe  Lttnjfiinffes  and  Literature o/'  the 
Jiifto-Chiume  \ti(if,nif,  in  vol.  x.  of  Agiotir  littearchr^:  also 
Ponnn  nnd  fin/fttf/f.  ]>u)>li^bid  after  his  death.  The  cen- 
tennial of  his  hirth  was  iu  ISTit  celebrated  iu  Scotland. 

Leyden  (Licas  van  ;  real  name  LfCAS  Jaoobkz),  b.  at 
Lcydcn,  Netherlands,  in  1401;  was  a  contemporary  and 
friend  of  .-Mbert  Diirer.  His  genius  was  ])rccoeious  and  orig- 
inal. Under  the  tuition  of  Engclhrechtsen  he  made  such 
progress  that  at  the  age  of  twelve  he  was  already  distin- 
guished, lie  painted  in  oil,  distemper,  and  on  glasp,  and 
excelled  in  history,  portrait,  and  landscape.  His  pictures 
are  rare,  and  fine  impressions  of  his  prints  are  scarce  and 
costly.  Iliij  most  important  picture  is  a  Ao.r  Jii(f;/inr„t  in 
the  town-lmuse  at  Leyden;  the  Ctrd-PIai/cm,  tho  Virgin 
Hud  C/tifd  in  the  Munich  (Jallcry,  the  Portrait  of  the  Empc- 
rttr  Marimiiian  in  the  IJelvidere  at  Vienna,  and  the /yr^rcjif 
from  the  Crona  in  tlie  cliurch  formerly  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Paris  arc  remarkable.  As  an  engraver  he  held  rank  with 
Diirer  and  Marc  Antonio.  His  Eufruftpicjcl  is  said  to  bo 
the  rarest  of  all  prints.  Lucas  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  artists  who  came  after  him,  by  deciding  them  to  take 
fresh  subjects  and  treat  them  naturally.  His  industry  was 
great,  for  in  spite  of  the  brevity  and  dissipation  of  his 
life  upwards  of  100  paintings  and  171  prints  are  ascribed 
to  him.     P.  in  \ti?,Z.  0.  B.  Fi!Othingham. 

Leys  (Jons  Aigist  IlrNitY),  b.  at  Antwerp  Feb.  IS, 
1815  ;  was  destined  for  the  Church,  but  at  the  ageof  fifteen 
entered  the  studio  of  IJrakeker,  his  brother-in-law;  ex- 
hibited in  1^:1.1  a  picture  that  excited  remark,  Cumbnt  nf  a 
(irenndicr  with  a  C'tHmirk;  travelled  and  8tu<lied  in  France 
and  Holland,  and  on  his  return  till  his  dcfith,  Aug.  20, 
ISdil,  lived  iu  his  native  city.  The  artist^took  the  subjects 
for  his  canvases  from  the  history  of  his  own  country  and 
tlic  life  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  painted  with  the  fidelity 
and  feeling  of  one  who  describes  what  ho  tlioroughly  knows 
and  is  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  what  ho  depicts.  His 
work  has  the  solid  reality  of  Irudi  and  the  earnest  glow  of 
natural  feeling.  Few  of  his  pieces  have  come  to  the  U,  S. 
His  chief  works,  sueb  of  tliem  as  were  not  painted  for  his 
rich  patron,  M.  Couteau.  were  executed,  it  is  said,  for  pub- 
lic places  in  Belgium.  Three  pietur(8  which  he  sent  to  the 
Fxjiosition  in  Paris  of  1S60  obratne<l  for  him  one  of  the 
grand  medals  of  honor.  To  the  Exposition  of  1 SG7  he  sent 
eleven  pieces. an'l  was  again  honored  by  a  nudal.  In  lS4f> 
he  was  decorated  with  the  orilcr  of  Leopold  ;  in  18j1  i-aiscd 
to  the  rank  of  officer;  in  1SG7  made  commander  of  the 
order,  and  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  olTieer  in  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  Ho  bad  already  been  created  a  baron  by  Leo- 
pold I.  and  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  i»f  Bel- 
gium. 0.  B.  FllOTIIINGHAH. 

L^lfdpitul,  de  (MirHF.i),  h.  at  Aiguepersc,  in  the 
presi  ht  d«'p:irtni'iit  of  Puy  de  Dome,  about  1^01;  studied 
juri-prudeuce  at  Padua;  was  sent  by  the  French  court  in 
1;')I7  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  whicli  had  just  removed  to 
Bologna;  became  in  I5.!»l  presitlenl  of  the  court  of  ac- 
counts, and  in  l.'»r»0  chancellor  of  Fnineo.  By  his  ability  and 
integrity  he  gained  tin-  respect  of  all  parties,  but  the  policy 
of  moderation  by  wliieb  he  endeavored  to  pacify  the  tu- 
multuous state  of  the  popular  mind  made  bim  many  ene- 
mies, and  several  of  his  nteasurcs,  by  whicli  he  prevented 
the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  France  and  author- 
ized the  free  exerci.se  of  Protestant  worship,  as  well  as  the  | 
circumstance  that  his  family  became  Protestant,  made  biui  ! 
suspected  in  the  eyes  (tf  the  Catholic  parly.  In  Ijlls  ho  ' 
resigned  his  oflico  and  relireil  to  his  estate  at  Bi'Uebat,  in 
the  present  dejMirtment  of  Seinc-et-Oise,  where  lie  d.  Mar. 
l.'I.  167<L  His  (Envren,  containing  Latin  poems,  speeches, 
and  memoir.^,  were  published  in  1821  at  Paris  iu  4  vols., 
and  his  poems  separately  in  IH27. 

Ivia'iia  [Fr.  finn*],  a  name(usually  found  in  the  plural) 
npplied  to  the  climbing  and  twining  woody  plants  which, 
in  some  tropical  countries  {as  Brazil),  entwine  tliemsolves 
among  forest  trees,  otien  rendering  great  areas  of  land 
q'liro  impenetrable.  They  belong  to  a  gre:it  number  of 
tlitferent  natural  orders.  Some  are  of  vi-ry  greiit  size, nnd 
by  their  constriction  and  weight  they  often  kill  tho  trees 
wbieh  support  them. 

Ki'as,  The,  a  group  of  strata  occurring  In  Western 
Europe  and  lubinging  to  the  Jurassic  period.  The  word 
WIS  originally  a  local  term,  a  eorru|iti'ni,  it  is  snid,  of 
"  biyers."  in  allusion  to  the  thin  bedded  liiiu-'runes  that  in 
:)s  lower  portion  alternate  with  marls.  It  is  divisible  into 
two  natural  groups,  the  older  of  whieli  combines  tho  strata 
tliai  nre  known  as  the  Lower  and  Middl<<  Liiis.  The  Lower 
Lias  rests  below  on  the  Kenper,  and  ennimenced  by  limo- 
sfones,  which  we  find  giving  pince  os  wc'  n- -"iid  the  series 
to  bluish  marts.     Where  the  entire  aeries  is  wril  developed 


we  find  the  bluo  ciarla  succeeded  by  gray  marls  (of  the 
Middle  Lias);  these  become  micaceous,  and  finally  arena- 
ceous, passing  above  into  the  "  Middle  Lias  Sands,"  which 
in  turn  are  capped  l)y  a  highly  ferruginous  and  sometimes 
arenaceous  limestone  known  as  the  "  Marlstone."  Suc- 
ceeding to  the  Murlstonc  we  fiml  a  similar  series  of  strata 
recurring  —  namely,  the  "Upper  Lias  Limestone,"  the 
'•  Upper  Lias  Clay,"  and  tho  "  Upper  Lias  Sands,"  which 
arc  capped  by  the  inferior  Oolite  limestone  of  the  next 
formation.  To  the  palaeontologist  the  Lias  is  classical 
ground;  in  both  (jermany  and  England  it  has  yielded 
hundreds  of  perfectly  preserved  skeletons  of  saurians 
{IckthyoBnnri,  PfcsioHnnri,  Tdrostturi,  Scciidunaunni)  and 
of  Ptcroducf>/fn;  from  70  to  100  species  of  fish,  often  most 
beautifully  preserved:  and  a  host  of  Mollusea(y70  species 
are  recorded  from  the  English  Lias  atone),  amongst  which 
Ammonites,  Belemnites,  and  Brachiopods  are  especially 
abundant.  Pentacrinitcs  abounded  in  the  Liassic  waters, 
Crustnceana  and  Echinoderms  left  their  remains  more  spar- 
ingly, and  corals  were  not  so  abundantly  represented  as  in 
some  other  secondary  formations.  We  may  on  the  whole, 
however,  safely  affirm  that  the  fossils  of  ibe  Lias  give  us 
tho  most  compb'tc  representation  that  we  have  yet  found 
of  any  extinct  fauna.  The  most  characteristic  forms  of 
tho  Lower  Lias  arc  (jr>/pfiff-tt  incnrva,  Lima  fp't/autca,  and 
.Ammonites  of  the  group  Aricten;  of  the  Middle  Lias.  Am- 
monites of  the  group  Aiutilffici:  and  of  the  Upper  Lias, 
Ammonites  of  the  group  Fafci/cri;  the  vertebrate  remains 
are  met  with  most  commonly  in  the  limestones  of  the  Lower 
Lias  and  the  mnrls  immediately  over  them,  and  again  in 
tho  Upper  Lias  limestone.  The  Marlstone  of  Yorkshire, 
England,  has  of  late  years  ])roveil  to  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  sources  of  iron  ore.  This  Cleveland  Ironstone, 
as  it  is  termed,  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron,  yield- 
ing on  an  average  about  :iU  per  cent,  of  iron.  Ace(»rding 
to  Ansted.  it  extends  over  a  district  of  some  hundreds  of 
sfjuare  miles,  in  a  stratum,  generally  (tolitic  in  structure, 
sixteen  Oct  in  thickness,  and  from  which  are  annually  ob- 
taine<l  I.Olio.uou  tons  of  ore.  EitWAkD  C.  II.  Dav. 

Liba'iiius,  b.  at  Antioch  in  314  or  310,  and  d.  there 
shortly  after  .'JOl,  in  the  reign  of  Arcadius;  studied  at 
Athens,  and  mentions  Cleobulus.  Didymus,  and  Zenobius 
as  his  teachers,  but  acquired  his  education  principally  by 
private  study  of  tho  old  (ireek  writers,  whom  he  often  im- 
itated with  success,  jind  for  whom  be  alwnys  showed  great 
enthusiasm.  Ho  first  set  up  a  privntc  sciinol  of  rhetoric 
at  Constantinople,  and  his  teachings  conquered  the  atten- 
tion of  the  students  so  absolutely  that  the  schools  of  the 
oflicial  teachers  were  deserted.  These  nf»w  brought  nn  ac- 
cusation of  magic  against  liini,  and  by  (be  jiid  of  the  j»re- 
fect,  Limenius.  a  personal  enemy  of  Libanius,  tliey  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  Iiim  expelind  from  the  city,  about  34fi. 
He  went  to  Nioomcclia,  where  he  taught  with  equal  success 
for  five  years,  but  when  recalled  to  Constanlinople  he  was 
rather  coolly  received,  nnd,  persecuted  by  the  intrigues  of 
his  rivals  and  harassed  by  domestic  trouldes  and  ill-health, 
he  gave  up  teaching  and  livei!  in  retirement  in  his  nalivo 
city.  He  was  vain  an<i  meildlesome  in  character,  and  tho 
moderation  «)f  his  views — his  toleratifin,  for  instance,  to- 
wards Christinnity,  though  himself  a  piignn — was  due.  at 
least  to  some  extent,  to  his  being  a  rhetorician  and  not  a 
philosopher;  ho  cared  more  for  the  form  thiui  for  the  sub- 
stance. But  ho  was,  nevertheless, a  man  of  superior  talent 
and  of  friendly  disposition,  nnd  stood  in  intimate  con- 
nection not  only  with  Juliiin  the  Aposinte.  but  nl.to  with 
St.  Cbrysostom  and  St.  Biisil.  A  eonsidernldr  number  of 
his  writings  are  still  extant.  His  orations,  declanmtions, 
etc.  have  been  published  by  Reiske  (4  vols.,  Leijisio.  17III- 
1*7),  and  his  letters,  which  nre  very  interesting  nnd  of 
great  value  for  the  ntudent  of  the  history  of  that  period, 
by  I.  C,  Wolf  (Amsterdam.  17:'.S).  There  exist,  however, 
still  many  letters  by  him,  in  manuscript  and  unpublished, 
at  Madrid,  Venice,  and  other  places. 

Liba'tion  [Lat.  tibnrc,  to  "pour"],  on  offering  of 
wine.  milU,  oil,  or  other  fluid  as  a  ceremony  of  divine  wor- 
ship. The  Mosaic  law  requirerl  lilmtions  (drink  offerings) 
of  wine,  anti  similar   practices  were  eonimon   among  tho 

Iiagans  of  antiquity.  Libations  were  poured  upon  tho 
loarlh  before  meals  in  honor  of  the  Ronmn  Lares,  and  be- 
fore sacrificin*  wine  often  was  poured  upon  the  victim's 
head,  upon  the  altar,  or  upon  tho  ground.  Libations  wer« 
often  employed  in  the  conrirmation  of  public  treaties  with 
foreii.'n  states. 

lii'hau,  town  of  Uus^iia.  in  tho  government  of  Cour- 
land,  on  the  Baltic.  It  has  a  eunsidi>rable  shipbuilding 
intere8t  nnd  largo  trade  in  timber  and  corn.  Its  harbor 
freeies  later  than  other  harbors  of  tho  Baltic,  and  is  earlier 
free  <,f  ice.      Pup.  KODO. 

I*i'brl  fl<at.  fihrthiM.  'Mittlo  book,"  "pamphlet"].  Tho 
term  "  libel  "  has  in  le:;al  usag''  two  diverse  significations. 


1756 


LIBEL. 


As  employed  in  one  sense  it  deuotea  a  particular  mode  of 
defaiuatiuu  of  character,  constitutiug  an  otVeDce  puuisbablo 
at  law,  while  in  another  application  it  denote;^  one  uf  the 
ploadingfl  employed  in  proceedings  in  courts  of  admiralty. 

I,  Libel  as  denoting  defamation  of  character,  and  con- 
sidered as  the  basis  of  a  civil  action,  may  be  defined  as  a 
malicious  publication  in  printing,  writing,  signs,  or  pic- 
tures imputing  to  another  something  which  has  a  tendency 
to  injure  his  reputation,  to  disgrace  or  to  degrade  him  in 
society,  or  to  hold  him  up  to  hatred,  contempt,  or  ridicule. 
As  distinguished  from  the  oflence  of  slander,  which  is  de- 
famatory matter  addressed  to  the  ear,  libel  is  defamatory 
matter  addressed  to  the  eye.  (See  Slandku.  )  Libel  is 
moreover  ili^^tinguished  from  slander  in  this  respect — that 
it  constitutes  both  a  criminal  offence  and  a  civil  injury,  and 
is  therefore  punishable  both  by  indictment  and  by  a  civil 
action  for  damages.  Slander,  on  the  other  hand,  is  only  a 
civil  wrong,  a  violation  of  private  rights,  and  is  never  in- 
dictable, the  only  available  mode  of  redress  being  a  private 
action.  iJut  while  it  is  generally  true  that  a  libellous  charge 
is  both  indictable  and  actionable,  this  is  not  invariably  the 
case.  There  are  certain  forms  of  libel  which  constitute 
criminal  offences,  but  which  will  not  support  an  action  for 
damages,  inasmuch  us  they  are  not  deemed  in  law  to  bo 
in  violation  of  individual  rights.  The  definition  of  libel, 
therefore,  which  has  just  been  given,  and  which  describes 
it  merely  as  an  offence  against  the  right  of  reputiition,  is 
not  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  include  iti^  full  extent  of 
meaning  and  application  in  its  criminal  aspect.  All  ac- 
tionable libels  arc  also  indictable,  but  the  converse  of  the 
proposition  is  not  true  that  all  indictable  libels  are  also 
actionable.  AVhile  the  general  deliniiion,  as  above  given, 
embraces  modes  of  defamation  or  injury  which  are  open  to 
both  forms  of  redress,  those  varieties  of  libel  which  are  dis- 
tinctively of  a  criminal  character  may  more  conveniently 
be  cln.S3ificd  and  described  separately.  These  are  of  three 
principal  classes — libels  which  blacken  the  memory  of  the 
dead,  libels  upon  the  government,  and  obscene  libels  tend- 
ing to  corrupt  the  public  morals.  Of  these,  the  first  class 
is  of  the  most  importance.  Publications  reflecting  u)'on 
the  memory  of  one  who  is  dead,  vilifying  him  or  tending 
to  detract  from  his  posthumous  reputation,  arc  regarded  in 
law  as  likely  to  excite  the  animosity  of  his  family,  and  pro- 
voke them  to  measures  of  retaliation  or  punishment,  and 
thus  to  occasion  violations  of  public  peace  and  order.  Uut 
only  such  criticism  of  the  character  or  conduct  (if  a  deceased 
person  is  criminal  as  is  made  with  malevolent  purpose,  with 
a  design  to  degrade  his  memory.  Fair  and  honest  consid- 
eration of  his  actions,  motives  of  conduct,  and  mode  of  life 
is  allowable.  Libels  against  the  government  consist  of 
calumnious  publicatitms  in  denunciation  or  unwarrantable 
criticism  of  the  established  governmental  system  or  in  cen- 
sure of  methods  of  administration,  provided  the  alleviations 
arc  of  such  a  nature  that  their  natural  tendency  or  evident 
purpose  is  to  promote  disaffection  among  the  citizens  or  to 
excite  a  spirit  of  revolution.  But  indictments  for  libels  of 
this  kind  are  very  rare,  and  would  probably  not  be  sus- 
tained at  the  present  day  except  in  very  extreme  cases, 
though  the  rules  of  the  common  law  in  most  of  the  States 
probably  remain  unchanged.  Obscene  or  immoral  libels 
arc  such  indecent  or  immodest  publications  as  tend  to  de- 
stroy the  love  of  purity,  morality,  and  virtue,  and  corrupt 
the  public  morals.  This  form  of  libel  is  generally  at  the 
present  d.ay  made  the  subject  of  express  statutory  provis- 
ions, whose  object  is  to  repress  such  pernicious  ]>ublica- 
tions,  and  punish  those  who  issue  them  with  severe  pen- 
alties. It  is,  moreover,  somewhat  unusual  now  to  designate 
such  publications  as  libels,  though  t\icy  are  so  considered 
and  classified  at  common  law. 

Uut  the  most  common  forms  of  libel  are  those  which  con- 
stitute both  civil  and  criminal  offences,  and  which  affect 
the  reputation  of  some  living  person.  The  theory  of  law. 
however,  upon  which  libel  is  adjudged  to  be  a  criminal 
offence  is  essentiiilly  diverse  from  that  upon  which  it  is  de- 
clared to  bo  a  civil  or  private  injury  and  open  to  redress 
by  an  action  for  damages.  It  is  regarded  as  n  tort  or  pri- 
vate wrong,  because  it  is  a  violation  of  the  right  of  rejuila- 
tion  which  inheres  in  every  individual.  (See  Tout.)  Uut 
a  crime  is  a  pulilic  and  not  a  private  wrong — an  offence 
against  the  community  considered  in  its  social  aggregate 
capacity,  instead  of  a  violation  of  personal  rights;  and 
libel  is  adjudged  to  be  a  crime,  not  because  it  is  an  in- 
fringement upon  the  right  of  reputation,  but  because  it 
tends  to  public  detriment.  Thu?,  libels  nguinst  the  gov- 
ernment and  obscene  libels  are  indictable  because  in  the 
one  case  the  tendency  is  to  weaken  or  destroy  the  alle- 
giance of  citizens  to  the  state  and  foment  intestine  dis- 
ordeis,  and  in  the  other  to  occasion  a  pernicious  laxity  of 
mor:iIs.  Uut  libels  which  blacken  ihe  memory  of  the  dead 
an  1  those  which  injure  the  reputation  of  the  living  are  in- 
dictable on  account  of  their  tendency  to  occasion  breaches 


of  the  peace,  by  provoking  the  person  defamed,  or  his  rel- 
atives and  friends  if  he  be  deceased,  to  punish  the  libeller. 
In  former  times  it  vvas  viewed  as  a  natural  and  probable 
,  consequence  that  the  libeller  would  be  challenged  to  fight 
'  a  duel  or  would   be  assaulted  :   and  upon  this  legal   pre- 
.  sumption  the  jurisdiction  of  criminal  courts  over  this  of- 
fence was  based  and  still  depends  as  a  matter  of  principle, 
though  the  probability  that  acts  of  violence  will  be  resorted 
to  in  a  particular  ease  is  a  wholly  immaterial  point. 

A  more  definite  and  specific  slatement  as  t<»  the  point 
what  charges  against  a  person'.s  reputation  will  be  consid- 
ered libellous  than  is  comprised  in  the  general  definition 
already  given   is  hardly  practicable.     Every  form   of  ma- 
licious defamatory  publication  which  is  calculated  to  make 
a  jierson  appear  ridiculous  or  contemptible  is  to  be  deemed 
a  libel,  and  modes  of  casting  derision  and  degrading  im- 
putations are  of  course  infinitely  various.    It  has  been  held, 
however,  that  mere  terms  of  general  abuse  are  not  libellous, 
though  the  discrimination  between  charges  that  are  libel- 
lous and  those  that  are  merely  abusive  is  necessarily  diffi- 
cult.    It  has  also  been  decided  in  some  cases  that  charges 
of  violation  of  etiquette,  of  good  taste,  or  the  rules  of  polite 
society   are   not  actionable.      As   illustrations   of  charges 
which  have  been  adjudged  libellous  the  following  may  be 
referred  to:  Imputations  of  fraudulent  or  dishonest   con- 
duet;  of  committing  any  crime  or  of  being  guilty  of  any 
dishonorable  practices  ;  against  a  professional  man  of  unfit- 
ness to   practi.-'C    his   profession;    of   incoutinency   or  un- 
chastity ;    or  assertions   that   a    dealer's   wares    are    adul- 
terated, or  that  he  knowingly  sells  bad  articles,  etc.     It  is 
!  not  necessary  that  the  charge  should  be  expressed  in  the 
form  of  direct  and  positive  assertion.     An  ironical  mode 
of  conveying  an   imputation  will   be  suflacient.     So  a  de- 
famatory charge  may   be  made   by   indirect    allusion,   by 
,  covert  innuendo,  or  in  the  form  of  an  interrogation.     It  is, 
I   moreover,  not  requisite  that  the  person  defamed  should  be 
mentioned  by  name  iu  the  libel,  or  should  be  referred  to 
with  such  ddinitenci-s  of  description  that  all  who  saw  the 
publication  would  know  to  whom  it  applied.     It  is  enough 
I   if  the  designation  be  to  such  a  degree  specific  that  the  nat- 
ural and  reasonable  understanding  of   the  charge  would 
be.  at  least  among  some  portion  of  those  to  whose  know- 
!  ledge  it  came,  that  a  particular  person  was  alluded  to.    Thus 
it  has  been  held  that  a  person  whose  name  was  indicated 
merely  by  a:Herisks,  but  who  was  otherwise  sufficiently  de- 
,  scribed,  migiit  maintain  an  action  for  libel.     All  persons 
i  who  take  part  in  the  dissemination  of  the  libel  by  rcjiuhli- 
cation  arc  responsiljle  to  the  same  extent  as  the  original 
libeller.     It  is  no  defence  to  one  who  circulates  a  charge  of 
this  kind  that  ho  was  not  himself  the  author  of  the  impu- 
<  tation.     Hence,  publishers  of  newspapers  are  responsible 
for  whatever  statements  of  a  libellous  character  appear  in 
their  columns,  though  these  may  he   merely  copied  from 
some   other  paper  or  ]>ublication   as  matters  of  interest. 
This  is  true  even  though  the  name  of  the  author  be  given 
'  in  connection  with  the  publication,    t^o  it  is  no  excuse  that 
■  a  libellous  publicatitm  is  based  ujiou  a  widely  circulated 
rumor,  even  though  this  be  generally  credited  and  have  a 
reasonable  semblance  of  truth. 

As  regards  the  nature  of  the  defamatory  charges  which 
!  will  sustain  an  action  by  the  party  defamed,  there  is  an 
important  distinction  between  libel  and  slander.  While 
every  form  of  imputation  calculated  to  bring  a  nian  into 
contempt  will  be  adjutlged  libellous  if  written  or  printed, 
there  are  only  certain  kinds  of  defamatory  charges  which 
if  circulated  orally  will  be  a<ljudged  slanderous.  These 
will  be  considered  in  the  article  on  slander.  (See  Slander.) 
The  reason  for  this  distinction  between  the  two  species  of 
defamation  is  that  the  wider  circulation  which  charges  are 
likely  to  receive,  and  their  more  permanent  cbaracttr,  if 
written  or  printed,  than  if  merely  spoken,  are  calculated  to 
render  them  more  productive  of  injury  to  a  person's  repu- 
tation, and  to  make  refutation  j)articular]y  diflicult.  It 
fullows  as  a  natural  result  of  this  distinction  that  the  au- 
thor of  a  defamatory  charge  may  bo  wholly  relieved  from 
legal  accountability  because  he  only  circulated  it  by  word 
of  mouth,  while  another  to  whom  he  communicated  it,  and 
who  published  it  and  thus  extended  its  circulation,  will  be 
liable  to  an  action  or  prosecution  for  libel. 
i  It  is  an  essential  element  iu  libel  that  the  defamatory 
charge  ho  made  with  niaiice.  But  the  word  "malice"  is 
used  in  this  connection  not  in  its  popular  but  legal  mean- 
ing. A  legal  distinction  is  made  between  malice  in  law 
and  malice  in  fact.  Malice  in  fact  denotes  actual  malev- 
olence, positive  ill-will,  spite,  or  animosity  against  some 
person  to  whom  an  injury  is  done;  and  this  phrase  has 
therefore  much  the  same  signification  as  the  simple  word 
I  "malice''  in  common  acceptation.  Malice  in  law,  on  the 
I  other  hand,  signifies  that  intent  or  disposition  of  mind 
j  from  which  proceed  wrongful  act?  done  intentianally.  with- 
I  out  just  cause  or  excuse.     This  use  of  these  phrases  is  not 


LIBEL. 


1757 


confined  to  the  law  of  libel,  but  appertains  to  various 
oriiuiiKil  unJ  tortious  acts.  Tho  lualico  which  is  a  nccee- 
eary  in;;rcclient  iu  lilnl  is  not.  cxcipt  in  special  cases, 
tnalice  in  f;icf,  but  inaliee  in  law,  a(i«i  ils  existence  is  in- 
ferred from  the  defamatory  nature  of  tiie  imputation  and 
tho  absence  of  Icijal  justification.  If,  for  example,  one  man 
traduces  another  in  a  i>ubli?hed  statement,  and  tliere  arc  no 
attemlant  circumstances  connectecl  with  the  making  of  the 
charj^e  to  render  it  lej;al  and  justitialtlc,  or.  as  it  is  techni- 
cally termed,  a  '*  privileged  communication,"  it  will  be  ina- 
lioiou.4,  and  therefore  libellous,  whether  the  traducer  knew 
the  other  or  not,  or  whether  he  intended  to  ilo  him  an  in- 
jury or  not.  .\s  every  man  is  presumed  to  intend  the  nat- 
ural consequences  of  his  acts,  an  intent  is  imputed  to  him 
in  such  a  case  which  would  reasonably  be  expected  to  ac- 
company and  occasion  libellous  accusations.  Malice  in 
such  cases  is  a  conclusion  of  law  wliich  the  plaintiff  is  not 
requireil  to  prove,  nor  ttic  tlefcndant  permitted  to  deny. 
Malice  in  fact  need  not  be  proved  to  exist  in  order  to  sus- 
tain an  action  for  libel,  but  evidence  to  this  effect  may  bo 
given  for  the  purpose  of  enhancing  the  damages.  The  pre- 
sumption of  malice  will  be  made  in  all  eases  of  trial  for 
libel,  except  in  regard  to  conimunications  ma'le  under  cir- 
cumstances of  privilege.  As  respects  these  the  existence 
of  actual  malice  must  be  established.  The  same  principles 
prevail  in  regard  to  actions  for  slander.  In  criminal  prose- 
cutions forlibel  also  the  same  general  distinctions  are  main- 
tained in  relation  to  tho  subject  of  malice  as  in  civil  pro- 
ceedings. 

It  is  furthermore  necessary  that  the  defamatory  charge 
be  piililiihf'l.  But  the  meaning  attached  to  the  term  •'  pub- 
lication "  is  somewhat  diverse  in  the  criminal  and  tho  civil 
law.  This  distinction  ilepends  upon  the  difference  of  theory 
which  has  been  already  referred  to.  As  a  civil  action  is  j 
maintainable  because  the  plaintiff's  reputation  has  been  in-  j 
jurecl,  the  libel  is  said,  in  reference  to  this  mode  of  redress, 
to  be  published  only  when  it  is  communicated  to  some  other 
person  than  the  plainliff  himself.  It  will  be  suUicicnt  if 
it  be  communicaled  to  the  |ilaintilT's  wife,  since  for  this 
purpose  husband  and  wife  are  not  regarded  as  (me.  But  in 
criminal  law  it  is  held  to  be  a  suflicient  publication  if  tho 
obnrgo  bo  communicated  simply  to  the  party  defamed, 
since  in  such  a  case  it  has  a  tcmlency  to  cause  a  breach  of 
the  peace  in  tho  same  way  as  if  brought  to  the  notice  of  i 
third  persons.  It  has  been  held  in  a  civil  case  stitficieiit 
publication  to  read  defamatory  charges  contained  in  a  let- 
ter or  any  written  or  printed  document  to  a  third  person, 
even  though  he  did  not  himself  sec  the  article. 

The  principal  defences  to  an  action  or  a  prosecution  forlibel  [ 
arc  (1)  that  the  charge  is  a '*  privileged  communication." 
ancl   (2)  justification.     .^  communication  or  publication  is 
said  to  bo  "  privileged"  when,  though  containing  stalemnntg  ! 
that  wonbl  or.linarily  be  decme.l  libellous,  it  is  yet  held  in 
law  to  bo  justifiable  because  made  in  the  discharge  of  some 
public  or  private  duty,  legal,  moral,  or  social,  or  in  the  pro- 
tection of  imi>ortant  interests,  or  in  the  furtherance  of  pulilic 
welfare,  etc.     The  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  the 
imputation  is  made  are  regarded  as  rebutting  the  presump- 
tion of  malice  which  tho  law  usually  makes  in  cases  of 
defamation  of  character,  and  afford  in  some  cases  a  full, 
and  in  others  a  qualified,  ilcfence  to  the  action  or  jiroseeu- 
tion.     When  they  afford  a  full  defence,  the  publication  is 
said  to  be  absolutely  privileged;  when  they  furnish  only 
a  qualified  defence,   flic    communication    is   conditionally 
privilegeil.     In  cases  cit  the  lalli'r  kind  the  action  i  r  pri>so- 
cution  will  be  sustainable  if  actual  malice  or  malice  iu  fact 
be  provcrl  to  have   aduatcd   the  defendant's   conduct  in 
making  the  charge.     The  existence  of  actual  malice,  being 
a  question  of  fact,  is  to  be  dctermine.l  by  the  jury  upon  tho 
testimony  adduced  before  Ihcm,  and  not  by  the  court.     If 
a  publiclition  is  known  to  be  false  by  the  party  tnaking  it, 
an  IsulBeient  evidence  to  this  effect  is  given,  actual  malice 
is  plainly  and  un(|Uestionably  inlciable,  and  he  loses  the 
benefit  of  tho  privilege  claimed.      But  if  a  publication  be 
absolutely  privileged,  it  cannot  under  any  circumslances 
become  liie  subject  of  legal  proceerlings  for  redress  or  pun- 
ishment, whether  civil  or  criminal.     Proof  of  actual  malice 
will  not  in  such  acase deprive  the  difamer  of  the  privilege. 
There  arc  two  clauses  of  communications  which  arc  abso- 
lutely privileged:  (I)   Proceedings    in    legislative   assem- 
blies' in  tho  regular  transaction  of  public  business,  as  the 
reports  of  members  upon  any  subject,   written    speeches, 
etc.;  (2)  proceedings  in  judicial  tribunals  which  are  per- 
tinent to  any  cause  of  which  the  court  has  jurisdiclion. 
This  rule  is  cslablisheil  in  order  that  li'gislaiors,  judges, 
counsel,  jurors,  witnesses,  etc.  may  be  fearless  in  the  pcr- 
f.Minance  of  their  official  (luti<  s,  and  active  and  diligent  in 
I'erreting  out  corruptictn,  inci'inpetence.  and    violation  of 
law,  unileferred  by  apprehensions  of  being  harassed  by  legal 
proceedings.    This  privilege  is  usually  secured  lo  legislators 
by  conslitulional  provisions.    (See  U.  P.  Conslitution.  AH. 


I.  J  fi,  and  State  constitutions.)  Other  classes  of  privileged 
eoiumunications  are  conditional  or  qualified,  tho  privilege 
being  complete  only  when  the  charge  is  made  buna  JiiU,  ia 
full  belief  of  its  truth.  \  few  instances  of  publications  of 
this  kind  may  be  mentioned  for  tho  sake  of  illuslralion  : 
Petitions  to  the  legislature  or  proper  [lublic  officer  fur  the 
purpose  of  securing  reforms  in  which  the  petitioners  arc 
pariicularly  interested  as  citizens;  communications  by 
public  officers  acting  in  the  discharge  of  o  public  duty  ; 
charges  made  by  the  officers  or  members  of  a  religious 
organization  or  public  or  private  association  against  a 
fellow-member  in  the  course  of  the  regular  disiripline  of 
the  body  to  which  they  belong  ;  private  confidential  com- 
munications between  relatives  or  friends  to  prevent  an- 
ticipated injury  to  their  special  interests  ;  communications 
between  persons  engaged  in  a  common  business  enterprise 
in  strict  reference  to  their  iiusiness  affairs;  statements  con- 
cerniaig  the  character  of  servants  n)adc  to  those  who  intend 
to  employ  them  ;  fair  and  honest  reports  of  trials  without 
defamatory  comments;  the  publication  of  speeches  and 
proceedings  in  legislative  bodies.  The  privilege  in  these 
last  two  cases  is  sometimes  niiuic  the  subject  of  express 
statutory  or  constitutional  provisions.  So  reviews  of  books 
or  literary  productions  of  any  kind  are  privileged  if  the 
critic  do  not  step  aside  from  a  consideration  of  the  work  to 
defame  the  author's  private  character.  The  same  rule  ap- 
plies to  criticisms  upon  works  of  art  or  of  one  journalist 
upon  another.  Tho  same  principles  in  regard  to  matters 
of  privilege  prevail  in  the  law  of  slander  us  in  the  law  of 
libel. 

A  "justification"  is  a  plea  in  defence  that  the  defama- 
tory allegations  ore  true,  and  therefore  justifiable.  lint 
here,  also,  there  is  a  dift'crencc  between  the  rules  of  crim- 
inal and  those  of  civil  procedure  in  regard  to  this  offence. 
It  has  always  been  a  rule  of  law  that  in  a  civil  action  for 
libel  a  plea  that  the  charge  is  true  is  a  valid  and  effectual 
defence,  since  a  man  is  entitled  to  no  better  reputation  than 
his  actual  character  would  warrant.  .\s  the  theory  upon 
which  tho  civil  action  is  based  allows  the  recovery  of  dam- 
ages  for  the  injury  which  the  reputation  of  the  i)arty  de- 
famed has  sustained,  he  is  entitled  to  recover  nothing  if 
tho  injury  is  really  aflributablu  to  his  own  misconduct. 
But  in  crimiual  proceilure  a  different  rule  was  ndo|)ted,  ami 
it  even  became  a  maxim  at  common  law  that  "  the  greater 
the  truth  the  greater  the  libel."  This  was  on  account  of 
the  principle  that  the  criminality  of  a  libel  depended  upon 
its  tendency  to  cause  a  breach  of  the  peace.  The  view  was 
taken  that  a  person  defamed  would  be  likely  lo  be  more 
incensed,  and  more  inclined  to  retaliafiun,  if  the  charge 
were  true  than  if  it  were  false,  by  reason  of  the  great  dif- 
ficulty or  impossibility  of  successfully  refuting  it.  This 
rule  has  been  modified  in  modern  times  by  statute  or  con- 
stitutional provision,  and  it  is  usually  the  rule  that  the 
truth  of  the  allegeil  libellous  matter  shall  be  a  defence  in  a 
criminal  prosecution  if  the  ]iublication  be  made  with  good 
motives  and  for  justifiublc  ends.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  even  with  this  change  there  is  an  important  dificrenco 
between  civil  and  criminal  proceedings  upon  this  point, 
ir  "  good  motives  and  justifiable  ends  "  bo  not  jiroved  in  a 
trial  ujioii  indietmenf.  the  truth  is  not,  as  in  a  civil  action, 
an  effectual  defence.  It  was  a  rule  of  common  law  that  a 
justification  must  be  as  broad  as  the  charge,  and  if  the 
truth  of  the  allegation  were  not  substantially  proved  tho 
plea  was  equivalent  to  a  re]Htilion  of  the  libel,  and  in  a 
civil  action  would  aggravate  the  damages. 

Libel  considered  as  a  crime  was  af  common  law  a  misde- 
meanor only,  and  not  a  felony  (see  C'liiMK,  Felony),  and  tho 
statutes  which  have  been  generally  enacted  in  this  country 
defining  the  ofience  and  declaring  its  punishment  have  usu- 
ally left  this  rule  unchanged.  As  respects  civil  ai-lii>ns  for 
libel,  the  question  as  to  the  measure  of  damages  which  may 
be  awarded  becomes  of  much  importance.  (See  Mkasirk  of 
Damaoi-.s.)  It  nuiy  be  shown  by  way  of  mitigation  of  dam- 
ages that  the  pbiintin'  was  a  man  of  blemislied  or  mini  d 
character  befori-  the  publication  of  the  libel,  so  that  he  li:t-- 
sustained  comparatively  little  injury;  or  that  a  fidl  iiud 
unqualified  refraction  was  subseqiu'iitly  made;  or  that  the 
defendant  was  insane  or  intoxicated  when  the  charge  was 
made  I  or  Ihni  he  was  provoked  by  previous  libels  of  the 
plaintiff  upon  liiiuself,  etc.  If  was  a  rule  of  common  law 
that  fuels  tending  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  charge  were 
not  to  be  used  in  mitigation  of  damages,  but  only  by  way 
I  of  "justification. "  This  rule  has,  however,  been  changed 
in  a  number  of  the  States  by  statutes  providing,  in  sub- 
stance, that  fads  anil  circumslances  which  tend  lo  prove 
tho  truth  of  the  charge,  but  fail  to  airmunt  lo  complete 
justification,  may  bo  given  in  cvidenoc  lo  reduce  tho  uain- 
nges.  A  defendant  in  these  States  is  permitted  to  sot  up  a 
plea  of  juslificalion.  together  with  a  plea  of  mitigating 
circumslances,  although  the  one  plea  alfinns  thetriilll  of 
the  charge  and  the  other  impliedly  admits  its  falsity.    This 


1758 


LIBELT— LIEERIUS. 


rule,  however,  though  not  sti-ictly  logical,  has  been  thought 
to  ho  hotter  adaptcU  thau  tho  cuminou-law  doctriue  to  \vork 
fiuhstautial  justice  hetweeii  thu  parties. 

Thoro  is  an  importaut  distmciion  between  civil  and  crim- 
inal proceedings  for  libel  as  to  the  province  o!"  the  jury  in 
the  construotion  of  tho  alleged  libellous  charges.  In  a 
civil  a<iti<>n,  when  tho  words  of  an  alleged  libel  are  unaui- 
biguon^,  the  question  whether  the  publication  is  actually  a 
libel  is  to  be  determined  by  the  court,  and  not  by  tiie  jury. 
But  if  the  words  are  of  doubtful  meaning,  the  question 
becomes  one  of  fact  for  the  decision  of  the  jury.  In  re- 
spect to  criminal  prosecutions,  there  was  at  common  law 
much  uncertainty  as  to  the  proper  function  of  the  jury  in 
this  respect.  It  was  held  in  England  by  a  nnnilK-r  of  de- 
cisions of  tho  court  of  king's  bench  that  tho  court  alone 
had  power  to  determine  whether  the  subject  of  the  publica- 
tion was  or  was  not  a  libel,  as  in  civil  cases.  But  this  rule 
was  muoh  controverted,  and  to  reduce  the  matter  to  ccr- 
tiiinty  a  statute  was  passed  giving  power  to  tlie  jury  to 
render  a  general  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty  upon  tho 
wliulo  matter  in  issue,  and  thus  to  determine  questions  both 
of  law  and  of  fact.  Similar  statutes  or  constitutional  pro- 
visions have  been  adopted  in  a  number  of  the  States  of 
this  country.  The  construction  of  t!ie  alleged  libel  is  thus 
mailc  to  devolve  upon  the  jury,  instead  of  upon  the  court. 
This  is  an  anomalous  provision  in  criminal  law,  and  pecu- 
liar to  prosecutions  for  this  offence.  It  is  a  general  rule 
in  tho  interpretation  and  construction  of  Ubnls  that  the 
language  is  tn  be  understood  in  its  natural  and  ordinary 
i^cnso.  If  obscure  and  ambiguous  languago  is  urvod,  or 
that  which  is  figurative  or  ironical,  its  sense  is  to  be  gath- 
ereil  from  the  context  and  the  facts  and  circumstances 
uu  ler  which  it  was  used.  (See  for  general  rules  Inter- 
PRKT.VTirtv  AND  CoNSTnucTiON.  Cousult  ou  this  general 
subject  the  works  of  Bishop,  Wharton,  Russel],  and  Chitfy 
on  On'nintnl  Law;  Townscnd  on  Lilicl  and  iSfanil'^r!  Ad- 
dison on  Torts;  Hilliard  on  Torts;  Starkio  on  Slander; 
IlearJ  on   Ltfiel  and  Slander.) 

II.  IjIBKL  in  admiralty  practice  denotes  tho  first  plead- 
ing of  the  comj>]ainant  in  a  suit,  and  contaius  a  statement 
of  his  cause  of  action.  In  England  the  word  is  also  ap- 
plicfl  to  a  similar  jdoadiug  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  A 
libel  in  admiralty  is  not  required  to  bo  drawn  in  any  spe- 
cific form.  It  should,  however,  be  addressed  to  the  proper 
judge,  should  state  the  names  of  the  parties  acouratelj, 
and  should  contain  a  clear  and  comprehensive  statonieut 
(usually  in  propositions  or  ''articles")  of  the  facts  upon 
which  the  libellant  bases  his  suit.  The  libel  should  also 
incluiio  a  prayer  for  relief.  A  libel  answers  to  the  decla- 
ration or  complaint  in  a  civil  action.  The  plaintiff  in  an 
admiralty  suit  is  termed  the  libellant.  and  the  defendant 
the  respondent.  fSee  works  on  Admiralty/  Practice.) 

George  Ch.vse.     Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Li'belt  fKAROL),  b.  at  Posen  Apr.  8,  1S07;  studied 
philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Berlin,  where  he  gained  a 
prize  fi>r  his  essay  De  Panthei8>iio,a.vn\  acquired  the  degree 
of  Ph.  I),  in  1S2'J  ;  served  in  ISoO  as  an  officer  in  the  ar- 
tillery, and  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of  Ostro- 
lenka  and  at  the  defence  of  Warsaw;  retired  after  tho 
failure  of  the  revolution  to  his  estates  in  Posen;  founded 
in  ISlO  the  successful  periodicals  T^/godnik  literacki  and 
Jioh;  to  which  the  best  I*olish  writers  contributed  ;  was  ar- 
rcstel  in  ISKJ  for  participation  in  the  conspiracy  of  Mic- 
ro?lawski.  bul  liberated  on  the  outbreak  of  tho  revolution 
at  Berlin  in  ISIS  ;  took  part  afterwards  in  politics  as  mem- 
ber of  tho  Slavic  congress  at  Prague  in  1S40,  and  as  leader 
of  the  Polish  fraction  in  the  second  Prussian  chamber 
in  ISj'J;  commenced  the  publication  of  his  philosophi- 
cal writings,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are  Filnznfin  i 
Krytjfka  ("Philosophy  and  Criticism"),  (5  vols.,  Posen. 
isLCsO),  and  E>ftHt/}:a  (*' ^Esthetics "),  (3  vols.,  Posen, 
ISJI);  he  also  wrote  a  number  of  mathematical,  economi- 
cal, and  agricultural  essays  and  pamphlets.  His  philo- 
sophicjil  works  have  been  translated  into  German,  and  have 
attracted  considerable  attention  as  an  individual  develop- 
ment of  (he  ideas  of  the  German  philosophy. 

lii'bcr,  post-v.  of  Jay  co.,  Ind. 

Libc'ria,  a  republic  on  the  wcptrrn  const  of  Africa, 
founleJ  in  ISi'O  by  the  American  Colonization  Societv 
(which  sec),  and  established  as  an  independent  state  in 
1817,  is  situated  between  4°  2U' and  7°  20'  N.  lat.,  anrl 
stretches  along  the  Atlantic  from  the  Sherboro  River  on  the 
N.  \y.  to  the  Pedro  River  on  the  S.  E.,  a  distance  of  about 
COO  miles,  extending  inland  from  the  coast  from  10  to  40 
miles.  Its  area,  which  is  steadily  increased  by  purchases 
from  the  native  tribes,  was  estimated  in  187.*i  at  9700  square 
miles.  The  shore  is  elevated  and  rocky  in  the  S.  E.,  bnf 
otherwise  low,  generally  sandy  or  gravelly.  seUlom  marshy. 
In  the  interior  the  country  rises,  swelling  into  fores^t-covered 
hilts  and  lofty  mountain-ranges  traversed  by  fine  valleys. 


Many  streams  flow  to  tho  ocean,  but  none  of  them  is 
navigable  for  more  than  20  miles  from  tho  mouth  ;  the 
most  important  are  tho  St.  Paul,  navigable  for  IS  miles, 
and  having  7  feet  of  water  at  low  tide  on  the  bar  at  its 
mouth  ;  the  St.  John,  the  .Junk,  and  the  Cape  Mount  River. 
The  climate  is  thoroughly  tropical.  Of  the  two  seasons, 
the  dry  lasts  from  October  to  June,  and  the  wet  Irom  Juno 
to  October.  In  the  dry  season  the  average  heat  is  S4°  F., 
tho  thermometer  seldom  rising  above  90°  in  the  shade;  in 
the  wet  season  the  average  Ihjit  is  70*^,  the  thermometer 
never  falling  below  00°.  To  the  white  man  the  climate  is 
deadly — not  from  its  excessive  heat,  but  probably  from 
miasmata;  and  even  the  negro,  when  born  and  reared  in 
another  climate,  suffers  (tn  his  arrival  here  fntm  the  so- 
called  African  fever.  Tho  natives,  on  the  contrary,  are 
robust,  healthy,  and  long-lived.  The  soil  is  generally  very 
fertile.  The  princip.al  farming  districts  lie  along  (he  banks 
of  the  St.  Paul.  Here  the  sugar-cane  grows  luxuriantly  ; 
the  produce  of  K'--71  was  estimated  at  ^00,000  pounds. 
Cotton  is  indigenous,  and  yields  two  crops  annually.  Cufftc 
of  excellent  quality  is  cultivated  with  success  in  the  in- 
terior. The  cereals,  maize,  rice,  wheat,  barley,  and  oatsj 
the  vegetables,  cabbages,  peas,  beans,  tomatoes,  cucumbers, 
etc.  ;  and  the  fruits,  lemons,  oranges,  guavas,  tamarinds, 
pomegranates,  pineapples.  African  jiea^hcs,  etc.,  are  easily 
raised.  The  forests  contain  teak,  mahogany,  rosewood,  hick- 
ory, poplar,  several  kinds  of  gum  trees,  dyewoods,  medicinal 
shrubs,  and  different  varieties  of  useful  palms,  among  which 
is  the  nut-bearing  palm,  from  which  jialm  oil  is  made. 
Wild  animals,  the  ele])bant,  hippopotnmu.«,  crocodile,  leop- 
ard, etc.,  are  now  nearly  exterminated.  Of  minerals,  iron 
abounds,  and  copper  is  said  to  occur  in  the  interior.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  republic  numbered,  according  to  tho 
latest  estimates,  about  720,000,  of  whom  about  19,000  were 
Americo-Liberians,  and  tho  rest  natives.  The  natives  be- 
long to  different  tribes  :  tlic  A'eys.  mostly  Mohammedans, 
among  whom  the  Protestant  Episci)pal  Cliurcb  of  the  U.  S. 
has  established  a  mission  school  at  Totocoreh  ;  the  Pessehs, 
entirely  pagans ;  the  Bassas,  among  whom  the  American 
Baptist  missionaries  established  a  mission  in  18H5  ;  the 
Kroos,  mostly  idolaters;  tho  Maudingos,  the  most  gifted 
of  the  tribes  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  republic;  and 
others.  The  Americo-Liberians  have  a  regular  system  of 
schools,  and  are  progressing  in  all  branches  of  civilization. 
Industrial  processes  and  manufactures  have  been  started 
among  them,  and  a  lively  trade  has  sprung  up  between  the 
republic  and  the  U.  S.,  Gr<rat  Britain,  Belgium,  and  Ham- 
burg. Palm  oil,  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  ivory,  camwood, 
arrowroot,  etc.  arc  exported  ;  cotton  goods,  cutlery,  powdc  r, 
and  tobacco  are  imported.  The  country  is  divided  into 
four  counties — Mesurado,  Grand  Bassa.  Siuon,  and  Mary- 
land. The  capital,  Miuirovia.  is  situated  on  Cape  Mesu- 
rado, and  has  about  l.'I.OOO  inhabitants.  Other  settlements 
are  New  Georgia,  CaMwell,  \'irginia.  Edina.  Greenville, 
Lexington,  Buchanan,  Millsburg,  etc.  The  annual  revenue 
is  about  $1(10, UOO,  almost  exclusively  derived  from  custom- 
house duties.  A  public  debt  of  ^JUO.OOO  was  contracted  in 
1.S71.  Tho  constitution  of  the  republic  is  modelled  after 
that  of  the  V.  8.  All  men  are  born  free  and  equal.  Elec- 
tions take  place  by  ballot,  and  every  male  citizen  who  pos- 
sesses real  estate  has  the  right  of  suffrage.  But  no  white  man 
can  be  admitted  to  citizenship,  and  none  but  citizens  can 
hold  real  estate  in  the  republic  (a  temporary  provision). 
The  president  is  elected  for  two  years;  the  senators  for 
four;  the  representatives  for  two.  Each  county  sends  two 
senators  to  the  legislative  assembly,  and  one  representative 
for  every  10.000  inhabitants.  The  first  president  was 
Jose]th  Jenkins  Roberts,  who  served  four  terms,  from  ISIS 
to  1856,  and  was  once  more  elected  in  1S7I.  The  official 
language  is  tho  English.  (See  Stockwell,  The  lUpnhlic  of 
Liberia^  its  Geography,  Climate,  S"if,  and  J*rodnrtiou8,  with 
a  History  of  its  turli/  Stttlenunf,  New  York,  1S68.) 

Ijibe'rinSf  Saint,  a  bishop  of  Rome,  reckoned  in  the 
series  of  popes  after  Julius  I.,  whom  be  succeeded  May 
22,  :{50.  The  Semi-Arians,  countenanced  by  the  emperor 
Constantius,  were  then  in  tlio  ascendant,  and  in  the  coun- 
cils of  Aries  {:)i>'.l)  and  Milan  {'.'.i*'*)  they  condemned  the 
doctrincof  .Mhanasius.  Liberius,  togeilicr  with  some  other 
Western  bishops,  having  refused  to  sign  this  condemnation, 
he  was  arrested  by  the  emperor's  order  and  taken  to  Milan, 
where  Constantius  endeavored  to  secure  his  obedience  by 
personal  solicitations.  Finding  him  resolute  in  maintain- 
ing his  previous  attitude.  Constantius  declared  Liberius 
deposed  from  the  bisliopric  of  Rome,  banished  him  to 
Berea  in  Macedonia,  and  had  Felix,  a  deacon,  consecrated 
in  bis  place.  In  ."i.iS,  Liberius  was  restored  to  his  post  in 
consequence  of  a  petition  from  the  principal  ladies  of  Rome. 
The  Council  of  Ariminum  (Rimini ).  ctrnvened  in  3.'i9  for 
the  settlement  of  <loctrinal  difficulties,  at  tirst  followed  tho 
suggestions  of  Liberius  by  confirming  the  Nicene  Creed 
and  condemning  Arius,  but  gave  way  to  the  influence  of 


LIBERTY. 


1759 


ConsLintiup.  and  finally  accepted  an  Arian  confession  of 
faith  prMpused  by  him.  liiheritis  ha^  been  falsely  accused 
of  hav  'iu%  signed  this  confession,  a^  well  aa  of  buving  pur- 
cha3?d  hid  recall  from  Bcrea  by  ^ubuii.«.''iun  to  the  nnperor's 
will  as  regarded  Arinnism.  Ho  built  tbo  basilica  now 
called  iSiinta  Maria  Ma3;giore.  D.  in  .'lOrt,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Damasus  I.  His  festival  occurs  in  the  Catholic 
calendar  Au^.  27.  and  in  the  Greek  Sept.  2.1. 

Lib'erty  [Lat.  lifn-rtaa,  "  freedom  "J,  in  the  abstract,  de- 
notes tlio  power  of  acting  as  you  will  ( pnnteritan  ritcmii  ut 
vtlii — Ctccru);  but  for  a  finite  being  this  tlefinition  has 
to  be  modified  into  the  power  of  acting  as  ymi  will  within 
the  ?i>here  of  existence  pertaining  to  the  individual.  It  is 
assumed  also  that  the  will  itself  is  free,  in  view  of  motive?, 
to  choo-e  what  appears  to  be  (he  greater  guod  before  the 
leas,  or  the  less  bclore  the  greater.  '  For  an  infinite  being 
the  highest  freedom  coincides  with  the  highest  moral  ne- 
cessity; that  is  to  say,  there  is  one  cuur5o.  nnd  one  only, 
which  his  perfection  of  nature  requires  him  to  choose,  and 
makes  it  certain  that  he  will  choose.  And  for  a  finite  being, 
moral  exocllenco,  united  with  the  greatest  perfection  of  in- 
tellect pertaining  to  human  nature,  wilt  make  the  best 
course  of  action  curtain  within  his  sphere  of  existence. 

Liberty  in  the  sphere  of  the  citizen  cannot  be  understood 
without  a  correct  idea  of  rights.  Here  we  raust  refer  to  the 
articles  Ji  stick  and  Rights,  and  will  only  add  that  per- 
sonal and  civic  liberty  may  pertain  to  a  man,  while  in  par- 
ticular cases  he  rcnonnccs  the  exercise  of  it;  in  which  case 
a  man  waives  his  right — that  is,  freely  renounces  what  he 
was  free  to  own,  do,  or  enjoy.  Liberty  in  this  sphere  con- 
sists in  the  powi^r  of  freely  exercising  those  rights  which 
may  bo  deduced  from  a  true  idea  of  the  nature  and  destiny 
of  man.  The  entire,  or  nearly  entire,  absence  of  such 
rights  makes  a  man  a  slave.  To  be  authorized  to  exercise 
sjmc  of  them  is  imperfect  liberty  ;  to  enjoy  all  of  them  is 
perfect  liberty.  Sometimes  the  liberty  exists  in  a  degree, 
although  tbo  individual  would  bo  injured  if  he  were  free  to 
act  as  he  chose.  .Such  is  the  case  with  children,  who  have 
rights  even  against  their  parents,  yet  cannot,  umlcr  wise 
law,  exercise  the  rights  of  contract  and  of  testament,  bc- 
ciusQ  they  would  be  in  danger,  if  they  did,  of  injuring  them- 
selves. 

Political  liberty  implies  a  share  in  political  power,  and 
those  restraints  on  a  government  and  on  individuals  which 
are  necess.iry  for  the  protection  of  one  and  of  all  in  the 
civil  and  political  spheres.  8uch  liberty  consists  in  the 
right  of  voting,  the  right  of  holding  ofi'ice.  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  institutions  and  of  guaranties,  and  in  certain  free 
modes  of  action  in  concert  wiih  others,  such  as  the  rights 
of  association,  of  discussing,  petitioning,  and  remonstrating 
a:;iinsL  [lublic  measures,  of  freedom  of  the  press,  and  others. 
What  may  be  called  personal  liberty  and  equality  of  iudi- 
vi  lual  rights  may  exist  without  equality  of  political  rights. 
Thus,  a  man  who  cannot  read,  or  who  docs  not  bold  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  property  or  p:iy  a  certain  house-rent,  may 
have  uo  right  of  sutfragc  or  eligibility  to  office.  So  a  wo- 
man, a  male  minor,  a  foreigner,  may  have  no  Buffriige :  a 
man  over  seventy  may  be  incapable  of  holding  a  judicial 
office,  or  a  man  under  thirty-five  be  ineligible  to  that  of 
Prcsi  lent  of  the  U.  S.  All  these  last-nieulioued  disquali- 
fications exist  under  our  form  of  government.  Have  such 
persons,  then,  no  complete  political  liberty  ?  In  the  most 
exact  uso  of  terms  we  must  <lcny  that  their  status  is  e({ual 
to  that  of  some  others,  although  the  distjualifications  atloct 
all,  in  each  of  the  classes  afi'ccted,  alike.  We  do  m:iko  a  dif- 
ferer.cc  between  ci'rr«  ojitt'mo  jitrp,  and  c/m'«  tuni  optiuntjitre 
(citizens  enjoying  the  best  right,  and  citizens  enjoying  a 
right  that  is  nt»t  the  best).  Hut  under  free  institutions 
these  disqualifications  are  so  few  that  the  persons  affected 
by  them  arc  in  no  danger  of  having  their  personal  liberties 
invaded,  especially  iis  they  are  connected  by  close  relations 
with  others  who  have  a  somewhat  greater  share  of  political 
power.  If,  however,  a  larger  part  of  a  community  was  shut 
out  of  suffrage  and  the  p<»wer  to  hold  office,  in  order  to  keep 
power  in  the  hands  of  another  distinct  part,  the  guaranties 
of  personal  rights  would  not  be  felt  to  be  great  enough,  and 
the  prohibited  good  would  be  much  coveted,  while  yet  not 
one  of  a  thousanrl,  perhaps,  of  such  persons  would  under 
unlimited  suffrage  ever  hold  offiee.  T.  D.  Wlmh.sev. 

Liberty,  county  of  Floridn.  bounded  E.  by  the  Ocklock- 
onoL-e  and  U'.  by  the  navigable  Appalachieola  Kiver.  Area, 
6o0  square  miles.  It  is  sparsely  settled,  and  is  mo.nlly  em- 
ployed as  a  cattle-range,  but  contains  much  good  land. 
Cap.  Itristol.      Pop.  I(t50. 

liiberty,  county  of  E.  (teorgia.  Area,  770  square  miles. 
Its  E.  extremity  reaches  St.  ('atharine's  SouncI ;  its  S.  W. 
border  is  washed  by  the  navij^ablc  Altanmha  Uiver.  The 
surface  is  level,  well  timbered,  and  in  jmrt  marshy.  Rice, 
eotlon,  and  corn  are  staple  products.  It  is  traversed  by 
thcAtlanticandiiuif  H.  K.    Cap.  Walthourville.    l*()p.7r.SS. 


Liberty)  county  of  S.  E.  Texas.  Area.  IGOtt  square 
miles.  It  is  partly  prairie  and  partly  fine  timber-land.  The 
county  is  travLTsed  by  the  Trinity  River  and  the  Texas  and 
Now  Orleans  U.  R.  Petroleum  has  been  found  and  min- 
eral springs  are  abundant.  Livestock  and  cotton  arc  the 
chief  products.     Cap.  Liberty.     Pop.  44U. 

Liberty,  tp,  of  Carroll  co..  Ark,     Pop.  253. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Independence  co.,  Ark.     Pop.  455, 

Liberty,  post-tp.  of  Ouachita  co..  Ark.     Pop.  908, 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Pope  co..  Ark.     Pop.  741. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  St.  Francis  co..  Ark.     Pop.  27.3. 

liiberty,  tp.  of  Van  Uuren  co..  Ark.     Pop.  2^5. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  White  co..  Ark,     Pop.  368. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Klamath  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  348. 

Liberty,  post-tp.  of  San  .Joaquin  co.,  Cal.     Pop.  1231. 

Liberty,  post-tp.  of  Adnms  co..  III.     Pop.  1623. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Effingham  co,.  111.     Pop.  60-1. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  7o7, 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Delaware  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1G39, 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Fulton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1429. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  (Irani  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1989. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Hendricks  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  2478. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Henry  co..  Ind.     Pop.  1884. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1C97. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Parke  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1540. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Porter  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  798. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Shelby  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1465. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  St.  Joseph  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  i:;94. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Tipton  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1740. 

Liberty,  post-v.  of  Centre  tp.,  cap.  of  I'nion  co.,  Ind., 
on  the  Cincinnati  Hnmilton  and  Indian.TpoIis  R.  R..  near 
the  E,  fork  of  the  Whitewater  River.  .^0  miles  N.  W.  of 
Cincinnati.  O..  and  70  miles  S.  E.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has 
2  national  banks,  2  large  Houring  mills,  an  a'.rncultiiral  im- 
plement manufactory,  planing-inills  and  shops,  2  hotels. 
good  schools,  4  churches,  1  weekly  newspaper,  a  nunibcr 
of  stores,  etc.  Principal  business,  farming  and  stock- 
raising.     Pop.  700.  C.  W.  Stivers,  En.  *■  Herald." 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Union  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  763. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Wabash  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1816, 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  1176. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  AVells  co..  Ind,     Pop.  1097. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  White  co.,  Ind.     Pop.  888. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Ruehanan  eo.,  la.     Pop.  1272. 

Liberty,  post-tp.  of  Clarke  co.,  la.     Pop.  778. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Clinton  co.,  la.     Pop.  O.'JI. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Dubuque  co.,  la.     Pop.  1102. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Jefferson  co.,  la.     Pop.  1082. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Johnson  co.,  la.     Pop.  640. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Keokuk  co.,  la.     Pop.  \\3h. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Lucas  co..  la.     Pop.  600. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  .Marion  co.,  la.     Pop.  1532. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Marshall  co.,  la.     Pop.  709. 

Liberty,  t[>.  of  .Mitchell  co.,  la.     Pop.  173. 

Liberty,  ip.  of  O'Rrien  co..  la.     Pup.  715. 

I>ibrrty,  tp.  of  Ringgold  co.,  la.     Pop.  243. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Scoitco.,  la.     Pop.  1193. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Warren  co.,  la.     Pop.  891. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Wright  co..  In.     Pop.  269. 

Ijibrrty,  tp.  of  Howard  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  ."94. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Labette  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  720. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Linn  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  480. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Woodson  co.,  Kan.     Pop.  363. 

I^iberty,  post-v.,  cap.  of  Casey  co.,  Ky.,  on  the  Louis- 
ville and  Cincinnati  R.  R. 

Lil»erty,  post-tp.  of  Waldo  co.,  Me..  16  miles  W.  of 
Bclfiu-'t.  has  manufactures  of  leather,  axes,  pegs,  handles, 
bootj*,  shoes,  wooden  ware,  furniture,  and  woollen  and  other 
goods.      Pop,  907. 

Liberty,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Frederick  co.,  Md..  1 1  miles 
N.  E.  i»f  Frederick,  hns  4  churches.  :'.  sehonis,  I  iirinting- 
ofiiec.  2  hotels. a  lodge  of  Red  Men  mid  1  of  (lood  Templars, 
and  stores,  8hnp>i,  etc.  The  principal  business  of  tbo  sur- 
rounding neighborhood  is  farming.      Pop.  3281. 

J.  S.  L.  RoDuiCK,  El).  "Tiir.  Ranvku  of  LifiiiT." 

I^iberty,  poattp.  of  Jackson  co.,  Mich.     Pop.  1070. 


1760 


LIBERTY— LIBERTY,  RELIGIOUS. 


Liberty,  posl-v.,  cap.  of  Amite  co..  Jliss.,  has  5  churches, 
2  newspapers,  .'i  hotels.  L'  drug  nud  several  other  stores. 
Principal  business,  cotlnn-plaulinj;.     Pop.  jlio. 

Miss  P.  W.  FuHSVTHE,  En.  "Advocate." 
Ijiberty,  tp.  of  Adair  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  834. 
Liberty,  Ip.  of  Bollinger  co.,  .Mo.     Pop.  1680. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Callaway  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1646. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Cape  Girardeau  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  870. 
Liberty,  post-v.  and  tp.,  cap.  of  Clay  co..  Mo.,  on  the 
Hannilial  and  St.  Joseph  R.  R,  ( Kans,as"hranch),  Ifi  milps 
S.  of  Jlolt,   has   2   weeklv   newspapers   and  considerable 
trade.     Pop.  of  v.  1700  ;  of  tp.  4Hal. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Cole  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  901. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  Mo.     P.ip.  1071. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Daviess  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  781. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Grundy  co..  Mo.     Pop.  103C. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Iron  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  479. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Macon  co..  Mo.     I'op.  1210. 
liiberty,  tp.  of  Madison  co..  Mo.     Pop.  480. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Marion  co.,  Mo.,  contains  Palmyra 
(whi(:h  see).     Pop.  .'iS71. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Phelps  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  470. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Pulaski  co..  Mo.     Pop.  893. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Putnam  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1174. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Schuyler  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1529. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  St.  Fran}ois  co..  Mo.     Pop.  1405. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Stoddard  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  1.107. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  772. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Washington  co.,  Mo.     Pop.  879. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Cass  co..  Neb.     Pop.  400. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Gage  co.,  Neb.     Pop.  770. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Richardson  co..  Neb.     Pop.  506. 
Liberty,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Sullivan  co.,  N.  Y..  on  the 
New  York  and  Oswego  Midland  R.  R.     The  township  has 
an  uneven  surface,  with  two  ponds,  the  chief  industry  be-  I 
ing  dairying  and  stock-raising.    The  village  has  4  churches, 
2  weekly  newspapers,  and  a  normal  institute.     There  are 
5  other  post-offices   within   the  township— Liberty  Falls, 
Parksville,   Red    Rrick.    Robertsonville,  and  StevcnsviUe. 
Pop.  of  v.  about  500  ;  of  tp.  33S9. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Lincoln  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1170. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Nash  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  2SC0. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Randolph  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1009. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Yadkin  co.,  N.  C.     Pop.  1588. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Adams  co.,  0.     Pop.  1377. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  IJutler  co.,  0.     Pop.  1443. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Clinton  co.,  0.     Pop.  1184. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Crawford  co.,  0.     Pop.  1597. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Delaware  eo.,  0.     Pop.  1395. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Fairfield  co.,  0.     Poji.  3000. 
Liberty,  a  V.  (Kimbolton  P.  0.)and  tp.  oftiuernsey  co., 
0..  0  miles  N.  of  Cambridge.     Pop.  of  v.  169 ;  of  tp.  1163. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Hancock  co.,  O.     Pop.  1011. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Hardin  co.,  0.     Pop.  2308. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Henry  co.,  0.     Pop.  1760. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Highland  co.,  0.,  contains  the  village 
of  Hillsborough.     Pop.  51S9. 

Liberty,  tp.  of  Jackson  co.,  0.     Pop.  1747. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Kno.\  co.,  0.     Pop.  959. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Licking  co.,  0.     Pop.  837. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Logan  eo.,  0.     Pop.  1624. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Mcreer  co.,  0.     Pop.  779. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Putnam  co.,  0.     Pop.  1120. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Ross  eo.,  0.     Pop.  1460. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Seneca  co.,  0.     Pop.  1668. 
Liberty,  ip.  of  Trumbull  co.,  0.     Pop.  2420. 
Liberty,  ip.  of  Union  co.,  0.     Pop.  1414. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Van  Wert  co.,  0.     Pop.  1174. 
Liberty,  Ip.  of  Washington  co.,  0.     Pop.  1632. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Wor>d  co.,  0.     Pop.  905. 
Liberty,  (p.  of  Adams  co..  Pa.     Pop.  860. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Bedford  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  806. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Centre  co..  Pa.     Pop.  1062. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  McKean  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1093. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Mercer  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  034. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Montour  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1229. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Susquehanna  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1030. 


Liberty,  post-tp.  of  Tioga  co.,  Pa.     Pop.  1379. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Orangeburg  co..  S.  C.     Pop.  408. 
Liberty,  post-v.,  caj).  of  Liberty  co.,  Tex.     Pop.  458. 
Liberty,  ]iost-v.  and  tp..  cap.  of  Bedford  co.,  Va.,  on 
the  Atlantic  .Mississippi  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  25  miles  W.  of 
Lynchburg,  has  7  tobacco-factories,  with  2  large  additional 
ones  in   course   of  construction,  2   tobacco-warehouses,  2 
banks,  a  school,  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  7  churches.    The 
Peaks  of  Otter,  10  miles  distant,  rival  the  White  Mountains 
in  grandeur  and  sublimity.     Pop.  of  v.  1208;  of  tp.  5840. 
Jamks  R.  Grv,  Ed.  "  Bedford  Sextixel  asd  News." 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Marshall  co..  West  Va.     Pop.  2062. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Ohio  co.,  West  Va.     Pop.  1362. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Grant  co.,  Wis.     Pop.  907. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Manitowoc  co..  Wis.     Pop.  1430. 
Liberty,  tp.  of  Outagamie  eo..  Wis.     Pop.  461. 
Liberty,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Vernon  co..  Wis.,  9  miles 
S.  E.  of  Viroqua.  and  on  Kickapoo  River.     Pop.  414. 

Liberty  Grove,  tp.  of  Door  oo..  Wis.,  on  Green  Bay 
and  Lake  Michigan.     Pop.  333. 

Liberty  Hill,  posl-v.  of  Williamson  co.,  Tci.  Pop.  47. 
Liberty,  Religious.  The  distinction  is  quite  clear 
and  broad  between  what  is  civil  and  wh.at  is  religious. 
Civil  government  is  not  to  support  or  binder  any  form  of 
religion.  Privileges  are  not  to  be  granted  nor  arc  injuries 
to  be  inflicted  because  of  religious  belief.  A  state  is  mani- 
festly unable  to  e.\ercise  minute  supervision  over  religious 
opinions.  The  state  cannot  go  behind  the  overt  act.  Re- 
ligion looks  to  tlic  posture  of  the  mind  and  the  heart. 
Men  are  bound  to  submit  their  judgment  on  points  of  faith 
to  no  visible  body.  Religious  liberty  is  absolute  freedom 
of  religious  opinion  and  worship,  the  equality  of  all 
churches,  religious  associ.-itions,  or  persons  in  the  way  of 
protection  or  restraint  by  the  legally  expressed  will  of  the 
nation.  Toleration  is  the  assumption  ot'  the  right  by  civil 
process  to  control  religious  affairs.  Toleration  cj-  ri'  ler- 
iniiii  implies  that  the  slate  prefers  one  or  more  forms  of 
belief,  but  graciously  allows  others.  To  permit  implies  the 
right  to  prevent. 

The  New  Testament  contains  no  precept  favoring  a  na- 
tional or  state  religion,  or  interference  by  government  with 
the  right  of  worship.  It  recognizes  a  clear  distinction  be- 
tween "the  things  which  are  God's"  and  "the  things  which 
are  C;csar"s."  Disciples  of  Christ  were  such  not  by  com- 
pulsion, but  by  free  choice.  The  kingdom  set  up  was  not 
of  this  world,  acknowledged  no  temporal  head,  asked  no 
help  from,  nor  alliance  with,  civil  power.  T'ntil  the  third 
century  I'hristianily  had  the  hostility  of  governments.  A 
state  religion,  under  pagan  governments,  subjected  the 
early  Christians  to  severe  persecutions.  Unfortunately, 
Constanline  in  313  established  Christianity  by  law,  and 
since  that  lime  Christians,  when  they  have  obtained  pow- 
er, have  allied  their  religion  with  civil  authorities.  When 
papacy  was  established  and  became  strong,  thegovcrnments 
of  Europe  were  not  so  much  in  alliance  with,  as  in  sulijec- 
tion  to,  the  ecclesiastical  power.  According  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  theory,  states  have  rights  only  bv  permission  of 
superior  authority  expressed  through  the  Church.  When, 
as  the  result  of  the  Reformation,  several  slates  in  Europe 
renounced  the  authority  of  the  pope.  Protestant  kings  and 
governments,  as  a  substitute  lor  papal  dominion,  a.-sumed 
to  themselves  authority  over  religion.  In  some  instances, 
when  the  pope's  authority  ceased  in  the  realm,  much  of  the 
authority  exercised  by  him  was  claimed  by  sovereigns,  who 
became  the  licads  of  the  Church  in  their  respective  domin- 
ions. Civil  governments  in  Europe  universally  claimed 
and  exorcised  the  right  of  legislating  upon  ecclesiastical 
and  s|)iritual  matters.  The  power  of  legislation  or  control 
extended  to  the  very  being  and  constitution  of  the  state 
Church  —  to  its  creed,  ministry,  offices,  and  ordinances. 
The  Church  became  comjdelely  at  the  disposal  of  the  civil 
power  in  temporalities  and  in  spiritual  comlition. 

.As  the  result  of  this  claim  on  the  jiart  of  the  separate 
governnionis,  a  national  Church  was  established  in  each. 
The  Church  thus  established  or  denomination  taken  into 
alliance  became  the  recipient  of  state  favors,  was  supjiorl- 
cd  by  stale  property,  endowed  with  manifold  and  exclusive 
privileges,  ami  became  a  part  of  the  government.  These 
national  establishments  rested  at  first  on  the  prineijde  of 
making  citizenship  and  church-membership  coextensive. 
To  secure  conformity  and  crush  dissent,  lives  were  some- 
times taken,  properly  confiscated,  civil  and  educational 
disabilities  imposed,  ami  other  repressive  measures  enacted 
and  enforced.  Under  the  humanizing  influences  of  Chris- 
tian civili2.ation  this  harshness  has  been  greatly  modified. 
In  every  government  of  Europe  there  has  been  more  or 
less  relaxation  of  rigid  rules.  Toler.-ition  is  becoming  gen- 
eral, and  the  tendency  is  towards  unrestrained  liberty  of 


LIBERTYVILLE-LIBRARY. 


1761 


worship.     In  Franco  several  denominations  receive  gov- 
ernment patronage.     In  Germany,  although  the  govern- 
ment claims  the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  there 
is  little  interference  with  the  right  of  worship.     In  Russia 
iiroeress  has  not  been  so  marked,  but  even  there  the  public 
opinion  of  Christendom  has  made  itself  felt  in   opening 
prison-doors  and  obtaining  exemptions.     The  revolutions 
in  Spain  and  Italy  have  rid  those  countries  of  former  cx- 
clu»ivenc",  and  now  different  forms  of  faith  are  entitled 
to  protection.     In  Great  Britain  the  change  has  been  mar- 
vellous.    Tho  colonics  enjoy  perfect   liberty   of  religion. 
The  Anglican  Church  has  been  disestablished  in  Ireland. 
It  «lill  remains  the  establishment  in  England,  as  the  Fres- 
bylerian  is  the  establishment  in  Scotland,  with  many  priv- 
ileges, but  there  is  now  no  public  position,  not  ecclesiasti- 
cal, for  tho  tenure  of  which  a  particular  religious  belief  is 
required,  except  tho  throne  and  the  office  of  governor  of  a 
few  colle-es.     These  reforms  in  Europe  indicate  tho  irre- 
sistible advance  of  public  sentiment.     Propagation  of  rc- 
li.»ion  has  almost  ceased  to  bo  regarded  as  one  of  Iho  ends 
of  government.     It  has  been  found  quite  as  easy  to  perse- 
cute or  bribe  into  one  religion  as  into  another.     The  con- 
nection of  Church  and  Slate  is  increasingly  reg.arded  as 
corrupting  to  the  Church,  destructive  of  the  purity  and  spi- 
rituality of  religion,  and  antagonistic  to  the  rights  of  men. 
The  success  and  popularity  of  American  ideas  of  govern- 
ment have  contributed  largely  to  these  gratifying  results. 
A  distinctive  American  principle  of  government  is,  that 
what  is  religious  is  necessarily,  from  its  very  character, 
beyond  the  control  of  the  civil  government.     In  the  U.  S. 
religious  liberty  is  an  absolute  prnmnal  right.    All  denomi- 
na'fons,  churches,  and  religious  faiths  are  equal  and  free 
in  tho  eve  of  the  law.     Xone  receive  gratuities,  none  arc 
subjected  to  inequalities.    There  is  entire  divorce  of  Church 
and  Slate.     So  long  as  private  rights  are  not  violated,  no 
one  is  restrained  from  publishing  or  advocating  his  opin- 
ions on  religion  or  morals.     Voluntaryism  is  tho  universal 
rule.  Worship  is  sustained,  ministers  arc  supported,  church- 
houses  are  built,  missionary  operations  are  carried  on,  by 
purely  voluntary  contributions.     The  Constitution  of  the 
U.  S.  contains  these  two  articles:  "No  religious  test  shall 
ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  U.  S. :"  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law  re- 
specting an  cstablishmont  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof."    The  State  constitutions  are  equally 
emphatic,  and  generally  more  specific  in  the  expression  of 
their  jealousy  of  ecclesiastical  ambition  and  sectarian  in- 
tolerance.    Absolute  religious  liberty  is  the  contributioti 
of  the  U.  S.  to   the  science  of  politics.     Many  external 
causes  conspired  to  give  us  the  vantage-ground  in  the  es- 
tablishment  of  soul  liberty.     To  Rhode  Island  belongs  tho 
pre-eminent  honor  of  being  the  first  state  m  tho  world  to 
incorporate  in  its  organic  law,  and  to  practise,  absolute  re- 
ligious liberty.     Other  colonics  set  up  some  forms  of  Chris- 
tian worship  and  established  some  articles  of  faith.     In 
New  En"land  a  kind  of  theocratic  government  was  estab- 
lished,   "in  South  Carolina,  New  York,  and  Virginia  tho 
Episcopal  Church  was  established.    In  some  of  these  States 
harsh  attemiits  were  made  to  enforce  conforinily.     \  cry 
early  there  was  positive  and  prolonged  resistance  to  the 
attempt  to  perpetuate  the  establishment  of  tho  English 
Church  in  tho  cidonics,  and  the  evidence  is  conclusive  that 
such  an  attempt  hastened  the  beginning  and  aided  in  Iho 
success  of  the  American  Hcvolution.      J.  h.  M.  tf  buy. 

Lib'erty ville,  post-v.  and  tp.  of  Lake  co.,  111.,  32  miles 
N.  W.  of  Chicago.     Pop.  12;)0. 

Libocc'drus  [Or.  A.So«,  "tears,"  or  "frankincense," 
and  rclrw,  "the  ce.lar"],  a  genus  of  conilerous  trees,  of 
which  four  species  arc  known— two  in  New  Zealand,  one 
in  Chili,  and  ono  (A.  </«u,r<ii»)  in  California,  where  it  was 
discovered  by  Eremont,  and  is  now  known  as  "  white  cedar. 
In  France  and  England  it  wa,s  for  some  time  confounded 
with  tho  riiiijii  i/i./nnf.'i  or  arbor  vita)  of  Oregon,  which  it 
somewhat  resenibies.  The  California  species  is  found  only 
in  the  mountains,  generally  at  an  elevation  of  inon  feel  or 
more.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  attaining  a  height  of  120  to 
200  feel,  with  a  trunk  0  or  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  a  pceu 


vhile  the 


liar  fibrous  bark,  much  like  that  of  Snjiinii 


It  has  a  yel- 


lowish wood  of  great  durability,  the  leaves  are  glossy  an 


1 
bright,  and  the  elegant  form  of  the  young  tree  has  brought 
it  into  request  as  an  evergreen. 

I.iboiirnc',  town  of  France,  in  the  government  of 
Oironile,  on  Iho  Iionlogne.  at  its  confluence  with  tho  Isle. 
It  is  a  handsome  and  thriving  town,  with  large  inanulac- 
tures  of  leather,  ropes,  nails,  and  yarn,  and  trade  in  wine, 
salt,  grain,  and  timber.     Pop.  i;(,665. 

I.i'brft  [Eat.,  "The  Halaneo  "],  the  sign  of  the  Zodiac 

which  the  sun  enters  at  the  autumnal  equinox  (about  Sept. 

2:i).  Tho  constellation  Libra  has  no  very  rcinarkablo  stars. 

Vol..  U.  — Ill 


It  corresponds  at  present  to  the  sign  Scorjiio 
sign  Libra  corresponds  to  the  constellation  V  irgo. 

Li'brary  [from  tho  Lat.  libraHum.  a  "  repository  of 
books  ■'],  a  collection  of  volumes,  whether  manuscript  or 
printed,  containing  tho  product  of  human  thought.  Libra- 
ries arc  to  be  ranked  among  tho  foremost  agencies  of  civili- 
zation. The  great  development  which  they  have  undergone 
in  modern  times,  and  especially  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  has  very  nearly  doubled 
the  numerical  extent  of  the  principal  collections,  while  many 
more  progressive  libraries  have  advanced  in  a  still  greater 
ratio. 

The  oldest  approximation  to  libraries  of  which  any  rec- 
ords exist  were  brought  to  light  by  recent  Assyrian  discov- 
eries, and  consist  of  the  Babylonish  books  inscribed  on  clay 
tablets,  supposed  to  have  been  prepared  for  public  instruc- 
tion about  GaO  b.  c.     It  is  said  that  Pisistratus  founded  a 
library  at  Athens  about  537  n.  c.  though  there  is  no  clear 
evidence  of  the  fact.     Strabo  says  that  Aristotle  was  the 
first  known  cidlector  of   a  library,  which  he  bcquealhed 
(B.  c.  322)  to  Thcophrastus ;  and  this  library,  through  suc- 
cessive hands,  at  length  found  its  way  to  Rome  on  the  cap- 
ture of  Athens  by  Sylla.     The  story  of  the  great  Alexan- 
drian library,  founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  and  burned  by 
order  of  tho'  caliph  Omar  in  the  seventh  century,  rests  on 
insufficient  evidence.   Its  alleged  number  of  volumes,  stated 
by  different  writers  at  from  100,000  to  700,000,  so  vastly 
exceeding  tho  aggregate  of  any  library  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
or  indeed  for  three  centuries  alter  the  introduction  of  print- 
in",  throws  discredit  upon  Iho  wlicde  story,  except  the  sin- 
gle fact  of  the  existence  of  a  collection  of  books  at  Alex- 
andria.    Plutarch   says    that  the    library   of    Lueullus   at 
Romo  was  open  to  all,  and  this  antedated  the  library  of 
Pollio,  which  Pliny  asserts  was  the  first  public  library  es- 
tablished at  Rome.     Suetonius  relates  that  Augustus  col- 
lecteil  in  the  temple  of  Aiiollo  two  libraries  of  Greek  and 
Latin    writers,    while   Tiberius   and    Doniilian    assembled 
manuscripts  to  add  to  these  libraries,  and  employed  scribes 
at  Alexandria  to  copy  works  there  preserved.     Many  Ro- 
m.ans,and  notably  Cicero,  collected  extensive  libraries,  not- 
withstanding tho' limitations  which  tho  great  cost  of  copy- 
ing and  tho  scarcity  of  books  and  material  entailed  upon 
tho  collectors,     St.'jeromc  records  that  St.  Pamphilus  of 
CiBsarea  (a.  d.  liO'J)  made  a  collection  of  ;!0,0110  volumes, 
chiefly  religious,  with  a  view  of  lending  them  out  to  read. 
This,'if  authentic,  is  the  first  record  of  a  circulating  library, 
except  some  obscure  notices  in  the  Latin  writers. 

The  libraries  of  the  Mid.llc  Ages  were  very  limited  in 
extent,  and  were  of  monkish  origin.     One  of  the  earliest 
known  was  the  still  existing  library  of  the  Swiss  abbey  of 
St.   Gall,  which  claims  an  antiquity  of    1000    years.     As 
early  as  tho    thirteenth  century  Ibcre  arc    records    of   a 
library-tax  levied  on  all  the  members  of  an  individual  mon- 
astery.    Indeed,  many  mediieval  conventual   inslitutions 
n'ero'univcrsitics  for  t'he  copying  or  reproduction  of  books, 
and  rendereil  incstiniablo  service  in  preserving  before  tho 
invention  of  the  printing-press  precious  manuscripts  which 
mi.'ht  otherwise  have  been  lost.     The  first  approach  to  a 
library  in   England   is  said  to  have    been   nine  precious 
MSS.  brought  by  Augustine  on  ft  mission  from  Pope  Greg- 
ory the  Great  (A.  D.  .')90).  and  preserved  at  Canterbury.    lu 
fiCS  this  deposit  at  the  monastery  of  Christ  Church  was  en- 
larged by  the  library  of  Theoilore  of  Tarsus,  brought  from 
Rome  in  the  same  year.     The  abbey  of  St.   Alban's  had 
gathered  quite  a  collection  by  the  year  1100,  and  other  inon- 
osleries  of  the  English  Benedictines  eolleeleil  a  few  hun- 
dred volumes.     The  monastery  of  Croyland  bad  300  vol- 
umes and  100  tracts,  all  of  which  perished  by  fire  in  lOUl. 
Ricdiard  of  Bury  (a.  n.   1. •;:!:!)  was  an  enthusiastic  book- 
collector,  and  ha's  eloquently  written  in  praise  of  libraries 
in  his  I'UIM'ihInii.    Among  the  earliest  royal  libraries,  that 
of  Charles  VI.  of  France  numbered  1100  v<duines  iu  Ull. 
As  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  royal  library  of 
the  British  crown  contained  only  .•1211  voluincs.    In  striking 
contrast  to  this  literary  poverty  in  England  and  France  is 
tho  splendid  library  of  Matthias  Corvinus,  king  of  Hun- 
gary, which  at  his  death  in  1  IHO  numbcriid  .-.0,000  volumes, 
nearly  all  .MSS.     Forty  years  afterward  this  precious  col- 
leclio'u  was  pillaged  and'burneil  by  the  Turks.    Lorenzo  dc' 
Medici  gathered  a  great  library,  which  still  forms  the  basis 
of  tho  Laureiiliaii  library  of  Florence.     In  l.'iJtt  the  royal 
library  of  France,  then  containing  2000  volumes  (of  which 
imlv  riboul  200  were  prinloil  books),  received  by  royal  ordi- 
nai'iee  the  privilege  of  a  cony  of  every  book  printed  in 
France.     This  was  tho  foundation  of  the  copy-tax,  which 
has  been  Iho  means  of  enriching  so  many  of  the  great  gov- 
ernment libraries  of  Europe.     That  of  France  had  grown 
to  200,000  volumes  as  early  as  17S0.  and  was  then,  as  now, 
the  foremost  library  in  the  worbl.     Italy,  which  has  l.ing 


enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  rich  in  libraries,  and  which 
possesses  many  manuscript    treasures   and   early  printed 


1762 


LlBIiARY. 


books,  i-s  poor  in  collections  of  modern  literature.  The 
library  of  tbu  Vatican,  the  most  preL-ioua  in  Kour',  contains 
about*lUO,UOO  volumes  of  printed  boukw  aud  26,UUU  MSS. 
In  Germany,  the  land  of  books  and  universities,  aro  more 
libraries  of  great  exteut  and  value  than  in  any  other  Eu- 
ropean country.  Petzholdt.  in  his  AdrcHubuth  dcr  Uih- 
liothfkcn  DetUechlandi  (1875).  enumerates  10  U  libraries 
of  all  grades  in  Germany.  Austria,  an<l  Switzerland,  twenty 
of  which  contained  over  200,000  volumes  each.  Tholarf^cst 
collentiona  aro  the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin.  700.000  vol- 
umes, including  pamphlets ;  the  Imperial  Public  Library, 
Vienna,  400,000;  the  Royal  Public  of  Dresden,  500,000, 
and  100,000  pamphlets ;  and  the  Royal  Library  at  Munich, 
■JOO.OOO  books,  to  which  must  be  added  400,000  pam])hlcts. 
The  latter  library  has  lung  passed  in  statistical  tables  as 
the  second  in  Europe;  this  claim  was  based  on  the  fal- 
lacious system  of  enumeration,  which  counted  every  thesis 
and  tract  as  a  separate  book — a  metliod  which  would  swell 
many  collections  in  our  table  to  double  the  figiirt-s  claimed 
for  them.  France  has,  besides  the  National  Library,  half 
a  dozen  collections  of  100,000  volumes  or  upward,  and  the 
provincial  libraries  of  that  country  furnish  superior  oppor- 
tunities for  improvement.  Spain  ha;-  about  SO  jiublic 
libraries,  containing  altogether  some  700,000  volumes,  of 
which  the  largest,  the  National  Library  at  Madrid,  has 
220,000.  The  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Petersburg,  now 
containing  over  l.ilOO.OOO  volumes,  is,  next  to  the  libraries 
of  Paris  and  tho  Briti.^h  Museum,  the  richest  in  Europe. 
Of  Northern  European  liliraries,  the  Royal  at  Copenhagen 
contains  500,000  volumes,  all  others  being  of  small  account 
in  comparison. 

In  England  the  library  of  the  British  Museum  dwarfs 
all  other  collections.  Founded  in  175.3  by  the  wise  and 
timely  purchase  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane's  collection  for  £liO.OOO, 
it  received  no  other  grant  of  public  money  for  its  increase 
until  1S07,  or  more  than  half  a  century.  But  it  has  been 
fortunate  in  munificent  gifts  of  many  valuable  private  col- 
lections, and  during  the  last  thirty  years  there  has  been  a 
systematic  and  highly  successful  eflbrt  to  collect  in  London 
a  great  monumental  library  whose  fundamental  idea  should 
be  inclusivcncss,  not  exelusiveness.  For  many  years  past 
the  sum  expended  for  books  and  binding  has  been  £10,000 
(or  SsO,000)  annually,  and  the  British  Museum  Library 
now  counts  1,150,000  volumes.  Next  to  this  stands  tho 
Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  the  oldest  and  most  valuable 
collection,  next  to  the  British  Museum,  in  England,  now 
numbering  over  3;)0, 000  volumes.  The  library  of  the  Faculty 
of  Advocates  of  Edinburgh  stands  next,  with  oOO.OOO  vol- 
umes. The  University  of  Cambridge  numbers  250,000,  and 
the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  has  about  150,000. 
These  live  libraries  enjoy  the  benefit  of  tho  copy-tax,  and 
can  each  claim  one  copy  of  every  work  printed  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  Great  Britain  there  are  only  nino 
libraries  exceeding  100,000  volumes  each.  Provincial  and 
town  libraries  are,  however,  springing  up,  having  been 
originated  as  recently  as  1850  with  the  Manchester  Free 
Library.  Tho  fact  that  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half 
after  Shakspcarc'a  time  there  was  no  ]iublie  library  in  Lon- 
don speaks  volumes  as  to  the  very  recent  development  of 
this  means  of  public  enlightenment. 

In  tho  U.  S.  the  annals  of  tho  foundation  and  growth  of 
libraries  show  that  while  our  collections  can  never  hope  to 
rival  those  of  Europe  in  manuscripts  or  early  printed  books, 
they  will  one  day  equal  them  in  the  number  and  extent  of 
the  collections.  The  first  foundation  of  an  American  library 
was  in  10;iS,  when  the  library  of  Harvard  College  was  started 
at  Cambridge.  Mass.  In  1700  a  public  library  was  founded 
at  New  York  City,  which  was  known  for  over  half  a  century 
as  the  City  Library,  but,  not  flourishing  in  that  form,  was 
converted  into  a  subscription  library  in  1751,  becoming  tho 
New  York  Society  Library.  Y'ale  College  Library  was 
founded  in  17011.  In  17111,  Dr.  Franklin  and  his  associates 
founded  in  Philadelphia  a  library  company  still  in  exist- 
enoe.  which  has  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  subscrip- 
tion or  proprietary  library  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
At  the  date  of  its  formation  no  town  in  England  possessed 
a  subscription  library.  The  Library  of  Congress — or.  as  it 
was  called  in  its  ffrst  general  catalogue,  the  Library  of  the 
United  States — was  founded  in  18U0,  on  the  establishment 
of  tho  seat  of  government  at  Washington.  The  Capitol 
and  library  having  been  burned  in  1S14  by  the  British 
army,  Congress  purchased  ex-Prcsidcnt  Jefferson's  c(dlec- 
tiou  of  700O  volumes  as  the  basis  of  a  new  library,  which 
was  gradually  increased  until  IS51,  when  it  had  reached 
65,000  vohnncs,  and  was  again  nearly  consumed  by  fire, 
only  20,000  volumes  being  saved.  Tho  collection  has  since 
grown  with  rapidly  acc(derating  volume, until  it  now  numbers 
over  280,000  books,  besides  50,000  i>amplilels.  The  valuable 
scientific  library  of  tho  Smithsonian  Institutitm  was  incor- 
porated with  tho  collection  in  1800.  The  Library  of  Con- 
gress is  rich  in  history,  jurisprudence,  political  science,  and 


books  relating  to  America,  while  no  other  department  of 
letters  has  been  neglected  in  its  formation.  It  is  the  ouly 
American  library  receiving  the  benefit  of  the  copyright 
law,  through  which  it  will  in  time  come  to  possess  an  ap- 
proximately comjdolo  representation  of  tho  entire  product 
of  tho  American  press.  The  ])reservation  in  .a  national  fire- 
proof repository  of  all  tho  national  literature,  with  a  selec- 
tion of  tho  best  literature  of  all  other  countries,  is  a  boon 
which  will  be  more  and  more  appreciated  by  scholars  with 
the  advancing  development  of  tho  country.  Next  to  tho 
Library  of  Congress  in  numerical  extent  stands  tho  Public 
Library  of  Boston,  founded  in  1848,  and  now  numbering 
225,000  volumes,  besides  60,000  moro  in  its  eleven  branches 
or  subsidiary  libraries  in  tho  suburbs  of  that  city.  This  is 
unquestionably  tho  most  widely  useful  collection  of  books 
in  America,  lending  its  volumes  froo  of  charge  to  all  citi- 
zens. Its  example  has  been  widely  followed  in  other 
cities  and  towns,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but  in  tho 
V/est,  where  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  have  each  rapidly  in- 
creasing free-lending  libraries,  supported,  like  that  of  Bos- 
ton, by  funds  derived  from  municipal  taxation. 

Tho  school-district  library  system,  originated  by  New 
York  in  1S08,  has  been  adopted  by  ten  to  twelve  States,  tho 
books  collected  being  paid  for  by  a  proportion  of  the  school 
taxation  fund  of  the  respective  States.  The  State  libraries 
of  the  country  are  many  of  them  collections  of  considerable 
extent  and  value.  That  of  New  York  at  Alb.iny  is  the 
largest,  numbering  95,000  volumes,  and  furnit^hing  a  model 
of  a  well-stored  and  liberally  managed  public  library,  free 
to  all.  In  tho  other  States,  and  in  all  of  the  Territories, 
libraries  have  been  gathered  at  tho  scat  of  government, 
primarily  for  legislative  uses,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  doc- 
uments, all  of  which  arc,  however,  open  to  public  use  and 
reference. 

A  class  of  subscription  libraries  which  have  had  much 
success  in  America  are  tho  mercantile  libraries,  of  which 
those  of  New  York  and  Boston  were  founded  in  IS20,  tho 
Philadelphia  Mercantile  in   1821,  the  Cincinnati  in  1S.*15, 
j  and  the  San  Francisco  in  185IJ.     Twenty-nine  of  these  li- 
I  braries  were  established  from  1820  to  1870,  inclusive.     Of 
:  professional  libraries,  law,  medical,  theological,  and  seien- 
lific,  there  are  many.    Tho  largest  medical  collection  in  tho 
country  is   tho  library  of   the  surgeon-general's  oflice  at 
I  Washington,  numbering  37,000    volumes;    next  to  which 
;  stands  the  library  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  Philadelphia, 
I  with  18,000.     Several  of  the  historical  societies,  of  which 
more  than  100  havo  been  organized  in  tho  U.  S.  since  1789, 
have  valuable  libraries,  those  of  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts being  especially  rich  in  early   American  books   and 
pamphlets,  and  in  manuscripts.     Public  libraries  founded 
1   by  individual  bequest  are  becoming  numerous.     Some  of 
the  principal    are   tho   Astor    and    the  Lenox   Library  at 
New  York,  the  Watkinson  Reference  Library  at  Hartford, 
and  tho  Pcabody  Institute  Library  at  Baltimore. 

By  tho  census  of  1870  there  were  reported  107,073  private 
libraries  in  the  U.  S.,  containing  25,500,000  volumes.  The 
superintendent  of  tho  census  expresses  the  opinion  that 
this  is  far  below  the  truth  for  tho  whole  country,  and  adds 
that  it  is  difficult  to  sec  what  value  attaches  to  an  enumera- 
tion of  private  libraries  which  includes  such  ephemeral  pro- 
ductions as  school-books,  public  documents,  Sunday-scliool 
literature,  and  pamphlets.  By  the  same  census  the  public 
libraries  in  the  V.  S.,  including  in  that  designation  every 
little  collection  down  to  parishes  and  Sunday  schools,  as 
well  as  iho  large  libraries  ojten  to  public  reference,  num- 
bered 55,580  collections,  aggregating  about  20,000,000  vol- 
umes. According  to  the  report  of  the  bureau  of  education 
for  1874,  the  number  of  libraries  in  the  U.  S.  which  returnetl 
their  statistics  was  "HO,  with  an  aggregate  of  7,700.1 18  vol- 
umes. This  enumeration,  however,  is  properly  confined  to 
the  libraries  which  can  be  fairly  considered  jiublic  or  asso- 
ciated. 

The  following  fable  exhibits  all  the  libraries  of  the  world 
known  to  contain  100,000  volumes  or  upwards  at  the  latest 
dates  : 

City,                                    Library.  Volumes. 

Athens University 125,000 

Auu'sburg City lOO.dOO 

,,      ,                      f  Royal r-'0,ouO 

^*^'"^«'"° i     and  pamphlets ir.0.000 

Bale Public KMI.OOO 

Berlin Royal  700.000 

"       University 115,000 

Bologna University 20n,ono 

Bonn University 1«0,000 

Bordeaux Citv 12:1,000 

„     ,                            (  Puidtc  225,01)0 

^°*'o" (Branches fiO,OnO 

"      Athenceura 108,000 

Brcslau University 340,000 

Brussels Royal 2.')0,on0 

Buda-Pesth Public 200,000 

"         University m'i.OOO 

Cambridge,  Eug University 250,000 


LIBRI  CARRUCCI  DELLA  SOMMAIA— LIBYAN  SEA,  THE. 


1763 


city.  Llbntrr.  Voliimw. 

Cambridge,  Mass....narvar(l  College 210.000 

CarlTulic (iraiid  ducal 110,000 

Camel National 120.000 

Chrialiauia I'niviTsity 200,000 

Copcnliogcn Koyal 500.000 

'     ■•  Univerallv 200,000 

Cracow rnivereltv 140,000 

Darmstadt Grand  ducal  S80.000 

.  (  Rovnl  Publi.- 600,000 

"'■'•'a'^" \     and  pamnlilcis 400,000 

Dublin Trinity  Collece 1.50,000 

Edinburgh Facullv  of  Advocates 300,000 

•■  rnlvcrsitv i:iO,000 

Erianaen University 110,000 

rinri-noe National 200,000 

Krankforl City I.'i0,noo 

KreiburK University 2W.OO0 

(iioMi-n.. ITnlversity l.'iO.OOO 

Gli-Kow Vnivcrsity I0.->,000 

Cotha Diieal 240.000 

GottlnKen University 400,000 

llaRuc Royal 100,000 

Halle Vniveraity 100,000 

lliimburu Citv SOO.OOO 

Hanover Roval  Public 170,000 

HeiilclberfT. University 300,000 

HeislDKfora University 140,000 

Jena University 180,000 

Kiel University 1.10,000 

KiiniKsbcrg Roval  and  University 220,000 

Leipsic City 100,000 

•'       University SoO.OOO 

Li.sbon National 100,000 

Liverpool Public  100,000 

London British  Museum 1,1.10,000 

Lvons City 120,000 

Madrid National 220.000 

Manchester Public 120,000 

Marburg. University 120,000 

Mentz City 110,000 

Mexico National 100,000 

Milan Anibroslan 100,000 

"     Brera 18.1,000 

Modcna Esll 100,000 

aioscow University 100,000 

.,      ,,  (Roval 400.000 

*'''""^" t     and  pamphlets 400,000 

Universilv 2«0.000 

Mfinster Royal  Paul 100,000 

Naiilfs National 2«i).000 

New  Haven Yale  College 101,000 

New  York Astor 1.10,000 

Mercantile lf.0,000 

Oxford Bodleian 3:10,000 

Padua University 100,000 

Paris National 2,000,000 

Arsenal 225,000 

"     St.  Genevieve 200.000 

"    Sorbonne llo.oofl 

"     Maiarin IHO.OOO 

"     Institute 100,000 

Parma Public 140,000 

Pracuo University 1.12,0(iu 

Rome Vatican 101,000 

"     Casanata 100,000 

"     Angelica 100,000 

Rouen  City 120,000 

R„»l,>ck  University 140,000 

St.  Pelersburf Imperial 1,100,000 

"  Academy  of  Sciences i:io,ooo 

Stockholm  Royal 12.1,000 

Slra.il)Ourg Uity.„ 3l)0,00« 

Stuttgart Royal  Public 180,000 

Treves City 100,000 

TObiniicu University 220,000 

Turin University 1.10,000 

llpsal University 1.10,000 

Venice SI.  Murk's ISO.OIH) 

Vienna Irnnerial  Public 400,0(10 

"       University 210,000 

Waiblngton I.ilirarv  of  Congress.. 280,000 

W.iniar (irand  ducal 170,000 

Wolf.iibQtlcl Itrunswiek  Ducal 2.10,000 

Wnrr.burg Universlly 2(HP.O0O 

Zurich City 100,000 

The  subject  of  library  economy  and  inanaf;enicnt  can 
here  bo  touched  on  only  in  the  briefest  manner.  Three 
points  nro  of  cardinal  im|iortance :  library  buildinps,  the 
chisiificalion  of  books,  and  tlio  catuloguc  system.  While 
most  libraries  arc  bestowed  in  dark  and  ill  venliiiited 
builiiings,  (here  arc  some  inoilern  constructions  wliich  afford 
wortliy  repositories  for  the  learning  they  contain.  Kvery 
library  building  should  be  isolated  nnd  fireproof,  with 
adequate  room  for  expansion.  The  classifieatic»n  of  every 
library  by  subject-matters  is  indispensable  to  economy  of 
time  in  ihe  supply  of  books  anrl  information,  and  to  the 
highest  utility  of  the  library.  Yet  many  of  the  eolleotions, 
iiii'ludiug  some  of  the  largest  in  Murope  and  Aincricft,  have 
no  principle  of  arrniiKement  other  tlinn  Iho  si/.es  of  the 
volumes  or  the  order  ol  acquisition.  Tlie  calHlo(;ue  system 
most  universally  employed  is  the  card  calalogue  in  inanu- 
si'ript,  by  which  a  strict  alphabetical  arrangement  is  so- 
cured,  and  the  accessions  to  the  library  can  be  kept  con- 
stantly catalogued  up  to  dale.  The  printing  of  catalogues 
has  been  abandoned  by  most  of  the  largest  collections,  in- 


cluding the  principal  government  libraries  of  Europe,  as 
too  expensive  ami  laborious  to  be  kept  up  witiiout  falling 
hopelessly  into  arrears.  When  it  is  considered  how  enor- 
mous is  the  production  of  jpriuted  matter,  and  that  tho 
principal  libraries  both  in  Eurojie  and  in  the  U.  S.  have 
doubled  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  this  deprivation 
to  tho  public  of  the  boon  of  printed  catalogues  of  tlio 
largest  eoUectious  is  partiall.v  explained.  Yet  there  is  no 
library  hitherto  gathered,  however  large,  which  contains 
anything  like  a  complete  collection  of  the  literature  of  all 
nations,  or  even  of  its  own.  Every  national  library  should 
have  for  its  object  the  collection  and  preservation,  on  tho 
exhaustive  system,  of  all  that  the  country  within  which  it 
is  located  produces.  The  use  of  a  great  library  is  not  for 
one  generation  only,  but  its  value  is  developed  by  passing 
into  the  hands  of  successive  generations,  and  furnishing  a 
complete  record  of  the  progress  of  letters  from  age  to  age. 
The  private  libraries  of  a  country,  after  they  have  served 
their  purpose  to  the  owners,  continually  tend  to  feed  tho 
public  collections.  A  great  capital  like  London,  Paris,  or 
New  York  constantly  receives  a  flood  of  private  libraries, 
whicii  are  poured  into  auctions  or  otherwise  sold,  and  from 
them  the  vigilant  enlleclors  for  our  public  libraries  arc 
always  recruiting  and  enriching  them. 

The  relation  of  libraries  to  popular  education  has  como 
into  prominence  onl,y  within  tho  last  few  years.  If,  as 
Carlyle  remarks,  "the  true  university  of  these  days  is  a 
collection  of  books,"  and  all  edncntion  is  to  teach  us  how 
to  read,  the  importance  of  cherishing  and  e.-vtenJing  thcso 
aids  to  civilization  can  hardly  bo  overrated.  A  good 
library  is  like  a  dictionary — not  a  mere  mass  of  pages  to 
be  read  through,  but  a  v.ast  repository  of  learning  for  tho 
continual  use  and  reference  of  all  comers.  That  is  the  best 
library,  and  he  is  the  most  useful  lil)rarian,  by  whoso  aid 
every  reader  is  enabled  to  put  his  finger  on  tho  fact  ho 
wants  at  the  moment  it  is  wanted.  A.  II.  SporrouD. 

Li'bri  Carnic'ci  del'ln  Sommai'a  (Gitili.ahmf. 
BniiTUs  Ini.us  TiMOi.to.v),  Coi^vt,  b.  at  I'lorcneo  Jan.  2, 
1803  ;  studied  mathematics,  and  was  appointed  professor 
at  tho  l^niversity  of  Pisa,  but  being  implicated  in  the  po- 
litical disturbances  of  IS;;0,  fled  to  Franco,  where  he 
was  naturalized  in  ls;j;i:  first  ingratiated  himself  with 
Arago,  and  became  professor  at  the  Sorbonne:  then  with 
Guizot,  and  was  made  inspector-general  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  public  libraries;  but  in  1.S17  was  accused  of  steal- 
ing large  numbers  of  costly  books  from  the  libraries,  and 
was  condemned  to  ten  years'  imprisonment,  lie  had  fled 
to  England,  however,  and  returned  afterwards  to  Florence, 
where  he  d.  Sept.  2S,  lS(iU.  His  Histoirc  dcs  ScieuccH  lunthf- 
yytatiifiicH  en  Itii(iv{  Paris,  l.'t.'JS—ll )  enjoys  a  great  reputation, 
as  do  also  his  numerous  annotated  catalogues. 

Liblir'nia,  in  ancient  geography,  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Illyricum  extemling  along  tho  coast  of  the  Adriatic 
in  the  present  Croatia  and  Dalmatia.  Its  inhabitants  wero 
famous  as  sailors,  or  rather  as  pirates,  and  from  tliein  tho 
Romans  adojjtcd  those  small,  fast-sailing  vessels  with  tho 
one  large  lateen  sail  which  were  known  under  tho  name  of 
naccH  Littiinw,  or  simjily  Lihiiniir. 

Lib'ya,  the  name  which  often  was  given  by  Iho  an- 
cients to  the  whole  continent  of  Africa,  but  which  was 
generally  applied  only  to  that  part  which  is  now  cjillcd  tho 
Libyan  Desert,  extending  from  Egypt  to  Fezzan  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  Darfoor,  and  consisting  of  vast  stony 
terraces,  sometimes  co\'ered  with  sand  and  gravel,  aud 
eometimes  broken  by  oases,  Seewah  being  the  largest. 

Jiib'yans,  The,  occupied  in  ancient  times  Iho  wholo 
northern  coast  of  Africa  with  the  exception  of  the  delta  of 
the  Nile,  and  according  to  Lepsius  and  other  ^Egyptologists 
they  probably  at  one  time  occupied  this  territory  too,  but 
were  driven  out  by  the  Egyptians.  They  were  a  .seafaring 
nation,  and  harassed  the  Egyptians  with  continuous  in- 
vasions, until  their  power  was  checked  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury B.  r,  by  Tholhines  III.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
n.  c,  when  Ihe  Pelnsgians  on  the  nortlicrn  coasts  of  Iho 
Meiliterrancan  haci  acquired  some  imporlanco  on  Ihe  sea, 
the  liibyans  renewed  their  attacks  on  Egypt  in  eonnectitin 
with  the  Tyrrhenians  and  Aehicans,  nnd  conquered  T^owcr 
Egypt,  but  were  entirely  defeated  by  Rameses  II,  At  tho 
period  when  the  PlKenieiaiis  founded  Carthage,  and  tho 
If  reeks  Cyrene.tbe  Libyans  seem  to  have  become  enfeebled. 
They  were  pressed  back  from  Ihe  coast,  ami  submitted  com- 
pletely to  Ihe  Uoinans,  and  fell  partly  into  barbarism.  (With 
respecTt  to  their  ethnographical  and  linguislical  relations, 
see  Ihe  articles  Hkkiikiis,  M.^n  and  his  iMicu.itioss,  and 
Skmitic  Hacks  ano  Lanocaoks.) 

Libyan  Sen,  The,  in  ancient  geography,  was  that 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  which  is  situated  between  tho 
island  of  Crete,  the  delta  of  Iho  Nile,  and  tho  territory  of 
Carthage,  or  Africa  proper.  Sj/rtls  Mnjor  and  Syrtis  Minor 
were  iulots  of  tho  Libyan  Sea- 


176-4 


LICATA— LICENSE. 


Licata.    Sco  Aucata. 

Li'cense  [Lat.  licmda']  signifies  primarily  permission, 
and  as  used  in  la\v  denotes  a  privilege,  po\Ter.  or  antliority 
granted  by  an  individual  or  a  public  or  private  body  to  do 
a  specified  act  or  series  of  acts,  to  earry  on  n  particular  oc- 
cupation, and  the  like.  Thus,  an  oral  permission  given 
by  a  landowner  to  another  person  to  pass  over  the  land  or 
to  erect  buildings  or  otlier  structures  upon  it  is  a  lieensc. 
Trades  of  various  kinds  are  frequently  so  regulated  that 
the  right  to  follow  them  depends  upon  statutory  license,  as, 
for  instance,  to  pell  liquors,  to  keep  a  tavern,  to  engage  in 
hawking  and  peddling,  etc.  This  variety  of  licenses  will 
be  considered  under  the  topic  Licensk  Laws  (wliich  see). 
The  subject  of  license  has  particular  importance  in  law 
with  reference  to  real  property,  and  will  be  examined  in 
this  article  wholly  from  this  point  of  view.  A  license  ap- 
pertaining to  land  must  be  distinguished  from  an  ease- 
ment. An  easement  is  a  permanent,  irrevocable  interest  in 
the  land,  which,  in  accordance  with  thn  requirements  of  the 
statute  of  frauds,  can  be  strictly  created  only  by  a  sealed 
instrument  called  a  grant,  or  its  equivalent,  prescription. 
(Sco  Easemen-t;  FrtArns,  Stattte  of  :  Pkesckiptiox.)  An 
easement  amounts  in  reality  to  an  estate  in  the  land,  and 
is  therefore  not  subject  to  ilefeasance  by  any  act  of  the 
grantor,  except  when  depending  upon  a  condition.  A 
license,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  mere  privilege  or  authority 
to  do  a  particular  act  or  series  of  acts  upon  another's  land, 
or  upon  one's  own  land  in  such  a  manner  as  to  deprive  an 
adjacent  owner  of  certain  rights  which  he  possesses,  as, 
e.  ff.,  an  easement  of  light.  It  is  simply  a  permission  of  a 
temporary  nature  not  capable  of  assignment,  and  valid 
though  oral.  It  is  true  that  licenses  are  sometimes  given 
by  instruments  with  or  without  seal,  but  they  would  be  of 
the  same  validity  and  effect  if  granted  orally.  The  ques- 
tion whether  .a  jiarticular  transaction  is  a  license  or  an  ease- 
ment cb'pends  upon  its  nature  and  the  intent  of  the  parties, 
and  not  merely  upon  the  point  whether  there  is  a  writing. 
Licenses  are  either  express  or  implied.  They  are  express 
wlien  permission  is  given  in  definite  and  specific  terras  to 
do  a  jiarticular  act;  implied,  when  from  the  fair  interpre- 
tation f)f  the  dealings  of  the  parties  permission  to  enter 
upcm  the  licenser's  land  or  to  do  any  act  thereon  may  bo 
presumed.  Thus,  if  a  purchase  be  made  of  goods  which 
are  upon  the  land  of  the  vendor,  the  purchaser  has  an 
implied  authority  to  enter  during  a  reasonable  time  in 
ord  M-  to  remove  them.  The  act  of  opening  and  keeping  a 
place  of  business  gives  .in  implied  license  to  any  one  to  enter 
for  the  purpose  of  transacting  such  business  as  is  usually 
carried  on  there.  Thus,  railway  stations  are  kept  for  public 
accommodation,  and  may  be  freely  entered  by  anv  one  who 
desires  to  become  a  passenger.  So  an  entry  into  the  house  of  a 
friend  or  neighbor  for  the  purpose  of  paying  him  a  visit  is 
allowable,  because  the  relations  of  intimacy  between  the  par- 
ties afford  ground  for  a  natural  inference  that  no  objection 
would  be  made.  Onsimilargrounds,  public  officers,  by  a  mere 
rub^  of  law,  sometimes  called  an  implieil  license,  are  justi- 
ficil  in  entering  upon  any  person's  land  to  execute,  when 
necessary,  legal  process.  There  is  no  implied  license,  how- 
evor,  for  an  officer  to  enter  a  man's  dwelling-house  in  the 
service  or  execution  of  civil  process,  unless  ho  finds  it  open. 
There  is  a  maxim  of  law  that  ''every  man's  house  is  his 
castle,''  and  accordingly  it  can  be  only  broken  open  by 
the  pcace-ofBcer  when  the  process  is  criminal,  and  when 
entrance  has  been  demanded  and  refused.  (Seo  ExrcuTiON*, 
Finiu  FiriAS.)  In  this  class  of  cases  the  oiBcers  may  enter 
even  again:«t  the  will  of  the  owner  and  in  disregard  of  his 
exprnps  prohibition  or  remonstrance. 

Licenses  are  further  distinguished  as  executory  and  exe- 
cuted. This  distinction  is  of  considerable  iraportauce,  as 
affe:!ting  the  question  whether  a  license  is  revocable  by  the 
grantor.  Li(icnsc3  are  said  to  i>o  executory  when  the  privi- 
In^n  given  is  yet  to  be  exerci=;ed:  executed,  when  it  has 
already  been  exercised,  either  in  whole  or  in  part.  It  is  a 
general  principle  in  courts  of  law,  as  distinguished  from 
courts  of  equity,  that  all  licenses,  whether  executed  or  ex- 
ecutory, are  revocable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  grantor,  pro- 
vided they  are  not  coupled  with  any  interest  in  property. 
But  when  the  lirenso  is  coupled  with  the  grant  of  an  inter- 
est, or  where  an  interest  exists  whose  value,  continuance, 
and  enjoyment  depend  upon  the  license,  there  is,  in  gen- 
eral, no  power  of  revocation.  Hence,  the  right  of  a  pur- 
chaser of  personal  chattels  to  enter  upon  the  premises  of 
the  vendor  within  a  reasonable  time,  and  remove  the  arti- 
el'  -'  to  which  he  has  acquired  a  right  by  the  sale,  is  irrevo- 
cable by  the  vendor.  Permission  to  fell  and  carry  away 
standing  timber  upon  the  land  of  the  licenser  will  give  an 
irrevocable  right  to  remove  the  timber  after  it  has  been  cut, 
unless  there  be  unrenflouable  dehiy  in  making  the  remov.il. 
Put  until  the  trees  are  felled,  the  privilege,  if  it  does  not 
amount  to  an  easement,  can  be  wilhdrawn.  for  not  until 
that  time  is  any  right  of  ownership  in  the  timber  acquired. 


In  like  manner,  a  license  to  a  person  to  kill  game  for  his 
own  use  upon  the  licenser's  land  will  give  him  an  irrevo- 
cable right  to  carry  away  the  game  which  has  actually  been 
killed.  But  where  there  is  no  proprietary  interest  connected 
with  the  license,  it  is,  if  executory,  revocable  at  any  time. 
For  instance,  a  license  to  hunt  in  a  man's  park,  orto  fish 
in  his  waters,  or  to  pass  through  his  land  gives  the  licensee 
no  permanent  interest,  but  merely  a  privilege  whose  con- 
tinuance depends  entirely  upon  the  will  of  the  landowner. 
It  is  thus  seen  that  no  mere  license  can  create  or  transfer 
an  indefeasible  interest  in  real  property.  A  license  is,  in 
reality,  in  the  nature  of  a  power,  and  is  governed  by  the 
same  general  rule  as  powers,  that  they  are  essentially  revo- 
cable at  the  will  of  the  person  who  creates  them.  (See  Pow- 
ers.) The  same  principle,  qualified  by  previous  statements, 
prevails  in  regard  to  executed  licenses,  except  in  courts  of 
equity.  There  is,  however,  a  distinction  necessary  to  be 
taken  between  such  executed  licenses  as  arc  and  such  as  are 
not  attended  with  expenditure.  Licenses  of  the  latter  class 
are  revocable  at  any  time,  both  at  law  and  in  equity.  A 
license  to  deposit  property — e.  ff.  coal — upon  a  man's"  land 
is  of  this  nature.  But  where  expense  has  been  incurred  in 
carrying  into  effect  the  authority  given  by  the  license, 
courts  of  equity  in  some  of  the  States  adopt  diflTerent  prin- 
ciples from  those  prevailing  in  courts  of  law.  At  law,  it  is 
held  that  though  the  licensee  may  have  sustained  expense, 
and  may  be  subjected  to  necessary  loss  and  injury,  the  au- 
thority may  nevertheless  be  revoked  at  pleasure  by  the 
licenser.  If,  for  instance,  the  licensee  were  to  construct 
a  drain  across  the  licenser's  land  to  carry  off  waste  water 
from  the  premises  of  the  licensee,  the  privilege  might  be 
withdrawn  at  any  time,  even  though  the  drain  may  have 
been  in  use.  So  if  a  house  be  erected  upon  another's  land 
by  license,  the  right  to  occupy  or  use  it  may  be  revoked 
whenever  the  licenser  may  desire.  The  right  of  revocation 
is  sustained  at  law  in  these  and  similar  cases  because  a  con- 
trary rule  would  be  virtually  in  contravention  of  the  statute 
of  frauds,  since  an  indefeasible  interest  in  land  would  bo 
created  without  the  use  of  writing.  But  in  equity  there  is 
not  such  strict  adherence  to  the  provisions  of  the  statute  of 
frauds  as  at  law.  and  they  arc  sometimes  disregarded  when 
to  observe  them  would  be  likely  rather  to  encourage  or  pro- 
mote fraud  than  to  prevent  it,  or  would  operate  as  a  denial 
of  substantial  justice  between  the  parties.  Therefore,  it  is 
held  in  some  States  in  courts  of  equity,  or  in  courts  having 
equitable  powers,  that  where  expense  has  been  incurred  by 
the  licensee  on  the  faith  of  the  license,  so  that  he  would 
sustain  loss  if  it  were  revoked,  no  power  of  revocation  re- 
mains, and  he  acquires  an  absolute  right  to  the  continued  en- 
joyment of  the  license  and  a  permanent  interest  in  the  licen- 
ser's laud.  In  some  cases  the  delivery  of  a  deed  or  writing 
has  been  required  in  order  to  confirm  the  licensee's  right. 
This  equitable  practice  proceeds  upon  the  doctrine  of  equit- 
able estoppel,  (he  view  being  taken  that  the  licensee  should 
not  be  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  expenditure  which  he 
was  encouraged  to  make  by  the  very  party  who  seeks  to 
render  it  fruitless.  (See  Estoppel.)  Equity  treats  the  license 
t  bus  executed  as  a  contract  giving  absolute  riglits.  The  courts 
of  Pennsylvania  have  perhaps  gone  farthest  in  maintaining 
this  doctrine.  But  the  same  general  principle  is  sustained 
by  decisions  iu  England  and  a  number  of  the  States  of  this 
country.  An  executed  license,  on  this  view,  becomes  equiv- 
alent to  an  executed  oral  contract  for  an  easement,  which  is 
treated  as  though  it  were  a  grant  under  senl  in  equity  when 
the  parties  cannot  be  restored  to  their  original  position. 
An  executed  license  is  irrevocable,  both  at  law  and  in 
equity,  when  by  force  of  it  some  act  is  done  upon  the 
licensee's  own  land  the  effect  of  which  is  to  imjiair  or  destroy 
an  casement  appurtenant  to  the  licenser's  property.  If,  for 
instance,  a  landowner  has  an  casement  of  light  over  the 
premises  of  another,  and  gives  permission  to  the  latter  to 
erect  a  wall  or  a  dwelling  in  such  proximity  to  his  land  as 
to  darken  his  buildings  or  entirely  cut  off  the  light,  he  can- 
not countermand  the  lieensc  after  it  has  been  carried  into 
effect.  The  license  when  executed  operates  as  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  licenser's  right  to  the  light,  and  this  is  sufficient 
to  extinguish  an  easement.  This  reasoning  would  not  apply 
to  a  license  executory  in  its  nature. 

A  license  is  a  full  justification  for  acts  done  carefully 
and  prudently  in  pursuance  of  the  authority  given,  and  re- 
lieves the  licensee  from  all  liability  for  such  acts,  and  for 
the  consequences  which  may  subsequently  result  from  tluir 
performance.  The  rale  is  sometimes  expressed  briefly  in 
this  way — that  a  license  excuses  all  trespasses  committetl 
under  it  until  it  is  properly  revoked.  But  for  the  conse- 
quences of  negligence  or  unskilfulness  in  the  performance 
of  the  act  permitted,  the  licensee  will  not  be  relieved.  There 
is  a  legal  obligation  resting  upon  every  man  to  exercise,  in 
respect  to  the  rights  of  others,  a  reasonable  degree  of  care 
and  caution  in  what  he  docs,  and  from  this  duty  the  license 
will  afford  no  exemption.     A  license  is  in  general  a  priri- 


LICENSE— LICENSE  LAWS. 


1765 


lege  of  a  personal  nature.  The  dealh  of  either  party  ope- 
rates as  a  revocation  of  it.  So,  if  the  licenser  conveys  to 
another  the  premises  to  which  the  license  appertains,  it  is 
extinguished  without  any  express  act  of  revocation.  These 
rules   however,  apply  to 'more  licenses,  and  do  not  extend 

to  licenses  coupled  «ith  an  interest.    A  !i«nsoJs  so,nel_an.s  ,  ;—,;^;;;--;i^f  „„,;„„,  „„„„„y:    The  nature  of  thcso 

t"on,  and  the  >  licenses  will  l.Upparent  from  the  following  eN.«nple,whe,o 

licensee    can    recover    back    tho   money    paid.      For    ex 
,  the  sale  of  a  ticket  to  witness  a  theatrical  perform 


«idcred  with  a  view  either  to  certain  unusual  effects  or  to 
enrich  and  strengthen  (even  by  irregular  means)  some 
otherwise  meagre  spot  in  the  harmony.  To  avoid  suspici.>n 
of  ignorance,  it  is  customary  with  some  writers  to  mark 
such  iirogressions  with  the  words  "con  licnna,"  but  in 
Bach.  Ilaydn.  Mendelssohn,  and  many  others  licenses  occur 


granted  upon  the  payment  of  a  consideratio; 
revoked,  there  will  be  a  failure  of  considerati 
license* 

ample, -II, 

ance  or  other  similar  entcrtainiiieht  is  in  general  but  a 
license  to  the  purchaser  to  enter  the  building  and  be  one 
of  the  spectators.  But  the  license  may  be  revoked  before 
the  performance  is  concluded  and  the  purchaser  required 
to  leave  the  premises.  lie  will  in  such  a  case  have  a  claim 
against  the  proprietor  of  tho  theatre  or  other  place  of  en- 
tertainment for  full  reimbursement,  or  for  the  recovery  of 
a  proportional  amount  of  the  sum  he  has  paid,  as  the  case 
may  be.  (Sec  tho  leading  case  of  Wood  v.  Lcadbitter,  13 
Mccson   4  Wclsby's   Reports,  S3S.) 

Geoiice  Chask.  llKvisKn  nv  T.  W.  Dwioht. 
License  [I-at.  /k-.tc  to  "  be  permitted  "].  Tho  tech- 
nical sense  of  this  word  in  music  is  a  liberty  knowingly 
taken  in  violation  of  some  recognized  rule  of  harmony. 
Licenses  are  not  unfrcquently  found  even  in  tho  compo- 
sitions of  the  best  masters,  and  are  therefore  not  to  be  con- 
sidcred  as  results  of  ignorance  or  heedlessness.  They 
dilTcr  also  from  the  mistakes  often  made  by  inexperienced 
composers,  by  being  knowingly  written  and  carefully  con- 
Ex.  2. 


at  «  the  treble  aiid  alto  make  consecutive  fifths  (as  pointed 
out  by  strokes) ;  at  h  similar  fifths  are  made  by  the  lower 
part  with  the  alto  ;  an<l  at  c  the  treble  crosses  the  alto,  and 
unlawfully  duplicates  the  resolution  of  the  seventh,  making 
also  a  hidden  unison  with  the  alto  : 


There  are  many  arpeggio  passages  which,  though  pleasing 
and  satisfactory  even  to  a  cultivated  ear,  arc  nevertheless 
indefensible  except  when  construed  as  licenses.  When  re- 
duced to  plain  chords,  and  so  played,  their  irregular  and 
unscientific  structure  becomes  at  once  apparent,  and  their 
elTcct  is  intolerable  even  to  the  ordinary  car.  An  instance 
of  this  kind,  involving  a  double  train  of  consecutive  fifths, 
may  bo  seen  at  «  in  Kx.  2.  and  tho  same  in  unbroken 
chords  at  6  ; 


By  a  judicious  d!>lr!hiit;nn  of  the  parts  or  voices  the  ill 
effects  more  or  less  inherent  in  licenses  may  be  softened  or 
concealed,  but  the  use  of  thoui  is  always  hazardous,  except 
in  the  hand  of  a  master.  William  Staintox. 

License  (in  legal  pleading).     When  tho  defendant  to 
an  action  relics  upon  a  license  given  to  him  by  the  plain- 
tiff, as  justifying  or  excusirg  either  in  whole  or  in  part  tho 
act  complained  of,  it  is  tho  practice  at  common  law  for  him 
to  answer  the  declaration  of  the  plaintiff  by  a  special  forin 
of  plea  or  answer,  which  is  technically  termed  a  pica  ot 
"  license"  or  of  "leave  and  license."  (See  Dkilauation, 
Pi.tlAniN-o.)     This   form   of  plea  is  most  commonly   em- 
ploycil  in  actions  for  trespass  upon  land,  but  may  bo  also 
resorted  to  in  actions  for  trespass  to  personal  property,  or 
in  actions  of  covenant  or  of  detinue,  or  in  actions  upon 
tho  case.  (Sec  Tkfspass,  Covknast,  DKrisiTK.  Case,  Ac- 
Tioy.)     Every  variety  of  valid    lioonso  derived  from   tho 
plaiiitifT,  whether  it 'be  general  or  jiarticular,  express  or 
implied,  will  support  a  plea  of  license  on  the  part  ol  tho 
defendant.     Thus,   the  permission   or  authority  obtained 
from  tho  plaintiff  may  have  related  to  tho  entire  act  ooni- 
initted,  or  only  to  some  one  or  more  of  a  scries  of  acts;  it 
may  have  biiu  given  in  definite,  specific  terms,  or  it  may 
h;ive  been  rightfully  presumed  by  reason  of  particular  acts 
of  tho  plaintiff,  hi.s  general  conduct,  or  his  management 
and  disposition  of  his  property.    (Illustrations  of  these 
various  kinds  of  licenses  have  already  been  given  under 
tho  topio  Lkf.nse.)     Tho  plea  sh.nild  justify  only  to  tho 
extent  of  the  license  claimcil,  and  so  far  as  it  is  cnpiiKlc  of 
being  establishcil  by  proof.     It  is  a  general  rule  that   a 
liconso  must  bo  specially  pleaded,  and  cannot  bo  given  in 
evidence  under  the  general  issue.   (.Sec  Uexeiial  IssfE.) 
This   is   invariably    true   of    all    forms    of   action    except 
actions  upon  the  ease.     In  these,  however,  a  license  need 
not  bo  pleaded,  but  it  is  tho  practice  to  admit  it  ill  evi- 
dence.    A  plea  of  license  in  an  action  of  covenant  is  not 
sustainable  if  the  license  claimed  is  by  parol,  unless  it  bo 
provided  for  by  the  terms  of  the  deed.     A  parol  discharge 
IS  in  general  inoperative  against  a  ciced.      In  those  States 
whi're  common-law  pleading  has  been  abolished  a  lieenso 
may  still  be  plciided  in  justification,  but  there  is  no  pnrlic- 
ulaV  form  of  plea  or  answer  designated  by  this  spccifio 
name.  (Jeouiie  TiiASE.     Reviskh  nv  T.  W.  Dwiimit. 

License  Laws.  These  arc  statutes  passed  in  tho 
various  Stales  regulating  the  pursuit  of  a  particular  call- 
ing or  business.  It  is  common  in  this  way  to  govern  tho 
sale  of  ardent  spirits  by  innkeepers  or  retail  dealers,  or 
the  sale  of  goods  at  auction  or  by  peddlers,  etc.  The  laws 
of  tho  respective  States  aro  so  varied  upon  this  subject 
lliat  few  general  principles  can  bo  extracted.  Statutes  of 
lliis  kind  rest  largely  upon  rules  of  public  policy  prevail- 
ing in  the  State  which  adopts  Ihein,  ami  lluctu.atc  with  tho 


cban-'cs  of  feeling  continually  occurring  in  society  as  to 
the  best  mode  of  regulating  subjects  having  in  them,  when 
unregulated,  an  element  of  danger  to  social  interests.     M- 
forts  have  frequently  been  made  in  the  courts  to  attack 
these  laws  ou  constitutional  grounds,  as  depriving  a  person 
who  is  required  to  obtain  a  license  of  his  liberty  or  prop- 
erty     Such  a  doctrine  is  untenable.     These  laws  must  bo 
regarded  as  an  exercise  of  police  power  inherent  in  tho 
States,  and  not  withdrawn  by  the  provisions  of  the  U.  S. 
Constitution.     They   simply   direct  how  a  trade  shall   bo 
conducted  in  articles  intimately  connected  with  the  puljlio 
morals  or  public  safety.     The  business  might  be  altogether 
suiipresscd  if  the  public  good  required  it.     It  cannot  bo 
claimed  that  such  a  license  is  a  e.uitract.  but  it  is  merely  n. 
temporary  iicrmission  to  do  what  w.mld  ollicrwiso  be  an 
offence  against  the  general  law.     Accordingly,  if  a  legisla- 
ture has  granted  a  license  to  sell  liquors  for  a  particular 
time   it  may  before  tho  exi.iration  ot  that  time  modify  or 
revoke  it  if  it  see  fit.     This  loiiie  is  well  discussed  in  tho 
case  of  tho  Mr,r„,ml!lan  H,mrd  v.  Uarne,  .U  .New  1  ork 
Reports   fi.iT  ( l.'ilKi).     Congress  in  tho  course  of  its  legisla- 
tion concerning  tho  internal  revenue  has  luirported  to  grant 
a  license  to  carry  on  a  business  coming  williin  tho  polico 
power  of  tho  States.     Though  called  a  license,  such  a  j.ro- 
vision   is   in  substance  a  tux,  and  the  prohibition  under 
penalties  against  carrying  on  the  business  without  liccnso 
is  only  a  mode  of  enloiving  the  payment  of  such  a  tax. 
(r.!rn„r  Tax  (V.«c.,  .',  Wallace  Reports, -lliL',  17.^..)     Sueli  a 
Congressional  -license"  does  not  prevent  the  State  legisla- 
ture, in  the  exercise  of  its  "police  power,"  fn.ni  suppress- 
I  ing  the  traffic  altogether,  even  though  the  "  license     under 
the  U    S  law  was  granted  on  the  payment  ol  a  fee.     All 
,  that  such  a  lieen.«o  means  is,  that  while  the  business  is  al- 
lowed bv  the  State  law  to  be  carried  ou  a  Ice  in  the  nature 
of  a  tax  must  be  paid  to  the  U.  S.     The  legislation  ol  the 
Stalo  and  of  Congress  is  thus  altogether  c.msistent.  (See 
'  the  ea«e  of  M.tlaiv  v.  ('m,um„V'«HU.  :\  Walhico  Reiiorls, 

■  .187  )  The  license  laws  of  the  States  may,  however,  come 
in  conllicl  with  the  V .  S.  Constitution,  as,  for  exaniple, 
where  a  discrimination  is  made  by  a  State  in  favor  of  tlio 
sale  of  its  own  products  or  of  one  made  by  its  own  citizens, 
fulverso  to  one  made  bv  the  cili/.ciis  of  another  State  or  ol 

'.  its  iiroducts.     Such  a  law  may  conlliet  with  the  jmwer  ol 

■  Congress  "to  regulate  commerce  among  the  States,^  as  well 
as  with  tho  constitutional  provision  that  tho  "citiiens  of 
each  State  shall  !><■  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties of  citizens  in  the  several  States."  A  corporation  exist- 
ing  in  another  State  cannot  bo  regarded  as  a  "citizen 
within  this  rule,  and  a  State,  so  long  as  it  does  not  mterlero 
with  till'  iiower  of  Congress  to  regulate  commerce,  etc.,  may 
discriminate  against  tho  acts  of  a  non-resident  corporation. 

(Sec  I'KIVII.EUES  AND  IMMUNITIES.)  T.  W.  DwifillT. 


1766 


LICENSE  TO  TRADE— LICHENS. 


License  to  Trade.  la  ioternatiouul  law  this  licence 
(lonotfs  ft  pt-rmistiion  givt-u  by  a  belligerent  government 
through  its  agent,  euch  as  a  comman<Icr  of  a  squadron,  to 
Irailo  with  the  enemy.  It  may  be  given  to  a  neutral  trader 
or  to  a  fellow-subject ;  and  it  generally  specities  the  kind 
of  article?  to  be  conveyed  to  the  enemy,  tbe  port,  the  time, 
perhaps  the  amount.  It  may  allow  of  importation,  and  not 
of  exportation.  Being  a  permission  to  do  something  other- 
wise forbidden,  it  is  of  strict  interpretation,  so  that  to  go 
beyond  its  i^pecifications  would  subject  the  vessel  and  cargo 
to  heavy  penalties,  unless  the  violation  could  be  shown  to 
bo  unavoidable.  Of  course,  the  enemy  is  not  bound  to  re- 
ceive such  a  licensed  vessel  into  his  ports.    T.  D.  Woolsky. 

Li'chen  [Gr.  Aeix^**]*  ^  ^^^^  disease,  characterized  by  an 
inflammation  producing  groups  of  small  elevated  persistent 
spots,  containing  no  serum  or  pus,  and  terminating  by  de- 
squamation. It  is  common  among  scrofulous  persons,  and 
is  rarely  caused  by  external  irritation.  More  often  its 
cause  is  quite  unknown.  It  may  be  circumscribed  or  gen- 
eral, chronic  or  short-lived.  Acute  cases  are  sometimes 
accompanied  by  fever  and  intense  itching.  If  general  ond 
long  continued,  the  patient  may  die  of  the  long  and  un- 
ceasing irritation.  Arsenic,  alkaline,  tarry,  and  sulphurous 
washes  are  often  useful.  Arsenic  has  a  favorable  efleet  upon 
some  cases.  But  many  of  the  severer  examples  of  lichen 
will  yield  to  no  treatment.  Happily,  the  disease  is  not 
very  common.  The  term  lichen  is  vaguely  used.  Some 
varieties  have  been  described  which  appear  to  be  allied  to 
purpura,  there  being  bloody  exudations  beneath  the  skin. 
Lichen  rircitmscriptus  is  caused  by  a  parasitic  plant-growth 
which  can  be  readily  destroyed, 

Lichen'ine  [Gr.  Acix^*-.  "lichen"],  or  Moss-Starch 

[Gf-r.  .\fiios>itarI:e],  a  substance  contained  in  the  cryptogams 
calleil  lichens,  constituting  in  some  eases,  as  in  that  of  the 
so-called  Iceland  moss,  reindeer  moss,  tripe  de  roche,  etc., 
nearly  the  whole  mass.  Many  other  lichens  contain  similar 
mucilaginous  bodies.  Lichcnine  may  be  obtained  pure 
from  Iceland  moss  by  long  soaking  first  in  cold  water,  re- 
newed until  it  remains  tasteless,  which  removes  a  bitter 
principle  and  saline  substances.  Addition  of  a  little  car- 
bonate of  soda  to  the  first  water  is  useful.  Some  chemists 
treat  also  with  ether  and  alohol.  The  washed  mass  may 
then  be  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  strained  and  evaporated 
to  a  hard,  brittle,  tasteless  mass,  which  swells  in  cold  water 
without  dissolving,  but  forms  a  jelly  with  boiling  water  fa- 
miliar in  all  households.  Like  other  starch-isomeres,  it  is 
converted  into  a  gummy  or  dcxtrinc-Iike  body  by  long  boil- 
ing with  water.  LJlucosc  is  formed  by  dilute  acids,  as  in  the 
case  of  common  starch,  and  strong  nitric  acid  forms  with 
it  oxalic  acid.  Iodine  does  not  blue  lichenine  when  pure, 
as  it  does  common  starch,  but  forms  merely  a  yellow  stain, 
as  with  cellulose.  Lichenine  docs  not  occur  in  the  plant  in 
tlie  cellular  or  granular  form,  like  common  starch  ;  and 
some  investigators  have  advanced  the  idea  that  it  is  prop- 
erly not  to  be  classed  with  starch,  but  is  ceKufosc  in  a  sol- 
uble modification.  It  is  stated  of  late  years  that  strung 
alcoholic  liquors  are  prepared  on  a  large  scale  in  extreme 
Northern  regions  from  these  lichens — an  art  not  dillicultto 
comprehend  or  to  carry  out.  H.  Wurtz. 

Lich'ens  [Gr.  Aeiyi?*']  are  cellular  cryptogamous  plants, 
bearing  fruit  {apitthvdu)  containing  free  spores  in  closed 
sacs  {thekfi),  upon  a  thallus  containing  green  cells  («/o- 
uidin),  and  often  abounding  in  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime. 
They  rank  between  Alga?  and  Fungi,  differing  fr<tni  the  for- 
mer in  the  fruit  character,  an<l  from  the  thecasporous  groups 
of  the  latter  f  Ascomycetes),  in  the  presence  of  gonidia, 
and  in  a  great  degree  in  chemical  reactions,  the  hymenium 
of  Lichens  being  usually  colored  blue  or  vinous-red  by 
iodine,  but  those  of  Fungi  yellow,  Ihough  there  are  some 
exceptions  in  both  classes.  The  thallus  is,  however,  some- 
times obscure,  and  in  certain  parasitic  Lichens  wanting, 
A  theory,  based  partly  on  the  alleged  absence  of  connec- 
tion between  the  medullary  filaments  of  the  thallus  and 
the  gonidia.  has  recently  been  maintained  by  Schwendener 
and  others,  that  Lichens  are  compound  plants,  the  ttuillus 
being  an  Alga  and  the  apotbccia  Fungi,  whose  mycelium 
draws  nourishment  from  the  gonidia.  But  it  has  not  found 
favor  with  lichcnists. 

Lichens  are  f(tund  in  all  climates  and  at  all  elcvationSi 
mostly  preferring  exposure  to  light.   They  grow  on  rocks,  by 
their  decay  forming  a  soil  for  higher  vegetation  :  on  trees, 
anti  on  the  earth,  the  individuals  being  more  numerous  in 
the  colder,  and  the  species  in  the  warmer,  regions  of  the 
earth.     Some  are  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  perceptible  to  \ 
the   eye,  and    others    attain    dimensions  of   several   feet.  ; 
They  remain  inactive  while  dry,  and  vegetate  when  moist, 
and  sometimes  roach  a  great  age.     In  the  northern  regions  '. 
they   furnish    footl   for  rcinrleer,   are   stored  as  fodder  for 
cattle,  and  are  said  to  increase  the  quantity  of  milk.    Bread  , 
is  also  made  of  some  species,  and  species  of  Umbilicaria  \ 


Fig.  1. 


I'^^^^^^^' 


(rock-tripe)  have  furnished  an  unpalatable  food  for  Arctic 
travellers  in  time  of  need.  They  yield  bitter  extracts,  but 
are  not  poisonous.  Many  species,  especially  the  orchil 
{ JiorccNa),  furnish  coloring-matters,  and  have  been  exten- 
sively used  in  dyeing;  and  recently  alcohol  has  been  man- 
ufactured from  them  on  an  extensive  scale  in  Sweden. 
Some  species  have  had  considerable  repute  as  remedies, 
but  their  medicinal  virtues  are  slight.  The  thallus  is  fru- 
ticulous,  foliaceous,  squamaceou^.  orcrustaceous.  and  diver- 
sified in  color.  The  gonidia  often  burst  into  mealy  or  pow- 
dery excrescences  (so- 
rrdia),  and  by  their 
distribution,  as  well 
as  by  the  spores,  the 
plants  are  propagated. 
The  thallus  consists, 
in  the  best  developed 
forms,  (1)  of  an  exter- 
nal cortical  layer,  sub- 
ject often  to  modifica- 
tions which  render  it 
indistinct;  (2)  ofago- 
nidial  layer;  {^)  of  a 
medullary  layer,  com- 
posed of  more  or  less 
Section  of  thallus:  a,  cortical  layer;  6,  compact  filaments  (>f  a 
gonidia;  c,  medullary  Iayer;'rf,  in-  cottony  or  rarelv  {Ve- 
ferior  layer ;  e,  hypothalline  fibres.  „,-„  j^f  a  woody  texture. 
In  foliaceous  species  it  is  often  beset  beneath  by  fibrils,  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  the  substratum,  and  is  there  some- 
times veined  {Pcltit/cra)  or  pitted  and  cyphellate  {Sticta) ; 
and  in  crustaceous  species  often  rests  on  a  filamentary  tissue 
{hjjpothalius).     The  cortical    layer  is  especially  modified, 

and  the  uieduMary  fila- 
;(7T->t-~_  nients  become  lax  or  in- 
/{VK  distinrt  in  Colhum  and 
'^/j^l'l'lf-nj/'^  allied  genera.  The  go- 
yflljlj  HI- '/  nidia  lie  near  the  upper 
■' v/,(j(y(  1,1  surface  or  encircle  the 
medulla,  or  are  some- 
times scattered  through- 
out the  tissue,  and  are 
either  (I)  true  gonidia, 
of  ayellowish-green  col- 
or, or  (2)  collogonidia 
( Turkeruian,  grauuln 
ffouima,  Auctt.),  which 
are  bluish-green,  im- 
bedded in  a  colloid  cn- 
■lope,  and  often  dis- 
posed in  necklace-like 
chains.  Collogonidia  occur  chiefly  in  the  Coliemei  and 
Pnnmtriri,  but  arc  also  found  in  other  genera  {Sticta,  etc.). 
The  application  of  hydrate  of  potash  and  chloride  of  lime 
to  the  thallus  produces  changes  of  color  which  have  been 
made  the  basis  of  specific  distinctioui;  but  their  value  is 
Fig.  3. 


Section  of  angiocarpous  apotheoium : 
II,  thckes;  b,  paraphyses;  c,  hjpo- 
thecium. 


as  yet  a  matter  of  dispute. 

The  apotbccia  arc  borneon 

the  upper,  rarely  {yephro- 

mn)  un  ibe  under  side  of 

the  thaliuy  or  it.>  branches, 

sometimes  at  the  tins  of  its 

prolongations  ( podctio ),  or 

arc    sometimes    prolonged 

downward     into     a    stalk 

l^tipe).      The    hymenium, 

which  contains  the  thekes.  Spores:  a,  simple;  6,  polar  bi- 

rests  upon  a  tissue  {ht/po-      jwular;  c  fusiform  ;  d.  aeieu- 

,,      .      '  .-      •''.  lar;  r,  colored  spores  ;/,rau  n- 

thecniw)    representing  the      foj-n, 

proper  exciple,  and  is  com- 
posed of  filaments  ipnrophynea)  imbedded  in  a  colloid  sub- 
stance {.'ii/mrtifial  ffffntiiie).     The  spores  are  expelled  from 
the  thekes  by  the  pressure  caused  by  the   swelling  of  the 
hymen  iai  tissue  when  wetted.     They  vary  from  one  to  an 


LICHENS. 


1767 


indefinite  number  in  the  tliokef,  but  the  usual  number  is 
eight.  In  form  they  arc  glubulur,  ellipsoid,  or  elongated, 
and  nro  either  simple  or  divided  by  dissepiments  (2  to  plu- 
rilocular),  or  when  thc«o  arc  in  both  the  transverse  and  per- 
pendicular directions,  are  muriforni;  and  nro  either  colorlcsfl 
or  brown,  the  elongated  spore  tending  to  the  colorlcf s,  and 

Fig.  4. 


(I,  section  of  spermogono;  b,  jointed  and,  c,  simple  eterigmas, 
wilhspcruiatia. 

the  distended  one  to  the  colored  type.  But  the  typically  col- 
ored spore  is  sometimes  dccolorate.  In  size  the  spores  vary 
from  11.001  to  O.IS,  or  even  0.3  millimetre  in  length.  In 
germinating  they  give  off  extended  filaments,  forming  a 
confused  tissue,  but  no  attcm]>t  at  producing  a  perfect 
lichen   from  the  spores  has   been  Fio.  6. 

successful.  Spermo!i;one8are8mnll, 
usually  black  bodies,  scattered 
over  the  thallus,  containing  mi- 
nute ellipsoid  or  elongated  organs 
{npcrmititn)  on  simple  or  branched 
filaments  intfritjmna).  They  have 
been  supposed  to  bo  male  repro- 
ductive organs,  but  nothing  is 
certainly  known  on  this  point. 
Pycnidos  are  similar  to  spermo- 
gones,  but  of  less  frequent  occur- 
rence, containing  organs  {stt/lu»^iorcit)  on  simple  filaments; 
their  function  is  unknown. 

Lichens  are  divided  according  to  the  character^  of  the 
apothecia  into  two  scries:  (l)open  (gymnoearpous),  and 
Ci)  closed  (angiocarpous) ;  and  five  tribes — viz.  1,  Pakmk- 
LiACKi :  apoth.  open,  margined  by  a  Ihallinc  exciple  (acu- 
lellirftirm);  2,  Le(  inKAiKi :  apoth.  open,  margined  by  a. 
proper  e.'scipio  i pntella/oim) ;  3,  GuAfiliDACEi :  apoth. 
with  a  proper  c.\ciple,  elongated  (Urcllie/orm) ;  4,  Calici- 
Aini:  apoth.  goblct-shapcd  (cnKcyi/ori/i),  with  a  proper 
e.\oiplc  margining  a  disk  compacted  of  naked  spores: 
and  5,  VEititicAniAi  ei  :  apoth.  closed,  opening  only  by  u 

Kio.  6. 


Porlioii  111   irviiiide,  with 
Hlylusporea. 


pore  at  the  summit,  with 
an  external  proper  exciple 
( prriihrciiim)  surround- 
ing an  interior  envelope 
{(tiiipfiifhrviiim),  which  en- 
cIosM  the  nuoleiform  hy- 
meniuin.  These  tribes  are 
dividi'il  in  North  Ameri- 
can Lichens  into  IS  fami- 
lies and  about  7.'>  genera, 
containing,  according  to 
the  present  state  of  know- 
ledge, about  son  species; 
the  whole  nuTuber  of  known 
liehens  being  from  1500  to  IROO.  The  systematic  ar 
rangement  above  given   is  that  of  Fries  (18.'11),  as    de 


"ainilies  of    I, II  ii   II 

liaeel  ;  A,  I,ei'hl«'U(<  . .  . . 

daeei;  d,  Caliciacci;  e,  Verruca- 
riaeel. 


•  riijilii- 


vclopcd  by  Prof.  Tuckcrman  in  his  Qenent  LUhennm 
(lS7o).  The  system  of  Koirbcr  (1866)  is  based  upon  tho 
characters  of  the  thallus  ll'rutiouloso,  foliaccous,  or  crufi- 
taccous).  and  that  of  Nylandor  {.>>\/iiop»i«, ISiS)  is  eclectic, 
taking  all  jiarts  into  consideration.  Lichens  were  con- 
founded liy  tho  ancients  with  other  cryptogams,  and  tlio 
name  was  originally  a]iplied  to  certain  llepatiea>.  They 
were  first  accurately  distinguished  by  Tourncfort  {1G91), 
further  dcscrilicd  and  figured  by  Michcli  (1729),  Dillenius 
(1711),  and  Hoffman  (1790).  At  the  time  of  Linna'us 
about  185  species  wore  known.  Achnrius,  "the  father 
of  lichenogr:iphy,"  published  his  Mcllmrliis,  based  on  thai- 
line  characters,  in  1S0.^,  and  described  all  then  known 
lichens  (about  900  species)  in  tho  Lichenu'jriijilnn  Uiiiver- 
aalit  (1810)  and  Si/iiopait  (1S14).  Other  works  down  to 
the  modern  period  are  Sohoeror,  SjucHcijiiiiii  Liih.  Jlel- 
vet.  (1S2:!-10);  Eschweiler,  Si/alcma  (1824);  E.  Fries's  ex- 
ecUeut  Llchcnorjraphia  Europica  (\K,\);  Fee,  Ensui  and 
Siippl:  figuring  accurately  tho  spores  (1.S24-.17);  Tueker- 
man,  S'i/iii,j,>>ia  of  A'cxd  England  I.irhciia  (1848),  continued 
in  tho  ^m.. /our.  l?ci".  (1858-59).  Catalogues  of  North  Amer- 
ican Lichens  have  been  published  by  JIuhlenberg  (Cnta- 
logiiH  Plnntnnim,  Lancaster,  Pa..  181.!),  by  llalscy  (Sj/nnp- 
licnl  ]'inr  nf  the  Lii-lnna  of  Scu-  YorJ;,  printed  in  the  Aitiinia 
iif  the  N.  Y.  I.i/ceum  nf  Natiiriil  Ilistiirii.  1823),  and  by 
Torrey  and  others.  The  spores  had  been  noticed  by  Jli- 
obcli,  and  genera  were  based  upon  them  by  Eschweiler, 
Fee,  and  B'lolow  ;  but  iu  1846  a  new  impulse  was  given 
to  tho  study  by  the  publication  of  the  I'rummenli  of  Dc 
Notaris,  who  was  followed  by  many  able  investigators,  the 
expounders  and  representatives  of  modern  lichcnology. 
The  most  important  works  of  this  period  me  Massalongo, 
liicerchc;  Norman,  Conatna;  and  Tulasne,  Mcmoin',  all 
published  in  1852;  Kocrhct,  Siiulcma  nud  J'urcnja  (\&ai- 
B5).  But  these  microscopical  studies  tended  to  an  extreme 
— to  the  making  the  most  of  all  differences  whatever  in 
epore-history — and  led  to  tho  construction  of  very  many 
imperfectly  distinguished  genera.  Anzi,  Ciidil.  Li'li. 
Sotidr.  (1800),  and  other  works,  indicated  in  a  marked 
way  a  reaction  from  this,  influenced  largely  by  the  earlier 
writings  of  Nylander,  and  the  turn  became  still  more 
marked  in  Th.  Fries,  6'( "era  Ilctci-olli-hcnum  7?i(m;j/r(lS0l), 
and  Stitzenbergcr,  Iliitrnije  (1802).  But  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  the  value  of  these  spore-difl'erenees  was  first  con- 
sidered by  Prof.  Tuckernian  (Inlrud.  In  Lithcna  of  Vulif., 
etc.,  1806):  and  tho  reasoning  of  this  paper  is  perhaps  not 
far  from  conclusive  against  the  new  genera  of  the  Italian 
and  Cierman  schools,  and  tends  thus  to  restore  tho  system 
to  the  place  as  indicated  for  it  by  Fries,  and  maiiilaiiicd 
to  a  very  great  degree  in  all  tho  writings  of  Nylander. 
According  to  Tuckernian,  all  the  spore-differences  are  to 
be  regarded  as  gradal  modifications  of  but  two  distinct 
types,  complemented  in  the  highest  tribe  only  by  what  ap- 
pears an  intermediate  one  (the  ]iolar-liiloeularl  ;  and  lie 
disallows  any  but  subonlinale  value  to  the  distinctions 
based  on  Ibi/nunilier  of  spores  in  tho  Ibekcs.  much  insisted 
on  by  all  other  recent  writers.  Nor  should  it  be  omitted 
that,  according  to  this  writer,  there  is  much  looking  to  show 
that  "  tho  nllimatc  or  highest  condition  of  a  type  of  spore 
being  assumed  to  include  potentially  nil  the  steps  of  tho 
preceding  process  of  evolution,  such  ultimate  state  may  bo 
expected  to  nflord,  in  its  total  history,  an  index  to  the 
spore-modification  possible  within  the  whole  circuit  of  the 
natural  grou]>  or  genus  to  which  the  species  furnishing  the 
ultimate  condition  belongs."  (^'.ii.  li.  15.)  Montagne,  in 
his  descriptions  of  the  lichens  of  Cuba,  Ouiana,  etc. 
(lS:i8-5.>),  was  the  first  who  conjoined  spore-characters 
with  tho  Friesian  system.  Th.  Fries,  Lii-lir-iict  Arclui 
(1880),  l,!chrnnrjruphia  Scandinuviea  (vol.  i.,  1871);  Ny- 
lander, A'ourcllc  Clnaaifiidlhnt  (ISIM);  Prodr.  Lirh.  tiulliiv. 
(1857);  Eniim.  gdiCrn'h  (I858;  l.'i48  species);  Si/nnpaia 
Liclietiiim  ( 1800,  vol.  i.,  all  published);  Llrheiica  Scaiidi- 
luirr/c  (1861).  Tho  same  writer  has  contributed  more 
largely  than  any  other  living  botanist  to  the  general  know- 
ledge of  lichens  in  jmblieations  too  numerous  to  cite  here. 

Lindsay,  S/irniintjoiira  mid  /'l/ni!d,a,  in  l.illll.  Trnlia.  (1859- 
09);  .Sehwcndeucr,  I'lilnaiirli.  iili.  d.  /•Vcc/iMi(A«//ic»  ( ISCd- 
03);  Al'inili/pen  dcr  Flrclitcii;io>iidirn  (1S6U);  Bornot, 
/Icdierclira  aur  Ira  (Innidiea  (1873);  Hcpp,  Ehclilai  Eiirn- 
paa  (Fxs.)  and  .MihildiiHi/rn  drr  S/iorcii  (1863-07) ;  Huben- 
horst,  /.iVAfiiM  A'i/re;>«i' Aj».  (1855-71);  Tuckernian.  Oba. 
liclirmloijinr  in  /Vor.  Amcr.  Arad.  (1800-61)  :  l.i'lirna  nf 
Ciilifornm  (1866);  Uvnrrn  IJrhfmim  (1873),  which  last 
may  be  recommended  to  the  student  as  the  most  instruct- 
ivc'oontriliution  of  recent  times  to  a  jihilosophie  knowledge 
of  syslemalie  lichcnology.  (For  a  fuller  account  of  Ameri- 
can' lichenogiaphv  to  l"808,  sco  iia).er  in  I'rorrrd.  Eaar.r: 
Inal.  (1809),  and  for  tho  history  and  lileraturc  of  the  whole 
subject,  Krempelhuhcr,  llrarhi'i-hlr  und  /.iltrialiir  dcv  l.ieh- 
enoloqi--,  from  the  earliest  times  to  1870  (3  vols.,  Munich, 


1807-72).) 


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